issn 1978-8118 vol. 3 no. 1 mei 2009 ketua dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. dewan redaksi ratna handayani, m.si. henny lim, ba cendrawaty tjong, ba sofi zhang, ba dra. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., ma. mitra bestari prof. bahren umar siregar.ph.d dra. ekawati m. dukut, m.hum. dra. nalti novianti, m.si. rita susanti, s.pd., s.s., m.si. andyni khosasih, se, ba xia mingju, ba, ma. zhang bin, ba, ma. huan jianjun, ph.d. elisa christiana, ba. guangxi shifan xueyuan (guangxi teachers education university) china editor bahasa dan setter dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. christian parlindungan s., s.s. holil angga ferdiansyah sekretariat: hery h.m., s.kom alamat redaksi: subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang sastra research office universitas bina nusantara kampus anggrek jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk jakarta barat 11530 telp. 021-5350660 (ext. 1190) fax. 021-5300244 cultura jurnal lingualingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 3 no. 1 mei 2009 daftar isi ienneke indra dewi “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”? from the teachers and students’ point of view........................................................ 1-10 risa r. simanjuntak bahasa indonesia: policy, implementation, and planning.......................................... 11-19 yohanes hartadi reading the historical phenomenon of australian bushrangers................................... 20-33 rita susanti; siti aminah; nani oktaviani sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim dalam bahasa jepang: telaah majalah nihongo journal dan hiragana times (synonym, repetition, and antonym in japanese language: magazine study of nihongo journal and hiragana times)............................................ 34-44 ratna handayani; felicia; sonya munadir syah eksistensi shinto dalam shogatsu (the existence of shinto in shogatsu).................................................................... 45-57 frieska sekar nadya makna hadaka matsuri di dalam masyarakat jepang dewasa ini: studi kasus dari saidaiji eyou di okayama, jepang (the meaning of hadaka matsuri in japanese people recently: a case study of eyou in okayama, japan) ............................................................ 58-67 temmy a brief talk on american cultural values: reflected on the movie the pursuit of happiness 68-72 xuc lin woman survival in chinese feudal patrilineal society: an analysis of song lian's destiny in qi qie chenqun by su tong............................................................................. 73-78 deng jun a new perspective of literary criticism................................................................ 79-84 ma feng the narrative art of contemplator: an analysis on milan kundera’s works....................... 85-98 cultura jurnal lingualingua vol. 9 no.2 november 2015 issn 1978-8118 (print) issn 2460-710x (online) ketua dewan redaksi ienneke indra dewi dewan redaksi endang ernawati (universitas bina nusantara) akun (universitas bina nusantara) sri haryanti (universitas bina nusantara) rosita ningrum (universitas bina nusantara) indiwan seto wahyu wibowo (universitas multimedia nusantara) redaktur pelaksana arta moro sundjaja noerlina editor bahasa dan setter i. didimus manulang dina nurfitria karen phang holil atmawati sekretariat haryo sutanto eka yanti pangputri description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been indexed by google scholar, indonesian publication index (ipi), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), academic resource index (researchbib) and scientific indexing services (sis). editor and administration address : research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : hsutanto@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua http://research.binus.ac.id/journal/lingua-cultura vol. 9 no.2 november 2015 issn 1978-8118 (print) issn 2460-710x (online) daftar isi paramita ayuningtyas deconstructing the stereotypes of women through a female voice in burial rites (2013) by hannah kent...................................................................................................................................... 75-80 soraya the subaltern voice in a thousand splendid suns by khaled khosseini................................................ 81-87 dian natashia konsep cantik pada iklan cetak majalah kartini tahun 2014 dan koran kompas tahun 1979: suatu analisis semiotik (beautiful concept on printed advertisement of kartini magazine in 2014 and kompas newspaper in 1979 : a semiotic analysis)......................................................................... 88-93 timur sri astami model pembelajaran kaiwa tingkat dasar sesuai dengan jf standard (learning model of kaiwa basic level based on jf standard).................................................................. 94-99 iis muhayaroh fenomena ikumen sebagai salah satu perubahan peran dan identitas ayah dalam masyarakat jepang modern (ikumen phenomenon as one of father’s role and identity changes in the modern japanese society) 100-106 siti nurani; amrina rosyada improving english pronunciation of adult esl learners through reading aloud assessments................ 107-112 nandy intan kurnia motherhood in the american woman poet’s perspective: a short glance at allen’s rock me to sleep............................................................................................. 113-118 andriani sinarsih; yuvina handani; cendrawaty tjong dampak psikologis tokoh pria dan wanita dalam film tangshan da dizhen (psychological impact on men and women characters in film tangshan da dizhen)............................ 119-125 widya; dewi mutiara indah ayu translation of passive voice found in the novel the sea of monster by rick riordan and its translation by nuraini mastura.......................................................................... 126-131 paramita kusumawardhani error analysis in writing an english narrative composition................................................................... 132-136 indeks.................................................................................................................................................... 137-141 issn 1978-8118 vol. 7 no.2 november 2013 ketua dewan redaksi dr. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. dewan redaksi risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., m.app.ling., m.a. dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. akun, s.pd., m.hum. andyni khosasih, s.e., b.a., m.lit. kelly rosalin, s.s., mtcsol dra. nalti novianti, m.si rosita ningrum, s.s., m.pd editor bahasa dan setter i.didimus manulang haryo sutanto holil atmawati sekretariat nandya ayu dina nurfitria description lingua cultura is a semi annual journal, published in may and october, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literatures. the coverage of language includes linguistics and teaching language, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literatures covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. editor and administration address : subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang bahasa dan budaya research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : nayu@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 7 no.2 november 2013 daftar isi shobichatul aminah mengungkap narasi sejarah yang disangkal dalam m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari karya oe kenzaburo (revealing the denied narrative history in oe kenzaburo’s m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari)... 57-62 sri haryanti factors affecting result in chinese proficiency test (hsk) level 6: reading section and preparation strategies.......................................................................................... 63-64 kelly rosalin developing specific chinese teaching material for indonesia based on a comparation between chinese and english teaching materials................................................................................. 65-69 yetty go students’ high achievement on learning style preferences in chinese department, binus university 70-73 roberto masami prabowo penghapusan shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) menjadi fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) (elimination of shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) to be muenshakai (無縁社会))........................................... 74-79 ratna handayani; elisa carolina marion; natsumi koda minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia pada mahasiswa sastra jepang semester akhir di perguruan tinggi (working interests at japanese companies in indonesia on final semester students of japanese literature in higher education).......................................................................................... 80-86 irfan rifai various dimensions of globalization and their implications for the leadership and management of education.............................................................................................................. 87-91 melania wiannastiti blended learning multimedia development to support english training at bina nusantara university 92-96 risa r. simanjuntak bilinguality and socioeconomic status (ses): approaching non-singular factor to a child’s cognitive development....................................................................................................... 97-101 timur sri astami; rosita ningrum; felicia budihardja efektivitas pendekatan komunikatif pada mata kuliah menyimak dan berbicara ii (the effectivity of communicative approach on the listening and speaking ii subject)........................ 102-107 indeks................................................................................................................................................... 109-113 editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education and indexed in crossref, directory of open access journal (doaj), academic research index (research bib), bielefeld academic search engine (base), scientific indexing service (sis), world catalogue (worldcat), indonesia publication index (ipi), and google scholar. research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua vol. 11 no.1 may 2017cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x table of contents leni tiwiyanti; ayu bandu retnomurti loss and gain in translation of culture-specific items in ahmad tohari’s lintang kemukus: a semantic study ..... 1-6 ika apriani fata; nyak mutia ismail “watching english movie helps me!”: language exposure and metacognitive awareness on toefl ................... 7-12 rosmah tami; faruk; ida rochani adi hegemonic culture and subaltern: a compromised veil in indonesian islamic popular novel ........................... 13-17 luh putu artini rich language learning environment and young learners’ literacy skills in english .................................... 19-24 siti nurani; amrina rosyada implemented pwim in developing students’ communicative competence of smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta 25-30 didik rinan sumekto the effectiveness of pre-service english teachers’ collaborative genre-based writing feedback .................... 31-38 sri hapsari wijayanti the moves of indonesian application letters .................................................................................. . 39-45 ferry fauzi hermawan masculinity in indonesian popular culture in the early era of the new order regime ................................... 47-52 paramita ayuningtyas indonesian fan girls’ perception towards soft masculinity as represented by k-pop male idols........................ 53-57 ayu trihardini the use of locative nouns li, shang, and zhong as mandarin language adposition ....................................... 59-65 vol. 11 no.1 may 2017cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x microsoft word 07 chen chongjie_setting analysis of mulan’s..... (chen chongjie; dkk) 71 analysis of mulan’s image 花木兰形象分析 chen chongjie1; selvi2; vika bregas mariza3 1 lecturer of chinese department, hainan normal university 2, 3 chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, cchen369@yahoo.com.cn abstract mulan is an ancient chinese heroine. the story shows that she is the same as other women, having personal life, but also has a heart that loves her country and her parents. she always thinks about her family, society, dan country. this article was based on library research, using mulan poem dan a folklore entitled mulan pergi berperang as media to analyze mulan’s image. it can be said that eventhough at that time there was no gender perspective concept, mulan had been able to replace her father to go to war. she gave a lot of contributions for her country, society, and family. analysis represents that mulan has three images, as a heroine, as a daughter for her family, and self-image or leader for the women. having good character and spirit to love country, people, and family make her equal to men. and, it makes her respected by people in each generation. kata kunci: hua mulan, image, pahlawan, puisi mulan 内容提要 花木兰是中国古代的一个女英雄。故事里也体现出了木兰其实像其它女人一样,也有一般 女人的生活,只是她拥有了一颗爱国、爱父母之心,处处为家人、社会人们和国家着想。 笔者通过阅读《木兰辞》和《木兰从军》的民间故事来分析木兰的形象。虽然木兰生活的时候 还没有男女平等的概念,但木兰可以替父从军,为国家、为社会、为家庭作出了巨大贡献。分 析过结果,木兰拥有三个形象,即木兰作为英雄的形象、木兰作为女儿的形象和木兰作为其它 女人旁样的形象。优秀的品质,爱国、爱人民、爱父母的精神使她可以与男人相比,成为一个 代代相传及让人钦佩的女英雄。 关键词:花木兰 、形象、英雄、从军、木兰辞 72 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 71-77 前言 现代的女性若与古代的相比,在地位上、观念上已发生了很大的变化。如果我们翻阅历史 上的一些文献,所看到女性的都是微弱、无能、只能屈服社会人群及社会习俗的女子,是男人 的俘虏;而像花木兰个性刚强、反抗命运,可以替父从军的女英雄,是历史少见的女子。 花木兰是北魏人,生活在一个国家暴乱时期。当时的皇帝规定凡符合规定的男生都必参 军,木兰的父亲也无例外。可是木兰的父亲年纪已经很大,体弱多病,无法从军。不能军从是 违抗皇帝指令,必受惩罚。此外,木兰也没有哥哥可以替父从军的,就在这种情况下,木兰决 定替父从军。笔者认为这是件很惊奇的事,生活在一个重难轻女的社会,像木兰一个微弱的女 子怎么能有勇气去战场上大战呢?木兰又如何改变了她作为女子的命运呢?笔者围绕着她具备 的三个形象,即英雄形象、作为女儿的形象、作为其它女人榜样的形象来分析这些问题。 内容 一、中国古代女性生活的社会背景 历史描述了中国古代女子的生活很惨,她们在社会上面临了很多不公平的问题,受到了很 多与男性不同的对待。社会重男轻女的观念很严重, 如男人在家庭里和社会的各个领域都拥 有很高的权利,他们拥有决定权、政治权、受教育权等;而女性的才能、权力、教育机会等方 面都受到控制,一直都被视为弱小、无能的群体。 重男轻女的概念使父母比较重视儿子的存在,而对待女儿就像对商品一样,可以随时送来 送去。古代女性没有说话权和决定权,她们的命运和生活都由男人决定下来,成为男人的性机 器,生儿子的机器。很多家庭悲剧都是产生于此。中国古代女性并没有什么生活,她们的生活 只集中于家庭的杂事,如准备男人日常生活的需要、照顾孩子等。男人以三从四德的概念控制 她们的行动与行为:“三从”指的是‘未嫁从父、已嫁从夫、夫死从子’;而“四德”指: ‘妇德、妇容、妇言和妇功。[张景丽, 2005:41] 这种状况使得中国古代女性的生活更为悲 惨,女性没有机会发挥自己的才能,没有机会发展自己。这种控制女权是古代社会 根本的压 迫形式。[unger & crowford, 1991]  二、木兰从军的故事 花木兰以父从军击败北方入侵民族文明天下。唐代追封为“孝烈将军”,设词纪念。[花 木兰, 2010] 她是中国古代女英雄的象征。[王易鹏&古代诗歌, 1961] 木兰从军的故事影响深 远。其事迹被多种样式 的文艺作品所表现,甚至影响波及美国和全世界。花木兰其人其事仅 限于《木兰辞》中,纵观南北朝、隋唐诸史并无记载。这首《木兰辞》讲述了木兰的故事,从 她决定 代替父亲去战争,一直提到她成功地维护家庭和保卫祖国的故事。 木兰的故事也是一支悲壮的英雄史诗。她出身于劳动人民的家庭。木兰的父亲叫花弧,是 退伍的老军人,从小就把木兰当男孩来培养。木兰十来岁时,父亲就经常带木兰到村外小河 边,练武、骑马、射箭、舞刀、使棒。空余时间木兰还喜欢看父亲旧兵书。北魏经过孝文帝的 改革,社会经济得到了发展,人民生活较为安定。但是,当时北方游牧民族柔然族不断南下骚 扰,北魏政权规定每家出一名男子上前线。木兰父亲年纪大,身体虚弱多病,在这种情况下, 他本根不能从军。有一天差官来到花家,当时木兰出应,差官对木兰说:“姑娘!这次征兵, 凡退伍军官都要从征,父亲年老,儿子代替。” analysis of mulan’s..... (chen chongjie; dkk) 73 父亲受到了差官的命领后,觉得“为国御侮,义不容辞”。木兰姐姐木蕙和母亲都劝花 弧不要应征,但他全然不理。看这种情况,想起父亲年老,身体虚弱多病,弟弟年纪又小,所 以决定了替父从军。全家都不同意,花弧说:“女孩家去不得”。木兰执意要去,并威胁要撞 死阶下。看到木兰的立场如此坚决,花弧不得不答应。木兰谢过父亲,女扮男装,用弟弟的名 字木棣代替父亲前往战场。从此开始了她长达多年的军队生活。去边关大仗,对于男人来说都 是艰苦的事情,更不要说木兰又隐瞒身份,又要与伙伴们一起杀敌。可是 后木兰完成了自己 使命,在数十年后凯旋回家。皇帝因她的功劳之大,认为她能在朝廷效力,任得一官半职,不 过木兰拒绝了,她请求皇帝能让自己回家,补偿及孝敬父母。木兰从军的故事证明了木兰的实 力,证明了女人的实力也能与男人相比,不是像以往的社会观念,认为女人是微弱的、无能 的。 三、木兰从军故事里男女不平等的体现 以上提到了木兰生活在男女不平等的社会里。她生长在中国北方地区,北方人都是喜欢练 武,父亲又是个退休军人,所以才能把她当男孩来培养。《木兰辞》和《木兰从军》的民间故 事里就可以看到中国古代社会的男女不平等状况: “阿爷无大儿子,木兰无长兄,愿为市鞍马,从此替爷征。”《木兰辞》 “差官封了贺廷玉元的命令,征集各地义民从军保卫国土。这天他们来到花家,差官对木 兰说:‘姑娘!军书十二卷,卷卷都有你父亲的名字。这次征兵,凡退伍军官都要从征, 父亲年老,儿子代替。’”(《木兰从军》第 4 页) 当花弧听到木兰想替他从军,他说:“女孩子家去不得。”《木兰从军》第 9 页 从以上提到的“阿爷无大儿子,木兰无长兄”、“父亲年老,儿子代替”及“女孩子家去 不得”都可以看到当时社会只能允许男人从军。女人没有参政权,不能求名利。她们的本 分就是在家里守护,从事纺织工作,这就是女人应该做的。木兰也知道她的本分,她拒绝 了皇帝封给他的官位,愿意在家守护、孝敬父母。 “酒筵过后,木兰将贺元帅请到机房说道:‘以前国家多难,我才代父投军,为国效力, 不求名利;如今国内安靖,我愿仍旧勤于纺织,尽我妇女本分。’贺元帅听了,十分钦 佩,便回朝交旨去了。”(《木兰从军》第 46 页) 四、木兰从军的内外因素 木兰替父从军的决定当然不是没有理由。它涉及到内在因素和外在因素。社会心理学提到 一个人对某种事的态度和想法不是永远固定的。态度将受到社会与文化环境的影响而改变。 [ahmadi, 2007] 内在因素  所谓内在因素就是人的内心深处的因素。它基于个人的动机和本性,表现为有选择地接触 他人或者来自于周围环境的种种影响。 按照民间故事我们能总结出木兰当时的情况。木兰很担心父亲年纪大,身体虚弱不可能承 担那么重大的责任。木兰作为一个女儿想到这件的事,心理就觉得不安,何况她是花家的 大 的孩子,没有哥哥能代替父亲从军。木兰感到很无奈和觉得非常为难,作为一个女子,并没有 权利从军,可让父亲去,肯定也死路一条。 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 71-77 木兰的主要本性是孝,从木兰对父亲的担心,证明木兰是一个很孝顺的女孩儿。从“无奈 女子从军”的句子里,我们得知这种孝顺感再次被强调,促使木兰产生代替父亲前往战场的主 动请求。“孝”激发起“忠”,这里的“忠”指的是爱国家的感觉,我们从“为国效力,自己 本有责任”这句话可以看出木兰对父亲的“孝”,对国家的“忠”。 外在因素 外在因素是指来自个人身外或环境的因素,是个人在跟社会产生各种联系时所受到的影 响。[ahmadi, 2007] 笔者认为木兰能替父从军的意念与她受到家庭教育,尤其是父亲思想或性格有所联系。她 父亲花弧非常爱国家,从“花弧觉得自己既在军籍,为国御侮,义不容辞”的一句话里可以看 到木兰父亲爱国的精神。那时,国家正在紧急当中,保卫国家是作为人民应尽的责任。因此虽 然花弧身体不便,但为了保护国家,他还是决定去战场打战。 除了爱国的精神,花弧决定从军的决定也受到中国文化的影响。中国文化体现即反映出了 中国人对某种事的想法或看法。花弧深深地受到孔子思想的影响,即“仁”思想。“仁”包括 “忠恕”的意思,是社会生活中 大的事,作为人民应该对国家忠诚。[韩鉴堂, 2005] 除此之外,花弧自己本身并没有觉得他是个残疾人,也没有觉得他年纪大了,所以他没有 不能去战场的理由。国家对他很重要,现在国家有难,虽然没有人能代替他去战场,他也应上 战场,为国家付出一些贡献。为了维护自己的名誉和家庭的名誉。他是应该上战场的,因为如 果花家没有代表人去参战,那么花家就没面子面对其它的人,尤其是作为家长的花弧,更不能 亲自看到花家名誉受到侮辱。这个“丢脸”的意识其实是人与社会联系的结果,与东方文化重 视他人的想法是符合的。[ward, 2002] 花弧把他受到的孔子思想及中国文化的一些精神教给木兰,把木兰培养为懂得孝顺父母、 有着爱国精神、尊老爱幼等中国美德。因此当木兰看到国家有难、父亲年迈、弟弟年纪小的情 况,为了维护家庭和父亲的名誉就不顾一切地决定为父从军。而木兰想维护的“名誉”与社会 看法有很大的关系。 五、花木兰形象的分析 “形象”是指能引起人的思想或感情活动的具体形状或姿态,一般指人的精神面貌和性格 特征。据笔者分析结果,木兰拥有三个形象,即木兰作为英雄形象、木兰作为女儿的形象和木 兰作为其它妇女榜样的形象。 花木兰作为英雄形象 根据现代汉语词典的解释,“英雄”的定义主要是指英雄的品质 如:不怕困难,不顾自 己,为人民利益而英勇斗争,令人钦敬的人。当作一个女英雄,木兰具备了这些优秀的品质。 这些品质与她后来的成功有很大的关系。 虽然木兰是一个女子,但她成功地证明自己可以为国立功。她的领导才华、智慧、勇敢杀 敌、还有谦虚精神、不图富贵的品质,足以让世人以木兰为自豪。那些事都可成为木兰爱国家 的证据。 analysis of mulan’s..... (chen chongjie; dkk) 75 我们从民间故事和《木兰辞》里都可以看到木兰是如何获得贺元帅和汉兵的信任。木兰勇 猛杀敌,鼓励汉兵并领导他们从战败中站起来。美国动机学家基思·戴维斯 (keith davis)提 到:一个领导要让他人达到目的,不是利用力气而是利用精神能力去感染别人,激发别人。 [eryanto, 2003] 这就是木兰的领导才能。作为一个女子,她缺少力气,可是她可以鼓励别 人、激发别人去奋斗,这些精神上的鼓励比力气上的还要重要, 后木兰为国家立了大功,得 到了奖赏。这从 “贺廷玉元帅知她忠勇善战,很是器重” 和“木兰身经百战,屡建奇功,不 断受到升赏”的句子里看出木兰是个成功的领导。 其二,据美国高尔夫球球员及动机学家詹姆斯·m· 布莱克 (james m. black),一个领 导能说服其他人参与我们的目标,也能说服其他人与我们合作。木兰能为国家立功,除了因为 她能用精神能力感染他人,也能说服他人互相合作,也说服他人与她合作, 终木兰可以完成 她的计划,为国家、为人民立了功。[eryanto, 2003] 其三,作为一个领导,木兰拥有谦虚、不图富贵的性格。一个领导不仅能感染人、说服人 合作,还有具备良好的品质,而木兰就拥有这些良好的品质。 “不愿升官受赏,决心还乡生 产”,“效忠报国,本来不图官禄”, 还有 “ 述明自己为国立功,不图富贵之意”就是木 兰拥有的良好品质。她并没有因为她立了功,而想图富贵和名誉,而只想回家乡,以便可以跟 家人团聚。这里可以理解到,木兰也是个有责任感的人,她意识到她对国家的义务结束时,她 就选择回家乡、尽她作为女儿的责任,也就是在父母面前尽孝道。 花木兰作为女儿的形象 除了被描绘成英雄之外,木兰也被描绘成一个孝顺的女儿。根据孔子的思想,“孝顺”的 意思是一种对父母的孝顺行动,要做到那个孝顺,就需要维护父母的名誉,也要照管父母,在 他们年老、体弱多病时想出种种办法,让他们幸福、安康。[sutradharma, 1998] 我们从《木兰从军》故事里理解到维护父亲和花家的名誉是让木兰替父从军的 重要的理 由。维护父亲和家庭名誉的行为证明了木兰拥有很大的孝心,完成了她在家庭里作为女儿应尽 的责任。 民间故事里提到木兰非常孝顺父母和勤奋的女儿,她耐心地照照顾生病的父亲,给他熬药 和服药,陪着父亲直到他睡着;父亲睡觉后,她才继续做纺织工作。那些事都足以说明木兰遵 循了孔子“孝”道思想。 虽然如此,木兰从军前还与父亲发生了一点矛盾。父女想法不同是难免的。《弟子规》里 提到有关此问题:“亲爱我,孝何难 亲憎我,孝方贤” [hamid, 2007] 可见,每个父母都很爱他们的孩子。有时候父母跟孩子有不同的想法,而这个不同的想法 往往使父母和孩子之间发生矛盾。木兰也是如此,当她决定要替父从军,父亲也坚决反对。战 场是个危险的地方,随时都会有生命危险,何况木兰是个女子,怎么承受得了这些困难呢?古 代的女子一般是在家受宠,而且当时社会男女地位不平等,参战都是男人的权利,不是女人的 权利,女人的责任就是尽妇道,生儿育女。从“女孩子家去不得”的一句话可看出木兰父亲对 她从军的意见。通过了长久的协商,木兰终于成功地说服父母,允许她去战场为国家打战。 木兰立了功后,拒绝了一些名誉和富贵,决定回家乡陪父母。这更强调了木兰的孝心。她 知道她作为女儿应该继续尽她作为女儿的责任,在家里孝顺父母,而不是讨个富贵和名誉。木 兰的行动符合孔子的思想。无论一个人如何聪明,有着怎样的才华,如果对自己的父母没有孝 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 71-77 顺,那么他都应该被指责,他的行为也是种叛逆不道德的行动。木兰成功地维护花家的名誉, 受到了人人尊敬。 “乡邻父老,人人尊重”的句子更体现出这个观念。 花木兰作为其它女人榜样的形象 中国古代女子的生活受到了很多约束:道德的约束、文化的约束等等。这些约束深深 扎根于中国古代女子文化里。中国古代女子闲门不出,要学习温柔,服从规范和家庭管理,女 工,女事等。[张景丽, 2005] 除此而外,还有社会上别的偏见,那就是女子不值得得到教 育。通过那几个观点可以总结正常的女子是不抵抗、软弱和无能的,因为他们只可以管理家 务。 但是那些观点在《木兰故事》里面都促使我们应该重新思考。木兰的故事指出了女子不 是那么无能,也不那么软弱,女子也会做很多事如:打仗,领导军人,保卫国土,用不同的办 法维护家庭的名誉。那件事跟安兰德 (ayn rand) “…男人做得到的,女人也可以做到。女人 也可以依照自己的意愿选择工作,与男人不该有条件上的差别。”的主张是符合。[gramstad, gladstein & sciabarra, 1999] 木兰的故事给我们证明了很多关于女子的新的观点,也高度评价了女子,指出了女子的另 外方面。木兰的聪明可以从她从军时采取的精明伪装方法而得到证明,她成功伪装了十二年。 木兰的勇敢可从她代父从军的行动和在战场上打败敌人得到了证明。木兰的聪明和勇敢后来得 到了国家的重视和赞赏。社会的人也对她的作为感到钦佩,把她的故事传下来,传到一代又一 代。很多妇女学习她的榜样, 终解脱了社会的种种约束。 作为一个女英雄,木兰得到了国家和社会的肯定,形成了“女子也可以当英雄”的新 概念。亚马逊女性主义把“女英雄”理解为“注重在实质上的平等,反对认为女人应该处於被 动丶应该柔弱而无能的性别歧视。”亚马逊女性主义认为兴趣丶喜好不应该区分为男性化或女 性化。[tandon, 2008]”通过这个理论,可以理解木兰的女英雄形象给所有社会成员一些新的 观点。木兰爱国、爱人民、爱父母的精神使她可以与男人相比,成为一个代代相传及让人钦佩 的女英雄。 结语          木兰故事给社会证明了古代女子并不是像社会所说的那么脆弱。从木兰决定替父从军,成 功地带领兵队战胜了敌军,为国家立了大功,然后维护了花家的名誉的例子,我们可以看出她 拥有的作为英雄形象、作为女儿形象及作为其它妇女榜样的形象。她体现出中国 文化“孝”和 “忠”的思想。而这个“孝”和“忠”一般是很难两全同时一起做到,尤其是对一个被社会视 为微弱的女子,但木兰却成功了证明自己能做好这两全,就是“忠和孝”同时做到。  参考文献 张景丽.中国文化史丛书,社会卷“古代教育”[m]. 河南:大学出版社,2005:41 花木兰[z]. http://baike.baidu.com/view/4025.htm. 2010-5-30 王易鹏. 古代诗歌[m]. 少年儿童出版,1961:114 analysis of mulan’s..... (chen chongjie; dkk) 77 韩鉴堂. 中国文化[m]. 北京:语言大学出版社,2005:54-55 张景丽. 中国文化史丛书 社会卷“古代教育”[m]. 河南:大学出版社,2005:42 ahmadi, h. a. (2007).psikologi sosial (pp.156). jakarta: rineka cipta eryanto, h.(2003). mata kuliah kepemimpinan (pp.11).jakarta: unj unger, r., & crowford, m. (1991). women and gender: a feminist psychology (pp.8). new york:universal press syndicate gramstad, t., gladstein, m.,& sciabarra, c. m.(1999). the female hero: a randian feminist synthesis in feminist interpretations of ayn rand (pp.356). usa: pennysylvania state university press hamid, s.(2007).pedoman hidup bahagia (pp.16). jakarta: mukti jaya sutradharma, tj. (1998).menjalani kehidupan buddhisme, confuciusme dan taoisme (pp.142). jakarta: sunyata tandon, n.(2008).feminism a paradigm shift (pp.64). delhi: nice printing press ward, a. r.(2002).mouse morality: the rhetoric of disney animated film(pp.97). usa: university of texas press   abstract english participial clauses… (menik winiharti) 1 english participial clauses and the strategies applied in their indonesian translations menik winiharti english department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, menikwiniharti@yahoo.com abstract this study analyses the english participial clauses and how they are translated into indonesian as appearing in sidney sheldon’s novel morning, noon and night (1995) which is translated by hendarto setiadi as pagi, siang dan malam (1996). this study tries to find out the distribution of the types and the syntactic functions of the participial clauses appearing in the novel and answer the question of what the strategies applied in the translations are. to reach these objectives, this study employs an exploratory-interpretive design since the data are collected nonexperimentally, the type of data collected is qualitative, and the type of analysis is interpretive. keywords: clauses, participial clauses, translation, source language, target language abstrak penelitian ini menganalisis klausa partisipial dalam bahasa inggris dan bagaimana klausa ini diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia. klausa partisipial yang diteliti diambil dari sebuah novel morning, noon and night (1995) karya sidney sheldon yang diterjemahkan oleh hendarto setiadi dengan judul pagi, siang dan malam (1996). penelitian ini berusaha untuk menemukan distribusi tipe dan fungsi sintaktik klausa partisipial yang muncul dalam novel dan menjawab pertanyaan tentang strategi apa yang dipakai untuk menerjemahkan klausa partisipial tersebut. untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, penelitian ini menggunakan metode desain exploratory-interpretive karena data dikumpulkan secara non-eksperimental, tipe data yang dikumpulkan adalah kualitatif dan tipe analisisnya adalah interpretive. kata kunci: klausa, klausa partisipial, terjemahan, bahasa sumber, bahasa sasaran jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 1-10 2 introduction most grammarians, quirk et al. (1985), sinclair (1990), swan (1995), greenbaum (1996), biber et al. (1999), and brinton (2000), agree that participial clauses are included in non-finite clauses which are one type of subordinate clauses. a non-finite clause is a clause that has a non-finite verb, i.e. without person and tense markers. in this case, brinton (2000: 238) states “by definition, nonfinite clauses are always dependent, or embedded, since a main clause must have a finite verb.” the participial clauses are classified into –ing participles and –ed participles. the first one is a clause whose verb is in the –ing form. it is called present participle. the second one is a clause whose verb is in the –ed form. this is called past participle. according to biber et al. (1999: 199-200) –ing clauses may occupy several syntactic roles. they are: subject (1.1), extraposed subject (1.2), subject predicative (1.3), direct object (1.4), prepositional object (1.5), adverbial (1.6), part of noun phrase (1.7), part of adjective phrase (1.8), and complement of preposition (1.9). the examples are as follows: (1.1) having a fever is pleasant, vacant. (1.2) it’s very difficult getting supplies into sarajevo. (1.3) the real problem is getting something done about the cheap imports. (1.4) i started thinking about him. (1.5) no one could rely on his going to bed early last night. (1.6) having established the direction of the line, we now wish to find some point on the line. (1.7) the man making the bogus collections was described as middle aged. (1.8) she is very busy preparing the dinner. (1.9) he thanked the boys for helping him. however, quirk et al. (1985: 1202) mention another function of –ing clauses which is not mentioned by biber et al. (1999). this function is of object complementation as in (1.10). (1.10) i saw him lying on the beach. biber et al. (1999: 200) also classify –ed clauses into several syntactic roles: direct object (1.11), adverbial (1.12), and part of noun phrase (1.13): (1.11) the two-year-old boy will have his cleft palate repaired. (1.12) when told by police how badly injured his victims were he said, “good, i hope they die.” (1.13) this is the course chosen by a large minority of households. from these examples, it can be seen the –ing clauses have ten syntactic functions, whereas –ed clauses are classified into three syntactic functions. these syntactic functions are those that i would apply in the analysis. yet, participles are one construction that not every language has. they exist in english but not in indonesian. thus, it might not be easy to translate a construction that exists in one language but not in the other. the translator might find some problems when he or she is translating a text whose construction exists in the source language (sl) but not in the receptor language (rl). he or she will not translate a form that is acceptable in one language to the same form that is unacceptable in another one. what he or she might do is finding the strategies that are properly applied in the translations. nida (1964:209) states, “the most acute problem in clause correspondence occurs when a clause type that is important in the source language simply does not exist in the receptor language.” then she proposes three main processes in which clauses are joined: parataxis, hypotaxis, and prostaxis. in this case, the participial clauses can be included in hypotaxis, a term used to characterize a grammatical system that combines clauses by means of subordination. (nida 1964: 210) she further suggests that since many english participial clauses… (menik winiharti) 3 languages prefer parataxis or prostaxis to hypotaxis, the complex sentences of a source language must be often broken down into parts using parataxis construction (1964: 210). on the other hand, nida and taber (1969) propose another argument to deal with the problems in the translation. they argue that when a translation encounters a problem, the sl expressions may be broken down into their basic structural elements, namely kernel sentences. (1969: 39) in this case, an expression is analyzed and broken down into its basic kernels which are joined to develop the surface structure of the sentence. then the relationships of these kernels are stated explicitly in a form which is to be transferred into the rl. in other words, the implicit elements should be made explicit in order to complete the analysis (1969: 51). based on the reason above, i would like to elaborate the distribution of the types and syntactic functions of the english participial clauses occurring in sidney sheldon’s morning, noon and night (1995), and investigate the strategies applied in translating such clauses into indonesian. research method according to grotjahn (1987) as cited by nunan (1992: 4), “ . . . in analysing actual research studies, it is necessary to take into consideration the method of data collection (whether the data have been collected experimentally or nonexperimentally); the type of data yielded by the investigation (qualitative or quantitative); and the type of analysis conducted on the data (whether statistical or interpretive).” this study utilizes an exploratory-interpretive design since the method of data collection is non-experimental, the type of data collected is qualitative, and the type of analysis is interpretive (nunan 1992:4-6). the data is collected from sidney sheldon’s novel entitled morning, noon and night (1995) and its indonesian version entitled pagi, siang dan malam (hereinafter referred to as mnn and psm respectively). they are used to see how the english participial construction is translated into indonesian. table 1 provides the number of the data collected for this study. table 1 the data corpus of english participial clauses types of clauses occurrence -ing 443 -ed 111 total 554 discussion microsoft word 10_ma feng_ok.doc the narrative art..... (ma feng) 85 the narrative art of contemplator: an analysis on milan kundera’s works 沉思者的叙事艺术——米兰·昆德拉作品叙事分析 ma feng (马 峰) department of chinese, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, mafengde_2009@hotmail.com abstract article presented a narrative theoretical analysis on milan kundera’s works. its emphasis point lied on the unity of the theory and the practical explanation to the text. kundera’s works joined the unique ponder art and the narrative artistic together, which had led to the work a possible implication that would be much richer. based on a macroscopic angle, this article used the relative theory, including theories on classic and latter classic narrates study. then, based on the microscopic angle, this article mainly utilized the narrative theory about “the intervention” as well as the acceptable aesthetic theory. what’s more, the article did not only carry on a careful narrative analysis on kundera’s creation, but also discussed the profound effect with which the narration brought. this article offered some careful and profound discussions respectively on the narrator’s and reader’s intervenes. the narrator intervenes stressed that the narrator’s “narration person, narration method and the narration identity” in the work, and discussed the narrator “we”, illusion narration, parenthesis replenishment narration as well as the polyphony and reliability which were brought by the narration method and narrator’s identity. the reader intervene stressed the reader’s strategy during the connoisseurship and the acceptance process, and also evaluated reader’s identity during the reading process, and concerned about the lost readers in the “garden paths phenomenon and jungle for explanation”. key words: narrator intervention, reader intervention, milan kundera 内容摘要 本文对米兰·昆德拉的创作进行叙事理论分析,侧重点在于结合理论对文本进行解读。作 品将独特的沉思艺术与叙事艺术结合,使作品的解读意蕴更加丰富。本文所采用的叙事理论, 宏观上包括经典叙事学与后经典叙事学的相关理论。微观上主要运用了叙事的“干预”理论以 及接受美学理论。文章对昆德拉的创作进行了细致的叙事分析,并进一步探讨如此叙事所带来 的效果。文章论述从叙述者干预、读者干预两方面出发,分别展开细致而深刻的论述。叙述者 干预,强调的是叙述者在作品中的“叙述人称、叙述方式、叙述身份”,并对叙述者“我们” 以及梦幻叙述、括号加注叙述等叙述方式和叙述者身份所带来的复调性与可靠性展开探讨。读 者干预,强调的是读者在鉴赏与接受中的策略,对读者在阅读中的“身份认同”进行价值评断, 同时对“花园路现象与阐释的丛林”中读者的迷失进行关注。 关键词:叙述者干预 读者干预 米兰·昆德拉 前言 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 86 “米兰·昆德拉(1929——):小说家 ,出生于捷克斯洛伐克布鲁诺;自 1975 年起,在 法国定居。”独特的小说艺术,让昆德拉成为倍受评论者和读者关注的对象,李欧梵在《“东 欧文学”阴影下现代人的“宝鉴”——简论昆德拉的<笑忘录>》一文中说:“昆德拉在这本小 说中,似乎在制造一个支离破碎的人物‘布景’——像一面面镜子来‘反映’捷克的历史。… …我看完全书,不禁在大笑之余流出同情的眼泪,由于这本书,我爱上了捷克人,也变成了昆 德拉的仰慕者 ( 李欧梵,2005: 157,161)。” 李欧梵对昆德拉的积极介绍,引发了中国读者 对昆德拉的作品解读与接受的一次次热潮。 弗朗索瓦·里卡尔是昆德拉比较信赖的评论家,他在《收集者的小说集》中曾写道,“在 1988 年的一次采访中,昆德拉也提到《谁都笑不出来》的写作在其艺术创作的演变过程中所 起的关键作用。‘在 30 岁前’,他说,‘我创作过好几类东西:主要是音乐,但也有诗歌, 甚至有一个剧本。我在多个不同的领域工作——寻找我的声音,我的风格,寻找我自己。随着 我的《好笑的爱》的第一个故事(写于 1959 年),我确信‘找到了自我’。我成为写散文的 人,写小说的人,而不是其他的任何人’ ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先,郭昌京译, 2004:318)。”可见,昆德拉的创作之路是不断摸索的艰辛过程,他的创作是一种自我的展 现。 米兰·昆德拉的作品是极具思想性的,作品展现出一种沉思之美。他在评论界曾获得这样 的酷评,“一位人类存在的勘探者、一位诗意存在的沉思者、一位广闻博识的‘世界性的人’ (陈香,2005:131)。”可见,昆德拉对人的存在给予了极大的关注,关注的深邃与沉思的 诗意使其成为优秀的思考者,而其作品也位列 20 世纪小说经典之林。昆德拉的作品成为 20 世 纪小说的经典,一方面是其作品思想性的深刻,另一方面则是其艺术技巧的精妙。 昆德拉以其独特的小说艺术带给人们阅读与阐释的美感享受,其作品要传达的是什么呢? “昆德拉的小说也许不能用存在主义来概括,但他对存在的研究却可以纳入存在主义的大传统。 他为小说家下了个定义:小说家是存在的勘探者。而小说也不研究现实,而是思考存在(吴晓 东,2003:85)。” 对“存在的勘探”,是昆德拉要刻意传达给我们的思想。正是由于“思 考存在”,小说具有一种沉思的美感,读者在沉思中也品味到了作品的无穷魅力。 带着沉思的美感,走进小说艺术的魅力之境,我们将深入探究昆德拉作品的叙述技巧。 “如果我们按照叙述的分层来对待作者的问题,就应该承认,作者与读者所建立起来的叙述关 系是一种终极性的关系,是小说文本 高层面上的交流。一部小说叙述结构应该包含这样几个 层面(如下图):”(祖国颂, 2003:6) 作者 ⎪ ⎪ ⎭ ⎪ ⎪ ⎬ ⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ ⎧ →→ →→ →→ →→ 话语接受者 故事接受者 文本接受者 隐含读者 叙述话语话语叙述者 故事文本故事叙述者 叙述文本文本叙述者 小说文本隐含作者 读者 结合图示,可以感受到一部作品所具有的叙述格调的复杂性。作者和读者之间的交流是一 个复杂的过程,二者间的成功交流有助于作品的魅力展现。昆德拉的作品,其叙事格局是极具 特色的,无论是其幽默而极富哲思的语言风格,似真似幻的叙述,还是音乐复调艺术的运用, 都展现出其高超的技艺。细读作品,我们会有新的发现,作品中无时无处不存在一只只无形的 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 87 手,它们在影响着叙事的进程。这就是作品的沉思之美的缘由,通过有意、无意的“干预”, 作品展现出迷宫般的色调,读者在沉思中漫行、迷失,同时也对作品的解读进行不断的干涉。 昆德拉的作品所具有的独特魅力,我将从叙述者干预、读者干预两方面进行论述。叙述者 干预,强调的是叙述者在作品中的“叙述方式、叙述身份”,梦幻叙述、括号加注叙述等叙述 方式的独特,叙述者身份所带来的复调性与可靠性,这一切都让叙述者的干预增添了无尽的韵 味。读者干预,强调的是读者在鉴赏与接受中的策略,读者在阅读中的“身份认同”让其从不 同侧面更加深刻的探触到作品的价值内核,而“花园路现象与阐释的丛林”又让读者不断产生 迷失之感。在叙述者与读者的伴随下,在沉思眼光的注视下,我将细致的分析昆德拉作品的叙 事艺术: 内容 一、 叙述者干预 昆德拉是当今世界颇有影响的作家,他的很多作品被纳入当代小说经典之列。他希望读者 不要把自己的作品当作个人传记来读,一方面他想营造与读者在身份上的一段距离,另一方面 可以说是对作品真实性与艺术性距离的设定。在作品中他往往让叙述者更多地参与到故事中, 叙述带有主观色彩,对人物和环境大加评论,有时主人公又作为叙述者所创造的人物出现,人 物的思想会通过叙述者之口流露出来,毫无疑义,这是一种距离上的取消,我们不妨称之为 “叙事拉近”。 叙述者的身份变化使“叙事拉近”独具魅力,玛丽-劳勒·莱恩曾提出“叙述者变 形”,她认为“叙述者向作者的变形(或反之)。这一过程典型地体现在后现代的元 小说中。……叙述者从人物向非个体化的第三人称叙述者的变形([美]戴卫·赫尔曼 主编,马海良译, 2002:83)。” 同时,这种叙事者身份的多样性使“叙事距离” 忽远忽近,读者在阅读过程中的思考、参与和判断无疑会受到冲击,在混乱迷失中往 往产生同叙述者相类似的观点。因此,我们所说的“叙事拉近”实际上就是一种叙述 者的干预,叙述者通过对故事的干预来拉近与读者间的距离,给读者施加有意或无意 的暗示,让读者更加清楚作品的叙述意图。正是由于叙述者身份的多样性,昆德拉的 作品在内容上增添了曲径通幽的沉思性,在修辞上则变的复杂而新奇。 (一)叙述者“我”与“我们” 《谁都笑不出来》是昆德拉的一部短篇小说,是小说集《好笑的爱》的首篇。作品蕴含了 作者清醒的、觉悟的目光,虽然它尚处于转变的实验之中,但丝毫不显幼稚,可以说是作者成 熟的小说处女作。作者呈现给我们的世界是看似可笑的,充满了数不尽的玩笑,围绕着主人公 “我”游戏般的行动,爱情的非严肃、权威的可笑、历史的悖论一一剖现在面前。昆德拉的思 考给我们的是一条“雾中之路”,而我所能做的只能是用自己有限的视域去摸索前行。 《谁都笑不出来》对昆德拉的创作生涯是极其重要的,接下来对叙述者“我”与“我们” 的分析就基于此篇进行。“我”与“我们”作为叙述者,在作品中时常交替出现,很多论者认 为二者并没有本质上的区别,然而,结合作品特定的情景,深入的透视会带给我们更多地沉思。 沉思的产生,相比而言,叙述者“我们”要比“我”的效果更加强烈,因此,二者的比较或许 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 88 会有新的发现。通过“我”与“我们”的深入探讨,作品所具有的沉思之美就会揭开神秘 面纱的一角,这有助于对作品整体的沉思性艺术的探究。 1、叙述者“我” 《玩笑》与《好笑的爱》的头两篇是昆德拉仅有的运用第一人称叙述的小说。《谁都笑不 出来》采用了第一人称叙事,叙述者“我”同时也是故事的主人公,然而他却是无名无姓的人。 正如《阿 q 正传》中主人公阿 q,由于他的这种符号化的称谓,从一定层面上来说,就赋予了 其身份的独特性,使其成为普遍国民性的代表,每一个人都能在其身上看到自己的影子。昆德 拉在《作品与蜘蛛》中也谈到,“假如人物必须与社会身份匹敌,他就得先有一个真名实姓。 ……有名无姓或有姓无名都不再是姓名,而只是一个符号。……从我 初的几部短篇小说开始, 我就有意识地避免给人物加上姓名( [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译, 2002:167168)。” 《谁都笑不出来》中,主人公“我”是一个无名无姓的人,通过他的叙述,我们了解到他 是一名在布拉格的一所大学里教绘画史的助理教师,他的女友是一位名叫克拉拉的 20 岁的缝 纫机厂的职员,而她比他小 13 岁。我们对主人公的了解只能仅此而已,作品接下来展示的是 这样一个故事:主人公“我”与女友克拉拉的爱情,夹杂其中的是对扎图莱茨基先生所开的玩 笑,而正是由于这一玩笑导致了一切的变故, 终使他失去了爱情、工作,甚至更多。人物的 称谓在小说中往往是别具匠心的,不同的称谓会表现不同的身份,体现出人际关系及一定的感 情色彩。孟繁华对此说道,“在语言传达中,与人的经验感受有很大关系的,还有个人称问题。 有无人称大不一样,不同的人称,感受也不相同(孟繁华,1989:99)。” 主人公的这种符 号化的称谓,实际上是对传统作品的一大突破,它不再局限于人物特定的身份,它赋予人物更 多的功能与指涉,人物不再是某一特定身份的代表,它具有更为普遍的内涵。“为了直达存在 主题的核心,而不致使笔力分散,昆德拉对小说中的历史事件和人物采取了一系列的简约化处 理,如很多人物没有姓名,而以其年龄、职业甚至代码代之:《搭车游戏》中两个主人公就只 是‘小伙子’和‘姑娘’;《让先死者让位于后死者》中的主人公也只是‘他’和‘她’,无 名实际是一种共名,隐示了某种共时性的人生现象与存在境况,同时因对人物的剥离而生成了 某种‘陌生化’效果(李凤亮,2006:230-231)。”透过人物,给我们更多的是对自身的思 考,从而发现人的存在的普遍性。这种符号化使存在的普遍变得更加真实,读者在参与作品的 过程中仿佛身临其境,“主人公在行动”又蕴含了“读者在行动”,读者的精神历程就使得作 品对人的存在的关注变得更加深邃。 通过上面的论述,结合作者的意图,从故事的开头我们便能感受到作品所具有的叙事风格 的独特性。小说中,故事发展采用第一人称来叙述,通过“我”的眼光来展示一切,然而, “我”又不是单纯的叙述者,在叙述故事的同时,“我”又是故事的主人公,作为一位行动者 参与其中。 2、叙述者“我们” 在小说叙述中,单数叙述者“我”与复数叙述者“我们”的区分是否有其独特的价值呢? “雅恩所提出的‘集体式聚焦’,包括所谓‘我们——叙述’。在他看来,‘我们——叙述’ 指的是‘同故事叙述的一种形式,其中叙述者的经验自我属于一组集体的内聚焦者。’……但 是,实际上,超越其字面上的意义,‘我们——叙述’很难说是一个突破,因为复数叙述者 ‘我们’与单数叙述者‘我’几乎不存在本质上的区别。在不少叙事作品中,‘我’与‘我 们’实际上是交替使用的(谭君强,2002:103-104)。” 上述两位论者的观点,我不敢苟同, 而我更倾向于雅恩的观点,我认为对叙述者“我”与“我们”的关注是极具价值的,而作者在 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 89 作品中对二者的运用往往是别具匠心的,当然,也不排除在很多情况下二者几乎可以相等甚至 替代。 以作品中的两段叙述来做以分析,“(第一段)我们被蒙住眼睛穿越现在。至多,我们只 能预感和猜测我们实际上正经历着的一切。只是在事后,当蒙眼的布条解开后,当我们审视过 去时,我们才会明白,我们曾经经历的到底是什么,我们才能明白它们的意义。(第二段)那 天晚上,我为我的成功而畅饮,我根本没有想到,这竟是我末日的序幕。”这是作品中唯一出 现的一次“我”与“我们”的交替运用。小说总共 13 章,而这两段处于第 2 章的开头,也可 以说是“我的故事”的真正开始,它给整部小说垫下了一种朦胧的基调,同时又富于一定的暗 示性与预见性。它与结尾也有一种相互辉映之美,结尾写道,“我愣在那里,等了好一会儿才 明白过来,我的故事(尽管我的四周笼罩着一片冰冷的寂静)并不属于悲剧,倒是个喜剧。这 多少给了我一点点安慰。”通过前后对比,可以说作品中“我的故事”的末日不是悲剧,而是 具有一定的喜剧性,或许,这种喜剧性本出于一种非严肃的玩笑,“我”的游戏也并不始终由 我所掌控,它的发展更多是来自“奇特力量”的引导,我们称其为历史的悖论。不论是故事中 的人物,还是故事外的旁观者,谁都笑不出来,因为故事不仅仅是喜剧,它还掺杂了灰色调, 是一种“灰色调的喜剧”。 对开头与结尾的对比分析,就此点到为止,而这一对比将有利于对复数叙述者“我们”的 进一步理解。“对于‘我们’究竟是谁的语言这一问题,无法作出确切的回答。这个‘我们’ 是所有那些声音的混合体,因此不是某种特定的可辨声音。它由数种语言重叠而成,反讽性地 呈现出不断增生的多重([美]j.希利斯·米勒著,申丹译,2002:166)。” 把这两段叙述, 尤其是第一段,放到整部小说以及前后的对比思考中,可以对“我们”的指涉对象做如下分 类:一、仅涉及叙述者,此时可以等同于“我”;二、涉及叙述者以及包括主人公“我”在内 的所有故事中的人物;三、涉及叙事者、故事人物以及隐含读者;四、基于此,又涉及隐含作 者。 由“我们”到“我”的叙述替换,而在后面故事的发展中“我们”的叙述便没有再出现, 并且作品的整体叙述是以“我”的固定式内聚焦的方式展开的,所以,我们可以简单地把第一 类归结为仅涉及叙述者。 第二类,又涉及故事人物,首先,对于涉及主人公“我”是易于理解的,因为,随后展开 的便是“我的故事”。另外再拿克拉拉、扎图莱茨基先生及其夫人做分析,克拉拉在故事发展 中被纠缠于爱情的非严肃之中。因此,在结尾当蒙眼布被撕去之后,她才对主人公评价道, “你是一个老牌的玩世不恭的人。……你这个人,你到处开空头支票,你都无法知道自己开多 少空头支票了。”扎图莱茨基先生则被“权威”蒙住了眼睛,他把“我”当作“独一无二的权 威”,并不折不挠地迷信于此,他说到,“编辑部的人对我说,一切都将取决于您的意见。假 如您看重我的文章,它就会发表。您是我唯一的机会。”孰知,“我”对待权威原本就抱有一 种玩笑般的非严肃, 后“我”甚至以游戏来躲避这一抛来的权威,再者,“我”是否够得上 称为权威也令人质疑,况且,即使我推荐了论文,编辑部照样可以对此不屑一顾,而 终论文 的发表仍会是一个疑问。在故事结尾,令人遗憾的是我们始终没有看到他的清醒,但通过暗示, 我们更愿意相信他 终会明白这一切。对于扎图莱茨基夫人,不需多作解释,一听她的言辞, 就能深刻地感到蒙在她眼上的布有多么的厚,她说,“五年以来,我从来没有读过一行字,但 是,我根本用不着去读,就知道我的丈夫到底是诚实还是不诚实。这些事情凭感觉就能知道, 并不需要特地去读。我了解我的丈夫,就像一个母亲了解自己的孩子,我了解他的一切。我知 道,他所作的一切,永远都是诚实的。”通过以上分析,至少可以说几个主要人物都能够包括 在叙述者“我们”之中,他们或多或少地都经过了由蒙昧无知到清醒明白的转变。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 90 第三类,又涉及了隐含读者,这是更容易理解的,作为读者在阅读作品的过程中首先会受 到开头此隐喻性段落的暗示,随后在情节的发展中思维越发朦胧而捉摸不定, 后,在结尾的 点化之下,或许读者会变得清醒明白,而这一过程也可看作叙述者“我们”对读者所作的一番 历险性考验。 第四类,隐含作者意识的介入,这表现了此段叙述的可靠性,它与作者的道德判断及价值 取向有一定的契合,也就是叙述者“我们”是可靠性的叙述者,在此类情况下,隐含作者的价 值取向便具有了一定的普遍性,体现了作者对人类存在的一些本质问题的追问,是极具启发意 义的。对上述四类做一归结,第一、二类是基于故事之内的,它指涉的是与故事紧密相关的对 象;第三、四类又包括了故事之外,它的指涉又增加了隐含读者与隐含作者。由此可见,对复 数叙述者“我们”与单数叙述者“我”的详细探讨是颇有意义的,也使我们对作品的理解得到 了加深。 (二)叙述者的复调性与可靠性 复调研究在有关昆德拉的研究中可谓汗牛充栋,而研究大多侧重于结构方面,对叙述者的 复调性研究则较为少见。李夫生曾谈及昆德拉的“复调艺术”:“米兰·昆德拉常常将不同时 代、不同类型的人物故事顺手拈来,揉进自己的小说中,同时讲述两种甚至几种故事。在其作 品中,历史与现实,真实与虚构杂糅在一起,既可随意拆开,也可随意拼装。拆开来是各自独 立的故事,组装起来就是一部诗意的‘复调式’小说。由此,我们可以概括出米兰·昆德拉 ‘复调’叙述的基本特征:(一)在小说多条线索叙述中,各种叙述是一种平行的关系; (二)各种平行叙述在小说主导性问题上联系在一起,在小说的主旨上具有同一性(李夫生, 1998:115)。” 这里论者所讨论的是昆德拉叙述方式上的复调,平行叙述必然牵涉到叙述者, 下面主要从叙述者的角度进行分析。里卡尔称这种平行叙述中的叙述者为的“复调叙述者”, 这表现了叙述者在复调叙述中极其重要的地位。 《玩笑》中四个叙述者“我”各自进行叙述,并分别组成一章。他们的叙述相互补充,使 事情的真相一一显露,让故事的迷雾得以隐退而渐趋清晰。事情真的像我们所想象的一样真实 吗?里卡尔在《关于毁灭的小说》中讲到,“像《玩笑》这样创立‘复调’叙述者在废黜叙事 者‘绝对权威’上显然走得更远。自从这很多声音同时叙述的这一刻起,我们有了那么多的解 释和形式各异的阐释,有时是互补的,有时是矛盾的,有的知道旁人所不知道的事情,有的想 法与他人的完全不同,于是真实——即便仍然是以‘主观’形式出现的真实——四分五裂,消 散迷失,只能成为幻觉,或者,在 好的情况下,成为永远无法辨清的谜团([捷克]米兰·昆 德拉著,蔡若明译, 2003:394)。” 因此,这种复调叙述方式所具有的更多是各种可能性 的陈列,读者只能自己在阅读中通过思考、分析去辨认。 胡亚敏根据叙述者对故事的态度将叙述者划分为客观叙述者和干预叙述者,“客观叙述者 只充当故事的传达者,起陈述故事的作用,不表明自己的主观态度和价值判断,即使讲到 伤 心或 得意之处也保持不介入的态度。……与客观叙述者相反,干预叙述者具有较强的主体意 识,它可以或多或少自由地表达主观的感受和评价,在陈述故事的同时具有解释和评价的功能。 干预叙述者可以直接对故事中的事件、人物或社会现象发表长篇评论(胡亚敏, 2004:4749)。” 根据“客观叙述者与干预叙述者”的理论,《玩笑》显然属于客观叙述者之列,然而, “复调叙述者”的效力又让其具有了干预的功能,因此,二者的结合便具有了叙述者干预的特 效。《玩笑》由七部分组成,一三五部分由路德维克叙述,第二部分由艾莱娜叙述,第四部分 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 91 由雅洛斯拉夫叙述,第六部分由考茨卡叙述, 后一部分则由路德维克、艾莱娜、雅洛斯拉夫 共同叙述完成。 如何分辨是谁在叙述呢?忽略各部分标题不计,透过叙述者的语言流露,我们也可以感受 到叙述者的身份的变迁。因此,叙述者话语的引入成为辨识的关键。先看路德维克:“这么多 年后,又竟这么着,我回到了老家。……是的;我去闲逛了。在摩拉瓦河桥上停一会儿,望着 河水流去。……我睡了很久,睡得很香。八点以后我醒了。………从考茨卡处回到旅馆,夜已 很深。我已想好第二天一早就动身去布拉格,因为这里已无事可做:这一趟来故乡虚有其名的 出差到此告一段落([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,蔡若明译,2003:3,33,201,299)。” 路德 维克在一三五七各章的开首叙述,交待了整个故事的脉络,他以“出差”为由,回到阔别已久 的老家,这一天发生了很多事,其中大量篇幅是有关他的回忆,第二天感觉无事可做便结束了 此次旅行。 艾莱娜:“今天晚上我要早点睡觉,我不知道能不能睡着,反正我要早上床。巴维尔今天 下午去了布拉迪斯拉发,我明天一早乘飞机去布尔诺,然后乘汽车。我的小乖乖兹德娜要一个 人在家待两天,她对这个倒无所谓,并不非要有我们陪着她,至少她不爱跟我在一起,而喜欢 巴维尔 ……。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,蔡若明译,2003:17)。艾莱娜告诉我们的是, 她为要外出两天而激动不已,接下来就是两天中发生的奇遇、艳遇的故事。 雅洛斯拉夫:“我看见田野里一条小路。我看见这条小土路,被农民的大车轧上了许多辙。 小路两边草儿青翠欲滴,我忍不住用手去抚摸 ……” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,蔡若明译, 2003:15)。随后的场面表明开首仅仅是他的一场对往昔的追忆之梦,这就让故事中心“众王 马队游行”多了一份梦幻的色彩。他为传统艺术的衰落而伤心不已,并试图让儿子继承已有的 传统,然而却受到了无情的欺骗。 后,他在音乐演奏的迷狂中心脏病发而死。 考茨卡:“我们很久没有见面,事实上,我们见面机会一直很少。可这是很奇怪的,因为 我常在遐想中和他,路德维克·扬见面,我常常把他当作我 主要的对手,把我心里的想法向 他倾诉。我已经非常习惯于和一个虚幻的他相处,所以昨天当我突然遇上活生生的血肉之躯的 他时,我竟然会呆若木鸡([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,蔡若明译,2003:257)。”一次偶遇, 让考茨卡回想起他与路德维克·扬的相处,他常常把其当作心里倾诉的虚幻对手。随后,引入 的是一个神秘姑娘的故事,以他自己的交往述及此事。 第七章是故事的结局,也是故事中人物的大集合,路德维克、艾莱娜、雅洛斯拉夫纷纷出 场,共同担任叙述任务。各自叙述自己的所见、所知、所感, 终形成一种故事发展的合流。 四个第一人称叙述者,都在叙述着自己所经历的故事,故事在相互交错中得到确认和补充,同 时也出现了一些隔阂与矛盾。面对众多的叙述者,读者应该相信哪一个呢?当然,读者会对其 进行权衡、筛选,然而冲突是不可避免的,当出现对同一问题的不同叙述时,读者就会选择一 个较为可靠的叙述者。很多论者对叙述者的可靠性进行研究,观点尽管有些差异,但其内核基 本一致。《西方文学批评术语辞典》中解释道:“不可靠的叙述者(unreliable narrator) 指作品中叙述者在理解或报道事实时可能出现差错,而使读者在对人物或情节做出判断时缺乏 必要的依据,以致使他们对判断的结论是否合乎作者意图无法肯定(林骧华,1989:28)。” 由此可知,辨识叙述者的可靠性需根据叙述者在故事中的表现来论定,叙述者对事实的把握将 决定其可靠性。《玩笑》中四个叙述者起到的是一种相互补充的作用,他们让故事的脉络、细 节更加清晰,并且四者之间没有本质上的冲突,都基于对事实的丰富拓展,因此,可以说他们 都是可靠的叙述者。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 92 (三)括号加注的艺术 括号加注的艺术在昆德拉的作品比比皆是,无论是倍受其青睐的小说作品,还是改编戏剧 《雅克和他的主人》,即使在其评论性著作《小说的艺术》与《被背叛的遗嘱》中也大量出现。 j.希利斯·米勒曾说,“脚注、序言、导论、结论——所有这些处于小说正文之外的边缘性只言 片语——都以这种或那种方式起到悬置的作用。它们打破了作为小说力量之依托的逼真性幻觉, 仿佛作者停止了对叙述者的扮演,走上前来,用自己的声音评论作为艺术品的小说以及小说在 读者的真实世界中的作用。搞不清楚这些片断究竟出自何人之手或何人之口。在读者对整部小 说做出反应时,它们又起了什么作用?([美]j.希利斯·米勒著,申丹译,2002:110-111)” 相 比之下,“括号加注”是属于正文之内,还是正文之外呢?从作品中就可看出,括号加注是处于 小说正文之内的。然而,括号加注却起到了同脚注一样的功效,它给人的感觉是作者对叙事的 干涉,作者介入到故事中,对故事发表自己的评论。因此,从另一层面讲,括号加注也是“边 缘性的只言片语”,也可作为小说正文之外来对待。它是对故事话语的补充,是一种语言的游 离。 括号加注的艺术在作品中具有独特的效果,它起到了悬置的功效。在作品中它让叙述者同 作者的身份有了模糊交叉,叙述者所知道的已超出了一般的范围,其视角仿佛是全能的、无所 不知的。我们会在身份辨识的疑问中迷失,是作者还是叙述者的意图呢? 摘取作品中的一段为例: “奥尔佳躺在她的床上(隔壁房间的收音机沉默了),对她来说,显然是雅库布杀死了露 辛娜,而除了她和斯克雷塔大夫之外,任何人都不知情。他为什么要这样做,她也许永远也不 会知道了。她吓得一阵颤抖,浑身不禁起了一层鸡皮疙瘩,但是随后(就像我们所知道的那样, 她很善于观察自己),她惊奇地发现,这一阵颤抖是那么的甜美,这一恐惧充满了骄傲。 …… 这一切怎么可能就不让我厌烦呢?她想道。怎么可能我就没有(而且我也永远不会)揭发他呢? 难道我也一样,我也生活在了正义之外?” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译, 2004:332) 短短的两段文字中出现了三次括号加注,我们逐一对其分析:第一处,“隔壁房间的收音 机沉默了”,这首先表明住在隔壁的雅库布已经离开;其次,是对环境氛围的介绍,表明奥尔 佳在冷静的思考;再次,这是事实的陈述,可以看作是叙述者的常规叙事,表明叙述者对叙事 环境的把握。假设我们把括号摘掉,这并不影响故事的叙述,括号可以用逗号来替代,叙述没 有显出一丝的生涩梗阻。第二处,“就像我们所知道的那样,她很善于观察自己”,这里试图再 次用逗号取代括号,结果叙述显得有点不协调,此方案已行不通。显然,这是一句插入式的话 语,只有把它当作一种补充说明,叙述才能更加顺畅。前面已经对叙述者“我们”作了深入的分 析,这里的“我们”也可作如此对待,它包含了叙述者、作者、读者三个层面的含义,叙述者表 现的是其对人物的了解,作者表现的是对人物的评价,读者表现的是对人物的认同。对“我们” 的所指只是简单提及,不再展开论述。此处展示的是评论叙述,是故事正文之外插入的“片言 只语”。它引发读者对所评论的人物奥尔佳的思考,并且对其进行了如实的界定,这可以帮助 读者更好的理解人物。第三处,“而且我也永远不会”,这里的括号也可以用逗号取代,与第一 处所不同的是叙述者对“我”的运用。“我”无疑是指奥尔佳,读者会感受到这是她的独白式的话 语,是她内心情感的自然流露,表达了她对雅库布强烈的爱憎态度。此段运用了三个疑问句, 每个疑问都隐含了肯定的答案,“厌烦、揭发、正义”相对的是:些许的厌烦并不能改变“我”的 坚决立场,这也是对正义的回复。“我”对正义表现了决绝的冷漠,永远不会揭发则是这一切的 关键,这一态度也让其真正的生活在了正义之外。 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 93 上文引用的例子出自《告别圆舞曲》,再来看昆德拉对此作品的评论,“形式之轻和主题 之重的结合揭示了我们人间这种种戏剧(在我们床上所发生的一切和在历史舞台上我们所演出 的都是一样)毫无意义,到了可怕的地步。”这里也出现了对括号加注的运用,把床上和历史 舞台类比,展示了一种调侃的意味,同时也形象地表现出一种“可怕的毫无意义”,给人一种 既深刻又生动的印象。这里的括号加注是对“种种戏剧”的解释说明,括号可以用逗号替换, 并且二者有种并列的意味,通过形象生动的比喻来展现。 昆德拉的创作,无处不流露出对括号加注的过分青睐。从其小说创作到理论评著,娴熟的 运用使其成为了此类中的高手,而其成功运用也为创作增添了不尽的活力,形象生动而寓意深 刻的表述使作品具有沉思之美。 二、 读者干预 读者的阅读并不是漫无目的的,而是充满了个人的习惯与共同的意图。读者的阅读是个人 与集体阅读的结晶,读者个人的习性让其阅读有了个性鲜明之处,共同接受又使其具有集体阅 读的共识。读者在阅读过程中会不时地受到干预,同时也会不由自主地对作品的解读进行干预, 这种干预与被干预的过程充满了欣喜与诱惑,我把读者的此种鉴赏过程称之为“读者干预”。 叙述者干预的定义,很多论者都已论及,与此对应我把读者的复杂鉴赏过程定义为“读者干 预”。“读者干预”的定义或许还不够严谨,然而,对于更好的理解读者在作品鉴赏中的作用 却大有裨益。 厨川白村认为,通过读者与作者的无意识心理的交流,二者会产生“共鸣地创作”。因此, 读者在阅读过程中要不断地进行心理的探路,对作品所蕴含的“生命的内容”进行解读, 终 才能对作者的意图有一定的把握和理解。读者阅读时对作品的共鸣,会导致身份的认同,这会 引领读者进入不断的意义挖掘之中。作品叙事的迷宫,让读者走入花园路口,路径的选择将读 者导入不同的美妙之境。 终读者的阐释与误读,又给作品带来新的生机与意义的拓展。同样, 通过读者干预的效力,我们可以感受到作品独特叙述的魅力,作品的沉思之美也赋予了读者不 断干预的动力之源。 鉴赏过程的复杂是由几方面组成的,读者会在身份的认同中得到感触,作品会用花园式的 路径带来迷惑,同样阐释的丛林也会让人有迷失之感。下面,我们将用读者的眼光去不断探视。 (一) 身份认同 昆德拉的作品富含哲理沉思之美,读者会身不由己的投入到故事中去。“大多数文学叙事 (当然不包括元小说)都力求建立一种假扮游戏,让读者在游戏的限度之内当真以为某些事件 发生了,以为某个叙述声音正在对这些事件进行报道,以为他(读者)能够甚至应该关心事件 的施事以及事件的结果,与事件施事发生情感关系等等,从而‘卷入故事里面’([美]戴卫· 赫尔曼编,马海良译,2002:108-109)。” 通过故事的参与,读者会在游戏中信以为真,并 且会发生种种的情感关系。当深入到故事情节之中,读者会自觉地扮演一定的角色,我们将其 称之为“身份的认同”。 身份认同在阅读鉴赏过程中极其重要,它会导致读者在故事中的不同定位, 终会影响读 者对人物的接受以及作品的完整理解。同情是否代表认同?马克·柯里谈到身份认同时则认为, “这个观点的含义是,不管他们对一些小说人物是多么友好,读者自身的身份并没有变动。同 情只相当于对人物表示友善的感情,而认同则意味着自我认知。差别在于,同情的产生不会深 刻地改变世界([英]马克·柯里著,宁一中译, 2003:33)。” 我并不完全赞同马克·柯里 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 94 的观点,认同在一定层面上是意味着一种自我认知,然而自我认知并不影响读者在作品中身份 的定位,读者的同情实际上是一种对人物及故事情节的认同,通过认同读者确立了自己的身份。 《无知》中有这样一段:“不过有一点很清楚,就是成千上万的流亡者,在同一个夜晚, 虽然梦境形形色色,但大同小异,做的是同一个梦。流亡者之梦:二十世纪下半叶 奇怪的现 象之一。……同一个潜意识导演在白天给她送来故土的景色,那是一个个幸福的片段,而在夜 晚则给她安排了回归故土的恐怖经历。白天闪现的是被抛弃的故土的美丽,夜晚则是回顾故土 的恐惧。白天向她展现的是她失去的天堂,而夜晚则是她逃离的地狱([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著, 许钧译,2004:15-16)。”作品展现出的是一种“集体感受”,流亡者的共同之梦。 作者通 过“流亡者之梦”,给特定读者群强烈的认同感。特定的读者就是有着一定流亡经历的读者, 这样的读者会更加深刻的理解作品。昆德拉作为流亡者中的一员,他深刻地感受到流亡的烦恼 与苦楚,他将自己的感受流露到作品之中。当然,我们不能刻意的在作品中寻求作者的身影, 这也是昆德拉所厌烦的。然而,通过不同流亡者所做的“同一个梦”,作者暗示的是流亡者身 份的认同,同一的身份是造成同一个梦的不可或缺的因素。 读者通过身份定位也会有深刻的感触,有着流亡经历的读者会很快地融入到故事中,并且 会产生同情之感,在身份认同中得到满足。一般读者则会在故事发展中不断的受到影响,会不 由自主地进入作者所期望的角色,其疑虑也会逐渐被打消。我们借用一个名词:“自愿中断怀 疑(willing suspension of disbelief) 英国诗人、批评家塞缪尔·泰勒·柯勒律治在他的 《文学传记》中生造的一个术语,意指所谓‘诗意的真实’赖以产生作用的基础(林骧华编, 1989:530)。” “自愿中断怀疑”可以为读者所用,读者在身份认同中疑虑的消除便出于一 种自愿,它是读者融入“诗意的真实”的基础,这里可以转换为融入“小说的真实”的基础。 读者对故事真实性的确信不疑,可以使其更加容易地融入情节,也能更加深刻的理解作品所蕴 含的深意。通过身份认同,读者便能走进流亡之梦的“天堂与地狱”,真正体会到“幸福与恐 怖”。就像尤利西斯的回家之路,身份认同也让读者在小说中体验到回家之路的漫长艰险,但 家的温馨、惬意却不断吸引读者的前行之路。 (二)花园路现象 昆德拉在其作品中大量运用梦境叙述的方式,梦境的运用让作品富有朦胧迷离之感,给人 随意畅游作品的惬意。同时,这种梦境叙述也会让读者在阅读中迷失,读者在梦境与真实的花 园路徘徊,每一条小路都通向神秘的未知,每一种开拓都会有不同的失落与惊喜。“从读者的 角度看,一个叙事就像一个等待演出的乐谱。批评家们出于方便的原因谈论‘文本的’世界, 但是只要这个世界是读者的想象行为的产物,文本就潜在地包含着多个世界,特定信息通过不 同方式转化为生动的心灵再现([美]戴卫·赫尔曼编,马海良译,2002:65)。”因此,可以 说每一个读者在阅读结束后,都会获得一个不同的世界,一个充满自己心灵碰撞的想象的世界。 曼福雷德·雅恩认为:“偶然的误读误解是符合常情常理的事情,这一事实在花园路现象 中表现得再清楚不过了。简单地说,花园路使优先规则系统失灵,使处理过程受阻或停顿。… …读者之所以走入歧途,是因为他预期得到一个合情合理的意义,作为理解者的人总是不愿意 接受毫无意义的东西,总是害怕语义的空缺,总是渴望从语篇里抽绎出一个满意的意义,简言 之,总是喜欢得到更多的意义乃至 多的意义(lehnert 1979,84-85)。不言而喻,得到 大 限度的认知回报优先于恪守语句的字面意义([美]戴卫·赫尔曼编,马海良译,2002: 125)。” 因此,读者在花园路中的迷失是经常的,读者在阅读的过程中希望寻到自己期待的 发展路径,然而这种期待的失落是不可避免的,读者往往会在一些远离主干道的岔路上越走越 远。 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 95 读者在作品所营造的情境中迷失,梦幻叙述与现实叙述之间“界限”的模糊,这都展现出 亦真亦幻的效果。梦的真实性的效果,让读者在阅读中无从辨识,只有从事后的叙述线索中方 能彻悟,走出迷宫。《生活在别处》展现给我们的就是一幅迷宫般的图景,诗人雅罗米尔与克 萨维尔的篇章的界限出现了交错,“克萨维尔的生活不是一种单纯的从生到死的线性的生活, 那一根肮脏而漫长的线;他不是在‘过’他的生活,而是在睡;在这睡眠之生中,他从一个梦 跳到另一个梦;他做着梦,一边做梦一边沉睡,做着另一个梦,仿佛他的睡眠就是一个盒子, 在这盒子里总是套进另一个盒子,另一个盒子里再套进另一个盒子,一个接一个,如此继续下 去([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,袁筱一译,2004:101)。” 克萨维尔是小说第二章插入的故事, 故事给人恍惚跳跃之感,读者需要不断地追随故事的灵动性。 诗人雅罗米尔与克萨维尔的关系得以清晰显现发生在第七章“诗人死去”,雅罗米尔开始 了他的独白想象: “他想到了克萨维尔: 开始的时候,只有他,雅罗米尔。 接着雅罗米尔塑造了克萨维尔,他的翻版,通过克萨维尔他开始了别样的生活,充满幻想和奇遇的 生活。 而此刻,是该消除矛盾的时刻了,消除梦想状态与昨夜的实际状态之间的矛盾,诗歌与生活的矛盾, 行动与思想的矛盾。突然间,克萨维尔和雅罗米尔的矛盾也消除了。两个人 终得以合二为一,成 为一个生灵。梦想的男人变成了行动的男人,梦想的奇遇成了生活的奇遇。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德 拉著,袁筱一译,2004:388) 故事发生到这里,我们方如梦初醒,原来克萨维尔不过是雅罗米尔的一个梦中形象。在梦 境与现实的路口,读者会犹豫徘徊,可能会选择梦境之路越走越远,也可能会识破这种叙述的 迷雾。当故事告知读者这只是叙事的机巧时,读者会被拉回,从克萨维尔的路上被拉回到雅罗 米尔的路上,梦境和现实 终合二为一。 克萨维尔的形象具有什么样的意义呢?“毫无疑义,小说中所出现的任何形象都不仅表示 了一种存在,而是同时也显示着一定的意义。……小说中的意象一旦构成象征,那么,意象所 暗示的寓意显然已经不是形象的自然性质。相形之下,这种寓意的产生更多地由于作家对于意 象的强迫。借助感性形象联想、暗示和传达自然属性之外的抽象的思想和情感,这种努力在原 始思维中业已出现(南帆,1987:94-95)。” 因此,克萨维尔的形象充满了寓意,他成为读 者了解诗人的补充,成为诗人诗歌世界的行动者。更好的理解作品的深意要借助阅读的不断深 入,多重阅读具有独特的效果:第一次阅读,在现实与梦幻中迷失,读者信以为真,在真实的 梦境中亦步亦趋;第二次阅读,读者对现实与梦境界限的刻意关注,让读者阅读梦境过程中不 断进行实时性的反思,一种战胜挑战的心理会让其再次迷失,梦境的真实性效果会大打折扣。 第三次阅读,读者又多了一些经验,审慎的思考会不时介入,思考者会为企图成为理想的读者 而苦恼。 (三)阐释的丛林 昆德拉在《被背叛的遗嘱》中对小说的价值进行解释,“一部传记的价值,在于它所揭示 的事实的新颖与准确。一部小说的价值,则在于揭示某种存在直至那时始终被掩盖着的可能 性;换句话说,小说发现的,是在我们每个人身上隐藏着的东西。通常对小说的赞扬之一就是 这样说:我在书中的人物身上找到了我;我感到作者就在说我,他认识我;或者以抱怨的形式 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 85-98 96 说:我感觉自己被这小说攻击了、剥露了、侮辱了。绝不应该嘲笑这一类看似幼稚的评价:它 们是小说被当作小说读了的证明([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译, 2003:277)。”小说 发现“隐藏着的东西”,这就让读者有了极大的兴趣,读者在发现秘密中获得了好奇心的满足, 同时也可以在作品中寻到自己的影子。无论赞扬还是抱怨,读者的不同阐释,都会让作品的意 义变得更加丰富。 作者、读者、评论家都可以对作品做出阐释,读者往往会在众多的阐释中不知所措。昆德 拉对自己的作品进行阐释,认为小说就是思考存在。评论者的阐释则庞杂的多,“政治与性” 的观点则是其中较常见的一个。那么评论者的阐释对读者会有怎样的影响呢?“我们必须自己 决定什么对我们有用,什么没有用;我们也很可能没有能力决断。但是可以肯定的是只有当 ‘阐释’根本不是阐释,而只是使得读者掌握他们在其他情况下容易忽视的事实时,这种阐释 才是唯一合理的阐释。……当然评论性的书籍和文章的大量出现,会在读者中间造成一种只读 评论艺术作品的书而不读艺术作品本身的很坏的趣味;(我已经看到它了)这样就可能是向读 者灌输观点,而不是培养他们的鉴赏力([英]戴维·洛奇编,葛林等译,1987:152153)。” 因此,评论者们要从培养读者的鉴赏力出发,不能过分随意的进行阐释,否则就会 走向过度阐释的深渊。 爱玛·卡法勒诺斯认为,“故事是读者在阅读时建构的。读者在阅读过程中建构的每一种 故事都是一种配置。读者对事件的阐释,是根据他们在特定阅读时刻所组合的配置与被显示事 件之间的关系来进行的。随着故事的发展和延伸,与事件阐释相联系的配置也在扩展。阐释随 着阅读而变化,因为配置是变化的([美]戴卫·赫尔曼编,马海良译,2002:24)。” 这里 强调的是读者对故事的建构,阐释随着建构的变化而变化。读者阅读的过程,就是自己对故事 的重新组装定位的过程,进程中读者的不断阐释使故事内涵更加丰富,当然这里也掺杂了读者 个人的情感。 结语 昆德拉带给我们的是思考者的沉思艺术,在《被背叛的遗嘱》作者提到,“后普鲁斯特阶 段的 伟大的小说家——我尤其想到卡夫卡、穆齐尔、布洛赫、贡布罗维奇或与我同时代的富 恩斯特——对于十九世纪之前的、差不多已被忘得一干二净的小说的美学极其敏感:他们将随 笔式的思考引入到小说艺术中;他们使小说构造变得更自由;为离题的神聊重新赢得权利;为 小说注入非严肃的与游戏的精神;通过创作无意与社会身份相竞争(以巴尔扎克的方式)的人 物来拒绝心理现实主义的教条;尤其是他们不想硬塞给读者一个真实的幻觉,而这硬塞曾是整 个小说史下半时的万能统治者([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译, 2003:78)。”昆德拉 所推崇的小说家,其创作艺术是极具美学价值的,可以用六点来概括:一、随笔式的思考;二、 自由的构造;三、离题的神聊;四、非严肃的与游戏的精神;五、无意与社会身份相竞争的人 物;六、抛弃真实的幻觉。 在小说创作中,昆德拉在不断实践上面所提及的“小说的美学”。他喜欢“道路小说”的 创作模式,对此曾讲到:“‘道路小说’满足于缓慢、绕弯,它经常离题,插入许多插曲和哲 学‘暂停’,既不怕所谓的‘偶发’情节,也不怕插曲中衍生出去的岔道。总而言之,仿佛作 者和读者都有很多时间可以浪费,从来不计算他们的脚步,仿佛他们只乐于随时停下来观察和 欣赏沿路的风景([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,王振孙、郑克鲁译,2003:388)。” “道路小 说”表达了昆德拉的美学观,随笔式的思考、自由的构造、离题的神聊三方面都糅合进条条小 道之中, 终形成纵横贯通的叙事网络。非严肃的与游戏的精神表达了作者深刻的人生态度, 在作品《谁都笑不出来》中他通过人物之口娓娓道出,“我宣称,人生的意义恰恰在于游戏人 the narrative art..... (ma feng) 97 生,假如人生过于懒惰地对待这一切,就必须在轻轻地给它一个小小的推动力。人应该不断地 骑上新的种种历险的马背,无畏地驰骋在奇遇的疆场,不然的话,它就会像一个疲惫的步兵, 在滚滚的尘埃中拖着沉重的脚步。当克拉拉回答我说,她不想骑上任何历险的马背,我便向她 担保,她将永远不会撞上扎图莱茨基先生,也不会遇到他的妻子,我自己选择的冒险驰骋,不 用依靠任何人的帮助就可以驾驭([捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先、郭昌京译,2004: 15)。” 无意与社会身份相竞争的人物,透过托马斯的洒脱自由、任性而为的生活观与淡泊名 利、与世无争的价值观就会有深切体会。昆德拉所推崇的创作美学,也是他不断努力追求的。 通过对照,对昆德拉作品的理解会有很大帮助,同时也使本文的叙事研究有了更多的说服力。 昆德拉通过独特的叙事诠释了小说的艺术,我们在叙事的丛林中漫步,不断获得美感享受。 其作品的沉思之美,其创作美学的精巧讲究,都通过其独特的叙事完美展现。本文通过叙述者 与读者两方面的分析,体现出“干预”所带来的非凡效果。叙述者干预,让我们体会到随笔式 的思考与离题的神聊的别具匠心。读者干预, 终让我们在“道路小说”的丛林中不断摸索前 行。昆德拉作为一位思考人类存在的沉思者,他通过创作传达了沉思者的独特叙事艺术。对其 作品“干预”效力所进行的叙述者与读者的研究,使其叙事艺术中独特的沉思魅力得以展现, 这是对叙事分析理论的丰富,也是对作品鉴赏的深入拓展。 参考文献 [法]贝尔特朗·维贝尔著,秦燕译:《米兰·昆德拉:沉思中的虚构》,当代外国文学, 2006 年 [荷]米克·巴尔著,谭君强译:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》(第二版),中国社会科学出版 社 2003 年 [加拿大]弗朗索瓦·里卡尔著,袁筱一译:《阿涅丝的 后一个下午》,上海译文出版, 2005 年 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,蔡若明译:《玩笑》,上海译文出版社:2003 年 [捷克]米兰· 昆德拉著,余中先,郭昌京译:《好笑的爱》,上海译文出版社,2004 年 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译:《告别圆舞曲》,上海译文出版社,2004 年 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,袁筱一译:《生活在别处》,上海译文出版社, 2004 年 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,王东亮译:《笑忘录》,上海译文出版社,2004 年 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祖国颂著:《叙事的诗学》,安徽大学出版社,2003 年 sampul_vol.5 no.2.fh10 �������� �� �� ����������������������� �������� � ����� �� �������������������� �!�"��� �� � ����� �� ����������� �� ��� � ���� �� ����� ��������� ���������� ��� ���������� ����������#������������ �!�$%�� &�'��&%����(�������)%���# ����� �!*� *#%� ���+�� �!�$%�� ������������� +��,��-�(����.������������+(�� ������#������!���%#%� �!�$%�� ������� ����������� �!���� &�����%'���� ���+�� ����� �!���� *��/���0(�'�'�( ��� �-* 1���!���)% �-* �!*� 2(����-�� �-* �!*� $%���3���)%� �+(��� � �'��4(��'����� �-*� 5%���6���(�,���1%�/%���75%���6��8��9(��'���%9������.�����'��/:� �4(��� ���������������� ������� �������������������� �!�"��� +��'�����*'���;���#� ����� �%������<���� ����� $� � *�����<������'/�( �� ��������� $��/�$��)����!% )� ���0��� ����������� ��� �%�9������+%� �#�'��� ���(�-��������'��� &�'���9(�=,,�9� .�����'���'�-�����%'������ 0��>%'�*�����# 3 ��0�����3��%#�&�/��������0�����3��%# 3�#�����-��������?� 8� >����� �?��@@��7�6����� �:�<�6����� 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0��/��0��������h�'%���������8��)���(���/��$���� ����4 �� �(�*)�>�&�'��� ����� ������������ ��������������5���6������ � ��������� ������1�&�#����3�� ����2� "�����3 !�� �����������������������$���� ����4 �# ��4���7�������������������������������������������������� � � @ �)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� � ��� ������� ������ ������������ microsoft word 01_masda s.s._ambiguous.doc how ambiguous is the structural … (masda surti simatupang) 99 how ambiguous is the structural ambiguity masda surti simatupang jurusan bahasa inggris, fakultas sastra, universitas kristen indonesia, jakarta surtisimatupang@yahoo.com abstract a word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning. the ambiguity, however, can be noticed if one really has a linguistic knowledge on how to analyze the phrase or sentence. of the two kinds of ambiguity, lexical and structural, the latter is the one which is explored further in this paper. structural ambiguity occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure. the phrase can be disambiguated by putting it in a sentence with some sort of formal signals which help the reader or hearer to recognize the sentence structure. some of the signals include function words, inflections, affixes, stress, juncture, and punctuation. the rest of this paper discusses some types of structural ambiguity, how they differ, and some possible ways to resolve them. keywords: structural ambiguity, phrases, sentences abstrak suatu kata, frasa, atau kalimat akan menjadi ambigu bila mempunyai lebih dari satu arti. keambiguan dapat terlihat jika kita mempunyai pengetahuan linguistik yang cukup. dari dua jenis ambigu, yaitu leksikal dan struktural, jenis ambigu yang dijabarkan dalam artikel adalah ambigu stuktural. ambigu struktural terjadi jika suatu frasa atau kalimat mempunyai lebih dari satu pengertian, frasa atau kalimat ambigu dapat dijadikan tidak ambigu dengan menambahkan tanda khusus, misalnya imbuhan, stress, atau tanda baca yang membantu pembaca atau pendengar untuk memahami wacana atau percakapan lebih baik. artikel membahas beberapa tipe ambigu struktural, bagaimana perbedaannya, dan cara menjadikannya tidak ambigu. kata kunci: ambigu struktural, frasa, kalimat jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 99-104 100 introduction there are some ways of classifying ambiguity. hurford and hesley (1983:128) group ambiguity into two, lexical and structural ambiguity, and kess (1992:133), categorizes ambiguity into three levels: lexical ambiguity, surface structure ambiguity and deep or underlying structure ambiguity. cruse (1986:66), on the other hand, distinguishes four types of ambiguity: pure syntactic ambiguity, quasi-syntactic ambiguity, lexico-syntactic ambiguity, and pure lexical ambiguity. from those classifications, it can be simplified into two categories: lexical and structural ambiguity. ambiguity, either lexical or structural, refers to having two or more possible meanings. in other words, when a sentence has more than one reading, it is called ambiguous. lexical ambiguity, the one resulting from the ambiguity of a word, is the more common one. see the following example: they went to the bank. the word ‘bank’ in the sentence has two possible meanings; the edge of a river, or a financial institution. from the sentence itself, it is difficult to get the meaning of ‘bank’. it needs a context to clear up the message conveyed. in other word, the sentence is ambiguous due to lacking of information. it can be disambiguated by providing additional information as in, ‘they went to the bank to save some money’. the other type, structural ambiguity, occurs when the meaning of the component words can be combined in more than one way (o’grady et al. 1997), for example: nicole saw the people with binoculars. the sentence can be grasped in two ways. one interpretation is that nicole used binoculars to see the people. in this sense, binoculars modify nicole (nicole with binoculars). the other meaning, the people had binoculars when nicole saw them. it means that ‘binoculars’ modifies the people (people with binoculars). a sentence can be ambiguous because of many reasons, some of which are multiple meaning, lack of information, and, incompleteness (owen and sweeney in visser 2004:1). to make the ambiguous sentences unambiguous and grammatical, it is necessary to have some sort of formal signals which help the reader or hearer to recognize the sentence structure (taha, 1983). some of the signals include function words, inflections, affixes, stress, juncture (or word division and punctuation in writing), and major class membership. those elements will be used as the basis of the discussion of ambiguous construction below. those formal signals are absolutely important to understand and analyze ambiguity. here are some ambiguous sentences, which are included in the discussion of this paper: the girl hit the boy with a book; visiting relatives can be boring; i know more beautiful girls than susanne; put the bottle on the table in the dining room; the teacher thanked the students who had given her some flowers. in each case, the explanations include the types of structural forms, the reasons of ambiguity, and some possible ways to resolve them. discussion types of structural ambiguity from many types of structural ambiguity, the ones that are explored in this paper only include: type 1 : vp + np + pp type 2 : gerund + vp how ambiguous is the structural … (masda surti simatupang) 101 type 3 : vp + np + more…than + np type 4 : vp + np + pp1 + pp2 type 5 : np + adj. clause type 1: vp + np + pp (prepositional phrase) the girl hit the boy with a book vp np pp the sentence may mean ‘the girl hit the boy using a book’ or ‘the boy is holding a book when the girl hit him. this type of ambiguity occurs since the prepositional phrase ‘with a book’ can modify two nouns ‘the girl or the boy’, either of which can be treated as its antecedent. in the sentence there is no clue to which noun the pp modifies. in other words, ‘with a book’ can modify the boy or the girl. this type of structural ambiguity results from the lack of information in the construction. if additional information is added to it, the sentence becomes unambiguous: • the girl hit the boy with a book. the book is broken. • the girl hit the boy with a book. the boy hurts. in ‘a’, ‘with a book’ refers to ‘the girl’; and in ‘b’, to ‘the boy’. other examples of the same sort (a prepositional phrase that can modify two noun phrases) are: • he hurt his sister with a knife: using a knife, he hurt his sister. his sister was holding a knife when he hurt her. • brian harms jenny with a hammer: using a hammer, brian harms jenny. jenny is holding a hammer when brian harms her. type 2: gerund + vp visiting relatives can be boring. gerund vp the second type of ambiguity has the construction a gerund followed by a verb. the example sentence is ambiguous because ‘visiting relatives’ can be understood in two ways: as a compound noun and as a noun phrase consisting of a modifier plus a noun. in writing, it is hard to eliminate the ambiguity, but in speaking, it can be cleared up by using intonation pattern. when it is pronounces with / 2 – 3 1 ↑ / pattern, the utterance indicates a compound noun, which means ‘the action of visiting relatives’. however, when it is pronounced with / 3 2 – 1 ↑ / pattern, the utterance implies a noun phrase, which means ‘relatives who visit’. below are other examples which also indicate ambiguity of a compound noun and a noun phrase. • flying object: an object to fly an object that flies • moving car: a car for moving a car that moves type 3: vp + np + more … than + np jerry loves the fans more than sally. vp np np jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 99-104 102 this third type of ambiguity concerns comparative degree. it is ambiguous because the shortened version may function as the subject of the second (shortened) clause or as the object of the verb ‘love’ which is in comparative relation with ‘the fans’. the rule is if the comparative clause is identical to the main clause except for a contrasted phrase, optionally remove everything from the comparative clause except for this contrasted phrase (baker 1989:347). in other words, when one makes a sentence using comparative degree, he/she will use the sentence, for instance, ‘tom hates martha more than susanne’, rather than ‘tom hates martha more than he hates susanne’ to avoid repetition of similar words. from the example of type 3 above, because of the removal of similar words, the sentence has two meanings. • jerry loves the fans more than sally loves the fans. • jerry loves the fans more than he loves sally. to make it unambiguous, the shortened version should be added some missing information. the shortened version of ‘jerry loves the fans more than sally loves the fans’ should be ‘jerry loves the fans more than sally does’. if we mean ‘jerry loves the fans more than he loves sally', the sentence cannot be shortened. the followings are other examples of ambiguity of comparative clauses: • john listens to rock music more often than his father: john listens to rock music more often than his father listens to rock music. john listens to rock music more often than he listens to his father. • james loves helen more than joe” james loves helen more than joe loves helen. james loves helen more than james loves joe. type 4: vp + np + pp1 + pp2 put the bottle on the table in the kitchen. vp np pp1 pp2 the sentence above is ambiguous since the first modifier ‘on the table’ can modify the closest np or pp2. it is not clear whether ‘on the table’ modifies ‘the bottle’ or ‘in the kitchen’. if it modifies ‘the bottle’, it means that the bottle is already on the table and should be put in the kitchen. on the other hand, if it modifies ‘in the kitchen’, it means that the bottle should be put from somewhere else to the table which is in the kitchen. the ambiguity can be resolved by placing a terminal juncture between the first and the second modifier. thus, the sentence may mean ‘put the bottle on the table / in the kitchen’. the juncture shows that the bottle is already on the table and then to be put in the kitchen. the second interpretation, is ‘put the bottle / on the table in the kitchen’. it means that the bottle should be put on the table, and the location of the table is in the kitchen (not the table in the bedroom). the followings are other examples of ambiguity with two modifiers. • place the box in the drawer in the bed room: to place the box inside the drawer, which is located in the bedroom. the box is already in the drawer and should be placed in the bedroom. • put the radio on the box in that room: to put the radio on the box, which is located in that room. the radio is already on the box, and it should be put in that room. how ambiguous is the structural … (masda surti simatupang) 103 type 5: np + adj. clause the teacher thanked the students who had given her some flowers. np adj. clause this fifth sentence can be ambiguous because it can be written in two versions with absolutely different meaning: • the teacher thanked the students who had given her some flowers. • the teacher thanked the students, who had given her some flowers. in spoken language, the first sentence is uttered without juncture, while the second with juncture between the antecedent (np) and the adjective clause. the interpretation of the first sentence, the adjective clause ‘who had given her some flower’ restrict np ‘the student’ to give important information ‘which students’ the teacher thanked. it implies that the teacher thanked only some students who had given her some flowers (not those who didn’t give her flowers). the adjective clause in the second sentence does not restrict the antecedent ‘the student’, thus, it gives further information which is not needed to identify the person, (sinclair 1990:363). it means that the teacher thanked all of the students (and all of them gave her flowers). this shows the importance of proper punctuation in writing, and juncture in spoken utterance. for indonesian learners, however, the different meaning of restricted and non restricted adjective clauses is still a problem unless their linguistic knowledge is adequate. here are some other examples. • tom got into the car which was parked behind the house. there are many cars parked behind the house. • tom got into the car, which was parked behind the house. there is only one car parked behind the house. • in indonesian idol contest, joy waved her hands to her fans who shouted at her. joy waved her hands only to some of her fans. • in indonesian idol contest, joy waved her hands to her fans, who shouted at her. joy waved her hand to all of her fans. conclusion we sometimes do not know if a sentence has a clear message or ambiguity. whether or not we recognize the ambiguity depend on our linguistic knowledge. for english learners, however, it is still not easy to know if a sentence is ambiguous or not. having adequate proficiency of english, we are aware of the ambiguity, and try to avoid them, if possible. in writing, for example, we need to use some formal signals (e.g. punctuation) to avoid ambiguous sentences. the five types of ambiguity presented in this paper are only some examples of some types of structural ambiguity. because of limited time and effort, there are still many other types which are not explored in this paper. nevertheless, hopefully it will give some contribution for the study of english. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 99-104 104 references baker, c. l. 1989. english syntax. cambridge: the mit press. cruse, d.a. 1986. lexical semantics. cambridge: cambridge university press. gee, nancy r. 1997. “implicit memory and work ambiguity,” journal of memory and language. 36, 253–275. hurford, james r. 1983. semantisc: a coursebook. cambridge: cambridge university press. kess, joseph f. 1992. psycholinguistics: psychology, linguistics and the study of natural language. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. o’grady, william, michael dobrovolsky, and mark aronof. 1997. contemporary linguistics: an introduction. 3rd edition. new york: st. martin’s press. sinclair, john (ed.). 1990. collins cobuild: english grammar. london: harper collins publishers. taha, abdul karim. 1983. “types of syntactic ambiguity in english,” iral vol. xxi/4. 251–266. trueswell, john c., michael k. tanenhaus, and susan m. garnsey. 1994. “semantic influences on parsing: use of thematic role information in syntactic ambiguity resolution,” journal of memory and language. 33, 285–318. sampul lingua.fh10 �������� �� �� ����������������������� �������� � ����� �� ����������������������� !� �� � ����� �� �������� ������� ���������������� ���������������� � ���������� ��� ���� ��� �������� ������� 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(frieska sekar nadya) 175  penggunaan jodoushi 「~たい」 dan keiyoushi 「ほしい」dalam kalimat pada komik doraemon seri 25-35 frieska sekar nadya japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 fnadya@binus.edu abstract every language in many countries has its own uniqueness to express wish. in indonesian, the word “ingin” means want to, or wish to. but in japanese, there are two classes of word, both have meaning of want or wish. they are jodoushi「~たい」and keiyoushi「ほしい」. these two classes of word usually people find when learning japanese, especially when reading japanese comics for children. therefore, in order to be able to differ the use of those two classes of word and the use of their sentences pattern, as well as the analysis, this research uses doraemon vol.25-35. as for analyzing all the data, the use of theories from tomita takayuki, seichi makino and michio tsutsui, naomi hanaoka mcgloin, and also fumiko koide will suit them respectively. keywords: jodoushi, keiyoushi, manga, japanese comic abstrak setiap bahasa di berbagai negara memiliki keunikan sendiri dalam menyatakan keinginan. dalam bahasa indonesia, kata “ingin” mempunyai makna hendak, mau atau berhasrat. tetapi dalam bahasa jepang ada dua kelas kata yang sama-sama bermakna “ingin”, yaitu jodoushi「~たい」dan keiyoushi「ほしい」. kedua kelas kata ini sering ditemukan pada saat belajar bahasa jepang, terutama ketika membaca komik jepang untuk anak-anak. oleh karena itu, untuk membedakan penggunaan kedua kelas kata tersebut, serta pemakaian pola kalimat dan analisisya, dalam penelitian ini digunakan komik doraemon seri 25-35. sedangkan untuk menganalisis data digunakan teori dari tomita takayuki, seiichi makino dan michio tsutsui, naomi hanaoka mcgloin, serta fumiko koide. kata kunci: jodoushi, keiyoushi, manga, komik jepang 176 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 175-182  pendahuluan dalam setiap bahasa di berbagai negara memiliki keunikannya sendiri dalam menyatakan keinginan. hal ini disebabkan bahasa merupakan suatu sistem lambang bunyi yang arbirter, yang dipergunakan oleh setiap personel dalam negara tersebut. bahasa digunakan untuk bekerja sama, berkomunikasi dan mengidentifikasikan diri dalam menyampaikan suatu ide, pikiran, hasrat dan keinginan kepada orang lain. dalam bahasa indonesia, kata “ingin” mempunyai makna hendak, mau atau berhasrat. sebagai contoh, “saya ingin makan sushi”, maka mempunyai makna bahwa pembicara hendak atau mau makan sushi. akan tetapi dalam bahasa jepang ada dua kelas kata yang sama-sama bermakna “ingin”, yaitu jodoushi「~たい」dan keiyoushi「ほしい」. kedua kelas kata ini sering ditemukan pada saat belajar bahasa jepang, terutama ketika membaca komik jepang untuk anak-anak. oleh karena itu, permasalahan pada penelitian ini adalah bagaimana membedakan penggunaan jodoushi「~たい」dan keiyoushi「ほしい」. kesukaran membedakan penggunaan kedua kata ini akan dirasakan bagi pembelajar bahasa jepang, terutama untuk kelas pemula. sedangkan tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memahami penggunaan jodoushi「~たい」dan keiyoushi「ほしい」di dalam kalimat. selain itu, untuk mencari karakteristik tertentu yang dapat membedakan penggunaan kedua kata tersebut. sehingga sebagai hasil akhir, pemakaian pola kalimat jodoushi「~たい」dan keiyoushi「ほしい」dapat digunakan secara baik dan benar. pola kalimat yang akan dikaji dalam penelitian ini, yaitu pola kalimat yang terdapat dalam komik doraemon seri 25-35. adapun alasan pemilihan komik doraemon sebagai sumber data, karena bahasa yang digunakan dalam komik ini adalah bahasa sehari-hari orang jepang. hasil dan pembahasan pada bahasa jepang terdapat pembagian jenis kata atau yang dalam bahasa jepang disebut disebut sebagai nihongo no hinshi (日本語の品詞)menurut takayuki dalam 文法の基礎知識とそ の教え方, (takayuki, 1991:2) terdapat 10 kelas kata, yaitu (1) meishi, 名詞, atau nomina (kata benda); (2) doushi, 動詞, atau verba (kata kerja); (3) keiyoushi, 形容詞, atau adjektiva 1 (kata sifat yang berakhiran dengan huruf “i”), yang disebut juga sebagai イ 形 容 詞 “i-keiyoushi”; (4) keiyoudoushi, 形容動詞, atau adjektiva 2 (kata sifat yang berakhiran dengan huruf “na” ketika disambung dengan nomina), yang disebut juga sebagai ナ形容詞 “na-keiyoushi”; (5) fukushi, 副詞, atau adverbia yang berfungsi untuk menerangkan verba dan adjektiva; (6) rentaishi, 連体詞, atau atributif (kata-kata yang diletakkan di depan nomina sebagai penunjuk nomina yang terletak di belakangnya); (7) setsuzokushi, 接続詞, atau konjungsi yang berfungsi sebagai penyambung kalimat dengan kalimat atau dengan bagian kalimat; (8) kandoushi, 感動詞, atau interjeksi; (9) joshi, 助詞, atau partikel; dan (10) jodoushi, 助動詞, atau verba bantu. kemudian, dari 10 kelas kata ini dapat dikelompokkan menjadi 2 golongan besar, yaitu jiritsugo dan fuzokugo. jiritsugo, 自立語, adalah kata yang bisa berdiri sendiri, sedangkan fuzokugo, 付属語 , adalah kata yang tidak bisa berdiri sendiri. jodoushi merupakan salah satu fuzokugo, sementara keiyoushi merupakan salah satu bentuk jiritsugo. jodoushi menurut tomita takayuki (1991: 29), jodoushi adalah kata yang umumnya menempel pada verba (menempel pada adjektiva dan nomina juga) yang membantu verba tersebut. dengan kata lain,     penggunaan jodoushi ….. (frieska sekar nadya) 177  jodoushi merupakan kata yang memiliki perubahan seperti verba, yang membantu kata lainnya untuk berkonjugasi, ada 18 kata yang termasuk di dalam jodoushi, yang terbagi-bagi menjadi 5 tipe menurut pemakaiannya, yaitu (1) doushi gata katsuyou no jodoushi, 動詞型活用の助動詞, suatu verba bantu yang perubahannya bertipe verba. contoh: れる(reru), られる(rareru), せる(seru), させる(saseru); (2) keiyoushi i kata katsuyou no jodoushi, 形容詞 i 型活用の助動詞, suatu verba bantu yang perubahannya bertipe adjektiva 1. contoh: ない(nai), たい(tai), らしい(rashii); (3) keiyoushi ii kata katsuyou no jodoushi, 形容詞 ii 型活用の助動詞, suatu verba bantu yang perubahannya bertipe adjektiva 2. contoh: だ(da), そうだ(souda), ようだ(youda); (4) tokubetsu katsuyou no jodoushi, 特 別活用の助動詞, suatu verba bantu yang perubahannya spesifik. contoh: です(desu), ます(masu), た (ta), ぬ(nu), ん(rashii); dan (5) mukatsuyou no jodoushi, 無活用の助動詞, suatu verba bantu yang tidak mengalami konjugasi. contoh: う(u), よう(you), まい(mai). takayuki (1991:45) juga mengungkapkan bahwa jodoushi mempunyai arti ketika digunakan pada saat menunjukkan keinginan diri pribadi si pembicara. strukturnya menempel pada bentuk “masu” dari verba atau verba bantu yang perubahannya bertipe verba, yang disebut 連用形 (renyoukei). makino dan tsutsui juga menyatakan hal yang sama, bahwa jodoushi「~たい」merupakan verba bantu yang bertipe adjektiva i (keiyoushi i kata katsuyou no jodoushi), yang menunjukkan keinginan seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu. sementara penggunaannya dipakai pada orang pertama dan orang kedua. sedangkan untuk orang ketiga, digunakan jodoushi「~たがっている」 (makino dan tsutsui, 2001: 443). tabel 1 pemakaian jodoushi untuk orang pertama, kedua, dan ketiga seri halaman jodoushi i/ii/iii arti 25 31 ぜひ友だちになってもらいたいんだ よ。 orang i tentu saya ingin berteman, lho. 63 もう、しにたくなった。 orang i saya sudah ingin meninggal. 120 この巣がどこにあるのかしりたい な。 orang i sarang ini ada di mana saya ingin tahu. 126 アリの国を見たい?どうぞどうぞ。 orang ii kamu ingin melihat negeri semut? silahkan. silahkan. 148 できれば、カメを助ける場面からと りたいね。 orang i kalau bisa saya ingin mengambil dari babak saat menolong kura-kura. 153 お礼をしたいので、いっしょにおい でください。 orang i oleh karena ingin berterima kasih, saya harap bersama-sama masuk ke dalam. 160 姫によけいなご心を心配をかけたく ない。 orang i saya tidak ingin membuat tuan putri kuatir lebih banyak lagi. 26 36 ユニコーンにのりたいなんて、いう んだよ。 orang iii katanya ia ingin naik unicorn, lho. 73 お城の舞踏会に行きたいのね。 orang ii kamu ingin pergi ke pesta dansa di benteng, ya. 88 なに?もう一度勝負したいって? orang ii apa? katanya kamu ingin bertanding sekali lagi? 131 帰りたいのだがおやじとけんかして でてきたら...。 orang i saya ingin pulang, tetapi saya keluar setelah bertengkar dengan orang tua sehingga... 138 一日二十キロ進みたいな。 orang i saya ingin bertambah 20 kilo sehari. 145 ほんとにもっとたべたい。 orang i sebenarnya saya ingin makan lebih banyak 145 なんでもいいから、たべたい。 orang i apapun boleh, saya ingin makan.     178 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 175-182  tabel 1 pemakaian jodoushi untuk orang pertama, kedua, dan ketiga (lanjutan) seri halaman jodoushi i/ii/iii arti 27 39 しずちゃんが遊びにこいっていうん だ。いきたいんだ。 orang i katanya shizu datanglah bermain. saya ingin pergi. 40 宿題をしたい、しずちゃんとも遊び たい。 orang ii kamu ingin mengerjakan pr, tetapi ingin bermain bersama shizu juga. 40 宿題したい気持ちが弱かったな。 orang ii keinginan mengerjakan prmu kurang, ya 55 ぼくもいきたいな。 orang i saya pun ingin pergi, ya. 70 まてまて。どんな映画をみるかたし かめたい。 orang i tunggu. saya ingin periksa film seperti apa yang akan dilihat, ya. 105 みんなは、いまどんな仕事をしたい と思う? orang ii kalian semua, nanti ingin bekerja seperti apa? 105 ほんとはデザイナーになりたいんだ けど...、たぶんパパの会社をつ いで社長になるでしょう。 orang i walaupun sebenarnya saya ingin menjadi desainer, tetapi mungkin akan menjadi kepala perusahaan milik papa. 28 29 したくない。 orang i saya tidak ingin melakukannya. 63 誕生日のプレゼントなんだよ、あっ とおどろかせたいんだ。 orang i ini hadiah ulang tahun, padahal saya ingin memberi kejutan. 93 どうしても優勝したいんだよ orang i biar bagaimanapun saya ingin menang. 135 あのう、トイレにいきたいんだけ ど。 orang i maaf, saya ingin pergi ke toilet 135 ほんとのいいきたいんだよォ。 orang i saya benar-benar ingin pergi, lho. 29 33 誰が、ロボットはだかなんかみたが るか!! orang iii siapa yang ingin melihat robot telanjang. 67 友だちになりたい!? orang ii kamu ingin menjadi teman? 105 ボートで沖へでたい。 orang i dengan sampan, saya ingin keluar ke lautan terbuka 30 23 うらやましくなって沖づりにいきた いというんだろう。 orang iii saya jadi iri karena katanya mereka mungkin ingin pergi memancing ke tepi laut, kan. 121 しずちゃんとこへいきたい。 orang i saya ingin pergi ke tempat shizu. 31 83 いきたくない。 orang i saya tidak ingin pergi. 116 犬をよんでなかよしになりたい。 orang i saya akan memanggil anjing dan ingin menjadi teman dekatnya 190 いきたくない。 orang i saya tidak ingin pergi. 190 ぼくだっていきたくないよ。 orang i saya juga tidak ingin pergi, lho. 32 26 バケツをつりたい。 orang i saya ingin memancing ember 28 きのう落としたボールペンをつりた いんだけど。 orang i saya ingin memancing pena yang terjatuh kemarin 30 去年落とした十円玉をつりたい。 orang i saya ingin memancing uang koin 10 yen yang terjatuh tahun lalu. 43 食事したいんだけど orang i saya ingin makan 115 もっと絵本の中で遊びたい。 orang i saya ingin bermain di dalam buku bergambar lagi. 138 おれの作詞作曲だ。ききたいか。 orang ii ini lirik dan musik buatanku. kamu ingin dengar? 138 ききたい!ききたい!久し振りだな あ。 orang i saya ingin dengar! ingin dengar! sudah lama, ya. 138 聞きたい!聞きたい。どうせきかせ るなら、いやなことは早くすませた い。 orang i saya ingin dengar! ingin dengar. lagipula, kalau diperdengarkan hal yang tidak kusukai ingin cepat selesai 161 この才能を世の中のために役立てた いと思ってね。 orang i kupikir, kemampuan ini ingin dapat berguna untuk kehidupan. 161 ぼくもやりたい。 orang i saya ingin melakukannya juga.         penggunaan jodoushi ….. (frieska sekar nadya) 179  tabel 1 pemakaian jodoushi untuk orang pertama, kedua, dan ketiga (lanjutan) seri halaman jodoushi i/ii/iii arti 33 21 そこでだ、おれとしてはなんとかフ アンのあついせいえんに答えたい。 なにかお返しをしたい! orang i di sanalah, biar bagaimanapun saya ingin membalas dukungan yang membara dari penggemar. saya ingin dapat mengembalikan sesuatu! 21 これまでみたいなチャチなやつじゃ なく本式のコンサートにしたい。 orang i saya ingin mengadakan konser umum yang tidak membosankan teman-teman seperti sebelumnya 37 そんなもの、べつにすべりたくない よ。 orang i benda itu, sebenarnya tidak ingin meluncur, lho. 37 ほんとはのりたいんだね。 orang ii sebenarnya kamu ingin naik, ya. 69 いきたいんだけど、どこへもでられ ないの。 orang i walaupun saya ingin pergi, tetapi tidak boleh keluar ke mana pun. 91 しずちゃんがよみたいっていうの。 返してよ。 orang iii shizu katanya ingin baca. ayo, kembalikan. 98 しばらくかりとくよ。もっといろい ろ使いたい。 orang i pinjam sebentar lagi, ya. saya ingin memakai lebih lama lagi. 34 36 もう一度あいたいわ。 orang i saya ingin bertemu sekali lagi, ah. 119 えっ、あした東京へでてくるの?あ いたいわあ...。 orang i eh, besok kamu akan datang ke tokyo? saya ingin bertemu lho. 35 48 なにっ、「あばれちゃん」の新刊が でたの。見たい。見たい。 orang i apa, buku terbaru “abare chan” sudah keluar? saya ingin lihat. ingin lihat. 51 よみたいまんががたくさんあるの。 orang i komik yang saya ingin baca ada banyak, lho 57 みたくない。 orang i saya tidak ingin lihat. 57 ぼく、みたいもんね。 orang i saya, ingin lihat juga ya. 150 きみの顔なんか二度とみたくない! orang i saya tidak ingin lihat wajahmu lagi! keiyoushi sementara keiyoushi menurut takayuki (1991:19) merupakan kata yang menempel pada nomina dan menyatakan keadaan nomina tersebut, atau menunjukkan perasaan pembicaranya. hal ini berlaku pula untuk keiyoudoushi atau na-keiyoushi. keiyoushi「ほしい」termasuk ke dalam bentuk kata sifat atau adjektiva dengan tipe “i” yang menunjukkan keinginan seseorang pada beberapa objek, seperti yang diungkapkan makino dan tsutsui. oleh karena 「 ほ し い 」 menunjukkan sebuah perasaan yang bersifat sangat pribadi, maka biasanya merupakan kalimat pernyataan dari orang pertama dan kalimat pertanyaan bagi orang kedua. kalimatnya menggunakan konstruksi “wa-ga”, subjek ditandai dengan partikel は “wa” dan objek yang diinginkan ditandai dengan partikel が “ga”. sedangkan keinginan orang ketiga umumnya dinyatakan dengan 「ほしがっている」, dengan catatan ketika digunakan objek yang diinginkan ditandai dengan partikel を“o”. (makino dan tsutsui, 2001:144-146) 180 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 175-182  tabel 2 pemakaian keiyoushi untuk orang pertama, kedua, dan ketiga seri halaman keiyoushi i/ii/iii arti 25 19 ほしいもの、なんでもかえる。 orang i barang yang kuinginkan, apapun berubah-ubah 19 あれもほしい。これもほしい。 orang i itu juga saya inginkan. ini juga ingin. 20 ようスネ夫、ほしいものないか? orang ii eh suneo, ada tidak barang yang kamu inginkan? 27 ほしいものを心に思うだけで、てき とうな道具がでてくるんだ。 orang i saya hanya memikirkan barang yang diinginkan dalam hati, alat yang tepat akan keluar. 30 なにか、ほしいもの、したいことな い? orang ii apa tidak ada barang yang kamu inginkan, hal yang ingin dilakukan? 31 きみたちもほしいだろうけど、ま、 みるだけでがまんしな。 orang ii walau kalian sepertinya ingin, ya, bersabarlah hanya dengan melihat saja. 26 13 ほしいもの、なんでも? orang i barang yang kuinginkan, apapun? 14 ほしいぞ。 orang i ingin. 27 11 のびのびと歌えるへやがほしい。 orang i saya ingin kamar untuk bernyanyi dan bersantai. 142 もっといい友だちがほしいよ。 orang i saya ingin teman yang lebih baik lho. 172 力がほしいなあ...。 orang i saya ingin punya kekuatan.... 186 おれ、ほしいものがいっぱいあるん だ。 orang i saya ada banyak barang yang diinginkan. 28 31 ほしいものがあったら、なんでもい いなよ。 orang ii kalau kamu ada barang yang diinginkan, katakan saja lho. 66 きみがいちばんほしいものはなに? orang ii barang apa yang kamu paling inginkan? 66 二番めにほしいものは? orang ii barang apa yang nomor 2 kamu inginkan? 146 おれさ、まんがを十さつほしいん だ!! orang i kalau saya ingin komik 10 jilid!! 183 あたしもこんなのほしい。 orang i saya juga ingin yang seperti ini. 29 80 この本ほしかったんだ。 orang i saya ingin buku ini sejak dulu. 30 15 ほしい!! orang i ingin!! 70 バケツにいっぱいほしいんだけど。 orang i sebenarnya saya ingin seember penuh. 32 131 「ほしい人探知機」 orang i “alat pencari orang yang ingin” 131 車をほしがってる人みつけてくれる よ。 orang iii ayo carikan orang yang ingin mobil. 132 車?ほしいとも!! orang i mobil? tentu saya ingin. 132 ほしいけど買えない orang i walaupun saya ingin, tapi tidak bisa beli. 133 ものすごくほしがってる人がいる ぞ。 orang iii orang yang sangat ingin mobil ada lho. 133 わしが車をほしがってるって、よく わかったね。 orang iii katamu saya ingin mobil, benar-benar mengerti ya. 134 そうだ!ネコをほしがってる人をさ がせない? orang iii o ya! tidak bisakah cari orang yang ingin kucing? 134 ネコかい、ほしいねえ。 orang i kucing ya, saya ingin. 134 買えないものはほしがらないでくだ さい。 orang iii tolong jangan inginkan barang yang tidak bisa dibeli. 33 6 わたしはほしいわ。 orang i saya ingin. 6 ぼくだってほんとはほしい。 orang i saya pun sebenarnya ingin.         penggunaan jodoushi ….. (frieska sekar nadya) 181  tabel 2 pemakaian keiyoushi untuk orang pertama, kedua, dan ketiga seri halaman keiyoushi i/ii/iii arti 34 21 ストーブがほしい。 orang i saya ingin pemanas. 160 このあたりに...、きれいな泉で もほしいね。 orang i di sekitar sini..., saya ingin mata air yang indah, ya. 35 51 ほしいものなんでも卵になるの? orang i apapun barang yang kuinginkan akan menjadi telurkah? 53 あれほしい。 orang i saya ingin yang itu. 70 ほしいものなんでも買えるぞ。 orang i apapun barang yang kuinginkan akan dibeli, lho. 163 いいなあ、ぼくもほしい。 orang i bagus ya, saya pun ingin. simpulan fungsi jodoushi 「~たい」memiliki makna gramatikal karena tidak berdiri sendiri atau tidak mandiri. sedangkan keiyoushi 「ほしい」memiliki makna leksikal karena dapat berdiri sendiri. kedua-duanya sama-sama bermakna “ingin”. akan tetapi, jodoushi 「~たい」digunakan untuk menunjukkan keinginan seseorang untuk melakukan sesuatu (verba). selain itu, jodoushi 「~たい」 tidak dapat digunakan untuk menunjukkan sebuah ajakan. sedangkan keiyoushi 「 ほ し い 」 menunjukkan keinginan seseorang akan benda (nomina). baik jodoushi 「~たい」 maupun keiyoushi 「ほしい」dapat berkonjugasi dan dapat digunakan pada orang pertama atau orang kedua. untuk orang ketiga, jodoushi 「~たい」berubah menjadi 「~たがっている」atau「~たがる」. objek penderita pada jodoushi 「~たがっている」 tidak pernah dapat ditandai oleh partikel が(ga), akan tetapi harus ditandai dengan partikel を(o). sedangkan keiyoushi 「ほしい」untuk orang ketiga berubah menjadi 「ほしがっている」atau「ほ しがる」. objek yang diinginkan pada keiyoushi 「ほしがっている」ditandai oleh partikel を(o). hanya pada situasi pada waktu lampau, dalam kalimat tak langsung, dalam situasi menjelaskan, dan pada saat menunjukkan perkiraan atau dugaan, jodoushi 「~たい」maupun keiyoushi 「ほしい」 dapat digunakan oleh orang ketiga. pada beberapa situasi dalam jodoushi 「~たい」, apabila verba yang digunakan adalah kata kerja transitif (yang memerlukan objek), maka objek penderita dapat ditandai dengan partikel が(ga) atau dengan partikel を(o), yang penggunaannya tergantung pada tingkat keinginan. apabila keinginan untuk melakukan sesuatu sangatlah besar dan menunjukkan keinginan mendasar seseorang untuk memenuhi kebutuhan jiwa dan jasmani, digunakan partikel が(ga). jika keinginan untuk melakukan sesuatu itu kecil dan menunjukkan bahwa seseorang dapat mengendalikan keinginan tersebut, digunakan partikel を(o). selain itu, apabila di antara verba dan objek tidak terdapat apa-apa, dapat dipakai partikel が (ga), akan tetapi jika terdapat sesuatu di antaranya, dipakai partikel を (o). walaupun dalam tingkat keinginan yang tinggi partikel が(ga) tidak dapat dipakai pada saat terdapat unsur yang panjang di antara objek penderita dan verba, verba utama dalam bentuk pasif, dan nomina yang terdahulu bukan merupakan objek langsung. sementara pada saat menggunakan keiyoushi 「ほ しい」, subjek ditandai dengan partike は(wa) dan objek penderita ditandai dengan partikel が(ga). 182 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 175-182  daftar pustaka koide, f. (1985). easy japanese 2, tokyo: international christian university. makino, s., and tsutsui, m. (2001). a dictionary of basic japanese grammar, tokyo: the japan times, ltd. mcgloin, n.h. (1989). a student’s guide to japanese grammar, tokyo: taishukan. takayuki, t. (1991). 文法の基礎知識とその教え方 (bunpou no kisou chishiki to sono oshiekata), tokyo: bojinsha. paper kolita 12-13 mei (5 halaman 11pt, spasi tunggal) group presentation as one way of increasing students’ participation in the classroom clara herlina karjo english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 claraherlina@yahoo.com abstract teaching english (toefl) to a class of 50 students or more is a difficult task for a lecturer. some problems will occur, for example, the improbability for all students to get equal teacher’s attention and equal chance for learning and studying in class. to overcome these problems, the writer conducts a quasi-experimental research involving 100 students in her two classes in bina nusantara university. in this research, the writer applies the group presentation method for teaching toefl for one semester. the research shows that group scores are slightly higher than individual students’ scores. keywords: student participation, group presentation method, class room, grade, toefl abstrak mengajar toefl bahasa inggris dalam kelas besar yang terdiri dari lima puluh orang siswa bukanlah hal yang mudah. biasanya akan timbul masalah seperti, tidak meratanya perhatian pengajar juga kesempatan belajar bagi para siswa. mengatasi hal ini, penulis melakukan percobaan kecil yang melibatkan seratus orang siswa dari dua kelas yang diajarnya di universitas bina nusantara. penulis menggunakan metode belajar kelompok untuk mengajarkan toefl selama satu semester. berdasarkan penelitian terlihat menunjukkan nilai kelompok sedikit lebih tinggi dari pada nilai individu mahasiswa. kata kunci: partisipasi mahasiswa, metode pengajaran kelompok, kelas, nilai, toefl group presentation as one.... (clara herlina karjo) 139 introduction teaching large classes (with 45 to 100 students in one class) could be an overwhelming task for a teacher. it is even worse for a language class in which the subject (i.e. english) should not only be learnt but practiced. this situation is usually found in big universities which have a big number of students but lack of teachers or classrooms. for this research, i use my two classes which consist of 60 students each in bina nusantara university. the classrooms in this university are quite big with a capacity of 80 individual chairs for students. but since it is too overcrowded, it is often difficult for the teachers to move around among the chairs. the result is, they remain ‘tied’ to their traditional place at the front of the class. the classrooms are mainly teacher-fronted. in her study on secondary schools in pakistan, shamim (1996:124) gives three reasons for this, there are: 1. the teachers’ lack of awareness and/or feelings of insecurity in using other types of classroom organization. 2. the effect of culture, whereby the teacher is traditionally seen as an authority figure and is given proper respect for his or her age and superior knowledge. 3. the view of teaching/learning that is prevalent in the community where teaching is viewed as transmission of knowledge. the teacher-fronted or the teacher-centered lessons can give several advantages for the students. the distance from the teacher and the whiteboard to the students’ seat also assumes the status of a privilege learning area. the place that the students choose to sit will give rise to a different classroom dynamics. shamim (1996:129) approaches this under three terms: opportunity, attitude and aspiration. the students seated in the front row will have more opportunity for their work to be checked more easily by the teacher and they have to pay more attention because they are under the teacher’s eye. moreover, they are better able to hear the teachers and to see what the teachers write. teachers also expect more from students in the front rows. teachers usually ask more difficult question to the front row students with the assumption that they are more able to answer them. on the other hand, the students in the back row more often have the role of maintenance or discipline. the students who are already highly motivated choose to sit at the front so as the result their performance is better than that of students who are seated in the back and their level of motivation is higher. in bina nusantara university, english is given in three semesters, each consisting of two (2) credits. the textbooks that we are using are longman complete course for the toefl test and market leader. longman is a good course book for toefl test. it is divided into 4 sections: reading, listening, structure and writing. each section is further divided into several skills, each of which discusses a specific language chunk, followed by a set of exercises. for example in structure section, there are adjectives, noun, pronouns, etc. the problem is that both students and teachers use the same textbooks which have answer keys inserted. students, who have got the answers to the exercises do not feel necessary to listen to the teachers’ explanation. they will let the teachers speak to the front row students and keep busy by themselves, either talking or chatting with sms. the teachers, on the other hand, will only explain to those who want to hear. they are actually teaching to ten students in the front row rather than sixty students. in summary, there are three problems that need to be addressed, as follows: 1. learning should be student-centered not teacher-centered 2. all students must have an equal opportunity to learn in the classroom (not based on seating arrangement) 3. all students should actively participate in the teaching learning activity. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 139-146 140 literature review in recent times, the role of the lecturer has changed with the gradual swing from teachercentered instruction to a student-centered approach where individuals are more responsible for their own learning. the role of lecturer as a learning facilitator is vital as the learning situation becomes a highly participatory between learner and trainer. the facilitator becomes the learner’s partner in the learning process and provides a learning environment where the learner is able to achieve the specified learning outcomes in the most effective and helpful way. the facilitator will assist learners to become self directing in their learning and provide support and encouragement as needed. this change is in accordance with the notion of learner’s autonomy in language learning. benson (2001) says that learner autonomy is ‘the capacity to take control of one’s own language. it is not a method of learning but a learner’s approach to the learning process.’ according to field (2007) there are two goals for learner autonomy. 1. the first is to train learners to function better during their period of study. students, in this case, do not only act as a passive receiver but take an active part in teaching learning activity. secondly, to ensure that learners continued acquiring l2 after their period of study was over. students are expected to acquire the language not only in the classroom but also outside the classroom. in other word, the process of learning does not only exist in their period of study in school or university but also in the society. 2. field (2007) proposes a two-stage solution to the issue of how to ensure ongoing learning. the first stage is ensuring the learner’s ability to extract meaning from connected stretches of l2; the second is equipping them to find linguistic data in the language they encounter. one way to foster learner autonomy in the classroom is by group dynamics (tudor, 2002). this is particularly suitable for a big classroom. it is almost impossible to require an active participation of let say 60 students in a classroom. grouping students and giving them tasks is a better way to ensure that everyone has the equal opportunity to learn the language. one example of small-group multitasking has been done by baurain (2007) in dalat university in vietnam. he concludes that, “small group multitasking can be a valuable way of teaching in particular for a large, multilevel class. it engaged students as full partners in the learning process. it thus promoted student autonomy and facilitate a wide variety of learning styles and strategy.” the writer carries out an action research on this topic because according to benson (2001), “the best research on autonomy is often not research concerned with ‘grand theory’ but action research conducted by practicing teachers on the specific conditions of teaching and learning within which, they work and on the effects of changes to these conditions.” research methodology participants this research involves one hundred students (100) from two classes: 01 pag and 01 ptt. the students of pag class are majoring in computer accountancy and the students of ptt class are majoring in information technology. even though the number of students in each class is not the same, for certain reason and for the ease of calculation, i took 50 students from each class. group presentation as one.... (clara herlina karjo) 141 materials the materials for english i subject consist of reading and structure skills. there are 7 meetings for structure. the materials covered for this semester are: comparatives, problems with nouns, pronouns, articles, forms of verb, use of verb and adjectives. the textbook used for this subject is: longman complete course for the toefl test by deborah phillip. in this book, one problem is divided further into several skills. for example, problems with nouns consist of four skills: use the correct singular or plural noun, distinguish countable and uncountable nouns, recognize irregular plural of nouns, and distinguish the person from the thing. for each skill, there is a short explanation and an exercise consisting of 10 correct-incorrect questions. students assignments at the beginning of the semester, students are assigned to form a group of 5 persons which will lasts until the end of the semester. each of these groups is assigned to prepare a presentation of one structure skill of a particular topic. since each topic usually consists of 4 or 5 skills, for each week, 5 groups will give presentations. the presentations are done subsequently by every group, so the same group will have another opportunity to present other topic. for each skill, every group should prepare a power point presentation consisting of explanation of the particular grammar skill, answers and explanation of the exercises. then, they should present that particular skill in front of the class. classroom procedure for each meeting, the following procedures are done: 1. introduction the teacher begins the class session by giving the outline of the materials to be discussed for that day. 2. students’ presentation the assigned group gives their presentation and explanation of the materials. 3. class discussion after the presentation, the teacher reviews the materials, correcting ‘misguided’ explanations and invite other students to discuss the exercises with the whole class. this step is repeated after each group’s presentation. 4. evaluation after all groups have presented and all the materials are discussed, the teacher gives a test that cover all the materials given that day. the test is given to ensure that all students understand the materials. data collection and analysis for this research, the writer as the teacher collects data in the form of observation notes, group presentation scores and individual post test scores. the notes from observation are used to show the benefits and problems of using this method. on the other hand, group presentation scores and post test scores will be compared to find out whether the particular method gives a better result or not. the comparison will use a statistical method called independent sample t-test. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 139-146 142 discussion this part consists of three parts: the benefits, problems, and statistical results. the first and second parts are based on the teacher’s notes during the implementation of the method, while the third part discusses the findings based on the students’ scores. benefits assigning groups of students to present the materials in class showed obvious benefits for the students. students had a bigger responsibility for their learning process because they had to execute the learning activity by themselves. grouping students also provided an equal opportunity for individual student to learn the language. each of them could participate, either by doing the exercise, preparing the presentation material or explaining to other students. moreover, the opportunity to present the material in the classroom also boosted students’ self confidence and self pride. on the other hand, the other students who watched their friends presenting the material also showed positive reaction. they were fully involved by asking questions, protesting for the wrong answer or explanation and by giving applause after the presentation. in short, all students, either the presenters or the audiences, actively participate in the teaching learning activities. teachers also got some benefits from this method. first of all, this method had decreased the tension of preparing the materials since it was the students who had to do this. teachers only had to monitor students’ presentation, review the materials and make correction if necessary. in this way, teachers were able to better monitor students’ improvement in learning the language. problems encountered it was occasionally the case that materials or task could not be done within the time frame. there was not enough time for us to cover all the materials for that day, i.e. for all groups to present the materials and for the teacher to review and give evaluation. i usually compensated for this by cutting some materials or by altering task requirement on the spot. some groups reported that several members of their group do not want to participate in the preparation of materials. it also happened when presenting the materials, only one or two students dare to speak in front of the class, while the other members kept silent in their place. another problem occurred with the audiences. some students seemed do not care of what was happening in the classroom. they were busy by themselves. they neither listened to the presentation nor gave response. they were totally indifferent. on the contrary, some other students were over reactive. when the presenting groups made a mistake these students yelled and made fun of them. at the end of the presentations, they not only applauded but also yelled. sometimes it became too noisy. the last problem is the seating arrangement. the class is so crowded so that the teacher could not move freely around the chairs and give personal assistance to the students. the classic issue occurred: only the front rows students got the privilege for learning. students’ scores the scores of the students were divided into two parts: the group presentation scores and the individual scores. for group score, i took from the presentation score. it was calculated from the number of correct answers explained by the group. for example, for each skill, there are 10 questions. if a group answered 10 questions correctly with 10 correct explanations they will get a score of 100. group presentation as one.... (clara herlina karjo) 143 but, if they answered 10 correctly with only 6 correct explanations, they only got 80. each group did 3 or 4 presentations, so the presentations score was the average score of those 3 or 4 scores. here is the presentation scores of each group from 2 classes: table 1 group presentation scores class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 75 65 80 0 90 90 90 85 85 0 50 8. 65 85 0 60 40 50 50 50 67 75 75 62 50 0 65 60 90 85 85 65 80 pga 90 62 85 0 70 90 80 50 75 0 80 mean 80 64 75 0 71 70 78 68 74 66 71 95 85 90 95 100 100 75 70 65 40 75 75 90 75 70 75 80 82 75 62 93 40 75 100 90 100 80 85 75 95 92 75 85 85 70 65 80 90 90 ptt mean 83 80 80 90 91 83 74 83 58 60 85 85 93 the following table shows the means of group scores for each class. table 2 group presentation scores class mean n std. deviation pga 71.18 50 5.228 ptt 79.80 50 10.785 total 75.49 100 9.480 the above tables show that students from both classes can achieve good scores if they work together as a team. pga class get 71.18 score, which means that they can answer 14 out of 20 questions correctly, while ptt class get 79.80 score, which means that they can answer 16 out of 20 questions correctly. even though according to binus grading system, pga class only gets c and ptt class only gets b, these two scores are relatively high. the individual scores were taken from the accumulation of post test scores after each session. in the test, students were also given 20 questions that cover the materials of the day and if a student can answer all the questions correctly, he gets 100, but if he can only answer 10 he only gets 50 score. for the ease of reference, the following table only shows the mean of each class individual scores. table 3 individual post test scores class mean n std. deviation pga 62.16 50 11.402 ptt 69.30 50 7.898 total 65.73 100 10.397 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 139-146 144 the above table shows that pga students only get 62.16 and ptt students get 69.73 if they are tested individually. these scores indicate that they are still having problem in doing the test if they are not supported by their friends. these might also indicate that they do not fully understand the explanation of materials given by their friends. table 4 correlation between individual and group scores pga ptt group scores 71.18 79.80 individual scores 62.16 69.30 the above table shows that there is a difference of scores between individual and group scores in both classes. group scores are around 15 % higher than individual scores. even though the difference seems a small number, this result can be a considerable factor for the use of group presentation method in teaching english (especially toefl) to big classes. moreover, the t-test statistical calculation (using the formula t = mg – mi ; where √ sg2 + si2 ng ni m= mean, s= standard deviation and n= the number of students) for the above scores yields the result of 6.94 . this value is significant at the p < 0.01 level. it is concluded that, in this research, group presentation gives significantly better scores than individual test. conclusion assigning groups of students to prepare and present the materials in the classroom has become one of the solutions for teaching big classes. this method is taken primarily to promote a studentcentered teaching and learning activities, to increase students’ awareness of their own learning and to give an equal opportunity for every student to learn. to some extent, these goals are achieved in this research. students have shown positive attitude towards the teaching learning process in the classroom. they want to participate during the class session either by giving presentation, listening to the presentation and doing the assignment given by the lecture. preparing and presenting the materials give them a chance to study, work together as a team, and express their communicative ability. yet, there are still some problems to be solved, namely insufficient time, indifferent students and over-reactive students. these problems need to be addressed so that the application of the method will produce a better result in the future. in terms of scores, group scores reach 75.49 while individual scores reach 65.73. these scores indicate that students tend to get better result if they work together in group rather than individually. finally, i can conclude that group presentation method can be a valuable way of teaching english (especially toefl) to a large class. it promotes students’ autonomy and accommodate for students’ learning needs. it also gives students better scores in english, which in turn boost their confidence in using english outside academic environment. group presentation as one.... (clara herlina karjo) 145 references baurain, bradley. 2007. “voices from the language classroom”. elt journal 61/3: 237-245 barley, k.m. and nunan, d. ed. 1996. voices from the language classrooms. cambridge: cup. benson p.2001. teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. harlow: pearson education. field, j. 2007. “looking outwards not inwards”. elt journal 61/1 :30-38. holec h. 1981. autonomy in foreign language learning. oxford: pergamon. shamim, f. 1996. “in or out of the action zone: location as a feature of interaction in large esl classes in pakistan”. in k.m. barley and d nunan. tudor, i. 2002. the dynamics of the language classroom. cambridge: cambridge university press. wenden, a. 1991. learner strategies for learner autonomy. london: prentice hall. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 139-146 146 tradisi perkawinan di hadapan para dewa analisis faktor penyebab berkurangnya upacara pernikahan shinzen kekkon di jepang, khususnya daerah kansai nalti novianti1; edi dianto2 1,2japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, naltin@binus.edu abstract modernization era has left some particular part on traditional ceremony because it is unpractice reason, like take too much time. it also happens on the wedding ceremony wich has many customs and tradition. one of japanese wedding tradition is shinzen kekkon, this wedding ceremony is held for shinto’s beliver. article explores how is japanese young generation opinion about their wedding ceremony, besides their knowledge about every part of the ceremony. on conclusion part, it is known that japanese tradition has spirant in its process. keywords: traditional wedding, japanese wedding, young culture, shinzen kekkon abstrak modernisasi mengakibatkan ditinggalkannya cara tradisional yang dianggap tidak praktis dan memakan waktu. hal itu tampak juga pada tata cara melangsungkan pernikahan yang penuh dengan berbagai macam tata adat yang perlu dilaksanakan agar terpenuhinya kesahan suatu perkawinan. upacara pernikahan yang dianggap sebagai tradisional jepang adalah upacara pernikahan ala shinto, yang disebut shinzen kekkon. artikel menjelaskan sejauh mana kaum muda jepang masih tertarik untuk melaksanakan upacara perkawinan tradisional. selain itu, ingin diketahui apakah para responden masih mengetahui makna setiap ritual yang ada di dalam upacara shinzen kekkon. akhirnya dapat disimpulkan, kebudayaan jepang telah mengalami pergesaran. kata kunci: perkawinan tradisional, perkawinan jepang, kaum muda jepang, shinzen kekkon jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 180-187 180 pendahuluan dalam kehidupan, manusia selalu mengalami siklus kehidupan yaitu: kelahiran, masa anakanak, remaja, dewasa, orang tua, dan kematian. masyarakat jepang percaya ada empat siklus yang harus dilalui dalam kehidupannya, yaitu seiiku kaitei (tahap pertumbuhan), seijin kaitei (tahap dewasa), shiryoo kaite (tahap kematian) dan sorei kaitei (tahap arwah). dalam tahap pertumbuhan, seorang individu akan mengalami perkembangan fisik. ia akan tumbuh dari bayi sampai dewasa. di jepang masa-masa pertumbuhan mulai dari lahir hingga dewasa ini dibagi menjadi yoonen jidai (usia 1-6 tahun), shoonen jidai (usia 6-15 tahun), kookoosei to daigaku nyuushi (usia 16-18 tahun), daigaku jidai (usia 18-22 tahun). setelah memasuki umur 22 tahun umumnya mereka baru akan mulai memikirkan tentang perkawinan. perkawinan dalam bahasa jepang disebut dengan istilah kekkon ( 結婚 ) atau kon in ( 婚姻 ). istilah kekkon terdiri dari dua karakter kanji yaitu ketsu ( 結 ) yang berarti ikatan dan kon ( 婚 ) yang berarti perkawinan. sedangkan kon in terdiri dari kon ( 婚 ) yang berarti perkawinan dan in ( 姻 ) juga berarti perkawinan. perkawinan secara harafiah berarti penyatuan seksual makhluk lain jenis. dalam penyelenggaraan satu perkawinan, diperlukan tatacara tertentu yang mengatur individu-individu melalui sistem, nilai-nilai, norma-norma dan aturan-aturan yang mengatur masyarakat sehubungan dengan perkawinan disebut pranata perkawinan. dalam masyarakat jepang ada dua macam cara yang bisa ditempuh oleh seorang calon suami atau seorang calon istri dipilih dan menjalin ikatan perkawinan, yaitu berdasarkan miai (dipertemukan atau dalam konteks perkawinan memiliki pengertian dijodohkan) dan ren’ai (cinta). perkawinan yang terjadi karena miai disebut miai kekkon, sedangkan karena ren ai disebut ren ai kekkon. upacara perkawinan yang ada di jepang dapat dibedakan menjadi empat macam yaitu, kirisutokyoo kekkon shiki (キリスト教結婚式) yaitu upacara perkawinan berdasarkan agama kristen. butsuzen kekkonshiki (仏前結婚式) perkawinan berdasarakan agama buddha, hitomae kekkonshiki ( 人前結 婚式 ) perkawinan di hadapan orang, dan shinzen kekkon ( 神 前 結 婚式 ) perkawinan berdasarkan agama shinto. shinzen kekkonshiki merupakan upacara perkawinan yang khas dari bangsa jepang. tata cara upacara perkawinan ini dilakukan oleh pendeta shinto yang akan memimpin upacara. ia berdoa di depan altar, kemudian pengantin pria akan mengucapkan janji perkawinan (jinjya kyoushiki, 2004). sebagaimana telah diuraikan diatas, jepang dikenal sebagai negara yang mempertahankan tradisi dan budaya. salah satu tradisi budaya jepang adalah sistem perkawinan tradisional jepang yang disebut dengan shinzen kekkonshiki. penulis ingin mengetahui apakah dewasa ini perkawinan asli jepang berdasarkan kepercayaan shinto masih diminati oleh pasangan yang belum menikah, dan punya rencana untuk menikah. penulis membagikan angket pada 50 orang muda jepang dalam batasan umur 20 sampai dengan 40 tahun di daerah kansai. untuk data pendukung dan informasi yang diperlukan dalam pembuatan penelitian ini penulis menggunakan angket sebagai korpus. untuk menganalisis korpus data melalui jawaban responden, penulis menggunakan metode deskriptif analistis yaitu cara kerja membahas suatu masalah dengan cara menata dan mengklasifikasikan data serta memberikan penjelasan analisis tentang keterangan yang terdapat pada data. analisis faktor penyebab ..... (nalti novianti; edi dianto) 181 pembahasan jumlah responden yang menjawab angket ada 50 orang, dengan 26 orang pria dan 24 orang wanita. responden semua tinggal di daerah kansai, atau daerah timur laut jepang. alasan pemilihan responden, adalah karena mereka tinggal di daerah perkotaan yang dekat pusat pemerintahan. apabila penulis memilih yang tinggal di pedesaan, maka pilihan mereka adalah pernikahan yang sesuai dengan pilihan orang tua, dan tidak mereka sendiri yang menentukannya. karena itu, pilihan penulis jatuh pada orang-orang muda di kota besar yang lebih independen. adapun pertanyaan pertama hingga ketiga dari angket tersebut adalah jenis kelamin, umur dan pekerjaan. sedangkan pertanyaan kedua adalah mengenai pasangan hidup, apakah mereka memilih orang jepang atau memilih orang asing untuk partner hidupnya. pertanyaan ini ditujukan untuk melihat apakah ada hubungan antara kebebasan berfikir yang mereka adopsi dari kebudayaam barat, yang mempengaruhi cara mereka memilih pasangan hidup. diantara 50 responden ( 43 orang ) 86% memilih untuk tetap menikah dengan orang jepang, dan sisanya ( 4 orang ) 8%, memilih untuk menikah dengan orang asing. alasan mereka adalah karena menikah dengan orang asing akan menambah wawasan pengetahuan dan pengalaman hidup, yang menjadikan hidup mereka lebih variatif. sedangkan ( 3 orang ) 6 %, lainnya merasa tidak keberatan untuk menikah dengan orang asing maupun orang jepang. menurut fukutake ( 1988: 10 ) jepang merupakan salah satu negara modern, ditandai dengan adanya perkembangan ekonomi yang pesat, industrialisasi dan urbanisasi yang mempengaruhi seluruh komunitas dan semua kelas dalam masyarakat. akan tetapi, modernisasi tetap tidak mengubah pandangan hidup orang jepang untuk tetap memilih orang jepang sendiri sebagai pasangan hidupnya dalam perkawinan. untuk lebih memperjelas angka prosentasi pemilih dapat dilihat pada grafik di bawah ini. tabel 1 pasangan hidup pilihan ingin m enikah dengan orang jepang ingin m enikah dengan orang asing ingin m enikah dengan orang jepang/asing 6% 8% 86% menurut analisis penulis fenomena seperti ini terjadi karena faktor kendala bahasa. orang jepang tidak peduli dengan bahasa inggris ataupun bahasa asing lainnya. karena, walaupun bahasa inggris merupakan bahasa internasional dan merupakan bahasa pemersatu dunia, tidak menjadi alasan untuk bahasa tersebut ataupun bahasa asing lainnya menjadi bahasa kedua di jepang, disebabkan karena orang jepang sangat menjunjung bahasa mereka. sebagai negara adikuasa kedua dibawah negara amerika serikat kebanyakan warga jepang menganggap bahwa selain orang amerika, semua orang di dunia ini adalah warga negara kelas dua dan mereka menjaga jarak terhadap warga negara kelas dua itu dalam hal apapun (murakami, 1980). jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 180-187 182 untuk jawaban dari pertanyaan kedua yaitu “jenis perkawinan apa yang mereka ingin mereka lakukan?”, sebagian besar menjawab ingin melakukan upacara perkawinan berdasarkan agama kristen (kirisutokyoo kekkonshiki) yaitu berjumlah 62% (31orang). yang memilih perkawinan (shinzhen kekkonshiki) berjumlah 18% (9 orang). urutan ketiga yaitu perkawinan di hadapan orang (hitomae kekkonshiki) yang berjumlah 16% (8 orang). sedangkan sisanya yaitu 4%( 2 orang) memilih jenis perkawinan perkawinan berdasarkan agama buddha (butsuzen kekkonshiki) . tabel 2 pemilihan cara menikah yang ingin m enikah secara shinzen kekkon yang ingin m enikah secara kirisutokyou kekkon yang ingin m enikah secara b utsuzen kekkon yang ingin m enikah secara h itom ae kekkon 16% 18% 4% 62% alasan yang mereka utarakan sangat beragam atas pilihan jenis upacara perkawinan yang mereka ingin lakukan. berikut ini saya akan jabarkan alasan mereka masing-masing terhadap pilihan jenis perkawinan 62% yang memilih upacara perkawinan berdasarkan agama kristen (kirisutokyo kekkonshiki) beralasan sebagai berikut: a. bahwa perkawinan jenis ini sudah merupakan perkawinan internasional (64, 5% / 20 orang) b. sudah dikenal di sebagian besar belahan dunia ini dan lebih bergengsi, karena itulah banyak orang jepang yang melakukan perekawinan di gereja ataupun kapel walaupun mereka bukan penganut agama kristen (19, 35 % / 6 0rang). c. perkawinan ini lebih familiar di kehidupan mereka sehari-hari, karena maraknya budaya barat. (16, 12% / 5 orang) dalam memilih upacara perkawinan orang jepang ternyata banyak yang memilih cara menikah ala barat, lengkap dengan upacara keagamaan secara kristiani, meskipun mereka sendiri bukanlah penganut agama tersebut. agama kristen sendiri masuk ke jepang pada tahun 1549 yang dibawa oleh missionaris jesuit santo fransisikus xaverius. dimasa itu banyak timbulnya berbagai percekcokan dan kerusuhan dimana-mana, oleh sebab itu agama kristen disambut hangat oleh masyarakat jepang yang memerlukan lambang kerohanian baru agar mereka bisa keluar dari berbagai masalah yang terjadi dalam tahun-tahun tersebut. selain itu ada juga yang mengharapkan dengan masuknya budaya barat maka mereka bisa mendapatkan berbagai teknologi-teknologi barat yang sebelumnya mereka belum lihat, seperti senjata api. pada akhir abad ke-16 sampai pertengahan abad ke-19, agama kristen sempat dilarang oleh pemerintahan bakufu karena dianggap subversif terhadap ketertiban yang baru dicapai. shigeyoshi muramaki (1980:34–35), mengatakan bahwa ajaran katolik telah masuk korea dan pulau ryuukyu sekitar tahun 1830. tidak lama kemudian pendeta petitjean tiba di jepang yaitu analisis faktor penyebab ..... (nalti novianti; edi dianto) 183 sekitar tahun 1829 dan membawa misi kerjasama dalam administrasi asia perancis koloni, misinya adalah menyebarkan ajaran katolik ke jepang. sebelumnya misi ini sudah berhasil diterapkan di negara indocina. pada tahun 1858 setelah perjanjian komersial antara perancis dan jepang, p.s girard (pendeta dari duta besar perancis di jepang) datang ke jepang dengan menggunakan kapal asing yang sudah diperbolehkan masuk ke jepang. kedatangannya tidak lain untuk menyebarkan ajaran agama katolik ke berbagai wilayah di jepang. empat tahun kemudian atau tepatnya tahun 1862 girard mendirikan kapel katolik di yokohama untuk pertamakalinya di jepang setelah dua setengah abad yang lalu semua gereja di jepang dihancurkan oleh pemerintahan bakufu. saat itu kapel tersebut atau yasodera ( sebutan orang jepang saat itu ) hanya dipakai oleh orang asing saja. dengan kehadiran kapel tersebut orang jepang sempat terkejut karena merasa takjub setelah melihat kotbah yang ada di dalam kapel tersebut. selanjutnya pada tahun 1865 petitjean juga mendirikan kapel di nagasaki untuk warga perancis. kapel tersebut bercorak eropa dengan bangunan yang penuh kaca dan menara yang sangat tinggi. masyarakat jepang saat itu menyebut kapel itu dengan sebutan “kuil perancis”, dan mulai tertarik untuk masuk ke dalam kapel tersebut dan mendalami ajaran agama katolik tersebut. petitjean menyadari bahwa walaupun agama kristen di jepang telah mati sejak abad ke 16, tapi masyarakat jepang pada umumnya masih merasa bahwa agama kristen ataupun katolik merupakan suatu pencerahan kehidupan bagi mereka. dan pada akhirnya penganut agama kristen maupun katolik mencapai 1, 7 umat. di luar pengaruh agama kristen, masyarakat jepang pada saat itu juga mendapat pengaruh budaya asing karena banyaknya orang asing datang ke jepang setelah dibukanya pelabuhan jepang untuk kapal-kapal asing. semenjak itu modernisasi di bidang kebudayaan berturut-turut dilaksanakan secara bertahap. dimulai pada tahun 1872 (meiji ke-5), pemerintah jepang menetapkan sistem pendidikan, sehingga bagi orang jepang mudah mempunyai pekerjaan dan status apapun bisa mengikuti pendidikan. karena asyik dengan budaya luar, yang bersifat budaya pop, dan mempunyai ciri praktis dan cepat, orang muda jepang kurang mempelajari budaya mereka sendiri dan mengaplikasikannya ke kehidupan mereka sehari-hari. pasangan muda biasanya tidak nyaman dengan budaya jepang yang mempengaruhi tata cara upacara perkawinan jepang yang mereka anggap sangat rumit. untuk persiapan dan pelaksanaan ritual sebuah upacara perkawinan sangat membutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama dan prosedur yang berbelit-belit dan biaya yang tinggi. orang muda sendiri memang identik dengan budaya pop yang mempunyai sifat sering berubah sesuai dengan zamannya (bestor et al: 1989). orang muda jepang mempunyai sifat dinamik dan senang akan perubahan yang baru. sifat ini pulalah yang mempengaruhi mengapa orang muda jepang memilih perkawinan secara kristen, yang dianggap lebih praktis dan tidak banyak memakan biaya. alasan yang tidak kalah menarik adalah 90% (28 orang) dari responden perempuan jepang yang menjawab ingin menikah secara kristiani (kirisuto kekkon) berangan-angan bahwa kelak kalau menikah mereka ingin menggunakan wedding dress yang berwarna putih dan sangat panjang. sedangkan alasan para responden yang memilih menikah secara shinzen kekkon adalah, sifat nasionalisme yang tinggi sebagai warga negara jepang, jadi dalam melakukan suatu hal apapun harus sesuai dengan budaya jepang. mereka menganggap bahwa orang jepang yang tidak melakukan perkawinan berdasarkan shinzen kekkon ini, dianggap rasa nasionalisme mereka terhadap bangsa sendiri sudah luntur. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 180-187 184 alasan berikut ini juga tidak kalah menarikanya adalah walaupun responden itu beragama kristen, dia ingin menikah dengan melakukan shinzen kekkon, karena dia ingin menikah dengan memakai pakaian tadisi kimono. baginya dengan memakai kimono pada saat upacara perkawinan di samping karena merupakan pakaian tradisional jepang, juga mempunyai makna tersendiri. sejak restorasi meiji pada tahun 1868, dan khususnya selama perang dunia ii, shinto diangkat oleh penguasa menjadi agama negara. berdasarkan undang-undang dasar setelah perang, shinto telah memberi dukungan resmi ataupun hal khusus dalam peran pada upacara penting dan upacara perkawinan bagi kehidupan orang jepang (murakami, 1980). alasan lain para responden yang memilih perkawinan shinzen kekkon memberikan alasan sebagai berikut: a. ingin mengadakan jenis upacara perkawinan yang lain dari yang lain dan yang jarang dilakukan oleh kebanyakan orang (shinzen kekkonshiki), yang memberikan alasan ini sebanyak 44% ( 4 orang ) b. alasan yg terakhir adalah supaya ingin merasakan bagaimana upacara pernikahan yang selalu dipilih oleh keluarga kaisar jepang serta orangorang terpandang lainnya, dengan kata lain mereka yang melakukan jenis perkawinan ini akan menaikan prestise mereka di hadapan orang lain karena jenis perkawinan ini termasuk upacara perkawinan yang mahal. yang memberikan alasan ini adalah 56% / (5 orang) sisa responden yaitu 4% (2 orang) memilih perkawinan berdasarkan agama budha, butsuzen kekkonshiki. alasan responden pertama memilih perkawinan secara budha karena keluagra dekat responden adalah seorang biksu budha dan mereka juga merupakan penganut agama budha yang sangat taat. sehingga menikah dengan cara budha merupakan suatu keharusan. responden kedua beralasan karena orang tuanya beragama budha dan kebetulan dia sebagai choonan atau anak pertama di keluarga itu jadi dia tidak mau menjadi anak yang durhaka dengan menikah dengan cara selain agama budha. penutup masyarakat jepang yang dikenal sebagai bangsa yang sangat mempertahankan nilai budaya dan tradisi ternyata setelah masuknya budaya asing khususnya budaya barat nilai-nilai budaya dan cara pemikiran orang jepang mengalami perubahan. hal tersebut dibuktikan dengan mulai hilangnya tradisi perkawinan cara shinto yang dikenal dengan shinzen kekkonshiki yang merupakan ciri khas sistem perkawinan yang ada di jepang sudah jarang dilakukan. masuknya budaya asing yang membawa berbagai aspek terhadap masyarakat jepang, salah satunya adalah agama, membuat masyarakat jepang semakin mengenal berbagai agama. agama yang merupakan dasar dari upacara perkawinan, membuat tata cara upacara pernikahan semakin banyak. saat ini upacara perkawinan di jepang dapat dibedakan menjadi empat macam yaitu, kirisutokyoo kekkonshiki ( キリスト教結婚式 ) yaitu upacara perkawinan berdasarkan agama kristen. butsuzen kekkonshiki ( 仏前結婚式 ) upacara perkawinan berdasarakan agama budha, hitomae kekkonshiki ( 人前結婚式 ) upacara perkawinan dihadapan orang. dan upacara perkawinan shinto yaitu shinzen kekkoshiki ( 神前結婚式 ). pada zaman edo, tata cara perkawinan yang dilakukan merupakan perkawinan yang tidak dihormati bagi orang eropa. hal itu karena bagi orang eropa, semua perkawinan ada tanda persetujuan dan hubungannya dengan agama dan tuhan sedangkan di jepang perkawinan cukup disetujui oleh dua belah pihak yang akan menikah saja. oleh karena itulah, orang jepang yang selalu menjunjung tinggi pada orang barat juga mau membuktikan bahwa tatacara perkawinan mereka juga ada kaitannya analisis faktor penyebab ..... (nalti novianti; edi dianto) 185 dengan tuhan, maka dari saat itulah shinto menjadi paduan tata cara perkawinannya. shinto adalah kepercayaan asli jepang dan sejak zaman kuno shinto telah menjadi bagian hidup dalam masyarakat jepang dan menjadi bagian dari pandangan hidup orang jepang. atas dasar pemikiran tersebut shinzen kekkonshiki menjadi sistem pernikahan pertama yang menggunakan ajaran shinto sebagai dasar tata cara perkawinannya, yang diadakan pertamakali oleh kaisar taisho. masuknya budaya barat mempengaruhi berbagai aspek kehidupan di jepang dalam segala bidang. dan budaya tersebut diakulturasikan sehingga menjadi budaya baru dalam masyarakat jepang. akulturasi budaya yang paling istimewa dalam sistem sosial jepang adalah westernisasi. westrenisasi yang mengacu pada modernisasi dilakukan oleh pemerintah jepang karena pemerintah jepang ingin membuat negaranya sejajar dengan negara barat. pemerintah menetapkan sistem pendidikan yang bisa diikuti oleh status apapun. dalam melakukan pembaharuan dalam bidang pendidikan pemerintah jepang mengirim orang untuk belajar di negara barat. teknologi barat dan budayanya pun akhirnya menjadi bagian dari masyarakat jepang. perkawinan agama kristen yang diselenggarakan di gereja dengan pemimpin upacara seorang pendeta atau pastor menjadi salah satu tata cara perkawinan yang populer oleh masyarakat jepang sejak tahun 1920. sistem pendidikan di luar negeri juga mempengaruhi keberadaan shinzen kekkonshiki yang merupakan sistem perkawinan khas bangsa jepang yang mulai hilang. dalam penulisan skripsi ini yang menggunakan metode penyebaran angket melalui e-mail yang disebar kepada orang jepang yang tinggal didaerah kansai. dari angket ini membuktikan bahwa pengaruh budaya barat menyebabkan shinzen kekkonshiki sudah jarang digunakan oleh orang jepang yang dibuktikan dari jawaban-jawaban orang jepang yang belum menikah. dari 50 sampel yang penulis tanyakan melalui angket yang disebarkan sebelumnya hanya 09 orang yang mau memilih jenis perkawinan shinzen kekkonshiki. empat puluh satu orang yang lain tidak memilih perkawinan shinzen kekkonshiki. dari 41 orang yang tidak memilih shinzen kekkonshiki itu mengatakan bahwa jenis perkawinan tersebut memerlukan prosedur yang sangat lama. di samping itu, juga tempat penyelenggaraan jenis perkawinan ini tidak begitu banyak dan walaupun ada tempat upacaranya, juga tidak begitu besar sehingga kedua mempelai tidak bisa mengundang semua keluarga dan kerabatnya. selanjutnya ada yang mengatakan bahwa sangat sedikit sumber informasi yang menjelasakan jenis perkawinan ini dan prosedur-prosedur apa saja yang mesti dilakukan oleh kedua calon mempelai tersebut kalau mereka ingin melakukan jenis perkawinan ini. dan bahkan sebagian anak muda jepang tidak tahu, tidak pernah melihat langsung jalannya upacara perkawinan shinzen kekkonshiki. di lain pihak semakin gencarnya promosi yang digencarkan oleh perusahaan travel dan pariwisata yang mengeluarakan paket wisata hitomae kekkon shiki ( 人前結婚式 ) dan honeymoon yang menjadi satu. karena biayanya murah, tidak memerlukan prosedur bertele-tele dan singkat, maka kebanyakan orang jepang yang sangat sibuk dalam kehidupan sehari-harinya dan sangat mengahargai waktu lebih condong memilih jenis perkawinan ini karena tidak merepotkannya dan sudah termasuk perjalanan wisata demi mengurangi stress dari rutinas sehari-hari. melalui angket tersebut juga, orang jepang banyak yang memilih perkawinan ala barat yaitu perkawinan agama kristen. alasan dari responden menggunakan tata cara perkawinan kristen dikarenakan untuk melakukan pernikahan ini tidak memerlukan biaya yang mahal, tidak membuang banyak waktu mereka, dan tidak banyak aturan-aturan dalam melakukan upacara ini. terakhir yang mempengaruhi sudah jarangnya pelaksanaan shinzen kekkonshiki pada saat sekarang yaitu sistem pendidikan. sistem yang sudah modern membuat orang jepang banyak yang belajar di luar negeri. dari hal tersebut setiap orang harus menguasai bahasa asing dan budaya setempat. budaya yang dipelajari membuat cara pikir masyarakat jepang mengalami perubahan. pengaruh kebudayaan yang telah tercampur oleh kebudayaan barat menyebabkan upacara perkawinan orang jepang khususnya anak muda jepang sudah mengikuti perkawinan gaya barat. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 180-187 186 dari uraian-uraian yang telah dikemukakan penulis melalui data-data berupa buku panduan dari pendapat-pendapat para ahli dalam bidang ini, hasil angket yang disebarkan kepada orang jepang, penulis mengambil simpulan bahwa memang benar tradisi perkawinan shinzen kekkonshiki mulai hilang keberadaannya diakibatkan masuknya budaya barat, sistem pendidikan, dan agama kristen yang telah merubah cara pandang dan pemikiran masyarakat jepang. daftar pustaka bestor, theodore c. 1989. handbook of japanese popular culture edited by richard gid powers and hidetoshi kato. london: greenwood press. baker, chris. 2004. cultural studies: teori & praktik.yogyakarta: kreasi wacana yogyakarta fukutake, tadashi. 1988. masyarakat jepang dewasa ini. jakarta: pt gramedia dan yayasan karti sarana naka, hisao. 1980. kaum muda jepang dalam masa perubahan. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. reichaver, edwin. o et al.1988. the japanese today. harvard university: belknap press. storey, john. 2003. teori budaya dan budaya pop: memetakan lanskap konsetual cultural studies. yogyakarta: cv. qalam. analisis faktor penyebab ..... (nalti novianti; edi dianto) 187 pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah nihongo 4 pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah… (robihim) 47 pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah nihongo 4 terhadap kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang mahasiswa semester iv di ubinus robihim japanese department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, robihim@binus.ac.id abstract listening is one of four important element in language abillity. by language ability, people can know what the speaking. in the foreign language, listening is very difficult if he don’t know knowlegde about base of foreign languge. like as foreign language, so do its japanese language, by continuing practise that one step to try understand vocabulary till step thinking by listening. and then will know how is to speaking some one. and then, after quite and listening, some one can be tell some idea or opinion. and then, practising of listening is need continue for growing up listening ability. in the forth semseter ubinus, listening is icluding in subjeck of nihongo iv (japanese iv) with name sub subject is choukai (listening). keywords: effect, listening, ability, speaking, student abstrak mendengar merupakan salah satu unsur penting dalam kemahiran berbahasa, dengan kemampuan mendengar, seseorang dapat menyimak dan memahami apa yang disampaikan oleh penutur suatu bahasa. dalam bahasa asing, mendengar tuturan seorang pembicara akan sulit jika tidak didasari pengetahuan bahasa asing tersebut. begitu pula halnya dalam bahasa jepang, pendengaran perlu terus dilatih karena mendengar adalah langkah awal untuk mencoba mengerti kata atau kalimat yang disampaikan hingga pada tahap menyimak dan seseorang bukan hanya mampu mendengar tetapi juga memahami isi dan maksud penutur. selanjutnya, tahap mengemukakan ide atau gagasan dirinya sendiri setelah menyimak dan memahami suatu tutur bahasa. di semester 4 ubinus, materi pendengaran termasuk dalam kuliah nihongo 4 pada submata kuliah choukai 4. kata kunci: pengaruh, choukai, kemampuan, berbicara, mahasiswa jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 47-56 48 pendahuluan nihongo adalah salah satu mata kuliah yang termasuk pada mata kuliah kemahiran berbahasa di ubinus yang terdiri dari submata kuliah bunpou (tata bahasa), choukai (pendengaran), kaiwa (percakapan), dan dokkai (membaca) yang diberikan selama 4 semester mulai dari semester 1 sampai dengan semester 4 yang terbagi dalam nihongo 1, nihongo 2, nihongo 3, dan nihongo 4, masingmasing semester sebanyak 8 sks atau dalam satu minggu dapat dibagi dalam empat sesi, dalam satu sesi waktu sebanyak 100 menit. jadi, dalam satu semester waktu untuk mata kuliah nihongo sebanyak 5200 menit atau 52 sesi. jika diasumsikan satu submata kuliah adalah satu sesi maka submata kuliah choukai dalam satu semester adalah 13 sesi atau 1300 menit. dengan demikian, dalam satu semester mahasiswa ubinus berlatih choukai sebanyak 21,67 jam. dalam jumlah waktu sebanyak itu, saya beranggapan mahasiswa ubinus mampu meningkatkan kualitas pendengaran untuk menunjang kemahirannya dalam berbahasa jepang, khususnya dalam percakapan, namun perlu diadakan penelitan terhadap asumsi tersebut. untuk itu, penulis mencoba membuktikan bagaimana korelasi mata kuliah choukai terhadap kemampun menyimak dan berbicara mahasiswa ubinus di semester iv. penulis melakukan wawancara dan menyebarkan angket pada mahasiswa semester 4 di kelas 04pan dan 04pbn dengan sampel pe rkelas 15 orang yang dipilih secara acak. pembahasan profil mahasiswa semester iv ubinus profil mahasiswa ubinus penulis kategorikan dalam usia, pengalaman belajar bahasa jepang di luar ubinus, pengalaman pergi atau tinggal di jepang, dan interaksi dengan orang jepang khususnya berbicara dalam bahasa jepang. kemudian penulis penyebarkan angket pada mahasiswa semester iv kelas 04pan dan 04pbn yang dipilih secara acak masing-masing sebanyak 15 orang yang mewakili. dari angket yang penulis sebarkan kepada mahasiswa semester iv (28 mei 2007), diperoleh data sebagai berikut: usia usia di bawah 18 tahun 9% usia antara 18 sampai 20 tahun 67% usia diatas 20 tahun 14% pengalaman belajar bahasa jepang di luar binus kurang dari setahun 60% lebih dari setahun 32% tidak ada 8% pengalaman pergi atau tinggal di jepang kurang dari setahun 1,5% lebih dari setahun 0,8% belum pernah 87,7% pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah… (robihim) 49 interaksi dengan orang jepang, khususnya berbicara dalam bahasa jepang belum pernah sama sekali 70,4% pernah 15% masih berinteraksi 14,6% perhitungan persentase profil mahasiswa tersebut diasumsikan bahwa dari 30 orang responden dianggap sudah mewakili. jadi, persentase yang diperoleh 100% dengan rumus n = n1/n2 x 100%. n adalah persentase akhir responden, n1 adalah jumlah responden pemilih, n2 adalah total responden pembagi. materi pengajaran materi pengajaran adalah materi atau bahan pengajaran yang disampaikan dan menjadi acuan dalam pengajaran yang terdiri dari buku utama atau buku pegangan wajib dan buku pendukung, antara lain sebagai berikut. choukai dalam choukai, terdapat buku utama, yaitu “minna no nihongo shokyuu ii”, penerbit suriiee network. sebagai buku pendukung, yaitu “minna no nihongo shoukyuu ii choukai tasuku 25”, penerbit suriiee network, dan sumber lain yang mendukung untuk pengajaran choukai, seperti cd, kaset, dan film. materinya terdiri dari bab 30 sampai bab 40. kaiwa dalam kaiwa, buku utamanya adalah “minna no nihongo shokyuu ii”, penerbit suriiee network. buku pendukungnya adalah “minna no nihongo shokyuu ii kaiwa renshuu chou”, penerbit suriiee network. materi terdiri dari bab 30 sampai bab 40. media media adalah alat yang digunakan untuk mempermudah proses belajar mengajar, antara lain sebagai berikut. choukai dalam choukai, media yang digunakan adalah laboratorium bahasa dengan sistem on line komputer dan internet; cd/kasetvcd/dvd; internet. kaiwa dalam kaiwa, media yang digunakan adalah alat peraga sesungguhnya yang ada di sekitar tempat belajar; kartu bergambar; kartu huruf; internet. kegiatan belajar mengajar (kbm) choukai di semester iv ubinus, choukai termasuk dalam mata kuliah nihongo iv dan termasuk mata kuliah mcl maka kbm dilaksanakan di laboratorium bahasa dengan sistem komputer dan internet. adapun urutan kbm choukai adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, dosen menjelaskan kosakata yang akan muncul dalam kbm choukai dalam tampilan di layar monitor masing-masing mahasiswa. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 47-56 50 kedua, dosen menjelaskan perintah dari setiap kegiatan yang ada dalam kbm choukai yang ada dalam worksheet mahasiswa. ketiga, cd/kaset/dvd diperdengarkan kepada mahasiswa melalui line audio kemudian mahasiswa mendengar dan menyimak setiap kegiatan dalam choukai dan mengulangnya sebanyak tiga kali. keempat, setelah mendengar dan menyimak selama tiga kali, mahasiswa mencoba menjawab setiap pertanyaan dalam choukai secara tertulis pada worksheet yang telah disediakan. kelima, dosen menjelaskan setiap situasi dan kegiatan yang ada dalam choukai agar mahasiswa dapat mengecek sendiri setiap jawabannya. keenam, dosen mengecek lembar kerja mahasiswa dengan mengadakan dialog dari setiap pertanyaan dalam choukai pada mahasiswa, baik secara perorangan maupun grup kemudian memberikan koreksi pada hasil kerja mahasiswa. ketujuh, dosen meminta mahasiswa membuat simpulan dari setiap kegiatan choukai, baik secara perorangan maupun kelompok kemudian menjelaskan simpulan tersebut dalam bahasa jepang. kedelapan, dosen memberikan waktu pada mahasiswa untuk bertanya. kesembilan, dosen memberikan informasi untuk mata kuliah berikutnya. kaiwa kaiwa juga termasuk dalam mata kuliah nihongo iv di semester iv ubinus. karena merupakan mata kuliah mcl, dilaksanakan di dalam kelas yang menyediakan fasilitas lcd komputer dan internet agar dapat mengakses dengan cepat. adapun ururtan kbm kaiwa adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, dosen menampilkan contoh percakapan yang sesuai dengan bab pada bunpou yang sudah dipelajari sebelumnya. kedua, dosen memandu mahasiswa untuk membaca percakapan tersebut dan meminta mahasiswa untuk mengikutinya secara bersama-sama ketiga, dosen menunjuk beberapa perwakilan mahasiswa untuk kembali membaca percakapan contoh tersebut, sesuai dengan banyaknya peran dalam contoh percakapan tersebut. keempat, dosen bertanya pada mahasiswa lainnya tentang isi contoh percakapan tersebut. kelima, dari contoh percakapan tersebut kemudian dosen mengganti situasi, tempat, dan kegiatan contoh percakapan dengan kosa kata yang sudah disiapkan, baik dalam bentuk kartu bergambar, kartu huruf, maupun animasi dalam komputer. keenam, mahasiswa berlatih menurut kosa kata, gambar, atau animasi yang disediakan oleh dosen. ketujuh, dosen meminta beberapa mahasiswa untuk mempraktikkan percakapan dengan situasi, tempat, dan kegiatan lainnya yang sesuai. kedelapan, dosen meminta berpasangan dan mempraktikkan dengan situasi, tempat, dan kegiatan percakapan yang ditentukan oleh mahasiswa sendiri. kesembilan, selanjutnya dosen meminta mahasiswa untuk mempresentasikan percakapan yang sudah dilatih di depan kelas. kesepuluh, dosen mengulas kembali tentang percakapan yang sudah dipresentasikan mahasiswa. kesebelas, dosen memberikan kesempatan pada mahasiswa untuk bertanya tentang perkuliahan kaiwa tersebut. evaluasi evaluasi perlu diadakan untuk mengetahui sejauh mana mahasiswa dapat mengikuti setiap pengajaran yang sudah diberikan. evaluasi dapat dilakukan pada saat sebelum, sedang berlangsung, atau setelah perkuliahan selesai, atau sebelum masuk materi, atau setelah materi/bab selesai. evaluasi tersebut dapat terdiri dari alat evaluasi dan bentuk evaluasi. pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah… (robihim) 51 choukai dalam choukai, alat evaluasinya berupa tes lisan dan tes tertulis. tes lisan, terdiri dari wawancara, tanya jawab, menyimpulkan, dan iikae (ganti dan ucapkan) dapat dilakukan dangan dosen atau cd/kaset yang sudah disiapkan. tes tertulis, terdiri dari mengisi worksheet, menjawab pertanyaan, mengisi pilihan, menuliskan simpulan dari kegiatan yang ada dalam choukai. bentuk evaluasi dalam choukai sebagai berikut. pertama, pre test, yaitu memberikan tes pendengaran sebelum masuk materi, biasanya tes mendengar kosa kata kemudian mengucapkannya kembali untuk mengetahui benar atau pendengaran mahasiswa yang bersangkutan. tujuan pre test ini untuk mengetahui kesiapan mahasiswa dalam menghadapi materi yang akan diajarkan. kedua, test pada saat perkuliahan sedang berlangsung, yaitu dengan menunjuk mahasiswa secara berurutan dengan sistem couple yang ada dalam komputer agar tidak mengganggu mahasiswa lainnya dengan memberikan pertanyaan langsung dari dosen dalam bahasa jepang dengan materi yang berkaitan/materi yang sedang berlangsung. tujuannya sejauh mana mahasiswa mampu mendengar kemudian menyimak kagiatan dalam choukai tersebut. ketiga, post test, yaitu tes yang diberikan pada mahasiswa setelah kegiatan pengajaran selesai. tujuan post test, yaitu agar dosen mengetahui tingkat kemampuan mendengar mahasiswa, apakah hanya mendengar atau sudah mampu menyimak, atau mampu menyimak dan mengerti setiap detail kegiatan dalam choukai tersebut. kaiwa alat evaluasi dalam kaiwa sebagai berikut. pertama, tes lisan, terdiri dari tanya jawab dengan dosen, tanya jawab dengan mahasiswa, happyou/presentasi percakapan berpasangan atau kelompok, menjelaskan satu topik. kedua, tes tertulis, terdiri dari mengisi percakapan dengan kosa kata yang tepat, melengkapi percakapan, mengisi percakapan dengan ungkapan yang sesuai, membuat pecakapan dengan topik ditentukan dosen menggunakan pola kalimat atau ungkapan yang tepat, membuat percakapan dengan topik bebas tetapi berkaitan dengan materi perkuliahan yang sedang berlangsung. bentuk evaluasi dalam kaiwa sebagai berikut. pertama, pre test, yaitu tes yang diberikan sebelum masuk materi. untuk mata kuliah kaiwa, diberikan dalam bentuk lisan dengan memberikan pertanyaan pada beberapa mahasiswa yang dianggap mewakili tentang materi sebelumnya dan yang akan diajarkan, untuk mengetahui kesiapan mahasiswa dalam menghadapi materi atau bab baru. kedua, test selama perkuliahan, tes itu diberikan secara lisan pada saat perkuliahan masih berlangsung, dengan cara memberikan pertanyaan pada mahasiswa atau meminta mahasiswa presentasi di depan kelas. tujuan tes adalah untuk mengetahui apakah mahasiswa benar-benar menyimak perkuliahan atau tidak sehingga materi dapat terus dilanjutkan atau kembali diulang. ketiga, post test, yaitu tes yang dilakukan setelah perkuliahan percakapan selesai. dosen sudah mempersiapkan alat peraga, berupa gambar, kartu huruf, atau animasi diinternet atau fasilitas internet lainnya yang sudah di-copy kemudian bertanya pada mahasiswa dan mahasiswa menjelaskan sesuai peraga yang ditunjukkan dosen. hipotesis hipotesis merupakan jawaban research question yang diajukan. oleh karena itu, hipotesis masih merupakan pernyataan yang lemah, perlu diuji apakah hipotesis dapat diterima atau ditolak (santoso, 2005:20). setelah melakukan pengamatan secara langsung terhadap mahasiswa semester 4 ubinus, dapat dikemukakan hipotesis bahwa “terdapat pengaruh antara kemampuan mendengar terhadap kemampuan berbicara.” jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 47-56 52 hasil observasi dan angket penjelasan data observasi dan angket setelah penulis melakukan observasi pada mahasiswa semester iv kelas 04pan dan 04pbn maka penulis menentukan 15 orang dari kelas 04pan dan 15 orang kelas 04pbn untuk dijadikan sampel responden yang dapat mewakili seluruh kelas. adapun alasan memilih ke-30 responden dari dua kelas itu, didasarkan pada perolehan nilai a pada mata kuliah nihongo iii, ipk rata-rata 3,00, dan kelulusan noryoku shiken minimal level 4. berikut ini adalah hasil angket yang disebarkan pada responden dan sudah penulis hitung dalam bentuk persentase, dengan asumsi 30 responden sama dengan 100% dengan rumus n=n1/n2x100%, yaitu sebagai berikut. 1. tanggapan responden terhadap pengajaran choukai iv: a. sangat menyenangkan 45,47% b. menyenangkan 28,17% c. biasa saja 14,95% d. membosankan 11,41% 2. tanggapan responden terhadap pengajaran kaiwa iv: a. sangat menyenangkan 76,34% b. menyenangkan 17,43% c. biasa saja 5,53% d. membosankan 0,7% 3. tanggapan responden tentang tingkat kesulitan choukai iv: a. sangat sulit 4% b. sulit 6,1% c. biasa saja 20.31% d. tidak sulit 69.59% 4. tanggapan responden tentang tingkat kesulitan kaiwa iv: a. sangat sulit 8,5% b. sulit 11,27% c. biasa saja 24% d. tidak sulit 56,23% 5. tanggapan responden tentang waktu pengajaran choukai: a. sangat cukup 20,21% b. cukup 31,05% c. kurang 25,75% d. sangat kurang 22.99% 6. tanggapan responden tentang waktu pengajaran kaiwa: a. sangat cukup 7% b. cukup 17% c. kurang 34,63% d. sangat kurang 41,37% 7. tanggapan responden tentang materi pengajaran choukai: a. sangat cukup 6,7% b. cukup 16.12% c. biasa saja 16,17% d. kurang 61.01% pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah… (robihim) 53 8. tanggapan responden tentang materi pengajaran kaiwa: a. sangat cukup 10,31% b. cukup 9,67% c. biasa saja 7,31% d. kurang 72,71% 9. tanggapan responden terhadap kemampuan mendengar: a. mampu 45,51% b. biasa saja 30,21% c. agak sulit 19,03% d. sangat sulit 5,25% 10. tanggapan responden terhadap kemampuan berbicara: a. mampu 30,30% b. biasa saja 30,03% c. agak sulit 27,36% d. sangat sulit 12,31% 11. tanggapan responden terhadap kemampuan menyimak melalui pendengaran: a. mampu 12,14% b. biasa saja 17,20% c. agak sulit 25,87% d. sangat sulit 44,79% 12. tanggapan responden terhadap kemampuan menyimak melalui percakapan: a. mampu 20.79% b. biasa saja 18,33% c. agak sulit 20,45% d. sangat sulit 40.44% 13. tanggapan responden tentang kemampuan memahami isi dalam kegiatan choukai: a. paham seluruhnya 2,43% b. paham setengahnya 48,47% c. kurang paham 40,15% d. tidak paham sama sekali 8,98% 14. tanggapan responden mengenai isi dan tujuan dalam percakapan: a. paham seluruhnya 20% b. paham setengahnya 59,33% c. kurang paham 15,33% d. tidak paham sama sekali 5,34% 15. tanggapan responden tentang kaitan choukai dengan kaiwa: a. sangat berkaitan 89,98% b. cukup berkaitan 6,17% c. tidak berkaitan 3% d. tidak tahu 0,85% 16. tanggapan responden tentang pengaruh latihan mendengar terhadap berbicara: a. sangat mempengaruhi 98,65% b. tidak mempengaruhi 1,35% c. tidak ada hubungan 0% d. tidak tahu 0% jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 47-56 54 17. tanggapan responden tentang pengaruh kemampuan mendengar terhadap kemampuan berbicara: a. sangat berpengaruh 97,24% b. biasa saja pengaruhnya 2,02% c. sangat kecil pengaruhnya 0,47% d. tidak ada sama sekali 0% dari data yang diperoleh terlihat bahwa persentase yang paling tinggi untuk tanggapan responden terhadap pengajaran choukai adalah 45,47% sangat menyenangkan, tanggapan responden terhadap pengajaran kaiwa adalah 76,34% sangat menyenangkan. tanggapan responden terhadap tingkat kesulitan choukai dan kaiwa adalah 69,59% menyatakan tidak sulit untuk choukai dan 56,23% untuk kaiwa. selanjutnya, tanggapan responden tentang waktu pengajaran choukai dan kaiwa diperoleh data yang paling tinggi adalah 31,05 menjawab cukup untuk choukai dan 34,63 menjawab kurang untuk kaiwa. adapun tanggapan responden terhadap materi pengajaran choukai dan kaiwa adalah 61,01% menyatakan kurang untuk materi kaiwa dan 72,71% menyatakan kurang untuk materi kaiwa. tanggapan responden terhadap kemampuan mendengar adalah 45,51% menjawab mampu sedangkan 30,30% menjawab mampu untuk berbicara. tanggapan mahasiswa terhadap kemampuan menyimak melalui pendengaran sebanyak 44,79% menyatakan sangat sulit dan 40,44% sangat sulit untuk menyimak melalui percakapan. tanggapan responden untuk memahami isi kegiatan choukai yang menyatakan paham setengahnya sebanyak 48,47% sedangkan responden yangmemahami isi dan tujuan percakapan sebanyak 59,33% menyatakan paham setengahnya. responden yang memberikan tanggapan terhadap kaitan choukai dan kaiwa sebanyak 89,98% menyatakan sangat berkaitan. jika dilihat pengaruh latihan mendengar terhadap kemampuan berbicara, paling tinggi responden menjawab sangat mempengruhi sebanyak 98,65% sedangkan jika dilihat tanggapan responden terhadap pengaruh kemampuan mendengar pada kemampuan berbicara maka 97,24 responden menyatakan sangat berpengaruh. dari hasil data tersebut jelaslah bahwa kemampuan mendengar dan latihan choukai berpengaruh pada peningkatkan kemampuan mendengar hingga taraf menyimak, lalu memahami dan merangsang responden untuk berbicara. jika digambarkan dalam diagram maka akan terbentuk kerangka berpikir seperti berikut ini. x1 x2 y gambar 1 kerangka berpikir keteragan gambar: x1 = kemampuan mendengar/choukai x2 = kemampuan berbicara/kaiwa y = mahasiswa semester iv ubinus pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah… (robihim) 55 analisis data dan keputusan setelah data dari responden dan angket hasil terkumpul dan dideskripsikan, selanjutnya diadakan analisis untuk mengetahui hubungan variabel yang diuji dengan program spss program 10.1, melalui uji statistik kendall’s tau_b berikut ini. tabel 1 uji statistik kendall’s tau_b penagruh choukai kemampuan berbicara mahasiswa kendall’s tau_b pengaruh choukai .1000 .552** .235* .552** .1000 .276* .235* .276 .1000 sig (2-tailed) pengaruh choukai . .000 .029 .000 . .011 .029 .011 . n pengaruh choukai 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 uji koefisien uji koefisien korelasi dilakukan untuk mengetahui kuat lemahnya pengaruh antara variabel yang diuji. angka berkisar pada 0 artinya tidak ada pengaruh sama sekali dan 1 artinya pengaruh sempurna/balas. sehubungan dengan tidak adanya kebutuhan yang baku tentang angka hasil pengaruh tertentu yang menunjukkan kuat lemahnya pangaruh, dilakukan acuan atau pedoman yang yang sederhana. yaitu angka di atas 0,5 menunjukkan adanya pengaruh kuat sedangkan di bawah 0,5 menunjukkan adanya pengaruh lemah. pada kolom telihat pengaruh choukai dan berbicara yang memiliki nilai di atas 0,5 yaotu 0,552. hal itu menunjukkan variabel pengaruh choukai memiliki pengaruh yang kuat. uji arah tanda arah berpengaruh pada penafsiran hasil negatif (-) output yang menunjukkan adanya arah berlawanan sedangkan tanda positif (+) menunjukkan arah yang sama pada kolom. sedangkan yang tidak terdapat tanda negatif (-) artinya pengaruh positif yang dapat diartikan semakin tinggi nilai suatu variabel akan kuat juga pengaruh variabel yang berkaitan dengannya. uji signifikasi uji signifikasi digunakan untuk mengetahui angka yang didapat benar-benar signifikan atau dapat menjelaskan hubungan dua variabel dengan menetapkan hipotesis sebelumnya sebagai berikut: h0 artinya tidak ada pengaruh antara dua variabel h1 artinya ada pengaruh antara dua variabel dasar pengambilankeputusan terdiri dari: 1) berdasarkan probalitas jika probalitas > 0,005 maka h0 diterima jika probalitas < 0,005 maka h0 ditolak 2) berdasarkan tanda bintang (*) dalam spss signifikan tidaknya pengaruh dua variabel bisa dilihat dari tanda bintang (*), ada data yang dipengaruhi bila tedapat tanda bintang (*), maka disimpulkan terjadi pengaruh yang signifikan. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 47-56 56 penutup mahasiswa semester iv ubinus beranggapan bahwa mata kuliah choukai dan bunpou sangat menyenangkan sehingga mereka mengangap pentingnya melakukan penambahan materi untuk mata kuliah choukai dan kaiwa karena ada asumsi bahwa waktu yang terjadi efektif saat ini masih perlu ditingkatkan. karena kedua mata kuliah ini terkait dengan pengaruh kemapuan secara signifikan, para mahasiswa menyatakan mampu dalam mengikuti perkuliahan kedua submata kuliah itu, dengan terus latihan diharapkan dapat meningkataan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam hal pendengaran dan berbicara bahasa jepang sehingga latihan terus dilakukan untuk mengetahui/menyimak isi dan kegiatan mata kuliah yang bersangkutan. hal tersebut karena mahasiswa mulai menyadari adanya hubungan yang kuat antara kemampuan mendengar dan berbicara yang dapat dibuktikan melalui hasil kuesioner yang disebarkan pada kelas 04pan dan 04pbn mahasiswa semseter iv yang mewakili kemudian mengolah hasilnya dengan uji kendall’s tau_b. selanjutnya, dari hasil uji analisis tersbut diperoleh bukti adanya pengaruh yang kuat kemampuan choukai terhadap kemampuan bicara mahasiswa semester iv ubinus. uji yang sudah dilakukan untuk memberikan bukti itu adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, uji koefisien, yaitu untuk mengetahui kuat lemahnya pengaruh antara variabel yang diuji. kedua, uji arah, yaitu pengujian yang dilakukan dengan tanda arah untuk menunjukkan searah atau berlawanan data yang sedang diuji. ketiga, uji signifikasi, dilakukan untuk mengetahui angka yang benar-benar signifikan dan dapat menjelaskan dua variabel. daftar pustaka ad. rooijakers. 1984. mengajar dengan sukses. jakarta: gramedia. arikunto, suharsimi. 1988. dasar-dasar evaluasi pendidikan. jakarta: bina aksara. azwar, saifuddin. 1984. test prestasi-fungsi dan pengembangan pengukuran prestasi belajar. yogyakarta: liberti. gempur, santoso. 2005. metodologi penelitian. jakarta: prestasi pustaka. hamalik, oemar. 1980. teknik pengukuran dan evaluasi pendidikan. bandung: pustaka martiana. katsuyojiten, kiso nihongo. 1988. kamus pemakaian bahasa jepang dasar. kokuritsu kokugo kenkyuusho. koide, noriko. 1974. nihongo kyouiku no senmonka, nihongo kyouiku iv, nihongo kyouiku gakkai. microsoft word 08_henny_e-learning.doc peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 157 peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan minat dan proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin: studi kasus mahasiswa sastra china universitas bina nusantara henny lim chinese department, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, hennylim@binus.edu abstract bina nusantara university is a university with a rapid development of its e-learning system in the teaching-learning process and chinese department is one department using the e-learning system. this research was done to find out the role e-learning in improving the students’ interest in studying chinese language. data were collected by interviewing lecturers and distributing questionnaires to 120 students. then, the data were tabulated and analysed. the result of the research shows that the respondents are familiar with binusmaya – the e-learning system used – but they seldom use it because they do not think of its benefit. thus, it can be concluded that binusmaya does not both support the students of the chinese department in the teaching and learning process and in improving the students’ interest. keywords: e-learning, chinese language, teaching, learning, interest abstrak universitas bina nusantara adalah salah satu universitas dengan perkembangan e-learning yang pesat dan sastra china adalah jurusan yang menggunakan sistem pembelajaran e-learning (binusmaya). penelitian dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui peranan e-learning dalam meningkatkan minat mahasiswa sastra china dalam mempelajari bahasa mandarin. metode yang digunakan dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu metode pengumpulan data dan metode analisis data. metode pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan kepustakaan dengan mencari sumber yang terkait dan penelitian lapangan yang dilakukan dengan menginterview dosen dan membagi kuisioner kepada 120 mahasiswa. metode analisis data dilakukan dengan tabulasi dan dianalisis sesuai permasalahan. berdasarkan penelitian yang telah dilakukan, diketahui bahwa responden mengetahui dengan baik binusmaya tetapi jarang digunakan karena manfaat yang kurang. hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa binusmaya tidak mendukung mahasiswa sastra china dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dan tidak meningkatkan minat mahasiswa sastra china terhadap bahasa mandarin. kata kunci: e-learning, bahasa mandarin, pengajaran, pembelajaran, minat jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 157-167 158 pendahuluan seiring dengan perkembangan jaman, kecanggihan teknologi saat ini telah memungkinkan manusia untuk mengakses segala informasi dan menciptakan banyaknya perubahan, diantaranya perkembangan yang terjadi di bidang pendidikan. perkembangan tersebut terlihat dalam perkembangan metode pembelajaran. metode pembelajaran saat ini telah memungkinkan efisiensi dan efektivitas yang tinggi dan pengguna dapat melakukan pembelajaran di mana saja tanpa terikat ruang dan waktu. metode tersebut dapat dicapai dengan teknologi internet. metode pembelajaran menggunakan teknologi informasi dikenal dengan e-learning dan metode itu telah banyak diterapkan, terutama pada universitas dan universitas bina nusantara adalah salah satu universitas yang menerapkan metode e-learning, atau yang lebih dikenal dengan binusmaya. persaingan yang kian ketat di masa ini juga menuntut manusia untuk tidak hanya menguasai teknologi tetapi juga bahasa. sebagai salah satu lembaga pendidikan yang berbasiskan teknologi informasi, universitas bina nusantara (ubinus) juga membuka fakultas sastra, yang salah satu diantaranya adalah sastra china, untuk menghadapi persaingan jaman. sastra china ubinus adalah jurusan yang baru diperkenalkan pada tahun 2002 dan seperti jurusan universitas bina nusantara lainnya, untuk menanggapi persaingan yang semakin kompetittif, sastra china ubinus juga menyediakan fasilitas binusmaya. akan tetapi, pelaksanaan binusmaya untuk jurusan yang baru didirikan 5 tahun ini, telah menimbulkan suatu pertanyaan, yaitu apakah e-learning universitas bina nusantara mendukung mahasiswa sastra china dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dan bagaimana peranannya dalam meningkatkan minat mahasiswa sastra china terhadap bahasa mandarin. e-learning yang sering diidentikan dengan online-learning merupakan metode pembelajaran ekeltronis dengan menggabungkan aspek audio/visual (multimedia) melalui intenet. cara baru belajar itu diharapkan dapat lebih meningkatkan independensi e-learner (pembelajar) dalam belajar. konsep e-learning yang seperti itu, apakah juga berlaku terhadap mahasiswa sastra china bahwa mahasiswa sastra seharusnya lebih banyak berinteraksi langsung dengan pengajar, atau sebaliknya, e-learning justru semakin meningkatkan minat dan membantu proses pembelajaran. berdasarkan uraian tersebut, diadakan suatu penelitian yang menguraikan peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan minat dan proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dengan studi kasus mahasiswa sastra china universitas bina nusantara. pembahasan pembelajaran dan memori merupakan kunci keberhasilan dalam proses kehidupan manusia. seperti yang dikemukakan oleh kusumoputro (1995), belajar adalah mendapat suatu informasi atau keterampilan yang dapat mengubah kebiasaan seseorang dengan melibatkan ingatan atau memori, sebagai tempat penyimpan informasi, dan harus dilakukan secara bertahap dan melalui proses latihan secara berkala. pembelajaran itu sendiri adalah proses untuk memperoleh pengetahuan baru dan memori adalah proses yang menyimpan pengetahuan itu dalam waktu lama. brown (2002) mendefinisikan bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi dan telah diterapkan secara sistematis, bahasa juga merupakan salah satu lambang kekuasaan yang berkenaan dengan suara dan penglihatan. kata mandarin dalam bahasa indonesia diserap dari bahasa inggris yang mendeskripsikan bahasa tionghoa juga sebagai bahasa mandarin. namun sebenarnya, kata mandarin ini diserap bahasa inggris dari bahasa tionghoa sendiri. mandarin secara harfiah berasal dari sebutan orang asing kepada pembesar dinasti qing. dinasti qing adalah dinasti yang didirikan oleh suku manchu sehingga peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 159 pembesar kekaisaran biasanya disebut sebagai mandaren (滿大人) yang berarti yang mulia manchu. dari sini, bahasa yang digunakan oleh para pejabat manchu waktu itu juga disebut sebagai bahasa mandaren. penulisannya berevolusi menjadi mandarin di kemudian hari. mempelajari bahasa mandarin, seperti halnya mempelajari bahasa asing yang lain, setiap pembelajar dapat menetapkan prinsip yang dijelaskan oleh richards (2002) dalam pembelajaran bahasa, seperti niat dan motivasi dalam mempelajari bahasa, penghafalan kosakata, kepercayaan diri, tidak takut salah, pengetahuan akan kebudayaan, dan kebiasaan dalam penggunaan bahasa asing tersebut. pada pembelajaran bahasa mandarin, para pengajar juga memegang peranan yang tidak kalah penting bagi pembelajar itu sendiri, richards (2002) juga menjelaskan bahwa terdapat 12 karakteristik dalam proses pengajaran bahasa yang efektif: pengajar mengajar berdasarkan panduan pembelajaran, yakni kurikulum yang digunakan; minat pembelajar untuk belajar bahasa asing dan pengajar untuk mengajar bahasa asing tersebut; konsentrasi pembelajar selama proses pembelajaran bahasa; sistem pengajaran bahasa yang mudah dimengerti; memonitor kemajuan belajar; pengajar mengajar ulang untuk materi yang tidak dimengerti oleh pembelajar; keefektivan selama proses pembelajaran; suasana yang mendukung proses pembelajaran bahasa; perlunya membentuk kelompok belajar; standardisasi perilaku pengajaran; komunikasi antar pengajar dan pembelajar; penghargaan kepada pelajar yang berprestasi. e-learning (electronic learning) yang biasa dikenal pula dengan sebutan distance learning, online learning, web-based training/computer based traning, distance education adalah metode pembelajaran elektronis dengan menggabungkan aspek audio/ visual (multimedia) melalui internet, dapat pula disebut dengan pendidikan jarak jauh (santoso, 2001). e-learning dapat dikenali dengan ciri-ciri sebagai berikut: sistem pendidikan yang pelaksanaannya memisahkan guru dan siswa karena faktor jarak dan waktu; penyampaian bahan ajar dengan bantuan media e-learning, seperti komputer, internet; bahan ajar yang disampaikan bersifat “mandiri”; komunikasi yang disampaikan dapat melalui dua arah, baik yang disampaikan secara langsung (synchronuous) maupun secara tidak langsung (asynchronous); sistem pembelajarannya dilakukan secara sistematik (terstruktur), teratur dalam kurun waktu tertentu; mencipkan paradigma baru yang membuat guru sebagai pengajar sebagai “fasilitator” dan siswa sebagai pembelajar sebagai “peserta aktif”. manfaat positif yang dapat diambil dari e-learning adalah meningkatkan independensi elearner dalam belajar. e-learning sendiri mempunyai peranan yang cukup penting, antara lain meningkatkan pemerataan pendidikan, meningkatkan wawasan, mengatasi kekurangan tenaga pendidikan, dan meningkatkan efisiensi. e-learning universitas bina nusantara yang biasa dikenal juga dengan nama binusmaya, pada tahun 2000 universitas bina nusantara memulai melakukan pilot project e-learning menggunakan lotus learningspace. pada tahun 2004, mulai dikembangkan aplikasi yang dikembangkan sendiri dengan berbasis . net yang disebut dengan beelms dan beecms yang paralel dengan learning space dan mulai menggunakan nama mcl (mutli channel learning) dan binusmaya. pada tahun 2005, lotus learning space sudah tidak dipakai lagi, murni menggunakan beecms dan beelms. e-learning universitas bina nusantara biasa disebut dengan nama binusmaya atau mcl (multi channe learning) dan dapat diakses melalui situs http://binusmaya.binus.ac.id/ . suatu mata kuliah disajikan dalam mcl adalah apabila kesiapan bahan dan materi telah tersedia, seperti sap (satuan acara perkuliahan), mp (modul plan), dan co (course outline)-nya telah siap digunakan. mcl universitas bina nusantara dilaksanakan dengan dua metode penyampaian, yaitu tatap muka dan offclass. pembelajaran dengan tatap muka adalah pembelajaran jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 157-167 160 seperti pertemuan di kelas, dosen mengakses binusmaya dan langsung menerangkan materi pada saat perkuliahan sedangkan offclass adalah sesi tidak ada pertemuan kelas, tidak ada tatap muka dengan dosen, mahasiswa mengakses materi langsung melalui internet dan mengerjakan tugas yang terdapat di dalamnya. hasil penelitian hasil penelitian melalui interview wawancara dilakukan kepada dosen sastra china universitas bina nusantara. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa binusmaya kurang efektif karena belum disesuaikan dengan kondisi yang tepat. binusmaya akan efektif bila dosen mendukung dan menyarankan mahasiswanya untuk mengakses binusmaya. akan tetapi, sampai saat ini banyak dosen yang menganggap binusmaya tidak berjalan secara efektif karena dosen tidak mempunyai waktu untuk mengakses di luar jam kuliah/mengajar, hal itu terutama dirasakan oleh sebagian dosen partime; kesulitan dalam mengakses karena binusmaya yang sulit dan lama dibuka; untuk beberapa mata kuliah, seperti grammar, speaking, dan listening, bergantung pada buku yang sedang digunakan dan memerlukan kontak langsung dengan dosen, hal tersebut ditunjukkan dengan banyaknya mahasiswa yang mengalami kesulitan saat proses belajar mengajar. oleh sebab itu, para dosen menilai binusmaya tidak akan efektif jika dihadapkan pada mata kuliah yang mempunyai tingkat kesulitan yang tinggi; materi dalam bentuk power point yang telah disediakan dinilai terlalu ringkas sehingga tidak akan membantu mahasiswa dalam mengerti materi pelajaran; offclass sendiri dirasa beberapa dosen hanya membuat kebiasaan malas mahasiswa karena mereka tidak perlu menghadiri perkuliahan sedangkan tugas yang di-posting pada saat offclass belum tentu hasil mahasiswa itu sendiri. dengan adanya sap pada binusmaya seharusnya dapat memudahkan dosen dalam menyampaikan materi karena dengan adanya sap sangat diharapkan mahasiswa dapat mengetahui terlebih dahulu materi yang akan diterangkan di kelas dan mempermudah mahasiswa dalam menyiapkan materi. akan tetapi pada kenyataannya, mahasiswa sendiri tidak pernah membuka ataupun tahu mengenai adanya sap di binusmaya sehingga binusmaya sama sekali tidak membantu dosen dalam menyampaikan materi. penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dalam perkuliahan, frekuensi penggunaan binusmaya berada pada kondisi jarang dan hampir tidak pernah. hal itu karena materi yang harus diterangkan oleh dosen sangat banyak sedangkan untuk membuka binusmaya membutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama, ditambah dengan terputusnya jaringan internet atau terdapat error dalam proses pembukaan. sebagian dosen merasa apabila isi dalam binusmaya lebih baik, misalnya dilengkapi dengan multimedia atau artikel yang menarik dengan penyajiannya yang menarik pula, dosen dapat mengajak mahasiswa dan mahasiswa sendiri mempunyai insiatif membuka binusmaya. pencapaian tersebut seharusnya dapat meningkatkan minat mahasiswa terhadap bahasa mandarin tetapi untuk saat ini, materi yang terdapat pada binusmaya belum dapat meningkatkan minat mahasiswa terhadap bahasa mandarin. hasil penelitian melalui kuesioner penelitian dilakukan kepada mahasiswa sastra china universitas bina nusantara angkatan 2003, 2004, 2005 dan 2006. e-learning adalah metode pembelajaran elektronis dengan menggabungkan aspek audio/visual (multimedia) melalui internet. kemampuan seseorang dalam menggunakan komputer sangat berpengaruh dalam pembelajaran dengan metode e-learning. secara umum, mahasiswa sastra china universitas bina nusantara dapat mengakses komputer dengan baik, hal tersebut terlihat dengan persentase yang tinggi atau sekitar 72,2% sehingga para mahasiswa diasumsikan dapat menggunakan binusmaya dengan baik. peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 161 kemampuan berbahasa mandarin sampel penelitian ditunjukkan dengan pernah atau tidaknya mahasiswa mempelajari bahasa mandarin dan berapa lama mahasiswa mempelajari bahasa mandarin. dasar berbahasa mandarin mempengaruhi cara mengakses binusmaya itu sendiri karena materi di dalam binusmaya disajikan dalam bahasa mandarin. mahasiswa sastra china universitas bina nusantara yang pernah mempelajari bahasa mandarin adalah sebesar 47% untuk angkatan 2003, 70% baik angkatan 2004 maupun angkatan 2005, dan 87% untuk angkatan 2006, dengan kata lain 68.5% mahasiswa pernah mempelajari bahasa mandarin. data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa memiliki kemampuan mengakses binusmaya, baik dari segi kemampuan menggunakan komputer maupun dasar berbahasa mandarin. gambar 1 kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan komputer gambar 2 mahasiswa yang pernah mempelajari bahasa mandarin penyebaran informasi mengenai binusmaya didapat dari berbagai macam sumber. pencarian informasi sumber itu sangat penting dalam menentukan penyebaran informasi penggunaan binusmaya yang paling optimal. ditinjau dari seluruh angkatan, terdapat persamaan dalam perolehan sumber informasi mengenai binusmaya. persamaan tersebut adalah peranan dosen yang tinggi, terutama pada angkatan 2003 yang mencapai persentase 63%, meskipun peranan dosen dalam menyebarkan informasi semakin menurun untuk angkatan berikutnya. hal itu karena dosen merasa pelaksanaan binusmaya kurang efektif sehingga dosen kurang mendukung pelaksanaan binusmaya. penyebaran informasi lain yang memegang peranan yang signifikan adalah teman yang memegang peranan yang cukup tinggi 27% untuk angkatan 2003; 40% pada angkatan 2004; 43% pada angkatan 2005 dan 47% jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 157-167 162 pada angkatan 2006. penyebaran lain, seperti media promosi, seperti spanduk, brosur, dan iklan atau informasi dari kakak kelas juga berperan dalam penyebaran informasi sedangkan buku pedoman tidak memegang peran yang penting dalam penyebaran informasi mengenai binusmaya. tempat mengakses binusmaya mempengaruhi niat mahasiswa dalam mengakses binusmaya. mahasiswa akan lebih mudah mengakses melalui komputer pribadi yang dilengkapi dengan fasilitas internet karena lebih mudah. 50% lebih angkatan 2003 dan 2004, akses terbesar adalah malalui komputer pribadi, hal itu dapat memungkinkan tingkat akses binusmaya yang tinggi. akan tetapi, untuk angkatan 2005 dan 2006 akses terbesar binusmaya adalah melalui warnet, hal itu dapat menyebabkan tingkat akses yang rendah karena akses binusmaya jurusan sastra china membutuhkan program khusus yang mendukung pembelajaran dan tidak disetiap warnet terdapat program penunjang seperti itu. berdasarkan data yang didapatkan dari biro operasi ti, tingkat pengaksesan binusmaya pada periode ganjil 2006/2007 adalah sebesar 13.875 kali akses (urutan ke-14 dari 21 jurusan yang ada di universitas bina nusantara) dan akses terbesar adalah pada mata kuliah character building yang hampir mencapai 6.000 kali akses. pada periode genap 2006/2007, besar pengaksesan hanya sebesar 3.461 kali akses (urutan ke-16 dari 21 jurusan). penurunan itu karena tidak adanya mata kuliah character building dalam semester genap. hal itu menunjukan keaktifan penggunaan binusmaya lebih menunjuk kepada mata kuliah yang bukan berada di bawah gugus sastra china. gambar 3 sumber informasi mengenai binusmaya gambar 4 cara mengakses binusmaya peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 163 dalam modul sap (satuan acara perkuliahan) dan mp (modul plan) terdapat materi yang akan dibahas selama perkuliahan berlangsung. melalui sap dan mp mahasiswa dapat terlebih dahulu mengetahui dan menyiapkan materi yang akan dijelasan dosen sehingga dapat mempermudah dosen dalam menyampaikan materi. akan tetapi, berdasarkan penelitian diketahui bahwa lebih dari 60% mahasiswa sastra china tidak mengetahui tentang sap dan mp. materi lain yang ada di dalam binusmaya adalah materi pendukung. materi pendukung memegang peranan yang cukup besar dalam meningkatkan minat mahasiswa terhadap bahasa mandarin, bila materi pendukung yang disediakan menarik dan persentase mahasiswa yang mengetahui dan membuka materi pendukung besar maka besar pula kemungkinan bahwa e-learning universitas bina nusantara dapat meningkatkan minat mahasiswa terhadap bahasa mandarin. berdasarkan hasil penelitian, pada angkatan 2003 hanya 17% mahasiswa yang mengetahui tentang materi pendukung, pada angkatan 2004 meningkat menjadi 37%, pada angkatan 2005 meningkat lagi menjadi 57%, dan pada angkatan 2006 sebesar 77% mahasiswa mengetahui tentang materi pendukung. hasil penelitian memang menunjukkan bahwa banyak mahasiswa yang mengetahui tentang materi pendukung tetapi jumlah itu tidak diiringi dengan frekuensi mereka dalam membuka materi pendukung tersebut. pada angkatan 2003, frekuensi seringnya mahasiswa membuka materi pendukung hanya 16%, angkatan 2004 hanya sebesar 21% , angakatan 2005 hanya sebesar 17%, dan angkatan 2006 hanya sebesar 24% yang membuka materi pendukung. pada angkatan 2006 jelas terlihat perbedaan yang signifikan, walaupun terdapat 77% dari sampel yang mengetahui keberadaan binusmaya tetapi dari 77% itu, hanya 24% yang sering membuka materi pendukung. hal itu karena isi dari materi pendukung itu yang kurang menarik perhatian, mahasiswa yang tidak berminat membuka materi pendukung, maupun kesulitan membuka materi pendukung itu karena keterbatasan program pendukung. gambar 5 jumlah mahasiswa yang mengetahui tentang sap dan mp gambar 6 frekuensi seringnya mahasiswa membuka materi pendukung jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 157-167 164 isi materi yang mudah dimengerti, menarik, dan up to date yang disajikan dalam binusmaya sangat mempengaruhi keaktifan seorang mahasiswa dalam mengakses dan mambuka binusmaya. berdasarkan hasil penelitian, hanya 53% mahasiswa angkatan 2003 yang menganggap materi binusmaya mudah dimengerti dan pada angkatan 2004 meningkat menjadi 60%, dan meningkat lagi menjadi 67% untuk angkatan 2005. akan tetapi, jumlah itu menurun pada angkatan 2006, yaitu hanya 37% mahasiswa yang menganggap materi di dalam binusmaya itu mudah dimengerti. dari jumlah tersebut dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa hanya 50% mahasiswa yang menganggap binusmaya mudah dimengerti dan menunjukkan pula tingkat keberhasilan materi dalam binusmaya sangatlah minim. materi yang menarik akan dapat mengikat mahasiswa untuk mengakses dan membuka binusmaya dan terus mengeskploritasi materi yang di dalamnya yang dapat meningkatkan minat mahasiswa terhadap bahasa mandarin. aka tetapi, berdasarkan hasil penelitian, 73% mahasiswa angkatan 2003, 47% angkatan 2004, 50% angkatan 2005, dan 70% angkatan 2006 menganggap materi yang terdapat di dalam binusmaya tidak meningkatkan minat terhadap bahasa mandarin. persentase terbesar alasan binusmaya tidak meningkatkan minat terhadap bahasa mandarin adalah jarang digunakan. hal itu menunjukan bahwa pengaruh keaktifan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan binusmaya berperan penting dalam perkembangan binusmaya itu sendiri, bila binusmaya jarang digunakan maka kemungkinan mahasiswa tidak mengetahui isi materi yang terdapat di dalam binusmaya sehingga perbaikan binusmaya untuk ke depan pun akan sulit dilakukan karena tidak ada mahasiswa yang menilai. peran binusmaya adalah membantu dalam perkuliahan. meteri yang akan didiskusikan selama perkuliahan dapat terlebih dahulu diketahui mahasiswa lewat binusmaya dan diharapkan akan membuat mahasiswa lebih memahami materi. akan tetapi, berdasarkan hasil penelitian, 54% mahasiswa sastra china menganggap binusmaya tidak membuat materi perkuliahan lebih dimengerti dan 40% menganggap binusmaya tidak bermanfaat dalam mendukung pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. persentase tertinggi alasan tidak bermanfaatnya binusmaya dalam mendukung pembelajaran bahasa mandarin adalah tidak adanya kontak langsung dengan dosen. hal itu dapat menjelaskan bahwa materi dalam binusmaya yang tidak dimengerti oleh mahasiswa tidak dapat ditanyakan langsung kepada dosen dan walaupun tersedia forum diskusi sebagai saran penghubung, juga tidak dapat langsung dijawab oleh dosen karena tidak setiap dosen selalu aktif dalam penggunaan forum diskusi. mahasiswa menganggap lebih cepat bertanya langsung kepada dosen sewaktu perkuliahan di kelas dan menjadikannya tidak berminat menggunakan binusmaya. tampilan yang tidak menarik dirasa sebagian mahasiswa karena tidak adanya suara yang mendukung dan fasilitas yang tidak memadai, sebagian mahasiswa menganggap bahwa kurangnya komputer di sallc merupakan salah satu penyebab fasilitas yang kurang dan program penunjang yang diperlukan dalam membuka materi yang tidak selalu terdapat di tempat mereka mengakses. mata kuliah dalam binusmaya yang dianggap paling bermanfaat adalah grammar bagi angkatan 2003 dan 2004, dan mata kuliah culture and history bagi angkatan 2005 dan 2006. animasi menarik yang menggambarkan tentang sejarah dan budaya akan mempermudah mahasiswa untuk mengerti sejaran dan kebudayaan yang terdapat di dalam animasi tersebut. sementara itu, penyampaian dengan tata bahasa yang benar akan membuat mahasiswa lebih terbiasa dengan grammar bahasa mandarin dan lebih mengetahui cara penggunaannya dalam kalimat. peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 165 gambar 7 alasan binusmaya meningkatan minat terhadap bahasa mandarin gambar 8 alasan binusmaya tidak dapat meningkatkan minat terhadap bahasa mandarin gambar 9 alasan binusmaya tidak bermanfaat dalam mendukung pembelajaran bahasa mandarin berdasarkan hasil kuesioner yang merupakan angket terbuka, para mahasiswa memberikan saran bagi kemajuan binusmaya sebagai berikut: up to date terhadap materi, diperbanyak materi listening, tersedianya software yang mendukung, dan perbanyak materi pendukung. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 157-167 166 gambar 10 saran untuk pengembangan binusmaya penutup berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan, dapat diambil simpulan sehubungan dengan peranan binusmaya terhadap pembelajaran bahasa mandarin, yaitu binusmaya tidak mendukung mahasiswa sastra china dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin; binusmaya tidak meningkatkan minat mahasiswa sastra china terhadap bahasa mandarin. hal tersebut terjadi dan berlaku pada setiap angkatan yang menjadi sampel data dalam penelitian. dari hasil penelitian terlihat bahwa mahasiswa memahami arti, peranan, manfaat, serta pengaksesan binusmaya. para mahasiswa juga tidak merasa kesulitan dalam mengakses binusmaya. binusmaya tidak mendukung dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dan tidak meningkatkan minat belajar bahasa mandarin karena pengguna binusmaya, baik dosen maupun mahasiswa, merasa bahwa binusmaya tidak memberikan kontribusi yang cukup signifikan dalam proses pembelajaran. hal tersebut karena faktor kesulitan akses, fasilitas yang kurang memadai dari universitas bina nusantara ditinjau dari program pendukung, sulitnya mencapai kesesuaian materi dengan binusmaya, dan tingginya ketergantungan mahasiswa terhadap dosen. hal itu juga merupakan bukti nyata kelemahan e-learning, yakni kurangnya budaya “self learning”. peranan e-learning dalam peningkatan … (henny lim) 167 daftar pustaka butler, christopher. 1995. statistika dalam linguistik. penerbit itb. effendi, empy and hartono zhuang. 2005. e-learning konsep dan aplikasi. yogyakarta: andi offset. ellish, rod. 2004. sla research and language teaching. oxford university press. kerjasama pertemuan mentri pendidikan asia tenggara. 2007, maret 10. kompas. kusumoputro, sidiarto. ”mekanisme pembelajaran semangkin dapat dipahami,” 1995, juni 25. kompas. lamak, ferdinand. ”e-learning cara belajar masa depan,” 2003, januari 15. warta ekonomi. lee, james f. and bill vanpatten. 1995. making communicative language teaching happen. mcgraw-hill. li, frederick wb, etc. “adaptive animation of human motion for e-learning applications,” retrieved 2007 april – june from markowitz, karen and eric jensen. 2003. otak sejuta gigabyte: buku pintar membangun ingatan super. bandung: kaifa. piskurich, george m. 2003. the ama handbook of e-learning. the united state of america amacom. richards, jack c. and theodore s. rodgers. 2001. approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge: university press. rossett, allison. 2002. the astd e-learning handbook. mcgraw-hill. 《现代汉语词典》,中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编,商务印书馆出版,1999年11月 第243次印刷 《中文电脑操作指南》,辛玉宝编者, 印尼建国大学, 2004年9月1版 《网络教学课件制作》,赵经成, 人民邮电出版社,2004年10月第 14075次 印刷 santoso, hanny. manfaat dan keunggulan e-learning. 2001, desember 3-10. swadaya. sheff, harry. “agent training beyond the classroom -e-learning tools are a great way to feed your agents' knowledge and respond to skill gaps without big time and classroom commitments,” retrieved 2007 april from soekartawi. ”ada apa dengan pendidikan kita?” 2005, april 25. kompas. issn 1978-8118 vol. 3 no. 2 november 2009 ketua dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. dewan redaksi ratna handayani, m.si. henny lim, ba cendrawaty tjong, ba sofi zhang, ba dra. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., ma. akun, s.pd., m.hum. mitra bestari prof. bahren umar siregar.ph.d dra. ekawati m. dukut, m.hum. dra. nalti novianti, m.si. rita susanti, s.pd., s.s., m.si. andyni khosasih, se, ba xia mingju, ba, ma. zhang bin, ba, ma. huan jianjun, ph.d. elisa christiana, ba. guangxi shifan xueyuan (guangxi teachers education university) china editor bahasa dan setter dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. christian parlindungan s., s.s. holil angga ferdiansyah sekretariat: anindito, s.kom., m.ti alamat redaksi: subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang sastra research office universitas bina nusantara kampus anggrek jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk jakarta barat 11530 telp. 021-5350660 (ext. 1190) fax. 021-5300244 cultura jurnal lingualingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 3 no. 2 november 2009 daftar isi abdul aziz turhan kariko malay pop: mass media hegemony in indonesia popular music........................................ 99-106 desri maria sumbayak the diphthongs: the obstacles for indonesian speakers of english................................. 107-115 yuvike; menik winiharti the non-observance of the conversational maxims: an analysis of the dialogues in arthur miller’s the crucible............................................................................. 116-127 clara herlina the comparison of bilingual and monolingual learners ability in identifying sentences using reduced clause....................................................................................... 128-137 paramita ayuningtyas viewers and identity consciousness: the analysis of the responses of green street’s viewers 138-145 bena yusuf pelawi aspek semantik dan pragmatik dalam penerjemahan (semantic and pragmatic aspect in translation) ...................................................... 146-151 cendrawaty; yovita; juniwati the portrait of qiong yao’s life in her novels.......................................................... 152-163 xuc lin similarity and differences of the concubine character in the novel wives and concubines and the earth of mankind................................................................................... 164-174 frieska sekar nadya penggunaan jodoushi dan keiyoushi dalam kalimat pada komik doraemon seri 25-35 (the use of jodoushi and keiyoushi in sentences of doraemon comic, series 25 – 35)......... 175-182 timur sri astami mistakes in using keigo on japanese busines correspondence subject............................. 183-193 indeks......................................................................................................... 195-199 cultura jurnal lingualingua copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 79 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 79-83 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1518 assessing university students’ critical thinking skill by using the toefl itp reading test rentauli mariah silalahi fakultas teknik informatika dan elektro (ftie), prodi sistem informasi, institut teknologi del jl. sisingamangaraja, toba samosir 22381, indonesia rentaulisilalahi@gmail.com received: 11th august 2016/ revised: 18th november 2016/ accepted: 31th march 2017 how to cite: silalahi, r. m. (2017). assessing university students’ critical thinking skill by using the toefl itp reading test. lingua cultura, 11(2). 79-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1518 abstract this research investigated the students’ ability in applying the critical thinking skill while doing the toefl itp reading test. the participants were 140 university students in one of the private universities (fi university/pseudonym) in indonesia. to find out the answer, this research was firstly done by looking at the relationship of critical thinking and reading comprehension skill and investigating the level of students’ reading ability by contrasting their reading score to the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr). the study finds that there is an inseparable connection between the students’ critical thinking skill and reading competence. and the majority of the participants is very weak in critical thinking and reading competence skills. therefore they are placed at the bottom level of the cefr. keywords: critical thinking, reading competence, toefl, cefr introduction all teachers want their students to be critical in a positive way, yet generally, students in indonesia are not very keen on improving their critical thinking ability. as this ability may be improved and developed, teachers should try to integrate it into their teaching experiences that eventually may result in critical students. when indonesian’s young generations are critical enough, they will lead the country into prosperity. one good practice english teachers may do is by designing an english test that can assess students’ critical thinking. a good english test should be able to assess someone’s english competence and critical thinking at the same time. the english test should not at any form sounds like a pure logical test that requires a deep comprehension of mathematical formulation and calculation. the test should purely be based on english competence but test the critical thinking. however, critical thinking should not be misunderstood as a reasoning test. the purpose of the english critical thinking test is to enable students to be creative and critical when pursuing their study because the essence of being a student is to be always creative and critical, yet that is a rare situation in most of asean countries’ schools, especially in indonesia. the hardest part of a teacher’s work is to make the students active and responsive in class participation and creative in acquiring knowledge from other sources than solely depends on materials that are given by the teacher in the classroom. therefore it is highly suggested that efl (english as first language) teachers become active in encouraging students to practice their critical thinking abilities by using different kinds of approaches such as practicing debates, problem-solving tasks, media analysis, (rezaei, derakhshan, & bagherkazemi, 2011) and essay writing (wang, 2016) in which by the end of the course may become an assessment tool. however, creating this kind of a test which is testing students’ critical thinking is not an easy task, but forces the teacher as the test maker to be able to be creative, critical, and logical in thinking. these skills acquired of a teacher may become a burden when not wisely comprehended and may stress the teacher out, but when the teacher realizes the importance of having critical thinking skill, he/she will immensely gain knowledge from it and be successful in his/ her career (ghaemi & taherian, 2011). there have been several kinds of english tests which are internationally tested and approved as a tool for assessing someone’s english proficiency. it is considered reliable to measure the potential of somebody to survive for a study for certain circumstances. among them, they are the ielts test and toefl test which are currently booming as the most favored tests by anyone who is having a purpose of studying overseas. these kinds of tests will be a promising business for the next many years to come. these two tests are different in forms yet with their own uniqueness can 80 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 79-83 assess students for their critical thinking. there have been many kinds of research done related to assessing english test that may test the test taker’s critical thinking. critical thinking itself has been defined by varied interpretation yet basically sounds the same. khatib & mehrgan have defined critical thinking as logical, analytical, reasonable, higher-order, reflective, and scientific thinking as well as reasoning skill (khatib & mehrgan, 2012). meanwhile, it is defined critical thinking as the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, draw inferences, evaluate arguments, and solve problems (hassani, rahmany, & babaei, 2013). on a different research, fahim & pezeshki have clearly stated that critical thinking involved logical reasoning, an ability to separate facts from opinions, examining things before accepting them, and asking oneself questions all the time (fahim, barjesteh, & vaseghi, 2012). among all definitions defined by many researchers, paul’s definition is the one quite close to bloom’s taxonomy in which he defined critical thinking as learning how to ask and answer questions of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (rezaei et al., 2011). looking back at those definitions, it may be concluded that critical thinking is inseparable with creative and logical thinking. considering the urgent need for students to be critical, rezaei et al. (2011) have suggested teachers help students develop their students’ critical thinking by doing some active activities from the debate, problem-solving, selfassessment assignment, and peer assessment assignment. the ultimate objective of critical thinking is to help students make the correct judgment based on the careful weighing of available evidence. meanwhile, khatib & mehrgan, 2012 have suggested that giving students short stories to read will improve their critical thinking. another method is introduced by fahim, miri, & najafi (2014), who find that by doing collaborative assessment; particularly between students, is more effective in fostering critical thinking skill. it can be concluded that almost all previous research accomplished is about the relation between reading and critical thinking or how reading activities may evolve students’ critical thinking (hassani et al., 2013), (khodadady & ghanizadeh, 2011), (fahim, bagherkazemi, & alemi, 2010), (fahim et al., 2012) or more interestingly, someone’s critical thinking may help him/her to advance his/her writing skill (assadi, davatgar, & jafari, 2013) or speaking skill (ramezani, larsari, & kiasi, 2016). however, for this research, the researcher makes a scope to focus on the relationship between critical thinking and reading skill. the researcher chooses this focus based on a personal reason where she finds so many students in institut teknologi del are very weak in reading skill both in understanding the content and interpreting the content critically. it happens to the most courses students learned at the college. however, the researcher focuses on students’ reading skill in english course taking toefl itp reading test as an instrument. in the toefl itp test, there are three type of questions commonly asked. firstly is about ideas of the passages whether the main idea, stated or unstated detail, and implied one, secondly is about vocabulary, and thirdly is about cohesion for author’s tone or purpose and the location of specific information (phillips, 2003; phillips, 2004). all those types of questions require students to be able to apply three main skills which are closely related to bloom’s taxonomy and the watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal (fahim et al., 2010). they are skills for comprehension or understanding, analysis, and evaluation. when students try to answer a toefl reading test item, they must understand the text that they read and analyze the information they gain from the text and if necessary make evaluation of the best possible answer which is sometimes very tricky. the watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal is all about comprehension, analysis, and evaluation (fahim et al., 2010). it comprises five subsections which measure five aspects of critical thinking, they are (1) drawing inferences based on factual statements, (2) recognition of assumptions in many assertive statements, (3) making deductions to determine if conclusions follow from information given in statements, (4) interpreting evidence to decide if conclusions are legitimate or not, (5) evaluating arguments as being strong or weak. to look at the level of the students’ reading comprehension proficiency closely, the researcher contrasts the students’ achieved reading score to the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr) as it would enable the researcher to map the students based on their score. there are six levels of the cefr as shown in table 1 (phillips, 2004). table 1 the six levels of cefr c2 mastery proficient user c1 effective operational proficiency b2 vantage independent user b1 threshold a2 waystage basic user a1 breakthrough therefore, the research questions are formulated as (1) is there any relationship between students’ critical thinking skill and reading comprehension skill? (2) what are the levels of students’ reading comprehension proficiency and the level of students’ critical thinking skill when reflected the cefr in fi university (pseudonym)? methods the participants of this study were 140 students aged between 21 to 22 years old from fi university. the students’ english proficiency as observed from the students’ rapport in their final semester in the sixth semester were varied from upper intermediate to lower intermediate because overall, the students’ average score in english course was 75,88 and the maximum score was 90,48 and the lowest score was 57,24. the students were all majoring information technology (it) and were sitting in their third year at the university. the researcher used toefl itp test as the main instrument for conducting this research. apart from that, there were several supporting documents used such as the students’ rapport to know the students’ general english competence in the university and the students’ toefl itp certificates to know the result of their toefl itp test. however, because the toefl itp test was designed by the official toefl itp test provider (known as ets) and was organized by the official toefl itp test organizer in indonesia called indonesian international education foundation (iief), then there was not any exploration or 81assessing university students’ critical .... (rentauli mariah silalahi) access to the test material whatsoever. it was very obvious that the question tested on the day the students sat the toefl itp test was not very far from the common types of questions asked in any toefl itp test practices available from the toefl itp books (phillips, 2003; phillips, 2004). this used a qualitative study and some of the analysis was done by literature analysis. the literature analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between students’ critical thinking and reading comprehension skill. the study was then continued by collecting the 140 student participants. the students were all mixed and no differences were made regarding their genders. the students were then given a toefl itp test on the 28 of may 2016. the students’ participation was not voluntary but was a part of a program in the university in which all students in the third year must sit a toefl itp test. the students had previously been given a toefl test preparation class for around one year before sitting the test. having been given a preparation class, they were expected to already learn some strategies to use critical thinking to answer the test questions. after two weeks, the students’ toefl itp test results were collected from the test organizer with some numerical explanations on the result sheet. the result was then observed and analyzed to answer the research questions. results and discussions being critical is exactly as already explained by the watson-glaser critical thinking appraisal that required a higher order thinking and very much alike the criteria of a proficient reader (brassell & rasinski, 2008). brassell & rasinski have stated that being a proficient reader means being competent in reading comprehension skill. table 2 will show how similar and interconnected the two components. table 2 the relationship between critical thinking and reading competence characteristic of being a critical thinking reader characteristic of being a competent reader could draw inferences based on factual statements, could do some series of activities while reading starting from asking questions about the text before, during, and after reading, could recognize assumptions in a number of assertive statements, could draw inferences from the text, could make deductions: to determine if conclusions follow from information given in statements, could monitor his/her comprehension, could interpret evidence to decide if conclusions are legitimate or not, could use ‘fix-up’ strategies when meaning breaks down, could evaluate arguments as being strong or weak. could figure out what is most important in whatever they read and synthesize new information to create new thinking. therefore, to answer the first question of this research whether there is a relationship between students’ critical thinking skill and reading comprehension skill, then the answer is yes. there is an inseparable connection between the two. therefore, it is worth noted that teachers should never try to separate the two but bring them together in their teaching practices when helping students to develop their reading skill. the reading test of the toefl itp test is only one small part of the test. there are actually two other important skills tested that contribute to the overall score of the toefl itp score; listening and structure. however, the focus of this study is the reading test of the toefl itp test. what texts really appear on every reading test of the toefl itp test may not be known for certain, yet it is still predictable because the reading test will usually consist of five reading passages. each is followed by a number of reading comprehension and vocabulary questions. and the topics are varied but are often about informational subjects that might be studied in an american university which usually talks about history, literature, art, architecture, geology, geography, and astronomy (phillips, 2003). to answer the questions on the reading part of the test, every test taker is required to be critical and be able to do multiple tasking jobs in their thoughts. among the tasks, according to cohen & upton (2006), the students should be able to do at a very similar time the following tasks: (1) choosing the right reading skill strategies to use for reading the text; either skimming, scanning, or reading for details. (2) looking ahead at the questions that follow a reading text. (3) thinking quickly to determine the types of answers required for the questions of the text; either asking for a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, phrase, or a complete sentence. (4) working out on the meaning of any unfamiliar word when stumbled with one. (5) rereading the sentences quickly where the answer to a question might be found. (6) choosing the right answer from four possible answer choices provided. the students’ participation is involved by sitting a toefl itp test or also known as toefl pbt on may 28, 2016. after sitting the toefl itp test, the result comes out with students’ scaled scores mean for the listening test 46,40, structure and written expression 43,19, and reading comprehension 47,82. the scores are released by the official test organizer in indonesia; iief, two weeks after the students sat the test. based on the result of the students’ toefl itp test, it is found that the students’ toefl itp lowest score is 357 and the highest score is 580. specific for reading competence, the students’ lowest score is 32 and the highest score is 63. meanwhile, for toefl itp official scaled score, the reading score ranged from 31 to 67. it means that the students’ in fi university is varied in reading competence from very poor to approaching excellent. when reflected the cefr, the students are categorized into four levels of competencies from a2 to c1 with the number of students’ distribution in table 3. table 3 the students’ competence based on cefr level of competency cefr level of competency meaning of level no. of students a2 basic user 61 b1 independent user 68 b2 10 c1 proficient user 1 total 140 82 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 79-83 from table 3, it is clearly shown that there is only one student who is proficient in reading skill which most probably the most critical student of all in reading comprehension. while, if referring to the definition of each level by cefr (trim, 2011), a2 means students can communicate in english within a limited range of contexts, b1 means students can communicate essential points and ideas in familiar contexts, b2 means students can use english effectively with some fluency in a range of contexts, and c1 means students are able to use english fluently and flexible in a wide range of context. overall, a modest conclusion may be withdrawn that only 0,08% of the students can use their critical thinking skill in order to survive the reading comprehension test at the toefl itp test. in other words, the students in fi university have a very low level of reading comprehension proficiency. table 4 shows the fi students’ achievement on the reading test of the toefl itp test they sat on the 28 of may 2016. however, the data displayed on the table is a summary of the number of students achieving a certain score on the toefl itp test and is already sorted from the lowest score achiever to the highest one. table 4 the students’ achieved score in reading test of the toefl itp test student's score in reading test no. of students 32 1 34 3 36 2 38 1 39 7 41 5 42 8 43 3 44 5 45 9 46 9 47 8 48 14 49 5 50 8 51 14 52 13 53 6 54 5 55 3 56 5 57 1 58 3 59 1 63 1 total 140 in fact, there is a significant relationship between the students’ critical thinking and reading comprehension skill. and the toefl itp test for the reading section is always designed to meet the demand for the test takers’ critical thinking skills. therefore, it could be concluded that the fi students; whether realized or not, must have been trying to use their critical thinking to answer the toefl itp reading test, and their ability to use their critical thinking skill could be measured by their achievement on that test. looking back to table 4 and keeping in mind that the reading test is scored from 31 to 67. it is obvious that most of the students have poor critical thinking skills because there are only 43% of the students who manage to achieve a score of 50 and above. meanwhile, around 80 students or 57% of them perform badly in integrating their critical thinking skill towards the test as indicated by their low scores. conclusions the most important strategy to apply while doing a reading test is to integrate the critical thinking and reading skills. being critical will enable students to choose the right choice instead of wandering around four answer choices provided but unable to choose the right one because of very little comprehension of what being read. these two interconnected skills are still possible to be improved and developed if students are willing to spend more time to practice and get used to doing the test to minimize the tension of a test in a real test situation. however, it is found that the students at fi university still lack in critical thinking skill that consequently hindered them to succeed the reading test on the toefl itp test. the effort to reflect the students’ current achievement by sitting a toefl itp test to the cefr should not remain in the findings, but it makes as a new starting point to guide the english teachers to help the students improve their quality in english proficiency to be able to survive in the global competition era. the data could be used by teachers to develop the english curriculum, lesson plans, and to design new materials, activities, and assessments. there are various activities which could be made by english teachers to develop students’ english reading skill. among them are to motivate students to start reading a wide variety of materials and turn it into a hobby while always keeping in mind that they need to raise some questions while reading and work on unfamiliar vocabulary (brassell & rasinski, 2008). the most important thing is to be curious at all time while reading so that the interest will lead the students to be critical in a natural way. in the end, students will not realize that they have been critical in thinking while reading and by reading lots of and varied sources will result in knowledgeable and open-minded students. references assadi, n., davatgar, h., & jafari, p. (2013). the effect of critical thinking on enhancing writing among iranian efl learners. international journal of scientific & engineering research, 4(3), 1–7. brassell, d., & rasinski, t. (2008). comprehension that works. california, usa: shell education. cohen, a. d., & upton, t. a. (2006). strategies in responding to the new toefl reading tasks. princeton, usa: ets. fahim, m., bagherkazemi, m., & alemi, m. (2010). the relationship between test takers " critical thinking ability and their performance on the reading section of toefl. journal of language teaching and research, 1(6), 830–837. http://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.1.6.830-837. fahim, m., barjesteh, h., & vaseghi, r. (2012). effects of critical thinking strategy training on male/female 83assessing university students’ critical .... (rentauli mariah silalahi) efl learners’ reading comprehension. english language teaching, 5(1), 140–145. http://doi. org/10.5539/elt.v5n1p140. fahim, m., miri, m., & najafi, y. (2014). contributory role of collaborative assessment in improving critical thinking and writing. international journal of applied linguistics & english literature issn, 3(1), 2200–3592. http://doi.org/10.7575/aiac. ijalel.v.3n.1p.1. ghaemi, h., & taherian, r. (2011). the role of critical thinking in efl teachers’ teaching success the role of critical thinking in efl teachers’ teaching success the role of critical thinking in efl teachers’ teaching success. mjal, 3(1), 1–11. hassani, m. t., rahmany, r., & babaei, m. (2013). the relationship between iranian efl learners’ critical thinking and reading comprehension performance in journalistic texts. theory and practice in language studies, 3(10), 1873–1878. http://doi. org/10.4304/tpls.3.10.1873-1878. khatib, m., & mehrgan, k. (2012). achieving critical thinking skills through reading short stories 1. advances in digital multimedia, 1(3), 140–145. retrieved from www.worldsciencepublisher.org. khodadady, e., & ghanizadeh, a. (2011). the impact of concept mapping on efl learners’ critical thinking ability. english language teaching, 4(4), 49–60. phillips, d. (2003). longman introductory course for the toefl test. new york: pearson education, inc. phillips, d. (2004). longman introductory course for the toefl test. new york: pearson education, inc. ramezani, r., larsari, e. e., & kiasi, m. a. (2016). the relationship between critical thinking and efl learners’ speaking ability. english language teaching, 9(6), 189-198. http://doi.org/10.5539/elt. v9n6p189 rezaei, s., derakhshan, a., & bagherkazemi, m. (2011). critical thinking in language education. journal of language teaching and research, 2(4), 769–777. trim, j. (2011). using the cefr: principles of good practice. cambridge, uk: cambridge esol. wang, x. (2016). reasoning critical thinking: is it born or made? theory and practice in language studies, 6(6), 1323–1331. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/ tpls.0606.25. issn 1978-8118 vol. 8 no.1 may 2014 ketua dewan redaksi dr. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. akun, s.pd., m.hum. sri haryanti, s.s., mtcsol rosita ningrum, s.s., m.pd editor bahasa dan setter i.didimus manulang haryo sutanto holil atmawati sekretariat nandya ayu dina nurfitria description lingua cultura is a semi annual journal, published in may and november, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literatures. the coverage of language includes linguistics and teaching language, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literatures covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. editor and administration address : subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang bahasa dan budaya research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : nayu@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 8 no.1 may 2014 daftar isi hani wahyuningtias kajian kesantunan dalam e-mail permohonan yang ditulis oleh penutur jepang dan pembelajar indonesia (the study of politeness in e-mail requests written by native japanese and indonesian learners)....................................................................................................................... 1-7 temmy a brief analysis of vocabulary teaching in teaching chinese as a second language............................. 8-11 duan wenhua on the form and judgment function of sense of language ................................................................. 12-15 pauw budianto; noviana laurencia keterkaitan new hsk dan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi (new hsk and its relations to chinese language curriculum in higher education)............................... 16-21 david michael bourne how will the use of technology in translation and testing affect language learning?........................ 22-28 novi liana ko; menik winiharti metaphors expressing emotions in lisa kleypas’s rainshadow road novel........................................... 29-34 bena yusuf pelawi juvenile delinquency in novel clockwork orange by anthony burgess.................................................. 35-39 linda unsriana diskriminasi gender dalam novel ginko karya junichi watanabe (gender discrimination in junichi watanabe’s ginko novel).................................................................. 40-47 lydia anggreani; agustian a brief analysis of the acrostic in chinese language in teaching chinese as a foreign language......... 48-53 timur sri astami; rosita ningrum; felicia budihardja integrasi pembelajaran kanji dengan pembelajaran sakubun untuk meningkatkan kemampuan menulis (learning integration of kanji with sakubun to improve writing skill)................................................... 54-59 microsoft word 09_m. herwiratno_kelenteng _revisi_-a4.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 78-86 78 kelenteng: benteng terakhir dan titik awal perkembangan kebudayaan tionghoa di indonesia m. herwiratno akademi bahasa asing, bina sarana informatika, jl. cipinang pulo maja no.1, jatinegara-jakarta timur herwiratno@yahoo.com absract this article discussed about the degradation of culture among tionghoa society in indonesia due to public pressure during orde baru era. it is fortune during the hard time, kelenteng as the place for prayer for tionghoa society also had became place of protection for many forms of culture, such as life philosophy, ritual, and art. and now after the political pressure removed and the tionghoa society wanted to know their culture, kelenteng becomes one of the important sources for knowledge about tionghua’s culture. but, that apparently was not easy because many kelenteng were in sad condition and being pushed away by the tionghoa society itself. keywords: kelenteng, orde baru, tionghoa abstrak artikel menelaah tentang kemerosotan budaya di kalangan masyarakat tionghoa di indonesia akibat tekanan politik semasa orde baru. beruntunglah pada masa sulit tersebut, kelenteng sebagai sebuah tempat ibadah masyarakat tioanghoa juga menjadi tempat perlindungan berbagai bentuk budaya, seperti ajaran falsafah hidup, ritual, dan kesenian. dan sekarang setelah tekanan politik tersebut menghilang dan masyarakat tionghoa ingin kembali mengenal budayanya, seharusnya kelenteng menjadi salah satu sumber pentingnya. akan tetapi, ternyata hal itu tidaklah mudah karena banyak kelenteng dalam kondisi mengenaskan dan dijauhi masyarakat tionghoa sendiri. kata kunci: kelenteng, orde baru, tionghoa kelenteng: benteng terakhir … (m. herwiratno) 79 pendahuluan beberapa waktu lalu ketika sekelompok mahasiswa tionghoa sebuah universitas swasta mendapat tugas lapangan mata kuliah kebudayaan china untuk mengunjungi kelenteng di jakarta, mereka kemudian malah minta ditemani dosennya. alasannya? mereka belum pernah mengunjungi kelenteng dan takut kepada para penjaga kelenteng yang menurut mereka biasanya galak! mungkin kedengaran aneh tetapi memang peristiwa kaum muda tionghoa indonesia yang takut atau tidak lagi mengenal kelenteng sebagai salah satu pusat budayanya sendiri sudah menjadi gejala umum di indonesia sekarang ini. sepertinya, hanya untuk sekedar mengenal kembali budayanya sendiri saja mereka begitu ketakutan. kalau ditelusuri ke belakang, gejala kaum muda tionghoa indonesia yang tidak mengenal lagi budayanya ini bukanlah tanpa sebab yang ringan. tekanan politik orde baru terhadap masyarakat tionghoa menjadi sebab utamanya. selama 32 tahun, segala macam bentuk budaya tionghoa dilarang. bahasa dan tulisan china dilarang digunakan yang akibatnya koran dan majalah berbahasa china hampir seluruhnnya dilarang terbit, sekolah berbahasa china ditutup, dan bahkan nama china pun harus diganti. berbagai perayaan tradisional tidak boleh dirayakan secara umum dan berbagai kesenian dilarang ditampilakan. walaupun tingkat keketatan pelarangan ini tidak sama di setiap daerah di indonesia, tetapi tekanan politik terhadap budaya china ini menyebabkan berkurangnya atau bahkan tidak berjalannya proses transfer budaya china dari generasi tua ke generasi mudanya. dan sekarang, setelah perubahan politik indonesia yang lebih kondusif terhadap kebudayaan tionghoa, ternyata akibatnya pasungan budaya tersebuat sudah sedemikian parah. pembahasan kelenteng sebagai tempat perlindungan budaya walaupun mendapat tekanan politik yang sangat kuat pada masa orde baru, tetapi beruntunglah budaya china masih memiliki sedikit tempat perlindungan, yaitu kelenteng. kelenteng yang merupakan tempat ibadah sebagian besar masyarakat tionghoa indonesia tidak hanya menjadi tempat sembahyang tetapi juga menjadi pusat kegiatan sosial dan kesenian. pada masa orde baru, kepercayaan masyarakat tionghoa yang sarat dengan berbagai upacara dan perayaan ritual serta diiringi kesenian yang mengandung banyak nilai budaya masih dapat dilaksanakan dalam kelenteng, walaupun dalam porsi yang lebih kecil atau bahkan dengan sembunyisembunyi. tak heran kalau kelenteng menjadi benteng terakhir perlindungan budaya tionghoa indonesia selama masa orde baru. dan masuk akal pula kalau kemudian setelah berakhirnya tekanan orde baru, kelenteng diharapkan menjadi salah satu titik awal kebangkitan budaya tionghoa di indonesia. akan tetapi, menilik beberapa contoh peristiwa yang terjadi pada kaum muda tionghoa indonesia tersebut, rasanya masih perlu waktu untuk kembali mengenalkan kelenteng sebagai salah satu sumber belajar kembali budaya china di indonesia. ‘kelenteng’: sebutan khas indonesia pada jaman dahulu di negara china, bangunan tempat ibadah hanya boleh dibangun oleh kaisar, raja, atau pejabat tinggi. demikian pula yang terjadi di indonesia. masyarakat china perantauan di indonesia yang telah sukses, kaya, dan menjadi pejabat (opsir tionghoa yang diangkat jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 78-86 80 belanda) biasanya berpatungan untuk membangun sebuah bangunan tempat ibadah sebagai tanda bakti atau amalan tertinggi. bangunan tempat ibadah itu tidak hanya dibangun sebagai tempat pemujaan dan ritual tetapi juga berfungsi sebagai pusat kegiatan sosial dan kebudayaan. berbagai acara amal kemanusiaan, perayaan, dan pagelaran budaya diselenggarakan di areal bangunan itu. dapat dikatakan juga bahwa waktu itu tempat ibadah juga menjadi pusat kegiatan masyarakat tionghoa. entah kapan sebenarnya kata ‘kelenteng’ mulai digunakan untuk menyebut tempat ibadah kaum tionghoa ini. pada jaman pendudukan belanda, ada sebuah kata yang digunakan untuk menyebutnya, walaupun sedikit aneh di telinga masyarakat sekarang, yaitu ‘gereja’! asal kata kelenteng sendiri juga simpang siur. ada yang mengatakan berasal dari kata kwan im ting (kuil dewi kwan im) yang kemudian dilafalkan oleh lidah jawa menjadi kelenteng. ada pula yang menduga bunyi genta ‘teng-teng-teng’ yang sering terdengar dari dalam bangunan ibadah ini menjadi awal dari kata kelenteng. hanya saja kata kelenteng ini lebih populer di jawa. di luar jawa, kata ‘toapekong’ atau ‘tepekong’, yaitu kata sebutan untuk dewa air, lebih populer untuk menyebut tempat ibadah masyarakat tionghoa ini. di negeri china sendiri sebenarnya tak ada istilah umum yang khusus untuk menyebut jenis tempat ibadah kaum tionghoa ini yang makna seluas kata ‘kelenteng’ di indonesia. biasanya mereka menamai sebuah tempat ibadah dari kekhususan aliran kepercayaannya. walaupun kata miao sering digunakan dengan salah kaprah untuk menyebut tempat ibadah tetapi kata miao dan ci sendiri sebenarnya lebih tepat digunakan untuk menyebut tempat yang memuja ‘arwah suci’ atau shen ming, misalnya, kong miao (kuil peringatan untuk kong zi/konfusius) atau guan di miao (kuil peringatan dewa guan di/kuan kong). kata yuan, gong, dan guan adalah ciri dari nama tempat ibadah yang memuja dewa-dewi taoisme, misalnya, kelenteng jin de yuan (kim tek i) di jakarta atau kelenteng ci an gong (cu an kiong) di lasem. kata si dan an lebih menandakan bahwa tempat ibadah tersebut dari budhisme, misalnya, kelenteng da jue si (tay kak si) di semarang atau yang paling terkenal adalah shao lin si, yaitu kuil shao lin yang banyak muncul di film-film kungfu. walaupun demikian, di indonesia, pembagian nama menurut ciri khas aliran kepercayaan tersebut tidak berlaku atau bahkan tidak diketahui oleh banyak orang. kebanyakan sebuah tempat ibadah kaum tionghoa itu menampung dari ketiga aliran, yaitu taoisme, konfusianisme, dan budhisme atau yang sering disebut san jiao (sam kao) atau tri dharma. masuk akal kalau kemudian arca dari para dewa-dewi dari ketiga ajaran itu berbaur dan bernaung di bawah satu atap. istilah ‘kelenteng’ menjadi terasa lebih pas digunakan untuk penyebutan rumah ibadah tionghoa di indonesia. multifungsi kelenteng seperti umumnya tempat ibadah, fungsi utama kelenteng adalah sebagai tempat ibadah. dan juga seperti banyak tempat ibadah lain, kelenteng juga merupakan tempat kegiatan sosial. akan tetapi, di indonesia, khususnya di jawa, kelenteng tua juga menjadi tempat situs sejarah dan pelestarian budaya tionghoa, bahkan menjadi tempat rajutan budaya antara kebudayaan tionghoa dengan kebudayaan lain di jawa. kelenteng sebagai tempat sumber ajaran spiritual sebagai tempat ibadah, dalam sebuah kelenteng yang beraliran tri dharma pastilah terdapat arca dewa-dewi dari ketiga aliran, daoisme, konfusianisme, dan budhisme. sebenarnya, banyak ajaran moral yang dapat dipelajari oleh para umat dari para dewa-dewi ini karena sebagian besar dari dewa-dewi tionghoa pada awalnya adalah manusia biasa yang karena kesucian jiwa, perbuatan baik, atau kemampuannya di bidang tertentu kemudian dihormati dan diangkat menjadi dewa atau dewi. kelenteng: benteng terakhir … (m. herwiratno) 81 misalnya saja, dewi tian shang sheng mu atau dewi ma zu atau di indonesia lebih dikenal dengan macopo/makupo. dewi dari ajaran taoisme ini awalnya adalah gadis nelayan yang karena kesucian hati dan ilmunya yang tinggi kemudian diangkat menjadi dewi laut sebagai pelindung para nelayan dan perantauan. dewa guan di atau lebih populer dengan sebutan dewa koan kong, awalnya adalah panglima perang pada jaman tiga negara yang bernama guan yu. karena kesetiaan dan budi hatinya, penganut taoisme mengangkatnya menjadi dewa kesetiaan dan pelindung bahaya peperangan, diangkat menjadi dewa pelindung kesusastraan oleh penganut konghuchu dan dipercaya sebagai dewa penjaga dharma oleh kaum budhis. masih terdapat banyak lagi dewa-dewi dalam kepercayaan masyarakat tionghoa. hampir setiap profesi memiliki dewa-dewinya masing-masing, seperti petani, peternak sutera, pembuat dan pedagang kertas, tukang kayu, pengerajin perhiasan, sastrawan, tabib, dan bahkan tukang cukur pun punya dewa-dewi pelindungnya masing-masing. nilai ajaran atau sifat dan perbuatan mulia dari para dewa-dewi itulah yang dapat dipelajari kembali oleh kaum muda tionghoa indonesia ketika berkunjung ke sebuah kelenteng. kelenteng sebagai penanda sejarah perkembangan masyarakat tionghoa seperti bangunan lainnya, sebuah kelenteng biasanya memiliki semacam prasasti pendirian yang tercantum tahun pendiriannya. kelenteng tertua disuatu daerah dapat dijadikan acuan bahwa di masa itu di daerah tersebut sudah terdapat pemukiman tionghoa. dewa-dewi utama dalam sebuah kelenteng juga dapat menjadi salah satu acuan sejarah perkembangan perekonomian masyarakat tionghoa di suatu daerah. bila dewi laut yang menjadi dewi utama dalam sebuah kelenteng maka dapat diperkirakan bahwa masyarakat tionghoa di daerah itu awalnya adalah kaum pedagang antarpulau atau kaum nelayan. tidak mengherankan bila dewi ini banyak di puja di daerah pesisir pantai utara jawa. akan tetapi, bila dewa bumi yang menjadi dewa utama maka kemungkinan besar masyarakat tionghoa di sekitar kelenteng tersebut mengandalkan hasil pertanian dan perkebunan. nama marga dari dewa-dewi utama juga dapat mencerminkan marga apa yang dominan dalam masyarakat tionghoa di daerah tersebut. misalnya, dewi laut tian shang sheng mu nama aslinya adalah lim bik nio. jadi, dapat diperkirakan banyak marga lim/lin yang bermukim disekitar kelenteng tersebut. bahkan, beberapa marga tertentu membangun kelenteng khusus untuk marganya sendiri, tentu saja dengan dewa/dewi utama yang berasal dari marganya sendiri. kaum tionghoa indonesia pun menyumbang dewa pujaan. laksamana cheng he dari dinasti ming yang dalam tujuh ekspedisi lautnya (1405-1436) pernah berkunjung ke nusantara kemudian diangkat menjadi dewa sam po kong dan sangat dipuja di beberapa wilayah di indonesia, khususnya di semarang. kwe lak kwa yang menjadi salah satu pimpinan perlawanan terhadap kekejaman belanda terhadap kaum tionghoa di batavia (1740) kemudian di puja menjadi dewa yang bergelar ze hai zhen ren. arcanya terdapat dan dipuja di kelenteng kota jakarta, tegal, pekalongan, dan semarang. tan ke wi dan oei ing kiat, pimpinan perjuangan melawan belanda di wilayah juawanarembang-lasem (1742-1751) memiliki kelenteng pemujaannya sendiri dengan gelar yi yong gong. dari uraian tersebut, kelenteng tidak hanya sebagai tempat ibadah tetapi juga menyimpan data sejarah yang menjadi salah satu acuan untuk mempelajari sejarah perkembangan masyarakat tionghoa di sekitarnya. kelenteng sebagai sumber simbol ajaran berbagai kepercayaan filsuf besar china konfusius pernah berkata, “kata-kata tidak bisa mengungkapkan kedalaman bahasa, dan bahasa tidak mampu mengungkapkan kedalaman arti.” oleh karena itulah bangsa china mengungkapkan banyak hal dengan simbol. wajar pula, bila lebih dicermati, bangunan sebuah kelenteng tua biasanya akan penuh dengan simbol dalam berbagai bentuk yang sarat makna. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 78-86 82 pada umumnya, bagian depan kiri-kanan sebuah kelenteng dijaga oleh arca sepasang singa sebagai penolak mara bahaya. arca sepasang naga yang biasanya terdapat di atap kelenteng melambangkan perlindungan, kekuasaan, dan juga keberuntungan. naga ikan atau long yu, yaitu naga bersirip dan berekor ikan mengajarkan ketekunan dan kerja keras dalam meraih keberhasilan. ukiran burung hong atau finiks seringkali dipasangkan dengan naga sebagai perlambang keserasian dan keseimbangan yin yang. kemunculan burung hong yang membawa keberuntungan dan kesejahteraan dipercaya akan membuat dunia damai dan tenteram. hewan mitos kilin/qilin/unicorn yang menampakkan diri ketika konfusius dilahirkan merupakan lambang dari kebajikan sempurna, umur panjang, kebesaran, kepatuhan, keturunan yang cemerlang, serta pemerintahan yang bijak. kura-kura dan bangau yang berumur panjang selalu selalu menjadi lambang harapan manusia akan panjang umur dan bermartabat. berbagai bentuk hiasan dan ukiran kelelawar dimaksudkan untuk menyimbolkan keberuntungan dan kebahagiaan karena dalam bahasa mandarin sama-sama berbunyi fu. tidak hanya simbol hewan, berbagai macam tumbuhan dan buah-buahan pun memiliki makna, misalnya ukiran bunga empat musim (magnolia, peony dan teratai, chrysantimum, serta plum) yang melambangkan kecantikan, keperawanan, kemurnian, dan ketulusan. jamur ling zhi dan bambu melambangkan harapan akan umur panjang. buah apel (ping-guo) sering menghiasi sesajian di altar karena melambangkan keselamatan (mandarin: ping-an). jeruk (juzi) hampir tak pernah ketinggalan di setiap acara ritual karena membawa simbol rejeki-keberuntungan. pohon pisang yang gampang tumbuh anak disekitarnya menyebabkan buah pisang digunakan sebagai lambang harapan akan banyaknya keturunan. selain simbol hewan dan tumbuhan, adegan cerita klasik china juga sering dijumpai terlukis di dinding maupun pilar bangunan kelenteng. dari cerita perang tiga negara (san guo/sam kok) dapat dipelajari berbagai sifat manusia. cerita dua puluh empat anak berbakti (ershisi xiao) berisi dua puluh empat cerita mengenai contoh bakti anak terhadap orang tuanya sesuai ajaran konghuchu. kisah perjalanan ke barat (xi you ji) mencari kitab suci budha juga menyampaikan banyak ajaran kehidupan. belum lagi berbagai duilian atau papan-papan syair dalam aksara china yang pasti penuh makna. di pulau jawa, kelenteng tua yang biasanya dibangun oleh ahli bangunan dan ukiran yang didatangkan langsung dari china dan dibantu oleh ahli lokal. kerja sama ahli dari china dan jawa ini menghasilkan ciri khas tertentu. di kelenteng daerah pesisir utara jawa tengah, ukirannya terlihat rumit dan ‘kecil’, serupa dengan ukiran daerah jepara-kudus sedangkan di kelenteng surabaya, hiasan ukirannya terlihat ‘lebih besar’, seperti model ukiran jawa timur-madura. bahkan, di sebuah kelenteng di surabaya ditemukan ragam ukiran dari kebudayaan eropa yang menjadi hiasan altar sebuah arca dewa. masih banyak lagi simbol yang berupa benda, lambang, atau warna yang tidak dapat disebutkan di sini satu-persatu. dengan banyaknya berbagai benda, hiasan, dan ornamen yang menyiratkan banyak makna ini maka seseorang dapat belajar kembali banyak hal tentang kebudayaan, seni, dan ajaran-filasafat china dari sebuah bangunan kelenteng. kelenteng sebagai pusat kegiatan sosial dan pembauran kesenian berhubungan erat dengan acara ritual, kelenteng juga sebagai pusat kegiatan kesenian dan sosial. banyak kelenteng yang menjadi markas kelompok kesenian tarian naga-singa atau liong samsi yang sering disebut tarian barongsai. pelaku kesenian ini tak hanya muda-mudi dari kalangan tionghoa saja tetapi juga dari berbagai suku di nusantara. bahkan, sekarang sebuah kelompok tarian naga yang terkenal di jawa tengah adalah kelompok tarian naga tentara nasional indonesia yang bermarkas di daerah semarang. pembauran kesenian juga sering terlihat dalam acara arak-arakan ritual gotong tepekong di jawa, tarian barongsai bersanding dengan tarian kuda lumping, dan reog ponorogo memeriahkan perayaan. kelenteng: benteng terakhir … (m. herwiratno) 83 upacara ritual peh cun yang dirayakan dengan perayaan perahu naga selalu menjadi hiburan dan melibatkan masyarakat umum non-tionghoa. upacara ritual cioko atau sembahyang rebutan biasanya sekalian disertai acara membagi-bagikan beras dan kebutuhan pokok lainnya kepada masyarakat miskin sekitar kelenteng. dan masih banyak kegiatan kesenian dan sosial lainnya yang berpusat di kelenteng. dari sini dapat dilihat bahwa kelenteng selain berfungsi sebagai tempat pelestarian kesenian khas china, juga juga sebagai tempat kegiatan sosial yang semakin mendekatkan warga kelenteng dengan masyarakat sekitarnya. masa suram kelenteng menilik berbagai fungsinya, tidaklah disangkal bila kelenteng menjadi salah satu pusat kegiatan masyarakat tionghoa di indonesia. akan tetapi, pemerintahan orde baru membawa perubahan besar. pada masa itu, kaum tionghoa di indonesia, walaupun secara ekonomi tampak dimanjakan tetapi dalam hal kebudayaan mereka dipasung. berbagai kebijaksanaan pemerintah tahun 1966-1967 yang isinya sangat diskriminatif terhadap kaum tionghoa membuat hampir segala bentuk kebudayaan tionghoa di indonesia lumpuh. bahasa dan aksara china dilarang digunakan. berbagai macam pertunjukan, seperti wayang potehi dan tarian barongsai menjadi pemandangan langka. upacara ritual gotong tepekong hampir tak terlihat lagi. bahkan, nama tionghoa yang merupakan identitas terunik bagi seseorang pun harus dihapus dan diganti. ajaran konghucu dan taoisme diharamkan dan akibatnya kelenteng pun tak luput dari sasaran. sebagian besar kelenteng harus mengubah diri menjadi vihara yang lebih mengacu sebagai tempat ibadat agama budha sedangkan ajaran taoisme dan konghuchu dianggap sebagai sampingan saja dan harus berlindung dibalik agama budha. akibatnya, di beberapa kelenteng, arca tokoh dari ajaran budha yang dulunya sebagai arca tambahan ditempatkan di altar utama. bahkan, di beberapa kelenteng yang sebelumnya tidak menganut ajaran budha, mencari keselamatan dengan men-tri dharma-kan diri dengan memasukkan arca dari ajaran budha. fisik bangunan kelenteng pun menjadi korban. jangankan membangun atau memperluas bangunan, memperbaiki kerusakan pun tak berani dilakukan. kalaupun dilakukan, pasti dengan sembunyi-sembunyi. akibatnya, sampai tahun 1997, banyak sekali bangunan kelenteng dalam kondisi mengenaskan. demi menyambung nyawa dan menjamin keselamatan dirinya, warga tionghoa di indonesia pun banyak yang berlindung dalam agama resmi yang ditetapkan pemerintah. kaum muda tionghoa yang lahir setelah tahun 1960 seperti tak lagi mengenali budayanya. kaum tuanya mungkin menyadari kesenjangan budaya ini tetapi tekanan politik terasa lebih berat. mereka lebih mengutamakan keselamatan generasi mudanya walaupun harus kehilangan sebagian besar budayanya. bahkan, beberapa diantara kaum tua tionghoa ada yang sengaja menakut-nakuti kaum mudanya untuk tidak belajar budaya leluhurnya demi keselamatan keluarga. dan akibatnya dapat dibayangkan bila 30 tahun kemudian terjadi kesenjangan budaya antara generasi tua dan generasi muda tionghoa di indonesia. memang unik juga nasib bangsa china perantauan ini, mereka harus/terpaksa mengorbankan sebagian harga dirinya, yaitu kebudayaannya untuk mempertahankan hidup dan memperoleh bentuk harga diri yang lain: kekuatan ekonomi. yin dan yang! benteng terakhir dan titik awal perkembangan kebudayaan tionghoa walaupun begitu, kebudayaan tionghoa tidaklah lantas lenyap seluruhnya begitu saja. sisasisa kebudayaan ini masih tersimpan dan dilakukan semampunya di dalam kelenteng. meskipun sebagian rusak dan tak terawat, bangunan kelenteng masih menyimpan berbagai arca, ukiran, lukisan, dan berbagai ornamen. secara sangat terbatas dan sembunyi-sembunyi, berbagai acara ritual, kebudayaan, dan kegiatan sosial masih dilakukan di dalam lingkunga kelenteng. pendeknya, selama hampir 32 tahun pemerintahan orde baru, kelenteng berfungsi menjadi benteng terakhir kebudayaan tionghoa di indonesia. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 78-86 84 setelah menjadi salah satu tumbal politik melalui peristiwa anti-tionghoa yang mengenaskan mei 1998, era reformasi membawa banyak perubahan di republik ini. era pemerintahan baru di bawah presiden gus dur dan megawati mencabut beberapa kebijaksanaan yang diskriminatif terhadap masyarakat tionghoa. walaupun masih terjadi beberapa kendala di lapangan, tetapi kebudayaan tionghoa kembali menggeliat bangkit. malahan diberbagai tempat atau kalangan ditengarai terjadi eforia atau malah latah kebudayaan tionghoa. kelenteng kembali menjadi pusat kegiatan. banyak bangunan kelenteng mulai diperbaiki atau bahkan direnovasi besar-besaran. tarian barongsai yang terlihat meramaikan berbagai acara. upacara ritual arak-arakan dewa ‘gotong tepekong’ yang banyak mengikut sertakan kebudayaan china, seperti pakaian, musik, dan tarian mulai dilaksanakan di berbagai kota. kelenteng kembali ramai didatangi oleh lebih umat tionghoa yang ingin bersembahyang. pendeknya kelenteng menjadi salah satu titik awal bangkitnya kembali kebudayaan tionghoa di indonesia. namun, tiga puluh tahun lebih dalam belenggu budaya membuat sebagian besar umat tionghoa kehilangan pengetahuan rohani dan budayanya. sebuah kenyataan pahit menjadi pemandangan sehari-hari dalam kelenteng, yaitu banyak umat tionghoa yang datang ke kelenteng hanya bersembahyang depan arca para dewa tanpa mengerti lagi siapa dan apa sebenarnya ajaran para dewa-dewi tersebut. pokoknya bersoja, menancapkan hio dan menuang minyak di altar dewa tersebut, beres urusan. juga dapat diperhatikan, bila memasuki sebuah kelenteng, perhatian umat hanya tertuju arca para dewa-dewi saja. isi keleteng lainnya seolah bukanlah hal yang patut diperhatikan, atau paling tidak dinikmati keindahannya. ditambah lagi, entah karena ketidaktahuan, ketidakmampuan, atau bahkan ketidakpedulian dari umat dan pengurus kelenteng, ukiran atau lukisan yang menyimbolkan ajaran banyak hal itudianggap hiasan belaka sehingga kerap tampak tak terawat, kotor tertutup debu, atau malahan hitam tak terlihat sama sekali terkena asap hio bertahun-tahun. jangankan untuk mengerti simbol apa yang terkandung, bahkan sering kali mereka juga tidak tahu lagi apa sebenarnya hewan, tumbuhan, atau cerita apa yang terukir atau terlukis tersebut. memang ada usaha dari beberapa kaum terpelajar tionghoa untuk mulai memperhatikan masalah ini. akan tetapi, memang bukanlah hal yang mudah untuk menghadapi akibat belenggu budaya yang telah membuat sebagian besar kaum tionghoa tua terlanjur apatis dan kaum mudanya tak lagi mengenali keagungan budayanya. kelenteng: benteng terakhir … (m. herwiratno) 85 penutup salah satu cara yang patut dicoba untuk mengenalkan dan membangkitkan kembali kebudayan tionghoa kepada masyarakat tionghoa di indonesia adalah mengajak kaum muda tionghoa kembali ke kelenteng. tujuannya adalah bukan untuk melepaskan agama yang sekarang sudah mereka anut tetapi lebih sebagai titik awal untuk mengenalkan kembali nilai moral, sejarah, dan kebudayaan tionghoa yang terkandung dalam kelenteng. ternyata cara inipun menghadapi kendala kesiapan sumber daya manusia dan sarana penunjang. beberapa dari kaum muda tionghoa merasa kecewa karena pertanyaan mereka dijawab sekenanya oleh keluarga dan para pengurus kelenteng yang mungkin memang tidak mengerti tentang kelentengnya sendiri. buku tentang hal ini masih sulit di dapat atau terlalu mahal. kendala bahasa juga berperan besar. tulisan nama dewa-dewi dalam aksara latin yang kerap kali berbeda dari kelenteng satu dengan yang lain sering membuat bingung kaum muda tionghoa yang baru belajar. mungkin sekolah, universitas, atau lembaga tionghoa perlu mengadakan semacam kunjungan budaya ke kelenteng dengan pembimbing yang baik dan prasarana yang menunjang. film dokumenter merupakan salah satu sarana yang sangat menunjang dan lebih menarik buat kaum muda untuk belajar. beberapa stasiun tv sudah mulai membuat dan menyiarkannya tetapi rasanya masih perlu lagi pendalaman materi sejarah dan budayanya. sumber beritanya yang sering kali hanya berasal dari pengurus kelenteng setempat yang malah terkadang memberi informasi yang kurang tepat. pelafalan istilah dalam bahasa china dialek apapun juga masih menjadi kendala bagi para reporter media massa sehingga yang hal disampaikan menjadi kurang tepat dan terkadang malah memberikan informasi yang salah. kelenteng memang boleh dikatakan berhasil menjadi benteng terakhir budaya tionghoa di indonesia menghadapi tekanan orde baru tetapi memang masih perlu usaha yang lebih keras dan waktu yang lebih panjang untuk menjadikannya titik awal kebangkitan dan penyebaran kembali budaya tionghoa kepada masyarakat tionghoa di indonesia sendiri. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 78-86 86 daftar pustaka hean-tatt, ong. 1996. simbolisme hewan cina. jakarta: kesaint blanc. herwiratno, martinus. 2001. laporan hasil riset kebudayaan cina di indonesia untuk film cabaukan. jakarta _______. 2002. laporan hasil riset kebudayaan cina di jawa untuk serial film dokumenter: kelenteng-kelenteng di pesisir utara jawa. jakarta. _______. februari 2003. laporan hasil riset kebudayaan cina di indonesia untuk sinetron perayaan imlek: tahun baru terindah, tv-7. jakarta. _______. september 2001 “perayaan dewa sampokong – semarang.” swara chantika. jakarta. _______. april 2002. “malam 1 suro di gunung kawi.” swara chantika. jakarta. _______. 25 agustus 2001. “semarang kota 1000 kelenteng.” harian sinar harapan. jakarta. indonesian journal of social and cultural anthropology, th xxvii no. 71, mei-agustus 2003, departemen antropologi fak ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik, universitas indonesia. kingsley, rebecca. 1998. chinese gods & myths. singapore: quantum books ltd. kwa thong hay. 1990. dewa-dewi kelenteng. semarang: yayasan kelenteng sampokong. lip, evelyn. 1981. chinese temples and deitis. singapore: times books international. pan, lynn (general editor). 2002. the encyclopedia of chinese overseas. chinese heritage centre, archipelago press & landmark books. singapore. salmon, cl and d. lombard. 1985. klenteng-klenteng masyarakat tionghoa di jakarta. jakarta: yayasan cipta loka caraka. suryadinata, leo. 2002. negara dan etnis tionghoa – kasus indonesia. jakarta: pustaka lp3s indonesia. suryadinata, leo. 1988. kebudayaan minoritas tionghoa di indonesia. jakarta: pt gramedia. wolfram, eberhard. 1990. dictionary of chinese symbols. singapore: federal publications. williams, cas. 1998.chinesse symbolism and art motifs. tokyo: tuttle publishing. editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university international editor board akun english department, bina nusantara university ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university sri haryanti chinese department, bina nusantara university ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, united states language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university karen phang bina nusantara university holil bina nusantara university atmawati bina nusantara university secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education and indexed in crossref, directory of open access journal (doaj), academic research index (research bib), bielefeld academic search engine (base), scientific indexing service (sis), world catalogue (worldcat), indonesia publication index (ipi), and google scholar. research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, fb: https://www. facebook.com/lingua.binus submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua vol. 10 no.1 may 2016cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x table of contents hussain ahmed liton adopting intercultural communication issue in teaching english ........................................................... 1-6 zhai xun; yoo eun hee a comparative study on the structures of chinese and korean compound words ....................................... 7-12 mezia kemala sari apology strategy in english by native speaker................................................................................. 13-17 nurul frijuniarsi; noni marlianingsih the effects of reading habit and vocabulary mastery towards students’ listening skill at state senior high schools in east jakarta ................................................................................... 19-24 muh. arief muhsin the effectiveness of positive feedback in teaching speaking skill ......................................................... 25-30 yulianeta; siti chamamah soeratno; juliasih kusharyanto representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: a study of the reformation era novel ...................... 31-36 kundharu saddhono; fatma the form and function of local language in directive speech act at a university in central sulawesi.............. 37-42 haryono the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ japanese reading skills ................... 43-47 muhartoyo a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, and voice of coconut research abstracts........................... 49-55 dessy burliani; menik winiharti inaccuracy in indonesian subtitles of the king’s speech movie (2010)..................................................... 57-62 vol. 10 no.1 may 2016cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x types of structural ambiguity: why and how to resolve analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 89 analisis kendala pembelajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin beserta solusinya rosemary sylvia chinese department, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, rosemary@binus.edu abstract for foreigner, mandarin language numeral words are very dificult to be mastered. students of bina nusantara university are also having difficulties in learning the mandarin language numeral words. hopefully using quiz and questioner able to find the dificultioes faced by the students of bina nusantara university in learning mandarin language numeral words. also using questioner and interview to find the solustions. the research object is chinese students of bina nusantara university from 2-4 semesters. result from the data analysis is the student did not master well of the mandarin language numeral words. the student time study in bina nusantara university did not have much effect on the student mastering of the mandarin language numeral words. what causing the student having difficulties in learning the mandarin language numeral words are because the numeral words in mandarin language is too much also the usage is very wide. keywords: mandarin language, student, numeral word abstrak bagi pelajar asing, kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit untuk dikuasai. mahasiswa universitas bina nusantara dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin juga mengalami berbagai kesulitan. diharapkan melalui kuis dan penyebaran kuesioner dapat mencari kesulitan yang dialami mahasiswa universitas bina nusantara dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dan juga melalui kuesioner dan wawancara mencari solusinya. objek penelitian adalah mahasiswa sastra china tingkat 2-4 universitas bina nusantara. dari hasil analisis data diketahui penguasaan mahasiswa akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik. lama waktu belajar di universitas bina nusantara tidak berdampak pada penguasaan mahasiswa akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. penyebab mahasiswa mengalami kesulitan dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan adalah kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya banyak serta cara penggunaannya lebih luas. keywords: bahasa mandarin, mahasiswa, kata bantu bilangan jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 90 pendahuluan bahasa mandarin adalah bahasa perwakilan negara china. tidak peduli pada zaman dahulu atau masa sekarang, bahasa mandarin adalah bahasa yang 90% dipakai oleh bangsa china, juga merupakan bahasa pemersatu yang dipakai oleh berbagai suku di china. bahasa mandarin merupakan salah satu bahasa yang paling banyak digunakan oleh orang di dunia. berdasarkan artikel dari harian satelit 22 juli.1997, bahasa mandarin digunakan oleh 1.123 milyar orang di dunia. setelah reformasi di china, perekonomian china terus mengalami perkembangan. posisi china di dunia internasional semakin lama semakin meningkat. perkembangan bahasa mandarin di dunia pun semakin besar. bahasa mandarin merupakan salah satu bahasa yang digunakan oleh pbb mulai dari 1945. dalam pergaulan internasional, bahasa mandarin mempunyai peran yang penting. di dunia internasional, lembaga yang meneliti bahasa mandarin terus berkembang, orang yang belajar dan meneliti bahasa mandarin semakin bertambah. banyak warga negara di seluruh dunia belajar mandarin, termasuk indonesia. sekarang ini di indonesia, bahasa mandarin sangat diminati. tidak hanya di jakarta, di kota besar lainnya sudah banyak sekolah yang menyediakan pelajaran mandarin. selain harus menguasai bahasanya, orang asing yang ingin mempelajari bahasa mandarin juga harus menguasai karakter/tulisan bahasa mandarin dan kosakatanya, keistimewaan tata bahasa mandarin, dan menguasai tata bahasa dasar membuat kalimat. salah satu keistimewaan bahasa china modern adalah mempunyai kata bantu bilangan yang banyak. satu kata benda, satu kegiatan semua ada kata bantu bilangan yang pasti, tidak boleh tidak digunakan, juga tidak boleh dipakai sembarangan. cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan sangat luas dan juga sulit. pada saat belajar bahasa mandarin harus memperhatikan hal tersebut. untuk mengetahui kesulitan yang dihadapi mahasiswa universitas bina nusantara dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, diputuskan untuk mengadakan penelitian. melalui artikel ini diharapkan pembaca dapat lebih mengerti pentingnya pembelajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, lebih menguasai tata cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, mengurangi kesalahan dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, dan juga meningkatkan pengetahuan mahasiswa akan bahasa mandarin. analisis data pada tanggal 7 april 2008 dilakukan penelitian terhadap mahasiswa tingkat 2 sampai 4 universitas bina nusantara. penelitian dibagi menjadi dua bagian. bagian satu adalah tes. melalui tes, dapat diketahui pengguasaan responden akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. bagian dua adalah kuesioner. melalui kuesioner, dapat diketahui kesulitan yang dihadapi mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan, penyebab terjadinya kesulitan, dan pandangan mahasiswa tentang cara meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. tes tujuan tes tujuan tes adalah untuk mengetahui kata bilangan mana saja yang sering salah dan pengguasaan mahasiswa universitas bina nusantara terhadap kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 91 sasaran penelitian sasaran penelitian dibatasi dengan target minimal yang harus dicapai ialah 70% dari total mahasiswa. oleh karena itu, digunakan perhitungan strata dalam mengambil sampel sebagai berikut. keterangan: n = jumlah sampel yang harus diambil c = target jumlah sampel y = jumlah populasi tingkat 2,3,4 n = jumlah populasi setiap strata total mahasiswa tingkat 2 sampai 4 di universitas bina nusantara sebagai y adalah 270 orang, total mahasiswa tingkat 2 sebagai n1 adalah 107 orang, total mahasiswa tingkat 3 sebagai n2 adalah 75 orang, total mahasiswa tingkat 4 sebagai n3 adalah 88 orang. berdasarkan hasil perhitungan, mahasiswa tingkat 2 harus mencapai 75 orang, mahasiswa tingkat 3 harus mencapai 53 orang, mahasiswa tingkat 4 harus mencapai 62 orang. penelitian ini mempunyai responden mahasiswa tingkat 2 sebanyak 88 orang, responden mahasiswa tingkat 3 sebanyak 63 orang, responden mahasiswa tingkat 4 sebanyak 66 orang. responden yang mengikuti penelitian ini lebih besar dari perhitungan yang seharusnya, hal itu menunjukkan bahwa jumlah responden penelitian memenuhi persyaratan. sesuai formula oleh erwan agus purwanto dan dyah ratih suliyastuti adalah sebagai berikut. n = c / y . n y = 270 n1 = 107人 n2 = 75人, n3 = 88人。 n1 = ≥75 n2≥53 n3≥62 n = 88+63+66>75+53+62 bahan tes soal tes diambil dari materi mata kuliah tata bahasa universitas bina nusantara, melalui 《hanyu jiaocheng diyi ce》、《hanyu jiaocheng di’er ce》 . cara tes agar penelitian menjadi lebih terarah, dibuat kuis menjadi dua bagian, bagian pertama adalah pilihan ganda, bagian ke dua adalah soal isian. setiap bagian terdiri atas 20 soal. cara penilaian berdasarkan perhitungan pembagian nilai yang dipergunakan di universitas bina nusantara dibagi menjadi: n = c / y. n jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 92  nilai 85-100 = a (sangat baik)  nilai 75-84 = b (baik)  nilai 6575 = c (cukup)  nilai 55-64 = d (kurang)  nilai di bawah 55 = e (sangat kurang) pembahasan hasil kuis tabel 1 nilai rata-rata mahasiswa di seluruh tingkat bagian bagian 1 bagian 2 tingkat tingkat 2 tingkat 3 tingkat 4 tingkat 2 tingkat 3 tingkat 4 nilai rata-rata responden seluruh kelas 69.68 70.58 75.80 66.38 61.88 60.54 nilai rata-rata responden seluruh tingkat 72.02 62.93 dari tabel tersebut diketahui nilai rata-rata bagian pertama yang diperoleh mahasiswa tingkat dua adalah 69.68 ( c ) dan nilai bagian dua adalah 66.38 ( c ). nilai rata-rata bagian pertama yang diperoleh mahasiswa tingkat 3 adalah 70.58 ( c ) dan nilai bagian 2 adalah 61.88 ( d ). nilai rata-rata bagian pertama yang diperoleh mahasiswa tingkat 4 adalah 75.80 ( b ) dan bagian kedua adalah 60.54 ( d ). nilai rata-rata bagian pertama dari seluruh tingkat adalah 72.02 ( c ) dan bagian kedua adalah 62.93 ( d ). berdasarkan cara penilaian universitas bina nusantara, nilai yang diperoleh responden di seluruh tingkat pada bagian pertama lulus, bagian kedua tidak lulus. hal itu berarti penguasaan kata bantu bilangan mahasiswa di setiap tingkat tidak baik. meskipun pada bagian pertama nilai yang diperoleh responden mahasiswa tingkat keempat lebih tinggi dibandingkan nilai mahasiswa tingkat kedua dan tiga tetapi pada bagian kedua nilai yang diperoleh mahasiswa tingkat keempat lebih rendah dibandingkan nilai yang diperoleh mahasiswa tingkat kedua dan tiga. hal tersebut menunjukkan lama waktu belajar di universitas bina nusantara tidak mempunyai dampak telalu besar pada penguasaan mahasiwa terhadap kata bantu bilangan mandarin. meskipun waktu belajar mahasiswa tingkat keempat lebih lama tetapi nilai yang diperoleh tidak lebih tinggi. peneliti berpendapat bahwa penyebabnya adalah mahasiswa tingkat keempat mulai dari semester tujuh sudah tidak ada pelajaran tata bahasa mandarin. oleh karena itu, mahasiswa mulai melupakan tata bahasa mandarin. nilai bagian pertama yang diperoleh seluruh mahasiswa di setiap tingkatnya lebih tinggi dibanding nilai bagian kedua. peneliti berpendapat penyebabnya adalah bagian pertama berupa soal pilihan ganda maka tersedia pilihan jawaban di dalam kuesioner dan responden dapat langsung memilih dari jawaban yang disediakan sedangkan bagian kedua adalah soal mengisi, di dalam kuesioner tidak terdapat pilihan jawaban. hal itu menyebabkan reponden tidak dapat menjawab soal bagian kedua dan beberapa responden tidak dapat menjawab karena tidak mengerti makna soal yang diberikan. analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 93 tabel 2 persentase kesalahan seluruh responden di seluruh tingkat pada soal bagian satu tingkat 2 tingkat 3 tingkat 4 total persentase soal 1 31 17 8 56 25.81% soal 2 34 38 29 101 46.54% soal 3 30 18 16 64 29.49% soal 4 1 1 2 4 1.84% soal 5 29 26 7 62 28.57% soal 6 22 10 9 41 18.89% soal 7 5 1 4 10 4.61% soal 8 3 3 2 8 3.69% soal 9 60 42 51 153 70.51% soal 10 11 2 6 19 8.76% soal 11 31 5 11 47 21.66% soal 12 11 4 6 21 9.68% soal 13 56 33 29 118 54.38% soal 14 31 14 12 57 26.27% soal 15 37 29 29 95 43.78% soal 16 43 42 27 112 51.61% soal 17 2 1 8 11 5.07% soal 18 54 38 33 125 57.60% soal 19 31 35 15 81 37.33% soal 20 21 9 13 43 19.82% *dalam satuan orang dari tabel 2 diketahui mahasiswa di setiap tingkat tidak dapat menguasai dengan baik soal nomor 9,13,16,18. persentasi kesalahan pada soal nomor 4,7,8,10,12,17 cenderung lebih rendah, kebanyakan responden dapat menjawab dengan baik. berikut adalah analisis lebih lanjut mengenai soal dengan persentasi kesalahan tinggi.  soal nomor 9 一 ( )杯子(a .杯 b. 个 c.本 d. 张) jawaban yang benar adalah“个”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “杯”, karena mereka merasa “杯” adalah kata bantu bilangan untuk gelas (杯子), mereka tidak memilih “个” karena mereka merasa penggunaan “个” sangat luas, “本” adalah kata bantu bilangan untuk buku,“张” adalah kata bantu bilangan untuk benda yang berbentuk datar, maka dari itu mereka merasa kata bilangan tersebut bukanlah kata bilangan untuk gelas (杯子).  soal nomor 13一 ( )手(a. 张 b. 个 c.只 d. 对) jawaban yang benar adalah“只”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “对”, karena arti “对” dalam bahasa mandarin adalah pasang, mereka tidak mengetahui dengan jelas dalam tata bahasa mandarin terdapat banyak kata yang juga mempunyai arti pasang, misalnya: “双”, “对” dan lainlain. beberapa responden juga memili “个”, karena mereka merasa “个” bisa dipasangkan dengan banyak kata benda.  soal nomor 16 刚才刮了一(a.下 b.场 c.阵 d.次)大风 jawaban yang benar adalah“阵”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “场”, karena mereka pernah belajar “一场大雨 ”, maka dari itu mereka merasa jawaban untuk soal ini adalah “场”, mereka tidak memilih “阵” karena mereka tidak mengerti dengan jelas cara penggunaan “阵”. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 94  soal nomor 18 他连续演了三(a.遍 b.次 c.场 d.番)京剧 jawaban yang benar adalah“场”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “遍”, karena mereka merasa “遍”berarti pengulangan dari awal sampai akhir. mereka tidak memilih“场”karena mereka merasa “场” menyatakan kata keterangan tempat. tabel 3 persentase kesalahan seluruh responden di seluruh tingkat pada soal bagian dua tingkat 2 tingkat 3 tingkat 4 total persentase soal 1 8 1 5 14 6.45% soal 2 7 1 4 12 5.53% soal 3 25 19 19 63 29.03% soal 4 33 30 22 85 39.17% soal 5 31 35 30 96 44.24% soal 6 59 44 55 158 72.81% soal 7 24 20 60 22 29.03% soal 8 71 52 42 165 76.04% soal 9 20 12 14 46 21.20% soal 10 26 10 13 49 22.58% soal 11 12 8 13 33 15.21% soal 12 19 17 13 49 22.58% soal 13 16 8 16 40 18.43% soal 14 28 31 42 101 46.54% soal 15 11 15 9 35 16.13% soal 16 3 2 9 14 6.45% soal 17 69 42 50 161 74.19% soal 18 54 40 47 141 64.98% soal 19 7 4 3 14 6.45% soal 20 11 7 16 34 15.67% *dalam satuan orang dari tabel 3 diketahui penguasaan seluruh responden di setiap tingkat terhadap soal 6,8,17,18 tidak baik. kebanyakan responden dapat menjawab dengan baik soal 1,2,16. berikut adalah analisis lebih lanjut mengenai soal dengan persentase kesalahan tinggi.  soal nomor 6 jawaban yang benar adalah“副”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “双”, karena mereka merasa kata bantu bilangan untuk mata dan kacamata adalah sama, kebanyakan responden tidak memahami hal tersebut. dalam tata bahasa mandarin, kata bantu bilangan untuk mata dan kacamata tidak sama karena kata bilangan “副” jarang dibahas di buku tulis maka responden tidak memahami cara penggunaan “副”.  soal nomor 8 jawaban yang benar adalah“架”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “辆” karena yang mereka ketahui “辆” adalah kata bantu bilangan untuk kendaraan. pesawat terbang dan mobil adalah alat transportasi, dalam tata bahasa indonesia kata bantu bilangan untuk mobil, pesawat, dan alat transportasi lainnya adalah buah maka dari itu responden mengira tata cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin pun sama dengan bahasa indonesia.  soal nomor 17 爸爸狠狠打了他一( ) jawaban yang benar adalah“顿”, kebanyakan responden tidak dapat menjawab karena mereka tidak mengerti soal itu. analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 95  soal nomor 18 这个电影我看了好几次了,也没有完整地看完一( ) jawaban yang benar adalah“遍”,kebanyakan responden menjawab “次” karena dalam tata bahasa indonesia“次” dan “遍” menyatakan kali, responden tidak mengerti dengan jelas perbedaan “遍” dan“次 ”. dari tabel 3 diketahui kesalahan bagian pertama di setiap tingkat lebih tinggi, penyebabnya adalah ada sebagian responden tidak mengerti soal yang diberikan, ada sebagian karena ada beberapa kata bantu bilangan jarang muncul di dalam buku tulis. total pertanyaan dengan persentase kesalahan tinggi pada bagian pertama dan kedua adalah 9 pertanyaan, dalam 9 pertanyaan itu ada 5 pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata benda dan 4 pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja. hal itu berarti penguasaan responden terhadap kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja lebih baik dibanding kata bantu bilangan untuk kata benda. meskipun cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja juga sama luasnya dengan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata benda tetapi penguasaan responden akan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja lebih baik. peneliti merasa penyebabnya adalah perbahasaan kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja dalam buku tulis tata bahasa yang digunakan universitas bina nusantara sangat terbatas, hanya menbahas beberapa jenis dari kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja yang sederhana dan umum. kebalikannya mengenai jenis kata bantu bilangan untuk kata benda sangat banyak. oleh karena itu, responden merasa kata bantu bilangan untuk kata kerja lebih gampang dibanding kata bantu bilangan untuk kata benda. hasil kuesioner  menurut anda, apakah mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin itu sulit? gambar 1 pandangan seluruh responden terhadap kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dari gambar 1 diketahui dari seluruh tingkat ada 73.73% responden merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sangat sulit, 26.27% responden merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak sulit, dan dari hasil kuis telah diketahui penguasaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tingkat kedua sampai empat tidak baik. berdasarkan gambar 1 dapat diketahui kebanyakan responden merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit karena cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa indonesia lebih sederhana apabila dibandingkan dengan cara penggunaan kata benda bilangan bahasa mandarin yang lebih luas. hal itu adalah salah satu kesulitan yang dihadapi mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. 各年级对量词的看法 73.73% 26.27% 1 2 ket: 1 = sulit 2 = tidak jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 96  pandangan responden terhadap kesulitan mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tabel 4 pandangan responden terhadap kesulitan mempelajari kata bantu bilangan kesulitan tingkat 2 tingkat 3 tingkat 4 kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin banyak jumlahnya 49 25 30 penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin lebih luas 30 20 18 membutuhkan ketelitian untuk menguasainya 34 26 23 jarang dibahas dalam perkuliahan 18 7 8 *dalam satuan kali orang dari tabel 4 diketahui responden mahasiswa tingkat dua merasa mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit karena kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya sangat banyak, responden mahasiswa tingkat tiga merasa mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit karena membutuhkan ketelitian agar dapat menguasai, dan responden mahasiswa tingkat empat merasa mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit karena kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya sangat banyak. hal itu menunjukkan kendala terbesar mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin adalah kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya sangat banyak.  menurut anda, apakah pelajaran bahasa mandarin yang diajarkan di universitas bina nusantara membahas dengan jelas tentang penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin? gambar 2 pandangan seluruh responden terhadap pembahasan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dalam pembelajaran di kelas dari gambar 2 diketahui bahwa mahasiwa di seluruh tingkat ada 56% mahasiswa merasa pelajaran bahasa mandarin yang diajarkan di universitas bina nusantara membahas dengan jelas tentang penggunaan kata bilangan bahasa mandarin, 44% mahasiswa merasa pelajaran bahasa mandarin yang diajarkan di universitas bina nusantara tidak membahas dengan jelas tentang penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. hal itu berarti lebih dari setengah mahasiswa merasa penjelasan tentang kata bantu bilangan di kelas sudah cukup jelas tetapi mendekati setengah mahasiswa merasa tidak jelas. penulis merasa ada beberapa aspek penyebabnya, yang pertama adalah 各年级学生对课堂上解释量词的看法 56% 44% 1 2 ket: 1 = jelas 2 = tidak analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 97 dari aspek materi pengajaran. melewati penelitian yang lebih jauh dapat diketahui buku tulis yang dipergunakan di universitas bina nusantara sangat sedikit membahas tentang cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. hal yang kedua dari aspek waktu belajar, yaitu waktu belajar di kelas sangat terbatas dan materi pelajaran banyak. dosen harus menyelesaikan semua mata pelajaran yang ada di dalam buku tulis, waktu untuk menambah materi di luar buku tulis sangat terbatas. buku tulis yang dipelajari sangat jarang membahas tentang tata cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, secara otomatis membuat pembahasaan mengenai kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin menjadi sedikit. hal tersebut adalah salah satu alasan mengapa mahasiswa merasa materi perkuliahan kurang membahas tentang cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. adapun aspek dalam diri mahasiswa, ada beberapa mahasiswa merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak penting untuk dipelajari, mereka mengira pada saat di kelas cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan mandarin sama seperti bahasa indonesia. oleh karena itu, mahasiswa tidak memperhatikan pelajaran dengan baik.  menurut anda, bagaimana penguasaan anda terhadap kata bantu bilangan? gambar 3 pandangan seluruh responden terhadap penguasaan dirinya akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dari gambar 3 diketahui bahwa dari seluruh mahasiswa setiap tingkat ada 64.52% mahasiswa merasa penguasaan dirinya akan cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik dan ada 35.48% mahasiswa merasa dirinya sudah menguasai cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dengan baik. hal itu berarti lebih dari setengah jumlah responden mahasiswa merasa penguasaan dirinya akan cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik. peneliti menyarankan mahasiswa yang sudah menyadari dirinya kurang menguasai cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin harus memperdalam penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, misalnya dengan banyak membaca materi yang ada hubungannya dengan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dan meningkatkan kesadaran akan pentingnya mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. 各年级学生对自身量词掌握情况的看法 35.48% 64.52% 1 2 ket: 1 = baik 2 = tidak jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 98  alasan seluruh responden mengapa penguasaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik gambar 4 alasan seluruh responden mengapa penguasaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik 1. kurang diajarkan dalam materi perkuliahan 2. kata bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya banyak 3. perasaan malas dari diri sendiri 4. kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak penting untuk dipelajari dari gambar 4 diketahui bahwa dari seluruh responden mahasiswa di setiap tingkatnya ada 52.40 % merasa penyebab mereka kurang menguasai kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin adalah kata bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya sangat banyak, ada 26.44 % responden merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin kurang diajarkan dalam materi perkuliahan, ada 18.75 % responden merasa perasaan malas dari diri sendiri, dan ada 2.40 % merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak penting untuk dipelajari. kebanyakan mahasiswa merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang sangat banyak menjadi penyebab penguasaan dirinya akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin menjadi kurang baik, mendekati setengah responden merasa penyebabnya adalah mereka kurang menyadari pentingnya mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin karena dibandingkan dengan bahasa indonesia, cara penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin lebih luas. hal tersebut merupakan alasan mengapa mahasiswa kurang memahami pentingnya menguasai kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin.  menurut anda, bagaimana cara meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin? gambar 5 pandangan seluruh responden terhadap cara meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin 表8:各年级学生认为量词掌握不好的原因 26.44% 52.40% 18.75% 2.40% 1 2 3 4 表9:学生提出提高量词的方法 30.10% 30.60% 26.37% 12.94% 1 2 3 4 analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 99 ket: 1. sering membaca buku mandarin 2. sering mengerjakan latihan 3. sering mempraktikkannya dalam percakapan sehari-hari 4. memperhatikan pelajaran yang diterangkan dari gambar 5 diketahui ada 30.60% responden berpendapat untuk meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan harus banyak mengerjakan latihan, ada 30.10% responden berpendapat dengan sering membaca buku mandarin, ada 26.37% responden berpendapat dengan sering mempraktikkannya dalam percakapan sehari-hari, dan ada 12.94% responden berpendapat dengan memperhatikan pelajaran yang diterangkan. hal itu menunjukkan untuk meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin mahasiswa harus memperluas pembendaharaan kata serta meningkatkan kesadaran akan pentingnya mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin.  menurut anda, apa saja yang menjadi hambatan bagi mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan? gambar 6 hambatan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin ket: 1. kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya banyak 2. perasaan malas diri sendiri untuk mempelajarinya 3. kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jarang dibahas dalam perkuliahan 4. kurang latihan dari gambar 6 diketahui ada 41.94% responden berpendapat hambatan dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin adalah kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya banyak, ada 30.27% responden berpendapat karena kurang latihan, ada 14.39% responden berpendapat karena kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jarang dibahas dalam perkuliahan, dan ada 13.39% responden berpendapat karena perasaan malas diri sendiri untuk mempelajarinya. hal itu berarti kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang jumlahnya banyak adalah hambatan yang dialami mahasiswa dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, sikap belajar mahasiswa juga berdampak pada penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. 表10:各年级学生在学习汉语量词中所遇到的困 难 41.94% 13.40% 14.39% 30.27% 1 2 3 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 89-101 100 penutup dalam meneliti artikel ini digunakan tes, penyebaran kuesioner, dan wawancara. melalu kuis diketahui penguasaan mahasiswa tingkat 2-4 akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik. lama waktu belajar di universitas bina nusantara tidak berdampak pada penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. persentase kesalahan mahasiswa terhadap kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang jarang muncul lebih tinggi sedangkan terhadap kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang sering muncul persentase kesalahan lebih kecil. melalui penyebaran kuesioner diketahui kebanyakan mahasiswa merasa kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sulit dipelajari karena kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya sangat banyak, tata cara penggunaannya lebih luas, membutuhkan ketelitian untuk menguasainya. kebanyakan mahasiswa berpendapat bahwa penguasaan dirinya akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tidak baik. penyebabnya adalah kata bantu bilangan jarang dibahas dalam mata perkuliahan, perasaan malas dirinya untuk mempelajarinya, mahasiswa merasa kata bantu bilangan tidak penting untuk dipelajari. mahasiswa merasa kesulitan dalam mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin adalah kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jumlahnya banyak, perasaan malas dirinya untuk mempelajariya, dan jarang mengerjakan latihan. hal tersebut menunjukkan kesadaran mahasiswa akan pentingnya menguasai kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin masih kurang. mahasiswa berpendapat untuk meningkatkan penguasaan akan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin harus banyak membaca buku mandarin, sering mengerjakan latihan, mempraktikkannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, memperhatikan pelajaran yang diterangkan dosen saat di kelas. disarankan mahasiswa harus meningkatkan kesadaran akan pentingnya mempelajari kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, meningkatkan pembelajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, banyak membaca materi yang ada hubungannya dengan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, dan mengerjakan latihan. daftar pustaka 《对外汉语教学使用语法》,卢福波 《初级汉语课本》,原北京语言学院来华留学生三系 《外国人使用汉语语法》,程美珍,sinolingua beijing,1988年 《汉语量词》,焦凡教授,华语教学出版社 《简明汉语语法学习手册》,周晓星,北京大学出版社,2002年 《现代汉语上册》,黄伯荣,高等教育出版社,2002年7月出版 《汉语教程第一册上》,杨寄洲,北京语言大学出版社,2003年 《汉语教程第一册下》,杨寄洲,北京语言大学出版社,2003年 《汉语教程第二册上》,杨寄洲,北京语言大学出版社,2003年 《汉语教程第二册下》,杨寄洲,北京语言大学出版社,2003年 analisis kendala pembelajaran kata … (rosemary sylvia) 101 keraf, g.1999. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia. mularsih, h. juli 2006.pembelajaran bahasa kedua. mimbar bahasa.2.47-57. purwanto, e. a. dan sulistyastuti, d. r. 2007. metode penelitian kuantitatif untuk administrasi publik dan masalah-masalah sosial. yogyakarta: gaya media safioedin, a.1973. tata bahasa indonesia.bandung: peladjar. suparto. 2003. tata bahasa mandarin itu mudah. penerbit: puspa suara. wolters, j.b. 1954. tata bahasa indonesia. djakarta: groningen. types of structural ambiguity: why and how to resolve needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 1 needs analysis of the important communicative features at de la salle university fenty l. siregar de la salle university-manila abstract article analyzed the needs of communicative competence and gather information on the features of communicative competence that are believed to be important by selected foreign graduate students studying at dlsu. the features consist of linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic, and intercultural competences. data were obtained by giving questionnaire to 33 foreign students, consisting of 11 male and 22 females and were analyzed qualitatively. the findings suggest that all features of communicative competence are crucial. in addition, the linguistic competence and strategic competence are considered to be the most essential features of the communicative competence. it can be concluded that the foreign graduate students learn english to achieve their communicative competence and it is used to communicate among students. keywords: communication, linguistic, communicative competence, communicative features abstrak artikel menganalisis kebutuhan kompetensi komunikatif dan mengumpulkan informasi tentang fitur kompetensi komunikatif yang dianggap penting bagi sejumlah mahasiswa asing yang mengikuti program master dan doktor di dlsu manila, filipina. fitur kompetensi komunikatif terdiri dari kompetensi linguistik, sosiolinguistik, wacana, trategis, dan antar budaya. data diambil dengan memberikan kuesioner kepada 33 mahasiswa asing yang terdiri dari 11 pria dan 22 wanita, dan dianalisis secara kualitatif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa semua fitur komptensi komunikatif adalah penting. di samping itu, kompetensi linguistik dan strategis juga dianggap fitur yang sangat penting dari kompetensi komunikatif. disimpulkan, mahasiwa asing belajar bahasa inggris guna mencapai kompetensi komunikatif dan untuk berkomunikasi dengan sesama mahasiswa. kata kunci: komunikasi, linguistik, kompetensi komunikatif, fitur komunikatif jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 1-11 2 introduction communication is a process in which there is an action of attributing a meaning to an object, event, situation, or behaviour (irving, 1984). moreover, a real communication consists of two essential needs: namely, functional needs or the desire to convey messages without misunderstanding, to carry our transaction efficiently; and social needs or the desire to use the language which is socially acceptable and enables the learner to integrate satisfaction with the second langua ge community (littlewood, 1984). in addition, intercultural communication requires one to have the ability to compose a message that not only crosses the language boundary but also culture differences. therefore, communicating in a foreign language might be problematic for foreign language learners, especially for those who study aboard because when they attempt to communicate inside the class or in the society, they are required to use the language that is not only structurally correct but also has a socially appropriate meaning in social interactions. the appropriateness of a language closely relates with communicative competence. in other words, there is a need to gain communicative competence to successfully send an intended message. with regards to communicative competence, it can be defined as the learner's l2 ability to use the language system appropriately in any circumstances that regard to the function and the varieties of language as well as shared socio cultural supposition (mora, 2006). according to canale and swain (1983), communicative competence consists of four components; linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. first, linguistic competence concerns how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language. second, sociolinguistic competence deals with how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. third, discourse competence concerns how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole. fourth, strategic competence is about how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language in context. fatt (1991) studied the importance of communicative competence for university students in singapore. he found that even though university graduates are structurally competent in english when they entered the job market, most of them soon found themselves communicatively incompetent because they have no other features of communicative competence, such as sociolinguistic competence or discourse competence. in addition, kasper and kellerman (1990, as cited in nunn, 2005) stated that foreign language learners should develop strategic competence since it has already been highlighted as an important aspect of "communicative competence" and also an inevitably worthy mean required for intercultural communication. furthermore, according to cortazzi and jin (1999) since english now has a status as a lingua franca, the communicative competence should no longer be composed only of four elements but it should include intercultural competence as the fifth element. intercultural competence is the ability to negotiate meaning between cultures. that ability itself consists of four elements: “1. intercultural knowledge or the ability to see the differences between the relevant cultures, 2. intercultural understanding or the ability to perceive the situation from the perspective of the other cultures, 3. intercultural appreciation or the ability to appreciate the unfamiliar behaviour in its cultural context, 4. intercultural action competence or the ability to use one’s knowledge for solving problem” (intemann, 2006:1). moreover, should a foreign language learner of english want to truly become inter culturally competent, they should be exposed to non-native varieties of english since according to writers in the fields of world englishes (we) such as kachru, rajagopalan, and widdowson (as cited in cortazzi & jin, 1999) english is no longer “owned” by any particular culture but it belongs to the world at large (p. 198). subsequently, a wide array of englishes are spoken and used worldwide and it cannot be assumed that the knowledge of american or british culture will be relevant in many international needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 3 contexts. in other words, knowing the cultures of traditional bases of english is not enough for they also need to be aware of varieties of english. on top of that, david crystal (1997) states that currently numerous countries employ english as their official language resulting in more numbers of non-native speakers of english than the native speakers of english. this suggests that it is important for english foreign learners to be familiar with the non-native varieties of english because there may be more chances to engage in english communication with non-native speakers of english than with native speakers. de la salle university has numerous master and doctoral foreign graduate students who come from different asian countries: namely, china, vietnam, indonesia, thailand, myanmar, and taiwan. in order to be able to communicate and socialize with their classmates from different countries and join classes that employ english as the medium of instruction, those foreign students are required to be able to send messages that can traverse culture. in other words, they have to gain communicative competence so that they can conduct an intercultural communication well without having a communication breakdown. therefore, this study aims to analyze the communicative competence need of selected foreign graduate students at de la salle university and to gather information about what features of communicative competence are believed to be important by the students. moreover, this study may lead to the following benefits, such as the development of students’ awareness that communicative competence of english is important for pursuing master’s and doctoral degree and the development of students’ awareness that there are different types of english’s in the world. discussion methodology participants a total of 33 foreign graduate students participated in this study11 of them were males and 22 were females. the students came from six different countries in asia: namely, thailand, myanmar, china, taiwan, vietnam, and indonesia. their average age was between 23 and 52. they were either pursuing their master’s degree or doctoral degrees at de la salle university. instrument in order to gain data about what features of communicative competence are believed to be important by selected foreign graduate students studying at dlsu, i employed a twopage questionnaire. the questionnaire (see appendix) consisted of two sections: namely, profile of the respondents, features of communicative competence and the varieties of english. data gathering procedure need analysis questionnaires were distributed in two weeks to selected foreign graduate students. it was done from 10 march 2007 until 24 march 2007. each respondent took about 10 to 15 minutes to answer the questionnaire. data analysis to answer the research question about what features of communicative competence are believed to be important by selected foreign graduate students studying at dlsu, five features of communicative competence, namely, linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 1-11 4 competence, strategic competence and intercultural competence were included in the questionnaire. also, some information about varieties of english was included to support the data of intercultural competence. in addition, all data obtained from the questionnaire were analyzed using the theoretical review mentioned in the introduction. statistical treatment the data from the questionnaire were analyzed and coded. the scores ranged from 1 to 4. thus, the strongly agree statement would be 4, agree statement would be 3, disagree would be 2, and strongly disagree would be 1. the statistical analysis was conducted using microsoft excel. results and discussion figure 1 presents the graduate foreign students’ opinion about what features of communicative competence are important for intercultural communication. the mean score of each competence reveals that the students believe that all features of communicative competence included in th e questionnaire are important. moreover, linguistic competence and strategic competence are chosen as the most important features. their average scores that nearly reach 3.4 suggest students’ belief of the crucial role of linguistic competence and strategic competence for intercultural communication. according to nunn (2005), it is crucial to acquire linguistic competence in any language learning since every communication requires linguistic competence. in addition, having strategic competence will be beneficial for one who has limited resources of linguistic competence to keep his or her conversation going well (mariani, 1994). in other words, strategic competence plays an important role in communication as it can make possible the person who is less competent in linguistic competence to understand or be understood by his or her speaking partner. furthermore, the fact that three features out of four features of intercultural competence: namely, intercultural knowledge, intercultural understanding, intercultural action competence attain at least 3 for their mean scores and only one feature, intercultural appreciation, gains a little lower than 3 suggests that the respondents agree with cortazzi and jin (1999) that state intercultural competence is essential for intercultural communication. 3.39 3.27 3.36 3.39 3.06 2.97 3.06 3.27 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.00 3.10 3.20 3.30 3.40 3.50 lc sc dc stc ik iu ia iac mean figure 1 communicative competence figure 2 shows the awareness of selected foreign graduate students of varieties of english. it can be noted that they are aware that british english and american english are not the only englishes (english varieties that are available). slightly over 65% of the students agree and a little higher than 20% of the students strongly agree that there are other varieties of english, such as philippine english, singapore english, malaysia english, and indian english. on the other hand, only ten percent of the students seem to have less awareness of varieties of english. needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 5 3.3% 6.7% 66% 24% 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree percentage figure 2 awareness of varieties of english (ae) crystal (1997:22) states that “the speed with which a global language scenario has arisen is truly remarkable”. currently, there are more than 750 million efl speakers and there are only 375 million native speakers of english and 375 million who speak english as their second language. in other words, there is a big possibility that efl speakers might have more chances to engage in english communication with non-native speakers of english than with native speakers of english. figure 3 presents students’ awareness of the situation mentioned above by crystal. it can be seen that slightly over 45 % of the students show their agreement of the necessity of knowing varieties of english to be able to communicate well in english with non-native speakers of english. in addition, exactly 30% of the students are strongly agree or are really aware of the situation. it can also be noted that less than 25 % of the respondents confirm their disagreement. these findings suggest that most of the foreign graduate students realize that they will likely have intercultural communication during their study at dlsu. 3% 21% 46% 30% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree percentage figure 3 awareness of speakers of english (voe) however, although the previous findings in figure 2 and figure 3 illustrate the students’ awareness of varieties of english and the need for knowing the varieties of english, figure 4 pr esents a surprising result that contradicted students’ preceding opinion. more than 80% of the students are interested in learning american english and slightly over 75% choose to learn british english. in other words, most of the students choose to learn british english and american english. moreover, only a few students are interested in learning or knowing other varieties of english. as can be seen, less than 20% of students feel it is necessary to learn philippine english although they study in the philippines. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 1-11 6 76% 82% 12% 30% 15% 18% 3% 7% 7% 3% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% b rit is h a m er ic an c an ad ia n a us tr al ia n n ew z ea la nd ph ili pp in e si ng ap or e m al ay si an in di an h on gk on g percentage figure 4 varieties of english the reasons why american and british english have become the most favourable varieties of english to learn can be seen clearly from some selected excerpts of respondents’ reasons: respondent (r) 3. an indonesian student said that they are “the most varieties used indonesia”. r7. “because they are the source of english”, was said by another indonesian student. r8. a taiwanese student explained, “because in my country, we still follow the “standard” english as teaching subject especially american english, thus, english as foreign language in taiwan, we have to focus on one or two english ( in teaching)”. r9. “i would like to learn more knowledge”, was said by a chinese student. r16. another chinese student stated, “it is useful and the most popular ones. i can get more opportunities in finding my future career”. r25. “those are the standard english accepted all over the world”, was stated by an indonesia student. r26. a vietnamese student reasoned that, “…i think british english and american english are international english which every country have involved in study”. r28. a cambodian student explained that, “if we learn “a” (british english) and “b” (american english) very well, it would be very easy to learn other varieties of english”. r30. an indonesian student said, “because a lot of chemical engineering book written in british english indonesia”. the respondents’ reasons above are in concordance with crystal’s statement (1997) that says english has been acknowledged as the medium of a large amount of the world’s knowledge. in other words, english as a lingua franca plays an important role in education. moreover, most of books are written in american or british english. most teachers teach their students either american or british english. on top of that, those varieties of english have become the “standard” and numerous efl learners want to gain communicative competence in them. in other words, it is common and understandable if efl learners prefer learning american and british english rather than learning other varieties of english. for instance, a study of friedrich (2003) on mba students’ attitudes toward english in argentina also showed that most of the participants considered american english to be more favourable and useful than other varieties of english. the students share the same opinion with some respondents in this survey that said having communicative competence in american english will give her more opportunities in finding a job. furthermore, the following list presents some excerpts of respondents’ reasons for having an interest of knowing other varieties of english beside american and british english are based on some reasons like: needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 7 r2. a vietnamese student: “learn varieties of english which help me integrating culture and language effectively and correctly”. r4. a taiwanese student said that it is to be easily to “communicate with their people”. r6. “different countries. different accent, if i can learn more i will understand those different kinds of english accents more” was stated by a thai student. r14. “i’d like to learn philippines english because of that i’m here in philippines now…”, was explained by a chinese student. r20. an indonesian student said, “because, there is great possibility that i will have an interaction with them”. the students’ reasons above show not only students’ interest of knowing varieties of english but also a need of knowing other varieties of english beside american and british english for intercultural communication. in other words, the finding implies the importance of intercultural competence to be truly competent in english language. in europe, current efforts to develop communicative competence (especially intercultural competence) are conducted by increasing the quality and quantity of learning english across the national border or student exchange (byram & fleming, 1998). thus, it can be said that by studying at de la salle university, the foreign graduate students have a big possibility to develop their communicative competence of english since they are studying in which english is employed as the medium of instruction and has a status as a second language. conclusion the vast majority of non-native speakers of english are learning english to gain communicative competence in using this lingua franca. in addition, they are not learning english with the purpose of communicating with native speakers of english but they intend to use english to communicate with other non-native speakers for example, japanese and korean, french and germans, finns and swedes (kramsch, 1998). however, the varieties of english that efl learners usually learn are american and british english. in other words, the englishes that they learn reflect "anglo" cultural values. in real communication, however, english that can work to communicate among non-native speakers reflects no “anglo” cultural values. that phenomenon of english was identified by gordon wu of hong kong's hopewell holdings and written in the far eastern economic review: "english is no longer some colonial language. it is the means [by which] we in asia communicate with the world and one another." (wu, 2000, as cited in kirkpatrick, 2000:1). moreover, although awareness of the existence of non-native varieties of english is increasing in some asian countries for example in malaysia and china, it still appears that american and british english or native varieties of english are more preferable than non-native english varieties, especially among university students in china (kirkpatrick and xu, 2002). therefore, conducting more research on students’ awareness of varieties of english and foreign graduate students’ attitudes toward the importance of communicative competence can provide more insight on how communicative competence and the awareness of varieties of english can support the students in pursuing their master’s or doctoral degrees. also, having more participants and including some questions about integrative and instrumental motivation for gaining communicative competence in the future research are advisable. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 1-11 8 references byram, m. and fleming, m. 1998. culture and language learning. in m. byram and m. fleming (eds.), language learning in intercultural perspective: approaches through drama and ethnography. cambridge: cambridge university press. canale, m. and swain, m. 1983. approaches to communicative competence. singapore: seameo regional language centre. cortazzi, m. and jin, l. 1999. cultural mirrors. in e. hinkel (ed.). cultural in second language teaching and learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. crystal, d. 1997. english as a global language. cambridge: cambridge university press. fatt, j. p. t. july, 1991. achieving communicative competence: the role of higher education. higher education, 22 (1), 43-62. retrieved april 10, 2007 from http://www.springerlink.com/content/770637571503nn81/ friedrich, p. 2003. english in argentina: attitude of mba students. world englishes, 22(2), 173-184. intemann, f. 2006. introducation to foreign language pedagogy. retrieved february 20, 2007 from http://www.anglistik.tu-bs.de/esud/intro-flp/session03%20part1_ws0607.pdf intemann, f. 2006. introducation to foreign language pedagogy. retrieved february 20, 2007 from http://www.anglistik.tu-bs.de/esud/intro-flp/session03%20part1_ws0607.pdf irving, k.j. 1984. theory into practice. multicultural education, 23(2), pp.138-143. retrieved january 23, 2007 from http://links.jstor.org/sici=00445841%28198421%2923%3a2%3c138%3acaatec%3e2.0.co%3b2-e. kirkpatrick, a. 2000. english as an asian language. retrieved february 20, 2007 from http://www.macmillaneducation.com/globaldebate/asia.htm kirkpatrick, a. and xu, z. 2002. chinese pragmatic norms and “china english.”. world englishes, 21(2), 269–279. kramsch, c. 1998. the privilege of the intercultural speaker. in m. byram and m. fleming (eds.). language learning in intercultural perspective: approaches through drama and ethnography. cambridge : cambridge university press. littlewood, w. 1984. foreign and second language learning. melbourne, australia: cambridge university press. mariani, l. june, 1994. developing strategic competence: towards autonomy in oral interaction. perspectives, 20 (1) 1-22. retrieved february 24, 2007 from file:///c:/documents%20and%20settings/nec/my%20documents/academic%20writing/strat egic%20competence.htm mora, j.k. 2006. communicative competence. retrieved january 23, 2007 from http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/natapprtheory-eng/sld003.html. http://www.springerlink.com/content/770637571503nn81/ http://www.anglistik.tu-bs.de/esud/intro-flp/session03%20part1_ws0607.pdf http://www.anglistik.tu-bs.de/esud/intro-flp/session03%20part1_ws0607.pdf http://links.jstor.org/sici=0044-5841%28198421%2923%3a2%3c138%3acaatec%3e2.0.co%3b2-e http://links.jstor.org/sici=0044-5841%28198421%2923%3a2%3c138%3acaatec%3e2.0.co%3b2-e http://www.macmillaneducation.com/globaldebate/asia.htm file:///c:\documents%20and%20settings\nec\my%20documents\academic%20writing\strategic%20competence.htm file:///c:\documents%20and%20settings\nec\my%20documents\academic%20writing\strategic%20competence.htm http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/natapprtheory-eng/sld003.html needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 9 nunn, r. september, 2005. competence and teaching english as an international language. asian efl journal, 7 (3) 1-15. retrieved february 24, 2007 from http://asian-efljournal.com/sept_05_rn.pdf savignon, s. j. 1983. communicative competence: theory and classroom practice. ma: addison wesley publishing company, inc. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 1-11 10 appendix needs analysis questionnaire this questionnaire is written and distributed to determine the importance of gaining communicative competence and what features of communicative competence that are believed to be important by foreign graduate students at de la salle university. i would appreciate it if you could complete this questionnaire, which should take approximately 10 minutes. personal data and language background questionnaire 1. name: 2. age: 3. gender: 4. nationality: 5. major of study 6. native language/l1: 7. how long have you been learning english? 8. how long have you been studying at dlsu? for each statement, please indicate whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) disagree, (4) strongly disagree by marking the appropriate number on the table following each statement. as a foreign graduate student at dlsu: 1 (strongly agree) 2 (agree) 3 (disagree) 4 (strongly disagree) 1 i should know what words to use, how to put them into phrases and sentences. (linguistic competence) 2 i should know which words and phrases fit a certain setting and topic, how to express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority, friendliness, respect) when she or he needs to behave like that, how to know what attitude another person is expressing. (sociolinguistic competence) 3 i should know how to put together words, phrases and sentences to create conversations, speeches, email messages, and newspaper articles. (discourse competence) 4 i should know what to do when someone has misunderstood me, when i have misunderstood someone’s message, what to say then, how to express ideas if i do not know the name of something or the right verb form to use. ( strategic competence) 5 i should know what the differences between my culture with other cultures are. (intercultural knowledge) needs analysis of the important communicative… (fenty l. siregar) 11 as a foreign graduate student at dlsu: 1 (strongly agree) 2 (agree) 3 (disagree) 4 (strongly disagree) 6 i should be able to perceive the situation from the perspective of the other culture. (intercultural understanding) 7 i should be able to appreciate the unfamiliar behaviour in its cultural context. (intercultural appreciation) 8 i should be able to use my knowledge for solving communication problem or breakdown (intercultural action competence) 9 i am aware that american and british english are not the only englishes, there are other varieties of english, such as philippines english, singapore english, malaysia english, indian english, etc 10 i am aware that to be truly competent in english language, i need to know varieties of english since i might have more chances to engage in english communication with non-native speakers of english than with native speakers of english. 11. if you have the opportunity to learn/know the varieties of english, which varieties of english you think it is important for you to learn or know? (you may choose more than 1 option) a. british english b. american english c. canadian english d. irish english e. australian english f. new zealand english g. indian english h. nigerian english i. philippine english j. singapore english k. malaysian english l. hongkong english m. other specify:_____ 12. why do you want to learn/know the varieties of english mentioned in question number 11? please specify your reason: microsoft word 05_paramita_setting.doc 138 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 138-145 viewers and identity consciousness: the analysis of the responses of green street’s viewers paramita ayuningtyas english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ayu.palar@gmail.com abstract research analyzed the viewers’ responses after watching the film green street (2005). the responses were taken from a number of film websites, such as imdb and film focus. green street is a film that shows a cultural phenomenon called football hooliganism. in general, the viewers’ responses could be categorized into two: the viewers who accepted the representation of hooligans and the viewers who refused it. from the analysis on their comments, it can be concluded that in giving responses to the film representation, the viewers put themselves in certain social positions. in other words, they show their identity consciousness when they see and respond to certain phenomena. keywords: identity, consciousness, viewers’ responses abstrak penelitian menganalisis respon pemirsa setelah melihat film green street yang diproduksi pada 2005. response diambil dari beberapa website film, seperti imbd dan focus film. green street adalah film yang memperlihatkan fenomena budaya yang disebut football hooliganism. secara umum, respon pemirsa terbagi dua, yaitu yang menerima dan yang menolak hooligans. dari analisis komentar dapat disimpulkan bahwa seseorang dapat menempatkan diri mereka dapat suatu posisi tertentu, dengan kata lain mereka menunjukkan identitas hati nurani ketika mereka melihat dan merespon suatu fenomena tertentu. kata kunci: identitas, hati nurani, respon pemirsa viewers and identity .....(paramita ayuningtyas) 139 introduction the opposition between british culture and american culture often becomes a theme either in literary works or in films. henry james is one example of authors who frequently wrote down this theme in his novels, such as the europeans (which later was filmed and directed by james ivory, 1979). meanwhile in the film industry, the patriot (emmerich, 2000) and what a girl wants (gordon, 2003) are only two instances from a number of film titles that describe the clash of the two cultures. the recent case of films with this subject is green street (with the usa title green street hooligans, 2005), directed by lexi alexander. even though this film is about a phenomenon in football (or known as soccer in usa), green street also comes up with an idea of meeting of two cultures with the character of matt buckner, a university student from usa, who has to face hooliganism in english football. these two sides – matt and the hooligans – represent two nations with cultural aspects that look slightly the same but are actually different in little things. one of the examples is on which side they should drive. these little differences appear in the film, but i will not discuss about it further. the interesting thing is there are many various responses towards the representation of matt and the hooligans in the film. there are people who take the character representation in the film for granted, but there are also they who gave bitter criticism. these arguments over the film representation serve as the reason for me to analyze further the responses of english and american viewers on green street – especially on aspects related to hooliganism and the characters who represent english and american cultures. the primary data that i am going to analyze is reviews from film websites and discussions of common viewers in film forums in the internet. the purpose of this essay is to observe how viewers’ identity consciousness connects with their interpretation of green street. about green street a film about sports is not a rare thing in film industry. however, typically this kind of film focuses more on how the protagonist character struggles to become the champion, for instance goal! (cannon, 2005) and rocky (avildsen, 1976). on the other hand, green street pays attention more to football fanatics who often create riots – or known as hooligans – therefore the football match itself only receives a small portion. even in football match scenes, the camera focuses more on the hooligans on the bench. another fascinating element is that the narrator of green street is a harvard journalism student named matt buckner (played by elijah wood). green street is the name of the street where upton park, west ham fc’s stadium, is located. matt has been dismissed by the university since a pack of hashes was found in his cupboard (which actually belongs to his roommate). he then decides to go to england to meet his married sister. matt’s encounter with hooliganism appears when pete (played by charlie hunnam), his sister’s brother in law, takes him to see west ham fc’s match. pete is the leader of green street elite, a group of west ham’s supporters. from matt’s point of view, who knows nothing about football, the viewers are taken to witness hooliganism in england. his journalistic background places matt as an observer, and the use of indirect-subjective point of view camera takes the audience to feel what the protagonist feels. responses to hooligan phenomenon film is a form of representation. through audio and visual aspects and dialogs, film makers re-present many things in life, either events, people or places. according to giles and middleton (1999), [s]igns stand for or represent our concepts, ideas, and feelings in such a way as to enable 140 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 138-145 others to ‘read’, decode or interpret their meaning in roughly the same way that we do (p. 59). in films, many elements are seen as signs, for example actors’ gestures, time and place setting, costumes etc. these audio-visual signs do not merely exist but are constructed in particular ways to deliver meanings. to quote hall (giles and middleton, 1999: 56), ‘the production and the exchange of meaning’ always happen in culture, even in films as one of cultural products. in other words, green street is an effort from people involved in the making to present a hooligan phenomenon in english football. with many bloody fighting scenes and the hooligans’ pleased expression when getting involved in a fight, this film tries to create an image that hooligans are a bunch of fierce and violent guys. in his review about green street in metromix chicago tribune, michael phillips (who represents american viewers) uses certain dictions to describe how cruel these hooligans in the film are (phillips, 2007). the words used by him are ‘vicious subculture’ and ‘loyal psychopaths’ (italized by me). according to oxford electronic dictionary, the word ‘vicious’ means ‘violent and cruel’ and is related to crime. meanwhile, ‘psychopath’ means someone with mental disorder. phillips even uses the phrase ‘ultra-violence’ (not just ‘violence’) to refer to what the hooligans commit. by choosing those words, we can see what kind of image that phillips captures as a viewer. roger ebert, a film critic from chicago sun times, also gets the same image. in his review, ebert says that the hooligans have ‘an addiction to violence’ and also treat violence as a hobby. it seems that they acquire satisfaction from beating and battering other people. to describe the intense fighting between hooligans, ebert uses the word ‘brutal’. the reason why he employs this word is “ ... because the gangs don’t for the most part carry firearms, preferring to beat each other with fists, bricks, iron bars and whatever else they can pick up”. the visualization of rough and chaotic fighting (because the hooligans basically use anything they can get) causes ebert to choose the word ‘brutal’ to describe it. besides that, the word ‘gangs’ in the same quotation also constructs a negative connotation. they are not just football fans, but a ‘gang’ which is often related to crime. not only american viewers, english viewers also capture a certain meaning delivered by the rough fighting scenes. however, different from phillips and ebert, english viewers tend to show their social and cultural backgrounds in giving comments about the film. yatesy, a member of film community film focus, responds to the violent scenes in green street in a discussion: being a liverpool fan away from home i have once seen first hand accounts of violence and football hooliganism of which i wish to never witness again. however this feeling was thoroughly brought back when watching the film and at times i [sic] felt genuinely afraid. this quotation shows how yatesy positions himself or herself when interpreting the film, as an english and as a fan of liverpool fc. she/he makes a connection between green street and her social background as a football fan who has directly witnessed violence committed by hooligans. the fighting scenes between hooligans triggered yatesy to feel what he/she once felt in the past. j. bobo, in analyzing the responses from black females after watching colour purple directed by steven spielberg (in giles and middleton, 1999: 64), mentions that “ … when a person comes to view a film, she/he does not leave her/his histories, whether social, cultural, economic, racial, or sexual at the door.”. based on that statement, it can be assumed that either consciously or unconsciously, yatesy has put himself/herself in a certain position, and this provides him/her with a frame to react to the film from his/her own point of view, which is his/her personal experience as a football fan. a very different rejoinder comes from a same film community member with nickname littlebadger. just like yatesy, littlebadger highlights his/her cultural and social background as an english and a football fan. yet, different from yatesy, littlebadger is a west ham supporter. as a supporter of west ham fc, pete’s favorite club in the film, littlebadger remarks that the illustration of west ham supporters in green street does not suit the reality seen by him/her: viewers and identity .....(paramita ayuningtyas) 141 as a west ham fan for nearly 30 years and local from the area, i can honestly say that this film is one of the most unrealistic, far-fetched nonsense i have ever watched. it bears no resemblance to the culture, people and way of life of football hooligans (i‘m not one myself but i did grow up around the west ham ifc and aggro in general). littlebadger’s familiarity with the culture of west ham fc fanatic supporters causes him/her to disagree with hooligans’ representation in the film. here, it can be seen how littlebadger’s cultural experience affects his/her way in responding to green street. by saying that green street does not resemble the reality, littlebadger has placed himself/herself on the side that denies the meaning constructed by the film makers. from the analysis of some responses above, it cannot be easily deduced that american viewers easily accept hooligans’ representation while english viewers strongly oppose it. disagreement can also be found among the english audience. cultural experience and how they position themselves while responding to green street are the factors of the argument. both yatesy and littlebadger come from england, but their self-positioning in social community (in this case of football supporters) causes different signifying practices and also leads to different responses. responses towards two characters if we see the viewers’ responses in some discussion forums and in critics’ reviews, matt buckner and pete dunham are characters who steal the spotlight the most. matt character in green street does not only function as the narrator and the protagonist but also a representation of an american, more specifically a harvard student from upper-middle class. meanwhile, from all hooligans that appear in the film, pete is the most outstanding character for several reasons. from narrative aspect, pete has an important role since he accidentally takes matt to the world of hooliganism. from technical aspect, cinematography often places pete on the centre of the frame or as a camera focus. in the next sub-chapter, i am going to analyze viewers’ responses towards those two characters, still related with representation issues. compared with american football, football is not really popular in usa. one the other hand, in england football is a religion to many people. therefore, some film critics tend to see matt’s character as the wrong person in the wrong place. not simply as a narrator, matt also gets involved in fighting between hooligans; he even thinks that he feels more comfortable among the hooligans than in harvard: “i’d never lived closer to danger. yet i’d never felt safer”. however, matt’s participation in a football firm is considered irrelevant by some film reviewers. one of them is joe utichi from film focus (who represents english viewers) who says that the transformation of a harvard student to a football hooligan is something ‘ridiculous’. utichi (2007) also writes that “[w]e’re given no motivation for matt’s transformation from harvard undergrad to football hooligan … “. he concludes that the tale of matt’s change is ‘unbelievable’. it can be seen here that utichi doubts the story of how an upper-middle class harvard student can easily mingle with english working-class hooligans. michael phillips (from chicago tribune) also expresses the similar thing in his review (phillips, 2007). he mentions that english hooliganism should not be viewed from an american’s point of view: “instead of digging into the psyche and daily life of english football hooligans, we have to have a movie starring a theoretically bankable american, playing a nice guy who gets mixed up with the other.” american viewers also question matt’s involvement in english hooliganism. matt is considered too ‘clean’ and ‘dandy’ to enter the dark world of hooliganism. even though they come from two different cultural backgrounds, both utichi and phillips question about how easily english hooligans accept an american into their community. 142 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 138-145 utichi and phillips might have the same opinion about matt, yet in writing reviews, they have different ways in positioning themselves. generally, utichi sees green street as a ‘patronizing’ film. one of the factors is matt who serves as the narrator. then he says that green street is a film for “one who knows not a single thing about football and uk than one with even the slightest knowledge”. from this sentence, it can be concluded that utichi thinks that people who know much about football and england will not like this film. at the same time, because of his dislike to green street, utichi places himself as someone who has enough knowledge about football and england. meanwhile, phillips feels closer with matt character. it can be seen from how he mentions the hooligans as the other and matt as self while actually from narrative-wise, matt is positioned as the other by the hooligans. both reviewers disapprove of matt’s function as a ‘window’ to see hooligans’ world; however, they put themselves in different positions in their refutation. if utichi puts himself closer to english culture, phillips puts distance by mentioning the hooligans as the other. this objection to matt character is also caused by the actor’s physical appearance, elijah wood. generally, some responses obtained say that wood’s appearance is not convincing enough as someone eager to join the rough world of hooliganism. cfcoibhoy, in film focus website, states that: “wood while a good hobbit i [sic] find hard to buy him in any role as a tough guy”. the same problem is also mentioned by stockey in the same website: “wood is the wrong man for the job, as no-one can take him seriously as a football hooligan, whrn playin [sic] [f]rodo”. there is no doubt that both viewers have watched lord of the rings trilogy (directed by peter jackson) in which wood plays as a hobbit named frodo. this information affects their assessment on wood’s performance in green street. implicitly, cfcoibhoy and stockey state that a hooligan – or in other words, someone who enjoys riots – should be played by an actor with a fierce figure. consequently, the representation of this ‘new’ hooligan called matt is considered unimpressive. the next part will be discussing responses towards pete dunham character. if younger viewers (especially young girls) focus more on the actor’s, charlie hunnam, physical appearance, older viewers pay attention more to his unsuitable accent. back to joe utichi, he writes that pete’s accent “flits between northern, american, and australian at will without ever finding cockney …. as a viewer who places himself as someone knowledgeable about football and england, utichi underlines pete’s flawed accent. pete is a londoner and comes from working class; therefore his accent must reflect that identity. pete’s weakness in accent keeps getting exposed. even in imdb, one of the biggest movie websites, pete’s dialect becomes a specific topic to discuss by the title “the least authentic accent i ever heard … “with user paul-miles-1 as the discussion’s pioneer. from the title, it can be concluded that authenticity is an important issue in green street. pete character is meant to be a londoner hooligan, and for that reason, he has to look and sounds like a true londoner. however, one of the character’s identity features, accent, does not manage to show that. paul-miles-1 expresses his disappointment about the accent inaccuracy: yeah, i could accept it if it was just a slight slip here and there.....but this sounds absolutely nothing like a london accent. surely it would have made more sense to just get a london actor to do it?? i'm not looking for faults or being over critical because this movie was just total *beep* anyway, but the guys voice made it so much worse. i just dont understand how a movie can get through all the stages of production without someone saying 'hold on that sounds *beep* and either getting someone else or getting him some voice coaching. from his opinion, it is clearly seen that paul-miles-1 considers pete’s accent as something significant to discuss and even makes him dislike the film more. besides that, the citation above also shows how paul-miles-1 is very emotional when giving his response. to say it in a different expression, accent as a signifier of identity becomes a crucial aspect for paul-miles-1 in interpretating green street. viewers and identity .....(paramita ayuningtyas) 143 in the same forum, a viewer with nickname krd2003 initially did not notice this accent inaccuracy. however, after reading comments and watching green street several times, he or she spotted how charlie hunnam’s northern english accent sometimes appears: “ .. i [sic] can hear his northern england accent come through quite often. i [sic] can understand why people from england caught it right away”. krd2003 obviously puts himself or herself in a particular identity by saying “as an american … “. this positioning also explains his or her lack of knowledge about english regional accents. furthermore, he or she also shares his or her experience as an american related with accent: … i [sic] can immediately point out when an actor is doing a shoddy southern accent, or far northern accent, or new england accent. you get accustomed to your region’s way of speaking … it’s a bit harder to discern between the regions of another country. even though he or she admits that he or she does not really understand various accents in england, krd2003, like utichi and paul-miles-1, regards accent as a part of one’s cultural identity. based on that reason, he or she understands why english viewers create such a fuss over accents in green street. one viewer from sweden (a neutral position in this case), ersken_90 says that most of american viewers will not consider pete’s accent as a problem. this can be found in reviews written by american reviewers. roger ebert does not touch this issue at all; he does not even give a special paragraph for pete (his review is more about matt’s transformation). stefanie jackowitz, a reviewer from cinemablend, concentrates more on lexi alexander’s personal experience as a hooligan. the two american reviewers discuss the film (that takes english culture as the setting) in two different approaches. nevertheless, there is one similarity that can be figured out: pete’s regional accent, even pete as a character, does not have a special portion in their reviews. responses towards matt bring up the issue of matt’s function in green street, meanwhile responses towards pete focus more on how he should be constructed as a character. matt’s appearance (a yank, as called by the hooligans) is considered unexpected and also inappropriate to view english football hooliganism. several examples discussed above mention that the film should focus more on the hooligans. objections coming from english viewers originate from the opinion that as a narrator, matt is too patronizing. in the meantime, responses towards pete discuss more about the inaccurate representation. english audiences seem more active in giving comments about pete. paul manning in a discussion in film focus states that “… because the accents are so bad it makes it unbelievable.” the citation shows how the film does not manage to deliver ‘truth’ that cause this film to be believable. a film is indeed not a reality, yet in films, signs have to be constructed and arranged in certain ways so that the viewers can comprehend the meaning and believe that the film looks real. green street for american viewers? in the end, the meaning carried by cinematic representation will be interpreted in different positions. green street film makers construct and arrange signs – such as cinematography, camera and costumes – to deliver something. in its official website (www.hooligansthefilm.com), alexander the director expects that the viewers will take something from the film. one of them is: whether you’re addicted to coke or skull-cracking, the addiction will affect your entire community. ‘patronizing’ aspect is clear in the expectation. hooliganism is a form of violence addiction, and the sad ending for dunham brothers is the example of how addiction will lead to tragedy. the violence eventually brings something positive only to one character, matt. his experience with the hooligans teaches him to be a stronger person so when he gets back to america he can defend himself from his bullying roommate. in my opinion, green street is a film for american viewers. one of the reasons is the american narrator. surely american viewers will identify themselves easily with matt. along with 144 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 138-145 matt, they are taken to see a new world, the world of english football hooliganism. behind the casting of elijah wood as matt, there also must be a commercial reason. wood is one of hollywood moneymaking young actors after his role as frodo. another reason is green street tells more about matt’s transformation. the hooligans only serve as a catalyst to transform matt into a better person. even if the film takes england as the cultural setting, the narrative still focuses more on matt character, a yank. since the film is dedicated more to american viewers, signs like point of view and narration are also arranged to fulfill the needs. the representation of english culture inside the film is constructed for viewers in a particular context, so the viewers in another context (english viewers generally) question and even doubt this representation that they consider as flawed. among the english viewers, opposition also occurs. different cultural backgrounds (such as their identity in a certain social community) definitely influence the way they decode green street. conclusion in simple ways, the responses from green street’s viewers can be categorized into two: the viewers who accept the meaning (american and english viewers) and the viewers who object to the meaning (mostly english viewers). however, after further analysis it can be seen that english viewers show their identity consciousness in giving comments. this consciousness is not merely related to their own identity as an individual (how they position themselves) but also to their expectation of others’ identity (how they position other people, for example pete character). besides identity positioning by the viewers, social class is also a keyword in understanding the responses from english viewers. for a long time, the english have been famous for their social hierarchy. o’ driscoll says that even though this social stratification is not as rigid as it was in victorian era, ‘ … people in modern britain are very conscious of class differences’ (1995: 49). class consciousness becomes a significant aspect in their identity construction. this aspect differentiates the viewers with english cultural background with the viewers with american cultural background. whether they realize it or not, this class consciousness also takes part in their watching and interpreting activity. the most obvious example is how english viewers strongly react to pete’s inaccurate regional accent. the responses analyzed show how english viewers are more critical in positioning pete character in a certain social class with all of its characteristics. a text, either a film or a novel, can be categorized as multicultural due to the culture encounter theme in it. however, viewers’ responses after watching the film can also show multiculturalism since they do not leave behind their cultural experience and background when giving comments. the responses of green street’s viewers that have been discussed in this paper have pointed out that thing, especially responses from english viewers who demonstrate their identity consciousness. as emphasized by terry eagleton, readers (or in this case, viewers) do not encounter a text without their cultural background or pure from anything (2006: 128). therefore, viewers are not a blank paper. they are also a text that moves actively when they come upon another text. viewers and identity .....(paramita ayuningtyas) 145 references alexander, l. (2005). green street [motion picture], united kingdom: odd lot entertainment. avildsen, j.g. (1976). rocky [motion picture], united states: chartoff-winkler productions. cannon, d. (2005). goal! [motion picture], united kingdom: milkshake films. douglas, e. (2207). green street hooligans: thug life. retrieved on may 16, 2007, from http://www.comingsoon.net/ news/topnews.php?id=11026. eagleton, t. (2006). teori sastra: sebuah pengantar komprehensif, trans. harfiah widyawati and evi setyarini. yogyakarta: jalasutra. ebert, r. (2007). green street hooligans. retrieved on may 16, 2007, from http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/pbcs.dll/research?aid=/20050908/reviews/50901001. emmerich, s. (2000). the patriot [motion picture], united states: mutual film company. gordon, d. (2003). what a girl wants [motion picture], united states: warner brothers. giles, j., and middleton, t. (1999). studying culture: a practical introduction, oxford: blackwell publishers. ltd. ivory, j. (1979). the europeans [motion picture], united states: merchant ivory productions. jackowitz, s. (2207). retrieved on may 16, 2007, from http://www.cinemablend.com/reviews/green-street-hooligans-994.html. o’ driscoll, j. (1995). britain, oxford: oxford university press. phillips, m. movie review: green street hooligans. reterieved on august 24, 2007, from http://metromix.chicagotribune.com/movies/mmx-050909-movies-reviewhooligans,0,4115338.story. stam, r., et.al. (1992). new vocabularies in film semiotics: structuralism, post structuralism and beyond, london: routledge. utichi, j. (2007). review – green street. reterieved on may 16, 2007 from http://www.filmfocus.co.uk/review.asp?reviewid=326. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 85 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 85-89 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1602 stylistic analysis of maya angelou’s equality arina isti’anah english letters department, faculty of letters, sanata dharma university jl. affandi, sleman 55281, indonesia arina@usd.ac.id received: 24th august 2016/ revised: 6th march 2017/ accepted: 4th may 2017 how to cite: isti’anah, a. (2017). stylistic analysis of maya angelou’s equality. lingua cultura, 11(2). 85-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1602 abstract this research presented the stylistic analysis of a poem by maya angelou, equality. the poem was chosen as it became angelou’s one of well-known poems. the stylistic analysis aimed at comprehending the meanings of either literary or non-literary text by means of observing the language device used in the texts. in this article, the stylistic analysis was conducted to analyze maya angelou’s equality. to achieve the goal of stylistic analysis, there were some language levels to observe; they were phonological, graphological, grammatical, and semantic levels. in the phonological level, the repetition of rhyme in some stanzas, assonance, consonance, and alliteration were used to voice angelou’s dream about freedom for black people. in the graphological level, the use of prominent punctuation in stanzas 3, 6, and 9 stressed equality as the requirement for the freedom she expected. in the grammatical level, angelou used pronoun i and you as the dominant words in the poem, revealed different class the poet experienced in the country. the use of metaphors in the poem brought the same meaning as freedom, voice, effort, and racism that black people experienced in america. this research concludes that stylistics applies to analyze literary work so that thorough appreciation to it can be achieved. keywords: stylistics analysis, poem, language, freedom introduction stylistics deals with language style, either of literary or non-literary texts. it is mentioned that style is also related to a personality of a person. a style reflects the thoughts of a person’s mind. it describes the way person’s speaking and writing (aslam, aslam, mukhtar, & sarfaraz, 2014). by observing a language user’s style, at the same time, we can find out the message of ideologies brought by the language user. in the literary text, stylistics aims at proving how language style can construct meanings, so that appreciation of literary works is not merely based on assumption. it needs language analysis of the texts. stylistics is also proposed as a method of textual interpretation in which primary of the place is assigned to language (simpson, 2004). barry also supports the previous statement that stylistics is a critical approach using the methods and findings of the science of linguistics (barry, 1995). research on language style in literary texts has been widely published. one of the delicate fields is language style analysis of poems. stylistic analysis of a poem can show how poetic style creates meanings and effects (bradford, 2005). it is not only about the poet’s style, but how the poet chooses certain patterns in a stanza, for instance, can be used as linguistic evidence to draw the meaning of a poem. there is a research conducting the stylistic analysis of shelley’s to a skylark by employing the analysis in lexicosyntactic, phonological, graphological, and morphological levels. from the analysis, it is concluded that shelley possesses all the romantic traits-love of nature, beauty, and imagination. this poem is rich in sensuous imagery (shawa, 2015). batool et al. (2014) conduct the stylistic analysis of frost’s the road not taken. to draw the meanings of the poem, the lexico-syntactic patterns, diction, phonology, graphology, and morphology are observed. it is also concluded that frost uses simple words and phrases to make it understandable and to clarify his intentions. to convey the meanings, it is also mentioned that frost also employs different metaphors, symbols, and images to make the poem more effective to convey his message (batool, et al. 2014). a similar analysis is conducted to observe davies’s leisure. the linguistic devices which are exercised from graphology, syntax, semantics, and phonology. it is found that davies uses very simple language in his poem by the proofs of the rhyme scheme, alliteration, and repetition. davies makes his poem straightforwardly logical and raises a very good point in his simple structured poem to avoid boredom in reading (hanif, ahmed, & aftab, 2015). another research analyzes william’s the red wheelbarrow by observing the use of phonological, 86 lingua cultura, vol. 11 no. 2, november 2017, 85-89 graphical, lexical, syntactic, and semantic feature analysis. the research finds that william uses careful word choice, attention to language, and unusual stanza breaks to turn an ordinary poem into a great one (shaheen, jamil, & jahangir, 2015). these related studies motivate the analysis of maya angelou’s poem. maya angelou is one of the famous poets. her work is often related to her personal life as a single mother and afro american woman. equality is a poem related to black people’s experience of living in america. as an afro american woman, angelou experienced racism in her life. to utter her experience, in equality, angelou uses wordings which are fruitful to analyze. to comprehend a poem is not only based on the readers’ or listeners’ assumptions. the proof of language device in the poem can help the readers or listeners comprehend the message better. thus, higher appreciation of the poem can be attained. methods stylistic approach is conducted in this research. it concerns about the language style either literary or nonliterary text. stylistics does not describe the language used in the text, but to figure out the language user’s purpose and the text effects. the careful analysis of every line in the poem is done through the four levels as proposed by simpson (2004). in the phonological level, the representation of rhyme elements, alliteration, consonance, and assonance is analyzed. the repetition of certain sounds in the lines and stanzas are concerned at the phonological level. in the graphological level, the use of certain capitalization and punctuation is figured out to draw the poet’s intention why she does so. in the grammatical level, the forms of words and sentences are found. in this level, the transitivity analysis is employed to figure out how the poet draws intention on each participant in the clause. in the semantic level, the use of metaphors in the poem is observed to figure out the meanings in the poem. the use of figurative language in the poem is not only for the sake of the poetic language but also for the poet’s purpose why certain ideologies are reflected by means of metaphorical expressions. results and discussions this part displays the result of the analysis. as there are four language levels observed, the discussion is broken down into its language levels: phonological, graphological, grammatical, and semantic levels. phonology concerns with the sound pattern of language. one of the phonological patterns found in the poem is rhyme repetition found in the last line of every stanza. angelou’s equality contains 9 stanzas. most of the stanzas have 4 lines, except stanzas 3, 6, and 9. there is an interesting pattern in the number of lines, too. stanzas 3, 6, and 9 are the same. repetition of the lines takes place in those stanzas. the rhyme in the first stanza is abac. the repetition of the rhyme can be seen in line 1 and line 3. the repetition in the stanza is marked by the sound /li/ of the adverbs dimly and boldly. you declare you see me dimly, line 1 though i stand before you boldly, line 3 in stanza 2, the rhyme is abcb. the repetition of the rhyme takes place in lines 2 and 4 that is shown by the sound /eɪnʤ/. below is the appearance of the stanza. as a whisper out of range, line 2 and the rhythms never change. line 4 stanzas 3, 6, and 9 have 2 lines, in which one line is repeated in the other. thus, this line is repeated six times in the poem. therefore, the rhyme is, aa. the rhyme of this stanza is represented through the repetition of the sound / fri/. equality, and i will be free. line 1 equality, and i will be free. line 2 in stanza 4, every line has different sound ending; thus its rhyme is abcd. the same rhyme pattern is also found in stanza 8. there are not any repeated sound endings. in stanza 5, the rhyme is abcb. the second and fourth lines have the same sound ending, /ɑ:st/. below are the repeated lines. we know the shameful past, line 2 and you keep on coming last. line 4 stanza 7 also has the same rhyme, but different sound ending representation, /ɪərz/. below are the lines. take the padding from your ears, line 2 and admit you’ve seen my tears. line 4 another phonological feature found in the poem is assonance. it is described as the repetition of a vowel sound within a line of poetry which creates a rhythm to the poem (batool, khan, iqbal, ali, & rafiq, 2014). in the first stanza, the vowel /u:/ and /i:/ are repeated in the first line as follows. you declare you see me dimly, in lines 2 and 4, the vowel /ɪ/ is repeated as shown in the words which, will in line 2 and trim, in, and marking in line 4. in stanzas 3, 6, and 9 the vowel /i:/ is also repeated in the words be and free. while in the other stanzas, assonance is absent. equality, and i will be free. the following vowel repetition is found in stanza 4, in which the vowel /æ/ is repeated in line 2 as shown below. that i fly from man to man, consonance, another phonological feature found, is the repetition of the final consonants of stressed syllables or important words in the same lines. in the first stanza, the consonant /m/ is repeated on line 4 as follows. trim in rank and marking time. in stanza 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9, consonance is absent. it is found in stanza 4 line 2, represented in consonant /m/ as shown below. that i fly from man to man, from the findings, it can be concluded that consonance is not the prominent feature used in the poem. it appears twice in which the words trim-time and man-man are used. 87stylistic analysis of maya angelou’s equality .... (arina isti’anah) alliteration is also found in the poem. it is the repetition of the first consonant sound in two or more words in a line (isti’anah, 2013). in stanza 1, the alliteration is found in lines 1 and 4, in which the consonants /j/ and /t/ are repeated. you declare you see me dimly, line 1 trim in rank and marking time. line 4 in stanza 2, there is only one line containing alliteration, found in line 3. while my drums beat out the message in the stanzas 3, 6, and 9, there is not any alliteration found. in stanza 4, there are two lines containing alliteration, found in lines 1 and 2, as shown below. while in the rest stanzas, alliteration is absent. you announce my ways are wanton, that i fly from man to man, observing the phonological features found in angelou’s equality, it can be seen that the repeated rhyme, vowels, and consonants bring the same message directed to the readers or listeners. the use of repeated rhyme in some stanzas attempts to attract the listeners’ attention on the poet’s voice. the words dimly and boldly repeated in stanza 1 shows the poet’s bravery to face people’s opinion towards her class as a black woman in america. it is also shown in the second stanza from the sound endings in words range and change. the poet attempts at voicing a change towards the effects of grouping social class she has experienced. the following proof, the line repetition in stanzas 3, 6, and 9 is the word free which is repeated six times in the poem. it clearly reveals freedom as the one the poet struggles to achieve. the other repeated rhyme is in stanza 7, found in words ears and tears. here, the poet also vocalizes her pain but never paid attention to by others. in the graphological level, angelou uses the capital letter at the beginning of the stanzas. in stanza 1, a comma is used in lines 2 and 3. a full stop is found at the end of the stanza. in stanza 2, a quite different way of punctuating the line is found. a comma is found in line 2 only, while a full stop is put at the end of the stanza. stanzas 3, 6, and 9 have the same pattern as the line is repeated. the beginning of the line is capitalized, and a full stop is found at the end of every line. stanza 4 begins with a capital letter, followed using the comma in lines 1, 2, and 3, and ends with a question mark as the fourth line is in the form of the question. in stanzas 5 and 7, the same way of representing the stanzas is the same. the capital letter is used at the beginning of the stanza, followed using the comma in lines 1, 2, and 3. there is a full stop at the end of the stanzas. in stanza 8, the capital letter is used at the beginning of lines 1 and 3, followed by a comma at the end of the line. there is a full stop in lines 2 and 4. the prominent use of writing the stanzas is clearly found in stanzas 3, 6, and 9 as seen below. equality, and i will be free. equality, and i will be free. each line is repeated and given a full stop. here, angelou emphasizes that there is nothing else to fulfill, but equality between the whites and blacks. the only question mark is found at the end of stanza 4, could you ever understand? the employment of such punctuation means that there is nothing asked by the government, but their recognition of the existence of black people. in the grammatical level, the choices of words in the poem are divided into common noun, pronoun, preposition, verb, adverb, and adjective. every word which is repeated is counted as a different word. table 1 displays the number of types of words in the poem. table 1 lexical category in the poem word category number percentage (%) common noun 30 21 pronoun 33 24 verb 30 21 adjective 12 8 adverb 9 6 preposition 8 5 conjunction 22 15 total 144 100 in table 1, pronoun dominates the word category in the poem. it appears 33 times or in 24%, followed by common noun and verb, which existence appears in 21%. the use of adjective, adverb, preposition, and conjunction is the minority in the poem. adjective is used to modify a noun, such as in trim in rank and marking time. the use of preposition is to complete a verb, such as in but i keep on marching forward. the conjunction in the poem is to relate lines, such as in and you keep on coming last. the prominent existence of word category in the poem is the pronoun. in the poem, the pronouns used are you, own, your, me, i, my, and we. table 2 summarizes the existence of each pronoun. table 2 the use of pronoun word category number percentage (%) you 10 30 own 1 3 your 2 6 me 3 9 i 10 30 my 5 16 we 2 6 total 33 100 the summary use of the pronoun in the poem in table 2 is interesting. the pronoun you and i appear in the same number, 10 times, or 30% for each. in this finding, it can be concluded that angelou stresses the equality between you and i. the poet even pays attention to the number of word choice in the poem. the use of i as the subject reveals that black people, represented by the poet, are able to accomplish a verb as the character of the active sentence. the common noun in the poem is used by the poet to portray the presence of black people with their conditions in the country, such as in words glass, rank, time, range, drums, rhythms, vision, and veins. the previous notion is, for example, shown in stanza 2 line 2, as a whisper out of range. the noun whisper there refers to black people’s voice. 88 lingua cultura, vol. 11 no. 2, november 2017, 85-89 as their voice is not really heard by the government, so it is portrayed as a whisper. the other noun range describes the black people’s voice further. it is never reached by the white. on the other hand, the use of verbs in the poem is used to reveal the actions by the pronoun. as the dominating pronoun is i and you, the verbs there are related to the way the black and white people live in the country. for examples are in words know, lived, announce, hear, and beat. to comprehend the role of verbs in the poem, transitivity analysis is suitable to conduct. it talks about what happens in the clause and how each participant in the clause performs to bring the message. from the analysis, the use of transitivity types is summarized in table 3. table 3 transitivity analysis in the poem transitivity category number percentage (%) material 11 38 relational 7 24 verbal 6 21 mental 5 17 total 29 100 table 3 shows that the material process dominates the poem. in the material process, the verb refers to an action or a happening that is marked by an agent as its participant. the material process can be found in stanza 1 line 3, for example, though i stand before you boldly. in line 3, i perform as an agent, meaning the participant in the clause which does the action, represented by the verb stand. the process of happening is shown in stanza 5 line 1, we have lived a painful history. the happening is shown by the verb live. in the poem, we perform as an agent who experiences the happening that is followed by an affected a painful history. in that line, the black people have described to experience a long struggle in pain that is explained by the word history. the material processes are also used in repetition in the poem through the words change and keep on, as in and the rhythms never change. the material verb change in the poem is done by the rhythms as the agent which refers to the black people’s voice to freedom. the employment of material process in that line means that what they utter to seek freedom is followed by concrete actions. the verbal process, or saying, is marked by a sayer as its participant who says and verbiage as what is said. the existence of the verbal process in the poem is found in stanza 1, line 1 as shown in you declare you see me dimly. in the main clause, you performs as a sayer or the participant who says that represented by the word declare. here, you refers to the authority side in the country or to the white government that is called verbiage. in line 1, the verbiage is in the form of a noun clause, you see me dimly. in the poem, the material process is used to show the actions done by black people. as an example, in stanza 1, line 3. the verb stand is categorized as a material verb with i as the agent and equipped with a circumstance of the place before you and manner boldly. angelou portrays the agent as the one who supports the government, who stands before the white strongly. however, what she does is not respected, as shown in the preceding clause. another process in the poem is the relational process, meaning the process of being. it is found in stanza 3, 6, and 9 as the line is repeated equality, and i will be free. in the previous line, i performs as the token, and free is the value. the token is the participant who is defined, and values is the participant which defines (isti’anah, 2015). the repetition of the relational process in the poem reveals that angelou highlights being free as the state that i have. the existence of modal will refers to high possibility when the circumstance, equality, is fulfilled. the poem also employs mental process, referring to the process of sensing or feeling. it is marked by senser and phenomenon as its participant. in the poem, mental process is used to describe what the white people feel or sense about the black people, as shown in stanza 1 line 1 you see me dimly. in that clause, you appear as a senser, meaning the participant in the clause who senses, exercised by means of the verb see. another participant, me, performs as a phenomenon, meaning the participant who is sensed. the employment of mental process is also shown by the verbs understand, hear, and know. the minor number of mental process in the poem reveals that the white side does not feel much the pain that the black people experience. instead, angelou chooses to talk about the material things that her class does to seek their freedom. in the semantic level, metaphors are found in the poem. the metaphor is described as a trope in which a word or phrase is applied to something which is not literally applicable to suggest resemblance (shawa, 2015). the metaphor is used in some stanzas in the poem that is referring black people as ignored class and their voice. in stanza 1 line 2 and stanza 4 line 3, the metaphorical expressions refer to black people as the ignored group in the country. through glass which will not shine, but if i’m just a shadow to you, the word glass refers to black people. however, the adjective clause which will not shine explains which glass meant by the poet. a glass should have the characteristic of shining as its material enables to do so. however, the shining potential owned by the black people is absent. the white people do not see the bright side of black people. moreover, they are the ones who never give the advantage to the country. the word shadow emphasizes the previous explanation. it has the character of dark, which is opposite to the character of glass, to be clear. the presence of black people is ignored in the country. that is how angelou portrays her class. the other way to show black people’s voice to utter their expectation in the country is through the use of repetition of words drums and rhythm. in stanza 2 line 3 below shows the metaphorical expression by angelou. while my drums beat out the message the word drum does not literally mean a musical instrument. it refers to their hearts which beat the message, freedom. if they are alive, the message of freedom is always beaten following their heartbeat. in stanza 2 line 4, a clearer message is found. and the rhythms never change in the line above, it is not about the pattern of sound, but a strong pattern of their message when voicing freedom. the repetition of those metaphorical expression emphasizes the previous analysis. 89stylistic analysis of maya angelou’s equality .... (arina isti’anah) conclusions the stylistic analysis which pays attention to different language levels is proven to be able to help people to comprehend literary work better. in the phonological level, angelou uses some repetition in both consonants and vowels in some stanzas, particularly in stanzas 3, 6, and 9. in those stanzas, angelou also employs marked punctuation compared to the other. the question mark is used once to stress the poet’s message of the poem. in the grammatical level, the pronoun is used the most, followed by common noun and verbs. in the clause level, mental process dominates the poem, followed by material and verbal processes. in the semantic level, repetition of metaphorical expression is also exercised by the poet to voice the message. in summary, the previous findings reveal that angelou attempts at voicing freedom of thinking as a black person living in the country so that she can develop herself and get the same chance as the white people have. the poem also portrays the ignorance of the government to the existence of the black people in the country. references aslam, s., aslam, b., mukhtar, p., & sarfaraz, a. (2014). stylistic analysis of the poem ”bereft” by robert frost. european journal of research and reflection in arts and humanities, 2(1), 1-5. barry, p. (1995). beginning theory. new york: manchester university press. batool, s., khan, a. b., iqbal, a., ali, k., & rafiq, r. m. (2014). stylistic analysis of robert frost’s poem “the road not taken”. journal of elt and applied linguistics, 2(4), 52-64. bradford, r. (2005). stylistics: the new critical idiom. new york: routledge. hanif, s., ahmed, m., & aftab, m. (2015). a stylistic analysis of william henry davies’ “leisure”. journal of literature, languages and linguistics, 7, 30-36. isti’anah, a. (2013). language features for more understanding literary work. literary studies conference (pp. 192-197). yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. isti’anah, a. (2015). transitivity analyses in literary and non-literary texts: for truth and meaning. in english language studies for truth and meaning (pp. 63-78). yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. shaheen, z., jamil, a., & jahangir, n. (2015). stylistic analysis of the poem “the red whel barrow” by william carlos william. european journal of english language and literature studies, 3(5), 3639. shawa, w. a. (2015). styistic analysis of the poem “to a skylark” by p.b. shelley. journal of humanities and social science, 20(3), 124-137. simpson, p. (2004). stylistics: a resource book for students. new york: routledge. microsoft word 02_risa_policy_ok.doc bahasa indonesia: policy,..... (risa r. simanjuntak) 11 bahasa indonesia: policy, implementation, and planning risa r. simanjuntak english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, risarsimanjuntak@binus.edu abstract language policy or language planning is still in the surge for familiarity and importance. however, this paper argues that in the case of bahasa indonesia current implementations should be evaluated based on its relevance and future plan. the historical perspectives will reveal the roots of the current policy and therefore make foundations for further discussions. from the study of literature, this paper is arguing that new paradigm for nationalism, roles in the global competition, as well as regional languages as competitive advantage could be well adopted to nurture a more inclusive and progressive bahasa indonesia. keywords: language policy, nationalism, bahasa indonesia, regional language abstrak kebijakan bahasa atau tata kelola bahasa belum merupakan kajian yang hidup dan dikenal masyarakat. hal ini disebabkan kurangnya sosialisasi mengenai pentingnya pengawalan masyarakat pada penerapan kebijakan bahasa dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara. studi literatur ini mengangkat beberapa argumen tentang penerapan kebijakan pemerintah mengenai bahasa indonesia, dengan mengkritisi tujuan awal diciptakannya kebijakan tersebut. simpulan memberikan beberapa implikasi bahwa bahasa indonesia perlu mendapat kajian lebih serius dengan pertimbangan paradigma baru nasionalisme, peran bangsa di persaingan global, serta potensi bahasa daerah sebagai peluang di perdagangan dunia. kata kunci: kebijakan bahasa, nasionalisme, bahasa indonesia, bahasa daerah jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 11-19 12 introduction emerging in the early 40s, the term “language policy” is still progressing for a precise definition. often used interchangeably with “language planning” which focuses more on the process of language implementation in a speech community (tollefson, 1996; wiley, 1996; spolsky and shohamy 2000; ager, 2001), a distinction between the two is still important to make. spolsky and shohamy (2000) set some boundaries for language policy, stating it to be the prerogative of the power holder to change language use. language policy in indonesia is an interesting case to study. it started with an idea of nationalism and is challenged by the same issue in its development and implementation. as being relatively a young language, bahasa indonesia is still evolving rigorously. there are constant struggles between power maintenance and preservation of regional languages. they appear as moulding process for an ideal national language as part of national identity. this paper will discuss the emergence of language policy in indonesia, the implementation of the policy regarding bahasa indonesia and some challenges in planning. in the implication for language teaching some underlying achievements are also discussed. research method this paper looks carefully on the issue through the study of literature. there are some documents, publications, and also government’s reports consulted as the ground for arguments. a wide range of literature selection will then be arranged to its importance, the older ones for more historical reference purposes, and a more current selection of reference for the actualisation of discussion. discussion language policy in indonesia language planning in indonesia has been initiated long before the state is officially declared in 1945. having a long history of oppression under dutch’s imperialism, indonesia considers nationalism as the most important value for the country. driven by the idea of independence and search for identity, in 1928 a youth congress was held. the congress comes with an important decision of a national language, i.e. bahasa indonesia. it is declared as the unifying language in the new nation of indonesia and should be used instead of dutch for formal and nation-wide communications. a lingua franca among traders over a long period of time, bahasa indonesia is not part of any regional languages within the archipelago. on the contrary, the language is derived from bahasa melayu or malay, which is also used by the people in malaysia, brunei darussalam, and singapore. it is not chosen out of practical motive but of a dream, of unity, and recognition (poerbakawatja, 1970). since the declaration, bahasa indonesia has developed further away from bahasa melayu to a language with its own form and identity. the place for bahasa indonesia in the constitution is found in chapter xv verse 36 in 1945 constitution and chapter iv section 5 in 1950’s provisional constitution. in the 1945 constitution, bahasa indonesia is established as national language. the chapter formulates the status of bahasa indonesia, as national and state language. furthermore, in 1950’s constitution, it is stated as the “official language”. the changing in the 1950’s constitution, according to moeliono (1986), is to underline the importance of nationalism, which becomes the action force in the implementation (anwar, 1979; moeliono, 1986; alwasilah, 1997). bahasa indonesia: policy,..... (risa r. simanjuntak) 13 there are 2 benchmarks in the support of language policy. they give the language a framework for standardization. the first one is from the language seminar in 1972, which comes up with a reference for perfected orthography (ejaan yang disempurnakan/eyd). the new standard simplifies the use of language in writing. in 1988, the fifth language congress finishes the indonesian extensive dictionary (kamus besar bahasa indonesia). this is considered as a big step in the language as new vocabularies resemble adoption of regional languages, as well as foreign languages. this strengthens the language’s position, after being attacked as unclear in its standardization (simandjuntak, 1972). according to ager (2001), in the making of any policies, including the language policy, at least 3 power sources come to play, which are: the individuals, ruling groups, and states. at the time, the ruling power is young intellectuals affiliation, who desires to put an end on dutch imperialism, which uses its infamous strategy of disintegration (devide et impera) to rule over the archipelago. on the other hand, the majority of people with influence are the javanese. the group of power in the 1928 youth congress chooses to aim at unification when choosing bahasa indonesia. later on, the official government has the same language policy. however, sometimes unity would be interpreted extremely, focusing on the uniformity in the aspects of the nation (ager, 1996). although considered as more efficient and effective in governance process, it also promotes elitism (ager, 2001). when tollefson (2002) mentions language policy as dedicated to shape language use, those who fail to follow the model proposed by the policy would be considered as not supportive to the policy. following the implementation of the policy, schools with language other than bahasa indonesia are closed or given no permission to operate. as a coin with two sides, language policy has the other half, which is language planning. focuses more in the function of language, language planning works in opposition with language policy (ager, 2001). language policy usually reflects a top-down idealism, whereas language planning speaks more about the ideal form, which the whole society desires. therefore, it demands an ideal formulation of other aspects for an ideal language in the country. grillo (1989) views language very seriously, stating it as identifier of egalitarian measure. accordingly, people would approve to a model of language, which has real benefits to everyday interactions, rather than one which is appointed by the government. a policy works within a jurisdiction (mcgroarty, 1996; wiley, 1996) and indonesia’s jurisdiction consist of multilingual and multicultural community. this results in struggles between the national languages with the mother tongues of speech community. there are almost 1000 languages in the archipelago with different numbers of speakers, ranging from hundreds to 58 million people (nababan et al., 1992). from an interaction with the regional languages, bahasa indonesia receives a lot of benefits for its development. the language of dominant speakers in indonesia is javanese. considered as the regional language with the biggest speakers, javanese supports bahasa indonesia in its lexicon. however, there is no attempt to adopt further parts of this language, as bahasa indonesia is considered easier to learn than javanese, which functions under triglossic situations. in its interaction with languages close to malay, bahasa indonesia is said to have more consistent rules and its own identity compared to the language of origin (simandjuntak, 1972). furthermore, in implementing the language policy, the people in those areas are benefited from the exposure of language and become bilinguals faster. wardhaugh (1992) considers the rise of bahasa indonesia in indonesia as a vernacularization, a restoration or elaboration of indigenous language in relation to its adoption as an official language. however, this is proven otherwise. being a mother tongue of no one in its time of establishment, bahasa indonesia is considered more as the unifying language among the 753 regional languages in the country (simbolon, 1999). jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 11-19 14 the government promotes the implementation of bahasa indonesia in education as partnership with the regional languages available. this also marks the policy regarding regional language, which is stated in the regulation no. 4, 1950, chapter iv section 5. however, as the implementation always becomes a main issue of policy’s success, there are some problems in the process of this ideal picture. further discussion in the area of language teaching would give more information on this matter. implementation on language teaching in indonesia one prominent drawback of language policy in indonesia is the assumption of native languages’ use as opposing nationalism (moeliono, 1986). among the utilization is the practice of local languages in education which would be considered as hindering government’s plan to literacy (c.f. bps, 1998). this is because bahasa indonesia is the preferred language of instruction at schools from the primary level. the national policy on language education regulates the use of regional languages or mother tongues of the learners, to aid the education process. it is explained that bahasa indonesia as the language of unity is the language to be used in every school in indonesia and that regional languages could be used in kindergarten and the first 3 years in school (regulation no. 4, 1950, chapter iv section 5). the reason for this permission is to help students with the learning process, in order to provide them with the most possible help in perceiving the information in classes. nevertheless, it is also mentioned that in the area where national language is well understood by the majority of people, the language must be used as a main language for teaching and learning purposes in schools. there could be no clear evidence whether previous assumption of native languages’ threat to nationalism could be derived from such premises. the possible explanation to this would be from the issue of national stability, which throughout history has received many opponent forces from the growing body of regional awakening. however, it is uplifting to see that recent curriculum designs are developed into a more comprehensive construction of language and culture. unfortunately, there are still many teachers who teach regional language for the sake of following the curriculum rather than for cultivating love for the cultures. they do not realize that language embodies the identity of its users (c.f. report of the royal commission on bilingualism and biculturalism). a recent research reveals such lack of concern from teachers all over the country, although such teaching is given as a free choice from the government (simbolon, 1999). when bahasa indonesia is taught as a compulsory subject in all levels of education, regional languages could or could not be taught at all depending on the provincial government scheme (simbolon, 1999). each province could apply different policy in which the regional languages are taught or not in schools. further finding, from the research conducted by simbolon and the ford foundation in 1999, show that among 27 provinces, only 10 of them have regional languages in the school’s curriculum. therefore, the effort of mother tongue’s cultivation would not go effectively as some educational institutions of the country choose not to apply this in their schools. however, such irony does not evoke enough concern from the government to a promotion of regional languages. beeby (1979) reports the education performance in indonesia and makes comments on the issue of language and equality of opportunity. in the report, he says that there are evidences of conflict between the national need for a common language and the chance to demonstrate students’ abilities in full, having proficiency in bahasa indonesia as obstructing the process. he also notices the high dropout rates are caused partly by “a familiar tongue” (p. 278). the language which is supposed to be an access to broaden opportunities of gaining knowledge has become obstacles in obtaining one. naturally, learning becomes more challenging when the language used in the process is not one that is bahasa indonesia: policy,..... (risa r. simanjuntak) 15 familiar to the students. the difficulty, of course, is because the language in school is not the language the students use at home for daily communication. in the case of literacy, data from government’s statistic states the rate of illiteracy to be higher in rural areas. from the 1998’s report by biro pusat statistik (statistic indonesia) illiteracy rate is 13.96 percent in rural areas, whereas only 5.08 percent of people in urban areas are illiterate. the shortest definition of literacy would be considered as an ability to read and write. in indonesia, the target language, in which one should be considered as literate, would be bahasa indonesia. further implication on literacy would lead to opportunities for further education or for professional occupations. the concepts of nation as unified, homogenous, socially, culturally, and linguistically (grillo, 1989) should also consider the fact that indonesia consists of many different cultures and languages. acknowledgment on such diversity has developed until recent government, which started from the emerging of reformation era. accordingly, new understanding on nationalism as synergy from diverse elements would be a good starting point. accordingly, bahasa indonesia should share its dominating role with other languages in indonesia. one achievement would be the acknowledgement of chinese new year, which is marked by official declaration of the event as national facultative holiday. this is because beforehand the chinese culture is considered as related to communism, which is a major threat to nationalism. this could be considered as a breakthrough in adopting multiculturalism in indonesia. in the line of new understanding of nationalism, other researches have shown that considerations to the advantage and possible threat to other cultures need to be linked with nationalism. suleiman (2006) shows that when arabic takes its place as the national language in the middle east, it also competes with other foreign languages (such as french and hebrew). but then, it argues the preference to its identity construction. thus, singular existence doesn’t mean the elimination of other languages’ influence or other cultures’ unique contribution. in relation with foreign language teaching, english comes on top of the list. accordingly, affiliations with english speaking countries regarding education and language teaching are flourishing. bahasa indonesia has been promoted overseas, especially with neighbouring countries. one of the examples is affiliation between deakin university in melbourne, australia and padang state university (unp) in sumatra, indonesia (antara, september 24, 2002). other affiliations are acicis in yogyakarta, unsw, and state university of malang. bahasa indonesia has even become one of the four asian languages aimed for learning by most students by the year 2006 (lo bianco, 1997). from the point of view of foreign languages teaching, this is an encouraging fact. hopefully, it would work retrospectively to re-opening schools where foreign languages are taught, such as schools in hokkien or indian languages, which were available until the late 60s. as bahasa indonesia is very well respected in other countries, indonesia should show openness to multicultural values in its own territory in more consistent way. implication for future planning other findings were shown in simbolon’s research in 1999 on bahasa indonesia and regional languages. it was stated in his research, that among 753 regional languages, only 410 languages have been researched. fortunately, the government opens a research centre, pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa/pppb (centre for language cultivation and development), to carry on researches on languages. the centre also acts as conceptualists for language policy (1991). however, language development should not rely entirely on government research. independent researchers, such as simbolon, need to be supported to give more comprehensive picture of language activities in indonesia. there would be some challenges as well as evidences of language preservation. in a more jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 11-19 16 practical way, children should be encouraged to acquire their parents’ language(s). naturally, it would be easier to loose a language than to acquire one. another challenge is to set a neutral ground for bahasa indonesia in partnership with the native/regional languages in indonesia. previous experiences dealt with rigorous power maintenance could be opted out for future development of the language. in past time, success in education would be detected by the use of bahasa indonesia in schools. ortiz sanz in united nations’ document for west irian (or papua) during 1968 to 1969 periods said, “the government must be given credit for progress in elementary education, the process of assimilation through use of a common language (bahasa) indonesian” (saltford, 2000). it would be justified by saying that this report is written on a political agenda of integration rather than objective assessment on (language) education. the essence of reality and local values are also important for the teaching practice. morgan and ramanathan (2005) show the failure of english has made when neglecting the importance of the recipients or students innate values and mother tongues. therefore, partnership with local languages rather than competition would open new opportunities for embracing bahasa indonesia into educational perspective. the language curriculum in 2003 focused on “communicative competence” and “discourse competence”, show a changing perspective on language, from a test for nationalism to realistic daily basis roles. in addition, native languages should be considered as equal in cultural value from the national language (moeliono, 1986). furthermore, the development of national language should not significantly limit the cultivation of regional languages in the country, as some experts fear (anwar, 1979; alwasilah, 1998). however, the realistic demand of having to be able to speak in bahasa indonesia would be a good encouragement to learn the language. there is a strong motive in learning bahasa indonesia through which more opportunities, especially in the workplace, would be available. those who were not speaking bahasa indonesia are becoming limited in wider interactions and opportunities for governmental positions. this resulted in the language as having exclusive, but realistic position (nababan et al., 1992). a certain remark made, in regards with availability of the teaching of bahasa indonesia, gives both bitter and elevating qualities. a report on teaching bahasa indonesia in the state of victoria (kelabora, 1983) warns teaching would plummet. the main reasons are availability of textbooks, having outdated materials irrelevant for quality teaching, and lack of teaching skills. in short, he states the major factor is “a bad course with its unreliable assessment system”. reading such elaborative report evokes the reality of language teaching in the native country of bahasa indonesia. comparing australia and indonesia, the condition in the language’s native country is far less fortunate. for example, indonesian textbooks appear with more informative and interesting features than those available for indonesian students. a case study by diah (1981) utters a concern in the quality of literature used by students. within the last 10 years, good progress has been made in both quality and quantity of textbooks. there are wide opportunities for better improvements for language teaching and development. new concept in nationalism brings a new perspective to the development of bahasa indonesia the 1928’s youth pledge marks the earliest stage of language planning, gives information to the motive as well as direction to where it is heading in the future (fishman, 1993; ager, 2001). in regard to this, the planning should serve the current needs of the people without putting away the first motive of language policy. the nation should go through, what by ager (2001) considered as, a symptom of nation preservation in a multilingual state. he specifies the tendency of achieving stability and cohesiveness of having a single, unifying language rather than perceiving the potency of other available languages to enrich communication in national scope. over time, indonesia has adopted some regional languages to be an assisting national communication, and not as intrusive to the nationality. however, this effort faces growing challenges to realisation. bahasa indonesia: policy,..... (risa r. simanjuntak) 17 language policy should consider the fact that multilingualism is everywhere in big states in the world (tollefson, 2002). from the discussion above, especially on the historical background of indonesia and its national language, multilingualism seems to be not alleged enough in the development of language. social positioning within the language of society, e.g. gender perspective, is also an important aspect to be considered (menard-warwick, 2007). considering that multilingualism would be as a framework for any policies in language teaching would be a better option. this means that language teaching is not merely considered as the transferring of knowledge, but as having more in shaping the society. although monolingual approach would be considered as easier and taking less effort, multilingual approach would bring more comprehensive knowledge of what the people and state have. in other words, the policy would bring the state and people together rather than have the state in a difficult position of instruction, that have more potential conflicts because the lack of consideration of each components of the state. despite the problem that indonesia’s official institution should develop in making language policies, some optimism remarks are made. one of them is the possibility of promoting indonesia as the language for south east asia area. the argument for this is presented by some linguistic experts in an inter-country language congress in malaysia in 2000. it is said that bahasa indonesia is easier to learn and more consistently developed in terms of writing and phonology (antara, 2000). the need for international recognition is crucial for a better standpoint in global negotiation. another high consideration comes from the same government’s news agency, antara, which believes bahasa indonesia to be the second language in australia. the assumption is perceived as an over expectation as the reality speaks differently. it is understood that the australian government abolishes a budget allocation for some asian languages, including bahasa indonesia (antara, 2002). these show how the indonesian government is trying to promote the language, although it sounds overoptimistic. finally, indonesia should learn from other countries where language policy or planning has helped the activities in country. one example to follow is australia, which is considered as the first anglophone nation with explicit language policy (romaine, 1991). another neighbouring country, brunei darussalam has also noted for its bilingualism plan which considers current development in industrial and trade (jones, 1997). indonesia has a wide opportunity to learn from others and improve its current language planning. conclusion discussion on the increasingly important notion on language policy bears its complexity. there are aspects of history and national multi identities in relation to implementation and further change considerations. in respect to the indonesian language policy way forward, some aspects need to be carefully taken into consideration. firstly is nationalism. status of regional languages, in comparison to bahasa indonesia and relationship with foreign languages need to be aligned with the current situations. the emergence of nationalism idealism should be actualized with the current global relationships. in addition to this, more collaborative partnerships with external parties should be taken into the perspective of nationalism and national language. as the result of the world becomes a global village, more interactions could be at the end shape of nation’s identity, including the national language. this should be aimed to position bahasa indonesia, or even knowledge of any regional languages in indonesia, as a competitive advantage in global trading initiatives. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 11-19 18 secondly, the government’s commitment to be more transparent and discursive in the application of national language, and the policy following its use could further the growth of bahasa indoensia as a key element in national communication with the participation of its users, and more awareness of language policy could help the fostering of bahasa indonesia in the future. references ager, d. 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(1996). language planning and policy. in mckay and hornberger. sociolinguistics and language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. _______. (1968). report of the royal commission on bilingualism and biculturalism. book ii: education. ottawa: roger duhamel, frsc. _______. (1991). pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. jakarta: departmen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 13 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 13-18 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1729 hegemonic culture and subaltern: a compromised veil in indonesian islamic popular novel rosmah tami1; faruk2; ida rochani adi3 1,2,3 department of literary studies, faculty of cultural studies university of gadjah mada, bulak sumur, yogyakarta, indonesia 1rosmahtami@gmail.com received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 27th desember 2016/ accepted: 9th january 2017 how to cite: tami, r., faruk, & adi, i. r. (2016). hegemonic culture and subaltern a compromised veil in indonesian islamic popular novel. lingua cultura, 11(1). 13-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1729 abstract this research was based on the powerful function of the aesthetics in the society. novel as an art work also functioned as an arena in which ideologies contest and negotiate. the research intended to show a mechanism underlining novel to have a significant hegemonic role. the material object was taken from islamic popular novel namely “ketika mas gagah pergi dan kembali”. the formal object was the negotiation of ideology which focused on the contact between intellectual and subaltern leading to the formation of a new compromised cultural practice. by applying the theory of hegemony in discussing the contestation and negotiation of ideologies in the novel, it is found that the contestation and negotiation between hegemonic and subaltern ideology lead to the occurrence of a compromise between the interest of the intellectual and the subaltern. the interest of the subaltern is based on the nostalgia of the past and fear or uncertain condition of future which lay in the domain of imagination that structures the novel. keywords: hegemonic culture, subaltern, negotiation, contestation, islamic novel introduction the rise of islamic popular literature has always been a polemic each time, it springs and gains popularity among indonesian muslim readers. due to the rise of indonesian modern literature, there has been an on going debate, disagreement and polemic between those who actively set up indonesian modern literature, and those who proposed the establishment of islamic modern literature. this contestation can be seen in two phenomenal events called banjir roman (the float of roman) in the late 1939s and the recurrence of islamic popular novel in 2005 which is called musim semi sastra islam (springs of islamic popular literature (ronidin, 2016). the reappearance of islamic popular novels has been widely received by muslim society since 2005. when adapted into movies, it spread up quickly, and was captured as phenomenon. yet, this has returned and its wide celebration has invited severe criticism, which is even worse than the polemic in 1939s. the use of novel as part of western tradition to convey islamic teaching has been the main object of criticism. some views that islamic popular novel, as part of the popular culture product, signifies the involvement of muslims in capitalist industry by labeling their product based on religious symbols. those who reject the islamic novel express their fear of polluting the purity of islamic teaching if conveyed through the form of popular culture (piliang, 2011). for others, the use of the novel becomes the incredibly effective means to spread the islamic teaching among muslims. islamic popular novel plays a significant role to counter and balance the massive production of liberal popular culture in the arena of ideological struggle (hidayatullah, 2008). by using islamic popular novel, the muslim authors intend to educate young muslim about islam (sakai, 2012). these polemics lead to a question that, why the form of novel centers to the polemic when related to cultural struggle? this article tries to uncover the crucial questions by using the theory of hegemony developed by gramsci. gramsci (2012) provided a method of reading cultural struggle within a literary work that may help explaining the polemic of the existence of islamic popular novel within cultural struggle in indonesia. by using this method, this research is intended to elaborate the crucial functions of the form of the novel as a powerful means to ensure the success of ideological negotiation in hegemony. therefore, this research will show how ideologies contest and negotiate through the structure of the novel. the second part of the research will show how the form of the novel structures the plot of stories to reach subaltern’s consensus. 14 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 13-18 methods this study applies a sociological approach to literary work. sociological theory provides a framework to understand the phenomenon of literature as an arena where ideologies are contested and negotiated. literature can be part of a conservative force trying to maintain a social structure, or a progressive force that is trying to undermine the structure for the sake of the establishment of a new social structure (boelhower, 1981). antonio gramsci’s contribution to the sociology of literature can be understood through his goal to reorganize the culture and to form a new historical block, the new hegemonic culture, new people and even a new country (boelhower, 1981 & woolcock, 1985). according to gramsci (1971, 2012, & zompetti, 1997), literary art has an important position as a cultural strategy for distributing and planting ideas in ways that literature has the power to capture and arouse sensual feelings of the readers. gramsci’s theory is known as the moral and intellectual leadership strategy or hegemony. hegemony is not a short event that requires a longterm process that operates in the cultural arena (smith, 2010). the process of hegemony in the novel can be described as follows: (1) the contact of intellectual to the sublatern to build faithfull relation to the sublatern; (2) the deconstruction of common sense by contesting subaltern ideology; (3) subaltern self-criticism and consensus of sublatern (gramsci, 1971). the material object of this research is a novelette, ketika mas gagah pergi dan kembali (kmpdk). this novelis written by helvi tiana rosa, the founder of forum lingkar pena (flp) literary community. the formal object is the negotiation and contestation of ideologies in the novel. the data is collected through identification of elements referred as ideology and its element involved in ideological negotiation and contestation. based on gramsci’s theory of hegemony, data analyzed aims to interpret and give meanings to the relation of negotiation and contestation as a way reaching consensus. results and discussions by applying theory of hegemony, this research focuses on the narrative contestation and negotiation between ideologies within islamic ideologies in the islamic popular novel written in indonesia. islamic ideology is presented in three different ideologies. all characters are intellectuals of their islamic ideologies. they represents three different groups of people who (1) practice islam based on traditional value and reject modernity, (2) strictly practice islam, yet accept modern value as long as it does not confront the basis tauhid (oneness of god) and syariah law, and (3) practice islam as private spiritual practices within a private domain, not in the public domain. mas gagah, the hero of the novel, was not a strong and religious muslim. he was a very modern liberal young man who only practiced basic islamic beliefs. however, after visiting a remote place in madura together with his lecturer and friends where he met an old traditional muslim cleric, he becamea traditionally fundamental muslim. he refused all modern lifestyle such as music, movie, fashion and terms, a lifestyle which he was used to seize with his younger sister. in addition, mas gagah started to introduce islam by conducting dakwah (calling to islam) to people around him including his family. he kept persuading the female muslim to wear hijab. most people agree to him except his younger sister (rosa, 2011). the confrontation between mas gagah and his sister gita was the main factor influencing the plot moves of the novel. gita, the narrator of the story, mas gagah’s younger sister believed that religion is one private spiritual belief, and it was not a public identity that everybody should know. she still wanted to hang out with friends and enjoyed young people’s life while looking for her potential mate, a boyfriend. she was afraid that by hiding under the hijab, nobody would notice her. therefore, she avoided wearing hijab, and she still felt to need a little exposure for her existence in the public sphere. the other ideology intellectuals presented in the novel is nadia hayuningtiyas and yudistira. nadia and yudistira were illustrated as western university graduates who actively spread islamic values. nadia started to consciously practice islam both in the public space and private when she was pursuing her study in america. she was depicted to show her islamic identity by wearing hijab when she was in america mean while she accepts america as a destination where she enlightened her intellectual capability. yudistira actively spread islamic beliefs in the public place such as in a bus, train and any places where people might possibly listen to him. yudistira concerned about the government’s regulation in the country, corruptions and economic class differentiation. nadia and yudistira believe that islam is a perfect guidance for all part of life, yet muslim also should open to western education to empower their life. this ideology is identified as modern islam. modern islam accepts western value, science, and knowledge. in doing this, modern muslim, intellectuals tend to adjust the practical daily life by referring to al-quran, sunnah, and the tradition of muttazilah school. these three ideologies contested and negotiated in the novel through the relations between characters that represent ideologies. the succession of the negotiation depends on how the relations between ideology intellectual and subaltern are tighten and protected. the following part is the elaboration of which ideology intellectual succeeds in maintaining a negotiation and how this intellectual leads the subaltern to consensually compromise to the dominant ideology. negotiation is an important element in the process of hegemony. all parties aim at reaching an agreement in persuasive ways. however, hegemony is more than just a persuasive way to win negotiation. according to fontana (2005) hegemony is a strategy which consists of a combination of classical rhetoric concept derived from isocrates and cicero, and philosophy from plato. rhetoric is the art of language that leads people to follow the will of the speaker. rhetoric works on the arena of heart, while a philosophy is in the domain of mind. philosophy is the knowledge that the search for truth by combining moral reasoning and rational argument. these classical concepts shows three elements of negotiation namely language, speakers/philosophers, and people to whom the object of the rhetoric of philosophical argument speak for. similar to the classical concept, gramsci (2012) identified those three elements by naming the speakers as the ideology intellectuals, the ideology, and the subaltern to whom the ideology objected. the key variable of negotiation of theideology is the contact between the intellectuals and the subaltern (howson & smith, 2008). subaltern refers to a subordinated condition caused by political, social, 15hegemonic culture and subaltern .... (rosmah tami, et al.) and cultural domination. subaltern is an individual who becomes the object of reshaping subjectivity or the object of “educating people” conducted by the intellectuals (green, 2006). contestation among ideologies can be seen when one ideology criticizes other ideologies. resistance to this process can be linked to the creation of subaltern. in kmgpdk, gita could be referred to a subaltern because she resisted to mas gagah’s advice. she was the person whom mas gagah encouraged to veil, and was defined as disobedience. her subalternity was described by her condition in which she feels abandoned and ignored by her brother since she refused to wear the hijab. she was deserted and ignored because she defended her common sense regarding her view on religious practices. gita was an urban young girl who enjoyed the city life. her brother’s extreme change in his religion beliefs did not get in line with her interest, and thus she viewed him as a different person. this influenced her negative response to both his opinion and his action. in contrast, mas gagah’s new conception of world changed his way to see her sister. for gita, he was no longer as he was used to be. gita thought that he has changed to a different person who is no longer a brother for her. gita resistance against mas gagah could be seen to have taken place at the level of subjectivity. in other words, subalternity is created around the subjectivity (smith, 2008). when gita resisted to veil and to live her brother life, it means that she resisted the construction of her new subject because there actually would be two gitas; the one who did not wear veil and the other one who wore veil. these two gitas may produce a difference subject. gita would have limited access to the public if she wore the veil. it would limither. gita did not want to trade her freedom with that. when gita expressed her protest, people laughed at her ignorance. she was criticized for being so left behind, for not being up dated for islamic trends. she inherited something wrong in herself. as a result, her brother hid gita from his friend as the narration below: “[…] watching movie with friends,” i said while putting on my shoes, “because mas gagah always rejects every time i ask for being together. […] there was no mas gagah’s friend that i did not know and was close with. but now, mas gagah seldom introduces me to them, unfortunately they looks quite handsome. (rosa, 2011, 8–11). criticism objected to the subaltern is part of a strategy to awaken the consciousness of subaltern’s knowledge (gramsci, 1971). this criticism is intended to deconstruct the subaltern common sense in order that a new conception to be built right to her heart and mind of the subaltern, gita. gita is criticized not only by mas gagah but also by tika, gita’s best friend. she also blames gita for rejecting mas gagah. yet, tika mediates gita to meet her cousin to enlighten herself, another intellectual who had put on the veil while she was studying in america. this step is related to what gramsci showed that the encounter of gita and nadia opens a possibility of what identified as negotiation between subaltern common sense and the hegemonic ideology. furthermore, the quality of intellectual is one part of strategy which may allow negotiation works smoothly (gramsci, 1971). as shown in the novel, nadia’s graduated from an american university was a quality that attracts gita’s attention. she did not reject the negotiation. veiling and america for gita was a contradiction, yet nadia was able to combine them perfectly. this situation seemed appealing and interesting for gita as she had been fantasizing and idolizing america by looking up to the life style, the movies and music. america became gita’s own perception of life and liberty. her common sense was built from western popular culture. the moment of the encounter between gita and nadia was a moment of negotiation. nadia’s qualities contributed to build gita’s trust or faith to nadia. gita loved nadia’s realm, and she trusted nadia for her ability adjusting islam in modern life. gita did not want to leave her modern realm, and nadia was right in the center of the realm. nadia provided her a perfect model of a kind muslim that she would love to be. gita still wanted to enjoy music, movies and fashion even though she was going to put on the hijab in the future. gita trusted nadia that she was not like her brother who keeps asking gita for not doing many things. this trust becomes the symbol that the negotiation has begun which is in accordance to gramsci’s note that there will be not hegemony without a relation between subaltern and intellectual. furthermore, this relation is based on faith. faith to whom or to what is the most important element in negotiation (gramsci, 1971). as the relation has firmed its foundation by developing trust, the door of ideological dissemination widely opens. let’s see the quote below: mas gagah laughed one afternoon and patiently he taught me. […] “do you understand what i said?” “don’t worry, gita indeed understood!” i said honestly. of course, mbak nadia has also said the same thing. i understood even though i do not know it properly. that night i slept between mas gagah’s islamic books. it seems i have got hidayah (rosa, 2011, 13-14). the dialogue implies that the islamic information gained by gita is not from mas gagah, but from nadia. she listened to mas gagah not because she wanted to accept his conception, yet her intention was to win back mas gagah’s love for his sister, gita herself. she needed a companion since felt lonely without him. nadia was her source of information. nadia had explained everything before mas gagah taught her. it clearly shows that she did not learn anything from the books mas gagah lend her, but she slept with the pile of the books. gita’s denial to his persuasion also can be seen in the dialogue below: the days passed. mas gagah and i get close again. […] actually, there are lots of things i still cannot understand, and mas gagah’s changes are still unacceptable for me, yet i do not want to miss him again. [...] “try to put on jilbab git!” he asked me once. […] “[…] i do not want it yet!” mas gagah smiled. “gita will look elegant with veil and insha allah god loves gita. like mama.” gita does want to veil, but not now.” i said. i consider how my activities, my future, and the prospect of my future husband will be. “it will not be a burden.” mas gagah said like he understood my thought. i did shake my head (rosa, 2011, 13-14). 16 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 13-18 this dialogue again emphasizes that gita refuted mas gagah’s conception. the rejection seems to be based on a gita’s consideration of her future. the future is an important consideration for subaltern to decide whether to accept or not to accept the opinion of the intellectual. as it is shown in the dialogue, mas gagah had no convincing reason related to gita’s rational thought. mas gagah’s reason for the veil is “allah will love you” did not make any sense for gita. as a modern rational girl, she could not see and feel the love of allah, while ‘allah’s love’needed a spiritual explanation. yet, mas gagah did not explain future for what he meant. the author silences mas gagah. in addition, mas gagah’s changes did not attract gita to live mas gagah’s life. therefore, following gita’s question of her future, the author designed a meeting where the fear would be overcome. to overcome the fear for wearing jilbab, nadia explained how jilbab can be adjusted in the present time and the future. as explained by howon & smith (2008) that past and future is an essential element in reaching hegemonic ideology. the intellectual uses the future to gain the consent of the subaltern of the present. the future is clearly emphasized in the dialogue between gita and nadia. in her explanation why she chose to wear jilbab, nadia explained eight reasons in which she rationally highlights jilbab as women empowerment as quoted below: […] the sixth, by jilbab, the control is in woman’s hand. she has rights to decide which man may see her and may not see her.” the participants nodded. “the seventh, by wearing jilbab, women have indeed done some selection on her future husband. a man,who does not have any basis knowledge on islam, will be reluctant to propose a veiled woman. i nodded deeply. lastly, jilbab never hinders a muslim woman to pursue her future for her chastity, ”mbak nadia continued. “oh ya…wearing hijab is not the only one indication of muslim devotion to islam, however, it indicates the practical realization of devotion from a faithful muslimah […]. i stood giving applause to mbak nadia. her reasons why women should wear jilbab were very convincing. “mbak nadia’s argument is acceptable for me!” i shouted. “i often listen: we are obligated to veil to help men protect their sights (rosa, 2011, 17–18). in this arena, the novel describes the contestation of two ideologies, nadia and mas gagah’s ideology. however, in this event mas gagah’s voice was not described, and nadia’s voice was intensified by giving gita chances to have more dialogue with nadia. this dialogue is a dialogue between gita and nadia, and also between gita and herself. the dialog between gita and herself is a self-criticism which shows her conscious mind criticizing her own common sense. this dialogue to herself is portrayed through gita’s actions such as laughing at herself, agreeing and clapping hands, withering, and nodding deeply. nadia seemed able torationally explain the possible future that gita might gain by wearing the hijab. in her answer to gita’s doubt for assuming that jilbab or veil might limit woman’s movement and hide her under the veil, nadia stated her logical assumption by pointing empirical facts that nadia has experienced. after understanding the logical reason that veil empowers women position both the access to material as well as access to future husband or man, the fear of gita’s future by wearing veil seemed to fade. she agreed to wear the veil. she had a faith on what nadia said because nadia herself wore the veil. besides, she was able to explain logically based on her own experience. she had an accurate experimental data. nadia’s explanation about how veil might be beneficial for her future seemed very acceptable for gita. at the end of the part one of the novel, the author closes the arena for mas gagah to articulate his voice. the author silenced him by describing him passed away in an accident on his way back from conducting dakwah islam in a slum area. he was not given a space in the material world but was moved to after world. he was described to be a sahid in his jihad, which means that he passed away while he was doing a spiritual journey to do good things and spread islam religion. the second part of the stories showed the important role of nostalgia during the process of ideological negotiation. the term nostalgia comes from two greek words which are notos (to return home) and algos (pain or sorrow). nostalgia is associated with the loss of nation, home and childhood (starobinski & kemp, 1966). in this story, nostalgia can be identified in the presence of a new mysterious character, later known as mas yudistira, a decent young man wearing simple long-sleeved shirt and jeans who actively promulgated islam in public place such as public transportation. yudistira’s activities brought up gita’s nostalgia of her childhood with his brother, mas gagah, and overs had owed her guilt of rejecting his dakwah. yudistira appeared as the shadow of the late mas gagah whose dakwah about wearing jilbab or veil was once rejected by gita. through listening to yudistira’s dakwah, gita visited her nostalgia through imagination. as nostalgia haunted her, she came to meet the old friends of mas gagah and unveiled that she found the spirit of the late mas gagah in yudistira. i am silent “maybe his face, ohh no bang. but what he did, his empathy, i do not know. gita feels close to him. gita feels the same spirit in him as in mas gagah (rosa, 2011, 57). the returning to childhood may also function to ensure a certain figure that a person would love to recover. nostalgia may guide to a certain model or patron of happiness that people would love to restore in the future life. the story showed when the feeling of guilt to mas gagah transform into feeling of love to mas yudistira, gita revisited nostalgia to ensure the form of her possible future. assuming that the islamic ideology of mas gagah is similar to yudistira, gita begins to consensually adopt mas gagah’s style that she once hated and rejected. she did not know yudistira, yet she tried to capture his attention. this led gita to uncritically enter the world of mas gagah and yudistira by following her idols’ ways, participating in dakwah, and expanding the size of her veil. the juxtaposing of the nostalgia of mas gagah and the hope for the love of yudistira means that two spaces of time are imposed to gita at the same time that she is detached from her present time. the nostalgia of past and the hope for future can only be accessed through the imagination. the experience of imagining of her past and her future connects to her feeling which will design her acceptance or rejection to an ideology. as narrated in the story, nostalgia of the 17hegemonic culture and subaltern .... (rosmah tami, et al.) past and obsession for the future intensify gita’s cultural transformation and consensual acceptation to the ideology of the late mas gagah and the prospect mate, yudistira. imagination through which the past and the future are accessed is directly linked to the heart and the mind of gita. the strong feelings to the past and the hope for future do not allow her to connect to her conscious awareness of her present time. she changes swiftly, directly and obediently for the sake of the nostalgia of past and the hope for the future. her imagination occupies both her heart and her mind, a place where the negotiation takes place, where subjectivity is imposed, and where a decision is made. cultural transformation is decided based on imagination which its material existence is absent. the sublatern is removed from her reality and brought to wander around the past and the future by imagination as shown below: now, i look neat in jilbab. tutut is so happy that she prostrates expressing her gratitude hearing my decision not to put on tight shirt or transparent jilbab. alhamdulillah. honestly, mas kotak-kotak (yudistira) is my inspiration in my islamic way even though i wear jilbab not because of him but allah (rosa, 2011, 58) this quote shows that yudistira is the inspiration of her adopting larger veil. however, to ensure yudistira’s islamic way, gita visited her childhood nostalgia, mas gagah’s ideology. the imagination of gita toward yudistira’s ideology is relatively true. she finally found out that yudistira was not exactly like what was in gita’s imagination. mas gagah did not accept the western tradition, while yudistira viewed western as one of sources that might empower islamic ideology. mas gagah rejected western life style, while yudistira pursued his doctoral degree at a french university. his return from french became an interruption and correction to gita’s transformation. yudistira seemed to accept western values to be the role model and guide for life style. the islamic ideology projected by the author in this novel is an islam assimilated to the capital power like america and europe. america and europe have certain sources of power that may empower the position of islam. here the author deserts mas gagah’s ideology, and put the emphasis on the importance of western value along side with the islam value. this story emphasizes both in the first part and the second part that western has a significant role in developing islam. the story emphasizes that gita has transformed and consensually agree to be led morally and intellectually first by nadia and then by yudistira, not by mas gagah. as the story closes to end, gita comes closer to her dream future husband, yudistira. her struggle of putting on larger veil and her consistency in practicing dakwah are rewarded a chance to meet, and then unite to yudistira. this unveils other idea that women transformation to veiland her encounter to america and europe also point to the assimilation of female purity to global power. the islamic ideology of the novel implies the vital position of female chastity in attaining global power. it shows that the requisite of gita’s participation in yudistira’s economy, dakwah and maybe his life lies on her personality which is formed, marked, and identified through the veil. conclusions the novel is the realm of aesthetical imagination within which imagination provides space to see a clear past and future. imagination related to sensual sphere where people experience through their senses which powerfully influence human conception and thus, their decision to consent or not to consent. this position unveils the effectiveness of using novel as a mean to move the feeling of the object of hegemony. by arousing the subaltern’s feeling through moving them away from their present time to the past and the future, the novel persuades and urges object of hegemony to consensually decide his or her movement. it means that hegemony moves people away from their conscious mind. by doing this, hegemony works as the most effective way to move and to unite people’s conception of the world to become a powerful force in cultural struggle. this may answer the question regarding the position of islamic popular novel which centers to the debate since the unification of islamic content and the novel form may powerfully affect the social and cultural changes. these cultural changes consist of the assimilation of islam to the powerful capital power by establishing and forming an islamic life style which is, first, by wearing jilbab or veil. references boelhower, w. q. 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(1997). toward a gramscian critical rhetoric. western journal of communication, 61(1), 66–86. penelitian model bahan ajar bahasa indonesia mendesain bahan ajar … (widjono hs.) 37 mendesain bahan ajar bahasa indonesia untuk tujuan akademis widjono hs. universitas negeri jakarta, jl. rawamangun muka, jakarta 13220 abstract article on how to design indonesian language course material for academic purposes discusses some aspects necessary to be understood in designing the materials used by students at university level. understanding of language essence, academic competence, appropriate course materials, and effective learning process covering the three stages of accountability model according to moore, and the seven textuality criteria according to rankema, is ablsolutely needed to be able to design good course materials. article also includes a model structure of learning academic paragraph writing and academic essay. keywords: course material, indonesian language, academic, textuality criteria, accountability stages abstrak artikel tentang bagaimana mendesain bahan ajar bahasa indonesia untuk tujuan akademis ini membahas mengenai beberapa aspek yang perlu dipahami dalam merancanga bahan ajar yang akan digunakan oleh mahasiswa di tingkat universitas. pemahaman mengenai hakikat bahasa, kemampuan akademik, model bahan ajar yang sesuai, dan proses pembelajaran yang efektif yang meliputi tiga tahapan akuntibilitas model menurut moore serta tujuh kriteria tekstualitas menurut rankema, mutlak diperlukan untuk dapat mendesain bahan ajar yang baik. artikel juga menyertakan struktur model pembelajaran menulis paragraf dan esai akademis. kata kunci: bahan ajar, bahasa indonesia, akademis, kriteria tekstualitas, tahapan akuntibilitas jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 37-45 38 pendahuluan penulisan bahan ajar bahasa yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan mahasiswa perlu dilakukan dengan pendekatan maju berkelanjutan (continuous inovation). artinya, bahan ajar harus dikembangkan secara terus-menerus. hal itu diperlukan oleh setiap institusi akademis mengingat berbagai pertimbangan yang tidak mungkin dihindarkan, antara lain perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, terutama teknologi komunikasi yang berkembang amat pesat. perkembangan itu harus disikapi secara kritis dan akademis oleh dosen maupun mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi. dengan teknologi komunikasi informasi terkini mahasiswa mendapatkan informasi mutakhir yang mereka butuhkan melalui internet. informasi tersebut dapat dipastikan lebih cepat sampai kepada mahasiswa daripada informasi yang mereka peroleh melalui buku ajar atau bahan ajar di universitas atau lembaga pendidikan setara yang sudah standar. namun, secara akademis, informasi yang mereka peroleh tersebut belum tentu benar. meskipun sejak 2006 mata kuliah bahasa indonesia dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian (mpk). landasan kegiatannya adalah upaya meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa indonesia. kekurangmampuan itu dimungkinkan oleh perbedaan jenis kajian pada program pendidikan masing-masing dan atas dasar itu kemudian diteliti jenjang atau jenis diagnostik yang dapat memperbaikinya. fenomena tersebut sudah pasti mendorong para dosen untuk memikirkan kembali proses belajar-mengajar yang selama ini dilaksanakan. pengamat pendidikan tinggi, damono (2006), menyatakan bahwa peningkatan kemampuan berbahasa mahasiswa perlu dilakukan, terutama dalam menulis ilmiah. di perguruan tinggi, dosen melatih kemampuan mahasiswa agar penguasaan berbahasa mahasiswa meningkat. akan tetapi, damono menilai bahwa penulisan skripsi mahasiswa strata l (s-l) tidak menunjukkan kemampuan tersebut, tidak terkecuali yang dikerjakan oleh dosen yang mengajar kemampuan berbahasa indonesia. meskipun diakui bahwa diantara mereka itu ada yang mampu berbahasa indonesia dengan baik (sapardi djoko damono, http://www.kompas.co.id/kompas-cetak/0611/06/humaniora/3072563.htm). mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi dituntut kemampuannya untuk menggunakan bahasa indonesia dalam berbagai kegiatan akademis. berbagai jenis ujian, berbagai bentuk tugas, menulis laporan ilmiah, skripsi harus ditulis dalam ragam bahasa ilmiah. namun, pengalaman membuktikan adanya kesenjangan mendasar antara harapan dan fakta. kesenjangan tersebut terutama terfokus pada ketidakmampuan mahasiswa menggunakan bahasa indonesia untuk tujuan akademik. ketidakmampuan tersebut cenderung bersifat komprehensif. mereka kurang terlatih memaknai wacana ilmiah yang dibacanya. mereka juga sering tidak memahami untuk apa membaca ilmiah sehingga setelah membaca buku ilmiah tidak menghasilkan sesuatupun. hal itu berarti bukan saja kesulitan kebahasaan tetapi juga kesulitan mengembangkan sikap ilmiah dan budaya ilmiah. baik kemampuan sikap ilmiah maupun kemampuan berbahasa ilmiah keduanya diperlukan dalam upaya menghasilkan karangan ilmiah. sikap cermat, santun, lugas, kritis, kreatif, akademik merupakan bagian dari proses pembelajaran di perguruan tinggi sedangkan sikap menghasilkan karakter keterbukaan terhadap pencerahan dan kebenaran, bebas dari tekanan nilai subjektivitas. secara bersamaan kemampuan kebahasaan berfungsi untuk mengomunikasikan perolehan atas kebenaran yang dikembangkannya. oleh karena itu, masalah kebahasaan terutama penulisan: ejaan yang disempurnakan, diksi, pembentukan kata, kalimat efektif, paragraf, membuat topik ilmiah, dan menulis naskah ilmiah harus ditingkatkan penguasaannya. selain itu, mahasiswa cenderung merancukan atau mencampuradukkan penggunaan ragam bahasa ilmiah dan ragam bahasa pergaulan atau ragam bahasa lisan. pembelajaran bahasa indonesia untuk tujuan akademis diharapkan meningkatkan kemampuan mengaplikasi ragam bahasa ilmiah tanpa tercemari oleh ragam bahasa lain. sehubungan dengan hal itu, model bahan ajar penulisan akademis menuntut kemampuan tersebut. http://www.kompas.co.id/kompas-cetak/0611/06/humaniora/3072563.htm mendesain bahan ajar … (widjono hs.) 39 kondisi memprihatinkan itu perlu disikapi secara ilmiah oleh mahasiswa, dosen bahasa indonesia, peneliti, dan pemerhati dengan melakukan kajian, penelitian, dan pengembangan terutama dalam mendesain bahan ajar di universitas atau di perguruan tinggi. dalam hubungan itu, mahasiswa disertakan sebagai bagian dari penelitian, terutama dalam menganalisis kebutuhan kebahasaan dalam konteks program studinya sehingga mereka lebih mengenali diri bagaimana kemampuan kebahasaan mereka. selanjutnya, mereka diarahkan dan dibina kemampuannya untuk memahami karakteristik kebahasaan ilmiah untuk tujuan akademis, yaitu mengembangkan keterampilan membaca dan menulis akademis (sk dikti no. 43 tahun 2006 menetapkan bahasa indonesia dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian sebagai mata kuliah wajib bagi seluruh mahasiswa dengan bobot 3 sks). masalahnya: bagaimana hakikat bahasa dalam komunikasi 0dan bagaimana mendesain pembelajaran bahasa. c.pembahasan penelitian dan pengembangan model bahan ajar bahasa untuk tujuan akademik terkait dengan konsep kebahasaan, bahan ajar, pembelajaran, dan kualifikasi akademik. sehubungan dengan hal itu, perlu disadari bahwa pengembangan bahan ajar bahasa tulis untuk tujuan akademis adalah kegiatan yang diawali dengan penelitian kebutuhan mahasiswa dan dosen. penelitian dilanjutkan dengan dokumen bahan ajar bahasa dan pembelajarannya dan dilanjutkan dengan pengembangan bahan ajar bahasa melalui beberapa tahapan pengujian dan percobaan bahan ajar yang berterima secara objektif melalui tahapan yang dirancang sehingga mendapatkan bahan ajar bahasa yang efektif, baik dari aspek kebahasaan maupun pembelajarannya (tomlinson, 1998:96-115). hakikat bahasa bahasa sebagai sarana komunikasi, mengandung makna bahasa dapat berfungsi sebagai pembentuk ide (sapir, 1933). lebih dari itu, bahasa dalam arti konsepsi linguistik merupakan kajian ilmiah yang lengkap (menyeluruh), objektif, konsisten, dapat diverifikasi, eksplisit, sederhana, akurat, dan singkat (saussure, 1857-1913). lebih lanjut haliday (1978:48-51) menyebutkan bahwa bahasa mempunyai fungsi sosial yang mencakup fungsi ideasional, fungsi komunikasi, dan fungsi interaksional; dan stuart hall, (1980 dalam jorgensen dan phillips, 2007:31) menyatakan bahwa bahasa sebagai simbol agensi untuk manusia berkomunikasi dan berinteraksi dalam berbagai kelompok sosial sehingga menghasilkan berbagai interpretasi pesan makna sosio-kultural. ketajaman akademis dosen, mahasiswa, ilmuwan, dan peneliti dalam menginterpretasikan makna tersebu berpotensi menghasilkan produk akademis yang dapat memacu pertumbuhan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. sebagai sarana komunikasi ilmiah akademis yang berupa naskah ilmiah, beaugrande dan dressler (1981) menyatakan bahwa wacana harus memenuhi tujuh standar tekstualitas, yaitu kohesi, koherensi, intensionalitas, akseptabilitas, informativitas, situasionalitas, dan intertekstualitas. sejalan dengan pernyataan tersebut, austin (1968) memperkenalkan tindak bahasa (speech act). beliau membedakan tiga jenis tindakan dalam konsep tindak bahasa (speech act), yaitu tindakan lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi. 2.kemampuan akademik dalam bahasan ini kemampuan akademik adalah penguasaan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi komunikasi (iptek) yang dikembangkan melalui pembelajaran pada lembaga pendidikan formal di uiversitas atau perguruan tinggi. sehubungan dengan bahasan itu, pembelajaran bahasa di perguruan tinggi diharapkan dapat dijadikan sarana memahami dan mengekspresikan perolehan hasil pembelajaran. untuk itu, kemampuan mengaplikasikan ragam bahasa ilmiah, mengembangkan sikap ilmiah, dan kultur inovatif-akademis perlu ditingkatkan secara terus-menerus. indikator peningkatan formatted: bullets and numbering formatted: bullets and numbering jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 37-45 40 kemampuan tersebut adalah kehadiran produk ilmiah kaum akademisi, melalui proses pembelajaran secara akademis sehingga mampu mengekspresikan (mempublikasikan) fakta akademis secara objektif, semata-mata untuk mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, bukan opini yang ditulis untuk tujuan dan kepentingan seseorang atau sekeolompok orang. tidak adanya output publikasi oleh masyarakat kampus, menyebabkan tidak ada referensi yang dapat digunakan untuk menyusun silabus pembelajaran yang inovatif. bahan ajar bahan ajar bahasa indonesia adalah materi pembelajaran yang disampaikan oleh dosen kepada mahasiswa. di dalamnya terdapat materi yang harus disampaikan oleh dosen kepada mahasiswa dan mahasiswa wajib menguasai materi bahasan tersebut, baik secara kognitif, afektif, maupun psikomotorik. bahan ajar di perguruan tinggi atau disekolah dikembangkan untuk tujuan akademis, artinya bahan ajar tersebut dipelajari untuk mendapatkan kebenaran universal bagi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang tidak terkait dengan kebenaran peorangan atau segolongan orang. bahan ajar bahasa indonesia (bbi) untuk tujuan akademik dalam kajian ini diupayakan dapat mengembangkan kemampuan mahasiswa menulis ilmiah dalam komunitas akademisnya. upaya itu dilakukan dengan meneliti dan mengembangkan berbagai model sehingga menghasilkan model yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan kognitif, mempraktikan model yang dikembangkan atau diujicobakan, dan merefleksikan kemampuannya dalam mengaplikasi model. selain itu, penelitian materi yang berhubungan dengan penulisan ilmiah untuk tujuan akademis memfokuskan pada keterampilan penulisan ilmiah yang dapat melengkapi kemampuan mahasiswa pada level lulusan perguruan tinggi. untuk keperluan itu, dilakukan penelitian dan pengembangan model materi ajar yang memungkinkan peningkatan kemampuan menggunakan secara efektif pola pembelajaran bahasa indonesia ilmiah. model yang dikembangkan diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan menulis untuk tujuan akademik yang bercirikan: kemampuan menulis menggunakan ragam bahasa ilmiah secara efektif; keterampilan membaca kritis yang memungkinkan mahasiswa dapat berpikir dan menulis lebih objektif, jelas, dan terfokus pada masalah yang dibahas; kemampuan menulis ilmiah dengan mempraktikkan riset paper, makalah penelitian, berpikir akademis; kemampuan memproses penulisan melalui pengembangan ide kreatif, mengorganisasi ide, dan menyusun draf; kemampuan mempertimbangkan kebutuhan pembaca secara objektif; kemampuan menyertakan referensi (pengarang lain) berdasarkan persyaratan konvensi naskah; kemampuan menulis berdasarkan strategi yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan mahasiswa; keterampilan mengoreksi naskah dan mengedit karangan ilmiah yang ditulis sendiri. bahasan bahan ajar bahasa untuk tujuan akademis di perguruan tinggi berhubungan dengan penyampaian informasi ilmiah secara timbal balik antardosen, antarmahasiswa, antara mahasiswa dan dosen, antara institusi dan pemerhati, dan antara institusi pendidikan dan masyarakat. sehubungan dengan hal itu, penulis dan pembaca memerlukan persepsi yang sama, bahwa akademis diartikan sebagai connected with education, especially studying in schools and universities, involving a lot of reading and studying rather than practical or technical skills (oxford dictionary advance learner, 2005:7). sejalan dengan pengertian tersebut, mahasiswa dan dosen diharapkan mampu menghasilkan lebih banyak tulisan dan bacaan akademis. dampaknya, bahasa sebagai sarana komunikasi akademis akan berfungsi secara optimal. proses interaksi penyampaian ide dan perasaan antara penyampai dan penerima informasi menjadi lebih intensif. lebih jauh darippada itu, komunikasi akademis itu akan berfungsi bukan sekedar penyampaian pikiran dan perasaan, melainkan kemampuan menunjukkan kinerja akademis berupa produk inovatif dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang dikembangkan oleh mahasiswa maupun dosen sesuai dengan prodi masing-masing. mendesain bahan ajar … (widjono hs.) 41 pembelajaran fokus kajian bahan ajar adalah model bahan ajar yang terkait dengan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis teks dalam konteks yang berhubungan dengan penulisan ilmiah untuk tujuan akademis. untuk itu, berikut ini akan dibahas secara singkat beberapa model yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam penyusunan bahan ajar pembelajaran bahasa, di antaranya pendapat reigeluth (1983), tomlinsoan (1998), brown (2001), dan moore (2005). reigeluth (1983) menyatakan bahwa pengembangan model pembelajaran merupakan suatu sistem dan proses perlakuan sistematis dengan tahapan rasional dan objektif, mulai dari konsep kurikulum sampai dengan pelaksanaan dan evaluasinya. desain pengembangan pembelajaran mencakup: menetapkan tujuan instruksional, menentukan kurikulum, menentukan konseling, menetapkan rasio akademis, dan menentukan standar evaluasi. unsur tersebut mencakup: struktur (urutan atau desain), desain pengembangan, pengimplementasian, manajemen pelaksanaan, dan mengevaluasi. tomlinson (1998:9-98) merancang proses pembelajaran dan pengembangan bahan ajar bahasa diawali dengan mengidentifikasi kebutuhan dosen dan mahasiswa. tomlinson menyebutkan tujuh langkah pengembangan model bahan ajar bahasa, yaitu mengidentifikasi kebutuhan bahan ajar, mengeksplorasi kebutuhan bahan ajar, merealisasi kontekstual bahan ajar, merealisasi pembelajaran bahan ajar, memproduksi bahan ajar, menganjurkan penggunaan bahan ajar oleh mahasiswa, dan mengevaluasi bahan ajar yang berterima. model itu dapat dijadikan sebagai alternatif acuan (referensi) dalam mengembangkan proses pembelajaran bahan ajar bahasa di universitas atau perguruan tinggi di samping model lain yang dapat digunakan secara bervariasi. dalam mendesain pembelajaran itu, dosen dapat menggunakan pilihan lain, misalnya model brown (2001:334-360). beliau mendesain pembelajaran teknik penulisan dengan menyebutkan delapan prinsip sebagai berikut: menggabungkan gagasan sendiri dengan teori penulis terkemuka; menyeimbangkan proses komposisi dan naskah yang dihasilkannya, memperhitungkan tradisi dan latar belakang kultural kebahasaan (tidak memasukkan bahasa pergaulan dalam tulisan); mengaitkan keterbacaan dengan ketertulisan; melengkapi keabsahan tulisan sebanyak mungkin; membingkai teknik penulisan ke dalam tahap prapenulisan, penulisan draf, dan revisi; menggunakan teknik seinteraktif mungkin; memperhatikan sensitivitas (ketepatan) dalam merespons dan mengoreksi tulisan. model lain yang tidak kalah penting, yaitu model moore (2005:223-337). beliau mendesain instruksional untuk memaksimalkan siswa belajar menggunakan tahapan: mendeskripsikan secara umum bahan ajar; tujuan khusus (objectives) – dilanjutkan dengan strategi khusus – sesuai dengan metode yang digunakan: metode tidak langsung, metode langsung, metode integratif, dan strategi yang digunakan; merangkum; mendiskusikan pertanyaan dan aktivitas pembelajaran; mengoneksikan bahan ajar dengan kebutuhan di lapangan; mengoneksikan bahan ajar ke dalam praktik. efektivitas pembelajaran bahasa indonesia bagi mahasiswa di perguruan tinggi memerlukan pengaturan strategis sebagai landasan yang dapat menjamin kesuksesan mahasiswa belajar. efektivitas membuat pembelajaran menjadi penuh makna. hal itu dapat diwujudkan jika pendidik (dosen) dan mahasiswa bermitra secara seimbang. pendidik membangun, mendesain, merancang, dan melaksanakan pembelajaran bersama mahasiswa dengan sebaik-baiknya. dengan pendekatan konstruktif, pendidik yang efektif, dan organisasi pembelajaran yang efektif, sukses pembelajaran dapat diwujudkan. moore berpendapat bahwa indikator keberhasilan pembelajaran terjadi jika siswa menemukan sendiri pengetahuannya (moore, 2005:4-13) lebih lanjut, moore menjelaskan bahwa pembelajaran yang baik menuntut sebuah keputusan serial konstan profesional yang berefek pembelajaran bagi siswa. pembelajaran secara tuntas dihasilkan melalui enam tahapan dalam sebuah model pembelajaran yang efektif sebagai berikut: diagnosis situasi pemelajaran, rencana pembelajaran, perencanaan instruksional, bimbingan belajar secara aktif, evaluasi pemelajaran, dan tindak lanjut. oleh moore, (2005:41) tahapan tersebut disajikan jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 37-45 42 secara rinci dalam sajian sebagai berikut: memasukkan bahan ajar, mendiagnosis kemampuan mahasiswa, merencanakan arah pembelajaran, merencanakan pembelajaran, menentukan petunjuk aktivitas pembelajaran, mengevaluasi proses dan hasil pembelajaran, tindak lanjut jika diperlukan, kembali ke tahap mendiagnosis – dan seterusnya. moore (2005:82) merangkum proses tersebut dengan mendesain pertanggungjawaban (akuntabilitas) model dalam menetapkan tahapan sebagai berikut: pertama pencapaian target tujuan operasional khusus, kedua pencapaian target aktivitas, dan ketiga pencapaian target evaluasi dengan butir tes yang dapat mengukur validitas target setiap tujuan instruksional khusus, indikator pembelajaran. dalam hubungan model dan penulisan teks tertulis atau karangan berupa naskah untuk tujuan akademis, berikut ini dikemukakan beberapa model, antara lain: model beaugrande dan dressler (1981), beliau menyatakan bahwa wacana harus memenuhi tujuh standar tekstualitas, yaitu kohesi, koherensi, intensionalitas, akseptabilitas, informativitas, situasionalitas, dan intertekstualitas. sementara, rankema (1993:34) menamai ketujuh standar tersebut sebagai kriteria tekstualitas yang berindikator pada persyaratan. syarat pertama, kohesi, yaitu keterpaduan dan keutuhan terpadu dalam suatu wacana baik lisan maupun tulisan. keterpaduan itu dibentuk melalui hubungan pernyataan sebelun dan sesudahnya. koherensi merupakan keruntutan, baik dalam wacana lisan maupun tulisan. koherensi dibangun berdasarkan urutan pernyataan. kedua istilah itu sering (dapat) diperlakukan secara sama karena kepaduan juga menuntut adanya keruntuan. kepaduan dibangun berdasarkan unsur gramatikal dan leksikal (struktur paralel, pronomina, pengulangn kata kunci, kata transisi). syarat kedua, koherensi yang berfungsi untuk mewujudkan kohesi. untuk itu, diperlukan perangkat keterpaduan, yaitu kata ganti, substitusi (verbal, nominal, parsial) atau repetisi, elipsi, konjungsi, dan leksikal. dalam wacana kohesi diwujudkan melalui fungsi gramatikal dan leksikal sedangkan koherensi atau keruntutan dalam wacana dibangun melalui relasi tindak ilokusi rangkaian hubungan kalimat dalam wacana, antara lain hubungan kausal, hubungan hasil, hubungan tujuan, dan hubungan maksud. syarat ketiga intensionalitas, yaitu upaya mengoptimalkan produk wacana sehingga menghasilkan pencapaian tujuan atau niat penutur (penulis) ketika bertutur atau berujar (menyatakan pendapatny). upaya itu dilakukan dengan membangun eksistensi struktur dan semantik atas hal yang diniatkan oleh ungkapan penutur. di dalamnya terdapat aspek kepribadian penutur, kepribadian pendengar, ide atau peristiwa yang terkait dengan coteks (komponen pendukung kohesi dan koherensi), dan conteks (mengacu berbagai hal yang relevan dengan bentuk ujaran). beberapa situasi dapat menempatkan beberapa batas tepat waktu dan sumber daya pemrosesan niat secara penuh direalisir oleh presentasi ujaran atau tuturan. syarat keempat, akseptabilitas, yaitu pemrosesan tujuan dan niat pesan tuturan (penulisan) agar dapat diterima secara kognitif oleh pendengar atau penerima pesan. untuk itu, dikembangkan suatu pertalian kohesi dan koherensi antarteks sebagai elemen yang berkaitan dengan unsur sintaksis sedangkan kohesi dan koherensi lebih terkait pada makna semantik (beaugrande dan dressler, 1986:113-138). syarat kelima, informativitas, yaitu segala sesuatu yang menyangkut kemunculan dari suatu teks yang diharapkan atau tidak diharapkan, diketahui atau tidak diketahui (tidak pasti). informativitas dikembangkan berdasarkan kohesi, koherensi, dan tekstualitas. teori informasi shanon dan weaver (1949) didasarkan pada konsep probabilitas. semakin besar jumlah alternatif yang mungkin – semakin tinggi nilai informasinya. metode penghitungan alternatif dilakukan berdasarkan semua rangkaian materi yang terjadi dan menghitung semua peristiwa dari satu item ke item yang lain. teori itu cenderung ditinggalkan dan diganti dengan konsep ekspektasi, hipótesis, kelalaian, dan kesenangan. kajian informativitas menghasilkan tiga tingkatan informativitas, yaitu tingkat atas (upper degree), coger degree, dan tingkat di luar keduanya. syarat keenam, situasionalitas, yaitu deskripsi umum berbagai faktor yang menghasilkan sebuah teks yang relevan dengan situasi kejadian. bukti yang dapat diperoleh dalam situasi mendesain bahan ajar … (widjono hs.) 43 dimasukkan ke dalam sebuah model bersama dengan pengetahuan terdahulu dan ekspektasi tentang bagaimana pengetahuan nyata disusun. untuk itu, deskripsi situasional memerlukan mediasi model situasi, pemantauan (monitoring) situasi berdasarkan perencanaan dan alternatif pendukung yang tepat, memproyeksikan keinginan atau tujuan kepada partisipan, menolak kebaikan partisipan yang mengganggu tujuan penelitian, mencegah pengabaian eskalasi ekstrim, meningkatkan kontribusi pengendalian, dan manajemen situasi sesuai dengan tujuan teks. informasional dengan dukungan situasional akan menghasilkan penyampaian pesan secara efektif. syarat ketujuh, intertekstualitas, yaitu mengkaji bagaimana wacana diproduksi dan diterima sesuai dengan pengetahuan partisipan terhadap teks. penerapan pengetahuan dapat dilakukan dengan mediasi. teks dapat diklasifikasi ke dalam kelas yang lebih khusus dengan tujuan yang khusus. teks termasuk dalam kajian tipologi linguistik. linguistik konvensional dibentuk berdasarkan bunyi dan bentuk bunyi bahasa. dalam linguistik modern, tipologi teks dibentuk dengan kalimat, paragraf, dan bab. tipologi teks terkait dengan tipologi tindakan, situasi wacana, dan budaya. intertekstual terjadi dalam bagian teks tertentu dengan teks yang lain, misalnya antarparagraf, antarbab, dan lain-lain. selain itu, intertekstualitas terkait dengan berbagai situasi peristiwa hal yang mengawali dan merespons terjadinya teks. sehubungan dengan proses tersebut, sebuah teks dapat menimbulkan berbagai teks yang terkait dengan peristiwa dan situasi lain (politik, sosial, budaya, bisnis, dan lainlain). dari beberapa model pembelajaran tersebut, sulit untuk menggabungkannya menjadi sebuah model. masing-masing memiliki keunggulan dan spesifikasi. untuk mengaplikasi ke dalam sebuah pembelajaran, dapat dipilih secara bervariasi atau bergantian sesuai dengan bahasan materi pembelajaran yang akan diajarkan. namun, ada satu model yang sebaiknya digunakan secara konsisten dalam pembelajaran menulis akademis, yaitu model wacana sebagaimana dikemukakan oleh beaugrande dengan pertimbangan bahwa model tersebut telah memuat persayaratan standar wacana yang telah diterima oleh masyarakat akademisi. sebagai ilustrasi, berikut ini disajikan struktur model pembelajaran menulis paragraf akademis dan esai akademis berdasarkan model moore (2005): memasukkan bahan ajar, mendiagnosis kemampuan (kebutuhan) mahasiswa, merencanakan arah pembelajaran, merencanakan pembelajaran, menentukan petunjuk aktivitas pembelajaran, mengevaluasi proses dan hasil pembelajaran, tindak lanjut jika diperlukan, kembali ke tahap (2) mendiagnosis – dan seterusnya. (1) paragraf akademis (i) menyajikan bahan ajar paragraf, (ii) mendiagnosis kemampuan (kebutuhan) mahasiswa dalam menulis paragraf tentang struktur paragraf dan elemen yang diajarkan, paragraf pembuka dan elemen yang diajarkan, paragraf pengembang dan elemen yang diajarkan, paragraf penutup dan elemen yang diajarkan, (iii) berdasarkan diagnosis/kebutuhan mahasiswa merencanakan pembahasan (diskusi) penguasaan materi, (iv) merencanakan bahan ajar berikutnya berdasarkan indikator yang telah dicapai, (v) menentukan aktivitas pembelajaran berdasarkan indikator yang telah dicapai, (vi) mengevaluasi hasil dan tindak lanut. struktur paragraf: (i) paragraf pembuka, introduksi tujuan dan masalah: kohesi, intensionalitas: penempatan kalimat topik, deduktif, induktif; (ii) paragraf pengembang 1: kohesi, koherensi, informativitas, situasional, akseptabilitas, kata kunci, repetisi, struktur paralel, kata ganti; induktif-deduktif, deduktif-induktif, sebab-akibat; (iii) paragraf pengembang 2: hubungan antarparagraf kohesi, koherensi, intertekstualitas: kata penghubung antarkalimat; kalimat penjelas; detail, pembuktian, fakta, kutipan, statistik; (iv) paragraf pengembang pembahasan masalah 3 dan seterusnya: kohesi, koherensi, intertekstualitas, informativitas, situasional, akseptabilitas; (v) paragraf penutup (implikasi, inferensi, atau penegasan): kohesi, koherensi intertekstualitas, informativitas, akseptabilitas. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 37-45 44 (2) esai akademis (a) struktur dan elemen: (i) paragraf pembuka (pilih satu: pendahuluan, pengantar topik, masalah, tujuan, kalimat tesis, definisi, anekdot, kerangka bahasan); aplikasi kohesi, koherensi, intensionalitas, akseptabilitas, informativtas, situasional, intertekstualitas; (ii) paragraf pengembang pembahasan 1 pikiran pendukung, (sesuai dengan pilihan pada paragraf pembuka); aplikasi akseptabilitas, informativtas, situasional, intertekstualitas interktekstualitas – transisi antarparagraf, (iii) paragraf pengembang pembahasan 2 (lanjutan paragraf 2 dan seterusnya). (iv) paragraf konklusi: kohesi, koherensi, akseptabilitas, intensionalitas. (b) mereviu (mengkaji ulang) bahasan elemen teks kohesi, koherensi, intensionalitas, akseptabilitas, informativitas, situasionalitas, dan intertekstualitas, dan c. mempraktikkan standar elemen teks tersebut dengan menulis esai akademis berdasarkan topik yang sesuai dengan program pendidikan mahasiswa. (d) mengembangkan proses kreatif-akademis dalam penulisan esai akademis: (i) persiapan: mengumpulkan informasi; (ii) inkubasi: memanfaatkan informasi, menampakkan kekhasan esai yang ditulis sendiri; (iii) iluminasi: memperjelas pemecahan masalah; (iv) verifikasi: mengevaluasi kembali esai yang telah ditulis dengan melakukan perbaikan dan menyempurnakan kelengkapan elemen bahasan materi bidang studi maupun kebahasaan (moore, 2005, hlm.318-321). penutup penyajian model pembelajaran bahasan tersebut dapat dijadikan alternatif bagi dosen dalam menyusun silabus, materi bahan ajar, perencanaan, baik pembelajaran secara konvensional, pembelajaran secara maya (internet), atau multimedia. bahan ajar untuk tujuan akademik ini difokuskan pada materi pembelajaran menulis ilmiah di perguruan tinggi yang berfungsi untuk mengembangkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. namun, perlu disadari bahwa penulisan laporan penelitian, artikel jurnal, dan makalah ilmiah menuntut penguasaan yang lain: ejaan yang disempurnakan, diksi, kalimat efektif, paragraf, dan penalaran ilmiah. selain itu menguasai bahasa ilmiah, mahasiswa harus menguasai materi bidang studi yang ditekuni. perlu disadari bahwa sebaik apa pun model pembelajaran, keberhasilan akan sangat bergantung pada pelaksanaan di kelas. peran dosen dalam pembelajaran di kelas merupakan kunci utama. hal itu dapat dipahami mengingat fungsi dosen di dalam kelas merupakan: kunci utama dalam membangkitkan motivasi mahasiswa belajar, inspirator mahasiswa dalam memproduksi kreativitas baru, bersama mahasiswa menentukan mekanisme pembelajaran yang dinamis dan produktif sehingga memungkinkan mahasiswa bersemangat dan berpartisipasi penuh dalam pembelajaran, bersama mahasiswa menentukan strategi pembelajaran yang efektif, dan menentukan evaluasi sekaligus motivator untuk menghasilkan produk pembelajaran yang lebih baik. kerja sama dosen dan mahasiswa dalam menentukan mekanisme pembelajaran bahasa indonesia perlu dilakukan. hal itu sebaiknya dilakukan pada tatap muka pertama. mekanisme pembelajaran mencakup strategi kegiatan pencapaian target bahan ajar, standar kehadiran dan keterlambatan, standar aktivitas, standar evaluasi, buku acuan yang wajib dimiliki, kewajiban menggunakan acuan (buku sumber, sumber informasi yang sah) setiap memberikan pendapat – untuk memastikan bahwa pendapatnya bersifat akademik – bukan pendapat subjektif (pribadi atau segolongan orang). jika mekanisme itu dilakukan oleh semua dosen dan mahasiswa secara konsisten dan terus-menerus, budaya akademis dapat diwujudkan. dengan demikian, setiap mahasiswa dan dosen berkontribusi dalam pembudayaan akademis di kampus dan sekitarnya. indikatornya, mahasiswa dapat mengekspresikan fakta secara objektif. mendesain bahan ajar … (widjono hs.) 45 daftar pustaka brown, h. d. 2000. principles of language learning and teaching. fourth edition. new york: pearson education company. ________. 2001.teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. second edition. san fransisco: pearson education company. debeaugrande, r. a. and wolgang, u. d. 1986. introduction to text linguistics. london and new york. hadley, a.o. 1993. teaching language in contaxt. boston: heile & helee. halliday, mak. 1978. language as sosial semiotic: the sosial interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold. jorgensen, m.w. and phillips, l.j. 2007. analisis wacana: teori dan metode, terjemahan abdul syukur ibrahim. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. moore, kenneth d. 2005. effective instructional strategies: from theory to practice. london: sage publications. oshima, a. and hoque, a. 2006. writing academic english. fourth edition. new york: pearson educational. reigeluth, c. m. (editor). 1983. instruksional – desain theores dan models: an overview of teir current status. london: lawrence erllbaum associated publishers. schiffrin, d. 1994. approaches to discourse. cambridge, massachusetts: blackwell publishers. tomlinson, b. 1998. materials development in language teaching. cambridge: university press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 25 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 25-30 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.1822 politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” animation i wayan budiarta1; i gusti ngurah adi rajistha2 1 program studi magister ilmu linguistik, program pascasarjana, universitas warmadewa 2 jurusan sastra inggris, fakultas sastra, universitas warmadewa jln. terompong 24 tanjung bungkak, denpasar 80235, indonesia 1iw.budiarta@warmadewa.ac.id; 2ngurah.adi.rajistha@gmail.com received: 03th april 2017/ revised: 31st may 2017/ accepted: 27th october 2017 how to cite: budiarta, i. w., & rajistha, i. g. n. a. (2018). politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” animation. lingua cultura, 12(1), 25-30. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1822 abstract this article aimed to describe the politeness and its violations in the adit dan sopo jarwo program. the data for this research were collected by recording and taking notes. the data that have been taken were analyzed by using the theory of politeness by leech. the result of the analysis is presented informally, by verbally describing the findings. related to the types of the politeness, the result of the analysis shows that there are three types of politeness maxim exemplified in the animation; tact, approbation, and generosity. politeness violations occur with the tact, agreement, and generosity maxims. the utterances that show politeness are uttered by the characters jarwis, ujang, denis, and mr. habibie whereas the utterances that show politeness violations are uttered by ujang, denis, devi, and jarwo. keywords: politeness, politeness violation, animation introduction politeness in using language educates people in respecting the second person or listener based on the age or social position. politeness relates to how people create harmony in life and show appreciation toward the second person or listener. it happens because human have social roles in which they need each other to live. indonesian people are also aware of this aspect of language usage. language is not only used as means of communication but also to enhance self-esteem. in this case, politeness in using language reflects a complex communication of indonesian people that is norm-based and used in showing respect for each other. this research about politeness in using language is not the first research conducted. there are many studies on the same topic that have been conducted. masfufah (2010), has stated that politeness and impoliteness forms, principle, politeness strategies, the level of politeness, and the factors that determine the forms of directive utterances. ngalim (2014) has researched impoliteness from the perspective of islam and its impact on forming characters or morals. laksono (2014) has identified impoliteness in using language in educational institutions. astuti (2016) has analyzed politeness of speech in learning interactions in the classroom. agassi (2016) has identified linguistic politeness of seller and buyer in malioboro yogyakarta. astuti (2015) has analyzed the politeness principles used among lecturers, university students, and staffs at diponegoro university. yuni (2015) has analyzed speech act found in school permission letters. reswari (2015) has analyzed linguistic politeness in a novel entitled sunset bersama rosie. alviah (2014) has also conducted politeness research in a novel entitled para priyayi. other studies are also conducted related to politeness. wahyuningtias (2014) has analyzed the politeness of request e-mails by japanese speakers and indonesian students. nurjamily (2015) has researched politeness in using the indonesian language in a family. gusriani, atmazaki, & ratna (2012) have analyzed the use of language politeness by indonesian language teachers in sman 3 lintau buo. the studies of politeness and impoliteness in language usage mostly focus on the use of language as a means of communication with others in real life. although this can be interesting research, humans do not only interact with other humans but also with the technology that is being rapidly developed. technology has spread in various aspects of human life such as communication, transportation, health, information, and entertainment. in the field of entertainment, the expansion of technology creates innovation in the case of animation. one of the technology expansions in the entertainment aspect is developing the animation that has high quality. animation as an innovative form of entertainment is mostly showed by national and international television stations as a genre of television programs that are enjoyed by the audience. characters, forms, and imaginative plot are the strengths of animation compared to other television 26 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 25-30 programs. one of the animation programs that still exist in indonesian national television is an animation named adit dan sopo jarwo. adit dan sopo jarwo is an indonesian children’s animation program. this animation is one of the animations created by indonesian people. problems presented in this animation can be characterized as simple problems. this animation also includes norms and advice that are presented by means of simple, imaginative, and interesting plots. animation not only consists of the video but also audio. the audio can be music; background sounds like the sound of vehicles, animals, and sound that is produced by doing actions like walking, kicking, etc. apart from those, there are also voices of the animation characters which are voiced by dubbers. character voices are utterances of the character that support the plot. these utterances are an important part of the animation to make the plot clear. the language used in animation is communicative language. language has several important functions such as to deliver a purpose, to explain politeness, to respect listeners, to indicate self-esteem, dialect, and solidarity, to be an autonomous sign, to make peace in the soul, and to reflect the culture (poedjosoedarmo, 2001). in this case, animation not only shows animation characters that use language like humans but also politeness in the language used. this is an important point of animation because its audience is mostly children. yule (1996) has explained politeness as polite social behavior. grundy (2000) has explained the politeness phenomenon as one manifestation of the wider concept of etiquette or appropriate behavior. for indonesian people, politeness can be seen from both behavior and language usage. in this case, this research tries to explain politeness principle in animation. this research not only discusses the politeness principle but also politeness violations committed by the animated characters. leech (2014) has proposed six politeness principles. they are the maxims of tact, generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement, and sympathy. the tact maxim minimizes cost to o and maximizes benefit to o. the generosity maxim minimizes benefit to s and maximizes cost to s. the approbation maxim minimizes dispraise of o and maximizes praise of o. the modesty maxim minimizes praise and maximizes dispraise to s. the agreement maxim minimizes disagreement and maximizes agreement between s and o. the sympathy maxim minimizes antipathy and maximizes sympathy between s and o (leech, 2014). all of the maxims proposed by leech are used to identify the politeness of the animated characters’ utterances. those principles are also used in indicating politeness violations. this research is expected to give information about the use of polite and impolite language, not only from the diction but also the purpose of using the language. the result of this research is also expected to be a consideration factor for parents in choosing the appropriate television programs for their children. methods this research is qualitative descriptive research. the data source of this research is two episodes of the animated program adit dan sopo jarwo entitled saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung and eyang datang semua senang, which are broadcasted on an indonesian television station. the type of data used in this research is verbal data in the form of a conversation transcript that consists of utterances by the animated characters. the data are collected by recording and taking notes. they are then divided based on the topics discussed. the first step is collecting data showing politeness, which are then grouped based on leech’s politeness maxims. the second step is collecting data showing impoliteness and grouping the data based on politeness violations. after being collected, the data are analyzed by the politeness principles proposed by leech (2014). in analyzing the data, comparative method is used. the utterances by the animated characters are equaled to the actions of the characters. both utterances and actions show politeness maxims and its violations. lastly, the result of the analysis is presented formally and informally. results and discussions in episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung, there are two maxims exemplified. they are the tact and the generosity maxim. this episode tells the arrival of jarwis, jarwo’s twin brother to their village. the people in the village presume that jarwis is jarwo whom they know as a man with a bad character. there are several scenes showing the tact and generosity maxim exemplified by jarwis and ujang’s utterances. in episode eyang datang semua senang, there are also two maxims exemplified; they are the approbation and the generosity maxim. this episode tells the arrival of mr. habibie, whom in the story is known as denis’ grandfather. the tact maxim is the maxim that emphasizes minimizing cost to self and maximizing benefit to other. the tact maxim is only exemplified in episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung. the animation character who uses the tact maxim is jarwis. the conversation below shows the tact maxim used by jarwis. 1. a kid : maaf bang ga sengaja kita tadi. “sorry sir. we did it intuitively.” jarwis : wehh.. ohh ya ya ya ya.. wis wis.. nih bolanya. hati-hati kalo main itu, ya! “wehh.. ohh ya ya ya ya.. wis wis.. here is the ball. be careful if you play, ya!” data 1 describes a situation when jarwis visits jarwo’s village. he looks around the village and passes kids playing football. at that moment, one of the kids kicks the ball too hard and hits jarwis’ head, causing him to fall down. then, he stands up and takes the ball. he asks the kids who have kicked the ball which hit his head. one of the kids says sorry to him because it is not willful. jarwis appreciates their braveness for apologizing and does not scold them. he gives the ball back and advises them to play football carefully. in this case, jarwis uses the tact maxim in his utterance as he treats the kids calmly and does not scold them. he also asks them to play football carefully. it is clear that jarwis is showing the tact maxim in his utterance. apart from the tact maxim, the generosity maxim is also found. the generosity maxim emphasizes minimizing benefit to self and maximizing cost to self. the number of instances of the generosity maxim in the utterances can be said to be more than the tact maxim. generosity maxims used in utterances in a single scene are only found in the episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung. in that episode, some data that indicate the generosity maxim are found. these data are from the utterances of 27politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” .... (i wayan budiarta; i gusti ngurah adi rajistha) jarwis and ujang. to support the analysis, the utterances are quoted below. 2. ujang : wah bang jarwo beda euy bajunya. “wah mr. jarwo’s clothes is different.” jarwis : kasian juga anak-anak ini, main bola aja susah. “poor children, they have difficulties in playing football.” ujang : bang jarwo! denger ga? “mr. jarwo! didn’t you hear me?” jarwis : sorry.. sorry.. kenapa mas? kenapa? “sorry.. sorry.. what is it, sir? what?” ujang : wee.. itu tuh mangkoknya cuciin! ga ngerti-ngerti. “wee.. wash the bowls! don’t you understand?” jarwis : masnya tenang aja. lah beres lah pokoknya. oke. bismilah hiromanirohim. “relax, sir. it will be completed. okay. bismilah hiromanirohim.” 3. ujang : berarti tadi teh yang nolongin nyuci mangkok jarwis? wah kalo begitu baksonya ga jadi gratis. “so did jarwis help me wash the bowls? wah if so, the meatball soup is not free anymore.” jarwo : wehh tapi kang itu kan udah jadi… “wehh but sir it has been done…” jarwis : udah mas udah ga usah ga usah. saya sudah, tadi udah makan kok di sana. matur suwun matur suwun. “there’s no need to do that. i’m fine, i have already eaten over there. thank you.” the conversation in data 2 happens after jarwis has been hit by the ball. when jarwis is chatting with the kids, ujang is looking at jarwis. he presumes that jarwis is jarwo. ujang comments on jarwis’ clothes, but jarwis does not hear that. ujang is fed up and becomes angry with jarwis. jarwis says sorry to ujang. ujang, who presumes jarwis is jarwo, asks jarwis to wash the bowls in a loud voice. then, jarwis washes the bowls as ujang orders without any comment. in this case, jarwis’ utterance shows the generosity maxim. he minimizes benefit to himself and maximizes cost to himself. it is clear that jarwis minimizes benefit to himself by doing what ujang asks him to do without any comment. at the same time, he has also maximized the cost to himself because he decides to do someone else’s job rather than rejecting it. the conversation in data 3 happens when jarwis meets jarwo and ujang at ujang’s meatballs soup stall. at that moment, jarwo introduces jarwis as his twin brother. then, ujang understands that the person who helped him is jarwis and not jarwo. ujang, who has given meatballs soup to jarwo, asks for his meatball soup back. ujang intends to give it to jarwis, which he rejects while saying thank you. by rejecting the offer, jarwis minimizes benefit to himself. at the same time, he maximizes cost to himself by giving it to jarwo. jarwis is known as a good character. he has a different attitude from his twin brother, jarwo. it is not only jarwis that shows politeness but also ujang. the following conversation makes the discussion clear. 4. jarwo : ntar aja kamu nanya-nanya. wong lagi capek kayak gini loh. udah panas-panas ntar aja. “you can ask later. i am so tired. it is too hot now, you can ask later.” sopo : sama laper juga bos. “i’m hungry too, boss.” ujang : nih saya kasih 1 porsi bakso komplit buat bang jarwo. “here, mr. jarwo, you can have one portion of meatballs soup.” the conversation in data 4 illustrates the situation when jarwo and sopo come to ujang’s itinerant food stall. a confused adit asks jarwo, but he gets a bad response. at the same time, ujang, who presumes jarwis is jarwo, gives him a free meatball soup. although he does not know that jarwis helped him, the utterance by ujang shows the generosity maxim. he tries to minimize benefit to himself by giving jarwo and sopo free soup, while also trying to maximize cost to himself because the meatball soup that could be sold are given to them for free. the second character who uses the generosity maxim is ujang. in this case, his utterance that indicates the generosity maxim is used because he does not know jarwis. based on the result of analysis of the data, it can be shown that the use of the generosity maxim is to give advice. however, since the advice is given indirectly, parents have to convey it to their kids. the advice is for us to be sincere in helping someone and to willingly sacrifice for others to keep the life harmonious. the tact and generosity maxim are shown in a single scene of the animation. while the previous discussion has discussed one maxim in a certain situation, there is a combination of two maxims in this discussion. it is not a special term, but it must be discussed specifically to make a distinction. the use of the tact and generosity maxims is found in episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung. the conversation that shows both maxims can be seen in data 5. 5. jarwis : oh wis sini tak anterin aja! kamu benerin dulu sepedanya biar ga bahaya! “oh wis i will deliver it! you have to repair your bicycle first in order to be safe.” adit : eeeh, tapi bang ntar… (mengambil uang di saku) “eeeh, but wait sir…(taking out money from his pocket)” jarwis : alah pake ongkos segala. buat kamu tabung aja! buat berangkat haji nanti! assalamualaikum hihi “alah i don’t need to be paid. save it up for yourself! use it for hajj pilgrimage later! assalamualaikum hihi” the conversation between jarwis and adit in data 5 describes a situation when adit and denis are hurrying to deliver a cake to mrs. yanti’s house. on the way to mrs. yanti’s house, adit cannot control his bicycle and is in danger of hitting the tree if jarwis does not help him. jarwis sees that the chain is broken and tells adit to repair it first while asking where he is going. then, adit tells jarwis that he wants to go to mrs. yanti’s house to deliver the cake. jarwis decides to deliver the cake to help adit. adit, who presumes 28 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 25-30 jarwis is jarwo, tries to take out money from his pocket. in this case, jarwis rejects the money. jarwis tries to minimize benefit to himself by offering help and maximize the cost to himself by delivering the cake. after showing the generosity maxim, jarwis shows the tact maxim by rejecting the money. he also tries to maximize benefit to adit and denis because they do not need to pay for his help. the use of the approbation and generosity maxims is found on episode eyang datang semua senang. this episode tells the arrival of mr. habibie to the village. the story starts in ujang’s meatball soup stall. ujang is being helped to sell his meatball soup by some children in the village. to make the discussion clearer, the following data is presented. 6. ujang : aduh denis makasi ya. dengan ini hidup saya jadi tambah manis kalo begini teh. aduh terima kasih. “aduh thank you, denis. with this my life will be happy. aduh thank you.” denis : tenang kang ujang, denis bantuin kok tapi ga bisa lama ya ini juga dah mau pulang. “it’s fine, mr. ujang, i will help you but i can’t stay too long because i want to go home” 7. ujang : punten…punten…ah ini nih semangkuk bakso hangat buat sang pencipta pesawat. “excuse me, this is one portion of meatballs soup for the plane inventor.” mr. habibie : terima kasih kang ujang. “thank you mr. ujang” ujang : iya sama-sama pak habibie. saya juga serasa mimpi, bakso saya dinikmati orang hebat di negeri ini. “you are welcome mr. habibie. it’s like a dream, having my meatball soup eaten by a great man in this country.” mr. habibie : enak banget ini baksonya. “the meatball soup is very delicious.” data 6 shows the situation when denis and his friends help ujang to sell the meatball soup. ujang, who feels happy, thanks them. saying thank you indicates the approbation maxim. it can simply be known by the use of word makasi or thank you in english. in this case, it is clear that ujang minimizes dispraise and maximizes praise of others by saying thank you. denis, who produces the utterance, ‘tenang kang ujang, denis bantuin kok tapi ga bisa lama ya ini juga dah mau pulang’, shows the generosity maxim. this is because denis has minimized benefit to self and maximized cost to self by helping ujang. data 7 shows the situation when ujang gives a bowl of meatball soup to mr. habibie. based on the conversation, it is clear that all utterances indicate politeness maxims. ujang’s utterance, ‘punten…punten…ah ini nih semangkuk bakso hangat buat sang pencipta pesawat’, indicates the generosity maxim. he tries to minimize benefit and maximize cost to himself by giving mr. habibie a free bowl of soup. this can be concluded because there is no scene showing mr. habibie paying for the meatball soup. apart from this, there are three other utterances by mr. habibie and ujang indicating the use of the approbation maxim. when mr. habibie says, ‘terima kasih kang ujang’, it is clear that he appreciates the meatball soup. as a reply, ujang utters, ‘iya sama-sama pak habibie. saya juga serasa mimpi, bakso saya dinikmati orang hebat di negeri ini’. this utterance indicates the approbation maxim by appreciating mr. habibie as a famous public figure who has become a president and aircraft designer. the last utterance, ‘enak banget ini baksonya’, uttered by mr. habibie indicates the approbation maxim by appreciating the taste of meatball soup. adit dan sopo jarwo is the animation for children, exemplifying many norms. since it is not easy to understand the norms and moral values without any comparison between good and bad, a simple conflict is needed. adit dan sopo jarwo animation presents simple conflicts such as simple disputes, having the prejudice towards someone, etc. politeness violations constitute conflicts present in this animation. the following discussion illustrates violations of politeness maxims found in both episodes. politeness violations exemplify different principles. it can be characterized as reverse principles from the maxim that is violated. the politeness maxim violation found in episodes saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung and eyang datang semua senang is the violation of the approbation maxim. data 8 is found in episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung. the character that produces the utterance that indicates the politeness violation is ujang. follwing so, data 9 is found in episode eyang datang semua senang. devi is the animated character that violates the generosity maxim in the episode. 8. ujang : bang jarwo! denger ga? “mr. jarwo! didn’t you hear me?” jarwis : sorry.. sorry.. kenapa mas? kenapa? “sorry.. sorry.. what is it, sir? what?” ujang : wee.. itu tuh mangkoknya cuciin! ga ngerti-ngerti. “wee.. wash the bowls! don’t you understand?” jarwis : masnya tenang aja. lah beres lah pokoknya. oke. bismilah hiromanirohim. “relax, sir. it will be completed. okay. bismilah hiromanirohim.” 9. devi : ga mau ah panas. mia kamu dong “i don’t want it, it is too hot. mia, you can do it instead” mia : iya, ini aku lagi bungkus. “yes, i am wraping it.” devi : ayo cepetan-cepetan masukin ke plastik. “put it into plastic, quickly!” the situation of data 8 has been explained with relation to data 2, where it can be known that ujang presumes jarwis is jarwo. jarwo is known as a character that does not focus on one job, which is why his jobs are never completed. ujang does not know that jarwo has a twin brother. from ujang’s point of view, jarwo always makes mistakes. when ujang utters, ‘wee.. itu tuh mangkoknya cuciin! ga ngerti-ngerti’, he violates the tact maxim. the tact maxim emphasizes minimizing cost to self and maximizing benefit to other. in this case, ujang minimizes benefit to jarwis by commanding him to wash the bowls and maximizes cost to self at the same time. the situation of data 9 is the situations where several children help ujang sell his meatballs. the violation of the generosity maxim is showed by devi’s utterances. the first utterance is, ‘ga mau ah panas. mia kamu dong’. this utterance indicates that devi maximizes cost to herself by asking mia to instead wrap the hot meatballs. the second 29politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” .... (i wayan budiarta; i gusti ngurah adi rajistha) utterance, ‘ayo cepetan-cepetan masukin ke plastik’, indicates that devi minimizes benefit to mia by forcing mia to wrap the meatballs quickly. both utterances clearly show that there is the violation of the generosity maxim by devi to mia. the politeness maxim is not only violated by ujang but also by denis. denis is adit’s friend who is always afraid and nervous of doing something. the violation is shown in the data 10. 10. denis : tuh kan dit. bener. kebiasaan nih bang jarwo, ntar kuenya dimakan sendiri lagi. “i was right, dit. mr. jarwo always does this, he will eat the whole cake on his own.” adit : ssst. inget kata pak haji udin den, ga boleh suudzon. “ssst. remember what mr. udin said, den, do not be badly prejudiced.” the conversation in data 10 happens when jarwis offers help deliver the cake to mrs. yanti’s house, but gets lost in the way. adit and denis presume that there is something wrong with jarwo. then, they follow jarwis. denis, who never believes in jarwo, says, ‘tuh kan dit. bener. kebiasaan nih bang jarwo, ntar kuenya dimakan sendiri lagi’. this utterance indicates that denis has violated the agreement maxim by accusing jarwis of saying that he will eat the cake. adit, who hears denis’ utterance, advises denis to remember what mr. haji udin has said. according to society norms, having prejudice is bad behavior. when denis is prejudiced against jarwis, he violates the agreement maxim. the agreement maxim emphasizes minimizing disagreement between self and other and maximizing agreement between self and other. in this case, denis shows disagreement between himself and adit. denis not only disagrees with adit but also with social norm explaining that prejudicing badly is bad behavior. the last violation of the politeness maxim is a violation of the generosity maxim. it has been explained that the generosity maxim emphasizes minimizing benefit and maximizing cost to self. based on the data found on episode saudara berkunjung semua tersanjung, the animation character that violates this maxim is jarwo. if jarwis’ utterances show the politeness maxim, then jarwo’s utterances show its violations. data 11 shows a conversation showing a politeness violation. 11. ujang : nih buat bang jarwo sama bang sopo. “here, meatball soup for mr. jarwo and mr. sopo.” jarwo : ya dong kang. kalo mau berbuat baik itu ya jangan setengah-setengah. kayak gini tuu ya tiap hari gitu loh jadi kan kita sama-sama enak. “that is the right thing to do, sir. if you want to do a good thing, don’t do it halfheartedly. it will be nice for all of us if you do this every day.” the conversation in data 11 happens when jarwo, who is feeling hot and tired, comes to ujang’s meatball soup stall. there, ujang gives a free meatball soup to sopo and jarwo because he presumes that jarwo has helped him. after giving the meatball soup, jarwo shows impoliteness by saying, ‘ya dong kang. kalo mau berbuat baik itu ya jangan setengah-setengah. kayak gini tuu ya tiap hari gitu loh jadi kan kita sama-sama enak’. the utterance indicates that jarwo wants free meatball soup every day. it is clear that this utterance violates the generosity maxim because jarwo wants to maximize benefit to self. at the same time, it will also minimize cost to self. to make the discussion clear, table 1 and 2 show the compiled actions presented by the animated characters. both tables show actions using politeness maxims and its violations. table 1 actions showing politeness maxims no. politeness maxims actions 1. tact maxim • giving advice • not scolding • planning for the future 2. generosity maxim • doing someone else’s work without complaining • giving something to others • helping others 3. approbation maxim • praising others by saying ‘thank you’ table 2 actions showingviolations of maxims no. violations of maxims actions 1. tact maxim • scolding • concluding without analyzing 2. generosity maxim • forcing someone to do something • commanding someone to do something • always asking for free things 3. agreement maxim • violating social norms by being badly prejudiced conclusions based on the analysis detailed in the discussion, it can be concluded that politeness maxims in the conversation found in adit dan sopo jarwo are tact, generosity, and approbation maxims. the generosity maxim is the most often used maxim. animated characters that utter polite utterances are jarwis, ujang, denis, and mr. habibie. politeness maxims exemplified in the animation make a positive contribution to the viewer, especially children. actions showing politeness can be good examples for children. not only politeness maxims are presented but also politeness violations. the politeness violations found are the violation of generosity, agreement, and tact maxims. ujang, denis, devi, and jarwo produce these politeness violations. politeness violations will have a bad impact on children, due to which parents need to pay attention 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(2015). kesantunan tindak tutur pada surat ijin sekolah. in optimalisasi fungsi bahasa indonesia sebagai wahana pembentukan mental dan karakter bangsa di era globalisasi menuju indonesia emas 2045 (pp. 289–298). yogyakarta: pbsi universitas sanata dharma. microsoft word 06_frieska sekar_ok.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 58-67 58 makna hadaka matsuri di dalam masyarakat jepang dewasa ini: studi kasus dari saidaiji eyou di okayama, jepang frieska sekar nadya japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 fnadya@binus.edu abstract japan has traditional cultures which are still persisted and maintained until now. one of them is matsuri. matsuri is a religious event which was held by at least one unit of the family to serve kamisama (gods). one of these events is hadaka matsuri. hadaka matsuri which still persists till now is saidaiji eyou in okayama. in the saidaiji eyou, the participants tried to get the shingi so they can obtain luck during the coming year. yanagita kunio defined matsuri into two, matsuri itself and sairei. sairei is a religious event which was enourmously held and watched by many audiences (yoneyama toshinao, 1986:171). saidaiji eyou can be categorized as one of sairei form because it is enourmously held, if it is compared with the previous implementation. but, it does not mean that the change of the matsuri into sairei is a decaying point for any religions or cultures in japan. oppositely, this change is used as a moment by the japanese to persist the matsuri itself. keywords: nudity, matsuri, hadaka, saidaiji eyou, sairei abstrak jepang memiliki kebudayaan tradisional yang sampai sekarang masih terus dijaga dan diselenggarakan. salah satu kebudayaan tradisional tersebut adalah matsuri. matsuri merupakan suatu kegiatan keagamaan yang diselenggarakan sedikitnya oleh satu unit keluarga untuk melayani kamisama (dewa). salah satunya adalah hadaka matsuri. hadaka matsuri yang masih ada hingga sekarang adalah saidaiji eyou di okayama. dalam saidaiji eyou, para peserta berusaha mendapatkan shingi untuk mendapatkan keberuntungan selama setahun mendatang. yanagita kunio membedakan matsuri menjadi dua, yaitu matsuri itu sendiri dan sairei. sairei merupakan kegiatan keagamaan yang diselenggarakan dengan meriah dan disaksikan oleh banyak penonton (yoneyama toshinao, 1986:171). saidaiji eyou dapat dikatakan sebagai salah satu bentuk sairei karena diselenggarakan dalam bentuk yang besar dan meriah, jika dibandingkan dengan penyelenggaraan awalnya. akan tetapi, hal ini bukan berarti dengan adanya perubahan matsuri menjadi sairei, merupakan penurunan dalam kebudayaan atau keagamaan di jepang. sebaliknya, hal ini dijadikan momen bagi bangsa jepang untuk mempertahankan budaya matsuri tersebut. kata kunci: ketelanjangan, matsuri, hadaka, saidaiji eyou, sairei makna hadaka matsuri..... (frieska sekar nadya) 59 pendahuluan jepang memiliki kebudayaan tradisional yang sampai sekarang masih terus dijaga dan diselenggarakan. salah satu kebudayaan tradisional tersebut adalah matsuri. matsuri merupakan suatu kegiatan keagamaan yang diselenggarakan sedikitnya oleh satu unit keluarga untuk melayani kamisama (dewa), dengan harapan kamisama menjadi tenang, sehingga dapat membawa keberuntungan sepanjang tahun (nihon matsuri to nenchuugyouji jiten: 418). sepanjang tahunnya ada banyak matsuri diselenggarakan di seluruh jepang, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh yanagita kunio (murakami, 1977: 42). yanagita kunio juga membedakan matsuri menjadi dua, yaitu matsuri itu sendiri dan sairei. sairei merupakan kegiatan keagamaan yang diselenggarakan dengan meriah dan disaksikan oleh banyak penonton (yoneyama toshinao, 1986:171). salah satu matsuri yang sering diselenggarakan adalah hadaka matsuri. seperti matsuri lainnya, hadaka matsuri diselenggarakan di seluruh pelosok negeri jepang. hadaka matsuri yang terkenal di antaranya ada di okayama, yaitu saidaiji eyou (shuukyougaku jiten 1975: 609). para peserta saidaiji eyou merupakan kaum pria yang hanya memakai fundoshi (cawat) dan sepasang tabi (kaos kaki). dalam saidaiji eyou, para peserta berusaha mendapatkan shingi untuk mendapatkan keberuntungan selama setahun mendatang (the lit city museum, 7 februari 2005). dengan adanya interaksi sosial, matsuri menjadi lebih melekat ke dalam hati para pelakunya, baik dalam pelaksanaan maupun konsep yang ada di dalam matsuri itu sendiri. hal ini tidak hanya tampak saat berlangsungnya hadaka matsuri, melainkan terus berkelanjutan dalam kehidupan keseharian yang dirasakan setiap peserta dalam matsuri, baik dalam housankai (komite pelaksana), sampai ke dalam masyarakat okayama itu sendiri. housankai umumnya terdiri dari anggota masyarakat yang berniat melestarikan budaya matsuri, khususnya dalam pembahasan kali ini adalah hadaka matsuri. kroeber dan kluckholn dalam danesi dan paul perron (1992:22) menyinggung bahwa kebudayaan merupakan suatu tata cara bila hidup didasari oleh suatu sistem berbagi makna, yang diturunkan dari generasi ke generasi melalui sistem yang sama pula (danesi dan paul perron, 1999:22). dengan demikian, hadaka matsuri dapat dikatakan sebagai suatu tata cara yang didasari oleh berbagai macam makna, yang diturunkan dari generasi ke generasi hingga sampai saat ini. selain itu, dijelaskan pula bahwa ‘ketelanjangan’ merupakan fenomena yang mempresentasikan perilaku, yang dapat menjadi pembeda yang sangat kuat dalam mengidentifikasikan suatu fenomena (danesi dan paul perron, 1999:133). oleh karena itu, penelitian kali ini di dalam hadaka matsuri bertujuan mempelajari perilaku orang jepang yang menjadi suatu fenomena di jepang, yang berbeda dengan budaya yang lain. metode penelitian metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode kepustakaan, deskriptif analisis, dan interview (wawancara). dalam mencari data kepustakaan, diperoleh data dari perpustakaan di jepang, yaitu di perpustakaan perfektur okayama di okayama. selain itu, datajuga diperoleh dari internet. wawancara juga dilakukan dengan wakil pendeta utama kuil saidaiji di kuil saidaiji untuk mengetahui lebih dalam tentang hadaka matsuri. setelah data terkumpul, dianalisis, dan ditarik simpulan. pembahasan makna ketelanjangan dalam hadaka matsuri kata hadaka dalam bahasa indonesia dapat diartikan sebagai telanjang atau ketelanjangan. dalam kamus bahasa jepang-indonesia, kata hadaka memiliki definisi: “ketelanjangan; tubuh telanjang; tubuh yang terbuka” (kenji matsuura, 1994:235). akan tetapi, takahashi dalam yato tamotsu (1968), mengungkapkan bahwa di dalam matsuri jepang, ketelanjangan mempunyai konotasi jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 58-67 60 yang lebih luas. hadaka dapat diartikan sebagai ketelanjangan secara total atau hanya menutupi salah satu bagian tubuh, atau sebagian tubuh yang tidak berbusana (yato tamotsu, 1968:149). hal ini mungkin akan membingungkan, khususnya untuk orang asing. ketika mendengar kata “hadaka matsuri”, yang ada di dalam benak mereka adalah orang-orang yang berpartisipasi dalam matsuri tersebut pasti ‘telanjang bulat’, mengikuti definisi kata hadaka yang ada di dalam kamus. akan tetapi, ternyata pelaku ritual tidak benar-benar telanjang bulat, mereka masih memakai fundoshi (cawat), kain berwarna putih yang digunakan khusus menutupi alat kelamin pria. kroeber dan kluckholn dalam buku marcel danesi dan paul perron, 1999:132 mengemukakan hubungan ’ketelanjangan’ dengan kebudayaan, bahwa ketelanjangan hanya bisa diinterpretasikan secara budaya. kita semua terlahir ‘telanjang’, tetapi tak lama kemudian kita mempelajari bahwa ketelanjangan mempunyai konotasi yang negatif. selain itu, yang dikatakan ’dapat dipertunjukkan’ dari bagian tubuh akan berbeda sama sekali pada setiap budaya, karena cara menutupi alat kelamin sebagai batasan dalam lintas budaya juga berbeda. hal ini yang menyebabkan perbedaan persepsi antara orang jepang dan orang asing dalam makna telanjang itu sendiri. sadaiji eyou dan proses penyucian diri tatsuo hagiwara, dalam yato tamotsu (1968), mengemukakan bahwa “telanjang atau ketelanjangan” memiliki hubungan dengan matsuri yang ada di jepang. hal ini disebabkan karena setiap manusia dilahirkan ke dunia dalam keadaan telanjang dan juga suci. suci di sini mempunyai makna bebas dari segala dosa, atau belum pernah melakukan kesalahan dan dosa. oleh karena itu, ketelanjangan dalam upacara-upacara keagamaan dapat dikatakan sebagai upaya untuk mencapai kesucian yang sama, seperti bayi yang terlahir kembali, bersih dan suci, tidak berdosa dan benar-benar alami (yato tamotsu, 1968:143). seperti matsuri-matsuri lainnya, dalam saidaiji eyou, sebelum melakukan setiap kegiatan ritual harus melakukan suatu penyucian diri. hal tersebut memiliki hubungan yang erat kaitannya dengan ke-tuhanan, atau hal-hal yang bersifat ke-tuhanan, yaitu kelayakan seseorang untuk dapat bertemu dengan tuhan. dalam setiap agama, ketika akan bertemu atau berdoa kepada tuhan, penganutnya harus melakukan penyucian diri. hal ini disebabkan di dalam masyarakat, terutama penganut kepercayaan ataupun agama, tuhan mempunyai suatu persepsi akan kesucian yang lebih tinggi daripada manusia. menurut ishikawa (1986), dikarenakan kamigami mengutamakan kesucian dibandingkan hal lainnya, maka masyarakat jepang harus menyucikan pikiran dan badan sebelum dapat menerima kedatangan kamigami pada ritual. oleh karena itu, selama waktu tertentu sebelum pelaksanaan ritual, mereka hidup dalam kesucian (imi) untuk menghindari ketidaksucian (kegare). ketidaksucian (kegare) terdiri atas tiga jenis, yaitu yang berhubungan dengan kematian, darah, dan selain kedua hal tersebut. contoh hal yang berhubungan dengan kematian adalah ketika seseorang yang merupakan keluarga dari yang ditinggalkan, maka sebelum periode berkabung selesai, ia mempunyai kegare yang dapat mempengaruhi orang-orang yang ada di sekitarnya. sedangkan yang berhubungan dengan darah, misalnya mempunyai luka, mendapat haid, habis melahirkan, atau terkena darah hewan, dan lain sebagainya. sementara itu, kegare yang disebabkan selain kematian dan darah, misalnya karena adanya wabah penyakit, bencana, atau kejadian yang merugikan, termasuk menyebutkan kata yang berhubungan dengan kegare tersebut. sebagai contoh, ketika seseorang menyebutkan kata haka atau “kuburan”, maka dirinya dan orang yang mendengar kata tersebut mendapatkan kegare. suatu pantangan bagi orang jepang menyebutkan kata seperti itu di tengah-tengah kehadiran kami (ishikawa takashi, 1986:103-105). dalam kepercayaan shinto, juga diungkapkan mengapa peserta yang berpartisipasi dalam matsuri pada umumnya adalah laki-laki. hal ini disebabkan karena perempuan lebih mudah mendapatkan ketidaksucian yang disebabkan oleh darah. ada beberapa matsuri bahkan tidak memperbolehkan perempuan untuk berpartisipasi sama sekali. hal ini bukan disebabkan adanya kepercayaan untuk merendahkan martabat seorang perempuan, melainkan dikarenakan kerentanan makna hadaka matsuri..... (frieska sekar nadya) 61 mereka pada kegare yang disebabkan oleh darah. shinto tidak mendiskriminasikan atau merendahkan status mereka sebagai perempuan, akan tetapi karena kegare yang disebabkan oleh darah tersebut (ishikawa takashi, 1986:105). oleh karena itu, dalam perayaan matsuri, setiap peserta harus melakukan penyucian diri terlebih dahulu. walaupun dalam keadaan hanya memakai fundoshi, setiap peserta harus tetap melakukan penyucian diri. dalam kepercayaan shinto, ada beberapa cara penyucian diri yang dapat dilakukan oleh pendeta atau oleh penganut kepercayaannya sendiri (peserta matsuri). penyucian diri yang secara simbolis dilakukan dengan berkumur-kumur dan mencuci tangan dengan air bersih ketika masuk kuil disebut sebagai temizu. penyucian diri secara formal yang dilakukan oleh pendeta dengan membacakan doa-doa penyucian atau sutra-sutra budha, sembari menggerak-gerakkan tongkat penyucian di depan para penganutnya disebut harae. seringkali pula proses harae ini disertai dengan memercikkan garam atau air garam (air laut). sementara itu, penyucian diri dengan melakukan mandi disebut sebagai misogi (ono sokyo, 1993:51-52). begitu pula dengan makna ketelanjangan di dalam matsuri yang juga merupakan upaya mencapai kesucian. seperti yang terkutip di dalam nihon minzoku shuukyou jiten (2000: 461), bahwa orang-orang dari kelompok tertentu datang berkunjung ke kuil dengan telanjang, sambil melaksanakan ritual pembersihan. hal ini banyak terlihat sehubungan dengan shuushoe dari tahun baru. selain itu, adapula yang seringkali diselenggarakan pada musim panas. walaupun pada umumnya menjadi telanjang memiliki makna penyucian diri sesuai pelaksanaan matsuri (sairei), tetapi pada generasi berikutnya seperti diletakkan atau dipusatkan pada keadaan menjadi telanjang, yang disebut sebagai hadaka matsuri. hal menjadi telanjang, di negeri jepang sering pula dinyatakan sebagai salah satu bentuk secara representatif untuk memohonkan dikabulkannya doa-doa yang disampaikan. hal ini disebabkan karena dengan tercapainya kesucian, diharapkan segala doa-doa yang telah dipanjatkan dapat dikabulkan semua. hal ini pula yang diharapkan para peserta saidaiji eyou untuk memulai lembaran baru di dalam kehidupan, yang lebih dihargai oleh kami-gami, sehingga segala macam keberuntungan datang berlimpah. penyelenggaraan sadaiji eyou dalam penyelenggaraan saidaiji eyou sendiri, ada beberapa tempat yang harus dilalui oleh pesertanya. berikut ini adalah rute yang harus diikuti oleh peserta saidaiji eyou. pertama, para peserta harus masuk melalui niou mon (gerbang dua tingkat). gerbang ini sebagai tanda pemisah antara dua daerah atau dunia yang akan dimasuki oleh peserta, yaitu daerah duniawi (kehidupan manusia) dan dunia dewa. dengan melewati gerbang ini, diharapkan dapat disadari bahwa mereka sedang memasuki daerah yang disucikan karena merupakan tempat tinggal para dewa. maka dari itu, niou mon juga disebut dengan gerbang dewa. kedua, mereka harus melewati ishi mon (gerbang batu) untuk melakukan penyucian diri di koritoriba. seperti halnya niou mon, ishi mon merupakan pemisah antara dua daerah, yaitu daerah penyucian diri dan tempat tinggal dewa tersebut. ketiga, para peserta harus membersihkan atau menyucikan diri di koritoriba (sebuah kolam tempat untuk menyucikan diri). adapun media yang digunakan untuk penyucian diri adalah air karena air dipercaya dapat menyucikan diri. membersihkan diri bukan berarti harus mandi. di koritoriba, para peserta hanya harus memutari pancuran air dengan arah yang benar, yaitu dari kanan ke kiri. keempat, setelah melakukan penyucian diri, para peserta harus melanjutkan ritualnya dengan berdoa di aula kuil utama (hondou ooyuka) yang luas, yaitu berdiri di depan altar, menepukkan kedua belah tangan sebanyak dua kali, kemudian memanjatkan doa kepada dewa. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 58-67 62 kelima, setelah berdoa di hondou, dilanjutkan dengan mengunjungi tempat lahirnya go-ou, yaitu chinjudou. di tempat ini, para peserta kembali melakukan ritual penghormatan kepada goou (berdoa). akan tetapi, di tempat ini doanya lebih dikhususkan kepada go-ou karena shingi yang akan diperebutkan nanti, yang dipercaya membawakan keberuntungan, merupakan bagian dari kebaikhatian go-ou tersebut. keenam, para peserta berkumpul dan harus melewati yonponjuu atau empat buah pilar. yonponjuu, yang menyerupai ring ini, dihubungkan dengan nawa. yonponjuu merupakan tempat untuk mengumpulkan energi positif, sehingga pada dewa yang ada dalam hondou juga berada di dalam yonponjuu ini. dengan demikian, sebenarnya dengan melewati yonponjuu ini secara keagamaan tujuan saidaiji eyou telah ada dalamnya, tidak perlu sampai menunggu shingi. adapula yang mengartikan bahwa dengan melewati yonponjuu ini, segala energi negatif (ketidakberuntungan) menjadi nol (miura, 1985:20). ketujuh atau terakhir, para peserta harus kembali mengunjungi hondou untuk mengikuti ritual terakhir, yaitu menunggu pelemparan shingi. tepat pada pukul 12.00 (tengah malam), shingi dilempar dari gofukumado (jendela yang berada di bagian atas di dalam hondou oleh ketua pendeta). saat pelemparan akan dimulai, seluruh lampu di hondou dipadamkan dan terdengar genderang dipukul tiga kali. pada pukulan ketiga, shingi dilemparkan ke para peserta saidaiji eyou yang telah menunggu di aula kuil utama (hondou ooyuka). setelah shingi dilempar, perlahan-lahan lampu dinyalakan kembali. maka, perebutan shingi pun dimulai. para peserta yang merupakan gabungan dari beberapa kelompok masyarakat berjuang untuk mendapatkan shingi. saling dorong pun tidak terelakkan lagi. tidak jarang banyak yang terluka pada saat merebutkan shingi ini. peserta yang bisa menangkap shingi harus dapat membawa shingi tersebut keluar dari kuil saidaiji menuju salah satu dari rumah penduduk yang telah dipilih oleh kuil saidaiji. tandanya adalah di depan rumah tersebut dipasang sebuah lampion berwarna putih. peserta yang membawa shingi tersebut harus masuk ke rumah tersebut dan meletakkan shingi pada sebuah wadah berisi beras putih yang sudah disiapkan oleh tuan rumah. kemudian, salah satu wakil dari rumah yang beruntung tersebut akan datang ke kuil saidaiji dan mengabarkannya kepada pendeta utama. pendeta utama kemudian datang untuk memastikan bahwa shingi tersebut adalah shingi yang asli. apabila kedua shingi sudah ditangkap, maka akan diumumkan di kuil saidaiji. dengan demikian, berakhirlah saidaiji eyou. keesokan harinya, kedua tuan rumah yang kedapatan shingi akan mengembalikan shingi ke kuil saidaiji, mengadakan makan bersama dengan peserta yang telah membawa shingi ke rumah mereka. dengan kata lain, peserta yang membawa shingi ke rumah mereka telah membawa keberuntungan untuk rumah itu sendiri. setelah itu, pendeta akan menyerahkan uang dan barang seserahan (yang diterima kuil saidaiji selama saidaiji eyou berlangsung) kepada peserta yang berhasil menangkap shingi tersebut (yatotamotsu, 1968:165). budha dan shinto dalam saidaji eyou menurut hori (1983), agama budha dan kepercayaan shinto mempunyai keterkaitan satu sama lainnya. agama budha mengalami transformasi dalam berbagai cara, selama perjalanan yang jauh dari india ke korea melalui asia tengah dan china. agama budha datang ke jepang pada pertengahan abad keenam di bawah pengawasan keluarga bangsawan dan kerajaan, serta kelompok tertentu. elemen-elemen religius, magis dan etis yang dipinjam tersebut terasimilasi, diinterpretasikan, dan disistemasi kembali ke dalam kepercayaan bangsa jepang sebagai suatu kesatuan, melalui kontak dan pertukaran budaya, baik dengan berbagai tradisi, ritual, dan kepercayaan dari shinto (hori ichiro, 1983:10). lebih jauh lagi diungkapkan bahwa dalam perkembangan ajaran agama budha, untuk memudahkan diterimanya agama tersebut dilakukan penggabungan dengan kepercayaan yang sudah melekat dalam masyarakat, yaitu shinto. ketika agama budha masuk ke dalam komunitas lokal, para makna hadaka matsuri..... (frieska sekar nadya) 63 pendeta budha harus menyesuaikan ajarannya dengan orang lokal dan dewa (kami) dalam komunitas tersebut. sebagai hasil dari penyesuaian tersebut, suatu kuil budha yang khusus dibangun di dalam komplek, pada hampir semua kuil shinto dan didedikasikan untuk kami shinto pada kuil tersebut, yang disebut sebagai jinguu-ji. sebaliknya, ada kami shinto yang dibangun kuilnya di dalam setiap komplek kuil budha, yang disembah oleh pendeta budha dengan tatanan agama budha (hori ichiro, 1983:37-38). dengan demikian, walaupun kuil saidaiji merupakan kuil budha karena digunakan untuk menyembah dewa budha, senjukannonbosatsu, akan tetapi dengan dibangunnya chinjudou dalam kompleks kuil sadaiji, go-ousho daigongen dan konpira daigongen, yang merupakan kami pelindung kota okayama juga dapat disembah di kuil ini. demikian halnya di dalam saidaji eyou, yang merupakan salah satu ritual dalam kepercayaan shinto. baik konsep penyelenggaraan matsuri maupun konsep harae (penyucian diri) dan kegare merupakan konsep-konsep yang berkaitan dengan kepercayaan shinto. akan tetapi, pendeta yang memimpin penyelenggaraan saidaiji eyou merupakan pendeta budha, ataupun doa-doa yang dibacakan selama shuushoe merupakan sutra-sutra budha. bahkan, shingi yang digunakan dalam saidaiji eyou merupakan pengganti go-ou fuda, yang berisikan doa-doa kepada go-ou sama. kemudian, dalam rute yang harus dilalui peserta saidaiji eyou, ada kewajiban untuk berdoa di chinjudou sebagai penghormatan kepada go-ou sama. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa saidaiji eyou tidak bisa lepas akan kedua unsur ini, baik agama budha maupun kepercayaan shinto. sairei dan hadaka matsuri dalam hubungan sosial di dalam buku bertajuk “toshi to matsuri no jinruigaku”, dijelaskan bahwa terdapat dua jenis matsuri, seperti halnya yanagita kunio telah membedakan sairei dan matsuri. dengan kata lain, perintis besar dalam ilmu masyarakat jepang ini menjelaskan bahwa matsuri merupakan kegiatan melayani arwah leluhur. sementara itu, kegiatan melayani arwah leluhur yang diselenggarakan secara umum dan berkelompok, disertai dengan kemeriahan dan penambahan peserta yang menyaksikan acara tersebut, yang disebut sebagai sairei (yoneyama toshinao, 1986:171). matsuri yang diselenggarakan sesuai dengan kepercayaan atau kebiasaan di dalam kelompok tertentu, tanpa suatu kemeriahan dan hanya memusatkan pada kekhidmatan penyelenggaraannya, merupakan matsuri yang sesungguhnya. sementara itu, sairei merupakan kegiatan keagamaan yang diselenggarakan dengan meriah dan disaksikan oleh banyak penonton. dengan kata lain, sairei merupakan suatu perluasan makna dari matsuri. dari bentuk yang sederhana, yang hanya diikuti beberapa orang, menjadi bentuk yang lebih meriah dan disaksikan banyak orang. seiring dengan perkembangan desa menjadi kota, maka sedikit banyak hal ini membawa pengaruh pada pelaksanaan maupun tujuan dari matsuri itu sendiri. matsuri yang dilaksanakan di desa pada umumnya lebih khidmat dan berpusat pada ritual yang berhubungan dengan pertanian, sehingga lebih ditekankan pada hubungan antara manusia dengan kami. sementara itu, matsuri yang dilaksanakan di kota bertujuan untuk mengusir atau menghindarkan diri dari bala bencana dan atau wabah penyakit, seperti yang diungkapkan bahwa di dalam matsuri jepang ada yang disebut sebagai hadaka matsuri secara khusus. yang terkenal di antaranya adalah saidaiji di prefektur okayama, konomiya di prefektur aichi, kuroishitera di kota mizudoro prefektur iwate, beribu-ribu pemuda telanjang datang beramai-ramai untuk bertemu dengan penguasa dan dewanya. hal ini merupakan interpretasi dari suatu kepercayaan popular dalam masyarakat yang tidak begitu berlebihan, yang disebut sebagai usaha mencegah malapetaka (shuukyou gaku jiten, 1975:609). akan tetapi, dengan semakin sedikitnya hubungan sosial dalam perkotaan, maka kegiatan dalam matsuri seringkali digunakan pesertanya sebagai ajang bersosialisasi. oleh karena itu, rasa kesetiakawanan para pendukung matsuri juga memegang peran yang penting dalam penyelenggaraannya. demikian pula dalam saidaiji eyou, selain peserta mengharapkan keberuntungan dan terhindar dari segala bencana, mereka juga melakukan kegiatan sosialisasi. sebagai mahluk sosial, jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 58-67 64 manusia tidak bisa hidup sendirian. manusia akan selalu bergantung pada manusia lain, dan hal ini diperlihatkan dalam saidaiji eyou. para peserta saidaiji eyou merupakan kumpulan dari berbagai kelompok masyarakat, dari pengusaha, petani, maupun pelajar, baik orang jepang maupun orang asing. dalam kelompok tersebut, mereka saling melindungi dan berusaha bersama untuk saling menghangatkan badan di dalam dinginnya malam pada bulan februari. selain itu juga, dalam upaya menangkap shingi, diperlukan kerjasama kelompok yang baik. terbukti dari hasil wawancara dengan wakil ketua pendeta kuil saidaiji, bahwa pemenang (yang berhasil menangkap shingi) merupakan kelompok yang rajin. sebelum saidaiji eyou berlangsung, mereka banyak berlatih, berpantang makan daging (hanya makan sayur-sayuran), serta sering datang ke kuil untuk berdoa. selain itu, saidaiji eyou juga dapat dikatakan sebagai salah satu bentuk sairei karena diselenggarakan dalam bentuk yang lebih besar dan meriah, jika dibandingkan dengan penyelenggaraan awalnya, yang menjadi tempat bersosialisasi antar pesertanya. pada awalnya, pendeta kuil saidaiji hanya bertujuan untuk membagikan kertas jimat (ofuda) bagi orang yang datang untuk berdoa di kuil saidaiji. namun, sekarang sudah banyak tambahan aspek festivalnya, seperti adanya komite panitia penyelenggara (saidaiji housankai). juga terdapat tiga jenis tempat menonton; berdasarkan biayanya, yaitu tempat menonton seharga 500, 1000, dan 5000 yen. tiket dengan harga 500 yen, penonton tidak mendapatkan tempat duduk (berdiri) dan lokasinya jauh dari hondo. tiket seharga 1000 yen juga tidak mendapatkan tempat duduk, tetapi lokasinya cukup dekat dengan hondo (tepat di belakang tempat menonton seharga 5000 yen). sementara itu, tiket seharga 5000 yen mendapatkan tempat duduk dan lokasinya yang berdekatan dengan hondo. selain itu, untuk memeriahkan saidaiji eyou, kota okayama juga ikut berbenah, yaitu menghias kotanya dengan pernak-pernik lampion, spanduk, sampai dengan gambar yang berhubungan dengan sadaiji eyou tersebut. hal ini sudah terlihat ketika turun dari stasiun saidaiji. di sepanjang jalan terlihat lampion dan spanduk bertuliskan hadaka matsuri. bahkan, terdapat pintu rumah penduduk yang dihiasi dengan gambar kemeriahan saidaiji eyou. kemudian, di sepanjang jalan menuju kuil saidaiji terdapat deretan yatai. terdapat pula sebuah papan yang menggambarkan perjuangan peserta saat memperebutkan shingi. selain itu, saidaiji eyou juga dimasukkan ke dalam pamflet-pamflet pariwisata okayama, sehingga sebagai salah satu daya tarik wisatawan, baik lokal maupun asing untuk datang ke okayama. internasionalisasi saidaiji eyou seperti yang sudah sedikit diuraikan sebelumnya, saidaiji eyou selain sebagai daya tarik okayama, namun juga sebagai daya tarik dalam memperkenalkan salah satu kebudayaan jepang kuno yang masih ada hingga saat ini kepada orang asing. hal ini berhasil, terbukti dengan peserta saidaiji eyou bukan hanya dari penduduk kota okayama, ataupun dari warga negara jepang saja, melainkan ada pula yang berasal dari luar negeri. sebenarnya saidaiji eyou ini sudah terkenal di luar negeri sejak dulu. pada tahun 1953 (showa 28), foto saidaiji eyou pernah masuk majalah life terbitan amerika. kemudian, foto saidaiji eyou juga diperkenalkan oleh penerbit graff ke inggris, perancis, italia, swedia, norwegia, dan negara-negara eropa lainnya. selain itu, pada tahun 1961, saidaiji eyou masuk dalam film italia yang berjudul zokusekai no yoru (miura kanou, 1985:27). hal inilah yang menjadi salah satu alasan banyaknya orang asing yang ingin ikut berpartisipasi dalam saidaiji eyou. selain itu, saidaiji eyou juga diliput secara langsung, baik oleh stasiun tv lokal maupun asing. di dalam saidaiji eyou tahun 2006, terdapat reporter beserta cameramen dari stasiun tv jerman untuk meliput secara langsung (sanyou shinbun, 2006:34). kemudian, masih pada tahun yang sama, saat saidaiji eyou berlangsung, terdapat satu acara tambahan yang tidak tercantum dalam jadwal, yaitu tarian samba dari brasil. berdasarkan hasil wawancara, tarian samba tersebut untuk menyemangati peserta saidaiji eyou yang berasal dari brazil. makna hadaka matsuri..... (frieska sekar nadya) 65 originalitas di tengah perubahan adanya perubahan matsuri menjadi sairei bukan merupakan suatu penurunan dalam kebudayaan atau keagamaan di jepang. sebaliknya, hal ini dijadikan momen bagi bangsa jepang untuk mempertahankan budaya matsuri tersebut. hal yang sama juga diungkapkan michael ashenazi, bahwa secara umum ia setuju dengan bertambahnya populitas pada era modern, sedikit banyak telah mempengaruhi perubahan badan religius yang tradisional. selain itu, secara tidak langsung mempengaruhi kelangsungan matsuri itu sendiri. akan tetapi, ia tidak mendukung pendapat morioka yang mengemukakan bahwa kepercayaan shinto telah memudar. perubahan dalam matsuri tidak bisa dipandang sebagai penurunan yang sederhana, baik dari kepercayaan shinto ataupun penyelenggaraan matsuri itu sendiri (michael ashenazi, 1993:11). lebih jauh lagi, michael ashkenazi juga mengungkapkan bahwa data dan analisis yang ia lakukan menunjukkan bahwa matsuri dapat bertahan terhadap perkembangan atau perubahan yang terjadi di dalam masyarakat, karena matsuri ikut membantu komunitas di sekitarnya mempertahankan kelangsungan komunitas tersebut. sisi yang tidak baik dari pandangan tersebut mengakibatkan hubungan tersebut jatuh ke dalam interpretasi secara fungsional, yaitu keberadaan matsuri terlihat hanya sebagai alat dalam strategi mempertahankan keberlangsung hidup dari komunitas bangsa jepang. peneliti lain, sonoda, juga mencatat bahwa matsuri dapat bertahan karena matsuri merupakan ekspresi dan sarana dari ungkapan kebudayaan yang dikenal umum dalam masyarakat (michael ashenazi, 1993:146-147). sebagai contoh, alasan saidaiji eyou hanya dilakukan pada saat musim dingin adalah karena saidaiji eyou merupakan kelanjutan dari ritual keagamaan oshogatsu, yaitu perayaan tahun baru. hal ini merupakan dorongan bagi masyarakat jepang untuk memulai lembaran hidup baru yang lebih baik pada setiap tahun baru. udara yang dingin merupakan wujud tantangan untuk memulai hal tersebut. penyucian diri, kembali ke situasi ketika masih baru lahir ke dunia merupakan harapan untuk mendapatkan kehidupan yang baru dan lebih baik lagi. nilai-nilai keagamaan seperti ini yang masih dipertahankan; yang kemudian mengundang ketertarikan bagi orang-orang asing untuk menyaksikan, merasakan, seperti apa bergelut dengan udara dingin, hanya dengan menggunakan fundoshi atau cawat, memperebutkan shingi, sehingga dapat memulai hidup baru yang lebih baik untuk setahun kedepan. hal ini membuktikan walaupun sadaiji eyou telah berkembang menjadi sairei, tetapi tetap mempertahankan nilai-nilai yang menjadi dasar atau pondasi dari penyelenggaraan matsuri itu sendiri. dengan demikian, walaupun ada perubahan pola masyarakat dari pedesaan menjadi perkotaan, atau perubahan dari matsuri menjadi sairei, inti dari matsuri itu sendiri tetap bertahan hingga sekarang. bukan hanya sebagai alat bagi masyarakat jepang untuk mempertahankan komunitasnya, tetapi ada banyak unsur-unsur lain yang mendukung, yang membuat matsuri dapat bertahan di tengah perubahan tersebut. penutup hadaka matsuri mempunyai makna yang lebih luas daripada makna telanjang yang sesungguhnya. setiap negara tentu punya makna telanjang dalam setiap budaya atau kehidupan sosialnya. di indonesia misalnya, yang sebagian besar beragama islam, tentu memiliki makna ketelanjangan yang berbeda dengan negara amerika, yang lebih bersifat moderat. di dalam hadaka matsuri, makna telanjang bukan berarti sepenuhnya tidak berpakaian, melainkan masih menggunakan fundoshi atau cawat. selain itu, makna telanjang di dalam hadaka matsuri lebih dititikberatkan pada pengertian proses kembali suci dan bersih seperti anak yang baru lahir ke dunia. hadaka matsuri walaupun seperti yang telah dibahas mengalami perubahan dari matsuri menjadi sairei, yang lebih mementingkan kemeriahan penyelenggaraannya (maknanya lebih mendekati suatu festival). akan tetapi, inti dari penyelenggaraan matsuri tersebut, terutama nilai-nilai keagamaannya masih bertahan hingga sekarang. hal ini disebabkan, seperti yang telah diungkapkan jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 58-67 66 michael ashkenazi, karena matsuri merupakan media bagi masyarakat jepang mempertahankan komunitasnya. dengan kata lain, sadaiji eyou merupakan hadaka matsuri yang memiliki ikatan kebersamaan sosial yang sangat kuat. walaupun saidaiji eyou telah menjadi sairei, tetapi masih melaksanakan ritualnya secara serius. hal-hal inilah yang membuat saidaiji eyou berbeda dengan yang lainnya. di dalam masyarakat jepang dewasa ini, saidaiji eyou di okayama, yang tiap tahun bertambah jumlah pesertanya, masih dapat menampilkan salah satu kebudayaan jepang yang unik dan masih eksis dari dulu hingga sekarang. daftar pustaka ashkenazi, m. (1993). matsuri: festivals of a japanese town. honolulu: university of hawaii press. danesi, m. (1999). analyzing culture: an introduction and handbook. indiana: indiana university press. hori, i. (1983). folk religion in japan: continuity and change edited by kitagawa joseph. chicago: midway, the university of chicago press. ishikawa, t. (1986). kokoro: the soul of japan. tokyo: the east publications, inc. miura, k. (1985). okayama no eyou. okayama: nihon bunkyo. murakami, t. (1977). nihon bunka teiyo. (ed.). tokyo: nihon bunka kenkyu jyohen. ono, s. (1993). shinto: the kami way, cetakan ke-24. japan: charles e. turtle company. ross, f.h. (1965). shinto: the way of japan. boston: beacon press. yato, t. (1968). naked festivals of japan. tokyo: john weatherhill inc. yoneyama, t. (1986). toshi to matsuri no jinruigaku. tokyo: kawada shobou shinsha. makna hadaka matsuri..... (frieska sekar nadya) 67 lampiran gambar 1 suasana di hondou saat pelemparan shingi (midorikawa youichi, 2002) gambar 2 rute yang harus dilewati peserta eyou, melewati niou mon; melewati ishi mon; menyucikan diri di koritoriba; berdoa di hondou; berziarah goou di chinjudo; berkumpul dan melewati yonponjuu; berkumpul di hondou lagi untuk memperebutkan shingi (yoshio wada, 2005). issn 1978-8118 vol. 2 no. 1 mei 2008 ketua dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. dewan redaksi ratna handayani, m.si. henny lim, ba cendrawaty tjong, ba sofi zhang, ba dra. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., ma. mitra bestari prof. bahren umar siregar.ph.d dra. ekawati m. dukut, m.hum. dra. nalti novianti, m.si. rita susanti, s.pd., s.s., m.si. andyni khosasih, se, ba xia mingju, ba, ma. zhang bin, ba, ma. huan jianjun, ph.d. elisa christiana, ba. guangxi shifan xueyuan (guangxi teachers education university) china editor bahasa dan setter dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. titik rahayu s., s.s. holil angga ferdiansyah sekretariat: hery h.m., s.kom alamat redaksi: subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang sastra research and community service center universitas bina nusantara kampus anggrek jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk jakarta barat 11530 telp. 021-5350660 (ext. 1210) fax. 021-5300244 cultura jurnal lingualingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 2 no. 1 mei 2008 daftar isi fenty l. siregar needs analysis of the important communicative features at de la salle university............. 1-11 ienneke indra dewi presuppositions and implicatures in comic strips...................................................... 12-24 almodad b. asmani exploring and dealing with issues of ‘identity and difference’ at my workplace context in surabaya................................................................... 25-36 widjono hs. mendesain bahan ajar bahasa indonesia untuk tujuan akademis (designing indonesian language course material for academic purposes)........................ 37-45 elisa carolina marion analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel ni dan de (mistake analysis on the usage of particle ni and de) ................................................ 46-58 nalti novianti; is anggra dewi analisis interferensi dalam kelas kata keishiki meishi khususnya penggunaan tame ni dan you ni (interference analysis in keishiki meishi especially on the use of tame ni and you ni)........ 59-75 rita susanti tindak tutur memohon dalam bahasa jepang (irai): analisis skenario drama televisi jepang love story karya eriko kitagawa (request speech act in japanese language (irai): an analysis on the japanese television drama scene love story by eriko kitagawa)........................................................... 76-88 rosemary sylvia analisis kendala pembelajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin beserta solusinya (analysis on the obstacle in learning numeral words of mandarin language with the solution) 89-101 xuc lin analysis of psychological growth of the main character in chenlun by yu dafu.................. 102-111 huang minfen interactive narration in the digital age.................................................................. 112-119 cultura jurnal lingualingua microsoft word 03 irfan_setting students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 25 students’ attitude on the use of facebook and blog in writing class and their writing competence irfan rifai english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 irifai@binus.edu abstract article aims to investigate the relationship between students’ attitudes on the use of facebook and blog as learning tools in writing class. two groups of students were made as experimental and control group. the experimental group used facebook and blog in as learning tools for thirteen sessions while the control group only used binusmaya, local multi channel learning. it was assumed that facebook and blog would be able to help students in three level of writing mastery: the vocabulary, the accuracy and the fluency in writing. students’ attitudes were gathered through survey and the results compared to their final test scores. the result shows that students’ lack of enthusiasm was in line with students’ level of achievement in writing and that facebook and blog did not give significant influence on improving students’ writing competence. keywords: students’ attitude, facebook, blog, writing competence abstrak artikel menyelidiki keterkaitan antara perilaku mahasiswa terhadap penggunaan facebook dan blog sebagai media belajar menulis dalam bahasa inggris. terdapat dua kelompok mahasiswa di jadikan objek penelitian dimana sekelompok mahasiswa menggunakan tambahan aktivitas blog dan facebook dan lainnya hanya menggunakan media binusmaya. sikap mahasiswa diukur melalui respon mereka melalui survey dan kemudian di bandingkan dengan skor akhir mereka di akhir semester. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa tidak menunjukkan entusiasme yang tinggi dalam menggunakan facebook dan blog sebagai media belajar dalam group. skor akhir mereka juga tidak menunjukkan perubahan yang signifikan terhadap kemampuan menulis mereka. kata kunci: students’ attitude, facebook, blog, writing competence 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 introduction with the rapid growth of information technology, teaching and learning process of students experiencing changes tremendously. prensky (2001), in his article digital natives, digital immigrants, states that now the educators and parents need to change the paradigm especially now that the children of the generation are born after the emergence of information technology. being surrounded with information technology applications, these young individuals are extremely familiar with the easy accessibility of information and the media provide them. the development of information technology, especially the internet, has entered a more advanced stage of the better known as web 2.0. this concept emerged as the answer to what can be done by information technology in the future. with web 2.0, learners are always in the stimuli to learn interactively with a variety of easytofind information and materials either in the form of text, images, or other multimedia forms. one example of web 2.0 applications easily found right now is podcasting and social networking applications such as blogs and facebook. many studies mention that technologies such as podcasting has helped many language learners in improving the skills that are received (receptive skills) such as the ability to get the message, speech or the pronunciation of the target language, and the expression of the foreign language learned. as social networking, facebook and blogs have many interesting features that give language learners the tools to share opinions, information and ideas. based on reports from 2007 u.s. fed news, the university of texas at austin's texas language technology center (tltc) found that application of podcasts, blogs and content of interactive on-line such as facebook has quickly replaced the book text books and tapes in language learning. the center provides its students a various foreign language programs in which students have a free access to the audio, video, and on line resources. stowe in his coverage in the daily tribune business weekly also reported that blog has grown and developed into a tool in education. in the field of language learning, blogs and wiki, are believed to have enabled language learners to share ideas and practice as well as their ability to write in a language learned in the atmosphere at a more relaxed, informal and (almost) without any pressure. furthermore, blogging gives users the flexibility to be creative with words, pictures and even videos. somewhat different with podcasting, blogging as a means friendship in the virtual world also has its own fans. blogging or manage to update his blog, is a regular means of issuing an opinion in written form in the target language that trains students to use the target language in the context of a real , not made up contexts. meanwhile, social network like facebook has even experienced faster growth in terms of number of account owners in the past few years. the popularity of face book, as reported by the times on line on march 17th, 2010, has ousted google in us alone. according to the article, in 2009, facebook has more than 400 million regular users worldwide with the home page saw 7.07 percent of traffic. in that year, google’s traffic percentage was only 7.03 percent. from http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/the_web/article7064973.ece in an initial language learning route, horwitz (in hsieh, 2008) argues that language teachers should understand learners’ beliefs about language learning in order to facilitate the learning process so that teachers would be able to come out with suitable teaching method and media. the fact that ‘belief’ usually underlies the attitude and the students’ engagement in the class only adds to the significance of conducting belief analysis. students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 27 moreover, attitudes, according to brown (1994), like all aspects of the development of cognition and affect in human beings, develop early in childhood and are the results of parents’ and peers’ attitudes, contact with people who are different in any number of ways, and interacting affective factors in the human experience”. attitude scales attempt to determine what an individual believes, perceives or feels. attitudes can be measured toward self, others, and a variety of other activities, institutions, and situations (gay in hilary page-bucci, 2003). attitude is an important concept that is often used to understand and predict people's reaction to an object or change and how behavior can be influenced (fishbein and ajzen in page-bucci, 2003). gardner (in inal, evin & saracaloglu, nd) defines attitude as an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent. it is also seen as a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations to which it is related (allport in page-bucci, 2003). furthermore, it is also seen as a learned orientation, or disposition, toward an object or situation, which provides a tendency to respond favorably or unfavorably to the object or situation.' (rokeach in page-bucci, 2003). a study on motivation and language learning has been pretty popular in the past few years. robert c. gardner has been the prominent name investigating the relationship between attitude, motivation and language learning. one of the most famous studies he has done was on attitude motivation test battery manual (amtb) in which he used it to study the effects of motivation on canadian students’ attitudes in learning french. clement & gardner (quoted in hsieh, 2008) suggest that when one examining factors that influence foreign language learning and communication, motivational processes should be on top of the list. why? it may answer the question on why some people find it hard to learn a foreign language. also in hsieh (2008), gardner claims that there are at least three basic indicators of learner motivation: learners’ effort, learner’ desire to learn the language, and learners’ satisfaction with learning. furthermore, gardner argues that all the three components are necessary to describe foreign language learning motivation and can be assessed with the attitude/motivation test battery. the scales making up the amtb are integrativeness (integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages), attitudes toward the learning situation (evaluation of teacher and course), motivation (motivational intensity, desire to learn the target language, and attitude toward learning the target language), language anxiety (language class and language use anxiety), and instrumental orientation (learning for utilitarian purposes). in the past few years, along with rapid evolution of information technology and the massive use of computers worldwide, the studies on the impacts of information technology and computers to language learning has been a new buzz. the buzz word is then called computer assisted language learning (call). studies on call range from students and teachers’ attitudes on the use of call (kremenska, 2007; raby, 2007 and park & son, 2009) and the variety of call has to offer to students, like the studies on web 2.0 and many other. previous studies investigating students’ attitudes on the uses of call has shown that most efl and esl teachers have positive attitudes toward the use of computers in general and recognize the benefits of using call in the language classroom (park and son, 2009). in terms of motivation, park & son found that the teachers also believe that call can provide students with highly motivated learning environments and opportunities to engage in meaningful and authentic learning as they provide a place for experiencing different cultures and communicating with other people in the target language. this research aims to answer the enquiries related to students’ beliefs and attitudes on the use of selected web 2.0 applications and its impacts on their learning success. it is hoped that by 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 investigating and defining their motivation, it would lead to an understanding of students’ beliefs about their own abilities in learning and completing particular tasks (bandura; stipek, cited by miltiadou in page-bucci, 2003). furthermore, horwitz (in hsieh, 2008) stresses on the importance of understanding these beliefs in order for language teachers to facilitate students’ learning better. the following research questions guided the study: (1) how do the students react to the use of blog and face book in the writing class?; (2) how do the beliefs and attitudes are reflected in their learning? ; and (3) do students who use both blog and face book as extra means of learning score higher on the final test than those who have only binusmaya in the process? this research, however, is not intended to be fully scientific or quasi-scientific, but rather a descriptive evaluation of students’ opinions, beliefs and attitudes toward the use of web 2.0 applications, blog and facebook, and their correlation to students’ writing competence progress. research methodolgy participants and procedures participants were all undergraduate students of their second semester enrolled in the english department of binus university. they were 58 students of 14 males and 44 females and of mixed english proficiency ranging from 1. 80 to 3.90 (out 0f 4.00) gpa. they all have taken writing i course in the previous semester. the 57 students are from 02 pag and 02 pcg classes and treated , for this research, as controlled group students ( 33 students of 02 pag) and 25 students as experimental group ( 02 pcg). writing ii course is the continuation of writing i. in writing ii, students are expected to excel in writing ideas in the paragraph level. for this research, the experimental group’s teaching process involved 2 web 2.0 applications, such as; face book, blog and binus local e-learning web, binusmaya. while for the controlled class, they only used binusmaya as their only on line tool of learning and joined the face book on voluntary base. the use of binusmaya for the controlled group was only as means of uploading on line tasks. in the experimental group, students were grouped into 4 and were assigned to create blogs and to update the blogs on regular basis from the periods of march 2009 – january 2010. the creation of the group blog is to measure students’ integrative orientation, which is the drive to be working as a member of the group. gardner (1960) argues that the drive has been researched to help improve students’ linguistic attainment. it was expected that students were encouraged to write and share information in english more comprehensively. the facebook account was especially designed to create a dare-to-make mistake attitude where students were invited to voluntarily be involved in researcher’s face book account. a facebook group activity called ‘the paragraphers” was created to anticipate a longer or more thorough information or discussion. participations in both applications are to be put against their attitudes during the class. students’ responses and attitudes are gathered by using likert scale. the collected responses are to be compared with their achievement on the final test. students’ activeness during the study is also monitored. the data is considered as a tool to measure students’ positive/ negative responses on the use of both applications. additional measure is then given to the experimental group. pres test and post test are conducted to the experimental group to measure their progress while the final test (uas) will be considered as evaluative test where the results of both groups are compared. the result of the first students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 29 comparison will be used to measure the progress of the students in the experimental group while the second comparison result will be used to answer the inquiry of whether or not the web 2.0 treatment have better effects on students’ writing skills. data collection: questionnaire, quantity of web 2.0 uploads and tests the questionnaire was inspired by gardner’s attitude motivation test battery (amtb) design made popular in 1984. the attitude/motivation test battery is a research instrument made to evaluate, in general, the relationship of sub-tests and composite test scores with indexes of language achievement and the attitudes toward foreign language study, the effects of particular programs and the relation of attitudes and motivation to students’ behavior in the class. gardner used a total of 104 indexes in his research. like gardner’s amtb, the questionnaire aims to investigate the effects of the use of a particular program on students’ achievement and its relation with the attitudes toward the learning situation. the questionnaire is divided into three groups i.e. part a questions are all related to students; their ways of learning a language, exposures to internet and multimedia written in english. this part is specially designed to give significant background to forecast students’ responses to the idea of using blog and facebook as official means to improve their writing. in part b, questions are divided into two parts. the first five questions are designed to gather the information on students’ belief on whether blogs and face book have helped them improve their writing ability. the second parts of the questions aim to investigate students’ attitudes on the use of blog and facebook as means of learning. likert scale type of questionnaire is used to gather the data required. the ten items are written as statements in which students have to respond by choosing between strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree. part c is the last part of the questionnaire. there are two open ended questions asking students’ opinions on the advantages and the disadvantages of using blog and facebook in the writing class and the factors that influence their level of participations in the class. results and discussion the respondents twenty two students have responded to the questionnaire. the twenty two students’ average years of learning has been 10.45 years of both in formal and informal settings (english lesson courses and school).in question number two, students were given 6 options on how they have learned english, the majority has approved to have exposed themselves listening to english songs (14), reading english texts (8), watching english program-tv (13), internet (14) , i-pod (3), and talking to native speakers friends (3). the first two questions have presented the data on how long this group has actually learned english, regardless how they learned and how successful they were, and how they have exposed themselves passively in english-related media. it gives a clear picture that for many students, the internet is the most common place to encounter foreign language as they have been pretty familiar with internet and other medium like tv, radio or even i-pod. web 2.0 as term and application has been also a familiar feature for these students who have frequently updated their facebook status (15), read news (15) and playing on line games and others (5). 20 students say that they even have blogs with 16 out of 22 claims that they have used english in their blogs. it is important for teachers of foreign language to have this sort of data prior to teaching a group of students. such data will be helpful in helping teachers to prepare the material and the media needed to support the teaching process. 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 how do the students react to the use of blog and facebook in the writing class? part b of the questionnaire is divided into two different focuses: students’ beliefs on progress (questions 1-5) and their attitudes during the class (questions (6-10). the answers are then scaled from: strongly agree (sa, 5), agree (a, 4), undecided (u, 3), disagree (d, 2), strongly disagree (sd, 1) for the favorable items and from: strongly disagree (sd, 5), disagree (d, 4), undecided (u, 3), agree (a, 2) to strongly agree (sa, 1) for unfavorable items. scaling items are depicted in figure 1 and 2 below. sa a u d sd 5 4 3 2 1 figure 1 favorable item scaling sd d u a sa 5 4 3 2 1 figure 2 unfavorable item scaling the first question asked whether by using the blogs and joining facebook accounts have improved students’ confidence. the response is an average of 3.59, in favor of students’ indecisiveness whether they have improved their confidence in writing. question number 2 asks whether students felt that they have technically improved, especially on their ability to construct sentences to make them meaningful. the question was constructed to know students’ beliefs on the technical writing skill they have gained from this activity. a positive response has come out of this item with 4 at the average for the favor of better confidence in the ability to construct english sentences. in answering whether they have improved their accuracy in writing, students were a little bit unsure of their progress with the scale of only 3.2. accuracy is the competency to produce correct english sentences in accordance with standard english grammar, spelling and punctuation smoothly. the accuracy of writing ii students are expected to be at the level of presenting ideas logically and systematically based on the structure of the paragraph taught. the answer came as a no surprise as students have repeatedly complained on how difficult it was to meet the accuracy level expected. on the other hand, students show different reaction when asked whether they felt that they have learned more vocabulary and daily english expressions. 4.2 of scale react favorably to this item believing that they have improved significantly. unfortunately, there was no evidence of how they have actually learned the new words. the next item asks whether they think that blogging is an effective way of improving writing skill. the average scale of 3.7 shows students’ hesitation to fully agree on the question with many of them is split into agree and undecided. however, when asked whether they thought that facebook and blog are too personal to use as group learning tool, 1.9 average of the class disapprove the statement. it means that they see facebook and blog as appropriate tools to use for group learning despite their indecisiveness in telling whether they have improved their writing skills. students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 31 reflection of beliefs and attitudes in learning students were also indecisive in admitting whether they have regularly updated their group blogs and left comments on their friends’ posts with the average scale of 3.3 and 3.45 in favor of irregularity in updating group blog. it appears that students were hesitant in admitting if they have regular posts on their blogs and on their friends’. students were also hesitant when asked whether they only re-posted materials on their blogs and facebook with the average scale of 3.04. during the class, the researcher pushes students to update the blogs by scoring the quantity and the quality of their weekly updates. the following table 1 is the summary of students’ post and their scores. table 1 the quantity and the quality of students’ blog posts names of blogs numbers of posts scores (1-5) notes http://silverdestiny.wordpress.com 71 4 developed and maintained by 6 members from march 2009 – january 2010. stopped once the class is over. http://denewfield.wordpress.com 31 3 developed and maintained by 6 members from march 2009 – january 2010. stopped once the class is over. http://ritzy2012.wordpress.com 29 3 developed and maintained by 6 members from march 2009 – january 2010. stopped once the class is over. http://writing02.wordpress.com 8 1 was only activated in may and june 2009. 7 posts were original. the scores range from 1 to 5 and described in the following rubric: 1   : less than 10 posts 2 : re post with some links and additional comments and or less than 15 original ideas or posts. 3 : repost with some individual comments and opinions and or less than 20 original ideas or posts. 4 : genuine ideas and opinions and or less than 25 original ideas or posts. 5 : genuine ideas and opinions and or more than 25 original ideas or posts. the students’ engagement during the class can also be represented in their activities in the facebook account and the face book group. as has been mentioned, students were involved on the facebook account on voluntary basis. as the host to both tools, the researcher initiates almost all the posts and updates on both applications. the following table 2 is the detail of the number of posts in the facebook account and group. table 2 students’ posts in face book in the last item, students were asked whether they felt comfortable in using both facebook and blog as learning tools. most students opted to give indecisive answer, with the inclination to agree. the average scale of the item was 3.7. in the open ended question part, students were asked two questions. first question asked of their opinions of the advantages and the disadvantages of using face book and blog in helping them to learn english. the result (see table 3) comes out with eight (8) advantages and ten (10) disadvantages. the largest numbers of respondents, 7 (24%), claimed that face book and blog improve their writing skills and followed by 6 (21%) respondents who claimed the two applications helped them get information they need. equal numbers of respondents, 4 (14%), claimed that facebook and blog are 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 helpful in improving users’ vocabulary and english. 3 (10%) and 2 (7%) respondents said that facebook and blog are advantageous as means of sharing opinions and in the process, making them creative (2 respondents, 7%). only 1 respondent (3.50%), however, claimed that he/has better confidence in expressing ideas through writing after using blog and facebook in learning. table 3 the advantages of using blog and face book in learning english respondents have come with more varied answers when asked of the disadvantages of using face book and blog for language learning as can be seen in table 4. in this part of the question, respondents show reluctance in answering the question with six respondents (26.30%) did not provide any answer. time has been seen as main constraint in writing in a blog, point 1 and 2 (six respondents), followed by other issues like internet availabilityrelated issues, point two and eight. table 4 the disadvantages of using blog and face book in learning english the last open-ended question asked students the factors that may have influenced their engagement in the class. the questions aim to identify the internal and the external factors that influence their participation in the class. according to joosten, bundy and einfeld (2009) when ones are motivated intrinsic-ly , they tend to do something for the natural fulfillment involved and they tend students' opinions on the advantages of using blog and facebook in writing class no items % of responses # of responses 1 improve vocabulary 14% 4 2 improve writing skills 24% 7 3 improve users' english 14% 4 4 read and get information 21% 6 5 sharing opportunity 10% 3 6 means of expressing opinion 7% 2 7 improve confidence in writing 3.50% 1 8 making you creative 7% 2 the disadvantages of using blog and facebook in writing class: students' opinion no item % of responses # of responses 1 it takes time to write 18% 4 2 internet café costs money 8.60% 2 3 no disadvantage 13.10% 3 4 no answer 26.30% 6 5 no idea 4.40% 1 6 spending too much time on line 8.60% 2 7 blog doesn't help me much 4.40% 1 8 don’t have internet at home 8.60% 2 9 afraid of being embarrassed 4.40% 1 10 i don't share the same opinion with other members 4.40% 1 students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 33 to be more independent( i.e. regulated by the self) . in contrast, those who are extrinsic-ly motivated, have the tendency to do things in order to get a separable outcome (e.g. a reward) (joosten, bundy & einfeld, 2009) the following table 5 sums up the students’ response on the question: what factors that influence your participation in the class?” table 5 students’ answers on the question: “what factors that influence your participation in the class?” students factors that influence your participation 1 the lesson, the studying environment, my mood 2 the lesson and friends 3 my desire 4 i like it because i can tell stories, share things with others and in itself is a pleasure. 5 i want to be a good writer and i want to get best score for my writing 6 to understand the materials explained by the lecturer ; to get more information about the material; to get the better score from the individual assignments which are given on the class meeting 7 the grades 8 the kind lecturer and friends 9 how the teacher teaches 10 learning method and situation in the class 11 my teacher 12 my friends who help me 13 i love english. that’s it. 14 n/a 15 n/a 16 to be active 17 i want to know how many vocabulary that i have learned and i want to improve it 18 the teacher; the classmates ;the class environment; the material 19 no idea 20 the desire to learn 21 the responsibility the blue highlighted responses represent the external factors that influence students ’participation while the yellow ones represent otherwise. from the answers, it can be seen that students’ participation during the classes were mostly influenced by the external factors. it is also important to note that no student mentions both facebook and blog as a motivating factors. students, in general, were intrinsically motivated by their own desire, sense of responsibility and their fondness of english. while extrinsically, factors like the teacher, mood, friends and environment are still their main external factors. do students who use both blog and facebook as extra means of learning score higher on the final test than those who only binus maya? to be able to get complete description of students’ progress, the writing 1 scores of the two researched classes, the results of the pre-test and the post test of pag’s class, and the final test scores of both classes are all then compared and shown in figure 3 and 4. 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 students’ writing 1 and writing 2 scores figure 3 pcg’s average score in writing i and writing ii: 72 => 74 in writing 2 figure 4 pag’s average scores in writing 1 and writing ii: 69 => 76 in writing 2 the experimental group (02 pcg) scores improve from the average of 72 to the average of 74 (2 points). however, the controlled group (02 pag) has improved even higher, from 69 to 76 (7 points). both writing i classes were only supported by binusmaya in the process and taught by 2 different lecturers. both groups show improvement in their writing. pre test and post test scores (experimental group) the pre test and the post test done on the experimental group can be reported below: average score of the pre test: 48.4 average score of the post test: 63 the percentage of the improvement: 14.6. the experimental group shows an insignificant improvement from their average pretest scores of only 48.4 to become 63 in average. the percentage of improvement made by the students, despite the exposure with facebook and blog in 3 month time, has only reached to 14.6 percentage of improvement. students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 35 final test results final test results of students are shown in table 6 and 7. students. n i l a i tm mid uas akhir 1 70 73 50 61 2 75 76 75 76 3 70 62 50 58 4 62 62 50 56 5 78 78 95 87 6 40 64 0 7 80 62 70 70 8 80 67 70 72 9 85 85 70 78 10 40 0 0 0 11 75 71 60 67 12 95 87 90 91 13 95 91 85 89 14 80 68 75 74 15 85 87 85 86 16 80 70 90 82 17 80 74 75 76 18 75 70 70 71 19 80 58 65 66 20 90 86 90 89 21 85 81 80 82 22 75 63 65 67 23 90 82 80 83 24 90 89 90 90 25 75 56 55 60 26 75 65 65 67 27 90 93 95 94 28 90 89 95 93 29 85 86 65 76 30 90 82 90 88 31 80 81 80 81 32 75 62 50 59 33 70 67 55 62 34 80 81 80 81 by using standard deviation formula, the students’ scores above can then be summarized in the following: pcg class (experimental group) sum of the scores: 1,868 mean: 74.72 median: 71 aptitude squares of figures in 2nd column: 5304 5304/ (25-1) = 221 variance: 221 it is found that standard deviation ( i.e. square root of variance) is 14.8 students n i l a i t m mi d uas akhi r 1 70 66 65 67 2 70 70 65 68 3 50 0 20 20 4 50 76 65 66 5 70 70 65 68 6 75 82 90 85 7 75 72 60 67 8 70 70 60 65 9 80 72 65 71 10 85 80 70 76 11 90 83 85 86 12 75 70 65 69 13 75 76 75 76 14 70 68 60 65 15 65 68 0 16 90 78 100 92 17 75 65 70 70 18 90 80 90 87 19 80 91 85 86 20 70 65 65 66 21 80 82 85 84 22 80 65 80 76 23 85 75 80 80 24 95 98 100 99 25 0 0 0 26 50 84 65 68 27 90 76 90 86 table 7 the scores of the pcg students in writing ii table 6 the scores of the pcg students in writing ii 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 the following figure 5describe the position of the data: figure 5 scores falling within 1, 2 and 3 standard deviations of the mean of pcg. this means that most students of the experimental groups have the scores within 14.8 of the mean i.e. 74.72 (59.86-89.58) or only 47.50% of pcg students’ scores in the range between 59.86 to 89.58. pag class (controlled group) the controlled group scores is summarized as the following (see also figure 6): sum of the scores : 2432 mean : 76 squares of figures: 4026 4026/ (33-1) = 125.8 variance: 125.8 standard deviation (i.e. square root of variance): 11.2 figure 6 scores falling within 1, 2 and 3 standard deviations of the mean of pag. this means that most students of the controlled group have the scores within 11.2 of the mean i.e. 76 (53. 698.4) or 50% of pcg students’ scores fall in the range between 53.6 to 98.4. students’ attitude ….. (irfan rifai) 37 the data shows that the students of the controlled group have outscored the students of the experimental group. the difference is quite significant. as most students of the experimental groups have the scores within 14.8 of the mean i.e. 74.72 (59.86-89.58) or only 47.50% of pcg students’ scores in the range between 59.86 to 89.58, the controlled group have the scores within 11.2 of the mean i.e. 76 (53. 698.4) or 50% of pcg students’ scores fall in the range between 53.6 to 98.4. figure 7 below describes how the scores of the students in the controlled group has consistently been higher than those of the experimental group. figure 7 a comparison of pcg and pag test results conclusions students were not particularly motivated with the idea of using face book and blog as learning tools. it is reflected in the lack of regular activities in both facebook and blog groups. it is assumed that students are less motivated due to some factors: first, there was a changing paradigm from seeing both blog and facebook as a hobby, to becoming an obligation. the scoring factor used as extrinsic motivator may have also become a diminishing factor. students who have treated facebook and blog as hobby, 80% have had blog and 100% have facebook account, have been apparently affected. secondly, was the fact that was once individual has now become a team work. some students have mentioned that they had problems working as a team and preferred working individually. in line with the lack of enthusiasm and participation, the majority of students believe that their writing competence in three areas: vocabulary, fluency and ability to construct sentences (accuracy), were not really improved with the use of both application. the scores of the students using blog and facebook were not also higher than those of the controlled group. it shows the less significance of using blog and facebook in helping students to improve their writing skills. suggestion on certain stages, facebook and blog may still have to stay in the individual area where students have privileges. it takes extra efforts not only to condition students’ attitudes on working as team in ‘individual-based’ applications, but also to change the attitudes of the students toward the uses of both applications in learning. further research is needed to investigate appropriate model and methodology in using web 2.0 applications (facebook and blog) as means of learning to improve students’ language competence. 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 25-38 references brown, h. d. (1994). principles of language learning and teaching. new jersey: prentice hall. inc. gardner, r.c. & macintyre, p.d. (1993). on the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. language learning, 43:2, pp. 157-194. ontario: the university of western ontario gardner, r.c. (1960) motivational variables in second –language acquisition. phd thesis available at http://publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs/phd.pdf retrieved on july 20th, 2010. hsieh, p.h. (2008). why are college foreign language students' self-efficacy, attitude, and motivation so different? international education; fall 2008; 38, 1; academic research library i̇nal, s., evin, i., saracaloğlu, a.s. (nd) the relationship between students’ attitudes toward foreign language and foreign language achievement. approaches to the study of language and literature. (paper presentation) first international conference, dokuz eylül university buca faculty of education, 1-3 october, i̇zmir. joosten av, bundy ac, einfeld sl. (2009) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for stereotypic and repetitive behavior. journal of autism and developmental disorders. march 2009 39 (3): 521-31. murray, l. & hourigan, t. (2008) blogs for specific purposes: expressivist or socio-cognitivist approach? recall 20(1): 82-97. kremenska, a. (2007) measuring student attitudes to computer assisted language learning. international conference on computer systems and technologies compsystech’07 available at http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre_en.asp page‐bucci, hilary. "the value of likert scales in measuring attitudes of online learners." hka designs. feb. 2003. 20 oct. 2007 . park, c.n. & son, j.b. (2009) implementing computer-assisted language learning in the efl classroom: teachers’ perceptions and perspectives. international journal of pedagogies and learning 5(2): 80–101 prensky, m. (2001). digital natives, digital immigrants. on the horizon mcb university press, vol. 9 no. 5, october 2001 raby, f. (2007). a triangular approach to motivation in computer assisted autonomous language learning (caall). recall 19(2): 181-201. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 47 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 47-52 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1318 masculinity in indonesian popular culture in the early era of the new order regime ferry fauzi hermawan humanities research group, faculty of art and design, bandung institute of technology jln. ganesha no. 10 bandung 40132, indonesia fauzifery@gmail.com received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 5th september 2016/ accepted: 13th february 2017 how to cite: hermawan, f. f. (2016). masculinity in indonesian popular culture in the early era of the new order regime. lingua cultura, 11(1). 47-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1318 abstract this study aimed to identify the forms of masculinity in the indonesian popular culture in the beginning of new order regime. this study was based on the two novels: cross mama and kekasih-kekasih gelap, written by motinggo busye. the analysis used new historicism theory proposed by stephen greenblatt. the analysis also considered various cultural contexts emerged in 1970s. the results show three shared trends in the novels. the first trend shows that the masculinity tends to be represented by both men worshiping patriarchal values such as the myth of woman’s virginity and men perceiving woman as a sexual object. the second trend shows that masculinity is stereotyped based on masculinity, power, and male dominance. the third trend shows that masculinity relates to various products of mass culture at the time. this last trend shows that in that era,the ideal male figure is represented as the one who: (1) is sexually active with many women, (2) has a muscular body, (3) has a handsome look, and (4) has a financial capability. besides the shared three trends, the result also shows that the texts in the novels do not only reflect the cultural situations in the 60’s and 70’s but also contribute in shaping the social values of the cultural situations. keywords: masculinity, indonesian popular culture, motinggo busye, new order regime, new historicism introduction the development of pornography industry grows to meet the desire and sexual fantasies of men. according to thornton (2009) the pornography industry developed shortly after world war ii as an underground business. therefore, the period from the beginning of 1970 until the 1980s is known as the period of pornography. in that period, many media that displayed erotic elements leading to sexual activity emerged. in the west, especially the united states, the presence of pornographic films such as boys in the sand and deep throat can be considered to be a milestone in the movement of world’s porn industry. this movement was reinforced by the emergence of playboy magazine, which has been considered by some people as one of the main pornographic icons. the spread of pornographic contents in those media has contributed significantly in the public’s social and sexual orientation. in fact, according to diamond (2009) from year 1969 to 1973, some countries such as denmark, sweden, west germany, and the united states legalized the media that published pornographic materials. in indonesia, the porn industry emerged soon after the old order regime collapsed. the orientation of the new order regime was more inclined to the west, which had led to the changes in the behaviors, lifestyles, and sexual life of the society. the sexual activity that was regarded as a taboo to be disclosed in the public gradually began to melt. this can be seen from the various artifacts of popular culture that emerged in that era. written articles, some literature work, photographs, advertisements, and news were fertile lands in the dissemination of pornographic contents in indonesia. however, it is found that the proliferation of pornographic contents in this society was not only intended to fulfill men’s sexual fantasies alone, but it also created certain myths on male masculinity which were believed by men not only in those past years but also until now. according to jensen (2006), pornography as a mirror may show us about how men see women, how men see men, and how men see sexuality and culture. thus, analyzing the emergence and development of pornography is important, because they reflect the masculine image and masculine ideal of indonesian men at a certain period of time. therefore, one aim of this study was to obtain a portrait of indonesian men’s masculinity and the image of indonesian men’s masculinity that were reflected in the various artifacts of popular culture in the 1970s. the data 48 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 47-52 used in this study were artifacts of popular culture that emerged in the 1970s such as text ads, news, adult magazine covers, and motinggo busye’s two novels i.e. cross mama (1966) and kekasih-kekasih gelap (1976). the novels were chosen to be the data in this study because motinggo busye is regarded as one of the pioneers in the work of obscene (sumardjo, 2000). the other aim of this study was to investigate to what extent people embraced the masculine value and moral, which were influenced by various kinds of media existing at that time. to achieve these two aims, new historicism theory, proposed by stephen greenblatt, used. methods new historicism was first put forward by stephen greenblatt in the genre journal in 1982. in the journal, greenblatt, as quoted by young (2009), revealed that what he calls new historicism is a method of study that is different from the one that belongs to both the old historicism and the formalist criticism, which dominated the world of academia after the world war ii. in new historicism, greenblatt stressed two main points, i.e. historical work and literary work. history, in new historicism view, is regarded as an interpretation of a certain event or a certain period of time. thus, a history is not regarded as an objective fact, because it contains subjective and personal interpretation of its author. in indonesia, this phenomenon can be seen in the presence of various chronicle versions concerning the coup event that took place in september 30th, 1965. therefore, the main research basis of new historicism is literary work. greenblatt (2004) understands that a text does not only provide a snapshot of cultural situation within a certain period of time but also affects the social value of the cultural context in which the text occurs. therefore, a text that appears in a certain period of time is not only understood as a depiction of the cultural situation of the time. for example, the text does not only contain depictions of decaying morals of a social class, but also actively influences and shapes social values and moral standards of society. a text should not be seen as a passive mirror, but it should be seen as either an enforcer or demolisher of certain values that are developing in the community. according to tiwary & chandra (2009) the new historicism can be based on the assumption that a literary work is the product of the time, place, and its circumstance of its composition. the literary text must be read and interpreted in its biographical, social, and historical contexts. the method based on the parallel reading of literary and non-literary texts, usually of the same period (kacmaz, 2011). conway (2009) stated new historicism has fostered a critical interest in power, the operation of containment the possibilities of subversion, and the individual and collective acts together, that together shape the meaning of cultural artifacts and their circulation in the world. it is also based on the argument that the existence of a subject in a culture is never autonomous (greenblatt, 1988), new historicism views that subjectivity is the result of a construction of both the cultural codes and social codes, for example through the use of language and certain dominant discourse in a society. greenblatt (2004) calls this as a fashion, i.e. a system that conditions the people to adapt to the standard of value that has been “confirmed.” sometimes this is accompanied by various forms of force, for example the rules set by either the government or other authorities. gradually, the adjustment and conditioning eventually become natural things for all members of the society. in his book, renaissance selffashioning from more to shakespeare (greenblatt, 2005), this concept is called by greenblatt as self-fashioning. people are competing to conform to various standards and cultural symbols that have been confirmed. this is to establish one‘s self-identity in order to be accepted by his/ her own society. hence, in the view of new historicism, both the culture and the presence of humans in the culture are not separated to each other, but they mutually form and influence each other. based on the view of new historicism, culture plays an important role in creating one’s self-awareness and self-identity. thus, how culture shapes one’s self-awareness is one aspect that must be studied. budianta (2006) stated new historicism does not accept the difference high and low culture. therefore, greenblatt (2004) asserts that to rediscover the meaning of a text, some efforts to reconstruct the cultural situation when the text was produced is required. this is because, according to him, a text not only can reflect a cultural situation within a certain period of time but also can contribute to shape the social value of the cultural context in which the text occurs. it views society as inhering of texts corresponding to other texts (raj, 2015). according to doğan (2005), the study on a literary text, in the perspective of new historicism, is an attempt to reconstruct an “ideology” or a power relation of a cultural situation by taking the literary text as the basis of the study. the analysis of the literary text will result in the identification of the values, ideologies, perspectives, and beliefs formed by various cultural and social codes. myers, as quoted by darni (2013), new historicism focuses on how literary text has function by itself as a certain history discourse which can interact with another history discourse. it views society as inhering of texts and corresponding to other text. the next stage in this study is to explore various domains of the cultural factors of the same period that are considered to influence and form the text. results and discussions based on close reading of the two novels by motinggo busye’s, used as the data of this study, it was found that the dominant representations of masculinity relate to the financial success, remarkable sexual performance, ruling over women, and the worshiping of patriarchal values such as the myth of virginity. these elements became important symbols that had to be owned by a man in order to be categorized as both an ideal and a real man. the dominance of such discourse does not only appear in the novels of motinggo busye’s, but also appears in various other texts, such as films, newspapers, magazines, women magazines’ consultation page at the time. the motinggo busye’s novels in some ways helped shape, reproduce, and strengthen the dominance. this context of masculine information, for instance, can be seen in the section of foreign news in many mass media in jakarta in mid-december 1969, which contained a lot of news about the development of foreign music, for example frank sinatra. news about frank sinatra was interesting, because the news that was presented was not about frank sinatra’s singing career, but about his weakening sexual ability. below is the english translation quote of the news about frank sinatra, which was taken from berita yudha newspaper, december 7, 1969 (berita yudha, 1969). 49masculinity in indonesian popular .... (ferry fauzi hermawan) a reporter from movie stars magazine writes about frank sinatra’s sexual ability as follows: ‘... his age is over 50 years. his sexual ability is the same as his physical condition, which is no longer strong enough to make a woman faithful to him. women are interested in him because of his fame, but after they know his weakening sexual ability, they will certainly conclude that frankie is no more than a senile playboy.... “(yudha feature). there are two things that can be examined from the news above. first, that physical ability, especially sexual one, is an important symbol to signify one’s manhood. second, social status as a big name, wealth, or position, is another symbol that can be used by a man to establish himself in the community. frank sinatra uses his fame, as a world class singer, to pick up a woman to stay with him. the hectic news about frank sinatra was important because it can uncover the dominant stereotype of masculinity which related to the predominating financial success and strong sexual performance in the first two periods of the new order regime. this similar stereotype is also reflected in the two novels of motinggo busye’s. the ideas on sexuality and sexual activities performed by the characters are depicted in the novels. sexual issue was such an important domain for the male figure in those periods. not only was it considered as a symbol of masculinity itself, but also it became one of the criteria for a man to be accepted in the society. sexual activities in the two novels become the contest arenas of one’s masculine identity. in the novel kekasih-kekasih gelap, a man’s ability to have sex with various women, especially girls who are still virgins, has its own prestige. both characters in the novel, darmawan and yan da silva, earned a ‘killer’ title (being skillful at sexual intercourse), which connotes virility or masculinity, because they both have conquereda lot of women. this can be seen in the following english translation quote: yan whispered into the ear hertog: “i’ve been earning large amount of money from tante-tante [tante is the singular noun for aunt in english. tante–tante is the plural form for aunt in english. tante-tante connotes naughty adult women whose age is older than the man]. i’ve just had sex with one of them. if you don’t believe me, look at the bedcover. it is still in a mess.” “well, tante-tante is nothing compared with virgin girls. by the way, i know two virgin girls, but they live rather far away from here. because i know you are a popular ‘killer’ [a skillful person in seducing women]. would you like to come with me to visit them? “ hertog says (busye, 1976). the shrewdness in sexual activity became a pride for men at that time. this representation was confirmed by the narrations in the novels that indicate a sense of pride when a male character manages to give sexual satisfaction to a female character. the following is the english translation quote for such confirmation: and until late at night, tante selfia seemed to enjoy her stay in yan da silva’s bed room in gunung sahari area. yan told a lie to tante selfia that he is arabian by descent, and only his name that has’da silva’. selfia believed what yan said, because he was indeed very skillful in the sexual intercourse. yan was as agile as the arabian horses running in a desert, particularly those owned by the sultans in the story of 1001 nights. yan was so skillful in the sexual intercourse that he could make selfia felt as if she was in the story of 1001 nights. because of a mosquito bite, she was awakened and learned that it was 11 p.m (busye, 1976). quoting shahab (2006), the strength and ingenuity of men in sexual intercourse becomes a myth of men who lived in the 1970s. he added that there were a lot of advertisements offering promises in which men can increase their strength in a sexual intercourse. the promises were directed not only to the men of the lower or working class but also to the men of both the middle and the upper middle class. it can be seen from picture 1, which is the advertisement placed in tempo magazine of august 14, 1971 edition. this magazine is considered as a representative magazine for both the middle and the upper middle class. figure 1 advertisement of medicine for adult men’s stamina suggesting masculinity (source: tempo magazine, august 14, 1971) based on figure 1, it can be argued that the texts in the novels of motinggo busye’s does not only reflect the discourse on masculinity and male ideal construction in the early period of the new order regime but also reflects the strengthening of such discourse by some prominent figures’ idea saying that manliness and masculine identity can be acquired through aggressive sexual activities. such understanding is reinforced by various constructions in the narrative texts of the novels. a view that the characters have is a social structure which only recognizes that the sexual ingenuity and power are men’s ideal traits. the criterion for such recognition is about how much male characters can fulfill female characters’ sexual desire. therefore, most of the male characters in the two novels are represented as young people. it is not without reason; young people are considered to have better physical condition and libido than the older people are. the two novels always construct the characters of healthy young people as the ones that have a good body and are strong in sexual intercourses. the depiction of such construction can be seen in the following english translation quotes: 50 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 47-52 and until late at night, tante selfia seemed to enjoy her stay in yan da silva’s bed room in gunung sahari area. yan told a lie to tante selfia that he is arabian by descent, and only his name that has ‘da silva’. selfia believed what yan said, because he was indeed very skillful in the sexual intercourse. yan was as agile as the arabian horses running in a desert, particularly those owned by the sultans in the story of 1001 nights. yan was so skillful in the sexual intercourse that he could make selfia felt as if she was in the story of 1001 nights. because of a mosquito bite, she was awakened and learned that it was 11 p.m (busye, 1976). thus, based on such masculinity construction, a woman is only considered as both the sexual object and the power object only. also, in such masculinity understanding, a man is considered a loser if he gets a woman who has had sex with other men before. this can be seen in the following english translation quote: hertog becomes so furious. bobby smiled mockingly: “you’d better leave erna. she used to have an affair with dermawan. if she becomes your wife, she will not appreciate you because you are nothing compared with dermawan. he is better than you are in everything. he has bigger penis. he can have a sex longer than you can do. he is good at voorspel [sexual prelude]” (busye, 1976) sex in the two novels written by motinggo busye is seen as an arena of both contest and control over women. similar perspective is reflected in various writings in newspapers, which contain some suggestions for men on how to choose a good wife. most texts that we have compiled indicate that women were seen merely as objects of power by men. one of the examples can be seen from the following english translation article with the title married with a virgin girl published in warta harian newspaper in october 12, 1969 (jan) edition: it is considered that having a virgin girl to be wife is like having a book with blank pages. thus, the man who marries the virgin girl has a lot of opportunities to write what he wants on to the blank pages of the book. a virgin girl is unlike either a divorced woman or a widow. both a divorced woman and widow are ‘second hands’. they used to receive the ‘sex education’ from their previous husband (s). it is clear that generally a man will have far greater difficulty in “fostering” his wife to share the same ideals he dreams of. as commonly known, the solid basis for a marriage is a mutual understanding. the mutual understanding is achieved through ‘education’ in its broad sense. it is no surprise that the majority of people today still believe that the marriage of two people of different religions is considered less than ideal. the writer of the article explains that if a man marries a virgin woman (girl), it becomes an advantage for the man. the reason is that the man can easily educate the woman (girl) to establish their marriage. in other words, the man can control the woman (girl). this will unlikely be possible if a man marries a divorced woman or a widow. another benefit that the man will get is that he will get ‘the first night atmosphere’, the myth of virginity that every man dreams of. in the two novels of motinggo busye’s, the view regarding this virginity has become one of the central points of the problem. the two novels view that virginity is very important. the loss of virginity has become a standard for evaluating a woman’s behavior. in the novel kekasih-kekasih gelap, the character hertog is amazed by the virginity of the character erna’s. below is the english translation quote from the novel: erna swallows her breath, a happy breath. she had pain and pleasure of having sexual intercourse for the first time. now she feels spiritual enjoyment, because she feels being protected. “hertog,” erna said again, “you’re not kidding, aren’t you?” “i told you that i was amazed you were still a virgin!” (busye, 1976) the articles on the view that glorifies virginity myth were written in many magazines for men’s consumption. even the view was believed by the majority of men who also lived during the era when the two novels were published and circulated. for example, in the section just for men of top magazine with the title searching for the sticky quality like the sticky rice, the techniques on how to make women get their sexual pleasure--based on woman’s sexual organs—were described. below is the english translation for the article in the section: if you intend to get married someday, then choose a woman who is not only good in their manners, physical appearance, and establishing a social relationship, but also has a good taste! “ look for the one that has a vagina quality that is like sticky rice. don’t choose the one whose vagina quality is a sort of slippery, like tofu, or oversized like a wide rail tunnel. the vagina with sticky quality usually has a good mechanism. that’s what is categorized as a good quality! “ “do you know what a good mechanism is?” “good mechanism can be illustrated by a situation where you stand in front of a working jet engine, your head will be sucked into the engine, be squeezed, and be pulverized by the engine prior to being exhausted through the exhaust pipe like a smoke! “the most important thing is not about whether your head is being jammed or not, but the process of your head is being sucked and chorused!” from the quotation above, it can be concluded that the perception of the sexual relationship is never separated from the power relation. a woman is seen as a sexual object to satisfy the sexual desires of men. the quotation emphasizes that a woman is a sexual object by giving a boldface print. like in some texts of motinggo busye‘s novels, the quotation above associates a woman with various nouns such as sticky rice, tofu, tunnels, even the engine. this indicates that the text views a woman merely as an object of a power. moreover, in the texts of motinggo busye‘s novels, the markers of masculinity of the male body is constructed, to some extent, to have some similarities with the ideal markers of masculinity of the western male body. below is the english translation quote of a text in which the images of a western male body are depicted: 51masculinity in indonesian popular .... (ferry fauzi hermawan) “what a handsome man.” “red norton [brand make of a motorbike]?” his friend asks. “yes. ‘he looks like robert vaugn. look at the way he hangs his cigarette on to his thin lips. one thing that we don’t know yet is his automatic dumper revolver. “(busye, 1966) coincidently, rika comes across an abstract picture of heffner. omslag with a pipe in the time magazine. she then tore the picture off the magazine and pasted it in her bedroom wall. ms.soffie asked: “why do you paste such a nasty picture on the wall? it’s a bad picture crazy, isn’t it? “ “mommy is out dated. heffner is a true man. you don’t know that he is the owner of the playboy magazine, do you?” “what kind of man he is?” soffie asks. “a man is a man, not a woman,” rika replies (busye, 1966). interestingly, those texts are always trying to associate the imagination of the ideal man by including the examples of western men in that era, like hugh heffner, the founder of playboy magazine and robert vaugn, an actor who is considered having an ideal body shape and a good look. the texts mention both figures as true men. the argument in this research concerning the selection of these two figures as ideal images of men are based on the fact that heffner is loved by women, while robert vaugn has a good look and a financial success. heffner’s closeness to and being loved by women can be associated with his remarkable sexual capability. based on the selection of the two men, it can be concluded that the image of the man which is idealized in the novel cross mama leads to the men who have sexual and financial capabilities. from a variety of reports and pictures that circulated in men’s magazine at that time, the male body ideal leads to the possession of a muscular body. the imagination of masculinity perceived by the society at that time relates to the masculinity that is associated with both the sexual capability and a firm muscular body. both motinggo busye’s narrative texts and the social text surrounding them are mutually reinforcing and constructing the imagination. the examples of this imagination can be seen in the following magazine covers, as presented in figure 2 and 3. figure 2 image of masculinity in magazine covers (source: ultra magazine and magazine violet from www.stalinebooks.com) figure 3 image of masculinity in magazine covers (source: ultra magazine and magazine violet from www.stalinebooks.com) regarding the above explanation, it can be concluded that the texts in the two novels of motinggo busye’s reflect a growing discourse on masculinity at the beginning of the era of the new order government. based on the abovementioned analyses, it can be concluded that both the texts in the novels of motinggo busye’s and the other contexts share the same view on masculinity of men, that is both the sexual activity is regarded as an arena of identity contest of manliness and the sexual strength and shrewdness are regarded as symbols of virility of men which relate to the financial ability. also the depiction of a muscular male, which confirms the view that the ideal male body is a muscular body, is interpreted as vigor in performing sexual activity. both the texts of motinggo busye’s and the other contexts have mutually formed, influenced, and even reinforced the stereotypes and values that determine the standards to be a man, i.e. his sexual activity. the results of the analysis show three shared trends in the novels. the first trend shows that the masculinity tends to be represented by both men worshiping patriarchal values such as the myth of woman’s virginity and men perceiving woman as a sexual object. the second trend shows that masculinity is stereotyped based on virility or masculinity, power, and male dominance. the third trend shows that masculinity relates to various products of mass culture at the time. this last trend shows that in that era, the ideal male figure is represented as the one who: (1) is sexually active with many women, (2) has a muscular body, (3) has a handsome look, and (4) has a financial capability. besides the shared three trends, the result of the analysis also shows that the texts in the novels does not only reflect the cultural situations in the 60’s and 70’s, but also contributes in shaping the social values of the cultural situations.strengthening the ideal of masculinity is widely constructed by men who came from indonesia’s middle class at that time. this finding is interesting to be compared with the analysis of the values of masculinity that appears in men’s magazine after the collapse of the new order conductedby handajani (2010). handajani concluded that the masculinity of indonesian middle class male is built by three indicators namely wealth, agency, and women. success in accumulating wealth and the subjugation of women have the same characteristics as the ideal image of masculinity that emerged in the beginning of the new order era. however, males’ masculinity is likely to be an important subject to the government in the beginning 52 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 47-52 of the new order rather than after the collapse of the new order. masculinity that comes at the beginning of the new order tends to be static, and has no other alternative. both novel and other cultural artifacts have the same picture of ideal masculinity. in contrast, masculinity that appears after the new order emerged tends to be more liquid and has another alternative. van wichelen (2010) showed that the indicators of masculinity after the new order can be reached through the commodification of religious values, such as polygamy. similarly, clark (2012) who saw the emergence of a culture of violence in the film was closely intertwined with the presence of a new masculinity after the new order. the models of masculinity as it did not appear at the beginning of the new order. conclusions new historicism views that some literary work should not be regarded as a passive reflection of life. every existing literature work contributes to the construction, reconstruction, even deconstruction of values that are present in the community. the results of the current study show that the two novels of motinggo busye’s are closely associated with a variety of cultural situations, both in reinforcing or reconstructing certain values, where they were published. one of the new historicism-based analyses in this study shows that the tendency of the masculine texts of the two novels has some relevance with and shares a similar perspective to various social products that emerged at the same time as when the two novels were published. both the texts in the novel and the social products have demonstrated the representation of an ideal man in the early period of the new order regime. the results of the analysis show three shared trends in the novels. the first trend shows that the masculinity tends to be represented by both men worshiping patriarchal values such as the myth of woman’s virginity and men perceiving women as sexual objects. the second trend reveals that masculinity is stereotyped based on virility, power, and male dominance. the third trend shows that masculinity relates to various products of mass culture at the time. references berita yudha. 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(2009). stephen greenblatt: the critic as anecdotalist. modern age, 51(3-4), 262–271. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 89 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 89-95 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.2095 effectiveness of picture story books reading to increase kindness in children aged 5-6 years giyati retnowati1; rose mini agoes salim2; airin yustikarini saleh3 1,2,3program magister psikologi terapan, fakultas psikologi, universitas indonesia jln. lkr. kampus raya blok mawar, pondok cina, depok 16424, indonesia 1retnowungu@gmail.com; 2romy.prianto@gmail.com; 3airys.psi@gmail.com received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 30th october 2017/ accepted: 16th november 2017 how to cite: retnowati, g., salim, r. m. a., & saleh, a. y. (2018). effectiveness of picture story books reading to increase kindness in children aged 5-6 years. lingua cultura, 12(1), 89-95. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.2095 abstract this research aimed to determine the effectiveness of picture in storybook reading to increase kindness in children. this research involved 31 children aged 5-6 years; they were taken from the kindergarten in bandung as the participants. the intervention was done by reading eight picture books in eight days. the kindness was measured using a measurement instrument created by the researcher, in the form of nine coloured cards that described the behaviour of kindness. the measurement was also done by seeing through the kindness tree and observation sheets that filled out by the teacher. the data analysis using the wilcoxon signed-rank test shows a significant difference in the average score of kindness (p<0,05) before and after picture storybook reading. two weeks after the intervention, the improvement on all kindness behaviours with the post-test score is greater than pre-test score that still can be found. observation through kindness tree and observational sheets shows the same result. keywords: reading effectiveness, picture story book, children kindness introduction according to the data from the indonesian child protection commission (kpai), there are 5066 cases of violence in indonesia in 2014, and it continues to increase each year. in some cases, abusers are the children, and it takes place in the school environment. most of them become the perpetrators because they have been the victims of violence before or have seen the violence done to other children and imitate it (setyawan, 2015). even though the violence does not always result in the physical wound, but it can leave an emotional impact, and that is not good for the children’s development (borba, 2001). children’s violent behaviour begins from the bad behaviours (unkindness) that are previously done by the other children and left by adults. it will decrease the sensitivity to the child’s negative behaviour. the limited of knowledge and bad influence from the environment have caused the children to act morally inappropriate, following what they have seen and imitating what has happened to them. this influence is one of many reasons that caused the crisis of kindness in the children’s lives and will influence their moral development. the other causes are because the lack of kindness from modeling their parents, lack of impulse to do the kindness, and the influence of peers who are less kind. borba (2001) has said that there are seven essential virtues in moral development. kindness is one of the virtues needed for the children to meet the challenge, guiding, and keeping them toward a responsible life and having the appropriate morality. morality is going to guide the children to interact with the other person and behave towards the others, including the ability to identify what is right and wrong, ability to understand the rules or regulations, and ability to understand the other person’s condition (perspective taking). it is stated that it is important for the children to develop an understanding of the right and wrong and to go to use it in the face of any outside influence (borba, 2001). it is not only displayed in the way of thinking and a strong conviction but also demonstrated in action. there are three things about the moral that are interrelated, i.e., the knowledge of the moral (moral knowing), feelings of moral (moral feeling), and moral act (moral behaviour) (lickona, 1991). the fact is the number of child abuse case increases in the recent years and becomes an important reason for the urgency to teach kindness to the children. with kindness, children can have good interaction with the others and conduct behaviour that morally appropriate. therefore, kindness must be inspired, nurtured, and taught early to children because it is important to protect them in living their life (borba, 2001). children also need models who 90 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 89-95 show kindness or concern for the others and encourage them to do kindness in real life (borba, 2001; miller & church, 2016). children who are 5-6 years old will be easier to teach and will improve their kindness by giving them concrete examples. the role of parents and teachers are essential to obtain the necessary foundations and developing kindness is not only about knowledge but also feelings and actions (wilson, 2005). kindness is also defined as showing concern for the welfare and feelings of others (borba, 2001). with kindness, children will treat others well and know that it is the right thing to do. the act of kindness is expressed in word and deed with the purpose of doing a good thing. the children will show these behaviours; provide support with words that are constructive, care when the others are treated unfairly/ not good, support/defend those who are being denigrated/ bullied, treat and keep pets well, share, help, and give comfort to others without expecting anything in return. they will also refuse to get involved in insult/ridicule/intimidate others, consider the needs of others, and act based on those who need by giving consolation for those who need/sad, and feel happy to do something that makes people feels happy (borba, 2001). the definition of kindness from the perspective of children is an act of physical or emotional support that is aimed to build or maintain the relationships with the others (binfet & gaertner, 2015). several studies have described at the age of 14 months; children can show the tendency to do the kindness naturally (zakrzewski, 2014). in 18 months, children are going to help their parents to pick up the spoon that falls without being asked to help. however, their kindness is done at this age are not based on empathy, but they obtain it by imitating others through ritual play (santrock, 2011). children at the age of 3-4 years are starting to realize the importance of interacting with other children of the same age. some children may already do the kindness but cannot communicate well in the form of words or actions. the age of 5-6 years is a period of transition. this is the time for the children to understand the feelings of others, but at the other time, they simply selfish. children at this age understand the kindness in the form of physical or emotional support action against another person. for example, they will help their friend when falls, entertain their friends when sad, apologize if they are making a mistake, or grateful and sharing. they are more aware of receiving the kindness from the others but cannot express their gratitude well (miller & church, 2016). the development of kindness in children is determined by how many kinds of treatments that are received by the children from the environment, how often children are taught to care for others, and how to treat others well (borba, 2001). they learn to see the perspective of others by giving and receiving, and this can improve their moral reasoning (santrock, 2011). moral development of children is also influenced by caring and moral values of their parents (laible & thompson in santrock, 2011). induction in the parenting style has the biggest role in stimulating the development of children’s moral. there is a two-way communication from mother to children when teaching moral and it will cause the child has a better understanding of causal action (prianto, 2006). the best way to learn kindness is to feel it first then they can do so to others (currie, 2014). there are three stages of shaping the behaviours of kindness in children. they are; stage 1 is to teach the meaning and value of kindness, stage 2 is to build no-tolerance attitude toward unkindness, and stage 3 is to encourage behaviours of kindness and the positive effects produced, for example by among others by making good heart centerpiece (borba, 2001). cognitive development of children that aged 5-6 years is in the pre-operational stage. the child’s ability to think symbolically begins to grow and be able to communicate verbally. the child also learns to imitate, imagine, and use language as a symbol that symbolizes something in his/her mind. the child can understand and connect the seen image that an event has a cause, capable of distinguishing the character is good or bad/evil, and between reality and fantasy. their grammar and syntax begin to develop properly, able to speak with longer sentences, link the story to those who experienced in real life and to discuss and express their opinions (papalia, 2014). the moral development of children whom aged 5-6 is at the stage of heteronomous morality. at this stage, the fairness and regulations have seen the irreversible and judge others which are wrong to consider the consequences caused by an act. moral reasoning skills that are in stages preconventional and controlled by compliance and penalties, which are supervised by an adult authorized. children at this level think concretely and egocentric motivated to follow the rules and apply both to avoid punishment (the punishment and obedience orientation), and to obtain rewards or praise (instrumental relativist orientation). the children become obedient as an adult asks them to be, or when it is beneficial to them. when they get rewards, it is good; when they get punished, it is bad (papalia, 2014). there are many ways to improve the kindness of children. for example, through art (broadwood et al., 2012), playing (icac, 2007), keeping pets (faver, 2010), technology (klein et al., 2014), and stories (mcnamee & mercurio, 2007). the story is one way to expand and inspire children doing many things in their life (flook et al., 2015). children can learn about moral in an attractive and fun way (edgington, 2012; rahim & rahiem, 2013), and they can have the example about positive acts through the character as a model (venn & jahn in murphy, 2013). it also helps children to understand what others think to inspire them to do many things including to learn about kindness act with examples of kindness act in daily life (zeece, 2009). the purpose of this research is to find out the effectiveness of story reading with picture storybook in increasing kindness for 5-6 years old children. it is hoped with reading picture storybook; the children can learn about kindness, understand kindness act that has been shown through the story, and help children to connect with their own experiences. methods the study is conducted on 30 children from 5-6 years age in kemala bhayangkari kindergarten, cikeruh, bandung. accidental sampling technique is being used. figure 1 shows the research design framework. figure 1 research design framework 91effectiveness of picture story books reading .... (giyati retnowati, et al.) it can be seen from figure 1 that this research is a quantitative study using one group pre-test and posttest design. the intervention is done by reading a picture storybook about kindness. two weeks after, post-test is done again on the subject to determine whether the intervention is still effective after the certain period. during two weeks of observation, the behaviour of kindness on the subject is done using the kindness tree and fulfilling the observation sheet that is made by the teacher. measurement instruments of kindness are made by the researchers in the form of nine coloured cards that contain images that represent the nine-item behaviour of kindness on helping friends, sharing, inviting friends to play together, entertaining sad friends, encouragement, apologized, thanked, greeting friends, and defending hassled friend. the image is made in the form of situations in the daily life (life setting) of 5-6 years old children who show involvement with peers that depict kindness. the image is then colour printed on a5 size cardboard paper. the objects in the image can be changed between boys and girls. the measurement instruments are given directly to individual and the children are asked to respond by choosing which picture is showing kindness and then describe the situation, what can be captured soon of the rendered image one by one. from these images then the assessor will tell a short fairy tale and provide two questions that related to the picture, what are the characters doing in the story, and what will children do when facing a similar situation with the figures. the answer of each subject is recorded on the answer sheet, and score 0 and 1 are given. score 0 if it does not comply with the correct answers and score 1 if following the correct answer. the validity of the test results measuring instrument has a correlation value > 0,3, so it can be said that the nine accurate pictures for measuring kindness in children. reliability test results using a technique kuder richardson 21 (kr-21) range 0,7058 – 0,8076, then this measure is reliable so that it can be used for this research. observation of the kindness behaviour is done by using observation sheet and kindness tree. the items that contained in the observation sheet is a translation of kindness behaviour of nine items that represent kindness and is an example of kindness behaviour that is practiced by children in the school environment. examples of this kindness behaviour have been made through the consideration of the experts and some kindergarten teachers who have teaching experience of approximately 7-10 years. the observation sheet will be filled out by the teacher when the post-test 2 is completed. kindness tree is created with the aim to help children to recognize the kindness behaviour through the writings and the actions that they see and experience (life experiences), to motivate children to do the kindness behaviour to others. by giving children the opportunity to see the kindness behaviour is done by someone else and give children opportunity to do for others, they will receive lessons on kindness, which will last for the lifetime (monopoli, 2010). kindness tree is also made by using the cardboard/ thick sponge that formed into trees and branches. the tree is placed on the wall that can be seen and reached by children. around the tree, it attaches the writings about the kindness behaviour that needs to do by the children in the school environment, such as helping, sharing, encouraging, grateful, etc. children that can perform kindness behaviour, they will be given the coloured leaf/flower/fruit card that depends on the ability to do kindness. children who can perform the kindness behaviour on their initiative will be given a dark green leaf (ht) or pink flower (mm) or red fruit (m) card. children who can do a kindness behaviour after being reminded by the teacher/others (with guidance) will be given light green leaf (hm) or yellow flower (k) card. all kindness behaviour observation is performed and written by the teacher on the leaves/flowers/fruit, as appropriate, including the name of the child who does it. the teachers convey the child’s kindness behaviour; what they have done and put them up on the kindness tree so that the good done by children can be seen by the others. the kindness tree is held for two weeks. storybooks which have been used in the research are picture storybooks made by the researcher, combining text and picture illustration to tell a story. the picture illustration and text can explain and complete each other to give an example of kindness act that wants to be told (temple in al-somadi, 2012). the storyline is made simple, sequential, and predictable that has a resemblance to daily life by using the simple vocabulary and active sentences. story themes are arranged based on each item of kindness behaviour in the measurement instruments that are using animal characters. the story about animals has been used for a long time to educate the essential virtue of life. the animal’s story gives opportunities for children to learn about ethics because animals do not have the specific identity so that they can represent human diversity. shepard in eder and holyan (2010) has said that animal can be used as a symbol of a human. children can use the characters of animals to understand their personality and how they should see human diversity. the character of the story represents animals that can attract children’s interest from any age. eder and holyan (2010) have added that animals can be used indirectly for presenting human’s fault. the illustration is made by professional illustrator after receiving the explanation about the intent and purpose of the storybook. books are printed in colour by using art paper size of 230 x 265 mm, so the image and text in the book are clear enough to be shown and read with the children. eight books are containing nine behaviours of kindness. the pre-test is conducted within three days by the researchers that assisted by two people who have been trained, asking the children one by one in a special room. other participants follow the pre-test learning activities in the classroom along with each classroom teacher. the implementation of the intervention is carried out by reading stories using eight picture-books for eight days. it is performed on a group of children (4-6 children) for approximately 20 minutes per day for one storybook. storytelling performed by a storyteller who has been experienced for more than ten years with the children, who previously notified of the intent and purpose of storytelling. the dialogic reading method is used (whitehurst, 2009). the reading of the story begins with introducing the teller to the participants, conduct the review (previous story) and introduce examples of kindness to be told, do storytelling, and story reflections. the post-test 1 is conducted after the intervention to 31 participants. post-test 2 is also conducted two weeks after the first post-test. during these two weeks break; the researchers observe the kindness behaviour to participants, using the kindness tree and the observation sheet. the observation sheet is filled out by the teachers of each class. implementation of the kindness tree is monitored and documented every day with the photos to see the improvement in the kindness behaviour that the children have done. 92 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 89-95 results and discussions the number of participants is 31 children consist of 18 boys and 13 girls. based on the result of pre-test and post-test 1, there is an increase in scores of kindness to all participants after receiving the intervention. table 1 shows the statistical analysis on the average value of pre-test 1 and post-test 1. table 1 statistical analysis on the average value of pre-test 1 and post-test 1 n mean std dev min max z value p pretest 31 20,1613 6,66882 3,00 30,00 -4,866b 0,000 posttest 1 31 33,6774 2,91418 27,00 36,00 it can be seen from table 1 that the statistical test result with the wilcoxon signed rank test values have obtained the average (mean) post-test is greater than the average value of the pre-test. z value is -4,866, p = 0,000 (p<0,05), with a significance value of p<0,05 that indicates an average value difference significantly difference between pre-test and post-test. it shows an increase in the behaviour kindness score before and after the reading storybook program. it means that the reading of storybooks effectively increases the kindness in children. there are 29 participants who are attending the posttest 2. two participants do not follow the post-test two due to illness. figure 2 shows the scores of post-test 1 and posttest 2. figure 2 scores on post-test 1 post-test 2 figure 2 shows the scores that the post-test 2 is greater than the average value of the post-test 1. the value z is -1474 with p=0141 (p>0,05). it shows there is the improvement in kindness score, two weeks after intervention by reading of picture books; but the improvement does not happen significantly. it can be said that the effectiveness of reading picture books in increasing kindness in children persists after two weeks. it can be seen from figure 3 that there is an increased score in all kindness behaviour of the current pre-test, post-test 1, and post-test 2, right after receiving the intervention and two weeks after intervention. it has found that the children seem enthusiastic in participating in the storytelling activity since the first day. the children are given the opportunity to tell their opinion, but their responses are limited. storyteller’s opportunity to give a further explanation is limited because of the short attention span of the children. the two weeks observation of kindness behaviour through the kindness tree and observation sheets is generally associated with an increasing behaviour of kindness to all the participants. they are initially still requiring the guidance at the end of the study, and the behaviour of kindness can do on their initiative. there are some behavioural changes in the children that include increasing a child’s ability to listen, ability to express his desire, interest in reading, and the motivation to learn and desire to join friends. figure 3 result on kindness conduct pre-test post-test 1post-test 2 storytelling is a natural learning process that can be given to all ages to learn new things (killick & boffey, 2012). children can learn about moral values in a way that is interesting and fun through the content of stories that are told to them (edgington, 2012; rahim & rahiem, 2013). flook et al. (2015) have said that the story is a way to expand their knowledge and inspire the children to do many things in their life. through the account, the child can obtain the examples of positive behavior with a cast of characters as models (venn & jahn in murphy, 2013). al-somadi (2012) has added that children can learn more effectively through the images using the illustrating examples of kindness that written in books rather than through explanation or instruction. therefore, the method of using picture storybook reading may be one way to teach the kindness to children. based on the research, there is a significant difference from the average value between the pre-test and post-test measurements of kindness. it means that reading picture storybooks is effective to increase the kindness of children that ages 5-6 years. the results of this research among others that, it can be influenced by books that are used for intervention. the selection of appropriate books is an important thing on teaching values to children (rahim & rahiem, 2013). in this study, the storytelling is done by using eight picture storybooks as a tool to teach kindness to children. picture storybooks are used to describe the behaviour of kindness, such as helping and cheering up friends. this story book is made by the researchers using animal figures and adjusted for children ages 5-6 years. the storyline is simple, sequential, and predictable, in the form of examples that illustrate the behaviour of kindness that performed in daily life. the sentence in the story is prepared using simple language and active sentences. this is following the criteria of storybooks for children by musfiroh (2008) and sutherland in jalongo (2006). the animal characters are chosen because the animal 93effectiveness of picture story books reading .... (giyati retnowati, et al.) figures can attract the children from different ages (eder & holyan, 2010). besides, the animal figures can teach about the diversity because it has no specific identity and can show the mistakes indirectly. these picture-storybook illustrations are created by using colourful pictures to give relation to the story. the appropriate illustrations and colour will attract the attention of the child to stay focus and help them to learn to relate the characters in the story. it is in line with shulevitz in (jalongo, 2006) that the image can explain and complement the words in a story. temple in al-somadi (2012) has said the same thing that the illustrations and the text will be mutually reinforced the story content and can even surpass the meaning that is written in it. the effectiveness of the storytelling is also influenced by the storyteller (mcgee & schickedanz, 2007). the teller should have encouraged children to stay focus and engaged in the storytelling (lane & wright, 2007). in this study, the storytelling is done by a storyteller that can engage with children and form good interactions with children. the good storyteller can encourage the children to stay involved in the storytelling and turn the story through tone of voice, body gesture, and expression of the display. the tone of voice, body gestures, and expressions of the storyteller can increase the children’s understanding of the content of the story so that the message of the story can be delivered properly (lane & wright, 2007). likewise, according to medvic (2003), the proper intonation by modulating the tone and rhythm as appropriate, with the full expressive suppression to the story, will attract children to get involved as if they are part of the story read. it will also attract them to develop imagination and knowledge, and then relate their experiences to the characters in the book cheerfully. the method that has been used in the story reading is a dialogic reading method. it means that the storyteller gives children the opportunity to become active participants and provide experience to switch roles so that the child learns to become the narrator (wwc, 2015). it is done in small groups (4-6 children), and it proceeded by introducing the storyteller to the participants to create an intimate atmosphere. beginning with the introduction of examples of kindness to be told, review previous stories, and reflection to evaluate the participants’ understanding of the story. the reflection is done at the end of the reading session, giving the children the opportunity on learning to tell their opinion and help the children to understand the story (doyle & bramwell, 2006). according to teala in (lane & wright, 2007), the time is required for the reading of the story that will also affect the children’s understanding of the story. the short attention span of children becomes researchers’ consideration in determining the time that is being used for storytelling. in this research, it is done in less than 20 minutes, and it is found that within 20 minutes the child is still engaged and enthusiastic to join the storytelling. the duration is determined after testing the reading of the story before the intervention. this research is also using the kindness tree for strengthening and observing the kindness behaviour that performed by the participants after the intervention. kindness tree is one way for the children to learn from their environment through observing and imitating their surroundings. kindness tree is implemented after the post-test 1, during the break period of two weeks before the post-test 2. the results are showing the value of the average posttest 2 that it is greater than the value of the average post-test 1, but the statistical result has shown no difference in the average value significantly between post-test 1 and post-test 2. it can be assumed that the intervention is effective and kindness behaviour of children persist. implementation of the kindness tree is turned out to contribute to the research results obtained. bandura’s social cognitive theory explains that the cognitive process has important links with the environment and behaviour. children learn by observation or imitation of conducting the behaviour that has obtained through observation of others and a process of reinforcement and punishment. when the children are given the award, they are likely to repeat the behaviour. when they are given a model, for example, they tend to adopt the measure, and when they are punished for such behaviour, they tend not to repeat (santrock, 2011). skinner in feist, feist, and ann robert (2013) has described how people learn new behaviours or change existing behaviour with the principle of reinforcement (reinforcement), punishment, and shaping (forming). in the kindness tree, a gift is given as positive reinforcement that is needed to reinforce the behaviour, and it will be repeated. in this research, the children do the kindness acts because they want to receive the award. in accordance with the moral development by kohlberg, children ages 5-6 years who are at the stage of pre-conventional, in which moral reasoning is controlled by compliance and penalties. in this case, the child is at the stage two pre-conventional (instrumental relativist orientation), where the children action is based on the consequences/benefits (papalia, 2014). from the observation through the kindness tree and an interview with teachers, it is reported that almost all the children improve their capability and ability to do some of the kindness behaviours on their initiative. some children have high scores in pre-test and post-test but still not able to perform the kindness behaviour on their initiative. kohlberg has found the child who has rapid cognitive development does not guarantee the development of their moral reasoning. stages of moral development from one stage to the next stage are driven by opportunities for children to see the perspective of others as well as conflict of experience. interaction with peers is an important factor of social stimulation and can alter the children’s moral reasoning (santrock, 2011). there are teachers and parents who also report a behavioural change to the participants after the intervention with the storybook reading. children become more assert to speak, to be more inclusive with peers, more motivated to learn, and show interest in reading. storytelling can increase syntactic development, literacy, the child’s ability to hear and the child’s motivation to read (lane & wright, 2007). storytelling using eight different storybooks and answer session is conducted during the reading of the story, and it can be used to develop children’s language skills. the interactions that occur during the reading of the story will create the opportunities for children to develop literacy (doyle & bramwell, 2006). medvic (2003) also have said that read many different books will further enrich the children’s knowledge and vocabulary. knowledge of children about kindness enriches with the examples of various kindness behaviour from each book. this research has several limitations, for example, the child’s attention to span and limited language skills, do not involve parents, and the number of observers is lack to help to observe it. the short attention span of children makes the storyteller cannot give the children opportunity to interact and express their opinion. children’s language skills have also make the answers that are given in the reflection 94 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 89-95 session is limited. they find that the time is used to read one storybook every day is a limitation for undertaking the program of reading books repetitively (repeated reading). according to pappas in doyle and bramwell (2006), storytelling with repeated readings will give the children more opportunity to ask questions and discuss. repeating the storytelling of a storybook together, children could learn to interpret a story better, so that the reading of the story will further increase opportunities for children to be more involved in discussions (doyle & bramwell, 2006; mcgee & schickedanz, 2007). another limitation of the research is that the implementation of the research activities is only done in the school environment and does not include the role of family/ parents in the home environment. the role of parents is very important in teaching, giving an example, and encouraging children to do kindness, as the moral development of children is also influenced by the care and moral values of the parent (laible & thompson in santrock, 2011). prianto (2006) has said that the two-way communication from mother to children when teaching moral will cause children to understand the causal actions better. the induction parenting style has the biggest role in stimulating the moral development of children. conclusions 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(2009). using current literature selections to nurture the development of kindness in young children. early childhood education journal, 36(5), 447–452. microsoft word 04_clara herlina k._codeswtiching-ok.doc teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 117 teacher’s use of code switching in the classroom and its implications on students’ score clara herlina k. english department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, claraherlina@yahoo.com abstract code switching is usually done by people who have mastered two languages well. among the people who can fulfill these criteria are indonesians who teach english. in teaching english to indonesian students, english teachers do not always use english as the medium of instruction, they usually code switch to indonesian. research focuses on the teachers as the subjects who apply code switching in the classroom. the respondents are eight lecturers in bina nusantara university who teach english to non-english department students. this research analyses the speech of the teachers to find out the percentage of code switching and the uses of code switching in the classroom. finally, the relation between code switching and the students’ scores is calculated using independent samples t-test. keywords: code switching, foreign language, native language, classroom, student abstrak alih kode biasanya digunakan oleh orang yang menguasai dua bahasa dengan baik. di antara beberapa orang yang memenuhi kriteria tersebut adalah orang indonesia yang mengajar bahasa inggris. ketika mengajar bahasa inggris kepada mahasiswa, pengajar tidak selalu menggunakan bahasa inggris sebagai media, pengajar biasanya beralih kode menggunakan bahasa indonesia juga. penelitian memfokuskan pada pengajar sebagai subjek yang menggunakan alih kode di dalam kelas. responden penelitian adalah delapan pengajar universitas bina nusantara yang mengajar bahasa inggris kepada mahasiswa bukan dari jurusan sastra inggris. penelitian menganalisis penuturan pengajar untuk mencari persentase alih kode dan penggunaan alih kode di dalam kelas. akhirnya, hubungan antara alih kode dan skor mahasiswa dikalkulasikan menggunakan independent samples t-test. kata kunci: alih kode, bahasa asing, bahasa asal, ruang kelas, mahasiswa jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 118 introduction nowadays, code switching has become a common phenomenon that can be found everywhere in everyday interactions. indonesian people, especially youngsters in big cities, often insert english words/phrases in their speech. they consider inserting some foreign language as a symbol of modernization and globalization. moreover, the technology and media also accelerate this kind of ‘new habit’. however, in my previous research, i came into an interesting finding. the students of bina nusantara university who were exposed to media such as tv or internet, in fact were not influenced by the media itself. even though they were code switching like the presenters on tv, the reason was not for modernity. rather, they code switched because of academic reason. in other words, they code switched because they were forced to do it by their teachers, especially english teachers. therefore, english teachers play a very important role in encouraging students to use english. for the students, code switching between english and indonesian can be a bridge toward the fluency in english. for the teachers, code switching can be a useful tool in transforming knowledge to the students. it is still debatable whether english should be taught entirely in english or in both languages, i.e. english and the native language (nl) of the students. some linguists such as john hubbard (1983), jeremy harmer (1983), and barbara gower and donald walters (1983) ignore the use of nl entirely, while david atkinson (1987) and john harbord (1992) encourage it. therefore, it is interesting to find out whether english teachers in bina nusantara university are applying code switching in their classroom or not and in and how effective are their ways of teaching. the goal of this research is to gain a deeper understanding on code-switching as one medium of english instruction. the result of this research will show how much english and how much indonesian are used in teaching english to indonesian students; which parts of the instructions are using english and vice versa; what are the functions of code switching in the classroom; and to find out the correlation between the teachers’ use of code switching and the students’ understanding. discussion the results of the research will be discussed in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. in the first part, the transcripts of the eight-teacher participants will be categorized according to the coding scheme proposed by ianzity and brownlie (2002). they propose a coding scheme for the use of native language in the classroom which consists of three main uses: translation (switching to make input comprehensible); metalinguistic use (switching from talking in fl to talking in nl about fl); communicative uses (switching from talking in fl to talking in nl for communicative purpose): managing the class; teacher reaction to student request; teacher expressing state of mind. on the other hand, the functions of teacher’s code switch are taken from mattson-burenhult (1999) which mentions that there are four functions of code switching in the classroom; they are linguistic insecurity, topic switch, affective function, and socializing function. these are considered enough to represent the uses and functions of code switching in the classroom. the second part will discuss the use of code switch done by the eight teachers and its relation to the students’ scores of each teacher. the relationship will be calculated using statistical means to find out how much code switch will give the best result. teachers’ code switch as has been assumed before, most teachers do not speak english all the time when they are teaching the english subject to their students. they also use their students’ native language (nl), i.e. teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 119 indonesian to supply the gap. for this research, the writer took 8 teachers who teach english to nonenglish department students as the participants. these teachers are taken because they have been teaching for more than five years in bina nusantara university. from informal interview, they admitted that they did not use english one hundred percent while teaching; instead they use a certain amount of nl in the classroom. however the amount of nl used by these teachers varies, as can be seen in the following table, which is taken from the writer’s research. table 1 percentage of teachers’ code switch teachers number of words english words indonesian code switch t1 500 482 18 3.6 % t2 880 428 457 52 % t3 163 163 0 0 % t4 1739 1583 156 9 % t5 780 545 235 30 % t6 1864 1857 7 0.4 % t7 373 310 63 16.9 % t8 995 957 38 4 % the number of words refers to all words spoken by the teacher in one session (100 minutes). the writer excludes the reading of texts from textbooks and the students’ speech because the focus of this research is on teachers’ speech. the variability of numbers in the second column shows that teachers do not say the same number of words in the same amount of time. this is due to the different ways of teaching, different class methodologies, and different activities in class. a clear example is shown by t3 and t6. t3 says 163 words while t6 says 1864 words. there are several explanations for this discrepancy. when the writer came to t3’s class, she said she wouldn’t teach that day because it was the time for her students to give a presentation. so at that time, she only began the class and checked students’ homework together. she only spoke for at least 15 minutes and the rest was given to the students. i didn’t record the students’ speech. so, i couldn’t get a complete picture of how she taught her students. however, this was still taken as a data because of the limited time and there was a tendency that some teachers would teach in the same way. that also happened in t1’s class. she only used half of the session to explain the lesson, and used the other half for students to do the exercises to be collected. there was also a teacher (t7) who only asked several of his students to give their opinions in front of the class. so, the students did most of the talking. and since the point of this research is about teacher’s language, i missed some valuable data here. moreover, this teacher also did not speak clearly. nevertheless, two teachers (t4 and t6) gave good presentations. they present the lesson from the beginning to the end. fortunately, they also spoke clearly so i can record all their words. the percentage of code switch is calculated by counting the ratio of indonesian words against the total words spoken by the teacher. this column shows the range from 0% to 52%. t3 once again shows the lowest percentage that means she didn’t use indonesian at all when she was teaching. this may be questionable since the data is incomplete (see the explanation above). on the whole, there are five teachers who code switch below 10% (t1, t3, t4, t6, t8), the two teachers who perform a code switch are between 10 to 30 % (t5, t7) and the one who codes switch more than 30% is t2. this table shows that most teachers only allow a small amount of code switch when they are teaching. in other words, they still use some native language in their presentations. the reasons for the use of native language will be explained in the following subchapter. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 120 the uses and functions of teachers’ code switch teachers code switch between english and indonesian in different parts of the session. some teachers code switch when they are explaining new lessons, the other code switches when giving instructions, etc. in other words, each teacher uses code switch differently according to his/her own discretion. there is no particular pattern of the point where teachers code switch. therefore, the functions of their code switch may be different from each other. there are several reasons why teachers still code switch to the native language when they are teaching a foreign language. some teachers say that code switch is a learner-preferred strategy (atkinson, 1987). it means that the students want their teachers to use some nl in their instruction, rather than speaking fully in fl. some others say that it is a time saving strategy (atkinson, 1987). teachers do not have to repeat and explain the lesson over and over again, so it saves time to do other activities. harbord (1992) says that code switching facilitates teacher-student relationship. teachers and students will become more intimate if they are using the same language. but, sert (2005) points out that some teacher’s code switch because of their linguistic insecurity. it means, when teachers have some difficulty to explain something in fl, they will switch to nl. however, there are similar items/activities where these teachers code switch. i use the coding scheme proposed by ianzity and brownlie about the use of code switch in the classroom. table 2 uses of teachers’ code switch activities t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 total translation of items from lessons 3 1 1 5 translation of instructions 2 2 commenting on fl 3 3 6 contrasting fl with nl 1 1 3 5 giving instructions 1 1 2 motivating students 1 1 2 planning activities 3 1 4 giving lessons objectives 1 1 2 giving feedback 2 2 checking comprehension 1 1 2 joking 1 1 1 3 showing emotion 1 1 2 total occurrence of code switch 1 6 0 9 11 3 3 4 37 the table above shows the occurrence of code switching done by each teacher. the calculation is not based on how many words are spoken by the teachers, but how many times the teachers switch code (exchange) from english to indonesian and vice versa. this table can be interpreted in two ways. first, is the comparison of the occurrence of code switching done by each teacher and secondly, is the comparison of the uses of code switching which will be described in details with examples from the transcripts. teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 121 if we look vertically, the table shows the number of occurrences of code switching done by each teacher. the range is between 0 to 11 times. t3 shows no instance of code switching since she does not use nl at all. on the other hand, t5, whose total code switching is 30%, code switches in 11 occasions. she provides almost all category of code switching. surprisingly, t2 whose total code switching is 52% only does that in 6 occasions. he mostly spends his code switching on giving motivational story to the students. this story is given fully in indonesian and this is considered as one type only. 13% 5% 16% 13% 5%5% 10% 10% 5% 5% 8% 5% translation of lesson translation of instruction comment fl contrast fl and nl instruction figure 1 percentage of code switching uses the above chart shows that code switching is mostly used for commenting on fl (16%), followed by contrasting fl and nl and translation of items from lesson (each 15%). the others get 10% and 5 %. the examples for each type are explained below. translation of items from lesson in this category, a teacher translates words or phrases from the lessons. the teacher explains the lessons in english then he/she repeats the same explanation in indonesian. this might be done to clarify the explanation or to draw students’ attention to the specific point being discussed. ex.1 (t4) “early 1970s. what does it mean? early 1970s? awal tujuh puluhan. what great idea? idenya apa?” ex.2 (t4) “who else agree with this? siapa lagi yang setuju dengan ini?” translations of instruction in this category, the teacher gives the instructions, first in english and then translates them into indonesian. again this is done to clarify the instruction. sometimes, students still do not understand if the instruction is only given in english, which will result in the error in doing the assigned tasks. or, students still do not take any action until the teacher repeats the instruction in the native language. ex.3 (t4) “after we read about mr. fry, put this information in this table. dari yang sudah kita baca sekarang kita tuliskan di tabel ini ya.” ex. 4 (t5) ” ok. let’s see your book, page. i don’t know the page, actually unit 10. buka bukunya.” jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 122 comment on fl form and culture this category is most commonly used by teachers. when explaining about the language being learned for example about the grammar, the teacher sometimes gives comments about the fl form. these comments are usually given in nl to make students understand more. ex. 5 (t2) “perhatikan preposition. ini udah tertulis, jadi kelihatan gampang sekali. perhatikan prepositionnya. sounds a good idea to me, bukan for me, bukan with me. karena kan seperti itu. untuk saya itu bagus banget. untuk diterjemahkan jadi for. ya, hati hati.” contrast of fl and nl forms and culture besides commenting on fl forms and culture, the teacher can also teach grammar by contrasting the form or the usage in english and indonesian. by showing the difference between the fl and nl, the teacher can relate the previous knowledge of the students with the new knowledge. therefore, this is also done to increase students’ understanding and retention of the new materials. ex. 6 (t2) “as long as we agree on price, quality, etc. so play for time, attention and try to think about it. maksudnya disini, play for time, membunuh waktu.” ex. 7 (t1) “first the real preposition, means the real meaning of preposition, jadi apa artinya. menurut kamu, jadi run up, berarti naik ke atas. and then, went in, jadi masuk ke dalam, the literal meaning or the literal use of preposition.” giving instructions unlike category number 2, here the teacher does not translate her/his instructions into indonesian, but he/she says the instructions directly in indonesian. the previous or the following sentences are not the same. this may be done as a time saving strategy. as has been mentioned in category b above, students sometimes only do the task after the teacher repeats the instruction in nl. by saying the instruction directly in nl, teacher can save the time for repetition so that they can directly begin the activity. ex. 8 (t5) “cari kata yang sama artinya dengan konflik. kemudian, war, trouble, problem, ok, this is the synonym with the word conflict.” motivating students relating to the lesson, one teacher adds some comments that can be regarded as a motivation. he encourages his students to have positive thinking. but since this is a rather long speech, he uses mostly indonesian, as can be seen in the following example. ex. 9 (t2) “ there’s nothing in this world impossible. tidak ada di dalam dunia ini yang tidak mungkin. kamu harus perhatikan ini. dalam negosiasipun seperti itu. kalau kamu pikir nggak mungkin deh, mana mungkin terjadi. kalau kamu melakukan itu, harus yakin. jangan takut, mau awalnya sedikit. dalam negosiasi juga, pastikan bahwa saya bisa. so you have to have clear thought, positive thinking.” teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 123 the second sentence above is the translation of the first one, but the rest of the sentences are some kind of advises from the teacher to his students. the teacher may think that advises are better given in nl because they will be more understandable rather than in fl. another teacher (t7) motivates the students by promising to give a good score. ex. 10 (t7) “please make a good sentence. siapa bisa bantu dia menjawab, biar dapat nilai b.” planning activities this category involves giving explanation on classroom management (sitting arrangement, teaching learning activities, and methodologies). there is only one teacher who code switches into indonesian when planning activities. this is also a time saving strategy. ex.11 (t5) “ok, this is the synonym with the word conflict. langsung datang, langsung bikin setengah lingkaran kumpul dengan teman kamu satu kelompok. kasih saya space buat jalan.” giving lesson objectives in this category, the teacher gives the objectives/goals of the lesson for that day, which is the reason why the students have to do certain activities /exercises. ex. 12 (t7) “just give your comment. for your grade, ini ada banyak nilai yang belum pas sekali. according to this quiz, i…my score is…kedua, i give you an opportunity to ask her some questions. yang tepat sesuai dengan pembicaraan, you get b. nyerempet sedikit c, cuma garuk garuk kepala d.” giving feedback giving feedback means commenting on students’ questions, giving solution or further discussion questions. ex. 13 (t5) “saya mau tanya sama kalian, have you had a problem? you say yes. kalau yang ringan, face to face, what do you want, discuss your problem, ya ok.” checking comprehension sometimes teachers check students’ comprehension in students’ native language, some others do it in english, by asking: “do you understand?” or “do you have any questions?” as can be predicted, students will not answer to these kinds of question, so the teachers will assume that all the students have understood. so, it is sometimes necessary to check their understanding in nl. ex. 14 (t5) “a title for noble woman in england. try, come on. ok. udah tahu dong, apa langsung?” joking several teachers insert jokes in their teaching. since jokes are culture bound, teachers usually tell jokes in their native language because it will be more understandable. it will not be funny at all if the teacher is the only one who understands the joke or worse if the students do not know that the jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 124 teacher is trying to tell a joke in english. the jokes can be in the form of funny phrases or a recount of something funny. ex. 15 (t5) “it consists about two vowels, two vowels, the rests are consonants. ya, a, no, o, ya, i, ya l, malah saya lupa nih, saking panjangnya,t, f, s, spiderman dong kalo s.” in this example the teacher is joking about her own forgetfulness. ex. 16 (t8) ”hallo, you don’t have the book with you? bengang bengong aja tuh ke sana kemari. cape deh.” this teacher uses the popular phrase ‘cape deh’ (literally means i’m tired) to comment on her students behavior (bengang bengong = doing nothing at all, daydreaming). showing emotion the last category is showing emotion. emotion can include sadness, anger, happiness, hatred, etc. most teachers do not show their emotion (i.e. anger) openly by scolding the students, gestures, or any other physical actions. they just show their dislike using words, by teasing allusion (sindiran), or teasing threat (ancaman). ex. 17 (t8) “halo, halo, aduh masih ngobrol aja. di sana tuh bandel bandel, ntar dikurangi lho nilai tm nya. lihat bukunya, jangan lihat saya. everybody, nyimak.” this teacher is threatening her students who do not pay attention to the lesson to discount their individual task score. ex. 18 (t5) ”wah sudah saya kasih waktu, masih saja ribut. gimana arisannya mau diselesaikan dulu? saya hitung satu kali ya. ok, so, sudah siap?” this teacher teases her students by associating the students’ commotion as ‘arisan’. from the above examples, we can see that code switching in the classroom serves for different functions. the first one is repetitive function. the teacher code switches to the native language in order to clarify the meaning. some teachers have the tendency to repeat anything they say in native language. the second is topic switch function. this is mostly observed in grammar instruction, that the teacher shifts his language to the mother tongue of the students in dealing with particular grammar points. in these cases, the students’ attention is directed to the new knowledge by making use of code switching. the next one is affective function. code switching is used by the teachers to show his/her emotion towards the students. they can convey their feeling (anger, empathy or sympathy) in the students’ native language because it will be more understandable. the last one is socializing function. here the teachers use code switching to build solidarity and relationship with their students, for example by joking or giving motivations. relation between teachers’ code switching and students’ scores to find out how much native language /code switching in the classroom will give the best result; the writer will compare the percentage of code switching with the students’ scores. the scores are taken from the mid semester test. the mid semester test covered the materials from meeting one until meeting seven. it consists of reading, vocabulary, and structure parts. while it is true that one teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 125 session of lesson is not enough to get an actual picture of the teachers’ ways of teaching, the writer assumes that this one session can be a representative of their teaching methods since most people could not easily change their habits. in other words, these teachers will tend to teach the same way in other times. these mid tests scores are taken to measure the effectiveness of the teachers’ way of teaching related to their use of native language in the classroom. table 3 students’ mid test scores t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 e 26 e 14 e 31 e 31 d 49 d 61 d 56 e 36 e 27 e 28 e 37 e 35 d 50 c 70 d 58 e 36 e 28 e 28 e 39 e 40 d 51 c 71 d 58 e 39 e 31 e 30 e 40 e 40 d 51 c 71 d 60 e 40 e 33 e 30 e 42 e 43 d 52 c 73 d 60 e 43 e 37 e 30 d 46 e 44 d 52 b 77 d 64 d 45 e 39 e 33 d 46 d 45 d 52 b 77 c 68 d 46 d 47 e 37 d 47 d 45 d 52 b 77 c 68 d 47 d 49 e 38 d 48 d 46 d 53 b 78 c 68 d 48 d 50 e 39 d 49 d 47 d 54 b 78 c 68 d 48 d 51 e 40 d 51 d 48 d 55 b 81 c 70 d 48 d 52 e 41 d 52 d 48 d 55 b 81 c 70 d 50 d 53 e 41 d 54 d 50 d 56 b 82 c 70 d 51 d 56 e 42 d 54 d 50 d 57 a 85 c 70 d 51 d 56 d 46 d 55 d 50 d 57 a 87 c 70 d 54 d 57 d 47 d 56 d 50 d 57 a 89 c 70 d 55 d 63 d 53 d 56 d 51 d 57 a 89 c 74 d 55 d 63 d 54 d 56 d 52 d 60 a 90 b 76 d 56 c 65 d 58 d 57 d 53 d 60 a 95 b 76 d 57 c 65 c 65 d 58 d 53 d 60 b 76 d 60 c 67 c 69 d 58 d 54 d 60 b 76 d 60 c 67 c 69 d 59 d 54 d 60 b 76 d 60 c 69 c 71 d 59 d 55 d 61 b 78 d 60 c 69 c 71 d 61 d 55 d 62 b 78 d 60 c 71 b 75 d 61 d 56 d 62 b 78 d 60 c 73 b 75 d 63 d 56 d 62 b 80 d 62 b 77 b 75 d 63 d 57 d 62 b 80 d 62 b 78 b 77 d 63 d 58 d 62 b 82 d 63 b 78 b 77 d 63 d 58 d 62 b 82 d 63 b 80 d 63 d 60 d 62 b 82 d 63 d 64 d 61 c 65 b 82 d 64 d 64 d 62 c 65 b 82 c 66 c 66 d 62 c 65 b 84 c 66 c 66 d 63 c 65 b 84 c 66 c 66 d 64 c 65 b 84 c 66 c 67 d 64 c 66 b 84 c 67 c 68 c 66 c 66 b 84 c 68 c 68 c 67 c 68 a 86 c 69 c 69 c 67 c 69 a 86 c 69 c 69 c 67 c 71 a 86 c 70 c 69 c 67 c 71 a 88 c 71 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 126 table 3 students’ mid test scores (continue) t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 c 69 c 68 c 72 a 88 c 71 c 71 c 68 c 72 a 88 c 72 c 71 c 68 b 75 a 88 c 72 c 73 c 68 b 75 a 88 c 73 b 76 c 69 b 75 a 88 b 75 b 79 c 70 b 75 a 88 b 76 b 79 c 72 b 75 a 90 b 77 b 79 c 72 b 76 a 90 b 77 b 84 c 72 b 78 a 90 b 78 a 87 c 73 b 78 a 90 b 79 a 93 c 74 b 79 a 90 b 80 b 75 b 80 a 92 a 86 b 75 b 80 a 94 c 75 b 81 a 94 b 76 b 81 a 94 b 76 b 81 a 96 b 78 b 82 a 96 c 95 b 82 55.07 51.1 61.23 59.63 65.05 79.58 79.58 61.06 the above table shows that each teacher has different numbers of students, ranging from 19 to 59 students. the total number of students is 354. the figures on the lowest row are the means (average scores) of the students. these figures will be used in the following statistical calculation. if we compare the number of students with the average scores, we get the following table. table 4 the scores and number of students t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 number 29 30 52 59 59 19 58 48 score 55.07 51.10 61.23 59.63 65.05 79.58 79.58 61.06 relation of score and number 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 19 29 30 48 52 58 59 59 number sc o re s figure 2 relations between score and number of students teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 127 from the table and diagram above, we can see that there is no significant correlation between the number of students and the scores of the students. in other words, we can say that the number of students does not guarantee the result of the test. either big or small number of students can produce high or low scores. t6 who has 19 students, can achieve the score of 75.58, similar to t 7 who has 58 students. t5 who has 59 students can get 65.05. from the table we can also see that in general, only those three teachers (t5, t6, t7) whose students are able to reach the passing grade of 65 (c), which is in accordance with bina nusantara university’s grading system. the students of the other five teachers do not reach the passing grade of 65. the number of students for these teachers ranges from 29 to 59, which can be considered as big number. however, the curve also shows a declining trend (with a few exceptions) in which the bigger number of students give a lower score. the following table and chart show the comparison between means (students’ scores) and the percentage of teachers’ code switching. this is to show whether there is any relationship between the use of code switching and the result of the students. table 5 comparison of means and percentage t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 % cs 3.6 52 0 9 30 0.4 16.9 4 means 55.07 51.1 61.23 59.63 65.05 79.58 79.58 61.06 the teachers’ code switching is ranges from 0% to 52%. these percentages are taken from the number of indonesian words/phrases used by teachers in teaching english subject. relation of codeswitch and means 0 0.4 3.64 9 16.9 30 52 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 pe rce ntage of code switch m ea n s co re figure 3 comparisons of means and percentage of code switching the chart shows that the highest scores (79.58) are made by teachers who code switch 0.4 and 16.9%. the lowest score is made by teachers who code switches by 52%. interestingly, there is one teacher who does not code switch at all but her score is only 61.23. the other teachers who code switch below 10% get the score between 55 to 61. t5 teacher who code switches 30% got the score of 65.05. however, in general we can see a declining trend, in which the bigger percentage of code switching gives the lower scores of students. to further analyze these findings, the writer calculates the above data using spss program. the respondents are divided into two groups. first group is for teachers who code switch less than 15% and the second group is for teachers who code switch more than 15%. there are three teachers who code switch above 15 %, i.e. t2 (52%), t5 (30%) and t7 (16.9%). this division is made to facilitate the calculation. therefore, based on this grouping, the writer then does the independent sample ttest on the data to find out how much code switching can produce better result of students’ scores. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 128 table 6 group statistics group n mean std. deviation std. error mean means 1 5 63.3140 9.42791 4.21629 2 3 65.2433 14.24098 8.22204 table 7 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper mean equal variances assumed .380 .560 -.235 6 .822 -1.92933 8.22545 -22.056 18.19 equal variances not assumed -.209 3.08 .848 -1.92933 9.24007 -30.889 27.03 the independent sample ttest for the hypothesis ho: μ1=μ2 against h1: μ1<μ2 gives a pvalue of 0.822. since the p-value is for 2 tailed, we have to divide it by 2, therefore we get the p-value of 0.411. this p-value is bigger than α = 0.05 (with 95% of confidence), therefore ho is accepted. that means the test does not show a significant difference between group one and group two. in other words, the average student scores of teachers who code switch below 15 % and above 15% are statistically the same. or, we can also say that there is no direct correlation between the amount of teachers’ code switching and the students’ scores. yet, the writer assumes that 15% is the appropriate amount of code switch for the teachers that can give a better result. there are several reasons for this. first, zero percent or too little code switching will bring students at lost. most students only have a limited amount of exposure to english, especially those in the first and second semester. relating the new lesson to their previous knowledge (in their own native language) can contribute to their comprehension of the materials. second, too much code switching, on the other hand, will be a disadvantage for both the teachers and the students. teachers will tend to roam aimlessly when they share their stories in the students’ native language. moreover, teachers as well as students begin to feel that they have not ‘really’ understood any item of language until it has been translated into the native language. therefore, a 15% code switching is preferable because english is used as the main language (85%) of instruction. the code switching may be used in giving instruction, commenting on fl, contrasting between fl and nl, checking comprehension and sometimes showing emotion or joking. teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 129 conclusion code switching has been widely used in foreign language classroom. it is usually done in the lower level of education with the assumption that students are not ready enough to get the instruction fully in the foreign language. yet, in higher level education, such as university, teachers still code switch to the native language to facilitate students’ understanding. in this research, the writer records the speech of eight indonesian teachers who teach english to non-english department students of bina nusantara university. after being transcribed, the writer calculates the percentage of code switch. the result of code switching done by these teachers ranges from 0% to 52%. to categorize the uses of code switching, the writer uses the coding scheme proposed by siobhan brownlie (2002). the results are: translation of items from lessons (5); translation of instruction (2); commenting on fl (6); contrasting fl with nl (5); giving instruction (2); motivating students (2); planning activities (4); giving lessons objectives (2); giving feedback (2); checking comprehension (2); joking (3) and showing emotion (2). the number between brackets refers to the occurrence. when comparing the number of students to the students’ score, the writer does not find any specific correlation. in other words, the number of students does not influence the students’ score. it means high scores can be achieved by either big or small classes, and vice versa. yet, there is a declining trend of scores for bigger classes, which means bigger classes tend to have lower scores than smaller classes. the comparison between the percentage of teachers’ code switch and the students’ scores also does not show a significant relationship. teachers who does not code switch at all get a similar result with those who code switch between 9% and 4 %. on the other hand, teachers who code switch between 0.4% and 16.9% get a similar result of almost 80 points. yet, the diagram (figure 3) shows a declining curve which means that the bigger percentage of code switch have resulted in the lower students’ scores. the statistical calculation using independent samples t-test also confirms the above findings. the p-value of 0.411 is bigger than α = 0.05 therefore ho: μ1=μ2 can’t be denied. in other words, the mean score of students whose teachers code switch below 15 % is similar to that whose teachers code switch above 15%. however, the writer considers 15% code switch is the best allowable amount for teachers to code switch or use nl in their classrooms. there are several reasons for this. first, as they are teaching english, therefore english should be given prominence in the classroom to familiarize the students in the foreign language. secondly, a little allowance of nl will enable teachers to explain and express themselves better. finally, code switch also aids students understanding of difficult materials. relating to the abovementioned conclusions, the writer would like to offer some suggestions: it is useful to ask the respondents first about what they are going to do in the classroom. this is important because some respondents in this research did not perform complete teaching learning activities so that the writer could not get sufficient data of their teaching methods; the number of students in one classroom should be limited to get better students’ scores. with a fewer number of students teachers will be able to manage the class better and transfer their knowledge more effectively. in a big university like bina nusantara, a number of 30 – 40 students are sufficient in one class, especially for english classes; for teachers of english, a 15% code switch is appropriate in the classroom. this can be done to explain about fl, to give instruction and to make a joke or to show emotion. for the other criteria, it is better if the language of instruction is done in english; for further research, it might be interesting to analyze the teaching methods of all teachers in bina nusantara university to find out the best method that can yield the best result. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 117-131 130 references auer, peter. 1999. code switching in conversation language, interaction and identity. london: routledge. atkinson, david. 1987. “the mother tongue in the classroom: a neglected resource?” elt journal volume 41/4. oxford: oxford university press. breitborde, lb. 1983. level of analysis in sociolinguistic explanation: bilingual code switching. social relation and domain theory. in fishman (ed.). fishman, joshua a. (ed). 1985. international journal of the sociology of language. paris: mouton. holmes, janet. 2001. an introduction to sociolinguistics. london: longman. harbord, john. 1992. “the use of the mother tongue in the classroom.” elt journal volume 46/4. oxford: oxford university press. harmer, j. 1983. the practice of english language teaching. london: longman. haycraft, j. 1983. an introduction to english language teaching. london: longman. ianzity, joanne rolin and siobhan brownlie. 2002. teacher’s use of learners’ native language in the foreign language classroom. canadian modern language review, vol. 58. irujo, suzane. 2004. “one classroom, two languages: which language when?” ell outlook, online journal. mckay, sl and hornberger (ed.). 1996. sociolinguistics and language teaching. cambridge: cup. myers-scotton, carol. 1993. social motivation for code switching. oxford: clarendon. nivens, richard. j. 2002. borrowing vs code-switching. dallas: sil. polio, c. and p. duff. 1994. “teacher’s language use in university foreign language classroom: a qualitative analysis of english and target language alteration,” the modern language journal, vol. 78. romero, migdalia and angela parrino. 1994. “planned alternation language (pal): language use and distribution in bilingual classroom,” the journal of educational issues of language minority students, vol.13. sert, olcay. 1998. “the function of code switching in elt classrooms”. i-tesl-j. ankara: haccetepe university. skiba, r. 1997. “code switching as a countenance of language interference,” internet –tesljournal 3:10. trudgill, p. 2000. sociolinguistics. london: penguin. wattson, anna flyman and niclas burenhult. 1999. “code switching in second language teaching of french,” working papers 47:59-72. wardhaugh, ronald. 1998. sociolinguistics. oxford: blackwell. teacher’s use of code switching … (clara herlina k.) 131 appendices checklist checklist for teacher’s code switch checklist items translation: • items • instructions 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����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� � ����� � $3� �&�����0�&#��9������� %�*����<#��'�d*���3� ��������������������������������������������������������������� � ��������� "#��1* (� �&-��0�/���%� ��<���*��/�����0���&������ &���� 6&�6 �<#���*� &�<#���*����, �&���&�/���*�1��3��*�&-�������������������������������������������������������������������������� � �b *�� ����� ��� �!��!� � "#��<����&�����0�� �� ����' �%� %��'� ����%����������*� ���������������������������������������������������@ ��� � ����� ;��g� �%=�d*�"#��%#&������,, ����&��%�<��0�6� ��*��!�&#�<#��*&� ��&-���������������������������������� ��� ������� ������ ������������ issn 1978-8118 vol. 8 no.2 november 2014 ketua dewan redaksi dr. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. akun, s.pd., m.hum. sri haryanti, s.s., mtcsol rosita ningrum, s.s., m.pd editor bahasa dan setter i.didimus manulang haryo sutanto holil atmawati sekretariat nandya ayu dina nurfitria description lingua cultura is a semi annual journal, published in may and november, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literatures. the coverage of language includes linguistics and teaching language, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literatures covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. editor and administration address : subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang bahasa dan budaya research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : nayu@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 8 no.2 november 2014 daftar isi kristina indah setyo rahayu a comparison on hyponymy and cultural symbolism of six color words between chinese language and bahasa indonesia................................................................................ 61-69 kelly rosalin; agustian prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang efektif untuk jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara (principles of effective chinese language teaching materials for marketing communication department in universitas bina nusantara ).......................................................................................... 70-76 rima devi struktur keluarga jepang kontemporer dalam tiga novel karya ogawa yoko (structure of contemporary japanese family in ogawa yoko’s three novels)........................................ 77-84 almodad biduk asmani correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores of listening skill versus scores of business english speaking skill among binus university sophomores............................................... 85-94 yani susanti the role of imprisonment and censorship in the international success of pramoedya ananta toer’s buru quartet novels................................................................................. 95-100 menik winiharti; agnes herawati; esti rahayu reading journal as a way to improve students’ comprehension toward a textbook reading material...................................................................................................... 101-108 wiwik andreani; junita a discussion on a code sound reading system: a case study of i can read greenville language center.......................................................................... 109-115 roberto masami prabowo; sheddy nagara tjandra fenomena muenshakai sebagai akibat pola hidup individualisme serta dampaknya terhadap keadaan sosial dan ekonomi di jepang (the phenomenon of muenshakai as a result of individualism lifestyle and its impact on social and economic condition in japan)........................................................................................... 116-122 mariana; xuc lin analisis penggunaan film dalam peningkatan pemahaman bahasa china mahasiswa (analysis of the use of film in students’ understanding improvement of chinese language)................ 123-127 hanna sundari; irfan hadi; nurhayati exploring gender on efl learners’ beliefs about language learning.................................................... 128-137 indeks................................................................................................................................................... 139-143 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 1-7 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.1459 environmental wisdom in oral literature of arjuna slopes people sony sukmawan indonesian language and literature departement, faculty of cultural studies,university of brawijaya jln. veteran, ketawanggede, malang 65145, indonesia sony_sukmawan@ub.ac.id received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 13th september 2017/ accepted: 23th september 2017 how to cite: sukmawan, s. (2018). environmental wisdom in oral literature of arjuna slopes people. lingua cultura, 12(1). 1-7. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1459 abstract this study sought to describe the orientation, representation, and the relationship of oral literary texts of the slopes arjuna towards its nature, poetical characteristics, and literary texts narrative by using ecocriticism theory. the interdisciplinary approach used to understand the data which were ecocritics, literary, ethical approach to the environment, cultural approach, and folkloristic approach. the instruments used were observation and in-depthinterview. the research was conducted on the slopes of mount arjuna, east java from november 2012 to february 2014. the result shows that the range of oral literature texts of arjuna slopes communities explicitly and implicitly, intensively and extensively, show the orientation towards nature. it shows that the oral literature of arjuna slope people obtains the pastoral narrative and apocalyptic narrative. the study also reveals the presence of biological nature and the psychological nature which are conveyed explicitly and demonstrated in its vitality. the texts orientation towards nature is more detailed presented in the various forms of nature. nature orientation occurred in the text becomes an emphatic and important marker of environmental wisdom literature. furthermore, the characteristics of environmental wisdom literature which are identified and constructed based on the review of the public oral literature of slopes arjuna have its distinctiveness. this peculiarity is seen in the breath of cosmocentric-spirituality born from harmony syncretization between spirituality kejawen, islami sarengat, hindu-buddhist mysticism, as the source of wisdom of environmental values in the society of arjuna slopes oral literature. keywords: environmental wisdom, oral literature, ecocriticism, pastoral, arjuna slopes introduction as an integrated part of nature, humans strive to maintain harmony, order, and balance with nature. in oriental tradition, javanese in particular, people believe that humans are part of nature (bourdeau, 2004). therefore, in their interactions, the men are constantly observing, adapting, acquiring experiencing, and then having specific insights about the environment. human insights to the environment are called the image of the environment that describes the human perception of the structure, mechanisms, and functions of the environment, as well as human interaction and adaptation, including human response and reaction to the environment. patterns of thinking like this then form the environmental wisdom of human life. the wisdom of javanese is formed through the struggle between man and nature. the source of javanese environmental wisdom is explained by the philosophy of hayuning hamemayu bawana (anshoriy & sudarsono, 2008). hamengku buwono x reveals that the javanese philosophy of life contains teachings to create harmony between man and nature, both the obligation of hamangku bumi and the obligation of hamangku buwana, namely rahayuningbawana kapurba waskitaning manungsa which mean that the welfare of the world depends on people who have a sense of sharpness. the community understanding of natural systems described above is usually inherited and cannot be verbally explained in scientific terms (mitchell, setiawan & rahmi, 2000). oral literature is a result of the orally inherited culture in which some of its parts contain the reflection on the natural system. one of them can be found in jansen’s study (2009) which reveals the presence of mythology and folklore surrounding the nature (the forest of anyksciai). as a community reflection media in relation to natural systems, oral literature is based on environmental wisdom. this reflects that between man, nature, local knowledge, and oral literature has a close connection (butterfield, 1993; teorey, 2010). until today, many research conducted on indigenous oral literature or oral tradition in indonesia has shown that the study of oral literature and oral tradition in indonesia is still an area of interest for many researchers. some results of the studies show several things. first, in general, oral literature, not written literature nor documented oral 2 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 1-7 literature, as part of the oral tradition, it has not been the focus of study, except for a study conducted by suyitno (2008) and sriyono, siswanto, & lestari (2015). the presentation of oral traditions emphasizes the community beliefs, so they are more anthropological in nature. at this level, religious-cultural context takes precedence over textual and literal aspects of oral tradition (literary). secondly, some of the previously mentioned research also explore community knowledge (the wisdom of the environment or ecological) in the beliefs of communities. however, not a single study that specifically reveals the environmental wisdom in oral literature has been conducted. in other words, conventional wisdom has not been explored in an optimal environment focusing on oral literature. third, the study of folklore, oral traditions, and oral literature has a variety of emphasis on the study; namely an emphasis on textual and literal nature (riyadi, 1990), an emphasis on aspects of anthropology and humanism (zuhud, 2009; mangunjaya, 2009; suryadarma, 2009; boedhihartono, 2009; kaber, bawole, & mentasan, 2009; lubis, 2009), and an emphasis on both; emphasis on the aspect of textual and literal terminology as well as anthropological and humanism (suyitno, 2008; sriyono, siswanto, & lestari, 2015). all these three emphasize variations have not specifically touched upon the nature of ecological literature (oral). all three of the above suggest that the representation of the values of environmental wisdom as the logical implication of the ecological nature of oral literature has not been touched adequately or in-depth in studies to date. sriyono (2014), has shown a strong indication of ecocritics study although it is not clear whether his study used ecocriticism as theoretical orientation. the newer study is found investigating how environmental ethics are depicted in the tenggerese folklore (sukmawan & nurmansyah, 2012). the result of the study shows that tenggerese myths as verbal folklore obtain environmental ethics. the latter study, however, does not explain whether the verbal folklore under study is ecocritics texts. the present study is focusing on the environmental wisdom in oral literature of arjuna slope people. there are several reasons why the present study is worth doing. firstly, the present study is able to identify the characteristics of pastoral and apocalyptic text as those are the main focus of ecocriticism. to date, oral literature has been seen as anthropocentric and becomes the cultural artifact-centered on the human. the logical consequence of this is that values and moral ideals as substances in (oral) literature tend to be seen, regarded, and treated as a standard reference of human behavior in life as individuals and social beings, not as biological beings or especially as ecological beings. secondly, ecocriticism disclosures in this study are able to explain that oral literature along with its wealth of value is the creative product of nature where humans become an integral part of it. thus, the messages of wisdom in oral literature reach the whole of life in the universe. ecocriticism ethical perspectives in the study of ecocritics describe the values of wisdom to the environment. ecocritics examines not only the literature and language but also constructs the wisdom found in the oral literature. the result of this research is expected to have several benefits both theoretically and practically. theoretically, it is expected that the research gives the contribution to multidisciplinary studies toward the preservation of oral literature in indonesia. through the ecocritics study focusing on oral literature of arjuna slope community, other people can make use of the environmental knowledge revealed, constructed, and identified in the text to improve the quality of living and relationship between human and nature. practically, the result of this study is expected to have contributed toward education to include oral literature as the local content curriculum, especially in the indonesian and javanese literature subject. the use of oral literature as local content curriculum can cultivate the love feeling of one’s own culture and nationality and trigger the sense of identity belonging to the younger generation of being indonesian. furthermore, the result of this research is expected to be useful for the public policy makers in indonesia, relation to tourism and environmental protection. to achieve the purposes, this study focuses on three dimensions, first is the dimension of environmental wisdom in the oral literature of arjuna slopes people. the first focus is broken down into two sub focuses; namely (1) pastoral narrative in oral literature of arjuna slopes people, (2) apocalyptic narrative in oral literature arjuna slopes people, and (3) how the biological nature and the psychological nature are described and presented in the oral literature of arjuna slope people. there is three related literature in this study; they are ecocriticism, pastoral, and apocalyptic literature. cohen (2004) defines ecocritics as a study that combines literature with physical surroundings (environment). the scholars who are interested in the ecocriticism analyze the literary texts that concern and illustrate how the environment is portrayed and treated in the text. similarly, garrard (2008) defines ecocritics as the study of literary text and other texts from the point of view of the natural environment. ecocritics believe that there is a relationship between nature and culture, and they are influencing each other (grewevolpp, 2006). she further states that the ecocritics view that human cannot exist without the natural surroundings. she suggests that although nature literally is unable to speak, the human can give voice to nature’s aesthetic possibilities through the human creation of literary texts. in the pejorative sense, pastoral means the idealization of life (gifford, 2001) or the nostalgia (garrard, 2004). however, in the content of pastoral term, gifford (2001) suggests that the term pastoral is used to describe any literature that explicitly compares and contrast the country and the urban life either implicitly or explicitly. gifford (2001) divides pastoral into three categories. the first is pastoral in the historical form which is begun from poetry, then developed into drama, and finally recognized in novels. one of the stands out characteristics of early pastoral is the existence of shepherd through the construction of arcadia. arcadia is a term used to describe an idealized place with the ideal way of life. in the early pastoral, arcadia is often described with the existence of shepherds with their calm life in the village. garrard (2004) calls this as classic pastoral. in classic pastoral, there are some genres associated with this, namely idylls, bucolic, and virgil (eclogues and georgics) (gifford, 2001, 2013). the second category of pastoral is the retreat. the term retreat in pastoral means escape from the busy and complex life of the city to the countryside so that one can explore the present and do some reflection for the better life in the future (gifford, 2001). and finally, he categorizes the third pastoral as the return based on its cultural context. this means that, as he suggests, the works tell about the return not to the physical form of the place, for example, the towns or the cities, but to the cultural context from which the values or the cultural context are originated. 3environmental wisdom .... (sony sukmawan) within ecocriticism, there is one term used to describe literature with apocalyptic narrative or the end of the world (garrard, 2004). the apocalyptic narrative talks about how nature destroys human being because of human deeds (war and nature destruction) because it is prophesied in the scripture, or because of human overpopulation. the apocalyptic narrative usually tells about the catastrophic results as prophecies and prediction inevitably fulfill them. carter (2010) suggests five methods of interpretation, namely preterits method, futurist method, historicist method, idealist method, and genre apocalypse. most of these method sources from the biblical teachings and interpretation. methods ecocriticism theoretical orientation with an ethnographic approach is used in this study. ecocritics offers a renouncement of anthropocentrism view through the revaluation of the natural environment (grewe-volpp, 2006). the data of this study uses an interdisciplinary approach that is the ecocriticism ethics and oral literature. the ecocriticism approach is used because oral literature in arjuna slopes has dimensions of literary and ecologically orientation. the cultural approach is used because oral literature in arjuna slopes has the dimension of cultural values. meanwhile, the theory of environmental ethics is utilized because oral literature in arjuna slopes has ecological/environmental dimension. and the literary theory is used since the oral literature of arjuna slopes has oral dimension. more specifically, the ecocritics study uses pastoral literature offered by gifford (2001; 2013), apocalyptic literature offered by garrard (2004), and carter (2010). as the key instrument, researcher focuses on the understanding and appreciation of the natural meaning (verstehen) of oral literature, whether it refers to the presence of nature, nature-human system relationship, conceptions, values and abstraction of nature. the research is conducted in several places in the mount arjuna slopes covering several villages scattered on the slopes of mount arjuna and one (series) area with sacred sites scattered along the northern path reaching the mountaintop of mount arjuna. the villages in which the research is conducted are tambaksari village, purwodadi district; jatiarjo village, sukorejo district; pasuruan and toyomarto village, singosari district; malang. a series of sacred sites slopes arjuna used as the study site are betara guru hermitage, goa antaboga, patuk watu kursi, complex tampuono, spring goddess kunti, eyang semar, makutarama temple, and the sepilar temple. prior to the data collection, the researcher plans the data collection and records the setting artificially. the planning of artificial setting is done by determining the time of observation or recording needed. furthermore, once it is time for the implementation of observation and recording. the data are collected using unstructured interview techniques and observation. the use of unstructured interview is considered necessary and appropriate for qualitative study as its main purpose is to discover the data needed (wilson, 2014) and to have a better understanding of the subjects of social reality from their perspectives (zhang & wildemuth, 2006). the interviews are conducted freely and in a friendly manner. in this case, the researcher performs regular conversations with some ethnographic inquiries into the conversation that are included and putting himself as a student (spradley & mccurdy, 2012). observation techniques are used for data collection to record meaningful actions, activities, and habits of the community self-living around arjuna slopes. data analysis of this study uses ethnographic analysis. in this study, data analysis begins with the taxonomists’ analysis phase, componential analysis, analysis of cultural themes, and ethnographic writing stage. through this technique, the researcher could observe the unspoken understanding (tacit understanding) regarding; (1) environmental knowledge systems and the system of beliefs that underlie the environmental knowledge systems, as well as the informants, (2) point of view that could not be disclosed through interviews (alwasilah, 2002). results and discussions the text of oral literature of the arjuna slopes people collected in this study is the literary text of ecological wisdom or ecological literature which implicitly has brought about the theme of environment and made it the ethical orientation of the text. in it, humans are seen as part of a living universe by recognizing the wonders of nature and resisting to impose their will on nature. for some communities, their oral literature often reflects the local wisdom they believe in. for example, the local wisdom as found in the oral literature of moy tribe papua (sriyono, 2014) believes that they need to build harmony with nature, human, and god. they also believe the concept of the mountain as the source of water. in this present study, the oral literature found in arjuna slopes, people can be seen in rituals of slametan, the narrative journey of puppets characters, cikal bakal or the naming of places, mythological figures, and mantra (pastoral narrative). more specifically, based on ecocritics study focusing on pastoral literature (gifford, 2001; 2013) and apocalyptic literature (carter, 2010), there are 13 characteristics of oral literature that match their criteria. those are (1) description of arcadia inspired by mythology which is based on nature. (2) descriptions and expositions which position and treat nature and man as equal. (3) description of bucolic as a conscientious shepherd, caring, sensitive, and responsible for domesticated animals and all things associated with its pastoral aspects. (4) a description of the implementation of the conception of idylls village customs, heritage and the ancestors, which are specifically manifested in ritual slametan. (5) description of mystic closeness and togetherness between nature and man. (6) georgic element is displayed in the form of the process of work in harmony with nature as something comfortable after rituals developing relationships with the ancestral spirits. the example of data belongs to georgic can be seen in the plowing of paddy field mantra. kaki bumi, nini bumi bumi tak bublak dino… (data 2a. 6 in javanese language) the mantra means that the comfort of working in the paddy field is obtained after the farmer has permission from the danyang of soil. kaki bumi and nenek bumi are the names of the guardians or baureksa of soil. these spirits are believed to be the ones who would help the farmers to work in the paddy fields smoothly this means that all the animals used for plowing would not get sick and possessed by other 4 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 1-7 spirits. the finding also reveals that (7) retreat is realized in the narrative journey (ritual) puppet characters and cikal bakal. (8) narrative ‘physical escape’ to ‘self-discovery psychic’ is realized through parable journeys of characters of the occurrence of the puppet. (9) the occurrence of the heroism of mythological figures (semar and dewi sri) and figure of cikal bakal, babad alas. the following is the example of data from retreat category. raden arjuna akhire tekan puncak gunung. deweke lekas nglakokne tapa brata. sadoronge tapabrata, raden arjuna nyuwun nang eyang semar supoyo nungguki deweke anggene tapa. (data 1a.4.3 in javanese language) the data is told by one of the elders of the village around the arjuna slope. it tells about arjuna (one of the puppets’ character), the prince of hastinapura, who went to the top of the mountain to do some meditation. before he meditated, he asked one of his loyal servants, eyang semar to accompany him. according to gifford (2001; 2013), retreat means going away physically from the complex life of the city to the country side. the data shows how retreat is manifested in the story. arjuna left the busy life of the kingdom of hastinapura and did some self-discovery in the cave of indrakila located on the mountain. another finding also reveals the apocalyptic data which can be seen in; (10) apocalyptic ideas are stored behind the naming of the village, background naming of the archaeological sites and natural sacred sites, as well as the naming of the baureksa in the dimension. it is lifted or inspired by a fragment, quote, or some part of puppet stories, mysticism, and scripture. (11) apocalypse is also expressed as nature stability restoration through persuasive precautions action. (12) an apocalyptic symptom is sasmita of natural irregularities. and (13) vision of the text is conveyed through village elders who have previously been running a special ritual behavior. the example of the apocalyptic data that is found in the oral literature of arjuna slope people can be seen from the legend of the origin of tambak watu, the name of the villages in arjuna slope. biyen ono sumber, banyu ing tambak watu. krana banyune sing metu tambah suwe tambah gedhe, wong-wong deso kene terus nggae tambak. sawise tambak dadi, durung sempat dimanfaatno, digae wong-wong wadon sing menstruasi adus neng tambak kuwi. akibate, sumber banyune terus mati lan ora mili. banyune tambah suwe tambah entek, lan kari watune ing dasar tambak. ngono iku asal usule jeneng desa tambak watu. (data 1a..2.2, in javanese language) physically, apocalyptic literature is marked by a crisis, the worsening state of nature, or environment that cannot be recovered (garrad, 2004). in the legend of tambak watu that has described, the apocalypse happens to the people who are living in the village because the pond (tambak) is built by the villagers and intended for drinking, but it is used by the women who are having their period to take a bath. because of this, the pond dries up, and no water comes out any more from the spring. water is a very important component of a source of life. without it, no living beings are able to survive. in the oral literature of the arjuna slopes people, nature does not only present in natural existence, physical or biological, but also presents in an unusual habitat, such as language text, discourse, thought, and psychology. the natural environment of the arjuna slopes feeds its people not only in the physical-biological sense but also in the mental-spiritual sense. in its natural form as a source of income, needs, food, and medicine, nature is able to fulfill the everyday needs of people living on the slopes of arjuna. the presence of the psychic (spirit) always inspires obedience, prudence, austerity, and spiritual control in the attitude and behavior of the people to refrain from actions that could potentially destroy, exploit, or downgrade the environment. whether it is expected or not, the presence of the psychic nature remains a vital position in the society living on the slopes of arjuna. animal pests, such as mbok sri susupan, mbok sri dhodotan, and dhadung awuk, for example, are considered as liyan (the other), so their presence is actually dreaded and not expected by the community. however, psychologically, these animals always present through the instrument of conceptual language (mantra, ujub). traditionally this type of animal has always been embraced, cajoled, and asked to compromise and to make peace. in the perspective of eastern mysticism (java), ‘otherness’ is more accurately described as different manifestations of the same ultimate reality, as an organic reality, not separate, constantly moving spiritually and materially. the example of mantra which talks about making peace with liyan can be seen in the cure mantra of sick cows and goats used by the people living in arjuna slope. semilahirohmanirohim surdat surti gajah galak guntur geni kaki dhadung awuk nini dhadung awuk aja siro ganggu gawe raja kayaku ketiban iduku putih ketiban iduku abang ajur angsrep srep sirep saking kersaning allah (data 2e.6, in javanese language) in the mantra, the person (the elder of the village) is trying to make peace with liyan (dadhung awuk) so that they would not disturb their animals and leave them alone. the presence of a psychic nature makes people strive to achieve harmonious relationship in life. as stated by bourdeau (2004), the oriental believe that humans and nature are living in mutual relationship. in this case, harmony or (natural) harmony as well as conceptual entities in the form of verbal expression are used by the community on the slopes of arjuna through the use of standard phrases, phrases with a repetitive, rhythmically thick and fixed pattern, nicknames euphemistic metonymy, metaphor euphemistic, and redundant expressions. the presence of impressive nature as ‘conceptual creatures’ is continued until the realm of discourse. furthermore, in the day to day living, people cannot ignore the nature and environment in which they live in and the culture, and how they live their life. there should be a balanced interaction among human, nature, environment, and culture to form a harmonious relationship and living (dahliani, 2015). this harmonious relationship is usually manifested in the local wisdom of the people how they treat nature. in this case, the wisdom of the people living on the slopes of arjuna to their environment is manifested through their respect for nature, the attitude of responsibility towards nature, cosmic solidarity, compassionate and caring attitude towards nature, the attitude not to harm nature, and 5environmental wisdom .... (sony sukmawan) the principles of living simply and in harmony with nature. those wise attitudes imply that the people living on arjuna slopes have realized, owned, and actualized; (1) duty and moral responsibility which is limited not only to fellow people, but also covers all the life of the universe, awareness of the intrinsic value of nature so that nature is respected, (2) the realization that nature has integrity, and (3) respect for nature to exist, live, grow, and develop naturally according to the purpose of its creation. the people’s consciousness underlying their ecological wisdom regarding the environment has become the axis of ethics (environmental) for the community living on the slopes of arjuna. the result of this research is similar to mithen et al. (2015) who conducted research in south sulawesi and west sulawesi. they find out that the indigenous group living in the particular area of the south and west sulawesi preserve their environment which is reflected from how they treat the forests and springs. similar to the indigenous group who are living in south and west sulawesi, the arjuna slope people could not cut down trees and take the forest advantages as they wish because they have the moral responsibility to respect, value, and protect nature as they realize that they could not live without one. in essence, the people living on the slopes of arjuna, as the javanese do generally, view social interactions as an attitude toward nature, the same way as attitudes toward nature have social relevance. social reality is an integral part of ecological reality, so the attitude and behavior of the community living on the slopes of arjuna towards the social environment also apply to the ecological environment. thus, the principle of harmony forms not only a basic rule of social life of this community but also attitude towards ecological life of arjuna slopes people. furthermore, within the framework of a cosmospiritual eastern view, man and nature are united in harmony. conclusions the oral literary texts of arjuna slopes community contain pastoral aesthetic rules. pastoral aesthetic principles include; (1) ecocentricism, (2) the narrative of life, livelihood, and (codes) ways to live in harmony with nature, a place to live comfortably and ideally, (3) the idea of unity to live in harmony with the environment, both physically and metaphysically, (4) idealization of the village and romanticism of the past, and (5) reflectiveintrospectiveness. these pastoral aesthetic rules become the basic values of beauty, harmony, balance, and love (for the environment) as found in the oral literature in arjuna slopes people. in other words, pastoral aesthetics underlies the moral values in the oral literature of people living on the slopes of mount arjuna. the oral literature of arjuna slopes people can also be regarded as ecological discourse. this is because arjuna slopes oral literature; (1) expresses events in intimate and personal dialogues between arjuna slopes people and nature, (2) reveals a picture that the people living in the slopes of arjuna are good communicators with the environment as they listen to nature with all their heart, and (3) discusses the presence of ecological dialogues event. events and realities experienced include fixation, stabilization, and institutionalization in oral literature of arjuna slopes people. this process is controlled by the system of thought of the people living on the slopes of arjuna including the thinking, reflection, and appreciation that; (1) reality is organic, consisting of aspects which are interrelated, interconnected, or merely different manifestations of the same underlying reality. (2) any part of reality is determined by the properties of all the other parts; it can be said that each piece contains a whole section to another. (3) all of the reality is seen as transient patterns or transitions of the same ultimate reality. and (4) structured reality is composed of hierarchical realms which are extraordinarily rich, delicately intertwined, intricately complicate and start from all nature of matter from the body, mind, and soul to the spirit. the nature of the arjuna slopes has important meanings both culturally and environmentally. as a cultural landscape that informs identity and place, the nature of the arjuna slopes has a mythological relationship with the community. this relationship is represented in the oral literature of arjuna slopes people. arjuna slopes oral literature is closely related to cosmological insights of kiblat papat kalima pancer which have become the symbol of balance. this balance can be achieved through fostering a harmonious relationship with sedulur papat. various types of oral literature in the arjuna slopes community are not only addressed as a reflection of cosmic consciousness but also as a symbol of spiritual consciousness which is the main essence of javanese mysticism, namely memayu hayuning bawana with respect to sedulur papat to achieve sangkan paraning dumadi. involving sedulur papat in pancer (ego, man) is an effort to strengthen the behavior of hayuning bawana memayu until it eventually leads to paraning sangkan dumadi (god). in the oral literature of the arjuna slopes, the macro universe is treated as a reflection of the human microcosm. therefore, the javanese are trying to unite the universe (macrocosm) and themselves (microcosm). they believe that the universe is in them and they are the picture of the universe. this means that a human being is a miniature of the universe. in addition to describing the myths, oral literature in arjuna slopes people also explains the controlled behavior of its people to always be careful and be able to behave themselves properly in their neighborhood. within certain limits, the oral literature of the arjuna people contains ecological knowledge that can be used as a basis for ecological behavior and wise behavior towards the environment. this wisdom can save the environment from the destructive behavior of human nature and the kind of behavior that can upset the balance of the ecosystem. a strong tradition of nature spirituality (animism and dynamism) that blends with islamic religious nuances sarengat, the spirituality of javanese, hindu mysticism, and puppet morality teachings have become the root of the moral values of the arjuna slopes people (in addition to pastoral aesthetics). natural spirituality implies in the text of the oral literature of arjuna slopes people is a typical farmer monism. it could be argued that the oral literature of arjuna slopes represents the typical farmer monism rooted from the natural people understanding of the nature of spirituality of javanese agriculture. this is because the oral literature texts of the arjuna slopes people expose human dependence on nature. in addition, the social and cultural background narrative of oral literature is the life and livelihood of traditional farmers who have a large dependence on nature and animals. in the meantime, the philosophy of modern environmental ethics is actually a revitalized outlook which still holds customary in interactions with nature, including monistic worldviews and behaviors. thus, the ethics of west 6 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 1-7 ecocentrism and biocentrism could be seen as renewals and revitalizations of eastern spirituality. nature, culturally, has a connection with naturebased religion (animism) in which plants and animals are considered to have spirits. in the context of eco-poetics (environmental literature), the nature and culture of the arjuna slopes people are in a position of the reciprocal relationship in which human and natural history meet. as noted earlier, in the oral literature of the arjuna slopes people stores knowledge of the connections between humans and nature. oral literature leads men towards the “gates of knowledge and understanding of cosmic importance”. in it, the audience’s relationship is emphasized with the living landscape, including the introduction of the values that protect the health of the landscape and that would affect human survival and future. therefore, the oral literary texts of the arjuna slopes people offer a huge repository of environmental knowledge. these suggestions are addressed to the field of advanced research, the field of humanities education (especially oral literature) and policy areas. in the future research, it is suggested to direct the conceptualization of the wisdom of literature in; (1) the study of the oral literature of other mountain slope people, (2) the use of data to study another variant of oral literature, and (3) the study of literary writing. in the field of humanities education (especially the oral literature of indonesia), the environmental literary theory conceptualization is suggested to refer the knowledge of traditional communities. these results can be used as oral literature research lectures to improve oral literary understanding and appreciation of indonesian oral literature materials. furthermore, in the policy field, the study of the literature of traditional oral texts will contribute to increasing public awareness of the environment. this awareness will ultimately give meanings to the attitudes and government policies aimed at addressing the challenges for facing efforts towards environmental development. at this point, the role of oral literature as an institutional carrier of values can be optimized. to that end, it is suggested that the government (in this case the directorate general of culture) gives the great attention to the more concrete aspects related to preservation, protection, and inheritance exhibited in the oral literature. furthermore, the directorate general of culture through the technical implementation unit (upt), the preservation of cultural values (bpnb), heritage preservation (bpcb), and archeology (balar) are recommended to utilize the results of this study to support the implementation of tasks and functions of the coaching and development of the indonesian national culture. references alwasilah, c. a. 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(2006). unstructured interviews. applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science, (1998), 222-231. retrieved from http://hsmi.psu. ac.th/upload/forum/unstructured_interviews.pdf. zuhud, e. a. m. (2009, december). trip-stimulus amar sebagai pendorong sikap konservatif (kasus konservasi kedawung di taman nasional merubetiri. in soedjito, h., purwanto, y., sukara, e. (eds.), situs keramat alami: peran budaya dalam konservasi keanekaragaman hayati. paper presented at workshop situs keramat alami: peran budaya dalam konservasi keanekaragaman hayati, lipi, cianjur, jawa barat, 30-31 oktober 2007 (pp.3-27). jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 53 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 53-60 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.1961 when the teens narrate the selves in indonesian literature: gender, subject, and power wening udasmoro department of language and literature, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada jln. nusantara 1 bulaksumur, yogyakarta 55281, indonesia udasmoro@ugm.ac.id received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 24th august 2017/ accepted: 30th august 2017 how to cite: udasmoro, w. (2018). when the teens narrate the selves in indonesian literature: gender, subject and power. lingua cultura, 12(1), 53-60. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1961 abstract the subjects that participated in the production of meaning in the literature included authors, publishers, and illustrators. the aim of this article was to investigate the role and the exercise of the power of these different subjects in trying to construct teenager identities through teen’s literature in different eras of indonesia. different teenager literature was analyzed since the new order to the reformasi era of indonesian political rule. this research used the critical discourse analysis method, which examined all social and cultural products as discourse. discourse in this context was the construction that contained within it components that require attention. the analysis shows that there is an environment of gender, middleand upperclass production, consumption, and the reproduction of narration by those different subjects. all of them compete because they have different agendas. however, they also negotiate and work collaboratively through their own narrations, because they all have the same objective of acquiring financial benefit. keywords: teen naration, teen identities, teen literatures introduction literature is not a neutral product regarding the balance of power, both in its production and consumption by readers (johnson, 2016). when roland barthes argues that the author is dead, he means that the text written by the author is not a closed one, but it is open to diverse interpretations because nobody knows the author’s exact intention when writing a story (barthes, 2006). barthes’ argument is also compatible with that of wolfgang iser, who emphasizes the importance of readers in the interpretation of the text. meaning is not just the product of the author; it is produced by readers based on their storage of knowledge obtained from reading literary works (iser, 1978). these two arguments must be understood in relation to the individual who acts as the subject in the production of meaning of literary works. these arguments can also be used to understand the power of subject in relation to the production of meaning in literary works. michel foucault has argued that the discussion of the subject is always related to the concept of power (foucault, 1980). power, according to foucault, is not fixed to a subject rather; who is the subject depends on who exercises power. in this contemporary world, where literature is also connected to the power of financial capital or the power to buy literary products, the relation among different subjects is also more complex. literature is not only a work of art to be appreciated by literary critics, but it is also a part of the media industry. in that context, it is crucial to discuss the power of the media industry in order to understand the relation of power between the production of literature by authors, the consumption of literature by the readers, and the reproduction of literature by the media industry (talbot, 2007). for example, in the two previous decades in indonesia, the dominant power in literature could be seen from a large space occupied by the production of literature for adults by the adults (nurgiyantoro, 2004). this is based on the media industry’s assumption that more financial capital could be gained from the adult type of literary production. teenagers and children have less narrative space to construct their own identities (steiner & steiner, 2009). however, when teens and children are narrated, it is adults who narrate their narration, and as such, the construction of teen’s narration is dominated by the views of the adults (garner, 1999). the adults become the most important subject in the construction of teens’ identity during that period. recently, in indonesian, there is the teenager’s literature that is called teenlit. however, teenagers have attempted to create their own narrations despite the fact that the stories consumed by most teenagers are those narrated by adults (sarumpaet, 2010). some teenagers write stories to compete with adults in the industry of literature. they are motivated to participate in the construction of their own 54 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 53-60 identity (meyer, 2013) and also their own desires (meyer, 2013) and also their own desires (mackey, 2011). the media industry is aware that the teens are also a promising market (cohler & hammack, 2007). the production of teen literature has thus developed very rapidly after the reformasi movement that begins in 1998. the change of political and social regime, from an authoritarian to a democratic one, does enable free market and capitalism to enter indonesian public life (sen & hill, 2011), which provide the impetus for more subjects to exercised their power in the construction of teenager narration and identity (nurgiyantoro & efendi, 2017). the objective of this article is to investigate how the different subjects are playing their roles in trying to construct teen’s identities through teenage literature. what are narrations of teenage from the point of view of gender and social class mainly developed? what are teenage ideologies introduced through different subject’s narrations? ultimately, the focus of this article is to glean the emerging constructed identity of teenage, especially from the gender and social class perspective by different subjects in the teens’ identity construction process in indonesia literature. methods this research uses the critical discourse analysis method, which examines all social and cultural products as discourse (fairclough, 2002). discourse, in this context, is a construction that contains within it components that require attention (van dijk, 2006). several levels require attention. the first level that requires attention is language (fairclough, 2003). language is important because it contributes to the construction of discourse (fairclough, 2003). in works of teen literature, the language used by teenagers is an important point of attention. language, in this case, is represented in the text (maingueneau, 2006b). this can be understood as oral and written language (fairclough, 2014). however, in the poststructuralist approach, the text is not limited to simply oral and written language. images are text as well (van leeuwen, 2008). as such, in this article images are important and used as units of analysis. the data corpus originates from sentences, paragraphs, discussions, as well as the visual and pictorial units and symbols that are displayed. the second component that requires attention is that every discourse has a reference, the discursive level (fairclough, 2014). this discursive level is a mindset found within every text. discourse at this level emerges as a result of repeated repetition that occurs in every individual experience and ultimately develops into belief (butler, 2013). continuous repetition transforms the conscious into the unconscious (butler, 2011). for example, why does the color pink often emerge in the illustrations in teen literature? this is because of the consumptive patterns in the text, in which the color pink is dominantly consumed by a certain gender. the third component is the practices chosen by individuals as a result of the complexities of language and reference (fairclough, 2014). authors and publishers, for example, select specific practices in determining narrations or symbols used in literary works. a social effect emerges, one related to the text produced by the subject and to the reference. however, there is not always coherence between the text, reference, and social practice. there is a thread, one that is not always synchronically connected, because within each subject there are always references to different origins. these references are multi-dimensional, as subjects have different perspectives on the different references. likewise, on the subject, there are various voices that differ because of the varied references accumulated within the subject’s cognitive space (maingueneau, 2005). results and discussions the teen lit formally emerges in indonesia in the 1970s and is promoted especially through the novels of eddy d. iskandar, an adult male novelist who has his male perspective in his writings. his novels, such as puspa indah taman hati (beautiful flower, garden of the heart) or gita cinta dari sma (song of love from high school) are among the first novels produced that target the teenage readers and can be seen as an attempt to reach an underserviced market. the coming of teen lit does fulfill the teens’ interest in reading novels that are accorded with their experiences as teenagers. the most frequent theme in such teen lit is romance between teenagers. in these love stories, the question of difference in regard to social background becomes one of the most common issues raised by the authors. the teens in these stories deal with the emotions of happiness and sadness of their daily relations. figure 1 shows some front covers of novels for teenagers in the 1970s. figure 1 indonesian teenager novels in the 1970’s (source: www.amartpura.com and www.pricearea.com) the subject-object relation in these works of teen literature is based on the author’s intent to create a new way to conceptualize literature; literature is not only for adults but also for teens. however, the author (iskandar) is not alone in trying to narrate teens. indeed, eddy d. iskandar writes teen lit because of the high demand from the film industry, and eventually teen lit becomes the first producer of ideas for the development of film industry in indonesia. a later edition of selamat tinggal masa lalu (so long the past) that is shown in figure 1 uses photographs of the actor and actress from the movie on the covers of that work. the novel’s author and publisher combine with the film industry, act as subjects, work together, and use different powers to create a narration of teens. the teens’ identity is constructed based on the symbiotic mutualism of different interests. ultimately, most of eddy d. iskandar’s novels are adapted to film, which only focused on common everyday teens’ experiences. in the early 1980s, the teen literature begins disappearing as its readers become more interested in adult novels, particularly with the works of titi said sadikun 55when the teens narrate .... (wening udasmoro) and la rose. however, the teen lit re-surfaces in 1986 with the popular novel with the title lupus, written by hilman hariwijaya. since hilman hariwijaya writes the novel when he is 22 years old, the narration of teenagers continues to be created through the narration of adults. the novel lupus is a narration story of a young boy, named lupus, and focus on his daily life experience (safrina, 2011). like the earlier works of teen lit, the relation between boys and girls are dominant in the novel. however, there is a difference from the previous ones; while eddy d. iskandar attempts to write his novels based on teen’s common experiences, hilman hariwijaya acts as a subject in the stories in an attempt to create a new identity for teens by using his own profile. lupus’ identity is the representation of the author’s identity, or more specifically, the author creates lupus as his own portrait. in social practice, this novel inspires young boys to follow the fashion trends that are promoted by lupus in the novel (hilman & boim, 2013). the fashion trends include one having long hair, chews gum, and folded shirt sleeves, which become a style, whereby teens are attracted to follow in that period. these representations are becoming the discourse because they are living in the teens’ daily life in everyday activities. lupus also inspires the film industry, and again the strong subject of the author is integrated with the literature and film industries in constructing the identity of the young people. the young people (youths) are objects and commodities in the social practice. they are also the followers of trends that are created by the authors and industries, including the chewing gum industry. hence, figure 2 shows a picture of the author of lupus, compares with the front cover of one of his novels (boys don’t cry). figure 2 indonesian teenage novel in the 1980’s (source: www.tempo.co.id and www.downloadebookbuku.blogspot.com) the popularity of teen lit declines again by the end of the 1980s. after lupus, there are no further works of teen lit releases as novels. instead, most literature for teens is published in magazines targeted for the whole population. the writers take advantage of the increased interest for teenage magazines in the media industry (which included publications such as aneka and gadis for girls and hai for boys) to publish their short stories or serials. the motivation to write stories in the teenage magazines continues until the end of the 1990s. the subjects in this period are the media industry. teens, meanwhile, begin to act as readers with their own interpretations and it is then that they start to write their own narrations and publish in teenager magazines. the reformasi era in indonesia in 1998 creates more space different social actors (aspinall, 2015), including authors to express their ideas and opinions. this change of political regime also creates more possibilities for the media industry (o’rourke, 2002). in particular, the media industry attracts not only adult authors to write novels but also teenagers themselves who are interested in writing their own stories. there are at least three types of the teen lit in the reformasi era (udasmoro, 2013). the first type is teen lit that is written by adults but narrates stories about teenagers (nurgiyantoro, 2004). these stories are related to many issues but usually convey a message about friendship, nationalism, etc. this type of literature has a broader audience and can be read by both teens and adults. andrea hirata’s laskar pelangi (hirata, 2005) and the a. fuadi’s negeri 5 menara (fuadi, 2002) are some examples of such type of teens’ narration. this first type of novel still attracts the film industry. both of the novel examples have been adapted to film and watched by the diverse audience. the second type is the teen lit created by authors who are no longer teenagers, but the young youth. the authors in this category include raditya dika, endik kuswoyo, and fitri rakhmawati. there are even some publishers that emphasize the words “teen lit” on the covers of novels. with this type of teen lit, both male and female authors compete to write stories about teenagers. the third type is the teen lit written by teenagers themselves (hunt, 2005). they create their own narration to express their identity as the teenager. the largest publisher of this type of teen lit is dar mizan, which publishes several series of teen lit written by the teenagers. one such series is kecil-kecil punya karya (small authors who have stories). the teens that write the stories in this series are mostly girls, and as a result, the series. as seen from the previous discussion, the discourse of teenagers in literature from the reformasi era is more diverse than that of the previous new order era. in term of style, when seeing from discourse analysis perspective (van dijk, 2006), the authors of the first type of literature remain idealistic in their writings. the diction and sentences are formal, and the authors aim to perpetuate literary writing that conveys a message consisting of the moral value for the teens, even though in indonesian such works are not considered as having an aesthetic value, as serious literature. nonetheless, the writers of this type of literature are considered popular authors. in contrast, the authors of the other two types of teen lit have a similar perspective when narrating teens, and their contents have some similarities. from these different approaches, different authors act as subjects who produce knowledge that contributes to the production of culture (bourdieu, 1994) of writing in indonesian teen lit. the discussion primarily focuses on those two later types of literature described. symbols are placed as sharing of meanings in discourse analysis. in this context, many symbols, such as language are used in teen lit to narrate teens’ identities (pahl & way, 2006). the gender construction can be seen from the symbols used in the teenager literature that appear as discourses spread in the society used in everyday life (moje & luke, 2009). a combination of social and individual construction is negotiated in order to construct the identity of the teens (james, 2008). the color pink, for instance, is used to explain the identity of young girls. it is not an arbitrary choice, but a socially constructed one that is not only used in the front covers of indonesian teen lit, but the stories also emphasize the usage of this color. figure 3 presents some front covers of recent teen lit with pink color. 56 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 53-60 five pictures in figure 3 and the three on the left side have the covers of teen lit written by young writers who are no longer teens, whereas the two on the right side are from the series kecil-kecil punya karya, written by the teenagers. all of these novels have pink color on their front covers. the titles of the three books on the right use illustrations related to the pink color. marmut merah jambu (pink marmot) is written by raditya dika (male author), one of the indonesian best-known young writer that talks about a girl with whom a boy is falling in love. although raditya dika is a male, he uses the color pink to represent a girl. the two other novels that use the word “pink” as part of the title. the books talk about the things that girls like, such as cupcakes, and have the pink color. the title pinky girls makes the association between girls and the color pink more explicit and relational. the novels use pink color in their front cover because, in the construction of identity, the relationship between the constructed self and the other depends on how the process of construction takes place. as such, the choice of pink color is chosen to distinguish such books from other colors, which are usually used by different categories of gender and age. the symbolism, in which girls are related to the pink color, is well-established, especially in the western tradition. the influence of the western tradition of color representing gender is transferred to indonesians through the media, including television shows, advertisements, etc. in the context of kecil-kecil punya karya, the influence of television is conveyed through the films that are produced and consumed by children and teens. the pink color is produced in the culture of barbie, a figure of a young girl that is created as a perfect creature. in the culture of barbie, the hero of the story, named barbie, is associated with the pink color although it has been utilized historically in western tradition to differentiate with boys, who are given the color of blue is emphasized in the barbie culture (udasmoro, 2012). the culture of barbie is then reproduced in teen lit to symbolize youth. young girls are then given a distinct symbol (soelistyarini, 2013). the pink color is used to cement the social construction that girls are related to pink, whereas boys are represented by blue color. though such color construction is a social one, the teens are the ones who also participate actively in constructing themselves in order to distinguish themselves from others in the society. the separation between different social groups reinforces the border between two genders in the everyday discourses (maingueneau, 2006a). because the colors representation of the two sexes is repeated daily, this constructed reality becomes a sex identity, where young people believe that teenagers, especially girls must be associated with pink color. different subjects, such as the authors (including a male author) and the publishers are incorporated into this view to reproduce this reality. although some teen writers try to be distinct from others in order to create a specific self by using a different color, the popular perception of the majority towards pink color as girl’s identity remains robust and the favorite choice. the stories in teen lit, especially in the kecil-kecil punya karya series, are dominated by western narration and integrated with the practice of religion, particularly islam. related to gender, the symbols used are particularly addressed to the girls. the symbols of islam used, for instance, is the fashion code, such as the wearing of the veil (hijab), and the usage of language related to the girl’s activities. these islamic symbols are used together with english in the stories. in one story, for instance, the titles of the chapters are mostly in english. the front covers of kecil-kecil punya karya books in figure 4 shows how symbols of islam and the west are used at the same time and in the same space in the stories. figure 3 the indonesian teenage pink color novels (source: www.bukabuku.com) 57when the teens narrate .... (wening udasmoro) figure 4 kecil-kecil punya karya books (source: www.bukabuku.com) islam and western symbols are addressed for the girls that are often considered as two different competing poles in social and political practice. it is used at the same time in displaying a story because it cannot be separated from the cooperation of different subjects in the industry of teen lit. dar mizan, as the publisher, is a subject that contributes to this construction of narration, while the girls are used to construct this narration. dar mizan publisher holds an islamic ideology with the ideological message, which wants to convey and on the other hand, is a way to attract the target market. indonesia is the largest muslim country in the world, and with the rapid economic growth after the reformasi movement in 1998, the rise of the middle and upper class has been significant (ansori, 2009). targeting the muslim in middle and upper-class readers is the publisher’s marketing strategy for financial gain. indeed, kecil-kecil punya karya books are quite expensive for the lower-class consumers, and as such, the series’ target audience of middle and upperclass children is readily evident. the intervention of the publisher is also shown in the stories. most authors do not discuss the fashion code used by the heroes in the story. however, dar mizan regularly creates novel covers that emphasize the islamic fashion code, especially for the girls. the authors are indeed subjects because they are the ones who produce meaning through the language in their stories. however, they cannot interfere with the power of the publisher, because they have a financial interest to publish their novel(s) with this well-regarded and established the company. in business, the fact remains that to publish a story is not an easy task because of the strong competition among authors in the teen lit industry, which creates a power relation, where the publisher has more power, particularly in deciding the front cover of a novel. the islamic symbols used in the novels are becoming more complicated and diverse because they combine western with modern symbols. with the usage of english in most of the titles of teen lit together with the significant occurrence of symbols of modernity such as computers, gadgets, and other forms of information technology, it is a strategy for teen girls to show and promote their identity. there are three possible explanations for this situation and in particular. it relates to the usage of english language in most of the stories. first, most of the authors of the stories in kecil-kecil punya karya are muslims girls, and they come from certain social class. the authors as producers, and readers as consumers, both represent middle and upperclass teens. the authors choose symbols that represent their gender and social class. the english language is used to explain the social class and to whom the authors want to communicate with. in indonesian context, the identity of middle and upper-class teen girls is constructed closely with the usage of english. hence, the distinction of social class is marked by the use of english language (oyvind, 2005). second, the basis for the use of english language is found in the social practice whereby the parents are motivated to improve their children’s social capital by sending them to the schools, where english is a primary language of instruction or a heavily-emphasized subject. this situation has also been influenced by the state’s regulation of the national curriculum of 2006 (pusat bahasa universitas trisakti, 2013), which emphasize the importance of the usage of english beginning in primary school. numerous schools that use english as a primary language of instruction have been established since then. although the recent national curriculum of 2013 is the revised version of 2006 one that reduces english to a secondary subject in primary schools, many private schools with english-based curriculums continues to teach english as the primary subject. moreover, there are some schools known as english full-day classes and use english as their only language of instruction. the teens that write the kecil-kecil punya karya are a product of english schools that described above. they use the english language because their social environment opens a space for them to use it. the middle and upperclasses have benefit to a greater extent from such english learning environment. the usage of english mixes with symbols of islam is a way to convey self-identity in the teens’ construction of identity. this construction of identity shows these teens’ authors distinction from others. third, the teen girls that write such stories are often the ones that have been traveled abroad. some of these teenagers have lived abroad with their parents and are educated outside of indonesia. they write stories about their experiences while living abroad. retelling their experiences in other countries is important because it links to the psychology of distinction, which is crucial in the analysis of identity construction in teen lit. the ability to travel abroad for teens and indonesians, in general, represent someone of high status. people are considered rich and cultivated if they can travel to other countries including these teenage authors. by narrating one’s experience in another country, the author can boast of things that other teenagers such as those in the lower class cannot do. the lower class teens are subordinated because of their social class. the subordination of the lower class people can be traced in many other societies as well that become the pattern in the social relation (peterson, 1994). bourdieu has argued that financial capital is not the only thing which is important in human relations but symbolic capital as well (bourdieu, 1984), an argument which indonesian teen literature supports. the usage of islamic and the western symbols in the novels underscore 58 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 53-60 high financial and symbolic capital in the context of indonesian teenager literature. both forms of capital are used to place subjects in a relation of power with other subjects in a gestalt of teen lit (yunita & udasmoro, 2015). the use of western symbols is strengthened through the use of modern technology. in most of the teen lit surveyed, the authors write about the use of modern technology, including mobile phones, gadgets, and computers. in a story in figure 5 that is composed of nine chapters, there is an image that illustrates the hero’s activity in the story. of these nine chapters, seven of them use information technology as part of the illustration. figure 5 indonesian teenage novels with modern technology one aspect of figure 5 that uses of technology illustrations shows the prominent use of information technology, which also represents the upper-class teenagers (livingstone, 2008). this particular novel tells of an english writing club that is joined by the teen girl, or in more general terms, of an upper-class family which sends their child to a social activity for upper-class people. this group of students is provided with an expensive brand laptop, which is apple macintosh. the illustrator has strengthened the symbolism of social class by drawing a top brandname laptop. all of the subjects involved in the production of this series, including the author, the illustrator, and the publisher have the same perception in the production of meaning. they concur to use teen lit to construct a middle and upper-class social environment through messages and meanings that represented the class of people. the objective is to create distinction, which in this case defines the high status of the teens in the society. this confirms bourdieu’s argument that the high status is a transformation of capital from the financial one into a symbolic one (bourdieu, 1984). the world of consumerism is also celebrated by teens in creating one’s own identity. the teenage readers are told that it is not a taboo to discuss money, despite their age. this money discourse is reinforced in many different ways. in the contemporary world, in which literature has become a product sold in mass market, understanding this moneymaking attitude can be seen not only from the content of the novel but also from some other components of the novels. these include the illustrations, the discourse in the acknowledgments, and others that are covered in the novels. in the acknowledgments for a novel titled andien’s stories (rania, 2013), for instance, the author (a teen girl) writes several sentences in which she repeatedly shows a moneymaking attitude. i hope a lot of people buy my books. to all of my friends, please keep on buying my books, although i cannot give you a discount. thanks to for all of the readers who have spent their money to buy my book. another example is the narration of earning money despite the author, and the hero of the story is very young. earning money is not a tradition for upper-class teens in indonesia, which is different from the western practice and tradition; it is only the lower-class indonesian teens that have to earn money in social practice in order to make a living amongst the poor. the quote shows the new money making culture, as narrated in particular indonesian teen lit. although still small, marshya already works. she works as a cook at yummy frenzy restaurant in new zealand. her salary is quite high. marshya is very happy to work and stay in that country. the money-making culture propagated by the author in the story is actually an over-dramatization. it is impossible for a girl aged 12 years old or younger to be working in a restaurant in new zealand. the laws in new zealand prohibit under-age employment and child abuse. however, such narration tries to capture the idea in the western tradition, whereby such work does not belong only to lower class but to any other class. young people from middle and upper-class can also work in any restaurant to 59when the teens narrate .... (wening udasmoro) earn money. however, the perception that a small girl can also make money is used to dramatically show how the culture of the west has been applied by the author, despite the misinterpretation in the real application of such practice. the most important aspect exhibited by the author is how the young girl has adopted western culture and habits, such as earning a decent salary. in order to differentiate herself from poor indonesian teens, who must earn money in the actual social practice, the author has created a different situation. the girl in the story does not make her money in indonesia, but in a rich, modern, and foreign country, new zealand. despite the similarities, there is still a vacuum, where she can be differentiated in that context. hence, both poor and rich teens make money, but for the poor, earning a salary is a struggle; whereas for the rich, it is a source of status, pride, and amusement. indonesian teens are also familiar with the modern lifestyle, where they go for shopping, have holidays, travel to another country, and engage in other activities of the upper-class. these activities are narrated in the novel series. the novels in figure 6 with titles shopaholic, france i’m coming, and my wonderful holiday, show how the culture of consumption and its resulting lifestyle have become the teens’ goal in indonesian literature. figure 6 indonesian teenage novels of modern lifestyle (www.bukabuku.com) the book covers in figure 6 show that in stories related to shopping; the ones who shop are not only the antagonist actors. this narration is different from the tradition of the teen stories in an indonesian context. to live simply has long been the discourse of the indonesian state in the past. in those years, the emphasis on simple living has been part of the indonesian education system. in most of the stories for teenagers broadcast on television during former president suharto’s era of political rules, such as in the series aku cinta indonesia (i love indonesia) and keluarga cemara (cemara family), the simplicity of life is always emphasized. the protagonists are always the simple girls, while the antagonists are the rich and greedy girls. this tradition is rapidly changing. shopping is no longer seen as something that young girls should avoid. society is consumptive especially when the middle and upper-class is the reference point. travelling and having holidays are also part of how the identity construction is frequently narrated in teen lit. these activities have become common in middle and upperclass indonesian families. these upper-class activities are symbols of taste and one having a solid financial standing. although children can travel and have holidays because every school in indonesia organizes at least one trip a year for a school excursion, having holidays abroad are exclusively for financially well-off middle-and-upper class privileged children. conclusions the teenager literature is targeted at a certain gender and social class and is produced by authors, especially the girls from the same social class. there is an environment of the gender of middle and upper-class production, consumption, and the reproduction of narration by different subjects. all subjects are competing because they have different agendas. there is a relation of power between the authors, publishers, illustrators, and many other different subjects who try to promote their agenda. however, apart from competing among each other, they also negotiate and collaborate through their narrations because they have a similar objective of achieving financial benefit. the girls become on the one side subjects who narrate but on the same time objects narrated. it is the girls who are targetted because of the interest of the market who consume the product of the literature. literature has become a space to construct teen girls identities, in which different ideologies and meanings are produced. the production of meaning in this construction discusses in this article; however, it has never been neutral. there is always a question of social class, gender, and ideology contested in the narration. the subject that own capital always has more power to dominate the narration. however, authors can also push forward their own narration as they have another form of capital as story tellers. the issue is that the different subjects are positioned to only narrate about their class. the narration of this social class is because of the industry of literature (publishers) who want to get benefit from this social class. there are always other narrations that are excluded and marginalized in these stories, which include other religions, social class, and gender. regarding religion, other religions outside islam are not represented in the narration. the position of the publishers with islamic ideological background explain this situation. for class, the lower class has never become a subject of narration since the target of this book production is for the middle-high class consumers. for gender, in works published in reformasi era such as kecil-kecil punya karya, boys are under-represented in the narration. the distinctions of gender, social class, and religion in the teenager’s literature here show that the marginalization is already constructed since the teens’ age. it shows that the narration of teenagers is addressed to certain social categories. 60 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 53-60 references ansori, m. h. 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(timur sri astami) 183 2008 年度、ビヌス大学のビジネス会話に見られる学習者の敬語の誤用分 析 correspondence course の3年生による mistakes in using keigo on japanese busines correspondence subject timur sri astami japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, timur_astami@yahoo.com abstract keigo style is honorific form in japanese language in which the language learners get difficulties in learning, especially the third semester of bina nusantara students. keigo style is divided into sonkeigo, kenjougo, and teineigo. article presented students’ mistakes in using keigo, especially sonkeigo dan kenjougo. it is noted that keigo has a relationship between the speaker (messenger), the receiver (mitra tutur), and the situation that all of them were called taiguu hyougen. the results indicate that the students get accidently exchanged in using sonkeigo and kenjougo, vice versa. if it is applied in question sentences, 60% of the students cannot answer it. used in presenting condition, 60% of the students cannot answer, while used in presenting requirement, 50% of students cannot answer, and used in presenting permission, 40% of students cannot use this keigo style. it can be concluded that the average of 53% of students are not able to use keigo style. keywords: keigo, business correspondence, japanese students abstrak bentuk keigo adalah bentuk kehormatan dalam bahasa jepang dimana pelajar bahasa mengalami kesulitan dalam belajar, terutama semester ketiga mahasiswa bina nusantara. bentuk keigo dibagi menjadi sonkeigo, kenjougo, dan teineigo. artikel ini menyajikan kesalahan siswa dalam menggunakan keigo, terutama sonkeigo dan kenjougo. perlu dicatat bahwa keigo bergantung kepada hubungan antara pembicara (utusan), penerima (mitra tutur), dan situasi dan hal ini disebut hyougen taiguu. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa siswa sering tertukar dalam dalam menggunakan sonkeigo dan kenjougo dan sebaliknya. jika diterapkan dalam kalimat pertanyaan, 60% siswa tidak bisa menjawab. digunakan dalam menyajikan kondisi, 60% dari siswa tidak bisa menjawab, sementara digunakan dalam menyajikan kebutuhan, 50% dari siswa tidak bisa menjawab, dan digunakan dalam meminta izin, 40% dari siswa tidak dapat menggunakan gaya keigo. dapat disimpulkan bahwa rata-rata 53% siswa tidak dapat menggunakan gaya keigo. kata kunci: keigo, korespondensi bisnis, siswa jepang 184 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 183--193 はじめに いわゆる言語は 外国語だけでなくて、母語も含まれる。すなわち、外国語が第二言語 として、機能しているところでは 最近色々外国語が 使われるようになってきた。インドネ シアでも、外国語が 第二言語として使われるようになってきた。例として英語、中国語、 日本語などに興味をもつ人が増えているそうである。現在には 世界中の人々と簡単にコミ ュニケーションがとれる世の中である。外国語学習者が外国語を学習する理由は日常的に使 いたいとか、就職のためとか、科学的に言語のを研究するためといったことが挙げられる。 言語の4技能は 話す、書く、読む、聞くという技能であり、それぞれは 関係がある。 よって、言語の4技能の中でアウトプットは書く技能と話す技能で、インプットは 聞く技 能と読む技能である。インプットの役割はアウトプットを助けたり言語の能力を高めること である。 前回の研究は、学習者に対する敬語の教え方についてであった。水谷(2002)によると、 三つの敬語の教え方の問題は 一、敬語の種類に尊敬語と謙譲語があること、二、上下関係 が関係していること、三、適切に、尊敬語と謙譲語を使い分けることのだということである。 学習者に尊敬についてのアンケートを行った結果、学習者はよく敬語を間違って使用す ることがわかった。下記に図 1 で現れた。 図 1 学習者に尊敬についてのアンケートの結果 行った予備調査の、データを見ると、敬語は難しいと答えた学習者 80%以上いた。グ ラフを見ると、一番多いのは敬語で約 83%、2番目は可能形で約 13%、3番目は受身で約3% の学習者が難しいと答えた。敬語が 難しいと感じる理由について 約 69%の学習者が敬語 の種類、特に尊敬と謙譲の相違が難しいと答えている。文章の中で適切に敬語を選ぶのが 難 しいと答えた学習者が約 26%で、それから、敬語の練習が足りなかったと答えた学習者が約 5%だった。 敬語 可能形 受身 mistakes in using keigo...... (timur sri astami) 185 correspondence course の授業の中で、ほとんどの学生は敬語を使っているようである。 日本通信ビジネスは 広い分野だが、日本オフィスは狭い分野で、学習者が日本人と流暢な コミュニケーションをとるためには日本語の能力だけでなく、日本通信ができないければな らない。しかし、学生が correspondence course 選んだ理由は翻訳の科目を選びたくないか らということである。つまり、学生がこの日本オフィスを選んだの日本語を学びたくないか らだと考えられる。よって、授業の中でも色々な日本語の問題が出てきた。特に、尊敬表現 である。 先行研究に基づき、correspondence course 授業の中で敬語の使い方について、どの ような誤用のファクターを出てくるかを研究する。対象者は3年生で、研究の方法は量的な データ絞って、それからそのデータは記述的で分析される。. 本研究 研究の作例によって、誤用分析というのは敬語の使い方と関係であり、つまり場面、話 し手、相手レベルを使用するを指すことである。全て、場面と話し手と相手レベルとどのよ うに関係があるかを待遇表現と言われる。研究のデータにより言語のファクターと非言語フ ァクターを別れ、中心する。研究の結果は下記のとおり説明される。 言語誤用のファクター 敬語の使い方という言語誤用のファクターは何だろうか。次にその言語誤用ファクタについ て明らかに述べられる。 敬語の使用の選択 敬語は尊敬語と謙譲語を分かれる。尊敬語というのは自分が相手のために尊重的の言葉 を使うことですが、謙譲語というのは自分が相手に謙遜的の言葉を使うことである。敬語の 中で尊敬語か謙譲語か動詞の形が 7つ決定の動詞である。その動詞から、どうして対象者 が誤りをしたか、次の表 1 で、敬語の誤用パーセントを表す。 表 1 対象者の敬語の誤用 尊敬語 謙譲語 正しくない 正しい 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 38.1% 61.9% 42.9% 57.1% 186 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 183--193 対象者の間違ったところは多くの対象者が動詞を区別することである。尊敬語の動詞は 一番多かったが「見る」62,4%で、二番が「いる 」61,9%である。逆に、謙譲語の動詞は一番 多かったが「する」 66,7%で、二番が「いる」 57,1%である。アンケートの関連するのは対 象者の理解力が敬語の使用ことで、対象者の答えは敬語のことをはっきり分かるか。 図 2.敬語の使用のアンケート 図 2 でのアンケートの結果を見たら、約 50%以上対象者は敬語の使用がまだ分からな いと考えられる。その誤りは尊敬語の動詞も謙譲語の動詞を区別することで、敬語の中で honorific 段階を用いられて、対象者が覚えられないからである。 sudjianto と dahidi(2004:195)の日向によって、効果的か具体的に敬語の使用の役割を述べ ている 1. 尊敬を表す。話し手より社会的に階級の地位が高いか目上としてということである。 2. フォーマルな表現、フォーマルな状態で、会議中や結婚式などで使われている。 3. 距離を表す。話し手と聞き手が初めて会ったときに、心理的に両方もある距離を使わ れている。なので、中立の態度をとる共通のコミュニケーションするときに、敬語が 使われる。 4. 尊厳を守るためで、適切に使っている敬語を話し手の尊厳を示すことである。話し手 が 普通の方じゃなくて、価値のお持ち方で、尊厳する方か教育ある方を示す。 話し手の立場と相手レベル 敬語の使用は待遇表現と関連があるということである。つまり、話し手、聞き手、談話 を区別する。よって、社会的のアスペックを注意されるということである。その社会的のア スペックは水谷(1989:3)においては仲良い、年齢、社会的の関係、社会的の地位、性別、集団 の委員、場面である。コミュニケーションの条件を含めるため、話し手として聞き手の立場 を用心するべきである。即ち、相手の立場は上下関係か内外ものを指すことである。 次に、対象者が尊敬語と謙譲語を区別するの誤るということで、話し手と聞き手の関連され 敬語の使用のパーセントは表 2 にで現れた。 全然分からない(14.2%) 少し分かる (9.5%) まあまあ (42.9%) かなりわかる (28.6%) はっきり分かる (4.8%) mistakes in using keigo...... (timur sri astami) 187 表 2 対象者が尊敬語と謙譲語を区別するの誤用 尊敬語 謙譲語 正しくない 正しい 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 57 % 43 % 62.7 % 37.3 % 多くの間違ったところは尊敬語の使い方では、対象者が「正しくないの答え」57%で、 「正しいの答え」43%である。その上に、謙譲語の使い方では、対象者が「正しくないの答 え」57%で、「正しいの答え」43%である。アンケートの関連するのは対象者の理解力が敬語 の使用ことで、アンケートの質問は「だれに尊敬語を使用するか」、対象者の答えは図 3 で現 れた。 図 3 だれに尊敬語を使用するかの答え 多く間違ったのは尊敬語の使用のが「年上の人のため」52 %で、「同じの会社の人」48%. である。「同じ会社の人」というのは、どの人か目上かはっきり説明しないである。つまり「同 じ会社の人」は話し手より「同じ会社の人」のほうが年上と考えられる。それで、インドネ シア社会の構造は年上の人のために尊敬語を使用するが、対象者が尊敬語を使用する影響さ れたからである。 敬語の使用の測定は上下関係か内外ものと関連である。日本社会にある人間関係はウチ かソトに支配されてウチであれば同じ集団で、ソトでれば外の集団であるということがはっ きりわかるわけである。ウチは 同じ家、同じ集団、妻、夫を意味するが、逆に、ソトは 違 う家、違う集団などで、集団には 同じ家、同じ学校、同じ会に入ってしまうことになる。 アンケートの関連するのは対象者の理解力が敬語の使用ことで、アンケートの質問は「誰に 謙譲語を使用するか」、対象者の答えは図 4 で現れた。 知り合ったところ人のため(38%) あまり親しくない人(19%) 年上の人 (52%) 学校の教師(43%) 同じの会社の人 ( 48%) 会社の以外友達 (19%) 188 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 183--193 図 4 誰に謙譲語を使用するかの答え 多く間違ったのは謙譲語を使用のが「同じ会社の人」61 %で、「年上の人」と「会社以 外の人」52 %である。「同じ会社の人」というのは、どの人か目上かはっきり説明しないであ る。敬語の使用の測定は上下関係か内外ものと関連である。それで、インドネシア社会の構 造は年上の人のために尊敬語を使用するが、対象者が尊敬語を使用する影響されたからであ る。日本社会にある人間関係はウチかソトに支配されてウチであれば同じ集団で、ソトでれ ば外の集団であるということがはっきりわかるわけである。ウチは 同じ家、同じ集団、妻、 夫を意味するが、逆に、ソトは 違う家、違う集団などで、集団には 同じ家、同じ学校、 同じ会に入ってしまうことになる。謙譲語を使用するのは話し手が聞き手に「内のもの」を 話しているわけである。. (davies 2002:217) 場面とコミュニケーションの状況 相手に尊重する態度を示すため話し手と聞き手と結びつける場面とコミュニケーシ ョン行動話中で待遇表現と言われる。様々な相手に敬う態度を示して、相手のある価値を持 っていて、すなわち年齢、地位なである。丁寧さ持ちいるのは一般的相手に尊敬の態度を示 す。それで、尊敬の表現というのは ある言語の方法や社会のある行動を適応することがで きる。その適応というのはつまり場面によって尊敬の言葉を適応することができると言われ る。小川(2003:56)は ある使用の表現には感謝の表現、許可を求める表現、依頼表現な ど例である。その使用の表現には文法的正しくても、選定の言葉や表現など場面によって間 違いすれば、その表現は全て間違えるようになると言われる。大事なことで、適当な表現の 選定するのは 話し手と相手の関係の影響がるので、場面設定と関連するデータを分析する。 下記に場面設定のデータを分析して、四つの表現を区別になり、即ち bertanya (質問する 表現–表 3), menyatakan maksud(意思を表明する表現–表 4), permintaan (依頼する表現–表 5)dan meminta izin(許可を求める表現–表 6)を述べられる。 知り合ったところ人のため (38%) あまり親しくない人 (19%) 年上の人(52%) 学校の教師(33%) mistakes in using keigo...... (timur sri astami) 189 表 3 質問する表現 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 35.7 % 64.3 % 場面の問題に基づき、「質問する」の場合、対象者が正しくこたえた 64.3 %で、それは 対象者が大体分かったからと考えられる。対象者は話し手と聞き手を結びつけるコミュニケ ーション行動の中で内のものと外のものの理念になれるように大体分かったからと考えられ る。アンケートの結果から、作った会話見によって、だれが話し手か、だれ聞き手か、対象 者が大体書けるようになったと思われる。そのことには話し手の立場から見れば、内のもの と言われ、相手あるいは聞き手の立場から見れば、外のものと言われる。一般的に日本社会 または会社には内のものと外のものをはっきり見ることができる davies (2002:217)においては昔から日本では代々家システムを適用する格家族のおか げで、現代に事実に見えないようになってきましたが、家システムの価値が今までまだ残っ ているようだと思います。それで、家に由来した家族の員にはウチを同家、同集団、主人、 奥さん、表されることにななりますが、ソトを外の家から由来して例えば、外人、違い集団 表されるということになる。その上、柴谷においては相手が自分よりも上かしたか、あるい は、自分と同じ集団内人か、集団外の人かがわからないと、話しにくいものだという経験は だれにもある。それは上下関係か内のももと外のもの二つの条件を含められると言われる。 表 4 意思を表明する表現 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 66.6 % 33.4 % 場面の問題に基づき、「意思を表明する表現」の場合、対象者が正しくないこたえた 66.6 %で、それは対象者がまだわからないからと考えられる。話し手によって、「意思を表明 する」の場合、相手にどんな言葉を使うか。まだ分からないようである。対象者は話し手と 聞き手を結びつけるコミュニケーション行動の中で内のものと外のものの理念になれると対 象者がまだ分からないからと考えられる。アンケートの結果から、作った会話見によって、 だれが話し手か、だれ聞き手か、対象者が半分しか書けるようになったと思われる。対象者 はだれがうちのものか、だれが外のものか、まだ分からないと思われる。davies (2002 : 217) においては日本社会にはほとんど内のものと外のもの価値を適応されるようになったと思わ れる。それで、家に由来した家族の員にはウチを同家、同集団、主人、奥さん、表されるこ とにななりますが、ソトを外の家から由来して例えば、外人、違い集団表されるということ になる。その上、柴谷においては相手が自分よりも上かしたか、あるいは、自分と同じ集団 内人か、集団外の人かがわからないと、話しにくいものだという経験はだれにもある。それ は上下関係か内のももと外のもの二つの条件を含められると言われる。言語習得ことによっ て、対象者が学習のプロセスをしているときに、不満インプットはもらえるかもしれないと 考えられる。奥田 (1992:159)は 学習者が系統的な誤用を必然的に生み出すということ は、第二言語習得のシステムのなかに誤用を生み出す機能が内在していることを示唆してい る。言い換えると、誤用の分析には、誤用を生み出す第二言語習得のシステムを明らかにす る可能性が秘められているということである。 190 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 183--193 表 5 依頼表現 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 54.1 % 45.9 % 場面の問題に基づき、「依頼する表現」の場合、対象者が正しくないこたえた 54.1 % % で、それは対象者がまだわからないからと考えられる。話し手によって、「依頼する表現」の 場合、相手にどんな言葉を使うか。まだ分からないようである。対象者は話し手と聞き手を 結びつけるコミュニケーション行動の中で内のものと外のものの理念になれると対象者がま だ分からないからと考えられる。アンケートの結果から、作った会話見によって、だれが話 し手か、だれ聞き手か、対象者が半分しか書けるようになったと思われる。対象者はだれが うちのものか、だれが外のものか、まだ分からないと思われる。davies (2002 : 217)において は日本社会にはほとんど内のものと外のもの価値を適応されるようになったと思われる。そ れで、家に由来した家族の員にはウチを同家、同集団、主人、奥さん、表されることになな りますが、ソトを外の家から由来して例えば、外人、違い集団表されるということになる。 その上、柴谷においては相手が自分よりも上かしたか、あるいは、自分と同じ集団内人 か、集団外の人かがわからないと、話しにくいものだという経験はだれにもある。それは上 下関係か内のももと外のもの二つの条件を含められると言われる。言語習得ことによって、 対象者が学習のプロセスをしているときに、不満インプットはもらえるかもしれないと考え られる。奥田(1992:159)は 学習者が系統的な誤用を必然的に生み出すということは、第 二言語習得のシステムのなかに誤用を生み出す機能が内在していることを示唆している。言 い換えると、誤用の分析には、誤用を生み出す第二言語習得のシステムを明らかにする可能 性が秘められているということである。 表 6 許可を求める表現 正しくない 正しい 対象者の回答 40.9 % 59.1 % 場面の問題に基づき、「許可を求める表現」の場合、対象者が正しくこたえた 59.1 %で、 それは対象者が大体分かったからと考えられる。対象者は話し手と聞き手を結びつけるコミ ュニケーション行動の中で内のものと外のものの理念になれるように大体分かったからと考 えられる。アンケートの結果から、作った会話見によって、だれが話し手か、だれ聞き手か、 対象者が大体書けるようになったと思われる。そのことには話し手の立場から見れば、内の ものと言われ、相手あるいは聞き手の立場から見れば、外のものと言われる。一般的に日本 社会または会社には内のものと外のものをはっきり見ることができる。 davies(2002 : 217)においては昔から日本では代々家システムを適用する格家族のお かげで、現代に事実に見えないようになってきましたが、家システムの価値が今までまだ残 っているようだと思います。それで、家に由来した家族の員にはウチを同家、同集団、主人、 奥さん、表されることにななりますが、ソトを外の家から由来して例えば、外人、違い集団 表されるということになる。その上、柴谷においては相手が自分よりも上かしたか、あるい mistakes in using keigo...... (timur sri astami) 191 は、自分と同じ集団内人か、集団外の人かがわからないと、話しにくいものだという経験は だれにもある。それは上下関係か内のももと外のもの二つの条件を含められると言われる。 非言語誤用のファクター 敬語の使い方という言語誤用のファクターは何だろうか。次にその言語誤用ファクタに ついて明らかに述べられる。 対象者の原因 対象者の原因というのは学習するプロセスと関係である。約 80%の対象者にとって、 敬語を学んだのは覚えにくいし、種類が多いので、敬語が難しいと答えられたとわかる。学 習のプロセスと関連で、syah (2003: 66)においては言語を学んでいるときに 二つの類を区 別して、一つ知識と関係であり、二つ自分自身の能力とお関係で、つまり強調的に訓練した 結果を変更する。結びつける刺激とは インプットことであり、オウトプットと関係のは 反 応ことである。刺激というには教師が学生に 何でもことを挙げられますが、反応というの は 教師が学生にその反応対して 反応し頂けるようにことである。それで、practice(実験 のこと)では 学ぶプロセスを指せるが、何回も必要な練習をすれば、達成されたアカデミ ックな存続し保障されるためである。 第二言語習得へ送信の原因 対象者の原因というのは学習するプロセスと関係である。約 80%の対象者にとって、 敬語を学んだのは覚えにくいし、種類が多いので、敬語が難しいと答えられたとわかる。そ こは問題になると思われる。データを見れば、全ての誤用は第一言語習得から第二言語習得 へ送信すると関係である。 l1と l2との間に変動しながら存在する中間的な言語体系と考えられており、レベル 別の誤用の種類としては表記、音声、形態素、意味論、統語論、コミュニケーションを別れ る。intralingual という誤用の原因つまり l1の影響を得ることである。 (aoki, matsumoto, and miyazaki, 2001:140)対象者は皆3年生なので、敬語をもう学んだから、言語誤用が起きた場合、 development errors による誤用だと考えられる。ある第二言語を学習するとき、学習者の能力 は学習者の経験に限られる。学習者の言語は 経験と能力が増えるにつれて、良くなる。 (parera 1997:142). chomsky も言語誤用の原因を performance の要素と competence の要素に区別している。 performance というのは表面的に言語を使用することで、competence というのは外国語で コミュニケーションをとるために 言語能力の使用ができるとということである。データを 分析して、約 50%の対象者が話し手の立場か、聞き手の立場か、まだ分からないようと考え られる。それに、相手に適当な言葉を選定するのはまだ分からないようと考えられる。よっ 192 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 183--193 て、コミュニケーションの competence という言語構造プロセスと言われ自分自身的でどの方 法を使うかを知識をもらえるためである。この competence プロセスにはどんな方法か方々に よって、知識がもらえるようになる。 結論 研究をしたあとで、学習者が ビジネス会話の‘correspondence course’中で、複雑な 敬語を使用することである。敬語の動詞と関係で、謙譲語か尊敬語を使用することで、つま り学習者が使用のは交換のことでよく間違えられるようになった。尊敬語から謙譲語への形 で学習者が約 60%以上この謙譲語を使用することができないと考えられる。学習者が第二言 語習得の学習のプロセスのとき、学習のオートプットのことで、一定してない傾向と思われ る。データの分析に基づき、約 50%以上の学習者が尊敬語と謙譲語を使用することができな いと考えられる。間違うの要素と関係で、ビジネス会話‘correspondence course’中で内の者 と外の者は質問の表現を使うとき、60%平均の学習者が 外の者として、いつ尊敬語と謙譲 語を使用するか、学習者が使えると思われる。意思の表現を使うとき、60%平均の学習者が 外の者として、いつ尊敬語と謙譲語を使用するか、学習者が使えない傾向と思われる。よっ て、外の者として、どのような意思表現を使うとき、学習者が使用することできないと考え られる。依頼の表現を使うとき、50%平均の学習者が 外の者として、いつ尊敬語と謙譲語 を使用するか、学習者が使えない傾向と思われる。よって、外の者として、どのような依頼 表現を使うとき、学習者が使用することできないと考えられる。許可の表現を使うとき、40% の学習者が 外の者として、いつ尊敬語と謙譲語を使用するか、学習者が使えない傾向と思 われる。よって、外の者として、どのような許可の表現を使うとき、学習者が使用すること できないと考えられる。敬語を学ぶとき、どのような学習者は複雑な問題を解決するか。約 50%の答えた学習者がまたもう一回教科書や文献など調べる。約30%の答えた学習者が も う一度 敬語の表現を覚えなければならない。約 20%の答えた学習者が 映画を見ると、場 面から尊敬語と謙譲語の使用するのは分かってくると言われる。 参考文献 aoki, t., matsumoto, k., and miyazaki, m. (2003) tadashii keigo no tsukaikata. tokyo: 日 本能率協会マネジメントセンター davies, r.j. and osamu, i. (2002) the japanese mind. new york : tuttle publishing mizutani, n. (1989) intermediate japanese an integrated course. japan: bonjinsha mistakes in using keigo...... (timur sri astami) 193 parera, j.d. (1997) linguistik edukasional: metodologi pembelajaran bahasa analisis kontrastif antarbahasa dan analisis kesalahan berbahasa. jakarta: erlangga sudjianto, and dahidi, a. (2006) pengantar linguistik bahasa jepang. jakarta: kesaint blanc syah, m.. (2003) psikologi belajar. jakarta: rajawali press microsoft word 03_ menik_setting.doc 116 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 the non-observance of the conversational maxims: an analysis of the dialogues in arthur miller’s the crucible yuvike1; menik winiharti2 1,2 english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract article deploys the application of cooperative principle in analyzing the dialogues in arthur miller’s the crucible.the applied research methods were qualitative and quantitative methods. the dialogue of the play were transferred in the form of excerpts to the computer manually. then the pplication of the non-observance of the conversational maxims was analyzed and its occurences are counted. it is found that the non-observance of the conversational maxims are applied in the play. the categories of the non-observance of the conversational maxims that are applied are flouting the maxims, violating the maxims, and opting out a maxim. the most frequent category of the nonobservance of the conversational maxims is flouting quality by using metaphor while the least frequent one is flouting quantity. keywords: cooperative principle, non-observance, conversational maxims abstrak artikel membahas penerapan cooperative principle untuk menganalisis percakapan yang terdapat dalam the crucible karya arthur miller. metode penelitian adalah kualitatif dan kuantitatif. dialog dalam drama dipindahkan secara manual menjadi bentuk potongan dialog. kemudian, penerapan teori the non-observance of the conversational maxims dianalisis dan kemunculannya dihitung. ditemukan bahwa the non-observance of the conversational maxims memang diterapkan dalam drama ini, yaitu flouting quality dengan menggunakan metafora sedangkan yang muncul paling sedikit adalah flouting quantity. kata kunci: cooperative principle, non-observance, conversational maxims the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 117 introduction plays or dramas have been entertainment for people since centuries ago. although people might not read plays much in this modern era, but still, they are the ‘root’ of modern entertainment such as films, tv dramas, tv series, etc. in written plays, the sentences that form the dialogues among the characters are the soul of the story. di yanni (2000:723) mentions the importance of dialogues in plays, “like fiction, drama relies on dialogue and description, which take the form of stage directions, lines describing characters, scenes, or actions with clues to production.” in order to appreciate and enjoy the plays well, the dialogues and description must be imagined since they will lead the readers to the world of imagination in their mind. the dialogues in plays often contain symbolization, idiomatic expression, proverb, etc., that sometimes make the sentences in the dialogues ambiguous, convey implied meanings, too informative, etc. there is a theory called cooperative principle (cp) that is proposed by grice as mentioned in yule (1996). it is against the sentences that are ambiguous, convey implied meanings, too informative, etc. the general rules of the cp that grice proposes are: “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage in which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” (yule 1996: 37) this is a pragmatic rule in conversation which is then elaborated in four maxims: quantity: (a) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange); (b) do not make your contribution more informative than is required. quality: try to make your contribution a true one.(a) do not say what you believe to be false; (b) do not say those that lack adequate evidence. relation: be relevant manner: be perspicuous; avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity), be orderly. (cited in yule, 1996:37). the rule appears to ‘manage’ conversations, so that the conversation does not contain too many wrong, irrelevant, and much too long forms of information. yule (1996:37) says, “it is important to recognize these maxims, …… as unstated assumption we have in conversation.” one example of the cooperative dialogue according to cp is as follows: “ where is mary?” (1) “ she is at home, in her room.” the dialogue in (1) is cooperative according to grice’s maxims because it observes every of the maxims above. b gives sufficient information about where mary is, gives correct information, gives relevant answer to the question of a, and gives perspicuous answer (not ambiguous, orderly, and brief). cutting’s (2002) version of the non-observance of the conversational maxims there is another theory of conversation with cp as the basic theory. it is the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory proposed by cutting (2002). it is classified into 5 categories: 118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 flouting the maxims flouting the maxims is defined as when speakers do not seem to follow the maxims but expect the listener to generate the implications, not taking the words at the face value. flouting the maxim is divided into flouting quantity, flouting quality, flouting relation, and flouting manner. flouting quantity flouting quantity is when the speaker gives less or more information than is needed. there is one example from cutting (2002:37) well, how do i look? (2) your shoes are nice… in (2), a is expected to understand the implicative that only the shoes are nice, which means the others are not. a might expect b to tell about the whole appearance, and b expects a to understand by giving less information. flouting quality flouting quality is defined as saying something that does not represent what they think. here is one example: may: i think i am the most beautiful girl in the world. (3) ben: yeah, and i am the king of the world. in (3), may is boasting around. then ben’s answer does not mean that he is boasting around, too, but he just wants may to stop boasting around by saying something that is really wrong. he wants may to look for the message behind the line, in which ben is not the king of the world. in the section of flouting quality, it is said that the maxim of quality can be flouted not only by saying something that does not represent the truth, but also by using hyperbole, metaphor, irony, banter, and sarcasm. hornby (1995:586) defines hyperbole as an exaggerating language for effect. one example of flouting quality by using hyperbole is: ann: johnny depp is so cute. (4) jean: yes, i can eat him alive. in (4), jean exaggerates her utterance by saying that she could eat johnny depp alive. in reality, jean will not eat johnny depp alive; she says that to express her admiration to him. next, using metaphor is to use imaginative phrase or word to describe somebody or something to another object to give emphasis of the shared quality (hornby, 1995:734). to make it more understandable, below is one example of metaphor: my house is a refrigerator in january. (5) (cutting, 2002:38) the metaphor in (5) compares the refrigerator with the speaker’s room. refrigerator is cold, therefore, the speaker means that his/her room is really cold in january. another way of flouting quality is by using irony and banter. leech (1983) says, “while irony is an apparent friendly way of being offensive (mock-politeness), the type of verbal behavior known as “banter” is an offensive way of being friendly (mock impoliteness).” here is one example of irony: the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 119 mandy is protesting her husband’s behavior earlier in a party, “you know, i’m really proud that you told everyone our marriage problem in the party.” (6) actually, in (6) mandy is not proud of her husband’s behavior. through irony, she wants to emphasize her disappointment to her husband. next, this is an example of banter: “my mean and ugly daughter can’t give me just one hug?” (7) through (7), the speaker does not mean to insult the daughter, but to show the affection and the level of intimacy. the last way of flouting the maxim of quality is by using sarcasm. sarcasm is defined as “remarks that imply the opposite of what they appear to mean and are intended to upset or mock somebody.” (hornby, 1995:1041). below is one example of sarcasm: “why don’t you ask your beloved moron friend to help you?” (8) the speaker of (8) does not mean to have a joke, but really intends to hurt the interlocutor. flouting relation in flouting relation, the hearers are expected to imagine the utterance that is not said as the answer to the question. here is an example of flouting relation: a: so what do you think of mark? b: his flatmate’s a wonderful cook. (9) (cutting, 2002:39) b’s answer in (9) means that she is not too impressed with mark by not saying anything about mark. instead, she compliments mark’s flatmate. so, she has implied the answer to the question. flouting manner the last category in flouting the maxims is flouting manner. flouting manner is done by being obscure and often excludes a third party. here is the example: a: where are you off to? b: i was thinking of going out to get some of that funny white stuff for somebody. a: ok, but don’t be long – dinner’s nearly ready. (10) (cutting, 2002:39) the example in (10) is a conversation between husband and wife. ‘that funny white stuff’ means ice cream and ‘somebody’ refers to a third party named michelle. the husband is trying to be obscure because he does not want michelle, his daughter to know that he is going to go to buy some ice cream for her. violating the maxims the next category of the non-observance of the conversational maxims is violating the maxims. a speaker is said to have violated the maxims by giving the wrong information intentionally, so that the hearer will only know the literal meaning of the utterance. there are four categories of violating the maxims. they are: violating quality, violating quantity, violating relation, and violating manner. here are some examples from cutting (2002:40) for further explanation: 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 violating quality: husband: how much did that new dress cost, darling? wife: thirty-five pounds. (11) the wife has violated the maxim of quality because the price of the dress is more expensive than the price she has said. it is possible she does it because she does not want her husband to know that the dress costs a lot. violating quantity: husband: how much did that new dress cost, darling? wife: less than the last one. (12) in (12), the wife has violated the maxim of quantity because she does not mention the price of the dress. she has given less information than is needed. violating relation: husband: how much did that new dress cost, darling? wife: i know, let’s go out tonight. now, where would you like to go? (13) the wife’s answer in (13) is categorized as violating relation because her answer is irrelevant to the question. it is obvious that she is trying to avoid the topic. violating manner: husband: how much did that new dress cost, darling? wife: a tiny fraction of my salary, though probably a bigger fraction of the salary of the woman that sold it to me. (14) the wife’s answer above in (14) has violated manner because her answer is too long and obscure. she probably expects that by saying that, the matter can be avoided. the other forms of the non-observance of the conversational maxims are infringing the maxim and opting out the maxim. these two categories are without implied meaning and not intentionally done. infringing the maxims infringing the maxim is failing to observe the conversational maxims because of the imperfection of the linguistics performance (baby’s talk or foreign language learner), impaired performance (nervous, drunk, too excited), cognitive impairment, and incapable to speak clearly. (thomas cited in cutting, 2002:41) opting out the maxims a speaker is opting out the maxim means that he or she is unwilling to cooperate because of certain reasons. here is one example for opting out the maxim: police: who is your informant? suspect: i’m sorry i can’t give you the name. (15) in (15), the suspect refuses to give the informant’s name probably because of ethical reason. therefore, he refuses to cooperate according to the maxims. it is believed that the non-observance of the conversational maxims in the plays’ dialogues make the story more interesting to read. it can be said that the application is one of the ingredients to create interesting plays. moreover, it is interested to find the categories of the non-observance of the the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 121 conversational maxims theory that are used in the play, the implied meanings, and the purposes of applying the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory. miller’s the crucible is chosen as the object of the analysis for some reasons. the format of this play, which is in the form of dialogues, is very suitable to the theory. also, the play is a classic one that signals the existence of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory in the dialogues since old english language in plays is often poetic. the poetic language usually contains implied meanings, ambiguous, too informative, etc. the last reason is the ‘tense’ feeling that is caused by reading this play. it is really attracting. research methods the source of the data is the dialogues in arthur miller’s the crucible. the method of data collection is non-experimental by collecting the dialogues in the play that fail to observe the conversational maxims in specific ways. before analyzing, the first thing that is done is finding the dialogues that fail to observe the conversational maxims in the play. the dialogues are then converted in the form of excerpts manually. next the analysis is classified into three sections. they are the sections of flouting the maxims, violating the maxims, and opting out the maxims. after that, the dialogues from the play that fail to observe the maxims are categorized according to the the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory which is found in cutting (2000). then, the implied meaning of the application is generated based on the conversational implicature theory and the purpose of the application is the next thing to be analyzed. the last step is counting the occurrences of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory that are applied in the dialogues. the occurrence of each category of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory is also calculated to find the frequencies of the occurrences. result and discussions in this chapter, the theory that is used is grice’s theory on the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory as found in cutting (2000). it is used to categorize the excerpts into the categories of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory. the analysis is divided into three sections: flouting the maxims, violating the maxims, and opting out the maxims. in every section, the excerpts of the dialogues that fail to observe the conversational maxims are analyzed. these excerpts are categorized according to the ways of failing to observe the conversational maxims. then, the implied meaning of every excerpt is generated and the purpose is also analyzed. examples of data flouting the maxims this section is about not observing the maxims and conveying implied meaning at the same time. there are five categories in this section: flouting quality by using metaphor, flouting quality by using hyperbole, flouting quantity, flouting relation, and flouting manner. 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 flouting quality by using metaphor the excerpts in table 1 flout quality by using metaphor. it compares two objects with the same characteristics. table 1 using metaphor in flouting quality excerpt implied meaning purpose (parris is asking abigail about what might cause his daughter’s illness.) parris (pointing at betty): you call this sport? (she lowers her eyes. he pleads.) abigail, if you know something that may help the doctor, for god’s sake tell it to me. (she is silent.) i saw tituba waving her arms over the fire when i came on you. why was she doing that? and i heard a screeching and gibberish from her mouth. she were swaying like a dumb beast over that fire! (p. 19-20) parris is really suspicious because he thinks tituba’s dance is not just a common dance. he wants some explanation about what the girls did the night before. parris’ dialogue flouts the maxim of quality because he uses metaphor to describe what tituba did the night before. the metaphorical expression underlined in the excerpt conveys an implied meaning that parris is really suspicious that tituba’s dancing is not just a common dance. he suspects tituba, ruth, abigail, mercy, marry, and betty to have done a witchcraft activity. the activity might cause betty’s illness. parris’ purpose in doing so is to ask some explanation regarding something that the girls did the night before. it might help the doctor to find the cause of betty’s illness. flouting quality by using hyperbole the excerpt in the following table flouts quality using hyperbolic expression because the speaker exaggerates the words to give stronger effect or emphasis on the real meaning. table 2 flouting quality by using hyperbolic expression excerpt implied meaning purpose (parris is investigating abigail about what she did in the forest with betty the night before.) parris: i cannot blink what i saw, abigail, for my enemies will not blink it. i saw a dress lying on the grass. (p. 20) parris is very shocked to see a dress lying on the grass. to emphasize that what he saw is really shocking that he cannot blink his eyes. in parris’ line, he exaggerates his line by saying that he cannot blink what he saw, but in reality, he surely can blink and what he saw will not make him unable to blink. by exaggerating, he conveys the meaning that he has seen a dress lying on the grass, and it is really unusual, even shocking because he thinks he saw someone naked running in the forest. his purpose is to emphasize on how shocked he is to see a dress lying on the grass that he cannot blink his eyes. he is also really suspicious about that. the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 123 flouting quality by using hyperbole and metaphor the following is flouting the maxim of quality by using hyperbole and metaphor at the same time since both applications are found in one excerpt. table 3 flouting quality by using hyperbole and metaphor excerpt implied meaning purpose (excerpt 33 ) (proctor is protesting elizabeth about how she treats him.) proctor: spare me! you forget nothin’ and forgive nothin’. learn charity, woman. i have gone tiptoe in this house all seven month since she is gone. i have not moved from there to there without i think to please you, and still an everlasting funeral marches round your heart. i cannot speak but i am doubted, every moment judged for lies, as though i come into a court when i come into this house! (pg 55) everlasting funeral marches round your heart: always feels sad. every moment judged for lies, as though i come into a court when i come into this house!: proctor is always judged at home as if he is in court. everlasting funeral marches round your heart: to exaggerate the sadness that is having by elizabeth. every moment judged for lies, as though i come into a court when i come into this house!: to say his opinion about the judging in his house. in his line, proctor exaggerates the sadness that elizabeth has as an everlasting funeral that marches round her heart. since elizabeth finds out that proctor has cheated on her, she always feels sad. that is the implied meaning of proctor’s dialogue. proctor says that because he is still amazed since elizabeth has not recovered yet from her sadness. he wants elizabeth to know that he is dissapointed and wants her to forgive him. besides that, proctor also compares his house with the court. what he means by comparing his house with the court is that he feels really judged by his wife whenever he is home. it has been like that since he has ended his affair with abigail. proctor’s purpose in comparing his house with the court is to remind elizabeth so that she will not judge his anymore. flouting quantity the excerpt in table 4. flouts quantity because the information given is either less or too informative. table 4 flouting quantity excerpt implied meaning purpose (proctor is asking giles to leave with him because he doesn’t like the witchcraft topic.) proctor (to hale): i never spoke on witches one way or the other. will you come, giles? giles: no – no, john, i think not. i have some few peer questions of my own to ask this fellow. (p. 41) giles is really interested in the witchcraft topic. to say his interest in witchcraft topic indirectly. 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 in order to observe the maxim of quantity, giles should just answer “no – no, john, i think not”, because this answer has given the right amount of information. however, giles gives too many information by adding something more in his answer that flouts the maxim of quantity. there is an implied meaning in his additional information: giles is really interested in hale’s knowledge about witchcraft. giles purpose of adding more information than is needed is that he wants to say his interest to proctor indirectly because proctor does not like the topic. flouting relation the excerpt in the following table flouts relation because the answer given is not relevant to the topic. table 5 flouting relation excerpt implied meaning purpose (hale is investigating tituba about betty’s condition.) hale: why can she not wake? are you silencing this child? tituba: i love me betty! (p. 46) tituba loves betty, so she is not silencing betty. to deny the accusation of silencing betty by saying that she loves betty. tituba’s answer in the excerpt above is not relevant because parris does not ask her if she loves betty. the implied meaning of tituba’s answer is that she does not do anything bad to betty. tituba loves betty, she will not do anything bad to her. tituba says her line because she thinks her answer is more convincing if she says that. flouting manner the excerpt in table 6. below flouts manner because their answer is obscure, ambiguous, not brief and not in order. table 6 flouting manner excerpt implied meaning purpose (proctor and abigail is having an argument) proctor (shaking her): do you looking for whipping? (a psalm is heard being sung below) abigail (in tears): i look for john proctor that took me from my sleep and put knowledge in my heart! i never knew what pretence salem was, i never knew the lying lessons i was taught by all these christian women and their covenanted men! and now you bid me tear the light out of my eyes? i will not, i cannot! you loved me, john proctor, and whatever sin it is, you love me yet! (p. 30) abigail really loves john proctor to say how much abigail loves proctor. the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 125 abigail’s answer in the excerpt above is obscure and a prolixity since proctor only asks her if she looks for whipping. the implied meaning of abigail’s line is simply that she loves proctor. she says a prolixity line because she wants to describe how much she loves proctor. violating the maxim the excerpt in table 7. below violates the maxim of quality because they are intentionally done to give misleading information without implied meaning. table 7 violating quality excerpt purpose (parris is investigating abigail about what she did with betty, tituba, ruth, mercy, and marry the night before.) parris: now, look you child, your punishment will come in its time. but if you trafficked with spirits in the forest i must know it now, for surely my enemies will, and they will ruin me with it. abigail: but we never conjured spirits. (p. 19) abigail does not want to admit her crime. when parris is trying to investigate abigail whether she does the witchcraft activity or not, abigail is lying. although she says that she never conjured spirits, but the night before, tituba, abigail, betty, ruth, mercy, and mary did a witchcraft activity. abigail has tried to kill john proctor’s wife through witchcraft while tituba has tried to conjure ruth putnam’s dead sisters. abigail does not want to confess because the punishment for doing witchcraft is hanged by the neck. opting out the maxim opting out the maxim is when a speaker refuses to cooperate according to the conversational maxims for certain reasons without implied meaning. table 8 opting out a maxim excerpts purpose (tituba is asking betty’s condition to mr. parris.) tituba (already taking a step backward): my betty be hearty soon? parris: out of here! (p. 17) parris wants to be left alone. parris is very sad because betty is very ill. he wants to be left alone so that he can pray for betty’s health and think clearly about what to do to save his daughter. the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory that occurs in the play can be distributed as follows: 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 116-127 table 9 the occurrence of the non-observance of the conversational maxims applications in miller’s the crucible no. categories occurrences (%) 1. flouting the maxims 1.1. flouting quality 1.1.1. flouting quality by using metaphor 22 40 1.1.2. flouting quality by using hyperbole 10 18 1.1.3. flouting quality by using metaphor and hyperbole 2 4 1.2. flouting quantity 1 2 1.3. flouting relation 3 5 1.4. flouting manner 6 11 2. violating quality 6 11 3. opting out a maxim 5 9 total 55 100 flouting the maxims consists of flouting quality, flouting quantity, flouting relation, and flouting manner. flouting quality consists of flouting quality by using metaphor, by using hyperbole, and by using metaphor and hyperbole. there are 22 applications (40%) of flouting quality by using metaphor, 10 applications (18%) of flouting quality by using hyperbole, and 2 applications (4%) of flouting quality by using metaphor and hyperbole. the next category in flouting the maxims is flouting quantity. 1 application (2%) is found in the dialogues of ‘the crucible’. then, there are 3 applications (5%) of flouting relation and 6 applications (11%) of flouting manner. violating the maxims is the next category of the nonobservance of the conversational maxims. there are 6 applications (11%) of violating quality from the category of violating the maxims. then, there are 5 applications (9%) of opting out the maxim. therefore, the category of the non-observance of the conversational maxims category that occurs most is flouting quality by using metaphor and the category that occurs least is flouting quantity. there are various purposes of not observing the conversational maxims, but there is a common pattern in flouting quality by using metaphor and flouting quality by using hyperbole. in flouting quality by using metaphor, the purpose is generally to describe something by comparing one thing with another that has the same characteristics. then, in flouting quality by using hyperbole, the purpose is generally to make a stronger meaning or emphasis on something by exaggerating it. conclusion the important points that are drawn from the analysis are about the categories of the nonobservance of the conversational maxims that are applied in the dialogues of miller’s the crucible, the occurrence of the categories of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory that are applied in the play, and the purposes of not observing the conversational maxims. the applications of the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory are found in the dialogues of miller’s the crucible. the non-observance of the conversational maxims theory that is applied are flouting the maxims, violating the maxims, and opting out the maxim. flouting the maxims consists of flouting quality, flouting quantity, flouting relation, and flouting manner. flouting quality is done in three ways, they are: flouting quality by using metaphor, by using hyperbole, and using both metaphor and hyperbole. in violating the maxims category, only violating quality is found in the dialogues of miller’s the crucible. the non-observance .....(yuvike; menik winiharti) 127 references cutting, j. (2002). pragmatics and discourse. london: routledge. di yanni, r. ( 2000). literature: reading fiction, poetry, and drama. singapore: the mcgraw hill companies. hornby, a. s. (1995). oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. oxford: oxford university press. leech, g. (1983). principles of pragmatics. new york: pearson education limited. miller, a . (1953). the crucible. united states of america: penguin groups. yule, george. (1996). pragmatics. london: oxford university press. microsoft word 02_endang fauziati_autonomy-ok.doc promoting learners’ autonomy … (endang fauziati) 105 promoting learners’ autonomy through individualized learning endang fauziati universitas muhammadiyah surakarta jalan a. yani tromol pos 1 surakarta 57102 efauziati@yahoo.com abstract article basically tries to explore the concept of individualized learning applicable in teaching learning process which can enhance learners’ autonomy and provides a brief practical guidance on how to put this concept into classroom practices. there are at least five underlying assumptions of learning based on this concept, namely: different learning styles, a variety of sources, teacher as facilitator, integrated learning tasks, and different learning goals. it can be concluded that classroom practices designed based on these concepts can improve learners’ autonomy, such as grouping, projects or tasks, and discussion. keywords: learners’ autonomy, individualized learning abstrak artikel membahas konsep pembelajaran individual yang diterapkan dalam proses pengajaran yang dapat meningkatkan otonomi pemelajar dan menyediakan pedoman singkat yang praktis untuk menerapkan konsep tersebut dalam ruang kelas. setidaknya ada lima asumsi yang perlu digarisbawahi berdasarkan konsep tersebut, di antaranya: tipe pembelajaran yang berbeda, sumber yang bervariasi, pengajar sebagai fasilitator, tugas pembelajaran yang terintegrasi, dan tujuan pembelajaran yang berbeda. disimpulkan, bahwa praktik di ruang kelas berdasarkan konsep tersebut dapat meningkatkan otonomi pemelajar, seperti kerja kelompok, proyek atau tugas, dan diskusi. kata kunci: otonomi pemelajar, pembelajaran individual jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 105-110 106 introduction the goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning. an educated man is the man who has learned how to adapt and change; the man who has realized that no knowledge is secure, and that only the process of seeking knowledge gives a basis for security (rogers, 1993). during the 1970s, the perspective on adult education has changed, basically influenced by the father of humanistic learning, that is, carl rogers (see brown, 1994). using student-centered learning styles, adult education came to be seen as working towards goals of equality of opportunity, responsible autonomy, personal fulfillment, and democratization of education. from these ideas came the notion of autonomy, that is, “an ability to assume responsibility for one’s own affairs” (schwartz, cited in hallgarten, 1998: 109). such ability is not in-born but must be acquired, most often by formal learning in a systematic deliberate way. teaching students how to learn then is very important. this is to enable the students to make all decision about learning, such as choosing the objectives, assessing progress and performance, and selecting techniques. katherine (1998) views such autonomy a useful goal for several reasons: learning is more effective when the learner takes control of their own learning. he/she can study entirely on his/her own; as adults, learner and tutor are equal and power is shared. (i.e. adult learner can determine the direction of his/her own learning and a tutor is just one of the learning resources); an autonomous learner can go on learning the subject outside the classroom at the end of the course. classroom practice is just one of the many activities that the learner can experience; and an autonomous learner can transfer learning skills to other subjects. it is of course very important to have some discussion about motivation before starting the classroom course. lack of explicit motivation may mean that it is difficult for the learner to reach their goals for learning. as a result, learning may not be as successful as it could be. this can be done in counseling sessions or in a group discussion. one of the approaches which can be used to promote learner’s autonomy in learning is individualized learning (katherine, 1998: 63). this type of approach will give the opportunity for students to exercise their skills. the students will come increasingly to use the tutor as one resource amongst the many other sources such as books, magazines, the internets, their peers, etc. this paper is basically intended to discuss ways or devices for teachers to increase learner’s autonomy through individualized learning. to provide some sense of order to the presentation, this paper is divided into two major parts, namely: the concept of individualization and the classroom practices which promote learner’s autonomy. discussion the concept of individualization the effective techniques and activities, which can promote students’ autonomy, would be based on the concept of individualization. logan (1990) presents five basic assumptions regarding learning related to individualization which can be summarized as follows: people learn—even the same material—in different ways (this implies accepting different learning style); people can learn from a variety of sources, even if the final goals are the same (implying that the instructional materials can vary); direct teaching by a teacher is not essential for learning; it is only one of many possible experiences (meaning that a teacher can be a facilitator instead of a preacher); a variety of learning promoting learners’ autonomy … (endang fauziati) 107 activities can take place simultaneously (referring to integrative language-learning activities); and people may have a variety of goals or objectives for learning a second language (implying that learners learn for different reasons). these five basic assumptions, namely: different learning styles, a variety of sources, the teacher as facilitator, integrated learning tasks, and different learning goals can lead towards individualization. these concepts of individualization can be exploited for promoting learner’s autonomy. this type of learning provides learners with basic need in learning, namely: (a) exposure to the new knowledge, (b) activities for confidence building, and (c) a learner-centered approach to build rapport between the teacher and the learners (sarwar, 1996). sarwar (1996) has transformed altman’s (1990) three rs of individualization (reeducation, responsibility, and relevance) and gives one additional r (rapport) in her teaching experiment to encourage students’ active learning. the four rs in her teaching prescription constitute reeducation, responsibility, relevance, and rapport. these four can be briefly discussed as follows. first, reeducation. this means reconstructing the role of the teacher as facilitator and the learner as the active agent in the process of learning. in indonesian context, this change needs emphasizing, since both the teacher and the learners get used to the lecture pattern of teaching in which the student is a passive learner as the teacher ‘talks’ without any interaction or break for the whole teaching period. second, responsibility. this implies that the learner takes charge of his own learning. for most learners, of course, this is a conceptual leap, as he gets used to rote learning and lacks confidence in his own cognitive capabilities. it also implies the teachers’ responsibility to set up clearly stated tasks that can be monitored by learners on their own and ensure the availability of self-learning materials for learners. third, relevance. it means finding contexts of learning that are meaningful for learners. fourth, rapport. encouraging students to be more responsible for their own learning is a classmanagement challenge for any teacher. it is only through the proper rapport that an atmosphere conducive to learning can be built up. also ‘humanizing’ the class is perhaps the only way to motivate learning, familiarizing one self with the learners as persons that should be treated as human beings who have thought feelings, and emotions. the writer is of the opinion that the above principles are in accordance with the humanistic principle (i.e. carl rogers, 1993) which have important implications for education. to a humanist, the focus of education is learning and not teaching. the goal of education is the facilitation of learning. learning how to learn is more important than being taught by the superior (teacher) who unilaterally decides what will be taught. education system, then, should regard the person’s freedom and dignity. what are needed then are real facilitators of learning. brown (2000:77) suggests that a teacher as a facilitator should have at least three characteristics, namely: he must be genuine and real, putting away the impression of superiority or omniscience; he must have trust or acceptance from his students as valuable individuals; and he needs to communicate openly and emphatically with his students and vice versa. a teacher with these characteristics will understand himself better. he knows to better function in the classroom as a facilitator who encourages his students to be more independent. he is far from being a spoon-feeder to his students. he will also be an effective teacher who will succeed in achieving the goal of education. we can see in roger’s humanistic view that the important aspect in learning is the context. if the context for learning is properly created, then human beings will learn everything they need to. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 105-110 108 in adapting roger’s (1993) ideas to teaching and learning, we need to understand that the learner is an organism who needs to understand himself and to communicate this self to others freely. the teacher as facilitators, therefore, must provide the nurturing context for learning and not to see his mission as one who should feed the students quantities of knowledge. he should foster a climate of non-defensive learning in which the learner learns not to protect him/her self from failure, from criticism, from competition with fellow students, and possibly from punishment. in addition, the humanistic principle implies that learning should be centered on the learner. however, the learner-centeredness does not imply that the teachers should abandon the classroom to the learners. there are a number of legitimate teacher functions to the learners. nunan (2002: 234235) presents the five most important functions of the teacher which can be summarized in the followings. first, the cognitive function. the teacher possesses knowledge desired by the students about the target language and culture. all teachers have this knowledge, which the students expect us to impart to them. second, the classroom management functions. our students and the society in which we work expect us to take responsibility for how the students’ time is used in the class. the students rely on our training and experience with materials, schedules, and techniques. third, the personal or interpersonal function. as teachers with the desired skills, knowledge and expertise, we have a great deal power in the classroom and it is our responsibility to set the tone or interpersonal classroom climate. the atmosphere we set will determine whether the students’ nonlinguistic emotional needs are met in the classroom. fourth, the supportive function. the final function is closely related to the third, but is subtler. it has to do with the warmth and enthusiasm that the teacher radiates, that is, a vibe that he or she puts out. he believes that this is the most important function of all. classroom practices this part deals with how the concept of individualization can be employed in the classroom to promote students’ autonomy. this concept is applicable to handle classroom which emphasizes either on skill or cognitive knowledge (skill course or content course). there are several things for the teacher to consider when managing the classes based on the concept of individualization; among them are presented below. first, grouping. on the very first day after introducing the course, the teacher can ask the students to form permanent or fixed groups consisting of four to five students. as a number of activities are to use most of the time outside the class, it would be easier for them to do their group tasks together in their free time in their friendly groups. forming their own groups also gave learners more responsibility in sharing the class-management issues. the groups are then given a number or a name to identify their group. if it is possible they can be seated together in class with a permanent seating arrangement so they could share their group activities. second, group or individual projects. a number of projects or tasks are also initiated. these can be assigned as group or individual tasks. to encourage participation, these tasks can be announced as one of the requirements for getting a final score for a given subject. the tasks can be in the form of a summary, a translation work, an essay, an article, or any type of written report (observation, interview). the teacher is responsible for scoring the students’ tasks so that they feel that their works are rewarded. such group project is beneficial since the teacher can reduce the workload and make the class management easier. it makes it possible for the weak students to learn from their peers. and it gives group of friends an opportunity to work together on a project in a non-threatening atmosphere. promoting learners’ autonomy … (endang fauziati) 109 third, discussion. discussion methods are among the most valuable tools in the teachers’ repertoire. teachers especially feel that discussion is mostly effective. the first justification is that practice makes perfect. if the teacher expects students to learn how to integrate, apply, and problem solve, it seems reasonable that students should have an opportunity to practice these skills. further research in cognitive psychology reveals that memory is affected by how deeply we process new knowledge. “simply listening (lecturing system) or repeating and memorizing something (rote learning) are likely to store in such a way that we have difficulty finding it when we want to remember it” (mckeachie, 1999: 32) if we elaborate our learning by thinking about it such as explaining, summarizing, or questioning; we are more likely to remember it when we need to use it later, since they are meaningful. with such frequent exposures the information will be retained in the long term memory. conclusion individualized learning in classroom practices can help students to increase their autonomy in learning. with this method, teachers encourage the students to be independent and more responsible for their own learning. the underlying principles of the concept of individualization should be adopted as the basis of the approach used in promoting students to become autonomous learners. these principles are in accordance with the humanistic principle that assumes that the focus of education is learning and not teaching. this is based on the belief that learning how to learn is more important than being taught. learning should center on the learner. what is needed, then, is a real facilitator of learning. this is why the five most important functions of the teacher as facilitator are: the cognitive function, the classroom management function, the personal or interpersonal function, and the one who could give warmth and enthusiasm to the learners. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 105-110 110 references altman, h.b. 1990. “foreign language teaching: focus on the learner,” in altman, h.b. and c.v. james (eds.) language teaching: meeting individual needs. new york: pergamon. brown, h. douglas. 1994. principles of language learning and teaching. new york: prentice hall. _______. 2000. teaching by principles. new york: prentice hall. hallgarten, katherine. 1998. “student autonomy-learner training and self-directed learning,” in nicholas, sandra and elizabeth hoadly maidment. current issues in teaching english as a second language to adults. cambridge: c.u.p. harmer, jeremy. 2000. how to teach english: an introduction to the practice of english language teaching. essex: longman. kral, thomas. 1996. teacher development: making the right moves. washington, d.c: english language programs division united states information agency. logan, g.e. 1990. “individualized foreign language instruction: american patterns for accommodating learner differences in the classroom,” in altman, h.b and c.v. james (eds.) languageteaching: meeting individual needs. new york: pergamon. mckeachie, wilbert j. et. al. 1999. teaching tips: strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers. toronto: d. c. health and company. nunan, david. 2002. language teaching methodology. new york: prentice hall. sarwar, zakia. 1999. “adapting individualization techniques for large classes,” in kral, thomas (ed.) 1996. teacher development: making the right moves. washington, d.c: english language programs division united states information agency. microsoft word 09_cendrawati_chinese-malay.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 168-175 168 印尼侨生马来由文学之谈 a glimpse of chinese-malay literature cendrawaty tjong chinese department, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, ctjong@binus.edu abstract chinese-malay literature begans in the end of 19th century. the beginning of this period was known from the works depicted classical-malay literature. in the development, due to the booming of publication houses and newspaper agencies, this school of literature flourished. the origin of this period was closely related to chinese-descendants, background and history. the long history, the big numbers of works and the miscellaneous contents of the works were the characteristics of this period. chinese-malay literature period was the period highlighted with typical chinese-indonesian society. keywords: indonesia, chinese-descendants, literature 内容提要 印尼侨生马来由文学产生于 19 世纪末,最初以中国古典小说的翻译和仿效马来古典文学为 初期作品。后来出版社、印刷公司与报社的大量出现推动了文学的发展。它的产生与华侨社会 的历史背景联在一起。历史悠久、作品数量庞大、内容丰富多样化是它的主要的特点。印尼侨 生马来由文学阶段是个富有印尼华侨社会显著特点的文学阶段。 关键词:印尼,侨生,文学 a glimpse of chinese-malay literature (cendrawaty tjong) 169 前言 印尼是个岛屿国家,由 17000 多个岛屿组成,有着历史悠久和多元文化。印尼也住着各种 各样的民族,如:爪哇族、巽达族、马杜拉族、华族等。在这种有着多元文化和多种民族的环 境下,华人创作出来的文学作品极具印尼地方特色,这些华人创作出来的文学作品就是所谓的 印尼华人文学。 印尼侨生马来由文学使用通俗马来由语 印尼华人文学可以分成三种:印尼侨生马来由文学、印尼华人印尼文文学和印尼华人文学, 其中印尼侨生马来由文学的历史较长、作品也很多。印尼侨生马来由文学产生于 19 世纪末到 20 世纪 60 年代。19 世纪印尼还处在荷兰殖民统治时期,当时荷兰官方之间使用荷兰语来进行 交流;印尼贵族阶层都接受了荷兰的教育,他们之间使用荷兰语和贵族的马来语交流,这种贵 族马来语后来被殖民地政府强制规定成为印尼官方正式语言;而当时的印尼侨生与侨生之间却 使用华人马来由语。这种语言不同于贵族马来由语,除了含有当时侨生之间交流使用的惯用语 以外,还含有许多福建方言、爪哇语、荷兰语。由于这种华人马来由语被社会上的各个阶层广 泛使用,后来它被称为通俗马来由语(melayu rendah)或者巴刹马来由语(melayu pasar)。通俗 马来由语影响深远,它不仅在生活上、工作上被广泛运用,而且也被作家用于他们的文学创作 和作品翻译中,因此他们创作的文学作品可以被社会上的各个阶层和各个民族接受。印尼侨生 马来由文学作品就是指这些印尼侨生使用通俗马来由语进行创作或翻译的文学作品。 印尼侨生马来由文学的特点 印尼侨生马来由文学主要包括以下几个的特点: 一、历史悠久 要了解此特点,我们就要先了解印尼侨生在印尼居住的历史背景以及马来由文学产生的历 史背景。 据记载,华人大约 10 世纪已经定居在印尼。这是根据来自 10 世纪一位阿拉伯游厉家马素提(al mas’oudi)撰述的《黄金牧地》(les prairus d’or《金草原》)记载了马素提本人游历非洲、南亚、 东南亚、中国时,在 943 年途径印尼苏门答腊东南部沿海地区时,发现那里有很多中国人从事 耕种,尤其是在巨港一带,中国人最集中。他们都是唐末黄巢起义军攻广州城之后,难逃至印 尼苏门答腊岛。西方学者莱佛士著《爪哇史》和坎贝尔著《爪哇的过去和现在》也记载了 10 世 纪上半叶有一艘中国海船在爪哇三宝垄附近的海上沉没,船员和乘客都分别在扎巴拉、三宝垄、 直葛上岸,其管仓者向直葛土王献上宝石之后,获得土王的许可,定居在此地 (李学民、黄昆 章, 2005:19 页)。后来,印尼受到荷兰殖民地的强烈统治,统治了 350 年。荷兰殖民时期,有一 批人通过“卖猪仔”契约被荷兰建立的东印公司安排在印尼邦加岛开矿,在这样的背景下形成了 华人社会。 清末由于中国国内政治动荡,所以有一大批华人南移印尼。早期的印尼人,乘着唐代末年 黄巢动乱就南移印尼。他们为了寻找安定的生活而来印尼,也有被卖成奴隶,乘船来印尼。这 些人大部分都是男生,一般来说,他们携带家眷同来,到了印尼,他们只好随乡入俗,与非回 教徒或者名义上的回教徒的当地女人结婚,然后定居下来。这些华人及他们的后裔,后来组成 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 168-175 170 了相当稳定的和统一的社会,俗称土生华人社会。民族于民族之间培养了友善的生活环境。19 世纪前半叶,这社会渐趋自立,因为其间的男女比率逐渐平衡,减少了与当地女人的通婚。 19 世纪初,南来印尼的华人数量很多,因此跟当地出生的印尼华人形成了新客和土生华人 之分。这些新客通常都很快地融入在土生华人社会。 而土生华人被称为“侨生”或“babah”,这个 词含有贬义的意思。由于侨生华人出生在印尼、生活在印尼,除了会一点儿带闽南方言的惯用 语以外,他们已经不会使用汉语进行交流或创作了,因此他们的作品都是使用通俗马来由语来 编写的。 到了 20 世纪初随着华侨生活越来越稳定、经济水平越来越上升,越来越多印尼侨生从事新 闻记者和经商,并出现了大量的出版社和印刷公司,这些都给印尼侨生创作带来了很大的影响。 这些记者把他们日常看在眼里的事物都通过写作表达出来;从事经商的侨生作者把经商所面临 的等问题写进作品里,使他们创作的作品富有社会生活的现实特征。 最初出现的土生华人文学作品,是中国古典小说的翻译和仿效马来古典文学的作品。例如, 1882 年出版的《海瑞》罢官的故事,1883 年出版的《三国演义》,1885 年出版的《山伯英台》 以及 1884 年问世的《西蒂·阿克巴丽的故事》都是这个时期的产物。根据文学评论家普拉穆迪 亚.阿南达.杜尔,印尼侨生马来由文学是印尼现代文学的先驱。早在印尼文学出生之前,社会上 已经大量流传印尼侨生马来由文学,如:以上的翻译作品以及 19 世纪末编写的侨生马来由作品 都比印尼文学史上第一部小说《那个嘉明和那个约汉》(azab dan sengsara)写得还要早。 印尼侨生马来由文学始于 19 世纪末。据 1985 年苏尔梦写的《literature in malay by chinese of indonesia》印尼侨生作家最早编写的侨生马来由文学作品《泰国国王来巴达维的诗词》写于 1871 年 5 月;但关于印尼土生马来由文学到底什么时候结束,这没有具体的划分。梁友兰认为 印尼侨生马来由文学 1962 年已经结束了 ( nio joe lan, 1962)。从政策来看,1962 年后印尼华侨 面对国籍问题,印尼政府规定印尼华侨必须选择他们的国籍,当时很多印尼华侨加入了印尼国 籍,因此 1962 年后已经没有印尼侨生马来由文学的说法了。从历史来看,1928 年 10 月 28 日, 青年第二届代表大会在巴城召开,会议结束后,印尼青年通过“青年誓言”誓词,提出了“一个民 族、一个祖国和一种语言”的口号。他们把印尼语成为国家统一运用的语言,从此以后政府推广 规范的印尼语,并提倡使用印尼语来进行写作。要执行这个青年誓言并不是一、两天的问题, 何况对当时的印尼侨生作家,他们在生活上、写作上已经习惯了使用侨生马来由语,因此不能 即将改变,直到 1965 年以后再也没有出现利用侨生马来由语写出来的作品。 二、印尼侨生马来由文学数量庞大 印尼侨生马来由语文学的数量和作家很多。据研究这方面的法国女学者——格劳汀·沙尔蒙 (claudine salmon)博士:当时侨生作家和翻译家有 806 人,作品 2757 本,佚名作品 248 本, 作品总共统计有 3005 本;这 3005 本中可以分为剧本 73 本,诗歌 183 本,译自西方的作品 233 本,译自中国的作品 759 本,长短篇小说创作 1398 本 (耶谷. 苏玛尔卓, 1998:18 页)。 印尼华 人的印尼文文学作品最初是用马来语翻译中国古典文学著作为主,如《海公小红袍全传》1882 年、《列国志》1883 年、《三国演义》1883 年、《正德皇游江南》1884 年、《今古奇观》1884 年 等作品(耶谷. 苏玛尔卓, 1998:18 页)。 a glimpse of chinese-malay literature (cendrawaty tjong) 171 如果我们把当时流传的 3005 本侨生马来由文学作品分期,就可以把它们分成 4 个时期: 1、李金福时期(1884-1910) 这时期是以侨生马来由文学作家之一李金福而命名的。他是印尼第一个使用通俗马来由语 来翻译与改写小说和诗歌。在他之前,社会上使用的通俗马来由语显得混乱,没有规范化也没 有标准化。李金福把这些混乱、无规范和标准的语言整理,使通俗马来由语规范化和标准化。 从此,使用规范化的通俗马来由语创作的作家越来越增加。他也于 1884 年出版了印尼第一部的 语法书《melayu betawi》,也写了拼音字母拼读规则《kitab eja a.b.c》。当时人们所使用的通俗 马来由语都以他写的语法书为标准。此外,他也创作了诗歌和翻译了很多作品。人们为了纪念 他所做的一切,并称他为“印尼侨生马来由文学之父”。 这时期的前半期大部分是翻译西方和中国的古典小说;而后半期开始出现了作者创作的小 说,如:张振文(thio tjin boen)写了《黄西的故事》(cerita oey se)、吴炳良(gouw peng liang) 的《罗宏贵》(lo fen koei)、郑登怀(the teng hoey)的《争夺财产》(rebutan harta)等。 2、发展时期(1911-1923) 这时期西方的文学对于印尼侨生马来由文学的影响很大,因为 1908 年荷兰殖民地政府开设 荷华学校,招收印尼侨生。那时孙中山思想也传到印尼,荷兰殖民地为了让侨生脱离孙中山思 想而开设这个学校,因此这时期的作品很多是翻译英国和法国的作品、小说创造也比以前更发 展。主要的作家有张振文(thio tjin boen)、吴炳良(gouw peng liang)、陈振江(tan tjing kang)、 陈文金(tan boen kim)、赵雨水(tio ie soei)和朱茂山 (tjoe bou san). 3、小说月刊时期(1924-1945) 这是印尼侨生马来由文学蓬勃发展时期。这时期产生了很多新作家,如:郭德怀 (kwee tek hoay)、林庆和 (liem king hoo)、陈文宣 (tan boen soan)、包求安 (touw kioe an)、陈丰文(tan hong boen)、王秉禄 (ong ping lok)等。其中,郭德怀是这时期最有代表性的作家,也是一名 记者和哲学家。除了写过很多文学作品、带有政治和宗教信仰的作品,也编写过剧本。主要的 作品有:《假冒的上帝》(allah yang palsu)、《柏芬迪古尔的悲剧》 (drama di boven digul)、《来 自克拉克陶的悲剧》(drama dari krakatau)、《来自芝根邦的玫瑰花》(bunga roos dari cikembang)、 《看元宵节》(nonton capgome)、《无灯的脚踏车》(zonder lentera)、《我梦中的学馆》(ruma sekola yang saya impiken)、《华人起义的来源》(atsal mulahnya timbul pergerakan tionghoa)等. 4、结尾时期(1945-1960) 印尼独立以后,很多侨生作家推出文坛。这时期虽然还有出现侨生马来由文学的作品,但 是数量渐渐减少。作品主要是短篇小说、翻译作品和武侠小说。这时期的作品多集中出版于《星 周刊》(staar weekly)、《美丽周刊》 (tjantik)、《五彩周刊》 (pantja warna)等。应该注意的是, 印尼独立以后,印尼政府面对双重国籍人民的问题,为了解决这个问题,印-中于 1954 年 4 月 签订了《中华人民共和国和印度尼西亚共和国关于双重国籍问题的条约》,取消双重国籍政策, 华侨必须选择一种国籍;再说,印尼独立以后也正式把印尼语当作官方语言,从此再也没有“印 尼侨生”或“印尼侨生马来由文学”的说法了。梁友兰在 1962 年出版的《印尼华人文学》写出:“印 尼侨生马来由文学已经不存在了。根据印尼法律,那时已经没有‘印尼侨生’的说法,只有‘印尼 籍’或‘中国籍’说法。” jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 168-175 172 三、印尼侨生马来由文学内容丰富 印尼侨生马来由文学的除了历史悠久、作品数量庞大、内容也丰富多彩,深受欢迎那时候 的人们热烈欢迎。文学题材产生于生活。它主要包含以下几个方面: 1. 反映现实生活 文学作品采取当时社会媒体上的大案件。印尼侨生马来由文学作家很多都是记者,所以作 品内容采取当时报纸上的大新闻,作品的写法也采用记者的写法,如:赵雨水(tio ie soei)的《一 位华人拳头的生平》(riwayatnya satu bokser tionghoa -tan sie tiat)、郭德怀 (kwee tek hoay) 的《华人起义的来源》(atsal mulahnya timbul pergerakan tionghoa)、郭德怀 (kwee tek hoay) 的《来自克拉克陶的悲剧》(drama dari krakatau)采取 1883 年克拉克陶火山爆发的事件、郭德怀 (kwee tek hoay)《柏芬迪古尔的悲剧》 (drama di boven digul)采取 1926 年的印尼共产党起义 当作作品背景等等。 除此之外,作品很多反映当时社会普遍的“小妾”(nyai)问题。印尼“小妾”的称呼是比较特 殊。nieuwenhuys 指明“nyai (小妾)”的称呼是 1826 年开始使用,开始指欧洲人的仆人。根 据 subandio 和 t.o ihromi,“nyai (小妾)”是来自马来由-巴达维亚语,开始是指欧洲人的管 家女子,后来“小妾”的称呼指那些欧洲人的原住民小妾,渐渐地,“小妾”这个称呼也指其他外 国人的原住民小妾,如:华人的原住民小妾。荷兰殖民地时期的原住民小妾一般都来自奴隶阶 级,这是因为从 17 世纪中期印尼的原住民一般都成为荷兰人的奴隶,他们服务荷兰人、帮荷兰 人管理家务等。一个荷兰人家庭平均拥有十二个仆人,但也有的荷兰人家庭拥有一百多个仆人。 原住民女子希望通过仆人这个职位可以提高她们的生活水平。外表漂亮与否、态度和语言优雅 与否是界定原住民女子可否选为小妾的标准。19 世纪由于经济的原因越来越多原住民愿意把他 们的女儿卖给荷兰人或华人地主成为他们的小妾,可是这些小妾都没有法律地位,可以随时被 抛弃。小妾在社会的地位非常低,她们常常挨打、挨骂、受欺负。虽然小妾的社会地位很低, 但小妾对促进两国文化或两个民族文化的交流起了重要的作用。小妾成为两国或两民族之间的 桥梁,通过小妾其他国家或民族的人们可以更了解当时原住民的文化、宗教信仰、语言、风俗 习惯等问题。 2. 带有教育性内容 几乎每个印尼侨生文学作品都带有教育性特征,为了教育和提醒后代人不要再犯同样的错 误。文章一开始常先介绍文章重要人物的角色,并写着:“我讲这些故事是为了让年轻人不要犯 同样的错误、可以避免不佳的事”,如:张振文(thio tjin boen)的《只靠两分钱就成为富翁》 (dengen duwa cent jadi kaya)讲述了劳动和勤奋是成功之母,只有劳动得来的财产才是真实 的。这部文学作品的年轻主人公从年幼就失去了父母。他们留给他一大笔钱。由于朋友的诱惑 染上了赌博与嫖妓的习惯,最后失去了所有财产,剩下了两分钱。他用那两分钱做生意,每天 刻苦耐劳地工作,过着省吃俭用的生活,就这样经济情况就渐渐好起来。作者通过这位年轻人 教导我们(读者)不要好吃懒做、染上恶习惯、吃喝嫖赌,这些不良途径会使我们堕落、不长 进、贫穷;作者告诫我们要勤奋努力、增加知识,才能富足、贡献于社会。作者在文章的结尾 告诉读者:劳动的手能够把石头变成金子;不劳动的手能够把金子变成石头,劳动是最可靠的 财富。此外,郭德怀也通过《无灯的脚踏车》告诉人们不要贪心。贪心是一种病,它只能让我 们堕落、失去了自我。 有一些作品也提醒人们应该注重教育子女并告诉大家每个人都得受到平等的教育。建设国 家与教育是互相联系的,没有受到教育的人民就是落后、落后的人民就谈不起建设国家。郭德 怀的《我梦中的学馆》(ruma sekola yang saya impiken)讲诉了作者梦中的学馆。他批评了当时 a glimpse of chinese-malay literature (cendrawaty tjong) 173 的学馆缺少实际性,只注重理论。作品也提到教育的重要性,每个人都该受到教育,提高他们 的知识,可是不能只重视理论,忽略了实际生活所需要的教育,受教育的目的就是可以在现实 生活中生存、建设国家;郭德怀的《华人起义的来源》(atsal mulahnya timbul pergerakan tionghoa) 讲述了中华会馆对华人的教育起了重要作用。 3. 种族交流、宗教信仰、通婚的问题 很多印尼侨生马来由文学讲诉那个时候华族与其它民族或其它国际的人们和睦相处,他们 与爪哇族、潠达族、欧美人、阿拉伯人等关系很密切。譬如:张振文的《黄西的故事》、《素密 拉姑娘》;郭德怀的《来自芝根邦的玫瑰花》等。 在当时的印尼社会,华侨、印尼原住民和其它国籍的人民住在一起,他们和睦共处,在这 种情况下难免不发生通婚。印尼侨生马来由作家们都很关注这些通婚问题,尤其是华人和印尼 原住民人的通婚,但这些婚姻大部分都是悲剧的,如:郭德怀 1927 年写的《来自芝根邦的玫瑰 花》、soe lie piet 1929 年写的《ular yang cantik 译 美丽的蛇》、chang ming tse(张明思) 1939 年写的《bunga roos merah 译 红玫瑰》等都写着通婚的悲剧。张振文 1903 年写的《黄西的故 事》里的主人公——黄西的女儿金娘要与原住民儿子结婚,虽然未来女婿是当地的政府人员, 但是由于这是通婚,黄西不成全他们的婚姻,结果女儿奔跑了,他从此就不承认女儿的身分, 断绝父女关系,后来女儿因伤心过度就去世了。 通婚波浪很大、除了受到华人父母和印尼原住民父母的反对还有宗教的问题。张振文的《黄 西的故事》里有注:“anak perempuan bangsa cina tida tau keluar pintu, lagi oey se itu orang kaya besar, kendati orang itu berpangkat regent, tida nanti oey se mau buat mantu, sebab lain bangsa, kalu sampe ada juga orang perampuan cina bersuami pada lelaki dari lain bangsa, harus dikatakan orang itu sudah tiada hargakan dirinya sendiri dan tiada harus dicampuri orang baik baik sebab melanggar aturan hukum adab” (a.s. dan benedanto, 2000). (华侨的女子不能出门。再说黄西是个富翁,虽然 要娶他女儿的男子是县长,是社会有权利的人,但是黄西还是不想把他成为他的女婿。如果有 个华侨跟一个外族的男子通婚,应该说那个人已经没有自尊了,别人也不可以与她来往,因为 她犯了礼节)。 张振文在《cerita nyai soemirah 译小妾素密拉的故事》里 写着印尼原住民母亲对她女 儿要嫁给华族男子的对话 : 母亲:“apa namanya kalu satu gadis bumiputera musti jadi gundiknya seorang cina ?” (一个原住民女子怎么可以成为华人的小妾呢?) 素密拉:“gundik kalu dipiara saja, tetapi kalu dinikahken…” (小妾一般是被男人养的,但如果能结婚呢?) 母亲:“di mesjid ?” (a.s. dan benedanto, 2001). (在清真寺?) 母亲:“angkau pikir tida ada halangannya satu perampuan bumiputera jadi bininya seorang kafir?” (你认为一个原住民女子可以成为一个无信仰人的妻子吗?) 素密拉:“ maaf, ibu, saya kepingin tau ibu punya pemandangan begimana dengen itu nama kafir ?” (对不起,母亲,我想知道您认为的无信仰是什么?) 母亲:“orang yag tida islam itulah orang kafir.” (a.s. dan benedanto, 2001). (不信伊斯兰教的人就是无信仰) 以上张振文的《黄西的故事》和《小妾素密拉的故事》都讲述了种族交流、通婚与宗教信 仰的问题,还有很多作品都讲述了社会通婚的悲剧。虽然两个民族的子女可以结婚,但社会上 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 168-175 174 都认为愿意通婚的妇女的地位比一般妇女的地位还要低。尤其是他们的孩子们,一般都是被社 会歧视的。 4. 传统思想与新思想的冲突 有些作品表现出传统思想与新思想的冲突,传统思想的代表是老一代的华侨,而新思想的 代表是年轻的一代的华侨子女,他们受到西方教育、模仿西方人生活的习惯。如:郭德怀 1930 年写的《元宵节》。文章利用幽默的手段写出当时印尼华侨看元宵的情况。文章的女主角丽叶刚 与多玛结婚,丽叶的家族是个传统家族:认为女人不可以和男人在街上行走。虽然他们已经结 婚了,但是贤惠的妇女不应该表现出她的感情。他们也不可以在大众的面前手牵手;而多玛的 家族是受到西方教育的家族,结婚后他们不同背景的夫妻为了看元宵发生了冲突,因为多玛想 带他妻子去和他朋友们一起吃元宵、去街上凑凑热闹,而丽叶家庭认为那是没教养妇女或妓女 的行为。多玛很生气,打算给丽叶家族一些教训,通过朋友的劝告他故意跟一个男扮女装的朋 友在丽叶家人面前行走,丽叶家人一看到他们的女儿嫁到一个不正当的丈夫就觉得很生气。丽 叶的堂妹看到多玛跟一个女人手拉手也很生气,劝丽叶对多玛报仇,让她跟一个女扮男装的他 在路上手拉手给多玛看,可是结果被丽叶婆婆家发现,两个家族发生了一个巨大的冲突,最后 通过两个家族认识的一位伯伯解释事情的过程并告诉女方家庭现在是男女已经平等的时代,应 该排除过去没有道理的传统观念。作家通过文章所发生的各个细节来讽刺那些还抱住不实际的 传统思想。作家希望通过作品可以让人民反省、认真地思考男女平、传统和现代思想的问题, 指导人们把错误的旧思想改变过来。 5. 爱国主义精神 郭德怀的小说《伯根地谷的悲剧》提到当时政治事件,就是 1926 年在印尼爆发了共产党运 动,后来被打平了。小说除了写努拉尼和莫答礼的爱情故事,也将了一些革命的运动、爱国的 思想、对未来的国家前途的希望。像大部分华侨马来由文学作品的基本构思,努拉尼和莫答礼 的爱情也经过了歪歪曲曲甚至需要经历了生和死才能走在一块儿,结为夫妻,但是命运好像在 玩弄他们,刚过着两年的幸福日子,努拉尼去世了。她把她的最好朋友——苏巴亚交给苏巴亚。 苏巴亚的性格是作家盼望未来印尼子孙该拥有性格:聪明、能干、勇敢、忠心耿耿、慷慨、不 顾自己的利益去帮助别人、一直维持正义。作家也通过讲述巴布亚来写出他对国家的想法和盼 望。他盼望拥有一个自由、发达与茂盛的国家、也盼望很多种族和国家融洽地生活在一起、互 相尊重、没有互相压迫。这个作品真是个伟大的作品,作家通过作品来推动读者战斗,追求得 到真正自由的国家。郭德华的这部小说不但写得漂亮、而且含有独特的创新,把 1926 年印尼发 生的革命跟人与人之间常发生的爱情、嫉恨、友情、贪婪、领导的腐败和为了达到某种目的而 不择手段的行为混合成为一个很有魅力的故事,代表了当时印尼华侨献上他对国家的爱心、献 上他的精神和思想,自持印尼独立。 6. 娱乐性内容 印尼侨生马来由文学产生的时期是部分人民刚从“文盲”摆脱出来的时期,因此人们比较喜 欢阅读娱乐性较强的作品,如:取于日常生活作题材的爱情故事、笑话、武侠、等类作品。 印尼侨生马来由文学作品代表了印尼华人对印尼社会取了很大的贡献。除了文学上的贡献, 文学作品的发展也推动了出版事业的发展、活跃了印尼社会的文化生活、推动了印尼文化与中 国文化和西方文化的交流、推广及普及了通俗马来由语的社会上的用处,为以后发展的印尼语 打下了基础,丰富了印尼语的词汇。 a glimpse of chinese-malay literature (cendrawaty tjong) 175 结语 印尼侨生马来由文学是印尼现代文学的先驱。它拥有百年的历史、庞大的数量、多样化内 容的特征,代表了印尼侨生对社会做出了巨大贡献。要研究印尼文学的发展如没有研究印尼侨 生马来由文学是不全面的。要研究印尼侨生马来由文学除了要先研究华侨社会和历史,也要研 究当时的经济、政治和社会的文化。 参考文献: 李学民、黄昆章:《印尼华侨史》,广东高等教育出版社,2005 年 胡风:《文学与生活 密云期风习小记》,北京人民文学出版社,2001 年 耶谷。蘇玛尔卓、林万里:《印尼侨生马来由文学研究》,香港获益出版事业有限公司,1998 年 a.s, markus dan pax benedanto. 2000. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia i. jakarta: kpg. _______. pax. 2001. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia ii. jakarta: kpg. _______. 2001. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia iii. jakarta: kpg. _______. 2001. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia iv. jakarta: kpg. _______. 2002. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia v. jakarta: kpg. _______. 2002. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia vi. jakarta: kpg. a.s, markus. 2003. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia vii. jakarta: kpg. a.s., markus dan yul hamiyati. 2002. kesastraan melayu tionghoa dan kebangsaan indonesia viii. jakarta: kpg. nio joe lan.1962. sastra indonesia-tionghoa. jakarta: gunung agung. salmon, claudine. 1985. literature in malay by the chinese of indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. suaka, i nyoman. 2004. “latar indonesia dalam karya sastra tionghoa,” bali post eds. januari 24. sampul_vol.4 no.2.fh10 �������� �� �� 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(abdul aziz turhan kariko) 99 malay pop: mass media hegemony in indonesia popular music abdul aziz turhan kariko english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, azis_comi@yahoo.com abstract article discusses the domination of malay pop music through textual analysis of songs, observation of musical programs, and interviews with important figures. the research data were obtained by library research and analyzed through a critical theory approach to gain an understanding of the text and its effects. the article concludes that malay pop contains a strong uniformity which may be termed a phenomenon in the context of the culture industry, while also being dominant because of its legitimacy created by the media. the nature of malay pop is also very profitable for those participating in it, therefore the spirit of capitalism was also quite dominant in this context. there is also resistance from the indie music movement, and its attempts to fight regressive qualities of music that are legitimized in the mainstream mass media. keywords: malay pop, indie music, culture industry, hegemony, mass media abstrak artikel menjelaskan dominasi musik pop melayu melalui analisis teks lagu, observasi acara musik, dan interview dengan tokoh di bidang musik. data diperoleh dari studi pustaka dan dianalisis dengan pendekatan critical theory untuk memahami teks lagu dan dampaknya. artikel menyimpulkan bahwa lagu melayu pop mempunyai kesamaan atau ciri khas yang kuat sehingga dapat menjadi daya tarik di bidang industri budaya ( culture industry) dan mampu mendominasi lagu lain karena pengaruh media. muasal lagu pop melayu juga sangat menguntungkan mereka yang terlibat di dalamnya, dengan demikian semangat kapitalisme juga sangat dominan di dalam konteks ini. dijelaskan pula adanya resistensi dari gerakan musik indie dan usahanya untuk memperjuangkan kemunduran musik tersebut karena pengaruh multimedia. kata kunci: musik melayu, musik indie, industri budaya, hegemoni, media massa 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 99-106 introduction background in 2008, the number of musicians in the mainstream indonesian music industry increased with the presence of a new group bands containing uniformity in a particular music genre, that is malay pop. this phenomenon began with the existence of kangen band, which gained popularity through the increasing piracy rate in sumatera, after which they signed a contract with warner music indonesia, a major recording company. then, many other bands with a strong uniformity emerged, such as st12, repvblik, matta, wali, salju, langit, pudja, vagetoz, merpati, and hijau daun. these music groups dominated the television shows that broadcasted music programs throughout 2008, such as inbox on sctv, dahsyat on rcti, klik on antv, and many more. the success of these music groups within the mainstream music industry was often criticized by fellow musicians or music observers. hafiedz (2008) wrote “the melancholic phenomenon of indonesia’s music groups is degrading our popular music” or the opinion of denny mr (an observer in the music industry) who wrote “these malay songs a tasty, as in food, but become sickening if there are too many of them”. there were also criticisms of the malay pop phenomenon in other magazines and newspapers. generally, these criticisms were directed or based on pop malay’s characteristics such as their banal lyrics, excessive melancholic sentiments within their songs, and dominant themes such as having an affair/cheating on a lover. take a look at a part from a lyric by st12 called p.u.s.p.a: jangan jangan kau tak terima cintaku/jangan jangan kau hiraukan pacarmu/putuskanlah saja pacarmu/lalu bilang i love you, padaku (don’t you reject my love/ignore your lover/just break up with your lover/and say i love you to me)… also take look at a song by kangen band, “selingkuh”: pacarku sayangilah aku/seperti ku menyayangimu/pacarku cintailah aku/seperti aku cinta kamu/(reff)tapi kamu kok selingkuh/tapi kamu kok selingkuh (my love, take care of me/just like how i’ve taken care of you/my love, love me/just like how i love you/but why are you cheating on me). the uniformity and the regression of musical quality were reaching the point of becoming a phenomenon in the indonesian popular music in 2008. major recording companies were on the edge of bankruptcy because of the growing rates of digital piracy that also caused sales of cds and cassette tapes to decline. major recording companies were then forced to take shortcuts by finding bands that were intriguing to society, and then making them as models so that the major labels could then reproduce the bands in the form of supposedly-new music groups. with complete disregard for their quality, the so-called market forecast had become a reference to avoid bankruptcy. the characteristics of contemporary malay pop music in indonesia are their vocal technique (malay-twisting/bending vocals) and the themes—mostly about love, especially in everyday life; having affairs with others; exaggerated worship toward one’s lover. the lyrics are very simple; indeed, sometimes they are so simple that they may be termed banal or non-poetic. modern malay pop songs are very easy to digest, which makes them very easily acceptable to listeners. but this approach to popular music production turned out to be considered to have produced a lowbrow musical genre. malay pop music groups were once criticized by a small part of society, and indisputably they were loved by a great many people. many music groups reached stardom by playing the malay pop genre most notably vagetoz, kangen band, wali, matta, repvblik, angkasa, pudja, and st12. even as this research was being written up, major recording companies were still launching malay pop bands in the music industry. based on the facts mentioned above, it can be concluded that the malay pop music genre can be considered as a phenomenon in the indonesian popular music industry especially in the context of the culture industry. (adorno, 1991) malay pop: mass media.... (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 101 in the end, the dominating mainstream music which also tends to follow the trends reaches saturation point in the ears of audiences, and this saturation point affected the emergence of a counterresistance against these musical industry trends. one example of this occurred in 1977, when pop music songs in indonesia were considered to be uniform and lacking any significant variation; after this, the prambors teen song writing competition (lomba cipta lagu remaja prambors) emerged, which then came to be regarded as freshly-composed counter products against the mainstream pop music songs. according to wendi putranto, an editor of rolling stone indonesia music magazine, nowadays the frontally launched counter product against dominating malay pop songs has been led by a band from an independent recording company (putranto, 2008). efek rumah kaca, from aksara records, frontally criticized the contemporary malay pop movement with their song cinta melulu. other than efek rumah kaca, music observer denny sakrie stated that the counter products against the movement also came from the independent recording companies such as fastforward records, sinjitos, and nubuzz with bands such as mocca, white shoes & the couples co., sore, the s.i.g.i.t, and zeke & the popo (sakrie, 2008). theoretical framework the background to the study above raises three questions that this article attempts to answer, which are; (1) can the musical uniformity within the malay pop songs by malay pop bands be identified as a ‘phenomenal’ product within context of culture industry in indonesian popular music? (2) how do malay pop music groups become a product of mass media hegemony within the context of popular music in indonesia? (3) how do independent recording companies/indie labels launch counter products and counter hegemony against the dominance of malay pop? this research framework uses the concept of hegemony and the culture industry (adorno, 1991). hegemony itself is the process of creating, maintaining, and reproducing a set of values and practices in the sense of power and authority. to antonio gramsci, hegemony denotes the situation where the ‘historic block’ from the ruling class that demonstrates their power and social leadership against subordinate classes. hegemony can work in a coercive way or alternatively be based on the consensual acceptance by the subordinate groups toward the ideas, values and leadership of the dominant groups. hegemony is not a fixed set of ideas so it has a constant function to change. it emerges from social and class struggles which it, in turn, shapes, transforms, and influences; and its control over dominated groups can never be totally guaranteed. hegemony operates through the institutions of civil society which characterize mature liberal-democratic, capitalist societies. these institutions include education, the family, the church, the mass media, and popular culture. this particular research project studied the connection between the roles of mass media, malay pop phenomenon, music industry, and the counter hegemony by independent recording companies since the beginning of 2008. other than becoming a product of mass media’s hegemony, the dominance of contemporary malay pop is also a cultural phenomenon within the context of the culture industry and popular music. the term ‘culture industry’ is a concept that was coined by theodore adorno and max horkheimer in their book the dialectic of enlightenment (1944). this work was written as their objection towards the presumption that art was independent and therefore had no connection with industries or commerce. adorno and horkheimer (2002) adapted the term ‘culture industry’ to argue that the means of production within cultural artifacts were reproduced in a similar way to other kinds of industry produced consumer goods in tremendous quantity. all goods were reproduced with the goal of gaining as much profit as possible through use of a standardized procedure, and this means of production helped to produce a passive and standardized consumerism. all such production is developed simply to gain profit. adorno and horkheimer (2002) used the metaphor of the ‘production line’ to emphasize the repetitive character of culture production. this 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 99-106 theme then was extended by adding the two extra concepts of ‘standardization’ and ‘pseudo individuality.’ the argument about standardization here points toward the non-existence of elements of spontaneity in the production of culture, because this has become a routine operation using specific formulae. standardization means that popular songs are becoming more and more alike and their parts, verses and choruses more interchangeable. pseudo-individualization disguises this process by making the songs appear more varied and distinct from each other. in conclusion, adorno and horkheimer (2002) argued that if culture was to be organized structurally as a capitalist production industry, it would thereby become standardized, formulized, and a repetitive element of mass culture. hence, it would not have any aesthetical element and would lead to a specific type of consumerism; a passive and conformist type easily manipulated through the use of propaganda, advertising, and profit. methods in this research, the writer used three methods, these being textual analysis, observation, and interviews. a comparative study of 5 samples of contemporary malay pop songs and 5 samples of independent recording companies’ songs was conducted to analyze the topic textually. meanwhile, to analyze the domination of malay pop that is legitimized by the mass media and its counter-hegemony by the independent recording companies, the writer interviewed the producers in charge of music programs on private national television channels, as well as the local level television channels bandung tv. to analyze the resistance coming from the independent music movement, the writer interviewed local group efek rumah kaca. this interview focused on cholil mahmud as the mastermind behind the resisting ideology toward the malay pop phenomena/domination. result and discussions the theories of standardization and pseudo individuality are used here to analyze malay pop songs through a comparative study with ‘indie’ pop music songs. elements such as the music arrangements, theme, lyrics, and the video clip provided by both sides are compared. in this study, the writer uses 5 songs of malay pop and 5 songs of indie pop. table 1 below contains the list of the malay pop songs that are being used in this research. table 1 malay pop songs used in research malay pop music group song title rec. company (major st12 cari pacar lagi trinity optima production kangen band selingkuh sony bmg angkasa jangan pernah selingkuh warner indonesia merpati tak selamanya selingkuh indah nagaswara rec. matta band ketahuan pps malay pop: mass media.... (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 103 table 2 indie pop songs used in research indie pop music group song title rec. company (indie) sore pergi tanpa pesan aksara records sindetosca kepompong nubuzz records white shoes & couple co. senandung maaf aksara records agrikulture kompor meleduk future10 records efek rumah kaca cinta melulu aksara records based on the textual analysis, the elements of standardization and pseudo individuality on the malay pop songs above showed that this genre is clearly a strong product of the culture industry. this is evident through the various elements used within the songs, namely: the non-exploratory sense of musicality; repetitive love themes, especially those centered on exaggerated worship toward a lover which then creates a sub-ordinate/dominant relationship within; the dominant issue of cheating and affairs, here reproduced in such a way as to give a fresh impression within the songs; references to everyday life that include slang words and colloquialisms, non-poetic choice of words; and predigested/banal/denotative meanings within the songs. meanwhile, the characteristics of indie pop songs basically, counter all of the elements found in malay pop. there is a creative use of music arrangement; varieties of theme within the songs (they are not always about love); the use of poetic lyrics; and even the video clips show more signs of creativity. it can therefore be concluded that the content of indie pop songs emerged as a form of an alternative/counter product to a type of pop music in indonesia that is uniform, repetitive and standardized, as in the case with malay pop. the domination of malay pop in the indonesian music industry was legitimized by the mass media, especially by private national television stations through their music programs. prominent examples were dahsyat music program on rcti, klik on antv, kissvaganza on indosiar, and derings on transtv. but these examples were just followers. the first music program which then became the trend setter for other television stations, was inbox on sctv, first broadcasted in 2007 everyday morning. below is the schedule list of a typical morning music program on the private national televisions. table 3 schedule of morning music program in tv program television channel on-air schedule inbox sctv 7.30-9.30 everyday derings transtv 7.30-9.00 everyday kissvaganza indosiar 7.00-8.30 everyday dahsyat rcti 9.00-11.00 everyday the writer observed these morning music programs to examine the amount of television exposure of malay pop which then dominated the indonesian music industry. it became that the malay pop music genre was having a great deal of exposure through these live performances, video clips, and even simple interviews or gossip shows that were shown on the television morning music programs. society seemed to welcome the malay pop music groups because of the hegemony of the music program on television, which in turn gave birth to the mass reproduction of new malay music groups which were published by major recording companies. 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 99-106 this process automatically made malay pop a dominant music genre and a product created by the hegemonic mass media because of such frequent exposure through televisions. the great number of music groups in the malay pop genre and their standardized musical arrangements allowed them to dominate the music industry, despite it being difficult to identify any individuality of the music groups because of their uniform elements within the genre. the malay pop genre was very profitable for those participating in it, such as the musicians, producers, recording companies, and even the mobile-phone content providers who sold song tracks through ring back tones (nada sambung pribadi). below is the list of malay pop music groups that made huge profits through ring back tones compared to non-malay pop music/singers. table 4 comparion of malay and non-malay music industries malay pop music groups music groups recording company income via rbt/nsp st12 trinity optima production 6 million download = rp 6 billion hijau daun sony bmg 6 million download = rp 6 billion wali nagaswara records 4 million download = rp 4 billion vagetoz sony bmg 5 million download = rp 5 billion kangen band sony bmg 4 million download = rp 4 billion matta band pps 3 million download = rp 3 billion non-malay pop artist/music groups artist/music groups recording company income via rbt/nsp d’massive musika 5 million download rossa = lagu ayat-ayat cinta trinity optima production 2 million download aura kasih universal musik indonesia 1 million download samson universal musik indonesia 1 million download kapanlagi.com, rileks.com, and lintasberita.com. these sites above were accessed on may 16th 2009 from the table above, it can be concluded that some malay pop music groups earned 3 5 billion rupiah from ring back tones alone (excluding those profit from live performance). this shows that the malay pop genre is very profitable compared to non-malay pop music groups, further reinforcing the mass reproduction of malay pop groups published by the recording companies, regardless of the strong similarities between them. implicitly, this phenomenon was countered by local media (television) that broadcasted independent music programs such as bandung tv with their program called reaksi; pjtv with lokal lebel; and stv with ziggy wiggy. the writer observed reaksi as an independent (indie) music program to examine the implicit counter-hegemonic movement toward the domination of malay pop. the writer examined the diversities as well as the non-commercial ideology of reaksi through an interview with its producer. based on the observation and the interview, the writer concludes that reaksi as well as other independent music programs displayed a great variety of musical genres (rock, metal, rap, hip hop, dangdut, pop, etc), in contrast to music programs such as derings and dahsyat that focusing primarily malay pop: mass media.... (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 105 on standardized and uniform pop music. the dominating music program by private national televisions focused on showing artists/music groups from major and professional recording companies, although the uniformity and standardized image of the music gave a questionable impression, regarding quality and creativity. reaksi did not broadcast any top 40 hits on their program, unlike the mainstream music programs which each had their own versions of top 40 charts within a period of time. reaksi focused on showing and discussing the essence of the music, unlike mainstream music programs that sometimes includes gossip and jokes to fill the duration of the show. therefore, it can be concluded that reaksi countered the hegemonic mass media of mainstream music programs with a non-standardized, non-uniform, and non-commercial music program. meanwhile, the explicit resistance toward the malay pop domination was led by indie music group called efek rumah kaca (glass house effect, erk), with their song “cinta melulu” (merely love). the song “cinta melulu” represented a feeling of boredom against the dominating mellow/love themes in songs that were shown in the mainstream media. according to erk, this condition should be fought against, in order to mend the regressive quality of indonesian’s popular music scene, and the resistance should serve different kinds of musical ideology against the malay pop ideology in order that their domination slowly be decreased. (interview was done on march 17th 2009). these different kinds of musical ideology should also be able to reach the lower classes in society, because the hegemony that the mass media creates together with the industry tends to be very much accepted by the lower classes. the various kinds of music should also be given to the society intensively, through local television or mainstream but rebellious televisions programs so that society would be able to learn and consume various kinds of music, not just the standardized ones served up by the mainstream media. although the resistance launched by the indie music movement was not of a huge scale, this act is arguably a vital counter-hegemony toward a cultural hegemony created by the mainstream mass media, the private national televisions. conclusion based on the above analysis, the three questions posed above can now be addressed directly. first, the malay pop phenomenon is identified as a product of the culture industry because of the strong similarities between the malay pop music groups themselves. these characteristics are the usage of love and affair themes, banalities and everyday life lyrics, simple musical arrangements, standardized malay vocal techniques, and also standardized video clips. these uniform music groups were always reproduced and modified in order to appear new and fresh, but the analysis demonstrates that actually they were not in any significant new. this can be related to adorno & horkheimer’s pseudo-individuality conception. this phenomenon represented a regression of quality within the indonesian popular music because of the imitative mentality. this musical genre, supported by major recording companies, stood to contradistinction to the music that published by the independent music movement: in other words, the indie music was not standardized or uniformed to anywhere the same degree. second, the contemporary malay pop music became dominant through media support (television) with their hegemonic music programs. society welcomed the malay pop and automatically led to the reproduction of the music groups by the industry and the media. their presence produced large profits for others that involved in the industry such as recording companies, cellular mobile phone provider, television stations (which increase ratings), and other musicians. this reproduction of malay pop music groups created a cultural domination within the context of popular music through their high profits. 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 99-106 finally, counter hegemony through malay pop music by the indie music movement was represented through indie music programs on local television stations that emerged as an alternative to the hegemonic music programs. music programs such as reaksi, and ziggy wiggy supported the indie music movement by launching counter-hegemony through the promotion of alternative kinds of music against the dominant, commercial and highly-earned malay pop music. references adorno, t.(1991). the culture industry. london: routledge. adorno, t.& horkheimer, m. (2002). dialectic of enlightenment. california: stanford university press. hafiedz, r. ( januari-oktober 2008). loud music magazine. jakarta timur: pt jujur jaya. putranto, w. (2008). “musik indonesia hari ini”. rolling stone indonesia. resmadi, i.( 2008). music records indie label. bandung: mizan media utama sakrie, d.(des 2008). “fatamorgana musik pop indonesia”. koran tempo. issn 1978-8118 vol. 2 no. 2 november 2008 ketua dewan redaksi dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. dewan redaksi ratna handayani, m.si. henny lim, ba cendrawaty tjong, ba sofi zhang, ba dra. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., ma. mitra bestari prof. bahren umar siregar.ph.d (universitas katolik atma jaya) dra. ekawati m. dukut, m.hum. (unika soegija pranata semarang) dra. nalti novianti, m.si. (binus) rita susanti, s.pd., s.s., m.si. (binus) andyni khosasih, se, ba (binus) xia mingju, ba, ma. (huaqiao university) zhang bin, ba, ma. (xiamen university elisa christiana, ba. (universitas kristen petra) huan jianjun, ph.d. (guangxi teachers education college) editor bahasa dan setter dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. titik rahayu s., s.s. holil angga ferdiansyah sekretariat: hery h.m., s.kom alamat redaksi: subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang sastra research and community service center universitas bina nusantara kampus anggrek jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk jakarta barat 11530 telp. 021-5350660 (ext. 1210) fax. 021-5300244 cultura jurnal lingualingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 2 no. 2 november 2008 daftar isi timur sri astami diatesis pasif bahasa jepang (japanese passive diathesis)............................................................................... 121-128 ienneke i. dewi bilingualism: an asset or a burden? ...................................................................... 129-138 clara herlina karjo group presentation as one way of increasing students’ participation in the classroom ........ 139-146 henriono nugroho intelligence inside the king’s college of cambridge .................................................. 147-155 winnie; akun the study of figurative languages using stylistics theory in what my mother doesn’t know by sonya sones ..................................................... 156-165 ma feng charm of author intervention: narrative theoretical analysis on milan kundera’s works ....... 166179 nalti novianti; edi dianto analisis faktor penyebab berkurangnya upacara pernikahan shinzen kekkon di jepang, khususnya daerah kansai (shrinkage factor analysis of japanese wedding ceremony shinzen kekkon, especially in kansai region) ............................................................................... 180-187 robihim analisis metode belajar kosa kata (vocabulary learning method analysis) ................................................................. 188-203 xu junliu talking about the “misunderstanding” in the process of literary accepting ...................... 204-210 zhang haitao chinese classical aesthetic in the view of inter-subjectivity ....................................... 211-220 indeks........................................................................................................ 221-225 cultura jurnal lingualingua research methods in language study introduction to research … (muhartoyo) 11 introduction to research methodologies in language studies muhartoyo english department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, ymuhartoyo@yahoo.com abstract language research is an area of interest for many students and lecturers of faculty of letters. this article is an attempt to describe various research methodologies in language studies in a simple way. the research methodologies covered include experimental research, quasi experimental research, ethnography, and case study. the different concept of qualitative and quantitative research is also highlighted. the issues of reliability and validity of a research report are briefly discussed. keywords: experimental research, ethnography, case study abstrak penelitian bahasa merupakan bidang yang menarik bagi mahasiswa dan pengajar di fakultas sastra. artikel ini mencoba menggambarkan berbagai metodologi riset dalam bidang bahasa dengan cara yang sederhana. metodologi riset ini mencakup experimental research, quasi experimental research, etnografi, dan studi kasus. artikel ini juga membahas konsep metode riset kuantitatif dan kualitatif. masalah validitas dan keabsahan sebuah laporan riset dibahas secara singkat. kata kunci: penelitian eksperimental, etnografi, studi kasus jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 11-18 12 introduction there is a felt need for students of faculty of letters to get a better understanding on various research methodologies in language studies. exposing the students with various research methods will enable them to choose an appropriate research method for their final research project. the various methodologies that will be briefly discussed in this article cover experimental method including the logic of inferential statistics, ethnography, and case study. before discussing these methods, it is worth looking at the issues of binary distinction of qualitative and quantitative research. although some linguists say that the binary distinction of qualitative and quantitative research is simplistic and naive, the writer agrees with david nunan‟s (1994) argument that the distinction is real, not an ostensible one. indeed, qualitative and quantitative research methods are guided by two quite different conceptions. quantitative research is using a deductive method. it begins with a hypothesis or theory then searches for evidence either to support or to refute that hypothesis or theory. the data collected for this type of research is called quantitative data i.e. data which are recorded in numerical form. statistical tools such as correlation and regression, wilcoxon signed rank test, chi-square, t-test, analysis of variance (anova), etc. are used to analyze the data. other characteristics of quantitative research are obtrusive and controlled, objective, and generalisable. obtrusive and controlled means that the researcher does some intervention/ treatment to the subjects that they are researching on. for instance, a researcher introduces a new writing method to the subject then the researcher will see whether the new method really works. the researcher will give pretest (before treatment/ intervention) and post test (after treatment/ intervention) to see the effect of the new method. objective means the data collected are the result of an objective measurement/ evaluation. while generalisable means that the result can be applied or generalized to the population (beyond the sample). qualitative research, on the other hand, is using an inductive method that seeks to draw general principles, theories or „truth‟ from an investigation and documentation. it does not use any statistical tool, however, simple tabulation and calculation are sometimes used in the analysis. the data collected for this research are normal qualitative data i.e. data which are recorded in nonnumerical form, such as transcript of an interview. other characteristics of qualitative methods are subjective, naturalistic and uncontrolled, exploratory, and descriptive. all knowledge, according to qualitative research, is relative and has a subjective element, consequently, holistic and ungeneralisable studies are justifiable. other important issues in language studies are dealing with reliability and validity. discussion reliability and validity important issues that must be addressed by a language researcher in conducting a research are reliability and validity. reliability means (a) the ability of an independent researcher to reach the same conclusion after analyzing one‟s data and (b) the possibility of similar results to be achieved by replication of one‟s study. a research will have a high degree of reliability if consistent results can be obtained by an independent researcher by reproducing the research using similar methods and procedures. on the other hand, a research has low degree of reliability when an independent researcher conducting similar research with the same method and procedures results in different conclusions. introduction to research … (muhartoyo) 13 another issue is validity which means (a) the degree of a researchers‟ honesty that he/she has really observed what he/she has to observe in his/her research and (b) the extent of generalization from a researcher‟s finding based on his/her subjects and situations to other subjects and situations. in other words, a research will have high degree of validity if an independent researcher can prove/see that a concerned researcher has really observed what he/she claimed to have been observed during the research and the research result can be generalized beyond the samples and situation of the research. validity is divided into two different types, i.e. internal validity and external validity. internal validity means the extent to which a researcher can claim that any differences in research results are due to the treatments given to the subjects. for example, if a researcher can prove that the better test scores of the subjects under his/ her research are result of his/ her treatments/ intervention, it means the research has a high internal validity. on the other hand, external validity is the extent of generalization that can be drawn from samples to populations. it is the challenge of a researcher to achieve research results which have a high degree of reliability and validity. a true language scientist will address these two issues properly in his/ her research. experimental research experimental research is a research method usually used to find out the strength of relationship between variables. in order to be able to use this research method properly we need to know about variables, population, and sample. a variable means anything which does not remain constant, for example, language proficiency, aptitude, motivation, skill, interest, and so on. variables can be classified into two categories, i.e. independent and dependent variables. an independent variable is an element or item used by the researcher to influence the other variable, for instance a teaching method. a dependent variable is an element or item that is influenced or affected by an independent variable, for example the test scores of students under investigation. variables can also be classified based on the type of scale used for measuring them. in this classification, variables are classified into 4 groups, i.e. 1) nominal scale, 2) ordinal scale, 3) interval scale, and 4) ratio scale. a nominal scale is for mutually exclusive characteristics, such as sex and eye color. a subject cannot be simultaneously categorized into „male‟ and „female‟, or „blue-eyed‟ and „brown-eyed‟. an ordinal scale is for variables that can be given a ranking, such as first, second, third. in this case the actual score itself is not given. an interval scale provides information on the ranking as well as the distance between scores. most test score data belong to this category. finally, a ratio scale is for absolute value, such as temperature. applied linguistics is not quite interested in this type of variable as most variables do not have absolute values. after understanding what variables are, we should know about populations and samples. a population is all cases, situations, or individuals who have one or more similar characteristics. for example, seventh semester students of a faculty of letters who have passed a scientific writing course. meanwhile a sample is a subset of individuals or cases taken from a population. a sample is needed when a population of an experimental research is too big as it will be very tedious and time-consuming to do a research on the whole population. different techniques of sampling can be seen in books on statistics for research. example of an experimental research supposing one of students of a faculty of letters who has been teaching english in a private school will write a thesis entitled “innovative english teaching materials for senior high school students.” she has to prove that her innovative teaching materials are really superior to the traditional jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 11-18 14 ones. to do this, she has to select two groups of students, one group that has used the innovative materials (experimental group) and the other group that uses traditional ones (the control group). the experimental group will be taught by using her innovative teaching materials for one term. on the other hand, the control group will get instruction using a traditional english teaching material. at the end of the term, both groups will be tested. however, it is not recommended to test the two groups at the end of the term only as the internal validity of this one-shot test is low. it implies that if the test results show that the experimental group has higher scores than the control group, people will question the method of selecting the groups. it may happen that the members of the experimental group are high achievers while the members of the control group are slow learners. to overcome the threat of internal validity, she has to do a „true experimental research‟ in that she has to select the members of the groups randomly and test the two groups before and after the terms to make sure that the members of the two groups have the same capability and start with equal position. the test must be conducted before and at the end of the term to see the differences made by the two groups. to compare the result of the groups (experimental and control groups), a researcher can use ttest, which is normally used to compare the means of two groups. t-test is used in inferential statistics. by doing a true experimental research she now has a better position to argue that any differences at the end of the terms are caused by the experimental treatment (the use of innovative materials). however, in reality it is difficult to do a true experimental research. it is almost impossible to rearrange the existing class arrangement for experimental research purposes. a researcher often has to accept the intact group of subjects who have been grouped by a school. although the internal validity will be weakened, this kind of research (experimental research without rearranging the subjects) is still considered to be desirable. this type of research is called quasi-or pre-experimental research. the logic of inferential statistics experimental research usually uses statistical methods in analyzing research data. statistical methods can be grouped into parametric and non-parametric statistics (wijaya, 2000). when the data has abnormal distribution, they have to be analyzed using non-parametric statistical method. however, if the data are normally distributed they can be analyzed by using inferential statistics. there are many interesting features that can be drawn from the data with normal distribution. the data are considered to have normal distribution when the data are equally divided in the distribution chart. it implies that the areas on the left and right sites of the mean are equal (see figure 1). figure 1 percentage of scores falling within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviation of the mean (source: nunan, 1994) introduction to research … (muhartoyo) 15 before discussing the inferential statistics, we need to know such terms as mean, variance, standard deviation, and standard error. mean is the average of a set of scores (obtained by adding the individual scores together and dividing by the total number of scores. mean gives information about the central tendency of the scores. variance is calculated by deducting individual score with the mean and squaring the resulting figures to get rid of the minus signs, adding these together, and dividing by the number of scores minus one. the square root of this figure (variance) is called standard deviation. so standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion of a set of scores from the mean of the score. while standard error is standard deviation divided by square root of observation in the sample. the standard error is closely related with the level of confindence of the research results. the lower the standard error, the higher the level of confidence of the research result will be. for example, if the standard deviation of the experimental group is 3.8 and the number of students (subjects) is 50, the square root of 50 is about 7, then the standard error is 0.5428 (3.8 divided by 7). it means the level of confidence of this research is 95% which is quite high. to make this discussion about mean, variance, and standard deviation clear, let us see the example in figure 2 below. as mentioned earlier, inferential statistics can be used to draw many interesting features from a set of data with normal distribution. however, before drawing the interesting features, we have to prove that the data has normal distribution. one of the methods used for proving the normal distribution of the data is chi square (sugiyono, 2005). when the data has been proven to have normal distribution we can make some interesting assumpti-ons. for example, we can see from the figure 1 that 68% of the scores will be within standard deviation (sd) 1 of the mean, 95% of the scores will be within 2 sds of the mean, and 99% of the scores will be within 3 sds of the mean. this implies that students who fall in standard deviation 3 above the mean are the top 1% students, meaning they are the best students. to make it clear let‟s see the following example. a student obtained a raw score of 90 in grammar and 80 in writing. looking at the raw score we may be tempted to draw a conclusion that the student is better in grammar than in writing. however, we are not allowed to draw such conclusion by using raw scores. we should know the mean and standard deviation (sd) of the sample before making inferences. supposed the mean and sd on the test of grammar are 60 and 15, and in writing test, 65 and 5, we can conclude that the student is actually better in writing than in grammar. why is 80 better than 90? what is the logic behind this? the reason is as follows. based on the characteristics of the normal distribution, a score of 90 in grammar is 2 sds above the mean [(90-60)/15=2)], meaning that the student is in the top 2.5% of the sample see figure 1. while the score 80 in writing is 3 sds above the mean [(8065)/5=3)], meaning that the student is in the top 1% of the sample for that subject. so it is interesting to see that according to the logic of inferential statistics the higher raw score does not necessarily indicate that a student perform better. score score-mean² square of figures in 2nd column 2 -2 4 8 4 16 5 1 1 3 -1 1 4 0 0 1 -3 9 2 -2 4 3 -1 1 5 1 1 7 3 9 40 46 the sum of the squares/(no. of scores minus 1) = 46/(10-1) = 5.111 variance = 5.111 standard deviation (i.e., square root of variance) = 2.26 the mean = 4. this is calculated by dividing the sum of the scores (40) by the total number of individual scores (10) figure 2 calculating mean, variance, and standard deviation (source: nunan, 1994) jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 11-18 16 ethnography ethnography is defined as the study of culture/characteristics of a group in real-world rather than in laboratory settings. the researchers do not make any isolation or manipulation to the phenomena that they investigate. according to wilson (1982) the roots of ethnography were in anthropology and sociology. wilson relates the tradition to two sets of hypotheses about human behavior. these are the naturalistic ecological hypothesis and qualitative-phenomenological hypothesis. the naturalistic-ecological perspective has the belief that the context in which behavior occurs has a significant influence on that behavior. it means that if we want to find out about behavior, we need to investigate it in the natural contexts in which it occurs, rather than in the experimental laboratory. a research conducted by bellack, hersen, and turner (1978) found that subjects performed in a role-play situation very differently from the way they performed in real-life social situation where the same behavior observed. the qualitative-phenomenological hypothesis means that ethnographers believe that human behavior cannot be understood without incorporating into the research the subjective perceptions and the belief systems of those involved in research, both as researchers and subjects. it implies that the traditional stance of the researcher as „objective‟ observer is inadequate, and the procedures of experimental method of framing hypotheses and operationalising constructs (psychological attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, or motivation which are created to account for observable behavior) before engaging in any data collection or analysis are at best inappropriate and at worst irrelevant. watson-gegeo and ulichny (1988) identify several key principles of ethnographic research. these include the adoption of a grounded approach to data. grounded approach means the practice of deriving theory from data rather than the other way around. they point out that ethnography involves interpretation, analysis, and explanation – not just description. proponents of quantitative research criticize ethnographic methods. their criticisms are concerning the reliability and validity of such research as ethnographies are based on detailed description and analysis of a particular context or situation. however, the problem of internal and external validity will depend on the scope of the research and the researcher‟s purpose. there won‟t be any issue of internal validity if the purpose of research is not trying to establish causal relationship between variables. if the researcher‟s purpose is not seeking generalization his/ her findings, then there won‟t be any issue of external validity. so ethnography is a valid research tradition in its own right, and should not merely be regarded as a device for generating a hypothesis for experimental research. case study linguists have differing opinion regarding the definition of a case study. some linguists say that a case study is just pre-experimental research, while some others argue that a case study is a legitimate research method in its own right. according to adelman et. al. a case study is the study of an „instance in action.‟ in this case, a researcher selects an instance (a case) from the class of objects and phenomena, for example, „a second language learner‟ or „a grammar classroom‟ and observes the way this instance operates or functions in context. the concept of studying phenomena in context implies that the case study has similar philosophy, methods, and concern with ethnography. therefore some linguists tend to say that the case study is a limited type of ethnography. another difference between ethnography and a case study is in the focus of research in which ethnography is more concerned with the cultural context and cultural interpretation of the phenomena being researched. introduction to research … (muhartoyo) 17 typically a case study researcher investigates the characteristics of an individual unit – a child, a clique, a class, a school, or a community. the objectives of such investigation are to find out and analyze intensity of the various phenomena in the investigated unit in order to establish generalizations about the wider population to which the unit belongs. according to adelman et. al. (1976) there are six advantages of using the case study. firstly, it is „strong in reality‟ and therefore likely to appeal to practitioners, who will be able to identify the issues and concerns raised. secondly, the claim that one can generalize from a case about an instance, or from an instance to a class. thirdly, it can represent a multiplicity of viewpoints, and can offer support to alternative interpretations. it can also provide a database of materials which may be reinterpreted by future researchers. fifthly, the insights of yielded by case studies can be put to immediate use for a variety of purposes, including staff development, within institution feedback, formative evaluation, and educational policy making. finally, case study data are usually more accessible than conventional research reports, and therefore capable of serving multiple audiences. there are two points of view on the issue of validity of case studies. the first one argues that, while internal validity is important, external validity may be irrelevant. the researchers holding the second point of view say that tests of validity should be as stringently applied to the case study as to any other type of research. although validity and reliability issues may appear in a case study, it has a great potential to be a research method in applied linguistics. a major strength of it is that a case study can be carried out by graduate students and/ or classroom practitioners who prefers to conduct a smallscale investigations. conclusion there are four different research methodologies that can be used by students in conducting a research in language studies, they are i) experimental research, ii) quasi or pre-experimental research, iii) ethnography, iv) case study. the four methods briefly discussed in this article can enrich students with different tools for conducting language research. due to limited space, only important aspects of the four research methodologies are given. additional information from other relevant sources needs to be used in order to get a full view of the four methodologies in language studies. in addition to the four research methodologies, the concept of qualitative and quantitative research methods need to be correctly understood as the two concepts have different underlying approach. it is not relevant to decide whether one method is better than other methods. the important thing is that a student should know which method he/ she can use to suit his/ her research project. better understanding on the research methodologies in language studies will make students feel more confident to do their research in language. with clear concept and guidance from competent tutors, students will be able to produce high quality research. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 11-18 18 references adelman, c.d. jenkins and s. kemis. 1976. “rethinking case study: notes from the second cambridge conference.” cambridge journal of education, 6,3,139-150. bellack, a. s., m. hersen, and s.m. turner. 1978. “role play tests for assessing social skills: are they valid?” behavior theraphy, 9,448-461. nunan, d. 1994. research methods in language learning. new york: the press syndicate of the university of cambridge. sugiyono. 2005. statistika untuk penelitian. bandung: alfabeta. wijaya. 2000. statistika non-parametrik (aplikasi program spss). bandung: alfabeta wilson, s. 1982. “the use of ethnographic techniques in educational research.” review of eductional research, 47,1,245-265. watson-gegeo, k. and p. ulichny. 1988. “ethnographic inquiry into second language acquisition and instruction.” university of hawaii working papers in esl, 7,2. abstraksi jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 102-111 102 analysis of psychological growth of the main character in chenlun by yu dafu xuc lin chinese department, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, xuclin2732@lecturer.binus.ac.id abstract article discusses the psychological aspect of the main character in the novel “chen lun”. the feelings of inferiority and loneliness are his initial mental states. the latter is caused by two factors: the social and personality factors while the former is caused by the political condition in china at that time and the fact that the japanese underestimate the chinese people. the writer uses freud’s theory on the structure of personality and conflict, anxiety, and the defense mechanism to analyze the process of the psychological development of the main character. in the end of the story, the main character commits suicide since “he” cannot only solve the problem of his loneliness and inferiority but also he feels guilty of his wrongdoing which crushes his-ideal-self. the guilty feeling haunts him in such a way that he even denies himself. keywords: psychological growth, inferiority, loneliness, personality trait 摘要 提要:本论文的第一部分首先分析《沉沦》主人公的心理,孤独感和自卑感作为主人公的最初 心理状态。主人公的孤独感来自两方面,社会方面与个人性格方面。而他的自卑感来自中国当 时的政治情况与日本人歧视中国人的背景。第二部分笔者试着用心理学的理论,特别是弗洛伊 德(freud)关于人格结构与冲突、焦虑和防御机制的理论来分析主人公的心理发展过程。主 人公最后有自杀的结局是因为“他”不但无法克服孤独感和自卑感,而且发现自己已做了错误 的自我决定与行为,害得充满理想的“他”被自卑感与内疚感压倒而无法认同自己。 analysis of psychological … (xuc lin) 103 一 、前言 《沉沦》是一篇“自叙传”出版于 1921 年,由郁达夫著作的抒情小说。这篇小说是郁大夫 最有代表性的作品。《沉沦》故事的男主人公是留学日本的一个学生。原本是去日本求学,但 到了日本觉得自己身为中国人——当时叫做“支那人”,受到日本人的歧视,他变得非常敏 感,内心感到非常自卑。他感到自卑因为中国当时是个贫穷落后的国家。内心的自卑带给他很 大的压力。一个人在异国他乡也使他感到很孤独。自卑感加上很强烈的孤独感使他需要一种发 泄,他开始不再追求学问而转移到爱情。然而他的自卑使他无法正常地跟别人进行交际,导致 他得不到爱情。他承受不了孤独和自卑的心理,后来就产生了心理变态。这种变态心理一直持 续着,接着又产生内疚与更强烈的孤独感,这些矛盾久了就变成恶性循环,导致主人公最后跳 海自杀。 人格发展的每个阶段都有一对冲突或两级对立的矛盾所构成,并形成一种危机。这种危 机是指发展中的一个重要转折点。积极解决危机会增强自我的力量,形成某种良好的自我品 格,人格就得到健全的发展,有利于个人对环境的适应;反之消极解决危机会导致形成消极的 自我品格,削弱自我的力量,阻碍个人对环境的适应(郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育出版 社,2006 年版 115-116 页)。《沉沦》的主人公选择消极的行为来解决他的问题,更准确地说他 根本没有能力用积极的方法来解除自己的心理障碍,最后以死路来解决。 二《沉沦》主人公的心理状态 (一) 孤独感 引起主人公的孤独感来自两个因素:  社会因素 一个人融合于集体之中,个体的自由度虽小,但由此而不易感到寂寞和孤单(郑雪编著《人 格心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 123 页)。因自 1911 年中国各地发生革命使学生不能正 常地上学,在《沉沦》中的男主人公多次转校甚至多年呆在家里(回到那小小的书斋里来)导 致他没有朋友也没有参加集体活动(学校),这就是“他”产生孤独的根苗。 .....武昌的革命起来了。那时候他已在县立小学堂卒了业,正在那里换来换去的换中学堂。 他进了k府中学之后,不上半年又忽然转了h府中学来;在h府中学住了三个月,革命就起 来了。h府中学停学之后,他依旧只能回到那小小的书斋里来。 第二年的春天,正是他十七岁的时候,他就进了大学的预科。 ………住不上半年,那大学 里的厨子,托了校长的势,竟打起学生来。学生中间有几个不服的,便去告诉校长,校长反说学生 不是。他看看这些情形,实在是太无道理了,就立刻去告了退,仍复回家,到那小小的书斋里 去...... 到了日本,家人也离开了他,他又住在比较偏僻的地方,跟他在中国的状况差不多一样,这使 他继续栽培孤独感。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 102-111 104 第一高等学校将开学的时候,他的长兄接到了院长的命令,要他回去。他的长兄就把他寄托 在一家日本人的家里,几天之后,他的长兄长嫂和他的新生的侄女儿就回国去了。 如今到了这n市的乡下之后,他的旅馆,是一家孤立的人家,四面并无邻舍,...... 除了几家与学生做买卖的文房具店及菜馆之外,附近并没有居民。荒野的人间,只有几家为 学生设的旅馆,......  个人因素 主人公会感到孤独,因他本身缺乏社会兴趣,导致他的生活风格是病态的。 在现实生活中,人们的生活风格格式各样,但根据社会兴趣,可大致分为两种,一种是 正确的和健康的生活风格,一种是错误的和病态的生活风格。具有社会兴趣的人的生活风格是 正确的和健康的,而缺乏社会兴趣的人的生活风格是错误的和病态的。阿德勒指出:“所有失 败者-------神经症、神经病、罪犯、酗酒者、堕落者、娼妓之所以失败,就是因为他们缺乏从 属感和社会兴趣。” (郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 105-106 页) 他的早熟的性情,竟把他挤到与世人绝不相容的境地去,世人与他的中间介在的那一道屏 障,愈筑愈高了。 他的同学中的好事者,有时候也有人来向他说笑的,他心里虽然非常感激,想同那一个人谈 几句知心的话,然而口中总说不出什么话来;所以有几个解他的意的人,也不得不同他疏远了。 他以为他一个人同别的学生不同,不能按部就班的同他们同在一处求学的。 他们在那里谈天的时候,若有偶然看他一眼的人,他又忽然红起脸来,以为他们是在那里讲 他。他同他同学中间的距离,一天一天的远背起来,他的同学都以为他是爱孤独的人,所以谁也不 敢来近他的身。 出了w中学,他看看杭州的学校,都不能如他的意,所以他就打算不再进别的学校去。 (二) 自卑感 主人公来到了日本后就产生了非常敏感的心理,觉得自己肯定会被日本人看不起,这都 是因为去日本之前,身为中国人已经感到很自卑了。 “我何苦要到日本来,我何苦要求学问。既然到了日本,那自然不得不被他们日本人轻侮的。 中国呀中国!你怎么不富强起来,我不能再隐忍过去了。” 那种自卑感是因为中国当时 1911 年后处于内政乱,贫穷落后又受到外界的侵略,特别是 日本,甚至因为日本于 1915 年提出的“二十一条”,中国感到很耻辱。以下是当主人公去日 本之前发生的一些历史事件: 1913 年 袁世凯与英、法、德、俄、日 5 国签订善后大借款 2 千 5 百万英镑合同,以全部 盐税关税余额为担保。 1914 年 8 月 23 日日本对德宣战,旋即派军于 9 月 2 日在山东龙口登陆。10 月 6 日,占 领胶济路全线。11 月 7 日,日军攻占青岛。至此,德国在山东的势力范围全部为日本控 制。10 月 19 日 日军在山东平度县出示“斩律 5 条”,规定“如该村有 1 人妨碍日军行 动者,将全村人民尽处斩刑。” analysis of psychological … (xuc lin) 105 1915 年 1 月 18 日 日驻华公使日置益向袁世凯提出“二十一条”。5 月 9 日 袁世凯接受 “二十一条”。外交总长陆征祥、次长曹汝霖亲往日使馆递交复文,对日本最后通牒概 予承认。是日,全国教育联合会规定每年 5 月 9 日为国耻纪念日。 主人公以当时的状况到了日本留学,若有一些日本人瞧不起他是难免的,但因他本身的 自卑与敏感使他觉得日本人都真的瞧不起他,加上日本人用“支那人”来称呼他,他的自卑感 又更强烈了。 她们已经知道了,已经知道我是支那人了,否则她们何以不来看我一眼呢! 原来日本人轻视中国人,同我们轻视猪狗一样。日本人都叫中国人作“支那人”,这“支那人”三 字,在日本,比我们骂人的“贱贼”还更难听,如今在一个如花的少女前头,他不得不自认说:“我是 支那人”了。 “支那”一词一说来自印度的梵文,在梵文的经典中以 shina 称呼中国;可能来自“秦” (chin)发音的转变。 而日本在江户幕府末年明治维新初年也开始使用“支那”一词来称呼中国。由于过去日 本以“汉”、“唐”、“明”等方式称呼都是中国朝代的名称,为了确定对中国大陆的称呼, 便使用“支那”来称呼中国大陆。一开始使用“支那”根本没有带贬义之意反右钦慕之情。 1911 年中华民国成立之后,由于中国还没有完全统一,处于军阀割据之下,1913 年 7 月 日本政府明文规定:今后不论中国的国号如何变化,日本均以“支那”称呼中国。日本不用 “中国”的另一个原因是“中国”这个词明示这里才是中央之国,这样日本就成了“东夷”。 日本在于中国交往中,完全使用汉字写中国国号,而在脱亚入欧理论产生后,就流行使 用根据英文词 china 音译的“支那”。在日本和清朝发生更多摩擦并导致战争胜利后,“支 那”一词更多见于侮辱性报章和文书中。 目前,一般的共识是:以个人身份屡次地或者在正式场合使用“支那”称呼中国,或称 呼中国人为“支那人”,是一种轻蔑、敌视中国的行为。 三《沉沦》的男主人公心理发展过程 (一) 病态生活风格导致复仇心理 据阿德勒(alfred adler,1870-1937)的理论,受忽视或遗弃是产生错误的生活风格其中 的原因之一。这是由童年期引起的。这种孩子感到自己毫无价值,变得对社会和他人极端冷 漠、仇视,对所有的人都不相信。主人公在童年时期虽然没有受到很强烈的忽视,但是周围 的人不是那么鼓励他所做的一切。到了青年时期,因中国当时的状况让他的孤独和自卑感的趋 势有机会发展下去。 他家里的人都怪他无恒性,说他的心思太活。 他们弟兄三人,到这时候都不能如意之所为,所以那一小市镇里的闲人都说他们的风水破 了。 http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e5%8d%b0%e5%ba%a6&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e6%a2%b5%e6%96%87&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e6%97%a5%e6%9c%ac&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e6%b1%9f%e6%88%b6%e5%b9%95%e5%ba%9c&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e6%98%8e%e6%b2%bb%e7%bb%b4%e6%96%b0&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e4%b8%ad%e5%9c%8b%e5%a4%a7%e9%99%b8&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1911%e5%b9%b4&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1911%e5%b9%b4&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1913%e5%b9%b4&variant=zh-cn http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%e8%84%ab%e4%ba%9e%e5%85%a5%e6%ad%90&variant=zh-cn jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 102-111 106 孤独感和自卑感给主人公的生活打了病态风格的基础。他到了日本,因为受到日本人的 歧视,这些病态的生活风格更加严重,甚至成了神经症的患者。他不再相信别人,想要对他们 复仇。 “他们都是日本人,他们都是我的仇敌,我总有一天来复仇,我总要复他们的仇。 她们已经知道了,已经知道我是支那人了,否则她们何以不来看我一眼呢!复仇复仇,我总 要复他们的仇。” 他听了这话之后,对了那几个中国同学,也同对日本学生一样,起了一种复仇的心。 他因为想复他长兄的仇,所以就把所学的医科丢弃了,改入文科里去,…… 因为他恐怕一二年之后,他们兄弟两人的感情,仍旧要和好起来;所以这一次的转科,便是 帮他永久敌视他长兄的一个手段。 他上学校去的时候,觉得他的日本同学都似在那里排斥他。 ……对了那几个中国同学,也同对日本学生一样,起了一种复仇的心。嗣后虽在路上,或在 学校里遇见的时候,他同那几个中国同学,也不点头招呼。中国留学生开会的时候,他当然是不去 出席的。因此他同他的几个同胞,竟宛然成了两家仇敌。 (二) 自我无法解决本我与超我的矛盾 弗洛伊德把人格分为本我,自我和超我的概念。本我(id)可以看做是原始驱动力的储存 处。它非常理性地运作着,它跟随冲动并追求即时的满足感,而不考虑所渴望的行为是否现实 可行、被社会所认可。本我被快乐原则所支配,无节制的寻找满足感能随时被实现而不考虑其 后果,这种快乐特别指性、生理和情感快乐。 超我 (superego) 是一个人的价值观的储存处,包括从社会习来的道德态度。超我大致和 良心的概念相对应。当儿童开始将父母或者其他成年人对于某些社会禁忌作为他她)的价值观 一部分时,超我便逐渐发展起来。超我也包括理想自我,这是一个人想让自己努力成为的样 子。这样,超我经常和本我出现矛盾。本我想要做感觉上快乐的事情,而超我则坚持做那些正 确的事情。 自我(ego)是一个基于现实的自我方面,来调和本我冲动和超我需求之间的冲突。自我 代表一个人关于生理和社会现实的观点,是他(她)关于行为的原因和结果的理性认识。自我 的一部分工作是选择那些能够满足本我冲动的行为,但这些行为同时又不会带来不愿看到的结 果。自我是受到现实原则支配的,这种原则为快乐的需求提供现实的选择。当本我和超我产生 矛盾后,自我会进行折衷来尽量满足两者的需要。然而,当本我和超我之间压力非常紧张时, 自我很难制定出最优的折衷 (查理德·格里格 菲利普·津巴多著《心理学与生活》第 16 版,人民邮电出 版,社 2006 年版 395-396 页)。 本我、自我和超我的关系如下: 本我欲求→ 自我的决定和行为 ← 超我的限制 ↓ 食欲→ 去食品市场 ← 偷吃别人的东西是犯罪 analysis of psychological … (xuc lin) 107 性欲→ 结婚 ← 非婚行为不道德(郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东 高等教育出版社,2006 年版 83 页) 自卑感与孤独感也是一种焦虑,都是与人的安全需要相联系,都是人的安全得不到满足的一种 消极情感的体验,为了减轻焦虑,就会形成一些防御性策略。据凯伦·霍妮的理论有 10 种防 御性策略的需要就是:1 友爱与赞许;2 生活伴侣;3 狭窄空间;4 权力;5 剥削;6 社会认可; 7 自我赞许;8 成就;9 自主;10 完美主义(郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 121 页)。 主人公为了减轻他的心理焦虑,不再追求学习而追求爱情来成为他的防御策略。 “知识我也不要,名誉我也不要,我只要一个安慰我体谅我的‘心’。一副白热的心肠!从这一 副心肠里生出来的同情!从同情而来的爱情! “我所要求的就是爱情! “若有一个美人,能理解我的苦楚,她要我死,我也肯的。 “若有一个妇人,无论她是美是丑,能真心真意的爱我,我也愿意为她死的。 “我所要求的就是异性的爱情! “苍天呀苍天,我并不要知识,我并不要名誉,我也不要那些无用的金钱,你若能赐我一个伊 甸园内的‘伊扶’,使她的肉体与心灵,全归我有,我就心满意足了。” 但是只具有自我同一性(同一性是儿童、青少年必须思考所有已掌握的信息,包括对自己和社会 的信息,以便确定自己是谁,以及自己在社会群体中的地位的时期。如果在这个阶段青少年不能获得同 一性,就会产生角色混乱或消极同一性。角色混乱指个体不能正确地选择适应社会的角色,不能确定自 己是谁,能干什么?) 的人才能勇于与异性建立稳定的爱情关系,因为与他人发生爱情关系,就 要把自己的同一性和他人的同一性融合一体。没有确立同一性的人和缺乏工作能力的人是退缩 的,他们避免同人建立亲密的关系,因而势必产生孤独感(郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育 出版社,2006 年版 118 页)。主人公在日本社会因感到受到歧视,觉得自己很自卑,更不用谈他 在社会里能确定自己的地位,所以虽然内心很希望得到爱情,他无法表达出来。这种压抑只能 增加他的孤独感。 “你这卑怯者! “你既然怕羞,何以又要后悔? “既要后悔,何以当时你又没有那样的胆量?不同她们去讲一句话。 他心里虽然非常爱她,然而她送饭来或来替他铺被的时候,他总装出一种兀不可犯的样子 来。他心里虽想对她讲几句话,然而一见了她,他总不能开口。她进他房里来的时候,他的呼吸意 急促到吐气不出的地步。他在她的面前实在是受苦不起了,所以近来她进他的房里来的时候,他每 不得不跑出房外去。然而他思慕她的心情,却一天一天的浓厚起来。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 102-111 108 主人公得不到他所渴望的爱情,但不代表他对爱的欲望已消失了。对爱欲的观念与欲望 仍在无意识中活跃着,他的欲望不时通过某种扭曲的形式表现出来。而且当一个人内部紧张度 太高而不能承受的时候,本我会要求一种能量(里比多)来减轻紧张度。当能量被释放时,紧 张度下降,人随之体会到快乐感。因为本我的唯一目标是追求快乐(郑雪编著《人格心理学》 广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 81 页),本我中聚集的大量能量总是力图通过各种渠道发泄出 来(精神发泄)(郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 85 页)。爱往往与 性有关(乐国安《社会心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 297 页),所以在小说中“性” 是主人公发泄的渠道。但因小说中绝少对“性”的问题进行直接探讨,也缺乏赤裸裸的性描写 所以我们可以把《沉沦》主人公的“性”观念介入到“爱欲”的范畴里面更合适。 要满足本能欲望、发泄能量的直接方式往往为超我的道德规范或现实要求所不容,因此 会遭受自我和超我的抵制与压抑(反精神发泄)。这些受抵制的里比多不得不转换对象和改变 方向,企图以间接的方式发泄出来,这就是自我的一种防御“替代”的机制(郑雪编著《人格心 理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 85 页)。 以下是《沉沦》主人公的本我与超我进行的反发泄和替代的过程: 里比多 → 精神发泄→ 性交 反发泄-------------超我禁止此类活动 反发泄-------------自我延迟满足 替代→自我满足 反发泄-------------超我限制此类活动 反发泄-------------自我延迟满足 替代→偷看女孩子洗澡 反发泄-------------超我限制此类活动 反发泄-------------自我延迟满足 替代→去妓院 反发泄-------------超我限制此类活动 反发泄-------------自我延迟满足 替代→????/xxxx 没有反发泄-------超我 没有反发泄-------自我 主人公应该通过反发泄和替代的一系列过程,超我和自我的反发泄作用消失,爱欲也得 到间接的满足。因为通过创造活动,他的里比多得到了发泄(没有反发泄)。但是因为主人公 的错误生活风格使他脱离社会,无法参加积极的活动造成他找不到准确的替代或升华,而在现 实面前本我又是无能为力的,因为本我不具备理智的功能,它不能区分自己和现实,只求趋乐 避苦。所以他的自我只能顺从本我,超我的限制进行失败了。 他的从始祖传来的苦闷也一日一日的增长起来,他每天早晨,在被窝里犯的罪恶,也一次一 次的加起来了。 他本来是一个非常爱高尚爱洁净的人,然而一到了这邪念发生的时候,他的智力也无用了, 他的良心也麻痹了,他从小服膺的“身体发肤不敢毁伤”的圣训,也不能顾全了。 凯伦·霍妮提出,人有几种需要来减轻焦虑,其中是爱与生活伴侣,正常人也有这样的 需要,但与神经症患者不同的是,正常人的折衷需要可以随现实条件的改变而灵活变动,而且 各种需要间不易产生冲突,因而能比较好的获得满足;而神经症患者往往只执迷于其中一个需 analysis of psychological … (xuc lin) 109 要,而且满足这一需要的方法也是脱离实际,以致难以获得满足,产生更高的焦虑,甚至恶性 循环,成为刻板性与强迫性的神经质需要。主人公的心理已属于病态的心理,所以在小说中我 们可以看到从头到尾他只沉迷于“爱欲”的需要,而为了满足这个需要,自我的决定是违反道 德的,自己就产生了道德的焦虑。 (三)道德焦虑 根据弗洛伊德的人格结构,人有三种焦虑。道德焦虑是其中之一。它是由于意识到自己 的思想行为不符合道德规范而产生的良心不安、羞耻感和有罪感。焦虑虽然对人也有积极的一 面,但是若是焦虑水平太高,持续时间太长,那么人是无法忍受的,严重的焦虑往往导致人格 的分裂和精神病。 那时候他每对着自家起誓说:“我的脑力还可以使得,还能做得出这样的诗,我以后决不再犯 罪了。过去的事实是没法,我以后总不再犯罪了。若从此自新,我的脑力,还是很可以的。”然而 一到了紧迫的时候,他的誓言又忘了。 每礼拜四五,或每月的二十六七的时候,他索性尽意的贪起欢来。他的心里想,自下礼拜一 或下月初一起,我总不犯罪了。有时候正合到礼拜六或月底的晚上,去剃头洗澡去,以为这就是改 过自新的记号,然而过几天他又不得不吃鸡子和牛乳了。 他的自责心同恐惧心,竟一日也不使他安闲,他的忧郁症也从此厉害起来了。这样的状态继 续了一二个月,他的学校里就放了暑假,暑假的两个月内,他受的苦闷,更甚于平时;到了学校开 课的时候,他的两颊的颧骨更高起来,他的青灰色的眼窝更大起来,他的一双灵活的瞳人,变了同 死鱼眼睛一样了。 他犯了罪之后,每深自痛悔,切齿的说,下次总不再犯了,然则到了第二天的那个时候,种 种幻想,又活泼泼的到他的眼前来。 一边他自家打自家的嘴巴,一边就把他的被窝拿出来睡了。 他虽然觉得饥饿得很,然而无论如何,总不愿意再回到那旅馆里去,同主人和他的女儿相 见。 “我怎么会走上那样的地方去的?我已经变了一个最下等的人了。悔也无及,悔也无及。我就 在这里死了罢。我所求的爱情,大约是求不到的了。没有爱情的生涯,岂不同死灰一样么?唉,这 干燥的生涯,这干燥的生涯,世上的人又都在那里仇视我,欺侮我,连我自家的亲弟兄,自家的手 足,都在那里排挤我到这世界外去。我将何以为生,我又何必生存在这多苦的世界里呢!” 妓女在社会的身份是很低贱的,连这么低贱的人都瞧不起他,看他是“支那人”使他的 自卑感到了顶峰,表示他比最低层的人更低级。自己也觉得身为高尚的知识分子去了妓院等于 糟蹋了自己的身体,自己虽然只有一个人,但也是中国的一分子所以他觉得自己也已经糟蹋了 中国。内疚心理加上自卑感与复仇心理使他感到没必要活下去。 四 结论 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 102-111 110 《沉沦》中的主人公有两种基本心理:孤独感和自卑感。引起他的孤独感来自两方面, 就是社会与个人方面。当时的中国内政混乱使很多青年知识分子只能呆在家里,这造成年轻的 主人公无法参加集体活动,不参加集体活动就容易感到孤独。社会的状况持续多年就形成了他 孤僻的性格。到了日本留学之后他又住在比较偏僻的地方,跟别人交往的机会不多使他继续孤 独。 中国当时在世界上处在比较低的地位造成每个中国人都有自卑的心理,主人公也不例 外。去了日本之后受到日本人的歧视,这种自卑发展得更强烈(描写郁大达夫在日本的生存处 境和作为弱小民族的体验)。强烈的自卑感使他远离社会,这样的状况使他的孤独感更严重。 孤独感与自卑感形成了他病态的生活风格。为了减轻他的压力,他需要发泄,“爱欲”是他发 泄的对象。满足“爱欲”的过程,自我不能解决本我与超我发生的矛盾,导致他生活朝错误的 方向走去,越走越深。错误的方向给了他痛苦的道德焦虑,最后只能用死亡来解决一切。 其实孤独感与自卑感不但只有消极的影响而且也有积极的影响。这部小说给我们展开孤 独感与自卑感给主人公消极的影响,当时的状况及以他的生活风格使他根本没有能力用积极的 态度来克服孤独感与自卑感。无法克服孤独感与自卑感使他更不能控制“本我”的欲望导致内 心的内疚,焦虑到了顶峰就跳不出恶性循环的圈子来,沉沦到死。 虽然这部小说不仅描述主人公,而且也代表中国当时的弱子民的心理状态,但从现代人 与个人角度来看,孤独感和自卑感每个人都有,不过与其沉溺在自卑感与孤独感中,不如把它 们当作向上的推动力来争取个人的成功。若每个人都能这样做的话,既能减少病态心理又能为 社会与国家做一点贡献。 参考文献 查理德·格里格 菲利普·津巴多著《心理学与生活》第 16 版,人民邮电出版,社 2006 年版 郑雪编著《人格心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 乐国安《社会心理学》广东高等教育出版社,2006 年版 http://www.chinese-thought.org/whyj/004502.htm http://www.white-collar.net/01-author/y/20-yu-df/002.htm,2007 年 http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%e6%94%af%e9%82%a3,2007 年 http://54.china1840-1949.net.cn/dsj.html,2007 年 http://www.chinese-thought.org/whyj/004502.htm http://www.white-collar.net/01-author/y/20-yu-df/002.htm http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%e6%94%af%e9%82%a3 http://54.china1840-1949.net.cn/dsj.html microsoft word 07_temmy_ok.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 68-72 68 a brief talk on american cultural values: reflected on the movie the pursuit of happiness 浅谈美国的文化价值观:以《当幸福来敲门》为例 temmy(陈德铭) chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, temmy_chen20@yahoo.com abstract america as one of world’s biggest developed countries has a very strong influence on global economy, politics, education, science, and military. america is also one of teaching chinese as a foreign language destinations, therefore understanding american cultural values is very important. article represents american cultural values based on a true story movie "the pursuit of happiness". research method applied was library research. it can be concluded that the characters, setting, and conflicts really presented the characteristics of american society. key words: america, culture, values 内容摘要 本文主要探讨了叙事的“干预”理论。文章从作者干预出发,展开细致而深刻的论述。作 者干预,作者以“刻意的走离、无意的潜入、有意的凸现、随意的创作”四种方式对作品进行 介入。文章对昆德拉的创作进行了细致的叙事分析,并进一步探讨如此叙事所带来的效果。在 这样的理论框架和综合下,本文尝试着一次运用叙事理论对文本解读的长途跋涉。 关键词:美国、文化、价值观 前言 a brief talk on american..... (temmy) 69 有人说文化就像一个冰山,我们能看到在水面上漂浮的只是冰山的顶端也就是冰山的一个 小部分。文化也一样,人的行为即我们能看到的也只是文化的一个小部分。而最大的部分,我 们看不到的则在水面之下,即在人的脑海里面。这个大的部分包括生活习惯、思维方式和感知, 除此之外它还包括一个人在一个特定的环境中所学到的价值观和信仰。 在这个现代社会,不论在我们的工作单位、学校、商场等地方,我们往往会遇到来自不同 国家或来自不同文化背景的人,为了能更顺利地与他们进行交流,而在社交活动上取得成功, 去了解别人的文化或者我们与他们之间的文化差异是极为重要的,而目前文化差异已成为不能 不提的研究课题。 内容 一、《当幸福来敲门》的故事简介 chris gardner (由 will smith 扮演) 是一个普通的美国黑人,他勤奋努力,可是总没办法 让家庭过上好日子。妻子 linda 终究因为不能忍受养家糊口的压力,离开了 chris,留下他和 5 岁的儿子 christopher 相依为命。事业失败、穷途潦倒,妻子离开后 chris gardner 就成为了单 亲爸爸,独自一人带孩子。银行账号里也只剩下 21 块钱,因为没钱付房租,他和儿子不得不 被赶出了公寓。 chris gardner 好不容易在一家声名显赫的股票投资公司得到了实习的机会,然而实习期 间没有薪水,竞争非常激烈,百分之九十的人都没有最终成功。但 chris gardner 明白,这是 他最后的机会,是通往幸福生活的唯一路途。没有收入、无家可归,chris gardner 唯一拥有 的,就是儿子无条件的信任和爱。 他们夜晚无家可归,就睡在收容所、地铁站、公共厕所,一切可以暂且栖身的空地;白 天没钱吃饭,就排队领救济,吃着勉强裹腹的食物。生活的穷困实在让人沮丧无比,但是为了 过上好日子,给儿子更好的未来,为了自己的信仰,chris gardner 咬紧牙关,始终坚信:只要 今天够努力,幸福明天就会来临!皇天不负苦心人,chris gardner 最终成为一名成功的投资专 家。 《当幸福来敲门》首映后就夺得票房第一名,首周就赚到了 2700 万美元的成绩,在美国 和加拿大的总收入到达 141.700.000 美元也就是生产成本的 3 倍。这部电影也获得了不少奖和 高评价,意味着美国电影社会和专家们都能接收这部电影所包含的价值观,真实性和可靠性。 二、《当幸福来敲门》包含的美国文化价值观 很多人认为美国是个种族文化熔化成一块的国家,也是个多元文化国家,来自世界各地 的人到美国来,而后把自己的文化扔到美国的熔化锅。从刚过去的北京奥运会我们能看到,俄 罗斯队的队员看样子就像俄罗斯人,来自非洲的队员怎么看都像非洲人,中国队的队员都像中 国人,而美国队的队员是由各个国家的人组成的。 由此可见,美国是个多元文化国家,美国的社会是由各种各样的文化而组成的,但是在 美国的社会里还有一种占主导地位的文化,而到美国来的人,为了融入到社会里面,必须放弃 与其相异的文化成分。 (一) 个人自由 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 68-72 70 个人自由是美国价值观的基础和根本,它弥漫着美国社会的各个方面。每个人的未来和 命运都由他自己做主。这种概念深深地影响着政府机构的类型和成立。在美国的司法系统,个 人权利得到国家最高法律的保障,虽然有时候美国人自己会担心犯罪者会用法律而跑掉,不过 美国人认为这比关押无辜无罪的人好。 《当幸福来敲门》这部电影反映出非常浓重的美国价值观,电影的标题采取了美国独立 宣言里的一句话 “the pursuit of happiness” : “we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” 中文翻译为: “我们认为下述真理是不言而喻的:人人生而平等,造物主赋予他们若干不可 让与的权 利,其中包括生存权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。” 这句话可谓是这部电影想要展示的重点即通过你自己的勤劳,美国的社会、经济和政治 制度是可以让你取得成功的。 (二)个人主义 “美国文化是个人主义的文化,自力和独立是重要的,而依赖于别人则会被认为很弱 (davis, 2001)。”看了这句话,笔者认为我们可以从美国人对牛仔的概念入手。 我们一想美国往往会联想到牛仔,美国人对牛仔是什么概念?几乎美国所有的政治家都 想要有一张自己戴着牛仔帽的照片,这到底是为什么呢?在美国人的想象里面,牛仔是一个独 自一人在草原上奇马的人物。牛仔从来不会一大群地去行动,牛仔含有独立、自力更生的概 念,在没有任何人的帮助下用自己的力量生存。这是个人主义的标志,也意味着个人主义在美 国社会占着主导的地位。 电影的故事内容从头到尾一直强调男主人公 chris gardner 是自己一个人去追求他的梦想, 比如家庭的经济状况因为房租和账单的积累而越来越差,导致妻子 linda 无法忍受继续过这样 的日子,便留下丈夫和儿子,一个人去纽约接新的工作。chris 在奋斗的过程中也没有得到亲 戚或朋友的帮助,妻子 linda 为了追求她自己的梦想、改善自己的生活状态,一个人去纽约放 弃自己的家庭,笔者认为这是美国离婚率非常高的原因之一,也反映出在美国的社会当中存在 着浓重的个人主义。 (三) 平等主义和个人成就 美国人坚信每个人有平等、同等的权利和机会,而通过努力和勤劳可以取得社会地位。 在美国一个人的地位是由个人的努力和勤劳决定的。从美国的大选可看出,从来没有政治家为 了让别人给他投票便展现自己的学术头衔或毕业于哪一个名牌大学而去参加竞选运动,甚至一 个总统也只能被称呼为总统先生。对美国人来说,最高尚的成就是通过自己的努力和勤劳最终 取得了成功。正像美国前任总统克林顿,他出生在一个很贫穷的家庭,为了去读书,他非常努 力地工作把赚到的钱一笔一笔的存下来付学费,后来在耶鲁大学法律系读书的克林顿以优秀的 成绩毕业了,还获得学校杰出学者的头衔。他的个人成就和竞争能力赢得了美国人民的心,获 得了美国人民的支持,最后让他当上了美国总统。 a brief talk on american..... (temmy) 71 美国前任总统林肯在 gettysburg address 也曾经说过:“凡人皆生而平等”,这句话的 意思是说不论一个人的民族、家庭背景是什么,每个人都是一样的,每个人握有平等的权利、 平等的机会来追求他想要的生活。 这部电影也展示出美国社会的平等主义。我们都知道美国黑人曾受到歧视,美国黑人作 为公民的基本人权也往往被剥夺。从 chris gardner 到投资公司来面试的画面可见,那里面 的考官都是白人,几乎公司里面所有的工作人员都是白人,而且来面试时 chris 也没有穿恰当 的服装穿着,不过因为 chris 在面试时能给主考官突出的答案,公司的领导还是把他给录取 了,这个片断可以说是整个故事的关键之一。从这个片段可看出,在美国社会当中不论在经 济、法律、政治等方面都不会因为个人的性别、种族、和宗教信仰而受到歧视,奥巴马当上了 美国的第一位黑人总统就是活生生的例证。 在取得成功之前 chris 也遇到过各种各样的挫折、失败和烦恼,也没有亲戚和朋友的帮 助,可是他的努力和坚持最后让他取得了成功,改善了他的生活状态,与儿子俩过上好日子。 电影里所讲述的故事与克林顿以及其他美国英雄比起来的话,都有一个共同点即取得成功之前 所经历过的酸甜苦辣。笔者认为这就是这部电影能吸引成千上万美国观众的原因之一,美国人 非常欣赏和关注一个为了实现自己的梦想而努力的人。这部电影是赞美平等主义和注重个人成 就的典型电影。 三、观后感 在我眼里这是一部卖梦的电影,看着人倒霉,努力,不放弃,最后成功让我感到这是我 们都要面对的事实,是为了达成梦想我们都必须要经历的过程。电影里面好多次让我感到了主 人公是那样的一无所有,他好不容易从那么多报名的人中脱颖而出成为 20 个人才能参加培 训,还必须因培训六个月期间没收入而尽力,他也必须一边照顾自己和孩子,一边学习,也还 得卖那个不畅销的产品,在这样的情况下他的妻子反而要离家出走,也没有亲人或朋友愿意帮 他。 以前,我也看过与《当幸福来敲门》类似的电影或连续剧,像日本的《阿信》,韩国的 《大长今》还有印度尼西亚的《laskar pelangi(彩虹小侠)》等,这些电影也都讲述一个或 数个人物通过自我奋斗取得成功的过程,不过我发现主人公取得成功并不是电影里面唯一的重 点,一般这种电影还会包含家庭观念或友谊观念,比如在一个成功者的背后除了奋斗和辛苦还 有家庭的爱情或朋友的支持,不过在《当幸福来敲门》从头到尾都在讲述男主人公所遭遇的困 难,所经历的痛苦,取得成功要付出的代价,还有他的努力和勤劳。完全没感觉到手足或协作 之情。 结语 从这部电影所包含的价值观以及美国人的反应,可看出,美国社会非常注重个人自由、 个人主义、平等主义和个人成就的概念。这些概念根深蒂固地存在于美国人的脑海中。这些概 念也进入到每天生活的小细节,比如美国人认为每个人都是独一无二的,每个人有同样的生活 权和自由权,当我们看到一个很肥胖的人、长得很难看或穿着不得体,生活习惯不正常,我们 都不宜评论。而在印尼和中国我发现大家对别人的穿着或外貌会发表意见,有一次我听一个中 国人对他的朋友说:“你妹妹长得很漂亮,可是再瘦一点点就会更漂亮。”在印尼比如有人刚理 发或染头发,很多人尤其是他的周围朋友和老师都会发表意见,有的人当着面说好看,有的人 说太短,也会有人会说以前的发型比较好看等,而在美国,一般大家不会对别人的外貌发表意 见。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 68-72 72 在美国申请工作的时候,也不可以在履历表上贴上个人照片,写上婚姻状况、性别、种 族等私人情况,这是因为美国人觉得每个人都有平等的权利和平等的机会。虽然申请者能符合 公司提出来的所有条件,可是因为申请者写上了性别或婚姻状况,目的公司会因此而拒绝接 受。 每个国家一直不断地发展和维护其独特的文化,因此,文化背景的不同必然会导致交际 障碍、冲突和误解。不过通过交流,观察和模仿人们可以去跨越存在着的文化差异,并达到理 想的目标。 参考文献 段洁云:《英语国家社会与文化 social and cultural mosaics of english-speaking countries》,昆 明:云南大学出版社,2001 年。 王奇民:《英美社会与文化 british-american society and culture》,北京:科学出版社,2007 年。 严文华:《跨文化沟通心理学》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社,2008 年。 davis, linell. 2001. doing culture: cross-cultural communication action. beijing: foreign language teaching and research press. microsoft word 10_ andiny-a4.doc 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 87 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 andyni khosasih chinese department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, andyni_khosasih@binus.ac.id abstract the population of chinese descendants in indonesia reaches 7 millions. their success cannot be taken separated from the culture embedded. on the other hand, understanding chinese cultures cannot be separated from analyzing chinese believes. there is a long history of chinese religion. it has also portrayed the differences of cultures from which the portrayal forms unique symbol and characterization of its people. the outstanding quality of religions of chinese-indonesians is the adaptability, acceptance and openness. indonesian government, which has the policy of uniformity after the 1960 causes the breach of chinese heritage for a long period of time. this has cost socio-structural gaps and multicultural disparity which is getting wider between east and west cultures. this thesis discusses the history and developments of chinese-indonesian religions with future predictions uphold. keywords: indonesia, chinese-indonesians, religions 内 容 提 要 印尼华人约 700 万。华人经济成就的取得与华人文化密不可分。而要了解印尼华人社 会和华人文化,离不开对华人宗教的分析。印尼华人宗教源远流长。它体现和弘扬了中国传统 文化的精神和品质,又吸收了异质文化的诸多因子,从而形成了自身独特的表征与内涵。六十 年代后期以来印尼政府实行的强制同化政策,造成华人文化传承的长时间和大面积断裂,华人 宗教文化生态发生了结构性变异。 本文依据大量事实,从历史与现实的不同侧面,综合考察印尼华人宗教,探究其存在发 展的基本状况和基本线索,分析其特性,并在问卷调查提供的信息的基础上,对其未来走向进 行预测。 关 键 词:印尼 华人 宗教 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 88 前言 宗教是人类社会发展到一定阶段所产生的一种文化, 在一定程度上反映了一定时期 人类的思维和认识水平,体现了人类在认识和改造世界方面的探索。随着人类社会的发展,宗 教独立成为文化的重要组成部分,同时又对整个文化的发展起着独特的作用。 印尼是一个多民族的国家,也是一个多宗教的国家。宗教存在并体现于社会生活的 各个层面各个领域,对印尼政治、经济和文化发挥着巨大而深远的影响。 印尼华人人口约为 700 万,占全国总人口的 3.3%,占海外华人总数的 23%和东南亚 华人总数的 35%,○1 是海外华人在数量上最集中的国家。华人在印尼国家建设和社会发展中发 挥了重要作用,作出了巨大贡献。华人经济成就的取得与华人文化密不可分。而要了解印尼华 人社会和华人文化及其走向,离不开对华人宗教的分析。因为宗教是族群文化最深层最核心的 部分,是一个民族赖以存在和发展的精神土壤和根本标志,是族群特质的具体体现。“华人宗教 对于华人社会团结的维系,凝聚力的增强,文化的继承与弘扬以及华人特征的保留均有着持久、 强烈的影响。”○2 本文将立足于大量事实,从历史与现实的不同侧面,综合考察印尼华人宗教,探究 其存在发展的基本状况和基本线索,分析其特质,并在问卷调查提供的信息的基础上,对其未 来走向进行预测。 一、 印尼华人宗教信仰的基本情况及历史演变 当今印尼官方承认的宗教是伊斯兰教、基督教、天主教、印度教和佛教。印尼约 88% 的居民信奉伊斯兰教,信奉天主教和基督教的分别为 2.5%和 5.3%,信奉佛教及印度教的则占 1.7%。○3 印尼华人中的绝大多数已加入印尼国籍。关于华人宗教徒,尚无全面、确切的统计 数字,但据 1981 年 4 月《罗盘报》报道,华人穆斯林占华人总数的 5%,即 20 万人○4 。至于华 人天主教徒和基督教徒,据西方学者弗兰克·柯里估计,在 1968 年就已达 263,000 人,占当时 华人总数的 8.8%○5 。近二十年来,华人天主教徒和基督教徒不断增加,目前总数至少不低于华 人穆斯林。印尼的佛教徒 1980 年已有 1,391,900 人○6 ,也有人估计为 300 万左右○7 。佛教徒几 乎都是华人。其实印尼华人除了大部分信仰佛教、天主教、基督教,一部分信仰伊斯兰教和印 度教以外,也有一部分信仰妈祖、孔教等,只是这些信仰已和佛教融合在一起。在苏加诺执政 时期,孔教也是政府承认的合法宗教之一,苏哈托上台后,政府禁止华人信仰孔教,使得孔教 逐渐地边缘化。 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 89 结合印尼历史发展的线索,本文将华人宗教的演变分成三个阶段来考察。 1.荷兰殖民统治之前(1602 年以前) 印尼华人宗教有着悠久的历史。其主体是佛教、道教、孔教等中国传统宗教 和祖先崇拜 等民间信仰。早期从闽、粤去印尼群岛的中国人有不少是伊斯兰教徒。早在 13 世纪下半叶印度 和波斯穆斯林商人将伊斯兰教大规模传入苏门答腊以前,印尼就有华人穆斯林。9 世纪下半叶 唐末黄巢起义军攻占广州,广州一带的中国穆斯林及许多阿拉伯和波斯商人,纷纷移居苏门答 腊的三佛齐(巨港)○8 。印尼百科全书也提到黄巢起义造成中国南部沿海的众多穆斯林逃往南 洋○9 。11 世纪后,印度胡茶辣的穆斯林商人在爪哇一些港口经商并传播伊斯兰教。结果,当地 部分爪哇人和一些中国商人,皈依伊斯兰教○10。有的中国穆斯林商人后来在爪哇定居。 15 世纪郑和在爪哇等地传播伊斯兰教,也促进了华人穆斯林队伍的扩大。14 到 16 世纪 在爪哇传播伊斯兰教的 9 位贤人,享有盛誉。有学者认为,他们中不少是中国穆斯林或有中国 血统○11,例如拉登·巴达,他就是中国穆斯林,中文名叫林陈文(senopati jin bun)○12。 佛教于公元 5 世纪传入印尼,最早传入的地区是苏门答腊。公元 7 世纪在苏门答腊巨港 建立起来的室利佛逝王国(sriwijaya),不仅是东南亚国际贸易中心,也是东南亚的佛教中心。 684 年在巨港附近达朗·杜沃(talang tuwo)所刻的碑铭,碑铭末尾是一串佛教祝福文,由此 可以推断,夏连特拉(syalendra)家族(来自中爪哇,9 世纪后半叶控制室利佛逝)早在 7 世 纪便信奉佛教的金刚乘(vajrayana),后来他们大力推行大乘佛教于印尼和马来诸岛。印度化 的苏门答腊时期留下的文物大部分是属于大乘佛教的。随着 16 世纪中叶印尼主要岛屿的伊斯兰 化,佛教在原住民中失去市场,而逐渐成为华人宗教。 公元 1 世纪后,婆罗门教传入印尼。4 世纪,印度教传入印尼的爪哇岛,主要信奉湿婆, 也有些爪哇人信奉毗湿奴。7 世纪后,印度教中的湿婆派在印尼十分盛行。印尼湿婆教的一个 重要特点是,它混杂了大乘佛教和毗湿奴教。例如在 832 年帕塔潘达苏利的碑铭上一开始就有 “敬奉湿婆,献身于大乘佛教”的字句。两教似乎合而为一。随着 16 世纪爪哇岛的全面伊斯兰 化,印度教逐渐衰亡,目前主要存在于巴厘岛。印度教与巴厘岛原有的文化和宗教相结合,形 成具有特色的“巴厘印度教”。居住巴厘岛的华人有一些接受了这种宗教。 印尼独立以来,印度教徒明显增加。据印尼宗教部称,1957 年印度教徒为 1,387,349 人。至 1980 年,该数字增加一倍多。○13自 1990 年 1 月 16 日起,印尼印度教会理会事(majelis umat hindu di indonesia)在《印尼日报》上开辟“印度教专栏”,用汉语向华人宣传印度教 教义。 2.荷兰殖民统治至印尼独立(1602-1945) 基督教在 17 世纪初由荷兰传入印尼。几乎在同一时期印尼华人基督教徒出现了。到 19 世纪中叶,华人中的基督教活动初具规模。20 世纪初来自美国的基督教卫斯理宗在雅加达、茂 物、泗水和西加里曼丹向华人传教。二战前皈依伊斯兰教和基督教的华人都很少,但两者相比, 华人基督教徒多于华人伊斯兰教徒华人穆斯林社区在印尼许多大城市的出现始于 18 世纪○14。19 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 90 世纪以前移居印尼的中国人几乎都是男性,华人皈依伊斯兰教并与土著通婚的现象较普遍。19 世纪以后,大批中国移民(包括女眷)来到印尼形成华人新客社区。他们主要信奉中国传统宗 教。同时,出现了一批接受西方教育的土生华人领袖,他们受到康有为维新思想的影响。20 世 纪后华人的宗教活动减弱,而华人社团、报刊和学校起着愈来愈重要的作用。这时华人社团宣 扬的是中国传统宗教。 3.印尼独立至今(1945 ) 1945 年印尼独立。当年制定的宪法规定,“潘查希拉”(pancasila)是印尼 建国的五项基本原则。五项原则的第一条就是“信仰神道”。这意味着印尼公民有选择任何一种 宗教的自由。1965 年苏加诺总统发布第一号命令,正式确认印尼有六个宗教,即伊斯兰教、基 督教、天主教、印度教、佛教和孔教。 1965 年“9·30 事件”以前,华人穆斯林虽已有悠久的历史,但人数不多, 其主要原因是:第一,长期以来荷兰殖民政府把伊斯兰教贬为“下等宗教”,甚至公然阻挠华人 皈依伊斯兰教;第二,受中国传统宗教的影响,这一点特别体现在 19 世纪以来大批“新客”华 人的信仰上;第三,伊斯兰教关于禁食猪肉、施行割礼等规定,难为华人接受;第四,印尼独 立后原住民穆斯林中的少数极端派煽动反华排华,激起华人心理和情感上对伊斯兰教的反感; 第五,印尼社会和华界都分别存在着对华人穆斯林的偏见。 “9·30 事件”之后的一段时间,华人穆斯林有所增加。主要原因为:第一, 苏哈托政府加紧推行“同化”政策,鼓励华人皈依伊斯兰教。政府下令封闭印尼所有的华语学 校,禁止在任何刊物上刊登华文广告、新闻和文章,禁止华人在公共场所举行中国传统的宗教 仪式、宴会和庆祝活动。第二,原住民穆斯林组织欢迎华人皈依伊斯兰教。第三,华人穆斯林 组织积极开展活动。 印尼独立后,天主教、基督教会也更加积极地向华人传教,特别是“9·30 事件”后, 天主教、基督教的传教活动在许多沿海大城市展开,其主要对象之一是华人。一些华人不愿入 伊斯兰教,但佛教又被一些原住民看作是封闭式的“外国宗教”,而孔教又不再为当局承认,在 这种情势下,便纷纷加入天主教或基督教。 二、 印尼华人宗教信仰的特点 1.以中国传统宗教为主体 印尼华人至今还保留着许多中国传统,其中包括中国传统宗教。上一代华人绝大多数信 仰佛教。他们虽然已加入印尼国籍,但还维持着叶落归根的思想。他们把中国当作心目中的祖 国,对中国传统文化倍加敬仰爱护,佛教自然也不例外。对华人来说,佛教才是中国的宗教, 其他宗教都是外国宗教。 2.供奉多元神祗,多宗教融合 印尼华人敬奉多元神祗。在一个华人庙宇内可能同时供奉观音、地藏王、天后、城隍神、 土地神、十八罗汉和关帝等神像○15。 宋、元以来,中国国内就有许多人同时信奉佛教、道教和儒教。印尼华人把 上述三种 宗教合称“三教”。中爪哇三保垄著名的三保庙突出体现了三教融合的特点。1932 年印尼华人 郭德怀在《宗教之宝》(moestika dharma)杂志上写道:“所谓华人宗教,即早在中国清朝由朝 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 91 廷认可的三种宗教——儒教、道教和佛教。实际上华人的宗教信仰大都与上述三教有关系。因 此,不论儒教徒、佛教徒还是道教徒,在他们中只崇奉一种宗教者为数不多” ○16。 3.与非中国传统宗教融洽相处 中国移民离乡背井,远涉重洋来到印尼群岛。他们中多数仍坚持信奉中国 传统宗教,但他 们始终与当地的伊斯兰教徒和少数天主教、基督教徒融洽相处。例如:在泗水的某些地区建立着清 真寺与教堂、华人家庭里绝大多数存在着多宗教信仰、三保垄的三保庙原先是清真寺,后改为祭拜 三保偶像的庙宇。如今它既不像清真寺,又不像佛教的寺庙,也不像道教的宫观。从其建筑、摆设、 祈祷活动等等方面看,它又发展成为体现多种宗教和文化色彩的庙宇。它反映了华人宗教在异域他 乡的高度适应性和融洽性。 4.坚持祖先崇拜 对祖先亡灵的崇拜是印尼华人宗教文化的一个基本内容和重要特质。许多华人(特别是 老一代)相信祖先亡灵能为儿孙禳灾赐福。他们虽在异国他乡,但怀念埋骨故土的祖辈。有些 华人虽然入了伊斯兰教、天主教或基督教,但仍保持传统的祖先祭拜。 三、 印尼政府宗教政策及其对华人宗教信仰的影响 印尼独立后,政府一直强调不同宗教的信徒应该相互容忍,相互尊重,和平 共处。然 而事与愿违,宗教冲突(主要是伊斯兰教与基督教之间)从来没有停止过。尤其在经受了东南 亚金融危机打击之后,宗教冲突更是此起彼伏。从雅加达到东努沙登加拉省的古邦再到马鲁古 省的安汶,伊斯兰教徒和基督教徒之间相互残杀,造成了上千人伤亡,两教关系恶化到不可收 拾的地步。 独立后,印尼一直实行宗教信仰自由政策。1945 年 6 月,苏加诺发表了关于印尼建国五 项基本原则——“潘查希拉”的讲话,“潘查希拉”的主要内容是:神道、民族主义、人道主义、 协商和代表制下的民主、社会公正。对于“神道”苏加诺作了这样的解释:“希望印度尼西亚成 为这样一个国家,每一个公民都能自由地信仰自己的神,希望所有的公民都能以一种有修养的 态度来信仰神道。信仰神道是在于极高的德行之上,不同宗教的信徒互相尊重” ○17。因此,苏 加诺执政时,官方承认六大宗教,既伊斯兰教、基督教、天主教、印度教、佛教和孔教。此时 孔教是合法宗教之一。 在苏加诺时代,基督教徒与伊斯兰教徒对“自由”一词的理解分歧极大。基督教徒认为, “宗教信仰自由”就意味着具有选择宗教的自由、改信宗教的自由,以及传播宗教的自由。基 于这种理解基督教徒通过各种途径使用各种办法加速基督教的传播。结果基督教迅速扩大,伊 斯兰教徒大为不满。在伊斯兰教徒眼里,基督教的做法,比如建立教会学校,基督教徒与穆斯 林结婚,违反了“潘查希拉”。穆斯林认为,“潘查希拉”中的信仰神道并不意味宗教传播的绝 对自由,伊斯兰教徒不能自由地再选择其他宗教,非伊斯兰团体煽动穆斯林改教是非法的。 由于基督教徒与穆斯林对宗教信仰政策的理解不同,致使双方各行其事,关系日趋紧张。 尽管当时伊斯兰教与基督教没有发生公开冲突,但导致两教关系恶化的“地雷”已经埋下,一 有导火线就会爆炸。果然,“9·30 事件”后,苏加诺被迫下台,新秩序政府建立,穆斯林正好 找到了发泄不满的机会,在亚齐和望加锡,先后出现了基督教教堂被毁事件。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 92 苏哈托政权同样采取宗教信仰自由政策,强调不同宗教徒之间相互容忍和尊重。与苏加 诺不同,他对宗教信仰的范围作出了限定,指出人们不能把自己的宗教信仰强加于别人,使他 人改变宗教信仰是不被允许的○18。这样就给各宗教信徒制定了共同的行为准则,使宗教信仰自 由政策不再是一个空洞的框架,避免了各教派由于对政策的理解不同而发生争执和冲突。遗憾 的是,这种宗教政策并不是一视同仁地实施于所有的宗教,其主要表现就是没有平等地看待华 人传统宗教。 苏哈托政府在政治、经济、文化各领域对华人实行全面的“民族同化”政策,强制剥夺 其平等的公民权。在这种高压政策下,华人一贯的文化传承出现了断裂,大多数新生代华裔的 祖籍国和母文化意识逐渐淡薄。华人传统宗教自然也逃脱不了受压制的命运。由于华校关闭, 而华人子弟又难以进入公立学校,他们只能选择在天主教会或基督教会兴办的私立学校就读, 其中不少人很自然地加入了天主教或基督教。 在苏加诺时代,孔教与伊斯兰教、基督教、天主教、印度教和佛教同为国家承认的宗教, 而在苏哈托时代,孔教失却了与其他宗教的同等地位,国家法律只承认五大宗教,孔教为官方 所不容。官方认为孔教源于中国,中国特色浓郁,不利于华人的同化,理应受到种种限制。当 时政府通过半官方的民族统一意识交流机构号召华人放弃孔教和道教,改信主流宗教,即伊斯 兰教、天主教和基督教。歧视华人的传统宗教,强迫华人改信他教,这种自相矛盾的做法实际 上违反了当时所制定的宗教信仰政策,然而在客观上却达到了一定的效果,失去合法地位的孔 教虽然依旧存在,但不可避免地走向弱化和隐蔽化,并在向佛教靠拢的过程中分独立性逐渐削 弱。 历史上荷兰殖民者“分而治之”的政策,已导致信奉伊斯兰教的原住民与华人在心理上 和宗教上拉开了一定的距离,而独立后的印尼政府对华人及其宗教的歧视更加剧了这种状态。 即使印尼华人响应政府号召,改变宗教信仰,亦无补于事,排华事件仍频频发生。在苏哈托统 治时期,大大小小的排华事件发生了十多起,穆斯林极端分子大多参与其中。1998 年在雅加达 等地发生的针对华人的社会大骚乱就是一个例证。 哈比比接任总统后,遵循苏哈托政府的既定方针,只作了一些检讨 98 动乱和安抚华人 的口头表态。对华人政策的实质性松动始于 1999 年 10 月成立的瓦希德新政府。瓦希德上台不 久即承诺将废除歧视华人的法规。2000 年 1 月 17 日总统签署命令,宣布撤消 1967 年关于禁止 华人在公开场合欢庆传统节日的总统命令。此外,他表示承认孔教的合法地位,但孔教要与其 他宗教平起平坐仍需时日,因为许多歧视和限制华人的法规仍然生效。梅加瓦蒂上台后对华人 宗教信仰和生活习俗采取理解和支持态度。华人过春节可以公开庆祝。2004 年开始,春节被确 定为国家法定节假日。这成为一个象征。包括宗教信仰在内的华人传统文化迎来了一个相对宽 松的时期,开始焕发勃勃生机。 四、印尼华人宗教信仰发展变化趋势的调查与预测 1967 年苏哈托政府第六号法令的颁布实施,在政治和法律层面开始了长达三十多年的对 华人族群文化的歧视与打压。华人传统文化的薪火相传出现了自华人移居印尼以来从未有过的 艰难和危机。长时间和大面积的文化断层,不但造成新生代华裔母语水平和母文化认同程度的 迅速下降,也必然地导致了华人宗教生态的变化。 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 93 那么,这种变化具体体现在哪些方面呢?其程度及趋势究竟如何? 为了解答这些问题,笔者于 2004 年 5 月在华侨大学华文学院印尼华裔留学生中组织了 一次问卷调查。接受调查的同学为 98 人,来自爪哇(雅加达、泗水、万隆、玛琅、梭罗)、苏 门答腊、苏拉威西、加里曼丹、巴厘等地,区域广泛,基本能够代表印尼华人人口的地理分布。 此次调查之所以以华裔青少年为特定对象,除了条件便利以外,主要原因在于,受调查 者均出生于 1967 年之后,这一代人的宗教信仰固然不能代表所有华人,但将他们与他们的父辈 对比却能够很好地说明华人宗教信仰的变化情况,依据这些情况还可作出有关未来华人宗教信 仰的前景预测。 接受调查者的具体背景情况见表 1。 表 1 背景情况 组 别 年 龄 学 历 男 女 15~20 21~25 26~30 30 以上 初 中 高中 大学 24 74 33 45 17 3 4 44 50 24.5% 75.5% 33.7% 45.9% 17.3% 3.1% 4.1% 44.9% 51% 表 2 宗教信仰 伊 斯 兰 教 基 督 教 天 主 教 印 度 教 佛 教 0 36 31 0 31 0 36.7% 31.6% 0 31.6% 表 3 信仰某一宗教的原因与途径 基 督 教(36) 天 主 教(31) 佛 教(31) 亲 属 朋 友 学 校 教 会 亲 属 朋 友 学 校 教 会 亲 属 朋 友 学 校 教 会 24 7 7 11 16 8 19 2 29 5 0 2 66.7% 19.4% 19.4% 30.6% 51.6% 25.8% 61.3% 6.5% 93.5% 16.1% 0 6.5% (注:若受多种因素影响,可对问卷所列选项作多项选择) 数据表明印尼华裔青少年信仰基督教、天主教和佛教,其中信基督教者最多,天主教和 佛教并列第二(见表 2),三教信徒在数量上基本平衡,前者与后两者的相差不大,仅 5 个百分 点。没有人信奉伊斯兰教和印度教。至于信奉某一宗教的原因和途径,根据问卷(见表 3),大 多数基督教徒受到家人的影响,在他们的成长过程中,不断有亲属向他们介绍基督教教义,带 他们去教堂参加礼拜等活动,或经常给他们讲圣经故事。基督教仪式的环境、氛围和圣经的故 事情节在他们的脑海里留下了非常深刻的印象。对他们来说,基督教是最理想的宗教,也是最 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 94 自然的选择。从教会等宗教机构加入基督教者为数也不少,这表明教会的活动与宣传能产生一 定的影响,基督教组织的开放性和基督教教律的相对宽松具有较强的吸引力。基督教徒的一部 分和天主教徒中的绝大多数是在学校里接触、认识宗教的,因为政府开设的公立学校拒收华人 学生,华人子弟只能就读于私立学校,而私立学校几乎都是基督教会或天主教会举办的。这些 学校开设的基督教或天主教课程培养、强化了学生的宗教意识。与基督教相似,受家人、亲属 和朋友影响而信奉天主教者也较多,这一方面说明血缘、亲缘、乡缘等华人传统文化中的重要 因子至今仍在华人社会生活中发挥作用,另一方面表明伊斯兰主宰下的社会大环境的排斥和挤 压,使得华人的社会活动空间相对狭小,也使得华人更多地依存和依赖于小环境。受宗教机构 影响而加入天主教者比基督徒少,说明天主教会的保守、封闭限制了它自身的影响力和吸引力。 华裔青少年信仰佛教,基本上是受家庭影响,其他因素的作用微乎其微,这是印尼华裔青少年 选择宗教信仰的重要区别。华裔青少年信仰佛教人数低于信仰基督教、天主教人数的原因除上 面分析指出的以外,还在于佛教不像基督教天主教那样具有强大的教会势力和资源,它主张遁 世绝俗因而也不像基督教、天主教那样到处兴办教育医疗事业,它的宗教仪式也不像基督教、 天主教那样简洁开放,而且作为华人传统宗教,尽管始终享有合法地位,但仍然受到诸多有形 或无形的限制。 98 名受调查者中穆斯林为零,足以说明伊斯兰教与华人之间依然存在巨大的鸿沟。由于 穆斯林极端分子经常煽动和参与排华事件,使华人很难在心理和情感上认同、接受伊斯兰教。 另外,华人子弟无法进入公立学校,客观上不具备学习伊斯兰教课程了解其教义进而接受该教 的可能性。苏哈托政府一方面推行同化政策,一方面又实行隔离,时间和事实都证明了这种自 相矛盾的做法的荒谬和无效。华裔青少年无人信仰印度教,主要是因为印度教如今在印尼属于 地方性宗教,覆盖区域狭小,影响仅限于巴厘等少数外岛,基本未再涉足爪哇等核心地区,而 且传播速度慢,不具扩张性。 表 4 华裔青少年与家人、朋友宗教信仰的异同 (注 1:伊:伊斯兰教;基:基督教;天:天主教;印:印度教; 佛:佛教) (注 2:“兄弟姐妹”和“朋友”一栏指的是受调查者的兄弟姐妹和朋友中有人信仰某一宗教。) 从表 4 可以看出,信仰佛教者,双亲与兄弟姐妹绝大多数也信仰佛教。基督教也是如此。 信仰基督教与天主教的人,他们的朋友绝大部分也信仰基督教和天主教,可信仰佛教的人,朋 友中的大多数却不信仰佛教,而是信仰基督教。在 98 位受调查者提供的 193 位家长(另有 3 位 受调 查者 佛 教 基 督 教 天 主 教 伊 基 天 印 佛 伊 基 天 印 佛 伊 基 天 印 佛 母 亲 0 2 0 0 29 0 23 0 0 13 1 4 14 0 12 父 亲 0 2 0 0 27 0 21 2 0 12 0 4 11 1 15 兄 弟 姐 妹 0 2 2 0 31 0 29 4 0 7 0 8 19 0 7 朋 友 2 21 2 0 12 1 31 4 0 3 0 12 17 0 3 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 95 家长情况不详)中,信仰佛教者 108 人,占 56%,信仰基督教者 56 人,占 29%,信仰天主教者 29 人,占 15%,这组数字与表 2 所列数字相对比,我们发现,新生代华裔中信仰佛教者下降了 24.4%,信仰基督教者增加了 7.7%,信仰天主教者增加了 16.6%。从中可以看出,华人宗教信 仰中中国传统宗教主导的格局已经被打破,华人宗教生态的多元化特征日益凸现,华人宗教文 化的西方化趋势也十分明显。 家长中伊斯兰教徒与印度教徒各有 1 位,占 0.5%。不管这两位家长是华人还是原住民, 都说明了在华人圈中几乎无人信奉印尼本土宗教的事实。表 2 的数字在这里得到了印证。尽管 由于受限于调查样本不大、统计方法简单、定量分析的科学性不够等影响信度与效度的诸多因 素,我们不能下结论说华人伊斯兰教徒人数不升反降,但华人穆斯林总量极少却应该是不争的 事实。 表 5 华裔青少年是否愿意与异教徒恋爱、结婚 恋 爱 结 婚 愿意 不愿意 愿意 不愿意 67 31 55 43 68.4% 31.6% 56.1% 43.9% 数据表明多数受调查者不介意自己的恋人和配偶信仰不同的宗教。他们认为不能从宗教 信仰评断一个人,所有的宗教基本上是好的。信仰自由是基本人权。不过,从表 4 可以看出在 恋爱和结婚问题上宗教态度的审慎程度有所不同。愿意与异教徒恋爱者达到 67 人,但愿意与异 教徒结婚者却下降到 55 人。 表 6 若配偶为异教徒, 能够接受其信仰何种宗教 受调查者 佛 教 基 督 教 天 主 教 对方宗教 伊 基 天 印 伊 天 印 佛 伊 基 印 佛 5 15 22 12 0 5 0 5 0 19 8 13 (注:可对问卷所列选项作多项选择) 佛教徒与天主教徒比较能够接受异教徒为配偶,佛教徒能接受所有的宗教,天主教徒无 法接受伊斯兰教,基督教不能接受伊斯兰教和印度教。98 位受调查者中仅有 5 人明确表示愿意 与穆斯林结婚,占 5.1%;有 20 人表示愿意与印度教徒结婚,占 20.4%。 表 7 能否接受孩子信仰与自己不同宗教 能够接受 不能接受 60 38 61.2% 38.8% jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 96 表 8 未来允许孩子选择的宗教信仰 (注:可对问卷所列选项作多项选择) 关于未来自己孩子的宗教信仰,60 位受调查者表示不强迫孩子信仰自己所信的宗教,原 因是信仰自由。父母应尊重并相信孩子的选择。38 人表示不允许他们未来的孩子信仰其他宗教。 他们认为不管现在还是将来,目前自己所信奉的宗教都是最好的宗教,有利于指导孩子成长。 基督教徒尤其希望自己的孩子也信仰基督教。有 11 人表示不反对孩子信仰伊斯兰教,有 23 人 表示不反对孩子信仰印度教。 另外,88 人表示未来不会改变目前信仰的宗教,10 个人表示还不知道。 依据问卷调查,我们可以了解到有关印尼华人宗教信仰现状的一些情况,并分析出未来 华人宗教信仰的基本格局: 第一,宗教徒在印尼华人中所占比例极高,几乎所有华人都有自己的宗教信仰。宗教逐 渐成为华人文化的核心内容和主要标志之一,无论现在还是将来都在华人社会生活中发挥重要 影响。 第二,印尼华人一般信仰佛教、基督教和天主教。上一代华人主要信奉传统宗教佛教, 基督教次之,天主教第三,而新生代华裔中基督教徒最多,其次为天主教徒和佛教徒。伊斯兰 教不受华人欢迎。这一现象既表明在苏哈托政府长达三十多年的高压政策下,华人传统文化的 传承已出现断裂,华族文化生态发生了结构性变异,也表明出于对同化政策的反动,华人采取 柔性的不合作的中间路线的应对策略,政府使华人伊斯兰化的企图并未得逞,也不可能得逞。 另外,在全球化进程中,西方强势文化的影响力不断增大,弱势文化不可避免地受到冲击,并 向强势文化靠拢,因而逐渐地异化或边缘化。在时间和空间上都远离“母文化”的海外华人传 统文化自然无法例外。 第三,新生代华裔中基督教徒、天主教徒和佛教徒三者比例的大体接近意味着未来华人 宗教格局中将形成三足鼎立的局面,不过鉴于华人宗教文化心理中向西方宗教倾斜的趋势十分 明显,基督教和天主教将取得主导地位,但在可以预见的相当长的一段历史时期内,佛教不会 消亡。 第四,大多数华人家庭具有多样性的宗教背景,中国传统宗教与西方宗教并存。尽管东 西方宗教文化的历史渊源和意识形态差别极大,但在印尼华人社会、家族乃至家庭,却能够相 互容忍、尊重和交流。华人宗教信仰的多元化特征会长期维持。华族宗教文化具有很强的适应 性、包容性和开放性。相对而言,新生代华裔的宗教态度更为理性和开明,更具有国际视野和 现代色彩。 第五,华人与原住民(尤其是穆斯林)彼此间的隔阂与成见远未消除,要实现相互间的 交融还有很长的路要走。华族拒绝违背族群意志的强行同化,反对民族沙文主义和宗教霸权主 义,渴望与其他民族及其文化在平等公正、相互尊重的前提下和平共处友好交流。 受调查者 佛 教 基 督 教 天 主 教 孩 子 伊 基 天 印 伊 天 印 佛 伊 基 印 佛 7 16 20 12 0 7 1 3 4 18 10 16 印 尼 华 人 的 宗 教 信 仰 (andyni khosasih) 97 参考文献 ○1 张禹东.试论东南亚华人宗教的基本特质.《华侨华人历史研究》,1997 年增刊. 温北炎,郭继光.印尼伊斯兰教对局势发展和华人社会的影响.《侨务课题研究论文集》 (2000-2001 年度下),国务院侨务办公室政研司. ○2 张禹东.试论东南亚华人宗教的基本特质.《华侨华人历史研究》,1997 年增刊. ○3 孔远志.印尼华人中的天主教与基督教徒.《南洋问题研究》,1991 年第 4 期. ○4 印尼.《罗盘报》,1981 年 8 月 4 日. ○5 弗兰克·柯里.《印尼的教会与社会》,1968 年,第 99 页. ○6 世界佛教徒联谊会印尼分会编.《达尔玛雅特拉》佛教徒月刊. 雅加达,1983 年 5 月,第 11 页. ○7 《印尼旅游指南》.1986 年,第 5 页. ○8 李长傅.《中国殖民史》.商务印书馆,1937 年,第 60 页. ○9 印尼文教部编.《印尼民族史》.1976 年,第 109 页. ○10 转引自陈里特.《中国海外移民史》.中华书局,1946 年,第 6 页. ○11 施福泉.《南洋华人》澳大利亚詹姆斯·科达大学出版,1990 年第 154 页. ○12 西斯沃诺.《新公民》,雅加达,1986 年,第 3 版,第 62 页. ○13 梁敏和,孔远志. 《印度尼西亚文化与社会》.北京大学出版社第 63 页. ○14 隆巴与苏尔梦.伊斯兰与华人问题.《人文学知识》卡加玛达大学出版 1991 年,第 437 页. ○15 陆千里.《椰城最大的神庙金德院特写》.雅加达《华侨导报》,1955 年第 30 期. ○16 米拉·西达尔塔编.《郭德怀 100 年》,雅加达希望之光出版社,1989 年第 195 页. ○17○18 hyung-jun kim “the changing interpretion of religious freedom in indonesia”journal of southeast asian studies 29.2(september 1998) p358 366. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 87-98 98 其他参考文献: 孔远志.印尼华人与宗教.《东方论坛》,1994 年第 1 期. 梁敏和、孔远志.印度尼西亚文化与社会.北京大学出版社. 韦红.印尼宗教冲突的前因后果.《东南亚研究》,2004 年第 1 期. microsoft word 08 rita_setting 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  tindak tutur memuji bahasa jepang di kalangan wanita jepang rita susanti1, maduma siregar2 1jurusan bahasa dan sastra jepang, fakultas sastra, universitas nasional, jl.sawo manila, pejaten, pasar minggu, jakarta 2english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, uniritas@yahoo.co.jp abstract the aim of this research is to discover the type, form, and function of japanese woman in using compliments. data is taken from the manga cardcaptor sakura volume 3 to 5, written by clamp manga writer group. analysis found several types of compliment found in and the form of compliment used are adjectives. the reason japanese woman give compliment to others is to express an admiration of something positive that belongs to the listener. keywords: speech act, compliment, japanese woman abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis, bentuk, dan alasan wanita jepang melakukan pujian terhadap petutur. data diambil dari komik yang berjudul cardcaptor sakura jilid 3-5 karya grup komikus clamp. berdasarkan hasil analisis ditemukan semua jenis tindak tutur memuji di kalangan wanita jepang dan bentuk tindak tutur memuji yang digunakan merupakan adjektiva. alasan wanita jepang melakukan tindak tutur memuji adalah untuk penilaian positif terhadap sesuatu yang dimiliki orang lain. kata kunci: tindak tutur, memuji, wanita jepang tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 79  pendahuluan pragmatik saat ini sudah menjadi bagian dari kajian linguistik, meskipun pada awalnya masih dianggap sebelah mata. bahkan ada ungkapan bahwa pragmatik merupakan keranjang sampai dari cabang ilmu linguistik lainnya. pragmatik itu sendiri adalah ilmu yang mempelajari maksud ujaran yang dikaitkan dengan pengguna bahasa dan konteks. sejak austin mengemukakan teori tindak tutur , pragmatik mulai diakui keberadaannya. tindak tutur menurut austin (dalam nadar, 2009:11) bahwa pada dasarnya saat seseorang mengujarkan kalimat tertentu dapat dilihat sebagai melakukan tindakan (act), di samping memang mengujarkan kalimat tersebut. pada saat seseorang mengujarkan atau bertutur “cantik sekali bajumu”, tentunya tidak sekedar mengucapkan kata-kata itu, tetapi ada maksud tertentu dari orang yang menuturkan (penutur), yaitu ia ingin memuji busana yang sedang dipakai oleh lawan bicara (petutur). pujian merupakan salah satu kajian di dalam pragmatik. menurut searle (dalam leech, 1983: 164-166) pujian termasuk ke dalam makro fungsi ekspresif, yaitu menyatakan sesuatu dari dalam hati. memuji berasal dari kata puji, yaitu rasa pengakuan dan penghargaan yang tulus akan kebaikan (keunggulan) sesuatu. dalam hal memuji, tentunya tidak hanya pilihan kata yang menjadi perhatian, tetapi harus memperhatikan muka (face) petutur. muka adalah citra diri atau wujud pribadi seseorang dalam masyarakat. dengan memperhatikan muka petutur, selain menentukan bentuk pilihan pujian juga akan menentukan strategi yang akan dipilih oleh penutur. tujuan penutur mengujarkan pujian agar pujian itu menjadi suatu yang baik bagi petutur. memuji dilakukan baik oleh pria maupun wanita dan hal yang dipuji tidak hanya pada satu hal saja. penelitian terfokus pada tindak tutur memuji yang digunakan oleh wanita jepang, hal apa yang dipuji, dan bagaimana bentuk pujian tersebut. data diperoleh dari komik cardcaptor sakura jilid 3-5 karaya ageha ohkawa, makoma, et all pembahasan tindak tutur memuji memuji adalah tindak tutur yang secara langsung atau tidak langsung memberikan penghargaan kepada seseorang selain penutur, biasanya petutur atas beberapa “kelebihan yang dimilikinya, seperti kepunyaan keahlian, dan lain-lain.tindak tutur yang secara langsung atau tidak langsung memberikan penghargaan kepada seseorang. jadi, tindak tutur memuji adalah tindakan melakukan pujian yang dilakukan seseorang (penutur) terhadap orang lain (petutur). brown dan levinson (dalam holmes, 2003:177) memaparkan bahwa pujian adalah contoh utama tindak tutur yang memperhatikan dan mengikuti minat (interest), keinginan (wants), kebutuhan (needs), dan penampilan (goods) petutur. brown dan levinson juga menyatakan bahwa pujian merupakan strategi kesantunan positif. austin (dalam nadar, 2009:11) menyebutkan bahwa pada dasarnya saat seseorang mengujarkan kalimat tertentu dapat dilihat sebagai melakukan tindakan (act), di samping memang mengucapkan (mengujarkan) kalimat tersebut. pernyataan austin tersebut meletakkan dasar pengertian tindak tutur yang secara jelas dapat dilihat dari contoh kalimat berikut ini. (1) 今週中に履歴書を出してください。  (nihongo bunkei jiten, 1998:249)  ‘tolong kirimkan cv anda dalam minggu ini.’ 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  contoh (1) menampilkan makna semantik, sedangkan kalau dilihat dari sudut pandang pragmatik ujaran tersebut bukan sebatas mengujarkan, tetapi penutur meminta kepada petutur untuk mengirimkan cv (riwayat hidup)nya. hal tersebut membuat petutur melakukan hal yang diminta oleh penutur, yaitu tindakan mengirim cv. austin mengelompokkan tindak tutur menjadi tiga, pertama tindak lokusioner (locutioner act), adalah tindak yang semata-mata menyatakan sesuatu (hanya dengan kata-kata), biasanya dipandang kurang penting dalam kajian tindak tutur.kedua, tindak ilokusioner (ilocutioner act) adalah apa yang ingin dicapai oleh penuturnya pada waktu menuturkan sesuatu dan tindak ini disebut juga dengan tindak melakukan sesuatu. pada tindak ini seseorang berbicara mengenai maksud, fungsi, atau daya ujaran. ketiga, tindak perlokusioner (perlocusioner act), yaitu tindakan untuk mempengaruhi lawan tutur, tindakan ini mengacu pada efek yang dihasilkan penutur dengan mengatakan sesuatu. berdasarkan hal tersebut memuji merupakan tindak ilokusioner karena seseorang mengujarkan suatu pujian mempunyai maksud tertentu. sementara itu, searle (dalam leech, 1983:164-166) mengelompokkan ujaran dalam lima makro fungsi, yaitu. komisif atau koui kousoku gata(行為拘束型) tindak tutur yang berisi komitmen dari penutur untuk melakukan sesuatu, seperti berjanji, bersumpah, bernazar, mengancam dan berikrar. tindak tutur ini cenderung berfungsi menyenangkan dan kurang bersifat kompetitif, karena tidak mengacu pada kepentingan penutur tetapi pada kepentingan petutur. berikut ini contoh tindak tutur berjanji. (2)   私はあなたに電話することを約束します。 (leech, 1993) ‘saya berjanji kepadamu untuk menelepon.’ pada kalimat (2) ini, ungkapan 電話することを約束します‘berjanji untuk menelepon’ berisi komitmen penutur yang berjanji untuk menghubungi petutur melalui telepon. setelah mengucapkan tuturan tersebut, petutur pun mengetahui bahwa penutur akan menghubunginya nanti. direktif atau koui setsuji gata (行為指示型) tindak tutur ini bertujuan menghasilkan suatu efek berupa tindakan yang dilakukan petutur. dengan kata lain, tindak tutur ini berisi bagaimana penutur mempengaruhi petutur. tindak tutur ini termasuk dalam kategori kompetitif, karena membutuhkan kesantunan negatif. seperti menyarankan, menganjurkan, menasehati, memohon, memerintah, menyuruh, amanat, dan wasiat. namun, ada pula tindak tutur direktif yang memang sopan, seperti mengundang. berikut ini contoh tindak tutur memerintah. (3) 田中: 工場の中で機械や製品に触らないでください。 ラオ : わかりました。 shin nihongo no kiso i (aots, 1990:137) tanaka : ‘jangan memegang mesin dan barang produksi didalam pabrik.’ rao : ‘saya mengerti.’ pada percakapan (3) ungkapan 触らないでください ‘jangan memegang’ memaparkan secara langsung bahwa tanaka memerintah rao untuk tidak memegang mesin dan barang produksi. setelah mengucapkan tuturan tersebut, rao langsung mengerti maksud tuturan tanaka, sehingga ia melakukan seperti apa yang diperintahkan oleh tanaka. tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 81  ekspresif atau kanjou hyougen gata (感情表現型) tindak tutur yang berfungsi mengungkapkan atau mengutarakan sikap psikologis penutur terhadap keadaan yang tersirat. seperti memuji, meminta maaf, mengkritik, mengeluh, menyesal, mengucapkan selamat dan mengucapkan terima kasih. tindak tutur ini cenderung menyenangkan, karena diungkapkan dengan kesantunan positif. berikut ini contoh tindak tutur terima kasih. (4) ラオ: 308 お願いします。 木村: はい、どうぞ。これはあなたの手紙ですか。 ラオ: はい、そうです。どうもありがとうございます。 shin nihongo no kiso i (aots, 1990:137)  rao : ‘tolong 308.’ kimura : ‘ya, silakan. apakah ini surat untuk anda?’ rao : ‘ya, benar. terima kasih banyak.’   pada contoh (4) ucapan rao yaitu, どうもありがとうございます ’terima kasih banyak’ diungkapkan untuk mengutarakan terima kasih karena kimura telah memberikan surat untuk rao. deklaratif atau sengen gata (宣言型) berhasilnya pelaksanaan tindak tutur ini mengakibatkan adanya kesesuaian antara isi proposisi dengan realitas atau dengan kata lain berfungsi menyatakan sesuatu dan mengubah status, seperti mengundurkan diri, menghukum, membaptis, menikahkan, menobatkan, melarang, memberi maaf, mengizinkan dan memutuskan. tindak tutur ini merupakan suatu tindakan kelembagaan (dan bukan sebagai tindakan pribadi), sehingga tidak melibatkan faktor kesantunan. berikut ini contoh tindak tutur melarang. (5) ローラ : このしばふはきれいですね。しばふに入ってもいいですか。 小林 : ええ、入ってもいいです。でも、しばふの上で運動したり してはいけません。 shokyu nihongo, (tufs-jlc, 1990:116) rora : ‘halaman rumput ini bagus ya. bolehkah masuk ke halaman rumput ini?’ kobayashi : ‘ya, boleh masuk. tetapi di atas halaman rumput ini tidak boleh berolahraga.’ pada contoh (5) ini, tuturan yang diungkapkan kobayashi yaitu, しばふの上で運動したりして は い け ま せ ん ‘di atas halaman rumput ini tidak boleh berolahraga’ saat melarang rora merupakan tindakan menyatakan sesuatu sesuai dengan aturan yang kobayashi ketahui. tuturan larangan tersebut dapat dilihat sebagai acuan dari suatu kelembagaan. tuturan kobayashi tidak disertai dengan faktor kesantunan karena jika disertai kesantunan maka akan mengecilkan daya deklarasi dari tuturan tersebut. representatif atau dangen gata (断言型) tindak tutur ini terikat pada kebenaran proposisi yang diungkapkan, sehingga dapat dibuktikan kebenarannya, seperti menyatakan, menuntut, mengakui, melaporkan, menunjukkan, menyebutkan, beragumentasi, memberikan kesaksian dan berspekulasi. tindak tutur ini melibatkan kesantunan positif, kecuali membual dan mengeluh yang melibatkan kesantunan negatif. berikut ini contoh tindak tutur menyebutkan. (6) 日本の行事はたいてい中国から来ました。  japanese for today, (yoshida, 1973:80) ‘acara perayaan jepang sebagian besar datang dari cina.’ tuturan (6) tersebut yaitu 中国から来ました ‘datang dari cina’ menyatakan kebenaran bahwa acara perayaan di jepang berasal dari cina. tuturan tersebut dapat dibuktikan kebenarannya melalui data-data sejarah yang akurat. 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  berdasarkan penjelasan teori di atas, penulis menyimpulkan hubungan antara tindak ilokusioner, tindak tutur ekspresif serta kaitannya dengan kesantunan positif sebagai berikut. tindak ilokusioner seperti yang telah dijelaskan di atas berbicara mengenai maksud, fungsi, atau daya ujaran dengan kata lain untuk apa seseorang mengujarkan sesuatu tersebut. tindak tutur memuji termasuk ke dalam ekspresif, menunjukkan maksud penutur saat mengungkapkan atau mengutarakan pujian tersebut. maksud pujian yang diungkapkan penutur adalah untuk menyampaikan penilaian positif terhadap petutur. jenis tindak tutur memuji jenis memuji pada penelitian ini akan menggabungkan pendapat holmes dan mizutani dan mizutani untuk saling melengkapi. holmes (2003:187) mengelompokkan jenis-jenis pujian menjadi empat, yaitu pujian terhadap penampilan petutur (appearance compliment), pujian terhadap kemampuan, prestasi atau perbuatan baik petutur (ability/performance compliment), pujian terhadap benda yang dimiliki petutur (possesions compliment), pujian terhadap terhadap kepribadian atau keramahan petutur (personality/friendliness), dan pujian terhadap kepribadian atau keramahan petutur (personality/friendliness). sementara itu, mizutani dan mizutani (1987:149-152) membagi jenis pujian menjadi lima jenis. tiga jenis di antaranya sama seperti yang diungkapkan oleh holmes, yaitu pujian terhadap benda milik orang lain, pujian terhadap pakaian atau penampilan seseorang serta pujian terhadap kemampuan seseorang, sedangkan dua jenis tidak diungkapkan oleh holmes, yaitu pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang dan pujian terhadap keluarga seseorang. pujian terhadap penampilan petutur (appearance compliment) pujian diungkapkan ketika penutur mengagumi penampilan petutur. pujian ini mengacu pada apa yang dikenakan oleh petutur. orang jepang tidak terbiasa mengungkapkan pujian terhadap penampilan seseorang, kecuali jika penutur dan petutur memiliki hubungan yang akrab. pujian terhadap kemampuan, prestasi atau perbuatan baik petutur (ability/ performance compliment) pujian diungkapkan ketika penutur mengagumi kemampuan yang diperlihatkan petutur, prestasi yang dihasilkan petutur ataupun perbuatan baik yang dilakukan petutur (misalnya, untuk menolong orang lain dan sebagainya). pujian ini mengacu pada apa yang dilakukan oleh petutur. tidak biasa bagi orang jepang memuji kemampuan seseorang, kecuali di antara teman akrab atau diungkapkan kepada seseorang yang lebih muda. pujian terhadap benda yang dimiliki petutur (possesions compliment) pujian diungkapkan ketika penutur mengagumi sesuatu yang dimiliki petutur karena bentuknya yang bagus. pujian ini mengacu pada benda yang dimiliki petutur. pujian ini dianggap sebagai hal yang tidak biasa; di dalam situasi yang sopan seseorang akan berhenti memuji benda orang lain secara langsung. bagaimanapun, pujian seperti itu akan berubah di antara orang yang lebih akrab satu sama lain. pujian terhadap kepribadian atau keramahan petutur (personality/ friendliness) pujian diungkapkan ketika penutur mengagumi kepribadian petutur atau sikap petutur yang ramah. pujian ini mengacu pada kepribadian petutur. tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 83  pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang adalah biasa, bahkan di dalam situasi yang sopan. jika seseorang memuji orang lain maka orang lain yang dipuji tersebut akan menyangkal dengan mengatakan poin kelemahan dari tempat tinggalnya. pujian terhadap keluarga seseorang memuji anggota keluarga orang lain seperti anak orang lain adalah sangat biasa; semakin muda usia anak mereka, maka semakin mudah untuk memujinya. seseorang tidak bebas memuji anggota keluarga yang telah dewasa. faktor keanggotaan kelompok mempengaruhi pengungkapan jenis pujian ini. penutur yang berada di lingkungan luar keluarga (soto) menyebabkan rasa sungkan memuji anggota keluarga petutur yang berada di lingkungan dalam (uchi). oleh karena itu, pujian ini dituturkan kepada anggota keluarga petutur, bukan langsung kepada petutur. pada jenis pujian ini, penutur menyampaikan pujiannya mengacu pada penampilan fisik, kemampuan serta kepribadian keluarga petutur. muka, kesantunan, dan strategi menurut yule (2006:104), kesantuna dalam suatu interaksi dapat didefinisikan sebagai alat yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan kesadaran tentang wajah seseorang, sedangkan wajah itu sendiri, menurut brown dan levinson merupakan dasar teori kesantunan. wajah (yang selanjutnya akan disebut muka) merupakan wujud pribadi seseorang dalam masyarakat (yule, 2006:104). muka mengacu kepada makna sosial dan emosional itu sendiri yang setiap orang memiliki dan mengharapkan orang lain untuk mengetahui. dengan demikian pengertian mengenai muka adalah sesuatu yang emosional, dicurahkan dan dapat hilang, dipertahankan atau ditingkatkan dan harus diperhatikan secara konstan di dalam interaksi. muka merupakan sesuatu yang berhubungan dengan citra diri atau image seseorang. tindak tutur memuji berkaitan dengan tindak tutur menyelamatkan muka (face saving act/fsa). dalam tindak tutur memuji, penutur menghasilkan muka positif. brown dan levinson (1987:61) mengungkapkan bahwa muka positif mengacu pada citra diri setiap orang yang berkeinginan agar apa yang dilakukannya, apa yang dimilikinya atau apa yang merupakan nilai-nilai yang ia yakini diakui orang lain sebagai suatu hal yang baik, yang menyenangkan, yang patut dihargai. muka positif melahirkan kesantunan positif. adapun muka negatif seseorang ialah kebutuhan untuk merdeka, memiliki kebebasan bertindak, dan tidak tertekan orang lain. selanjutnya jika penutur melakukan tindak tutur mengancam muka (face threating act/fta) pada muka negatif untuk menunjukkan rasa hormat, menekankan pentingnya minat dan waktu orang lain, dan bahkan termasuk permintaan maaf atas pemaksaan atau penyesalan maka akan menghasilkan kesantunan yang negatif bagi petutur (yule, 2006:107). strategi menurut brown dan levinson terdiri atas: − bertutur terus terang tanpa basa-basi (bald on record). yaitu suatu tuturan, misalnya suatu permintaan yang ditujukan secara langsung kepada orang lain dimana tekanan ilokusinya dibuat eksplisit) − berterus terang dengan basa-basi yang berupa kesantunan positif (on record with positive politeness. pada hakekatnya kesantunan positif ditujukan terhadap muka positif petutur − berterus terang dengan basa-basi yang berupa kesantunan negatif (on record with negative politeness. kesantunan negatif pada hakikatnya ditujukan terhadap bagaimana memenuhi dan 84 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  atau menyelamatkan sebagian muka negatif petutur, yaitu keinginan dasar petutur untuk mempertahankan apa yang dia anggap sebagai wilayah dan keyakinan dirinya. − bertutur secara tidak terus terang atau samar-samar (off record). petutur membuat suatu tuturan dengan ungkapan lain, sehingga petutur dibiarkan menginterpretasikan sendiri apa yang diujarkan oleh penutur. − bertutur didalam hati (diam) (don’t the fta). penutur tidak menuturkan apapun kepada lawan tutur (petutur) melainkan bertutur di dalam hati saja. analisis tindak tutur memuji jenis pujian terhadap penampilan petutur data 1 園美 : そうだ!きょうの夕飯はわたしが作るわ! おかず何が好き? そういえば着替えたのね かわいいわ (知世の部屋を出て、桜の手を引いてあげる) 桜 : (混乱している顔) cardcaptor sakura 3 (clamp, 2001:135) sonomi : ‘ah ya! makan malam hari ini biar tante yang masak. kamu suka apa? oiya kamu ganti baju ya cantiknya’ (keluar kamar tomoyo sambil menarik tangan sakura) sakura : (dengan raut muka yang terlihat bingung…) percakapan pada data 1 terjadi di dalam kamar tomoyo antara ibu tomoyo yang bernama sonomi dengan sakura. pada saat itu sakura sedang mengunjungi rumah sahabatnya tomoyo dan berada di dalam kamar tomoyo untuk membantu membuka kotak milik tomoyo dan ibunya. kemudian tiba-tiba sonomi masuk ke dalam kamar dan menarik sakura keluar untuk menyiapkan makanan. sonomi pun memuji penampilan sakura yang telah mengganti pakaiannya. pada saat sonomi tiba di rumah sakura, sakura masih menggunakan baju yang sangat sederhana. pada data 1, ungkapan かわいいわ ‘cantiknya’ memperlihatkan bahwa sonomi memuji penampilan sakura yang berubah menjadi cantik dan manis setelah mengganti pakaiannya. pujian sonomi tersebut termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap penampilan seseorang karena topik pujian sonomi mengacu pada penampilan sakura setelah dia mengenakan pakaian lain. pada data 1, alasan sonomi memuji sakura adalah untuk mengekspresikan rasa kagum terhadap penampilan sakura yang berubah setelah mengganti pakaiannya dan atas kemiripan rupa wajah sakura dengan ibunya, yaitu nadeshiko yang sangat disayangi sonomi. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut ditunjukkan ketika sonomi menyatakan secara langsung penghargaannya terhadap penampilan sakura yang berubah menjadi cantik setelah mengganti bajunya. sementara respon sakura saat dipuji, ia menganggap pujian adalah sesuatu yang positif karena menyelamatkan mukanya dari ketidaktepatan penampilannya pada saat itu. jenis pujian terhadap kemampuan, prestasi, atau perbuatan baik petutur data 2 奈緒子 : 山崎君上手ね―― 千春 : けっこう器用だから cardcaptor sakura 3 (clamp, 2001:109) tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 85  naoko : ‘yamazaki pintar ya’ chiharu : ‘karena dia memang punya bakat’ pada data 2, percakapan antara naoko dan chiharu terjadi di dalam kelas musik saat mereka sedang mengikuti tes bermain seruling. ketika melihat permainan seruling yamazaki yang bagus, naoko pun memuji permainan seruling pemuda itu. kemudian chiharu pun menyetujui pujian naoko dengan mengakui bakat yamazaki. yamazaki takashi adalah murid kelas dua di sekolah dasar tomoeda serta teman laki-laki yang sekelas dengan naoko dan chiharu. naoko yanagizawa dan chiharu mihara adalah murid kelas dua di sekolah dasar tomoeda. pujian dalam data 2 ditunjukkan dengan penggunaan kata jouzu ‘pintar’ pada kalimat 山崎君 上 手 ね ―― ‘yamazaki pintar ya’ yang dituturkan naoko menjelaskan bahwa naoko memuji kemampuan yamazaki dalam bermain seruling. oleh karena topik pujian naoko mengacu pada kemampuan yamazaki yang pintar bermain seruling, sehingga pujian naoko tersebut termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap kemampuan seseorang. pada data 4, alasan naoko dan chiharu memuji yamazaki adalah untuk menggambarkan penilaian positif akan kemampuan yamazaki dapat bermain seruling dengan sangat bagus. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut dapat ditunjukkan dengan penghargaan naoko kepada yamazaki dengan cara memperhatikan dan mengikuti kemampuan yamazaki yang pintar bermain seruling. jenis pujian terhadap benda yang dimiliki petutur data 3 桜 : きれいなブーケですね 園美 : これはね あなたのお母さん 撫子の結婚式のときのブーケよ cardcaptor sakura 3 (clamp, 2001:113)    sakura : ‘buket yang cantik ya’ sonomi: ‘ini ya milik ibumu. buket nadeshiko waktu acara pernikahannya’ pada data 3, percakapan antara sonomi dan sakura terjadi di dalam kamar tomoyo antara ibu tomoyo yang bernama sonomi dengan sakura. setelah sakura berhasil membuka kotak penyimpanan benda berharga milik tomoyo dan ibunya, yaitu sonomi, sakura melihat sebuah buket bunga cantik yang terletak di dalam kotak tersebut. sakura pun memuji buket bunga tersebut. pujian pada data 3 ditunjukkan dengan penggunaan kata kirei ‘cantik’ pada tuturan sakura, yaitu pada ungkapan きれい なブーケですね ‘buket yang cantik ya’. pujian tersebut memaparkan bahwa sakura memuji betapa cantiknya benda yang dimiliki sonomi, yaitu sebuah buket bunga. oleh karena itu, pujian sakura tersebut termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap benda yang dimiliki seseorang. pujian yang dituturkan oleh wanita biasanya berfungsi untuk mengungkapkan bentuk kekaguman atas suatu hal yang positif. demikian juga dengan pujian sakura, alasan sakura memuji sonomi adalah untuk mengekspresikan kekagumannya terhadap benda yang dimiliki sonomi, yaitu buket bunga yang cantik. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut dapat ditunjukkan dengan penghargaan sakura kepada sonomi dengan cara memperhatikan dan mengikuti benda yang dimiliki sonomi, yaitu buket bunga yang cantik. sementara respon sonomi yang tersenyum saat dipuji berarti ia menganggap pujian adalah sesuatu yang positif karena menyelamatkan mukanya. 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  jenis pujian terhadap kepribadian atau keramahan petutur data 4 歌帆: 見えるの?悪いものじゃないから 平気よ 桃矢: わかってる 歌帆: いい子ね 桃矢: (頭を頷いっていて、顔が赤くなった) cardcaptor sakura 4 (clamp, 2001:17-18) kaho : ‘kamu bisa melihatnya ya? itu bukan sesuatu yang buruk kok, jadi kamu tidak usah bingung touya : ‘aku tahu’ kaho : ‘anak baik’ touya : (menundukkan kepala, kemudian mukanya memerah) pada data 4, percakapan antara kaho dan touya terjadi di depan kuil tsukimine, ketika touya sadar dapat melihat ‘sesuatu’ pada sebuah pohon. kahoo mengatakan bahwa ‘itu’ bukanlah sesuatu yang buruk. touya pun menjawab bahwa ia sudah mengetahui bahwa ‘itu’ bukan sesuatu yang buruk dan touya tidak akan mengganggu ‘sesuatu’ pada pohon tersebut. oleh karena kebaikan touya tersebut, maka kaho memuji kepribadian touya. pujian pada data 4 ditunjukkan dengan ungkapan いい子ね ‘anak baik’ yang dituturkan oleh kaho yang memuji kepribadian touya yang baik karena tidak berniat mengganggu ‘sesuatu’ yang terdapat pada pohon tersebut. oleh karena itu, pujian kaho termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap kepribadian seseorang. wanita terbiasa untuk memuji orang lain sebagai bentuk kekagumannya. sementara laki-laki menganggap pujian adalah sesuatu yang negatif dan bahkan berpotensi mengancam muka. alasan pujian yang dituturkan oleh kaho adalah untuk mengekspresikan kekagumannya terhadap kemampuan touya. akan tetapi, touya bersikap seolah-olah tidak menerima pujian kaho dengan diam tanpa mengatakan sepatah katapun dan merasa sangat malu. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut dapat ditunjukkan dengan penghargaan mizuki kaho kepada touya dengan cara memperhatikan dan mengikuti kepribadian touya yang baik karena tidak berniat mengganggu ‘sesuatu’ yang terdapat pada pohon tersebut. akan tetapi, respon touya malah menganggap pujian mizuki kaho tersebut merupakan sesuatu yang negatif, sehingga berpotensi mengancam mukanya. jenis pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang data 5 おじいさん: そうだ!孫の部屋へいってみたいかね?  桜     : いいんですか  おじいさん: さくらちゃんに着てほしい物があるんだよ  .........................................  桜  : かわいい―― (おじいさんの孫の部屋を入っている時)  おじいさん: (微笑んでいる)  cardcaptor sakura 5 (clamp, 2001:28)  kakek : ‘oh iya! mau lihat kamar cucu?‘ sakura : ‘bolehkah?’ kakek : ‘ada yang ingin kakek minta sakura pakai’ tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 87  .........................................  sakura : ‘indahnya…’ (sewaktu masuk ke dalam kamar cucu kakek) kakek : (tersenyum) pada data 5, percakapan antara kakek dan sakura terjadi di dalam perjalan dari teras rumah kakek ke dalam kamar cucu kakek, ketika sakura berkunjung ke rumah kakek. kakek adalah kakek yang baru ditemui sakura saat sakura berlibur dengan keluarganya. kakek itu merupakan pemilik dari rumah mewah yang terletak di dekat penginapan sakura dan keluarganya. sebenarnya kakek tersebut adalah kakek dari nadeshiko amamiya, yaitu ibu sakura. akan tetapi, sakura tidak mengetahuinya. oleh karena itu, kamar yang ditunjukkan sakura adalah kamar nadeshiko, yaitu ibu sakura. sakura kinomoto adalah anak kedua dari fujitaka kinomoto dan nadeshiko amamiya serta cicit dari kakek. setelah sakura diperlihatkan kamar cucu kakek itu, kemudian sakura mengungkapkan pujiannya pada keadaan kamar tersebut. pujian pada data 5 ditunjukkan dengan ungkapan かわいい―― ‘indahnya…’yang dituturkan oleh sakura. pujian sakura mengacu pada keindahan kamar cucu kakek tersebut. oleh karena itu, pujian sakura tersebut termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang. pujian dituturkan wanita sebagai alat untuk mengekspresikan kekaguman. demikian juga dengan sakura, ia ingin menyampaikan rasa kagumnya sebagai bentuk penilaian positif terhadap tempat tinggal, yaitu sebuah kamar milik cucu kakek itu. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut dapat ditunjukkan dengan penghargaan sakura kepada kakek dengan cara memperhatikan dan mengikuti keindahan kamar cucu kakek itu. jenis pujian terhadap keluarga seseorang data 6 園美 : ケーキ好き? 桜 : はい  園美 : 撫子も甘いもの大好きだったわ 桜 : お父さんもいってました お母さんよくこのくらいのケーキ ぜんぶ一人で食べてたって でもいくら食べても ふとらない体質だったみたい  知世 : まあ それはすばらしいですわね cardcaptor sakura 3 (clamp, 2001:104)  sonomi : ‘kamu suka kue?’ sakura : ‘iya’ sonomi : ‘nadeshiko juga suka sekali yang manis-manis’ sakura : ‘ayah juga bilang, katanya ibu suka makan kue sebesar ini sendiri. tapi walaupun makan banyak, dia tidak gemuk.’ tomoyo: ‘ wah… luar biasa ya’     pada data 6, percakapan antara sonomi dan sakura terjadi di teras belakang rumah sonomi, saat sonomi tengah bercakap-cakap dengan sakura sambil minum teh bersama. pada saat itu sakura sedang mengunjungi rumah sahabatnya tomoyo, dan bercakap-cakap dengan sonomi mengenai nadeshiko, yaitu ibu sakura. oleh karena nadeshiko tidak gemuk, walaupun kesukaannya makan makanan manis, lalu tomoyo mengungkapkan pujiannya kepada nadeshiko, yaitu ibu sakura. pujian pada data 6 ditunjukkan dengan ungkapan それはすばらしいですわね ‘wah luar biasa ya’ yang dituturkan oleh tomoyo. pujian tomoyo ditujukan kepada ibu sakura, yaitu nadeshiko yang tidak dapat gemuk walaupun menyukai makanan manis. oleh karena itu, pujian tomoyo tersebut termasuk ke dalam pujian terhadap anggota keluarga seseorang. pujian tomoyo ini mengacu pada penampilan fisik dari ibu sakura yang bernama nadeshiko amamiya. 88 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 78-89  pujian dituturkan wanita sebagai alat untuk mengekspresikan kekaguman. demikian juga dengan tomoyo, ia ingin menyampaikan rasa kagumnya sebagai bentuk penilaian positif terhadap anggota keluarga sakura, yaitu ibu sakura yang bernama nadeshiko. strategi yang dilakukan penutur saat mengutarakan pujiannya adalah strategi bertutur terus terang dengan kesantunan positif. strategi tersebut dapat ditunjukkan dengan penghargaan tomoyo kepada ibu sakura yang bernama nadeshiko amamiya dengan cara memperhatikan dan mengikuti penampilan ibu sakura yang tidak dapat gemuk walaupun menyukai makanan manis. simpulan pujian merupakan salah satu alat yang diberikan penutur jika ingin mengungkapkan penilaian positif akan sesuatu yang ada pada diri petutur berdasarkan berbagai topik acuan. topik pujian tersebut mengacu pada penampilan; kemampuan, prestasi, dan perbuatan baik petutur; benda yang dimiliki; kepribadian dan keramahan petutur; tempat tinggal seseorang serta anggota keluarga seseorang. berdasarkan hasil analisis data ternyata wanita jepang menggunakan berbagai bentuk memuji. pujian yang dilakukan oleh wanita jepang ditemukan pada semua jenis pujian, yaitu pujian terhadap penampilan petutur, pujian terhadap kemampuan, prestasi, tau perbuatan baik petutur, pujian terhadap benda yang dimiliki petutur, pujian terhadap kepribadian dan keramahan petutur, pujian terhadap tempat tinggal seseorang, dan pujian terhadap keluarga seseorang. bentuk tindak tutur memuji yang digunakan かわいい、上手、きれいな、いい、すばらしい. ditemukan kesamaan bentuk memuji pada pujian terhadap penampilan petutur dan terhadap tempat tinggal, yaitu menggunakan kata かわいい dan semua kata tersebut termasuk ke dalam adjektiva. alasan penutur melakukan pujian, yaitu untuk mengekspresikan penilaian positif terhadap sesuatu yang dimiliki orang lain. sementara itu, strategi yang digunakan oleh wanita saat mengungkapkan pujian adalah strategi berterus terang dengan kesantunan positif. hal tiu sesuai dengan yang dikatakan holmes bahwa memuji merupakan ungkapan dengan kesantunan positif. daftar pustaka aots (1995) shin nihongo no kiso i. japan: 3a corporation. brown, p.,& levinson,s. (1987). politeness: some universals in language use. cambridge: cambridge university press. clamp (2001).cardcaptor sakura. tokyo: kodansha. holmes, j. (2003).‘complimenting: a positive politeness strategy’. sociolinguistic: the essential readings.oxford: blackwell publishers, pp.177-197. leech, g. (1993).goyouron. (terj.) yoshihito ikegami. tokyo: kinokuniya book store. levinson, s. (1983). pragmatics. london: cambridge university press. mizutani, o., & mizutani, n. (1987). how to be polite in japanese. tokyo: the japan times. nadar, f.x. (2009). pragmatik dan penelitian pragmatik. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. sunagawa, y. (1998)nihongo bunkei jiten. tokyo: kuroshio tindak tutur memuji ….. (rita susanti; maduma siregar) 89  tokyo university of foreign studies, japanese language center (1990). shokyu nihongo. tokyo: bonjinsha. yule, g. (2006). pragmatik. (terj.) indah fajar wahyuni dan rombe mustajab. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. yoshida, y. (1973). japanese for today, tokyo: gakken. intelligence inside the king’s college of cambridge intelligence inside the king’s college of cambridge henriono nugroho jurusan sastra inggris universitas jember, jl. kalimantan 37 jember, jawa timur h-nugroho@hotmail.com abstract article concerns with a stylistic analysis on a poem in terms of systemic functional linguistics and verbal art semiotics. the writing uses library research, qualitative data, documentary study, descriptive method and intrinsic-objective approach. the semantic analysis results in both automatized and foregrounded meanings. then the automatized meaning produces lexical cohesion and in turn, it produces subject matter. meanwhile, the foregrounded meaning produces the literary meaning and in turn, it creates theme. finally, the analysis indicates that the subject matter is about the establishment of cambridge university, the literary meaning is about eternal thoughts of cambridge university, and the theme is about intelligence. keywords: semantic, automatized meaning, foregrounded meaning, theme abstrak penelitian mengkaji karya sastra melalui analisis stilistik berdasarkan ilmu bahasa sistemik fungsional dan sistem semiotik karya sastra. metode penelitian menggunakan studi pustaka, metode deskriptif dan pendekatan intrinsik objektif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa analisis semantik menghasilkan makna bahasa latar belakang (the automatized linguistic meaning) dan makna bahasa latar depan (the foregrounded linguistic meaning). kemudian makna pertama menghasilkan masalah utama (subject matter) dan makna kedua menghasilkan makna sastra (literary meaning). selanjutnya makna sastra menghasilkan tema. akhirnya terbukti bahwa masalah utama berkisah tentang pendirian universitas cambridge dan makna sastra tentang gagasan kekal universitas cambridge serta tema tentang inteligensia. kata kunci: semantik, makna bahasa latar belakang, makna bahasa latar depan, tema intelligence inside…. (henriono nugroho) 147 mailto:h-nugroho@hotmail.com introduction generally, there are several theories of stylistics namely formal, functional, feminine, pragmatic, affective, cognitive, pedagogical and critical (webber, 1996). particularly the functional stylistics includes functionalism, systemic functionalism, tagmemics, prague school functionalism and west coast functionalism (matthiessen, 1995). based on systemic functional linguistics, language can be ordered in contexts with cline of instantiation (actualization over time): context of culture and language, situation types and registers, situations and texts, and situation and text (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). according to halliday and matthiessen (1999), context of culture (cultural context) concerns with meaning potential (overall meaning), and context of situation (situational context) deals with the actualization of meaning potential (actualized meaning potential). meanwhile, kluckhohn (1953) claims that culture (cultural context) refers to notions, values and norms, whereas the domain of socio-cultural context corresponds to universal categories such as language, art, science, technology, economy, social organization and religion. the language order is outlined in figure 1. note: stratification = and instantiation = fig. 1 the interrelatedness of context, language, situation and text a text is a semantic unit and a clause is a grammatical unit (halliday, 1994). whereas, semantics is an interface between context of situation and lexicogrammar; in this sense the semantic systems are related “upward” to contextual systems and they are related “downward” to lexicogrammatical systems (halliday, 1993). the contextual systems are field, tenor and mode. the semantic systems are ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings. the lexicogrammatical systems are complexing, transitivity, mood and theme. in addition, the semantic systems are related “sideways” to discoursal systems (eggins, 1994). the discoursal systems are structural conjunction, lexical cohesion, conversational structure and grammatical cohesion. the interrelationship of situation, discourse, semantics and lexicogrammar is diagrammed in table 1. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 147-155 148 table 1 the relation of context, text and clause c on te xt situation field subject matter tenor role relation mode rhetoric discourse structural conjunction ** lexical cohesion conversational structure * grammatical cohesion t ex t semantics # logical meaning # experiential meaning interpersonal meaning textual meaning c la us e lexicogrammar complexing transitivity *** mood theme note: # logical meaning & experiential meaning = ideational meaning * including reference, substitution, ellipsis and cohesive conjunction ** including reiteration & collocation *** including polarity and modality literariness is defined as the difference between automatization or background and defamiliarization or foreground (jefferson, 1995: 37). background is also called ground, automatization, familiarization, and the normal, habitual, canonical, common, automatized or familiarizing pattern, whereas foreground(ing) is also called figure, deautomatization, defamiliarization, and the foregrounded, motivated, prominent, dominant, deautomatized or defamiliarizing pattern (jefferson 1995, hasan 1985, halliday 1971). meanwhile, the concept of background and foreground is used by hasan (1985: 99) to propose the semiotic system of verbal art. the verbal art semiotics deals with verbalization, symbolic articulation and theme, and verbalization itself is the semiotic system of language concerned with phonology, lexicogrammar and semantics. especially, verbalization – the lowest stratum – is where the point of primary contact with work reveals the meaning of language (the deep level of meaning). symbolic articulation – the middle stratum – is where the deep level of meaning functions as a sign, symbol or metaphor for the deeper level of meaning. finally, theme – the highest stratum is where the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning this article is concerned with a systemic stylistic analysis on a poem of william wordsworth as follows. inside of king’s college chapel, cambridge thou not tax the royal saint with vain expense with ill-matched aims the architect planned albeit he laboured for a scanty band of white-robed scholars only; this immense and glorious work for fine intelligence give thou can; high heaven rejects the lore of nicely-calculated less or more. so deemed the man, who fashioned for the sense those lofty pillars, to notice that branching roof self poised and scooped into ten thousand cells; there light and shape repose, and music dwells, lingering and wandering towards mortality; thoughts yieldth the very sweetness of proof, that they were born for eternity. (william wordsworth) intelligence inside…. (henriono nugroho) 149 the semiotic system of language logical meaning, logical metafunction or logical semantics logical meaning is a resource for constructing logical relation (halliday, 1994: 36) and the logical meaning describes a clause type (clause complex). in fact, the poem is realized by 2 clause complexes consisting of 2 main clauses and 13 expanding clauses. out of 13 expanding clauses, there are 7 extending paratactic clauses, 3 elaborating hypotactic clauses, 1 enhancing hypotactic clause and 2 embedded clauses. thus, extension is the automatized pattern because the poem is frequently realized by extending clauses. then, logical meaning is realized by complexing, and the complexing analysis is presented in table 2. table 2 complexing analysis no. notation logical relation clause 1. 1 main clause thou do not tax the royal saint with vain expense and ill-matched aims [[1.1 || 1.2]] 1.1 [[ ]] embedding the architect planned 1.2 [[ ]] embedding albeit he labored for a scanty band of white robed scholars only; 2. +2 extension thou can give this immense and glorious work of fine intelligence; 3. +3 extension high heaven rejects the lore of nicely-calculated less or more. 4. 1 α main clause the man so deemed <<5>>, to notice that branching roof 5. 1 α =β elaboration who fashioned these lofty pillars for the sense 6. 1 =β 1 elaboration which is self-poised 7. 1 =β 2 elaboration and which is scooped into ten thousand cells; 8. +2 extension there light and shade repose 9. +3 extension and music dwells 10. +4 extension lingering 11. +5 extension and wandering towards mortality 12. +6 α extension thoughts yieldeth the very sweetness of proof 13. 6 xβ enhancement so that they were born for eternity. experiential meaning, experiential metafunction or experiential semantics experiential meaning is a resource for construing experience (halliday, 1994: 36) and the experiential meaning discusses a process type (processes). actually, the poem is encoded by 12 clauses of material process, 3 clauses of mental process and 1 clause of relational process. the poem is also encoded by 7 clauses of present tense and 6 clauses of past tense. furthermore, the poem is construed by 13 clauses of finiteness and 2 clauses of non-finiteness. consequently, material process, present tense and finiteness are the automatized patterns, because they are frequently used in the poem. then, experiential meaning is encoded by transitivity, and the transitivity analysis is displayed in table 3. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 147-155 150 table 3 transitivity analysis no. process tense finiteness verbal group 1. material present do not tax 1.1 material past planned 1.2 material past labored 2. material present can give 3. material present rejects 4. mental past deemed to notice 5. material past fashioned 6. material present is self-poised 7. material present is scooped 8. material present repose 9. material present dwells 10. material non-finite lingering 11. material non-finite wandering 12. mental past yieldeth 13. relational past were born lexical cohesion a poem is realized by several lexical chains and each chain consists of a number of lexical items. the poem is realized by 8 lexical chains consisting of 40 lexical items. the lexical chains include thou (3), architect (2), material process (12), mental process (3), synonym (12), antonym (6), and comeronym (2). in other words, the poem is frequently realized by the main lexical chains of thou, material process and synonym and the lexical cohesion is shown in table 4. table 4 lexical cohesion no. lexical chain lexical item total 1. thou thou, thou, the man 3 2. architect architect, he 2 3. material process tax, planned, labored, give, rejects fashioned, scooped, reposed, dwells, lingering, wandering, self-poised 12 4. mental process deemed, yieldeth (impressed) 2 5. relational process were 1 6. synonym royal = lofty, vain = ill, immense = glorious, fine = sweetness, intelligence = lore, sense = thoughts 12 7. antonym less >< more, light >< shade, immortality >< eternity 6 8. comeronym roof – pillars 2 overall total 40 intelligence inside…. (henriono nugroho) 151 subject matter halliday (1993: 110) states that field includes subject matter as one special manifestation and halliday (1993: 143) claims that field is realized by experiential meaning. then, eggins (1994: 113) explains that field is encoded by experiential meaning and lexical cohesion. in addition, butt (1988: 177) describes that subject matter is expressed by lexical chains and specifically subject matter is indicated by the main lexical chains (butt, 1988: 182). thus, subject matter is realized by experiential meaning and lexical cohesion (lexical chains). in section 2.2, experiential meaning is frequently realized by material process. in section 2.4, lexical cohesion is frequently realized by material process. in other words, subject matter is frequently realized by material process. in fact, the analysis of material processes indicates that the functional elements are actor (thou), material process (worked for) and goal (cambridge university). in short, the subject matter reveals that thou worked for cambridge university. the analysis of relational process is illustrated in table 5. table 5: the analysis of relational process no. actor process goal circumstance 1. thou do not tax the royal saint with vain expense and illmatched aims 2. thou can give this immense and glorious work of fine intelligence 3. the man deemed to notice the branching roof 4. the man fashioned these lofty pillars for the sense 5. architect planned 6. architect labored for a scanty band of scholars only logogenetic process according to halliday and matthiessen (1998: 184-5), logogenesis is a process of making meaning through an instantial system (a changing system) when text unfolds (in the unfolding text). the speaker/writer uses the instantial system (the changing system) as a resource to create a text, whereas the listener/reader uses the instantial system (the changing system) as a resource to interpret the text. moreover, matthiessen (1995: 40) adds that logogenetic process reveals that lexicogrammatical shift (cf. butt, 1988: 83 on “latent patterning”) coincides with episodic shift (hasan, 1988: 60 on “textual structure”). textual structure is also called narrative structure (o’toole, 1983), schematic structure (martin, 1985), staging structure (plum, 1988) and generic structure (eggins, 1994). in this poem, shifts (changes) are described as follows: shift from present tense (clause 3) to past tense (clause 4) coincides with shift from the fine intelligence of cambridge university to the eternal thoughts of cambridge university. thus, the changing system of process and tense is used to make meanings, and the logogenetic process is outlined in table 6. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 147-155 152 table 6 logogenetic process clause number lexicogrammatical shift cf. latent patterning episodic shift cf. textual structure 1 3 present tense present tense the fine intelligence of cambridge university 4 13 past tense past tense the eternal thoughts of cambridge university discussion the semiotic system of verbal art verbalization: the deep level of meaning in section 2.1, extension is automatized, so a combination of elaboration, extension and enhancement is foregrounded. thus, the foregrounding of logical relation takes place in clauses 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. in section 2.2, material process is automatized, so other processes are foregrounded. therefore, the foregrounding of process occurs in clauses 4, 12 and 13. moreover, present tense is automatized, so past tense is foregrounded. consequently, the foregrounding of tense exists in clauses 2, 3, 4, 5, 12 and 13. furthermore, finiteness is automatized, so non-finiteness is foregrounded. accordingly, the foregrounding of non-finiteness exists in clauses 10 and 11. finally, patterns of foregrounding are mapped out in table 7. table 7 patterns of foregrounding no. logical relation process tense non-finiteness 1. 1.1 1.2 2. 3. x x 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x note: dotted line = clause complex boundaries table 7 above shows that patterning of the various foregrounded patterns point toward clauses 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. in other words, consistency of foregrounding converges toward the last clause complex because of logical relation, process, tense and non-finiteness. then, the consistency of foregrounding makes the foregrounded patterns of the last clause complex produce consistently foregrounded meaning which is also called the deep level of meaning and the first order intelligence inside…. (henriono nugroho) 153 meaning. in brief, the consistently foregrounded meaning is called the deep level of meaning, which can be seen in: the man, who fashioned for the sense those lofty pillars, to notice that branching roof self poised and scooped into ten thousand cells; there light and shape repose, and music dwells, lingering and wandering towards mortality; thoughts yieldth the very sweetness of proof, that they were born for eternity. symbolic articulation: the deeper level of meaning the deep level of meaning functions as the sign, symbol or metaphor of the deep level of meaning which is also called the second order meaning and literary meaning. in section 3.1, the deep level of meaning refers to the last clause complex because of the foregrounding of logical relation (a combination of elaboration, extension and enhancement), process (mental and relational), tense (past tense) and non-finiteness (lingering and wandering). then, the last clause complex describes that the designed the principles of intelligence at cambridge university are thought as the educational center of the thousands of students; relaxation and entertainment are no more, but thoughts are eternal there. in summary, the deeper level of meaning concerns with the eternal thoughts of cambridge university. theme: the deepest level of meaning the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning which is also called theme and the third order meaning. hasan (1985: 97) states that theme is the deepest level of meaning in verbal art; it is what a text is about when dissociated from the particularities of that text. in its nature, the theme of verbal art is very close to generalizations which can be viewed as a hypothesis about some aspect of the social life of man. moreover, hasan (1985: 54) adds that the deepest level of meaning is a meaning that arises from saying one thing and meaning another. in this poem, saying one thing (the eternal thoughts of cambridge university) means another meaning (intelligence). in conclusion, the deepest level of meaning deals with intelligence. conclusion the lexicogrammatical analysis produces semantic components and there are two kinds of semantic patterns such as automatized and foregrounded. on the one hand, the automatized pattern produces the automatized meaning, and in turn the automatized meaning produces subject matter. at the stratum of verbalization, on the other hand, consistency of foregrounding makes some foregrounded patterns produce consistently foregrounded meaning which is also called the deep level of meaning and the first order meaning. at the stratum of symbolic articulation, the deep level of meaning functions as symbol, sign or metaphor of the deeper level of meaning which is also called the second order meaning and literary meaning. at the stratum of theme, the deeper level of meaning creates the deepest level of meaning which is also called theme and the third order meaning. in summary, there is a systematic relation between lexicogrammar and theme in verbal art. then the meanings in the poem are outlined in the following table. table 8 meanings of verbal art semiotics verbalization symbolic articulation theme consistenly foregrounded meaning literary meaning theme the deep level of meaning the deeper level of meaning the deepest level of meaning the first order meaning the second order meaning the third order meaning jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 147-155 154 references butt, david. 1988. “randomness, order and the latent patterning of text” in david birch and michael o’ toole (eds.) functions of style. london: pinter publishers. butt, david. et al. 1995. using functional grammar. sydney: macquarie university. eggins, suzanna. 1994. an introduction to systemic functional linguistics. london: pinter publishers. halliday, mak and ruqaiya hasan. 1985. language, context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. melbourne: deakin university press. halliday, mak. 1993. language as a social semiotic. london: edward arnold. halliday, mak & christian matthiessen. 1999. construing experience through meaning:a languagebased approach to cognition. berlin: de gruyter. hasan, ruqaiya. 1985. linguistics, language and verbal art. melbourne: deakin university press. hasan, ruqaiya. 1988. “the analysis of one poem: theoretical issues in practice” in david birch and michael o toole (eds.) functions of style. london: pinter publishers. hasan, ruqaiya. 1996. “on teaching literature across cultural distances” in joyce e. james ed. the language-culture connection. anthology series 37. singapore: seameo regional language center martin, j.r. 1985. “process and text: two aspects of semiosis” in benson and graves (eds.) systemic perspectives on discourse. norwood, new jersey: ablex. martin, j.r. 1992. english text system and structure. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. mukarovsky, jan. 1977. the word and verbal art. tr. j. burbank and p. steiner. new haven: yale university press. matthiessen, christian. 1995. lexicogrammatical cartography: english systems. tokyo, taipei, dallas: international language sciences publishers. pradopo, r.d. 1996. pengkajian puisi. jogjakarta: gajah mada university press. preminger, a. 1974. princeton encyclopaedia of poetry and poetics. princeton: princeton university press. plum, g.a. 1988. text and contextual conditioning in spoken english: a genre based approach. unpublished phd thesis. sydney, australia: university of sydney. intelligence inside…. (henriono nugroho) 155 inside of king’s college chapel, cambridge microsoft word 06_ bena_setting.doc 146 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 146-151 aspek semantik dan pragmatik dalam penerjemahan bena yusuf pelawi fakultas sastra, universitas kristen indonesia abstract research deployed translation issues, mainly concerning from semantic and pragmatic aspects. discussion was started by stating the importance of linguistic aspects comprehended and applied by a translator, such as grammar, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics. research presented six meaning problems in translation, those related to lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, contextual meaning or situational meaning, textual meaning, socio-cultural meaning, and idiomatic meaning. it can be concluded that the ability to apply linguistic aspect both from the source and targeted languages take important role to produce a good translation. keywords: semantics, pragmatics, translation abstrak penelitian membahas masalah terjemahan, terutama dari aspek semantik dan pragmatik. bahasan didahului dengan pentingnya aspek linguistik, misalnya penguasaan grammar, fonologi, morfologi, sintaksis, semantik, prakmatik, sosiolingistik, dan psikolinguistik yang harus dikuasai oleh penerjemah agar dapat menghasilkan karya yang baik. disebutkan, terdapat enam masalah makna dalam penerjemahan, yaitu makna leksikal, makna gramatikal, makna kontekstual atau situasional, makna tekstual, makna sosio kultural dan makna idiomatik. dari beberapa pengertian tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemahaman dan penguasaan aspek linguistik yang baik dalam bahasa sumber maupun dalam bahasa sasaran sangat berperan dalam menghasilkan karya terjemahan. kata kunci: semantik, pragmatik, terjemahan aspek semantik dan pragmatik….. (bena yusuf pelawi) 147 pendahuluan kegiatan penerjemahan tidak dapat terlepas dari pengaruh aspek linguistik. penguasaan aspek linguistik dapat mempengaruhi karya terjemahan yang dihasilkan oleh seorang penerjemah. semakin tinggi pemahaman dan penguasaan aspek linguistik yang dimiliki seorang penerjemah maka semakin baik pula karya terjemahan yang dihasilkan. hasil dan pembahasan sakri (1985:5) menjelaskan bahwa aspek linguistik yang terdapat dalam bahasa, baik bahasa sumber maupun bahasa sasaran sangat berperan dalam membentuk karya terjemahan. sementara, menurut udaya dalam samiati (1998:3) aspek linguistik memiliki peranan yang strategis dalam penerjemahan. ia memberikan salah satu contoh tentang tata bahasa (grammar). tata bahasa sangat menentukan seorang penerjemah untuk dapat melakukan kegiatan menerjemahkan dengan baik. tanpa memiliki pemahaman tata bahasa atau grammar dengan memadai tentu seorang penerjemah akan kesulitan dalam memahami teks serta mengalihkan makna ke dalam bahasa sasaran. oleh karena itu udaya menyatakan bahwa grammatical adjustment merupakan teori yang praktis. sebenarya kalau membahas aspek linguistik, grammatical adjustment hanya sebagai salah satu contoh aspek linguistik. banyak aspek linguistik lain yang akan dapat membantu seorang penerjemah dalam melakukan pekerjaan.. aspek tersebut adalah fonologi (termasuk cara mempelajari bunyi bahasa beserta makna), morfologi, sintaksis, semantik, prakmatik, sosiolinguistik, begitu pun dengan psikolinguistik (udaya dalam samiati (1998:4)). aspek linguistik ini dapat memberikan dasar yang kuat bagi seorang ahli bahasa untuk menjadi penerjemah yang baik. begitu pula dengan mahasiswa yang sedang belajar menerjemahkan, aspek linguistik yang ada akan memberikan landasan kritis dalam melakukan kegiatan penerjemahan. dari pendapat di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa aspek linguistik perlu dipahami oleh calon penerjemah. hal ini disebabkan aspek linguistik mampu memberikan landasan yang cukup kuat bagi seorang penerjemah atau calon penerjemah dalam melakukan aktivitas. lyons (1995:3) mengatakan bahwa, “semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning.” crystal (1985:273) mengatakan bahwa, “semantics is a major branch of linguistics devoted to the study of meaning in language.” nida (1975:26) menjelaskan bahwa: “in other words, the meaning consists of that set of necessary and sufficient conceptual features which make it possible for the speaker to separate the referential potentiality of any one lexical unit from that of any other unit which might tend to occupy part of the same semantic domain”. pendapat nida ini dipertegas oleh subroto dkk (1999:2) yang menjelaskan bahwa, “rumusan tersebut berkaitan dengan arti leksikal dan sebuah unit leksikal tertentu.” arti leksikal dari sebuah unit leksikal (atau lebih tepat disebut leksem) terdiri dari seikat ciri kognitif yang terstruktur. hal ini berarti bahwa arti (meaning) dipahami atau dikuasai oleh pengguna bahasa secara empirik berdasarkan kemampuan kognitif sejak awal mula dia mulai belajar dan menguasai bahasa. alwasilah (1984:146) mengatakan bahwa, “makna ada di balik kata.” sementara itu nida (1975:1) menjelaskan bahwa, “ suatu kata dapat mempunyai sejumlah makna yang berbeda.” selain itu lepschy dalam samiati (1998:3) mengungkapkan bahwa, “makna cenderung digunakan hanya 148 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 146-151 sebagai sarana untuk mendefinisikan unit linguistik saja.” ahli lain menjelaskan bahwa, “makna sebaiknya dikaji dalam kaitan fungsinya sebagai alat komunikasi sehingga kajian makna perlu mengacu pada aneka fungsi yang relevan pada tindak kebahasaan” (jakobson, 1960 dalam samiati, 1998:3). sementara itu leech (1993:8) mengartikan prakmatik sebagai, “studi tentang makna dalam hubungannya dengan situasi-situasi ujar” (speech situations). sebagai contoh adalah penggunakan kata “run” dalam kalimat berikut (larson, 1984:8), yaitu (1) the boy runs, (2) the clock runs, (3) the nose runs, dan (4) the river runs. kalimat tersebut menggunakan kata yang sama, yaitu “run”. kalimat “the boy runs” diterjemahkan “anak itu berlari”, “the clock runs” diartikan “jam itu berputar”, “the nose runs” diterjemahkan ”anak itu pilek”, dan kalimat yang terakhir “the river runs” menjadi “sungai itu mengalir”. dari perbandingan keempat kalimat tersebut diperoleh beberapa perbedaan makna dari kata run, yaitu “berlari”, “berputar”, “pilek”, dan “mengalir” sehingga makna dari satu kata tidak terpancang oleh bentuk leksikon saja, akan tetapi juga terpengaruh oleh faktor lain, misalnya, faktor struktur gramatikal, situasi berbicara dan latar belakang bidang ilmu. dalam kaitannya dengan penerjemahan, samiati (1998:3) mengelompokkan makna kedalam lima jenis, yaitu makna leksikal, makna gramatikal, makna kontekstual, makna tekstual, dan makna situasional. makna leksikal dan makna gramatikal mengacu pada konteks mikro-linguistik, sementara makna kontekstual, tekstual, dan situasional mengacu pada konteks mikro-dan makro-linguistik. pendapat senada dikemukakan oleh m.r.nababan (1997:36-38), bahwa, “masalah makna dalam penerjemahan dapat digolongkan menjadi 5, yaitu; makna leksikal, makna gramatikal, makna kontekstual atau makna situasional, makna tekstual, dan makna sosio-budaya.” makna leksikal adalah makna unsur bahasa sebagai lambang atau peristiwa, dlsb. makna leksial dapat juga disebut makna yang ada dalam kamus, mengingat kata yang ada dalam kamus lepas dari penggunaannya atau konteksnya. misalnya, sebagai kata sifat, kata ‘bad’ bisa mempunyai enam buah makna yaitu ‘jahat’, ‘buruk’, ‘jelek’, ‘susah’, ‘tidak enak’, dan ‘busuk’ . jika makna leksikal disebutkan bahwa makna lepas dari konteksnya maka makna gramatikal adalah sebaliknya. makna gramatikal ialah hubungan antar unsur bahasa dalam satuan yang lebih besar. dia memberikan contoh penggunaan kata ‘can’. kata tersebut bisa berarti ‘dapat’, ‘kaleng’, dan ’mengalengkan’, tergantung pada posisi kata itu dalam kalimat. penggunaan kata ‘can’ dalam kalimat ‘they can the fish’ berbeda artinya dengan penggunaan kata ‘can’ dalam kalimat ‘ he kicked the can hard’. makna kontekstual atau situasional, yaitu makna suatu kata yang berkaitan dengan situasi pengguna bahasa. hal ini diperjelas kridalaksana (1984:120) bahwa “makna kontekstual ialah hubungan antara ujaran dan situasi di mana ujaran itu dipakai secara kontekstual.”, contohnya ucapan ‘good morning’ untuk menyapa karyawan yang sedang terlambat datang ke kantor. ucapan itu bisa diartikan ‘keluar’ bila yang mengatakan bos dengan nada marah dan jengkel. makna tekstual merupakan makna yang berkaitan dengan isi suatu teks atau wacana. perbedaan jenis teks dapat pula menimbulkan makna suatu kata menjadi berbeda. penggunaan kata ‘morphology’ dalam teks biologi memiliki arti yang berbeda dengan kata ‘morphology’ dalam teks kebahasaan. sedangkan makna sosio-kultural merupakan makna dari suatu kata yang erat kaitannya dengan sosio-budaya pemakai bahasa. karena dia berasal dari batak, kata ‘marhusip’ diangkatlah menjadi contoh. dalam bahasa batak toba, kata tersebut tidak hanya sekedar berarti ‘berbisik’ tetapi jauh lebih luas dan kompleks karena berkaitan dengan konteks budaya perkawinan. yusuf (1994:93) menjelaskan bahwa, “dalam menelaah makna kata, biasanya dibedakan antara makna denotatif dan makna konotatif.” makna denotatif adalah makna kamus, makna yang bersifat umum, objektif dan belum ditumpangi isi, nilai, atau rasa tertentu. sebaliknya, makna konotatif bersifat subjektif dalam pengertian bahwa ada makna lain dibalik makna umum atau makna kamus tersebut. sedangkan beekam dan callow (dalam larson 1989:110), “menggunakan istilah makna primer dan makna sekunder”. makna primer maksudnya adalah makna yang tampil dalam aspek semantik dan pragmatik….. (bena yusuf pelawi) 149 pikiran penutur bahasa jika kata itu diucapkan tersendiri, sementara makna sekunder adalah makna yang bergantung pada konteksnya. berangkat dari beberapa pandangan dan pendapat tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa masalah makna dalam penerjemahan dapat digolongkan menjadi enam, yaitu makna leksikal, makna gramatikal, makna kontekstual atau situasional, makna tekstual, makna sosio cultural, dan makna idiomatik. makna leksikal makna leksikal cenderung mengacu pada makna yang ada di dalam kamus, yaitu makna mandiri seperti apa adanya. misalnya kata ‘sentence’ memiliki arti ‘kalimat’ atau ‘hukuman’. belum bisa dibedakan karena kata itu masih mandiri. kata tersebut belum terpengaruh oleh faktorr lain. sehubungan dengan ini, machali (2000:24) mengungkapkan bahwa, “makna leksikal (dari kata leksikon : yakni kata) adalah makna sebagaimana yang kita jumpai dalam kamus pada umumnya, misalnya : dalam kamus indonesia-inggris, “anjing” = “dog.” makna gramatikal makna gramatikal adalah makna dari suatu kata karena pengaruh penggunaan struktur kalimat yang digunakan. pengertian kata ‘sentence’ dalam kalimat ’it is an active sentence’ atau ´at least a sentence provides subject and predicate’ berbeda artinya dengan kata ‘sentence’ dalam kalimat ‘the sanction can be fine, a jail sentence or both’. di samping itu, machali (2000:24) mengatakan bahwa, “makna gramatikal adalah makna yang terbentuk akibat susunan kata atau frasa, klausa, atau kalimat, misalnya makna yang terbentuk akibat akhiran yang ditambahkan dalam kata “meminjam” dan “meminjamkan”, yang dalam bahasa inggris menjadi “to borrow” dan “to lend”. makna kontekstual “makna kontekstual disebut makna situasional” (nababan 1997:37). makna kontekstual ini merupakan makna dari suatu kata atau kalimat karena situasi dalam penggunaan bahasa. contoh yang menarik adalah (soemarno dalam nababan, 1997:38) penggunaan kalimat ‘i really hate you’ yang diucapkan oleh sepasang sejoli yang sedang bermesraan di taman. sang wanita mencubit lengan kekasihnya sambil mengucapkan kalimat tersebut dengan suara gemes. tentu saja kalimat tersebut memiliki arti yang berlawanan, terutama penggunaan kata ‘hate’. makna tekstual makna tekstual maksudnya adalah makna yang timbul atau diperoleh dari isi suatu teks atau bacaan tertentu. contohnya adalah kata ‘sentence’ seperti dikemukakan di depan. dalam bacaan mengenai kebahasaan tentu saja kata tersebut mengacu pada penggunaan kalimat dan seputarnya. namum bila kata tersebut ditemukan dalam bacaan bidang hukum tentu saja artinya akan mengarah ke hukuman dan yang seputarnya. makna sosio-budaya makna sosio-budaya sangat erat kaitannya dengan kultur budaya dan hubungan sosial di masyarakat. soemarno (1997:3-8) memberikan contoh banyak sekali baik yang berkaitan dengan hubungan kekeluargaan, cara pandang terhadap dunia kehidupannya, istilah stereotif, peristiwa budaya, istilah bahasa maupun masalah sapa menyapa. misalnya, penerjemahan ‘mbah canggah’, ‘udeg-udeg’, ‘selapanan’, ‘midodareni’, ‘tetesan’ sampai penggunaan kalimat ‘manunggaling kawula gusti’. tanpa diuraikan dengan jelas, para konsumen hasil terjemahan akan kesulitan memahami 150 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 146-151 istilah-istilah yang menyangkut masalah budaya tersebut. disamping itu, machali (2000:25) menyebut makna sosio-budaya sebagai makna sosiokultural, yaitu “makna yang terbentuk oleh budaya setempat atau juga mempunyai muatan sosial tertentu”. contohnya adalah kalimat “ selamat makan” yang tidak ada dalam budaya “inggris” sehingga tidak ada kalimat seperti “good eat”. untuk makna yang bermuatan sosial adalah misalnya kata “lunch” dan “luncheon” dalam bahasa inggris; kata yang kedua lebih banyak digunakan oleh mereka dari kelas sosial yang lebih tinggi dari pada kelas lain. makna idiomatik makna idiomatik atau ungkapann yang lain-proverb, maxim dan collocation-juga perlu diperhatikan dalam proses penerjemahan. yang dimaksud dengan makna idiomatik adalah makna yang berkaitan dengan ungkapan-ungkapan khusus yang sudah memiliki arti khusus pula. bentuk idiom itu tidak bisa diubah susunannya, dihilangkan salah satu unsur katanya, ditambah ataupun diganti unsur katanya maupun diubah strukturnya. idiom merupakan bentuk bahasa yang sudah membeku dan tak memungkinkan menambah variasi pada bentuknya serta maknanya tidak dapat disimpulkan dari komponen secara terpisah. misalnya, idiom ‘half a loaf is better than one’ diartikan ‘lebih baik terlambat dari pada tidak sama sekali’ dan idiom ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’ diartikan ’hujan sangat lebat’. untuk lebih jelasnya baker (1992:62) menegaskan bahwa, “in the case of idioms, often carry meaning which cannot be deduced from their individual components.” selain itu, blight (1999:27) menyatakan idiom adalah, “a fixed combination of words whose meaning is derived from perceiving the unit as a whole rather than as individual words.” simpulan dari beberapa pengertian tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemahaman dan penguasaan aspek linguistik yang baik dalam bahasa sumber maupun dalam bahasa sasaran sangat berperan dalam menghasilkan karya terjemahan. makna bisa ditimbulkan oleh bentuk lugas bahasa itu sendiri, makna bisa karena bentuk struktur bahasa yang dipakai, makna bisa terwujud disebabkan oleh situasi pengguna bahasa itu sendiri, makna bisa memiliki arti karena penggunaan dalam bidang ilmu tertentu. makna juga bisa muncul dari sosio-kultur budaya yang ada. jadi, bisa dilihat bahwa masalah makna dapat ditemukan dalam berbagai konteks. daftar pustaka alwasilah, a.c. (1984). linguistik: suatu pengantar, bandung: angkasa. baker, m. (1992). in other words. a coursebook on translation, great britain: clays ltd. st ives plc. blight, r.c. (1999). translation problems from a to z. dallas, texas: summer institute of linguistics, inc. crystal, d. (1985). a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, great britain: cornwall press ltd. kridalaksana, h. (1984). kamus linguistic, jakarta: pt. gramedia. larson, m.l. (1984). meaning based translation, a guide to cross-language equivalence, new york: university press of america. aspek semantik dan pragmatik….. (bena yusuf pelawi) 151 leech, g. (1989). principles of pragmatics, singapore: longman singapore publishers (pte) ltd. lyons, j. (1995). linguistic semantics: an introduction, cambridge university press. machali, r. (2000). pedoman bagi penerjemah, jakarta: pt grasindo. nababan, m.r. (1997). aspek teori penerjemahan dan pengalihbahasaan, surakarta: pps uns. nida, e.a. (1975). componential analysis of meaning: an introduction to semantic structures, netherland: mountain & co. publisher. sakri, a. (1985). ihwal menerjemahkan, bandung: itb press. subroto, d.e, dkk. (1999). telaah stilistika novel-novel berbahasa jawa tahun 1980-an, jakarta: p3b, depdikbud. soemarno, t. (1997). sekitar masalah budaya dalam penerjemahan. makalah dalam kongres linguistik nasional, surabaya. tarjana, s. (1998). masalah makna dan pencarian padanan dalam penerjemahan. makalah seminar program s2 linguistik. surakarta. yusuf, s. (1994). teori terjemah: pengantar ke arah pendekatan linguistik dan sosiolinguistik, bandung: cv mandar maju. vol. 9 no.1 may 2015 issn 1978-8118 (print) issn 2460-710x (online) ketua dewan redaksi ienneke indra dewi dewan redaksi endang ernawati (universitas bina nusantara) akun (universitas bina nusantara) sri haryanti (universitas bina nusantara) rosita ningrum (universitas bina nusantara) indiwan seto wahyu wibowo (universitas multimedia nusantara) redaktur pelaksana arta moro sundjaja noerlina editor bahasa dan setter i.didimus manulang haryo sutanto holil atmawati sekretariat nandya ayu dina nurfitria description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been indexed by google scholar and indonesian publication index. editor and administration address : research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : nayu@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua http://research.binus.ac.id/journal/lingua-cultura vol. 9 no.1 may 2015 issn 1978-8118 (print) issn 2460-710x (online) daftar isi agustinus sufianto; sugiato lim; andyni khosasih akulturasi unsur kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi (acculturation of chinese kungfu in betawi pencak silat)...................................................................... 1-6 ayu trihardini kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin pada siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula (errors in the use of mandarin measure words on indonesian pre-beginner level students).............. 7-12 dian natashia wacana iklan parodi jepang fanta gakuen sensei series (discourse of parody advertisement on japan’s gakuen sensei series)................................................... 13-20 aprilia ruby wikarti kesalahan struktur frasa subordinatif bahasa mandarin (errors of subordinate phrase structure on chinese language).............................................................. 21-27 hendy reginald cuaca dharma representasi budaya kawaii dalam chara-bentou (representation of kawaii culture in chara-bentou)............................................................................... 28-34 billy nathan setiawan cina benteng: the latest generations and acculturation...................................................................... 35-39 joice yulinda luke the use of code-mixing among pamonanese in parata ndaya closed-group facebook........................ 40-46 nana yuliana; amelia rosa luziana; pininto sarwendah code-mixing and code-switching of indonesian celebrities: a comparative study................................ 47-54 rudi hartono manurung gaya bahasa enkyokuhou dalam novel nihon kogyou ginkou karya ryo takasugi (enkyokuhou figure of speech in ryo takasugi’s nihon kogyou ginkou)................................................. 55-66 evert h. hilman the translation of indonesian cultural lexicons in the novel saman.................................................... 67-74 microsoft word 04_yuliana_stylistic analysis edited noe-a4.doc stylistic analysis: gender influence … (yuliana; rica s.w. goeridno) 27 stylistic analysis: gender influence in reporting and reading news yuliana1; rica s.w. goeridno2 1 sekolah ipeka (iman pengharapan kasih), jl. mangga raya no. 10 c-d, greenville-jakarta barat, yuliana@ipk.org 2wijaya kusuma university, surabaya abstract one of the powerful media nowadays is the newspaper; everyday it is read by many people everywhere. journalists are the main important factors for newspaper since what the journalists write convey meaning and also influence the readers who read it. through this paper, the writers want to find out the influence of the gender in reporting news. how the female and male journalist writes and what are the differences. the writers here choose two local newspapers, that is jawa pos and radar surabaya. the writers will analyze two same news topic, but written by the different gender, one is written by the male and the other is by the female, in what way they write differently and what are the factors that influence them. keywords: news, reporting news, reading news, gender, stylistic abstrak salah satu media yang berpengaruh saat ini adalah harian. setiap hari harian dibaca oleh banyak orang dimanapun. jurnalis merupakan faktor utama yang penting bagi harian karena apa yang ditulis jurnalis menyampaikan makna dan juga mempengaruhi pembaca. melalui artikel ini, penulis ingin mengetahui pengaruh jender dalam menyampaikan berita, bagaimana jurnalis perempuan dan laki-laki menulis dan apa perbedaannya. penulis mengambil dua harian lokal, yaitu jawa pos dan radar surabaya. penulis akan mengkaji dua topik berita yang sama, tetapi ditulis dengan jender berbeda, satu ditulis oelh perempuan dan satu lagi ditulis oleh laki-laki. penulis akan mencari jawaban bagaimana mereka menulisnya dan faktor apa yang mempengaruhi mereka. kata kunci: berita, menyampaikan berita, membaca berita, jender, stilistika jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 27-33 28 introduction the mass media has become a principal means of communication through which people get the newest and latest information. the media which refers to the press, radio and television broadcasting is a powerful site of the society since they shape people’s thoughts. newspapers also deal with culture and linguistics; meaning that the language used in media represents a particular group of society. newspaper, as a part of the press is also a communicative site whether it represents certain thoughts of its journalists and contributors. for many years the linguist has been interested in ways of reporting news; how a story gets told and how male and female write them in the form of news (thomas and wareing, 1998:52). although the male and female journalists get the same news from the same source, the way they write is different. gender plays the most important role in influencing the process of writing. the differences may be seen in the topic development, word choice and other gender-stereotyped patterns such as lexical hedges, ‘empty’ adjectives, precise terms, intensifiers, ‘hypercorrect’ grammar, ‘super polite’ form, emphatic stress, etc. (holmes, 1992 :314). this article will further explain why male and female journalists write differently although they get the news from the same source and what factors influence their way of writing. review of related literature in what way are they different? in speaking, it has been already proven that men and women have different style, whether it is in their choice of words, the grammar, the stress, and even the intonation. the same thing also happens when they write. they have to think, reinforce their idea and then expressing it in the text form. what makes it different is the outcome if it is speaking, then the outcome is utterances while in writing, the outcome is text form, but still they have been through the same process. in doing their jobs, journalists have to contact their sources to get and dig the information as detail as possible, then write it in the form of news. whether male and female journalists have the same information collected from the source, still the output or their news can be different, because they will find their own best angle. in this case, the choosing of angle is done through several steps, and one of the steps is finding the topic after that they can conduct their writing process. however, the process of finding the topic is not as easy as it seems, as they have to think hard to choose it and the burden is getting weight when their editors ask them to find another topic that is different from the other newspapers. journalist have to find the interesting angle that may attract their reader’s attentions and how they support this topic with several additional information so that it becomes good news served to their readers. as a matter of fact, how male and female choose the topic development is different. wareing (1998: 78) stated that women tend to have personal topics to be discussed such as family, friendship, and emotion. on the other hand, men prefer to have impersonal topics, based on factual or technical knowledge such as football, cars or home improvement. there are also some points which differentiate the male and female languages lakoff stated that woman’s language have certain characteristics such as: (a) lexical hedges or filler, e.g. you know, sort of, well, you see. (b) tag questions, e.g. she’s very nice, isn’t she? (c) rising intonation on declaratives, e.g. it’s really good. stylistic analysis: gender influence … (yuliana; rica s.w. goeridno) 29 (d) ‘empty adjectives, e.g. divine, charming, cute (e) precise colour terms, e.g. magenta, aquamarine (f) intensifiers such as just and so, e.g. i like him so much (g) ‘hypercorrect’ grammar, e.g. consistent use of standard verb forms. (h) ‘superpolite’ forms, indirect requests, euphemism. (i) avoidance of strong swear words, e.g. fudge, my goodness (j) emphatic stress, e.g. it was a brilliant performance. (quoted in holmes, 1992:314) in the news writing, the topic development also plays the most important part since the choosing of topic development between male and female journalists is different and it may result the different highlight of the news. wareing (1998:78) stated that the topic chosen by women is different from men; women tend to select personal topics such as their life, their family, their emotion, and their friendships. while men, on the other hand, are said to prefer more impersonal topics, often based on factual or technical knowledge, such as football, cars, or home improvement what factors influence the difference? why female journalists’ way of choosing the topic development and words are different with male journalists? there are several things that influence these differences. they are nature and emotion as the internal factors and social style, newspaper style, and affiliation as the external factors that influence their writing. internal factors nature davies (1999:50) states that it is women’s nature to have everything in proper and polite ways in doing something because they want to show their identity as a fragile and beautiful creature. in this case, women tend to use the proper grammar in almost of their writing process the same thing also happens to the female writers when they write the news. they tend to have certain words that characterize themselves. wareing (1998:78) said that it is the nature of women avoids the conflict and impolite words in their stereotype language. he also stated that women prefer to use forms which, by being less, allow disagreement to take place without explicit confrontation. women tend to use such euphemism to hide their real meaning or intention, for instance women tend to say over slim to a skinny girl to avoid offensive actions, but the actual meaning is ‘so thin’. it is also shown in their writing that their language is a bit flowery than the male writer. usually, she applies precise vocabulary to represent her news, for example when she say the colour term, she tends to use the accurate colour such as magenta, aquamarine, etc. (holmes, 1992:314). male journalists tend not to use flowery words to deliver their idea. they prefer to use straightforward words and avoid some redundancy in their writing. women also tend to use some words to support their idea but their existence does not seem to support their idea, in fact it makes their statement become redundant and wordy. another thing that becomes woman’s nature is that they have difficulty to express something straightforwardly. they usually go around on certain topic first and finally come to the main topic. in the two news analysed above, it is obviously that female journalists apply their nature in their news writing, first, they do not come forward to the main topic, instead, they go around on certain introduction before discussing the main topic. secondly, female journalists use proper words to indicate something which is less done by the male writers for example in mentioning the colour, the jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 27-33 30 situation and also the source’s expression. it seems that female journalists described what happen in the massmedia more concrete. emotion there are some obvious differences between men and women; the way they speak, deliver their thought, and even respond things. wardhaugh (2002:314) stated that women have two x chromosomes while man has an x chromosome and y chromosome. this is a key genetic difference and no geneticist regards that difference as unimportant. so, it is normal if man and women responds things differently. it is shown when women talk to their friend, even their close friend, they will always maintain their language. she will not use any rude words to their female friends although she feels really bad about something. instead, she will find other proper words to represent her feeling. it is mostly conducted by women because they have such a soft and delicate emotion. in return, she also expects that their opponents will do the same thing to them. man, on the other hand, seems to enjoy having such a casual conversation with their friends, and in his conversation or utterance, some rude words like insults and offences are easily found. this difference may also appear in the form of writing since women have their own language this also happens in the writing process, the female journalists tend to use their feeling or emotion in delivering news. the female journalists’ writing usually longer than men’s, as holmes also stated that women’s utterances (also in their writing) contains more non-essential elements (1992:323). another important point which is influenced by the female mental state is that the female journalists tend to stress their emphatic or sympathetic feeling in their writing (holmes, 1992:314). external factors social life another thing that should be pointed out in this problem is women’s social life. what society does to the women is quite different; the society treats them like the one who always needs a protection, honour and defence. this kind of protection is caused by the nature of women which is considered weak in the society. wareing also stated that women is less confident than man and feel nervous about asserting anything to strongly (1998:78). in the society, women are placed at the second stage after man. she also has to obey and accept without complaints when some rules are set by man. and if she rejects it, the society will see her as an impolite person. since female journalists have less courage than male journalists (in terms of social life), their way of writing is also influenced by this condition. they will try hard to convince their readers by having such a long paragraph with some proofs included in their writing, however, those proofs are not quite enough since they lack essential parts and it results a kind of redundant and wordy writing. newspaper style newspaper style gives another contribution to the different writing of male and female journalists. usually each newspaper has its own characteristics which differentiate it with other newspapers. it can be in the term of physical medium such as the setting, pages, design, print, typical ‘utterances’ include memoranda, reports, manual etc., person characteristics. socioculturall, the difference can be seen in the print connoting formality and authority, speech suggesting, informality, and solidarity (fowler, 1996:59). these factors will influence how the journalists writes that the female and male journalists have to adjust their way of writing to the newspaper style. she or he stylistic analysis: gender influence … (yuliana; rica s.w. goeridno) 31 cannot merely use their ‘natural’ style (gendered-style writing), they have to cope with their newspaper style. even in the typography, each newspaper has different style. fowler (fowler, 1996:62) states that newspapers employ many different type faces on the same page to suggest variation of stress, tone and pace, some papers in a lower key use dots and dashes to break their sentences to tail the pregnant points further, he said that the formation of news events and the formation of news values, is in fact a mutual or common, a dialectical process which is influenced by the stereotypes of the journalists (fowler, 1996:94). the press writing is not constructed neutrally, in their natural structure, as it were because the news must be transmitted through some medium with its own structural feature and these structural features are already impreganted with social values which make up a potential perspective on events (fowler, 1996:25). affiliation the other aspect that influences journalists when they deal with their work is affiliation. female or male journalist usually find difficulties when they sit in front of their computers as they have to decide which affiliation they use: whether they will use male or female affiliation. if she conducts her writing in female news, it means that her writing will be constructed by the feminist consciousness-raising which is also supported with some stereotypes of feminist way of writing (mills, 1992:194). further, nair (1992: 230) stated that the feminine or ‘the name of woman’ is a kind of prelogical destabilizing of texts, a writing which subverts logic and the traditional history of binary metaphysics. however, a text or writing which is constructed in the form of feminity in particular way will be made understandable because it is reinforced by a range of other texts and discourses on feminity. without these other discourses, the text would be difficult to understand or maybe incomprehensible (mills, 1992:191). analysis to prove that women’s language is different from men’s language, the writers analyse the written language used in the local newspapers, jawa pos, surya and radar surabaya. in those local newspapers, the writer found some differences in words choosing, emphatic stress, emotion showing, empty adjectives, standard verb form, intensifiers using, precise term using, and also topic development. the writer also found that these things are mostly used more by the female writers than the male writers, especially the word choice and the stereotypes produced by the female writers. as holmes (1992:314) stated, there are several stereotypes produced by women, they are lexical hedges such as sort of, well, ‘empty’ adjectives, precise colour term, intensifiers, ‘hypercorrect’ grammar, ‘superpolite’ forms, e.g., euphemisms and also the empathic stress. these things are often shown in the female journalist writing, for example in the radar surabaya, saturday, 28 june 2003, news entitled ‘ramai-ramai pelajari balet rusia’ (learning russian ballet together), the female journalist of radar surabaya wrote emphatic stress such as ‘uniknya, tehnik vaganova style bisa dikolaborasikan….’ (uniquely, the vaganova technique style can be collaborated….) ‘sayangnya, dari segi penampilan….’(unfortunately, from the appearance of….) more often compared to the male writer of surya’s journalist (the same news), as a matter of fact, the writers do not find any emphatic stress in the surya’s male journalist. his writing told more about the technique of the russian ballet such as the amount of people who join the workshop, and the process and practice of the ballet; ‘tidak seperti workshop yang selama ini di gelar di hotel atau di gedung mewah yang menggunakan banyak kertas, mr zielinski hanya membawa kaset,’ (unlike the common workshops held at the splendid and expensive hotel and used a lot of papers, mr. zielinski only brought a cassette) and ‘peserta yang mengikuti workshop hanya berbekal celana lentur.’ (and the workshop participants only bring their tight pants). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 27-33 32 the female journalist from jawa pos also put more emphatic stress in their writing such as ‘balet memiliki banyak aturan yang harus di pegang teguh’ (ballet has so many rules that are need to be strictly followed) and also ‘gerakan yang ditampilkan zielinski memang tidak seperti balet yang sesungguhnya’. (indeed, the ballet movement performed by zeilinski does not look like the original ballet) empty adjective are also found in female journalist’s news, such as ‘…dibuat lebih santai’ (is made to be more relaxed), ‘…ballerina yang sukses’ (the successful ballerina), and also found in other news entitled pernikahan massal…(mass wedding) ‘”…bapak sudah saya anggap kakak saya” aku sutini polos’. (..”i have considered daddy as my brother,” said sutini naively. while the hypercorrect grammar and lexical hedges are also found more frequently in the female journalists writing. the female journalist in the news described the situation of the mass-marriage in such a beautiful way; ‘alunan musik yang mengiringi puji-pujian terdengar sangat merdu…’ (the sound of music that followed the praises sounded so beautiful) it is quite contrary to the male journalists which begin his writing by describing the mass-marriage in a simple way. he began his writing with..’dengan baju pengantin ala kadarnya, sutino mengenakan jas lusuh warna hitam…’. (with the simple and plain wedding gown, sutino wore black-faded jacket) it seems that the female journalist want to emphasize more her feeling (emphatic stress) in her writing that marriage deals with something beautiful, sacred and happy. it is quite contrary to the male journalist who seems more realistic; he wrote how the marriage process went on by describing the factual scene that the couples are not from the rich family, that they are wearing simple cloth since they cannot afford to buy the gown and tuxedo. another news about a family winning a car entitled “kirim 20 kupon, didoakan sang ibu’ (20 coupons sent, prayed by the mother) taken from jawa pos, friday, 10 october 2003, shows emphatic stress and intensifiers that are less used by the male journalist. he simply told his readers how this family won the lottery and what efforts that they have done. although he also applied some emphatic stress, it is not as much as the female journalist. he wrote ..benar-benar surprise dan hampir tidak percaya….(i was completely surprised and i could not believe it), in the beginning of his writing to give empathy to the family’s winning, but he did not use any other emphatic stress in this following writing. the female journalist from radar surabaya (the same news), on the other hand, showed more of her feeling by applying emphatic stress ”sungguh saya saat ini masih tidak percaya,” kata hendra dengan penuh haru ( “until now, i still cannot believe it” said hendra dengan haru) and “habis sholat subuh, saya memang masih ngantuk, lalu tidur lagi,..e..nggak tahumya mimpi itu,” kata juliana dengan expresi wajah yang gembira. (“after morning pray, i’m still sleepy and go back to sleep again…and i dreamed it,” said juliana happily.) the female journalist also uses intensifiers in this sentence “sungguh….” in her sentence to emphasis the meaning. female journalist also tends to include her feeling more to the her writing, the example is found in the news “kisah-kisah menarik dari perkawinan massal di gereja bethany” where the female journalist wrote ‘yang menarik, ‘…,’malah…’, ‘uniknya…,’ sayangnya…..’,etc,. although male journalists sometimes use these kinds of words the frequency is not as frequent as the female journalists. as a matter of fact, these differences usually appear in the news. at the beginning, their writing are quite similar but when the writers browse more deeply, these differences show up and the female journalist use them more frequently than the male journalist, as a matter of fact these are the major differences which simply differentiate their (male and female journalists) news writing. there is also a difference in the topic development. a news entitled ‘kisah-kisah menarik dari pernikahan massal di gereja bethany, ada yang diantar istri pertama’ taken from jawa pos, saturday, 28 june 2003, the female journalist of this newspaper conducted their writing by choosing the personal life of the oldest couple. she tended to explore more in their personal life such as how they meet and maintain their relationship until they get married. on the other hand, male journalist from the radar surabaya tended to focus his highlight on their profession. the news entitled ‘sutinolasmi, pengantin tertua dalam nikah massal di gereja bethany, tujuh tahun kumpul kebo, kini stylistic analysis: gender influence … (yuliana; rica s.w. goeridno) 33 berharap momongan’, stated that the oldest couple occupation is as a garbage collector. further, he explained that the marriage happened because of this profession, then, they decided to get married. conclusion the fact that the female and male journalist speaks differently also happens in their writing. from the analysis above, it is shown that the different gender does influence the journalists to write. their style and choices of words are different, the way the emphasis and see the points are also different. moreover, there are two factors that influence the journalists writing, the internal factors and the external factors. the internal factors here include the nature and the emotion while the external factors here include the social life, the newspaper style and the affiliation. even though the gender does influence the journalists they still have to adjust their writing style to the kind of newspaper companies they work for. it is because each newspaper company has their own style and image that it wants the society to recognise it. thus, the external factor is as strong as the internal factors in influencing the journalists writing. references anonymous. “ramai-ramai pelajari balet rusia,” radar surabaya, saturday 28 june 2003. _______. “sutisno – lasmi pengantin tertua dalam nikah massal di gereja bethany, tujuh tahun kumpul kebo, kini berharap momongan,” radar surabaya. davies, alan. 1999. an introduction to applied linguistics. great britain: cambridge university press. fowler, roger. 1991. language in the news. discourse and ideology in the press. england: clays ltd, st ives plc. holmes, janet. 1992. an introduction to sociolinguistics. hongkong: longman group uk limited. “kisah-kisah menarik dari pernikahan massal di gereja bethany, ada yang diantar istri pertama.” jawa pos, saturday 28 june 2003 : mills, sara. 1992. “knowing your place: a marxist feminist stylistic analysis.” language, text, and context. great britain : clays ltd, st ives plc. nair, rukmini bhaya. 1992. “gender, genre, and generative grammar.” language, text, and context. great britain: clays ltd, st ives plc. wardhaugh, ronald. 2002. an introduction to sociolinguistics. great britain: t.j international, padstow, cornwall. wareing, shan. 1998. “language and gender.” language, society, and power. an introduction. london: routledge. widdowson, h.g. 1975. stylistics and the teaching of literature. united kingdom: longman. microsoft word 10_zhang bin_confusius.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 176-181 176 浅谈孔子学院的建立与初步发展 the establishment and development of confusius institute 张斌 内容摘要 孔子学院目前已在全球范围广泛建立,这是树立中国文化品牌和汉语国际推广的有力举措, 是国际上“汉语热”的必然结果。孔子学院采取灵活多样的办学方式,传播了中华文明,促进 了中外文化交流,加速了海外华文教育发展,展示了东方大国的风采,让世人更加了解中国、 接近中国,具有十分深远的意义。 关键词: 孔子学院, 对外汉语教学, 海外华文教育 abstract confucius institute has been established in the global range. this is a brand of chinese culture initiatives, as well as the inevitable result of the international "chinese craze" and also the strong support for the international promotion of the chinese .confucius institute for teaching chinese as a foreign language to the main teaching content, adopts a flexible and diverse school running management. though this initiative there will be a wide-spread chinese civilization, the promotion of cultural exchanges between china and foreign countries and finally will display the style and image of the orient big country. this is very significant as to accelerate the development of overseas chinese education and also lets the world know more about china in order to be closer to china which will be a far-reaching significance. keywords: confucius institute, teaching chinese as a foreign language, overseas chinese education the establishment and development … (zhang bin) 177 一, 孔子学院的建立的意义 2007 年 12 月 11 日,第二届孔子学院大会在中国首都北京举行。来自世界 64 个国家和地区 的 210 所孔子学院的代表相聚北京,参加了中国国家汉语国际推广领导小组办公室(简称“汉 办”)主办的世界孔子学院大会,共同为孔子学院的建设与发展献计献策。国务委员陈至立出席 大会并作了题为《共同办好孔子学院,搭建增进友谊和了解的桥梁》的主旨演讲,她说,语言 作为人类相互交流的工具和载体,在加强各国之间的学习和借鉴中发挥着愈来愈重要的作用。 孔子学院从 2004 年开始举办以来,如雨后春笋般快速发展,充满生机活力。在孔子学院建设中 我们坚持双方自愿,相互尊重,平等互利的原则,以汉语教学为重点,注重教师和教材建设, 保证办学质量,积累了很多宝贵经验。合作双方保证投入,建章立制,加强管理,促进了孔子 学院的规范化管理和可持续发展。陈至立表示,中国政府和人民将对孔子学院予以长期支持。 她希望中外双方相互尊重、精诚合作、携手共进,努力办好孔子学院,搭建增进友谊和了解的 桥梁,为建设一个持久和平、共同繁荣的和谐世界做出更大贡献 (http://www.hanban.org/cn_hanban/content.php?id=2947)。 孔子学院借鉴德国、英国、法国等国家有关文化机构推广本民族语言文化的成功经验,秉 承孔子大力弘扬的“和为贵”的理念,通过海外教授汉语和传播中国文化,推动中外文化的进 一步交流与融合。孔子学院的建院宗旨是为增进世界人民对中国语言文化的了解,发展中国与 各国的友好关系,为全世界汉语学习者提供方便、优良的学习条件。教育部部长周济指出:“孔 子学院已经获得国际社会广泛认可,不仅将它作为学习汉语的场所,而且把它作为近距离了解 当代中国信息的窗口,作为与中国进行教育、文化、经济、贸易等交流合作的平台。” 舆论认 为:各国孔子学院的建立,不仅仅是简单的教育问题,更是中国和平崛起的宣言书,而且也是 孔子“四海之内皆兄弟”、“和而不同”以及“君子以文会友,以友辅仁”思想的现实体现,是 他的理想在现代社会中伟大实践 (国际人才交流,2006 年 10 期). 孔子不但是中国古代儒家思想的奠基人和典型代表,更是中国传统文化的象征,孔子在中 国乃至世界范围内都有着广阔的知名度和深远的影响力,以至西方世界提及中国思想家以及中 国文化必提“孔孟”,选择孔子作为海外汉语教学的品牌是中国传统文化当代世界复兴的标志。 由于语言的内涵是文化,文化又需要语言作为载体,所以两者的关系就十分密切,不可分割; 而且学院冠以“孔子”二字,孔子所代表的儒家文化又是中华文化的内核,所以孔子学院就有 着双重意义:对外推广汉语语言文字是表象化的一个层面;通过汉语语言文字的传播让世人更 加直观地了解中国的传统文化则是另一个层面。 纵观现在在世界各国 具影响力的英国文化协会、法国语言联盟、德国歌德学院,都是在 不同的历史时期兴起的欧洲文化机构,先是以教授语言作为初步起点,进而通过语言,弘扬了 自己的文化。因此,中国要想将自己的文化在世界范围推而广之,使世界更了解中国,更熟悉 中国进而更喜爱中国,就必然也要有自己的文化机构,孔子学院在这个特定的时代里便肩负起 了这种特殊的使命。 2004 年 11 月 21 日,全球第一家孔子学院在韩国首都首尔正式挂牌成立,自此,孔子学 院如雨后春笋般在全球范围普遍建立。2005 年 6 月,美国马里兰大学同意建立马里兰孔子学院。 同月,在瑞典首都斯德哥尔摩建立孔子学院一事也达成协议。此事仅隔一天,东非的肯尼亚也 批准了在内罗毕大学设置孔子学院的决定,不久,非洲大陆就出现了第一所孔子学院。英国、 泰国等诸多国家紧随其后。2007 年 1 月 31 日,中国国务院总理温家宝与来访的葡萄牙总理若 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 176-181 178 泽·苏格拉底在北京人民大会堂共同出席了里斯本大学孔子学院合作协议签字仪式。孔子学院 以星火燎原之势在全世界范围内迅速地铺开了。迄今为止,中国政府计划建立百座“孔子学院” 的设想已经圆满实现,并且已经超额完成任务,据统计,截止到 2007 年年底,我国在海外设立 的孔子学院已达到 210 所,除此之外,国外还有大学、政府机构、社会团体向汉办提出开办孔 子学院的 200 多份书面申请,以此预计,今年孔子学院的数量还将大规模地增加。 国外媒体纷纷发表社论和评论员文章,连篇累牍地对孔子学院进行了全方位、多角度的报导和 介绍。日本《读卖新闻》6 月 22 日的报道宣称:“孔子学院受到热烈追捧,发展速度之快超出 预前想象”。《纽约时报》2006 年 1 月 11 日在显著位置刊登了题为《中国的又一热门出口品: 汉语》的评论,引用专家的话说:“中国当局正在利用汉语文化来创建一个更加温暖和更加积极 的中国形象。”《华尔街日报》2006 年 9 月 1 日发表的《汉语推广热全球》一文指出,“中国政 府的汉语推广战略的高明之处在于:推广教育和语言有助于加深外部世界对国家的了解,是扩 大一国影响力的 有效途径。战舰能让别国人民暂时臣服,而让他们理解你的语言却能使大家 成为朋友。这个主意的确很高明!” (《瞭望》,2007 年 3 月 12 日,第 11 期,宗焕平,《孔子学院的独特影 响力》) 。 以语言为载体的文化是软实力的 典型代表,文化带来的影响力悄无声息但却能发挥长久 效力,其给人带来的影响潜移默化但又让人心悦诚服,其软性力量足以让人们打破因社会制度 不同而形成的隔阂,足以消弭人们之间因政治立场相异而产生的误会,文化能使国籍不同,信 仰不同,乃至社会环境和意识形态不同的人们聚拢起来,彼此之间畅快交流,互相学习,共同 进步,汉文化的积极推广便为此提供了成功的范例,汉语和汉语代表的汉文化在海外得到了普 遍接受和认可,此举促进了中国和世界之间的沟通,帮助世界增进了对汉文化进而对整个中国 的理解。中国文化部部长孙家正曾经把文化比作“水”,文化因其特质似水,柔而有力,因此能 渗透人心,文化的交流是人类心灵的交流,是情感的沟通,作为一种软实力,具有其他交流不 能替代的作用 (《中国石油大学学报(社会科学版) 》,2007 年 2 月,第 1 期,陈强,郑贵兰《从 “中国年”到“孔子学院”——文化传播与国家形象的柔性塑造》)。 在全球一体化的国际大趋势下,怎样才能增强中国的软实力,使中国以更加良好的姿态屹 立于世界民族之林,显然已经成为每一个炎黄子孙眼下义不容辞的责任!在这个机遇与挑战共 存,合作与自强并重的时代里,旨在教授中华语言,传播中华文明,弘扬中华文化,让世界了 解中国,让中国走向世界的孔子学院应运而生。孔子学院以其前所未有的开创精神,兼容并蓄 的办学理念,海纳百川的宏伟气魄,赢得了世界的欢迎与尊重。这三年当中,孔子学院开展的 活动颇受世人瞩目,世界人民通过孔子学院看到了一个软实力正在增强的中国,一个和平崛起 的中国,一个愿意与世界人民互助合作的中国。 二, 孔子学院普遍建立的原因 孔子学院得以在全球范围普遍建立,原因有很多:中国在国际关系中的地位举足轻重,中 国在世界的影响日益扩大,在建立国际政治经济新秩序中的作用越发显著,在国际经济贸易合 作中的位置无可动摇,在推动国与国之间平等对话、维护发展中国家的国家利益以及无偿解除 国际性贫困、维护世界和平、促进各国可持续发展等方面都展现了一个负责任大国应当具有的 形象,这些都成为了孔子学院计划能在世界五大洲同时得以顺利开展的推动力。 the establishment and development … (zhang bin) 179 中国综合国力的逐年提高与经济大踏步地向前发展更是赢得了世界的瞩目与尊重,自改革 开放以来,中国的 gdp 以高于 8%的年平均增长率持续增长,截止到 2007 年,中国经济规模已 经超过德国,仅排在美国和日本之后,位列世界第三位,正如复旦大学校长王生洪所说:“国富 民强,国强语盛”,以对外汉语教学为主要内容的孔子学院自然拓展了活动空间,得到了更多的 欢迎。当然,北京获得了 2008 年奥运会的举办权,2010 年,世博会将在上海举行,这些历史 性事件无疑将促进国际汉语热潮,进而推动孔子学院的进一步建立。 与孔子学院相关的是海外华文教育的发展,海外华文教育的不断发展,为孔子学院的纷纷落户 提供了必要的人文支持,为孔子学院能被国外广泛接受铺平了道路。同时,孔子学院本身又是 汉语国际推广的主要机构,它的广泛建立又进一步促进了海外华文教育的进一步发展,二者是 相辅相成,互为表里的。这种现象在华文教育发展 为充分的东南亚表现得 为明显。中国抗 日战争胜利以后,中国的综合国力不断提高,国际地位逐步攀升,国际影响力日益显著,东南 亚华人华侨的民族自豪感大大增强。各地华人社会都积极恢复原有的华文学校,并创建了许多 新的华校。越南华人华侨的兴学之风在这个时期步入了鼎盛时期。在印度尼西亚,无论是荷兰 殖民者统治下的所谓联邦区,还是印度尼西亚共和国区,华文教育都迅速获得了恢复和发展。 1946 年,印度支那各国复办和新办的华文学校共计 228 所。同年 8 月,泰国注册的华文学校有 426 所,学生达 6 万多名。根据 1947 年的统计,菲律宾共有各类华文学校 149 所。到 1949 年, 新加坡的华文学校有 349 所,学生 73500 名。印度尼西亚联邦区共有 816 所华文学校,包括 43 所中学,华文小学学生共计 165315 名,中学生为 14292 名。印度尼西亚共和国区的华文学校有 92 所,学生约 5.5 万名。同年,马来西亚各地的华文学校共有 1680 所,学生有 25.4 万余名; 此外,还有华文夜校及其他形式的学校若干所 (陈国华,《先驱者的脚印——海外教育三百年》 转引梁英明,《战后东南亚华文教育发展趋势与困境阴》 《华侨华人历史研究》,1996 年 3 月 )。 经过半个多世纪的发展与壮大,东南亚华文教育已经形成规模化、效能化和专业化。华文学校 的大量建立,为孔子学院在东南亚得以普遍接受奠定了基础,目前,仅在泰国一国就已经建成 了 13 所孔子学院,还有大量的孔子学堂,东南亚已经成为世界上建立孔子学院 多的地区。 三, 孔子学院的办学形式 世界各国的孔子学院在严格遵守国家汉办管理规章的前提下,为了满足各种汉语学习的要 求,采取了灵活多样的办学方式和合作模式:既有不同层次的孔子学院、孔子学校,也有孔子学 堂、汉语中心。既有授权特许经营、直接经营方式,也有主要由外方负责,实行理事会制度和 院长负责制,中外双方共同管理的模式。孔子学院没有机械地照搬德国歌德学院等政府与政府 的单一合作模式,而是别具一格,灵活多样:一是和大学、中学等教育机构合作,如荷兰莱顿 大学孔子学院、韩国又松大学孔子学院;二是和企业合作,如清华大学与汇丰银行、伦敦经济 学院等公司和院校合办孔子学院,三是与政府或社团合作,如纽约华美协进社孔子学院、与芝 加哥公立教育局合办的芝加哥孔子学院等。 孔子学院所用的教材,有的是国内现有的对外汉语教学通用读本,如高等教育出版社 2006 年出版的《体验汉语》,再如李晓琪编写,人民教育出版社出版的《快乐汉语》等;有的是各学 院结合各地实际情况,自己着手编写,为当地人量身定做的教材,这样的教材自然用起来得心 应手,备受当地汉语学习者的欢迎。在非英语国家,来自中国的汉语教师还请本土汉语教师用 当地母语标注现成教材,授课时将翻译好的教材展示给学生,这样的做法使那些没有英语基础 的学生都能准确地掌握汉语的意思,减少了师生之间因语言障碍而可能出现的麻烦,大大地提 高了教学效率,事半功倍。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 176-181 180 四, 孔子学院的活动 2006 年底对 40 所孔子学院的抽样调查显示,尽管其中多数运行时间不到半年,但运作良 好,成绩斐然,已经开设了 300 多门汉语课程,培训人数逾万人。同时,还举办了各种文化研 讨、经贸讲座、演出、展览等诸多活动,参与人数逾二十万。以下是在东亚和东南亚几所孔子 学院活动开展的简要介绍: 日本爱知大学孔子学院设置了不同时段、不同难度、面向不同群体的讲座课程,2006 年共 开设讲座 79 个,培训学员 1340 多人,成为全球培训学员人数 多的孔子学院。北陆大学孔子 学院除了负责本校 3000 多名学生的汉语必修课教学外,还辐射本地区的中小学,向石川县内高 中派遣中文教师,帮助开设汉语课程。 韩国忠北大学孔子学院是中国政府在韩国设立的高校之间合作承办的第一所孔子学院,忠北大 学孔子学院自从 2006 年 12 月 18 日开学以来,已经成功地开办了 9 个教学班,社会评价良好, 期间大约有 200 多名学生参加了学院组织的正式学习,生源构成主要是韩国各类学校的教师和 学生以及涉及中韩文化交流的行政机构、旅游部门等企事业单位的工作人员 (《汉语学习》,2007 年 1 期,李艳军,《韩国忠北大学孔子学院成立》)。 目前,该孔子学院的日常工作已经步入正轨, 各项活动都能够顺利高效地开展,其影响力日渐扩大。随着忠北大学孔子学院宣传和教学工作 有条不紊地逐步展开,韩国国内关注汉语和中国文化的普通市民日趋增多,市民学习汉语的热情 空前高涨,报名来院学习汉语和中国文化的人与日俱增。从 2007 年年初开始,忠北大学孔子学 院在扩大汉语教学规模的基础上,逐渐将学院的其他项目做大做广,汉语夏令营,文化推介乃 至学术研讨会等与汉语学习有关的其他活动也已经拉开帷幕,随着孔子学院落户忠北大学,汉 语学习和汉学传播必将在韩国迎来一个新的高峰。 笔者所在的泰国皇太后大学孔子学院座落于泰北边陲清莱的皇太后大学,是厦门大学与皇 太后大学合办的孔子学院,是泰国现有的十三所孔子学院中建院较早的孔子学院之一,时任中 国驻泰国大使的张九桓在学院成立时曾亲自为该院揭牌。皇太后大学孔子学院采取积极走出去 的办法,主动与周边学校,团体,社会力量办学机构加强合作,现在已取得显著成果,在 2007 年 6 月,已派出志愿者到清莱郊区的万佛慈恩寺中学进行中文授课,此举不但传播了基础汉语, 也在中泰文化之间(中国的儒学与泰国的佛教)找到了很好的契合点,汉语教师志愿者的辛勤 工作得到了学生们的广泛认可,泰方主动要求将每周授课时数由以前的一次上调到三次,尽管 由于志愿者时间有限难以达到泰方的要求,但 终还是增加了一次达到每周两次共 6 学时的授 课时数,孔子学院受到的欢迎由此可见一斑。现在,该项课程已被誉为孔子学院受欢迎课程。 汉语教师志愿者们的无私奉献得到了普遍好评,为日后双方的进一步合作和孔子学院在清莱的 进一步发展奠定了坚实的基础。皇太后大学孔子学院还利用假期的时间积极走出去,将每年的 冬令营和夏令营作为常规项目举办下去,在露营时,志愿者们采取上午讲授基础汉语,加强日 常口语,下午举办中国结、剪纸,太极拳、放映中国电影、教唱中国歌曲等中国文化培训的形 式组织活动,寓教于乐,成绩显著。皇太后大学孔子学院还主动承办了多次演讲比赛,作文比 赛,选派教师、志愿者作为大赛的组委和评委,得到了多方的支持与肯定。孔子学院还在端午 节、中秋节等中国传统节日来临之际,举办了多次丰富多彩的文艺晚会,来自厦门大学的志愿 者老师、中国留学生和泰国学生一起,表演了许多人们喜闻乐见的节目,不但有歌曲、舞蹈, 还有小品、绕口令等曲艺类节目,笔者还将中国的国粹京剧展现在了异国观众面前,文艺晚会 的上演,不但促进了师生之间的交流,增进了感情,更加起到了弘扬中华文化,传播中华文明 的作用,几次晚会的举办得到了皇太后大学师生的交口称赞。皇太后大学孔子学院中方院长黄 the establishment and development … (zhang bin) 181 建军表示,孔子学院一方面与皇太后大学中文系合作,为中文系及其他选修中文的外系学生讲 授中文,另一方面,利用培训,露营,hsk 考前辅导等各项活动,将汉语积极推向当地社会, 使尽可能多的人能接触汉语,进而喜欢汉语,学习汉语,为我国的文化传播贡献自己的绵薄之 力。我们的志愿者既是大学讲堂里的任课老师,又是中华文明的宣传员,肩负着多项重要的使 命。 五, 结语 世界性的“汉语热”迅猛升温催生了孔子学院,孔子学院的快速发展又促进了全球的“汉 语热”,已经成为中国文化的重要品牌。受此影响,日本、韩国、印度等国家纷纷效仿,日本前 首相安倍晋三不久前宣布,计划在本土之外建 100 所日语中心,韩国文化观光部提出要建 100 所传播韩语的“世宗学院”,印度则提出要大力发展“甘地学院”。本国语言的海外输出已然是 大势所趋,因此,中国人更应该抓住机遇,在保证质量的前提下,加快孔子学院建设步伐。我 们也清楚地认识到,这仅仅是一个开始,后面还有很长的路要走。我们将在已有经验的基础之 上,积极探索,强化优势,努力把遍地开花的孔子学院办得越来越好,为国家汉语国际推广工 作贡献力量,进而让世界人民更加全面,更加深刻地了解五千年华夏灿烂文明贡献力量。 (作者简介 张斌 (泰国清莱皇太后大学教授汉语和中国文化课) korelasi penguasaan kosa kata analisis metode belajar kosa kata robihim japanese department, faculty of language and culture, sekolah tinggi bahasa asing jia, jl. cut muthia raya no.30 bekasi, robi_donald@yahoo.com abstract many jobs fields needed foreign language skills, such as japanese. to comprehend the japanese text, people must understand japanese characters like hiragana, katakana, and kanji because three of them were always used in japanese text. learning hiragana and katakana usually were taught in elementary level then secondary and high levels have more kanji usages. learning japanese kanji meant learning vocabulary too. but, learning kanji had to be continuos and routine, because kanji had more than one meanings. kanji did not only one meaning. so, we should know the meaning of the interrelated other kanji writing. to make easy in reading to read japanese texts, certainly we should know kanji characters and the meanings. keywords: learning method, vocabulary, kanji abstrak banyak pekerjaan memerlukan keterampilan bahasa asing, seperti bahasa jepang. untuk memahaminya diperlukan pengetahuan karakter huruf katakana, hiragana, dan kanji karena ketiga jenis huruf tersebut diperlukan untuk memahami bahasa jepang. biasanya, katakana dan hiragana diajarkan pada kelas dasar sedangkan kanji baru diajarkan pada tingkat yang lebih tinggi karena belajar kanji berarti belajar kosa kata dalam bahasa jepang. tiap lambang kanji memiliki lebih dari satu makna dan menyesuaikan dengan lambang yang ada di sekitarnya. meski sulit, untuk menguasai bahasa jepang kita harus hafal lambang yang ada dalam kanji. kata kunci: metode pembelajaran, kosa kata, kanji jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 188 mailto:robi_donald@yahoo.com pendahuluan kosa kata merupakan salah satu komponen yang signifikan dalam berbahasa. tanpa menguasai kosa kata, seseorang tidak akan dapat berbahasa dengan baik, baik dalam berbahasa lisan maupun tulisan. berbahasa secara lisan yaitu pembicaraan atau percakapan dengan mengeluarkan bunyi bahasa dari mulut yang memiliki arti dan maksud yang dapat dimengerti oleh orang lain, seperti percakapan langsung, di telepon, drama, film, dan lain-lain. sedangkan bahasa secara tulis dapat terjadi dalam berbagai bentuk tulisan seperti dalam surat, fax, email, memo, brosur, koran, majalah, dan sebagainya. bahasa tulisan terjadi karena adanya kesengajaan dari penulis untuk menyampaikan maksud dan tujuan yang ingin disampaikan secara tertulis agar diketahui oleh orang lain, selanjutnya untuk memahami pesan atau isi dari bahasa tulisan ini, lawan bicara dalam hal ini adalah pembaca dituntut untuk mengerti bahasa yang digunakan dalam tulisan tersebut. selanjutnya, untuk dapat memahami suatu bahasa tidak akan terlepas dari penguasaan kosakata. seberapa banyak kosakata yang dikuasai seseorang, akan menentukan seberapa besar pemahamannya terhadap bahasa tulis tersebut. adapun di dalam bahasa tertulis akan selalu terkait dengan kegiatan membaca. ketika seseorang membaca, jumlah kosa kata yang dikuasainya akan menentukan mengerti atau tidaknya isi dari tulisan yang disampaikan oleh penulis. selanjutnya, agar mempunyai kemampuan membaca yang baik, penguasaan kosa kata merupakan hal yang esensial. seandainya kosa kata yang dikuasai kurang, akan banyak kesulitan memahami isi dan pesan dalam tulisan tersebut. pada akhirnya proses kinerja dan tujuan penulis pada pembaca menjadi terhambat. chambers (2001 : 372) berpendapat, ”vocabulary is (1) words in general, (2) words known and use by person, (3) a list of words in alphabetical other with their meanings.” di samping penjelasan tersebut, berikut pengertian lain dari kosa kata. (1) a listing of the words used in some enterprise (wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn) (2) a language user knowledge of words (wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn) (3) the system of techniques or symbolsserving as a means of expression (wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn) (4) a vocabulary is a set of words known to a person or other entity or that are part of a specifc language (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vocabulary) (5) a set of words, terms, codes, used by language, group or work or in a field of knowledge (threeseas.net/vic/html/vic-definitions.html) (6) all the word of a language (nde.state.ne.us/read/framework/glossary/ general u-z.html) selanjutnya, dapat disimpulkan bahwa arti kosakata adalah sistem, simbol, kelompok pengetahuan dan bahasa yang memiliki makna dalam ekspresi, spesifikasi bahasa, pengetahuan, dan satuan bahasa yang terkecil. dalam bahasa jepang kemampuan membaca suatu teks atau wacana tulisan bukan hanya ditentukan dengan sejumlah penguasaan kosa kata, akan tetapi kemampuan membaca tiga jenis karakter huruf jepang yang menjadi ciri khas dalam bahasa tertulis jepang, yaitu hiragana, katakana, dan kanji. hiragana dan katakana (kana) adalah ragam bentuk huruf dalam tulisan bahasa jepang yang umumnya pada tingkat dasar. selanjutnya pada tingkat menengah dan tinggi, semakin banyak karakter huruf kanji. karakter huruf kanji ini dapat memiliki lebih dari satu arti kosa kata atau menjadi kosa kata baru, seperti kanji 「水」”mizu” (air) dan kanji「水泳」”suiei” (renang), dan lain-lain. oleh karena itu, dalam teks bahasa jepang seorang pembaca tidak hanya memerlukan penguasaan makna kosa kata tertentu dengan cukup, tetapi juga mampu membaca tiga karakter huruf, yaitu hiragana, katakana dan kanji. analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 189 pembahasan strategi penguasaan kosa kata/kanji melalui “card method” memahami suatu kosa kata syarat mutlak ketika seseorang akan melakukan aktivitas berbahasa. cara mudah dalam menguasai kosa kata, pora (2003:4-5) mengusulkan “card method” sebagai suatu metode untuk memiliki kekayaan kosa kata dan sulit dilupakan, yaitu sebagai berikut. a. tulislah setiap kata atau frase yang tidak diketahui artinya menggunakan kartu berukuran 8 x 6 cm b. tulislah arti kosa kata di belakang kartu dan letakkan gambar yang cocok dengannya c. mainkan sekitar 20 kartu dan ikutilah tahapan berikut ini. sore hari ambil kartu, pelajari beberapa menit, kemudian cobalah mengingat kembali arti kosa kata tersebut dengan mengucapkannya dengan keras kocok kartu, ambil secara acak, tes kemampuan mengingat kita test mengingat untuk 20 kartu tes ulang ke dua puluh kartu itu di pagi hari, dan ulangi lagi apabila cara pora tersebut digunakan dalam mempelajari kosa kata bahasa jepang yang terbentuk dengan huruf kanji maka dapat dilakukan langkah berikut. a. tulislah huruf kanji pada bidang kartu bagian dengan ukuran cukup besar. contoh : jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 190 b. tempatkan sebuah gambar dari arti kanji tersebut di bawah atau di sebelahnya dalam ukuran yang lebih kecil c. tulis kembali kanji yang sama di belakang kartu tersebut dengan makna dan penjelasannya d. selanjutnya ikutilah langkah-langkah menghapal kosa kata yang dianjurkan pora seperti pada poin c di atas. selanjutnya karena “card method” atau metode kartu merupakan metode yang menggunakan media kartu sebagai bentuk latihan peguasaan kosa kata/kanji sehari-hari, maka kartu dapat dijadikan alat utama tahap-tahap proses pembelajaran untuk kosa kata/kanji. adapun untuk ukuran kartu dapat disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan latihan dan situasinya. oleh karena media kartu ini cukup fleksibel, kosa kata/kanji yang belum dikuasai atau susah diingat dapat disiapkan sebelumnya dengan cara menempatkan satu kosa kata/kanji, dua kosa kata/kanji sampai dengan tiga kosa kata/kanji dengan ukuran tulisan yang lebih besar dan rapi, kemudian pada bagian belakang ditulis arti dan penjelasannya dengan huruf yang lebih kecil. hal ini dimaksudkan mempermudah pembelajar menghafal kosa kata atau kanji, selain itu pembelajar akan menghafal kosa kata/kanji dalam jumlah cukup banyak dalam satu waktu. jika 1 buah kartu berjumlah 1 kosa kata/kanji, maka kosa kata/kanji yang diingat adalah 1 x 1 menjadi 1 kosa kata/kanji, sedangkan bila dalam 1 buah kartu disiapkan 2 kosa kata/kanji, maka kosa kata/kanji yang akan diingat 1 x 2 menjadi 2 kosa kata/kanji. jika kita asumsikan kartu berjumlah 20 buah dengan 1 kartu berisi 1 kosa kata/kanji, maka dalam 20 kartu hanya akan berisi 20 kosa kata/kanji, jadi kosa kata/kanji yang akan diingat hanya berjumlah 20 buah. jika asumsi 20 kartu dengan setiap kartu berisi 2 kosa kata/kanji, maka jumlah kosa kata/kanji menjadi 20 x 2 menjadi 40 kosa kata/kanji yang akan diingat oleh pembelajar dalam waktu yang sama. kemudian penulisan arti dan penjelasan kosakata/kanji di bagian belakang kartu dengan ukuran lebih kecil dimaksudkan agar pembelajar tidak sering melihat arti dan penjelasan kosa kata/kanji tersebut, tetapi berusaha mengingat arti dan makna kosa kata/kanji yang ada di kartu bagian depan. dalam hal ini, pembelajar secara tidak langsung dikondisikan pada situasi dengan satu fokus dan hanya akan melihat makna di bagian belakang kartu pada situasi benar-benar terpaksa atau lupa. adapun penguasaan kosa kata yang berjumlah 3 buah dalam satu kartu, ada tiga tahap yang harus dilakukan, antara lain. 1. tahap pertama, yaitu tahap permulaan latihan penguasaan kosa kata/kanji. pada tahap ini hanya boleh ditulis satu kosa kata/kanji, dengan penjelasan kosa kata/kanji di bagian belakang kartu. kemudian, kartu hanya dapat digunakan dalam jumlah waktu tertentu dan sebelumnya sudah ditetapkan oleh pembelajar sendiri, sedapat mungkin penyediaan waktu untuk penguasaan satu kosa kata/kanji dalam satu kartu ini lebih singkat, karena masih harus memasuki tahap berikutnya. tahap ini dapat pula disebut tahap persiapan, karena melatih penguasaan kosa kata/kanji dalam waktu yang sudah ditentukan sebelumnya, pembelajar hanya dituntut sampai pada tahap afektif. contoh kartu dengan 1 kosa kata/kanji analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 191 2. tahap kedua, yaitu tahap latihan dengan menambahkan satu kosa kata tambahan pada satu kartu. pada satu kartu jumlah kosa kata menjadi 2 buah kosa kata, yang terdiri atas kosa kata yang sudah dilatih sebelumnya dalam waktu singkat ditambah dengan kosa kata baru. adapun kosa kata sebelumnya yang dimasukkan kembali dalam kartu bertujuan agar pembelajar mengingat kembali kosa kata sebelumnya, sehingga penguasaannya sampai pada tahap kognitif, yaitu memahami dan mengingat arti dan penjelasan kosa kata tersebut. tahap ini dapat pula disebut tahap lanjutan, yaitu kembali melatih kosa kata sebelumnya (kosa kata yang sudah dipelajari) dan melatih kosa kata baru. dengan jumlah waktu yang sama dengan tahap pertama, maka dalam satu waktu dilatih 2 kosa kata yang sama. tahap ini pembelajar dituntut sampai pada tahap afektif dan kognitif. contoh kartu dengan dua kosa kata/kanji 3. tahap ketiga, yaitu tahap akhir, pembelajar melakukan review kosa kata yang sudah dilatihnya. pada tahap ini pembelajar mencampurkan kosa kata yang sudah dipelajari tersebut menjadi berjumlah 3 kosa kata/kanji dalam satu kartu, yang terdiri dari pencampuran kosa kata pada tahap pertama dengan kosa kata tahap pertama, percampuran kosa kata pada tahap kedua dengan kosa kata pada tahap kedua, dan pencampuran kosa kata pada tahap pertama dengan kosa kata tahap kedua. yang dimaksud dengan kosa kata tahap pertama adalah kosa kata baru yang dilatih di tahap pertama, sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan kosa kata tahap kedua adalah kosa kata baru sebagai kosa kata tambahan yang dimasukkan pada kartu ditahap kedua dan dilatih di tahap kedua. dengan jumlah waktu yang sama dengan tahap sebelumnya, pembelajar kembali melatih sebanyak 3 kosa kata dari kosa kata yang sudah dilatih sebelumnya, yaitu tahap pertama dan tahap kedua tanpa ada tambahan kosa kata baru. latihan dalam tahap ini menekankan pada latihan praktis atau pemantapan dengan terus review kosa kata yang sudah ingat, baru ingat sehingga menjadi lebih hafal dan paham, sehingga tahap ini disebut tahap review‘pengulangan’. pada tahap ini pembelajar dituntut sampai pada tahap kognitif dan psikomotor. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 192 contoh kartu dengan 3 kosa kata/kanji campuran bagian depan kartu dengan 3 kosa kata/kanji campuran a. kartu dengan kanji tahap pertama, kedua,dan tahap pertama lainnya 漢字-1 漢字-2 漢字―3 b. kartu dengan kanji tahap pertama, tahap kedua, dan tahap kedua lainnya 漢字-1 漢字-2 漢字―3 c. kartu dengan kanji tahap pertama, tahap pertama lainnya ke-1 dan tahap pertama lainnya ke-2 漢字-1 漢字-2 漢字―3 d. kartu dengan kanji tahap kedua, tahap kedua lainnya ke-1 dan tahap kedua lainnya ke-2 漢字-1 漢字-2 漢字―3 kanji tahap kedua kanji tahap kedua kanji tahap pertama lainnya-1 kanji tahap kedua lainnya-1 kanji tahap pertama kanji tahap pertama lainnya kanji tahap pertama kanji tahap kedua lainnya kanji tahap pertama lainnya-2 kanji tahap pertama kanji tahap kedua kanji tahap kedua lainnya-2 analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 193 bagian belakang kartu dengan 3 kosa kata/kanji 漢字―1 漢字―2 漢字―3 意味:___ 意味:___ 意味:___ 説明:___ 説明:___ 説明:___ strategi penguasaan kosa kata/kanji melalui metode lain selain melalui “card method”, adapula strategi lain yang dapat digunakan untuk mempercepat penguasaan kosa kata bahasa jepang. strategi tersebut merupakan petunjuk praktis dalam penguasaan kosa kata. strategi tersebut adalah sebagai berikut. • metode ‘hubungkan’ metode ini adalah metode hubungan kalimat satu dengan kalimat lain dalam satu atau beberapa paragraf dalam beberapa kalimat terdapat kosa kata atau ungkapan yang sama dan muncul secara berulang-ulang. metode ini digunakan agar lebih mudah menghafal kosa kata berdasarkan sebuah tema. adapun contoh dalam teks atau paragraf adalah berikut. 「�� 好きな色は人によって違います。②好きな色でその人の性格が分かるという 人もいます。③でも、明るい色より暗い色のほうが好きな人は性格も暗いでしょうか。 ④色と性格が関係があるかどうか分かりませんが、色とその色からイメージするもの関 係があるかもしれません。」(new approach japanese intermediate course, 2002 : 2) pada teks di atas tejadi pengulangan beberapa kosa kata, antara lain sebagi berikut. (1) 好き’suki’ : suka, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak dua kali, yaitu pada kalimat ① sebanyak satu kali pada kalimat 好きな色は人によって違います dan ② sebanyak satu kali pada kalimat 好きな色でその人の性格が分かるという人もいます (2) 色 ‘iro’ : warna, terjadi sebanyak tujuh kali pada kalimat ① sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 好きな 色は人によって違います, ② sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 好きな色でその人の性格が分か るという人もいます, ③ sebanyak dua kali, yaitu 明るい色より暗い色のほうが好きな 人は性格も暗いでしょうか, ④ sebanyak tiga kali, yaitu 色と性格が関係があるかどう か分かりませんが、色とその色からイメージするもの関係があるかもしれません (3) 人‘hito’: orang, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak empat kali, yaitu ada pada kalimat ① sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 好きな色は人によって違います, ② sebanyak dua kali, yaitu好きな色でそ の人の性格が分かるという人もいます,dan ③ sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 明るい色より 暗い色のほうが好きな人は性格も暗いでしょうか jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 194 (4) 性格 ‘seikaku’ : karakter, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak tiga kali, yaitu pada kalimat ② sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 好きな色でその人の 性格 が分かるという人もいます, ③ sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 明るい色より暗い色のほうが好きな人は性格も暗いでしょう か, ④ sebanyak satu kali yaitu pada kalimat色と性格が関係があるかどうか分かりません が、色とその色からイメージするもの関係があるかもしれません (5) 分かる ‘wakaru’: mengerti, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak dua kali, yaitu pada kalimat ② sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 好きな色でその人の性格が分かるという人もいます、dan ④ sebanyak satu kali, yaitu 色と性格が関係があるかどうか分かりませんが、色とその色 からイメージするもの関係があるかもしれません (6) 暗い ‘kurai’: gelap, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak dua kali, yaitu pada kalimat ② sebanyak dua kali, yaitu 明るい色より暗い色のほうが好きな人は性格も暗いでしょうか (7) 関係 ‘kankei’: hubungan, terjadi pengulangan sebanyak dua kali, yaitu pada kalimat ④ sebanyak dua kali, yaitu色と性格が関係があるかどうか分かりませんが、色とその色か らイメージするもの関係があるかもしれません. • metode ‘tulis’ metode ‘tulis’, yaitu menuliskan kosa kata baru yang terdapat dalam suatu kalimat atau cerita, kemudian membuat daftar kosa kata baru dan mengurutkan kalimat yang mengandung kosa kata tersebut dalam suatu daftar atau menandai kalimat yang mengandung kosa kata yang sama dengan cara memberi garis bawah atau tanda lainnya. selanjutnya, menuliskan kalimat-kalimat dengan menggunakan perbendaharaan kosa kata baru 「新しい言葉」tersebut atau buatlah cerita-cerita dengan sekelompok kata tertentu, seperti pada contoh teks lagu berikut ini. 遠くへ行きたい 知らない町を 歩いてみたい どこか遠くへ 行きたい (繰り返し) 知らない町を ながめていたい どこか遠くへ 行きたい 遠い町 遠い海 夢はるか 一人旅 愛する人と めぐりあいたい どこか遠くへ 行きたい 愛し合い 信じあい いつの日か幸せを 愛する人と めぐりあいたい どこか遠くへ 行きたい analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 195 pada judul lagu 遠くへ行きたい, terjadi pengulangan kalimat dengan penambahan kosa kata ど こか pada bait lagu ke dua, bait lagu ke empat, dan bait lagu terakhir. bentuk ~たい merupakan bentuk positif keinginan yang dapat berubah menjadi kosa kata baru pada bentuk negatif menjadi ~たくない、bentuk lampau ~たかった dan bentuk negatif lampau ~たくなかった. jika judul atau bait lagu tadi diubah dengan bentuk baru, artinya memunculkan kosa kata baru dengan karakter kanji tetap, apabila di tulis secara rinci, sebagai berikut. penulisan kembali dalam bentuk kalimat positif: (1)~たい (2)~たかった どこか遠くへ 行きたい どこか遠くへ 行きたかった penulisan kembali dalam bentuk kalimat negatif: (3)~たくない (4)~たくなかった どこか遠くへ 行きたくない どこか遠くへ 行きたくなかった pada bait pertama lagu, yaitu kalimat 知らない町を 歩いてみたい merupakan 補助動詞、 dan bentuk ~てみたいadalah bentuk keinginan yang berasal dari bentuk kamus ~てみる. jika dituliskan dalam contoh kalimat lain, sebagai berikut. さしみを食べたことはありませんが、食べてみます。 着物を着たことはありませんが、着てみます。 pada bait ketiga lagu, yaitu kalimat 知らない町を ながめていたい , bentuk ~ていたいadalah bentuk keinginan yang berasal dari bentuk kamus ~ている. jika dituliskan dalam contoh lain, sebagai berikut. 今、日本の歌を聞いています。 今、友だちに手紙を書いています。 pada bait keempat lagu, yaitu kalimat 遠い町 遠い海 、 asal 「町/海」+「(私はその町/ 海)」を知らない、menjadi 知らない町/海」, selanjutnya 「人」+「(私はその人を)」 愛する menjadi愛する人. adapun 「その町を知らない」+「その町を歩きたい」berubah menjadi 知らない町を歩き たい. pada kalimat 「その人を愛する」+「その人とめぐりあいたい」menjadi 「愛する人 とめぐりあいたい」. pada bait kelima lagu, yaitu pada kalimat 愛し合い 信じあい、dalam kalimat aさんはbさん を愛し/信じ、bさんもaさんを愛する/ 信じるmenjadi kalimat aさんとbさんは愛し信 じ合う. pada kosa kata 「遠く」bermakna 遠いところ、sedangkan 遠方 memiliki makna yang berbeda dengan 「近く」. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 196 • metode ‘gambar’ metode ‘gambar’ yaitu metode dengan menunjukkan bakat seni dengan membuat gambar-gambar atau huruf-huruf kanji bergambar yang berhubungan dengan kata-kata yang sedang dipelajari. metode ini dapat dilakukan dengan menunjukkan contoh gambar atau tulisan kanji pada gambar yang menunjukkan makna kanji secara langsung, dimulai dari kanji yang termudah seperti menuliskan kanji tunggal dengan menuliskan hanya satu makna, misalnya pada kanji "山“、" 中”、"上“、"下”. contoh gambar yang bermakna kanji tunggal gambar yang menunjukkan makna kanji huruf kanji dan cara baca selanjutnya, setelah cukup menguasai kanji tunggal dengan makna satu dan ditambahkan satu kanji baru yang menunjukkan 2 tulisan kanji seperti pada kanji “火山“、中国”、“上手”、 “下手”dan lain-lain beserta tampilan gambar yang sesuai dengan makna kanji ganda tersebut. contoh gambar yang bermakna dua kanji atau lebih dengan satu arti atau lebih gambar yang menunjukkan makna kanji huruf kanji yang terdiri atas dua kanji atau lebih selain itu pula ditampilkan gambar tanpa menuliskan kanji dan kosa katanya supaya ditebak arti dari gambar tersebut. contoh gambar yang mengandung makna kanji dimaksud tanpa tulisan kanji gambar yang mengandung makna kanji • metode ‘tindakan’ metode ‘tindakan’ adalah metode yang menggambarkan kosa kata dengan menunjukkan ekspresi atau ungkapan-ungkapan yang sedang dipelajari melalui gerakan tubuh atau isyarat. adapun kosa kata ditunjuk melalui gerakan tubuh seperti menunjuk anggota tubuh seperti kepala, tangan, kaki,dan lain-lain untuk menyebutkan kosa kata, sedangkan isyarat dengan membuat ekspresiekspresi marah, sedih, dingin, panas untuk menyebutkan kosa kata tersebut. analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 197 berikut ini adalah daftar gerakan tubuh dan isyarat yang menunjukkan kosa kata: gerakan tubuh isyarat bagian tubuh yang ditunjuk isyarat melalui ekspresi atau lainnya arti arti kepala marah 頭 怒る mata sedih 目 悲しい telinga 耳 senang 楽しい muka 顔 kaget びっくりする leher 首 sakit 痛い tangan 手 enak おいしい kaki 足 kecewa がっかりする badan 体 tertawa 笑う dan lain-lain など dan lain-lain など • metode ‘asosiasi’ metode ‘asosiasi’ adalah metode membuat warna yang berbeda pada kata-kata yang berbeda. misalnya merah untuk 「危ない」、「危険」、biru untuk 「笑い」、「笑顔」, pink untuk 「愛」、「愛情」dan lain-lain. warna tersebut dapat ditentukan sendiri atau berdasarkan anggapan umum warna tersebut. berikut ini adalah daftar warna dan kanji yang termasuk dalam kategori warna tersebut : warna makna kanji merah 危ない、危険、怒る biru 笑い、笑い顔 pink 愛、愛情 kuning 乾く、乾季 abu-abu 迷う、迷惑 hitam 怖い、夜、暗い putih 優しい、易しい、昼、晴れる oranye 心配、不安 ungu 難しい、困る、複雑 hijau 静か、寒い、涼しい、 coklat 甘い、汚い、汚れる • metode ’pilih’ metode ‘pilih’ adalah metode dengan memilih topik yang menarik agar lebih mudah dipelajari, seperti topik yang sedang hangat dibicarakan, cerita anonym, cerita legenda nasional dan dunia, sejarah dan lain-lain. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 198 berikut ini contoh adalah topik yang selalu menarik dan hangat dibicarakan, yaitu tentang ramalan. 100%の占い師 せっかく一生懸命勉強したのにテストでいい点が取られなかったという経験は誰にでもある。 期待していたほどいい点数が取れないとがっかりする。反対に、思っていたよりいい点数が 取れるとうれしくなる。 (new approach japanese intermediate course, 2002 : 74) selanjutnya dibuat daftar kosa kata yang berhubungan atau memiliki unsur kanji yang sama atau kosa kata yang sama yang mengalami perubahan bentuk. apabila paragraf di atas dibuat dalam suatu daftar, maka akan tersusun sebagai berikut. kosa kata kosa kata dengan penambahan unsur kanji atau kosakata lain/perubahan bentuk 点 いい点、点数 取れる 取れない、取れなかった 勉強した 勉強する、勉強しない 期待していた 期待している、期待する うれしくなる うれしい、なる 思っていた 思っている、思う がっかりする がっかり、する • metode ‘batasi’ metode ‘batasi’ adalah metode dengan membatasi jumlah kosa kata yang dihafal setiap hari, jumlah kosa kata yang akan dihafal ditentukan oleh pembelajar sendiri, misalnya sebanyak 10 kata per hari. pembatasan dimulai dari kosa kata yang umum dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, kemudian disusun dengan kosa kata lainnya yang masih berhubungan dengan kosa kata sebelumnya. sebaiknya dibuatkan pula daftar kosa kata tersebut dengan menyusun dari yang umum ke khusus atau dari yang termudah ke yang tersulit. daftar urutan kosa kata dengan jumlah 10 kosa kata dari urutan yang umum ke khusus dan dari yang termudah ke yang tersulit adalah sebagai berikut. urutan kosa kata dari yang termudah ke yang tersulit kosa kata yang berhubungan urutan kosa dari yang umum ke khusus kosa kata yang berhubungan 食べる 朝食、昼食、夕食 人間 赤 ち ゃ ん 、 子 供 、 青 年、大人、年寄り 食べ物 和食、洋食、中華料 理 人 男の人、女の人 果物 みかん、りんご、か き 男性、女性 服 、 ス カ ー ト 、 ズ ボ ン、パンツ 甘い物 あめ、おかし、ケー キ 家族 両 親 、 母 、 父 、 姉 、 兄、妹、弟 食事 食事、食欲、食用、 食費 家事 家、電気料、掃除 metode ini digunakan dengan cara mengelompokkan terlebih dulu kosa kata yang akan menjadi objek hafalan, kemudian dikelompokkan berdasarkan kaitannya, selanjutnya diurutkan dari yang analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 199 umum ke khusus atau dari kosa kata yang mudah diingat karena terbiasa sampai kosa kata tersulit. setelah itu, urutkan kosa kata lainnya berdasasarkan urutan kosa kata yang menjadi objek hafalan tadi. • metode ‘memperhatikan’ metode ‘memperhatikan’ yaitu suatu metode melalui kegiatan memperhatikan dengan seksama kata-kata yang sudah dipelajari ketika membaca atau mendengarkan topik dalam bahasa jepang. berdasarkan hasil memperhatikan tersebut, kosa kata mana yang dapat tertangkap oleh ingatan pada saat tersebut, lalu dikumpulkan dengan cara menuliskannya dalam kertas yang sudah disiapkan, selanjutnya dipisahkan berdasarkan abjad bahasa indonesia, kemudian disusun secara rapi dalam daftar yang sudah disiapkan sebelumnya. setelah itu, pembelajar membaca secara seksama kosa kata tersebut sebanyak waktu dan kondisi yang ditetapkan pembelajar sendiri. terakhir jika memungkinkan pembelajar dapat melakukan pengulangan dengan cara membaca ataupun mendengarkan topik yang sama yang sudah dilakukan sebelumnya. contoh berikut adalah teks kegiatan ketika mendengarkan suatu percapakapan bahasa jepang. a : 趣味は何ですか。 b : 映画を見ることです。 a : どんな映画を見ますか。 b : フランス映画です。 a : ああ、そうですか。 (minna no nihongo shokyuu-i, 1998 : 151) berdasarkan hasil mendengarkan tersebut, kosa kata yang tertangkap dan dapat dituliskan adalah sebagai berikut. kosa kata yang tertangkap cara baca 趣味 shumi 何 nani 映画 eiga miru 見ます=見る koto こと どんな donna ~ ウランス furansu そう sou kemudian siapkan daftar untuk menyusun kosa kata hasil kegiatan mendengarkan bahasa jepang berdasarkan abjad bahasa indonesia. kosa kata hasil mendengarkan arti donna~ yang bagaimana eiga film furansu perancis koto hal miru melihat nani apa shumi hobi sou betul/seperti begitu jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 200 • metode ‘mengumpulkan’ metode ‘mengumpulkan’adalah mengumpulkan kosa kata yang sulit diingat dalam catatan-catatan sebagai memo penting yang dapat dengan mudah dibawa ke mana-mana, kemudian diulang-ulang dalam setiap kesempatan. kosa kata yang sulit biasanya kosa kata yang tidak sering muncul, tetapi dalam bahasa jepang adapula kanji yang sulit meskipun arti dari kosa kata itu mudah, seperti pada kalimat berikut. 専門家の話では医療技術が進歩すれば、人間の寿命もある程度延ばすことが可能 だそうです。 adapun kosa kata dengan kanji sulit yang terdapat dalam kalimat tersebut, yaitu : 専門“senmon”(ahli), 医療”iryou” (medis), 技術”gijutsu”(teknik),進歩 “shinpo” (kemajuan), 寿命 “jumyou” (jiwa), 程度“teido” (tingkat/derajat), 延ばす“nobasu” (menunda/menangguhkan), 可 能 ”kanou” (kemungkinan) • metode ‘menempelkan’ metode ‘menempelkan’, yaitu metode dengan cara menuliskan dan menempelkan kosa kata pada kertas atau karton, khususnya kosa kata atau kanji yang cukup sulit. kemudian kertas atau karton tersebut sebaiknya ditempelkan di tempat sehari-hari yang sering kita tinggali, lalui dan mudah dilihat, seperti di dinding kamar tidur, depan cermin, dan lain-lain. metode ini dimaksudkan agar pembelajar secara sengaja atau tidak sengaja dapat melihat secara langsung setiap kosakata yang ditempelkan setiap saat. dengan demikian, lama kelamaan kosa kata tersebut dapat terus teringat secara alamiah. metode ini disebut juga metode kalender, karena penempatannya seperti kalender yang dapat dilihat setiap saat. adapun tampilan kosa kata atau kanji yang ditempel harus sebagus mungkin, agar menarik perhatian, sehingga tidak merasa bosan untuk terus melihat atau menyempatkan melihat, apabila tulisan kosa kata atau kanji tidak dapat dibentuk dalam suatu tulisan bagus yang menarik, dapat pula disertakan gambar sebagai ‘background’ yang disesuaikan dengan letak penulisan kanji. gambar yang ditempatkan sebaiknya gambar yang memiliki makna yang relevan dengan kanji yang ditempel. namun, kosa kata yang ditempel tersebut sebaiknya tidak terlalu banyak, maksimal 15 kosa kata atau kanji, dalam kurun waktu tertentu yang disesuaikan dengan target pembelajar. selanjutnya secara berkala diganti dengan kosa kata baru lainnya, begitu seterusnya sampai memenuhi batas target pembelajar. contoh kosa kata yang ditempel adalah sebagai berikut. 1. 漢字―1 6.漢字―6 11.漢字―11 2. 漢字―2 7.漢字―7 12.漢字―12 3. 漢字―3 8.漢字―8 13.漢字―13 4. 漢字―4 9.漢字―9 14.漢字―14 5. 漢字―5 10.漢字―10 15.漢字―15 adapun gambar dimasukkan sebagai background. analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 201 • metode ‘catatan kecil’ metode ‘catatan kecil’ adalah metode membuat lipatan-lipatan kertas kecil yang dapat dibawa ke mana-mana, dalam setiap lipatan dituliskan kosa kata yang penting dan sulit dihafalkan yang dapat dilihat kapan pun. metode tersebut dapat mendukung pemahaman terhadap bacaan atau teks agar menjadi lebih mudah dimengerti sehingga dapat membaca teks tersebut dengan cepat. adapun cara membaca cepat menurut soedarso (2000:112) adalah sebagai berikut. a. layangkan pandangan ke kepala surat b. lewatkan paragraf utama sebagai introduction c. konsentrasikan ke bagian tengah, sebagai point utama surat d. bergeraklah cepat dari bagian akhir yang merupakan kesopanan saja e. bacalah hanya kata-kata kunci karena biasanya surat ditulis dalam bahasa dan tata bahasa sederhana. cara membaca dengan menggunakan keterampilan lainnya (reading, february 15th, 2007 at 12.46pm) adalah sebagai berikut. a. mencari teks bacaan yang mengandung daftar kosa kata kemudian membaca keseluruhan teks sebanyak dua atau tiga kali dengan menebak arti berdasarkan konteks. sebaiknya hindari penerjemahan per kata. b. melakukan isolasi kosa kata baru dan pelajari secara terpisah c. melakukanb isolasi bentuk tata bahasa baru dan pelajari secara terpisah, sebaiknya polanya ditulis. pada catatan kecil, dapat dituliskan lebih banyak kosa kata yang diambil dari teks bacaan. adapun contoh kosa kata dalam catatan kecil adalah sebagai berikut. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 188-203 202 penutup penguasaan kosa kata sangat berhubungan dengan kemampuan membaca. hal itu menunjukkan kosa kata memberikan kontribusi besar terhadap kemampuan membaca, di samping keterampilan dasar berbahasa lain, seperti mendengar, menulis, dan berbicara. oleh karena itu, ada anggapan bahwa seseorang yang memiliki penguasaan kosa kata yang bagus identik dengan orang yang berpengetahuan tinggi dan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan pemahaman bacaan alangkah baiknya dapat melakukan hal sebagai berikut: menciptakan alternatif lain, yaitu dengan penggunaan gaya bahasa dan kosa kata yang lebih simpel agar mudah dimengerti; mengkreasikan strategi pemahaman kosa kata; menciptakan lingkungan dengan suasana ke-jepang-an dan selalu memunculkan istilah kosa kata bahasa jepang agar mudah diingat; meningkatkan fasilitas bacaan sendiri dalam bahasa jepang yang bersifat menghibur dan digunakan pada saat santai atau istirahat dengan tetap ada pada suasana belajar; meningkatkan jumlah kosa kata yang akan dipelajari sehingga kosa kata sebelumnya dengan cepat mudah dihafal kembali dan diingat; selalu melatih dalam bacaan agar kosa kata yang sudah ingat selalu muncul dan tidak lupa; melatih terus menerus pemahaman isi bacaan dengan teknik scanning, skimming, screening, dan lain-lain; terus mem-follow up dan mengontrol kemampuan penguasaan kosa kata dan pemahaman bacaan secara rutin dan kontinu. daftar pustaka barber, charles. 2000. the english language a historical introduction. chambridge: chambridge university press. chisato, kitagawa. 1998. japanese for foreigner-joudoushi. tokyo: araitake shuppan. crystal, david. 2001. the cambridge encyclopedia of the english language. chambridge: chambridge university press. minna no nihongo shhokyuu i. 1998. tokyo: surie nettowaaku. noboru, oyanagi. 2004. nyuu appuroochi chukyuu nihongo. japan: nihongo kenkyuu kyouzai kaihatsushitsu. oyanagi. yoshiko. 2000. yoku tsukawareru nihongo. japan: nihongo no bojinsha. pora, yusran. 2003. develop your vocabulary grammar and idiom. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. ramelan. 2005. menulis surat bisnis modern. jakarta: teruna grafika. uchi, tera. 2001. uta kara manabu nihongo. tokyo: toshoinshatsu seishiki gaisha. analisis metode belajar ..... (robihim) 203 abstraksi jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 46 analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel ni dan de elisa carolina marion japanese department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, emarion@binus.edu abstract articel clasified the type and cause of mistake done by bina nusantara japanese student of six and eight semesters on the use of ni (に) and de (で) particles indicating place in the exam. data were collected from library research and distributed questionnaires to 79 student of the 6 th and 8 th semester, japanese departement. the result showed that the student of japanese language did not make the same mistake in using the ni (に) and de (で) particles having the some function in indicating place. it is concluded that the respondents are able to use the ni (に) and de (で) particles. keywords: mistake analysis, ni particle, de particle abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis dan penyebab kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa semester enam dan delapan jurusan bahasa jepang, universitas bina nusantara, jakarta terhadap soal bahasa jepang tingkat dasar, yaitu pemakaian partikel ni (に) dan de (で) yang berfungsi menunjukkan tempat/keberadaan. data diperoleh dari studi pustaka dan penyebaran kuisioner ke 79 responden, yaitu mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang semester enam dan delapan. hasil yang dicapai adalah mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang tidak lagi melakukan kesalahan yang sama dalam membedakan penggunaan partikel ni (に) dan de (で) yang sama-sama berfungsi menunjukkan tempat/keberadaan. simpulan yang dapat ditarik adalah secara umum responden menguasai pemakaian partikel ni (に) dan de (で) yang berfungsi menunjukkan tempat/keberadaan. kata kunci: analisis kesalahan, partikel ni, partikel de analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 47 pendahuluan dalam penggunaan bahasa jepang, baik secara lisan maupun tulisan tidak pernah lepas dari partikel atau yang dikenal dengan istilah joshi(助詞 じ ょ し ). menurut kamus lingustik edisi ketiga, partikel adalah kata yang biasanya tidak dapat diderivasikan atau diinfleksikan yang mengandung makna gramatikal dan tidak mengandung makna leksikal, misalnya preposisi seperti di, dari, konjungsi seperti dan, atau, dan sebagainya (harimurti kridalaksana, 1993:155). menurut sugihartono (2001:viii) dalam bukunya yang berjudul nihongo no joshi(日本 に ほ ん 語 ご の助詞 じ ょ し ), partikel didefinisikan sebagai berikut: “joshi (助詞 じ ょ し )adalah jenis kata yang tidak mengalami perubahan, dan tidak bisa berdiri sendiri yang memiliki fungsi membantu, dan menentukan: arti, hubungan, penekanan, pertanyaan, keraguan, dan lainnya dalam suatu kalimat bahasa jepang, baik dalam ragam lisan maupun ragam tulisan.” dalam tata bahasa jepang, fungsi partikel menduduki posisi yang sangat penting. jumlah partikel dalam bahasa jepang cukup banyak sehingga menjadi keunikan dan kekhasan tersendiri bagi bahasa jepang. rumitnya, satu partikel dalam bahasa jepang memiliki fungsi lebih dari satu. dan tentu saja dengan beragamnya fungsi partikel itu semakin menambah kompleksitas pemahaman bahasa jepang. di dalam keragaman partikel bahasa jepang juga terdapat pasangan partikel yang cukup membingungkan bagi pemelajar bahasa jepang dalam menggunakannya. seperti pasangan partikel wa dan ga (ハとガ)atau partikel ni dan de (ニとデ). pasangan partikel tersebut memiliki kemiripan arti atau fungsi yang membingungkan pemelajar bahasa jepang dalam membedakan penggunaannya. pembahasan teori pemakaian partikel ni( に ) dan de( で ) yang menunjukkan “tempat/keberadaan” partikel ni dan de memiliki berbagai macam fungsi dan penggunaan. diantara berbagai macam fungsi dan penggunaan kedua partikel tersebut, ada salah satu fungsi yang dimiliki oleh keduanya, yakni fungsi yang menunjukkan tempat/keberadaan. meskipun demikian, hal itu bukan berarti bahwa aturan penggunaannya serupa. ada beberapa perbedaan dalam penggunaannya yang selama ini belum begitu dikuasai oleh para pemelajar bahasa jepang. berikut merupakan teori penggunaan partikel ni(に) dan de(で) yang menunjukkan tempat keberadaan menurut masuoka dan takubo (2000). 1. 物 もの や人 ひと が存在 そんざい する位置 い ち を示 しめ す場合 ば あ い にはニを使 つか う。 partikel ni digunakan untuk menunjukkan keberadaan benda atau orang. pola kalimat: (場所 ば し ょ ) ニ + (主体 しゅたい ) ガ+ 動詞 ど う し (keterangan tempat)ni +( subjek)ga + kata kerja jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 48 contoh: a. 電話 で ん わ 機 き のそばニテレビガある。 di sebelah televisi ada telepon. b. この近 ちか くニスーパーガできるらしい。 kalau tidak salah di dekat sini ada supermarket. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:52) (主体 しゅたい ) ガ/ハ + (場所 ば し ょ ) ニ + 動詞 ど う し (subjek) ga/wa +(keterangan tempat) ni + kata kerja contoh: a. 私 わたし の母 はは ハ 東 京 とうきょう ニいる。 ibu saya sedang ada di toukyou. b. 電車 でんしゃ ハ 東 京 とうきょう 駅 えき ニ止 と まった。 kereta berhenti di stasiun toukyou. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:52) 2. 動作 ど う さ が行 い われたり、出 で 来 き 事が起 お こる場所 ば し ょ はデで 表 あらわ す。 partikel de digunakan untuk menunjukkan tempat terjadinya suatu peristiwa/kejadian atau gerakan. pola kalimat: (主体 しゅたい ) ガ/ハ + (場所 ば し ょ ) デ + (動作 ど う さ ) (subjek) ga/wa + (keterangan tempat) de + (kata kerja) contoh: a. 私 わたし ハこれから部屋 へ や デ本 ほん を読 よ む。(masuoka dan takubo, 2000:52) saya sekarang akan membaca buku di kamar. b. 昨日 き の う 母 はは ハモールデ 新 あたら しいめがねを買 か いました。 kemarin ibu membeli kacamata baru di mall. (場所 ば し ょ ) デ + (出 で 来 き 事 ごと ) (keterangan tempat) de + (peristiwa/kejadian) contoh: 3時 じ に 10号室 ごうしつ デ会議 か い ぎ がある。 ada rapat jam 3 di ruang nomor 10. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:52) catatan: meskipun dalam contoh kalimat di atas menggunakan kata kerja aru ( ある ), tidak boleh menggunakan partikel ni(に) karena pada kalimat tersebut menunjukkan adanya suatu peristiwa atau kegiatan. analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 49 3. 状 況 じょうきょう が成立 せいりつ する場所 ば し ょ はデ(ハ)で 表 あらわ す。 partikel de digunakan untuk menunjukkan tempat yang membentuk suatu keadaan. pola kalimat: (場所 ば し ょ ) デ(ハ) + ( 状 況 じょうきょう ) (keterangan tempat) de(wa) + (keterangan keadaan) contoh: a. 日本 に ほ ん デは、握手 あくしゅ はあまり一般的 いっぱんてき ではありません。 di jepang, berjabat tangan tidak begitu biasa. b. 日本 に ほ ん ニは、握手 あくしゅ の 習 慣 しゅうかん はありません。 di jepang tidak ada kebiasaan berjabat tangan. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:53) catatan: contoh kalimat a menunjukkan suatu keadaan (keadaan berjabat tangan) sedangkan pada contoh kalimat b menunjukkan suatu keberadaan (keberadaan dari kebiasaan berjabat tangan). dengan demikian, pada contoh kalimat a digunakan partikel de dan pada contoh kalimat b digunakan partikel ni. 4. 2番 ばん の(動作 ど う さ )の部分 ぶ ぶ ん に位置 い ち のニが含 ふく まれる時 じ は、当然 とうぜん デとニを組 く み合 あ わせてもよい。 pada saat partikel ni yang menunjukkan keberadaan dimasukkan ke dalam bagian dari suatu gerakan, dengan sendirinya kalimat terbebut menggunakan kombinasi antara partikel ni dan de. contoh: a. 花子 は な こ は神戸 こ う べ で 高 級 こうきゅう マンションに住 す んでいます。 hanako tinggal di apartemen mewah di koube. b. 太郎 た ろ う は神戸 こ う べ で貿易 ぼうえき 会社 がいしゃ に勤 つと めている。 tarou bekerja di perusahaan perdagangan luar negeri di koube. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:53) 5. デは、動詞 ど う し の種類 しゅるい と関係 かんけい なく使 つか うことができるのに対 たい し、ニは、位置 い ち のニを補語 ほ ご とし て 要 求 ようきゅう する動詞 ど う し とともにしか使 つか えない。 位置 い ち のニを取 と らない動詞 ど う し : 「読 よ む、話 はな す、 働 はたら く、食 た べる、飲 の む、聞 き く、遊 あそ ぶ、 研 究 けんきゅう す る」など、多く お お く の動作 ど う さ 動詞 ど う し 。 partikel de dapat digunakan dengan kata kerja manapun tanpa memperhatikan jenis dari kata kerja tersebut sedangkan partikel ni hanya dapat digunakan dengan kata kerja yang meminta partikel ni sebagai pelengkap dari keberadaan. kata kerja yang tidak menggunakan partikel ni untuk menunjukkan tempat keberadaan adalah membaca, berbicara, bekerja, makan, minum, mendengar, bermain, menyelidiki, dan kata kerja lainnya yang mengandung unsur pergerakan. contoh: a. 彼 かれ は部屋 へ や (*ニ/デ)本 ほん を読 よ んでいる。 dia sedang membaca buku di kamar. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 50 b. 太郎 た ろ う は 東 京 とうきょう (*ニ/デ) 働 はたら いている。 tarou sedang bekerja di toukyou. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:53) 位置 い ち のニを取 と る動詞 ど う し :「いる、座 すわ る、泊 と まる、立 た つ、滞在 たいざい する、住 す む、留 と まる、止 と まる、 勤 つと める」など。 kata kerja yang menggunakan partikel ni untuk menunjukkan tempat keberadaan adalah: ada, duduk, menginap, berdiri, menginap, tinggal, berhenti, bekerja, dan lain-lain. contoh: a. 彼 かれ は部屋 へ や の隅ニ座 すわ っていた。 dia tadi duduk di sudut kamar. b. 私 わたし は 東 京 とうきょう ニ住 す みたい。 saya ingin tinggal di jepang. (masuoka dan takubo, 2000:53) teori analisis kesalahan berbahasa analisis kesalahan berbahasa menurut parera (1997:98) merupakan satu tindakan dan studi secara formal dan sistematik untuk mengidentifikasikan kesulitan, hambatan, dan kendala dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa bagi mereka yang berbeda latar belakang kebahasaan. melalui analisis kesalahan berbahasa, dapat diungkap berbagai hal mengenai kesalahan berbahasa yang dibuat oleh para pemelajar bahasa, yaitu latar belakang, sebab kesalahan, dan ragam kesalahan. tujuan analisis kesalahan berbahasa adalah meningkatkan dan memperbesar keberhasilan pembelajaran dan pengajaran berbahasa. prosedur kerja dalam analisis kesalahan berbahasa menempuh langkah sebagai berikut (parera, 1997). pertama, pengumpulan data. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan membagikan kuisioner yang berisi soal mengenai partikel ni (に) dan de (で) kepada 79 orang mahasiswa semester enam dan delapan jurusan bahasa jepang fakultas sastra universitas bina nusantara. kuesioner yang dibagikan telah melalui proses validasi berdasarkan teori validasi isi (fernandez, 1984) dan dinyatakan valid karena kuesioner berisi soal seputar penggunaan partikel ni(に) dan de(で) yang sesuai dengan kualifikasi mahasiswa semester 6 (enam) dan 8 (delapan), yaitu dimiliki mahasiswa pada tingkat menengah adalah pengetahuan kosakata antara 5000 dan 7000 kata, 1000, dan 1500 kanji. kemudian kemampuan melakukan percakapan sehari-hari serta mampu membaca dan menulis kalimat yang sesuai dengan gramatika tingkat menengah (nihongo kyoiku jiten, 1982:633-635 dalam herniwati, 2001:13). selain itu, kuesioner ke-2 berisi beberapa pertanyaan mendasar mengenai latar belakang mahasiswa yang mendukung penelitian. beberapa pertanyaan mengenai latar belakang mahasiswa dibutuhkan untuk membantu penulis dalam mengidentifikasikan penyebab kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang. kedua, pengidentifikasian kesalahan. pengidentifikasian kesalahan dilakukan dengan menyesuaikan jawaban dengan teori mengenai perbedaan partikel ni (に) dan de (で) yang dipakai dalam penelitian ini. hasil penelitian yang didapat telah diuji melalui teori reliabilitas dengan pertimbangan: kuesioner dibagikan kepada mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang tingkat menengah, yaitu mahasiswa semester 6 dan 8; kuesioner dibagikan kepada mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang yang sudah menguasai pengetahuan kosakata antara 5000 dan 7000 kata, 1000, dan 1500 kanji kemudian kemampuan melakukan percakapan sehari-hari serta mampu membaca dan menulis kalimat analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 51 yang sesuai dengan gramatika tingkat menengah (nihongo kyoiku jiten, 1982:633-635 dalam herniwati, 2001:13); kuesioner dibagikan kepada mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang yang sudah mempelajari partikel ni (に) dan de (で). ketiga, mengklasifikasikan kesalahan. pengklasifikasian kesalahan dilakukan dengan mengelompokkan kesalahan berdasarkan jenis kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang. keempat, menjelaskan frekuensi kesalahan. menjelaskan frekuensi kesalahan dilakukan dengan menghitung total frekuensi kesalahan yang dilakukan mahasiswa pada tiap soal. kelima, mengidentifikasikan daerah kesukaran/kesalahan. mengidentifikasikan daerah kesukaran dilakukan dengan menganalisis hubungan antara kesalahan yang dibuat oleh pemelajar bahasa sasaran dengan bahasa pertama. keenam, mengoreksi kesalahan. pengoreksian kesalahan dilakukan dengan cara menyesuaikan jawaban yang salah dengan teori yang dipakai dalam penelitian. kesalahan berbahasa muncul karena adanya perbedaan antara sistem bahasa pertama atau bahasa ibu (b1) pembelajar dengan sistem bahasa kedua atau bahasa target atau bahasa asing (b2) yang dipelajari. dalam hal pengajaran bahasa, corder (dalam dari parera, 1997:143) membedakan dua macam kesalahan, yaitu mistake dan error. mistake merupakan penyimpangan yang tidak sistematis yang disebabkan oleh faktor perfomance, seperti keterbatasan dalam mengingat, kelelahan, emosi, atau salah ucap. kesalahan seperti itu mudah diperbaiki oleh pemelajar sendiri bila yang bersangkutan mawas diri, lebih sadar, atau memusatkan perhatian. error merupakan penyimpangan yang sistematis dan konsisten dan menggambarkan kemampuan pemelajar pada tahap tertentu. kesalahan yang seperti itu terjadi karena pemelajar belum memahami sistem linguistik bahasa yang sedang digunakannya. bila tahap pemahaman pemelajar akan sistem bahasa yang sedang dipelajarinya kurang maka kesalahan akan sering terjadi. dan kesalahan akan berkurang apabila tingkat pemahaman pemelajar terhadap sistem bahasa yang sedang dipelajarinya semakin meningkat. kesalahan dapat berlangsung lama jika tidak diperbaiki dan perbaikan biasanya dilakukan oleh guru. sumber utama penyebab kesalahan bahasa yang dilakukan pemelajar, terutama pemelajar yang sedang belajar bahasa asing atau bahasa kedua menurut brown (1980:172-181) dikutip dari herniwati (2001:18) dan jack richard (dikutip dari parera, 1997:138-139) adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, transfer interlingual. kesalahan karena transfer interlingual disebabkan pengaruh atau penggunaan unsur atau kaidah bahasa ibu pada bahasa target. pengaruh bahasa ibu pada bahasa target yang sedang dipelajari merupakan hal yang sering terjadi pada tahap permulaan pembelajaran bahasa target atau bahasa kedua. kedua, transfer intralingual. kesalahan yang disebabkan oleh transfer intralingual adalah kesalahan yang terjadi dalam bahasa target itu sendiri (bukan pengaruh dari bahasa lain). kesalahan seperti itu biasanya berupa: generalisasi berlebih. generalisasi berlebih meliputi fakta dan kebiasaan pemelajar bahasa membentuk bentuk yang sama yang ia ketahui dalam bahasa yang sedang dipelajarinya. pemelajar bahasa menyamaratakan semua kaidah dalam bahasa tersebut; ketidaktahuan akan batas aturan suatu bahasa. merupakan penerapan suatu aturan bahasa ke bagian lain yang tidak menggunakan aturan tersebut. jenis kesalahan itu hampir sama dengan yang pertama karena masih tergolong dalam tindakan generalisasi. perbedaannya adalah yang kedua bertolak dari ketidaktahuan sedangkan yang pertama disebabkan perasaan serba tahu menempatkan sesuatu; penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap. jika suatu saat pemelajar menerapkan kaidah secara berlebihan, pada saat yang lain pemelajar cenderung tidak lengkap menerapkan kaidah. hal itu mungkin disebabkan sikap menghindarkan beban linguistik yang terlalu besar. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 52 deskripsi data kesalahan penggunaan partikel ni dan de dalam soal berikut ini merupakan soal yang terdapat di dalam kuesioner. 1. 道 みち ___雪 ゆき がたくさん残 のこ っています。 2. 田中 たなか さんは台 湾 たいわん ___生 う まれたそうです。それから 十 年 じゅうねん ぐらい 上 海 しゃんはい ___住 す んでいた そうです。(台 湾 たいわん :taiwan; 上 海 しゃんはい :shanghai) 3. 昨日 きのう 、デパートの近 ちか く___火事 か じ があった。(火事 か じ :kebakaran) 4. 今朝 け さ 、 私 わたし はモール___山田 やまだ 先 生 せんせい に会 あ った。 5. 彼 かれ はあんな 所 ところ ___何 なに をしているんだろう。 6. 大 統 領 だいとうりょう の部屋 へ や ___時 々 ときどき 会議 かいぎ がある。(大 統 領 だいとうりょう :presiden) 7. 次郎 じろう は今 いま 喫茶店 きっさてん ___勤 つと めています。(喫茶店 きっさてん :kafe; 勤 つと める:bekerja) 8. 美智子 み ち こ は図書館 としょかん ___ 働 はたら いてみたいと思っている。 9. 上田 うえだ さんは、京 都 きょうと ___ 留 学 生 寮 りゅうがくせいりょう ___住 す んでいました。( 留 りゅう 学 生 寮 がくせいりょう :asrama mahasiswa asing) 10. 車 くるま をあの橋 はし の近 ちか く___止 と めて下 くだ さい。(橋 はし :jembatan) 11. 彼 かれ は 私 わたし の家 いえ ___泊 と まってもらいます。(泊 と まる:menginap) 12. あなたはかさをどこ___置 お きましたか。(置 お く:meletakkan/menaruh) 13. 食 堂 しょくどう ___昼 食 ちゅうしょく をしてから、本屋 ほんや ___辞書 じしょ を買 か いました。 14. 日本 にほん ___は、握 手 あくしゅ はあまりいっぱんてきではありません。(握 あく 手 しゅ :berjabat tangan; いっぱ んてき:umum) 15. 日本 にほん ___は、握 手 あくしゅ の 習 慣 しゅうかん はありません。(握 手 あくしゅ :jabat tangan) analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 53 tabel 1 persentase dan jenis kesalahan responden mahasiswa semester 6 soal no jumlah mahasiswa yang menjawab benar prosentase (%) jumlah mahasiswa yang menjawab salah prosentase (%) jenis kesalahan transfer interlingual transfer intralingual generalisasi berlebih ketidakahuan akan batas-batas aturan suatu bahasa penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap 1 23 50 23 50 + 2a 26 57 20 43 + 2b 34 74 12 26 + 3 14 30 32 70 + + + + 4 38 83 8 17 + 5 41 89 5 11 + 6 19 41 27 59 + + + + 7 12 26 34 74 + + + + 8 33 72 13 28 + + 9a 35 76 11 24 + 9b 41 89 5 11 + 10 34 74 12 26 + 11 33 72 13 28 + 12 27 59 19 41 + 13a 38 83 8 17 + 13b 41 89 5 11 + 14 29 63 17 37 + + + 15 24 52 22 48 + rata-rata 542 65 286 35 3 8 15 4 tabel 2 persentase dan jenis kesalahan responden mahasiswa semester 8 soal no jumlah mahasiswa yang menjawab benar prosentase (%) jumlah mahasiswa yang menjawab salah prosentase (%) jenis kesalahan transfer interlingual transfer intralingual generalisasi berlebih ketidakahuan akan batas-batas aturan suatu bahasa penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap 1 14 42 19 58 + 2a 15 45 18 55 + 2b 23 70 10 30 + 3 13 39 20 61 + + + + 4 24 73 9 27 + 5 25 76 8 24 + 6 17 52 16 48 + + + + 7 8 24 25 76 + + + + 8 24 73 9 27 + + 9a 20 61 13 39 + 9b 23 70 10 30 + 10 22 67 11 33 + 11 21 64 12 36 + 12 23 70 10 30 + 13a 24 73 9 27 + 13b 22 67 11 33 + 14 20 61 13 39 + + + 15 19 58 14 42 + rata-rata 357 60 237 40 3 8 15 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 54 analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 55 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 56 analisis kesalahan penggunaan partikel … (elisa carolina marion) 57 penutup bertitik tolak pada latar belakang penelitian, masalah penelitan dan tujuan penelitian, dan hasil analisis data kesalahan penggunaan partikel ni (に) dan de (で) terhadap mahasiswa pemelajar bahasa jepang tingkat menengah, yaitu mahasiswa semester enam dan delapan jurusan bahasa jepang fakultas sastra universitas bina nusantara jakarta terhadap kalimat bahasa jepang tingkat dasar, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pada umumnya sebagian besar responden, yaitu mahasiswa semester enam dan delapan sudah cukup menguasai penggunaan partikel ni (に) dan de (で) yang berfungsi untuk menunjukkan tempat/keberadaan. jenis kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa dapat disebabkan transfer interlingual maupun transfer intralingual. kesalahan yang terjadi karena faktor transfer interlingual disebabkan apabila terdapat pengaruh bahasa ibu terhadap bahasa target yang dipelajari. dari hasil penelitian jawaban mahasiswa terhadap soal yang berhubungan dengan latar belakang mereka bahwa sebagian besar dari responden penelitian menggunakan bahasa indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu sehingga responden banyak melakukan kesalahan karena pengaruh dari bahasa indonesa. kesalahan yang terjadi karena transfer intralingual, yaitu apabila kesalahan tersebut terjadi dalam bahasa target itu sendiri tanpa dipengaruhi oleh bahasa lain. kesalahan karena transfer intralingual biasanya berupa generalisasi berlebih, ketidaktahuan akan batas aturan suatu bahasa, dan penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap. dari hasil analisis, kesalahan karena generalisasi berlebih disebabkan responden terpengaruh oleh kata kerja yang ada di akhir kalimat. selanjutnya, didapatkan bahwa kesalahan yang disebabkan oleh ketidaktahuan akan batas aturan suatu bahasa dan penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap karena responden kurang menguasai tata bahasa yang juga mencakup penguasaan terhadap penggunaan partikel. salah satu faktor penyebab kurangnya penguasaan terhadap tata bahasa, yaitu karena sebagian besar responden berpendapat bahwa mata kuliah yang paling sulit adalah tata bahasa/bunpoo dan sebagian besar dari responden merasa kesulitan dalam mempelajari huruf kanji yang terdapat dalam bahasa jepang. hal tersebut menurunkan minat atau menjadi penghalang bagi mereka untuk mempelajari tata bahasa jepang dengan baik. penyebab kurangnya penguasaan terhadap partikel selain karena kurangnya penguasaan tata bahasa, yaitu karena partikel dalam bahasa jepang memiliki jumlah yang sangat banyak beserta fungsinya yang sangat beraneka ragam dan di samping itu dalam bahasa jepang terdapat beberapa partikel yang memiliki fungsi yang mirip sehingga membingungkan pemelajar. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 46-58 58 daftar pustaka alwi, h. 2003. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. 茅野、秋元. 1987. 外国人のための助詞ーその教え方と覚え方. 東京: 前田部. herniwati. 2001. “penggunaan kata bantu kasus (kakujoshi) bahasa jepang dalam karangan: analisis kesalahan berbahasa mahasiswa indonesia pemelajar bahasa jepang tingkat dasar.” tesis s2. jakarta: universitas indonesia. 片側、修、敦夫. 1988. 外国人のため日本語例文問題シリーズ 7 助詞. 東京: 荒竹勉. kawashima, a. 1992. particles plus. toukyou: harcourt brace jovanovich japan. 増岡、行則. 1987. 日本語の文法セルフマスターシリーズ 3 格助詞. 東京: 黒潮出版. 庭三庭郎. 2004. 2005 年 1 月 31 日, http://www.geocities.co.jp/niwasaburoo/. 印用する. parera, j.d. 1997. metodologi pembelajaran bahasa analisis kontrastif antarbahasa analisis kesalahan berbahasa. edisi ke-2. jakarta: penerbit erlangga. pedoman umum ejaan bahasa indonesia yang disempurnakan dan pedoman umum pembentukan istilah. bandung: penerbit yrama widya. sakri, a. 1994. bangun kalimat bahasa indonesia. edisi ke-2. bandung: penerbit itb. simanjuntak, h. 1997. bahasa jepang untuk pemula. jakarta: kesaint blanc. singarimbun, m. dan s. effendi. 1989. metode penelitian survai. edisi revisi. jakarta: lp3es. 酒入郁子. 1991. 外国人が日本語教師によくする 1000 の質問. 東京: バベルプレス. sudjianto. 2000. gramatika bahasa jepang modern-seri b. jakarta: kesaint blanc. sugihartono. 2001. nihongo no joshi. bandung: humaniora utama press. sutedi, d. 2003. dasar-dasar linguistik jepang. bandung: humaniora utama press. 鈴木忍. 1978. 教師用日本語教育ハンドブック 3 文法 1. 東京: 国際交流基金. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 115 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 115-119 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1818 gender role in rural life: an audience reception analysis on banyumas films in reformation era aidatul chusna1; m. taufiqurrohman2; lynda suzanna3 1,2,3english department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university jln. dr soeparno, purwokerto 53122, indonesia 1aidatul.chusna@gmail.com, 2taufiq_sombo@yahoo.com, 3lyndafatmawaty@gmail.com received: 9th january 2017/ revised: 1st april 2017/ accepted: 7th august 2017 how to cite: chusna, a., taufiqurrohman, m., & suzanna, l. (2017). gender role in rural life: an audience reception analysis on banyumas films in reformation era. lingua cultura, 11(2), 115-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1818 abstract this qualitative research was aimed at investigating audience’s responses on gender role in rural life represented in banyumas films. the data were taken from library research, questionnaire, and group discussion with banyumas natives. the audience consisted of female and male university students as well as banyumas film community. media viewing was conducted before the discussion. the study findings show that the audiences, both males and females, tend to be receptive to the shifting role of wife as the breadwinner of the family since factories in banyumas give more work opportunities to women than men. in addition, the respondents are appreciative to the role of banyumas women who are actively involved in the cultural preservation. however, they think that it rarely happens as banyumas people prefer working in factories to preserve the tradition. keywords: banyumas film, gender role, rurality introduction reformation era, which is marked by the end of soeharto’s presidency term in 1998, has changed indonesia significantly. the free election in 1999 indicates the implementation of democracy in this era. moreover, the greater degree of freedom of thought, opinion, and speech encouraged indonesian people, especially youth, to express their criticism on social and political issues openly in various ways and media. film is one of the media which is chosen to express their ideas or thoughts as it gives the more real description with its audio-visual features. the development of technology, which offers cheaper and modern equipment, also enables anyone to make their own movies. the enthusiasm of banyumas people, mainly the youth, in making films has been increasing since the reformation era. it is highlighted with the flourishing of film communities in banyumas regency and the nearest regencies, namely purbalingga, cilacap, and banjarnegara. through these communities, many films are produced by the community members. despite various issues and genres, banyumas films have common characteristics which are consistently maintained by the filmmakers. the first is the use of banyumas javanese dialect known as ngapak, to develop the plot of the story. moreover, the language used is also significant as the highlight of banyumas identity. the second characteristic is the setting of the film, which is mainly in banyumas areas. the third characteristic is the supporting features in the films such as banyumas icon, symbol, and index. all these characteristics are then combined with simple conflicts which are subjects to the life of lower class society in banyumas (trianton, 2008). this research tries to investigate audience’s responses on gender issues in rural life which are portrayed in banyumas films. there are five films used as the object of the study; they are gugat pegat (maharani, 2015), mentari di sambirata (adisty, 2012), senyum lasminah (leksono, 2005), tasmini (cute, 2007), and skandal arit (wulandari, 2015). among many banyumas films, those are chosen due to their eminent depiction of banyumas’ rural life. above all, they also present gender roles in the rural family and in preserving culture, which is what the study is going to discuss. the discussion of gender cannot be separated from the concept of sexuality. gender is defined as the sociocultural construction of sex (atkinson, 1987; francis et al., 2003; ruth, 1990; tyson, 2006). traditional assumption believes that gender division of femininity and masculinity is determined by the biological traits which make female naturally feminine and male naturally masculine. it casts women as being emotional (irrational), weak, nurturing, and submissive, while men are rational, strong, protective, and 116 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 115-119 decisive (tyson, 2006). these traits influence gender role division manifested in any social institution. the family is considered as the smallest social constitution which reflects the gender roles between men and women. parson (flynn, 2011) has proposed the division of gender roles in the family from a functionalist perspective, into instrumental roles and expressive roles. instrumental roles are related to the roles of male (the husband) as the income provider for the family. on the other hand, expressive roles are related to the roles of female (the wife) as the caretaker of the home and the emotional relations of the family. this traditional gender role division is challenged by feminists as it justifies men’s superiority and dominance toward women. as a socio-cultural construction, gender roles may vary from different societies and culture. tchambuli culture of new guinea is a case in point. the women in that culture have roles such as fishing and manufacturing, even controlling the power and economy of the community. meanwhile, the men are more dependent, flirtatious, and are concerned with appearance; often adorning themselves with flowers and jewelry (coon in wienclaw, 2011). gender roles assigned to men and women are also determined by the society itself. through socialization, an individual learns to differentiate what behavior is acceptable or unacceptable in his or her society. the socialization process occurs soon after the birth of an individual. wienclaw (2011) has further given an example of the way parents teach sons and daughters differently. sons are told that ‘real boys don’t cry’ and encouraged to control their softer emotion, while girls are taught not to fight and not to show anger and aggression. these series of behaviors which differ girls and boys are accepted as the feminine and masculine traits of gender differences. the femininity and masculinity which identifies one’s gender shows what judith butler in genz & brabon (2009) formulates as gender performativity. it defines the gendered body as a performance that relies on a certain practice of repetition of conventions which are eventually naturalized and confirmed by society. methods the audience reception theory employed in this study is based on the idea that audience has an active role in constructing and interpreting meanings of a text. hansrobert jauss, the earliest figure of reception theory, has believed that literature and art only obtain a history with a character of a process when the succession of works is mediated, not only through the producing subject but also through the consuming subject-through the interaction of author and public (holub, 1984). meanwhile, stuart hall, the proponent of reception theory, has developed it for media studies by focusing on three decoding methods used by the audience in interpreting meaning; they are dominant, negotiated, and oppositional (takacs, 2015). the different way through which people make sense of a text is influenced by the social background, including age, ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, and religious beliefs. these define and distinguish them from others (davis, 2008). to examine audience’s responses, this qualitative study employs ethnographic approach, as it deals with a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system (creswell, 1998). in the cultural lens, ethnography involves observation and documentation of the actual process and people who are part of cultural production (davis, 2008). data are collected through mixed method. the first method is documented research. the authors gather information related to banyumas films from books, newspaper, and internet. this method is also used to gather the secondary data, which consist of theories of film, media, and cultural studies. the second method is the questionnaire. 20 students are given questions about banyumas films and particularly, several gender issues in the film. focused group discussion is the last method conducted. the discussion is held in two groups with 46 participants, consisting of an equal number of male and female. they are the youth generation of banyumas natives, within the age of 16-30 years old, since the majority of banyumas film audience is from this age. the group consists of common young people, who are high school and university students, and cinephiles, which belong to banyumas film community known as jaringan kerja film banyumas (jkfb). this categorization is based on the consideration that these two groups of participants would have the different way of thinking and responding to the films watched. moreover, it is important to have male and female participants since the authors need to find out their response on gender relations portrayed in the films. the discussion is initiated by viewing the five banyumas films, followed by the discussion about issues of gender roles in family and tradition as portrayed in the films. results and discussions there are three banyumas films used in this research which describes issues related to gender role in the family; they are gugat pegat, tasmini, and skandal arit. each presents different problems which create a conflict between the characters as members of the family. gugat pegat (maharani, 2015) tells about a woman’s role as the breadwinner of the family, while her husband has to stay at home due to his unemployment. in this film, the female character works in a factory to financially support her family, while her husband takes over domestic responsibility. the conflict arises as the husband doesn’t want to have blue-collar work as he is a university graduate. however, the condition speaks differently. the lack of job opportunities in purbalingga, the setting of the film, makes it hard to find the perfect job for him. the film shows series of disputes between the husband and the wife about his unemployment and the accusation of the wife’s love affair. eventually, this economic issue affects their marriage as the wife decides to file for a divorce. unlike gugat pegat, tasmini (cute, 2007) presents the poor but happy life of a married couple. the film is about a rumor related to the husband’s love affair with another woman. the rumor begins when the husband is looking for a present in a store for his wife, but the shopkeeper thought it is for another woman. this rumor is then heard by the wife. instead of being mad at her husband, she prefers to accept the condition if the rumor is true. she does not blame him and instead blames herself for her failure to be a good wife. the film ends with a happy ending since the rumor is not true. the third film, skandal arit (wulandari, 2015), does not present a story about a married couple; instead, it is about a dispute between a male farmer and a female farmer in a farming area. the dispute begins as the male farmer loses his sickle and accuses the female farmer, who is his neighbor, of stealing it. the duration of this film is very short as it only portrays the dispute in a one-act scene. the research chooses this film due to the portrayal of a female farmer in rural banyumas. 117gender role in rural life: .... (aidatul chusna, et al.) apart from different scenarios, these three banyumas films present gender role in relation to the economy of the household. the first film, gugat pegat, depicts a femaleheaded family which is by definition a family structure economically dependent on the women (buvinić & gupta, 1997). viewing this phenomenon in their perspectives, the participants of the group discussion have different opinions. zaki, one of the participants, said that a woman being the breadwinner rarely happens. people in banyumas, especially those who live in villages, believe that normally the husband works to feed the family, while the wife stays home taking care of the household. thus, for zaki at least, men have to be seen going out to work, not because of the income acquired, but of the working activities, to be considered normal/proper in the society. in conclusion, zaki who is a college student, personally accepts the phenomenon of women working in public areas, as long as the husband also works to support the family. similar to zaki, another participant named nanki nirmanto, believes that image becomes the major concern in banyumas society. he further explains that for banyumas people, what a man (husband) does for a living to support his family is more important than the amount of income he gets. nirmanto himself argues that domestic responsibilities (cleaning house, taking care of the children, etc.) is work to be done by either the husband or the wife. thus, who stays at home doing the work is not a big concern for him. zaki’s and nanki’s statements indicate that the image built by going out to work is important, as it is natural in the rural society that men work and women stay at home. the gender division in rural banyumas portrayed in the films indicates that banyumas rural society still holds the traditional role. that is to differentiate women’s and men’s role in the family, both in domestic and public areas. unlike zaki and nanki, other participants named haza and kurnia find the social impact of this gender role changing. a woman’s working will make her dominant over the man, as seen in gugat pegat, the husband looks powerless and inferior to his wife. for the man, work is something integral to his life; it is a part of their pride and identity (haynes, 2016). it indicates that becoming the financial provider of the family makes the man (husband) superior to woman (wife). thus, when the role is reversed, the attitude also changes. a similar condition is also seen in tasmini (cute, 2007). the female character of this film is a housewife, while her husband is the breadwinner of the family. she is described as being inferior, weak, and submissive, seen through the way she is coping with the rumor of her husband’s love affair. these two examples show how financial dependence has a significant role in determining the leader among the family members. sulis priyo, another participant of the group discussion, also adds that religion (islam) doesn’t require women to have a job to provide income. the husband should be the one responsible for making a living. he believes in that concept as it corresponds to what ulema (religion leader) ever taught him. the influence of the ulema is still an important consideration for villagers. religious value is still believed to have a strong influence in assessing phenomenon and solving problems that occur in society. although there are some viewers who disagree with the shifting roles in the household, there are still more viewers among young people that can accept such conditions, but with an emphasis on economic grounds. the wife goes to work to help raise the family income that may not be fulfilled by the husband. however, due to having low education levels, the women in the village usually only work as laborers in factories or as domestic assistants. the debate among participants of the group discussion indicates two major factors which serve as the basis of their arguments. the first is gender ideology. saptari and holzner have stated that gender ideology influences behavior and social relation between men and women (yulianeta, soeratno, & kusharyanto, 2016). another factor is poverty. the audience is tolerable to the phenomenon of women being the primary income provider for the family as the solution to fight poverty. thus, socio-economic factors in the family affect how gender roles and attitudes are exercised, as in the relationship quality and division of labor (marks, lam, & mchale, 2009). the number of women who work, particularly around purbalingga, is due to the impact of the rapid growth of industries in that area. purbalingga is known for having many factories which produce wig and synthetic eyelashes. such factories prefer hiring female workers rather than male workers, which consequently makes many men unemployed. this condition is also shown in gugat pegat movie (maharani, 2015), which viewers in banyumas have agreed with. they assume that more women work in this industry because women are considered to be more patient and detailed in making wigs and synthetic eyelashes. this job is assumed to be a feminine work which is appropriate for female workers. the feminine traits which women adhere to are influenced by the traditional assumption that biological and physical differences determine gender construction. the phenomenon shows that there are gender attributes attached to women and men, which turn out to be the particular consideration that ultimately gives impact on social and economic grounds. the availability of jobs in purbalingga makes young women uninterested in continuing their education after junior/senior high school because they prefer to work in factories and make money instead of going to college. this is mentioned by a participant who also works at one of the factories in purbalingga. the low awareness of education is admitted by another participant who states that most young women in her village are quite shallow-minded. these young women prefer to stop studying at junior high school so that they can buy makeup, have sophisticated mobile phone, ride motorcycles, and work at the factory. besides the social and economic aspect of women working issue in banyumas, in particular, purbalingga, some participants suggest there might be a political factor. bowo leksono (2005) has said that the preference of woman laborers for the factories in purbalingga, is allegedly done to avoid the possibility of a demonstration by workers who demand higher wages. woman laborers are considered submissive and unwilling to protest about the salary they receive. financial demand in their family makes them fear to lose their jobs. in this case, women’s characters which are considered weak and always putting emotion before reason, prevent woman workers from protesting against the factory’s policy. this condition shows how stereotype works. ruth (1990) has defined stereotype as a composite image of traits and expectations pertaining to some group. this image is pertinent in the social mind though it is somehow off-center or inaccurate. specifically, gender stereotype is a belief on the psychological traits and characteristics which distinguish men and women (brannon in ayuningtyas, 2015). the effect is harmful to the stereotyped group and those with whom the members of the group interact. the negative stereotype of women has created unequal treatment on economic, social, 118 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 115-119 and political areas, like those women who work in factories. another gender issue presented in banyumas films is gender role in preserving culture/tradition in their village. two films are selected as the object of the research, namely mentari di sambirata and senyum lasminah. mentari di sambirata (adisty, 2012) is a banyumas film made by a high school student from sman 1 rembang, purbalingga named astri rahma adisty. produced in 2012, this 11-minute film has received many awards; they are best short fiction film in festival film purbalingga (ffp), the second best film in festival film dokumenter dan fiksi/cerita tingkat jawa tengah, the best cameramen at festival film dokumenter dan fiksi/cerita tingkat jawa tengah, the winner of best fiction in festival film pemuda, nominee of best film in avikom film festival, best film at festival film pelajar jogja, and the judges special award at festival film indonesia (ffi). martini, the main character of mentari di sambirata, chooses to stay in her village and work as a potter. pottery is a local industry which has been run from generations to generations. she refuses to follow her boyfriend and other young people who prefer to migrate to big cities like jakarta. for villagers, migrating to big cities is considered as the best option to increase their living standard. this phenomenon can be seen every year, especially after lebaran (eid) or the long holiday, when more people come back to jakarta compared to those who leave. these rural people, mostly the youth, are interested in trying to find a job in jakarta after seeing their neighbors who work there having better style and appearance. however as difficult as it might be, it is believed that big cities give new space to new challenges and opportunities as well as freedom for youth migrants (dyrness, 2014). thus, urbanization is multifaceted; it is related to changes in social and economic condition, and even political process (armstrong and mcgee in setyono, yunus, & giyarsih, 2016). mentari di sambirata, however, depicts the same issue from a different perspective. migrating to jakarta with no skills, as shown by martini’s boyfriend in this film, is not the right decision. that is because he cannot compete with other job seekers who have better set of skills. effendi (as cited in hanif et al., 2016) has stated that job seekers with low education and skills tend to deal with informal sector in industry and services. martini’s decision to stay in her village and continue the pottery tradition is considered as the right decision in this film. besides mentari di sambrata, another film which portrays women as a cultural nurturer is senyum lasminah (leksono, 2005). this 20-minute film is produced in 2005 by bowo leksono, a filmmaker from purbalingga. it won the second place of the best film at festival video edukasi in 2007, which is held by balai pengembangan media televisi pendidikan (bpmtp). furthermore, senyum lasminah is also screened at boemboe 3 cities short film festival in 2008. this film tells about lasminah, a young orphaned girl who lives with her brother and grandmother. when her parents died, lasminah does not continue her study. instead, she decides to work and take care of her family. with a lower level of educational background and no working experience, lasminah cannot provide good income from her work. lasminah makes batik and sells it to several batik stores in the town nearby. she is interested in following her friend to migrate to jakarta to get more money to support her brother’s education. however, in the end, lasminah decides to stay in her village and make batik with her grandmother. the female figures such as martini in mentari di sambirata and lasminah in senyum lasminah, describe women who take part in preserving traditional culture amidst the modern era. responding to this phenomenon, most participants of the group discussion agree that it does not commonly happen in their village. only a few women in their village prefer to live in the village and continue the tradition, such as in the film in which the female character chooses to make pottery, which is a traditional industry. many young women choose to work in factories or to be a household assistant because it is considered to be more promising financially. moreover, it also gives the new experience for them. the participants of the group discussion state that women have no interest in preserving and continuing the tradition as it is considered outdated. the outdated term here is associated with landis’ explanation on the characteristic of traditional culture as the way of people adapting to their natural environment (rahardjo, 2014). rural life is dependent on the elements of nature, such as land, water, rainfall, and many others. moreover, landis also believed that nature affects rural people’s passive and submissive attitudes. this attitude is in contrast with the characteristic of modern life with its technology advancement that demands a more dynamic life. from the audience’s perspectives, today, the ones who actively take part in preserving culture/tradition are women from the old generation. as stated by tefur and destriyani, group discussion participants from pliken village and karanglewas village in banyumas, housewives take this responsibility while taking care of their children. they are engaged in the traditional industry only to make money to support the family financially. this indicates the villagers’ lack of awareness in preserving culture/tradition which is supposed to be the identity of their village. the effort done by these women is underestimated by other people and even themselves, since they only do it as a part-time job. another opinion is stated by ayu hana kristina, a participant of the group discussion from pogung village, kebumen regency. she sees that the majority of women become the caretaker of tradition because women are considered to be more precise than men. moreover, the socio-cultural construction which divides the role of husband and wife in the family affects the phenomenon. men’s responsibility to provide income does not allow him to take part in preserving tradition. consequently, women, who are mostly housewives, have better opportunity to take part as they have more time. a similar opinion is said by slamet rianto, a participant from argapeni village, kebumen. he thinks that women have lower mobility than men; women have more time to preserve and continue the tradition of their villages. in short, gender role in preserving culture/tradition is influenced by the gender role in the family. women are considered to be the suitable party to preserve tradition/culture due to her nurturing character as a caretaker of the household. conclusions through the films researched, the authors can conclude that people in rural banyumas still hold traditional gender role in the family. that is for a husband to provide income to support the family financially and his wife to have domestic responsibility such as cleaning the house and rearing the children. however, the audiences, who are the young generation of banyumas, tend to have a more openminded perspective. 119gender role in rural life: .... (aidatul chusna, et al.) they can accept the changing gender role in this era which gives more opportunity for women to work in public areas. they take it as the wife’s financial support to help her husband cope with their poverty. despite their acceptance of the changing role, most audiences emphasize that the purpose of women working in public areas is mere to support her husband, not as the main income provider for the family. moreover, the traditional gender role division in the family also affects the gendered social roles in preserving tradition/ culture. the audience realizes that nowadays, banyumas people, especially the youth, are less interested in helping with cultural preservation in their villages. they think that traditional culture is outdated; it is no longer suitable for today’s era of globalization and technology advancement. however, the role of women in preserving culture is valued as women’s expressive role as a nurturer. references adisty, a. r. 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(2011). gender roles. in sociology reference guide: gender roles and equality (pp. 33–40). california: salem press. wulandari, m. s. (2015). skandal arit. clcpurbalingga. purbalingga, indonesia. 5 mins. yulianeta., soeratno, s. c., & kusharyanto, j. (2016). representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: a study of the reformation era novel. lingua cultura, 10(1), 31-36. https://doi. org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.845. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 59 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 59-65 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1543 the use of locative nouns li, shang, and zhong as mandarin language adposition ayu trihardini mandarin language department faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri jakarta jln. rawamangun muka, rawamangun, jakarta 13220, indonesia ayu.trihardini@gmail.com received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 19th december 2016/ accepted: 18th march 2017 how to cite: trihardini, a. (2017). the use of locative nouns li, shang, and zhong as mandarin language adposition. lingua cultura, 11(1). 59-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1543 abstract the purpose of this study was to analyze locative nouns (li, shang, and zhong) that may function as postpositions and therefore mandarin language considered to have circumposition. the collected data were sentences taken from chinese short stories by lu xun and the articles in the tabloid. because the object of this study consisted of language in texts, hence observation and documentation method were needed. the analysis of data used distribution method with dissipative technic, substitution technic, and insert technic. through dissipative and insert technic, the distribution of the adpositional phrase could be known. through substitution technic, the distribution of the adpositional phrase and the use of preposition related to semantic was conducted. the study shows, in some context of adpositional phrase, locative nouns li, shang, and zhong may function as postpositions, while the use of preposition zai, is optional, and the options provide the same meaning. based on this result, mandarin locative nouns should be considered as postpositions. keywords: locative nouns, adposition, mandarin postposition introduction adposition as a particle, which describes the predicative relation, is a common category in word classification of many languages. the term of adposition has often replaced with preposition, postposition, or circumposition. it depends on the type of adposition a language has. in crosslinguistics context, verhaar (2008) has concluded that languages with consistently verb-object structure will mostly have the only preposition as the type of adposition, and languages with object-verb structure will mostly have the only postposition. meanwhile, languages with inconsistent structure will have both preposition and postposition. a language with subject-verb-object (svo) and subject-object-verb (sov) structure generally has the characteristic that can be seen in table 1. the mandarin language has inconsistent structure. it sometimes is considered having verb-object or object-verb structure. greenberg has stated li, charles n and thompson (2005), although the mandarin language has more of verbobject structure, it has the characteristic of language with object-verb structure. from table 1, the characteristic referred and relevant to this study is the mandarin language has postposition with noun-postposition structure. in the mandarin language, the locative noun can be placed after a noun. what greenberg has suggested earlier indicates that locative noun can be considered as the postposition. verhaar (2008) has found that the structure of mandarin language reflects the probability of having both preposition and postposition. the purpose of this study is to analyze the probability of using other adposition in the mandarin language, which is postposition. table 1 the characteristic of language with svo and sov structure language with svo structure language with sov structure center-adverb verb-adverb adverb-verb noun-adjective adjective-noun noun-conjunctions conjunctions-noun noun-possessive pronoun possessive pronounnoun other relevant structures auxiliary verb-verb verb-auxiliary verb preposition-noun noun-postposition (source: li & thompson, 2005) 60 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 59-65 the postposition refers to the object of the preposition or the term locative noun (ln) in the mandarin grammar studies. this study mainly discusses locative nouns li (inside), shang (above), and zhong (in the middle). mushangwe (2014) has said that the prepositions show the relationship between one thing and another, link words such as nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a given phrase. a preposition is the only adposition known in the mandarin language. locative noun li, shang, and zhong are often used along with preposition zai in an adpositional phrase. most of the mandarin language preposition derived from the verb. therefore, preposition zai has a similar form and phonetic sound with verb zai that has a meaning of ‘exist’. there are the characteristics of mandarin language preposition; (1) it manages to form a prepositional phrase when used with another full word. generally, the preposition or the object of preposition will be followed by the noun. (2) it cannot be reduplicated, nor followed by auxiliary words such as zhe, le, and guo. (3) generally, it is a single form that cannot be considered as a sentence, nor being a subject, predicate, or other functions of syntax. (4) it declares time, place, way, excuses, following an act or condition, exception, and passive condition. except for preposition zai, locative noun shang and zhong also can be used as a verb. there are some characteristics that may be overlooked in order to see the interconnectedness and similarities between the languages in the world. like other languages, mandarin also has word that considered as two different word classes. yin guoguang in yin (2007) has stated, there are at least two elements to be considered in order to classify mandarin words; they are the grammatical function and the meaning. based on these two elements, the use of shang as a verb is shang che (riding car), shang louti (climbing up the stairs). the use of zhong as a verb is zhongdu (being poisoned), dazhong (hit the target). the above statement about word classification of zai, shang, and zhong describes that in this study, word classification problem is an important thing to be solved. if this problem cannot be solved, it will affect the whole process of data validation. word can be divided into two main groups; they are the full word and empty word/particle. the particle is a limited word that cannot be the input of any morphology process, have grammatical meaning, and can be mastered with memorizing. xing (2010) has said that there are 11 word classes in the mandarin language. followings are related to our focus of study from what xing have stated (1) li, shang and zhong belong to the noun. locative noun is a subcategory of the noun. (2) in the mandarin language, particle consists of the preposition, adverb, conjunction, auxiliary, and others. (3) adposition that known in the mandarin language is the preposition. xing (2010) has found that locative noun is a limited and specific type of noun. the term locative noun is a noun that describes the location, direction, and relation between location-direction. based on the structure, locative noun is divided into simple locative noun and complex locative noun. simple locative noun consists of one syllable or monosyllable, for example, li (inside), shang (above), zhong (in the middle). other examples are xia (under), qian (in front), hou (behind), dong (east), xi (west), nan (south), bei (north), wai (outside), nei (inside). the locative noun is used with another word that placed after the word to form a phrase, for example of locative noun hou (behind) in wuzi hou (room-behind) has meaning ‘behind the room’ (xing, 2010). the phrase with n+ln construction is known as the locative phrase. locative noun or fangweici is subcategory of noun that describes direction and location. as above stated, locative noun is used with other word to form n + ln phrase. besides, the use of locative noun has prep+n+ln structure, as lv shuxiang has suggested in xiandai hanyu babaici. 方位词常常跟‘在、从、到’等介词配合起来 用。别的语言里的‘介+名’短语,汉语里有 时候必得用‘介+名+方’来说,例如英语的 ‘in the room’ 说法是 ‘在屋子里’。(lv, 2009:14) (the locative noun is often used with preposition zai, cong, dao and other preposition. the phrase with prep+n structure in other languages will different with the mandarin language. in mandarin will have to use prep. + n + ln structure, for example, the english phrase ‘inside the room’ will have to be translated into zai wuzi li). the above english adpositional phrase can be describe as follows: in the room 在屋子里 zai wuzi li at-room-inside ‘inside the room’ ‘in the room’ consists of the prep+n structure. in the mandarin translation zai wuzi li will have prep+n+ln structure. lv (2009) has found that the use of preposition zai is optional, therefore the phrase can be translated into zai wuzi li (at-room-inside) or wuzi li (room-inside) without changing its meaning. although lv not explicitly stated, the scholars treat the locative noun as a postposition. from the statement, the use of locative noun li, shang, and zhong in a phrase will have n+ ln structure or prep+n+ln structure. lv (2009) studies are based on phrase structures with the locative noun as noun subcategory. according to this point of view, the phrase with prep+ n structure can be considered as the prepositional phrase. on the other hand, the phrase with n+ln structure is considered as the locative phrase. the use of preposition zai (at) along with locative noun indicates there are times when locative noun li, shang, and zhong appear without the presence of preposition zai but manage to have the same meaning. as the basic consideration in indonesian language, kridalaksana (1994) has found there is the prep+ln structure in indonesian language preposition phrase. kridalaksana has stated that the word class of dalam (in/ inside) can be understood as; (1) ia tinggal di dalam/ he lives inside (dalam is a noun), (2) ia tinggal di dalam rumah/he lives inside the house (dalam is a noun of dalam rumah phrase), (3) ia tinggal dalam rumah/he lives in the house (dalam is a preposition). the use of preposition di (at), di dalam (inside), and di atas (above) are affected by semantic features that contained in the center noun or object of the preposition (alwi, 2003). the flattened two-dimensional object such as “a table” can use preposition di atas meja (above the table) or di meja (at the table). a spatial three-dimensional object such as “a drawer” can use preposition di dalam laci 61the use of locative nouns li, shang, and zhong .... (ayu trihardini) (inside the drawer) or di laci (in the drawer). either “di meja” or “di laci” will not change their meaning. therefore, alwi has concluded that indonesian language prepositional phrase has a typical pattern of the prep+ln+n/object of the preposition. kridalaksana (1994) has found that indonesian phrase di dalam (inside), di atas (above) and di tengah (at the middle) are called mix preposition. based on the description of mandarin and indonesian language, it is necessary to analyze the use of ln as mandarin language postposition. liu daqing in xu (2008) has stated that in mandarin language spatial meaning is described through the use of preposition or postposition or the circumposition, the combination between them. the mandarin language is a language with spatial circumposition, which in a phrase there is a preposition that describes spatial relation such as zai (at), wang (to), cong (from) and so on, also a locative noun that describes spatial location such as li (inside), shang (above), and zhong (in the middle). other studies about mandarin language postposition are brought by sun and chappelin in xu (2008). sun called postposition with the term locatives, meanwhile, chappel called it localizers. either the term locatives or localizers, all refer to locative noun. the study which supports the hypotheses about mandarin language circumposition is cui xiliang’s article in hanyu xuexi journal (cui, 2002) that discuss language classification from the way languages express the spatial relation in sentences. in many languages, the spatial position is expressed in various ways. english uses the preposition, mandarin uses preposition added the locative noun, while russian uses auxiliary and so on. moreover, the elements that are used to express this spatial relation also have the different location. 空间的表达有三种位置类型。(1) 前置型:表 达空间关系的语言成分位于谓语动词之前。例 如日语。(2) 后置型:表达空间关系的语言成 分位于谓语动词之后。以俄语为例。(3) 前后并 存型:标引空间方位关系的成分即可以出现在 谓词性成分之前,又可以出现在谓词性成分之 后。例如现代英语和现代汉语。(cui, 2002) (the marker element of spatial relation have three types of location; (1) located in the front; language which it element of spatial relation located in front of verb/main predicate, for example, japanese. (2) located in the back; language which it element of spatial relation located behind of verb/main predicate, for example, russian. (3) located in the front and the back; the element of spatial relation other than located in front of the predicate, also located behind of predicate, for example, modern english and modern mandarin language). according to cui xiliang, from the diachronic point of view, mandarin’s structure changed in the element of spatial relation. classic mandarin language is classified as the group of language type 2, namely the language with the element of spatial relation located behind of verb/main predicate. whereas modern mandarin language is classified as the group of language type 3. thus actually, the mandarin language is formerly knowing and using the marker element of spatial relation behind the predicative element. cui xiliang compares it as the following example: (1) 入于幽谷 ru yu you gu (classic mandarin language) enter at deep valley enter into the deep valley (2) 进入到深谷里 jinru dao shen gu li (modern mandarin language) enter to deep valley inside ‘enter into the deep valley’ upon two examples above, the classic mandarin language only needs preposition yu (at). while modern mandarin language needs preposition dao (to), and locative noun li (inside) to be a grammatically accepted utterance. nevertheless, cui xiliang uses the term locative noun to refer the element behind noun ‘valley’. so is chappel in xu, (2008); li, charles n, and thompson (2005); ernst, (1988), although it does not mention explicitly, these experts treat the locative noun as a marker element of spatial relation that put after a noun or postposition. methods analysis concerning the locative noun li, shang, and zhong as mandarin language adposition is aimed to prove the earlier hypothesis that the mandarin language have adposition other than the preposition, and it is classified as the language with circumposition. the data in this study are sentences using preposition zai and locative noun li, shang, zhong. the data sources are (1) short stories in xiaoshuo quanpian by lu xun,consists of 狂人日记 kuangren riji, 药 yao, 明天 mingtian, 自序 zixu, 孔乙己 kong yiji (lu, 1997); and (2) articles in mandarin tabloid hi-young mandarin consists of迎接新春yingjie xinchun, 新年倒数 一周 xinnian daoshu yi zhou, 2010年庚寅年十二生肖运 程 2010 nian qing huangnian shi’er shengxiao yuncheng, 樂樂漢語 lele hanyu, fun hi!雅台 yatai,节日我知jieri wo zhi (hi young mandarin, 2010). these simply because the data needed are founded most in the novel, short stories, or articles in the variety of language. lu xun’s short stories represent how the locative noun is being used in china on the early 1900s, which is the beginning of baihua or the modern non-classic chinese language. meanwhile, hiyoung’s articles represent how the locative noun is being used recently on 2000s era. both are written in a semiformal way that gives us many varieties of the use of the locative noun in a phrase construction. as wang & xu (2013) have stated on the average of every 100 words of 2000 people’s daily corpus, there are 15,1 prepositional phrases appeared. in other words, by statistic, the use of prepositional phrases is significant. therefore, there are many data provided for this study. this study involves unj mandarin language education program students and unj bipa student from china. the students’ main task is to provide and classify data. the bipa student’s task is to examine the conclusions. a native speaker is needed to be involved because it is difficult for non-native to use adposition which does not have clear lexical meaning with an important role in the sentence (wulandari, 2010). the object of this study consists of language in texts, hence observation, and documentation method that are needed. after carefully observe objects of study, the collected data are documented in the data card. the analysis 62 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 59-65 of data uses distribution method with dissipative technique, substitution technique, and insert technique. the distribution method is a method that commonly used in language research. this study uses distribution method because of the need of an instrument of mandarin language syntax structure. in data analysis, distribution method uses determiner instrument as part of the target language, namely words, syntax functions, clause, syllable, pitches, and so on (sudaryanto, 1993). through dissipative and insert technique, the distribution of the adpositional phrase, which contains li, shang, and zhong on syntax structure could be known. the elements that are being dissipated and inserted alternately are preposition zai and locative noun li, shang, zhong. through substitution technique, the testing toward the conclusion of adpositional phrase distribution and the use of preposition zai, also li, shang, zhong that related to semantic is conducted. results and discussions locative noun (ln) or fangweici, is a subcategory of the noun which illustrates direction and location (xing, 2010). locative noun often forms phrase construction with n+ln structure. lv (2009) has said that locative noun is often used along with preposition zai (at) in forming prepositional phrase construction with prep+ n+ ln structure. based on the collected and analysed data, locative noun li (inside), shang (above), and zhong (in the middle), the results are; (1) it can be considered as postposition, (2) it cannot be considered as postposition, and (3) it can be considered as circumposition. first, the use of locative noun after noun is a must, in a specific, noun that requires to demonstrate the location of an object. second, in adpositional phrase with zai+n+ln structure which is an adverb of sentence, the use of preposition zai become optional. for example: a. 在我们店里 (zai women dian li) at-our-shop-inside inside our shop b. 我们店里 (women dian li) our-shop-inside inside our shop when preposition zai is not used, the meaning of the phrase women dian li remain does not change. for example: a. 在现在的世界上 (zai xianzai de shijie shang) at-nowadays-de/part-world-above above the world nowadays b. 现在的世界上 (xianzai de shijie shang) nowadays-de/part-world-above above the world nowadays when preposition zai is not used, the meaning of the phrase xianzai de shijie shang remain does not change. for example: a. 在这土路中 (zai zhe tulu zhong) at-this-journey-middle in this journey b. 这土路中 (zhe tulu zhong) this-journey-middle in this journey when preposition zai is not used, the meaning of the phrase zhe tulu zhong remain does not change. third, in n+ln shang structure, which locative noun shang contains the meaning of preposition ‘at’. fourth, in verb+n+ln li structure as predicate, which n is three dimensional non-abstract objects. for example: a. 住家里 (zhu jia li) live-house-in live inside the house b. 装衣袋里 (zhuang yidai li) put-pocket-inside put inside the pocket’ n ‘house’ and n ‘pocket’ are three dimensional non-abstract object, thus locative noun li can be directly used without preposition zai. locative noun li in above construction can be considered as postposition. fifth, in n+ln li structure, which ln li is used to indicate the place of birth, events, and particular settled place. for example: a. s会管里有三件事。 s huiguan li you san jian shi. s-meeting hall-inside-there-three-space-room inside s meeting hall there are three rooms.’ b. 姐姐命里缺什么? jiejie ming li que shenme? sister-life-inside-lack-what what is lacking in sister life? c. 今年田里收成好。 jinnian tian li shoucheng hao this year-field-inside-harvest-good this year’s harvest is good’ ln li is used to indicate the place of birth, events, settled place as in the noun of ‘hall’, ‘life’, ‘field.’ sixth, in n+ln zhong structure, which ln zhong is used to indicate area, demonstrate a situation or atmosphere. for example: a. 他话中全毒 ta hua zhong quan du his-words-middle-all-poison his words are full of poison in verb+prep zai+n+ln structure which possessed the functions of predicate, the using of preposition zai is a must. verbs such as lie (in parallel), luo (fall), sai (insert), duo (hide), fang (put), shui (sleep), zuo (sit), li (stand), need the presence of preposition zai. only few verbs that can be used together with ln, such as zhuang (put) and zhu (live), without preposition zai. for example: a. 还在这里 hai zai zhe li still-exist-this-inside still inside here b. 现在只在一个包上。 xianzai zhi zai yi ge baoshang now-only-there-one-item-bag-above now there is only one item above the bag the form without preposition zai such as hai zhe li and xianzai zhi yi ge baoshang are considered as 63the use of locative nouns li, shang, and zhong .... (ayu trihardini) ungrammatical form. in proposition zai+n+ln+verb structure as a predicate, the using of preposition zai is a must. without preposition zai, the meaning of the form will be unclear and considered as ungrammatical. for example: a. 在床上躺着 zai chuangshang tangzhe at-bed-above-lay down-zhe/part laying down on the bed b. 床上躺着 chuangshang tangzhe bed-above-lay down-zhe/part (ungrammatical) c. 在每岁里接了钱 zai mei sui li jiele qian at-every-age-inside-receive-already-money in every year already receiving money d. 每岁里接了钱 mei sui li jiele qian e v e r y a g e i n s i d e r e c e i v e a l r e a d y m o n e y (ungrammatical) in verb+n+ln li structure which possessed the functions of predicate, n is an abstract object. for example: a. 落在寂静里 luo zai jijing li fall-at-silence-inside fall into silence b. 落寂静里 luo jijing li (ungrammatical) in verb+preposition zai+n+ln shang structure which possessed the functions of predicate. the using of preposition zai is a must. for example: a. 活在世上 huo zai shi shang live-at-world-above living in the world b. 活世上 huo shi shang live-at-world (ungrammatical) c. 坐在床沿上 zuo zai chuangyan shang sit-at-bed-side-above sitting on the bedside d. 坐床沿上 zuo chuangyan shang sit-bed-side-above (ungrammatical) in indonesian language, ‘sitting on the bedside’ already have ‘sitting above the bed’ meaning, so generally it does not need to use ln ‘atas’ (above). noun that describes name of location only need to use preposition zai. inserting locative noun can cause the inserted phrase into ungrammatical form. for example: a. 我的朋友在北大里学习 wo de pengyou zai beida li xuexi. my-de/part-friend-at-beijing university-insidestudy (ungrammatical) the above sentence will be considered grammatical if there is not locative noun li (inside) existed. the use of locative noun is optional, when the noun describes name of building, unit, and name of mountain, river, lake. some nouns such as yanjiu (research), shishi (reality), sixiang (idea), koutou (oral), wenti (problem) in n+ln shang structure are often using preposition zai. according to native speaker, when the noun is not using zai, the use of locative noun shang is also optional. for example: a. (在)一个合适的位置 (zai) yi ge heshi de weizhi (at)-one-item-suitable-de/part-position-above at a suitable position b. 放在枕头(上)旁边 fang zai zhentou (shang) pangbian put-at-pillow(above)-beside put beside the pillow in n+ln shang structure, it can be inserted with preposition zai. causing as if there are two parts of adposition or so called circumposition. for locative noun shang that showing location of an object or defines areas/ fields, the semantic needs cannot always be fulfilled. therefore inserting preposition zai can sometimes unacceptable. for example: a. 一路上的人 yi lu shang de ren one-road-above-de/part-person ‘the man on the same road’, this construction can be inserted with preposition zai into zai yi lu shang de ren. b. 山上还有云雾 shan shang haiyou yunwu mountain-above-still there-fog ‘there are still fogs on top of the mountain’, this construction can be inserted with preposition zai into zai shan shang haiyou yunwu. c. 书上写着这件多字 shushang xiezhe zhe jian duo zi book-above-write-zhe/part-this-piece-severalletters ‘in the book written several of these letters’ cannot be inserted with preposition zai. the construction zai shushang xiezhe zhe jian duo zi is considered as ungrammatical form. d. 乳房上发了一条热 rufang shang fa le yi tiao re nursing room-above-flare –le/part-one-piece-fire ‘on top of the nursing room, the fire was already flare’ cannot be inserted with preposition zai, the construction zai rufang shang fa le yi tiao re is considered as ungrammatical form. e. showing areas or fields: 工作上充满赶紧 gongzuo shang chongman ganjin work-above-very-dilligent ‘in the field of occupational work, very dilligent’ cannot be inserted with preposition zai, the construction zai gongzuo shang chongman ganjin is considered as ungrammatical form. f. 涉取专业上的新知识 shequ zhuanye shang de xin zhishi reach-profession-above-de/part-new-knowledge ‘to reach a new knowledge in the field of professional 64 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 59-65 service’ cannot be inserted with preposition zai, the construction shequ zai zhuanye shang de xin zhishi is considered as ungrammatical form. in verb+preposition zai+n+ln li structure as a predicate, noun is a three dimensional non-abstract objects. the use of zai is optional. when zai are used, it will cause as if there are circumposition. for example: a. 落在寂静里 luo zai jijing li fall-at-silence-inside ‘fall into silence’ b. 落寂静里 luo jijing li fall-silence-inside (ungrammatical) c. 装在衣袋里 zhuang zai yidai li put-at-pocket-inside ‘put inside the pocket’ d. 装衣袋里 zhuang yidai li put-pocket-inside ‘put inside the pocket’ e. 住在家里 zhu zai jia li live-at-house-inside ‘live inside the house’ f. 住家里 zhu jia li live-house-inside ‘live inside the house’ silence is a non-abstract object, therefore the dissipative form is considered as ungrammatical. pocket and house are three dimensional non-abstract objects, therefore the dissipative form is considered as grammatical. the use of locative noun zhong has limitations compared with ln li and shang. in zai+n+ln zhong structure, the dissipation of preposition zai sometimes causes the phrase ungrammatical. for example: a. 在冷淡的空气中 zai lengdan de kongqi zhong at-cold-de/part-weather-middle ‘in this cold weather’ b. 冷淡的空气中 lengdan de kongqi zhong cold-de/part-weather-middle ‘in this cold weather’ c. 在旁人的说笑声中 zai pangren de shuoxiaosheng zhong at-next people-de/part-talk-laugh-sound-middle ‘in the midst of people’s laughter’ d. 旁人的说笑声中 pangren de shuoxiaosheng zhong next people-de/part-talk-laugh-sound-middle (ungrammatical) in n+ln zhong structure, which ln zhong means between or in a certain group, sometimes can be inserted with preposition zai. if there is a verb at the front of the structure, the phrase cannot be inserted with zai. for example: a. 菜中唯独鱼必能吃完 cai zhong weidu yu bi neng chiwan dish-middle-only-fish-cannot-eaten up ‘among the dish, only fish that cannot be eaten up’ b. 在菜中唯独鱼必能吃完 zai cai zhong weidu yu bu neng chiwan at-dish-middle-only-fish-cannot-eaten up ‘among the dish, only fish that cannot be eaten up’ c. 客中少有人来 ke zhong shao you ren lai. guests-middle-few-there-people-come ‘among the invited guests, only few that came by’ d. 在客中少有人来 zai ke zhong shao you ren lai. a t g u e s t s m i d d l e f e w t h e r e p e o p l e c o m e (ungrammatical) the construction of zai ke zhong shao you ren lai, according to native speaker is considered as ungrammatical but still understandable. conclusions the data are the results of analysis along with mandarin native speaker. in the process of this study, the native speaker shows his difficulties in classifying a structure into just two types of form: grammatical or ungrammatical. some structure could be classified as ungrammatical form, but understandable. therefore, according to the native speaker, structure classification is supposed to divide into three types of form: (1) grammatical, (2) ungrammatical, (3) ungrammatical but understandable. based on dissipative technic, substitution technic and insert technic of distribution method, it can be concluded that in popular text (magazine, short stories, and novel), locative noun li, shang, and zhong are treated as postposition, are not treated as postposition, and locative noun together with preposition zai are treated as circumposition. according to the features of locative noun li, shang, and zhong, generally can be used together with preposition zai. in certain contexts, mandarin language treats the locative noun as postposition and at the same time also using its preposition. from these circumstances, it can be concluded that mandarin locative noun li, shang, and zhong sometimes should be considered as postpositions and mandarin language considers to have circumposition. abbreviations used: n : noun ln : locative noun part : particle prep. : preposition svo : subject-verb-object sov : subject-object-verb references alwi, h. 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(xuc lin) 73 woman survival in chinese feudal patrilineal society: an analysis of song lian's destiny in qi qie chenqun by su tong 封建夫权下“新女性”的生存困境与侵犯行为 -----苏童《妻妾成群》女主人公颂莲的悲剧命运分析 xuc lin chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract article depicted woman’s difficulties in maintaining her life as well as her aggressiveness in the patrilineal society in chinese feudal time. article analyzed song lian’s bad fate. she was the main character of qi qie chenqun novel, written by su tong. article analysis consisted of three parts. the first part described song lian’s background of life and her becoming a mistress. the second part indicated song lian’s attacking behavior to other woman because of defending her life. his third part analyzed some causes that made song lian did not survive in life. it can be concluded that the fact, song lian is able to be survive but she decides to be a mistress caused by both personal and o social reasons. song lian’s attacking other woman is caused by her anger representing her unsuccessful life. principally, song lian’s failure in the feudal life is caused by her unsuccessful in becoming a respected woman. if she had been a respected woman, she would have also competed with other women in achieving a better life. keywords: mistress, concubine, aggressiveness, chinese feudal society, life achievement. 摘 要 本文试图通过对苏童《妻妾成群》女主人公颂莲悲剧命运的分析,揭示“新女性” 在 封建夫权下的生存状况。第一部分讲述颂莲为了生存而做妾的背景,第二部分剖 析颂莲在生存 过程中对其他人进行的攻击行为,第三部分挖掘颂莲生存失败的原因。 后得出结论:颂莲能 反抗但不愿反抗,反而自选当妾,不仅有个人因素也有社会 因素;颂莲对其他女人进行攻击主 要是因为愤怒,愤怒的产生来自她对这些女人侵 犯行为的反应,也来自她本身的失败。颂莲之 所以会失败是因为她在封建家庭里无 法做“好女人”,即使做了“好女人”也避免不了跟别的 女人争夺生存空间。 关键词:做妾;生存;侵犯行为;愤怒;失败 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 73-78 74 前言 《妻妾成群》讲述一个女性的婚姻悲剧。故事的女主人公颂莲被抬到陈家嫁给陈老爷。上 过一年大学的颂莲这个“新女性”却自愿选择走进一个旧家庭,当陈老爷的四太太。到了陈家, 原本没打算跟其他太太们争斗的颂莲(梅珊假装生病,颂莲还会关心她),被环境所逼变成跟 陈家其他女人一样,为了自己的存在,想方设法博取陈老爷的欢心。陈家女人之间的争风吃醋 和勾心斗角导致她们互相攻击, 终颂莲不可避免地成为了这场争斗的牺牲品。 作为一个接受过新式教育的新女性,颂莲为何愿意选择“做妾”?在陈家当了四太太之后 怎样生存?颂莲受到了怎样的攻击使她对那些女人也进行反击? 后颂莲为何失败而无法生存 下去?这些是本文所关注和探讨的主要问题。 一、颂莲做妾的背景 颂莲是小说的叙事人。颂莲在那个时代可算得上是一个“新女性”。虽然小说没有交代故 事发生的年代,不过一个女孩在能上大学表明她生活在清末或民国时期,因为中国之前的封建 制度是不允许女性上学的,女校大概 20 世纪初才开始出现的。颂莲受到的教育导致她的思想与 行为跟那个时代的女人有很大的不同。“三从四德”的道德标准使封建时代中国女性性格自卑、 被动、迁就。她们不善于也不敢于表达自已的意见和独立地处理问题。她们常会自觉地迎合别 人。颂莲跟陈佐千的第一次见面时,让我们看到了一个自信、主动,敢说出自己意见的女子。 她甚至要求一个比她老一辈的男人“在西餐社见面”,并给她“买蛋糕”。 陈佐千第一次去看颂莲,颂莲闭门不见,从门里扔出一句话,去西餐社见面。……,陈佐 千记得颂莲在他对面坐下,从提袋里掏出一大把小蜡烛,她轻声对陈佐千说,给我要一盒蛋糕 好吧。 颂莲本来处在一个可以抗争的环境里,但她没有抗争的意识,不但愿意嫁给一个老头子, 而且还自愿做妾。 当她父亲去世时,继母让她在做工和嫁人两条路上选择时,她淡然地回答说,当然嫁人。 继母又问,你想嫁个一般人家还是有钱人家?颂莲说,当然有钱人家,这还用问?"继母说,那 不一样,去有钱人家是做小。颂莲说,什么叫做小?继母考虑了一下,说,就是做妾,名份是 委屈了点。颂莲冷笑了一声,名份是什么?名份是我这样人考虑的吗?反正我交给你卖了,你 要是顾及父亲的情义,就把我卖个好主吧。 《诗经》有歌云:“女心伤悲,殆及公子同归”。年轻女子满心伤悲,因为害怕自己被选中 做女公子的媵嫁,她们不愿意做妾,只希望好好地嫁为人妻。世间女人在一般的情况下肯定不 愿意做妾,其实颂莲也不例外,当她跟陈佐千第一次见面的时候,她在蛋糕上插上十九根蜡烛, 点上蜡烛然后吹灭,又说“提前过生日吧,十九岁过完了”。颂莲心里明白,蜡烛吹灭之时, 自己就要迎接新的生活,而这个生活不一定是幸福的。她把十九根蜡烛插上代表以往生活的结 束,把一根还没点燃的收回包里表示她对未来的生活还抱有一丝希望。通过颂莲和继母的谈话, 一方面我们可以说颂莲个人虽然受过教育但她的自我意识没有觉醒,另一方面她很明白,父亲 去世前,经营的茶厂倒闭了,没有钱负担她的费用,父亲后来投井自杀,颂莲必须自己负责自 己了。她能上大学表示她的家庭经济条件不错,她早已习惯过比较优越的生活,为了能保持这 样的生活没有别的路可选,只能选嫁人,而且嫁有钱人家。心理学家马斯洛指出:人类动机的 woman survival..... (xuc lin) 75 终极目标是基本需要,颂莲需要的是生理需要,就是对生存基本条件的需要。这种需要是人的 需要中 基本、 强烈、 具有优势的一种。生理需要对人的行为只限于生理需要没得到满足 时才会有强有力的影响(郑雪, 2004: 237)。颂莲清楚如果她选上工作,她必须养活家里人,生活 条件又不一定得到保障,她不敢面对“娜拉走后怎么办?” 除了颂莲个人的因素,还有社会因素,在那个时代,虽然女性解放已开始提倡,但几千年 的礼教根深蒂固,不是说改革就能立竿见影的,封建礼教以女性之“弱”为美,“妇功不必工 巧过人也”。社会还不能容纳读过书的女性,还不能接受女性当自主谋生,女性如果冲出男人 的权利寻找自己的理想,只能要么卖身青楼,要么在戏班子唱戏。颂莲明白做妾是没有地位的, 但没有名分总不至于比妓女更卑微。 二、颂莲在生存过程中对他人的攻击 颂莲进入陈府的目的其实很简单,就是为了生存,想过比较好的日子罢了,所以她一开始 对陈家的太太们不怀恶意。她本来是井水不犯河水的,但由于环境所逼,到后来她也也本能地 显示她的利害。 颂莲第一次见大太太,即陈家的元配太太时,觉得年轻是自己的优势。她跟陈佐千说“她 有一百岁了吧,那么老?”。大太太毓如见了颂莲心理就不平衡,一来陈佐千纳颂莲为妾是秘 密进行的,她一点儿都不知,根本没心理准备;二来在潜意识中有一种恐惧,害怕因颂莲的到 来而增加新对手。她手里的佛珠突然断线,这一细微的失态反映了她内心的烦恼与慌乱,但为 了尊严她又不好做任何反应,只能说“罪过,罪过”。 虽然毓如没有作出任何反应,但颂莲不知天高的话语她铭记在心,所以后来一有机会就进 行报复,如烧树叶的事,与其说这是陈家年年秋天的习惯,不如说这些是故意冲颂莲来的,明 知颂莲住在后花园非得把树叶扫到那儿再烧。还有,颂莲喝醉的时候,毓如给她灌醒酒药,打 了她一个耳光。颂莲对大太太除了敢表达自己的意见外,没有真正的斗争,颂莲没机会跟她斗, 因她们接触比较少。除此之外,颂莲主观上也没想跟她斗气,因为毓如不至于对颂莲做一些致 命的危害。 三太太梅珊虽然在颂莲初入陈府家门时也耍过一些花样,不过后来两人之间并没有发生什 么严重的对立与冲突。梅珊的下场跟颂莲差不了多少。大太太,三太太虽然攻击过颂莲,但是 她们之间的关系没有恶化到“杀人”的地步。颂莲跟二太太卓云及丫鬟雁儿的关系就不一样了。 颂莲很快称呼卓云姐姐,因为在陈家太太们当中,一开始只有卓云对她比较热情。她是这 样评价卓云的:“像卓云这样的女人不仅男人会喜欢,女人也不会讨厌她。”但是知人知面不 知心,卓云通过雁儿,用三枚细针刺在小布人胸前来诅咒颂莲。颂莲心理很不服气,当卓云要 颂莲帮她剪头发时,颂莲就抓住这个机会来报复她,把卓云的耳朵剪了一下。对雁儿颂莲更是 心狠手辣, 后她逼雁儿吃草纸,雁儿后来因此就病死了。颂莲为何会对这两个女人发起攻击 行为?我们来分析一下。 颂莲、卓云和雁儿的互相攻击,主要是因为她们内心对对方产生了愤怒感。愤怒 通常的 来源之一是受到他人的袭击或侵犯。当他人对个体做出令其不愉快的举动时,个体很可能会感 到愤怒,并且感受到来自他人的侵犯。人们对他人的侵犯常常以“以牙还牙”的方式给予还击。 当人们一旦感到愤怒时,常常会采用以下四种方法来回应:第一种是直接的侵犯行为,包括口 头或象征性攻击,回收某些利益和人身伤害;第二种是间接的攻击行为,包括向第三者诉说, jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 73-78 76 诅咒、伤害对侵犯者有重要意义的东西;第三种是替代性攻击,包括攻击无生命物体,攻击另 外一个人;第四种是非攻击性行为,包括平静活动和就此了事(乐国安, 2006:369)。 雁儿是被派来伺候颂莲的丫鬟,颂莲来陈家的第一天就对她显示了自己的利害,告诉她自 己在陈家的身份,这导致雁儿从一开始就对颂莲怀恨在心。 第二天雁儿去见颂莲的时候心里胆怯...... 然后她对雁儿说,你蹲下,我看看你的头发。 雁儿蹲下来感觉到颂莲的手在挑她的头发,仔细地察看什么,然后她听见颂莲说:“你没有虱 子吧,我 怕虱子。”雁儿咬住嘴唇没说话、她觉得颂莲的手像冰凉的刀锋切割她的头发,有 一点疼痛。颂莲说,“你头上什么味?真难闻,快拿块香皂洗头去。”雁儿站起来,她垂着手 站在那儿不动。陈佐千瞪了她一眼,“没听见四太太说话?”雁儿说,“昨天才洗过头。”陈 佐千拉高嗓门喊,“别废话,让你去洗就得去洗,小心揍你。” 雁儿端了一盆水在海棠树下洗头,洗得委屈,心里的气恨像一块铁坠在那里。午后阳光照 射着两棵海棠树,一根晾衣绳栓在两根树上,四太大颂莲的白衣黑裙在微风中摇曳。雁儿朝四 处环顾一圈,后花园间寂无人,她走到晾衣蝇那儿,朝颂莲的白衫上吐了一口唾沫。 虽然仗着陈佐千对她有点儿意思便想飞上枝头变凤凰,给自己找个可以依附的树枝,而颂 莲的到来显然是打碎了她的梦境、剥夺了她的机会,不过身为丫鬟,雁儿不敢直接冒犯颂莲, 而二太太因为颂莲的到来也觉得给自己带来威胁就利用雁儿,借刀杀人攻击颂莲,后来被颂莲 发现,颂莲感到很愤怒,就抓住雁儿的头发,把雁儿的头一次一次地往墙撞。得知主谋是卓云 后,颂莲虽未当场撕破脸皮,但怀恨于心。当卓云叫她帮忙剪头发时,颂莲就装着不小心的样 子把卓云的耳朵剪掉。实际上,她是对卓云“以牙还牙”。 后来,颂莲在抽水马桶里发现了雁儿忘记冲水而留下的草纸,上面有一个模糊的女人,虽 然纸被水浸烂了,但上面的女人却一眼就能分辨。颂莲明白,画的又是她。这一次颂莲盯视的 目光因愤怒而变得绝望,她坚决强迫雁儿把那团脏脏的草纸吃了。雁儿没有选择,结果就这么 病死了。 颂莲对雁儿的愤怒,在此前颂莲“怀孕”而雁儿却表现出不高兴时就埋下了,发现被诅咒 的时候,颂莲顺便把雁儿当发泄怨怒的对象。把雁儿当作发泄对象是 适合,因为雁儿是一个 女佣,是一个弱小和没有风险的对象。陈佐千只提醒颂莲别太阴损,没有也不会为了一个丫头 而对她采取什么家法。 颂莲的身上又来了,没有哪次比这回更让颂莲焦虑和烦躁了。那摊紫红色的污血对于颂莲 是一种无情的打击。她心里清楚,她怀孕的可能随着陈佐千的冷淡和无能变得可望而不可及。 如果这成了事实,那么她将孤零零地像一叶浮萍在陈家花园漂流下去吗? 颂莲生存的失败因素 颂莲是小说中的失败者。颂莲的失败是多方面的。她失败,因为她挽救不了自己沦为小妾 的命运;她失败,因为她无法得到自己所追求的;她失败,因为她连基本的反抗意识都不曾萌 生过。而尤为人所关注的,是颂莲作为一个“新女性”在旧家庭中生存的失败。颂莲进入陈家 是自愿的,这表示颂莲已准备迎接“做妾”的挑战。但身为新女性,她不能完全适应封建女性 所谓的“好女人”的角色。封建社会的好人,特别是已婚的女人,在生存策略和艺术上,必须 有谦恭顺从、和睦勤快这种以退让求生存的哲学特质。妇女应以男人为天,只能依附于丈夫, 服服帖帖地听命于丈夫的管制,做丈夫的附属品(巴莺乔,2006:1)。 woman survival..... (xuc lin) 77 颂莲其实明白她的生存之路就是得到陈佐千的欢心,为他生养儿子,不过她是茶厂老板的 女儿、读过书的人,这一身份和经历使她形成了任性的,不屈服的性格,而且善于表达自己的 意见。她忘了“退让”这个道理,反而为了自己的自尊多次拒绝陈佐千,把机会让给其他太太。 一次是因为知道卓云想诅咒她之后,又听陈佐千说把颂莲父亲留给她的遗物烧了。 陈佐千说,你太过份了,我就差一点给你下跪求饶了。颂莲沉默了一会儿,说,我不舒服。 陈佐千说,我 恨别人给我看脸色。颂莲翻了个身说,你去卓云那里吧,反正她总是对人笑的。 陈佐千就跳下床来穿衣服,说,去就去,幸亏我还有三房太太。 另外一次,陈佐千希望颂莲以某种方式来伺候他,也被颂莲拒绝了。 陈佐千说,不愿意就不愿意,也用不到哭呀。没想到颂莲的啜泣越来越响,她蒙住脸放声 哭起 来,陈佐千听了一会,说,你再哭我走了。颂莲依然哭泣,陈佐千就掀了被子跳下床,他 一边 穿衣服一边说,没见过你这种女人,做了婊子还立什么贞节牌坊? 颂莲跟卓云的不同之处就是颂莲没有卓云敏锐,没有卓云卑微。陈佐千也是老了,身体 又不如当年(性功能衰退),而在封建社会里一个女人不能好好伺候丈夫就失去了“生存的条 件”。 这年冬天在陈府是不寻常的,种种迹象印证了这一点。陈家的四房太太偶尔在一起说起 陈佐千脸上不免流露暖味的神色,她们心照不宣;各怀鬼胎。陈佐千总是在卓云房里过夜,卓 云平日的状态就很好,另外的三位太太观察卓云的时候,毫不掩饰眼睛里的疑点,那么卓云你 是怎么伺候老爷过夜的呢? 颂莲另外的失败是因为她开始有追求,封建制度只允许男人有追求,有梦想,女人是不 可以的。引起颂莲有追求的人是飞浦。飞浦是陈家唯一注意颂莲,关心颂莲的男人。他们同是 上过学、有文化的人,有着共同的语言,这给了颂莲新的空气,新的希望。她希望飞浦是她能 依托的男人。但是现实不容如此,飞浦也是不自由的。颂莲只能认命,她的种种希望被打碎了。 一个人若失去了希望就很失落,也就失去了活着的意义。所以当她看到梅珊被杀死的时候,她 已分不清哪个是梅珊哪个是自己,梅珊的死就是自己的死。 结论 中国传统的以男权为中心的家族文化对女性个性自由的种种限制,从来没有放松。到了 颂莲的时代,女人的社会地位已经开始有了变化,不过这一变化是微不足道的。传统文化对女 性的歧视导致女性依赖心理突出表现,对男性盲目崇拜,没有信心和勇气凭自身的努力自立于 世。她们习惯于躲在男人的背后,甚至把依赖男人看成是自己的天然权利,从生活依赖发展到 精神依赖(乐国安, 2006:173)。颂莲能反抗而选择不反抗,是因为她既不想失去原来的荣 华富贵,又处在女性独立意识未被完全唤醒的状态。这导致她不敢从封建笼子跳出来,反而步 入封建社会的后花园。她进入了旧家庭之后,为了生存的泥土与空气,跟其他女人争斗。这场 斗争不但显示了女人的邪恶,而且换来不幸的后果。 小说告诉我们,女人在封建夫权下的命运是如此的可悲,为了自身的生存必须投靠一个 男人,而且为了得到男人的欢心就必须跟其他女人斗。女人的斗争只能换来一时的阳光,根本 改变不了自己的命运----梅珊死了,颂莲疯了,但不久陈佐千又一次做了新郎,娶了第五房姨 太太。男人仍然把她们当作取乐的玩偶。只有女性能意识到自己也有能力自立,不用靠男人来 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 73-78 78 生活,至少自己的命运能掌控在自己的手里而不是套在男人的脖子上,女性的解放才成为可能。 其实中国古人很早就对姬妾制度提出了异议。《易经》言:“二女同居,其志不相得,曰革。” 当代社会女人与男人的地位算是平等了,法律也不允许一夫多妻,不过自愿做妾的现象还在一 定范围内存在着。希望这个故事能给当代人以启迪,引发人们,特别是女性,对于爱情与婚姻 的深入思考。 参考文献 巴莺乔、洪炜:《女性心理学》, 北京:中国医药科技出版社, 2006 年 乐国安:《社会心理学》,广州:广东高等教育出版社, 2006 年 郑雪:《人格心理学》,广州:广东高等教育出版社, 2004 年 苏童 :《妻妾成群》, 参考于 http://www.my285.com/ddmj/sutong/qiqie/01.htm 《中国古代姬妾制度(转)》, 参考于 http://bbs.hefei.cc/viewthread.php?tid=1761358 sampul_vol.6 no.2.fh11 �������� �� �� ����������������������� �������� � ����� �� ������������������� �� � ����� �� �!��������������!� �"#����$%��������� �!��&��!�'�&��!"!(#����)#�� *#+!�*����(%!��#�!�,��(!������������--�)#�'������� ���.�#�/%�+!+#%����&���0�������)#(� �������� �� ��������������� � ���������������������� � �������� �������� ������� �� � �������!"����������#� ������������� ���1�� ����%���.��!'!�!�$,!���!������20��3��3�#���+#(.4�������+#! 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�� ��������� #������%����,%������4� ����������� ��� ���5������$��)�� ���)�� !�'�� ���� �� �� � �5!�9&&�5� (��*�� �� �'�� ��� �� � , �:� �#������ /)��,��%��/������ + ��%�;��,��%��/���� / � �� �' � ����<=> 4�):��>;� <=<>??>�3�2����� �6�8 2��>;� <=>>;@@ ������� ������ ������������ a%)��<��%��������;>�� �������� �� a%)��<��%��������;>�� ���������� ��������� �� ���� � ��������� ���� ������ ������ �!�"����#���� ������������������������������������������������������������� � �� ���� ���� � � ) !�9���:� �0%�:)�2�� ) ���%*�)�(������%�, &�� �, �+ �� �������� � ���������������������������> � �!�� �� "���#�$�%�&� ���� ���� #� )� � �,� ) ! ��$������ ���+%%����b4��%���c�� ) ��' ! �/�: �� : � �� ! � � �($��' �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ;� �!���'� "��� "#�����(���� ���&����� ""� 1��������&&����5� ����1�*��������5��%� d�#�0 ������+�%&����)� !������ ������������ ��'��� �(��*�� ��+��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������; =? )���������&� � "�&�� 4!���+� ��5��������+d�#� )+ � �%&�1�������������+����'�� �& ��%��$)��%�'+�$ ���5���50 ��������������=� @? *���&#��������& #� )+ � �.! ���#�)���e ��%*�)�3�����% �� ���7!�����% �6��� ���%&��!��0! � 5��� � �����%�+�$)%������@� <; ������!� ������� � "��� � �� ����4� 5!�������)� !��%��:� ��� �%&�9�!���� ��� �� �34��9�6d�#���*����%&������ ���������������<= ?> ��� ���( ���&� �)+�'������� b�!��� ��f' )) ecd�� ) ��5������ )� �� ����!���%�����7%� ������#�0%����:%� �+ � ) + � ��8�5��%��������)� !���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������?� �; ���,�#�-�� "�*� ".� " 4!��7 +�%&�� �� ��*��%���!���%*�)�g��g�#�1������������������������������������������������������������������= �� '�� "�*� 0!��� ���� ������4!�%��!������������ :�����'+�0%����5��*� ���� ������4!�%�+����������������������������� > � ������� ������ ������������ abstraksi jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 112-119 112 interactive narration in the digital age huang minfen chinese department, xiamen university, xiamen, 361005 abstract interactive narration based on new media has become important research topic for postnarratology. it features non-linearity and can be classified as person-to-person, person-to-machine, and machine-to-machine. in order to fulfil the potential of interactive narration, we have to deal with the contradiction between narration and interaction properly, and lucubrate the motive of interactors and the narrative effects on them. keywords: interaction, narration, digital art 摘要 基于新媒体的交互性叙事是后经典叙事学的重要研究课题。它以非线性为特征,具备人际交 互、人机交互、机机交互等类型。为了充分发挥交互性叙事的潜能,必须妥善处理叙事与交互 性的矛盾,深入研究交互动机、交互效果等问题。 关键词:叙事 交互 新媒体 interactive narration…. (huang minfen) 113 前言 交互性叙事在人类历史上堪称源远流长。在口头传播占主导地位的时代,交互性叙事就获得了 广泛的应用,原因主要是口语本身支持对话。由于文字的发明、印刷术的问世,书面传播后来 居上,限制了交互性叙事的发展空间。这种状况在交互性电子媒体起之后才渐渐改变。如今 “交互性”已经成为口耳相传的术语,交互性叙事也在新技术基础上放射出前所未有的异彩。 (一)交互性叙事的理念 有关叙事的探讨由来已久。柏拉图对模仿(mimesis)和叙事(diegesis)的区分被认为 是西方哲人相关探讨的发端。其后,人们对于叙事的研究深入到叙事视点、叙事声音、叙事距 离等方面。尽管如此,叙事学到 20 世纪才发展成为一门学科。俄国形式主义者(尤其是普洛 普)为它的奠基做出了重要贡献。从词源的角度看,叙事学(narratologie)一词是法国学者托 多罗夫(tzvetan todorov)发明的(1969), (todorov, tzvetan. grammaire du décaméron. the hague: mouton, 1969:69) 由拉丁文词根 narrato(叙述)和希腊文词尾 logie(科学)组合而成。 它的英语对应词为 narratology。托罗多夫将叙事学定义为关于叙事结构的理论,采用先将叙事 现象分解成若干组件、再确定其功能和相互关系的研究方法。换言之,经典叙事学重视文本叙 事结构研究,重在对叙事文本进行技术分析,与结构主义有着密切关系。兴起于 20 世纪 60 年 代的后结构主义关注叙事的“不完全性”(incompleteness),认可以读者为中心的叙事无穷演 化的可能性。后现代主义将线性叙事当成人类理性幻化的产物来加以反对,因为客观世界并不 存在作为其基础的线性因果关系。经过 20 余年的发展,西方叙事学研究范式到上个世纪末发 生重大变化,其中之一就是由强调作者赋予叙事的意义向强调读者对于意义的阐释转变。这种 转变是经典叙事学转向后经典叙事学的标志之一。后经典叙事学不仅关注读者的阐释框架和阐 释策略,而且关注文本自身的特征,将读者与文本的相互作用当成自己的研究重点。就此而 言,作为理论的后经典叙事学和作为实践的交互性叙事颇有相通之处。交互性叙事的经验丰富 了后经典叙事学,后经典叙事学应当能够对交互性叙事给予理论指导。 一般认为:交互性叙事以非线性为特征。丹麦哥本哈根大学媒体研究教授戈柔窦(torben grodal)在 2003 年就此指出:术语“非线性”密切联系于交互性问题,因为对人文科学领域的 许多学者来说,完全交互性与“最高作用”这一术语相链接。这一术语被赋予由后现代主义- 解构主义思考的不同分支(例如源于德里达的思考)所提供的联系。根据他们的哲学,线性是 西方形而上学的逻各斯思考(即因果关系)的产物,为字母写作的线性所强化。因此,我们可 以认为故事在其实现中本质上是线性的:1)所有的文本与经历作为体验过程都是线性的,因 为即使在“阅读”超文本时经验流也总是线性的;2)故事作为有意义的事件的系列是线性 的,因为有意义的故事依赖于因果关系、不可逆转的过程以及行动轨迹的选择。当然,既定故 事世界可能支持不同故事、不同路径选择,以及计算机故事中不同玩家的表演)。然而,我们 必须区分故事体验及故事世界供给,因为既定故事世界或游戏可能提供一种或若干故事体验 (grodal, torben.stories for eye, ear, and muscles: video games, media, and embodied experiences. in the video game theory reader.edited by mark j. p. wolf, and bernard perron. new york: routledge, 2003:145-147)。从戈柔窦的论述中可以看出:“交互性叙事”本身包含了悖论:作 为“叙事”,它实际上倾向于线性;作为“交互性”,它又倾向于非线性。西拉斯(nicolas szilas)曾经区分出设计交互性戏剧的三个主要问题:其一,如何建构交互戏剧系统:什么样 的叙事原则可以建构这类系统的基础?如何才可能与一个故事相互作用?如何克服故事与交互 性之间乍看起来的矛盾?人工智能在这一任务中起什么作用?其二,用户的角色是什么:对用 户来说变成一个故事中的人物意味着什么?她在故事中的叙事角色是什么?她如何与系统相互 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 112-119 114 作用?什么样的现有体验(书籍、视频游戏、角色扮演、儿童玩耍等)与交互性戏剧最为接 近?其三,作者的角色是什么?用户如何通过交互性戏剧传达其意图与价值观?作者是否在交 互性戏剧中“放弃控制”?在故事中的事件过程最终将掌握在用户手里的情况下,如何“写一 个故事”?以上三个问题不是彼此独立的,第一个问题最为关键(szilas, nicolas. authoring highly generative interactive drama.in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference, icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gé rard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer, 2003:37-46)。上述问题对于交互性叙事是有普 遍意义的。为了准确把握各种不同作品的特点,瑞安主张对以下四种情况加以区分(2005): 一是外围交互性,二是影响叙事话语和故事陈述的交互性,三是在部分前定的故事中创造变化 的交互性,四是实时故事生成交互性(marie-laure,ryan.peeling the onion: layers of interactivity in digital narrative texts.based on a talk presented at the conference "interactivity of digital texts," münster, germany, may 2005)。 (二)交互性叙事的类型 数码时代的交互性叙事有三种可能的模式:一是人际交互型,二是人机交互型,三是机 机交互型。在相当长的历史时期内,交互性叙事以人际交互型为主,机器仅仅是作为人际交互 的辅助手段起作用,局限于灯光、音响、舞台、道具、机关布景等领域。新媒体使人际交互得 以用电子速度远程进行,从而改变了人际交互的态势。由于计算机和网络的智能化,人机交互 越来越引人瞩目,成为交互性叙事发展的新动力。在以之为基础的交互性叙事中,相当一部分 角色是由机器(智能程序)来扮演的。正如劳雷尔(1991)所指出的:设计良好的基于系统的 人物可以对戏剧投入作出贡献,激发神入,影响加入同一活动的真人的行动与感情 (laurel, brenda. computers as theatre. reading, mass.: addison-wesley publishing company, 1991:146)。 不过,正如葡萄牙索布拉尔(daniel sobral)等人所指出的,交互性叙事中的人物经常与自动 代理的存在相联系(这些代理可以用相当自由的方式行动),问题是无法传达有目的的意义 (sobral.daniel, et al. managing authoring in plot conduction. in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference, icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gérard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer, 2003:57)。机机交互型 的叙事目前还处在实验阶段。 如果说以计算机为基础的交互性叙事有什么特点的话,其中之一就是它为人类用户创造 了变形的多种可能性。正如默里所指出的,转换的愉悦是数码环境的特色之一。计算机为我们 提供了无数的变形方式。不仅我们自己可以在虚拟现实中由活人变形为高飞的鸟儿,而且词 语、数字、图像都更为可塑,都更有动感。计算机的变形力量在叙事环境中特别诱人。因为数 码对象可拥有多重例示,它们自身就能引发我们对其变形的愉悦。在《真人快打》(mortal kombat)里,可从 16 个对手中任选两个开打,而且交互者可以任选一边。muds 就所支持的 角色的多样性展开竞争。在计算机游戏中,我们作为玩家并非只有一条命(甚至对我们的文明 来说也是如此)。如果不惬意的话,可重新来过。不过,如何利用变形来取得精妙的效果,有 待探索。一个作者如何在如此易变的环境中讲述一个连贯的故事?读者怎么知道孰为头尾?我 们需要新的形式惯例以驾驭易变性。为此,我们要弄清从变形文学中追求什么类型的愉悦 (murray, janet horowitz. hamlet on the holodeck. new york, ny: the free press, 1997:154-155)。 在具体作品中,交互性叙事的设计是多种多样的。保罗曾经谈到,“数码艺术中这种复 杂互动的可能性已经超出仅仅是提供观看艺术作品的熟练形式的‘点击’,或者用户行动触发 特定反应的交互性。更为本质的变化伴随着虚拟艺术对象而发生,这些对象是结尾开放的‘信 息叙事’,有变动的结构、逻辑与结局,其中,对于内容、语境与时间的控制通过互动转移到 各自的受者。这类作品可以取无数形式,对于其视觉外观有可变等级的控制,由艺术家或受众 interactive narration…. (huang minfen) 115 进行。数码艺术并非总是合作性的(在这个单词的原义上),但经常是参与性的,依赖于多用 户输入。在某些艺术作品中,观者在由艺术家所设定的参数内互动;在其他作品中,他们自行 设定其参数,或者变成基于时间的实况表演的参与者。在某些个案中,一个艺术作品的虚拟显 示最终由观者创造:没有输入,一个作品可能完全由黑屏组成。” (paul, christiane.digital art. new york: thames & hunson (world of art), 2003:67-68.) 上述见解无疑对我们有启发意义。 (三)交互性叙事的动机 “动机”(motive,motif)一词使用广泛,含义比较复杂。在艺术领域,动机可能是指 作品中重现的片段、主题、结构模式等要素。对于经典叙事学来说,这种重现往往具备象征意 义,因此值得重视。在心理学领域,动机往往是指行为的内驱力,由需要转化而来。从这一角 度看,动机可以进一步区分为创作者(或开发者)的动机、艺术人物的动机、鉴赏者(读者、 观众或交互者)的动机等。这些动机可能彼此交错。以另类实境游戏(alternate reality game) 为例。它将现实世界用为平台来展开交互性叙事,经常涉及多重媒体与游戏要素,以讲述可能 会受参与者的观念或行动影响的故事。人物是由游戏设计者(而非由人工智能)控制的。游戏 者直接与游戏中的人物互动,迎接基于情节的挑战,解开谜团,在这一过程中经常需要进行社 区合作。所应用的媒体有电话、邮件和互联网等。有时,谜语在网上传播,而玩家需要组队在 现实世界中寻找解题线索。由此看来,交互性叙事所涉及的动机是相当复杂的。尽管如此,由 于交互性叙事将用户的参与作为自己的特色,因此,有关读者、观众或交互者的动机成为研究 的重点。 交互性叙事之所以可能,从技术上说自然要从所凭借的媒体去探索。尽管如此,我们不 能忽视隐藏在其后的心理因素。瑞安探讨了隐藏在交互性之后的动机问题,即读者为何要提供 反馈。她在《作为虚拟现实的叙事:文学与电子媒体中的沉浸与交互性》(2001)一书中指 出:交互性文本是由用户输入提供燃料的机器。读者为什么想提供输入呢?一是决定情节。这 类交互性的例子,是读者被要求决定人物命运的多重选择文本„„二是改变对文本世界的视 点。这可能意味着打开新的窗口、追随另一条情节线、将焦点转移到不同人物,听到不同说法 的事实,或者进入新的私人世界。三是探索可能的领域。如果读者获得机会尝试所有的选项, 交互性的目的便不再是决定情节(因为所有的分支如今都是情节的一部分),而是获得对可能 性的交织的全面视野,并对作者作为“歧路花园”的设计者的表现加以评价。四是使文本机器 保持运行。当读者的选择完全盲目时,点击某个链接的目的与其说是别的还不如说只是想让更 多文本呈现在屏幕上„„五是调用文件。这是由超文本帮助文件或万维网搜索引擎所赋予的交 互性。在这种类型的动机中,文本被作为可被带到用户屏幕上并用于个人项目的资源集合来对 待。六是玩游戏、解决问题。这一范围无须解释。七是评价文本。在印刷文学中,回顾、讨论 与更为简单的购买书籍的过程是一种交互机制,职业或业余的读者通过它告诉作者自己想要什 么。互联网上的聊天群体与公告牌可以同样地被用于对情节的评论,因此影响电视系列剧或在 线肥皂剧的作者(ryan, marie-laure. narrative as virtual reality: immersion and interactivity in literature and electronic media. baltimore and london: the johns hopkins university press, 2001:211-212)。上述分析还是比较全面的。 (四)交互性叙事的矛盾 叙事与交互性的矛盾为交互性叙事所特有,牵涉到开发者如何处理鉴赏者所进行的情节 内交互的问题。交互性叙事通常必须提供连贯而诱人的故事(即情节),同时又必须为鉴赏者 的参与提供方便的条件。这两个要素之间是有矛盾的。早在 20 世纪 80 年代,劳雷尔就意识到 交互性叙事的上述矛盾,并呼吁将事先设计好的情节与交互性有机结合起来,但人们对此还缺 乏应有的注意。默里因此认为:或许这种系统的故事的开发有赖于文艺家与计算机科学家之间 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 112-119 116 远比目前的水平更为密切的合作。当然,这不是说在这方面没有任何进展。值得一提的是卡耐 基·梅隆大学由贝茨领导的 oz 小组所做的工作。该组将自己开发的系统定位为实况戏剧游 戏,在其中一个交互者被置于公交车站威胁性情境中。参加演出的学生即兴扮演由计算机所产 生的人物(这些人物是自主行动的),通过头盔得到导演的指示。导演虽不在台上,但始终切 近观察表演的过程,并适时提示种种情节。在学生所扮演的人物中有一个被确定为交互者。故 事的高潮是这样的时刻:给交互者一把枪,让他做出选择,要么用枪对付恶棍以保护一个盲 人,要么跳上正要开行的公共汽车逃之夭夭。对于旁观者来说,故事进展慢得可以,而且高潮 到来时简直是乱成一团。为演出拍摄录像的人就这样认为。但是,对于在剧中扮演交互者的学 生来说,情节本身很生动,而且,当他拿到枪时,深深体会到了作出道德选择的艰难——毕竟 是实况演出啊。oz 小组所作的工作告诉我们:就情节令人满意与否而言,交互情境完全不同 于观众情境。为了保证演出有条不紊地进行,必须开发故事控制者(story controllers),以监 测环境中的所有要素,像棋手在复杂的策略中做出选择那样精确而有预见性地调整虚拟世界。 复杂的模式控制因运用计算机而成为可能。它正将故事推进到高度抽象而又多变的领域。但 是,在追求复杂性、抽象性的时候,面临着丧失连贯的危险。情节的任何抽象描写的成功,取 决于在人类作家手中还保留有多少控制权。因此,计算机化的抽象越少,故事越是令人满意。 或者说:迄今为止叙事模式的开发,主要是认知科学家与计算机科学家合作的结果。我们必须 发现新的、与作家创作方式更为相近的抽象模式(murray, janet horowitz.hamlet on the holodeck. new york, ny: the free press, 1997:202-203)。 索布拉尔(daniel sobral)等人《情节引导中的写作管理》(2003)一文进一步指出:为 了使叙事有交互性,我们需要弹性,以叙事流允许用户影响故事本身的方式。另一方面,故事 作者需要保持某种结构、某种前定的叙事流,以保证故事的高潮。这两个明显对立的目标导致 了叙事悖论,即一再出现的陷阱,多数交互性叙事环境(interactive narrative environment, ine)无法避免。而且,当我们将交互性叙事环境用于教育目标时,新的要求暗示着对创造此 类系统的额外负担(例如,要保证特定事件为教学的理由发生)。以情节为中心的交互性叙事 通常与写成的脚本相联系。“即使是由人写成的情节对于叙事的引导来说是关键性的,为切换 所必需参数数量可能在为这些基于情节的系统建构交互性时带来严重的问题。而且,多数基于 情节的叙事系统将故事分成片断,运用外在链接联系它们。这将巨大的努力强加给作者。不 过,虽然做了某些使外部链接最少化甚至为零的努力,这类企图离减轻经常强加给作者的无法 管理的写作困境还相差甚远。”为了平衡这两个经常对立的目标,交互性叙事系统必须支持弹 性写作过程,将作为多数交互性(非线性)叙事写作之特征的按指数增长的工作(经常伴随分 叉结构而来。引者注)最小化。作者不应直接控制故事中人物的行为。相反,只应提供让智能 代理可以扮演其角色的背景。这一点也是为了将创作者(作家与设计者)和程序员之间的冲突 最小化。虽然有了奔向创作者懂编程的潮流以及对艺术家友好的编程语言,现今项目的复杂性 仍要求不断增长的团队和更大的管理资源。这经常引发两种对立的角色之间的冲突,这种冲突 会降低双方角色在最终产品中的相关性,而这种相关性毕竟最终是由程序员来执行的 (sobral daniel, et al. managing authoring in plot conduction. in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference, icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gérard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer, 2003:57-58)。 (五)交互性叙事的效果 交互性叙事的效果也为研究者所关心。默里认为:本能的唤起不可过度。恐怖片如果太 过恐怖,人们便会从影院跑出来;爱情片如果太过撩逗,观众便可能将视线从银幕移开。因 此,对参与者的唤起必须细心加以调节。传统叙事对此是有所考虑的,因此,它们将唤起控制 在一定范围内,不使接受者感到不快。计算机为参与性的创造提供了新舞台。我们逐渐学会了 演员所做之事,并从情感上为明知不“真”的真实体验立法。数码空间的感觉呈现越是有说服 interactive narration…. (huang minfen) 117 力,我们越是觉得自己出现在虚拟世界中,并追求在那儿表演更大范围的行动。muds 与实况 角色扮演游戏(live action role playing,larp)的玩家取之与挥之人格之易,令人联想到在 扮演中经受训练的观众正在成长起来。我们正在变成世界剧目公司的一部分,可以在更为复杂 的参与性故事中承担更为复杂的角色。我们正在一点点地发现将建构虚拟戏剧的第四堵墙的参 与常规,以及将加深与保存沉浸感的魔力的表现性身势(murray, janet horowitz. hamlet on the holodeck. new york, ny: the free press, 1997:120,125)。 某些人对于交互性叙事持肯定态度,其原因大致可以归纳为以下几方面:一是交互性叙 事顺应了艺术领域民主化的要求。斯托拉布拉斯认为:原则上,交互性提供了巨大的文化的、 社会的利益。它应该赋权给用户、鼓励文化活动(而非仅仅是旁观),使艺术对受众更有反应 性,将艺术的排外的、(多数是)胁迫人的空间与话语向兼容性、民主性的微风开放 (stallabrass,julian. the online clash of culture and commerce. millbank, london: tate publshing, p.68)。二是交互性叙事体现了数字复制时代特有的价值。莫尔指出:“在数字可复制时代,文 化的表现方式也经历了一种重要的转型。在独一无二的作品时代,膜拜价值(cult value)构成 了作品的价值,在机械复制时代,展示价值(exhibition value)构成了作品的价值;而在数字 复制时代,则是操控价值(manipulation value)构成了再现的价值。” (莫尔《赛博空间的奥 德赛》,麦永雄译,广西师范大学出版社 2007 年版,第 99 页)。三是交互性叙事符合当今用户 的心理要求。正因为如此,美国宾夕法尼亚大学西尔弗曼(barry g. silverman)等人相信:通 过以一种连贯的、可访问的格式向教育家团队提供娱乐体裁的技术进步,开发交互式戏剧生成 器,我们相信教育游戏的充分潜能可以实现(silverman, barry g. authoring edutainment stories for online players (aesop): introducing gameplay into interactive dramas. in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference, icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gérard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer, 2003:6572)。 另一方面,对于文学、戏剧与影视叙事交互化,都有人不以为然,有关论争不绝如缕。 根据记载,1776 年有个叫西米尔·约翰逊(simuel johnson)的人宣称:“没有古怪的东西可 以持久。《项狄传》好景不长。” (douglas, j. yellowlees. the end of books——or books without end? reading interactive narratives ann arbor: the university of michigan press, 2000, vii.) 由此看来,当时交互性故事不见得为时人所看好。即使在近两个世纪之后,这类作品仍有争 议。美国著名美学家苏珊·朗格(suzanne lenglen)曾援引自己的亲身经历,说明演员与观众 之间的直接交互破坏了戏剧幻象,所引发的异乎寻常的混乱使台上的演出无法进行下去。她指 出:“这种戏剧作品,以及它所体现的戏剧概念的根本失误,就在于完全忽略了爱德华·布洛 (edward bullough)在其享有盛誉的论文中所提出的‘心理距离’这一概念。所有的艺术欣赏 ——绘画、建筑、舞蹈,不管哪种艺术都要求一定的超然态度,显然,这就是所谓的‘凝神观 照’,‘审美态度’,或欣赏者的‘客观性’。” (苏珊·朗格《情感与形式》,刘大基等 译,中国社会科学出版社 1986 年版,第 368 页。布洛的论文题为《作为艺术因素和一种审美 原则的“心理距离”说》.发表于《英国心理学学》报 1912 年 6 月号。) [ 英国作家阿尔迪斯 (brian wilson aldiss)《审判》、美国作家布拉德伯里(ray bradbury)《华氏温度计 451》 等科幻小说将交互性电视当成有利于社会监控和专制统治的媒体恶梦来描写。作为交互性叙事 之代表的游戏,受到了更为强烈的挞伐。罗斯扎克(theodore roszak)《信息崇拜——计算机 神话与真正的思维艺术》(1986)一书认为:“即使在供儿童玩耍的最简单的电子游戏里,我 们也可以发现一些颇可置疑的设计思想。游戏里显然充斥着冷酷的竞争和疯狂的毁灭行为。取 胜是重要的,杀戮受到推崇。” (罗斯扎克《信息崇拜——计算机神话与真正的思维艺术》, 苗华健、陈体仁译,中国对外翻译出版公司 1994 版,第 108 页。) jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 112-119 118 莫尔斯(margaret morse)则对交互性的所谓“解放作用”表示怀疑。她认为:一旦“活 性”的同时性变成图像与世界之间的即刻反馈,一种倒置就发生在一度被称为呈现的东西之 中:图像与世界都不是“第一位”,一个都像是在塑造另一个。“交互性”被理解为一种允许 用户与观者在电话、键盘、远程控制、控制杆、鼠标、触摸屏、脑波阅读器等输入设备的帮助 之下选择或改变图像的手段。这样的交互性已经被错当成一种将改变交流之性质的解放性的自 我表达。例如,双向电视被吹捧成为一种逃避为消费电视的单向与惰性的沙发位置。然而,如 果交互性是一种对输入的显露的即时反馈的观念的拓展的话,也就是说,如果它是操作性的、 工具性的,任何类型的输入手段都使得在电视上或在计算机显示器上的东西更为交互主体的或 解放性的?” (morse, margaret. virtualities: television, media art, and cyberculture. bloomington and indianapolis: indiana university press, 1998:21-22.) 事实上,简单地肯定或否定交互性叙事都是难以服人的。事实上,简单地肯定或否定交 互性叙事都是难以服人的。默里对此有所体会。她举例说:在玩游戏《西蒙城》(simcity) 时,人们可以体验到上帝般的快乐。玩家所充当的市长比现实生活中的任何政治领袖都更有权 力,可以对资源施加无所不能的控制,同时也对自己的行为的后果具有无所不在的意识。当 然,游戏本身对于多种风格的玩家的开发性,使得玩家有条件扮演不同类型的上帝。这两种因 素大大增加了游戏本身所带来的愉悦。在《锡德·米埃尔的文明》(sid meier’civilization,中 文版称为“文明”或“文明帝国”)中,上述两种因素都得到了加强。玩家居然可以扮演某一 文明的领袖,在许多世纪中发挥自己的作用。计算机本身扮演上述文明的敌手,为全球资源与 技术进步展开竞争。文明的进程为玩家所左右,游戏本身可以接纳不同类型的玩家,从追求社 会和谐的理想主义者,到好勇斗狠的功利主义者。上述进程或许可以理解为地球历史的写照, 但因拥有多种版本而与真正的历史相区别。人们可以在史前就建造铁路,也可以变成战无不胜 的拿破仑。赢得胜利的标志,是征服其他一切文明,或者将 2 万人送入空间。默里认为:当 然,我们必须进一步分析上述游戏所包含的思想观念或价值判断。相比之下,《西蒙城》的倾 向性是通过游戏当中的种种事变(如社会动荡等)相对间接地表现出来的,玩家可能不知不觉 受其影响。《文明》则通过标题直截了当地告诉玩家说:游戏所提供的是某个人对于人类历史 的解释,而非科学的图式。游戏也提醒玩家:每个领袖的行为是三种变量的结果,一是侵犯性 与友好性,二是扩张主义与完美主义,三是穷兵黩武与文明立国。玩家可以接受它们,也可以 对某种变量加以抑制。不同游戏的倾向性有隐显之别,其价值标准并非都为人们所广泛接受。 就以后一种而论,如何界定游戏的胜利,便是一个有争议的问题。例如,为什么一定是征服其 他文明才是胜利呢?不同文明之间为何不能建立彼此合作、互惠互利的关系呢?这种关系为何 不能作为胜利的标志?(murray, janet horowitz. hamlet on the holodeck. new york, ny: the free press, 1997:89). 应当看到:不论交互性叙事的创作或鉴赏,都需要在实践中求得发展。在这一过程中, 原先持肯定或否定态度的人都有向对立的或中性的观点转变的可能。渊源有自的交互性叙事因 为 20 世纪新媒体革命的缘故而焕发青春,从实践和理论两方面为叙事学的发展创造了契机。 处在这样的时代,我们应当因时顺变,深化叙事学的研究。 interactive narration…. (huang minfen) 119 daftar pustaka grodal, t. 2003. stories for eye, ear, and muscles: video games, media, and embodied experiences. in the video game theory reader. edited by mark j. p. wolf, and bernard perron. new york: routledge. laurel, b. 1991. computers as theatre. reading, mass.: addison-wesley publishing company. murray, j. h. 1997. hamlet on the holodeck. new york, ny: the free press. ryan, marie-laure. 2001. narrative as virtual reality: immersion and interactivity in literature and electronic media. baltimore and london: the johns hopkins university press. ryan, marie-laure. 2005. peeling the onion: layers of interactivity in digital narrative texts. based on a talk presented at the conference "interactivity of digital texts," münster, germany, may 2005. sobral,.d., et al. 2003. managing authoring in plot conduction. in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference, icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gérard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer. szilas, n. 2003. authoring highly generative interactive drama. in virtual storytelling: using virtual reality technologies for storytelling. second international conference. icvs 2003, proceedings. edited by olivier balet, gérard subsol, and patrice torguet. berlin: springer. presupposition and implicature jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 12 presuppositions and implicatures in comic strips ienneke indra dewi english department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, ienneke@binus.edu s3 student english applied linguistics atmajaya university abstract article aimed to find out the role of presuppositions, implicatures, as well as to see the maxims violated or flouted in the comic strips i.e. to whether there is a miscommunication among the characters in the comic strips. data were taken from the three comics, those are peanuts, andy, and tintin, and were analysed based on the pattern that the sender made a presupposition before transferring information and the receiver would try to get the implied message. the results show that presuppositions and implicatures are much influenced by the background knowledge. the more the speaker and hearer know each other’s background, the better presuppositions and implicatures they make and finally, the less miscommunication occurred. keywords: presuppositions, implicatures, communication, conversation, comic abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk menganalisis peran presupposisi, implikatur, dan juga maxim yang tidak diikuti dalam naskah komik. di samping itu, dilihat juga apakah ada kesalahpahaman antara pelaku yang terjadi akibat peran tersebut. data diambil dari tiga jenis komik, yaitu peanut, andy, dan tintin, dan dianalisis berdasarkan pola bahwa pengirim membuat presupposition dan penerima berusaha untuk mengerti dengan menyimpulkan dari informasi yang diberikan. hasil penelitian adalah bahwa presuposisi dan implikatur sangat dipengaruhi oleh pengetahuan mengenai latar belakang. semakin diketahui latar belakang seseorang, semakin tepat dibuat presupposisi dan dilakukan simpulan dan akibatnya semakin mudah diatasi kesalahpahaman dalam berkomunikasi. kata kunci: presuposisi, implikator, komunikasi, percakapan, komik presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 13 introduction as human beings do not live alone in the world, they need to interact, to communicate one another. communication, according to valenzuela (1996) is "any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person i.e. information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states.” the case is not very simple as the person giving and receiving that information has his own background. staltnaker (1977) said that “communication, whether linguistic or not, normally takes place against a background of beliefs or assumptions which are shared.” when a person is having a discussion, they should have some knowledge that they share. when somebody discusses politics, they should have something that they share as they are coming from their own worlds. dinsmore (1981) uses the term world to indicate a particular world of belief, while mey (1996) the terms context. in this context before making an utterance, a person needs to assume what the other person in his world knows regarding the topic. this assumption is called “presupposition” by yule (1996) and richards (1992). the presupposition is expressed by the speakers in various ways according to their intention. in this case they can just follow the maxims of cooperative principles (quantity, quality, relation, and manner) (yule, 1996:37) violate or flout them. in doing so, the speaker can express his ideas overtly or covertly. when being expressed covertly, one of the strategies used is using implicatures, i.e. “leaving something implicit in actual language us. something which is implied in a conversation, that is, something which is left implicit in actual language use” (mey, 2001:24). in this case, yule (1996) stressed that in a conversation sometimes an utterance can “communicate more than is said” and in order to understand this part, the speaker should communicate the meaning via implicatures and the listener recognizes the meaning via interpretation/inference (yule, 1996:40). this article discusses the role of presuppositions, the cooperative principles, and implicatures as well as to see the maxims that are violated or flouted in the communication as shown in the comic strips. the main concern is that in communication, sometimes there is misunderstanding, meaning that the message in the communication does not reach the purpose, or the hearer does not understand what the speaker says or intends to say. the goal of this paper is to find out to see how those items are applied in the communication in the comic strips. in order to achieve the goal, the writer uses four comics taken from three resources, peanuts, andy and tintin. the presuppositions, cooperative principles, and implicatures together with the inference are analysed in order to know the result of the conversations which are later on compared in order to find out the (un)successful ones and the reasons. the data will be in the form of the comic strips and analysed using the framework of the basic theory of communication i.e. the flow of communication combined with the presuppositions, cooperative principles, and implicatures. discussion theoretical background pre-supposition levinson (1983) says that a presupposition is background belief, relating to an utterance that must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context. according to yule (1996:25) “a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. speakers, not sentences, have the presuppositions.” richards (1992) gives simpler definition that a presupposition is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows. kreidler (1998) describes the presupposition using another point of view that is “the information that must be assumed in order for a sentence to be meaningful”. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 14 if we look at those definitions we can see that a presupposition dealing with the speaker with his „world‟. the world here means background belief, existence, context and situation, in which hurford and healey (1983) call as “the universe of discourse” i.e. the speaker‟s context, situation. in this world, the speaker assumes what the receivers know in his „world‟. by doing this, it is expected that the information given will be understood correctly by the receiver. in order to make sure that the information is objective, the proposition is “treated as a relationship between two propositions” (yule, 1996:26) and is related with truth condition. the symbol of presupposition is >>. e.g. mary‟s dog is cute (p) mary has a dog (q) proposition p presupposes proposition q p>>q it means that mary’s dog is cute presupposes mary has a dog. if we relate it with the definition, before somebody says that mary’s dog is cute, he assumes that the hearer has already known that mary has a dog. in order that the communication runs very well, the truth in the presupposition must not change in any conditions. regarding this truth condition, mey (1996:27) added that a presupposition is “an underlying element which remains constant”, whether the utterance is true or not. trask (2007:232) confirms this matter briefly by saying that a presupposition survives negation. the summary of those can be found in yule (1996) who said that “the presupposition of a statement will remain constant even when the statement is negated”. e.g. mary‟s dog is cute (=p) mary has a dog (=q) mary’s dog is not cute can also presupposes that mary has a dog.. van frassen 1968 in cummings (2005:32) proposed a formula as follows: a presupposes b if and only if (a) if a is true then b is true, (b) if a is false then b is true in presupposition, the “when we produce the opposite of the sentence is by negating it (=not p), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. the property of presupposition is generally described as constancy under negation. regarding the presuppositions, mey (2001:186) said that “it is important not only to record what people say, but to figure out shy they say things and why they them the way they do”. cooperative principles cooperative principles were proposed by h. paul grice (1975, 1989) in mey (2001:72) and they consist of four maxims as follows. 1. the maxim of quantity a. make your contribution as informative as required; b. do not make your contribution more informative than required. 2. the maxim of quality a. do not say what you believe to be false; b. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence 3. the maxim of relations be relevant presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 15 4. the maxim of manner; be perspicuous, and specifically: a. avoid obscurity and ambiguity b. be brief and orderly yule (1996:37) said that “people involved in a conversation will cooperate with each other”. in expressing the ideas, in order to flout the maxim people may imply the information and this process is called implicatures. implicatures the speaker when uttering in a conversation, sometimes uses the sentence clearly and semantically can be understood directly; however, due to some reasons or background, he implies the meaning. this case is called implicatures. the term implicatures was first introduced by grice (1967, 1989) in hough (2002), who defined it essentially as “what is communicated less what is said”. in other words, he continues, in implicatures “whatever is communicated that is not part of what is said by a speaker”. kreidller (1998:301) defines implicatures as “a meaning derived not from what is said but deduced from the necessary way of interpreting what is said”. example: charlene : i hope you brought the bread and the cheese dexter : ah, i brought the bread dexter has conveyed more than he said via a conversational implicatures (yule, 1996:40). according to yule (1996), mey (2001), grundy (2000), implicatures are divided into two, conversational and conventional; meanwhile conversational is divided into particularized and generalized. in conventional implicatures, the meaning “does not depend on a particular context of language” (mey 2001:49), but on specific words (yule, 1996:45). meanwhile, conversational implicature is “something which is implied in conversation, that is something which is left implicit in actual language use.” (mey, 2001:45). yule (1996), mey (2001), and grundy (2000), say that in conversational implicatures, there are two aspects, generalized conversational and particularized implicatures. in the first the interpretation can be done without looking at the context and the second the interpretation should be done by looking at the context. the most important thing relating to the communication is that the speaker communicates the meaning via implicatures and the listener recognizes the meaning via interpretation/inference (yule, 2001:40). discussion the framework of this analysis will follow the above mentioned study of presuppositions, cooperative principles, and implicatures. the pattern will be as follows: the speaker in his own world before uttering an expression will make a presupposition to assume what the hearer knows in his world. then, in order to deliver his message, actually he should follow the cooperative principles so that the message he sends will reach the hearer as intended. however, sometimes the speaker does not do that, sometimes, he does not express everything clearly; he uses implicatures. the hearer on the other hand, in his own world, hearing the utterance should try to interpret what the speaker intends to say considering the speaker‟s presupposition and implicatures. then when he wants to reply, he should also make the presupposition, consider the cooperative principles and implicatures. if the participants can put forward their ideas clearly, and infer each other correctly, then it is assumed that there will be no misunderstanding between the two because they can understand the message as it is intended so. the basic patterns of the analysis will be as follows. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 16 24 form of communication messagemessage backgro und beliefs assump tions culture c o d i n g m e d i a d e c o d i n g backgro und beliefs assumpt ions culture pre supposi tions cooperative principles politeness speech acts inference implicature speaker hearer figure 1 basic patterns of the analysis comic strip 1: linus' debut on peanuts. sept. 19, 1952 lucy informs charlie that her brother, linus can sit up. at first, charlie does not believe as he knows that linus is too small to sit up. then both of them go to see linus. when they come, they find out that linus can sit up but he should be supported by some woods. no presupposition s (by speaker) (q) p>>q maxims violated/flouted implicatures (by speaker) inferences : (does the speaker infers the hearer correctly?): p: presupposition i: implicature results: does the communication runs well without misunderstanding? 1.2. lc: my brother can sit up (p) my brother cannot sit up (not p) 1. lucy has a baby brother p>>q not p>>q quantity: as lucy does not give complete information about his brother asking charlie to see her brother p: yes, as ch has already known that lc has a brother yes, the communication runs well as ch infers the presupposition and the implicature well i: correctly inferred as ch is willing to see linus 2. the sitting up is according to lc’s mind sitting i: no as in ch‟s mind the sitting up is the normal sitting up no.from his face we know that ch gets surprised (not happy), maybe because he knows that it is not the time for linus to sit up. therefore, he asks the question in 3. presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 17 3. ch: really? all by himself? 3. linus is sitting up like the normal people the expression really indicates that ch is in doubt about the assertion. all by himself meaning – like normal people? p: yes, yes i : yes lc understands ch by using the expression „almost‟ „ i only .. a little bit 4. lc: almost, i only had to prop him up a little bit 4 linus is sitting up quantity: as lucy does not give complete information about the sitting up. manner: as the use of the word a little bit is not clear. almost – scalar implicature implies that the sitting up is not yet normal. only a little bit also scalar implicature indicates that linus only needs a very little help to sit up normally. however, the scalar is not clear p: yes i : not really the scalar is not clear. nevertheless, ch still expects something good therefore he smiles no. the picture shows that ch is smiling at the same time he is frowning. it means that ch is happy because linus only needs a little help to sit up. on the other hand, he wonders how little would the help be. the speaker in his own world before uttering an expression will make a presupposition to assume what the hearer knows in his world. then, in order to deliver his message, actually he should follow the cooperative principles so that the message he sends will reach the hearer as intended. however, sometimes the speaker does not do that, sometimes, he does not express everything clearly; he uses implicatures. the hearer on the other hand, in his own world, hearing the utterance should try to interpret what the speaker intends to say considering the speaker‟s presupposition and implicatures. then when he wants to reply, he should also make the presupposition, consider the cooperative principles and implicatures. if the participants can put forward their ideas clearly, and infer each other correctly, then it is assumed that there will be no misunderstanding between the two because they can understand the message as it is intended so. comic strips 2: the first time linus appears with his security blanket. june 1, 1954 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 18 no presuppositions (by speaker) (q) p>>q maxims violated/flouted implicatures (by speaker) inferences : (the speaker infers the hearer correctly?): p: presupposition i: implicature results: the communication runs well without misunderstanding? 1. ch.: why does linus hold the blanket like that? (p) why doesn’t linus hold the blanket like that? (not p) 1. linus holds a blanket like that (q) p>> q not p>>q i think the way linus holds the blanket is peculiar. (holding the blanket and putting/feeling it with his cheek p: yes i : yes, as lc seems to realize that linus is doing something strange yes, lc and ch agree that linus is peculiar 2. lc: i’m not sure … i think maybe it gives him a feelings of security (p) i am sure it may give him a feeling of security not 3. lc: ? 2. it (holding the blanket like that) may give linus the feelings of security quality: as lc actually does not know the truth. however, lc still uses the hedges i’m not sure, maybe i do not know, linus does not say a word. i just guess. p: yes , and ch. went away while lucy was left with questions yes i: yes, and it seems that ch has a plan to prove it 3 upon my explanation: why are you leaving you do not believe me? what are you going to do? i: not really. in fact ch does not care about lucy. so he might infer the lc‟s wonders correctly but he does not give any reply no there might be some misunderstanding because lucy keeps wondering. 4. ch: it does not work. i feel like an idiot! 4. i want to feel like linus, having the security using blanket. i am testing linus‟ way of holding the blanket. i do not feel the security. it is not the normal way of getting the security p: not really as lc does not say anything. no there might be some misunderstanding here as lucy by keeping quiet lucy implies that ch is an idiot, she does not tell him to do this. or that is only her guess, that is linus‟ world. ch does not have to do that. i: not really. she might infer it correctly but she just keeps quiet but does not look happy as well. in the first conversation (no 1 and 2), lucy and charlie can infer the presuppositions and implicatures correctly so that there is no problem in their conversation. in number 3, charlie is leaving without saying anything, and the conversation begins to be in trouble as lucy has to guess what charlie is going to do. after charlie tries linus‟s way, he feels unhappy because the blanket does not give him security as lucy says. therefore he gets disappointed. seeing charlie‟s disappointment, lucy is unhappy as well, maybe because she feels guilty in giving the information. however, maybe, she says, i am just guessing. presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 19 data c: my mother’s meals ad = andy tn = tony comic strips 3: i miss my mother’s meals no presuppositions (by speaker) (q) p>>q maxims violated/flouted implicatures (by speaker) inferences : (the speaker infers the hearer correctly?): p: presupposition i: implicature results: the communication runs well without misunderstanding? 1. ad. i miss the good old days, when mom cooked my meals (p) a. i do not miss the good old days, when mom cooked my meals (not p) 1. mom cooked my meals p>> q not p>>q quality: as ad does not say the reason of his missing. manner: the hearer may interpret the statement wrongly i missed her because . . . . (not clear) p: yes no a little misunderstanding i: no. then according to tn‟s logical thinking, this statement means that ad‟s mother was a good cook 2. tn: your mother was a good cook? 2. you had a mother your mother‟s meals must be so delicious that you missed them p: yes yes , but there is a little misunderstanding in the implicature i : yes 3. ad :not particularly 3. mother was a good cook yes, my mom was a good cook but that there was something else that i missed. p : yes yes, but there is misunderstanding in the implicature i : yes, but curious to know the „something else” 4. tn: then why do you miss her meals? 4. you missed your mother‟s meals what the other things that you missed from your mother? p : yes yes i : yes 5. ad :they (the meals) were free 5. the meals exist (existential presupposition) now i have to pay for my meals. or i have the financial problem please pay the meals for me p : yes no a little misunderstanding and it is not clear whether tn understands because he does not know actually what ad wants to say, or what is expected from him. therefore, he could not say anything i : no in the third data, actually most conversations run quite smoothly as tony and andy infer the presuppositions well. the first flouting of the maxim of quality happens when andy says the „curious‟ statement without any explanation and the hidden reason is ambiguous. this flouting causes the next conversations to happen. otherwise, there are no more conversations. the result makes the inferring of jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 20 the implicatures have problems as tony has his own „world‟ views that usually a child will miss his mother‟s meals because the meals are delicious. there is also the possibility that this opinion is general. however, his „world‟ is different from andy‟s who might have financial problems or just want to have free meals. if tony knows andy‟s „world‟, he will not have asked the question whether andy‟s mother was a good cook. nevertheless, this conversation runs well at the end because tony asks andy directly what makes him miss her mother, and andy answers it briefly. andy‟s answer is the unexpected one therefore tony gets surprised. comic strips 4: tintin and captain haddock prof. calculus was trying to join tintin and captain haddock‟s mission to find the treasure. he intended to try out his invention, the ship to protect oneself from sharks. tintin and captain haddock refused the offer, however, prof. calculus managed to smuggle himself to their ship. he replaced captain haddock‟s drinks with his apparatus. prof.calculus was sleeping when they found him. captain haddock woke him up. ch = captain haddock pc = profesor calculus no presuppositions (by speaker) (q) p>>q maxims violated/flouted implicatures (by speaker) inferences : (the speaker infers the hearer correctly?): p: presupposition i: implicature results: the communication runs well without misunderstanding? 1. ch: my whisky, you wretch! (p1)… what you have done with my whisky? (p2) thundering typhoons, answer me! … where’s my whisky? (p3) 1. i have whisky you have done something to my whisky i have been looking for my whisky. i found your apparatus in my whisky‟s boxes. p.:no prof.calculus is deaf so he could not understand not only the presupposition but the expression at all no captain haddock gets shocked i. no, because he is occupied by his own thinking 2. pc: i must confess, i did sleep rather badly, but i hope you will give me a cabin 2. i slept rather badly relation: the answer of pc is not relevant as ch is looking for his whisky i want to sleep well therefore i need a cabin p: yes yes, ch understands that pc needs a cabin. however, that is not the expected answer i: yes, but actually he is looking for his whisky 3. ch: a cabin . . . …. . . . and my whisky? .. where is my whisky? 3. i have whisky (repeat the presupposition) my whisky is somewhere you have moved my whisky so you must know where my whisky is p: no. prof. calculus still does not infer the message of the captain no. i: no, as he never thinks about other people and is just occupied by his own mind. moreover he never pays attention to the body language 4. pc: it’s on board, of course 4. the thing (apparatus) exists relation: it seems that no violation of the maxim, however, actually pc does not relate his topic to ch‟s i would like to inform where the apparatus is p: yes, but using his own “world” yes. misunderstanding in the presupposition and the implicature. therefore captain haddock is happy i: yes, but using his own „world‟ presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 21 5. ch: it’s on board! … heaven be praised 5. the wine exists no violation but ch is responding using his own „world‟ i am happy because you tell me the wine. i am happy because i can drink the wine now p: no, because he does not think about the wine no, however both of the participants are happy although actually they are in different worlds. i: no, because ch is talking about the wine and pc infers as his apparatus 6. pc: naturally it is in separate pieces . . . 6 there is a special way of carrying (the apparatus) (from the word: naturally) relation: as pc is talking about his own topic you have to know that the apparatus is special therefore it must be specially treated p : no because it does not make sense that whisky is in separate pieces. no, and the happy face of ch disappears. again the participants both the professor and the captain are living in their own worlds. i : no, ch begins to wonder what the professor is talking about 7. ch: in separate pieces . . . my whisky is in separate pieces? 7 i have whisky ch realizes that pc violates the maxim of relation and tries to draw him back to his topic are sure that the whisky is in separate pieces? that is not the nature of whisky what are you talking about? p: no, pc still cannot infer even from the captain‟s face and action no, captain haddock begins to realize that his „world‟ is not the same as that of the professor‟s. however, the professor does not. i: no, because in the mind of the professor is still the apparatus 8. pc: of course, it is a little smaller ….. . . . and pack all the parts in the cases. . . 8. the apparatus must be packed like that relation: pc is not aware that his world is different from ch‟s. you should know the apparatus and the way of packaging it. . . p: no, ch still does not understand because he is thinking about the whisky no, ch gets frustrated because he really wants the whisky meanwhile the topic of the professor is not clear. i: no, ch does not know what the professor is talking about. 9. ch: wretch . . . . .i’ll throw you overboard! overboard, d’you hear 9 we have different topics you do not understand what i am talking about. instead you are talking about something else. i got mad p: no, as pc still he does not care about ch‟s action or face. no the captain gets more frustrated, angry but cannot do anything i: no, he is still interested in his world and never tries to understand other‟s 10. pc: thank you captain. thank you very much! it just what i expected from you . . . such a kind welcome!. you’ll see – you won’t regret it. 10. the captain has understood what the professor is talking about relation pc is actually talking to himself as he does not hear and does not try to understand what ch is talking about. thus he is still in his „world‟ you have understood my explanation, you are willing to take me in your journey, you give the chance to try my invention, you are willing to give me the cabin i‟ll repay you one day p: no ch does not infer what pc presupposes as he thinks that pc talks something nonsense no, the communication does not work well until the end, the result is ch gets angry, shocked, surprised, frustrated, while pc is happy because he is living in his own „world‟ . i: no, he does not understand why pc thanks him, meanwhile his purpose is not achieved jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 22 the conversations between professor calculus and captain haddock have been very interesting looking from the presuppositions, cooperative principles and implicatures. in general captain haddock understands professor calculus‟s presuppositions and implicatures, when talking about cabin, however, when prof.calculus talks about the apparatus, captain haddock cannot infer it at all as he does not know anything about it. on the other hand, professor calculus is a person who lives in his own world. he never has any intention to understand either the presuppositions or implicatures of others; his deafness is one of the causes, but if only he has the willingness to understand others, he can infer them from the body language of the captain. due to his deafness and is ignorance to other people, professor calculus always violate the maxim of relation. he always answers using his irrelevant topic. this thing makes him still in his world. therefore, until the end, there is no understanding between captain haddock and professor calculus. the message of both of them cannot reach each other. overall results in the following, the results of the four data will be compared. data no violating maxims inference results any misunderstanding? presupposition implicature a. 1. quality and manner yes yes yes 2 no no 3. yes yes yes 4. yes not really no b. 1. yes yes yes 2. quality hedges yes yes yes 3. no no 4. no no no c. 1. quality and manner yes no no 2. yes yes yes 3. yes yes yes 4. yes yes yes 5. yes no no d. 1. no no no 2. relation yes yes yes 3. no no no 4. relation yes yes yes 5. no no no 6. relation no no no 7. no no no 8. relation no no no 9. no no no 10. relation no no no in general, we can see that most of the ideas in data a,b and c are expressed without violating the maxims, meaning that the ideas should be inferred well. the maxims violated are mostly the maxim of quality and manner in this case the speakers do not provide enough information. the inadequate information makes the ideas unclear and ambiguous thus violating the maxim of manner as the hearer may interpret in the wrong way. however, the violating using hedges will not lead to the misunderstanding such as in data b2. in data d, professor calculus always violates the maxim of relation, due to his deafness and ignorance to other people. this extreme situation surely leads to the misunderstanding until the end of the conversations. regarding the presupposition and the implicatures, if the presuppositions are inferred well, the implicatures can also be understood well, and the result is that the communication can run very well without or a little misunderstanding. however, if the hearer cannot conclude the presuppositions and implicatures … (ienneke indra dewi) 23 presupposition well, the implicatures cannot be understood as well. the result is that the message in the communication cannot reach the hearer. in data no a4, c1 and c5, the presuppositions are inferred well but not the implicatures and the result is that the message cannot reach the hearer as well. if we compares data a,b,c and d, data a and b are similar, having two yes, and in the analysis we can see that there is misunderstanding between lucy and charlie, but the misunderstanding of the results are not serious meaning that there is no bad effects on the participants. in data c, the misunderstanding is the least, having 3 yes(es) out of 5 parts. this happens as the participants are open in asking questions to open other‟s world. the worst thing is data d, the participants prefer to be in their own worlds, and nobody wants to try to understand the other‟s worlds in addition, moreover, questioning each other to know their worlds. the result is very bad, as until the end, no messages can reach each others at all. conclusion the role of presuppositions and implicatures is very important in the communication in order that the communication run very well meaning that the message sent will reach the hearer according to the sender‟s intention. the success of this communication, would depend on how far a person make the presuppositions, make the assumptions of what the hearer knows prior of making an utterance, sending his message. then the language chosen, the way of uttering, should be considered whether to say it clearly or implicitly by thinking of the hearer‟s world. the cooperative principles do not always influence the understanding of the message. however, in the extreme situation such as in data c, this violence of the maxim, causes the wrong inference of the hearer. this also shows that in delivering and receiving the message, we should also try to think about the speaker‟s world; the speaker‟s presupposition and implicature in order that the message i.e. the speaker‟s meaning will reach him correctly. if everybody tries to pay attention to the presuppositions, cooperative principles, and implicatures in communicating, hopefully there will be a little misunderstanding among the participants as the message given in the conversations reaches the hearer as it is intended. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 12-24 24 references cumming, l. 2005. pragmatics. edinburg: edinburg university press. grundy, p. 2000. doing pragmatics. new york: arnold publisher. haugh, m. 2002. the intuitive basis of implicature: relevance theoretic implicitness versis gricean implying. in pragmatics 12:2.117-134. retrieved from http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:mz0tgyvihwoj:www.griffith.edu.au/school/lal/staff/ haugh_papers/haugh2002_intuitive_basis_of_implicature.pdf+implicature+definition&hl=id &ct=clnk&cd=15&gl=id herge. 2007. the adventures of tintin: red rackham’s treasure. paris: egmont hurford and heasly. 2007. semantics a coursebook cambridge university press cambridge. kreiddler, c.w. 1998. introducing english semantics. routledge: london mey, j. l. 2001. pragmatics an introduction. blacwell publisher inc. massachusetts. richards, j. c. platt, j., and platt, h. 1997 longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics.longman group uk: edinburg. stalnaker, r. 1977. pragmatic presuppositions. in proceedings of texas conference on performatives, presuppositions and implicatures. eds andy rogers, bob wall, and john p.murphy p.135 – 145. trask, r.l edited by peter stockwell. 2007. language and lingusitics the key concepts. routledge: new york. valenzuela, julia scherba de. 1992. national joint committee for the communicative needs of persons with severe disabilities. from http://www.unm.edu/~devalenz/handouts/defcomm.html, retrieved 10 april 2008 http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:mz0tgyvihwoj:www.griffith.edu.au/school/lal/staff/haugh_papers/haugh2002_intuitive_basis_of_implicature.pdf+implicature+definition&hl=id&ct=clnk&cd=15&gl=id http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:mz0tgyvihwoj:www.griffith.edu.au/school/lal/staff/haugh_papers/haugh2002_intuitive_basis_of_implicature.pdf+implicature+definition&hl=id&ct=clnk&cd=15&gl=id 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������������������#�����$!�%�&�� '�$(�%���&�� �����)�*���+�%����,���� -"�+��.�%�����'������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ��? ������� ������ ������������ copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 99 introduction indonesia is a country that has a lot of diversity, such as diversity of ethnic, racial ethnicity, and language. according to the central agency on statistics (bps) in 2010, the number of ethnic groups in indonesia is more than 300 tribes or ethnic groups. this can be interpreted that each ethnic group has a social and cultural tradition. meanwhile, according to the ministry of national education in 2010, there are more than 746 local languages in all regions of the archipelago even when viewed in terms of dialect, then the amount will be much more. for example lontara’ alphabet makassar consists of five dialects, namely lakiung, turatea, konjo, selayar, and bantaeng (basang, 2005). one culture that must uphold is makassar language. because language is a symbol system used by the members of the social group to work together, communicate, and identify themselves (kridalaksana, 1984). in the position as a regional language, makassar language serves as (1) the pride symbol of makassar community, (2) the symbol of makassar community identity, (3) means of communications amongst the people of makassar, (4) revealer tool of public culture makassar, and (5) the language of instruction at the beginning of classes in primary and secondary schools whose mother tongue language of makassar (daeng, 2006). one way in which to learn the native language so easy to understand is that the government should have regulations to provide learning materials to schools especially those in elementary schools and junior high school. although these subjects are conducted by each school, in practice it is still gaining obstacles for students who learn the makassar language. one of the efforts is studying the learning materials by writing that is using the letters of the alphabet which students find no difficulty. however, when students are dealing with writing materials in lontara’ alphabet, most of them find it difficult. it is like if they are dealing with a letter from a foreign country. when in fact, this is a lontara alphabet in the 18th century that already hereditary learned and used by the people of indonesia, especially in the area of south sulawesi. lontara’ alphabet is one of the frightening factors in learning makassar language, especially for the younger generation who studied it. students envision the difficulty in memorizing the letter forms. it is even more complicated by the fact that there are too many letters to be memorized. lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 99-103 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.1422 the effectiveness of letters card media in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar at smp negeri 1 pallangga in gowa district hamriani1; idawati garim2; usman3 1,2,3faculty of language and literature, state university of makassar kampus unm parang tambung, jl. daeng tata, kec. makassar, sulawesi selatan 1hamriani.gowa@gmail.com; 2idawatigarim.unm@gmail.com; 3usmanpahar@gmail.com received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 3rd october 2016/ accepted: 8th october 2016 how to cite: hamriani, garim, i., & usman (2016). the effectiveness of letters card media in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar at smp negeri 1 pallangga in gowa district. lingua cultura, 10(2). 99-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.1422 abstract the purpose of this research was to explain the effectiveness of writing lontara’ alphabet makassar via letters card media in class vii smpn 1 pallangga, gowa district. this research used quantitative method. the steps was taken, namely (1) the initial test (pre-test) or measurement prior to treatment, (2) the implementation of the action (treatment), and (3) the measurement that was done after posttest. the object of this research was the students of class vii students in smp negeri 1 pallangga, while the selected students as sample were students of class vii-18 woth total 50 students. data collection techniques used were participatory observation, test, and interviews. data analysis techniques used include data description, the average similarity test, and requirements analysis test. the results show that learning by using letters card media is very effective. it can be seen from the results of post-test analysis which shows higher level of achievement by using a lontara’ alphabet makassar letters card media compared to the pre-test. in addition, in learning process the students are more active by using the letter card media compared to not using these media. while other factors that influence the effectiveness of learning can be affected by three factors, they are motivation, educational qualifications of teachers, and the environment. keywords: effectiveness, writing, literacy lontara ‘makassar, media, card letter 100 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 99-103 makassar language learning has standard written rules. the learning material makes students reluctant to learn especially to deepen the mastery of reading and writing lontara’ alphabet. the practitioners, particularly the educators find it increasingly difficult to teach the material while supporting interactive media to facilitate the learning process that is very rare. several other complaints that are often experienced by local language teachers, namely learning the local language is less desirable for the students, and the competence of the students cannot maximize their achievement (irkham, 2010). along with the times, the progress of science and technology has advanced and also encouraged teachers to organize renewal efforts in the learning process and utilize the technological advancement products. teachers are required to be able to use the tools that can make it easier to conduct the learning process and help students learn, both tools are in accordance with the times, such as computers, slides and so on. or teaching tools that are simple, inexpensive and efficient, such as pictures, graphs, and charts (nugrahaeni, 2014). to achieve the goal of learning, together with teachers demanded to be able to use these tools, teachers are also required to be able to develop media that will be used but it is available, because the media is an integral part of the learning process for the achievement of learning objectives (basang, 2005). one way to increase the passion and motivation for the students is to hold a variety of teachers in lesson activities. it can be done by changing the methods, strategy, approach, or the use of learning media that can attract the attention of students. but unfortunately, not all teachers are aware of the importance of variation in teaching. most of the teachers’ command in learning activities in the classroom only use one method that has been ingrained within the teacher’s themselves, with only by a lecture alone. that method is done by the local language teachers in general when presenting lontara’ alphabet learning materials. most makassar language teachers rarely make variations when they are presenting lontara’ alphabet material. they only use the lecture method alone. in fact, it can be imagined how difficult lontara’ alphabet material that can be understood by students if they are only presented using a lecturing format alone. when students are presented with less attractive subject materials, they find difficult to understand. then it can be sure that they will not be excited and motivated to learn the lontara’ alphabet. in the end, the purpose of the lesson activities will not be achieved. in an attempt to restrain the phenomenon, then it is considered necessary for a teacher to use the media in the learning process (vebrianto & osman, 2012). the media functions as a learning attraction, so teaching and learning activities can run more excitingly and the students are more passionate and motivated to undergo a learning process, and the material presented can be absorbed by students well. one way that can be used by teachers to attract the interest and motivation of these students is by using letters card media in conveying the lontara’ alphabet material. using this letters card media, the process of learning can be designed in various ways, one of which is by playing game, which is well-liked by the students. therefore, the use of media is important in the learning process. methods this research method is quantitative. to determine the effectiveness of this study, there are three steps to be taken, namely (1) the early test (pre-test) or (measurement prior to treatment), (2) the action implementation (treatment), and (3) measures after lasts (posttest). the research object of this study is a class vii student of smp negeri 1 pallangga, while the selected students as the sample are the students from class vii 18 with total 50 students. data collection techniques used are participatory observation, test, and interviews. to find out the results of the test’s ability in writing makassar lontara’ alphabet that has been done, then it should have proper assessment criteria. according to ikhwanti (2013), the simple criterion of writing skills test consists of (a) the accuracy of the letter with the matter, (b) the accuracy of the vowel with the question, and (c) the writing neatness. data analysis techniques used includes a description of the data, the average similarity test, and test requirements analysis. results and discussions after learning the student’s ability to pre-test and post-test, it will be continued over (1) test for normality of data, (2) test of homogeneity of variance, (3) and hypothesis testing. after learning of the analysis, it can be seen the effectiveness of student’s skills in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar via letters card media. normality test of data is obtained from the pre-test and post-test results from the ability to write lontara’ alphabet makassar. in the process of data analysis, the researchers are using spss version 16.0 facility to test the normality data, using the sig. (2-tailed) in the kolmogorov-smirnov to show normal distribution of data if the calculation result is greater than the level of alpha 5% (sig. (2-tailed). 0,050). for more details, regarding the results of normality data test pre-test and post-test writing skills lontara’ alphabet makassar will be presented in table 1. table 1 the results of pre-test and post-test writing skills lontara’ alphabet makassar data asymp. sig. (2-tailed) description pre-test 0,560 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) > 0,050 = normal post-test 0,177 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) > 0,050 = normal source: processed data spss, 2016. based on table 1 shows that all data both from the pre-test and post-test provide a data distribution with normal distribution. after performing data normality test, then it proceeds to test the homogeneity of variance. in analyzing the data, homogeneous scores will be produced and can be regarded as significant data if the data is greater than 0,05. the homogeneity of variance test calculation results can be seen in table 2. table 2 varian homogeneity test pre-test and post-test writing skills lontara’ alphabet makassar levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 0,070 1 98 0,793 source: processed data spss, 2016. 101the effectiveness of letters .... (hamriani, et al.) table 2 indicates that the homogeneity of variance test results both pre-test and post-test of the ability to write lontara’ alphabet makassar on student smp negeri 1 pallangga have the homogeneous variant. the hypothesis of this study is effective letters card media that used in writing the lontara’ alphabet makassar by students of class vii smpn 1 pallangga. for more details, hypothesis testing data are presented in table 3. table 3 test results t paired differences t df si g (2 -t ai le d) m ea n st d d ev . st d er ro r m ea n 965% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pair 1 v1-v2 1,58 1,76 0,25 1,08 2,08 6,34 49 0,00 source: processed data spss, 2016. based on the data analysis, it is obtained that tcount is 6,34 with df 49. hypothesis testing is used when p > 0,05. the value of ttable is 2:01. hypothesis testing criteria (h0) accepted if t is smaller than t table (th < tt). that is, the application of the letters card media is not effective in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar in class vii smp negeri 1 pallangga. (h1) is accepted if tcount is greater then the media card. it is effectively applied in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar in class vii smp negeri 1 pallangga. the results of data analysis show that the tcount value is 6,34, and the value of ttable is 2:01. means the value of tcount > ttable (6,34 > 2,01) is then hypothesis (h0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted that there are significant differences when it has been using a letter card media with the previous without using anything. based on the analysis that has been done, then the letters card media is effective to be used in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar by students of class vii in smp negeri 1 pallangga. students of smp negeri 1 pallangga in obtaining the results of pre-test learning is still below minimum completeness criteria (kkm) while the kkm value at the school is 75 with a range of 1 to 100. the results of the achievements obtained by the students of class vii-18 smp negeri 1 pallangga in early tests (pre-test) which had averaged only reach a score of 68,28. it means that the pretest students on these subjects have not reached the kkm. this is because the learning process carried out by both teachers and students are still very minimal. the students who write the local language are instructed without using a variation of the effective learning process. furthermore, after the pre-test then continued with treatment against the student, the results obtained have reached kkm with a value 70 (miswah & supratono, 2016). the low levels of achievements are obtained, in terms of that it needs a method that able to overcome these problems. the low learning outcomes due to lack of facilities and infrastructure of learning, making learning less varied. this is reinforced by the theory put forward by (rahany & santoso, 2008) who has stated that in the process of learning it is necessary to provide facilities and infrastructures that support learning. it is causing students to understand the material that has been given. similarly with students class vii-18 of smp negeri 1 pallangga, where the teacher in the learning process is still experiencing problems such as a lack of facilities and infrastructure of learning such as lcd, media card, and other media that are considered to able to improve the student’s ability students to learn. efforts in maximizing the learning process are needed. media selection will be presented so that the goal can be achieved according to the plan. in line with this, teachers are required to be able to develop media that will be used, but it is available because the media is an integral part of the learning process for the achievement of learning objectives (arsyad, 2013). one of media that can be used to maximize the learning process is to write using the letters card media. this media which is presented in the form of letter lontara’ alphabet makassar is able to improve student’s motivation to study harder. hopefully, the objectives to be achieved can be realized. likewise disclosed, little (1884); cripps (1963); simanjuntak (2013), setiyorini & abdullah (2013), and khairunnisak (2015) that supporting the learning process. it is expected to have a media that able to support, one of which is the letters card media. the success of the letters card media that have been implemented in the learning process is evident from the results of the average value. this proves an increase in the average value of the pre-test to post-test class achieved which increased 34% from the pass kkm. in the process of achieving these values, the researcher carried out are pre-test first without any treatment. furthermore, posttest performs after the last treatment. based on the difference of the final results (post-test), it is seen from the increase in the value of the average pretest results that the letters card media is a learning solution. it is also seen from the results of activity of students in the learning process. using the letters card media, then students are more active in receiving lessons. this is in line with the notion that the use of media can stimulate students to learn (gagne, 1970). by strengthening the research results, the results of experiments by applying a media card is also conducted by rahany et al., (2008) who have studied the effectiveness of using the word card media in teaching to write in german through poetry in class xi sma negeri 2 purworejo. the study results conclude that the use of words card media in learning written german language is more effective when compared with other means. other studies have also done with titled “the effectiveness of the use of media” business card “of the ability to write poetry in class viii smp negeri 2 klatentulung year 2008/2009 (vita, 2009). this research elaborates on the importance of work cards media in student’s skills in writing poetry. similarly, with using a letters card media for students in class vii-18 of smp negeri 1 pallangga turn out to provide a significant improvement when compared with the pre-test results that have been implemented previously. the effectiveness of letters card media in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar can also be known based on the t test calculation. through t test formula, the value of tcount is 6,34 and the value of ttable is 2:01. means the value of tcount > ttable (6,34 > 2,01) is then hypothesis (h0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted. it means that the hypothesis is accepted, for example, the letters card media is effective to be used in learning to write lontara’ alphabet makassar in class vii smp negeri 1 pallangga gowa. the effective learning process in smp negeri 1 pallangga is influenced by three factors, namely (a) motivation, (b) qualification of teachers or educators, and (c) environment. each of these three factors contributes 102 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 99-103 very much to the effectiveness of the learning process. motivation is the driving force for students to increase the intensity of their lessons. with the motivation of students both from within the students themselves and from others or both from teachers and friends can be the impetus for them to do better than before and to study harder. however, the results show that in fact the students still have low motivation to learn. as a result, as seen from the findings of the initial (pre-test), it still shows a very low and only a few students who reached the required kkm. however, by doing learning using media cards, the students drastically increase in motivation to learn even better than ever. this is demonstrated from the results of the final test or posttest which are significantly increased. this is in accordance with the opinion briggs (1970); scheufele and tewksbury (2007) and trees and jackson (2007), that the media is all the physical tools that can present the message and stimulate students to learn. it suggests that the learning media is a tool used to distribute a message or subject content so as to provide stimulation in the form of thoughts, feelings, the interest and ability of the students in the learning process. qualifications of educators are one determinant in improving the quality of education. this is in accordance with the law on teachers and lecturers in article 5, paragraph 1, namely “teachers profession and lecturers are specialized occupations requiring professional principles as follows (1) having the talents, interests, soul calling and ideals. (2) having educational qualifications and educational background in their respective sectors. (3) having the necessary competence in their respective sectors. (4) complying with the professional code of ethics. (5) having the rights and obligations in performing the task. (6) earned income is determined in accordance with their performance. (7) having the opportunity to develop in a sustainable profession. (8) gaining law protection in performing their task. (9) having a professional organization with legal status. with qualifications, educators with quality will assist students in achieving the desired objectives. similarly, in smp negeri 1 pallangga in determining educators in each subject will help students in achieving educational goals. then look for educators in accordance with their expertise. however, various obstacles faced is the lack of qualified teachers who educated the local language. therefore the solution is taken by taking teacher almost accordance with the field, as it is done over the years is by selectinggraduate of s1 qualified in indonesian education, local language literature (non-educational). this is contrary to one of the principles of professional teachers and lecturers, namely “having educational qualifications and educational background in their respective sectors”. environment is one determinant of a very important role in influencing students to achieve a goal or purpose of learning is the environment. the results show that the learning process of students of smp negeri 1 pallangga are influenced by many factors, such as from peers, by the students themselves, proximity to friends outside of school and other factors. these factors greatly affect the learning conditions of students especially at the age of junior high school, an age which is easy to receive the outside influence without careful consideration. this is corresponded with (muhiddin, 1999) that the factors that influence the study are the student’s internal factors (students’ physical and spiritual), students external factors (students’ neighborhood), and student’s approach factors (strategy and methods used by students). conclusions students’ skills in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar before using a media letters card media that are in the lower classification with an average value of 68,28. the number of students who receive grades of completeness is (> 75) or 20 (40%) of 50 students. meanwhile, after the post-test have reached kkm predetermined value, which is located in the high category with an average value of 81,34. the number of students who receive grades of completeness is (>75) or 37 (74%) of 50 students. the effectiveness of media cards in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar can be known based on the ttest calculation. through ttest formula, the value of tcount is 6,34 and the value of ttable is 2:01. means of the value of tcount > ttable (6,34 > 2,01) is then hypothesis (h0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted. it means that the hypothesis is accepted, for example, the letter card media is effective to be used in learning to write lontara’ alphabet makassar in class vii smp negeri 1 pallangga gowa. factors that influence the effectiveness of learning in smp negeri 1 pallangga are influenced by three factors, namely motivation, educational qualifications of educators, and environment. of these three factors, there should be a synergy that takes part in the accomplishment of educational quality, so that the quality educational goals can be achieved in line with expectations. references arsyad, a. 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(2009). keefektifan penggunaan media “kartu kerja” terhadap kemampuan menulis puisi pada siswa kelas viii smp negeri 2 tulung klaten tahun ajaran 2008/2009. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 25 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 25-30 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1608 implemented pwim in developing students’ communicative competence of smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta siti nurani1; amrina rosyada2 1,2 department of english education, faculty of language and arts, indraprasta pgri university jl. nangka no. 58 c (tb. simatupang) tanjung barat, jagakarsa, jakarta selatan 12530, indonesia 1rani_siti16@yahoo.com, 24mrin4@gmail.com received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 28th november 2016/ accepted: 9th january 2017 how to cite: nurani, s & rosyada, a. (2017). implemented pwim in developing students’ communicative competence of smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta. lingua cultura, 11(1). 25-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1608 abstract the research aimed at determining the significant effect of implemented picture word inductive model (pwim) in developing students’ communicative competence in smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta. the students’ communicative competence was measured quantitatively by conducting the experiment method. there were 47 of the eleventh-grade students as samples chosen randomly by using purposive sampling technique. the data were performed by using the test instrument with two groups on post-test design; one group became the experiment class and the other group became the control class. the questionnaire was assigned to students at the end of the lesson. the post-poster cycle assessment was given as a basis of measurement in analyzing students’ communicative competence. the data were analyzed by using t-test two tailed formula to find out the significant difference of each class of the sample (simple effect). findings have shown that there is a significant effect of using pwim to students’ communicative competence which is reflected from the enhancement of students’ comprehension toward the pronunciation, fluency, grammar, vocabulary as well as the increase of their motivation and creativity experiencing the learning process more communicatively. keywords: picture word inductive model, communicative competence, english learning process introduction people are surrounded by visual information in the world because whether it is at home or in public places, information in the form of words and pictures permeates people’s lives. however, the connection of words and pictures is very suitable for learning a language, especially for learning a foreign language. pictures meet with a wide range of use not only in acquiring vocabulary, but also in attaining many other aspects of foreign language teaching. wood and tinajero (2002) claimed that pictures can be used as stimuli to promote students’ knowledge that is important in their learning process to be successful in all subject areas. they consider the picture word inductive model (pwim) as a tool that has more than one advantage. pwim can be used to teach english, and also can be applied to teach other subjects based on english learning for their better understanding, specifically in learning speaking for developing students’ communication skill. to be more specific, beside lessons, pictures are in the main focus. they might be used as; (1) a stimulus for writing and discussion, (2) an illustration of something being read or talked about, (3) a background to a topic and so on. pictures are also suitable for any group of learners independently on age or level, and can be used in lots of various ways in the teaching and learning process. as one of valuable aids in teaching foreign language, pictures have a significant role for teachers in gathering students’ attention, particularly in teaching speaking skill. students’ speaking performance really depends on how teachers deliver the lesson. teachers should provide the teaching materials that are suitable to the students’ needs. moreover, teachers should also apply the most appropriate methods and techniques in the teaching-learning process. in other words, it is necessary for the teachers to equip themselves with a good preparation as a well-prepared teacher may be able to help students develop their knowledge and skill in a higher learning achievement. teaching speaking for vocational high school students will need special attention as they are prepared to get involved with such work environment by time they graduate from the school. they should have a good communicative competence as their basis in handling such scopes of work they face, mainly in using english as the medium of communication. as far as communicative competence is concerned, unfortunately, there are still many 26 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 25-30 students encountering difficulties to use english in real life communication. these difficulties may be caused by some factors, which are; (1) lack of knowledge on vocabulary, (2) lack of knowledge on basic grammar, (3) lack of motivation to read various text materials, and (4) lack of confidence to get involved in real-life communication. moreover, some students are still incapable of pronouncing words, making a good statement or expressing statements. they use monotonous strategy to speak as teachers taught them. furthermore, they still have lack of speaking materials which actually have to be provided by themselves or by the teachers. in the academic language teaching, it is a must for teachers to foster students’ literacy in a broader sense of discourse competence for which having the ability to interpret and to evaluate both written and spoken texts (kern, 2000). preparing students to communicate in such contextualized discourse, means that teachers performing them have to be able to socialize with the larger community. in the learning process, students must considerably be put into the communication affair of various types of the situation of talk, both in formal situation or in informal situation. without having good literacy, then students may find difficulties to interact directly dealing with their social contexts of use of spoken interactions. the students’ competence in literacy plays an essential role in defining the ability in communicating the meaning of the talk. to this extent, students are able to create access to the evolving language of language work and also to design their social futures. it is the reason why literacy is needed by all of students to fulfill the employment. since vocational high school students put their focus of learning language mostly on handling matters in such work environment as they are expected to have a good communicative competence, pwim might be the solution to overcome their needs in learning speaking, particularly in communication skill. by applying this model of learning, students are expected to be more confident, active, interactive, and communicative as pwim offers playful and enjoyable learning activities. the pwim is designed to meet the challenge of combining students’ natural ability and teaching. it is a practical guide to teaching beginning language learners of all ages. in addition to that, pwim begins with what the students already know and respects their ability to think. it also allows students to hear the words pronounced correctly many times and to develop sight-word vocabulary. therefore, students are able to be immediately successful as language learners. having a picture associated with a word helps store information in long-term memory as well as creates a meaningful connection. this present research of implemented pwim in developing students communicative competence of smk islam wijaya kusuma is a quantitative research. it aims to determine the significance effect of using pwim in students’ communicative competence. the teachers administer some poster pictures as the students notice and study various pictures and then ‘shake out’ the words they have seen. they can find out the english words which describe the objects or actions in the picture. next, the teacher draws a line to the corresponding word or phrase, spell it and have the students to repeat the pronunciation and spelling. they can classify the words according to common letter patterns and begin to internalize phonetic and structural principles. the results of the research contribute most to the increasing of students’ communicative competence by encouraging their critical thinking. at the end, they can create a sentence or sentences, or even a paragraph or paragraphs and can practice those strings of sentences communicatively. teaching language sets its goal as the teaching of language use that is appropriate to all contexts of discourse, whether it is in written or spoken interaction. numerous assessments with an integrated-innovative learning media might be considerable tools in creating a better atmosphere of learning language. in certain respects, teaching language means teaching how to communicate ‘meaning’ to others. communicative competence is thus considered as a prerequisite for teachers in delivering the message of the lesson. as affirmed by richards (2006) that communicative competence includes several aspects of language knowledge, namely: knowledge of using language based on its participants and setting, knowledge of defining language use in different types of texts, and knowledge of maintaining communication with different communication strategies. communicative competence could be described as a capability of learner to use the language in various contexts appropriately for achieving the communication goals. canale and swain in celce-murcia, dornyei and thurrell (1995) further proposed models of communicative competence that serve both instructional and assessment purposes into four aspects, namely: (1) grammatical competence, (2) sociolinguistic competence, (3) discourse competence, and (4) strategic competence. grammatical competence refers to the knowledge of the language code involving pronunciation, spelling system, vocabulary, grammatical rules, and so forth. sociolinguistic competence is the comprehension of the socio-cultural code of language use involving the appropriate application of using the language in the given situation of talk. meanwhile, discourse competence is defined as the ability to gather language structures into various types of texts. furthermore, strategic competence is referred to the learners’ ability to use both verbal and non-verbal communication as well as to be a problem solver when communication misleads. having had a good communicative competence really needs much effort in its process. one of many aspects of competence that students should have is the competence in literacy. by its consideration, students should start off with the literacy competence in order to enhance the communicative competence for language use. instructional in the teaching method must be then set up and assigned appropriately to students’ needs. in short, teachers must foster students’ communicative competence by conducting learning activities with numerous interactive-communicative learning media and teaching methods as they can experience and get involved directly in the interaction. among different teaching methods, many researchers believe that the method of using pictures or visual images to teach esl (english as a second language) learners new words benefits english vocabulary acquisition. jiang and perkins (2013) stated that substantial number of learning language can be attained by using pictures as its conceptualized protocol used by teachers. in other words, pictures and other visual aids are extremely important in the teaching of a second language to young learners. the efficient and accessible visual aids in the classroom include the teacher, the children, the blackboard or whiteboard, pictures, word cards, real objects and videos. the pwim is assigned by using pictures containing familiar objects and actions to elicit words from children’s listening and speaking vocabulary. the pwim has been used in calhoun’s teaching for american children in 27implemented pwim in developing students’ .... (siti nurani; amrina rosyada) the primary school and the kindergarten since the 1970s (calhoun, 1999), and it has become more and more popular for the other teachers in teaching young esl learners. as joyce et al. (2004) stated that pwim is a young teaching strategy that still makes the cut for inclusion in models of teaching because it is well-based in literacy research and has wide applications. it is successful because this model works upon the natural ways (information processes) that children learn language. many scholars have carried out investigation of pwim in some particular discussions of teaching-learning strategies. some of them are swartzendruber (2007), damanik & ownie (2013), and dominic & mollykutty (2014). these scholars analyzed and investigated pwim in such discussions in a classroom context for students in various grades, such as “quasi experimental” research by swartzendruber (2007); “an action research” on student’s achievement on writing task by damanik & ownie (2013) and “qualitative descriptive” research on the use of pwim in vocabulary acquisition by dominic & mollykutty (2014). swartzendruber (2007) implemented a study on pwim and vocabulary acquisition. her quasi-experiment studied on the enhancement of student’s vocabulary acquisition by using pwim. she examined 35 students of second grader in elementary school, comprised into 14 students for experiment class and 21 students for control class. the experiment class received intervention using pwim while the control class did not receive the intervention. at the end of her study, the results showed that the pwim was significantly enhance the students’ vocabulary acquisition. another study on pwim was held by daminik & ownie (2013) that concerned on students’ achievement in writing procedure text. their study was classroom action research that examined 30 students of second year of senior high school. there were two cycles in their study, where the second cycle was the improvement of the first cycle. the data analysis used the test to test orientation, which were test i, test ii, and test iii. the findings showed that the students’ writing procedure text was improved by the use of pwim. the latest study on pwim was also focused on the effectiveness of pwim in teaching vocabulary acquisition by dominic & mollykutty (2014). the study was combining pwim with different learning style. they examined 62 pupils of elementary school by employing pre-test and post-test of experimental study. the data were collected and analyzed by using statistical procedures of mean, standard deviation, anova and mancova. the analysis indicated that the use of pwim was significantly effective on students’ vocabulary acquisition in the component of meaning and spelling. as designed, pwim is intended to be a major teaching model component of language arts programs. as the strategy demonstrated nowadays, pwim would be used throughout the school every year to increase vocabulary as well as to improve sentence and paragraph construction and spelling. the specific lesson presented is one part of the ongoing teaching strategy. it would be presented in parts, over days or weeks. the example in models of teaching was a cycle of twenty-two sessions of about fifty minutes long. there are some reasons as follows for the increasing popularity of the teaching model. according to the pwim, necessarily, learners study various pictures and then ‘shake out’ the words they have seen. the phrase ‘shake out’ means to let children find out the english words which describe the objects or actions in the picture. after that, the teacher draws a line to the corresponding word or phrase, spells it and asks the students repeat the pronunciation and spelling. according to joyce, weil and calhoun (2009), with practice, experience, and modeling, learners will develop a better understanding of the conventions of english because they can classify the words according to common letter patterns and begin to internalize phonetic and structural principles. the implemented pwim really depends on the pictures selection as models used in stimulating students’ inductive thinking as joyce et al. (2004) states that, firstly, the pwim is designed to meet the challenge of combining children’s natural ability with teaching. besides, it supports the research about how literacy is acquired and on research underlying several of the theories of learning with pictures. secondly, the model is designed to adapt to language arts curriculums for primary level beginning readers, for older beginning or for early-stage readers. its essence is to help learners inquire into language and learn to build generalizations about how letters, words, phrases, sentences and longer text work together. the model also includes a set of tools to assist teachers and learners to make progress and to study it. in addition to emphasizing the usage and function of the pwim, they also provide the rationale and structure of the pwim. furthermore, joyce, et al. (2004) also affirmed that the pwim is said to be effectively implemented in the classroom context if it requires an action research frame of reference. also, teachers should combine the theory and rationale structure of pwim itself onto students’ inductive thinking. the pace of lessons during a picture-word cycle depends on the reading level of the learners and the curriculum objectives of the teacher. nevertheless, after the categorization process of words, learners are required to generate sentences about the picture and then, the teacher selects learners’ sentence categories to write a wellorganized paragraph, sharing their thinking about how they use the ideas in the sentences. by time the students finish the lesson through several instructional pwim, their writing competence in constructing the paragraph will increased. calhoun (1999) systematically addressed pwim as a practical guide to teaching beginning language learners of all ages that allows students’ needs in teaching and learning process particularly of sight vocabulary learning. with the definition, students are encouraged to: (1) build their ability which are building sight reading and writing vocabulary, (2) classifying words and sentences, (3) thinking inductively, and (4) developing their own titles, sentences and paragraphs about their pictures. the instructional sequences of the pwim applied in the classroom context is based on calhoun (1999) who describe into several parameters, namely: (1) select a picture; (2) ask students to identify what they see in the picture; (3) label the picture parts identified; (4) read and review the picture word chart aloud; (5) ask students to read the words using the lines on the chart if necessary and to classify the words into a variety of groups; (6) read and review the picture word chart; (7) add words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks; (8) lead students into creating a title for the picture word chart; (9) ask students to generate a sentence, sentences, or a paragraph about the picture word chart; and (10) read and review the sentences and paragraphs. selecting a picture is one of the important issues in pwim. according to calhoun (1999), the best practice for classroom teachers is to use images that are large enough so 28 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 25-30 that the details are easily viewed and identified by students. the photo has to be at least 20” x 30” which is the standard size pwim image. moreover, there are other criteria, which are: (1) it should be a real photograph that clearly depicts one large scene, not multiple scenes or mini photographs in a collage; (2) the proportions of items in the photograph should not be distorted; (3) there should be a main feature and then many details so many words can be shaken out or located by students; (4) colored photos or black and white pictures will work, but make sure the images are clear; (5) be sensitive to students’ lives when selecting posters; (6) there should not be captions or titles printed on the photograph, but signs are acceptable; (7) photos should reflect attributes of a concept being studied, but do not need to be an example of the concept itself. for example, a poster of a camel in a desert area can support a unit on animal habitats as easily as a poster of elephants on a meadow. regarding the principles of the pwim, joyce et al. (2004) stated that a major principle of pwim is to build on children’s growing storehouse of words and syntactic forms and to accelerate the transition to written forms. an essential principle of the pwim is that the model respects the children’s language development; their words are used, and their ability to make associations is cultivated. one of the advantages of the pwim is that it approaches the development of sight vocabulary directly. at first, children read and spell the words when they are ‘shaken out’ from the picture. later, these words are printed on word cards, so they can look at them. next, the teacher can hand down for group instruction so that learners can also have their own vocabulary cards. they classify these words according to different word classes, or word meanings; they look up the picture dictionary created previously on the whiteboard or chart paper to check their understanding and to memorize the meaning of the words. they can keep their word cards in word boxes, consulting them as they wish and eventually use them in generating sentences, reading, and writing (joyce et al., 2004). the pwim cannot only be used for teaching the correct spelling or pronunciation of the words learners have already known, it can also be used for teaching new vocabulary. it is stated that pwim induces learners to classify their new words, building the concepts that will enable them to obtain the meaning of words they have not seen before. when learners work with their words, the categorization procedure occurs. the categorization procedure can be seen as a natural process for extension of the word family for esl learners. cameron proposes, if categorization is responsible for certain meta-linguistic abilities then it would be reasonable to combine this metalinguistic abilities with inductive learning ability. hence the acquisition of new words would be more remarkable. students will develop word families and learn that. methods the research basically aimed at determining the significance effect of implemented pwim in developing students’ communicative competence of smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta. the students’ communicative competence was measured quantitatively by comparing pwim to conventional model. this research approach was a quantitative experimental research. there are two variables of the research, there were pwim and students’ communicative competence. the students were divided into two groups, there were, experiment class and control class. the pwim was employed in the experiment class for the intervention while the conventional model was implemented in the control class as the students have already used. once the pwim was assigned, the writers also overview the student’s motivation and creativity as the impact of the implemented pwim in the learning process. the population of this research was all the 11th grade of vocational high school students of smk islam wijaya kusuma, jakarta, majored in office administration in the academic year of 2015/2016. from the population of 103 students, 47 students were chosen randomly as the sample. the sample was divided into two groups as one class of experiment group consists of 25 students, and one other class as the control group consists of 22 students. each class was analyzed based on their scores of post-test poster picture and their answers of the questionnaire. results and discussions based on the results of the research data collection, the writers conducted a descriptive analysis to inform a general data of the research before the intervention. the analysis of data descriptive can be performed in table 1. table 1 descriptive data no. description control class experiment class 1 highest score 82 87 2 lowest score 75 75 3 mean 77,45 79,20 4 median 77 78 5 mode 75 75 6 standard deviation 5,50 15,33 7 variance 2,34 3,92 table 1 present the general information performs the data of control class and experiment class. the control class describes the highest score = 82; the lowest score = 75; the mean score = 77,45; the median score = 77; and the mode score = 75. meanwhile, the score of the experiment class describes the highest score = 87; the lowest score = 75; the mean score = 79,20; the median score = 78; and the mode score = 75. as the pre-condition of the data, this research should fulfill the requirements of the research analysis which are normality test and homogeneity test. based on the statistical calculation, the results show that the data is normal distributed and homogeny. the information can be seen in table 2. table 2 normality test control class experiment class l observed 0,141 l observed 0,160 l table 0,183 l table 0,173 according to statistical calculation of liliefors, the control class and the experiment class show that lobserved are lower than ltable which means that both classes have normal distribution. 29implemented pwim in developing students’ .... (siti nurani; amrina rosyada) besides the normality test, the data also shows the homogeny data as seen in table 3. table 3 homogeneity test control class experiment class ẋ 77,45 79,20 s 5,50 15,33 v 2,34 3,92 by comparing the variance of experiment class and the control class, the statistical data shows that fobserved is 1,76 and ftable is 2,06, which is fobserved is lower than ftable. it means that the data of control class and experiment class are homogeny. since the data shows the normality and the homogeneity, the research can be continued by the hypothesis analysis. the research began with implemented pwim on experiment class, while the control class was given the same lessons with conventional method. after eight times meeting, a post poster picture (figure 1) assignment was given to both classes. figure 1 pwim poster picture the results of both classes were then being collected and examined. based on the research findings, the data shows the students’ communicative results as presented in table 4. table 4 result data no. description control class experiment class 1 highest score 77 89 2 lowest score 70 79 3 mean 72,45 82,88 4 median 72 82 5 mode 70 79 6 standard deviation 5,50 11,36 7 variance 2,34 3,37 the results show that the experiment class performed better than the control class. in the experiment class, most students were able to elicit their thoughts to words and improve their vocabulary by using the poster picture. based on the poster picture, the students could also easily construct sentence by sentence and communicate the sentences to their friends in front of the class. meanwhile, in the control class, the students were mostly ashamed and unable to elicit their thoughts to words. the students hardly constructed their sentences and only some students could communicate the sentences to their friends. in this way, the students’ performance were examined and scored. with the collected data, then, the data was analyzed by the t-test two tailed analysis. this statistical analysis showed that t-observed = 3,92 higher than t-table = 2,02. based on the hypothesis analysis criteria as follows: ho: µb1 = µb2 (there is no significant effect of using picture word model to students’ communicative competence). h1: µb1 ≠ µb2 (there is a significant effect of using picture word model to students’ communicative competence). it can be said that the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted. it means that there is a significant effect of using pwim to students’ communicative competence. based on the result data and the hypothesis analysis, it can be seen that the experiment class reveals better result than the control class. the intervention of pwim was examined to be the preferable support to students in english learning. this pwim has been the new experience for students and proven in enhancement of the students’ comprehension. by comparing the data in experiment class and the control class, pwim showed the effectiveness on students’ communicative competence. the data showed that the experiment class has better result than the control class in the highest score, lowest score, mean, median, and mode. besides, with the t-test analysis, the result showed that t-observed has higher value than t-table which means there is a significant difference between using the pwim and conventional model on students’ communicative competence. it can be concluded that the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted. it means that there is a significant effect of using pwim to students’ communicative competence. conclusions from the hypothesis test and discussion of the findings, pwim is said to be effective in developing students’ communicative competence in smk islam wijaya kusuma jakarta. this conclusion comes from the results of hypothesis analysis which define the significant difference in the scores of students’ communicative competence criteria. the results show that the experiment class performed better than the control class. in each criteria of the communicative aspect, the experiment class achieves higher score than the control class. in other words, students’ communicative competence significantly increases after pwim was assigned. the pwim design works well in developing students’ communicative competence as it is proven by the fact that students paid more attention when dealing with the several classroom activities in the teaching-learning process. furthermore, pwim seems to be the teaching model that could increase both students’ motivation and creativity. this can be overviewed from students’ interaction in a more communicative learning circumstance in a classroom context. 30 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 25-30 references calhoun, e. (1999). teaching beginning reading and writing with the picture word inductive model. ascd, inc. celce-murcia, m., dornyei, z., & thurrell, s. (1995). communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. applied linguistics, 6(2), 5-35. damanik, w. r., & ownie, s. j. (2013). improving students’ achievement in writing procedure text through picture word inductive model. transform journal of english teaching & learning of fbs unimed, 2(3), 1-8. dominic, l., & mollykutty, t. m. (2014). effectiveness of the picture – word inductive model of teaching on vocabulary acquisition in english among elementary school pupils with different learning styles. educational extracts, 2(1), 19-29. jiang, x., & perkins, k. (2013). a conceptual paper on the application of the picture word inductive model using bruner’s constructivist view of learning and the cognitive load theory. interdisciplinary journal of teaching and learning, 3(1), 8-17. joyce, b., weil, m., & calhoun, e. (2004). models of teaching. boston: allyn and bacon publisher. joyce, b., weil, m., & calhoun, e. (2009). the picture word inductive model: developing literacy across the curriculum models of teaching. london: pearson education, inc. kern, r. (2000). literacy and language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. richards, j. c. (2006). communicative language teaching today. cambridge: cambridge university press. swartzendruber, k. l. (2007). the picture word inductive model and vocabulary acquisition. journal of educational psychology, 93(3), 498-520. wood, k. d., & tinajero, j. (2002). using pictures to teach content to second language learners: research into practice. middle school journal, 33(5), 47–51. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 117 introduction the republic of indonesia is one of the largest multicultural countries in the world. the pluralism in this country which is called as ‘asian tiger’ can be characterized by the presence of the diversity of culture, religion, ethnic, and language. there are differences between the cultures, and the uniqueness of each culture can be distinguished. aribowo & herawati (2016) have remarked that name, as well as language, dress, dance, and music are identikit, a device that can be used to detect a person’s identity. in the similar vein, aksholakova (2014) has also argued that personal name is a clue symbol of identity. the personal name symbolizes the identity of an individual, for example when someone will declare his identity, he will use the help of a name. furthermore, personal name is an important part of one’s existence as contained in legal documents, such as certificate of birth, family card, identity card, passport, certificate of graduation, driving license, certificate, and other important or other valuables documents. in the last few years, identity has become a buzzword in many areas of cultural studies; it is useful precisely because of its definition all nuances. identity can refer to an individual’s own subjective sense of self, to personal classification ‘markers’ that appear as important, both to oneself and to others, and also to those markers that group membership(s). and this most basic sense is exactly what underpins the notion of identity as it applies to personality. this work situates these individual phenomena in their social contexts, especially in identifying the linguistic, ethnic, and religious identity through the personal name. the personal name plays an important role in order to identify a person. in this context, the personal name in the name which is given to a person when he/she was born. if someone does not have a name, it means that he or she does not have an identity because the others cannot trace the people where he/she came from, what culture he/she grew up with, and what language he/she speaks. in this context, a name has an important role in the process of identification in the social group or community. the naming process can be regarded as a family practice and a way to displaying family and kinship. it cannot be doubted that (personal) name can be performed as a visible link between individual and group or community. some evidence of research related to onomastics (the study of names) in the javanese tradition reveals that javanese personal names can be identified by the presence of first name (in javanese terminology called nama alit or forename) and second name (nama sepuh or names for adults) (de grave, 2011; uhlenbeck, 1969; wibowo, 2001). the name that ended with the –em or –en sounds are for the feminine, –an or –di sounds are for masculine (uhlenbeck, 1969). while the name that ended with –a or –o sounds are for feminine (sahayu, 2014). teknonymy adoption is lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 117-122 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.1730 trends in naming system on javanese society: a shift from javanese to arabic eric kunto aribowo1; nanik herawati2 1,2 pendidikan bahasa dan sastra daerah, fkip, universitas widya dharma jl. ki hajar dewantara, klaten utara, klaten, jawa tengah, indonesia 1erickunto@unwidha.ac.id; 2nanik.herawati@unwidha.ac.id received: 15th september 2016/ revised: 18th november 2016/ accepted: 25th november 2016 how to cite: aribowo e. k., & herawati n. (2016). trends in naming system on javanese society: a shift from javanese to arabic. lingua cultura, 10(2). 117-122. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.1730 abstract personal names could be used to trace a person’s socio-historical background, including ethnic identity. traditionally the javanese people named their children using the javanese language. later, the phenomenon showed there was a new trend in naming. arabic began to massively adopted as the elements in the personal name. this article aimed to describe the trend of the naming system on javanese people which beginning to switch from the javanese to arabic. this article used corpus data method. data obtained from the javanese people name corpus of data administration system (siak) administered by the civil registry service office in klaten, jawa tengah. the arabic name then compared with the javanese to determine the differences in naming system and it’s reference. the results show there is a huge number of arab intergenerational name. modern parents tend to name their children using arabic words. these efforts are deployed in actualizing self-identify as a muslim. the javanese people now prefer to highlight their identity as part of moslems than the javanese. keywords: naming system, javanese name, javanese society, arabic name 118 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 118-122 renaming a parent after a child (de grave, 2011) and the addition of the monosyllable element su– (widodo, 2013). identity is not a static case, but it may change over time. the shift of identity is possible due to the emergence of social dynamics, multicultural adaptation, the emergence of the claims of certain groups, and so forth. as wibowo (2001) has noted that the javanese names will be increasingly rare in the urban area. in fact, the javanese people nowadays begin to neglect the traditional javanese names. the modern families today prefer to adopt foreign words from various languages. they often derive from arabic and european languages when naming their children (aribowo, 2015; aribowo & herawati, 2016; widodo, 2015a, 2015b). the object of this study is the name of javanese society, particularly on klaten regency, central java. while the aim of this study is to reveal the strong influence of the arabic language on the formation of javanese names. the identification process in onomastics system of javanese people is being observed to show that personal name can be used to indicate the emphasis on a person’s religious identity. according to anderson (2007), the contribution of onomastics study can be used to understand the name system. the onomastics approach can also be used to describe the structure of names and naming systems. therefore the components that construct a name can be found. in addition, naming and usability of names can be viewed from a variety of functions, and this can be reflected in the knowledge related to reference of the name that has been compiled. all aspects of this are done in order to understand the javanese name system when observed from a linguistic character. javanese personal names today shift its forms and references. methods the data source which is used in this study is corpus data. the corpus data used is the data recorded in the name of the population from siak (demography administration system) which is administered by the civil registry service office in klaten. the source is utilized in order to ensure the validity and diversity of data to a large extent. from the data source, it can be determined three desa/kelurahan (villages) as the sample of this study based on the demography condition (urban-rural criterion). the urban area is represented by barenglor village in north klaten sub district; the suburban area is represented by gesikan village in gantiwarno sub district; while the rural area is represented by tegalmulyo village in kemalang sub district. the demography data used are the data of barenglor and tegalmulyo on april 22nd, 2016, and gesikan on april 23rd, 2016. the three areas include 11.882 names of javanese people which are divided based on the number of words formation (one, two, three, four, and so on). it is also identified from each origin language of words formation (javanese, arabic, and non-javanese). from classification phase, it is found 2.085 names adopted arabic element, whether totally or partially. the name of javanese people, which arranges from javanese and non-arabic compares to the name which contains arabic element in order to find out the naming system shift, whether in the form or the reference meaning. in the reference matter, it is done relate-compare based on the meaning suitability of javanese and arabic names. thereby, it can reveal the meaning shift which occurs in the personal name. results and discussions from the data shown in table 1, it can reveal that the number of arabic name influences by the demographic condition in each area. tegalmulyo village as the rural area, which most of its citizens are the farmer. it is found that 293 peoples used arabic name (10,54%) in this village. while gesikan village which classifies as suburban area, there are about 436 citizens or 16,86% in the intensity of using arabic name. in contrast, barenglor village, which is lived by heterogeneous social condition, it reaches 20,81% or 1356 people. table 1 the percentage of arabic name in klaten regency villages finding people % tegalmulyo 293 2780 10,54 gesikan 436 2586 16,86 barenglor 1.356 6516 20,81 total 2.085 11.882 17,55 (source: primary data) the proliferation of arabic name is not only sorted by the urban-rural category but can also be traced from the use of arabic name in two different generations. in the other word, it can compare the number of arabic names which is used by parents and children. this effort is carried to prove the changing of naming pattern in javanese society. the distribution of arabic name owner in three areas is distinguished by kinship. the total number of parents who have arabic names are 452 peoples (281 of heads of family, combination between husbands and single-parent mothers and 171 wives), while the number of children who have arabic names is 1557 peoples. moreover, the other 78 peoples come from grandchildren, children in law and another family member who cannot be traced since their parent’s name is not listed in the data taken from siak. this distribution can be seen in figure 1. figure1 the percentage of the use of arabic name based on relationship status in family, children (green), wife (red), and head of family (blue) (source: primary data) 119trends in naming system .... (eric kunto aribowo; nanik herawati) in the other word, the number of children who has arabic name is three times than the number of the parent who has the arabic name. this ratio indicates that arabic names dominate by young group (children and teenager). this data also suggest that most (modern) parents whose javanese (non-arabic) name are beginning to switch to give arabic name to their children, even though not in 100%. data in table 2 presents the example of a family whose the parent named by javanese, while his/her three children have arabic names. table 2 the sample name of parent (javanese) and children (arabic) in javanese family name status supriyanto husband sudini limarsiwi wife luthfi fadlurrahman nurulilma children ahmad ariq naufal rafii children zaky hanan al farruq children (source: primary data in tegalmulyo village) the huge increasing number of children named in arabic is influenced by the involvement of parents who have arabic name which is then they give arabic name to their children as well as the self-actualization form as a part of moslems. based on the data presented in table 3, arabic naming can be regarded as the legacy which gives from one generation to the next generation. in short, it can be predicted in the future that the number of javanese people who have arabic name will increase, inversely proportional to what occurs with javanese name decreasing. table 3 the sample name of parent (arabic) and children (arabic) in javanese family name status muhammad haikal husband nurul hidayati wife ubaidulloh wafiy children hamizan children (source: primary data in gesikan village) cumulatively, the frequency of adoption of arabic name by age is shown in figure 2. from the data, it is clear about the age and distribution of arabic element which is adopted in the personal name of javanese society. it can be said that the using arabic name pattern is dominated by young group (mature age, teenager, especially children). this pattern holds true simultaneously in three areas as the places of the study, so it can be affirmed that children who were born after 1980 have bigger opportunity to have the personal name with arabic element. the culmination of the acquisition of the arabic name occurred in the last five years about 459 arabic names cumulatively. it can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 the number of arabic name in the three areas, barenglor (blue), gesikan (red), dan tegalmulyo (green) (source: primary data) before the 1950s, personal name in javanese society is dominated by personal name which consists of the one-word element (uhlenbeck, 1969). at that time, giving one-word name is the usual case. instead, the name which composed of more than two or three words are out of ordinary, so the children with those name are mocked by their playmates. even though, the use of mononym system (the term referring to the use of a single element or word in name) is still found several times in the name of javanese society in the next era, although not in large quantity. from the analysis result, it can be seen that personal name which is used mononym system about 5029 names (42,32% from the total number in the three areas). this mononym system based on the word formation consists of 4919 (41,40%) javanese names such as sukinem, welas, poni, jemi, darsono, paiyem, surono, rahayu, gunawan, and sulistyowati; and 110 (0,93%) arabic names for instance sulaiman, badri, katimah, sabar, amini, tajwid, jamal, badrun, nurkholis, and salsabila. this cas can be seen in table 4. table 4 the comparison of mononym name system in javanese society villages javanese arabic tegalmulyo 1274 15 gesikan 1066 19 barenglor 2579 76 total 4919 110 (source: primary data) 120 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 118-122 in fact, the tendency of mononym naming system does not only occur in the post-independence era. even, the name with single element always presents in every decade until today. rural society, which is known to maintain local tradition value still is the reason single-name system, is always used. in addition, the frequency of use mononym system, mostly, is still used by the majority of the elderly who are still alive today. related to the vocabulary selection, there is a difference between the old and young group. the old group tends to have a name that is simpler and simplification of sound, such as khatimah becomes katimah. this is called as interference as stated by ubaidillah (2011). the vocabulary selection also grades simpler by using usual daily vocabulary such as tajwid ‘the way to read koran correct’, alif ‘the first arabic alphabet’, sabar ‘patient’, and amin ‘prayer closing word’. the names of the young group are considered more precise in orthography or writing such as nurkholis which is the construction of idāfah (a compound word which in the arabic language is one construction). it is not written nur kholis as happened in the earlier times. the young group who adopts arabic names, nowadays, have the higher complexity. this indicates the use of new vocabulary (unfamiliar) and rare to hear by common people. this makes many people experience many difficulties in pronouncing that name correctly. by shifting the tendency of the element in personal name formation which increases in number (mononym system no longer to be used), it does not decrease society tendency to give arabic name. in fact, many names are found with fully adopted by arabic word, whether two, three, four, or five words, such as alya farhania, naufal hafiz, iqbal azzam muharik, muhammad sultan nur basith, and muhammad fadilla akbar nur rochim. in term of diction or choice of word, modern families tend to choose the unique word (unpopular) in daily life. this attempt goes through in order to find the specific or distinctive feature, so there is no the similar name as normal as commonplace with children name in the previous generation. the chosen arabic name as alya farhania is derived from the word alya ‘high’ and farhania ‘cheerful or happy’ which can mean as ‘woman with happy and high status’. naufal hafiz is derived from the word naufal ‘handsome and generous man’ and hafiz ‘one who protect’. on the other hand, iqbal azzam muharik is derived from iqbal ‘prosperity’; azzam ‘good desire’; and muharik ‘movers’. affordability of access toward media, such as television, internet, book, magazine, encyclopedias becomes a tool which helps the parent to facilitate on finding and searching that name. personal name structure shift can define as the changing which occurs in name word formation based on their origin (etymology). in the past, javanese name was fully formed by javanese word which majority composed of one word (mononym). in addition, javanese name is identified by the presence of prefixes {su-} such as suroto, sukadi, and suwito (widodo, 2013). javanese name can also be seen by the presence of final sound [o] to denote masculine as wiyono and the final sound [em] for the feminine marker as mursiyem (sahayu, 2014). by investigating toward arabic element which is formed in the personal name of javanese society, it is found the combination between arabic element and another language element. the combination of this arabic element consistently happens whether with javanese element or foreign element (which in this study is dominated by european languages). this means that in javanese society point of view, personal name is a construction that is open and adaptive toward foreign element so that the adhesion between that element regarded as creative and unique effort. it can be seen in table 5. table 5 personal name which contains various combination of language element name combination saiful oktavianto arabic latin michael arrozaq hebrew arabic tegar altauqid javanese arabic hammam rafif shitsuke arabic arabic japanese muhammad david syafrudin arabic hebrew arabic aditya ryan ghifari javanese english arabic muhammad satria chusnun kitaro arabic javanese arabic japanese fuad dwi cahya romadhon arabic javanese javanese arabic muhammad oky dwi karno arabic japanese javanese javanese (source: primary data) from the name composition in table 3, it shows that personal name defines as word construction that can be built from different elements of their origin. it means that arabic element has flexible characteristics since it can be combined with other language elements such as javanese, japanese, latin, english, and hebrew. michael arrozaq for example, which is a combination of hebrew and arabic. michael is a common name which is used by the majority of western society who profess christianity, while arrozaq is derived from arabic as one of the most beautiful names of allah which means ‘the provider; the sustainer’. the foreign name which usually adopts the popular figure who comes from athlete, celebrity, musician, and famous invention figure. from this study conducted, there are four references that meaning in arabic name is used by javanese people. sequentially, javanese name begins to replace by arabic name which refers to the attribute name to allah which summarizes in al-asmaul husna; prophets and his family; islamic holidays; heaven name and it parts. the reference of those names can emphasize the vocabularies which have closer religious meaning in islam. before the expansion of islam into the nusantara in the 6th century, hindu has become the global belief in java land. it is not surprising if that traces of such beliefs can still be felt (or found) to the present. one evidence is hindu mythology which tells about god characters in the famous epic story of ramayana and mahabharata. these stories are then spreading to public through puppet media which inspires javanese people in their daily behavior. the high desire and love toward this cultural product have inspired people in their life; one evidence can be verified by giving their children name. it is usually found that the name in javanese society is taken from figure name from india, the deities name, such as wisnu cahyono, bayu aji, and indra siwi pamungkas. the choosing of deities name as the personal name is based on the pride toward that figure, especially spiritual side. deities are reputed as the great and charismatic figure, through this naming, parent hopes that their children have the same character as what the figures have. these noble characteristics, then, adapt in asta brata concept in indonesian culture heritage, especially 121trends in naming system .... (eric kunto aribowo; nanik herawati) java. the character which comes from cosmos becomes a guideline for any leader. laku hambeging candra is one example of leadership principle which includes to social leadership principle that can as bright as moonlight; one inspiration is the name ika candra afriiayanti. asta brata concept seems not the base in parent’s expectation in this latest era. divinity concept becomes alternative as the reference in naming. the most beautiful 99 names of allah which is known as al-asmaul husna become more relevant in intertwining social relationship. the name is attached by some elements, such as hadi ‘the guide, karim ‘the bountiful’, wahab ‘the bestower’, rahim ‘the merciful’, hakim ‘the wise’, malik ‘the king’, kudus ‘the holy’, hafidz ‘the preserver’, and other attribute to allah. some examples which are used al-asmaul husna can be observed on abdul hadi, abdul karim, abdul wahab, abdul rochim, asadullah sulthoni hakim, malik mirza hakim, alquds hazbullah, and hamas al hafidz. most of names which are derived from al-asmaul husna start with the element of abdul ‘hamba’. this happens since muslim society believe that the best name which gives to their children is the name which means ‘hamba allah’, as stated by prophet muhammad in his words. this phenomenon is a usual event as mak (2004) have done; he has claimed that islamic solidarity of moslem community in southeast asia can be express through adoption name of allah, muhammad, and famous imam. besides deities name, the adoption name as the personal name in javanese society is the name which derived from puppet’s characters in the story of ramayana and mahabharata. some puppet’s character names are arjuna, pandu, abhimanyu, bima, sadewa, and so on. those names are familiar to hear in common as the personal name. the anxiety of javanese people use puppet’s character name also result as the strong character inside those figures. arjuna character is one example which has smart and clever, solid, careful, respectful, brave and protects weak people. those characteristics are hoped to attach inside the man. another example is abhimanyu who has soft, good behavior, honest, brave heart, responsible, and heroic. bima is known to have strong, brave, firm, endure the hardship, obedient, honest, and indiscriminate. personal name variation which refers to puppet’s character name such as pandu setiadi, yudhistira padmaditya, arjuna widy saputra, athar el sadewa, and shinta nugrahening putri. the characters of puppet figure are laudable characters which proper to have by the individual in the world. the good attitude is proper to become a guide in life. the positive characters do not only discover in puppet figure, which is essentially a fiction. the perfect human figure which has lived before is the best role model. in the teaching of islam, the prophet is the human model which is lives to edify the human characters in each era. this figure becomes a reference in naming the personal name in javanese society nowadays. the names of javanese society which adopted from the prophet are adam haq, rokhmani idris, ibrahim ali rizqi, sidiq bayu ismail, althaf yusuf, ayub oktianing, rifqi nuh alamsyah, daud jati narendra, farrel bahar ilyasa, and afif jauhari yahya. in the teaching of islam, 25 prophets are obligatory to believe as the role model, starting from adam pbuh up to muhammad pbuh. in the tradition of arabic society, the personal name consists of only one word as in the name of twenty-five prophets. however, the glowing phenomena in javanese society are combining the prophet name with another element to become the personal name. in fact, there is a variation in merging two prophets name in one name such as muhammad yusuf and muhammad yunus. muhammad in this context is the most widely adopted name of the prophet as confirmed by mak (2004) and rahman (2013). this issue since muhammad is allah messenger which duties to deliver islam religion (the last perfect religion) and he is also khatamul anbiya ‘seal of the prophets’. the javanese society’s affection to prophet muhammad do not only reflect the frequent use of his name as the personal name, but also his family members (his children, his wives, and his grandchildren) also adapts in personal name of javanese children, such as khodijah khumairoh rahman, siti fatimah, rika fadhilah az-zahra, ibrahim hasan, and husein ahmad affanny. khadijah is the name of muhammad first wife. khadijah is born a descendant of muhammad who later is named fatimah whose titled az-zahra ‘the shiner’. after khadijah passed away, aisyah is the muhammad next companion (wife). she is given titled humaira which means ‘the reddish’ since she is mousy. muhammad daughter name, fatimah, also becomes the most interesting name in women. moreover, both fatimah sons, hasan and husein also enrich the name which derived from muhammad family member. in the other side, there is mostly found the name from islam community leader after muhammad (known as the caliphs). in the teaching of islam, there are four caliphs who become muhammad successors such as abu bakar, umar, uthman, and ali. the caliph name is also often found in the javanese name such as naufal dzaky umar, moh. luthfi aydin umar, usman raharjo, and fariq ali faqi. the reference toward one event or time is the common reference which is used in javanese society. these purposes to give a mark in the important moment of the child’s birth. in the past, the name does not prepare well before by the parent as in the case today. thus, the name is chosen in a relatively short time after the child’s birth. the time indication is one alternative way to becoming the name such as setu, legiyem, ponirah, wagiyatmi, legiso, tupon, and suroso. traditional javanese society has the different calendar system that is different than the modern society which is used the common calendar (ad system). the javanese system calendar adapts the islamic calendar based on the rotation of the moon, not the sun rotation. it uses two cycles, days (ahad ‘sunday’ till setu ‘saturday’) and pancawara which consist of pasaran (five-day week) in javanese culture (legi, pahing, pon, wage, kliwon). in addition to the use of day and five-day week which is fully formed, it also found that the name is specially formed. this name is combination of the name of day (or month) and five-day week when the child’s birth, such as legiso which is the combination of the five-day week, legi and the day, slasa ‘tuesday’; suroso which is the acronym of the month, sura ‘muharram, the first month of the islamic calendar’ and the day, slasa; tupon which is the clipped form of the day, setu ‘saturday’ and the five-day week, pon. however, the reference of the day and five days in a week is now being obsolete. modern parents prefer to use other important events which include in the agenda of islamic rituals such as the two big days, eid al-fitr and eid al-adha, and also the holy month of ramadan. some names such as safira ramadani, ramadhan iantoro, mega aulia sasmitha ramadani, muhammad syaiful fitri, and muhammad rachman adha are some examples of the name which refers to the islamic holidays. ramadan element in javanese personal name also has 122 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 118-122 a function as gender-marker. ramadan is specially used for males such as ramadhan iantoro and fajar albar ramadan. whereas, ramadani can be used both for males as kafi ikmal ramadani and females, e.g. mega aulia sasmitha ramadani. the same conditions occurred in fitri which can refer to both masculine and feminine, i.e. muhammad syaiful fitri and chinta fitri muslifah. eid al-adha, which one of the islamic holiday also serves as a standard to birthmarks such as muhammad rachma adha and rama pristina ad’ha. these two holidays are the important event in the agenda of muslim community around the world since there are ritual full-month fasting on ramadan which followed by eid al-fitr and the pilgrimage that occurs during eid al-adha. in javanese society, there is a well-known expression “asma kinarya japa” which means ‘name was created from a prayer’. in the other word, in the creation of a name, there is a hope and prayer from parent to their children. therefore, names often have a spiritual meaning that leads to a parent’s request for the next generation. traditional javanese society is mostly working in the agricultural or farming sector. hence, it is not surprising that rice fields emerge as a source of livelihood. in consequence, most of the people spend more their times in rice field than other places. thus, the relationship between the land-worker and his crop are the ties that must be built in order to produce plenitude harvest. the good product result is a farmer hope in many areas. the hope or desirability is inserted in their children name. it is caused that there are some names related to the plant, for example wiji ‘seed’, tanem ‘the process of putting seed in the rice field’, tukul ‘the emerge of bud’, trubus ‘flower or plant bud’, subur ‘fertile’, lestari ‘eternal’, and so forth. the orientation changes from material to nonmaterial seem to happen in javanese society. the great wealth does not only become a target in life but a better life after death. therefore, the names related to agriculture are initially replaced with the names which refer to hereafter. heaven becomes the hope or outcome to be obtained. firdaus, jannah, naim are parts of heaven names which are attached to the name in javanese society such as khasturi maulana firdaus, alivia fathul jannah, and aditya naim nugroho. the conception of heaven is an important point in the teaching of islam. heaven is the best place for servant return after died. heaven is a reward for the servants of god who constantly practice his commands and avoid his prohibitions. clearly, heaven becomes a people’s dream or something that is awaited and expected. in addition to the name of heaven, the part of heaven which also mentions in koran and the hadith as the reference in the personal name, such as hafi din royan and adwa ibrahim arrayan. the word ar-rayan as one example is stated as one of eight heaven doors that are specially provided to people who fulfill the fasting in ramadan. salsabila ‘spring in heaven’ and kautsar ‘a pond in heaven’ are the frequent name which uses as girl names, such as saskia salsabila, salsabilla kalula putri, calista putri salsabila, and yoga catur kautsar. conclusions this research may not represent all of the javanese society (including javanese people who migrated to other areas) so that generalization is too early to do. nonetheless, this research may provide a portrait of situation that is developing in recent years. in conclusion, the trend of changing name in javanese society can be demonstrated by the increasing number of arabic names that used from year to year. moreover, javanese name as ‘estafette stick’ gives from one generation to the next generation. the final result is when highlighted through personal name; javanese identity now lead on the muslim community than javanese ethnic. this tradition will change through javanese society that simultaneously as the target and agent of social change. references aksholakova, a. 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(2015b). the linguistic characteristics of javanese names a case study in surakarta central java. asian journal of social sciences & humanities, 2(2), 156–163. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 67 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 67-71 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1504 students’ needs to develop english writing materials dedi sumarsono1; abdul kadir bagis2; moh. arsyad arrafii3 1,2,3faculty of education for language and arts, ikip mataram jl. pemuda no.59a, mataram 83125, indonesia 1dedi_aqil@yahoo.com, 2bages2013@gmail.com, 3moh_arrafii@yahoo.com received: 12th july 2016/ revised: 18th november 2016/ accepted: 31st march 2017 how to cite: sumarsono, d., bagis, a. k., & arrafii, m. a. (2017). students’ needs to develop english writing materials. lingua cultura, 11(2), 67-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1504 abstract this research explored sophomore students’ needs in learning english writing at the faculty of education for language and arts, ikip mataram. to achieve this purpose, classroom observation, questionnaire, and documentation were conducted to collect data. data were then analyzed descriptively, and triangulation of data analysis was carried out. based on the result of the questionnaire survey, the findings show that the students’ proficiency level is at the elementary level. moreover, the students’ needs in learning writing include picture-enriched materials, academic writing, tourism-related topics, cooperative learning in use, and theories-driven writing materials. the findings are used as foundation knowledge to develop writing materials for students. keywords: need-based analysis,writing material, english writing materials introduction teaching material is one of the most important aspects of teaching and learning. good teaching material is informative (informs the learner about the target language), instructional (guides the learner in practicing the language), experiential (provides the learner with experience of the language in use), eliciting (encourages the learner to use the language), and exploratory (helps the learner to make discoveries about the language). as different learners learn in different ways, the ideal materials aim to provide the learners with all these ways of acquiring a language. however, the reality is that the most commercially produced materials focus only on informing their users about language features and guiding them to practice them. richards (2001) has commented that instructional materials generally serve as the basis of much of the language input that learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. for this reason, in order to achieve the intended characteristics, teaching materials should be well developed by considering the context and the needs of the users. materials development refers to all the processes that are done by practitioners who produce and/or use materials for language learning, including materials evaluation, the adaptation design, production, exploitation, and research. ideally, all of these processes should be considered and should be related to produce language-learning materials. in the context of english language teaching in higher education, these processes seem to be neglected. based on the researcher’s observation of writing english materials taught at the faculty of education for language and arts (fpbs) ikip mataram, teaching materials used are sometimes inappropriate for the students’ needs and context. the materials are sometimes not authentic and not relevant to the students’ needs although they have already been written based on the curriculum syllabus. besides that, the levels of english writing materials are not suitable for learners. very often, the materials are too easy for a particular group of students, while others are too difficult. this condition causes students to get bored of studying and discourages them from following the lesson because they are confused about what they are studying and why they are studying the materials. in addition, in the classroom, students sometimes prefer doing other activities instead of listening to their lecturers during the teaching and learning process. for example, they talk to their friend, sit in the back row and constantly on their mobile phone, remind the lecturers that the time is over, come late with many excuses, etc. moreover, many students take the course just because they want to get the score as the requirement for graduation and not because the materials or subjects are important to them. only a handful of engaging and interesting materials based on students’ needs have been developed, especially in the context of fpbs ikip mataram. dealing with the explanation above, student needbased writing materials need to be developed in order to meet the needs for both lecturers and students. need-based materials can further attract the students’ motivation and 68 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 67-71 interest to study. therefore, this research intends to identify the needs of students of fpbs ikip mataram on english writing material. in the process of designing teaching materials, many suggestions are offered on the factors that shape a good set of writing materials. among them are to look at (1) topics or specialization, (2) learners’ situation, (3) general and specific proficiency of the language at entry and exit levels, (4) students’ previous educational, and (5) cultural experience. the developers should also look at types of skills to be developed and expected outcomes of the learning goals. the current trend shows that many authors in the field of english teaching are trying to make their materials as interesting and as accessible as possible. tomlinson (2008) has described positive trends in materials development as those that lead to self-discovering the language, using corpuses for their development, using extensive reading, personalizing the process and experience, and speaking grammar in use. while developing materials, developers should not forget the aspects of linguistic that are important and well connected in writing features such as lexical items. there is also need to remember that language forms topics for conversations while trying to integrate all the four skills in english with authentic texts. authentic materials and language teaching can never be separated. students or learners should be provided with authentic materials that reflect their real world. materials used should be able to link and relate to the students’ background knowledge as well as their language ability. the main concern is the issue of language and content focus, drawn from the input in order to fulfill any tasks given to them (hutchinson & waters, 1987). materials should benefit students for when they go out to the real world. it should help them to not only function well in the real world but also use english in their working life. harding (2007) has suggested three recommendations to consider while coming up with a set of materials (1) using context, texts, and situations from the students’ subject area – whether they are real or stimulated will naturally involve the language that students need, (2) exploiting authentic materials that students use in their specialism or vocation, and (3) making the tasks authentic. one of the most important things in developing teaching materials is the analysis of students’ needs toward their learning materials. needs analysis is a process of collecting and analyzing information about learners in order to set goals and contents of a language curriculum, based on their needs (kayl, 2008). it examines what learners already know and what they need to know (nation & macalister, 2010). many scholars indicate that knowing about learners’ needs such as their learning objectives, language attitudes, and expectations from the course are necessary in order to design an efficient curriculum (kayl, 2008). by gathering such information, the needs analysis can guarantee that the course will contain relevant and useful things for the students to learn. there is a wide range of information that can be gathered in needs analysis. according to hutchinson & waters, as cited in nation & macalister (2010), needs are divided into target needs and learning needs. they have suggested that the information of target needs can be analyzed by looking at necessities, lacks, and wants. besides that, they also make another major division to collect the data of needs. there are present knowledge and required knowledge as well as objective needs and subjective needs. hence, they roughly make pairings that fit lacks into present knowledge, necessities into required knowledge, and wants into subjective needs (nation & macalister, 2010). according to dudley-evans & st john (2011), needs analysis holds some aspects that include target analysis, present situation analysis, and learning needs analysis. the present situation analysis deals with the identification of learners’ weaknesses or lacks (petrova, 2008). meanwhile, the target and learning needs are also known as the objective needs and the subjective needs (petrova, 2008; nation & macalister, 2010). the analysis of target or objective needs looks into the requirements of the language used in the contexts where the course participants are likely to use english. the learning or subjective needs analysis examines the learners’ perceptions of what the course should be like. in other words, the analysis of objective needs should reveal the language skills or the language focus that should be developed more for the learners to be able to cope with the target situation in the future. in addition, such learning styles and expectations of learners cannot be ignored in the organization of courses as they might foster their learning. other information that is necessarily identified is about students’ necessities, lacks, and wants. firstly, necessities deal with what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation (kaewpet, 2009). like the illustration, if the purpose of the course is to prepare students to enter university, the needs analyst should analyze the style of language needed for assignments or to be used in everyday class. information about the language element that is mostly demanded can be gathered through the interview with the university students who are considered to have had enough experience with the target situation. secondly, according to nation and macalister (2010), lacks analysis involves looking at where the learners are currently. it can comprise of the learners’ strengths and weaknesses on the target language. there are several ways of gathering this information, they are (1) looking at the documents of students’ previous learning product, (2) interviewing the teacher who is responsible for giving marks or grades, (3) interviewing the students on how they perceive the assignment and how they deal with it, and (4) providing test that measures the language proficiency of students. lastly, nation and macalister (2010) have also described wants as what the learners view about what they need and what they think is useful for them. regarding this element, berwick and brindley, as cited in kaewpet (2009), has stated that the learners’ needs of english depend on various expectations, interpretations, and individual value judgments. on the other hand, vandermeeren, as cited in kaewpet (2009), has pointed out that the researchers or the needs analysts also have attitudes concerning language needs. this inevitably influences their choice of objectives and interpretation of the findings. since this type of information is subjective, it should be seen whether the learners’ views and the analyst’s views are the same or not. it is therefore important to ensure that the interpretation is taken from various perspectives, which might consist of the learners, teachers, and institutions. there are some tools for collecting the information in this needs analysis. nation and macalister (2010) have said that information about objective needs can be gathered by questionnaires, personal interviews, documentation, observation, tests as well as informal consultation with teachers and learners. subjective needs are discovered through learners’ self-assessment using lists, scales, questionnaires, and interviews. as the example, some of 69students’ needs to develop english .... (dedi sumarsono, et al.) the tools are employed by kayl (2008) in his case study on developing an esl curriculum based on needs and situation analysis. in order to collect the data, he/ she observed students in an adult esl program, gave students questionnaires to determine their needs, and then interviewed the teacher with the same purpose. kaewpet (2009) has further claimed that learner needs should be analyzed on an ongoing basis because they are likely to change over time, depending on contextual and human affective variables. similarly, nation and macalister (2010) have also said that the times of needs analysis can include needs analysis before the beginning of a course, in the initial stages of a course, and during the running of the course. petrova (2008) has added that the needs analysis should be conducted before the beginning of a course if nothing is known about the target learners. on the other hand, if the purpose of needs analysis is to evaluate and revise the program, it is reasonable to conduct it when the course is over. thus, the needs analysis can be carried out in a particular period of time, depending on its purposes. methods this research and development on english writing material are based on the students’ needs with 100 students involved. to achieve the purpose, some methods of data collecting were involved, which included interviews, classroom observation, questionnaire, and document analysis. classroom observation was conducted to obtain information about the current practice of teaching and learning in the classroom. through observing classroom teaching and learning, observers could identify whether the materials suit students’ needs. interview with students and questionnaire have the purpose of exploring students’ opinions about the current english materials used in the classroom and to discover students’ needs in relation to english materials. document analysis was used to gather information about the relevance of textbooks and materials used in the classroom with students’ needs. for data analysis, the inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data from interview and the data from the questionnaire, which would be used to triangulate the data from the interview. descriptive analysis differentiates textbooks/materials which meet students’ needs from those that do not. english handouts have been constructed based on the information of students’ needs obtained. once the draft of the handouts was completed, focus group discussion (fgd) with students and teachers was conducted to obtain deeper information about student-based english materials. the research, however, focuses on reporting students’ writing needs obtained from the questionnaire, which was distributed to 100 second-year students at fpbs ikip mataram. results and discussions in order to comprehend the students’ needs in learning writing, the survey questionnaire was distributed to 100 students as the respondents of the study. the questionnaire results in three key findings, which are the description of learning targets, students’ proficiency level, and students’ learning needs. target needs refer to what the learners need to know in order to function in the target situation as well as what they already know, and what they want to know. the target needs analysis includes the goal and the students’ proficiency level. the data in table 1 shows the percentages of the writing sub-skills already mastered, table 2 shows the description of what students want to be improved, table 3 shows the description of writing strategy of students, and table 4 shows the writing strategy needs to be improved by the students. table 1 the description of writing sub-skills mastered by students (in proportion) no writing sub-skills level yes no 1 using appropriate vocabulary in writing sentence 41 59 2 using appropriate vocabulary in writing paragraph 13 87 3 using appropriate vocabulary in writing essay 11 96 4 using good grammar in writing sentence 7 93 5 using good grammar in writing paragraph 25 85 6 using good grammar in writing essay 8 92 7 using good punctuation in writing sentence 10 90 8 using good punctuation in writing paragraph 9 91 9 using good punctuation in writing essay 6 94 10 using good generic structure in writing sentence 0 100 11 using good generic structure in writing paragraph 0 100 12 using good generic structure in essay 0 100 13 using cohesive device in writing paragraph 6 84 table 2 the description of writing sub-skills that the students want to improve (in proportion) no writing sub-skills need improvement yes no 1 using appropriate vocabulary in writing sentence. 90 10 2 using appropriate vocabulary in writing paragraph 83 17 3 using appropriate vocabulary in writing essay 82 12 4 using good grammar in writing sentence 88 12 5 using good grammar in writing paragraph 84 16 6 using good grammar in writing essay 81 19 7 using good punctuation in writing sentence 83 17 8 using good punctuation in writing paragraph 80 20 9 using good punctuation in writing essay 85 15 10 using good generic structure in writing sentence 78 22 11 using good generic structure in writing paragraph 79 21 12 using good generic structure in essay 80 20 13 using cohesive device in writing paragraph 84 16 70 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 67-71 table 3 the description of writing strategy mastery no writing strategies mastery level yes no 1 converting numbers into writings 65 35 2 writing based on the picture available 16 91 3 writing sentence or paragraph using good grammar 16 84 4 arranging words or sentences 39 61 5 writing by answering or completing the questions given 60 40 6 writing by giving conclusion with their own words 44 54 7 writing by answering the questions based on the material given 60 40 table 4 the description of writing strategy mastery that the students want to improve no writing strategies need improvement yes no 1 converting numbers into writings 82 18 2 writing based on the picture available 85 15 3 writing sentence or paragraph using good grammar 89 11 4 arranging words or sentences 89 11 5 writing by answering or completing the questions given 93 7 6 writing by giving conclusion with their own words 86 14 7 writing by answering the questions based on the material given 89 11 another finding regarding the target need is the students’ proficiency in writing. the proficiency level of the students in writing is mostly in elementary. specifically, there are 81 students whose proficiency is in elementary, 18 students are in intermediate, and one student are in advanced level. another interesting finding is their learning needs. learning needs refer to what the learners need to do in order to learn. it concerns the methods and activities in the learning process. this phase presents the material, genre of writing, length of writing, topics, theories of writing, the activity in learning, the assessment, duration in writing the paragraph, and technique used by the lecturer. the findings further show that the students have six necessities in learning writing. they are (1) material or topic presented using step-by-step instruction (53% of the students), (2) academic writing as the topic (78% of the students), (3) tourism topic to be discussed in learning writing (65% of the students), 4) learning writing by working in group activities (60% of the students), (5) theories about writing before starting to write (100 % of the students), and (6) assessment by the lecturers (91% of the students). the writing proficiency of most students at the second semester is elementary level. that level, according to brown (2004), is where students are able to produce appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocation, idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of sentence. it is rather an awkward finding since students in indonesia learn english as a compulsory subject since secondary school. considering the length of learning english, it is not excessive to expect that the second semester of english department students should have the higher level of english proficiency. unfortunately, due to the lack of placement test to group students according to their proficiency level after recruitment, the writing ability of students’ in a classroom still varies. the findings continue to show what materials students are interested in for learning. they are materials which use the picture as media and picture-cued task as a strategy for writing tasks. it makes sense as they have been guided by simple and easy media to enable them to finish writing tasks since they were in elementary levels. many types of research provide evidence of the beneficial effect of using pictures as media for writing task since it piques students’ interest and makes learning fun. brown (2004) has said that the main advantage of this technique is to detach the almost ubiquitous reading and writing connection and instead offer a non-verbal means to stimulate written the response. regarding the genre of writing, most of the students prefer academic writing to be discussed. it is not surprising because the students will always deal with the academic situation such as writing essay, paper, thesis, etc. in line with this, as part of academic literacy, instructors not only need to develop students’ academic writing but also to prepare them for externally mandated large-scale document critical evaluation, including online documents. the rationale of peer assessment of academic writing is, providing the learner opportunities to develop tacit knowledge rather than explicit knowledge about the meaning of the core criteria. it is also important to learn how they are applied rather than focusing on internalization of explicit rules or standards for academic writing (elander, harrington, norton, robinson, & reddy in defazio et al., 2010). the next finding is that most of the students are interested in topics related to tourism. it has been anticipated that students will select the tourism topic as a major topic for their writing tasks. this phenomenon relates to the fact that lombok is a tourism island which is visited by many local and international tourists. tourism is a part of the lives of people in lombok. in addition, studying in groups is also one of the findings regarding the students’ need in learning writing. it is reasonable for the students because by learning together with their friends, they can collaboratively solve the problems they face. as knight & bohlmeyer in gillies & ashman (2003) have argued that the research has only demonstrated that co-operative learning experience causes variance in many of these proposed mediating variables. however, it is not established that these variables are the mechanisms through which co-operative learning influenced the achievement. clarification within this debate is important because it will enable researchers to predict how and under what circumstances does co-operative learning influence academic achievement. furthermore, kuo, chu & huang (2015) have found in their research that collaborative learning requires the students to solve the same question with only one answer which they should arrive at through discussion and negotiation to reach a consistent answer. lastly, learning about theories of writing before being asked to do the task of writing, is also one of the findings of the students’ need in learning writing. besides being able to compose sentence, text, or even essay, students also need 71students’ needs to develop english .... (dedi sumarsono, et al.) to know how to be the a good writer, why they are writing, what to be considered when writing, and what to be assessed in writing. conclusions the proficiency level of the students in writing is elementary. in this level, students are able to use words and grammar to make a good sentence. brown (2004) has claimed that students in elementary level are able to produce appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocation, idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of sentence. therefore, students need to develop their knowledge in all aspects and indicators of writing, whether it is a sentence or even a paragraph. in addition, students need to be provided with various learning strategies to increase their learning motivation. in relation to this, it is found that using the picture and step-by-step instruction are necessary for students in writing sentences. furthermore, most students prefer to have tourism as the topic of their writing. this is due to the fact that lombok is the tourist destination, all of which is presented in collaborative work. references brown, h. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new york: longman. defazio, j., jones, j., tennant, f., & hook, s. a. (2010). academic literacy: the importance and impact of writing across the curriculum: a case study. journal of the scholarship of teaching and learning, 10(2), 34 – 47. dudley-evans, t., & st john, m. j. (2011). developments in esp: a multi-disciplinary approach. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. gillies, r. m., & ashman, a. f. (2003). an historical review of the use of groups to promote socialization and learning. london: routledge. harding, k. (2007). english for specific purposes. oxford: oxford university press. hutchinson, t., & waters, a. (1987). english for specific purposes: a learning-centered approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. kaewpet, c. (2009). a framework for investigating learner needs: needs analysis extended to curriculum development. electronic journal of foreign language teaching, 6(2), 209-220. kayl, h. (2008). developing an esl curriculum based on needs and situation analysis: a case study. journal of language and linguistic studies, 4(1), 30-49. kuo, y. c., chu, h. c., & huang, c. h. (2015). a learning style-based grouping collaborative learning approach to improve efl students’ performance in english courses. journal of educational technology & society, 18(2), 284–298. nation, i. s. p., & macalister, j. (2010). language curriculum design. new york: routledge. petrova, i. (2008). needs analysis as a starting point for designing a syllabus for english for specific purposes course (master thesis). estonia: university of tartu department of english language and literature. richards, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. tomlinson, b. (2008). english language learning materials: a critical review. london, uk: continuum. microsoft word 07_cen_setting.doc 152 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163 琼瑶生平与小说的联系  the portrait of qiong yao’s life in her novels cendrawaty (张冰晶)1; yovita2; juniwati3 1,2,3 chinese departement, faculty of languange and culture, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ctjong@binus.edu abstract qiong yao was a well known woman author and a film director in taiwan who had written more than 60 love novels, that had been developed into famous films. this paper aims to explore qiong yao’s biography related to her works. library research was done by dividing qiong yao’s works into several themes, and then analysing their novels’ theme and her life. it can be concluded that her permanent theme is love. in her novels, she scatters love that is able to touch her readers as well as film viewers. and, this love theme is closely related to her life. keywords:qiong yao, biography, love theme, novel, film 内容提要 琼瑶是台湾著名女作家,影视制作人,著有 60 多部言情小说,本本畅销,拍成影视, 部部叫座。她的作品感人至深,赚尽了海内外华人的爱和泪,让三代人流尽热泪。在印尼 很多人都看过她的小说和电视连续剧,但真正了解她的生平的人很少。如果一个人想分析 琼瑶的作品,一定要了解琼瑶写作的背景,这就是笔者写这篇文章的目的。笔者通过一些 文献参考完成了本文,描述了琼瑶的人生经历和小说主体,围绕着这个经历和主题分析出 了小说和作者生平的关系。通过此研究,笔者发现琼瑶的作品只有一个永恒的主题,那就 是“爱”。她通过这个爱感染读者,而这个爱与她的生平却有着密切的关系。 关键词 :琼瑶、生平、小说、联系、爱 the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 153 前言          琼瑶,原名陈喆,另有心如、凤凰等笔名。1938 年 4 月 20 日出生于四川成都,祖籍 湖南衡阳。她自幼受中国古典文学的启蒙教育,热爱文学和写作。她 9 岁时就在上海《大 公报》儿童版发表短文《可怜的小青》。1949 年随家庭迁居台湾。16 岁时,她在《晨光》 杂志发表小说《云影》,高中时就在各报刊发表小说、散文 200 篇,成为了台湾岛内有名 的中学生作家。自 1964 年开始,她以文学创作为业,出版了第一篇长篇小说《窗外》,一 举闻名文坛 [10]。 她的小说已经翻译成了很多语言。美化人生的爱情理想是她小说的主题,因此她的小 说拥有庞大的读者群,尤其是妇女,并有大量作品被拍成电影及电视剧。印尼也曾经受到 了琼瑶的影响,到处都是琼瑶迷,如 80 年代琼瑶《我是一片云》[3] 的电影、90 年代琼瑶 《烟锁重楼》[16]、《青青河边草》[18][19]、《雪珂》[21] 的连续剧一播放出来以后,到 处都深受观众的喜爱。2000 年初印尼出现了《环珠格格》。《情深深雨蒙蒙》、《环珠格 格》在印尼到处都深受观众的欢迎,到处都可以找到为“紫薇”、“小燕子”爱慕及疯狂 的观众,也到处都可以听到《烟雨蒙蒙》的其中主题歌《好想好想》 被人歌唱甚至翻译为 印尼语。虽然印尼有很多人对琼瑶的作品一清二楚,但对琼瑶生平却一无所知。他们不知 道原来琼瑶生活经验包括她的家庭生活与爱情经验却成为了她写作的重要灵感。她的生活 就是一篇很长的小说,一篇痛苦和快乐混合的小说。她经历了痛苦和快乐的生活经验才能 写出好多感人的小说 [13]。 作家是文学作品的创作者,是作品的最直接、最明显的生成之本原。了解一部作品的 作者,正是从本原上去接近它,对认识、把握其本体,显然是必要的。因此笔者认为理解 作家的生平有助于作品的深入理解或研究,这就是笔者的研究目的。笔者希望本文可以帮 助研究琼瑶的学者,使他们的研究更有意义[8]。 内容 文学是一种生存方式,也是一种生存活动。这指的是一种精神性的生存活动。文学不 仅指文学作品,而且指文学活动,它包括作者——作品——读者之间的全部关系以及创 作、阅读、鉴赏全部活动 [11]。在文学活动中,主体全身心地投入作品展开的生活中去, 与文学角色共命运,同悲欢。不能否认在文学活动中作家投入作品展开故事的情节,而这 活动中往往带着他的人生经历。作家异于常人,作家对生活的描绘,不是一般化的,他展 现的必须是自己的生活,必须有自己的理解;他的艺术构思必须与众不同,手法、语言也 应有创新,才能成功(胡山林,2008:21)[9]。琼瑶是个成功作家,她的小说就是她的生活, 她有不同一般的生平,经过她描绘手法及琼瑶化的语言产生了她独特及受广大读者喜爱的 作品。 琼瑶的人生经历 根据人生发展阶段与琼瑶所写的真实故事《我的故事》[6] 内容,笔者把琼瑶的人生 经历分为四个阶段 [14]: (一)快乐及悲伤的童年时期          琼瑶出生于四川城,父亲和母亲都是教师。她自幼就喜欢观察花草树木。由于生活在 战争时期,所以她的儿童时期从未享受过安定的生活。她一家人常常从一个地方搬到另一 154 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163 个地方,生活得很艰难,也很穷。战争使她不能像生活在和平时期的孩子们一样地受教 育,虽然如此她还是拥有一段美好及快乐的童年。当她住在爷爷家时,深受爷爷的宠爱, 她天天可以捡松果找鸟窝玩、放风筝、识字,这是她儿童时期最快乐的时期。可是好景不 常,战争使她第一次体验到什么是分离,  什么是伤心。有一次她的双胞胎弟弟及三弟因挑 夫失踪了就把两个弟弟扔掉。当父母知道弟弟失踪了,觉得自责,就打算全家投河自杀。 虽然最总自杀失败了,但这件事给琼瑶心理带了很大的变化和打击。             战争时期使琼瑶认识了她的第一个偶像曾连长,对他产生了一份孺慕之情。琼瑶以后 崇拜的男子汉都是曾连长这类的人物形象 。    (二)悲伤的少年及青春时期 由于琼瑶是战争时期长大的,所以没有机会好好地上学,唯有母亲叫她背唐诗、宋 词,这对她后来的写作的言情小说非常有用。战争胜利的时候,琼瑶一家人住在上海,可 以上学了,可是因为她从未接受过正规的学校教育,所以除了语文外的课,她都学得非常 吃力。她不能讲上海话,使她从小受到上海朋友们的欺负。上海的物价很高,琼瑶的家境 非常穷,没有钱买玩具。这些情况使她变成了一个孤独、自卑、忧郁的女生。现实生活中 没有快乐的她,使她开始在写作中寻找快乐。写作可以宣泄她的郁闷,表达她的不满,这 种方式使她得到一种快乐和慰藉。她的第一篇短篇小说《可怜的小青》就是这个时期写出 来的。 后来中国国内战争爆发,琼瑶与家人又逼回到湖南衡阳然后逃到台湾。在台湾琼瑶的 孤独症、自卑症及忧郁症越来越严重。她的学习成绩不好,使成为台湾有名教师的父亲感 到害羞。她妹妹不但漂亮,成绩也一直优秀,得到了父母的宠爱,琼瑶感到很孤独,没有 父母的爱和支持,再加妹妹的优秀使她感到不能坚持活下去了。这时她的国文老师就这样 闯入了她的心扉。老师虽然比她大 25 岁,有过妻之夫,但与琼瑶却心灵沟通,互相崇拜。 琼瑶为老师考大学,最终还是失败了。为了使父母保留面子,琼瑶觉得最好的方法就是自 杀。父母开始时是伤心,但直到她和老师的关系后就生气,认为因为老师的诱惑使她考不 进大学,就实行一个对青春时期的琼瑶产生非常大的打击,使她的老师被学校开除,不能 在城市生存。这就是她生活中第一次的失恋,使她感到非常绝望。爱情原本是甜蜜的,但 对琼瑶来说却非常痛苦。这段情成为了琼瑶成名的第一篇长篇小说《窗外》[4] 的题材。 (三)酸甜苦辣的青年时期 琼瑶的青年时期是充满挣扎的,她已经找到了人生的目标,就是写作。通过写作,她 可以给读者分享她想象的爱情,这种爱情除了男女之间的爱情也有亲情。20 岁那年,经过 2 次考大学的失败,她终于决定专业性地写作。这一期,她与爱好写作的男人结婚,可是 这段婚姻是来自于同情,不是爱情,也是琼瑶的一种生活压力的逃避,所以形成后来的婚 姻的悲剧结果。琼瑶大量地写作,她的人生不幸成为了她不尽的创作题材。 命运似乎注定琼瑶要经历多次情感波折,在痛苦青春时期的师生恋和一次失败的婚姻 之后,又一次陷入了激荡的情感旋涡,与前两次情感经历相比,这段情感持续时间更长, 给她带来更深的痛苦,但结局却是美好的。她找到了真爱,与合作伙伴平鑫涛先生相爱。 虽然平鑫涛也有妻之夫,但这从未影响到他们之间的感情。琼瑶就这样成为了“第三 者”。这段情后来也给她创作的小说增加了不尽的题材。 (四)对生活满意的中年时期 琼瑶的中年时期是她生活中最幸福的、最平静的时期。她终于找到了一个安全的港 湾, 可以好好停泊下来。她终于跟平鑫涛结婚了,成立了她想象中的美满家庭。他们的爱 情终于达到她想象中的爱情: 两人白头到老,两个白头发的人手挽手,走在一起。那种感 觉会很让人感动(史玉根,2008:95)[1]。她到处旅游、练琴习画,享受生活,但始终没有放 the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 155 弃写作,甚至连写作速度都没有放慢,仍不断提笔写作。她没有再为钱写作了,写作成为 了她生活和生命的一部分。她的写作动力又还原到她童年和少年时期的状态—— 发泄,写 作题材也重心转向了古代生活。    爱情是琼瑶作品的主题 琼瑶的创作大致可以为三个时期:一、早期,始于她 20 世纪 60 年代创作的《窗 外》。这时期以悲剧的爱情故事为多:二、中期,始于她 20 世纪 70 年创作的《海鸥飞 处》[17]。这个时期主要描写当代台湾为背景的爱情故事,情节少了早期宿命般的悲观 色彩,大多以大团圆为美好结局;三、晚期则由 20 世纪 80 年代创作出版《雪珂》开 始。这时期除了少量几篇以当代生活为背景的小说外,她的创作重心转向了古代生活为题 材(史玉根,2008:95)。但不管哪一期,琼瑶作品的主题都是以“爱情”为主。她作品里 的主人公为爱而生,为爱而死。他们人生的意义、生活的价值似乎全部体现在爱情上。琼 瑶自己也曾说 :“人类的故事就是男人和女人的故事,总之,有了爱, 就有人生的一 切,爱情就是人生的最后归宿。相反,失去爱情,就会使人生暗淡无光,失去生活的意 义,就会失去一切。” (史玉根,2008:115)             2003  年琼瑶在一次接受记者采访时说:“真正的爱情,当然是有的,我不会去写那些 不存在的东西。爱是一种信仰,也是一种宗教,首先应该相信它。我认为真正的爱情并不 是年轻时的卿卿我我,它需要经过时间的考验。而且,爱还是一种情致,如果两个人能白 头偕老,能在年老时不在意别人的目光,还像年轻人那样手牵手一起去看落日,我想这就 是完美的爱情。” (史玉根,2008:95)             美化人生的爱情理想是琼瑶小说的主旋律;曲折新奇、波澜起伏的故事情节是她小说 引人入胜的主要手段;具有浓郁诗意、雅俗共赏的文学语言是她小说独具魅力的重要特 点,使她的言情小说 拥有庞大的读者群。    琼瑶的人生经历和小说的联系 琼瑶一生中经历了酸甜苦辣的人身经历,有痛苦也有欢喜。她写作发泄的方式及所写 的内容却是她的故事或她在生活中遇到的人的故事,因此她的小说与她的人生经历有密切 的关系,它们互相相连,连成了一篇又一篇美丽及伤感的故事。 (一)琼瑶的儿童时期与小说的联系 据埃托奧、布里奇斯在《女性心理学》提出,儿童时期是从出生至 8 岁。这个时期父 母跟女孩说更多饱含感情的问题,对她们的生活控制也比对男孩控制得多。女孩的事情都 是由   父母决定,而男孩却常常被父母鼓励自己做决定,并要想办法自己解决他们的问题。 童年的 时期孩子很容易受影响。童年的内心创伤也将影响一个人的性格发展,甚至有可 能造成其性格上的缺陷。(埃托奧、布里奇斯,2006:81)[2] 1.自卑感:现实中不漂亮的她写出大部分都是美女的女主人公    琼瑶从别人的谈话中知道自己不漂亮,所以她对母亲一直觉得很对不起,不能成为母 亲的骄傲,这个“缺点”给她产生了自卑感。她一直希望自己可以像妹妹一样漂亮。 为了覆盖她的自卑感和心理的内疚,她写的小说的人物大部分是美女,尤其是表述女 人的时候都是温柔、美丽或生动的形象。如:  《海鸥飞处》里的羽裳是一位漂亮及有吸 引力的女人。她充满了信心,很多男人喜欢她,崇拜她;《浪花》里的雨秋是温柔的 女孩,有一对闪亮的眼睛、挺直的鼻梁和一张小巧的嘴;《一帘幽梦》[23]  里的绿萍也 是一位完善的女孩,聪明又温柔,是每个男人理想的女孩;再说  《青青河边草》的青 青是个青春又美丽的女孩,有着一个充满了朝气和热情的脸庞。  156 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163  琼瑶自幼都没有信心。她小说也描述了漂亮及温柔的女孩但缺乏自信的女孩。如: 《问 斜阳》的访竹和《彩云飞》的涵妮。《问斜阳》的访竹是位文静的女孩。她喜欢看 书,不喜欢与别人交流。她没有信心,觉得自己并不漂亮  [24];而《彩云飞》的涵妮本 来是个漂亮的女孩但她始终都觉得自己没有其他女孩漂亮和灵活 [15]。    她面对着一张年轻的、少女的脸庞,苍白、瘦削,却有着那样一对炯炯然燃烧着的眸 子。这是张奇异的脸,融汇着一切属于性灵的美的脸,一张不很真实的脸。 (《彩云飞》第四回) 2.偶像:威武的曾连长成为小说里男主人公的照应 琼瑶小时候经历了战争时期,一家人为了安全之地一直到处逃跑。她就在这个时期遇 到了强壮、雄赳赳、气昂昂的曾连长。他保护人们、  关心别人、照顾属下及人们,使 小琼瑶感到又敬又畏。曾连长威武而神勇,粗犷而凶猛,他尊敬女性,他的一举一动 及他的容貌给小琼瑶留下了很深刻的印象。琼瑶的小说里写出来的男主人公大多数可 以看到曾连长的形象,如《一帘幽梦》里的费云帆;《还珠格格》的    尔康与五阿哥; 《烟雨蒙蒙》的何书桓。 《一帘幽梦》里的费云帆被琼瑶描述为相当男性的、相当具有吸引力的男人。 我第一次发现他对服装很考究,而又很懂得配色和穿的艺术。他斜靠在椅子里,伸长了 腿,默默的审视着我,他的头发浓而黑,眉毛也一样黑,眼睛深沉而慧黠,我又第一次 发现,他是个相当男性的、相当具有吸引力的男人! (《一帘幽梦》第十二回) 《还珠格格》的尔康与五阿哥都是柔情和完美的男子汉。他们知道怎么对待女人,想 与他们相爱的人一起度过一生;《烟雨蒙蒙》的何书桓爱上了一个家庭复杂的依萍。 当父亲没有关心她的时候,她非常伤心,何书桓就更关心她了,给她安慰,一直保护 她。 可见琼瑶小说中的男主人公除了外表英俊,也知道如何关心别人,知道如何对待女 人。琼瑶描述的这些男人都是与曾连长的性格相似。  3.体会离别:离别是人生最伤心的事,而家庭团结是人生最幸福的事。 战争使琼瑶体会到离别,最初她和奶妈的离别让她哭了好几天;接着与失踪弟弟们的 分开使她一家人感到绝望甚至想自杀。父母要自杀的时候,琼瑶非常害怕因为感到父 母要离开她。这些离别让琼瑶意识到家人对她的重要性,觉得全家团聚是应该珍惜的 时刻。以后她在很多小说里都描述了离别的伤感,家人团结是人最幸福的事。如:琼 瑶在《青青河边草》写了小草与海爷爷分别。  她去找海爷爷可是找不到,因此感到非 常伤心,因为不能与她家人团聚;《一帘幽梦》里的紫菱虽然在国外与飞云帆过着美 好的日子,但还是经常想家。最后决定回台湾,与家人过一生。  握着信,我呆站在窗口,默然凝思。一股乡愁突然从心中油然而起,我想起我的卧室, 我的珠帘,我们那种满玫瑰和扶桑的花园,那美丽的美丽的家!我想起父亲、母亲、绿 萍……和我们共有的那一段金黄色的日子! (《一帘幽梦》第十六回) 琼瑶把家人团结当作一件最幸福的事,而家庭不和睦却是所有问题的根源,最后一定 产生了悲剧。如:《烟雨蒙蒙》的依萍因为她有着复杂的家庭就得不到家里的温暖。 这使她很伤心,心理充满了仇恨。她恨她父亲,恨她复杂的家庭。    the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 157 4.现实社会中的传统和新思想在小说里体现出来 琼瑶出生在一个比较开放的家庭。母亲受到新文化的影响,认为女人跟男人是平等 的,也认为婚可以结,但学业不能停,因此琼瑶母亲与父亲结婚后还是刻苦地念书。 当她发现自己怀孕后,就决定要堕胎,因为她认为孩子一定影响她的学业。不料她堕 胎之前已经流产了。后来当母亲怀琼瑶双胞胎的时候,一直希望怀的是一对女双胞 胎。父亲虽然受新文化思想但还保留着传统思想,希望妻子怀的是一对男双胞胎,好 为陈家传递香火。虽然如此,琼瑶小时候却在一个重男轻女的环境里生长。她在《我 的故事》27 章里提到当时四川的 情景:  “当时的四川,是很保守又很重男轻女的。女孩子全要在家中帮忙做事,没有父母肯把 女儿送去学校上学。” 琼瑶就这样生活在一个传统与新思想互相矛盾的社会环境里。小时候的琼瑶也看到了 很多社会的传统习俗,如:磕头。祖父要求他们见到长辈必须磕头,表示尊敬。她也受到 其它中国传统思想,如女孩应该听父母的话,这才是孝顺的表现等。这些矛盾后来也表现 在她的小说里。她除了写着女人应该反抗,但也写了反抗不了旧习俗的女人。《六个梦: 哑妻》的方依依是聋哑的女人。她因为生了聋哑的女儿,就使丈夫感到失望并抛弃了她 ; 《烟锁重楼》的梦寒是个没有权利的女人。虽然丈夫已经死了,但她不敢与她爱的男人再 婚,因为她无法反抗传统道德观念,也成为了重男轻女的特征品。 (二)琼瑶的少年和青春时期与小说的联系 据埃托奧、布里奇斯在《女性心理学》提出,少年和青春时期是从 8 岁至 19 岁之 间。大多数少女少男在 14 岁至 19 岁时就开始对异性开始产生特别的感情。在青春期,女 孩比男孩更可能出现心理问题。在这一时期,对于两性来说,压力水平都增加了。然而, 女孩所遇到的压力模式使她们比男孩更易受到情绪问题的伤害,如抑郁。女孩在这个时期 经历了很多人际关系问题的压力,包括与同伴、兄弟姐妹或朋友矛盾的问题,所以产生了 抑郁症状,她们容易感到悲伤、想哭、感觉孤独和没有人爱。如果没有解决好这个症状, 抑郁可以延期到成人时期。(参考于埃托奧、布里奇斯,2006:98-112) 1. 自卑感:学业的失败使琼瑶盼望着别人的同情 琼瑶自小喜欢思考,使她的性格与平常人完全不同。到了少年,现实生活与学校给琼 瑶很大的压力。从童年进入少年,琼瑶的人生进入了一段悲伤的日子。琼瑶生活在兵荒 马乱的战争时期,没有受到正规的教育,使她得到的课堂上的教育却比一般的孩子 晚,这使她在学业上遇到了很多坎坷。不仅学业上的问题,琼瑶也遇到家庭的问题。 她从小就一直把亲情当作生活上最重要的部分,但父母却不理解琼瑶的心理,只有一天 一天地逼她学习,并把她的弟弟妹妹的成功成为家庭的骄傲,偏爱他们。敏感的琼瑶 觉得自己失败了,小时候的自卑感却日愈加增。后来这一段的自卑感成为她在小说中 常提到的题材。琼瑶希望通过小说可以得到别人的同情。如:琼瑶在《窗外》里提到 她羡慕聪明的弟弟妹妹的感情,并希望母亲可以给她一份爱和关心,不是只给聪明的弟 弟妹妹。这种无助及渴望爱的感觉在小说里可以明显看出: 好弟弟,好妹妹,把你们的天份分一些给我!好爸爸,好妈妈,把你们的爱心分一些给 我!一点点,我只乞求 一点点! (《窗外》第六回) 2. 逃避压力的方法:小说里人物的逃避是琼瑶寻找的逃避方式 据心理学,童年时期的孩子很容易受影响,童年的内心创伤也将影响一个人的性格发 展,甚至有可能造成其性格上的缺陷。琼瑶小时候看到父母想为了断绝悲伤而自杀, 虽然结果不自杀了,但这件事给青春时期的琼瑶造成了很大的影响,造成她性格上的 158 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163 缺陷。她一受到压力,就想到自尽的方法,好几次这个念头没有成功,但到了她 19 岁 学业失败加上爱情的失败的问题到了最顶端的时候,就决定自杀了。她觉得的她的人 生完全失败了,不但爱情失败、学业失败,作女儿也失败了。她并没有想解决或面对 这些失败,只觉得自杀是寻福的方法。这种逃避 现实的方法也是他小说中的人物寻 找的方法或逃避问题的方法。《窗外》里的江雁容因为她学业的压力也不忍使父母丢 脸决定要自杀。 再见!谧儿!”她低低的说,拿起杯子,把那些药片悉数吞下。然后,平静的换上睡衣, 扭灭了台灯,在床上躺下。(《窗外》第十一回) 再如《六个梦:三朵花》的章念琦与爱人有了小小的误会她就自杀;《浪花》里的姵 柔因为她母亲不同意她与贫穷的男人恋爱,她与爱人吵架。她觉得非常失望所以决定 要自杀;《望夫崖》里的夏磊的爸爸因为不能忘记他死去的妻子,把夏磊托付给康病 谦后就自杀。 3. 体会初恋:悲伤的初恋以及小说的悲剧 琼瑶学习上唯一比较优秀的成绩是国语课,因为从小就喜欢背诗并开始写短篇文章, 国中时也大量阅读文学作品,所以文章写得很美,对文学作品的理解也很好,得到了 国中语文老师的欣赏。然而这种欣赏渐渐了变形,他们属于孤独的男女,缺少爱。老 师的妻子去世了所以失去了爱;琼瑶却缺乏父母的关心和爱。男女之间如果达到一种 互相需要、互相欣赏的情况,他们的关系已经不是纯粹的朋友关系,而已变成男女之 情。琼瑶就这样爱上了国文老师,老师也就这样爱上了她。但这种爱对生活在琼瑶时 期的人是不能接受和容忍的。琼瑶的初恋就这样走入悲剧的爱情道路。父母在她这一 段的感情里也没有帮助她、开导她,反而骂她、批评她。可是这种爱使琼瑶认识到爱 情 一 旦 发 生 了 , 就 不 是 年 龄 、 身 份 、 地 位 、 道 德 等 因 素 可 以 限 制 的 ( 史 玉 根,2008:35),也给琼瑶以后不尽的写作题材。 琼瑶的悲伤也体现在她的小说里:《窗外》里江雁容就是琼瑶那时的感情的对照。江 雁容与她老师相爱,这与琼瑶故事相似;《一帘幽梦》里也提到费云帆与紫菱不可能实现 的爱,这是因为费云帆已经结过婚了,紫菱的父母认为这样的男人对他们的女孩很危险; 顾飞帆与访竹的恋爱在《问斜阳》里的表述也因为不能实现的爱。这是因为顾飞帆有过不 好的生活经验就是结了几次婚的经验。她们的父母不同意,所以她们觉得很痛苦,不知选 择家庭还是爱情,这其实就是琼瑶生活里的苦恼。    (三)琼瑶的青年时期与小说的联系          据埃托奧、布里奇斯在《女性心理学》提出,青年时期是指 20 岁至 40 岁之间。这时 期是女性创业时期,绝大多数女性开始想拥有  职业和家庭,但后来她们恋爱了,她们先前 的计划都改变了。(参考于埃托奧、布里奇斯,2006:132-152) 1. 自卑感:失败的事业增加了琼瑶的自卑感,这段经历也体现在小说里。 琼瑶两次考大学落榜后就不再考大学,家庭的压力及经济上的压力使她走上专业性写 作的路。可是写作如果要当成专业就不是很容易的事了,琼瑶就这样到处碰钉子。母 亲本来还希望她能上大学,不但没有支持她写作,反而一直给她考大学的压力。琼瑶 非常爱写作,但写作的挫折给她重大的打击,使她的自卑感更加严重。琼瑶很爱家 人,可是对她的事业追求却很坚定。虽然父母多次让她放弃,但她还是不屈服,为事 业一直坚持下去,最后成为了著名的作家。这段自卑感也在她小说中提出来,如: the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 159 《六个梦:生命的鞭》孟玮是一位贫穷的画家,可是他的作品沒有得到人家的注意。 他的收入很低,而生活的压力越来越大,他想为他事业与家庭坚持下去,但还是不 能,结果变疯了。 2. 逃避压力的方法:琼瑶逃避式的婚姻也体现在小说人物逃避方法之一。  琼瑶的父母虽说为了考大学一直给琼瑶压力,但是父母还是爱孩子的,她为了琼瑶的 幸福一直给她介绍男友。对他们来说琼瑶如果什么成绩都没有,那么女生的最终目的 还是婚姻。这个婚姻也许可以让她得到幸福。这时候“庆筠”进入了琼瑶的生活。他 们有了写作的共同爱好,结果产生了感情。这个时候很多男人喜欢去琼瑶的家看琼 瑶,不是因为有感情而是想看那个使全台最关注的师生情的女主人公到底长得如何。 这件事使琼瑶感到害羞也更加她的压力,再加上父母和事业的失败给她带来种种压 力,最终决定与“庆筠”结婚,不是因为爱情,而为了逃避。 这样逃避式的婚姻也后来成为她小说里人物的一种逃避方法,如:《一帘幽梦》里的 紫菱跟楚濂互相爱,但有一天楚濂和绿萍骑摩托车发生了交通事故,这次交通事故使 绿萍摔断了一条腿。楚濂然后决定与绿萍结婚。这种情况让紫菱很伤心,为了逃避她 伤心就与费云帆结婚。 我可以走得远远的,躲开绿萍,躲开楚濂,躲开这一切的一切……费云帆紧紧的盯着 我,观察着我,显然,我的思想并没有逃过他锐利的目光。“是的,欧洲,”他说:“那是 另 一个世界,你可以逃开台北这所有的烦恼和哀愁。” (《一帘幽梦》第十一回) 《海鸥飞处》里的羽裳不爱欧世澈,他爱的是慕槐,可是她不想告诉慕槐她的过去, 一直觉得很压力。当慕槐知道了她的过去以后,她更伤心、感到没面子,结果为了逃避这 个压力,就与她不爱的男人结婚并决定去美国。  “和欧世澈吗?”杨太太忧愁的说:“我只怕她爱的不是世澈,这婚姻是她的负气的举动, 她想用这婚姻来气俞慕槐。” (《海鸥飞处》第九回) 3. 悲剧的婚姻经历与小说人物的悲剧结局  错误的婚姻往往是悲剧的,这也是琼瑶婚姻的悲剧。她不是因为爱而结婚,而因为逃 避才结婚。开始的时候她的新家庭很平静,丈夫工作,她在家里当家庭主妇,可是经 济的问题唤醒了她,使她更快地走进专业性写作的道路。琼瑶从小写小说的方式是发 泄方式,这时她更 体味到人生的酸甜苦辣,决定写她认识的故事。她写的小说很快 就成为畅销小说,使丈夫觉得自己不如妻子成功,每天都产生了矛盾 ,结果离婚了。 琼瑶这段经历是悲剧的,使她对生活的体会都是悲剧的,写出来的故事也是悲剧, 如:《一帘幽梦》里的楚濂与绿萍的婚婚是一个错误。婚姻只伤害了他们。琼瑶认为 没有爱的婚姻不会再继续,离婚是最好的选择。 楚濂,请你设法了解一件事实;云帆爱我,我也爱他!你和绿萍离婚,是结束一个悲 剧,假若我和云帆离婚,却是开始一 个悲剧。你懂了吗?楚? (《一帘幽梦》第二十回) 4. 第三者:琼瑶同情第三者,但也批评第三者 琼瑶与平鑫涛见面时,就互相恩爱,成为了平鑫涛家庭的第三者。这段经历也体现在 她小说里。她的小说里以看到很多“第三者”的形象,而对“第三者”形象的描述是 160 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163 根据她对自己的看法而定的。琼瑶的思想一直都是很矛盾的:传统与现代思想的矛 盾;社会和家庭看法对自己思想的矛盾。她一方面不能接受和批评第三者,一方面却 同情第三者。作为第三者,她曾经想摆脱,不愿意做第三者。她觉得这样的爱情很痛 苦,也对她不公平,因此她用了各种各样的方法来放弃她的爱。她挣扎了,但后来还 是不能离开,决定接受这种爱。           琼瑶通过小说同情第三者,如:《六个梦:归人记》和《青青河边草里》。《六个 梦:归人记》[20]  的小青不管要用多少时间,一定要等广楠;《青青河边草》[18][19]  的青 青决定要与世纬为了他们的爱而奋斗。  除此之外,琼瑶也通过小说批评第三者,如:  《浪 花》[22]  的雨秋为了避免做第三者和破坏贺俊之的家庭,放弃了她与贺俊之的爱。可见, 在琼瑶的概念里第三者是不好的,是破坏别人家庭幸福的坏人。这都是琼瑶感情的矛盾, 她想等待和放弃平鑫涛,但也想为他们的爱而奋斗。   (四)琼瑶的中年时期与小说的联系          据埃托奧、布里奇斯在《女性心理学》提出,中年时期是指 40 岁至 65 岁之间。这时 期女性和男性经历了许多身体的变化。身体外貌开始显示出衰老的信号,疾病或慢性健康 问题可能出现。许多中年女性和男性经历了一个生活评价过程,即对生活的诸多方面包括 工作或事业进行深入的自我评价。她们重新思考自己事业及生活的价值和目标,评价自己 的成就。(参考于埃托奧、布里奇斯,2006:177-223) 1. 幸福的家庭与小说快乐的结局 琼瑶经历了爱情的坎坎坷坷,终于从第三者的角色成为正规的妻子。她与平鑫涛 10 年的 恋情终于结为了夫妻。平鑫涛是她的真爱,所以与平鑫涛的日子是她人生中最幸福的日 子。琼瑶自己认为她并不是人们想象中的那么潇洒。在她的生活中,有很多年都是一条 飘荡的船,一直想找个安全的港湾,好好地停泊下来。结婚以后的生活,夫妻相敬如 宾,再没有什么事使琼瑶苦恼了。她终于可以静下来享受晚年。在这样的情况下,琼瑶 幸福的心情影响了她的写作内容。她写的故事内容开始回到过去及回顾生活的神秘,认 为生活是有上天而管的。琼瑶在《我的故事里》很多次回顾她之前的生活并后来认为她 的生活经历是上天的安排。 琼瑶写的小说内容也开始走向快乐的结局,如琼瑶早期写的《烟雨蒙蒙》是悲剧, 2001 年她把这篇小说重新搬到影幕,并把故事的结局改为幸福的结局。原本如萍自杀、依 萍与书桓隔在两地,但电影里茹萍没有自杀,反而找到了真爱。她在电视采访曾经提到 “观众也需要幸福”。笔者认为这是对,雨过肯定是天晴,经过艰苦及悲伤的人生路程, 有了幸福的家庭以后,琼瑶就变了,她用比较乐观的角度来看世界,因此她晚年所写的故 事结局也变了更快乐,如:《望夫崖》、《烟锁重楼》等。 琼瑶的爱情观与小说的联系         心理学家塞菲儿和莫儿提到爱情是由愤怒、悲伤、快乐和恐惧所造成的一种情绪上的 反应。恋爱会提高个人的谦虚感和自尊心。爱情比友情更加亲密。心理学家斯滕堡先生把 恋爱的过程解释为三个部分:亲密关系、激情投入及遵守承诺。亲密关系是指两个人的相 同情感和责任感是组成亲密关系的条件,亲密关系是融合恋爱的基本条件。拥有亲密关系 的伴侣对彼此的快乐和感情相当关注;激情投入是指双方的浪漫情感,外表上的吸引及性 欲是组成激情投入的主要条件;而遵守承诺是维持长久、完整的爱情及到婚姻。(baron, 2006:312-319)[12] 琼瑶写的爱情是大部分从她认识的爱情故事而写的。小说里人物的恋爱过程也大部分 从亲密关系、激情投入及遵守承诺。如果不能遵守承诺爱情或婚姻就不能成功。从《窗 the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 161 外》就可以看到这个过程。江雁容与康南的感情是始于兴趣而产生的,所以双方互相受 吸引,然后通过经常沟通,关系就渐渐地变成男女之情,感情虽然已经投入了,他们互 相许下了承诺,要永远在一起,但后来他们不能遵守承诺,他们的关系就不能成功。 除了根据以上提出的爱情过程,琼瑶故事里提到的爱情也根据她的爱情观:爱情是 人生的一切。没有爱情,人生就没有意义;没有爱情,人就没法活下去。对琼瑶来说爱 就是她的一种信仰,也是她很相信的一种宗教。琼瑶所相信的爱情是非常纯粹的,爱就 是很美的,不能被任何世界所发生的某种事物受污染。感情及爱情如果要发展为真爱就 需要时间的考验。对琼瑶来说最完美的爱情是互相恩爱到永远,正是因为这些爱情观, 琼瑶写出的爱情故事都是伤感而完美的,使世界上的读者都爱慕得不得了。 笔者认为琼瑶生活中所产生的爱情观与小说人物的爱情观一致,既: 1. 现实和小说里的爱情观:爱是人生的一切,是人生的最后归宿,是人生生活中最重 要的因素;没有爱情,人就不能活下去。 琼瑶曾说过:人类的故事就是男人和女人的故事,总之,有了爱,就有了人生的一 切,爱情,就是人生的最后归宿(史玉根,2008:115)。小时候的经历证明,家人的爱也 是人生中很重要的因素,家人团结很幸福的,但琼瑶的经验认为真爱更重要。这个爱情 观也可以在她写的小说里找到影子,如《六个梦》里的章念琦因为与爱人有了小小的误 会,吵架了,就伤心过度,失去了生活精神,后来就自杀了;再如《烟雨蒙蒙》里陆依 萍跟何书桓闹误会,认为她的爱没有希望了,就想投河自杀;而后来如萍因单恋书桓没 有得到书桓的爱就自杀;再如《新月格格》[7] 里的努达海要去战争时,新月很害怕, 她怕努达海这次去战争,永远不会回到她的身边。对新月来说,努达海的命就是她的 命。  “可是我失去了你,是无法独活的!”她情急的说:“难道你还不了解吗?我连克善 都丢下了,我什么都不顾了,就是要和你同生共死的!” (《新月格格》第八回) 2. 没有爱情,人生就没有意义。 琼瑶也曾提过:“失去爱情,就会使人生黯淡无光,失去了生活意义,就会失去了一 切。”  (史玉根,2008:115) 笔者认为这其实是琼瑶初恋失败以后得到的体会,因为 当她不能实现与她爱的人许下的承诺,就觉得人生没意义,生活中只有身体在动,但精 神已不在身上,引起父母的担心。从她的小说也可以看到这观点的写入,如:《浪花》 里的贺俊之虽然生活已经成功但他总是觉得不愉快,觉得生活太无聊了,但当他与雨秋 见面了之后,才体验到原来生活是愉快的;《问斜阳》里的顾飞帆因为经历了三次失败 的结婚就不敢再恋爱了,失去了生活精神并觉得不自信。后来见到了访竹后,就觉得生 活比较有意思;《匆匆,太匆匆》[5]第十三回里也体现了琼瑶的爱情观,故事里的韩 青说了一句话: “原来生命的意义就是爱”。 3. 真爱要经得起考验,最后才能走到一起 琼瑶认为爱就必须经得起任何考验,经历了种种悲伤、挣扎,后来如果能走在一起, 这才是真爱。真爱也是表现在双方相亲相爱,直到永远。笔者认为其实这个爱情观就是 从琼瑶的经验得来的,而这个爱情观,我们都可以从她小说故事情节里找出来,经得起 考验的爱就能幸福到永远;经不起考验的爱就不能成功,如:《雪珂》里提到的雪珂跟 亚蒙互相相爱,但因为亚蒙的社会地位和身份比雪珂低,所以他们被逼分开。他们分开 了8年,但还是互相相爱,最后走在一起。     162 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 152-163 结论     琼瑶是个敏感的人,生活上的所发生的事都可以影响到她的心理变化,可是和普通人 不同,她却能把她的生活经历转化为小说,给成千上万的人提供忧伤及优美的小说情节。 从她的小说里的故事可以看到琼瑶的生活和观念。这些故事都是从她儿童时期到中年 时期所经历的事情转变出来的。 从心里学角度来看,儿童时期的孩子很容易受到影响,儿 童时期的遭遇可以影响孩子以后性格的问题。琼瑶就在这时期产生了自卑感,虽然以后她 找到了真爱,还是觉得自己不够漂亮,她做的作品不够好或她不能满足读者等等问题;而 少年及青春时期的女孩如若遇到与人际有关的压力就很容易受到情绪伤害,使女孩容易感 到悲伤、想哭、感到孤独或没人爱。这种感受如果没有解决好就可以延期到成人时期。笔 者认为琼瑶就是在这个时期受到了很大的压力,而没有人给他指导,因此她就利用错误方 式既自尽方法来解决她的问题。这对她后来写出的小说的故事情节和内容产生很大的影 响。儿童时期、少年和青春时期的经历也使琼瑶意识到爱就是人生中最重要的部分;青年 时期是创业时期,这个时期社会上的价值观可以影响人的价值观,笔者认为这就是后来造 成琼瑶走上错误婚姻的道路,因为父母及社会的人认为婚姻 应该是女性的追求目标。后来 她不管社会人们的价值观,走上“第三者”的身分,但无论如何,她一直感到不安,不能 接受成为“第三者”的角色。这些给琼瑶的 小说题材加了一些内容。小说里,她批评第三 者但也同情  第三者,这样矛盾的观念一直在她小说里环绕。不过青年时期的琼瑶也找到了 她事业的目标,为这个目标写作下去;中年时期的琼瑶是幸福的,   这些也可以在很多小说 中体现出来。  琼瑶的小说一直提到“爱”。笔者认为小说人物的爱情观就是琼瑶的爱情观,即爱就 人生的一切。爱是琼瑶小说里的主题,而这个主题离我们生活是很近,每天在我们身边就 可以看到人与人之间的爱,所以笔者认为这是琼瑶小说很受读者欢迎的因素。笔者认为像 琼瑶这样的女作家是少见的,因此笔者非常佩服她。她的作品吸引了很多代读者,对于一 位作家来说,这已经很不容易了。笔者认为琼瑶的小说可以给年轻人带来美好的爱情梦 想,但对年纪比较大的人,琼瑶小说只是卖梦而已,因为他们已经体验到爱情的滋味,而 爱情的滋味并不像琼瑶写的那么美好。笔者也认为琼瑶的小说内容实在太单一。,因为它 只有围绕着爱情的主题,除了爱什么都没有。      参考文献      史玉根·一个真实的琼瑶[m]·北京:东方出版社,2008. 埃托奧、布里奇斯·女性心理学[m]·北京:北京大学出版社,2006. 琼瑶·我是一片云[m]·台湾:皇冠,1965. ____·窗外[m]·台湾: 花城出版社,1996. ____·匆匆,太匆匆 [m]·中国:长江文艺出版社,2007. ____·我的故事[m]·中国:长江文艺出版社,2008. the portrait of….. (cendrawaty;dkk) 163 ____·新月格格[m]·中国:长江文艺出版社,2008. 杨春时、俞兆平和黄呜奋·文学概论[m]·北京:人民文学出版社,2003. 胡山林·文学欣赏[m]·北京:清华大学出版社,2008. 琼瑶(琼瑶的文章)[z]· wikipedia·  http://blog.sina.com.cn/chiungyao.20092 11/ 2010 – 8 -1. 研究作者与解析作品[z]· http://www.hongloumengs.cn/hongloumeng/13/hongloumeng7170.htm.2010-8-1 baron, r.a., byme, d., and branscombe, n.r. (2006) social psychology. 11th edition. usa: pearson education. cheng, s. (2006) ” cultural proximity, diasporic identities and popular symbolic capital: taiwan cultural worker qiong yao’s cultural production in the chinese media market”. global media journal. vol.5, no.8, diases 1 agustus 2010 dari http: //lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/sp06/graduatesp06/gmj-sp06gradref-cheng.htm papalia, d.e., olds, s.w., and feldman, r.d., (2007) human development. tenth edition. new york: mcgraw hill. qiong, yao, (1996) awan jingga berarak. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1996) belenggu pintu cinta. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1996) kisah cinta si burung camar. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1996) selembut kasih. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1996) setulus cinta. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1997). enam mimpi. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1997) giok di tengah salju. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1997) ombak berbuih. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______, (1997) seuntai impian sunyi. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. _______ 1998. mentari terbenam. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. microsoft word 04 melania_setting narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 39 narrative discourse analysis of a foreigner’s story during his work in indonesia melania wiannastiti english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggiran ilir iii no 45, kemanggisan, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 mwiannastiti@binus.edu abstract this article is concerned with the study of appraisal of a foreigner who worked in indonesia. the aim is to find out some personal feeling of working in indonesia. an australian who worked in indonesia during some period of time was the main respondent. there are three episodes of conversation through the internet chat, namely yahoo messenger between the writer and the respondent. the conversation transcript was used as the data. narrative story and discourse analysis were used as a perspective approach to analyze the story. the important themes discussed in the study are affect, appreciation, personal and moral judgment, and social judgment. keywords: appraisal, a foreigner working in indonesia, narrative story, discourse analysis abstrak artikel ini mengkaji tentang penilaian seorang warga asing yang bekerja di indonesia. tujuannya adalah untuk mengetahui apa yang dirasakannya selama bekerja di indonesia. seorang dari australia yang bekerja di indonesia selama periode tertentu menjadi responden penelitian ini. ada tiga episode cerita yang dilakukan melalui obrolan via internet, dengan menggunakan program yahoo messenger. cerita narrative dan analisa wacana digunakan sebagai pendekatan perspektif untuk menganalisa cerita ini. tema utama yang akan diangkat dalam pembahasan adalah pengaruh, penghargaan, penilaian personal dan moral, serta penilaian masyarakat. kata kunci: penilaian, pekerja asing di indonesia, cerita narrative, analisa discourse 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 introduction as global business spread out the world, many people try to get a job out of their countries. indonesian people try to get a job a broad, and on the contrary, many foreigners come to indonesia for working. no wonder there are many foreigners, who work in indonesia recently. they come from many countries, such as the united states of america, australia, india, belgium and many others. many of them do some businesses while others do some mission, as the volunteers of international organization. they work either in local, national or international company in indonesia. the reasons why they chose to work abroad vary from one to another. lesley ducheyne, one of the unpaid workers from romulus organization from belgium, said that she thought communication with pupils from abroad was very important. she learned a lot about other countries and their people as well as got to know their culture. the other person from the same institution, ben jassin said that he was much interested in international contact between different cultures, languages, ways of life and customs. he thought it was worthwhile to look for interesting experiences and practiced the english language more often. both answers showed their character, feelings and evaluations when they face some new experiences. it can be said that people who work in another country will have many new experiences, so they will show their attitude concerning with the matter. since there are many reasons of the their purpose of coming to indonesia, it is very interesting to analyze a conversation with a foreigner who worked in indonesia, especially the appraisal which will be divided into some dimensions including affect, appreciation, personal and moral judgment, as well as social judgment. the objective of this study is to give a clear understanding on what this study employs. the writer makes the specification on the purpose of the study. the purpose is to show the evaluative meaning or attitude of a foreign worker during his work in indonesia from the point of view of affect, appreciation, personal and moral judgment, and social judgment. theoretical framework people usually show their attitude by saying something. it means that they need to show their feeling in words. some people also show their feeling by showing it on their face either in sadness or happiness. but other people understand more when they use words to show their feeling or attitude. in daily life, people use casual conversation mostly to communicate with others. when they feel happy they will say it cheerfully. on the contrary when they feel sad they will say it in softly. the tone they use will show their feeling. the most important in conversation is the using of the words which indicate the emotional or attitude of the speaker. the words used can be analyzed by using appraisal theory. as martin and rose (2001) have mentioned about the definition of appraisal above it can be concluded that appraisal pays attention on the attitudes in aliasing casual conversation. moreover, eggins and slade (1997) stated that appraisal refers to the attitudinal coloring of talk during a range of dimension, including; certainty, emotional, response, social evaluation and intensity. there are four main categories in appraisal; attitude, affect judgment, appreciation, and amplification. according to eggins and slade (1997), appreciation is the speaker reaction to and evaluation of reality. while affect refers to speaker’s expression of emotional state, both positive and negative. judgment refers to speakers’ judgment about the ethics, morality, or social values of other people. the last is amplification, which refers to the way speakers magnify or minimize the intensity and degree of reality they are negotiating. narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 41 martin and rose (2001) divided appraisal in two big categories; kinds of attitudes and amplifying attitudes. kinds of attitudes are divided into three kinds of attitudes which identified in affect (people feelings), judgment (people character) and appreciation (value of things). affect (expressing one’s feelings) people usually have good or bad feeling. they have good feeling when they feel happy, proud or satisfied. on the contrary they feel bad when they are sad, annoyed or unsatisfied. parkinson and colman (1995) defined the feeling by using the term of ‘emotion’. according to them emotion is defined as “the evaluative aspect of the relationship on how the situation makes the person feel” (p xi). the expression people show normally caused by the situation they face in life. moreover he said, “emotion implies a certain relationship between some objects, persons (including the self), or events”. based on the relationship above, people share their feeling of goodness or badness, happiness or sadness. martin and rose (2001) explained that there are two expressions of feeling; direct and implicit. direct feeling is the emotion which shows or says the emotion directly while implicit is the expression indirectly since it uses metaphors. moreover, eggins and slade (1997) divided affect into three subtypes; first is happiness/unhappiness. speakers encode feelings to do with happiness, sadness, anger or love. second is in/security which means speakers encode with anxiety and confidence. the last satisfaction and dissatisfaction speakers encode with interest and exasperation, examples of affect are shown in table 1 below. table 1 example of affect category meaning positive example negative example un/happiness how happy did you feel? happy, cheerful, joyous, buoyant, jubilant down, sad, miserable, distraught in/security how secure did you feel? together, confident, assured, composed uneasy, anxious, freaked out, worried dis/satisfaction how satisfied did you feel interested, absorbed, caught up in, engrossed, like tired, fed up, hate, exasperated source: eggins and slade (1997:130) judgment (judging people’s character) according to martin and rose (2001), judgment of people’s characters can be positive or negative. here, martin and rose said that there are two kinds of judgment; personal judgment of admiration and criticism and moral judgment of praise and condemnation. table 2 shows examples of personal and moral judgment table 2 examples of personal and moral judgment direct implied personal admire bubbly, vivacious intelligent, popular he was working in top security structure criticize what’s wrong with him? i can’t handle the man anymore i can’t explain the pain and bitterness in me…… moral praise their leaders have the guts to stand… i envy and respect the people of the struggle… condemn our leaders are too holy and innocent. ..’those at the top’ were again……. source: martin and rose (2001:26) 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 moreover, eggins and slade (1997: 133) divided judgment into two subcategories; social sanction and social esteem as it is given in table 3 below. table 3 examples of sanction and social esteem category meaning positive negative social sanction how moral? moral, upright, ethical immoral, wrong, cruel how believable? credible, believable deceitful, dishonest social esteem how strongly committed? brave, strong, self reliant cowardly, weak how usual/ destined? fortunate, extraordinary, normal, remarkable unfortunate, unlucky, odd, peculiar how able? skilful, competent incompetent source: eggins and slade (1997: 133) appreciation (value things) appreciation refers to how speakers evaluate a text or a process. (eggins & slade, 1997: 126). they divided appreciation into three subcategories; reaction, composition and valuation. reaction expresses whether someone likes something/someone or finds something/someone appealing. composition is concerned with the texture of the text or process. valuation concerns with evaluation of the content or the message being put across. (see eggins & slade 1997 pp 126 – 129). table 5 below shows the category of appreciation table 5 examples of appreciation category positive example negative example reaction what did you think of it? arresting, pleasing, wonderful, fascinating, stunning, lovely, beautiful, great uninviting, repulsive, horrible, boring, dull composition how did it go together? harmonious, simple, elegant, spacious, restrained discordant, complex, extravagant, cramped valuation how did you judge it? deep, meaningful, challenging, daring, relevant, profound, touching. shallow, meaningless, insignificant, irrelevant, reductive source: eggins & slade (1997: 129) research method the respondent the writer chose rob andrew patterson, 34 years old, a married man with two sons, an australian who worked as veterinarian at pt indotirta suaka as the respondent to find some data to be analyzed. the company where he worked with was specialized in pig health and production work, located in tiban kencana, batam, riau province, indonesia. he worked there for 2 years in indonesia. rob and the writer know each other well. rob has been learning bahasa indonesia and the writer helped him with his bahasa. mostly the conversations were taken in the internet, since the distance of the writer and the respondent was too far. it was more effective to chat by using the internet as the media. the conversation was done when he was still working in batam, before he left indonesia for australia. narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 43 the data the data is the transcript of the conversation between the writer and the respondent. the writer and the respondent used two languages, english and bahasa indonesia. when the data used was in bahasa indonesia, the writer translated it into english. the media used in the conversation was the chat-room in the internet. she used yahoo messenger chat room. the chat-room was one of the media to communicate as stated by one researcher in his thesis “a unique feature, which made chat-room talk as a new genre of writing”. moreover he said, “these features include the use of emoticons and abbreviation” (2002: 1). the emoticons in yahoo messenger which were used by the writer and the respondent shown in table 6: table 6 emoticons used in the chat symbol mean abbreviation mean ☺ /:) smile / happy dc disconnected / : ( sad / disappointed u you :> laugh yw your welcome ;) blink the eye ty thank you :”> laugh out loud (lol) brb be right back (\ sad the emoticons used in the chat were used to determine the feeling of the respondent. three episodes of conversation were analyzed. the first conversation was taken on friday, 11 april 2003 at 7 p.m. the second was on friday, 9 may 2003 at 7.30 p.m. the third was on wednesday, 21 may 2003 at 6.30 p.m. all the three episodes were done while he was still working in indonesia. he left indonesia for australia on 23 may 2003. it can be seen from episode 2 line 242 and 243 “ next friday night i should be…….saya duduk di pesawat” (i am sitting on the plane) the writer made some inevitable influence in the conversation being analyzed here. the influence was used only in the conditions that the writer felt it was appropriate. the transcript the transcript of the three brief episodes can be seen on appendix a the method of data analysis the writer employed two methodologies. two of them were used to make clear understanding and perspective of the story telling. first, she used discourse analysis, which was used as the main method of inquiry. the conceptual definition of the analysis as cited by pecci (2003:2) in her paper, “discourse analysis is the close study of talk (or text) in context… situated within an interpretive social science meta-theory that conceives of meaning as socially constructed” the second approach was appraisal which according to martin (2001) was concerned with evaluation that led of attitudes that was negotiated in a text, the strength of the feelings involves and the ways in which the values are sourced and readers aligned. 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 discussion having the transcript of the conversation, the content of the conversation was analyzed. based on the data taken then, it was analyzed from the point of view of the four points of analysis; affect, judgment, and appreciation. affect as it was mentioned in the theoretical framework that affect is the expressing feeling and emotion, and divided into three subcategories; un/happiness, in/ security and dis/ satisfaction, the analysis is as follows: • happiness during his work in indonesia, he faced many things that made him feel happy, sad, satisfied, angry, surprised or disappointed. parkinson said that “the cases of emotions are: how the situation makes the person feel …….. how the individual act with respect to the situation” (p. xi). from the three episodes, it can be seen that he had some positive emotions. at the first time of his coming to indonesia he had to adjust the situation in batam especially his language. in episode 1 line 99 " oh ok but i think i am gradually getting to know them anyway just by listening to people talk” this line was supported by his respond in episode 2 line 161 and 162. when the writer asked him about the food, language and weather, he answered, “yeah all those had to adjust to. so i guess felt pretty challenging as well”. when the writer asked him about his feeling at the first time of his coming to indonesia he responded. “i didn’t have a lot time to feel – i had to learn about the farm and just surviving day to day in the indonesian culture but it felt interesting ” episode 2 line 157, 158 and 159. it showed that he had very positive emotion with the situation he faced. the other positive emotion he showed was in episode 2 line 217 “but i have to learn a lot and really like those country and indonesian people” it showed how he liked the situation where he worked and the people were around him. the other side as a new comer in indonesia, he had to learn the language in which he could communicate with some people in work. he had learn bahasa indonesia since he was in his university, but it was not enough. he had to learn the language more by being in indonesia. during his time in indonesia, he showed his happiness of his bahasa indonesia achievement in communication. it can be seen in episode 3 line 124 “i enjoyed sitting in meetings, where bi was spoken ..... “ it was continued in line 143 and 147” i feel being able to talk with supervisors technicians foremen and workers are being advantages”. “can talk directly to them and get better feeling ……..” • unhappiness (negative emotion) unhappiness is one part of negative emotions as parkinson and colman said that negative emotions are shown in anger, fear and sadness (parkinson and colman, 1995:6). from the conversation between the writer and the respondent, it could be found that there were two main things that made him feel unhappy. one was the family. when his family was with him in it was not a problem but when the family came back to australia, he felt unhappy, especially when he could not communicate with them. it can be seen from episode 1 line 73 “… tapi saya tidak bilang di telepon sama mereka selama tiga hari (i couldn’t talk with them for three days”)’second was the time in indonesia. when the second chat was taken, it was his last week in indonesia, he felt sad. implicitly he said “… it will be my last friday with friends from work, i think they will want to stay later for drink after work” narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 45 • security security is one dominant need for a person wherever s/he stays. security becomes the most important thing before s/he decides to move to other place or even to other country. from the conversation with the respondent it can be seen that he felt secure in some cases and insecure in some other cases. as it can be seen in episode 1 line 99 “oh ok but i think i am gradually getting to know them anyway just by listening to people talk’. in this case, he felt secure because he could understand the conversation and understood what people discussed about. it is also supported an expression in episode 2 line 158, “and just surviving day to day in the indonesian culture”. language was one factor for him to feel secure besides, it was very important for his job. he used english, especially with managers’ level and bahasa indonesia with some lower employees. it means that for some level of conversation in his job, he was confident to use bahasa indonesia and he believed that there was no misunderstanding among them (episode 3 line 118 -121). it also supported by his statement in episode 3 line 147 “ can talk directly to them and get better feeling for what works and what is happening on the farm”. • insecurity as it has been mentioned previously that after a person came to a new place, the feeling of worried started. it also happened to the respondent. many things happened, made him feel worried. he had sent a package to the writer by post a week before the second episode took place, but the writer did not get it. he felt worried about it, since he had an experience himself, when his family sent packages twice and none he got. it can be seen from episode 2 line 18 “……. – two times packages from our family to us never got here”. he also felt worried with people surrounding at the first time he came to indonesia. episode 3 line 73 and 75 “sometimes felt unsure / a bit embarrassed etc going to shops looking for stuff” and ‘but got over that quite quickly – (but sometimes still feels strange – like people are starring just a bit”. he also felt shocked when he was caught by a police when he was driving a car and he got the wrong way. episode 3 line 83 shows it “………-(i was a bit scared) paid 30.000 and then let me go. another problem for him was about his family. 4 weeks after he arrived in indonesia his family came. he felt worried when people pinched his second son’s cheeks. it made his son felt annoyed. it influenced the father to feel worried when he had to bring the children out episode 3 line 94 “ the people down the street used to pinch toby’s cheeks and that made him scared and annoyed”. and when the writer asked whether they would live in indonesia, he said implicitly that he did not want it. it could be seen in episode 3 line “maybe – but only for a short periods i think as i don’t think my family will settle here” and episode 3 line 220 “stresses, i think – never really settled in to indonesia ”. misunderstanding among workers also made him feel worried. it can be seen in episode 3 lines 98 and 105, “with a few misunderstanding-….” and “it was a bit hard to come into the farm and say we need to change this and this when many of them have been there for 10 years” • satisfaction at this section, the question was how satisfied he felt. he felt satisfied in some cases, especially his achievement of his language when he gradually got to know what the workers said. he also felt satisfied because he could learn indonesian culture although in one place only. as he mentioned before that one of his motivations to work in indonesia was that he liked other county’s culture.(episode 2 line 141). 46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 • sissatisfaction on the contrary, he also felt dissatisfied with some cases. once was when he did not get the package from the family and when he sent the package to the writer. second was about his family. he was not satisfied with schooling system in indonesia (episode 2 line 197, 199 and 203). appreciation • reaction reaction is answering the question of what you thought of it. here, he gave some expression either in positive respond to negative ones. his reaction when the writer asked about his background in doing his job, he said that he had good background. episode 2 line 84 “oh – it’s been good to me i have done it since i graduated over 10 years ago …..”he felt that his experiences were very useful for his job now (episode 2 line 122) “…. that is how i got his job. it is very large pig farm providing 1000s ….” and line 123 “so they need a full time veterinary manager”. on the other hand, he felt that his experience is not enough to do in this job. he needed to learn more. episode 2 line 86 “…. you need to keep learning – there are many more pig diseases up here than in australia”. his reaction when the writer asked him about this time in indonesia was he felt very interested in learning everything new in indonesia (episode 2 line 158 – 161) although he never fully adjusted it. • valuation this part was answer of the question on how he judged it. it means that he had to judge in everything happened during his time in indonesia. first, he gave his judgment of how indonesian women exist in society as he said in episode 1 line 164 “ i notice that many indonesian women are in quite important position in society”. second, he gave his judgment of the country of indonesia in line 227 i think indonesia has much beautiful scenery” but on the contrary he judged his own country that australia was better than indonesia as it can be seen in line 243 – 250. personal and moral judgment • personal (admire) personally, he respected the writer in giving him lessons in using bahasa indonesia. one other respect went to his servant. he said clearly that he respected her because she was very honest. it means that he trusted her very much. it can be seen in episode 3 line 156 and 166. • personal (criticize) beside he gave positive respond to the writer, he also criticized the people where he worked, especially when there was a disagreement between him and the people in the job. episode 3 line 103 shows “misunderstanding can also be a code word when people disagree with your decision☺”. in the statement he criticized people not to try to understand the idea but they directly disagreed with the new idea. • moral (praise) he gave his moral value by giving praise to some indonesian women who have important positions in society. it can be seen in episode 1 line 164 “i notice that many indonesian women are in quite important position in society” narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 47 social judgment • how usual/destined? (positive) he gave his opinion about the common problem faced by managers, especially when the job performance was not running well. managers would have much problem in handling the situation. episode 3 line 107 – 116 shows his way to overcome the common problem. he felt it was not easy but by taking it very slowly and encouraging people to look at and trying it another way. • how able? (positive) since his background of education supported him to work in pig farm, he showed his ability in doing his job well. his experiences also showed that he has a good ability in doing his job. it can be seen in episode 2 line 113 – 115. “ after i left uni i worked with a man who consulted to a pig farms all over south australia and victoria” and line 115 “ so i gained a lot of experience in pig healthand not too many vets have that” conclusion from the story telling of rob paterson in the three related episodes or a narrative, it can be gained some understanding on his appraisal on working in indonesia. first, most of his happiness was in his ability to use his bahasa indonesia, although it was not well, but at least he understood it and he could use it in his work area. rob had to make some efforts to solve some problems, especially in his office, where almost of the workers there were indonesian who spoke indonesian. he had to face some challenges of using bahasa indonesia during his work here. on the contrary, he felt unhappy when he had to go home town since his contract was over. second, as a new person in the new environment he was struggling to survive. security was the most important thing for him. the feeling of insecure was on him since his coming to indonesia. although he could adjust it step by step, his negative feeling of satisfaction came to him many times, especially about the system of sending package post and schooling in indonesia. third, appreciation was expressed by him. he thought that he had a lot of experiences working in indonesia which was suitable with his educational background. since he liked to learn culture, he thought that indonesia was one country he could learn it. fourth, valuation is one important aspect in appraisal. in this part he showed his positive judgment about the country of indonesia and his willingness to learn another language used by people in some area of indonesia. fifth, he gave some personal judgment in the story. he admired personally to the writer in giving him bahasa indonesia lesson and his servant who was very honest. he also criticized on people in his environment in which misunderstanding happened many times. his praises went to some indonesian women who had good position in society. the last appraisal point is social judgment. in this part he showed the general problem faced by a new leader in a new area. he also showed his ability how to overcome it. references eggins, suzanne & diana slade. 1997. analyzing casual conversation. london: cassel martin, jr & david rose. 2001. working with discourse – meaning beyond the clause. copyright: jr martin and david rose maslow, abraham h. 2002. toward a psychology of being. available at maslow hierarchy of needs. html 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 mccelland, david c. ---. human motivation. cambridge: cambridge university press. parkinson, brian & andrew m. colman. 1995. emotion and motivation. new york: longman, ltd. pecci, tamara bollis. 2003. a narrative discourse analysis of midlife woman’s story of her returm to college: an article. available at: http://acjournal.org/holdings/vol/iss1/essays/bollispecci.htm appedix a the transcript of the writer and the respondent on yahoo messenger chat. in the transcript, the writer used ‘thitania2000’ as her nickname, while the responden used ‘robpaterson’ as his nickname. episode 1 [83] robapaterson: robapaterson: maaf d/c munkin satu tahun depan saya balik ke indonesia dengan keluarga cuti ke sana. [84] robapaterson: berkunjung? (not next year; one year in the future) [85] robapaterson: kamu sana? [86] thitania2000: berkunjung = to visit [87] robapaterson: oh ty bisa bicara bertamu ? [88] thitania2000: hmm dua tahun ke depan = the year after next year [89] thitania2000: robapaterson: oh ty bisa bicara bertamu ? >> maksudnya? [90] robapaterson: no what i mean is some year soon :) [91] thitania2000: bertamu = berkunjung = to visit [92] robapaterson: \oh ty maksudnya ? [93] thitania2000: some year soon = tahun depan [94] robapaterson: kamu suka tinggal di semarang? tidak sepi? [95] thitania2000: it's not really easy to tell about suffix.. coz it's inconsistent here [96] thitania2000: semarang itu kota pelabuhan.. jadi hidup selama 24 jam [97] thitania2000: tidak pernah sepi [98] thitania2000: tetapi tidah sebising jakarta [99] robapaterson: oh ok but i think i am gradually getting to know them anyway just by listening to people talk. episode 2 [157] robapaterson: i didn't have a lot of time to feel i had a lot to learn about the farm [158] robapaterson: and just surviving day to day in the indoesian culture [159] robapaterson: but it felt interesting [160] thitania2000: about the food, the language.. the weather? [161] robapaterson: yeah all those had to adjust to [162] robapaterson: so i guess felt pretty challenging as well [163] robapaterson: :) [164] thitania2000: hmm :) [165] thitania2000: great.. [166] thitania2000: u have worked in other country before... [167] thitania2000: do u think there was any different system .. in ur job now from ur previous job? [168] robapaterson: not really worked but sort of work it was a research project in png [169] thitania2000: ooh ok.. [170] robapaterson: collecting samples from village and farm pigs and analysing them for a bacteria narrative discourse analysis ….. (melania wiannastiti) 49 [171] robapaterson: (streptocccus suis) [172] thitania2000: wow.. it's a complicated job.. that i can't do that :) [173] thitania2000: and u know.. i hated biology when i was in high school :( [174] robapaterson: yeah but you are a linguist ;) i can't do that either [175] robapaterson: yeah biology some don't like it [176] thitania2000: hehehehheheh yeah we have our own talent to do and to serve the work, don't we [177] robapaterson: your right lannie :) [178] thitania2000: my problem is ,.. i can't rmember the latin words easily [179] robapaterson: oh like gluteus maximus that is bum [180] thitania2000: heii u said that u can adjust to stay in indonesia.. [181] robapaterson: muscle name lol [182] thitania2000: do u plan to 'live' here in indonesia? [183] robapaterson: yeah but never really fully adjusted [184] robapaterson: you mean in the future :) [185] thitania2000: yeah [186] thitania2000: in the future [187] robapaterson: probably not i would love to live in countryside of indonesia [188] robapaterson: but my place is in aussie [189] thitania2000: hmm.. [190] robapaterson: and so are family [191] thitania2000: no idea if one day you bring ur family to live in indonesia? [192] robapaterson: but i will be changing my career a bit so i think i will have contact with indonesia and other non western countries in the future [193] robapaterson: yeah they already lived in batam for 1.5 years and liked it [194] robapaterson: but there were difficult things like no real schooling available for the boys [195] thitania2000: ic.. episode 3 [71] robapaterson: well settling in to life on batam was a challenge (note our farm is on p bulan) so ill say batam and bulan (not the moon lol) [72] thitania2000: heheheh yeha i know [73] robapaterson: sometimes felt unsure / a bit embarrased etc going to shops looking for stuff [74] thitania2000: why do u think you have to be embarrased? [75] robapaterson: but got over that quite quickly (but sometimes still feels strange like people are staring just a bit) [76] thitania2000: ok... [77] robapaterson: also got lost driving on a first night and turned wrong way at an intersection and got [78] stopped by police :"> [79] thitania2000: did u communicate with them by using bahasa indonesia or english? [80] thitania2000: oohh :( [81] thitania2000: then whatdid the police say? [82] robapaterson: yeah didn't know much b i then [83] robapaterson: oh he said i was wrong which i was so eventually after going to police post ( i was a bit scared) payed 30 000 and then he let me go :"> [84] thitania2000: ooohhhh :( i think u r not wrong.. but the police needs money [85] robapaterson: ;) [86] robapaterson: but looking at the intersetion later i say that you are not allowed to go that way [87] thitania2000: :) [88] robapaterson: so for once he was right [89] thitania2000: yeah.. for once.. but then he will try to get something wrong on you .. heheheh [90] robapaterson: anyway after that a few more problems my family came 4 weeks after i got here [91] thitania2000: hmmm then? [92] robapaterson: and they had some difficulities [93] robapaterson: (but we also had good times but i'm telling you the bad ones now right ?) [94] robapaterson: the people down the street used to pinch toby's cheeks and that made him scared and annoyed (\ 50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 39-50 [95] robapaterson: just that sort of thing [96] robapaterson: at work on p bulan [97] robapaterson: well the first month went quite well [98] robapaterson: with maybe a few misiunderstandings nothing serious [99] thitania2000: misunderstanding with whom? [100] thitania2000: friends, people, or workmate? [101] robapaterson: oh the indonesians at work [102] robapaterson: but everything was ok [103] robapaterson: misunderstandings can also be a code word when people disagree with your decision :) [104] thitania2000: code word? like what? [105] robapaterson: and it was a bit hard to come into the farm and say we need to change this and this when many of them have been there for 10 years [106] robapaterson: i guess a bit of an excuse [107] robapaterson: but i guess they are problems for managers the whole world over :d [108] thitania2000: yeha i agree with u.. [109] robapaterson: so in general we have got on well [110] thitania2000: then what effort you do to make them 'agree' with this and that from ur perspective? [111] robapaterson: myself giving health advice about the pigs to the indonesian staff [112] robapaterson: it is particularly hard when farm performance is not going well [113] robapaterson: (that is the same anywhere in the world things are easier in the successful times [114] thitania2000: yeah it is... [115] thitania2000: ok.. when u meet some person in indonesia.. do u speak indonesia or still using some english? [116] robapaterson: so in some cases i just had to take it very slowly and encourage people to look at trying it another way [117] thitania2000: ok.. [118] robapaterson: with the other managers indonesian we always used english (now sometimes a bit of bi thrown in to clarify) [119] robapaterson: and with supervisors and down i tried to learn as much bi as i could [120] robapaterson: so i could directly speak indoesian to them [121] robapaterson: my head vet would translate for me in those early days [122] thitania2000: good..:) [123] thitania2000: but why didn't u call me at that time? :) so i could be ur interpreter [124] robapaterson: i enjoyed sitting in meetings where only bi was spoken as i could write down new words and look them up. but if important meetings and we needed to know the meaning they had to be translated copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 215 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 215-220 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.2103 representation of science, technology, and memory of postwar japan in japanese anime firman budianto research center for regional resources – indonesian institute of sciences (p2sdr-lipi) jl. jend. gatot subroto kav. 10, jakarta 12710, indonesia firman.budianto@lipi.go.id received: 03th april 2017 /revised: 14th november 2017 /accepted: 31th january 2018 how to cite: budianto, f. (2018). representation of science, technology, and memory of postwar japan in japanese anime. lingua cultura, 12(3), 215-220. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.2103 abstract this research discussed the debates over the development of science and technology in postwar japan portrayed in tetsujin 28 anime. most of the notable anime produced in japan during 1940s to 1980s were closely related with the memory of wartime, as well as the development of science-and-technology. tetsujin 28, as one of the anime engaged with the memory of postwar japan, however, had an interesting storyline representing the debates over development of new technology at the period. by using john fiske’s semiotics analysis, this qualitative research discussed the way tetsujin 28 initially created by mitsuteru yokoyama (1934-2004) represented postwar japan, as well as the interface between human and new technology developed during the period. the finding shows that postwar japan represented in this anime is filled with a great sense of optimism in the middle of modernization. japan is facing the prosperity era whose development is based on science and technology. furthermore, the existence of tetsujin 28 and other robotics technology can be seen as a representation of risk following the development of science and technology. on the other hand, the interface between the robot and human being depicted in this anime, in turn, will pave the way for new forms of life and hope for the prosperous nation. keywords: science and technology, postwar japan’s risk, tetsujin 28 anime introduction as one of popular culture in japan, anime (japanese animation) has drawn attention around the world. anime, for instance, plays an increasingly important role in the global mediascape of electronic and print media that in turn, is shaping the collective imaginations, experiences, and feelings of people throughout the world (macwilliams in miyake, 2009). the history of the development of anime, however, is closely related with the history of manga (japanese comic) in japan. according to sugimoto (2011), the manga is top-ranked for publication in japan in the period of the 1940s. for more than two decades, manga accounts for approximately 40% of the total print publications, which is most of them are story manga with a specific plot and storyline. many of that manga is later adapted as anime along with the development of animation technology in japan at that time. the fact that japanese society upholds the conformity in front of others (tatemae), and also the flow of modernization following the world war ii (ww ii). it is allowed the manga to be the best media for most japanese mangaka (manga artists) to express their thoughts by creating story manga which is later widely adapted as an anime. anime in japan has existed since 1917 in the form of two to five minutes of the short film, mostly about folktales at that time (tsugata, 2013). anime continues to grow under the influence of the socio-political context of the period. various animes are produced, ranging from war propaganda themed anime like momotaro’s sea eagle (momotaro no umiwashi, 1943) that foster the spirit of war by taking the time setting when japan is attacking pearl harbour on december 8, 1941, to various anime that engaged with the memory of the ww ii, like godzilla (gojira, 1954), space battleship yamato (uchu senkan yamato, 1974), barefoot gen (hadashi no gen, 1983), and grave of the fireflies (hotaru no haka, 1988). science-and-technology themed anime, such as astro boy (tetsuwan atomu, 1951) and gigantor (tetsujin 28, 1956), on the other hand, have also gained popularity among the public in japan and even in the neighboring countries. astro boy anime, for instance, becomes the first anime tv series aired in japan in 1963-1966, and also serves as one of the most important anime in the research on the development of anime in japan and the surrounding areas. koh (2013) has described in detail the processes of adaptation of astro boy which is associated with sociopolitical conditions in south korea, according to his own 216 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 215-220 experiences in dealing with the penetration of japanese anime to his country at the time. koh (2013) has argued that astro boy reminds the dark memory of the atomic bombing of japan, but on the other hand, it can also be seen as a symbol of optimism about the rise of science and technology in postwar korea. besides astro boy, there have been many other types of research dealing with anime as an object, particularly those that engaged with the memory of the ww ii (napier, 2005; wicaksono, 2013; yamada, 2009). napier (2005) suggests that the space battleship yamato anime goes beyond both remembering and forgetting by defamiliarizing the war experience, allowing not only working through of the trauma of defeat but ultimately a reworking of the defeat. moreover, wicaksono (2013) argues that grave of the fireflies anime could even be seen as a representation of japanese people who are fighting or struggling against themselves by the fact that there is no single scene in the anime that are clearly showing the nation of japanese enemy during the ww ii. while yamada (2009) sees another side of war-themed anime. he finds that the technique bridging wartime weapons and postwar images in japanese anime can lead to the new situation in which war could be regarded as a source of stories needed in postwar japan. however, it is interesting to discuss the representation of postwar japan in anime, which is closely related to the dynamics of the development of science and technology at the period. in addition, as one of the most crucial moment in the history of modern japan, the defeat of japan in ww ii can be seen as an important lesson for the japanese (dower, 1990), as well as a starting point of the development of science, technology, and economy in postwar japan from 1960 to 1970. then the question comes to the way postwar japan is represented in anime, a medium that allows viewers to recall the events relating to the history, or even turns it into fantasy and a certain experience (napier, 2005). by focus on one anime depiction, tetsujin 28, originally created by yokoyama mitsuteru who comes from wartime generation as the research object, this research discusses the representation of postwar japan during the devastation period of the 1950s in the anime. furthermore, the way the tetsujin 28 anime represents the relation between human and technology will also be discussed. methods like a drama or film, an anime also tells the background context of time and space that is actually represented in every scene in it. theoretically, the representation is closely related to the production of the meaning of concepts that exist in one’s mind (hall, 1997). there are various approaches to see how these meanings can be conveyed; however, the constructionist approach is chosen for this research since the approach says that meaning is something constructed. meaning does not only contain a sign, but it only could be interpreted by someone who has a series of concepts (hall, 1997). thus the representation can never be separated from the socio-cultural realities. therefore, the research will use the concept of sciencetechnology-society to see the representation of postwar japan in tetsujin 28 anime. this research is a qualitative research that is rooted in the interpretative approach, particularly using the semiotic analysis method to see signs in the research object. the semiotic method applied to this research is the john fiske (2010) semiotics analysis, which analyzes the representation by categorizing signs into three levels; (1) the level of reality, (2) the level of representation, and (3) the level of ideology. at the level of reality, the analysis is applied on a system of signs in the anime tetsujin 28, such as in the form of character’s behavior, speech, gestures, expressions, sounds, and so on. at the level of representation, the analysis is focused on a system of signs depicted on the objects such as characters, narrative, dialogue, and so on. at the level of ideology, the system of the sign will be reorganized into the unity or coherence that is accepted as an ideological code. results and discussions tetsujin 28-go (鉄人28号 / tetsujin nijuuhachi-go /ironman the 28th, then written tetsujin 28) is an anime adapted from a famous manga written by yokoyama mitsuteru (1934-2004). the manga is first published as a story manga in shonen magazine japan, vol. 56 (7) until vol. 66 (5) 1956 (yamada, 2009). like most of the notable manga in japan, tetsujin 28, is later adapted into several anime series, such as those broadcasted in 1963-1966, 1980-1981, 1992-1993, 2004, and 2013-2015. this research, however, will specifically discuss tetsujin 28 anime 2004 version which is directed by imagawa (2004) that is consisting of 26 episodes and airing on tv tokyo on april 7th – september 29th, 2004. there are many scenes in this anime that will bring the viewers back to the time of modernization in japan following the devastation period of the 1950s. tetsujin 28, which literally means iron-man number 28 is a superpower robot that is invented by kaneda as a secret weapon to support japanese military win the ww ii. in the anime, it is said that the japanese military has secret laboratory facilities where research, development, and production of various military weapons are carried out on a mysterious island in the southern pacific. kaneda as project leader receives an order under the ambitious project tetsujin keikaku (tetsujin lan) to create superpower robots, including tetsujin 28. tetsujin 28 is a model robot made after robots previously experienced failure and refinement as much as 27 times. the number 28 is closely related with the name of us bomber aircraft, boeing b-29 superfortress that dropps the atomic bomb on hiroshima and nagasaki in august 1945. the japanese people then consider the b-29 as a symbol of strength and power at that time (yamada, 2009). by taking the time setting of postwar japan, the manga focuses on the adventures story of shotaro kaneda, a 10-year-old boy who is controlling tetsujin, and various conflicts around him. in addition, various forms of development of science and technology occurred during the 1950s can also be seen in this anime. the focus of the tetsujin 28 is on kaneda shotaro, the son of kaneda, and his postwar experience. this anime focuses on shotaro’s pursuit to control and fully understand tetsujin capabilities while encountering previous creations and scientist from the tetsujin keikaku. kaneda holds access to remote control, the only device that can control the tetsujin 28 robot, which at the time after the war, lay dormant at a hidden location. there are no many differences with the original manga version or the other anime series. in the 2004 series, there are some key characters besides the figure of tetsujin itself, namely; kaneda, shotaro kaneda, shikishima, kenji murasame, furanken, and dragnet. 217representation of science, technology.... (firman budianto) as mentioned earlier, tetsujin 28 (hereinafter written by tetsujin) is a giant super robot originally created as a secret weapon to strengthen the japanese military in ww ii. in the anime’s opening song, tetsujin is depicted as a very powerful robot with a booming voice, and invulnerable to bullets and enemy attack, but there are times when tetsujin is defeated by its enemy, such as the robot gilbert. as a robot, tetsujin in this anime has no soul and emotion, and can only be operated using a remote control box. the remote control is a very crucial device since not only can it be used to operate the robot but also to control the robot’s behavior and “emotion”. if the one holding the remote has a bad temper, then the robot will behave accordingly. if the human is a nice person, the robot will also show nice and kind gestures. in so doing, the robot’s mission will depend on who is controlling the remote. it can turn into a very powerful destructive weapon, but it can also assist peaceful or humanitarian missions. the story about this tetsujin begins after its resurrection from the missile in 1955 or 10 years following the war, the same period as when the manga is first published. kaneda (金田博士) is a great scientist, creator of tetsujin in the period towards the end of ww ii. under the tetsujin keikaku project, kaneda and his colleagues work in a secret lab in southern pacific to create and develop tetsujin robots. the story of this project begins when kaneda develops some robots as weaponry to support the japanese military in the war. while kaneda and his colleagues stay at a secret facility in the southern pacific, kaneda’s wife who at that time is pregnant is left on the countryside. during the war, the countryside is destroyed by a bombing, and kaneda’s wife is killed. fortunately, the child, later known as shotaro, is still alive, and later is adopted by shikishima. on the other hand, kaneda who basically strongly disagrees with the idea of war creates tetsujin robots with the hope that in the future, the robot can be useful for the human. he treats tetsujin like he treats his own son, therefore, he names the missile “shotaro”, the same name as his son. shotaro kaneda (金田正太郎), the main character of this anime, is a 10-year-old boy, son of kaneda. much like his father, shotaro who is famous as a young detective in tokyo is well educated and very intelligent. as a young boy, however, shotaro’s emotion is often still unstable, including when he is controlling tetsujin. basically, shotaro loves peace and hates war. having perceived the story behind the production of tetsujin robot by his father, shotaro starts to develop the strong emotional bond with the robot. this anime shows inner-conflicts experienced by shotaro because of the development of new technologies, as well as the reasons behind the creation of the robots. shikishima (敷島博士) who served as an assistant to kaneda is also involved in tetsujin keikaku. he is the man who raised and took care of the baby shotaro following the death of kaneda and his wife during the ww ii. he tells shotaro the dark history behind tetsujin robot project. as the war ends, he initiates the development of shikishima juukou (shikishima heavy industry) as the production site of iron and metal for shipbuilding and construction, including the robot, which is said to play an important role in japan’s economic boom at the time. shikishima is also one of the scientists who contribute to the application of robot technology in the postwar period. in this anime, he supports the development of robot technology, as long as it is for the sake of humankind. he also continues to reassure shotaro that what he has done with kaneda in developing robotics technology in the past is not a bad thing. he believes that in the future, robots will eventually be useful for the humankind. kenji murasame (村雨健次) is the one who strongly disagrees with the use of robotics technology as a weapon. as a former japanese military personnel who is also involved in ww ii, he has a dark memory on the war. in murasame’s view, tetsujin brings back the memories of wartime gloom, especially when the robots are under the control of bad guys. furanken shutain (不乱拳酒多飲博士) is a prominent japanese biologist during the war. he creates a jinzouningen (人造人間) or artificial man that resurrects human corps by injecting special cells. during the research, he is using the bodies of soldiers who have died on the battlefield as a media, including his own son’s body. besides creating jinzouningen, he also creates a super robot named black ox. it is said that furanken creates them as a rival for the tetsujin that is created by his colleague, kaneda. dragnet (ドラグネット博士), a cyborg-scientist who is also a colleague of kaneda and furanken comes from japan’s allies during ww ii. in contrast to both of his colleagues, dragnet creates a super human kelly or kerri chouningen (ケッリ超人間). kelly is the first superhuman created by dragnet in collaboration with makimura (牧村博士). kelly is an american whose body is used as a media experiment. in this anime, the chouningen term is used to refer to the human whose entire body organs, except the brain, is replaced by the machine to make it has super strength. unlike the robot, the superhuman still has emotions as a human being, while at the same time he has very strong superpowers as the robot does. after creating a super human kelly, dragnet creates gilbert, the robot that will be used for space exploration in the future. among these characters, most of them are great scientists who work with kaneda to develop military weapons by utilizing their expertise under the project of tetsujin keikaku. at first, they work together, but for a moment as they have different views on the use of science and technology in the war. kaneda refuses to develop a robot as a weapon because of its potential to cause fatalities. however, since kaneda has no choice, in the end, he creates the tetsujin robot, and therefore he lives in regret for creating a robot for the weapon. franken and dragnet, whose ambition to rival the success of kaneda, then create their own creature. furanken as a biological scientist creates jinzouningen, while dragnet creates chouningen. by looking at the general storyline and the characters involved in it, the theme of tetsujin 28 anime is closely related to science and technology as well as the dynamics of its use and development in japan since from the wartime, devastation, to peace period of postwar japan. in particular, it can be discussed that tetsujin 28 anime represents these two major topics; (1) the postwar japan, and (2) the dynamics of relations between human being and technology following the modernization that takes place in postwar japan. like dramas, films, or other literary works, tetsujin 28 has also its context of space and time, and it is highly related to the background of the author. yokoyama mitsuteru, the author of the original manga tetsujin 28, comes from the wartime generation who lives in the shadow of wartime crisis, and experiences himself the kobe city bombing as five years old boy. however, in both of the manga and anime version, especially anime series of 2004 taken in this paper, tetsujin 28 tells a lot about the condition of postwar japan. the anime is opened with visual images of tetsujin 28 under shotaro’s control fighting his enemy. time of the 218 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 215-220 post-ww ii period could be felt by the strains of the musical arrangement of wartime mars which is very tempestuous. moreover, the capital of japan, tokyo, is also depicted made up with european-style buildings and construction, as well as the suburbs that are designed for the industrial area. the story begins with a narration describing the situation of japan in 1955 or 10 years after its defeat in ww ii. postwar japan in this anime is described as a period of modernization toward prosperity era. japanese people, at that time, are filled with optimism and hope as the economy continued to grow following the end of the allied occupation in japan in 1952. in many episodes, tokyo is depicted to have economic development and modernization in various fields. tokyo residents are no longer wearing traditional clothes, but youfuku or western-style clothes. tokyo tower is under construction. the central energy plant also begins to build in many locations across the country. some new technological developments, such as television and the invention of instant noodles can also be seen in the anime. robotics technology starts to be developed. while out there, the world is still tense. at that time, the two superpowers of the world are competing for each other to flaunt their technological advances, one of which is the successful launch of a space satellite by the soviet, followed by the states. back in the time when japan is in the shadows of war, the military resources, especially soldiers and weaponry become important variables for war. overshadowed by the urge to win ww ii, the japanese military starts a largescale and ambitious project called tetsujin keikaku to create super giant robots that are used as the weapon to win the war. even though ten years have passed since ww ii, however, still there are several projects related to the war that continued to develop in spite of the peaceful condition following the war. one of them is an industrial robot project initiated by shikishima through shikishima juukou. ten years following the world war, shikishima juukou does not only pay attention to the iron and metal industries for shipbuilding and constructions but also on developing robotics technology (the anime call it as kikai de tsukurareta ningen). development of robotic technology by shikishima is inseparable from his experience earned from the engagement with kaneda in developing secret weapons project in wartime era. another technological development follows the development of iron and metal industries, or in the context of this anime, is the development of robotics technology. at that time, the rapidly growing post-war economy is believed to be followed by the development of robotic technology. the storyline shows that postwar japan in this anime is struggling to escape from their defeat sense in the ww ii, represented by development in various fields. interestingly, this development takes place along with the development of robot technology. the japanese people in this anime are trying to divert the war technology into more humanistic technology. robots used in the war which are destructive can be changed into something that more humane and beneficial. the anime shows that the revival of postwar japan can be achieved along with the development and utilization of science and technology in peaceful ways. as koh (2013) has argued that modernization in south korea is also related to the depiction of astro boy anime in the country at that time. in the context of the postwar korea in 1970’s to 1980’s, the anime is viewed as a symbol of people’s hope of ideal and modern korea, following the footsteps of japan that have already successfully carried out modernization. postwar japan represented in this anime is filled with a great sense of optimism in the middle of modernization. japan is facing the prosperity era whose development is based on science and technology. the use of technology in the country, including the robot which in turn is expected followed by the economic growth that can also be seen as a representation of japanese people’s hope and optimism for the prosperous nation. however, still, there are some issues found in this anime associated with the risk and the dynamics in the relationship between human and technology. the postwar japan in this anime is represented with the great sense of optimism. the rapid economic growth also occurs along with the development of the country which is based on the use of technology. the development and use of these technologies, on the other hand, have also followed by the emergence of conflicts in the anime. shotaro and other characters experience various conflicts that are brought by the emergence of new technologies, including the presence of tetsujin itself. conflict as implications of the existence of robotic technology in postwar japan in this anime represents a condition that fischer (1999) refers to like the hype. it is a historical condition in modernity involves the humantechnology interface, that in turn, form the working space of social and cultural imagination through technology. in this anime, it is narrated that the resurrection of tetsujin becomes the starting point of the emergence of other robots, such as the black ox, gilbert, and others, which not all of them are created or controlled for a good purpose. as a robot, they are designed not to have emotion, feeling, and power to control it themselves. they are subject to the man who creates or controls them. for the case of tetsujin, it can even only be moved by using a remote control box, so that when the news about the tetsujin spreads around the world, many perpetrators want to control the robot. a gangster from the states, thrill suspense, is trying to steal the remote control, and after they succeed in controlling tetsujin, they use it to commit crimes, looted, robbery, and so on. furthermore, fischer (1999) argues that modernism paves the way for developing “new forms of life” through the mediation of science and technology. modernism, on the other hand, also increases the opportunities of developing such new risks that are brought by science and technology (beck, 1994). as technological hype, the existence of tetsujin and robots offers the hope of a new form of life as it can be seen in the relationship between human and robots in the social world. thus, the understanding for japanese people who at the period are living in the shadows of war to position themselves as part of the human-technology interface, which is in the context of this anime is a robot technology, becomes increasingly important. the presence of robot technology, on the other hand, increases the possibility of new risks, particularly when these technologies are faced with an emergency condition or rapid and unexpected social changes. in the context of this anime, the condition when robots are not controllable, or when they are in the hands of perpetrators that can be seen as emergency situations that in turn, give a context to the interface between human being and technology. in such emergency situations, the robots also indirectly bring back the dark memory of wartime to japanese people. in other scenes, it is narrated that modernization happened in japan requires the sufficient supply of energy. when the japanese government is struggling to deal with the energy issue, a bunch of bad guys named px syndicate 219representation of science, technology.... (firman budianto) (px 団; px-dan) comes to destroy the country’s main energy plant. as the country runs out of energy supply, the government has no choice but to stop the construction project across the country. the government then immediately initiates the development of a new energy facility called kurobe dam which is located on a mountaintop with a very extreme environment. therefore, the government holds a robot expo, the contest for scientists to create robots that can be used in the project. robots, in people’s view, can perform any task in accordance with the orders of its creator, even in an extreme environment like kurobe dam. from that storyline, there are two issues; the view of anthropocentrism and the emerging new forms of life. the view of anthropocentrism puts any form of technology as a value-free tool and therefore is fully subject to the will of the human as the creator. the fact that most of the robots in the anime has no soul and emotion and can only be operated using a remote control box by the human. it can be seen as a representation of anthropocentrism in the anime. the interface between human and robots, on the same hand, will pave the way to emerge new forms of life that are represented by the involvement and utilization of the robots in the social world, or in this case is for the construction of kurobe dam. in addition to such issues regarding modernization, the key characters involve in the debates over the use of technology in the postwar period are also interesting to see. in this anime, scientists and researchers who are expert in the field of science and technology are described to have a significant role, both in wartime and postwar period. during the war, they are involved in research and manufacture of military weapons, whose effects actually emerged in the aftermath of the war, ten years later. this anime shows that scientists are not always in the lab, struggling with their research, but they are also involved in government and military projects. the results of their research are used, even as a tool to support government activities. as expressed by mackenzie (1996), progress in science and technology is not a natural development, but the development is happening because of the political selection process, consideration of value, and even interest groups or individuals against one type of technology. this robot technology development cannot be separated from the scientists who are involved in it since the beginning. there are three forms of new technology in this anime, which is created by great scientists during the war. the new technology, in turn, represents the debates over the interface between human and technology. they are (1) tetsujin (machinery robot), (2) jinzouningen (artificial humans), and (3) chouningen (super-human robot). a striking difference of each form is in the persistence of the human element (ningen: human being) on jinzouningen and chouningen, which also indicates a new relationship between the human body and science. in jinzouningen, the corpse of the human body is defined as an entity that can be recycled and reused into something useful, or specifically, it will be used as the japanese troops to support the military win the war. thanks to science, the body which is no longer functional can be engineered and revived once again. as for the case of chouningen, the human body is defined as an entity that can be combined with the machine. in here, it can be seen that there is a shift in meaning in the interface between human and machine. the human body and robotics machine, which naturally are two different things, have turned into the new entity that can be combined. these two cases demonstrate the relationship between science and the body that in turn offers a new meaning to life and death. life basically can be created from a corpse of the dead. the human body, on the other hand, can also be engineered by incorporating some elements of robotics machine into the human body that are still alive. conclusions as one of the popular anime engaged with the memory of postwar japan, tetsujin 28 anime has an interesting storyline representing the debates over the development of new technology in japan in the period of 1950s. postwar japan in this anime is filled with a great sense of optimism in the middle of modernization. japan is facing the prosperity era whose development is based on science and technology. in the context of the modernization of postwar japan, the existence of tetsujin 28 and other robotics technology could be seen as a representation of risk following the development of science and technology. on the other hand, the interface between the robot and human being depicted in this anime, in turn, will pave the way for new forms of life, and in which eventually gave birth to a new meaning of life and death. in regards of anime as one of japanese popular culture, tetsujin 28 can be seen as a product that represents the spirit of the japanese people to get out of the dark memory of their defeat in the ww ii. through anime, a media that has been recognized globally, they want to show the spirit by changing the dark memory represented by the robot as a weapon of war, into the hopes of for prosperous nation through the use of robots and science and technology to assist peaceful or humanitarian missions. references beck, u. (1994). risk society: towards a new modernity. social forces, 73(1), 328-329. https://doi. org/10.2307/2579937. dower, j. w. (1990). the useful war. daedalus, 119(3), 49-70. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ stable/20025316. fischer, m. m. j. (1999). emergent forms of life: antrophologies of late of postmodernities. annual review antrophology, 28, 455-478. fiske, j. (2010). introduction to communication studies: studies in culture and communication (3rd ed.). london: routledge. hall, s. (1997). representation: cultural representations and signifying practices (culture, media, and identities series). california: sage publications. imagawa, y. (2004). tetsujin 28-go. japan: hikari production. koh, d. y. (2013). growing up with astro boy and mazinger z: industrialization “hi-tech world”, and japanese animation in the art and culture in south korea. in m. yokota (ed.), japanese animation: east asian perspectives (pp. 155–175). mississippi: university press of mississippi. mackenzie, d. a. (1996). knowing machines: essays on technical change (inside technology). cambridge: the mit press. 220 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 215-220 miyake, l. k. (2009). japanese visual culture: explorations in the world of manga and anime (review). project muse, 64(2), 445-449. napier, s. (2005). world war ii as trauma, memory, and fantasy in japanese animation. the asia-pacific journal: japan focus, 3(5), 1-7. retrieved from http://japanfocus.org/-susan_j_-napier/1972/ article.html. sugimoto, y. (2011). introduction to japanese society (3rd ed.). london: university of oxford press. tsugata, n. (2013). a bipolar approach to understanding the history of japanese animation. in m. yokota (ed.), japanese animation: east asian perspectives (pp. 25–30). mississippi: university press of mississippi. wicaksono, a. g. (2013). penggambaran perang dalam anime “grave of the fireflies”. commonline, 1(2), 1–10. yamada, n. (2009). shōnen to kihaku-ka suru karada-sei: yokoyama mitsuteru “tetsujin 28-gō” ni okeru “heiki riarizumu” no dōnyū. (a boy and the dilution of embodiment: introduction of weapon realism in “tetsujin 28th”). nihon manga gakkai, 15(4), 54–70. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 121 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 121-126 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1824 cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) and reading motivation: examining the effect on students’ reading ability husni mubarok1; nina sofiana2 1,2department of english education, faculty of education and teaching sciences, islamic university of nahdlatul ulama jl. taman siswa (pekeng) tahunan jepara 59427, indonesia 1husni@unisnu.ac.id, 2ninasofiana@unisnu.ac.id received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 12th december 2016/ accepted: 22nd march 2017 how to cite: mubarok, h & sofiana, n. (2017). cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) and reading motivation: examining the effect on students’ reading ability. lingua cultura, 11(2), 121-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1824 abstract this study examined the effect of cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) and reading motivation on students’ reading ability. the design of the study was the factorial design of experimental research. the research was conducted on one state junior high school in jepara municipality under the ministry of national education. the independent variable of this research was teaching strategies which were classified into two; those who used circ as the experimental group and those who used conventional teaching strategy as the control group; while reading motivation, as the moderator variable, was classified into high and low motivation. students’ reading ability was considered as a dependent variable. this research used 68 students as respondents selected through simple random sampling. the research was analyzed by using multifactor analysis of variance (two-way anova). the research reveals that teaching strategies differ significantly from one another in their effect on the students’ reading ability. the students with high motivation perform better in their reading ability than low-motivation students, regardless of the teaching strategy used. nevertheless, there is no significant interaction effect of teaching strategy and reading motivation on students’ reading ability. it means that the effect of teaching strategy on the students’ reading ability does not depend on the students’ reading motivation where f-test (3,326) is lower than (<) f-table 3,99. at 0,05 significance level. keywords: cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ), reading motivation, reading ability introduction in the case of foreign language learning, reading is an activity to comprehend written text in order to get information, knowledge, and messages implicitly or explicitly. komiyama (2009) states that one of the goals of second language learners is by developing second language (l2) reading as well as first language (l1) reading to access information for the purpose of personal enjoyment, academic work and professional development, and daily information. reading becomes a crucial skill (wu, 2012) and the most important skill (grabe (1991) in ediger (2001) among other english skills during second language learning process. it is considered as literacy skills (carter and nunan, 2001), and students reading in a second language have varied levels of language proficiency in that language, for example, english (o’ malley and pierce, 1996). reading skills become an important skill to be mastered by learners in nowadays educational context. in the era of information and technology society (pečjak, podlesek, & pirc, 2011), it is useful for second language acquisition (harmer, 2007), to improve students’ skill in the aspect of word recognition and reading aloud (akyol, cakiroglu, & kuruyer, 2014), and increasing students’ reading levels, rate, and comprehension (bastug and demirtas, 2016). therefore, the main purpose of reading is that the students could learn to interact productively reading in order to determine the meaning (nejabati, 2015). the integration between reading, writing in classroom, teaching, and learning is very important for students to reach the goal. the integration could result from an authentic language use because students’ skill training and critical thinking are not two separate stages (li and yang, 2014) and the integration is beneficial for students both in reading and writing (cho and brutt-griffler, 2015). in order to achieve this scenario for the students’ activities in reading class, teachers should be able to implement an interactive strategy and guide students to do 122 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 121-126 instructions in which they could engage and participate in reading activities. several strategies are recommended to be implemented in the classroom, done by the teachers, which could grab students’ attention and participation in class learning. one of the strategies is cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ). it is a comprehensive program for teaching reading and writing in the upper elementary and middle grades (slavin, 1995). in circ, students work in group to work cooperatively on various activities such as reading in pair, identifying the main story element, doing vocabulary and summarization activities, and practicing reading comprehension and creative writing (calderon, hertz-lazarowitz, &slavin, 1998). circ is in line with the theory of cooperative learning (cl). according to slavin (1987), cl requires students to participate in various activities to do interaction, sharing, problem-solving, and open-ended outcomes. these strategies differ in the concept of traditional interaction as they focus on learning outcomes as opposed to the productive-type task. the benefits of cooperative learning in teaching strategy are shown by alhaidari (2006). the implementation of cooperative learning in reading comprehension could improve students’ achievement in the cooperative partner and group activities, reach learning goal, and individual assessment. gupta and ahuja (2014) state that cl is practical and applicable for students in creating effective classroom climate to reach common purposes by playing an important role in students’ emotional and linguistic development. therefore, a major goal of circ is helping students to learn reading comprehension skills cooperatively in teams (slavin, 1995). many scholars investigate this strategy. khan and ahmad (2014) have found that cl becomes effective teaching strategy as compared to the conventional teaching strategy, better than the individualistic learning method (hsiung, 2012). it helps students to find the part of the reading passage which they do not find before (tanaka and sanchez, 2016). besides that, the bilingual cooperative integrated reading and composition (bcirc) becomes the useful strategy to improve students’ performance in transitional bilingual programs at the critical point of transition from their first language (l1) to english as the second language (calderon et al., 1998). the study is done by zarei and keshavarz (2011) that shows the significant effects of cl model of circ on students’ reading comprehension and vocabulary for efl students in elementary level. the issue of cooperative learning is in line with zone proximal development (zpd) of vygotsky which claimed that learning takes place through social interactions with others and that the learning occurs in a zone when scaffolded by or working in collaboration with more capable peers (tanaka and sanchez, 2016). the zone is defined as the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problemsolving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (vygotsky, 1978). vygotsky uses the idea of the zpd to give a new meaning to intelligence (cameron, 2001). the point gives the implication that learning english is learning to do the thing and learning to think. motivation is considered as a crucial thing in reading comprehension as reading becomes an effortful activity (wigfield et al., 2004). it is defined as some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do the thing in order to achieve something (harmer, 2007). brown (2001) has added that motivation is the extent to which you make choices about goals to pursue and the effort you will devote to that pursuit. moreover, reading motivation could be defined as the set of objectives and beliefs that ask students to make a positive connection of one another and direct reading behavior (pecjak and kosir, 2008). it also could be the individual purposes, value, and belief that direct students to focus on topics, processes, and aspect of reading (guthrie and wigfield, 2000). reading activity could be predicted from reading motivation and reading comprehension could be predicted by reading activity (cabral-marques, 2011). many studies show that motivation in reading is associated with the students’ achievement in reading comprehension. students, as readers, show a high interest in reading when they have extrinsic and intrinsic motivation (pecjak and peklaj, 2006). for example, parents could also influence students’ reading motivation (klauda, 2009). concept oriented reading instruction (cori) increases students’ motivation intrinsically and reading self-efficacy (wigfield et al., 2004). law (2005) has confirmed that young reading achievement is related to the instructional practices and linked with the use of various activities to stimulate their motivation. based on the theories and several studies which are elaborated, this study wants to examine the effect of cooperative integrated reading, composition, and reading motivation on reading ability. in reading instruction, the teacher usually uses conventional teaching strategy in which the students are given the texts from the textbook, and asked to finish the questions following them. thus, it makes the students get bored and absorb little information from this activity, and it results in low reading ability. therefore, by using circ, the students are expected to have better achievement in reading. it is also to be hoped that group activities in circ allow the students to learn the materials and help each other succeed. this research differs with other studies elaborated above because of the presence of moderator variable. in this case is reading motivation, which strengthens or weakens the relationship between the independent variable (teaching strategy) and the dependent variable (students’ reading ability). methods this study uses the factorial design of experimental method as a research design. it is the simplest design which examines of two treatments, in which each treatment is varied into two levels of treatments. tuckman (1978) states that factorial designs are modifications of the true experimental designs, with the further complication that additional independent variables (usually moderator variables) are included in addition to the treatment variable. in this study, there are three variables; independent variable (circ and conventional teaching strategy), moderator variable (reading motivation), and the dependent variable (students’ reading ability). the population of the study is the seventh grade of one state junior high school in jepara municipality under the ministry of national education which consisted of nine classes. by using simple random sampling, 68 students are selected based on the criterion reference of their motivation in reading class; high and low. the students, then, are divided into four groups of 123cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) .... (husni mubarok; nina sofiana) subjects. subjects within each of two reading motivations are assigned to the two treatments. to achieve the goal of the research, this study uses two instruments; questionnaire and test. the questionnaire is used to determine the students’ reading motivation which consisted of ten statements. these statements represent three types of motivation; motivation to learn, motivation to encourage groupmate, and motivation to help groupmates to learn (slavin, 1995) which brought up self-actualization, self-knowledge, and cooperation (brown, 2001). the validity of the questionnaire is good at statistical calculation, in which showed the significant correlation at the 0,01 level (2-tailed) by using product moment. the test is used to examine the students’ reading ability. the pre and posttest used in this study is the objective test in the form of multiple choices, true-false, and matching test. the validity of the test is good at statistical calculation which shows the significant correlation at the 0,01 level (2-tailed) by using product moment. to test the hypothesis, this study uses the multifactor analysis of variance (two-way anova) by using f-test at 0,05 significance level to find out the significant difference between two group of means. manova requires the data that should be in normal distribution and variance scoring should be homogenous. based on the output of homogeneous subsets by levenes’ test of the equality of error variances, it is known that the data is homogenous which is shown f-test 0,680 and probability the score 0,568 > f-table at 0,05 significance level. the treatment for both control and the experimental group can be described as follows. first is the experimental group. the students in the experimental groups are taught by using circ. the activity follows the variety of instructional practices that are developed by slavin (1995). in the first section, the students are assigned into two reading groups according to their reading level, and they are assigned again into the teams consisting of four heterogeneous students. the students, first, is introduced with a reading passage (descriptive texts). in this activity, the teacher reads the text aloud while modeling the pronunciation and the students read the text silently. then, the students are asked to find some difficult words and discussed the meaning of each word. these words are called as words bank. after those activities are complete, the students do the sequence of activities with the member of their team autonomously. the first activity is words aloud in which the students read the words in a word bank aloud within their team to make them can read the words smoothly. then, the students do partner reading. they take turns reading the text aloud with their partner, alternating each sentence. if the reader makes some errors in reading, their partner should correct it. the next activity is word meaning that asked the students to match the words with its definition. after that, story structure activity should be completed by the students. they have to discuss the answers to some questions related to the texts with their team. finally, they have to accomplish the activity which focused on mastering spelling by doing a game, hangman. in this game, one student in pairs thinks a word and the other tries to guess it by suggesting letters. at the end of the activity, the students are asked to summarize the main points of the text and compose another text with their own words. in addition, the students are also provided with the variety of descriptive equipped with book report that should be given initials by their parents indicating that they have read the texts. these texts should be read independently by the students in their free time. control group is the strategy used by researchers in teaching control class. it is conventional teaching strategy in which the students are asked to discuss the topic before reading, read the text aloud, translate during reading, and answer questions after reading. results and discussions the objective of this study is to see the difference and interaction between the means of the reading ability of the experimental and control group with different reading motivation. before students of the experimental and control groups get the treatment, they are pre-tested first to assess the initial level of reading skill. the result is depicted in table 1. table 1 descriptive statistics of pre-test result motivation strategy mean std. deviation high circ 66,76 16,765 conventional 62,06 18,376 total 64,41 17,484 low circ 65,29 21,685 conventional 59,41 16,572 total 62,35 19,237 total circ 66,03 19,100 conventional 60,74 17,283 from the examination of the mean scores in table 1, it indicates very small initial differences among the groups on this measure. also, the result of the analysis indicates there is no significant difference among the groups of high and low students’ motivation of experimental and control groups on the pre-measured of reading ability (all f-test <3,99, p: 0,05). the result of statistical calculation could be seen in table 2. it could be concluded that the treatments are started from the similar level of reading ability. table 2 tests of between-subjects effects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 554,412a 3 184,804 ,542 ,655 intercept 273177,941 1 273177,941 801,342 ,000 strategy 72,059 1 72,059 ,211 ,647 motivation 476,471 1 476,471 1,398 ,241 strategy * motivation 5,882 1 5,882 ,017 ,896 error 21817,647 64 340,901 total 295550,000 68 corrected total 22372,059 67 a. r squared = ,025 (adjusted r squared = -,021) 124 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 121-126 after the students get the treatment, the mean and standard deviation of each group from posttest are elaborated that is shown in table 3. table 3 descriptive statistics of posttest motivation strategy mean std. deviation high circ 83,53 3,859 conventional 73,53 2,939 total 78,53 6,096 low circ 73,82 4,517 conventional 67,06 3,092 total 70,44 5,130 total circ 78,68 6,432 conventional 70,29 4,428 table 3 summarizes the mean scores of the four groups on the dependent variable, the students’ reading ability. if the mean score of circ, 78,68 is compared with conventional strategy, 70,29, it could be found that the difference between these means is 8,39 points. therefore, it could be concluded that circ is more effective than conventional strategy. it has the positive effect on the students’ reading ability. in addition, the mean score for the two highmotivation groups is 78,53, and the mean score for the two low-motivation group is 70,44. since this difference is 8,09 points, it could be assumed that there is an effect attributable to motivation level. the high-motivation group has a markedly higher mean score. thus, regardless of the teaching strategy used, the high-motivation groups perform better than the low-motivation group. the data, then, reveals no interaction between the teaching strategy and students’ reading motivation. in other words, the teaching strategy and students’ reading motivation are independent each other. the lack of interaction could be illustrated graphically in figure 1. however, the significant difference in the students’ reading ability should be statistically proved. the results of manova are elaborated in table 4. figure 1 illustration lack of interaction between teaching strategy and students’ reading motivation table 4 tests of between-subjects effects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 2351,103a 3 783,701 58,603 ,000 intercept 377268,015 1 377268,015 28210,832 ,000 strategy 1194,485 1 1194,485 89,320 ,000 motivation 1112,132 1 1112,132 83,162 ,000 strategy * motivation 44,485 1 44,485 3,326 ,073 error 855,882 64 13,373 total 380475,000 68 corrected total 3206,985 67 a. r squared = ,733 (adjusted r squared = ,721) table 4 summarizes the f-ratio of each variable. the first f-ratio (teaching strategy) is 89,320. consulting the table, it could be seen that, with 1 and 64 degrees of freedom, it reaches 3,99 (0,05 level) or 7,05 (0,01). thus, f-test (89,320) is higher than the value shown in the table. it indicates that f-test is significant at the 0,01 level and shows that the teaching strategies differ significantly from one another in their effect on the students’ reading ability. moreover, examining the data showed in table 3, it could be seen that those students who are treated under circ obtain a combined mean of 78,68 as compared with a mean of 70,29 for those students who are treated under the conventional strategy. since it is obtained a significant f-test for the difference, it can be concluded that under the different motivation, circ improves the students’ reading ability better. the results are in line with the research done by khansir and farajolahzadeh (2015), which shows that circ as the teaching strategy is applicable and useful to be used rather than the conventional teaching strategy and considered as an effective and efficient strategy in teaching reading activity. then, the second f-ratio (reading motivation) is 83,162. with 1 and 64 degrees of freedom, it also reaches 3,99 (0,05 level) or 7,05 (0,01). thus, the obtained value of f-test exceeded both values, and it is significant at the 0,01 level. from the significance of this f-test, it could be inferred that the difference between the reading ability of the students who have high and low motivation is beyond expectation. in addition, examining the data that presented in table 3, it could be seen that those students who have high motivation obtain a combined mean of 78,53 as compared with a mean of 70,44 for those students who have low motivation. since it is obtained a significant f-test for the difference, it can be concluded that under the same teaching strategy, a higher reading ability could be expected when the students have high motivation than when they have low motivation. the third f-ratio also shows the interaction effect between the two variables, teaching strategy, and reading motivation. it is found that f-test is 3,326. it indicates that it does not reach 3,99 at the 0,05 level or it is smaller than the value shown in the table. therefore, it could be said that the f-test is not significant at the 0,05 level. the result of this study shows the main effect of circ as the teaching strategy on students’ reading ability without ignoring moderator variable; in this case, is reading 125cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) .... (husni mubarok; nina sofiana) motivation. students’ reading ability taught by using circ is better than students’ reading ability taught by using conventional teaching strategy. this result is in line with the study conducted by zarei and keshavarz (2011) which shows that there is only a significant difference between the circ and the non-cooperative groups, with the circ group being significantly better than the noncooperative group. while gupta and ahuja (2014) have reported that the cooperative learning gives students an opportunity to interact and discuss in the group that resulted from an increasing of students’ motivation in reading. besides that, those who are taught by using cooperative learning shows better score than the students who get instructions through conventional teaching strategy. khan and ahmad (2014) have suggested that the english teachers should implement the cl in teaching reading activity for the elementary level because the use of cl is better than the traditional teaching method in teaching english. comparing to circ, students who are taught conventionally are not dependent upon one another in reading instruction. they have to understand the reading passage individually without any chance to share it with their partner. the effect of this teaching strategy is that the students should memorize the information in their mind without having any communication at all with their friends or teacher. and there is no positive interaction among students to produce a qualified work. on the other hand, in circ by having the students work in small groups, it helps the students to accomplish their assignments more quickly. it supports the assumption of atkins (2010) that the students would learn better from each other and the teacher is not the only source of an information in the classroom. in this study, the students should not only study the materials, but they also should help each member in their group to gain information from the text easily. it should be done because each score of an individual would be added to contribute to a team score. the team which gains the highest score would get the reward from the teacher. thus, it makes the students whose have the better reading ability with pleasure is willing to assist their fellow group members. it means that the students who are taught by using circ as teaching strategy could enhance their social skill in accomplishing the task given. this makes their reading ability better than the students who are taught by using the conventional teaching strategy. the use of circ as the teaching strategy in reading class could also help the students to accomplish cooperatively toward the material delivered. the students could do different activities in pairs like finding the difficult words and discussing the meaning of a single word. the words discussed are called words bank. these words would be pronounced by each member of the group until they could pronounce it smoothly. in the partner reading, the students are asked to read aloud, predict the purpose of the passage, and answer some questions related to the text. in this teaching strategy, the students should be able to communicate, share, and the propose of the idea to their partner in order to accomplish the task. during in-class learning, the students work in pair to identify some features of the passage; like characters, setting, problem, time, main idea, and plot of passage. the students could discuss the material they have not understood yet to their partner before clarifying to their teacher, to explain the problem to be solved and summarize the passage to one another to increase their reading comprehension. in addition, the finding shows that both students who are taught under the conventional teaching strategy and circ gains better achievement in reading if they have high reading motivation. this result is in line with the study conducted pecjak and kosir (2008) which shows students’ motivation differ to their age and sex (young students and girl shows high motivation). students who have high motivation, show high reading efficiency. therefore, it is not suggested that circ is more effective in enhancing reading ability of the students who have high or low motivation in reading. it also means that the effect of teaching strategy on the students’ reading ability do not depend on the students’ reading motivation. as law (2005) has indicated that the extrinsive motivation does not influence students’ reading achievement. in other words, the teaching strategy and the students’ reading motivation are independent of each other. conclusions based on the elaborated result, it could be concluded that started from the similar level of reading ability the students of the experimental group performed better on reading ability than the control group. it indicates that circ increases students’ reading ability better than the conventional teaching strategy. then, the students’ reading motivations, low and high, also differ significantly from one another in their effect on the students’ reading ability. it is also found that circ, the conventional teaching strategy, and students’ reading motivation do not have a combined effect on the reading ability of the students. in other words, there is no interaction between the teaching strategy and students’ reading motivation. cooperative learning in the form circ strategy provides practical and applicable activities which could be done by teachers in improving students’ reading ability. in a group, students could work and cooperate to discuss the material given better than the use of conventional teaching strategy in class teaching. based on the finding of the research, further research is recommended to verify the result and examine the effectiveness of cooperative, integrated reading and composition (circ) for other variables such as students’ attitude toward reading achievement, students’ social skills, intergroup relation, and students’ writing ability. references akyol, h., çakıroğlu, a., & kuruyer, h. g. 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(2011). on the effects of two models of cooperative learning on efl reading comprehension and vocabulary. modern journal of language teaching methods, 1(2), 38–54. microsoft word 05_sri d.a._shinto-ok.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 132-141 132 eksistensi agama shinto dalam pelaksanaan matsuri di jepang sri dewi adriani japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, dewiadriani@yahoo.com abstract japan is one of the nations having an extensive historical culture, as well as the system of faith or religion. the existence of religion, as a part of their life, has been streaming from the ancient time (pre-modern) up to present. the implementation of their religious life is very unique and fascinating. other remarkable issues is about the tight relationship among the religions especially shinto with the festival performances which is held in japan along the seasons. keywords: religion, festival, traditional, shinto, matsuri abstrak jepang adalah salah satu negara di dunia yang memiliki sejarah kebudayaan yang panjang, termasuk di antaranya adalah sistem kepercayaan atau agama. keberadaan agama sebagai bagian dari kehidupan masyarakat telah berlangsung sejak masa pra modern hingga saat ini. pelaksaan kehidupan beragama di jepang berlangsung unik dan menarik. hal lain yang cukup menarik adalah adanya hubungan yang erat di antara agama khusunya shinto dengan pelaksanaan festival di jepang yang berlangsung hampir sepanjang tahun. kata kunci: agama, festival, tradisional, shinto, matsuri eksistensi agama shinto … (sri dewi adriani) 133 pendahuluan jepang adalah salah satu negara kepulauan yang terletak di benua asia. jepang terdiri dari empat pulau utama (hokkaido, honshu, shikoku, dan kyushu) dan 4000 pulau kecil lain. luas wilayahnya mencapai 378.000 km2 dengan jumlah penduduk berjumlah kurang lebih 128 juta jiwa. wilayah itu dikelilingi dua lautan besar, yaitu lautan pasifik di sebelah timur dan laut jepang di sebelah barat serta sejumlah gunung berapi. jepang dikenal sebagai negara yang memiliki nilai budaya tinggi dan masih terpelihara dengan baik hingga saat ini. kebudayaan itu ada yang merupakan kebudayaan asli jepang dan ada pula yang merupakan perpaduan antara kebudayaan asli dan asing. salah satunya adalah sistem kepercayaan atau agama (shuukyou). istilah agama atau shuukyou sendiri mulai populer sejak masa meiji (1868~1912). agama utama di jepang meliputi shinto, budha, dan kristen. shinto dikatakan sebagai agama alamiah yang lahir dan berkembang sejak zaman prasejarah dan mengalami pengaruh dari budha dan kristen. mayoritas orang jepang bersikap sangat toleran terhadap ajaran agama yang ada, termasuk dalam hal melibatkan diri dalam beberapa agama sekaligus. hal tersebut mungkin dianggap aneh bagi sebagian masyarakat dunia, namun tidak demikian halnya dengan bangsa jepang. sikap toleransi itu juga tercermin dalam hal penerimaan terhadap agama yang datang dari luar serta kebebasan dalam mengembangkan aliran agama baru (sekte). undang-undang negara jepang menjamin adanya kebebasan beragama di kalangan masyarakat. selain itu, jepang tidak mengenal adanya agama negara (state religion) dan tidak ada hubungan di antara kegiatan kenegaraan dan keagamaan. pendidikan agama pun dilarang diajarkan di sekolah umum. fenomena akan kepercayaan beragama di kalangan masyarakat jepang mulai terbentuk sejak masuknya ajaran konfusianisme sekitar abad ke-6 dari cina. sejak saat itu, ajaran konfusianisme terus merasuk ke dalam sendi kehidupan, pemikiran, dan pandangan hidup masyarakat jepang. hal itu terus bertahan sampai abad ke-19. masyarakat jepang dewasa ini bukanlah penganut ajaran konfusianisme seperti pada era tokugawa (1603~1868), namun nilai ajaran itu tetap meresap di dalam kehidupan mereka. pemahaman akan nilai tersebut tetap dipertahankan di tengah penerimaan orang jepang akan ilmu modern, konsep modern tentang kemajuan dan pertumbuhan, prinsip yang universal, serta cita-cita dan nilai demokratis. kebanyakan rakyat jepang mengambil sikap tidak peduli terhadap agama dan melihat agama sebagai budaya dan tradisi. bila ditanya mengenai agama, mereka akan mengatakan bahwa mereka beragama budha hanya karena nenek-moyang mereka menganut salah satu sekte agama budha. pada saat ini, shinto suatu agama yang berasal dari jepang sudah hampir luput dari perhatian dan hanya diketahui oleh beberapa cendekiawan saja. kebanyakan ajaran budha dan shinto hanya dipraktikkan di dalam ritual kebudayaan, seperti upacara pernikahan, kematian, dan sebagainya. sejumlah minoritas menganut agama kristen, shamanisme, dan agama baru, seperti soka gakkai. sebagian agama baru itu berkaitan erat dengan agama buddha. secara faktual, budha dan shinto memang agama penduduk jepang. hampir di berbagai sudut kota dapat dijumpai kuil tempat beribadah mereka. hanya anehnya, mereka yang berkunjung dan beribadah di kuil budha, kebanyakan juga datang beribadah ke kuil shinto. lebih dari itu, biasanya keberagamaan warga jepang juga dapat terlihat pada tempat sembahyang di dalam rumah. di daerah pedesaan, tidak jarang ditemui warga yang memiliki tempat sembahyang agama budha sekaligus agama shinto di masing-masing rumahnya. meski kehidupan beragama yang mereka jalani demikian, jangan pernah menganggap mereka tidak percaya pada keberadaan tuhan. jika ditanyakan pada mereka tentang tuhan, hampir dipastikan mereka semua mengakui adanya zat maha pencipta. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 132-141 134 penduduk jepang, terutama yang lanjut usia, rata-rata menganut dua keyakinan itu sekaligus. sementara anak muda cenderung tidak peduli pada agama. apalagi mereka yang tinggal di perkotaan. kesadaran beragama warga jepang yang seperti itu, sepertinya juga terkait dengan konstitusi negara mereka. konstitusi yang dibuat pemerintah as sebagai pemenang perang dunia ii, sama sekali tidak menyebut soal kehidupan beragama warga jepang. dan hingga kini, konstitusi yang diberlakukan sejak 1946 ini sama sekali belum pernah diamandemen. dengan dasar konstitusi seperti itu maka sekolah di jepang sejak sekolah dasar (sd) hingga universitas, tak pernah mecantumkan pendidikan agama. masalah agama dianggap sebagai urusan pribadi masing-masing warga negara sehingga negara tak perlu mengaturnya. bila ditanyakan apa agama warga jepang maka secara resmi pemerintah jepang akan menjawab bahwa kebanyakan orang jepang memeluk agama shinto dan budha. statistik menunjukkan bahwa hanya sedikit orang jepang yang tertarik pada ajaran agama tertentu. mayoritas dari mereka menunjukan kecenderungan tidak tertarik pada ajaran agama sama sekali. ada beberapa alasan yang dapat dikemukakan di sini. alasan yang pertama adalah bahwa orang jepang ditakdirkan hidup dalam lingkungan yang nyaman dan aman dari segala gangguan dan bencana sejak beberapa generasi. hal itu mendorong mereka menjadi sosok manusia yang tidak terlalu peduli terhadap suatu ajaran agama tertentu. hal lain adalah karena keberadaan ajaran shinto yang bersifat polytheis sehingga membuat orang jepang bersikap sangat toleran terhadap segala aliran agama. akan tetapi, keadaan itu dapat berubah menjadi kondisi yang kontradiksi, yaitu sosok yang tadinya acuh terhadap agama berubah menjadi sangat tertarik dengan ajaran agama tertentu. hal itu terjadi apabila individu tersebut sedang mengalami masalah atau pada mereka yang sudah berusia lanjut dan sudah timbul kesadaran untuk lebih mendekatkan diri pada suatu ajaran tertentu. istilah shuukyou atau agama di jepang digunakan dalam konotasi makna yang lebih luas dari istilah agama di indonesia. hal itu karena istilah shuukyou mencakup pengertian “agama” dan sekaligus “religi” (anwar, 2005:3). seorang tokoh bernama miyake hitoshi, dalam salah satu kayanya yang berjudul nihon shuukyou no kouzou atau struktur agama jepang mengemukakan bahwa umumnya para ilmuwan jepang yang tertarik pada penelitian tentang agama di jepang membedakan pengertian shuukyou atau agama-agama yang ada di dunia menjadi tiga kategori. pertama, 未開宗教 (mikai shuukyou), yaitu agama yang berkembang di dalam masyarakat primitif, seperti kepercayaan animisme, toteisme, dan shamanisme. kedua, 民族宗教 (minzoku shuukyou), agama yang berkembang dalam bangsa atau suku bangsa tertentu seperti shinto, taoisme, dan konfusianisme. ketiga, 世界宗教 (sekai shuukyou), yaitu agama yang dianut masyarakat dunia atau yang bersifat universal, seperti islam, kristen, dan sebagainya (anwar, 2005:3). bagi sebagian besar orang jepang sulit menjawab dengan tegas apabila ditanyakan mengenai kepercayaan atau agama yang dianutnya. mereka pada umumnya tidak memiliki satu agama tertentu untuk dianut dan hanya memiliki minat yang kecil atas suatu agama tertentu. akan tetapi, meski hanya memiliki minat yang kecil terhadap suatu agama tertentu, mereka kerapkali melaksanakan kegiatan yang berhubungan dengan keagamaan, khususnya shinto dan budha. ritual yang dilakukan tersebut berlangsung hampir sepanjang tahun, seperti obon, hinamatsuri, tanabata, shichigosan, dan sebagainya. demikian pula dengan upacara pernikahan dan kematian. acapkali mereka datang ke kuil untuk meminta jimat demi keselamatan atau kesuksesan dalam karir dan sekolah. hal itu menunjukkan adanya sikap yang kontradiktif di dalam masyarakat jepang, khususnya dalam hal kepercayaan. sikap ambigu dalam kehidupan beragama di jepang, antara lain disebabkan faktor berikut: adanya sinkretisme/penyatuan, baik dalam doktrin agama maupun tingkah laku keagamaan masyarakat jepang; proses sekularisasi dan pembauran agama budha di jepang; proses pembauran eksistensi agama shinto … (sri dewi adriani) 135 agama shinto yang membaur dengan budha dan konfusianisme; perubahan kebijakan politik negara jepang terhadap budha, shinto, konfusianisme dan kristen; berkaitan dengan membaurnya agama dengan berbagai kepercayaan rakyat jepang yang semakin berkembang (anwar, 2005:3). pembahasan eksistensi agama shinto kata shinto berasal dari dua kanji, yaitu ”shin” 神 yang artinya ”dewa” dan to” 道yang artinya ”jalan”. dengan demikian, apabila kedua kanji itu digabungkan akan tercipta suatu arti, yaitu ”jalan dewa” atau jalan tuhan. dari catatan sejarah yang ada, diketahui bahwa agama itu berasal dari india dan masuk ke jepang secara resmi dari cina melalui korea pada tahun 538 masehi (anwar 2005:4). agama shinto dianggap atau dikategorikan sebagai agama asli bangsa jepang atau juga agama tradisional bangsa jepang. pada awalnya, ajaran shinto dilaksanakan oleh keluarga yang memiliki kekuatan atau yang dikenal dengan nama klan. agama itu mempercayai bahwa pendiri bangsa jepang berasal dari surga atau khayangan yang kemudian turun ke bumi dan membentuk negara jepang sekaligus menjelma ke dalam tenno atau kaisar. hal itu menyebabkan adanya pandangan yang mempercayai bahwa tenno adalah titisan dari dewi amaterasu oomikami (saronto, 2005:105). sejak masa restorasi meiji (1868~1912) hingga akhir perang dunia ii, shinto adalah agama resmi di jepang. agama shinto melibatkan penyembahan kami, yang dapat diterjemahkan sebagai dewa, roh alam, atau sekedar kehadiran spiritual. sebagian kami berasal dari daerah setempat dan dapat dianggap sebagai roh yang mewakili daerah tersebut, namun kami lainnya mewakili benda dan proses alami utama, misalnya amaterasu, sang dewi matahari. setelah perang dunia ii, shinto kehilangan statusnya sebagai agama resmi. sebagian ajaran dan kegiatan shinto yang sebelumnya dianggap penting pada masa perang ditinggalkan dan tidak lagi diajarkan. sebagian lagi tetap bertahan, namun telah kehilangan konotasi keagamaannya, misalnya dengan penyelenggaraan omikuji (semacam undian untuk menebak keberuntungan). agama budha dan shinto sebagai agama yang memiliki jumlah penganut terbesar senantiasa berjalan secara rukun, bahkan saling mendukung sehingga masyarakat jepang pun dapat melaksanakan kedua ritual tersebut secara bersamaan. shinto bukan merupakan prinsip moral atau doktrin filosofi, melainkan merupakan suatu sistem pemujaan yang muncul secara alami dengan penekanan pada upacara ritual agama (matsuri) yang bersumber dari kehidupn pertanian masyarakat jepang. agama shinto berkembang bersamaan dengan perkembangan masyarakat pertanian beras. agama itu berlandaskan pada pemujaan pada dewa padi dan nenek moyangnya. agama itu mengenal tuhannya atau dalam bahasa jepangnya disebut kami sama dan melakukan pemujaan di kuil shinto atau jinja. tidak ada panduan berupa kitab suci maupun pimpinan agamanya. menurut ajarannya, tuhan dimiliki oleh semua mahluk hidup sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa jumlahnya sangat banyak, bahkan tidak terhitung. hal itu dapat terlihat dalam salah satu mitologi jepang yang berjudul yaoyorozu no kami atau delapan juta tuhan. mengenai istilah kami tersebut seorang teolog shinto dari abad 14, imbe no masamichi dalam karyanya shindai kuketsu (1367) mengatakan: kami (istilah jepang untuk dewa) berasal dari kata kagami (cermin) yang kemudian disingkat dan dibaca kami. pikiran tuhan, seperti sebuah cermin, merefleksikan semua yang ada di alam. dia bertindak dengan keadilan yang tidak memihak dan tidak menegang setitikpun kotoran. apa yang ada di langit itulah kami, di alam itulah ruh dan dalam diri manusia itulah ketulusan. jika ruh alam dan hati manusia suci dan jernih, maka mereka menjadi kami.” (bellah, 1992:88). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 132-141 136 masyarakat jepang mempercayai bahwa roh mereka tersebut menempati bermacam objek natural yang jumlahnya sangat banyak. semangat atau spirit akan pemujaan dewa padi tersebut menjadi yang terpenting. melalui semangat tersebut mereka percaya akan didapatkannya alam lain dan di dalamnya mereka akan mengalami bermacam pantangan yang akan menyucikan mereka kelak. sehubungan dengan kepercayaan tersebut, mereka pun sering mengadakan bermacam upacara yang berkaitan dengan penanaman padi, baik sebelum maupun sesudah panen. selain kepercayaan akan dewa padi, semangat akan pemujaan leluhur pun memegang peranan penting dalam kehidupan masyarakat jepang. mereka percaya bahwa arwah orang yang telah meninggal akan selalu hadir diantara mereka yang masih hidup. mayoritas orang jepang pergi ke jinja (kuil shinto) pada saat melangsungkan pernikahan, perayaan kelahiran bayi, merayakan kelulusan ujian masuk universitas. para keluarga biasanya datang pada hari pertama di tahun baru atau hatsumode untuk memohon rahmat kesuksesan dan kebahagian di tahun tersebut. masing-masing jinja memiliki upacara keagamaannya masing-masing setiap tahunnya. pada saat itu, umumnya dihadiri oleh masyarakat setempat dan dimeriahkan dengan penjualan berbagai souvenir di depannya. di jinja itu pun masyarakat dapat meminta atau membeli jimat keselamatan. sebagai bagian dari minzoku shuukyoo atau agama yang berkembang dalam masyarakat tertentu, shinto memiliki beberapa ciri khas sebagai berikut: shizen hassei tekini seiritsushita shuukyou (agama yang lahir dan berkembang secara alami); tokutei no kyousou wa inai (tidak ada tokoh tertentu yang dianggap sebagai pendirinya); kyouri yori saishigirei ga juushisatereiru (lebih mementingkan upacara ritual daripada doktrin keagamaan); seijiteki gunjiteki shihaisya ga doujini shuukyouteki shihaisya dearu (penguasa pemerintahan baik yang bersifat politis maupun militer, sekaligus menjadi pemimpin keagamaan); kojin no kyuusai yorimo kyoudotai no rieki ga yuusensareru (lebih memprioritaskan keuntungan yang bersifat kebersamaan ketimbang pribadi) (anwar, 2005:5). shinto dikenal juga sebagai dentooteki shuukyoo atau agama tradisional jepang. sejak abad ke-19, agama itu diletakkan sebagai agama negara dan kaisar dipuja sebagai dewa. akan tetapi, sesudah perang dunia kedua, pelaksanaan keagamaan diletakkan terpisah dari fungsi kenegaraan dan ritual pemujaan dibatasi di masing-masing kuil tiap daerah. dalam perkembangan selanjutnya, sejak zaman nara (710~794) terjadi pula dinamika konsep kepercayaan yang disebut shinbutsu shugo, yaitu perpaduan di antara shinto dan budha. konsep itu bukan berdasarkan pada ”pemahaman” orang jepang terhadap ajaran budha, melainkan bertolak dari anggapan mereka tentang dewa budha yang memiliki kekuatan yang sama (identik) dengan dewa shinto yang telah ada jauh sebelum agama budha masuk ke jepang. hingga pada zaman heian (794~1185), muncul pula suatu konsep yang disebut honjisuijyaku yang beranggapan bahwa dewa budha adalah perwujudan dari dewa shinto. hal itu melahirkan sebuah pemahaman bahwa dewa shinto adalah juga dewa budha. manifestasi dari timbulnya konsep shinbutsu shugo tersebut antara lain adalah didirikannya jiin (kuil budha) berdampingan dengan jinja (kuil shinto), pembangunan jiin di gunung, dan para pendeta budha mulai melakukan shugyo (bertapa di gunung), suatu hal yang berkaitan dengan adanya kepercayaan shinto terhadap gunung yang dinamakan sangaku shinko. eksistensi shinto semakin kuat pada zaman meiji (1867~1912), ketika kaisar meiji pada tahun 1868 secara politis menetapkan agama shinto sebagai agama negara. hal itu dilakukan untuk memantapkan landasan dasar pemerintah zaman meiji yang sakral di bawah pimpinan tenno (kaisar) sehingga negara jepang pada zaman meiji dianggap identik dengan negara shinto (kokka shinto) (anwar, 2005:7). eksistensi agama shinto … (sri dewi adriani) 137 matsuri jepang adalah salah satu negara maju dan modern di dunia saat ini. kedudukannya sudah dapat disetarakan dengan negara maju lain, seperti di eropa dan amerika. kemajuan yang dialami berawal dengan dilaksanakannya meiji isshin atau restorasi meiji sekitar tahun 1867-an yang mengubah bentuk negara itu menjadi negara modern. akan tetapi, sebagai negara yang telah berhasil mencapai kemajuan di hampir semua bidang, jepang ternyata tidak begitu saja meninggalkan budaya tradisionalnya. di satu sisi, jepang telah mengalami modernisasi di hampir seluruh bidang kehidupan, namun di sisi lain bangsa itu tetap mempertahankan keunikan seni tradisionalnya. jepang yang kini tumbuh menjadi salah satu negara adidaya di dunia pada awalnya juga mengalami masa sulit dan terbelakang. sebelum diadakannya restorasi meiji atau meiji isshin, negeri itu menjalankan sistem pemerintahan yang bersifat feodalistik dan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan dipegang oleh kaum militer. restorasi meiji menjadi suatu momentum yang sangat penting bagi kemajuan jepang. di bawah pemerintahan meiji, jepang dengan slogan fukoku kyohei mulai membangun ketertinggalannya dalam berbagai bidang kehidupan. di bidang pendidikan, misalnya, telah dilakukan usaha untuk memodernisasi pendidikan dari yang bersifat tradisional menjadi suatu bentuk pendidikan modern. adanya pengaruh kebudayaan asing, khususnya barat membuat pemerintah lebih bersemangat mencari terobosan baru untuk memajukan sektor tersebut. peristiwa kedua yang berhubungan dengan pembangunan jepang terjadi ketika mengalami kekalahan dalam perang dunia kedua yang berakibat hancurnya perindustrian yang baru dibangun. akan tetapi, dalam kurun waktu yang singkat jepang berhasil menyamai kedudukannya dalam bidang ekonomi dengan negara barat. paham demokrasi yang tertera dalam undang-undang showa tampak dalam kehidupan masyarakatnya. semua anggota masyarakat bebas untuk menentukan pekerjaan sesuai dengan minat dan bakat yang dimiliki. bervariasinya pekerjaan yang dilakukan oleh setiap anggota keluarga mengakibatkan mereka membentuk keluarga inti dan tinggal terpencar di berbagai wilayah yang ada di jepang. hal itu merupakan salah satu bukti sehingga jepang dapat dikatakan sebagai negara yang mempunyai wajah barat. untuk memahami kemajuan jepang tidak cukup hanya mengkaji dengan wajah barat yang ditinjau dari sudut ekonomi, politik, dan teknologinya sebagai perwujudan konkret dari budaya, tetapi juga harus mengkaji hal yang terjadi di balik kemajuan budaya material tersebut. masyarakat jepang dikenal sebagai masyarakat yang sangat menjunjung tinggi nilai tradisional. jepang masih sering disebut sebagai negara yang mempunyai wajah tradisional, yaitu bangsa yang tetap menjalankan budaya tradisional, terutama tampak dalam kegiatan ritual yang masih diselenggarakan oleh masyarakat pedesaan dan perkotaan. dalam tradisi masyarakat jepang, tiada hari tanpa matsuri. matsuri adalah kata dalam bahasa jepang yang menurut pengertian agama shinto berarti ritual yang dipersembahkan untuk kami atau dewa sedangkan menurut pengertian sekularisme berarti festival, perayaan, atau hari libur perayaan. matsuri bagi orang jepang dianggap sebagai salah satu simbol dari kegiatan manusia untuk berkomunikasi dan melayani dewa. dengan kata lain, matsuri bagi orang jepang dianggap sebagai jalan untuk bertemu dengan dewa. ada dua pendapat yang berbeda sehubungan dengan penyelenggaran matsuri. pertama adalah matsuri menurut yanagita (1982). menurutnya, dari kurang lebih 50.000 matsuri sepanjang tahunnya dapat dibagi dalam tiga kategori. pertama, tsukagirei. matsuri yang dilakukan orang jepang sepanjang hidupnya sejak janin hingga menjadi arwah. perpindahan dari satu tahap ke tahap lain dianggap mengandung bahaya sehingga harus diadakan upacara untuk menangkalnya. kedua, nenchuugyouji. upacara yang dilakukan secara periodik dan pada waktu yang telah ditetapkan setiap tahunnya menurut penanggalan jepang. ketiga, ninigirei. upacara yang dilakukan secara aksidental karena adanya peristiwa yang terjadi dalam hidupnya. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 132-141 138 pendapat lainnya adalah yang dikemukakan oleh hirosachiya yang membuat kategori matsuri yang agak berbeda. menurutnya, berbagai macam matsuri yang ada dalam shinto dapat digolongkan menjadi tiga. pertama, 神社における祭し matsuri yang diadakan di jinja (kuil). kedua, 宮廷における祭し matsuri yang diadakan di istana. ketiga, 民間における祭し matsuri yang dilakukan di kalangan rakyat biasa (anwar, 2005:6). sejarah matsuri matsuri berasal dari kata matsuru ( menyembah, memuja) yang berarti pemujaan terhadap kami atau ritual yang terkait. dalam teologi agama shinto dikenal empat unsur dalam matsuri: penyucian (harai), persembahan, pembacaan doa (norito), dan pesta makan. matsuri yang paling tua yang dikenal dalam mitologi jepang adalah ritual yang dilakukan di depan amano iwato. matsuri dalam bentuk pembacaan doa masih tersisa, seperti dalam bentuk kigansai (permohonan secara individu kepada jinja atau kuil untuk didoakan) dan jichinsai (upacara sebelum pendirian bangunan atau konstruksi). pembacaan doa yang dilakukan pendeta shinto untuk individu atau kelompok orang di tempat yang tidak terlihat orang lain merupakan bentuk awal dari matsuri. pada saat ini, ise jingu merupakan salah satu contoh kuil agama shinto yang masih menyelenggarakan matsuri dalam bentuk pembacaan doa yang eksklusif bagi kalangan terbatas dan peserta umum tidak dibolehkan ikut serta. sesuai dengan perkembangan zaman, tujuan penyelenggaraan matsuri sering melenceng jauh dari maksud matsuri yang sebenarnya. penyelenggaraan matsuri sering menjadi satu-satunya tujuan dilangsungkannya matsuri sedangkan matsuri hanya tinggal sebagai wacana dan tanpa makna religius. dalam bahasa jepang, kata "matsuri" juga berarti festival dan aksara kanji untuk matsuri (祭) dapat dibaca sebagai sai sehingga dikenal istilah seperti eiga-sai (festival film), sangyō-sai (festival hasil panen), ongaku-sai (festival musik), dan daigaku-sai (festival yang diadakan oleh universitas). shimin matsuri adalah sebutan untuk matsuri yang diselenggarakan pemerintah daerah atau kelompok warga kota dengan maksud untuk menghidupkan perekonomian daerah dan umumnya tidak berhubungan dengan institusi keagamaan. pengaruh shinto dalam pelaksanaan matsuri matsuri diadakan di banyak tempat di jepang dan pada umumnya diselenggarakan jinja atau kuil shinto dan dipimpin oleh pendeta shinto atau kanushi, walaupun ada juga matsuri yang diselenggarakan gereja dan matsuri yang tidak berkaitan dengan institusi keagamaan. di daerah kyushu, matsuri yang dilangsungkan pada sebagian besar matsuri diselenggarakan dengan maksud untuk mendoakan keberhasilan tangkapan ikan dan keberhasilan panen, seperti beras, gandum, kacang, jawawut, jagung, dan sebagainya. matsuri juga sering dikaitkan dengan kesuksesan dalam bisnis, kesembuhan dan kekebalan terhadap penyakit, keselamatan dari bencana, dan sebagai ucapan terima kasih setelah berhasil dalam menyelesaikan suatu tugas berat. matsuri juga diadakan untuk merayakan tradisi yang berkaitan dengan pergantian musim atau mendoakan arwah tokoh terkenal. makna upacara yang dilakukan dan waktu pelaksanaan matsuri beraneka ragam seusai dengan tujuan penyelenggaraan matsuri. matsuri yang mempunyai tujuan dan maksud yang sama dapat mempunyai makna ritual yang berbeda tergantung pada daerahnya. masyarakat jepang hampir setiap hari menyelenggarakan matsuri, baik yang berhubungan dengan agama maupun kepercayaan yang dianut, maupun ritual yang tidak berhubungan dengan salah satu agama atau kepercayaannya. matsuri adalah suatu upacara keagamaan yang bermaksud untuk berada di samping kami (dewa) atau upacara yang mendatangkan dewa guna mendekatkan diri pada dewa. eksistensi agama shinto … (sri dewi adriani) 139 kegiatan matsuri pada hakikatnya merupakan suatu kegiatan untuk mengundang dewa atau duduk di samping dewa, seperti yang djelaskan oleh yanagita (1982:42) dan diterjemahkan “berada di samping dewa”. mungkin dengan istilah lain dapat juga dikatakan melayani dewa tetapi sebagai wujud konkretnya matsuri adalah suatu sikap menyambut kehadiran dewa, dengan menyajikan segala sajian yang ada dan dengan menunjukkan sikap mengabdikan diri pada dewa. matsuri bukan berarti hanya menunjukkan penghormatan terhadap dewa dari kejauhan. penjelasan yanagita ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa matsuri merupakan upacara keagamaan yang bermaksud untuk berada di samping kami (dewa) atau dapat dikatakan sebagai upacara yang mendatangkan dewa guna mendekatkan diri pada dewa dengan menyajikan sajian suci yang dilakukan oleh pendeta shinto. pengertian matsuri sesungguhnya merupakan upacara keagamaan untuk mengundang atau mendatangkan dewa atau peristiwa terjadinya pertemuan antara manusia dan dewa dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan petunjuk dan berkah. matsuri merupakan perilaku keagamaan orang jepang, yaitu upacara keagamaan untuk menghormati dewa dan merupakan perwujudan kepercayaan orang jepang yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kehidupan sehari-harinya. tidak ada jalan lain menuju jalan dewa, kecuali menempuh satu-satunya jalan, yaitu matsuri. melalui matsuri masyarakat jepang merasakan akan kehadiran dewa dalam kehidupan dan matsuri dianggap sebagai kepercayaan bangsa jepang. umumnya, baik tua maupun muda, masyarakat jepang akan melaksanakan salah satu dari kegiatan matsuri itu secara periodik. pada umumnya, upacara itu mulai dilakukan pada malam hari dengan menyajikan yumike, yaitu sajian malam khusus untuk dewa dan akan berakhir pada pagi hari dengan sajian asamike, yaitu sajian pagi sehingga upacara itu akan berlangsung selama dua hari satu malam. dalam menyelenggarakan matsuri, ada beberapa faktor yang harus diperhatikan. pertama, sao. sao adalah tiang yang ditegakkan di suatu tempat sebagai tanda bahwa di tempat itu akan diselenggarakan matsuri. selain itu juga, sao dianggap sebagai tangga tempat turun naiknya dewa yang akan hadir pada saat matsuri. bentuk sao ada bermacam-macam, yaitu sao pohon, sao tongkat, sao nisan kuburan, sao tiang, dan sao campuran antara pohon dan tiang. namun saat ini, sao tongkat yang lebih banyak digunakan karena pohon yang akan dijadikan sao pohon sulit ditemukan yang memenuhi syarat. sao biasanya diletakkan di altar kuil atau halaman kuil tempat diselenggarakannya. kedua, mono imi. mono imi adalah proses penyucian diri yng dilakukan sebelum melaksanakan matsuri. hal itu dilakukan karena melaksanakan matsuri, segala sesuatu harus dijauhkan dari segala macam unsur kotor. mono imi biasanya dilakukan oleh para toya, yaitu pemimpin upacara ritual dalam matsuri itu sebagai orang yang bertanggungjawab atas penyelenggaraan matsuri. selain kedua faktor itu, ada lima faktor lain yang harus dipersiapkan dalam menyelenggarakan matsuri. pertama, shinchi, yaitu faktor yang berkaitan dengan penempatan dewa sebagai objek pemujaan dalam matsuri. kedua, shinya, yaitu faktor yang berkaitan dengan orang yang berperan dalam penyelenggaraan matsuri yang disebut dengan toya. ketiga, shintai atau kamizawa, yaitu sektor yang berkaitan dengan kegiatan penyambutan dewa yang menjadi objek pemujaan dalam matsuri. keempat, sekku atau sechi, yaitu sajian suci untuk dewa dan yang ini berkaitan dengan sajian suci yang akan dipersembahkan kepada dewa. kelima, saijitsu, yaitu penentuan waktu untuk pelaksanaan matsuri. ada dua cara dalam menentukan waktu penyelenggaraan, yaitu berdasarkan penanggalan perputaran matahari atau yang disebut dengan penanggalan masehi dan cara yang kedua berdasarkan sistem penanggalan cina yang disebut dengan sistem penanggalan kanshi. pelaksanaan matsuri biasanya diselenggarakan pada malam hari, khususnya dilaksanakan ketika munculnya bulan purnama. salah satu unsur lain dalam penentuan waktu, yaitu matsuri biasanya diselenggarakan pada pergantian musim. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 132-141 140 bagi masyarakat jepang, matsuri merupakan perwujudan perilaku keagamaan orang jepang, khususnya agama shinto. pengaruh agama shinto sangat jelas terlihat dalam setiap pelaksanaan ritual matsuri tersebut. hal itu dapat terlihat dari tempat pelaksaannya di jinja (kuil shinto), pemimpin upacaranya, yaitu kanushi (pendeta shinto). akan tetapi, matsuri bukan merupakan bentuk agama orang jepang karena tidak terdapat kitab suci yang mengajarkan ajarannya sebagai salah satu faktor yang harus dimiliki suatu agama, tidak memiliki pemuka agama atau nabi, tidak ada misi penyebaran dan tidak memiliki kelompok atau komuniti yang resmi. pengikut matsuri tidak dicatat secara resmi dalam daftar keanggotaan suatu kelompok agama. matsuri merupakan suatu event yang memberi kesempatan untuk mendidik atau mengajarkan etika keagamaan. dalam penyelenggaraannya, dilakukan prosesi atau arak-arakan mikoshi. mikoshi adalah replika kuil yang dibawa secara bersama-sama. acara matsuri diawali dengan ritual pengambilan mikoshi di jinja (kuil) kemudian diarak keliling kota. acara puncak matsuri pada hari minggu malam dan mikoshi dan segala peralatannya dikembalikan lagi ke kuil setelah melakukan ritual matsuri, dan disimpan kembali hingga tahun yang akan datang. mikoshi dikenal juga dengan nama dashi (danjiri) dan yatai yang semuanya merupakan nama kendaraan berisi kami atau objek pemujaan. pada matsuri juga dapat dijumpai chigo (anak kecil dalam prosesi), miko (anak gadis pelaksana ritual), tekomai (laki-laki berpakaian wanita), hayashi (musik khas matsuri), penari, peserta, dan penonton yang berdandan dan berpakaian bagus serta pasar kaget beraneka macam makanan dan permainan. matsuri yang berjumlah ribuan itu dapat ditemui di hampir seluruh pelosok negeri jepang. masing-masing memiliki makna dan keunikan tersendiri. keberadaannya sangat menarik perhatian, terutama bagi bangsa lain di dunia. keberadaan matsuri ternyata tidak hanya sekedar memiliki makna perayaan ritual kebudayaan semata, melainkan juga membuktikan eksistensi pengaruh shinto yang cukup besar dalam setiap pelaksanaannya. hal itu juga sekaligus membuktikan adanya penghormatan yang besar dari bangsa jepang sebagai salah satu bangsa modern di dunia terhadap kebudayaan dan kepercayaan tradisionalnya. penutup kehidupan beragama masyarakat jepang kerapkali membingungkan sebagian besar orang, khususnya orang asing. kuil shinto dan kelenteng budha terdapat dimana-mana. mereka acapkali menjalankan ritual keagamaan, upacara pernikahan, kematian, kelahiran yang berhubungan dengan kedua agama tersebut. akan tetapi, meskipun sebagian besar orang jepang memasuki satu atau beberapa lembaga keagamaan, mereka tidak menganggap dirinya menganut suatu agama tertentu. dalam pelaksanaan sistem kepercayan ini, masyarakat jepang juga sering mengaitkannya dengan pelaksanaan matsuri sebagai bagian dari ritual kebudayaan, khususnya dengan ajaran shinto. pengaruh shinto dalam matsuri terlihat dalam berbagai ritual di dalamnya, seperti tempat pelaksanaannya di jinja (kuil shinto), pemimpin upacaranya, yaitu kanushi (pendeta shinto), serta prosesi acaranya yang banyak mengambil unsur agama shinto. hal itu akan menjadi semakin menarik karena ternyata di balik fenomena masyarakat yang begitu modern, maju, dan menjadi salah satu simbol kemajuan teknologi dunia, jepang ternyata sangat memegang teguh nilai tradisional mereka. eksistensi agama shinto … (sri dewi adriani) 141 daftar pustaka anwar, etty n. 2005. eksistensi agama tradisional dan agama baru di jepang. jakarta: pusat studi jepang. ashkenazi, michael. 1993. matsuri: festivals of a japanese town. honolulu: university of hawaii press. bellah, robert n. 1992. religi tokugawa. akar-akar budaya jepang. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. lawanda, ike iswari. 2005. matsuri. upacara sosial dalam masyarakat jepang. jakarta: wedhatama widya sastra. osumi, kazuo. 1992. nihonno kokoro i. tokyo: maruzen co. ltd. reischauer, edwin o. 1982. manusia jepang. jakarta: sinar harapan. saronto, budi. 2005. gaya manajemen jepang berdasarkan azas kebersamaan (shuudan shugi) dan keakraban (onjooshugi). jakarta: hecca mitra utama. smith, warren w. jr. 1973. confusianism in modern japan. tokyo: the hokuseido press. yanagita, kunio. 1982. nihon no matsuri. tokyo: kado kawa bundo. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 9 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 9-14 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.1963 a genre analysis of thesis abstracts at a state university in banten fauzy rahman kosasih english education department, faculty of education and teacher training, universitas terbuka jln. cabe raya, pondok cabe, tangerang selatan, banten 15418 indonesia fauzyrahman@ecampus.ut.ac.id received: 01st august 2017/revised: 15th september 2017/accepted: 20th september 2017 how to cite: kosasih, f. r. (2018). a genre analysis of thesis abstracts at a state university in banten. lingua cultura, 12(1), 9-14. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1963 abstract this study was conducted to identify the move structure of english abstracts of students’ thesis of a state university in public administration, management, fisheries management, and mathematics education programs, compare the consistency of these cross-disciplinary english abstracts with bathia’s four-move structure and swales & feak’s five-move structure, and identify the preferred verb tense used of each move in the english abstracts of the students’ thesis. this study employed qualitative case study. forty (40) english abstracts (10 from each discipline) were collected and analyzed. this study reveals that a-m-r (aim-method-result) move structure is the most frequent abstract move structure used in every discipline across the four disciplines with proportion 35%. only 15% abstracts are in line with swales & feak’s five-move structures, and only 4 (10%) abstracts are in line with bhatia’s four-move structure. the present tense and past tense are used in each move across the four disciplines. keywords: genre analysis, move structure, thesis abstract introduction in the field of academic writing (english for academic purposes), students of graduate level who want to finish and graduate from their study in indonesian context must write a thesis as one of the requirements. in writing a thesis, the abstract is considered as an important part that will bring readers to read the content (emilia, 2009). the abstract is the first section to be read by examiners (paltridge & starfield, 2007). readers or examiners of research articles or papers are busy people who have lots of works to do. for that reason, “most readers limit their initial research looking at titles and abstracts before choosing what research articles (ra) to purchase and read” (alhuqbani, 2013). according to berkenkotter & huckin (1995), there are four reasons that make abstract plays an important role in research articles. first, it provides important information or statements that are easy to be accessed. second, it functions as the screening device that can help readers to decide whether they will finish reading the whole content. third, it gives a framework for readers to read the article. fourth, it provides summaries of primary points of a research article. in general, according to walter (2008), the word abstract means, “a shortened form of a speech, article, book, etc., giving only the most important facts or ideas.” in academic world as defined by bhatia (1993), the word abstract means, “a description or factual summary of the much longer report, and is meant to give the reader an exact and concise knowledge of the full article.” the generic purpose of research article abstract, according to martínmartín (2005), is “to provide the summary of the content of the accompanying article”. consequently, he suggests the writers of the research article (ra) abstract to present an abstract in a conventionalized form by using a series of rhetorical strategies or moves structures. there are at least two popular generic structures to write up the ra abstract. bhatia (1993) proposes the four-move generic structure of ra abstract, namely (1) introducing the purpose, (2) describing the method, (3) summarizing the result, and (4) presenting the conclusion. hyland (2004a) proposes five-move generic structure of ra abstract. those are introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion moves. in line with hyland (2004a), dos santos (1996) and swales & feak (2004) propose five-move generic structure of ra abstract, namely (1) background, (2) aim, (3) method, (4) results, and (5) conclusion moves. meanwhile, there are two tenses that are possible to be used in writing the ra abstract. paltridge & starfield (2007) state that (1) if an abstract is considered as a summary of a thesis, then present tense is used in it, (2) if an abstract is considered as a report of a research that has been done in the 10 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 9-14 past, then past tense is used in it. the abstract is considered as a genre. the genre is defined as “a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use language to respond to recurring situations” (hyland, 2004a). in addition, martin (as cited in eggins, 2004) states that genre is a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers or writers engage as members of our culture. thus, recognizing genre of a text has the important role in identifying “…ways in which a particular text is similar to, reminiscent of, other texts circulating in the culture” (eggins, 2004). furthermore, eggins (2004) explains that “if a text cannot easily be attributed to a genre, then it is in some ways a problematic text”. accordingly, “a major focus of interest in genreanalysis has been the examination of the organizational patterns of english research articles (rsas)” (martínmartín, 2005). in the field of academic writing (english for academic purposes), conducting a genre analysis of research articles will shed light that, “it has conventions about layout, form, and style that are too large degree standardized” (dudleyevans as cited in jordan, 1997). in this study, the focus of genre analysis is on the move structure of english thesis abstracts. the word ‘move’ has been well-defined by several experts. nwogu (1997) defines it as, “a text segment made up of a bundle of linguistics features (lexical meaning, propositional meanings, illocutionary forces, etc.) which give the segment a uniform orientation and signal the content of discourse in it.” swales (2004) defines the word ‘move’ as “a discoursal or rhetorical unit that performs a coherent communicative function in a written or spoken discourse”. thus, moves “manifest themselves as text units that occur in typical sequences” (martín-martín, 2005). consistent with swales (2004), ding (2007) defines the word ‘move’ as, “a functional unit in a text, being related to the overall task, which is used to identify the textual regularities in certain genres of writing.” one of the functions of the move is to shape the overall communicative purpose and the rhetorical structure of the genre (bawarshi & reiff, 2010; sadeghi & samuel, 2013; parodi, 2014; kanoksilapatham, 2015). in line with the aim of this study, the word move is limited to the move of english thesis abstract context. there have been many researchers conducted research in the field of genre/move analysis on ra abstracts. in 2011, tseng analyzed move structure and verb tense of 90 research article abstracts in applied linguistics journals (tesol quarterly, applied linguistics, and language learning). the results of his study indicated that abstracts that were analyzed mostly used four-move structure. in 2013, alhuqbani conducted a genre-based analysis of arabic research article abstracts across four disciplines (law, linguistics, medicine, and police) in the middle east. the result of his study showed that abstract in medicine field were in compliance with either bhatia’s and hyland’s model. meanwhile, abstracts from the law, linguistics, and police field were not in compliance with both of the models. in (2014), loan et al. analyzed the discrepancies between potential writers’ knowledge and the actual composition of 137 tesol conference abstracts in thailand. the results of their study indicated that there was a discrepancy between writers’ knowledge and the actual composition of conference abstracts. in (2015), abarghooeinezhad & simin analyzed the move structure of 50 abstracts in electronic engineering articles in iran. the result of their study showed that the move structure used by writers in iranian and native english journals did not correspond to dos santos’ (1996) model. from previous studies mentioned, there is still a gap where no studies that have been conducted to analyze the generic structure of the research articles (ra) abstracts in management, public administration, fisheries management, and mathematics programs. however, those four programs also produce abstracts in their academic writing such as thesis or journal article. therefore, by considering the gap, this study attempts to focus on analyzing the consistency of move structure of the english thesis abstracts in management, fisheries management, public administration, and mathematics programs with bhatia’s (1993) four-move structure and swales & feak’s (2004) five-move structure; analyzing similarities and differences between the crossdisciplinary thesis abstracts in terms of the genre structures of moves; and analyzing the preferred verb tense of each move in the english thesis abstracts in the four disciplines. it is expected that the results of this study can contribute to literature enrichment about move structure of english thesis abstract written by non-native english writers from across disciplines, especially in the indonesian context. it is also expected that the results of this study can contribute to university principals of the study site in identifying their students’ academic writing skill especially in writing an english thesis abstract. methods this study employs qualitative case study since it analyzes genre or generic structure of thesis abstracts. it is in line with hyland (2004b) who states that “information about genre practices is best approached using small-scale research and qualitative methods”. forty (40) english thesis abstracts from four disciplines (10 abstracts from the master of management, 10 abstracts from the master of fisheries management, 10 abstracts from the master of public administration, and 10 abstracts from the master of mathematics education) are collected using purposeful random sampling technique. regarding the data collection technique employed in this study, the data are analyzed as follows. to analyze the move structure of the 40 english thesis abstracts, this study adopts the framework of bhatia’s (1993) four-move pattern and swales & feak’s (2004) five-move pattern. following the previous research conducted by kanoksilapatham (2005) and alhuqbani (2013), for the purpose of this study, a move is considered compulsory if its proportion is no less than 60% of the corpus in each discipline. consequently, if a move occurs less than 60% of the corpus, it is considered optional. each abstract in the corpus is coded and analyzed by the writer using the criteria regarding the two frameworks. considering emilia’s (2009) observation during her thesis supervision and examination activities to her master and doctorate students for years, there are many students who get confused to choose and to use tense in their abstracts. in writing up ra abstracts, paltridge & starfield (2007) point out that there are two ways the students can acknowledge the abstract. first, ra abstract is acknowledged as the summary of their thesis or second; it can be seen as the summary of their study that has been conducted in the past. furthermore, they clearly explain and give examples that if the abstract is considered as the summary of their thesis, so 11a genre analysis of thesis abstracts .... (fauzy rahman kosasih) the abstract uses present tense (e.g., this thesis reports …); if the abstract is considered as research activities that have been completed, so the abstract uses simple past tense (e.g., the study revealed that …); and if the writers of ra abstract want to show the relation between the on-going (current) study with the previous study, present perfect tense can be used (e.g., previous studies have shown that …). results and discussions as the answer to the first research question of this study, table 1 shows the overall move structures of 40 english thesis abstracts from the four disciplines. table 1 the move structures of english thesis abstracts across the four disciplines number of abstract public administration management fisheries management mathematics education 1. b-a-mr-c b-a-m-r-c a-m-r a-m-r-c 2. b-a-m-r a-m-r-c a-mr-c a-m-r 3. b-a-m-r a-m-r b-am-r a-m-r 4. a-m-r a-m-r b-am-r a-m-r 5. b-a-mr-c a-m-r b-a-r b-a-mr-c 6. a-b-m-r b-a-r a-m-r b-a-mr-c 7. b-a-m-r b-a-m-r b-am-r a-m-r-c 8. a-m-r b-a-m-r b-a-mr-c a-m-r 9. b-a-m-r a-m-r b-a-r a-m-r 10. b-a-m-r b-a-m-r b-m-am-r a-m-r *b = background, a = aim, m = method, r = results, c = conclusion table 1 indirectly presents the most preferred abstract move structure in each discipline. in public administration program, the most preferred move structure is b-a-m-r with proportion 50% followed by a-m-r with proportion 20% and b-a-m-r-c with proportion 20%. in management program, a-m-r is the most frequent move structure being used with proportion 40%, followed by b-a-m-r move structure with proportion 40%, followed by b-a-m-r move structure with proportion 40%, followed by b-a-m-r move structure with proportion 30%, a-m-r-c with proportion 10%, and b-a-m-r-c with proportion 10%. in fisheries management, the most preferred move structure is b-a-m-r with proportion 40%, followed by b-a-m-r move structure with proportion 30%, followed by a-m-r with proportion 20%, a-m-r-c with proportion 10%, and b-a-m-r-c with proportion 10%. in mathematics education program, the most preferred move structure is a-m-r with proportion 60%, followed by a-m-r-c with proportion 20%, and b-am-r-c with proportion 20%. in relation to table 1, table 2 presents the total appearance of each move structure found from each discipline. a-m-r move structure is the most frequent move structure used in every discipline with proportion 40%, followed by b-a-m-r move structure with proportion 35%, followed by b-a-m-r with proportion 27,5%, b-a-m-r-c with proportion 15%, and a-m-r-c with proportion 10%. besides, there is also other move structures appearance found in this study, i.e., b-a-r with proportion 7,7%, a-b-m-r with proportion 2,5%, and b-m-a-m-r with proportion 2,5%. table 2 the preferred move structures from the four disciplines (40 abstracts) no move structure n % 1. b-a-m-r-c 6 15 2. b-a-m-r 11 27,5 3. a-m-r-c 4 10 4. a-m-r 14 35 5. a-b-m-r 1 2,5 6. b-a-r 3 7,5 7. b-m-a-m-r 1 2,5 total 40 100 since abstract is a specific genre in academic writing, “it has conventions about layout, form, and style that are too large degree standardized” (dudley-evans as cited in jordan, 1997). in the previous section, it is explained that there are at least two generic structures of the abstract; four-move structure and five-move structure. bhatia (1993) proposes the four-move generic structure of ra abstract, namely (1) purpose, (2) method, (3) result, and (4) conclusion. meanwhile, hyland (2004a) proposes five-move generic structure of ra abstract, namely (1) introduction, (2) purpose, (3) method, (4) product, and (5) conclusion. in line with hyland (2004a), dos santos (1996) and swales & feak (2004) propose five-move generic structure of ra abstract, namely (1) background, (2) aim, (3) method, (4) results, and (5) conclusion. those two types of abstract move structures are called as conventional move structure (alhuqbani, 2013). with regard to the two styles of ra abstract move structures proposed by bhatia (1993) and swales & feak (2004), the data of this study also shows that out of 40 abstracts, there are only 6 (15%) abstracts whose the move structures are in accordance with swales & feak’s (2004) five-move structures, and there are only 4 (10%) abstracts whose the move structures follow bhatia’s (1993) fourmove structure. it means that only 10 (25%) abstracts from total 40 english thesis abstracts that comply with the conventional move structures of ra abstract. meanwhile, there are 30 (75%) abstracts that are not in line with conventional move structure of ra abstract. from those 30 (75%) abstracts that are not in line with conventional move structure of ra abstract, it can also be identified that there are 26 (65%) abstracts that omitted one or two move(s) of the conventional move structure of ra abstract and 4 (10%) abstracts change the arrangement of each move of the proposed move structure, i.e., b-a-r, a-b-m-r, and b-m-a-m-r. thus, this study also reveals that those three moves structures do not get along with martín-martín’s (2005) argument about moves where he 12 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 9-14 states that moves “manifest themselves as text units that occur in typical sequences” and ding (2007) who defines move as “a functional unit in a text, being related to overall task, which is used to identify the textual regularities in certain genres of writing”. following the previous research conducted by kanoksilapatham (2005) and alhuqbani (2013), for the purpose of this study, a move is considered obligatory if its proportion is no less than 60% of the corpus in each discipline. consequently, if a move occurs less than 60% of the corpus, it is considered optional. as the answer to the second research question of this study, table 3 shows some findings to be presented and discussed. the swales & feak’s (2004) background move is compulsory in public administration with proportion 80% and fisheries management with proportion 70%, but the move is not compulsory in management with proportion 50% and mathematics education with proportion 20%. the aim move is compulsory in all the four disciplines: public administration with proportion 100%, management with proportion 100%, fisheries management with proportion 100%, and mathematics education with proportion 100%. the method move is compulsory in all the four disciplines; public administration with proportion 100%, management with proportion 90%, fisheries management with proportion 80%, and mathematics education with proportion 100%. the result of move is compulsory in all the four disciplines; public administration with proportion 100%, management 100%, fisheries management with proportion 100%, and mathematics education with proportion 100%. the conclusion move is not compulsory in all the four disciplines; public administration with proportion 20%, management with proportion 20%, fisheries management with proportion 20%, and mathematics education with proportion 40%. it can be seen in table 3. considering all the findings in this section, there is one move that is not used in most the abstracts from all the four disciplines, which is the conclusion move. it means that 30 (75%) out of 40 english thesis abstracts do not correspond with bhatia’s (1993) four-move and swales & feak’s (2004) five-move structures. it is also not in compliance with martín-martín’s (2005) suggestion to the writers of ra abstract to present an abstract in a conventionalized form, by using a series of moves structures. but on the other hand, this finding also supports findings from former studies conducted by hyland (2004a), promsin (2006), and alhuqbani (2013) in which the conclusion move is an optional one. it means that after analyzing abstracts that are taken as samples by those researchers, the results indicate that most of them are without the conclusion move. therefore, it is called as the optional move. in writing up an english abstract, there are two tenses that are possible to use by researchers. paltridge & starfield (2007) state that; (1) if an abstract is considered as a summary of a thesis, then present tense is used in it, (2) if an abstract is considered as a report of a research that has been done in the past, then past tense is used in it. table 4 presents findings of how verb tenses are used in the english thesis abstracts across the four disciplines. the data in table 4 shows that present tense is more used with proportion 45% and past tense is used table 3 distribution of bhatia’s (1993) and swales & feak’s (2004) move structures across the four disciplines move public administration management fisheries management mathematics education n % n % n % n % background* 8 80 5 50 7 70 2 20 aim 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 method 10 100 9 90 8 80 10 100 result 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 conclusion 2 20 2 20 2 20 4 40 *only for swales & feak’s (2004) move structure table 4 verb tense occurrence in each move in english thesis abstract moves’ tense public administration management fisheries management mathematics education total n % n % n % n % n % background present 7 70 4 40 5 50 2 20 18 45 past 1 10 1 10 2 20 0 0 4 10 aim present 5 50 6 60 7 70 6 60 24 60 past 5 50 4 40 3 30 4 30 16 40 method present 3 30 3 30 4 40 6 60 16 40 past 7 70 6 60 4 40 4 40 21 52,5 result present 3 30 4 40 3 30 4 40 14 35 past 7 70 6 60 7 70 6 60 26 65 conclusion present 1 10 1 10 2 20 4 40 8 20 past 1 10 1 10 0 0 0 0 2 5 13a genre analysis of thesis abstracts .... (fauzy rahman kosasih) with proportion 10% in the background move across the four disciplines. from the eight abstracts of public administration program, seven of them use present tense and one of them uses past tense in the background move. from the five abstracts of the management program, four of them use present tense and one of them uses past tense in the background move. from the seven abstracts of fisheries management program, five of them use the present tense, and two of them use past tense in the background move. from the two abstracts of mathematics education program, none of them use past tense in the background move. in other words, results show that present tense is mostly used in the background, aim, and conclusion moves. meanwhile, past tense is mostly used in methodology and results in moves. conclusions based on the theories, findings, and analysis described in the previous section, the present study arrives at the conclusions, since the first research question focuses on finding out the move structures of the forty english thesis abstracts. it concludes that a-m-r move structure is the most frequent move structure used in every discipline with proportion 35%, followed by b-a-m-r with proportion 27,5%, b-a-m-r-c with proportion 15%, and a-mr-c with proportion 10%. besides, there are also other new move structures found in this study, i.e., b-a-r with proportion 7,7%, a-b-m-r with proportion 2,5%, and b-m-a-m-r with proportion 2,5%. the results of this study certainly add up a new finding to the available literature in the field of genre analysis, especially in research articles (ra) abstract genre. the second conclusion is that the distribution of bhatia’s (1993) and swales & feak (2004) move structures across the four disciplines. the analysis reveals that 30 (75%) out of 40 english thesis abstracts are not in line with bhatia’s (1993) and swales & feak (2004) five-move structures. the third conclusion is the present tense is used with proportion 45%, and the past tense is used with proportion 10% in the background move across the four disciplines. the present tense is used with proportion 60%, and the past tense is used with proportion 40% in the aim move across the four disciplines. the present tense is used with proportion 40%, and past tense is used with proportion 52,5% in the method move across the four disciplines. the present tense is used with proportion 35%, and the past tense is used with proportion 65% in the result move across the four disciplines. and the present tense is used with proportion 20%, and past tense is used with proportion 5% in the conclusion move across the four disciplines. considering the findings and discussions of this study, further research is recommended to be carried out to investigate the reasons why most of the students used the move structure they decided on. references abarghooeinezhad, m., & simin, s. (2015). a structural move analysis of abstract in electronic engineering articles. international journal of research studies in language learning, 4(4), 69-80. alhuqbani, m. n. (2013). genre-based analysis of arabic research article abstracts across four disciplines. journal of educational and social research, 3(3), 371-382. bawarshi, a. s., & reiff, m. j. (2010). genre: an introduction to history, theory, research, and pedagogy. west lafayette, in: parlor press. berkenkotter, c., & huckin, t. n. (1995). genre knowledge in disciplinary communication: cognition/culture/ power. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. bhatia, v. k. (1993). analysing genre: language use in professional settings. london: longman. ding, h. (2007). genre analysis of personal statements: analysis of moves in application essays to medical and dental schools. english for specific purposes, 26(3), 368-392. dos santos, m. b. 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(2014). genre organization in specialized discourse: disciplinary variation across university textbooks. discourse studies, 16(1), 65-87. promsin, p. (2006). an analysis of moves and modality in english engineering abstracts. nida language and communication, 1(1), 43–61. sadeghi, v., & samuel, m. (2013). genre analysis of the letters of appeal. discourse studies, 15(2), 229-245. swales, j. m. (2004). research genres: explorations and 14 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 9-14 applications. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j. m., & feak, c. b. (2004). academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills (vol. 1). ann arbor, mi: university of michigan press. tseng, f. (2011). analyses of move structure and verb tense of research article abstracts in applied linguistics. international journal of english linguistics, 1(2), 27. walter, e. (2008). cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary hardback with cd-rom for windows and mac klett edition. deutchland: ernst klett sprachen. family relationship in gabrielle lord’s lethal factor family relationship in gabrielle … (ruth sih kinanti) 19 family relationship in gabrielle lord’s lethal factor ruth sih kinanti english department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, kinanti@binus.ac.id abstract crime writing is not a new trend in australian literature. one of the writers, gabrielle lord, has a new style on how she combines all aspects involved in crime stories and an issue, child abuse, that has been a secret for generations in australia and probably in indonesia. her work covers both the hard edges of crime writing and forensic procedures together with exploration of family relationship and how these impact on people. she examines closely the family relationship and family in her work. lethal factor is a crime story with two cases-horrifying anthrax murder and ritualistic killing of a nunwhich the forensic examiner jack mccain has to face. he has to find out if this is a new wave of terrorism or the cryptic symbol gouged into a murdered nun’s flesh. the family relationship is becoming important and interesting when his daughter is in danger and his ex-wife causes him trouble. so this danger moves close to his home and threat his life. he has to find the assassin before it is too late. keywords: family relationship, crime story, literature abstrak jenis karya sastra cerita detektif bukan hal baru dalam kesusastraan australia. salah satu penulis cerita detektif, gabrielle lord, menampilkan masalah yang tidak pernah diangkat oleh penulis lainnya, yaitu masalah hubungan keluarga. novel yang akan dikaji dalam tulisan ini adalah lethal factor. dalam karya ini masalah keluarga dan penyalahgunaan anak dibahas dan dilibatkan dalam kasus kriminal yang terjadi dalam kehidupan penyidik forensic, jack mccain. kasus kriminal terjadi dalam beberapa kasus yang menggunakan senjata tajam yang menimpa seorang biarawati dan senjata racun kimia yang menimpa teman mccain. persoalan menjadi menarik dan penting ketika mccain juga harus menyelesaikan kasusnya dengan istri dan terancamnya jiwa anaknya. kata kunci: hubungan keluarga, cerita detektif, kesusastraan jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 19-26 20 introduction since colonial era, crime fiction has had its tradition in australia. the australian writers have written books about australian life in their own way. we can find the red line running through australian fiction in its long tradition of its authors who have explored the shadow lands where crime and corruption meet conventional society3. at the beginning the writings were –some of them—about white australian racism which exposed social issues about patronized aborigines. only until the first well-known australian crime novelist, fergus hume, that we add quite good understanding of human nature and australian society today (delys, 1993:16). the heading ‗crime writing‘ covers so many different areas. australian crime writing falls into ‗hard boiled‘ where the investigating detective is a tough guy and the stories deal with the basic crime elements—murders, robbers etc-that is generally quite violent. then there are ‗police procedurals‘ which follow the steps of the investigation as the police or detective gather evidence and other information needed and finally track down the offender. there are also feminist crime writers with a female lead whose writings involve the investigator‘s private and family life and gender position in australian literature. another kind of crime writing in australia is what we call ‗cosies‘—smaller stories about crimes but written in such away that they do not deal about violent crimes. there are mysteries and ‗whodunits‘, a vernacular rendition of ‗who did it?‘. the investigators can be a professional or a detective or an amateur. there is also a popular australian series with a lesbian investigator. so crime writing in australia covers a wide field and with hundreds of writers. one of the crime writers in australia is gabrielle lord. most of her writings deal with crime. she carefully conveys the story with necessary details. though her former australian writer has begun with a specific issue—child abuse—she explores and elaborates this issue in most of her novels with different angles. she realizes that conflicts become an important element in her novels. her personal experiences in her life in family situations have played important role in narrating what situations she would like to tell the readers. like other writers in crime fiction, she has a professional ability to investigate and track down the offender with murder as the core issue. this also becomes the most important issue in lethal factor even she gives complicated situation and much for the investigator—jack mccain. the situation mccain has to face is not enough for a crime story such as lethal factor. she always examines family issues in almost all her novels such as whipping boy, spanking girl, gemma series and so is lethal factor. discussion family relationship this subchapter will examine the family relationship among the member of jack mccain family. he was living with his daughter after he got divorce with his wife. this family relationship will become an important and interesting part in the story. father and daughter after the prologue telling about the murder of the nun, the novel continues with the investigator who tells the story. he begins with his introducing himself—his job, his capacity to handle the case--to the readers. so the novel is narrated using first person point of view. family relationship in gabrielle … (ruth sih kinanti) 21 in the following chapter he begins to tell about his family life. he lives with his daughter, jacinta, and they look as though they can get along very well, love and care each other. he shows his good role now as a better father to jacinta that once he often got drunk and left his family. it is the time for family recovery and to forget about what happened in the past. he feels it is his fault to have left and ignored her. i hadn‘t been much of a husband or father in the first seven years we were together. but no matter how hard i‘d tried to make amends in the final decade of the marriage, nothing was ever good enough. then the kids both wanted to live with me and that cause a lot of mayhem…. (lord, 2004:22) mccain, as a father, always got home drank when jacinta was small. he neglected his family and as usually he put the blame of his unhappiness to his family, wife and children. he tells the readers what happened to jacinta when he was bad. jacinta felt nobody loved her and she needed something else to cure her hurt feeling. she walked in the mean streets and found a bad person, marty cash, who offered her a peaceful place where she could forget her sadness. that is drugs. mccain found her unconscious from an overdose on the floor in someone else‘s flat some years before. her life problem in the past when she was living in a drug community is explored and made complicated by lord as one of the problems mccain to face. marty cash suddenly woke up from his coma and tries to find mccain to get the money that belongs to jacinta. it is also one way to show how a good father he is now for his daughter. ‗i didn‘t want to scare you until we‘d worked something out. we‘re putting something into operation that should fix marty cash for good. ‗dad, she said, in the patient tone of a parent explaining something to a child,‘i‘ve lived on the streets. lived, survived, conned, done the works. no out-of-work, overweight ex-cop could outstreet me. her youthful bravado touched me. ‗of course he couldn‘t,‘ i said‘ (lord, 2004: 130) the above issue that happens to jacinta is actually a serious and dangerous problem but it is so easy for mccain to beat marty down when he tries to take revenge. and it shows he has done a lot and taken his life risk when he solves that problem and beats marty. now he r eally cares a lot about jacinta. jacinta herself respects her father and shows her love in a good communication with him. she also stops using drug and studies seriously. mother and daughter jacinta and her mother, genevieve, are not having a good relationship. though jacinta still shows her respect for her but she always tries to be in her father‘s side. one thing she said that her mother is not kind to her, ‘and i was sad about livvy,‘said jacinta. ‗i know she was fussy and everything but she was always kind to me. i wish mum could be different.‘ (lord, 2004:197). livvy was mccain‘s boss‘ wife who died of anthrax sent by her own husband. everything about genevieve is known from mccain or from jacinta herself as she never appears and is only talked about by her ex-husband and jacinta. according to jacinta, her mother was always angry with her father and she does not like it, ‗i remember mum always being angry with you. then when you came home, i used to pray that she would just shut up. but she couldn‘t (lord, 2004:198). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 19-26 22 what jacinta said reflects her wish that her mother could have done something else instead of getting angry every time mccain came home drunk. even when her parents separated and now that her father has a complicated case of anthrax, her mum continues making everything worse by accusing her father of sexual abuse to jacinta. jacinta seems more mature than her mother who is always fussy and childish so jacinta thinks she could have done more. she should have been more patient and strong to take care of her children. her father understands why her mother always gets angry but jacinta has her own thought: ‗she had good reason to be angry with me,‘ i said. ‗it‘s no picnic living with an alcoholic.‘ ‗look, dad,‘ said jacinta, ‗there were plenty of things she could have done. she wouldn‘t look her part in it. she wouldn‘t do anything except dump on you. you became like her drug. she wouldn‘t leave you alone. she got addicted to trying to control you.‘ (lord, 2004:197) from the beginning of the novel to the end when everything is solved, the readers will not find any conversation between jacinta and her mother that shows she expresses her anger. at the end of the story jacinta remains to be more mature than her mother when she tells about the truth of her mother and what her mother tells the police is fake. she realizes that her mother is ‗sick‘. she asks jacinta to stay with her but jacinta refuses and this is what she tells her father, jacinta started wiping the sink down. ‗mum wants me to move in with her. doing that would start the healing process, she said,‘ ‗what did you say to that?‘ i asked. ‗i told her she‘d have to start the healing process without me.‘ jacinta flashed her wickedest grin, wringing out the sponge with a flourish and putting it to dry in the sunshine on the windowsill. ‗poor mum wouldn‘t know the first thing about healing, she said. ‗and what is the first thing about healing?‘ i couldn‘t resist asking. admitting you need healing,‘ she said. ‗that you‘re damaged. mum wouldn‘t ever admit that.‘ (lord, 2004:199) dealing with this family relationship, lord shows that each member should admit and realize what he or she has done then it is easier to recover and make the relationship better. husband and wife the relationship between a husband and a wife in this novel is not much seen in the relationship between mccain and his wife as when mccain narrates the crime, they have separated. but it can be figured out what happened to each of them. as it was explained before that the main problem is mccain‘s addiction to alcoholics. it is understandable when her ex-wife got angry every time she had that situation. good communication never happened to them. they did not have time to contemplate and fix their broken relationship. that she was unhappy in her marriage can be understood. but their children felt neglected and lost their parents‘ love and care. each of them even does not have love anymore. mccain tries to mend and make his life with his children better but his ex-wife now only has hatred and wants to take revenge. mccain was very angry when she made false allegations. he thinks it is a revenge from his ex-wife. mccain tries to explain what triggered the divorce. without trying to blame his ex-wife, he tells the readers that it began from the situation at home where he could not find peace that made him keep busy doing something else outside. he tells that as a mother she still acted like a young little woman. it means she was not mature. family relationship in gabrielle … (ruth sih kinanti) 23 when the killer of the nun is found and the terrorist who sent anthrax is arrested, mccain has to face and finish jacinta‘s with marty cash. the investigator is a hero so he could knock him down although he gets wounds. the problem with his ex-wife is solved so easily even without any hard effort. something is not expected when his ex-wife came to hospital to apologize for what he has done. the following quotation from the novel shows that mccain is right about his ex-wife. genevieve appeared and as soon as i saw her i knew something was different. it wasn‘t just that she‘d lost weight and looked older—somehow, my ex-wife had managed to stay frozen at about thirty-seven. but today she was looking her age. and that was different. she stood near the doorway, unsure, and that, too, struck me as new. ‗jack,‘ she said. ‗i‘m here to apologize.‘(lord, 2004:421) the mccain‘s does not seem to have good communication. this bad communication has brought many problems in their relationship. the parents, mother and father, should have played good role in maintaining the good relationship. mccain had realized his fault but his wife could not accept that and keep her anger. lethal factor in australian crime writing in this subchapter, it will be explored lord‘s crime writings and her position in australian crime writing. exploring crimes as it was mentioned before that crime writing covers many kinds of this genre. all of them talk about and deal with death. this death may be a mystery and it‘s needed a hero to investigate the case and find the killer. the readers will be happy following the plot as long as there is suspense and many questions in his mind while reading until the case is closed and the investigator found the killer. there are many ways to present the narration with any type of investigator the author prefers using. he or she can be a police officer, detective, laboratory analyst, forensic officer or an ordinary person with a keen sight and good logic as well as a wide outlook. gabrielle lord in lethal factor chooses jack mccain to be the hero who can solve the case and find the killer. he is not a police officer but a scientist who has to go through some procedures in a forensic laboratory to uncover and track down the killer. at the beginning of the novel after the prologue where we read the first murder in a convent outside canberra that happened to a nun, the reader is introduced with the investigator, jack mccain, his position, and what his job covers. some of my colleagues never attend crime scenes—its not their job. but my many years as a crime scene examiner with the new south wales police before i joined the federals as a scientist gives me an edge over bench scientist (pollak and macnab, 2002:18). with that introduction, the reader will feel secure and sure that the case will be solved by a reliable investigator with such good knowledge. lethal factor gives a lot of conflicts and killed people as well as victims. jack mccain has so many cases to solve. there are deaths, betrayal, revenge, family conflicts, emotional and personal conflicts, and social problem. the first death is the murder of a nun with a symbol carved near her ankle and followed by other deaths of mccain‘s boss‘ wife and colleague in forensic science department. he has to investigate these two different cases while other problems happened. they are a threat from marty jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 19-26 24 cash who recovers from his coma and will come back to ask for his money and also his ex-wife, genevieve, who gives false allegation that jack did sexual abuse to jacinta, their daughter. lord seems very ‗hungry‘ for including many kinds of problems and one death case is not enough for the investigator or too easy to solve so she think it is more amazing and confusing for the readers to know about the resolution of the problems. but at the end she is exhausted and ends every case hastily and simply. the death of the nun has historical motives behind it that happened long ago between serbian and croatian in yugoslavia that it continues even when they move to australia. the killer using anthrax bacillus turned out to be his own boss who killed his wife as he thinks he would get a lot of money from the project that he will enjoy with his mistress, alix. revenge is very common in crime fiction that can bring about death or murder. it is obviously seen that lord tries to make a good thriller for the readers and she believes that a lot of conflicts may be more enjoyable for a good crime fiction. examining family relationship family relationship could be found in gabrielle lord‘s novels. she is the first writer who talks about that issue in her writings though there are many other crime writers in australia. she presents a lot of mccain‘s personal problem and family conflicts. it begins with the coming of alix, a girl he had dated with a long time ago. the bad way she behaves and treats mccain is described consistently when she rudely yelled and did to iona, a good girl mccain meets and has a date with. alix is properly portrayed as a woman who deserves what she gets for what she has done that she has seduced mccain and disturbed his life. in his family, he also has to cope with his ex-wife who drives him crazy with false allegation, accusing him sexually abuse jacinta when they were married. she sees the children as the next generation who has to suffer and hurt due to their parents‘ broken relationship. lord also says she departs from the usual practice of australian novels which, in her view, is to ignore children. ‗when i read almost any novel these days i think—where are the children? they just aren‘t there. they‘re not seen as important or interesting or worth writing about at all. but children are important. what every individual child endures has echoes down through the generations (pollak and macnab, 2002:90). when the family is broken, it is the children who suffer most and they will be trapped in mean streets which may give them comfort but lead to danger. this happened to jacinta when she did not get attention, care and love from her parents. with more than one personal problems coming to mccain, lord tries to remind us that people have dark sides in their lives but they could mend and get that family recovery if each of the member of the family is willing to go through the process of having a good progress to construct a better family relationship for example in lethal factor. mccain stops drinking and reconcile with his daughter, jacinta who used to live in streets using drug. iona comes to his life though we do not where this relationship goes. reflecting the author’s life the murder and death in lethal factor happened in canberra. this crime scene and the surrounding setting are vividly described by the author. lord knows a lot about this setting as she grew up there. family relationship in gabrielle … (ruth sih kinanti) 25 when she was six years old, she stayed in the school as a boarder at sacre coeur convent at sydney‘s elegant rose bay where she had to stay there through her school year. staying there really hurt her as she felt she was neglected by her parents because her parents lived nearby. she could not understand this so when her friends asked her why she stayed as a boarder, she would make lies. her bad experience in childhood when she had to go through makes her believe that she was deserted and she saw her life story as part of a pattern of children in our society. now in all her novels she tries to examine family relationship and show children problem in their life as the victims of the unhappiness of their parents. during lord‘s formative years she became aware of cruelties which were everywhere. she told jane wheatley that the immediate universe was made up of the ‗injured souls‘ which populate her many bleak novels. ‗it‘s the sad and really scary thing in her stories, the thing that lingers after you‘ve forgotten the twists and turns of the plot,‘.wheatley wrote in agreement, adding that lord also believed that children were too often blamed for the unhappiness in their mother‘s life (.pollak and macnab, 2002:91) the unhappy mother can also be found in this novel as the exwife of jack mccain, the investigator. though during her marriage it was jack who drank and made her very angry, she was still blamed for the divorce and that‘s why she was ‗punished‘. her two children chose to live with their father. lord is a mother and a grandmother but when she was a young mother she treated her daughter with disrespect like what she said as follows, ‗i am a child abuser‘, she said. ‗i put my daughter down before i became enlightened. i used to criticize the way she dressed, insult her choice of music. i hit her once. i‘m supposed to be the person who protects and sustains. ‗i am the mother. i was the classic perpetrator, because ti was done to me and i did it back‘ (pollak and macnab, 2002:92). the death of a nun in a convent as the biggest issue in lethal factor is easily understood when we know that she spent some years in the convent and experienced a special yet hurting life in her childhood. the family relationship and child abuse are two things she exposes in this novel as she believes a writer she can do something for her society that a happy and harmonious family is an important element to survive a healthy society. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 19-26 26 conclusion lethal factor begins with the death of a nun in a convent outside canberra. on her ankle was pictured a cross symbol. this death dominated the whole novel while through this investigation, the professional forensic scientist, jack mccain, were shocked by many cases happened to him and his family. it could be said it‘s too much for him. the other death happened to his boss‘ wife and his colleague, tony bonning. he then felt threatened as he also the member of the delmonte dale project and the killer used anthrax which was sent through a postal letter or package. the solution to find the killer seems very interesting after long investigation together with other investigation to track down the case of the nun‘s death. through his heroic efforts the readers finally find out the killer. it‘s really an unexpected killer who did it and this makes the reader faithfully and impatiently looks forward to by having questions during his reading. the setting of this crime scene reflects the author‘s childhood experience where she was living in a dormitory of the catholic school and canberra is vividly described. this shows the author‘s good research on the forensic science aspects. without the hero‘s personal problems and family relationship, this novel is already enjoyable to follow and perfect for crime story. in other words, this issue does not bother at all to the investigation and narration about the crime done by the killer. but the author has something to check and to convey to modern society that the child will always be the victim of a broken relationship of his parents. that fault, though painful for everybody in the family can be recovered and mended. references bird, delys. 1993. killing women. sydney: angus & robertson. lord, gabrielle. 2004. lethal factor. sydney: hodder. pollak, michael and margaret macnab. 2002. gothic matilda. woollahra: unity press. hainsworth, roger. ―lethal factor by gabrielle lord.‖ retrieved in may 2006 from http://www.adelaidereview.com.au http://www.adelaidereview.com.au/ microsoft word 09_deng jun_ok.doc a new perspective..... (deng jun) 79 a new perspective of literary criticism 副文本:门槛上的风景 deng jun (邓筠) faculty of overseas education, xiamen university koaladj@hotmail.com abstract paratext is a relatively new term in literary criticism, which is mainly elaborated by modern french scholar gérard genette. article presents a qualitative method with its purpose to present a survey to this new literary term and probe into what may lie behind this new critic perspective. analysis was done by exploring the new literatures in terms of paratext. it can be concluded that paratext has a great influence to the deeper understanding from different perspectives of a literature work. keywords: literary criticism, paratext, gérard genette, structuralism 内容提要 法国文论家吉拉尔· 热奈特在其《副文本》(1987)一书中详细论述了副文本的概念,将 文学作品的序、跋、标题、封套以及手记等都纳入文学批评的视域,这一新的批评视角使得业 已缤纷多彩的二十世纪文论愈显多姿多彩。 关键词:副文本;热奈特;作者意图;结构主义 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 79-84 80 前言 副文本(paratext)是现代文学批评领域里一个颇新也颇实用的概念,按照法国文论家吉拉 尔· 热奈特(gérard genette)的理解,它指的是一件作品的序、跋、标题、封套以及手记等,副 文本在客观上引导和调控着读者对该作品的接受。这里,主要就热奈特在其《副文本》(paratexts) (1987)以及《广义文本导论》(the architext)(1979),《隐迹稿本》(palimpsests)(1982)三 部著作中对副文本的阐述,来简单介绍和评析一下副文本概念及其在文学批评中的作用。 在当代世界文论界有着“百科全书式文艺理论家”封号的吉拉尔·热奈特 1930 年出生在巴 黎,毕业于高等师范学院(l'école normale supérieure),1969 年在巴黎第八大学与托多洛夫 (tzvetan todorov)、西苏(hélène cixous)等人创办了日后享有盛名的《诗学》(poétique)杂 志,并于 1970 年在索邦大学(la sorbonne)获得了教授职衔。时至今日,热奈特仍然任职于索 邦大学,同时在他的母校高等师范学院兼任教职。他的主要作品有《辞格》(figure)系列五册 (1967-2002),《广义文本导论》(1979),《隐迹稿本》(1982),《叙事话语》(narrative discourse) (1983),《副文本》(1987),《虚构与行文》(fiction and diction)(1991),《艺术作品》(the work of art)系列两册(1994,1997),《转喻》(métalepse)(2004),《杂货袋子》(bardadrac)(2006)。 热奈特的成就主要集中于他对叙事理论的贡献,他的《叙事话语》一书被认为是西方叙事学研 究历史上一部里程碑意义的作品,在世界学术圈内都有着广泛而深远的影响。 内容 副文本概念是热奈特在构建他的结构主义立场的文本间性(intertextuality)理论时,作为 其中的一个重要术语提出来的,所以在下面的分析中可以看出副文本这一概念富有较重的结构 主义保守持重的色彩。 一、意图的还原 对热奈特而言,副文本的任务就是要指引读者沿着作者以及编辑者、出版者提示的路径, 大限度的还原“作者的意图”(author’s purpose)。 副文本又可以进一步细分为“周边文本”(peritext)和“外部文本”(epitext)两类。正副 标题、序、跋、注释属于周边文本,而采访、书评、手记、书信、告读者则属于外部文本。以 波德莱尔(charles baudelaire)的诗集《巴黎的忧郁:小散文诗》(le spleen de paris: petits poèmes en prose)为例,其正标题,以及书中《在凌晨一点》、《寡妇》、《卖艺老人》、《暮色》、《孤独》 等五十首诗的题目和译者的诸多注释都是周边文本,而正文开始前的《给阿尔塞纳·胡赛》就 是一篇兼有书信与告读者特征的外部文本。 热奈特对于副文本的研究极其细致,以至于很多论者批评其过于琐碎。譬如他把周边文本 中的标题又细化为主旨标题(thematic title)和类型标题(rhematic title)。仍以《巴黎的忧郁: 小散文诗》为例,“巴黎的忧郁”就是主旨标题,“小散文诗”就是类型标题。籍着这些标题的 提示,读者可以快捷的了解到这是一本散文诗的结集,诗人要描摹的是有些另类的城市灰暗面, a new perspective..... (deng jun) 81 是对“暮色”、“孤独”、“忧郁”的赞歌。而作者为何要捕捉这样异类的生活场景?不了解法国 文学的普通读者,又可以借助注释、译者序等副文本来感受十九世纪中叶的法国,感受波德莱 尔那“孤独的命运感”,感受普罗大众在社会转型阵痛中的敏感与焦虑。离开了这些副文本,读 者,尤其是当代中国读者,恐怕很难去领略这本诗集所捕捉到的“恶之花”式的“现代城市生活之 美”。这就是热奈特所强调的“确保文本的命运与作者的意图一致”,正是众多的副文本帮助读者还 原了一个十九世纪的法兰西,还原了一个患上了“世纪病”的象征主义大师以及他那独树一帜的诗 歌。 副文本不仅仅反映着作者的意图,它也能体现出编辑者、出版者对读者的调控意愿。小说 《水浒传》问世以来,版本众多,仅百回本、百二十回本和七十一回本就曾在各个历史时期以 不同面目反复印行,而不同的版本,其序言或评点也不尽相同。以明代的百二十回本和清代的 七十回本为例,通过其间的序言或评点,可以想见不同时代的《水浒传》编辑者、出版者所期 望施加给读者的不同影响。 若以小贤役人,而大贤役于人,其肯甘心服役而不耻乎?是犹以小力缚人,而使大力者缚于人, 其肯束手就缚而不辞乎?其势必至驱天下之大力大贤,而尽纳水浒矣。则谓水浒之众,皆大力大 贤,有忠有义之人,可也。然未必有忠义如宋公明者也。今观一百单八人者,同功同过,同死同 生,其忠义之心,犹之乎宋公明也。独宋公明者,身居水浒之中,心在朝廷之上,一意招安,专 图报国;卒至于犯大难,成大功,服毒自缢,同死而不辞,则忠义之烈也,真足以服一百单八人 者之心。故能结义梁山,为一百单八人之主。 《忠义水浒传》序 (明)李贽 故夫以忠义予《水浒》者,斯人必有怼其君父之心,不可以不察也。且亦不思宋江等一百八人, 则何为而至于水浒者乎?其幼,皆豺狼虎豹之姿也;其壮,皆杀人夺货之行也;其后,皆敲朴劓 刖之余也;其卒,皆揭竿斩木之贼也。有王者作,比而诛之,则千人亦快,万人亦快也。如之何 而终亦幸免于宋朝之斧鑕?彼一百八人而得幸免于宋朝者,恶不知将有若干百千万人,思得复试 于后世者乎? 《水浒传》序二 (清)金圣叹 两相对比,李序的《忠义水浒传》希冀读者以宋江等一百零八人为榜样,学其忠义之心以 辅君报国,金序的《水浒传》则警示读者切勿学宋江等一百零八人,莫染了诲盗之毒,其结局 亦会如末回卢俊义的惊梦一般,不得善终。同一个水浒故事,由于编辑者、出版者思想认识的 差异,他们力图通过副文本调控读者阅读心态的意图也迥然不同。同样的故事人物,在不同副 文本中成了迥然有别的正反两类典型。如果再比照文化大革命期间国内出版的各式《水浒传》, 其卷首都印有鲁迅与毛泽东的书评语录——“不反天子,所以接受招安,替国家打别的强盗, 终是奴才”(鲁迅),“这部书好,好就好在投降,做了反面教材”(毛泽东)——这时的副文本 又传递出了区别于“忠义” 、“诲盗”的批判投降主义的时代之声了。 这种对作者、编辑者、出版者意图的强调让人想起赫施(e. d. hirsch, jr.)对伽达默尔 (hans-georg gadamer)的批评。伽达默尔主张每个文本都是对所有可能的理解开放的,而每一种 理解都源出传统,都有其合理性,无所谓优劣,无所谓合不合法。赫施批判伽达默尔的相对主义和 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 79-84 82 虚无主义,质疑其“解释的有效性”,呼吁回到“作者的意图”,因为有效的解释有且只有一种,那 就是符合“作者的意图”的解释。“忽视作者的意图(即原初意义)如果不具有重大的压倒一切的 价值的话,那么,我们这些以阐释为业者就不应该忽视作者的意图。纯粹个人的爱好并不具有这样 一种压倒一切的价值,许多人的纯粹爱好也不具有。” (拉曼·塞尔登, 2000:215)。可是,将 对文学文本这种艺术品的认识,等同于科学认知活动,追求绝对的客观有效性,这种做法本来就是 值得商榷的。 二、 门槛:入与不入 副文本仿佛是一道门槛(seuil),它既在文本之外,又在文本之内,引导和调控着读者对文 本的接受。在热奈特这里,副文本的职能就是要 大限度的还原文本作者,以及编辑者、出版 者的意图, 大限度的使读者了解应该如何来阅读文本。 基于这一目的,热奈特对副文本的阐述细致到了近乎琐碎冗长的地步,也为此招来了众多 批评之声。诚然,在一片“作者死了”的声浪之中,热奈特逆潮而动,本着坚定的结构主义精 神,重新将“作者的意图”拉回到文学批评的视野,这种对明晰性追求的决心是值得嘉许的。 但是,过于强调作者,乃至编辑者、出版者的意图,无疑会束缚读者的能动性,出现维姆萨特 (w.k.wimsatt)所言的“意图谬见”(intentional fallacy),造成对文本诠释丰富性的伤害。 关关雎鸠,在河之洲。窈窕淑女,君子好逑。参差荇菜,左右流之。窈窕淑女,寤寐求之。求之 不得,寤寐思服。悠哉悠哉,辗转反侧。参差荇菜,左右采之。窈窕淑女,琴瑟友之。参差荇菜, 左右芼之。窈窕淑女,钟鼓乐之。 《诗经·关雎》 依照《关雎》小序,副文本告诉读者“关雎,后妃之德也。风之始也。所以风天下而正夫 妇也。故用之乡人焉,用之邦国焉。是以关雎乐得淑女以配君子。爱在进贤,不淫其色,哀窈 窕,思贤才,而无伤善之心焉。是关雎之义也。”对该诗如此理解,就会局限于周朝人对文王及 文王夫人太姒的赞颂,宣教唯有象太姒这样娴静贞洁的好女子,才得以匹配君子。他们仰慕彼 此的美德,却不贪恋对方的美色,行事谨严,挚情而又有别,所以能够风化天下,成为世人楷 模。如果读者执着于副文本的信息,关于《关雎》的诠释势必走向狭隘。诗中三次起兴的“参 差荇菜”,如果遵循副文本引导来解读,就被解释为一种水生植物,因其鲜嫩部分味道鲜美而用 于祭祖,非有娴静淑贞之德如太姒者,是不足以担当起采摘荇菜,布置供品,承事宗庙之职的。 然而,如此阐释固然是实现了编辑者“发乎情,止乎礼”的保守意旨,却也束缚了文本的 表意活力。为什么《关雎》就不可以被理解为一首热情奔放的古老民间恋歌呢?“参差荇菜” 描摹的是一个妙龄少女在河边采荇,她的窈窕倩影深深烙进了注视她的男子心中,而左右浮动 不居的荇菜,一如少女难以捉摸的心。这只是一首开放式的单恋情歌,无所谓后妃美德,也扯 不上文王风化。当然,《关雎》还可以从其他的角度理解为举贤诗、祝婚诗、讽刺诗等等,虽说 都没有迈入《诗经·毛诗序》所铺设的门槛,却在“乐而不淫,哀而不伤”外,赋予了它更多 的精彩。 热奈特执意要还原“作者的意图”,可是也不是每个作者、编辑者、出版者都希望在作品 a new perspective..... (deng jun) 83 接受过程中还要掌控着阐释大权的。艾柯在谈到他的小说《玫瑰之名》(the name of the rose) 的命名时,就坚持认为如何诠释这个题目是读者应有的自由: 玫瑰这一意象有如此丰富的含义,以至于现在它已经没有任何含义了:但丁笔下神秘的玫瑰;代 表爱情的玫瑰;引起战争的玫瑰;使艺术相形见绌的玫瑰;玫瑰就是罗塞克卢主义者。……我明 白现在要去阻止“玫瑰”一词所引发的无穷无尽的联想是多么困难。也许我当时只是想尽可能多 地开拓一些诠释的空间,没想到竟使这些诠释彼此互不相干,结果是产生了一连串互不相干的诠 释。但作品文本就在那儿,经验作者必须保持沉默。(安贝托·艾柯等, 2005:85-85) 热奈特对副文本的强调,其实也就是在文学批评中强调作者的地位。作者的概念在文学批 评史上几经起落,到了热奈特的时代,已然被巴特等人宣判死刑。十九世纪浪漫主义兴起前, 亚里士多德的模仿论是西方文学理论的主流。模仿论强调外部世界与文本内容的对应关系,并 没有给作者留下多少的位置。表现论在崇尚天才、想象、情感的浪漫主义潮流中取代了模仿论, 作家才开始出现在文论界的中心视阈。艺术的规则不再是来自外部,而是天才作家本身。作家 创作心理的挖掘成了重要的课题,作者的意图成为阐释作品意义的依据,传记批评成为 流行 的批评方法。进入二十世纪后,这一理论接连受到新批评、结构主义和后结构主义的炮轰,主 体受到质疑,福柯(michel foucault)说“人死了”,指出主体性(subjectivity)是现代社会的 一项发明,人并不是一个理性的、统一的主体,而是一个祛中心的、碎片化的主体,是一种精 神分裂症的欲望流,是一种语言的构造物。作者的写作并不是一个先在的自由心灵驱策着语言 的运动,相反,作者不由自主的受到了文学的结构、成规的暗中操纵。巴特更进一步,宣告作 者死亡、解放文本,目的就是要废除作者与文本的父子关系,提倡一种解除权威控制的“写作 性”文本(writerly text),每个读者既是读者,又是作者,能够充分享受着文本的愉悦。热奈特 在这样的背景下重新扛起作者的大旗,不仅与后结构主义的理论和实践对立,就是与结构主义 文论主流也是背道而弛的。然而,出于一种对精确性和明晰性的执着追求,为了使跨文性关系 处在一个确定的领域内,热奈特还是坚守住了自己的方向,通过这一副文本的概念,竭力中和 掉其他文本间性理论家那种激进的反稳定、反作者倾向,努力朝着传统诗学的方向回归。 结语 客观的说,相对于整个文本而言,副文本是一个过渡(transition)的区域,也是一个交流 (transaction)的区域。读者可以自由的站在这一门槛上与作者,与编辑者,与出版者进行有效 的沟通,未必要像热奈特希望的那样完全受制于人,可以有自己独立的思考,合理的想象,入 与不入是读者的自由选择。如蒙田(michel de montaigne)所言,“话语,一半在言者,一半在 听者。”在这样的前提之下,副文本这道门槛或多或少为读者对文本的理解提供了一定的参照, 对训练有素的读者而言,这多少会有助于打开更加广阔的视野,而对缺乏怀疑精神的读者而言, 一些别有用心的副文本所导向的可能是一系列后续的负面影响,门槛之内便是自我或他人或群 体的深渊。这也正是后结构主义理论家们对热奈特副文性思想甚是担心乃至诟病之处。无论入 与不入,热奈特的副文本概念都为文学批评理论与实践,揭示了一道过往不太为人注意的风景, 令文学批评的园地愈加饶有趣味。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 79-84 84 参考文献 蒂费纳·萨莫瓦约著,邵炜译:《互文性研究》,天津人民出版社, 2003。 王瑾:《互文性》,广西师范大学出版社, 2005。 勒内·韦勒克,奥斯汀·沃沦 著,刘象愚等译:《文学理论》,江苏教育出版社, 2005。 特雷·伊格尔顿著,伍晓明译:《二十世纪西方文学理论》,陕西师范大学出版社, 1986。 热拉尔·热奈特著,史忠义译:《热奈特论文集》,百花文艺出版社, 2001。 张隆溪:《二十世纪西方文论述评》,三联书店, 1986。 南帆:《文学理论新读本》,浙江文艺出版社, 2002。 杨春时,俞兆平,黄鸣奋:《文学概论》,人民文学出版社, 2002。 朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》,华东师范大学出版社, 1997。 allen, graham. 2000. intertextuality. london and new york: routledge. orr, mary. 2003. intertextuality: debates and contexts. cambridge: polity. microsoft word 07_nur saadah_oral drill-a4.doc efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill … (nur saadah fitri asih) 57 efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill untuk latihan kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang di kelas dasar nur saadah fitri asih japanese department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, nur3053@lecturer.binus.ac.id abstract article content a research result about effectiveness of oral drill method to practice speaking ability of japanese in elementary class. this is an experiment research to japanese course’s student in elementary class in blci (british language course of indonesia) bandung at 2006 year. experiment research is according to the condition of learning japanese to the experiment class with oral drill method, in the other hand to the experiment class in using another method which is eklektik method that combine translating method and grammar method. research data was got from result of the final test from the experiment class an control class. from the process result and analize data can be know that the average score of the student’s speaking ability in experiment class is bigger than the average score of the student’s speaking ability in control class. keywords: oral drill method, speaking abstrak artikel berisi hasil penelitian mengenai efektivitas metode oral drill untuk melatih kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang di kelas dasar. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian eksperimen terhadap siswa kursus bahasa jepang level dasar di sebuah lembaga bahasa blci (british language course of indonesia) yang berlokasi di bandung pada tahun 2006. dalam pelaksanaan eksperimen, penulis mengkondisikan pembelajaran bahasa jepang pada kelas eksperimen dengan metode oral drill sedangkan pada kelas kontrol menggunakan metode lain, yaitu metode eklektik, dalam hal ini gabungan antara metode tata bahasa dan metode terjemahan. dari data hasil tes akhir didapat ratarata skor siswa kelas eksperimen lebih besar bila dibandingkan dengan rata-rata skor pada kelas kontrol. kata kunci: metode oral drill, berbicara jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 57-63 58 pendahuluan bahasa jepang di indonesia merupakan salah satu bahasa yang banyak diminati untuk dipelajari setelah bahasa inggris. hal itu karena terus meningkatnya hubungan antara jepang dan indonesia dalam berbagai sektor, misalnya dalam bidang pendidikan, ekonomi, pariwisata, dan sebagainya. dengan semakin meningkatnya hubungan kedua negara maka dapat mendorong terjadinya peningkatan kebutuhan alat untuk berkomunikasi. unsur esensial dari proses komunikasi itu adalah bahasa, dalam hal ini bahasa jepang ataupun bahasa indonesia. bila melihat kecenderungan yang terjadi saat ini, pihak indonesialah yang terlihat lebih sebagai penerima informasi atau bermacam pengetahuan dari jepang. bahkan, tidak dapat dipungkiri lagi bila banyak pelajar dari indonesia yang dengan sengaja ataupun dengan bantuan beasiswa berangkat ke jepang untuk menuntut ilmu. di samping itu, banyak pula dari warga indonesia yang bekerja di jepang sebagai tenaga kerja asing. umumnya, pelajar ataupun calon pekerja yang akan berangkat ke jepang harus dibekali dengan pengetahuan atau keahlian berbahasa jepang. hal itu untuk kelancaran mereka berkomunikasi pada saat terjun kelapangan. keahlian berbahasa inggris saja akan dirasakan tidak cukup bila berada di jepang karena jepang terkenal sebagai masyarakat yang kental akan bahasanya, bahkan buku ilmu pengetahuan di sana pun sudah diterjemahkan dalam bahasa jepang. keadaan itu secara otomatis mendorong tumbuh suburnya lembaga pendidikan atau pelatihan bahasa jepang di indonesia, baik formal ataupun informal. lembaga pelatihan bahasa jepang dewasa ini masing-masing memiliki, metode, materi pembelajaran bahasa jepang yang berbeda-beda, disesuaikan dengan tujuan pelaksanaan pendidikan lembaga yang bersangkutan. misalnya, penyelenggaraan pengajaran bahasa jepang di program bahasa jepang upi (universitas pendidikan indonesia) bandung lebih diarahkan pada bidang pendidikan sehinggga diharapkan para lulusannya akan menguasai bahasa jepang sekaligus dapat mengajarkannya kepada orang lain atau siswanya. hal yang dirasa paling menarik untuk diamati oleh peneliti adalah pengajaran di lembaga informal, seperti kursus yang sekarang ini tumbuh subur di indonesia. penyelengggaraan pendidikan bahasa jepang di lembaga tersebut berbeda dengan penyelenggaraan pendidikan bahasa jepang di universitas. akan tetapi, di manapun penyelenggaraan pendidikan bahasa jepang itu diselenggarakan, peneliti mencermati terdapat kesamaan tujuan yang umum dari pembelajaran bahasa, yaitu pelajar diharapkan mempunyai kemampuan berkomunikasi dengan benar. penyelenggaraan pelatihan bahasa jepang di negara jepang tentu akan berbeda hasilnya dengan penyelenggaraan di luar jepang. lingkungan masyarakat jepang akan sangat kondusif untuk pembentukan kemampuan berbicara pembelajar. lain halnya dengan penyelenggaraan pelatihan bahasa jepang di luar jepang, banyak sekali kendala yang dihadapi untuk membentuk siswa dapat cepat menguasai bahasa jepang tersebut. untuk itu, diperlukan adanya suatu metode yang tepat digunakan oleh para pengajar agar siswa yang dibimbingnya dapat cepat berkomunikasi dalam bahasa yang dipelajarinya. berbicara mengenai metode pengajaran berbicara, banyak sekali teknik yang dapat digunakan, misalnya mechanical drill, meaningfull drill, short conversation drill (shokaiwa doriru), information gap, interview task dan role play. metode yang dapat digunakan dalam pengajaran berbahasa, misalnya silent way, community language learning (cll), total physical response (tpr), natural approach, dan sebagainya. akan tetapi, mungkinkah semua teknik dan metode itu tepat digunakan pada situasi pembelajaran yang berbeda-beda? efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill … (nur saadah fitri asih) 59 di pihak lain, tingkatan pengajaran bahasa jepang dibagi dalam shokyu (pemula), chukyu (intermediate), dan joukyu (advance). khususnya untuk kelas pemula di kursus, peneliti beranggapan bahwa pada taraf pemula inilah siswa diajak untuk menyenangi belajar bahasa jepang dan berbahasa jepang sehingga disinilah pengajar dituntut kreatif memahami situasi pembelajaran, memadukan setiap unsur dalam proses belajar mengajar baik materi, media, metode, teknik mengajar untuk menciptakan suasana pembelajaran yang menyenangkan, membangkitkan motivasi siswa untuk belajar dan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa jepang. di kelas shokyu pun banyak dikenalkan dasar berbahasa, baik pola maupun perbendaharaan kata. di sisi lain, siswa akan merasa berhasil dalam belajar apabila cepat dapat berbicara dalam bahasa jepang. begitu pula dari pihak pengajar, tentunya akan merasa puas apabila materi yang disampaikannya dapat diterima siswa dengan baik serta metode yang digunakan di kelas dapat membuat siswa menikmati proses pembelajaran dan siswa diharapkan dapat berbicara minimal pada taraf pengetahuan bahasa jepang yang telah diajarkan. tidaklah mudah melatih siswa memiliki kemampuan dan keberanian berbicara dalam bahasa jepang, perlu kreativitas pengajar untuk menggunakan metode yang tepat. latar belakang itulah yang mendorong peneliti untuk menerapkan suatu metode pengajaran berbicara. penelitian ini merupakan penelitian yang dilaksanakan di kursus bahasa jepang tingkat dasar. pembahasan kemahiran berbahasa lisan merupakan salah satu tujuan dari pengajaran bahasa asing. kemahiran berbicara tidak hanya meliputi percakapan saja tetapi juga pidato, presentasi, termasuk monolog. kegiatan di atas pada dasarnya adalah kegiatan berkomunikasi. supardi (1997) dalam bukunya teori pembelajaran bahasa, menyatakan bahwa kegiatan berbahasa pada dasarnya adalah belajar berkomunikasi. oleh karena itu, belajar bahasa pada hakikatnya sama dengan belajar berkomunikasi. kobayashi mina (1998) dalam bukunya yoku wakaru kyojuho mengemukakan bahwa dalam pengajaran berbicara, khususnya dalam bahasa jepang, terdapat beberapa cara yang efektif untuk mendorong siswa mendapat kesempatan berbicara dan meningkatkan keterampilannya dalam berbicara bahasa jepang, diantaranya adalah latihan drill (pattern practice). terdiri dari subtitution drill, yaitu latihan mengganti sebagian kata dengan model yang ditunjukan pengajar. transformation drill adalah latihan mengubah bentuk dari suatu model. combination drill adalah latihan menggabungkan kalimat menjadi satu. explanation drill adalah latihan membuat kalimat panjang dengan menyambungkan model kata kunci yang diberikan oleh pengajar. completion drill, siswa berlatih menyempurnakan kalimat pada model yang tidak sempurna. question and answer drill adalah latihan membuat jawaban dari pertanyaan menggunakan frasa yang digunakan. pattern practice ini merupakan kegiatan pembelajaran bahasa dengan tujuan agar pembelajar cepat merespons apa yang ditunjukan oleh pengajar. metode dan teknik yang digunakan untuk pengajaran bahasa jepang harus disesuaikan dengan tingkatan siswa dalam belajar bahasa tersebut. dalam bahasa jepang terdapat istilah shokyu (tingkat pemula), chukyu (tingkat menengah), dan jokyu (tingkat atas) dan yang lebih tinggi dari jokyu adalah chokyu. kobayashi mina (1998) selanjutnya mengungkapkan bahwa pada level awal, dalam hal menulis dan berbicara, dibahas mengenai tema yang sederhana dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. siswa diharapkan pula mampu mengekspresikannya, baik secara lisan maupun tulisan juga mengerti isi wacana yang sedang dibahas. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 57-63 60 dalam hal pelafalan, dipelajari tentang fonem dan aksen bahasa jepang serta cara pelafalannya dengan benar. menurutnya, bila dibandingkan dengan bahasa lain, bahasa jepang lebih sederhana dan mudah untuk dipelajari. akan tetapi, sedapat mungkin siswa dilatih intensif melafalkan secara benar pelafalan khusus, seperti pada hikuon, tsumaruon dan haneruon, agar dapat pengucapan dengan jelas setiap ketukan suku kata serta pelaguan aksennya. selain itu, pada siswa diajarkan pula tentang konsep bentuk aksen dan cara pengucapannya secara benar. siswa bahasa jepang di kelas kursus umumnya masih berada pada tingkatan pemula tetapi mereka berkeinginan dapat cepat memiliki kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa jepang. akan tetapi, keterbatasan pengetahuan siswa terhadap kosa-kata, pelafalan, dan pola kalimat menimbulkan masalah dalam berbicara. untuk itu, pengajar bahasa jepang dituntut tidak hanya dapat menyampaikan materi tersebut tetapi juga mampu melatih pengucapan dan pemakaian kosa-kata dan kalimat tersebut kepada siswa. selain itu, pengajar harus pintar-pintar memilih metode ataupun teknik pengajaran yang sesuai. sekelumit tentang oral methode memasuki abad ke-20, palmer (1877-1949), memakai metode oral dalam menyampaikan perkuliahannya. palmer mengambil dua sisi dari bahasa, yaitu sistem dan kegunaannya. hal yang menjadi objek dalam pendidikan bahasa adalah kegunaan bahasa itu sendiri. pada praktiknya, kemampuan berbicara dan mendengar menjadi prioritas utama sedangkan kemampuan mambaca dan menulis diteliti pengaruhnya oleh seassure (1857-1913). di sini muncul pula cara pembelajaran bahasa asing, seperti seorang anak mempelajari bahasa ibunya, yaitu menyimak, mengucapkan, menirukan, bercerita, mengartikan, dan mengarang dengan melihat persamaan. hal itu dinamakan dengan (the five speech learning habits). lalu untuk melatih kebiasaan tersebut terdapat tujuh cara berikut, yaitu latihan membedakan suara yang didengar; latihan pelafalan, latihan pengulangan, latihan membuat kalimat, latihan mengganti, latihan memerintah, dan percakapan dengan bentuk yang telah ditetapkan. di universitas london, palmer yang berpartisipasi dalam pendidikan bahasa asing, pada tahun 1922 kementerian kebudayaan jepang mengundangnya sebagai pengajar bahasa inggris. selama kurun waktu 1936 sampai saat kepulangannya ke negara asal, dia tidak hanya meluaskan bahasa inggris dengan metode oral tetapi juga menjalin kerja sama dengan nagahuma (1894-1973), seorang pengajar bahasa jepang dan metode ini berpengaruh besar dalam pengajaran bahasa jepang. metode oral drill banyak metode pengajaran berbahasa yang dapat dipilih, salah satunya adalah metode oral drill. penggunaan metode ini diilhami oleh adanya metode oral atau oral methode yang diperkenalkan oleh palmer pada awal abad 20-an ke atas. akan tetapi pada penelitian ini, kegiatan kelas lebih dikembangkan dan dirancang semenarik mungkin. metode oral drill yang dicobakan berupa latihan pengucapan kata-kata dan kalimat bahasa jepang, serta dibantu oleh penggunaan alat bantu pengajaran seperti gambar, kartu kata, realita, ataupun gerakan si pengajar. hal itu ditujukan agar siswa tidak merasakan latihan sebagai suatu hal yang menjemukan. dalam penelitian ini digunakan sebagai treatment terhadap kelas eksperimen. keunggulan dan kelemahan metode oral drill keunggulan metode ini adalah efektif digunakan untuk latihan pengucapan maupun berbicara. dapat menjadi cara untuk melatih kepercayaan diri karena siswa selalu dilatih mengucapkan pelafalan dengan benar dan jelas. selain itu, melatih kelancaran dan ketepatan pengucapan sedangkan kelemahannya adalah lebih mementingkan latihan pengucapan dari pada analisis arti kata atau kalimat. kadang-kadang latihan menjadi tidak menarik atau monoton. lebih bersifat statis karena umumnya siswa hanya dapat berbicara pada ruang lingkup perbendaharaan kata yang sedang dilatihkan. efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill … (nur saadah fitri asih) 61 data hasil penelitian untuk mengetahui efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill ini, peneliti mengambil sampel penelitian yang terdiri dari kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol, dengan hasil sebagai berikut. tabel 1 skor tes kelas eksperimen tabel 2 skor tes kelas kontrol tabel 3 hasil analisis data kelas eksperimen kelas kontrol nilai rata-rata 63,11 51,22 standar defiasi 189,33 156,67 nilai t hitung 2,91 nilai t tabel 1,7459 dari data yang terdapat pada tabel, terlihat bahwa nilai rata-rata kelas eksperimen lebih besar 11,89 poin dibandingkan kelas kontrol. hal itu menujukkan bahwa penggunaan metode oral drill mampu meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa secara rata-rata. selanjutnya, nilai t hitung lebih besar dari t tabel. hal itu membuktikan bahwa metode oral drill efektif digunakan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang siswa di level dasar. hal tersebut merupakan pembuktian terhadap diterimanya hipotesis kerja pada penelitian ini. nomor skor 1 41 2 61 3 74 4 36 5 46 6 86 7 87 8 75 9 62 nomor skor 1 46 2 97 3 37 4 58 5 46 6 39 7 50 8 25 9 63 jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 57-63 62 penutup pada dasarnya, siswa yang mempelajari bahasa asing ingin cepat memiliki kemampuan berbicara. hal itu wajar karena kemampuan berbicara dapat menjadi salah satu tolok ukur keberhasilan pemelajaran bahasa asing yang bersangkutan. tidak mudah melatih kemampuan berbicara pada siswa level dasar, khususnya dalam berbicara bahasa jepang. siswa harus mampu mengucapkan kalimat dalam percakapan dengan intonasi dan pelafalan yang benar. metode oral drill dapat menjadi salah satu alternatif dari sekian banyak metode pengajaran berbicara lainnya. dari hasil penelitian, metode ini cocok digunakan di level dasar karena siswa pada level ini baru mengenal bahasa jepang sehingga latihan berbicara sebaiknya diarahkan pada latihan pengucapan kata atau kalimat dan selanjutnya digunakan pada percakapan. pemaparan tersebut adalah hasil penelitian di kelas kursus yang merupakan kelas kecil. akan tetapi, tidak menutup kemungkinan metode ini pun dapat diterapkan untuk kelas besar, seperti di sekolah menengah atas atau perguruan tinggi pada level dasar. efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill … (nur saadah fitri asih) 63 daftar pustaka 小林ミナ . 1998. 『よくわかる教授法』 、アルク. 小川芳男、林大、他編集 . 1982. 『日本語教育辞典』 、大修館書店. 木村宗郎. 1988. 『教授法入門』 、国際交流基金 日本語国際センター 林大 . 2001. 『日本語教育ハンドブック』 、大修館書店. 石橋玲子 . 1993. 『日本語教授法入門』 、 凡人社. 石田 . 1992.『入門日本語テスト法』 、大修館書店. 光一西口 (1995)『日本語教授法を理解する本歴史と理論編』 、バベル・ プレス joesoef, soelaiman. 1986. konsep dasar pendidikan luar sekolah. jakarta: bumi aksara. kimura, muneo. 1988. dasar-dasar metodologi pengajaran bahasa jepang (edisi terjemahan). tokyou: bonjinsha. ridwan. 2003. dasar-dasar statistika. bandung: alfabeta. riyanto. 2001. metodologi penelitian pendidikan. surabaya: sic. sagala. 2003. konsep dan makna pembelajaran. bandung: alfabeta. sudjana. 1991. tuntunan penyusunan karya ilmiah. bandung: sinar baru bandung. tarigan. 1993. strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa. bandung: alphabeta. tim pembina mata kuliah dasar-dasar kependidikan. 1991. dasar-dasar kependidikan. bandung: departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan ikip bandung. tim penyusun. 1990. petunjuk teknis pelaksanaan pembinaan dan pengembangan jenis bahasa jepang dan pelaksanaan ujian nasional. jakarta: diklusemas. tim penyusun kamus. 1999. kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. microsoft word 03_yohanes hartadi_ok.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 20 reading the historical phenomenon of australian bushrangers yohanes hartadi english department, atma jaya indonesian catholic university, jln. jenderal sudirman no. 51, jakarta selatan 12930 abstract outlaws in their various images have been important parts of history. in australia, the longest lasting image of outlaws is the bushranger. despite its popularity, there is a range of depictions of bushrangers and these are not necessarily similar. interpretation of the bushrangers in colonial time differs from contemporary imagining. this papers aims at unfolding the various interpretations of the bushrangers in different periods in many types of artifact. information was collected and interpreted by library research. the artifact analysis will be seen through a postmodernism theory by michel foucault and roland barthes. since the phenomenon of bushranger stemmed from the colonial period, this study will commence from the period up to contemporary period. it can be concluded that a study of the different periods finds out that knowledge of the bushrangers does not make up a linear history, but rather a discontinuity in the historical narratives. keywords: history, bushranger, australian bushranger abstrak orang yang tidak taat hukum (penjahat) dalam gambaran yang berbeda adalah merupakan bagian sejarah yang penting. di australia, gambaran nyata bagi orang tak taat hukum adalah pengembara/petualang di hutan. selain popularitas, terdapat berbagai gambaran berbeda tentang petualang tersebut. interpretasi pada jaman kolonial berbeda dengan gambaran di masa kontemporer. artikel bertujuan menunjukkan berbagai interpretasi terhadap petualang pada masa dan artefak berbeda. informasi diperoleh dengan penelitian pustaka. analisis artefak dilakukan dengan teori postmodernisme dari michel foucault dan roland barthes. disimpulkan, studi dalam berbagai masa menunjukkan bahwa pengetahuan tentang petualang bukan merupakan sejarah linier, tetapi lebih pada ketidakberlangsungan dalam cerita sejarah. kata kunci: sejarah, petualang, petualang australia reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 21 introduction whether it is fact or fiction, the figure of outlaws always gains people’s attention. their fighting spirit against the elites seems to never fade. as a proof, on 10 june 2004 an exhibition of outlaws from 9 countries was opened at melbourne museum. this exhibition included over 500 objects sourced from across the globe, such as bushranger medals, fragments from jesse james’s coffin, 108 chinese water margin ceramic icons, armor worn by kelly gang member joe byrne, ned kelly’s death masks, cobb & co coach that are used to be the targets of bushrangers, billy the kid, various films about the outlaws, and many more. the exhibition was also accompanied with more programs related to the theme of outlaws: bail up! (kid activities of making ned kelly mask and draw a wanted poster of bushrangers); the age melbourne writers’ festival exploring writers’ and readers’ enduring fascination with outlaws; outlawed forum where speakers from melbourne tertiary institutions examine the common elements of the outlaw figure from different countries; and screening of outlawed films at cinema nova on tuesday nights in september this year, including introductory talk and post-film discussion with experts. this event at least becomes a proof that a discussion of australian outlaws or bushrangers is still relevant. the image of bushrangers as australian hero is an interesting phenomenon because regardless of the time it still dwells in people’s mind. the image of bushrangers is recreated into new forms of character yet they still show a typical australian ethos. this paper is a discussion of the bushrangers in popular discourse. this paper will trace how the image of bushrangers is described and interpreted by various texts from the 19th century to the present time. russel ward has tried to invent the australian image from the bush ethos which is shown mainly by the irish working class and the currency. life in the outback is full of difficulties. hardships and isolations lead the men to treat one another as brothers. thus, they shape the culture of mateship. this can be shown by the free and easy hospitality that become everywhere in the interior. the sense of ‘up-country’ life is shown best in different ways by the bushrangers. the first bushrangers were the convict bolters who took to the bush. they were completely independent of the authorities, more adaptable to the harsh environment, and loyal to one another. ward says that these people were the first who shaped the ‘true’ australians. bushranging becomes a phenomenon in that the bushrangers gained supports from the people. in fact, the first bushrangers were created by the bad treatments of their masters. this partly explains why people seemed to have more sympathies to them rather than to the police whom they thought as a representation of the repressive colonial system. while bushrangers embody the australian country ethos, the image of outlaws as heroes of the people is not typically australian. bushranger is one of the most universal and enduring of legendary figures that are variously named romantic highwayman, social bandit, noble brigand, or robber-hero. epitomized by the stereotypical character of robin hood, the outlaw has over the years often changed his dress, habitat, and the manner of performing his lawless deeds. the forest may be replaced by the bush; the bow and arrow by gun, but essentially the myth remains the same: the fearless, independent outlaw, dedicated more or less to defense of the helpless, righting of the wrongs, humbling of the rich and powerful, and dauntless display of the extraordinary courage, deemed to be beyond the ken of the common run of men. angiolillo believes that appearance of the outlaw seems to occur when living conditions among the larger mass of a society are such that frustration, anger, fear, insecurity, poverty, discrimination, protest, and lack of hope are widespread among the people. kooistra also argues that these individuals were not considered wicked or depraved. they have been popular media creatures whose criminal exploits have been celebrated in songs, newspapers, books, plays, movies, and even television dramas. these outlaws were viewed as social heroes, and not just during their lifetime, but for decades afterwards. they are lawbreakers who have been transformed from ordinary criminals into legendary robin hood figures of epic proportion. as a former colony of the british crown, australia jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 22 is very likely to carry the tradition and custom from the mother country. spraggs argues that the cult of outlaws, particularly the highwaymen, in england had started as early as the fourteenth century a bandit gangs the forville brothers. this kind of cult gained more popularity with the publications of novels and fictions showing the courage and pride of gentleman robbers. research method this is a library research focusing on the attempt to unfold the various interpretations of the bushrangers in different periods in many types of artifact. the postmodernism perspective is employed in approaching the various images of bushrangers coming from different histories and time dimensions, from colonial up to today’s contemporary period. discussion bushrangers in australian public discourse barthes asserts that in the historical discourse of civilization, the process of signification is always aimed at ‘filling out’ the meaning of history. the historian is not so much a collector of facts as a collector and relater of signifiers; that is to say, he organizes them with the purpose of establishing positive meaning and filling the vacuum of pure, meaningless series. from looking at its structure and without having to invoke the substance of its content, historical discourse is in its essence a form of ideological elaboration, or to put it more precisely, an imaginary elaboration, if we can take the imaginary to be the language through which the utterer of a discourse ‘fills out’ the place of subject of the utterance. foucault introduces the term ‘effective history’ which differs from traditional history in being without constants. knowledge, even under the banner of history, does not depend on ‘rediscovery’. it emphatically excludes the ‘rediscovery of ourselves’. history becomes ‘effective’ to the degree that it introduces discontinuity into our very being. effective history shortens its vision to those things nearest to it; it unearths the periods of decadence. it has no fear of looking down, so long as it is understood that it looks from above and descends to seize the various perspectives, to disclose dispersion and intensity. foucault articulates the idea of discontinued history further in his book the order of things. he coins the term ‘episteme’ that explains the pattern of thought in an era. he says that there is only one episteme in an era: ’in any given culture and at any given moment, there is always only one episteme that defines the conditions of possibility of all knowledge’. another characteristic of episteme is the discontinuity. foucault writes ‘this archaeological inquiry has revealed two great discontinuities in the episteme of western culture: the first inaugurates the classical age and the second, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, marks the beginning of the modern age’. in the archaeology of knowledge, foucault uses the terms ‘discourse’ and ‘discursive formation’ to refer to how knowledge is shaped by language (langue) or statements. both barthes and foucault believe that history is never value-free. history is a text which is written and on certain culture and ideology. thus, historiography also constantly changes in line with the dynamic in society. fragmentations and dispersions in historiography emerge as the sign of progress rather than merely a critique for the older version of history. regarding foucault’s theories, windschuttle says that foucault’s study on criminals, sexual deviants, and other individuals living on the margins of society (society’s outcasts) holds the key to understand the mainstream. based on the theories above, the following section will examine how the phenomenon of bushrangers is interpreted from time to time. furthermore, the study of the outlawed bushrangers will also discover the social and cultural changes within australian society. in this analysis, all media is eligible to be used as sources since interpreters always demand any effective means in any given era to reveal their interpretations. a medium that is popular in one era is not necessarily popular in the following eras. reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 23 it will be useful to see a very brief overview of the australian bushranging eras before we start studying the genealogy of the interpretations. harry nunn divides bushranging history into three eras. the firs era is what he calls ‘the convict bolters’. bushranging started in van diemen’s land with the convicts who escaped from misery. by 1832, there were 112 convicts who escaped from macquarie harbour penal station and took to the bush. in new south wales bushranging started to flourish in 1789. the increase in the number of transported convicts, the harsh discipline, and inefficiency of the penal system led to increased numbers of escapees which in turn created the need for more easily policed and more secure penal settlements. at the norfolk island penal settlement, the discipline and conditions were so harsh that the death was frequently sought as a release from the misery. many bushrangers from van diemen’s land and new south wales were sent to the island. the second era of bushranging occurred mainly in victoria. this era was usually called the era of 'wild colonial boys’ and the ‘gold rush bushrangers’ happening from 1852 to 1854, and the new ‘native-born’ bushrangers during the 1870s. hold-ups and robberies began in 1842 with ‘yankie jack’ ellis and his gang. separation of victoria from new south wales in 1850 and a sudden huge increase in population with the gold rush brought difficult situation for many people. this couple with development of self-government and acquisition of landholdings influenced the character of bushranging, which was also given impetus with an inflow of ‘vandemonians’, the ex-convicts from van diemen’s land. these bushrangers were characteristically linked with gold fields, gold escorts, bank robberies, cattle duffing, and highway stick-ups. the third era of bushranging lasted between 1860s and 1870s. in new south wales, during the 5 years, from 1862 to 1967, 23 bushrangers were either killed or hanged. the news of fresh gold strikes in 1860 attracted thousands of diggers across the border from victoria. in the quest for gold and adventure were many who turned to bushranging. these new bushrangers were usually either native born or sons of immigrants. victoria became the centre of the bushranging epic during the entire bushranging era. it is undoubtedly because of the mystique surrounding ned kelly and his gang who were going around from 1878 to 1880. however, modern technology such as the electric telegraph and the railway had cut across time and space. as the consequence, the bushrangers the kellys and captain moonlight (early 1879) were defeated by the police. images of bushrangers in colonial australia bushrangers become an important element in australian social life because of its heroic character. moreover, bushrangers in fact become a milestone in australian culture because they are a source of many australian literary works. the first australian play to be staged was entitled the bushrangers. the play written by david burn was presented at the caledonian theatre, edinburgh, scotland in 1829. as such, it is historically important. david burn himself was born in scotland in 1799 and came to van diemen’s land as a free settler in 1826. this play is based freely on the exploits of the bushranger, matthew brady, who, with 14 or 15 other convicts, engineered an escape from the dreaded penal settlement at macquarie harbor in 1824. three bushrangers brady (matthew brady), maccabe, and bird rebelled against the wardens of macquarie harbor. they could not bear the torture and the forced labors anymore. the penal service that they have to do has gone beyond the limit. brady and his 2 fellows decide to ‘take to the bush’ because they don’t see any hope of better life. the punishment that they have to bear in macquarie harbor is even harder than in england. they have to bear harsh treatment, such as ruthless flogging. on 20 november 1830, sydney gazette reported: ‘the prisoners of all classes in government are fed with the coarsest food; governed with the most rigid discipline; subjected to the stern, and frequently capricious and tyrannical will of an overseer. in ninety-none cases out of a hundred, a convict will find his employer suspicious, or whimsical, or a blockhead, not knowing good conduct from bad, or a despot, who treats him like a slave, cursing and abusing, and getting him flogged for no reasonable cause’. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 24 burn also describes the bushrangers as gentleman outlaws who help women. it can be seen when the bushrangers meet jefferies who is trying to rape margaret. jefferies, who escaped earlier from prison, called himself ‘bushranger fellow’ which burn denounces because jefferies has been known as a cannibal who ate his own mate in order to stay alive in the bush. in historical record, jefferies, hopkins, and russel ran away from macquarie harbor. their provision failed. they agreed to toss up to decide who should die to save others. russel lost and was immediately shot by jefferies. the two men lived on the flesh for 5 days. margaret refers to mrs. tibbs who was forced by jefferies to walk fast with her baby in her arms. jefferies snatched the baby from her and dashed its brains out against a sapling. in contrast, brady as the leader of the gang laid down rules for its guidance: they must neither injure the defenseless, nor molest females, but could kill traitors, revenge injuries, and carry away all that was likely to prove useful to them. another play adopting bushrangers as the protagonist is charles harpur’s the tragedy of donohoe which was edited by edward smith hall. the play was published in the sydney monitor from 7 to 28 february 1835. it was rewritten later on by charles harpur as stalwart the bushranger in 1867. this play follows the romantic melodrama concerning public and political themes: the shifting definitions of law and tyranny; the passion for justice and liberty in conflict with individualistic selfassertion; the demands of mercy and of revenge. by romantic convention, characters of comradeship and loyalty are given to the gang of sardonic bushrangers, whereas the civil and police authorities are rendered in a richly hogarthian portrait of colorful cowardice, place-hunting and property-worship. stalwart renders with clarity the contradictory tragic and comic potential of the australian cultural inheritance as established at the country’s penal foundation; where conflict between, and competing definitions of, justice and individualism within a transplanted class society remain potent and unresolved. stalwart recognizes himself as by nature proud, passionate and impulsive, but he finally embraces evil in despair, to end a hunted existence. yet, the disposition of the people to make heroes of them worried the authorities until the twentieth century. harpur understood stalwart, but his sympathies were with his victims. stalwart the bushranger shows no respect for the upholders of law and order, but there is not respect, either for the common people who jeer at the stupidity of the police. stalwart and his fellow bushrangers are victims as well as purveyors of social evil. from 1 july 1882 to 11 august 1883, the sydney mail published robbery under arms. the story was composed by rolf boldrewood whose real name was thomas alexander browne. the story was published as a novel in 3 volumes in 1888. this is a story of colonial outlaws during the goldrush days. the novel describes how poverty turns the marston family into bushrangers. ben marston, the father, has a habit of duffing stocks in the sydney-side at night. this act is actually a common habit among settlers in the district. people can easily take unbranded stocks and keep them until someone claims them their property. they will let them have the stocks only with a ransom. or else, they simply branded the stocks as theirs and deny anyone who makes a claim over the stocks. jim marston and his younger brother dick marston follow the way of their father. they decide to take to the bush, leaving their mother and aileen their sister. they join the adventure under the leadership of captain starlight and commit a number of robberies. the novel is narrated through the character of dick marston, the prisoner, and bushrangers. through his eyes, the australian landscape is captured accurately. however, boldrewood’s attitude towards developing nationalism is ambiguous. he wants to say that colonial life fosters physical excellence and is the best way to live for an australian. nevertheless, he writes the novel for british readers; consequently he presents australia as they would expect to see it. boldrewood creates the character of a real gentleman in captain starlight, the englishman rather than ben, jim, or dick marston because they are australian-born irishmen. the author’s confused attitude is revealed in dick’s dialogues. boldrewood still manifests his belief in english social class even among the bushrangers albeit ambivalent. dick’s statement does not reveal any conclusion of his attitude toward english aristocracy and australian nationalism. boldrewood is merely attracted to the excitement and vitality of the bushrangers. reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 25 in the 19th century, britain was dominated with the vast growth of high culture which was the character of victorian values. while some british-born authors, such as boldrewood produced fine romantic literature on the theme of bushrangers, the same theme was exploited by the common australians to celebrate their sympathy to bushrangers. they told the stories and glorified the bushrangers in ballad. ballad, with all its honesty and candidness, was just the opposite of literature which glorified the romantic ideas. popular culture contested high culture. a great number of ballads passed the name of bushrangers into eternity. below are some lines of ‘bold jack donahoe’ dedicated to jack donahoe who committed robberies in new south wales in the 1820s: then come, my hearties, we’ll roam the mountains high! together we will plunder, together we will die! we’ll wander over mountains and we’ll gallop over plains for we scorn to live in slavery, bound down in iron chains. some ballads were also sung in memory of ben hall who was the least violent and most tragic of all bushrangers: come all australia’s sons to me a hero has been slain and cowardly butchered in his sleep upon the lachlan plain. people also pay tribute to frank gardiner, the bushranger who robbed mail coaches and goldfield towns in new south wales in the 1860s. gardiner was aware that, in order to retain sympathy of the bush farmers and workers. he had to be seen to act, in accordance with the conventions of the highwaymen tradition. in a ballad, he is regarded as the friend of the poor. this is the last verse of the ballad: farewell, adieu to outlawed frank, he was the poor man’s friend the government has secured him, the laws he did offend he boldly stood his trial and answered in a breath ‘do what you will, you can but kill, i have no fear of death’ ned kelly and his gang gain the most popularity in popular culture. a large number of ballads and songs have been created when he was still alive and after his death on the gallows. here is a quote from a song entitled ‘the bold kelly gang’ which was published in 1879, a year before he was sentenced to death: oh there’s not a dodge worth knowing or showing but you’ll learn (this isn’t blowing) from the bold kelly gang we’ve mates wherever we go that somehow let us know the approach of every for to the bold kelly gang about 1879 a broadsheet of four kelly songs was published in hobart, tasmania. one of the songs ‘the ballad of the kelly gang’ is a good song, and one that has stood the test of a century of singers. seal argues that songs like this, together with a variety of kelly’s beliefs, tales, and forms of speech make up a strong oral tradition in australian society. many more ballads are sung about the kelly gang, for example farewell for my home in greta, farewell dan and edward kelly, and my name is edward kelly. charles noble, a nineteenth-century concert singer even wrote a parody of a schumann song in late 1879 or 1880 and to have performed it ‘with success’. the title of his song is the kellys’ foes. the ballads and songs about bushrangers usually tell about the boldness in their jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 26 manner. their brave, manful manner is often contrasted to the cowardice and treachery of the police and the troopers. their mastery of the australian landscape is also an important theme in the ballads. ballads serve as the media that immortalize the name of the bushrangers. in addition to high culture and popular culture, a good intellectual work about australian bushrangers should also be referred. in 1899, george a. boxall’s the story of the australian bushrangers was published in london. the book has long been regarded as the most accurate and comprehensive single book on an era of widespread lawlessness and injustice. the importance of boxall’s book lies in its balanced view of the bushranger phenomenon. boxall suggests that we do not oversimplify or generalize all bushrangers as criminals. he says that even a civilized man may be degraded by unjust and oppressive laws. he says that it is unfair to blame the earlier bushrangers because they were the products of the civilization of their day, and were not themselves responsible. in chapter i of the book, boxall gives a comprehensive description of the desperation of the convicts who were often abused to work for 7 days a week and punished with brutal punishment, such as: flogging. moreover, their food ration was on the lowest quality. boxall believes that the early bushrangers were the victims generally of unjust laws. neither can we blame the native-born bushrangers, since they were the vicious products of a vicious past. their crimes were due to vicious environment and education. images of bushrangers in the first half of the 20th century nineteenth century saw a divide opinion about bushrangers in high culture, such as literature. while popular culture like ballads and songs immortalized the bushrangers with their chivalric, bold manner. in the 20th century, the depiction of bushrangers took more sophisticated means. after his death in 1880, ned kelly’s image has been outshining other bold bushrangers, such as ben hall or frank gardiner. this tradition continues during the 20th century. so, in the following parts, this essay will carry out more examinations on the images of the kelly gang in public discourse. seal writes that in the 1930s, an infant local broadcasting and recording industry found its australian voice in the form of country music, originally copied from american recordings. country music in the united states had its own tradition of ‘badman’ heroes and after the initial wave of mindless imitation had subsided a little, australian singers began looking for local heroes to balladise. in 1939, tex morton and ‘smiling’ billy blinkhorn both recorded songs about ned kelly for regal zonophone. these were followed by numerous australian country songs celebrating the kellys and sung by such popular and big-selling artists as slim dusty, smoky dawson, and buddy williams. these songs were derived from the existing oral traditions. in these songs, the most widely used aspect was the concept of the outlaws as brave, resourceful men who ‘died game’. besides musical records, there were several films produced upon the stories of the kelly gang. in 1923, a silent film was produced, the true story of the kelly gang. this is a confusing movie which insists on drawing morality from the gang. it portrays constable fitspatrick as a hardline trooper, and shows the bravery of the police in fighting the gang. some scenes seem to be rather forcefully produced, in order to give moral lessons to people though the results even make the movie looks awkward. for example, it is shown that the kellys’ sympathizers and their ‘bush telegraphs’ assist the gang only for money. the movie alters kelly’s famous last words ‘such is life’ into ‘and such is the inevitable fate of all who rebel against the righteous and mighty forces of law and order’ just before ned is hanged. it ends with a final card saying ‘the wages of sin is death’ that sounds like a cliché. a play about the kellys was published for the first time in 1943 under the title ned kelly. douglas stewart, the playwright, might not have been the first person to write about the kellys, but his play was the first play to be published. in the play, stewart (through the character of steve hart) portrays the kelly gang as the heirs of ben hall, power, and thunderbolt, the kings of the road. ned lays down their chivalric, gentleman manner as his gang’s rules like bowing to the ladies and kissing reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 27 the blooming babies. ned makes steve hart hand back the watch that he stole from reverend gribble because, as he says, his men ‘are not thieves’. in the first half of the 20th century, the aura of ned kelly still was not waning. it was growing stronger not only among the common people, but also among the noted people. ned kelly attracted sidney nolan, the most famous australian painter and internationally the best known australian artist, to produce 27 paintings, with ned as the central themes. the kelly’s paintings painted in 1946 to 1947 are considered as his most carefully planned of any he has done. nolan paints kelly as a hunted outlaw, as he usually treats other subjects in other paintings. in doing his paintings, nolan was much influenced by his own life. as his life changed he painted different kellys: from being heroic, unassailable and defiant, kelly becomes dejected, forlorn, and rather frightened in later paintings. nolan feels that kelly has emerged as a more complex figure in the paintings. some see him as a prototype of a guerrilla rather than a comic figure painted by a naïve artist. nolan says ‘i can see how the works link us to the past with our memories of the landscape and the oddity of the kelly outbreak…strange things link us, because australians are a tribe and i don’t mean that in any disparaging ways…we are the only tribe that can think of kelly as part of our culture and history. i paint kelly as a part of australia’s culture and mine.’ interpreting the kelly saga, alan moorehead writes ‘nolan’s approaches kelly as revolutionary rather than a criminal. he is on kelly’s side. his haunting, monolithic figure in the iron mask has the flames of hell upon it, but that slit for the eyes is wonderfully expressive of defiance; this is the crisis of a strong man in chaos, and once again the tragedy is beautiful.’ in 1951, a film about the kelly gang was released, the glenrowan affair. it was directed by rupert kathner. the kelly gang is narrated by an old man (who is known at the end of the film as dan kelly) talking to a painter who is painting the landscape of greta, the home of kelly’s family. being unable to capture the kelly’s gang, the police arrest everyone associated with the gang and put them in jail. according to seal, this film was wildly inaccurate. the film also shows that the kellys’ sympathizers actually only want their money. despite the partial story, it shows the role of kate kelly, ned’s sister, as heroine. the police chief tells the constables to watch kate because she knows the bush as well as ned and she is a very good horsewoman. images of bushrangers from the 1950s to 2000 in the australian legend (1958), russel ward believes that bushrangers came to occupy a good place in australian legend partly because australians needed military figures as people of other countries do. this interpretation is drawn upon the traditional legend brought from britain. the ward’s strongest argument says that the bushrangers’ ethos was closely related to the working class, particularly the irish, and the sense of up-country life. the common people or the bushmen shared the same ethos as the bushrangers. however, among the bushmen, the bushrangers possessed the greatest australian spirit. it was shown from their complete ‘independence’ of the british authorities. they had an outstanding ability to adapt to the harsh environment; they were resourceful and loyal to each other. ward says that bushrangers were the ‘genus’ of the true australians. among the people bushrangers became folk-heroes because they were symbols of the emergent australian national feeling. this national feeling was born of their adaptability to the harshest australian landscape. during the easter of 1967, a symposium on ned kelly was held at the wangaratta adult education centre. the symposium discussed ned kelly from different perspectives and it offered a more careful interpretation of ned kelly. professor manning clark, in his article, suggests that ned was in ambivalent situation. he was aware of the divine prohibition of theft and murder, but aware too, that such acts against the men who had condemned ‘many blooming irishman’ to a life of tyranny were not crimes. he seems to have sensed that the english had repeated in australia their abominations against his people. ian jones comments that the story of the kelly’s rebellion is not conclusive. many vital links are missing. the kellys were much more than mere criminals. any jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 28 attempt to interpret the escalation of the kelly outbreak and the support afforded the kelly gang as merely the results of a group of people supporting criminals in pursuit of criminal gain, is illogical. the gathering and turning back of the sympathizers at glenrowan is irrefutable and we would be justified in saying that ned kelly, the man, was infinitely greater than his legend, a man of greater nobility and moral courage than anything we have even hinted at in the past. another movie which exploits the story of the kelly gang was released in 1970, ned kelly. the movie is staring mick jagger. it shows how the conflict between the kellys and the authority started. constable fitzpatrick who gets drunk comes to the kelly’s home to arrest dan kelly. being asked to show a warrant for the arrest, he shows his revolver and puts it on the table. then he tries to molest one of the kelly’s girls in the house, so that dan defends his sister. this is the scene that becomes an argument. in this movie, ned kelly is absent from the house which contradicts fitzpatrick’s testimony at court, saying he was shot by ned. yet, the sole testimony is accepted by the court and subsequently mrs. kelly is sentenced for 3 years in jail. the film once again lifts up a female figure, mrs. kelly as a heroine, a victim of repressive authority upon false testimony of a corrupt police officer. ned shows his rather indifferent character in this movie. it becomes blurred whether it is mick jagger’s character (who is a rock star) which influences his role as ned, or it is ned’s real traits that fit mick jagger. historiography has developed from a classic linear history, indicated by a timeline to various versions, which are fragmented from one to another. history is no longer seen as continuity, but as discontinuity, as foucault says. in the 1980s, the historical accounts on bushrangers showed such symptom with the narration of ‘spatial history’. in 1980, alan sharpe wrote a book bushranger country in which he invites the urban australians to explore bushranger country. sharpe argues that in so doing, they will not only discover another way of life, they may also restore some of the better values into their own. the book is illustrated with many pictures of places which the bushrangers had walked on. peter c. smith is another writer who writes the history of bushrangers in a spatial perspective, tracking down the bushrangers (1982). smith interprets the bushrangers from their physical abilities and familiarity with the bush that enabled them to travel the countryside performing acts of daring and bravado which was in contrast to the dubious capabilities of the police. smith suggests that the remarkable feats of the bushrangers were based on their intimate knowledge of the country. they were at home in the bush. the bushranging outbreak took a place over a huge expanse of land that was the background to post-gold rush youth. it was the wild unknown to those who were strangers to it. he asserts that to appreciate the full dimension of bushranging we must appreciate the country in which it took place. smith’s book evokes excitement from the adventures and above all, the book tells the readers about the bushranging incidents and provides a direction to get to the regions. with regional maps, photographs of figures of both, bushrangers and police officers, buildings, tombstones, and memorials, smith’s tracking down the bushrangers is more attractive to read rather than charles white’s history of australian bushranging (1980), which was published in 2 volumes. white makes a comprehensive research on the history of bushrangers since the beginning in van diemen’s land. white writes the bushrangers in their many faces, from the incendiary and murdererm, such as daniel morgan to the bold gardiner and hall who never during the career attempted to wound or kill either the persons whom he robbed or the police who hunted him. the 1990s saw a new interpretation on bushrangers. in bandits on the great north road (1993) cliff hanna says that the bushrangers become ambiguous figures to the last, a blend of romance and brutality, of kindness and cruelty, of high spirits and desperation, he is both the murderous robber and the cheeky boy who gains people’s admiration. she argues that from the beginning, the bushrangers were more than simply outlaws. as ‘bandits’, they were the first to manifest open dissatisfaction with the confining nature of british rule, a dissatisfaction which later reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 29 became the distinguishing characteristics of the native-born. like ward’s argument, the bushrangers were the first among europeans to see the australian landscape as a haven rather than a hell, as a place of freedom rather than a penitentiary. they drew attention to the difference between the english (‘sterling’) and native-born (‘currency’) classes, and between the power of the rich and helplessness of the poor. in this way, they reinforced the need for a more egalitarian, democratic society, and helped to establish in australian culture the myth of the underdog. so, the bushrangers are a force for social change. bushrangers in contemporary imagining the newest bildungsroman that describes the life of ned kelly was published in 2000. written by peter carey, the novel becomes an australian and international bestseller. the novel describes ned’s life at its best; the narration gives an excellent intertwining of the events in ned’s life that are often missed in other stories, books, and movies. at this time, ned speaks about himself, from his first memory when he was three years old, his early relation with the police, his apprenticeship with the famous bushranger harry power to earn money, his relation with mary hearn, his bushranging, and the gang’s fight with the police at glenrowan inn. the novel mainly describes ned as a devoted son who always tries to support and protect his mother, mrs. kelly. the reasons why ned was involved in crimes at his early age is explained in this novel. the holywood version of ned kelly movie was released in 2003 by universal studios, starring heath ledger, orlando bloom, naomi watts, and geoffrey rush. in this movie, ned (heath ledger) is portrayed like what he describes himself in the jerilderie letter. the director (gregor jordan) decides to use ned kelly as the narrator of the movie, different from other previous movies in which ned’s character is exploited by other people. constable fitzpatrick is described as the cause of the kellys rebellion, similar to ned kelly film in 1970 version. mrs. kelly is sentenced three years of hard labor on fitzpatrick’s testimony. in this movie, ned is described as a good-mannered man, a devoted irish catholic who respects women, and as a man who turns gloomy after shooting constable lonigan and sergeant kennedy. it is a bit different from mick jagger’s ned. the movie also shows the antagonism between the powerless working class who are mainly irish and the english-born people. ned the narrator says ‘it is not easy for irish folks to live in queen victoria’s colony’. it suggests oppression toward the irish by the crown’s authority at ned’s time. ned and his gang are heroes against the repressive authority. the movie shows the corruption of victorian police in the 1870s. we may also notice that in the present time, the bushrangers have become the icon of the state of victoria. in mass printing, the age constantly uses ‘the kelly country’ phrase in place of victoria. the armors, used to be worn by the kelly gang, have been printed in victorian tourism postcards. children are also introduced to the character of ned kelly and his armor. if we take a walk in melbourne city centre, the images of ned kelly are painted on the walls on bourke street and elizabeth street. all of this means that ned kelly or the bushrangers have become a national pride. their fighting spirit and mastery over the australian landscape outweigh their malice. conclusion from the analysis, we can draw some important points. in the 19th century, the interpretation of bushrangers was divided into 2 major opinions. the plays and novel show bushrangers as possessing good qualities and gentleman manners. yet, the plays do not really glorify the bushranger figures as shown in the tragedy of donohoe and stalwart the bushranger. both plays neither take side on the bushrangers nor defend the police, but put sympathy to the victims. the novel robbery under arms shows an ambiguous nationalism. there is a belief in the english class structure and the new australian culture of freedom and equality. a different interpretation is shown in ballads and jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 30 songs. the ballads and songs tend to see bushrangers as bold people in opposition to the coward police. they are regarded as the common people’s friends. in short, there was ambivalence in society’s opinion of bushrangers in the 19th century. with the introduction of country music in australian popular culture, the image of bushrangers was lifted up in the first half of the 20th century. country songs celebrated these outlaws as brave and resourceful people. film also became a new technology that exploited the stories of bushrangers. most silent movies portrayed the bushrangers as outlaws who brought evil to the society. in contrast, law and order had to be upheld, and the figure that rose was the police. the silent movies usually praised the police as the protector of people. this sort of narration was due to the tight censorship of the government because in their view the bushrangers did not teach morality and respect to law. in the 1940s, bushrangers were celebrated in high culture for the first time by sidney nolan’s the kelly paintings. nolan saw these bushrangers as an element that bound the australian people as a tribe, a solid nation. he also took side on the kellys and saw them as part of australia’s culture and history rather than common criminals. nolan invited the audience to link themselves to the past through the character of bushrangers and there is no shame in it. this period also witnessed the rise of kate kelly as the heroine along with the bushrangers. the heroine possesses equal bush knowledge and horse skill as the bushrangers as shown in the glenrowan affair. in the 1950s, russel ward interpreted bushrangers as figures that australians needed. it is alike what barthes says that historians not only collect facts, but more write a ‘fiction’ with an aim to fill out the vacuum in the society. the bushrangers, ward argued, were the first real australians, the genus of australian nation. in the 1960s, history played an important role in interpreting the bushrangers. the details of the bushrangers’ life and their qualities were seen from different angles. some saw them as violent criminals, but most of them saw them as people of outstanding qualities, such as ned kelly described by aaron sherrit (was killed by joe byrne for being the police’s scout) as ‘superhuman’. also, historical researches looked more closely on the social contexts, such as poverty and social antagonism between the selectors and the squatters. ned kelly was described as a tough, indifferent character in ned kelly film released in 1970. yet, his character was shaped by the circumstance that forced him to take to the bush. a different interpretation was seen in the 1980s when the bushrangers were seen as the people who mastered the harsh australian landscape. to understand the bushrangers, it required an ‘understanding’ of the australian landscape and vice versa. the spatial history of bushrangers is shown in the books by peter smith, alan sharpe, and kevin passey. the significance of bushrangers was growing more in the 1990s, although their figures are still ambiguous, a blend of kindness and cruelty. nevertheless, they were regarded as the first who had seen the australian landscape as a place of freedom rather than a penitentiary. the bushrangers were a social force which encouraged egalitarianism and democracy in australia. in contemporary culture, bushrangers are coming back. they are ‘speaking’ about themselves after more than one century people have been talking about and describing them. this new interpretation can be seen in the method of narration in peter carey’s true history of the kelly gang. ned kelly tells a long story of his life since his childhood and devotion to his mother which leads him to bushranging. in ned kelly movie (2003), ned also tells about his own life. ned is described as a good person, representing the irish folks who find it hard living in a colony of the english crown. besides, bushrangers are now becoming a national pride. in conclusion, the australian society’s attitude toward bushrangers has been changing from time to time. beginning with ambivalence between the mother country’s culture and the new australian ethos, australian society is moving toward a new strong nation which possesses their own distinctive characters. as time is moving toward the present time, through the interpretations of bushrangers, we notice a social and cultural progress in australia. the culture of openness and egalitarianism are inextricable characters of the australians since the australian authority do not interfere or censor the interpretations of bushrangers anymore. the exercise of repressive power upon reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 31 people is discontinued. people have their freedom of speech and the culture of democracy guarantees the right. speaking out their own opinion is not a taboo and it is shown by the metaphors of ned kelly telling the story of his own life in ned kelly movie (2003) and carey’s true history of the kelly gang. bushrangers are passed onto a national character. one important point in the bushrangers’ heroism is that there is a place for a heroine (kate kelly and mrs. kelly) which is rarely found in other australian heroes whether it is the bushmen, diggers, shearers, anzac soldiers or even in canonical history books of australia. this is another development in australian history. so, going back to foucault’s theory by reading the ‘texts’ or ‘imaginary elaborations’ (in barthes’s term) about the ‘outcasts’ bushrangers, we can discover the progress in the mainstream culture of australian society. references angiolillo, paul f. (1979). a criminal as hero. lawrence: the regents press of kansas. barthes, r. (1998). ‘the discourse of history’ in the postmodern history reader keith jenkins (ed.), pp.120-3. london: routledge. boldrewood, r. (1979). ‘robbery under arm’ in portable australian authors rolf boldrewood. alan brissenden (ed. & introduction). st. lucia: university of queensland press. boxall, g.e. (1974). the story of the australian bushrangers (first published in 1899). harmondsworth: penguin books ltd. brissenden, a. (1979). ‘introduction’ in portable australian authors rolf boldrewood, pp. 9-22. alan brisenden (ed. & introduction). st. lucia: university of queensland press. burn, d. (1971). the bushrangers. w & j.e. hiener (eds. for production). south yarra: heinemann educational australia pty ltd. carey, p. (2001). true history of the kelly gang. st. lucia: university of queensland press. clark, m. (1968). ‘good day to you, ned kelly’ in ned kelly man and myth, pp.12-39. colin f. cave (intro.) north melbourne: cassel australia ltd. drewe, r. (1991). our sunshine. sydney: picador. green, d. (1987). ’foreword’ in stalwart the bushrangers with the tragedy of donohoe, pp.13-15. charles harpur. sydney: currency press in association with australian drama studies, st.lucia. foucault, m. (1998). ‘nietzsche, genealogy, history’ in the postmodern history reader keith jenkins (ed.), pp.124-38. london: routledge. hiener, w. & j.e. hiener. (1971). ‘introduction’ in the bushranger. david burn. edited and arranged for production by w & j.e. hiener. south yarra: heinemann educational australia pty ltd. jones, i. (1968). ‘a new view of ned kelly’ in ned kelly man and myth, pp.154-189. colin f.c (intro.). north melbourne: cassel australia ltd. kelly, n. (2001). jerilderie letter. alex mcdermott (ed.) melbourne: the text publishing company. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 20-33 32 kelly, v. (1987). ‘postscript 1987’ in stalwart the bushrangers with the tragedy of donohoe, pp.610. charles harpur. sydney: currency press in association with australian drama studies st. lucia. kooistra, p. (1989). criminals as heroes: structure, power, and identity. bowling green: bowling green state university popular press. lynn, e. (1989). ’the painting of ned kelly’ in sidney nolan’s ned kelly, pp.7-9. canberra: the australian national gallery. melville, r. (1964). ned kelly 27 paintings by sidney nolan. london: thames and hudson. moorehead, a. (1964). ‘introduction’ in robert melville. ned kelly 27 paintings by sidney nolan, pp.12-13. london: thames and hudson. mcquilton, f.j. (1977). the geographical dimensions of social banditry the kelly outbreak 18871880. a ph.d. thesis, faculty of arts the university of melbourne. nolan, s. (1989). ned kelly: paintings and drawings from the collection of the australian national gallery. canberra: the australian national gallery. nunn, h. (1980). bushrangers: a pictorial history. sydney: lansdowne press. outlawed discover the stories behind the world’s rebels, revolutionaries, and bushrangers, leaflet from melbourne museum. [online]. retrieved from http://melbourne.museum.vic.gov.au. passey, k.j. (1986). lachlan landmarks. bushranger sites of mid new south wales. first published by kevin j. passey. seal, g. (1980). ned kelly in popular tradition. melbourne: hyland house. sharpe, a. (1980). bushranger country. richmond: hutchinson group (australia) pty ltd. smith, p.c. (1982). tracking down the bushrangers. kenthurst: kangaroo press. spraggs, g. (2001). outlaws and highwaymen the cult of the robber in england from the middle ages to the nineteenth century. london: pimlico random house. stewart, d. (1956). ned kelly, (acting edition). melbourne: angus and robertson. waller, l. (1968). ‘regina v. edward kelly’ in ned kelly man and myth, pp.105-153. colin f. cave (intro.) north melbourne: cassel australia ltd. ward, r. (1966). the australian legend. melbourne: oxford university press. white, c. (1980). history of australian bushranging, vol.1. windsor: currey o’neil. windschuttle, k. (1997). the killing of history. sydney: the free press. _______. (1980). history of australian bushranging, vol.1i. windsor: currey o’neil. _______. (2003). the archaeology of knowledge. london: routledge. _______. (1970). the order of things. london: tavistock publications limited. _______. (1964). the penguin book of australian legend. ringwood: penguin books. reading the historical..... (yohanes hartadi) 33 appendix silent movies: bail up! the bushranger on australia’s silent screen available in vid format, produced by the national film and sound archive. 1996. kelly gang (1906) robbery under arms (1920) the kelly gang (1920) the story of the kelly gang (1906) the story of the kelly gang (1910) thunderbolt (1910) trooper campbell (1914) trooper o’brien (1928) when the kellys were out (1923) other movies: ned kelly. a movie directed by tony richardson. original release: 1970, video recording. dvd version released by mgm home entertainment, 2003. ned kelly. a movie directed by gregor jordan.starring heath ledger, orlando bloom, naomi watts, and geoffrey rush. dvd collection released by universal pictures, 2003. the glenrowan affair. a movie directed by rupert kathner. original release: 1951. dvd version released by screensound australia, 2002. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 221 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 221-226 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.3395 english for specific purposes: a need analysis on english course in islamic banking department ahmad madkur english language teaching department, faculty of tarbiya and teachers training, state institute for islamic studies (iain) metro jl. ki hajar dewantara, 15a kelurahan iring mulyo, metro city, lampung 34111, indonesia ahmadmadzkur@metrouniv.ac.id received: 22nd may 2017 /revised: 15th september 2017 /accepted: 24th january 2018 how to cite: madkur, a. (2018). english for specific purposes: a need analysis on english course in islamic banking department. lingua cultura, 12(3), 221-226. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.3395 abstract this research was aimed at analyzing the type of english skills needed by the students of islamic banking (perbankan syariah) in iain metro and figuring out the materials relevant to their needs. this was a qualitative study involving 25 students and 20 alumni who were working or had ever worked in the banks or bmts. the data were obtained by employing interviews, questionnaires, documentation, and then analyzed by using miles and huberman model. the findings reveal that most of the students have less skill in english. however, the language skill that is needed at most by the students is speaking skill as the communicative skill and vocabulary as the language skill. it is also discovered that there are some problems, such as limited references, lack of supporting facilities, and learning duration that are encountered by both lecturers and the students. then, referring to their needs, the materials do not yet accommodate the content focus in which the students can learn english related to banking issues. this research recommends that the syllabus should be revised and english should be taught in an integrative approach. keywords: english for specific purpose, islamic banking, need analysis introduction among a number of factors that need to be paid attention in generating the working competence of university alumni, a foreign language is a skill which plays an important role in the various fields of works. in the global economy, english language proficiency greatly plays a key role to professionals at both the national and the international level (rajprasit et al., 2014). today, english is considered a vehicle which enables its speakers to take part in the international market (lauder, 2008). therefore, the ability to use english both actively and passively very frequently becomes one of the requirements to work in a company. in other words, english ability can be a basis that eases people to find a job. since the purposes of learning english are varied from person to another person, there is a so-called english for specific purposes (esp) to suit english with the needs of learners. for this situation, need analysis (na) is undoubtedly necessary. the emergence of need analysis starts to be well-known in the mid-1970s when the learnercentered approach communication focused is chosen to teach a foreign language (boroujeni & fard, 2013). furthermore, in managing foreign language program, need analysis is a vital aspect of material development (tzotzou, 2014). the field of banking, like many other fields, often requires english ability when selecting candidates of employees. a study concludes that there is a need for english among the bank employees. therefore, it is urgent to design a syllabus that matches the students’ needs (mohammadzadeh, barati, & fatemi, 2015). for those students of islamic banking, english materials should contain not only linguistic aspects but also authentic materials that are possibly used to support their future jobs. wu and chin (2010) have highlighted that although english is not the means of oral communication in their daily work setting, employees in the financial industry prefer to take training courses which help them develop spoken interaction skills, such as business conversation and presentation skills. furthermore, they find that self-study is a crucial aspect of english learning for banking and finance professionals in taiwan. courses and materials designed for these learners should take into account the flexibility and support needed for self-directed learning. more significantly still, in light of the inseparability of content and language inherent in financial english, future esp work in this domain requires continual collaboration among elt professionals, applied linguists, and domain experts. 222 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 221-226 regarding to the importance of esp for people working in the field of banking, many researchers have found it essential to spot the light on the big advantages gained by applying the english language in various banks’ works as a superb communication tool, electronic dealings language, and global understanding tool between the nations. however, it is not an easy thing to design a specific english material for the students of the banking department. from the research conducted by aprili (2012), it is found that the students need actual materials relating to their major. these actual materials are expected to encourage the students to study english well. she also finds that the lecturers for the esp course must be a lecturer from the related department finding. trying to prepare esp materials for the students of islamic banking department, masruddin (2016) has designed appropriate english materials for sharia economy and sharia banking study program. the materials are developed with the task-based approach and communicative approach. adewumi and owoyemi (2012) have stated that there must be a need specification of bankers toward english in order to focus on certain types of english. moreover, according to them, to equip the employee candidates before they become part of banking works, there must be an english syllabus designed based on the needs of banking workers. to know these needs, a need analysis is an appropriate way and later can be used as a consideration in material development. at state institute for islamic studies (iain) metro, particularly in islamic banking department, english syllabus is not yet designed based on the students’ lacks, needs, and necessities. as a result, the materials given to the students are often not suitable for the students’ expectation. if this problem is not solved soon, english taught to the students will probably not help their future jobs. due to the essence of foreign language competence, especially english communication skill for the students who study islamic banking, a need analysis to make a material content is adjusted with the students’ needs. therefore, this research is attempted to know the students’ needs on english course by conducting need analysis so that the possibility of inappropriate materials taught to the students of islamic banking department in iain metro could be minimized. methods this research employs a qualitative approach with the case study type. the research investigates the problems and the needs of the students majoring islamic banking department in iain metro when learning english course. the results of the need analysis research are expected to be a constructive and contributive input for english syllabus and material development in this department. 25 students of islamic banking department are involved in this research by interviewing and distributing them some questionnaires. furthermore, to deepen the result analysis, the researcher also involves 20 alumni of iain metro who are working, and those who have ever worked in the field of banking or baitul mal wa tamwil (bmt), a microfinance institution that operated on the principle of profit sharing, fostering a micro, and small business. the researcher invites the alumni to have the group discussion to talk about their experience and their needs in english when working in the company. data collecting methods used in this research are documentation, interviews, and questionnaires. documentation is intended to document all of the data necessary both in the form of a soft file and hard file. the interviews and questionnaires are given to the students of islamic banking department, the lecturer of english subject, and the alumni of iain metro who are or had ever worked in the field of banking, either sharia or conventional. the alumni who work in the conventional bank are given a chance to deliver their perception of the use of english in banking. the data are then analyzed by using the explanation descriptively and interpretatively. the descriptive analysis is to describe and analyze the problem and the students’ needs in the process of learning english. to analyze the data, the researcher employs miles and huberman model that is consisting of some steps namely: (1) data collection, (2) data reduction, (3) data display, and (4) data verification (alhojailan, 2012). results and discussions the result of the researcher’s interview with the first year students of islamic banking department shows that the majority (23 people or 92%) of them positively perceived of the importance of english language for the students of islamic banking department. they realize that the lessons related to their major are definitely much more important than english. however, they consistently believe that the english language is necessary to learn and to master as well. these findings are in concordance with the result of the research by arslan & akbarov (2012). they have stated that: “their field courses are more important for them, but this does not change the fact that they know they need to learn the language at least for the sake of their studies as the medium of instruction at university is english. they also think that being able to use the language will be beneficial for them in their future jobs.” in another research, it is recommended that internal motivation of english learners can be the product of an esp program where the learners’ needs, nature of students’ majors, and their specialized needs should be seen as the focus of attention (tabatabaei & mokhtari, 2014). this shows that the esp teachers may not deny the existence of the students’ perception of it. knowing the students’ perception is necessary because it is one of the influential factors in learning. according to lindsay and norman in pickens (2005), perception is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to give birth to a valuable experience of the world. furthermore, the perception is belief or opinion referring to the motivation in doing something (lai, 2011). from this definition, it can be understood that whether the motivation is positive or negative, it could be influenced by someone’s perception or opinion. it is because motivation is one of the factors that influence learning achievement. as it is stated that the motivation of learners significantly affects their willingness to take part in the process of learning (al-othman & shuqair, 2013). in other words, the rate of student learns a new language depends on their individual motivation. if the students learn a language that they considered important, it will be very much different from those who think that english is not necessary. 223english for specific purposes.... (ahmad madkur) this research has found that the reasons why they learn english are different from one another. the diversity of reasons is because of the different perceptions of the students. these reasons are necessary to be known in order to know their learning willingness that further affected to the learning achievement. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 the reason of why english is important from figure 1, it could be seen that the international status as one of the most widely spoken languages makes the students sure that english is important to learn. this status of english as an international language is recognized by not only the university students but also people outside of academic lives. nowadays, many lecturers with non-english background spend part of their time to learn english. due to its globally widespread, english is called global language (nguyen, 2008). the status as a global language is definitely reliable because even though not the most widely spoken language, it is the most spread language where it is learned by the majority of countries around the globe. in relation to the students’ reasons for recognizing that english could support their job carriers, this phenomenon has been indeed a wide trend. it is stated in the research by warschauer in yang (2010) that many people whose native languages are not english need a foreign language, in particular, english to support and develop their daily works. this is becoming more important when people work in a company with a good reputation. some necessities involve english; for example, presentation, negotiation, and cooperation with international colleagues. meaning to say, english clearly has a strategic role since it can connect a group of people with different languages but have a similar intention of doing business together. besides the two abovementioned reasons, there are also some students who simply answer that the reason why english is an important language, and therefore they need to learn english. the other few students also answer simply like they want to be able to understand the meaning of english songs or films. even though these reasons seem in academic, they could give a positive impact on the students’ willingness in learning english. in the process of need analysis, there are three aspects, as elaborated by hutchinson and waters that must be paid attention and then investigated. they are lack, necessity and wants. in this case, lack is the students’ weaknesses that must be known by the teachers in order to be able to determine the best treatment for reducing the weaknesses (songhori, 2008). to figure out the students’ ability in the english language, the researcher interviews the students of islamic banking department and gives them questionnaires. the students are given a chance to describe their english competence based on their own opinions. the result of the questionnaires shows that according to the students, they have the low ability in grammar. it is about 22 people (88%) who answer about this ability. the rest, three people (12%) are even on the lower level than the previous numbers. this condition shows that english skill, according to the students’ opinions is grammar. after an indepth interview conducted by the writer, it is known that they feel that their grammar is the worst skill because they are repeatedly faced with grammar materials when learning english subject. in other words, they feel that other skills of english are not as bad as their grammatical competence. this is because they are rarely in a situation where they could learn other skills. then, something that attracts the researcher to see is the students’ speaking skill. even though this skill has five people with the criteria ‘good’ or 20%, it has the most criteria ‘very bad’, namely 11 students or 44%. meanwhile, the rest is nine or amounted to 36% have stated that their speaking is in the criteria ‘bad’. this phenomenon shows that if the criteria ‘bad’ and the criteria ‘very bad’ are accumulated, speaking skills would be the skill with the lowest ability. the third lowest skill is listening to the criteria ‘bad’ 44% and the criteria ‘very bad’ 20%. then it is followed by the fourth lowest skill, namely writing and vocabulary that has same percentage, namely the criteria ‘bad’48% and the criteria ‘very bad’ 12%. meanwhile, the rest 40% is in the position of criteria ‘bad’. the last level of low ability is reading. this skill can be the best level of the students’ ability in english because it has the lowest percentage of criteria ‘bad’ or ‘very bad’. this skill is reading with criteria ‘bad’ 24% and criteria ‘very bad’ is 28%. and the rest 48% is in the position of criteria ‘good’. to find out what kind of english skill is needed, the researcher distributes the questionnaires to 20 alumni. the findings show that one of six skills that consist of communicative skill (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and language skill (vocabulary and grammar), speaking skill is in the highest percentage. the number of all skills according to the alumni is speaking 14, vocabulary 12, listening 11, reading 7, writing 4, and grammar 0. the result shows that the students’ weaknesses and the alumni’s perceptions about which skill is needed most are different. in other words, when referring to the students’ weakness, namely grammar, the lecturer should prioritize the teaching of grammar. in contrast, when based on the alumni’s experience, speaking skill should be prioritized instead of grammatical skill. furthermore, to strengthen the data about language skill that is needed most, the researcher interviews the alumni of islamic banking department. there are 20 alumni who described their opinions about what english skill they need the most based on their experience of working in the banking sector. from their experience in the banks or bmts, the skill that should be mastered by the employee of a bank is speaking skill. this competency is necessary in order to equip them when interacting with foreign customers commonly available in the banks in big cities. besides, foreign language competence becomes a plus and the bargaining point for the job applicants when they compete to get a job in banking sectors. to compare the alumni’s opinions and the students’ opinions, the researcher distributes the questionnaires again to them. the result shows that not only the alumni but also the students who think that speaking is the most necessary skill. it means that they share more or less similar opinion. uniquely, even though in the result of need analysis their grammar is the lowest ability, the students of islamic 224 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 221-226 banking department expect more to master the speaking skill instead of other language skills. furthermore, if the opinions of the students and the alumni are accumulated, the percentage of the most needed skill can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 the percentage of the most needed english skill (alumni and students) figure 2 shows that among the communicative skills, speaking is the most preferred one. meanwhile, in the aspect of language skill, the students perceive that they need vocabulary skill more than other skill. this data also shows that those six skills, even though in the different number of percentage, are all needed. as a consequence, the teaching of esp in islamic banking department is needed to accommodate all of the skills in an integrative way (integrative approach). this preference is also in concordance with what is said by alumni who already experience working in the banking sector. although a bank employee needs to comprehend english language skill, he/she must prioritize speaking skill. this is because oral communication skill is necessary for the world of employment (ahmad, 2016). it is true that the teachers do not necessarily always design the language program based fully on the students’ needs and wants. nevertheless, it is important for the teachers to listen and then try to do maximum efforts to accommodate their needs. this is in line with the terminology of learner-centered approach in which the students are seen as a partner in the process of decision making about the selection of materials and the teaching methodology for the sake of learning objective accomplishment. in the context of university level, embedding the employability-related issues into the curriculum should become an aspect that is prioritized (pegg et al., 2012). based on the syllabus components of esp, the researcher is trying to analyze the existing syllabus in the islamic banking department. in this case, the research attempts to get to know the needs of english materials from two sides. first is from the students and alumni’s perspectives and the second is from the expert’s theory of esp. the opinions of the students who are pursuing the bachelor in islamic banking are intended to know one of the components in need analysis, namely wants, something the students want from the subject that they learned. to know the students’ wants, some questionnaires are given to 20 students. those questionnaires consist of some statements related to the types of materials that they want when they take english class in islamic banking department. based on the response given by the participants, it is known that 16 (80%) participants have said that the english materials for islamic banking should also be completed with basic language skill. meanwhile, in need analysis, the necessary components must also be fulfilled. necessary is simply understood as the needs that must be met when they got a job. to investigate this, the explanation from the alumni is important because they have directly undergone working in the banking sector. specifically, they already experience the role and the benefit of english in banking workplace. regarding whether or not to incorporate the basic language skills in learning english for islamic banking, the alumni also argued that, in addition to wanting to gain knowledge of english for banking, they are also assessed the basic ability (listening, speaking, reading, writing, etc.) that cannot be released from their english module. the next challenge is to decide the components of english materials for islamic banking correctly. the components should meet the students’ need and at the same time is based on the empirical theories. the design and development of english subject matter for esp that the researcher used in this research is according to the concept developed by hutchinson and waters as cited by widodo and pusporini (2010). in the model, four elements must exist in esp material; first is input, containing text, dialogue, recording, diagrams, or forms of communicative material based on needs that have been analyzed first. this input is intended to provide stimulus materials for activities, new forms of language materials, the proper use of language, themes/topics for communication, and opportunities for learners to use the knowledge learned. second is the content focus that contains nonlinguistic content (specifically the field in which the learners are involved) should be explored to create a useful communicative atmosphere in the classroom activities. the third is language focus. since the ultimate goal of esp teaching is to use the target language, learners should be given the opportunity to use the language into various activities, learning how it can be used in real conditions, and then practicing all of them simultaneously. and the last is the task. the main purpose of language learning is the use of the language itself. teaching materials that are designed and developed should lead to communicative tasks in which the language skills and lecture materials that have been studied can be linked simultaneously to a unit. based on the teaching materials mentioned model, the researcher adapts it to the design of english material for undergraduate students of islamic banking. it can be seen in figure 3. figure 3 the design of material development for banking adopted from hutchinson and waters in vičič (2011) the components should be included in every chapter or unit in the module used in english classes in islamic banking department. this also needs the support of policies to make sure the availability of the components in the 225english for specific purposes.... (ahmad madkur) syllabus and lesson plan. furthermore, to create the model of material development for english course, it is necessary to conduct further and more in-depth research, in particular, research and development (r and d) research by which the lecturer could design and directly implement the material development in his classes. adjusting course materials should start with syllabus arrangement. this is meant to anticipate the possibility of the shifting of lecturers to teach esp because sometimes when the lecturer is changed, the materials are also changed. here, need analysis is used to identify what learners will be required to do with the foreign language in the target situation, and how learners might best master the target language during the period of training (hossain, 2013). course material is very important because it has something to do with teaching method. the sequence of instructional activities is needed so that the delivery of teaching materials can be submitted systematically and the learners can easily follow the content of the material provided by the educator who must master the teaching method (wen-cheng, chien-hung, chung-chieh, 2011). course materials and teaching methods also have possibilities that are related to learning motivation. in the context of english teaching, wang and meng (2011) have stated that course books or textbooks undoubtedly contribute to improving the quality of efl learning and teaching. it is undeniable that textbooks make a positive contribution to improving the quality of teaching and learning activities of english for foreign learners. for the students of islamic banking, as the results of this research stated, the emphasis is the ability of communicative skills. therefore, the subject matter should also lead to material that allows students to be stimulated to practice speaking skills. some materials that can be used as an alternative teaching english in the islamic banking program are; (1) addressing costumers, (2) working with the numbers, (3) telling the time, (4) product identification, (5) describing occupation/bank clerk activities, (6) asking direction to the bank, (7) filling out banking forms, (8) opening a bank account, (9) meeting people at bank, (10) islamic banking terms, (11) credit/financing, (12) the function of money, (13) conventional versus islamic bank, (14) current issue in the bank. by focusing the material on the ability to speak, such as communicative material related to banking activities, it is expected that students have a wider opportunity to hone their english skills while keeping in mind the context of the world of work that they are likely to attend. conclusions based on the results of research, there are four conditions in the conclusion. the first is in the aspect of communicative skill, speaking skill is most needed by the students of islamic banking. meanwhile, in term of language sub-skill, the majority of the students prefer vocabulary. second is the teaching of english in islamic banking department needs to be done in an integrative approach, namely the incorporation of all language skills in every teaching and learning activity. the third is the syllabus used in islamic banking department mostly contains language sub-skill. thus, the syllabus still cannot reflect the objectives of islamic banking department, one of which is to enable the students of islamic banking to criticize various opinions in the economic, financial, and banking sectors. and the fours is some of the obstacles faced by both students and lecturers of english for islamic banking department are, among other things, limited references to banking english, unavailability of facilities to practice english contextually, and lack of learning duration of banking english. however, this research has two major limitations that need to be acknowledged and addressed. first, this research is still focused on a need analysis and does not cover yet what kind of materials can be effective to teach english to the students of islamic banking. second, the research participants involved in this research are taken from only one university in which might be different from those in the same department other universities. in light of the above limitations, the future researches are proposed. the research can take benefit of the result of this research, especially the design of english material for islamic banking. the future research can be in the form of research and development (r & d) that aims to disclose whether the design of english material meets the needs of the students in the islamic banking department. also, the other qualitative and quantitative research with more broaden samples are necessary to conduct. references adewumi, f. o., & owoyemi, o. a. 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(2011). research on college english textbooks and suggestions. theory and practice in language studies, 1(4), 395-399. https://doi. org/10.4304/tpls.1.4.395-399 wen-cheng, w., chien-hung, l., & chung-chieh, l. (2011). thinking of the textbook in the esl/efl classroom. english language teaching, 4(2), 91-96. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n2p91. widodo, h. p., & pusporini, r. (2010). materials design: english for specific purposes (esp). in h. p. widodo & l. savova (eds.), the lincom guide to materials design in elt (pp. 147-160). muenchen, germany: lincom europa. wu, r. y., & chin, j. s. (2010). an investigation into the english language needs of banking and finance professionals in taiwan. taiwan: the language training & testing center (lttc). retrieved from https://www.lttc.ntu.edu.tw/tlresource/needs_ analysis_of_banking_and_financial_professionals. pdf. yang, y. (2010). computer-assisted foreign language teaching: theory and practice. journal of language teaching and research, 1(6), 909-912. https://doi. org/10.4304/jltr.1.6.909-912. this thesis consists of the analysis of one of sonya sones’ novel-in-verses entitled what my mother doesn’t know using stylistics literary criticism talking about the “misunderstanding” in the process of literary accepting 浅论文学接受过程中的“ 误解” xu junliu (徐俊六) faculty of literature, jurnalism and communication, yunnan normal university, 245417883@qq.com abstract the “misunderstanding” in the process of literary accepting refers to the receiver in the reading text process with the creation main body, creation motive, the work implication, as well as between the works artistic value constitutes the situation which “the dialog” in the complex relations produces contradicts. but, in the concrete reading process, the “misunderstanding” may divide in “the error correction” and “instead harms” kind of situations. although “the error correction” refers to reader's understanding in line with author's creation original meaning which produces contradicts, but the work itself actually has demonstrated reader’s understood connotation, thus causes this kind of the “misunderstanding” seems cuts with actual and persuasiveness. “instead harms” refers to the reader unconscious determination to carry on the far-fetched cognition and the appraisal to the literary work, including to literary work non-artistic angle of view twisting. “the error correction” should advocate that “instead harms” should deny, this does not dispute. but, “the error correction” and “instead harms” between has certain fuzzy regions, between them the strict demarcation line, some literary work in such time, possibly has not had “the error correction” in such receiver, but in another time, possibly has the different understanding in other receivers, to “instead harms” direction transformation. the “misunderstanding” is the literature accepts the necessity, because just having the “misunderstanding”, the different sound, between the literature mutual exchanges and collides, the literature only then had prosperously, the vigorous development aspect. keywords: literature accepts, misunderstanding, error correction, instead harms, text 内容摘要 文学接受过程中的“ 误解” 是指接受者在阅读文本的过程中与创造主体的创造动机、 作品的意蕴以及作品的艺术价值之间构成的“ 对话” 复杂关系中产生相悖的情况。而在具体的 阅读过程中,“ 误解” 又可以分为“ 正误” 与“ 反误” 两种情况。“ 正误” ,是指读者的理解 虽与作者的创作本义有所抵牾,但是作品本身却客观上显示了读者理解的内涵,从而使得这种 “ 误解” 看上去又切合实际,令人信服。“ 反误” ,是指读者自觉不自觉的对文学作品进行穿 凿附会的认知与评价,包括对文学作品的非艺术视角的歪曲。“ 正误” 应该提倡,“ 反误” 应 该否定,这是毫无争议的。但是,“ 正误” 与“ 反误” 之间存在着某些模糊的地带,它们之间 并没有严格的界线,有的文学作品在这样的时代、在这样的接受者中可能产生“ 正误” ,而在 另一个时代、在其他接受者中又可能产生不同的理解,向“ 反误” 的方向转化。“ 误解” 是文 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 204-210 204 学接受中的必然,正因为有了“ 误解” ,有了不同的声音,有了文学之间的相互交流与碰撞, 文学才有了欣欣向荣、蓬勃发展的局。 关键词:文学接受;误解;正误;反误;文本 前言 一种文本投入市场后,经过接受者的阅读,必然产生对此文本的解释,且这样的解释会因 时代、个性的不同产生不同的理解,这就是文学在授受过程中的“ 误解” 。文学授受中的误 解,无论是从中国还是西方,是从古代还是从当代来看都有其历史和社会以及授受者个人的渊 源,而且有众多学者不同的理论阐释。但最有代表性的是当代学者伽达默尔提出的“ 合理的偏 见” 和布鲁姆的“ 影响即误读” 理论。伽达默尔认为“ 所有的理解不可避免地包含着某种偏见, 这种看法给了解释学以真正的推动。” ([德]伽达默尔,1992:383)。布鲁姆提出“ 阅读,如我在标题 里所暗示的,是一种延迟的、几乎不可能的行为,如果更强调一下的话,那么,阅读总是一种误 读。” ([英]布鲁姆《误读图示》选编在朱立元《西方当代文艺理论》,1999 年)。不管以上的提法怎样,但 其终究关注的是文本在授受过程中会产生误解的情形,这两种观点成为了后来人们在理解文本 产生“ 误解” 时的一种较好解释。 文学接受过程中由于主观和客观的原因驱动,产生了对文学作品的不同阐释,从而导致了 对文学作品的不同理解,出现了不同的研究结果,这就是文学接受过程中所谓的“ 误解” 。 “ 误解” 是文学接受中的必然,正因为有了“ 误解” ,有了不同的声音,有了文学之间的相互 交流与碰撞,文学才有了欣欣向荣、蓬勃发展的局面。“ 误解” 是“ 接受者在阅读文本的过程 中与创造主体的创造动机、作品的意蕴以及作品的艺术价值之间构成的‘ 对话’ 复杂关系中产 生相悖的情况。” (童庆炳,1998:300)。而在具体的阅读过程中,“ 误解” 又可以分为“ 正误” 与“ 反误” 两种情况。 一、“ 正误” “ 正误” ,是指“ 读者的理解虽与作者的创作本义有所抵牾,但是作品本身却客观上显示 了读者理解的内涵,从而使得这种‘ 误解’ 看上去又切和实际,令人信服。” (童庆炳,1998: 300)。文学活动在进行完文学创造之后,必然要进入文学接受与消费的过程。一次文学活动的 总流程必须经过这两个阶段,才能最终实现这次活动的预期目标。也就是说,创造主体在某种 创造动机之下所创造的文本必须投放接受市场,让接受者感知其作品,形成一个文学流动的循 talking about the “misunderstanding” ..... (xu junliu) 205 环,以达到它的宿点。文学接受是一种以文学文本为对象,以读者为主体,力求把握深层意蕴 的积极能动的阅读和再创造活动,是读者在审美经验基础上对文学作品的价值、属性或信息的 主动选择、接纳或扬弃。 文学接受是一种阅读或欣赏的精神活动,其接受的主观条件不同一般,除了接受者的文化 知识,阅读能力,消费心理之外,文学接受研究更关注接受者的个性、气质、性别、年龄、职 业、经历、人生观、文化修养、审美趣味、艺术经验、期待视野及阅读心境等(童庆炳,1998: 283-289)。 基于以上的基于以上的各种因素,就产生了由于主观原因所导致的“ 误解” ,但这种“ 误 解” 是合情合理,令人信服,也就是所谓的“ 正误” 。文学接受是接受主体参与,和作者产生 “ 对话” 心理机制的感应过程,由于主体关照与体验的不同,必然导致对文本的理解产生“ 误 解” 。如《红楼梦》,从中的确可以感受到作品揭示了封建社会走向崩溃没落的趋势,但在曹 雪芹的初时创作下,是不可能有这种认识的。此外,从“ 红学” 的研究成果看,以蔡元培为代 表的索隐派红学认为,《红楼梦》是一部“ 政治小说” ;以王国维为代表的小说批评派认为它 是一部“ 人生为事” 小说,其创造的本旨是宣传人生之苦痛及解脱之道,其美学价值在于它是 悲剧中的悲剧,即不是由于恶毒之极人物在支配全部,又不是由于出现了意外变故,乃通常之 道德、通常之人情、通常之境遇而已,结果却产生了悲剧。这是从文学接受者个人感观的“ 人 性” 出发来认识《红楼梦》,重点体现了批评者认识个性中的“ 个性” 特点。而王梦、阮瓶庵 在《红楼梦索隐》中认为它是一部“ 艳小说” ——清世祖与董鄂妃的艳故事,贾宝玉射清世 祖,林黛玉影董鄂妃。还有后来寿鹏飞的“ 历史小说” 说,俞平伯的“ 自传” 说,再后来的 “ 脱胎” 说等等。也是在“ 正误” 之中的仁者见仁,智者见智。美国著名作家塞林格的《麦田 里的守望者》,讲述了五十年代一位十六岁的美国青年孤独、郁闷、彷徨、苦痛的一天两夜生 活。作品问世后引发了两种极端的看法,一是极端的褒奖,认为是一部“ 杰作” ,它深刻勾勒 了一代青年人的各种表现,包括言谈举止、内心情感、理想愿望、个人抒情等方面,让人看后 会产生巨大的共鸣和净化。而另一种则认为它是一部该查禁了的糟透的污染环境的反动言论, 文本中确实可以看出这种倾向,其主人公霍尔顿满口的“ 他妈的” 、“ 混帐” ,而且他还住小 旅馆、吸毒、进舞厅、招妓女等等。 “ 对一文本或一些艺术品真正的发现是永无止境的,它事实上是一个无限的过程。不只是新 的误解源泉不断被清除以致真义从那遮蔽它的所有事件中透露出来,而且新的理解源泉也在那 里源源涌现,揭示了意想不到的意义因素。” ([德]伽达默尔,1992:383)。文学接受从总体上 说,发生于读者对文本的阅读,这是发生又是读者在特定的阅读经验期待视野的基础上,在特 定接受动机的支配下,在特定接受心境的影响下展开的。具体地说,就是在不同的“ 期待视 野” 诸如文本的、形象的、意蕴的影响下;就是在不同的接受动机诸如审美的、求知的、受教 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 204-210 206 的、批评的、借鉴的影响下;就是在不同的接受心境诸如欣悦的、抑郁的、虚静的影响下,以 及其他不尽相同的阅读者内在或外在的、直接或间接的体验影响下,最后导致在阅读文本上产 生不同的观点和看法,这就是不同的接受者在理解同一作品时产生“ 误解” 的原因。(童庆炳, 1998:289-295)。文学接受的客观条件则主要指接受的对象(文本)以及结合上者所处的历史 时代背景等,而且文学接受研究偏于审美经验或艺术心理这一独特视觉,是高级状态的或者说 高层次的文学消费。基于以上的各种因素,就产生了由于客观原因所导致的“ 误解” ,但这种 “ 误解” 是合情合理,令人信服的,也就是“ 正误” 。从文本、“ 话语蕴藉” 上来看,“ 含 蓄” 和“ 含混” 是“ 话语蕴藉” 的两种形态,“ 含蓄” 是把似乎无限的意味隐含在有限的话语 中,使读者从有限中体味无限;“ 含混” 是看似单义而确定的话语却有着多重不确定的意义, 令读者回味无穷。 “ 一部文学作品,即便它以崭新面貌出现,也不可能在信息真空中以绝对新的姿态展示自 身。但它可以通过预告、公开的或隐蔽的信号、熟悉的特点、或隐蔽的暗示,预先为读者提示 一种特殊的接受。” ([德]姚斯,1987)。从这样的角度出发,结合时代特征来看《阿 q 正传》, 鲁迅先生所描写的阿 q, 是在旧社会乡村生活中出现的一位出身低微而又无业的农民形象。 鲁迅曾经说过:“ 阿 q 有农民式的质朴,愚蠢,但也很沾了些游手之徒的狡猾” (鲁迅,1981: 150)。 所要揭露的是“ 勾画出国民的灵魂” ,所要表现的是“ 一位麻木的带有点病态精神” 的人 物形象,这是鲁迅先生的初衷。这是从旧社会广大农村的现实状况出发,结合当时整个时代大 背景,作者从自己的人生体验与内心情感给予了整体的、大众的观照,从一个“ 局外人” 的文 学视角来看待“ 阿 q” 。但是,随着时代的发展,不同的时代、不同的阶级、不同的个性接受 者在阅读《阿 q 正传》时是不是也有同样的感受呢?答案是否定的。到了七十年代,广大的 文学接受者,包括很多作家、文学理论家、批评家和一般的读者则认为“ 阿 q” 是一个“ 革命 者” 的形象,只不过是一个不先进的“ 革命者” 形象,因为在他身上可以发现“ 暴力” 的倾 向,还参加了所谓的“ 革命” 活动。而到了八十年代,“ 阿 q” 又被定性为“ 揭示国民的灵 魂” 形象,因为即使“ 阿 q” 的“ 革命” 真正胜利了,也只不过是在未庄建立起一个以他为首 的森严的等级制度,无一丝的改观。近年来,有些批评者从心理研究的角度出发,认为“ 阿 q” 是“ 一个人” ,首先是“ 一个人” ,一个活生生的人对周围事物的体验过程,其依据是 “ 当一个人在物质层面不能满足自己的要求时,势必转向精神层面。” 不同的时代、不同的 接受者、不同的视角,就会产生不同的“ 阿 q” 。 这里的各种理解可以说是与鲁迅先生当初的本义相对的,是其当初不可能想到的,但从文 学本义上确实又可以真正的看出有那么几层的意义包含其中,这也就不显得怎么奇怪了。无独 有偶,从研究莎士比亚的审美现代性上来看,莎翁笔下的主人公都带有点神经症心理倾向,反 talking about the “misunderstanding” ..... (xu junliu) 207 映了以社会理性为核心的现代性的局限,并成为一种反抗社会理性为核心的传统习惯,世俗生 活原则的异己力量,是一种反价值的价值尺度。而在莎士比亚的时代,他是不可能从这方面加 以考虑的。除此之外,文艺理论上的“ 俄狄浦斯情节” ,“ 厄勒克特拉情节” 后来被称为“ 恋 母情节” 和“ 恋父情节” 等等这些后来发生“ 异变” 的情况。“ 正误” 的产生源于主观、客观 种种复杂的条件,各种机缘巧合使得文本的“ 空白” 未得到有效填充,产生了类似“ 形象大于 思想” 的情况,从而为文本阐释提供了种种可能。 二、“ 反误” “ 反误” ,是“ 指读者自觉不自觉的对文学作品进行穿凿附会的认知与评价,包括对文学 作品的非艺术视角的歪曲。” (童庆炳,1998:300)。这与“ 正误” 形成鲜明的对比,“ 正 误” 是从文本上进行合情合理的解释; 而大多“ 反误” 则与之相反,是既不合情也不合理, 完全不与文本挂钩,是接受者从自己的内心体验和情感出发而一相情愿的“ 自作多情” ,排斥 文本的可阅读性和可审美性的艺术价值。 朱光潜在《无言之美》中说得好:“ 言是固定的,有迹象的;意是瞬息万变,是缥缈无踪 的。言是散碎的,意是浑整的;言是有限的,意是无限的,以言达现象。意,好像用断续的虚 线画实物,只能得其近似。” (朱光潜,1982:473)。 语言的概括性本身就是一种未定的因素,是有待复现其全部丰富性的空白。“ 反误” 产生 的原因和“ 正误” 是相似的,也有主客观的因素,但主要是主观因素。在文学接受产生并进入 发展阶段时,一个是由于文学语言本身的不确定性而导致的“ 空白” ,即所谓的“ 填空” 、 “ 对话” 与“ 兴味” ,也会出现“ 误解” ;另一个原因是读者不同的个性化也会产生“ 误 解” 。具体地说,是由于不同读者的某些政治观点、某些预定文化观点、文化视野、个人经 验、文学欣赏能力会导致文本的“ 变异” ,从而产生“ 误解” (童庆炳,1998:295-300)。 本文列举了几个穿凿附会理解的“ 反误” 。比如《汉书·王莽传》中写道:“ 紫色蛙声, 余分闰位” 。其意思是,王莽的政权像紫色蛙声,意为伪政权。因为古以赤为正色,紫为非正 色;蛙声比作靡靡之音;阳历每年多余的日子积成闰月,即非正式的月。古代有人却荒唐的把 它解释为:王莽的皮肤是紫色的,声音是象蛙声的(周振甫,1979:59)。 非艺术视角理解的“ 反误” 像唐人韦应物的“ 独怜幽草涧边生,上有黄鹂深树鸣” 。 (《滁州西涧》)本义是抒发对优美自然风景的赞美之情。元人赵章全却不顾全诗的整体结 构,将其说成是“ 君子在上小人在下之象” (周振甫,1979:45)。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 204-210 208 诸如此类穿凿附会的误解,显然是脱离作品实际的。这种“ 反误” 不仅有害于文学阅读, 在特定背景下,甚至会酿成社会惨剧。清人徐俊只因“ 明月有情还顾我,清风无意留人” ,胡 中藻“ 一把心胸论清浊” 等等句中涉及“ 清” 字的,便被诬陷为反清,招致杀身之祸。与不失 为一种值得肯定的有效阅读方式的“ 正误” 相比,“ 反误” 只能导致文学艺术的损伤乃至糟 蹋。同时,被鲁迅称之为世情小说开山之作的《金瓶梅》,是“ 极摹人情世态之歧,备写悲欢 离合之致。” (《今古观序》)它揭示了“ 中国十六世纪商人的艰难崛起,及其在新的经济关 系尚未得到充分发展的情况下,不得不与腐朽的封建势力相勾结的丑态;也在于客观地表明了 晚明涌动着的人性思潮,当还没有找到新的思想武器去冲击传统禁欲主义的时候,人的觉醒往 往以人欲放纵的丑陋形式出现,而人欲的放纵和人性的压抑一样,都在毁灭着人的自身价 值。” (袁行霈,1999 年:173)。 但《金瓶梅》历来有“ 淫书” 之称,面对着这样一个悲剧世界,很多阐释者常常用色空和 因果报应的思想来进行解释。小说最受人诟病的是书中存在着大量的性行为的描写,以至长期 被一些人视为“ 淫书” 。这采用的是一种非艺术视角观对此书的“ 误解” ,没有科学的、全面 的加以理解,以至长期出现的这种状况,应该为原作者给予正确的解释,更应该给予理解和 “ 同情” 。除此之外,王朔的小说曾一度成为人们关注的焦点,形成了一股“ 王朔热” 。《空 中小姐》、《一半是海水一半是火焰》、《永失我爱》,以及后来的《玩的就是心跳》、《一 点正经没有》等代表作,以“ 颠覆性的小说叙事反叛了占主流地位的知识分子话语,一切美 好、庄严、神圣的情感和价值,在小说中受到的无情的调侃,化为轻松的一笑。这表现的是社 会转型期价值观念的变化。而正是王朔这种以狂欢的语言,反抗和消解主流话语姿态出现的作 品,曾受到文化批评界异常严厉的批评,以为这些作品是‘ 当代文学中颓废文化心理’ 的表 现。” (魏天祥,2000:54)。 还有称之为“ 痞子文学” 的。在文学接受中,这种“ 误解” 是 难免的,但像这样的“ 反误” ,把王朔作品称之为“ 颓废心理” ,“ 痞子” 之类的,则有失公 允,这种认知和评价有非艺术化的倾向,不值得提倡,应该看到它有积极价值的一面。老作家 王蒙就曾撰写过《躲避崇高》对王朔及王朔的作品给予了肯定。 “ 正误” 应该提倡,“ 反误” 应该否定,这是毫无争议的。但是,“ 正误” 与“ 反误” 之 间存在着某些模糊的地带,它们之间并没有严格的界线,有的文学作品在这样的时代、在这样 的接受者中可能产生“ 正误” ,而在另一个时代、在其他接受者中又可能产生不同的理解,向 “ 反误” 的方向转化。乔纳森·卡勒说:“ 去问那些本文并没有鼓励你去问的问题,这一点对 于诠释来说可能非常重要,而且极富于创造性。” (柯等,1997:140)。如贾平凹的长篇小说 《废都》就存在着这种“ 误解” 。有一部分接受者认为,《废都》“ 纯粹是一部知识分子的黄 流小说,其中的性描写是此作品成名的关键” 。《废都》中确实有男女性爱的大量描写,在表 现上显得有些失度,这主要是受“ 商业炒作” 而留下的遗迹。但很多人就把焦点集中在了这点 talking about the “misunderstanding” ..... (xu junliu) 209 上,而加以大肆的攻击,认为它是专门讲述名人性生活的小品文,这显然违反了作者创造的本 意。而另一些接受者则认为,《废都》通过对著名作家“ 庄之蝶” 的生存状态及作品中社会世 相的描写,意在反映特定时期社会的一种文化精神状态。以庄之蝶的命运为主线,反映了文 化、政治、经济、法律、新闻、宗教以及市井民间等广阔的社会生活,同时也生动的描写了西 京文人的生存风貌,这才是尤其值得一提的,文学价值也就在于此,而不是所谓的有关“ 性 爱” 描写成其支撑点。最典型的是,很多作品在“ 文革” 期间与“ 文革” 后产生了非常对立的 阐释。有的作品在“ 文革” 期间是“ 样板” ,但到后来就没人问津了;而有的作品在“ 文革” 期间受到严重批判、被查禁,但到后来却十分受欢迎。其原因就是“ 正误” 与“ 反误” 有着时 代性、阶级性,可以从不同的角度,不同的立场,不同的审美来看待同一作品,从而产生不同 的解释。 三、“ 正误” 与“ 反误” “ 正误” 与“ 反误” 也因其关系复杂而呈现出特殊的趋向性。但这种趋向性不是同一性, 而是从它们各自对文艺的作用上来说的。作为文学接受者的各类读者在接受文学作品的过程中 所产生的“ 误解” ,是一种很普遍的文学现象。它的两种状况“ 正误” 和“ 反误” 虽都具有主 观和客观的因素,但偏重于主观性的“ 误解” 即“ 反误” ,偏重于客观性的“ 误解” 即“ 正 误” 。不论是“ 正误” 还是“ 反误” ,均是文学接受过程中的一种文学现象,因此,既是一种 文学现象,就不可以妄加评论和猜疑,必须以文本为依据,以客观标准为准绳,以时代为依 托,做到实事求是。从各自的属性考虑,“ 正误” 具有更多的科学性、合理性、也比较使人信 服,因此也可以提倡多以“ 正误” 方面研究分析文学作品;“ 反误” 具有更多的主观性、猜测 性、使人难以信服,因而必须较少的或是不加考虑地给予抛弃。当然了,这里“ 较少提倡” 和 “ 抛弃” 的并不是所有的“ 反误” 研究方式,而是那种只凭主观猜测,不顾客观实际,囫囵评 价;那种粗暴的、愚昧的、非艺术视角的“ 反误” 。那种能够给读者带来和“ 正误” 同样感受 和价值的“ 反误” 一样值得提倡。因为“ 正误” 和“ 反误” 同样是文学接受过程中出现的普遍 现象,同样不可能避免,也正是有了“ 正误” 和“ 反误” 这样不同的声音,文学才能有这样的 繁荣局面。“ 正误” 和“ 反误” 的趋向性就在于此。 “ 正误” 和“ 反误” 均为文学接受过程中出现的普遍现象,提倡“ 正误” 方式,反对或是 遗弃非艺术视角的“ 反误” 方式,从而达到一种忠于文学作品客观事实,忠于故事概貌,不是 轻而易举的,这需要创作者和读者共同的努力。文学接受过程中的“ 正误” ,是作者与读者和 各自所处时代、思潮、文学导向、个性特征、兴趣爱好、艺术修养、心境陶冶等反映在其作品 中所共同的结果,即有果必有因、有因必有果。我们之所以要提倡“ 正误” 式的研究分析方 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 204-210 210 式,就是要避免片面、主观、非艺术视角所带来的不良反映,就是要追求一种更具时代性、科 学性、整体性、全面性、艺术性的研究方法。当今时代的研究更倾向于此。正是这些站在时代 高度和前列的、高举着科学理论研究方法的文学评论者们,今天的文学世界才一片灿烂辉煌、 绚丽多姿。无论对古代作品、现当代作品赋予了“ 正误” 式研究方法,这也是当今乃至今后文 学研究与批评的走向。比如,“ 四大中兴” 之一的陆游,如站在当今时代大众的立场上,借用 现代文学评论手法对陆氏诗歌加以评价,就可以得出以下内容:抗敌复国主题、隐逸情趣闲情 逸致、平易晓畅中的恢弘雄放之气,其分别在《书愤》、《游山西村》、《十一月四日风雨大 作》等作品中充分体现出来。如从陆氏所处时代加以考虑,以南宋末历史空间为依托,陆游作 为时代的歌手,理所当然要把抗敌复国作为最重要的主题,陆游的爱国情怀终生不渝,他一生 中时刻盼望着有杀敌抱国、恢复中原的机会,直到临终前仍在绝笔诗《示儿》中再现其悲壮的 爱国志言。隐逸情趣、平晓恢放的艺术特征也亦如此。试用非艺术视角“ 反误” 的分析研究方 法来看二十世纪初英国著名的小说家兼诗人 dh·劳伦斯的《儿子与情人》,很多人看中的感兴 趣的焦点是故事中所产生的“ 病态心理” ,批判的重心落在了母亲与儿子之间的畸形关系上, 因而主人公“ 葛楚德” 与两个儿子“ 威廉” 与“ 保罗” 成了众矢之的。把这部作品归结为“ 弗 氏学说的代表作” ,彻底的“ 俄底浦斯情节” 版本。当然,这种分析方法有其合理的一面,因 为从作品中确实可以看出母子之间变态爱的存在,“ 保罗” 仇视父亲,每晚祷告父亲的死去。 但这不是一种全面的、客观的、科学的、艺术的研究方法。《儿子与情人》所提出的是“ 工业 文明对人的异化,现代家庭中的两性关系危机,作者明确站在自然价值观的立场上,对文明价 值观予以否定” (朱维之、赵澧,1994:514)。 作为文学、文化价值的接受主体,即所谓文学、文化的阐述者,从理论上讲,一切读者都 是与自然人相对的文化人,都可以是文学、文化价值的阐述者。例如,一般读者当阅读到《红 楼梦》中贾宝玉出家后,也往往发出感慨:“ 人生真没意义!” ,大有看破红尘之感。显然, 这里不自觉地透视出对《红楼梦》中所蕴涵的色空观念的阐发。当然,更有代表性的是那些自 觉地从事文化阐释的文化哲学家和文化批评家。文化阐释活动的特点和方法,即不同于认识, 也不同于审美,如果说认识者主要是一位理智的觉察者,审美者是一位情感体验者,那么,阐 释者则主要是一位文化内涵、文化意义、文化意向的理解者、解释者、评价者和对话者。阐释 的意义是,阐释主体站在自己的文化视野上,与作品中所蕴涵的文化意向进行水平对话与交流 (童庆炳,1998:285)。因此,文学接受过程中“ 误解” 现象的出现,也不足为怪了。 “ 正误” 和“ 反误” 共同构成了“ 误解” 的两种不同状况,“ 正误” 和“ 反误” 均是文学 接受中不可避免的普遍现象。正因为有了这样不同的理解、不同的文学声音、不同的研究结 果,有了文学之间的相互摩擦和碰撞,当代文艺才有了这样蓬勃的发展颈头。可以说,“ 正 误” 和“ 反误” 是同时存在的,它们之间并没有严格的界线,同样发挥着它应有的作用,特别 是在对待“ 反误” 方面,谨慎是必要的,看待某一作品不能一棍子打死,因此就不可取一废 talking about the “misunderstanding” ..... (xu junliu) 211 一、重一轻一。文学接受的过程也是读者对某一作品的阅读理解过程。其中,既包括对作品某 一人物形象、艺术技巧、语言结构的认识,也包括对作品整体价值的把握与探寻。在认识、把 握和探寻的过程中,由于“ 期待视野” 的存在,读者之于作品,必然会有一种先入为主的成分 蕴含于接受者之中,即阐释学理论所指出的“ 前理解” 。这种前理解与作者的创作意图、作品 的蕴涵以及作品的各种艺术和社会价值之间构成的“ 对话” 关系是复杂的,即可能相应,也可 能相悖,常常呈现出顺向相应与逆向受挫的情况。因此,作为接受者应该以文学文本为实际, 尽量在“ 误解” 不会消散时,减少或避免逆向情况出现,即顺应“ 正误” ,阻拒非艺术视角的 “ 反误” ,不失为一种“ 良策” 。 参考文献 艾柯等:《诠释与过度诠释》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1997 年版。 布鲁克斯:《悖论语言》,见《新批评文集》,中国社会科学出版社,1988 年版。 布鲁姆《误读图示》、选编在朱立元:《西方当代文艺理论》,上海:华东师大 出版社,1999 年版 布鲁姆:《影响的焦虑》,三联书店,1989 年版。 伽达默尔:《真理与方法》,上海:上海译文出版社,1992 年版。 鲁迅:《且介亭杂文·寄〈戏〉周刊编者信》,北京:人民文学出版社,1981 年版。 童庆炳:《文学理论要略》,北京:人民文学出版社,1995 年版。 童庆炳:《文学理论教程》,北京:北京大学出版社,1998 年版。 王岳川:《现象学与解释学文论》,山东教育出版社,1999 年版。 韦勒克、沃伦:《文学理论》,三联书店,1984 年版。 魏天祥:《九十年代文艺新变化研究》,中共中央党校出版社, 2000 年 5 月版。 姚斯:《文学史作为向文学理论的挑战》、《接受美学与接受理论》,辽宁人民 出版社,1987 年) 袁行霈:《中国文学史》第四卷,北京:高等教育出版社,1999 年 8 月版。 朱光潜:《无言之美》、《朱光潜美学文集》第 2 卷,上海:上海文艺出版社,1982 年 周振甫:《诗词例话》,中国青年出版社,1979 年版。 朱立元:《当代西方文论》,华中师范大学出版社,1997 年版。 朱维之、赵澧:《外国文学史》欧美卷,南开大学出版社,1994 年版。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 204-210 212 microsoft word 01_sovon sanyal_setting trailing the growth ….. (sovon sanyal) 117  trailing the growth from nativism to africanity in lusophone african poetry sovon sanyal centre of spanish, portuguese, italian & latin american studies jawaharlal nehru university, delhi, india sksanyal@mail.jnu.ac.in abstract article explored the development of african poetry, that is from nativism to be africanity, in lusophone african poetries. the study used library research by analysing the impact of printing press, public education, and freedom of expression emergences toward literary activities in portuguese colonies in africa. in this regard ethnological and historical studies on the colonies had an important role to play for the later development of nationalism among the colonised african peoples. article’s discussion concerned with describing proper literary activities in portuguese began in the lusophone countries of africa, poetry characterization by the “black” and “white” presentations, added by some example of poetries. it can be concluded the problematic of colour is present in african poems in portuguese right from its inception, the common purpose of the nineteenth century lusophone african poets was to discover the regional cultural history and identity, which was denied to them for centuries by the foreign rulers. keywords: nativism, africanity, poetry, lusophone abstrak artikel menjelaskan perkembangan puisi di afrika, yaitu dari bentuk nativism ke bentuk africanity, seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh puisi afrika yang dikarang oleh penyair lusophone. penelitian menggunakan studi pustaka dengan cara menganalisis dampak yang ditimbulkan oleh terbitnya media cetak, adanya pembelajaran publik, dan kebebasan berekspresi yang berdampak pada kegiatan penulisan di daerah koloni portugis di afrika. dalam kasus ini, bahasan etnologi dan sejarah yang terkait dengan koloni memegang peran penting bagi tumbuhnya nasionalisme di antara orang-orang di daerah koloni afrika. diskusi artikel menjelaskan gambaran kegiatan sastra yang benar-benar terjadi di portugis, yang dimulai dari daerah lusophone di afrika. puisi tersebut bercirikan simbol yang menggambarkan hitam dan putih, dan disertai dengan contoh beberapa puisi. disimpulkan bahwa masalah warna kulit telah lama ditemukan di puisi portugis sejak lama. penyair di daerah lusophone di afrika membuat puisi tersebut dengan tujuan menemukan sejarah budaya regional beserta identitasnya. hal ini telah disembunyikan bagi mereka oleh pihak penguasa. kata kunci: nativism, africanity, puisi, lusophone 118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 115-122 introduction the nineteenth century liberal revolution in portugal, the independence of brazil in 1822, the abolition of slave trade in 1811 are the main socio-political events that had a great impact on the subsequent course of history of portugal and its colonies. with the introduction of printing press, public education, freedom of expression (in a very limited way) in the portuguese colonies in the same century, the colonised people had some free access to european knowledge which ultimately initiated literary activities in portuguese among them. moreover, the abolition of inquisition in 1812 and of slavery in 1884 did create a congenial atmosphere for intellectual activities in the colonies. the appearance of newspapers and literary magazines in the portuguese colonies of africa and asia in the nineteenth century helped to spread consciousness of national identity among the colonised. in this regard ethnological and historical studies on the colonies had an important role to play for the later development of nationalism among the colonised african peoples. it was during this time that proper literary activities in portuguese began in the lusophone countries of africa --angola, mozambique, cape verde and são tomé e principe. the body of literature in portuguese that emerged in the lusophone countries has been divided by manuel ferreira (1986) into groups: “literatura colonial” (colonial literature) and “literatura africana de expressão portuguesa” (african literature of portuguese expression). the narrative or poetic discourse of colonial literature is characterised by the presence of the europeans in its very centre. the “black” whenever he/she appears, though rarely, assumes a much degraded position. the “white”, in such literatures, is depicted, though strangely, as the hero who is sacrificing himself for the good of the colonised, assuming an image of salvador. the “black” in general was “coisificado”, i.e., he was depicted as “coisa” or an object. in the nineteenth century the african literature of portuguese expression emerged along with the colonial literature. this literature of portuguese expression brought to its discourse the world of the africans i.e., that of the “black”, the colonised and exploited people. in the beginning it was neither very realistic in its presentation nor did show the black world in total opposition to the white one. it was a real uphill struggle for the writers to reject the colonial values which were then highly institutionalised. methods the author used library research by analysing the impact of printing press, public education, and freedom of expression emergences toward literary activities in portuguese colonies in africa continued by analysing the six lusophone poems as examples, those are : a minha terra, kicolá!, the mulemba, in a negro dance, negress, and i and the passer. discussion in all the literatures, written in portuguese language before the nineteenth century, the africans were completely absent. in the works of gil vicente (1465?-1537), henrique da mota (14751545?) and gregorio de mattos (1636?-1697), the black appeared only in zoomorphic forms. it was the brazilian poet gonçalves crespo (1846-1883) who created for the first time literary space for the “black” as people in portuguese literature. trailing the growth ….. (sovon sanyal) 119  colonization is the “negation of personality of the other”. it not only exploits the colonised economically, but also substitutes the world of the oppressed or the colonised with that of the colonizer. religion, language, dress, food habit, thought process and social values of the colonised either disappear or are transformed under colonial rule. in short, the colonised are imprisoned in the coloniser’s world, resulting in cultural alienation. due to the inherent contradiction within itself, colonialism becomes responsible, at a certain stage of its development, for the attempt on the part of the colonised to return to their own world. the african literature of portuguese expression emerged out of the conflict between the portuguese and the african worlds rejecting the former and returning to the cultural roots of the later. it is thus a return journey for the denationalised people. manuel ferreira has shown that there are four stages in the development of african literature in portuguese. first, the writers appeared europeanised in their thought process. second, they manifested, in spite of their alienation from the local culture, rationalistic tendencies in their narrative or poetic discourse through socio-cultural and topographical descriptions, thus creating in this stage an incipient nationalism. third, after becoming aware of their colonised condition the african writers not only liberated themselves from their alienation but also portrayed the social reality of the colonies. fourth, with the national liberation, the writers completely freed themselves from the colonial values and began the process of reconstruction of their individuality. here the writer intended to trace the growth of incipient nationalism in the lusophone poetry through “nativism” and “africanity”. by ‘natives” the writer meant that phenomenon which initiated the lusophone poetry in the nineteenth century through regional consciousness. the term “africanity” has to be taken in a very narrow sense. it is just the embryonic pan-african feeling—the feeling for the negro race. one can observe that africanity emerged from nativism. the nativism in the african literature of portuguese expression is manifested, right from its inception, in the poetic discourse through topographical and ethno-cultural descriptions of different regions of africa. the poets reconstructed the world of the “black” through the description of local food, dress, flora and fauna, negro women, festivals, etc. it not only minimizes the poet’s cultural alienation, but also gives him an opportunity to show his fraternity with the indigenous people. this nativism, initiated by the nineteenth century african poets of the lusophone countries, is the forerunner of the africanity which is the general awareness among the writer of having a common cultural and racial identity along with the awareness of their humiliated condition. this africanity later evolved and merged into the movement of negritude in the twentieth century. josé da silva maia ferreira (1827-1881), the mestiço poet of angola, in his poem a minha terra, published in his book espontaniedade da minha alma (1849), made an attempt to reconstruct the exotic indigenous world through cultural ad topographical descriptions. it shows a strong nativist streak and regionalism of romanticist vein. i quote here from the poem a minha terra. “it has palm trees with bushy shadows where the chief of the savage tribe, in caravan of weary people falls asleep eager for breeze. in those hills runs about anxiously, the assegai with vibrating force, the african warrior and famous at his feet, the prostrate panther...” (my land by josé da silva maia ferreira) 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 115-122 the same regional consciousness and search for the lost cultural heritage is found in the poet’s other works. forty years after the publication of a minha terra, another angolan poet, joaquim cordeiro da matta (1857-1894), celebrated his terra natal through the extensive use of ethno-cultural elements of clothing, food and language of the black of his country. cordeiro da matta also attempted to valorise the black women. in the process the black/white opposition and the cultural conflict between the two races were contextualised. the incipient valorisation of the local culture made by the poet is conditioned by colonial norms. the poems negra! and cambuta show the nativism that was taking root in the lusophone poetry of africa. let us see how it is reflected in the poem kicolá! “in this small town, i saw a certain maid who was very beautiful, like a fairy, a houri and a goddess to whom i said – oh my dear, i ask for a kiss, if you please; you know well, oh my love, i would give my life for you!” ‐ nquami-ami, ngna-iame “i don’t want to, my dear sir” said she without changing colour; ‐ nacuto, quangadall’ami. “i don’t believe in your love...” (kicolá! by cordeiro da matta) some poets in their works hark back to their childhood world. it is not merely nostalgia or longing for the days of perfect happiness of childhood, on the country, it served as a pretext for delving into the indigenous society of the pre-colonial era. in mulemba secou, the angolan poet ayres de almeida santos (1922-1991) discovers the local african society in the remembrance of his infancy. the alienation from the ancestral culture due to the foreign domination is symbolised in the death of the mulemba tree which was of special religious significance. “the mulemba has dried in the mud of the road, trampled by everyone. the leaves became dry, yellow crackling under the feet of those who passed by. afterwards the wind lifted them away... like the leaves of the mulemba the carefree dreams of the kids of my quarter.” (the mulemba has dried by ayres de almeida santos) another literary phenomenon emerged in the lusophone african poetry in the form of celebration of the native land. it is marked by the linguistic coexistence, i.e., the use of regional languages in texts written in portuguese. it is found in the works of cordeiro da matta and his contemporary and compatriot eduardo neves (1854-1899). trailing the growth ….. (sovon sanyal) 121  “in a negro dance i went to yesterday, where i saw a dark-skinned girl so graceful was the child that i didn’t even know how to say ‐ how are you? i asked her as soon as i saw her from close, ‐ want to dance? i repeated, my lovely one wasn’t shy, -tunda bobo, she told me, or better --get out of here...” (in a negro dance by eduardo neves) the common purpose of the nineteenth century lusophone african poets were to discover the regional cultural history and identity, which was denied to them for centuries by the foreign rulers. it was perhaps for them the only non-violent path to overcome their self-alienation from the negro society. african poetry of the lusophone countries offered right from its emergence, some realistic descriptions of their respective societies, in the process of celebrating its terra natal, and attempted to valorise the indigenous cultures as against the european one. nativisim brought rationalistic character in lusophone african poetry giving predominance to ethno-cultural elements in its discourse. it was also successful in generating a consciousness of colour, the first manifestations of which can be detected in the works of josé da silva maia ferreira. the consciousness of being black develops into a unifying force for the negroes long exploited and oppressed by the white. through the black/white opposition, contextualised in poetry, the african poets evaluated and questioned for the first time the colonial equation –white=good, black=bad. the portuguese politics of assimilation systematically instilled in the colonised so-called civilised values through centuries. the nineteenth century african poets writing in portuguese could not liberate themselves completely from these colonial mindsets. this is evident in maia ferreira, cordeiro da matta and caetano da costa alegre (1864-1890). maia ferreira attributed aristocratic value to the colour of the white while the colour of the black to him was the opposite end of the spectrum, for him the black colour stood for everything base. in cordeiro da matta the white/black opposition evidently exists, but the apologetic tone of maia ferreira is transformed in his case into a tone of acceptance. thus cordeiro da matta unknowingly aggravated the problem of alienation which poets in general were trying to overcome contextualising it in contemporary literary discourse. in negress, it is quite evident: “negress! negress! like the night of a horrible tempest, but, elegant, delicate and beautiful, like the most graceful beauty! negress! negress! like the wing of the darkest and blackest raven, but, having in the clear eyes, the most limpid and pure look!” (negress by cordeiro da matta) costa alegre though hailing from são tomé e principe, spent most of his short life in portugal. in poetry his personal experience of being black is transformed into a collective experience; black and white exist as independent entities and not as terms of a binary opposition. black, the colour of mourning, is associated with sufferings and sorrow whereas white is joy and happiness: 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 115-122 passes by an english lady and soon blurts out very surprised: “how black, my god!” if it’s a spanish lady, who sees me, she says like a bird: “que alto, dios mio!” and, if it’s a french lady: “o quel beau négre!” smiling at me if it’s a portuguese lady, oh, costa alegre! you have a sneeze! (i and the passer-by by costa alegre) conclusion thus the problematic of colour is present in african poems in portuguese right from its inception. in reality, this consciousness of colour forged unity among the blacks suffering through ages under the colonial rule. this is one basis for africanity as expressed by lusophone poets. they discovered their long denied culture and history through the use of ethno-cultural and topographical descriptions thus overcoming their age-long complete alienation from the indigenous society. while through nativism the african poets succeeded in creating regional consciousness, through africanity the horizon of this consciousness was made wider and deeper too. thus emerged the consciousness of a race among the black peoples of this devastated continent. edward said (1994) examines three topics of cultural resistance in the context of decolonization (i) insistence on the right to see the community’s history as whole, coherently, integrally; (ii) the idea that resistance, far from being merely a reaction to imperialism, is an alternative way of conceiving human history; and (iii) a noticeable pull away from separatist nationalism towards a more integrative view of human community and human liberation. in this context, the role of the emergence of the literature in portuguese produced by the african writers and the use of african ethno-cultural elements become relevant as part of resistance literature in the sense of literary autonomy. reference ferreira, m. ( 1986). literaturas africanas de expressão portuguesa. lisboa : icalp. mata, i. (1992).pelos trilhos da literatura african em língua portuguesa braga: pontevedra. said, e.w. (1994). culture and imperialism. london: vintage. sanyal, s. (1997). “the rise of nationalism in lusophone african poetry with reference to similar tendencies in indo-portuguese literature” in african literatures: remembrances & constructions. calcuta : jadavpur university. venâncio, j.c. (1987). uma perspectiva etnológica da literatura angolana. sacavém: ulmeiro. microsoft word 01 djuria_setting         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 1  contextual meaning study of translation of children’s story “the lion king” from english into indonesian djuria suprapto english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 djuria@yahoo.com abstract article aimed to present study on the translation of words, phrases, expressions and sentences in a children's story.the story of "the lion king" was used as case and content analysis was applied as a reference for the study. the focus of this analysis was aimed to observe the appearance of the terms or meaning of certain words that are considered important and supports the goals of the research, in this case is the translation of words, phrases, sentences in the source language (english) into the target language (indonesian). as its criterion, dictionaries was used and rules of contextual translation was applied. it can be concluded that children's stories emphasize the style and meaning contained in it, so the translation is done must consider the context of the story. keywords: translation, meaning, context, semantic abstrak artikel menjelaskan penelitian tentang penerjemahan kata, frasa, ekspresi, dan kalimat yang terdapat pada cerita anak. cerita yang dipilih adalah “the lion king” dan content analysis diterapkan sebagai acuan analisis. analisis berfokus pada penelitian terhadap tampilan istilah dan arti dari kata tertentu yang dipertimbangkan penting dan mendukung tujuan penelitian, dalam kasus ini adalah terjemahan kata, frasa, dan kalimat dari bahasa asal, yaitu bahasa inggris, ke bahasa target, yaitu bahasa indonesia. dipakai pula kamus dan diterapkan aturan penerjemahan. disimpulkan, cerita anak menekankan pada gaya dan arti yang berada dalam cerita itu sehingga terjemahan yang dilakukan harus mempertimbangkan konteks cerita. kata kunci: terjemahan, arti, konteks, semantic 2 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 1-11  introduction a lot of things must be considered in translating a story from the source language into target language. one of them is to have a style of language and culture that can be accepted by the reader to easily understand and have a high value of the story. translation must also act as a communication tool which conveys the authors' intention and meaning contained in it. indeed the problem of meaning is very difficult and complicated because, although this meaning is a matter of language, but the relationship and attachment with every aspect of human life very closely whereas aspects of human life itself is very complex and extensive. as a means of social interaction, a language has an important role. virtually no human activity is without the presence of language. a language can transfer wishes, ideas, and emotions from one to another human being. language problems and barriers are likely derived from the language itself. but the problems and obstacles that presumably occur more frequently as a result of the lack of speakers’ language and abilities, so often they can not distinguish what is called information and intentions. many people confuse of the concept of meaning, information, and intent. they all are meaning. meaning is one of the concepts of language in relation to the translation. this is important because the approach taken by the translator is that every text is an act of communication, not the text that appeared without any purpose and intent. as an act of communication, a translator certainly wants to the translated text can be understood by the readers. in this case, the story book (the lion king) to provide the opportunity for children to enjoy the interesting story, while improving their english proficiency. this storybook trains children to understand the english language through the context, not just word by word. therefore, this article focuses the discussion on the 'contextual meaning'. in this article the translation of the lion king will be examined in terms of contextual meaning, which one word or phrase that has several meanings translated into indonesian, with words that has equivalence to the intended meaning in the story, so the meaning of the story according to the source language and the story becomes interesting for the indonesian children readers. methodology in studying the translation of the story of "the lion king," i use content analysis as a reference for the study. a research with this method is the analysis of the concept. analysis of the concept is making the concept of the existence and frequency of which is usually presented in the form of words in the phrase contained in the text. the focus of this analysis is aimed to observing the appearance of the terms or meaning of certain words that are considered important and supports the goals of the research, in this case is the translation of words, phrases, sentences in the source language (english) into the target language ( indonesian). as its criterion, i use dictionaries and applying rules of contextual translation. results and discussions meaning the nature of meaning the word 'meaning' in accordance with the verb 'mean' is the term most widely disputed in the english language, and semantics experts seem to spend much time to solve the problem of 'meanings of meaning' as an important early studies of semantic. (leech, 1993).         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 3  meaning is an element of a word or more precisely as utterance-internal-phenomenon. therefore, there is general principle in the semantics which states that if the forms are different, the meaning will be different, although perhaps the difference is only a little. the relationship between word and meaning is arbitrary. it means that there is no obligatory relationship between the rows of phonemes forming the word with its meaning. however, the relationship is conventional, which means agreed upon by every member of society of a language to comply with that relationship, because if not, verbal communication will be challenged. therefore, it can be said, in a synchronous relationship between the word with its meaning (or, more precisely: the meaning of a word) will not change. in diachronic there may be change in accordance with the development of culture and society concerned meaning approach meanings can be evaluated from the analytical or referential approach, as well as operational approache (djajasudarma, 1993). analytical or referential approach is the essence of the approach to find meaning in a way described above the main elements. this approach is different from the approach that can determine the exact meaning of a word in the sentence. aspect of meaning aspects of meaning according to palmer (1976) (djajasudarma, 1993) can be considered from the function, and can be divided into: (1) sense, (2) feeling, (3) tone, (4) intention. the four aspects of meaning can be considered through the data indonesian language as an example of understanding the meaning. the meaning of understanding can be applied in daily communication that involves what is called ‘theme’. meaning of the ‘feeling’, ‘tone’ and ‘intention’ can also be considered through the indonesian and regional language data.  types of meaning according pateda (chaer, 1995), it has been listed existence types of meaning called affective meanings, denotative meaning, descriptive meaning, the meaning of the extension, emotive meaning, the meaning of gereflekter, idesional meaning, intense meaning, grammatical meaning, figurative meaning, the meaning of cognitive, collocation meaning, connotative meaning, the conceptual meaning, the meaning construction, lexical meaning, broad meaning, the meaning of pictorial, meaning proportional, meaning the center, referential meaning, the meaning of a narrow, meaning stilistika, and thematic meanings. actually it types of meaning can be differentiated based on several criteria and points of view. based on its semantic types it can be distinguished between the lexical meanings and grammatical meanings, based on the presence or absence of the referent of the referential meaning of a word differentiated and non-referential meaning, based on the presence or absence of the sense of a word can be distinguished from the denotative and connotative meanings, based on the precision of meaning is known of meanings of words and meaning of the term or the meaning of general and specific meanings. in terms of its relationship to other words, the meaning can be classified into the lexical meaning, grammatical, contextual, and sociocultural. in terms of origin, larson distinguished two types of meaning: primary meaning – the one which usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolationand secondary meanings – the additional meanings which a word has in context with other words. (larson, 1998) contextual meaning contextual meaning is formed from the relationship with other words that are used in the text (catford called as textual meaning) (machali, 2000). or there are times when the relationship (ie 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 1-11  context) is found outside the text, namely the immediate context. the approach used is that every text is an act of communication, not the text that appeared without any purpose and intent. as an act of communication, text producers would wish to have meaning that can be understood by the recipient (whether the listeners or readers). the purpose is packaged in a sense, while its shape can vary depending on the purpose (for what, such as; to explain, to tell, to urge), the readers (e.g age, a group of scientists, the public, etc) translation translation is defined in various ways with different background theory and approaches. catford (1965) in machali (2000) used linguistic approach in view of the translation and he defined it as “the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language)”. newmark (1988) also gave a similar definition: “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text”. both definitions were summarized as follows: (1) translation is an effort to 'replace' the source language text with the equivalent text in the target language, (2) which is translated as meaning the author intended. translation methods translation methods nowadays are no longer just about the debate between literal translation and free translation that dominates discussion of translation methods. text problems should be addressed in the selection of the translation methods used. newmark therefore propose two groups of translation methods (machali, 2000). the first group is the methos that more oriented or emphasized the source language and the second group is more stress to the target language. the translators of second group do not only consider to the discourse, but also consider to other matters relating to the target language. the first group consists of: (1) word-for -word translation, (2) literal translation, (3) faithful translation, and (4) semantic translation. while the second group consists of: (1) adaptation, (2) free translation, (3) idiomatic translation, and (4) communicative translation. communicative translation this method is such a contextual meaning of reproductive effort that both aspects of the language and the content can be understood directly by readers.therefore, the target language version can immediately be accepted.this method emphasizes the principles of communication which related the audience and the purpose of translation. through this method, a version of the source text can be translated into several versions of the target text in accordance with the principles above. language definition some experts assumed that 'language is a system of symbols that are arbitrary and with the system a group of social work together' (machali, 2000). some linguists assumed that 'language is a structured system of phonetic and sequences sounds that are arbitrary, used or can be used in communication between individuals by a group of human beings and which are rather thoroughly names to objects, events and processes in the human environment.’ (machali, 2000). from the two definitions, it could be concluded that (1) language is a system that has the structure as well as other systems. language has a pattern and based on that pattern languages are spoken. (2) language is a sound system that is arbitrary. language sounds are created by arbitrary,         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 5  and these sounds have no meaning, the sounds are then compiled also in arbitrary, so that then arise words that carry a particular meaning. (3) language allows the occurrence of interpersonal communication. communication is the main function of language. as a communication tool a language conveys information or as a means to receive information. the function of language by using the theory of buhler (1935) and jakobson (1960), newmark classified language functions into six types of language functions: (1) the expressive function, which is oriented to the speaker or writer as the originator of the utterance, (2) the informative function, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside languafe, including reported ideas or theories, (3) the vocative function, the core of this function of language is the readership, the addressee to act, think, feel or react as intended in the text; (4) the aesthetic functions, its primary purpose is to provide the senses of satisfaction or pleasure; (5) the phatic function, usually used as a means of contact with the addressee language users, (6) the metalingual function, indicates a language’s ability to explain, name, and criticise its own features. children story meaning of 'story' based on oxforf advanced learner’s dictionary (2000) (1) a description of events and people that the writer or speaker has invented in order to entertain people, (2) an account, often spoken, of what happened to somebody or of how something happened, (3) an account of past events or of how something has developed, (4) a report in a newspaper, magazine or news broadcast, (5) the series of events in a book, film/movie, play, etc., (6) something that somebody says which is not true. children's stories are a series of events that shows act, experience, or suffering, events, etc. (whether real or just a fiction) addressed to the children.  formation process of terms equivalent of terms the equivalent of terms into indonesian language is conducted through translation, absorption, or a combination of translation and absorption. to get the uniformity of translation, the main referral source is the english term that is used internationally because it is used commonly by experts in their fields. the absorption term is carried out with or without spelling adjustment based on the rules of phonotactic, the relationship which allowed the sound sequence in the indonesian language.  translating in terms of aspects of the formation of terms translation is distinguished between direct translation and translation with invention. in direct translation, the term in indonesian could be formed through translation based on the equivalence of meaning, but it’s not equivalence in form, such as 'supermarket' is translated as ‘pasar swalayan’. translation can also be done based on the appropriateness of form and meaning, such as 'skyscraper' translated as ‘pencakar langit’ (‘sky’=’langit’ and ‘scraper’= ‘pencakar’). in forming the terms by translating, we should note the following guidelines (a) the translation does not have to base on one word is translated by one word, (b) a foreign term in a positive form is translated into positive form in indonesian term, while the term in a negative form is translated into negative form in indonesian term, (c) the word class of foreign terms if possible is maintained at the term translation, (d) in the translation of foreign word with a plural form, the plural marker uninstalled the indonesian term. in translating with invention, there is an effort to match th foreign terms by creating a new term. such as 'factoring' is translated as 'anjak piutang'. 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 1-11  absorption absorption consists of absorption of term and absorption of affixes and forms which bound of foreign terms. the absorption of foreign terms becomes indonesian term based on : (a) the foreign terms which will be absorbed increases the translation foreign language and indonesian language on a reciprocal basis, (b) foreign terms which will be absorbed facilitate the understanding of foreign text by the indonesia readers because they have been known before, (c) foreign terms which will be absorbed more compact compared to its indonesian translation, (d) foreign terms which will be absorbed facilitate agreement among experts if the equivalent translation has too many synonyms, (e) foreign terms which will be absorbed more suitable and appropriate because it does not have bad connotation. semantic aspects of terminology giving new meaning new term can be formed by constriction and expansion of meaning of common and unusual words. that is, the word is reduced or increased the reach of its meaning so that its application can be narrower or wider. homophones the term homophone is the term for the words that have same pronunciation, but different spelling. polysemy the term of polysemy is the form that has a double meaning or more. for example, the word ‘head’ has meaning: the head of (people) or the head of (department). foreign word form which has polysemy is translated in accordance with the meaning in context. because of the different word field, a foreign term does not always correspond with the same indonesian word. hyponymy one of the most important structuring relations in the vocabulary of a language is hyponymy. this is the relation between apple and fruit, car and vehicle, slap and hit, and so on. we say that apple is hyponymy of fruit, and conversely, that fruit is superordinate (occasionally hyperonym) of apple. the term of hyponym is the form of meaning that summarized in the hyperonym, or its superordinate, which has a broader meaning. in the translation, hyperonym or subordination in general are not copied with one of its hyponyms, unless in the indonesian language has no the superordinate term. if it is no hyperonym term partner in the indonesian language, the context of the situation or the context of a foreign superordinate will determine the indonesian hyponymy which ones should be chosen. for example the word 'rice' can be translated as ‘padi’, ‘gabah’, ‘beras’ or ’nasi’, depending on the context. translation study of the story of “the lion king” direct translation (a) ‘lion king’ or ‘the king of lion’ was not directly translated literally, but it was translated based on the appropriate meaning. this word was translated as ‘raja singa’, because the meaning contained in this story is as the king in the wilderness/ jungle, so the meaningful translation is ‘raja singa’. (b) the word ‘pride rocks’ was not trasnlated as ‘karang kebanggaan’ but as ‘karang singa’         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 7  which has appropriate meaning and the same perception in the story. (c) the phrase ‘fill with rage’ which means ‘dipenuhi dengan kemarahan’ is translated as ‘amat marah’ , it means 'filled with anger' translated as 'very angry' that has meaning of ‘angry’ when simba heard his uncle’s statement. (d) ’from near and far’ which means ‘dari yang dekat dan yang jauh’ was translated in one word ‘semuanya’. it’s also translated based on equivalence meaning which means ‘all, from everywhere’. communicative translation communicative translation in this story mainly occurs in the verb. basically, the verbs translated by looking at the suitability of the translation with the meaning contained in the sentence and the context of the story. (a) the meaning of word ‘rest’ in dictionary are ‘beristirahat, tenang, berhenti, terletak, bersandar’. the translation used is ‘terbaring’ which describes the real situation the cub is resting by lying on rafiki’s hands. (b) ‘sprinkle’ means ‘menguasai, memerintah, mengepalai, mengendalikan, memutuskan’, is translated in the story as ‘menciprati’ (splashed), this word is closer to children. the children can easily imagine how the cub was sprinkle. (c) the sentence ‘he was not happy that simba was next in line to rule the pride lands’ is translated as ‘ia tidak senang simba dinobatkan menjadi calon pengganti raja.’ literally, this sentence can be translated as ‘dia tidak senang kalau simba yang berkuasa ditanah kebanggaan’, but the translation is more likely too formal and cannot be interesting anymore since this is a story especially for children. (d) ’to be king’ means ‘menjadi raja’, is translated as ‘memerintah negeri singa’ because it is related to lion land, not as a king in another place. (e) the meaning of ’take’ is ‘mengambil, menerima, memerlukan, membawa, menggunakan, melakukan, menuruti, mendapat’. the translator chose the word ‘mengajak’ which closer to situation that mufasa took simba to a certain place. (f) ’shadowy’ yang berarmeans ‘bayangan’, in this story it is translated as ‘tempat gelap’which is more pricise and communicative. (g) ’slyly’ is a descriptive word that shows the way one acts, it implies to the meaning ‘dengan liciknya’ but in this story it is used phrase ‘pura-pura setuju, padahal itu akal bulusnya belaka’ .this phrase can replace the situation. (h) ’said nothing’ means ‘tidak berkata apa-apa’, in this story the translator used the sentence ‘ia bersorak dalam hati’ (i) ….”i walk on the wild side! i laugh in the face of danger! ha-ha-ha!” “hee-hee-hee-hee-hee!” the strange laughter belonged to three hideous hyenas that slinked out from an elephant skull.the translation: ‘“kecil-kecil pemberani, bahaya tak membuatku gentar! ha-ha-ha!” “hee-hee-hee-hee-hee!” tiga hyena mengerikan membalas tawa simba. mereka tiba-tiba saja muncul dari balik tengkorak gajah.this translation is free from the boundary of the source language text, and it was translated based on the context communicatively. (j) ‘were trapped’ means ‘terperangkap, terjebak’, the translator chose the phrase ‘….. terpojok dan tak berdaya’. (k) ’a talk’ means ‘percakapan, pembicaraan, perbincangan’ but it was translated as ‘dimarahi’, in this story mufasa was angry with his son and he adviced his son in a talk at that night. it had implied meaning of ‘scold’ (memarahi). (l) ’alone’ means ‘sendirian, seorang diri’, the phrase chosen is ‘tak berteman’. it is more interesting than ‘seorang diri’ because at that time simba has no friend to play (he usually was accompanied by his friend, nala) (m) ’promise’ = ‘berjanji, menjanjikan’, was translated as ‘menyuruh’. the word ‘promise’ has meaning of ‘menjanjikan’ by the way of ‘suruhan’ 8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 1-11  (n) ’turned out’ has meaning of ‘mematikan, mengeluarkan, menghalau, menghasilkan, melepaskan, berakhir, menjadi’, but all of these meaning were not used in the translated sentence. they don’t imply the actual situation. if the translator used the words, the story wouldn’t have the same perception as the source story. (o) ’carry’ which has meaning of ‘mengangkat, membawa, memikul’, was translated as ‘menaruh’ in this story. the story described musafa carried simba dan put him on the rock to avoid simba’s life-threatening danger, but in the story it is suffient for the translator to use the word ‘menaruh’ to avoid useless repeatness. (p) ‘simba did not know’ means ‘simba tidak tahu’ the word used in the translation ‘padahal’, this one word can describe the situation that ‘simba did not know’ (q) ’advise’ which is meant ‘menasehati, memberitahu,menganjurkan,mempertimbangkan’, the translator used the word ‘menyuruh’. in this case the word ‘menasehati/ menganjurkan’ is finer, simba can follow or not that ‘nasehat’ (‘advice’), it doesn’t matter, but in this story context simba ‘must’ follow the ‘advise’ of scar, so the translator chose the word ‘menyuruh’ that has the most appropriate meaning. (r) as the word ‘advise’, the word ‘send’ which means ‘mengirim, menyampaikan, menurunkan, menurunkan, mengutus, menyuruh, melempar’, was translated as ‘menyuruh’ by the translator to have appropriate meaning. (s) the word ‘collapse’ means ‘runtuh, roboh’, in the translated text the word’ pingsan’ was used to show the situation of simba fell and unconscious. (t) the meaning of ’old’ is ‘tua atau lama’ and was translated as ‘terdahulu’ in this story. (u) ‘one day a lioness chased pumbaa…’ is an active sentence, but it was translated into a passive sentence ‘suatu hari pumbaa dikejar oleh seekor singa betina,…’ that has more communicative meaning. (v) ’rush’ means ‘tergesa-gesa/ terburu-buru’, the meaning of this word was not used in this story. it was eliminated. (w) the phrase ‘take his place’ means ‘mengambil/ menerima/ menempati/ mendapat/ menduduki/ merebut’ was translated differently in some different sentences. the sentence ‘but simba refused to return and take his place as the lion king’ was translated as ‘memikul tanggung jawabnya’, the sentence “….you must take your place in the circle of life” was translated as “…..kau harus menduduki tempatmu dalam siklus kehidupan.” whereas the sentence “i’ve come back to take my place as king,” simba announced to scar who was standing on pride rock” was transtated as ”aku datang menuntut hakku sebagai raja,” kata simba kepada scar yang berdiri di atas karang singa”. more over the sentence ‘…simba took his rightful place as the lion king’ was translated as ‘tampaklah pemerintahan kembali kepada yang berhak, yaitu simba’. (x) the meaning of the word ‘lead’ is ‘memimpin, membawa, menggiring, menuntun’, was translated as ‘mengajak’ in this story. (y) ‘timon and pumbaa joined the fray, ..’ the word ‘fray’ has the meaning of ’keributan, kehebohan, percekcokan’ was translated in a sentence :‘timon dan pumbaa juga tak mau ketinggalan. in the story, timon dan pumbaa took part in helping simba in battle, they didn’t want to miss to help simba. (z) ’defeated’ means ‘dikalahkan’ was translated as ‘kocar kacir’. children are more familiar with this word in the battle and the ones who are ‘dikalahkan’ (defeated) will be “kocar-kacir’ (topsy turvy).         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 9  below is a list of words/phares/sentences in english translated in indonesian. table 1 list of words/phares/sentences in english translated in indonesian no source language teks (english) words observed translation to target language (indonesian language) based on dictionary contextual tranlation in target language (indonesian language) 1 the lion king lion (n) singa raja rimba king (n) raja king of lions raja rimba 2 …little simba rested in the hands of the wise baboon rafiki rest (vi) beristirahat, tenang, berhenti, terletak, bersandar si kecil simba terbaring pasrah dalam pelukan rafiki 3 …who sprinkled the cub with dust and welcomed the future king to the great circle of life. sprinkle (v)menaburkan, menghamburkan, memerciki, menyirami, membubuhi ….menciprati anak singa itu dengan debu, sebagai ucapan selamat datang dalam siklus kehidupan kepada sang calon raja. 4 he was not happy that simba was next in line to rule the pride lands to rule (v)menguasai, memerintah, mengepalai, mengendalikan, memutuskan ia tidak senang simba dinobatkan menjadi calon pengganti raja. 5 scar had always wanted to be king himself to be king menjadi raja memerintah negeri singa 6 ….mufasa took him to the top of pride rock. take (v)mengambil, menerima, memerlukan, membawa, menggunakan, melakukan, menuruti,mendapat ..mufasa mengajaknya ke puncak karang singa. 7 ….to the top of pride rock. pride rock kebanggaan, kegagahan ..ke puncak karang singa. 8 what about the shadowy place?” shadowy (adj) merupakan seperti bayangan “bagaimana degan tempat-tempat gelap?” 9 …,”scar slyly agreed slyly dengan licik ,” kata scar pura-pura setuju, padahal itu akal bulusnya belaka 10 only the bravest lions go there the bravest lions singa-singa yang paling berani yang pergi ke sana. tempat itu hanya dikunjungi oleh singasinga yang pemberani 11 so he said nothing as simba hurried off to find his friend ……. said nothing tidak berkata apa-apa ia bersorak dalam hati ketika simba bergegas pergi mencari sahabatnya …… 12 ….”i walk on the wild side! i laugh in the face of danger! haha-ha!” “hee-hee-hee-hee-hee!” the strange laughter belonged to three hideous hyenas that slinked out from an elephant skull. 1.wild side, 2. in the face of danger, 3.strange laughter 1. daerah liar, hutan belantara/ rimba. 2.menghadapi bahaya. 3.gelak tawa yang aneh “kecil-kecil pemberani, bahaya tak membuatku gentar! ha-ha-ha!” “heehee-hee-hee-hee!” tiga hyena mengerikan membalas tawa simba. mereka tiba-tiba saja muncul dari balik tengkorak gajah. 13 they chased simba and nala until the cubs were trapped trap (v) terperangkap, terjebak mereka mengejar-ngejar simba dan nala sampai kedua singa itu terpojok dan tak berdaya. 14 that evening mufasa had a talk with simba. a talk (n)percakapan, pembicaraan, perbincangan. malam itu simba dimarahi ayahnya 15 whenever you feel alone… alone (adj) sendirian, seorang diri saat kau tak berteman… 16 ….promised the cub a wonderful surprise if he would wait on a certain rock. promise (v)berjanji, menjanjikan ……..menyuruhnya menunggu di atas karang. ada kejutan, katanya. 17 the surprise turned out to be a stampeding herd of wildebeests, with the hyenas urging the herd on. turned out (v)mematikan, mengeluarkan, menghalau,menghasilkan, melepaskan,berakhir, menjadi kejutan itu ternyata sekawanan binatang liar yang dipimpin oleh para hyena. 18 suddenly simba felt mufasa grap him and carry him to a rocky ledge. carry (v)mengangkat, membawa, memikul tiba-tiba simba merasa mufasa menyambar tubuhnya dan menaruhnya di atas karang. 19 simba did not know that it was scar who had pushed mufasa to his death. simba did not know simba tidak tahu bahwa scar yang mendorong mufasa kepada kematiannya. padahal, dia sendirilah yang mendorong mufasa ke jurang dan membunuhnya. 20 then scar advised simba to run away and never return. advise (v)menasehati, memberitahu, menganjurkan, mempertimbangkan lalu scar menyuruh simba pergi jauhjauh dan jangan pernah kembali. 21 scar sent his hyenas to kill simba. sent (send) (v)mengirim, menyampaikan, menurunkan,menurunkan, mengutus, menyuruh, melempar scar menyuruh para hyena membunuh simba. 22 simba ran until he collapse. collapse (v) runtuh, roboh simba terus berlari sampai ia akhirnya jatuh pingsan. 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 1-11  table 1 list of words/phares/sentences in english translated in indonesian (lanjutan) 23 ….but on one clear night, the stars reminded him of the old kings and his father, mufasa. old (adj) tua, lama ….namun pada suatu malam yang cerah, bintang-bintang di langit mengingatkannya pada raja-raja yang terdahulu dan pada ayahnya, mufasa. 24 one day a lioness chased pumbaa,… chase (v)mengejar suatu hari pumbaa dikejar oleh seekor singa betina, … 25 ….and simba rushed to protect his friend. rush (v) buru-buru, cepat-cepat ……dan simba menyerang singa itu untuk melindungi temannya. 26 as it turned out, the lioness was nala. “nala!” he cried. “simba?” turn out (v)mematikan, mengeluarkan, menghalau,menghasilkan, melepaskan,berakhir, menjadi namun singa itu ternyata nala. “nala!” serunya. “simba?” 27 ….. but simba refused to return and take his place as the lion king. in his heart, he did not feel worthy. take his place (v)mengambil, menerima, menempati, mendapat, menduduki, merebut …tapi simba tidak mau kembali dan memikul tanggung jawabnya sebagai raja rimba. ia merasa tidak layak. 28 ….rafiki led simba to a small pool and said, “you see, he lives in you.” lead (v)memimpin, membawa, menggiring, menuntun ….rafiki mengajak simba ke sebuah kolam kecil dan berkata, “lihat, dia hidup dalam dirimu.” 29 …..and he looked up at the stars. look up (v)memandang ……dan ia mengangkat pandangannya ke bintang-bintang di langit. 30 ….you must take your place in the circle of life.” take place (v)mengambil, menerima,menempati ,mendapat,m enduduki, merebut …..kau harus menduduki tempatmu dalam siklus kehidupan.” 31 …. “i’ve come back to take my place as king,” simba announced to scar who was standing on pride rock. take my place (v)mengambil, menerima, menempati, mendapat, menduduki, merebut …….”aku datang menuntut hakku sebagai raja,” kata simba kepada scar yang berdiri di atas karang singa. 32 ….simba’s heart filled with rage when he heard his uncle’s words. he leaped on scarand the fight began! filled with rage dipenuhi dengan kemarahan ….simba amat marah mendengar katakata pamannya. ia langsung menerjang scar – dan perkelahian pun dimulai! 33 …..nala led the other lioness against the hyenas. lead (v)memimpin, membawa, menggiring, menuntun nala memimpin singa-singa betina melawan kawanan hyena. 34 timon and pumbaa joined the fray, .. fray (n)keributan, kehebohan, percekcokan timon dan pumbaa juga tak mau ketinggalan. 35 ….and the hyenas were soon defeated. defeated (v,pasif)dikalahkan, digagalkan kawanan hyena itu akhirnya kocar kacir. 36 …..but when simba turned his back, scar attacked! attack (v)menyerang, memecahkan ….namun ketika simba membalik, scar yang licik menyerangnya dari belakang! 37 quick as lightning, simba used nala’s trick flip … use (v)menggunakan, memakai dengan secepat kilat simba mengebaskan badannya meniru cara nala. 38 ….to send scar flying over the cliff to his death. send (v)mengirim, menyampaikan, menurunkan, menurunkan, mengutus, menyuruh, melempar scar pun terjungkir dan jatuh ke jurang. ia tewas seketika. 39 …simba took his rightful place as the lion king. take his rightful place mengambil haknya …tampaklah pemerintahan kembali kepada yang berhak, yaitu simba. 40 in the time, king simba and queen nala had a cub of their own. from the smallest ant to the largest elephant, the beasts came from near and far to pride rock. from near and far dari yang dekat dan yang jauh ketika waktunya, raja simba dan ratu nala pun mempunyai anak. dari semut yang terkecil sampai gajah yang terbesar, semua binatang berkumpul di karang singa. 41 there the son of simba rested in the hands of the wise baboon rafiki, who sprinkled the cub with dust and welcomed the future king to the great circle of life which never ends. rest (v)meletakkan, menenteramkan, menyandarkan, mengistirahatkan, di sana anak simba itu terbaring pasrah dalam pelukan rafiki, dan babun tua itu mencipratinya dengan debu. itulah ucapan selamat dating bagi sang raja dalam siklus kehidupan yang takkan pernah berakhir. no source language teks (english) words observed translation to target language (indonesian language) based on dictionary contextual tranlation in target language (indonesian language)         contextual meaning study ….. (djuria suprapto) 11  conclusion a story packed in such a way by the author to be enjoyed by readers. therefore, the translator must use words, phrases, sentences that can be accepted and easily understood by readers to have a high value of the story. children's story "the lion king" is the story of the source language is english, translated into indonesian and aims to provide opportunities for children to enjoy an interesting story, while improving their english proficiency. this storybook trains children to understand the english language through the context, not just word by word. translation should act as a communication tool, which has the intent and meaning contained in it. meaning is a matter of language that involves human life. meaning is one of the concepts of language in relation to the translation. the translated text must be able to communicate what will be delivered by the author of the story. this story book has been translated in context desired by the author. the translated language is communicative and easily understood by children of indonesia. more over, it gives the pictures that can make children imagine the real story. reference chaer,a. (2002). pengantar semantik bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt rineka cipta. djajasudarma, f. (1993). semantik 2, pemahaman ilmu makna. bandung: pt eresco. leech, g.(1994). sematik.(terjemahan). yogyakarta:pustaka pelajar. larson, m. l. (1998).meaning-based translation, a guide to cross-language equivalence. maryland: university press of america. machali, r.(2000). pedoman bagi penerjemah. jakarta: pt grasindo. newmark, p. (1998). a textbook of translation. uk: prentice hall international ltd. ramayanti (translator).the lion king. (1994).jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama.                                 issn 1978-8118 vol. 7 no.1 mei 2013 ketua dewan redaksi dr. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum. dewan redaksi risa rumentha simanjuntak, s.s., m.app.ling., m.a. dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. akun, s.pd., m.hum. andyni khosasih, s.e., b.a., m.lit. kelly rosalin, s.s., mtcsol dra. nalti novianti, m.si rosita ningrum, s.s., m.pd editor bahasa dan setter i.didimus manulang haryo sutanto holil sekretariat nandya ayu dina nurfitria description lingua cultura is a semi annual journal, published in may and october, first publication is in 2007. the journal contents are managed by the english department, japanese department, and chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jakarta, indonesia. the objective of the journal is to provide a forum for lecturers, researchers, students, and practitioners to present their ideas, concepts, and new theories in language and culture; and to disseminate theory, research, and teaching reviews to the academic community of language and literature studies in indonesia and abroad. lingua cultura presents articles based on research in the study of language, culture, and literatures. the coverage of language includes linguistics and teaching language, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literatues covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. editor and administration address : subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang bahasa dan budaya research and technology transfer office universitas bina nusantara jl. kebon jeruk raya no.27 kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530 phone : 021-5350660 ext. 1708 e-mail : nayu@binus.edu homepage : http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 7 no.1 mei 2013 daftar isi imelda penggunaan partikel で dan に oleh mahasiswa program studi sastra jepang universitas hasanuddin makassar (the use of particle で and に by japanese literature students of universitas hasanuddin, makassar)................................................................................................... 1-5 lily thamrin the difference of oral reading and writing of tiociu language............................................................ 6-10 felicia analisis makna kanyouku yang menggunakan kanji koshi dalam kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms (analysis of kanyouku meaning using koshi kanji in kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms)....................................................................................................................... 11-15 rudi hartono manurung analisis penggunaan sorekara, soshite, dan soreni dalam website surat kabar asahi.com (analysis of the usage of sorekara, soshite, and soreni in asahi.com news website)......................... 16-20 fu ruomei an analysis of the hanyu pinyin errors of the indonesian students...................................................... 21-23 cendrawaty tjong feminism and the literature of pramoedya ananta toer....................................................................... 24-35 lydia anggreani research on difficulty in indonesia students learning chinese language............................................ 36-38 e. yohanita irene the hegemony of english in public discourse........................................................................................ 39-42 agnes herawati the cooperative principle: is grice’s theory suitable to indonesian language culture?....................... 43-48 djuria suprato analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia pada novel morning, noon and night karya sidney sheldon (analysis of english passive sentence translation into bahasa indonesia on sidney sheldon’s morning, noon, and night).................................................................................... 49-56 this thesis consists of the analysis of one of sonya sones’ novel-in-verses entitled what my mother doesn’t know using stylistics literary criticism the study of figurative languages using stylistics theory in what my mother doesn’t know by sonya sones winnie1; akun2 1,2english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ho_win_nie@yahoo.com, akun@binus.edu abstract what my mother doesn’t know is a novel-in-verse by sonya sones which tells about a teenage girl named sophie who tries to find her mr. right and her bad relationship with her parents. in the end, sophie finds her mr. right who is actually not her type of boy friend but he can make her feel happy and even though she hates her parents, she realizes that she loves them nevertheless. the purpose of this article is to prove that the author’s use of style can reveal the themes of novel-in-verse the analysis of the novel-in-verse focuses mainly on the themes and the figurative language of simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole. research methods are conducted in qualitative method in the form of library research and statistics to calculate how many poems use the five figurative languages and are related to the themes. in the analysis, the author’s style is figurative language and there are three themes that can be taken from the novel-in-verse. the themes are overwhelmed feeling does not show the true feeling, the bond of family will always be there, no matter how hateful we are to them and love is not determined by someone’s physical appearance. the result shows that 91.36 percents of poems that use the five figurative languages are related to the themes. it can be concluded that the author’s style in writing the novel-in-verse can reveal the three themes. keywords: novel-in-verse, stylistics, figurative language abstrak what my mother doesn’t know adalah sebuah novel berbentuk puisi karangan sonya sones. mengisahkan pencarian jati diri sophie, gadis belia yang mencari pria idaman (mr.right) dan hubungan yang kurang baik dengan kedua orang tuanya. meski sampai akhir cerita ia tak pernah menemukan pria idaman (mr. right), sophie justru bertemu pria yang jauh dari bayangannya, namun ia bahagia hidup dengannya. satu lagi, akhirnya sophie menyadari peran penting orang tua bagi hidupnya. tujuan artikel untuk mengetahui apakah gaya penulisan novel yang puitik mampu menyampaikan pesan pada pembaca. artikel memfokuskan bahasan pada tema, metafora, personifikasi, paradok, dan hiperbola yang dibahas menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan mencari berapa banyak puisi yang mengandung kalimat figuratif yang sesuai tema.. hasilnya, 91.36 persen membuktikan bahwa gaya penulisan ini mampu menyampaikan pesan kepada pembaca. kata kunci: novel puitik, stilistika, kalimat figuratif jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 156-165 156 mailto:ho_win_nie@yahoo.com introduction this article consists of the analysis of one of sonya sones’ novel-in-verses entitled what my mother doesn’t know that uses stylistics literary criticism. novel-in-verse, or usually called as free verse novel, has the same form as poetry. however, the stress pattern and line lengths in a poetry are decreased in novel-in-verse and so does the rhyme (talib, 2007). in literary studies, the goal of stylistics study in literature is to show how the technical linguistics featured of a literary work, such as the grammatical structure of its sentences, contributes to its overall meanings and effects (barry, 1995, p. 202). besides that, stylistics can show its excellence and enables a thorough analysis of literary works, ranging from poetry, short story, song lyrics, novels, etc. sonya sones’ novel-in-verse is an interesting object to analyze because it is made in a free verse form and it is a simple love story of a teenage life. however, the chosen vocabulary and its words arrangement make this novel-in-verse cannot be easily understood. therefore, it is interesting to find the essence of the poetry and to analyze this poetry using stylistics approach to find what the author’s intention is in the novel-in-verse. sophie is a beautiful teenage girl who is already dating out for several times. she has her own standard in picking an ideal boyfriend. he has to be cool and handsome. however, there is one boy named murphy who is out of sophie’s standard, but he secretly admires sophie. sophie always thinks negatively about murphy, and she tries to avoid him and find her charming prince. sophie’s first boyfriend is lou. they break up at second grade of junior high school because lou loves another girl. however two weeks after that, sophie finds another new boyfriend named dylan. they have so many sweet memories but sophie is aware that he is not her mr. right. after breaking up with dylan, sophie meets chaz in chatting room, however chaz is also not the right person for sophie. in a halloween dance party, sophie feels that she has found her charming prince on the dance, even though she cannot see the face behind the mask. sophie imagines the face behind the mask must be very handsome, because his attitude is very kind and gentle, just like a prince, but she became surprised when she knows that it is murphy that she fells for. in the end, sophie realizes that love does not depend on the looks, but on the heart, and she finally can accept murphy, whose real name is robin, as her boyfriend. sonya sones was born in boston and was an overprotected child living in the nearby suburb of newton, but now she is living in hollywood. since she loved reading to both her children, she then tried to make children stories. she entered a poetry class at ucla, under the teaching of myra cohn livingston. so far, she has written four novels-in-verse (sones, 2008). sonya’s novel-in-verse, what my mother doesn’t know, was the winner of entertainment weekly, winner of the iowa teen book award (2005 – 2006), named by the american library association as one of the top ten most challenged books of 2004 and 2005, named a booklist editor’s choice (2001), and has won many other awards. so far, this novel-in-verse has been published in the united states, france, germany, korea, indonesia and the united kingdom (sones, 2008). the problems to be discussed in this article are to try to discuss the dominant themes in the novel-in-verse; to point out the closest meaning of the simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole; to analyze the five figurative languages to reveal three themes in the novel-in-verse; and to analyze the relationship between the special uses of the five figurative languages and the themes. it is used as a purpose to make the readers understand more about figurative language of simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole and stylistics theory. the study of figurative .... (winnie; akun) 157 the scope in this analysis is a novel-in-verse by sonya sones entitled what my mother doesn’t know, is focusing on the three themes that have been decided and the lines which contain the figurative language of simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole. the first step of analysis begins by reading the whole novel-in-verse several times. before entering the analysis, the themes are decided, and after that, the figurative language of simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole are listed. then, the closest meaning of each figurative language is decided. in analyzing the figurative languages and the process of stylistics analysis, the lines taken are the ones related to the themes. the last step is to find out the relationship between the five figurative languages and the themes. this novel-in-verse is very interesting to analyze because sonya writes the story in form of verse to describe sophie’s story. the author of the novel uses mostly figurative language so to understand the essence of the story we need to fully understand about free verse, and the theory of figurative language and stylistics, first. discussion free verse french poets such as j.laforgue, a.rimbaud, s.mallarme, and p.verlaine, invented “vers libre” or free verse in the end of 19 century. the oxford companion to the english language stated further that free verse gives modern poets more flexibility in pointing out their statement as the replacement of meter sense an ideas are used to divide lines (mcarthur, 1995, pp. 416). the meaning of free in free verse only means that it is free from the regular convention of metres often seen in traditional verse (wales, 2001: 93). in literature: an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama (1979: 529), kennedy explained that free verse is also can be called as open form verse. the main goal is to find a new and individual arrangement for words in every poem. the poem has no rhyme or meter that applies to a whole poem. long story in verse or prose was famous in the middle ages such as knights and adventures that is called romance because it is written in romance language such as french and latin (kennedy, 1979: 232). free verse is lines differing only as syntactical point but does not have anything to do with the meaning relating to the metrical pattern (bradford, 1997: 21). richard bradford said in his book, stylistics (1997:21) that there are three basic categories in free verse. first, when a poem still followed the rules of traditional poetry but the elements are extended to fit the new style. second, when a poem’s form or structure shows “spontaneity of ordinary speech” without regards to the meter like in old poem. third, when a poem bends all the rules of syntax and meter. theme thomas r. arp and johnson (1959:130) explained theme to control the idea of a story. in determining theme in a story, we need to ask what is the purpose of the story and what view of life it supports. however, not all stories have theme. in commercial fiction, plot and suspense are more important than theme. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 156-165 158 principles in making theme are (arp & johnson, 1959: 134). 1. theme should be expressible in the form of a statement with a subject and a predicate. 2. theme must be stated as generalization larger than is justified by the terms of the story. 3. the author must be careful not to make the generalization larger than is justified by the terms of the story. 4. theme is the central and unifying concept of a story. 5. there is no one way of stating the theme of a story. 6. theme must also avoid of being too repetitious of common sayings. such as “you can’t judge a book by its cover” or “a stitch in time saves nine”. stylistics according to peter barry (1995: 202) stylistics is the way of making a criticism on literary texts by linguistics elements. in literature, stylistics can provide a thorough analysis since it has a lot of tool and can cover a lot of areas. the stylistics approach deals mainly with the textual analysis and its technical usage in a literary text. in a dictionary of stylistics (2001: 437), wales explained that stylistics is the study of style. it is variable in terms of the approach that exists since it is deeply affected by the vastness in linguistics and literary criticism. the purpose of stylistics criticism is to identify the style in the formal text and its important meaning in the text. there are 4 categories of stylistics in literature: lexical categories, grammatical categories, figurative language, and context and cohesion. , lexical stylistics deals with the style that concerns about word choice. the analysis of lexical stylistics can be seen from the author’s choice if vocabularies such as simple / complex words, general term / technical term, words associations with other emotions or idioms, or the choice of word class (noun, verb, adverb and adjective) (leech & short, 1981: 75). the second is grammatical stylistics. the analysis of grammatical stylistics can be determined by looking for the composition of the sentence such as the use of simple or complex sentence, the clause use, the phrases uses and other structure related elements (leech & short, 1981: 76). in figurative language stylistics, the author’s style can be seen from the use of figurative language in the literary work. the analysis of figurative language stylistics may cover the choice of the figurative language, the meaning of figurative language, and the specific meaning or purpose of using the figurative language as employed by the author. in other words: why the author chooses to use that specific figurative language and does the figurative language contain the author’s own interpretation of the world (leech & short, 1981: 78). the use of cohesion in stylistics is the easiest to determine because the ideas of the story from the beginning until the end should never change. it is achieved by the way one part of the text is linked to another. meanwhile, context deals with the relation of the text with the social discourse in the real word (leech & short, 1981:79). figurative language this article focuses in figurative language stylistics. figurative language uses unusual feature semantically or grammatically. meanwhile, figures of speech are used in creating imagination by comparing two or more different things (wales, 2001: 176). in a dictionary of stylistic, plett (1977) stated that figure is the smallest deviant language unit and figures do not follow the rules of linguistic (wales, 2001:176). the study of figurative .... (winnie; akun) 159 this article concentrates on five dominant figurative languages: simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole. simile is a figurative language used when we want to explain the resemblance of two objects (in shape, color, characteristics, etc) indirectly using connectors, such as like, as, than, similar to, resembles, or seems. meanwhile, metaphor is a figurative language used when we want to make direct comparison between two objects. metaphors may take one of four forms, depending on whether the literal and figurative terms are respectively named or implied (arp, 1984: 62). personification is a figure of speech when any inhuman objects are given human qualities and attributes to achieve dramatic effects (kennedy, 1979: 495). paradox is a statement that apparently self-contradictory but on closer inspection reveals a truth normally hidden (kennedy, 1979: 497). and last but not least, overstatement or hyperbole is an outrageous exaggeration of an object’s attribute used to magnify a fact or emotion to make an emphasis of its importance. it is the same like all figures of speech. it is made by various effect such as humor or grave, fanciful or restrained, convincing or unconvincing (arp, 1984: 102). these five figurative languages are found inside the novel-in-verse, and help contributing meanings to the themes of the story, as will be explained in the research report. themes in the novel-in-verse there are three main themes in the novel-in-verse, which are: 1. overwhelmed feeling does not show the true feeling. the exaggeration feelings are the happy expression that sophie feels when she is in love with dylan. these expressions are compliment expression, attractiveness, and sophie’s happy expression with dylan. the expressions are not true feeling but it is just a moment of happy expression, because at that time sophie likes dylan not because of love but because sophie likes dylan’s physical appearance. this can be proven through one sentence in simile seems like hours even though it’s probably only been twenty minutes (double date: 344). it means that this sentence proves that sophie starts to feel bored with dylan and does not really like to spend days with dylan. even though dylan has good physical appearance that attracted sophie, this cannot last long because to love somebody is not only just looking at the physical appearance but also how they can attract us emotionally. 2. the bond of family will always be there, no matter how hateful we are to them. this theme is related to sophie and her parents’ relationship. actually, sophie loves her parents but she hates their attitude toward sophie when she was still a kid until she grew up now. sophie thinks that for all this time her parents do not care with her and her life, but behind it all actually sophie does not want to hate them. she loves them and hopes that at least they can be interested in her life. it can be inferred that no matter how hateful sophie is to her parents still behind it all sophie does not want to hate them and when her parents change, she will forgive them immediately. 3. love is not determined by someone’s physical appearance. this theme is related to sophie and murphy because murphy is not the type that sophie used to like. when sophie breaks up with dylan, sophie meets with a masked man at the halloween dance party, she believes that the masked man must be a handsome guy because his attitude is very kind and polite. but unfortunately, murphy is the masked man, and his real name is robin. however, this does not make sophie sad because she finally realizes that behind murphy’s boring appearance, he has a charisma that is not owned by other guys. besides that, murphy can make sophie always smile and treats sophie politely and kindly. this theme can give a good message for every body that we must not love someone because of physical attractiveness alone, but the behavior must be counted on also. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 156-165 160 the stylistics analysis of the five figurative languages in the connection with the three themes after deciding the themes in the novel-in-verse, the lines of simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole will be analyzed using the theory of stylistics. the lines that will be analyzed are the lines related to the three themes mentioned. afterwards, the lines using simile, metaphor, personification, paradox, and hyperbole will be listed. besides the meaning, the poem title and pages in the table will also be added. the words in the lines will be analyzed using oxford advanced learners english dictionary. simile there are 26 lines of simile in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. this is one of the examples: my mother’s down there right now, and she hasn’t been up for days except to cook our meals, dragging herself around the kitchen like a zombie (no. 20, i’d rather be grounded, : 401) the main concern in these lines is the words mother and zombie. the author uses the word zombie as the noun with a purpose instead of using dead people. zombie means a person who seems only partly alive, without any feeling or interest in what is happening. the author uses the word zombie to explain sophie’s mother who does not speak and laugh but she still can walk to do something. therefore, if the author uses the word dead people, the meaning of the lines becomes different when describing her mother who does not speak and do anything; she just sleeps or sits down like dead people. her mother acts like that because she is angry with sophie. sophie’s mother is angry because sophie’s doesn’t want to wear the gown that her mother bought for her. the purpose of these lines is to show sophie’s anger, annoyance, and sadness because she does not like her mother’s attitude that does not want to speak with her. these lines are related to the third theme because it shows annoyance and anger expression to her mother who scold her. metaphor there are 43 lines of metaphor in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. this is one of the examples: and know how it feels to be buried under an avalanche of guilt (no. 25, my masked man would know:403) the main concern in these lines is the words buried, avalanche and guilt. buried as a verb means to destroy, damage, injure or kill somebody / something by fire. avalanche as a noun means a mass of snow, ice and rock that falls down the side of a mountain. guilt as an adjective means feeling ashamed because you have done something that you know is wrong or have not done something that you should have done. the three words are used by the author to explain someone feeling who is really hurt because of guilty feeling. sophie feels really sorry or guilty to her mother because she changes the gown for the halloween dance party that was chosen by her mother. these lines are related to the second theme because it explains about sophie and her mother relationship which never get along because sophie feels her mother never loves her. the study of figurative .... (winnie; akun) 161 personification there are 24 lines of personification in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. this is one of the examples: whispering of our fingers (no. 4, between classes with dylan: 265) the main concern in the line is the words whispering and fingers. whispering is a verb that means to speak very quietly to somebody so that other people cannot hear what you are saying. meanwhile, fingers is a noun that means one of the four long thin parts that stick out from the hand (or five, if the thumb is included). the line wants to explain that when sophie and dylan were in love, their fingers hold each other. the line here is used for the sake of romanticizing. the author uses the word’s poetic quality to make the poem seem more emotional and emphasize the happiness of sophie. the line uses the figurative language personification. finger is the inhuman object and the human quality is whispering. after analyzing the line, we know that the line is related to the first theme. the line explains about sophie’s happiness and she expresses it in exaggerated words. the line shows an overwhelmed feeling that sophie expresses to dylan when she feels in love with dylan. paradox there are 7 lines of paradox in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. this is one of the examples: i mean i do like him, but i don’t like him (no. 3, oh, man, : 439) there are two contradictory words that are focused in the lines. there are like and don’t like. the word like as a verb wants to show to the reader that sophie has a feeling of like to murphy. however, the word don’t like does not mean that sophie hates murphy but to show that sophie is shy to admit that she likes murphy. these lines are the starting point where sophie starts to like murphy. she still feels confused of her feeling if she really likes murphy or not. sophie feels that she cannot feel in love with murphy because he is not handsome. the function of these lines is to show her feeling that is still confused if she really loves murphy or not. these lines are related to the third theme because it proves that love is not determined by someone’s physical appearance. as we know, sophie is not attracted to murphy because his uninteresting physical appearance. however, it can be seen later that finally sophie loves murphy, because even without charming appearance, murphy can make sophie feels happy. hyperbole there are 133 lines of hyperbole in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. these are two of the examples: my mother whips around, slashing me with the knives gleaming in her eyes (no. 89, how could i have forgotten?,: 396) jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 156-165 162 the main concern in these lines is the words slashing, gleaming and eyes. the verb slashing means to make a long cut with a sharp object and gleaming as a verb means to look very clean or bright. the author uses the word slashing to show someone’s emotion / anger when he or she wants to cut someone with a sharp thing and gleaming means to express someone’s seriousness. meanwhile, the author uses eyes because eye can show emotion deeper than any other part of human body. so, the function of the author in using those words is to show to the readers the seriousness in sophie’s mother eyes because she is really angry with sophie. it is also used to show sophie’s anger to her mother. she shows her anger through a bad statement that she makes because her mother does not allow her to use another dress besides her mother’s choice. from the above explanation, the lines are related to the second theme. the lines explain about sophie’s mother anger and sophie’s feeling of annoyance and anger to her mother. it feels as if our souls are kissing (no. 121, this time, p. 471) the main concern in these lines is the words souls and kissing. the noun means a person’s inner character, containing their true thoughts and feeling and the verb means to touch somebody with your lips as a sign of love, affection, sexual desires, etc. the author uses the word souls as the noun with a purpose instead of using we to stress the all feelings that sophie feels. the author wants to explain that sophie feels murphy’s kisses with her heart and mind. these lines are related to the third theme because it proves that love is not determined by someone’s physical appearance. at first, sophie is not attracted to murphy because of his uninteresting physical appearance. however, from the lines it can be seen that finally sophie loves murphy, because even without charming appearance, murphy can make sophie feels happy. the relationship between the five figurative languages and the themes the total poems in the novel-in-verse what my mother doesn’t know are 195 poems and the totals of the poems that use the figurative languages are 139 poems or 71.28 percent. from those 139 poems, there are 127 poems or 91.36 percent are poems that related to the three themes and containing the five figurative languages. in the percentage calculation below, each figurative language will be counted, and the total of the poems of each type of the figurative language analyzed will be divided by 127 (poems containing the five figurative languages and related to the three themes). of the lines related to the first theme: simile: is found in 4 poems, make up for 3.14% of the 127 poems. metaphor: is found in 7 poems, make up for 8.89% of the 127 poems. personification: is found in 4 poems, make up for 3.14% of the 127 poems. paradox: is found in 0 poem, make up for 0% of the 127 poems. hyperbole: is found in 28 poems, make up for 22.04% of the 127 poems. of the lines related to the second theme: simile: is found in 5 poems, make up for 3.93% of the 127 poems. metaphor: is found in 5 poems, make up for 3.93% of the 127 poems. personification: is found in 3 poems, make up for 2.36% of the 127 poems. paradox: is found in 3 poems, make up for 2.36% of the 127 poems. hyperbole: is found in 10 poems, make up for 7.87% of the 127 poems. the study of figurative .... (winnie; akun) 163 of the lines related to the third theme: simile: is found in 6 poems, make up for 4.72% of the 127 poems. metaphor: is found in 9 poems, make up for 7.08% of the 127 poems. personification: is found in 5 poems, make up for 3.93% of the 127 poems. paradox: is found in 3 poems, make up for 2.36% of the 127 poems. hyperbole: is found in 35 poems, make up for 27.55% of the 127 poems. conclusion in expressing the first theme, the author is using more hyperbole than simile, metaphor, personification, and paradox. then, in expressing the second theme, the author is using more hyperbole than simile, metaphor, personification, and paradox. next, in expressing the third theme, the author is using more hyperbole than simile, metaphor, personification, and paradox. from the above explanation, the dominant figurative language used by the author is hyperbole. the author uses more hyperbole because usually teenager likes to exaggerate their expression such as their love expression, happiness expression, sadness expression, and anger expression. from all the analysis above, it can be concluded that 91.36 percent of all the poems use the five figurative languages and are related to the three themes. the percentages are as follows. 1. poems with simile have the portion of 11.81 % from 127poems. 2. poems with metaphor have the portion of 16.53 % from 127 poems. 3. poems with personification have the portion of 9.44 % from 127 poems. 4. poems with paradox have the portion of 4.72 % from 127 poems. 5. poems with hyperbole have the portion of 57.48 % from 127 poems. there are 91.36 percent poems that use the five figurative languages and related to the three themes. the finding shows that themes can be revealed from the figurative languages and by using figurative languages; we can easily discover the style used by the author in expressing the teenagers feeling. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 156-165 164 references arp, t. r. 1984. perrine’s sound and sense: an introduction to poetry. orlando: harcourt brace & company. arp, t. r., & johnson, g. 1959. perrine’s story and structure. boston: thomson higher education. “all american: glossary of literary terms”. retrieved march 28, 2008, website: http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm barnet, s., burto, w., & cain, e. w. 2005. literature for composition: essays, fiction, poetry, and drama. new york: pearson longman barry, p. 1995. beginning theory. manchester: manchester university press bradford, r. 1997. stylistics. london: rout ledge. gill, r. 1995. mastering english literature. new york: palgrave. kennedy, x. j. 1979. literature: an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. canada: little, brown & company. kennedy, x. j., & gioia, d. 2005. literature: an introduction to fiction, poetry, and drama. new york: pearson longman leech, g. n. 1969. a linguistic guide to english poetry. england: pearson education limited. leech, g. n., & short, m. h. 1981. style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose. london and new york: longman. “literary terms”. retrieved march 28, 2008 website: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html mcarthur, t. 1992. the oxford companion to the english language. oxford: oup. smith, v. “what is poetry?” retrieved september 25, 2007, from gallaudet university website: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/literature/poetry.html#basic talib, i. s. “a brief list of some key terms in literature.” retrieved march 17, 2008, from school zone website: http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellibst/lsl01-tm.html taylor, r. 1981. understanding the elements of literature: it’s forms, techniques and cultural conventions. new york: st. martin’s press, inc. wales, k. 2001. a dictionary of stylistics. england: harlow the study of figurative .... (winnie; akun) 165 http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/literature/poetry.html#basic http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellibst/lsl01-tm.html there are 26 lines of simile in the novel-in-verse that contributes to the three themes. this is one of the examples: i mean conclusion microsoft word 09 linda_setting_ok 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 90-99 values dalam diplomasi ekonomi china linda chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 lianhua@binus.ac.id abstract rapid economic developments over the recent decades has made china to be the center of many researches. china has been known of having a unique technique of diplomacy. how a group of people interact with each other is strongly influenced by the values that has been developed in the social order. this paper uses research methods that focuses on literature reviews of books and articles that will explore the kind of values developed and is considered important and influential in the local society of china. this paper will also suggest techniques directly to china's economic diplomacy undertaken by both countries, individuals, or through joint venture. keywords: economic, diplomacy, values, china, negosiation, trading abstrak perkembangan ekonomi yang luar biasa pesat selama beberapa dekade terakhir telah menjadikan china banyak dijadikan sentra penelitian. pemantapan penggunaan soft power dalam diplomasi merupakan salah satu tools utama penetapan kebijakan luar negeri china dan china dikenal memiliki teknik diplomasi yang unik. bagaimana sekelompok masyarakat berinteraksi satu dengan yang lainnya sangat dipengaruhi oleh values yang berkembang dalam tatanan masyarakat tersebut. tulisan ini menggunakan metode penelitian yang berfokus pada tinjauan pustaka berupa buku dan artikel yang akan mengupas jenis-jenis values yang berkembang dan dianggap penting dan berpengaruh dalam masyarakat lokal china. tulisan ini juga akan mengemukakan secara langsung teknik diplomasi ekonomi yang dilakukan china baik oleh negara, individu, maupun secara kongsi. kata kunci: ekonomi, diplomasi, value, china, negosiasi, perdagangan values dalam diplomasi ….. (linda) 91 pendahuluan dikenal luas sebagai negara berkembang yang tingkat pertumbuhannya paling mencengangkan selama tiga dekade terakhir, membuat pamor china di dunia internasional terus meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. setelah bantuan yang begitu besar diberikan pada asia untuk melewati krisis finansial pada tahun 1998, dengan berani china membeli obligasi amerika serikat untuk membantu perbaikan ekonomi negara adidaya tersebut setelah tertimpa krisis finansial global pada pertengahan 2008. hal ini menegaskan kedudukan china di dunia internasional. perkembangan ekonomi china yang begitu cepat dalam rentang waktu 30 tahun sering dituliskan para analis sebagai salah satu kisah sukses pembangunan ekonomi pada masa modern. sejak tahun 1978 (ketika reformasi kebudayaan mulai dilakukan) hingga tahun 2008, gdp china rata-rata meningkat 10% setiap tahunnya. dari tahun 1980 hingga 2008, perekonomian china tumbuh 14 kali (morrison, 2009). china kini merupakan negara dengan perekonomian terbesar kedua di dunia. para peneliti bahkan memprediksi bahwa china akan menjadi yang terbesar dalam beberapa dekade mendatang. perdagangan dan investasi asing memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi negeri yang begitu signifikan. ellen l. frost dalam artikel “promise or threat? china’s commercial diplomacy in asia” mencatat di akhir tahun 1990, total foreign direct investment (fdi) yang masuk ke china adalah yang ketiga terbesar dari total fdi di seluruh negara-negara berkembang. tercatat sebesar 2,7 persen dari total 9,7 persen rata-rata gdp china berasal dari fdi. pada tahun 2003, total fdi yang masuk ke china adalah sebesar us$54 miliar, jauh mengungguli as yang hanya mencatat sebesar us$40 miliar. sebanyak 23.500.000 lapangan pekerjaan tercipta dari sektor ini dan lebih dari 20,7 persen total pajak negeri berasal dari perusahaan investasi asing yang berada di china pada tahun 2005. pada tahun 2004, total dari nilai perdagangan produk-produk china meningkat dua kali lipat. hal ini, seperti dijelaskan oleh morrison (2009), menjadikan china sebagai negara kedua eksportir terbesar dan importir ketiga terbesar di dunia. lebih dari setengah volume perdagangan dilakukan oleh badan-badan investasi asing. sepanjang tahun 2006 sendiri, sebanyak 594,445 perusahaan investasi asing terdaftar dengan lebih dari 480 perusahaan multinasional teratas dunia memasuki negara tersebut. pada tahun 2008 total fdi yang masuk ke negara tersebut sebesar us$ 92 millyar. china kini tercatat sebagai negara tujuan fdi terbesar ketiga di dunia. dengan mengombinasikan surplus perdagangan, aliran fdi dan pembelian ber-skala besar dari mata uang asing telah menjadikan china memegang pertukaran asing terbesar dengan total us$ 1,9 billyar di akhir 2008. secara lebih spesifik, china memproduksi 70 persen total mainan dunia dan 10 persen dari total peralatan telekomunikasi perusahaan dunia. dan sekitar 60-70 persen dari total produksi di ekspor untuk kebutuhan asing. meskipun krisis finansial global memberikan dampak yang cukup besar bagi perkembangan perekonomian, pada tahun 2009 pertumbuhan gdp negara china masih tercatat sebesar 8,9 persen pada kuartal ketiga, meningkat dari 7,9 persen pada kuartal kedua. banyak peneliti juga meramalkan bahwa perekonomian akan mulai melambat atau bahkan menurun tajam pada tahun 2009. jutaan pekerja telah dilaporkan kehilangan pekerjaan mereka dan hal ini merupakan titik utama perhatian pemerintah china yang melihat pertumbuhan ekonomi yang sehat merupakan hal yang sangat penting untuk menata stabilitas nasional. data-data di atas menyatakan besaran ekspansi yang dilakukan china. di satu sisi china terus membutuhkan kucuran dana, di sisi lain terus berusaha memperluas pengaruhnya di dunia internasional dalam wujud menjadi negara investor atau negara pemberi bantuan. satu catatan penting yang perlu digarisbawahi adalah cara yang digunakan china keseluruhannya tidak mengandalkan kekuatan militer (hard power), melainkan soft power. 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 90-99 ”building a harmonius world” adalah prinsip utama china dalam menetapkan kebijakan luar negeri, dan cara utama yang digunakan adalah diplomasi. diplomasi yang digunakan-pun terbilang unik. dengan berani china mendukung iran dalam pengadaan pipa gas, kredit dan teknologi, sementara amerika dan eropa berupaya keras menekan pengembangan nuklir iran. china juga membangun pipa gas dari teluk bengal di myanmar ke propinsi kunming di china, sementara pemerintah pusat di beijing menolak bekerja sama dengan amerika memerangi pencucian uang dan lalu lintas narkoba di myanmar. hal ini menjadikan posisi china sangat representatif sekaligus dilema. di saat negara lain berbondong menyesuaikan diri dengan gaya negosiasi barat, dalam kasus china, justru orang-orang barat yang harus menyesuaikan diri dengan gaya negosiasi ala china. jumlah penduduk yang besar dan area wilayah yang sangat luas, menjadikan para investor harus ekstra hati-hati ketika bernegosiasi dengan china. sistem negara yang dianut juga berbeda dari negara kebanyakan yang hanya menjalankan satu sistem saja (kapitalis atau sosialis). china memilih berjalan seimbang antara dua sistem, menyebutnya dengan kapitalis berkarakteristik china. sulit memprediksi pola pikir yang sama di antara 1,4 milyar penduduk china dan sulit juga menerapkan sistem negosiasi yang sama di sejumlah kawasan investasi terbuka yang sama untuk setiap tempat di china. menjadi penting bagi para investor atau negara-negara sumber pemberi fdi untuk mengetahui negara tujuan berinvestasi mereka atau dengan siapa sebenarnya mereka bekerja sama. mengamati berbagai keunikan dan karakteristik yang dimiliki china saat ber-diplomasi atau ber-negosiasi di atas meja perundingan, penulis tertarik untuk menelaah karakteristik dasar masyarakat china yang mempengaruhi sikap dan pola pikir di atas meja perundingan. values menjadi sorotan utama dalam makalah ini. pembahasan values dalam kerangka analisa politik luar negeri david easton menggambarkan politik dalam keadaan selalu bergejolak. karena itu fokus perhatian easton bersumber pada pertanyaan bagaimana mengelola sebuah sistem yang tetap utuh dalam situasi dunia yang penuh gejolak dan rentan pada perubahan. sehingga, untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, easton meyakini pentingnya melakukan penelitian mengenai interaksi sistem politik dengan lingkungan, baik di dalam maupun di luar lingkup masyarakat. secara sederhana, easton mengungkapkan memahami sistem politik sama seperti memahami sistem lain seperti ekonomi, yang kesemuanya merupakan subsistem dari sistem yang lebih besar. namun demikian, sistem politik menurut pandangan easton bersifat khusus, karena memiliki kekuatan membuat keputusan yang mengikat semua anggota dalam sistem. easton memandang sistem politik sebagai tahapan pembuatan keputusan yang memiliki batasan dan sangat fleksibel (berubah sesuai kebutuhan). model sistem politik terdiri dari fungsi input, berupa tuntutan dan dukungan; fungsi pengolahan (conversion); dan fungsi output sebagai hasil dari proses sistem politik, lebih jelasnya seperti pada gambar 1 berikut: gambar 1 model analisa sistem politik values dalam diplomasi ….. (linda) 93 ketika suatu sistem menerima sebuah input berupa kejadian atau fenomena yang terjadi di dunia masyarakat baik secara nasional maupun internasional, maka akan ada output berupa kebijakan. ketika proses pengelolaan terjadi (conversion), ada beberapa faktor yang memainkan peranan penting, yaitu: environment (lingkungan) dan values (nilai). environment merupakan faktor utama bagaimana sebuah input (kejadian bisa terjadi) dan proses pengelolaan kebijakan terjadi, lingkungan merupakan faktor penting yang harus diperhatikan. howard lentner mengungkap dua determinan pengambilan kebijakan luar negeri suatu negara, yaitu: domestik dan luar negeri. hal-hal yang terjadi di dalam dan luar negeri memiliki pengaruh yang sangat besar pada kebijakan yang diambil. namun, yang tidak kalah penting juga adalah values (nilai). konsep values (nilai) yang berlaku dalam politik tidak setumpul nilai dalam ekonomi yang sering dimaknai sekedar efisiensi/laba. dalam politik, values (nilai) bekerja berdasarkan norma-norma yang hidup dimasyarakat (yustika, 2009). values berasal dari norma yang dianut oleh suatu masyarakat, mengenai apa yang dianggap baik dan buruk oleh masyarakat. drs. suparto??? mengemukakan nilai-nilai sosial memiliki fungsi umum, diantaranya nilai-nilai yang dapat menyumbangkan seperangkat alat untuk mengarahkan masyarakat dalam berpikir dan bertingkah laku. kimball young mengemukakan nilai sosial adalah asumsi yang abstrak dan sering tidak disadari tentang apa yang dianggap penting dalam masyarakat. values lahir dan berkembang dari hasil interaksi antar warga masyarakat dan dipengaruhi kebudayaan yang berkembang di suatu tempat serta mempengaruhi pengembangan diri sosial masyarakat tersebut. representasi dari values secara nyata adalah sikap dan perilaku masyarakat dari tempat dimana values tersebut berasal dan berkembang. apa yang dipercaya oleh masyarakat setempat dan dijalankan oleh mereka, maka hal itulah yang disebut sebagai values. sehingga dalam konteks analisa sistem politik luar negeri, dapat disimpulkan bahwa values suatu masyarakat atau disebut juga values sosial merupakan hal yang penting. dan karena values berkembang di suatu tempat, maka values untuk setiap daerah dan wilayah dimuka bumi ini tidak dapat disamaratakan. hal inilah yang menjadikan sebuah negara unik dan khas. karakteristik perilaku orang china china memiliki sejarah yang panjang dan budaya yang begitu besar. penduduknya bangga dan lebih peduli pada sejarah masa lalu ketimbang barat. ada banyak cerita dan legenda yang berkembang di china, kebanyakan berasal dari ratusan atau bahkan ribuan tahun yang lalu. dan dari tiap-tiap cerita tersebut terdapat banyak pelajaran filosofi yang terkandung dari pemikir yang sudah dikenal baik oleh masyarakat. berbicara mengenai perilaku dan sifat orang china, tidak dapat dilepaskan dari konfusius. konfusianisme adalah aliran pemikiran etika pertama yang menempatkan kepentingan bersama di atas kepentingan lainnya. etika idealnya berpusat pada makna dasar kebaikan, berisikan bentuk-bentuk nilai moral utama, dengan bagian yang paling penting bakti pada orang tua dan tugas-tugas luhur, dan kesetiaan serta kebajikan. budaya china selalu memberikan tempat yang penting bagi kesalehan. falsafah konfusius memegang teguh bahwa sebuah keluarga yang baik adalah suatu landasan yang baik bagi masyarakat yang baik dan keluarga yang baik didasarkan pada kasih orangtua kepada anaknya dan pengabdian dan ketaatan anak pada orangtuanya. bakti pada orang tua bersama kesetiaan, ketaatan dan integritas membentuk moralitas yang berusaha ditanamkan dalam hati masyarakat oleh para pengikut konfusius sepanjang sejarah bangsa china. berbagai aliran filsafat terus berkembang selama sejarah panjang perkembangan masyarakat china. dalam hal moralitas prinsip-prinsip dasar beberapa aliran pemikiran filsafat malah saling bertabrakan satu sama lain. waktu telah menunjukkan bahwa beberapa falsafah hanya cocok untuk iklim politik di zamannya saja, berkembang dan kemudian lenyap dengan cepat. falsafah yang tahan terhadap uji waktu akan terus bersinar sepanjang sejarah (song shouxiang, profesor chongqing jianzhu university china, penulis “loyalty, kesetiaan”). dari sinilah muncul nilai-nilai tradisional china yang kuat yang memiliki makna luas dalam masyarakat china. 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 90-99 integritas suatu pemerintahan, keteraturan dan harmoni sosial adalah faktor yang memiliki dampak langsung terhadap hukum dan moralitas masyarakat. dengan mengembangkan nilai-nilai yang tetap dapat diterapkan dan membuang yang telah usang, ada makna baru yang diberikan pada nilai-nilai moral tradisional china. dalam kondisi perekonomian modern saat ini, aturan moralitas ini masih dapat memberikan makna-makna praktis. hal ini yang membedakan china dengan negaranegara lain. penghargaan akan nilai-nilai sejarah dan budaya yang begitu kuat dan kental dapat dilihat langsung dari sikap dan perilaku sehari-hari. sekalipun mao zedong secara keras mencoba menghapus pengaruh pemikiran konfusius pada tahun 1960-an dan menggantikannya dengan ajaran sosialis, namun hal tersebut hanya menjadi drama sejarah yang dramatis serta menjadi kritik bagi rezim tersebut selama bertahun-tahun. pengaruh konfusius yang kuat inilah yang menjadikan sosialis total yang ditetapkan oleh mao zedong berjalan timpang. deng xiaoping dengan semangat pembaruan, merombak sistem politik china menjadi lebih terbuka dan kapitalis. perekonomian mulai tumbuh dengan cepat dan china mencoba merangkak kembali ke posisinya semula, menjadi sebuah negara yang selalu mereka sebut dengan 中 国 (zhōngguó), sebuah negara sentral. akan tetapi, meskipun sistem politik dan perekonomian berasal dari luar (marxisme dan liberalisme bukan ajaran yang berasal dari dalam negeri china), namun pada prakteknya, akar dari pemikiran, sikap dan perilaku para diplomat dan pebisnis china merupakan pencerminan dan representasi dari ajaran konfusius. berikut beberapa karakteristik china yang berasal dari pemikiran konfusius: 关系(guānxì: jaringan hubungan) “jangan selalu mengingat bantuan yang telah anda berikan kepada orang lain, tetapi hendaknya jangan lupa untuk membalas budi yang telah anda terima dari orang lain.” guānxì secara harafiah dapat diartikan menjadi hubungan. bagi orang-orang china tidak ada yang lebih penting daripada kedudukan seseorang dalam jaringan hubungan sosialnya. awalnya, konsep penting guānxì berasal pada hubungan keluarga, tetapi gagasan ini telah melebar dan ikut mencakup teman, teman dari teman, mantan teman sekolah, relasi dan orangorang yang memiliki ketertarikan yang sama. media terciptanya guānxì adalah hubungan timbal balik. hubungan ini dapat berupa pertolongan atau bantuan. hubungan timbal balik jangka panjang ini bekerja baik dalam konteks hubungan pribadi jangka panjang. di china, ketidakpedulian terhadap hubungan timbal balik ini adalah tata krama yang buruk; sesuatu yang tidak bermoral. rekan bisnis potensial asal china harus didekati melalui jaringan mereka. guānxì dapat menjadi sumber pengaruh yang penting selama berlangsungnya negosiasi. referensi dari seorang anggota guānxì yang berpengaruh dapat memperkuat posisi dalam negosiasi ketimbang segudang informasi teknik yang akuran. dengan pentingnya peran guānxì dalam budaya bisnis china, dapat dilihat bahwa sangat penting bagi para negosiator asing untuk membangun terlebih dahulu jaringan guānxì sebelum memulai negosiasi dengan para negosiator china. 面子 (miànzi : gengsi) “orang yang suka menjilat kepada orang kaya dan berkuasa adalah orang yang tercela.” konsep mengenai miànzi di china sangat serupa dengan konsep kedaulatan dan gengsi di as. miànzi menentukan tempat seseorang dalam jaringan sosial. ini adalah tolok-ukur nilai sosial yang paling penting. miànzi dapat berupa kekayaan, kecerdasan, penampilan, keahlian, kedudukan dan guānxì yang hebat. values dalam diplomasi ….. (linda) 95 mengingkari janji, menunjukkan kemarahan, atau memperlihatkan perilaku yang tidak pantas dapat menyebabkan negosiator kehilangan muka/miànzi. memberikan pujian dapat berarti menunjukkan pengakuan sosial terhadap lawan negosiasi, akan tetapi memuji berlebihan menandakan ketidaktulusan yang menyebabkan hilangnya miànzi. moral adalah landasan utama dari perilaku masyarakat china. kesempurnaan moral manusia, baik sebagai seorang raja atau pekerja biasa, selalu menjadi perhatian utama. inti dari moral adalah kebajikan ( 仁 :ren). pengertian ren yang diajukan oleh konfusius adalah “cinta manusia”; yang berarti perbuatan baik anak pada orangtua, cinta kepada saudara dan kerabat, berbaik hati kepada orang tua, berbuat baik pada orang lain tanpa memandang status sosial dan hubungannya dengan diri seseorang. dan kesemuanya ini menunjuk pada penghormatan diri sendiri. memperlakukan orang lain dengan baik, berarti memperlakukan diri sendiri dengan baik. menunjukkan penghormatan tinggi terhadap negosiator, berarti kita dapat menjaga kepercayaan yang diberikan yang bagi masyarakat china mutlak diperlukan. 裙带关系 (qúndài guānxì : hubungan kekeluargaan) “orang yang menilai uang lebih tinggi daripada orangtuanya adalah anak yang tidak berbudi.” dalam struktur sosial masyarakat china, keluarga adalah yang terpenting. keluarga menjadi unit sosial paling mendasar dan hal ini berlaku sejak dahulu hingga sekarang. gordon redding dalam spirit of chinese capitalism mengatakan bahwa perusahaan yang dimiliki orang china jarang sekali berkembang melampaui ikatan dan batasan keluarga besar. hal ini turut memberi warna dalam kapitalisme china, hal yang tidak dapat ditemui di amerika serikat, jepang dan eropa. penghargaan terhadap yang lebih tua atau bahkan leluhur yang sudah meninggal, merupakan warisan ajaran konfusius yang masih melekat erat hingga sekarang. hal ini menunjukkan penghargaan bangsa china yang tinggi terhadap sejarah dan ajaran-ajaran masa lalu. bagi masyarakat china, nepotisme merupakan lem yang menyatukan seluruh bagian organisasi. bisnis keluarga sangat otokratis dimana sosok ayah biasa bertindak sebagai pemimpin. uniknya, pertengkaran bisa saja pecah di ruang rapat keluarga, tetapi mereka akan selalu muncul dengan suara tunggal ketika menghadapi pihak luar. kuatnya ikatan sosial dan kekeluargaan yang hidup dalam sistem bisnis china, merupakan salah satu karakteristik para negosiator china. 社会等级 (shèhuì děngjí : hirarki sosial) “dalam satu keluarga, orangtua dan anak-anak, suami dan istri, anak yang lebih tua dan anak yang lebih muda, harus mengerjakan tugas mereka masing-masing. mereka semua harus mematuhi aturanaturan tingkah laku yang baik dan menggunakan bahasa yang pantas.” ada lima jenis hubungan penting yang ditetapkan konfusius; hubungan antara pemimpin dan yang dipimpin, suami dan istri, orang tua dan anak, kakak dan adik, dan pertemanan. mereka yang dipimpin (istri, anak dan adik) disarankan untuk memberikan pengabdian dan kesetiaannya untuk mendapatkan kasih sayang dari pemimpinnya. kepatuhan terhadap hubungan vertikal akan menghasilkan keharmonisan sosial. status bukan barang main-main, usia dan pangkat serta status adalah hal penting yang harus dipertimbangkan saat ber-negosiasi. penghormatan terhadap yang lebih tua atau lebih tinggi status sosialnya dapat menjadikan hubungan yang harmonis, dan hubungan harmonis ini sangat penting bagi negosiasi. 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 90-99 吃苦耐劳(chī kǔ nài láo : pantang menyerah dalam kepahitan dan penderitaan) “kita harus memperbaiki rumah sebelum hujan dan tidak terlambat menggali sumur saat kita sudah merasa haus.” orang-orang china terkenal dengan etos kerjanya yang sangat tinggi. kerja keras, bahkan di saat-saat tersulitpun adalah gagasannya. kerja keras ini sudah dimulai sejak dini, di sekolahsekolah dengan jumlah jam belajar, jumlah hari sekolah dan masa sekolah yang jauh lebih panjang dari kebanyakan negara-negara lain, menjadikan kegigihan, kesungguhan dan persiapan sebagai ciri utama dari etos kerja orang china. dan kembali, hal ini tidak dapat dilepaskan dari pengaruh konfusius yang memang juga sudah sejak dini ditanamkan dalam pribadi masyarakat china. 整体观念 (zhěngtǐ guānniàn: pandangan menyeluruh) “apapun yang anda lakukan, berusahalah meluangkan waktu untuk memikirkan kondisi-kondisi yang tak terduga. jika anda berhasil dalam suatu usaha, janganlah terlalu mengharapkan keberhasilan itu akan terulang kembali.” salah satu ciri karakteristik lain yang istimewa adalah kemampuan untuk melihat gambaran besar. sejak kecil anak-anak dididik mengenal huruf/karakter yang menyerupai simbol dan gambar. karakter-karakter tersebut hanya dapat diartikan dengan melihat keseluruhan karakter, karena satu karakter bisa terdiri dari beberapa elemen yang baru lengkap dan memiliki arti jika kesemuanya digabungkan dan dilihat menjadi satu. karena itu, orang-orang china cenderung membicarakan permasalahan sekaligus, berputar-putar di sekitar masalah utama. dan ketika diimplementasikan di dalam bisnis, orang china lebih mampu menyelesaikan masalah secara globalgaris besar dan bukan rinci dan detail perbagian masalah seperti yang umum diterapkan para negosiator barat. 令和谈判(ling hé tán pàn: kepercayaan dan perundingan) “orang yang berpengalaman, bertindak hati-hati, dan sederhana dapat diandalkan dalam kondisi sulit.” dalam budaya china, kerjasama dan saling percaya antar anggota keluarga adalah prosedur standar. hubungan timbal balik dan negosiasi muncul dari saling ketergantungan yang telah tercipta. akan tetapi, satu prinsip dasar dari negosiasi yang dipercayai oleh orang china adalah prinsip menang kalah dan hal ini dapat dilihat sebagai sebuah jenis peperangan. bisnis dan ekonomi adalah medan peperangan masa kini. tidak heran jika strategi perang yang ditulis oleh sun zi dapat diimplementasikan dalam dunia bisnis masa kini. yang terpenting dari negosiasi adalah rasa saling percaya. selalu sulit pada awalnya bagi orang dalam luar lingkaran hirarki china untuk dapat bernegosiasi. akan tetapi, jika rasa saling percaya sudah tumbuh, maka pada saat itulah, jenis-jenis hubungan komersial terbaik dapat dinegosiasikan. analisis dalam upaya memenuhi kepentingan nasional, kerjasama merupakan sebuah cara yang sangat diandalkan. pertandingan pamor kekuatan militer sudah tidak dapat lagi dijadikan penentu sukses tidaknya sebuah entitas (negara, kelompok, mnc, ngo, individu) memperoleh tujuan utamanya. kerjasama adalah tekniknya, negosiasi adalah medianya dan diplomasi adalah alat penyampaian kepentingan dalam forum negosiasi. menjadi penting untuk mengenali segala sesuatu mengenai lawan negosiasi, guna memperoleh komunikasi secara efektif. menyesuaikan diri dengan kebiasaan lawan adalah cara terbaik menyesuaikan kepentingan kedua belah pihak. values dalam diplomasi ….. (linda) 97 berbeda tempat dan lawan negosiasi, maka berbeda pula teknik diplomasi yang digunakan. china sebagai sebuah negara yang menjadi tempat investasi paling menjanjikan dewasa ini sangat memahami hal ini. satu hal yang perlu dipahami adalah tingkat nasionalisme china yang begitu tinggi. hal ini menjadikan penghargaan china pada leluhur dan warisan budaya serta sejarah masa lalu menjadi begitu kental dan kuat. seperti yang telah dipaparkan pada bagian sebelumnya, bahwa yang menjadi kunci dari values china selama beratus-ratus bahkan beribu tahun terakhir adalah kuatnya ajaran yang diterapkan oleh konfusius. ajaran-ajaran konfusius berpengaruh dan melekat kuat pada pribadi, pola pikir, tingkah laku bahkan sikap dan sifat orang china. sepanjang sejarah china, tercatat telah terjadi dua kali upaya penghapusan besar-besaran terhadap ajaran konfusius. yang pertama terjadi pada masa pemerintahan kaisar i china, qin shihuang yang membunuh lebih dari 400 cendekiawan dan membumihanguskan semua kitab-kitab ajaran konfusius. pada masa ini, kitab terakhir konfusius yaitu kitab musik hilang tidak berbekas hingga sekarang. yang kedua terjadi pada masa revolusi kebudayaan yang di prakarsai oleh mao zedong pada tahun 1960an. ketika republik rakyat china (rrc) resmi didirikan mao zedong di lapangan tiananmen, beijing pada 1 oktober 1949, sebagian besar rakyat china menyambut baik pemerintahan terpusat yang didasarkan pada ajaran sosialis. ketika itu, pengaturan kolektif terhadap kehidupan di daerah perdesaan terus berlanjut. hingga pada tahun 1957, terjadi pembersihan besar-besaran terhadap para penentang kebijakan mao. revolusi kebudayaan yang dikomandoi red guard (tentara bentukan mao yang beranggotakan siswa sekolah menengah atas dan mahasiswa militan, untuk menjadi unit-unit paramiliter di seluruh penjuru negeri) ditugaskan untuk menyerang segala sesuatu yang bersifat tradisional. berbagai situs dan peninggalan sejarah dihancurkan. seluruh hal yang berhubungan dengan penentangan ajaran mao termasuk para pengikut konfusius dibumihanguskan. akan tetapi, semua hal ini tidak terlalu memberi pengaruh besar terhadap dasar values china. nilai-nilai ajaran konfusius tetap menjadi landasan dan acuan utama bagi kebanyakan warga china dalam bersikap, bertindak dan berperilaku. sebagai contoh, ketika komunis pertama kali mengambil alih china daratan, salah satu tindakan pertama adalah memberikan status hukum yang sama antara wanita dengan pria. secara resmi, para wanita mendapatkan gaji dan status yang sama dalam dunia kerja. wanita memegang posisi penting di pabrik, kantor, kementrian dan angkatan bersenjata. namun, ajaran konfusius yang masih memegang teguh posisi lelaki di atas posisi wanita masih tetap hidup. hal ini dapat dilihat dari timpangnya statistik populasi pria dibandingkan wanita. dimana jumlah para pria jauh melebihi wanita. dalam hal ini dapat dilihat bahwa pengaruh values yang berasal dari dalam negeri (konfusius) jauh lebih kuat dibandingkan yang berasal dari luar negeri (marxisme). hal lain yang dapat dilihat sekaitan kuatnya pengaruh ajaran konfusius dalam tatanan kehidupan sosial masyarakat china adalah eratnya hubungan kekeluargaan di dalam tata kelola bisnis china. kesetaraan sosial yang dilakukan pihak komunis telah mengurangi pentingnya arti hubungan kekeluargaan (qúndài guānxì) di china. karena sebagian besar kekayan dan sumber daya di china dikuasai partai komunis sejak tahun 1949, maka sistem pemerintahanpun berubah. banyak anggota partai yang berkuasa (di china, masih disahkan sistem posisi ganda, dimana seseorang yang memiliki kedudukan di partai juga dapat memegang posisi penting di militer atau perusahaan negara), sebagian kecil elit pemerintahan, mahasiswa-mahasiswa universitas ternama seperti qinghua university dan beijing university, sering kali menempati posisi yang lebih penting ketimbang hubungan keluarga. namun, hal ini hanya terjadi di dalam negara saja. pada saat yang bersamaan, di hongkong, singapura, taiwan, amerika serikat bahkan eropa, konsep penting dari hubungan kekeluargaan (qúndài guānxì) masih terus melekat kuat pada para perantau asal negeri tirai bambu tersebut. dan seiring dengan semakin pudarnya pamor komunis di china daratan dan kembali terbukanya china dengan dunia luar, pada akhirnya konsep penting hubungan kekeluargaan (qúndài guānxì) kembali menemukan posisinya. sekali lagi, hal ini membuktikan bahwa sekalipun china telah menjalankan sebuah sistem yang berasal dari pengaruh asing (marxisme), kekuatan dan kearifan budaya lokal tetap mengakar kuat dalam tatanan kehidupan sosial masyarakat china. 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 90-99 beberapa contoh di atas, memperlihatkan meskipun komunisme telah mengakibatkan kehancuran sistem sosial masyarakat, namun dasar dari konfusianisme terus melekat dan dipraktekkan erat dalam berbagai elemen kebijakan luar negeri. penulis berpendapat, salah satu representasi kuat dari ajaran konfusianisme dalam kebijakan luar negeri china adalah dengan sikapnya untuk tidak mencampuri urusan politik dalam negeri negara lain. kepentingan china di negara tersebut adalah untuk bekerja sama dalam bidang ekonomi dan hal ini tidak ada kaitannya sama sekali dengan domestik negara tersebut. contoh nyata yang dapat dilihat adalah pada kasus iran. bagi penulis, dengan jelas sekali china tidak terganggu dengan keadaan politik dalam negeri iran. dengan berani, china mendukung iran dalam pengadaan pipa gas, kredit dan teknologi, sementara amerika dan beberapa negara eropa lain sibuk menekan upaya pengembangan nuklir iran. hal ini mendapat sambutan positif dan penghargaan tersendiri dari iran dan negara-negara lain yang memiliki kasus serupa iran terhadap posisi china. penghargaan ini menjadikan china kuat di mata negara-negara asia dan afrika yang mendatangkan dukungan kuat bagi tindakan-tindakan china di dunia internasional. konsep penting dari miànzi dengan jelas tergambar. bantuan yang diberikan tidak diharapkan balasannya pada saat itu, akan tetapi pasti ada suatu masa dimana china membutuhkan bantuan dari negara lain. dan hal ini kembali terbukti pada kasus hak asasi manusia di tibet. banyak negara yang mendukung china dan menganggap kasus tersebut adalah masalah domestik pemerintah china, sehingga tidak perlu diganggu gugat. data-data dan contoh-contoh diatas, membawa kita untuk melihat sebuah kondisi dimana pentingnya peran values dalam sikap dan perilaku sebuah bangsa dalam menghadapi fenomena dunia internasional yang terjadi. beragam keputusan dan tindakan china di dunia internasional, tidak dapat dipisahkan dari pengaruh ajaran konfusius yang sudah terlanjur merekat kuat pada setiap pribadi orang china. jika dilihat dari bagan analisa sistem politik yang dikembangkan oleh david easton, maka dapat dilihat ada tiga fase penting dari sistem politik, yaitu input, pengolahan (conversion); dan fungsi output sebagai hasil dari proses sistem politik. input dapat berarti sama bagi setiap negara di dunia. contoh kasus untuk model ini adalah myanmar. kejadian/inputnya adalah praktek pencucian uang dan lalu lintas narkoba yang sangat marak di myanmar. ketika hal ini terjadi, maka proses selanjutnya yang terjadi adalah proses konversi/pengolahan. pada proses ini values, lingkungan dan kepentingan negara bermain. jika pada amerika memiliki karakteristik pendekatan tersusun secara berurut dalam memecahkan masalah, memecah rangkaian masalah kompleks menjadi lebih kecil dan menyelesaikannya satu demi satu seperti dalam wujud kecaman, embargo atau bahkan tindakan invasi militer. maka china lebih melihat gambaran luasnya, memetakan apa kepentingannya di myanmar dan bagaimana cara menyelesaikan masalah tanpa mengganggu kepentingannya. karena itu, china lebih memilih untuk tidak bekerjasama dengan amerika dalam mengatasi kasus myanmar. proses pengolahan ini adalah yang terpenting dari sebuah sistem politik dimana sebuah kasus yang sama dapat menghasilkan penyelesaian yang berbeda-beda. hal ini menjadikan diplomasi ekonomi china berbeda. berbagai literatur menyebutkan bahwa amerika serikat sendiri mengalami kesulitan ketika harus mengadakan negosiasi dengan para negosiator china. perbedaan budaya dan values adalah dasarnya. dan penting bagi para negosiator untuk memahami budaya dan values yang berkembang di tempat dimana investasi atau jalinan kerjasama akan dilakukan. penutup sepak terjang sebuah negara dalam dunia internasional tidak terlepas dari strategi dan sistem politik yang ditetapkan oleh pemerintah negaranya. satu hal yang sangat berpengaruh bagi hubungan luar negeri antar negara adalah values yang tertanam dan berpengaruh dalam kehidupan masyarakat negara tersebut. values dalam sistem masyarakat china sangat berbeda dan unik, sehingga terkadang menimbulkan kesulitan bagi para diplomat asing atau pelaku bisnis dalam berbuhungan dengan china. values dalam diplomasi ….. (linda) 99 menjadi penting untuk mengetahui dan memahami sistem values dalam tatanan masyarakat china dan konfusius sebagai sebuah ajaran yang telah berkembang di china sejak lima ribu tahun yang lalu tetap menjadi akar values masyarakat china. karena itu, untuk dapat lebih memahami teknik diplomasi yang digunakan baik pada level negara china, individu, maupun kongsi maka mempelajari dan memahami apa dan bagaimana values bahkan ajaran konfusius terlebih dahulu merupakan cara yang sangat disarankan. daftar pustaka morrison, w. m. (2009, maret 9). china economic condition. crs report for congress. yustika, a. e. (2009). ekonomi politik, kajian teoretis dan analisis empiris. jogjakarta: pustaka pelajar. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 15 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 15-23 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.3176 a proposed syllabus for english as a foreign language writing class at university hanna sundari1; rina husnaini febriyanti2; gustaman saragih3 1, 2, 3 department of english education, faculty of language and fine arts, university of indraprasta pgri jln. nangka no. 58 c tanjung barat, south jakarta 1hanna.sundari@gmail.com; 2febri_usagi@yahoo.com; 3gustamansaragih@gmail.com received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 29th august 2017/ accepted: 01st september 2017 how to cite: sundari, h., febriyanti, r. h., & saragih, g. (2018). a proposed syllabus for english as a foreign language writing class at university. lingua cultura, 12(1), 15-23. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.3176 abstract this present study intended to develop the first draft syllabus for writing course in english education major. particularly in teaching writing as foreign language, syllabus became one of the key factors for teachers before and while delivering the lesson. the research was carried out by initial steps of research and development approach (r and d). the respondents were the students from writing classes, writing lecturers, and the stakeholders in one university in jakarta. in collecting data, the instruments were the questionnaire and in-depth interview. after analyzing the data from need analysis descriptively, the researchers have modeled a developed layout of the syllabus for writing class. the syllabus is developed in a set of concepts and rationale, general and specific objectives or outcomes of the course as competences, teaching methods, materials and content, practices and activity, and evaluation. keywords: writing skill, english syllabus, english as a foreign language (efl) learners introduction the term syllabus might be considered to be interchangeable with the curriculum. curriculum refers to the entire process of teaching and learning, including planning, teaching process, and evaluation that can be called as course, whereas, syllabus contains a set of concepts on the designed course (christison & murray, 2011a). in a different point of view, nation & macalister (2010) distinguish curriculum and syllabus. syllabus, as an inner circle of curriculum, may include objectives or goals of learning, presentation format and sequence, content, and evaluation. meanwhile, curriculum development is a process of planning and implementing in developing and renewing curriculum. at this point, the syllabus can be seen as a part of the curriculum which can be developed based on the needs of the educational program. to be more precise, syllabus contains material contents that will be taught and achieved in one language program, and it is more detail and specific than curriculum. breen (2001) writes four elements of syllabus; aims, content, methodology, evaluation. syllabus for language curriculum or course may provide the communicative knowledge or more broadly the capabilities to be achieved as well as it gives specific structure and vocabulary. moreover, syllabus contains manageable units of content which are selected and broken down to achieve the targeted objectives. the frameworks in developing syllabus have been underpinned on several orientations. richards (2001) has stated that syllabus can be developed based on at least ten syllabus frameworks, such as structuralbased syllabus, lexical-based syllabus, functional-based syllabus, situational-based syllabus, topical-based syllabus, competency-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus, taskbased syllabus, text-based syllabus, and mixed syllabus. meanwhile, breen (2001) has proposed two kinds of orientation in designing syllabus, namely task-based and process-syllabus. the former orientation is to design syllabus which is the task as the key unit within to encourage interaction students and input, so they can express and interpret meaning during doing tasks. he also summarizes that syllabus is currently designed emphasizing on four main trends, such as focusing on outcomes/competencebased planning, organizing through tasks and subdivided and sequenced as tasks, negotiating between teacher and students, serving a range of appropriate language-learning aims. interaction, negotiation, and tasks become essential points in developing the syllabus for the language course. in indonesian context, syllabus, according to national educational department as cited by koryati (2011) is the focus in organizing the instructional design, applying the learning process and evaluating its process. teaching and 16 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 15-23 learning in higher education have been shifted its paradigm from teacher-centered to student-centered which means that college students are no longer as the passive receiver. they are, through the learning process, forced to be independent to figure out knowledge and information by themselves. consequently, they are highly competent in their main field and can perform as demanded in and outside the class. related to teaching and learning english as the foreign language, cahyono & widiati (2011) have said that english teaching at the university level is outside the whole system, in which institutions have the large opportunity and autonomy to design their teaching system. despite the fact that there are standard learning outcomes, the lecturers still have a plenty of room to explore their teaching process in the classroom. teaching l2 writing for efl students particularly in english department has its specific purposes. writing course is discussed and practiced paragraph and essay development in various text types. however, the constraints in writing class are various, such as student intake competence, rare teaching resources, curriculum system, and others. students often enter writing class with insufficient competence to write. as a result, they find it too difficult. in addition to competence, competences should be achieved sound unclear and unsystematic for both teacher and students. moreover, the aim of learning writing probably does not meet the students’ needs. redesigning syllabus for writing class is one of the alternative solutions in order to enhance the qualities of teaching and learning in writing class as well as the students’ performance in writing. syllabus development for language course has been modeled by some language experts, for instance, brown (1995), graves, (2000), richards (2001), nation and macalister (2010), and murray and cristison (2011a). generally speaking, though some aspects are quite different, they commonly proposed a set of steps as analyzing needs, setting goals, of course, selecting content, and determining evaluation. to be more specific, graves (2000) set several phases in designing a language course, such as defining the context, articulating beliefs, conceptualizing content, formulating goals and objectives, assessing needs, organizing the course, and developing materials. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 the phases of designing course (graves, 2001) research related to developing the syllabus for language course has been widely conducted in indonesia for either specific purposes or academic purposes. development of syllabus by floris (2008) is done by surveying 1.450 students and 34 teachers. the purposes are to identify needs of egap in universities in central java to determine the type of program, methodology, and to set the learning outcomes targeted as part of the syllabus. moreover, wardhani & sadtono (2014) also try to design the syllabus of english for tourism 1 at tourism department, airlangga university. as a result, the relevant and necessary topics for prospective graduate’s job are found as a part of the proposed syllabus. in 2014, ambawani (2014) conducted developmental research to design an english syllabus for industrial engineering in yogyakarta. the research findings show that a topic-based syllabus is suitable for the students which focus on reading skill. the proposed syllabus then provides competence standard, basic competence, indicator, materials, activities, time allotment, and source of materials. and then this present study is addressed to answer the following research questions: (1) what are the needs of writing class at english education program?, and (2) how is a model of proposed syllabus based on the needs of writing class at english education program? methods this research is part of the study carried by research and development (r and d) proposed by dick and carey (gall, gall, & borg, 2003). from 10 steps on research and development, seven of the steps has been done, as follow identify instructional goal, conduct instructional analysis, identity level behavior, write objectives, develop test items, develop instructional strategy, and select instructional materials. the respondents are 92 students from writing class, 4 lecturers, and stakeholders of one university in jakarta. the data are obtained from april to june 2016. in collecting data, questionnaire, documentation and indepth interview are used as instruments. the questionnaire for students consists of four parts; perceptions on learning writing, self-assessment on learning writing, needs and difficulties in learning writing, and techniques, practices, evaluation in writing by rating scale. meanwhile, questionnaire for lecturers contains objectives and orientation in teaching writing, needs and difficulties in teaching writing, and techniques, practices, evaluation in writing. then obtained data from questionnaires are analyzed descriptively by using percentage. furthermore, existing course units and coursebooks used in the classroom are analyzed its relevancy and effectiveness. and then, students’ worksheets are also documented to find out students’ performance in writing. besides, lecturers and stakeholders are interviewed and videotaped to gather data related to the orientation of teaching writing, profiles of expected student competencies and outcomes. transcribed data from videotaped interviews are analyzed quantitatively into some categories; current writing performance, the importance and difficulty of writing course, the effectiveness of current materials and practices, and orientations of writing course. results and discussions after analyzing data descriptively in assessing needs and designing proposed syllabus of writing class, it can be drawn two findings; they are results of need assessment and model of the proposed syllabus. some aspects of need assessment as conclusions are in terms of current writing 17a proposed syllabus .... (hanna sundari, et al.) performance, the importance and difficulty, the effectiveness of current materials and practices, and the orientations of the writing course. the findings will be described in details. currently, the information on students’ writing performance is gathered together by the rating of selfassessment of writing performance as part of questionnaire and writing worksheets. the statements on self-rating of writing performance are dealt with the micro skill of writing, such as writing correct sentences, punctuating, spelling, using conjunctions, developing paragraph and essay. the interval scores are ranged 2,9-3,4. these scores can be categorized as “somewhat true of me”. the students find their writing competences fair. it indicates that the students believe they can do all writing activities and practices in writing class, despite the fact that they may fall into errors, ineffectiveness, and inaccuracy of writing. they probably make some mistakes in writing mechanisms, such as punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. then, when selecting words, they pick inappropriate words; accordingly, their writings seem unnatural. this may be same as the survey analysis by floris (2008). she reports that 51,4% of the respondents believe that they have the fair language proficiency. it can be classified as intermediate level learners. furthermore, they call developing sentences in the correct patterns and using grammar the most difficult activities in writing class. this is consistent with errors found in student’s worksheet, such as “we should proud” (sa3), “pizza come from to italia (sa5)”, “it is give… he teach…” (sa2). developing sentences in the patterns of simple, compound and complex with correct grammar becomes the most challenging part; making simple sentences is not as simple as they think. this may be consistent with what murray & christison (2011b) write. they said, “there is no evidence that simple sentences are easier to understand than compound and complex ones”. sentence patterns are mostly taught in writing classes for beginning level learners. just like what tedjasuksmana (2004) has said as cited by cahyono & widiati (2011), primary school students may start to learn english with writing being taught through basic tasks such as copying and forming simple sentences. they still feel it hard even when entering writing class for advanced learners. on the other side, the highest scores of self-rating in writing performance go to using writing mechanism, using conjunctions, and developing topics and ideas based on examples, experiences, and reasons. it indicates that the students have a lot of ideas and topics. they are able to combine those topics/ideas using correct conjunctions, even though they may confuse to express those ideas in correct grammar. in addition to self-assessment of writing performance, the students’ writing worksheets have also been reviewed and analyzed after they are asked to write descriptive or narrative essays. from the worksheets, it can be found some interesting result that some aspect may be contradicted with what shows on self-assessment. the topics that students choose for their writing are quite various and interesting, such as my favorite food, my future husband, the perfect mother, why i like gado-gado, pak tino sidin, and strawberry pudding cake. the ideas are fairly organized in the form of the 5-paragraph essay. however, thesis statements are mostly unclear and ineffective to depict the whole essay. from students’ writing worksheets, it can be summed up that the students have some lacks of the s-v agreement, sentence patterns, tenses, conjunctions, vocabulary, and writing mechanism. some sentences have no subjects or wrong auxiliary. then, they also do not fit the sentence patterns in english. wrong verbs also appear in several points. inappropriate word selection makes the writing unnatural. these results may support the study by hidayah (2013). he analyzes the writing essay by tesl college students and finds that the most frequent errors are s-v agreement, tenses, part of speech, and vocabulary. moreover, the students likely have the insufficient competence of writing in the areas of grammar, vocabulary, writing mechanism, and sentence patterns. the needs of these areas should be facilitated in the developed writing course. they need a lot of exposure and modeling as well as practices to those areas. as murray & christison (2011b) suggest, english language learners, particularly in writing class, need to have more exposure to more formal vocabulary. by distributing the questionnaire to students and lecturers, this part of the questionnaire (see appendix) is to reveal micro skills of writing should be focused and emphasized on in writing class. both students and lecturers agree that all micro skills of writing mentioned are important to learn in writing class, except the lecturers’ opinions on the unimportance of creative writing as the writing orientation and activities in writing class. moreover, creative writing is also considered difficult to learn and teach in writing class. as what cahyono and widiati (2011) wrote, in university level, teaching english writing particularly for english department means expressing ideas in acceptable written english for particular purposes. a series of writing courses are taught in constructing paragraph and essays. there is limited practice for creative writing. in the aspect of difficulty, students and lecturers are poles the part in giving opinions. lecturers believe that grammar, vocabulary, and developing thesis statements for essay are less difficult than developing personal writing, structuring sentences, using appropriate conjunctions, and expressing ideas in writing class. based on these results, the course designers can make some decisions related to the course framework and organized course unit systematically. the statements of the importance and difficulty of writing skill from students (ss) and lectures (ls) is displayed in table 1. the existing writing course consists of three classes; writing 1, writing 2, and writing 3. the first writing class purposes to develop sentences. meanwhile, writing 2 has objectives to develop the paragraph. and then, developing various types of the essay is the objective of writing 3. each writing class has at least three book references for both students and lecturers. they are, for example, first steps in academic writing by ann hogue, ready to write second edition by karen blanchard and christine root, introduction to academic writing and writing academic english 4th edition by alice oshima and ann hogue, effective academic writing 2: the short essay by alice savage, and effective academic writing 3: the essay by jason davis. bringing a lot of books in writing class seems unpractical and less efficient. moreover, a lot of books do not indicate that students have a lot opportunity to write a lot during the writing session. textbook evaluation by ghufron and saleh (2016) have proven that the book selected is not always suitable to the students’ need and curriculum in which it is applied. the selection of materials/course book should pay attention to several aspects, such as the language level of learners and the goals of course program. writing activities and practices currently applied in writing class are various from making isolated sentences and developing paragraph through the writing process. 18 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 15-23 while not all activities and practices used in writing class are considered effective for both students and lecturers. concerning to the techniques in writing class, both students and lecturers agree that writing story and take-home assignment are the most frequent activities applied in writing the class as well as outlining paragraph/essay, copying, and form filling. unlike the students, lecturers feel that they also frequently deliver sentence combining and jumbled words for their writing classes. related to writing techniques, individual work is preferable than pair and group works. at the same time, either students or lecturers also feel individual writing more effective. the skilled writers will improve their competence, and weaker writers will not rely on the stronger ones. however, this is not consistent with the study by tutyandari (as cited by cahyono & widiati, 2011). she finds that pair or group work in writing class is useful to encourage passive students to be more actively involved in writing. table 2 shows the frequency and the effectiveness of writing activities/practices. table 1 the importance and difficulty of writing skill importance statements difficulty ss ls ss ls 2,7 2,75 using correct punctuation and spelling 1,5 1,5 2,3 2,25 structuring sentences 1,8 1,8 2,3 2,25 using appropriate vocabulary 2,0 1,5 2,5 2,5 using correct and accurate grammar 1,9 1,5 2,5 2,75 using appropriate conjunctions 1,4 1.8 2,4 2,0 expressing ideas for writing systematically 1,8 1,8 2,3 2,0 developing good paragraph 1,7 1,8 2,2 2,0 using correct layout 1,8 1,5 1,9 2,25 using features typical of text types 1,9 1,8 2,5 2,25 developing topic sentence, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in paragraph 1,8 1,5 2,3 2,25 developing introductory paragraph in essay 1,8 1,8 2,3 2,25 developing thesis statement in essay 1,9 1,5 2,4 2,25 developing effective body paragraphs in essay 1,8 1,3 2,3 2,25 developing concluding paragraph in essay 1,6 1,8 1,9 1,0 developing creative writing (poem, poetry, drama scripts) 2,1 2,8 2,1 2,25 developing personal writing (personal essay, journal) 2,0 2,5 2,1 2,0 developing other text types (business letter, journalism, etc.) 2,1 2,5 importance : 3 = very important 2 = important 1 = not important difficulty : 3 = very difficult 2 = difficult 1 = not difficult table 2 frequency and effectiveness of writing activities/practices frequency writing activities/practices effectiveness ss ls ss ls 2,3 2,8 writing composition 1,2 1,3 2,1 2,0 picture/diagram description 1,0 0,8 2,5 2,5 story writing 0,8 0,8 2,2 2,8 completing the middle/end of story 1,0 1,0 2,2 2,3 sentence/dialogue completion 1,0 1,0 2,4 2,8 form filling 0,8 0,8 2,2 2,8 labeling 0,4 0,5 2,2 3,0 jumbled words 0,8 0,8 2,4 2,3 copying 0,6 0,5 2,2 3,0 sentence combining 1,4 1,3 2,4 3,0 paragraph/essay outline 1,6 1,5 2,5 3,0 individual work 1,6 1,5 2,1 2,5 pairwork 0,8 1,0 2,4 2,5 group-work 0,8 1,0 2,4 2,3 groupdiscussion 0,8 1,0 2,7 3,0 take-home assignment 1,0 1,3 frequency : 3 = often 2 = seldom 1 = never effectiveness : 2 = very effective 1 = effective 0 = not effective 19a proposed syllabus .... (hanna sundari, et al.) in addition to writing activities in table 2, processoriented approach in which students are asked for outlining, drafting, revising, and editing is also preferred and considered effective particularly in developing paragraph and essay. some researchers have suggested the model of writing as the process for writing class. antoni and gunawan (as cited by cahyono & widiati, 2011) have reported that writing process is effective as it could empower students to revise their writing through multiple drafts before they eventually produce their final product. related to feedback or writing evaluation, both students and lecturers prefer teacher feedback/review to peer review. they find teachers/ lecturers experts; as a result, they deserve to give judgments on students’ work. in contrast, peer review sounds doubted and questionable. the challenges in implementing peer review in writing class have been revealed by widiati (2002). she has reported that peer response activity, at the same time, meet student language proficiency and cultural aspect related to teacher’s role in the classroom. setting goals and objectives for writing course is the ongoing process of gathering data. through interviewing lecturers and stakeholders, constraints in writing classes are probably caused by student competences and the teaching resources. then, the writing orientation is addressed to academic writing with a small portion of other orientations. the writing content should be conceptualized based on some principles. firstly, writing purposes is formulated in a series of competences. and the second is the contents distributed gradually from simple to complex in the form of developing sentences, paragraphs, and essays. writing activities and practices do not only give students ability to solve writing problems in the classroom but prepare them to be skilled writers outside the classroom as well. writing competences of the students attain in writing class may be helpful for them to find jobs; moreover, they can probably create jobs from what they write. this may support the vision of the university with the respect of entrepreneurship. the writing content should be adaptive and relevant to global and national issues. as a result, writing class will be meaningful and have long-term benefits for students. related to the topics for writing class, the interviewees agree that local contents and values are included in instructional materials. as an international language, english has been spoken by more than 1,5 billion people around the world from different countries and cultures (crystal, 2003). in fact, nowadays people speak english not to communicate to native speakers; nonetheless, they use it to make the global communication to other people in their own cultures. consequently, materials in writing class should be authentically containing local values and cultures. this thought supports the study by gunantar (2016). her study shows that local cultural content has become the purpose of efl teaching, combined with foreign her study shows that local cultural content has become the purpose of efl teaching, combined with foreign cultures. teaching writing using multi-media has also arisen as an alternative strategy. using technology in writing class has been studied by some researchers. for example, soedjatmiko and taloko (as cited by cahyono & widiati, 2011) have reported that e-portfolio could provide a great amount writing tasks, enable the students to read structural works and learn how to revise their own. the use of technology sounds high and sophisticated, yet some factors, such as tools, connection, and cost should be considered. based on some conclusions on need assessment, a proposed syllabus is constructed based on some characteristics: proposed syllabus rationale, setting goals and objectives, determining methodology, selecting and sequencing content materials, determining evaluation. the first, proposed syllabus is designed based on task-based principles. the needs of students in writing the class to be independent language learners as well as language users using their language resources may be consistent with the features of task-based learning (tbl). tbl carries students to use language through communicative tasks. by doing the tasks, particularly writing tasks, students develop gradually their writing proficiency. in other words, writing or learning outcomes as targeted competences can be achieved through language, rather than linguistic items. learning can be more effective with the involvement of language use in relating to form and meaning (wilis and wilis, 2001). the goals of writing course are set in the term of general goal and specific goals. generally, the writing course at the university has particular purposes, such as academic. in the proposed syllabus, the general goal is to enable students to develop skills in writing various kinds of academic texts effectively, accurately, and appropriately. in addition to the general goal, writing course is set up to enable students to (1) build sentences, (2) develop paragraphs, and (3) develop essays. these goals are consistent with what cahyono dan widiati (2011) have said that a series of the writing course is taught to constructing paragraphs and essays. similar to the formulated goals of learning, the content materials would be sequenced as sentences, paragraphs, and essays. conclusions this present research aims at exploring the needs of efl writing course for university and designing a model of the proposed syllabus. the needs cover some aspects; importance, difficulty, and orientations of writing course. students’ current performance can be categorized as fair. the students can do all writing activities and practices, yet some errors, ineffectiveness, and inaccuracy have also arisen in the respect with grammar, vocabulary, sentence patterns, and mechanics. academic writing is preferable to a small portion of other types of writing to support students’ final paper. developing sentences, paragraphs, and essays are gradually discussed and practices to achieve writing competences. individual writing work is preferred with feedback and evaluation from lecturers. the learning outcomes in line with the vision of university should be relevant to real needs in working world. based on these needs, the principles of task-based language teaching (tblt) is considered appropriate to underpin a proposed syllabus. the components of syllabus consist of general and specific goals, content materials, a set of tasks and activities, and evaluation. tasks and activities are designed for selfstudy in which students are expected to practice and use the tasks and activities without lecturer’s monitor. acknowledgement this research is supported by ministry of research, technology and higher education of indonesia through schema penelitian hibah bersaing (phb) 2016 no. 0708/ skp.lt/lppm/vii/2016. moreover, we would like to say our gratitude to our colleagues from lppm indraprasta pgri jakarta for their assistance and support during conducting the research and completing the final report. 20 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 15-23 references ambawani, s. (2014). a proposed syllabus for english course. learning journal, 1(1), 87–113. breen, m. (2001). syllabus design. in carter, r., & nunan, d. (eds.). the cambridge guide to teaching english to speakers of other languages. cambridge: cambridge university press. brown, j. d. (1995). the elements of language curriculum: a systematic approach to program development. massachusetts: heinle & heinle publisher. cahyono, b. y., & widiati, u. (2011). the teaching of english as a foreign language in indonesia. malang: state university of malang press. christison, m., & murray, d. e. (2011a). what english language teachers need to know volume iii: designing curriculum. new york: taylor & fancis e-libaray. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv002. christison, m., & murray, d. e. (2011b). what english language teachers need to know volume ii: facilitating learning. new york: taylor & fancis e-libaray. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203846292. crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language. new york: cambridge university press. floris, f. d. (2008). developing english for general academic purposes (egap) course in an indonesian university. k@ta, 10(1), 53–62. https://doi. org/10.9744/kata.10.1.53-62. gall, m., gall, j. p., & borg, w. r. (2003). educational research: an introduction (seventh ed). usa: pearson education. retrieved from http://psycnet. apa.org/psycinfo/1996-97171-000. ghufron, m. a., & saleh, m. (2016). designing model of research paper writing instructional materials for academic writing course: textbook evaluation. language circle: journal of language and literature, 10(2), 114–123. graves, k. (2000). designing language courses: a guide for teachers. teachersource. canada: heinemenn english language teaching. gunantar, d. a. 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(2002). problems with peer response of writingas-a-process approach in an efl writing classroom. jurnal ilmu pendidikan, 9(3), 188–199. willis, d., & willis, j. (2001). task-based language learning. in r. carter & d. nunan (eds.), the cambridge to teaching ro speakers of other languages (pp. 173-79). cambridge: cambridge university press. 21a proposed syllabus .... (hanna sundari, et al.) appendix kuesioner analisis kebutuhan kelas menulis nama : npm : kelas/semester : writing : 1/2/3 jenis kelamin : l/p usia : bagian 1: tujuan, persepsi & harapan pembelajaran berikan tanda silang (x) pada pernyataan-pernyataan di bawah ini sesuai dengan pandangan dan pendapat anda sebagai mahasiswa prodi pendidikan bahasa inggris yang telah dan sedang menempuh mata kuliah writing 1, 2 dan 3. 1 = tidak setuju 2 = setuju 3 = sangat setuju 4 = tidak tahu 1 saya suka aktivitas menulis bahasa inggris 1 2 3 4 2 menulis merupakan aktivitas yang bermanfaat dan penting 1 2 3 4 3 menulis mudah bagi saya 1 2 3 4 4 menulis ilmiah mudah dan menarik bagi saya 1 2 3 4 5 menulis kreatif mudah dan menarik bagi saya 1 2 3 4 6 menulis paragraf mudah dan menantang bagi saya 1 2 3 4 7 menulis esei mudah dan menantang bagi saya 1 2 3 4 8 saya ingin menjadi penulis yang baik 1 2 3 4 9 kelas menulis menyenangkan dan bermanfaat 1 2 3 4 10 latihan menulis mudah dan menantang 1 2 3 4 11 kelas menulis meningkatkan kemampuan menulis saya 1 2 3 4 12 saya bersemangat menghadiri kelas menulis 1 2 3 4 13 saya selalu memenuhi tugas-tugas menulis yang diminta 1 2 3 4 14 materi-materi di kelas menulis sesuai dengan kemampuan saya 1 2 3 4 15 materi-materi di kelas menulis sesuai dengan kebutuhan dunia kerja 1 2 3 4 bagian 2: penilaian diri berikan tanda silang (x) pada pernyataan-pernyataan dibawah ini sesuai dengan kemampuan dan keterampilan menulis yang anda kuasai. 1 = sangat kurang 2 = kurang 3 = cukup 4 = baik 5 = baik sekali 1 saya dapat membuat kalimat secara tepat sesuai pola kalimat 1 2 3 4 5 2 saya dapat menggunakan tanda baca dalam kalimat secara tepat 1 2 3 4 5 3 saya dapat menyusun ejaan kata secara tepat 1 2 3 4 5 4 saya dapat menggunakan kata penghubung (conjunctions) secara tepat dalam kalimat 1 2 3 4 5 5 saya dapat memilih kosakata (vocabulary) secara tepat sesuai konteks 1 2 3 4 5 6 saya dapat menggabungkan beberapa kalimat secara terpadu 1 2 3 4 5 7 saya dapat menggunakan tata bahasa (grammar) secara tepat dalam tulisan saya 1 2 3 4 5 8 saya dapat membuat topic sentence dalam paragraf secara efektif dan jelas 1 2 3 4 5 9 saya dapat mengembangkan supporting sentences dalam paragraf secara baik dan relevan 1 2 3 4 5 10 saya dapat membuat concluding sentence dalam paragrap secara tepat 1 2 3 4 5 11 saya dapat menulis sebuah paragraf yang baik 1 2 3 4 5 12 saya dapat menyusun ide-ide secara logis dan terorganisir saat menulis 1 2 3 4 5 13 saya dapat menulis introductory paragraph untuk esei bahasa inggris 1 2 3 4 5 14 saya dapat menulis thesis statement yang jelas dan efektif dalam esei yang saya tulis 1 2 3 4 5 15 saya dapat mengembangkan topik dan ide dalam thesis statement menjadi body paragraphs yang baik 1 2 3 4 5 16 saya dapat menulis body paragraphs dalam urutan yang logis dan teratur dalam esei 1 2 3 4 5 22 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 15-23 17 saya dapat mengembangkan ide pokok dalam body paragraphs berdasar pada contoh-contoh, pengalaman, alasan dan kutipan 1 2 3 4 5 18 saya dapat menulis concluding paragraph secara efektif 1 2 3 4 5 19 saya dapat menulis kesimpulan yang efektif dalam concluding paragraph 1 2 3 4 5 20 saya dapat menulis esei dalam berbagai ragam penulisan (descriptive, narrative, cause-effect, process, comparison) dengan baik 1 2 3 4 5 21 saya dapat menulis paragrap dalam berbagai ragam penulisan (descriptive, narrative, argumentative) dengan baik 1 2 3 4 5 22 saya dapat menulis berbagai jenis teks lain (puisi, surat-menyurat, naskah pidato, artikel ilmiah) 1 2 3 4 5 bagian 3: kebutuhan & kesulitan pembelajaran. berikan tanda silang (x) pada pernyataan-pernyataan di bawah ini sesuai pendapat anda seberapa penting keterampilan mikro menulis berikut bagi anda sebagai mahasiswa prodi pendidikan bahasa inggris dan seberapa sulit anda menguasainya. tingkat kepentingan pernyataan tingkat kesulitan sa ng at p en ti ng p en ti ng t id ak p en ti ng t id ak ta hu sa ng at s ul it su lit t id ak s ul it pengggunaan tanda baca dan ejaan secara tepat pengembangan beragam variasi kalimat pemilihan kosakata yang tepat penggunaan tata bahasa secara akurat penggunaan kata penghubung (conjunctions) yang tepat penyusunan gagasan/ide penulisan secara teratur pengembangan paragraf dengan baik penggunaan format penulisan secara tepat penguasaan ragam penulisan (text types/ writing genre) pengembangan topic sentence, supporting sentences dan concluding sentences dalam paragrap secara efektif pengembangan introductory paragraph untuk penulisan esei pengembangan thesis statement yang tepat dalam penulisan esei pengembangan body paragraphs yang efektif dan jelas pengembangan concluding paragraph dalam penulisan esei pengembangan penulisan kreatif (poem, poetry, drama scripts) pengembangan penulisan personal (personal essay, journal) pengembangan ragam penulisan lain (business letter, journalism, etc) 23a proposed syllabus .... (hanna sundari, et al.) bagian 4: teknik pembelajaran, bentuk latihan dan evaluasi berikan tanda silang (x) pada pernyataan berikut sesuai tingkat frekuensi (kekerapan) dan tingkat efektifitas yang anda lakukan dan rasakan di kelas menulis. tingkat frekuensi (dilakukan) pernyataan tingkat efektivitas se ri ng ja ra ng t id ak p er na h t id ak ta hu sa ng at e fe kt if ef ek ti f t id ak e fe kt if menulis karangan/paragrap/esei bebas (writing composition) menulis berdasar gambar/diagram (picture/diagram description) menulis cerita (story writing) melengkapi teks rumpang (completing the middle/end of story) melengkapi teks/dialog rumpang (sentence/dialogue completion) isian (form filling) beri nama (labeling) kata acak (jumbled words) tulis ulang (copying) paduan kalimat (sentence combining) kerangka karangan (paragraph/essay outline) latihan individu (individual work) latihan pasangan (pair work) latihan kelompok (group-work) diskusi kelompok (group discussion) pendekatan berbasis genre (modelingjoint construction and independent construction) menulis proses (outlining-writing draft-revising) presentasi (student presentation) penugasan (take-home assignment) evaluasi oleh guru (teacher-review) evaluasi oleh sejawat (peer-review) evaluasi kelas (classical review) microsoft word 08_xuc lin_setting_ok.docx 164 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 《妻妾成群》与《人世间》“妾”人格的异同 similarity and differences of the concubine character in the novel wives and concubines and the earth of mankind xuc lin chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, banseji88@yahoo.com 摘要 《妻妾成群》与《人世间》让我们看到女性被当作财物来卖给别人的状况。做了别人的妾 就必须顺从主人,这就是为人妾的道德标准。《人世间》的温托索罗姨娘让我们看到她从顺从 主人到主人后来却依赖她的转变过程;而《妻妾成群》的颂莲却相反,从维护自己的尊严逐渐 转变成为了得宠而无人格的女性。温托索罗从柔弱的女人转变为强势女人,而颂莲从相当强的 女人落到精神有问题的女人。温托索罗能有人格的转变是因为她抓住来自不易的机会,即学习 知识、学习西方文明以及现代意识。而颂莲原本受到新式的教育,但没有觉醒,没有自食其力 的概念,不敢走出新的道路。此研究采用参考文献的方法来收集所需的资料。 关键词:妻妾成群;人世间;妾;人格 abstract wives and concubines and the earth of mankind showed us a situation where women is treated as animals and sold to a man. the moral standard of being concubine is to obey her master. in the earth of mankind, nyai ontosoroh took us to see her transformation process from a woman who obeyed her master into her master became dependant on her. and, on the contrary in wives and concubine, song lian, from a woman who protected her dignity changed into losing her personality in order to get the love from the master. nyai ontosoroh from a weak woman changed into powerful woman, but song lian from quite powerful changed into a woman with mental disorder. nyai ontosoroh’s transformation happened because she grasped a good opportunity to study new knowledge, western civilization and modernization. and song lian had new-style education but has not experienced self-awakening yet, did not have the concept of “earning your own living”, she did not have courage to step on a new path. keywords: wives and concubines, the earth of mankind, concubines, personality similarity and differences….. (xuc lin) 165 前言 《妻妾成群》主要写了女性做妾的悲剧命运。故事由颂莲做陈老爷的四太太而展开。颂莲 进入了陈家并开始了“妻妾成群”的生活。进了陈家,颂莲从一个受过新式教育的女性逐渐变 成跟陈家其他女人一样。她为了在陈家能立足,为了得到陈老爷的欢心与宠爱不惜自尊而且慢 慢失去了独立的人格。 《人世间》记述了一个女人十四岁时被父亲卖,当了荷兰人的小妾,后来生了两个孩子, 一儿一女。主人,梅莱玛先生让小妾,温托索罗学习很多本领,使温托索罗变成非一般的土著 民。梅莱玛先生去世后,他荷兰的儿子通过白人法庭,剥夺了温托索罗继承梅莱玛遗产的权利 ,而且也把温托索罗的女儿强行送往荷兰,由荷兰的梅莱玛太太当监护人。 《妻妾成群》与《人世间》都以“妾”为突出的人物,这个身份的地位、遭遇都有相似点 。如果温托索罗是被父亲卖的时候成了她命运的偶然和转折便开始进入做妾的生活,那么颂莲 就是父亲自杀后的第三天是她命运的转折点,她决定嫁人而且做妾。她们的苦命是封建社会制 度压制女性的缩影。她们做妾之后要面临一些生存的困境所以到 后各自都发生了人格的变化 内容 “人格”一词来自拉丁文“persona”,意为“面具”。早期的人格定义,是指个体公开 的自我,或者说是一个人在公众与社会中的形象。这个“面具”(形象)可能好看,也可能不 好看,还可能中不溜秋。因此“人格”在一开始就是一个中性词,并不仅止关涉正面价值判断 ,还需要用别的词来限定或修饰它。(李建中, 1996:13) 人格的定义非常多,美国心理学赫根汉的《人格心理学》称“这个问题也许是心理学中 复杂的问题之一”。另一位美国人心里奥尔皮特,早在本世纪时三十年代所总结出来的“人格 定义”,就已多达五十种。我们在本论文提到的人格定义或理论只是其中之一。 在十九世纪与十二世纪间,西方的费落伊德人格理论创立。费氏论“人格”,不仅注重外 在的形象,更注重内在的心理,他的人格理论,实际上是“人格结构论”,他将个体人格的内 在结构表述为“本我-自我-超我”,这三者之间复杂的关系,便构成个体人格的全部内容。 “本我”是 深潜的层次,是人格主体的潜意识或本能,是人格生成与流变的动力之源。“本 我”的基本趋向是追求快乐,是满足个体的与生俱来的一切欲望。“超我”则是 高的层次, 是人格主体的道德追求,或者说,是特定时空中的道德标准在个体人格中的体现。 “超我”的道德追求,与“本我”的快乐追求是违背而驰的,两者之间常常发生激烈的冲 突。心理焦虑或人格冲突都因于个体人格心理构成中“本我”与“超我”的矛盾。这种矛盾如 果得不到消弥与调解,个体便将永远无休止地受内心冲突的折磨,并很难形成稳定的人格形象 。而担责着“调解”重任的,就是人格内在结构的“自我”。 “自我”的位置,正在“本我”与“超过”之间。它既要部分地满足“本我”的快乐追求 ,又要设法抑制“本我”的潜意识冲动,因为这种冲动与“超我”的道德要求是相反的。另一 方面,它既要将“超我”的道德标准付诸实践,又要设法减缓“超我”对“本我”的伦理苛求 。 166 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 “自我”所遵循的是现实原则,它是出现于现实的需要,要调解“本我”与“超我”之间 的矛盾。因此我们可以说,个体的“外在形象”,就是“自我”的形象;而个体人格之“内在 结构”的 主要的冲突,也就是“本我”与“超我”的冲突。 “外在的形象”与“内在的结构”,合起来,便是一个人的人格。每个人都有“其异如面 ”的人格形象,也有深藏于心的属于自己的人格结构。每个人都有自己的人格。他(她)的人 格也许是高洁的,也许是卑下的,也许二者兼而有之。 一、中国文化对“妾”人格的影响 中国人的婚姻是以生殖为基础,而生殖的意义,在中国文化中,又主要被理解为家庭、家 族的血缘的延伸,故而不将婚姻看成当事人自己的个人之事,而是个人所属家庭、家族之事。 对于中国婚姻来说, 重要的不是爱情的有无,而是生育的功能,尤其是,有没有为家族 生出男孩,完成传宗接代的使命。为了保证这一使命的实现,而又不接触及婚姻,不妨害家庭 的稳定性,中国文化也作出了变通的处理,那就是纳妾制度。妻子不能生子,可用纳妾来弥补 。所以,在中国婚姻的结构中,有两点重要的:(1)妻妾的地位不同的,妻是代表着家庭、 家族的,而妾主要是为丈夫的,前者是主,后者为辅。即使那些倍受宠爱的妾,丈夫也不能将 她与妻平起平坐,因为它涉及家族的稳定与程序。(2)选择妻妾的标准也是不同的,选妻要 讲究门等,讲究出身,讲究教养,讲究为人处事的圆到通达,而选妾则主要在其容貌、才艺及 性感条件。前者是身份和门面,具有象征意义,后者是娱乐和享受,具有装饰意义。这种不同 是由妻妾在婚姻中的功能决定的。妻是代表家族,而妾只是在生育与性爱方面对它的一种补充 。(刘承华,2002:13) 丈夫与妻妾的关系似于一个国家的君主与大臣的关系。妻妾之听命、服从于丈夫类似于臣 之听命、服从于君主。妾的等级无论有多高或多低,都是皇帝老爷的奴仆。这里所说的“奴仆 ”虽然跟“奴隶”还有区别但是为主人效力,看主人的颜色行事,命运掌握在主人手中,这是 “妾”形象的基本定位。 虽然小妾的都是皇帝老爷的奴仆,但是因等级有别所以小妾本身的社会地位又是千差万别 的。妾不仅等级有别,而且遭遇各异。贵为皇后,也许会受皇帝冷遇;而刚入宫的小妃,说不 准会大受宠爱,失宠之“后”与得宠之“妃”,其外在形象又是大有差别的。得宠的时或踌躇 满志,气冲霄汉,或不可一世,颐指气使;失宠时或怨天尤人,忿懑难安,或心灰意冷,消沉 沮丧,其外在形象之差别,更是其异如面。 虽然小妾的等级有别但是特殊情况下,上级与下级的角色还可以互换,小妾的替换角色 典型的是武则天,她先是在李唐王朝的后宫做嫔妃做皇后,后来改“唐”为“周”,自己做了 皇帝。同一个人,“为人小妾”之时与“称帝称王”之日,其外在形象也是有天壤之别的。 小妾的外在形象已有了众多差别,而内在形象就更复杂了。按照精神分析学说的人格理论 ,首先,在“自我”的层面,是人格主体对自己“小妾地位”的清醒认识。为人妾,既是她的 社会角色,也是她在公众的外在形象。为人处事,举手投足,她都是一个地道的“小妾”。“ 自我”,既要执行“超我”发出的关于“忠于主人”的道德命令,同时又要满足“本我”关于 “阴阳错位”的潜意识冲动。 儒家的“忠孝节义”,是中国封建社会 根本的道德标准,也是为人小妾者必须无条件服 从的行为准则。“超我”,作为人格构成道德层面,它的主要任务,或者说主要心理功能,就 similarity and differences….. (xuc lin) 167 是将社会对个体的道德要求,化为个体自觉的行为。儒家的伦理规范,第一是“乾坤定位,阴 阳有序”,阳为尊,阴为卑,阳为主,阴为仆。这一根本规范的实质性内容,便是“夫为妻纲 ,君为臣纲”。妻妾,要忠于自己的丈夫。为妾者既然要讲“妇节”,也就是贞操。一女不能 事二夫,否则,都叫做“失节”然而,小妾人格之“超我”的这种道德要求,遭到“本我”的 抵制。人的潜意识之中,有着一种根深蒂固的“错位”倾向:男性倾向于扮演女性的角色,女 性倾向于扮演男性角色。或者说,在男性的内心深处,有一种“女性原型”,在女性的内心深 处,有一种“男性原型”。中国古代对此的例子很多,从汉初的吕后,到中唐的武则天,到晚 清的慈禧,都有一种“女主处阳位”的心理需求。这中间,当然有复杂的社会与历史原因;但 “阴阳错位”的潜意识冲动,则是她们政治行为的一种深潜层次的心理动机。 “阴阳错位”的潜意识冲动,与“阴卑阳尊”的伦理规范,既有相悖逆的一面,也有相符 契的一面。如身处“单位”的后宫嫔妃,不顾一切地与男性争夺“阳位”,费尽心机要成为君 临天下的帝王,从根本上动摇了儒家的道德准则,因此遭到男性世界(实际上是封建等级社会 )异口同声地谴责。 奴隶制、封建制,一直是男性统治者这个世界,女性扮演的角色是“奴婢”,是“臣妾” ,女性的性格特征被预设为卑弱、贞顺、敬慎、专心、曲从。男权中心主义的文化预设,以“ 柔顺”为要旨来塑造女性人格;而这种“塑造”有时会成为男性世界的一厢情愿,因为女性并 非是天生的“柔顺”,并非甘居“卑位”,也并非心甘情愿地接受男性的奴役。因此,在各朝 各代,我们会发现“柔顺”之女性,从来就没有停止过对男性世界的反抗。 女性世界对男性世界的反抗,既是一种文化意义上的性别冲突,更是心理学层次的潜意识 冲动。个体人格是“外貌”与“内心”的冲突与统一。男性世界的文化预设,要求女性的“外 貌”是柔顺、忠贞;而女性的“本我”却趋向于雄健、叛逆,趋向于对男性角色与男性心理的 认同。 女性的反抗对小妾人格来说体现于小妾的“阴阳错位”。虽然“阴柔”是为人妾的基本特 征,但表现在不同的个体身上,也是因人而异的。同为“以色事人”,李夫人不同于卫子夫; 同样是“以惠事人”,魏文帝的甄氏又不同于宋徽宗的韦妃;同为“二圣”临朝,孤独伽罗不 同于武则天;同为太后听政,吕雉又不同于慈禧‥‥‥这中间,当然有各种各样很复杂的原因 ,但“阴阳错位”无疑是带有根本性的缘由。 儒家伦理为纲纪的等级制社会,是不会容忍“阴阳错位”的,尤其是不能容忍像武则天这 种彻头彻尾的“错位”。丈夫管不住自己的妻子,官吏也不管住自己的百姓,同理,皇帝也就 管不住自己的大臣。礼教不修,纲纪不振,家将不家,国将不国。 “错位”之后,是对“错位”的绞杀与压抑。宋明两代的皇后,吸收所谓“武、韦之祸” 的“教训”,重振纲纪,首严内教。尤其是明代,朱元璋开国之初,亲自诏令儒臣修《女诫》 。对后妃的管束越来越严厉,对小妾人格的塑造完全以儒家纲常伦理为准绳。在宋明两代的后 宫中,再也没有了“女主处阳位”的女皇,没有了想当“皇太女”的公主,也没有了欲谋杀亲 夫而登帝位的皇后。 宋明理学,是将儒家经典中的三纲五常加以理论化、系统化,并上升到“天里”的高度, 其根本主张是“存天理,灭人欲”。理学家程颐讲妇女“饿死事极小,失节事极大”,朱熹要 求妇女外出必须头巾蒙面,司马光则强调“男治外事,女治内事。男子琪昼无故,不处私室; 妇人无故,不蔻中门。”对女性的约束如此细密如此具体。小妾,在宋明两代后又恢复了它的 “柔顺、卑弱”之性格。 168 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 二、印尼文化对“妾”人格的影响 印尼虽然不是宗教国家但90%的人民信仰伊斯兰教,伊斯兰教婚姻的基础是一夫一妻,但 宗教允许一夫多妻,法律不禁止。再娶时事先应当得妻子的同意,并需符合法律规定的条件, 如具有一定的经济能力,保证平等地对待每位妻子和子女,并经法院审查同意。文化与信仰导 致印尼,传统家庭模式是一个丈夫妻妾成群或者一夫多妻是很普遍的。这奠定了印尼各种民族 纳妾文化的其中因素。纳妾文化的其他因素主要是印尼社会的制度。 印尼的社会制度分成三种就是父权制、母系制和双线制,占 多的还是父权制。而父权制 有代表性是爪哇文化。爪哇文化把小妾当作一种等级的社会化所以贵族家庭纳妾是必不可少 的习俗。入宫之前,这些女孩都必须学会蜡染、跳舞并且懂得宫廷的礼仪。10-12 岁预备为小妾的女孩由父母献给宫廷,但不是一般人的女儿就能献给宫廷当贵族的小妾,一般 父母是社会上有一定地位的人士。一开始这些女孩被训练成舞者,如果后来升成小妾,表示她 们已升级为贵族的一部分。对她们来说,有了妾这个特殊的身份是一种荣誉,从她们身上会生 产出很多贵族的子孙。除此之外,她们每个月会受到一些酬劳,而受宠的妾拿到的酬劳会更高 一些。若生过孩子酬劳也会增加,生男孩比生女孩收到的酬劳更高一些。于是,她们不仅社会 地位提高,而且有了一定的经济能力。虽然不是所有的妾都按照宫廷的礼仪娶近来的,但她们 的婚姻是合法的。 其实,在爪哇文化,女性处于非常低的地位,妻子被称为“后面的伴侣”,意思就是女性 的位置是在丈夫的后面,妻子的任务是管理“后边”的事如清理、做饭而且满足丈夫的欲望。 因此,女性自小孩必须懂得保养身体,自己的身体是为了男人而准备的。小妾更是如此,她们 甚至必须喝一些补药让身体保持苗条、散发香味等。她们的任务是伺候、倾听、服从丈夫的命 令,甚至不需要说话。女性的命运都由男人掌管,因此在人格方面跟中国的妾是差不多的。但 由于印尼曾经是荷兰几百年的殖民地所以在很多方面受到荷兰人生活的影响。 为了能保持社区的稳定性,荷兰政府允许欧洲男人跟亚洲女人发生关系,但据他们的婚姻 法,基督教徒的男人禁止娶非基督教徒的女人,除非这个女人已经领洗了,成了一名基督教徒 才可以跟欧洲男人结婚而婚后自然跟着丈夫的国籍。当时的法律规定,婚前需要领到许可证才 能正式结婚而主要的因素是宗教不是种族。因此,很多荷兰男人就只能纳亚洲女人为妾,无法 正式地娶她们为妻。妾,当时 普遍称呼为“姨娘”。“姨娘(nyai)”这个词在巴厘语和爪哇 语的意思是年轻的姑娘,小妹妹或者称呼女人的常用语。“姨娘”后来用来称呼荷兰人的妾有 可能是因为一开始这些女子多数是从巴厘岛送到巴达维亚的奴隶。(hellwig, 2007: 36-37) 一个姨娘在社会上没有任何权力甚至对自己的地位、自己的孩子也没有任何权利。主人在 任何时候、任何情况下会把姨娘抛弃,有一些情况,主人把姨娘随便地交给另外的欧洲主人, 而把生下来的孩子送进孤儿院。比较有趣的事就是社会一般无法接受混合婚姻,但是在日常生 活中这些姨娘多半受到主人以正妻同样的对待。因此大多的情况是这些主人对他们的姨娘很好 ,关系还不错但因为社会的否定,这些男主人避免与他们的姨娘一起出现在公众面前。 由于荷兰政府实行阶层制度,欧洲人(多半荷兰人)为上等;阿拉伯、马来人、华人、印 度人为中等;印尼土著人为下等,导致持有姨娘身份就有了多种身份就是一个下等的、土著的 、被殖民的一个女人。因此姨娘这个身份带给她们双从的压制。因为种族,荷兰人把姨娘置于 下等的地位,而在父权制(爪哇)文化,她们自己意识到自己是男人的附属品。除此之外,一 个姨娘因为宗教问题处于很尴尬的地位,两个社会都无法接受她。土著社会 疑她的信仰,大 部分爪哇人信伊斯兰教,姨娘被 疑背叛了自己的信仰,跟信仰基督教的荷兰人私通,犯了通 similarity and differences….. (xuc lin) 169 奸罪。另一方面,殖民者也无法接受她,跟姨娘的关系只是非法的性关系,这些姨娘始终没有 改变她们的信仰。 殖民者把姨娘形象模式化为东方又美丽又有魅力的女人但相对也把她们刻画为原始,臭、 肮脏、懒惰、放荡、无道德、不文明的女人,因此这些荷兰主人有理由教化她们,使她们现代 化,使她们更文明。虽然关于这些姨娘学习、接触西方文明过程没有明确的记载,但在19世纪 末、20世纪初的一些低级小说中会提到这些女子开始作姨娘跟主人学了一些知识、本事。对爪 哇文化(父权制)女子无才便是德的伦理是女人的本分,男尊女卑的概念非常强,而西方文化 同样是父权制的社会但西方人在家庭结构方面有些不同于东方人就是家庭成员之间无论不同的 辈分,在人格上基本上是平等的,而且有相当的独立性。这种情况给了这些姨娘机会学习新知 识的另外一个因素。 作为一个姨娘一方面给了她们机会接触到西方文化、文明与现代化,脱离贫穷的生活,但 在另一方面,姨娘这个身份让她们遭受到多从压制。这种矛盾情况使姨娘有矛盾心理,在人格 、内心形象就更复杂了。 一般情况下,印尼无论普通人、宫廷的小妾还是荷兰人的姨娘在人自我、本我、超我的人 格结构基本上跟中国的相同,但印尼没有像中国的礼教那么严格,没有什么《女诫》儒家对女 性理想人格的设计这么详细。加上荷兰三百年的影响,印尼姨娘的人格类似于中国唐代以前的 人格处境,还能感受到人格独立自主,享受比较多的自由。因此若“阴阳错位”的潜意识冲动 在中国大部分发生于后宫的嫔妃们,在印尼,发生在普通人或宫廷的小妾可能性不大,而在荷 兰人的姨娘身上反而更有可能发生。 三、《妻妾成群》与《人世间》“妾”的人格异同 按照精神分析学说的人格理论,首先,在“自我”的层面,是人格主体对自己“小妾地位 ”的清醒认识。为人妾,既是她的社会角色,也是她在公众的外在形象。为人处事,举手投足 ,她都是一个地道的“小妾”。“自我”,既要执行“超我”发出的关于“忠于主人”的道德 命令,同时又要满足“本我”关于“阴阳错位”的潜意识冲动。 中国和印尼的社会制度主要是父权制。父权制主张男尊女卑,妻妾之听命、服从于丈夫作 为男女的道德标准,女性的“弱、柔顺、曲从、被动”誉为美。这就是女性在“超我”必须达 到的目标,小妾更是如此。男权制强调这世界是属于男性的。《人世间》的梅莱玛先生很明显 地强调温托索罗就是他的“姨娘”。当温托索罗以二十五盾钱被父亲卖给梅莱玛先生的时候( 《人世间》第91页),温托索罗就完全顺从命运的安排:“我对他无能为力。母亲的眼泪和劝 说阻止不了灾难的发生。世界啊,我不理解它,它亦不属于我!连我自己的身体,也都不归我 所有!”温托索罗的顺从与被动给梅莱玛先生更大的勇气来占有她而且好像确认已经通过了她 的认可,就像西蒙•波娃曾说:“女人自己也承认这个世界是属于男性的。”“妇女的命运便 是乖乖地服从。甚至在她的思维里,她对周围的现实也没有把握,她的眼前只是一片模糊的现 实景色。”以下是温托索罗姨娘回忆她与梅莱玛先生初次见面的情景: 我还坐在那张椅子上,哭成了一个泪人。我颤抖着,心里没有主意。我头晕目眩,只觉得周围 一片漆黑。……他搀着我的手,叫我站起来。我浑身上下筛糠似地哆嗦着。并不是我不愿意站 起来,也不是我要执拗违抗。而是我失去了自制,已无法站起,整条简裙都湿了。我的两条腿 像散了架似的支撑不住身子。他用双手把我举起,把我抱进了房间,把我放在华丽整洁的床上 。我连坐都坐不起来……这个巨人要把我怎么样呢?他把我举了起来,抱在怀里,就像玩弄着 170 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 洋娃娃似地在房间里走来走去。……他对我说的那些话,我现在还记忆犹新,但当时我并不明 白是什么意思。他说:“宝贝呀,我的心肝,我的美人,心肝呀,宝贝!”……他把我抛向空中 ,又用双手从腰间把我接住。……我就像一个没有灵魂的皮影一样完全听从导演的摆布。 《人世间》(第91-92页) 《妻妾成群》的颂莲跟温托索罗不一样,她因为上过一年的大学,也许有朦胧的平等意识 ,她跟陈佐千第一次见面时,让我们看到她很自信、主动、敢提出意见的女人,她甚至敢要求 比她老一辈的男人“在西餐见面而且给她买蛋糕。” 陈佐千第一次去看颂莲,颂莲闭门不见,从门里扔出一句话,去西餐社见面......,陈佐千记得 颂莲在他对面坐下,从提袋里掏出一大把蜡烛,她轻声对陈佐千说,给我要一盒蛋糕好吧。 《妻妾成群》(第一节) 封建社会往往把女性当作男性的财产或物质所以男性对女性有占有权。《人世间》94页写 道:“我父亲,把我当一匹马卖掉”。颂莲也认清这一点:“反正我交给你卖了,你要是顾及 父亲的情义,就把我卖个好主吧。”颂莲虽然上过大学,受过教育但她毕竟生活在封建的社会 里所以她很明白自己的处境。比较有趣的是,如果温托索罗姨娘是以被动的心 来接受为人妾 命运的安排,颂莲却以主动的心 来接受命运的挑战。颂莲虽然知道做妾的地位是很卑微的, 没有什么身份但是她也明白按照封建等级制度,一个妾还算是个半个主子,地位比丫头高,比 丫环更“体面”更“尊贵”所以当她进陈府的时候还是比较自信的,而且未意识到做妾的悲哀 。这就是颂莲刚进陈府跟丫头的对话: 颂莲瞟了雁儿一眼,她说,“你傻笑什么,还不去把水波掉?“雁儿仍然笑着,“你是谁呀,这么 厉害?”颂莲揉了雁儿一把,拎起藤条箱子离开井边,走了几步她回过头,说,“我是谁?你们 迟早要知道的。”《妻妾成群》(第一节) 一个姨娘或者小妾的确比丫头的地位高,温托索罗第一天进梅莱玛先生的府上,主人就叫 了两位女佣叫她们好好侍候她。温托索罗应该可以很自豪地自称自己为半个主人了,但是她很 清醒,意识到自己的位置、自己的义务其实跟一个妓女是没有两样的。 我的吃喝全由佣人侍候。她们不时地来敲我的门,一会儿给我送来这个,一会儿又问我要不要 那个。……当别人的姨娘,生活是辛酸的。她是卖给别人的家权,义务是满足主人的欲望,什 么事情都得顺从她的主人。她必须随时提防发生这种可能:主人把她玩够了,玩腻了,说不定 哪一天会把她和她生下的孩子一起赶走。因为不是正式结婚,生下的子女在土著民中也被人瞧 不起。《人世间》(第93-94页) 我一步也没迈出过大门。他不让我出来接待宾客。其实也没必要那样做。我自己也不愿意在公 开场合露面。我尤其害怕见到熟人和邻居。甚至我替自己的父母感到害臊。后来,我把他家所 有的佣人全部辞掉了。一切家务活都由我自己来干。我不让别人在我的身旁观看我的姨娘生活 。我不让别人这样议论我:瞧那个女人,卑贱,低下,任人玩弄,没有自己的意志。《人世间 》(第95页) similarity and differences….. (xuc lin) 171 虽然温托索罗与颂莲在“超我”有同样的道德标准,而在“自我”方面的要求是要符合社 会的道德标准而必须把社会要求的道德标准化为个体自觉的行为,但因为不同的背景导致她们 在“本我”有不一样的“潜意识冲动”,因此在人格的发展过程中也有所不同。温托索罗是受 到爪哇文化的教育:“从十三岁起,我就被幽禁起来。厨房、后厅、卧室,我只能在这三地方 活动。与我同岁的童年伙伴都出嫁了。只有在邻居和亲戚来访时,我才能像幼时那样领受一点 外界的气息。前厅,也是禁止我去的地方,是一步也不让我跨进去的。”这种让她在潜意识中 感受到女性比男性低一等的家庭教育加上对外面的世界完全不了解使她只能依赖比她强的就是 男人。虽然在“潜意识冲动”曾经出现逃跑的念头,她的“自我” 后做出的决定是接受命运 的安排,达到男权制度对女性所要的要求。 在我心中,曾经闪过逃跑的念头。可是,我逃到哪里去呢?逃出以后,我该怎么办呢?我不敢 那样做。因为我已落入了一个非常有权威的人手中。他比我父亲还厉害,图朗安区的土著民没 有一个能够比得上他。《人世间》(第93页) 我已成了卖给别人的奴仆,必须尽善尽美地侍候主人。后来,我根据主人的意愿去学习怎样侍 候她。我学习打扫房间,学习马来语,学会整理床铺和收拾屋子,学习做西餐。《人世间》( 第94页) 颂莲跟温托索罗却相反,也许因为她曾经是茶厂老板的女儿,受过教育,读过一年大学的 新女性,在“本我”的潜意识中有朦胧的自尊、梦想、愿望、平等等的新女性思想,这种朦胧 的潜意识冲动体现在因为心情或者为了自尊的因素多次拒绝侍候陈佐千。 颂莲生活在陈家后花园久了才发现在男权的世界里,女性的地位很低贱的,小妾更是如此 。颂莲对陈老爷来说只是一个满足欲望的工具而已。颂莲思索道:“我就是不明白女人到底是 什么东西、女人到底算个什么东西,就像狗、像猫、像金鱼、像老鼠,什么都像,就是不像人 。”女性没有做人的权利和尊严,只是做男人们生育和泄欲的工具而已。因此,颂莲在人格上 也发生了变化,她从那么自信、主动、有尊严的新女性完全改变成很卑贱、很堕落而且为了能 争取奴隶地位愿意付出任何代价的女人。有一天颂莲喝醉酒就跟陈老爷说:“老爷你别走,今 天你想干什么都行,舔也行,摸也行,干什么都依你,只要你别走。”颂莲的状况就如《儒家 理想人格与中国文化》所写道:“封建社会要求女性在对男性的从属、依附中放置自己的人格 地位。......依附人格使女性独立自主人格的尊严被无情地否定,女性对自我生命与命运的自 律自足的把握就不再是可能的了。” 自我意识是人格的基础,没有自我意识,便没有人格。这种自我意识的本身,就是作为主 体的自我,通过与外界、与他人、与社会发生关系,而达到对自己的特性、自己的地位、自己 的价值以及发挥其潜力的可能性意思。颂莲被环境所逼变成跟其他陈家女人一样,而温托索罗 虽然一开始是一个被动、顺从的小妾,后来经过主人给她多次机会学习各种的新知识、现代化 、西方文明,她自我意识的觉醒不知不觉就慢慢开始建立了。温托索罗开始懂得,她所学的一 切知识,将来如果主人把她抛弃了,是十分有用的。梅莱玛先生身为主人觉得有必要教温托索 罗学习新的知识,一来欧洲人把土著民刻画为“不文明”的,所以他们觉得有义务教化土著民 ,二来姨娘的任务要懂得跟主人沟通、侍候主人所以必须让姨娘适应欧洲人的生活习惯。除此 之外,西方人也比较重视家庭成员的独立,所以每个人都有机会发挥自己。以下我们了解一下 梅莱玛先生怎么教温托索罗: 172 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 一开始,我也不太敢吩咐工人们干这干那。梅莱玛先生给我做出榜样,手把手地教我。他说, 老板是他们的生活之源。你就是给予他们生计的主人。在他的监督之下,我开始敢于吩咐工人 们去干活了。作为老师,他对我仍然很严厉,也很明智。他可从来没有大过我。......你父亲也 教我怎样打扮,怎样选择和谐的色彩。......他叫我替他朗读,不但读书,而且读报。我读他听 。我读错了,他就给我纠正。我有不懂的词句,他就给我解释。我每天这样做,直到他教会我 查词典为止。......后来,他给我规定每天阅读的页数。他让我读整本整本的书。我必须把书读 完,并跟他复述书的内容。《人世间》(第97-99页) 温托索罗以西方的科学文化知识来装修自己,从完全从旧的人转变为新的温托索罗。她自 己不会觉得自己是很低贱的女人了,不再依赖别人了,开始感到自己有资格跟别人媲美了。这 说明无论小妾还是一般的女性掌握了一些知识后,就有能力闯出男权制度的包围,虽然温托索 罗还无法去掉自己的奴性,但奠定了人格独立的开始。 直到那时,你妈妈才开始感受到了愉快和幸福,你爸爸一向很器重我,征求我的意见,有什么 事总和我一起商量。天长日久,我在他面前不再感到低人一等。有时我不得不和过去的熟人相 见,我也不再感到害臊了。我一年以来的学习和工作成绩赎回了我失去的个人尊严。但我的态 度仍然没有改变:靠自己应付一切,不依赖任何人。对于一名爪哇妇女,尤其是对于一位像我 这样年轻女子来说,似乎还论不到我去谈论那个人尊严的问题。可是,安娜,这是你爸爸教我 的呀!诚然,对于个人尊严的含义,与我后来的体会相比,我当时的理解还太肤浅。《人世间 (第96页) 从前的萨妮庚慢慢地消失了。妈妈开始用新的眼光来看问题,已经变成了一个新人。我觉得, 我自己不再是几年前在图朗安被人出卖的奴仆了。我好像把那些事情都忘掉了。有时我这样问 自己:我是不是已经成了一个棕色皮肤的荷兰人了?《人世间》(第99页) 男性世界的文化预设,要求女性的“外貌”是柔顺、忠贞,因此梅莱玛与温托索罗的关系 也被预设温托索罗是他的附属品,但如果梅莱玛先生断定他对温托索罗有权利完全占有她,梅 莱玛先生错了,温托索罗利用从主人学到的知识,渐渐掌握本属于主人的权利,接管梅莱玛的 “大”公司,梅莱玛 后却依赖她。 无论是颂莲还是温托索罗都有女性的趋向于雄健、叛逆,趋向于对男性角色与男性心理的 认同的“本我”但是温托索罗接触到有利的偶然性条件的机会比颂莲多,所以温托索罗不仅能 达到独立的人格而且很成功地达到“错位”的程度。决定女人命运的,既有各种社会条件所产 生的必然性,又有许多源自个人生活的难以预测的偶然性,而且必然性往往借助偶然的因素体 现。(高琳,2003:82) 对温托索罗的人格独立不但由温托索罗自己评判还有梅莱玛先生以及马赫达•皮特斯(一 个荷兰老师)也有同样的评判。 其实,你妈妈并不依赖于梅莱玛先生,相反,是他依赖我。因此,我也主动和他一起拿主意, 作决定。他始终欢迎我这样做。《人世间》(第96页) similarity and differences….. (xuc lin) 173 她复杂的内心世界,已经和那些有进取心和思想开通的欧洲人相比无几。作为一个土著民,而 且是一位土著妇女,她确实博闻强识,阅历很广。她完全配得上做你的老师。……她可是个老 练的管理者,每个行动都是经过深思熟虑的。再庞大的农场,她都能主持得起来。我从未见过 这样能干的女农场主。商业专科学校毕业生也未必能把那样的农场管理得有条不紊。 《人世间》(第261页) 结语 纳妾在封建社会是非常普遍的事情。男性通过各种途径来纳妾,目的是为了传宗接代,为 了满足自己的欲望。小妾与正妻的区别是正妻是代表家族的,而小妾只是一种娱乐工具。小妾 地位的高低全都看丈夫的对待,得宠的与失宠的小妾在外在形象有非常大的差别,何况在内心 的状 ,因此从人格方面,我们发现《妻妾成群》与《人世间》的小妾因各种因素有着不同的 人格。 《妻妾成群》的颂莲因为上过一年的大学,也许有着朦胧的平等意识所以一开始她是个很 自信、主动、敢提出意见的女人。后来她慢慢发现,女性的地位是很低贱的,对陈老爷来说颂 莲只是满足欲望的工具而已。因此为了能在陈家生存下去,颂莲在人格上发生了变化,变成一 个跟陈家其他女人一样,堕落、为了能争取男人对自己的宠爱愿意付出任何代价的女人。 《人世间》的温托索罗让我们看到小妾的另外一面。温托索罗跟颂莲恰恰相反,她一开始 很顺从主人,但她对自己会被主人抛弃的可能,早就有所准备了。她好好地利用主人给她学习 新知识的机会导致她能从完全顺从转变为人格独立的一个女人。她不再觉得自己是个低贱的女 人,不再依赖别人了,丈夫反而依赖她。 通过这两部小说妾的人格异同,我们可以了解到,决定一个人的命运除了受到社会各种条 件的影响之外,还要靠自己的性格、努力、意志才能得到自己生命中的价值。 参考文献 西蒙·波娃.第二性—女人[m].长沙:湖南文艺出版,1988 龚佩华.中华民族亲属团体史[m].芒市:德宏民族出版社,1991 李建中.臣妾人格[m].武汉:长江文艺出版社,1996 刘承华.文化与人格(对中西文化差异的一次比较)[m].合肥:中国科学技术大学 出版社,2002 罗恝兰著. 女性学[m]. 北京:中国国际广播出版社,2002 高琳.女性从困惑走向成功[m].天津:天津人民出版社,2003 高琳.女性形象学[m].天津:天津人民出版社,2004 174 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 164-174 梁巧哪. 性别意识与女性形象[m]. 北京:中央民族大学出版社,2004 郑雪编著.人格心理学[m].广州:广东高等教育出版社,2004 高新伟. 凄艳的岁月:中国古代妇女的非常生活[m]. 郑州:河南人民出版社,2006 乐国安编著. 社会心理学[m]. 广州:广东高等教育出版社,2006 巴莺乔,洪炜主编. 女性心理学[m]. 北京:中国医药科技出版社,2006 朱义禄.儒家理想人格与中国文化[m].上海:复旦大学出版社,2006 王绍玺.小妾史[m].上海:上海文艺出版社.2008 普拉姆迪亚·阿南达·杜尔、北京大学普·阿·尔研究组译.人世间[m].北京:北京 大学出版社,1982 梁立基. 印度尼西亚民族觉醒的一面镜子——《人世间》[j]. 外国文学研究 , 1982,3 : 53-58 王文津.从《妻妾成群》看女性生存的历史空间[j].赤峰教育学院学报, 2001,3: 42-43 苏童. 妻妾成群[z]. http://www.my285.com/ddmj/ sutong /qiqie/01.htm.2008-05-16 中国古代姬妾制度(转)[z]. http://bbs.hefei.cc/viewthread.php?tid=1761358. 2008-04-13 钟艳红.生存的悲剧——浅谈《妻妾成群》的女性生活(一)[z]. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4c7875040100092g.html. 2008-08-04 钟艳红. 生存的悲剧——浅谈《妻妾成群》的女性生活(二)[z]. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4c7875040100092h.html. 2008-08-04 bahari, r. (2007) pramoedya postcolonially, (re-)viewing history,gender and identity in the buru tetralogy. denpasar: pustaka larasan bandel, b. (2009) “studi budaya atas nyai,”diases 20 maret 2009 dari http://groups.http://groups.yahoo.com/group/kunci-1/message/373 hellwig, t. (2007) citra perempuan di hindia belanda. jakarta: yayasan obor steurs, c.v. (2008) sejarah perempuan indonesia: gerakan dan pencapaian . jakarta: komunitas bambu “selir, simbiosis cultural.” diakses 1 februari 2010 dari http://sedjate. blogspot.com/2007/05/selirsimbiosis-kultural.html “concubinage,” diakses 18 januari 2010 dari http://www.statemaster.com/ encyclopedia/concubinage microsoft word 01_ienneke_saya mau bu _ok.doc “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”?..... (ienneke i. dewi) 1 “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”? from the teachers and students’ point of view ienneke indra dewi english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, inneke@binus.edu abstract article describes a research which purpose was to find out whether there was a shift in the use of “aku” and “saya” from the children and teenagers’ points of view as well as their teachers’s. the shift of those expressions was based on the factors of concept, family education, and the influence of media i.e. television. the objects of this research were 140 elementary and high school students as well as their teachers. questionnaires were distributed to them. the results showed that there was a shift from the expression “saya” to “aku” in the students and teachers’ perception. however, when tested using statistics, the differences in the shift and in the perception between students and teachers concerning this matter were not significant. keywords: personal call, aku, saya abstrak artikel menggambarkan penelitian yang menunjukkan perubahan penggunaan “aku” dan “saya” dari sudut pandang anak-anak, remaja, dan guru. perubahan penggunaan tersebut disebabkan oleh faktor konsep, pendidikan keluarga, dan pengaruh media seperti televisi. kuesioner disebarkan kepada 140 murid sd, smp, dan guru. hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya perubahan penggunaan “saya” dan “aku” dalam persepsi murid dan guru. hanya, ketika hasil penelitian diuji dengan statistik, perbedaan penggunaan penggunaan “saya” dan “aku” dalam persepsi murid dan guru tidak menunjukkan hasil nyata. kata kunci: panggilan diri, aku, saya jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 1-10 2 introduction the expressions used to greet other people have a close relationship with politeness. the language choice in this case is done by considering some factors such as relation and formality. holmes (2007) used the term “solidarity” to show the relation distance between the speaker and the hearer in communication. in some languages e.g. french, indonesian, and javanese, the way of referring to the second person is different (e.g. tu/vous, kamu/anda, kowe/sampeyan/panjenengan). usually, the first is used when the participants have a close relationship or in the informal situation, while the second is used in a conversation between friends who are close or in a formal relationship. however, in other languages, such as english, the second personal pronoun you can be used at any situation to anybody. indonesian has two terms referring to the first person i.e. aku and saya which are used differently. in kamus besar bahasa indonesia – the indonesian dictionary (2009:32), it is said that aku is used for a close relation i.e. the participants have a close and informal relationship and both of them have a same status in the society such as friends or when they are talking with the younger person or person who have a lower status. meanwhile, the expression saya is used when the participants have a formal relationship or when the hearer has a higher status. the question in the title “saya mau, bu.” or “aku mau bu.” is uttered in the conversation between a student and his teacher. the problem is which one is theoretically and practically considered to be accepted by the students and teachers. the relationship between students and their teachers should be included in a formal relationship as teachers are the people whose position and status are higher than those of the students’. in this relationship, a student should use saya to refer to himself. however, there are some phenomenon that there is a shift from the word saya into aku in the communication between students and teachers. examples: ma’am, ‘‘aku’’ mau ngambil pelajaran di semester depan, . . . . ‘‘aku’’ juga mau tanya .... mama bilang ‘saya’ memang keras kepala .... ‘saya’ kalau belajar suka ingat masalah ‘saya’.... aduuh gimana ya ma’m padahal ‘‘aku’’ ingin lulus .... kata mama ‘saya’ sih memang keras kepala ..... (dewi, 2007). in this example, we can see that the expressions aku and saya in the communication between students and their teachers have been used interchangebly without any specific reason. in media, there are more and more people, especially artists, use aku when being interviewed, although the television is watched by children and teenagers. as children and teenagers cannot be separated from their environments at home, school and media, this research intends to see the influence of those factors in children and teenagers in using aku and saya. this research also continues the one carried out by dewi (2007), who made a research on the use of these expression in which the results showed that there was a shift from the use of saya and it was replaced by using the word aku. however, dewi’s research was not tested by using statistics so the scale of whether the shift and the different views between teachers and students were significant or not was not known. the main problem in this research is to see whether there is a significant difference between students and teachers’ perception between elementary and highschool students representing children and teenagers and teachers in using the expressions aku and saya. this problem can be seen by testing two hypotheses as follows: hypothesis (h0) : there is no significant difference between students and teachers’ perception in the use of aku and saya. alternation (h1) : there is significant difference between students and teachers’ perception in the use of aku and saya. “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”?..... (ienneke i. dewi) 3 in details, this research also discusses the use of aku and saya by using the following critera: concept, family education, and influence of media. kamus besar bahasa indonesia (the indonesian dictionary) states that aku is used to refer to “ragam tidak resmi” (informal variety of language) (2009a) that is the informal conversation between close friends (2009b), while saya is used in the formal variety of language in the formal relation and situation, especially in a formal writing such as: non fiction or oral language, such as in a formal writing or in giving lecture. alwi. et al. (2003) had same idea and added that aku tends to be used in the fiction of poetry. furthermore, jennar (2008) explained that “the pronoun aku is commonly described as an intimate and informal pronoun and hence it is generally associated with interpersonal domains. saya, on the other hand, is generally described as a neutral and formal pronoun and is considered the appropriate choice for public contexts.” however, recently, dewi (2007), jenar (2008), and ruddyanto put forward that there was a tendency that aku and saya were used in a different way. dewi (2007) made a research among university students in order to see how aku and saya were used in a communication between students and teachers. the results showed that there was a tendency that students used aku and not saya to refer to themselves when communicating with teachers. in this case, students and teachers had different perceptions dealing with some factors, assuming to influence students such as: concept, family education, and media. besides from this research, it was found that teachers still expected that students used saya when communicating with them. in general, teachers had the opinion that students had family education regarding the use of aku and saya. the interesting thing was that students did not feel that they were educated by their parents. the different perception could also be seen in terms of the influence of media. students said that they were not influenced by television programs, but teachers insisted that they were influenced. unfortunately, this research was not supported by statistics test so the significancy of different perception between students and teachers was not revealed. in 2008, jenar made a research by observing celebrities who were in tv programs. the results showed that there were some reasons for them to use aku instead of saya. the first reason was they wanted to be considered as modern people. another reason was by using aku, they felt that they were independent. ruddyanto (http://pusatbahasa.diknas.go.id) put forward his assumption that in society, it was really true that there was a shift in using aku and saya, especially in young generation. he told his experience when he had a conversation with a shop assistant who used expression of aku when serving him. in this case, ruddyanto gave comments that the shop assistant should “bersikap hormat untuk memikat saya agar tertarik membeli dagangannya – saya dapati mereka dengan nyaman mengutamakan sikap berakrab-akrab daripada hormat” (instead of trying to respect him, so that he would buy something, the shop assistant preferred to pretend to be close). ruddyanto also got shocked when one of his new employees used aku when talking to him as his supervisor. the shift in using aku and saya appears not only in practice, but also in theory i.e. in a reference which might be read by many people such as in bahasa kita website (http://www.bahasakita.com/glossary/s/) in which it is stated that saya and aku can be used in formal and informal situation. whoever wrote in this website, actually, considers that there is no difference in the use of aku and saya. in this case, badudu (2001) also states that aku shows a close relationship – usually used in family relationship and close friends. besides, aku is often used when talking to the hearers who are younger or having a lower position than the speaker. every language can change from time to time. the change, according to holmes (2001), can be from group to group, based on age, location, and gender. the change can also happen because of the influence of media, especially from the prominents who have a lot of followers or celebritites who have a lot of fans. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 1-10 4 holmes (2001) and bonvillain (2003) also mentioned some other factors influencing the language choice such as setting – the place of event/conversation, participants – the speaker and listener, topic – what is being talked about, and goal of the conversation. holmes (2001) also described that the closer the relationship between participants, the more informal the language and content of onversation. for example is language of gossiping. however, the farther the relationship of participants is, the more informal the language, e.g. language of newspaper, or language of a speech. the choice of language varieties has a close relationship with politeness. a person can be considered to be polite if he is able to keep other’s face. in this case, ‘face’ means “a person’s self image in front of the public (yule, 2006:104). in general, people would like to keep their ‘faces’ in front of the public, meaning they do not want to be embarrassed or humiliated in front of other people and want to be treated in accordance to their role in society where they live. by being treated like that, they will feel that they are appreciated. in this case, the use of appropriate expressions would help people to keep other’s face. this research intends to know whether there is a different perception between students and teachers in using the expression aku and saya, based on the formal or standard of the use of aku and saya, i.e. saya for formal relationship and aku for informal relationship. the relationship between students and teachers are considered to be formal as there is a difference in their age, group, and especially status. therefore, it is really expected that students use the word saya when speaking to their teachers. the assumption is that students would use saya when speaking to their teachers. this is especially done, so that the students can be considered to be polite and teachers would feel that their face would not be ‘damaged’. we can also say that the teachers would feel that their students appreciate them. as politeness is one of expected attitudes in getting along with others, parents should struggle and educate their children, so that their children would have this politeness. they educate children to be not only smart, but also good. in this case, the result of research can be used by parent, education institutions, and educators in creating a polite generation in using a language. for schools, the results of this research can become one of feedbacks to recheck curriculum for ethics course or language course, so that children will be able to show appropriate attitude that can be accepted in the society. also, it is expected that parents can encourage their children to increase not only the children’ intelligence quotient, but also in children’s ethics by using everyday language. by doing this, the children will be influenced and future generation will have strengths not only in their hardskill, but also softskill as well. moreover, if the result of research shows that there is a shift, the educators and parents should be wise in facing their children. they should not judge their children as ‘having’ no politeness when they speak by using aku. nevertheless, when the shift still becomes a phenomenon, the linguists should be able to make assumption about what will happen next with two expressions and think about a strategic action in educating students by using language, meaning to think about strategic method in teaching politeness by using language. purpose of research is to know the different perception of students and teachers regarding the use of aku and saya in theory and practice between teenagers and children. in details, we can see the differences in their concept, family education, and media. subject of this research are children and teenagers. they are represented in the students from elementary schools and high school students together with their teachers. method data were taken from two schools in jakarta. they were tiara kasih elementary school and sekolah negeri sd 02, and smp 176 together with their teachers. the areas were the students and “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”?..... (ienneke i. dewi) 5 teachers’ concept of aku and saya, and the real practice. the information regarding aku and saya was obtained by giving questionnaires to 140 students from both schools and 10 teachers. thus, this research did not only seewhether there was a difference in the perception between teachers and students, but also to see the practice according to them. discussion this research aimed to find out the students and teachers’ opinion regarding the concept and practice of students dealing with the expressions aku and saya; the influence of family education, and the media such as television program. in this research, the questionnaires were not only distributed to the students, but also to the teachers. in general, the result of this research shows that there is a difference between knowledge and practice from the students and teachers’ perceptions regarding the use of aku and saya. in table 1, we can see that regarding the knowledge in students’ perception, the percentage of students who inform that they know the concept, is higher than the number of students who say that they practice it. ninety eight percent students know the concept of how to use aku and saya, but only 82 percent use it in practicing with teachers. it means that there are students who know that they should use saya to their teachers, but they use aku instead. the reasons of using other terms of address can be various; from the close relationship of them, or formal and informal situation. in family, 81 percent students say that their parents told them how to use aku and saya, but only 60 percent students practice it within the family. most of the reasons regarding family are the use of nicknames instead of aku or saya. regarding the media, only 60 percent students say that television has influenced children and teenagers in general in choosing aku and saya. however, there are only 29 percent students who admit that they are influenced. this figure shows that students are aware that there are many television programs using aku instead of saya. however, they do not think that those programs influence them. instead, there is a possibility that they have opinion that the use of aku instead of saya is just a common thing and do not break any rules. according to the teachers, students know the concepts of aku and saya, but most of them say that they do not practice it in communicating with their teachers. ninety percent teachers say that the students know the concept, but only 45 percent teachers state that the students practice their knowledge of concept. the teachers have such opinions as they think that students must have got the knowlegde from family and school. however, in practice, they find out that the students do not use saya to them. seventy percent teachers also put forward their opinion that the students got the information from their parents, how to use aku and saya, but only 30 percent teachers say that the students practice their knowledge in family. in this case, teachers say that in their own family, they teach their children not only use saya to refer to themselves, but also use nicknames or their vernaculars such as javanese or sundanese. regarding the influence of television programs, 20 percent teachers say that the students are influenced by speakers in television, but 70 percent say that the students know that television can influence children and teenagers in using aku and saya (table 2). table 1 students’ knowledge and practice according to the students knowledge practice % % concept 98 82 family education 81 66 media/television 60 29 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 1-10 6 table 2 students’ knowledge and practice according to the teachers when we compare the knowledge of the expressions aku and saya and the practice, between the students and teachers’ perception in table 3 and table 4, it is clearly seen that the percentage of the students is higher except in the influence of the television program. in table 3, we can see that both students and teachers agree that conceptually students know the difference between aku sand saya (98 percent students and 90 percent teachers). also, most of students and teachers have the same opinions that in general students have been informed about the use of aku and saya. regarding the influence of the television program, about two thirds of students and teachers assume that students imitate the speakers on television. in general, both teachers and students have the same opinion that the percentage of students practicing the knowledge is less than their knowledge. however, teachers are more pessimistic and except for the television influence. the percentage of the teachers who said that students practice their knowledge about aku and saya is only half of that of the students. eighty two percent students think that they practice the knowledge but there are only 45% teachers agree on that matter. it might happen because teachers have got the experience that their students use aku when communicating with them. sixty percent students state that they practice the use of aku and saya at home, but again only thirty percent teachers say so. teachers are very pesimistic that students practice aku and saya even in the family. according to the teachers’ opinion, there are only twenty nine students imitated the speakers on television and again, and only twenty percent students feel that they imitate the speakers on television. table 3 students’ knowledge in using aku and saya according to students and teachers knowledge practice % % concept 90 45 family education 70 30 media/television 70 20 knowledge practice % % concept 98 90 family education 81 70 media/television 60 20 “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”?..... (ienneke i. dewi) 7 table 4 students’ practice in using aku and saya according to the students and teachers statistical analysis from the percentage analysis, we can see that there is a difference between the students and teachers’ perception regarding the use of aku and saya in theory and practice. nevertheless, the difference should be tested statisticallywhether it is significant or not. the statistics test was carried out using chi square. process of the calculation is as follows: hyphothesis (h0) : there is no significant difference between students and teachers’ perception regarding the shift of expression saya to aku alternation (h1) : there is a significant difference between students and teachers’ perception regarding the shift from saya to aku the test was carried out using the chi-square and in order to see the result of the hypothesis test, the calculation was done as follows. from the data in questionnaires given to the students, we can obtain that. first is for the variable the knowledge of the use of aku and saya (table 5). table 5 contigency between the respondents and questions a (1-4) respondents question 1 question 2 question 3 question 4 total students a 137/137,7 b 114/114,1 c 84/85,8 d 97/94,3 432 teachers f 9/8,3 g 7/6,9 h 7/5,2 i 3/5,7 26 total 146 121 91 100 458 in order to see whether the difference in those frequencies is significant or not, the technic of chiquadrant is used. number of rows the expected frequency is fh = -------------------* m\number of colums; total knowledge practice % % concept 82 45 family education 66 30 media/television 29 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 1-10 8 thus: 432 fh (column a) = --- * 146 = 137,7 458 432 fh (column b = --- * 121 = 114,1 458 432 fh (column c) = --- * 91 = 85,8 458 432 fh (column d) = --- * 100 = 94,3 458 26 fh (column g) = --- * 121 = 6,9 458 26 fh (column f) = --- * 146 = 8,3 458 26 fh (column)= --- * 91 = 5,2 458 26 fh (column i) = --- * 100 = 5,7 458 the degree of freedom is db = (rows -1) (columns -1) = (2 – 1) (4 -1) = 3; then, the working table for f0 and fh in calculating using the chi-square is: x2 = ∑ (0i – ei)2 = e (137-137,7)2/137,7 + (114-141,1)2/141,1 + (84-85,8)2//85,8 + (9794,3)2 /94,3 +(9-8,3)2/8,3 + (7-6,9)2 /6,9 + (7-5,2)2/5,2 + (3-5,7)2/5,7 x2 = 0,003 + 5,20 + 0,0377 + 0,0773 + 0,0590 + 0,0014 + 0,6231 + 1,2789 x2 = 7,2880 second is for the variable the practice of the expressions aku and saya. with the same calculation as the above, the second variable i.e. the practice of the use of aku and saya is calculated and the result can be seen in table 6. table 6 contigency between respondents and questions b (1-4) respondents question 1 question 2 question 3 question 4 total students a 79/78,6 b 62/61,11 c 22/22,2 d 22/23,1 185 teachers f 6/6,4 g 4/4,91 h 2/1,8 i 3/1,9 15 total 85 66 24 25 200 the degree of freedom is db = (rows -1) (columns -1) = (2 – 1) (4 -1) = 3; then, the working table for f0 and fh in calculating using the chi-square is: x2 = ∑ (0i – ei)2 = e (79-78,4)2/78,4 + (62-61,1)2/61,1 + (22-22,2)2//22,2 + (22-23,1)2 /23,1 +(6-6,4)2/6,4 + (4-4,9)2 /4,9 + (2-1,8)2/1,8 + (3-1,9)2/1,9 x2 = 0,004 + 0,0002 + 0,001 + 0,052 + 0,025 + 0,165 + 0,022 + 0,636 x2 = 0,9052 “saya mau bu!” or “aku mau bu!”?..... (ienneke i. dewi) 9 table 7 results of the test using chi square respondents: students and teachers pearson chi square calculation chi square tabel (α=5%) the variable of the use of the expressions aku dan saya 7,2880 7,815 the variable of the use of the expressions aku dan saya 0,9050 7,815 from table 7, it can be seen that the chi square calculation (pearson chi square) < chi square table for α=5%. so, from this condition, it can be conluded that there is no significant differences between students and teachers regarding the knowledge and practice of the use of expressions aku dan saya (h0 is accepted). in other words, students and teachers feel that the use of aku and saya is still same as the ones in theory. conclusion this research intends to see whether there is a shift in the use of aku and saya among children and teenagers from the students and teachers’ perceptions. the specific factors considered are the concept of students, family education, and influence of media; in this case is television. in both views, other factors are knowledge and practice of the use of aku and saya. based on the knowledge, students are sure that they know difference between the concepts of aku and saya. they also have self confidence that their parents tell them how to use aku and saya. in general, they agree that they are influenced by television, but not much. the result shows that the percentage of students practicing the theory of aku and saya is lower than the percentage of those who know it. regarding the family education, both students and teachers have opinion that most students were told how to use aku and saya from their parents. however, in practice, the percentage of teachers who said that students use the expression saya appropriately is lower than that of the students’. the results of the third factor i.e. the influence of media television indicates that conceptually, the percentage of teachers who have opinion that the students are influenced by programs in television is higher than that of the students. in short, we can say that there is a shift in the use of from aku and saya and also a difference in students and teachers’ perception regarding this matter. however, the statistics test shows that this difference is not significant. this research implies that at least some actions need not to be taken immediately, regarding the use of aku and saya as the students and teachers tend to maintain the use of aku and saya, according to the theory. however, the percentage shows that there is about twenty percent showing the shift. in this case, it seems that teachers are more aware of the changing as they communicate directly with the students. in this case, the linguists should take a precaution that there is a tendency although very small, by doing further research in other cities. besides, as other researchers (dewi, 2007; jennar, 2008; and ruddyanto, http://pusatbahasa.diknas.go.id), show that there is a shift among college students, artists, and society dealing with the use of aku and saya. this research should be repeated within another two years and it should be completed with the observations, in order to know the reality and not only the opinion. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 1-10 10 references alwi. et al. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. bonvillain, n. (2003). language, culture, and communication: the meaning of messages, 4th edition. new jersey: pearson education ltd. darma, j. s., dan shenia ananda. (2009). buku pintar menguasai internet. jakarta: media kita. dewi. (2008). anaylzing the use of aku and saya in the students teachers communication, linguistik indonesia. 22 – 34 th.26.no. feb.2008. haryono, d. (2009). kamus besar bahasa indonesia edisi baru. jakarta: media pustaka phoenix. holmes, j. (2001). an introduction to sociolinguistics. essex: pearson education ltd. jenar, d.n. (2008). which self? pronominal choice, modernity, and self categorizations, international journal of sociology of language, vol. 002, 2008, p. 31-54. ruddyanto. bahasa indonesia dalam film bersulih suara. retrieved august 30, 2009, from website: http://pusatbahasa.diknas.go.id/laman/nawala.php?info=artikel&infocmd=show&infoid=31&r ow=1. sugiyono. (2009). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. jakarta: alafabeta. sugono, d. (2008). kamus besar bahasa indonesia, edisi keempat. jakarta: gramedia tarigan, h.g. (2009). prinsip-prinsip dasar metode riset pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa. bandung: angkasa. wardaugh, r. (2002). an introduction to sociolinguistcs, 4th edition. oxford: blackwell. yule, g. (2006). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 31 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 31-38 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.3370 the construction of sundanese culture in the news discourse published by local mass media of west java dadang s. anshori studies of indonesian language and literature, faculty language and literature of education, indonesia university of education jln. dr. setiabudhi 229 bandung 40154, indonesia dadanganshori@upi.edu received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 08th september 2017/ accepted: 18th september 2017 how to cite: anshori, d. s. (2018). the construction of sundanese culture in the news discourse published by local mass media of west java. lingua cultura, 12(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.3370 abstract this research identified the construction of sundanese culture in the local mass media of west java. based on the phenomenon occurred, the culture could be interpreted in an accordance with the spirit of time and society. within the national framework, this issue was not simple because the nationalism that was built on the plots of localism was not impossible to be changed. the research method employed the qualitative method. the data were the form of discourses contained in the local mass media. the results show that the language that is being used by the local media that describes the meaning of low bargaining of political position and national leadership. the construction of the local media in depicting the sundanese culture is classified as the national, cultural, islamic, and other aspects of culture. in the context of national leadership, the construction strengthens and affirms the faced condition and the reality. in terms of cultural relations with islam, the local media shows the positive aspects of the condition and the history of the sundanese people that has been known as a religious ethnic group. in terms of the cultural relations with other aspects, the people of west java are advised to make an inward reflection in viewing the existence of sundanese culture within the national context. the ideologies that established by the local media towards the sundanese culture are idealism, primordial, and pragmatism-realistic. keywords: construction culture, sundanese culture, news discourse introduction the cultural issues have recently become an interesting and important phenomenon in indonesia. it is not because indonesia is a multicultural country, but because the culture has shown potentials for urgent problems in a multicultural society. the cultural issues are characterized by three main characteristics. the first characteristic is the emergence of a global acculturation movement that nullifies the importance of local identity in the international arena. the issue can be seen among the young generation who view the global culture (modernization) as a mainstream. in another word, there has been the colonialism through the culture as an active instrument of colonialism that has happened massively. this is evident from various changes in the sense of nationalism that continues to be eroded in both substantive and symbolic forms. for example, the increasing use of foreign languages in the public spaces as if the country is not inhabited and not devoted to the indonesian people who speak bahasa and local languages. this concern is revealed along with the emergence of a small wave of recognition from various countries, both individuals, and institutions. it is about the existence and presence of local indonesian culture, as evidenced by the increasing number of foreigners who study the local and indonesian culture. although on the other hand, some indonesian people seem to become alienated to their culture. the second characteristic is the cultural issues at the local level are related to the cultural reflections and manifestations that are sometimes can be seen to the contrary to the issue of nationalism (rozi, 2009). there is a long debate about the existence of regional languages in the middle of the indonesian civilization movement. along with the strengthening of post-reformation local forces, the local culture has gained momentum to rise and play a role in local-scale development in several regions. on the other hand, the cultural reflections are sometimes considered as exaggerated and confronting the religious beliefs. this phenomenon is enough to seize the attention of many parties, especially with the various local government policies, which are the preservation of the local culture, present behavior and cultural manifestations that are seen not in line with the issues of nationalism and religion (saidi, 2009). in case of a small city in the us, oliver and myers (1999) have described that of 382 public events in police records for one year in a small u.s. city, 45% conveys a message, 14% involves social conflict, and 13% are the standard protest event forms. the local newspapers cover 32 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 31-38 32% of all events, favoring the large events, events that involve conflict, events that are sponsored by the business groups and occurred in central locations. in fact, the sundanese culture has long been recognized as having synchronization and harmony with the religious values. even in the social fragmentations, this interpretation frequently leads to the social problems and conflicts among some parties, including the government, community groups, and religious organizations (ibrahim, 2008). the efforts from the ministry of home affairs to eliminate thousands of local regulations that are contrary to the higher regulations, including the exclusive regional regulations, have also received a strong response from the various parties, especially from the regions that formulated the law (anshori, 2014). many understandings expect nationalism and localism to coexist and reinforce each other, but their social fragmentation competes. however, it is realized that indonesian nationality is built on the foundation of regionalism, but there are still concerns of diminishing from the regional aspect of ethnic society due to the overwhelming dominance of the national cultural roles as happened in the new order era. this concern is decline by the local language speakers in indonesia and the switch of the speakers to using the indonesian language. the third phenomenon is the concern and anxiety about the disproportionate or unrepresentative national accommodation of ethnicity and regional politics in the national scale. in every procession of national leader election, regional aspects are emerged and strengthened politically, especially from the areas with large numbers of voters, such as the provinces of java. this phenomenon arises in various forms of the question, whether there is the presentation of ethnicity in national leadership. in west java, for example, the discourse on the leadership of ki sunda (sundanese) is widely presented in the mass media of west java, especially pikiran rakyat and other local media. almost all the issues, news, and opinions lead to the representation of representatives from the sundanese people in the context of national leadership, which until now has not been represented in terms of quantity. while there is a political issue, in this context the culture and ethnicity have been construing as legitimacy for the political life of the people, and it will be the existence of an ethnic group which can transform its culture. in some cases, there is even an attitude of disappointment and concern for the absence of representatives of the particular ethnicity. this will have implications for the strengthening and the weakening of the locality movement in the national politics. in the context of politics, the history of indonesia government concerns role and representation from the indonesian regions, especially the large ethnics and ethnic groups outside java. even the nomination for the president and vice president always considers the candidates who represent java and outer java. this consideration does not fully address the candidate capacity, but rather consider the national and local political issues as well as closeness and integrity of national politics. as a part of national culture, sundanese culture is the second largest after the javanese (smith, 1986) that has its own characteristic, and it can contribute to the development of national culture. sundanese culture is based on the philosophical life of the sundanese ethnic group (indrawardana, 2012). one of the philosophies that is often used as the foundation of regional development is the silih asih, silih asah, silih asuh. this philosophy means that the sundanese people always make harmony, mutual love, and mutual care with other human beings. however, the model of fragmentation that shown may be different and will be largely determined by the sundanese interpretation. especially, the sundanese figures who have the hegemony of thought and movement in directing the interpretation. some parts of the sundanese philosophy have been widely criticized by the sundanese figures who view them as a loss and not contextual in the national politics (safei, 2010; sumpena, 2012). a custom of sundanese people to let others walk in front (mangga ti payun), is a form of defeatism that is no longer relevant in the context of national leadership. this principle is replaced with the principle of leading the walk (abdi ti payun or punten mayunan). in the context of national politics, for example, the disappointment is fragmented from the sundanese political figures that have national interests and ideas, whereas, in grassroots, the disappointment may not be manifested in the language within the public sphere. understanding the construction of culture is necessary to consider the relationship between various components of the nation, especially for those which are based on ethnicity. however, the leadership in indonesia should have the support of local elites who have the influence over the more concrete and realistic masses. usually, the dynamics that develop nationally are also influenced by local development, especially areas adjacent to the sources of power. thus, the indonesian leadership cannot be separated from the conditions and dynamics that occur in local communities (ethnicity). to explore the construction of the sundanese culture, issues, and opinions that develop within the cultural conditions should be studied, as understood by the sundanese people through various media. the records of issues and opinions are expressed in the local media publications with interest in covering the dynamics of the sundanese people. in this case, pikiran rakyat and other media, published in both indonesian and sundanese language, have become an integral part of the issue and thought of the sundanese, because they are presenting in the middle of the sundanese people (sitompul and dirgahayu, 2014). the media also play an important role, not only to record the thoughts and dynamics that exist but at the same time also direct the opinion that developed in the sundanese people. thus, in the context of plurality, it is important to examine the construction of sundanese culture as reflected by the people that are recorded in the local mass media, in this case, pikiran rakyat and other media. this study is based on the theory of language that is no longer solely discussing the language from the internal structure, but also the cross-dimension with other sciences or fields that make the language as a communication channel. the mediation role of the language appears to translate various events and facts that occur in various disciplines, including the construction and fragmentation of culture. the language, in this position, is the science advocate. the significance of this fact to the science of language is that the language becomes a window for examining the social reality or events that occur. the use of language enables people to interpret the various social realities or events since in this position language is a representation of the reality of event (anshori, 2017). social class issues, for example, can be studied through sociolinguistics, as social classes are represented in the language variations. the community speaker always shows differences between its high, middle, and 33the construction of sundanese culture .... (dadang s. anshori) low classes. in america (bonvillain, 2003), social class is seen from the structure of the economy, politics, and social relations. in indonesia, social class is also characterized by the income (economy), social status, education, and lineage. therefore, according to milroy and milroy (bonvillain, 2003), social class is designed to see the range of social, political, and economic scales which built the relationships in interpersonal communication or social organization. the social class is represented in the communication, and social networks and language is an instrument to show the social class of a speaker. in the communication practice, the speakers always represent their ethnic, culture, and nation. this fact is an important part of language study since edward sapir (18841939) and benjamin whorf (1897-1941), the pioneer of a linguistic branch that includes culture as a study dimension; the anthropological linguistics. sapir’s much-quoted statement is, “the complete vocabulary of a language may indeed be looked upon as a complex inventory of all the ideas, interests, and occupations that take up the attention of the community” (bonvillain, 2003). thus, the language does not stand alone but presents an idea, interest, and skills in accordance with the communication interests of its speakers. in its development, anthropological linguistics has become a study that specifically observes practices of language in the ethnic community and the ethnography of communication. the importance of culture in language studies is based on the postulates that language will not be meaningless without the presence of the culture. the language context often refers to the conditions or circumstances of speaker’s culture. the bahasa uses to represent the indonesian culture (in a broad sense). in other words, culture becomes the spirit of the language. language study with identity is a part of investigative sociolinguistic. this study discusses how are social reality illustrated in the language and its distances with social reality, both in spoken and written forms. discourse analysis can put forward how the identity construction is built. georgakapoulou (2006) and schiffrin (2006) show that conversation and narrative can trace the construction of speaker’s identity. in sundanese society, the ethnic identity is constructed with the relations between islam and sundanese, which distinguish sundanese from the other ethnic groups, especially the javanese who, in their historic javanese kingdom, once defeated the sundanese kingdom (syukur, 2011). the relationship is built between the sundanese and islam is dialectical totality, which means that the sundanese and islamic identities have interdependence (saefullah, 2013). in the context of cultural discourse, it is not impossible that the discourse or sciences that use discourse as an analytical instrument are more common in other fields than in the language studies (syamsudin, 2011). heracleous (2006) has written, “the discourse analysis, in the board sense of utilizing textual data to gain an insight to particular phenomena, as has a rich and varied heritage in the social sciences, spanning the fields of sociology, anthropology, psychology, political sciences, and history.” therefore, the experts view discourse analysis as a cross-disciplinary science, since the discourse analyst must have mastery of many disciplines according to the type of text analyzed. in discourse, the ideological factors become the center of analysts’ attention. the idea of power is often called ideology. in the view of hodge and kress (1993), ideology is a presentation of the fact that is organized systematically. the most familiar example is news about the demonstration or palestinian war in the mass media. all words that are presented in the news are the chosen words that represent facts that are captured by the journalists. the words chosen are affecting the readers who buy the newspaper. the words presented in the media influence the readers to side with demonstrators or police. these words of the journalists may drive indonesian readers, in general, to hate israel. it is even possible that the readers are brought into the scenarios based on the journalists’ point of view and comprehension. in turn, people are invited to explore minds, styles, and perspectives of the journalists, not the facts that should be understood by the readers. another important thing in the study of discourse is the existence of framing construction in the news (eriyanto, 2002). it is through this framework that the analysts can know the constructs of the speakers and political ideologies stored in the discourse (hamad, 2004). this can also happen to the cultural news in local media. the cultural construction and ideologies-politics are important to provide a picture of relationships that can be built within the national context. the culture news frame can provide the descriptions of cultural construction in the media. methods this research uses the qualitative method based on the framing theory (eriyanto, 2002) with an emphasis on the diction/phrase (how the author chooses a language), theme (how the author writes events), and category (how the author understands the events). the qualitative research is common in the social science that fundamentally depends on human observation within his own area and relates to the people in their language and terminology (kirk and miller in moleong, 2002). the qualitative research is seen to be able to describe an object of research more complete and more comprehensive. this analysis emphasizes on how the culture is reconstructed by local media. the data analysis is conducted on the language aspects and content of discourse is used by the media. the research data are processed by the documentation technique. the data processing is administered through the stage of collection, codification, categorization, analysis, and inference. the validation of analytical instruments is conducted by the interviews with experts in the field of discourse and media. the data of this research are qualitative data; there is language published in local media of west java, which are, pikiran rakyat and mangle. the data are chosen for the consideration that the mass media reflects thoughts, opinions, and dynamics that occur in the society. results and discussions this research uses news and opinions that are written by the individual or institution in pikiran rakyat and mangle. in general, the data are printed by the publisher. there are currently only a few institutions that have local media news. the limitations of printed media are complemented by the presence of online media that is relatively easier to be found. the data is generally written in indonesian; although there are some articles that are written in the sundanese used as data. although, the news topics can be the same from the various media, but the news focus can be different. 34 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 31-38 based on the data, several issues developed around the sundanese culture that can be classified in accordance with the news titles. in general, these issues include the local politics, national politics, cultural regeneration, regional development, regional environment, cultural relations, culture future, and islam. the first issue is the language used by local media in describing the construction of sundanese culture. to describe the position of the sundanese people in national leadership, pikiran rakyat (2016) uses various words, both self-produced and sourced from the news sources. their words can be understood in terms of the vocabulary, phrase, term, or sentence. vocabulary can give an insight of how the discourse is developed, and the key ideas contain in the news. for example, they use kohesivitas kultural (cultural cohesiveness), integrasi kultural (cultural integration), kearifan yang tak tertulis (unwritten wisdom), and modal sejarah (historic capital). these three phrases illustrate unrest, reality, and potential of the sundanese people. the phrase kohesivitas kultural (cultural cohesiveness) is a keyword that describes criticism of president joko widodo since the determination of the cabinet ministers is based solely on the constellations of political parties and mere international perceptions. he does not consider the cultural and ethnic aspects. some of the sundanese figures, as the second largest ethnic group, are not accommodated in the current national leadership. meanwhile, kearifan yang tak tertulis (unwritten wisdom) is a phrase that illustrates the national leadership and ethnic as issues in political agreements. this wisdom is very dependent on the orientation of the president. in some cases, state disintegration occurs because of the lack of cultural integration orientation. however, the importance of this element depends on how the president has a national leadership perspective. in a cultural context, the sundanese people have a historical model, as the second largest ethnic in the indonesian population, total 40 million. the historical capital in question is the history of the glory of sundanese leaders, such as otto iskandar di nata and djuanda who represented the sundanese people in the national leadership arena. currently, the sundanese people are not respected politically, whereas the culturally and ethnically its existence is very clear. on the other hand, pikiran rakyat (2016) uses the words representasi (representation), introspeksi (introspection), memperjuangkan (to defend), konstelasi politik (political constellation), bangkit (to rise), and geopolitik (geopolitics) to depict the factual condition of the sundanese in the national political arena. these words illustrate the disappointment of some prominent that the sundanese figures against the composition of the ministers after the reshuffle, because there are two ministers that are seen as the sundanese representatives, namely yuddy crisnandi (ministry of administrative and bureaucratic reform) and ferry mursidan baldan (minister of agrarian and spatial planning), are removed from their posts. these disappointing figures conclude that the sundanese is no longer noticed by president joko widodo because, in the presidential election, joko widodo is lost in west java province. the words also reflect the efforts that the sundanese people must defend their position in the political contests and national leadership. on the august edition, pikiran rakyat (2016) uses the words tokoh politik (political figures), politik nasional (national politics), posisi tawar (bargaining position), dominan (dominant), inventarisasi (inventory), and termarginalkan (being marginalized). these words describe the condition of sundanese political figures on the national political stage. it is depicted by the words posisi tawar (bargaining position), dominan (dominant), and termarginalkan (being marginalized). these words illustrate sundanese political conditions that have no bargaining power nationally. a large number of voters do not become a consideration for jakarta’s political elites to place the sundanese figures on the national political stage. on the other hand, the sundanese who are in jakarta and joined the gig cannot be claimed as the representations of sundanese ethnic because of their lack of interaction with the sundanese people in west java. these words explain how the political position of the sundanese people in the national political arena. the word termarginalkan (marginalized) is the keyword that represents the current political condition of the sundanese. regarding the news about sundanese language, there are two core words; regenerasi (regeneration) and punah (extinct) language. these words describe the condition of the sundanese language as their identity, which is threatened to be extinct due to the regeneration process is not going well. the stuck of the regeneration process is indicated by the data presented by balai bahasa about the sundanese families that do not make sundanese language as their mother tongue. in this regard, the sundanese people experience the crisis internally because the language that should be their ethnic identity also facing a serious problem. it needs a movement to awaken them to use it as their social language in daily life on a regenerative basis so that the younger generation can recognize and proud of their ethnic identity. similarly, in the news about leadership, there are five core words; regenerasi (regeneration), revitalisasi (revitalization), niscaya (undoubtedly), sistematis (systematic), and kearifan (wisdom). these five words show that there has been no regeneration in the national leadership by the sundanese people. while as a process, the regeneration must be done systematically. the systematic regeneration requires the wisdom of the elder generation to realize that the continuity of ethnic identities should take place in the right scenario. the regeneration must be understood as a necessary undertaking since the generation always changes time to time. in the context of this news, regeneration is viewed as a weakness of the sundanese. in general, the elderly are not seriously preparing for the younger generation as the next leaders in a well-planned system. this kind of wisdom is a requirement of regeneration currently. in the news, the rare emergence of sundanese figures that are qualified to the national leadership is recognized by the local sundanese elites. these acknowledgments lead to the activities of the organization pasundan paguyuban. the organization often holds some discussions about the leadership of sundanese. some of the figures who observe the current condition of the sundanese people mention that the problem of sundanese people and culture is from internal. the sundanese people should prepare themselves to be better and to build their internal readiness before demanding and competing on the national stage. the potential of a large population of sundanese people should be in harmony with the quality of the elites who represent them. this change is important to do with the revitalizing and contextualizing the life of philosophy of sundanese people who are more in tune with the national and international conditions. similarly, the systematic engineering is required through the 35the construction of sundanese culture .... (dadang s. anshori) various structural and cultural approaches involving local government to produce qualified sundanese leaders to be the power of the sundanese people in west java. similarly, the sundanese culture is now widely known by the international community, such as the birth instrument of sundanese figures that are well known in the nationally and internationally. in the other culture, there are not only human beings as cultural engineers, but there are also thinkers and planners of civilization. these figures and the thinkers should be encouraged and brought up by all the components from the sundanese people. unfortunately, in the west java, the introduction of its culture by their people has not automatically given birth by the agents of change among them. in terms of environment, this study finds the word ketidakberdayaan (helplessness) in the case of mount tangkuban perahu tour manager. the voice of sundanese figures, including the local government of west java, who do not recommend, and even prohibit, the parties outside the sundanese communities to manage the tourist area is not able to hinder the wishes from the central government and entrepreneurs who manage the tourist area. this also becomes an additional fact that not only in political affairs and leadership but also as the legitimate owners, the sundanese people are powerless to defend their land and environment from the economic interests of the external parties. apparently, this does not only happen in the case of tourist areas. today, the bandung city is crowded with the economic interests of the jakarta’s. bandung now is like to be inhabited for the benefit of the external parties. in the name of tourism and regional income, bandung is beginning to feel the bad effects of the elite’s ambition that considers the economic progress as a development solution. there are three constructions of local media in depicting sundanese culture. the first one is national leadership. the national leadership is understood by the local sundanese elites as an accumulation of the existence of various ethnics in indonesia. since the old order era, there has always been consideration of the origins or the home town of a national leader. automatically, the local people make the figure as their pride. in a multiethnic nation, such thing is a necessity, and it must be considered by those whoever leads the country. the sundanese culture is depicted in various forms by pikiran rakyat and other local media. in the context of national politics, especially in relation to the representation of sundanese people that are participating in the development of national politics, there is a disappointment through the affirmation of the nature of the nation and the state. pikiran rakyat writes as; perombakan (reshuffle) kabinet termutakhir yang dilakukan presiden joko widodo dinilai sebagai bagian dari upaya menjaga keseimbangan politik partai dan persepsi internasional. namun, dari persepsi kelompok sunda, prosesnya dianggap melupakan satu aspek penting, yakni kohesivitas kultural. padahal nkri dibangun dalam landasan integrasi budaya, bukan kohesivitas partai politik (pikiran rakyat, 2016). the reshuffle of the latest cabinet by president joko widodo is considered as a part of efforts to maintain the party’s political balance and international perception. however, from the perception of the sundanese groups, this process is considered to have overlooked one important aspect, namely cultural cohesiveness. in fact, the unitary state of the republic of indonesia is built on the foundation of cultural integration, not political party cohesiveness (pikiran rakyat, 2016). pikiran rakyat describes the fragmentation of the sundanese people in terms of national leadership, specifically the groups that are disappointed or dissatisfied with the cabinet formation, the groups that see conditions inward, and groups that see the natural (ordinary) problem as a political event. the disappointment towards the absence of the sundanese representation is reflected by some of the figures such as didi turmudi (chairman of paguyuban pasundan –sundanese circle of friends) and an academician, asep warlan yusuf. pikiran rakyat quotes the statements of the two figures in this manner. asep warlan bahkan menilai representasi jawa orang sunda hilang sudah. semula ia mengira, jokowi akan merekrut tb hasanuddin yang dianggap dekat dengan kekuasaan di pusat sebagai salah satu menteri sekaligus tetap merepresentasikan warga jawa barat. namun rupanya sosok tb hasanuddin tidak termasuk dalam konstelasi politik nasional (pikiran rakyat, 2016). asep warlan even assesses the sundanese representation are lost already. originally, he thought, jokowi would recruit tb hasanuddin, who is considered close to the central power as one of the ministers, at the same time he represents the citizens of west java (the sundanese people). apparently, the figure of tb hasanuddin is not included in the national political constellation (pikiran rakyat, 2016). on the other hand, it implies a fact as a part of the introspection of the sundanese people in the national political struggle; the sundanese elites do not have a pattern in fighting for the sundanese people in the context of national politics. next, in the national context, there is no lobbyist, who becomes the bridge for the entry of sundanese figures in the national leadership. this condition should be a reflection of the sundanese people, especially the sundanese elites. pikiran rakyat (2016) mentions that at least there are three reasons why the sundanese people are not counted in the national political stage as mentioned. ada tiga hal yang tidak dimiliki oleh orang sunda sehingga posisi tawar di kancah politik nasional lemah. pertama, sebagai suatu komunitas, suku sunda tak memiliki status grup yang istimewa, baik secara budaya maupun lainnya. kedua, tidak punya sumber daya politik yang memadai karena tidak ada tokoh politik dominan. terakhir, tidak ada orang sunda yang memiliki kekuatan modal capital cukup memadai. kekuatan ini tak dimiliki sehingga orang sunda lemah dalam posisi tawar perpolitikan nasional (pikiran rakyat, 2016). there are three things, which are not owned by the sundanese because of that their bargaining position in the national political arena is weak. firstly, as a community, the sundanese do not have a special group status, either culturally or otherwise. secondly, it lacks adequate political resources because there is no dominant political figure. finally, the sundanese people do not have enough capital. 36 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 31-38 these powers are not owned so that the sundanese are weak in the bargaining position of national politics (pikiran rakyat, 2016). the same thing in relation to the national leadership is expressed in mangle magazine (2016). itung-itungan posisi tawar urang sunda enggoning nyangking posisi politik di tingkat puseur (nasional) acan bisa cumpon, alatan aya sababaraha hal nu jadi marga lantaran, di antarana, minangka hiji komunitas, etnik sunda anu teu mibanda status grup istimewa, boh ajen budaya boh ajen-ajen sejena. oge teu mibanda sumber daya pulitik anu kuat, lantaran teu boga tokoh pulitik anu dominan (ketua partey). lian ti eta, minim urang sunda anu boga kakuatan modal kapital (mangle, 2016). the calculation of the bargaining position of the sundanese people to obtain a national political position cannot be fulfilled because there are several reasons. one of them, as an ethnic group, the sundanese people do not have special status, either in culture or other terms. the sundanese also do not have strong political resources, since it has no dominant political figure (party leader). in addition, only few sundanese have the capital power (mangle, 2016). similarly, based on the sanctioning of historic buildings in west java, it can be argued that the sundanese people are a democratic group and full of tolerance. this is described in mangle, november 10-15, 2016 edition. ti dinya ge katangen, yen urang sunda baheula teh geus biasa sabilulungan gotong royong. daek lila ngalaksanakeun pagawean kalayan babarengan, butuh pasipatan masarakat nu silih ajenan, toleransi, jeung demokratis (mangle, 2016). from those buildings, the ancient sundanese people are used to cooperate and work together. they want to cooperate in carrying out a work that requires the participation of the community, mutual respect, tolerance, and democratic (mangle, 2016). the second constructions of local media in depicting sundanese culture is the relations between sunda and islam. the problem of sunda and islam relations is presented because there is a stigma among the sundanese people that sunda is islam and islam is sunda. this stigma is believed to be the power of the sundanese people even though, in the context of history, most of the people of indonesia archipelago have animists and dynamism ancestors. nowadays, sundanese people are predominantly muslim who have embedded themselves in islamic beliefs as their religious identity. therefore, it can be said it is strange if there are sundanese individuals who embrace other religion. the proximity of islam and sundanese can be analogous to the sugar and sweet taste (gula jeung peueutna), sugar cannot be separated with sweet. the sugar will lose its identity when its sweetness disappears. sunda and islam relations are described in pikiran rakyat. adagium islam dan sunda ibarat gula dan manisnya (gula jeung peueutna) harus kembali diaktualisasikan dalam kondisi umat dan kebangsaan hari ini. kemiskinan dan kebodohan yang harus masih menjadi masalah keumatan dan kebangsaan saat ini menanti respons dari sinergi umat islam yang juga warga sunda di jawa barat (pikiran rakyat, 2016). the adagium of islam and sunda is like sugar and sweetness (gula jeung peueutna). it should be re-actualized in the condition of the people and the nation today. the poverty and ignorance that is still the problems of the current statehood and nationality await responses from the synergy of muslims who are also sundanese in west java (pikiran rakyat, 2016). the issues that islam and sunda have today are increasingly contextual and important. the issues of violence in the name of religion, intolerance, and terrorism have placed west java as the province with the highest level of intolerance. the sundanese people have a philosophy of teaching someah hade ka semah, as a social form in a cross-ethnic, even national, life. similarly, the principles of akur jeung dulur, ngajaga lembur, panceg dina galur are the principle in carrying the role as a social creature in relation with another fellow human being, the environment, and in keeping the principles of life. the third constructions of local media in depicting sundanese culture is the culture and other aspects. another aspect that illustrated in relation to sundanese culture is the internal condition of the culture, and the response of the sundanese people to various problems occur the west java province. this case can be seen from how the sundanese people address the increasingly critical environment and how the sundanese people respond to the desire of some sundanese sub-cultures to separate themselves from the government of west java and to form the province of cirebon. in the case of the national network, mangle magazine, october 6-12, 2016 edition states: urang sunda ge jarambah. loba nu lunta ka jauhna, nyungsi hirup jeung huripna. tapi, najan anggang ti lembur sorangan, ka sarakan mah teh weleh tibelat. apan tetap nu maratuh di lembur batur teh ngantengkeun tatali asih ka balik geusan ngajadi (mangle, 2016). the sundanese people are also wandering araound, going so far, searching for life and live, but even they are far away from home, they always remember their birthplace. in their current place, they still bind the love for their origins (mangle, 2016). the ideology that established by local media in depicting sundanese culture can be seen from the tendency of the news interest to defend the sundanese culture in the national arena. based on the various observed news, it can be seen there are three ideological trends that developed by local media; idealism, nationalist-primordialist, and pragmatic-realistic. each of these ideologies can be sharpened in the following description. the ideology of idealism appears in the news mainly relates to how ideally the social order, politics, and leadership take place in the homeland. criticism of many local sundanese elites is based on themselves and the idea of how is the ideal life of a country. the presence of local elites and local cultures is essentially important parts of the development of national culture. the ideals of building a country based on the local culture are the noble ideals of 37the construction of sundanese culture .... (dadang s. anshori) the founders of the nation, considering all parts of indonesia cannot be separated from each other. the local wealth is the wealth of this nation, so it should not be ignored by whomever that leads this nation. the ideology of idealism has developed in the local media that appears in many debates on the idea of how the relationship between the local culture and national culture. the ideology of nationalism-primordial formed in the news defends for the local interests but has national significance. the sundanese elites’ struggle on sundanese politics and leadership is not only interpreted locally as a one-sided interest but precisely in the context of building to become more harmonious in indonesia. as understood in the context of diversity, the presence of ethnics, and tribes in indonesia, it is crucial in organizing the national unity. the local ethnicity and tribal dynamics often become serious issues for the benefit of the nation and state. therefore, this ideology, although it is primordially charged, it is done for the national interest. in other words, the ideology is developed by the local mass media is nationalism based on the locality. meanwhile, the pragmatism-realistic ideology can be seen from the existence of temporary political interests in every political struggle by any groups. pragmatism in the news is formed because the struggle to put the sundanese in the national arena that should be done concretely for the benefit of the sundanese people. realistic means that the struggle of interest must be based on the real facts in the field that are encountered today. in this case, it is important for the sundanese people to see the dynamic and meaningful political realities for the strategy of sundanese political struggle. politics and leadership are not always idealistic, but also must be accompanied by interests. based on the three classifications, it can be seen that in every news the culture and ideology accompanies the news. the ideology is not necessarily negative, especially in the case of a particular group or community struggle. in the practice of the news, the ideology can be read explicitly through the use of language by the media, either by referring to the language and the conclusions of the news makers. conclusions based on the previous description, this research can be summarized in the following points of the statement. first is the language that used by local media to describe the construction of sundanese culture refers to the developed topics. regarding national leadership, the language used indicates as a negative sense towards the political position of the sundanese people. words and phrase tidak memiliki daya tawar (no bargaining power) is the key to the political condition of current sundanese people in the national politics. many local sundanese elites feel pity considering the west java province is a granary of votes in the legislative and presidential elections. the second is the construction of local media in depicting the sundanese culture is classified into three themes; national leadership, culture and islam relations, and culture and other aspects. in the context of national leadership, the constructions built in the news reinforce and strengthen the conditions and reality. the local media fully becomes the channel of negative voices about the national leadership in the context of the unaccounted local potential of sundanese people in national leadership. in terms of relations of culture and islam, local media shows the positive aspects of the condition and history of sundanese people that are known as a religious ethnic group. this condition is illustrated by various analogies and parables about the relationship between islam and sundanese culture, which has been long-standing. the third is the ideology that established by local media in depicting and forming opinions about the sundanese culture is nationalism-primordial. it is about the local culture is a primordial embodiment but, considering its importance to maintain the national unity, it can be said that the ideology is nationalism-primordial. it seems that the term opposite each other, but the current social fact shows the emergence of awareness of local culture to build the national unity. references anshori, d. s. 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(timur sri astami) 183 efektivitas penggunaan media flashcard dalam pengajaran kakikata to yomikata iii pada mahasiswa ubinus semester tiga tahun ajaran 2010/2011 timur sri astami japanese department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl.kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, timur_astami@yahoo.com abstract article clarified the process of language learning, especially japanese in a class environment, in which closely related to the teacher, material learning, and the learning media. in kakikata to yomikata subject (writing and reading iii), students frequently got difficulties in reading or spelling kanji letters. to observe these difficulties, the researcher uses flashcard for developing the japanese vocabularies in six weeks regularly in thirty minutes. the result indicates that around 64% of the respondents get significant developments. the positive impact on those successful respondents is their ability in remembering vocabularies as well as writes them in kanji letters. keywords: kakikata to yomikata iii, flashcard, kanji abstrak artikel menjelaskan proses belajar bahasa, khususnya bahasa jepang , dalam situasi kelas. proses belajar tidak lepas dari peran pengajar, materi ajar, dan media ajar. pada mata kuliah kakikata to yomikata iii (menulis dan membaca iii) seringkali siswa merasakan kesulitan dalam membaca ataupun mengeja huruf kanji. sehubungan dengan hal tersebut peneliti mencoba memberikan suatu treatment pada kelas eksperimen selama setengah jam enam minggu berturut-turut dengan menggunakan media flashcard (kartu abjad). hasil yang diperoleh sekitar 64 % responden mengalami kenaikan yang siginifikan. adapun dampak positif yang dirasakan oleh responden yang mengalami kenaikan adalah sistem pengajaran dengan menggunakan flashcard tersebut mampu membantu mereka dalam mengingat kosakata dan menulis kosa kata dalam huruf kanji. kata kunci: kakikata to yomikata iii, flashcard, kanji 184 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 183-190 pendahuluan kegiatan belajar di dalam kelas akan terjalin dengan baik apabila ada interaksi antar pengajar,siswa dan materi ajar. sehingga dapat dikatakan peran dan keterikatan masing-masing dari ketiga hal tersebut tidak diremehkan. agar penyampaian materi ajar dapat maksimal perlunya kesiapan materi ajar didukung dengan media ajar yang memadai. karena fungsi dari media ajar adalah sebagai perantara. media berasal dari bahasa latin yang artinya perantara atau pengantar pesan dari pengirim kepada penerima pesan. garlich & ely dalam arsyad (2007) menyatakan bahwa media dapat berwujud manusia, materi atau kejadian yang membangun kondisi yang membuat siswa mampu memperoleh pengetahuan,ketrampilan ataupun sikap. media flashcard biasanya digunakan untuk latihan mengeja atau memperkaya kosakata. oleh karena itu dalam penelitian kali ini, ingin mengetahui seberapa efektifkah penggunaan media flashcard dalam pengajaran kakikata to yomikata iii pada semester tiga mahasiswa ubinus tahun ajaran 2010/2011. mata kuliah kakita to yomikata iii, adalah mata kuliah yang berkaitan dengan ketrampilan menulis dan membaca. sehingga kompetensi yang diukur merujuk pada kemampuan untuk dapat menulis kata dengan huruf kanji, kosakata hingga dapat membaca kanji dalam suatu teks bacaan. adapun jumlah huruf kanji setingkat dasar kurang lebih sebanyak 300 huruf kanji atau setingkat n4 pada ujian kemampuan berbahasa jepang (noken). dengan jumlah huruf yang semakin bertambah, perlunya suatu media belajar yang dapat mencukupi kebutuhan tersebut. sehingga kemampuan menulis dan membaca mahasiswa dapat bertambah seiring bertambahnya kemampuan responden. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah eksperimen selama setengah semester (6 minggu) dengan jumlah responden sebanyak 25 mahasiswa. peneliti mencoba membandingkan perbedaan hasil sebelum dam sesudah responden yang mendapat treatment pengajaran kakikata to yomikata iii yang menggunakan flashcard. sistem penulisan huruf di jepang jepang mengadopsi sistem penulisan milik china sekitar abad kelima , dan menggunakannya untuk mengekspresikan bahasa mereka ke dalam bentuk tulisan, sekitar abad kesepuluh . bentuk tulisan yang pertama kali orang jepang kenal berasal dari negeri china adalah tulisan huruf yang disebut sebagai kanji, yang memiliki arti ‘huruf china’. setelah mempelajari kanji, orang jepang menciptakan sistem penulisan sendiri yakni kana. kana terbagi menjadi hiragana dan katakana. kemudian, orang jepang menggabungkan kanji ke dalam bahasa milik mereka sendiri dengan cara baca sendiri,yakni a. orang jepang tidak mengubah arti dari huruf kanji china dalam sebagian besar huruf kanji yang mereka adaptasi. contohnya seperti huruf kanji 山 tetap memiliki arti ‘gunung’ bagi orang jepang dan orang china. b. setiap huruf kanji paling sedikit memiliki dua cara baca. cara baca yang pertama diambil dari cara baca asli milik orang china yang dikenal dengan sebutan onyomi. sedangkan cara baca yang digunakan oleh orang jepang sejak lama sebelum mereka mengenal orang china adalah kunyomi. hal ini menyebabkan setiap kanji bisa memiliki banyak cara baca. contohnya adalah seperti kanji 山 yang dibaca san atau zan secara onyomi dan dibaca yama secara kunyomi. huruf kanji dalam perkembangannya mengalami perubahan. terdapat beberapa kanji yang disederhanakan, ada juga kombinasi tulisan kanji yang baru. bahkan ada juga beberapa huruf kanji yang sudah tidak digunakan lagi. huruf kanji juga merupakan salah satu hal yang sulit dipelajari dalam bahasa jepang selain mempelajari struktur bahasanya. ketika seseorang mempelajari bahasa jepang baik melalui kelas bahasa baik secara formal ataupun informal dan juga secara otodidak sekalipun, tentunya dia juga akan bertemu dengan yang namanya huruf atau tulisan kanji. ada banyak cara yang bisa digunakan untuk mempelajari huruf dan tulisan kanji selain menggunakan buku pelajaran. cara-cara yang bisa digunakan adalah dengan tulisan menggunakan media flashcard hingga penggunaan media visual. efektivitas penggunaan media ….. (timur sri astami) 185 proses pembelajaran menurut para ahli, strategi pembelajaran adalah suatu prosedur yang digunakan untuk membantu pelajar atau pengajar untuk mempermudah proses pembelajaran, terutama dalam perolehan pengetahuan, pengakumulasian dan penggunaan dari pengetahuan yang didapat (oxford, 1994:8). hal ini berarti, strategi pembelajaran adalah sesuatu yang penting dan dibutuhkan agar mampu belajar secara optimal dan menggunakan strategi yang paling sesuai dengan diri sendiri maupun untuk mengajarkan kepada orang lain. brown menyatakan bahwa ada banyak penelitian mengenai strategi pembelajaran. teori yang muncul dari penelitian tersebut biasanya dimasukkan ke dalam tiga kategori besar, yaitu strategi metakognitif, strategi kognitif dan strategi sosioafektif . gambar 1 proses pembelajaran menurut brown (sumber: brown, 2000:143) media ajar media (sudjana & rivai, 1990) adalah sebuah alat yang mempunyai fungsi menyampaikan pesan. media pembelajaran merupakan sebuah alat yang memiliki fungsi utama untuk menyampaikan materi pembelajaran kepada pelajar. pembelajaran itu sendiri adalah sebuah proses komunikasi antara pembelajar, pengajar dan bahan ajar. komunikasi antara ketiganya tidak akan berjalan tanpa bantuan sarana penyampai pesan atau media. ada berbagai macam media yang dapat digunakan oleh pengajar maupun pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran. contohnya adalah buku, gambar, audio, video, program komputer dan sebagainya. menggunakan media pengajaran yang berbeda tentunya akan memberikan hasil dan pengalaman pembelajaran yang berbeda pula. pengalaman pembelajaran ini digambarkan oleh dale dalam sebuah kerucut pengalaman berdasarkan metode dan media yang digunakan untuk proses pembelajaran seperti gambar 2 berikut. 学習ストラテジ ーstrategi pembelajaran 直接ストラテジ ーstrategi langsung 記憶ストラテジー strategi memori 認知ストラテジー strategi kognitif 補償ストラテジー strategi kompensasi 間接ストラテジ ーstrategi tidak langsung メタ認知ストラテ ジー strategi metakognitif 情意ストラテジー strategi afeksi 社会的ストラテジ ーstrategi sosial 186 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 183-190 gambar 2 kerucut pengalaman dale (sumber: mangal dalam arsyad (2009:34)) mangal dalam arsyad (2009:36) menyatakan bahwa segala macam jenis materi projeksi seperti gambar, grafik, peta, ilustrasi, slide untuk presentasi, ilustrasi dan materi sejenis yang bisa ditunjukkan kepada siswa dengan alat projeksi masuk ke dalam kategori still picture (gambar tidak bergerak). pada dasarnya, semua materi yang masuk ke dalam kategori alat peraga visual membutuhkan penggunaan indera penglihatan agar siswa mendapatkan pengalaman visual secara nyata. oleh karenanya, ini merupakan jenis gambaran yang cukup abstrak jika dibandingkan dengan media televisi, gambar bergerak dan video, di mana media-media tersebut lebih efektif dan tidak seabstrak media gambar tidak bergerak. selain pendapat dale, fungsi media pebelajaran dapat ditinjau dari segi visual. menurut levie dan lentz dalam arsyad (arsyad, 1997:16-17) menyebutkan adanya empat macam fungsi media pembelajaran secara visual. berikut ini adalah keempat fungsi yang dimaksud: (1) fungsi atensi. media visual berfungsi untuk menarik dan mengarahkan perhatian siswa untuk berkonsentrasi kepada isi pelajaran yang berkaitan dengan makna visual yang ditampilkan atau menyertai teks dari materi pelajaran; (2) fungsi afektif. media visual mampu menunjukkan tingkat kenikmatan siswa ketika belajar atau membaca teks bergambar. hal in disebabkan karena gambar atau lambang visual dapat menggugah emosi dan sikap siswa; (3) fungsi kognitif. media visual membantu memperlancar pencapaian tujuan untuk memahami dan mengingat informasi atau pesan yang terkandung dalam gambar; (4) fungsi kompensatoris. media visual berfungsi untuk membantu siswa yang lemah dan lambat dalam menerima atau memahami isi pelajaran yang disajikan dengan teks atau secara verbal dalam menciptakan media pengajaran berbasis visual, arsyad (2007: 107-113) menyatakan ada beberapa prinsip yang harus diperhatikan. berikut ini adalah prinsip-prinsip yang dimaksud: (1) kesederhanaan. secara umum, kesederhanaan yang dimaksud mengacu kepada jumlah elemen yang efektivitas penggunaan media ….. (timur sri astami) 187 terkandung dalam suatu visual. jumlah elemen yang lebih sedikit akan memudahkan siswa untuk menangkap dan memahami informasi yang diberikan. contohnya seperti menggunakan kalimat yang ringkas, padat dan mudah dimengerti untuk menyertai gambar; (2) keterpaduan. elemen-elemen yang ada dalam media harus salaing terkait dan menyatu dalam suatu keseluruhan agar dapat membantu pemahaman informasi yang terkandung dalam gambar; (3) penekanan. memberikan penekanan kepada unsur terpenting dengan menggunakan ukuran atau warna; (4) keseimbangan. bentuk atau pola yang dipilih sebaiknya memberikan persepsi keseimbangan, baik secara simetris ataupun tidak; (5) bentuk. bentuk yang aneh dan asing dapat membangkitkan minat dan perhatian siswa; (6) garis. garis digunakan untuk menuntun perhatian siswa dalam mempelajari suatu urutan-urutan khusus; (7) tekstur. tekstur dapat menimbulkan kesan kasar atau halus. tekstur juga dapat digunakan untuk memberikan penekanan pada suatu unsure: (8) warna. warna digunakan untuk memberikan kesan pemisahan, persamaan, penekanan atau membangun keterpaduan. pembahasan berikut ini hasil uji efektivitas penggunaan flashcard (kartu abjad) pada responden. adapun media flashcard adalah kartu abjad. dengan ukuran 12 x 8 cm, digunakan untuk mengeja dan memperkaya kosakata huruf kanji. dari hasil uji test dengan menggunakan statistic non parametric wilcoxon, menguji hipotesis dari dua variabel yang berhubungan dengan nilai tingkat signifikansi standar α = 0,05. pada metode wilcoxon ini terdapat dua buah hipotesis, yaitu: 1. hipotesis nol (h0) yang berarti tidak adanya perbedaan antara hasil pre test dan post test para responden eksperimen setelah belajar huruf kanji menggunakan flashcard dengan kata lain, media ini tidak efektif untuk mengajarkan huruf kanji. 2. hipotesis alternatif (h1) yang berarti hasil post test para responden eksperimen lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan nilai pre test setelah belajar menggunakan media flashcard. dengan kata lain, media ini efektif untuk mengajarkan huruf kanji. gambar 3 metode wilcoxon dengan menggunakan tingkat standar signifikansi sebesar 0,05 maka h0 akan diterima jika (α) > 0,05. akan tetapi, jika (α) ≤ 0,05 maka h0 akan ditolak, sedangkan h1 akan diterima. berikut ini adalah tabel hasil uji peringkat bertanda wilcoxon milik kelompok eksperimen penggunaan flashcard dalam mengajarkan huruf kanji, yang dibuat dengan bantuan progam spss 13. 188 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 183-190 tabel 1 tingkat signifikansi kelompok responden eksperimen a based on negative ranks. b wilcoxon signed ranks test pada tabel 1 didapatkan hasil untuk 2 tailed sebesar (α) sebesar 0,035. karena 0,035< 0,05 maka sesuai dengan hipotesis yang dijelaskan sebelumnya. itu berarti h0 akan ditolak, sedangkan h1 akan diterima dalam penelitian ini. maka, dari hasil uji wilcoxon ini didapatkan kesimpulan bahwa hasil post test para responden memang lebih besar jika dibandingkan dengan hasil pre test mereka. ini juga didukung dengan kenaikan pada nilai rata-rata antara nilai pre test dengan nilai post test responden. dengan kata lain, penggunaan media flashcard (kartu abjad) dalam belajar huruf kanji terbukti cukup efektif dan berpengaruh pada proses pembelajaran para responden. tabel 2 hasil nilai pretest-postest responden berdasarkan tingkat kenaikan secara signifikan. n mean ranks sum of ranks postest-pretest negative ranks 7 (a) 9.86 69.00 positive ranks 16 (b) 12.94 207.00 ties 2 (c) total 25 a postest < pretest b postest > pretest c postest = pretest dari hasil postest di atas tersebut, dapat dikatakan hampir setengah mahasiswa sekitar 64% mengalami peningkatan yang siginfikan. ini berarti media flashcard memberikan dampak yang positif yakni meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari huruf kanji. sedangkan 36% responden tidak mengalami peningkatan yang berarti. ini berarti menunjukkan bahwa media flashcard (kartu abjad) membantu mahasiswa dalam meningkatkan kemampuan mengingat atau menuliskan kosa kata yang berupa huruf kanji. tabel 3 peningkatan nilai pretest-postest responden bawah dan responden atas postest pretest z -2.105(a) asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .0035 exact sig. (2-tailed) .0034 exact sig. (1-tailed) .0017 point probability .001 test value = 0 t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper pretest 14.382 24 .000 66.720 57.15 76.29 postest 16.422 24 .000 70.280 61.45 79.11 efektivitas penggunaan media ….. (timur sri astami) 189 berdasarkan data di atas, nilai rerata responden bawah dari 57,15 meningkat menjadi 61,45, dengan kenaikan sebesar 4,30 poin. sedangkan responden atas dengan nilai bawah 76,26 meningkat menjadi 79,11 dengan jumlah kenaikan sebesar 2,85 poin. dampak kenaikan tersebut hanya dirasakan oleh responden bawah di bandingkan responden atas. sehingga pengaruh flashcard (kartu abjad) ini manfaatnya sangat dirasakan oleh responden bawah. bila dikaitkan dengan teori belajar (syah, 2009: 120) menunjukkan bahwa: (1) flashcard dapat memberikan umpan balik yang positif bagi siswa. dan apabila dilakukan secara berkala maka akan memberikan motivasi belajar siswa; (2) adanya latihan dan pengulangan akan tinggal dalam jangka waktu panjang di dalam memori siswa; (3) penerapan hasil belajar yang dikuasai dengan baik akan ditransfer pada suatu masalah atau kondisi baru. levie dan lentz dalam arsyad (1997:16-17) menyebutkan adanya empat macam fungsi media pembelajaran secara visual. berikut ini adalah keempat fungsi yang dimaksud: (1) fungsi atensi. flashcard berfungsi untuk menarik dan mengarahkan perhatian siswa untuk berkonsentrasi kepada isi pelajaran yang berkaitan; (2) fungsi afektif. flashcard mampu menunjukkan tingkat kenikmatan siswa ketika belajar atau membaca teks. hal ini disebabkan karena simbol atau lambang visual dapat menggugah emosi dan sikap siswa; (3) fungsi kognitif. flashcard membantu memperlancar pencapaian tujuan untuk memahami dan mengingat informasi atau pesan yang terkandung dalam suatu teks; (4) fungsi kompensatoris. flashcard berfungsi untuk membantu siswa yang lemah dan lambat dalam menerima atau memahami isi pelajaran yang disajikan dengan teks atau secara verbal simpulan berdasarkan dari hasil data penelitian hasil postest dapat dikatakan hampir setengah mahasiswa sekitar 64% mengalami peningkatan yang siginfikan. ini berarti media flashcard memberikan dampak yang positif yakni meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari huruf kanji. sedangkan 28 % responden tidak mengalami peningkatan, dan 8% responden dalam kondisi stagnan dalam arti tidak ada peningkatan sama sekali. ini berarti menunjukkan bahwa media flashcard (kartu abjad) membantu mahasiswa dalam meningkatkan kemampuan mengingat atau menuliskan kosa kata yang berupa huruf kanji. selain itu hasil uji peringkat wilcoxon dinyatakan bahwa pengajaran huruf kanji dengan menggunakan media flashcard dinilai lebih efektif dibandingkan dengan menggunakan media pengajaran biasa. hal ini dibuktikan dari hasil (α) dari responden eksperimen sebesar 0,034. karena 0,034 < 0,05 maka media flashcard dinilai efektif untuk digunakan untuk mengajarkan huruf kanji kelebihan dari flashcard adalah mudah digunakan, mudah dibuat, dapat digunakan berulang kali,cocok digunakan untuk mengdrill kosa kata. tentu saja selain memiliki kelebihan, media ini juga memiliki kekurangan tersendiri. bagi pelajar yang tidak terbiasa menggunakan media visual gambar. tentunya akan lebih sulit untuk mencerna pelajaran yang diberikan dengan kartu abjad. selain itu tampilan tidak menarik,cenderung membosakan. sehingga apabila belajar dengan menggunakan media yang sama secara berulang-ulang tentunya akan membuat pelajar menjadi bosan dan tidak akan menunjukkan hasil yang optimal. di lain pihak, penulis juga tidak bisa menyangkal bahwa kemampuan setiap individu dan beberapa faktor tertentu pada responden dalam penelitian ini juga berpengaruh pada proses pembelajaran yang diberikan. kemampuan dan faktor yang dimaksud adalah faktor keterbatasan kemampuan responden untuk memproses dan mengolah informasi yang didapat dengan segera. selain itu faktor suka atau tidaknya responden dengan metode pembelajaran yang diberikan juga memilik pengaruh tersendiri dalam motivasi belajar dan hasil latihan dari setiap responden. faktor lain seperti kondisi fisik responden sewaktu belajar juga akan berpengaruh kepada hasil yang didapat. 190 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 183-190 daftar pustaka arsyad, a. (2007). media pembelajaran. jakarta: raja grafindo persada brown, h. d. (2000). principles of language teaching and learning (4th ed.). white plains, ny: longman. oxford, r. (1994). gengogaku sutorateji. tokyo: bojinsha sudjana,n.,& rivai,a. (1990). media pengajaran. bandung: cv sinar baru bandung syah, m. (2003). psikologi belajar. jakarta: raja grafindo persada copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 19 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 19-24 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1587 rich language learning environment and young learners’ literacy skills in english luh putu artini english education department, faculty of language and arts universitas pendidikan ganesha, jl. a. yani 67, singaraja, bali, indonesia putu.artini@undiksha.ac.id received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 17th desember 2016/ accepted: 5th january 2017 how to cite: artini, l. p. (2017). rich language learning environment and young learners’ literacy skills in english. lingua cultura, 11(1). 19-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1587 abstract this research aimed at developing rich language learning environment to help elementary school students develop their literacy skills in english. shortage of professional english teachers in primary school, limited time allocation, as well as the lack of tools and facilities that support english language teaching and learning for young learners had resulted in students’ low literacy skills in english. it was tried out in six primary schools across bali involving 12 teachers and 520 students. the data were collected through questionnaires, observation, interview, english literacy tests, and students’ literacy journals. research finds that young learners should have the opportunity to learn by doing without too much intervention so that a natural process of learning could occur. the product comprises multiple literacy experiences in the form of five different texts. the findings reveal that the readability of the material is in the category of high. the systematic exposures of these materials to beginner learners of english have been proven to have the significant impact on their literacy skills. the highest improvement is found in word level (87,1%), followed by sentence level (56,2%), and discourse level (46,8%). the improvements are all confirmed at the significance level of 0,05. the research also finds that rlle has the positive impact on the development of self-directed learning skills. keywords: learning environment, rich language learning environment, literacy skills, english for young learners, selfdirected learning skill introduction primary english language teaching (pelt) is currently growing very rapidly throughout the world. according to whitehead (2007), english language today has become a global commodity that many countries in the world are investing substantial funds to improve the standard quality of english language learning in the schools. hayes (2007) has further stated that english in primary school is not just a mere subject, but it is already regarded as a component of basic education. however, in indonesian education, english is not compulsory at the primary school level but rather a local content curriculum since 1994. it means that the inclusion of english into the curriculum is dependent upon the actual need of the community where the school is located. in bali where tourism becomes the major source of local income (jennaway, 2002), english is needed for human-resources intending to seek employment in tourismrelated businesses and enterprises (artini, 2006). for this reason, the community had the positive perceptions about english language and considered it as a prestigious language to learn (artini, 2006). many parents send their children to the primary schools that offer an english program with an expectation that the children will have a strong foundation for language proficiency in the future. in most public schools, english lessons start at 4th grade, and the teaching and learning process only occurs inside the classroom for approximately 35 minutes in a week. due to limited english teachers specializing in pelt, it is a common practice that the homeroom teacher is requested to teach the foreign language (copland & garton, 2014). similar to china, in bali, english may be taught by the teacher of other subjects or an english teacher who has to teach across schools (hu, 2007). in addition, sikki, et al., (2013) have found that 52% of 200 english teachers surveyed in primary schools in indonesia have very low english language competence. shortage of english teachers for young learners, limited english, insufficient learning tools, and facilities, as well as very short time for exposure to good english materials, will hinder children’ progress in literacy skills (akazawa, 2016). this infers that a serious effort should be made to compensate for those problems. yelland (2006) has suggested that teaching english for young learners should be supported by a rich language environment so that the young efl (english as first language) learners can learn naturally from real or meaningful contexts. in addition, according to brewster, 20 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 19-24 et al., (2007), there should be a way to maintain students’ feeling of enthusiasm. these ideas are accommodated in the present research, in which a rich language learning environment (rlle) is created to support the pelt in indonesia in general, or in bali in particular. the provision of rlle materials is also in line with watanabe & caprio (1999) for whom a good efl instruction should not only take place in the classroom alone. indeed, if done correctly, learning english in primary school is a strategic step to start improving human resources through formal education (mitchell & myles, as cited in hayes, 2007). there are several reasons why it is considered important to start introducing english as a foreign language in primary schools. first, from the age perspective, the young learners are considered having more flexible ‘tool’ for learning a language (long, 1990; ara, 2009; damar, et al., 2013). second, the demands of english in the society result in positive attitudes towards learning the foreign language (lamb, 2003; artini, 2006; 2009b). the importance of english to be taught from an early age has also been widely discussed by experts. even though the debate on ‘the younger, the better’ has not yet settled, there are strong reasons why it is beneficial to start a foreign language learning at the early age. sarem & hamidi (2012) for example, they have discussed the need to take into account the children age for the effective foreign language program in the school. similarly with what moyer (2014) has emphasized that the age at which an individual is first exposed to a foreign language affects long-term outcome. when exposed to efl at the young age, children rapidly become bilingual and outperformed the monolingual counterparts in the linguistic aspects of the language (debot, 2014). this empirical evidence supports the growing number of asian countries that include teaching english as a foreign language into their primary school curriculum. rlle materials developed in this research are underlined by some related research evidence. scott & ytreberg (2004) have found that effective learning needs adequate supporting materials in order to maximize learners’ ability and achievement. as far as literacy skill is concerned, the supporting materials should provide various experiences to deal with different types of texts (winch et al., 2006), from which children are motivated to read and write (butler & turbill, 1984). variations of printed materials also need to be supported by variation of media. when young learners find the texts and the media interesting and eye-catching, they can be expected to subconsciously develop their curiosity to learn more (liu, 2010). rass & holzman (2010) have further asserted that limitation of time and facilities to learn only inside the classroom in a public primary school will result in conventional teaching that hardly involved learners in activities that built their reading and writing skills. therefore, there must be additional learning sources that keep their enthusiasm and motivation to learn english. these empirical evidence inspire the research and development that aims at creating an rlle model for helping young efl learners to progress with their literacy skills in english. methods this study follows the development model of dick and carey (1990), which consists of eight steps: needs analysis, instructional analysis, analyzing learner and the context of learning, writing instructional goals, developing assessment instruments, developing learning strategies, developing and selecting learning materials, and designing and implementing the summative evaluation. the subjects are 10 english teachers and 400 students in grade 4, 5, and 6 from five schools (in the first year), and 12 teachers and 520 students from six schools (in the second year). the research instruments include questionnaires, interview guide, observation sheet, english literacy tests, and students’ literacy journals. prior to the first year implementation, the developed rlle materials are validated by two expert judges who had an expertise in the field of teyl (teaching english fo young learners). the materials (in the form of texts and images) are then displayed and replaced periodically and systematically to give the young learners the chance to observe, read, and write their choice of materials during their own convenient time. such materials are equipped with a literacy journal system, where each student is given the freedom to do activities such as writing a word, copying a sentence or other written assignments. the displayed materials are created in such a way so that they attract students’ attention to look, observe, read and do something in their journals. to determine the impact of the displayed rlle materials, english literacy pre-test and post-test are administered in both years, and the differences are analyzed using t-test formula. results and discussions the first three steps in dick and carey model (need analysis, instructional analysis, and analysis of learners and learning contexts) are carried out during the first month of the project (dick & carey, 1990). the findings confirm the limitation of facilities in learning english, including the availability of english textbooks, supporting resources, and instructional media. the information about the curriculum, types of learning activities, teacher qualifications and instructional strategies in the classroom are obtained through direct interviews with the school principals and the english teachers. all the schools that observed allocate short time for in-class activities and no other activities are available outside the classroom. the learners do not have any other opportunity to satisfy their curiosity about the english language. it is also found that students only learn from one textbook and one workbook so when the class ended, the learning process is also ended. english books used in the schools are different from one school to the others. however, the physical look of the books selected are similar. they are black and white prints (not colorful) and are printed on low-quality paper, maybe to make the price affordable. the informal interviews with some of the students in grade 4, 5 and 6 at five schools, it has found that they are interested in learning english. they want to learn more new words because they often hear english used in their environment, for example on television, radio, advertisement, and other sources. when several english picture books are shown to them, they immediately huddle and want to see and read the books. this demonstrated that primary school students in bali have an interest and motivation in learning english. the next step is to write instructional objectives, develop assessment instruments, learning strategies, and the materials for the rlle. the major purpose of these steps is to formulate the objectives for developing the rlle models and design the format and content. there are five types of texts which are developed in accordance with the theory of multiple literacy experiences (winch et al., 2006). the five types are comprised of (a) topical vocabulary (list of 21rich language learning environment .... (luh putu artini) words related to the corresponding topics); (b) everyday expressions (short and simple expressions commonly used/ needed in children daily life); (c) grammar focus (exposure to forms); (d) language games (extensive practice with english language through challenging and fun activities); and (e) times for stories (stories that enrich efl learning in meaningful contexts). the five types of texts are created to closely follow the content coverage of the curriculum. after every lesson, the relevant materials to the topic are displayed on the display board for a week. thus, children can look back and at the same time enrich the material they have learned inside the classroom. this induced self-directed learning to occur without too much intervention from the teacher. additionally, children have the freedom to choose the time and text type they would like to look at or read and decided on which of those that they would like to work on in their literacy journal. they could show their work to the teachers who are ready at any time to check and stamp the journal to reinforce students to keep learning from the display. these five types of rlle texts in this study are developed regarding the syllabus of english subject of grades 4, 5, and 6. the materials are meant to support (complementary) and enrich (enrichment) the in-class materials. the illustrative pictures are compiled from various sources such as the internet, mass media, and specially made or created under a specified topic. the graphic design is carefully planned and is created in such a way so that they attracted the attention of the students to look and read. the materials are periodically and systematically displayed at a strategic spot around the classroom. each school is provided with three display boards, and each is placed in front classrooms of grade 4, 5, and 6. each week the materials on the board were replaced. the students voluntarily fill in their journals with activities that interest them the most. thus, it is not hard to imagine that students become accustomed to develop curiosity, selfmotivated, and have a passion for independent learning outside the classroom. all texts and illustrations are purposely designed taking into account the font sizes and styles, illustrative pictures or images, and color composition so that the meaning could be directly understood by children just by looking at the display. prior to the display, the content is validated by two expert judges who are the senior lecturers in english education department. the content validation analysis results in the score of 4.318 which according to the quality classification (nurkencana & sunartana in kusuma, 2012) belongs to the high category. this indicates that the materials are ready for the first trial. at the evaluation stage, the impact of rlle material exposure on young learners’ literacy skills in english is analyzed. the impact is measured through literacy skill pretest and post-test. the test material includes three levels of text, namely (1) the level of words (writing random word, selecting a word, labeling a picture); (2) the level of the sentence (unscrambling sentences, filling in the blanks, matching half sentences); and (3) a simple discourse (writing a simple description guided by a picture, picture series, or questions). from the results of the pretests conducted in the first year, it can be concluded that students in grade 4, 5, and 6 have very low literacy skills in english (the mean score is 22,6 out of 100). for example, most of the 4th graders are unable to write down the names of the days even though they could easily mention them. they misspelled words, for example, they write fritdy, fride, frydy for friday. this is due to limit the in-class time for the students to pay a good attention on how a word is spelled in english. ability to spell correctly is surely not the main goal in learning english as a foreign language at beginner level. however, systematic exposures to the english language will provide opportunities for young learners to have a careful look at meaning and use, including the spelling. based on the observations on the implementation of rlle model in the schools, the students demonstrate enthusiasm to learn independently. they huddle in front of a display board before the lesson is begun at the recessed time and before returning home. it is observable that all students are actively and voluntarily involved in independent learning either by silent reading or working on their journals as seen in the figure 1. figure 1 students’ enthusiasm in doing independent learning 22 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 19-24 they, for example, label a picture, fill in a speech bubble with an expression, or completed crossword puzzles. these activities encourage the students to become autonomous learners who worked independently to satisfy their desire to learn new things. they self-directed their learning and chose the materials that they perceived as the most interesting. as a matter of fact, selfdirected learning skill is the key to long life education, which according to michie (2011) is a powerful strategy to achieve learning success. the exposure to rlle materials in the first year has shown the positive impact on students’ motivation to learn english. the motivation to do self-directed learning activities has been proven to have the positive impact on students’ ability in reading and writing in english. the comparison between pre-test and post-test on literacy skills in the first year reveals that the 4 to 5 weeks exposure to rlle materials has significantly improved students’ literacy skills in english, as seen in table. the highest significant improvement occurs at the word level where the increase of the average score of grade 4, 5, and 6 from five schools is 87,1%. meanwhile, the improvement in the ability to order words into sentences and to write appropriate expressions is at the average of 56,2%, and the ability to write a short discourse was 46,8%. the highest average score in vocabulary level is likely to do with the clear presentation of words and meaning through pictures. this makes easier for the students to remember the words and its meaning, as well as how to spell it. this kind of learning experience hardly occurs in the regular classroom where vocabulary is commonly introduced through mechanical drill activity in which the teacher pronounces the words out loud, and the students repeat after the teacher. the first year data corpus also indicates that lower yet significant improvement in literacy skills occur in sentence and discourse levels. this is understandable since sentence and discourse that are increasingly complex. it requires the students to focus on many things. the higher improvement in sentence level in comparison to discourse level obviously shows that the more complex the text is, the more difficult and the longer time needed to achieve. however, the fact that literacy skills in english significantly improves despite the shorter time of rlle exposure is an indication that the provision of rlle materials in the form of words, sentences, and discourses attract attention, increase motivation, and evoke the dynamic qualities of the children to learn optimally (artini, 2009a). the second year experiment lasts for 12 weeks. principally, the material does not change much since it already has a high level of quality. minor revisions include simplifying the instructions and adding more examples so that it is easier for the students to learn independently. the research consistently finds the students’ high motivation to learn from the displayed materials. students’ independence in learning could be observed from the choice of work they decided to do. rlle provides text variations that made the students have the options to learn. this is in accordance with berk and winsler’s idea as cited in cook (2001). it has mentioned that a teacher should be sensitive regarding the learning needs of the students by providing learning materials that match their interests and learning progress. elementary school teachers need to have the ability to create supportive and quality learning environment that supports quality learning (scott & ytreberg, 2004). the rlle materials, indeed, make students have the freedom to choose for themselves what they want to do and then proudly show their work to their friends and teacher. after displaying rlle material for 12 weeks, the results of pre-test and post-test are compared. the comparison is displayed in figure 2. table comparison of pre and post test literacy class 4, 5, 6 sd in the first year schools average scores of pre test & post test on literacy skills (0-100) vocabulary sentences/expressions simple composition g 4 g 5 g 6 g 4 g 5 g 6 g 4 g 5 g 6 sdn 1 sulahan pre-test 33,6 43,7 23,0 22,4 38,1 26,0 9,3 39,0 25,8 post-test 57,2 59,4 50,2 30,7 45,3 40,2 22,1 47,1 40,3 sdn 5 manukaya pre-test 6,9 20,2 12,3 17,6 30,4 36,3 20,0 32,8 29,5 post-test 37,1 40,7 32,4 27,2 34,4 38,1 28,2 40,2 36,4 sdn 5 sukawati pre-test 26,8 22,8 32,8 12,4 21,6 14,4 20,2 24,2 28,2 post-test 40,5 39,4 44,4 22,1 27,6 20,2 30,1 41,3 41,1 sdn 7 pedungan pre-test 26,2 28,8 22,2 20,4 22,6 24,6 28,4 29,1 28,2 post-test 46,2 45,1 40,7 30,5 34,1 25,6 29,9 39,2 35,6 sd muhammadiyah 2 pre-test 12,2 20,1 10,2 18,4 20,2 19,2 16,8 18,2 5,2 post-test 31,1 40,4 33,1 20,6 34,9 27,1 22,2 24,2 16,7 sdn 2 cempaga pre-test 24,2 30,1 20,2 28,4 28,2 19,8 26,8 28,2 15,2 post-test 40,8 54,2 39,8 48,2 48,6 43,4 44,2 41,1 39,9 average pre-test 21,6 27,6 20,1 19,9 26,9 23,4 20,3 28,6 22,0 post-test 42,2 46,5 40,1 30,1 34,2 37,5 29,5 38,9 35,0 improvement 93,4% 68,5% 99,5% 51,3% 57,1% 60,3% 45.3% 36,0% 59,1% 23rich language learning environment .... (luh putu artini) the 12 weeks of rlle exposure results in consistently significant improvement of literacy skills in english in grades 4, 5, and 6 in all schools involved. in grade 4, the increase is from the mean score of 47,1 in the pre-test to 72,7 in the post-test; in grade 5, from 76,5 to 86,1; and in grade 6 from 68,1 to 82,7. by t-test, all of these differences are significant at 5% significance level, which indicates that exposure to rlle materials significantly improves primary school students’ literacy skills in english. it is undeniable that the regular classroom teaching and learning may contribute to the improvement in the literacy skills in english. however, given that the target achievement of learning english in primary schools is not the reading and writing but only on language accompanying action or the ability to respond to speech acts through action (depdiknas, 2009). then it is explainable that most of that improvement is caused by the exposure of english language through rlle materials. their preferred activities do not only help them improve their literacy skills in english but also train them about how to learn in general and how to learn a foreign language in particular. conclusions in the latest education reforms in indonesia that are marked by the launching of curriculum 2013, english is not included in primary school curriculum. meanwhile, the society is increasingly aware of the importance to start learning english since the primary school age so that their children have strong english foundation for further education, as well as to successfully compete in the labor market in the future. given that english is considered as local content in the curriculum with very limited allocated lesson time, learning activities generally take place in a conventional way (i.e. teacher-centered) and are led to achieve cognitive development. the products of this research are one of the alternative solutions to the problem of pelt in indonesia. the provision of rlle in school premises can be expected to strengthen children’s motivation and basic skills in english. systematic exposures to the materials do not only improve literacy skills in english but also interest and motivation to learn the foreign language, as well as to build self-directed learning habit that will keep the children eager to learn autonomously. references akazawa, c. (2016). a case study for teaching pre-literacy skills to efl learners. the language teacher, 40(1), 29 30. retrieved on 20 august 2016 from: http:// jalt-publications.org/tlt/departments/young-learners/ articles/4973-case-study-teaching-pre-literacyskills-efl-leaners ara, s. (2009). use of songs, rhymes, and games in teaching english to young learners in banglades. dhaka university journal of linguistics, 2(3), 161 172. doi: 10.3329/dujl.v2i3.4150. artini, l. p. (2006). learning english in bali: investigating beliefs and language learning strategies. unpublished phd thesis. artini, l. p. (2009a). pengembangan dynamic qualities sebagai upaya optimalisasi potensi berbahasa inggris siswa sma di indonesia. jurnal penelitian kebijakan pendidikan, 4(2), 83-100. artini, l. p. (2009b). teaching english for young learners in indonesia: methods and strategies. book manuscript. brewster, j., ellis, g., & girard, d. 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(2004). teaching english to children. harlow: pearson education limited. sikki, e. a. a., rahman, a., hamra, a., & noni, h. (2013). the competence of primary school english teachers in indonesia. journal of education and practice, 4(11), 139-145. watanabe, y., & caprio, m. (1999). second language literacy through student-centered learning. the internet tesl journal, 5(2). retrived april 2016 from http://itelslj.org/articles/capriostudentcentered.html winch, g., johnston, r. r., march, p., ljungdahl, l., & holliday, m. (2006). literacy, reading and writing and children literature. oxford: oxford university press. yelland, n. (ed.). (2006). critical issues in early childhood education. new york: open university press. whitehead, j. (2007). the british council and english language in se asia: setting the context. a collection of papers. primary innovations regional seminar. hanoi, march 2007. aku, calon kakak ipar, dan ibu mertua diatesis pasif bahasa jepang timur sri astami japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, timur_astami@yahoo.com abstract article represents passive diathesis which is one of many kinds and function of grammatical analysis. passive diathesis or mostly known as passive voice is usually used to show a relation between the speaker and his view on something. in japanese, passive diathesis is divided in three parts such as, kihon teki na ukemi (basic passive voice), mochi mushi ukemi (belonging passive voice), higai no ukemi (loss passive voice), and hijou no ukemi (neutral passive voice). each passive voice in japanese has different function and meaning, therefore in teaching japanese language it should take more exercise and example in order to be more complete and comprehensive. keywords: diathesis, passive voice, japanese, grammatical abstrak artikel menjelaskan diatesis pasif dalam bahasa jepang. diatesis pasif merupakan salah satu bagian dari jenis dan fungsi suatu kalimat yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan hubungan antara subjek pelaku dengan perbuatan yang dilakukan. diatesis pasif atau biasa disebut dengan pasif voice, selain itu juga berfungsi untuk menunjukkan keterkaitan dengan pandangan si pembicara terhadap suatu peristiwa, sehingga pasif voice dalam bahasa jepang dibedakan menjadi kihon teki na ukemi (pasif dasar), mochi nushi ukemi (pasif milik), higai no ukemi (pasif kerugian) dan hijou no ukemi (pasif netral). karena bentuk pasif dalam bahasa jepang masing-masing memiliki fungsi dan makna yang berbeda, dalam pengajaran bahasa banyak diberikan contoh atau latihan pemahaman kepada mahasiswa penggunaan pasif secara menyeluruh dan komprehensif. kata kunci: diatesis, kalimat pasif, bahasa jepang, gramatikal diatesis pasif bahasa jepang (timur sri astami) 121 pendahuluan kajian bahasa pada umumnya terdiri atas kajian fonologi, morfologi, semantik, sintaksis hingga pragmatik. pada kajian sintaksis, tentunya akan berhubungan dengan kalimat secara struktural. kalimat adalah satuan bahasa terkecil dalam wujud lisan atau tulisan yang mengungkapkan suatu pikiran yang utuh. suatu kalimat terdiri atas beberapa unsur antara lain subjek, predikat, objek, pelengkap, dan keterangan. kalimat terdiri atas dua buah kata atau lebih yang menghasilkan suatu pengertian dan pola intonasi akhir. kalimat dapat dibagi lagi berdasarkan jenis dan fungsinya. jenis dan fungsi kalimat di antaranya seperti kalimat lengkap, kalimat tidak lengkap, kalimat pasif, kalimat perintah, kalimat majemuk, dan lain sebagainya. setiap kalimat memiliki unsur penyusun kalimat. gabungan dari unsur kalimat akan membentuk kalimat yang mengandung arti. berikut ini unsur inti dalam kalimat. • subjek (s) • predikat (p) • objek (o) • keterangan (k) mengenai kalimat, harimurti kridalaksana berpendapat bahwa selain unsur pembentuk kalimat yang telah dijelaskan, sebuah kalimat merupakan konstruksi gramatikal yang ditata menurut pola tertentu sehingga dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai satu kesatuan (kridalaksana 1993 : 92). diatesis merupakan bagian dari kategori gramatikal yang dipandang sebagai kaidah untuk membangun kalimat. oleh karena itu, diatesis secara umum merujuk pada hubungan antara partisipan atau subjek dengan perbuatan yang dinyatakan oleh verba dalam kalimat (kridalaksana 1993 : 45). ada bermacam diatesis misalnya diatesis aktif, diatesis medial, diatesis pasif, diatesis reflektik, dan sebagainya. artikel akan menguraikan diatesis pasif, khususnya diatesis pasif bahasa jepang. diatesis pasif/ kalimat pasif biasa disebut dengan pasif voice. pasif voice ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan pandangan pembicara yang bersifat subjektif terhadap suatu peristiwa. oleh karena itu, untuk melihat sudut pandang terhadap suatu peristiwa inilah keberadaan verba dapat membantu kita mengetahui bagaimana hubungan kedekatan antara pembicara dengan yang dibicarakan. diatesis voice kalimat pasif adalah suatu kalimat yang subjeknya dikenai pekerjaan atau subjeknya dikenai suatu perbuatan atau aktivitas. kalimat pasif dalam bahasa indonesia biasanya verba diawali oleh awalan teratau di-. sementara itu, pasif dalam bahasa jepang, subjeknya dikenai suatu perbuatan atau aktivitas. pada kategori gramatikal, satuan bahasa digolongkan atas bentuk fungsi dan makna. unsur yang termasuk ke dalam kategori gramatikal adalah aspek, tense, modalitas, voice, dan sebagainya. diatesis pasif pun termasuk ke dalam kategori gramatikal yang disebut dengan voice. tamamura (1992 :55) mengatakan sebagai berikut. ヴォイスととは ヴォイスをどのように規定するか、立場によって、またどのよう な文法現像をヴォイスとして取り込むかによって、異なってくる。ヴォイスとは 動詞を表す動きや状態の成立に参画する項と、文の表現形式での成分としての文節 のされ方に関わり語彙文法カテゴリーである。 (voice to iu nowa voice wo dono youni kitei suruka, tachiba ni yotte, mata dono youna bunpou genshou wo voice toshite torikomu ni yotte, kotanatte kuru. voice to wa doushi wo arawasu ugoki ya joutai no seiritsu no sankaku suru kou to, bun no hyougenkeishiki de no seibun toshite no bunsetsu no sarekata ni kakawari goi bunpou kategorii de aru) jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 121-128 122 ‘voice dapat dibedakan berdasarkan pada sudut pandang bagaimana pelaku atau subjek menetapkan suatu perbuatan. atau dilihat dari sisi objek yang menerima perlakuan tersebut. pada voice verbanya berperan menyatakan keadaan atau melakukan perbuatan, sehingga klausa yang berhubungan dengan voice ini termasuk ke dalam kategori gramatikal’. adapun kategori gramatikal yang merujuk pada diatesis voice (passive voice) adalah menunjukkan hubungan antara partisipan atau subjek dengan perbuatan yang dinyatakan oleh verba dalam klausa (kridalaksana, 2001:43). posisi subjeknya merupakan tujuan dari perbuatan. dilihat dari sisi subjek yang merupakan tujuan suatu perbuatan maka tamamura (1992: 53) menyatakan : 受身とは動詞の語彙文法カテゴリーも一つであり、受身とは、主格(第一位の格) が、他の構造要素から働きかけ.作用.関係のあり方をこうむる.受ける.といっ た意味的あり方を帯びているものである。日本語の受身は、いくぶん連続する層を 有りしながら、まともの受身「直接受身」、第三者受身「間接受身」、「持ち主受 身」に分けられる。 (ukemi towa doushi no goi bunpou kategorii de ari, ukemi towa, shukaku [dai ichi no kakugo] ga, ta no kouzo youso kara hatarakikake, sayou, kankei no arikata wo koumuru, ukeru, to itta imiteki arikata wo obite iru mono de aru. nihongo no ukemi wa ikubun renzoku suru sou wo arishinagara, matomono ukemi [ckokusetsu ukemi], daisansha ukemi [kansetsu ukemi], [mochinushi ukemi] ni wakerareru ). pasif termasuk ke dalam kategori gramatikal, yang memiliki makna subjek pelaku (orang pertama) baik secara langsung atau tidak langsung dikenai atau menerima suatu perbuatan dari orang lain. pasif dalam bahasa jepang dihubungkan dengan unsur pembentuk kalimat pasif di dalamnya, maka pasif terbagi menjadi pasif langsung (chokusetsu ukemi), pasif tak langsung (daisansha ukemi), dan pasif milik (mochinushi ukemi)’. sejalan dengan pendapat tersebut, dalam pengajaran pasif bahasa jepang tomomatsu dkk(2001:184) mengkategorisasikan bentuk pasif sebagai berikut. 基本的な受身 (pasif dasar) 人がほかからある行為を受けるという意味を表す。日本語では「行為をする人」で はなく、「その行為を受ける人」(私、または心理的にわたしに ちかい人が多い) を主語にして表すことが多い。 (hito ga hoka kara aru koui wo ukeru to iu imi wo arawasu. nihongo dewa [koui suru hito ]dewanaku, [sono koui wo ukeru hito], [watasshi, matawa shinriteki ni watashi ni chikai hito ga ooi]wo shugo ni shite arawasu koto ga ooi. ‘pada pasif dasar ini, merujuk pada seseorang atau subjek yang menerima perlakuan dari orang lain. pada bahasa jepang tidak hanya merujuk pada penerima tindakan tersebut, sehingga penerima tindakan kebanyakan berfungsi sebagai subjek. subjek tersebut adalah saya atau orang yang dikenai perbuatan tersebut. 例: 私は 母に起こされました。 saya dibangunkan oleh ibu (kbbi:102, dibangunkan : menjagakan orang dari tidur) 私は 小林さんにいろいろなことを聞かれました。 saya ditanya macam-macam oleh kobayashi (kbbi:1142, ditanya : hendak mengetahui dengan bertanya) diatesis pasif bahasa jepang (timur sri astami) 123 持ち主受身 (pasif milik) 自分の体の一部、所有物、かかわりのあるものが、ある人の行為を受けた場合の言 い方。被害を受けたり、迷惑だと感じた場合がほとんどで、その行為を迷 惑と感じ た人(私、または心理的に私に近い人が多い)を主語にして表す。 (jibun no karada no ichibu, shoyuubutsu, kakawari no aru mono ga, aru hito koui wo uketa baai no iikata. higai wo uketari, meiwaku da to kanjita baai ga hotondo de, sono koui wo meiwaku kan to kanjita hito [watashi, mata wa shinri teki ni watashi ni chikai hito ga ooi] wo shugo ni shite arawasu). ‘yang dimaksud dengan pasif milik adalah ketika orang yang menerima tindakan, yaitu yang dikenai berupa satu dari anggota tubuh ataupun benda kepunyaan kita. sebagian besar kita merasa terganggu atau dirugikan akibat dari perbuatan tersebut. kebanyakan saya yang menerima perbuatan tersebut atau secara psikologis hubungannya dekat dengan saya’. 例: 私は こどもにめがねをこわされて、困っています。 kacamata saya dirusakkan anak, sehingga saya merasa kesulitan (kbbi :971, dirusakkan : menjadikan rusak, tidak dapat dipakai lagi ) 子供に服を汚されました。 baju saya dikotori oleh anak (kbbi : 599, dikotori: tidak bersih, membuat kotor) 被害の受身 (pasif kerugian) 自分の直接行為を受けるのではないか、あるできごとや、人がしたことによって被 害を受けたり、そのことを迷惑だと感じたりしたとき、被害や迷 惑を受けた人(わ たし、または心理的にわたしに近い人が多い)を主語に して表す言い方. (jibun no chokusetsu koui wo ukeru no dewanai ka, aru dekigoto ya, hito ga shita koto ni yotte, higai wo uketari, sono koto wo meiwaku da to kanjitari shita toki, higai ya meiwaku wo uketa hito [watashi, matawa shinriteki ni watashi ni chikai hito g aooi]wo shugo ni shite arawasu iikata). ‘yang dimaksud dengan pasif kerugian ini subjeknya secara tidak langsung menerima tindakan atau suatu perbuatan dan orang yang menerima akibat dari tindakan yang merugikan tersebut merasa terganggu. kebanyakan yang menerima perbuatan yang merugikan tersebut adalah saya atau orang yang secara psikologis hubungannya dekat dengan saya. 例: 会議の間、となりの人にたばこを吸われて、気分が悪くなった。 saat rapat saya dirokok-i orang di sebelah , saya menjadi sesak nafas (kbbi :960,dirokok-i : menerima asap rokok dari orang lain) pasif kerugian (被害受身 ) termasuk ke dalam pasif tidak langsung yang biasa disebut dengan daisansha ukemi (第三者受身). pada pasif tersebut seringkali subjek yang menerima perbuatan tidak merasakan secara langsung. misalnya dalam kalimat berikut ini. 例: 彼は こどもに 死なれた。 dia kematian (ditinggal mati) anaknya jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 121-128 124 pada contoh kalimat tersebut, kare 彼 mendapat pengaruh yang tak langsung, yaitu pengaruh adversatif karena peristiwa kodomo ga shinda (anaknya meninggal). oleh karena itu, subjek secara tidak langsung merasakan akibat kematian anaknya (ditinggal mati oleh anaknya). pada contoh tersebut, predikat kematian yang dalam bahasa indonesia berbentuk ke-an, misalnya kebakaran, kemalingan, kegaduhan, dan sebagainya memiliki kesamaan dengan bahasa jepang (http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110004668675) 非常の受身 (pasif netral) ある行為の対象を主語にして、社会的な事実や公に知らせることがらを言う場合に 使う受身文。持ち主受身、被害受身と違い、「困った、いやだ」のような感情なく、 事実を客観的に述べる。その行為をするのは特定の人 ではないので、この受身文の 中には「行為をする人」の形では示さないことが多い。 aru koui no taishou wo shugo ni shite, shakaitekina jijitsu ya ooyake ni shiraseru kotogara wo iu baai ni tsukau ukemibun. mochi nushi ukemi, higai ukemi to chigai, [komatta,iyada]no youna kanjou naku, jijitsu wo kyakkanteki ni noberu. sono koui wo suru nowa tokutei no hito dewanainode, kono ukemibun no naka niwa [koui wo suru hito]no katachi deha sasanai koto ga ooi. ‘pasif netral, yaitu objek kalimat menerima suatu perbuatan. pada kalimat pasif ini, biasanya digunakan untuk memberitahukan hal yang bersifat umum atau dalam masyarakat sudah menjadi suatu hal yang lazim. pasif ini berbeda dengan pasif kerugian atau pasif milik, pada kedua pasif tersebut tidak ada perasaan tidak suka atau merasa kesulitan (perasaan iyada atau komatta), tetapi bersifat objektif. oleh karena yang menerima tindakan tersebut tidak merujuk pada orang tertentu, maka pola (orang yang menerima tindakan) kebanyakan tidak menunjukkan hal tersebut’. 例: 東京のアパート代は 高いと言われています。 dikatakan harga apartemen di tokyo mahal (kbbi :514, dikatakan : memberitahukan, menyebutkan) この雑誌は 若い人たちによく読まれています。 majalah ini sering dibaca oleh anak-anak muda (kbbi:83, dibaca : melihat serta memahami isi dari apa yang tertulis sementara itu, pasif dalam bahasa indonesia berfungsi untuk menegaskan objek penderita, misalnya sebagai instruksi, perintah informal,dan sebagainya. berikut ini contoh penggunaan diatesis pasif bahasa indonesia. 1. menegaskan objek penderita contoh : ali dan hasan dimarahi ibu guru. 2. instruksi contoh : setelah dicuci bersih lalu kentang direbus kira-kira 10 menit 3. pada kalimat perintah informal, untuk menghaluskan perintah (tidak terlihat memerintah secara langsung) contoh : dik, ditutup dulu jendelanya! 4. pada kalimat berita yang digunakan dalam bacaan surat kabar atau ilmu pengetahuan contoh : harus diakui pula bahwa timbulnya perumahan baru di daerah pasti akan berdampak pada naiknya harga tanah di kawasan itu. 5. digunakan untuk menulis judul berita atau bacaan contoh : “presiden didemo mahasiswa se-indonesia” (http://ningeis.multiply.com/journal/item/1/grammar_bahasa_indonesia_kalimat_pasif) diatesis pasif bahasa jepang (timur sri astami) 125 pengajaran pasif bahasa jepang pada pengajaran bahasa jepang, patut diperhatikan hal yang berhubungan dengan kalimat pasif. oleh karena, sebagian pasif bahasa jepang biasanya menunjukkan sesuatu hal yang dirugikan (被害受身) ataupun kita merasa terganggu akibat dari perbuatan tersebut (迷惑気持ち), maka kedua hal ini termasuk ke dalam pasif tidak langsung 第三受身).oleh karena itu, untuk menghindari kesalahan yang muncul, hendaklah kita perhatikan beberapa hal yang berkaitan diatesis pasif, yakni. 1. ada beberapa bentuk pasif, yakni pasif langsung, pasif tidak langsung dan pasif milik. pada bahasa jepang, pasif biasanya digunakan apabila subjek atau saya yang dikenai suatu perbuatan merasa dirugikan. sebagai pihak yang dirugikan (被害受身) ataupun kita merasa terganggu akibat dari suatu perbuatan (迷惑気持ち), maka harus kita pahami posisi kita sebagai pihak yang dirugikan (isao, 2000:294). berikut ini contoh pasif yang dirugikan . 隣の人が騒ぐ → (私)は 隣の人に騒がれる (受身文) saya (merasa terganggu oleh) kegaduhan tetangga sebelah (kbbi, 2005: 325, digaduhi = perihal berbuat, mengganggu) 2. tidak semua verba diubah langsung menjadi kalimat pasif tidak langsung ( 間 接 受 身 ). sehubungan dengan hal tersebut, matsuoka (2000:296) menjelaskan ada beberapa verba yang tidak termasuk ke dalam pasif tidak langsung ,yakni. verba potensial, misalnya 「できる」 verba yang bermakna spontanitas, misalnya「見える、聞こえる、売 れるなど」 verba keadaan (状態動詞) yang tidak dikenai pengaruh suatu perbuatan, misalnya 「ある、 要るなど」 verba yang memang bermakna pasif (bermakna sudah/telah terjadi). misalnya 「教わる、見 つかる」 3. pasif milik (持ち主受身)patut menjadi perhatian. pada pasif ini ada bagian dari diri ataupun benda milik kita yang dikenai oleh suatu perbuatan. subjeknya secara tidak langsung menerima pengaruh akibat dari perbuatan tersebut (isao, 2000 : 294). contohnya dapat dilihat pada kalimat berikut ini. mobilnya tanaka dirusakkan oleh seseorang →誰かに 田中さんの車を壊されました。 oleh karena, dalam konteks bahasa indonesia pasif milik (持ち主受身) biasanya benda yang dikenai tindakan pasif oleh orang lain atau seseorang, melekat, dan terkait pada bendanya, maka seringkali langsung diterjemahkan「誰かに 田中さんの車を壊されました」。hal yang harus diperhatikan agar tidak menimbulkan kesalahan, yaitu harus dijelaskan terlebih dahulu spesifikasi dari pasif milik. kalimat yang tepat sebagai berikut. 田中さんは 誰かに車を壊された (mobilnya tanaka dirusakkan oleh seseorang) 4. apabila subjek pelaku menerima suatu perbuatan atau perlakuan yang mengakibatkan dirinya merasa senang atau merasa berterima kasih akibat perbuatan tersebut. oleh karena itu, nuansa yang muncul kita merasa senang atau berterima kasih, maka tidak dapat menggunakan bentuk pasif. bentuk yang digunakan adalah ~ てくれる/~もらう . jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 121-128 126 misalnya : 山田さんに仕事を手伝っもらって、助かりました。 ‘karena pekerjaan saya dibantu oleh yamada maka saya merasa tertolong (ada perasaan terima kasih)’ (kbbi : 105, dibantu : mendapat pertolongan ) 好きな人がずっとそばにいてくれて、うれしかったです。 ‘kita akan merasa senang, kalau orang yang kita sukai berada di samping kita’. (kbbi: 5, berada : hadir ) pada kalimat majemuk yang subjek pelakunya menerima suatu perbuatan yang secara tidak langsung terkena dampak dari perbuatan tersebut, sehingga kita merasa terganggu ataupun mengalami kesulitan , maka tetap menggunakan bentuk pasif. misalnya. 隣の家の人に何時間も大声で騒がれて、困った。 (saya terganggu, karena suara gaduh selama beberapa jam oleh tetangga sebelah rumah) 5. pasif langsung 「直接受身」、 apabila subjek menghasilkan atau melahirkan suatu karya, misalnya dalam verba 「作る、建てる、書く、編むなど」, biasanya partikel yang digunakan adalah ~によって( matsuoka 2000 : 297). misalnya : 法隆寺は 聖徳太子によって 建てられた。 ‘kuil houryuuji dibangun oleh shotoku taishi’ 源氏物語は 紫式部に よって 書かれました。 ‘genji monogatari ditulis oleh murasaki shikibu’ 6. selain itu, ada hal yang perlu mendapat perhatian, yakni pada pola pasif ~られる seringkali membingungkan siswa dan juga seringkali timbul kesalahan. misalnya pada contoh berikut ini. ① 田中くんが 先生にほめられた ‘tanaka dipuji oleh guru’ ② 林先生が みんなをほめられた ‘semua murid dipuji oleh guru hayashi’ ③ こんな出来では ほめられない ‘saya tidak usah dipuji dengan hanya melakukan seperti ini’ ketiganya menggunakan bentuk ~られる、namun masing-masing berfungsi sebagai ①pasif ② sonkei ③ kanou .oleh karena makna yang terkandung pada ①tanaka dipuji oleh guru (dipuji = mendapat, menerima pujian). ② guru hayashi memuji semua murid. posisi guru yang dibicarakan memiliki kedudukan terhormat, maka untuk menghormati guru hayashi menggunakan kalimat ragam hormat (尊敬). ③subjek (saya ) pada kalimat ini , merasa bahwa hanya dengan melakukan suatu hal kecil tidak perlu dipuji seperti itu. dengan kata lain, bukan suatu hal yang membanggakan atau hanya sedikit sekali kontribusinya, maka (saya) tidak usah dipuji seperti ini. diatesis pasif bahasa jepang (timur sri astami) 127 penutup berdasarkan hasil rangkuman dan analisis dari berbagai sumber maka dapat disimpulkan diatesis pasif sebagai berikut. kebanyakan pasif dalam bahasa jepang digunakan untuk menunjukkan suatu akibat, baik secara langsung ataupun tidak langsung, apabila kita merasa dirugikan atau terganggu akibat dari perbuatan orang lain atau orang yang dekat dengan subjek. sementara itu, pasif dalam bahasa indonesia belum tentu menunjukkan suatu kerugian atau gangguan. pasif tidak langsung 「間接受身」menunjukkan subjek yang secara tidak langsung dikenai perbuatan yang merugikan tersebut, ada beberapa verba memiliki kesamaan makna dengan bahasa indonesia, yakni verba ke-an, misalnya, kegaduhan, kebakaran, kerusuhan dan sebagainya. kesalahan yang seringkali dilakukan oleh para pembelajar bahasa jepang yakni bentuk pasif dalam bahasa indonesia yang langsung diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa jepang, misalnya dibelikan oleh teman, kebanyakan siswa menjawab 友達に買われた bukan 友達に買ってもらった, padahal nuansa yang muncul ada rasa terima kasih atau senang karena teman dengan sengaja membelikan buat kita. hal itu disebabkan bahasa indonesia tidak ada nuansa yang menyatakan rasa terima kasih atau senang akibat perbuatan teman. oleh karena itu, dengan adanya kontras antara bahasa jepang dengan bahasa indonesia maka di dalam pengajaran bahasa jepang khususnya, perlunya kehati-hatian dan persiapan diri agar tidak terjadi kesalahan di dalam mengajarkan bentuk pasif. daftar pustaka chaer, abdul. 2007. linguistik umum. jakarta:rineka jaya etsuko, tomomatsu, miyamoto jun, and, waguri masako. 2000. donna toki dou tsukau nihongo hyougen bunkei 200. tokyo: aruku fumio, tamamura. 1992. nihongogaku wo manabu hito no tame ni. tokyo: sekaishishousha hiroshi, matsuoka and iori isao. 2000. nihongo bunpou handobakku . tokyo: suriieenettowaaku isao, iori.2001. atarashii nihongo gakunyuumon [kotoba no shikumi wo kangaeru]. tokyo: suriieenettowaaku kamus besar bahasa indonesia. 2004. jakarta: balai pustaka kridalaksana, harimurti. 2001. kamus linguistik. jakarta: gramedia jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 121-128 128 copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 1-6 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1820 loss and gain in translation of culture-specific items in ahmad tohari’s lintang kemukus: a semantic study leni tiwiyanti¹; ayu bandu retnomurti² 1,2english education department, faculty of language and arts, indraprasta pgri university jl. nangka no 58c tanjung barat, jagakarsa, jakarta selatan 12530, indonesia 1 lenitiwiyanti@gmail.com; 2ayubandu@gmail.com received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 13rd december 2016/ accepted: 29th december 2016 how to cite: tiwiyanti, l. & retnomurti, a. b. (2016). loss and gain in translation of culture-specific items in ahmad tohari’s lintang kemukus: a semantic study. lingua cultura, 11(1). 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1820 abstract culture-specific items (csis) are difficult to translate since they are related to cultural knowledge and cultural background of the given culture. the distance and differences between two different cultures determine the extent of the gain or loss that will be exprienced by the csis as they are translated. from indonesian into english the purposes of this research were to identify the translation procedures applied in translating csis which caused loss and gained in the translation process and to identify how the translator compensated the loss in translating csis. the method used was qualitative descriptive method. the result shows that loss is more prevalent than gain although the translator has enough knowledge on the source text culture as he has spent some years doing some researches in banyumas society. there are two kinds of losses found in this research; inevitable and avertable losses. translation procedures used which result in loss in translation are translation by a more general word (subordinate), translation by a more neutral/less expressive word and translation by cultural substitution. gain is realized mostly through the creativity of the translator when they are able to explain the culture-specific items for effective communication. in order to compensate the loss that might have occurred, translator uses some translation procedures. they are translation by loan word with explanation, translation by paraphrase using related word, and translation by paraphrase using unrelated word. in short, gain in translation for better communication is not easy to achieve especially in the case of translating csis. keywords: loss in translation, gain in translation, culture-specific items, semantic study introduction one of translators’ main problems is finding the equivalence of culture-specific items (csis) as they contain cultural information which needs special considerations since they are related to cultural knowledge and cultural background to the background culture. the meaning of culturally dependent words is difficult to transfer into another language, particularly when the words are linked to cultural domains (nida, 2015). take the word nasi, and beras which are closely related to indonesian culture as they are familiar terms that deal with indonesian staple. we may have the word ‘rice’ to be said the equivalence. yet, the word ‘rice’ shows loss in translation as it refers to both nasi and beras in indonesian. english speaking speakers only know that the word ‘rice’ refers to the concept on small seed of a particular type of grass, cooked, and eaten. there are some dictinctions on terms as given by the indonesian. things like this do not only happen between indonesian language and english, but also happen between many other languages which have different cultural backgrounds. the words ‘rice’, ‘beras’ and ‘nasi’ belong to csis. csis are words and phrases conditioned by the cultural diversity. according to lewis (2010) “we readily accept that cultural diversity is vast and formidable”. dizdar (2014) refers to cultural entities as cultural words, gambier (2007) named the culture-specific references, however, the most widely accepted term is culture-specific. chesterman (2012) defines csis as: “the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. the concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a type of food. such concepts are often referred to as ‘culture specific’” 2 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 1-6 different theorists have provided different procedures of translating csis. for instance, padmavathy & thangavel (2011) suggested for making up a new word or explaining the meaning of the source language expression in lieu of translating it. however, the translator may also choose to preserve the source language term intact or to opt for a word in the target language which seems similar to or has the same ’relevance‘ as the source language term. chesterman (2012) proposed eight translation procedures in translating csis. they are translation by a more general word (superordinate), translation by a more neutral/less expressive word, translation by cultural substitution, translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation, translation by paraphrase using a related word, translation by paraphrase using unrelated words, translation by omission and translation by illustration. the distance and differences between two different cultures determine the extent of the gain or loss that will be exprienced by csis as they are translated. the greater the cultural distance and differences, the greater the need for translators to use their creative skill to find the acceptable translation, which will eventually please both sides. for the purpose of translation, translators need to understand the customs and other cultural aspects that lie between the two different languages (davies, 2003). bassnett (2006) pointed out: “the translator can at times enrich or clarify the source language text as a direct result of the translation process. moreover, what is often seen ‘as lost’ from the source language context maybe replaced in the target language context.” translators can produce rich explanation of the unknown concept of the source language text (st) in the target language text (tt) by focusing on their creativity. they merely need to focus on the central meaning and bring the acceptable and well-chosen equivalent concept or terminology. this is in line with steiner (2006) whose concept states that a translator must invade the text, extract it and bring home the central meaning. it is at this point, we relate the matter with the concept that we refer as ‘gain’ and ‘loss’in translation. loss is the disappearance of certain features in the target language text which are present in the source language text. translation loss refers to, “the incomplete replication of the st in tt” (dizdar, 2014) when a translator fails to render the entire csis and linguistic features of the tt.” in translation practice, there is more probability csis to experience loss than gain. loss can also be related to the failure of the translator to convey an element of meaning such as expressiveness. if the translator is not competent in the target language, some words and phrases might be deleted and unfortunately loss occurs. the other cause of loss occurs due to the linguistic and extralinguistic differences between the source language and target language. these linguistic differences hold back the translation process because each language has its ways in expressing the same concepts in different system. another fact that causes loss is extralinguistic discrepancies. this includes the cultural and religious discrepancies between these languages which hinder the translation process. it is the extralinguistic factors that become the major reason behind the incapability of a translator to produce an equivalence in the target text (alwazna, 2014). gain is a concept that focuses on the enrichment or clarification of the source language text. bassnett (2006) defined gain as, “the enrichment or clarification of the source language text in the process of translation.” the same concept is also proposed by nozizwe & ncube (2014) where they stated that gain in translation on the one hand refers to the enrichment or clarification of the source text which enables language and the target text to be flexible and usable in any social circle. gain in translation will help languages to adapt themselves to their speakers. there will be chances for them to adapt when two different languages interact. eventually, they will complement each other. therefore, the development of new terminology is possible to happen in any language because language itself is not static but dynamic. gain is possible due to the dynamism of language (o’neil, 2006). gain is possible when a new communication acts were made to create a new thing out of a previously existing one. relative expressional abilities and creativity enable someone to create something new. in translation, gain depends on the relative expressional abilities of the translators. translators are always in the situation where they are subjected to the pressure to negotiate the differences in meaning that languages entail. translators need to analyze the relationship between a language and the social context in which it is used. once translators manage to present a new terminology or concept which can give clarity of the message and surely enrich the target language, the target language will gain something. gain enable us to the assumption that translator can sometimes produce target text which is far better from the source text by making it clearer and more legible to the readers, for instance, by making “unexpressed situational element expressed” (vinay & darbelnet, 2004). gain will eventually enable the text to be self-sufficient. translators need to consider any loss or gain in translation. loss and gain can be in semantic or syntax level of a text. sholikin (2013), in his thesis on the translation of bilingual book, stated that loss is shown on word class loss and phrase class loss. gain is also shown only on word class gain and phrase class gain. the loss is made in order to make the tt acceptable and easily to read and understand. gain process is taken in order to deliver the whole messages of the st in the tt perfectly. agustina (2013), in her thesis on the translation of comic, pointedout that loss and gain are found in some words, phrases or even clauses. loss and gain are applied to make the translation works acceptable, readable and natural to the target readers. from the theories and research results mentioned, this study sees the importance of analyzing the loss and gain in translation semantically as previous researches only investigate loss and gain syntactically. furthermore, the data analyzed are focused only on csis. it means that the analysis focused on any loss or gain in the meaning transferred in translating csis. research on loss and gain in translating csis needs to be conducted as there are many of indonesian novels or other literary works are translated into english. translators should be aware of the possible loss and gain that will occur in translating the csis. methods the object analyzed in this research is the novel entitled lintang kemukus by ahmad tohari and its english version entitled a shooting star at dawn, one of the trilogy in the novel the dancer which is translated by 3loss and gain in translation .... (leni tiwiyanti; ayu bandu retnomurti) rene t. a. lysloff. the novel has been choosen because of its historical and cultural background. the dancer is set in the tumultuous days of the mid 1960s. it describes a village community in banyumas, central java which struggles to adapt to a rapidly changing world under the communist coup. readers will be entertained not only with a political turmoil and human tragedy but it also provides many indonesian cultural dynamics. as a literary work, the novel is considered as the right source of csis. this is a descriptive qualitative research. this research uses descriptive qualitative method because this study relies on opinion and belief rather than statistical data which are inclined to quantitative research. the data are csis in the form of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of the original and its translation that contained loss and gain. it is descriptive qualitative in which the researchers examine loss and gain in the translation of csis from indonesian into english. to collect the data, both of the novels are read thoroughly to find all the csis and its translations. after the data are collected, the next step taken is analysis. the csis from both indonesian version and english version are compared to find the loss and gain in translation. thus, the main focus of the analysis is of loss and gain. loss and gain are classified according to the semantic level loss and gain. first the data are analyzed based on loss and gain occured. after that, loss will be analyzed based on two categories; inevitable and avertable. on the other hand, gain will be analyzed based on the compensation method applied. for this purpose, the data are analyzed based on the meaning by consulting dictionaries. the results show that there is more loss than gain in the translation of csis from indonesian into english. results and discussions rene t. a. lysloff is an associate professor of music (ethnomusicology) and came to ucr in the fall of 1996 after teaching two years at the university of pittsburgh. before that, he was a visiting assistant professor of music at grinnell college (1992-1993) and also taught at oberlin college and the university of wisconsin-madison. his dissertation explores local expressions of cultural universals in rural javanese. his most recently completed project is translating a contemporary indonesian novel (in three volumes) by ahmad tohari entitled ronggeng dukuh paruk [a dancer of paruk village]. the novel explores the lives of a rural dancing girl and her childhood sweetheart as they experience the tumultuous changes in indonesia from 1946 to 1971. the english translation, entitled the dancer, is published as a single volume through the lontar foundation (jakarta) and distributed worldwide. based on his familiarity with indonesian culture, we can expect his ability to find the equivalence for the indonesian csis into english. there are two kinds of losses. the first one is inevitable loss. it occurs because of the divergent systems of the two languages regardless of the skill and competence of the translator. in this case, translators usually can not establish equivalence and therefore resorts to compensatory strategies. the second loss is an avertable loss attributed to translator’s failure to find the appropriate equivalence. each of them will be discussed in the following paragraphs. indonesian culture is different from american culture or any other english speaking countries. therefore, there will be inevitable loss occur in translating the indonesian csis into english. the source language csis may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target text readers’ culture. such cause is also known as extralinguistic discrepancies. the data shows that there are some csis which experience loss in the translation process, they may relate to ecology, public life, social life, personal life, customs and pursuits, and private passions. table 1 provides some examples of inevitable loss found in the novel. table 1 inevitable loss by a more general word source text target text translation procedure ... tidur dalam posisi miring ke arah tepi balaibalai, .... (p.3) ..., lay on a bed on the other side of the room, .... (p.118) translation by a more general word the data show how the csi balai-balai is translated into bed. the translator uses a more general word as the equivalence of the word balai-balai. balai-balai refers to seat or bed made from bamboo or wood and bed means a piece of furniture which is used as a place to sleep or relax. semantic loss is on two concepts. first is on the function. the english translation seems to create a concept that balai-balai is used both as a seat and as a bed. however, any indonesian people use it as a seat during the day or sleep at night. therefore, loss in meaning occurs. the second one is loss in the material. balai-balai is usually made from bamboo or wood. bamboo is very useful and mostly found in asia, therefore it is commonly used in making furnitures. in the example, loss in translation on csi is inevitable because there are cultural background differences between the st and the tt and this lead to the fact that the tt readers do not recognize the st csi, as seen in table 2. table 2 inevitable loss by translation by cultural substitution source text target text translation procedure ... dan membantu anak-anak gembala membuat layanglayang dari daun gadung (p.7) ..., and help them build kites from the leaves of the turnip plant (p. 123) translation by cultural substitution table 2 shows how the csi gadung is translated into the turnip plant. the translator uses cultural substitution for the csi. although both gadung and the turnip plant are root vegetables, they are basically different entities. both have more differences than similarities. gadung is an edible vegetable root which actually can be poisonous if it is cooked incorrectly, while turnip plantis a vegetable root commonly growing in temperate climates worldwide for its white, bulbous taproot with round shape and non poisonous. in the text, the focus lies on the leaves. gadung has broad leaf which is divided into three parts enabling us to make a kite out of the leaf. on the contrary, turnip plant leaf has different shape which is impossible to use as a kite. consequently, there will be confusion on how to make kites from the substitution. 4 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 1-6 this loss in translation belongs to inevitable loss because there are extralinguistic discrepancies which make it difficult for the translator to give the exact equivalence, as seen in table 3. table 3 inevitable loss by using a more neutral/less expressive word source text target text translation procedure "lho, bukan. kalung ini bukan buat upahmu menari atau bertayub," ujar marsusi (p.41) “no. that’s not what i want. this necklace isn’t payment for you to perform or for you to dance with me. (p.160) translation by using a more neutral/ less expressive word table 3 shows that the csi bertayub is translated into perform. the translator chooses to apply translating by using more neutral/less expressive word. the csi bertayub actually generated from the words ditata (arranged) and guyub (harmonious). all together, bertayub means dancing together in such an arrangement to make harmonious movement accompanied by musical instrument as the background. the equivalence perform lack the richness contained in the word bertayub which imply the concept of arranged and harmonious. therefore, from the explanation above, loss in translation occurs. this kind of loss belongs to inevitable loss as the csi is culturally bound with the people in banyumas. again, extralinguistic discrepancies cause inavertable loss in translation avertable loss is attributed to either the translator’s incompetent in one or both languages or the translator’s deficiency and failure in finding the correct and accurate equivalence of the csis in the tt. table 4 shows some examples found in the data. table 4 avertable loss by using loan word without explanation source text target text translation procedure dan ronggeng itu merasa heran mengapa ada seorang lelaki dari jenis lainnya (p.4) the ronggeng felt surprised that there existed one man who felt different to her (p.120) translation by using loan word without explanation table 4 is closely related to the world of banyumasan people. the csi ronggeng is a custom that had existed for years. the word refers to traditional dancers who perform traditional dances. they, in return, will get some money from the audiences. yet, there is a sense of prostitution related to the performance and the ronggeng themselves. the translator simply uses translation by using loan word to evoke the traditional atmosphere of the source text culture. however, there is loss in the translation as the translator only uses loan word without any explanation to compensate the loss. the loss is avertable as the concept is actually can be best enriched with more explanation. lysloff may have some other consideration that he decided not to give further explanation. table 5 avertable loss by using more general word source text target text translation procedure biasanya srintil bergadang dalam suasana gairah dengan ciu, dengan uang, dan dengan berahi (48) chatting through hr night in passionate encounters involving drinking, money, and sexual desire .... (166) translation by using a more general word the data in the table 5 shows how the csi ciu is translated into drinking. the translator chooses to use translation by using a more general word. the word ciu refers to alcoholic traditional drink in banyumas which is made of fermented cassava, palm sugar and some other ingredients. however, the word drinking means consuming or having the habit of consuming alcohol, especially to excess. the tt is more general than the st as it only conveys the habit. the type of alcoholic drink is not conveyed. the loss shown in the data above is avertable as the translator can actually use another translation procedure which will convey the acceptable csi of the st better. the translation does not reflect any concept of the kind or any further explanation on the kind of alcoholic drink. although there is extralinguistic discrepancy, the translator can still have a way to find the closest equivalence by giving more explanation. therefore, we can classify the loss above as avertable loss, as seen in table 6. table 6 avertable loss by paraphrase using unrelated word source text target text translation procedure srintil sesudah berusia delapan belas adalah srintil yang telah mengalami perihnya upacara bukak-klambu (p. 81) srintil at eighteen was a woman who had already experience the pain that came with the opening of mosquito netting. (p.200) translation by paraphrase using related word discussion: table 6 shows how the csi bukak klambu is translated into the opening of mosquito netting. the translator chooses to translate the st by using related word to paraphrase. as seen in the tt, the translator uses the concept of mosquito netting which is the equivalence of the concept klambu. however, the phrase bukak klambu represents a figurative meaning which refers to a ritual where a ronggeng, a traditional dancer, gives her virginity to any man who can pay the highest for the ritual. in the translation, the concept is far different and even does not have any relation at all. in this case, the translator should have used something that can represent the concept. based on the analysis above, this is another example on avertable loss. the translator should have recognized the st figurative language so that he can convey the implicit meaning of the st correctly and find the closest equivalence. although no theory indicates directly the factors that may create and enhance the gain within the target text, it 5loss and gain in translation .... (leni tiwiyanti; ayu bandu retnomurti) can be concluded that gain occurs due to linguistic causes, cultural causes and personal causes. in the english version of the novel, we can see how lysloff’s experience and familiarity with indonesian culture after spending some years in java, allow him to translate the indonesian version in such a creative way. he frequently gives explanation on any csis included in the novel. here are some data showing gain in translation found the english version of the novel. table 7 gain in translation by using paraphrase with related word source text target text translation procedure martabat mereka sebagai dukun ronggeng berada dalam taruhan (p.6) their status as ronggeng trainers, as traditional healers, and as experts on village female dancer was at stake... (p.122) translation by using paraphrase with related word the first data of the table 7 shows gain in translation process as a result of applying paraphrase using related word to compensate the possible loss. the paraphrase conveys explanation on the csi dukun ronggeng of the st. in banyumas society, dukun ronggeng refers to someone who teaches a traditional dance and decides who can be a ronggeng (a traditional dancer) in the society. once a person has made choices, he or she can promote the dancer to perform a dance performance based on someone’s request who is willing to pay some amount of money. the translator applies translation by using paraphrase with related word. he uses loan word, ronggeng, with more generic term trainer for the word dukun. yet, he continues adding enrichment to the term by giving further explanation on any skills that dukun can posses. the translator chooses to use the phrase ronggeng trainers, as traditional healers, and as experts on village female dancer. the translator’s experience gained while living in banyumas society can well shape his concept of dukun. the translator feels the need to compensate the possible loss by enriching the term as the target text readers’ concept on ronggeng and dukun ronggeng is the focus of the novel. the translation helps the tt readers to gain more information on the csi. table 8 gain in translation by using paraphrase with unrelated word source text target text translation procedure istrinya selalu muncul dengan kain kebaya lengkap dengan selendang.... (p.21) his wife was wearing awrap around skirt, and a embroidered blousewith a sash.... (136) translation by using paraphrase with unrelated word discussion: the data of table 8 shows how skillful the translator is to build an equivalence that can best describe the csi of the st kebaya which is a traditional dress in indonesia. the translator uses paraphrase with unrelated word to compensate the possible loss. in this data the translator replaces the csi kebaya with a wrap around skirt, and an embroidered blouse. kebaya is unknown to the tt readers; therefore, the translator decides to paraphrase the csi in order to better understanding. the translator manages to bring gain in translation as the csi kebaya can now be understood by the target text readers. therefore, table 9 shows what we call as gain in translation process. table 9 gain in translation by using loan word with explanation source text target text translation procedure melihat keadaannya dua di antara mereka tentulah tengkulak terasi,.... (p,62) two of them were traders of terasi, a pungent spice made from shrimps, crabs and other seafood. (181) translation by using loan word with explanation the data above also show gain in translation process. the procedure used to compensate the possible loss is translation by using loan word with explanation. the csi terasi is translated into terasi, a pungent spice made from shrimps, crabs and other seafood. the translator borrows the csi terasi and adds some enrichment by giving the substitution that almost has similar concept. the translation enables the tt readers to be familiar with the csi terasi and understand the concept of the csi as it provides further explanation. the translator’s creativity is required to find the equivalence which can enrich and clarify the csi of the st. conclusions this research examines loss and gain in the translation of culture-specific items (csis) from indonesian into english. both languages are from different language families. differences exist between both languages make csis as untranslatable. the result shows loss is more prevalent than gain although the translator has enough knowledge on the st culture as he has spent some years doing some research in banyumas society. loss occurs because a cultural gap lies between the two respected languages. many source language csis of the source text are unknown to english speakers. there are two kinds of loss found in this study; inevitable and avertable losses. inevitable loss is a result of the extralinguistic discrepancies between the two languages which even skillful translator sometimes cannot manage to avoid. the second one is avertable loss which a result of the translator’s deficiency and failure in finding the correct and accurate equivalent term to replace the csis in the tt. translation procedures used which commonly cause loss in translation are translation by a more general word (subordinate), translation by a more neutral/less expressive word and translation by cultural substitution. gain was realized mostly through the creativity of the translators when they were able to provide enrichment or clarification on the csis for effective communication. the creativity of the translator accompanied by knowledge on the source text culture enable the translator to bring gain in translation which will create better communication. in order 6 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 1-6 to compensate the loss that might have occured, translator uses some translation procedures. they are translation by loan word with explanation, translation by paraphrase using related word, and translation by paraphrase using unrelated word. in conclusion, gain in translation for better communication is not easy to achieve especially in the case of culture-specific items. translator should have enough skill and knowledge to enable them to bring enrichment to the translation. in addition to that, translator’s creativity is also needed as it will help producing better translation. references agustina, s. (2013). loss and gain in translation process of a comic “the adventures of tintin: tintin in america” into indonesian version “petualangan tintin: tintin di amerika”. thesis. semarang: fakultas ilmu budaya. dian nuswantoro university. alwazna, r. y. (2014). the cultural aspect of translation: the workability of cultural translation strategies in translating culture-specific texts. life science journal, 11(11), 182–188. bassnett, s. (2006). translation studies. in the years work in critical and cultural theory. 17, 148–163. retrieved from http://usir.salford.ac.uk/6186/ chesterman, a. (2012). mona baker. in other words. a coursebook on translation. target: international journal of translation studies. 24(1), 191–193. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.24.1.19che davies, e. e. (2003). a goblin or a dirty nose? the treatment of culture-specific references in translations of the harry potter books. the translator, 9(1), 65–100. dizdar, d. (2014). instrumental thinking in translation studies. target: international journal on translation studies, 26(2), 206–223. gambier, y., & shlesinger, m. (2007). doubts and directions in translation studies. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. lewis, r. d. (2006). when cultures collide: leading across cultures. harvard law review. https://doi. org/10.1108/eb059499 nida, e. a. (2015). contexts in translating. statewide agricultural land use baseline 2015,1. https://doi. org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 nozizwe, d., & ncube, b. (2014). loss and gain in translation: a case of court translations. african journal of scientific research, 12(1), 670-687 o’neil, d. (2006). world diversity patterns. retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/ethnicity/ethnic_5.html padmavathy, n., & thangavel, n. (2011). the impact of reverse cultural shock among repatriates. international journal of research in commerce, it, and management, 1(2), 50–56. sholikin, a. (2013). loss and gain in the bilingual handbook “tanjung emas sebagai central point port” by yunus inuhan (thesis). semarang: fakultas ilmu budaya, dian nuswantoro university. steiner, g. (2006). after babel: aspects of language & translation. uk: oxford university press. vinay, j. p., & darbelnet, j. (2004). a methodology for translation. in l. venuti (ed.). the translation studies readers, 128-137. uk: routledge. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 67 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 67-75 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.2997 developing students’ reading culture for academic reading level through metacognitive strategies pranowo departement of indonesian, local language, & literature education, faculty of teacher & training, university of sanata dharma jln. affandi tromol pos 29, depok, yogyakarta 55002, indonesia prof.pranowo2@gmail.com received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 15th august 2017/ accepted: 20th august 2017 how to cite: pranowo. (2018). developing students’ reading culture for academic reading level through metacognitive strategies. lingua cultura, 12(1), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.2997 abstract the development of reading culture for this academic level used the metacognitive strategies. this research was a case study in wihich the data sources were randomly drawn from various print sources by cutting off the core of the text to be analyzed. the technique of data analysis was done with two steps. the first step was to identify each data based on the categories that contained in the cognitive domain. the second step was the results of the analysis of the cognitive domains viewed based on the metacognitive strategies that included the process of planning, monitoring, and evaluating. the results of the research are that reading culture at the academic level can be developed through metacognition strategy. the steps that can be done are the reader performs cognitive process starting from remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. then, every cognitive process is reviewed that the academic reading culture can be developed with metacognitive strategies that are the type of intensive reading includes, reading comprehension, reading critically, reading creatively, reading interpretative, and reading reflective. keywords: student`s reading culture, metacognitive strategies, academic reading, intensive reading introduction the culture of reading is one symbol that shows the progress of civilization of the nation. nations that have a high reading culture will be able to master science, technology, and art. with high reading culture, the people will be able to solve various problems that are being faced by the nation and will be able to innovate and create in everything. indonesian civilization history is the civilization of storytelling or oral tradition; a common word for the mouth communication. when the reading and writing tradition are only introduced for a few centuries, a new oral tradition technology appears in the form of radio and television. the newly developed literacy tradition suddenly experiences a setback to the oral tradition once again. this is one of the reasons why the literacy tradition in indonesia is not making any progress. in such conditions, the culture of literacy must be built from the beginning and using the strategies that allow people to move from oral to literacy culture. this can be done by looking at the existing reality in the community before determining the chosen strategy. the human development index (hdi) research results that released by undp in 2002 have stated that the literacy data of the indonesian people rank in the 110th from 173 countries. the position goes down one level to 111 in 2009 (iftanti, 2015). in addition, in 2009, the results of the research by the organization for the economic cooperation development (oecd) have shown that the reading culture of the indonesian people has the lowest ranking out of 52 countries in the east asia (jackson & kiersz, 2016). the other alarming fact is the low reading index among the indonesian people. the unesco’s index of reading released in 2012 has shown that indonesia’s index of reading is at 0,001. it means that in every 1000 people in indonesia, only one person has a good reading habit (pranowo & herujiyamto, 2015). the condition becomes dilemmatic and apprehensive. on the other hands, the modern oral tradition continues to grow, while the literacy culture which has not taken root is fading away. the indonesian people who have realized the importance of education must make efforts to foster the reading culture among the indonesian community. some factors which cause the low reading culture include the internal and external factors. for the internal factors, it is caused by the motivation, interest, habit, emotional states, 68 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 67-75 reading methods, prior knowledge, and intelligence. for the external factors, it is caused by the text’s level of difficulty, socio-economic backgrounds, surrounding atmosphere and timing, and the influence of the oral culture (pranowo & herujiyanto, 2015). by looking at the reality, indonesian people must dare to seek a breakthrough to build a literacy culture. indonesian people will continue to lack behind from the other nations without it. the first thing to do can be done by building a reading culture for the students who want to become teachers in the primary and secondary education. the students who choose the department of education should be familiarized with the culture of reading. this breakthrough needs to be done because they who are going to be teachers need to have good reading culture. while they are still students, the habits of reading culture are needed to be formed optimally, such as the habit of discussing the contents of the book, the habit of summarizing the contents of the book, the habit of reviewing the content of the book, and the habit of participating in a book-reading contest to challenge oneself. if such breakthroughs are not made immediately, the reading habit is not going to have developed because after they are being employed, they are going to be busy with the administrative tasks. for examples, they need to organize the school activities, preparing the lesson materials, and teaching many classes. second, to develop the reading habit is by reading in the academic level including the literal reading, reading comprehension, critical reading and creative reading, and interpretative reading (owusu-acheaw & larson, 2014). the other reason for choosing to read academic texts is that after the students graduate and work as teachers in primary and secondary education, they must develop their students’ reading culture to master science and technology. in literal reading, the readers want to find the explicit information directly in the reading text. they immediately capture the meaning of the reading text from the information that is explicitly stated in the passage. according to banner and wang (2011), the literal reading is reading and understanding the content of the text that explicitly written in the passage. the purpose of literal reading is sole to recognize the meaning that explicitly has stated in the text. the reader simply captures the literal information (reading the lines) in the text (chiang, 2016). the reader does not attempt to infer (reading between the lines) or capture more information that implicitly states in the text. this type of literal reading is usually done in the academic reading level among the students in primary education. to develop the literal understanding, it is divided into two categories, such as the ability to recognize and the ability to paraphrase the contents of reading. the ability to recognize the contents of the reading is the ability to find the explicit meaning, while the ability to paraphrase is the ability to express the content of the reading text in their own words. although literal reading is an academic reading category, it should be recognized that reading the academic level through literal reading is devoted to the level of basic education. in the meantime, for the student level, it is usually using the comprehensive reading type. comprehensive reading basically focuses on the comprehension and the process of building from the text (durkin, 1989). it is a complex interaction between automated and strategic cognitive processes that allow the readers to create text representations (broek & espin, 2012). the comprehension not only depends on the characteristics of the reader, such as the knowledge and memory work, but also on language mastery, such as the basic reading skills, decoding, vocabulary, sensitivity to text structure, inference, and motivation. understanding it also requires the efficient and effective strategies, such as the metacognitive strategies. for adult readers with their comprehension skills, they can read efficiently (yovanoff et al., 2005). norris and phillip (1987) have stated that reading does not simply say what is in the text, but also to think of what is in the text. the experts have admitted that reading involves thinking (capps & huang, 2015) because reading is the reasoning. yu-hui, li-rong, and yue (2010) have stated clearly that reading is the process of thinking to build meaning. concretely, the comprehension reading basically also performs the activities, such as understanding the meaning of words, terms, idioms, and the expressions that used in the text, capturing the explicit meaning that contained in the text, capturing the implicit meaning that contained in the text, drawing the conclusions on the content of the reading text, predicting what is going to happen after the text is read by the community, and being able to evaluate the content and the language that being used in the reading text (medar & kenchakkanavar, 2015). critical reading essentially seeks to show the advantages and disadvantages of the textual content that based on the data, arguments, examples, and then the consideration and positions the author’s thought among the thoughts of the other authors. thus, the critical reader is not seeking the weakness of the text content but providing the enlightenment to the other readers as well as to the author himself (poornima & kumari, 2015). the characteristics of critical reading are being able to examine the evidence and arguments that contained in the text, examining the effect of the evidence or arguments on statements, examining the limitations of the study design or the focus of the expressions of ideas through the texts, examining the interpretations, and deciding on the extent to which the readers are prepared to accept the arguments, opinions, or conclusions of the author of the text (pranowo & herijuyanto, 2015). based on these characteristics, a critical reader not only acknowledges what the text says but also how the text describes the discussed matter. the reader knows various ways that every reading text is a unique work from a unique author. in other words, the critical reader is already two steps ahead of the non-critical reader. it means that critical readers do not simply understand the content of the text. they will question whether the author offers an example, debates the author’s opinion, try to attract the sympathy from the other readers, or makes a contrast to clarify the author’s intention. finally, the critical readers try to conclude the author’s intention in the text thoroughly based on their analysis. creative reading is a reading activity to gain added value from the information that contains in the text by identifying the outstanding ideas or combining information that previously owned (medar & kenchakkanavar, 2015). it is not just reading to grasp the explicit meaning, but it is creatively able to apply the results of it to enrich their thinking and to create something new. in other words, the creative reading can be interpreted as the follow-up activities after reading. after the reading activity, readers do the other activities that are beneficial for the improvement of their life. interpretative reading is a skill of interpreting through the text. sometimes, the text’s meaning is not the same as the author’s intention (medar & kenchakkanavar, 2015). 69developing students’ reading culture .... (pranowo) therefore, to correctly interpret the author’s intentions, the readers need to understand the aspects, for examples to recognize the author’s traits and personality, cultural background, discipline, the point of view or ideology, and daily behavior. nevertheless, the interpretation cannot be separated from the previous readers’ background knowledge. the purpose of interpretative reading is largely determined by the type of the reading texts. if it is a fictional type, the interpretation made by the readers should be considered to the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of the fictional work. in addition, the readers’ point of view and discipline also determine its results. it can be seen by the cultural expert; the same work may yield different interpretations than when it is read by the reader who has a literary ecological background. conversely, if the readings are an argumentative type, the readers should consider the data, arguments, the causal relationship, the reasoning technique, and the organizational structure of the text (ibrahim, 2014). third, the development of a reading culture of the academic texts can be done by using various strategies. one of them is the metacognitive strategies. the term of metacognition is first raised by john flavell in the late 1970s which means about the cognitive phenomena or more simply thinking about thinking. the term meta is derived from the greek which is translated in english into after, beyond, with, and adjacent as the prefix to denote an abstraction of a concept. the metacognition is defined as the knowledge that based on reasoning and the associated with cognitive events dealing with a matter (flavell, 1979). this metacognition is often called the cognition on cognition (thinking about thinking). flavell, miller, and miller (2002) have described two dimensions of metacognition that are related but differ in the concept, namely knowledge metacognition, and process metacognition. the knowledge of metacognition refers to the deep awareness and understanding of one’s own processes and products, while the metacognition experience/process refers to one’s ability to monitor or organize a reader’s cognitive activities during a problem-solving process. metacognition can also mean to know what people do not know or know what people know. this working process is like an executive who manages the organization or the work of a thinker that managing thoughts. as a strategy, the basic metacognition can be explained as connecting the new information to form other new knowledge, choosing to think deliberately with a strategy and planning, monitoring, and evaluating the process of thinking. someone thinks and is responsible for what he/ she does in determining when to use the metacognitive strategies. they choose a strategy to define the subject and find an alternative solution. the seekers of this solution are trying to overcome the time and the energy that constraints. someone plans, controls, and judges his/her own thoughts. he/she evaluates and decides when the issue is resolved to a satisfactory level or when the demands of everyday events will become a higher priority scale for a short or long-term (baharuddin & kadir, 2015). in line with flavell (1979), huitt (2003) also has stated that the metacognition is a person’s knowledge of his/her cognitive system, one’s thought of one’s thinking, and one’s essential skills in learning to learn. huitt (2003) further suggests that there are two components that include in the metacognition, namely what people know or do not know, and how people learn. simon & brown (in desoete, roeyers, & buysse, 2001) have divided metacognitive skills into two, namely the metacognition knowledge and metacognition skills. metacognition knowledge is then elaborated into the three indicators, such as the declarative knowledge or the knowledge of something. the declarative knowledge includes the knowledge of self as a learner and the factors that are influencing one’s knowledge. the declarative knowledge may differ in the topic and scope, e.g., knowing about the facts, generalizations, personal events, and personal attitudes. in addition, the facts can be organized into groups of facts, generalizations can be organized into the theories, and personal events can be composed of life history, procedural knowledge is the awareness of thought processes or the know-how to achieve the goals and the knowledge of how to be skillful and how to do it. someone with the high level of procedural knowledge can be used to the different strategies to solve the problems. conditional knowledge is an awareness of conditions that affect the learning and the knowledge of reasons, such as, why a strategy is used and why something is done. metacognition skills are defined as individual control of their thought processes. metacognition skills are classified into four indicators. they are the prediction skill or a skill in making estimation or forecasts, planning skill is a skill to design something to be done, monitoring skills refers to one’s consciousness in line with one’s understanding and execution of the task, and the evaluation skill is a skill in assessing the product and process of a person’s learning arrangement. in general, the metacognition can be summarized as a person’s ability in learning, which includes how good the learning is done, what is and has not been known. it can be divided into three stages; when to plan what to learn and how to learn it, how to monitor the learning process, and how to evaluate what has been planned, what has been done, and the result of the reading process. these three stages are called thinking about thinking, what people know or do not know and how to learn, and how to think reflectively. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 procedure of metacognitive strategies this application of metacognitive strategies in the development of reading culture through the academic reading can be done in accordance with these metacognitive processes. the development of reading culture through reading at the academic level requires planning metacognitive strategies. planning in the metacognitive strategies for academic reading includes three procedures, namely pre-reading, reading, and post-reading practices. pre-reading practices are conducted through the surveys, such as reading titles, authors, table of contents, number of chapters, and indexes. this process is followed by reading the introduction, checking the outline of the 70 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 67-75 contents of each chapter, creating a resume of the contents of the reading text, and drawing the conclusions on the content of the reading text. these reading practices, e.g., reading comprehension, are done by silent reading to capture the meaning of the word (term, phrase, etc.), to grasp the explicit meaning, to infer the implicit meaning, to summarize, to predict, and to evaluate. pre-reading practices are conducted through the surveys, such as reading titles, authors, table of contents, number of chapters, and indexes. this process is followed by reading the introduction, checking the outline of the contents of each chapter, creating a resume of the contents of the reading text, and drawing the conclusions on the content of the reading text. these reading practices, e.g., reading comprehension, are done by silent reading to capture the meaning of the word (term, phrase, etc.), to grasp the explicit meaning, to infer the implicit meaning, to summarize, to predict, and to evaluate. post-reading practice is done by outlining the contents of the reading text, arranging the reading schedule, reading frequency, and choosing the type of reading texts. at this stage, schiff and calif (2004) suggest that reading is done silently. thiede, anderson, and therriault (2003) believe that reading comprehension needs to be accurately monitored when a reader is reading for comprehension. the simplest monitoring procedure can be done by; (a) the lecturer assigns a structured task to the reader, (b) the duration / time required for reading is limited according to the number of reading materials, (c) the reading frequency is monitored by reporting the results of the reading activity, (d) student is tested upon completing the reading assignment, either objectively or descriptively. this metacognition stage is used to monitor the learning process in the cognitive domain in accordance with the stages of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. these four monitoring procedures are conducted to guide the reader to independently be able to learn the structured, manage the regular study time, and compile the reports of their reading assignments. self-evaluation strategy has shown that the reader’s ability to self-evaluate in learning to read for comprehension. the metacognitive strategies state that this strategy is important to develop a text reading behavior which enables them to self-evaluate for the problem solving, self-monitoring, and self-control in learning. therefore, brown and palincsar (1987) have proposed these two stages of academic reading, i.e., students read quickly without any attempt to understand the text and the students who read slowly and carefully to read better by monitoring all the activities to understand the content (reading slowly and attentively to be able to apply various cognitive strategies to understand the material). each reading stage is performed using the cognitive categories. thus, for each stage for the reader to understand the content of the reading text, it is necessary to use the six cognitive categories. however, the required category will only be used for the information that is not too difficult. the same thing also happens to the indicator. not all the indicators contained in each category will be applied in any reading comprehension activity. only the necessary indicators will be used to understand the content of the reading text. the cognitive category indicators along with their operational verbs (anderson & krathwohl, 2001) can be seen in table 1. table 1 cognitive category and operational verbs cognitive domains operational verbs remembering recognize, recall, describe, identify; write a text, send messages, talk. understanding classify, compare, interpret, argue; talk, contribute. applying perform procedures, implement, disseminate; post, blog, answer. analyzing attribute, organize, integrate, validate; ask, review. evaluating check, critique, hypothesize, experiment; discuss, comment, argue. creating generalize, design, produce, re-plan; negotiate, moderate, collaborate. creating is categorized as the higher order thinking skill methods this study is a case study. the sources of research data are randomly drawn text from three print sources, namely tempo magazine, kompas newspaper, and sindo news. the data collection techniques are done by cutting off the core of the text to be analyzed. the data collection techniques are done by cutting off the excerpts of the text to be analyzed. the data analysis technique is done in two steps. the first step is to identify each of the data based on the categories contained in the cognitive domain, such as the remembering stage. it defines the meaning of difficult words, phrases, and terms used in the text. the understanding stage, i.e., to grasp the meaning contains in the data by one or several indicators, such as comparing and interpreting. the stage of applying that is applying theoretical concepts in accordance with the procedure and implementing the concept. the analyzing stage is describing an object into smaller manageable tasks, for example validating and reviewing. the evaluating stage is re-checking or criticizing something based on certain criteria. the last is creating something new or modifying something that already exists into something else, such as criticizing, arguing, and so on. in the second step, the results of the analysis based on the cognitive domains are then viewed according to their metacognitive strategies including the process of planning, monitoring, and evaluating. schematically, the work of metacognitive strategies is against the cognitive domain can be described in figure 2. 71developing students’ reading culture .... (pranowo) results and discussions reading culture at the academic level can be developed through the metacognitive strategies in the several steps. first, the reader performs the cognitive process of reading the text starting from remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. each category can be spelled out through the operational verbs as indicators. however, each category translation may not use all the indicators. second, each cognitive process is then reviewed using the metacognitive strategies to yield the cognitive thinking outcomes ranging from planning, monitoring, and evaluating (reflection). to develop the process of remembering, the reader is presented with an excerpt of an academic text to understand the meaning of words, terms, idioms, and so on. it can be seen from the example; (1) gunung es pelemahan kpk (the tip of the iceberg in the attempts to weaken of corruption eradication commision/kpk). (2) perubahan ini tidak transparan dan tidak mengikuti prosedur. (the amendment of kpk law is not transparent and does not follow the established procedures). (3) kpk harus berpedoman pada lima asas, yakni kepastian hukum, keterbukaan, akuntabilitas, kepentingan umum, dan proporsionalitas. (kpk must be guided by five principles of legal certainty, transparency, accountability, the public interest, and proportionality). (4) ... yang melahirkan “tarung cicak versus budaya” ... (which gave rise to the famous gecko vs crocodile dispute between the kpk and the police). before the reader moves on to the next step, one must first understand the meaning of the word or phrase that is being used by the author in the text he or she reads. the meaning of phrases such as gunung es (iceberg), tarung cicak versus buaya (dispute between gecko and crocodile) cannot be understood lexically. the phrase gunung es should be understood that the problem is actually very large, but what appears on the surface seems small and not dangerous. however, if the peak is dismantled, the other issues that do not appear previously are far more numerous and large. likewise, cicak versus buaya should be understood that the gecko is a small animal even though its shape resembles a crocodile. meanwhile, the crocodiles are big and savageous. therefore, geckos will never win against crocodiles. kpk as a corruption eradication commission is considered as a gecko, while the police force is like a crocodile, it is a very big institution compared to kpk. in addition, the readers must also understand the meaning of the word used in the text. most of the difficult words used in the text are loan words from a foreign language or a local vernacular language. the words transparent, accountability, and proportional (balanced) are the loan words. however, if there are too many loan words or phrases, the understanding of the text will be hindered. in the recalling category in relation to the planning aspect of the metacognitive strategy, the reader should consider the known and the unknown. if a reader still does not know the meaning of the word or phrase used in the text, it is likely that the reader will have much trouble understanding the content or information in the text. in terms of metacognitive aspects of monitoring, a reader should always look at words or phrases that are still difficult to understand, any meaning of the words or phrases that have not been understood, and it can complicate the understanding of the text content. and finally, at the stage of evaluating (reflecting), the reader must think of the texts that must be studied or read and think about why there are still many unknown words or phrases. this issue should be solved, and the root causes must be sought after. the next cognitivie process in reading is understand. the understanding category in the cognitive domain can be seen through these indicators, i.e., classify, compare, interpret, argue, and talk. from the many indicators, none of all the indicators must be done. what must be done are some aspects of understanding the text that fit and are directly related to the process of understanding. based on the text being read, for example, the aspects that are considered important for the reader to make them understand the content of the text are those of classifying, comparing, interpreting, and arguing. the text below shows the steps of understanding in reading. tiga kali ditabrak, dua kali kena dan sekali salah orang. novel baswedan tak percaya ketiga insiden yang menimpa dirinya kebetulan belaka. dalam dua kali penabrakan yang tepat sasaran, novel tersungkur dari sepeda motornya. beruntung, penyidik utama komisi pemberantasan korupsi itu hanya terluka. (being hit by a car three times, two of which targeted him and the other one was the wrong target, novel baswedan did not believe the three incidents that happened to him was a coincidence. in the two incidents in which he was the target, novel fell from his motorcycle. luckily, the chief investigator of the corruption eradication commission only suffered minor injury). insiden terakhir menimpa novel ketika menangani dua kasus kakap pada pertengahan tahun lalu. pagi itu, berangkat menuju kantor kpk di kawasan kuningan, figure 2 the implementation of metacognitive strategies in the cognitive categories 72 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 67-75 jakarta. novel keluar denngan sepeda motor dari rumahnya di kawasan kelapa gading. di jalan yang membelah kawasan pertokoan, tak jauh dari rumah novel, sebuah mobil avanza menyeruduk. (the last incident struck novel when he handled two big cases in the middle of last year. that morning, when he was heading to his kpk office in kuningan, jakarta, novel rode his motorcycle from his home in kelapa gading area. on the road that separated from the shopping areas, not far from novel’s house, an avanza car struck his motorcycle from behind). novel terpental dari tunggangannya hingga berguling-guling di jalan. sedangkan si penabrak langsung kabur begiti targetnya jatuh. walhasil selama beberapa hari novel tertatih-tatih masuk kantor karena kaki kanannya terluka akibat tertimpa sepeda motor. “jalan masih lengang, kalau tak sengaja, rasanya tak mungkin”, kata novel beberapa hari setelah insiden itu (tempo, 3-9 april 2017). (novel fell from his motorcycle and sprawled on the asphalt after rolling over. it was a hit-and-run as the car sped away after hitting novel off from his motorcycle. as a result, for several days novel hobbled into the office because his right leg was injured due to the accident. “the road was still empty from cars. it would have been impossible to think that the car hit him by accident”, novel said a few days after the incident.) (tempo, edition of april 3rd – 9th , 2017). that text is classified as an excerpt of an opinion article. much of the contained information in the article is the writer’s prior knowledge that he/she has read or heard before. for example, the terrors that are experienced by novel baswedan, the conflict between the kpk and the police, various attempts to weaken the corruption eradication commission, and the failure of the corruption eradication commission to examine police officers allegedly involved in corruption. thus, the ordeal experienced by novel baswedan in which he is doused with acid cannot be separated from his duty as the kpk’s chief investigator. in relation to the metacognitive strategies, the reader will think that any profession which demands the high degree of honesty and integrity will always have risks. novel baswedan has chosen the profession as a police officer that assigned in the kpk. therefore, the risk is part of a consequence of his duty. however, the reader can think, whether the investigators like novel baswedan should be given protection to be safe in carrying out their duties. the comparing indicator shows that the article compares the kpk with the police and the district attorney. one of the reasons for the establishment of kpk institutions is because the existing institutions, namely police and prosecutors, are considered to have failed to eradicate the corruption. in fact, someone in the police and the prosecutor’s office is also involved in the corruption. in terms of metacognitive strategies, through comparison, a reader can see many aspects as indicators that every major corruption case involving an institution that is supposed to oversee the combating corruption, someone or a group of individuals with always vested interested to weaken the kpk in various ways. the interpreting indicator is characterized by a person’s ability to interpret the author’s intention about the information he/she writes. the ability to interpret cannot be separated from the prior knowledge that has been owned. the prior knowledge still has a big effect on the interpretation of the text it reads. it can be considerd from the data below. hasil pilkada dki mengukuhkan efektifnya ikatan berbasis identitas sosial dalam mempengaruhi keputusan pemilih. dalam kondisi ini, rasionalitas pilihan yang disandarkan pada kinerja ataupun program yang ditawarkan pasangan calon kepada daerah bukan jadi penentu terbesar (kompas, 20 april 2017). (the result of dki jakarta elections confirms the effectiveness of social identity-based ties in influencing voters’ decisions. under these circumstances, the rationality of choice based on the performance or program offered by the candidate pairs to the regions is not the greatest determinant (kompas, april 20th, 2017). that utterance, based on who is ahok and who is anies, can be interpreted that regardless of what ahok has done to prove his commitment as the incumbent governor of dki and despite his good performance and concrete programs, it is not guaranteed that the voters will choose ahok. due to his chinese ethnicity and nonmuslim minority, it is difficult to convince the people to vote for him. ahok has two major sins that he does against the prospective voters. first, ahok is considered to have tarnished the islamic people by citing al maidah verse 51. second, ahok is considered harsh and abusive characters, which are considered unacceptable to run as the candidate of jakarta governor, a position mostly dominated by javanese ethnic group. meanwhile, although anies as a newcomer, he comes from the javanese ethnicity and always presents himself as a polite and devout muslim. if it is associated with metacognitive strategies, the gubernatorial election of dki jakarta is a star battle between each candidate. ahok and anies are equally good. however, regardless of any attempts to polish ahok, through monitoring ahok’s movements against his political opponents, as well as evaluating the balance between ahok and anies, ultimately the voters will still choose anies because anies has no political sins that are known publicly by the people. this is approximately how the metacognitive strategies play their role in the minds of the jakarta citizens. the next cognitive process is apply. the applying category means one’s ability to apply a theoretical concept to the actual form of everyday actions. this category has indicators, such as operating procedures, implementing, and disseminating. the indicators can be seen based on the following data. pada 2004, susi memutuskan membeli sebuah pesawat cessna caravan seharga rp 20 miliar menggunakan pinjaman bank. melalui pt asi pudjiastuti aviation yang ia dirikan, satu-satunya pesawat yang ia miliki itu ia gunakan untuk mengangkut lobster dan ikan segar tangkapan nelayan di berbagai pantai di indonesia ke pasar jakarta dan jepang. call sign yang digunakan cessna itu adalah susi air. dua hari setelah gempa tektonik dan tsunami yang melanda aceh dan pantai barat sumatera pada 26 desember 2004, cessna susi adalah pesawat pertama yang berhasil mencapai lokasi bencana untuk mendistribusikan bantuan kepada para korban yang berada di daerah terisolasi (kompas,com. kompas.com, 27/10/2014)). in 2004, susi had decided to buy a cessna caravan aircraft for rp 20 billion using bank loans. through pt asi pudjiastuti aviation which she founded, she used the only plane she had to transport lobsters and fresh fish that caught by many fishermen in various indonesian beaches to jakarta and japan markets. the call sign used by the cessna is susi air. two days after the tectonic earthquake and tsunami struck aceh and the west coast of sumatra on december 26, 2004, susi’s cessna was the first aircraft to reach the disaster sites to distribute aids to the victims in isolated area. peristiwa itu mengubah arah bisnis susi. di 73developing students’ reading culture .... (pranowo) saat bisnis perikanan mulai merosot, susi menyewakan pesawatnya itu yang semula digunakan untuk mengangkut hasil laut untuk misi kemanusiaan. selama tiga tahun berjalan, maka perusahaan penerbangan ini semakin berkembang hingga memiliki 14 pesawat, ada 4 di papua, 4 pesawat di balikpapan, jawa dan sumatera. perusahaannya memiliki 32 pesawat cessna grand caravan, 9 pesawat pilatus porter, 1 pesawat diamond star dan 1 buah pesawat diamond twin star. sekarang susi air memiliki 49 dan mengoperasikan 50 pesawat terbang beragam jenis. (the event changed the direction of susi’s business. as the fishing business began to decline, susie leased the aircraft that was originally used to transport the seafood for humanitarian missions. for the past three years, the airline has grown to 14 aircrafts, 4 in papua, 4 others in balikpapan, java and sumatra. the company had 32 cessna grand caravan aircrafts, 9 pilatus porter aircrafts, one diamond star and one diamond twin star. now susi air has 49 aircrafts and operates 50 different types of aircraft). based on the excerpt, cognitively the text indicates that susi pujiastuti (sp) is capable of carrying out the procedures she has in mind: (a) buying cessna caravan aircraft for business; (b) using aircrafts for humanitarian missions; and (c) leasing aircrafts for humanitarian relief efforts. in addition, sp also applies her business procedure plan to increase her fleet, which increases the number of aircraft to 14 aircrafts, then increases to 32 aircrafts, and finally increases to 49 aircrafts. similarly, distribution indicators are 14 aircrafts, 4 in papua, 4 aircrafts in balikpapan, java and sumatra. the company has 32 cessna grand caravan aircrafts, 9 pilatus porter aircrafts, 1 diamond star and 1 diamond twin star. regarding the metacognitive strategies, the applying category with the indicators of performing the procedures is a well-conceived planning process and has been considered as the underlying theoretical concepts. of course, the application of theoretical concepts is also closely monitored. each applied theoretical concept is always carefully evaluated so that the business can progress rapidly. the analysis category can be interpreted as the ability to decipher an element into more detailed parts. some of the analysis indicators are including attributing, organizing, integrating, validating, asking, and reviewing. although the indicator for analyzing varies, not every analysis always uses all indicators. one of the elements that is found in the following data is the validating element. pakar ilmu kelautan dari institut teknologi bandung (itb), muslim muin, mengatakan, posisi-posisi menteri strategis yang terkait pengembangan kemaritiman dalam kabinet kerja jokowi diisi oleh orang yang tidak tepat. (the expert marine science from bandung institute of technology (itb), muslim muin, said that the position of strategic ministers related to the development of maritime in jokowi’s kabinet kerja is not filled with the right man on the right place). pengangkatan susi pudjiastuti sebagai menteri kelautan dan perikanan, misalnya, dinilai muslim tidak tepat. susi memang sukses dalam mengembangkan industri pengolahan hasil laut serta transportasi antar-pulau. namun, menurut muslim, itu tak cukup. (muslim claimed that the appointment of susi pudjiastuti as the minister of marine affairs and fisheries, for example, it is considered inappropriate. even though susi is a successful business woman in developing a seafood processing industry as well as an inter-island transportation. however, according to muslim, it is not enough). muslim mempertanyakan apakah susi paham mengenai teknologi kelautan, marine products economics, coastal processes, dan underwater technology. menurut muslim, kepakaran susi hanyalah tentang penangkapan dan penjualan ikan. (muslim questioned whether susi understood the marine technology, marine economy product, coastal processes, and underwater technology. according to muslim, susi’s expertise is limited to catching and selling fish). “kelautan bukan hanya urusan ikan,” katanya. “pengangkatan susi sebagai menteri kelautan dan perikanan menandakan jokowi tidak paham laut. citacita dia, indonesia jadi poros maritim dunia, tidak akan tercapai,” imbuh muslim. (“marine is not just a fish business,” he said. “the appointment of susi as the minister of maritime affairs and fisheries indicates that jokowi does not understand the sea,” he added. under jokowi, indonesia aspires to be a maritime axis of the world. “it will not be achieved,” muslim added.) “............... kalau tidak, ikan akan terus dieksploitasi. kita kelihatan hebat karena produksi ikan kita tinggi, tetapi ikan kita habis. apakah susi paham itu?” ujar muslim. menurut muslim, menyerahkan kursi menteri kepada seorang pengusaha ikan adalah keputusan yang salah. (kompas.com, monday, oktober, 27-2017). (“on the contrary, the fish will continue to be exploited. indonesia will look great as if our fish productions were high, but the truth is that our fish is gone. does susi understand that?” muslim said. according to muslim, handing over a minister’s chair to a fish business woman is a wrong decision. (kompas. com, monday 27/10/2014). based on the analyzing category with the validating indicator, muslim muin makes hasty and invalid statements. he tries to validate his own perception without basing it on empirical data. the validation is very assumptive. in fact, there is an element of envy in his statements. he forgets that every minister always works in a team and is assisted by skilled staff with various expertises. muslim muin’s fear that fish in the indonesian sea will be wiped out by illegal fishing is wrong and invalid. muslim has stated that “indonesia will look great as if our fish productions were high, but the truth is that our fish is gone. does susi understand that?” the foreign ships that are stealing the fish in the indonesian waters are arrested, and the vessels are drowned, which has never been done by ministers in the previous cabinets. this means that muslim muin’s statement is groundless. when viewed from the metacognitive strategy in the planning aspect, muslim muin’s perspective is not worth reconsidering. as a marine expert, he must be able to think comprehensively and not partially to prevent him from making invalid validation. from the monitoring aspect, muslim muin needs to monitor every idea that wants to express. otherwise, he will be publicly humiliated. from the evaluation aspect, muslim muin should give everyone a chance. it is not ethical for an academician to undermine a minister who has not even begun to work. the cognitive category domain that evaluates using the indicators in the form of operational verbs, such as checking, critiquing, hypothesizing, experimenting, discussing, commenting, and arguing. some of these indicators can be used as an evaluation marker. consider the evaluating data below with the critiquing indicators. praktik korupsi di indonesia banyak dilakukan oleh para pejabat dan masih sulit diberantas. padahal, mereka seharusnya justru memberi contoh agar tidak korupsi. 74 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 67-75 faktor penyebab terjadinya korupsi, antara lain kelemahan moral, tekanan ekonomi, lemahnya aturan, tradisi peninggalan pemerintahan kolonial, gaji yang rendah, pengetahuan yang tidak cukup dari bidangnya, dan tradisi mencari tambahan penghasilan. (the practice of corruption in indonesia is mostly done by the officials and it is still difficult to eradicate. the officials are expected to set good examples to avoid corruption. the factors that causing the corruption including; moral weakness, economic burden, weak rules, traditions of colonial rules, low salaries, insufficient knowledge of the field, and the tradition of seeking additional income). based on that data, there is the various factors that needed to be evaluated by criticizing each of the items. for example, the moral weakness. this factor seems to be the dominant cause of corruption. if the officials have good morals, they will not try to corrupt no matter what happens. for someone who has good morals, every attitude, action, and behavior are always for the glory of god. take this simple example; a person who has good morality always adheres to the principle of never earning a living through unlawful (haram) means to support their family. if the principle is held fast, he will not be tempted to seek the additional income through any means which is against his/ her conscience, even though there is an opportunity to do that. in terms of the metacognitive strategies, the planning of the text is less well-planned and the details are not elaborated clearly. when monitored, the text above needs to be refined so that the reader can get the information more thoroughly. thus, a well-meaning message can be conveyed in its entirety. from the aspect of metacognitive evaluation, the text needs to be completely revised. for example, the description of each factor causing corruption is discussed one by one exhaustively. and at the end of the discussion, the author takes a stand against the corruption to provide alternative solutions. the creating category is a person’s ability to produce something new or modify something that already exists into something else. these indicators for the creating category among others, to generalize, to design, to produce, to replan, to negotiate, to moderate, and to collaborate. it can be considered in this next data. tanggal 31 maret 2017 baru saja kita lewati. hari terakhir program tax amnesty telah kita tutup. saya sangat menghargai para wajib pajak yang telah mengikuti amnesti pajak untuk memulai tradisi kepatuhan membayar pajak sesuai ketentuan uu. (march 31, 2017 has just passed. we have just ended the last day of the tax amnesty program. i really appreciate the taxpayers who have followed the tax amnesty to start the tradition of tax compliance in accordance with the provisions of the tax law). kami akan teruskan upaya membangun indonesia yang adil dan sejahtera melalui kepatuhan. membayar pajak oleh masyarakat indonesia dan membangun institusi pajak yang bersih, profesional dan kompeten. (we will continue to build a fair and prosperous indonesia through tax compliance. it can be achieved through the participation of the indonesian people to pay taxes and to build a clean, professional and competent tax institution). amnesti pajak merupakan bagian dari keseluruhan langkah untuk mereformasi perpajakan mulai dari perbaikan aturan dan perundang undangan, perbaikan organisasi dan proses bisnis, perbaikan sumber daya manusia dan perbaikan sistem informasi dan database (sindonews, 1/4/2017). (tax amnesty is part of the overall measures to reform the indonesian taxation, which starts from the improvements of rules and legislation to the improvements of organization and business processes, human resources and information systems, and databases. (sindonews, 1/4/2017). based on the data, sri mulyani is able to create a new program called tax amnesty. the contents of the program are, among others (a) entrepreneurs willing to pay taxes with arrears are not subject to fines, (b) after paying taxes, they are allowed to do business in indonesia, (c) after paying taxes, they are also allowed to participate in project auctions in indonesia, and (d) promise to be taxable in the following years taxable. for those who remain stubborn will be subject to a fine of unpaid tax arrears and are not allowed to participate in project auctions in indonesia. when it is viewed from the metacognitive strategies, such as the creative thinking ability shows that sri mulyani has well-conceived and measurable planning. she is also able to create a system to monitor the program to run according to the plan. at the end of the program, sri mulyani can evaluate the tax amnesty results because the incoming tax turns out to reach trillions of rupiah. with the program, stubborn businessmen who evade taxes eventually will pay it. conclusions based on the results, some conclusions can be drawn as follows; (1) the cognitive domains consist of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating if applied to academic reading, many textual information can be understood by the readers. 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(2005). grade-level invariance of a theoretical causal structure predicting reading comprehension with vocabulary and oral reading fluency. educational measurement: issues and practice, 24(3), 4-12. yu-hui, l., li-rong, z., & yue, n., (2010). application of schema theory in teaching college english reading. canadian social science, 6(1), 59–65. aku, calon kakak ipar, dan ibu mertua chinese classical aesthetic in the view of inter-subjectivity 主体间性视域中的中国古典美学 zhang haitao(张海涛) faculty of literature, xiamen ligong xueyuan, geduo88_ren@163.com abstract in contemporary china, the theory of intersubjectivity causes great significance to the construction of modern chinese aesthetic theory but this kind of transverse dimensions of space on the outside of the transplantation of theory gave rise to some bad effects to traditional culture and classical chinese aesthetics. article presents a qualitative method. its purpose to conduct research on intersubjectiveness spirit of chinese aesthetics and literature from the dimensions of the longitudinal time. the discussion will also cause a vital significance to the building of contemporary chinese aesthetics in this direction. keywords: intersubjectivity, classical chinese aesthetics, classical chinese literature 内容提要 对于当代中国美学的建构来说现代西方主体间性理论的引入具有重大的意义,但这种横向 的空间维度上的对域外理论的移植却也有忽视本民族文化传统、美学传统的弊端。本文拟从纵 向的时间的维度上来探究中国古典美学与文学中的主体间性精神,并认为在这一向度上的探究 对于当代中国美学的建构同样具有重要的意义。 关键词:主题间性 、 古典美学 、古典文学 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 211 内容 90 年代中期以后随着“国学热”的落潮,中国学界似乎一直忙于对西方各种新兴理论形 的引 进与吸纳。现代性理论、后现代性理论、主体间性理论一时成为 90 年代以后中国思想文化界 所热闹讨论的话题。在这些讨论中我们发现,学者们在对当代西方社会各种新兴理论的译介、 阐释中希图通过横向移植的方式建构自己的现代性理论、后现代性理论、主体间性理论的趋向 极为明显。而在这一过程中力图在中国传统文化中寻找资源以结合西方的各种理论形 来建构 有我们自己特色的新型理论形 的方式则少之又少。似乎我们在当代中国社会理论、文化理论、 美学理论的建构中只将目光放在了空间的维度上而忽略了在时间维度上的努力。 具体到主体间性理论来说,西方学界各种主体间性理论形 的建立可以说都是基于对西方社 会现代性危机的深刻体察,而在即便现代性品质都尚未健全的中国社会妄图从传统文化中找寻 主体间性的理论资源似乎显得过于荒谬。的确,在中国传统文化中我们确实不可能找到主体间 性的理论形 ,但这并不能否定中国传统精神资源对我国主体间性理论建构的重要作用。因为 在中国传统哲学、美学中有着明显的主体间性观念。无论儒家哲学注重人与人之间关系的伦理 诉求还是庄禅哲学注重人与自然世界、生活世界和合无间、两相交融、物我偕忘的审美关 都 将人与人之间、人与世界之间的关系看作一种主体间的“我-你”关系,而非主客对立的“我-它”关 系。本质上,中国古典哲学、美学所张扬的恰恰是一种主体间性精神。当然,中国古典哲学、 美学中所体现出的主体间性精神与现代西方主体间性诸理论形 所宣称的主体间性精神必然有 着各个层次上的不同。但对于当代中国哲学、美学中的主体间性理论建构来说,在横向的吸收 西方主体间性理论资源的同时,能在纵向上审慎的思考、利用中国传统文化中所体现出的主体 间性精神,对于建构具备我们自己文化主体性的哲学理论与美学理论当有重要的意义。以下我 们将着手对西方的主体间性理论进行一番梳理,并以此为参照来辨析中国古典美学、文学中的 主体间性精神。 一、 现代西方哲学美学中的主体间性理论简述 现代西方社会随着启蒙理性负效应的越发彰著(工具理性、科技理性的张扬使人们成为驯从 资本主义运转逻辑、遵从资本主义机械生产体系的“单向度的人”;主体性的膨胀使现代人在孤 独、无聊的生命体验中陷入深沉的的价值虚无。)禀有关 意识的现代哲学家们开始在对现代 西方精神危机、社会危机的深刻体察中清理西方哲学的形而上学传统,力图打破西方古典哲学 实体本体论与西方近代哲学实体认识论所坚持的认识观念上的主客观二元对立模式与关系学上 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 212 的“我-它”模式。基于这一批判性工作,从现象学大师胡塞尔开始,现代西方哲学转向了对“主 体间性”的理论沉思。(胡塞尔在《笛卡儿沉思录》中的“第五沉思”中开始推出一种系统的主体 间性理论。) 胡塞尔之后现代西方主体间性理论又推出了诸多理论形 。总结来说,主要有以胡塞尔为 代表的认识论形 的主体间性理论、以哈贝马斯为代表的社会学形 的主体间性理论和以海德 格尔、伽达默尔为代表的本体论形 的主体间性理论。胡塞尔认识论形 的主体间性理论主要 解决如下问题:既然作为意识主体的人不是一个而是多个,那么“另一个认识主体是如何被人 视为一个意识主体的?一个主体的认识对另一个主体的认识而言能否或如何可能具有同样的普 遍有效性?” 说白了即是从认识论的角度解答“主体间的互识与共识问题”(倪梁康)。(王晓 东:2001) 哈贝马斯的社会学形 的主体间性理论,其主要目标是立足于理想化的语言交往进行社会 的合理重构以期修复启蒙理性在其历史实践中的偏误,挽救现代性所设计定向的宏伟蓝图,以 期在人与人的交往过程中排除市场话语与权力话语(即哈贝马斯所谓的“系统”)对生活世界 的侵入,消除伪交往,实现主体间的和谐亲善, 终解决晚期资本主义社会的合法化危机,疗 治现代西方文明的痼疾。海德格尔、伽达默尔的本体论形 的主体间性理论主要关注自由何以 可能?认识何以可能?等带有本体论意味的命题。早期海德格尔将人与人同在于世的“共在” 诠释为人的一种泯灭了生存本己性的沉沦状 ,拒绝在主体间性问题上做社会学式的努力。晚 期海德格尔提出著名的“天地神人四方游戏”说(所谓“天地神人四方归于一体”)则将主体 间性推及到本体论层次,主张神人之间、人与世界之间的交互主体关系,并认为人在此四方的 原始统一场域中“在神面前持留”,禀有自由。([德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译,2005:157) 海德格尔的学生伽达默尔则接过乃师对“存在”的有关阐述,将对世界的阐述看作把握存在 本身的历史性活动,提出著名的“视域融合”理论。认为认识只有当在本体论意义上将主客模式 的“我-它”关系看作主体间性模式的“我-你”关系后才能以理解的方式、问答的方式成为可能。这 样,伽达默尔就在解释学范围内将传统的独白逻辑置换为了一种“问答逻辑”。 对于美学来说,对我们有启示意义的主体间性理论乃是本体论形 的主体间性理论。胡 塞尔的认识论形 的主体间性理论虽然也提出诸如移情论的“类比的统觉”或“同化的统觉” 等概念,但对于美学来说这些概念更近于康德在《判断力批判》里所提出的作为审美的四个契 机之一的“共通感”。其所要回答的仍是审美何以具有普遍有效性的问题。很大程度上乃是以 一种主客观关系模式来间接构筑主体间的关系模式,仍然没有超越近代西方实体认识论意义上 的美学观念。哈贝马斯的社会学形 的主体间性理论(交往行为理论)则更多关注的是人与人 的合理交往对于重构社会合理结构的意义问题,所关注的乃是人类作为整体而非个体的主体向 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 213 度。其社会学的功利意图对于立足于超越向度作为企达自由之境之舟楫的美学来说显得过于实 在了。而海德格尔、伽达默尔乃至马丁·布伯的本体论形 的主体间性理论则立足于人之在世 的生存状况与生存体验,艰难地探问个体之人存在于世的价值与依恃,倾听天地之间恒长的沉 默,呼唤逃逸良久的大神(上帝)。在这里不仅个人与他人之间而且个体与世界之间也成了一 种交互问答关系。在这种对天人之际的凝眸瞻视中,主体间性向美学、向艺术、向诗敞开,禀 有诗意、禀有审美精神。海德格尔认为艺术 是“真”的显现,在《艺术作品的起源》这篇著 名的论文中海德格尔说:“那么,艺术的本质或许就是:存在者的真理自行设置入作品” ([德]海德格尔[德],孙周兴译,2004:21)。其后他又说:“美是作为无蔽的真理的一种现 身方式” ([德]海德格尔[德],孙周兴译,2004:43)。 这里的真理不是一种逻辑之真、形 而上学的实体之真,而是“此在”经由自身的努力而使被遮蔽之物显现出来的真,是将自身设 立于存在者之中的从而才成其为自身的真。美既然是真的一种现身方式而审美又与人的生存状 况和生存体验紧密相关,那么在真理的朗照下或召唤下在这个大地上充满劳绩的人就得进入 “诗意的栖居”之境。终于在海德格尔这里生活世界被诗化了,沉默的大地因与人的问答而成 为有声的世界,天、地、神、人共同谱奏一曲满含沉郁而又充溢诗情的交响乐。在伽达默尔那 里“美学是解释学的一部分,审美是一种典范性的解释,因此艺术能够把握整个存在“(杨 春时,从客体性到主体性到主体间性——西方美学体系的历史演变,烟台大学学报,烟台, 2004.4)。艺术的解释被伽达默尔看作艺术经验中欣赏者与作品本身在每一个特定现时中的对 答。这样以来,艺术作品的意义就得依赖于观者的参与,依赖于理解者的传导。恰恰是艺术作 品与理解者两者共同构造了艺术作品的意义世界。他说:“理解必须被视为意义事件的一个组 成部分,在这种理解中,一切表达的意义——艺术意义以及一切从前流传物的意义——就形成 并实现了” ([德]伽达默尔著,王才勇译,1987:242)。艺术的解释被看作欣赏者与作品间 的问答、对话,艺术活动便不再是主体对客体的认识活动而成为主体与主体间的“视域融合” 活动,成为观者世界与文本世界的交互活动。在这种主体间的交互活动中,个人的情感悲欢、 现实体认得到来自另一个世界的回响、浩叹。终于“情往似赠,兴来如答”(刘勰),在审美 的游历中个人栖止了灵魂的躁栗、生命的颤动,企达无所依傍的自由真境。马丁·布伯则把西 方哲学家所久违了的“爱”的原则重新拉回本体论领域,认为在作为本体论的主体间性领域中 “爱”和“精神”这类原初的事实理应作为“个人的实在的原出范畴”被安置。布伯认为不仅 人与人之间、人与物之间是一种主体间的“我-你”关系,即便人与上帝之间也可以有一种 “我-你”关系,因为上帝也不过是作为一个“全然现存者”的“永恒的你”。我们看到在布 伯这里主体间性不仅获得了伦理学的意义更获得了美学的意义与神学的意义。视人如己的伦理 关系因爱的赤诚将现代人冷漠的双眸浸润得满含热泪;视物如己的审美关系因爱的真诚化解掉 现世的残酷与自然的清寂;视上帝如己的神义关系则因爱的虔诚为人之生存于世提供信恃的凭 靠与价值的依托。海德格尔在《林中路》一书中借荷尔德林的哀歌追问:“在贫困的时代里诗 人何为?” ([德]海德格尔[德],孙周兴译,2004:281)他回答到:“在这贫乏的时代里作 为诗人意味着:吟唱着去摸索远逝诸神的踪迹” ([德]海德格尔[德],孙周兴译,2004: jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 214 284)。我们可以说,马丁·布伯的主体间性理论即是一种在这贫乏的时代里艰难地摸索隐去 的上帝之踪迹的努力,这努力使马丁·布伯的哲学带有浓厚的宗教存在主义意味,也使布伯本 人带有浓厚的海德格尔意义上的诗人气质。对于美学来说,马丁·布伯对爱的执着,对上帝的 企望很大程度上开辟了主体间性美学的一个神性的维度。也正是在这个维度上中国古典美学中 的主体间性精神与现代西方美学中的主体间性精神有着本质上的差异。下面我们且来看一看中 国古典美学中的主体间性精神。 二、中国古典美学与文学中的主体间性精神 中国文化的“实用理性”与“乐感文化”使中国古典哲学向不注重对外在宇宙世界的认识和探 究,既不从主客二元对立的角度来探寻客观世界的奥秘,也不强调人对自然世界的认识与征服。 所以中国古典哲学既无西方古典哲学的实体本体论形 也没有西方近代哲学的实体认识论形 。 客体性、主体性的观念无由确立也就遑论作为主体性理论盛极而衰产物的主体间性理论的诸形 。但是中国古典哲学中没有主体间性的理论形 不等于说中国哲学中就没有主体间性的观念 与方法论。中国古典哲学与美学中所表征出的精神气质在今天看来恰恰是主体间性的。无论儒 家哲学强调人际关系(主体与主体间关系)的伦理关 ,还是老庄哲学超乎世外“独与天地精 神往来而不傲睨于物”的审美关 乃至禅宗佛学强调生活世界中顿悟成佛的的超验关 都把人 与人之间、人与自然之间乃至人与神佛之间、人与生活什物之间的关系看作一种主体间性关系。 个人与他人之间基于共同的伦理秩序、道德规范安身守命、进退有度,在“礼”的指归下互相尊 重,在“仁”的导引下互相亲善,以致“己所不欲,勿施于人”,以致“己欲立则立人,己欲达则达 人”,以致“老吾老以及人之老,幼吾幼以及人之幼”。个人与自然之间交游往来,道法自然而又 顺化若水,个人在依“道”的随顺中与万物化同,“仰观宇宙之大,俯察品类之盛”(王羲之), 悠游逍遥,在清虚的自然世界里或物我两忘或“万物皆着我之颜色”,以致获取个我灵魂的安泰, 栖宁生活世界中价值追问的惶惑。个人与神佛之间在蓦然的灵悟中相遇,一时我身即是法身, 自性即成佛性,而且在这豁然的颖悟中万物皆着佛性,以致“青青翠竹总是法身,郁郁黄花莫 非般若”,以致佛性与大千万物一体,万物与个我一体,个我与佛性一体。 (一) 中国古典美学中的主体间性精神 秉持中国古典哲学精神的中国古典美学同样体现出一种显明的主体间性精神。儒家美学标 举“中和之美”,在宇宙的坐标轴上,个人在纵轴上与天地同心,在横轴上与集群相契,故而 《中庸》上才说:“中也者,天下之大本也……致中和,天地位矣,万物育矣”。人与天地之间 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 215 的主体间性关系成为人与他人之间的主体间性关系的依据,所谓“天命之谓性,率性之谓道, 修道之谓教”(《中庸》),所谓“中天下而立,定四海之民”(《孟子·尽心上》)。在这种“中 和”思想的统摄下,儒家美学讲求艺术的社会作用,强调艺术之对人际关系的影响。孔子论诗 之“兴、观、群、怨”说以及美善统一的观念都强调艺术对人伦的协调作用。所以儒家“中和之 美”虽有一个宇宙论的依据,但其所重者仍是人与人之间的主体间性关系。故而孔子之后的孟 子便开始淡化儒家哲学、美学禀于天地的宇宙论依据,只注重君子人格的广大感与充盈感,强 调修养为君子的人与人之间所可能形成的良好的社会关系。所以孟子的美学讲“义”、讲“充实”、 讲“养气”。此浩然之气充塞于天地人伦之间“配义与道”,涵纳万有,以立天下之正位,使四海 集一、社会有序。而孟子之后的荀子则更干脆遗弃了这个宇宙论的根据,认为“道者,非天之 道,非地之道,人之所以道也,君子之所以道也。”(《荀子》),认为“明于天人之分可谓至 人矣。”所以荀子论美实际上多是言善,君子具备完足纯然的道德修养也就是美了。“君子之学 也,以美其身”(《荀子·劝学》),“君子知夫不全不粹不足以为美也。”(《荀子·劝学》)。 更加以个人的修养、自持来希冀人与人关系的和合有序。荀子对墨子“非乐”的批判也正在于看 重音乐的“和”的作用。即看重音乐之和对形成一个和谐、统一的人际关系和社会组织的重要作 用。 儒家哲学美学所积极筹划的伦理秩序、历史王道,所津津乐道的君子人格、美善相亲在道家 看来恰恰是应当避弃的。因为就个人的生存来说,历史王道的实践中保不准要肯定罪恶的合理, 而君子礼仪、伦理纲常又往往成为遮掩历史王道之恶的口实。在这种近乎历史理性的逻辑下, 个体生命以一种合乎道义的堂皇方式被践踏。伦理关 一旦与历史王道相结合便成为杀人的软 刀子。所以与其在历史王道的实践中漠视个体生命的哀号哭告、泪眼婆娑,倒不如回复原始生 命的本然,撇开这一套社会历史的承担。道家哲学美学撇开社会历史的关 ,在没有彼岸世界 和超验观念的精神世界里便只有归复清虚的自然世界。但也正是这种向清虚自然世界的归复使 中国美学开始禀有真正意义上的审美精神,也使中国美学中的主体间性精神开始进入审美境界, 具备本体论的意味。老子美学讲“涤除玄鉴”,要求人们排除本己的偏见,持守内心的虚境,所 谓“致虚极、守静笃。万物并作,吾以观复。”(《老子·第十章》)以人之内心的澄明观照宇宙 万物的根实,物我为一。庄子美学之讲“心斋”,讲“坐忘”,讲“心养”,要求“堕肢体、黜聪明, 离形去智,统于大通。”(《庄子·大宗师》)亦是要求个人排除私欲,消灭身役,以空明的心 境倾听天地之籁音,以虚静的心灵顺从“道”之化成。个人与天地、与外在自然世界,两相应答、 交互出入,不要求外在世界为我所用,为我服顺,以主体统摄客体,亦不听任外在世界对自己 的摆布、压抑,使客体规定主体。而是两相交融,既“澄 观道”(宗炳)、“澄 味像”(宗 炳)又“身即山川而取之”(郭熙), 终在“虚空中传出动荡、神明里透出幽深,超以象外,得 其环中” (宗白华,1981:83)。 在无功利、无利害、无概念的审美境界中或物我两俱,或物 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 216 我两忘,安顿生命的忧忡,化解生存的烦忧,以逍遥的方式生存,并在这逍遥的生存体验中禀 有至高的自由,企达主体间性的生存本体论境界。 中国禅宗佛学本来也秉持印度佛教的传统,以拯救人类灵魂为宗旨。在一开始它也曾向人们 悬置了一个充满光辉、永恒与福祉的终极境界作为人的生活与精神向度中的彼岸世界,但在禅 宗佛学的流变沿革中佛教的这个超验世界却被瓦解了。从北宗禅到南宗禅再到洪州马祖道,这 一转变尤为显明。在北宗禅那里尚讲修行的必要,讲从“定”到“慧”,从人性到佛性过程中的持 戒、入定、习慧,要求经历艰苦的修行渐悟佛法大乘。而在南宗禅这里定慧之分、人性与佛性 之分已被淡化。既然人性本有佛性那么人性之完足、灵明岂非即是佛性之彰显?所以也就无所 谓“时时勤拂拭,无使惹尘埃”了,从“定”到“慧”的修习也由此变得毫无必要。慧能说:“莫言先 定发慧,先慧发定,定慧个别”,意在指出其实定即是慧,慧即是定,只需顿悟人性之完足、 澄明也即是悟得佛法了,何须苦苦修行,执于灵台的拂拭,所谓“佛性常清静,何处惹尘埃”。 佛性即是人性、人性之完足就是佛性之朗现,“即心即佛”、万法在身,佛教所悬置的那个终极 境界不在彼岸只在人心内里罢了。洪州马祖道则接过慧能的理路,转而以“非心非佛”扬弃了“即 心即佛”。因为既然人世也好,自然世界也好本质上都是“空”、是“无”,那么“心”“佛”二字的区分, “顿悟”的礼佛方式也仍是一种“执”、一种“求”;真正的超越境界既然是无差别、无实存的空无, “即心即佛”就仍是一种“障”。“非心非佛”、无执无求才能直抵佛祖正义,寻常意思就是佛法大义, 世俗世界也就是佛国净土。“人在随顺自然时的挥手举足、扬眉瞬目之间便显示的是生活真谛, 在心识流转、意马心猿中也可以有心灵自由,人生的顿悟不再由‘知’的追踪寻绎而只是由‘心’的 自然流露” (葛兆光,2001:81、90 页)。这样以来,人之生存便要“自然”、“顺化”,只在生 活世界、嚣尘凡俗中安然持守即可看作修行,看作了悟了。所以在马祖道这里,求佛之路即是 “饥来即食,困来即眠”,即是“热即取凉,寒即向火”。临济义玄说:“佛法无用处,只是平常无 事,屙屎送尿,穿衣吃饭,困来即眠。”说来说去,“随处做主,立地成真”,这“平常心即是道” 的理念竟又回到了老庄的“自然”理念里,原来印度佛教所期许、企望的那个彼岸天国、超世净 土竟又回到了此岸的一个世界里。佛教的中国化经由禅宗佛学的这一系列转变算是彻底完成了。 对于中国古典美学来说,禅宗佛学与老庄思想合流却并非是重复老庄的美学思想。老庄弃绝 现世,规避历史王道的罪恶与凡俗生活的扰攘,审美的心胸面对的只是自然世界,主体间性所 涵盖的也只是人与自然万物的关系。而禅宗佛学则并不区分凡俗与自然、现世与遁世、历史王 道与自然世界,因为这类区分本身仍是一种“执”、一种“障”。在禅宗佛学这里,“自然”概念既涵 盖自然世界也涵盖生活世界。主体间性精神不仅体现在人与人之间,人与万物之间,还体现在 人与生活世界里诸物、诸事之间。中唐以降诗人的诗作中所涌现出的大量写生活琐碎的闲适诗, 如韩愈之咏落齿,白居易之“闲适诗”乃至有宋一代苏东坡之以文字、议论、才学入诗,黄庭坚 之咏猩猩毛笔都开始以一种审美情 对待生活中的琐碎物事。“本来充满宗教性的佛教渐渐卸 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 217 却了它作为精神生活的规训与督导的责任,变成了一种审美的生活情趣、语言智慧和优雅 度 的提倡者” (葛兆光,2001:90)。中国古典美学中的主体间性精神也由此开出了一个新的向 度,即生活世界的向度。个我与生活的物品、琐碎之间也以一种主体与主体间的关系看待,从 而使中国古典美学的主体间性精神更加深入到诗化生活的每一个细节。 (二) 中国古典文学中的主体间性精神 就中国古典文学来说,中国古典诗学向来推崇情景交融的艺术样 。陆机讲“诗缘情而绮 靡”(《文赋》),钟嵘说“春风春鸟、秋月秋蝉、夏云暑雨、冬月祁寒,斯四侯之感诸诗者 也。”(《诗品序》),范晞讲“景无情不发,情无景不生”(《对床夜话》)乃至王夫之讲“景 以情合,情以景生”(《姜斋诗话》),正所谓“一切景语皆情语也”(王夫之)。但同时又标举 淡远、澹泊、冲和,孙过庭讲“同自然之妙有”(《书谱》),司空图标举“冲淡”、“自然”,苏东 坡之推崇陶潜乃至王国维之心仪“无我之境”,将物我两忘看作人生、审美的至高境界,似乎又 推崇无情。在这种看似矛盾的审美理想、审美追求中实际上都贯穿着中国古典美学的主体间性 精神。我们不妨借用王国维的术语将前者称之为“有我之境”的主体间性精神,将后者称之为“无 我之境”的主体间性精神。 中国诗歌的比兴传统可看作“有我之境”的主体间性精神的典范,比兴技巧的运用也正是中 国诗歌企达情景交融境界的主要手段。在情景交融的境界里或因物生情,所谓“感于物而动” (《礼记·乐记》);或因情寄物,所谓“情动于中而形于外”。总之,物我、景情不二立、不对 峙,景物就如个我在欢欣、悲苦、愁惨之际与之诉说心绪的老友,在我-你的应答、交流中平 抚心伤、抱慰悲愁、同享欢愉。但同时情景交融也有不同之情、不同之景。这也决定了“有我 之境”的主体间性精神的不同样 。像《古诗十九首》、魏晋诗文乃至刘希夷《代悲白头吟》、 张若虚《春江花月夜》满 有限生命面对无限存在时的怆然,所彰显出的情乃是一种迥绝的生 命意识与宇宙意识,具有生存本体论意味的形而上学气质。在这种情里所对应的景、物也是隐 喻人生短促的纤尘、朝露:“人生寄一世,奄忽若飙尘”,“譬如朝露,去日苦多”;象征生命无 常的浮云、夕阳:“时哉不我与,去乎若浮云”,“功业未及建,夕阳忽西流”;以及表现时间永 恒、节序如流而作为终有一死之物的人却终难把握的春花、江月:“年年岁岁花相似,岁岁年 年人不同”,“人生代代无穷已,江月年年只相似”。个人在与宇宙自然的对视中发现自己在空间 上渺如沧海一粟,在时间上短如昙花一现,于是憧憬自然宇宙之永恒博大,叹息自身之“终期 于尽”、“一生枯槁”,探问生命的意义,追索生存的价值。个我与宇宙、本己与自然之间的主体 间性关系在这里具有了形而上学气质。个人垂听宇宙的声响,企盼宇宙答复对个我之存在意义 的探询,情景交融在这里表征出的是人与宇宙、自然的具有形而上学气质的主体间性精神。这 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 218 也是中国古典美学之主体间性精神中 接近西方主体间性神性向度的一种主体间性样 ,但也 只是接近而已。 而像“感时花溅泪,恨别鸟惊心”(杜甫)、“泪眼问花花不语,落红飞过秋千去”(欧阳 修)、“可堪孤馆闭春寒,杜鹃声里斜阳暮”(秦观)这类的诗句、词句所表现出的情则可以说 是一种世俗之情,或是感念家仇国恨、或是抒写别恨离愁,或是愁喜个人前途际遇,或是言情 爱之缱绻,或是言阅历之沧桑,不一而足。这种世俗之情所对应的景、物也多是国破家亡之际 的败壁残垣、离别送往之时的浦岸城关、追忆恋人时的雁字锦书、前途明晦时的风月花草。总 之外在之景、物也似乎蒙上了一层主体在特定情境下的心绪,在或悲或喜的遭际中变换着色泽、 形 ,似乎本来木然无情的景、物也都有了灵动的生命。在这里主体似乎在向景、物诉说着自 己的心绪,而景、物也似乎被主体的心绪所感染,同情着主体的遭遇、慰抚着主体的创伤,以 自己的色泽、形 的变化应合着主体心绪的变化,以致主体中闪烁着景、物的身影,景、物中 涵纳着主体的情绪——物我交融、情景交汇,难以辨明是我因物而生情还是物因我而增色。 终物我不分、景情不离,我中有你、你中有我,维持着彼此间的主体间性关系。这是中国古典 美学之主体间性精神中 具世俗、生活气息的主体间性样 ,这种主体间性样 使中国古典美 学、文学不仅在超越的形而上的层面上葆有主体间性精神,更使中国古典美学、文学在现实层 面上,在诗化的生活世界领域体现出鲜明的主体间性精神。 王国维之论“无我之境”,认为陶渊明“采菊东篱下,悠然见南山”句、元好问“寒波澹 澹起,白鸟悠悠下”句为中国艺术“无我之境”的典范。在这类诗句中,景、物保持着自己的 本然具足,使自己所由在的那个世界变得豁然敞亮。在这里,人的世界退避三舍,物享有充分 的自性,不为人役,而人在这种不动情、思的观照中也使自己所由在的那个世界澄明起来,自 在自为,不为物役。物与人都顺随着自然的律动,好似物中无我、我中无物,又似我即是物、 物即是我。我与物在“道”的朗照下既两相分明又彼此无间,“落花无言,人淡如菊”(司空 图)。人在这种“无我之境”的审美境界里真正做到了不以人观物而以物观物,悉心呵护着物 的主体性。庄子言:“趣物而不两,不顾与虑,不谋于知,于物无译……齐万物以为首……知 万物皆有所可有所不可。”(《庄子·天下》),强调人要以一种先验的存在方式与物酬应才 能使物真正成为物。而正是由于人以这种先验的自我、澄明的自我观照于物,才能使物摆脱本 自潜伏于大地的沉默状 而明朗敞亮起来,才使物的世界向人的世界敞开。在这里我们似乎一 下子听到了海德格尔在几十年前的幽幽之音:“如果我们思物之为物,那我们就是要保护物之 本质,使之进入它由以现身出场的那个领域之中”([德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译,2005: 190)。正是由于我们“思物之为物”,正是由于我们“以物观物”,我们才“切近”物的本 质,才恪守物的自性。而在这个过程中作为人的我们“上与造物者游而下与外生死、无终始者 为友。”(《庄子·天下》)终于“化而解于物也”(庄子),终于“在栖居之际通达作为世 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 219 界的世界”(海德格尔),所以海德格尔说:“惟从世界结合自身者,终成一物。” ([德] 海德格尔著,孙周兴译,2005:192)。“无我之境”作为中国古典文学中 高的审美境界与 中国古典美学向所推崇的平淡、悠远的风格相结合将中国古典美学中的主体间性精神真正提升 到了哲学本体论的层次,人与物,人与世界的关系真正明确起来。人在这里不再叹服于宇宙自 然的永恒博大,不再在这不对等的“我-你”关系中苦苦寻觅解答人生之谜的途径;人在这里 也不再以个我之特定的心绪、际遇要求自然世界的应合、抚恤,不再以我之不能承载的世俗之 情感遭际要求外物担当。“有我之境”的两种样 虽然都是一种主体间的“我-你”关系,但 这两种主体间性关系却都不是一种对等的主体间性关系。要么外物大于自我,要么自我大于外 物,对于真正意义上的主体间性来说,这两种主体间性关系似乎都不是一种纯粹的完善的主体 间性精神。唯有“无我之境”的主体间性精神才真正以物为物、物我两忘、物我为一,看守着 外物世界之自足自在,切近着物之本质,“天地与我并生,万物与我为一”(《庄子·天 下》),真正做到了泛爱万物,人与天地一体,体现出了一种对等的、纯粹的主体间性精神。 王国维的《人间词话》向被作为中国诗学的 后总结,他的“境界”说也被公认为中国古典美 学之精髓——意境说的 后完成。实际上这两者的创造、生发也可同时作为中国古典美学中主 体间性精神的 后完善。王国维之后西方启蒙理性大举入侵,中国哲学、美学匆忙着手于主体 性哲学的建设、引进,中国古典美学中丰富的主体间性资源从此被忽视、遗却了。直到现在, 随着主体性哲学的危机四起,随着西方主体间性哲学的引进才使人们又开始谈论起中国美学中 的主体间性精神来。这可能是历史的辩证法在不经意间的又一次显露吧,或者也可能是时至今 日的中国美学在建构自己的主体性道路上的一次必然的选择。 三、中西哲学美学中的主体间性精神比较 以上,我们对中国古典美学与文学中的主体间性精神进行了一番大致的梳理。通过梳理我 们发现中国古典美学与文学中的主体间性精神与现代西方哲学美学所倡导的主体间性理论和现 代西方艺术实践中的主体间性精神存在着显著的差异。 首先,中国古典哲学美学中并不存在胡塞尔认识论意义上的主体间性精神。胡塞尔所提出并 要努力解决的主体间的共识与互识问题,在中国思想语境中即便不能说是一个伪问题也至少是 一个没有意义的问题。因为对于人与人之间的关系来说,中国古典哲学所看重的不是他们在何 种程度上对客体有一致的看法而是人与人之间在何种程度上是和谐的、有序的。在人与人的主 体间性关系上中国哲学所注重的是这种主体间性关系的伦理效用而不是认识效用,这就决定了 中国古典哲学在人与人之间的主体间性关系上的社会学式的看待方式。所以可以说,单就人与 人之间的关系来说,中国古典哲学尤其是儒家哲学中的主体间性精神可能更接近于哈贝马斯的 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 220 社会学意义上的主体间性精神。但大体上来看哈贝马斯的主体间性理论虽然也有一种浓厚的伦 理关 ,虽然也像儒家哲学那样强调人与人之间关系的和谐、有序,但在哈贝马斯那里这一切 却都有一个前提,那就是——相互交往的主体间平等关系的确立。哈贝马斯的“话语伦理学”的 前提恰恰是:“每一个有语言和行为能力的主体在自觉放弃权力和暴力使用的前提下,自由、 平等地参与话语的论证” (章国锋,北京:2000)。而保证相互交往的主体间能够保持平等关 系的则是权力与暴力在主体间交往过程中的退场。这样看来,哈贝马斯的伦理诉求颇具乌托邦 性质,旨在通过“交往行为理性”的重建和“话语伦理”规范的建立实现一种“无暴力和统治”的社会 秩序。以此来反观儒家哲学的伦理诉求则似乎恰恰相反,儒家哲学所强调的主体与主体间的交 往关系乃是一种不平等的交往关系。这种交往关系只有建立在君臣、父子、夫妻、兄弟的尊卑 有序、长幼有别的等级基础上才具备合法性。在儒家哲学所表彰的主体间性精神中权力话语是 一个外在的无形框架,只有在这个框架内,人与人之间关系的和谐、有序才是合理、合法的, 才是有意义的。所以儒家哲学的伦理诉求具有浓厚的现实主义色彩,其目的不是在主体间的交 往对话中排除权力与暴力的侵入而是维护权力与暴力的统治。如果说哈贝马斯所心仪的主体间 性精神是一种平等的非统治式的主体间性精神的话,那么儒家哲学所乐道的主体间性精神则是 一种有差等的合于统治的主体间性精神。这两种社会学式的注重伦理关 的主体间性精神之间 的差异由此看来无疑是巨大的。 其次,在人与外在世界的关系上,中国古典哲学美学主张天、地、人之间的异质同构关系, 要求情景交融、以物观物,认为“以道观之,万物皆一也”(《庄子·德充符》),把物我融 汇、物我两忘看作人生与审美的至高境界。既有面对浩瀚宇宙、苍茫大地时对人生之谜的追问, 又有安顿生命躁栗、灵魂不安的生活审美化追求,更有纵浪大化、随物赋形的万物一体的伟大 襟抱。这种本体论层次上的主体间性精神在海德格尔那里则是人在语言家园里的诗意栖居,生 活世界的诗化,天、地、神、人的四方游戏。在马丁·布伯那里则是人与上帝的交互问答,是 人企盼那个作为“全然现存者”的“永恒的你”(上帝)对人之在世之生存意义问题的解答。 然而,虽然海德格尔也要求守护物的自性,要求“思物之为物”,虽然马丁·布伯也艰难的探 询人生之谜的答案,但是与中国古典哲学美学相比,海德格尔的要求与马丁·布伯的探询却都 有一个神性的向度。海德格尔是在深切感受到上帝和神性的缺失所导致的人与物统一关系的打 破的严重后果的基础上重新建构人与物的主体间性的亲和关系的。他之所以表彰这种人物亲和 的主体间性精神,不是希求在企达中国古典哲学美学所言说的物我两忘的至高境界后使人们由 于随化顺道而忘记人作为终有一死之物的有限性问题和生存意义问题,使人忘记面对死亡时的 恐惧与颤栗,而是希图唤回神性之光对已迄达世界之夜半的沉默、沉沦之大地的普照,从而使 作为终有一死者的人能够“赴死”。而“赴死”则意味着:“有能力承担作为死亡的死亡” ([德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译,2005:187)。因为“作为无之圣殿,死亡庇护存在之本质现 身于自身之内。作为无之圣殿,死亡乃是存在之庇所。” ([德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译, chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 221 2005:187)所以,就本体论意义上的主体间性精神来说,中国古典哲学美学使人们在物我两 忘中规避死亡,忘死而生;海德格尔则使人们在对物的“留神关注”中直面死亡,向死而生。 ([德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译,2005:187)而正是由于上帝与神性的在场,向死而生才成为 可能。所以在“道”之显现中出场的只是天、地、人的三重结构就够了,而在“存在”之显现 中出场的则必须是天、地、神、人的四重结构。故而在中国古典美学、文学中是天、地、人生 命自然的朗现:“池塘生春草,园柳变鸣禽”(谢灵运)、“斜光照墟里,穷巷牛羊归”(王 维)、“板桥人渡泉声、茅檐日午鸡鸣”(韦应物),而在海德格尔所言说的主体间性精神的 艺术实践中则无时无刻不充斥着对上帝、神明的召唤,对死亡的泪眼瞻顾:“只要善良,这种 纯真,尚与人心同在/人就不无欣喜/以神性来度量自身”(荷尔德林);“神是什么?/茫茫 不可知,但在苍穹之景象中,/处处可寻到他的神功伟绩/因为,闪电是神的忿怒。/越是隐匿 而不可见的,在异在之物中显露越多。”(荷尔德林);“在变化和运行之上,/更宽广更自 由,/还有你的序曲歌唱不息,/带着七弦琴的上帝。” (里尔克);“凡在死亡中远离我们 的,/都不曾揭开面纱” (里尔克)。中国古典哲学美学中的主体间性精神也有面对自然宇宙 之恒长浩渺时对终有一死之人的生命意义的探问,但这探问却 终回归了人世的积极行乐与积 极作为,正如王瑶先生所说的,既然“放弃了祈求生命的长度,便不能不要求增加生命的密 度”(王瑶《中古文学史论集》),于是:“人生寄一世,奄忽若飙尘。何不策高足,先据要 路津。”(《古诗十九首》);“生年不满百,常 千岁忧。昼短苦夜长,何不秉烛游?” (《古诗十九首》);“服食求神仙,多为药所误。不如饮美酒,被服纨与素。”(《古诗十 九首》)。这说明在对人生之谜的追问中,中国的审美实践 终还是回到了此岸的生活世界。 所谓在此岸现世中求超越的“内在的超越”(李泽厚)实际上只是回归生活世界的非超越。而 马丁·布伯所主张的主体间性精神则在与上帝的我-你对答中追索生存的意义。人沐浴在上帝 的神圣爱怜中栖止对人生之谜无由解答的惶惑与无奈。彼岸神性之光照临此岸,上帝与世人同 感生命之苦楚并以己之牺牲替人受苦,人生之谜的追索在对上帝的感恩与上帝无时无刻不与我 同在的感念中被化解,被息宁。“人受命远出时,上帝现时地与他同在,上帝无时不与他同 在” ([德]马丁·布伯著,陈维纲译,2002 :102)。 这确实是一种外在的超越,但这确也正是一种将此岸世界与彼岸世界贯通起来的真正意义上的 超越。 中西文化传统的不同决定了中西哲学美学所体现出的主体间性精神的巨大差异。明了这些差 异,对我们正确看待和利用中国古典美学、文学中丰富的主体间性资源,建构我们自己的主体 间性美学将有重大的意义。 参考文献 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 211-220 222 王晓东:《哲学视域中的主体间性问题论析》,天津:天津社会科学,2001 年 5 月版 [德]海德格尔著,孙周兴译:《演讲与论文集》,北京:三联书店,2005 年版 [德]海德格尔[德],孙周兴译:《林中路》,上海:上海译文出版社,2004 年版 杨春时: 《从客体性到主体性到主体间性——西方美学体系的历史演变》,烟台大学学报, 2004 年第 4 期 [德]伽达默尔著,王才勇译:《真理与方法》,沈阳:辽宁人民出版社,1987 年版 宗白华:《美学散步》,上海:上海人民出版社,1981 年版 葛兆光:《中国思想史(第二卷)》,上海:复旦大学出版社,2001 年版 章国锋:《哈贝马斯访谈录》,北京:外国文学评论,2000 年 1 月版 [德]马丁·布伯著,陈维纲译:《我与你》,北京:三联书店,2002 年版 chinese classical aesthetic.... (zhang haitao) 223 copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 73 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 73-77 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1510 a semiotic study of one ready-to-drink tea billboard advertisement in jakarta anna marietta da silva department of applied english linguistics, faculty of education and language, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia jl. jend. sudirman no.51, jakarta 12930, indonesia anna.silva@atmajaya.ac.id received: 25th july 2016/ revised: 4th august 2016/ accepted: 7th april 2017 how to cite: da silva, a. m. (2017). a semiotic study of one ready-to-drink tea billboard advertisement in jakarta. lingua cultura, 11(2), 73-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1510 abstract the purpose of this research was to delve into the linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of a pioneer brand of bottled green tea in the indonesian market. four main aspects of the semiotics study, namely the represented participants, modality, composition, and interactive participants were used to analyze the advertisement. the data for this research was a billboard of nü green tea that was placed in jl. kasablanka raya in south jakarta. the findings show that the interplay between the non-human object, play of colors, composition, and language choice has been designed carefully in order to boost the targeted audience’s attention to the product. keywords: semiotic, advertisement, ready-to-drink tea introduction within the past few years, there has been an increasing amount of bottled drink or ready-to-drink products in indonesia (poeradisastra, 2011). these ready-todrink products consist of mineral water, carbonated water, tea, and other kinds of drink. bottled mineral water has been predominant. within the period of 2004 to 2015 the demand for ready-to-drink water has always been higher in comparison to the other kinds of bottled drink, such as tea and carbonated water. yet, the variety of carbonated water and tea keeps growing. in the past, the well-known bottled drink manufacturers in indonesia such as pt sinarsosro, orangtua group, and pt tirta investama started their business with only one product, e.g., tea, healthy drink, and water, respectively, which became their signature for decades. in line with the development of technology, the companies have extended their product. sinarsosro, known for its first brand teh botol sosro since 1940, expanded their product into fruit tea in 1997 and other products, e.g., fruit juice and mineral water in the following years (pt sinar sosro, n.d.). orangtua group (hereafter referred to as ot), which was founded in 1948, began their first business with the traditional healthy drink. in 2004, ot developed their product into ready-to-drink tea and other healthy drinks (orangtua grup, n.d.). pt golden mississippi pioneered the packaged water in 1973. for many years, they have dominated the market for bottled mineral water, and they eventually launched flavored water in 2005 (pt tirta investama, 2011). looking at the growing number of a variety of bottled drink marketed in indonesia, one can see a potential greater demand of this product (poeradisastra, 2011). nevertheless, there seems to be a small number of research on the ads of bottled drink, particularly the billboard ads, from the semiotic point of view. the present study intends to add the number of literature in the field mentioned above. the goal of the research is to analyze one billboard advertisement of one pioneer product of bottled ready-to-drink tea from the semiotic viewpoint. the focus of the study is the linguistic and non-linguistic characteristics of a billboard ad of nü green tea. the center of attention in the analysis of billboards using semiotic point of view is the meaning conveyed by the sign authors to the targeted audience through the advertisements (scollon & scollon, 2003). picture, text, color, and their placement in the billboards do not carry their meaning per se; the meaning is created by the authors, and it needs to be decoded by an audience. kress & van leeuwen (2006) have argued that the primary components of the semiotic system include represented participants, modality, composition, and interactive participants. participants indicate components that are shown in the sign, in this case, a billboard, which may include a picture of an individual, inscription, image, emblem, diagram, and so on. the 74 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 73-77 participants are not loose objects, their presence in a sign carry either a narrative meaning or a conceptual meaning. the former suggests an explicit and concrete act while the latter an intangible act of the participants that should be connected by a trajectory. modality denotes “. . . the truth value or credibility of (linguistically realized) statements about the world” (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). modality does not have to be manifested merely in words but also in colors (brierley, 1995) and their components such as gradation, intensity, and symbolism. natural color is said to have the greatest modality. with regard to color, brierley (1995) has pointed out that different color represents different meaning. for example, blue does not represent warmth. composition denotes the place of text and picture in the advertisement. different position signals different sense. top position signifies something perfect, but there is a difference between the top left and right spots. meanwhile, the bottom area indicates actuality, with different sense between the left and right location too. while top position denotes an ideal value, the bottom position signifies an actuality. as said, there is also a difference between the left and right positions. the left implies something given whereas the right is for something novel. interactive participants include the relationship between the sign authors or creators and the subjects placed in the sign, between the subjects in the sign, and between the subjects in the sign and the audience of the sign (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). the interactive participants may be more or less equal to the framing device used in an advertisement. a framing device is a tool to direct the audience as well as to control their perception toward the meaning created by the advertisers through the presentation of the image, picture, photo, chart, or graph (brierley, 1995). in the multimodal discourse study on the printed advertisement of elizabeth arden’s intervene (a beauty product for women), nugroho (2009) has found that the interaction between the participant (the brand ambassador) in the printed advertisement and the background of the image reveal a good image of the brand. furthermore, the connection between the major and minor description about the brand or product matched to the target audience’s experience on life and aging. the advertisement was successful in creating a relationship between the image and the lexical items chosen that may encourage the major target audience to purchase the product. brierley (1995) notes that the language of advertisements may be composed of several characteristics. first, the tone is persuasive. its purpose is to sell the product or service advertised as well as to build the audience’ trust of the brand. therefore, adjectives are the most preferable type of word used. second, the content is usually uncomplicated for the audience to be able to read and understand the message of the advertisement in a short time, less than two seconds. hence, short and straightforward sentences and compounds are frequently employed. third, the language used should be able to attract the attention of the audience. language play and creativity such as turning verbs into adjectives and creating effective compounds are often used. other strategies include repetition of words, sounds, and images along with parallelism, paradox, omission, and ambiguity. similarly, gibbons (2005) has pointed out that advertisements use brief idioms, clichés, and familiar expressions. although the words selected are short and easy to understand, their occurrence with images may lead to a complex message beyond the audience’s expectation. interestingly, the presence of lexical items with images in advertisements has made it possible to decode the images with words. language in the advertisement may be used extraordinarily in order to create a powerful effect. wheeler (2013) has highlighted the importance of language in creating a brand identity. she has noted that advertisements should use simple but persuasive and fundamental words. most importantly, the audience should be able to perceive the message conveyed by the advertisements. english has been frequently used in billboards in non-english speaking countries for several reasons (martin, 2006). first, english is the lingua franca of multinational companies that operate across countries. second, english is a tool to direct the audience to particular values, experiences or things that characterize the product or brand sold. third, english facilitates the spread of the culture of the non-english speakers. fourth, english acts as a device to help the audience to recollect the brand. finally, english is a symbol of prestige which is why it is preferable for commercial public signs (lai, 2013; lanza & woldemariam, 2014; manan, david, dumanig, & naqeebullah, 2015; taylor, franke, & bang, 2006; torkington, 2009). studies have also proved that english has been used to advertise expensive or non-basic commodities (da silva, 2014; krishna & ahluwalia, 2010; lawrence, 2012). hence, the use of english does not have to be related to the english literacy of the advertisement readership. rather, english is used as what the language symbolizes, namely universality, excellence, and trend of the youth (hsu, 2008). the indonesian youth language which is also known as the colloquial jakartan indonesian dialect (sneddon, 2006) has been used in billboards and other ads. the dialect is used for informal situations, commonly between young indonesian speakers. some of the characteristics of the colloquial forms are the omission of the initial s in some words, such as sama (the same) and sudah (already). other characteristics include the use of entar instead of nanti (later), kenapa instead of mengapa (why), or pas instead of ketika (while), as well as the use of vowel schwa /ə/ to replace the vowel /a/. methods the media for this research is a billboard of nü green tea that is placed in jl. kasablanka raya in south jakarta. the road connects the residential areas to the business center in south jakarta. it is one of the main streets in south jakarta with the most severe traffic during the rush hour every day. the picture on the billboard was taken in may 2014. billboard has been considered as an effective and noticeable advertising medium, especially when the advertiser intends to introduce a new product (taylor, franke, & bang, 2006). the advertisement of ready-to-drink tea is selected because of the increasing number of its brands and flavors due to technology innovation (poeradisastra, 2011). nü green tea’s billboard is chosen because the brand pioneered readyto-drink green tea with royal jasmine flavor (sanusi, 2014). the media is analyzed by using kress & van leeuwen’s (2006) four main components of the semiotic system, i.e., represented participants, modality, composition, and interactive participants. another model used is nugroho’s (2009) generic structure of the visual components. the variables used are language, inscription, picture, and color. in addition, to specifically analyze the language in use, the research adopts characteristics of advertisement language by brierley (1995), the symbolic use of english in advertisements by hsu (2008), and martin 75a semiotic study of one ready .... (anna marietta da silva) (2006) as well as the use of indonesian on billboard ads by da silva (2014). results and discussions nü green tea is a brand from pt abc president indonesia. the product is a ready-to-drink green tea that was launched in 2005. the company pioneered the production of ready-to-drink green tea (pt abc president indonesia, 2016). its main target market is youth aged between 16 to 25 years old who also care about their lifestyle (marketeers editor, 2015). the nü green tea billboard (figure 1) does not present any individuals. rather, the advertisement shows a picture of a 550ml-bottle of nü green tea, which becomes the locus of attention of the billboard advertisement. figure 1 the billboard of nü green tea figure 2 shows the picture of nü green tea bottle which is placed in the center of the advertisement. however, the absence of human participants neither reduces nor eliminates the message of the advertisement. the decision of not using human participants in the billboard advertisement may be related to the intention to introduce the new product to the market (marketeers editor, 2015). the bottle of nü green tea is the focus of the advertisement, which is expected to be able to direct the viewers’ attention to the bottle, the brand, and the content, including the flavor and the image created about the brand. figure 2 the locus of attention: image there are several words printed on the bottle. the word nü, which is equal to new, is printed in red with the white background using the biggest font of all the other words. red may suggest power while white honesty and goodness. the phrase green tea is written in italics using smaller font below nü. the use of the italicized instead of non-italicized fonts can be viewed as a way to highlight that the product is not an ordinary black tea. instead, it is a green tea which offers several important benefits for human health (dewi, 2015). the color dark green is used for green tea, which may suggest an analogy to the color of the green tea leaves or nature. next, the indonesian translation for green tea, minuman teh hijau, is put below the phrase green tea. afterwards, the words royal jasmine which refer to the flavor of the tea is put below minuman teh hijau (the translation of green tea). the additional information put below royal jasmine, dengan gula batu, notifies that the tea uses lump sugar. the information dengan gula batu is written in white with the purple background. white may suggest honesty and purple luxury (brierley, 1995). luxury may represent the use of lump sugar which is generally more expensive than granular sugar in indonesia. each group of the word(s): (1) nü, (2) green tea, (3) royal jasmine, and (4) dengan gula batu, uses different font theme. this may indicate the distinctive features of the product in comparison to other similar products. at the bottom part of the bottle, lies a picture of four pieces of tea leaves and seven buds of jasmine. below the picture is the indonesian translation of green tea, namely teh hijau and royal jasmine, namely melati along with another additional information about the tea, i.e., dari daun teh hijau pilihan. figure 3 shows the major tagline is in jakartan indonesian (sneddon, 2006), i.e., cara seger ngilangin haus bandel (the fresh way to satisfy an unquenchable thirst). the words cara seger ngilangin (the ‘fresh way’ to satisfy . . .) are printed in dark green above haus bandel (. . . an unquenchable thirst), which is printed in yellow. the upper part uses the smaller font than the lower part. it appears that the purpose of using the bigger font for haus bandel next to the picture of the bottle is to direct the audience to think that consuming a bottle of nü green tea would satisfy their unquenchable thirst. the use of jakartan indonesian may be attributed to the target audience, the youths. figure 3 the locus of attention: major tagline the composition of the inscription is as follows. the brand and product information, nü green tea royal jasmine dengan gula batu, is placed on the top left margin that can be seen in figure 4. the placement of the brand in that position indicates ideal and given values (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). it signifies that the product wants to be the 76 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 73-77 model in its group. indeed, the brand pioneered ready-todrink green tea (marketeers editor, 2015). the indonesian word baru which means new is put on the top right of the billboard, suggesting that the product is perfect and novel. the minor tagline makes you nü, is put on the left bottom part, suggesting the real and given information about the product (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). the right bottom part, however, is left empty. the study shows that the center position is not only filled with an object but also with a tagline. figure 4 the composition of nü green tea ads the background color of the billboard (the complement of locus of attention) is a gradation of green, yellow, white, and brown. green may symbolize nature, yellow warmth, white goodness, and brown the soil or earth (brierley, 1995). green may also suggest the brand name, green (tea). the color green is placed on top of the billboard, which is followed by the gradation of yellow and green as well as the gradation of white to brown at the bottom part of the billboard. the sense of naturalness, safety, and classy seem to be strongly highlighted and become their product image. finally, the interactive participants signal three kinds of connections: (1) the connection between the nü green tea authors, the advertisement creators, and the items (image of the bottle, the brand name, the product information and inscription on the bottle and on the ads, the taglines, and color) that are placed in the advertisement. (2) the connection between the picture of the bottle, the writing, the background color, the font size, and the color, and (3) the connection between the nü green tea advertisement and the targeted audience. it is noted that the relationship between the brand authors, advertisement creators, and the targeted readership is reflected in the objects and script put on the billboard (kress & van leeuwen, 2006). the nü green tea billboard advertisement put the entity, i.e., the bottle and major tag line, as the center of attention. the brand is written in english, and the selling information about the product (that it uses lump sugar) is written in indonesian. however, indonesian is also used to translate the brand (minuman teh hijau for green tea) and to give important information about the product (teh hijau melati dari daun teh hijau pilihan for royal jasmine green tea from selected green tea leaves). the use of english language for the brand may be associated with the prestigious status of english for commercial purposes (da silva, 2014; hsu, 2008; martin, 2006). the use of english, however, may not necessarily indicate that the major target readership is foreigners or english-speaking audience. the use of indonesian and jakartan indonesian, particularly exemplified by the use of the modified new into nü together with the jakartan indonesian adjectives seger and bandel may imply that the primary target audience is the youth who can afford the lavishness and want to be part of the new generation as the brand is new and pioneer in its field. in that regard, the minor tagline makes you nü provides two senses. first, nü which can be interpreted as new is the opposite of old. thus, new may be interpreted as young. second, the brand nü (green tea) connotes a natural, healthy, and luxurious product for young people. the use of light green, yellow, white, and brown for the words may be identical with playfulness, warmth, goodness, and brightness, which can represent the youth. those colors may also characterize the product as natural, healthy, and good. it seems that the image of the brand or product is new, natural, harmless, and luxurious. conclusions applying the semiotic approach, the study has revealed several features of a nü green tea billboard advertisement. the first element is the picture of the bottle with the brand, product information, and colors printed on the bottle with the major tagline next to it. the second element is the brand and product information, tag, and minor tagline positioned on the top and bottom of the billboard. the third element is the play of colors. the final element is the use of both formal and colloquial indonesian for the taglines and product information, and english for the brand. the interaction of all the elements is aimed at encouraging the main target readership, i.e., young people, to purchase the product. nevertheless, the current research only focuses on one product. further research may be extended to a comparison of billboard advertisements of ready-to-drink tea brands and other ready-to-drink products to see how linguistic and non-linguistic aspects are utilized as part of the brands’ marketing strategies. references brierley, s. 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(2012). designing brand identity. new jersey: john wiley & sons. microsoft word 06_ienneke_bilingualism.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 142-150 142 the comparison of the monolingual and bilingual japanese students in the english achievement ienneke indra dewi english department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, ienneke@binus.edu abstract article is intended to know whether the monolingual or bilingual japanese students are better in the english achievement and whether the exposure of english influences the ability. the data were taken from 60 japanese students who are supposed to fill in the questionnaires regarding their language background. the english achievement data were taken from the students’ scores in senior high school national examination and the data further were compared to the toefl english score. the analysis is carried out using anova analysis. this research indicates that monolinguals are better learners in english and exposure is proved to influence the students’ ability in english. keywords: monolingual, bilingual, japanese, student, english abstrak artikel mencoba mencari tahu apakah mahasiswa jurusan jepang yang monolingual atau bilingual lebih baik dalam prestasi bahasa inggris dan apakah exposure bahasa inggris mempengaruhi kemampuan mereka. data diambil dari 60 mahasiswa jurusan jepang yang mengisi kuesioner berkaitan dengan latar belakang bahasa mereka. prestasi bahasa inggris mahasiswa tersebut diambil dari nilai mereka ketika smu kemudian dibandingkan dengan nilai toefl mereka. analisis dilakukan dengan uji anova. penelitian mengindikasikan bahwa mahsiswa yang monolingual adalah pemelajar bahasa inggris yang lebih baik dan exposure terbukti mempengaruhi kekampuan mahasiswa dalam belajar bahasa inggris. kata kunci: monolingual, bilingual, jepang, mahasiswa, bahasa inggris the comparison of the monolingual … (ienneke indra dewi) 143 introduction the fact that english has been used as the language of wider communication can be seen from two sides. the first is from the references and the second is from the reality around us. baugh and cable (1997: 4) mentioned that “english is spoken by more that 370 million people as a first language in the united kingdom, the united states, and the former british empire; it is the largest of the occidental languages”. the recent research on the most asian language studied in us (2002) indicates that all around the world there are about 514.000.000 people speaking english. besides, english has been used in the international area especially in the politics, education, as well as the economical matters. as the countries using english as the first language are powerful in those three areas, the influence of their language as the lingua franca is accepted by all countries (baugh and cable 1997). indonesia seems to realize the importance of english, therefore, the government decided to include english in the formal school curriculum beginning from the junior high school. not only the government, but also the elementary schools as well as kindergartens are aware of this fact. therefore, some of them put the english subject in their curriculum. besides the government, the parents seem to realize this development very well. they send their children to the english courses which are getting bigger and bigger in number. the result is that all indonesian students graduated from senior high schools are bilinguals at least english and indonesian with surely the different mastery of each language. on the other hand, as indonesia consists of a lot of islands and with various vernaculars, the first language of the students can be either indonesian or other local languages such as javanese, sundanese, or chinese. from the situation above, it can be inferred that before learning english students are able to communicate in indonesian only, meaning that they are monolingual. another possibility is that they learn indonesian as their second language because their first language is their vernaculars, meaning that they are bilinguals before learning english. therefore in general this research is intended to know the mastery of english from monolingual, and bilingual groups by using un and toefl. the research intends to see who is the better learners in english, monolinguals or bilinguals by checking the results of their english national exam and toefl test. in this case, the consistency of the results of the two tests and the influence of the non-formal education is also investigated. from the problems above this study is intended to find out the following details: the english mastery in the english national exam by the monolingual and bilingual having exposure outside the school from 0 – 2 years and more than 2 years; the english mastery in toefl test the monolingual and bilingual having exposure outside the school from 0 – 2 years and more than 2 years; the result consistency between the english national exam and the toefl; the mastery of english of the monolingual students and bilingual students. this results of this research can be used for the students, teachers, and parents to see whether they should send their children to have additional english course, at least for two years or more or think the ways of giving the children more exposure in learning and practicing their english. besides, as the object is the students of the japanese department who are at the first year, the teachers will be able to use the data to predict which students will have problems in learning japanese at least for their third language or more. if bilingual students are already have difficulties in learning english, the parents and teachers should stop teaching the next new language in order not to make the students more confused. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 142-150 144 discussion literature review bilingualism according to richards and platt (1977:36) is “the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers” and hamers and blanc (2000:6) also mentions that “bilingualism the state of a linguistic community in which two language are in contact with the result that two codes can be used in the same interaction and a number of individuals area bilingual”. thus bilingualism involves two languages or more that are used by individuals or by society. psychologically, “. . . a person has access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication; the degree of access will vary . . . (hamers and blanc, 2000:6). thus, actually everybody has the ability to learn more than one language in this case hamers and blanc use the term bilinguality. regarding age, a child can be bilingual since he was born; meaning that there is a possibility that he was raised with two different languages. however, he might learn only one language in the family then he learns the second language either in his school or in his environment. the first is called simultaneous bilinguality and the second is consecutive one (hamers and blanc, 2000:27). if the second language is acquired before 11 it is called childhood bilinguality. they also gave another class that is adolescent bilinguality (the second language is learnt between 11–17 and adult bilingualism in which the second language is acquired after 17. the issue concerning monolinguals and bilinguals is which ones are more capable in learning a new language. some researches as quoted by keshavarz and astaneh (2004:295) “suggested that bilingualism was associated with negative consequences . . . bilingual children suffered from academic retardation, had lower iq and were socially maladjusted as compared with monolingual children”. however, they also concluded from some other researches that “bilingualism positively influences the child’s cognitive and social development.” in this case, hamers and blanc conclude that the ideas of some authors who have the opinion that “bilingual children may have greater cognitive control of information processing than do monolingual children and that this provides them with the necessary foundation for metalinguistic ability” (bialystok & ryan, 1985a; bialystok, 1991). the studies to know whether monolinguals are better than bilinguals in learning a language have been done by researchers such as williamson and freda young (1978), muller’s in houwer (1998), keshavarz and astaneh (2004), and maghshudi (2007). they use what hamers and blanc (2000: 35) call as “measures of bilingual competence by giving tests of competence in a second language”. each researcher uses different areas of language aspects. williamson and freda young (1978) gave a test in reading aloud and the results showed that regarding the sound similarities, bilinguals are better but their sensitivity in grammatical and semantic cues as well as their hypercorrection is less than the monolinguals’. another statement by muller’s in houwer (1998) indicates that the mastery of grammar, in this case, word order was better in monolinguals than that of bilinguals. in 2004, keshavarz and astaneh (2004) conducted a study on the bilingual students (turkish-persian), (aremenian-persian), and persian monolingual and the result was that the information that bilingualism gives “positive effect on the third language vocabulary achievement”. the most recent research carried out in india by maghshudi (2007) is to find out whether bilinguals or monolinguals are better in achieving english and he found out that “bilingualism results in more efficient foreign language learning”. the comparison of the monolingual … (ienneke indra dewi) 145 in this research, the population used is the consecutive but included in childhood bilinguals as all the population both bilinguals and monolinguals have one mother tongue; meaning that they learn the second language after they master the first language for sometime. they are also included in childhood bilinguals as all of them began to study english (as their second or third language) at least at the elementary school, that is, before the age of 11. research method there are two types of data; the first is the students’ data consisting of the background of the students as the subjects of the research and the second is the instruments for measuring their ability in english. the first was taken from the questionnaires and the second was taken from the questionnaires and the tests. the populations of the study were 83 students of the first year of the japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university. in order to know whether they are monolinguals or bilinguals, they were asked to fill out the questionnaire asking about their mother tongue and their second language. those whose mother tongue is indonesian and their second language is english are considered as monolinguals as before learning english they only master one language. bilingual students are the ones whose first language is indonesian while the second one is not english (it can be javanese, sundanese or chinese), or the students whose first language is not indonesian but the second language is indonesian. from 83 students, 30 monolinguals and 30 bilinguals were taken randomly. in order to complete the background of the students, in the questionnaire they were also supposed to give information about their exposure in english. out of the 60 students selected, 32 have the experience in learning english from outside schools (in english courses or private lessons) for 0 – 2 years and 28 have it for more than 2 years. the second data, the one to be used as the instrument for measuring the english as a whole were taken from the ujian nasional (the english national examination) and the toefl test. the results of the english national examination were taken by using questionnaire, while the data for toefl tests were obtained in two ways. the first is when the new students were following the pekan orientasi mahasiswa (new student orientation) – covering reading and structure and the second was given during the first semester of their study. the data were analyzed using the statistics completed by the detailed data so that the results can be more informative. first of all, the students were divided into two groups: monolinguals and bilinguals. then, each group would have smaller groups, the students having the experience of reinforcing their english from 0 – 2 years and the ones having more than 2 years. the analysis of the mastery of english was taken first from the english national examination in their high school english mastery was taken from the four groups by using two measurements. the two measurements are meant to see the consistency of the english mastery and to make the instruments used complete. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 142-150 146 the chart of the process of the collecting data and data analysis is as follows. figure 1 chart of the process of the collecting data and data analysis research findings and discussion the data is divided into four groups: d1 monolingual students having exposure 0-2 years d2 – monolingual students having exposure > 2 years d3 – bilingual students having exposure 0-2 years d4 – bilingual students having exposure > 2years the data analysis will be done in the following order: the statistics used are anova analysis in order to find out which group is better in achieving the score in un and toefl. the second instrument is using t analysis in order to find the consistency of the students in achieving the results of un and toefl class. each analysis will be supported by the detail data. the comparison of the monolingual … (ienneke indra dewi) 147 the analysis of un the anova analysis could be seen in table 1. table 1 anova results for un source of variation df ss ms f fcrit treatment 3 6.521 2.437 2.442 2.76 (d1+d2) vs (d3+d4) mono vs bilingual 1 2.97 2.9704 2.977 4.00 d1 vs d2 mono a vs mono b 1 0.016 0.0162 0.016 4.00 d3 vs d4 bilingual a vs bilingual b 1 3.535 3.5347 3.542 4.00 error 56 55.88 0.9979 to t a l 59 62.4 ss: sum of square df: degree of freedom ms: means square f statistical test score f crit f table standard the anova indicates that all statistical test score (f) have smaller number than the f table standard (fcrit). it means that there is no difference among the four groups (d1,d2,d3,d4) in achieving the un. this result also shows that there is no difference between monolingual and bilingual in achieving english tested by un. this table also indicates that the exposure in the form of additional english course outside the school does not influence the score of the un. table 2 summary of the un and toefl scores no resp av. un av. toefl d1 16 8.3 446 d2 14 8.3 431 av d1 + d2 8.3 439 d3 16 7.5 421 d4 14 8.2 421 av d3 + d4 7.9 421 however, among the four, it seems that the most significant result is d3 vs d3 (bilingual + short exposure) vs d4 (bilingual + long exposure). from table 2, we can see that the score of d4 is higher (8.2) than d3 (7.5) meaning that exposure influences but not a lot. meanwhile in monolingual groups, exposure does not play any roles at all. the number of f is very small, and it is reinforced by the fact that the average un from d1 and d2 is the same 8.3. however, this average is bigger by 0.4 than the bilingual ones (7.9). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 142-150 148 the analysis of toefl table 3 hasil anova untuk toefl source of variation df ik kt f fcrit ho/h1 accpt treatment 3 7275 2424.932 0.7722 (d1+d2) vs (d3+d4) mono vs bilingual 1 6869 6869.4 2.2074 d1 vs d2 mono a vs mono b 1 405.1 4051319 0.13 d3 vs d4 bilingual a vs bilingual b 1 0.268 0.2625 0 error 56 2e+05 311 to t a l 59 62.4 from table 1, it can be seen that the toefl average of monolinguals is 18 points higher than the bilinguals. in this case, it seems that in monolingual groups, the ones that have less exposure are 15 points higher that the ones taking english course longer. meanwhile in bilingual there is no difference between the two groups. the analysis of consistency between the un and toefl table 4 consistency antara ujian negara dan toefl variables r r2 t t0.05 d1 -0.0079 0.00006 d2 0.589 0.347 2.521 1.782 d3 0.101 0.01 0.38 1.626 d4 0.424 0.178 1.622 1.782 the consistency of the students in achieving un and toefl can be seen from table 3. if t is bigger than t0.05, then there is a consistency in the achievement meaning that the students are good at un and toefl. the highest consistency is seen from d2 in which t is 2.521 and t005 is 1.782. d4 is quite consistent as there is only small difference between t and t005 (0.160). however, d3 the bilingual with less exposure has the biggest difference in t compared with t005 (0.296). in order to know which respondents that jumps’ across the average, table 5 will indicate the fact. the comparison of the monolingual … (ienneke indra dewi) 149 table 5 not consistent data d1 11 7.8 453 9 8 483 14 8 490 average 8.3 446 d2 average 8.3 431 d3 31 7 477 33 7 500 41 7 453 44 7 497 average 7.5 421 d4 49 8 453 54 8 450 average 8.2 421 from d1 there are two respondents ‘jumping’ beyond the average. the normal consistency is that if the un score is below the average, the toefl score will follow or vice versa. in d1 the three students from below average have the score over average. the results of d2 is in accordance with the t analysis, that the students are consistent in performing their ability in un and in toefl. no respondents ‘jump’. the bilingual group which has less exposure outside the class is the most inconsistent in this research. four students ‘jump’ from below to over average. the bilingual with longer exposure also moved from below average to over average. conclusion this research is intended to see whether monolinguals or bilinguals have better scores in english by using the results of the national english exam and toefl test. in students, one of the factors suspected to influence their ability is that the exposure of the language learning meaning that the respondents have the experience in having more study and practice in english apart from the lessons that they get from their schools. the instruments used to measure the students’ achievement in english are the english national exam (ujian nasional – un) and toefl (test of english as foreign language). the two tests are intended to see whether the students are consistent in their scores or not. the statistic results indicate that there is not much difference between monolingual and bilingual students in achieving un and toefl. although not very significant, monolingual students tend to have better scores in both un and toefl. the results seem to be different from the ones found by williamson and freda young, (1978), muller’s (1998) in houwer (1998), keshavarz and astaneh (2004), maghshudi (2007) which indicate the tendency that bilinguals are better. the interesting thing in this research is that the length of exposure does not play an important role meaning that there are not significant differences in achievement between the students taking more english courses outside the class 0 – 2 years and the ones who take more than two years. the results of the national english examination and the toefl tests are relatively consistent for monolinguals and bilinguals except for the students having less than two year – exposure in english. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 142-150 150 references baugh, albert c. and cable thomas. 1997. a history of the english language. london: rouledge. houwer, annick. 1998. “comparing error frequencies in monolingual and bilingual acquisition.” bilingualism language and cognition vol. 1 number 3 december 1998: 173-174. keshavarz, mohammad hossein and astaneh hamideh. 2004. “the impact of bilinguality on the learning of english vocabulary as a foreign language.” bilingual education and bilingualism, vol. 7, no 4, 2004:295-302. maghshudi, mojtaba. 2007. “the impact of bilinguality on pre-university students in english achievement in mysore, india.” language in india volume 7: 3 march 2007. .edu/glossa/journal/jun2007/the%20impact%20of%20bilinguality richards, jack c., john platt, and heidi platt. 1997. longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. longman group uk: edinburg. williamson, leon f. and freda young. 1978. “the reading performances of monolinguals and bilinguals compared.” in michel paradis (ed) aspects of bilingualism. ed. by michel paradis (77 – 86). copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 97 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 97-101 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.1756 female psychology in august strindberg’s the stronger anton sutandio1; erica apriliani2 1,2english department, faculty of letters, maranatha christian university jl. prof. drg. surya sumantri no.65, bandung 40164, indonesia 1anton.sutandio@gmail.com, 2ayeayerica@gmail.com received: 3th november 2016/ revised: 29th december 2016/ accepted: 29th march 2017 how to cite: sutandio, a. & apriliani, e. (2017). female psychology in august strindberg’s the stronger. lingua cultura, 11(2), 97-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.1756 abstract this research aimed to offer interpretations of august strindberg’s the stronger through the lens of female psychology. the stronger is unique as it seemed very simple yet so intense and powerful with layers of interpretations. written during 18881889, the stronger, which only had two characters and only one speaking character, had become one of strindberg’s shortest yet important plays during his career. the female psychology approach used in the analysis would cover the discussion of gender role, women’s self-esteem, competition for males, women’s friendships, ego style, and female psychology. it was an interdisciplinary research that combined structuralist, historical, biographical, and feminist approach to gain a better interpretation on the play. by referring to three different sources on the concept of female psychology, the analysis offered different and interesting interpretations on the nature and dynamics of the two female characters’ relationship. the stronger has shown an enigmatic attraction in strindberg’s authorship in which the readers can see the co-existence, collision, conflict, and merge of different paradigms concerning sex, gender, and sexuality. keywords: female psychology, gender role, women’s self-esteem, ego style introduction this research shows some possible interpretations of august strindberg’s the stronger through the lens of female psychology. the stronger was written from december 1888 to january 1889 as part of the repertoire for strindberg’s projected experimental theatre in copenhagen. sprinchorn, (1982) refers to this time in strindberg’s life as the period of sex and marriage exploration. the stronger is one of strindberg’s plays in which he “…brought the drama back to the individual being to subjectivity and human specificity” (gilman, 1999). written after the father and miss julie which were the culmination of this period, the stronger is more of an exercise in writing technique than content exploration. the title echoes the preface that strindberg wrote in miss julie as he writes “i have added a little evolutionary history by making the weaker steal and repeated the words of the stronger” (singh, 2014). his statement strongly implies to strindberg’s social darwinist notions of revolutionary history and hierarchy (singh, 2014). this short play is noteworthy for several technical reasons; one of its two characters never says a word, it has a simple setting, and it is his only play with an all-female cast. the stronger is universally considered the quintessential short play and a superb monodrama of great psychological profundity (azis, 2010). the analysis of the female psychology covers the discussion of gender role, women’s self-esteem, competition for males, women’s friendships, ego styles, and female psychology, which are drawn from three different sources of references. first is from bernard’s discussion on the idea about women’s friendships and the female world. the second is from guttmann’s article that elaborated the ego style of women. the last is from bardwick’s analysis on the female psychology that pertained to their psychological state of mind. in addition, more references to the female world are used to help build the arguments on the possible interpretations of the stronger through the lens of female psychology. according to löongren (2015), strindberg is known to have written plays related to sex, gender, and hierarchical view of the organization of sex, for example there are crimes and crimes (1899), playing with fire (1892), or creditors (1888). another interesting fact about the stronger is that it does not only contribute to the world of experimentation in drama style but also becomes the source of the writing of other plays, such as eugene o’neill’s before breakfast (casper, 2015). methods this research is an interdisciplinary research that combines structuralist, historical, biographical, and feminist approach to gain a better interpretation on the play. the initial action is a close reading of the play to dissect its literary element, which is followed by a data-mining on 98 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 97-101 the historical background of the play and the production, including a brief research on strindberg’s biography. the feminist approach focuses on some concept of feminine personality, female ego style, and a broader idea of the female world. thus, library research is a major part of this research which provides the author solid supports and arguments on the research outcome. after finding sufficient data from the play and references, the authors perform a systematic and interpretive analysis on the play. results and discussions the stronger is one of strindberg’s tight plays with a tendency toward reduction of scenic elements, lighting devices or stage props, characters and dialogue (brandell, 1988). in a sense, this play, among others, reflects strindberg’s artistic use of the irrational and even of absurdism (brooke, 2012). some scholars categorize this play as realistic or naturalistic regarding the content. indeed, in the world of drama, the name strindberg has been persistently viewed as one of the predecessors of modern drama with his naturalistic style (cardullo, 2015). törnqvist (1991) calls this play as a subjective play because the protagonist’s point of view rules from beginning to end. the other character, miss y, has no point of view. the audience can only read her through her gestures and reactions. törnqvist (1991) further argues that strindberg’s theory of the subjective play seems to coincide with that of the psychological novel. the subjectivity of a character reflects his or her ego. strindberg in törnqvist (1991) states that one’s ego is not a unit in itself; it is a conglomeration of reflexes, a complex of urges, drives, alternately suppressed and unleashed. the character mrs. x clearly reflects his definition of ego. based on this theory, one thus cannot tell whether the second character, miss. y is a real person or a hallucination on the part of the protagonist, arising from her jealousy and guilt feelings (törnqvist, 1991). the nature of the play is more psychological than realistic drama is supported by ollen, who calls it the battle of minds an extremely astute study of female psychology (ollen, 1972). strindberg is proud with his experiment with this play when he wrote to his third wife; give me two people, and i shall create a world, give me three, and i shall move it (ollen, 1972). another possible interpretation of the play’s characters is from the context of the play’s production. meyer records that the stronger’s premiere was at dagmars theater, copenhagen on march 9, 1889 (meyer, 1986). the first swedish production was performed by a touring company from 1903 to 1904. it was first performed in stockholm at the intimate theater on december 5, 1907. the first us production was at the wisconsin dramatic society, milwaukee, in 1911. in the introduction to the play, meyer states that it contains a sympathetic portrayal of [strindberg’s] wife (meyer, 1986). the play suggests the actual competition for a role between a young danish actress, nathalia larsen, and strindberg’s wife, siri. in her letter to strindberg’s cousin, siri says “my friend [nathalia] and i are friends again—dear god, how tough love is!” (meyer, 1986). strindberg must have thought that his wife is the stronger and this event drives him to write the play. originally, the character of mrs. x was written for siri, but she refused it. strindberg had to persuade nathalia to accept it in a hastily rehearsed production after miss julie was banned by the censor on the day before the experimental theater was to have opened. the first production of the stronger was less than a success and the play was forgotten until the turn of the century. max reinhardt, an austrian-american theatrical producer, was the first to realize its strength and potential and produced it in berlin in 1902. after that, it was produced in russia, england, austria, and sweden respectively. meyer (1986) has stated that the play has come to be recognized as a brilliantly effective curtain-raiser, which suggests that the play has been regularly performed as part of a full-length performance. the stronger, besides seen as a subjective play, can be seen as a play in a female world in which, “…they are active, aggressive if necessary, not dependent, at least not more so than anyone normally is” (bernard, 1981). the opening stage direction signifies a space of the female world; the corner of a ladies’ café, two little iron tables, a red velvet sofa, and several chairs (bernard, 1981). this female world is inseparable from the male world as simone de beauvoir argued that the female world is an encapsulated enclave in the male world (bernard, 1981). in addition, the choice of ladies’ cafe as the setting may be explained as a way to avoid stereotypes, prejudice, or discrimination (clow, 2011) that may occur if they enter spaces typically dominated by the other gender. the absence of any male character does not necessarily suggest that the play is not about men; on the contrary, the main conflict circulates a male character. in fact, it is aligned with the belief that strindberg was a, “... misogynist [and], the admirer of authoritarianism” (singh, 2014). the play is also a gendered play, in which strindberg captures wonderfully the fundamental duality of the role of woman play in society. with mrs. x, we have the woman as caring mother and devoted wife, miss y, is independent woman, who lives her life in her own way and is able, because of her independence to shape others to her personality (azis, 2010). one can also find proof of the gender role issue scattered throughout the play. mrs. x’s reaction when she first sees miss y is the proof of how a woman should live and perform her gender role. it can be seen in mrs. x’s speech; “do you know it worries me to see you this way, alone in a café, and on christmas eve too” (strindberg, 1975). it is a horrible fate for a woman to be in such a state. further, she also talks about women’s domestic space that miss y should have pursued; “yes, amelia dear, home is the best of all—next to the theatre—and the children, you understand—but that you don’t understand!” (strindberg, 1975). mrs. x’s gifts for her children shows the parents’ role in establishing their children’s gender role. she buys a doll for her daughter, liza, and a toy pop gun for her son, maja (strindberg, 1975). she basically does everything that her husband wants her to do, suggesting male domination and gender assertion of how a wife should behave. from this gender point of view, miss y’s silence might suggest that strindberg intentionally silenced her because she does not fit the gendered world that he created. the opening of the play gives a clue that mrs. x and miss y (amelia) are friends who know each other through a theater company in stockholm. the audience can guess that their relationship is close to the topic, tone, and blunt manner of mrs. x’s speech to miss y. the intimate opening discussion of miss y’s canceled marriage, as mentioned by mrs. x, also provides a clue of their closeness. kimmel (2004) has argued that most women, according to surveys, believe that women friendships are decidedly better than men’s because they involve personal concern, intimate sharing, and more emotional exchange which the two 99female psychology in august strindberg’s .... (anton sutandio; erica apriliani) female characters seem to share. research on a similar gender relationship reinforces the existing stereotypes of women as emotionally expressive, as reflected by mrs. x’s manner throughout the play. in contrast to miss y, mrs. x is all about emotion. kimmel, quoting lilian rubin, argues that generally women’s friendships with each other rest on shared intimacies, self-revelation, nurturance, and emotional support (kimmel, 2004). her theory explains the two characters’ closeness when mrs. x reveals to the audience some information on the nature of their relationship. the audience knows that miss y is the godmother to mrs. x’s child, which suggests a close and trusting relationship. the plot takes a sharp turn when suddenly mrs. x accuses miss y. several arguments attempt to explain why mrs. x and miss y react in such a way. bardwick argues that femininity is largely defined by success in establishing and maintaining love relationships and by maternity. the audience knows that mrs. x is a married woman with children. from bardwick’s point of view, mrs. x is a successful feminine. through the course of the play, hints are offered that miss y is somehow accused of destroying mrs. x’s established position. miss y is suspected as the third person in mrs. x’s family, and mrs. x seems to be positive in her accusation. bernard states that woman alone could know the heart of a woman which might explain why. despite miss y’s silence, mrs. x knows that she is right, as stated in her speech; “keep still! you don’t have to say anything. i comprehend it all myself! it was because, and because, and because. yes! yes! now everything is clear. so that’s it!” (strindberg, 1975). it seems that mrx. x is assured of her conviction through miss y’s reaction to the accusation. according to bernard, nonverbal body language messages, as shown by miss y, give far greater credence than verbal language, even when they contradict each other. mrs. x can probably read miss y’s body language which suggests that mrs. x’s suspicion is true. further, bernard argues that women are better than men to understand the nonverbal signals, whether they come from a female or a male. perhaps because the nonverbal behavior seems to play an especially important part of women’s lives, many studies have found women to be more sensitive to the nonverbal cues than men are (bernard, 1981). miss y’s seemingly passivity and indifference towards mrs. x’s accusation might mean that miss y does not deny it. her silence is what makes the play so fascinating. miss y’s body language can also mean she avoids confrontation, as bernard further argues, that body language is sometimes used by a subordinate to make a statement without confrontation (bernard, 1981). in the context of the relationship between mrs. x and miss y, miss y can be regarded as subordinate because mrs. x is married to the person in charge of the theater in which miss y works. not to mention that mrs. x is portrayed as an older woman and a more dominant party in their dialogue. thus, her silence might suggest certain statements, and she certainly does not want a confrontation with mrs. x. mrs. x’s harsh accusation and speech towards miss y can be explained through different theories. according bardwick (1981), the fear of losing the loved one could destroy a woman’s self-esteem. she argues that in women there is a common psychological vulnerability that comes from low feelings of self-esteem, a strong and persistent need for respect from others in order to support self-esteem, and the fear of loss of love that could destroy self-esteem. this theory can explain that mrs. x reacts the way she does because she needs to get back her self-esteem which according to herself, is threatened by miss y. at the same time, she does not want to look vulnerable in front of miss y which explains why she keeps talking and claims that she is stronger. mrs. x needs to regain respect and selfesteem by confronting miss y and justifying her suspicions. this theory seems to contradict to the concept of women’s friendship that has been elaborated before. in a different study, kimmel, quoting simone de beauvoir, argues that women’s feelings rarely rise to genuine friendship (kimmel, 2004) which may explain the dynamic nature of their relationship. she also refers to rubin’s argument that “…friendship is so precarious…friendship is secured by emotional bond alone. with no social compact, no ritual moment, no pledge of loyalty, and constancy to hold a friendship in place, it becomes not only the most neglected social relationships of our time but, all too often, our most fragile as well” (kimmel, 2004). thus, once this emotional bond conflicts, the friendship between women can easily end as happens between mrs. x and miss y. in the context of competition for male, sandelands (2001) has argued that the most powerful males are the winning males. thus, females compete with other females who are likewise oriented to the winners of male competitions. where one monopolizes male attention, others lose out. from mrs. x’s narration about her husband, one can safely assume that he is a winning male when he is established, influential, and has an important position in society. moreover, mrs. x tells miss y about several women who have attempted to get close to her husband that confirms his value. it is said that, “but frederika wasn’t the only one, would you believe it! i don’t know why, but the women are so crazy about my husband. they must think he has something to say about the theatre engagements because he’s connected to the government” (strindberg, 1975). thus, sandelands’s argument can explain mrs. x’s determination to win her the husband’s love because of a woman, “…is keen to mate a resourceful and generous and reliable male to the point even of limiting her mating to secure his undivided attentions and resources. her sexual jealousy centers on emotional rather than physical infidelity; her dread worry is that he and his resources could be lost to another” (sandelands, 2001). mrs. x’s jealousy is more emotional than physical, and clearly, she does not want to lose her resources in life. from the male point of view, sandelands proposes an argument to explain why a male can easily fall into an affair. he argues that with all the women available for intercourse nearly all the time, there is a constant room and reason for the contest. no single contest could abide for all women of the group. there are too many mating opportunities with too many women for any one man or few men to monopolize (sandelands, 2001). mrs. x’s remark about some women are trying to get close to her husband confirms this argument. her husband is like a magnet to those women, and this condition may lead to male domination as the male does not have many competitors in mating. guttmann’s ego style can be simply defined as the ways the two sexes create and manage their experience (collier, 1982). regarding women’s ego style, guttmann argues that the auto-centric ego style is believed to characterize women. in this ego style, the order of events in one’s life is related to the self. mrs. x’s monologue clearly reflects how she centers all the events in her life to herself. even though she talks to miss y, most of what she talks about centers on herself and for her own interest. furthermore, 100 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 97-101 guttmann argues that females tend to leap to conclusions, to decide issues on emotional rather than rational grounds (guttmann, 1970). it can be seen how mrs. x suddenly jumps into a conclusion that somehow miss y is having an affair with her husband. women are often influenced in their judgment by feelings of affection or hostility (guttmann, 1970). his argument suits mrs. x’s actions; without giving miss y an opportunity to speak, mrs. x draws her own conclusions based more on emotion than reason. mrs. x is making an accusation and an assumption that is used to justify her suspicion in reaction to her own fear or rage. her actions reflect an auto-centric ego person. this next possible interpretation of mrs. x’s behavior might be the most problematic yet still plausible. the cause of mrs. x’s strange action is that she may have her menstrual period. miss y’s silence thus can be interpreted as her knowing mrs. x so well that she chooses to be silent when mrs. x is having her period. the symptoms of menstrual period are irritability, mood swings, tension, or depression, all of which are evident in mrs. x’s behavior. bardwick argues that there are regular and predictable changes in the personality of sexually mature women that correlate with changes in the menstrual cycle. these personality changes are extreme that occur in spite of individual personality differences, and it is the result of the endocrine or other physical changes that occur during the cycle (bardwick, 1981). based on this argument, mrs. x and miss y might be completely different individuals at different times. it also complicates the plot because mrs. x might not be serious about her accusation and it all might be just an emotional outburst. it could also explain mrs. x’s mood swings throughout the play when mrs. x plays jokes in front of miss y with the slippers, then she gets angry at miss y and abruptly feels pity for her. her behavior fits bardwick’s argument that these mood shifts are severe enough to affect behavior (bardwick, 1981). the clue of this play is miss y’s reactions including her gestures and facial expressions. the plot circulates the questions of whether mrs. x’s husband is having an affair with miss y or not and who is the stronger between them. one cannot depend too heavily on mrs. x’s narration because it is highly subjective and emotional. mrs. x provides certain facts as clues for the audience about the nature of their relationship and about the events leading to their encounter at the café. thus, the plot hangs on miss y’s silence and her body language. the audience’s interpretation of her reaction opens multiple possibilities for understanding the play. throughout the stronger, miss y shows different reactions. the first time she sees mrs. x, she nods to her which does not seem to reply to mrs. x’s speech about sitting alone in a café on christmas eve. then she shows disdain when mrs. x mentions domestic happiness, marriage, and children; “miss y looks scornful” (strindberg, 1975). one possible reading of miss y’s reaction is that she does not want to be committed, and this interpretation corresponds to the idea of the gendered world of the play to which she does not belong. another interpretation is that she is offended by mrs. x’s judgment of her. when mrs. x takes out the toy gun and pretends to shoot her, she appears frightened. her reaction might just be an exaggeration and serve as a joke because she knows that the gun is not real. however, her reaction might be genuine because she is afraid that mrs. x will harm her. miss y’s reaction when mrs. x shows her the embroidered slippers is more difficult to interpret; “miss y looks up ironically and curiously” (strindberg, 1975). one interpretation might be that she is curious because she likes tulips and wants to look at the unique slippers. the ironic look is much more challenging to read. she may think that slippers are not a suitable christmas gift for the loved one. one can interpret it as a sign that she is having an affair and feels irony at seeing the wife’s present with tulips on it. miss y laughs aloud (strindberg, 1975) when mrs. x makes a funny gesture with the slippers. her reaction somewhat loosens the tension and decreases the possibility that miss y is having an affair with mrs. x’s husband. when mrs. x changes the topic and talks about how her husband and miss y seem never to have been attracted to each other, miss y becomes serious. the stage direction says; “they look in a puzzled way at each other” (strindberg, 1975), bringing back the previous tension. then, mrs. x invites miss y to spend christmas eve together which elicits a curious gaze from miss y. mrs. x’s inconsistent manner complicates the major issue at hand. when mrs. x commands her to speak, miss y appears as if about to speak (strindberg, 1975) but mrs. x cuts her off abruptly. that is miss y’s last reaction, and the stage direction does not show with what gestures she should respond to mrs. x ‘s sudden outburst. the play ends with mrs. x’s long monologue. this monologue outburst which seems spontaneous is an example of strindberg’s experimentation with dialogue in which he, let(s) the minds work irregularly as they do in reality, wherein the conversation no topic is ever concluded (stockenström, 2004). the authors argue that this experimentation helps emphasize the female psychology aspect of the play. one can safely assume that miss y is alone on the stage before the curtain closes. i argue that the whole interpretation of the play lies on miss y’s final gesture or facial expression just before the curtain closes. this is the clue of the play. if miss y laughs at the end, then the audience might interpret that everything mrs. x says is nonsense. however, if miss y cries, then perhaps what mrs. x says is true. if miss y is indifferent and continues reading the magazine and drinks her chocolate, probably the whole thing is a play within a play. it is probable that the whole play is about mrs. x rehearsing her lines with miss y, and miss y acts merely as a listener who now and then reacts to mrs. x’s lines. after all, they are both actresses inside and outside the play. thus, miss y’s final reaction creates multiple vectors in the play. conclusions through this short play, strindberg remarkably shows us the dramatic human situation in which two humans of the same sex struggle while serving, “...some mindless life force, vampire figures that drain others of their vitality, endless household drudgery, disgust with physicality...” (singh, 2014). this play is another strindberg’s play in which the characters are entrapped in their relationships (sasani & ghasemi, 2014). female psychology theories certainly open more possible interpretations of the stronger. the female world where they interact cannot prevent male intervention. although the play is set in a ladies’ café, the discussion is between women, and no male characters are present. the play circulates around competition for a male and who the stronger between them. furthermore, being the stronger is not directly intended for the woman’s own benefit but for the sake of a man’s love and attention. implicitly, we can sense a gradual reassertion of patriarchy and male rule throughout the play (yi, 2013). 101female psychology in august strindberg’s .... (anton sutandio; erica apriliani) theory on the female friendship provides a possible explanation why their seemingly intimate relationship can suddenly end under such biased accusations based on an emotional hunch. in a recent study, it may be understood that their intimacy may be driven by similarity and attractiveness of the two characters (griffin, 2011). they seem to share similar interest to one male and assume that they are equally attractive. the theory also helps the audience to see the play from a gender point of view; how gender role is asserted throughout the play. elaboration on the significance of non-verbal language within the female world provides insights to read miss y’s action and mrs. x’s reaction towards miss y. through the lens of female psychology, mrs. x’s reaction can be interpreted differently. her threatened self-esteem drives her to confront miss y. mrs. x competes with miss y to get the winning male because mutual love brings self-esteem and respect for her. the theory of ego style explains why mrs. x makes herself the center of everything that happens around her and why she makes assumptions, accusations, and draws conclusions based on her emotional observation. finally, the theory of female psychology offers an interpretation that mrs. x’s having her period is causing her to act strangely. the other character, miss y becomes the clue of the play. her silence opens possibilities for different interpretations. her final reaction is the most important because it concludes the audience’s reaction in determining whether miss y is having an affair and who is the stronger between them. indeed, the stronger has shown an enigmatic attraction in strindberg’s authorship in which we can see the co-existence, collision, conflict, and merge of different paradigms concerning sex, gender, and sexuality (löongren, 2015). references azis, f. h. 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(2013). the role of sex in the depiction of gender and class conflict in miss julie by august strindberg and the house of bernada alba by federico garcia lorca. lapis lazuli: an international literary journal, 3(1), 1–7. microsoft word 06 yetty_setting analysis zhang ailing’s novel ….. (yetty; rosemary) 47 分析张爱玲小说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的人物形象与故事情节 analysis zhang ailing’s novel (red rose and white rose) image of the characters and story plot (印尼建国大学中文系) yetty; rosemary chinese departement, faculty of languange and culture, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/ palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract zhang ailing is a heterogeneous novel writer in china literature’s history. almost of her life, she already wrote so many literature’s works. one of her famous novel is (red rose and white rose). the story is describe the image of main figure’s character and his emotional. writer wants use the characterization, complexity of personality and story plot these three aspect to analysis the novel’s figure looks, figure character and the story. this novel story is a complication relationship between the man and two women, red roses as her lover and white rose as her wife. about a man that in his standard life and emotional condition occur some contradiction. writer use reference material and theory of novel writing to analysis zhang ailing (red rose and white rose)‘s novel. the result of this analisys are the most important part in novel’s story is not only about the story plot but also the describtion of figure looks and characterization. zhang ailing in (red rose and white rose) descbribtion is very spesific, the story become so interesting because of the complementary of the figure looks, figure characterization and story plot, embraced each other, fully reflects the fictional reality of compromise and frustration. keywords: zhang ailing, novel, characterization, (red rose and white rose), the complexity of personality, richness of the story plot 内容提要 张爱玲是一位中国文学史上的“异类”作家。她一生创作大量文学作品。类型包括小说、 散文、电影剧本以及文学论著,她的书信也被人们作为著作的一部分加以研究。张爱玲的小说 《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》深受读者喜爱。小说讲述了个男人和他的两类女人之间的故事,红玫瑰比 喻情人,白玫瑰比喻妻子。说得是世俗生活中的男人,在世俗的标准下和个人情感取舍相矛盾 的情况下,把感情和现实分割开来,形成的两种形象。男主人公振保是一个男人妥协于现实的 世俗虚伪的男性形象。笔者想通过作品的人物塑造,性格的复杂性与情节的丰富性三个方面来 分析张爱玲《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》小说。小说通过小说写作一些理论研究的方法分析张爱玲小说 《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》人物形象。笔者所得到的结论是小说中的重要因素不只是人物塑造与性格 特征的描写而不是情节。情节就为性格服务,这是情节与性格关系的一个方面。张爱玲在小说 《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》中对人物相貌的描写性格塑造与情节相辅相成,互为辉映,充分体现了小 说人物对现实的妥协与无奈。 关键词:张爱玲,小说,人物塑造,《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》,性格的复杂性,情节的丰富性 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 47-52 前言 张爱玲一生作品颇丰,小说、散文、评论,乃至文学研究,不同体裁,多有涉猎。她的 几部成名小说尤其呈现出张爱玲所特有的优雅、矜持、执着与敏感。 1 止庵介绍,张爱玲的 “热”从 1942 年已经开始,这个天才女孩在沦陷期的上海大放异彩,在 1942 年到 1943 年的两 年时间内,张爱玲在文学界获得了极高的地位,杂志、报刊争相发表她的稿件,只要有她作 品的出版物,就会销量大增,很多杂志以发表她的作品为荣。《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》小说, 1944 年 5-7 月,《杂志》第 13 卷 2—4 期是张爱玲的其中之一的 佳作品。 2 也许每个男人全都有过这样的两个女人,至少两个。娶了红玫瑰,久而久之,红的变了 墙上的抹蚊子血,白的还是”床前明月光”;娶了白玫瑰,白的便是衣服上沾的一粒饭黏子, 红的却是心口上一刻朱砂痣。《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,这句话成了脍炙人口的名言。《红玫瑰 与白玫瑰》是她的作品中阐释其思想态度很有代表意义的一篇。描写的是二十世纪三四十年 代的中国上海:古老的家族、神秘的大宅、浓重的吴音,弥漫着永远抹不去的怀旧心绪;同 时又夹杂着洋场的灯火、变幻的风云、各国的来客、无时无刻不在躁动的人心。这两种环境 共同影响下的上海,男女的爱情也时刻充斥着无奈。因而她小说中的人物永远生活在传统与 现代的夹缝中,构筑了一片永恒的苍凉风景。通过张爱玲的灵活与详细的描写人物塑造、性 格复杂与情节的技巧。这篇小说的描写 上使人物相貌、性格与情节从 上跳出,而永存于 者 中。 内容 一、人物塑造 3人物的职业阶级等之外,相貌自然是要描写的,这需要充分的观察,且须精妙的道出, 如某人的下巴尖如脚踵,或某人的脖子如一根鸡腿······这种形容是一句便够,马上使人物从纸 上跳出,而永存于读者记忆中。 《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的人物不多,振保作为男主人公、娇蕊作为红玫瑰与烟鹂作为白玫瑰 是小说的主要人物。张爱玲在小说里是如此描写人物的相貌的,男主人公振保的相貌“他的俗 气是外国式的俗气。他的个子不高,但身手矮捷。晦暗的酱黄脸,带着黑边眼镜,眉眼五官的 详情也看不出所以然来。”男主人公的相貌正是其性格的体现。 娇蕊比喻为红玫瑰,她是开朗活泼,幼稚,粗心,任性的妇女。她在小说中是振保的情 人,张爱玲描写她为一个任性的女孩,因为她的婚事不幸,就在丈夫背后搞外遇。自从遇到了 振保她的生活比较幸福,明白了什么是爱情。娇蕊这个人物性格特征描写的很清楚。关于娇蕊 的相貌模糊不清,小说里多于描写娇蕊的行为与想法。读者对于性格特征比较清楚,对于相貌 读者就能从每一细节想象。 烟鹂比喻为白玫瑰,她是属于宁静美少女,很少对外交际,不够自信。自从跟振保结婚, 她就变成了乏味的女孩。从小说中的描写烟鹂很少说话,替丈夫着想,不像社会大多数的妇人 对丈夫有疑心。烟鹂的相貌的描写跟娇蕊一样模糊。小说里大多数也是烟鹂人物的性格特征。 可读者就能从每一段情节了解到她的相貌。                                                              1 《她身上很多符号与文学无关》,2010 年 09 年 30 日,《华商报》  2 张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,51 页第 4 至 7 行  3  老舍:《人物的描写》,《老舍论创作》第 86~87 页,上海文艺出版社,1980 年 2 月 1 版  analysis zhang ailing’s novel ….. (yetty; rosemary) 49 4一篇小说中的人物必须呼之欲出的活生生的人;在他们的反应中必须有对于真实的暗 示。流传下来的往往是这些小说,它们的趣味更多地是来自人物,而不是情节。小说里除了男 主人公的丰富描写,别的人物也描写的十分详细。张爱玲塑造《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的人物使故 事里面的情节丰富与复杂。为了在人物刻画中获得实行,张爱玲在每一个行动或情节描写人物 思想与想法,使读者在每一个情节越来越了解到张爱玲想塑造的人物的性格特征。 从这儿我们可以了解到人物就是一个作品的重要因素。通过人物的姿态、思想、行为与人 物的对话中,读者就能获得完整的故事情节。《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的每一个情节都很精彩使读 者惊叹。张爱玲在小说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的优点是人物描写的性格很丰富,人物像生活中的 真实人物,读者能感觉到小说里的人物是呼之欲出的活生生的人。人物相貌的描写,读者必须 从情节慢慢了解到,使读者容易想象人物的身份。张爱玲在小说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》描写的人 物性格与情节很灵活,内容反映着社会上的日常生活,深入细致的细节描写使小说《红玫瑰与 白玫瑰》永存在读者的记忆中。 二、性格的复杂性 世界上没有两颗相同的沙子,没有两片相同的树叶。人之不同,各如其面。个性的千差万 别,五光十色,构成了茫茫人海、大千世界的无限多样性和丰富性。我们可以说某类人的个性 相近,但不能说他们的个性完全相同。这独一无二、不可重复的因素,才是个性的精华,个性 的特色,在文艺创作中,个性自身的审美发展趋向,就是要突出这个精化,强化这个特色。 5所谓复杂性,是指人物个性应该是人物性格的多种特点的统一物。写出人物性格的复杂 性,是为了经过艺术提炼写出人物的真实的面貌,使人物像生活中的真人一样。 《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》里的男主人公振保,他的性格特征我们可以在生活中的大多数男性身 上发现。事奉母亲,谁都没有他那么周到;提拔兄弟,谁都没有他那么经心;办公,谁都没有 他那么火爆认真;待朋友,谁都没有他那么热心,那么义气、克己。他做人做得十分兴头;他 是不相信有来生的,不然他化了名也要重新来一趟。从张爱玲的描写,振保是一位性格完美的 男性也是一个拥有完美的生活,现实世界的振保是令人羡慕的,他事业有成,他在一家老牌子 的外贸染织公司做到很高的位置,家庭幸福,面目姣好与性情温顺的太太。但世俗下,男主人 公在感情与现实这两个方面发生了矛盾。振保的内心是不满足,家庭并不幸福的。他所追求的 幸福是与现实格格不入,不被世俗所理解和接受的。 对振保来说娇蕊是一位任性,热的女人,放浪一点的,娶不得的女人。振保第一次遇到娇 蕊就对她有感觉了。因为娇蕊已经是人家的老婆,更是他朋友的太太。振保是个比较重视义气 的人,他觉得这件事很危险,就退步。其实振保清楚娇蕊这种女人不是他想要跟他共度一生的 妻子,可是他理想中的女性就是像娇蕊这样的女性。 自从振保好朋友士洪去外国出差,他与娇蕊的恋爱越来越热烈。他们俩常常有来往,互相 分享自己的事。 6“他自己认为是坠落。从高处跌落的物件,比它本身的重量要重上许多倍,那 惊人的重量跟娇蕊撞上了,把她碰得昏了头”。从这里可以发现振保真的爱上娇蕊了,让他没 想到的是娇蕊竟然也爱上他了。虽然娇蕊犹豫着, 7“她也不知道为什么单单爱上了振保”.                                                              4  约翰∙盖利肖著:《小说写作技巧二十讲》,第 334 页,北京十月文艺出版社出版,1987 年 11 月第一版  5  李保均:《小说写作研究》,第 189~190 页,湖北人民出版社,1984 年 6 月第 1 版  6  张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,71 页 6 至 7 行  7  张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,71 页  25 行  50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 47-52 可他们的关系无法持久,振保其实也了解他们的暗恋是禁止的。娇蕊没有跟振保商量就写 信给士洪让士洪给她自由。娇蕊告诉他之后, 8“振保在喉咙里“嗄”地叫了一声,立即往外跑, 跑到街上,回头看那峨巍的公寓,灰赭色流线型的大层,像大得不可想象的火车,正冲着他轰 隆轰隆开过来,遮得日月无光”。振保做的事情已经到了无可救药的阶段,他们彼此相爱那是 事实,但他自己疑心,娇蕊其实爱的是别人,她故意使用他来跟士洪要自由。通过这些描写可 以了解,振保对娇蕊的爱像火花那么热烈那么美,可这火花会毁掉他的理想和前途,他们的感 情是为世俗社会所不容的。 振保第一次见到烟鹂就注定她就是他的未来。烟鹂是属于比较宁静害羞的女孩。他们订婚 和结婚时间短暂。烟鹂其实心里觉得惋惜,但还是迷迷糊糊的相信她和振保的婚事是一生 好 的一段。她随时配合振保的步骤。而振保有很多对烟鹂不满的地方,生育之后的烟鹂失去了少 女的美,在振保眼中变成了很乏味的妇人。振保从来没有鼓励他和别的太太来往,烟鹂没色花 那么社交经验,在社会上也没有地位。很长一段时间振保都认为跟烟鹂结婚是一种吃亏的事。 烟鹂虽然是美丽娴静的,是朋友眼中 合理想的太太,可以做男人们高谈阔论的背景。可她爱 跟认识振保的人谈论振保的好,尽力地维护他,不让他受委屈,有时还会跟他们的女儿慧英诉 苦。而这些都是振保所厌恶的。 振保心里矛盾。他虽然无法忘记玫瑰与娇蕊的事。但他还是9“为了崇高的理智的制裁,以 及超人的铁一般决定,舍弃了她。”振保开始离开了有规律的生活。他开始宿娼。他认为这是 对娇蕊的报复,虽然他也不想这么想。烟鹂一点也不疑心,她很爱他丈夫。她总是以振保为 主。烟鹂做了什么事,振保也假装没看见。振保原为娶了她因为她柔顺的女孩,他对烟鹂感到 失望。他们的婚事并不幸福不快乐。 振保偶遇娇蕊,那时候娇蕊已经结婚了,她的生活现在就比较踏实了。振保听了娇蕊的现 状觉得有点儿妒忌。因为他原以为娇蕊的生活比他差,他不知不觉地对自己充满惋惜,心里空 虚。他认为很多人欠他敬意与温情的补偿。有一天振保做了很羞耻的事,连烟鹂就无法保护他 了。烟鹂因为这件事而成熟多了,有自尊心了,有了社会地位,有了同情与友谊。虽然振保伤 了烟鹂的心,烟鹂还依然服从振保。振保觉得彻底被她打败了。 后振保 10“觉得他旧旧的善良 的空气一点一点透着走进,包围了他”,以前的烦恼和责任已经飞走了。第二天他就改过自 新,又变了好人。 从性格的描写,张爱玲就描写一个男性因为想让他在世俗上有地位,就愿意抛弃他喜欢的 人,服从母亲的思想去做人,作为虚伪的男性使他自己的生活充满烦恼与惋惜。 三、情节的反作用 11情节为性格服务,这是情节与性格关系的一个方面,另一方面,人物思想性格一旦有了 清楚的轮廓,它便有了支配权,甚至作者也只能退避三舍。这时的性格已经是有了生命力的, 它要走自己的路,它规定了情节继续发展的方向和方式。情节受着性格的支配。这时,作者再 也不能离开人物性格的特点和内在发展的逻辑去任意设计情节。 小说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》里的人物性格与情节是相辅相成的。如通过一些情节我们就能了 解到人物的性格特征。 12 后他到底找到了相当的话,他用力拱起膝盖,想使她抬起身来,说                                                              8  张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,78 页  12  行  9  张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,83 页  3  行  10 张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,95 页  9  行  11 李保均:《小说写作研究》,第 140 页,湖北人民出版社,1984 年 6 月第 1 版  12 张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,80 页  11  行  analysis zhang ailing’s novel ….. (yetty; rosemary) 51 道:“娇蕊,你要是爱我的,就不能不替我着想。我不能叫我母亲伤心。 她的看法同我们不 同,但是我们不能不顾到她,她就只依靠我一个人。社会上是决不肯原谅我的――士洪到底是 我的朋友。我们爱的只能是朋友的爱。以前是我的错,我对不起你。可是现在,不告诉我就写 信告诉他,都是你的错了。∙∙∙  ∙∙∙娇蕊,你看怎样,等他来了,你就说是同他闹着玩的,不过是 哄他早点回来,他肯相信的,如果他愿意相信”。从这段情节我们就能了解到振保的性格特征 就是一位爱面子,自私的男性。他虽然喜欢娇蕊可他不愿意只因为她就失去他在社会的地位, 辜负他母亲的盼望,失去朋友的信任。 张爱玲通过每段情节突出人物性格的变化,如男主人公振保首先勉强自己必须走在一条直 路线,不如不会被社会接受, 后他因为太勉强自己跟着他母亲的思想,不要对不起朋友,做 一个虚伪的好人,娶不了他爱的娇蕊就娶了他以为能让比较安心的烟鹂,虽然他不爱烟鹂。他 跟烟鹂的家庭不幸,振保就常常花钱在宿娼来向烦恼妥协。 后他终于明白了,卸下他背负的 虚伪与负担改过自新,做了一个好人。 红玫瑰娇蕊从第一段情节,张爱玲描写她的行为就可以了解到娇蕊比较随和任性的女性。 娇蕊虽然她跟士洪不幸,她就能找到其他的活动娱乐自己。从 后振保与娇蕊的情节 13 “振保 道:“那姓朱,你爱他么?”娇蕊点点头,回答他的时候,却是每隔两个字就顿一顿,道: “是从你起,我才学会了,怎样,爱,认真的∙∙∙  ∙∙∙爱到底是好的,虽然吃了苦,以后还是要爱 的,所以∙∙∙  ∙∙∙”振保把手卷着她儿子的海军装背后垂下的方形翻领、低声道:“你很快乐。” 娇蕊笑了一声道:“我不过是往前闯,碰到什么就是什么。”振保冷笑道:“你碰到的无非是 男人。”娇蕊并不生气,侧过头去想了一想,道:“是的,年纪轻,长得好看的时候,大约无 论到社会上做什么事,碰到的总是男人。可是到后来,除了男人之外总还有别的∙∙∙  ∙∙∙总还有别 的∙∙∙  ∙∙∙”。读者能了解到自从被振保放弃了,她又结婚,她学会了珍惜,生活比以前幸福,连 振保也妒忌她的现在的生活。她变了比较踏实。 振保认识了白玫瑰烟鹂时就认定她就能使他在社会有地位。在每一个情节可以了解到烟鹂 很少说话,娴静的女性。虽然她觉得嫁给振保是一个错误,可她还仍然当好的妻子。服从丈 夫,替他着想,没有对振保疑心。 后一段情节,因为振保闹出了很大的事,烟鹂保不住他 了,她就立即变成成熟与自尊心的女性。 张爱玲以人物性格特征为主,使小说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》的情节精彩。从这儿可以了解到 小说的情节其中就是从人物性格的描写构成的。 结语 张爱玲在小说《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》的人物塑造很详细。张爱玲描写的人物相貌没有在一个 情节描写完,读者需要在每一段细节积累人物相貌的描写,使读者能慢慢想象人物的相貌。关 于性格的描写,张爱玲描写非常丰富灵活,扶助小说里的情节更精彩与引起读者的好奇。从小 说《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》可以了解到张爱玲写小说的技巧很优秀。她对人物塑造,性格与情节的 描写非常了如指掌。她描写的不会使读者在读的时候会觉得厌烦,而每一段细节让读者觉得有 新鲜感,使读者好奇下一段的情节。从这儿可以了解到小说的情节其中就是从人物性格的描写 构成的。                                                              13 张爱玲,《白玫瑰与红玫瑰》,2009 年 4 月第一版,84 页 25  行 ~ 85 页 9 行    52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 47-52 参考资料  刘炳泽.《小说创作论》.武汉:长江文艺出版社出版,1987 年 10 月第 1 版 李保均.《小说写作研究》.湖北人民出版社出版,1984 年 6 月第 1 版 约翰·盖利肖.《小说写作技巧二十讲》. 北京十月文艺出版社出版,1987 年 11 月第 1 版 张德林.《现代小说的多元建构》.华东师范大学出版社出版发行,1998 年 12 月第 1 版 张爱玲.《红玫瑰与白玫瑰》. 北京十月文艺出版社出版,2009 年 4 月第一版 aku, calon kakak ipar, dan ibu mertua charm of author intervention: narrative theoretical analysis on milan kundera’s works 作者干预的魅力——昆德拉作品叙事分析 ma feng (马峰) chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, mafengde_2009@yahoo.com abstract article discusses the narrative of "interference" theory. the discussion with the author’s intervention and then gives a detailed and profound discussion. the author uses four ways to carry out the intervention, such as "deliberate go away, having no intention of sneaking, into the intention of the highlights, at random creative". this article talks about the creation of a detailed narrative analysis and has a further exploration about the effect of narrative. under such theory frame and the synthesis, this article is attempting a utilization of the narrative theory to the text explanation. key words: author intervention, narrative, milan kundera 内容摘要 本文主要探讨了叙事的“干预”理论。文章从作者干预出发,展开细致而深刻的论述。作者 干预,作者以“刻意的走离、无意的潜入、有意的凸现、随意的创作”四种方式对作品进行介入。 文章对昆德拉的创作进行了细致的叙事分析,并进一步探讨如此叙事所带来的效果。在这样的 理论框架和综合下,本文尝试着一次运用叙事理论对文本解读的长途跋涉。 关键词:作者干预 叙事 米兰·昆德拉 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 166 前言 米兰·昆德拉是一位具有世界影响的小说家,其作品自 60 年代后期陆续译成各种文字后,在 世界上掀起了一股“昆德拉热”。人们预言,昆德拉的小说艺术将是本世纪世界文坛上的一个重要 现象。综观 20 世纪世界文坛,不同流派争奇斗妍,各种手法竞展其锋。其间涌现出的璀璨群星中, 昆德拉以小说创作与理论方面的不凡业绩,在本世纪六、七十年代以来文坛的多元格局中占据 了极其重要突出的一席 (李凤亮,2001:58)。 作品要传达的不仅是一种富有哲理的形而上的思考,同时也传达了具有一定现实意义的交 流意图。艾·阿·理查兹在《交流与艺术家》中提到:“艺术家不愿把交流当作他的主要目标之一, 根本否认自己在创作中受到想感动他人的愿望的影响,并不足以证明交流不是他实际上的主要 目标。……批评所关心的是这样一个事实:在多数情况下艺术家的创作过程的确使作品的交流 效力同他本人的满意程度和他对于作品怎样才算恰到好处的看法相符合。” ([英]戴维·洛奇编, 葛林等译,1987:197-198) 。昆德拉的作品所引发的研究热潮,要得益于其作品所具有的交 流技巧。这种交流技巧一方面是深刻思想的传达,另一方面是小说艺术的流露。 昆德拉的作品所具有的独特魅力,我主要从作者干预方面进行论述。首先,看一下“干预” 的界定:很多论者对干预都有浓厚的兴趣,所谓干预就是对作品的干涉,干涉可以来自作品之 外的作者、读者,也可来自故事中的叙述者和人物。作者干预,强调的是作者对作品有意或无 意的介入,作者以“隐含作者、伪作者、真正作者”等各种方式出现在作品中,对作品的叙述发 展进行干涉,有时对故事的真实性进行解构。 李欧梵是 早把昆德拉介绍给中国读者的评论家,他在很多方面对昆德拉进行了比较研 究。在《世界文学的两个见证:南美和东欧文学对中国现代文学的启示》一文中,他介绍了马 尔克斯和昆德拉。他提到昆德拉作品中的作者角色扮演,“事实上,昆德拉的长处就是以小窥 大,从几个小人物的境遇来看历史、国家的大事,‘作者’所扮演的是一个‘棋王’角色,他超越一 切之上,甚至有点愤世嫉俗,但也在下每一步棋的时候,对每一个棋子(人物角色)发出无比 的同情,所以他可以任意进入自己小说的世界里,不必像普通的现实主义小说用一个‘叙述者’ 来掩盖作者自己。” (李欧梵,2005:194) 。他在作品中发现了作者的身影,感受到作者对故 事的介入。 再来看罗吉·福勒对作者的解释,他认为读者通过作品所感受到的作者是“伪作者”。伪作者 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 167 (persona):“一般而言,批评家用他来区分执笔写作的作者本人,和读者通过书上的字句所 了解和感受到的所谓‘作者’。后者被称为‘伪作者’,或作者的‘第二自我’,他与叙述者(甚至是 使用第一人称的叙述者)有区别,必须加以澄清。叙述者和伪作者这两者的观点相吻合的程度 在不同的作品中差异甚大。……因此,辨明伪作者是富于成效地阅读作品的关键,因为他代表 着作者有意识的选择的总和,也体现了作为‘艺术家’的作者本人的业已实现了的更为完整的自 我。” ([英]罗吉·福勒编,袁德成译,1987:199-120)。 两位评论家对作者都进行了分析,都 看到了作者与叙述者的区分,后者对“伪作者”的定义也包含了作者的身影,因此,二者的观点 在一定程度上是相互沟通的。二者的认识,都体现出作者对作品的影响力与支配力,这种力量 可以称之为作者对作品的干预。作者的干预,其形式是多样的,下面进行细致的分析: 一 、 作者刻意的走离 昆德拉是一位敏感的作家,他用自己敏感的灵魂去碰触世界的每一个细微处。通过作品, 他为我们展现出一个令人沉思的世界,这个世界具有一种普遍性的沉思,是一种由“小我”到“大 我”世界的蜕变。因此,他反对在小说中追寻作者的影子,反对把小说当为传记的阅读方式。 作为一位知名作家,昆德拉告知给我们的是其作品的独立性。他不允许作者的影子在作品中产 生影响,无论是善意,还以恶意。当然,昆德拉的本意更多是倾向于读者的解读,让读者在投 入文本故事时忘掉作者的存在。作者的此种态度,我称之为“作者刻意的走离”。作者的“走离” 有助于文本的完整性,故事会在自由的氛围中随意发展;有助于故事的真实性,让故事更具感 染力,给人一种真实的震撼;有助于故事沉思之美的开掘,让读者在故事的丛林中流连忘返。 在《受〈梦游者〉启发而作的札记》里谈到现代主义时,昆德拉提到,“布洛赫(穆齐尔 也一样,贡布罗维奇也一样)是作为一个伟大的革新者出现的,但他并不符合一般的、约定俗 成的现代主义的形象。……大学教授的现代主义希望小说摆脱人物的幌子,因为他们认为,说 到底,人物只不过是一张无谓地挡住了作者脸孔的面具。而在布洛赫的人物那里,是无法找到 作者的自我的。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,董强译,2004:85-86)。昆德拉无疑是推崇布洛赫的, 他反对学院派搬弄是非式的解读,这样的解读只会让作者变得面目可憎。试图去寻找作者脸孔 的做法只能算是一种一厢情愿的解剖,作品被放到手术台上,自诩有高超技艺的“医师们”额头 汗出,他们一丝不苟地去肢离作品,随后把每一个器官放到显微镜下放大,直至寻到他们所需 要的东西。费尽心机的解剖,让作品的解读变成了科学家的研究, 终解剖的过程让作者痛不 可言。 昆德拉在作品中刻意的走离,其态度是坚决的。他反对批评家们解剖式的无聊解读,在作 品中通过人物对此进行无情的嘲讽。《不朽》第二章中歌德与海明威有段对话,这恰恰表明了 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 168 作者的态度。海明威说道,“我也逃不过他们无穷尽的指责。他们不是看我的书,而是写关于 我的书。比如说,我不爱我的前后几任妻子;我对我的儿子关心不够;我对某个评论暴跳如 雷;我不够真诚;我目中无人;我是个强壮男子;我自吹在战争中受伤二百三十处,实际上只 有二百零六处;我有手淫的恶癖;我对母亲蛮横无礼。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克 鲁译,2003:91)。海明威发自肺腑的话语,告诉我们作家所受到的非正常待遇,作家被传记 所困扰,他们没有个人隐私可言,身体被暴露于真空的状态,仿佛成为毫无生息的植物标本, 只有默默地接受别人的评头论足。同样,歌德“ 后一次做的梦”使他被迫摆脱、逃避,他为自 己作品所遭受的冷落而倍感心伤,观众、读者所关心的已经“不是《浮士德》,而是歌德!”。 二者的对话,体现了作者所面临的尴尬的处境,作品被迫游离于作者之外,人们对作者的兴趣 超过了作品。昆德拉所反对的就是对作者的过分关注,卡夫卡的遭际使他对传记有了厌恶之 感,对作者的原意的背叛更令他激愤万分。因此,昆德拉不愿意别人为他立传,也不会自己书 写传记,同时他也有意让自己的身影远离作品。他曾坦言,其作品都是出于一种自由的抒写, 是一种偶然性的再现。并且,他讨厌自己的作品被当作政治话语的代表,痛恨作品被当作传记 来研究。 谈到如何创作时,昆德拉认为“作者必须充当自己的父亲,自我生成,同时又自我肢解, 这是一种放弃和牺牲。作者可以创造出匀称的文学形式,可以终止写作,使自己不至于落入不 见底的深渊,但他必须在‘残酷的危机’之时,拦腰截断作品。……只有这种自弃的行为能够画 出使叙事成其为可能的线条。” ([美]j.希利斯·米勒编,申丹译,2002:101-102) 。这正切合了 昆德拉对作家的评价:他强调作家创作的自主性,同时又要摆脱自己创作的樊篱,要有一种凌 驾于作品之上的强力。 昆德拉不仅在自己的创作理论中多次述及作家要如何创作,在作品中他的创作理念也时而 显现。《不能承受的生命之轻》中谈到托马斯与特蕾莎两个人物时提到,“作者要想让读者相 信他笔下的人物确实存在,无疑是愚蠢的。这些人物并非脱胎于母体,而是源于一些让人浮想 联翩的句子或者某个关键情景。托马斯就产生于 einmal ist keinmal(德文,偶然一次不算数) 这句话,特蕾莎则产生于肚子咕噜咕噜叫的那一刻。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003: 47) 。作品中人物形象是如何产生的,昆德拉用作品中的话语给出了一个答案:人物产生于一 种偶然性的因素,是作者虚构想像的产物。这种说法,实际上是对历史、时代背景的刻意逃离, 出于纯故事性的本意,昆德拉展现的是人物自身的生命力,让人物自由的孕育成长,一切遵循 道路原则,人物自由选择自己的旅程。并且,昆德拉给读者一种视听上的冲击,强调故事的虚 构性,强调人物的偶然性与不真实性。这种笔法与传统小说的追求恰恰相反,“艺术真实”被作 者的刻意疏离而消解,作者要留给我们的是对作品故事性的追求。 作者的走离并不是漫不经心的,这里所强调的是作者的刻意。“刻意”:一方面是昆德拉在 创作中所一直遵循的,他不允许作者身影在作品中被窥探,不允许传记式的阅读;另一方面, charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 169 他用刻意的走离来表明其创作的偶然性,人物并不是有意的设定,一切都是出于偶然的自发性。 昆德拉在文本中促使作者刻意的走离, 终是要留出一片自由开阔的空间。他留给文本的是一 种自由发展的空间,留给人物的是不断摸索前行的空间,留给读者的是一种自由想象的空间, 留给批评家的是沉思艺术之美的空间。因此,昆德拉的走离,是别具匠心的刻意,这也让作品 多了一份神秘的面纱。 二、作者无意的潜—作者评论式话语 读昆德拉的作品,你是否感受到妙语连珠?是否感受到语言的冲击力?是否体会到沉重之 感?是否对人生的奇妙而频发感慨?是否沉浸于思考“存在”的奥义之渊?这一切感受,当你沉 浸于作品的美妙之旅时,是否曾窥探到其奥妙之源。昆德拉作品中有大量的评论性话语,有的 是直露的大段式评论,有的是精炼的箴言式的评论,有的是短语式的评论。这种评论性话语是 由谁发出的呢?是作者,还是叙述者?罗吉·福勒对作者(author)的定义给了一种答案:“‘伪 作者’(persona)和‘暗指的作者’(implied author)这类术语提醒我们,当作家写作时,他带 上了一副假面具并用伪装的语调讲话。因为不应当把他的真正人格与读者从作品中获得的关于 作者的印象和看法简单地联系起来,或断定前者与后者有因果关系。这些术语使我们看到了另 一种审美现实,即与真正作者的观点以及小说的叙述者的观点有区别的陈述或评论。” ([英]罗 吉·福勒编,袁德成译,1987:19) 。罗吉·福勒认为具有另一种审美现实的陈述或评论出自“伪 作者”之口,他用真正作者伪装的语调讲话。然而,在昆德拉的作品中,“伪作者”却与真正作者 走到了一起,二者间的界线变得模糊。通过众多的评论,可以体会到作者的价值评断,评论带 给我们的实际上是作者意识的介入,是作者价值趋向的潜入。 昆德拉运用无意的方式,在不经意中带我们潜入他所营构的世界之中。我们身处这种评论 的涡流中,能感受到价值的取舍,能品味到故事的深层意蕴,能渗入主人公意识的身处,能为 解读的成功提供一条捷径。胡亚敏将评论称之为非叙事性话语,“非叙事性话语指叙述者(或 叙述者通过事件、人物和环境)对故事的理解和评价,又称评论。它表达的是叙述者的意识和 倾向。”进而将其分为:公开的评论(解释、议论),隐蔽的评论(戏剧性评论、修辞性评 论),含混的评论(反讽)三种。(胡亚敏,2004:103-117) 。这里,我们从评论表达的内容 方面进行分类: 1、基调评论 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 170 所谓基调,就是作品所要构造的故事氛围。昆德拉的每一部作品,都给人一种不同的感 受,像《玩笑》的戏谑的可怕,《不朽》的追求的沉重等等。昆德拉为故事铺垫下不同的基 调,在作品中主要通过评论式的话语进行营造。《不能承受的生命之轻》第一部“轻与重”第 1、2 节谈及尼采的永恒轮回说。“如果永恒轮回是 沉重的负担,那么我们的生活,在这一背 景下,却可在其整个的灿烂轻盈之中得以展现。但是,重便真的残酷,而轻便真的美丽?…… 那么,到底选择什么?是重还是轻?”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译, 2003:5) 。“轻与重”在 昆德拉的笔下,变得极富哲理,“轻”具有一种失去重量的超脱感,没有俗世的重负,灵魂自由 飞翔的惬意之感;“重”背负一种压力,一种压抑不得释放的罪孽感,一种世事纷扰的羁绊之 感,一种沉重的责任感。昆德拉把爱与做爱,灵魂与肉体,拯救与放逐,忠诚与背叛等众多相 互对立的矛盾摆在面前,二元对立中凸现出矛盾的消融与转化,“轻与重”变成了众多矛盾的症 结所在。有关“轻与重”的讨论,实际上给整部小说奠定了一种基调,人们在永恒轮回的重负下 试图去寻找属于自己的“灿烂的轻盈”,轻与重之间的徘徊,自由与束缚间的挣扎,生与死之间 的偶然,这一切都令人无法捉摸。小说要带给我们的是对生命的思考,生命在不能承受的“轻 与重”之间的抉择。 2、背景评论 很多论者在昆德拉的作品解读中看到了政治的阴影,这种政治性就代表了一定的时代背景。 因此,作品中大量有关政治评论的话语,我们称之为背景评论。通过背景评论,作品的故事发 展变得更为真实可信,而人物的行为也变得更为意义深刻。《不能承受的生命之轻》第六章 “伟大的进军”开始由斯大林的儿子雅科夫谈起,“斯大林之子因粪便而献出了自己的生命,但是 因为粪便而死并不是一种毫无意义的死。德国人不惜牺牲生命向东方拼命扩张帝国的版图,俄 国人则为向西方扩张自己的势力范围而丧生,是的,这些人为愚蠢的事情而死,他们的死才毫 无意义,才没有任何价值。相反,斯大林儿子之死是在战争的普遍愚蠢之中惟一的具有形而上 学意义的死。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:29) 。雅科夫之死表现出对战争的愚蠢 的嘲讽,把看似毫无意义的死提升到形而上学意义,这也表现出作者对战争的评判。战争成了 愚蠢的事情,因此与战争相关的事情便显得极为可笑,当然为战争而死更显得毫无意义。其实, 作者对战争的表态,蕴含了作者对战争的憎恶之情,这也为后面故事的发展作了铺垫,“伟大 的进军”的崇高精神 终处于被调侃的境地,价值的失衡让一切“伟大”变得渺小猥琐。 作品随后谈及媚俗,“在一个多种流派并存、多种势力互相抵消、互相制约的社会里,多 少还可以摆脱媚俗的专横;个人可以维护自己的个性,艺术家可以创造出不同凡响的作品。但 是在某个政治运动独霸整个权力的地方,人们便一下置身于极权的媚俗之王国。”([捷克]米兰· 昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:300) 。 “苏联的媚俗”是一种极权的媚俗,简单化了的真理笼罩着 整个集体,它是不容许有一丝怀疑与不满的。 可怕的斯大林恐怖时期,让特雷莎的家庭遭受 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 171 到毁灭性的打击,而萨比娜“一想到苏联的媚俗世界会成为现实,而她又不得不生活其中,让 她直起鸡皮疙瘩。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:301) 。相比之下,“弗兰茨喜欢陶 醉其中的伟大进军之思想,便是把各个时代、各种倾向的左的人们团结在一起的政治媚俗。伟 大进军,尽管障碍重重,但它是一种壮观的前行,是通向博爱、平等、正义、幸福乃至更远的 征程,因为只有征途上多险阻,进军才能堪称伟大的进军。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译, 2003:306) 。弗兰茨可算是政治媚俗的稀里糊涂的牺牲者,他因行进者可笑的虚荣而失去伟 大进军的关荣, 终却在反抗抢劫者的斗争中死去。他的死表现出政治媚俗的可笑一面,从另 一方面展现了伟大进军的虚伪。“柬埔寨进军活动”实质上只是所谓的伟大知识分子们的媚俗的 疯狂之举,只是一种可笑虚荣的欲望满足。从粪便到媚俗,作者所作的评论凸现出时代的音符, 是故事背景的营造,给故事的进展提供了自由的空间。同时,评论也影射出作者对时代音符的 调试,对不和谐音符的厌恶与无奈也流露无遗。 3、人物评论 昆德拉是一个爱憎分明的人,在作品中喜欢对自己的人物进行评论。通过评论,人物性格 的某些侧面得以展现,人物变得更加丰满生动。同时,作者的评论无疑会对读者造成一定的影 响,一种潜在牵引力会导引读者对故事中人物的评价,读者会受到顺势思维与主导价值的熏染, 进而形成与作品核心价值的趋同。“弗兰茨和西蒙是这部小说的幻想家。与弗兰茨不同的是, 西蒙不爱自己的母亲。从很小的时候起,他就在找爸爸。他差不多已经相信,父亲受到屈辱在 先,而后才对他不公。他从不怨恨父亲,并且拒绝当母亲的帮凶,整天去恶意中伤托马斯。” ([捷克] 米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:326) 。对弗兰茨和西蒙的评论,让我们了解到二 者所具有的核心精神气质,他们都爱幻想,弗兰茨幻想的是萨比娜的“天堂之爱”与“伟大进军” 的光荣,为此他勇敢地参加了知识分子们组织的柬埔寨边境进军,他认为自己所作所为都是为 了萨比娜。弗兰茨认为萨比娜的国家与柬埔寨有着相同的遭遇,都是一个被邻国占领的国家, 如果他参加进军,萨比娜就会因此高兴,就会明白他的忠诚。因此,弗兰茨为了自己心目中的 “天堂之爱”走上了进军的光荣之路,然而进军者的退却让他感到可笑的虚荣, 终他走上了一 条自我抗争之路。西蒙幻想的是正义的“上帝之国”,渴望一个由正义主持的世界,把父亲托马 斯装扮为自己心目中理想的形象。西蒙对父亲没有一丝的仇恨,他把父亲当作自己的寄托,他 所期望的是父亲托马斯的目光。他会为见面时的怯懦而羞愧,也会为能见面而感到高兴万分, 父子相见的亲切让他感到很自在,他需要有一只眼睛关注他的生命。 4、隐喻评论 隐喻,顾名思义,用一种意象的深意来表达自己的所思所想。托马斯把特雷莎视作被遗弃 的孩子的形象,并去追寻《旧约》与索福克勒斯《俄狄浦斯》的意义,这都是一种隐喻式的介 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 172 入。“他又一次对自己说,特雷莎是一个被人放在涂了树脂的篮子里顺水漂来的孩子。河水汹 涌,怎么就能把这个放着孩子的篮子往水里放,任它漂呢!如果法老的女儿没有抓住水中那只 放了小摩西的摇篮,世上就不会有《旧约》,也不会有我们全部的文明了!多少古老的神话, 都以弃儿被人搭救的情节开始!如果波里布斯没有收养小俄狄浦斯,索福克勒斯就写不出他 壮美的悲剧了。托马斯当时还没有意识到,比喻是一种危险的东西。人是不能和比喻闹着玩的。 一个简单比喻,便可从中产生爱情。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:12) 。托马斯对 特雷莎的这种特殊感觉,让他产生了一种怜爱,产生了一种拯救的责任。正是这种感觉让二者 走到了一起,产生了爱情。“被遗弃的孩子”实际上是托马斯的心理暗示,暗示指明了他要扮演 拯救者的角色。只有他伸出手紧紧地抓住篮子,篮子里的特雷莎才不会被汹涌的河水吞噬,他 将决定特雷莎的生死与未来,这关键的行动也掺杂了托马斯的英雄情结。同样,《无知》第 9 章有对尤利西斯的长篇评论,它展现给我们的是一种流亡者之梦的意象。尤利西斯是《奥德 赛》中的主人公,作者借用他的形象让我们去体验流亡者的艰辛,作者的亲身经历更倍增了流 亡之感的真实与深刻。 5、关键词评论 关键词是昆德拉善用的写作技巧,首先来看小说的命名与章节的命名,他的多数作品都采 用了此种命名方式。《不能承受的生命之轻》由昆德拉惯常采用的七部份组成,章节命名依次 是“轻与重、灵与肉、不解之词、灵与肉、轻与重、伟大的进军、卡列宁的微笑”而小说的名字 择取了其中 耐人寻味的“轻”字,1、4 与 2、5 章以第 3 章为中心形成了对仗之式,仿佛一种 优雅的建筑般精妙。同样,《不朽》也由七部份组成,各章以“脸、不朽、斗争、感情的人、 偶然、钟面、庆祝”来命名。小说的命名则采用了与其中一个章节相同的词语,也就是整部作 品所探讨的焦点。昆德拉在接受克里斯蒂安·萨尔蒙的一次访谈中说道,“实际上,我认为选择 一部小说的主要范畴当题目是很好的。《玩笑》、《笑忘录》、《不能承受的生命之轻》。甚 至《好笑的爱》。不能把这个题目的意思理解为‘好玩的爱情故事’。爱情在人心目中,与严肃 联在一起。而好笑的爱一般就是失去了严肃性的爱情。这一概念对现代人来说极其重要。”( [捷 克]米兰·昆德拉编,董强译,2004:40-41) 。这种用关键词来命名小说与各章节的手法,实际 上是对小说的一种意义的精粹提炼,这有助于作品结构的梳理与论述的明朗,也有助于读者阅 读时的方向把握与共鸣的产生。 其次,小说的正文也对关键词大量运用。《不能承受的生命之轻》第三章“不解之词”用第 3 节“不解之词简编(第一部分)”对“女人、忠诚与背叛、音乐、光明与黑暗”进行解释;第 5 节 “不解之词简编(续)”对“游行、纽约之美、萨比娜的祖国、基地”论述;第 7 节 “不解之词简编 (终)”对“阿姆斯特丹古教堂、力量、活在真实里”阐释。同样,《不朽》的第三章“斗争”分别 对“姐妹;墨镜;肉体;加法和减法;比男人年龄大的女人;比女人年龄大的男人;第十一 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 173 戒;意象学;他自己的掘墓人的杰出同盟者;十足的蠢驴;雌猫;对侵犯人权表示抗议的姿 势;绝对现代化;成了自己光荣的牺牲品;斗争;阿弗纳琉斯教授;肉体;希望不朽的手势; 爱美;女通灵者;自杀;墨镜”进行解析式的论述。通过两部小说的比较,昆德拉都采用了词 语式的解说叙述,一方面,让词语变得具有更加丰富的内涵,成为文章解读的关键词;另一方 面,关键词成为故事发展的链接点,故事的进程变的跌宕起伏,它既有对时政的评论、哲理的 思考与人物内心的挖掘,又有偶然性因素的不断介入。同时,关键词的评论使各部分之间有了 互补的效力,看似并不紧密的情节 终被无形的线紧紧的缠绕在一起,形成的合力 终让作品 意蕴丰富而耐人寻味。 6、类比评论 穿越时空的旅行,各种历史人物集聚一堂,这种场面或许在现代电影中已见怪不怪,然而 小说中的娴熟运用却给人匪夷所思之感。《不朽》中海明威与歌德走到了一起,虽处不同的时 代,却有着共同的心声,他们对作品与作家遭际的殊途感慨不已,这与昆德拉的观点不谋而合, 也可说是昆德拉在作品中用他们的口表达了自己的心声。《慢》带来的是古城堡之夜的无穷魅 力,远古骑士的浪漫爱情,现代政治家、评论家、学者的讨论会的琐屑无聊,“我”与妻子的旅 途,各种事件的交织,让读者在阅读中进行着下意识的类比,共同点的挖掘增深了对作品寓意 的理解。运用类比手法进行评论在昆德拉作品中比比皆是,且看“伟大的进军” 后一节: “那些垂死的柬埔寨人留下了什 ? 一 大幅照片,照片上那位美国女明星 里抱着一个黄皮 的孩子。 托 斯留下了什 ? 一句碑文:他要 世 的上帝之国。 多芬留下了什 ? 一个披着一 乱蓬蓬的 的 郁的男人,用一 郁的声音 :‘es muss sein!’ 弗 茨留下了什 ? 一句碑文:迷途漫漫, 有一 。 等等,如此等等。在被 忘之前,我 会 媚俗。媚俗,是存在与 忘之 的中 站。” 这段话讲述了柬埔寨人、托马斯、贝多芬、弗兰茨四种不方式的“留下”,引发起我们的类 比思考。人们死后到底会留下什么?存在与遗忘之间会有什么发生?柬埔寨人让我们明白,他 们仅仅成为伟大的知识分子们炫耀“伟大进军”光荣的砝码,留下的是伟大的知识分子们虚荣心 的满足;托马斯留下的是儿子西蒙的愿望,西蒙需要的是父亲的目光,明知父亲绝不会在碑文 上用这种词句,但他确信父亲渴望一个由正义主持的世界;贝多芬留给我们的是一种感觉: “我们都觉得,我们生命中的爱情若没有分量、无足轻重,那简直不可思议;我们总是想象我 们的爱情是它应该存在的那种,没有了爱情,我们的生命将不再是我们应有的生命。我们都坚 信,满腹忧郁、留着吓人的长发的贝多芬本人,是在为我们伟大的爱情演奏‘es muss sein!’ (德文,非如此不可)” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:42) 。弗兰茨留下的是妻子玛 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 174 丽·克洛德的确信,她认为丈夫“为了一块嫩肉而出卖自己的灵魂”受到了道德的折磨,荒唐、绝 望的出行是去有意的找死,临终的目光是出于对她的感激和请求她的宽恕, 终妻子的宽恕成 了他的归宿。 以上的类比,揭示出这样一个道理:每一个人在存在与遗忘之间都留下了不可避免的媚俗。 “媚俗一旦失去其专横的权力,它就像人类的任何一个弱点一样令人心动。因为我们中没有一 个超人,不可能完全摆脱媚俗。不管我们心中对它如何蔑视,媚俗总是人类境况的组成部 分。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,许钧译,2003:305) 。媚俗成了人生旅程的驿站,通过这个中 转站,我们将穿越存在与遗忘的深渊。 三 作者有意的凸现 昆德拉的创作,往往让作者有意的显现, 为明显的是作者作为人物出现在作品中。虽然 昆德拉反对传记式的阅读,但是他在小说中作者身份的有意凸现却给人迷惑之感。读者会不由 自主地将作品中的作者与昆德拉本人进行对照,结果二者的极大契合让读者产生幻觉。昆德拉 在作品中表现出他对故事的把握,而读者也确信其在作品中的真实性。作者现身于作品成为自 己故事中的人物,这给人一种阅读上的冲击力。 我们来看昆德拉此类创作中 具代表性的一部,《慢》给我们的感觉就是作者现身作品成 为人物中的一员。在故事中“我”的名字叫米兰库,是故事的书写者与参与者,也可以看作是昆 德拉在作品中虚构出的作者。《西方文学批评术语辞典》曾给这种类型的作者进行了定义: “虚构的作者(putative author) 有些作者有时会给自己的著作安上一个虚构的作者,把他自 己的作品说成是这个虚构的作者所写的。……当一个作者使用一个笔名的时候,他仅仅是将他 自己的作者身份用一个虚构的名字掩盖住了;而当作者起用一个虚构的作者时,他就创造了一 个用这一名字写书的人物。” (林骧华,1989:433) 。 在《慢》中,我们究竟如何看待作者的出现呢?我认为作者起用了一个虚构的作者米兰库, 然而考虑到米兰库与昆德拉的身份暗示的接近,或许也可把米兰库作为作者的一个笔名来看待。 故事以“我”和妻子薇拉到城堡里的过夜为线索,随后展开了作者“我”所讲述的骑士的故事,同 时“我”又参与到故事中,成为与众多人物共同生活的一员。在现实中,米兰·昆德拉(milan kundera)妻子的真实姓名就叫薇拉,而米兰库或许可以看作是米兰昆的谐音近义,从此层面可 知作品暗示出的是作者昆德拉先生对故事的有意的介入。由此,上面的疑问就有了答案,我们 可以把米兰库作为“拥有作者身份的虚构的作者”看待。 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 175 希利斯·米勒认为,“成为小说家便意味着创造出一个叙述声音。这一言语行为根本无法对 作者摇摆不定的个性起到一种施为性确认的作用,反之,它具有一种非个性化的效果,因为无 论怎么努力,作者都无法用自己的声音说话。……在每一个片断中,作者都以一种不同的方式 走出自身之外,使自己双重化,通过可在他人眼中得到反射、承认并因此得以看清自己的语言, 来达到对自我的证实。”([美]j.希利斯·米勒编,申丹译,2002:167) 。米兰库可以说是昆德拉 的双重化的替身,想要认清作者的语言,需要从不同的角度观察。因此,为了更好的理解作者 摇摆不定的个性,可以把作品中叙述声音“我”分为参与者、观察者、讲述者、评论者四种类型 来分析。 1、参与者 故事的开始讲到,“转念间,我们想到一座城堡去过上一宿。……我驾着车,从后视镜中 看到一辆车子跟在后面。左转向灯不停闪烁,全车发射出急不可待的电波。司机在等待机会超 越我;他窥伺这个时机就像猛禽窥伺一只麻雀。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,马振骋译,2003:1) 。 从后来故事的发展中,我们得知摩托车的驾驶者就是文森特,他在故事中是一个放浪形骸的新 闻记者。这里,“我”与文森特处于同一时空之中,文森特是故事中的一个人物,因此,作为作 者的“我”就不可避免的陷入到故事中来,成为了故事的参与者。 2、观察者 城堡的夜在月光的笼罩下变的静谧,一切都已沉寂了下来,而“我”俨然成了一位不眠者与 夜的守护者。“薇拉在睡觉,而我站在敞开的窗子前,瞧着这两个人月夜下在城堡的花园里散 步。” ([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,马振骋译,2003:92) 。这两个人就是文森特和朱丽,“我”的视 线一直追随他们的脚步,窗子的视角可以让“我”对花园里发生的一切一览无余。此处,“我”扮 演的是一个真实的观察者的形象,亲临故事现场的观察者。妻子接下来的话语使“我”由一个近 距 离 的 观 察 者 转 换 为 故 事 之 外 的 旁 观 者 与 创 作 者 。 薇 拉 说 道 : “ 你 胡 编 些 什 么 ? 一 部 小 说?……你经常跟我说,你要写一部通篇没有一句正经话的小说。一部逗你一乐的大傻话..........。我 担心这个时刻已经到来了。我只是提醒你:要小心。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,马振骋译, 2003:93) 。妻子好像根本不知道“我”所观察到的一切,她的话语让我们回归到现实中来,让 我们感到好像什么都没有发生,一切都是“我”的想象的产物。这里的薇拉更像是作家昆德拉先 生的妻子,她的抱怨就像电影院里的帷幕,拉开帷幕我们看到的是一个并不存在的世界。 3、讲述者 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 176 “我”和妻子住在城堡里,妻子扮演了“我”的陪同与陪衬的角色。她一直在熟睡与醒来之间 徘徊,而“我”则清醒地进行着自己的故事。“我”不断讲述城堡花园里曾经和正在发生的故事, 城堡花园成了各类人物共同活动的舞台,一切故事都发生在这片神秘的地方。骑士爱情运用的 是回顾式的讲述:“薇拉已经睡了;我打开朝花园的窗子,想起 t 夫人和她的青年骑士黑夜走 出城堡以后的旅程,那个难忘的三阶段旅程。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,马振骋译,2003:32) 。 随后,展开了对三段旅程的详尽讲述,讲述中“我”开始不为察觉的慢慢隐退,把 t 夫人与骑士 推到前台,让他们自由的开始自己的旅程。“我”的隐退让曾经的故事变的逐渐真实并清晰起来, 开始同正在发生的故事慢慢融合。故事结尾文森特与骑士的相互审视使两条线索交织一起,一 切变的微妙起来,真实与幻境都开始模糊起来,仿佛都成为了“我”的讲述,“我” 终超脱作者 的身份成为纯粹的讲述者。 4、评论者 昆德拉先生是一位惯用评论的高手,而作为他替身的米兰库当然也绝不逊色。米兰库便是 故事中的作者“我”,他在故事中始终不忘发表自己的评论。t 夫人和青年骑士的故事是小说的 一条线索,然而故事却来源于早期小说《明日不再来》。因此,“我”开始对此发表观点:“维旺 ·德农生前,可能只有少数密友知道他是《明日不再来》的作者,秘密(可能) 终被大家捅 破已是在他死后很久的事了。小说的命运出奇地类似它所叙述的故事:笼罩在秘密、谨慎、故 弄玄虚和匿名的阴影中。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,马振骋译,2003:40) 。这里对小说深刻的 评论,仿佛让我们看到了昆德拉的影子,或许作者谈到的“匿名的阴影”是饱含深意的。“秘密、 谨慎、故弄玄虚”也是对作品《慢》的另一层暗示,米兰库的阴影中走出的将会是一个什么样 的形象?是现实中的昆德拉吗?虽然,我们不能妄自推测,但这确实不失为一个令人满意的答 案。因此,可以说作者作为人物扮演了故事评论者的角色。 昆德拉在《慢》中通过有意的凸现,在作品中通过叙述声音“我”分别扮演了参与者、观察 者、讲述者、评论者四种角色。作品中故事作者的身份是四种角色的出发点,这实际上是作者 有意的设定,让自己在故事中扮演高高在上的统辖者。故事的发展,由作者“我”所构思并不断 推进。参与者,带来故事的迷离,让故事更加神奇;观察者,使故事的展现始终在我们的目光 关注之下,增添了一份真实感;讲述者,使作者跳离故事层之外,让故事的进展在客观环境下 不断前进;评论者,使故事的虚构性全面暴露,同时作者的观点得以渗入。四种角色的变换, 使作者的声音不断萦绕逼近,作品的意涵也不断的丰富拓展。 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 177 四 作者随意的创作 在《不朽》中昆德拉为我们展现了作者是如何创作的,创作过程中的偶然性给人一种迷雾 之感。恰是这种看似随意的创作,表现了作者极富张力的笔法,在漫步作品丛林之中体验到寓 意的深刻。酒吧老板对阿弗纳琉斯教授说,“‘昆德拉先生要迟会儿到。这是他给您留下的一本 书,供您在等他的时候解解闷。’说着递给他我的小说《生活在别处》,是叫作弗里奥文库的那 种廉价版。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克鲁译,2003:174) 。通过酒吧老板之口,我 们在昆德拉的作品中邂逅了昆德拉先生,惊奇的刹那所带来的是更多的欣喜。接下来,可以详 尽的看到昆德拉在自己作品中畅谈自己创作该作品的过程: 第一步:灵感显现 文章开首提到,“我心里异常激动。这时候,我脑子里突然冒出了阿涅丝这个名字。阿涅 丝!可是我从来不认识叫这个名字的女人。……阿涅丝,我这本小说的主人公。她站在床边, 她长得很美,我目不转睛地看着她。临了,她好像感觉到我的眼光,逃到隔壁房间里去穿衣服 了。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克鲁译,2003:4、7) 。这里我们感受到的是阿涅丝 作为主人公出现的偶然性,然而作者清醒观察的目光又令我们感到人物的真实。阿涅丝作为主 人公,她本来只能按照作者所设定的线路前进,绝不可能感受到作者的目光,然而在这里作者 却给了她一种超凡的触觉,仿佛她能感受到作为作者的“我”的目光的存在,锐利的目光使她产 生了逃离之感。 第二步:酝酿沉思 作品中写道,“我正在描写阿涅丝,我想像她是怎样一个人,我让她在桑拿浴室的长凳上 休息,在巴黎闲逛,翻阅杂志,和她的丈夫讨论,可是一切都从那个老太太在游泳池旁边向游 泳教师做的手势开始的,这我好像已经忘记了。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克鲁译, 2003:40) 。作者开始对阿涅丝的形象进行想象和规划,当故事的全貌在想象中不断完善时, 阿涅丝就会向我们走来。这里又提到了故事开始的激发点——“手势”,正是由于这一随意的举 动,让作者有了创作的灵感,人物随之出现且不断丰富发展。 第三步:创作发展 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 178 “我一定得尽力驱走这个形象才能继续写我的小说。如果您没有忘记,我的小说是从游泳 池旁边写起的,我正在等待阿弗纳琉斯教授,看到一个陌生女人在向她的游泳教师挥手致意。 这个手势我们在阿涅丝向她的腼腆的同学告别时又一次见到过。”([捷克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振 孙、郑克鲁译,2003:103) 。这里再一次提到“手势”,这个关键的动作成了链接故事的纽带。 作者要尽力驱走的形象是“路中央的女孩”,她妨碍了故事的继续,她只是造成主人公阿涅丝的 离去的偶然因素。随后,作者又通过“手势”把故事拉回到正轨,这里引入的是阿涅丝对手势的 传递。“手势”由陌生女人转到阿涅丝,故事得以继续发展。 第四步:回味等待 故事的发展让作者回味无穷,等待的焦急让回味更加悠长。我们看一段对话: “那么,凡是没有向结局狂奔的内容,就应该觉得枯燥无味啰?在品尝这块美味的鸭腿时,你 感到厌烦吗?你会匆匆奔向目标吗?恰恰相反,你希望鸭肉尽可能慢地进入你的腹内,鸭子的 美味长驻不散。小说不应该像一场自行车比赛,而要像一场宴会,频繁上菜。我焦急地等待着 第六部分。一个新的人物将要出现在我的小说里。第六部分结束时,他怎么来就怎么走,不留 痕迹。他既不是任何东西的因,也绝不产生果。令我喜欢的正是这样。这将是一部小说中的小 说,是我所写的 忧郁的色情故事。甚至你看了也会难受的。” 阿弗纳琉斯窘困地保持沉默,随后柔声地问我:“你的小说要用什么名字?” “《不能承受的生命之轻》” “这个名字已经用过了。” “不错,是我用的!但在那时,我弄错了名字。我这个书名本应属于我现在写的这部小说。”([捷 克]米兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克鲁译,2003:270-271) 。 这里作者对小说的创作进行了评价,“宴会”般的小说给人屡增惊喜之感,每一道菜都会提 起人们的胃口,并且等待本身就具有足够的魅力。作者直述第六部分是“一部小说中的小说”, 它要告诉我们的是小说的跳跃性的魅力。作者表示要在此引入一个新的人物,插入一部新的小 说,它的存在与否并不影响故事的进展。它讲述了鲁本斯与诗琴弹奏者的故事,只有当故事结 束的时候,我们才知道阿涅丝便是故事的主人公诗琴弹奏者。 关于小说名字的讨论,清晰展示了作者的意图,给人寻味无穷的感觉。“不朽”是沉重的, 那么关于不朽的小说应该是“重”的,或许小说的命名应为“不能承受的生命之重”。然而,作者 却用相反的名字,想用“不能承受的生命之轻”来命名,实际上这带有一种调侃的口吻,“轻与 重”在这里被模糊了界限。 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 179 第五步:平静结束。 “路上车辆拥挤,汽车不停按喇叭。摩托车爬上了人行道,在行人中打开一条通路。我想 到阿涅丝。两年来我第一次想像出她;于是我坐在俱乐部的一条长椅上等待阿弗纳琉斯。这就 是我今天要酒的原因。我的小说结束了,我本想在产生第一个念头的地方庆祝一下。”([捷克]米 兰·昆德拉编,王振孙、郑克鲁译,2003:383) 。结尾简单明了,一切又复归自然。小说中的 作者昆德拉先生终于可以放松一下,而创作小说的作家米兰·昆德拉也可以舒一口气了。 “昆德拉先生”在作品中以作者身份出现,并且他曾写过《不能承受的生命之轻》,因此, 可以把他看作是米兰·昆德拉用自己的真实姓名出现在作品中,并且在作品中展示了自己的创 作过程。在作品中,昆德拉先生的创作可以用五个步骤来概括:灵感显现、酝酿沉思、创作发 展、回味等待、平静结束。“我的小说”的创作是出于“手势”的激发,主人公阿涅丝的产生只是 极偶然的产物。脑中突然冒出一个女人的名字“阿涅丝”,于是灵感的显现成就了故事的女主人 公。酝酿沉思展现出作者的创作构思,偶然性的“手势”不断激发其创作的脉络建构。创作发展 的流程则充满了艰涩,作者受到很多诱惑,只有从幽林折回大道,故事才得以顺利发展。鲁本 斯与诗琴弹奏者的故事让小说变的更加曲折离奇,作者宣称这是“一部小说中的小说”,他的焦 急等待也刺激了读者的心理,吊足了读者的胃口,等待让故事充满了诱惑力。等待后的满足, 给人一种回味之美,一切都豁然开朗,故事展现出“山穷水复疑无路,柳暗花明又一村”的美妙 之境。 后故事在一片平静之中结束,故事的结束是作品中作者“我”的创作的结束,也是作家 作品的 终完成。 五个步骤环环相扣,相得益彰,每一步创作都清晰展现在作品中,作者的思路流程毫无保 留的呈现。作家创作的和盘托出让人倍感新奇,同时又产生些许疑问。作者的用意为何呢?是 为了展现自己创作的乐趣与苦闷吗?是为了打破故事的真实性吗?是为了迷惑读者的视听吗? 可以说作者是高明的,他让读者在真实与虚假的两个世界徘徊,一切都变得极其真实而又虚假 的可怜。作者的创作展现了真实的创作流程,是一种触手可摸的真实;人物的行动则展现了虚 假的偶然性,是一种不可预料的虚假。 结语 “有一句精彩的犹太谚语:人类一思考,上帝就发笑。……可为什么上帝看到思考的人会 笑?那是因为人在思考,却又抓不住真理。因为人越思考,一个人的思想就越跟另一个人的思 想相隔万里。还有 后一点,那就是人永远不是自己所想的那样。” ([捷克] 米兰·昆德拉编,董 强译,2004:199) 。([捷克] 米兰·昆德拉编,董强译,2004:199) 。这是米兰·昆德拉于 1985 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 180 年 5 月荣获以色列颁发的耶路撒冷文学奖时所作的演讲,他作为人类思考者中的一员,通过其 小说为我们展现了一条沉思者的跋涉之路。同时,“在接受记者埃尔格雷勃里访谈时,昆德拉 认为:‘作家永远是一匹害群之马。’他绝不肯为了取悦大众而出卖灵魂。” (张永义,2004: 153) 。读过昆德拉的作品,就会感到此语的真切。他将真实而又丑陋的一切暴露于世人面前, 展现出人生的非严肃、爱情的可笑、媚俗的无知、价值的崩塌等等。这一切,带给人们的不是 欢悦,而是沉思存在的痛苦与灵魂拷问的煎熬。从《谁都笑不出来》开始,昆德拉便走上了思 考人类存在的旅程。作为思考者,对人类的存在进行了不断的探索,纵然没有抓住真理,我们 也会为其不懈的思考、跋涉的毅力而倍生景仰之情。 作者干预,打破了故事“真实的幻觉”,让文本的“构造”更加自由,通过刻意、无意、有意、 随意的笔调,展现出故事似真似幻的魅力。带着沉思的美感,走进小说艺术的魅力之境,我们 将深深的为昆德拉的独特叙述技巧所感染。昆德拉的作品,其叙事格局是极具特色的,无论是 其幽默而极富哲思的语言风格,似真似幻的叙述,还是音乐复调艺术的运用,都展现出其高超 的技艺。细读作品,我们就会有新的发现,作品中无时不存在一只只无形的手,它们在影响着 叙事的进程。这就是作品的沉思之美的缘由,通过有意、无意的“干预”,作品展现出迷宫般的 色调,读者在沉思中漫行、迷失,同时也对作品的解读进行不断的干涉。 参考文献 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,许钧译:《不能承受的生命之轻》,上海:上海译文出版社, 2003 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,王振孙,郑克鲁译:《不朽》,上海:上海译文出版社,2003 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,董强译:《小说的艺术》,上海:上海译文出版社, 2004 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,余中先译:《被背叛的遗嘱》,上海:上海译文出版社,2003 [捷克]米兰·昆德拉著,马振骋译:《慢》,上海:上海译文出版社,2003 [加拿大]弗朗索瓦·里卡尔著,袁筱一译:《阿涅丝的 后一个下午》,上海:上海译文 出版社, 2005 [美]韦恩·布斯著,付礼军译:《小说修辞学》, 广西人民出版社, 1987 [荷]米克·巴尔著,谭君强译:《叙述学:叙事理论导论》(第二版),北京:中国社会科学出 版社, 2003 谭君强:《叙事理论与审美文化》,北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2002 孟繁华:《叙事的艺术》,中国文联出版公司, 1989 [美]华莱士·马丁著,伍晓明译:《当代叙事学》(第 2 版),北京:北京大学出版社, 2005 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 181 [美]j.希利斯·米勒,申丹译:《解读叙事》,北京:北京大学出版社,2002 [美]戴卫·赫尔曼主编,马海良译:《新叙事学》,北京:北京大学出版社,2002 [英]马克·柯里著,宁一中译:《后现代叙事理论》,北京:北京大学出版社, 2003 艾晓明编译:《小说的智慧》, 时代文艺出版社,1992 黄卓越,叶廷芳主编:《二十世纪艺术精神》,河南人民出版社,1992 吕同六主编:《20 世纪世界小说理论经典》,华夏出版社,1995 李凤亮,李艳编著:《对话的灵光:米兰·昆德拉研究资料辑要》,中国友谊出版公, 1999 高兴、刘恪著:《欲望玫瑰——昆德拉作品赏析》,书海出版社,2002 李凤亮著:《沉思与怀想》,中国社会科学出版社,2003 彭少健著:《诗意的冥思:米兰·昆德拉小说解读》,西泠印社出版社,2003 吴晓东著:《从卡夫卡到昆德拉:20 世纪的小说和小说家》,三联书店,2003 张永义编著:《夜无虚席:和文学大师相爱》,现代出版社,2004 韩少功著:《阅读的年轮:〈米兰·昆德拉之轻〉及其他》,九州出版社,2004 陈香编著:《犹太名人快读》,中国广播电视出版社,2005 仵从巨主编:《叩问存在:米兰·昆德拉的世界》,华夏出版社,2005 高兴著:《米兰·昆德拉传》, 新世界出版社,2005 李凤亮著:《诗·思·史:冲突与融合米兰·昆德拉小说诗学引论》,北京:商务 印书馆, 2006 [英]罗吉·福勒著,袁德成译:《现代西方文学批评术语》,四川人民出版社,1987 [英]戴维·洛奇编,葛林等译:《二十世纪文学评论(上)》,上海:上海译文出版社, 1987 [日]厨川白村著,鲁迅译:《苦闷的象征 出了象牙之塔》,北京:人民文学出版社, 1988 [荷兰]d·w·佛克马、e·贡内-易布思著,林书武,陈圣生,施燕,王筱芸译:《二十 世纪文学理论》生活·读书·新知,三联书店出版,1988 [英]特里·伊格尔顿著,王逢振译:《当代西方文学理论》,北京:中国社会科学 出版社, 1988.6 [加]诺思罗普·弗莱著,陈慧、袁宪军、吴伟等译:《批评的解剖》,百花文艺出版社, 2006 林骧华主编:《西方文学批评术语辞典》,上海:上海社会科学院出版社,1989 胡亚敏著:《叙事学》(第 2 版),华中师范大学出版社, 2004 王泰来等编译:《叙事美学》,重庆出版社, 1987 李欧梵著:《中西文学的徊想》,江苏教育出版社,2005 [美]李欧梵:《世界文学的两个见证:南美与东欧文学对中国现代文学的启发》,外国 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 166-179 182 http://www.tushucheng.com/book/1430941.html 文学研究, 1985 年 高兴:《首届“东欧当代文学讨论会”在京召开》,世界文学,1989 杨乐云:《他开始为世界所瞩目———米兰·昆德拉小说初析》,文艺报,1989 年 1 月 7 日第 6 版 杨乐云:《“一只价值论的牛虻”——美国评论界看昆德拉的小说创作》,世界文学, 1993 年 第 6 期 盛宁:《关于米兰·昆德拉的思考》,世界文学, 1993 年第 6 期 [法]贝尔特朗·维贝尔著,秦燕译:《米兰·昆德拉:沉思中的虚构》,当代外国文学, 2006 年 第 1 期 庄陶:《论小说世界的诱惑与小说家的危险:读米兰·昆德拉的〈小说的艺术〉》,文艺 理论研究 ,1996 年第 6 期 李凤亮:《米兰·昆德拉及其在中国的命运──昆德拉作品中译述评》,中国比较文学, 1999 年第 3 期 李凤亮:《接受昆德拉解读与误读——中国读书界近十年来米兰·昆德拉研究述评》,国 外文学, 2001 年第 2 期 李凤亮:《审美与存在的合奏——米兰·昆德拉小说诗学的当代意义》,江汉论坛, 2004 年 8 月 仵从巨:《“存在”之思铸就的形式—论昆德拉小说形式的独特性》,文艺研究,1996 年第 3 期 仵从巨:《存在:昆德拉的出发与归宿》,上海师范大学学报(哲社版),1996 年 第 4 期 赵稀方:《米兰·昆德拉在中国》,外国文学研究,2002 年第 3 期 李夫生:《米兰·昆德拉小说的叙事策略》,外国文学研究,1998 年第 2 期 李夫生:《米兰·昆德拉小说的形式原型》,益阳师专学报,1999 年第 1 期 charm of author intervention: ..... (ma feng) 183 一 、 作者刻意的走离 二、作者无意的潜—作者评论式话语 三 作者有意的凸现 四 作者随意的创作 参考文献 copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 7 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 7-12 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1624 “watching english movie helps me!”: language exposure and metacognitive awareness on toefl ika apriani fata1; nyak mutia ismail2 1, 2 department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala jln. krueng kale no. 21, darussalam, banda aceh, aceh, 23111 1ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id received: 18th november/ revised: 17th december 2016/ accepted: 9th january 2017 how to cite: fata, i. a & ismail, n. m. (2017). “watching english movie helps me!”: language exposure and metacognitive awareness on toefl. lingua cultura, 11(1). 7-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1624 abstract this research was conducted to investigate the correlation between metacognitive and language exposure to toefl of reading section. the framework of metacognitive was promoted by veenman et al. and the model of language exposure was promoted by magno et al. (2009). this research implemented a descriptive qualitative study. the questionnaire and rubric of metacognitive were applied as research instruments respectively. furthermore, ten freshmen at syiah kuala university from various majors considered as strategic readers whose toefl score ranges of 400 above. it is prominently revealed that language exposures have a contribution for strategic readers in answering toefl in the reading section, in particular, media exposure. the respondents have a tendency to seek out the media availability as the major side on mastering reading toefl meanwhile language exposure at home is the lowest impact on students. in addition, metacognitive awareness has an impact on students’ performance in answering reading test of toefl the metacognition implementation, the students are eventually categorized on knowledge regulation in which the students relate the knowledge of toefl into planning, implementing strategies or information management, monitoring, correcting/debugging, and evaluating comprehension. it is assumed that this study has weakness on informants taken therefore as further studies, the researcher trigger to probe students of 500 toefl score above to investigate their learning strategy and language exposures accordingly. keywords: language exposure, metacognitive, toefl, reading section introduction toefl, test of english as a foreign language, is an english standard test for non-native speakers of english (phillips, 2001).this test gauges english proficiency level of non-native english speakers. the mastery of this test is profoundly important for not only students but also for job seekers for the following reasons. first, to mention, toefl has been around for decades as a measuring test since numbers of universities, both local and international, insist on having their applicants reach a certain score in the test to be admitted (ananda, 2016). as now we figured that a large number indonesian students of indonesian university tend to try hard to master each of the toefl question test item as a real venture to reach a certain score, or even higher, to apply to the desired local/international university to pursue their study. later to that fact, most prominent universities in indonesia oblige their students to bear at least 450-500 toefl score as a vital requirement for both their admission and graduation. toefl test was firstly produced by education testing service (ets). the test is mostly used to test the english proficiency average ability for those who intend to pursue their study or career since both educational institutions and business corporation require a standard score for their applicants (ananda, 2016). in addition, brown (2004) asserts that in north american context, the toefl administrators allocate approximately 80.000 candidates from more than 200 countries worldwide each year. the registers are those who are in an attempt to seek admission in more than 2.400 english-universities, government agencies, scholarship programs, and licensing/ certification agencies. there are three kinds of toefl test; they are paper-based test (pbt), computer-based test (cbt), and internet-based test (ibt). in pbt test, there are only three sections named listening section, structure and written expression section, and reading section. both cbt and ibt also have these sections, in addition, there are also speaking and writing sections, as well as integrated sections (brown, 2004). to be more specific, the mastery of english comprehension, especially in reading section of toefl, must correlate to language capacity, most of which is 8 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 7-12 acquired through language exposures. each kind of contact between a person and a language is considered as a language exposure, including exposures at home, with friends, at school, or through media (magno et al., 2009). magno, et al. (2009) referred language exposure as any contact which occurs between a language and an individual. according to this definition, any kinds of language contact can be considered as exposure whether it is through communication, books, songs and many more. thus, a language learner may not only get exposures in the class through formal learning, but also from random media such as internet, multimedia, newspaper, and any other source in form of the target language. the exposure of english as a foreign language in indonesian society is considered to be rare (nurhidayati et al., 2016). it is mainly because english is not used as the official language of the country and thus, people use indonesian or their mother tongue language to exchange information. however, students have a great opportunity since their school provide the exposure of english during classes, especially for students in dormitory school where they can practice the language among friends. the vast development of technology and media also help students to get inputs anytime and anywhere. hence, magno et al. (2009) argued that students can get exposures from varied sources which can be classified into four main categories; home (bilingualism), dormitory (friends), school (formal and informal) and media. bilingual family means that the family members speak more than one language at home and thus the children are exposed to both majority (societal) language and minority (e.g. parents’ mother tongue) language (unsworth, 2015). the sources of exposure at home may come from parents and other family members. although english becomes a foreign language in indonesia, parents can deliberately decide to purposefully bring english to the child’s environment. whether getting involved actively or passively, the children have a good chance to acquire the language used within the parental interaction. the interaction itself provides exposure causing the children to be familiar with the language. moreover, home of bilingual family is the most important and influential source of language exposure for the growth of language development either in the acquisition of morph syntax or vocabulary (unsworth, 2015). siblings may also provide language exposure. other family members should also be considered as important source of language exposure, even though children use language more with parents rather than siblings (jean ,2011). if the children have a big family then there are also possibilities to get language exposures from grandparents, cousins, and relatives who occasionally use the target language within familial interaction. even though students may have some exposures from home, there are exceptional conditions that hinder the students to achieve sufficient and proper exposure of the target language. mainly, it is due to the low proficiency level of the language usage by the parents or other family members (unsworth, 2015). such situation cannot bring much benefit in one’s language ability. the other reason is because the children growing up with more than one language usually obtain their input from different sources. this can lead them to favor one language and neglect the other. it may also happen due to their social preference. since the exposures at home are not the definite factor of one’s language competence, jean (2011) concluded that the exposures at home, even though it is influential; is not dominant. as children would get more exposures on the society, other aspects such as social, linguistics, and educational background also matter. according to palermo & mikulski (2014), friends can be important sources since they may provide some opportunities to english exposures and practices. magno et al. (2009) stated that exposures to the second language can influence one’s motivation to learn the language itself. in this regard, students of dormitory school may interact with each other very often since they live in the same environment. it brings opportunity to improve the students’ awareness or motivation to practice english more (ningsih & fata, 2015). this is why many dormitory schools instruct the students to use the target language within school and dormitory so they can practice using english in the real life situation. it also impacts to the more exposures students receive. the sources of the language exposure within the dormitory are students’ roommates and peers. in learning english as a second language (esl) or as a foreign language (efl), language learners need to have exposure access whether it takes formal or informal setting after obtaining the language input (bahrani & sim, 2012). thus, the language acquisition should be conducted by forming sufficient language exposures. formal language setting can be considered when the target language is being taught in class. thus the students focus on the language itself. by means, students learn english as the target language or second language in formal or classroom-based situation with structured and purposeful management. bahrani et al. (2014) pointed out that formal language learning needs classroom-based and highly structured situation. moreover, the learning content is directed by teacher. on the other hand, informal language learning may happen inside or outside of classroom, become unstructured and focus on the meaning of the language instead of the language meaning. it can be concluded that in informal setting, students do not even realize that they learn the language since it is without purposes. when the students read, they intend to understand what they read and not to learn the grammar. by means, the focus is on the meaning of the language. while in formal setting however, the concentration is more on the language aspects. in other words, the focus of formal setting is the language itself. here are the sources of exposures at school; (1) the interaction with english teachers, (2) the interaction with non-english teachers, (3) the activities in english class, (4) the activities in non-english class and (5) the interaction with classmates. the exposures from media may be a matter of preference due to one’s hobby. for instance, students who like to watch television tend to get most of the exposures from television programs such as movies and shows. thus, these are the exposure sources from media, such as online chatting, sending and receiving text messages, browsing web pages from the internet, listening to english songs, watching movies and tv shows in english, reading magazines written in english, and also reading newspapers, books and any kinds of information written in english. since technology brings impressive developments in audio, video, and computer-mediated communication program, it can give possibility for teachers to conduct english-based activities such as listening or watching english program, and holding english conversation with natives in reality. the use of different technology such as 9“watching english movie helps me!”: .... (ika apriani fata; nyak mutia ismail) watching a movie, or listening to the music, can conduct the informal setting of language learning (bahrani et al., 2014). by getting involved in the activities of watching a movie or listening to the music, students try to understand the meaning of the current language, thus these activities can lead the students to retain implicitly the information of the target language aspects. metacognition is the ability of thinking how the thinking process is performed. it is simply the thinking of thinking (coskun, 2010). the dichotomy of issue is knowledge and knowledge regulation. the former, metacognitive knowledge corresponds to students’ information about themselves, strategies they frequently use, and conditions where the strategies work well. the classification is subbed into three components, namely declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. while the latter, knowledge regulation or better known as metacognitive skills or strategies, relates to knowledge of planning, implementing strategies or information management, monitoring, correcting/debugging, and evaluating comprehension. veenman et al. (2014) further describe that there is a clear cutting line between metacognitive knowledge and skills. metacognitive strategies refer to individual interactions, tasks, and characteristics of strategies which is entirely built-in as beliefs. one’s metacognitive knowledge can be successful or not successful; for instance, when a student thinks he prepares very well for an exam but later fails, he may incorrectly presume that his awareness upon the strategies he used is already excellent despite a paradox he faced in the exam. this knowledge seems resistant to change somehow. on the other hand, metacognitive regulation or metacognitive skill actualizes one’s ability in regulating problem-solving and learning activities. it is built in the form of inner feedback mechanisms. it deals with whether or not you are able to plan your actions ahead the performances and gain smooth progress or you get confused with what to do and go astray. metacognitive skill depends on metacognitive knowledge as much as it affects metacognitive knowledge. luckily, through certain times and hard effort, these skills can still be acquired. anderson (2002) exhibits that learners with metacognitive skills have bigger chance in achieving learning objectives in general since they are more strategic, they have faster pace during learning, they obtain accurate self-assessment, their judgments match their tactics, and they find clear partitions among inaccuracies and misattributions. shortly, they are good at managing their plans before approaching the tasks, monitoring their understanding and soon fixing-up impaired information intake, and evaluating their thinking after the task completion (teal center staff, 2010). the elaboration about the confines between metacognitive knowledge and its regulation are as described in the following. declarative knowledge merely is the knowledge acquired through presentations, discussions, and demonstrations. this is a master plan that a student needs to know before processing the information in the tasks or learning materials. then, it also refers to the information a student has about his or her ability. the student needs to know about what. procedural knowledge mainly is that acquired during discovery, cooperative learning, and problem solving. this is the application of the initial knowledge above in where a student needs to know how to implement it. conditional knowledge is the knowledge of what to do, why and when (desoete & roeyers, 2003). it is the process of determination an appropriate strategy to use in various learning situation. this is the integration of implementing declarative and procedural knowledge together. planning is the process of goal setting and allocating resources prior to learning. information management is the sequenced use of skills and strategies in processing information. in contrast, the teaching realm has shown paradoxical facts concerning the toefl mastery, especially in reading section. generally, most of low level of efl university students informed that they frequently tend not to answer this section thoroughly for some reasons, such as lack of vocabulary, time deficiency, being panic, and so forth. this condition is completely supported by (farrell, 2001) mentioning that most l2 (second language) learners still use basic reading strategies, namely (1) word for word reading and (2) translation strategy. both of these strategies are automatically inhibited by the limit of vocabulary. specifically for good readers, the writers are curious in finding out whether there is an imprint from language exposures left in them to own such ability of comprehension. there have been numerous studies conducted on toefl, such as the first previous study which was piloted by ananda (2016). he examined the second section of toefl which is structure and written expression section to figure out which topics believed to be the most difficult ones by 26 college students of islamic state university ar-raniry and syiah kuala university. the result showed that there are seven topics considered to be difficult, which are; (1) inversion, (2) subject-verb agreement, (3) clause connectors, (4) passive voice, (5) reduced adjective clause, (6) parallel structures, and (7) use of verb. meanwhile in the current study, the researchers searched for the students’ ability in answering toefl reading section in its relation to language exposure and metacognitive awareness. furthermore, a study by sungatullina et al. (2016) researching on the effect of metacognitive awareness (clue reading strategy) exposure to three group students of management, economics, and finance students enrolled in an academic esl program in a university in russia. the result showed that the group which was trained using the metacognitive strategy, in this study it is clue reading strategy, has gained higher score result compared to the other two group. besides, the training is beneficial for the students in understanding words and inference the lexis. in 2001, a study by cunninghum & stavonich (2001) discussed that language exposures play an important role in determining one’s general quotient, including reading ability. the study promoted that language exposure in language acquisition process are taken into consideration, besides, written language corpora give more vocabulary expansion compared to oral language resources. thus, there are no further studies currently investigating language exposures and metacognitive awareness on toefl reading in efl context, therefore this study would fill in this gap. conclusively, this study firstly subjected and addressed the questions on whether language exposures have prominent contribution for strategic readers in answering toefl in reading section; and secondly, to seek if metacognitive awareness has an impact of students’ performance in answering reading test of toefl. through the result inquired in this study, it is expected that, first of all, the facilitators/lecturers might thoughtfully take into consideration the presentation of reading materials 10 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 7-12 or lesson through media exposure. and second of all, it is also suggested that they create the learning atmosphere to a level of the autonomous learning accordingly. based on the importance of writing and the problems found in the real situation, the researcher intends to conduct a research on “the effectiveness of collaborative writing strategy (cws) (compared with metacognitive writing strategy (mws)) in writing lesson regarded to the students’ creativity. methods this research used qualitative inquiry-based methods which involved researchers’ observations and interpretations. this study was conducted at one of university in aceh involving ten first year students to be the partcipants. it focused on the factors that influence high level readers’ ability in doing reading tasks provided in reading section of toefl. the respondents of this study were ten freshmen at syiah kuala university from various majors considered as strategic readers whose toefl score ranges within 400 above. the first factor was language exposure and the second was metacognition utilization. based on the result of the placement test that had been administered earlier, using 50 question items of reading section toefl which were developed by gear & gear (1996), the interest in investigating the students’ metacognition and language exposure rose. ten students whose score was above 400 were given two questionnaire sets, each of which was associated with either the first or second research question formulated previously. in the first set, there were 20 questions in the questionnaire about language exposure of which the students needed to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’. in addition, the other questionnaire was metacognitive awareness inventory provided by harford community college learning center. these questionnaires were also given—only—to the students whose toefl score in reading section is 400 or above. this rubric was also administered to those with good score in reading section of toefl in order to examine what kind of strategies the good readers frequently attempt in answering the questions. there are 52 questions in this rubric which have been adopted from (schraw & dennison, 1994). they had to answer these questions in true or false condition. results and discussions in order to obtain the data of the questionnaire examining the impacts of language exposure on good readers in comprehending the toefl reading section texts, the researchers found the following description, as presented in figure 1. figure 1 language exposure on reading ability, adopted from veenman et al. (2014). it is evidenced that the most interfering type of exposure is media exposure since all students agree for 100% that internet webpages, english songs, english movies, and english tv shows have a lot to do with their english acquisition; meanwhile the least influencing is exposure at home. this data supports the statement from magno et al. (2009) saying that internet media exposure had major impact to language mastery. it is evidenced on english language mastery that people has to mediate it through technology. as magno et al. (2009) believed that exposures to the target language may reinforce one’s motivation to learn the language itself, this provides good benefits on students’ language development, especially in reading toefl section since not only they could use and receive exposures, but they could also get feedbacks from their language learning exposure. in addition, this finding is partly supported by durrant & schmitt’s (2010) statement which investigated the process of acquiring collocations through language exposure. the researchers divided 84 non-native english speakers to have different exposure of collocations. the three conditions were; (1) single exposure in which the collocations were exposed once, (2) verbatim repetition in which the collocations were exposed twice and (3) varied repetition in which the same collocations were put within some different sentences in a text. the result showed the participants gained some information about word pairings or chunks in the text they read. in other words, learners might study unconsciously the appearing of some words that usually go together by getting exposed to inputs containing collocations. since their study carefully controlled the exposure to the participants, the inputs of language students received were restricted to reading and listening media. in question 1 and 2, which brought up the exposure at home either by parents or other family members, it was found only two students or 20% of them who got exposed to english in family interactions. question 3 and 4 shed lights on the exposure they have with their friends, either with roommates or peers. all students claimed 100% certainty that they have not been exposed to english by their roommates. nevertheless, some peers, who were presumably considered close friends, did give exposure to them and all students confirmed to this adjustment. students can practice much since they spent most of their free time in the same room and they had to share the room as well. since it is believed that richer language environment helps students to have better exposure of the language, roommates may be one of the essential exposure sources. within the dormitory, interaction also happens with peers who live closely in the school environment. this socialization is important in which students can get the language exposure of real life experience. the varied occurrence of language exposure can be distinguished based on its setting which is divided into two types, formal and informal. while formal language learning happens in structured, purposeful and school setting, informal language learning happens in unstructured and purposeful setting (bahrani & sim, 2012). regarding informal language, rogers (2004), as cited by bahrani & sim (2012), added that informal language learning takes real life situation which becomes the most extensive and most important part of learning. it is because after gaining a current input language, students need to apply the function of its language and develop their language ability which requires real environments. in the next five questions to which they were 11“watching english movie helps me!”: .... (ika apriani fata; nyak mutia ismail) concerned to was about formal interaction exposure. eight students revealed that they developed english through their interaction with english teachers as well as activities in english classes. these five questions also considered that both students’ interaction with non-english teachers and activities in non-english classes lead them to gain english exposure. no students approved getting english exposure through interaction with classmates. the last eleven questions were relevant to media exposure. only two students corresponded to the fact that they gain english exposure from online chatting, sending and receiving messages. on the other hand, every student consented on the fact that browsing internet web-pages, listening to english songs, watching movies and tv shows in english established their english proficiency. five students believed that reading english magazines and english books encouraged them to practice their english ability. three students stated that reading english newspaper is exposing them to english. lastly, eight of them were assured that they got english exposure from reading information in english contexts. this data were supported by the statement from bahrani & sim (2012) which considered that media has positive impacts in developing reading ability respectively. to see the metacognition possessed by these good readers, the rubrics identifying their use of both metacognitive knowledge and skill were analyzed. the description is presented in figure 2. 0 50 100 knowledge knowledge regulation figure 2 comparison between the use of knowledge and knowledge regulation, adapted from magno et al. (2009). it is claimed that each student is properly enhanced in employing their metacognitive skills in resolving the problems they might have in reading section of toefl. although the results cause the researchers to concede so, figure 2 also displays that the students’ metacognitive knowledge is only slightly lower compared to their metacognitive regulation. it is clear that all students achieved more than half of the knowledge. despite facing some obstacles in answering the questions, good readers are able to employ certain strategies in tackling down the setbacks, which are known as metacognitive strategies. most strategic readers are aware of the problems they face at the time of their performance and at once examine their weaknesses, for which they find the solutions. moreover, cardenas (2009) affirmed that the significance of having competent readers is that they can use their own strategies in comprehending the toefl texts and become autonomous learners which in much deliberation would be advantageous for them in the long run. figure 2 precisely denotes that student 1 used 76% of the knowledge and 82% of the regulation or skill. student 2 also used 76% of the knowledge but increasingly used 84% of the knowledge regulation. student 3 and 4 used their knowledge for 65% and 53%, and their knowledge regulation for 77% and 72%, respectively. student 5 employed 80% in knowledge and 93% in knowledge regulation, which is the highest percentage altogether. next, student 6 used 75% of knowledge and 86% of knowledge regulation; students 7 used 60% and 80%; students 8 used 68% and 71%; student 9 used 80% and 86%; and student 10 used 78% and 88%. these finding turns out to be totally not in line with schraw & dennison (1994) which eventually claimed that knowledge of metacognitive awareness dominates more than knowledge regulation does. it is an expansion of students’ employment to gain reading distinctive achievement. conclusions this study brings into play on exposing language exposure to reading ability, it is evidenced that technology of internet or media (e.g. watching english movie and listening to english songs) takes higher impacts on students reading ability of toefl. it is likely that the access of internet might provide toefl test sample easily. the media is convinced to impact the students’ comprehension ability in the reading section of the toefl test. furthermore, regarding the metacognitive awareness in teaching students’ metacognitive knowledge and how to employ their metacognitive regulations or skills, it is considered prominently important to university students who become freshmen in the transition phase after senior high school. references ananda, r. (2016). problems with section two itp toefl test. studies in english and education, 3(1), 37–51. anderson, n. (2002). individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. eric digests, 3–4. bahrani, t., & sim, t. s. (2012). informal language learning setting: technology or social interaction? tojet: the turkish online journal of educational technology, 11(2), 142–149. bahrani, t., sim, t. s., & nekoueizadeh, m. (2014). second language acquisition in informal setting. theory and practice in language studies, 4(8), 1714–1723. brown, h. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices. new york: longman. cardenas, a. m. (2009). the impact of the think-aloud strategy in the english reading comprehension of efl 10th graders. unpublished thesis. colombia: universidad technologica de pereira. coskun, a. (2010). the effect of metacognitive strategy training on the listening performance of beginner students. research on youth and language, 4(1), 35-50. cunninghum, a. e., & stanovich, k. e. (2001). what reading does for the mind. journal of direct instruction, 1(2), 137-149. desoete, a., & roeyers, h. (2003). can off-line metacognition enhance mathematical problem solving? journal of educational psychology, 95(2), 188–200. 12 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 7-12 durrant, p., & schmitt, n. (2010). adult learners’ retention of collocations from exposure. second language research, 26(2), 163–188. farrell, g. m. (2001). the changing faces of virtual education. canada: the commonwealth of learning. gear, j., & gear, r. (1996). cambridge preparation for the toefl test. cambridge: cambridge university press. jean, m. w. l. (2011). canadian school-aged heritage language learners’ pattern of language use, proficiency and beliefs about learning their two languages. unpublished thesis. toronto: university of toronto. magno, c., filho, m. k., lajom, j. a., regodon, j. r., & bunagan, k. s. (2009). assessing the level of english language exposure of taiwanese college students in taiwan and the philippines. asian efl journal, 11(1), 62–73. ningsih, s. r. j., & fata, i. a. (2015). exploring teachers’ beliefs and the teaching profession in aceh. studies in english language and education, 2(1), 67-78. nurhidayati, k. e., yasin, b., & fata, i. a . (2016). investigating students’ language exposure in achieving their knowledge of collocation. proceedings of: the first reciprocal graduate research symposium between university pendidikan sultan idris and syiah kuala university. banda aceh: universitas syiah kuala press. palermo, f., & mikulski, a. m. (2014). the role of positive peer interaction and english exposure in spanishspeaking pre-schoolers’ english vocabulary and letter-word skills. early childhood research quarterly, 29(2), 625–635. phillips, d. (2001). longman complete course for the toefl test: preparation for computer and paper test. white plains, new york: longman. schraw, g., & dennison, s. (1994). assessing metacognitive awareness. contemporary educational psychology, 19(1), 460–475. sungatullina, d. d., zalyaeva, e. o., & gorelova, y. n. (2016). metacognitive awareness of toefl reading comprehension strategies. mediterranian journal of social sciences, 6(3), 430-436. teal center staff. (2010). metacognitive processes. boston: boston college press. veenman, m. v. j., bernadette, h. a. m., hout-wolters, v., & afflerbach, p. (2014). metacognition and learning: conceptual and methodological considerations. metacognition learning, 1(1), 3-14. unsworth, s. (2015). quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language learning development. berlin: mouton de gruyter/apa. analisis interferensi dalam kelas kata analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 59 analisis interferensi dalam kelas kata keishiki meishi khususnya penggunaan tame ni dan you ni nalti novianti 1 ; is anggra dewi 2 1,2 japanese department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, naltin@binus.edu abstract article aimed to find out the amount of interference in the translation using tame ni and you ni. the research used analysis description. data were taken by giving a test to 20 student from the japanese department, bina nusantara university. the result showed that there is some interference in the exercises in the test given to the respondents. it is concluded that the interference occurs because many students do not understand the differences in using tame ni anda you ni. keywords: interference, keishiki meishi, tame ni, you ni abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk mengetahui seberapa besar interferensi pada penerjemahan yang menggunakan tame ni dan you ni. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskripsi analitis dan data diambil dengan memberikan test kepada 20 mahasiswa semester 6 jurusan bahasa jepang, universitas bina nusantara. hasil analisis test adalah telah terjadi interferensi pada hasil soal yang diberikan kepada responden. disimpulkan, interferensi terjadi karena masih banyak mahasiswa yang belum mengerti dengan baik perbedaan penggunaan tame ni dan you ni. kata kunci: interferensi, keishiki meishi, tame ni, you ni jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 60 pendahuluan hampir dalam setiap kegiatan yang dilakukan manusia di dunia tidak pernah terlepas dari bahasa. dirgandini (2004:1) mengemukakan bahwa masyarakat berinteraksi sosial menggunakan bahasa. dengan bahasa, mereka berkomunikasi mengungkapkan perasaan, suasana hati, dan sikap. hal itu merupakan salah satu penyebab yang menjadikan bahasa memiliki peranan sangat penting dalam kehidupan manusia. berikut definisi bahasa yang dikemukakan martinet (1987:32). “bahasa adalah sebuah alat komunikasi untuk menganalisis pengalaman manusia, secara berbeda di dalam setiap masyarakat, dalam satuan-satuan yang mengandung isi semantis dan pengungkapan bunyi, yaitu monem. pengungkapan bunyi tersebut pada gilirannya diartikulasikan dalam satuan-satuan pembeda dan berurutan, yaitu fonem, yang jumlahnya tertentu di dalam setiap bahasa, yang kodrat maupun kesalingterkaitannya berbeda juga di dalam setiap bahasa.” masyarakat indonesia pada saat ini juga telah mengalami berbagai perubahan kehidupan, khususnya dalam hal perkembangan berbahasa. saat ini gejala munculnya penggunaan bahasa jepang di beberapa perusahaan jepang terkemuka di indonesia, baik dalam berbagai pertemuan resmi, media elektronik, media cetak, dan lain sebagainya, mendorong orang untuk mempelajari bahasa jepang agar dapat berkomunikasi dengan bahasa asing selain bahasa inggris. parera menyatakan (1997:27) bahwa “bahasa ialah seperangkat kebiasaan.” akan tetapi, tentunya proses pembelajaran bahasa jepang memerlukan waktu dan proses yang cukup lama untuk menjadi suatu kebiasaan. dengan demikian, karena bahasa jepang tersebut belum menjadi suatu kebiasaan dalam komunikasi sehari-hari maka itulah yang terkadang menjadi salah satu penyebab kesulitan dalam mempelajari berbagai perbedaan penggunaan antara bahasa asing dengan bahasa ibu. “penguasaan bahasa kedua akan terjadi lebih lambat dan lebih tidak sempurna jika bahasa pertama lebih kuat posisinya.” (martinet, 1987:169) keragaman dalam suatu bahasa pada akhirnya memunculkan berbagai aturan dalam penggunaan masing-masing bahasa tersebut. aturan dalam suatu bahasa sangat penting diketahui dan diperhatikan oleh pemelajar bahasa asing yang hendak memahami penggunaan yang tepat dari suatu bahasa yang dipelajari. seperti diketahui bahwa tata bahasa dalam bahasa indonesia dan bahasa jepang memiliki begitu banyak perbedaan dari berbagai segi. parera (1997:157) menjelaskan bahwa “sumber utama kesulitan belajar bahasa kedua adalah perbedaan antar bahasa.” ketidaktepatan dalam pemilihan kata bahasa asing tersebut yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh bahasa ibu memiliki pengaruh sangat besar terhadap penerjemahan yang baik. seperti dikemukakan oleh nurhadi (1995:57) bahwa: “bahasa pertama berpengaruh terhadap proses penguasaan bahasa kedua. hanya saja sejauh mana pengaruh itu ada, bergantung dari kuat dan lemahnya bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua yang dimiliki oleh siswa.” karena masih banyaknya pelajar yang merasa kesulitan dalam menggunakan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」maka peneliti tertarik untuk menganalisisnya. seperti, pasangan keishiki meishi 「形式 名詞」 tame ni「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. pasangan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tersebut memiliki kemiripan pengertian dalam bahasa indonesia yang senantiasa membingungkan pemelajar membedakan dalam penggunaannya. kesulitan tersebut serta ditambah lagi dengan besarnya pengaruh bahasa ibu yang mempengaruhi dalam penggunaannya, juga menjadi alasan selanjutnya untuk berusaha menganalisis seberapa besar interferensi dalam penerjemahan bahasa indonesia ke dalam bahasa kedua, yakni bahasa jepang, khususnya dalam penggunaan kelas kata keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tame ni「ため analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 61 に」dan you ni 「ように」. kedua keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」apabila diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia keduanya sama-sama memiliki pengertian sebagai „supaya‟, „untuk‟, atau „agar‟. dengan demikian, ketika dalam kalimat bahasa indonesia, baik secara lisan maupun tulisan terdapat kata „untuk‟ dan hendak diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa jepang, pemelajar seringkali kesulitan dalam membedakan penggunaan keduanya. padahal, pada saat melakukan penerjemahan, pelajar bahasa asing sedapat mungkin harus dapat melihat dan mengerti konteks kalimatnya terlebih dahulu agar terjadi keselarasan antara bahasa pertama ke dalam bahasa kedua yang diterjemahkannya. “karena, sekurang-kurangnya kesalahan berbahasa (御用) akibat pengaruh bahasa ibu (母国語干渉) pada pemelajar kedua bahasa tersebut dapat dikurangi atau bahkan dihilangkan.” (sutedi, 2004:189) rumusan permasalahan dalam penelitian berusaha menganalisis dan membahas kelas kata keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」dalam bahasa, jepang khususnya penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」yang memiliki kesamaan fungsi, yakni menunjukkan „tujuan‟. permasalahan yang akan dibahas dalam penelitian adalah ingin membedakan penggunaan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」 tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」yang memiliki kemiripan fungsi dan pengertian dalam bahasa indonesia, seperti dikemukakan oleh mcgloin (1989:51) berikut ini. a. 電気をつけるために家の中に入った。 ‘denki o tsukeru tame ni ie no naka ni haitta.’ pada waktu menyatakan tujuan dengan bentuk maksud, digunakan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」 tame ni「ために」. b. 日本語が上手になるように一生懸命勉強している。 ‘nihon go ga jouzu ni naru you ni isshoukenmei benkyoushiteiru.’ pada waktu menunjukkan kata kerja bentuk kemampuan dan bukan bentuk maksud, digunakan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」you ni「ように」. di samping itu, juga dicoba untuk menganalisis melalui penelitian seberapa besar interferensi terhadap proses penerjemahan bahasa indonesia ke dalam bahasa jepang. peneliti akan memfokuskan penelitian pada analisis interferensi pada penggunaan kelas kata keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」yang terjadi dalam penerjemahan bahasa indonesia ke dalam bahasa jepang melalui soal kalimat dalam bahasa indonesia yang telah disediakan sebelumnya untuk diterjemahkan. soal tersebut kemudian dibagikan kepada sampel penelitian, yaitu melalui 20 mahasiswa kelas pbn semester enam jurusan sastra jepang universitas bina nusantara. tujuan penelitian adalah mengetahui seberapa besar interferensi yang terjadi dalam proses penerjemahan bahasa indonesia ke dalam bahasa jepang yang dilakukan responden, dalam penggunaan kelas kata keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. manfaat penelitian adalah agar pemelajar dapat mengerti dengan baik arti dan penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. selain itu, penelitian diharapkan juga dapat meningkatkan dan mengembangkan pengajaran bahasa jepang pada pemelajar bahasa jepang dalam penggunaan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. metode yang digunakan adalah deskriptif analitif. teknik pengumpulan data dengan cara membagikan kuesioner berupa soal yang berisi kalimat bahasa indonesia untuk diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa jepang, studi kasus melalui 20 sampel yang diambil dari mahasiswa kelas pbn semester enam jurusan sastra jepang universitas bina nusantara. dalam penelitian ini digunakan empat teori, yakni konjungsi dalam tata bahasa indonesia dan di dalamnya terdapat kata „untuk‟, „supaya‟, dan „agar‟. keishiki meishi (形式名詞) dalam tata jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 62 bahasa jepang yang di dalamnya terdapat teori tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」, selanjutnya adalah teori analisis kontrastif dan teori interferensi bahasa. sebelum masuk pada pembahasan, akan dijelaskan secara singkat keempat teori yang telah disebutkan. konjungsi dalam tata bahasa indonesia terbagi atas empat macam, yakni konjungsi koordinatif, konjungsi korelatif, konjungsi subordinatif, serta konjungsi antar kalimat. selanjutnya, konjungsi subordinatif terbagi kembali dalam 13 macam, antara lain: 1. konjungsi subordinatif waktu: sejak, semenjak, sedari, sewaktu, ketika, tatkala, sementara, begitu, seraya, selagi, selama, serta, sambil, demi, setelah, sesudah. 2. konjungsi subordinatif syarat: jika, kalau, jikalau, asal(kan), bila, manakala. 3. konjungsi subordinatif pengandaian: andaikan, seandainya, umpamanya, sekiranya. 4. konjungsi subordinatif tujuan: agar, untuk, supaya, biar. konjungsi subordinatif tujuan merupakan konjungsi yang berhubungan dengan tame ni 「た めに」dan you ni 「ように」yang sering mengakibatkan interferensi dalam penerjemahan pada pemelajar bahasa jepang sebagai bahasa kedua. 5. konjungsi subordinatif konsesif: biarpun, meski(pun), walau(pun), sekalipun, sungguhpun, kendati(pun). 6. konjungsi subordinatif pembandingan: seakan-akan, seolah-olah, sebagaimana, seperti, sebagai, laksana, ibarat, daripada, alih-alih. 7. konjungsi subordinatif sebab: sebab, karena, oleh karena, oleh sebab. 8. konjungsi subordinatif hasil: sehingga, sampai (-sampai), maka (nya). 9. konjungsi subordinatif alat: dengan, tanpa. 10. konjungsi subordinatif cara: dengan, tanpa. 11. konjungsi subordinatif komplementasi: bahwa 12. konjungsi subordinatif atributif: yang 13. konjungsi subordinatif perbandingan: sama... dengan, lebih... dari(pada). selanjutnya, izumi dalam yoshikawa (2007), menjelaskan definisi keishiki meishi 「形式名 詞」adalah sebagai berikut: “kata yang kehilangan makna yang sebenarnya dan menjadi kata benda yang hanya memiliki peranan secara formalitas dengan syarat, jika dipadukan dengan kata lain maka akan memiliki fungsi yang sangat penting dalam tata bahasa.” nagara, et al. (1987) membagi keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」menjadi empat puluh tiga jenis yakni: aida / aida ni, atari, ue / ue ni / ue de, uchi / uchi ni / uchi de / uchi wa, oki / oki ni, ori / ori ni, kata, gachi / gachi ni / gachi na, nuse ni, gurai (kurai), koto, shidai, jou, sei, sou, sou / souna, dake, tabi ni, tame / tame ni, dan, tsumori, tei, ten, toori, toki / toki ni, tokoro, nagara, nado / nante (nanzo), no, hazu, bakari, fushi, bun, hou, hodo, ma, mama / mama ni / mama de, mitai, muki, mono, yue / yue ni, you / you ni / you na, yoshi, wake. dari sekian banyak jenis yang termasuk dalam keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」, berikut ini hanya akan dijelaskan keishiki meishi 「形式名詞」tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」 yang nantinya akan menjadi data pendukung analisis. nagara, et. al. (1987:53) membagi fungsi tame ni 「ために」ke dalam tiga bagian, yakni: 受益 じ ゅ え き の対象 たいしょう (menunjukkan objek yang menerima keuntungan), 目的 も く て き (menunjukkan tujuan) , 原因 げ ん い ん . 理由 り ゆ う (menunjukkan alasan atau penyebab). mcgloin (1989:49) dan iori, et. al. (2004:420) menjelaskan tame ni 「ために」digunakan setelah verba atau kata kerja. dalam hal ini, kata kerja analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 63 yang mendahului tame ni 「ために」disebut dengan kata kerja yang memiliki bentuk maksud atau „ishidoushi’ 「意志動詞」. contoh kata kerja bentuk maksud atau „ishidoushi’ 「意志動詞」 yang mendahului tame ni 「ために」yaitu „yomu’ 「読む」, ‘taberu’ 「食べる」, ‘iku’ 「行く」, ‘nomu’ 「飲む)」dan lain sebagainya. sama halnya seperti tame ni 「ために」nagara, et. al. (1987:117) juga membagi fungsi you ni 「ように」ke dalam delapan bagian, yakni: 比況 ひ き ょ う (seperti), 例示 れ い じ (memberikan contoh untuk mempermudah penjelasan), 説明 せ つ め い (penjelasan), 推測 す い そ く (perkiraan/ dugaan), 婉曲 えんきょく (penjelasan secara tidak langsung), 目的 も く て き (tujuan), 勧告 か ん こ く . 願望 が ん ぼ う ( nasehat.keinginan), 慣用的表現 か ん よ う て き ひ ょ う げ ん (ungkapan kebiasaan). mcgloin (1989:49) dan iori, et al. (2001:216) menjelaskan penggunaan you ni「ように」diletakkan setelah kata kerja bentuk potensial atau „muishidoushi’「無意志動詞」. contoh kata kerja yang termasuk ke dalam golongan muishidoushi, antara lain dekiru, (tabe)rareru, (yom)eru, (oki)rareru, wakaru, dan lain sebagainya. kridalaksana dalam soedibyo (2004:47) menjelaskan definisi analisis kontrastif sebagai berikut. “analisis kontrastif adalah metode sinkronis dalam analisis bahasa untuk menunjukkan persamaan dan perbedaan antar bahasa atau dialek untuk mencari prinsip yang dapat diterapkan dalam masalah praktis, seperti pengajaran bahasa dan terjemahan.” sesuai dengan penjelasan soemarno dalam parera (1997:137) bahwa tujuan analisis kontrastif adalah meningkatkan dan memperbesar keberhasilan pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. soedibyo (2004:48-49) menjelaskan ruang lingkup analisis kontrastif terdiri dari: analisis kontrastif makro dan analisis kontrastif mikro. manfaat hasil analisis kontrastif antara lain untuk mengurangi kesalahan atau salah persepsi ketika berkomunikasi dengan target. parera (1997:107) menjelaskan definisi interferensi sebagai berikut: “kesalahan yang diakibatkan oleh proses transfer yang tidak cocok atau sama antara b1 dan b2 atau kebiasaan ber-b1 dialihkan ke ber-b2 yang tidak berterima disebut interferensi.” dalam proses balajar b2, seseorang beralih dari kaidah intrabahasa b1 ke kaidah intrabahasa b2. antara ujung kiri b1 dan ujung kanan b2 tidak dapat dilepaskan. berarti, dalam proses berbahasa b1 dan berbahasa ajaran b2 akan terjadi interferensi betapapun kecil dan tidak tampak dari luar. semakin tingginya lalu lintas antara penutur b1 dan b2 akan semakin tinggi pula terjadinya interferensi. istilah interferensi dipergunakan oleh kalangan psikolog untuk menunjuk pengaruh tingkah laku yang lama terhadap hal baru yang sedang dipelajari. pembahasan tabel 1 jumlah soal dan metode kuesioner pada tanggal 16 mei 2008 telah dibagikan kuesioner kepada 20 mahasiswa dari kelas pbn semester enam jurusan sastra jepang universitas bina nusantara jakarta. diperoleh hasil bahwa semua jawaban dinyatakan valid karena semua responden menjawab seluruh soal yang ada. soal jumlah soal metode kuesioner keterangan i 10 metode terbuka menerjemahkan ii 3 metode tertutup memilih jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 64 analisis jawaban kuesioner i dari hasil pengolahan 10 jawaban kuesioner i diperoleh data bahwa terjadi interferensi pada responden. tingkat terjadinya interferensi dapat dilihat dari jumlah kesalahan jawaban yang diberikan responden. semakin tinggi kesalahan jawaban maka semakin besar terjadinya interferensi bahasa dalam kelas kata keishiki meishi, khususnya pengunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」 . begitu juga sebaliknya, semakin kecil tingkat kesalahan jawaban responden menunjukkan rendahnya interferensi bahasa pada proses penerjemahan. tabel 2 klasifikasi dan persentase jumlah jawaban dari tabel di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa interferensi terendah terdapat pada soal no. 2 dan no. 5 sedangkan interferensi tertinggi terjadi pada soal no. 8 dan no. 10. karenanya, untuk lebih memperdalam penjelasan mengenai analisis interferensi tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」, maka berikut ini penulis akan menganalisis berdasarkan soal dengan persentase jumlah kesalahan jawaban terendah dan tertinggi. analisis interferensi terendah (soal no. 2 dan no. 5) dari 10 soal tersebut dapat diketahui bahwa soal dengan jumlah kesalahan terendah menunjukkan telah terjadi interferensi walaupun dengan kadar interferensi rendah. seperti yang telah dikemukakan sebelumnya oleh parera (1997:98) bahwa dalam proses berbahasa b1 dan berbahasa ajaran b2 akan terjadi interferensi betapapun kecil dan tidak tampak dari luar. pernyataan parera tersebut merupakan ungkapan yang dapat mendukung analisis di bawah ini. terjadinya interferensi walaupun dengan kadar yang rendah pada soal no.2 dan no.5 membuktikan bahwa interferensi memang tidak dapat dihindarkan walaupun dengan kadar interferensi yang rendah. berikut ini merupakan analisis soal yang di ambil dari persentase jumlah kesalahan terendah, yakni soal no.2 dan no.5. a. soal no.2 : pergi ke paris untuk belajar tentang fashion. jawaban: ファッシオンについて勉強するために、パリへ行った。 ‘fashion ni tsuite benkyou suru tame ni, paris e itta.’ b. soal no.5: saya menggunakan kamus untuk mencari cara baca kanji. jawaban: 幹事の読み方を調べるために辞書を使う。 ‘kanji no yomi kata o shiraberu tame ni jisho o tsukau.’ soal no. jumlah jawaban klasifikasi benar (responden) % salah (responden) % 1 17 85 % 3 15 % you ni 2 18 90 % 2 10 % tame ni 3 17 85 % 3 15 % tame ni 4 16 80 % 4 20 % you ni 5 18 90 % 2 10 % tame ni 6 16 80 % 4 20 % you ni 7 15 75 % 5 25 % you ni 8 12 60 % 8 40 % tame ni 9 15 75 % 5 25 % you ni 10 12 60 % 8 40 % tame ni analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 65 pada dua buah soal tersebut, responden yang menjawab benar adalah sebanyak 18 orang sedangkan yang menjawab salah sebanyak dua orang. jumlah persentase interferensi pada kedua nomor itu merupakan persentase terendah, yakni 10%. agar lebih jelasnya, jumlah jawaban benar dan jawaban salah ditunjukkan melalui grafik pada gambar 1. gambar 1 grafik perbandingan jumlah jawaban benar dan salah pada soal no.2 dan no. 5 analisis: sesuai dengan pernyataan iori, et al. (2001:216) bahwa penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」tidak dapat digantikan antar satu sama lain. oleh karena itu, jawaban yang tepat untuk kedua soal itu adalah tame ni 「ために」. dari soal no.2 tersebut dapat diketahui bahwa tujuan pergi ke paris adalah untuk belajar fashion. dari no.5 dapat diketahui bahwa tujuan menggunakan kamus adalah untuk membaca kanji. nagara, et. al., (1987:53) sebelumnya menerangkan bahwa tame ni 「ために」berfungsi untuk menunjukkan suatu tujuan sedangkan you ni「ように」berfungsi menunjukkan tujuan atas perbuatan seseorang. dalam bahasa jepang untuk menunjukkan suatu keinginan, dalam hal ini adalah keinginan seseorang belajar fashion di paris seperti yang terdapat pada soal no. 2 dan tujuan untuk mencari cara baca kanji seperti yang tertera pada soal no. 5 menjadi tepat apabila menggunakan „ishidoushi’, yakni kata kerja yang menunjukkan keinginan atau maksud dan disertai dengan meletakkan tame ni 「ために」sesudahnya. kata „untuk‟ yang terdapat dalam soal tersebut, dalam tata bahasa indonesia masuk ke dalam konjungsi subordinatif tujuan. kata dalam bahasa indonesia „untuk‟, „supaya‟, „agar‟ ketiganya sama-sama berfungsi sebagai kata sambung dalam suatu kalimat. sesuai dengan penjelasan soedibyo (2004:61) sebelumnya bahwa berikut ini merupakan beberapa faktor yang menjadikan suatu penerjemahan yang baik sehingga memungkinkan kecilnya kadar interferensi pada penerjemahan soal no.2 dan no.5. 1. responden telah menguasai sistem bahasa jepang dengan baik. contoh dalam hal itu adalah penggunaan kelas kata keishiki meishi khususnya dalam tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「よう に」. 2. responden juga telah menguasai sistem bahasa indonesia dengan baik. hal itu karena dengan mengetahui sistem b1 dengan baik maka akan mempermudah pemelajar dalam melakukan penerjemahan ke b2. 3. responden juga telah memahami teori penerjemahan, dalam hal ini penerjemahan dari b1 ke b2. seperti diketahui bahwa struktur kalimat bahasa indonesia dan bahasa jepang memiliki perbedaan sehingga untuk mendapatkan penerjemahan yang baik responden harus mengetahui teori penerjemahan terlebih dahulu. perbandingan jumlah jawaban benar dan salah pada soal no. 2 dan no. 5 2 responden (10%) 18 responden (90%) salah benar jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 66 4. responden telah memahami bidang yang diterjemahkan, hal lain yang berkaitan dengan penerjemahan itu, seperti pemahaman budaya bahasa jepang serta bahasa indonesia itu sendiri. 5. pola kalimat serupa pada soal no.2 dan no.5 juga sering ditemui dalam berbagai buku pelajaran bahasa jepang. seperti dalam buku minna no nihongo, nihongo no kiso, dan lain sebagainya. hal itu membuat responden telah terbiasa dengan pola kalimat seperti tercantum pada soal no.2 dan no.5. 6. penggunaan pola kalimat sama dalam bahasa indonesia. pada soal no.2 dan no.5 apabila dilihat dari soal bahasa indonesianya. walaupun penggunaan kata „untuk‟ sama halnya dengan kata „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ karena ketiganya dalam konjungsi tata bahasa indonesia masuk ke dalam konjungsi subordinatif tujuan. akan tetapi, penggunaan kata „untuk‟ seperti dalam soal no.2 dan no.5 tidak dapat atau menjadi kalimat yang aneh apabila digantikan dengan „agar‟ dan „supaya‟. karena fungsi kata „untuk‟ pada kedua nomor telah mutlak penggunaannya, dengan demikian hal itu tidak menjadi suatu kesulitan bagi responden dalam menerjemahkan. contoh penggunaan kata „untuk‟ dalam bahasa indonesia yang tidak dapat digantikan dengan kata „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ dapat dilihat melalui contoh kalimat berikut. tabel 3 contoh penggunaan kata „untuk‟ yang tidak dapat digantikan no bahasa jepang bahasa indonesia 1 田中さんはケーキをきるためにナイフを使い ます。 tanaka menggunakan pisau untuk memotong kue. 2 あの人は書くためにえんぴつを使います。 orang itu menggunakan pinsil untuk menulis. 3 私は教科書を調べるために図書館へ行きま す。 saya pergi ke perpustakaan untuk mencari buku pelajaran. 4 新しい靴を買うために貯金しす。 menabung untuk membeli sepatu baru. 5 山田さんは研究するためにアメリカへ行っ た。 yamada pergi ke amerika untuk melakukan penelitian. dari kelima buah contoh di atas memperjelas bahwa apabila kata „untuk‟ diganti dengan kata „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ maka kalimat tersebut akan menjadi kalimat yang janggal atau kurang tepat. walaupun ketiga kata tersebut sama-sama berfungsi untuk menunjukkan suatu tujuan dalam bahasa indonesia. sehingga, dapat dikatakan sama halnya seperti penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」dalam bahasa jepang walaupun keduanya sama-sama menunjukkan suatu tujuan tetapi terdapat perbedaan dalam penggunaannya dan tidak dapat digantikan satu sama lain dalam suatu kalimat bahasa jepang. analisis interferensi terbesar (soal no. 8 dan no.10) pada interferensi terbesar, yakni 40%, jumlah responden yang menjawab benar pada soal no. 8 dan no.10 adalah 12 orang sedangkan 8 orang lainnya menjawab salah. untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat pada grafik gambar 2 berikut. analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 67 gambar 2 grafik perbandingan jumlah jawaban benar dan salah pada soal no.8 dan no.10 a. soal no.8 : pergi ke sauna untuk menghilangkan lelah. jawaban : 疲れをいやすためにサウナへ行きます。 ‘tsukare o iyasu tame ni sauna e ikimasu.’ b. soal no.10 : saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang untuk memperkuat badan. jawaban : 体を強くするために毎日プールで泳いでいる。 ‘karada o tsuyoku suru tame ni mainichi puuru de oyoideiru.’ analisis: sama halnya dengan jawaban pada soal no.2 dan no.5, jawaban yang sesuai pada soal no.8 dan no.10 adalah menggunakan tame ni 「ために」. sesuai dengan penjelasan sebelumnya yang dikemukakan oleh m gloin (1989:48) bahwa pola kalimat [ x tame ni y ] dan x menunjukkan suatu kegiatan yang dapat dikendalikan oleh subjek y. soal no. 8 : pergi ke sauna untuk menghilangkan lelah y x jawaban : 疲れをいやすためにサウナへ行きます。 x y setelah memasukkan soal dan jawaban pada pola kalimat [ x tame ni y] dapat diketahui bahwa pernyataan mc gloin tersebut sesuai dengan soal no. 8. suatu kegiatan untuk menghilangkan lelah itu dapat dikendalikan oleh subjek dengan cara pergi ke sauna. soal no.10: saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang untuk memperkuat badan. y x jawaban : 体を強くするために毎日プールで泳いでいる。 x y sama halnya dengan no.8, dari soal no.10 dapat diketahui bahwa tujuan memperkuat badan dikendalikan oleh saya (subjek pada soal tersebut), yakni dengan cara berenang setiap hari di kolam renang. pada soal no. 8 dan no.10 telah terjadi interferensi dengan kadar besar, yakni dengan banyaknya jumlah kesalahan jawaban karena banyaknya jumlah mahasiswa yang menggunakan you ni 「ように」sebagai jawaban no.8 dan no.10. pada soal no.8 dan no.10 terdapat sebuah kata kunci, yakni kata „untuk‟. seperti dijelaskan oleh mcgloin (1989:48) bahwa definisi tame ni 「ために」 perbandingan jumlah jawaban benar dan salah pada soal no. 8 dan no.10 12 responden (60%) 8 responden (40%) salah benar jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 68 adalah „untuk‟ sedangkan definisi you ni「ように」adalah „supaya‟ atau „agar‟. dalam tata bahasa indonesia kata „untuk‟, „supaya‟, „agar‟ memiliki kesamaan pengertian dan memiliki kesamaan fungsi, yakni menerangkan suatu tujuan, seperti dijelaskan alwi, et. al., (2003:296) bahwa ketiga kata tersebut kata tersebut masuk ke dalam konjungsi subordinatif tujuan. berikut adalah contoh kalimat dalam bahasa indonesia dan penggunaan kata „untuk‟ dalam suatu kalimat dapat digantikan dengan „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ tanpa mengubah arti. tabel 4 penggunaan kata „untuk‟ yang dapat digantikan „agar‟ atau „supaya‟ no penggunaan kata „untuk‟ ,„agar‟ atau „supaya‟ 1 sugimura pergi ke jepang (untuk/ agar/ supaya) memahami ikebana. 2 tanaka bekerja setiap hari (untuk/ agar/ supaya) bisa membeli mobil. 3 perlu hujan (untuk/ agar/ supaya) menyuburkan tanaman. 4 kita makan (untuk/ agar/ supaya) dapat hidup. 5 adik belajar sungguh-sungguh (untuk/ agar/ supaya) bisa naik kelas. sebenarnya seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya bahwa kata „untuk‟, „supaya‟, „agar‟ juga terdapat perbedaan dalam penggunaannya. akan tetapi, bagi responden yang tidak menguasai tata bahasa indonesia dengan baik maka hal itu yang membuat banyak responden yang menyamaratakan penggunaan kata „untuk‟ pada penerjemahan dari b1 ke b2, seperti halnya dengan kata „supaya‟ dan „agar‟ . beberapa responden beranggapan bahwa ketika terdapat kata „untuk‟ mereka dapat langsung menerjemahkan ke dalam tame ni「ために」maupun you ni 「ように」. sedangkan, dalam tata bahasa jepang kata „untuk‟ hanya dapat digunakan pada tame ni「ために」dan kata „agar‟ atau „supaya‟ digunakan pada you ni 「ように」. perbedaan penggunaan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa aturan atau kaidah penggunaan bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua sangat penting diketahui agar dapat meminimalisasikan kesalahan sehingga terjadinya interferensi pun dapat dikurangi atau bahkan dihilangkan. sumber utama penyebab kesalahan bahasa yang dilakukan pemelajar, terutama pemelajar yang sedang bahasa asing atau bahasa kedua serta mengakibatkan tinginya kadar interferensi, yakni menurut brown dikutip dari herawati (2001:18) dan jack richard dikutip dari parera (1997:138-139), antara lain sebagai berikut. pertama, penerapan kaidah secara tidak lengkap. mahasiswa tidak menerapkan teori yang mengatakan bahwa tame ni「ために」didahului dengan „ishidoushi’ (kata kerja bentuk maksud) sedangkan you ni 「よ うに」didahului dengan ‘muishidoushi’ (kata kerja bukan bentuk maksud/keinginan), seperti wakaru, dekiru, dan lain sebagainya. pada soal no.8 dan no.10 terlihat bahwa kata kerja yang mendahului tame ni「ために」dan you ni「ように」bukanlah kata kerja ‘muishidoushi’ melainkan kata kerja ‘ishidoushi’. „いやす‟ dan „強くする‟ tidak dapat diikuti dengan you ni 「ように」tetapi harus dengan tame ni「ために」. kedua, transfer interlingual. responden melakukan kesalahan karena terpengaruh bahasa ibu. seperti dijelaskan sebelumnya oleh nurhadi (1995:53) bahwa bahasa pertama berpengaruh terhadap proses penguasaan bahasa kedua. hanya saja sejauh mana pengaruh itu ada, bergantung dari kuat dan lemahnya bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua yang dimiliki oleh siswa. dalam bahasa indonesia, kata „untuk‟ yang dipergunakan sehari-hari mempunyai pengertian dan fungsi yang sama dengan „supaya‟ maupun „agar‟, yakni untuk menerangkan suatu tujuan. pada kasus no.2 dan no.5 penggunaan kata „untuk‟ tidak dapat digantikan dengan kata „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ walaupun ketiganya mempunyai fungsi yang sama, yakni menerangkan suatu tujuan. akan tetapi, pada kasus no.8 dan no.10 kata „untuk‟ dalam soal tersebut dapat digantikan dengan „agar‟ atau „supaya‟ tanpa mengubah arti. analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 69 contoh: soal no.8: a. pergi ke sauna untuk menghilangkan lelah. b. pergi ke sauna agar menghilangkan lelah. c. pergi ke sauna supaya menghilangkan lelah. soal no.10: a. saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang untuk memperkuat badan. b. saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang agar memperkuat badan c. saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang supaya memperkuat badan dari kedua contoh perubahan tersebut, walaupun terdapat kata kunci, yakni kata „untuk‟ pada soal yang dapat menunjukkan bahwa jawaban no.8 dan no.10 menggunakan tame ni「ために」, namun kedua soal itu tetap menjadi soal dengan kadar interferensi yang tinggi. hal itu karena kuatnya bahasa pertama membuat responden menganggap bahwa kata „untuk‟ pada soal no.8 dan no.10 memiliki fungsi yang sama dengan kata „supaya‟ dan „agar‟ pada soal kalimat tersebut. dengan demikian, bagi mereka yang dalam pola pikirnya mengganti kata „untuk‟ pada kedua soal tersebut menjadi „agar‟ dan „supaya‟ maka kemungkinan besar mereka langsung menerjemahkan kata „untuk‟ tersebut ke dalam you ni 「ように」dan bukan tame ni「ために」. ketiga, kurangnya kebilingualan seseorang. ketidakfamiliaran penutur bahasa pertama dengan bahasa kedua mengakibatkan penutur bahasa pertama tidak mengetahui dengan baik aturan atau macam-macam cara penggunaan dan perbedaan suatu bahasa asing. hal itu juga sesuai dengan penjelasan parera (1997:106) sebelumya bahwa penganut analisis kontrastif berpendapat bahwa makin kurang kebilingualan seseorang makin besar interferensi. keempat, generalisasi berlebih. responden menginterprestasikan bahwa kata „untuk‟ selalu dapat diterjemahkan ke dalam tame ni 「ために」maupun you ni 「ように」. hal itu karena responden mendapatkan sedikit masalah ketika mendapatkan pola yang berbeda antara bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua. seperti dijelaskan lado dalam soedibyo (2004:51) bahwa elemen bahasa yang sama akan memudahkan pemelajar mempelajari bahasa target. akan tetapi, elemen yang berbeda akan mempersulit pemelajar mempelajari bahasa itu. seperti contoh kata „untuk‟ yang mutlak tidak dapat diganti membuat responden dengan pasti dan mempermudah untuk langsung menerjemahkannya ke dalam tame ni「ために」. akan tetapi, jika terdapat kata „untuk‟ yang dapat tergantikan dengan kata „supaya‟ dan „agar‟ membuat responden bingung menerjemahkan ke dalam tame ni「ために」 atau you ni「ように」sehingga memperbesar terjadinya jumlah kesalahan jawaban dan interferensi. dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa dalam suatu proses penerjemahan dari bahasa ibu (b1) ke bahasa asing (b2) tentunya terjadi interferensi. akan tetapi, besar atau kecilnya interferensi tersebut tidaklah sama. tergantung pada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhinya dan beberapa faktor tersebut merupakan kesalahan yang dilakukan responden sehingga mengakibatkan adanya interferensi dalam kadar yang besar. seperti dikemukakan parera (1997:107) bahwa interferensi berupa kesalahan yang diakibatkan oleh proses transfer yang tidak cocok antara b1 dan b2 atau kebiasaan ber-b1 dialihkan ke ber-b2 yang tidak berterima. dalam hal ini, responden tidak tepat dalam menerjemahkan kata „untuk‟ yang berfungsi menunjukkan tujuan ke dalam bahasa jepang, yakni tame ni「ために」dan you ni「ように」. perbandingan dalam hal persamaan dan perbedaan penggunaan kata „untuk‟, „supaya‟, dan „agar‟ pada tame ni 「ために」 dan you ni 「ように」 merupakan salah satu cara dari analisis kontrastif. seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya oleh lado dalam soedibyo (2004:47-48) bahwa analisis kontrastif berkaitan dengan pembandingan unsur yang terdapat dalam dua bahasa atau lebih jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 70 untuk mengetahui persamaan atau perbedaan unsur tersebut. unsur yang dimaksud dari mulai sistem bunyi hingga wacana. dalam hal ini, dengan membandingkan penggunaan „untuk‟, „supaya‟, dan „agar‟ diharapkan ketika terdapat ketiga kata tersebut, responden dapat mengkontraskan pemakaian kata tersebut sehingga memperkecil terjadinya interferensi. hal tersebut karena telah dijelaskan sebelumnya bahwa manfaat analisis kontrastif adalah untuk meningkatkan dan memperbesar keberhasilan pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa khususnya pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa kedua. analisis interferensi tame ni「ために」dan you ni「ように」 setelah membagi interferensi ke dalam dua bagian, yakni interferensi dengan kadar rendah dan kadar tinggi, selanjutnya dianalisis persentase penggunaan tame ni「ために」dan you ni「よう に」guna mengatahui perbandingan persentase interferensi antar keduanya. tabel 5 persentase interferensi tame ni「ために」dan you ni「ように」 tame ni「ために」 you ni「ように」 jumlah kesalahan persentase jumlah kesalahan persentase 23 46 % 21 42 % pada dasarnya, kadar interferensi terjadi pada tame ni「ために」dan you ni「ように」 memiliki persentase yang tidak jauh berbeda. akan tetapi, tingginya interferensi yang terjadi pada tame ni「ために」, karena penggunaan you ni「ように」lebih jelas bila dibandingkan dengan penggunaan pada tame ni「ために」. seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya bahwa penggunaan kata „untuk‟ dalam suatu kalimat yang mutlak adanya dan tidak dapat digantikan dengan kata sejenis lainnya yang sama-sama menunjukkan suatu tujuan maka hal itu mempermudah untuk langsung menerjemahkannya menjadi you ni「ように」. selanjutnya, dapat pula dikatakan kata bahwa tame ni「ために」memang cenderung lebih familiar pada telinga pemelajar bahasa kedua. dengan demikian, dalam suatu proses penerjemahan ketika pemelajar hendak menerangkan suatu tujuan atau ketika terdapat kata „untuk‟, „supaya‟, „agar‟ maka kata tame ni「ために」secara spontan terpikirkan oleh pemelajar sehingga hal itu menjadi salah satu penyebab tame ni 「ために」 menjadi lebih sering digunakan dibandingkan dengan penggunaan you ni「ように」yang sama-sama berfungsi menerangkan suatu tujuan. analisis jawaban kuesioner ii pada bagian ini akan dianalisis soal bagian kedua dari kuesioner yang berisi tiga buah pertanyaan dan telah diisi sesuai dengan memilih pernyataan yang paling sesuai dengan responden. lama belajar bahasa jepang sebanyak 18 orang menjawab bahwa mereka telah belajar bahasa jepang selama tiga tahun sedangkan dua orang sisanya menjawab bahwa mereka telah belajar bahasa jepang selama 4 tahun. akan tetapi, setelah dianalisis dapat disimpulkan bahwa lamanya belajar bahasa jepang tidak dapat dijadikan tolok ukur kemampuan berbahasa jepang seseorang. analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 71 penguasaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」 dari hasil analisis kuesioner diperoleh hasil bahwa sebanyak 16 orang atau 80% mengerti tentang penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」sedangkan sisanya hanya empat orang atau bila dipersentasekan adalah 20% mengatakan bahwa mereka tidak mengerti penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni「ように」dengan baik. dalam hal ini, sebenarnya tidak sepenuhnya jawaban empat responden tersebut tidak mengerti sama sekali tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」, melainkan lebih berarti tidak memahami penggunaan tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」 secara mendalam. bahasa ibu yang digunakan didapatkan jawaban bahwa secara keseluruhan 20 orang responden tersebut semuanya menggunakan bahasa indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu. akan tetapi, terkadang selain bahasa indonesia ada pula masing-masing berjumlah satu atau dua orang yang menggunakan bahasa inggris, bahasa jepang, bahasa mandarin, dan bahasa daerah selain bahasa indonesia sebagai bahasa tambahan. penutup dari kesepuluh soal yang telah dikerjakan, persentase interferensi terendah terdapat pada no.2 dan no.5, yakni 10% sedangkan persentase interferensi tertinggi terdapat pada soal no.8 dan no.10, yakni 40%. peneliti melihat besarnya interferensi bahasa ibu pada soal no.8 dan no.10 lebih diakibatkan karena adanya kesalahpahaman mahasiswa dalam menerjemahkan kata „untuk‟, „agar‟, dan „supaya‟ ke dalam tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. dalam perbandingan persentase interferensi yang terjadi pada tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」terdapat hasil yang tidak jauh berberda. akan tetapi, persentase interferensi pada tame ni 「ために」sedikit lebih tinggi yakni 46% sedangkan persentase interferensi you ni 「ように」yakni 42%. setelah menganalisis hasil soal kuesioner, disimpulkan bahwa interferensi terjadi karena banyaknya responden yang menganggap bahwa terdapat penggunaan yang sama dalam bahasa jepang dan bahasa indonesia untuk kata-kata yang berfungsi menerangkan tujuan. dalam bahasa indonesia, kata-kata yang menunjukkan suatu tujuan, yakni seperti kata „untuk‟, „agar‟, dan „supaya‟ sedangkan dalam bahasa jepang kata yang menunjukkan tujuan tersebut adalah tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「ように」. karena dalam bahasa indonesia kata „untuk‟, „agar‟, dan „supaya‟ memiliki pengertian yang sama, pada beberapa responden yang kurang mengerti perbedaan pola dan struktur bahasa pertama dan bahasa kedua maka penyamarataan ketiga kata itu menjadi sulit dibedakan. disarankan bahwa pelajar diharapkan tidak hanya merasa cukup dengan semua pelajaran yang diberikan sewaktu perkuliahan, khususnya pelajaran mengenai tame ni 「ために」dan you ni 「よう に 」 . hal itu karena terbatasnya waktu selama perkuliahan tentunya tidak dapat memberikan penjelasan yang mendetail dan selengkap-lengkapnya tentang suatu bahasan atau materi pelajaran. disarankan untuk meminimalkan interferensi bahasa, yakni sebaiknya dalam mempelajari bahasa jepang, pemelajar tidak hanya pandai dalam menguasai aturan, struktur, dan penggunaan bahasa jepang itu saja. akan tetapi, penguasaan yang baik terhadap bahasa pertama akan sangat membantu dalam penguasaan bahasa kedua. penelitian interferensi itu tentunya masih jauh dari kesempurnaan. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini masih dapat dilanjutkan dengan objek maupun studi kasus yang bebeda. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 72 daftar pustaka alwi, hasan. 2003. tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. edisi ketiga. jakarta: balai pustaka. dirgandini, m. 2004. “implikatur percakapan dalam wacana lisan.” jurnal sastra jepang program studi sastra jepang universitas kristen maranatha bandung, 1, 1. iori, et al. 2004. chuujyoukyuu wo oshieru hito no tame no nihongo bunpou handobukku. tokyo: kabushiki kaisha surie network. iori, et al. 2001. shokyuu wo oshieru hito no tame no nihongo bunpou handobukku. tokyo: kabushiki kaisha surie network. keishiki meishi ni tsuite. 2003. 4 mei 2007 martinet, andre. 1987. ilmu bahasa: pengantar. edisi pertama. yogyakarta: kanisius. mc gloin, naomi hanaoka. 1989. [eibun] machigae yasui nihongo gohou. tokyo: taishukan publishing company. nagara, et al. 1987. gaikokujin no tame no nihongo reibun.. mondai shiriizu 2 keishiki meishi. tokyo: aratake shuppan. nurhadi. 1995. tata bahasa pendidikan landasan penyusunan buku pelajaran bahasa. edisi pertama. semarang: ikip semarang press. parera, jos daniel. 1997. metodologi pembelajaran bahasa analisis kontrastif antarbahasa analisis kesalahan berbahasa. edisi kedua. jakarta: erlangga. soedibyo, mooryati. 2004. analisis kontrastif kajian penerjemahan frasa nomina. surakarta: pustaka cakra. sutedi, dedi. 2004. dasar-dasar linguistik bahasa jepang. bandung: humaniora utama press. http://homepages3.nifty.com/taketoki/kesikimesi.html analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 73 lampiran lampiran 1 gunakanlah ために dan ように untuk menerjemahkan kalimat berikut 1. belajarlah dengan giat agar bisa bicara seperti orang jepang. 2. pergi ke paris untuk belajar tentang fashion. 3. kita makan untuk dapat hidup. 4. harap hati-hati agar tidak melakukan kesalahan. 5. saya menggunakan kamus untuk mencari cara baca kanji. 6. saya maju ke depan agar dapat melihat dengan jelas. 7. saya mengatur timer menyala agar lampu dapat menyala otomatis. 8. pergi ke sauna untuk menghilangkan lelah. 9. guru bahasa jepang menjelaskan dengan perlahan-lahan, agar mahasiswa mengerti. 10. saya berenang setiap hari di kolam renang untuk memperkuat badan. lampiran 2 pilihlah jawaban yang paling tepat dengan anda! 1. どのぐらい日本語を習っていますか。 a. 三年。c. 五年。 b. 四年。d. 六年。 2. 「ために」と「ように」の使い方が分かりますか。 a. はい。 b. いいえ。 3. 毎日何語でコミュニケーションをとっていますか。(一つ以上の答え可) a. インドネシア語。 c.日本語。 b. 英語。 d.中国語。 e. その他、__________ ご協力ありがとうございました。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 59-75 74 lampiran 3 matriks tabulasi jawaban kuesioner bagian ii no. responden soal 1 2 3 a b c d a b a b c d e 1 √ √ √ 2 √ √ √ √ √ 3 √ √ √ 4 √ √ √ 5 √ √ √ 6 √ √ √ √ √ √ 7 √ √ √ 8 √ √ √ 9 √ √ √ 10 √ √ √ 11 √ √ √ 12 √ √ √ 13 √ √ √ 14 √ √ √ 15 √ √ √ 16 √ √ √ 17 √ √ √ 18 √ √ √ 19 √ √ √ 20 √ √ √ √ analisis interferensi dalam kelas … (nalti novianti; is anggra dewi) 75 m a tr ik s t a b u la si j a w a b a n t ia p s o a l p a d a k u e si o n e r b a g ia n i p e rs e n ta se in te rf e re n si 1 5 % 1 0 % 1 5 % 2 0 % 1 0 % 2 0 % 2 5 % 4 0 % 2 5 % 4 0 % ju m la h s a la h 3 2 3 4 2 4 5 8 5 8 4 4 b e n a r 1 7 1 8 1 7 1 6 1 8 1 6 1 5 1 2 1 5 1 2 1 5 6 2 0 x x x x 4 1 9 x x x x 4 1 8 x x x x 4 1 7 x x x 3 1 6 x x x 3 1 5 x x x 3 1 4 x x x 3 1 3 x x 2 1 2 x x 2 1 1 x x 2 1 0 x x 2 9 x x x 3 8 x 1 7 x x 2 6 x x 2 5 x 1 4 x 1 3 x 1 2 x 1 1 0 r e sp o n d e n n o : s o a l n o : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 t o ta l l a m p ir a n 4 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 105 introduction the traditional view that research article (henceforth ra), being a prototypical instance of academic discourse (suomela-salmi & dervin, 2009), constitutes a predominantly objective, faceless, depersonalized representation of reality (mauranen & bondi, 2003) has continuously lost ground. increasingly, it is widely argued that research writing is a form of social practice, and that it involves not only representation of the world, but also construction of interpersonality in an attempt to persuade readers of the veracity of the claims presented (hyland, 2014; martín & pérez, 2014; mur-dueñas, 2007; salas, 2015). indeed, the interpersonal (i.e. dialogic) ingredient of academic texts has been considered more salient than their representational aspect (biber, 2006). this is tantamount to saying that persuasive argument plays a significant role in the creation of knowledge in the ra (hyland & salagermeyer, 2008). rhetorical persuasion is achieved through a wide range of linguistic devices, one of which is boosters (gillaerts & van de velde, 2010). boosters are expressions, such as certainly, of course, used by writers to mark full commitment to their proposition (hyland, 2009). they belong to the interpersonal dimension of language (halliday & matthiessen, 2014), and are deployed by writers to indicate their presence trying to intrude into the text in an attempt to lead readers to a particular line of argumentation, that is, to influence their judgment. as a stance marking device, boosting has a pivotal role in written academic discourse (gray & biber, 2012). the interactive function of boosters lies in the fact that they are often used to stress shared information and group membership (hyland, 2009). the persuasive power of a writer’s ideas comes from the fact that they are widely accepted within the intended community of scholars. compared to the use of other rhetorical devices, the use of boosters in ras has not been extensively studied whether through cross-cultural comparison or through cross-disciplinary comparison. cross-cultural studies compared the use of boosters in ras written in english and those written in other languages such as spanish (murdueñas, 2011), chinese (hu & cao, 2011; kim & lim, 2013). in cross-disciplinary studies, ras from different disciplines written in english were compared (diani, 2008; lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 105-110 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.1423 boosting in english and indonesian research articles: a cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary study i nyoman suka sanjaya department of business administration, bali state polytechnic bukit jimbaran, tuban, bali suka.sanjaya@gmail.com received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 30th august 2016/ accepted: 21st september 2016 how to cite: sanjaya, i. n. s. (2016). boosting in english and indonesian research articles: a cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary study. lingua cultura, 10(2). 105-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.1423 abstract boosters has received little attention from applied linguists, despite their persuasive power in research writing. the present study investigated the effects of the two variables of sociocultural context and discipline on the frequency of use of boosters in research articles. a specialized corpus of 104 research articles published between 2007 and 2010 taken from applied linguistics and chemistry written in english and indonesian by the respective native speaker scholars were quantitatively analyzed using 2 x 2 factorial anova. the results showed that there was a significant main effect of sociocultural context, f (1, 100) = 44,34, p <0,05, ŋ2 = 0,307, a significant main effect of discipline, f (1,100) = 19,16, p < 0,05, ŋ2 = 0,161, and a significant interaction between sociocultural context and discipline, f (1,100) = 6,90, p < 0,05, ŋ2 = 0,065. however, the within-sociocultural context simple effects analysis revealed that english applied linguistics and chemistry research articles were not significantly different from each other, f (1,101) = 1,07, n.s. suggesting that, discipline might not be a decisive factor that influences boosting usage in research articles. these results indicate that the two variables (sociocultural context and discipline) exerted unequal influence upon boosting practices in research articles. the differential characteristics of the two sociocultural contexts are offered as explanations to account for the differential boosting practices of english and indonesian research articles. keywords: boosters, research articles, sociocultural context, cross-cultural study, cross-discipline study 106 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 105-110 hu & cao, 2015; hyland, 2008; peacock, 2006; vázquez & giner, 2009). the cross-cultural studies showed that scholars from cultures other than english made categorical statements more frequently compared to their counterparts from anglophone english culture. the findings from the cross-disciplinary studies, by contrast, yielded inconsistent patterns; while hyland (2008) found that disciplines belonging to natural sciences used more boosters than those within the social science domain, peacock (2006) discovered that some of the disciplines from the natural science domain used more boosters than disciplines from social science domain. these inconsistent results justify the need for further studies. although thus far the cross-cultural studies produced seemingly uniform results, the paucity of the studies in such area prevent us to reach a firm conclusion, partly due to the fact that the cultures represented in those studies are still very limited. the present corpus-based study tries to contribute to the area of the use of boosters in ras. it specifically examines the effect of sociocultural context and discipline on the use of boosters in ras written in english and indonesian by the respective native-speaker scholars from the disciplines of chemistry and applied linguistics. from this idea, the thought that questions whether or not sociocultural context and discipline have any influence on the frequency of use of boosters in ras. following the practice of previous research, in the present study the notion ‘sociocultural context’ simply refers to cultural affiliation of the ra writers. disciplines can be differentiated in terms epistemic and social relations (i.e. principles of legitimation), with hard sciences (e.g. chemistry) having stronger epistemic relation and weaker social relation, while soft sciences (applied linguistics) stronger social relation and weaker epistemic relation (hood, 2011). the present study was also geared toward examining the extent to which such differential underlying principles of legitimation spill over into their rhetorical characteristics. the theoretical significance of the present study lies in its contribution to further our understanding of boosting practices in ras. it has been mentioned in the passing above that deployment of boosters in ras is in a relatively uncharted research area in the field of applied linguistics. studies conducted on english academic writing have generally been used to generate a general theory of academic writing, that is, the theory presumed to hold true not only for english academic writing, but for academic writing in other languages as well. the availability of research findings on academic writing in languages other than english will serve as a test case for the existing theory (i.e. the theory generated from research findings into english academic writing). the practical significance of the present study concerns the benefit accrued by indonesian scholars who wish to publish in international journals. the availability of information about the rhetorical similarities and differences between english and indonesian research articles enables the eap practitioners in indonesia to raise the scholars’ awareness of what makes rhetorical practices acceptable in the ras written in the two languages. methods the specialized corpus for the present study was built from 104 ras published from 2007 to 2010, 26 from english applied linguistics, 26 from indonesian applied linguistics, 26 from english chemistry, and 26 from indonesian chemistry. given the pervasive use of boosters in ras across disciplinary fields (peacock, 2006), a corpus of the abovementioned size can offer a ‘balanced’ and ‘representative’ picture of the specific area under investigation in the present study, the most important requirement in the creation of a specialized written corpus . the english ras were published in international journals, while the indonesian ras were published in journals for indonesian readership. to ensure the representativeness of the corpora, a probabilistic sample was drawn using simple random sampling technique from the collection of all ras published during the four-year period. the corpus was generated from the following parts of the ras: introduction, literature review, results, discussion, and conclusion. the size of the entire corpus was 407,848 words. the means (m) and standard deviations (sd) of the lengths of the ras in the four sub-corpora were as follows: english applied linguistics (m = 6.820,08; sd = 1.070,53), indonesian applied linguistics (m = 4.047,92; sd = 1.105,29); english chemistry (m = 3.495,31; sd = 1.367,73), indonesian chemistry (m = 1.323,15; sd = 461,33). the determination of a linguistic device as a potential boosting device was entirely based on its semantic and pragmatic content, as the same lexical item (e.g. show) can function as a booster in one context (e.g. the findings show that…), but not in another (e.g. table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of…). a combination of manual and computer-based searches was employed to identify the linguistic devices under study. first, seven ras randomly selected from each of the sub-corpora (english applied linguistics, indonesian applied linguistics, english chemistry, and indonesian chemistry) were thoroughly read to identify boosters. such thorough reading of the 28 ras resulted in four independent lists of boosters subsequently used as the basis for the computer-based search in the rest of the ras. this search was done with the help of the advanced search function available in the adobe acrobat professional xi program. the analysis was conducted on the normalized (per 1,000 words), rather than absolute or raw, occurrences of boosters in the ras. normalization of counts refers to a way to convert raw counts into rates of occurrence, so that the scores from texts of different lengths can be compared (biber, 2009). the normalization of the frequency of boosters in a text was done by dividing the total number of boosters found in the text by the total number of words and then multiplied by one hundred. to answer the research question, two-way factorial analysis of variance (anova) was conducted on the data. subsequent simple effects analysis was also conducted to look at the effect of one independent variable on each level of the other independent variable, for example to see whether discipline had any effect on the english ras (field, 2013). all statistical analyses were conducted using the computer software statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 20. results and discussions table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the use of boosters in the four groups of ras. it is immediately apparent from the above table that indonesian applied linguists used boosters in their ras most frequently, while english chemists made use of the devices least frequently. 107boosting in english and indonesian research articles: .... (i nyoman suka sanjaya) by contrast, the former group was the least homogeneous group in terms of frequency of use of boosters, as indicated by the size of the standard deviation. it has to be mentioned that the two maximum figures in the indonesian sub-corpora were outliers. it is immediately apparent from the above table that indonesian applied linguists used boosters in their ras most frequently, while english chemists made use of the devices least frequently. by contrast, the former group was the least homogeneous group in terms of frequency of use of boosters, as indicated by the size of the standard deviation. it has to be mentioned that the two maximum figures in the indonesian sub-corpora were outliers. as shown in table 2 (the results of the 2 x 2 factorial anova conducted on the data), there was a significant main effect of sociocultural context on the use of boosters in ras: indonesian ras contained significantly higher number of boosters than english ras. the partial eta squared of 0,307 indicated that the variable sociocultural context accounted for 31% of the total variation in the use of boosters in ras. there was also a significant main effect of discipline, with applied linguistics ras deploying significantly more boosters than chemistry ras. the variable discipline accounted for 16% of the total variation in the use of boosters. finally, there was a significant interaction effect between the two variables on the use of boosters, although the magnitude of the effect was quite negligible (0,06%). as can be seen from figure 1 below, the mean difference between applied linguistics and chemistry found in english ras was much smaller than that found in the indonesian ras. it was also evident that the mean difference between english and indonesian ras in chemistry was much smaller than that in applied linguistics. this strongly indicated that although discipline and sociocultural context influenced the use of boosters in ras the influence of one variable was affected by the other. table 2 above also shows that the factorial model for the present study accounted for 39% of the total variation in the use of boosters in ras. this indicated that 61% of the total variation was accounted for by other unknown variables. subsequent simple effects analysis was also conducted to examine the effect of (1) sociocultural context within each discipline and (2) discipline within each sociocultural context. the results revealed that there was a significant effect of sociocultural context within both applied linguistics and chemistry, suggesting that the sociocultural context within which researchers published their research affected their frequency of use of boosters in their ras; indonesian researchers in both disciplines used significantly more boosters than their english counterparts (see table 1). however, the effect of discipline was evident only within the indonesian sociocultural context, suggesting that disciplinary context was not a robust factor determining researchers’ use of boosters; indonesian applied linguists significantly used more boosters than indonesian chemists. table 1 descriptive statistics for the four sub-corpora english indonesian appl. ling. chem. appl. ling. chem. mean 3,78 2,70 9,54 5,20 std. deviation 1,47 1,70 4,75 3,50 minimum 1,20 0,42 1,59 0,69 maximum 6,86 7,86 21,11 15,72 table 2 tests of between-subjects effects source type ii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared observed power b corrected model a 702,588 3 234,196 23,466 0,000 0,413 1,000 intercept 2927,193 1 2927,193 293,293 0,000 0,746 1,000 sociocultural context 442,530 1 442,530 44,340 0,000 0,307 1,000 discipline 191,191 1 191,191 19,157 0,000 0,161 0,991 socio. cont.*discipline 68,868 1 68,868 6,900 0,010 0,065 0,739 error 998,044 100 9,980 total 4627,825 104 corrected total 1700,632 103 a. r squared = 0,413 (adjusted r squared = 0,39) b. computed using alpha = 0,05 108 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 105-110 figure 1 interaction effect the present corpus-based study was carried out to investigate the effects of two factors on the use of boosters in ras, namely the sociocultural context in which the ras were written and the discipline from which they were drawn. the results showed that sociocultural context significantly influenced the use of such rhetorical feature: ras written by indonesian academics were more assertive than those written by english academics. however, the results regarding the effects of discipline were mixed. the finding of the present study was consistent with that of previous studies. hu and cao (2011), for example, reported a study that showed that applied linguistics ra abstracts written in chinese made use of boosters significantly more frequently than those written in english. the finding of the present study (along with the findings of other studies mentioned above) that english ras were less assertive than ras written in indonesian corroborated hyland’s (2011) conjecture that academic writing in english tends to be more cautious in making claims compared with many languages. however, this does not necessarily mean that all english academic writers are more cautious in making claims compared with writers of other languages. the findings of the present study showed that although on average english writers made more tentative claims than their indonesian colleagues, some indonesian writers were in fact making more tentative claims than english writers. the intriguing question now is why indonesian scholars (at least from the two disciplines under study) were more confident in presenting their claims than their english counterparts. to answer this question, it will be argued that three aspects of sociocultural context could be evoked as the explanation: size of the expected readership, degree of homogeneity of the expected readership, and cultural as well as socioeconomic characteristics of the contexts in which the two groups of writers operate. such explanations are conceptually consistent with the widely-held view of genre as a situated entity (tardy, 2011). on the assumption that all other things are equal between english and indonesian scholars, the two groups of scholars were in fact different in one obvious aspect, namely the characteristic of the readership being addressed. more particularly, the sizes of the scholarly community being addressed by the two groups of scholars were obviously different. indonesian scholars (using indonesian publishing in local journals) communicated their research findings with their fellow indonesian academics only, while english scholars (by virtue of the international status of the journals in which they published) had to address a much wider academic community. it could be argued that the smaller the size of the community, the better the members know each other, which in turn leads to stronger solidarity among the members in question. recall that boosters are markers of solidarity. for indonesian scholars, expressing scientific claims with great certainty could be considered as a safe rhetorical behavior. for english scholars, however, displaying such rhetorical behavior might well be at risk, as much more scholars were involved in the scientific communication. assuming solidarity on the part of the english scholars was simply not possible, accordingly. therefore, for english scholars avoiding conviction in their claims might be the right rhetorical choice in an attempt to minimize the potential rejection of their claims (or even worse, rejection of their paper by the journal reviewers). thus, there might be a negative correlation between the frequency of use of boosters and size of intended readership. that is to say, the greater the size of the intended readership the smaller the frequency of use of boosters would be, and vice versa. from the explanation above, it might also be argued that the finding that indonesian scholars were more assertive and/or more confident in their claim presentation than their english colleagues might be triggered by the differing degrees of homogeneity of the intended readership (i.e. indonesian readership versus international readership). due to much smaller size of the indonesian scholarly community in the two disciplines, indonesian scholars might characteristically assume that the community was homogeneous with regard to the viewpoints being promoted. that is, they might assume that their viewpoint and their readership’s concurred to a great extent, and this assumption on their part provoked frequent use of boosters in their research articles. for international scholarly community, given its much larger size, such homogeneity could not safely be assumed by english scholars and, for this reason (among other reasons), english scholars might think that the safe way to go was to present the claims without conviction. english and indonesian scholars can also unambiguously be distinguished from each other in terms of the characteristics of sociocultural contexts in which they write their research. english and indonesian sociocultural contexts are significantly different from each other in at least two respects: power distance and individualism versus collectivism. the power distance index of indonesian sociocultural context is much larger than that of english sociocultural context (hofstede et al., 2010). this means that, in comparison with members of english society, members of indonesian society much more readily accept and expect that power should be distributed unequally. such sociocultural difference seems to spill over into the rhetorical features of ras in both societies. within indonesian society ra writers (university teachers and researchers) are typically considered as experts in their field, and their authority is not supposed to be questioned, as indicated by the scarcity of critical remarks in indonesian ras (adnan, 2008). as far as indonesian ra writing is concerned, therefore, there seems to be a tacit agreement that power should be distributed unequally between the writer and putative readers, whereby the latter are positioned in the less powerful position. the fact that the writer is entitled to stronger position might lead 109boosting in english and indonesian research articles: .... (i nyoman suka sanjaya) to his or her being overly confident in making statements. this might have triggered the heavy use of boosters in indonesian ras. although english ra writers are also considered as experts in their field, they do not seem to enjoy the same degree of authority as their indonesian colleagues do. if people read the introduction section of any english ra, they will immediately come across with abundant negative remarks, for example flawed method in previous research, limited scope of previous research, and the like. such negative remarks are usually made to create a research niche. this all boils down to the egalitarian nature of english sociocultural context. within the context of english ra writing, the agreement seems to be that power should be equally distributed between the ra writer and putative readers. the perceived absence of absolute authority on the part of the ra writer might have triggered the infrequent use of boosters in english ra; over confidence on the part of the writer in the truth value of propositions is simply not possible and/or inappropriate in english sociocultural context another cultural dimension along which english and indonesian sociocultural contexts differ from each other is individualism and collectivism. while english society is individualist, indonesian society is collectivist (hofstede et al., 2010). in a collectivist society the voice of an ra writer is regarded as representing the voice of the group. to put it in slightly different terms, the writer’s voice constitutes a shared voice. boosters are rhetorical devices used to “stress shared information and group membership” (hyland, 2009). this explains the abundance of boosters used in indonesian ras. in an individualist society, by contrast, due to the expectation that everyone has a private idea, an ra writer could not reasonably assume that his or her voice is a shared one within the group. consequently, a confident or assertive claim almost does not have a place in ras produced in (and for) such a society. this characteristic might trigger the avoidance of boosters in english ras. in sum, the differential rhetorical practices evident in english and indonesian ras might have something to do with the difference between english and indonesian societies along the cultural dimension of individualism versus collectivism. another finding of the present study is that discipline does not have equal influence on the use of boosters in ras in both sociocultural contexts. boosters constitute one of metadiscursive features that are reflexive in nature (i.e. they convey interpersonal, rather than ideational, meaning). therefore, boosting practices can reflect the ethos of the discipline. the results of the present study, provide empirical evidence in support of this view. the between-discipline (where the two sociocultural contexts were combined) finding that boosters are significantly more frequent in applied linguistics than in chemistry suggests that the role that argument plays in the advancement of knowledge in the former discipline is greater than that in the latter one. in other words, applied linguistics is apparently more discursive (argumentative) than chemistry. however, the within-sociocultural context analysis in the present study produced conflicting findings that can undermine the validity of the above-mentioned view: while there was a statistically significant difference in the frequency of use of boosters between the two disciplines in the indonesian sub-corpus, the two disciplines from the english subcorpus were not significantly different from each other. this strongly suggests that, as far as english ras are concerned, boosting practices does not seem to reflect the ethos of the discipline. another interpretation is that discipline might not be a strong indicator influencing the use of boosters in all sociocultural contexts. that is to say, the effect of discipline on the use of boosters in ras might be offset by the effect of the sociocultural context in which the ras are written (see the effect sizes of the two variables in table 2). one final remark that should be made regarding the effects of the two variables is that boosting practices in ras might not be predominantly determined by the two factors. notice that the effect size for the statistical model (i.e. the combined effects of the two variables under study) was 0.39. apparently, there exist other factors accounting for 61% of the variation in boosting usage in ras. conclusions the findings of the present comparative study confirm the view that academic research writing is not a standalone entity operating independent of cultural forces surrounding it. rather, academic writing is prone to vary according to the cultures to which the writers gain membership. writers can belong to two quite different cultures, namely large (national) and small (discipline) cultures. in the present study, the small culture was not found to be a strong factor influencing writers’ boosting practices, a finding that plainly contradicts the widely held view that rhetorical features of ras are profoundly determined by the disciplinary culture with which the writers are affiliated. it could be argued that discipline might not have equal influences on different rhetorical features. one of the obvious limitations of the present study is concerned with the limited number of disciplines included in the corpus. this might explain the inconclusive nature of the findings regarding the effect of discipline on boosting practices. therefore, future studies might need to include greater number of disciplines from each of the following knowledge domains: theoretical hard knowledge domain (e.g. physics), theoretical soft knowledge domain (e.g. sociology), applied hard knowledge domain (e.g. engineering), and applied soft knowledge domain (e.g. language teaching). future studies might also need to include in their corpus ras written by non-native speaker scholars. the findings of such studies would validate the extent to which rhetorical behavior is determined by size and degree of homogeneity of readership. it would be interesting to see whether rhetorical behavior of, for instance, indonesian scholars varies as a function of characteristics of readership being addressed. the practical (i.e. pedagogical) implication of the present study should be apparent by now. on the assumption that ra writers will unconsciously deploy their first language rhetorical style when they write their research in a language other than their native one (žegarac & pennington, 2008), it seems reasonable to argue that indonesian ra writers may use their indonesian rhetorical pattern when they report their research in english for international publication. with that being said, english ras written by indonesian native speaker scholars would unnecessarily be overly assertive. recall that indonesian ras analyzed in the present study were overly assertive (contained unusually frequent boosters). pragmatically speaking, such rhetorical behavior might be considered as culturally inappropriate for scholarship dominated by egalitarian cultural value. this would lead to the rejection of the claims presented, or rejection of the paper submitted for publication. this means that indonesian scholars who wish to publish their research 110 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 105-110 in international journals might need some instruction specifically designed to cater to their needs, that is, how to present their claims suitable for internationa l publication. references adnan, z. (2008). discourse structure of indonesian research article introductions in selected hard sciences. in s. burgess & p. martín-martín (eds.), english as an additional language in research publication and communication, 39-63. berlin: peter lang. biber, d. (2006). university language: a corpus-based study of spoken and written registers. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing company. biber, d. (2009). quantitative methods in corpus linguistics. in a. lüdeling & m. kytö (eds.), corpus linguistics: an international handbook, 2, 1286-1304. new york: walter de gruyter. diani, g. (2008). emphasizers in spoken and written academic discourse: the case of really. international journal of corpus linguistics, 13(3), 1569–9811. field, a. (2013). discovering statistics using ibm spss statistics (4 ed.). thousand oaks: sage publications. gillaerts, p., & van de velde, f. (2010). interactional metadiscourse in research article abstracts. journal of english for academic purposes, 9, 128-139. gray, b., & biber, d. (2012). current conceptions of stance. in k. hyland & c. s. guinda (eds.), stance and voice in written academic genres (pp. 15-33). basingstoke: palgrave. halliday, m. a. k., & matthiessen, c. m. i. m. (2014). halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (fourth ed.). new york: routledge. hofstede, g., hofstede, g. j., & minkov, m. (2010). cultures and organizations: software of the mind. intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival (3rd edition ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill. hood, s. (2011). writing discipline: comparing inscriptions of knowledge and knowers in academic writing. in f. christie & k. maton (eds.), disciplinarity: functional linguistic and sociological perspectives, 106-128. london: continuum. hu, g., & cao, f. (2011). hedging and boosting in abstracts of applied linguistics articles: a comparative study of englishand chinese-medium journals. journal of pragmatics, 43, 2795-2809. hu, g., & cao, f. (2015). disciplinary and paradigmatic influences on interactional metadiscourse in research articles. english for specific purposes, 39, 12-25. hyland, k. (2008). disciplinary voices: interactions in research writing. english text construction, 1(1), 5-22. hyland, k. (2009). academic discourse: english in a global context. london/ new york: continuum. hyland, k. (2011). academic discourse. in k. hyland & b. paltridge (eds.), continuum companion to discourse analysis, 171-184. new york: continuum. hyland, k. (2014). dialogue, community and persuasion in research writing. in l. gil-salom & c. solermonreal (eds.), dialogicity in written specialized genres, 1-20. philadelphia: john benjamins. hyland, k., & salager-meyer, f. (2008). scientific writing. annual review of information science and technology, 42(1), 297-338. kim, l. c., & lim, j. m.-h. (2013). metadiscourse in english and chinese research article introductions. discourse studies, 15(2), 129–146. martín, p., & pérez, i. k. l. (2014). convincing peers of the value of one’s research: a genre analysis of rhetorical promotion in academic texts. english for specific purposes, 34, 1-13. mauranen, a., & bondi, m. (2003). evaluative language use in academic discourse. journal of english for academic purposes, 2, 269–271. mur-dueñas, p. (2007). ‘i/we focus on...’: a cross-cultural analysis of self-mentions in business management research articles. journal of english for academic purposes, 6, 143–162. mur-dueñas, p. (2011). an intercultural analysis of metadiscourse features in research articles written in english and spanish. journal of pragmatics, 43, 3068-3079. peacock, m. (2006). a cross-disciplinary comparison of boosting in research articles. corpora, 1(1), 61-84. microsoft word 02_wishnoebroto_setting globalization goes local:….. (wishnoebroto) 123 globalization goes local: nationalism in indonesian jazz wishnoebroto english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 wishnoebroto@binus.edu abstract article presented how jazz, as a product of american popular culture, can be very local in indonesia. nationalism, in this case, refers to how indonesian jazz artists translate and create a kind of ‘dialogue’ between jazz and local indonesian culture. the study used library research by finding what values that jazz had in order to create such dialogue, and how indonesian nationalism could be transformed in jazz. the evolution of jazz in indonesia and the attitude of indonesian jazz audience were discussed to see the position of jazz in indonesian popular culture mainstream. it can be concluded that jazz seems to deconstruct the common notion that music should be understood to be enjoyed. in jazz, the irrational and sometimes absurd combination between jazz and other indigenous culture, has created a specific kinds of the music itself. jazz in indonesia has gone through its own cycle of evolution where the western and the eastern culture has created its own art and nobody knows the direction of jazz in the future. keywords: jazz, globalization, nationalism abstrak artikel menggambarkan perkembangan jazz yang merupakan produk global, yaitu amerika, dapat berkembang di indonesia dalam taraf nasional. nasionalisme berarti bagaimana artis jazz di indonesia dapat menerjemahkan dan menciptakan jazz yang mampu beradaptasi dengan budaya indonesia. penelitian menggunakan studi pustaka dengan tujuan menemukan nilai global jazz yang dapat menciptakan suatu “dialog” yang mampu mengekspresikan nasionalisme di dalam musik tersebut. perubahan jazz dan perilaku pemirsa jazz dianalisis guna melihat posisi jazz di jalur budaya populer di indonesia. disimpulkan, tampaknya jazz dapat mengubah pendapat bahwa musik itu harus dapat dimengerti dan dinikmati. di dalam musik jazz, kombinasi yang tidak masuk akal antara jazz dengan berbagai budaya nasional bisa menciptakan suatu jenis /genre musik tersendiri. perkembangan jazz di indonesia telah mengalami perubahan, yaitu telah menciptakan suatu seni yang merupakan gabungan budaya barat dan timur dan tak seorang pun tahu bagaimana perkembanggannya di masa yang akan datang. kata kunci: jazz, global, nasional 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 123-128 introduction as popular culture, jazz is a global phenomenon. in indonesia, jazz is also blended with the local indigenous culture. like any other jazz musicians in the world, many indonesian local jazz musicians relate themselves to their ethnic regions. jazz artists such as luluk purwanto who combine jazz with javanese culture, or the balinese guitarist i wayan balawan, who are famous of his tapping technique are some artists who are, in my opinion, have gone through the process of acculturation between jazz and the local values. besides the global phenomenon, jazz in indonesia has gone beyond the music and culture itself. indonesian jazz pianist, idang rasjidi, for example, has released two albums: sound of belief and sound of hope that reflects a perfect blend of islam with jazz. although jazz can be connected to islam by following the history of the slaves who brought the music to the us, the cultural dialectic between jazz and islam in indonesia is unique, which i believe, it can never be found in any other place in the world. by performing in local context, jazz in indonesia has crossed the boundary between the west and the east. it seems that there are certain universal values, which are shared between jazz and indonesian culture. the connection, in my opinion, can be seen in most of indonesian jazz in terms of music, sounds and personal interpretation. “jazz does not belong to one race or culture, but is a gift that america has given the world.” (ahmad alaadeen, american jazz saxophonist) jazz is a global phenomenon of popular music. in the beginning, the main ideology of jazz was the selfrebellion of african americans in the 18th century against repressive social and political conditions. in further developments, jazz was interpreted not merely as a political movement, but it also became a place for artists to deconstruct their understanding of music so they can to have room to improvise or to create new styles. jazz does not exclusively belong to the american culture. when the slaves were taken from africa, they brought their indigenous culture and music with them. the hollering and the slave songs were the expressions of their ancestors in africa, which was a mixture of many kinds of culture, experience, history, and belief. an article in the san francisco chronicle: muslim roots of the blues; the music of famous american blues singers reaches back through the south to the culture of west africa, mentioned that there are relations between the muslim call for prayer and the levee camp holler, the product of ex-slaves in post-civil war america. jonathan curiel, the writer of the article mentions how sylviane diouf, a researcher at new york's schomburg center for research in black culture, played the two recordings at harvard and everybody agrees that there is a connection between the two. curiel emphasized the connection by mentioning the history of the slaves from africa who still preserve their african culture despite the oppression during the slavery era (curiel, 2004). methods this article is a historical research on american and indonesian history focusing on american popular music: jazz. since it involves two different focus of study, this research applies comparative research approach by comparing jazz in the us with indonesian values and culture. by comparing them, it is hoped that the cultural dialectic between jazz and indonesian culture can easily be understood. by this method, the readers will understand how jazz in indonesia is developed and reached its own audience. globalization goes local:….. (wishnoebroto) 125 results and discussion jazz in indonesia szwed in jazz 101; a complete guide to learning & loving jazz stated that jazz has to be understood through its history, image, and its own vocabulary, that in turn will provide the reality (szwed, 2000). in indonesia, jazz is going through several stages of evolution in contrast to the seventies and the early eighties, when jazz was regarded as exclusive, in the beginning of the 21st century jazz has crossed over to various social classes including teenagers. jazz music events such as java jazz , jazz goes to campus, and jak jazz festival, indicate how jazz has gradually become part of indonesian popular musical mainstream. jazz in indonesia nowadays is also adapting to local traditions and beliefs. small jazz communities have also flourished all over indonesia in response to the more liberal political atmosphere. jazz in indonesia cannot be separated from its presence during the colonial dutch in the early 20th century. sudibyo pr, an indonesian jazz researcher, mentioned that based on history, jazz was first performed in indonesia around the year of 1922. it was performed in parties among the dutch families in batavia (now called jakarta) and bandung, west java. artists from the philippines also played a major role in introducing jazz in indonesia. they were either invited or came voluntarily to jakarta and bandung to play jazz in functions or public places such as hotels. benny pablo, benny corda and sambayong are some of the prominent filipinos who played jazz in the city of bandung in 1925. (mundiarso & nugroho, wawancara dengan sudibyo pr. sebuah catatan sejarah jazz di indonesia, 2001). the presence of jazz in clubs and hotels, marked the image of jazz as music can only be understood by small group of people. hara (2000) stated that jazz became exclusive in indonesia because it does not have many fans. it takes time for someone to understand jazz, which probably makes it more exclusive because only the educated people have time to learn it. pop and rock music are more popular since they are easier to memorize, and simpler in terms of harmony and composition. no wonder, negative opinions about jazz such as “difficult music” or “music for the elite” is common among indonesian audience. most indonesian artists agree that the only way to make people understand about jazz is to make lots of performances to the public. luluk purwanto, an indonesian jazz artist, chose an unconventional way of disseminating jazz by using “the stage bus”. this bus was used to reach more audience. in one interview, she said that artists should understand the audience as well. although she does not care if the audience leave in the middle of her performance, she said that artists need to attract audience by making the sound close to the audience’s background. it explains why she includes the ilir-ilir song, a javanese traditional songs in her compositions. (arko, 2006) the dilemma in making jazz popular in indonesia are also becoming the main concern among jazz artist. hara (2000) said that most jazz audience in indonesia is not enjoying the music. rather, he said, jazz is altered into a kidn of a “hip” lifestyle , where the elites pretend to like it although they do not understand it. the exclusiveness of jazz is stregthened by the recording companies. since only few understand it, jazz recodings become a specific segment which makes it rare and expensive. niwandhono, 2002 said that nowadays the number of radio stations that proclaims themselves as jazz stations are sharply declining. they changed their idealism or even close their business due to the low demand of the listeners to listen to jazz. 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 123-128 the dialectic of jazz in indonesia from the history, it can be concluded that jazz in indonesia has been influenced by a mixture of the colonial and local cultures. the result is a unique perception of jazz determined by local jazz’s cultural background and religious beliefs. jazz in indonesia can blend beautifully with local music. this mixture brings its own sense of nationalism to jazz. jazz in indonesia and islam religious music, especially islamic music that was highly scrutinized during the soeharto’s regime is now performed freely to the public. jazz, has also experienced this freedom by combining its sound with the local music. one example is idang rasjidi, a local jazz artist who composed his own version of islamic religious jazz in his two albums sound of belief and sound of hope. rasjidi’s albums, suggest that islam can work harmoniously with western music such as jazz, by creating a dialogue of its own. in contrast to another islamic country such as iran, the attempt to link islam and western music is never easy. in the july 2009 edition of guardian weekly, it was stated that ohsen namjoo, an iranian singer-songwriter, was sentenced to five years in prison (in-absentia) for recording music that "dishonours" passages from the qur'an. the musician was convicted for "his unconventional singing" of the muslim holy book. it was reported that namjoo has "insulted sanctities" and "ridiculed [and] dishonoured" the qur'an. (michaels, 2009) ceto mundiarso (2002) in his article: “jazz dan islam (sebuah perspektif)” (jazz and islam, a perspective) compared the values between jazz and islam from an indonesian perspective. he mentioned that jazz can be performed either solo or as a band. this goes the same way with islam, where it gives freedom to its followers to conduct the rituals alone or in groups (jamaah). islam also has different sects known as firqoh. but the member of these sects will blend with the other whenever they are conducting ritual activities together such as prayer. the same thing happens in jazz where all artists create instantaneous mutual understanding whenever they are on the stage regardless of their genres, and background. jazz also teaches democracy. when jazz artists perform on stage, everybody in the band will respect him or her. nobody should feel that one individual is dominating the other although there is a collective respect for one particular person as the leader (for example in a big band). in islam, individual respect is as important as other values. this value is called tasamuh, which means all people in the group should be tolerant and equally respected. improvisation or interpretation in jazz is very common. mundiarso (2002) also adds that an artist can offer their own interpretations of the music they play. ijtihad, or difference in interpretation, is recognized and common in islam. islamic clerics in the world have the same opinion that there is a freedom to have different interpretations in dealing with certain religious issues. however, they all agree that whenever they find differences, they should stick to the basic, which is the holy qur’an. it also happened in jazz after the free improvisation moment (jam session). every player must return to the basic song after they finish their moment of free interpretation of the song. jazz and indonesian nationalism “as long as there is democracy, there will be people wanting to play jazz because nothing else will ever so perfectly capture the democratic process in sound. jazz means working things out musically with other people. you have to listen to other musicians and play with them even if you don’t agree with what they’re playing. it teaches you the very opposite of racism and anti-semitism. it teaches you that the world is big enough to accommodate us all (wynton marsalis in blue isle jazz, 2009) globalization goes local:….. (wishnoebroto) 127 although the relation of values between jazz and religion such as islam is still needed to be proven further, there is no doubt that the process of cultural evolution between jazz and local indonesian culture is unique. similar to its harmonious relation to islam, jazz in indonesia can blend beautifully with local music. this mixture brings its own sense of nationalism of jazz. many indonesian jazz artists composed music by connecting it to their ethnic traditional origin. luluk purwanto, for example, combines jazz with javanese culture. another artist, i wayan balawan and dewa budjana a jazz guitarist from bali, are famous of their balinese jazz. broader nationalism can be found in the artist dwiki dharmawan, who has explored across cultures of indonesia by producing jazz/world music with his band krakatau. szwed (2000) mentioned that jazz have a unique characteristics where it can “shamelessly borrow” any elements without any obligation regardless of its cultural status, social hirarchy while enjoying the contradiction and absurdity. (szwed, p. 8). the universalism of jazz reveals when it can freely embrace and absorb other culture. wishnoebroto (1998) has indicated that there are universal values of freedom, democracy, equality and spontaneity in jazz as part of the dreams of the african americans. this universal values are the factors that make the “dialogue” between jazz and indonesian culture , which will create the sense of nationalism of indonesian jazz. although the connection between jazz with indonesian indigenous culture is still arguable, the similaries in values between jazz and its counterparts is equally shared. in comparing jazz with javanese gamelan ensemble, for example, the concept of “understanding” between players and improvisation is mutually recognized. despite of the sharp differences of the tonality and harmony between jazz and gamelan, the hybridity and the elasticity of jazz has successfully creates its own music. (szwed, 2000 p.8) the fact that jazz can merge with different kinds of elements no matter how far the connection is, made jazz become a unique arts and sometimes being misunderstood by other people. in luluk purwanto’s jazz composition for example, she combines jazz with javanese values reflected in her composition “ilir-ilir.” in other composition by local indonesian jazz musicians, such as balawan and dewa budjana, the blend is sometimes untraceable. it is purely a personal interpretation of an artist. conclusion jazz seems to deconstruct the common notion that music should be understood to be enjoyed. in jazz, the irrational and sometimes absurd combination between jazz and other indigenous culture, has created a specific kinds of the music itself. in this case, jazz in indonesia has gone through its own cycle of evolution where the western and the eastern culture has created its own art and nobody knows the direction of jazz in the future. as miles davis said, “jazz is the big brother of revolution. revolution follows it around. always look ahead, but never look back. don’t play what’s there, play what’s not there.” references   arko. (2006, november 6). sekelumit soal sosialisasi jazz bersama lukuk purwanto. retrieved september 29, 2009, from warta jazz: http://www.wartajazz.com/2006/11/06/sekelumit-soal-sosialisasi-jazz-bersama-lulukpurwanto/ curiel, j. (2004, august 15). muslim roots of the blues. the music of famous american blues singers reaches back through the south to the culture of west africa. retrieved july 31, 2009, from sfgate.com: http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/08/15/ingmc85ssk1.dtl 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 123-128 dewa budjana. (2005). retrieved july 16, 2009, from dewa budjana official website: http://www.dewabudjana.com/v2/main.php   hara, e. g. (2000). dilema sosialisasi musik jazz di indonesia. retrieved september 29, 2009, from warta jazz: http://www.wartajazz.com/2000/08/22/dilema-sosialisasi-musik-jazz-diindonesia-2/   i wayan balawan. (2007). retrieved july 16, 2009, from i wayan balawan, jazz ethnic musician & 8 finger touch style guitarist from bali indonesia: http://www.wayanbalawan.com/index.html   marsalis, w. (2009, april 25). jazz quote of the day. retrieved october 1, 2009, from blue isle jazz: http://www.jazz.dominica-weekly.com/article/jazz-quotes/   michaels, s. (2009, july 16). 'iranian bob dylan' sentenced to five years for singing qur'an. mohsen namjoo has been given a five-year prison sentence for performing passages from the muslim holy book to music. retrieved july 20, 2009, from guardian.co.uk: http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2009/jul/16/iranian-bob-dylan-prison-sentence   mundiarso, c. (2002). jazz dan islam (sebuah perspektif). retrieved july 28, 2009, from wartajazz the ultimate jazz source: http://www.wartajazz.com/2002/01/08/jazz-dan-islamsebuahperspektif/   mundiarso, c., & nugroho, k. (2001). wawancara dengan sudibyo pr. sebuah catatan sejarah jazz di indonesia. retrieved august 1, 2009, from warta jazz the ultimate jazz source: http://www.wartajazz.com/2001/03/25/wawancara-dengan-sudibyo-pr/   niwandhono, p. (2002). jazz dan musik populer dalam lintasan sejarah. retrieved october 1, 2009, from warta jazz: http://www.wartajazz.com/2002/09/06/jazz-dan-musik-populer-dalamlintasan-sejarah/   szwed, j. f. (2000). jazz 101: a complete guide to learning & loving jazz. new york: hyperion.   wishnoebroto. (1998). african american experience through art: a study of jazz. yogyakarta: (unpublished thesis) gadjah mada university. microsoft word 10 huang yan 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 80-87 建构主义学习理论对网络汉语教学设计的启示 chinese learning through internet inspired by contructivist learning theory huang yan 黄炎 xiamen university 厦门大学 abstract with the changing concept of education, there is growing emphasis on “student-centered” principle. this is one of the characteristics of constructivist learning theory. on network teaching chinese, constructivist learning theory is indispensable. this article is the design of online chinese teaching which is basic on the constructivist learning theory. keywords: constructivism, the design of network, scene, resource 内容摘要 随着教育观念的转变,人们越来越强调“以学生为中心”这一教学原则。这正是建构主义 学习理论的特征之一。在汉语网络教学中,基于建构主义学习理论的设计不可或缺。本文正是 在该学习理论的基础下,突出“以学生为中心”的基本观点,探讨网络汉语教学的设计。笔者 将从学习内容设计、学习情境设计、学习资源设计和学习模式、课程设计以及评价五个方面分 别阐述。 关键词:建构主义、网页设计、情景、资源 chinese learning ….. (huang yan) 81 前言    根据《中国互联网络发展状况统计报告》(2010 年 1 月)显示:截止 2009 年 12 月 30 日, 中国网民规模达到 3.84 亿人,普及率达到 28.9%。网民规模较 2008 年底年增长 8600 万人,年 增长率 28.9%。网络技术的普及与发展,使网络教学也逐渐兴起。多媒体网络教学受到越来越 多的关注,尤其在各高校的支持下,各种教学与学习型网站如雨后春笋般出现。而在“汉语热” 的今天,汉语学习网站的需求也一路攀升。网络教学的目标是充分发挥学生自主学习的主动性、 积极性和创造性。怎样设计开发出一个能够真正有助于学习者学习汉语的网站成为我们今天不 得不思考的一个问题。 就网站设计来说,该网站一定要有理论支撑、技术支撑,以理论为指导,结合实际去设计 大纲,挑选并填充内容,网站的设计一定要能突出学生学习的自主性、学习资源的丰富性,能 够真正做到因材施教,展现学习者的个性。因此,笔者想由此入题,结合建构主义学习理论, 简略地勾勒出一个汉语学习网站的草图。 一、 整体介绍  多媒体网络教学的目标本身就迎合了建构主义学习理论的基本观点,可以说多媒体网络技 术的发展为建构主义理论的发展带来了契机,而建构主义也使网络教学更加科学化。 学习理论的发展经历了行为主义、认知主义和建构主义三个阶段。从建构主义开始,教学 观逐渐从以“教”为中心逐转移到以“学”为中心上来。在该理论下,任务式的教学模式、教 学方法也越来越被人们提倡。在这一方面,多媒体网络技术提供了多样的教学手段、学习方式 以及丰富的信息资源,为学生自主学习、培养独立的学习能力创造了良好的条件。 1 笔者在以建构主义学习理论为支撑的前提下,模拟设计了一个主要针对汉语学习者自主学 习的学习型网站。该网站的主体针对语言体系和语言技能分模块向学习者提供各种学习资源, 另外也涉及到专门的元认知学习内容,即展示、介绍相关汉语学习方法的模块,还设有对中国 文化学习的模块。 学习理论 多媒体网络教学设计的基础理论主要有教学系统方法论、网络传播理论、现代学习理论以 及现代教学理论等。本文主要阐述现代学习理论在多媒体网络教学中的应用。 建构主义学习理论  从心理学上讲,建构主义认为世界是客观存在的,但认为对于世界的理想和赋予意义是由 每个人自己决定的。该理论由认知学习理论发展而来,是近三十年来认知主义学习理论发 1 此句话参考《对基于建构主义理论的我国外语教学研究的调查与思考》 黄慧、王海 《外语与外语教学》2007 年 第 6 期 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 80-87 展的一个重要分支。最早由瑞士著名心理学家皮亚杰在解释关于儿童认知发展的问题时提 出的。此后,维果斯基、布鲁纳、奥苏伯乐、维特罗克等多位心理学家和教学家又经过不 断地努力,使建构主义逐渐发展为一套较为完整的体系。 从学习观上来说,知识不是通过教师传授的,而是学习者在一定的情境下,借助他人的帮 助,利用各种丰富的学习资料,通过知识建构的方式方法获得的。 在建构主义的学习理论下,教师、学生、任务和环境成为四个影响学生学习、建构知识的 重要因素。教师被定义为学生学习的辅导者,高级合作者,起着中介的作用,其任务是帮 助学习者尽可能地扩大他们的最近发展区。而学生则是知识的主动建构者,以自己原有的 经验建构对于新知识的认识。 任务教学法  任务体现了学生通过怎样的外界刺激,以一种什么形式将外部信息与其内部认知图式相作 用。nunan 指出,任务由五部分组成,即教学目标、输入、活动、师生角色和环境。其目 的就在于培养学生的交际能力。所以基于语言交际的任务应该在教学中占主导地位。对于 “任务”,要着重把握三个要点:个人、团队合作、交互。 任务型教学法是实现培养学生用外语进行交际目的的一种手段。由于网络本身的特性,多 媒体成为一种更加有利于学习者主动学习,协作探索、完成任务的认知工具。 基于上述两点,笔者所做的网站设计也是以任务教学法为基础的。 学习环境  学习环境是学习者可以在其中进行自由探索和自主学习的场所,在此环境中学生可以利用 各种工具和信息资源来达到自己的学习目标。信息资源包括:文字材料、书籍、音像资料、 多媒体 cai 课件以及 internet 上的信息等等。学习环境要能够促进学生的自主学习和协作 式探索。这也是建构主义学习环境的理论主张,该学习环境包含情境、协作、会话和意义 建构等四大要素。 二、 网站设计    在建构主义学习理论的指导下,笔者构想了一个关于汉语学习的网站。主要面向有一定基 础的来华汉语学习者,用来帮助他们获取学习资源、自主学习,建构知识。 “《e-learning certification standards》是由以 lynette gillis 博士(2001)为主创者,美国南 伊利诺斯大学的测量专家使用 angoff 方法协助开发的。这一标准草案从三个方面对在线学习进 行了评价,分别为:可用性、技术性和教学性。” 2 笔者认为一个网站的设计最起码要满足这三 点。让学习者觉得网站对他们起到了一定的帮助,例如增加了学习者的学习动力、提供了丰富 的学习资源、创建了拟真的交际情景等等。要采用一定的现代技术,而不仅仅是各大网站均有 的文本、图片、视频等,要充分利用语音合成、数据库资源、智能代理等技术。 2 摘自徐娟主编的《远程对外汉语教学评价研究》,语文出版社 2007 年版,第 70 页。 chinese learning ….. (huang yan) 83 因此,根据以上三点和建构主义学习理论以及教学设计原理等相关理论,笔者将从学习内 容设计、学习情境设计、学习资源设计和学习模式、课程设计以及评价五个方面分别阐述。 学习内容设计:    该网站既然以学习者为中心,学习内容就要尽量做到因材施教。每个人根据自己的不同情 况,都可以在此找到适合自己的学习内容与学习方法。 问卷调查  “tarone 等学者指出,以学习者为中心,必须对学习者的具体情况进行研究分析,了解学 习者需要学什么,了解学习者知道什么、不知道什么,了解学习者的态度、学习动机、自 信心等情感因素(tarone. e and george yule, 1989)”3 当学习者进入网站要使用之前,应先注册成为会员。在注册中,不仅要填写必要的个人信 息,还要设置问卷调查,了解学习者的个人状况,使之能够找到适合自己的学习内容与方 法。 学习者完成注册成为网站的正式会员后,网站会根据他所填写的内容自动将他分组,并为 他配备一个“网络智能小助手”。小助手是一种虚拟的系统软件,可以随时追踪学习者的学 习进度,并指导规划学习者学习内容和步骤,时时提醒学习者对于旧知的复习以及新知的 预习。 目录导航  在网站的首页,首先要有一个醒目且简单易懂的导航系统。导航系统起着至关重要的作用, 作为一种指引方向的标志,它可以让学习者快速了解网站的结构设置,直接找到对他们有 价值的资源。 学习内容的分类安排  学习内容要具有系统性。可以先分为几个大模块:语言知识操练模块、语言技能操练模块、 语言的交际功能操练模块、中国文化简介模块、元认知策略学习(学习方法)模块等。每 一模块下设子模块(也可称为节点)分门别类的展开。 在语言知识模块里会有专门语音、汉字、词汇、语法、语篇等节点的知识导入。总原则是 提供资源、辅助建构、形式多样、注重练习。拿语音节点来说,技术方面要设计出立体透视的 发音器官动态图,能够让学习者清楚直观地看到发音时具体的唇齿、舌位变化。并且能够利用 真人发音的语音识别技术,学习者可以利用话筒跟读,系统会自动对发音的对错作出反馈。 在语言技能模块里要按照听、说、读、写四方面专门列出练习单元。听、读为输入式,说、 写为输出式。听力模块有丰富的音频、视频资源,不仅包括基本的拼音、词语、语句,还有美 文欣赏、经典影视回放、新闻消息等等,形式多样,提高学习者的学习兴趣。 3 摘自卢伟, 《因特网第二语言学习课件的设计原则与制作方法刍议》 84 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 80-87 语言学习可以分为语言知识的学习和语言能力的学习。学习者仅掌握语言的相关知识是不 够的,最重要的是要让学习者知道学来的这些知识如何运用。所以在语言交际功能的操练模块 里将有许多交际练习,其中涉及一些交互、协作的内容 4 。 中国文化是学习者比较关注的一个模块,所以这里的内容一定要具有代表性、趣味性、生 动性。对于文化学习可以分为两种:中国文化学习和日常行为习惯。前者是相关背景知识的介 绍,属于知识文化,重点介绍地理、哲学、文学、艺术等内容丰富的方面。后者主要是对言语 行为模式的展示,属于交际文化,体现言语之中蕴含的交际礼仪、风俗习惯、人际关系、思维 方式、价值观念等。 具体资源要注意收集,采取学习者可以上传下载的方式。所以说,这一模块所介绍的内容 不是穷尽的,可以随着学习者的需求,随时对内容进行添加和更改,这是由网站主体和学习者 共同来操作完成的。 学习情境设计:  如前所述,情境是建构主义中学习环境的四大要素之一,体现了建构主义的主张,即要求 学生在真实的情景下进行学习。所以在网络汉语教学中,就应该运用多媒体、超媒体功能和虚 拟技术提供“真实”的学习情境,这也是多媒体网络技术所擅长的。这些技术具有多种信息通 道的传播功能,它们把图、文、声、像融为一体,增加教学内容的真实性、科学性与趣味性。 在这种情境中,一定要有交互活动和协作的任务,让学生在“做中学”、“用中学”,在交际中习 得语言,完成对意义的建构。 针对这一要求,我们可以在语言的交际功能操练模块中建设“对话”和“生活”两个子模 块。 “对话”  在内容上,这一设计应该首先采用内容导航,学习者可以根据自己的喜好选择对话的内容。 可以分为:发生场所(by place)和话题(by topic),然后是具体的语境。例如,有在飞机 上、在机场、在银行、在书店等场所和事故、建议、称呼、年龄等话题可供选择,每一个 话题的对话不止一个,要采用生活中常用的词汇和语句。 在练习的形式上,学习者浏览完对话,就可以有效利用网络的交互性特点,也编写自己的 对话。学习者可以扮演对话中的一个角色改变原文中的回答,写上自己想要说的话。这样 就可以生成一个由学习者自编自导的对话情景。因为采取了语音合成技术,所以对话一经 形成,便可点击收听录音,以加深学习者的感官认识与理解。“对话”模块是根据学习者自 身的需求来定的,其中一定要有网络系统的辅助,比如在线老师的审阅或自动检查拼写和 语法的软件等,以此来检验学习者编写的对话是否正确,只有正确的才可以挂到网上,错 误的则可以作为中介语语料库的语料资源。 4 关于协作,后面有专门论述,在此不赘述。 chinese learning ….. (huang yan) 85 “生活”  在内容上,这一模块在内容上以拟真事件为单元,布置任务。学习者根据指示来一步步完 成任务。学习者可以选择自己感兴趣的话题学习,选取的话题不同任务自然也不同。选好 话题后,任务画面效果类似于网游中的三维立体画面,人物形象真实饱满,任务事件生活 化,是在生活中经常出现的。如交水电费、交话费、买东西、丢东西、剪头发、旅游、打 麻将等等。 在操练形式上,这一任务可以满足多名学习者同时参与的需要,学习者可以互相对话,共 同完成任务。系统还会自动记录他们完成任务的过程、方法以及所用时间。优秀者进入风 云人物榜,榜单时时更新,以此鼓励学习者。 学习资源设计 丰富的学习资源是建构主义学习必不可少的一个条件。网站中应该含有素材库,可以让学 习者自己选取有价值的资料,构成自己的学习资源,例如,学生记不住“住”这个汉字,可以 到网站上搜集“住”的汉字卡片,整理出自己的生词本、文件夹。除此,还要提供必备的学习 工具:在线词典。词典中要利用语料库收录大量的例句。 信息资源的种类包括文本、声音、图片、视频和动画等。用于支持学生自主学习和协作式 探索。另外,还应考虑扩展知识的信息资源。例如,提供与课程内容相关的网站和课外资料。 学习模式设计 在多媒体网络学习中,根据不同的学习需要和实际情况,要综合运用多种教学模式。常用 模式有个别辅导模式、讨论学习模式、协作学习模式、虚拟现实仿真学习模式。 根据“合作学习”的观点,在网站中组建社区模块,形成“group”。学习者可以看到以各 种形式组成的学习小组,作为组员的学习者完全是根据自己的需要、兴趣爱好加入该组,从而 开始小组内部的提问、回答、讨论和互相帮助,共同完成汉语的学习任务。例如应该有关于中 文电影的小组、关于文学的小组、关于“吃文化”的小组等等。还要开设 bbs、e-mail 和语音 实验室等,供学习者与教师、学习者与学习者之间的进行交互。 课程设计以及评价  该网站不仅有上面这些学习者可以随意浏览和操作的模块,还要有一套完整的、系统的汉 语网络课程。 5 对课程的设计既要基于课程设计的理论,又要结合多媒体网络技术的特点。课 程中应包括对课文的展示,对拼音、生词、句型等的学习,对知识的巩固与练习以及适当的游 戏。 这几方面也是分模块设置的,学习者不一定要按部就班学习课程。他可以随自己的喜好进 入任何一部分。但是在课程前言里,设计者会将课程学习的建议告诉学习者。如,怎样充分利 5原则上讲,网络课程应放在学习内容中进行阐述,笔者为了突出课程设计的整体性,故单独阐述。 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 80-87 用这套课程,课程分类,内容容量、游戏规则等等。课程大纲的设置要分为初级、中级和高级。 学习的内容和任务要各有所侧重。初级课程倾向于知识的传授,中高级会多布置一些任务等。 而在任务的设置中,可以采取多种模式,脚手架教学模式、抛锚式教学模式、随机进入教学模 式等。 另外还涉及到学习评价的问题。对学习者的学习效果的评价也是一种交互的形式,是教学 设计的重要环节。一般来说主要包括学习小组对个人的评价、学生个人的自我评价以及教师对 学生的评价(网站系统对学习者的表现作出的评价)。这种评价要尽量消除学习者思想上的压力, 并能够激励他更好地继续学习。 以上五个方面只是对该网站的一个简要的概述,当然网站上的内容不仅仅只有这些,还有 一些小的模块设计,在此不再展开。笔者只想通过这样一个设计的想法来展示建构主义在多媒 体网络中的应用以及其学习理论对多媒体网络的相互作用。 总结  有些时候,大量学习网站的涌现实则是一种浮躁期的表现,走过“大跃进”时期,人们开 始对学习网站提出质量要求。质量的保证需要每一个环节环环相扣才能够实现。笔者重点是从 学习理论对网站设计的影响启发来勾勒汉语的学习网站。其实,在真正的操作过程中,要注意 的事项要多于此。例如,我们必须要考虑网站的艺术设计。作为网页,必然要展现在学习者面 前。那么网页的艺术设计是不可忽略的。一个网页如果给学习者一种繁琐凌乱找不到头绪的感 觉,那么学习者一定会感到厌烦,学习的动力、兴趣也会受到很大的影响。总之,设计一个汉 语学习网站不是一两个人一朝一夕就可以完成的,我们要在其理论基础上循序渐进,深化过程。 只有这样才能推进这项事业的前进。 参考文献  janice yalden,principles of course design for language teaching, 外语教学与研究出版社 剑桥 大学出版社,2000. nunan, d. designing tasks for the communicative classroom [m] oxford university press, 1987. phlillips,d. c. the good, the bad and the ugly: the many faces of constructivism, 1995. 何克抗 , 建构主义的教学模式、教学方法与教学设计 [j]. 北京师范大学学报(社会科学 版),1997(05),74-81. 郑艳群,关于建立对外汉语教学多媒体素材库的若干问题[j].语言文字应用,2000(03). 张进良、王伟清、张军儒,基于学的教学设计理论在现代远程教育中的应用[j],湘潭师范学院 学报(自然科学版),2001(04). chinese learning ….. (huang yan) 87 彭立、乔爱玲、王楠,基于建构主义网络课程的设计与实现[j],中国电化教育,2002. 刘尔明,多媒体网络教学设计的基础原理与模式[j],现代远距离教育,2002(02). 蒋家傅,网络课程的特性、构建原则及其构建模式探讨[j],电化教育研究,2004(03). 卢伟,“乘风汉语”的中国文化教学研究[j],《乘风汉语》教学设计与研究,刘颂浩主编,世界图 书出版社,2005 年版第 43—61 页 李敬梅,从社会建构主义模式中的“任务”看英语任务教学法[j],景德镇高专学报,2005(01). 熊涛,辩证建构主义与外语合作学习[j],天津外国语学院学报,2006(04). 李泉,对外汉语课程、大纲与教学模式研究[m],商务印书馆 2006,200—214 黄慧、王海,对基于建构主义理论的我国外语教学研究的调查与思考[j],外语与外语教学,2007(06). types of structural ambiguity: why and how to resolve exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 25 exploring and dealing with issues of „identity and difference‟ at my workplace context in surabaya almodad b. asmani english department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, aasmani @binus.edu abstract article explored the ways an identity was shaped within societies and how these might have affected the work as an efl teacher in a workplace context. data were collected from reflective data that was autobiography and other related research. analysis was done by analyzing autobiography that was working environment approach and reflection analysis. it can be concluded that awareness of global context, local knowledge, and ability to listen support english teaching activities having many differences and the available condition. keywords: difference identity, workplace, teacher abstrak artikel membahas bagaimana identitas pribadi terbentuk karena masyarakat dan bagaimana hal tersebut berpengaruh terhadap pendekatan kerja sebagai tenaga pengajar efl dalam konteks lingkungan kerja. data diperoleh dari pengembangan reflektif, yaitu otobiografi dan penelitian literatur yang terkait. analisis mendiskusikan otobiografi, yaitu pendekatan dengan lingkungan kerja dan bahasan refleksi. disimpulkan bahwa kesadaran konteks global, pengetahuan lokal, dan kemampuan mendengar dapat membantu cara mengajar bahasa inggris dengan segala perbedaan dan situasi yang ada. kata kunci: identitas perbedaan, lingkungan kerja, pengajar jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 26 introduction in this journal, other literature works discussing on the issue of identity and difference are first examined to provide the theoretical background and foundation for the description on my identity development. then, the findings of the struggling and changing process of my identity (as presented in the appendix) are further described so as to link its effects on the ways i was able to approach my work as an english teacher in an efl (english as a foreign language) context in indonesia, where the complex issue of identity and difference cannot be underestimated. in the reflective discussion, through reflective practices and by considering valuable ideas from other writers‟ works, i will be better informed in the search of finding ways of teaching english in an attempt to work with such circumstances. the appendix that i attach in the report presents a storytelling of my past experiences, which consist of some experiences, ideas, and certain aspects in my life that are described and explored so as to show how these might have changed me, made me what i am, and in what ways i have remained unchanged. the workplace context that i choose to describe in the project is in the academic environment of an educational institution (a private technical college) in surabaya, indonesia, where i have worked for two years as an efl teacher to teach undergraduate students of informatics, electrical and industrial engineering. the observation within the context is based on the argument that i have observed the prevailing issue of social differences among students, and how these together with the local practices and customs can be so influential in determining the general nature of the learning and teaching environment in the classroom, which concern me as a language teacher. through writing the journal, i hope that i am able to locate the focus of my inquiry better, in the hope of finding alternative solution in dealing with the issue of identity and difference within my workplace contexts, which apparently influence my role, ways of approaching, behaviors and actions as an efl teacher in such contexts. as i locate issues of concern in the journal, i am committed to make use of my reflective practices and other literature resources to generate a bett er informed understanding about the things that i consider important in my workplace, the nature of the workplace itself, my behaviors as a teacher and the ways the students respond to my teaching. in achieving this, i am willing to unveil some personal things in my life experiences by storytelling my past experiences and aspects in my life that i deem necessary, as well as my past teaching approaches as an efl teacher. having more than two-year experiences of teaching english as a foreign language to undergraduate students in a private technical college in surabaya, and being in the academic association of other teacher-colleagues in the institution, i hope that these can contribute some significant inputs to the reflective discussion in the journal, as this area of focus is closely related with the larger cultural contexts of the place where i have lived in, and with some aspects of the local practices and customs in the workplace environment where i have worked in. rationale i chose this area of focus due to the following reasons: i am an english teacher working in surabaya, indonesia, where the issues of identities and differences that exists in a particular society can not just be ignored, and where these can have some effects directly or indirectly, in particular, on my work approaches, and in general, on the nature of teaching and learning process in the educational environment. moreover, in my consideration, inherent in the teaching of language becomes the issue of identity as well, for identity is closely related to language and culture, and thus learning a foreign exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 27 language can also bring identity change for my students too; as an efl teacher dealing with such circumstances, i am in the position that enables me to observe and analyze the situation directly, so that any reflective practices can be generated best to represent the past events for further reflection and consideration. also, the experiences that i have in this regard might be the experiences that my students also have, in which i should be aware of, with an attempt to understand them better when they undergo the process of learning english as a foreign language. my aims of the research are to explore: how my own identities have been shaped and made within societies in indonesia so as to find out the outcome of my identity formation; how my identities have had some influences on the ways i approached my work as an english teacher so as to find out the link of my identity formation with my teaching approaches; how to be better informed in discussing ways of teaching english in such contexts, through reflective practices and research literature, in an attempt to work within contexts where the existence of complex issues of identities and differences prevail. review of related literature in hall‟s perspective (in woodward, 1997), the construction of identity is a complex process. hall argues that identity is relational. its existence depends partly on what it is not. here, identities are formed in relation to other identities, in relation to what they are not. identities are demarcated through symbols, which function as an important signifier of difference. hence, symbolic marking sets up difference, and identities are forged through the marking of difference. some differences are considered as more important than the others, especially in particular places and at particular time. the marking of difference takes place not only through the symbolic systems of representation, but also through forms of social relations. these forms of symbolic and social difference are established through the operation of classificatory system, in which meaning is produced. the systems are always constructed around difference and the ways in which differences are marked out. in this process, difference is marked by symbolic representations that, then, give meaning to social relations. as a result, social relations are organized and divided. thus, the construction of identity is both symbolic and social, which each is needed to mark and maintain identities. hall argues that recovery of the past is also part of the process of constructing identity, so identities are not static phenomenon. rather, they are fluid and dynamic. identities are also contingent, intersecting between various elements of political and cultural discourses and particular histories. in the process of identification, they are continuously being formed and reformed in struggles between discourses, and they can even position us within historical specificity to the extent that we sometimes are not free to determine what kind of people we want to be. identities are not unified either, in a way that there may be a contradiction between the collective and individual level. identities are strongly contested and oppositional and often presented with construction of binary oppositions, and the difference marking is very essential to construct such positions. hall also refers to the view that identity formation can happen at the „local and personal‟ level due to the change in social class or „dislocation‟ factor from which „new identities can emerge and where new subjects can be articulated‟ (laclau, 1990:40 in hall in woodward, 1997). in my consideration, hall has provided a very comprehensive description of the concept of „identities‟ as to show how they are formed and operate within a delicate and complex process of interconnectivity between difference, social and symbolic marking and classificatory system. his explanation underpins my further description on the case of my identity process in this journal, so as to show how this framework can be illuminated in my own experiences. wendy holland, in her chapter about „mis/taken identity‟ (in vasta, e. and castles, s., 1996), shows how her identities have been deeply affected by what occurred in the society, which in turn jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 28 made her aware of the issue of „difference‟, and how being as a „white‟ outside and as a „murri‟ inside has made her identities struggle and contested through different discourses in her life experiences. she describes how her affirming effort of her own identities sometimes led to some conflicts with her surroundings, and how she finally acknowledges the existence of „the complexities and contradictions inherent in the process of naming one‟s identity‟ (p. 110). she also notes how her ideas and experiences about identity and difference influenced her approach as educator in a way that she tried to eliminate the commonly negative image developed among her students towards the „aborigines‟. holland‟s experiences clearly show how her identities were struggling and never static in the process of becoming, and how sometimes she was caught up in a particular society where she had no choice other than representing the expected „image‟ as in the classificatory system in certain contexts and at a particular time. based on her „diasporic‟ experiences of living in four different continents, brah (in brah, a., 1996) gives another example of how her identities were formed and shaped through different contexts as she took part in different discourses. during the process, she also mentions how she once reacted in opposition to the „subjected‟ constitution within a particular discourse, and how these experiences affected her perspective on identities to the extent that she acknowledges, “there is a changing cor e that i recognize as me” (p. 10). by her reference on „asian women‟, she shows how identities are contingent, intersecting between various elements of discourses and historical contexts. both authors have shown that identities are not fixed but always changing in the process of becoming and how they can be greatly affected by the discourses through which individual might have been a part of it. their stories illuminate my own situation and help me to clarify the explanation of my identity process. approach in this article, i use the research approach of narrative inquiry. connelly and clandinin (1990:3) note that, “the educational importance of this line of work is that it brings theoretical ideas about the nature of human life as lived to bear on educational experiences as lived”. i use storytelling of past events in my life experiences as my main data source (as attached in the appendix). i have found that storytelling is very useful in exploring the issue in a way that it allows me a considerable time to reflect upon as well as to search for relevant second hand data in the literature research to suggest some ideas for recommendation or a workplace initiative. thus, i have chosen to reflect on my own experiences as i have lived and been a part of a society where, from my personal point of view, the complex issues of „identities and differences‟ can be perceived as reality and cannot just be ignored. i use autobiographical writing as my method of data collection. here, i depend much on the recollection and reconstruction of events in my memories which consist of any past experiences, ideas, and some aspects in my own life that have significance in meaning and relevancy with the issue. in explaining a sample of an autobiographical writing, connelly and clandinin (1990:6) refer to it as the source of data that allows one to „draw one‟s attention to the ways in which one‟s experience shape one‟s interest in, and ways of constructing, particular research and teaching interests‟. hopefully, by using autobiography as my main data source as well as telling my past teaching approaches, i am able to allow my reflective practices to generate any ideas, possibilities, or information that spring to mind, so that it allows me to expand further on any ideas and suggestions developed in the reflection. in the theoretical reviews, i seek for any information and inputs, which are relevant to the issue, so that i am able to further extend the formulation process of the suggested alternatives or ways of solution to the existing problem. exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 29 my data source of autobiographical writing is presented in the appendix attached in the journal, as i want to focus more in revealing the findings of the story in relation with the nature of my teaching approaches in the past as a result of the events in my story, so that i can make links between the story and my past teaching approaches in the reflective discussion. discussion the story of my identity my story of identity process (as presented in the appendix) reveals how my identities are continuously changing, shaped and reshaped in struggles between discourses, particularly in my association with indonesian people, especially those of javanese surabaya background, and with those who have chinese background in surabaya. the changing and developing of my identities might put me in such a way that it is difficult to position myself into the kind of group that i want to be. it also presents me conflicts not only within myself but also in the social interactions and communication with the two social groups. the underlying understanding is also based on my observation of how physical things like the ways of dress, material possessions, color of the skin, the dialect aspects (including accents, styles, vocabulary, etc), ideas, values and principles in life can constitute symbols of the „classificatory system‟, and all contribute to the marked differences between the chinese-background people and the javanese surabaya people in the society to the level that clear distinction in social communication and interaction can be perceived as reality between the two social groups. how my work approaches affected in the institution that i have worked as an efl teacher in surabaya, most of my students were of chinese backgrounds, and only few of them were of non-chinese backgrounds. there was a growing tendency of my students in establishing the clear social distinction in their association in terms of the two different groups. i decided to use my role as an english teacher in the workplace context as an opportunity to introduce a different way of teaching and learning environment, where the local customs and practices were still prevalent and dominating the nature of the teaching and learning process in the institution. having the experiences of growing up in different cities in indonesia, and the fact that my first language has always been bahasa indonesia at home, i possess no particular local dialect or accent. my accent of using bahasa indonesia has always been of the common standard accent, and not influenced by the local accent. this had an impact on the way i taught lessons by using the type of medium of instruction in the classroom. for example, whenever i explained lessons in bahasa indonesia (sometimes, it was more appropriate to clarify some points in the lesson), the students of the chinese background seemed to be less responsive than when i did it in english. it seemed that for them, it was more comfortable listening to my instruction in english rather than in bahasa indonesia with the common standard accent, or even worse, in bahasa indonesia with the local accent. as for students with non-chinese backgrounds, it seemed that my using of either english or bahasa indonesia with the standard accent showed no difference in their response to my explanation. thus, based on the observation, i assume that both groups didn‟t show any negative response to my using english as the preferred choice of the medium of instruction in the classroom, though sometimes they couldn‟t follow the instruction in english fully. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 30 another thing that was still apparent in the teaching and learning process was the growing tendency of the lecturers to maintain a distance in their communicative interaction with their students in the classroom, either in their teaching behavior or their speech. in such cases, teacher-centered approach clearly became the nature of the environment. lecturers were more dominant in the discussion, and students were more likely to be reluctant to actively participate by asking questions or giving comments. one-way communication characterized the nature of teaching and learning process. having the access to learn and experience the cultural aspects of english native speaking environment has made me to try a different approach in my teaching methodology. rather than acting as a sole instructor, as commonly represented in the local practice, i tried to be more of a facilitator instead. i was trying to develop a more student-approach in most of my teaching practices. for example, when it came to a discussion session, i refused to sit in the designated chair in front of the class, but instead, sit in one of the students‟ chairs, and tried to create a more two-way communication with the students by mingling with them and by involving them as far as i could. i tried to elicit their ideas, invite them to ask questions or to give any comments on the subject of discussion. as a result, my students generally had the difficulty with the approach, especially when it had to be conducted in english. what surprised me though was that the different approach seemed to provide my students with the opportunity as well to struggle their own identity so as to be compatible with the different practice of learning. i remembered that one student of mine once tried hard to ask me a question. his voice was trembling and his grammar was messy. his identity was being challenged and contested to break the prevailing nature of learning. however, his willingness to take the risk encouraged me to maintain and develop the new approach. another instance where my identity was at work in my approaches to teaching was when i decided the nature of assignments to the students. having the access of acquiring information through many english literature and academic resources has influenced my way of expressing ideas and concepts. i tried to emphasize a more straightforward style of communication in all of their assignments. for example, i encouraged my students to focus more on the quality the message in their writing assignments as well as in their presentation. what matters is located not on the number of words they present but on the number of ideas they present in their assignments. this was done to minimize the common mindset tendency of „flowery style‟ of communication in writing and a n excessive way of a „showy display‟ in presentation, in which the quantity of words became the most prominent feature. reflective discussion the course of my identity formation shows how my identities, which were very much influenced by the western mindset, were struggling and contested when confronted with different social interactions, which are, in one side, students with chinese background, and in the other side, those with non-chinese background. the struggling process often leads to the inner conflict within me, so as to try to find a way out of the perplexed feelings in such situations. this eventually results in my own positioning in such contexts where i want to establish the alternative way of dealing with the two different social groups by detaching some cultural aspects inherent in the local practice and adopting a more western approach as a neutral way clearly manifested and reflected through my teaching practices in the classroom settings. laclau (1990:40, in hall in woodward, 1997) refers to the possibility that identity formation can happen at the „local and personal‟ level due to the change in social class or „dislocation‟ factor from which „new identities can emerge and where new subjects can be articulated‟. in line with this, i could see how my identities being formed and reformed in such situations and finally establishing my own positioning as an english lecturer in a workplace context where the local culture and practices prevail even in the educational setting. the „new kind of identity‟ of my own, which was reflected in exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 31 my teaching practices in the workplace context, tend to be characterized by my efforts and struggles to detach any local cultural aspects, which are likely to: inhibit the dynamic progress in the academic achievements and targets; maintain, or even worse, strengthen the existing gap of identity formation of the two different social groups; be impractical or irrelevant in the academic activities and contexts. all of these efforts are underpinned by the strong expectation that i wish to reconcile, in one way or another, the growing tendency of the distinction between students of chinese background and those of non-chinese background in my classroom. this understanding mainly underpins the reflective discussion on the way i approached my teaching behaviors and actions in the classroom. in line with the issue in my workplace context, i can personally agree with kramsch‟ perspective (1993:241) when she notes, “instruction in a foreign linguistic and cultural framework provides an opportunity to suspend traditional forms of instruction and experiment with new ones.” these, as she continues, include “the diversification of instructional formats for the development of communicative competence… alternative teaching styles (e.g. styles that are sensitive to national… differences), and alternative learning styles (e.g. more or less orate or literate, contextualized or decontextualized, analogical or analytical)” (p. 241). these views also provide valuable input for the analysis of my teaching procedures in the way i can consider the value and purpose behind approaches that i should or should not take. through my teaching practices, i introduced english not as a medium of strengthening and maintaining local cultures and practices which can be a dilemma in the academic setting, but as a medium of a neutral marker, where identities can be renegotiated through the use of a language, in this case english, in a different space. regarding the quality of neutrality inherent in english, kachru (1986:8) notes: english does have one clear advantage, attitudinally and linguistically: it has acquired neutrality in a linguistic context where native languages, dialects, and styles sometimes have acquired undesirable connotations. whereas native codes are functionally marked in terms of caste, religion, region, and so forth, english has no such “markers,” at least in the non-native context. my expectation is also underpinned by the notion that a „neutral‟ language would hopefully become the best means of communication and negotiating process of racial differences. in the surrounding of different social groups, students would feel free to talk in a language in which they do not have to worry about certain cultural constraints inherent in it, as they try to express their own ideas, feelings and thoughts in such situation. kramsch (1993:233) notes, “the language that is being learned can be used to maintain traditional social practices, and to bring about change (italics by myself) in the very practices that brought about this learning”. of course, the role of the teacher is critical in this matter. inherent in their teaching, english teachers actually set the model of introducing what kind of english, or more precisely, what kind of identity they are trying to expose on their students through the ways they are teaching in the classroom. in my observation, many local teachers of efl (english as a foreign language) in surabaya, indonesia, have the tendency to inculcate some cultural values into the english they teach, such as the formality-informality codes, rules of addressing respected or older people, flowery style in writing and speech, ceremonial rules in speech and meeting, and many more. it is also important to note that there are some aspects of these cultural values and principles that might be shared differently, or shared at different levels, by the two different social groups of the chinese background and non-chinese background. as i have mentioned before, my using english as the medium of instruction in the classroom tends to be fairly welcomed by students of both groups, so i should maintain the image of english in a way that both groups can feel comfortable in learning, and gradually in using it. hence, presenting the image of english in a way that they could see it differently from the local dialect or bahasa indonesia perspective is my contemporary and alternative effort to minimize the existing trend of differences in the classroom. thus, whenever i spoke english in the class, through my non-verbal cues (e.g. tones, jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 32 body languages, facial expressions, etc), i tried to give them the notion of „neutrality‟ which is free from the complicated cultural aspects inherent in the local dialect or bahasa indonesia, and free from the anxiety of using the wrong word for the wrong use for example, as it could happen if they tried to use bahasa indonesia in certain contexts. through my teaching actions and behaviors, i always tried to make them understand how all of my students, no matter what background they may have, could explore a different space of communication through using english, in which they do not have to worry about things that exists in using the local dialect or bahasa indonesia, and how this alternative way, if they are willing, could affect their identity formation as well, so as to allow them to reconsider their existing perspectives on their own identity, which might be very much influenced by their own social groups and backgrounds where they have been growing up and interacting with mostly. the range of teaching activities that i tried to apply these understandings into classroom activities are varied based on the nature and purpose of the assignments. for example, in the writing task of an academic topic in english, i told students how the general style of writing, characterized by the local cultural thought pattern, is to be considered less significant in writing academic topics in english. i always showed them how originality of ideas and straightforwardness of message are more significant in expressing their thoughts and feelings. as kaplan (1996, in pennycook 1998) made diagrams of different „cultural thought patterns‟ with oriental students tend to produce a circular and round spiral pattern, compared to western students who tend to produce a more linear and straightforward pattern. i could see that these oriental patterns were so much manifested on the writing works of my students. these oriental patterns, when used in writing academic topics, could create a certain degree of difficulty both for the lecturer and the students. from the lecturer‟s perspective in the educational institution, the pattern would result in the confusion of getting the right message due to the additional and redundant information that was presented around, as well as the lack of organizational structure that showed no clear indication of the introduction, topic sentences and conclusion. from the student‟s perspective, the pattern may also became a hindrance for those who were mainly of the technical majors, and who did not get used to the circular pattern in writing, especially in english. hence, i tried to minimize the problem by encouraging them to be more straightforward and clear in their writing style. i also helped them realize how english can be used in a different space of writing where they could try and explore a new way of expression without the anxiety of the cultural rules and restrictions. by doing this, it is expected that my students are more encouraged to express their ideas freely and recognize the value of originality better in their writing assignment. another way to detach some local customs that might become a hindrance in the academic contexts was by establishing a more student-centered approach in the environment. local cultures have developed among students the custom to view their teacher as a person of higher status with an expectation that teachers are supposed to know everything about the subject they teach and also, as the only person where the final answer for a perplexing problem or issue should be looked upon. this has created a teacher-centered approach, where teachers did most of the talking, and more likely, students became passive-rote learners. i tried to break the custom by establishing a more two-way communication with the students during lessons. for example, as far as it was relevant with the topic discussion, i would prefer to arrange students in group discussion rather than to deliver the lesson in a one-way presentation. through most of the activities in class, i tried to be more of a facilitator rather than a sole instructor. i showed them how important the process of problem solving through class discussion by not always depending on the teacher for the only answer, but also through students‟ comments and ideas. depending on the nature and purpose of the activity, i showed them how answer could always be reprocessed, reconsidered and reformulated. regarding one feature of „a critical language pedagogy‟ proposed by kramsch (1993:245), teachers are encouraged to attend to the meanings behind the expressions of beginning learners despite their limited or low-level grammar. by encouraging my students to focus more on the message behind their utterances rather than on the rules in speaking, i could develop a more communicative approach exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 33 in my teaching methodology and allowed my students to see english differently and use it as a new channel of expression in their communication in efl classroom. regarding the value of group works, kramsch (1993:243) suggests how english teachers „can subvert the traditional forms of existing instructional discourse‟ by “having small groups of students responsible for sharing information and collaborating on a joint outcome, and by grading the collaborative outcome rather than the individual achievement” (p. 243). in my case, group works can also serve another purpose. by mixing the students of chinese background and those of non-chinese in a discussion group together, i expected an opportunity which could allow them to recognize differences among them, and how they could learn to deal with it by viewing difference, not as a threat to their existing identity formation with all of its values and principles inherent in it, but as a resource which they could use together to overcome problems among them. it is interesting to note that kramsch proposes to create „a third culture‟ that “grows in the interstices between the cultures the learner grew up with and the new cultures he or she is being introduced to” (p. 236). in order to create such third space in the classroom, kramsch suggests how teachers and learners should operate “within and across multiple discourse worlds”, which are instructional, transactional, and interact ional, by integrating some aspects of „a critical language pedagogy‟ into the english classroom. i try to reflect on some of these aspects and see how they can be made linked with, and possibly applied into, my current work approaches: “awareness of global context” in this perspective, teachers are encouraged to be attuned to „larger cultural context‟ of the learners‟ background by focusing on the meanings that beginning learners can express or convey despite their limited or low-level grammar. this is in line with the underlying concept of the communicative approach, where learners are expected to engage in activities such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning and interaction. learners are encouraged to act as a negotiator of meaning, and teacher as a facilitator of the communication process. in my view, it is highly beneficial to develop the learner‟s confidence in expressing their ideas, feelings and thoughts in the news space, so as to allow them to generate their „poetic insights‟ which might be hindered or unveiled if teachers are more concerned with referential meanings only. thus, the best way i could manifest these understandings in my teaching practice is by encouraging my students to express and convey their inner thoughts and ideas in english despite their limited grammar and/or low-level vocabulary. “local knowledge” teachers are encouraged to “understand in ever more sensitive ways why (students) talk the way they do, and why they remain silent” (kramsch, 1993:245). the best way i could manifest this is by considering the fact that learners, of whichever cultural backgrounds they might have, have their own „learning styles, conversational styles, and logics‟ which are individually unique and personal. hence, i should not „force‟ them to accept the new patterns of socialization that i introduce into the classroom. instead, i should allow them to be aware of the benefits and consequences of the „third space‟ through their own process of consciousness and awareness, so as to consider the advantages and disadvantages of the new approaches. “ability to listen” teachers are invited to “listen to silences and to their students‟ implicit assumptions and beliefs” as well as to listen “to themselves and reflecting on their own assumptions and beliefs” (kramsch, 1993). the best way i could apply this is by creating a more student-centered classroom environment and by always exercising introspection and self-assessment in my work approaches in order to redefine the third space that i tried to establish in the classroom to meet my students‟ needs more effectively, and to always look for better ways of teaching approaches in dealing with the issue of difference. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 34 this research has helped me to reflect on the effectiveness of my current work approaches to reshape and redefine it better to deal with the issue in my workplace context in surabaya, as well as to reconsider its values and purposes by considering other literature inputs, in the effort of „helping (my students) assimilate into the mainstream culture (in this case, the third space of language classroom that i create) and use assimilation as a social and political tool to transform consciousness bringing into focus the similarities within differences (in this case, differences among themselves as individual learners and between two social groups)‟ (kanpol, 1990:247 in kramsch 1993:243). in the end, it is highly expected that both parties, language teachers and learners, together can establish the nature of teaching and learning environment as it should be, when the focus alters from the existing issue of difference to the real challenges emerging in the natural process of educational inquiry to allow hidden potentials in learners‟ ability be further explored and new understanding of knowledge be discovered. conclusion it is considerably difficult to be a teacher in a workplace context where the issue of identity and difference is highly noticeable and very influential in shaping the nature of the teaching and learning environment. it becomes a challenge for a teacher who work at such contexts to put efforts in solving the problems arising, and to minimize the differences among students of two different social groups, in which each group might bring into the classroom their own views of cultural aspects from the larger cultural backgrounds that they have been brought into. however, the efforts are worth doing and mentally rewarding in a way that i could allow my students to recognize the advantages and disadvantages of my teaching approaches, and thus enable them to reconsider their existing views of teaching and learning process in a different way of exploring and approaching knowledge. more importantly, through my teaching attitude and behaviors, i could hopefully help them to reconsider and renegotiate their existing perspectives on identity in a way that they could reconcile in one way or another the differences found among them and how to view it, not as a threat to their identity standing and cultural formation, but as a powerful resource to overcome problems together through a different space of interaction and communication. on the other hand, i should also be more attuned to my students‟ agenda as well, so as to bring their own consciousness in creating the third space of their own, and to avoid creating another situation where english is eventually used as another marker of difference of another social group or class distinction in the society. due to the nature of my research which is relatively influenced by my subjective perspective, and mostly limited to a local unique context, the approaches that i have described in the journal along with its reflective discussion and valuable suggestions from the research literature should be subject to further analysis and critical consideration, as more research and new experiences emerge in the future to generate new ideas, suggestions and inputs into the area of focus. finally, i should agree and maintain with the view that another crucial job of any language teachers in any similar situation is to keep their students‟ differences in a safe way, and keep it from falling into the dangerous trap of „conflict‟, as different social groups experience directly ways of interacting and communicating process together with the possibility of a change in one group or another, in one way or another, in each other‟s views or practice. exploring and dealing with issues … (almodad b. asmani) 35 references brah, a. 1996. introduction: situated identities: diasporic transcriptions. in brah, a., cartographies of diaspora: contesting identities. new york: routledge. connelly, m. & clandinin, j. 1990. stories of experience and narrative inquiry. educational researcher, 19 (5), 2 – 14. hall, s. 1997. cultural identity and diaspora. in woodward, k. identity and difference. london: sage publications. holland, w. 1996. mis/taken identity. in vasta, e. & castle, s. the teeth are smiling: the persistence of racism in multicultural australia. australia and unwin. kachru, b.b. 1986. the alchemy of english. oxford: pergamon press. kaplan, r. 1966. cultural thought pattern in intercultural education. language learning. in pennycook, a. (1998). english and the discourses of colonialism. london and new york: routledge. kramsch, c. 1993. context and culture in language teaching. oxford: university press. laclau, e. 1990. new reflections on the revolution of our time. in hall, s. (1997). cultural identity and diaspora .in woodward, k. identity and difference. london: sage publications. pennycook, a. 2001. critical applied linguistic: a critical introduction. london: lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers. _______. 1998. english and the discourses of colonialism. london and new york: routledge. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 25-36 36 appendix when i was at the first year of senior high school, i had to move with my parents to surabaya, the second biggest city in indonesia. in my view, the city, to some extents, presented an issue of a social distinction between different social groups living in the city. the phenomenon that caught my attention was the difference between people of chinese background that became the minority group, and those of the local people who were of non-chinese background. the latter group constituted the majority group which mainly consisted of javanese surabaya people. generally speaking, the distinction gap was clearly seen in some aspects of the two groups’ economic levels, the dialects being used, and mindsets as well as religious beliefs. for instance, one group was relatively higher in their economic status, whereas the other group was relatively lower in the economic sector. the distinction was so obvious that it affected the intensity and the kind of relationships in their social existence so that it was quite clearly demarcated that each group mainly interacted with its own group under the common discourse of purposes. the difference was even articulated by the particular dialect that each group used in their communication. to foreigners, they might sound the same as javanese surabaya dialect. however, to the majority group, it seemed that the minority group had developed their own unique way of the dialect, including accents and vocabularies, which made their dialects ‘different’. the social phenomenon concerned me personally at that time. there were conflicts arising as to decide which social group that i should attach into my social existence. i even made my own ‘assessment’ as to weigh the plusses and minuses of both groups. thus, my own consideration developed to show that one group might be very renowned for their business mindsets and hard-working attitudes towards financial success, whereas the other group might be very strong in maintaining and upholding their cultural values and principles in life. the contrasted thoughts slowly made me learn to take the balancing attitudes towards my association with the two different groups. however, it wasn’t as easy as it might seem to be. each time i mingled in one of the groups, i could feel that there was a strong sense of affiliation developed and established within the network of a certain group, so that it created further contradictory feelings within me. the contradictory feelings were so complicated that i finally decided to create my own positioning so as to attach some of the aspects that i deemed ‘necessary’ from each group, as well as to detach some of the aspects that i considered ‘inappropriate’ from both groups. this resulted in a bit uncomfortable ‘neutral’ position in dealing with the two different social groups as my own identity was always negotiated, contrasted and redefined. microsoft word 02 linda_revisi_setting 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 10-18 masalah oedipus complex dalam novel umibe no kafuka karya haruki murakami linda unsriana   japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln.kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480.     abstract haruki murakami, a japanese novelist is an example of a great novelist who has produced his works which have been translated in various languages for a variety of readers in the world. he has also been awarded the yomiuri literary award for his novel wind-up bird chronicle in 1996. in his novel umibe no kafuka, murakami describes the life of a young man and the oedipus complex problems he experienced. this study will look for root causes of problems in the oedipus complex problem of kafka tamura, to analyze them through methods of role characterization. keywords: haruki murakami, umibe no kafuka, oedipus complex, characterization     abstrak haruki murakami, seorang novelis berkebangsaan jepang yang merupakan salah satu contoh novelis hebat yang telah menghasilkan karya-karyanya yang telah diterjemahkan dalam berbagai bahasa untuk berbagai pembaca di dunia. ia juga pernah mendapat penghargaan yomiuri literary award untuk novelnya wind-up bird chronicle pada tahun 1996. pada novelnya yang berjudul umibe no kafuka, murakami menggambarkan kehidupan seorang pemuda dan masalah oedipus complex yang dialaminya. penelitian ini akan mencari akar permasalahan dari masalah oedipus complek pada tokoh kafka tamura, dengan menganalisisnya melalui metode karakterisasi penokohan. kata kunci: haruki murakami, umibe no kafuka, oedipus complex, penokohan masalah oedipus complex ….. (linda unsriana) 11 pendahuluan karya sastra adalah produk dari suatu keadaan kejiwaan dan pemikiran pengarang yang dituangkan ke dalam bentuk tertentu secara sadar dalam bentuk penciptaan karya sastra. proses penciptaan karya sastra terjadi dalam dua tahap. tahap pertama dalam bentuk meramu gagasan dalam situasi imajinatif dan abstrak kemudian dipindahkan ke dalam tahap kedua yaitu penulisan karya yang sifatnya mengongkritkan apa yang sebelumnya dalam bentuk abstrak. karya sastra tidak dapat dilepaskan dari masalah penciptaan yang diikuti oleh berbagai macam masalah kejiwaan. sastra sebagai gejala kejiwaan di dalamya terkandung fenomena kejiwaan yang tampak lewat perilaku tokoh-tokohnya. dengan demikian, karya sastra (teks sastra) dapat didekati dengan menggunakan pendekatan psikologis. hal ini tentu dapat kita terima karena antara sastra dengan psikologi memiliki hubungan lintas yang bersifat tak langsung dan fungsional. tidak langsung artinya hubungan itu ada karena baik sastra maupun psikologi kebetulan memiliki tempat berangkat yang sama yaitu kejiwaan manusia secara mendalam. hasil penangkapan itu setelah mengalami proses pengolahan diungkapkan dalam bentuk sebuah karya sastra. perbedaanya adalah pengarang mengemukakanya dalam bentuk formulasi penelitian psikologi. dengan demikian tidaklah mengadaada kalau antara sastra dan psikologi dapat dilakukan kajian lintas disiplin ilmu. psikologi dan karya sastra memiliki hubungan fungsional, yakni sama-sama berguna untuk mempelajari keadaan kejiwaan orang lain. perbedaanya gejala kejiwaan yang ada dalam karya sastra adalah gejala-gejala kejiwaan dari manusia imajiner sedangkan dalam psikologis manusia dalam dunia nyata. sekalipun demikian keduanya dapat saling melengkapi dan saling mengisi untuk memperoleh pemahaman yang lebih mendalam terhadap kejiwaan manusia karena mungkin saja apa yang terungkap oleh pengarang tidak mampu diamati oleh psikolog atau bahkan sebaliknya. secara kategori, sastra berbeda dengan psikologi. sastra berhubungan dengan dunia fiksi, drama, puisi, esai yang diklasifikasikan ke dalam seni (art) sedang psikologi merujuk kepada studi ilmiah tentang perilaku manusia dan proses mental. meski berbeda keduanya mempunyai titik temu atau kesamaan, yakni keduanya berangkat dari manusia dan kehidupan sebagai sumber kajian (siswantoro,2005:29). bicara tentang manusia, psikologi jelas terlibat erat, karena psikologi mempelajari perilaku. perilaku manusia tidak lepas dari aspek kehidupan yang membungkusnya dan mewarnai perilakunya. novel atau cerpen sebagai bagian bentuk sastra, merupakan jagad realita yang di dalamnya terjadi peristiwa dan perilaku yang dialami dan diperbuat manusia (tokoh). realita sosial, realita psikologis, realita religius merupakan tema-tema yang sering kita dengar ketika seseorang menyoal novel sebagai realita kehidupan. secara spesifik realita psikologis sebagai contoh, adalah kehadiran fenomena kejiwaan tertentu yang dialami tokoh utama ketika merespon atau bereaksi terhadap diri dan lingkungan. karya sastra merekam kejiwaan yang terungkap lewat perilaku tokoh. perilaku ini menjadi data atau fakta empiris yang harus di munculkan oleh analis, atau pembaca ataupun peneliti sastra. tindakan analisis psikologi dengan fokus pada perilaku tokoh, dinyatakan oleh harjana, sebagai berikut: orang dapat mengamati tingkah laku tokoh-tokoh dalam sebuah roman atau drama dengan memanfaatkan pertolongan pengetahuan psikologi. andai kata ternyata tingkah laku tokoh-tokoh tersebut sesuai dengan apa yang diketahuinya tentang jiwa manusia, maka dia telah berhasil menggunakan teori psikologi modern untuk menjelaskan dan menafsirkan karya sastra.bila tokoh hamlet menunjukkan tingkah laku yang kemudian oleh freud dinyatakan sebagai ciri-ciri jenis kepribadian tertentu yang bertingkah laku tertentu di dalam lingkungan tertentu, tidaklah berarti bahwa pujangga shakespeare mengenal teori-teori freud, melainkan memang mempunyai pengamatan yang tajam dan mendalam tentang hakekat atau kodrat manusia(1991:66) 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 10-18 penelitian ini akan melihat sisi psikologi tokoh utama yang mengalami masalah oedipus complex.. tokoh dalam fiksi akan disoroti secara psikologi, untuk mengetahui karakter dan masalah kejiwaan tokoh fiksi tersebut. penelitian ini mengambil korpus data dari novel berjudul umibe no kafka, karya haruki murakami. haruki murakami haruki murakami, seorang novelis berkebangsaan jepang yang merupakan salah satu contoh novelis hebat yang telah menghasilkan karya-karyanya yang telah diterjemahkan dalam berbagai bahasa untuk berbagai pembaca di dunia. haruki murakami lahir pada tanggal 12 januari 1949 di kyoto. sejak kecil murakami hidup dengan pengaruh budaya barat, khususnya musik dan kesusastraan. murakami kuliah di universitas waseda jurusan seni teater. kehidupan di kampus tidak begitu menarik baginya, murakami lebih sering menghabiskan waktu membaca naskah film yang berada di museum teater universitas waseda. membuka jazz bar “peter cat” dengan istrinya yoko dari tahun 1974-1982. novel pertamanya yang berjudul hear the wind sing (triology of rat) pada tahun 1979, yang mendapatkan noma bungei sho (noma literary award) untuk penulis pendatang baru. pada tahun 1987, ia merilis novelnya lagi yang berjudul norweigian wood (noruwei no mori). setelah itu januari 1991, ia pindah ke assiociate professor at princeton university (perkumpulan profesor universitas princeton), dan dinobatkan sebagai professor januari 1992. penerimaan yomiuri literary award untuk novelnya wind-up bird chronicle pada tahun 1996. penghargaan yang didapat oleh haruki murakami antara lain: yomiuri literary prize (1995), kuwabara takeo academic award (1998), frank o’connor international short story award (irlandia,2006), franz kafka prize (cekoslovakia,2006) dan asahi prize (japan, 2006). terakhir dia meraih kiriyama prize (2007), sebuah penghargaan untuk penulis unggul di kawasan pasifik dan asia selatan. karya-karya murakami telah diterjemahkan ke dalam lebih dari 40 bahasa. umibe no kafuka novel umibe no kafuka ini menceritakan pelarian seorang anak laki-laki berumur 15 tahun bernama kafka tamura dari rumah ayahnya untuk melepaskan diri dari kehidupan yang dijalaninya bersama ayahnya. ayah kafka adalah seorang pemahat hebat, dengan kehidupan yang eksentrik, tidak biasa dari kehidupan normal dalam keluarga. hubungannya yang buruk dengan ayahnya, dan keinginan untuk menemukan ibu kandung dan kakak perempuannya itulah yang menyebabkan kafka kabur dari rumah ayahnya. ibu dan kakak perempuannya meninggalkan kafka sejak kecil. berbagai petualangan telah dilewatinya dalam pelariannya. pada akhirnya, kafka menemukan dirinya pada perpustakaan pribadi di takamatsu. kemudian ia melamar untuk menjadi pegawai di perpustakan kecil tersebut. di tempat kerjanya, ia bertemu dengan nona saeki dan oshima. nona saeki adalah wanita paruh baya, yang pantas menjadi ibunya. kerinduan akan ibunya membuatnya jatuh cinta pana nona saeki, wanita yang lebih pantas menjadi ibunya. hari-hari yang dilewatinya di perpustakaan itu sampai suatu hari polisi menghubungkan dirinya dengan sebuah pembunuhan seorang pemahat terkenal yaitu ayahnya sendiri,koichi tamura. artikel ditulis berdasarkan studi pustaka, membaca novel umibe no kafuka secara detail, untuk menemukan bagian yang menjelaskan masalah oedipus complek. setelah data data terkumpul, lalu dianalisis menggunakan teori penokohan dan metode deskriptif analisis, untuk mendapatkan kesimpulan. pembahasan penokohan adalah penyajian watak tokoh dan penciptaan citra tokoh, yang berarti tokoh-tokoh perlu menggambarkan ciri-ciri lahir dan sifat serta sikap batinnya, agar kualitas tokoh, kualitas nalar dan jiwanya dikenal oleh pembaca (sudjiman, 1991 :18). masalah oedipus complex ….. (linda unsriana) 13 menurut nurgiyantoro (2004 : 165-166) penokohan adalah pelukisan gambaran yang jelas tentang seseorang yang ditampilkan dalam sebuah cerita. penokohan juga mencakup masalah siapa tokoh cerita, bagaimana penempatan dan pelukisannya dalam sebuah cerita. sehingga sanggup memberikan gambaran yang jelas kepada pembaca. penokohan juga sekaligus menuju pada teknik perwujudan dan pengembangan tokoh dalam sebuah cerita. masalah penokohan dalam sebuah karya tidak semata-mata hanya berhubungan dengan masalah pemilihan jenis dan perwatakan para tokoh, melainkan juga bagaimana melukiskan kehadiran dan penghadirannya secara tepat sehingga mampu menciptakan dan mendukung tujuan artistik karya yang bersangkutan (nurgiyantoro, 2002 : 144). novel umibe no kafuka menggunakan teknik penceritaan dengan sudut pandang persona pertama”first person participant” yaitu pencerita yang ikut berperan sebagai tokoh utama, melaporkan cerita dari sudut pandang “aku”, dan menjadi fokus atau pusat cerita. tokoh “aku” dalam novel ini bernama kafka tamura, anak laki-laki berusia 15 tahun, akan tetapi sudah sangat mandiri. sejak kecil, ia sudah ditinggalkan oleh ibunya, sehingga membuatnya menjadi remaja yang sangat dewasa. tulisan ini akan menyoroti aspek kejiwaan yang dialami tokoh utama yang bernama kafka tamura dalam novel umibe no kafuka (kafka and the shore) karya pengarang ternama jepang haruki murakami. kafka tamura digambarkan sebagai tokoh yang mengalami oedipus complex. kutipan berikut menjelaskan pada kita bahwa tokoh utama dalam novel ini mengalami oedipus complex:  大島さんは僕の目をのぞきこむ。「いいかい、田村カフカくん、君が今感 じていることは、 多くのギリシャ悲劇の根本にある世界観だ。そしてその悲 劇 性はアリストテレスが定義して いることだけれど、皮肉なことに当事者の欠点  に よってというよりは、むしろ美点を梃子 にしてもたらされる。僕の言ってい ることはわからない?人はその欠点によってではなく、 その美質によってより大きな  ひげきの中にひきずりこまれていく。ソフォクレスのオイデ イプス王が顕著な例 だ。オイデイプス王の場合、怠惰とか愚鈍さによってではなく、その勇 敢さと正 直さによってまさに彼の悲劇はもたらされる。そこ不可避てきにアイロニが生ま  れる。(murakami,2002:421)    oshima menatap mataku dalam-dalam.”dengar kafka. yang kau alami sekarang ini merupakan motif dari pelbagai tragedi yunani. manusia tidak memilih nasibnya sendiri. nasiblah yang memilih manusia. itu adalah dasar dari pandangan dunia terhadap drama yunani. dan pengertian tragedi menurut aristoteles ironisnya, bukan berasal dari kelemahan tokoh protagonisnya melainkan dari kualitasnya yang baik. kau tahu apa yang aku maksud? manusia semakin jauh terbenam dalam tragedi bukan karena kekurangan mereka melainkan karena kebaikannya. contoh yang paling bagus adakah oidipus rex karya sophokles. menurut freud dalam bertens (2006:20), oedipus complex adalah keinginan erotis anak lakilaki yang terarah pada ibunya, sedangkan permusuhan dilontarkan kepada ayah yang dianggap sebagai saingan. dalam hal ini freud menggaris bawahi ambivalensi perasaan yang menyertai kompleks oidipus. dengan ambivalensi perasaan dimaksudkannya bahwa cinta akan ibu bisa saja berbarengan dengan agresivitas, sedangkan benci terhadap ayah dapat tercampur dengan simpati. freud melukiskan kompleks oidipus terutama dari sudut anak laki-laki, tetapi ia berpendapat bahwa pada pokoknya hal yang sama berlaku juga bagi anak perempuan. oedipus adalah tokoh mitologi yunani yang tanpa diketahuinya membunuh ayahnya, laius dan menikahi ibunya. mitos ini menjadi tema karya tragedi yunani, oedipus tyrannos, karangan sophokles. 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 10-18 tokoh kafka digambarkan tertarik pada wanita paruh baya, seperti tampak dalam kutipan berikut: 彼女は僕にとても強い、でもどことなつかしい印象を与える。この人が 僕の母親 のだと いいのにな、と僕は思う。僕は 美しい(あるいは感じのいい)中年の女の人を目にするた びにそう考えてしまう。この人が僕の母親であればいいのにと。いうまでもないことだけれ ど、佐伯さんがじっさいに僕の母親である可能性はほとんどゼロに近い。しかし、それでも、 理論的にいうなら、ほんの少しは可能性がある。なぜなら僕は母親の顔も知らないし、名前 すら知らないのだから。つまり彼女が僕の母親であってはならないという理由はないのだ。 (murakami,2002:81) dia benar benar membuatku terkesan, membuatku merasa sedih dan penuh nostalgia. alangkah bahagianya seandainya dia ibuku. aku senantiasa memiliki pikiran yang sama setiap kali bertemu dengan wanita paruh baya yang cantik. aku sadar, kemungkinan nona saeki adalah ibuku sangat kecil. meski demikian, karena aku tidak pernah tahu bagaimana rupa ibuku, atau bahkan namanya, maka kemungkinan itu tetap ada. tidak ada yang benar-benar dapat mengesampingkan kemungkinan ini . kafka tamura yang sejak kecil telah ditinggalkan ibunya selalu merasa sedih jika bertemu dengan wanita paruh baya. ia membayangkan bahwa wanita paruh baya yang ditemuinya di takamatsu adalah sosok ibunya. penyebab terjadinya oedipus complex pada tokoh kafka tamura, seperti yang terdapat dalam changing minds. org (2011) dinyatakan bahwa: a critical aspect of the oedipal stage is loosening of the ties to the mother of vulnerability, dependence and intimacy. this is a natural part of the child becoming more independent and is facilitated by the realization that the mother desires more than just the child. tokoh kafka mengalami ikatan yang lemah dengan ibunya. sejak kecil ia sudah ditinggalkan oleh ibu dan kakak perempuannya. kutipan: つまりお母さんはきみのお姉さんだけを連れて家を出っていったんだね。お父さんと、四歳 になったばかりの君をあとに残して」。僕は 財布の中から海 辺の写真を取り出して彼女に 見せる。「これがお姉さんだよ」。さくらさんはこ の写真をしばらく眺める。そして、なに も言わず僕に返す。「そのあと、お姉さ んとはまったく会っていない」と僕は言う。「母親 とも会っていない」。まった く連絡もないし、どこにいるかもわからない。どんあ顔うぃ していたかも思いだ せない。写真も一枚ものこっていないんだ。そこにあった匂いは 思い だせる。感触のようなものも思いだせれ。でもどうsじても顔が浮かんでこない」。 (murakami,2002:177) jadi ibumu pergi dari rumah dengan kakak perempuanmu saat kau berusia empat tahun, meninggalkan kau dan ayahmu.aku mengeluarkan foto kakakku dan aku ketika kami di pantai dari dalam dompet, serta menunjukkan padanya. “ini kakakku,”kataku. sakura memperhatikan foto itu sebentar, kemudian mengembalikannya tanpa mengatakan apapun. sejak itu, aku belum pernah bertemu dengan dia,”ujarku.”atau ibuku. dia tidak pernah menghubungi, dan aku tidak tahu dimana dia berada. aku bahkan tidak ingat wajahnya.” lemahnya ikatan antara kafka tamura dan ibu kandungnya, yang telah meninggalkannya ketika kafka masih berusia 4 tahun menjadi salah satu sebab terjadinya oedipus complek yang dialaminya. selain itu, kafka merasa tidak dicintai ibu kandungnya sendiri. kutipan berikut akan menjelaskannya: masalah oedipus complex ….. (linda unsriana) 15 kutipan:  君のお姉さんは養女なんだよね。つまり君が生まれる前に、どこからもら われてきた子ども なんだよね」。そうだ、と僕は言う。両親はどうしてかわから  ないが、養子をとった。そ のあとで、僕が生まれた。おそらくはおもいがけず。 それで 君は間違いなくお父さんとお母 さんのあいだに生まれた子どもなんだね」。僕の知るかぎりでは」と僕は言う。「それなの に 君のお母さんは家を出ていくときに、君ではなく、血のつながりのないお姉さんのほう を連れていった。」と  さくらは言う。「でも普通、女の人というのは、そういうことはし ないものなん  だよ」。僕は黙っている。「それは、どうしてなんだろう?」。僕は首を振 る。わからない、と僕は言う。それは僕が何万回となく自分自身に間違いかけた質問だった。 「でも、君は そ のことでもちろん傷ついている」。(murakami, 2002:183) “kakakmu anak adopsi. mereka mendapatkannya dari suatu tempat sebelum kau lahir, kan?”. “benar, jawabku. aku tidak tahu kenapa tapi orang tuaku memang mengadopsi dia. setelah itu aku lahir. mungkin tidak seperti yang mereka harapkan.” “jadi kau adalah anak kandung dari ibu dan ayahmu.’ “sejauh yang aku tahu,” kataku padanya. “tapi, manakala ibumu meninggalkan rumah, dia tidak membawamu melainkan kakakmu, yang bukan darah dagingnya,”kata sakura. “bukan sesuatu yang biasanya akan dilakukan seorang wanita”. aku tidak mengatakan apapun. “mengapa dia melakukan hal itu?”aku menggelengkan kepala.”aku tidak tahu,”ucapku padanya. “aku sendiri juga kerap bertanya pada diriku sendiri.” “pasti sangat menyakitkan.” kutipan lainnya juga menunjukkan perasaan kafka yang merasa tidak dicintai ibunya: kutipan: 「そんなに会いたくないの?」 「会ってなにを話せばいいのかわからないし、彼女は僕になんか会いたく ないかも しれない。それはお母さんについても同じだよう。だれも僕になんか会 いたがらな いかもしれない。誰も僕のことを求めていないかもしれない。だいい ち出ていって しまったわけだし」。僕抜きで、と僕はおもう。(murakami,2002:189) “apa kau tidak ingin bertemu ibumu?” “aku tidak tahu apa yang akan kami bicarakan, dan mungkin dia tidak mau bertemu aku. barangkali mereka berdua tidak ingin berurusan denganku. tidak ada satupun yang mencari aku. maksudku, mereka pergi begitu saja.” tanpa aku, kataku dalam hati. jauh di lubuk hatinya, kafka merasa tidak dibutuhkan, tidak dicintai. perasaan ditinggalkan itu tetap melekat hingga dia dewasa. menurut freud (bertens,2006:21), oedipus complex adalah keinginan erotis anak laki-laki yang terarah pada ibunya, sedangkan permusuhan dilontarkan kepada ayah yang dianggap sebagai saingan. novel umibe no kafka juga menguraikan ketidakcocokan antara tokoh utama dan ayahnya. pelarianya dari rumahnya di nogata, tokyo, membuktikan hal itu. kebenciannya pada ayahnya juga terlihat jelas dari kutipan berikut: kutipan: 「それでお父さんとはうまくいかなかったんだね?」と彼女はあとで僕に 尋ねる。うまくい かない?いったいなんて答えればいいんだろう?僕は何も言わ ず、ただ首を振る。 (murakami,2002:178) “jadi, kau tidak akur dengan ayahmu?’tanyanya setelah beberapa saat. tidak akur? bagaimana aku harus menjawab pertanyaan itu? aku tidak mengatakan apapun, hanya menggelengkan kepala. “pertanyaan bodoh-tentu saja tidak akur. kalau ya, kau pasti tidak akan melarikan diri,”kata sakura. 16 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 10-18 kafka merasa bahwa ayahnya tidak mencintainya seperti tampak pada kutipan berikut: kutipan:  それから野方の家と、今ごろはそこにいるはずの父親のことを考える。か れは僕がとつぜん いなくなってしまったことについて、どのように感じているん  だろうか。それとも戸惑っ ているのだろうか?あるいはほとんどの感情も 抱かな いのだろうか。いや、僕がいなくなっ たことにきがつきさえしない かもしれない。(murakami,2002:90) aku berpikir tentang rumahku di nogata, tokyo, dan ayahku. bagaimana perasaannya menyadari aku tiba-tiba menghilang. mungkin lega? bingung? atau bahkan tidak merasa apa-apa sama sekali. aku yakin dia bahkan tidak menyadari bahwa aku pergi. meskipun ia adalah anak laki-laki satusatunya hubungannya tidak baik dengan ayahnya. kepergian kafka dari rumahnya membuktikan ketidakharmonisan hubungannya dengan ayahnya. kafka merasa tidak dipedulikan dan disayang oleh ayahnya, seperti terungkap pada kutipan di atas. ketika kafka mengetahui tentang kematian ayahnya dari koran, kafka tidak merasa sedih atau kehilangan, seperti tampak pada kutipan berikut: kutipan: 「もし僕の受けている印象が正しいとすれば」と大島さんは僕に尋ねれ。「お父さんが誰か に殺されても、君はそのことをとくに悲しいとも、残念だと思っていないように見える」。 「こうなって残念だとは思う。なんといっても血のつながった父親だからね。で も本当の 気持ちを言えば、むしろ残念なのは、もっと早く死んでくれなかったこ とだよ。そういう のが死んだ人に対してむごい言い方だというのは、よくわかっ ているけど」。 (murakami,2002:419) “tolong koreksi jika aku salah,”kata oshima,”tapi kelihatannya kau tidak terlalu sedih ayahmu dibunuh.” “tidak, tentu saja aku sedih. bagaimanapun juga dia ayahku. tapi yang aku sesali kenapa dia tidak meningal lebih cepat. aku tahu itu ucapan yang sangat tidak pantas…. kebencian terhadap ayahnya juga disebabkan sedari kecil ia merasa dipaksa untuk meyakini bahwa ia akan meniduri ibunya. kata-kata itu seperti dipahatkan ayahnya ke dalam kepala kafka. kutipan: 「予言というよりは、呪いに近いかもしれない。父は何度も何度も、それ を繰り返 し僕に聞かせた。まるで僕の意識に鑿でその一字一字を刻みこむみたい にね」。 僕は深く息吸い込む。そして僕がこれから口にしなくてはならないものごとをも う一度確認する。もちろん確認するまでもなく、それはそこにある。それはいつ だってそこにある。(murakami,2002:426) “menurutkutku, mungkin lebih pantas disebut kutukan ketimbang ramalan. ayahku mengatakannya padaku berulang-ulang. seolah-olah dia memahat setiap kata ke dalam otakku.” aku menarik nafas panjang serta memeriksa kembali apa yang hendak aku sampaikan. bukan karena aku memang perlu memeriksanya, karena kata-kata itu selalu ada, menghantam kepalau, tidak peduli apakah aku memeriksanya atau tidak . perkataan ayahnya yang berulang-ulang yang mengatakan bahwa ia akan meniduri ibunya, terasa bagai kutukan yang menimpanya. kafka juga membenci ayahnya karena ia juga merasa dihukum oleh ayahnya atas perbuatan ibunya yang meninggalkannya. kafka tidak merasa diperlakukan sebagai anak, melainkan sebagai salah satu patung karya ayahnya. masalah oedipus complex ….. (linda unsriana) 17 kutipan: 「僕はどんなに手を尽くしておのも運命から逃げれることはできない、と父は言った。その 予言は時限装置みたいに僕の遺伝子の中に埋めこまれて いて、なにをしようとそれを変更 することはできないんだって。僕は父を殺 し、母と姉 と交わる。」  大島さんは まだ長い沈黙にいる。彼は僕の言葉をひとつひとつ検証 し,そこになにかの手 がかりを見いだそうとしているようだ。彼は言う、「い ったい どうして、君のお父さんは 君に向かってそんなひどい予言をしなくて はならなか ったんだろう?」「僕にはわからな い。父はそれ以上なにも 説明しなかったから  ね」。僕は 首を振る。「あるいは、自分を 捨てて出 ていった母と姉に復讐をし たがったのかもしれない。彼女たちを罰したかったの かもしれない。僕という左 右通して」「たとえそうすることによっ て、君が損なわれてし まったとしても」  僕はうなずく。「僕は父にとってたぶんひとつの作品のようなものに過ぎな い ん だ 。 彫 刻と同じだよ。たとえ壊しても損なっても、それは父の自由なん だ」。 (murakami,2002:427) “ayahku berkata tidak ada yang dapat aku lakukan untuk lari dari garis nasib ini. ramalan tersebut seperti pengatur waktu yang terkubur di dalam sifatku, dan tidak ada yang dapat mengubahnya.aku akan membunuh ayahku dan “tinggal” dengan ibu dan kakakku. oshima terdiam beberapa saat, seolah-olah sedang menyelidiki setiap kata yang aku ucapkan, satu persatu, mempelajarinya untuk mencari petunjuk apa maksud dari semua ini.”untuk apa ayahmu mengatakan semua ini padamu?”akhirnya dia bertanya. “aku tidak tahu. dia samasekali tidak menjelaskan,”kataku.”mungkin ia ingin balas dendam tehadap istri dan anak perempuannya yang meninggalkan dia.mungkin ia ingin menghukum mereka melalui aku. “walaupun itu berarti melukaimu?” aku mengangguk. ”bagi ayahku, barangkali aku tidak lebih dari salah satu patungpatungnya. sesuatu yang dapat dia buat dan hancurkan bila dia ingin.” hubungan yang tidak harmonis antara kafka dan ayahnya, dan juga perasaan ditinggalkan oleh ibu dan kakaknya menjadi proses terbentuknya sikap dan karakter tokoh utama dalan umibe no kafka ini. simpulan tokoh utama dalam novel ini mengalami masalah oedipus complek, mencintai dan berhubungan dengan nona saeki, wanita paruh baya, yang jauh lebih tua dari dirinya. nona saeki dibayangkannya sebagai ibu kandungnya yang pergi meninggaklan dirinya di usia masih sangat belia, yaitu ketika ia berusia 4 tahun. pada novel umibe no kafka, terlihat masalah oedipus yang dialami tokoh utama disebabkan beberapa hal, yaitu hubungan yang tidak akrab dengan ibunya yang telah meninggalkannya selagi ia masih kecil, hubungan yang buruk dengan ayahnya yang dirasakan tokoh utama, bahwa ayahnya tidak pernah mencintainya sebagai seorang anak, dan hanya menganggapnya sebagai patung salah satu hasil karyanya. 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 10-18 daftar pustaka bertens,k. (2006). psikoanalisis sigmund freud. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. changing minds. org. (n.d). oedipus complex. diunduh 7 maret 2010 dari http://changingminds.org/disciplines/psychoanalysis/concepts/oedipus_complex.htm endaswara, s. 2008. metode penelitian psikologi sastra: teori, langkah, dan penerapannya. yogyakarta: medpres. feist , g. j., & feist, j. (2008). theories of personality. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. hardjana, a. (1991). kritik sastra: sebuah pengantar. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. minderop, a. (2005). metode karakterisasi telaah fiksi. jakarta: yayasan obor. murakami, h. (2008). kafka on the shore. jakarta: pustaka alvabet. murakami, h. (2002). umibe no kafuka. tokyo: shinchousha. ratna, n. k. (2004). teori, metode, dan teknik penelitian sastra., yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. siswantoro. (2005). metode penelitian sastra: analisis psikologis. surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. microsoft word 04_rita susanti_sinonim_ok.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 34 sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim dalam bahasa jepang: telaah majalah nihongo journal dan hiragana times rita susanti1; siti aminah2; nani oktaviani3 1,2,3 japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, uniritas@yahoo.co.jp abstract purpose of this article is to know the kinds of repetition, synonym, and antonym in japanese. data were taken from the columns of “nj news” of nihongo journal magazine to analyze the repetition and columns of “tips for livings in japan” in hiragana’s times magazine, to discuss the synonym and antonym. the research result indicates that the full repetition is often used to emphasize information; then the context synonym is used in order to create a variation of sentences. yet, there was also information was not found in the data, which was the antonym of kobutsu no kankei because it did not explain about family. keywords: discourse analysis, synonym, repetition, antonym abstrak artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis repetisi, sinonim, dan antonim dalam bahasa jepang. data diambil dari kolom nj news majalah nihongo journal untuk menganalisis repetisi dan kolom tips for livings in japan dalam majalah hiragana times, untuk membahas sinonim dan antonim. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa repetisi penuh sering digunakan untuk mempertegas informasi; kemudian sinonim konteks sering digunakan agar kalimat bervariasi. namun, ada juga yang tidak ditemukan dalam data, yaitu antonim kobutsu no kankei karena data tidak menceritakan tentang keluarga. kata kunci: analisis wacana, sinonim, repetisi, antonim sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim..... (rita susanti; dkk) 35 pendahuluan berbahasa bagi sebagian orang dianggap sebagai sesuatu yang biasa. namun, bahasa sebenarnya memiliki peran penting di dalam kehidupan manusia. salah satunya adalah sebagai alat berkomunikasi yang disampaikan, baik dalam bentuk lisan maupun tulisan. berkomunikasi dengan bahasa harus memperhatikan aspek komunikasi, individu yang berkomunikasi, dan pokok pikiran yang disampaikan. kesatuan bahasa yang lengkap bukanlah kata atau kalimat, melainkan wacana. wacana adalah satuan bahasa yang terlengkap dan merupakan satuan gramatikal tertinggi atau terbesar (kridalaksana, 1984:208). wujudnya dapat berupa pidato, iklan, percakapan biasa, puisi, dan novel. kalimat dalam wacana tidak terlepas-lepas begitu saja, melainkan saling berpautan, sehingga menjadi suatu wacana yang padu. wacana yang padu memiliki keserasian hubungan antara unsur yang satu dengan unsur yang lain (kohesif), sehingga terciptalah suatu pengertian yang baik. kohesi mengacu pada perpautan bentuk, sedangkan koherensi mengacu pada perpautan makna. renkema (1993:35-39) membagi kohesi menjadi dua, yaitu kohesi gramatikal dan leksikal. kohesi gramatikal terdiri atas penggantian (substitution), pelesapan (ellipsis), pengacuan (reference), dan konjungsi (conjunction). sementara itu, kohesi leksikal terdiri atas reiterasi (reiteration), yang mencakup; repetisi, sinonim, hiponim, metonim, antonym, dan kolokasi (collocation). penelitian akan difokuskan pada kohesi leksikal berupa sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim. data diambil dari majalah nihongo journal (nj news, 2007) untuk meneliti repetisi dan hiragana times (tips for living in japan, desember 2006), untuk meneliti sinonim dan antonim. selain itu, penelitian juga untuk mengetahui bagaimanakah fungsi ketiga bentuk tersebut dalam ragam jurnalistik pada kedua majalah tersebut. menurut anwar (1984: 1), bahasa di dalam ragam jurnalistik memiliki sifat yang khas, yaitu singkat, padat, sederhana, lancar, jelas, lugas, dan menarik. kosakata yang digunakan pun mengikuti perkembangan dalam masyarakat, sehingga bahasa yang digunakan dalam ragam jurnalistik sangat mengutamakan kemampuan untuk menyampaikan semua informasi yang disuguhkan kepada pembaca, dengan mengutamakan daya komunikasinya. tujuan penelitian untuk mendeskrispsikan dan menjelaskan bentuk kohesi leksikal, khususnya sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim. selain itu, untuk mengetahui jenis kohesi leksikal yang sering digunakan dalam mendukung kekohesifan wacana, pada artikel yang berjudul nj news dalam majalah nihongo journal dan tips for living in japan dalam majalah hiragana times. metode penelitian metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif menurut nazir (1989:83), yakni metode yang meneliti suatu status sekelompok manusia, objek, set kondisi, sistem pemikiran atau kelas peristiwa pada masa sekarang. teknik penelitian yang penulis gunakan adalah teknik kepustakaan. pembahasan kajian teori pengertian wacana menurut beberapa ahli linguistik, wacana adalah satuan bahasa yang terlengkap dan merupakan satuan gramatikal tertinggi atau terbesar (kridalaksana, 1984:208). wujudnya dapat jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 36 berupa pidato, iklan, percakapan biasa, puisi, novel, dan sebagainya. menurut halliday dan hasan (1976:1), wacana adalah segala bentuk bahasa, baik lisan maupun tulisan, berapa pun panjangnya, yang keseluruhannya membentuk satu kesatuan atau pengertian yang utuh. sementara itu, tarigan (1987:27) berpendapat bahwa wacana adalah satuan bahasa yang terlengkap dan tertinggi atau terbesar di atas kalimat atau klausa dengan koherensi dan kohesi yang tinggi yang berkesinambungan, yang mampu mempunyai awal dan akhir yang nyata, serta disampaikan secara lisan dan tulisan. keutuhan wacana dapat dilihat dari adanya relasi antara kalimat di dalamnya. relasi antar kalimat tersebut ditunjukkan dengan adanya kohesi dan koherensi yang tinggi di dalam wacana, sehingga menyebabkan wacana tersebut menjadi utuh atau kohesif. kohesi dan koherensi menurut halliday dan hasan (1976:4), kohesi adalah suatu konsep semantik yang mengacu pada hubungan makna yang ada dalam wacana. kohesi memungkinkan suatu wacana terpadu dalam suatu gagasan. hal itu terlihat dengan adanya ketergantungan suatu elemen dengan elemen yang lain dalam suatu wacana. dengan kata lain, kohesi berfungsi sebagai pengait antar bagian di dalam wacana, sehingga wacana yang bersangkutan utuh sebagai satu kesatuan makna. kohesi dapat berhasil apabila interpretasi terhadap suatu unsur yang terdapat dalam wacana terikat atau tergantung kepada interpretasi unsur yang lain di dalam wacana. mengenai hal tersebut, hinata dan hibiya (1988:4) juga mengemukakan hal yang hampir sama 結束性とは、それがばらば らの文の集まりではないということ、つまり文と文の続き具合に関する問題である。yang dimaksud kohesi adalah kumpulan kalimat yang tidak tercerai-berai. dengan kata lain, kalimat dengan kalimat bersambung dan saling berhubungan. selain hubungan makna yang baik di dalam sebuah wacana, dibutuhkan juga kalimat-kalimat yang baik yang saling berhubungan. dengan kata lain, harus mempunyai koherensi. koherensi yang baik dapat terwujud apabila hubungan timbal balik antara kalimat-kalimat tersebut baik dan mudah dipahami. dengan adanya koherensi yang baik, pembaca akan dihadapkan pada serangkaian kalimat yang saling berhubungan dengan urutan waktu dan fakta yang teratur dan sesuai dengan gagasan utama. halliday dan hasan (1976: 6) membagi kohesi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu kohesi gramatikal yang terdiri atas penggantian (substitution), pelesapan (ellipsis), pengacuan (reference), konjungsi (conjunction), serta kohesi leksikal yang terdiri atas reiterasi dan kolokasi. reiterasi dibagi lagi menjadi repetisi, sinonim atau sinonim dekat, dan superordinat atau kata umum. sependapat dengan halliday dan hasan, renkema juga membagi kohesi menjadi dua, yaitu kohesi gramatikal dan kohesi leksikal. kohesi gramatikal sependapat dengan hinata dan hibiya. sedangkan untuk kohesi leksikal, renkema (1993:37-40) membaginya ke dalam repetisi, sinonim, hiponim, metonim, antonym, dan kolokasi. pada penelitian ini, penulis akan menggunakan teori sakuma, et al. untuk membahas repetisi serta teori tetsuya digunakan untuk membahas sinonim dan antonym. kohesi gramatikal kohesi gramatikal adalah hubungan semantik antar unsur yang dimarkahi alat gramatikal, yaitu alat bahasa yang digunakan dalam kaitannya dengan tata bahasa. kohesi terdiri atas penggantian (substitution), yaitu penggantian suatu unsur bahasa dengan unsur bahasa lain. pelesapan (ellipsis), yaitu hubungan yang terjadi antara dua unsur dengan melesapkan atau menghilangkan unsur yang sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim..... (rita susanti; dkk) 37 mempranggapkan. pengacuan (reference), yaitu alat kohesi yang penafsiran salah satu unsurnya mengacu kepada unsur yang lain. konjungsi (conjunction) adalah alat kohesi yang menghubungkan suatu kalimat dengan kalimat yang lain dalam wacana. kohesi leksikal keutuhan suatu wacana tidak hanya cukup jika dilihat dari kohesi gramatikal saja. keutuhan wacana juga ditunjang oleh pemilihan bentuk-bentuk leksikal tertentu. menurut renkema (1993:39), ada dua tipe kohesi leksikal. kohesi leksikal yang pertama adalah reiterasi yang terdiri atas repetisi, yaitu penyebutan kembali bentuk leksikal yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya. sinonim, yaitu kata yang memiliki kesamaan arti. hiponim, yaitu relasi makna yang berkaitan dengan peliputan makna spesifik (khusus) dan makna generik (umum) antonim, yaitu dua bentuk kata yang mempunyai hubungan makna yang berlawanan dan metonim, yaitu hubungan keseluruhan bagian. kohesi leksikal yang kedua adalah kolokasi, yaitu makna kata tertentu berkenaan dengan kata lain yang merupakan kolokasinya atau sandingannya atau asosiasinya. repetisi (repetition) dalam bahasa jepang, pengulangan (repetisi) merupakan salah satu cara untuk mempertahankan hubungan kohesif antar kalimat. dengan adanya pengulangan, maka akan terkait hubungan antar satu topik kalimat dengan kalimat sebelumnya. meskipun di dalam sebuah wacana pengulangan mudah digunakan, tetapi harus digunakan dalam jumlah terbatas karena pengulangan yang berlebihan dapat membosankan. menurut sakuma, et al. (1999:38), 繰り返しは「なぞれ」や「まねる」に近い行為といえる。また、もとの語句と繰り 返した語句と言う最低二つ以上の「似た物」を「かさねる」「つらねる」あるいは 「ならべる」ことにもなる ‘repetisi disebut sebagai tindakan yang dekat dengan “menyamakan” ataupun “meniru”. repetisi juga dapat dikatakan dengan mengulang kembali sebuah kata atau ungkapan yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya, yang maknanya dapat disepadankan dengan “mengulangi”, “merangkai” atau “menyusun” kalimat dengan kata yang sama.’ selanjutnya sakuma, et al. menjelaskan bahwa pengulangan bukan sebuah tindakan yang hanya menambah pembicaraan menjadi bertele-tele. dengan pengulangan, maka dapat mempertegas informasi yang sedang dibicarakan. repetisi dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu repetisi penuh dan repetisi dengan modifikasi. repetisi penuh repetisi penuh terjadi apabila mengulang sebuah kata dengan bentuk yang benar-benar sama, tanpa ada perubahan bentuk. pengulangan tersebut dapat berfungsi untuk memberi tekanan pada bagian yang diulang. berikut ini contoh repetisi penuh. (2.1) 「今日は暑いねえ」「ほんと暑いねえ」 (sakuma, et.al, 1999:38) ‘hari ini panas, ya. benar-benar panas, ya’ pada contoh (2.1), kata 暑いねえ ‘panas, ya’, yang merupakan kelas kata adjektiva-i 暑い ‘panas’ + ~ねえ diulang secara penuh tanpa ada perubahan bentuk pada kalimat berikutnya, sehingga repetisi di atas disebut sebagai repetisi penuh. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 38 repetisi dengan modifikasi repetisi dengan modifikasi terjadi apabila mengulang sebuah kata dengan bentuk yang lain, baik dengan penambahan ataupun pengurangan pada kata yang diulang. berikut ini contoh repetisi dengan modifikasi. (2.2) a:あれはガス灯のほうが早ってんな。 b:えーつ? a:電灯よりガス灯のほうが早かったな。 (sakuma, et.al, 1999:43) a : ‘itu adalah lampu gas yang katanya lebih cepat.’ b : ‘benarkah?’ a : ‘iya, lampu gas lebih cepat daripada lampu listrik.’ pada contoh (2.2), kata 早ってんな’cepat’ diulang dengan bentuk yang berbeda menjadi 早 かったな ’cepat’ yang merupakan bentuk lampau. akan tetapi, perubahan tersebut masih mempunyai bentuk dasar yang sama, yaitu kata 早い ’cepat’. kata tersebut diulang dengan bentuk yang berbeda, sehingga pengulangan kata tersebut termasuk ke dalam jenis repetisi dengan modifikasi. sinonim (synonym) tetsuya (1987:173) mengemukakan bahwa sinonim merupakan kata yang memiliki persamaan arti, seperti yang diungkapkan berikut ini. ここではゆるい意味の「同義」を指し、「類義」と呼んでも差し支えない。同義に は「一般的同義」と「文脈的同義」が区別される。 ‘di sini memperlihatkan “sinonim” yang maknanya tidak mutlak sama dan tidak ada salahnya jika dikatakan “makna yang hampir sama”. sinonim dibedakan menjadi ‘sinonim secara umum’ dan ‘sinonim secara konteks.’ berdasarkan keterangan di atas, dapat diketahui bahwa sinonim dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu sinonim secara umum dan sinonim konteks. sinonim umum sinonim secara umum adalah kata-kata yang memiliki makna yang hampir sama, namun tidak dapat saling digunakan pada konteks yang sama, seperti contoh berikut ini. (2.3) かつて北極圏の人々は冬になると、雪の固まりを四角に切り、おわんを伏せたような 形に積るみ上げて家をこしらえていた。寒い地方で雪の家とは不思議に思われるかも しれないが、雪は、木や石よりずっと熱が伝わりにくいものなのである。雪でぢきて いるから、火をどんどん燃やすというわけにはいかないが、わずかな火でも、または 体温だけでも、熱がそとへ逃げなければ、そのうちに、部屋の中が暖まるというわけ である。次に暑い地方ではどうだったのだろうか。 (chuukyuu nihongo bunpou, 1994:30-31) ‘ketika musim dingin tiba, orang-orang di daerah kutub utara akan memotong gumpalan salju menjadi segi empat, lalu mereka membuat rumah dengan cara menumpuknya seperti mangkuk yang terbalik. mungkin kita tidak akan berpikir bahwa rumah salju yang ada di daerah dingin itu aneh. salju adalah penghantar panas yang lebih buruk dari batu dan kayu karena terbuat dari sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim..... (rita susanti; dkk) 39 salju, bukan berarti api akan semakin panas, tetapi api yang kecil pun dan suhu tubuh manusia pun akan membuat ruangan menjadi hangat dengan panas yang dikeluarkannya. selanjutnya, bagaimana dengan rumah yang berada di daerah yang panas?’ pada contoh (2.3), kata 熱い ‘panas’ dan kata 暑い ‘panas’ memiliki hubungan sinonim umum. meskipun kedua kata tersebut memiliki makna yang sama, tetapi penggunaannya dalam kalimat berbeda, tidak dapat saling menggantikan pada konteks dan situasi yang sama. kata 熱い ‘panas’ hanya digunakan untuk suhu tubuh dan api. sedangkan kata 暑い ‘panas’ digunakan untuk kondisi atau keadaan cuaca. sinonim konteks sinonim secara konteks adalah dua kata yang memiliki makna yang hampir sama dan dapat saling dipertukarkan pada konteks yang sama tanpa mengubah makna pada konteks tersebut. berikut ini contoh sinonim konteks. (2.4) a: 医者が患者をみる。 ‘dokter memeriksa pasien.’ b: 医者が患者を診察する。 ‘dokter memeriksa pasien.’ (tetsuya, 1987:174) contoh (2.4) pada kata 看る ‘memeriksa’ dan kata 診察する ‘memeriksa’ dapat digunakan pada kalimat yang sama. jadi, kata みる ‘memeriksa’ dengan kata 診察する ‘memeriksa’ merupakan sinonim konteks. antonim (antonym) antonim adalah dua bentuk kata yang mempunyai hubungan makna yang berlawanan. sementara itu, tetsuya (1987:173) mengemukakan antonim sebagai hubungan pertentangan, seperti yang diungkapkan sebagai berikut. 同一の出来事、関係をあい対する観点から眺めて表現する語は反対関係を構成する 。片方の表現が成立するならば、必ず他の表現も同時に成立するのが普通である。 ‘kata yang mengungkapkan hubungan pertentangan, yang terjadi pada waktu bersamaan, maka secara struktur membentuk hubungan pertentangan. kalau ungkapan tersebut direalisasikan, maka ungkapan yang lain akan muncul dalam waktu yang bersamaan.’ berdasarkan keterangan tersebut, dapat diketahui bahwa hubungan pertentangan dapat terjadi jika ada satu kata yang diujarkan, maka akan muncul kata lainnya secara bersamaan yang membentuk hubungan pertentangan. tetsuya (1987:173) juga mengklasifikasikan hubungan pertentangan yang lainnya, yaitu kitaiteki hantai kankei, kobutsu no kankei, dan kuukan kankei. kitaiteki hantai kankei(期待的反対関係) kitaiteki hantai kankei adalah hubungan pertentangan dugaan atau harapan atau antisipasi. maksudnya adalah pencarian makna kitaiteki hantai kankei diperoleh melalui suatu hal atau kondisi yang berdasarkan dugaan, harapan atau antisipasi. berikut ini contohnya. (2.5) 「買う~売る」 dan 「オシエル~オソワル」 (tetsuya, 1987: 173) ‘membeli~menjual’ ‘mengajar~belajar’ jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 40 tetsuya menjelaskan bahwa 買う ’membeli’ merupakan antonim dari 売る ‘menjual’. pada saat transaksi bisnis, salah satu pihak 買う ’membeli’, sudah pasti pihak yang lainnya 売る ‘menjual’. barang-barang yang dijual belum tentu akan laku terjual semuanya. sementara itu, オ シ エ ル ‘mengajar’ merupakan antonim dari オソワル ‘belajar’. pihak yang belajar memiliki kekurangan dalam hal kemampuan dan daya konsentrasi, bila dibandingkan dengan pihak yang mengajar. ilmu yang diberikan oleh pihak yang mengajar belum tentu semuanya dapat diterima oleh pihak yang belajar. jadi, kata-kata tersebut termasuk kitaiteki hantai kankei karena dilakukan berdasarkan dugaan, harapan atau antisipasi. kobutsu no kankei(個物の関係) kobutsu no kankei adalah pertentangan berdasarkan hubungan individu. berikut ini adalah contohnya. (2.6) 「オヤ~コ」「オット~ツマ」「アニ~オトウト (イモウト)」 (tetsuya, 1987:173) ‘orang tua~anak’ ‘suami~istri’ ‘kakak~adik laki-laki(adik perempuan)’ tetsuya menjelaskan bahwa オヤ ‘orang tua’ berantonim dengan コ ‘anak’, オット ‘suami’ berantonim dengan ツマ ‘istri’ dan アニ ‘kakak’ berantonim dengan オトウト(イモウト) ‘adik lakilaki (adik perempuan)’. ‘orang tua’ merupakan orang yang telah melahirkan anak, sedangkan ‘anak’ merupakan orang yang telah dilahirkan oleh orang tua. ‘suami’ merupakan orang yang telah menikahi wanita yang dicintainya, sedangkan ‘istri’ merupakan orang yang telah dinikahi oleh pria yang telah dicintainya. ‘kakak’ merupakan orang yang dituakan, sedangkan ‘adik laki-laki (perempuan)’ merupakan orang yang dimudakan. jadi, kata-kata tersebut termasuk ke dalam kobutsu no kankei. kuukan kankei(空間関係) kuukan kankei adalah pertentangan berdasarkan hubungan ruang. berikut ini contohnya. (2.7) 「マエ~ウシロ」「ミギ~ヒダリ」「ウエ~シタ」 (tetsuya, 1987:173) ‘depan~belakang’ ‘kanan~kiri’ ‘atas~bawah’ kata マエ ‘depan’ berantonim dengan ウシロ ‘belakang’, ミギ ‘kanan’ berantonim dengan ヒダリ ‘kiri’, ウエ ‘atas’ berantonim dengan シタ ‘bawah’. kata-kata tersebut merupakan antonim, ‘depan’ merupakan letak yang posisinya berlawanan dengan ‘belakang’, ‘kanan’ merupakan letak yang posisinya berlawanan dengan ‘kiri’, dan ‘atas’ merupakan letak yang posisinya berlawanan dengan ‘bawah’. jadi, kata-kata tersebut termasuk ke dalam kategori kuukan kankei. analisis data pada bagian ini hanya ditampilkan satu data dari sejumlah data yang ditemukan mengenai repetisi, sinonim, dan antonim pada kolom tips for living in japan dalam hiragana times dan kolom nj news dalam nihongo journal. repetisi penuh repetisi penuh adalah mengulang sebuah kata dengan bentuk yang benar-benar sama. pada data ditemukan 59 data repetisi penuh. berikut ini salah satu data yang ditemukan. sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim..... (rita susanti; dkk) 41 (3.1) ……..この日は各高校で卒業式が行われる予定で、列車には卒業式に向かう多くの高校 生とその父母らが乗っていました。事故車両に乗り合わせて人の話では、『車内は、 いすや窓ガラスがぐちゃぐちゃに壊れていたが、けが人を助け出すなど、救助に手を 貸す高校生たちの姿もあった』ということです。事故に遭った生徒がいた高校では、 一部卒業式の開始時間を遅らせるなどの対応とられましたが、事故に巻き込まれた生 徒の多くは式に参加できませんでした。そのため学校側では、新たな機会を設けるな ど、なんらかの対応とることを検討しているということです。 (nihongo journal, mei 2007:19) ‘….hari ini rencananya akan diadakan upacara kelulusan di setiap sma. banyak orang tua dan murid sma yang pergi ke tempat upacara kelulusan dengan naik kereta. menurut cerita salah satu penumpang, di dalam gerbong kereta yang mengalami kecelakaan, bangku-bangku dan kaca jendela hancur berantakan dan di dalam gerbong juga terlihat murid sma yang saling membantu untuk mengosongkan gerbong serta menolong yang terluka. sma yang muridnya mengalami kecelakaan mengumumkan akan menunda waktu upacara kelulusan, banyak murid tidak bisa ikut serta dalam upacara tersebut, karena banyak yang terperangkap dalam kecelakaan.’ pada wacana (3.1), kata 卒業式 ’upacara kelulusan’ dan kata 事故 ‘kecelakaan’ yang merupakan kelas kata nomina, diulang secara penuh pada kalimat berikutnya. kata tersebut diulang karena masih mempunyai keterkaitan dengan kalimat sebelumnya dan berfungsi untuk mempertegas informasi yang disampaikan. kata tersebut diulang secara penuh tanpa mengalami perubahan bentuk atau diulang dengan kata yang benar-benar sama. jenis pengulangan ini digolongkan ke dalam repetisi penuh. repetisi dengan modifikasi repetisi dengan modifikasi terjadi apabila mengulang sebuah kata dengan bentuk yang lain, baik dengan penambahan maupun pengurangan pada kata yang diulang. pada sumber data, ditemukan sepuluh data repetisi dengan modifikasi. berikut ini salah satu data yang ditemukan. (3.2) 朝青りょはこの処分の決定後、東京の戻ってきましたが、大きなショックを受けたよ うで、体調をくずして治療を受けています。 (nihongo journal, november 2007:17) ‘setelah keputusan yang dikeluarkan asosiasi sumo jepang tentang hukuman atas tindakannya, asashoryo kembali ke tokyo, dia tampak mendapat guncangan yang hebat dan sekarang ini dia sedang mendapat pengobatan karena kondisinya kurang sehat.’ pada wacana (3.2), kata 受けた ’mendapat’ yang merupakan kelas kata verba bentuk ~た dan bermakna suatu peristiwa yang telah terjadi, diulang dengan bentuk lain menjadi kata 受けていま す ’mendapat’ yang merupakan kelas kata verba bentuk ~て+います dan bermakna suatu peristiwa yang masih berlangsung hingga sekarang (~ています). pengulangan tersebut dapat bertujuan untuk mempertegas informasi yang sdang dibicarakan. akan tetapi, kata tersebut masih mempunyai bentuk dasar yang sama, yaitu kata 受ける ‘mendapat’. oleh karena itu, kata tersebut merupakan jenis repetisi dengan modifikasi. sinonim umum sinonim secara umum adalah sinonim yang hanya digunakan pada konteks tertentu saja. pada sumber data hanya ditemukan dua data sinonim umum. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 42 (3.3) ショッピングやファションで有名なのは銀座、青山、原宿。ここには高級店が立ち並 ぶ。2006 年 2 月には原宿に新しいシンボル「表参道ヒルス」が誕生した。渋谷は原宿 と共に若者の街だ。渋谷は it タウンとしても知られている。新宿はビジネス、ショッ ピング、エンターテイメントと何でもあり、老若男女を受け入れる街として人気があ る。 (hiragana times, april 2006:17) ‘yang terkenal dengan tempat belanja dan fashion adalah ginza, aoyama, harajuku. di sini berjejer toko-toko kelas tinggi. pada bulan februari tahun 2006, lahir simbol baru untuk harajuku yaitu omotesando hills. shibuya sama halnya dengan harajuku merupakan kawasan anak muda. shinjuku populer sebagai kota tempat berkumpulnya tua-muda, pria dan wanita, dan apapun ada seperti tempat belanja dan hiburan.’ pada wacana (3.3), kata 有名な ‘terkenal’ yang termasuk kelas kata adjektiva na bersinonim dengan kata 人気 ‘populer’ yang termasuk kelas kata nomina. kata-kata tersebut merupakan sinonim karena mempunyai makna yang hampir sama, yaitu sesuatu yang sudah sangat dikenal dan diingat oleh orang banyak. namun, kata-kata tersebut tidak dapat saling dipertukarkan pada konteks yang sama. kata 有名な ‘terkenal’ digunakan untuk sesuatu yang diketahui orang melalui namanya, sementara kata 人気 ‘populer’ digunakan untuk sesuatu yang diketahui orang melalui reputasi atau mutunya. sinonim konteks sinonim konteks adalah sinonim yang dapat saling menggantikan dalam konteks yang sama tanpa mengubah makna. pada data ditemukan enam data sinonim konteks. (3.4) しかし、90 日以上滞在する人は外国人登録が必要だ。いずれにしても、短期滞在者は 開設しにくいのが現実だ。 (hiragana times, september 2006: 21) ‘tetapi orang yang tinggal lebih dari 90 hari perlu kartu identitas orang asing. oleh karena itu, pengunjung yang tinggal dalam jangka waktu yang singkat, pada kenyataannya sulit untuk membuka rekening’. pada wacana (3.5), diceritakan tentang peraturan untuk orang asing yang tinggal di jepang lebih dari 90 hari. kata 滞 在 す る 人 ‘orang yang tinggal’ yang termasuk kelas kata nomina bersinonim dengan kata 滞在者 ‘pengunjung yang tinggal’ yang juga termasuk kelas kata nomina. kata-kata tersebut merupakan sinonim karena memiliki makna yang hampir sama, yaitu seseorang yang tinggal di suatu tempat dan termasuk sinonim secara konteks karena apabila kata posisi kedua kata tersebut saling ditukar, tidak akan mengubah makna. antonim kitaiteki hantai kankei kitaiteki hantai kankei adalah hubungan pertentangan dugaan atau harapan atau antisipasi. contohnya adalah sebagai berikut. (3.5) 東京都下、神奈川地域が比較的高く、千葉県および埼玉県地域は比較的安い。 (hiragana times, mei 2006:15) ‘wilayah kanagawa, ibukota tokyo relatif mahal, wilayah prefektur saitama serta prefektur chiba relatif murah’. sinonim, repetisi, dan antonim..... (rita susanti; dkk) 43 pada wacana (3.5), menceritakan tentang wilayah yang mempengaruhi biaya sewa kamar. kata 比較的高い ‘relatif mahal’ yang termasuk kelas kata adjektiva-i merupakan antonim dari kata 比 較的安い ‘relatif murah’ yang juga termasuk kelas kata adjektiva-i. kata 比較的高い ‘relatif mahal’ merupakan suatu harga yang harus dibayar dengan jumlah uang yang banyak. sementara itu, kata 比 較的安い ‘relatif murah’ merupakan suatu harga yang dibayar dengan jumlah uang yang sedikit. oleh karena itu, kata 比較的高い ‘relatif mahal’ berantonim dengan kata 比較的安い ‘relatif murah’ dan termasuk kitaiteki hantai kankei. antonim kuukan kankei kuukan kankei adalah antonim berdasarkan hubungan ruang dan waktu. pada sumber data ditemukan tiga data kuukan kankei. (3.6) 朝早くから夜遅くまで小刻みな間隔で運転されるので、通勤、通学に車をあまり必要 としない。 (hiragana times, april 2006:16) ‘mereka tidak begitu membutuhkan kendaraan untuk pulang-pergi ke sekolah dan pulang-pergi bekerja karena kereta api beroperasi dengan jarak waktu yang singkat dimulai dari pagi-pagi hingga larut malam’. pada wacana (3.6), diceritakan tentang alat transportasi yang digunakan oleh masyarakat jepang untuk menjalani segala rutinitas sehari-hari. kata 朝早く ‘pagi-pagi’ yang termasuk kelas kata nomina, berasal dari kata 朝早い merupakan antonim dari kata 夜遅く ‘larut malam’ yang juga termasuk kelas kata nomina, berasal dari kata 夜遅い. kata 朝早く ‘pagi-pagi’ merupakan permulaan dari suatu jangka waktu. sementara itu, kata 夜遅く ‘larut malam’ merupakan akan berakhirnya suatu jangka waktu. oleh karena itu, kata 朝早く ‘pagi-pagi’ berantonim dengan kata 夜遅く ‘larut malam’ dan termasuk kategori kuukan kankei. penutup berdasarkan hasil analisis, ditemukan 59 data repetisi penuh, 9 data repetisi dengan modifikasi, sinonim umum 2 data, sinonim konteks 6 data, antonim kitaiteki hantai kankei 1 data, dan antonim kuukan kankei 3 data. sementara itu, antonim kobutsu no kankei tidak ditemukan. repetisi penuh sering muncul pada data dapat terjadi karena di dalam setiap paragraf biasanya sering digunakan pengulangan kata yang bertujuan untuk mempertegas informasi yang disampaikan. sementara itu, sinonim konteks sering muncul karena penggunaan sinonim konteks dalam sebuah wacana bertujuan agar wacana tersebut dapat menjadi sebuah wacana yang variatif dan tidak membosankan. antonim kobutsu no kankei tidak ditemukan dalam data karena wacana yang dianalisis tidak menceritakan tentang keluarga atau masalah kehidupan pribadi. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 34-44 44 daftar pustaka anwar, r.h. (1984). bahasa jurnalistik dan komposisi. jakarta: pradnya paramita. brown, g.., and yule, g.. (1996). analisis wacana. terj.1. soetikno. jakarta: gramedia. chaer, a. (1994). linguistik umum. jakarta: erlangga. halliday, m.a.k., and hasan, r. (1997). cohesion in english. london: longman group limited. hinata, s., and hibiya, j. (1988). danwa no kōzō. tokyo: aratake shuppan hiragana times. japanese language center for international student. (1994). chukyu nihongo. tokyo: tokyo university of foreign studies. leech, g. (1974). semantics. harmondsworth: penguin. renkema. (1993). discourse studies. amsterdam: benyamin. sakuma, et.al. (1999). bunshou danwa no shikumi. tokyo: oufu. tarigan. (1987). pengajaran wacana. bandung: angkasa. tetsuya, k. (1987). imiron no hōho. tokyo: taishukan shoten. _______. “nj news” nihongo journal. (2007). tokyo: alc press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 97 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 97-104 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.3635 impoliteness in english as a foreign language complaints: exploring its intentions and motivating factors agus wijayanto1; mauly halwat hikmat2; aryati prasetyarini3 1,2,3english language education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta jln. ahmad yani, pabelan, surakarta 57162, indonesia 1agus_wijayanto@ums.ac.id; 2mauly.hikmat@ums.ac.id; 3aryati_prasetyarini@ums.ac.id received: 15th september 2017/ revised: 15th november 2017/ accepted: 27th november 2017 how to cite: wijayanto, a., hikamat, m. h., & prasetyarini, a. (2018). impoliteness in english as a foreign language complaints: exploring its intentions and motivating factors. lingua cultura, 12(1), 97-104. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.3635 abstract the study investigated intentions and motivating factors of using impoliteness in interlanguage complaints by english as a foreign language (efl) learners. empirical data were elicited by means of oral discourse completion tasks and questionnaires from 42 indonesian learners of english. post-structured interviews were conducted to obtain the intentions and reasons of deploying impoliteness in the complaints. the results reveal that impoliteness is triggered by three general motivating factors; speaker-related factors, target person-related factors, and contextual factors. a number of intentions of deploying impoliteness are found, and they suggest that impoliteness is a mean to an end rather than an end itself. keywords: impoliteness, interlanguage, complaints, learner intention, learner motivation, face attack introduction complaining is a part of daily language use, for example when people express their annoyance or dissatisfaction towards unpleasant events or situations that get them into trouble. categorized as expressive acts, complaints intrinsically convey negative evaluations toward complainees’ behaviors or undertakings (edwards, 2005; traverso, 2009). because of this, not only the complainees’ negative and positive faces are often threatened (kraft & geluykens, 2002; monzoni, 2009), but even the social relationships between them and the complainers can be harmed (moon, 2001). therefore, complainers have to consider politeness when they decide to make complaints (wijayanto et al., 2013). owing to their intrinsically face threatening traits, complaints are challenging to be deployed politely by foreign language learners (l2) or non-native speakers. studies have reported that instead of using polite complaints, l2 learners are apt to employ direct or harsh diction in their complaints. for example, korean learners of english tend to produce aggressive and disrespectful criticisms when complaining in english (murphy & neu, 1996). sudanese learners of english produce confrontational complaints and show a low level of courtesy (umar, 2006). a study by kraft and geluykens (2002) has reported that l2 learners use explicit complaints more frequently than native speakers. other studies have reported that indonesian learners of english frequently use harsh and explicit complaints as well (pratiwi, 2013; wijayanto, prasetyarini, & hikmat, 2014). the studies have revealed inappropriate use of complaints by l2 learners. nevertheless, they have only reported post hoc explanations on the directness levels of the complaints. the present study seeks to explore impoliteness used in interlanguage complaints by efl learners. it particularly observes the intentions and reasons of using impoliteness. the results of the present study might provide crucial information for language teachers to help efl learners understand impolite situations, for them to avoid engaging in potentially impolite interactions. compared to politeness that has been analyzed for almost five decades, impoliteness has only been explored quite recently. this could be because it has been ignored as it is considered an offensive linguistic behaviour, and is the ‘parasite of politeness’ (culpeper, 1996). nevertheless, scholars, e.g., bousfield (2008); culpeper, bousfield, and wichmann (2003) have argued that impoliteness is worth explaining in order to understand its functions and roles in social interactions. in relation to l2 learning, mugford (2008) has averred that learners have the right to learn impoliteness because in real-life situations, social interactions may not always be polite. importantly, mugford (2008) has also underscored that l2 teachers should help language learners to identify potentially impolite practices and offer ways of dealing with impoliteness. unlike politeness that is commonly employed to maintain social harmony, impoliteness is considered a communicative strategy to promote social conflicts. culpeper (2005) has defined impoliteness as a ‘face attack’ 98 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 97-104 which is intentionally deployed by speakers and/or perceived as such by the listeners. he has stated that impoliteness consists of binary parts, which are the offensive information being expressed by the utterance and the information being expressed intentionally. similarly, bousfield (2007b) has underscored that impoliteness constitutes the issuing of intentionally gratuitous and conflictive verbal facethreatening acts (ftas) which are purposely performed. the contention highlights that impoliteness is intentional rather than accidental. nonetheless, other literature claims that speakers’ intentionality may not be relevant for judging whether some acts are polite or impolite. for example, locher and watts (2008) have argued that it is through the judgments of co-participants that utterances can be taken either as impolite or not, and they are dynamically negotiated by a variety of contextual factors. amid such heated discussions, locher and bousfield (2008) have suggested some research on the role of intentions in the production and interpretation of impolite acts. as a communicative strategy, impoliteness is not used without reasons. bousfield (2007a) has argued that impoliteness does not exist in a vacuum and that the interactants must have felt sufficiently provoked at some point prior to delivering the utterance containing impoliteness. based on the data taken from the tv show, soldiers to be, bousfield has reported that offensive situations are common triggers to impoliteness, such as behaviours that could not meet the expectation of other interlocutors. another trigger reported by bousfield is a combination of behaviours and physical appearance. in this case, irrelevant behaviours and unacceptable physical appearance which are unexpected by an institution become offensive situations which then provokes face attacks. based on the data elicited from the tv series, the clampers and parking wars, bousfield has found other triggers to impoliteness such as speakers’ getting a parking ticket and their vehicle getting clamped. these findings have shed light that impoliteness can be generated by a number of different reasons. other factors, such as social power, intimacy, and conflict of interest, can induce the occurrences of impoliteness. when collocutors have unequal social power, those with more social power tend to do impoliteness. this claim is supported by the data from the study by culpeper (1996). for example, non-commissioned officers deploy face attacks regularly towards an army recruit who has less power than them. a study by kantara (2010) has reported similarly that impoliteness could be achieved through legitimate and/or expert power. furthermore, culpeper (1996) has stated that in the situations in which collocutors have close relationships, impoliteness tends to occur because they lack a mechanism to achieve their dominance. impoliteness will also occur commonly when collocutors have a conflict of interest. a growing body of research has analyzed impoliteness in a number of social situations. for example, culpeper (1996) has studied impoliteness in army recruit training. culpeper has examined latent impolite intentions of non-commissioned officers (ncos) towards a female army recruit. culpeper has reported that the ncos deploy impoliteness by attacking the recruit’s capability, self-worth, and mental sanity. face attacks are also observed based on the abusive language directed toward the recruit’s social role as an american citizen, a soldier, and a potential mother. non-verbal cues of the ncos such as their sitting positions and the distance of speaking also prompt impoliteness. in a follow-up study, culpeper, bousfield, and wichmann (2003) have reported that both linguistic and prosodic aspects could provoke impoliteness. the researchers employ data from the bbc’s documentary tv series, the clampers. they reconstruct the intentions of impoliteness based on the utterances spoken by traffic wardens and drivers who dispute over penalties for illegally parked cars. in addition, culpeper, bousfield, and wichmann (2003) have analyzed the data records from tribunal appeals, and they report that impoliteness could be conveyed via prosodies such as intonation, loudness, and speed of utterances. in this regard, high intonation with particular loudness and speed could also convey impoliteness. the subsequent study by culpeper (2005) has investigated impoliteness in a tv quiz show, the weakest link. in this study, he has reformulated his previous concept of impoliteness by considering both speakers’ intentionality and hearers’ perceptions of the speakers’ behaviours as intentional face attacks. he has found that impoliteness could be achieved by impolite intentions implied in whquestions and yes/no questions. based on the findings, culpeper has added off-record impoliteness to his previous model. a study by kryk-kastovsky (2006) has examined impolite acts in courtroom discourse. in this study, he has found two types of impoliteness; overt and covert impoliteness. the former is conveyed via surface representations of utterances, for example, it is expressed through derogatory address terms, name-calling, and sarcasm. the latter is expressed through implicatures, for example, it is implied through questions which intimidate witnesses, interrupted their statements, and cast doubt on the truth of their statements. a study by bousfield (2007b) has analyzed impoliteness in relation to the organization and conductivity of utterances. the study uses three tv series as the data source; the clampers, the soldiers to be, and boiling point. bousfield (2007b) has found a number of conversation strategies deliberately that is organized by speakers to entrap the target interlocutors into impolite situations. for example, the usage of rhetorical challenges or unpalatable questions to compel addressees to be in the position of getting blames. a strategy of the response-seeking challenge is applied as a verbal trap to provoke further face attacks or impoliteness. most of the studies have assumed that the speakers’ intentionality to attack others’ face is what generates impoliteness. however, the intentionality of attacking the other’s face is interpreted on the basis of linguistic, prosodic, and non-linguistic data. in other words, it is not informed directly by the speakers. although the literature has paid attention to speakers’ intentionality in the production of impolite acts, however, little has been discussed about intentions and reasons of employing impoliteness. this might be because intentions are discursive and hard to access directly from speakers’ mind (haugh, 2010). in addition, recognizing intentions of impoliteness is highly problematic as they have to be inferred in communication (culpeper, 2005). thus, what has been viewed as the intentions of attacking others’ face is the perception of intention that could be rather hypothetical. therefore, more research is needed to ascertain the role of intention in the production and interpretation of impolite or rude behavior (bousfield, 2008). to the best of the knowledge, bousfield’s (2007a) study is the first that discusses triggers of impoliteness. nonetheless, little is known about the intentions and reasons of using impoliteness. the purpose of the present study is to 99impoliteness in english as a foreign language .... (agus wijayanto, et al.) investigate the intentions and reasons of using impoliteness in interlanguage complaints by indonesian efl learners. studies done prior to this have scrutinized the intentions of using impoliteness by interpreting linguistic, prosodic, and non-linguistic data. differently, the present study elicits intentions and reasons of using impoliteness directly from the speakers (in this case the indonesian efl learners). for this purpose, the study has raised the following research questions: what are the efl learners’ intentions of using impoliteness in their complaints?, what are the reasons or motivating factors for employing the impoliteness? methods initially, 50 indonesian learners of english have participated in the study and provided the data of complaints through oral discourse completion tasks (odcts). however, only 42 learners comprising males (n=20) and females (n=22) are willing to provide research data through questionnaires and interviews at the next stage of data elicitation. the efl learners are third-year undergraduate students studying at the english department of a university in central java, indonesia. their ages range from 21 to 24 years old, with the average age of 22,5 years old. they report that they have studied english for six years at the secondary schools and three years at the english department. their english proficiency is at the lower advanced level. oral discourse completion tasks (odcts) are employed to elicit the data of efl complaints. the odct consists of scenario descriptions that provide the research participants with specific social situations, settings, speaker’s roles, familiarities between interlocutors, and their relative status levels. the scenarios of the odcts are set according to nine interpersonal communication contexts, each of which presents collocutors with different seniority or occupations (lower, equal, and higher) and social distances or familiarities (close, familiar, and unfamiliar). four odct scenarios; i.e., situation 2, 4, 5, and 9 are adopted from wijayanto et al. (2013). they are summarized in table 1. to answer the odct, the learners have to imagine being in the situations, and they have to respond to each situation in the scenario as spontaneously as they would do in real life. the researchers have recorded their responses digitally and transcribed them. at the next stage of data elicitation, the responses are made as prompts of a written questionnaire. each participant receives a questionnaire containing nine complaints that they have previously made through the odct. each complaint is provided with three scales by which they have to assess whether the complaint is polite, impolite, or i am not sure. for example: odct situation 1: your close friend borrows your laptop to type his/her assignment. when it is returned, you find that its screen is broken. you complain to your friend about it. you say: “oh, what did you do with my laptop? why the screen is broken?” what do you think of your complaint above? please circle your choice of the following options: 1. polite 2. impolite 3. i am not sure the participants who assess that their complaints are impolite will engage in an interview. through the interview, the researchers elicit the intentions and reasons of using the impoliteness. in order to obtain the intentions of using the impoliteness, the study has adopted culpeper’s (2008) concept of impoliteness; communicative behaviour and intent to cause ‘face loss’ of a target. based on the concept, the efl learners are asked the following question; ‘what is your intention of using the impoliteness in your complaint?’ furthermore, bousfield’s (2007a) notion of offending situations has been adopted to elicit the reasons for using the impoliteness. the efl learners are asked the following question; ‘what is your reason for using the impoliteness in your complaint?’ to anticipate their limited command of english, the study has interviewed in their national language (indonesian). based on their responses, the metapragmatic knowledge of using the impoliteness is analyzed. the study thoroughly examines their comments regarding the effects of contexts or situations, social power, and social distances between interlocutors on the use of impoliteness. table 1 odct scenarios situations description speakers’ status power distance situation 1 a close friend broke your laptop. equal close situation 2 your younger brother returns your motorcycle late. higher close situation 3 your lecturer has been lazy to give feedback to your thesis draft. lower close situation 4 your next door neighbour turns on rock music too loudly. equal familiar situation 5 your employee has not finished the report you ordered. higher familiar situation 6 your lecturer gave you a bad mark. lower familiar situation 7 a stranger’s car hits your motorcycle from the back. equal unfamiliar situation 8 a recycler scatters rubbish in front of your house. higher unfamiliar situation 9 administrative staffs ignore your presence. lower unfamiliar 100 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 97-104 results and discussions the study has obtained 450 set of complaint strategies as data. out of the total number of the data set, 239 (53%) complaints contain impoliteness as proposed by culpeper (1996). the following discusses the intentions and reasons or motivating factors of using impoliteness. the first aspect to be discussed is the intentions of using impoliteness. due to space constraints, only several extracts from the interviews are presented. the following are several examples found in the complaints to the speaker’s younger brother who returns a motorcycle late (odct situation 2). the excerpts show that the efl learners (henceforth: the complainers) use impoliteness with different intentions. in (1), the complainer states that he wants his brother to know how to behave and learn how to take responsibility. he also suggests that he uses the impoliteness as a teaching strategy. (1) biar adik saya tahu diri saja, biar dia belajar tanggung jawab. mengajari itu kan nggak hanya dengan cara halus, cara kasar juga perlu. (i want my younger brother to understand how to behave; i want him to learn how to take responsibility. teaching could be done not only through refined ways but also through harsh ways). in (2), the complainer uses the impoliteness to quip her brother, while the complainer in (3) uses it to counsel. (2) ya karena untuk menyindir adik saya. (i do it to quip my younger brother). (3) saya menggunakan kata tersebut untuk mengingatkan adik saya. (i employ the [impolite] word to counsel my younger brother). the next extracts present the intentions of using the impoliteness in the complaints to a supervisor who is lazy to give feedback to the complainer’s thesis draft (odct situation 3). in (4), the complainer states that he might have held a grudge against his supervisor since the beginning. (4) mungkin saya sudah dendam dari semester awal. (possibly, i have held a grudge against him/ her since the first semester). the complainer in (5) confesses that he has complained to his supervisor impolitely. with the impoliteness, he wants his supervisor to give feedback to his thesis draft immediately. (5) ya memang tidak sopan, tetapi harus saya lakukan agar skripsi saya cepat selesai. (yes, i am indeed impolite to him/her, but i have to do that if i want him/her to give feedback to my thesis immediately). in (6), the complainer has some intentions of employing the impoliteness. for example, he wants his supervisor to give feedback on his thesis draft immediately. he also explains that he has no more time to extend his study. in addition, he intends to warn his supervisor who has not done his job well. finally, he also wants to graduate soon. (6) di sini saya memaki dia supaya dia bisa segera menyelesaikan skripsi saya. karena sudah kepepet ini. agar dosen itu juga tahu kalau dia salah dan saya ingin cepat lulus. (i scold him/her so that he/she would give feedback to my thesis draft immediately. i have no time. i want him/her to know that he/she is wrong, and i want to graduate immediately). other intentions of using the impoliteness are explained by the complainers regarding situation 5 (your employee has not finished the report that you ordered). for example, the complainer in (7) uses impoliteness to uphold discipline. (7) iya karena bos. jadi prinsip saya semua karyawan saya harus disiplin, kalau janji hari ini ya hari ini. (because i am the boss, my principle is for my staffs to be well-disciplined. if they promise to finish their tasks today, they have to finish it today). similarly, the complainer in (8) explains that the intention of using the impoliteness is to give the staff a lesson for him/her to learn self-discipline. (8) menurut saya kondisinya sangat penting. walaupun tidak sopan tapi di situ juga biar memberi pelajaran kepada dia biar lebih tertib. (in my opinion, the condition is very important. although it is impolite, i am giving him/her a lesson so that he/she would be more disciplined). unlike the previous ones, the complainer in (9) states that the intention of using the impoliteness is to develop the personality of the staff. (9) saya ingin membentuk kepribadian bawahan saya sebagai pribadi yang disiplin, tangguh dan bertanggung jawab. (i want to develop the personality of my staff into one who is well-disciplined, persevering, and responsible). in (10), the complainer intends to show his superiority and teaches the staff a sense of responsibility. (10) karena yang pertama saya sebagai atasan harus tegas. kedua agar karyawannya lebih bertanggug jawab. (firstly, i have to be assertive as a superior. secondly, i want my staff to become a responsible person). regarding situation 7 (a car hits your motorcycle from the back), some complainers state that the intention of using impoliteness is to appeal to the driver’s responsibility for the accident. it can be seen in example (11). (11) karena dia melakukan kesalahan tapi dia acuh, jadi disini saya seperti 101impoliteness in english as a foreign language .... (agus wijayanto, et al.) menuntut tanggung jawab dia agar dia tidak sembarangan dengan orang lain. (because he has made a mistake, but he is indifferent. therefore, i demand him to take responsibility for the accident in order not to be inconsiderate to others). the classical definitions of impoliteness tend to view that impoliteness concerns communication strategies of which the goal is to attack others’ face or to stir social conflicts. however, these excerpts have shown different information; impoliteness can be used to achieve constructive goals ranging from counseling others on what to do to teach others to uphold self-discipline. for example, the complainer in (1), (7), (8), (9), and (10) employ impoliteness to make the complainees be more responsible and develop their selfdiscipline. the finding supports culpeper’s (1996) claim that face attacks can be used to achieve long-term goals such as developing self-discipline. more importantly, the finding suggests that impoliteness can be employed as a means to an end rather than an end per se. this might explain the intentions of using impoliteness in the previous studies. for example, culpeper’s (1996) impoliteness intentions’ longterm objectives are not only to develop the army recruits’ discipline but also to enhance their alertness and develop their habit of fulfilling commands. in culpeper, bousfield, and wichmann’s (2003) study, the impoliteness might be employed by the drivers as verbal self-defense to avoid getting a ticket from the traffic wardens. in line with the claims of some scholars (bousfield, 2008; locher & bousfield, 2008; locher & watts, 2008), the finding of the present study indicates that impoliteness can be applied as a strategy to exercise social power and get power over actions of other interlocutors. however, it does not mean that only those with more social power can exercise impoliteness; collocutors with less power can also perform it, such as the speaker in (5) and (6). this lends support to locher and bousfield’s (2008) claim that social power is highly dynamic and negotiable. thus, collocutors with higher status levels (e.g., excerpt 7, 8, 9, and 10) or lower status levels (e.g., excerpt 5 and 6) can similarly exercise their power through impoliteness. interestingly, excerpt (5) and (6) indicate that impoliteness can be triggered by the complainees’ negligence of performing obligations. in this case, the complainers use the impoliteness to gain the rights of having good supervision from the supervisor, who has neglected his/her duties. in other words, they use impoliteness to gain the rights of fair treatment, which in spencer-oatey’s (2002) concept is referred to as ‘sociality rights’. excerpt (11) shows that impoliteness is prompted by complainees’ avoidance of taking responsibility. excerpt (4) is interesting to note because it not only confirms culpeper’s (1996) claim that a conflict of interest could induce impoliteness but also shows that long-term psychological warfare between collocutors can prompt the inception of impoliteness. in such a circumstance, impoliteness has evolved out of longterm conflictive interactions. the next aspect to analyze is the reasons for using impoliteness. the present study has found three categories of impoliteness’ triggers; (1) speaker-related factors (henceforth srfs) such as their negative emotions, wants, and desires, etc. (2) target person-related factors (henceforth trfs) such as their attitude, behaviour, character, what they have done, etc. (3) contextual factors (henceforth cfs) which consist of other factors that relate to context situations. the following are some srfs that have engendered the occurrences of impoliteness. for example, the complainer in (12) states that anger is the trigger of the impoliteness. (12) karena saat itu emosi saya sudah tidak bisa ditahan lagi. (because i cannot hold my anger anymore at that time). the second common srf is the annoyance. for example, reverting to his metapragmatic knowledge, the complainer in (13) states that he uses the impoliteness to express his annoyance. (13) soalnya saya sudah jengkel jadi saya menyampaikannya dengan nada tinggi. (because i am so annoyed that i complain in high intonation). similarly, the complainer in (14) states that she is annoyed because her lecturer does not understand what she wants. (14) mungkin saya sudah sangat sebal dengan dosen ini. (maybe i am really annoyed with the lecturer). disappointment is another aspect of srfs. in (15), the complainer recalls his usage of high intonation to express disappointment. (15) saya menggunakan nada tinggi untuk menegaskan bahwa saya kecewa pada poin ini. (i use high intonation to emphasize that i am disappointed at this point). in (16), the complainer states that he is very disappointed as he gets a bad mark even though he attends the class regularly. (16) karena saya sudah sangat kecewa, karena saya sudah tiap hari mengikuti perkuliahannya. (because i am very disappointed as i have attended his lectures regularly). the complainer in (17) states that she hates her friend who is very arrogant. (17) saya sangat benci dengan temanku, jadi sok banget gitu. (i hate my friend who is very conceited) in (18), the complainer states that his stressful condition triggers his use of impoliteness. (18) karena saya benar-benar stres, tertekan keadaan itu mbak. (because i am very stressful and strained by the condition). the following excerpts show a number of lrfs (listener-related factors) that generate the use of impoliteness. for example, the complainer in (19) states that his friend has made a serious mistake. (19) karena kondisinya teman saya melakukan kesalahan yang menurut saya itu 102 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 97-104 adalah kesalahan yang fatal. (i believe that my friend has made a very serious mistake). in (20), the complainer uses impoliteness as the complainee is irresponsible to what he/she has done. (20) karena dia melakukan hal yang tidak bertanggung jawab, jadi saya komplain secara tidak sopan. (because he/she is irresponsible to what he/she has done, i complain to him/her impolitely). the complainer in (21) states that his friend is inconsiderate to him. (21) karena saya sangat ingin belajar tapi teman saya si dony itu tidak pengertian. (because i am trying to study, but my friend, dony, is inconsiderate). in (22), the complainer states that his friend has done something impolitely. (22) karena tindakan dia seperti tidak tahu sopan santun. (because what he has done is impolite). in (23), the complainer gives two reasons of using the impoliteness; his brother breaking his promise and him being younger. (23) karena adik saya sudah berjanji, tapi dia melanggar janji tersebut. selain itu usia adik saya kan dibawah saya, jadi tidak masalah tidak sopan. (my brother has promised to return my motorbike immediately, but he instead breaks the promise. besides, since he is younger than me, it is alright to be impolite to him). in (24), the complainer states that his friend shows no understanding. (24) karena toleransi teman saya sudah hilang. (because my friend is not thoughtful at all). in (25), the complainer uses the impoliteness because the complainee, her next door neighbour, disturbs her study. (25) karena emm… dia terlalu mengganggu ketika saya belajar. (because uhm... she really disturbs me while i am studying). the complainer in (26) states that the complainee does not respect him. (26) karena saya tidak dihargai walaupun sudah antri sangat lama. (because he/she does not respect me, even though i have queued for a long time). the contextual factors (cf) in the present study refer to other aspects that do not directly relate to srfs, and lrfs discussed previously. for example, the complainer in (27) states that the frantic situation induces him to use impoliteness. (27) karena situasinya sangat mendesak, waktu itu ada ujian. (because the situation is very urgent, i have an examination at that time). in (28), the complainer affirms that the delay of finishing and sending reports incites the use of impoliteness. (28) karena laporan tersebut harus dikirim ke jakarta, jadi benar benar harus segera dikirim. (because the reports have to be sent to jakarta, they really have to be sent instantly). based on the metapragmatic comments on the use of impoliteness that are provided by the efl learners (the complainers), the present study reveals various triggers of impoliteness. some excerpts show that impoliteness can be generated by negative emotions such as anger, annoyance, disappointment, and hatred. the finding lends support to kienpointner (2008) who has reported that specific emotions can induce impoliteness. this also supports spencer-oatey (2005) who has averred that negative emotions can regulate linguistic behaviour. excerpt (12) lends support to işıkgüler’s (2008) concept of self-emotion mismanagement which is how not being able to hold back anger can make the speaker be assessed as being impolite. nonetheless, it should be noted that even though the negative emotions above can trigger impoliteness, they are not the antecedent of impoliteness, but rather the reactions toward offending situations. in agreement with culpeper, bousfield, and wichmann’s (2003) findings, excerpt (13) and (15) indicate that the prosodic aspect, such as high intonation can produce impoliteness. excerpt (18) is interesting to note as it shows how feeling worried or stressful can also induce the use of impoliteness. culpeper (1996) has identified some factors that can provoke the use of impoliteness such as unequal social power, intimacy, and a conflict of interest. by contrast, bousfield (2007a) has found that impoliteness can be engendered by offensive situations that are constructed not only by a single aspect but also by concurrent factors. for example, these situations can be constructed by behaviour or performance below the expectation of the other collocutors, and by physical appearance in combination with social hierarchies within the group. the finding of the present study supports and extends bousfield’s (2007a) findings. the excerpts above show a number of offensive situations that have brought about impoliteness. first, the offensive situation comprises events that cause the complainers to be in trouble or difficult situations. for instance, the complainer in (19) identifies the offensive situation as a serious mistake (odct situation 1: a friend breaks the complainer’s laptop). the complainer in (23) states that the offensive situation is his/her brother’s breaking the promise (odct situation 2: complainer’ younger brother returns a motorcycle late). this supports culpeper’s (1996) claim that imbalanced social power can induce impoliteness (i.e., the complainer in (23) has more social power than the complainee). the complainer in (25) identifies the offensive situation as a disturbance (odct situation 4: a neighbour plays rock music too loudly). second, the offensive situation includes negative qualities or characters displayed by the complainees such 103impoliteness in english as a foreign language .... (agus wijayanto, et al.) as irresponsibility (e.g., 20), inconsideration (e.g., 21 and 26), impoliteness (e.g., 22), and insensitivity (e.g., 24). interestingly, excerpt (22) indicates that the offensive situation is the impoliteness displayed by the complainee. thus, impoliteness can be both the trigger and the response to impolite acts. finally, the offensive situation comprises specific episodes that are not desired by the speakers such as excerpt (28) and (29). in short, the offensive situations comprise listeners’ factors and contextual factors. they can generate impoliteness in two different directions. first, the ones that go against the complainers’ expectation, hopes, and sociality rights tended to provoke negative emotions which encourage the complainers to use impoliteness. second, they directly induce the complainers to deploy impoliteness. importantly, the impoliteness is conveyed with the goals of regulating the offensive situations or events. thus, it is intentional and instrumental as summarized in figure 1. speaker’s factors (negative motions) offensive situations/ events impoliteness (regulating) figure 1 the triggers of impoliteness conclusions the present study explores intentions and reasons of using impoliteness in efl complaints. based on the data elicited by retrospective interviews, researchers have obtained a number of explanations regarding the intentions and triggers of impoliteness. in some cases, impoliteness is deployed by speakers to exercise their power by which they can have other collocutors do what they intend, such as making them well behaved, enforcing discipline, and demanding responsibilities. despite the enlightening findings, the study has not found intentions to attack others’ face or to impair social relationship commonly claimed by literature. this might be because the odtc scenarios have not provided situations allowing the research participants to do so. importantly, the finding indicates that impoliteness is a means to an end rather than an end itself. based on the finding, it can be inferred that linguistic impoliteness is verbal aggression intentionally employed by speakers with their dynamic social power to achieve particular communicative goals, which makes it both intentional and instrumental. the reasons for involving impoliteness in the complaints provide us the better understanding that impoliteness can be triggered by a number of factors occurring in specific contexts. the metapragmatic comments obtained from the research participants provide us indispensable information that impoliteness is triggered by offensive situations that comprise listeners’ factors and contextual factors. moreover, they can incite the occurrences of impoliteness either directly or indirectly. references bousfield, d. 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(2009). the dilemmas of third-party complaints in conversation between friends. journal of pragmatics, 41(12), 2385-2399. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.09.047. umar, a. m. a. t. (2006). the speech act of complaint as realized by advanced sudanese learners of english. umm al-qura university journal of educational & social sciences & humanities, 18(2), 9-40. wijayanto, a., laila m., prasetyarini a., & susiati. (2013). politeness in interlanguage pragmatics of complaints by indonesian learners of english. english language teaching, 6(10), 188-201. wijayanto, a., prasetyarini, a., hikmat, m. h. (2014, 9 apr). ketidaksantunan (impoliteness) dalam tindak tutur keluhan oleh pembelajar bahasa inggris berlatarbelakang budaya jawa: kajian pragmatik interlingual. retrieved june 25th 2016 from https:// publikasiilmiah.ums.ac.id/handle/11617/5612. microsoft word 05 almo_setting how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 51 how do binus university undergraduate students value english in the general, academic, and elt context? almodad b. asmani english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 aasmani@binus.edu abstract article explored the issues of the reasons and ways indonesian undergraduate students taking english subjects at binus university valued english, particularly in relation to its roles and influences as the dominant language and as the world’s lingua franca, and how these could give impacts on the elt (english language teaching) purposes at binus university. the study used the quantitative approach to find out the pattern of the ways they valued english in the general, academic and elt contexts. the analysis of the quantitative results showed that there was a tendency that non-computer students value english relatively higher than computer students in terms of linguistically imperialistic ideas and macroacquisition views, while english itself tended to be respected by all students for both reasons of material/non-material benefits as well as international influences. in summary, teacher resources, teaching techniques, curriculum design, material content and assessment format should put these findings into consideration so as to make the best teaching methodology for elt practices at binus university. keywords: english values, students abstrak artikel menjelaskan alasan dan cara mahasiswa yang mengambil mata kuliah bahasa inggris di universitas bina nusantara dapat menghargai bahasa inggris, khususnya terkait dengan peran bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa pergaulan internasional, serta bagaimana hal ini berdampak pada tujuan pengajaran bahasa inggris (elt) di binus. penelitian menggunakan metode kuantitatif guna mendapatkan pola atau cara mahasiswa menghargai bahasa inggris secara umum, akademik, dan yang terkait dalam konteks elt. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa terdapat tendensi mahasiswa jurusan non-komputer menghargai bahasa inggris lebih tinggi dari pada jurusan komputer untuk bidang linguistic imperialistic dan macroacquisition, sementara bahasa inggris sendiri dihargai oleh semua jurusan, baik untuk alasan keuntungan material/non-material dan pengaruh internasional. disimpulkan, pengajar, teknik mengajar, kurikulum, material, dan format ujian harus memperhatikan temuan ini sehingga pengajaran bahasa inggris yang paling tepat di elt dapat dilaksanakan. kata kunci: nilai bahasa, bahasa inggris, mahasiswa 52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 51-61 introduction article explores the issues of why and how indonesian undergraduate students learning english subjects at binus university value the english language, particularly in relation to factors of linguistically imperialistic ideas and macroacquisition influences, and how these can give impacts on the elt (english language teaching) purposes at binus university. a large number of binus university students of different majors are taking english subjects as part of their required credit scheme at their own faculties. there seems to some pedagogic problems that hinder their success in learning english at binus university. certainly, these students have their own reasons and purposes as well as preferred ways to learn english in the educational contexts at binus university. the research paper describes what these possible reasons might be and what ways they value english in this regard, and how these perspectives can be linked to some teaching approaches in elt pedagogy at binus university. the research refers to two conflicting perspectives of “linguistic imperialism” as proposed by phillipson (1992) and of international influences as proposed by mackay (2003). the purpose of the research is to find out whether the students’ interests in learning english subjects at binus university is the result of the consideration of rewards and benefits that english can bring into their lives, such as in economic, communicative (here meaning communication and transport), cultural, social and educational contexts, and if not, for what and why. the study also tries to find out how these students view some teaching approaches in the elt contexts at binus university as the result of their valuing english in this regard. therefore, the research project aims to answer several research questions, namely: (1) what is the rationale of learning english at binus university from the students’ perspectives?; (2) in what ways do these students learning english subjects at binus university value english?; and (3) how are these ways of valuing english in this regard related to the teaching and learning process of elt contexts at binus university? the study has some academic significance in a way that it provides the detailed description of the reasons and ways binus university students value english and of the teaching approaches that should be conducted in this regard. the knowledge can provide resourceful information for elt contexts at binus university in terms of: (1) the teacher resources of native or non-native speakers of english; (2) the curriculum design of the academic or business goals; (3) the teaching methodology of clt (communicative language teaching) approach or grammar-based instruction; and (4) the assessment issue of formative or summative format. by the results of the research, i could find the closer link and match between the theoretical foundations of elt pedagogy and the dynamic needs and demands of the indonesian students studying english at binus university. phillipson introduces the term “english linguistic imperialism” and defines it as the condition where “the dominance of english is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between english and other languages” (1992: 47). structural here refers to “material properties (for example, institutions, financial allocations)” (p. 47), and cultural refers to “immaterial or ideological properties (for example, attitudes, pedagogic principles)” (p. 47). in his perspective, english linguistic imperialism is considered as a sub-type of ‘linguicism’, which he defined as ‘ideologies, structures, and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language’ (1992: 47). one of the legitimation of english linguistics imperialism, in his perspective, is in the area of pedagogy (professionalism), in which elt, together with its methods, techniques, and procedures, contributes to maintain the structural and cultural inequalities of linguicism. in his arguments, elt basically fulfills three specific functions to serve the ‘state’. first, it has ‘economic-reproductive’ how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 53 function, in which it helps the state to operate the technology in the nation by qualifying the people with english as the access language. secondly, it also has ‘ideological’ function, where it provides people with the channel for modern ideas, such as interpersonal, social and cultural values that english brings with it. thirdly, it has ‘repressive’ function, where english is the only choice as the medium of instruction in english classes and for other subjects. therefore, in his consideration, elt is closely linked to ‘hegemony’, where it is used to justify the use of english or the learning of english, which contribute to the maintenance of english as the dominant language. mckay (2003) challenges the assumption that “interest in learning english is largely the result of linguistic imperialism” (p. 3). she argues that the dramatic change in the number of second language speakers of english around the world and the present cultural shift of the nature of english have resulted in the new nature of english as an international language. she argues that students choose to learn english because they will need it in ‘multilingual context’, where more and more individuals acquire english as the means of communication for inter/intranational purposes. in particular, she uses brutt-griffler terms ‘macroacquisition’ to refer to the condition where “many individuals in an existing speech community acquiring the language” (p. 2), resulting in the increasing number of bilingual users of english worldwide. the other reason why many individuals learn english, in her perspective, is they need to explain to others about their own country and cultural values for international relations, such as for commerce or business purposes.’ hence, in mckay’s point of view, english learning no longer needs to focus heavily on the concerns and cultures of inner circle countries, and as a result, learners do not need to ‘internalize the cultural norms of the target language’ (p. 3). based on her arguments, she proposes new pedagogy of elt by challenging some of the assumptions of typical elt pedagogy, namely (p. 3): (1) interest in learning english is largely the result of linguistic imperialism; (2) elt research and pedagogy should be informed by native speaker models; (3) the cultural content for elt should be derived from the cultures of native english speakers; and (4) the culture of learning that informs communicative language teaching (clt) provides the most productive method for elt. in her journal, celce-murcia et al. (1997) discusses about some problems found in the clt approach, which has been used quite extensively in various institutions, including at the university level. in my consideration, these problems are closely related with the ways students value english in its relation with what they can achieve after graduation. in my research project, i will try to find out whether students’ interests in learning english are the result of factors related to linguistically imperialistic ideas (as proposed by phillipson and some other authors), or whether they have their own reasons and purposes in learning english which are not influenced by the promotion of the inner circle countries. furthermore, i would like to find out how these students view the assumptions of the new elt pedagogy (as proposed by mckay), as the result of the de-linking of english from inner circle countries and the increasing number of bilingual users of english in the outer circle. method the nature of knowledge and general research approach instead of trying to find the ‘universal laws’ underpinning a social world (cohen et al., 2000), i will focus on the general tendency of these students in valuing english in relation to its role as the dominant language and as the international language. after that, i will try to link their assumptions in this regard with some related approaches of elt pedagogy. thus, i will try to find out their pattern of responses to the statements that i will design in the instrument to reflect those assumptions. 54 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 51-61 based on the nature of this knowledge, my position in this research project is in the positivist/empiricist epistemology. this approach is more concerned with generalization, prediction and control. based on the nature of my research, i will apply the approach of quantitative data gathering and analysis. by using a quantitative methodology in the project, i will focus on more context-free generalizations of the observed social phenomenon by examining the relationship of the variables. here, i will rely on statistical results represented with numbers. data collection i will use survey questionnaires to collect the data, and my target population will be all undergraduate students who study english subjects at binus university in the even semester of 2008/2009. questionnaires to find out how these students value english, i will use arguments proposed by some authors who hold different perspectives. one holds the linguistically imperialistic ideas, and the other supports the macro-acquisition nature of english. besides, i will also use arguments that are carefully considered as representing the underpinning principles of clt approach, based on the ideas of some authors. this kind of questions will provide many possible reasons and purposes why these students learn english or why these students consider english important, as well as whether the current clt approach has already been in line with the needs and demands of the learners. i will give the statements in the form of questionnaires of predominantly selected-response questions with some open-ended items. the selected-response items enable me to maintain the precision and clarity of my research problems in a way that the possibility of the students to give answers or responses, which deviate from the real problems, can be put at a minimum level. it is very hard to control this in open-ended questions or interviews alone. wiersma (1991) notes that ”selectedresponse items enhance consistency of response across respondents, data tabulation generally is straightforward and less time-consuming than for open-ended items” (p. 176). in my consideration, the pre-coded items also help students think about the reasons and purposes of learning english, which might already exist unconsciously in their minds. furthermore, the statements that i will provide in the questionnaire are already thought of and formulated carefully to represent many possible reasons and purposes that best reflect how students value english in this matter. since i will measure how strong their average responses to each statement are, it asks for degrees of agreement. here, i will use a kind of likert scaling with five or more choices, ranging from ’strongly agree’ to ’strongly disagree’. mcdonough and mcdonough (1997) note that each statement is related to each other, and the respondents’ responses ’can be summed over the whole questionnaire’ to produce a measure of strength. due to some considerations of the high response rate, non-respondents’ exclusion, the spread of respondents and reasonable costs, i will personally administer the questionnaire to the participants by asking the permission of time and opportunity from some english lecturers teaching their classes in the even semester of 2008/2009 across campuses at binus university. participants i will divide the participants into two groups of undergraduate students who take english subjects in the even semester of 2008/2009 at binus university, which are: (a) undergraduate students studying at faculty of computer studies (80 students). (b) undergraduate students studying at faculties of non-computer studies (80 students). (c) undergraduate students studying at faculty of economics and business (30 students). (d) undergraduate students studying at faculty of communication and multimedia (30 students). (e) undergraduate students studying at faculty of language and culture (20 students). how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 55 these students are chosen as the participants in my research project due to some reasons. first, all students of non-english department studying at binus university must take english as the core subjects. this results in a large number of english-studying students who need a special academic consideration and treatment to meet the aims and objectives as expected. second, due to the fact that i am the coordinator of all english subjects at binus university, i am in a better position to investigate any issue of the english subjects in terms of the appropriateness and quality of the materials given, the teaching methodology delivered and the curriculum designed. since there are subpopulations in the population to be sampled and due to the fact that it is not homogeneous, i will use the approach of stratified random sampling, where “all strata are represented in the sample, and the sample members are selected from each stratum at random” (wiersma, 1991: 253). for allocation of sample size among strata, i will use proportional allocation method, where “the allocation of strata members in the sample is proportional to the numbers of members in the strata of the population” (wiersma, 1991: 253). data analysis for quantitative analysis, i will use the anova statistical analysis to test the hypotheses as follows: (1) null hypothesis 1: the responses means for binus university students studying english at two different groups of faculty are equal. (2) alternate hypothesis 1: the responses means for binus university students studying english at two different groups of faculty are not equal. (3) null hypothesis 2: the responses means for binus university students studying english in answering two different categories of question are equal. (4) alternate hypothesis 2: the responses means for binus university students studying english in answering two different categories of question are not equal. my independent variables are the group difference (faculties of study) and the question categories (linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition), and my dependent variable is the student’s responses. i choose the anova statistical analysis due to various reasons. first, i use single items with likert scale response format for measurement of the dependent variable (responses), whose data is on interval scale. second, i will test the significance of the difference between the means of two independent samples under two independent variables, and the anova statistical analysis applies in this procedure. the data collected will be presented in a 2x2 multifactor analysis of variance to find out the combined effect of the differences of the faculty groups and the question categories to the student’s responses. by using the model, i will analyze: (1) whether there is a significant difference of the students’ responses under two groups of faculty. (2) whether there is a significant difference of the students’ responses in answering two categories of question. if there is a significant difference in the first point, i will describe how different the students’ responses are distributed under each group of faculty, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are different. if there is no significant difference in the first point, i will describe how similar the students’ responses are distributed under each group of faculty, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are similar. if there is a significant difference in the second point, i will describe how different the students’ responses are distributed under each category of question, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are different. if there is no significant difference in the second point, i will describe how similar the students’ responses are distributed under each group of question, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are similar. 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 51-61 results and discussion data presentation responses data of binus university students from two faculty groups in valuing english under two categories of questions is presented in table 1 below: table 1 responses on english value of students from two faculty groups under two question categories data summary the responses data of the four student groups under the two faculty groups with two question categories is summarized in table 2 below: table 2 summary of a 2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance of four student groups how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 57 three f ratios are listed in the table. to find the significance of each of these values, the writer consults the table of f values in the appendix. to use the table, the writer uses the number of degrees of freedom associated with each f ratio (df for the numerator) and the number of df associated with the within-groups mean square (df for the denominator). the between-columns f ratio is 7.35. consulting the table, with 1 and 956 df, the writer finds that an f ratio of 3.86 or more is needed for significance at the .05 level, and an f ratio of 6.70 or more is needed at the .01 level. because the obtained value of 7.35 is higher than the values shown on the table, the writer can conclude that the difference between the responses of the students from computer studies and from other studies is statistically significant. the between-rows f ratio is 1.28. with the same df (1 and 956) on the table, the obtained value of 1.28 is lower than the f ratio of both 3.86 (.05 level) and 6.70 (.01 level). the writer can conclude that the difference of the students’ responses under linguistics imperialism questions and under macroacquisition questions is not statistically significant. the column-by-rows f ratio is 240.46. with the same df (1 and 956), the obtained value far exceeds both of the values on the table (3.86 and 6.70), and is thus significant at the .01 level. the writer can conclude that the difference between the responses of the computer students in answering linguistics imperialism and macroacquisition questions and the responses of the non-computer students in answering linguistics imperialism and macroacquisition questions is statistically significant. data interpretation of the first f ratio the first f ratio (between columns) is significant and shows that the faculty groups differ significantly from one another in their effect on the responses of the students in answering the questions. the analysis is a comparison of the combined responses of groups 1 and 2 (x = 3.76) with the combined responses of groups 3 and 4 (x = 3.86). from the significance of this f ratio, the writer can infer that the difference between the responses of the students from computer studies and those from other studies is beyond chance expectation. because of the significance of the f ratio for the group difference, the writer can conclude that undergraduate students of non-computer studies at binus university tend to give a higher score in valuing english than computer students when they respond to both question categories of linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition. linguistic imperialism under the domain of linguistic imperialism, the responses means of the students from computer studies (3.72) is lower than those from other studies (3.86). generally, it shows that students from non-computer studies have given higher scores than students from computer studies in valuing english inherent with linguistics imperialism aspects in the general, elt and academic contexts. in the general contexts of linguistics imperialism, the average mean of the computer students is 4.09, and that of non-computer students is 4.12. it shows that students of non-computer studies at binus university tend to give a more preference on english in terms of future career, educational levels, social status, world’s information, excursions, and lifestyle that the inner circle countries can provide. however, students of computer studies also give a high value (4.09) towards english in this matter. so the writer can say that students of both groups tend to agree that english is appreciated for what it can bring to them in their lives in terms of material, educational, social and cultural benefits. in the elt context of linguistics imperialism, the average mean of the computer students is 3.70, and that of non-computer students is 3.80. both means are under 4 (agreement level), but show a trend towards agreement. this means the students of both studies tend to agree (though not fully) that 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 51-61 elt should be inherent with the presence of native-speaking teachers, english-speaking culture-based materials and communicative language teaching (clt) approach in the classroom. in the data, those of the non-computer studies tend to give a higher score on valuing english with linguistic imperialistic ideas in elt context than those of computer studies. in the academic context of linguistic imperialism, students of non-computer studies have given english a higher score (3.66) than those of the computer studies (3.38). however, both groups still value english in this matter under the score of 4 (agreement level). students of computer studies are tend to be not fully in agreement (score 3.38) with the situation that english in the academic settings, such as seminars, workshops, etc should be rendered with the direct writing style of the papers, native-like proficiency of the speakers, participants and writers, while students of noncomputer studies tend to render higher agreement with the situation (score 3.66). macroacquisition under the domain of macroacquisition, the responses means of the students from computer studies (3.80) is lower than those from other studies (3.86). generally, it shows that students from noncomputer studies have given higher scores than students from computer studies in valuing english inherent with macroacquisition aspects in the general, elt and academic contexts. in the general context of macroacquisition, the responses mean of the computer students (4.17) is lower than that of non-computer students (4.26). however, students of both groups tend to give a high score (score 4 and above). this shows that they tend to have a clear preference towards english with the benefits of international economic transactions, international research, international people, international source of information, international excursions and international cultures that english can bring with. students of non-computer studies tend to value english more in this matter (4.26) than computer students (4.17). in the elt context of macroacquisition, the responses mean of the computer students (3.52) is far less than that of the non-computer students (3.63). however, students of both groups tend to give a lower score than score 4 (agreement level). it seems that they tend to give responses towards agreement (though not fully) to the aspects of macroacquisition inherent in elt, such as the presence of the international english teachers, the multinational culture-based materials and the more grammarbased approach in the classroom. students of computer studies tend to far less agree with the situation (3.52) than students of non-computer studies (3.63). in the academic context of macroacquisition, the responses means of the computer students show a bit higher score (3.72) than that of non-computer students (3.68). however, students of both groups give a score that is below 4 (agreement level). this means that students of both groups tend to give responses towards agreement (though not fully) with the situation that under academic contexts, such as seminars, workshops, etc, english should be rendered with the aspects of a freer writing style of the papers presented, international accents and language styles of the speakers, participants and authors. the students of the computer studies give a higher score in valuing english in this matter (3.72) than the students of the non-computer studies (3.68). data interpretation of the second f ratio the second f ratio (between rows) is not significant and shows that the two questions categories do not differ significantly from one another in their effect on the responses of the students. this analysis, a comparison of the combined responses of groups 1 and 3 (x = 3.79) with the combined responses of groups 2 and 4 (x = 3.83), was not statistically significant, so the writer can conclude that the difference between the students’ responses to linguistic imperialism questions how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 59 versus those to macroacquisition questions is not statistically significant. both groups of students give an average score below 4 (agreement level) to both types of questions, so both of them value english with relatively the same trend of neutrality-towards-agreement level in terms of either linguistic imperialism and macro acquisition aspects. general context under the general contexts of both linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition categories, the students give the average score above 4 (agreement level). so, they generally think that english is much appreciated for both the aspects of linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition. they consider that english can bring them the benefits of financial, educational, social, informational, travel and cultural rewards of the inner circle. however, they also consider that english is appreciated for its advantages in multinational business transactions, wider knowledge, international relations, multisource information, international excursions, and multicultural experiences. elt context under the elt contexts of both categories of questions (linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition), both groups of students give the average scores between 3.5 and 3.8, which indicates that they tend to show a neutrality-towards-agreement trend with the context of elt inherent with either linguistic imperialism or macroacquisition features. english in the elt context of linguistic imperialism involves the roles of the native-speaking teachers, west culture-oriented materials, and the promoted clt (communicative language teaching) approach. english in the elt context of macroacquisition involves the roles of international teachers of english, multicultural content-based materials, and form (rather than meaning)-based teaching approach. due to the insignificance of the between-rows f value, the writer thinks that there are some aspects of either linguistic imperialism or macroacquisition that students tend to agree (though not fully) if these are to be integrated into elt context. academic context under the academic context of both linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition, both groups of students render the average scores between 3.38 and 3.72, which again show that they tend to give a neutrality-towards-agreement response that academic context be influenced with all aspects of both linguistic imperialism and macroacquisition. the academic context with linguistic imperialism includes the direct style in writing papers, the native-like proficiency of the presenters, participants and authors. the academic context with macroacquisition includes the freer style of writing papers, international accents and language styles of the presenters, participants and authors. with the insignificance of the f value (between-rows), the writer concludes that students tend to agree (though not fully) that some aspects or more of either linguistic imperialism or macroacquisition be integrated in the academic settings. data interpretation of the third f ratio the third f ratio shows the interaction effect between the two variables: the faculty groups’ difference and the questions categories’ difference. the significance of the f ratio in this case means that the effect of the questions categories on the students’ responses depends on which source of the two faculty groups they come from. among the students from computer studies, the difference between macroacquisition and linguistic imperialism is 0.08 point (3.8 – 3.72). among the students of non-computer studies, the difference between macroacquisition and linguistic imperialism is none or 0 point (3.86 – 3.86). 60 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 51-61 because the f test indicates that the interaction is significant, the writer can conclude that macroacquisition questions makes more influence when responded by students of computer studies than when responded by students of non-computer studies. this means that for students of computer studies, english is valued more on the macroacquisition aspects than on the linguistic imperialism aspects. macroacquisition – general context under the general context, for students of computer studies, english is generally given more values on aspects of: − international business transactions rather than of financial rewards of the inner circle − wider and more intensive level of knowledge rather than of educational status − international network rather than of higher social status − multi-source information rather than of inner-circle information − international visits rather than of inner-circle visits − multicultural environment rather than of inner-circle environment macroacquisition – elt context under the elt context, for students of computer studies, english is generally given more values on the aspects of: − professional teachers of international background rather than of inner circle countries’ background − multicultural-based materials rather than inner circle-based materials − non-clt approach (such as grammar-based) rather than clt approach macroacquisition – academic context under the academic context, for students of computer studies, english is generally given more values on the aspects of: − internationally appropriate style in writing papers rather than the inner circle standard style − international accents of the interlocutors rather than inner circle accents of the interlocutors − international gestures and styles in speaking rather than inner circle gestures and styles in speaking − international authors of the academic papers rather than the inner circle authors conclusions the first quantitative finding shows that the average responses of the non-computer students is statistically different from those of the computer students, with the tendency that non-computer students respect english relatively higher than the computer students in valuing the language of innercircle and international influences. the second quantitative finding shows that there is no significant difference between all students’ average responses to linguistic imperialism questions and those to macroacquisition questions. this means that english tend to be respected by all students both for material/non-material benefits as well as for its universality. the third quantitative finding shows that the effect of english as the superior language and of english as the global language on the students’ average responses depend on the number of the responses of one faculty group they belong to. in this case, the responses to macroacquisition questions become higher and clearer if deriving from the number of computer students. this means the more computer students respond to macroacquisition questions, the more likely their average responses to english as the universal language becomes more apparent. how do binus university ….. (almodad b. asmani) 61 results of the study the findings of the research paper have brought some valuable input and implications for the elt contexts at binus university, namely: (1) the preference for elt teachers of native or nonnative speakers english of the inner circle countries is generally of no big issue for the binus university undergraduate students as they are more opt for any elt teachers who are professional, communicative and likable; (2) the design for the elt curriculum can be directed to a more balanced goal of academic and business/social aspects, as these students put the strong emphasis and demands on communicative-based activities of the daily needs rather than form-based exercises; and (3) the teaching methodology of clt (communicative language teaching) approach has been given much appreciation by the binus university students, and thus needs to be highly regarded as an alternative to the common approach of grammar-based instruction. references celce-murcia, m., dornyei, z., & thurrell, s. (1997). direct approaches in l2 instruction: a turning point in communicative language teaching? tesol quarterly, 31 (1), 141 – 152. cohen, l., l. manion, et al. (2000). research methods in education. london: routledge farmer. kachru, b. b. (1986). the alchemy of english. oxford: pergamon press. mcdonough j., and mcdonough s. (1997). research methods for english language teachers. uk: arnold. mckay, s. l. (2003). toward an appropriate eil pedagogy: re-examining common elt assumptions. international journal of applied linguistics. 13 (1), 1-22. phillipson, r. h. l. (1992). linguistic imperialism. oxford university press. usher, r. (1996). a critique of neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research. in d. scott and r. usher (eds), understanding educational research. london: routledge. wiersma, w. (1991). research methods in education. usa: allyn and bacon. microsoft word 03_wishnoebroto_chevy corveteok.doc chevy corvette: icon of american … (wishnoebroto) 111 chevy corvette: icon of american life in the fifties wishnoebroto english department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, wishnoebroto@binus.edu abstract cars not only function simply as a mean of transportation. like paintings, the design of a car could represent a certain cultural and social phenomenon of a country. the design of chevrolet (chevy) corvette is very different compared to its competitors in the 50s. the size, engine, weight, and the materials of this car were chosen based on the assumption that speed and agility is on top of everything. it was not surprising that in the 50s, the year when the first corvette was designed and launched, the us was involved in a cold war with the soviets. arm race and competition to be the first was the major issue and corvette was the first car that suggests this spirit. this paper tries to show the distinctiveness of corvette and how it can be used to explain the character of american people in the fifties. keywords: chevrolet corvette, icon, american life, fifties abstrak mobil tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai alat transportasi. seperti halnya lukisan, desain sebuah mobil dapat merepresentasikan budaya tertentu dan fenomena sosial sebuah negara. desain sebuah chevrolet (chevy) corvette sangat berbeda jika dibandingkan dengan pesaingnya di tahun 1950an. ukuran, mesin, berat, dan bahan baku mobil tersebut dipilih berdasarkan asumsi bahwa kecepatan dan ketangkasan adalah di atas segala-galanya. tidak mengherankan jika di tahun 1950, ketika corvette pertama kali didesain dan diluncurkan, amerika serikat sedang terlibat perang dingin dengan uni soviet. perlombaan senjata dan kompetisi untuk menjadi yang pertama merupakan isu utama dan corvette merupakan mobil pertama dengan semangat tersebut. artikel membahas keistimewaan corvette dan bagaimana mobil tersebut dapat menjelaskan karakter masyarakat amerika di tahun 1950an. kata kunci: chevrolet corvette, ikon, kehidupan amerika, lima puluhan jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 111-116 112 introduction 1954 and 1955, was the year that america entered a new stage concerning the taste for their daily gadgets. advertisement in various magazines such as look, new yorker, life, and vogue, shown that people took more care about their personal life than before. in the twenties until forties, american house ware, instruments, and machines including cars were designed in accordance to the old american traditions: big and heavy, made of metal with shiny chrome garnishing all over the body. in the fifties, however, there was a new trend, which was in the opposite of the old traditional and typical american values. personal things such as home appliances are now sleeker and smaller but portable enough to fill the needs of its users. these preferences of style are closely connected to the political atmosphere in the fifties, which suggested speed and power. the end of world war ii brought thousands of young servicemen back to the us to pick up their lives and start new families in new homes with new jobs. with an energy never before experienced, american industry expanded to meet peacetime needs. americans began buying goods not available during the war, which created corporate expansion and jobs. growths are everywhere. the political competition with the soviets also brought a serious tension between the east and the west. this tension, combined with the post war optimism, made most americans thought that in order to survive, they have to be able to outrun their enemies in many aspects such as gadgets, and any other instruments. the mass media captured this spirit in their headlines. a picture of a missile in life magazine’s special issue cover of january 4, 1954 entitled: “power” where on the top right corner it says: “us growth our biggest year … and basis for a bigger future.” (see appendix 1) (anonymous, life, 1954). this cover seemed to suggest the post war optimism of the us in terms of technology compared to the soviets. the picture of a launched missile also implied the speed and the power of american technology to counter any possible threats from the communists. personal vehicles, which were more affordable than previous decades, were also influenced with the political war syndrome. in the fifties, cars were designed in connection to power and speed as the missile suggested. they were mostly long and low, with tailfins at the back. most of the ads in the 1954-1955 magazines focused on innovation. new fabric material such as dacron was specifically made for those who like to travel because of it’s “never wrinkles” characteristics. innovations in the automobile industry were made in the design to spoil the customer. abernathy, clark, and kantrow in industrial renaissance: producing competitive future for america listed that from 1953-1955 there were 23 new inventions made by the major american automotive company. general motors (gm) the maker of the famous car brand chevrolet found the molded plastic body in 1954 and the bucket seats in 1955. gm and its divisions found seven brilliant innovations including curved side windows, dual headlamps, and wrap-around front window (abernathy, clark, & kantrow, 1984). 1953 and 1955 definitely was the year of innovation for gm. discussion chevrolet corvette: a history american cars in the 1950s were traditionally designed in a big and bulky shape, painted in bright color – usually two-tone color, and the whole parts of the body were made of metal including chevy corvette: icon of american … (wishnoebroto) 113 the small parts and sometimes it was laden with chrome. it uses big engines such as v6 or v8, but it was used to provide smoother and quieter ride rather than speed. chevrolet corvette was developed in contrast with the common american designed cars. when it was launched in 1953, corvette had a totally different concept of american car. it was small, coupe (two-door) car, inspired by a similar type of car brought by world war ii soldiers from the europe. the entrance of chevrolet corvette in 1953 was the perfect time for many americans. the end of korean war and joseph stalin’s death on march 5, 1953 had temporarily relieved many americans on the threat of communism. these made some americans and politicians forget about the communist threat and start focused on their personal life such as to buy an automobile. with the average income of $4,000 and cost of gasoline that was only $.21 per gallon, it comes to no surprise that almost all americans could afford to buy a car (with an average price: $1,850). charles c. freed, the chairperson of n.a.d.a. mentioned that since the war, americans for the first time do not have to worry about the capacity of its automobile factory. the problem was more likely to distribute the car and to make the production growth (freed, 1955). before chevrolet corvette was introduced, there were lots of debates inside the gm management. since it was based on the european small cars such as mg and alfa romeo, the introduction of a two-seater sports car in america was regarded strange because many americans considered that two-seater cars could only used by the elites. it was also believed that this type of car was not suitable for american road and driving conditions (anonymous, national corvette museum). despites the issues, the management in the general motors, finally decided to produce this car to boost chevrolet image. therefore, when corvette was first introduced in july 1953 in the gm motorama show at new york's waldorf-astoria, corvette became ‘the car of its own’ because of its small and compact design that did not connect with any previous chevrolet or any gm models. corvette and american culture in the fifties corvette stressed its design on functions, portability, and speed. since its body was made of fiberglass, this car was light and easy to drive. its small body was powered by a 150-horsepower engine called the "blue flame six," a six-cylinder in-line engine tuned to give 150 horsepower, three side-draft carburetors, and powerglide automatic transmission. the portability of corvette can be seen in the advertisement of the life magazine. corvette’s plastic body and easy to fix feature seemed to be related to the ‘do-it yourself’ culture in the mid fifties. the light and portable design of the parts in the corvette enabled any people to fix or to install the equipment in the car. in the 1956 corvette’s advertisement it shows how easy for people to install the hardtop for the corvette. it only takes two men – or women—to install it. despite of its main purpose as a high performance sports car, corvette was also user friendly and easy to maintain (see appendix 2). in 1953, gm built 300 corvettes, all of them identical polo white with a sportsman red vinyl interior. this mass produced car was made of 54 plastic parts, with the gas tank lid the only metal part of the body. available only in white with red interior, since white is the plastic’s normal color, it sported a $3,490 suggested retail price. the reason to use plastic instead of steel is because of its cheaper price and flexible characteristics. in its january 4, 1954 issue, life magazine reported, "owners will like its lightness and ease of repair: if the tough plastic is punctured in an accident it can usually be patched like new with a blowtorch for a couple of dollars” (anonymous, a car of the future in mass production today. corvette shows the way for plastic cars., 1954). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 111-116 114 the corvette’s first striking appearance has brought a competitor. the thunderbird, the first compact two-seat convertible made by ford, came out from its production line in detroit in february 20, 1954. the thunderbird is a major part of general motors' decision to continue production of the corvette. with two big car companies started to compete in small personal two-seater sports car, americans came to the era where personal pleasure regarded as the most important factor in life. it also suggests another idea of race. since the arm race between the us and the soviets was temporarily forgotten, now it was the time for americans to experience speed and the race between between the two giant auto-manufacturing industries. the corvette completely prepared to enter this race after the chevy general manager ed cole installs a small-block v-8 in the '55 model and recruits engineer zora arkus-duntov, the man behind the vette. in 1955, america finally has its own genuine sports car (anonymous, tracing the corvette's history c1 (1953-62), 2001). the concept of the 1954-1955 corvette that showed simplicity in design but robust and wild in power has symbolically represented the culture of americans in the 50s. the wild rebellious youth as seen in 1954-1955 films such as on the waterfront (1954), rebel without a cause (1955) or music such as rock around the clock (1955) were represented by the powerful and fast v8 engine in 1954 and 1955 corvette. the curve and the streamline design, especially the curvy taillights, represented the youth spirit in the mid fifties. by the design, americans were asked to be more focused about their own life. the arm race and the threat of the atomic bombs did not scare people away as in previous years because americans were now more confident about their capability and the technology. an advertisement in life magazine in 1954, pictured an analogy of the 1954 corvette with a rocket missile (see appendix 3). in fact, americans seemed to enjoy this arm-race. they were probably thinking that the year when corvette was introduced was the time to enjoy life because when the war comes, they would not have time to do it anymore. culturally, the concept of corvette has represented the changing culture of american life in the mid 50s. the arm race between the us and the soviets made americans more aware about the importance of automobile. the article in n.a.d.a. magazine entitled atoms and automobiles mentioned about the function of automobiles in the cold war; it says: “the federal civil defense administration recognizes that the medium of escape is automobile and the truck. moreover, fcda has learned that the automobile not only can serve for escape, but can also be “home” to millions of americans if necessary following atomic attack (anonymous, atoms and automobiles, 1955).” conclusion the powerful but light chevrolet corvette is identical with the arm race spirit in the 50s: fast, innovative, and portable. when the other automobile industries caught the idea of the fast moving americans in the fins and streamline design, the corvette added the feature of simplicity and portability in its design. culturally, corvette has changed the whole concept of an automobile in the fifties. it suggested to more americans to be more focused on their personal life where the two-seater provided more personal freedom and do it yourself culture, which was preferred by most americans in the fifties. symbolically, corvette’s appearance and performance in the fifties had boosted american’s confidence of its superiority against the soviets. this, in conclusion represented the idea that many americans in the mid fifties believed that faster are better. chevy corvette: icon of american … (wishnoebroto) 115 references abernathy, w. j., k. clark, and a. m. kantrow. 1984. industrial renaissance producing a competitive future for america. basic books. anonymous. 1954. june. new yorker volume 30. _______. 1954. january. life. _______. 1955, january-march. vogue magazine volume 125. _______. 1955, december. look . _______. 1955, july. look volume 19 . _______. 1954, january 4. “a car of the future in mass production today. corvette shows the way for plastic cars,” life. pp. 71-73. _______. 1955, june. “atoms and automobiles,” n.a.d.a. magazine. p. 13. _______. 2005. “corvette world.com.” retrieved september 2, 2007, from corvette history thru photographs: http://www.corvette-world.com/index.php _______. “do it yourself,” retrieved august 1, 2001, from wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/do_it_yourself _______. “national corvette museum,” retrieved august 1, 2001, from national corvette museum library & archives: http://www.corvettemuseum.com/library-archives/ _______. 2001, august 1. “tracing the corvette's history c1 (1953-62),” retrieved august 1, 2001, from detroit news: http://detnews.com/autos/9701/08/histo/histo.htm berkin, m., c. l. millier, r. w. cherny, and j. l. gormly. 2006. making america, a history of the united states volume ii: since 1865. boston, ma: houghton mifflin. freed, c. c. 1955, february. “1955...year of action,” n.a.d.a. magazine , pp. 14-15. schefter, j. 1996. all corvettes are red: the rebirth of an american legend. new york: simon & schuster. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 111-116 116 appendix appendix 3: the corvette’s advertisement comparing the v8 engine with v2 missile appendix 1 (cover of life magazine, january 4, 1954) appendix 2: the corvette’s easy to install hardtop copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 39 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 39-44 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.1912 resistance toward domination of racial difference ideology in jacqueline woodson’s novels muhammad al hafizh english departement, faculty of cultural science, gadjah mada university jln. sosio humaniora, bulaksumur, depok, caturtunggal, kec. depok, kabupaten sleman, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia m_alhafizh@yahoo.com received: 13th march 2017/ revised: 01st august 2017/ accepted: 11th august 2017 how to cite: al hafizh, m. (2018). resistance toward domination of racial difference ideology in jacqueline woodson’s novels. lingua cultura, 12(1), 39-44. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1912 abstract this article was a result of the library research which was conducted by using gramscian hegemony theory and ideology concept by thompson. the media analized was the three novels by jacqueline woodson, they were maizon at blue hill (mbh), if you come softly (iycs), and lena. the analysis of ideology used language, continued by the process of resitance, and finaly ideology negotiation. the result of the research shows that there are five resistance forms toward domination and ideology dissemination of racial differences in jacqueline woodson’s novels, they are (1) moderation, (2) pretention, (3) devaluation, (4) respectful resignation, and (5) rejection. keywords: racial difference, elemination ideology, hegemony introduction many literary works take racial difference issues as the central theme that are written by white authors and black authors in their novels, poetries, or dramas. these literary works portray racism as the main causes of domination and discrimination in the society. the theme of racism unites white and black author to write the same issue on racial difference and its impacts. this kind of literary work can be categorized into black writing. endraswara (2013) has stated that black writing is a kind of literary work that emphasizes on the issue of ethnicity and race, as well as revealing the culture of the certain race which is oppressed by other races. racism is racial difference problematic that impact is inseparable from modernity. zamudio (2006) has said that racism lives along two dimensions, traditional racism and liberal racism. it developed further in modern times with the huge migrations, the extension of trading relationships, the industrialization of western society and colonization. furthermore, mignolo (2008) has found that a heterogeneous race is mapping the emergence of the racial matrix, the modern colonial world, and the foundation of the capitalist economy. that is why the theme of racial difference still becomes the interesting issues in popular literary work nowadays. one of the american popular authors who concerned to write on racial difference issues in her novel is jacqueline woodson. her works become popular and best seller in america. parker (2011) has said that popular culture is simply culture which is widely favored and liked by many people. moreover, woodson’s works can be categorized into literary series that narrate the issue of racism and racial difference in modern era. furthermore, her novels also personalize the experience the racial difference in american society, so it becomes good stories to be enjoyed by the big number of readers. crowe (2003) has found that good stories, whether they are fiction or nonfiction that helps personalize the experience of others. these stories can make historical fact seems real and immediate. racism still becomes a problem in the modern era because it is supported by the certain ideologies. it is in line with what mayerson (2010) has reported that popular fiction, in general, is often assumed under the umbrella of popular culture and propose the certain ideology. as an ideology discourse, literature plays the important role as a caretaker of social unity block, as a unity guard among the social powers which are actually contradictory. faruk (2010) has said that at the same time ideology also functions as a collective action battlefield of subordinate classes to counter-hegemony. as a unification movement, the opposition movement belongs to political action, an attempt of subordinate classes to reject the ideological elements from outside. meanwhile, gramsci (1976) has stated that ideology dictates the whole flavor, moral tradition, religious and political principles, and social relation, especially in the 40 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 39-44 intellectual and moral meaning. in this case, the state oppresses the people. the oppression is not only physical oppression or economic domination but also a variety of media and aspects of social life including art, sciences, and the other cultural elements. most of the dominations are caused by racial difference factor. moodod (2002) has found that race has scientific validity linked to social value whereas racism is the belief of racial superiority enforcing occurrences of racial discrimination and attack. racism reflects in the form of racial prejudice, labeling, and stereotype toward the other races and racial domination. the domination of certain race has changed into hegemony, a way of life and thought, which are dominant in which a concept of reality is disseminated toward people either institutionally or individually. hall (2000) has reported that since african-american contrasts with the euro-american norm, it is vilified in the subjective view of guilt. therefore, for abolishing the influence of hegemony, it needs counter-hegemony, awareness including social, cultural, political, economic, and also cognitive aspects of oppression that is caused by hegemony. it happens because of the critical of the minority. frankel (2009) has reported that one can assume that the more new immigrants interact with majority groups, the more they will become critical of minority or racial others. it is in line with egan (2002) who finds that when a group of people is faced with both social and environmental subordination, they are the victims of environmental injustice. based on previous explanation, the research question of this study is formulated as follow; how is the resistance and negotiation of ideology about racial differences in the novels of jacqueline woodson. methods the research is conducted by using gramscian hegemony theory and the concept of ideology proposed by thompson. there are three novels of jacqueline woodson as the source of research data; they are maizon at blue hill (mbh), if you come softly (iycs), and lena. the analysis of ideology fundamentally starts from language as language belongs to the basic medium of interpretation which tends to defend relation of domination. shelby (2003) has said that ideology refers to how meaning serves in particular circumstances to establish and sustain relations of power which are systematically asymmetrical or it can be called relations of dominations. based on that shelby’s concept, it can be understood that discussing language also means discussing ways to act. the ways of act contain ideology power forms; even the simplest utterances belong to a form of intervention containing ideology in the world. language is not only a communication instrument or knowledge but also an authority instrument. through language, someone will attempt to be understood, trusted, obeyed, respected, and distinguished from others. the forms of the power infiltrate into the meaning. factors of contextual act and interaction are also concerned in finding the contestation and negotiation of the ideology. thompson (1984) has stated that an ideology study could not be separated from the identification of contextual act and interaction where agents show their desire, situation, realization of action and speech in specific context. the expressed acts are showed by the agents in the specific time and setting. then, the way is studying the stories showing the specific logic. it happens because the ideology tends to refer to narrative forms for maintaining between dominating relation and its legitimate claims. the stories are told by those who have power and try to perpetuate their status quo. in this case, colonial is an institution which has the power to frame the meaning of race and racial difference. nair (2002) has found that colonial discourse on race thus forced postcolonial intellectuals to theorize the class basis of domination. for example, frantz fanon has argued that “in the colonies, you are rich because you are white, you are white because you are rich”. this is why marxist analysis should always be slightly stretched in understanding the world’s politics. after analyzing the ideology in jacqueline woodson’s novels, the next step is the researcher carefully analyzed the process of resistance forms toward ideology domination related to racial differences. it refers to the concept of brown (2012) who said that white supremacy as a systemic and systematic force connect racism to colonialism and capitalism, thus relegating sub-humans nonwhites to inferior social status and subject to economic exploitation based solely on biology or ethnicity. at the last step, researcher analayzes the ideology negosiation in jacqueline woodson’s novels. it concerns how the ideology is negotiated for achieving the hegemonic position. koepke (2007) has found that antidiscrimination laws are not enough to justify the wrong of the past. the equal resources and the unequal treatment are needed to ensure equal outcomes because the country creates the conditions that make it impossible for blacks to take advantage of those laws. therefore, the focus of the research data is all of the events which involve a variety of different racial characters. then, it is mapped how the different racial ideology disseminates in the stories. this agrees with faruk (2001) who said that compared to the others, thompson’s theory of ideology dissemination seems more detailed and comprehensive. however, unilateral still exists, for example, the ideology placement which just seems on the activities of the dominant class. furhermore, pandey (2006) has reported that for 200 years and more, the struggles waged by the oppressed and subordinated as subaltern are seen as struggles for recognition as equals. in fact, the subordinate class must not be passive, but they mobilize the meaning to de-legitimate the existent legitimacy, and so on. coronil (2005) has said that the project allows itself to imagine exceeded its incarnation in the group and even its identification as the subaltern group. results and discussions this part describes how the forms of resistance toward dissemination of dominant ideology related to racial differences. besides that, it also describes how the ideology of racial difference is negotiated to achieve the dominant position. the research shows that there are resistance forms toward domination and ideology dissemination of racial differences, such as (1) moderation, (2) pretention, (3) devaluation, (4) respectful resignation, and (5) rejection. moderation belongs to a resistance form of individuals or groups by appreciating what they own or achieve. they appreciate the forms of symbol and try to protect the culture that they own from the domination of dominant classes. for example, they try to maximize style but also minimizing the costs, looking for an appealing purchase and making annual 41resistance toward domination .... (muhammad al hafizh) or bi-annual sales. in the novels, the moderation can be found in the following citation. “well, don’t go reinventing yourself too much. it’s okay to be our son. remember brooklyn tech people knew who you were there and you got along fine.” yeah i remember. at tech, some people treated him strange and some people treated him okay…. but new kids, well, sometimes they just acted weird, like he was some untouchable god or something. he hated that.” (woodson, 1998) the discourse tells the dialogue between a whiteskinned character named jeremiah and his father. before continuing his study, his father has said that he does not need much change to adapt to the white-skinned people. the statement can be found in the sentence, “well, don’t go reinventing yourself too much. it’s okay to be our son”. the advice shows that they should respect the symbolic forms and try to protect their own culture from the domination of dominant classes. therefore, it does not need to be always submissive and immerse himself in the dominant group. it is also confirmed by the advice of jeremiah’s father who states that people in brooklyn tech will know him. brooklyn tech is jeremiah’s school where many black students are previously studied. that is why it can be categorized into moderation resistance. the second form of resistance is pretention. it is a resistance of facing a dominant position by producing the symbolic forms as if they belong to a product of dominant individuals or groups. thus, the individual in the position can follow the pretention strategy which desires to be a person who has not or being assimilated himself/herself in the superior position compared to his/her own position. for example, the individuals in the center position can use accentuation, vocabularies, and language styles from the dominant groups which show their ambition, restlessness, or both. the resistance in the pretention form can be seen in the following citation. “it doesn’t matter,” charli said, rolling her eyes. “pauli doesn’t hang with sisters.” she assimilated. marie added, snidely. pauli had thrown her head back and was laughing with the group of white girls sitting at her table. they stared at her adoringly..... charli turned to me. “pauli really doesn’t hang with us, so it doesn’t matter what grade she’s in.” pauli never gets involved. it’s like she doesn’t want to face the fact that she’s black.(woodson, 1992). the citation tells a black student, pauli who consorts with the white students. she desires to be a person who has not or being assimilated herself into the superior position compared to her own position. pauli’s pretention can be seen from her friends’ comment which state, “pauli doesn’t hang with sisters. she assimilated.” the term of ‘assimilated’ shows that pauli really consorts with the whites. devaluation is a strategy of resistance toward dominant groups by abolishing symbolic forms produced by them. they do not only develop the values of dominant groups and assimilate themselves on the dominant position but also can humiliate the symbolic forms produced by the dominant individual or group and attempt to raise themselves on their dominant position. therefore, the emergence of the bourgeoisie in the 18th and 19th century in europe sometimes depicts the old aristocracy group as a group which is exaggerated, amoral, un-responsible, unable to regulate economic and political relations, and superficial in their social life. once the bourgeoisie success in taking a role as old aristocracy group and creates the new domination, the main battlefield of symbols turn into a line separating the lower groups from a group which is lack of cultural and economic capital and then from the emergence of new middle class. the resistance in devaluation can be found in the form of acts which humiliate the values stuck on the dominant group and state that what they own as black people is valuable. it can be seen in jeremiah’s sentence as follows. he wished his grandmother was alive so he could tell her that it wasn’t a bad thing. that you couldn’t get too black. he remembered the time his father had taken him to see a film about the black panthers-all those afros and fits raised in the air. jeremiah smiled. he wished his grandmother had heard them shouting black is beautiful. (woodson, 1998). in the citation, jeremiah seems to remember his grandmother’s advice when she was alive. she used to say that being a black is not the worst. she also said that he is not too black. meanwhile, his father used to invite to watch black panthers movie, as seen in the sentence, “he remembered the time his father had taken him to see a film about the black panthers”. through the advice and acts, the blacks want to emphasize that black is beautiful. resignation is a strategy conducted in relation to symbolic forms which are produced by individuals placing superior position. those forms which place the dominant position are deemed as a superior position, as propriety. however, the resignation has been a superior thing toward those forms, and the inferiority of the product can be accepted as an inevitable thing. they choose to respect the symbolic forms which are practical, easy-to-get, and relatively cheap. the resistance in the resignation is conducted by maizon as seen in the following citation. “you have something to tell us, maizon?” miss norman asked quietly. “i’m leaving,” i said, lifting my head to look at her. “i don’t want to come back here.”….i looked at her know. “i’m going to try to find a place where i can fit in being both black and smart. there has to be a place somewhere, right?” (woodson, 1992) the citation is a dialogue between maizon and miss norman, a blue hill’s teacher. maizon feels that her presence is so hard as a minority, the black student, at blue hill because there is discrimination experienced by her and her black friends. thus, maizon chooses to resign honorably from the school. maizon’s choice is implied in the sentence “i don’t want to come back here.” when miss norman advises her to keep staying at the school, she firmly states that she does not want to come back there. this shows that maizon conducts the resistance by honorably resigning. moreover, she states that she would find the better school for a black girl outside blue hill. her confidence is implied in the following utterance, “i’m going to try to find a place where i can fit in being both black and smart. there has to be a place somewhere, right?” 42 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 39-44 rejection is a form of resistance by rejecting or humiliating symbolic forms produced by individuals who place a superior position. the rejection can be conducted, for example, children from labor class parodying an authority language, rejecting their activities which are considered as womanish activities. furthermore, individuals in the subordinate position must not rise themselves by placing their position in the specific field. rising themselves in that way is not a real purpose. however, rejecting the symbolic forms produced by their superiority, the individuals in the subordinate position can get the way to emphasize the values of their own products and activities without fundamentally disturbing the characteristics of equitable resources in the specific field. when i heard that blue hill was predominantly white, i didn’t even want to come here. “me either” charli said.....marie nodded, “it’s not even a choice, maizon. we want to protect you because we’ve seen what could happen to sister here. it hurts, but you have to make a choice. “what kind of choice?” i asked.... “pauli made a choice,” marie said casually, picking up her roll. “well, i’m not pauli,” i said loudly. some girls turned toward our table. (woodson, 1992). one of the rejections on the novels is rejecting capitalism and attempting to abolish it through the struggle of labors but allowing parliamentary democracy. the values can be seen in the following citation. people see somebody poor and they think it’s cause the person don’t want to work or don’t have good sense or something, but that’s not always true. people all the time looking for a way to blame a person’s troubles on the person. in chauncey, people would look at me and dion like we was dirt sometimes. besides the dresses mama used to make, i don’t remember having something new. after she took sick and our daddy wasn’t working regular, shirts and pants just sort of showed up at our house, buried deep in the back of a box or wrinkled at the bottom af a bag of clothes.(woodson, 2006). the citation shows the complaints of lena and dion who feel excluded from their people because of the poor family. in their environment, people just respect the riches. lena’s perspective of the environment can be seen in the sentence “people see somebody poor, and they think it’s cause the person don’t want to work or don’t have good sense or something, but that’s not always true.” according to lena, the people always consider that being poor is caused by laziness. in fact, they are poor because of capitalism system. therefore, it needs a struggle against capitalism and the spirit shows the socialism values. from the resistance forms to the domination, it can be concluded that the resistance of middle class is different from the resistance of subordinate class. the ideological struggle on jacquiline woodson’s novels is pointed to hegemonic ideology which needs ideological negotiation and relation on the struggle. the following presents the negotiation analysis among ideologies which involve in the racial differences. the negotiation between liberalism and capitalism ideology seems in their perspectives of the state roles in keeping their people’s freedom. in liberalism ideology, the government should keep freedom, equality, and security of all people. there is resistance toward intervention from society, state, institution, and group base on self-choice. this can be seen in the characters of jeremiah and elisha who want their rights admitted as individuals and citizens. they want freedom in choosing their preferred school and sports community. the liberalism ideology also correlates viewing religion and moral. according to liberalism ideology, religion should be tolerated, and the freedom of thought and expression should be appreciated. liberalists force all the moral standards which apply to individuals because the standards hinder the freedom. it can be seen in elisha’s demeanor who ignores jeremiah’s activity whether he often worships or not because it is his personal rights. the struggle for freedom also appears in the conflict between maizon and the white students at her school. maizon feels deserving to be the student of blue hill because of her struggle and work hard. meanwhile, her friends believe that blue hill is just for the students who come from rich families and higher class families. besides that, liberalism values appear on the guidance in order to have the equal-law rights as civil independence. it is shown by the people reaction who demonstrates when jeremiah is shoot-dead by the policeman. the people demand that the law should be imposed because they think the state should ensure the security of all citizens. meanwhile, capitalism ideology as ideology negotiating with liberalism appears in the storyline which shows that the economic structure, especially production process results in the formation of two social classes, capitalists who control the work equipment and the workers. the capitalists belong to the ruling class while the workers belong to the ruled class. this pattern occurs in lena, marie, and their environment. both come from the different class backgrounds. marie is from the rich family while lena is from the poor family. nevertheless, they remain to keep their friendship as the manifestation of egalitarian society. their friendship is opposed by the society. the support of capitalism ideology toward liberalism also appears from the perspective of poverty. the capitalism believes that underdevelopment and poverty are results of black people’s laziness. the contradiction occurs between maizon and suzan. maizon, a white girl, is deemed poor. susan states that the appearance of maizon is similar to her housekeeper. the perspective is opposed by maizon by saying that not all of the blacks are poor because they can thrive by working hard. the capitalism ideology believes that public rating is made based on their competence and success in settling themselves toward the global capital economy. the perspective can be seen in the conflict between elisha and her father. her father only allows elisha is having the relationship with a man who has the respectable job. he thinks that level of social class is important. on the other hand, elisha tends to behave egalitarian and wants to consort with all people from different social class backgrounds. from the negotiation, it can be known that liberalism and capitalism ideology intertwines in extending the freedom against discrimination promoted by racist ideology. therefore, liberalism ideology can be known as a hegemonic ideology and can negotiate with capitalism. negotiation between liberalism and racism is shown with 43resistance toward domination .... (muhammad al hafizh) the relationship between maizon and her white friends at blue hill. they are students at the school. as liberalism and racism representation, both parties often have the different opinions; even they tend to be confrontational. it means when they get resistance and confrontation related to the perspective of something. liberalism emphasizes the importance of freedom values individually and tends to ignore either convention or written rules. it is like the condition of maizon. both in terms of acts and utterances, she tends to take out from all of the existing norms. racism prioritizes the respect toward the whites. the jacqueline woodson’s novel through the character of maizon and her white friends depicts that the relationship between racism and liberalism can exist if only mediated by their democratic thought. it is shown from the school’s policy which receives the black students and maizon’s willingness of studying at blue hill. however, if proportionally observed, racism negotiates with liberalism because of a concept which states that the freedom is a naturally inherent value of human beings. it seems when maizon has a chance to study at blue hill through academic scholarship. nevertheless, her freedom is restricted. she could not enroll the certain extracurricular dominated by the white students, for example, debate club. the discrimination on the black students shows that racist ideology is still negotiated in the school site. maizon’s dropping out from her school shows her commitment to continuously negotiate her liberalism ideology. according to an ideological study of the text, it can be known that maizon is a figure of liberalism ideology. the ideological situation outside the school is different. it can be concluded that racism ideology negotiates with liberalism. racism ideology needs negotiation with liberalism in order to be welcomed in the society. the liberalism ideology seen at maizon is just false. maizon seems liberal as she struggles her freedom, but she finally drops out of her school. in the jacqueline woodson’s novels, the negotiation between capitalism and racism appears in the characters of elisha’s family and jeremiah’s family. the negotiation indicates the hegemonic attempts between them. elisha’s father restricts her to consort and has a special relation with jeremiah as he comes from the black family. however, after she convinces her father that jeremiah’s family is rich and success, the attitude softens. she tells that jeremiah is a son of norman roselind and nelia roselind, the well-known film producers. in this case, elisha is negotiating with the racism ideology represented by the character of her father. the negotiation runs well, and her father allows them having the relationship. however, jeremiah is restricted to visit her home. finally, jeremiah is shot-dead by a policeman, and elisha’s family does not mourn deeply. moreover, when she reads the news of jeremiah’s death, her mother, marion, tries to get rid of the newspaper in order to avoid increasing her sadness. in the relation between racism and capitalism, materialism appears as their mediator. it is shown by the acts of lena and dion who are highly praised and proud when marie’s father buys airplane tickets for them. it can be implied that boarding a plane belongs to a symbol of social status related to wealth because not all people have that chance. their pride and admiration belong to a sign that they undergo a shift from racism to materialism or their racism, at least, in tandem with the materialism embedded by marie’s father. directly or indirectly, the relation between marie and lena runs well because of the smooth negotiation. however, the racism remains affirming itself as a dominant party which is able to dominate capitalism as their interracial friendship is not accepted in their social environment. the friendship is only recognized in the scope of family. conclusions based on the analysis of the negotiation among ideologies in the novels, it can be concluded that the modern life places the human beings in more and more complex problems. one of the problematic issues is about racial difference ideology. besides that, inter-ideology relation represents the struggle of human beings in maintaining their existence. the relation also shows the existence of hegemony that can be ensured that the dominant class is a class which is able to dominate black as the subaltern class. it happens because of supporting certain ideologies. acknowledgement this article is written as a part of the result of dissertation under the title “racism in the novels of jacqueline woodson” at doctoral program of humanities, fib ugm. the writer thanks to prof. dr. faruk, s.u, and prof. dr. juliasih, s.u, as the supervisor team of this dissertation. references brown, r. 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(2006). from traditional to liberal racism: living racism in the every day. socilological perspective, 49(4), 483–501. microsoft word 08_yi ying_tata bahasa china-a4.doc jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 64 analisis perbandingan penerapan pembelajaran tata bahasa china antara pembelajaran tatap muka dengan kombinasi pembelajaran jarak jauh dan tatap muka yi ying chinese department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, yi_ying@binus.ac.id abstract in faculty of literature, all these time the grammar teaching was only done face to face. a long with the application of multi channel learning in ubinus, a grammar learning using combination method of long distance and face to face was developed. to know which one the most suitable and effective learning method, also to evaluate all the running method used, the chinese department will conduct comparative research among conventional class, combination between offclass and mcl, mcl without off-class. the method used are quantitative and qualitative research method. based on the research, it can be concluded that the student grade of mcl class is higher than the student grade of mcl off class and the face to face class. keywords: e-learning, grammar, china language, multi channel learning abstrak di fakultas sastra, selama ini pengajaran tata bahasa hanya melalui tatap muka langsung. seiring dengan penerapan sistem pembelajaran multi channel learning di ubinus maka dikembangkanlah metode pembelajaran tata bahasa model kombinasi pembelajaran jarak jauh dan tatap muka. untuk mengetahui metode pembelajaran yang paling tepat dan efektif, sekaligus mengevaluasi semua metode yang sudah dijalankan selama ini, jurusan sastra china akan melaksanakan penelitian perbandingan antara kelas konvensional, gabungan off-class dan mcl, dan mcl tanpa off-class. metode yang akan digunakan adalah metode kuantitatif dan kualitatif. berdasarkan penelitian disimpulkan bahwa nilai mahasiswa kelas mcl lebih unggul dibandingkan nilai mahasiswa kelas mcl off class dan kelas face to face (konvensional). kata kunci: e-learning, tata bahasa, bahasa china, multi channel learning analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 65 pendahuluan pemanfaatan teknologi dan pendidikan bahasa seiring dengan perkembangan teknologi, semakin banyak bidang yang memanfaatkan kemajuan di bidang maya. komunikasi antarmanusia dapat diselesaikan tanpa harus bertemu muka. hal itu dapat membantu penghematan biaya bagi banyak perusahaan. bahkan, orang pun dimudahkan dalam berbelanja. tanpa harus membuat paspor dan membayar fiskal yang mahal, orang dapat berbelanja lintas negara. bahkan, dalam mencari pasangan hidup pun, tidak sedikit orang yang memanfaatkan jasa teknologi maya ini. pemanfaatan teknologi ini tidak hanya di bidang ekonomi saja tetapi bidang pendidikan pun sudah mulai melirik dunia maya. dimulai dari pendaftaran ulang, melihat nilai, sampai kuliah jarak jauh. kuliah jarak jauh atau off-class dengan menyediakan semua materi ajar di web-site membuat mahasiswa tidak perlu pergi ke kampus sehingga dapat menghemat waktu dan biaya transportasi. di fakultas sastra, selama ini pengajaran tata bahasa hanya melalui tatap muka langsung. seiring dengan penerapan sistem pembelajaran multi channel learning di ubinus maka dikembangkanlah metode pembelajaran tata bahasa model kombinasi pembelajaran jarak jauh dan tatap muka. namun, sistem mcl ini masih menjadi perdebatan dalam pengajaran bahasa. banyak hal yang mengundang pro dan kontra, baik hal yang secara langsung berhubungan dengan kegiatan pembelajaran, seperti komunikasi dosen dan mahasiswa, tingkat pemahaman mahasiswa terhadap suatu materi tanpa mendapatkan penjelasan dari dosen, maupun hal yang bersifat tidak langsung, seperti ketersediaan sambungan internet di tempat tinggal mahasiswa, biaya untuk sambungan internet, dan lain-lain. oleh karena itu, untuk mengetahui metode pembelajaran yang paling tepat dan efektif, sekaligus mengevaluasi semua metode yang sudah dijalankan selama ini, jurusan sastra china akan melaksanakan penelitian perbandingan antara kelas konvensional, gabungan off-class dan mcl, dan mcl tanpa off-class. tata bahasa sebagai momok pembelajaran bagi sebagian besar orang, tata bahasa merupakan aturan yang susah diingat, karena tidak seperti rumus matematika, dalam tata bahasa ada banyak rumus dengan tidak sedikit pengecualian pada masing-masing aturan tata bahasa. hal itu membuat sebagian orang mengangkat tangan dan memilih melupakan pengecualian tersebut dengan alasan pada kenyataannya tanpa tata bahasa yang benar pun komunikasi masih dapat berjalan. tidaklah heran jika bahasa yang didengar dan dibaca setiap hari tidak sesuai dengan bentuk standar dari tata bahasa yang baku. namun, masalah di atas bukan semata-mata kesalahan pembelajar. metode yang pengajaran yang melulu menonjolkan struktur bahasa akan membuat pembelajar kehilangan motivasi. oleh karena itu, pendekatan komunikatif dalam pengajaran bahasa lebih banyak dipakai, khususnya di negara yang memperhatikan pentingnya pendidikan. tatabahasa tidak dihadirkan sebagai pemain utama dalam penguasaan bahasa, melainkan hanya sebagai pemain pembantu. ungkapan bahasa dalam bentuk percakapan dan fungsinya lebih diutamakan sehingga lebih memberikan motivasi kepada pembelajaran karena target pembelajaran adalah mampu berkomunikasi, bukan menguasai tatabahasa, sekalipun judul mata kuliah adalah tatabahasa. latar belakang pembelajar dengan bahasa ibu bahasa china di indonesia, ada beberapa daerah yang penduduk suku china-nya dapat berbahasa china dari kecil. akan tetapi, bahasa yang mereka kuasai adalah bahasa perolehan, bukan hasil pembelajaran. di samping itu, bahasa china mereka telah mendapat pengaruh dari bahasa daerah domisili mereka, baik jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 66 dari segi tata bahasa maupun fonologi, misalnya saja bahasa china di jawa tengah yang kental dengan logat jawa dan dipengaruhi oleh tata bahasa setempat sehingga ketika mereka berbahasa china, lebih terdengar seperti berbahasa jawa. sebagian besar mahasiswa jurusan sastra china di ubinus berasal dari suku china dengan latar belakang tersebut. bahasa ibu mereka yang bukan bahasa china standar atau putonghua terkadang merupakan kendala dalam penguasaan tatabahasa yang baik dan benar. hal tersebut akan membawa dampak yang kurang baik ketika mereka akan mencari kerja atau bekerja sebagai tenaga kerja profesional (sekretaris) di perusahaan yang membutuhkan kemampuan bahasa yang mencakup empat aspek (mendengar, berbicara, membaca, menulis) secara menyeluruh. peranan bahasa china dalam perekonomian dunia dan globalisasi sebelum ekonomi china menguat seperti sekarang ini, telah diketahui bersama bahwa pbb telah menetapkan bahasa china sebagai bahasa internasional kedua setelah bahasa inggris. sekarang ini, secara ekonomi negara china menguat, dibuktikan dari cadangan devisanya yang terbanyak di seluruh dunia, menyingkirkan jepang yang selama ini berada pada urutan pertama. seiring dengan globalisasi ekonomi dunia, barang-barang produksi china mulai merambah pasaran dunia bersaing dengan produksi negara maju, seperti jepang. oleh karena itu, perusahaan yang mengadakan hubungan dagang dengan china atau mengimpor barang dari china juga berlomba-lomba mencari tenaga kerja yang dapat berbahasa china dengan benar dan tepat. tidak dapat juga menutup mata bahwa dengan globalisasi, semakin banyak tenaga asing yang masuk ke indonesia untuk mencari kerja. jika penguasaan bahasa china mereka lebih baik dibandingkan dengan lulusan dalam negeri maka tidak heran jika lulusan dalam negeri tidak terserap oleh pasar yang membutuhkan tenaga kerja yang mampu berkomunikasi dengan baik. e-learning apa itu e-learning? menurut ruth colvin clark dan richard e. mayer (2003:13), e-learning adalah suatu instruksi yang menggunakan komputer, baik melalui cd rom, internet maupun intranet dengan ketentuan fitur berikut: memuat bahan yang relevan dengan tujuan pembelajaran; menggunakan metode pengajaran, seperti pemberian contoh dan pelatihan untuk membantu pembelajaran; menggunakan elemen media, seperti tulisan, gambar untuk menyalurkan isi dan metode; membangun pengetahuan dan kemampuan yang mendukung tercapainya tujuan pembelajaran secara individual, dan juga meningkatkan performa organisasi. dasar e-learning terbagi dalam dua jenis. pertama, yaitu synchronous training adalah tipe pelatihan di mana proses pembelajaran terjadi pada saat yang sama ketika pengajar sedang mengajar dan murid sedang belajar. jenis ini lebih banyak digunakan dalam seminar atau konferensi yang pesertanya berasal dari beberapa negara. jadi, training ini sifatnya mirip pelatihan di ruang kelas. namun, kelasnya bersifat maya (virtual) dan peserta tersebar di seluruh dunia dan terhubung melalui internet. kedua, asynchronous training adalah tipe pelatihan tidak pada waktu yang bersamaan. jadi, seseorang dapat mengambil pelatihan pada waktu yang berbeda dengan pengajar memberikan pelatihan. pelatihan disalurkan berupa paket pelajaran yang dapat dijalankan di komputer manapun dan tidak melibatkan interaksi dengan pengajar atau pelajar lain. paket pelajaran berbentuk bacaan dengan animasi, simulasi, permainan edukatif, maupun latihan atau tes dengan jawabannya. akan tetapi, ada pelatihan asynchronous training yang terpimpin, yaitu pengajar memberikan materi pelajaran lewat internet dan peserta pelatihan mengakses materi pada waktu yang berlainan. pengajar analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 67 dapat pula memberikan tugas atau latiihan dan peserta mengumpulkan tugas lewat e-mail. peserta dapat berdiskusi atau berkomentar dan bertanya melalui bulletin board. mengapa harus e-learning? perubahan praktik pendidikan pun harus dilakukan di dunia akademis. beberapa tahun yang lalu, siswa hanya disibukkan kegiatan belajar kurang lebih 5 jam sehari. akan tetapi, sekarang siswa masih mengikuti kelas bimbingan belajar, praktik ekstrakurikuler, dan kelas bahasa asing di luar sekolah. harus ditanyakan juga alasan orang tua mengirimkan anaknya ke sekolah jika nanti membawa anaknya ke kelas bimbingan belajar untuk mempelajari topi yang sama pula. hal tersebut menandakan praktik pengajaran di sekolah yang belum efektif sepenuhnya (zhuang dan effendi, 2005:3). mereka membutuhkan teknologi yang dapat menyediakan pendidikan dan pelatihan yang pengadaannya cepat, metodenya lebih efektif, dan persiapannya lebih singkat. menurut survei yang diadakan astd (american society for training and development) tahun 2004 mengungkapkan bahwa hampir 60% perusahaan di amerika telah atau mulai mengimplementasikan e-learningdi perusahaan mereka. e-learning pun telah melanda dunia akademis. di amerika serikat, e-learning telah digunakan di hampir 90% universitas yang memiliki lebih dari 10.000 siswa. keuntungan e-learning adapun keuntungan dalam implementasi e-learning adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, biaya. biaya pelatihan otomatis berkurang. dengan adanya e-learning, perusahaan tidak perlu mengeluarkan uang untuk menyewa pelatih dan ruang kelas serta transportasi peserta dan pelatih. selain itu, perusahaan dapat menghemat biaya akomodasi bagi pelatih atau pelajar. kedua, fleksibilitas waktu. tim pelaksana pelatihan sering merasa kesulitan menyesuaikan waktu beberapa karyawan yang dilatih. hal itu karena untuk mengikuti pelatihan di kelas, karyawan harus meninggalkan pekerjaannya selama satu atau dua hari. denagn tuntutan kompetisi perusahaan yang kian meningkat, kekurangan karyawan selama itu akan mengganggu produktivitas perusahaan. oleh karena itu, tidak heran karyawan dan atasannya kurang menyenangi pelatihan yang memakan waktu lama. dengan e-learning, memungkinkan karyawan menyesuaikan waktu belajar dengan waktu kerja. karyawan dan pelajar mudah mengakses e-learning dan juga dapat dengan mudah meninggalkan pelajaran tersebut dan melakukan pekerjaan lainnya yang lebih penting. banyak program pelajaran e-learning yang memiliki fasilitas bookmark yang memungkinkan mereka saat kembali belajar dapat memulai dari bagian yang terakhir kali dia tinggalkan sehingga mereka tidak perlu mengulang pelajaran sebelumnya. ketiga, fleksibilitas tempat. biasanya para karyawan atau pembelajar enggan bepergian jauh hanya untuk mengikuti pelatihan, adanya e-learning membuat karyawan santai mengakses pelatihan e-learning di kantor, bahkan di meja kerja. selama komputer terhubung dengan server e-learning maka mereka dengan mudah mengaksesnya. keempat, fleksibilitas kecepatan pembelajaran. kemampuan belajar tiap orang berbeda-beda. oleh karena itu, wajar bila di dalam suatu kelas ada siswa yang mengerti secara cepat dan ada yang harus mengulang pelajaran untuk memahaminya. akan tetapi, karena pelatih atau guru di kelas mengajar dengan kecepatan sama untuk semua siswa maka siswa yang lebih lambat akan sulit memahaminya. terlebih lagi guru sering tidak memiliki waktu untuk menjawab pertanyaan siswa atau berdiskusi setelah waktu pelajaran di kelas habis. siswa menjadi frustasi. siswa yang lebih cepat menginginkan lebih bayak materi sedangkan siswa yang lebih lambat menginginkan pengulangan pelajaran. e-learning dapat disesuaikan dengan kecepatan belajar masing-masing siswa. siswa mampu mengatur sendiri kecepatan pelajaran yang diikuti. apabila dia masih tidak mengerti, dia dapat mengulang pelajaran tersebut sampai dia mengerti betul materi tersebut. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 68 kelima, standarisasi pengajaran. anda pasti pernah memiliki guru atau pelatih favorit yang dapat mengajar dengan baik sehingga sehingga materi sesulit apapun mudah diserap. sebaliknya, penjelasan guru bukan favorit terasa sulit dimengerti. hal tersebut disebabkan perbedaan kemampuan dan metode pengajaran yang diterapkan guru. perbedaan tersebut menyebabkan kualitas pengajaran sulit dijaga karena guru favorit tidak mungkin diminta mengajarkan semua pengajaran. terlebih lagi, guru favorit pun dapat merasa tidak fit saat mengajar sehingga kualitas pengajaran menurun. elearningdapat menghapuskan perbedaan tersebut. pelajaran e-learning selalu memiliki kualitas sama setiap kali diakses dan tidak tergantung dari suasana hati pengajar. keenam, efektivitas pengajaran. e-learning yang didesain dengan intruksional desain yang baik membuat karyawan atau pelajar lebih mengerti isi pelajaran. penyampaian pelajaran e-learning dapat berupa simulasi dan kasus menggunakan bentuk permainan dan menerapkan teknologi animasi canggih. bentuk pembelajaran tersebut dapat membantu proses pembelajaran mempertahankan minat belajar. ketujuh, kecepatan distribusi. kemajuan tehnologi yang pesat menuntut suatu pelatihan tehnologi baru dilaksanakan secepatnya dan menjangkau area luas secara singkat. melihat geografis indonesia bukan hal aneh bila suatu perusahaan dapat menerapkan teknologi canggih di kantor pusat di jakarta sedangkan kantor cabang yang terpencil tidak mengetahui teknologi tersebut. kebijakan baru perusahaan yang ditetapkan kantor pusat kadang memerlukan pelatihan agar karyawan dapat memahaminya. e-learning dapat cepat menjangkau karyawan yang berada di luar wilayah pusat. tim perancang pelatihan hanya perlu mempersiapkan bahan pelatihan secepatnya dan menginstal hasilnya di server pusat e-learning sehingga semua komputer yang terhubung ke server dapat langsung mengakses. pembahasan metode yang digunakan metode yang akan digunakan adalah metode kuantitatif dan kualitatif. metode kuantitatif mencakup data dari survei nilai tatabahasa dan angket sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan metode kualitatif adalah pertanyaan yang bersifat wawancara melalui angket. berikut rincian masing-masing metode. data kuantitatif yang akan digunakan sebagai bahan perbandingan adalah nilai uts dan uas dari mahasiswa tingkat satu (tahun pertama) selama dua semester dari tiga kelas pelajaran tatabahasa, yaitu 1. kelas konvensionl atau sistem face to face murni, 2. mcl + off class, 3. mcl tanpa off-class. pada kelas mcl ofc, aktivitas yang dilakukan mahasiswa pada waktu ofc terdiri dari tiga bagian. bagian pertama adalah memberikan bahan bacaan dari website kepada para mahasiswa melalui discussion board. bacaan yang ada sudah ada cara bacanya oleh penutur asli. setelah membaca teks, mahasiswa menjawab pertanyaan. tujuan aktivitas ini adalah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan membaca dengan nada dan lafal yang benar serta menambah kosa kata. bagian kedua adalah dengan memberikan alamat website yang berisi percakapan sederhana dan menugaskan mahasiswa meringkas percakapan tersebut dengan kata-kata sendiri. jawaban mahasiswa di-posting melalui forum discussion board. pada pertemuan berikutnya, mahasiswa menceritakan isi percakapan tersebut dengan kata-kata sendiri. keuntungan aktivitas ini adalah mahasiswa mampu mendengar percakapan dengan nada dan lafal yang tepat dari penutur asli. hal itu diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan mendengar mahasiswa. bagian ketiga adalah mahasiswa meringkas tata bahasa dari web-site yang diberikan dan kemudian mengerjakan latihan tata bahasa yang disediakan berupa menyusun kalimat yang diacak dan menyusun kalimat dari kosa kata yang diberikan. analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 69 pada kelas mcl non ofc, mahasiswa tetap mengerjakan bahan latihan seperti kelas mcl ofc, bedanya mereka mengerjakannya tidak pada waktu ofc. dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan beban tugas mandiri mahasiswa kelas ini lebih berat dibandingkan dua kelas lainnya. angket yang akan dibuat sesuai dengan kondisi masing-masing kelas, dengan substansi yang sama tetapi pertanyaan berbeda. angket ditujukan untuk menanyakan hal berikut: kelebihan dan kekurangan dari ketiga sistem, menyangkut biaya (perbandingan biaya transportasi ke kampus dan biaya untuk mendownload bahan atau online), waktu (transportasi ke kampus, pergi ke warnet), kemudahan menangkap/mengerti materi, peningkatan kemampuan berbahasa yang mencakup empat aspek komunikasi (mendengar, berbicara, membaca, menulis) yang dirasakan, kemudahan komunikasi antara dosen dan mahasiswa, dan lain-lain; kendala pembelajaran dari ketiga sistem, seperti ketersediaan sambungan internet di rumah, jenis server yang digunakan, keberadaan warnet di sekitar rumah/kos, kelengkapan perangkat lunak di warnet, kepemilikan komputer yang dilengkapi dengan perangkat lunak bahasa mandarin,kemacetan lalu-lintas, banjir, kesibukan dosen, dan lain-lain. pertanyaan yang ditujukan akan bersifat tertutup (disediakan pilihan) dan terbuka (jawaban bebas dari responden). selain itu, akan diteliti juga variabel yang mempengaruhi pembelajaran, seperti: bahasa ibu (bahasa daerah indonesia atau rumpun bahasa china, seperti hokkian, hakka, tio ciu, dan lain-lain); bahasa yang dipergunakan sehari-hari; kemampuan berbahasa china sebelum belajar secara formal di ubinus, mencakup tempat memperoleh kemampuan (percakapan di rumah, kursus) dan tingkat kemampuan (dapat berkomunikasi sederhana tetapi tidak dapat membaca dan menulis, mampu membaca dan menulis). hasil perbandingan nilai uts dan uas dasar pengukuran terhadap keberhasilan pengajaran bahasa china adalah dari nilai uts dan uas mahasiswa yang mendapatkan nilai a, b, dan c dari masing-masing kelas. adapun kelas yang dimaksud terbagi menjadi tiga kelas, yaitu kelas mcl ofc dan kelas mcl non ofc, mahasiswa selain mendapatkan bahan ajar dari buku paket, juga mendapatkan materi pendukung dari website. dengan demikian, mahasiswa mendapatkan tambahan kosa kata, contoh kalimat, percakapan, dan mendengar di luar buku paket; kelas konvensional, mahasiswa hanya mendapatkan bahan ajar dari buku paket tanpa tambahan materi pendukung dari website. 0 5 10 15 20 a b c mcl ofc mcl non-ofc konvensional gambar 1 hasil perbandingan nilai uts dan uas berdasarkan hasil tersebut, dapat dilihat bahwa mahasiswa yang mendapakan nilai a dari kelas mcl non ofc lebih besar dibandingkan mahasiswa kelas mcl ofc dan mahasiswa kelas konvensional. hal itu menunjukan bahwa pengajaran bahasa china dari kelas mcl lebih unggul dibandingkan dua kelas lainnya. dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan mata kuliah bahasa china i lebih efektif jika dilakukan dengan tatap muka dengan tambahan materi di luar text book. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 70 hasil kuesioner kuesioner yang terdiri dari 20 pertanyaaan dibagikan kepada 90 mahasiswa dan hanya 71 mahasiswa yang mengembalikan. tujuan pembagian kuesioner adalah untuk mendapatkan data yang akurat tentang kondisi pembelajaran bahasa china i dan masukan untuk perbaikan proses pengajaran untuk tahap selanjutnya. berikut ini adalah hasil penyebaran kuesioner beserta penjelasannya. gambar 2 dasar bahasa china dari gambar 2 diketahui bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa mempunyai dasar bahasa china. dengan demikian, tidak mengherankan jika sebagian besar nilai uts dan uas mahasiswa seperti yang terlihat pada gambar 1 adalah a. pelajaran bahasa china i masih sangat mendasar, dengan demikian mahasiswa yang sudah mempunyai dasar tidak mengalami banyak kesulitan dalam menguasai bahan ajar. gambar 3 lama belajar dari gambar 3 dapat diketahui bahwa dari 71 mahasiswa yang belajar bahasa china, ada 19,39% mahasiswa yang mempunyai dasar bahasa china lebih dari 2 tahun sedangkan mahasiswa yang jangka waktu belajarnya kurang dari 6 bln dan antara 6-12 bulan sebanyak 10.21%. data itu menunjukkan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa sudah mempunyai dasar bahasa china sebelum kuliah di jurusan sastra china ubinus. gambar 4 lingkungan berbahasa analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 71 gambar 4 menunjukkan sebagian besar mahasiswa tidak berkomunikasi dalam bahasa china dengan orang tuanya. dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa meskipun mahasiswa mempunyai kemampuan dasar bahasa china, belum tentu kemampuan tersebut mereka dapat di lingkungan keluarga karena sebagian besar orang tua mereka tidak dapat berbahasa china. kemungkinan besar adalah lewat sekolah dan tempat kursus. gambar 5 tempat tinggal dari gambar 5 dapat diketahui bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa tinggal dengan orang tuanya (bukan mahasiswa luar daerah). kemungkinan besar para orang tua tersebut tidak dapat berbahasa china sehingga dapat disimpulkan pengaruh orang tua juga sangat besar dalam mendukung hasil belajar putra-putrinya. gambar 6 memiliki komputer gambar 6 menunjukkan sebagian besar mahasiswa memiliki komputer pribadi. dengan demikian, jika pengajaran dengan mcl tidak akan menyulitkan karena mahasiswa sdah mempunyai sarana untuk belajar dengan sistem mcl. gambar 7 lama akses internet jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 72 dari data tersebut terlihat bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa hanya mengakses internet selama 1-3 jam seminggu. dengan demikian, dapat dirata-rata dalam sehari waktu untuk mengakses internet tidak sampai 10 menit. hal itu sangat disayangkan mengingat sebagian besar mahasiswa mempunyai komputer di rumah. jika mahasiswa lebih diaktifkan untuk mengerjakan tugas on-line atau mencari bahan di internet yang mendukung pembelajaran, kemungkinan waktu mengakses internet selama seminggu dapat meningkat. gambar 8 keefektivan bahasa china i dari gambar tersebut dapat dilihat bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa merasa pelajaran bahasa china i efektif, dalam arti dapat berguna bagi mereka dalam menguasai bahasa mandarin. jika mahasiswa sudah merasa puas terhadap pembelajaran mata kuliah bahasa china i maka dengan otomatis nilai mereka juga akan berpengaruh. gambar 9 kesulitan dalam belajar bahasa china i sebagian besar mahasiswa merasa dalam mempelajari bahasa china i yang paling sulit adalah tata bahasa. dalam hal ini yang dimaksud tata bahasa adalah menyusun kalimat dengan konteks tata bahasa china. hal itu dapat dimengerti karena tata bahasa china bertolak belakang dengan tata bahasa indonesia. selama ini mahasiswa indonesia sudah biasa menyusun kalimat dalam bahasa indonesia. gambar 10 mcl bahasa china i sebagian besar mahasiswa setuju jika pengajaran bahasa china i dengan cara mcl. dengan demikian, mahasiswa mendukung penuh pembelajaran mcl. hal itu sangat menggembirakan karena mahasiswa menyadari perlunya kemajuan teknologi dalam mendukung proses belajar mengajar dan membantu mereka untuk lebih menguasai bahan ajar yang ada. analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 73 gambar 11 sistem pembelajaran sebagian besar mahasiswa mendukung pembelajaran dengan mcl. sistem pembelajaran f2f adalah pembelajaran tatap muka tanpa bahan pendukung lain, seperti animasi percakapan, kosa kata, nada, dan lafal. sistem pembelajaran mcl adalah tatap muka dengan bahan pendukung lain, seperti animasi percakapan, kosa kata, nada, dan lafal. sistem pelajaran mcl ofc adalah kombinasi tatap muka dan ofc dengan bahan pendukung lain, seperti animasi percakapan, kosa kata, nada, dan lafal. gambar 12 perangkat ajar nada dan lafal sebagian besar mahasiswa setuju adanya perangkat ajar di luar jam kuliah yang dapat dipakai untuk mendukung pembelajaran nada dan lafal bahasa china i. dengan demikian, mahasiswa menyadari bahwa waktu untuk belajar di kelas tidak cukup, mereka harus belajar di luar kelas supaya dapat membunyikan dan melafalkan dengan tepat. akan tetapi, mereka jika jawaban sudah tersedia, akan memudahkan mereka untuk belajar. gambar 13 perangkat ajar kosa kata sebagian besar mahasiswa setuju adanya perangkat ajar di luar jam kuliah yang dapat dipakai untuk mendukung pembelajaran kosakata. selain itu, mahasiswa merasa terbantu dalam menghapalkan kosa kata jika ada latihan dan jawabannya. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 74 gambar 14 perangkat ajar tata bahasa sebagian besar mahasiswa setuju adanya perangkat ajar di luar jam kuliah yang dapat dipakai untuk mendukung pembelajaran tata bahasa karena mahasiswa menyadari bahwa tata bahasa china sangat sulit karena berbeda sama sekali dengan tata bahasa indonesia. dengan demikian, mahasiswa membutuhkan perangkat ajar yang ada jawabannya supaya mereka dapat belajar di luar kelas. gambar 15 tugas binus maya dari gambar 15 dapat diketahui bahwa tugas binus maya yang dikerjakan sangat minim. hal itu mungkin berhubungan dengan kesulitan mahasiswa dalam membuka animasi bahan pendukung berisi percakapan sehingga mahasiswa mengalami kesulitan menjawab pertanyaan yang diajukan mengenai isi animasi tersebut. gambar 16 kesulitan mengumpulkan tugas sebagian besar mahasiswa mengalami kesulitan dalam mengumpulkan tugas melalui internet. hal itu menyebabkan aktivitas di discuscion board berkurang dan mahasiswa lebih cenderung mengumpulkan tugas pada waktu bertemu dosen. analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 75 gambar 17 kesulitan mengerjakan tugas sebagian besar mahasiswa mengakui bahwa kesulitan dalam mengumpulkan tugas di binus maya adalah karena tidak adanya komputer yang menggunakan bahasa china, padahal sebagian besar mahasiswa mempunyai komputer. kendala itu dapat diatasi jika jurusan atau dosen dapat meminjamkan software bahasa china yang dapat di-install ke komputer para mahasiswa. gambar 18 kesulitan animasi percakapan sebagian besar mahasiswa mengalami kesulitan dalam membuka animasi percakapan di intenet. hal itu dapat dimaklumi karena animasi percakapan membutuhkan space yang besar dan waktu yang diperlukan untuk membukanya juga lama. hal itu dapat diatasi jika dosen dapat menyimpan animasi percakapan tersebut di cd dan memberikan mahsiswa untuk di-copy. dengan demikian, pada saat mahasiswa menjawab pertanyaan di forum discussion board, mereka tidak perlu membuka website percakapan. gambar 19 kecepatan akses animasi di internet dari hasil kuesioner dapat dilihat bahwa 37,51% mahasiswa merasa jangka waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk membuka animasi di internet lambat. akan tetapi, 33,46% mahasiswa merasa jangka waktu yang dibutuhkan tidak terlalu lambat dan tidak terlalu cepat. kemungkinan besar hal itu tergantung jenis komputer dan waktu mahasiswa download bahan (pagi, siang, sore, atau malam). jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 64-77 76 gambar 20 kesulitan pengumpulan tugas on-line sebagian besar mahasiswa merasa kesulitan jika tugas-tugas latihan yang diberikan hanya dapat dikerjakan on-line. kemungkinan besar kendala mahasiswa adalah karena mereka tidak mempunyai komputer yang menggunakan bahasa china sehingga pada waktu mereka akan menjawab pertanyaan dosen yang diajukan dalam bahasa china, mereka tidak dapat mengetik jawabannya. selain itu, bagi mahasiswa yang meng-install software nj star hanya dapat mengetik dalam tulisan chinese traditional sedangkan selama ini mahasiswa belajar tulisan chinese simplified. sebagian besar mahasiswa merasa tertarik membaca artikel bahasa china di internet. hal itu merupakan suatu fenomena yang bagus karena menunjukkan keinginan belajar mahasiswa sangat besar. dengan demikian, dapat memperbanyak bahan pendukung bahasa ajar berbentuk artikel yang berhubungan dengan tata bahasa, nada, dan lafal dan semua bidang ilmu yang berhubungan dengan peningkatan pengetahuan bahasa china. penutup dari hasil penelitian, diperoleh simpulan sebagai berikut. pertama, nilai mahasiswa kelas mcl lebih unggul dibandingkan nilai mahasiswa kelas mcl off class dan kelas face to face (konvensional). hal itu menunjukkan pengajaran bahasa china i lebih baik dengan mcl tetapi tidak off class dibandingkan dengan kombinasi mcl off class maupun face to face. kedua, berdasarkan hasil kuesioner didapatkan masukan bahwa bahan pendukung mcl berupa animasi susah dibuka karena beban untuk meng-upload animasi terlalu berat. hal itu menghabiskan waktu dan biaya mahasiswa menyebabkan mahasiswa mengumpulkan tugas yang diminta pada waktu tatap muka dengan dosen bukan lewat e-mail. dengan demikian, dosen jarang memberikan tugas di binus maya. ketiga, meskipun sebagian besar mahasiswa memiliki komputer di rumah tetapi hal itu tidak mendorong mereka untuk aktif di forum diskusi karena komputer yang dimiliki tidak memiliki software bahasa china sehingga merupakan kendala yang besar dalam berdiskusi mengenai kesulitan belajar yang dihadapi. keempat, mahasiswa menyadari bahwa dalam mempelajari bahasa china yang menjadi kendala adalah pelajaran tata bahasa. hal itu karena tata bahasa china berbeda dengan tata bahasa indonesia. oleh karena itu, mahaiswa merasa terbantu jika adanya perangkat ajar yang berisi latihan beserta jawaban untuk membantu mereka lebih menguasai kosa kata bahasa china. keempat, sebagian besar mahasiwa tertarik untuk membaca artikel berbahasa china di internet. hal itu sangat menggembirakan karena menunjukkan minat mahasiswa untuk belajar mandiri sangat kuat dan keinginan mereka untuk menambah ilmu di luar buku ajar juga sangat besar. analisis perbandingan penerapan … (yi ying) 77 daftar pustaka kumpulan karya ilmiah pengajaran bahasa china oleh dekan jin ning (dekan fakultas bahasa china universitas huaqiao, china). 2003. kumpulan karya ilmiah pengajaran bahasa china di indonesia dalam rangka loka karya pengajaran bahasa china ketiga yang diselenggarakan oleh suskonsursium bahasa mandarin, dikti. 2005. parera, jos daniel. 1994. linguistik edukasional. erlangga, jakarta. preston, dennis r. 1989. sociolinguistics and second language acquisition. oxford and new york: basil blackwell. rivers, wilga m. 1981. teaching foreign-language skills. london: the university of chicago. samsuri. 1991. analisis bahasa. jakarta: erlangga. wheeleer, steve. “teknologi konvergen dalam sistem pembelajaran jarak jauh (convergent technologies in distance learning delivery).” tech trends, volume 43, issue 5, november 1999, hal 19. william, c.a.s. 1999. chinese symbolism and arts motifs. jakarta: gramedia. verhaar, j.w.m. 1999. asas-asas linguistik umum. yogyakarta: gajahmada university press. 黄伯荣. 1997. 现代汉语(增订二版)下册. 高等教育出版社. 娱华. 2002. 使用现代汉语语法. 商务印书馆. landsberger, joe . “pedoman dan strategi belajar” diakses dari http://www.studygs.net/indon/disted.htm pinyin, hanyu. diakses dari http://www.chineseon.net/resources/pinyin/index.php http://www.chineseon.net/course/grammar http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/putonghua/unit1/unit1.htm http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/putonghua/unit2/unit2.htm http://www.languageguide.org/im/veg/cn http://www.languageguide.org/im/fruits/cn http://www.languageguide.org/im/num/cn http://shufawest.us/language/tonedrill.html http://www.languageguide.org/im/dining/cn http://www.languaguide.org/im/food/cn/ndexz.jsp http://www.languageguide.org/im/colors/cn http://www.languageguide.org/im/electronics/cn http://www.languageguide.org/body/cn microsoft word 04_ clara_setting.doc 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 128--137 the comparison of bilingual and monolingual learners ability in identifying sentences using reduced clause clara herlina english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 claraherlina@yahoo.com abstract english and indonesian have similar rules in the placement of head noun in adjective clause, that is head noun precedes the clause. however, in english it is possible to reduce the clause while in indonesian it is not possible to do it. this difference causes difficulty for students learning english especially those whose language background is different. binus university students come from different provinces around indonesia and thus they have different language backgrounds. the research declares the difference of this background in identifying reduced clause. they are categorized into monolinguals if they only speak indonesian at home and bilinguals if they speak both indonesian and their ethnic languages. the purpose of this study is to find out whether bilinguals perform better than monolinguals, or vice versa, in processing reduced clause sentences. keywords: reduced clause, monolingual, bilingual abstrak bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia mempunyai aturan yang mirip untuk peletak kata kerja utama di dalam adjective clause, yaitu head noun bisa mendahului klausa. tetapi, di dalam bahasa inggris dimungkinkan juga untuk mengurangi klausa, sementara di dalam bahasa indonesia tidak mungkin dilakukan demikian. perbedaan ini menyebabkan kesulitan mahasiswa yang belajar bahasa inggris, terutama bagi mereka berlatar belakang bahasa yang berbeda. penelitian ini menunjukkan hubungan perbedaan latar belakang bahasa tersebut untuk mengidentifikasi kalimat dengan pengurangan klausa. kelompok yang termasuk monolingual adalah mereka yang hanya berbicara bahasa indonesia di rumah, dan kelompok bilingual adalah mereka yang berbicara baik bahasa indonesia dan bahasa ibu. tujuan penelitian adalah menemukan apakah kelompok bilingual berkemampuan lebih dari pada kelompok monolingual, atau sebaliknya, dalam mengenali kalimat dengan pengurangan klausa. kata kunci: pengurangan klausa, monolingual, bilingual the comparison of bilingual .....(clara herlina) 129 introduction in english, the head noun for an adjective clause appears before the clause itself, as in this sentence: the boy who is eating rice is crying. in indonesian, and in some other ethnic languages in indonesia, the head noun also appears before the adjective clause. example: anak yang sedang makan nasi itu sedang menangis. while in mandarin chinese, the head noun appears after the adjective clause. example: zhe ge chi fan de xiao haizi zai ku. it is possible in english for a clause to appear in a complete form or in a reduced form. examples: (1) the boy who is eating rice is crying, (2) the boy eating rice is crying. sentence (1) shows an adjective clause in its complete form, who is eating rice, while sentence (2) shows an adjective clause in its reduced form, eating rice. however, this is not possible in other languages above. in indonesian, we can not have the reduced form. example: anak sedang makan nasi itu sedang menangis. this sentence would be considered as ungrammatical, because there are two predicates in one sentence. the relative pronoun yang is indispensable in indonesian sentence with adjective clause. the position of head noun and the specific construction of english adjective clause may become problematic for indonesian students especially for those who have other language background. indonesia consists of many provinces, each having its own language. therefore, binus university students coming from many places in indonesia are possibly bilinguals or even multilingual. they must at least master indonesian, as the national language which is taught and used in schools, and the other is their ethnic language (the language used in the place /province of origin). interestingly, students of chinese descendants from some provinces in sumatra and kalimantan use several dialects of chinese language, such as hakka, hokkian, tio chiu or cantonese. they do not speak the ethnic language of the provinces such as jambi malay, bataknese, etc. this research will analyze the impact of students’ language background in learning a foreign language such as english, particularly in identifying the reduced adjective clause. the writer will find out whether students with bilingual background perform better than students with monolingual background, or vice versa. definition of bilingualism. until present days, there has not any exact definition of bilingualism. most of the definitions are given in terms of categories, scales and dichotomies. bloomfield (1933:56) begins with specifying the criteria of bilingualism as ‘native-like control of two languages’. this is also supported by mackey (1962) who proposes that bilingualism is ‘the ability to use more than one language’. by contrast haugen (1953) observes that bilingualism begins when the speaker of one language can produce complete and meaningful utterance in the other language. weinreich (1953) also says that bilingualism involves the practice of alternatively using two languages. webster’s dictionary (1961) defines bilingual as ‘having or using two languages especially as spoken with the fluency characteristic of a native speaker; a person using two languages especially habitually and with control like that of a native speaker’ and bilingualism as ‘the constant oral use of two languages’. this definition supports what bloomfield has proposed about ‘perfect bilinguals’. in contrast, macnamara (1967) proposes that a bilingual is anyone who possesses a minimal competence in only one of the four language skills, listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing, in a language other than his mother tongue. in short, all of the definitions show a spectrum from a rigorous expectation of totally balanced bilingual to a loose requirement of the mere ability in using two languages. degree of bilingualism. from the discussion of the definitions of bilingualism above, it can be concluded that bilingual ability is characterized by the proficiency in using the two languages. consequently, there are several degrees of bilingualism. chin and wigglesworth (2007) provide four degrees of bilinguals. the highest degree is balanced bilingual (a term proposed by lambert et al 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 128--137 (1959) who is fully competent in both languages. however, a perfect or balanced bilingual is hardly possible as fishman (1972) said that ‘bilinguals are rarely equally fluent in both languages in all topics’. baetens-beardsmore (1982) also supports that a balanced bilingual is nearly impossible to achieve. the next degree is a dominant bilingual who is dominant in one language, but does not apply to all domains and the other language is the subordinate one. then, there is passive or recessive bilingual who is gradually losing one’s language competence in one language because of disuse. the lowest one is semilingual or limited bilingual who lacks proficiency in both languages. according to hansegard (1968) a semilingual has a deficit in six language competence: size of vocabulary, correctness of language unconscious processing of language, language creation, mastery of function of language, meaning and imagery, compared to a monolingual. this semilingualism is often blamed for low academic achievement of minority children. dimension of bilinguality. hamers and blanc (2000) proposed 6 dimensions of bilinguality, which are (1) relative competence. according to competence in both languages, there are balanced bilinguals and dominant bilinguals; (2) cognitive organization. according to cognitive organization, there are compound bilinguals and coordinate bilinguals; (3) age of acquisition. according to age of acquisition, there are childhood, adolescent, and adult bilinguals; (4) exogeneity. according to the presence of l2 community in environment, there are endogenous bilinguals and exogeneous bilinguals; (5) social and cultural status. according to relative status of the two languages, there are additive and subtractive bilinguals; (6) cultural identity. according to the group membership and cultural identity, there are bicultural bilinguals, l1 monocultural bilinguals, l2 monocultural bilinguals, and deculturated bilinguals. bilingualism and cognitive development. the proposition whether bilingualism affect cognitive content or thought process has aroused controversial debate. earlier studies demonstrate the negative consequences of bilingual development. studies by pintner & keller (1922) reported a ‘linguistic handicap’ in bilingual children and saer (1923) spoke of ‘mental confusion’ to describe the bilingual’s cognitive functioning. bilingualism is said to be the cause of a diminished functioning in the two languages. jespersen (1922: 148) also expressed a negative opinion: it is, of course, an advantage for a child to be familiar with two languages; but without doubt the advantage may be, and generally is, purchased too dear. first of all the child in question hardly learns either of the two languages as perfectly as he would have done if he had limited himself to one. it may seem on the surface, as if he talked just like a native, but he does not really command the fine points of the language. secondly, the brain effort required to master the two languages instead of one certainly diminished the child’s power of learning other things which might and ought to be learnt. other prominent linguists, such as hakuta (1986) also expressed equally negative views. they claim that bilingual children are handicapped in their language growth and retarded in their native language development. however, a series of studies by peal & lambert (1962) show the positive effects of bilingualism. lambert (1977:30) summarizes the positive advantages of bilingualisms as follows: there is, then, an impressive array of evidence accumulating that argues plainly against the common sense notion that becoming bilingual, that is, having two strings to one’s bow or two linguistic systems within one’s brain naturally divides a person’s cognitive resources and reduces his efficiency of thought. instead, one can now put forward a very persuasive argument that there is a definite cognitive advantage for bilingual children in the domain of cognitive flexibility. since peal and lambert (1962) study, there have been empirical studies in various countries in the western world, asia and africa which detailed the cognitive advantages of the bilingual child. some of the advantages are (1) a greater ability in reconstructing perceptual situations (balkan, 1970), (2) a greater sensitivity to semantic relations between words (cummins, 1978), (3) a greater degree of divergent thinking (scott, 1973; ben-zeev, 1972), (4) better performance in rule-discovery tasks the comparison of bilingual .....(clara herlina) 131 (bain, 1975), (5) better at correction of ungrammatical sentences (diaz, 1985), and (6) better at analogical reasoning tasks (diaz & klinger, 1991). chin (2007) also reports that bilingualism can have an enhancing effect on the learning of a third language. bild & swain (1989) and clyne (2004) claim that bilinguals are more effective and persistent learners of target language than monolingual learners. threshold theory. related to negative and positive effects of bilingualism, toukoma skutnabb-kangas cited in hoffman (1991:89), offers a threshold theory which correlate the effects of bilingualism with the degree of bilingualism. table 1 summarizes the theory. table 1 treshold theory type of bilingualism effect threshold level balanced bilinguals positive cognitive effect higher threshold level dominant bilinguals neither positive nor negative effect semilinguals negative cognitive effect lower threshold level measuring language competence. to measure the learners’ competence in using a language, we can give them test. henning (1987) proposes a range of types of test, of which the most common are (1) proficiency test: to measure a person language ability irrespective of the type of language exposure the person may have had, for example ielt and toefl test; (2) achievement test: to evaluate the language learned in a specific language instruction program related to curriculum; (3) diagnostic test: to identify areas of language strengths and weaknesses for providing additional assistance later; and (4) placement test: to identify the most appropriate place for learners in classes according to his proficiency level. reduced adjective clause and reduced adverb clause. an adjective clause modifies a preceding noun or a pronoun. the noun or pronoun being modified is called the antecedent. the normal position of an adjective clause is immediately after the noun or pronoun to which it refers. the man who had stolen the money was sought by the police. the antecedent of the adjective clause who had stolen the money is the man. adjective clauses can appear in a reduced form. in the reduced form, the adjective clause connector and the be-verb that directly follow it are omitted. examples: (1) the woman who is waving to us is the tour guide, (2) the woman waving to us is the tour guide, (3) the letter which was written last week arrived today, (4) the letter written last week arrived today, (5) the pitcher that is on the table is full of ice tea, and (6) the pitcher on the table is full of ice tea. in the reduced form the connector who, which or that is omitted along with the be-verb, is or was. if there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, the connector is omitted and the verb is changed into the –ing form. examples: (1) i don’t understand the article which appears in today’s news research, and (2) i don’t understand the article appearing in today’s news research. adverb clauses can also appear in a reduced form. in the reduced form, the adverb connector remains, but the subject and be-verb are omitted. examples: (1) although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar, and (2) although unwell, the speaker will take pat in the seminar. if there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is omitted and the main verb is changed into the –ing form. examples: (1) although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar, (2) although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar. 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 128--137 research methods participants the participants for this study are 64 binus students who are taking english iii subject. they are then divided into two groups: monolinguals and bilinguals. monolinguals are those who can only speak indonesian in all domains, while bilinguals are those who can use two languages. the criteria for bilinguality are: (1) they master other ethnic languages beside indonesian, (2) they have learnt the language since childhood, (3) they use the language actively at least in family domain, and (4) they come from places outside jakarta. the bilinguals are further categorized according to the language of origin. those who speak dialects of chinese (hakka, hokkian, tio chiu, cantonese, etc.) are grouped into one sub-category and the other subcategory are those who speak indonesian ethnic languages (sundanese, javanese, bataknese, etc.) the above categorization gives the following number: monolinguals: 31 persons and bilinguals: 31 persons (16 chinese languages + 15 ethnic languages). instrument for data collection the instrument of this study is in the form of grammar test. the test is taken from deborah phillips’s longman complete course of the toefl test. the particular skill is about reduced adjective and adverb clause. the test consists of 20 sentences, in which the students are required to identify the ungrammatical sentences and give correction of the incorrect sentences. for example: the children sat in the fancy restaurant found it difficult to behave. students have to determine whether this sentence is correct or incorrect, then give the correction such as: the children sitting in the fancy restaurant found it difficult to behave. data analysis the test results will be analyzed statistically using spss 17.0 program to find out the following: (1) the ability of monolingual and bilingual learners in identifying ungrammatical sentences, (2) the ability of monolingual and bilingual learners in correcting ungrammatical sentences, and (3) the correlation between bilingualism and learners’ competence in identifying and correcting ungrammatical sentences. results and discussion identification of reduced clause table 2 shows that the students’ ability to identify the ungrammatical sentences using reduced clause is more or less the same. monolingual students can get the score of 7.8 while the bilingual students get 7.4. monolingual students get a slightly better score than bilingual students. this means the average number of sentences that the monolingual students can identify correctly is 15.6 sentences out of 20 sentences. on the other hand, bilingual students can only identify 14.8 out of 20 sentences. the difference is so small that it is not considered significant as it is proven in the following table showing independent samples test: the comparison of bilingual .....(clara herlina) 133 table 2 comparison of mean of identification group statistics mono n mean std. deviation std. error mean identify monolingual 31 7.806 1.7160 .3082 bilingual 31 7.387 1.5422 .2770 table 3 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means 95% confidence interval of the difference f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference std. error difference lower upper identify equal variances assumed .036 .851 1.012 60 .316 .4194 .4144 -.4095 1.2482 equal variances not assumed 1.012 59.329 .316 .4194 .4144 -.4097 1.2484 from the spss result it can be seen that the significance 0.316 is more than α = 0.05 for equal variance assumed. this means that bilingual students are not better than monolingual students in identifying ungrammatical sentences. in other words, bilinguals as well as monolinguals have similar ability in recognizing whether a sentence is grammatical or not. correction of ungrammatical reduced clause sentences when asked to make correction, most students can not do it properly. so, in general, they only get 3-4 score out of 10. that means they can only correct 3-4 sentences. some even do not make corrections at all, so they get 0 scores for correction. interestingly, from 31 monolingual students, 7 students got 0 score; while from bilingual students only 2 got 0 score. the ability to identify whether a sentence is grammatical or not seems unrelated to the ability to make correction. therefore, even if a student can identify that the sentence the suspect can be seen in the photographs were just released by the police is incorrect, he can not make a correct revision of that sentence. he wrote the suspected can be seen in the photographs were just released by the police. the correct one should be the suspect seen in the photographs were just released by the police. however, the overall result shows that the mean score of monolingual students is slightly higher than that of bilingual students as shown in table 4. 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 128--137 table 4 comparison of mean of correction group statistics mono n mean std. deviation std. error mean correction monolingual 31 4.161 3.1102 .5586 bilingual 31 3.677 2.5480 .4576 independent samples test levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means 95% confidence interval of the difference f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference lower upper correction equal variances assumed 3.837 .055 .670 60 .505 .4839 .7221 -.9606 1.9283 equal variances not assumed .670 57.764 .505 .4839 .7221 -.9618 1.9295 the above spss calculation showing the significance value 0.505 for the equality of variances also indicates that bilingualism does not account for score of correction. that means bilingual students have the same ability in correcting ungrammatical sentences with the monolingual students. the similar result occurs when students result is compared based on their language of origin as shown in table 5. table 5 comparison of means of chinese and ethnic languages’ students group statistics bahasa n mean std. deviation std. error mean correction daerah 15 3.667 2.8200 .7281 chinese 16 3.688 2.3585 .5896 identify daerah 15 7.367 1.6847 .4350 chinese 16 7.406 1.4517 .3629 there is no significant difference in scores between monolingual students whose languages are chinese or ethnic languages. correlation between bilingualism and proficiency pearson product moment correlation coefficient is used to measure the relation between two variables: bilingualism and students’ proficiency in identifying ungrammatical sentences. the result is shown in table 6. the comparison of bilingual .....(clara herlina) 135 table 6 correlation between bilingualism and identify correlations mono identify mono pearson correlation 1 -.130 sig. (2-tailed) .316 n 62 62 identify pearson correlation -.130 1 sig. (2-tailed) .316 n 62 62 the table shows a low negative correlation coefficient of -0.130 and the significance 0.316 is bigger than α = 0.05. this means that there is no significant correlation between students’ bilingualism and their scores in identifying ungrammatical sentences. conclusion it is still debatable whether bilingualism can give positive or negative effects to learners, especially to those who are learning a foreign language (third language). in the study of 64 binus university students learning english, the writer found the following results. first, bilingual students have more or less the same score as monolingual students in identifying mistakes in reduced clause sentences. in fact, monolingual students (7.8) are slightly better than bilingual students (7.4). second, monolingual students (4.2) are better than bilingual students (3.7) in correcting the mistakes in reduced clause sentences. third, bilingual students whose mother tongues are chinese languages and indonesian ethnic languages have similar performance in identifying and correcting ungrammatical reduced clause sentences. fourth, there is a low negative correlation between bilingualism of the students and their ability in identifying and correcting ungrammatical reduced clause sentences. from the above results, the writer concludes that bilingual students are not performing better than monolingual students in learning a foreign language (especially english). in the case of binus students, most of the bilingual students came from several provinces outside jakarta, such as jambi, riau, west kalimantan, central java; while monolinguals came from jakarta and other big cities in java where access to a foreign language (english) is readily available. so, the place of origin may also become a determining factor in the mastery of a foreign language. references baetens-beardsmore, h. 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(1953). languages in contact, new york: the linguistic circle of new york. pre test indicate if the sentences are correct or incorrect and make correction for the incorrect ones. 1. the food placing on the picnic table attracted a large number of flies. 2. the suspect can be seen in the photographs were just released by the police 3. the ointment can be applied when needed 4. when purchased at this store, the buyer gets a guarantee on all items. 5. once purchased, the swimsuits cannot be returned. 6. though located near the coast, the town does not get much of an ocean breeze. 7. dissatisfied with the service at the restaurant, the meal really was not enjoyable. 8. the brand new cadillac, purchasing less than two weeks ago, was destroyed in the accident. 9. the children sat in the fancy restaurant found it difficult to behave. 10. the medicine is not effective unless taken as directed. 11. if not completely satisfied, you can return the product to the manufacturer. 12. though was surprised at the results, she was pleased with what she had done. 13. the application will at least be reviewed if submitted by the 15th of the month. 14. before decided to have surgery, you should get a second opinion. 15. when applying for the job, you should bring your letter of reference. 16. the company president, needed a vacation, boarded a plane for bahamas. 17. feeling weak after a long illness, sally wanted to try to get back to work. 18. wearing only a light sweater, she stepped out into the pouring rain. 19. when built nest during the spring nesting season, canadian geese are fiercely territorial. 20. kokanee salmon begin to deteriorate and die soon after spawning at the age of four. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 61 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 61-66 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.2004 the boundaries of russian identity: analysis of the russkiy mir concept in contemporary russian online media michał kozdra university of warsaw, faculty of applied linguistics, institute of russian studies m.kozdra@uw.edu.pl received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 09th august 2017/ accepted: 13th september 2017 how to cite: kozdra, m. (2018). the boundaries of russian identity: analysis of the russkiy mir concept in contemporary russian online media. lingua cultura, 12(1), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.2004 abstract this article set out to present selected outcomes of my research on the concept of “russkiy mir” in contemporary ethnocentric online russian media. perspectives for further analysis were also presented. the analytical methodology involved a semantic and cultural analysis of a dataset from a cognitive and anthropological viewpoint including elements of critical discourse analysis. the concept of “russkiy mir” in the ethnocentric discourse investigated in this article was based on an idea of forming a supranational russian civilization. this community would unite all russians, the russian diaspora and all those learning russia, and declaring the attachment to russian culture. proponents of this discourse assume that “russkiy mir” will have a geopolitical dimension, imperial pretenses and will transgress state borders, and claiming for itself a transcontinental realm. a nationality dimension is also supposed to be an important aspect according to the discourse participants. the main ethnos is to be that of the russian nation, around which other ethnoses will congregate. the orthodox religion is supposed to be an important co-constituent of “russkiy mir”. keywords: russian identity, russkiy mir concept, russian online reader introduction przemyśleć geometrię naszych granic znaczy przemyśleć geometrię naszej myśli o ludzkim świecie (kunce, 2010). (to rethink the geometry of our boundaries is to rethink the geometry of our thought about the human world). boundaries are marked not only by dint of the authority of political decision-makers but also owing to elites of symbolic power (bourdieu, 1989; 1991). it includes opinion writers, literary writers, clergy, scientists, experts, and other intellectuals wielding control over publicly available knowledge and beliefs and establishing the hierarchy of what is important and what is unimportant (czyżewski, kowalski, & piotrowski, 2010; van dijk, 1983; 1993). pierre bourdieu emphasises that within every social macrocosm, a fight goes on between agents to impose one’s principles of perceiving and partitioning the world. this fight takes on a symbolic form (bourdieu 1988; 1989; dębska 2014: 394). symbolic power may also present as violence, as pointed out by aleksandra kunce. powoływanie granic ma swój udział w symbolicznej przemocy ujarzmiającej i kontrolującej terytoria, ludzi, sfery myślenia. granice to władza, jak powiedziałby michel foucault. granice są w służbie podboju, jak pisał michel de certeau, bowiem to silny segreguje, dzieli, a pewność daje mu mapa. a zatem kontrola jest funkcją granicy (kunce 2010). (establishing boundaries contributes to symbolic violence that subdues and controls territories, people, and spheres of thinking. boundaries are power, as michel foucault would say. boundaries serve conquest, as wrote michel de certeau, for it is the strong one that segregates and divides, and his certainty derives from the map. control is thus a function of a boundary). alexander dugin, a well-known russian geopolitician, notes that the concept of boundary is the essence of politics and determines the future of a state: 62 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 61-66 граница есть квинтэссенция политики. все войны ведутся за изменение (сохранение) структуры границ. границы предопределяют успех или поражение, стартовые условия и неизбежный крах в грядущем. все величие государства и вся бездна его падения заключены в границах. такова метафизика границ (dugin, 2014). (the boundary is the quintessence of politics. all wars are waged to change (preserve) the arrangement of boundaries. boundaries determine success or failure, define starting conditions, and decide an inevitable defeat in the future. the problem of the greatness of a state and the entire abyss of a state’s fall is but part of the question of state boundaries. this is the very metaphysics of boundaries). however, boundaries are not only real geographic objects, but also mental constructs. for the reality, it is also a space of social awareness and a network of concepts that operates below and above distinct institutions (alexander, 2010; dębska, 2014). boundaries are also closely linked to mechanisms of social inclusion and exclusion, marking, as they do, dividing lines between different cultures and speech communities. representatives of such cultures often create identities by ascribing positive traits to “their own folk” and negative traits to “others”, which, on the one hand, strengthens social links within their own group (tajfel & turner, 1979), but it also serves to reject others. in turn, thanks to language, identity is narrative and discursive in nature since language allows conceptualization and categorization, and thus fragmentation, of the world in order to enable it to be better understood. it can be stated that identity is shaped via the formation of geographic and mental boundaries, the separation of one world from another and of “us” from “them”. mental representations of boundaries reproduced in the public discourse by elites are, however, not only fantasies, delusions or, more generally, figments of imagination. they are also a source for shaping agentivity as well as creating contemporary identities and taking real action. the concept of “русский мир” (russkiy mir) is an important motif in the narrative on boundaries in their diverse dimensions: geopolitical, cultural, economic, social, religious or educational, in the context of the formation of contemporary russian identity. this mental construct is often invoked in public discourse by elites of institutional and symbolic power. this article sets out to present selected outcomes of my research on the concept of russkiy mir in contemporary ethnocentric online russian media. an analysis of patterns of use and perception of the concept of russkiy mir constitutes one chapter in author’s doctoral thesis on “axiological concepts in contemporary russian public discourse about russian cultural identity”. the author reconstructs the cognitive structure of this concept in online ethnocentric discourse in contemporary russia using the methodology of cognitive semantics. the author presents a synopsis of selected outcomes of this research and possible perspectives for further analysis of the concept of russkiy mir. methods the dataset for the analysis comprises one hundred online media texts contributing to ethnocentric discourse that are published between 2005 and 2013 on webpages of the russkiy mir (russian world) foundation (www.russkiymir. ru), president of the russian federation (www.kremlin. ru), the russian orthodox church (www.patriarchia.ru), and the information portals “russkaya narodnaya linia” or russian national line (www.ruskline.ru), intelros (www. intelros.ru), pax russica (www.paxrussica.ru), agentstvo politicheskikh novostey or political news agency (www.apn. ru). participants in this type of discourse strongly identify with their own ethnic group and regard it as a fundamental source of their sense of identity and consequently. a variety of criteria are used to provide typologies of discourse. they include the subject matter of utterances forming a discourse, for example, politics (political discourse). the aim of these utterances, for instance, pastoral activity (pastoral discourse); or the venue where a discourse takes place, for example, school, media, institution (school, media, institutional discourse) (laskowska, 2010). it believes that loyalty and dedication are to be shown primarily towards one’s own group. thus, “ethnos’ is a significant category in this discourse. ethnos is understood in essentialist terms, i.e., as a self-contained entity that is an agent of history and social interaction (malakhov, 2004). this perception of ethnos entails at least two consequences; they are the reduction of social differences to ethnic differences and, consequently, the reduction of social interaction to ethnic or ethnocultural interaction; and the equation of cultural and ethnic identity. the choice of ethnocentric discourse as the subject of research stemmed from the realization that ethnocentric discourse is currently an important locus of animated discussion about russia’s identity, its role on the global arena, new geographic borders, and mental boundaries. aleksandr malinkin stresses that this discourse is fundamentalist in nature. its participants are not content to claim merely that russia is a self-contained civilization with a unique culture and its own traditional system of values and that it has its distinct historical and ideological mission as they also want the civilizational uniqueness of russia to be recognized. they also see a special mission for russia as a nation chosen by god (богоизбранность – bogoizbrannost’) and stress the superiority of russians over other nations (malinkin, 2001). the methodology used in the analysis of the dataset draws on semantic and cultural analysis with a cognitive and anthropologic slant (boldyrev, 2002, 2010; lakoff & johnson, 1980; stepanov, 1997; tabakowska, 1995; wierzbicka, 1985) and elements of critical discourse analysis (fairclough, 1995; fairclough & wodak, 1997; reisigl, 2007; wodak, 2008). emphasis is placed on the processes of mental embracement of the world by social actors, as well as processes of categorization and conceptualization of reality. this paper employs concepts typical of this methodology, such as concept, discourse, and identity. in view of their semantic richness and varying perception, it is necessary to present author’s understanding in this article and the academic tradition that the author relies on. the author understands the concepts to be cognitive 63the boundaries of russian identity .... (michał kozdra) structures in the form of strings of mental representations, associations, knowledge, experiences, and emotions. concepts have their representations, both linguistic (lexical) in the form of signs and extralinguistic, i.e., non-verbal; in the form of other semiotic codes, such as images, sounds or gestures. juriy stepanov stresses that concepts are “cultural clusters” (сгустки культуры – sgustki kul’tury) in human consciousness that they are culture-specific (stepanov, 1997). a concept is an element of collective knowledge about the world shared by a given speech community. this knowledge, in turn, is a network of connected ideas that derive from national tradition, religion, folklore, ideology, systems of value, and discourses. gilles deleuze and félix guattari stress the subject-construed nature of concepts, which are not ready-made formations but need to be invented, or produced, by their creator in real time. concepts are not waiting for us ready-made, like heavenly bodies. there is no heaven for concepts. they must be invented, fabricated, or rather created and would be nothing without their creator’s signature (deleuze & guattari, 1994). secondly, discourse is defined here as a written and spoken form of social action, a way of assigning meanings to a particular sphere of social life (wodak, 2008; fairclough & wodak 1997). this assignment of meanings is accomplished via sequences of language acts that are thematically connected at a macro level (girnth, 1996; wodak, 2008; laskowska, 2010). consequently, the aim of discourse analysis, as łukasz kumięga points out, is to reconstruct the peculiar semantic orders (including the rules for their generation) that are characteristic of various specific social spheres (kumięga, 2013), since the reality around us is constructed by social negotiation of meanings. thus, discourses do not merely provide historical frameworks that determine thought processes of discourse subjects and the order of objects but are social realities, collective knowledge structures that influence social practice, i.e., actions were taken by participants in the communication and constitute the social order. finally, the author regards identity as a sense, enjoyed by an individual, of being distinct from other individuals, shaped by such factors as awareness of one’s origin, history, memory, consanguinity, culture, territory, language, and discourse practices. identity is dynamic and plastic; in other words, it has a defined stable part (containing invariable components) and another part that is more or less changeable, fluid. it crystallizes and becomes fixed by means of the upholding of historical memory, public discourse, social movements, popular culture, and the system of education (kłoskowska, 2005). at the heart of this understanding of identity lies a sense of continuity and lasting presence of a certain “self” based on the past and memory (chlebda, 2011). language is a key factor in the generation of cultural identity as identity reveals itself in a diversity of forms of language behavior and expression (gajda, 2007). results and discussions the concept of russkiy mir is a joint concern of the mythology of contemporary russian elites. it defines an imagined community (anderson, 2006) or, rather, one that is being imagined, continuously being formed, but is not imaginary, i.e., it is not only present in thoughts because it acts in the real world. this imagined community under construction is forming as a result of processes of discursive construction of meanings in the sphere of public communication as a space of public debate. elites of symbolic power are social actors that are capable of creating this community, wielding control over the means of communication, and possessing adequate capital and are capable of ruling over others (influencing their minds), particularly by shaping public opinion (czyżewski, kowalski & piotrowski 2010). the semantic/cultural and discourse-based analysis of the dataset leads to the conclusion that the concept of russkiy mir presents in ethnocentric discourse as an element of collective knowledge about the world shared by a given speech community. it is founded on the idea of building community space as a supranational geopolitical creation, a russian civilization with a strong political and orthodox component. this community would unite all russian people, the russian diaspora in the former soviet republics, and even all those who simply learn russian and feel the attachment to russian culture. the word “русский” (russkiy) ‘russian’ indicates historical roots with historical russia and the word “мир” (mir) refers both to the world (planet earth) and to peace. this wordplay is impossible to reproduce in english, and it is the reason why this concept is referenced here by the transcribed russian phrase. russkiy mir has a multilayer structure because it is a mental construct in the form of a conglomerate of mental representations, associations, knowledge, experiences, and emotions that discourse participants link to it. it comprises the dimensions of geopolitical, nationality-related, religious, cultural, and psychosocial. these dimensions have been reconstructed via semantic/cultural analysis of the dataset. the dimensions of the concept of russkiy mir have been summarized in table 1, where the left-hand column contains the names of dimensions, perceived as individual meanings of the concept. each of these names is a generalized nomination that is formed by analysis of discourse content. it is linked to the concept of identity as identity reveals itself in various forms of language behavior and expression. the righthand column contains concise overviews of the content of the texts in the dataset, the goal being to reconstruct the meanings in the discourse under study. table 1 dimensions of the russkiy mir concept in ethnocentric discourse in russia dimension of the concept of russkiy mir overview of content of dimensions of russkiy mir geopolitical • extends over a supranational and transcontinental area • has imperial pretences nationality-related • includes the russians and nations of the former ussr • the main ethnos is the russian nation religious • includes orthodox believers • the russian orthodox church is an important factor • subscribes to orthodox values 64 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 61-66 table 1 dimensions of the russkiy mir concept in ethnocentric discourse in russia (continued) dimension of the concept of russkiy mir overview of content of dimensions of russkiy mir cultural • command of the russian language and knowledge of russian literature and culture are determinants of membership of russkiy mir psychological • its members are obliged to be loyal towards their mother country, show interest in russian issues and a bond with russia • a sense of unity is an important component the geopolitical, psychosocial, nationality-related, and, simultaneously, cultural dimension of russkiy mir is reflected, among others, in a text from the website of the russkiy mir foundation. it is established by president of the russian federation with the aim of promoting the russian language. this text shows that russkiy mir has a broad meaning that also includes citizens of the commonwealth of the independent states and foreigners provided that they speak russian and are interested in russia and its future. in the original, русские (russkiye) refers to russians as the indigenous representatives of the russian nation while россияне (rossiyane) is a broader notion referring to all citizens of the russian federation, who include representatives of other nations (e.g., ukrainian, belarussian, or tartar) that live in russia and bear russian passports. русский мир – это не только русские, не только россияне, не только наши соотечественники в странах ближнего и дальнего зарубежья, эмигранты, выходцы из россии и их потомки. это ещё и иностранные граждане, говорящие на русском языке, изучающие или преподающие его, все те, кто искренне интересуется россией, кого волнует её будущее (russkij mir). (russkiy mir is not only russian people, not only our compatriots from the near and far abroad, emigrants, refugees from russia and their descendants but also foreigners who speak russian, learn or teach russian, all those who are sincerely interested in russia and concerned about its future). the nationality dimension is fortified by emphasizing the uniqueness of the russian nation, which forms the core of russkiy mir. русский мир не полиэтничен, но он и не моноэтничен, он – суперэтничен, его основу, становой хребет составляет русский народ как суперэтнос, формирующийся на основе восточнославянского этноса по конфессиональному принципу (rln, 2009). (russkiy mir is not multiethnic, but it is not monoethnic, either it is super ethnic. its core foundation is the russian nation as a superethnos forming on the basis of eastern slavonic ethnos according to confessional identification). a significant role of the russian orthodox church in unifying russkiy mir is stressed by hegumen euthymius (moiseyev), the rector of kazan seminary, who has stated the following about russkiy mir on the portal russkaya narodnaya linia (russian national line). под русским миром следует понимать общность всех людей, идентифицирующих себя с русской цивилизацией, основополагающим принципом которой является православие (rln, 2009). (the concept of russkiy mir should be understood as the community of all people identifying with russian civilization, whose fundamental principle is orthodox faith). similar narrations about the role of the russian orthodox church may be found in statements by top politicians of the russian federation, including president vladimir putin. сегодня и в россии, и в странах канонического присутствия московского патриархата, среди наших соотечественников на разных континентах русская православная церковь выполняет особую миссию. она сближает государства и народы, своим мудрым словом и делом помогает найти взаимопонимание. помогает сохранить те нити, которые связывали нас веками, по сути, сплачивает многомиллионный русский мир (kremlin, 2013). (today, both in russia and in the countries where the moscow patriarchate is present canonically, among our compatriots on different continents, the russian orthodox church is fulfilling a special mission, bringing closer states and nations and, with its sage word and actions, helping to find mutual understanding. it helps to preserve those bonds that have brought us together for centuries. in actuality, it unifies the multimillion russkiy mir). these results necessitate further analysis. further research on the concept of russkiy mir is substantiated by a few factors that have been present in post-1991 russia; (1) institutionalization of efforts in support of the idea of russkiy mir in russia and the world. (2) the emergence of numerous online platforms where this concept is discussed. (3) numerous statements about the concept of russkiy mir by decision-makers, prominent members of the clergy, scholars, and other representatives of political and symbolic power. the research so far has been confined to one type of discourse, namely ethnocentric discourse. future research could broaden this perspective to include other types of discourse in order to determine the extent of this concept 65the boundaries of russian identity .... (michał kozdra) in other intellectual circles of contemporary russia and possibly also beyond russian borders. another research postulate is to study earlier (pre-2005) texts. the time limit could be the break-up of the ussr, which leads to changes not only in the geopolitical situation, but also to the active generation of new identity projects; pro-western, imperialist, nationalist, euro-asian and, others. it should be pointed out that further research perspectives on this concept may concern the analysis of other media, including offline. the dataset could include radio and tv broadcasts, online video footage and visual materials, such as photographs and illustrations that are broadly construed multimodal communication. in this case, the research questions that are possible is russkiy mir only circulates online, or also offline, for example, in non-official or popular sites such as facebook, or online gaming community websites?; if it also circulates offline, then is there any medium-specific difference between the two modes of circulation? several hypotheses should be verified (1) the concept of russkiy mir is a major rhetorical topos in contemporary russian post-1991 public discourse which plays an important role in the auto-identification and the generation of new identity projects in contemporary russia. (2) the concept of russkiy mir serves to (re)construct an ideological bridge over the former ussr republics. (3) the use of this concept as “soft power” has an impact on the marking of new geopolitical, cultural, economic and social boundaries by political and symbolic power elites. a more extensive, interdisciplinary methodology is also proposed that would include multiplane linguistic discourse analysis or ein diskurslinguistisches mehrebenenmodell (warnke & spitzmüller, 2008) and politological analysis incorporating the concept of “soft power” (nye, 1991; 2004). this analytical methodology may help perceive discourse phenomena in contemporary russia at several levels: (1) intra textual, i.e. the level of broadly construed text as a product of discourse, (2) trans textual, or the level of (politological) context as a determinant of discourse, and (3) interactional, i.e. the plane of the activity of social actors as subjects and the role of their worldviews. the set of proposed methods listed accounts for the complexity of discourse processes that can be observed in public communication in russia. conclusions the concept of russkiy mir in the ethnocentric discourse investigated in this article is based on the idea of building a space for a supranational russian civilization. this community would unite all russians; the russian diaspora and all those learning russian, and people who are feeling the attachment to russian culture. proponents of this type of discourse assume that russkiy mir will have a geopolitical dimension, imperial pretenses and will transcend state borders, encompassing a transcontinental area. a nationality dimension is also to be an important aspect according to participants of the discourse. the most important ethnos, around which other ethnoses will congregate, is the russian nation. the orthodox religion is an important co-constituent of russkiy mir. references alexander, j. 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(2008). dyskurs pupulistyczny: retoryka wykluczenia a gatunki języka pisanego. in a. duszak (ed.), krytyczna analiza dyskursu. interdyscyplinarne podejście do komunikacji społecznej (pp. 185-214). kraków: universitas. microsoft word 04 tjoo hong sing_setting 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 28-36 gender differences in giving directions: a case study of english literature students at binus university tjoo hong sing; felicia andrey kalingga english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract many researchers have said that there are differences in the ways people give direction between males and females, especially in spatial task (cardinal directions, topography, mileage, building, right/left markers) (e.g., lawton, 2001; dabbs et al., 1998). here, the thesis investigates what differences occur between both genders in giving direction. the respondents are 25 females and 25 males of fifth semester binus university students majoring in english literature. the respondents answered with a certain route from binus’s anggrek campus to senayan city. the study was conducted by qualitative and quantitative method. from the data analysis, the writer discovered that gender does affect in selecting the key words in explaining direction it is found that there were differences in choosing key words in giving direction between females and males. the difference is women use more than twice spatial references than men do. in terms of verbal abilities, it was confirmed that female use longer explanation. however, in other aspects such as serial orientation and maintenance words, the result is inconclusive. keywords: sociolinguistics, gender, cognitive, spatial ability, giving directions abstrak skripsi ini membahas perbedaan cara dalam memberikan arah yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa laki-laki dan perempuan semester lima universitas binus jurusan sastra inggris. responden terdiri dari dua puluh lima perempuan dan dua puluh lima laki-laki. responden diminta untuk menunjukkan arah menuju ke senayan city dari kampus anggrek. uraian responden kemudian dicatat sebagai data. studi ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode kuantitatif dan kualitatif. berdasarkan analisa data, penulis menemukan bahwa jenis kelamin mempengaruhi dalam pemilihan kata kunci dalam menjelaskan arah dengan menggunakan dan ditemukan bahwa terdapat perbedaan dalam pemilihan kata kunci dalam menunjukkan arah antara perempuan dan laki-laki. perempuan menggunakan kata-kunci spatial dua kali lebih banyak daripada laki-laki. dalam penggunaan bahasa, ditemukan bahwa perempuan menunjukkan arah dengan lebih banyak kata, tetapi dalam aspek pemberian urutan informasi dan kata-kata yang bersifat “maintenance” tidak ada perbedaan preferensi yang jelas. kata kunci: sociolinguistics, jender, kognitif, kemampuan spasial, menunjukkan arah gender differences ….. (tjoo hong sing; felicia andrey kalingga) 29 introduction some people have observed that men and women explain things differently because men and women are two completely different creatures. the way they speak, the way they express themselves, the way they state opinions, the way they share ideas and the way they talk to each other are totally different (gray, 1992). however, those differences not only provide positive value but negative as well. because of the differences men and women share in communication style, a great number of errors may emerge and as the result, those errors may lead men and women into misunderstandings, misperception, and even conflict in their communication activity. lawton (2001), who studied the ways in which men and women give directions for spatial tasks, stated, “the pattern of gender differences that has emerged from research on navigation and way finding shows that men excel on some tasks and women on others” (p. 322). coates (2004 in napoleon, 2007), explains the “difference approach” to describe how men and women use language. this approach “emphasizes the idea that men and women belong to different subcultures…researchers have been able to show the strengths of linguistic strategies characteristic of women [and men]” (p. 18). in terms of particular cognitive strengths, however, men generally tend to include a higher frequency of references to cardinal directions, distance information (for example, the estimation of distances to landmarks), serial orientation (using words to describe the steps of the directions as a series: “first,” “second,” etc.) (boerger & henley, 1999; cohen, 1977; plumert et al., 2001). men also excel in pointing to out-of-sight markers, locating hidden targets, and creating sketch-map drawings. on the other hand, women have better verbal abilities (maccoby & jacklin, 1974). women are more communicative. they can give longer explanation due to their verbal ability. some studies mentioned that females are better than males in remembering landmarks (dabbs et al., 1998; denis, 1997; miller & santoni, 1986; schmitz, 1997, cited in lawton, 2001, p. 323). also, lawton (2001) said that females are far more frequent in using left/right markers. montello et al. (1999) who conducted a verbal description of route walked on a campus by students confirmed that males exceed females in mentioning metric distance and cardinal direction. however, there were little differences in the number of turns and landmark mentioned by males and females. also, they discovered that female seemed to be better at non-metric-distance terms and maintenance statements. methods to confirm the above mentioned studies, we conducted a research to see the difference of language use (i.e. keywords) by female and male students of binus university in giving directions were examined in the light of what has been written about spatial ability of male and female. in particular, the writers wanted see the use of keywords by these students related to cardinal directions, topographical features, right/left, and buildings as the indicators. are the spatial reference keywords used by male and females different? what other differences are present in their speech when giving directions? our study involved asking 25 male and 25 female students of binus university to give verbal directions from the campus to senayan city. their responses were recorded and analyzed based on the use of spatial reference keywords. 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 28-36 results and discussions cardinal directions cardinal direction is a way to point at a certain direction. the first four main cardinal directions are north (n), east (e), west (w), and south (s). sometimes it also can be defined as the position of the sun. it is mostly used for geographic orientation. from the data we collected, females outperformed males in using cardinal referents. out of 25 women, 17 women mentioned cardinal directions for 18 times. there are 16 women who mentioned it one time and there is only one woman who mentioned it twice. meanwhile, out of 25 men only 2 men mentioned cardinal direction. each of them mentioned it one time. based on this comparison, there is a big gap between men and women in cardinal direction. in explaining the route direction, the women more often use the indicator of cardinal direction rather than men. the ratio between men and women is 1:9. (see figure 1 below) figure 1cardinal references topographical reference the second reference is topography. topography is the three-dimensional arrangement of physical attributes (such as shape, height, and depth) of a land surface in a place or region (kleinedler, 2005, p. 1526). it describes surface shapes and features (especially their depiction in maps). the topography of an area can also be the surface shape and its own features. these features including natural features (mountains, valleys, plains, and bodies of water), human-made (lake, bridge, road curve, and railway) and road structures are considered topographical. based on topography which is taken from the respondents answers, there are only 2 words refer to topography which are stated by 2 men. on the contrary, 25 women stated words referring to topography for 57 times. each of 3 women stated topography reference for 4 times, each of 7 women stated the reference for 3 times, each of 9 women stated the reference for 2 times, and each of 6 women stated the reference only once. from this comparison, we can conclude that women uttered the reference of topography much more than men. women tend to use the indicator of topography more. the following graph (figure 2) illustrates this. the graph shows that women use almost as 30 times more than men. gender differences ….. (tjoo hong sing; felicia andrey kalingga) 31 figure 2topography references mileage reference the third reference is mileage. mileage is total length, extent, or distance measured or expressed in miles. in this thesis, kilometer or meter will also be used as measurement of distance. total kilometers are covered or traveled in a given time. mileage is essential to show a distance that we have passed to reach a certain destination. sometimes it does not have to be in an explicit number (e.g., 2 kilometer, 400 meter), but mileage can also be represented as “several kilometers” or “few meters”. this is where the difference between females and males is not that much. there are four out of twenty five male respondents that did not answer using mileage reference while all female respondents answered using the reference of mileage. this is the following graph: figure 3mileage references in mileage, 25 females mentioned 30 words of mileage indicator when answering direction question. each of 20 females uttered the indicator for one time and 5 females mentioned it twice. males asserted 31 words of mileage indicator. there are 4 males who did not mention the indicator. there is only one male who mentioned it 3 times. twelve males mentioned the indicator once, and 8 males mentioned it twice. if we look at the total mileage indicators mentioned, the results show that male use them only one time more than female do. however, when it comes to the frequency used by a individuals, 8 males used the indicators twice, and one male used it three times, whereas only 5 females used it more than once. so, overall male used mileage indicators more than female. 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 28-36 building (landmark) reference the fourth reference is building reference. it is common to refer to landmarks when one gives directions because it is usually easier for people to identify landmarks such as a market or a police station, rather than calculating distances from a certain point. in this research, most of the respondents used anggrek campus, senayan city, and plaza senayan as the building references. the male respondents explained the direction by using building references for 15 times. there are 16 out of 25 males who did not use this parameter. on the other hand, there are nine males who used this parameter. there are 3 out of 9 males who mentioned it once. there are 6 out of 9 males who uttered the parameter twice. the female respondents gave direction by using building reference for 90 times. there are 5 females mentioned it for 5 times, 8 females mentioned it for 4 times, 9 females mentioned it 3 times, and 3 females mentioned it twice. this indicates that men use less in mentioning building parameter than women do. in fact, the female students used it 6 times more than male students. figure 4 building references right/left reference the final reference is right/left markers. right/left markers is the reference which is mostly used by both genders. the total is illustrated in the graph below: figure 5 right/left references in the subject of right/left markers, the 25 male respondents articulated right/left markers for 139 times in replying the question of “how to get from binus anggrek to senayan city?” there are 2 males who mentioned it for 3 times. there are 7 males mentioned it for 4 times. there are 4 males mentioned it for 5 times. there are 11 males who mentioned it for 7 times. there is only 1 male who gender differences ….. (tjoo hong sing; felicia andrey kalingga) 33 mentioned it for 8 times. on the other hand, the 25 female respondents articulated right/left markers for 185 times in describing the answer. there is 1 female who mentioned it for 4 times. there are 9 females mentioned it for 6 times. there are 4 females mentioned it for 7 times. there are 11 females who mentioned it for 9 times. the ratio of the use of left/right markers between males and females is 3:4. females used it 30% more than males do. total use of references the writer counted the total of the five references uttered by female and male respondents. it is presented with the graph below: figure 6 total frequency of references from figure 6, the result of interview shows that the women outperform the males in the cardinal directions, topography, building, right/left markers, whereas men is a little bit better in mileage since the total is not too different between them. the length of explanation and language use many researchers found that females have better verbal abilities regarding spatial references (maccoby and jacklin, 1974, montello, 1999). to confirm this, 12 respondents consisting 6 males and 6 females were chosen randomly. their speeches were then analyzed in terms of their length. in the calculation of the number of words, we consider words like you’ll or it’s as one word. it turns out that the average length of the explanation of these 6 males is 68 words. on the other hand, from the 6 females chosen, their utterances had more words, with the average of 104.7 words. (see table 1 and 2 in the following pages.) this agrees with what other writers have said that females give longer explanation when giving directions. this study, however, does not always confirm the fact that males give more serial orientation (using words to describe the steps of the directions as a series: “first,” “second,” etc.) as described by boerger & henley (1999), cohen (1977), plumert et al. (2005 in napoleon, 2007). from table 1 and 2 in the previous pages, it can be seen that male c and male g used the word first, while none of the women respondents used that word. however, the word then, which also indicates sequence, seemed to be used less by male (22 times) than by female (28 times). also, the phrase after that occurred 5 times in male speech, but 6 times in female speech. maintenance statements such as keep going, go straight, go further, etc. were reported to be used slightly more by females than males in the study of montello (1999, p527). in our study this fact seems to be inconclusive. females said 18 times of go straight and once going straight while males said 13 times of go straight and two times of going straight (keep going straight and continue going straight). however, males said 7 times of follow the street, but female said it only 6 times. 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 28-36 table 1 verbal responses from six randomly-chosen male students subject response male c go out first, then turn right. now you’re going to south after you pass a spotlight, just go straight for 4 km. then, turn left, just keep going straight until you see spotlight turn left. follow the street then go for around 2 km turn right after you see three junctions, and then turn left, turn right then turn left. (60 words) male g you turn right, and follow the street. after you find redlight, turn left, and around 2 km there’s itc permata hijau on your left. after that, turn left, follow the street just go straight and, follow the street after you see three junctions turn right then turn left after that turn right again around 1km. and then you turn left.(60 words) male i first, go out from anggrek turn right, go straight for a couple of km then turn left. just go straight don’t take any turn after you find the red light then you turn right and you just go straight. after that, you will turn left, go up and then go straight follow the street then turn left. around 1 km you will see plaza senayan just keep going and then you will see it on your right. (77 words) male u you just turn right. after red light turn left, go until you find the red light turn right. go straight for around 2 km after that you will see the circling bridge on your left side. take it and follow the street until you find mulia hotel turn left. then you will pass plaza senayan just go straight and take u turn on your right side. there you are. (69 words) male d from campus, you turn right. after red light you turn left, go for several miles until you find the red light turn right. continue going straight. go to north for 2 km you will see circling bridge on your left side. follow the street then turn left and then you will pass plaza senayan just go straight then take final u turn on your right side. that’s it. (68 words) male l turn right then turn left after 2km. then go straight and you will see kompas gramedia on your right just go straight after you find red light then turn right then after 2km take u turn on your left after that go straight. you will see mulia hotel in front of you then turn left. go straight for 2km then you will find it on your right and you have to take u turn.(74 words) average length of words 1/6 x (60+60+77+69+68+74) = 68 words table 2 verbal responses from six randomly-chosen male students subject response female f from campus, you turn right. keep going straight around 1 km and pass the red light. turn left and turn right just follow the street until you find a red light again. then you turn left and go to the west, and you will see itc permata hijau on your left then you turn left after a red light. follow the street and you will pass a railway then you go straight, and on a three junctions you turn right, and turn left after that turn right again and then turn left. (92 words) female g from campus, just turn right. you’ll see spotlight after 1 km turn left, then turn right then turn left after you see palmerah market on your right turn left. go straight and you will find another spotlight then you turn right. there is a bridge, go up and then go straight. on your left, you will take another bridge, go straight, and you will find mulia hotel in front of you, then turn left. go straight to the north and you will see plaza senayan on your left. after that you will see senayan city on your right. (98 words) female n turn right from anggrek campus and go straight and pass the red light. turn left then turn right then follow the street, until you find a redlight again. then you turn left, and you will see itc permata hijau on your left after several hundred meters then you have to turn left after the redlight. follow the street and go straight, you will pass a railway then keep going. there will be three junctions and you have to turn right, then turn left after that turn right again and then turn left and you will see senayan city. (98 words) gender differences ….. (tjoo hong sing; felicia andrey kalingga) 35 table 2 verbal responses from six randomly-chosen male students (continued) subject response female a from anggrek, you turn right and go to east, and go straight. after you see red light turn left and then turn right. after several hundred meters you see palmerah market on your right turn left. and the street is berkelok2, the road is a little bit rusak. go straight and you will find red light then you turn right. there will be a bridge, go up and then go straight. on your left, you will see a circling bridge, take it, go straight, and you will find mulia hotel in front of you, then turn left. keep going and you will see plaza senayan on your left. not so far, you will see senayan city on your right and you have to turn right first. (126 words) female c from campus, turn right, after 1 km you will see red light turn left. turn right after that turn left. you will see a little river and the street is curving on your left go straight and you will find spotlight then you turn right, go to the east. there will be a bridge, go up and then go straight. you will see a circling bridge on your left, take it, go straight, and you will see mulia hotel, then turn left. go straight and you will see plaza senayan on your left. and you will see senayan city on your left and you have to take u turn on your right.(112 words) female h from anggrek, you turn right. go straight and pass the red light. follow the street, until you find another red light. the street is a little bit curving. then you turn left go to west, and you will see belleza on your right then you have to turn left after the redlight. after that turn right and turn left follow the street and go straight, you will pass a railway then you go straight. there is a three junctions after 0,5 km you turn right, then turn left after that turn right again and then turn left and you will see senayan city. (102 words) average no. of words 1/6 x ( 92+98+98+126+112+102) = 104.7 words conclusions in this research, the result does not entirely match with the theory. previous research such as (dabbs et al., 1998; denis, 1997; miller & santoni, 1986; schmitz, 1997, cited in lawton, 2001, p. 323) mentioned that women are good at landmarks (building and topography) and tend to use right/left markers more often than men. these are also proven correctly in this research. on the other hand, it was also stated that men tend to use cardinal directions and use the indicator of mileage in explaining the route direction (boerger & henley, 1999; cohen, 1977; plumert et al., 2001). in fact, the result shows that women used cardinal direction more often than men. in terms of verbal ability and the use of language, this study confirms that females give more explanation as the length of their speeches is generally longer. however, the fact that males use much more serial orientation (e.g. first, second, then) is inconclusive. although the use of the word first appeared only in the male respondents, the use of then was used more by females. furthermore, in this study, the frequency of maintenance words such as go straight and follow the street did not give a definite dichotomy of gender preferences. the writers assume this happens because the respondents are different from the respondents of previous research. there are some elements that might affect why the results of analysis differ. first, the respondents are not the same in terms of culture background, education level, and childhood, in which will affect their cognitive abilities, because the way someone thinks is shaped by his memories and previous experiences. the respondents mentioned in the literature are from western countries and the respondents in this study are from indonesia. they might have different ways in giving direction. where they live might determine the way they give explanation about direction because environment also affects how they give direction. 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 28-36 since the time was limited, the writer only chose fifty respondents as the subject of research. further research could be done by having more respondents to get better results. moreover, the researcher can also categorize the respondents based on age, education, or location. it might affect the analysis in order to have more validity. also, it can be advisable to have variation in using instruments. while interviewing the respondents, the researcher may use other instruments such as using a map or sketch for the respondents to direct the way. references boerger, m.a., & henley, t.b. (1999). the usage of analogy in giving instructions. the psychological record, 49, 193-209. in napoleon, s. (2007). from here to there: a sociolinguistics study in gender and direction-giving. indiana undergraduate journal of cognitive science, 2, 18-2 cohen, a.a. (1997). the communicative functions of hand illustrators. journal of communication, 27, 54-63. in napoleon, s. (2007). from here to there: a sociolinguistics study in gender and direction-giving. indiana undergraduate journal of cognitive science, 2, 18-2 dabbs, j. m., jr., chang, e., strong, r. a., & milun, r. (1998). spatial ability, navigation strategy, and geographic knowledge among men and women. human behavior and evolution, 19, 8998. in lawton, c.a. (2001). gender and regional differences in spatial referents used in direction giving. sex roles, 44, 321–337 gray, j. (2005). men are from mars women from venus. (t. hermaya, trans). jakarta: p.t gramedia pustaka utama kleinedler, s. et al. (2005). the american heritage science dictionary. usa: houghton mifflin lawton, c.a. (2001). gender and regional differences in spatial referents used in direction giving. sex roles, 44, 321–337 maccoby, e. e., and jacklin, c. n. (1974) the psychology of sex differences stanford, ca: stanford university. montello, d. r., lovelace, k. l., golledge r. g.,self, c. m. (1999) sex-related differences and similarities in geographical and environmental spatial abilities. annals of the association of american geographers, 89(3), p.515-534. napoleon, s. (2007). from here to there: a sociolinguistics study in gender and direction-giving. indiana undergraduate journal of cognitive science, 2, 18-2 plumert, t. et al. (2005). gender differences and cognition among older adults. aging, neuropsychology, and cognition, 12, 77-88. in napoleon, s. (2007). from here to there: a sociolinguistics study in gender and direction-giving. indiana undergraduate journal of cognitive science, 2, 18-2 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 187 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 187-193 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.2107 reader-response study on characteristics of arafo women in nodeko’s web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne dewi puspitasari1; eka marthanty indah lestari2 1, 2department of japanese literature, faculty of humanities, brawijaya university jl. veteran, ketawanggede, malang 65145, indonesia 1dewi.puspitasari31@gmail.com; 2lestari.eka86@gmail.com received: 10th april 2017/revised: 21st november 2017/accepted: 05th december 2017 how to cite: puspitasari, d., & lestari, e. m. i. (2018). reader-response study on characteristics of arafo women in nodeko’s web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne. lingua cultura, 12(2), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.2107 abstract this research aimed to analyzed the responses of readers regarding the characteristics of arafo women in web manga. in this case, the researchers want to see the responses of the readers regarding occupation, marriage, and the lifestyle of arafo women. with the reception theory by hall, it could be seen whether the message from the author of the web manga about arafo women can be fully understood or interpreted differently by the readers. this research used a qualitative method with the research steps; namely identifying the suitable respondents, planning the instruments in the form of the list of questions for an interview, collecting data through field study (related to interview), and literature review (related to the written data). data analysis was performed with stages; namely processing the result of the interview, reducing data, grouping data, interpreting data, and concluding data. the research result shows that there are three types of readers based on the theory of hall; namely dominant/hegemonic position regarding age and occupation of arafo women, the negotiated position related to issue of independence, and oppositional position related to issues of spouse and marriage. different feedbacks from the readers on the same text are affected by some factors; namely knowledge about the condition of japanese society and arafo women, a difference of experience, and difference of perspective. keywords: manga web, reader-response, women characteristics, arafo women introduction the role of women in japan changes from time to time. in the heian period (794-1185), women had a very high position; it is proven at the beginning of its history, in which japan had some female emperors, like genmei, genshou, and koken. however, in the edo period (16001868), the role of women in japan changed, in which their rights and status were lowered. it continued in the meiji period (1868-1912) and taisho period (1912-1926) since japanese women officially lost legal rights personally with the ie (japanese family system) which was enacted through the civil law year in 1898. therefore, the married women that were in ie system, she only had a domestic role with the obligation to obey the head of the family (tadashi, 1988). women still had the opportunity to work, but it was limited to certain manufacturers. in this period, the contradiction in the japanese society existed. the patriarchal culture that legalized by civil law with the ie system required women only to have a domestic role. it violated the role of women that forced to work to meet the family needs. this condition continued in the world war ii (1945) that women had to work to meet the demand of the government. after world war ii, women had the equality of right, and it was ensured by the constitution. the civil law of women that previously depended on the ie system became the individual right of every individual (sato, suzuki, & kawamura, 1987). besides, along with the development of education and openness in japan, many japanese women have a position in the company now. iwao & sugiyama (1990) have described the life pattern of japanese women and men in 1982 at the age of 25 over 65 years old which were formed the graphic of m curve. the curve described that at the age of 24 years old, many japanese men and women had a job, but at the age of 25-34 years old, fewer women worked. at the age of 3554 years old, more japanese women worked, whether they were single or married. this curve decreased again when women were at the age of 55 years old. the model of m curve was affected by the life cycle of japanese women with four phases. the first phase is the phase of becoming adult and studying; the second is the phase of giving birth and raising children, the third is the phase after raising children, the fourth is the old age (sugimoto, 2003). 188 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 187-193 based on the background, the businessmen in japan categorize the female workers into two categories (fulltime). the first is sogo shoku (all-around employees), female workers that are undergoing the same condition as male corporate soldiers. the female workers have to work overtime and are placed in the office far from home for few years (tanshin funnin). the second is ippan shoku (ordinary employees) that the female workers without an important role in the workplace who are considered the subordinate with a low salary. thus, the management does not give them an important task, and they do not have career path (saleha, 2010). one of the terms for female workers in the category of full-time is called ol (office lady). this term emerged in 1963 to replace bg (business girl). office lady (ol) is the female worker in a company with the task to do the work related to administration and the secretariat. according to shoji (2002), the descriptions of ol task are ochakumi (making and serving tea), kopiitori (copying the document), and deeta nyuryoku (inputting data). these types of work allow ol to have a role as dutiful daughter and suitable wives continuously. carter and dilatush (in kelly, 1999) have categorized ol into three categories. the first categories are young, single woman with the plan to get married, the second is married women who work after giving birth or leave from work temporarily after giving birth, and the last is older women who do not yet get married or divorce. ol gets the salary much lower compared with the male workers and does not have an opportunity to get a higher position. after the end of world war ii, ol has contributed to japan’s economy that related to the supply of cheap labors (carter & dilatush, 1978). most of ols do not yet get married. they live in their parent’s house, so their money can be used to buy the branded products, eat in the luxurious restaurants, travel abroad, get plastic surgery, pamper themselves in the expensive beauty shop, and so on (ogasawara & lewis, 1999). that individualistic lifestyle is one of the reasons to enjoy life by delaying marriage and being single. many women choose not to get married (hikon) or delay their marriage (bankon). it is proven by the percentage of unmarried people at the age of early 30s. ogasawara & lewis (1999) have seen the relation between ol and the increasing percentage of workers that are delaying their marriage from the current demographic changes among the young japanese people, particularly in the big cities. furthermore, ol in the older category has the group called arafo. in the event of u-can awards 2008, the term arafo was awarded as one of the popular terms in that year. amami yuki as the main character in a drama around 40 became the representative to receive the award (japan today, 2008). in the context of hyper-aged society (a society in which 21% of its population consists of the people at the age of over 65 years old), the life of arafo women reflects the social problem that is faced by japanese society in the twentyfirst century (freedman & iwata-weickgenannt, 2011). the dynamic and problems in the life of arafo women become themes in the works of fiction and movies. one of works of fiction describing the life of arafo women in a web manga entitled dokushin ol no tatemae no honne by nodeko. according to botz-bornstein (2008), the manga is commonly read by many people of various ages. therefore, the themes that are shown in the manga also various, starting from adventure, mystery, love, sport, history, comedy, science fiction, horror, business, and trade. manga, in general, is printed in black and white, but it is also can be printed in full color. in japan, the manga is usually shown in series on manga magazine. if a manga successfully attracts many readers, all chapters published in the manga magazine will be compiled and published in a tankobon (paperback books). in the last few decades, manga has been a phenomenon in the international publishing offline and online (horibuchi & sugiyama in bryce, davis, & barber, 2008). the source of data in this research is from web manga or a comic that published online on mynavi. it is a site that contains information about the career recognition and job vacancy. web manga is entitled dokushin ol no tatemae to honne that is written by nodeko. the series had published every friday starting from 31 january 2014 until 25 september 2015. based on its title, dokushin means single, ol is office lady, and tatemae to honne is a concept of mindset in japanese society which means public persona that is shown by someone in public and true self of the real feeling. since childhood, the japanese people are indirectly taught to use honne and tatemae depending on the situation. this concept is very important to save face and prevent conflict. therefore, this statement of the speaker is not yet suitable for what he/she feels (davies & ikeno, 2002). dokushin ol no tatemae to honne with 79 chapters tells a story about an arafo woman named mariko who is working as an ol in a company in tokyo. mariko comes to tokyo when she is 22 years old with the intention to work seriously and gets married at the age of 30 years old. however, finding a spouse is not that easy, and mariko does not realize that she is already 30 years old and does not yet get married. in this manga, nodeko tells about the daily life of a single arafo woman that is viewed as a person to be pitied by people around them through mariko and her friends. the character’s traits in a comic are very important since the personality forms face, act, and dialogue. when creating a character in comic, the comic artist should determine at least three traits and skills in the character. by determining the trait, the comic artist can directly see how a character interacts with other characters. it forms the behavior of character and choice he/she makes (duggan, 2008). in the preview of a web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne, it is shown that one of the traits of arafo women that created by nodeko is high self-esteem related to the issue of marriage. besides, arafo women are described as sensitive people related to issue of love. this idea from the creation of female trait in arafo women does not come immediately, but it is captured by the author from the fact about the existence of arafo women in japanese society. in this research, the researchers are interested in discussing the construction of characteristics in arafo women through the reader’s reception on arafo women in a web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne. the construction of arafo women is analyzed with the theory of figure characterization in the manga by brenner (2008). furthermore, the reader’s response is analyzed with the theories of encoding and decoding by hall (1999). previous researches which applied the theory of encoding and decoding by hall are (pavšič, 2007); fassetta, pietkanykaza, and smyth (2014); prayoga, setiawan, and aji (2015); and zaid (2014). the discussed issue is the reader’s reception on some aspects, starting from racism and sexism to cultural diversity. the used of media are various, from the novel, advertisement of public service announcement, drama, and television program. from some researchers, it is known that the understanding of readers on a text can be 189reader-response study.... (dewi puspitasari; eka marthanty indah lestari) different depending on their identity, cultural background, and opinion. the reason for the researchers choosing these problems is to see how the readers of web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne assess the characteristic of arafo women. it is considered important because arafo woman is one of the social reality which becomes a phenomenon in japan. the existence of arafo women is recreated in some works of fiction and contemporary arts, like this web manga. the story about arafo women in this manga gets several sympathetic responses from readers, particularly related to the life dynamic of the characters with their characteristics and attitudes. some of the comments from readers of it can be accessed on www.b.hatena.ne.jp. based on the comments of online readers, it is an example of how web manga successfully attracts and influences readers, so it encourages the readers to assess the comic. in this research, the assessment of the readers on the characteristic of arafo women is analyzed. the readers as informants in this research are not random online readers, but they are the readers with the knowledge background in japanese language and culture. the readers are selected through the method of purposeful sampling that determined by the abundance of information which can be provided by the selected samples (creswell, 2012). methods this research is qualitative research. in the qualitative research, the researcher emphasizes on its proximity with the researched people or object (neuman in setiawan, 2013). it refers to the argument of creswell (2012), specifically, the principles of qualitative research in this research can be elaborated in five steps. the first step is identifying respondents chosen to read and give reception on the object of research materials which have been determined, web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne is obtaining the access to respondents by permission. the permission can be the willingness of target respondents to thoroughly read the web manga and give information to answer the research questions. the third step is determining the best type of information which will answer the research questions, the information regarding a characteristic of arafo women described in web manga. the fourth step is planning protocol or instrument to collect and record the information. the last step is managing data collection. data collection and recording are conducted with the principles of field research related to the interview with respondent and observation and library research related to written data and audiovisual. the subjects of this research are the students and lecturers of japanese literature study program of fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas brawijaya. the respondents were selected using the purposive sampling. these subject types are chosen according to the several assumptions, that they have adequate knowledge and experience about reading and understanding japanese texts. the object of this research is web manga entitled dokushin ol no tatemae to honne by nodeko (2015) that released on website mynavi.co.jp. the web manga tells the life story of a career woman who is still single at the age of 30 40 years old. personal and social life is described expressively through a series of pictures and expressive utterance in manga style. the role of researchers in this research is to interpret the data in the form of text interpretation (research object) by research subject. referring to the premise of hall (1999), subjects of this research are the decoder on the encoded message from mangaka which can bring three interpretation possibilities, namely dominant reading, negotiated reading, and oppositional reading. interpretation is based on trustworthiness and authenticity which bring awareness to someone’s subjectivity. interpretation of researchers gives additional perspective and facilitates dialogue among perspectives as stated by the respondents, so it does not focus on the objective truth and linear prediction (guba, wallendorf, & belk in anney, 2014). the data in this research are categorized into primary and secondary data. the primary data are obtained from the subjects of research in the form of response and assessment of the respondents on a characteristic of arafo women in web manga. meanwhile, the feasibility of respondent is determined through pilot study to the chosen respondents. a pilot study is conducted to confirm knowledge, experience, and proficiency of respondents in reading and understanding manga. therefore, the respondents will get all the chapters of web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne to be read and responded regarding the intrinsic aspect in the read chapter. the secondary data are from the reference sources related to the material and formal objects. the material object is a web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne that is taken from a website, mynavi.co.jp, published online starting from 31 january 2014 to 25 september 2015. furthermore, the formal object is the characteristic of arafo women stated by goldstein-gidoni (2012); tanaka-naji (2008); and tanaka and ng (2012). the data are collected through semi-structured interview. the interview is categorized into two, namely first is the interview for a pilot study to confirm competence of respondent as well as to obtain data regarding background and experience of respondent reading which will be interviewed in the next interview. the second one is the interview to receive the data regarding the response of respondents on a characteristic of arafo women. the method of content analysis is used in this research related to the processing of primary and secondary data from respondents and documents relevant to study object. the implementation of data analysis is conducted with the stages as follows: processing the result of the interview from the respondent, reducing data, grouping data, interpreting data, and concluding data. the data will be classified based on the interpretation theory of hall (1999) about three text readings, namely dominant reading, negotiate reading, and oppositional reading. identification based on these three types is required to determine the reception dimension of reader (schrøder, 2000). results and discussions the decoding process on the characteristics of arafo women is performed by the readers that chosen as respondents in this research. in this case, the readers are individuals actively responding cultural codes conveyed by the encoder. there are five chosen respondents, from now on referred to as respondent i, respondent ii, respondent iii, respondent iv, and respondent v in which their analysis response articulation is analyzed. respondent i is a woman at the age of 50 years old, she gets married and has experience in japanese language and culture for around 30 years. respondent ii is a 27 years old single woman with experience in japanese language and culture for around 12 190 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 187-193 years. respondent iii is a 30 years old single woman with experience in japanese language and culture for around 12 years. respondent iv is a 36 years old single woman with experience in japanese language and culture for around 15 years. respondent v is a 21 years old single man with experience in japanese language and culture for around four years. respondents i, iii, and iv are lecturers in fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas brawijaya, while respondents ii and v are graduate and student of fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas brawijaya, respectively. in the effort of understanding the cultural text, hall (1999) has categorized the audiences into three positions, namely dominant-hegemonic, negotiated, and the oppositional positions. the difference of the position is caused by the interpreted message which is not always in accordance with the will of text writer. the message can be interpreted as something different by its receiver (triwardani & wiendijarti, 2016). therefore, the analysis of informant interpretation on web manga entitled dokushin ol no tatemae to honne is described in three readings; the dominant-hegemonic position, the negotiated position, and the oppositional position. the dominant-hegemonic position is when the respondents are within the scope of dominant perspective. in this case, the respondents interpret the message in the context of referral code, so the idea of the message sender is understood well. however, it has a problem related to the factor of socio-demographic difference between text writers and readers. in other words, message receiver gets the meaning as required by the message sender. the dominant reading exists in all respondents related to the characteristics of age and occupation of arafo women. arafo women are career women at the age of before and after 40, who do not yet get married since they are too busy in work. the definition is stated by the mangaka of a web manga entitled dokushin ol no tatemae to honne in the embodiment of three single women working in a company as an office lady. the main message is in the form of single women as office workers who do not yet get married is understood relatively the same by all respondents. it shows that the respondent perspective is in the hegemony of dominant code. in describing arafo women, respondent i has said: “about working women at the age of between 30 and 40 years old; since they are busy in the workplace, it is difficult for them to know the opposite sex.” (interview on september 12, 2016). respondent iii, by referring to three arafo characters in the manga has stated: “three women named mariko, junko, and yuuko whose age are 36, 37, 38, or 37. i forget it. all of them are office workers; it is obvious that they are busy at work.” (interview on october 1, 2016). the dominant position taken by the respondents regarding age and occupation of arafo confirms that the message coded by the author is interpreted in the context of the hegemonic definition of arafo. the hegemony of work affects the articulation of respondent’s opinion considering that all of them have experience in learning japanese language and culture for years. there are an agreement and acceptance of information construction about what is called arafo women, so ethnical background, social class, and different culture are not problems. arafo women have a high disposable income (which is ready to spend). therefore, this group does not mind about spending much money, particularly to support appearance and status (bruwer & buller, 2012). about the lifestyle of arafo women which is independent and established regarding wealth, the dominant reading is found in respondent i and respondent iv. two respondents agree that regarding financial independence, three arafo women in manga could be independent. respondent i has said: “they are independent regarding finance. if they do not get a spouse, they can live independently (interview on september 12, 2016). meanwhile, respondent iv has said “....they have a career and are confident with it. regarding the economy, their income is sufficient to meet their need (interview on october 6, 2016). it can be observed that assessment of respondents i and iv about the independence of arafo women is related to their income as office workers. the interpretation is an affirmation from the description of the author of web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne about the consumptive activity of arafo women. the negotiated position is when message receiver successfully interprets the message from a sender in the context of the perspective of society and dominant culture. the message is understood, but differently from a dominant position. it is compromised with the situational and local problems in which personal perspective and bias get involved in the interpretation. in other words, the respondents approve the legitimation of hegemonic codes presented by text senders, but they are not comprehensive since there is an adjustment with the perspective of text receiver. the negotiated position is taken when respondents i and ii interpret the lifestyle of arafo women related to independence; living alone separated from family. respondent i has commented the traditional lifestyle in japan in which family members live in the same house for generations and. she/he has understood the individual life of arafo women by stating, “i cannot imagine living for three generations in that house. yes, that is like japanese people in the past. so, three generations live there, but we are modern people. we live like that.” (interview on september 12, 2016). respondent i sees the relevance of a choice of individual life with modernity. besides respondent i, respondent ii also takes the negotiated position in responding lifestyle of arafo women. however, it emphasizes more on the activities of keeping a pet, cat, as done by yuuko. respondent ii has said: “why is there a cat; it involves a cat. so, i probably feel the same with yuiko; it is not only me to think.” “oh, actually it is not only me to think that cat is more important over anything...” i am also like that (laughing).” (interview on september 12, 2016). based on the utterance, it can be said that respondent ii is placed herself in the negotiated reading by comparing the similarity between herself and a character named yuuko in keeping a cat and. it is giving justification that she and yuuko think that cat is more important than anything. the issue around a spouse and marriage attract most of the respondents in the position of negotiated reading. it is particularly in the attitude of arafo women (which seems to be) selective in choosing spouse and honne (conscience) to immediately get married when they find the couple willing to get married. respondent iv has said: “in japan, there is a principle not to get married, but still living together. the first reason perhaps is women do not want to do kaji (housework). the second is when women are strong regarding the economy, they probably do not want to share it with men as they have pride and ego. they do that because they have work and occupation. after getting married, japanese people, in general, live separately, so it is not like a married couple.” “in my opinion, it is useless to do something which is not based on conscience. there is no need of rushing into marriage since it is the issue of heart.” 191reader-response study.... (dewi puspitasari; eka marthanty indah lestari) (interview on october 6, 2016). there is an impression shown by the author that arafo women compete to get married first. it is understood by respondent iv as a common condition considering that the arafo women are not young anymore. however, respondent iv also implies the importance of prioritizing conscience in choosing a spouse over immediately getting married after finding a couple. the oppositional position can be said as a position in which the message receiver understands the encoding of a dominant type, but he/she refuses it and then encodes it oppositely. the message receiver makes the decoded message as an alternative referral framework. this position is taken by the respondents to state the disagreement or discourse created by the mangaka. the oppositional position exists when respondents i, ii, and iii give a response on the issues around spouse and marriage. respondent i responds the discourse of arafo women who experience restlessness in finding a spouse behind a high standard with the alternative interpretation: “i think that japanese arafo is 100% career woman all this time. there are many figures in parliament and astronaut too. so, a real career woman does not think about men anymore. they are not wholeheartedly, so career women feel the inner conflict. i know that japanese people work 100%, not kekkon.” (interview on september 12, 2016). respondent i is based on her knowledge about japanese women who choose to seriously work and have 100% commitment not to get married. it is different from what is described by nodeko in which there is an impression that arafo women are busy with the issue of finding a mate. the alternative interpretation in opposition to dominate the discourse is also articulated by respondents i and ii. it is related to the choice of junko, one of arafo characters in manga, who decides to live independently, separated from her husband, and raise children herself as a single parent. respondent i has said: “that is an example, it is not like okay, we divorce, i will raise children myself. when they have children, they will not be stubborn like that. i will forgive first while seeing whether or not he will change. since i have children.” meanwhile, respondent ii has said: “if for junko, …her husband said that he would pay education and so on, but the child does not need them, but compassion from father and mother. they probably should think again.” (interview on september 12, 2016). thus, they bring another possibility which can be chosen by junko, living together with her husband by considering child and avoiding arafo status who is difficult to find a spouse. related to the preference not to get married immediately and urgency shown by the characters of arafo women in manga, respondent iii argues that the web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne implicitly gives people a message about the complex live in marriage for career women. what the reader should perceive is not the message about the role of arafo women who still desire to have a husband, but it is about the message that not having the husband is not a problem. respondent iii has said, “the mission is probably to show that marriage has consequence, marriage is living together, though, as said by junko or mariko.”…”i will not help the financial problem of your mother, so all financial problems are solved together, but someone says, ‘your problem is not mine’ ”. it shows that at the age of arafo, the problem in love is more or less like that. however, i feel that the author wants to say, “if you reach that age, being alone is not a problem if you can do this yourself. i feel that the author wants to show that woman without a man is not a problem since there will always be other women to support her. besides, i also see that the author has the mission that women should not get married, and it will not be any problem since getting married brings the problem.” (interview on october 1, 2016). the opinion of respondent iii which is different from the dominant message presented by the text is based on her family background. respondent iii has said: “i know that there is always a person from a family who does not have any relation with a man until she was 40 years old. that is because they are devoted to their work and enjoy their life.” (interview on october 1, 2016). every person will have different view and interpretation on the news in a media, including in interpreting the case of drug-using celebrities. this difference if it is affected by their personal experience. the media offers an interpretation (preferred reading). however, it does not influence the respondents in interpreting the news. the respondents interpret it based on their own experience. it is based on the statement of hall (1999) that every same text will produce different meaning based on the social background of its readers. it can be viewed from the interpretation themes presented by the respondents. the result of this research is expected to expand the research repertoire, particularly in the study of reader response. through the study of reader response, the understanding of readers on text and the way readers interpret a work related to social reality in the japanese society can be known. besides, this research also gives information regarding the characteristics of arafo women that are formed by japanese society in the web manga. conclusions the characteristic of arafo women is identical with single women with the established finance. however, arafo women face psychological problem in the form of restlessness in finding spouse represented by honne (conscience) in the camouflage of tatemae (persona). three reading types from the result of an interview with respondents related to a characteristic of arafo women are a dominant/hegemonic position (dominant position), the negotiated position, and oppositional position. the dominant position is when message receiver perceives the meaning as required by the message sender. this reading type exists in all respondents related to characteristics of age and occupation of arafo women. besides, it is also found respondents i and iv related to the problem of financial independence of arafo women. respondents can understand message presented by text producers since their background of knowledge is related to japanese society, particularly arafo women. negotiated position happens when readers approve the hegemonic codes presented by text sender, but it is not comprehensive. this reading type is found in respondents i and ii related to the independence issue, living separated from family. besides, it is also found in respondent iv related to issues in choosing spouse and marriage. the negotiated position happens since experience and perspective of every respondent is different with the message presented by text producers. oppositional position happens when message receiver understands message presented by the message sender, but he/she oppositely refuses it and elaborates codes. this reading type is found in respondents i, ii, and 192 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 187-193 iii related to the issue of spouse and marriage. it is also found in respondents i and ii related to the choice made by junko to live independently (separated from husband) and raise the child herself. it is also found in respondent iii related to the urgency to get married immediately in arafo women. oppositional position happened when respondents disagreed with the message stated by text producer. references anney, v. n. 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(2014). audience reception analysis of moroccan public service broadcasting. middle east journal of culture and communication, 7(3), 284–309. https:// doi.org/10.1163/18739865-00703003. bab i jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 34 nilai didaktis dalam dongeng anak jepang (analisis dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi) linda unsriana japanese department, binus university kampus kijang, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah jakarta barat 11480, linda_unsriana@hotmail.com abstract the article has purpose to see the didactic value in fairy tale. the didactic value can be given to children through the character in the fairy tale by identifying the character act or behaviour. data library shows that fairy tale can be used as one of tools for value and moral education. the data were used to support the research that fairy tale also can be used for on dan ongaeshi value. in the end, it can be concluded that fairy tale was effective tools to give value education to the children because it did not forced the children to accpet it. keywords: didactic value, fairy tale, japanese children abstrak artikel ini bertujuan untuk melihat nilai didaktis yang terkandung dalam dongeng. nilai didaktis ini dapat disampaikan kepada anak melalui tokoh yang ada di dalam dongeng dengan cara mengidentifikasi perbuatan atau lakuan tokohnya. data pustaka menunjukan bahwa dongeng dapat dipakai sebagai salah satu sarana untuk pendidikan nilai dan moral. data ini dipakai untuk memperkuat penelitian bahwa dongeng juga dapat dipakai untuk pendidikan nilai on dan ongaeshi. pada bagian akhir disimpulkan bahwa dongeng adalah sarana yang efektif untuk memberikan pendidikan nilai pada anak karena cara penyampaiannya yang tidak memaksa anak-anak untuk menerimanya. kata kunci: nilai didaktis, dongeng, anak jepang nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 35 pendahuluan cerita rakyat atau dongeng dapat menumbuhkan daya imajinasi dan daya kreatif anak. bercerita akan memberi peluang bagi anak-anak untuk ikut merasakan kesedihan, kegembiraan, dan ketegangan, dan sebagainya. biasanya pada saat bercerita, penutur menyelipkan pesan atau ajaran. dongeng bukanlah sekedar kata-kata, melainkan pelembagaan nilai budaya sekaligus pembungkus ajaran moral. dongeng dapat membantu memahami perilaku masyarakat, bahkan sering kali dongeng menjadi cerminan perilaku masyarakat pendukungnya. dongeng dapat memberikan sesuatu yang bermanfaat. kelebihan yang dimiliki dongeng, antara lain sebagai sarana pendidikan anak, sarana untuk mempererat hubungan orang tua dan anak, meningkatkan daya imajinasi anak, menumbuhkan daya kreativitas dan berfikir anak, serta dapat menimbulkan minat baca anak. dari berbagai kajian, banyak diyakini bahwa dongeng mempunyai nilai lebih dari sekedar bacaan penghibur saja karena juga bermanfaat bagi perkembangan seorang anak. nilai yang ada di dalamnya meliputi perkembangan holistik, emosional, kognitif, moral, bahasa, dan sosial (burke dalam bunanta, 1997:55). manfaat dongeng juga dikemukakan oleh bruno bettelheim (1976) dalam bukunya yang berjudul “the uses of enchantment, the meaning and importance of fairy tales”, yang mengatakan: "the children needs a moral education which subtly, and by implication only, conveys to him the advantages of moral behavior, not through abstract ethical concepts but through that which seems tangibly right and therefore meaningful to him. the child finds this kind of meaning through fairy tales". dalam tulisan ini akan difokuskan pada nilai on dan nilai balas budi (ongaeshi) dalam dongeng anak-anak jepang yang berusaha disampaikan melalui sarana dongeng. kata ongaeshi berasal dari kata on dan kata kaesu yang berarti mengembalikan. konsep on mengacu pada berbagai kewajiban, yaitu kewajiban pada diri sendiri, kepada satu sama lain, kepada klan atau negara, dan kepada dunia. kewajiban ini secara otomatis telah “dibebankan” kepada orang jepang sejak kecil atau yang diberikan selama masa hidup mereka. dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, orang jepang memperlakukan on sebagai moral umum atau konsep etika. dengan demikian, on dianggap sebagai nilai mengenai "benar" dan "salah" yang dianut oleh bangsa jepang. setiap individu ditekankan untuk selalu memperhatikan hal yang berhubungan dengan utang dan rasa terima kasih. pelanggaran terhadap norma yang berhubungan dengan on mengandung sanksi sosial yang berat. orang jepang yang tidak mengenal etika ini disebut orang yang tidak kenal on atau onshirazu. sebutan itu merupakan sebutan penghinaan dalam kehidupan orang jepang (benedict, l979:121-148). pembahasan dongeng dan mukashi-banashi yanagita kunio dalam bukunya yang berjudul “mukashi banashi oboegaki” (catatan mukashi-banashi) menjelaskan tiga ciri umum mukashi banashi. pertama, pada bagian permulaan, dimulai dengan kata seperti mukashi atau mukashi mukashi. dapat juga tergantung dari daerah tempat cerita berasal, seperti tonto mukashi, zatto mukashi, mukashi ga atta kedo, mukashi ga atta souna. jika mendengar kata-kata seperti disebutkaan, kita langsung dapat mengetahui bahwa itu adalah mukashi jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 36 banashi. kedua, pada bagian akhir cerita ditutup dengan kalimat yang membahagiakan, seperti medetashi-medetashi, magoko shigeta, iccho hanjo saketa. kalimat itu biasanya memperlihatkan keberhasilan tokoh utamanya. ketiga, bagian yang penting pasti ditekankan dengan kata-kata souna, gena, tosa, dan lain-lain. kata-kata seperti itu dalam konjaku monogatari berbunyi totan katari tsutaetarutoya (cerita disampaikan) atau hontoka douka shiranai (betul atau tidak saya tidak tahu}, jibun wa sou kiiteiru (yang saya dengar begitu). penyampaian dongeng disebut mukashi fukataru. perbedaan mukashi banashi dengan cerita lainnya adalah pada awal dan akhir cerita. dengan kata lain, pada mukashi banashi ada ketentuan. dalam tiap daerah atau wilayah, memang ada perbedaan dalam penyampaian awal dan akhir mukashibanashi tetapi pencerita atau pendongeng pasti menyebutkan kata mukashi atau mukashi-mukashi no sono mukashi, mukashi aggedona, tonto mukashi ga attatenggana pada awal bercerita, dan akan diakhiri dengan kata medetashi, donbekkara koekedo, ikigabo tosaketa, dottohare, sutton katan. di daerah tertentu ada kebiasaan untuk melakukan doa untuk memulai cerita (takuzo, 1988:365). dalam kamus “minzoku no jiten”, mukashi banashi diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga bagian besar, yaitu honkaku mukashi-banashi (dongeng asli), dobutsu mukashi banashi (dongeng binatang), warai mukashi banashi (dongeng jenaka). nomura junichi dalam bukunya yang berjudul “mukashibanashi no densho” mengemukakan tentang cara penyampaian mukashi-banashi, yaitu yang disampaikan atau diadakan di dalam rumah dan yang diadakan di pusat kota atau desa. pencerita yang andal pada mulanya mendengarkan mukashi banashi berulang kali dari orang-orang tua di rumah, selanjutnya mereka bertanding di antara pemuda. lebih lanjut dikatakan pula bahwa mukashi banashi ditransmisikan pada anak-anak. di dalam rumah, pada malam bersalju, anak-anak bermain di tepi perapian rumah sambil mendengarkan mukashi-banashi. mukashi banashi juga diceritakan di pusat kota atau pusat desa, misalnya di daerah yamagata, para pemuda saling mendengarkan dan saling bercerita serta mengadakan pertandingan bercerita pada malam sebelum diadakan matsuri (festival). selain teman-teman sekampung, orang-orang yang melakukan perjalanan (pengelana) yang sering berkunjung ke desa kerapkali menceritakan mukashi banashi. selain para pengelana, para pendeta, tukang obat, dan para pedagang yang sedang melakukan perjalanan untuk mengadakan transaksi turut membantu penyebaran mukashi banashi di jepang. fungsi dongeng sebagai sarana penanaman nilai moral melalui dongeng, anak dapat mengembangkan emosi secara sehat. anak-anak menghayati, merasakan, dan meresapi dongeng tidak melalui akalnya, melainkan melalui emosinya. itulah sebabnya, mengapa dongeng tidak perlu logis. dongeng yang baik adalah dongeng yang dapat mengembangkan kepribadian anak sebaik-baiknya sesuai dengan tuntutan masyarakat di sekitarnya (handayu, 2001:71-75). berhubungan dengan perkembangan religiusitas anak, clark merumuskan teori diantaranya diistilahkan sebagai unrefllective, yaitu anak menerima konsep keagamaan berdasarkan otoritas atau kekuatan. pengetahuan yang masuk pada usia awal dianggap sebagai sesuatu yang menyenangkan, terutama yang dikemas dalam bentuk cerita. oleh karena itu, konsep tentang nilai keagamaan dapat sebanyak mungkin diberikan pada usia awal dan sebaiknya disampaikan dalam bentuk cerita. banyak orang tidak menyadari besarnya pengaruh cerita terhadap perilaku seseorang, misalnya cerita yang mengajarkan dasar kehidupan beragama dan aturan dalam berperilaku. demikian pula dengan dongeng binatang dan legenda yang ikut mencetak nilai budaya yang akan membentuk sikap anak. cerita menjadi sarana efektif untuk mempengaruhi cara berpikir dan berperilaku anak-anak karena mereka senang mendengarkan atau dibacakan berulang-ulang. perulangan itu dipadukan dengan imajinasi anak-anak menjadikan cerita sebagai salah satu cara terbaik untuk mempengaruhi nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 37 cara berpikir mereka. shari lewis dalam bukunya “the one minute bedtime story” menekankan pentingnya bercerita untuk perkembangan anak. selama sepuluh tahun, para psikolog telah mengemukakan pengaruh positif orang tua membacakan cerita dan bercerita kepada anak-anaknya. kegiatan membacakan buku cerita pada anak dapat dipakai sebagai media penyampaian pesan mengenai aturan serta norma yang berlaku di masyarakat (handayu, 2001:75-76). dalam children and literature, stewig (1980:9) mengemukakan bahwa sejak awal tahun 1900 para pengarang dan pendidik mulai memusatkan perhatiannya pada masalah didaktik, khususnya pada cerita anak-anak. selanjutnya, pada tahun 1920, mereka memusatkan konsentrasinya untuk mempelajari kebutuhan anak-anak sehubungan dengan bacaannya. menurutnya, buku untuk anak-anak dalam penyajiannya hendaknya juga memikirkan jiwa anak-anak daripada hanya sekedar menghibur. dongeng dapat memberikan kesenangan pada anak-anak karena pada mulanya dongeng diceritakan untuk menghibur. namun demikian, pada dongeng juga terdapat ajaran yang ingin disampaikan. dongeng dikatakan sebagai alat pendidikan anak karena dongeng mendidik sekaligus menghibur. hal itu karena pada umumnya sastra lama bersifat didaktis, yakni memberikan pengajaran bagi para pembacanya, hal yang bersifat didaktis moral maupun didaktis religius. pendidikan yang disampaikan melalui dongeng tentu berbeda dengan corak bacaan lainnya karena dongeng mempunyai ciri-ciri tersendiri yang menunjukkan kekhasannya. dongeng (mukashi banashi) sebagai sarana pengajaran moral juga diungkapkan oleh komatsu kazuhiko, berdasarkan tulisannya yang terangkum dalam buku yang berjudul mukashi banashi kenkyu no kadai, ia menuliskan bahwa selain dipergunakan sebagai sarana pendidikan moral, mukashi banashi juga dipakai untuk menyampaikan ajaran agama. agama budha memberikan ajaran atau kotbahnya antara lain melalui mukashi banashi. penyampaian ajaran agama dengan sarana mukashi banashi juga dilakukan agama kristen di eropa dalam abad pertengahan (kazuhiko, 1985:36). 昔話が何故今まで伝えられてきたのか、伝えられることが可能だったのか、という点をもう ちょっと詳しく考えてみます。それは昔話のストーリーが面白かったからだと思います。面 白いといえば、笑う話ばかりでは勿論ありません。悲しい話もあります。要するにストーリ ーがひとを引き付けたんだということです。悲しい話、面白い話がいろーいろあったと思う し、ハラーハラ、ドキドキの話がいろいろあったと思うけれども、ともかくひっくるめて言 えばストーリー自体が人を引き付ける力があったということだと思う。 “mukashi banashi ga naze ima made tsutaeraretekitanoga kanodattanoka, toiu ten o mouchottokuwashiiu kangaete mimasu. sore wa mukashi-banashi no sutori ga omoshirokatta karadato omoimasu. omoshiroi to ieba, warau banashi bakari dewa mochiron arimasen. kanashii hanashi mo arimasu. yousuruni sutori ga hito wo hikitsuketandatoiu koto desu. kanashii hanashi, omoshiroi hanashi ga iro-iro atta to omoushi, hara-hara, doki-doki no hanashi ga iro-iro atta to omoukeredomo, tomokakuhikkurumete ieba sutori jitai ga hito wo hikitsukeru chikara ga atta to iu koto datou omou”. terjemahannya: “mengapa mukashi-banashi hingga saat ini masih terus disampaikan. saya pikir karena mukashi-banashi mempunyai cerita yang menarik. apa yang dikatakan dengan menarik itu bukan hanya cerita cerita lucu saja. ada juga cerita-cerita yang sedih. dengan kata lain, ceritanya menarik perhatian orang. cerita-cerita yang sedih, cerita yang menarik, yang menakutkan, mendebarkan, ada dalam mukashi-banashi. dapat dikatakan bahwa cerita mukashi-banashi itu mempunyai kemampuan untuk menarik perhatian orang” (ozawa, 2000:28). selain menarik minat anak-anak, mukashi banashi juga mengandung ajaran moral. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 38 昔話というのは、わりと道徳教育的な、教訓的な話であるという受け取り方が多いとおもう んです。 “mukashi-banashi to iu nowa, warito kyoukunteki na hanashi de aru toiu uketori kata ga ooito omoundesu”. terjemahannya: “di dalam mukashi banashi lebih banyak cerita yang mengandung ajaran moral dan etika”. 明治以来、あるいはもうちょっと前ぐらいに勧善懲悪の物語というのが教育的にいいという わけで、教科書に取り入れられたり、たびたび絵本になったりしてきたから有名になっただ けの話だと思います。 “meiji irai, aruiwa mou chotto mae gurai ni, kanzenchouaku no monogatari to iu noga kyouikuteki ni iitoiuwakede, kyoukasho ni toriireraretari, tabi-tabi e hon ni nattarishitekitakara yuumei ni nattadake no hanashi dato omoimasu”. terjemahannya: “sejak jaman meiji, atau mungkin sebelumnya, tema kanzen choaku dianggap sebagai tema yang baik, sehingga dimasukkan dalam buku-buku pelajaran, dan sering dimasukkan dalam buku cerita bergambar, dan menjadi buku cerita yang terkenal” (ozawa, 2000:30). pengertian on dan ongaeshi di dalam bukunya yang berjudul pedang samurai dan bunga seruni, ruth benedict mengemukakan on sebagai “utang”, “utang budi”, “kewajiban”, atau “kemurahan hati”. on juga mengandung arti beban atau suatu utang, sesuatu yang harus dipikul seseorang sebaik mungkin. on juga menunjuk kepada utang psikologis maupun sosial yang dikenakan kepada seseorang atas penerimaan bantuan. secara moral si penerima on wajib membalas bantuan atau pemberian yang telah ia terima. seseorang yang menerima on, baik dari atasannya maupun dari siapa saja maka akan menimbulkan perasaan bahwa orang yang menerima tersebut statusnya lebih rendah daripada si pemberi on (benedict, 1979:105). lebra bahkan menggambarkan on sebagai jaminan sosial yang dapat digunakan disaat krisis. ketika mengalami kesulitan, onjin (orang yang memberikan on) tidak perlu bersusah payah meminta bantuan tetapi bantuan itu akan segera datang dari orang-orang yang pernah menerima on darinya, ketika mereka tahu si pemberi on sedang dalam kesulitan (lebra, 1976:96). berbeda dengan pendapat yang dikemukakan lebra, umesao tadao berpendapat bahwa on bukanlah tiket dua arah yang dapat digunakan jika sewaktu-waktu memerlukannya. akan tetapi, menurutnya on adalah tiket satu arah (one way ticket) yang jika sudah diberikan maka tidak mengharap balasan, seperti dalam kutipan berikut. 恩とは片道切符であって、復券なし、ということをぐるしたものかもしれない。 “on to wa kata michi kippu deatte, fukken nashi, toiu koto o gurushita mono no kamoshirenai”. selanjutnya, dalam buku yang berjudul nihonjin no kokoro (hati orang jepang), tadao mengemukakan: 恩は基本的には、動物報恩話のように無償の行為なのである。自発的善意にもとづいて施し、 かつを返しを期待しないものである。寓話ならいざしらず、人間が鳥獣に恩を施したからと いって、だれも実際に、そのお返しを期待する者はいまい。恩とは、もともとそんなものな のだ。恩が与えられるから奉公する。だから恩は当初は契約関係で発生した。つまり有限な nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 39 ものである。それが次第に「海よりも深く、山よりも高く」と、無限へ拡大していったから 手に負えなかった。 “on wa kihon teki ni wa,doubutsu houonbanashi no youni mushou no koi nanodearu. jihatsu teki zeni ni motozuite hodokoshi, katsu okaeshi kitaishinai mono de aru. guwa nara izashirazu, ningen ga torikedamono ni on o hodokoshitakara to itte, daremo jissai ni, sono okaeshi o kitaisuru mono ha imai. on to wa, moto-moto sonna mono nanoda. on ga ataerareru kara houkou suru. dakara on wa tousho wa keiyaku kankei de hasseishita. tsumari yuugen na mono de aru. sore ga shidai ni “umi yorimo fukaku, yama yorimo takaku” to, mugen e kakudai shite ittakara te ni oenakatta”. kutipan tersebut pada intinya menyatakan bahwa on pada dasarnya adalah suatu perbuatan yang tidak mengharapkan balasan, seperti yang tampak pada cerita hoon binatang. suatu tindakan yang secara spontan memberikan kebaikan dan tidak mengharapkan suatu pengembalian. ada pepatah yang merupakan ajakan “orang memberikan on kepada makhluk lain, sebenarnya tidak mengharapkan okaeshi (pengembalian).” pada mulanya, on mempunyai arti seperti itu. akan tetapi selanjutnya, orang yang telah menerima on akan memberikan jasanya. oleh karena itulah, on membuat hubungan yang bersifat kontrak. selanjutnya, dikatakan bahwa on lebih dalam dari lautan (umi yorimo fukaku), lebih tinggi dari gunung (yama yori mo takaku), menggambarkan betapa beratnya beban on yang harus ditanggung penerimanya (tadao, 1982:190). selanjutnya, tadao juga mengemukakan bahwa: 恩とよく並列して出てくる義理は、金の貸借勘定であった。だから「あそこに義理がある、 なんぼや」と返せば、義理はなくなってすっきりする。ところが恩は海よりも深く、山より も高いとあっては、どうにも返しようがない。決算することのできないものに、一生しばら れる。本来、自由な存在であるべき人間にとっては恩は大きな問題だ。恩がヨコの関係であ った昔は、それなりに精算はできたが、上下のタテの関係になってから無限となり、精算は 不能となった。まるでキモノのように着たり、着せられたりして、裸になることができなく なった。そういえば、恩は着る、着せられるといい、義理はからむという。 “on to yoku heiretsu shite dete kuru giri wa, kane no taishaku kanjou de atta. dakara “asoko ni giri ga aru, nanboya” to kaeseba, giri wa nakunatte sukkiri suru. tokoro ga on wa umi yorimo fukaku, yama yorimo takai to atte wa, dounimo kaeshiyou ga nai. kessan suru koto no dekinai mono ni isshou shibarareru. honrai, jiyu na sonzai de aru beki ningen ni totte wa, on wa ookina mondaida. on ga yoko no kankei de atta mukashi wa, sorenari ni seisan wa dekita ga, jouge no tate no kankei ni natte kara mugen to nari, seisan wa funou to natta. marude komono no youni kitari, kiseraretari shite, hadaka ni naru koto ga dekinakunatta. soieba, on wa kiru, kiserareru to iu, giri wa karamu to iu”. on dan ongaeshi sebagai moralitas orang jepang pertukaran on dapat dilihat dari pertukaran sosial yang ada dalam masyarakat. dalam suatu hubungan yang dilandasi on, kedudukan sebagai penerima on memaksa seseorang untuk mengembalikan utangnya. perasaan harus mengembalikan apa yang telah diterima berasal dari rasa terima kasih yang kuat yang berhubungan dengan on yang telah ditanamkan sebagai dasar dari karakter moral bangsa jepang. rasa terima kasih dapat diekspresikan secara verbal dan dapat juga melalui tindakan nyata. rasa terima kasih biasanya diekspresikan melalui kata-kata seperti arigatai (terimakasih) atau dalam bahasa percakapan menjadi arigato. sering juga rasa terima kasih diekspresikan dengan kata sumanai yang dapat diartikan maaf. mungkin penerima merasakan rasa terima kasih dan rasa maaf sekaligus. hal itu didasari oleh suatu kesadaran dari penerima on terhadap pengorbanan pemberi on dan juga kesadaran bahwa ia tidak mampu membayar utang itu sepenuhnya. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 40 dalam mengekspresikan rasa terima kasihnya, orang jepang lebih memilih kata “minta maaf” daripada kata “terima kasih”. konsep on adalah dasar dari moralitas bangsa jepang yang meliputi rasa terimakasih yang dalam dan perasaan bersalah. akan tetapi, on tidak selalu mendatangkan reaksi positif dari moral. on juga seringkali juga dipandang sebagai suatu beban berat yang harus segera dihilangkan. konsep on jepang berasal dari kekuatan moral dari budaya resiprositas. meskipun on dapat merujuk pada pertukaran pemberian secara spesifik, implikasi moralnya berada pada hubungan antara suatu perbuatan baik dan suatu kewajiban (generelized benevolence and generelized obligation). perbuatan baik adalah kewajiban moral yang ditekankan dalam budaya jepang di bawah nama shinsetsu (kebaikan), nasake (kasihan), jihi (kemurahan hati), awaremi (simpati), dan omoiyari (empati). orang jepang telah diajarkan tentang rasa kebajikan yang tidak hanya tertuju pada manusia tetapi juga pada binatang, termasuk juga serangga. ajaran budha juga memberikan kontribusi dalam mengajarkan kebajikan yang tidak meminta imbalan. suatu perbuatan baik tidak dibatasi pada peristiwa tertentu saja, tidak juga dihitung secara ekonomi atau harus dikembalikan. perbuatan baik lebih menekankan pada perilaku si pemberi daripada nilai benda yang diberikan atau tindakan tertentu. semua itu berarti bahaya ego sebagai penerima on harus menyadari dan tidak melupakan perilaku atau tindakan serta perbuatan baik dari onjin-nya. analisa on dan ongaeshi dalam dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi penokohan dalam tsuru no ongaeshi tokoh/pelaku dalam dongeng ini ada tiga orang. tokoh utama dalam cerita ini adalah seorang kakek yang digambarkan sebagai orang yang miskin tetapi sangat baik hatinya. pekerjaan kakek tua itu adalah menjual kayu bakar ke kota. kakek digambarkan sebagai orang yang mau bekerja keras. di musim dingin, dimana salju turun terus menerus, kakek tetap berusaha sekuat tenaga untuk menjual kayu bakarnya. tokoh sentral lainnya dalam dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi ini adalah seekor burung bangau. karena ingin membalas budi kepada kakek yang telah menolongnya, ia mengubah dirinya menjadi seorang gadis. tokoh gadis jelmaan burung bangau ini digambarkan sebagai seorang wanita muda berusia sekitar 17 atau 18 tahunan yang sangat cantik. ia juga digambarkan sebagai gadis yang rajin bekerja dan melakukan setiap pekerjaan dengan hasil yang memuaskan. gadis jelmaan burung bangau juga digambarkan sebagai orang yang tahu membalas budi. balas budi yang diberikannya kepada orang yang telah menolongnya, yaitu dengan memberikan bantuan untuk menyelesaikan pekerjaan rumah tangga. selain itu, ia juga memberikan bantuan yang bersifat ekonomi dengan cara menenun kain yang indah. kain itu laku dijual dengan harga yang tinggi sehingga ekonomi keluarga kakek dan nenek mulai membaik. tokoh lainnya dalam dongeng ini adalah tokoh nenek. tokoh nenek yang digambarkan sebagai orang yang baik hati. tokoh nenek ini juga digambarkan sebagai orang, yang karena rasa ingin tahunya yang besar, akhirnya melanggar janji yang telah disepakati. konsekuensi dari pelanggaran janji, gadis jelmaan burung bangau itu pergi meninggalkan kakek dan nenek. gadis itu kembali ke bentuk asalnya menjadi burung bangau. alur cerita tsuru no ongaeshi di dalam sebuah cerita rekaan, berbagai peristiwa disajikan dengan urutan tertentu. urutan peristiwa yang membangun tulang punggung cerita disebut alur (sudjiman, 1992:29). dongeng berjudul tsuru no ongaeshi, diawali dengan satu peristiwa, yaitu peristiwa dimana kakek penjual nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 41 kayu bakar menolong seekor burung bangau yang terjerat. dari peristiwa itu lalu muncul peristiwa lainnya, yaitu datangnya seorang gadis muda ke rumah kakek penjual kayu bakar untuk menolong kakek dan nenek. kakek dan nenek tidak mengetahui siapa sebenarnya gadis muda itu. gadis yang tidak diketahui asal-usulnya itu setiap hari membantu pekerjaan kakek dan nenek. ia juga membantu kakek dan nenek mendapatkan uang dengan cara menenun kain yang sangat indah dan dijual dengan harga yang tinggi. begitulah cara burung bangau membalas budi. klimaks dari dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi ini, yaitu dengan peristiwa perginya gadis jelmaan burung bangau karena janji yang telah dibuatnya dengan kakek dan nenek telah dilanggar oleh nenek. tema dan amanat tsuru no ongaeshi tema dongeng yang berjudul tsuru no ongaeshi ini sebenarnya telah dinyatakan secara eksplisit, terlihat dari judulnya. tsuru no ongaeshi yang berarti balas budi burung bangau. di dalamnya dengan jelas dideskripsikan bagaimana usaha burung bangau untuk membalas budi orang yang telah menolongnya. mula-mula ia mengubah wujudnya dalam wujud seorang gadis muda agar ia dapat membantu pekerjaan kakek dan nenek. akan tetapi, bantuan yang ia berikan dirasakan belum cukup untuk membalas budi. gadis muda itu lalu menenun kain yang sangat indah siang dan malam tanpa kenal lelah. kain yaang indah itu ditenunnya dari bulu-bulunya sendiri. amanat dalam dongeng ini adalah tidak melupakan on seseorang yang telah menolong kita. bagaimanapun juga on seseorang harus dibalas. amanat lainnya dalam dongeng ini adalah bahwa kita tidak boleh melanggar janji. hal ini digambarkan dengan tokoh nenek yang telah melanggar janji pada burung bangau. kakek dan nenek sebelumnya telah berjanji untuk tidak mengintip gadis muda itu ketika sedang menenun. akan tetapi, karena keingintahuan yang besar nenek mengabaikan janjinya untuk tidak mengintip ketika gadis muda itu sedang menenun. konsekuensi dari pelanggaran janji tersebut, yaitu perginya burung bangau meninggalkan kakek dan nenek. on dan ongaeshi dalam dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi dalam cerita ini, perbuatan atau tindakan yang menggambarkan on dimulai ketika kakek menolong burung bangau yang terperangkap dan terikat kakinya. dengan perbuatan menolong tersebut, kakek telah menanamkan on kepada burung bangau. dengan terjadinya hubungan antara si penolong dan yang ditolong atau pemberi dan penerima on maka penerima on akan berusaha mengembalikan on yang telah diterimanya. ongaeshi dalam cerita ini dapat dilihat dari percakapan dan tindakan yang dilakukan penerima on (burung bangau) dan pemberi on atau onjin (kakek penjual kayu bakar). burung bangau yang telah ditolong jiwanya oleh kakek, berusaha menemukan penolongnya meskipun pada saat itu cuaca sangat dingin dan hujan salju turun dengan lebatnya. dengan mengubah bentuk aslinya menjadi seorang perempuan muda, ia datang ke rumah kakek untuk mulai membalas budinya, dengan cara membantu apa yang dapat dilakukannya. menyiapkan makan malam, membereskan rumah, memijat kakek dan nenek, meskipun ia sendiri sudah lelah. kutipan berikut menjelaskan bagaimana burung bangau mengembalikan on-nya kepada kakek: おばあさん、晩のしたくを、てつだわせてくださいませ。そういました。いやいや、うちは、 貧乏だからな、手伝ってもらうほどの仕事もない。おまえは、そこに、あたっていなさい よ。」おばあさんが言いましたが、娘は聞きません。そして、「どうかわたしにさせてくだ さい。」たのむように、そういうものですから、すめにさせてみますと、ごはんをたくのも じょうずなら、おかずをつくるのもじょうず、そのうえ、しんせつで、ていねいで米一つぶ もこぼしません。おじいさにゃおばあさんのお給仕をして、それから、じぶんもたべて、そ のあとをきれいにかたずけて、ちょっとおちついたかとうおもうと、すぐ、おじいさんおう しろへまわっていいました。「おじいさん、おじいさん、昼のおつかれで、肩やお腰がこっ jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 42 ていましょう。へたではございますが、あんまをさせてくださいませ。」「いやいや、おま えさんこそ、おつかれだろう。今夜は大雪で、ずいぶん寒い。ずっとこっちへきて、ようく 火にあたりなさい。」 おじいさんがいってみききません。それで、あんまをしてもらいま すと、とてもじょうずで、うとうとするほどよい気持ちです。おじいさんがすむと、こんど は、おばあさんのあんまもするというありさまです。 “obaasan, ban no shitaku o,testudawasetekudasaimase”, so iimashita. iya..iya, uchi wa, bimbou dakarana, tetsudattemorau hodo no shigotomonai. omae wa, soko ni, tatteinasaiyo. ”obaasan ga iimashita ga, musume ha kikimasen. soshite, ”douka watashi ni sasetekudasai. ”tanomuyouni, souiumonodesukara, musume ni sasetemimasuto, gohan o taku no mo jouzudesukara, okazu o tsukuru no mo jouzu, sonoue, shinsetsu de, teineide kome hitotsubu mo koboshimasen. ojiisan ya obaasan no okyuuji o shite, sorekara, jibun mo tabete, sono ato o kirei ni katazukete, chotto ochitsuitekato omou to, sugu, ojiisan no ushiro e mawatteiimashita.”ojiisan, ojiisan, hiru no otsukarede, kata ya okoshi ga kotteimashou. heta de wa gozaimasu ga, anma o sasete kudasaimase. ” iya..iya, omaesan koso, otsukaredarou. konya wa ooyuki de, zuibun samui. zutto kochi e kite, youku hi ni atarinasai. ojiisan ga ittemo kikimasen. sorede, anma o shitemoraimasuto, kondo wa, obaasan no anma mo suru to iu arisama desu”. terjemahannya: “nenek, biarkan saya menolong nenek menyiapkan makan malam”, perempuan muda itu berkata. nenek menjawab,”kami sangat miskin, hingga tidak ada pekerjaan yang membutuhkan bantuan. kamu berdiri saja di sana.” meskipun nenek sudah berkata demikian, sepertinya perempuan muda itu tidak mendengarkan ucapan nenek. “tolong ijinkan saya membantu nenek,” katanya. karena ia betul-betul memohon, akhirnya kakek dan nenek memperbolehkannya membantu. ternyata pekerjaannya sangat memuaskan. ia pandai memasak nasi, tidak menumpahkan beras sebutir pun, ia juga pandai memasak lauk pauk, selain itu ia juga ramah dan sopan. setelah menyelesaikan semua perintah kakek dan nenek, barulah ia makan, lalu merapikan semuanya. setelah pekerjaannya selesai, ia tidak segera beristirahat, melainkan berjalan mendekati kakek, lalu menawarkan apakah kakek ingin dipijat. “kakek kan sudah letih bekerja seharian, pundak dan pinggang kakek pasti pegal. biarpun saya tidak pandai memijat, mari saya pijat kakek”, kata perempuan itu. “tidak usah, kamu sendiri sudah letih, perjalanan kamu pasti jauh, ditengah hujan salju yang dingin lagi. sudahlah, pergilah mengangatkan badanmu di perapian”. ia tidak mendengarkan perintah kakek, lalu mulai memijat. setelah memijat kakek, ia juga memijat nenek”. tidak hanya dalam tindakannya yang selalu berusaha membantu kakek dan nenek dalam menyelesaikan pekerjaanya saja tetapi ia juga berjanji untuk selalu setia kepada kakek dan nenek, seperti tampak pada kutipan berikut: いたらない者ではありますが、いっしょうけんめい孝行いたします。 “itaranai mono de wa arimasu ga, issyoukenmei ni koukouitashimasu”. terjemahannya: “walaupun saya memiliki banyak kekurangan, saya berjanji akan setia pada keluarga ini”. merasa bantuan yang telah diberikannya pada kakek dan nenek, dengan cara menolong pekerjaan mereka belum cukup untuk mengembalikan on yang telah diterimanya dari kakek, si burung bangau yang menjelma menjadi perempuan muda itu terus berupaya membayar on-nya dengan cara menenun kain yang indah yang akan dijual ke pasar. uang hasil penjualan kain itu diharapkan dapat membantu perekonomian kakek dan nenek. nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 43 その日は、むすめは、ごはんもたべないで、いっしょうけんめい、はたを織りつづけまし た。晩になると、その織場からでてきましたが、あくる日も、また、びょうぶのなかで、キ イトン、バタバタ、キイトン、バタバタと、一生懸命にやりました。 “sono hi wa, musume wa, gohan mo tabenaide, issyoukenmei, hata o oritsuzukemashita. ban ni naru to, sono oriba kara detekimashita ga, akuru hi mo, mata, byoubu no naka de, issyoukenmeini yarimashita”. terjemahannya: pada hari ia menenun, anak perempuan itu tidak makan, kerjanya hanya menenun terusmenerus. baru pada malam harinya ia keluar dari ruangan. hari berikutnya ia melakukan pekerjaan yang sama, menenun dengan sungguh-sungguh. kain yang ditenun oleh perempuan muda itu sangat indah sehingga dapat dijual dengan harga yang tinggi. akan tetapi, sebenarnya kain yang ditenun itu berasal dari bulu-bulu burung bangau yang mengubah dirinya menjadi perempuan muda untuk membalas budinya kepada kakek yang telah menolong menyelamatkan dirinya dari perangkap. ungkapan terima kasih dari perempuan muda itu, tampak dalam kutipan berikut. おじいさん、おばあさん。ながいあいだ、ごやっかいになりました。わたしは、いつぞや、 大雪の日にたすけていただいた、わなにかかった、あのツルでございます。ご恩をかえしし たいとおもい、こんなむすめにすがたをかえておりました。 “sono ban no koto desu. oriageta ayanishiki o motte dete kita musume wa, ojiisan, obaasan no mae niryoute o tsuite iimashita. ojiisan, obaasan. nagai aida, goyakkai ni narimashita. watashi wa, itsu zoya, ooyuki no hi ni tasukete itadaita wana ni kakatta, ano tsuru de gozaimasu. go on o okaeshishitai to omoi, konna musume ni sugata o kaete orimashita”. terjemahannya: “pada malam hari, akhirnya, anak perempuan itu membawa kain yang baru saja selesai ditenunnya. kemudian ia berkata,” kakek dan nenek telah banyak membantu saya. sebenarnya saya adalah burung bangau yang pernah di tolong kakek ketika saya terperangkap. saya pikir, saya harus mengembalikan on yang telah saya terima, maka saya merubah diri saya seperti ini”. begitulah cara burung bangau mengembalikan on (ongaeshi) kepada penolongnya. dalam dongeng “tsuru no no ongaeshi”, kita dapat menangkap bahwa bantuan yang diberikan kakek pada burung bangau adalah bantuan yang tulus tanpa mengharapkan imbalan. itu adalah bentuk dari ninjo (rasa kemanusiaan) yang merupakan ungkapan dari kebaikan hati dan rasa sayang yang dimiliki seorang manusia. arti on sebagai bantuan yang tulus tanpa mengharapkan imbalan sesuai dengan apa yang dikatakan umesao tadao dalam bukunya yang berjudul “nihon jin no kokoro” (hati orang jepang). bahwa on timbul dengan sendirinya dari perasaan kasihan atau simpati yang merupakan salah satu dari sisi kebaikan. setelah memberi pertolongan, timbul perasaan senang dan puas. perasaan senang karena telah menolong juga dapat dikatakan sebagai imbalan yang didapat seseorang (tadao, 1982:191). dalam dongeng ini perasaan senang setelah menolong, juga timbul dalam diri kakek penjual kayu bakar, seperti tampak dalam kutipan berikut. おじいさんは、そのツルが、山のほうへ、しだいしだいに小さくなり、やがて、山をこして みえなくなってしまうまで、それを、みおくっておりました。ツルがみえねくなってしまう jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 44 と、おじいさんは、ひとりごとをいいました。「よいことをしてやった。どうやら、きょう は、運のよい日らしい。」おじいさんは、よい気持ちになって、それから、また、まきをか ついで、町へでかけていきました。 “ojiisan wa, sono tsuru ga, yama no hou e shidai shidai ni chiisaku nari, yagate, yama o koshite mienakunatte shimau made, sore o, miokutte orimashita. tsuru ga mienakunatte shimau to, ojiisan wa, hitori goto o iimashita. “yoi koto o shite yatta. douyara, kyou wa, un no yoi hi rashii.” ojiisan wa, yoi kimochi ni natte, sorekara, mata, maki o katsuide, machi e dekakete ikimashita”. terjemahannya: “setelah burung bangau tidak kelihatan lagi dari pandangan kakek, kakek lalu berkata seorang diri, ”saya telah melakukan sesuatu hal yang baik. kelihatannya, hari ini adalah hari keberuntunganku”. perasaan kakek menjadi senang. lalu ia memikul kembali kayu bakarnya dan berangkat menuju kota”. salah satu pesan yang ingin disampaikan pada anak-anak yang mendengar atau membaca dongeng ini adalah menolong tanpa mengharapkan pamrih. menolong orang tanpa mengharapkan imbalan adalah moral penting yang ingin di sampaikan, meskipun pada akhirnya perbuatannya mendapatkan balasan (ongaeshi). akan tetapi, bukanlah harapan untuk mendapatkan balasan atas bantuan yang telah diberikan yang dikejar. balasan yang didapat adalah hasil dari perbuatan kita, bukan suatu keharusan untuk mendapatkannya. dalam dongeng “tsuru no ongaeshi”, penulis melihat ada beberapa pesan atau amanat yang ingin disampaikan oleh pembuat ceritanya. pesan utama yang ingin disampaikan adalah balas budi kepada orang yang telah menolong atau menyelamatkan kita. pesan lainnya adalah bahwa kita tidak boleh melanggar janji yang telah kita buat. dalam dongeng ini, pelanggaran terhadap janji yang telah disepakati dapat dilihat dari kutipan berikut. 私はこれから、はたを織りますから、織っているうちは、どんなことがあっても、なかをの ぞいてはいけませんよ。どうかなかをみないようにしてください。」おじいさん、おばあさ んは、「よいともよいとも、どんなことがあっても、のぞきはしないから、安心して織りな さい。 “watashi wa korekara, hata o orimasu kara, otteiru uchi wa, donna koto ga attemo, naka o nozoite wa ikemasenyo. dooka naka o minaiyouni shitekudasai”. “yoitomo,yoitomo, donna kotoga attemo, nozoki wa shinaikara, anshinsite orinasai”. terjemahannya: “karena mulai sekarang saya akan menenun kain, selama saya sedang menenun, biar ada kejadian apapun juga, tolong jangan mengintip ke dalam”, kata perempuan muda itu. “baiklah, baiklah, walaupun apa yang akan terjadi, kami tidak akan mengintip ke dalam, menenunlah dengan tenang,” jawab kakek”. meskipun telah berjanji, pada akhirnya nenek tidak menepati janjinya. ia mengintip anak perempuannya yang sedang menenun di dalam kamar. akan tetapi, nenek tidak menemukan anak perempuannya. ia hanya melihat seekor burung bangau yang sedang menenun. hasil dari perbuatan nenek yang melanggar janji membawa akibat perginya anak perempuan mereka, yaitu jelmaan burung bangau. pembuat cerita ini ingin memberi ajaran moral bahwa berbuat baik akan menerima hasil yang baik dan berbuat tidak terpuji juga akan mendapat balasan setimpal. nilai didaktis dalam dongeng … (linda unsriana) 45 penutup dari uraian yang telah dikemukakan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa nilai atau ajaran yang berisikan pesan moral dapat disampaikan pada anak-anak melalui bacaan. dongeng adalah sarana yang sesuai untuk menyampaikan nilai tersebut karena cara penyampaiannya yang tidak memaksa anak-anak untuk menerimanya. dengan dongeng, anak-anak juga tidak sekedar diajar atau dididik, melainkan diberi hiburan yang menyenangkan hati sehingga tidak cepat membuat mereka bosan. dalam dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi, identifikasi dari tindakan menolong yang dilakukan kakek berdasarkan rasa simpatinya yang tulus kepada yang ditolongnya dan tindakan burung bangau yang membalas budi kepada kakek merupakan identifikasi nilai yang berlaku pada masyarakat yang menjadi latar dongeng tersebut. nilai itulah yang ingin disampaikan pembuat dongeng kepada anakanak yang menjadi objek dari dongeng tersebut. dalam masa kanak-kanak, anak-anak membutuhkan pengajaran mengenai etika dan norma yang berlaku dalam masyarakat. dengan mengidentifikasi tokoh dalam cerita ataupun perbuatan, sikap, dan tindakan tokoh, anak-anak dapat belajar norma yang baik dan buruk sesuai dengan norma yang berlaku pada masyarakat. konsep on dan ongaeshi yang dapat dianalisis dari dongeng yang berjudul tsuru no ongashi, lebih mendekati konsep on dan ongaeshi seperti yang dikemukakan umesao tadao yang lebih menekankan adanya keikhlasan dalam melakukan suatu pemberian, baik pemberian yang berupa hadiah maupun pemberian dalam bentuk bantuan atau pertolongan. pemberian atau bantuan yang diberikan tidak boleh dengan suatu harapan untuk menerima balasan atas bantuan yang telah diberikan (ongaeshi) karena dengan mengharapkan balasan berarti kita telah melalukan korupsi terhadap on itu sendiri. membesar-besarkan pemberian on kepada orang lain juga sangat bertentangan dari prinsip utama on, seperti yang dikemukakan oleh umesao tadao. daftar pustaka benedict, ruth. 1979. pedang samurai dan bunga seruni, pola-pola kebudayaan jepang. jakarta: sinar harapan. bettelheim, bruno. 1976. the uses of enchantment, the meaning and importance of fairy tales. new york: alfred a. knopf, inc. bunanta, murti. 1997. “problematika penulisan cerita rakyat untuk anak di indonesia: telaah penyajian dengan contoh dongeng bertipe cerita "cinderella" dan "the kind and unkind girls"”. disertasi program studi ilmu susastra program pascasarjana ui. danandjaja, james. 1997. folklor jepang. jakarta: pustaka utama grafiti. durkheim, emile. 1990. pendidikan moral: suatu studi teori dan aplikasi sosiologi pendidikan. jakarta: erlangga. gootoo sooichiro (後籐総一郎). mukashi banashi no sekai:sono rekishi to gendai. heisei 12. japan: tono monogatari kenkyushou. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.1 mei 2007: 34-46 46 昔話の世界:その歴史と現代、との物語研究書、日本 harumi, befu. 1971. japan: an antropological introduction. new york: chandler publishing. kawai hayao (河合 はやお). 1982. mukashi banashi to nihonjin no kokoro, iwanami shoten. 昔話と日本人の心、1982、岩波書店 komatsu kazuhiko (ed.) 小松 和彦〉. 1985. mukashi-banashi kenkyu no kadai, showa 60 meisho shuppan, japan. 昔話研究の課題、昭和60、名著出版、日本 lebra, takie sugiyama and william p. lebra (ed.) 1975. japanese culture and behavior, selected readings. the university press of hawaii. minami hiroshi. 1971. psychology of the japanese people. university of tokyo press. seki keigo (関敬吾). nihon mukashi banashi taisei 12 karya besar mukashi banashi jepang) , showa 58(1983), kadogawa shoten, japan. 日本昔話大成12、昭和58、角川書店、日本 stewig, john warren. 1980. children and literature. boston: houghton mifflin company. sudjiman, panuti. 1992. memahami cerita rekaan. jakarta: pustaka jaya. tsubota jooji (坪田 譲冶). 1987. nihon no mukashi banashi, kaiseishabunko, japan. (jilid 2,3, dan 4) 日本の昔話、1987、偕成社文庫、日本 umesaotadao (うめさおただお). 1982. nihonjin no kokoro. japan: asahi sensho. 日本人の心、朝日選書、日本 issn 1978-8118 vol. 1 no. 1 mei 2007 ketua dewan redaksi wishnoebroto, s.pd., m.hum dewan redaksi tetty mindaria malau, ss., m.hum dra. ruth sih kinanti, m.hum ratna handayani, m.si dra. sulistiasih, ma henny lim, ba cendrawaty tjong, ba sofi zhang, ba fu jiaqiang, ba ma mitra bestari dra. ienneke indra dewi, m.hum risa rumentha simanjuntak, ss., ma dra. nalti novianti, m.si andyni khosasih, se, ba dra. ekawati m. dukut, m.hum xia mingju, ba, ma. editor bahasa dan setter dra. endang ernawati, m.lib. titik rahayu s., s.s. holil angga ferdiansyah sekretariat: hery h.m., s.kom alamat redaksi: subcenter publikasi ilmiah bidang sastra center for research and community service universitas bina nusantara kampus kijang jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45 kemanggisan/ palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 telp. 021-5327630 (ext. 6129) fax. 021-5300244 cultura jurnal lingualingua issn 1978-8118 vol. 1 no. 1 mei 2007 daftar isi menik winiharti english participial clauses and the strategies applied in their indonesian translations......... 1-10 muhartoyo introduction to research methodologies in language studies........................................ 11-18 ruth sih kinanti family relationship in gabrielle lord’s lethal factor................................................. 19-26 yuliana; rica s.w. goeridno stylistic analysis: gender influence in reporting and reading news................................ 27-33 linda unsriana nilai didaktis dalam dongeng anak jepang (analisis dongeng tsuru no ongaeshi) (didactic value in japanese children fairytale (analysis of tsuru no ongaeshi fairytale)).... 34-46 robihim pengaruh choukai pada mata kuliah nihongo 4 terhadap kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang mahasiswa semester iv di ubinus (the influence of choukai on nihongo 4 study on speaking ability of semester iv japanese student on ubinus)............................................................................ 47-56 nur saadah fitri asih efektivitas penggunaan metode oral drill untuk latihan kemampuan berbicara bahasa jepang di kelas dasar (the effectivity of oral drill method useness for speaking ability practice of japanese language in basic class)................................ 57-63 yi ying analisis perbandingan penerapan pembelajaran tata bahasa china antara pembelajaran tatap muka dengan kombinasi pembelajaran jarak jauh dan tatap muka (comparation analysis of china grammar learning application between face to face learning with combination of long distance and face to face learning)......................... 64-77 m. herwiratno kelenteng: benteng terakhir dan titik awal perkembangan kebudayaan tionghoa di indonesia (kelenteng: the last and new fortress of the growing of tionghoa culture in indonesia).... 78-86 andyni khosasih religions followed by the descendants of chinese indonesians.................................... 87-98 cultura jurnal lingualingua microsoft word 02 wiwik_setting 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 reflective evaluation of efl teachers versus their students’ evalution wiwik andreani english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 wiwik@binus.edu abstract article investigated the grading of teaching values and its relation to the rating performance of the teachers. for this purpose, 27 efl teachers were randomly chosen from bina nusantara university. some teachers taught only english department students and some others taught students of other departments, for example computer science, marketing communication, management, visual communication design and chinese department. they were asked to grade twelve values in their teaching according to the order of importance and to answer a set of questions on those values. besides, their students filled in a questionnaire with the aim of evaluating the teachers’ performance from september 2008 until june 2010 (three semesters).the results of the study suggest that there is a change in the teaching-value grading along with teaching experience. however, there is no relationship between teaching values and getting high/low rating performance, the reason of which is not dealt with in the study. expertise, enthusiasm, reliability and attentiveness were teaching values selected as most important for the efl teachers. moreover, most teachers were graded higher in their soft skills rather than hard skills, especially in giving the students an opportunity to ask questions and to have a discussion during the teaching and learning process. finally, when teachers taught small and big classes, surprisingly most of them got higher rating performance from their students of big classes, for both their hard and soft skills. keywords: efl teachers, teaching performance, teaching values, hard skills, soft skills abstrak artikel menyelidiki hubungan nilai pengajaran dengan kinerja dosen. sampel terdiri dari 27 dosen efl universitas bina nusantara yang dipilih secara acak. dosen diminta menyusun 12 nilai berdasarkan kepentingan ketika mereka mengajar dan menjawab pertanyaan sesuai dengan nilai tersebut. mahasiswa diminta mengisi evaluasi dosen selama 3 semester, yaitu september 2008 sampai juni 2010. simpulannya adalah terdapat perubahan di dalam penilaian cara mengajar seiring dengan pengalaman mereka mengajar. walaupun demikian, tidak ada hubungan antara nilai pengajaran dengan perolehan kinerja yang tinggi/rendah, dengan alasan di luar konteks penelitian. expertise, enthusiasm, reliability, dan attentiveness adalah nilai pengajaran yang terutama dipilih para pengajar efl. kebanyakan dosen dinilai lebih tinggi untuk soft-skill dari pada hard-skill mereka karena telah memberi kesempatan mahasiswa bertanya dan berdiskusi selama proses pengajaran.akhirnya, ketika dosen mengajar di kelas besar atau kecil, ternyata mereka mendapat rating kinerja yang lebih tinggi pada saat mengajar di kelas besar, baik untuk hard skill atau soft skill mereka. kata kunci: dosen efl, kinerja dosen, nilai pengajaran, hard skill, soft skill reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 13 introduction background of the study it is undeniable that quality education must be supported by quality teachers since teachers play an important role in determining students’ success. the importance of teachers’ role can be clearly seen in english teaching, for example; an english teacher functions as a guide as well as a model for their students. teachers, therefore, should consistently improve themselves to be professional teachers and both teachers and students should always be life-long learners. in doing their jobs teachers need feedback or evaluation from the institution, superior, peers and students. in reality, however, there are teachers who do not like evaluation although evaluation is crucial because it can suggest how teachers might change certain attitudes or teaching techniques to improve their teaching performance. besides, evaluation also gives feedback to teachers so that they know what is expected of them – what they are doing well and how they might improve themselves. moreover, evaluation is usually closely related to the financial reward teachers will get. in this instance, evaluation can boost teachers’ morale since they should be rewarded for above average or excellent performance. this is what teachers in indonesia are now experiencing; they are evaluated and if they pass the evaluation, they will be granted a teacher certification (‘sertifikasi guru / dosen’). this certification includes self-evaluation, evaluation from the superior, peers and students, the consistency among which will determine whether or not teachers pass the certification. the study is meant firstly to find out the relationship between self-evaluation of efl teachers and evaluation from their different–three–semester students. the self-evaluation in this study refers to the reflection of the values efl teachers hold in their teaching while the evaluation from the students are taken from on-line questionnaire filled in for three consecutive semesters. secondly, this paper discusses which skills of teachers, whether hard or soft skills, get higher or lower scores of evaluation from their students. research questions: in short, the paper wants to answer the following questions: (1) is there a change in the teaching–value grading along with teaching experience?, (2) do teachers getting high / low rating performance from their students hold the same values?, (3) what skills – hard or soft skills – of teachers are graded lower / higher by students?, (4) do teachers teaching big classes get higher / lower rating performance from their students compared to those teaching small classes? literature review teaching and learning process is a life-long business. it is there when someone is born to the world and it goes on and on until he / she has to leave the world. in its formal context teaching and learning process is conventionally done in the classroom, under the roof, in a building. however, with the advancement of technology, it is now not limited to the four-wall room. we are now accustomed to the on-line learning since internet technology has reached remote areas all over the world. therefore, nowadays people can learn something new easily; it is only as simple as pushing the button of the keyboard and a huge bundle of information will pop up in front of our eyes in a split of second. in this instance, usaid and the local indonesian government have funded a coaching program for teachers to use technology. the pilot program was done by the education development center, usa, which involved 92 teachers and 12 coaches. all 92 coached teachers implemented what they learned 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 in technology-based professional development. thus, if teaching and learning process has gone some changes, what should teachers do? (http://www.edc.org/newsroom/articles/giving_teachers_help_they_need, retrieved on june 15, 2010) according to mortiboys (2005:2), “conventionally, a teacher brings two things to the classroom that are of value to the learners. one is expertise in the subject, whether it is basic mathematics, leadership in business or the novels of thomas hardy. the other is knowledge of learning and teaching methods – a teacher’s pedagogy, such as how to structure the content being presented, how to encourage participation by learners, use of materials and so on.” furthermore, he suggests that the third thing should be emotional intelligence. teachers must be emotionally intelligent in their teaching because by being emotionally intelligent they have no difficulty in interacting with and motivating their learners. therefore mortiboys (2005:3) suggests that emotional intelligence be reflected in teacher training courses at all levels and be included in every teacher’s development. what are the characteristics of a good teacher, then? in the paper, a teacher meant is only limited to an english teacher. allen (1980) in brown (2001:429) offers the following list of characteristics of good esl teachers: (1) competent preparation leading to a degree in tesl, (2) a love of the english language, (3) critical thinking, (4) the persistent urge to upgrade oneself, (5) selfsubordination, (6) readiness to go the extra mile, (7) cultural adaptability, (8) professional citizenship, (9) a feeling of excitement about one’s work. when the previous list is observed, it can be seen that half of it is about values or soft skills of teachers, for example a love of the english language, the persistent urge to upgrade oneself, and a feeling of excitement about one’s work. this also means that soft skills of english teachers have already been counted in their career since a long time ago. nowadays soft skills or interpersonal skills or social skills are known as emotional intelligence or at least part of emotional intelligence. brown himself (2001: 430, table 23.1) has made a long list of characteristics of a good language teacher, as follows: good language-teaching characteristics technical knowledge • understands the linguistic systems of english phonology, grammar, and discourse. • comprehensively grasps basic principles of language learning and teaching. • has fluent competence in speaking, writing, listening to, and reading english. • knows through experience what it is like to learn a foreign language. • understands the close connection between language and culture. • keeps up with the field through regular reading and conference/workshop attendance. pedagogical skills • has a well-thought-out, informed approach to language teaching. • understands and uses a wide variety of techniques. • efficiently designs and executes lesson plans. • monitors lessons as they unfold and makes effective mid-lesson alterations. • effectively perceives students’ linguistic needs. • gives optimal feedback to students. • stimulates interaction, cooperation, and teamwork in the classroom. • uses appropriate principles of classroom management. • uses effective, clear presentation skills. • creatively adapts textbook material and other audio, visual, and mechanical aids. • innovatively creates brand-new materials when needed. • uses interactive, intrinsically motivating techniques to create effective tests. reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 15 good language-teaching characteristics interpersonal skills • is aware of cross-cultural differences and is sensitive to students’ cultural traditions. • enjoys people; shows enthusiasm, warmth, rapport, and appropriate humor. • values the opinions and abilities of students. • is patient in working with students of lesser ability. • offers challenges to students of exceptionally high ability. • cooperates harmoniously and candidly with colleagues (fellow teachers). • seeks opportunities to share thoughts, ideas, and techniques with colleagues. personal qualities • is well organized, conscientious in meeting commitments, and dependable. • is flexible when things go awry. • maintains an inquisitive mind in trying out new ways of teaching. • sets short-term and long-term goals for continued professional growth. • maintains and exemplifies high ethical and moral standards it can be clearly seen from both previous lists that a good language teacher should have two things: hard skills and soft skills, the latter of which is closely related to what is defined as emotional intelligence as quoted by singh (2006), among others: “emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (mayer & salovey, 1997). “emotional intelligence reflects one’s ability to deal with daily environment challenges and helps predict one’s success in life, including professional and personal pursuits” (bar-on, 1997). “emotional intelligence is the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships. emotional intelligence describes abilities distinct from, but complementary to, academic intelligence or the purely cognitive capacities measured by iq” (goleman, 1998). “emotional intelligence is the ability of an individual to appropriately and successfully respond to a vast variety of emotional stimuli being elicited from the inner self and immediate environment” (singh, 2003). from the previous definitions, it can be concluded that emotional intelligence is someone’s ability to respond to anything in emotionally appropriate manner and to manage his/her emotions. in the implementation of emotional intelligence in the working field, some research have reported that there is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence, social intelligence and job performance (hopkins & bilimora, 2007, bar-on, 2010). moreover, for years bar-on has done some research whose result depicts that emotional intelligence consistently shows that it has a highly significant relationship with someone’s performance in his work (bar-on, 2010). english teachers, in this case, can be assumed as employees in an educational institution and they are also expected to have a good emotional intelligence so that they can ‘produce’ quality 16 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 students through quality teaching and learning process. singh did a research in india in 2003 and found out that different professions need different rank of emotional intelligence. out of 18 professions evaluated, teachers get the fifth rank, which means that teachers need a high emotional intelligence. another research was also done by ghanizadeh & moafian (2009), which involved 89 english teachers in several language institutes in mashhad, iran. the result shows that there is a positive and significant correlation between emotional intelligence of the english teachers and their teaching performance. the teachers were evaluated by their-826 students who filled in a questionnaire ‘characteristics of successful efl teachers’. this study is in fact simpler than the previously mentioned research. it does not cover every item of emotional intelligence; it only covers values, which is included in self-awareness as part of emotional intelligence (goleman, 1998). the questionnaire used to evaluate the english teachers’ performance is divided into two big items: hard skills and soft skills of teachers. in the study teachers are considered good when they get at least an average score of 3, on a 4-point scale. the score is relatively lower than that implemented at montana state, which requires a faculty member an average score of 3.6, on a 4-point scale, to qualify for a pay raise. “to get scores this high,” professor trout said, ”i have to make a lot of students happy.” to make students happy, he should be careful about the amount of work he instructs the students to do, about his expectations for student performance, and about the standards he set for scoring the students’ work. (trout, 2000 in schultz & schultz, 2010). moreover, “research on student evaluations shows that students consistently assign low ratings to teachers who set high standards and strict course requirements.” (schultz & schultz, 2010:108). even though the result of the research on student evaluations may be true, this is not included in the analysis of the study. it is perhaps a topic that will be worth for further research. context and participants the research project was carried out at a private university located in west jakarta. there were twenty-seven lecturers teaching english to various departments in the university volunteering to be the participants. they were given a list of twelve values to grade according to the order of importance and they were asked to answer some questions on the grading of the values. the lecturers were asked to do value grading and answering questions for two times; the first was in october 2009 and the second was in june 2010. the list of values was given in different format; the first was randomly written without any description (see appendix a) but the second was written in alphabetical order with some description of the words (see appendix b). the first grading will be compared to the second one to see whether or not there is a change between them. the classes the lecturers taught, the total of which were 281 classes, were classified into three categories: small classes of the english department having less than 50 students, small classes of non-english departments with less than 50 students, and big classes of non-english departments having more than 50 students. besides lecturers, the research also involved the first until the seventh semester students, the total of which was 8,944 students taught by the lecturers for three semesters, from odd semester of the 2008/2009 academic year until odd semester of the 2009/2010 academic year (september 2008 – june 2010). the students of non-english departments had a two-credit english course per semester while the english department students had various content courses held in english, such as literature, linguistics, and language skills, all of which were either two or four credits per semester. one semester consists of thirteen meetings (mid-semester and final-semester exams are not included). the students met once a week for a hundred minutes when they took a two-credit course and two hundred minutes for a fourcredit course per meeting. during 8th – 10th meeting the students were asked to fill in an on-line questionnaire on their teacher performance every semester. the questionnaire consists of 8 questions; questions 1 – 4 are meant to evaluate the lecturers’ hard skills and questions 5 – 8 are evaluation questions for soft skills. reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 17 findings and discussion after the data of teaching values were collected, they were analyzed and the result can be seen in the table 1 and 2: table 1 first value grading based on the order of importance characteristic order of importance total 1st rank 2nd rank 3rd rank expertise 13 6 3 22 reliability 5 6 1 12 enthusiasm 5 4 6 15 warmth 2 3 3 8 ability to improvise 2 5 7 attentiveness 3 1 4 perseverance 1 1 dynamism 1 2 3 sense of humor 1 2 3 readiness to experiment 2 2 4 flexibility 2 2 no of lecturers 27 27 27 81 table 2 second value grading based on the order of importance characteristic order of importance total 1st rank 2nd rank 3rd rank expertise 11 5 2 18 reliability 3 5 1 9 enthusiasm 5 5 8 18 warmth 2 2 2 6 ability to improvise 1 2 2 5 attentiveness 3 2 5 10 perseverance 1 1 2 dynamism 3 2 5 sense of humor 1 1 2 readiness to experiment 1 3 4 flexibility 1 1 2 no of lecturers 27 27 27 81 from the previous tables, it can be seen that there is a change in the grading of values. when lecturers were given the first list of values, which was randomly written, expertise got the biggest points (22 points), which means that twenty-two lecturers (81%) selected expertise as the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd rank of importance to them, while enthusiasm and reliability were in the second and third position having 15 and 12 points each. coincidentally the values written in the first, second and third rows are the values selected by most lecturers; expertise is in the first row, reliability in the second row, and enthusiasm in the third row (see appendix a). table 1 and 2 show that there is a change of value grading when the first-given list is compared to the second-given list, which was alphabetically written (see appendix b). even though 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 the order of importance changes, the three values selected for the second time remain the same (expertise, enthusiasm, and reliability). this time there is an additional value as the second rank: attentiveness. expertise and enthusiasm are in the same rank, which is the first order of importance having 18 points each, meaning that eighteen lecturers (67%) selected the two values as the most important values in their teaching. thus the lecturers regarded hard skills (expertise) as important as soft skills (enthusiasm) in their teaching. furthermore the study also reveals how values relate to teaching experience. table 3, 4, and 5 contains the classification of the participants in the study based on their teaching experience: table 3 classification of lecturers based on teaching experience number of teachers / lecturers* teaching experience ≤ 5 years 6–10 years 11-15years 16-20 yrs 21-30 yrs > 30 years 3 7 2 7 5 3 total 27 teachers / lecturers* note: *teachers and lecturers are used interchangeably in the research. the following tables show the relationship between teaching values and teaching experience. table 4 first value grading based on teaching experience characteristic teaching experience ≤ 5 years 6–10 years 11-15years 16-20 yrs 21-30 yrs > 30 years expertise 3 7 2 5 4 1 reliability 1 2 2 3 4 enthusiasm 3 4 5 1 2 warmth 1 1 1 3 1 1 ability to improvise 1 2 1 2 1 attentiveness 3 1 perseverance 1 dynamism 1 1 1 sense of humor 3 readiness to experiment 3 1 flexibility 2 table 5 second value grading based on teaching experience characteristic teaching experience ≤ 5 years 6–10 yrs 11-15yrs 16-20 yrs 21-30 yrs > 30 years expertise 2 6 1 5 4 reliability 1 3 1 3 1 enthusiasm 2 6 5 3 2 warmth 1 1 3 1 ability to improvise 1 1 1 1 1 attentiveness 2 1 3 2 2 perseverance 1 1 dynamism 2 2 1 sense of humor 1 1 readiness to experiment 2 1 1 flexibility 1 1 reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 19 from tables 4 and 5, it is depicted that the longer the teachers teach, the less important expertise is for them. it appears that teachers are getting more and more aware that expertise is not the only thing a teacher should master. in table 5 we can see that enthusiasm and expertise were selected by the same number of teachers, whether they are ‘junior’ or ‘senior’ in their teaching experience, meaning that all of them considered the two values as the most important ones in their teaching. besides, the longer they teach the more teachers agreed to have attentiveness as the second important value in their teaching. this fact possibly shows that the longer teachers teach, the more aware they are of the importance of soft skills to complement their hard skills in the teaching and learning process. the following are some examples of the explanations teachers gave for the value grading shown in the previous tables: teacher 3 -who has been teaching english for ten years – said “i grade the teaching values in the order of building a good rapport first with the students, then moving on to the originality and creativity aspects, and finally ending with necessary skills and knowledge required to transmit. this order is based on my own experience as a teacher that you cannot teach students anything unless you have successfully established a good relationship with them. five or ten years ago, i would rank the order the other way around, beginning from hard skills first, then moving on to the soft skills. the shift happens because of many factors, including lack of teaching experience, the culture of workplace contexts, limited knowledge and understanding of pedagogical practices, etc.” this teacher put attentiveness in the first rank, warmth in the second rank, and enthusiasm in the third rank. teacher 4 – who has been teaching for six years – said: ”five or ten years ago, the order would be different; perhaps i would rely on the characteristics that only cover the ‘fundamental’ methods / theory of teaching and not the social skills, which are later proven to be the characteristic needed in ‘real’ teaching atmosphere.” he also said: “the real teaching environment is very different. i think there is a big gap between the theories and ‘the real world’ of teaching.” the teacher chose enthusiasm as the first rank, expertise in the second rank, and readiness to experiment in the third rank.” teacher 27 – who has been teaching english for 36 years – chose attentiveness as the first rank, reliability in the second rank, and readiness to experiment in the third rank. he said: “i would rank the teaching values differently if i ranked them five or ten years ago, because when i was young, i wanted to give, give, and give something to make other people successful, but now i become aware that before doing and giving something we have to listen first to our students in order to find out their real needs.” teacher 11 – who has been teaching english for ten years – explained: “for me, i grade the teaching values in this order as a reflection of my experience. teaching requires willingness to cast a critical eye on our practice, our pedagogy and ourselves.” she graded expertise in the first rank, attentiveness in the second rank, and enthusiasm in the third rank. teacher 18 – who has been teaching english for 27 years – explained: “i grade the teaching values in this order based on my experience as a teacher. i used to think that a lecturer must be an expert, but then i feel that the students will be easy to work with if they trust you. now i think that as a teacher i must help them to understand the lesson better and then you will have the feeling of a great pleasure in teaching and you don’t feel tired of teaching anymore.” she put reliability in the first rank, enthusiasm in the second rank, and flexibility in the third rank. from the explanations previously mentioned, it can be concluded that the teaching value grading changes along with the teaching experience. eleven teachers said that they would have graded the teaching values differently if they did it five or ten years ago, while other eleven teachers said the grading would be slightly different and only five of them said that it would be the same. from the 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 analysis of the teaching values, it is found out that only three teachers, out of the twenty-seven teachers, consistently chose the same values for the first, second and third rank when they were asked to grade the values at two different times, although the order of importance is different. twelve teachers chose four values for the first and second time of grading, whereas ten and two teachers chose five and six values in their order of importance for the first and second time of grading, as can be seen below in table 6. table 6 change of teaching value grading number of teachers teaching values selected values of 1st grading vs 2nd grading 2 6 values totally different 12 4 values two values different 10 5 values only one value different 3 3 values exactly the same as it is previously mentioned, the lecturers are consistently evaluated by their students every semester. they require at least an average score of 3, on a 4-point scale to have a good teaching performance. however, the following table shows that not all lecturers got the required-3 score; only thirteen lecturers (48%) got the average score of 3 for both hard and soft skills. from table 7 it can be seen that when lecturers got an average score of >3 for their soft skills, they also got a >3-score for their hard skills, except 2 lecturers. furthermore, it can be concluded that their rating performance does not relate to the values they hold. this happens probably because of two reasons: the value has not been well implemented yet or the rating performance done by the students is not objective. these reasons are not discussed in the study and they might be worth for further research. table 7 teacher rating performance number of teachers 1st value of each teacher rating performance (hard skills) rating performance (soft skills) 3 expertise < 3 < 3 2 attentiveness < 3 < 3 5 warmth, sense of humor, ability to improvise, flexibility, enthusiasm < 3 < 3 1 expertise < 3 3 2 enthusiasm, reliability < 3 > 3 6 expertise > 3 > 3 2 enthusiasm > 3 > 3 3 attentiveness, warmth, reliability > 3 > 3 1 enthusiasm > 3 > 3.6 1 expertise > 3 < 3 1 reliability > 3.6 > 3 next, when the average scores of hard skills and soft skills of the lecturers are compared (see table 7), interesting results are gained. there are twenty lecturers whose average scores of soft skills are higher than those of the hard skills, whereas five lecturers have got higher average scores of their hard skills than those of the soft skills and two lecturers have the same average scores of their hard and soft skills. the specific soft skill which got the highest scores in the students’ evaluation is the lecturers’ skill in giving the students opportunity to ask questions and to have a discussion during the teaching and learning process. twenty lecturers (74%) got the highest scores for this soft skill. in this case, it can be concluded that the lecturers’ soft skills are better than their hard skills from the students’ point of view. this is reflected in the lecturers’ explanation previously mentioned that when they are more experienced in teaching, they likely shift their focus of attention to the soft skills. reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 21 in the research thirteen lecturers, out of twenty-seven ones, taught small classes of english department students and big classes of non-english department students. when the rating performance of teaching small and big classes is compared, it is known that the scores of big classes is higher. ten lecturers (77%) got higher scores in their hard skills and nine lecturers (69%) got higher scores in their soft skills when teaching big classes. this is quite a surprise since most people believe that teaching big classes is more difficult than teaching small classes. table 8 shows the detailed rating performance. table 8 teachers’ rating performance − small vs big classes teachers rating performance hard skills small classes rating performance hard skills big classes rating performance soft skills small classes rating performance soft skills big classes 1 0 −0.16 0 −0.17 2 0 0.02 0 0.05 3 0 0.39 0 0.35 4 0 0.10 0 0.17 5 0 −0.07 0 −0.02 6 0 0.29 0 0.22 7 0 0.36 0 0.34 8 0 0 0 −0.04 9 0 0.06 0 0.05 10 0 0.16 0 0.15 11 0 0.14 0 0.13 12 0 0.22 0 0.93 13 0 −0.18 0 −0.16 in the research, there were nineteen lecturers teaching big and small classes of non-english department. when the scores of the students’ evaluation are compared, it can be seen that the students of big classes gave higher scores to their lecturers than those of all classes taught (see table 9); thirteen lecturers (68%) got higher scores in their hard skills from the students of the big classes they taught, while five lecturers (26%) got higher scores in their hard skills from the students of all classes they taught, and only one lecturer got the same score for his hard skills in teaching big and all classes he taught. on the other hand, seventeen lecturers (89%) got higher scores for their soft skills from big classes rather than all classes they had. only one lecturer got lower score for his soft skills from the big classes he taught and another lecturer got the same score from the students of the big and all classes. thus, from the research it is found that the biggest portion of the lecturers’ rating performance – both hard and soft skills – is contributed by students from big classes. whether or not the result is consistent in any context with any participant, further research is needed. table 9 teachers’ rating performance − big vs all classes teachers rating performance hard skills big classes rating performance hard skills all classes rating performance soft skills big classes rating performance soft skills all classes 1 0 0.12 0 −0.02 2 0 −0.01 0 −0.04 3 0 −0.11 0 −0.11 4 0 −0.36 0 −0.32 5 0 −0.06 0 −0.10 6 0 0.04 0 −0.01 7 0 0.05 0 −0.05 8 0 −0.02 0 −0.02 9 0 −0.12 0 −0.10 10 0 −0.19 0 −0.17 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 table 9 teachers’ rating performance − big vs all classes (continued) teachers rating performance hard skills big classes rating performance hard skills all classes rating performance soft skills big classes rating performance soft skills all classes 11 0 0.03 0 0.03 12 0 −0.18 0 −0.17 13 0 0 0 0 14 0 −0.02 0 −0.01 15 0 −0.1 0 −0.09 16 0 −0.1 0 −0.08 17 0 −0.17 0 −0.11 18 0 0.15 0 −0.13 19 0 −0.06 0 −0.04 conclusions to sum up the entire research, the results of the study suggest that there be a change in the teaching-value grading along with teaching experience. the more experienced a teacher is, the more soft skills he focuses on to complement the hard skills he has had. the first time the lecturers were given the list of teaching values, expertise, enthusiasm and reliability were selected as the first, second and third rank based on the order of importance. however, the second time the lecturers were asked to do the same thing, expertise and enthusiasm were in the first rank, attentiveness was in the second rank, and reliability was in the third rank. furthermore, because teaching values are not fixed and their implementation is very difficult to evaluate, further research is needed to find out whether there is a relationship between teaching values and high/low rating performance of teachers since the study reported that there was no relationship between teaching values and the rating performance of the teachers. moreover, in the study almost all teachers are graded higher of their soft skills compared to their hard skills, especially in giving students an opportunity to ask questions and to discuss something. the scores of teachers’ hard and soft skills were proven to be higher in big classes rather than small classes. this is very surprising since most people think that teaching english to more than 50 students in one classroom is more difficult than that in small classes. therefore, again, further research is needed to prove the consistency of the result, whether it happens in other contexts with other participants. references bar-on, r. (2010). emotional intelligence: an integral part of positive psychology. south african journal of psychology, 40(1), 54-62. brown, d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. 2nd edition. ny: pearson education. ghanizadeh, a., & fatemeh moafian. (2009). the role of efl teachers’ emotional intelligence in their success. elt journal advance access, november(3), 1-12. doi:10.1093/elt/ccp084. goleman, d.. (1998). working with emotional intelligence. london:bloomsbury hopkins, m..m., & bilimoria,d. (2007). social and emotional competencies predicting success for male and female executives. journal of management development, 27(1), 13-25. ww.emeraldinsight.com/0262-1711.htm. reflective evaluation ….. (wiwik andreani) 23 mortiboys, a. (2005). teaching with emotional intelligence. new york: routledge. schultz, d. & schultz, s. (2010). psychology and work today. 10th edition. usa: pearson. singh, d. (2006). emotional intelligence at work. a professional guide. 3rd edition. new delhi, india: response book. appendix a list of teaching values (i) here are 12 characteristics that can be associated with teachers. rank them 1 -12 in order of importance to you. characteristic ranking 1 -12 expertise warmth enthusiasm flexibility dynamism flamboyance attentiveness sense of humor reliability perseverance readiness to experiment ability to improvise • what makes you grade them in this order? for instance, is it your own experience as a learner, long ago or recently? or is it your experience as a teacher? • how different would your ranking have been if you had done this exercise five years ago, or perhaps 10 years ago? • why is that? 24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 12-24 appendix b list of teaching values (ii) as teachers, we are supposed to have certain characteristics. based on your experience, please rank the characteristics below that can be associated with teachers in order of importance to you. characteristic ranking 1 -12 ability to improvise attentiveness: an action of listening to or watching someone carefully because you want to make sure that they have everything they need dynamism enthusiasm expertise flamboyance : a condition of behaving in a confident or exciting way that makes people notice you flexibility perseverance readiness to experiment reliability : a condition in which you can be trusted or depended on sense of humor warmth • what makes you grade them in this order? for instance, is it your own experience as a learner, long ago or recently? or is it your experience as a teacher? • how long have you been teaching? what are your specialties? • how different would your ranking have been if you had done this exercise five years ago, or perhaps 10 years ago? • why is that? microsoft word 02_ desri_setting.doc the diphthongs: the obstacles.... (desri maria sumbayak) 107 the diphthongs: the obstacles for indonesian speakers of english desri maria sumbayak english department, faculty of teacher training and education, university of riau abstract article investigated the difficulties of indonesian speaker of english in producing diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/. five postgraduate students and five spouses of students at university of canberra participated in this study. the participants were recorded in pronouncing /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ by reading lists of words and a story. the data were analysed by two australian native speakers. interrater reliability was calculated by using cohen’s kappa. the percentage was used to see the accurate diphthong realisations. the results showed that diphthong /oʊ/ was relatively more problematic than diphthong/eɪ/ and the students produced more diphthongs accurately than the spouses. the results also revealed that the ability to produce the diphthongs accurately was influenced by english proficiency and the type of tasks where diphthongs were pronounced. keywords: diphtong, indonesian speaker, english pronunciation abstrak artikel menjelaskan kesulitan penutur indonesia yang mengucapkan diftong /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ dalam bahasa inggris. responden terdiri dari lima pasangan mahasiswa pascasarjana dari universitas canberra. responden direkam ketika melafalkan diftong /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ pada bacaan berbahasa inggris, yang kemudian dianalisis oleh penutur asli australia. realibilitas interrater dihitung dengan cohen’s kappa. persentase digunakan untuk menyatakan ketepatan pengucapan diftong. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengucapan diftong /oʊ/ lebih bermasalah dari pada diftong /eɪ/, dan para mahasiswa lebih mampu mengucapkan diftong tersebut dari pada pasangan mereka. hasil juga menunjukkan bahwa kemampuan untuk mengucapkan diftong secara tepat dipengaruhi oleh kemampuan berbahasa inggris dan jenis tugas yang membutuhkan pengucapkan kedua diftong tersebut. kata kunci: diftong, penutur bahasa indonesia, pengucapan bahasa inggris. 108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 107-115  introduction there are often learning and production problems when mother tongue (l1) differs from target language (l2). the degree of differences between a learner’s native language and the target language can lead to greater difficulty (lightbown and spada, 2006). in an efl teaching context, this issue has been discussed in almost all the world’s languages (eq. walter, duguid in swain & smith (2001) the areas of characteristic problems which have been reviewed are phonology, grammar and vocabulary and these findings might help teachers to examine how these typical difficulties arise and anticipate the difficulties in their teaching contexts. phonology is the distinctive area in which one’s native language often interferes with one’s attempt to acquire english as second language (carr, 1999). kelly (2000) points out some typical difficulties of english learners in producing vowels and diphthongs. diphthongs (centring and closing) seem to be the most difficult ones to be produced by many speakers of other languages. for indonesian speakers, agps (1986) mentions that there are possibilities for the learners to have problems in diphthongs which are not found in bahasa indonesia: /ɪə/, /ʊə/, /eɪ/, /eə/, and /oʊ/. on the other hand, he argues that due to the familiarity to the sound, indonesian speakers should not have difficulties with three diphthongs that appear in bahasa indonesia: /ɔɪ/, /aɪ/ and /aʊ/. yong (2001) claims that for indonesian speakers, english diphthongs are likely realised as pure vowels which might be uttered in the long and short forms. since diphthong is one of the most problematic features in pronunciation for speakers of other languages, this study focused on the two english diphthongs that are not found in indonesian. diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ were chosen due to their frequent use in english compared to other diphthongs: /ɪə/, /ʊə/, /eə/. literature review based on teaching experiences and observation hart (1965) discovered that malaysian students whose mother tongue is malay or a southern chinese dialect (hokkien, cantonese, or hakka) had problems with pronunciation of english tense markers and lax vowels. he points out that these difficulties are due to the interferences of malay, hokkien and cantonese in which lax vowels are considered as allophones not as phonemics as they are in english. similarly, yong (2001) claims that due to the different phonological system between malay/indonesia and english, there are serious problems that can cause confusions in pronunciation. for example: most vowels are pronounced with more or less comparable length: bit/beat, pill/peal, full/fool, cot/caught, conflation of /æ/ and /e/ into /e/, and diphthongs are likely to be realized as pure vowels which are pronounced long and short. alip (2007) points out that indonesian speakers tend to pronounce english diphthongs in a lax manner but diphthongs in english should be tense. however, these arguments are not supported by experimental research that confirm these difficulties are vis a vis the interferences of l1. in the indonesian context, mathew (2005) carried out research on the mispronunciations of english consonants; voiced stops, voiceless stop, sibilants, affricates and interdentals for learners whose first languages are indonesian, gayo and acehnese. she argued that transfer, developmental factors, spelling interference, general processes and communicative strategies were the factors leading to the mispronunciations. the data was taken in several universities in banda aceh, indonesia by involving 24 students in which every ethnic group consists of four male and four female students. the instruments were designed in four different types of tasks; minimal pairs, word repetition task, a reading passage and an interview. the consonants appeared in three different environments of sound; initial, middle and final. the data from the second task was justified by a native speaker of english whereas the other was evaluated by the author. this research is considered to be rich since it is taken by using four different types of tasks. but the author fails to explain why the errors are justified separately by two different evaluators. it is the diphthongs: the obstacles.... (desri maria sumbayak) 109 difficult to see the consistent justification done by the evaluators because the data from the second task is analyzed by another native speaker and the other data is justified by the researcher. apart from that, the comparison among indonesian, gayo and acehnese is arguable. indonesian is a national language (yong, 2001:279) which is used by all indonesian people, whereas gayo and acehnese are languages which are spoken by acehnese people. there is no justification in terms of ethnicity, that is, the participants who are considered to have indonesian as l1. it is probably more valid if the participants are the students who speak gayo, alas, jame or tamiang (other languages in aceh). some scholars have given serious attention to the area of vowel production. deterding (2003) conducted an instrumental research on the quality and length of monophthong vowels of singapore english (sge). the research involved five male and five female chinese singaporean students of the national institute of education in singapore who were training to be school teachers. the interview was recorded in the phonetics laboratory of the national institute of education. the data was transcribed and compared to the recorded data of british english (bre) vowels of five male and five female bbc broadcasters. the measurement was done by using computer-based spectrograms. the result revealed that some of the vowel distinctions that were clear in bre were not maintained in sge. there was a neutralization between /i:/ and /ɪ/ and also between /e/ and /æ/ and there was not much difference between /ɔː/ and /ɒ/ produced by singaporean in english. deterding (2003) does not give explanations on how the neutralization occurs in sge. there is no link between l1 interferences and l2 monophthong productions, yet he interprets the neutralization as the factors of speaking rate, degree of stress and the influence of neighboring consonants in a simplistic explanation. he cross-cultural communication. the comparison between the students’ monophthongs and bbc broadcasters’ monophtongs remains a questionable validity of comparison. the bbc broadcasters might have a high standard and artificial level of bre pronunciation which does not represent the authentic pronunciation of bre. the comparison seems to be unbalanced. based on similar methodology in his monopthong research, deterding, wong, and kirkpatrick (2008) conducted an extensive study which investigated the pronunciation of hong kong english. fifteen fourth-year undergraduates at the hong kong institute of education were interviewed by a native speaker to get the data of pronunciation of initial th, initial and final consonant clusters, lvocalisation, conflation between initial [n] and [l], monophthong vowels, the vowels in face and goat, vowel reduction, rhythm and sentence stress. the data was transcribed and justified by two listeners and was assessed by using a digital spectrogram praat software. they discovered a few idiosyncratic features. firstly, there was a conflation for initial [l] and [n]. even though deterding et al (2008) approached the pronunciation realizations as the identity of hong kong english rather than as the interferences of l1, yet in their discussion they were tempted to mention that this conflation is due to the influence of cantonese. the most salient feature in this study was the use of [f] for initial th in content words and the use of diphthong for words face and goat which were found in bre rather than in english of south-east asia countries. similarly, chang in swain & smith (2001:225) points out that th does not occur in chinese, so the learners seem to replace this by /t/, /f/ or /s/. however, for diphthong realizations chang has different argument with deterding, wong & krikpark’ findings. chang mentions that for chinese learners, the diphthongs are pronounced short with “not enough distinction between the two component vowels”. chinese diphthongs are usually pronounced with quicker and smaller tongue and lip movements than their english counterparts. on the other hand, deterding et al (2008) argued that hong kong students were better able to realize diphthongs which were similar to br.e than to english of other south-east asian countries. this reveals that nowadays, the pronunciation of hong kong english is not influenced by l1 but by london and south of england pronunciation. 110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 107-115  a study on an acoustic comparison of english monophthongs and diphthongs produced by australian and thai speakers has been done by tsukada (2008). the participants were six australian students of psychology and fifteen thai native speakers who were mostly university students. by reading list of words for five times, the participants were recorded and the recording was digitized by using cooledit program. the vowel duration and quality were analyzed by using wide-band spectrograms and time domain waveforms. in production of monophthongs, she discovered that there was similarity between australian and thai speakers in terms of duration and quality. however, there was a significant difference between australian and thai speakers in producing diphthongs. thai speakers pronounced diphthongs as long monopthongs. the author argued that the four monophtongs and two diphthongs that were used in this research (/ɪ æ ʊ ʌ eɪ oʊ/) were not found in the thai vowel system. thai participants were able to produce monophtongs like the australian native speakers. yet in producing diphthongs, thai speakers substituted the diphthongs for the vowels in thai. tsukada (2008) claimed that this difficulty was possibly due to numerous diphthongs that thai had. nevertheless, there is no satisfactory elaboration on how thai speakers have difficulties in producing diphthongs even though they have many diphthongs in thai and how /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ are substituted by vowel in thai. the comparison between australian students and thai students seems logical compared to deterding (2003) in monophthongs. the data of australian english is considered to be naturalistic since it is produced by australian undergraduate students. however, the author does not give any justification on why the number of australian and thai students is different. the comparison of the quality of monophtong and diphthong production might be partial due to the unbalanced number of australian and thai students. so, the reason behind the different numbers of participants of australian and thai speakers might contribute to the understanding of the result. the previous studies on diphthongs emphasized on the quality and length of the diphthongs. this study focused on the accuracy and inaccuracy of the diphthong productions. different to deterding (2003) and tsukada (2008) that used one type of tasks in collecting the data, this study employed two different types of tasks; reading lists of words and reading a story. another different aspect in this study was the use of two different groups of participants. the use of two different groups revealed how the difficulties in producing diphthongs were varied for the speakers with the same l1. the study the study aimed to investigate the accuracies and inaccuracies of diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ which were produced by indonesian speakers of english. the study also compared two groups of indonesian speakers; students and spouses of the students. the following research questions guided the study: (1) are the indonesian speakers able to produce diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ accurately?; (2) is there a difference between students and spouses in producing diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ accurately? methods the study was conducted by qualitative method with the following conditions. participants the participants of the study were ten indonesian people who were mixed in terms of ethnicity. indonesian is the l1 of all participants. they were two groups of participants. firstly, group of students (four females and one male) who were studying as postgraduate students at university of the diphthongs: the obstacles.... (desri maria sumbayak) 111 canberra. secondly, group of spouses (four females and one male) who were joining their partners as postgraduate students at university of canberra. the postgraduate students had advanced level of english proficiency with ielts score between 6 and 6.5. the spouses were mostly graduated from universities in indonesia with intermediate to upper-intermediate level of english proficiency. they had been living and working as part time workers in australia for more than one year. the participants were categorized into two groups to discover whether any difference for the speakers in producing the diphthongs regarding to the proficiency level and academic environment. method & instrument to collect the data, two types of reading styles were used. firstly, careful style in which the participants were asked to read two lists of words. list 1 consisted of eight words with diphthong /eɪ/ and eight words as distracters (attachment 1). list 2 consisted of eight words with diphthong /oʊ/ and eight words as distracters as well (attachment 2). to obtain the most naturalistic data, the distracters were given to take the participants’ attention away from the target diphthongs. secondly, semi-careful style in which the participants were asked to read a story (attachment 3). the story was written by the author in which eight words with diphthongs /eɪ/ and eight words containing diphthongs /oʊ/ in the lists of words were used. labov (1972, 79-86) mentions that the structure of language production and pronunciation is different from replies to other types of questions. it means that the more types of tasks are used in a research the richer the data will be obtained. two types of reading styles were used in this research to seek how the types of tasks might influence the speakers to produce accurate diphthongs. data collection and analysis the data was collected by recording the participants in reading the lists of words and a story. the diphthong productions were justified by two australian native speakers as the raters. one of the raters was an english teacher at canberra institute of technology and another rater was a postgraduate student at university of canberra. one teacher and one non teacher were involved in this study to get a moderate justification between the two raters. to see the agreement between them, the interrater reliability was measured by using cohen’s kappa. for the data analysis, the justifications from the two raters were analysed separately. the percentage was employed to calculate the accurate pronunciations of the participants in producing diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/. from the percentage of the accurate productions, the difficulty level of the diphthongs and the difficulties of each group of participant could be seen clearly. result and discussions according to rater 1 as reflected in graph 1 (based on the data in attachment 4), it was interesting to find out that the spouses were able to produce more diphthong /eɪ/ accurately than the students. in careful style, of total 40 words containing diphthong /eɪ/, the spouses pronounced diphthong /eɪ/ accurately for 82.5%. in comparison, the students, in the case of same diphthong, were only able to produce 77.5%. similarly, in semi-careful style, it also showed that the spouses produced more diphthong /eɪ/ accurately than students. of total 40 words in semi-careful style, 52.5% were pronounced correctly by the spouse, whereas, the students were only able to produce 42,5% correctly. diphthong /oʊ/ seemed  to be more  difficult than diphthong /eɪ/ for all the participants because the highest percentage in pronouncing this diphthong correctly was less than 50% which produced by the spouses in careful style.  in the case of diphthong /oʊ/, students produced more 112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 107-115  diphthong /oʊ/ correctly than the spouse. there was a substantial difference between students and spouses in producing this diphthong. in careful style, of total 40 words containing diphthong /oʊ/, the students produced 45% accurate diphthong /oʊ/ whereas spouses only produced 17.5 %. this represented a difference of 23.5%. in semi-careful style, the difference of diphthong /oʊ/ accuracy was similar, a difference of 20%. from this description, it appeared that the spouses were able to produce more diphthong /eɪ/ accurately whereas for relatively difficult diphthong /oʊ/, students pronounced the diphthong more accurate than the spouses. figure 1 also shows that consistently the participants pronounced correct diphthongs more in careful style rather than in semi-careful style. figure 1 percentage of the accurate production of diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ in rater 1 in figure 2, the justification from rater 2 was slightly different to rater 1. in general, figure 2 shows that consistently the students produced more accurate diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ than the spouses. in careful style, out of 40 words, the students produced 77% of diphthong /eɪ/ in the lists of words correctly whereas the spouses produced 75% accuracy. there is no significant difference between students and spouses in this case. interestingly, in semi-careful style the students produced 85% correct diphthong /eɪ/ of 40 words, whereas in careful style the students produced 77% accuracy. the students produced more diphthong /eɪ/ correctly in semi-careful than in careful style. this is beyond the author’s expectation since it is assumed that reading lists of words in careful style should give opportunities for the speakers to pronounce diphthongs correctly. from this figure, diphthong /oʊ/ also seemed to be more problematic than diphthong /eɪ/. the highest percentage for the participant in producing diphthong /oʊ/ out of 40 words was 57%. this high percentage was achieved by the group of student in careful style. there was a significant difference between the students and spouse in producing diphthong /oʊ/ in careful style, a difference of 22%. however, in semi-careful style there was no substantial difference between these two groups, even the spouses produced more diphthong /oʊ/ correctly than in careful style. again, this result is beyond the author’s expectation as aforementioned. the result from rater 2 revealed that in some cases, reading lists of words in careful style did not consistently give opportunities for the speakers to produce more diphthongs accurately. the diphthongs: the obstacles.... (desri maria sumbayak) 113 figure 2 percentage of the accurate production of diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ in rater 2 interrater reliability interrater reliability was calculated to find out the agreement and disagreement between the raters. mackey and gass (2005:243) mention that there are two main ways to get the interrater reliability; simple percentage agreement and cohen’s kappa. in this study cohen’s kappa was used because cohen’s kappa requires the raters to justify forms as targetlike and non-targetlike (mackey and gass, 2005:243). cohen’s kappa seemed to be appropriate in this study since the data of this study was analysed by two raters as correct or incorrect compared to the target like; the pronunciation of australian native speakers. by using cohen’s kappa, the interrater reliability between rater 1 and rater 2 in this study was 0.39933 which was considered as a fair agreement between two raters. the complete calculation of the interrater reliability can be seen in attachment 5. the reason that could explain the fair agreement and disagreement between the raters was the different background of them. rater 1 was an english teacher whereas rater 2 was a post-graduate student at university. from their justification, rater 1 seemed to be more tough and consistent than rater 2. rater 1 gave less correct justification in overall productions (146 out of 320). but she seemed to be more consistent in justifying the data in terms of style that was the participants produced more diphthongs accurately in careful style than in semi-careful style. in comparison, rater 2 seemed to be more generous in justifying correct pronunciation of total productions (196 out of 320). yet he seemed to be more inconsistent, since his justification seemed to be more varied than rater 1. there was inconsistency of his analysis in semi-careful style twice; diphthong /eɪ/ for the group of students and diphthong /oʊ/ for spouses. the rater’s attitudes and experiences towards english might be different. as a teacher, rater 1 was probably more sensitive to listen to the correct pronunciation than rater2. the interrater reliability might reach a strong agreement and disagreement if the raters were teachers with similar background of experiences. in addition, to avoid of human errors, the justification could also be done by using software program as carried out by deterding (2003) and tsukada (2008). discussion the study confirmed that there were difficulties for indonesian speakers to pronounce english diphthongs accurately that are not found in indonesian (agps, 1986; yong, 2001). the similar inaccuracies were also shown in producing monophthongs and diphthongs of english in other southeast asian countries (singapore, thai and hong kong), as have been discussed by deterding and 114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.2 november 2009: 107-115  tsukada (2008). yong (2001) claims that for indonesian speakers, english diphthongs are likely realised as pure vowels which might be uttered in the long and short forms. based on the interview with the raters, it was found that the participants tend to realise diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ as long /e/ or /ɒ/. instead of producing the diphthongs, the participants substitute the diphthongs to vowels which are common in indonesian. it is undeniable that participants might be influenced by indonesian in producing english diphthongs. for indonesian speakers, diphthong /oʊ/ seemed to be more problematic than diphthong /eɪ/. there are three diphthongs in indonesian e.q. /ɔɪ/, /aɪ/, /aʊ/ (agps, 1986). diphthong /eɪ/ seems to be more similar to diphthong /aɪ/ which is used most frequently in indonesian. besides, in many cases, there are tendencies to substitute diphthong /aɪ/ to vowel /e/ or sometimes with unclear /eɪ/. thus, it is probably more familiar and easier for indonesian speakers to pronounce /eɪ/ rather than /oʊ/. students were able to produce accurate diphthongs more than the spouse. but in spite of this, for diphthong /eɪ/ spouses and students do not show significant difference in pronouncing accurate diphthongs. even in the case of the justification from rater 1, spouses were able to produce diphthong /eɪ/ slightly more than the students. this revealed that there was a difference of difficulty for the speakers of same l1. for relatively difficult diphthong /oʊ/, students significantly produce accurate productions more than the spouses. it can be inferred that english proficiency and academic involvement might influence the pronunciations. the students’ use of complex words in their academic environment might enable them to produce difficult diphthongs. the pronunciation difficulties in l2 speakers are not fossilised. native speaker like pronunciation can be achieved by l2 speakers as long as the speakers have intensive interaction to the language inputs, particularly in the academic environment. the different context where diphthongs were pronounced also influences the accuracy of pronunciation. two different styles which were used in this study shows that in most cases, speakers tend to produce more diphthongs accurately in careful style (list of words) rather than in semi-careful style (reading a story). labov (1972) points out that different types of tasks will result in different language production and pronunciation. similarly, littlewood (1984:82) says that the type of situation or task is one of the factors that influence the variability of learners’ pronunciation. furthemore, he argues that “…as learners devote more conscious attention to their speech, they come closer to target norms”. the use of lists of words as careful style in this study gives the participants more consciousness to pronounce diphthongs slowly, carefully and accurately. on the other hand, when the words that containing diphthongs were incorporated in a sentence and text level, the participants tended to have less consciousness to produce accurate pronunciation. conclusion there were difficulties for indonesian speakers to pronounce english diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ accurately. they tended to substitute the diphthongs to long vowels /e/ and /ɒ/. the students were able to produce the diphthongs more accurately than the spouses particularly in producing relatively difficult diphthong /oʊ/. the ability to pronounce diphthongs was influenced by english proficiency and the use of english in academic environment. producing diphthongs in careful style gave more opportunity for the participants to produce accurate diphthongs rather than in semi-careful style. the diphthongs: the obstacles.... (desri maria sumbayak) 115 references agps. (1986). asian language notes-some likely areas of difficulty for asian learners of english, no.3. indonesian/malay. 2nd edition. canberra: australian government publication service. alip, f.b. (2007). localization of english phonology in the indonesian context. phenomena, journal of language and literature, 10/2, 159-167. carr, p. (1999). english phonetic and phonology: an introduction. oxford: blackwell. chang, j. (2001). chinese speakers. in swain, m. & smith, b. (eds). learners english: a teacher’s guide to interference and other problems. (pp.279-295). cambridge: cambridge university press. deterding, d. (2003). an instrumental study of the monophtong vowels of singapore english. english world wide, 24/1, 1-16. deterding, d., wong,j., kirkpatrick,a. (2008). the pronunciation of hongkong english. english world-wide, 29/2, 148-175. hart, c.d. (1969). some english pronunciation difficulties in malaysia. elt journal, 23/3, 270-273. kelly, g. (2000). how to teach pronunciation. essex: longman. labov,w. (1972). sociolinguistic patterns. oxford: blackwell. lightbown, p.m. & spada, n. (2006). how languages are learned. oxford: oxford university press. littlewood, w.t. (1984). foreign and second language learning. cambridge: cambridge university press. mathew, i. (2005). errors in pronunciation of consonants by learners of english as a foreign language whose first languages are indonesian, gayo and acehnese. monash university linguistics papers, 3/2, 29-44. mackey, a., and gass,s.m. (2005). second language research: methodology and design. new jersey: erlbaum. swan, m. and smith, b. (eds.) (1987) learner english: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems. new york: cambridge university press. tsukada, k., (2008) "an acoustic comparison of english monophthongs and diphthongs produced by australian and thai speakers", english world-wide 29, pp.194-211(18). yong, j. y. (2001) malay/indonesian speakers. in m. swain and b. smith (eds.), learner english: a teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (pp. 279-295). new york: cambridge university press. microsoft word 05_jp_nalti_setting 60 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 60-66 桂米朝の上方落語の中の婉曲法  majas eufimisme dalam kamigata rakugo karya katsura beicho            ナルティ.ノヴィアンティ nalti novianti japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 naltin@binus.edu   概要    婉曲法は具体的に聞き手が感じる不快感や困惑を少なくする目的で、あるいは話し手 がそのような不都合やタブーへの抵触を避ける目的で用いられる。当研究はユーモアを通じ て、桂米朝が書いた上方落語の本「愛憎模様」における婉曲法を分析するものである。話の 中で、その婉曲法をどのように用いられるか、どのようにユーモアに結び付けられるかを知 ることが目標である。関西落語におけるユーモアは、関西人の社会や文化を背景とし、それ らから多大な影響を受けている。関西、中でも大阪は昔から商人の町として知られ、商人の 文化が盛んであった。そしてその商人の文化から、人との関係をよりよく、大切にするため に、横社会制度を保って、ワッハ文化が生まれた。この商人文化とワッハ文化こそが関西落 語の背景となったわけである。桂米朝が書いた上方落語の本『愛憎模様』における婉曲法は、 関西らしいユーモアを通じて、話を面白く表現するためである。データを分析するために、 sperber and wilson ( 1991 )の the theory of relevancy を使用し、データと背景の関西社会や文 化と結びつけた。raskin ( 1996 )によると、話の中でフレームの対立があるからこそ、サプラ イズが起こり、最高に面白いユーモアが出てくるということである。この理論は ross(19 98)の理論にも支持されてある。    abstrak euphimisme merupakan sebuah majas yang bertujuan untuk menghaluskan satu ucapan agar petutur tidak perlu mendengarkan kata-kata tabu atau kasar. selain itu majas inipun bertujuan untuk memperkecil perasaan tidak nyaman petutur saat sedang melakukan tindak komunikasi. artikel menjelaskan penelitian yang membahas masalah eufimisme melalui sebuah cerita humor jepang, yaitu rakugo karya katsura beichoo yang berjudul aizo moyo. tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui sejauh mana eufimisme dapat digunakan untuk menarik unsur humor dari cerita yang disajikan. rakugo daerah kansai atau sering disebut dengan kamigata rakugo, ceritanya banyak dilatarbelakangi oleh budaya kansai yang kental dengan budaya perdagangan. osaka sejak dulu terkenal sebagai kota perdagangan yang diwarnai hubungan sosial yang vertikal, dengan tipisnya hubungan hierarki antara atasan dan bawahan. sementara di daerah tokyo hubungan sosial antar manusianya lebih ke arah hierarki tinggi yang mengusung ketat hubungan atasan dan bawahan. karena itulah budaya osaka lebih kental dengan berbagai problem manusia yang tidak mementingkan hierarki, dan justru itulah yang membuat budaya osaka kaya akan warna, dan disebut dengan “ wahha bunka“ atau budaya ketawa ala osaka. untuk meneliti eufimisme dalam unsur humor ini, penulis menggunakan teori relevansi dari sperber dan wilson (1991). kemudian untuk menemukan unsur humornya digunakan teori raskin ( 1996 ) , yang didukung oleh ross ( 1998 ). keywords: eufimisme, humor , kamigata rakugo majas eufimisme ….. (nalti novianti) 61 はじめに     落語は二つの漢字で成り立ち、落は「落ちる」という意味で、語は「言葉遣い」あるい は狭い意味では「単語」を示す言葉である。相場(1992:7)によると、落語は「軽口 話で、言葉の最後に「落ち」がある」と説明した。簡単に言えば、落語は話し手が客の前で、 ユーモア要素のある話のパフォーマンスをする。いつ「落ち」が来るがわからないのは落語 の一つの面白さである。    上方落語は関西の方に広く盛んで、さかのぼると江戸時代の1615年に始めて書物に なり、1623年、徳川家光の治世下で完全に近づき、1628年に完全版の古典落語の書 物ができあがった。これは文学分作品としても認められている(相場:1992:16)。  当研究に使用している理論、仁田の婉曲法の理論(1992)、 野村が解釈した raskin  の theory of frame (1996) ,  ross ( 1998 )の theory of incongruity の三つである。     まず、データの中にユーモアの要素があるかどうか、ross  (  1998  ),  theory  of  incongruity で分析し判断する。そして raskin  (  1996  )  のフレーム理論でどのようなユーモアが働い ているのか、どのような文化が背景としてそのユーモアを生かすのか、sperber  and  wilson  ( 1986 ) の theory of relevancy を使用して、分析する。結論には、婉曲法はどのように言葉を 言い換えて、ユーモアの要素を生かすのかを述べる。    仁田(1992)は、婉曲表現の特徴を丁寧の観点から次のように説明している。婉曲表現 とは、①話し手は言表事態の成立が真であると認識している。②言表事態の成立が未だ認識 されていないところを有するものとして表現されている。婉曲表現は、基本的に丁寧さとい った伝え方に関わる現象であると述べている。     「婉曲表現とは、他人との無益な衝突を避けるため、角が立つような言い回しから角が 立たないような言い回しへの言い換えと、確実である事柄を確実でないように表現する表現 のしかたである。」  ross(1998)の incongruity theory 下記の通りである。         “the incongruity theory focuses on the element of surprise. it states that humor is created out of a  conflict between what  is expected and what actually occurs  in the  joke. this occurs for the most  obvious feature of much humor: an ambiguity, or double meaning. which deliberately mislead the  audience, followed by puncline ( ross,1998:7 ).     そして、raskin フレーム理論は nomura ( 1995 )が下記のように解釈をされている。  1. 冗談で実際に起こる状態と冗談で呼び起こされた状態のフレームの対立。  2. 違うフレームで話を立ち上げる。    フレームの話がずれるからこそが ross の述べた punc  line/刺激が起こりうる。つまり読 者や聞き手が期待していることが逆方向に行ってしまうということで、ユーモア要素がある と確実に理解することができる。    当研究では本の中におけるユーモア要素があると思われる会話文だけ取り上げ、上記に 述べた理論を通し、分析をする。今回は三つの話、「すとくいん」,「たち切れ線香」、 「持参金」から、データを収集した。  62 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 60-66 仁田(1992)が言ったように、婉曲法は丁寧さを求めている。実際の上方落語の世 界で、この婉曲法が通用する話術であることを証明する。      研究の分析      桂米朝が書いた上方落語の話「愛憎模様」の中には五つの話がある。今回はその五つの 話の中にある三つのフレースのみ取り上げ、分析する。    データ1    「すとくいん」と言う話の中で、登場する人の旦那と熊五郎という手伝いの会話文。    旦那  :こらちょっと待ちなはれ。倅はまだ死んでやせん  熊  :あ、さよか。そら埒があかんこった。  旦那  :そらなにを言うのやいな、埒があいてたまるかかいな  (ページ48)      旦那の息子が、好きな女性に会いたがっているが、一回会っただけで、どこの誰かがわ からない。その恋の悩みで、何週間も部屋にこもって、誰にも会いがらない、食事もとらな い、当然病気の有様になってしまった。そこで、旦那は熊五郎に頼み、その女性を探すよう に、呼び出した。その前に息子のもやもやの気持ちを晴らすために、お寺に熊五郎と一緒に 言ってほしいといった。熊五郎は「お寺」と言われると、「死ぬ」という関連を認知してい る。それで、熊五郎は旦那に葬儀屋さんに連絡しなければならないといった。そのとき旦那 は「こらちょっと待ちなはれ。倅はまだ死んでやせん」という。これは「旦那の息子が死ん だら問題が解決する」、「旦那の息子が死んだら、旦那の悩みも一段楽する」、「旦那の息 子が死んだら、わけ分からないどこかのの娘を探さなくても済む」、など、いろいろ考えら れる説明はあるが、とにかく「旦那の息子が死んだら、物事が簡単に片付けられる」という 熊五郎の残酷な考え方が裏付けられている。    ross が言っている puncline いわゆる「落ち」は熊五郎が言っている「あ、さよか。埒が あかんこった」の会話文に示されている。熊五郎は「何だ、まだ死んでいないのか、片付け られないな」と言いたかったのだが、話し相手が自分より身分がたかいし、いつもお世話人 なっている人だから言えない。しかもこれを言ったら、旦那に失礼、怒りを呼び起こすかも しれないという様子を予想している熊五郎は言葉を言い換えてみる。もちろん現実だったら、 旦那にも、病気の息子に対しても十分無礼な言葉だが、だからこそ落語の世界では笑いを呼 ぶ力になると思われる。新明国語辞典によると、「埒があかない」のもとの意味は、「物事 がはかどらない.物事に決まりがつかない」という説明がなされている。言語由来辞典によ ると、「埒」というのは「囲いや仕切りのことで、主に馬場の周囲に設けた柵のことを指す。 埒が「進展」という意味で使われるようになった由来は諸説あり加茂競べ馬「比べ馬」柵が 外されるのを待ちわびた一般客が言った言葉から始まる」と書かれてある。 熊五郎は無理な依頼を出した旦那に「攻撃」をかけようと思ったが、どうしても世話に なっている人だから、「まだ死んでいないのか」という「残酷」なフレーズを「埒が明かな い」という一段丁寧さを表すフレーズで自分の不満を旦那に伝えた。どうしてここが面白い majas eufimisme ….. (nalti novianti) 63 かというと raskin (1995)が言った冗談で実際に起こる状態と冗談で呼び起こされ た状態のフレームの対立があるから、「酷い」と思われてもこのフレーズは笑いを呼び起こ せる。  上記にふれたように、上方落語はワッハ文化という商人の文化から生まれた横社会の関 係をよりよく保つためにできた文化なのである。関東の縦社会と違い、旦那と手伝いの会話 文にも、上のように横社会の様子を見ることができる。 データ2    「たち切れ線香」と言う話の中で、登場する人の御茶屋の奥さんと金持ちの息子「若旦 那」の会話文。    甲  :「...お越しやす...若旦那」  乙  :「...ご機嫌さんで...」  若  :「...ご機嫌さん...ああ...よう来たげとおくなはった、そうか... 久し   ぶりにお酌してもらいまひょうかな。お母はん。いただきます。...小糸呼ば れ  るわ。(一口飲んで咳き込む)ゴホン、ゴホン  (上座、調子を合わせる音)。 芸 :「キャーお母ちゃん、お仏壇の三味線が鳴ってる」 内 :「へえ、お仏壇の三味線が...」 若 :「シーッ」 (上座で、他唄の雪、♪ほんに昔の昔のことよ...) 若 :「小糸よ、堪忍してくれ。何も知らなんだんや。恨んだやろうなァ。わしゃもう 生涯 女房と名のつくものは持たんで」 内 :「若旦那、よう言う手やってくれ張りました。千部万部のお経より、どれぐらい うれ しかったやろうと思います。小糸、今日の若旦那のお言葉を聞いて、どうぞ迷わ ず 成仏しとや」 (上座、♪おしのおとりの...途中でプツッと音やむ) 若 :「...な...なんで途中で止まったや。これ、私の好きな他唄の雪やが な..。 何でしまいまで弾いてくれへんのや」 内 :「ほんまになんで、小糸、もっと弾かへんねん......、若旦那何ぼ言うて も、 もう小糸、三味線弾けしまへんわ」 若 :「なんでやねん...」 内 :「お仏壇の線香が、ちょうど立ちきれました」 大阪の金持ちの息子が芸者に恋に落ちて、毎晩ほど花街へ行き、お金の無駄使いをして いる。心配になった旦那は番頭さんに、100日間、若旦那を倉庫にとじこめるように頼ん だ。そこから出られる条件はただ一つ、その芸者との関係を絶つことである。その間に、小 64 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 60-66 糸という若旦那が愛している芸者は若旦那に会いたくて、その金持ちのうちへ行き、会わせ てほしいといっても、会わせてくれなかったので、番頭さんに手紙を渡すように、頼んだ。 が、その手紙を読むと、若旦那の気持ちがまた歪むからと判断した番頭は手紙を渡さなかっ た。そして、100日が経ち、若旦那は番頭さんに花町にはぜったい行かないと強く約束し て、倉庫から出してもらって、ようやく自由がもどった。神社へお祈りをと言っておいて、 一目瞭然小糸にいる花街へと急いで行った。が、その何週間も会っていない間に小糸は若旦 那に捨てられたと思い、体が弱くなり、死んでしまった。そのことがわからない旦那が小糸 うちに来た時、その女性はもう灰になっていて、仏壇には小糸がいつも弾いてくれていた三 味線だけが残っている。あまりにも悔しくて、悲しい若旦那は小糸の灰の前に一生結婚はし ないと約束した。その時、仏壇の上に飾ってある小糸の三味線がなった。聞こえてくる唄は 若旦那が好きなものだったが、最後までは至らなかった。そのうちのお母さんが仏壇の方へ 近づき、そこにおいてある線香が切れたのが、わかった。 昔の花町では、芸者や麻衣子のサービス料金というのは、線香何本で決めた。来客が来 た時に線香に火をつけて、線香が立ち切れたら、時間が来たということだった。延長時間ほ しいと言われたら、また線香に火をつける(桂、2005:20)。そこで、ここでは小糸 は死んでも芸者ゆえ、線香が切れたら、サービスは終わりということを「落ち」として、表 現しており、「延長料金払っていただければ、最後までうたいますよ」、「サービス時間が 終わりましたよ」、というような意味を示している。 ross によると、ユーモア要素がある話における punc line あるいは「落ち」というのは 聞き手や読み手の期待を裏切ることによって、出てくるサプライズのようなものである。死 んだ小糸がまさかまだサービス料金のことを考えるとは思わなかった、というのが話ではサ プライズになっている。 小糸に捧げる線香が断ち切れたとき、そのうちのお母さんは「もっと線香を立てて」、 「お会計の時間ですが、延長料金にいたしましょうか」とは言わないで、若旦那に「線香が 立ちけれた」というだけで、若旦那がサービス時間がもう終わりだということがわかった。 仁田(1992)が言ったように婉曲表現は、基本的に丁寧さといった伝え方に関わる現象 である。    「線香が断ち切れた」というフレーズは「サービス終了で、延長したければ、追加料金 を払って」という意味の言い換えの丁寧さを表しているフレーズであるわけだ。 ruskin(1996)のフレームの理論から見ると、分析している上のフレーズの中には「現 実フレームと非現実フレーム」が働き、読者や、聞き手の興味をわかせるような部分がある からこそ、「落ち」はここだと判断することができる。 また、ここも、「商人の文化」という影響がみられる。死んでも、商売のことだけは頭 から離れないという皮肉を表現している。 データ3 「持参金」と言う話の中で、登場する人の甲と乙の会話文。  甲  :「な、嫁はん貰い」  乙  :「どこぞに、良え出物でおますか」  majas eufimisme ….. (nalti novianti) 65 甲  :「出物というやつがあるかいな。いやわしも、あてもなしにこんな話はせえへん。 実  はわしがどうやろうなと思てる相手はな、歳は二十二や」  乙  :「はあ、ちょうどよろしいな」  甲  :「そうやろう。この女はえろう別嬪ということはないが、ま、色はくっき り...」  乙  :「白いで」  甲  :「黒いねん」  乙  :「...さようか」  甲  :「その代わり、背がスラット、低いやん」  乙  :「へーン、黒うて、スラット低いで」  甲  :「顔はこの...でぼちんがぐっと出る割に鼻がうちらへ遠慮している、両側の ほっ  ぺたが盛り上がって、あごが前へ、こう、せり出しているさかい、こけても鼻は 打  んわな、...。」    甲は貧乏で、なかなか結婚ができないという男で、乙は金持ちの番頭として働いている、 という話の設定である。甲はあやまって、自分が仕事している家の女中を妊娠させてしまっ た。女中と結婚はしたくないが、責任は取るという考え方で、無職で貧乏な友達とその女性 を結婚させようと計画を立てた。その女中はけっして綺麗な人ではないが、直接言うと、断 られるかもしれないので、婉曲法を使って、言葉を言い換えるという方法で、貧乏な友達を 近づいていた。次の文章をみてみよう。「...でぽちんがぐっと出る割には、鼻がうちら へ遠慮している」というのは「額が広い、さらに外側の方へ出ている。そして鼻は低い、」 ということを表せている。そして「両側のほっぺたが盛り上がって、あごが前へ、こう、せ り出しているさかい、こけても鼻は打んわな、...。」という文章は「ほっぺが膨らんで、 あごはあまりにも前の方に出すぎているので、転ぶ時にはあごが鼻をかばって、鼻が折るこ とはないだろう」ということを表している。そこが、ross が言っていた punc  line が働いて、 笑いを呼び寄せる。    「鼻が遠慮して」というフレーズの中に「遠慮」という言葉は語源由来辞典(201 1)によると、人に対して、言葉や行動を控えめにすることである。鼻の形には関係ないよ うな気がしているが、この話にはうまく利用できる。また「ほっぺが盛り上がる」というフ レーズ中の「盛り上がり」という言葉は「盛ったように高くなる」という国語辞典には書い てある。そこで「膨らんだほっぺた」というフレーズを「ほっぺたが盛り上がる」に言い換 えることで、よりよく丁寧な言い方に言い換えており、大阪の商人文化が確実に見ることが できる。商人というのは、自分が売りたいものには、いくら悪くても「悪い」とは言わない。 ほめてはいないかもしれないが、違う言い方で、来客を品物に仕向けるような話の技術が確 かに存在する(井上、2003:201)。また、raskin のフレーム理論から見ると、確実 に「綺麗な女」と「綺麗じゃない女」というフレームの中で、話をねじ合わせて、聞き手が あまりネガティブな方向へ向かせないように、婉曲法で言い方を変えて、もって丁寧に聞こ えるように工夫している。「その顔だからこそ、転ぶとしても、鼻だけは折れない」という さらにプラスのこと表現し、相手の興味を深く引く話の技術にそれが見られる。  また ross(1998)の incongruity 理論から見ると、サブライズが何度も登場する「顔は この...でぼちんがぐっと出る割に鼻がうちらへ遠慮している、両側のほっぺたが盛り上 がって、あごが前へ、こう、せり出しているさかい、こけても鼻は打んわな、...。」の 文におけるユーモア要素が確実に証明することができる。  66 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 60-66 結論      分析したデータを見ると、婉曲法は落語の世界では、笑いを呼び寄せる道具として使わ れている。より丁寧に言葉を使うと、より面白さが出てくる。ユーモアというのは、時々話 し手が聞き手に「攻撃」したり「遠慮」したり「ポジティブな方向へ」さそったりしながら 笑いを呼び寄せる技術である。また、上方落語には、大阪の商人文化いわゆるワッハ文化が 話の中にとりいれ、よりよくその文化の中に生きている人たちの考え方や、理想が把握でき る。また raskin のフレーム理論でわかったのは、話のフレームがはずれる、または話し手の 考え方のフレームは聞き手の考え方のフレームが対立することによって、笑いをもっと呼び 寄せる力になっているということであった。      参考文献      相場昭雄.1991.落語入門.東京:博文出版社    浅井健二.2001.関東人の思い込み、関西人の言い訳.東京:鳴海道出版    井上博  .2003、大阪の文化と笑い.大阪:関西大学出版部    野村正明、1996、落語のレトリック.東京:平凡社    spelber,d., &wilson daidre. (1991) relevance, communication and cognition.usa:harvard univ press ross, a. (1998). the language of humor.london: routladge microsoft word 04_ch_ diana c. sahertian karakter han_setting karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 115  karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi: klasifikasi, aktivitas penyembahan, perbandingan dengan kamus xiandai hanyu diana c. sahertian d3 bahasa mandarin, fakultas sastra, universitas kristen maranatha jl. surya sumantri no. 65, bandung 40164 diana_sahertian@yahoo.com abstract the writing system used in the chinese language is different from the latin characters used in the indonesian language. while the latin characters represent sounds, the han characters of the chinese language represent meanings. some han characters have a component called a ‘radical’. this paper discusses han characters with the 示 radical in shuowen jiezi. the first part consists of the classification of such characters based on their structure and meaning. the second part discusses the worship practices on which the characters are based. the last part of this paper compares these han characters to those with the same 示 radical in the xiandai hanyu dictionary. keywords: han characters with the 示 radical, shuowenjiezi, worship practices, comparison, xiandai hanyu dictionary abstrak aksara yang digunakan dalam bahasa mandarin adalah aksara han. tidak seperti aksara latin dalam bahasa indonesia yang merupakan simbol bunyi, aksara han merupakan simbol makna. sebagian karakter han memiliki radikal yang memberi petunjuk akan makna dari karakter han tersebut. artikel ini bermaksud menganalisis karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi. pertama-tama membahas klasifikasi berdasarkan struktur dan makna,selanjutnya membahas aktivitas penyembahan yang ditunjukkan oleh karakter han tersebut dan terakhir perbandingan karakter dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi dan kamus xiandai hanyu. kata kunci: karakter han dengan radikal 示, shuowenjiezi, aktivitas penyembahan, perbandingan, kamus xiandai hanyu 116 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 115-127  pendahuluan shuowenjiezi (说文解字 shuōwénjiězì) disusun oleh xu shen (许慎) pada zaman dinasti han timur, merupakan kamus pertama yang menggunakan sistem radikal. kamus ini menggunakan teori liu shu1 dalam menganalisis struktur dan menjelaskan makna tiap-tiap karakter. shuowenjiezi berisikan 9353 aksara zhuan2, terdiri dari 540 radikal. kamus ini merefleksikan hasil penelitian kaum terpelajar dinasti han mengenai bentuk, pelafalan dan makna aksara china kuno. meskipun shuowenjiezi masih memiliki tidak sedikit kekurangan dan kesalahan, namun sampai saat ini tetap menjadi referensi yang penting untuk membaca buku-buku china kuno dan meneliti budaya china kuno. ([汉]许慎[清]段玉 裁, 2006. 1) di bawah ini adalah contoh penyajian makna dan pelafalan tiap-tiap karakter han dalam shuowenjiezi. a b c d a: makna karakter b: radikal karakter c: inisial (声母 shēngmǔ) d: vokal (韵母 yùnmǔ) radikal (部首 bùshǒu) adalah komponen dasar pembentuk karakter han gabungan yang berfungsi untuk mengelompokkan bentuk karakter han  (黄伯荣,  2001.181). radikal juga dapat memberi petunjuk akan makna dari karakter han. radikal 示 (shì) merupakan salah satu radikal yang ada dalam shuowenjiezi. dalam kamus jiaguwen3 (甲骨文 jiǎgǔwén) dijelaskan bahwa bentuk ( ) dalam karakter 示 merupakan gambaran dewa (神 shénzhǔ), terbuat dari kayu atau batu (gambar 1). komponen yang ada di atas dan disamping kiri-kanan hanyalah hiasan tambahan (徐 仲舒, 1990.10).                                                              1 liu shu adalah 6 metode penciptaan aksara han, terdiri dari xiangxing (象形 xiàngxíng), zhishi (指事 zhǐshì),  huiyi (会意 huìyì), xingsheng (形声 xíngshēng), zhuanzhu (转注 zhuǎnzhù) dan jiajie (假借 jiǎjiè) (宋均芬,  2005, p. 529)  2 aksara zhuan (篆书 zhuànshū) terdiri dari da zhuan (大篆 dà zhuàn) dan xiao zhuan (小篆 xiǎo zhuàn).  aksara ini digunakan pada masa dinasti qin (秦朝 qīn cháo)(黄伯荣 2001, p.168)  3 jiaguwen adalah aksara yang diukir di atas tempurung penyu atau tulang binatang liar pada zaman dinasti  shang (商 shāng) (11‐17 sm) (黄伯荣 2001, p.167)  karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 117  gambar 1. penjelasan karakter 示 dalam kamus jiaguwen (徐中舒, 1990, p.10). karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi yang dibahas dalam artikel ini berjumlah 67 karakter. kamus xiandai hanyu (现代汉语词典 xiàndài hànyǔ cídiǎn) merupakan salah satu kamus yang populer digunakan saat ini. kamus ini pertama kali disusun pada tahun 1958 dengan tujuan untuk menyebarluaskan bahasa nasional china, sekaligus memajukan standarisasi bahasa mandarin. pada tahun 1996 kamus ini mengalami revisi besar-besaran, meliputi menambah kosakata baru, menghapus kata-kata lama yang terlalu khusus., memperbaiki dan menyempurnakan penjelasan makna kata, serta mempopulerkan lafal dan bentuk karakter standar (黄伯荣 2001, p.327). artikel ini membahas klasifikasi karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi berdasarkan struktur dan makna, aktivitas penyembahan masyarakat china kuno yang terkandung dalam karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi, serta perbandingan karakter dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi dan kamus xiandai hanyu. artikel ini bertujuan untuk menemukan apakah seluruh karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi memiliki makna yang berhubungan dengan penyembahan, mencari tahu aktivitas penyembahan masyarakat china kuno yang ditunjukkan oleh karakter-karakter han tersebut, selain itu juga untuk mencari tahu apakah aktivitas tersebut masih kental pada zaman modern ini melalui perbandingan antara karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi dan kamus xiandai hanyu. 118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 115-127  pembahasan klasifikasi karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi berdasarkan posisi radikal 示 berdasarkan posisi radikal 示 dalam karakter han, karakter han dalam shuowenjiezi dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 kategori, yaitu: (1) karakter yang hanya terdiri dari satu komponen pembentuk, yaitu radikal 示, yaitu: (2) karakter han yang komponen kirinya radikal 示, yaitu: (3) karakter han yang komponen bawahnya radikal 示, yaitu: jumlah karakter han dengan komponen kiri radikal 示 jauh lebih banyak dari jumlah karakter han dengan komponen bawah radikal 示. jumlah karakter han dengan komponen kiri radikal 示 mencapai 80%. berdasarkan makna karakter han dengan radikal 示 (1) menyatakan perlindungan dan berkat, atau mendapatkan perlindungan dan berkat. contoh: berdasarkan penjelasan shuowenjiezi, kedua karakter di atas bermakna . sendiri bermakna , dan bermakna . berarti pertolongan dan berkat. karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 119  (2) menyatakan memohon perlindungan dan berkat. contoh: kedua karakter di atas mengandung makna “.求福 (qiú fú)”. 求 (qiú)berarti memohon, 福 (fú) berarti pertolongan dan berkat. (3) menyatakan penyembahan dan jenis-jenis penyembahan. contoh: karakter pertama bermakna penyembahan, karakter kedua bermakna ritual penyembahan musim panas. (4) menyatakan obyek penyembahan. contoh: karakter pertama bermakna 天神(tiānshén) yaitu dewa langit (penguasa langit). karakter kedua bermakna 地主(dìzhǔ), yaitu penguasa bumi. (5) menyatakan kuil atau hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan kuil. contoh: 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 115-127  kedua karakter di atas mengandung makna yang berarti kuil. kedua jenis kuil tersebut adalah tempat disemayamkannya nenek moyang. (6) menyatakan aktivitas atau benda yang digunakan saat penyembahan. contoh: karakter pertama menunjukkan aktivitas yang dilakukan saat melakukan penyembahan, yaitu pembakaran persembahan. karakter ke dua bermakna 祭 具 (j ì j ù ) berarti perlengkapan penyembahan. (7) menyatakan bencana atau hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan bencana. contoh: karakter pertama memiliki makna bencana, dewa tidak memberi pertolongan dan berkat. karakter ke dua menyatakan makna bumi kacau balau. (8) menyatakan makna lainnya. contoh: makna karakter ini adalah orang yang bertanggung jawab mengucapkan kalimat-kalimat pemujaan, menjadi perantara antara manusia dan dewa saat ritual penyembahan. makna karakter ini puasa dan suci. semua karakter dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi berhubungan dengan ritual penyembahan. contoh terakhir, menunjukkan persiapan dan sikap dalam memasuki ritual penyembahan, harus berpuasa dan dalam kondisi suci. karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 121  aktivitas penyembahan yang terkandung dalam karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi diatas telah dibahas klasifikasi karakter han dengan radikal 示 berdasarkan makna. berdasarkan klasifikasi tersebut, terlihat jelas karakter han dengan radikal 示 pada shuowenjiezi mengandung makna yang berhubungan dengan ritual penyembahan, diantaranya adalah jenis-jenis penyembahan, obyek penyembahan, alat-alat yang digunakan dalam ritual penyembahan dan lain-lain. hal ini sejalan dengan penjelasan karakter 示 pada kamus jiaguwen yang telah dibahas pada bagian pendahuluan. dalam kamus jiaguwen disebutkan komponen ( ) dalam karakter 示 merupakan penggambaran wujud dewa (obyek yang disembah). berikut ini adalah aktivitas penyembahan masyarakat china kuno yang ditunjukkan oleh karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi: (1) masyarakat china kuno percaya bahwa tidak bisa mengandalkan kekuatan sendiri untuk mendapatkan perlindungan dan berkat. selain itu masyarakat china kuno juga percaya tidak bisa mengandalkan kekuatan sendiri untuk menghindari bencana. ini terlihat dari banyaknya karakter dengan radikal 示 yang menyatakan makna pertolongan dan berkat, penyembahan, dll; (2) masyarakat china kuno melakukan ritual penyembahan untuk mendatangkan perlindungan dan berkat serta dihindarkan dari bencana. menyatakan makna memohon kebahagiaan. menyatakan makna ritual untuk membuang musibah. (3) yang disembah oleh masyarakat china kuno sangatlah beragam, meliputi benda-benda alam, fenomena alam dan nenek moyang (orang yang telah meninggal) menyatakan makna menyembah penguasa langit. (4) masyarakat china kuno telah memiliki berbagai jenis penyembahan, misalnya ritual penyembahan agar terlindung saat perjalanan menuju medan peperangan, ritual penyembahan musim semi, dll. menyatakan makna penyembahan musim semi. (5) masyarakat china kuno memberikan persembahan, dan menggunakan beberapa peralatan dalam melakukan penyembahan: (a) bentuk-bentuk persembahan yang diberikan: daging, buah-buahan, dll. 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 115-127  menyatakan makna mempersembahkan buah contoh:buahan. (b) alat-alat yang digunakan saat ritual penyembahan: kayu bakar, dll (6) isi ritual penyembahan masyarakat china kuno meliputi: (a) memberikan persembahan. (b) memanjatkan permohonan, misalnya mendapat pertolongan dan berkat, dihindarkan dari malapetaka. (c) permainan music (7) masyarakat china kuno melakukan ritual penyembahan di dalam kuil atau alam terbuka. ruangan dari batu tempat melakukan ritual penyembahan. perbandingan karakter han dengan radikal 示 dalam shuowenjiezi dengan kamus xiandai hanyu berdasarkan posisi radikal 示 (tabel 1) karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 123  tabel 1 perbandingan berdasarkan posisi radikal 示 no. kategori shuowenjiezi kamus xiandai hanyu 1. radikal 示 berdiri sendiri sebagai 1 karakter. √ √ 2. radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri dari karakter. √ √ 3. radikal 示 sebagai komponen kanan dari karakter. x  x 4. radikal 示 sebagai komponen atas dari karakter. x x 5. radikal 示 sebagai komponen bawah dari karakter. √ √ 6. radikal 示 sebagai komponen dalam dari karakter. x x tidak dijumpai posisi radikal 示 yang berbeda. berdasarkan bentuk radikal 示 (tabel 2) tabel 2 perbandingan berdasarkan bentuk radikal 示 no. kategori shuowenjiezi xiandai hanyu 1. radikal 示 berdiri sendiri sebagai 1 karakter 示 示 2. radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri dari karakter han 示 礻 3. radikal 示 sebagai komponen bawah dari karakter han 示 示 bentuk radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri dalam kamus xiandai hanyu telah disederhanakan menjadi 礻. berdasarkan jumlah karakter han dengan radikal 示 (tabel 3) tabel 3 perbandingan berdasarkan jumlah karakter han dengan radikal 示 no. radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri dari karakter han radikal 示 sebagai komponen bawah dari karakter han shuowenjiezi xiandai hanyu shuowenjiezi xiandai hanyu 1. 56 64 9 11 dilihat dari tabel di atas, jumlah karakter dengan radikal 示 pada kamus xiandai hanyu lebih banyak10 karakter, seolah-olah bertambah 10 karakter baru. kenyataannya tidak murni bertambah 10 karakter, banyak karakter dengan radikal 示 yang ada pada shuowenjiezi tidak ditemukan lagi dalam kamus xiandai hanyu. rinciannya adalah sebagai berikut: (1) bentuk karakter yang persis sama masih dijumpai, berjumlah 4 karakter, semua adalah karakter dengan radikal 示 sebagai komponen bawah: , , . sebenarnya masih ada dua karakter lagi, yaitu dan , namun kedua karakter tersebut dalam kamus xiandai hanyu masing-masing merupakan bentuk karakter tradisional dari 御 dan 算, jadi bukan merupakan yang lema utama dari kamus xiandai hanyu. karakter sederhana dari kedua karakter tersebut tidak lagi mengandung radikal 示. 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 115-127  (2) bentuk karakter yang mengalami perubahan bentuk dari aksara tradisional ke aksara sederhana berjumlah 39 karakter, terbagi menjadi 2 bagian: (a) hanya radikal 示 yang mengalami penyederhanaan bentuk, 示 menjadi 礻. contoh: 祀 福 祝 (b) semua komponen mengalami penyederhanaan bentuk. contoh: 禄 祃 禅 yang mengalami penyerdehanaan bentuk adalah karakter han dengan radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri. sebagian besar hanya mengalami penyederhanaan bentuk radikal. untuk yang semua komponennya mengalami perubahan bentuk, sebagian besar masih ditampilkan bentuk karakter tradisionalnya. selain itu, ada pula karakter yang bentuk sederhananya sudah tidak lagi mengandung radikal 示, misalnya , , dll. (3) karakter yang hanya dijumpai dalam shuowenjiezi, namun tidak dijumpai lagi dalam kamus xiandai hanyu, berjumlah 21 karakter. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (4) karakter yang tidak dijumpai dalam shuowenjiezi, namun dijumpai dalam kamus xiandai hanyu. terbagi menjadi 2 bagian: (a) karakter dengan radikal 示 sebagai komponen bawah, berjumlah lima karakter: 佘, 奈, 柰, 票, 禀 ; (b) karakter dengan radikal 示 sebagai komponen kiri, berjumlah 13 karakter: 祁, 祎, 视, 祛, 祾, 禊, 禚, 禤, dll. berdasarkan makna karakter dengan radikal 示 seperti yang telah disebutkan di atas, masih ada 43 karakter yang sama-sama terdapat dalam shuowenjiezi dan kamus xiandai hanyu. 43 karakter tersebut terbagi menjadi dua bagian, yaitu empat karakter yang memiliki bentuk sama persis, dan sisanya 39 karakter telah mengalami penyerdehanaan, baik sebagian maupun menyeluruh. pada bagian ini akan ditampilkan hasil perbandingan komponen makna ke 43 karakter tersebut. selain itu juga akan dibahas makna dari 18 karakter yang hanya ditemukan dalam kamus xiandai hanyu. makna 45 karakter yang sama-sama terdapat dalam shuowenjiezi dan kamus xiandai hanyu: (1) karakter yang sama-sama hanya memiliki satu komponen makna. a) memiliki makna yang sama (berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan). contoh: shuowenjiezi: kamus xiandai hanyu: = menghormati 祗 = menghormati karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 125  b) makna dalam kamus xiandai hanyu telah mengalami perubahan, namun masih berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan. contoh: shuowenjiezi: kamus xiandai hanyu: = mendapat pertolongan dan berkat 禧 = bahagia, beruntung jika mendapat pertolongan dan berkat maka tentu saja akan merasa bahagia dan beruntung. dalam kamus xiandai hanyu makna yang dimunculkan adalah bahagia dan beruntung. tidak muncul lagi makna pertolongan dan berkat. c) memiliki makna yang tidak berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan. contoh: shuowenjiezi: kamus xiandai hanyu: = salah satu jenis kuil 祢 = nama marga (2) memiliki makna dan jumlah komponen makna yang berbeda, yaitu: a) satu atau lebih komponen makna memiliki sama dengan makna dalam shuowenjiezi, berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan. contoh: shuowenjiezi: kamus xiandai hanyu: = bencana 祸 = ➀bencana; ➁merusak, merugikan karakter di atas dalam shuowenjiezi hanya memiliki satu komponen makna, dalam kamus xiandai hanyu memiliki 2 komponen makna. makna pertama sama dengan makna dalam shuowenjiezi, makna kedua merupakan makna perluasan dari makna pertama. adanya bencana akan merusak dan merugikan. b) satu atau lebih komponen makna dalam kamus xiandai hanyu telah berubah, tapi masih merupakan makna turunan dari makna yang tercantum dalam shuowenjiezi (berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan). contoh: shuowenjiezi: kamus xiandai hanyu: = kuil arwah nenek moyang 祖 = ➀generasi di atas orangtua; ➁nenek moyang;➂pencetus sekte/aliran; ➃nama marga karakter di atas dalam shuowenjiezi hanya memiliki satu komponen makna, dalam kamus xiandai hanyu memiliki 4 komponen makna. dua makna diantaranya merupakan pergeseran makna dari makna yang tercantum dalam shuowenjiezi. makna kuil arwah nenek moyang bergeser jadi makna generasi di atas orang tua dan nenek moyang. sebagian karakter masih memiliki komponen makna yang berhubungan dengan ritual penyembahan, namun demikian sebagian juga dituliskan dengan awalan sebagai berikut “pada zaman china kuno merupakan ……..” makna 18 karakter yang hanya ditemukan dalam kamus xiandai hanyu: (1) karakter yang hanya memiliki satu komponen makna: (a) makna berhubungan dengan aktivitas penyembahan. contoh: 126 祾 禊 m (b) m 祁 禤 柰 (2) karak (a) (b) 票 p masyara untuk m terlihat mengena yang bar makna b penyemb merupak hanya b misalnya pada oby h kehidupa ritual pen p bertamba han den dan berk yang ad aktivitas 祾 líng 禊 xì musim semi makna tidak 祁 qí 禤 xuān 柰 nài kter yang me satu atau leb bēng tidak ada ko 票 piào sebagian b berhubunga perbandinga akat china. m memperoleh dari makna ai makna ka ru sebagian bahagia, be bahan dan je kan …….” . berhubungan a 祗 (shuow yek yang dis hal-hal terse an masyarak nyembahan u pembendaha ah atau ber ngan radikal kembang pad da dalam sh s penyembah bermakn bermakn dan musim g k berhubunga nama tem nama ma sejenis b emiliki lebih bih kompone tempat d zaman c omponen ma tiket; uan besar hanya m an dengan ri an dari segi m masyarakat c pertolongan karakter h arakter han d besar memi eruntung, be enis-jenisnya hal ini men n dengan rit wenjiezi = ho embah, tapi j ebut di atas kat china sa untuk menda araan kosaka rkurang sejal 示 dalam s da zaman ch huowenjiezi han tersebut. jurn na berkat na sejenis ri gugur pada an dengan ak mpat arga buah-buahan dari satu kom en berhubung di kuil yang china kuno; r akna yang be ng kertas; sa memiliki satu tual penyem makna telah china kuno b dan berkat, han dengan dengan radik liki makna y encana masi a lebih banya nyatakan sek tual penyem ormat kepad juga untuk o menunjukk aat ini. masy atangkan per p ata mencerm lan dengan p shuowenjiezi hina kuno. d dan kamus rnal lingua c itual penyem zaman china ktivitas penye berwarna m mponen mak gan dengan a g digunakan ritual penyem erhubungan d andera; kata b u komponen mbahan. menunjukka begitu percay , baik dalam radikal 示 kal 示 dalam yang tidak b ih dipertaha ak dinyataka karang tidak mbahan men da obyek yan orang-orang y kan ritual pe yarakat chin rtolongan, be penutup minkan keka perkembanga i telah meng dengan mem xiandai ha cultura vol. mbahan yang a kuno. embahan. co merah kna: aktivitas peny untuk mela mbahan dengan aktiv bantu bilanga makna, sela an pergeseran ya bahwa ritu m urusan ke dalam shuo m kamus xia berhubungan ankan; (3) m an dengan ka dilakukan l ngalami per ng disembah yang dihorm nyembahan na saat ini ti erkat, dan me p ayaan buday an sosial dan ggambarkan mbandingkan anyu memba 5 no.2 nove g dilakukan ontoh: yembahan. c akukan ritual itas penyemb an; artis non ain itu sebagi n nilai ritual ual penyemb eluarga, pepe owenjiezi. f andai hanyu dengan ritu makna yang alimat “dalam agi; (4) mak rluasan atau h) sekarang m mati dan dihar tidak lagi s dak lagi san enghindarkan ya suatu ban n budaya su aktivitas pen n karakter ha antu kita m ember 2011: di pinggir s contoh: l penyembah bahan. conto professiona ian besar mak penyembah bahan harus d erangan, dll fakta yang u adalah: (1) ual penyemb g menyatak m zaman ch kna-makna y u pergeseran meluas tidak rgai. sepenting du ngat bergantu n diri dari be ngsa. kosak uatu bangsa. nyembahan y an dengan ra elihat perke : 115-127  sungai di han pada oh: l kna tidak an dalam dilakukan . hal ini dijumpai ) karakter ahan; (2) an ritual hina kuno yang dulu n makna. k terbatas ulu dalam ung pada encana. kata akan karakter yang ada adikal 示 embangan karakter han ….. (diana c. sahertian) 127  daftar pustaka 董莲池, 《说文解字考证》, 北京, 作家出版社,2004, p.12 [汉]许慎[清]段玉裁《说文解字注》, 上海古籍出版社, 2006 黄伯荣、廖序东, 《现代汉语》(增订二版) 上册, 高等教育出版社, 2001 宋均芬, 《汉语文字学》, 北京, 北京大学出版社, 2005, p.10 徐中舒, 《甲骨文字典》, 四川辞书出版社, 1990, p.9 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室, 《现代汉语词典》第五版, 北京, 商务印书馆 2005 microsoft word 09_fennie dan bu nalti_setting perbedaan fungsi ….. (fennie; nalti novianti) 191 perbedaan fungsi penggunaan modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki dan hazu dalam komik chibi maruko chan dan detektif conan fennie1; nalti novianti2 1,2 japanese department, faculty of literature, bina nusantara university, jl.kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 naltin@binus.edu abstract there are many grammatical category in japanese language, one of them is grammatical category in predicate. for examples is modality. modality has divided into many kinds, for examples is toui modality and gaigen modality. between toui modality and gaigen modality, writer want to analyze about differences uses between nakereba naranai 「なければならない」, beki「べき」dan hazu「はず」. article analyzes this topic because the writer want to understand about the differences using toui modality and gaigen modality. for analyze, the writer use chibi maruko chan 9 and detektif conan jilid 7, 9, 37 and 38 that used japanese language as an object. the used methods in this article is descriptive analytic. as a conclusion, these modality can substitute each others. this substitutin is based on the situations and context. keywords: modality abstrak dalam bahasa jepang terdapat banyak kategori gramatikal, salah satunya adalah kategori gramatikal dalam predikat, yaitu modalitas. modalitas itu sendiri terdapat berbagai jenis, salah satunya adalah modalitas toui dan gaigen. di antara modalitas toui dan modalitas gaigen, artikel meneliti fungsi perbedaan penggunaan nakereba naranai「なければならない」, beki「べき」dan hazu「はず」. artikel bertujuan untuk memahami fungsi perbedaan penggunaan nakereba naranai 「なければならない」, beki「べき」dan hazu「はず」sebagai modalitas toui dan modalitas gaigen. dalam menganalisis, penulis menggunakan komik chibi maruko chan jilid 9 serta komik detektif conan jilid 7, 9, 37 dan 38 yang berbahasa jepang sebagai sumber data. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode kepustakaan dan metode deskriptif analitis. dari analisis dapat disimpulkan bahwa, ketiga modalitas tersebut dapat saling bersubtitusi, tetapi tidak semuanya dapat saling bersubtitusi. subtitusi dari ketiga bentuk modalitas ini tergantung dari suatu kondisi tertentu serta konteks dari kalimat. kata kunci : modalitas 192 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 191-200 pendahuluan saussure dalam sutedi (2004) mengemukakan bahwa di dalam bahasa terdapat dua sisi, yaitu la langue (langu) dan la parore (parole). langue bersifat abstrak, yang merupakan keseluruhan sistem dalam bahasa yang digunakan oleh suatu masyarakat sebagai alat komunikasi verbal. sedangkan parole bersifat konkrit, yang merupakan realisasi dari pemakaian langue oleh setiap individu masyarakat dalam kondisi tertentu. sutedi (2004) menyatakan bahwa bahasa digunakan sebagai alat untuk menyampaikan suatu ide, pikiran, hasrat, dan keinginan kepada orang lain. dari sejak lahir manusia berbicara dengan mengunakan bahasa yang sama setiap harinya, yaitu bahasa ibu. hal tersebut menjadi suatu kebiasaan dan menjadikannya mudah untuk menggunakan bahasa pertamanya tersebut. oleh karena itu pembelajar bahasa jepang memerlukan waktu yang cukup lama untuk menjadikannya suatu kebiasaan. bahasa jepang memiliki banyak ciri khusus yang berbeda dengan negara-negara lain. jika dibandingkan penrbedaan antara bahasa jepang dengan bahasa indonesia, ciri khas bahasa jepang yang paling menonjol adalah bentuk huruf (hiragana, katakana dan kanji). selain itu, bunyi pengucapan (hatsuon), pembentukan kata dan juga struktur kalimatnya. keunikan-keunikan inilah yang menarik minat penulis dan kebanyakan pembelajar bahasa jepang untuk mempelajari bahasa tersebut. dalam mempelajari bahasa negara lain yang merupakan bukan bahasa negara kita sendiri, kita pasti menemui kesulitan dalam memahami bahasa tersebut dengan baik dan benar. begitu pula dengan bahas jepang yang dipelajari oleh penulis, sangatlah sulit bagi seorang pembelajar bahasa jepang untuk menguasai penggunaan bahasa ini dengan sempurna karena bahasa jepang memiliki banyak keunikan. hal inilah yang menjadi kendala terbesar bagi seorang pembelajar bahasa jepang. bahkan untuk native speaker atau penutur asli bahasa jepang sendiri pun sulit untuk menguasai bahasa ini dengan sempurna. hal tersebut sesuai dengan yang diungkapkan oleh kiyoka (1981: 10) sebagai berikut, “naturally the full mastery of its elegant uses is very difficult even for native.” terjemahan:secara alami, penguasaan penuh atas penggunaan-penggunaan bahasa jepang dengan sempurna adalah sangat sulit, bahkan untuk seorang penutur asli sekalipun. dalam bahasa jepang terdapat banyak jenis kategori gramatikal, salah satunya adalah kategori gramatikal dalam predikat. beberapa kategori gramatikal di atas dibagi lagi menjagi bagian yang lebih sempit. salah satu contohnya adalah modalitas. modalitas dalam bahasa indonesia dibagi menjadi empat macam yakni modalitas intensional, modalitas epistemik, modalitas deontik, dan modalitas dinamik. masuoka dan takubo (1989:2) berpendapat bahwa: 我々は言語を用いて相互の意志を伝達するわけ であるが言語表現の最も基本的な単 位は「文」である。「文」は、あるまとまった内容を持ち、形の上で完結した(表 記において、「句点」が与えられる)単位である。 terjemahan: kita menggunakan bahasa untuk menyampaikan keinginan, satuan bahasa yang paling dasar adalah [kalimat]. kalimat mengandung berbagai macam makna didalamnya. berdasarkan bentuk, kalimat merupakan satuan yang lengkap (secara tertulis diberikan [tanda baca] ). perbedaan fungsi ….. (fennie; nalti novianti) 193 predikat mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting dalam kalimat karena predikat merupakan pusat dari suatu kalimat. hal tersebut diungkapkan oleh masuoka dan takubo (1989:2) sebagai berikut: 文末の位置で文をさせるのが「述語」である.「述語」は文の中心的な要素であり、 述語の内容によって文の大枠が決定された。 terjemahan: predikat adalah penopang akhir kalimat. predikat merupakan unsur pusat kalimat, keseluruhan kalimat ditentukan oleh predikat. berikut yang dikemukakan sutedi (2004: 73) mengenai kategori gramatikal dalam predikat: kalimat berfungsi untuk menyampaikan suatu makna. untuk itu, predikat dalam suatu kalimat merupakan bagian yang terpenting, karena dengan predikat tersebut, maka bentuk, fungsi dan makna kalimat akan berbeda-beda. penggolongan satuan bahasa atas dasar bentuk, fungsi, dan makna ini disebut kategori gramatikal 「文法カテゴリー」。 seperti diketahui bahwa bahasa jepang memiliki banyak perbedaan dengan bahasa indonesia. parera (1997: 157) menjelaskan bahwa “sumber utama kesulitan belajar bahasa kedua adalah perbedaan antar bahasa.” pengetahuan akan penggunaan tata bahasa ibu dengan tata bahasa asing sangat diperlukan untuk membantu dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa asing. sutedi (2004) membagi lagi kategori gramatikal dalam predikat menjadi enam jenis yakni teineisa ‘tingkat kehalusannya’, mitomekata ‘bentuk positif dan negatif’, tai ‘voice atau diatesis’, sou ‘aspek’, jisei ‘kala atau tense’, dan hou ‘modalitas’. matsuoka dalam sutedi (2004) membagi modalitas ke dalam sepuluh jenis, yaitu kakugen「確言」, meirei「命令」, kinshi-kyoka「禁止·許可」, irai「依頼」, toui「当為」, ishimoushide-kanyuu「意志·申し出·勧誘」, ganbou「願望」, gaigen「概言」, setsumei「説明」, dan hikyou「比況」. sama seperti partikel, modalitas juga memiliki peranan yang penting dalam tata bahasa jepang. karena modalitas itu sendiri memiliki beberapa jenis, jadi penulis akan memfokuskan penelitian ini dalam jenis modalitas toui dan modalitas gaigen. dalam salah satu bentuk yang terdapat dalam modalitas tersebut yaitu nakereba naranai 「なければならない」, beki「べき」dan hazu 「はず」, memiliki suatu kemiripan yang membuat pembelajar bahasa jepang merasa kesulitan dalam menggunakannya. ditambah lagi dengan pengaruh bahasa ibu yang sudah menjadi suatu kebiasaan. oleh karena itu, dengan menggunakan komik chibi maruko chan jilid 9 serta komik detektif conan jilid 9, 37 dan 38 sebagai korpus data penulis akan meganalisa fungsi penggunaan ketiga modalitas tersebut. ketiga jenis modalitas ini jika diterjemahkan kedalam bahasa indonesia sama-sama megandung unsur keharusan. sehingga pembelajar sering kali menemukan kesulitan dalam membedakan penggunaan keduanya. padahal ketika menterjemahkan, pembelajar bahasa jepang harus dapat mengerti konteks kalimatnya terlebih dahulu agar dapat menyampaikan maksud yang ingin disampaikan penutur. karena, sekurang-kurangnya kesalahan berbahasa akibat pengaruh bahasa ibu pada pembelajar kedua bahasa tersebut dapat dikurangi atau bahkan dihilangkan (sutedi, 2004:189). kesulitan dalam belajar bahasa jepang karena perbedaan tata bahasa serta pengaruh bahasa ibu terungkap dalam parera (1997: 108) sebagai berikut: orang yang tidak mulai dengan guru akan langsung menemukan kesalahan terjemahan, kesulitan dalam belajar bahasa, dan sisa kebiasaan dari bahasa pertama atau bahasa asli. 194 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 191-200 untuk lebih mempermudah dalam memahami penggunaan ketiga jenis modalitas ini, penulis akan melakukan subtitusi dari masing-masing kalimat kedalam bentuk nakerebanaranai, beki dan hazu. hal tersebut penulis lakukan agar penulis mendapatkan hasil analisis yang lebih maksimal mengenai fungsi penggunaan modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki dan hazu. subtitusi itu sendiri menurut kamus besar bahasa indonesia berarti proses atau hasil penggantian unsur bahasa oleh unsur lain dalam satuan yang lebih besar untuk memperoleh unsur pembeda. pembahasan sutedi (2004: 93) menyatakan modalitas merupakan kategori gramatikal yang digunakan penutur dalam menyatakan suatu sikap terhadap sesuatu kepada lawan bicaranya, seperti dengan menginformasikan, menyuruh, melarang, meminta, dan sebagainya dalam kegiatan berkomunikasi. masuoka dan takubo (1992) menggolongkan modalitas bahasa jepang kedalam sepuluh jenis, yaitu: 1. kakugen「確言」 2. meirei「命令」 3. kinshi-kyoka「禁止·許可」 4. irai「依頼」 5. toui「当為」 6. ishi-moushide-kanyuu「意志·申し出·勧誘」 7. ganbo「願望」 8. gaigen「概言」 9. setsumei「説明」 10. hikyou「比況」 masuoka dan takubo (1992:122) mengartikan modalitas toui sebagai berikut: ある事態が望ましいとか、必要だ、というように事態の当否を述べるムードを「当 為」のムードと呼ぶ。 terjemahan: mood (modalitas) yang menguraikan tepat atau tidaknya situasi yang diinginkan atau diperlukan disebut mood (modalitas) toui. contoh: 君は彼女と別れるべきだ。 kamu seharusnya berpisah dengan pacarmu. menurut yoshikawa (1989: 170) bentuk nakerebanaranai menyatakan makna kewajiban atau gimu「義務」. contoh: 本を読まなければならない。 harus membaca buku. menurut sakata (1993: 63) bentuk nakerebaikenai digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu keperluan yang harus dilakukan. makna yang berbeda dengan bentuk naranai adalah dalam bentuk ikenai masih terdapat kelonggaran terhadap pilihan pelaku. perbedaan fungsi ….. (fennie; nalti novianti) 195 contoh: 寝る前には歯をみがかなければいけない。 harus gosok gigi sebelum tidur. menurut masuoka dan takubo (1989: 123) beki digunakan untuk menyatakan pengharapan. contoh: 君は彼女と別れるべきだ。 kamu seharusnya berpisah dengan pacarmu. masuoka dan takubo ( 1989 : 127) mengungkapkan definisi modalitas gaigen sebagai berikut: 確言のムードは、ある知識を自分が真と信じているものとして述べるムードであっ た。これに対して,真とは断定できない知識を述べるムードを「概言」と呼ぶ。 terjemahan: kakugen adalah mood (modalitas) yang menjelaskan satu kognisi yang dimiliki diri sendiri sebagai hal yang dipercaya kebenarannya. sebaliknya, mood (modalitas) yang menjelaskan pengetahuan yang tidak pasti kebenarannya disebut dengan 「gaigen」. miyazaki, adaki, noda, & takanashi (2002: 82) menyatakan bahwa beki adalah ungkapan yang menyatakan situasi yang dianggap layak atau yang sudah seharusnya dilakukan. contoh: 若いうちにいろいろな経験をするべきだ。 sewaktu masih muda seharusnya mencari pengalaman. masuoka dan takubo (1989:129) menyatakan bahwa hazu da「はずだ」digunakan untuk menjelaskan kesimpulan yang diperoleh berdasarkan dugaan dari pengetahuan umum dan ingatan, suatu pemikiran logis dengan kalkulasi. hazu da hanya bisa digunakan untuk menyatakan kesimpulan akhir, juga bisa digunakan untuk memaparkan kejadian yang terjadi dan alasannya secara jelas dengan menambahkan bentuk kata keterangan yang menyatakan sebab yaitu kara「から」。 contoh: a: そこまでどれぐらいかかるでしょ。 b: 急いで歩けば20分ぐらいで行けるはずです。 a: pergi ke sana kira-kira membutuhkan waktu berapa lama? b: kalau berjalan dengan cepat seharusnya bisa pergi dengan waktu kira-kira 20 menit. dari teori-teori di atas, penulis akan menganalisis fungsi perbedaan penggunaan modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki, dan hazu yang terdapat dalam komik detektif conan dan chibi maruko chan. situasi ayumi terjebak dalam mobil penculik, lalu conan bersama teman-temannya ingin pergi menyelamatkannya. akan tetapi, conan hanya memiliki satu papan seluncur yang hanya bisa dinaiki satu orang, jadi conan menyuruh teman-temannya untuk tidak ikut bersamanya. それとも君には、一人で歩美ちゃんを助けなければならない理由でもあるんです か? meitantei conan 9 (aoyama, 1996: 28) 196 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 191-200 terjemahan: atau kamu punya alasan kenapa kamu yang harus menolong ayumi sendirian? pada kutipan 1, bentuk nakerebanaranai yang terletak pada verba tasukeru「助ける」yang menurut kamus kenji matsura (1994:1049) berarti ‘menolong’ berkonjugasi menjadi tasukenakerebanaranai「たすかなければならない」yang berarti ‘harus menolong’. dalam kalimat ini, nakerebanaranai menyatakan keharusan conan untuk menolong ayumi. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh sakata (1993: 62) bahwa penggunaan bentuk nakerebanaranai memiliki makna hal yang dilakukan tersebut merupakan hal yang sudah seharusnya terjadi. oleh karena itu, maka sudah menjadi kewajiban conan untuk menolong ayumi, jika ia tidak menolongnya maka nyawa ayumi akan terancam. pada kutipan 1, bentuk nakerebanaranai bisa diubah ke dalam bentuk beki, karena penggunaan bentuk beki dalam kalimat di atas sama-sama memiliki makna keharusan. それとも君には、一人で歩美ちゃんを助けるべき理由でもあるんでか? meitantei conan 9 (aoyama, 1996: 28) terjemahan: atau kamu punya alasan kenapa kamu yang seharusnya menolong ayumi sendirian? dapat dilihat dari terjemahan di atas bahwa makna dari penggunaan bentuk beki sama seperti makna nakerebanaranai dalam kutipan 1, tetapi memiliki nuansa yang berbeda. dalam kalimat yang menggunakan bentuk nakerebanaranai, makna yang terkandung adalah suatu kewajiban atau tanggung jawab. sesuai dengan yang diungkapakan oleh yoshikawa (1989: 170), bentuk nakerebanaranai menyatakan makna kewajiban atau gimu 「 義 務 」 , sedangkan dalam penggunaan bentuk beki nuansanya berubah menjadi hal tersebut merupakan kemauannya sendiri, bukan sebuah kewajiban. seperti yang diungkapakan oleh miyazaki, et al. (2002: 82) yang menyatakan bahwa beki adalah ungkapan yang menyatakan situasi yang dianggap layak atau yang sudah seharusnya dilakukan. pada kutipan 1, bentuk nakerebanaranai tidak bisa digantikan dengan bentuk hazu, karena jika diganti dengan bentuk hazu maka makna dalam kalimat tersebut menjadi berubah. x それとも君には、一人で歩美ちゃんを助けるはず理由でもあるんですか? meitantei conan 9 (aoyama, 1996: 28) terjemahan: atau kamu punya alasan kenapa kamu yang seharusnya menolong ayumi sendirian? dapat dilihat dari terjemahan di atas, bahwa penggunaan bentuk hazu dalam kalimat tersebut tidak tepat, karena penggunaan bentuk hazu dalam kalimat di atas menjadi tidak bermakna. masuoka dan takubo (1989:129) menyatakan bahwa bentuk hazu hanya bisa digunakan untuk menyatakan kesimpulan akhir, juga bisa digunakan untuk memaparkan kejadian yang terjadi dan alasannya secara jelas dengan menambahkan bentuk kata keterangan yang menyatakan sebab yaitu kara 「から」。 sedangkan bentuk nakerebanaranai menyatakan kewajiban. situasi maruko ingin belajar bahasa inggris, tetapi keluarganya tidak ada yang mengijinkannya untuk kursus bahasa inggris. ayahnya menyarankannya untuk belajar dengan temannya hanawa. pada saat hanawa sedang mengajarkan bahasa inggris, maruko dan temannya menanyakan kata-kata yang tidak biasa digunakan oleh orang-orang pada umumnya. hanawa menolak untuk mengajarkannya karena kata-kata itu dianggap tidak pantas. perbedaan fungsi ….. (fennie; nalti novianti) 197 もっと日常的なものからおぼえるべきだよベイビー chibi maruko chan 9 (momoko, 1992:15) terjemahan: kalian seharusnya menghapal mulai dari kata-kata yang sering digunakan dulu, baby.. dalam kutipan 1 bentuk ungkapan beki yang terletak setelah verba oboeru「覚える」yang menurut kamus kenji matsura (1994:747) berarti ‘menghapal’ ditambah dengan kata bantu beki, artinya berubah menjadi ‘seharusnya menghapal’. makna yang terkandung dalam kalimat ini adalah penutur yaitu hanawa memberikan saran kepada petutur yaitu maruko dan teman-temannya yaitu, jika ingin belajar bahasa inggris seharusnya dimulai dari kata-kata yang sering digunakan dulu. hal tersebut merupakan suatu hal yang memang sudah selayaknya dilakukan. seperti yang dikemukakan oleh miyazaki, et al. (2002: 82) yang menyatakan bahwa beki adalah ungkapan yang menyatakan situasi yang dianggap layak atau yang sudah seharusnya dilakukan. pada kutipan 1, penggunaan bentuk beki bisa diganti dengan bentuk nakerebanaranai. tetapi nuansa dalam kalimat tersebut tidak sama. hal tersebut dapat dilihat dari terjemahan di bawah ini. もっと日常的なものからおぼえなければならないよベイビー chibi maruko chan 9 (momoko, 1992: 15) terjemahan: kalian harus menghapal mulai dari kata-kata yang sering digunakan dulu, baby.. pada terjemahan di atas penggunaan beki yang berarti ‘seharusnya’ , jika diubah ke dalam bentuk nakerebanaranai artinya menjadi ‘harus’. nuansa dalam kalimat ini pun berubah, dari yang sebelumnya menggunakan beki, yang memiliki makna hal yang dilakukan memang sudah selayaknya atau sudah seharusnya dilakukan (miyazaki, et al , 2002: 82), yaitu ‘seharusnya menghapal’, setelah diubah kedalam bentuk nakerebanaranai maknanya berubah menjadi hal tersebut merupakan suatu kewajiban yang harus dilakukan yaitu ‘harus menghapal’. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh yoshikawa (1989: 170), yaitu bentuk nakerebanaranai menyatakan makna kewajiban atau gimu「義務」. pada kutipan 1, bentuk beki tidak bisa diubah ke dalam bentuk hazu. karena penggunaan bentuk beki dalam kutipan 1 menyatakan hal yang sudah seharusnya dilakukan. sedangkan bentuk hazu digunakan untuk menyatakan kesimpulan akhir, dan juga bisa digunakan untuk memaparkan kejadian yang terjadi dan alasannya secara jelas (masuoka dan takubo,1992:129) x もっと日常的なものからおぼえるはずだよベイビー chibi maruko chan 9 (momoko, 1992: 15) terjemahan: kalian seharusnya menghapal mulai dari kata-kata yang sering digunakan dulu, baby.. jika dilihat dari terjemahan diatas, bentuk hazu memang memiliki terjemahan yang sama dengan beki, yaitu ‘seharusnya’. tetapi makna dalam kalimat tersebut tidaklah sama. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh masuoka dan takubo (1992:129), yaitu bentuk hazu digunakan untuk menyatakan kesimpulan akhir, dan juga bisa digunakan untuk memaparkan kejadian yang terjadi dan alasannya secara jelas. sedangkan dalam kalimat di atas tidak terdapat suatu alasan yang mendasari ucapan si penutur. 198 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 191-200 situasi terjadi sebuah kasus pencurian di apartemen milik kenalan paman ayumi. pencuri itu mengambil sebuah lukisan antik yang bernilai 20 juta. sepertinya pencuri itu memang sudah mengincar lukisan tersebut, karena ia hanya membongkar ruang tamu dan kamar tidur saja. kalau pencuri itu memang mencari barang yang lain dan barang tersebut tidak ditemukan, maka seharusnya si pencuri juga masuk ke dapur. めぼしい物が見つからなければキッチンにも入ってるはずだよ! meitantei conan 38 (aoyama, 2003: 49) terjemahan: kalau barang yang diinginkan tidak ketemu, seharusnya si pencuri juga masuk ke dapur! pada kutipan 1 bentuk ungkapan hazu yang terletak setelah verba haitteru 「入ってる」 yang menurut kamus kenji matsura (239:1994) berarti ‘masuk’ ditambah dengan bentuk hazu, artinya berubah menjadi ‘seharusnya masuk’. dalam kalimat tersebut penutur menyimpulkan suatu hal berdasarkan fakta yang ada dan dalam kalimat tersebut juga mengandung makna keheranan dimana jika barang yang diinginkan pencuri tidak ketemu, maka seharusnya ia juga mencarinya di dapur, tetapi ia tidak melakukannya. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh masuoka dan takubo (1989:129) menyatakan bahwa hazu da 「はずだ」digunakan untuk menjelaskan kesimpulan yang diperoleh berdasarkan dugaan dari pengetahuan umum dan ingatan, suatu pemikiran logis dengan kalkulasi. masuoka dan takubo (1989:129), dalam teorinya yang kedua ia menjelaskan bahwa pada isi pernyataan yang muncul sebagai kesimpulan akhir dari suatu peristiwa yang diketahui dan pada keadaan yang diteliti pada saat yang berbeda, hazu da 「 は ず だ 」 dipakai untuk menyatakan keheranan. pada kutipan 1, penggunaan bentuk hazu tidak bisa diubah kedalam bentuk nakereba naranai. x めぼしい物が見つからなければキッチンにも入ってなければならないよ! meitantei conan 38 (aoyama, 2003: 49) terjemahan: kalau barang yang diinginkan tidak ketemu, si pencuri juga harus masuk ke dapur! dapat dilihat dari terjemahan di atas bahwa penggunaan nakerebanaranai tidak tepat. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh yoshikawa (1989: 170), bentuk nakerebanaranai menyatakan makna kewajiban atau gimu「義務」. penggunaan nakerebanaranai di atas memiliki makna yaitu bahwa si pencuri harus masuk ke dapur untuk mencari barang yang diinginkan. sedangkan hal tersebut bukanlah suatu kewajiban, melainkan suatu hal yang dilarang. pada kutipan 1, penggunaan bentuk hazu tidak bisa diubah ke dalam bentuk beki. x めぼしい物が見つからなければキッチンにも入ってるべきだよ! meitantei conan 38 (aoyama, 2003: 49) terjemahan: kalau barang yang diinginkan tidak ketemu, seharusnya si pencuri juga masuk ke dapur! jika dilihat dari terjemahan di atas, hazu dan beki sama-sama diterjemahkan menjadi kata ‘seharusnya’. tetapi kata ‘seharusnya’ di sini memiliki makna yang berbeda. pada kalimat yang menggunakan hazu, penutur mencoba menyampaikan suatu kesimpulan berdasarkan suatu pemikiran yang logis, seperti yang diungkapakan oleh masuoka dan takubo (1989:129) menyatakan bahwa hazu perbedaan fungsi ….. (fennie; nalti novianti) 199 da 「はずだ」digunakan untuk menjelaskan kesimpulan yang diperoleh berdasarkan dugaan dari pengetahuan umum dan ingatan, suatu pemikiran logis dengan kalkulasi. sedangkan dalam kalimat yang menggunakan beki mengandung makna bahwa memang sudah selayaknya si pencuri masuk ke dapur dan mencari barang yang diinginkan. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh miyazaki, et al (2002: 82), yaitu hazu memiliki makna hal yang dilakukan memang sudah selayaknya atau sudah seharusnya dilakukan sedangkan hal tersebut bukanlah hal yang selayaknya dilakukan oleh seorang pencuri. dari analisis di atas dapat dilihat bahwa penggunaan modalitas toui nakerebanaranai, beki, dan modalitas gaigen hazu dapat saling bersubtitusi. tetapi bentuk-bentuk tersebut tidak selalu dapat saling bersutitusi dalam setiap kondisi. subtitusi dari ketiga bentuk modalitas ini tergantung dari suatu kondisi tertentu. berikut adalah tabel mengena simpulan dari hasil subtitusi dari ketiga modalitas tersebut: tabel simpulan hasil subtitusi penggunaan nakerebanaranai, beki dan hazu kutipan なければならない べき はず 1 x 1 x 1 x x keterangan: : dapat disubtitusi x : tidak dapat disubtitusi penutup pada awal penulisan penelitian, penulis mengharapkan untuk mendapatkan informasi lebis jelas mengenai fungsi perbedaan penggunaan modalitas nakerebanarai, beki dan hazu. karena ketiga modalitas ini jika diartikan kedalam bahasa indonesia sama-sama memiliki makna keharusan. penulis juga berharap untuk mendapatkan beberapa kalimat yang dapat dijadikan contoh untuk menunjang teori-teori yang akan dituliskan dalam bab 2. setelah menulis bab 2 dalam penelitian ini, penulis mulai melihat gambaran konsep mengenai modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki dan hazu, baik mengenai fungsifungsinya serta penggunaannya. setelah mengumpulkan beberapa contoh kalimat yang menggunakan modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki, dan hazu dari komik chibi maruko chan jilid 9 serta komik detektif conan jilid 7, 9, 37 dan 38 yang berbahasa jepang, penulis menemukan bentuk lain yang memiliki makna yang sama dengan bentuk nakerebanarai, yaitu bentuk nakerebaikenai. setelah melakukan analisis, penulis mulai memahami perbedaan dari bentuk nakerebanaranai dan nakerebaikenai, serta penulis juga mulai memahami fungsi penggunan modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki, dan hazu. untuk memahami lebih lanjut mengenai perbedaan, serta kapan ketiga modalitas ini digunakan, penulis melakukan subtitusi dari masing-masing kalimat. tujuannya adalah untuk mengetahui apakah dari ketiga modalitas ini dapat menggantikan posisinya masing-masing. dari hasil analisis pada bab 3, penulis menemukan beberapa simpulan, yaitu sebagai berikut: 1. semua bentuk nakerebanaranai , beki dan hazu yang ditemukan dalam kalimat sesuai dengan teori yang yang telah penulis kemukakan sebelumnya. 2. dari hasil subtitusi dapat diketahui bahwa ketiga bentuk ini dapat saling bersubtitusi, tetapi tidak semuanya dapat saling bersubtitusi. subtitusi dari ketiga bentuk modalitas ini tergantung dari suatu kondisi tertentu serta konteks dari kalimat. 3. dari hasil kalimat yang dapat disubtitusikan, masing-masing dari kalimat tersebut mengalami pergeseran makna atau perubahan makna. nuansa dari kalimat tersebut juga menjadi berbeda. 200 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 191-200 jadi, dapat disimpulkan bahwa penggunaan dari modalitas nakerebanaranai, beki, dan hazu, walaupun memiliki arti yang sama, tetapi makna yang terkandung didalamnya berbeda. dan walaupun ketiga modalitas ini dapat saling bersubtitusi, makna maupun nuansa dari kalimat tersebut menjadi berubah. daftar pustaka aoyama, g. (1996). meitantei conan 7. jepang. aoyama, g. (1996). meitantei conan 9. jepang: shonen sande komikkusu. aoyama, g. (2002). meitantei conan 37. jepang: shonen sande komikkusu. aoyama, g. (2003). meitantei conan 38. jepang. shonen sande komikkusu. kiyoka, e. (1981). japanese in thirty hours. yokyo: hokuseido press masuoka, t. & takubo, y. (1989). kiso nihongo bunpou. tokyo: kurushio publisher. matsura, k. (1994). kamus bahasa jepang-indonesia. kyoto. kyoto sangyo university press miyazaki, k., adachi, t., noda, h., & takanashi, s. (2002). shin nihongo bunpou sensho 4 modariti. tokyo: kurushio publisher. momoko, s. (1992). chibi maruko chan 9. jepang: ribon masukkoto komikkusu. parera, j.d. (1997). metodologi pembelajaran bahasa analisis kontrastif antarbahasa analisis kesalahan berbahasa. edisi kedua. jakarta: erlangga. sakata, y. (2003). nihongo unyou bunpou. tokyo: bonjinsha. sutedi, d. (2004). dasar-dasar linguistik bahasa jepang, bandung: humaniora utama press (hup). yoshikawa, t. (1989). nihongo bunpou nyuumon. tokyo. aruku. microsoft word 07_nalti_drama.doc dampak drama, anime, dan musik jepang … (nalti novianti) 151 dampak drama, anime, dan musik jepang terhadap minat belajar bahasa jepang nalti novianti japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, naltin@binus.edu abstract as a fast growing country in asia, japan is placed on higher country, neither in government rule connected with social community or in the economy system. the growth of the country has attracted public attention that makes people want to learn the japanese language. many high quality of japan products are enjoyed by the indonesian people, especially the ones that connected with media, such as comic books, anime, and play. the problem is whether the students of japanese language that learning the japanese language in the university are interested in studying it because of the influence of the products. after doing field research on four different universities that having japanese departments, it can be concluded that the influence does not exist. the students choose japanese literature because they like japan and want to learn the language. keywords: play, comic, anime, music abstrak jepang sebagai negara maju di asia, berada pada tatanan negara kelas atas, baik dalam pengaturan negara yang berhubungan dengan sosial masyarakat maupun dalam sistem ekonomi. kemajuan negara tersebut telah menarik banyak perhatian umum yang membuat orang ingin mempelajari bahasanya. produk jepang yang berkualitas tinggi banyak dinikmati oleh orang indonesia, terutama yang berhubungan dengan media, baik lisan maupun tulisan, seperti komik, animasi, dan drama jepang. permasalahannya adalah apakah pemelajar bahasa jepang yang kini sedang belajar bahasa jepang di universitas tertarik masuk ke jurusan sastra jepang karena pengaruh produk tersebut. setelah diadakan penelitian lapangan pada empat universitas penyelenggara program bahasa jepang, ternyata pengaruh itu tidak tampak. mereka memilih sastra jepang karena menyukai jepang dan ingin mengetahui bahasanya. kata kunci: drama, komik, animasi, musik jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 151-156 152 pendahuluan para pemelajar bahasa jepang jumlahnya semakin tahun semakin bertambah. hal itu terlihat dari jumlah institusi pendidikan formal yang mengajarkan bahasa jepang jumlahnya semakin meningkat (data japan foundation 2008), ditambah dengan lembaga kursus yang ikut meramaikan populernya bahasa jepang di indonesia. meskipun jumlah penduduk jepang tidak sebanyak salah satu negara asia timur yang kini sedang berkembang, yaitu china tetapi jepang yang merupakan salah satu pendukung amerika dalam berbagai kebijakannya, telah mendapatkan pengakuan internasional sebagai negara yang mantap dan mempunyai perekonomian yang kuat. di samping itu, perusakan alam dengan mendirikan berbagai macam pabrik hanya untuk menaikkan “pamor sesaat” tidak diperkenankan ada di negara yang penuh keteraturan tersebut. keindahan, kebersihan, dan keramahan penduduknya membuat orang asing merasa tidak khawatir berada di negara tersebut. hal itu tercermin pula pada beberapa hasil karya kontemporer mereka yang merambah indonesia, seperti komik, anime, dan drama televisi. barang-barang jepang yang dijual di indonesia juga merupakan kualitas baik dan selalu tampak indah, berbeda dengan buatan negara lain yang membuatnya dengan asal-asalan yang berujung pada harga murah, tanpa kualitas jelas. remaja atau anak muda mempunyai budaya yang unik dan berkaitan dengan hal-hal yang fenomenal. hal itu terkait dengan suasana hati yang mudah berubah, emosi yang tinggi, dan konsumerisme. ruang lingkup budaya anak muda atau youth culture, biasanya berhubungan dengan aktivitas seni, pendidikan, sastra, olahraga, organisasi, dan yang sekarang sedang trendi adalah komputer. perkembangan komputer amat berhubungan dengan berkembangnya budaya anak muda. di jepang, komputer itulah yang berhasil menciptakan film animasi yang amat digemari di seluruh dunia. film animasi jepang bahkan menembus tv amerika dan eropa. tokoh seperti satoshi dalam pokemon, sampai yang terakhir menjadi booming adalah ‘naruto’ dan’ one piece’. sampai animasi klasik jepang, seperti ’heidi anak pegunungan alpen’, ‘candy candy’, dan ‘tetsuwan atom’. tokoh tersebut meskipun berganti nama dengan ala negeri masing-masing tetap dikenal sebagai tokoh dari negeri sakura. contohnya, animasi ’p-man ’ yang diputar di salah satu statsin tv indonesia mempunyai nama asli ” paa man ”. sesuatu yang popular seperti itu diciptakan oleh atau untuk anak-anak muda yang dalam proses pencarian dirinya selalu merindukan sesuatu yang baru atau sesuatu yang lain dari yang dikenalnya sehari-hari. semua itu berhubungan dengan budaya pop yang menurut storey (2003:10) bahwa budaya pop merupakan budaya yang menyenangkan dan disukai orang (berdimensi kualitatif), contoh buku, novel, album rekaman, film; hasil kreativitas individu yang berkualitas dan mempunyai daya jual tinggi; merupakan buadaya masa, artinya diproduksi dan dikonsumsi oleh masa; berasal dari pemikiran post modernisme. budaya pop juga merupakan sebuah budaya yang sering berubah sesuai dengan zamannya. budaya pop dapat berubah menjadi sebuah budaya tinggi yang dihargai, bahkan diakui sebagai budaya sebuah bangsa apabila sudah dikonsumsi dan diakui oleh masyarakat banyak (bestor, et al., 1989), seperti sumo dan kabuki yang dahulu dianggap sebagai budaya rakyat jelata, berkembang menjadi sebuah karya seni yang dinilai tinggi. dampak drama, anime, dan musik jepang … (nalti novianti) 153 pembahasan hasil budaya pop jepang hubungannya dengan minat belajar remaja atau anak muda indonesia terhadap bahasa jepang sekilas tahun 90-an tv drama jepang masuk ke indonesia, beberapa diantaranya yang masuk adalah ‘tokyo love story’ dengan pemain utamanya oda yuji. lalu ada ‘hitotsu no yane no shita’ dengan ‘norippi’ sedangkan dalam animasi masuk doraemon dan candy candy, dari immg (sumber: elex media komputindo). ketika itu fim indonesia sendiri sedang mengalami krisis sehingga jumlah sinetron tidak sebanyak sekarang sedangkan animasi yang ditayangkan kebanyakan dari amerika. sinetron yang banyak ditayangkan saat itu kebanyakan berasal dari brazil, portugal, dan spanyol. sehingga, begitu masuk sinetron asia non china yang kebanyakan bertema love story, banyak orang yang merasa tertarik. mulai saat itulah sinetron jepang banyak ditayangkan di beberapa tv swasta. akhirnya, drama tv jepang dan anime ini menjadi trendi di kalangan anak dan anak muda. mereka ingin menemukan sesuatu yang baru, yang lain dari drama atau film amerika yang selama ini kita kenal dan merajai dunia pertelevisian kita. sesuai dengan konsep tentang budaya pop di atas tadi, tampak adanya hubungan antara keingintahuan anak muda dengan trendinya drama tv jepang dan anime di indonesia. komik jepang juga merupakan salah satu pemicu anak muda untuk mengetahui jepang lebih dekat. pengunjung pameran japan foundation saat dilangsungkan beberapa pameran kebanyakan anak muda (sma dan smp) yang amat tertarik dengan kehidupan jepang dan ingin lebih dekat lagi dengan budaya negara tersebut (sumber: japan fondation jakarta ). karena komik dan anime itulah, kegiatan cosplay di indonesia sering diselenggarakan di mal dan pusat perbelanjaan. apakah budaya jepang yang sekarang boom kembali setelah mengalami masa stagnan antara tahun 1990-1995 itu memicu naiknya jumlah anak muda yang ingin mempelajari bahasa jepang? untuk mengetahui apakah mahasiswa sastra jepang masuk karena mereka menyukai tv drama dan film animasi, saya membagi angket ke-4 universitas, yaitu universitas pajajaran, bandung sebanyak 50 responden, universitas brawijaya, malang sebanyak 30 responden, universitas widyatama, bandung sebanyak 30 responden, dan universitas bina nusantara, jakarta sebanyak 60 responden. dalam angket penelitian ketika saya tanyakan apakah responden (170 orang) tertarik masuk sastra jepang karena sinetron jepang dan animasi maka jawaban mereka tampak seperti gambar 1 berikut. gambar 1 grafik apakah masuk ke sastra jepang karena sinetron dan animasi jepang jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 151-156 154 tampak presentasi yang menyatakan bahwa responden tertarik masuk sastra jepang karena pengaruh anime dan tv drama menunjukkan presente tinggi, walaupun tidak mutlak. akan tetapi, hal itu tidak mengubah hipotesis bahwa masuknya animasi dan tv drama jepang ke indonesia memacu minat anak muda yang menginginkan sesuatu yang baru untuk masuk ke sastra jepang. trendi drama tv dan animasi yang merupakan hasil kerja keras pada pemain di dunia perfilman jepang sedikit banyak telah memberikan dampak terhadap banyaknya anak muda yang ingin mempelajari jepang dan hal yang berbau ke-jepangan. presentase untuk pertanyaan, apakah setelah masuk sastra jepang mereka mendapatkan apa yang mereka ingin tahu ketika menonton tv drama atau film animasi yang mereka pernah lihat maka jawabannya adalah seperti pada gambar 2. gambar 2 grafik apakah setelah masuk sastra jepang anda mendapatkan apa yang anda ingin tahu ketika menonton tv drama atau film animasi artinya, pengajaran bukan hanya bahasa tetapi juga meliputi budaya, politik, dan ekonomi jepang, telah memberikan pengaruh positif terhadap anak-anak muda untuk mengenal jepang lebih dekat. di drama tv dapat diketahui tingkat ekonomi jepang yang lebih mapan dari kehidupan seharihari negara indonesia. contoh nobita yang dapat menyantap sayur “alfalfa”, sayur dari australia, dengan jumlah amat banyak. padahal, di indonesia sayur tersebut hanya dapat ditemukan di supermarket khusus untuk orang asing, dengan harga rp15.000 per kotaknya. dari drama tv jepang juga terlihat jalan yang mulus dan terjaga dengan baik walaupun ada di sekitar pedesaan. atau, pakaian yang digunakan, atau fashion yang sedang trendi serta hasil budaya lain yang membuat kita ingin mencobanya, seperti mensin penjual minuman atau makanan otomatis. namun, sistem pemelajaran bahasa jepang yang memperkenalkan tren terkini serta masalah masyarakat yang fenomenal jarang disentuh dalam mata kuliah. saat ini baru ada di universitas bina nusantara dan sekolah tinggi bahasa asing serta universitas nasional saja yang melalui interaksi aktif mahasiswa dalam mengumpulkan bahan dan mempresentsikannya di kelas sedikit demi sedikit kehidupan fenomenal jepang sudah dapat tersentuh. lainnya masih mengajarkan masalah ‘ie’, ‘bushido’, dan hal klasik lainnya. tentu saja mengetahui sistem kekerabatan jepang dan semangat bushido yang tidak pernah luntur itu merupakan suatu pengetahuan yang menarik. akan tetapi, alangkah baiknya jika konsep itu diterapkan secara lebih aplikatif dalam kehidupan orang jepang sekarang ini. dampak drama, anime, dan musik jepang … (nalti novianti) 155 menurut analisis, inilah jawaban mengapa jawaban “ya” di atas hanya 50% saja. akan tetapi, tentu saja itu memerlukan penelitian lebih lanjut untuk mengetahuinya. ketika responden ditanya apakah dengan adanya drama dan animasi jepang dalam bahasa asli yang banyak dijual di indonesia ini membuat mereka terbantu dalam proses belajar, grafik menunjukkan hal berikut. gambar 3 grafik apakah dengan adanya drama dan animasi jepang dalam bahasa asli yang banyak dijual di indonesia membuat anda terbantu dalam proses belajar ternyata para mahasiswa sangat terbantu dengan adanya drama tv jepang dan film animasi dalam bahasa aslinya. seperti diketahui dalam proses pemerolehan ilmu, untuk dapat menguasai bahasa kedua perlu adanya dua proses, yaitu proses pembelajaran bahasa pengajaran pola kalimat (pattern) sebagai proses input dan sistem latih di kelas (drill) sebagai proses out put yang merupakan feed back dari yang telah diajarkan, adalah hal yang umum dilakukan. hal itu sesuai dengan yang dikatakan rl. oxford (1990:37-55) melalui ninchi strategi bahwa setiap pengajaran bahasa asing memerlukan enam kegiatan wajib, yaitu practising (練習をする), receiving(情報内容を受け取る), sending(情報内容を送る), analyzing(分析する), reasoning(推論する) , dan creating(インプットとアウトプットのための構造を作る). akan tetapi, setelah berkembangnya multimedia, terutama komputer akhir-akhir ini, proses pembelajaran one way system mulai mengalami perubahan. menurut kobayashi (2003), pemelajar bahasa asing sering memerlukan shigeki atau sesuatu yang membangkitkan minat mereka seperti sebuah terapi kejut. dengan adanya shigeki, rasa ingin tahu akan bangkit dan semangat belajar akan tumbuh. rupanya, animasi dan drama tv bahasa asing inilah yang sarana shigeki, bagi para pemelajar bahasa asing terutama jepang. jurnal lingua cultura vol.1 no.2 november 2007: 151-156 156 penutup simpulan penelitian adalah bahwa bukanlah sesuatu yang mutlak bahwa penyuka anime atau drama jepang pasti akan masuk ke sastra jepang. hal itu terlihat dari jumlah yang hanya menunjukkan angka 58% saja peminat anime dan drama jepang yang masuk ke sastra jepang di keempat universitas tersebut. akan tetapi, tentunya tidak menutup kemungkinan para pemelajar bahasa jepang yang kini sedang mempelajari bahasa tersebut adalah para penggemar komik, animasi, dan drama tv jepang. hal itu terjadi karena dengan adanya produk kontemporer jepang di tanah air, para pemelajar bahasa jepang merasa terbantu, seperti tampak pada gambar dalam pembahasan. dengan adanya drama dan anime jepang yang kini penjualannya begitu mem-booming, para pemelajar dapat berlatih mendengarkan bahasa jepang sehari-hari dari para tokoh yang ada di dalam media tersebut. dengan banyaknya berlatih mendengar proses out put, yang diperlukan oleh pemelajar bahasa asing dapat terlaksana, sesuai yang dikatakan r.l oxford. untuk buku bacaan sejenis komik yang ditulis dalam bahasa asli jepang, para pemelajar dituntut untuk mengetahui jumlah kanji yang lebih banyak daripada yang diajarkan di kelas. hal itu tentu akan mendukung kemampuan mereka dalam menulis dan membaca huruf yang memang sangat penting kedudukannya dalam menguasai bahasa jepang. membaca langsung sebuah karya tulis merupakan proses out put, dari kuliah tulisan kanji dan pemahaman bahasa jepang pada umumnya. akan tetapi, terlihat dari gambar, mereka yang sudah masuk ke jurusan sastra jepang yang mendapatkan apa yang mereka inginkan hanya 50%. diprediksi hal itu terjadi karena kurangnya informasi yang mereka dapatkan dari dalam kampus itu sendiri dan kurangnya para pemelajar untuk mencari tahu sendiri tentang jepang masa kini. dunia informasi yang begitu berkembang memaksa para pemelajar untuk mencari sendiri informasi tentang berbagai hal mengenai jepang. dan, karena media untuk melakukan searching masih terbatas, membuat mereka yang awalnya berharap banyak mendapatkan informasi tentang jepang yang aktual merasa kecewa. demikianlah ternyata untuk proses shigeki dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa, hadirnya anime dan film jepang sangat membantu dalam belajar bahasa asing. daftar pustaka anonymous. “teenege culture,” diakses 21 januari 2005 dari http://www.stat.go.jp?english/data/roudou/154b.htm aoki, naoko, akito ozaki, and satoshi toki. 2003. nihongokyouikugaku. tokyo: sekaishisousha. baker, chris. 2004. cultural studies: teori and praktik. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana yogyakarta. bestor, theodore c. 1989. handbook of japanese popular culture edited by richard gid powers and hidetoshi kato. london. greenwood press. higurashi, yoshiko. 1996. kaigai de oshieru nihongo. tokyo: aruku. morimoto, yoshiyuki. 1990. nihongogaku to nihongokyouiku. tokyo: bonjinsha. oxford, l. rebecka. 1994. gengogakushuu strateji. tokyo: bonjinsha. storey, john. 2003. teori budaya dan budaya pop: memetakan lanskap konsetual cultural studies. yogyakarta: cv qalam. tanaka, nozomu. 1990. nihongo kyouiku no houhou. tokyo :taishuukanshoten. cultura lingualingua p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x vol. 10 no. 2 november 2016 accredited decree of ministry of research, technology and higher education number 2/e/kpt/2015 editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university international editor board akun english department, bina nusantara university ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university sri haryanti chinese department, bina nusantara university ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, united states language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university holil bina nusantara university atmawati bina nusantara university secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education and indexed in crossref, directory of open access journal (doaj), academic research index (research bib), bielefeld academic search engine (base), scientific indexing service (sis), world catalogue (worldcat), indonesia publication index (ipi), and google scholar. research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, fb: https://www. facebook.com/lingua.binus submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua vol. 10 no.2 november 2016cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x table of contents kiky soraya the effectiveness of collaborative writing strategy (cws) in writing lesson regarded to the students’ creativity 63-67 novita dewi interface of linguistics, literature, and culture in translating singapore and sri lanka postcolonial poetry ................................................................................................. 69-75 ade yolandalatjuba language as a socio-cultural semiotic: a case study on the fiction text .................................................. 77-81 ika apriani fata; usman kasim; dwi juniyana setting sight on role playing: to accommodate or to repudiate? ........................................................... 83-88 tina kartika verbal communication culture and local wisdom: the value civilization of indonesia nation ........................ 89-93 r. kunjana rahardi personal and communal assumptions to determine pragmatic meanings of phatic functions .......................... 95-98 hamriani; idawati garim; usman the effectiveness of letters card media in writing lontara’ alphabet makassar at smp negeri 1 pallangga in gowa district ..................................................................................... 99-103 i nyoman suka sanjaya boosting in english and indonesian research articles: a cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary study ................. 105-110 muliani; sofia maurisa; nurusshobah intasc standard cores: raising students’ english modality competence ................................................... 111-115 eric kunto aribowo; nanik herawati trends in naming system on javanese society: a shift from javanese to arabic ......................................... 117-122 index .................................................................................................................................. 123-126 vol. 10 no.2 november 2016cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x microsoft word 08_chi_fu ruomei_setting the usability of bridge-a course ….. (fu ruomei) 89 《桥梁——实用汉语中级教程》在印尼建国大学的使用 the usability of bridge-a course book of intermediate practical chinese at chinese department binus university 付若玫 (印尼建国大学中文系) fu ruomei chinese department, faculty of language and culture, binus universtiy jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 rosemary@binus.edu 内容提要 本文对《桥梁——实用汉语中级教程》在印尼建国大学中文系的使用情况进行调查,结合教 学实践考查其实用性。调查显示,《桥梁》在生词、课文、语法等方面都受到师生的好评,但 由于文化差异造成有些内容较难被印尼学生接受。建议教师结合日常交流讲解生词,结合印尼 国情、文化宗教背景对正课文进行取舍,有效发挥教材的作用。 关键词:《桥梁》, 印尼, 理念, 效果 abstract this article discusses about the usability of bridge-a course book of intermediate practical chinese at chinese department binus university. based on research, lecturers and students agree that this book has fulfilled the requirements as classroom textbook for intermediate level including grammar, vocabulary and reading text. however, some materials cannot be easily understood due to cultural differences. therefore, in order to get the most out of the book, teachers are expected to explain vocabularies in its specific context and background, and select appropriate reading text that relates to indonesian values such as religion and culture. keywords: bridge, indonesia, opinion, effect 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 89-94 印尼建国大学(建大)中文系成立于 2002 年,目前共有 419 名学生,32 位教师。2009 年建大 中文系在印尼教育部组织的本科评估中获评 b 级。目前印尼尚未有大学中文系获评 a 级。印尼大学 和建国大学是仅有的获评 b 级的单位。历经近十年发展,建大中文系的课程设置日趋完善,课程包 括:初级汉语语法、中级汉语语法、初级听力、中级听力、新闻听力、初级口语、中级口语、写 作、报刊阅读、古代汉语、现代汉语、中国文化、中国历史、中国地理等。使用的教材基本上是北 京语言大学和北京大学出版的教科书。学生虽然以华裔为主,但汉语基础普遍薄弱,非华裔学生则 基本为零起点。建国大学分八个学期,其中第八学期为论文写作。第一至第七学期,每学期授课 13 周。 综合课也叫精读课,主要特点是综合教学,主要任务是全面进行语言要素、语用规则和文化背 景知识的教学,全面进行言语技能和言语交际技能的训练,把语言要素、语用规则和相关文化知识 的传授与言语技能和言语交际技能的训练揉在一起,进行综合教学。(吕必松,2007:91)建国大 学汉语精读课分为六级,每学期一级,共学习三学年。每级精读课 6 学分,每周 3 课时,每课时 100 分钟。精读一至精读四使用北语版《汉语教程》系列教材,精读五、精读六使用《桥梁——实 用汉语中级教程》(以下简称《桥梁》)。精读五讲授《桥梁》上册第一至第十课,精读六讲授 《桥梁》上册第十一至第十五课及《桥梁》下册第十六课到第二十课。 《桥梁》的作用在于过渡、沟通。力图为学习者架起一座从基础阶段过渡到高级阶段的桥梁。 (陈灼,1996)印尼大学生如何评价《桥梁》,使用中存在哪些问题,他们对中级汉语教材又有什 么样的需求?笔者试图通过调查,结合教学经验找出答案。由于下册没有完整使用,故本调查以上 册使用情况为主,下册作为辅助与补充。受调查者为已完成上册学习的建国大学三、四年级学生, 其中三年级 74 人,四年级 26 人。此次共发放 100 份问卷,回收有效问卷 96 份。 学生对《桥梁》的评价 杨翼(2008:303)认为,是否能够满足汉语学习者的需求是汉语教材评价的依据之一。因为 汉语教材的服务对象是汉语学习者,既然汉语教材的价值是相对于某一特定对象的需要而言的,那 么,特定对象的需要就应该处于支配地位,他们的需要就成了判断汉语教材价值的依据。《桥梁》 是否满足了印尼大学生的需求呢?调查显示大部分学生对《桥梁》是持肯定态度的,73 人认为 《桥梁》难度适中,作为中级汉语综合课教材很合适,另有 23 人认为《桥梁》难度较大。桥梁的 内容构成包括:正课文、生词、词语搭配与扩展、语法例释、副课文和练习。 表 1 学生对《桥梁》各部分的评价(可多选,单位:人) 学生评价 正课文 生词 词语搭配与扩 展 语法例释 副课文 练习 喜欢的部分 61 49 18 25 13 15 不喜欢的部分 19 11 47 8 24 31 表 1 显示,学生最喜欢的为正课文、生词和语法例释,不太喜欢的是词语搭配与扩展、练习和副 课文。 the usability of bridge-a course ….. (fu ruomei) 91 (一)正课文部分    正课文是学生最喜欢的部分,因为有故事性,学起来很有意思。不喜欢的有 19 人,原因主要 在于不明白课文的意思,阅读困难导致缺乏兴趣。《桥梁》注意交际性原则,以培养学习者的交际 能力为目标,结合功能、文化项目,围绕教育、职业、婚姻家庭、经济、法律、道德、文化、交 通、健康、环境等 10 个题材范围进行编写。(陈灼,1996)调查表明学生对《桥梁》课文内容总 体是满意的,具体情况参见表 2。 表 2 学生对课文内容的评价(可多选,单位:人) 课文内容 第一课 第二课 第三课 第四课 第五课 第六课 第七课 第八课 喜欢 25 49 27 5 7 24 22 3 不喜欢 8 3 1 15 14 7 16 19 课文内容 第九课 第十课 第十一课 第十二课 第十三课 第十四课 第十五课 喜欢 12 14 10 16 12 3 3 不喜欢 8 9 7 22 5 23 6 学生最喜欢第二课《差不多先生传》,超过半数的同学喜爱这篇文章。内容有趣、语言幽默、 容易理解,贴近学生又很有教育意义。有学生写到,“这篇课文很有意思,我也像‘差不多先生’ 一样马虎。” 每年三年级上学期总会产生几个“差不多先生”或“差不多小姐”。这就是学习了 《差不多先生传》后学生对号入座的结果。由此可见,这一课文已经深入人心。第三课《我记忆中 的两个女孩》,第一课《我的希望工程》,第六课《眼光》和第七课《吸烟者的烦恼》等课文也受 到学生的喜爱。喜欢的理由包括:有知识性与教育性(《吸烟者的烦恼》、《我的希望工程》、 《写在助残日之前》);故事感人(《我记忆中的两个女孩》、《醉人的春夜》、《眼光》);贴 近自己的生活,引发对人生的思考(《李群求职记》);增加对中国人的了解(《我的第二故 乡》)。 大部分学生会提到,喜欢某篇课文是因为“课文不太长,生词不太多,看得懂。”相对的,学 生不喜欢某些课文最主要的原因是生词多,课文长,看不懂。“看得懂”是喜欢的前提,这在《买 彩票》中体现得十分明显。喜欢的学生认为《买彩票》内容有趣,语言幽默,也很有意义。不喜欢 的学生则认为“文章难,内容没有意思,不想看下去。”究其原因,是部分学生汉语水平有限,看 懂文章内容已经很困难,更何谈理解老舍先生的幽默?《买彩票》包含了一些中国特有的文化,学 生缺乏对中国文化的认知,自然会感觉厌倦。 学生最不喜欢第十四课《在那遥远的地方》,专名多、故事长、结构复杂、内容缺乏吸引力是 课文不受欢迎的原因所在。《在那遥远的地方》共有 75 个生词,14 个专名,相对于生词,专名的 记忆难度更大。印尼学生对中国民族音乐缺乏了解,对文学性描述理解上存在困难,自然就没有阅 读兴趣。其他不喜欢的原因还包括:课文内容太难(《公文包丢失之后》),内容没有吸引力 (《话说“面的”》),不属于自己的兴趣点(《广告与顾客》、《吸烟者的烦恼》),内容没有 意义(《醉人的春夜》)。 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 89-94 (二)生词部分    《桥梁》生词部分的编写原则是“以丙级词汇和语法项目位置,有目的有计划地重现、扩展、 深化部分甲、乙级词汇和语法项目的内容,并根据话题范围,吸收一定比例的丁级词、超纲词和相 关的语法点进入训练系统。”《桥梁》(上)每课生词量一般控制在 60 个左右,与《汉语教程》 (第三册下)相比,生词量稍有增加。49 人喜欢生词部分,认为生词是汉语学习的基础,对汉语 水平的提高很有帮助。52 人认为《桥梁》的生词量合适,43 人认为词量太大。76 人认为生词难度 适中,20 人认为生词太难。总体而言,《桥梁》的生词量和生词难度都是学生可以接受的。对于 生词的英文解释,大部分学生表示有一定的帮助,但有些解释与课文中的意思不符,造成理解错 误;也有部分学生认为有英文注释很好,学习汉语的同时也可以学习英语,一举两得。学生普遍反 映,如能增加印尼语注释,掌握生词会更容易,对学习更有帮助。 (三)词语搭配与扩展、语法例释、副课文和练习部分     表 3 学生对词语搭配与扩展、语法例释、副课文和练习部分的评价 (单位:人) 以下部分对你的学习是否有帮助 有帮助 没有帮助 词语搭配与扩展 75 21 语法例释 93 3 副课文 54 42 练习 90 6 对于词语搭配与扩展及语法例释,学生的态度比较矛盾。对这两部分学生的喜爱程度不高(见 表 1),词语搭配与扩展甚至是学生最不喜欢的部分。尽管如此,学生们还是普遍认为这两部分对 于词汇语法的理解及运用十分有帮助(见表 3),这两部分也是桥梁的优点所在。 对副课文部分,学生的反应比较平淡,13 人喜欢,24 人不喜欢,半数以上未发表意见。当问 及副课文是否有帮助时,学生的反应两极分化明显。54 人表示有帮助,42 人表示没有帮助。“有 帮助”体现在能更好地理解课文,掌握运用生词、语法及扩大知识面。“没有帮助”则是因为课时 紧张,有些副课文老师未讲解。学生缺乏自学精神,认为老师不讲,就不必看。有些学生认为副课 文内容太多,没时间看;也有同学表示副课文缺少解释,自学有难度;副课文练习没有答案,做了 也不知对错。 学以致用,语言知识必须通过练习加以实践巩固,练习的重要性不言而喻。李泉(2006)认为 汉语教学追求速成,速成需要以强化作为手段,在增加语言输入量的同时,必须进行大量的练习。 题多量大已成为新型教材的明显标志,例如《桥梁》每课练习有 10-11 大项,每项平均有 8-9 题, 总题量接近 100。对练习部分 15 人表示喜欢,31 人不喜欢。除 7 人表示练习部分对学习没有帮助 外,其他学生都认为有很大帮助。桥梁练习题型多样,与课文配合紧密,在帮助掌握生词、语法点 及提高运用能力上有很大促进作用。学生反映练习没有参考答案,很难自学。如果能在练习后加上 一些提示或提供一些参考答案会更好。 the usability of bridge-a course ….. (fu ruomei) 93 《桥梁》使用中存在的问题及建议 学生对《桥梁》总体上是认同的,无论在生词、课文语法注释和练习上都得到了好评,汉语程 度越好的学生认同度越高。学生们大部分感觉正课文整体不错,内容涵盖范围广,与自身生活有很 多共同之处,但有些课文篇幅过长,书面语多,文学性强,造成理解困难。调查显示学生理想的课 文选材应更有趣,更贴近时代,更国际化。希望加入人生指导、友情、娱乐等内容,同时也希望对 篇幅较长的课文进行缩减,表达更贴近日常生活,减少文学性描述以降低阅读难度。 使用《桥梁》中存在的一些问题应该引起我们的注意。《桥梁》下册课文《中国人的姓和 名》、《孔乙己》、《雷雨》等都是了解中国文化、文学不可或缺的部分,而《整容》、《试试吸 毒》、《干得好不如嫁得好吗》至今仍深具现实意义。遗憾的是课时所限,《桥梁》(下)未能得到 完整使用。建议增加课时,把《桥梁》完整地介绍给印尼学生。教师讲解应尽量全面,在时间允许 的情况下尽量带领学生完成书内包括副课文、练习在内的所有内容。学生在印尼学汉语,缺乏语言 环境,缺少交际压力,学习动力自然受到影响。学生学习自主性较差,对教师的依赖性大,这些在 调查问卷上也有所体现。在对副课文部分作用的调查中,42 人认为副课文部分对学习没有帮助。 其中 27 人表示 “如果老师不讲,就不会看副课文部分。”鉴于如此现状,教师在鼓励学生自学的 同时,还是要尽量带领学生学习。 充分利用现有教材,教师的作用举足轻重。教师可根据印尼社会风俗、文化理念对课文内容进 行筛选。笔者在讲《地球的主人》时就曾有学生表示“人类是上帝创造的,不是猴子变的”。对与 学生宗教文化理念冲突的课文,可以适当割舍。教师还可从文化交流的角度对一些课文进行补充。 《在那遥远的地方》旨在介绍王洛宾及中国民歌。学生对王洛宾及其作品缺乏最基本的了解,不但 不能欣赏课文的美,反而认为课文冗长、难以理解。如果能结合在中国广泛流传的印尼民歌《哎 哟,妈妈》、《星星索》等进行介绍,首先让学生对题材有一定的亲切感,再拓展到介绍中国文 化,效果应该会有所不同。教师讲解不应只局限于课文本身,应该提供相关的背景知识,帮助学生 了解课文,体会课文内涵。《我的希望工程》、《三个母亲》等课文,如果教师在授课时对时代背 景予以交代,学生的理解将会更充分。 《桥梁》文学性较强,有些表达方式会使学生对词义产生误解。《我记忆中的两个女孩》用 “偶像”一词代表“喜欢的人”。这是一种含蓄的、文学化的说法。学生学习后,认为“偶像”就 是“喜欢的异性”,因而在表达“自己还没有喜欢的异性”时会说,“我还没有偶像”,显然学生 误解了“偶像”的含义。教师结合课文讲解生词的同时,也应讲授日常生活中的表达方法。 开发适合印尼大学生的汉语教材 根据文化知识、思想背景编制更符合印尼学生需求的教材,提高教材的趣味性、实用性。调 查显示,生词注释使用印尼文会更受学生的欢迎。课文篇幅不宜过长,文章内容更有趣、更实用, 适当降低文章内容的文学性。建议针对印尼学生编写教材,介绍中国文化时适当结合中国南方的风 土人情。毕竟,印尼大部分华裔来自中国南方,很多华裔学生懂得南方方言,生活习惯、文化渊源 更接近南方。随着非华裔汉语学习者的增加,也应考虑针对非华裔的生活习惯、兴趣点设计教材。 教材中可以加入中印文化交流的内容,甚至印尼的本土文化。吕必松(2007:110)指出针对不同 的国别语种编写作为第二语言的汉语教材是加强教材的针对性和发展汉语作为第二语言教学的必要 措施。针对国别语种的汉语作为第二语言教材最好由中国同行跟相关国家的同行合作编写。印尼汉 语教材的开发,需要精通两国语言,熟悉第二语言教学理论的专家及印尼汉语教师的共同努力。 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 89-94 《桥梁》在选文、词语、语法的编写设置及教材编写原则的体现等方面都比较优秀,是一部 实用的汉语中级综合课教材,得到了印尼大学生的认可。遗憾的是《桥梁》并未得到充分利用。教 师应根据学生的具体情况对教材内容进行一些调整。为了促进印尼大学生的汉语学习,建议生词增 加印尼文注释;缩短课文篇幅,适当降低课文内容的文学性;提供练习参考答案。调查中也有学生 建议增加插图、使用彩色印刷。杨寄洲的中级汉语课本《登攀》采用彩色印刷,图文并茂,进行了 有意的尝试。趣味性、针对性是编制汉语教材的重点,希望对外汉语教学界关注印尼的汉语教学, 针对印尼学习者设计教材,促进汉语在印尼的发展。 参考文献 陈灼(1996)《桥梁 实用汉语中级教程(上)》,北京:北京语言大学出版社。 陈灼(1997)《桥梁 实用汉语中级教程(下)》,北京:北京语言大学出版社。 李泉(2006)《对外汉语教材研究》,北京:商务印书馆。 吕必松(2007)《汉语和汉语作为第二语言教学 》,北京:北京语言大学出版社。 杨寄洲(1999)《汉语教程 第三册(下)》,北京:北京语言大学出版社。 杨翼(2008)《汉语教学评价》,北京:北京语言大学出版社。         microsoft word 06 ma feng setting jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 62-70 62 characters that suffered due to shortage in the characters 人物因“缺陷”性因素而遭难类型 ma feng (马峰) chinese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, mafengde_2009@yahoo.com abstract in this article, the theories about motif and type will be used for analyzing the very types of characters that suffered because of the shortages. to begin with, the analyzing of the differences and similarities of the shortages of each character will be counted on the inside and outside parts of their sufferings. then the theories of nietzsche’s and of some myths will be used for analyzing the further reason of the sufferings. at last, investigating the special value those sufferings have brought for literatures and for tv series. multi-angle perspective is useful for investigating the unique charms of the shortages of characters as well as for finding out new understandings for the types of sufferings. keywords: character; shortage; types of sufferings 内容摘要 本文运用母题与类型的理论,分析人物因“缺陷”性因素而遭难类型。首先,从遭难的内 外因两方面,对人物缺陷的异同进行归纳分析。其次,借助尼采及神话中的一些理论,对遭难 的诱因进行深层剖析。最后,探讨遭难类型在文学作品及影视作品中的独特价值。多角度的透 视,有助于挖掘人物“缺陷”的独特魅力,有助于对遭难类型的全新解读。 关键词:人物,缺陷,遭难类型 characters that suffered ..... (ma feng) 63 前言 曹顺庆在《比较文学论》中引用德国学者弗伦泽尔的母题概念:“母题这个字所指明的意 思是较小的主题性的(或题材性的)单元,它还未能形成一个完整的情节或故事线索,但它本 身却构成了属于内容和形式的成分,在内容比较简单的文学作品中,其内容可以通过中心母题 (kernmotiv)概括为一种浓缩的形式。一般说来,在实际文学体裁中,几个母题可以组成内 容。抒情诗没有实际内容,因此没有我们这里所说的题材,但一个和几个母题可以构成它主题 性的发展。”他接着写到,“母题研究是主题学研究中最具特色的范畴。然而,母题概念本身 也最难界定,学者们往往有各自的母题概念。(曹顺庆,2002:270)”随后,他从探讨母题、 主题和形式的关系入手,对母题研究的具体内容作了分类:一是纯粹母题研究;二是情景母题 研究;三是人物母题研究;四是意象母题研究。 本文论题可以归入到情景母题研究,“情景母题研究就是要挖掘、梳理传统文学中含有母 题的情景,从而探讨其为人们反复运用的文学与文化机制。如三角恋;丈夫外出久无音讯,妻 子改嫁后却突然归来;不相识的父子之战;仇敌的女儿相爱;始乱终弃;落难公子中状元,私 订终身后花园等等(曹顺庆,2002:275)。”由此可见,情景母题具有一定的复杂性,可以 说是由一些简单母题的链接而成,是一种内容较为复杂的母题研究。 情景母题研究的复杂性,以及涉及面的广泛性,或多或少会给一些研究带来困难,导致在 微观层面研究的模糊。因此,不妨借用比较故事学的母题与类型理论来使一些问题更加清晰化。 同时,主题学在世界上最早发育于 19 世纪的德国民俗学研究,中国的主题学研究也同样发端 于民俗学,这就使比较故事学理论的借鉴更具合理性,而母题研究作为主题学的一个重要方面, 必将从中吸取到更加有益的因素。 汤普森在《世界民间故事分类学》中,曾对母题以及母题与类型之间的关系作过权威性的 解释。刘守华在此基础上进行概括,“母题和类型是两个概念。母题是故事中最小的叙述单元, 可以是一个角色、一个事件或一种特殊背景,类型是一个完整的故事。类型是由若干母题按相 对固定的一定顺序组合而成的,它是一个‘母题序列’或者‘母题链’。这些母题也可以独立 存在,从一个母题链上脱落下来,再按一定顺序和别的母题结合构成另一个故事类型(刘守华, 1995:83)。”由此可以对类型有较明确的理解,它与情景母题研究都有复杂性母题的一面, 但它要求的更具体,使我们易于把握。本文论题称为类型而没有称为母题就是从此出发的。 一、遭难类型例析 首先,需要明确“缺陷”的含义,以下是几种解释:《现代汉语词典》“缺陷:欠缺或不 够完备的地方。生理~”《现代汉语辞海》“缺陷:欠缺或不完备的地方,强调造成不完整的 情况。并列式:缺+陷。弥补~(作宾语)。(同义)缺点,(反义)优点、长处。”《辞 源》“缺陷:不满足,不完美。宋史·李沆传:‘……但念内典以此世界为缺陷,安得圆满如 意,自求称足?’”通过以上三种解释,对“缺陷”一词会有更加清晰的认识,它包含具体和 抽象两方面,既指人也指物,而对于人则包含生理和心理两方面。 人物因“缺陷”而遭难,“缺陷”能导致好的际遇吗?人物因“缺陷”而受益类型也不乏 其例,如《简·爱》中罗切斯特在大火中失去钱财,双目失明,却得到了简爱的以身相许。这 里不对受益类型做分析。同样在遭难类型中也有很多分类方式,如从造成“缺陷”的原因分, jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 62-70 64 从“缺陷”的构成分,从遭难人物的施受关系分,从遭难的结果分等。本文主要从两方面对 “缺陷”进行分类讨论,以 “缺陷”的构成为分类标准,一种是由于人物本身存在的因素, 如心理或生理方面,这种内因的诱发,即内在缺陷的暴露,最终导致遭难的结局;另一种是人 物因受到外力的阻拒,即特殊外物的控制,而导致自身能力的部分丧失,这种由外因导致的缺 陷,最终也使人物走向遭难的结局。下面通过几个人物来对两种“缺陷”类型进行具体剖析。 (一) 内因遭难型 随着读图时代的来临,图文并茂的书籍越来越吸引人们的注意力,《瑜伽的艺术》就是一 本精美的绘本故事书,书中对有关瑜伽至高境界的 100 个神话故事作了细致的解读。书中对瑜 伽这样解释,“瑜伽起源于古印度的一种非常古老的文化——外士纳瓦。印度神话中有三大神, 布茹阿玛(旧译:梵天),维施努(旧译:毗湿奴)和希瓦(旧译:湿婆)。外士纳瓦就是专 门崇拜维施努的一个文化。古印度伟大史诗《摩诃婆罗多》中的《博伽梵歌》、《罗摩衍那》、 《吉檀迦利》等经典神话故事中,有大量相关瑜伽文化的内容,并成为古印度生命科学的核心 部分。(张东平,2005:10)” 书中有一个故事,至尊人格首神奎师那的半人半狮化身尼尔星哈戴瓦杀死残酷暴君黑冉亚 卡希普,拯救了他忠诚的奉献者。黑冉亚卡希普曾得到布茹阿玛的祝福,“不会被任何人类所 知道的武器杀死,不会被杀死在门内或门外,不会被杀死在地上或空中,也不会在白天或黑夜 被杀死。(张东平,2005:92)”他自恃得到祝福,自不量力的向至尊神挑战,最后被尼尔星 哈戴瓦杀死。这并没有违反布茹阿玛的允诺:他是在黄昏,在宫殿门口,在至尊主的大腿上, 被用指甲剖腹而死。黑冉亚卡希普最终的遭难,是因为他没有意识到自身所存在的缺陷,他自 恃得到祝福不会被杀死,但他没有想到祝福之外还有的缺陷,结果被以非常规的方式杀死。同 时,他的残酷无情、狂妄自大,也可以说是其性格上的缺陷。这两方面的缺陷因素,是其自身 潜在的诱因,一旦被激发,便导致其遭难的结局。 阿基琉斯是《荷马史诗》中的英雄,他的命运可以说是由于内因缺陷而遭难的典型。他是 女神忒提斯和凡人佩琉斯之子,希腊联军中最强大的英雄,杀死特洛亚主将赫克托尔,但自己 后来被帕里斯的箭射死,葬身于特洛亚海岸。阿基琉斯曾说到,“我的母亲,银足的忒提斯曾 经告诉我,有两种命运引导我走向死亡的终点。要是我留在这里,在特洛亚城外作战,我就会 丧失回家的机会,但名声将不朽;要是我回家,到达亲爱的故邦土地,我就会失去美好名声, 性命却长久,死亡的终点不会很快来到我这里。([古希腊]荷马,罗念生、王焕生译,1994: 203)”虽然阿基琉斯意识到了自己的命运,但因好友帕特洛科洛斯代己出战阵亡,于是同阿 加门农和解释怨,毅然参战而迎接自己的命运。 阿基琉斯的命运与其脚踵关系密切,“阿喀琉斯(同阿基琉斯)的脚踵 achilles’heel (the heel of achilles):出自希腊神话,英雄阿喀琉斯的母亲是海洋女神忒提斯,她曾用冥 河的神水给阿喀琉斯洗浴,使他身体刀枪不入。但由于忒提斯给他洗浴时是倒提着他的脚后跟 浸入水的,脚踵没受到神水的浸洗,因此阿喀琉斯以后在特洛亚战争中,正是在脚踵的地方受 了致命伤。成语喻一个人的要害,最易受到致命伤之处。(陈珍广,1990:3)”阿基琉斯的 缺陷——脚踵的弱点是身体的美中不足,可以说是生理上的缺陷。恰恰由于此弱点而成为致命 伤,最终导致其脚踵中箭而亡的遭遇。同时,阿基琉斯对母亲告诫的无视,傲慢自满、狂暴如 狮的性格也对其遭遇起到了催化作用。 黑冉亚卡希普和阿基琉斯有很大的相似性。首先,他们都受到了某种特殊的“关照”,前 者是受到大神布茹阿玛的祝福,后者是受到母亲用冥河神水的洗浴的保护。其次,都凭借特殊 的“关照”而使身体具有刀枪不入的特殊功能,且神勇非凡,本领超强。再次,二者都因身体 characters that suffered ..... (ma feng) 65 的特殊功能而好强斗恨、狂暴自满、目空一切,这一层面可以说是人物因内在的优越性而趋向 性格上的过分张狂。最后,缺陷的显现导致最终被杀的遭遇,这也暴露了看似几近完美的特殊 “关照”的缺陷性,即“关照”的特殊层面下的隐患——处于“关照”之外的因素,将成为其 遭难的症结和致命点。如黑冉亚卡希普被至尊主用指甲剖腹而死,而不是被任何人类所知道的 武器所杀,而至尊主所采取的一切手段都没有违反布茹阿玛的允诺。同样,阿基琉斯被帕里斯 射中脚踵而死,而脚踵恰恰就是未受到神水浸洗之处。综上可见,二者都是由自身的缺陷,即 内因的诱发而遭难。 (二)外因遭难型 迦梨陀娑是印度古典诗人和剧作家,其剧作《沙恭达罗》中写到这样一个故事:国王豆扇 陀与净修女沙恭达罗相恋而自由结合。国王临走时,把一只刻有自己名字的戒指送给沙恭达罗, 作为信物。其间由于沙恭达罗对来访大仙人达罗婆娑失礼,而受到“诅咒”。他在愤怒中诅咒 沙恭达罗:只有他的情人看到他给她作为纪念品的饰品(即戒指)时,“诅咒”才会失掉力量。 由于“诅咒”的力量,戒指作为外物就导致人物产生了一种缺陷,即豆扇陀部分记忆力的丧失。 这也对后面的情节的突变埋下了伏线,使情爱缠绵的情调走向别离伤感的气氛。国王失忆,而 不承认与沙恭达罗的婚姻,沙恭达罗被迫与国王发生冲突。几经磨难后,国王重新见到沙恭达 罗祭水时遗失的戒指,恢复了记忆,想起旧情,思念儿子,最终与妻子团圆(朱维之,1998: 169)。 从这个故事可以看出,戒指在剧情的发展中扮演了一个重要的角色。达罗婆娑的“诅咒” 是造成豆扇陀失忆的直接原因,而戒指又充当了“诅咒”的媒介物,因而戒指就变成了失忆的 间接原因。戒指丢失后,豆扇陀因见不到它,而导致对自己曾经与沙恭达罗的相恋变成记忆上 的空白;重新见到戒指后,豆扇陀方能念起旧事,恢复记忆。可见,戒指作为媒介,一种外物 的力量,促成了人物部分功能的缺失,即记忆力的缺陷。这也就顺理成章的推动了人物遭遇的 发展,几经波折,受尽磨难,这都是人物因缺陷而导致的遭难后果。同时,只有戒指出现,才 能破除人物能力上的障碍,恢复功能的正常性,戒指又起到一种缺陷的弥补作用。 再看《西游记》中两个场景,一是第七回“八卦炉中逃大圣,五行山下定心猿”,这一回 讲到如来佛祖收服妖猴,“好大圣,急纵身又要跳出,被佛祖翻掌一扑,把这猴王推出西天门 外,将五指化作金、木、水、火、土五座联山,唤名‘五行山’,轻轻的把他压住。”后见报 大圣从山下伸出头来了,于是佛祖“袖中只取出一张帖子,上有六个字:‘唵、嘛、呢、叭、 (口迷)、吽’,叫贴在那山头上。……那座山即生根和缝,可运用呼吸之气,手儿爬出,可 以摇挣摇挣。(吴承恩,1980:78)”二是第十四回“心猿归正,六贼无踪”,观音菩萨交给 唐僧一领光艳艳的棉布直裰,一顶嵌金花帽,又说道“我那里还有一篇咒儿,唤作‘定心真 言’;又名作‘紧箍儿咒’。你可暗暗的念熟,牢记心头,再莫泄漏一人知道。我去赶上他, 叫他还来跟你,你却将衣帽与他穿戴。他若不服你使唤,你就默念此咒,他再不敢行凶,也再 不敢去了。”果真,当行者回来后戴上帽子,唐僧一念《紧箍咒》,他便头痛难忍,最后跪下 哀告道:“师父!这是他奈何我的法儿,叫我随你西去。我也不去惹他,你也莫当常言,只管 念诵。我愿保你,再无退悔之意了。(吴承恩,1980:173-176)” 以上两场景有很大的相同之处,二者都是针对孙悟空的自由不羁、不受约束,不论是五行 山下受困,还是金箍的控制,二者都使其能力不得施展。前者是金帖使五行山生根和缝,后者 是《紧箍咒》使金箍在其头上生根,金帖和紧箍咒作为一种外物的力量,都对其能力的发挥起 到了限制的作用,造成其能力上的缺陷。金帖的控制,使其在五行山下被压了五百多年,又受 土神监押,只能饥餐铁丸,渴饮铜汁,过着囚徒的生活;紧箍咒的控制,使其头痛难忍,“痛 的竖蜻蜓,翻筋斗,耳红面赤,眼胀身麻”(吴承恩,1980:175),最后只能屈从于唐僧, jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 62-70 66 护驾西游,饱经九九八十一难,其间还不乏唐僧的误解责难,可谓人气、怪气、神气皆受。外 物的控制而来的能力缺陷使其饱受磨难,而只有外物消除才能使其得到自由之身,前者唐僧揭 下金帖,“只闻的一声响亮,真是个地裂天崩。众人尽皆悚惧,只见那猴早到了三藏的马前, 赤淋淋跪下,道声‘师父,我出来也!’(吴承恩,1980:165)”可见没有金帖的控制,五 行山是困不住他的;后者在一百回“径回东土,五圣成真”,孙悟空被封为斗战胜佛后金箍才 去,“唐僧道:‘当时只为你难管,故以此法制之。今已成佛,自然去矣。’(吴承恩, 1980:1196)” 与内因遭难型相类,可用同法对豆扇陀与孙悟空形象做类比分析。首先,二者都是由于受 到某种“咒语”的控制,前者是受到达罗婆娑的诅咒,后者是受到如来佛祖的金帖和观音菩萨 的《紧箍咒》的控制。其次,“咒语”都是通过媒介物而产生效用,前者是定情信物——戒指, 后者是五行山和金箍。再次,外物的控制都使其产生了能力上的障碍,即部分功能的缺陷,前 者是恋情记忆的遗忘,后者是神力的不得施展。最后,这种外物造成的缺陷,即外因的作用, 都使人物遭难,前者是豆扇陀背负“始乱终弃”的罪名而苦恼,后者先是在五行山下受困五百 余年,饱受牢狱之苦,后又受金箍的控制,一念《紧箍咒》便痛苦万分。由此可见与内因遭难 型的不同之处,主要在最终结局上,二者都是由于外物的作用而使缺陷得以消除,前者是戒指 的失而复得使记忆恢复,念起旧情,与妻儿团圆,后者是金帖与金箍的消失使能力得以施展, 历尽艰辛终成佛。 二、遭难诱因背后的阴影透视 通过事例分析,我们看到了他们遭难的异同。内外因的分类,提供了一种对此类型有效的 认识方法。然而,是什么促使了内外因的形成?又是什么使其遭难呢?他们的遭难决非偶然, 对其诱因的深层探求。 (一)尼采的阴影 黑冉亚卡希普和阿基琉斯由内在的优越感而趋向性格上的过分张狂,从另一层面上讲,这 是由于人物身体潜在的优势促使其性格、心理上的自满情绪和优越感的宣泄。这种心理上的过 激表现将影响其性格的走向,使其走向偏执的一面,如黑冉亚卡希普向至尊主的挑战,这种自 不量力的挑战,就已印证了其心理上的过分优越感。因此,也可以说由特殊“关照”而获得的 身体特殊功能,是一种优越的“陷阱”,这导致其性格上的缺陷,从而推动最终遭遇的到来。 二战期间纳粹德国的表现,一定程度上也可以对此做出说明。他们倡导“优等民族”说,以自 己民族的优越性,妄图消灭一切劣等民族,进而征服世界。这种集体心理上的病态的优越,促 使他们对整个世界发起挑战,但他们的优越感的冲动并没有为其野心带来一丝好处,最终他们 也无法逃脱历史的公正评判。 说到纳粹主义的法西斯行径,我们自然会想到尼采。尼采是 19 世纪末德国重要的哲学家, 唯意志论的主要代表之一。他受生存竞争学说的某些影响,把叔本华的生命意志发展为权力意 志,并提出了超人的理论,从而赋予唯意志论以社会达尔文主义的内容。这些理论很适合垄断 资本主义——帝国主义阶段的需要,一直被 20 年代至 30 年代德、意的法西斯运动所利用。然 而,很多研究者认为,德国法西斯主义全面采纳尼采思想是受到了尼采之妹伊·福斯特·尼采 的极大影响。她于 1906 年编辑出版《权力意志——重估一切价值的尝试》,这是对尼采思想 的“作伪”和“滥用”。 characters that suffered ..... (ma feng) 67 尼采思想不仅影响了纳粹主义者,还影响了整个人类的思维评判方式,这是毋庸置疑的。 我们姑且不评判尼采的对与错,不追究此书是否出于尼采的本意,就其思想理论来说,它的价 值具有普遍意义,它把人类的深层心理的恶性膨胀的一面给以淋漓尽致的表述。 “恶行属于强者和具有美德的人。因为卑劣的、低贱的行为属于屈从者。最强者,即具有 创造性的人,必定是极恶的人,因为他反对别人的一切理想,他在所有人身上贯彻自己的理想, 并且按照自己的形象来改造他们。在这里,恶就是:强硬、痛楚、强制。象拿破仑这样的人应 当一再出现才对,他们要巩固对个别伟人的专制统治的信仰。但他们自己却被他不得不采用的 手段所腐蚀,从而失去高尚的性格。要在另一类人中实施,他本来也可以使用别的手段。那么, 一个恺撒也不一定非变质不可。([德]弗里德里希·尼采,张念东、凌素心译,1991:112)” 法西斯主义无疑把尼采强调的“恶行”更推进了一步,他们或许认为自己就是救世的拿破 仑。相比之下,黑冉亚卡希普和阿基琉斯作为强者,他们的心理膨胀也无异于此,前者妄图杀 子以向至尊主挑战,后者对赫克托尔尸体的极尽凌辱,这些做法比之法西斯的残忍有过之而无 不及。正如尼采所言,“经受这种思想(永世轮回思想)的方法:重估一切价值。兴趣不再放 在肯定上,而是放在怀疑上;感兴趣的不再是‘原因和结果’,而是坚韧不拔的创造性;不再 是自我保存的意志,而是权力意志;不再是‘一切都只是主观的’这种恭顺的用语,而是‘一 切都是我们的事业!——让我们为之自豪吧!’([德]弗里德里希·尼采,张念东、凌素心译, 1991:135)”他们所贯彻的正是这种怀疑一切,重估一切的思想。作为强者,他们有炫耀的 资本,但极度的优越感促使其走向了另一极,狂妄自大、目空一切。“权力意志”为其指出了 前进的道路,而“超人”理念使其走出了盲目自信的坚定步伐。无论是法西斯对整个人类世界 的挑战,黑冉亚卡希普对至尊主权威的质疑,还是阿基琉斯对一切对手的蔑视,他们都得到了 同样的遭遇。遭难的结局,正是由其“心魔”的过盛,自诩为太阳,但他们忘了太阳也有升有 落! (二)神话与宗教中神的阴影 “神话的语言和形象表达了人类对自己与宇宙的关系的感知。人类神话的外在形式随着人 类生活千万年来的变化而变化,但它的内在结构基本上始终如一。因此,任何一个神话故事都 是迷信和宗教真理的结合,是原始人的畏惧与对宇宙的理解的结合。([美]戴维·利明、埃德 温·贝尔德,李培茱译,1990:59)” 神话故事中的神是由原始人类创造出来的,他们出于 对大自然的好奇而去不断的探究,这就使其陷入了困惑。对自然灾害及自然力的恐惧,又使他 们相信一种超自然的力的存在,于是由图腾崇拜渐渐衍化为人类依据自己的形象塑造而来的神 的崇拜。 《西游记》和《沙恭达罗》的创作都源于神话传说,其中当然不乏对神的入微描述。不论 是如来佛祖、观音菩萨,还是大仙人达罗婆娑,作为天神,他们的威严都是不容触犯的。神不 仅掌控凡人的命运,同时对世间的一切妖魔鬼怪也有降伏制约的作用。在这两部作品中,神的 权威主要通过“咒语”的法力来显现的,世间万物是不容有一丝对神的不敬的,否则,就会受 到神的惩罚,而这种惩罚任你神通广大也无法逃脱。齐天大圣孙悟空大闹天宫,可谓风光无限, 虽然他具有超凡的本领,但他毕竟只是一个“妖猴”,终究没能逃脱如来佛祖的神掌,最终还 是被压在了五指山下,一道具有“咒语”法力的六字金帖便制伏了他,使其无法从山下挣出, 只能默默忍受五百余年的“牢狱”之苦。此后,他的狂放不羁、任性而为,不服唐僧的管教, 也使其吃尽了苦头。观音菩萨的《紧箍咒》更是牢牢地控制了他,只要他有些许违逆,便会受 到咒语的惩戒。同样,沙恭达罗对大仙人达罗婆娑的失礼,也使其遭受到了离弃之苦。仙人的 诅咒,是对其与神不敬的惩罚,只有经历磨难之后,咒语的效力才得以消失。 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 62-70 68 “在任何文化形态里面,原始人都是尊奉天神的,虽然各种文化对天神的称呼不一样,但 是天神都是至高无上的权威,无边无际的法力,而且又是无往而不在的存在。尘世间的凡人, 其命运都是由神来决定的。为此,芸芸众生的人类,只能通过各种办法来取悦诸神,才有可能 得到神的赐福,躲避灾难。(王德保,2004:4)”因此,神话中的神被创造出来是用来敬仰 和崇拜的,从一定程度上看这是一种原始思维的回归,是人类恐惧心理的一种发泄解脱方式, 是人类对自我所不能实现的理想状态的幻梦。人类通过对神的崇拜,祈求驱灾避难,此类主题 在神话故事中比比皆是。这也对迷信与宗教产生了重大的影响,基督教中的忏悔便是出于对惩 罚的恐惧,正如但丁在《神曲》中所描绘的地狱,来世赎罪的恐惧促使其现世的行为的规范, 以及对神的崇拜。孙悟空和沙恭达罗的受惩,恰恰表现了神的权威,这是对恐惧观念的强化, 是对人类的告诫。同时,孙悟空和豆扇陀的“缺陷”,正是由神的“咒语”而来,这就为世间 万物暗示了一条出路——对神的崇拜。而人类,恰如温室里的花朵,经不得烈日暴雨,只能仰 视神的所在,躲在神的阴影庇护之下,以祈求片刻的安宁。 三、“缺陷”类型在文学作品中的独特魅力 人物因“缺陷”性因素而遭难类型,在作家的创作中被广为运用,这既为作家的创作注入 了鲜活的因素,又使作品呈现出艺术上的独特魅力。这里,我主要从人物形象塑造、情节发展 两方面,对此类型在文学作品中的作用做简要分析。 “缺陷”类型在人物形象的塑造方面独具特色,通过多角度、深层面的剖析,使人物形象 丰满、生动,能够深层凸现出人物性格、心理的潜层。一、对比手法的运用,主要是通过有缺 陷的人物自身的对照以及与正常人的参照中表现人物形象。雨果是善用“美丑对照”的大师, 他所塑造的巴黎圣母院敲钟人伽西莫多和笑面人关伯伦便是“丑”的典型,前者外表丑陋,是 个驼背、独眼,又聋又跛的畸形人,从小就受世人的歧视与欺凌;后者是一个贵族后裔,由于 宫廷的阴谋,他从小被卖给人贩子,受到毁容摧残,成为一个不戴面具的笑脸小丑,跟随流浪 艺人到处卖艺为生。他们生理的缺陷,外貌的丑陋,使其倍受歧视,成为人们调侃、愚弄的玩 偶。然而,外在的缺陷并不能掩盖住其内在的光辉,他们纯洁、善良的品格在与丑的对照中显 得更为伟大。两部作品通过对比的手法,使人物因缺陷而受的磨难淋漓尽致的得以展现,同时 心灵的完美与生理的缺陷形成强烈的反差,给人以巨大的心灵激荡和反思,人物形象在这种反 差中有了更为深刻、全面的体现,人物也就更加丰满而富有活力。二、正面行动表现人物形象, 让主人公在行动的过程中充分展现自己。《白鲸》中船长亚哈,在一次出海捕鲸中被一条大白 鲸咬掉了一条腿,随后他就开始了追逐巨鲸莫比·迪克的历程。亚哈是因遭难而具有生理缺陷, 又由缺陷而去主动迎击,最后遭难而死的一个“硬汉”形象。他对灾难的主动挑战,从另一面 也体现出其强烈的复仇心理,身体的缺陷使其心灵有了扭曲,在追逐的过程中逐步展现其残酷、 固执、一意孤行的性格,伴随复仇而来的快感的狞笑,尤其给人以冷冽刺骨的震撼。三、侧面 反衬表现人物形象。豆扇陀因戒指而导致的记忆力缺陷,使他对沙恭达罗的遗弃看似没有任何 责任。不过,我们撇开仙人的诅咒这个戏剧处理上的关键环节,以现实生活的角度看待沙恭达 罗和豆扇陀之间的爱情,却又不难想见沙恭达罗的悲剧命运。现实中的豆扇陀,虽然钟情于沙 恭达罗的美貌,为他的高贵气质所倾倒,但是他的欲望一旦满足就会将她遗弃:“正如一个厌 恶了枣子的人想得到罗望子一样,万岁爷享受过了后宫的美女,现在又来打她的主意。”因此 她必然遭受始乱终弃的悲惨结局。在此意义上,迦梨陀娑借助于古代神话传说的虚幻写法,折 射出真实的社会现实,为剧本增添了丰富的现实色彩(教育部高等学校中文学科教学指导委员 会,2003:245)。这也从侧面展现了豆扇陀对爱情不负责任的一面,正如沙恭达罗所说,国 王是“卑鄙无耻的人”,是“口蜜腹剑的骗子”。 characters that suffered ..... (ma feng) 69 情节的发展是一个渐进的过程,人物因“缺陷”而遭难类型的动态性特征,在作品中就起 到了推动情节发展的作用。人物的缺陷往往是故事发展的重要线索,为其遭难埋下伏笔,起到 一种铺垫作用,这就使后面的遭遇显得更为自然、合理而不唐突。同时,情节的水到渠成并不 代表发展过程的一帆风顺,其间往往几经波折、迂回往复,增加了情节的生动性、复杂性。黑 冉亚卡希普的出场提到他是一个残暴的君主,而他的儿子帕德拉是至尊主的奉献者,于是他妄 图杀死儿子看至尊主如何解救他的奉献者。他自恃得到祝福不会被轻易杀死,这为后面情节的 发展设下了悬念,他向至尊主的挑战到底会有什么样的结局呢?至尊主当然不会对此坐视不理, 他杀死了暴君,这合乎情节发展和人们的思维逻辑。这也表现了至尊主的万能,他给了狂妄自 大的暴君以应得的下场。然而,结局出乎想象,布茹阿玛的祝福并不是完美的,暴君仍然存在 缺陷,而这些缺陷就葬送了他的性命。离奇的结局给人以新鲜感,增加了情节的生动性。 四、影视作品中的应用 电影、电视的蓬勃发展,目前正充斥着大众文化消费市场。对此,许多权威人士感到担忧, 以娱乐、消遣为主导的传播媒体会误导大众的精神文化消费。于是提出要重视对文学名著的阅 读,提升大众的文化欣赏层面。首先,我同意文学名著阅读的重要性,但对影视作品也不能一 概否定,要发现其中有价值的部分。一方面,影视作品的消遣功能缓解了当下人们所面临的工 作、学习、生活等各方面的压力;另一方面,其中也不乏对文学名著和传统文化的大力借鉴, 并且现在对文学作品进行影视改编也有很多成功之处。下面主要通过两部电影对人物因“缺陷” 性因素而遭难类型进行分析,可以对影视作品与文学作品的共通性有更好的了解。 《指环王》以宏大的背景,宽广的视角,奇幻的想象,原生态的画面,朴实流畅的叙事, 真挚感人的经典主题,为我们展示出一幅动人的人类奋斗史图卷。其中第三部《王者归来》 (the lord of the rings)有这样一幕,安格马的巫王,他是多翼戒灵的主人,九个戒灵中 为首的一个,索隆最得力的爪牙,据说没有人类能将其杀死。他统领魔多大军进攻“小石城” 刚铎,所向披靡,人类在他的大军面前不堪一击。当他击倒了罗翰国的塞奥顿王,准备将其杀 死时,一个勇敢的士兵挡在了他的面前。于是,他用嘲讽般的口吻说道,“no man can kill me”,随后大笑那不自量力的士兵。此时,士兵甩掉头盔,露出一头美丽的金发,边说道 “i’m not man”,边挥剑刺向他的头颅,于是那无敌的巫王便消失在了罗翰公主伊奥温的面 前。巫王自恃在战场上没有士兵能将其杀死,是因为他确信在野蛮而凶残的战场上不会出现女 性士兵,然而出乎意料的是,这些士兵之中竟然有一位美丽勇敢的公主。伊奥温的出现,使巫 王的弱点因骄矜自大而暴露无遗,他致命的缺陷就是其看似刚强无比的身躯在女人的利刃重击 下变得脆弱而不堪一击。这样,无敌的巫王倒在了公主的剑下,其自身的内在缺陷葬送了他狂 妄的心。 同样,在中国电影中也不乏此类型的大量运用。先看功夫电影,在中国功夫中,不同的功 夫往往有不同的弱点,尤其是邪门左道的功夫往往有其致命的缺陷,在功夫中称之为练功的 “罩门”,往往是毕生精血所系,也是全身最脆弱的部位,因此在打斗中往往要对自己的罩门 多加留意,否则一被击中就有致命的危险。周星驰主演的《鹿鼎记》主要讲述:清朝初年,奸 臣鳌拜弄权,欺康熙皇帝年幼,控制朝政,民生疾苦。天地会在首领陈近南指挥下,要韦小宝 混入宫中做卧底,偷取藏有清朝秘密大宝藏之四本四十二章经。由此便展开了激烈的争夺战, 其中在宫内塔林有这样一幕,奸臣鳌拜练就了刀枪不入之身,陈近南在与其打斗中处于危境, 此时韦小宝灵机一动而寻找其罩门,随后鳌拜在同痴癫的海公公打拼落地时,被韦小宝推动的 尖顶石柱击中脊椎骨穴道,结果被陈近南一剑刺穿头颅而死。韦小宝的聪明在于他想到了鳌拜 的罩门,即其刀枪不入之功的缺陷所在,其罩门——脊椎骨穴道,一被击中,其刀枪不入之功 自破,遂遭难而亡。再看在僵尸系列电影中,道士往往对僵尸起到降伏控制的作用,而其降伏 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 62-70 70 的法物多为灵符和八卦图,一旦灵符贴到僵尸额头,其行动往往就不能自如,更不能到处行凶。 这就表现了僵尸的缺陷所在,灵符、八卦图等道教法物对其能力的控制,而能力的丧失最终导 致其被困或惨遭消灭的结局。 《指环王》、《鹿鼎记》两部电影都运用了人物因“缺陷”而遭难类型,巫王、鳌拜都是 因自身内在的缺陷而遭受了被杀的结局。此类型的运用,无疑是对文学作品中此类方法的借鉴, 使影视作品既富有了文学情愫,又不乏对传统文化的吸取,从中可以感受到影视与文学、传统 的交融相通。同时,这也增加了电影情节的曲折性、生动性,使故事紧张激烈、动人心弦,增 强了情节的吸引力。 结语 透过一粒沙子,就能看到整个世界。同样,透过缺陷也能看到美,正是由于缺陷的存在, 才凸现了完美。“金无足赤,人无完人”,人物因缺陷而变得丰满,富有个性,纵使得到遭难 的结局。世界因缺陷而五彩斑斓、充满活力并得以正常运行。“希腊神话中火神和锻冶之神赫 淮斯托斯曾为阿喀琉斯锻造了一面神奇的盾牌。盾牌当中刻的是天、地和海,还有太阳、月亮 及各个星座。常用以比喻尽善尽美的艺术珍品或坚不可摧的东西。(陈珍广、祁庆生,1990: 2)”阿喀琉斯的盾之所以完美,正是由于其脚踵缺陷的映衬。如果阿喀琉斯身上没有缺陷, 那么盾牌的完美将变得暗淡无光。缺陷成就了完美,本文通过多角度的透视,提供了对“缺陷” 的全新认识,让我们更进一步发现其中所潜含的美。 参考书目 曹顺庆:《比较文学论》,四川教育出版社,2002.9。 刘守华:《比较故事学》,上海文艺出版社,1995.9。 朱维之:《外国文学史(亚非卷)》,南开大学出版社,1998.10。 张东平:《瑜伽的艺术》,陕西师范大学出版社,2005.10。 吴承恩:《西游记》,人民文学出版社,1980.5。 王德保:《神话的由来》,中国人民大学出版社,2004.10。 教育部高等学校中文学科教学指导委员会:《中文专业本科生百部阅读书目导读》,高等教育 出版社,2003.12。 [德]弗里德里希·尼采:《权力意志——重估一切价值的尝试》,张念东、凌素心译,商务印 书馆,1991.5。 [美]戴维·利明、埃德温·贝尔德:《神话学》,李培茱、何其敏、金泽译,上海人民出版社, 1990.6。 [古希腊]荷马:《荷马史诗·伊利亚特》,罗念生、王焕生译,人民文学出版社,1994.11。 microsoft word 08_jpg_ felicia analisis makna_setting analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 155  analisis makna “iiwake suru” dan “benkai suru” dalam website surat kabar bahasa jepang asahi.com felicia jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas humaniora, binus university jln. k.h. syahdan no. 9, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 fbudihardja@binus.edu abstract verbs, particles, adjectives and conjunctions need to be understood well in learning japanese. from a variety of verbs that exist, the author conducted an analysis of semantic field of the verbs "iiwake suru" and "benkai suru" which have the same meaning yet different usage. a literature review is applied in this study by taking data from a japanese newspaper website asahi.com. the purpose of this study is to determine the function of the verb "suru iiwake" and "benkai suru" and to indentify when to use the verb "suru iiwake" and when to use the verb "suru benkai". after conducting an analysis of three articles containing verb "suru iiwake" and three articles containing verb "suru benkai", the authors conclude that "iiwake suru" means both ‘argue’ and ‘do self-defense’. besides, "iiwake suru" can be used in various types of articles. meanwhile, "benkai suru" means both ‘do selfprotect’ and 'do self-defense'. in addition, "benkai suru" is used generally in law field especially those of related to court decision. "iwake" and "benkai" also have a similarity that is generally used with negative form. keywords: semantic field, iiwake suru, benkai suru abstrak kata kerja, partikel, kata sifat dan konjungsi penting untuk dipahami dengan baik dalam mempelajari bahasa jepang. dari bermacam-macam kata kerja yang ada, penulis melakukan analisis medan makna terhadap kata kerja “iiwake suru” dan “benkai suru” yang memiliki makna yang sama tetapi berbeda dalam penggunaannya. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian pustaka, yaitu dengan mengambil data dari website surat kabar bahasa jepang asahi.com. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui fungsi dari kata kerja “iiwake suru” dan “benkai suru” serta mengetahui kapan harus menggunakan kata kerja “iiwake suru” dan kapan harus menggunakan kata kerja “benkai suru”. setelah melakukan analisis terhadap tiga artikel yang di dalamnya terdapat kata kerja “iiwake suru” dan tiga artikel yang di dalamnya terdapat kata kerja “benkai suru”, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa “iiwake suru” ada yang memiliki makna berdalih dan ada pula yang memiliki makna membela diri. selain itu “iiwake suru” bisa digunakan dalam berbagai jenis artikel. sedangkan “benkai suru” ada yang memiliki makna membela diri dan ada pula yang memiliki makna mempertahankan diri. selain itu “benkai suru” digunakan pada umumnya dalam bidang hukum khususnya yang berkaitan dengan keputusan pengadilan.”iiwake” dan “benkai” juga memiliki persamaan yaitu pada umumnya digunakan bersamaan dengan bentuk negatif. kata kunci: medan makna, iiwake suru, benkai suru 156 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 155-165  pendahuluan medan makna adalah satu jaringan asosiasi yang rumit berdasarkan similaritas atau kesamaan, kontak atau hubungan dan hubungan hubungan asosiatif dengan penyebutan satu kata. pada awalnya konsep asosiasi makna dipelopori oleh ferdinand de saussure, yang menyimpulkan adanya hubungan di antara seperangkat kata, misalnya “baik, kebaikan, memperbaiki, pembaikan, perbaikan” atau “satu, satuan, penyatu, persatuan, penyatuan, bersatu, pemersatu”, kata-kata tersebut mempunyai asosiasi antar sesama (parera, 2004: 137). dalam mempelajari bahasa jepang ada banyak hal yang harus dipahami di antaranya kata kerja (動詞) yang memiliki banyak sekali perubahan, kata bantu (助詞) yang terdiri dari bermacammacam partikel, kata sifat (形容詞) yang terdiri dari kata sifat i, dan kata sifat na konjungsi (接続詞) yang memiliki kemiripan makna. dari bermacam-macam konjungsi yang ada, penulis melakukan analisis penggunaan kata kerja 言い訳する(iiwake suru) dan 弁解する (benkai suru) karena kedua kata kerja tersebut memiliki memiliki arti yang sama tetapi berbeda penggunaannya., dengan tujuan agar pembaca dapat mengetahui kapan harus menggunakan 言 い 訳 す る dan kapan harus menggunakan 弁解する。 metode penelitian yang dipakai adalah penelitian pustaka dengan mengumpulkan korpus data dari website surat kabar berbahasa jepang asahi.com. hasil dan pembahasan fungsi 言い訳する dan 弁解する tian (2007) mengatakan bahwa 言い訳 merupakan alasan yang digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa dirinya benar padahal sebenarnya salah. contoh: 「そんなの言い訳にして誰が信じるの。」 ‘kalau kamu mencari-cari alasan seperti itu, siapa yang akan percaya?’ sedangkan 弁解する merupakan kata serapan dari bahasa china yang memiliki arti yang sama dengan 言い訳する.tetapi yang harus diperhatikan adalah 言い訳 dapat diucapkan oleh anak-anak, tetapi 弁 解 tidak. contoh:「彼はぼくのために弁解してくれました。」 ‘dia meminta maaf demi saya’. pada kalimat di atas apabila 弁解 diganti dengan 言い訳け akan terkesan kurang alamiah. maka kata 弁解 tersebut sebagai acuan dapat diganti dengan 「あやまる」yang memiliki arti ‘meminta maaf.’ nelson (1994) mengatakan bahwa 弁解 memiliki arti ‘penjelasan, pembelaan, alasan dalih, apologi, permintaan maaf’. sedangkan 言 い 訳 memiliki arti ‘permintaan maaf, penjelasan, pembenaran’ analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 157  matsuura, 1994 mengatakan bahwa 言い訳 memiliki arti ‘dalih, alasan’. berikut ini macammacam penggunaan 言い訳 menurut matsuura: 「言い訳する。」 ‘berdalih, memberi alasan, membela diri’ 「彼はよく言い訳をする。」’ia suka berdalih.’ 「彼はいつもなんだかんだを言い訳をする。」’ia selalu punya banyak alasan.’ 「その言い訳は筋が通らない。」’dalih itu tak cukup masuk akal.’ 「彼が何と言い訳をしようと」’dalih apapun yang dikemukakannya’ sementara arti 弁解 menurut matsuura (1994) memiliki ‘membela diri, mempertahankan diri’. berikut ini adalah macam-macam penggunaan 弁解 menurut matsuura: 「弁解する。」’membela diri’ 「必死で弁解する。」’membela diri mati-matian.’ 「弁解しても無駄だ。」’membela diri akan percuma.’ 「弁解するための口実。」’dalih untuk membela diri.’ 「弁解の余地は全くありません。」’saya tidak bisa mengatakan sesuatu sebagai pembelaan diri.’ bahasa jepang surat kabar dalam bahasa jepang pada surat kabar, banyak terdapat singkatan dan penghilangan partikel dan kata kerja. menurut tomoo katayama (1995:7), ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam bahasa jepang surat kabar. pertama, terjadinya penyingkatan kata dan penghilangan partikel serta kata kerja. penyingkatan kata dan penghilangan partikel serta kata kerja berlaku untuk judul artikel maupun isi artikel itu sendiri. khusus untuk judul artikel, dalam buku reading japanese financial newspaper (1991: 6) ditulis bahwa ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam penulisan judul artikel, yaitu: (1) partikel – penghilangan partikel dapat dilakukan karena walaupun partikel tidak ada, tetapi judul artikel tersebut masih dapat mudah dimengerti. namun ada partikel yang mempunyai fungsi tertentu yang tidak dapat dihilangkan, seperti: (a) partikel に ketika disambung dengan なる, ketika menunjukkan waktu, dan ketika diletakkan sebelum kata kerja; (b) partikel へ ketika menunjukkan arah atau kondisi yang akan datang, contoh: 高品位テレビ開発へ。‘menuju ke arah siaran televisi bermutu’ (rjfn: 61); (c) partikel で ketika menunjukkan alasan, tempat atau topic, contoh: コーヒー 生豆、内外で、急勝 ‘orang dari dalam dan luar negri berbondong-bondong untuk memperoleh biji kopi mentah.’ (rjfn: 61); (d) partikel が・も ketika ingin memberikan penekanan pada kata di depannya, contoh: 需要増え在庫もていをつく ‘permintaan bertambah, persediaan habis’; (e) partikel を, banyak judul artikel yang diakhiri dengan partikel を untuk menunjukkan arti ‘permintaan, permohonan’, contoh: 日本は援助拡大を ‘memohon bantuan besar kepada jepang’ (rjfn: 61); (2) kata kerja – yang dapat dihilangkan adalah: (a) する、した、している、なる、なった; (b) kata kerja yang menyambung pada nomina dan idiom juga dapat dihilangkan, contoh: 重点≪を置 く≫‘menitikberatkan’. sementara kata kerja yang tidak dapat dihilangkan adalah: (a). kata kerja dari bahasa jepang murni, contoh: ていをつく‘mendasar’; (b) kata kerja bentuk negatif yang diakhiri dengan 「ず」. yang perlu diperhatikan adalah walaupun isi artikel menunjukkan hal yang terjadi di masa mendatang, tetapi judul artikel tetap menggunakan bentuk sekarang. 158 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 155-165  hal lain yang perlu diperhatikan adalah kata yang ditulis dengan huruf kecil yaitu: waktu, tempat, sub judul, penulis artikel, penerbit. jumlah ditulis dengan angka romawi. tetapi jumlah dalam isi artikel ditulis dengan kanji. contoh jumlah dalam judul artikel: 過剰販促自粛 42,8%に (rjfn: 63). contoh jumlah dalam isi artikel: 十二月前半は前年比二0%強と好調だが、例年後半伸び悩 むためだ。(rjfn: 63). ketika menghilangkan partikel は、が、dan を koma (,) digunakan atau membuka ruang di antara kata berikutnya. contoh: トヨタ、8年ぶりシェア低下。 (rjfn: 63). kalimat lengkapnya: トヨタは8年ぶりにシェアが低下しそうだ。 contoh penghilangan partikel dan kata kerja dalam judul artikel: 寒さ緩んで節分 ‘ketika dingin sudah mereda maka dimulailah festival’. pada kalimat di atas terdapat penghilangan partikel が dan kata kerja 来た. kalimat lengkapnya: 寒さが緩んで節分が来た partikel が yang mengacu pada subjek kalimat sering dihilangkan dalam setiap judul artikel, begitu pula dengan 来た karena kata kerja dan kata sifat sering dihilangkan. selanjutnya, tidak menggunakan kata ganti 「彼」dan「彼女」. alasannya adalah untuk menghindari munculnya kesalahan ketika jurnalis menghapus informasi atau menambah informasi baru dalam artikel yang telah ditulis sebelumnya sebagai sebuah cerita yang diberitakan. 「彼」dan 「彼女」biasanya menunjuk pada orang yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya. jadi tidak digunakannya kata ganti tersebut akan mengurangi gangguan atau masalah dari proses pengecekan kata ganti setiap kali ada penambahan atau penghapusan yang dilakukan oleh jurnalis tersebut. analisis medan makna 言い訳 する (iiwake suru) 観客、5割切る=大相撲名古屋場所2日目 2011 年 7 月 11 日 20 時 6 分 大相撲 おおずもう 名古屋 な ご や 場所 ば し ょ 2日目(11日、愛知県 あいちけん 体育館 たいいくかん )の 入 場 者 数 にゅうじょうしゃかず は定員8000の半分 に満 み たない3700人だった。野球 やきゅう 賭博 と ば く 事件 じ け ん があった昨年 さくねん 名古屋 な ご や 場所 ば し ょ の最 さい 少 しょう は2、3日 目の4500人。 放 ほう 駒 こま 理事長 りじちょう ( 元大関 もとおおぜき 魁 さきがけ 傑 すぐる )は「言い訳にしてはいけないが、 (八百長 やおちょう (uang suap supaya pihak lawan mau mengalah)など)もろもろのことが影響してい るのは否めない」と語っ た。 [時事通信社] ‘penonton berkurang 50% pada hari ke 2 pertandingan sumo di nagoya jumlah penonton pada hari ke 2 pertandingan sumo di nagoya basho (yang dilaksanakan pada tanggal 11 juli 2011 di gedung olahraga perfectur aichi) hanya 3700 orang dan hanya memenuhi setengah dari 8000 kapasitas tempat duduk yang disediakan. tahun lalu pun jumlah penonton pertandingan sumo ini hanya 4500 orang pada hari ke 2 dan ke 3, dan hal ini disebabkan karena adanya kasus suap. direktur houkoma (sebelumnya oozekisakigake suguro) mengatakan, “sebenarnya kami tidak boleh membela diri, tetapi kami tidak bisa menyangkal bahwa kejadian ini analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 159  dipengaruhi oleh hal-hal seperti adanya kasus suap terhadap atlet sumo dan macam-macam hal lainnya.”’ medan makna 言い訳する 1 dari tiga arti yang dikemukakan oleh matsuura, kalimat di atas 言 い 訳 mengandung makna‘membela diri’ karena menurut kbbi, ‘membela diri’ mengandung arti ‘memihak untuk melindungi diri’. pada kalimat di atas, direktur houkoma mengatakan bahwa dia tidak boleh membela diri atas peristiwa jumlah penonton yang berkurang yang disebabkan oleh kasus suap. 2)ルーカス:「試合をコントロールした」 2011 年 7 月 4 日 20 時 31 分 [goal.com] ブラジル 代 表 だいひょう は3日、コパ・アメリカ初戦 しょせん のベネズエラ 代 表 戦 だいひょうせん に臨み、 0-0のドローで試合 し あ い を終えた。リヴァプールに所属 しょぞく するブラジル代表mfルーカス・レイ バは、試合 し あ い 内容 ないよう に手応えを感じているようだ。 白星 しろぼし スタートを飾 かざ れなかったブラジルだが、ルーカスは悲観 ひ か ん していない。試合後 し あ い ご に次のよ うなコメントを残した。 「僕たちは試合をコントロールした。相手にはほとんどチャンスをつくらせなかったよ。後 半はちょっとミスが増えた。今は、次の試合でボール支配率 しはいりつ を保って、より多くのチャンス をつくらなければいけない」 また、dfアンドレ・サントスは次のように話している。 「多くのチャンスをつくっていたけど、それをゴールに結びつけられなかったのはよくない ね。ピッチは良くなかった。でも、それを言い訳にすることはできない。フィニッシュのと ころでも、もっとうまくやらなければいけないね」 ブラジルのグループリーグ第2節は9日に開催予定。初戦でエクアドルと引き分け たパラグアイと対戦する。 ‘lucas “kami mengontrol pertandingan” pemain wakil dari brazil berhasil mengakhiri pertandingan dengan skor seri pada pertandingan pertama copa amerika melawan venezuela. pemain tengah warga negara brazil, lucas leiva yang akan masuk tim liverpool, menyatakan kesan-kesannya terhadap pertandingan ini. 160 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 155-165  walaupun brazil tidak masuk ke dalam tim yang diperhitungkan untuk menang, tetapi lucas tidak pesimis, ia menyatakan kesannya sebagai berikut, “kami mengontrol pertandingan dan tidak memberikan kesempatan kepada lawan. pada babak ke 2 kami sedikit melakukan kesalahan, pada pertandingan selanjutnya kami akan menguasai bola dan membuka kesempatan sebanyak-banyaknya untuk mencetak gol”. selain itu, pemain bertahan andre santos juga mengatakan, “kami sebenarnya telah mempunyai banyak kesempata, tapi tidak bisa bersatu untuk mencetak gol adalah hal yang tidak baik. selain itu, lapangan tempat kami bertanding saat itu juga dalam kondisi yang tidak baik. namun kami tidak bisa mengatakan itu sebagai alasan. kami harus melakukan yang terbaik sampai akhir pertandingan. musim ke 2 liga brazil akan dimulai pada tanggal 9 ini dengan pertandingan pertama antara venezuela melawan paraguay.’ 言い訳 pada kalimat di atas memiliki makna ‘berdalih’ karena sesuai dengan arti berdalih yang ada dalam kbbi, berdalih memiliki arti ‘mengemukakan alasan yang dicari-cari untuk menghindari tugas atau menutupi perbuatan yang salah’. dalam kalimat di atas, andre santos mengatakan bahwa timnya sudah mempunyai banyak kesempatan, tetapi tidak bisa bersatu untuk mencetak gol adalah hal yang tidak baik. selain itu, lapangan tempat timnya bertanding pada saat itu juga dalam keadaan yang tidak baik. tetapi santos tidak bisa mengatakan hal tersebut sebagai alasan yang dicari-cari untuk menutupi perbuatan yang salah. perbuatan yang salah dalam hal ini adalah karena brazil tidak masuk ke dalam tim yang diperhitungkan untuk menang. 阪神・新井貴、開幕戦で結果 6回に同点打 2011 年 4 月 12 日 22 時 47 分 (asahi.com) (12日、阪神7―4広島) 阪神の新井 あらい 貴 たかし が流れを手繰 た ぐ り寄 よ せた。6回は中 前 なかまえ へ同点打を放 はな つと、1点差に迫 せま られ た8回は二塁打 に る い だ で 出 塁 しゅつるい 。浅井の中前)安打(hit)で 生 還 せいかん した。「能見 の み が 粘 ねば り強く投 げて くれていたので。 全 球 ぜんきゅう 種 しゅ に対応しようと思った」。日本プロ野球選手会長として多忙を 極め、オープン戦では不振 ふ し ん だったが、言い訳せずに開 幕 戦 かいまくせん で結果を出 した。「少しでも勇 気づけられると信じて頑張る」 オープン戦は開幕前の調整試合、開幕戦は公式戦の第一戦の事です。 analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 161  ‘arai takashi dari klub hanshin berhasil melakukan 6 kali pukulan pada pertandingan pembuka. arai takashi dari klub hanshin berhasil menguasai pertandingan setelah melakukan enam kali pukulan ke bagian depan lapangan tengah dan melakukan pukulan dobel pada lapangan baseball sehingga mendapatkan skor dan berhasil mengalahkan hiroshima. arai mengatakan, “nomi sudah berusaha dengan gigih untuk memukul dan saya pikir apakah saya bisa melakukan semua pukulan dalam baseball.” di tengah-tengah kesibukannya sebagai kepala atlet klub baseball profesional, hanshin mengalami kemunduran pada pertandingan persahabatan, tetapi hal tersebut tidak bisa dijadikan alasan dan pada akhirnya hanshin memperoleh skor yang cemerlang pada pertandingan pembukaan. arai juga mengatakan, “walaupun sedikit, kami percaya dengan adanya keberanian kami akan terus berusaha.”’ 言い訳 pada kalimat di atas mengandung arti ‘berdalih’ karena sesuai dengan arti berdalih yang ada dalam kbbi, berdalih memiliki arti ‘mengemukakan alasan yang dicari-cari untuk menghindari tugas atau menutupi perbuatan yang salah’. dalam kalimat di atas, arai mengatakan bahwa kesibukannya sebagai kepala atlet klub baseball profesional tidak bisa dijadikan alasan untuk menutupi perbuatan yang salah. perbuatan yang salah dalam kalimat di atas adalah hanshin yang mengalami kemunduran pada pertandingan persahabatan. analisis medan makna 弁解する (benkai suru) 航空管制官、また居眠り=勤務体制見直しへ―米 【ワシントン時事】米 べい 連邦 れんぽう 航 空 局 こうくうきょく (faa)は16日、深夜 し ん や 勤務 き ん む に就いていたフロリダ州 マイアミの航空 こうくう 交通 こうつう 管制 かんせい センターの管制官 かんせいかん が居眠 い ね む りしていたとして、 停 職 ていしょく 処分 しょぶん にしたと 発表した。航空管制官の勤務体制を3日以内に見直すことも明らかにした。 この管制官 かんせいかん は同日未明、指示を出していた離陸後 り り く ご の航空機が 巡 航 じゅんこう 高度 こ う ど に達した後、居眠 りを始めた。パイロットとの交信に問題はなく、運航 うんこう への影響もなかった。当時 と う じ 管制室 かんせいしつ に は計12人の管制官と管理 か ん り 職 しょく (管制官のボス)2人が詰 つ めており、 同 僚 どうりょう の管制官 かんせいかん が居眠り に気付いた。 管制官の勤務中の居眠りは今年7件目。ラフード運輸 う ん ゆ 長 官 ちょうかん は「弁解の余地はない」と述 べた。 162 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 155-165  ‘amerika: petugas menara bandara terkantuk-kantuk lagi. pertimbangan untuk meninjau kembali sistem kerja faa (federal aviation administration) pada tanggal 16 juli mengumumkan pemecatan sementara terhadap petugas menara pusat sistem navigasi bandara miami, negara bagian florida yang sedang terkantuk-kantuk pada saat bekerja pada malam hari. karena hal ini maka pusat sistem navigasi bandara miami akan kembali mempertimbangkan sistem kerja. petugas menara tersebut mulai terkantuk-kantuk setelah selesai memantau dari tempat tinggi pesawat yang tinggal landas pada saat hari belum terang. kejadian ini tidak menimbulkan pengaruh terhadap navigasi dan tidak ada masalah terhadap kontak dengan pilot. pada hari kejadian, di ruang kontrol ada 12 orang petugas menara, dan 2 orang staf yang sedang bekerja. teman sekerja dari petugas menara tersebut menyadari bahwa temannya sedang terkantuk-kantuk. tahun ini sudah ke tujuh kalinya petugas menara tersebut terkantuk-kantuk pada saat melaksanakan tugas. kepala transportasi ray la hood mengatakan, “tidak ada alasan untuk hal ini”’ pada kalimat di atas, 弁解する memiliki makna ‘mempertahankan diri’ karena sesuai dengan arti dalam kbbi yaitu ‘menjaga atau melindungi diri supaya selamat’. pada kalimat di atas, 弁解 dapat digunakan karena situasi dimana petugas menara yang dipecat sementara, tidak dapat mencaricari alasan untuk mempertahankan dirinya dari pemecatan sementara karena kelalaian yang telah diperbuatnya. 元警備員 もとけいびいん の男に無期 む き 懲 役 ちょうえき =スナック経 営 けいえい 女 性 じょせい 刺殺 しさつ ―甲府 こうふ 地裁 ー 2011 年 2 月 25 日 22 時 6 分 山梨県 やまなしけん 甲斐 か い 市 し で2009年、売上金 うりあげきん などを奪 うば おうとしてスナックの女性 じょせい 経営者 けいえいしゃ を刺殺し、 強盗 ごうとう 殺人 さつじん と強盗 ごうとう 強姦 ごうかん 未遂 み す い などの罪 つみ に問われた元警備員 もとけいびいん 国 くに 谷 たに 義一 よしかず 被告 ひ こ く (62)の裁判員 さいばんいん 裁判 さいばん の判決 はんけつ で、甲府 こ う ふ 地裁 ち さ い (深沢 ふかさわ 茂之 しげゆき 裁判 さいばん 長 ちょう )は25日、「事前 じ ぜ ん にナイフを用意 よ う い するなど、 計画的 けいかくてき で卑劣」として、 求 刑 きゅうけい 通り無期 む き 懲 役 ちょうえき を言い渡した。 判決 はんけつ は「被告 ひ こ く は駆け付けた警察官 けいさつかん に凶器の場所を示し『何回 なんかい 刺 さ したか分からないくらい 刺した』と述べたほか、犯行 はんこう 直後 ちょくご の現場には被告と女性しかいなかった」などと指摘 し て き 。そ の上で「不合理 ふ ご う り な弁解をして無罪 む ざ い を主張しており、反省 はんせい の態度は認 みと められない」とした。 [時事通信社] analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 163  ‘hukuman seumur hidup terhadap kepala penjaga yang melakukan pembunuhan terhadap seorang wanita penjaga counter snack. pada tanggal 25 februari 2011 hakim fuzawa shigeyuki mengumumkan keputusan hukuman seumur hidup terhadap terdakwa kepala penjaga kunitani yoshikazu yang melakukan pembunuhan serta pecobaan perampokan dan pemerkosaan terhadap wanita penjaga counter snack di di kota kai perfektur yamanashi. keputusan ini diambil berdasarakan hasil keputusan dari hakim juri yang setelah dilakukan penyelidikan menyatakan bahwa pembunuhan tersebut dilakukan secara keji dan pisau yang direncakan untuk melakukan pembunuhan tersebut sudah disiapkan sebelumnya.’ keputusan pengadilan mengatakan bahwa terdakwa menusuk korban berkali-kali hingga tak terhitung dan pada saat kejadian hanya ada terdakwa dan korban. selain itu, walaupun terdakwa bersikeras bahwa ia tidak bersalah dan melakukan pembelaan yang tidak masuk akal, tetapi hal tersebut tidak dapat diterima.’ pada kalimat di atas, 弁解する memiliki makna ‘mempertahankan diri’ karena sesuai dengan arti dalam kbbi yaitu ‘menjaga atau melindungi diri supaya selamat’. pada kalimat di atas, 弁解 dapat digunakan karena situasi dimana terdakwa bersikeras bahwa ia tidak bersalah dan melakukan pembelaan yang tidak masuk akal. pembelaan yang dimaksud dalam kalimat tersebut adalah pembelaan yang dilakukan untuk mempertahankan diri supaya selamat dari hukuman. 静岡2人殺害、男の死刑確定へ=「反省ない」―最高裁 静岡県焼津市 や い づ し で2004~05年、同僚と妻を殺害したとして殺人罪などに問われ、一、二 審で死刑とされた元生協職員大倉修被告(42)の上告審判決で、最高裁第2小法廷(古田 佑紀裁判長)は11日、被告側の上告を棄却した。死刑が確定する。 同小法廷は「いずれの犯行も自身の不貞行為に起因しており、動機に酌むべき点はない。 落ち度のない2人の生命を奪った結果は重大で、不合理な弁解を述べるなど反省もうかがえ ない」とした。 [時事通信社] ‘hukuman mati bagi pria pembunuh dua orang . mahkamah agung menolak banding yang diajukan oleh terdakwa ookura osamu yang melakukan pembunuhan terhadap istrinya dan rekan kerjanya sekitar tahun 2004-2005 yang terjadi di kota yaizu perfektur shizuoka. permohonan banding ini ditolak setelah sebelumnya terdakwa mengajukan banding sebanyak dua kali dan tetap dijatuhi hukuman mati. kali ini pun mahkamah agung menolak permohonan banding tersebut dan menjatuhkan hukuman mati terhadap terdakwa tersebut karena istri terdakwa melakukan perselingkuhan dengan rekan kerja terdakwa. terdakwa juga melakukan pembelaan yang tidak masuk akal dan sama sekali tidak tampak adanya penyesalan.’ 164 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 155-165  pada kalimat di atas, 弁解する memiliki makna ‘membela diri’ karena sesuai dengan arti dalam kbbi yaitu ‘memihak untuk melindungi diri’. pada kalimat di atas, 弁解 dapat digunakan karena situasi dimana terdakwa melakukan pembelaan yang tidak masuk akal terhadap pembunuhan yang dilakukannya. setelah melakukan analisis pada kata kerja 言い訳する dan 弁解 dalam 6 artikel di atas, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa 言い訳する ada yang memiliki makna berdalih dan ada pula yang memiliki makna membela diri, selain itu 言い訳する bisa digunakan dalam berbagai jenis artikel, sedangkan 弁解する ada yang memiliki maksa membela diri dan ada pula yang memiliki makna mempertahankan diri, selain itu 弁解する digunakan pada umumnya dalam bidang hukum atau yang berkaitan dengan keputusan pengadilan serta hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan hukum lainnya. 言い訳 dan 弁解 juga memiliki persamaan yaitu pada umumnya digunakan bersamaan dengan bentuk negatif. penutup selain kata kerja iiwake suru dan benkai suru, masih banyak lagi kata kerja lain dalam bahasa jepang yang memiliki makna yang sama tetapi berbeda dalam penggunaannya dan dapat dijadikan bahan untuk penelitian berikutnya. penulis menyadari bahwa masih banyak kekurangan dalam penelitian ini dan penulis mengharapkan masukan dari pembaca setelah membaca artikel ini. daftar pustaka ajalt. (1991). reading japanese financial newspaper. japan: kodansha international. asahi.com. (11 juli 2011). kankyaku 5 warikiru, oosumo nagoya basho futsuka basho. diakses dari http://www.asahi.com/sports/jiji/jjt201107110089.html. asahi.com. (12 april 2011). hanshin, arai takashi, kaimakusen de kekka rokkai ni doutenda. diakses dari http://www.asahi.com/sports/update/0412/osk201104120123.html. asahi.com. (17 april 2011). koukuukanseikan, mata inemuri=gimu taisei minaoshi he-bei. diakses dari http://www.asahi.com/international/jiji/jjt201104170016.html. asahi.com. (4 juli 2011). lucas “shiai wo control shita”. diakses dari http://www.asahi.com/sports/fb/world/goal/goc201107040071.html. katayama, tomoo. (1995). news nihongo read and listening to the new in japanese. japan: aruku. matsuura, kenji. (1994). kamus bahasa jepang-indonesia. japan: kyoto sangyo university press. analisis makna “iiwake suru”….. (felicia) 165  nelson, andrew. (1994). kamus kanji modern jepang indonesia. indonesia: kesaint blanc. parera, jos daniel. (2004). teori semantik (edisi kedua). jakarta: erlangga. tian, zhongkui, et al. (2007). ruigigo tsukaiwake jiten. japan: kenkyusha. tim penyusun kamus pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. (1995). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. assignment 2 bilingualism: an asset or a burden? ienneke i. dewi english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45 kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, inneke@binus.edu s3 student english applied linguistic, atma jaya university abstract the article shows literary scholar opinion whether bilingualism is an asset or burden. the literary scholars see it from many aspects such as neuropsychological, cognitive, social, and psychology. from their research it found that generally bilingualism is an asset and not a burden. the analysis is also supported by argument and some examples from bilingual peoples. keywords: bilingualism, neuropsychology, cognitive abstrak artikel memaparkan suatu pergumulan pendapat apakah bilingualism merupakan aset atau beban. pelbagai ahli melihat dari pelbagai aspek yaitu perkembangan bahasa, neuropsikologikal, kognitif, sosial, dan psikologi. berdasarkan hasil penelitian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa secara umum bilingualisme merupakan aset dan bukan burden. hal ini didukung oleh beberapa pendapat dan contoh dari orang yang bilingual. kata kunci: bilingualisme, neuropsikologi, kognitif bilingualism: an asset..... (ienneke i. dewi) 129 mailto:inneke@binus.edu introduction bilingualism which hammers and blanc (2000:6) defined as, “the state of an individual or a community characterized by the simultaneous presence of two languages,” had been in the world since a long time ago. since the story of babel tower when people only had one language, human beings had been given a lot of languages so that they spread out in the world. since then, human lived in groups depending on their languages. gea and wulandari (2003) mentioned that people and their languages were divided into four big groups; australoid (in australia), mongoloid (in asia), kaukasoid (in europe), and negroid (africa). then along with the time, the four big groups began to influence one another language by going to others’ areas, having mixed marriage creating new languages here and there. english, for example, which used to be a dialect in a very small area has now become an international language. according to crystal (2003), the data in 2001 shows that english has been used by more than 58 countries in the world with the total population of 329,140,800 people as their native language not to mention the varieties of english that each country has. as l2, there have been 66 countries and 430,614,500 people using english as their second language. in its development from only a dialect in a small area in english to such number of countries and people, english must have undergone changes, influencing and being influenced by other languages. in such process, there have been a lot of people speaking two languages or more. moreover, there are more and more countries and people learning english as a foreign language and that will add the number of people learning english and increase the number bilinguals in some varieties, people who speak more that two languages. indonesia which consists of various ethnics with their own languages undergoes the process of bilingualism and the development of the country result in the movement of the people from one place to another. when they move, they bring along their languages and get in touch with the language from other areas. this condition may cause the bilinguality of the person or the society. as a nation, indonesia has indonesian as its national language which has to be learnt formally in schools. the indonesian government has decided that english has also to be learnt formally at schools beginning from the junior high schools, however, along with the people awareness that english has become the international language, there are more and more schools from elementary or even kindergarten having english in their curriculum. besides, there are more and more international schools established. by having that situation, it seems that it cannot be avoided having be more and more bilingual people in the world including in indonesia with various levels of mastery of each language. the problem is that whether mastering or learning two languages will be an asset or burden. this question is actually asking whether people will get a lot of benefits of losses when they able to master more than one languages. this paper intends to discuss the assumption that bilingualism as an asset considering the cognitive development, the neuropsychological and psychological aspects. surely, the sociological cultural cannot be avoided as language cannot be separated with society and culture. in order to integrate those aspects, the nature of the language development is also discussed. hopefully this discussion will encourage people to learn more if the answer is positive and to find a way to draw our children from being bilingual if the result is negative. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 129-138 130 language development and bilingualism language development in general, since a child was born, he has already experienced a language, at least the one (s) spoken by his parents and people around him. he begins to learn a language. the first process that he undergoes is hearing the language. later on, little by little he is learning how to speak, how to read and how to write. the language that he learns or acquires, will be useful for him to communicate with people. as language and people cannot be separated from society and cultures (kramsh, 2000), in acquiring a language, a child also learns the form and the function of a language, together with the values, the norms of the culture and society and later on uses it for the communication. in the development, a child internalizes the function and forms of the language together with the social values (hammers and blanc, 2000) . for example when a child learn the form good morning, he also learns that the expression is used for greeting other people and while saying that, he should behave accordingly e.g. in japanese in expressing ohayo gosaimaze (good morning) the child should bow; or in indonesia, especially in central java, the child should nod his head. a child learns that if he does this he will be considered polite and accepted in his social network. in this case, hammers and blanc (2000:112) said, “the social representation of language – comprising shared meanings, social schemata and the internalization of social values – plays an essential role in the development of cultural identity. these social cognitive processes determine, in turn, the motivational processes for learning or using a language into different functions.” however, before a child is motivated whether to use the language or not, there is another factor involved that is the valorization of the language; of the function and form. the more positive experiences the child undergoes using the language, the more motivated he will learn and use the language. these three stages of development, internalization, valorization and motivation becomes basic foundation for a child whether he will develop the language conceptually and communicatively or not (hammers and blanc 2000). the language developed can be used as the cognitive tool that is to organize his way of thinking and can become the object of cognitive processing in terms of analyzing and controlling. bilingualism the very simple definition regarding bilingualism was given by weinrich (1968:1) as quoted by hoffmann (1996) by saying that, “the practice of alternately using two languages will be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual.” richards et.al. (1992: 34) and hammers and blanc (2000) agreed that bilingualism involves society and personal. the detailed definition hammer and blanc (2000:6) including the term bilinguality in bilingualism, states that, “bilinguality refers to the psychological state of an individual . . . and bilingualism refer to the state of a linguistic community.” hammers and blanc also mention psychological, cognitive, psycholinguistic, social psychological, social psychological, social sociological, sociolinguistic, socio-cultural and linguistic dimensions which form bilingualism. interestingly skutnabb-kangas (1984:91) quoted by hoffmann (1996: 27) four criterion in defining bilingualism i.e. origin meaning where how the languages are learnt and used the languages; competence indicating the level of the proficiency of the two languages; function referring to the function of each language and attitude indicating internal identification and external identification meaning how far the child is identified himself in the two languages. in line with those criterions, hammers and blanc (2000:25) mentioned 6 dimensions i.e. the competence in both languages, to bilingualism: an asset..... (ienneke i. dewi) 131 cognitive organization, age of acquisition, the presence of l2 community in environment, the relative status of the two languages and group membership and cultural identity. thus when dealing with bilingualism, actually we combine the pattern of the language development of l1 and the one that of l2 by considering the dimensions mentioned above. also, in order to say whether bilingualism an asset or a burden, we should consider the dimensions and the researches done concerning the comparisons of the monolingual and bilingual ability in several areas. in this paper, two kinds of the results of the researches regarding cognitive and social psychological aspects will be presented. however, before looking at the results of the two aspects, another aspect, that is biological aspects represented in neuropsychological aspects will be looked through in order to complete the results neuropsychological aspects basically the neuro-linguistics study is based on how our brain works. the brain consists of two hemispheres, the left and the right ones. the left one has logical, convergent, analytic, sequential, and propositional functions and the right one has intuitive, divergent, holistic, parallel, and appositional functions. language belongs to the left hemisphere. some parts of the brain play a very important role in processing the information which is received as well as is produced or responded. in order to speak the written word that is read, the information that is received by the primary visual cortex is sent to the posterior speech area, including wernicke’s area. after that, the information goes to broca’s area and then to the primary motor cortex. on the other hand, to speak a word that is heard, first the information should be received by the primary auditory cortex and then transmitted to the posterior speech area including wernicke’s area, and finally it is sent to the primary motor. hammers and blanc (2000: 158-159) made the conclusion from the researches regarding the functions of the brain related to language functions as follows: 1. there is no clear evidence whether cerebral organization is different in bilinguals and in monolingual 2. the mechanism is not separated for different languages 3. there are not age-of acquisition differences in cerebral processing meaning that the process of language learning is the same for any kinds of bilinguals 4. there are not enough evidences and experiments proving that differences in learning situations, in competence and in language structure have different effects on cerebral organization. 5. there are only small number of data indicating that the same cerebral structures involved in the language of bilinguals using an articulate and a signed language 6. different languages do not rely on different cerebral structures. the learning of the language by bilinguals is the same as that of monolinguals. in short, it can be concluded that biologically, concerning the way of our brain processes the information concerning the language, or the biological process of the people’s acquiring the language, actually there is no difference between monolinguals and bilinguals. biologically, the process is the same. bilingualism and cognitive development cognitive development and bilingualism relates each other in the role of language. cognitive development is defined as “the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.” (miller-keane in http://www.healthofchildren.com/c/cognitive-development.html.). vygotsky (1962) as quoted by hammers and blanc (2000:82) points out that, “language plays an essential role in cognitive jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 129-138 132 http://www.healthofchildren.com/c/cognitive-development.html development.” language is a crucial tool in shaping cognition, which enables a child to organize abstract thoughts. the function indicates that cognitive development also covers intelligence, creative thinking and metalinguistics. regarding bilingualism and cognitive development, (bialystock & ryan, 1985a; bialystok, 1991) argue that bilingual children may have greater cognitive control of information processing than do monolingual children. however, in the following, the researches concerning bilingualism and iq, bilingualism and creative thinking, bilingualism and those areas are explored. bilingualism and iq in general, baker (2001), baker (2000) and hoffmann (1991) divided the researches on bilingualism and iq in three periods i.e. detrimental effects, neutral effects and additive effects. the time of the periods sometimes overlaps. the first period lasted from 1920s to 1960s with the results that in general monolinguals were better than bilinguals in iq test. the results concluded that bilinguals were mentally confused and bilinguality disrupted thinking. however, the researches were found to have weaknesses such as in measuring the intelligence, methods, in the analysis and in the context. examples of the research can be found in saer (1923) in hoffmann (1996). the result of the second period the neutral effects indicated that there was no difference or insignificant difference between bilinguals and monolinguals terms of their iq such as in arsenian (1937) and darcy (1953) in hoffmann (1996); in magnamara (1996) reported in hammer and blanc (2000). the last period – the additive effects beginning in 1962 by peal and lambert (1962) in hammer and blanc (2000), hoffman (1996) and colin (2001) showed that in most areas bilinguals are more superior than monolinguals. in this research peal and lambert (1962:16) as quoted by hoffmann (1996:123) found that, “bilinguals scored more highly than monolinguals in both verbal and nonverbal measurements of intelligence” hoffmann (2000) also reported three more researches; anita ianco-worrall’s (1972) studying bilinguals english – african in south africa for their metalinguistic ability; sandra ben-zeev (1976) observing cognitive flexibility of hebrew – english children from israel and usa. the results were that the metalinguistic awareness and the cognitive ability of the bilinguals were better than those of monolinguals. bilingualism and creative thinking the researches done indicate that bilinguals are better in creative thinking than those of monolinguals. the research by dennis c. carringer (1974) tested the creative thinking of bilinguals and monolinguals using the mexican youths and found out that bilinguals are more creative in verbal flexibility, verbal originality and the difference is significantly higher in bilinguals. in this research he also used the sex and interaction sex as his variables but they are not significant. collins (2001, 144) using the term ‘divergent’ instead of creative thinking mentioned that “a child having creative thinking is more creative, imaginative, elastic, open minded and free in thinking”. he also put forward the researches on additive bilinguals done by baker 1988 and ricciardelli (1992) in some countries such as ireland, malaysia, eastern erurope, canada, singpore, mexido and the us in which the sampling bilinguals used english plus chinese, bahasa melayu, tamil, polish, german., greek, spanish, french, ukranian, yorubo wels, italian or kannada. the results indicate that bilinguals are superior to monolinguals on divergent thinking. baker (2000: 40) said that bilinguals have thinking advantages over monolinguals . . . . researches across continents in the world show that they tend to be fluent, flexible, original and are able to elaborate to the type of an open ended question. bilingualism: an asset..... (ienneke i. dewi) 133 baker gives an example if a child is asked a question: how many uses can you think for a brick? the monolinguals just answer by showing two or three functions – the most common one such as building walls, building a house but the bilingual ones can answer the question more creatively by saying: blocking up a rabbit hole, breaking a window, using a birth bath, as a plumb line, as an abstract sculpture in an art exhibition (figure 3). figure 3: bilinguals answering questions creatively (baker 2000) bilingualism and other cognitive abilities other researches regarding cognitive abilities such as in solving the problems, concentrating, handling multiple tasks and even in the cognitive ability in the old age, tend to report that bilinguals are better than monolinguals. ellen bialystok and dana shapero’s (2005). thus from the cognitive development studies the researches have proved that bilinguals are better in almost all aspects. bilingualism and social cultural, psychological aspects when learning a language, a child has to learn the culture and the norms of the language as well, as language cannot be separated from culture. whorf’s hypothesis states that “the structure and the nature of the language used by a cultural group shapes the way in which its members think, attribute meaning and behave,” (whorf 1956 as quoted by hamers and blanc (2000). referring to the language development model of hamers and blanc (2000:124), we can see that in acquiring a language either the first or second language or acquiring both languages, a child will undergo the same experience. in short, in learning a language a child must live in the interaction with the members of the society even from a small unit like family. then he will internalize the social values, the culture together with the language he acquires. then later on he will learn whether the language and culture he learns is valorized or not by the others and whether he would get some advantages or not. if he feels the benefits of the language, he will be motivated in learning more. thus the process of internalization, valorization, and motivation is important for the child to develop the language as it is his experience. in experiencing the process, the problem is whether the bilingual child will have problem so that will influence his behaviour? will he get confused which one is his cultural and ethnic identity? in this case, the social psychological aspects in this case cannot be separated from the cultural identity, the social cultural aspect. the cognitive aspect i.e. the aptitude (“the set of skills similar to intelligence but more specifically related to l2” (hamers and blanc 200:229)) and affective aspects such as attitudes, anxiety, and self esteem lead to motivation aspects. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 129-138 134 the combination of the social cultural and the social psychological would lie on one answer that is the valorization of the environment towards the language and actually towards the people and the value of having the second language. if the environment such as friends and society look down on the child native language or second language then he will not feel proud in having those languages. for example if somebody is good at speaking irian language and indonesian, and his environment looks down on the irian people, the child will not be proud being an irianish. or on the other way around, a person learning irian language and would like to take the irian cultures that are uncommon and unaccepted in his environment, then he will not be accepted. on the other hand, when a person is able to speak english or chinese very fluently besides speaking indonesian, people will appreciate him together with the culture as they know that english and chinese will give benefits for those who master them. in this case a person will have no problem if, “he could identify positively with both his cultural /ethnic communication); his two languages should be highly valorized.” (hamers and blanc 2000:221). then he will be able to have the two items above if he has good experience concerning his uses of the language. garcia (http://si.unm.edu/web%20journals/articles/anna%20garcia.html0) told her experience as a balanced trilingual person she never had problems and could switch the culture and the language smoothly due to the acceptance of her environment. however, when she was at school talking with her friends using the tewa, she was punished by the teacher and later on she was told that at school she was not allowed to speak other languages but only english. she felt hurt and humiliated and felt that her identity as the navayo people is not accepted. on the other hand, a very interesting research done by papavlow (1999) investigating the achievement and the socialization of 39 bilingual children in 210 monolingual children. the investigation was to find out the bilingual students’ problems in having bicultural environment, their language skill ability (aptitude), their academic achievement and the most important thing their acceptance of the majority and being accepted by them. the result shows that 70% of them did not have any problems in identifying themselves either in language or culture when they were in their family (their native culture) and when they were at school (new culture). it means that they were able to adjust themselves in the bicultural environment. they also said that they like their new country. concerning the language aptitude, this research found out that the more the bilinguals know about their native language, the better score they have in spoken and written greek. the academic results obtained by looking at their score in history and math, indicates that the scores of the bilinguals were slightly higher those of the monolinguals. in this case it was reported that the bilinguals received less exposure about the language, and received less homework because they had to work after school. the research above shows that the success of the bilinguals in adjusting themselves so that they had no problems in bicultural environment and obtained good score. there is one more finding that might become the key of their motivation in adjusting and that leads them to success. the key is the acceptance. in this research it was found out that 64% of the monolinguals accepted them and 20% gave no opinion. being accepted by 64% out of 210 is great. also the bilingual students could accept the monolinguals as well. the acceptance by both sides indicating the valorization towards the person the language and the culture leads to the motivation in either adjusting themselves as well as learning the language more. acceptance would likely be the key of the successful bilingual people. one important thing mentioned by hamers and blanc (2001) and baker (2001) is that bilingualism is not the cause of a person self esteem or bad behaviour. if there is, it is the result of other problems such as like racism, social problems. bilingualism: an asset..... (ienneke i. dewi) 135 socially a person will get benefits from having two languages and two cultures as mentioned by baker (2001:2). he said that a person will have advantages from being bilingual socially because, “he will have broader enculturation, a deeper multiculturalism and two language worlds of experience and because of that, he will realize the differences in society and have greater tolerance and less racism.” as a result he will be better in communication if baker (2000) mentions that bilinguality will “raise self esteem” and security in cultural identity, maybe the answer will be depend on (again) the valorization, the acceptance of the language from both the person and the society. bilingual people in reality to end the discussion, the last chapter will put forward the comments of bilingual people in telling their experience and some famous people who are bilinguals (grosjean 1982) the bilingual people will give comments by answering the following questions: 1. what are the inconveniences of being bilingual? 2. what are the advantages of being bilingual? 3. do you feel that you are different from a monolingual? the people asked have various backgrounds of languages, bilinguals, such as luganda – english; greek – english, burmese – english; trilingual arabic-french, armenian-arabic, english, bengali – urdu – english and arabic – english – french. in general the inconveniences of being bilingual are the tendency to mix the languages and the cultural identity. while the advantages are ranges from the economic, social status, and global community. regarding the feelings, only one out of five persons interviewed said that he was different in a positive way such as better in understanding people, better in understanding films, books. interestingly, grosjean (1982:285) gives the list famous people from various fields who are bilinguals. fields names languages politics indira gandhi hindi, english kurt waldheim german, english henry kissinger german, english philosphy and rligion mahatma gandhi gujarathi, hindi, english martin luther german, latin pope john paul ii polish. latin italian, english. german fine arts and cinema pablo picasso spanish, french sophia loren italian, french, english greta garbo swedish, english science and social science marie curie polish, french roman jakobson russian, french, english, german, czech. literature joseph conrad polish, french, english samuel beckett english, french rabindranath tagore bengali, english john milton latin, english music george frederic handel german, egnlish arthur chopin french, polish jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 129-138 136 conclusion this paper investigates the statement that bilingualism is an asset instead of a burden. the discussion is done considering the language development, neuropsychological aspects, cognitive development, social cultural and psychological aspects and it is ended with the comments of the real bilingual people and names of famous bilingual people. a person will acquire his first and second (or two languages as his first language) using the same language development, i.e. in the context of society, in the interaction with other people. in this process he internalizes not only the language but the culture as well. then he learns to valorize the culture and the language and if he gets good experience, he will be motivated. from the neuropsychological aspects, there is no difference between bilinguals and monolinguals in the process of language information. the researches in the cognitive development indicate that bilinguals are better than monolinguals in most aspects. the socio-cultural and psychological aspects show that the attitude of the person and the environment plays an important role in bilingualism. however, bilingualism does not cause any bad effects. the general results from the comments of bilingual people indicate that there are no negative effects in bilingualism. the problems mentioned are not significant and only situational. however they mentioned a lot of advantages. thus this paper will conclude that bilingualism is an asset instead of a burden references bachren, umar. s. 2007. unpublished lecturing materials. jakarta: atmajaya baker, colin. 2000. a parents’ and teachers’ guide to bilingualism. toronto: multilingual matters ltd. bialystok, ellen and d. shapero. 2005. ambigous benefits of blingualism on reversing ambigious figures in developmental science vo.8.pp 596 – 604 retrieved 2 december 2007 from http://www.psych.yorku.ca/ellenb/research/rese arch_areas/documents/bialystok_shapero_05.pdf. bialystok, ellen, e. and f.i.m. craik 2007. “language boost the brain”. in journal of the international neuropsychological society. vol. 13 pp.209-211. from http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid=0fe3f726aa28af4ea4c62 1eed524f18a.tomcat1?frompage=online&aid=692560 _______. 2001 foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. toronto: multilingual matters ltd. carringer, c.d. 1974. “creative thinking in mexican youth”. in journal of cross cultural psychology vol.5 no.4 pp.492 – 503. http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/5/4/492. retireved 2 december 2007 crytal, d. 2003 english as a global language.edinburg: cambrige university press. bilingualism: an asset..... (ienneke i. dewi) 137 http://www.psych.yorku.ca/ellenb/research/rese%20arch_areas/documents/bialystok_shapero_05.pdf. http://www.psych.yorku.ca/ellenb/research/rese%20arch_areas/documents/bialystok_shapero_05.pdf. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid=0fe3f726aa28af4ea4c621eed524f18a.tomcat1?frompage=online&aid=692560 http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid=0fe3f726aa28af4ea4c621eed524f18a.tomcat1?frompage=online&aid=692560 http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/5/4/492.%20retireved%202%20december%202007 garcia, anna. http://si.unm.edu/web%20journals/articles/anna%20garcia.html. retrived 10 dec 2007. grosjean, f. 1982 life with two languages: an introduction to bilingualism. london: harvard university press hammers, josiane.f. and michael h.a. blanc 2000. bilinguality and bilingualism.cambridge: cambridge university press. hoffmann, charlote. 1991 an introduction to bilingualism. new york: longman inc. kramsch, claire. 2000. language and culture. new york: oxford university press. miller-keane encyclopedia and dictionary of medicine, nursing, and allied health, 5th ed. and child development institute, http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com. papapavlow, a. 1999. academic achievement, language proficiency and socialization of bilingual children in a monolingual greek cypriot speaking environment. in journal of bilingual education and bilingualism vol 2, no.4 pp.252 – 267. december 12, 2007 taken from, http://www.multilingual-matters.net/beb/002/0252/beb0020252.pdf. richards, jack. c., john platt, and heidi platt. 1977. language teaching and applied linguistics. edinburg: longman group uk ltd. richards, jack. c., john platt, and heidi platt. 1992. language teaching and applied linguistics. harlow: longman group uk.ltd. skutnabb-kangas.t. 1984 bilingualism or not, multilingual matters. swedish: clevedon jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.2 november 2008: 129-138 138 http://si.unm.edu/web%20journals/articles/anna%20garcia.html http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/ http://www.multilingual-matters.net/beb/002/0252/beb0020252.pdf copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 53 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 53-57 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1514 indonesian fan girls’ perception towards soft masculinity as represented by k-pop male idols paramita ayuningtyas english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, indonesia ayu .palar@gmail.com, paramita@binus.ac.id received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 21st december 2016/ accepted: 4th january 2017 how to cite: ayuningtyas, p. (2017). indonesian fan girls’ perception towards soft masculinity as represented by k-pop male idols. lingua cultura, 11(1). 53-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1514 abstract this article aimed to examine how fan girls perceive this new form of masculinity represented by k-pop male idols (termed as soft masculinity). this research used a mixed method in collecting the data from a questionnaire distributed via e-mail and line to twenty fan girls from various fandoms in april 2016. the result shows that the respondents are aware that in the entertainment business, gender identity can be modified and presented as a part of marketing strategy. in addition, they only see the soft masculinity delivered by k-pop male idols as a form of performance. keywords: indonesian fan girls, self masculinity, k-pop, male idols introduction over the last decade, korean pop music (commonly known as k-pop) has been a global phenomenon. as a part of hallyu (korean wave, a movement that promotes korean popular culture products such as drama, movies, and music), k-pop has gained tremendous popularity not only in asia but also in other continents, such as america, europe, and australia. the groups from the second generation of k-pop like super junior and big bang have held world tours, including countries like argentina, mexico, england, and australia. their juniors from the third generation like exo, bts, and b.a.p have also successfully held concerts in america, canada, and germany. social networking services highly contribute to this global popularity of k-pop (jang & paik, 2012). fans can easily watch k-pop videos in youtube, buy the cds from online shops, and get involved in fan activities on twitter and facebook. what makes k-pop really popular and beat music scenes from other countries? fuhr (2015) has argued that k-pop manages to go global because of several reasons, some of which are group names that can be easily understood by the non-korean audience, use of english in the lyrics, and fans’ participation in translating lyrics, interview, and articles to eliminate the linguistic boundaries. meanwhile, kim has stated that hybrid characters in k-pop are significant factors of its popularity (bok-rae, 2015). for instance, the music is heavily influenced by western popular music but can be combined with korean traditional music (such as b.a.p’s no mercy and topp dogg’s arario that use korean traditional drums for the beat). these hybrid characters can also be viewed in the gender representation of the male idols, which can be called as hybrid masculinity. k-pop is a music genre that relies profoundly on visual, as shown by the eye-catching fashion, the meticulous production of music videos, and the synchronized choreographies. the importance of visual can also be witnessed in the necessity to release teaser images before actually releasing the album or the music videos. when it comes to physical appearance, the male idols are as groomed as the female idols, up to the point that they are viewed as pretty as (and in some cases, even prettier) the female idols. sun jung (tunstall, 2014) has defined this as east asian soft masculinity. she has said that soft masculinity is a hybrid product constructed through the amalgamation of south korea’s traditional seonbi masculinity (which is influenced by chinese confucian wen masculinity), japan’s bishonen (pretty boy) and global metrosexual masculinity. masculinity in k-pop seems to be in contrast with korean traditional masculinity that defined by patriarchal authoritarian masculinity, hard masculinity rooted in compulsory military service for men and true seonbi (confucian, traditional masculinity referring to young noblemen) (leung, 2012). related to the aforementioned soft masculinity of k-pop, the writer interested to know how this new, nontraditional form of masculinity, is perceived by their fans, most of which are female. what do they think of soft masculinity? do they see this as an effort to deconstruct gender categories? or do they see this purely as a fan service and pure entertainment, or according to judith butler as 54 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 53-57 performance? this study is designed and conducted to find the answer to those questions. furthermore, this study is significant because, since 2011, indonesia has become a big market target for k-pop that is shown by the number of k-pop concerts held in indonesia. k-pop has built a massive fandom in indonesia. it also hugely influences the fans’ lifestyle (fashion and makeup) and even their option of university major (many fans want to study in south korea). currently, k-pop is a notable popular culture in indonesia, and this article will have a contribution to the academic analysis of the study of the relationship between popular culture and gender representation. many types of research on k-pop fans have been conducted through various perspectives. otmazgin & lyan (2014) have examined how k-pop fans in israel and palestine act as cultural mediators in their study (hallyu across the desert: k-pop fandom in israel and palestine). meanwhile, kim, mayasari, & oh (2013) have analyzed the phenomenon of tourist audiences in their paper “when tourist audience encounter each other: diverging learning behaviours of k-pop fans from japan and indonesia”. through in-depth interviews with japanese and indonesian female k-pop fans, they conclude that fans from the two countries have different patterns of learning behavior. different from the previous researches, this paper focuses on fans’ reactions towards gender representation in k-pop, particularly how indonesian fan girls view this nontraditional form of masculinity. from general conception, masculinity is the quality of being a man. however, years of research in sociology, media studies, psychology, and other fields have shown the definition of masculinity is not as simple as that. the essentialists argue that masculinity is an entity embedded in male bodies, but connell and messerschmidt have an opposite opinion. they stated that masculinities are configurations of practice that are accomplished in social action and, therefore, can differ according to the gender relations in a particular social setting (connell & messerschmidt, 2005). it is not a fixed substance in someone’s biological features, but the result of social values, historical context, cultural struggles, and changes instead. furthermore, beynon (2002) has mentioned the key factors that shape masculinities, namely: historical location, age and physique, sexual orientation, education, status and lifestyle, geographical, ethnicity, religion and beliefs, class and occupation, culture and subculture. masculinity is indeed a complex term. similar to feminists who now prefer to use the plural form ‘feminisms’ to replace the singular meaning of ‘feminism’, now academics tend to use the term ‘masculinities’ to refer to the variations of masculinity, in “how it is understood, enacted, experienced and lived” (beynon, 2002). one of the examples of variations of masculinity is this concept called hegemonic masculinity. connell (beynon, 2002) has defined hegemonic masculinity as the most successful way to be a real man at a particular time in specific places. hegemonic masculinity is constructed by applying either consensual mediation or power and achievement. connell and messerschmidt (2005) then added that hegemonic masculinity is normative. besides containing the most correct way to be a man, it also ideologically allows the subordination of women to men. it can be said that hegemonic masculinity is a form of domination of men over women. masculinity is not a fixed concept; it changes over time and places. has noted that there are six aspects that influenced how masculinity was experienced in the 20th century; the rise of women, wars in the 20th century, changes in the world of work, the rise of consumerism and celebrity culture, the rise of the gay movement and changing views on masculinity. these affect how men think about themselves in personal and public spheres. moreover, it leads to the so-called crisis in masculinity. society now thinks that masculinity is damaging and out of fashion. however, mangan has a different opinion about it, “crisis is ... a condition of masculinity itself. masculine gender identity is never stable; its terms are continually being re-defined and re-negotiated, the gender performance continually being restaged.” (beynon, 2002). gender concept is fluid and will constantly change, and mangan sees this as an unavoidable process. instead of calling it as a crisis, men just have to find a new place for themselves in the changing modern world (gauntlett, 2002) . new and innovative ways are needed to research and theorize men and masculinities in the 21st century. beynon (2002) has offered six research models for this: (1) the literary, which focuses on how masculinity is depicted in literature; (2) printed media, to see how masculinity is represented in newspapers and magazines; (3) broadcast media, to analyze the representation of masculinity in film and on television; (4) visual and performativity, which aims to see how masculinity is portrayed in photography, advertisements, appearance, pop music, etc.; (5) auto/ biographical and documentary, to see how masculinity is portrayed and experienced in the past; and (6) ethnographic, to analyze how masculinity is constructed in particular settings. this research will apply the fourth mode, to see how masculinity is represented in pop music and furthermore analyze how the audience views it. methods this research used a mixed method in collecting the data. the data of the research were collected from a questionnaire distributed via e-mail and line to twenty fan girls from various fandoms in april 2016. when the writer found ambiguous or unclear answers, the writer conducted an in-depth interview to confirm and ask them to elaborate the answers. there was a total of six questions in the questionnaire with questions focusing on their perception towards soft masculinity as represented by k-pop male idols. a question about since when they have been into k-pop was also included in order to find out how long they have been exposed to the music scene and to interpret their familiarity to the idols. the rest of the questions will be further elaborated in result and discussion part. all of the respondents are indonesian and female in their 20s, and mostly are in college and working. the reason why the writer chooses twenty-something female is because of the assumption that they have more knowledge about gender issues and various gender images as portrayed in media and popular culture. also, for practical reason, the writer believe that they have thoroughly understood the meaning of words used in the questionnaire like ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’, so the writer does not have to explain the terms in the questionnaire. after collecting answers from respondents, the data were analyzed using interpretative approach (orlikowski & baroudi, 1991). since this study focuses on a small group of respondents, it does not intend to generalize the opinion of fan girls but to interpret the answers as an individual’s choice, thoughts, and perspective. 55indonesian fan girls’ perception .... (paramita ayuningtyas) results and discussions there are six questions asked to the respondents of this research. the questions are: (1) since when have you been into k-pop? (2) what do you like from k-pop? (music, choreography, appearance, etc.) (3) in your opinion, how important is the appearance for k-pop male idols? (4) what do you think about k-pop male idols in make-up and considerably feminine appearance? (5) have you ever thought that k-pop male idols do not look macho/look too feminine? (6) do you want to have a boyfriend or husband with the appearance like k-pop male idols? the first question is “since when have you been into k-pop?” this question is put first in order to find out for how long the respondents have been a fan of k-pop. this will also reveal for how long they have been exposed to hybrid gender identity in k-pop scene. the second question is “what do you like from k-pop? (music, choreography, appearance, etc.).” it focuses particularly on what aspect they like from k-pop. besides the options given, the respondents are also allowed to give other possible answers. the third question is “in your opinion, how important is the appearance for k-pop male idols?” from this question, i would like to find out the significance of appearance for k-pop male idols from the female fans’ perspective. the fourth question is “what do you think about k-pop male idols in make-up and considerably feminine appearance?” starting from this question, the writer narrows down the topic into the new form of masculinity as shown by k-pop male idols and how the fans perceive it. do they like it? are they surprised? since this is an open question, the answers can come very variously. the fifth question is “have you ever thought that k-pop male idols do not look macho/look too feminine?” question number five is related to question number four but focuses more on the degree of masculinity and whether the fans are fine with this form of soft masculinity. the sixth question is “do you want to have a boyfriend or husband with the appearance like k-pop male idols? the last question is more of a reflective question since i want them to relate the topic to their personal life. i would like to know whether their preference of males in real life is similar with their preference as fans. for question number one, some of the fan girls had known k-pop before 2011 (the year considered as significant for the entrance of k-pop culture into indonesia, as mentioned in the introduction). ferina, for example, has been familiar with a female korean singer boa’s music and videos since 2002, but she answered that late 2012 as the year she got really into big bang, her most favorite k-pop group. another fan girl, sarah, has been into k-pop since 2005 when she first knew super junior. meanwhile, a respondent from semarang, mayang said she first got into k-pop in 2012 when big bang’s popularity started to get global with their album alive. from twenty respondents, thirteen fan girls had known k-pop way before it got hugely famous in indonesia, while the rest of them found out about k-pop after the local media started to expose the music and the culture in 2011. moving on to question number two, which is about what aspect they like the most from k-pop, the answers come variously. ira from bandung straightly answered that music is the aspect she likes the most, while wangi from bogor admitted that k-pop is interesting to observe for the detailed and intricate dance choreography. on the other hand, jessica (from depok) and sarah stated that they like k-pop as a whole package; music, choreography, appearance, and the attractiveness of the group members. k-pop itself is indeed more than a music genre since it pays a lot of attention to visual aspects such as music videos, album designs, and fashion. in question number three, the writer starts to focus more on the visual element of k-pop, particularly the appearance of k-pop male idols. it specifies only for k-pop male idols since the main topic for this article is soft masculinity as represented by k-pop male idols. according to kunti, a fan of 2pm, physical appearance is an important thing onstage since it is a part of the concept that they present as performers. even though she said that she does not really care about idols’ appearance off-stage and off-camera, she highlights that the male idols need to pay attention to appearance in public because they will always be in the spotlight. siska, as a fashion student, also believes that appearance has important values since it will be the first thing judged by the public. ferina even elaborates that appearance is a part of korean culture. basically, all respondents understand that not only female idols are judged on their appearance, but male idols are also judged on their appearance. that is why companies will dedicate more effort to enhance the physical appearance of their male talents, starting from giving them designer’s clothes to extreme ways like plastic surgery. questions number four and five narrows down the topic even more by relating it to gender identity. as stated by sun jung in tunstall (2014), k-pop represents a new form of korean masculinity, soft masculinity, as seen from their appearance. through question number four and five, the writer would like to see how the fan girls perceive this new form of soft masculinity, whether they accept it or in a way are questioning it. the answers to question number four and five will be discussed together as the questions that are related to each other. one respondent, mayang, stated that she does not mind seeing male idols in make-up and considerably feminine appearance since she realized that it is necessary for performers to look attractive on stage. jessica also seems to agree with mayang’s answer and adds that it is not strange anymore to see men in make-up, especially if they are performers or tv personalities. furthermore, she explains that in indonesia heavily groomed men are already a common phenomenon in urban lives, so she does not feel it is awkward. however, even though she does not mind feminine-looking male idols, she stated that for them they do not look manly. as for ferina, she wished that the male idols could tone down their makeup a little bit since she thinks their make-up on stage is too thick. from jessica and ferina’s answers, it can be interpreted that for them the appearance is a signifying feature to determine someone’s level of manliness. corporeality is still seen as a basic factor of someone’s masculinity. this agrees with the essential thoughts that sex (biological features) is the most important element in confirming someone’s identity. butler (1990) has stated that gender is a performance, which means it is always a doing, instead of merely being. a number of answers from the respondents, they seem to agree with butler’s previous statement. for instance, ira from bandung said she has no problem with male idols looking too feminine because she understands that it is only for stage necessity. while wangi from bogor also mentioned those male idols’ feminine look is a part of marketing strategy from the agencies. another respondent, ajeng, claims that 56 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 53-57 the feminine appearance is acceptable, depending on what occasion and for what purposes. those answers convey that masculinity and femininity can be modified to meet a certain purpose, in this case for entertainment business purposes. another fan girl, yanti, has an opinion that masculinity or femininity cannot be determined simply from physical appearance. personality and attitude are also significant factors in perceiving someone’s masculinity. what i could interpret from yanti’s answer is that modern masculinity has a complex definition. if in the past physical appearance seemed to be the absolute aspect in seeing a person’s gender identity, now there are many other aspects involved. in k-pop male idols’ case, just because they wear makeup and look pretty, it does not necessarily mean they are not masculine. from their answers to question number five, i also can see how some respondents are aware of and critical to the traditional definition of gender. sonia, working in a law firm, answered femininity in men should not be seen as something negative. in addition, she said that the concept of macho or feminine puts people into boxes with an intention to force them to fit a certain gender role. meanwhile, wangi comes with an answer that gender identity should not be judged, by stating that “who are we to judge on how they present themselves?” from these answers, the writer concludes that in society gender has always been a controversially rigid categorization, and these fan girls try to oppose that strict definition and not to assess people from the gender identity they present. in question number six, the writer wants them to relate the topic to their personal preference. the answers that writers found are interesting as a number of respondents said that their preference of males in real life is totally different from their preference as fan girls. it is interpreted that this difference could happen since they understand that k-pop idols’ soft masculinity is presented only as a part of the entertainment business and for performance purposes. thus, it cannot be applied or acted in daily life or activities. renny who is working in an advertising company, directly stated that she does not prefer to have a boyfriend or husband who looks like a k-pop idol. her reason is that she prefers men who do not wear make-up at all. cahya also has the same opinion. since she considers herself as the super tomboy, she feels she cannot cope with guys who are too busy with beauty routines. cahya’s answer can be understood since she states that she prefers macho-looking idols like big bang than the feminine-looking ones like seventeen. next, kunti also confesses she would not feel comfortable if having a feminine-looking partner because she is afraid he will look better than her. their answers suggest that men should not look more beautiful than women. here, it can be seen there is a distinction between their preference as fan girls and as a potential girlfriend or wife. conclusions since 2011, k-pop has become a significant popular culture in indonesia, and this fact itself makes k-pop deserve an observation from an academic point of view. through this paper, the writer is trying to offer a different perspective to this phenomenon, particularly in relation to gender issues. the analysis gives an interesting conclusion about how fangirls perceive soft masculinity. from the analysis of the answers given by the respondents, there are three points that can be concluded. first, some of the answers reveal that the respondents do not mind seeing male idols in make-up and feminine appearance since they are aware that this is a part of marketing strategy and visual concepts. second, the respondents also understand that appearance is not the only aspect that shapes masculinity. there are other factors that can determine someone’s gender identity, such as personality and daily behaviors. however, this point needs more elaboration since the respondents do not mention what kind of personality and behavior that they consider as masculine. the last point that related to the first point where the respondents prefer not to have partners who look like k-pop idols. for them, makeup and feminine appearance are tolerable only if they are applied on stage, but not in daily life. to conclude, popular culture has a significant role in shaping the representation of gender identity. k-pop has shown a new form of masculinity (soft masculinity) through the considerably feminine appearance of the male idols. however, the fans have their own perspective and opinion in responding to this non-traditional kind of masculinity. it all depends on their personal values and the environment that shapes their gender values. one thing for sure, the fan girls are conscious that this east asian soft masculinity is nothing more than a kind of performance on stage. references beynon, j. 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(2013). when tourist audiences encounter each other: diverging learning behaviors of k-pop fans from japan and indonesia. korea journal, 53(4), 59–82. leung, s. (2012). catching the k-pop wave: globality in the production, distribution, and consumption of south korean popular music. senior capston project (master thesis). orlikowski, w. j., & baroudi, j. j. (1991). studying information technology in organizations: research approaches and assumptions. information systems research, 2(1), 1–28. otmazgin, n., & lyan, i. (2014). hallyu across the desert: k-pop fandom in israel and palestine. cross-currents: east asian history and culture review, 3(3), 32–55. doi: http://doi.org/10.1353/ ach.2014.0008 57indonesian fan girls’ perception .... (paramita ayuningtyas) tunstall, e. d. (2014). undesigning masculinities: k-pop and the new global man. the conversation. retrieved from http://theconversation.com/undesigning-masculinities-k-pop-and-the-new-globalman-22335 microsoft word 05_cendrawaty_setting similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 149 中西文学里鬼的异同——以《聊斋志异》、  《得古拉》与《圣诞颂歌》为调查对象 similarities and disparities of ghosts in eastern and western literature based the novels liaozhai zhiyi, dracula, dan a christamas carol cendrawaty tjong1; raina ophelia sunggiardi2; vania3 1,2,3 chinese department, faculty of languange and culture, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 cencen_zzz@yahoo.com 内容提要 鬼是人类不能解释的事物,但它却成为了人们在娱乐中或文学里有趣的主题。每个国家都 有自己的鬼文学,而文学里的鬼形象往往与社会里存在的文化有着密切的关系。本文以中国文 学的《聊斋志异》、欧美文学的《德古拉》与《圣诞颂歌》为笔者的调查对象。通过阅读相关 的资料,笔者阐述了文化影响了作家制作作品, 通过文学作品,作者分析出中西鬼的异同。调 查结果:中西文学里的鬼都出现在同样的时间,他们用梦跟活人交流;但中西文学里的鬼也有 些不同,不同的种类、不同的形象和不同对鬼的看法。 关键词:文学、异同、《聊斋志异》、《德古拉》、 《圣诞颂歌》 、鬼 abstract ghosts is one of life unexplained phenomena also interesting theme for entertainment and literature materials. every nation have their own ghost literature that reflects the nation’s view on ghost itself. this article compares china’s liaozhai zhiyi, western’s dracula and a christmas carol as representations of both culture. the writer through desktop study method found that culture influenced and shaped ghost image in the mind of novel writer. this leads to different image of ghost in the two cultures. the results is: ghost in two cultures appear mostly in the night time, have different types and classifications, different physical images, different way of thinking and how to handle ghosts. keywords: literature, similarities and differences, liaozhai zhiyi, dracula, a christmas caol, ghost 150 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161 前言 鬼的存在是每个时代的人们、每个国家以及每个宗教不停而论的话题。我们可从每个国家 的文化去了解他们对鬼的种种看法。有人认为鬼包括怪物、恶鬼、神性等鬼神都可与人类生共 享同样的世界所以也是文化的其中重要部分之一。各个国家的节日或生活仪式里都涉及到鬼的 角色,如:葬礼文化,中国的清明节、鬼节;西方的魔鬼节及宗教节日等。文学作品也不例 外,各个国家的文学作品里都可以找到与鬼有关的角色。             文学作品是作者的思想,经过了生活思考制作出来的结果,而这往往离不开作者所接收的 文化影响。通过作者制作出来有关鬼的作品,社会的人们更加肯定了鬼的观念,形成了形象多 样化的鬼。    笔者研究中西鬼的异同之前,参考了社会对鬼的看法。中西文化中对鬼的看法不太一样: 中国人认为鬼有善良的,也有凶恶的。善良的鬼不会妨碍我们的生活,所以不需要除掉它,但 凶恶的鬼应该通过念道经及帖道纸可以不让鬼打扰我们生活;西方人认为所有的鬼都是凶恶 的,用十字架或葱可以驱走它。笔者发现社会文化影响了作家在文学中写鬼的形象、特征、故 事等内容。《山海经》和《搜神记》里收集了中国人早期对鬼神与妖怪的形象幻想,可是人们 对鬼的概念受到了清朝蒲松龄写的《聊斋志异》。中国文学里,蒲松龄写的《聊斋志异》是大 众最认识的鬼故事;而布拉姆•斯托克的《德古拉》是西方最有名及最典型的吸血鬼的故事。 西方后来的吸血故事,如伊麗莎白·柯斯托娃(elizabeth kostova)的《历史学家》、史蒂芬 妮·梅爾(stephenie meyer)的《暮光之城》等故事都出现在《德古拉》的基础上。查尔 斯·狄更斯(charles dickens)的《圣诞颂歌》里讲述了西方对鬼魂的定义。虽然它对西方人 的影响不如《德古拉》大,但这部小说也是属于西方文学界里最经常改编的作品之一。 内容 一、文学是社会文化的表现            文学以语言文字为工具塑造形象来反映社会生活,是文化的重要表现形式,也表达作者思 想感情的一种工具。每个文学组作都包含了作者所经历的社会经验或接受的文化,而文化却包 含了知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗以及生活的种种习惯和概念。            据英国作家伊丽莎白(elizabeth kantor)博士,作家在进行创作的时候,一定受到了社会 文化、习俗或当时的潮流的影响。文学成了社会的意识形态的书面记录。伊丽莎白博士也举 出,在西方,人们行为的标准是根据莎士比亚或简·奥斯丁文学里的人物行为而定出来的;而 东方却以庄子或列子著作为标准。             文学创作是一种意识形态的生产,因而文学创作的材料与一般物质生产的材料有很大的不 同。文学创造不是独立于作家之外的物质,而是储蓄与他内心的精神现象,存于作家记忆中的 表象材料,准确地说,文学创造材料是指作家有生以来从社会生活中有意接受或无意获得的一 切生动、丰富但却相对粗糙或信心。作家的文学创造活动,就以这些东西作为基础和内容,并 通过加工和改造,使之成为创造性产品(童庆炳,2004:181)。 可以说,文学作品除了可以 表现出作家内心的精神活动,也可以看到作家所接受的社会文化。  similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 151          《德古拉》和《圣诞颂歌》作为 19 世最流行的文学著作,表现出西方的一种文化。《德 古拉》的作家用多年的时间,研究了特兰西瓦尼亚(罗马尼亚地区)的文化、社会习俗与社会 对吸血鬼观念。这使他后来创造出来的的吸血鬼形象与当时的社会概念是相似的;《圣诞颂 歌》里表现的上层社会和下层社会就是狄根斯通过多年的社会研究才创造出来的;而中国的 《聊斋志异》虽写的大多是一些花妖狐魅的故事,充满奇思异想,但它却深切地反映了现实的 社会人生,反映了广大人民群众的思想感情。(周先慎, 2003:181)    二、作家与文学创作            文学反映了社会生活或社会现实。在文学的整个活动中,它涉及到作者表现活动 ,即作者 通过创作文学作品以表达他的感受、并试图以此唤起读者相应的感受。虽然如此,文学反映的 社会生活不等于社会生活本身,而文学表达的情感也不同于作家内心的实际感受。作品显现出 的与现实的差异,是其短处也是其长处。其短处于艺术描写并不能达到一丝不改的,原原本本 的再现现实;但也由于这一差异,艺术描写就充分显示出文学的独特长处,可以超越事物的本 真形态,去创造更具有普遍性的、更深层的意蕴。(童庆炳,2004:29‐30)            法国作者让•保罗•萨特(jean-paul sartre)  在《文学与存在主义》里写了作家与他的创作 活动的两篇文章:第一、《什么是写?》里提到人因为遇到不幸的事情或感到压力的时候,就 会“锁”进别人进不去的世界,然后进行写作;第二、《为什么写?》里提到人通过写作,就 可以找到他生活的理由,而它写的题材一定是他所有的知识,而不是别人的。萨特在这本著作 里提到了作者为了读者而写作。作者写作的时候常写出他的看法,这是他从社会、家庭、私人 生活、宗教信仰、积累的知识及生活经验受的影响,然后经过了思考才成为了读者欣赏的作 品,而这种作品不一定都得到读者的认可,因为作者和读者的看法不一定相同。            作者创造出作品除了受到社会文化和习俗、作家的知识和生活经历的影响,也受到了其它 著作的影响,包括它的人物形象、内容或该作家的思想。其三、作者在创造作品时也受到了作 家或其他作家对创造结果的期望。作家在创作过程中把自己的一切投射到人物身上,因此读者 也就可以从人物形象身上不同程度地看到作家的某些方面。(胡山林, 2008:59)            笔者阅读了《德古拉》、《圣诞颂歌》和《聊斋志异》以后,发现它们都涉及到同样的人 物形象——就是鬼的形象。笔者发现这些形象随着西方和中国社会对鬼概念不同形成了文学里 的鬼形象不同。作家创作的鬼形象与他们生活中所接受的其它著作、接触的人物及对社会的期 望有着密切的关系。    三、蒲松龄与《聊斋志异》鬼形象的创作            蒲松龄(1640‐1715),字留仙,又字剑臣,淄川(今属山东淄博市)人。他生活于明末 清初中国封建社会末期一个黑暗腐朽的时代。连年的战乱和自然灾害,加上繁重的科税和贪污 吏的敲剥,使广大人民遭受深重的苦难。这都是他亲身经历和亲眼所见的,自然会对他的思想 和创作产生重要的影响。蒲松龄在创作《聊斋志异》的时候受到了以下几个影响:            蒲松龄出生在一个时代书香却功名不显得家庭。父亲蒲槃虽然弃儒经商,但广泛读经史, 学问渊博,在思想上和文化教养上都对蒲松龄产生了极大的影响。蒲松龄从小受到儒家思想的 影响,有着经世济民的政治思想,曾写过《循良政要》的文章。他自幼聪慧好学,19 岁时连 续以县、府、道三个第一考中了秀才,得到了人们的赏识,在当地很有名。他希望能通过科举 考试进入仕途,实现他经世济民的政治理想。可是考了几十年却连一个举人也没考中。他对科 举考试的热衷和失败,使他对科举考试制度的腐败感到 内心痛恨。这使得揭露和批判科举考试 152 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161 制度,成为《聊斋志奇》的重要内容。如《叶生》和《司文郎》是讲了一位学者深受到科举的 残酷。当叶生死后成为鬼,他还是认为他是书生,还是想参加科举。 蒲松龄生活非很穷,每天靠粥连续生活。他的父亲分家产时,也表示不公平的做法,长期 生活贫苦,使他与贫苦农民有着大体相近的生活遭遇,使他接近下层,了解和熟悉劳动人民的 生活与思想感情,对政治的腐败和社会的黑暗都有着深切的感情受。 31 岁时,应好朋友孙蕙的邀请南游去做幕宾(今天的私人秘书),并熟悉官府的种种黑 暗内幕和政治腐败,因此《聊斋志异》反映政治黑暗的内容是直接从他生活体验写出来的。从 《画皮》里的女鬼可以看出作者对社会的看法,就是外表上很美,但里面却是虚伪、腐烂,存 者凶恶的性格。 孙蕙也非常喜欢去妓院,这使蒲松龄有机会接触思想开放,但又富于才情的歌妓舞女们。 蒲松龄对妓女不幸遭遇和悲惨屈辱的生活经历表示深切的同情,使他觉得与妓女们情趣相投, 建立起深厚的情谊。 这些生活体验,都融入他的《聊斋志异》去,创造出形形色色的鲜明生 动的人物形象,尤其是优美动人的花妖狐魅的妇女形象。 蒲松龄自幼爱好民间传说,喜欢搜集神鬼的怪异故事。他对天马行空,如:《列子》、 《庄子》、《李太白集》、《游侠列传》留下深的印象。他从天马行空和民间传说知道了很多 神鬼故事。同时民间宗教也使他对鬼神进行思考,然后以自身的生活体验和爱憎改请写出充满 花妖狐魅的《聊斋志异》故事。蒲松龄鬼的形象也是受到道教的影响因为《列子》和《庄子》 都是道教书,所以《聊斋志异》里面的鬼是从道教思想来写,如:聂小倩是好鬼,不必被除掉 因为在道教好鬼不必被除掉。 蒲松龄的爱情不幸。封建社会的包办婚姻制度,使他没有自由选择对象的余地,使他生活 不愉快,时常梦幻出理想的情人。这个体验熔铸进《聊斋志异》,表达出作家的婚姻的理想和 对现实爱情的失望。完美的爱情是不现实的,只能在梦界才能实现,而且梦与现实是有关的。 《聶小倩》提到了女鬼能自愿地与人类结婚。这表示了作者和社会对爱情的期望。 四、 布拉姆•斯托克与《德古拉》鬼形象的创作   爱尔兰作家布拉姆∙斯托克出生于  1847 年。他创作了很多作品,如:  《水晶杯》、《命运 的枷锁》等  但他的代表作却是 1897 年创作出来的《德古拉》。《德古拉》作为典型的吸血鬼 故事轰动了全世界,为以后出现的吸血鬼和西方鬼故事或电影打下了基础,更加巩固了社会对 鬼的一些概念,如:鬼是可怕的,避鬼的方法只能用葱或十字。从而斯托克成为了西方吸血鬼 文化的开山鼻祖。                     布拉姆∙斯托克在创作《德古拉》的时候受到了以下几个影响:           斯托克本来就想当作家,可是父亲反对他的梦想,给他安排公务员的计划。斯托克只能屈 从父亲的期望,成为都柏林城的一名公务员。正在写时候他对幻想、恐怖故事较有兴趣,尤其 是鬼故事。1878 年,著名演员和伦敦莱森戏院(the  lycium)亨利·欧文为斯托克提供了一份 在剧院作演员经理人的工作。斯托克立即辞去公务员工作,开始了自己新的生活,从此他经常 接触到戏剧、演员、剧本制作等,磨炼了他对艺术界的认识,为《德古拉》具备了工作。    《德古拉》这篇小说的题材也是他经过多年的研究得出。经过他的研究,他发现吸血鬼是 当时西方社会流行的鬼传说之一。罗马尼亚是吸血鬼传说圣地。当斯托克研究罗马尼亚文化的 时候发现了罗马尼亚有个名叫弗拉德三世的民族英雄,但也是特兰西瓦尼亚(罗马尼亚地区) similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 153 社会也流传的著名传说。弗拉德三世 1431 年 12 月出生于罗马尼亚。他的称号是德古拉,意思 是龙的孩子。11 岁时德古拉和他的弟弟被送去土耳其学战争术。长大的时候,他非常喜欢杀 人。他用很残忍的方法杀人,即用剑从臀部刺到脖子,使人们产生了可怕的感觉,因此人们把 他当成了“杀人狂”、“爱血狂”的人物。斯托克觉得“弗拉德三世”这个名称非常适合他打 算写的恐怖人物。斯托克后来把这个信息合并为《德古拉》故事的主题,即有关非常凶恶、残 暴、喜欢杀人的吸血鬼故事。它为了保持青春吸人们的血;而“德古拉”的名称是采取拉德三 世的称号。             欧文的形象对斯托克创作出的德古拉形象产生了很大的影响。欧文在演剧里是以演坏人 (反面人物)为擅长。斯托克非常欣赏欧文的才华,认为他演得很不错。当斯托克创作《德古 拉》的时候,他觉得欧文非常适合演德古拉,因为德古拉也是非常凶恶的人物形象,这适合欧 文擅长演的人物类型,因此斯托克创造出的德古拉形象更加接近于欧文的形象,既瘦小的脸 蛋、尖挺的鼻子和暴躁的性格。              爱尔兰的人民多数信仰天主教。斯托克在这样环境里长大,接受了天主教思想。他研究 的特兰西瓦尼亚的社会也信仰天主教。14 世纪时,特兰西瓦尼亚是中世纪东侵的欧洲十字军 同盟国之一。这是斯托克制作的故事离不开天主教思想。 天主教的观念里,天使是上帝的使者,上帝给天使给予善和恶的知识,可是堕天使想霸占 权利,成为世界的主宰。他聚集了门徒,打算攻打上帝,产生了天使之间的天战。堕天使失败 了,被赶出天国,降到阴间(地狱)。在《马太福音》第  12 章写天主教信徒相信这句话是对 堕天使说的。从此,天主教信徒相信世界上有天使和魔鬼,所谓的魔鬼肯定是坏的,没有善良 的魔鬼。魔鬼应该被除掉,因为它是害人者。《路加福音》16 章:19-31 节提到了财主和拉萨 路的故事。这个故事明确地告诉天主教信徒天国与地狱的存在。天国与地狱之间有深渊限定, 以致两个地方的人不能互相交流(第 26 节)。天国可以享福,而地狱只能受难的。这个故事 肯定了鬼只是坏的。后来斯托克写出的《德古拉》里表现出很浓厚的天主教文化,如:为了除 掉得古拉一定要具备圣餐和十字架;我们可能被魔鬼占领,但是只要相信一定要有活路等天主 教思想。 斯托克对哲学、神学和科学非常有兴趣。他认为科学是逻辑的,而世界上的传说、迷信 不可信任,因为它们不能用科学来证明。《德古拉》里的亚伯拉罕·凡赫辛 是代表科学,而德 古拉代表了迷信。斯托克写出《德古拉》的意蕴就是科学可以打败迷信传说。可是虽然如此, 笔者认为《德古拉》也表现出斯托克对科学与宗教迷信的矛盾看法。             斯托克创作《德古拉》之前,受到了《吸血鬼》和《女吸血鬼卡蜜拉》的影响。吸血鬼喜 欢吸人血的特征成为了德古拉的特征;而卡蜜拉的特征也成为了德古拉的特征。卡蜜拉用白 白、长长的牙吸人类的血,为了容易吸别人的血,她可以变成猫。卡蜜拉吸血的方法和本领后 来也成为了德古拉的吸血方法和本领。              五、 查尔斯•狄更斯与《圣诞颂歌》鬼形象的创作 查尔斯·狄更斯 1812 年 2 月 7 日在英国出生。他是个英国著名的作家,写了很多短篇和 长篇小说。他写的作品都被拍成电影,如《雾都孤儿》和《圣诞颂歌》。 1843 年 12 月狄根斯用了六个星期的时间写出了《圣诞颂歌》。它是狄更斯引起最大反向 的著名小说,深受了世界人士的喜爱,成为了西方最经常改编的作品之一。如同布拉姆∙斯托 克,《圣诞颂歌》的创作也受到了以下几个影响:  154 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161          狄根斯的早年家境小康,曾经在一所私立学校接受过一段时间的教育。父母因为喜欢大宴 宾客,金钱的出入没有管理好,因此狄根斯 12 岁时,父亲因为债务累累,被送进监狱,从此 一家人随着父亲搬进了监牢居住,狄根斯也因此被送进伦敦一家鞋油场每天工作 10 个小时。 狄根斯从那时就饱尝了人间艰苦、屈辱,看尽人情冷暖,使得狄根斯在他的生活中非常同情劳 苦人民和孤苦无依的孩子。这导致狄根斯后来的作品都关注底层社会劳动人民的生活状态。 《圣诞颂歌》里也可以体会出作者对底层社会劳动人民的生活的同情和关注。《圣诞颂歌》里 提到的鬼是马理鬼,是埃比尼泽·斯克罗吉(scrooge)死去的好朋友。马理鬼生活时是一位 有钱的人,可是他不愿意帮助别人,因此死后的生活就很难受。马理鬼回到世界警告斯克罗吉 不要吝啬,要帮助别人。狄根斯通过这个马理鬼要告诉读者人应该互相帮助,表现出了他对底 层社会劳动人民生活的同情和关注。            1843 年 10 月狄根斯正处于事业顶峰时期,但时刻却陷于严重的困境之中。那时他的新书 销售量不好,他的妻子凯特不久也要生第五个孩子,需要大笔钱。他为经济问题常常无法入 睡,后来每天晚上在伦敦散步,借此来产生创作的灵感。有一天,他通过了伦敦富裕的街区, 然后倒了伦敦贫困街区,从豪华建筑物走到垃圾成堆的地方。作家面前出现了一片破败凋零的 景象,妓女、扒手和乞丐在街上随处可见。他贫困的童年生活又重现在眼前,令人不寒而粟。 此刻他突然得到了故事灵感,打算给那些与自己有着相同经历、苦难和追求的人写出一个圣诞 故事。    (一)  社会背景             狄根斯所生活和创作的时间,正是 19 世纪中叶维多利亚女王时代前期。当时资产阶级常 常对工人、下层劳动人实行残酷的剥削和压迫。劳动人民生活地非常辛苦,妇女和儿童也常常 受到欺负,成为资产阶级的讨饭工具。人们把金钱当作阶级之间的界限,人与人之间失去了真 诚的感情,连圣诞节的庆祝都要侧重于金钱的多少。圣诞节已经失去了原有的意义。狄根斯觉 得这样的社会不健康,因此他以写实笔法揭露社会上层和资产阶级的虚伪、贪婪、卑琐、凶 残,满怀激愤和深切的同情展示下层社会,特别是妇女、儿童和老人的悲惨处境,并以严肃、 审慎的态度描写开始觉醒的劳苦大众的抗争。《圣诞颂歌》展示的情节、故事内容也表现出狄 根斯对社会的上层社会的愤怒和下层社会的同情,歌颂了人性中的真、善、美,憧憬更合理的 社会和更美好的人生,并宣扬了“仁爱”是阶级矛盾的调和方法。马理鬼回到世界时候也是算 帮助下层社会人们因为他警告朋友斯克罗吉钱不是所有的,关爱其他人才是最重要的,所以他 必需要帮下层社会人民,这样死后才不受难。    (二) 父亲的影响               《圣诞颂歌》里的主要男主角是个富有但自私、冷漠无情的吝啬鬼埃比尼泽·斯克罗 吉 。斯克罗吉代表了上层社会。通过他的性格可以出当时上层社会及资产阶级的残酷和贪婪。 狄根斯把斯克罗吉齐的形象描述为他父亲,成为了他父亲的写照。狄更斯的父亲是一个吝啬、 爱生气的人。他因为不能还债务而进监牢,让童年的狄更斯在工厂工作。可是当父亲从监牢出 来时,他也是逼小狄根斯工作,自己什么都不做,使狄更斯的精神受到伤害。他恨父亲但也爱 父亲,这种矛盾感情明显地表露在《圣诞颂歌》。斯克罗吉的雇员鲍勃(bob)虽然受到斯克 罗吉的残酷剥削和压迫,非常很他,但心底还是存在对斯克罗吉的爱和怜悯。斯克罗吉的故事 结局,也表示了狄根斯对父亲的期望,他希望父亲可以改变,变成热情、受家人和其它人的尊 敬和爱戴。        similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 155 (三) 宗教的影响  狄更斯是英国人。英国人大部分人的信仰是聖公宗,是天主教的分类之一。有关死人和活 人的事,天主教相信活人与死人是共存在世界上,但它们俩不能连在一起。好人死后就去天 堂,坏人死后就去地狱,不太坏也不太好的死人是通过炼狱。灵薄狱状态是要等最后的审判状 态,即等耶稣第二次来审判世界。每个人将要通过最后审判来确定他去天堂还是地域。《新约 圣经》里的《使徒行传》第 2 章:27 节写:“因你必不将我的灵魂撇在阴间,  也不叫你的圣 者见朽坏“这句字是希腊的《七十士译本》(septuagint)  复制的,阴间是指古希腊的哈底斯或 中间状态。阴间在古希腊信仰是塔耳塔罗斯。《路加福音》第 8 章:31 节写:“鬼就央求耶 稣,不要吩咐他们到无底坑里去“这个无底坑里是阴间或古希腊的塔耳塔罗斯。炼狱像地狱的 地方可是不是永远的,只清洗死人的非罪。炼狱也有时候派灵魂到人生世界警告人生要选择转 向上帝。这样的办法只需要很少时间,警告后就回来炼狱。狄根斯的信仰在《圣诞颂歌》里可 以体会到,就在马里鬼魂回到世界警告史古基的情节里。马理鬼来到人生世界的目的就是警告 他的好朋友斯克罗吉要好好利用时间做好事。马里鬼对斯克罗吉说: “……那些在世时不帮助他人的人,其灵魂死后都要在这个世界 上永远休止 地游荡。我们不得不戴着我们活着时为自己制造的锁链。埃比尼泽.斯克罗吉, 你认出我的锁链了吗?它和你戴的锁链很相似!”...“我帮不上你太大的忙,埃比尼 泽!我不能停下来,我不能在一个地方就留。我已经死了七年了,在这七年中, 我一直借着风的翅膀飘着!没有安宁,死了也不得休息,因为我活着的时候从来 没有行 善积德!...听我说,埃比尼泽!我今晚来这儿是要警告你,你还有机会拯 救你自己避免重蹈我的覆辙。 《圣诞颂歌》第一回,19 页 (四) 《圣诞颂歌》里的鬼形象和特征受到了民间传说的影响             《圣诞颂歌》里提到了三种鬼:    “圣诞过去之鬼”(the ghost of christmas past )、“圣诞现在 之鬼”(the ghost of christmas present) 、“圣诞未来的鬼”(the ghost of yet to come ) 。鬼的形象非 常可怕,他可以把下巴骨脱下带上,脚被铁链绑着,可以控制事物和人。这种形象和特征是他 除了受到英国民间传说也受到美国宾夕法尼亚州的民间童话。1842 年狄根斯和妻子去过宾夕 法尼亚州的时候,听到了很多神秘的童话故事和儿童故事,狄根斯接触了后,给他写作之灵, 写出《圣诞颂歌》。 (五) 其它作品的影响  狄更斯也有一个好朋友叫华盛顿.欧文(washington irving)。他也是一位作家。他写 了《the sketch book of geoffrey crayon 译拊掌录》的小说。小说提到欢乐和热闹的圣诞庆祝。 小说内容使狄根斯与当时社会联系,发现当时圣诞节庆祝已经失去了原本意义,他觉得圣诞节 应该是一个热闹的家庭庆祝,不是一个没有意思、只侧重于金钱数量大小的宴会。狄根斯把他 对圣诞节的想法写进了《圣诞颂歌》,通过三种鬼警告大家,圣诞节与金钱没有很大关系:圣 诞过去之鬼让大家知道孤单寂寞的穷人也可以开心地过圣诞节;圣诞现在之鬼让大家知道一个 拿着可怜薪水的小职员,没有圣诞礼物,没有火鸡,可每个人都洋溢着幸福的微笑;圣诞未来 之鬼让大家看到一个富有的老人病卧在床,连圣诞节也没有亲人朋友来看望的孤苦景象。 156 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161 六、中西鬼的异同            前面两章提到文学是社会文化表现,作者作为文学构成的因素,在创作作品时受到了他 的生活经历、民族文化、其它文学作品、社会概念或作家思想和期望等等影响。据笔者研究, 由于中西文化不同,作家对某事物的构思也不一样,产生的作品也包含了不同文化思想。蒲松 龄创作出《聊斋志奇》和狄根斯创作出《圣诞颂歌》以神鬼怪异为主要内容,但他们的目的并 不是在张扬神道,而是一部充满现实生活血肉的抒发孤愤之作。从鬼形象角度来看,笔者发现 这两篇文章所涉及到的鬼形象的异同更加表现了中西文化的不同。《德古拉》与《圣诞松歌》 的创作目的不同,可从鬼形象来看,德古拉的特性就是西方人对鬼的普遍概念,它是西方人认 同的“鬼怪”;而《圣诞颂歌》所提到的三灵也是西方人对灵魂的普遍概念。这些作品的鬼形 象和特征虽然是受到当时民间传说和宗教的影响,但作品一出现后更加巩固了现代人对鬼形象 和特征的看法。据笔者的调查,文化成为文学的题材之一,但通过文学也能创造出新文化或巩 固原有的文化。                      笔者针对鬼的形象和特征,以《聊斋志异》里的《聂小倩》、《画皮》、《陆判》与《德 古拉》和《圣诞颂歌》为分析对象,分析出中西鬼的异同。以下就是笔者的分析:    1. 中西鬼的相同点           通过笔者分析,中西鬼的相同点表示在活动时间和与人类沟通的方法。文学里表示它们多 数晚上活动。如宁采臣有事外出,晚上住在寺庙里,由于新环境,他深夜还不能入眠,就在这 时聂小倩出现了在他面前打算打扰他。因为目的达不到,聂小倩第二天晚上再想办法打扰他。 当宁采臣救了她,她白天也可以出现了。《聂小倩》里提到的妖怪也是晚上活动,晚上做一些 坏事,喝人血。《陆判》故事里也表示了陆判经常晚上找朱尔旦喝酒、聊天;朱尔旦死后也都 是晚上找他妻和儿子。西方的鬼和灵魂也是晚上出来活动。如德古拉每次晚上出去找血喝;马 理鬼是在黑暗的晚上来到斯克罗吉的房间。可见中西鬼都在晚上活动,可是不同的是中国鬼一 旦被人类救出,白天也可以活动了。             中西鬼多数用梦与活人沟通。当朱尔旦被冤枉杀吴小姐时,陆判派死去的吴小姐来到她父 母的梦告诉他们朱尔旦不是杀她的凶手。过去的圣诞灵、现在的圣诞灵和未来的圣诞灵来到期 克罗吉的梦中与他沟通。每次鬼与期克罗吉告别后,期克罗吉就像做一个梦似的:    “……但幽灵比他要强壮,它把手挣脱开。这时期克罗吉看到 奇怪的事情在幽灵的身发生了。它变得越来越小,突然变成了 ——一根床柱子。” (《圣但颂歌》第 4 回,第 79 页) similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 157 2.中西鬼的不同点 中国 西方 (1)鬼的种类: 中国人的想象力丰富,造成多样 化的鬼神种类,如:神仙、怪、 妖精和鬼。 (1)鬼的种类: 堂禁锢了人们的想象力, 把鬼只分成两类:魔鬼 (妖精、鬼、怪)和正练 狱中的灵魂。 (2) 鬼的性格、对生活的要求与穿的 服装 • 鬼有好有坏,外形有漂亮的,也有 可怕的。 • 鬼与人希望有着平静的生活。他可 以结婚、生子。鬼可以再生为人, 也可以追求人生的最高目的就是当 神仙。 • 他们穿的服装各式各样。 (2) 鬼的性格、对生活的要 求与穿的服装 • 鬼都是坏的,形象都很可怕。正练狱中的灵 魂有好有坏,但外形都是可怕的。 • 鬼除了害人,增加门徒外,已经没什么生活 了。练狱中的灵魂也只等着最后审判,再也 不 可能有什么对生活的要 求。 • 鬼的服装是他们的葬礼服。 (3) 被除掉的必要性及除掉方法: 好鬼可以帮助人类,不被除掉;而害人的 坏鬼,一定要被除掉,人类用道法除掉 它。 (3) 被除掉的必要性及除掉方法: 除练狱中的灵魂,所有的 鬼都应被除掉,除掉的方 法是用天主教或基督教的 方法。     以下就是笔者进一步的分析:    (1)鬼的种类产生于人的想象力            据西方作家沃纳 (e.t.c werner),中国神话故事之所以丰富精彩,是因为中国人的想象 力丰富。从古至今,中国人寻找了很多办法来解释每天所发生的情况,有的可以用科学解释, 不能用科学解释的就把他神化。这就是民间宗教的形成方法。民间神话故事和文学著作就可以 明显地看出这一点。中国神话故事五花八门产生了志怪故事,包括人以外的神秘故事。中国人 认为除了活人的世界还有其它的世界阴间,这受道教和佛教的影响。中国社会没有禁锢人们对 鬼神的思想,人们可以根据生活上所遇到的事物更加神化。            从《聊斋志异》,我们会看到蒲松龄对鬼神的想象力,如《画皮》、《陆判》和《聂小 倩》的故事都是在西方不可有的。鬼、妖、神仙和怪是《聊斋》里常常出现的主体。鬼是死亡 后所留下的的灵体;妖精是动植物或天然物质通过吸收日月光华而形成的,它拥有神秘的力 量;神仙是有超人的能力的、能够预测和预言的人;而怪是平常生活中几乎没见过的物或跟同 类的物有差别。蒲松龄在《画皮》的想象力,造成一个会换皮的凶恶女妖,她用美丽的人皮覆 盖她的妖脸和凶恶心肠。  “……只见房内有个青面獠牙的魔鬼,正将一张人皮铺在床上,手拿彩笔细细地描绘。” (《聊斋志异》,画皮片,canfonian pte ltd,第 60 页 )            后来人皮杀了王生后,就逃走,变成一个老太婆。经道士用利剑一击,才编成恶鬼。道士 告诉别人,她是个鬼妖。而《聂小倩》里写了鬼魂的故事,聂小倩已经死了,死了以后当鬼 魂,被妖怪胁迫,成为奴役。  158 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161 到了半夜,女子又来了,对宁采臣说:“我见到的人多了,没有一个像你一样刚直的。你 一定非常圣贤,我不敢欺骗你。我叫小倩,姓聂,十八岁时死了,埋在兰若寺旁边,就 被妖怪胁迫了,充当奴役,地位低贱;在人面前装笑,实在不是我的本意。今天寺里没 有能杀的人,恐怕那怪物会派夜叉来。” (《聊斋志异》,聂小倩片)               《聊斋》里的陆判是个死人的判官,属于一种神仙。他可以换人心和脸,也有预测的能 力。他告诉朱尔旦他快要死了。蒲松龄对鬼的想象力在西方是不可能有的。            西方的想象力受到教堂的禁锢。天主教规定,如果作家想写鬼的故事,只能以娱乐为主。 以前梵谛冈控制所有生活方面,可是几个罗马教皇喜欢娱乐,他们使娱乐的规矩比其他方面放 宽。17 世纪英文作家霍勒斯·渥波尔(horrace walpole)写出《奥特兰托堡》(the castle of ortranto)以恐怖为娱乐的哥特式恐怖主题小说。虽然从此西方对鬼的写作比较自由,但它们 的想象还是据教堂而定。据圣经,世界上只有人间、天堂和地狱。天主教相信除了以上还有炼 狱室,里面都是正炼狱的灵魂。这样他们把鬼只分为坏鬼。世界上的鬼都是坏的,都是堕落天 使的门徒。西方人认为的怪也是坏鬼的一类,只有灵魂才是好的。炼狱中的鬼有时能来到世界 上,这是上帝派来为警告活人的。《圣诞松歌》里表示灵魂通来到期克罗吉的梦,警告他的性 格和为人的态度,避免他像它同犯错误,一直接着风的翅膀飘着,它希望期克罗吉可以悔改。    “...那些在世时不帮助他人的人,其灵魂死后都要在这个世界上永远休止地游荡...” ( 《圣诞颂歌》第一回,第 15 页)         《德古拉》是属于坏鬼的一类。它伤害人。故事里的强纳森·哈克要去德古拉城堡时,附 近村的村民都为他祷告,也给了他十字架为了保护他。后来当他被德古拉囚禁时,发现了德古 拉不是人物,因它能在墙上爬行。 笔者同意作者的想象力形成了多种多样的鬼神种类,但除此之外民间的传说和宗教也造成 了一定的影响。 (2)鬼的外形           中国鬼有好有坏,外形有的漂亮的,也有的可怕的。它们的性格也有好有坏。从《画皮》 和《聂小倩》很明确地说出这一点。人皮姑娘长得很漂亮,但心里很凶恶,她杀了收留她的王 生。  “……她撞破卧室的门,闯了进去,到床上撕开王生的胸膛,抓起他的心肝就走。” (《聊斋志异》,画皮片)          王生的妻子见了王生已经死了,不禁吓呆了。蒲松龄通过《画皮》里道士说的话提醒了读 者:“人不要只看皮上的美丽,因为美丽的皮可隐藏里面的恶魔”    《聂小倩》里除了好鬼和坏鬼。聂小倩是好的鬼魂,长得非常美。当她与宁采巨结婚的那 天,大家都被她的长相吓呆了。“小倩穿着华丽的衣服,大大方方地出来见客。满屋子的人都 看呆了,不仅没有人怀疑她是鬼,反而以为她是仙女。” 聂小倩本来的个性好,但她死后被妖 怪逼作坏事,给妖怪杀人的机会。宁生救了她后,把她带回家。宁母见她温和可爱、态度诚 similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 159 恳、懂得礼貌,日子久了就觉得她是自己女儿一样,忘了她是鬼。聂小倩被宁生救走使妖怪不 服气,它就想取走他们的生命。看到妖怪的第一次,宁生所有害怕。“大约一更十分,窗外有 人影若隐若视,过了一会儿人影走到窗前往里窥视,目光闪烁。宁采巨很害怕。”宁采巨第二 次看到妖怪时,更具体地观察它的形象:“目光如电,血盆大口,张牙舞爪的。”           西方鬼不如中国复杂,它只有“让人觉得可怕”的形象,除了炼狱里的灵魂,所有鬼的 性格也是坏的。《德古拉》和《圣诞松歌》表明了这一点。如在《德古拉》里写着:“……我 后还能看他充满血的肿脸和能把人带到的地狱的恶笑。” 而在《圣诞颂歌》写着:“马理鬼长 得似死人的苍白。”   (3)中西鬼对生活的要求。 中国鬼大多数像人类一样,希望能过着平静的生活。人皮是因为发现王生不守信用,要把 她赶走,使她不能再过平静的生活,才杀死王生。道士提到了这一点:“其实这个东西也挺可 怜的,好不容易才找到替身,我不忍心伤害她的生命。” 道士给王生一把拂尘,让他挂在卧室 的门上,赶走人皮。人皮一见到拂尘果然不敢上前,咬牙切齿地离开。 中国鬼可以与活人结婚、生子,也可以常常与活人沟通、喝酒,成为朋友。它们与活人没 有两样。聂小倩、陆判和朱尔旦就是例子。聂小倩在宁采巨家当丫鬟,帮宁母做饭、操持家 务,后来她与宁生结为夫妻,生了两个儿子。陆判的故事也表明了鬼的生活和活人没有什么区 别。陆判常常与朱尔旦喝酒、聊天、改文章,也和尊重跟朱尔旦的友情。当朱尔旦要死了,陆 判告诉他,生死一样,何必为生乐为死悲伤呢。朱尔旦死后当鬼,也告诉他妻子此意思。 “……朱说:“我确实是鬼,可与生时一样。想你们孤儿寡母,真是恋恋不舍。” (《聊斋 志异》,陆判片,canfonian pte ltd,第 300 页 ) 这些就是西方鬼没有的特征。在西方,人死后就分到天国、地狱或炼狱,鬼是不能当人的 也会永远当鬼。西方鬼的生活不像活人,它没有吃东西,白天睡觉、晚上活动。德古拉就是这 样,它不吃食物,只有吸血。虽然它可以与活人交流,但带给人的是恐怖的感觉,不像中国的 鬼可以亲切地交谈。 西方人对德古拉的看法就是一种诅咒,只能害人。    “……如果一个人接受这样诅咒,永远不死,生活那么多年,还加受害者,因为谁当吸血鬼死的, 将会当吸血鬼与找新受害者。……”(《德古拉》,第 300-301 页) (4)中西鬼的服装            中西鬼也用不同衣服习惯出现。西方鬼用葬礼衣,如:德古拉用他的塔克西多也因为西方 男人葬礼时是穿塔克西多或马理鬼,这与他死后成为鬼时是一样的。《德古拉》里的哈克见到 德古拉时,解释了德古拉的服装:    “他用黑色的衣服,从上面到下面都是黑,没有别的颜色”(《德古拉》,第 34 页)            160 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 149-161          中国鬼出现时穿的衣服是日常生活衣服,使人分不出它是鬼还是人,如聂小倩嫁给宁生时 也打扮和穿红色的婚礼服,像活人一样。  (5)中西鬼被除掉的必要性及除掉方法。 孔子有说:“务民之以,敬鬼神而远之,可谓仁矣。”是说人应该尊重鬼,但不要离得太 近。中国好鬼一般帮助人类,所以不必被除掉;而害人的鬼就必须被除掉,而一般用道法除掉 它。《画皮》里的道士用一把剑和葫芦来对付鬼;《聂小倩》里的燕生用剑和宝箱对付鬼,可 是一般人用符或其它与宗教有关的东西。            由于西方认为所有的鬼都坏的,所以必须都除掉。除掉的方法一般用葱或宗教的东西和活 动,如十字架、圣餐和祷告。《德古拉》里的伯拉罕·凡赫辛为了救露西准备了葱。他把葱洒 满了房间,给露西戴上葱作的花圈。后来露西死为德古拉,露西要攻击凡赫辛时,凡赫辛就用 了十字架保护自己。    “……露西响凡赫辛跳起来,可是他赶快用他的金色的小十字。露西 退 后,突然她的脸看起来很生气了。……”(《德古拉》第 300 页) 后来凡赫辛为了除掉吸血鬼,用十字架刺了它的心,然后把它割掉。            灵魂在西方文化里是在炼狱的鬼,它们能来到人世,因为有着劝告活人的使命。当责任已 尽,就自然离开人世。  结论 中国和西方人对鬼的形象和特征理解不一同,这是我们可以从文学作品理解到的。鬼文学 作品的题材来自民间传说,笔者把它与自己的理解合并为文学作品。读者读作品的时候往往可 以看出作者的思想以及社会的思想。每个国家有不同的鬼形象,这是因为文化的不同而产生 的。不同的宗教、社会背景可以造成了不同的鬼概念。中国鬼和西方鬼的相同点就是它们的活 动时间和用梦境与人沟通的方法; 而中国鬼和西方鬼的不同点表示在它们的种类、形象、性 格、对生活的要求、服装、被除掉的必要性和除掉的方法。从故事意义角度来看,中国鬼故事 里包含了道德意义和作家期望,而西方故事里虽然也包含了作家的期望,但不一定所有的鬼故 事都包含了道德意义。 参考文献 陈悙、孙景尧和谢天振 ·(2010).比较文学[m] ·北京:高等教育出版社 狄更斯·(1997).圣诞颂歌[m] ·北京:外语教学与研究出版社 胡山林·(2008).文学欣赏[m] ·北京:清华大学出版社,2008 年 黄霖、袁世硕和孙静·(1999). 聊斋志异[m]·北京:高等教育出版社 similarities and disparities ….. (cendrawaty tjong; dkk) 161 金素芳和徐国普.(2009).聊斋志异[m] ·杭州:浙江少年儿童出版社 蒲松龄.(1999).聊斋志异/(清)[m].长春:吉林文史出版社 蒲松龄.(2004).聊斋志异[m] ·北京:时代文艺出版社 童庆炳.(2004).文学理论教程[m] ·童庆炳:高等教育出版社    周先慎.(2003).明清小说[m] ·北京大学出版社    brandon, aprill. (2009, november). “the evolution of the vampire”. proquest. 19 november 2009. diakses 1 december 2009 dari http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1904575811&sid=8&fmt=3&clientid=68814&rqt=3 09&vname=pqd dickens, charles. (2008). a christmas carol. new york: signet classics kantor, elizabeth. (2007, june). the abandonment of classic western literature. policy express. lim, jonathan.(2005). between gods and ghosts. singapore: times editions-marshall cavendish low,c.c & associates. (1990). strange tales of liaozhai (vol.1). singapore: canfonian pte ltd sommerville, j.p. (n.d). “ghosts, fairies and omen”. department of history university of wiscousin – madison online. diakses 21 juni 2010 dari http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/367/367-102.htm stoker, bram. 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(2009). dracula. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama vassalo, philip.(n.d). “jean-paul sartre’s existentialism and human emotion and literature and existentialism”. identity theory. diakses 29 januari 2010 dari http://www.identitytheory.com/insight/vassallo2.html zeitlin, judith.(1993). historian of the strange: pu songling and chinese classical tale. california: stanford university press zeitlin, judith.(2008, feb.). “haunted: female ghosts in the chinese literary tradition.” radio86-all about china. diases 1 desember 2009 dari http://www.radio86.co.uk/explorelearn/culture/5139/haunted-female-ghosts-in-the-chinese-literary-tradition “chinese ghost culture.” diakses 1 desember 2009 dari http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_chinaway/200403/17/content_46337.htm microsoft word 10 nalti 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ‘dake’ dan ‘bakari’ dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou nalti novianti1; yessie windriani2 1,2 japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 naltin@binus.edu abstract an individual who only has little knowledge on grammar may use nouns, verbs, and adjectives in japanese easily this is not the case with particles. particles cannot be replaced or used at whim. this is the case with the particles ‘dake’ and ‘bakari’. these particles in bahasa indonesia language have the same meaning with “hanya”. this article analyzes particles ‘dake’ and ‘bakari’ to determine the difference of the two particles. source of data is the novel sakura house by toudou shizuko and theory from tomita takayuki. based on the analysis it is found that from the four functions of dake only three are found and from the seven functions of bakari only three functions are found. the authors conclude that differences in the two particles are present on several different functions that have both particle and that the bakari may not follow potential words, while dake can. in this study, the author uses descriptive analytical method and literature review. keywords: toritatejoshi, dake, bakari, sakura house abstrak seseorang yang hanya memiliki sedikit pengetahuan tata bahasa dapat menggunakan nomina, verba, adjektiva dalam bahasa jepang dengan sedikit lebih mudah. namun hal ini tidak dapat dilakukan pada partikel. partikel tidak dapat ditebak-tebak atau dipadan-padankan begitu saja. begitu pula dengan partikel dake dan bakari yang secara umum dalam bahasa indonesia memiliki arti sama yaitu “hanya”. tulisan ini menganalisis partikel dake dan bakari untuk mengetahui perbedaan kedua partikel tersebut. sumber data menggunakan novel sakura house karya toudou shizuko dan teori dari tomita takayuki. berdasarkan hasil analisis ditemukan bahwa dari empat fungsi dake hanya ditemukan tiga fungsi dan dari tujuh fungsi bakari hanya ditemukan tiga fungsi. penulis menyimpulkan bahwa perbedaan kedua partikel ini terdapat dalam beberapa fungsi berbeda yang dimiliki kedua partikel tersebut dan bahwa bakari tidak dapat mengikuti kata potensial, sedangkan dake bisa. pada penelitian ini, penulis menggunakan metode deskriptif analitis dan metode kepustakaan. kata kunci: toritatejoshi, dake, bakari, sakura house perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 101 pendahuluan menurut verhaar (2004:7), menguasai bahasa (dalam arti dapat memakai secara lancar) tidak sama dengan mampu menerangkan kaidah-kaidahnya, belajar suatu bahasa tidak sama dengan belajar tentang bahasa tersebut. misalnya, seseorang menguasai bahasa indonesia, tapi tanpa keahlian khusus ia tidak akan dapat menerangkan tata bahasa indonesia. sama dengan bahasa indonesia, seseorang yang menguasai bahasa jepang belum tentu dapat menerangkan tata bahasa jepang tersebut. banyak pemelajar bahasa jepang yang hanya menguasai saja tanpa mengerti lebih jauh bahasa jepang tersebut sehingga banyak kesalahan dalam pemakaian kata. menurut chino (1994:vii) jika seseorang hanya memiliki sedikit pengetahuan tata bahasa, ia dapat menggunakan nomina, verba, adjektiva dalam bahasa jepang dengan sedikit lebih mudah. namun untuk suatu alasan tertentu, hal tersebut tidak dapat dilakukan terhadap partikel. partikel dalam bahasa jepang tidak dapat ditebak, dicocok-cocokkan, atau dipadan-padankan begitu saja. penempatan partikel dengan benar menjadi keharusan dalam setiap tingkatan pembicaraan bahasa jepang karena partikel tidak bisa berdiri sendiri dan tidak memiliki arti. oleh karena itu, suatu kata yang hanya terdiri atas partikel saja, mungkin tidak akan berarti apa-apa. tetapi dengan menambahkan kata lain, akan membawa suatu perbedaan besar. sebagai contoh, sebuah frasa seperti 東京に (toukyou ni) sudah memenuhi fungsi komunikatif, tetapi kata ni tersebut kalau berdiri sendiri, tidak dapat memberikan apa-apa. satuan terkecil yang membentuk kalimat (bun) sering dikenal dengan istilah 単語(tango/kata). iwabuchi (1989:105-106) menyebut tango dengan istilah 語 (go). misalnya apabila kalimat 花が咲 く (hana ga saku) ‘bunga berkembang’ dibagi-bagi menjadi bagian-bagian yang lebih kecil akan menjadi 花―が―咲く(hana-ga-saku), bagian-bagian kalimat ini tidak dapat dibagi lagi menjadi bagian-bagian yang lebih kecil. kalaupun dibagi-bagi menjadi bagian-bagian yang lebih kecil akan menjadi は―な―が―さ―く(ha-na-ga-sa-ku) yang hanya merupakan deretan silabel (onsetsu) yang tidak mempunyai arti apapun. go memiliki arti tertentu, diucapkan sekaligus, dan memiliki aksen tertentu. di dalam suatu kalimat, go secara langsung dapat membentuk sebuah bunsetsu. di dalam cara-cara pembentukannya, go dapat dibagi menjadi 自立語(jiritsugo) dan 付属語(fuzokugo). pada umumnya, masing-masing tango dapat berdiri sendiri dan memiliki arti yang pasti, tango ini biasanya disebut jiritsugo (termasuk di dalamnya 動詞(doushi), イー形容詞 (i-keiyoushi), ナー 形容詞 (na-keiyoushi),名詞 (meishi), 連体詞 (rentaishi),副詞( fukushi), 接続詞 (setsuzokushi), dan 感動詞 (kandoushi), sedangkan yang tidak memiliki arti tertentu disebut fuzokugo (termasuk di dalamnya 助詞 (joshi) dan 助動詞 (jodoushi)). dake dan bakari termasuk dalam kelompok joshi yaitu 取り立て助詞 (toritate joshi). joshi adalah kelas kata yang termasuk fuzokugo yang dipakai setelah suatu kata untuk menunjukkan hubungan antara kata tersebut dengan kata lain serta untuk menambah arti kata tersebut lebih jelas lagi. kelas kata joshi tidak mengalami perubahan bentuknya. joshi sama dengan jodoushi, kedua-duanya termasuk fuzokugo, namun kelas kata jodoushi dapat mengalami perubahan sedangkan joshi tidak dapat mengalami perubahan. oleh karena joshi termasuk fuzokugo, maka kelas kata ini tidak dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai satu kata, satu 文節(bunsetsu), apalagi sebagai satu kalimat. joshi akan menunjukkan maknanya apabila sudah dipakai setelah kelas kata lain dapat berdiri sendiri (jiritsugo) sehingga membentuk sebuah bunsetsu atau sebuah bun. kelas kata yang dapat disisipi joshi antara lain meishi, doushi, i-keiyoushi, na-keiyoushi, joshi, dan sebagainya. dalam penelitian ini, kami akan menjelaskan fungsi-fungsi dari partikel dake dan bakari serta menganalisis perbedaan dari kedua partikel tersebut. kedua partikel ini sama-sama memiliki arti dalam bahasa indonesia sebagai ‘hanya’ , tapi kedua partikel ini memiliki fungsi yang berbeda. penulis akan meneliti perbedaan kedua partikel ini dengan menggunakan novel sakura house karya toudou shizuko sebagai sumber data. 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui perbedaan antara partikel dake dengan bakari yang secara umum memiliki arti sama dan sulit untuk dibedakan. manfaat penelitian ini adalah agar para pemelajar bahasa jepang dapat mengetahui perbedaan fungsi dan pemakaian partikel dake dan bakari. selain itu juga agar memudahkan para pemelajar mempelajari kedua partikel ini. pembahasan menurut sakata dan shinya (2003:15), hinshi adalah pengelompokkan kata menurut tiga tinjauan dasar, yaitu bentuk/pola, fungsi dalam dokumen, dan arti perbendaharaan kata. sakata dan shinya (2003:15) membagi hinshi menjadi sepuluh jenis, yaitu : − doushi (動詞) − na keiyoushi (ナ形容詞) − i keiyoushi (イ形容詞) − meishi (taigen) (名詞 (体言) ) − fukushi (副詞) − rentaishi (連体詞) − setsuzokushi (接続詞) − kantanshi (感嘆詞) − joshi (助詞) − yougenkeiseishi (用言形成詞) dilihat dari bentuk kanji yang membentuknya, kata joshi terdiri dari dua buah kanji, yaitu kanji jo (助) yang juga dapat dibaca tasukeru yang berarti menolong atau membantu, dan kanji shi (詞) yang memiliki makna yang sama dengan kotoba yaitu berarti kata, perkataan, atau bahasa. oleh karena itu joshi seringkali diterjemahkan secara bebas menjadi kata bantu (sudjianto, 2000:1). di samping itu, istilah joshi juga sering diterjemahkan sebagai partikel. hal ini disebabkan karena ada kaitannya dengan penerjemahan joshi ke dalam bahasa inggris. dalam kamus jepang-inggris, istilah joshi sering diterjemahkan menjadi particle, dan kemudian particle ini diterjemahkan lagi ke dalam bahasa indonesia menjadi partikel. menurut masuoka dan takubo (1992:49), joshi adalah sebagai penghubung antara kata dan kata dan juga klausa dan klausa serta berfungsi sebagai pembentuk subjek dan kata bantu yang menghubungkannya dengan kata benda. joshi terbagi menjadi lima jenis, yaitu kakujoshi, teidaijoshi, toritatejoshi, setsuzokujoshi, dan shuujoshi berdasarkan fungsinya dalam pembentukan sebuah kalimat. dake dan bakari termasuk kedalam toritatejoshi. menurut iori (2001:241), joshi yang memberikan penekanan pada faktor kalimat yang menyiratkan cara pandang pembicara terhadap suatu keadaan yang terjadi dalam kalimat tersebut disebut toritate joshi. tomita (1992:146-148) membagi fungsi dake menjadi empat, yaitu : 1. menunjukkan adanya pembatasan contoh : あなたにだけ教えます。 hanya kamu yang kami ajari (tidak ada yang lain). 2. menunjukkan adanya taraf atau tingkatan contoh : できるだけ、早く来てください。 sebisa mungkin, cepatlah datang. 3. menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat contoh : 勉強するだけ日本語が上手になる。 perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 103 dengan belajar, kita akan semakin mahir berbahasa jepang. 4. menunjukkan hubungan berbalik contoh : b さんはあの山に慣れていただけに、油断をしたのだろう。 hanya karena b sudah terbiasa dengan gunung itu, ia melakukan kelalaian. tomita (1992:153-155) membagi fungsi bakari menjadi tujuh, yaitu : 1. menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak contoh : うちの子は勉強をしないで、テレビばかり見ています。 anak kami tidak belajar, hanya nonton televisi terus. 2. menunjukkan kegiatan baru saja selesai contoh : 今、起きたばかりだ。 sekarang baru saja bangun. 3. menunjukkan perkiraan jumlah contoh : 一時間ばかり歩く。 hanya (kira-kira) satu jam berjalan kaki 4. menunjukkan adanya pembatasan contoh : あの人は食べるばかりで、自分では作れません。 orang itu hanya makan saja, tapi tidak bisa membuatnya sendiri. 5. menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat contoh : あの電車に乗ったばかりに、事故にあった。 karena kami naik kereta itulah kami mengalami kecelakaan. 6. menunjukkan kegiatan yang akan dilakukan contoh : あとは寝るばかりだ。 sesudah ini akan tidur. 7. menunjukkan bahwa ada hal lain selain itu contoh : あの店は味がいいばかりか、量も多いです。 toko itu bukan hanya rasanya enak, bahannyapun bagus. berdasarkan pada teori-teori fungsi dake dan bakari yang telah disebutkan pada bab ke dua, kami akan mencoba menganalisis fungsi masing-masing joshi tersebut yang terdapat dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou. analisis dake「だけ」menurut fungsi satu, yaitu menunjukkan adanya pembatasan berikut ini adalah kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung joshi dake yang memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan adanya pembatasan. data 1 situasi : jam satu pagi di bulan oktober, tomoko dan masaki sedang berada di ruang keluarga, sedangkan choko dan ayane minum bir di dapur. mereka membicarakan tomoko yang semakin cantik dan tentang masaki yang ingin kembali tinggal dirumah itu. ayane langsung menolak dengan alasan masaki tidak akan mandiri dan menjadi manja. lalu mereka membicarakan soal nama “butterfly apartment” pemberian tomoko untuk rumah yang mereka tinggali, choko baru pertama kali mendengar nama itu. ayane tidak menyukai nama itu. lalu ia menyebutkan nama yang ia dan masaki inginkan yaitu “sakura house”, choko merasa pernah mendengarnya lalu choko menanyakan alasan nama itu diberikan. 「なんとなく。イメージ的にきれいだし、女だけの住いってかんじがして」 (toudou, 2006:57) 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 terjemahan : “apa ya. terkesan cantik dan terasa bahwa itu rumah hanya untuk perempuan saja.” analisis : dake menurut tomita (1991:146-147) memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan adanya pembatasan. numata (2000:13) menjelaskan bahwa jenis kata apapun yang ada diikuti oleh dake, maka kata itu akan menjadi subjek yang difokuskan untuk dibatasi. secara harafiah, kalimat ini dapat diartikan “terasa bahwa rumah itu hanya untuk perempuan saja”.「女」dalam shinmura (1998:421) memiliki arti “salah satu jenis kelamin manusia”. dalam kbbi (2000:529) “kelamin” berarti 1) jodoh (laki-laki dan perempuan atau jantan dan betina; sepasang, 2) sifat jasmani atau rohani yang membedakan dua makhluk sebagai betina dan jantan atau wanita dan pria, 3) jenis laki-laki atau perempuan; genus, 4) alat pada tubuh manusia, binatang, dsb untuk mengadakan keturunan; kemaluan; genitalia. dari arti kelamin di atas bahwa jenis kelamin hanya ada dua, yaitu laki-laki dan perempuan. 「女」yang berarti “perempuan” dalam kbbi (2000:856) berarti “orang (manusia) yang mempunyai puki, dapat menstruasi, hamil, melahirkan anak, dan menyusui”. berarti 「女」termasuk meishi. tomita (1991:146-147) menjelaskan bahwa bila dake mengikuti josuushi atau meishi, berarti dake berfungsi untuk membatasi suatu jumlah atau benda sehingga jumlah dan benda tersebut menjadi terbatas. 「だけ」dalam kalimat ini memfokuskan「女」untuk dibatasi, sesuai dengan fungsinya yang pertama menurut tomita (1991:146-148) yaitu untuk menunjukkan pembatasan. jadi, dalam kalimat ini dake berfungsi untuk membatasi jenis kelamin karena「女」yang termasuk meishi termasuk ke dalam kategori jenis kelamin. jenis kelamin hanya ada dua, yaitu laki-laki dan perempuan. jadi dalam kalimat ini berarti orang lain tanpa masuk ke dalam rumah itupun sudah dapat menerka bahwa yang tinggal di rumah itu semuanya perempuan, tidak ada laki-laki. data 2 situasi : malam beberapa hari sebelum bulan oktober, choko, ayane, masaki, dan tomoko sudah berjanji untuk berkumpul bersama pada jam delapan malam. tentu saja terkadang mereka datang terlambat karena pekerjaan mereka. choko dan ayane berada di dapur untuk menyiapkan makanan untuk mereka berempat makan nanti. di tengah kesibukan itu, choko sempat membuka jendela untuk menghirup udara segar. bulan tidak terlihat saat itu. tetapi angin yang sejuk menandakan musim gugur sebentar lagi akan datang. lalu choko melanjutkan membuat norimaki. norimaki ini pesanan masaki. masaki sangat suka norimaki buatan choko, ia mengatakan kalau norimaki lain rasanya tidak seenak buatan choko. choko memang pintar memasak, ia belajar masak dari ibunya. sepuluh tahun yang lalu mereka berempat pernah tinggal bersama dalam rumah itu. rumah itu adalah warisan yang didapat choko dari bibinya yang sudah meninggal. bibinya hanya pegawai di sebuah area pabrik kota kecil. meskipun tinggal di kota yang sama, choko sekeluarga nyaris tidak pernah mengunjunginya. tidak tahu mengapa, bibi choko ini dikatakan sebagai orang yang aneh oleh ayah choko dan keluarganya. setelah bibi choko meninggal, seorang pengacara menemui choko dan mengatakan bahwa choko mendapat warisan dari bibinya. harta kekayaan hampir tidak ada, hanya sedikit uang di bank dan rumah tua yang dibangun di lahan yang kecil. sehingga choko bingung mendapat warisan tersebut. pengacara itu menjelaskan alasan bibi choko memberikan warisan kepadanya. 「あの子だけが私のことを気にかけてくれるよ。あの子だけが。」 (toudou, 2006:10) terjemahan : “hanya anak itu yang memperdulikanku. hanya anak itu saja.” perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 105 analisis : secara harafiah, kalimat ini dapat diartikan “hanya anak itu yang memperdulikanku”. yang dimaksud “anak itu” adalah choko. meskipun choko telah beranjak besar dan sudah berumur 36 tahun, bagi bibi choko, choko tetap keponakannya dan berumur jauh lebih muda dibanding dengan dirinya. ini sesuai dengan arti “anak” dalam kbbi (2000:41) yaitu “yang lebih kecil dari yang lain”. di sini “yang lain” berpatokan pada bibi choko dan keluarga intinya yang tentu saja lebih tua dari choko, misalnya : ayahnya, ibunya, bibinya, dan saudara kandung ayah dan ibunya. 「だけ」dalam kalimat ini memfokuskan「あの子」untuk dibatasi, sesuai dengan fungsinya yang pertama menurut tomita (1991:146-148) yaitu untuk menunjukkan pembatasan. jadi, dalam kalimat ini dake berfungsi untuk membatasi orang karena anoko yang termasuk meishi tersebut termasuk ke dalam kategori “orang”. anoko mengacu kepada choko. masanobu (1994:413) menjelaskan bahwa fungsi dake sebagai penunjuk adanya pembatasan berarti membatasi sesuatu atau keadaan dengan arti “tidak ada sesuatu yang lain lagi yang ditambah ataupun sesuatu yang berbeda” atau “sudah tidak ada yang lain”. artinya, selain choko, tidak ada orang lain lagi yang mempedulikannya. orang lain di sini bisa keluarga, teman, dan sebagainya. data 3 situasi : malam awal bulan agustus, masaki menelepon choko. saat itu, choko menanyakan kabar ibu masaki. masaki mengatakan bahwa ibunya sudah agak baikan, tetapi ia sedih karena tidak bisa menemani ibunya di rumah sakit. para perawat mengatakan tidak akan ada apa-apa karena ada mereka yang menemani ibunya, tetapi tetap saja masaki merasa khawatir. masaki merasa ia hanya memikirkan dirinya sendiri dan tidak memperdulikan ibunya. masaki mengatakan bahwa ia sudah 2, 3 tahun ini tidak pulang pada perayaan tahun baru dan festival obon. ia ingin pulang tetapi ada pekerjaan yang menumpuk dan rekan sekerjanya sakit sehingga ia menunda liburannya. lalu sewaktu menelepon ibunyapun hanya tertawa dan memakluminya. karena selalu disemangati oleh ibunya, masakipun menjadi manja. choko mengatakan bahwa iapun sama sepertinya, ia juga menceritakan beberapa kebaikan masaki. lalu masaki menangis dengan keras, ia mengatakan bahwa ia tidak salah menelepon choko karena choko dapat memahaminya. bahkan kalau ia bercerita kepada kakak atau suaminya, hanya memperburuk perasaannya. padahal ia butuh orang yang bisa ia tumpahkan perasaannya. lalu choko berjanji akan mengunjunginya pada hari sabtu. 「ううん。きてくれるだけでありがたいの。ね、ほんとに、きてくれるの?」 (toudou, 2006:120) terjemahan : “tidak kok. hanya bersedia datang sajapun aku sudah berterima kasih. hei, benar-benar kamu akan datang?” analisis : bila diterjemahkan secara harafiah, kalimat ini berarti “hanya bersedia datang sajapun aku sudah berterima kasih”. dari tabel makna di atas, dapat diasumsikan bahwa arti dari「きてくれる」 adalah seseorang rela datang demi diri kita sendiri dan tindakan ini merupakan suatu pengorbanan seperti makna “memberi” menurut kbbi (2000:140) yaitu menyebabkan menjadi menderita. dalam kalimat ini, dake mengikuti doushi, seperti yang telah dijelaskan oleh tomita (1991:146-148) bahwa dake yang memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan pembatasan dapat mengikuti doushi (bentuk kamus). dalam kalimat ini,「きてくれる」menjadi fokus dake untuk dibatasi. dake membatasi「きてくれる」yang merupakan suatu kegiatan. sehingga choko tidak perlu melakukan hal lain selain “datang”. karena tadinya choko mengatakan akan datang untuk 1) melihat masaki, 2) 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 makan makanan enak bersama-sama, dan 3) mengobrol. hal ini sesuai dengan yang terdapat dalam nihongo bunkei jiten (1998:191) yaitu bila dake mengikuti doushi (dalam bentuk kamus), maka memiliki arti “hal yang lainnya tidak harus dilakukan”. numata (2000:39) menjelaskan adanya perbedaan menarik antara penambahan kakujoshi「で」 sebelum atau sesudah dake. dake dapat mengikuti dan diikuti oleh kakujoshi dan penempatannya mengubah arti suatu kalimat. contoh : − 注射だけで治る。 − 注射でだけ治る。 pada kalimat pertama berarti “walaupun ada cara lainnya untuk sembuh, tetapi dengan suntikan sudah cukup dan cara lainnya tidak dibutuhkan”. namun pada kalimat ke dua berarti “dengan cara lain jelas tidak bisa, hanya dengan suntik akan sembuh”. dengan demikian, kalimat pertama memiliki arti pembatas minimal yang diperlukan dalam batasan hal atau masalah, sedangkan kalimat ke dua menyatakan batasan sesuatu hal yang seharusnya diambil sebagai cara pengobatan. tapi perbedaan arti ini hanya berlaku untuk kakujoshi「で」saja, sedangkan untuk kakujoshi lainnya tidak mengalami perubahan arti. contoh : − 母だけに言える。 − 母にだけ言える。 kedua kalimat di atas memiliki arti yang sama yaitu “(kami) tidak bisa membicarakannya kepada orang lain selain kepada ibu”. numata (2000:38) menambahkan bahwa kakujoshi「が」tidak dapat dipakai sebelum dake. sesuai dengan yang dijelaskan oleh numata (2000:39), sebenarnya ada banyak hal yang dapat dilakukan choko untuk masaki tetapi masaki hanya mengharapkan kedatangan choko dan tidak membutuhkan hal lainnya sehingga masaki mengatakan 「きてくれるだけであり がたいの」. analisis dake「だけ」menurut fungsi dua, yaitu menunjukkan adanya taraf ataupun tingkatan menurut shinmura (1998:1134) yang dimaksud dengan「程度」adalah seberapa tinggi, seberapa rendah, seberapa kuat, seberapa lemah, seberapa kelebihan, dan seberapa kekurangan dari sesuatu dan menurut kindaichi (1997:949) 「程度」 berarti “setelah membandingkan dengan hal lain, maka itulah taraf sifat dan nilai luarnya”. matsuura (2005:1058) mengartikan「程度」sebagai taraf, derajat, atau tingkatan. taraf dalam kbbi (2000:1143) berarti tingkatan; derajat; mutu (dalam arti tinggi rendahnya, baik buruknya, dsb). jadi yang fungsi dake ini bermaksud untuk menunjukkan taraf, derajat, tingkatan, atau mutu dari sesuatu. berikut ini adalah kalimat-kalimat mengandung joshi dake yang memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan adanya taraf ataupun tingkatan. data 1 situasi : choko, ayane, masaki, dan tomoko sedang berkumpul di ruang keluarga pada jam sembilan malam. pertama-tama, tomoko membicarakan betapa hebatnya choko dalam memasak dan betapa baiknya ia, kemudian tomoko mulai menangis karena merasa terharu akan kebaikan choko selama ini. kemudian mereka membicarakan juga betapa cantik dan anggunnya ibu ayane. lalu pada akhirnya mereka mulai membicarakan masalah-masalah dalam kehidupan mereka. cerita dimulai dari tomoko, ia menceritakan masalah percintaannya yang bertepuk sebelah tangan. lalu pada akhirnya ia mengutarakan bahwa ia ingin anaknya, marika, bisa menjadi seperti ayane yang begitu cantik agar laki-laki banyak yang tertarik padanya. lalu ia juga menceritakan keinginannya yang lain. perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 107 「先の長い夢だけど、そう思ってるのって、それだけで幸せだし。」 (toudou, 2006:55) terjemahan : “walaupun hanya mimpi yang panjang, hanya dengan itu saja aku sudah senang.” analisis : di dalam kalimat ini dake mengikuti kata sore, sore yang dimaksud di sini adalah pikiran tomoko akan mimpi-mimpinya seperti menghiasi kamarnya dengan mebel rotan putih dan renda yang cantik. sunagawa, et.al (1998:192) menjelaskan bahwa apabila dake mengikuti kata「あれ」、「それ」、 「これ」maka dake tersebut memiliki arti “sampai batas itu”. kouei (1996:33) menjelaskan bahwa penggunaan sore+dake memiliki arti untuk menunjukkan suatu tingkatan maksimal. contohnya : a mengambil kacang sebanyak mungkin ke dalam tangannya. semua yang berhasil ia pegang dalam tangannya adalah tingkatan maksimal dimana ia dapat mengambil kacang-kacang tersebut. dake dalam kalimat ini menunjukkan tingkatan kebahagiaan tomoko.tingkatan kebahagiaan tomoko sangat rendah karena walaupun hanya berangan-angan saja tanpa mewujudkannyapun ia sudah senang. itu dikarenakan ia mengalami berbagai hal-hal buruk sehingga dengan membayangkan sesuatu yang baik ia sudah sangat senang. ini sesuai dengan yang dijelaskan oleh saegusa (2004:17) bahwa sore+dake terkadang menunjukkan suatu tingkatan yang paling rendah. data 2 situasi : jam pulang kerja choko adalah jam tujuh malam lebih sedikit. saat itu pertengahan bulan februari, sejak pagi udaranya panas sekali, tetapi begitu agak sore hujanpun turun. sebelum naik kereta, choko pergi ke supermarket di depan stasiun. menu spesial hari jumat adalah kroket. dalam seminggu, hanya hari itu saja bisa mendapat kroket. walaupun choko memakan kroket itu seminggu sekali, ia tidak pernah bosan. sejak saat itu sudah berlalu tiga bulan lamanya. seperti biasa, pada hari jumat choko membeli tiga buah kroket. できるだけ油分の少ない食事を心がけていた。(toudou, 2006:61) terjemahan : sebisa mungkin mengingat makanan yang sedikit lemaknya. analisis : dekiru+dake berarti “sedapat mungkin, sebisa mungkin”. di dalam kalimat ini, dake mengikuti kata bentuk potensial. kawashima (1992:11) menjelaskan bahwa bila dake mengikuti kata bentuk potensial, maka dake berfungsi untuk menunjukkan tingkatan dari sesuatu, dengan catatan tingkatan tersebut tidak dapat dilampaui. okutsu,et.al (1990:69) menjelaskan apabila dake mengikuti kata potensial maka dake di sini menunjukkan tingkatan maksimal. dake dalam kalimat ini menunjukkan tingkat maksimal kemampuan choko. seberapa bisa choko untuk mengurangi makanan yang banyak lemaknya, itulah tingkatan maksimalnya. dan dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou ini, dapat terlihat bahwa kemampuan choko untuk mengingat makanan yang baik kalorinya itu sangat tinggi karena ia selalu menjaga pola makannya sejak ia beranjak dewasa (toudou, 2006:75). data 3 situasi : suatu malam bulan februari, choko sedang bergegas pulang membawa kroket yang baru dibelinya disuper market sambil membayangkan akan makan dengan apa saja bersama kroket itu. lalu hujan 108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 pun turun, choko berhasil pulang sebelum yang lainnya. lalu dia bertemu dengan miyama, tunangan ayane, di depan pintu rumah. musim gugur tahun lalu ayane dan miyama mulai bertunangan. choko menanyakan soal kunci cadangan yang diberikan choko pada miyama dan miyama mengatakan awal bulan ini ia ingin mengembalikannya kepada ayane. kelihatannya mereka sedang ada masalah. kroket yang tadinya masih hangat sudah menjadi dingin. choko menanyakan kepada miyama apakah ia sudah makan apa belum. miyama mengatakan bahwa ia sudah menunggu ayane sejak jam empat sore, dan belum makan malam. lalu choko mengajaknya makan malam bersama. choko meyuguhkan kroket yang dibelinya tadi, daging babi, dan juga sayuran seperti tomat, selada, dan jamur. tidak sampai 15 menit untuk menyiapkannya. sambil membuka buku saku, miyama menghela nafas lega dan memperlihatkan senyuman. entah sejak kapan rambut miyama yang basah oleh hujan sudah mengering. choko mengkhawatirkan miyama dan menawarkan dryer. miyama mengatakan ia baik-baik saja karena sewaktu berumur 20 tahunan, ia suka sekali mendaki gunung. dibasahi oleh hujan, diterpa angin, dan hal lainnya adalah biasa baginya. choko mengatakan miyama tidak kelihatan liar seperti itu. miyama yang berhadap-hadapan dengan hidangan choko dengan wajah bersinar dan bersemangat memuji hidangan choko. 「すごいな。あっというまに、これだけのものをつくってしまうなんて」 (toudou, 2006:71) terjemahan : “hebatnya. dalam sekejap saja sudah membuat makanan seperti ini.” analisis : dalam kalimat ini, kore yang dimaksud di sini adalah makanan yang dihidangkan choko karena pada saat itu miyama sedang dihadapkan dengan makanan yang dihidangkan choko (toudou, 2006:71). ekspresi miyama saat melihat hidangan choko adalah 「すごいな」. makna「すごい」 menurut shinmura (1998:1426) berarti “寒く冷たく骨身にこたえるように感じられる” yang artinya “seberapa dinginnya pun berusaha untuk menjawab” dan ini menandakan bahwa perjuangannya itu begitu keras dan patut diacungi jempol karena bila udara sangat dingin, mulutpun menjadi beku dan susah berkata-kata. sedangkan menurut matsuura (2005:1001) arti dari 「すごい」 ini adalah “hebat, bukan main, luar biasa”. ini menandakan bahwa tingkatan choko dalam memasak sangat hebat. karena dalam sekejap saja ia sudah bisa menyajikan berbagai macam masakan dan semuanya enak menurut miyama. ini terlihat juga dalam makna kata kore+dake menurut shinmura (1998:1014) yaitu “ini adalah semuanya”, menunjukkan tingkatan maksimal kemampuan choko dalam menyajikan makanan. analisis dake「だけ」menurut fungsi tiga, yaitu menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat berikut ini adalah kalimat-kalimat mengandung joshi dake yang menurut penulis memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat. data 1 situasi : ibu ayane yang sudah sepuluh tahun tidak bertemu, menemui ayane, menyapa ayane dengan sopan. ayanepun membalas dengan sopan. tetapi dengan orang yang lebih tua seperti choko, ayane melupakan rasa hormatnya. tapi bagi choko itu tidak jadi masalah. merekapun makan, dimulai dari kare dan selada buatan ayane. masakannya sangat lezat, choko ingin sekali memujinya, tetapi begitu memikirkan kalau makanan itu dibuatnya untuk ippei, pasangan cinta terlarangnya, pujian tidak bisa keluar dari mulut choko. lalu ayane mengatakan bahwa ia pun tahu kalau miyama laki-laki yang baik, tapi ia tidak puas. ippei mengatakan dengan jelas kalau ia adalah lelaki yang sulit diatur. ia juga tidak bekerja, hanya sebagai wakil kepala kedai minum. suatu saat nanti ia ingin memiliki toko sendiri, tapi perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 109 sepertinya tidak berjalan dengan baik, dan ia baru berusia 33tahun. ia butuh orang yang memperhatikannya karena tidak ada orang yang memperhatikannya. ibu ayane mengomentari bahwa ia terlalu terburu-buru berhubungan dengan laki-laki yang tiga tahun lebih muda darinya. 「蝶子さんとお母さまからすれば、堅実な研究者で勤め人の美山さんのほうがよく見 えるのでしょうけれど、人生、安全パイだけじゃつまらない。」 (toudou, 2006:87) terjemahan : “kalau aku mengikuti ibu dan choko, miyama yang bekerja sebagai peneliti yang terjamin memang kelihatan lebih baik, tetapi kehidupan kalau aman-aman saja jadi membosankan.” analisis : kalimat ini memiliki hubungan “bila a terjadi maka akan terjadi b” seperti yang dijelaskan oleh tomita (1991:148). pola a だけ b terdapat dalam bagian「安全パイだけじゃつまらない」. a adalah kalimat atau kata pertama yaitu「安全パイ」dan b adalah kalimat atau kata ke dua yaitu「じ ゃつまらない」. a adalah sebab dan b adalah akibat sehingga dalam kalimat ini dapat diasumsikan bahwa bila aman-aman saja maka akan menjadi membosankan.「安全」yang menurut kbbi (2000:34) adalah tidak mengandung resiko, dan keadaan ini tidak cocok untuk ayane yang suka dengan tantangan (toudou, 2006:86-87). analisis bakari「ばかり」menurut fungsi satu, yaitu untuk menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak berikut ini adalah kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung joshi bakari yang menurut penulis memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak. data 1 situasi : choko sedang memikirkan soal ayane yang berkenalan dengan laki-laki yang ingin ia nikahi, yaitu pekerja keras, tabah, dan tenggang rasa. ia menggunakan kecantikannya sebagai senjata dan menguasai berbagai cara dengan sempurna untuk memikat lawan jenis. dalam sekejap saja ia mengejar tunangannya. suatu gerakan cepat yang tidak dapat ditiru oleh wanita-wanita seperti choko. setelah dua sampai tiga bulan bertunangan, walaupun sering bertengkar, hubungan mereka damai-damai saja, itu sudah sewajarnya. lalu ayane mengacuhkan tunangannya, ia tenggelam dalam cinta yang terlarang. lalu kebenaran ini ia akui di depan tunangannya. bahkan di depan pasangan cinta terlarangnyapun ayane mengakui keberadaan tunangannya. ke tiga-tiganya panik, dan keributan itu adalah awalnya. また、暴力的に荒れ狂うような、手のかかる、面倒な男ばかりとかかわるのだ、温厚 な婚約者の次には。(toudou, 2006:79) terjemahan : lagi-lagi ayane berhubungan dengan laki-laki yang mengganggu, merepotkan, dan suka kasar. tunangan yang selanjutnya lemah lembut. analisis : di dalam kalimat ini, terdapat kata また yang berarti lagi-lagi. dalam kbbi (2000:624) “lagi” berarti “berulang lagi”, artinya tidak hanya sekali. kouei (1996:27) menjelaskan bahwa bakari tidak dapat digunakan untuk kejadian yang hanya terjadi sekali dan berarti menunjukkan bahwa itu sering 110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 terjadi. choko yang sudah mengenal ayane sejak lama sudah mengetahui banyak hal yang terjadi pada ayane. kalimat ini dapat diartikan bahwa dari sekian laki-laki yang berhubungan dengan ayane, kebanyakan dari mereka adalah laki-laki yang menggangu, merepotkan, dan kasar. bakari dalam kalimat ini termasuk fungsi satu, yaitu menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak karena ayane sering berhubungan dengan laki-laki yang mengganggu, merepotkan, dan kasar. data 2 situasi : sudah seminggu berlalu sejak pertemuan choko dengan miyama di depan rumah lalu mereka makan bersama. sore itu miyama menghubungi choko untuk mengajaknya ke kedai minum setelah pulang kerja. miyama berterima kasih atas suguhan choko waktu itu dan ia menyadari kalau selera mereka sama, karena itulah miyama mengajak choko ke kedai minum yang ia rasa enak. walaupun choko merasa cocok, ia memiliki ketakutan yang tak jelas. tidak ada menu yang pasti di sana, rebusan, asinan, telur dadar, dan lain-lain. choko suka sekali dengan masakannya. lalu mereka minum bir, miyama menanyakan bagaimana rasanya dan choko mengatakan bahwa rasanya sangat enak, miyama sangat senang mendengarnya. lalu miyama ingin menceritakan tentang dirinya dan aya. choko sudah menduga ada hal yang ingin diceritakan miyama sejak ia mengajaknya makan. miyama mengatakan bahwa ia menemui laki-laki yg menjadi selingkuhan aya, yang bernama ippei. lalu choko menanyakan mengenai ippei. 「外見はひとくちで言うと不潔でしたね、何日もシャワーもあびてないような。話し てみると、これまたカッコつけた浅いことばかり並べ立てる、いわばチンピラ。」 (toudou, 2006:93-94) terjemahan : “dilihat dari penampilannya bisa dikatakan dekil, entah berapa hari sepertinya tidak mandi. setelah mencoba mengobrol dengannya, ia menderetkan hal-hal yang dangkal terus menerus. bisa dikatakan ia seorang berandalan.” analisis : menurut matsuura (2005:700) arti dari 「並べ立てる」ini adalah “menderetkan”. “deret” dalam kbbi (2000:255) artinya “kumpulan zat, bilangan, atau kuantitas lain pada kumpulan yang sama yang disusun secara beraturan”. “kumpulan” dalam kbbi (2000:612) artinya adalah “sesuatu yang telah dikumpulkan”. dan dapat diasumsikan bahwa kumpulan ini artinya berjumlah banyak. ini sesuai dengan yang telah dijelaskan oleh tomita (1992:153) bahwa fungsi bakari adalah menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak karena kata-kata yang dideretkan oleh ippei berjumlah banyak. di dalam kalimat ini, terdapat kata また yang berarti lagi-lagi. seperti dalam data satu, menurut kbbi (2000:624) “lagi-lagi” berarti sesuatu yang pernah terjadi, terjadi lagi. karena frekuensinya tidak hanya sekali, maka bisa dikatakan banyak. dalam situasi di atas, miyama mendeskripsikan ippei sebagai seorang berandalan karena ia terus menderetkan hal-hal yang dangkal. berarti, selama miyama berinteraksi dengan ippei, ippei sering melontarkan hal-hal yang dangkal. dan seperti kutipan di atas, sebab dari ippei terus menerus melontarkan hal-hal yang dangkal adalah karena pengetahuannya tidak begitu baik, dalam arti tidak begitu cerdas. data 3 situasi : saat itu malam permulaan bulan oktober. setelah makan malam choko beristirahat sambil memandang televisi, mandi, mengeringkan rambut, dan lain-lain. itu adalah kegiatan rutin choko. tetapi yang berbeda adalah adanya telepon dari masaki. saat itu choko hanya mengenakan handuk tipis setelah mandi, lalu ia mengenakan piyamanya. masaki minta maaf ia meneleponnya malam perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 111 sekali. choko menanyakan keadaan ibu masaki. masaki mengatakan bahwa ibunya sudah baikan, sudah selera makan, bahkan ia ingin makan daging kelinci, tapi begitu masaki membelinya sampai tergopoh-gopoh, ibunya hanya bisa makan nasi. lalu choko menanyakan keadaan masaki karena tidak bisa menginap di rumah sakit. masaki bilang kalau para perawat mengatakan bahwa tidak apa-apa tidak menyertai ibunya karena mereka ada untuk ibunya. masaki sadar itu demi dirinya tapi sendirian di rumah ia jadi malah merasa khawatir, ia ingin menemani ibunya. masaki mengatakan sudah lama tidak pulang ke rumah orang tuanya. masaki hampir 32tahun dan choko lima tahun lebih tua darinya. masaki selalu memikirkan dirinya sendiri, tidak memikirkan ibunya. setelah lulus sma masaki langsung keluar dari rumah. ayahnya meninggalpun ia hanya pulang ke rumah selama seminggu. 「うん・・・私、ずうっと自分のことばかりにかまけてて、あんまり母のこと気にし ていなかったな、高校卒業と同時に実家をはなれてからは。」 (toudou, 2006:114) terjemahan : “hmm…aku menyita waktuku dengan diriku terus menerus, tidak memperdulikan ibuku. itu karena ketika lulus dari smu aku langsung pergi dari rumah.” analisis : berikut ini, terdapat adverbia ずうっと yang berarti “terus” (matsuura, 2005:1225) dan “terus” dalam kbbi (2000:1186) berarti selalu. selalu artinya banyak terjadi. bakari dalam kalimat ini menunjukkan bahwa masaki terus menyita waktunya dengan dirinya sendiri tanpa memperdulikan ibunya. sejak lulus smu hingga ia berumur 33 tahun hanya dirinya yang ia pikirkan. kemungkinan ia memikirkan ibunya ataupun orang lain memang ada, tetapi yang ia pikirkan paling banyak adalah dirinya sendiri. analisis bakari「ばかり」menurut fungsi dua, yaitu untuk menunjukkan bahwa sesuatu baru selesai dilakukan berikut ini adalah kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung joshi bakari yang penulis memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan bahwa sesuatu baru selesai dilakukan. situasi : yang diinginkan pria adalah wanita yang seperti ibu dan seperti anak. tapi dalam kenyataan, hal itu tidak diperbolehkan dan hanya boleh memilih salah satunya. karena itu, bagaimanapun juga alasan orang berselingkuh mungkin ada pada hal itu. manusia, bila sudah mendapat salah satunya akan jadi tidak menginginkannya. selamanya bertentangan dengan kenyataan, itulah manusia. tetapi, kebanyakan orang menahan nafsu itu. yang tidak bisa menahan nafsu itu salah satunya adalah ayane. bukan memilih di antara dua, tetapi menginginkan ke duanya. hubungan tiga sudut seperti itu pasti ada yang terluka. saat itu ibu ayane datang menemui ayane untuk membicarakan hubungannya dengan miyama dan ippei. スーツの下に着ていた、この前買ったばかりのタートルネックの半袖のセーターにブ ラシをかけていると、寝室のドア一枚をへだてて綾音の母の野利子のあいさつの声が した。(toudou, 2006:84) terjemahan : “di dalam setelan baju yang dipakainya, ia memakai sweater bermodel turtleneck lengan pendek dan bros yang baru dibelinya kemarin-kemarin ini. ibu ayane, noriko, menyapa dari pintu ruang tidur.” 112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 analisis : bakari mengikuti タ動詞. タ動詞 dipakai bila verba tersebut tergolong dalam bentuk lampau. tohsaku (2001:162) menjelaskan bahwa pola「たばかり」ini menunjukkan sesuatu yang telah selesai dalam waktu yang tidak lama. tetapi waktu yang tidak lama ini hanya pembicara yang merasakannya dan penggunaannya berbeda dengan 「たところ」 karena 「たところ」 menunjukkan benar-benar baru saja terjadi atau selesai. contoh : 1) ニューヨークから帰ってきたところです。 2) ニューヨークから帰ってきたばかりです。 pada kalimat pertama, pembicara benar-benar baru saja kembali dari new york, mungkin bisa saja beberapa menit yang lalu dan waktunya tidak lebih dari satu hari. pada kalimat ke dua, pembicara baru kembali dari new york dan waktu yang dianggap “baru saja” ini bermacam-macam tergantung konteks. contohnya saja bila a sedang membicarakan soal kepulangannya dari new york sepuluh hari yang lalu maka a akan berkata 「十日前にニューヨークから帰ってきたばかりなんですが」. untuk pemakaian 「たところ」waktu sepuluh hari terlalu lama menurut hitungan waktu. kalimat ini,「たばかり」sebelumnya terdapat adverbia「この前」yang menurut shinmura (1998:993) berarti beberapa hari lalu. berarti proses pembelian bros dan sweater bermodel turtleneck lengan pendek tersebut selang waktunya tidak begitu lama dan tentu saja bila itu dalam bentuk lampau kegiatan itu sudah selesai dilakukan. analisis bakari「ばかり」menurut fungsi tiga, yaitu untuk menunjukkan perkiraan jumlah berikut ini adalah contoh kalimat yang mengandung joshi bakari yang memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan perkiraan jumlah. situasi : sepuluh tahun lalu, ke empat orang ini pernah tinggal bersama di dalam rumah ini. waktu itu choko berumur 36 tahun, tomoko berumur 31 tahun, ayane berumur 26 tahun, dan masaki berumur 21 tahun. hanya masaki yang masih pelajar pada waktu itu, ke tiga lainnya sudah bekerja. mereka tinggal di sebuah rumah susun dua tingkat dalam area perumahan yang tentram. choko mendapat rumah itu sebagai warisan dari bibinya yang telah meninggal. bibi dari pihak ayahnya ini selama masa bujangnya hingga masa pensiunnya bekerja sebagai pegawai kantor di sebuah area pabrik kota kecil. といって亡くなった伯母には遺産と呼ぶほどの財産があるわけではなく、銀行に預け てあるわずかばかりの現金と、せまい敷地に建った一戸建ての老朽化した家のほかに は何もなかった。(toudou, 2006:10) terjemahan : warisan berupa kekayaan dari bibinya yang telah meninggal tidak ada, selain uang tabungan di bank yang sedikit dan rumah tua yang dibangun di lahan yang kecil, lainnya tidak ada. analisis : kata 「わずか」termasuk dalam suuryoushi (kata penunjuk jumlah) karena sedikit atau banyak menunjukkan suatu jumlah. numata (2000:52) menjelaskan bahwa bila bakari mengikuti suuryoushi, maka bakari bukan membatasi tetapi menunjukkan perkiraan jumlah. jadi dalam kalimat ini dapat diartikan choko mendapat warisan berupa tabungan di bank yang jumlahnya kira-kira sedikit. perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 113 penutup di dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou, penulis menemukan 107 kalimat yang mengandung toritatejoshi dake dan 21 kalimat yang mengandung toritatejoshi bakari, meliputi 85 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi pertama dake, 21 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi ke dua dake, dan 1 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi ke tiga dake. serta 19 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi pertama bakari, 1 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi ke dua bakari, dan 1 kalimat yang mengandung fungsi ke tiga bakari. sedangkan untuk fungsi ke empat dake dan fungsi ke empat sampai ke tujuh bakari tidak ditemukan di dalam novel ini. setelah menganalisis kalimat-kalimat tersebut, penulis menemukan persamaan dan perbedaan dari kedua partikel ini. persamaan kedua partikel ini dilihat dari fungsi-fungsinya adalah sama-sama memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan adanya pembatasan dan untuk menunjukkan hubungan sebab akibat. sedangkan perbedaannya adalah dake memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan hubungan berbalik, sedangkan bakari memiliki fungsi untuk menunjukkan suatu jumlah yang banyak, perkiraan jumlah, kegiatan yang baru selesai dilakukan, serta kegiatan yang akan dilakukan. dilihat dari struktur pembentukan kalimatnya, persamaan kedua partikel ini adalah sama-sama dapat mengikuti meishi, doushi, suuryoushi, keiyoushi, dan shijigo, dapat diikuti kakujoshi 「が」,「を」、dan teidaijoshi「は」tapi tidak dapat mengikutinya, serta dapat diikuti dan mengikuti kakujoshi 「に」、「で」、「と」、dan「へ」. sedangkan perbedaannya adalah dake dapat mengikuti kata potensial, sedangkan bakari tidak. di dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou ini tidak terdapat penggunaan fungsi ke empat dake dan fungsi ke empat sampai ke tujuh bakari, pembaca dapat menggunakan novel lain, majalah, serta media lain untuk dapat menemukan penggunaan fungsi-fungsi ini sehingga pembaca dapat lebih memahami fungsi-fungsi yang belum dibahas penulis. pembaca juga dapat meneliti partikel lain yang terdapat dalam novel sakura house karya shizuko toudou ini, antara lain : ばあい, ほど, ~って, dan sebagainya. daftar pustaka chandra, t. nihongo no joshi, partikel bahasa jepang. jakarta : evergreen japanese course, 2009. chino, naoko. partikel penting bahasa jepang. jakarta : kesaint blanc,1991. g.drohan, francis. a handbook of japanese usage. tokyo : charles e.tuttle publishing co inc, 1991. iori, isao. shokyuu wo oshieru hito no tame no nihongo bunpou handbook. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan, 2002. kawashima, atsuko. particle plus. tokyo: harcourt brace jovanich japan inc, 1992. kouei, shigeru. bushika suru chiiki shakai gengogakuteki kenkyuu. tokyo: keimizusha, 1996. masanobu, hirose. effective japanese usage guide. tokyo : kodansha, 1994. masuoka, takashi dan inori takubo. kiso nihongo bunpou. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan, 1992. matsuura, kenji. kamus jepang-indonesia. jakarta : pt. gramedia, 2005. numata, yoshiko. nihongo bunpou serufu masuta serizu 5. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan, 2000. okutsu, keiichiro, et al. iwayuru nihongo joshi no kenkyuu. tokyo: kabushiki shakai bonnyuusha, 1990. 114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.1 mei 2010: 100-115 renariah. “gramatika bahasa jepang.” jurnal sastra jepang universtas maranatha vol.4 (2005) : 1-12. saegusa, reiko. nihongo bunpou kotogara no kankei wo arawasu hyougen. tokyo: kodansha, 2004. shinmura, izuru. koujien. tokyo : iwanami shoten, 1998. siegel, melanie dan emily m.bender. “head-initial constructions in japanese.” journal university of washington (2004) : 1-44. sudjianto dan ahmad dahidi. pengantar linguistik bahasa jepang. bekasi: kesaint blanc, 2004. sudjianto. gramatika bahasa jepang modern. bekasi : kesaint blanc, 2000. tanaka, toshiko. tanaka toshiko no nihongo no bunpou. tokyo : kindaibunsha, 1990. tanimori, masahiro. japanese language’s grammar and usage. kobe : koyo shobo, 1992. tohsaku, yasuhiko. youkoso continuing with contemporary japanese. united states: mc graw hill higher education, 2001. tomita, takayuki. bunpou no kiso chishiki. tokyo : kabushiki shakai bonnyuusha, 1992. toudou, shizuko. sakura house. tokyo : shuueisha, 2006. verhaar, j.w.m. asas-asas linguistik umum. jogja : gadjah mada university press, 2004. perbedaan penggunaan toritatejoshi ….. (nalti novianti; yessie windriani) 115 lampiran sinopsis cerita sakura house karya toudou shizuko empat orang wanita yang pernah tinggal bersama 10 tahun lalu berkumpul kembali. mereka adalah choko (46 tahun), tomoko (41 tahun), ayane (36 tahun), dan masaki (31 tahun). sudah 7 tahun mereka tidak bertemu. mereka berkumpul di sebuah rumah susun berlantai dua yang diwariskan bibi choko kepadanya saat ia meninggal. waktu itu choko memiliki seorang pacar dan pacarnya menyarankan untuk menggunakan rumah warisan itu sebagai rumah sewaan. tetapi sejak choko berhasil menyewakan kamar-kamar di dalam rumah itu kepada ayane, masaki, dan tomoko, laki-laki itu menghilang dan tiba-tiba ia sudah mau menikah dengan wanita lain. mereka berkumpul di ruang keluarga, masaki mengatakan bahwa ia sudah bercerai, padahal dulu masaki keluar dari rumah sewaan choko karena ia mau menikah. tomoko dulu keluar karena ia merasa kecewa masaki yang lebih muda darinya menikah lebih dulu darinya. hanya choko dan ayane yang tetap tinggal, bahkan ayane mengajak ibunya yaitu noriko, untuk tinggal bersama. waktu itu, choko benar-benar gagal, ia berhubungan dengan tiga laki-laki tetapi dua dari laki-laki itu malah menggoda ayane, dan yang satunya mengincar harta kekayaan choko. yang menyarankan untuk memberi nama sakura house terhadap rumah itu adalah ayane, katanya nama itu indah dan dapat diketahui bahwa rumah itu milik perempuan. tomoko sangat mengagumi ibu ayane, ia mengintip ke dalam kamar ibu ayane dan ia kembali dengan bahagia sambil berangan-angan menghias kamarnya seperti yang dilakukan ibu ayane. lalu tomoko bercerita bahwa sekarang ia sudah punya satu anak perempuan bernama marika. ia tidak menikah tapi itu adalah anak hasil hubungan gelapnya dengan rekan kerjanya yang sudah memiliki istri tapi belum memiliki anak, laki-laki itu berjanji menikahinya tapi tomoko memutuskan untuk menjadi single parent. suatu hari ketika choko pulang dengan membawa kroket kesukaannya, ia bertemu dengan miyama, tunangan ayane. choko mengajaknya makan bersama karena miyama belum makan malam. saat itu choko menyadari betapa cocoknya selera mereka berdua. miyamapun bercerita bahwa ayane sudah punya laki-laki lain selain dirinya yang bernama ippei. dari dulu memang ayane suka seperti itu, tiba-tiba saja ia mengenalkan kepada choko laki-laki yang sudah menjadi tunangannya, tetapi kemudian ia bosan dan berhubungan dengan laki-laki lain. di kemudian hari, choko mengajak miyama ke restoran italia yang ia rasa enak, miyamapun merasakan hal yang sama. saat itu miyama mengatakan bahwa ia menemui ippei dan kesannya sangat buruk. dua minggu kemudian, ayane memutuskan untuk putus dengan mereka berdua. ibu masaki jatuh sakit dan masaki sangat kewalahan, choko dan tomokopun datang menjenguk. saat itu, masaki mengenalkan mereka kepada asisten perawat ibunya yang bernama kitaba. kelihatannya masaki sedang memiliki hubungan dengan laki-laki itu. beberapa minggu kemudian, ibu masaki meninggal, baik choko, ayane, tomoko, dan noriko, datang melayat. sejak itu masaki kembali ke rumah sewaan choko dan memutuskan hubungannya dengan kitaba. suatu hari saat mereka semua sedang berkumpul, noriko datang bersama seorang pria yang umurnya kira-kira 60tahunan. noriko meminjamkan kamarnya kepada pria itu secara cuma-cuma. entah mereka memiliki hubungan apa. pria itu bernama kuki renjirou. ia sangat baik, bisa diandalkan dalam berbagai hal, dan ia jadi idola ke lima wanita ini. mereka berlima terus mendekati kuki dengan menjadi teman bicara, mengajak belanja bersama, dan mengajaknya ke kafe. mereka semua berharap dipilih sebagai pasangan hidup kuki. suatu hari kuki mengatakan bahwa ia pergi menemui temannya dan sejak saat itu kuki tidak kembali. setelah saling berbicara, ternyata kuki bukan teman noriko, noriko menyangka ia kenalan choko. mereka berlima sangat bingung. tetapi walaupun begitu kuki meninggalkan kenangan indah bagi mereka. suatu hari datang surat dari anak perempuan kuki yang mengatakan ia sudah meninggal, mereka berlima sangat sedih mendengarnya. microsoft word 07 sri rejeki_setting issues in teaching english ….. (sri rejeki murtiningsih) 53 issues in teaching english to speakers of other languages (tesol): a review of literature sri rejeki murtiningsih university of oklahoma, the graduate college, 731 elm avenue, 213 robertson hall ~ norman ~ ok 73019 abstract the article aims to review english language teaching to speakers of other languages and other related aspects such as the use of technology and the first language in classroom practices. as the need for english language competency develops, efforts to support students’ learning also change. in addition to the teaching techniques, the technology development has also gained attention for improving effective teaching and learning. because english is a language that is not used in daily communication and the variety of students’ language competence, the use of first language in a foreign language classroom has also become another point to encourage the students’ foreign language acquisition. keywords: teaching english, tesol, teaching methods, call, first language use abstrak artikel ini bertujuan untuk meninjau pengajaran bahasa inggris kepada penutur bahasa lain dan aspek terkait seperti penggunaan teknologi dan bahasa ibu dalam praktik di kelas. seiring dengan berkembangnya kebutuhan untuk kompetensi bahasa inggris, upaya untuk mendukung pembelajaran siswa juga berubah. selain teknik pengajaran, perkembangan teknologi juga mendapatkan perhatian untuk membuat pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang efektif. karena bahasa inggris adalah bahasa yang tidak digunakan dalam komunikasi sehari-hari dan kompetensi bahasa siswa cukup bervariasi, penggunaan bahasa ibu dalam sebuah ruang kelas bahasa asing telah menjadi salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan akuisisi bahasa asing siswa. kata kunci: pengajaran bahasa inggris, tesol, metode pengajaran, call, penggunaan bahasa ibu 54 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 53-60 introduction english has become the global language (crystal, 2003; murata & jenkins, 2009). english is a language that is used in news, advertisement and films even in non-english speaking countries. in addition, english has become important in the world of employment. many job seekers in non-english speaking countries are required to master english. they have to prepare application letters, other documents and interview in english. more and more non-english speaking countries use english for their daily communication as a second language, and even as the official language in academic settings and government offices (crystal, 2003). for example, singapore has used english in academic settings since 1816 and it has become more and more popular in other settings such as employment since 1900 along with malay, which became singapore’s national language in 1959 (lim, 2004). people have always referred to english as british or american english, but since english has become global, there have been a wide variety of englishes (crystal, 2003). the english used in singapore is usually called singapore english or singlish (lim, 2004; crystal, 2003). singlish has its own characteristics such as its strong cultural influence, which make it different from english used in other countries. as the need for english language ability develops, governments in non-english speaking countries try to introduce english as early as possible. for example, the government of turkey introduces english to fourth graders (kirkgöz, 2008) and english language teaching has become a great industry (crystal, 2003). in addition, the teaching of english to speakers of other languages has become of interest to a large number of researchers and there has been no agreement on the best way of teaching english. teaching english in the 1960s and 1970s focused more on grammar lessons (soler & martinez-flor, 2008). in the early 1980s, communicative language teaching (clt) became popular because it focused on the communicative competence of the students rather than on accuracy (widdowson, 1979; hughes, 1983). technology has also influenced the way english is taught in schools. the development of the internet has encouraged some teachers to take advantage of it. computer-assisted language learning (call) has made big impacts on teachers’ ways of teaching. in addition, many teachers use blogs, computer software, and other media to work on students’ creativity and confidence to communicate in english because the media provides authentic materials for the students to learn (yang, 2009; mitchell, 2008). because english is often a foreign language, not used in daily conversation, it has attracted scholars to do research on the languages used to teach english. is the use of the first language recommended? what is the ideal portion of the first language in foreign language classes? should english be used all the time during the lessons? how would teachers avoid misunderstandings in english classes? this article outlines the three major issues in teaching english to speakers of other languages (tesol). the first part of the paper will discuss the techniques considered effective in teaching english. the next part will outline the use of technology in teaching english and the last part will explain the use of first languages in tesol classrooms. method the data in this literature review uses secondary data taken from databases and books related to the issues mentioned above. most of the journal articles used in this paper are research articles or articles that came from classroom practices. when searching for the articles, the key words used by the writer included terms like [teaching english], [english language teaching], [computer-assisted language learning], [english as a foreign language], [teaching english as a foreign language], [first issues in teaching english ….. (sri rejeki murtiningsih) 55 language use] and combinations of the words. to keep this literature up to date, the articles were chosen based on their years of publication, which range from eight to ten years old. the books were chosen based on their topics and their availability in the library. the books used were as up-to-date as possible. although some books were published as long ago as the 1970s, the knowledge contained in them is still widely cited by other authors. techniques in teaching english zimmerman (2010) asserts that there have been some comments saying that teaching english is just a matter of implementing a strategy that will work for all types of students. although this may be correct, most english teachers realize there are many aspects to the students such as english competency, personality, and sociocultural background (brown, 1980). knowing all of these aspects makes the teachers more confident in finding the right strategies for teaching english. for instance, research conducted in japan found that japanese students tend to be quieter in the classroom (harumi, 2010). she conducted the research with 197 japanese students enrolled in english degree programs. their english proficiency was at an intermediate level and they had received english lessons for 6 years before they were enrolled in the program. the research also involved 52 native english teachers and 58 japanese english teachers whose teaching experience ranged from 1 – 35 years. the participants were asked to take questionnaires. the research gave similar but paraphrased questionnaires to the teachers. the results showed that the students tend to be silent because of linguistic and psychological problems such as a lack of confidence in speaking. however, the native english teachers thought that they were silent for cultural reasons and japanese english teachers thought it was because they did not know the right answers. the research shows that there are differences in the ways that students and native and non-native english teachers see the causes of the quietness. other research conducted in china reveals that many asian students underestimate their own english proficiencies, which leads to anxiety when they learn english and little class participation (liu and jackson, 2008). the research examined 547 participants who were enrolled in non-english departments for undergraduate degrees. the research used questionnaires to obtain the data needed. the results showed that there was a positive correlation between students’ efl anxiety and unwillingness to communicate in english. these two asian studies show that the best strategy for teaching these types of students may be involving them in group work so they can contribute more to their learning. the silence and low level of confidence are likely influenced by the sociocultural context where asian students usually listen to their teachers and show respect by being quiet. in short, teaching english is more than implementing a strategy. for strategies in english language teaching, theorists in language teaching and learning proposed the following methods: grammar-translation, audiolingual and clt (richards & rodgers, 1986; brumfit & johnson, 1979). clt has come into the spotlight because it focuses more on the integrated language skills of the learners (liao, 2000; richards & rodgers, 1986), unlike the first two methods, which see language separately and see the learners as passive actors in language learning. the grammar-translation method focuses on translating word per word and the audiolingual method is concerned with the students’ exposure to english native speakers. in contrast, clt focuses on grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse competencies, which are believed to boost students’ english competency and confidence (liao, 2000). because of its wholeness in looking at language competencies, clt is considered by many teachers to be the most effective teaching english method. clt encourages communication ability for speaking. turkey’s government promotes clt for teaching english to young learners (kirkgöz, 2008). 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 53-60 clt is not without criticism. kumaravadivelu (2003) criticizes clt as a method that is “conceptualized by theorists, not those that are actualized by teachers in the classrooms” (p. 2). he mentions that clt – and the other two methods – provide a set of principles to be implemented in a certain english classroom; therefore, they might not work in all types of classrooms. apart from kumaravadivelu’s criticism, clt is criticized by swan (1985a, b) for neglecting the mother tongue in foreign language learning. in addition, clt often confuses the teachers. for example, clt recommends using authentic materials; however, swan argues that teachers may be find this confusing because the materials are not especially designed for teaching and learning. they are designed only to convey information to the readers. some english teachers, especially the non-native english teachers, may find it confusing. the english teaching strategy proposed by kumaravadivelu (2003) is the postmethod where teachers use “their local knowledge and local understanding” (p.549). he implies that teaching english does not need to apply a particular method. english teachers can use any method that they think is effective for their students’ learning. that method is based on the knowledge and understanding that come from students’ backgrounds, which consist of sociocultural, socio economic and students’ competencies. to do this, teachers need to provide a considerable amount of time to study their students and the backgrounds. some teaching strategies may work for all types of students such as students with different ages, different language competencies, different personalities and different sociocultural backgrounds. however, teaching strategies will be more meaningful to the students if the students’ conditions are taken into account. local wisdoms are things that need to be considered by teachers who do not come from the same areas because it will make the english teaching learning process more effective. using technology in teaching english potential students who come from non-english speaking countries need to pass a certain score on the toefl test to study in many english-speaking countries such as the us. the internet-based toefl test requires the students to work intensively with computers and the internet. they have to read, write, listen and even speak to the computer connected to the internet. this is an example of how technological advancement has influenced many aspects of life including the area of teaching english to speakers of other languages. conventional english teaching requires the students to come to english classes and do social activities in and outside the classrooms. students are encouraged to work with their peers and interact with their teachers to improve their english. in this digital age, students can learn from computer software or the internet and learn anywhere and anytime. one study conducted by shang (2009) introduces animated computer software called chatterbots, which “can engage the learners in the computer-simulated human-human interaction” (p.269). unlike many computer software programs, which provide assistance in reading and listening skills, this artificial-intelligence software understands human instructions and can answer questions given by a person in the english language. although this software needs a high level of english proficiency, english class used call for the sake of students’ learning. the research involved 15 volunteering participants who found that it was interesting to learn with the chatterbots, and nearly half of them mentioned that the animation could answer some of the questions given by the participants. most of them (73%) would like to have the software installed on their personal computer so they could learn independently. another study that took advantage of technological possibility was when hamilton (2008) tried to use the technological tools to establish e-learning in an english as a foreign language (efl) class. she, then interviewed the teachers and learners who used e-learning in the teaching learning process. the research reveals that the teachers and learners were concerned about using the technology because of the lack of familiarity with it in the beginning. but, as they engaged with the program, they found that it was helpful in developing their communication skills in and outside the classroom. issues in teaching english ….. (sri rejeki murtiningsih) 57 kazanzi and okan (2009) evaluate a number of software packages aimed at improving children’s english competency in turkey. they assert that these computer programs are a type of edutainment, the acronym of education and entertainment. however, their research demonstrates that the software programs only provide the entertainment part and lack the education portion. kazanzi and okan claim that the software programs had not supported the standards set by the curriculum, lacked higher order or thinking instructions, and lacked students’ involvement in problem solving. technology development can be a problematic issue in teaching and learning. as evans (2008) mentions that, in one hand, technology does provide teachers with enormous ideas and they can use it to enhance the classroom practice. on the other hand, not all teachers know how to make use of the technology to improve their teaching. however, the use of technology in the classroom is unavoidable in the future. the use of first language in tesol the argument that learning english as a foreign language is best conducted by exposing the students with as much english language as possible is currently challenged. there has been a growing number of studies on using the first language in foreign language teaching and learning. turnbull and dailey-o’cain (2009) argue that first language used in foreign language classrooms does give advantages. in addition, research shows that the use of the first language improves students’ confidence to learn english, helps the students understand the cross cultural understanding between the native culture and english culture, and improves students’ autonomy (brooks-lewis, 2009). apart from that, students would be able to understand the teachers’ instructions more easily. if only english is used during the class, the students may misinterpret the teachers’ instructions. the use of first language can avoid misunderstanding between the students and teachers and improve the learning effectiveness. the research has encouraged the codeswitching method in foreign language classroom practices. codeswitching is defined as “the systematic, alternating use of two languages or language varieties within a single conversation or utterance” (dailey-o’cain & liebscher, 2009, p. 131). so, teachers can use the first language and english at the same time in a class. this method can create a bilingual learning process, which may increase students’ proficiency. although there have been no particular studies that state how much the first language should be used in an english class, “small amount of first language use may indeed lead to more comprehensible input and target-language production” (turnbull & daily-o’cain, 2009, p. 5). even in an english class, students’ english proficiency should be considered to decide how much first language should be ideally used. however, macaro (2009) argues that the optimal use of codeswitching “only works in ‘broadly communicative’ classrooms, where predominantly the focus is on communicating meaning through the target language” (p. 39). therefore, codeswitching may not be as effective in a content-based class as in a skill-based class. on the other hand, it is always good to remember that students need to see the ideal language model, someone who can speak english well that is usually the teacher (dailey-o’cain & liebscher, 2009; tyler in madaus & stufflebeam, 1989). conclusion the fact that english has become global and used as official languages in a number of non-english speaking countries has made teaching english for speakers of other languages more and more interesting to research. finding the right teaching methods to make the students learn english effectively has been a constant issue in this area of teaching. many educators believe that communicative language teaching is the most effective way to teach english because it provides 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 53-60 “natural” language learning for the students and focuses on communicative competence (hughes, 1983). however, the criticism that addresses this method claims that it does not pay sufficient attention to the prior knowledge the students bring to the table as well as the influence of the first language to their english learning (swan, 1985). this is closely related with the current fact that as english has become global, each country has its own characteristics of what good english is. for example, the singapore english, or singlish, has its characteristics of being different from that of american and british english due to the influence of the mother tongue (lim, 2004). accordingly, kumaravadivelu (2003) criticizes that the clt does not take local knowledge and local understanding into account because the method tries to make the learners speak like native english speakers, which usually refers to american or british english. therefore, it is strongly recommended that english teachers take the students’ backgrounds into account. consequently, teachers may use any teaching methods that work effectively for both teachers and students. in relation to the use of technology in teaching, students and teachers sometimes find the technology overwhelming due to the lack of familiarity with the technology, and this may cause frustration (evans, 2008). however, the anxiety and frustration are lower when teachers and students get familiar with the students. as a matter of fact, technology can make the learning more fun and effective because the students and teachers can have the learning at anytime and anywhere. on the other hand, teachers and students need to be careful in selecting the computer software or other programs because some programs do not provide learning. the use of the first language in an english as a foreign language class is viewed as an important part of learning. it is believed that using two languages in the form of codeswitching is very effective in teaching a foreign language because it can avoid misunderstanding between students and teachers. although the portion is still questionable, the codeswitching can be optimally used in classes which focus on communicative competence and less optimally used in content-based classes. references brooks-lewis, k.a. (2009). adult learners’ perceptions of the incorporation of their l1 in foreign language teaching and learning. applied linguistics, 30 (2), 216–235. retrieved on december 14, 2010 from ebscohost database. brown, h. d. (1980). principles of language learning and teaching. n.j: prentice-hall, inc. brumfit c. j. & johnson, k. (1979). the communicative approach to language teaching (eds). oxford: oxford university press. crystal, d. (2003). english as a global language (2nd ed). uk: cambridge university press. dailey-o’cain, j. & liebscher, g. (2009). teacher and student use of the first language in foreign language classroom interaction: functions and implications. in m. turnbull & j. daileyo’cain (eds.) first language use in second and foreign language learning. ( 131 – 144). ny: library of congress. evans. m. j. (2008). foreign language learning with digital technology. ny: continuum international publishing group. hamilton, m. (2008). teacher and student perceptions of e-learning in efl. in m. j. evans (ed). foreign language learning with digital technology. ny: continuum international publishing group. 149 – 173. issues in teaching english ….. (sri rejeki murtiningsih) 59 harumi, s. (2010). classroom silence: voices from japanese efl learners. elt journal (10). retrieved on november 9, 2010, from ebscohost data base. hughes, a. (1983). second language and communicative language teaching. in k. johnson and d. porter (eds). perspectives in communicative language teaching. ny: academic press, inc. 1 13. kazanzi, z. & okan, z. (2009). evaluating english language teaching software for kids: education or entertainment or both? the turkish online journal of educational technology, 8(3), 30 – 38. retrieved on december 13, 2010 from ebscohost database. kirkgöz, y. (2008). curriculum innovation in turkish primary education. asia-pacific journal of teacher education. 36, 309 – 322. retrieved on october 6, 2010, from ebscohost database. kumaravadivelu, b. (2003). critical language pedagogy: a postmethod perspective in english language teaching. world englishes, 22 (4), 539 – 550. retrieved on december 12, 2010 from ebscohost from indiana university of pennsilvania. liao, x. q. (2000). communicative language teaching: approach, design and procedure. retrived on december 12, 2010 from ebscohost database. lim, l. (2004). singapore english: a grammatical description (ed). philadelpia: john benjamins b.v. liu, m & jackson, j. (2008). an exploration of chinese efl learners’ unwillingness to communicate and foreign language anxiety. the modern language journal. 92, 71 – 86. retrieved on november 9, 2010 from ebscohost data base. macaro, e. (2009). teacher use of codeswitching in the second language classroom: exploring ‘optimal use’. in m. turnbull & j. dailey-o’cain (eds.) first language use in second and foreign language learning. ( 35 – 49). ny: library of congress. mitchell, i. (2008). the potential of the internet as a language-learning tool. in m. j. evans (ed). foreign language learning with digital technology. ny: continuum international publishing group. 32 – 59. murata, k. & jenkins, j. (2009). global englishes in asian context: current and future debates (eds.). london: palgrave macmillan. richards, j. c. & rodgers, t. s. (1986). approaches and methods in language teaching : a description and analysis. ny: cambridge university press. shang, q. (2009). ai-based chatterbots and spoken english teaching: a critical analysis. computer assissted language learning, 22(3). retrieved on december 13, 2010 from ebscohost database. soler, e. a. & martinez-flor, a. (2008). investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching and testing (eds). ny: cromwell press ltd. swan, m. (1985). a critical look at the communicative approach (1). elt journal, 39 (1), 2 12. retrieved on december 14, 2010 from ebscohost database. swan, m. (1985). a critical look at the communicative approach (2). elt journal, 39 (2), 76-87. retrieved on december 14, 2010 from ebscohost database. 60 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 53-60 turnbull, m. & dailey-o’cain, j. (eds), first language use in second and foreign language learning. ny: library of congress. tyler, r.w. (1989). tyler’s rationale for curriculum development. in g.f. madaus & d.l.stufflebeam (eds). educational evaluation: classic works of ralph.w.tyler. (197-207). boston: kluwer academic publishers. widdowson, h.g. (1979). the teaching of english as communication. in c. j. brumfit & k. johnson (eds). the communicative approach to language teaching.117 – 121. oxford: oxford university press. yang, s.-h. (2009). using blogs to enhance critical reflection and community of practice. educational technology & society, 12 (2), 11–21. retreived on december 13, 2010 from ebscohost database. zimmerman, l. w. (2010). esl, efl, & bilingual education: exploring historical, sociocultural, linguistic, and instructional foundations. nc: iap – information age publishing, inc. microsoft word 02_ig_anton sutandio_setting 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 14-23 monkey dance transformation and displacement: from traditional performance to urban everydayness anton sutandio school of interdisciplinary arts ohio university as282609@ohio.edu  abstract this research attempts to investigate how the monkey dance, a traditional mobile performance from village to village, transforms and displaces itself into a semi-permanent urban street performance as the effect of modernization and globalization. the research is closely relevant to the theme of the everyday life on the relation between art and the social. doger monyet (monkey dance) performance has always been regarded as the marginal art/culture. its place has always been among the mid-lower class of society, thus when it changes its mode and place of performance, questions and curiosity arises. this phenomenon requires a re-examination of the cultural transformation effect to everyday life. this research attempts to answer several issues regarding the phenomena: how the performance negotiates its way to the urban everyday life and its everydayness; how it manages to place itself within the urban space; how it deals with the authority and the urban dwellers, and what its future is going to be like in the new space. keywords: monkey dance, transformation, displacement, everyday life, place, space abstrak riset ini menginvestigasi pertunjukan doger monyet yang mengalami transformasi dan pergeseran tempat (displacement) pertunjukan, dari satu desa/pinggiran kota ke desa/pinggiran kota lainnya, menuju pusat kota. modernisasi dan globalisasi adalah dua faktor utama yang menggiring pertunjukan ini ke dalam ruang dan tempat yang baru. riset ini berhubungan erat dengan tema hidup keseharian (everyday) dan kaitannya dalam hubungan antara seni dan kehidupan sosial. sebagai bentuk seni, pertunjukan doger monyet ditempatkan sebagai seni/budaya marjinal yang merupakan bagian dari seni hiburan bagi masyarakat kelas bawah. pertanyaan timbul ketika mode dan ruang seni hiburan ini berubah. fenomena ini membutuhkan analisa ulang dari efek transformasi budaya terhadap ranah hidup keseharian. riset ini mencoba untuk menjawab beberapa pertanyaan yang terkait dengan fenomena ini: bagaimana pertunjukan ini melakukan negosiasi untuk masuk ke dalam ranah hidup keseharian kota; bagaimana pertunjukan ini dapat bertahan hidup dalam ruang urban; bagaimana pertunjukan ini menghadapi otoritas kota dan penghuninya; dan seperti apakah masa depan pertunjukan ini di ruang dan tempatnya yang baru. kata kunci: doger monyet, transformasi, pergeseran tempat, hidup keseharian, tempat, ruang     monkey dance transformation ….. (anton sutandio) 15 introduction although this traditional performance has been around for many decades in indonesia, there are very limited literatures on it. its basis as a marginal culture and its function as merely entertainment for children might be one of the reasons it goes unnoticed. thus, the data needed for the research is mainly based on newspaper articles, personal blog sites, and some amateur websites. i find that the available data provided by common people somehow suits the research on the everyday life, as they have firsthand experience and interaction with the performance. to respond to the inquiries, i adopt the method that joe austin exercises in his analysis on new york city graffiti/writing art that became an urban crisis in his book taking the train. he discusses how graffiti/writing art evolves and attempts to find its place and identity in the hustle bustle of the city whose dwellers are divided between those who accept and reject it. the traditional monkey dance performance virtually undergoes a similar problem when it tries to define and negotiate itself within the urban space. bandung: now and then in “bandung 1906-1970: studi tentang perkembangan ekonomi kota”, reiza d. dienaputra argues that the capital of west java, also known as paris van java and flower city, has experienced drastic transformation in the last century. since bandung held the gemeente (municipality) status in 1906, bandung became politically and economically more significant for the dutch colonial. infrastructures were continuously built as the support for a modern city. the basic plan for bandung during colonization was to make it a leisure gateway for the westerners. however, the gradual development of bandung until it became the capital city of west java brought acceleration to the early plan. the most noticeable impact is from the population growth. in 2007 census, the population is about 2.7 million, compared to 1970 with only 1.1 million people. the city space grows in parallel with the growth of population although in a slower pace. in 1906 the city total area was 900 ha, and in 2005 it developed into 16,730 ha. it grows almost twenty times in a century, and it is still growing. with approximately more than 3 million dwellers in 2010 and crawling space expansion, urban space is rapidly overcrowded and turns into a conflicting and negotiating space between authority, city dwellers and immigrants. modernization and globalization become the driving force of the urban development. in sociology of everyday life, andrew j. weigert argues that the increase of population and urbanization are two important facts about the modern world (7). modernization in this context refers to the advancement of science and technology which is also part of capitalism impact on big cities. to henri lefebvre, it also “… became synonymous with consumer culture” (113). further, in globalization in southeast asia: local, national, and transnational perspectives, shinji yamashita and j.s. eades states that many cities in southeast asia and indonesia in particular experienced “…massive inflows of goods, money, information and people” (2) as the effect of capitalism and globalization. in key concepts in urban studies, m. gottdiener and leslie budd define globalization as “…the increased interdependence of the world’s economies shown by the circulation of information, money, people and good across national boundaries” (44). impact of globalization is obvious in bandung city, for instance it shows through the circulation of international tourists and consequently money, as the result of the opening of direct international flights to and from bandung in the early 21st century. the growing circulation of people and money attract more people from villages and suburbs to come to bandung. in album bandoeng tempo doeloe, sudarsono katam and lulus abadi argue that bandung today is overcrowded due to the number of population that grows far beyond the originally projected numbers. bandung at present is still a leisure gateway for people from other cities; in its development, it turned into the center of shopping (especially fashion and shoes) and culinary tourism. the latest substantial government project in bandung was the construction of an anti-earthquake flyover called ‘pasupati’ (pasteur-surapati) that splits the city in two (image 1). the flyover stretched for about 2.8 16 km from construc everyday it started (image 2 unfamili cohen-c marked bandung developm purpose. practiced m the west t ction intends yness into a d operating 2 and 3) that iar everyday cruz states th by a particu g more or le ment always . in short, m d place” (117 to the east s to overcom synchronize in 25 june t soon turn in y trying to in hat, “space is ular class or r ess reflects w s ends up wi michel de c 7). whoever part of ban me the phys d modernity 2005. the f nto a conflic ncorporate i s always con race and not what cohen ith questions certeau in t r occupies th image 1 : p pasup jurna ndung, and i sical distanc . the constr flyover const cting arena b tself into th ntrolled by so t equally acc n-cruz says, s of who has the practice he place and m pasupati flyov pati bridge at al lingua cul it becomes a ce of space ruction took truction also between the e he city. in r omeone and e cessible to ev the opening s the right to of everyda move in it, it er, bandung t night ultura vol.6 n a new symb and it cons about four y o created new everyday life radical stre exists somew veryone” (2) g of new sp o occupy the ay life state t becomes sp no.1 mei 201 bol for the c sequently sh years to com w spaces un e in bandung eet performa where, so is in ). the urban paces as the e space and es that “…sp pace. 12: 14-23 city. the hapes the mplete and nderneath g and the ance, jan nevitably n space in result of for what pace is a   monkey t negotiate public sp the sake limited d vague. i soccer a y dance trans the above p ed. the plac paces such a of the city a due to the u in the second arena. in par nsformation … photos on the ce is original as park or to aesthetic look urban develo d image on allel, lack of ….. (anton su e space unde lly intended wn hall, this k. however, opment and the left, som f school spa utandio) image 2 image 3 er the flyove to become a s place is sup , it has attrac growing urb me teenagers ace is obviou er show how a different ki pposed to be cted urban pu banization, t s make use o us in the nex w the place is ind of public e sterile from ublic whose thus the pla of the empty xt image wh s being pract c space. unl m public acti “lifespace” i ce function y spacious p here some el   17 ticed and like other ivities for is already becomes place as a ementary 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 14-23 children and their teachers utilize the place to do some exercise. in the third image the place is turned into a parking lot. graffiti artists also take the advantage of the bare pillar of the flyover as their canvas as seen in the second and third image. the various utilizations of that particular place show how complex the issue of urban space is. in city publics: the (dis)enchantments of urban encounters, sophie watson argues that the 21st century public space is a site of “…multiple connections and interconnections of people…” (12) who come from various background and try to give meaning to the space. this urban space as the result of modernity becomes the heterogeneous and ambivalent landscape of everyday that needs investigating: to the teenagers and the graffiti artists, it might give pleasure and freedom, for the street performers it is probably depressing. it is a never ending negotiation; it is never complete and is always contested. results and discussion monkey dance at a glance cohen-cruz states that the street performance strives to transport everyday reality into something more ideal as their audience is not theater-goers. “potentially, street performance creates a bridge between imagined and real actions” (1). as far as the imagination and real actions are concerned, monkey dance performance does just that. what they perform is mundane activities that bring the audience closer to reality in the midst of seemingly unreal moments of their everydayness. in city publics: the (dis)enchantments of urban encounters, bim mason argues that there are several motivations that drive the performers to move to urban space: money, freedom from routine, the spontaneity and the ability to travel (27). from my findings, the major drive for the monkey dance performers is money. capitalism that leads to the free market has indirectly affected them and forced them to leave the traditional way and at the same time become capitalized. the origin of monkey dance performance is unknown, but its existence is known in many major areas in indonesia, proven by the different names it has in different areas throughout indonesia. the performance is popular in the 80s but then it declines. despite the bombardment of modern capitalist culture in indonesia, the performance survives in the marginal areas and attempts to adapt itself in the modern era. the performance involves at least two monkeys, a dog as an option, a monkey trainer, and at least one musician who plays the gamelan. the attraction depends on the skills of the monkey to perform human daily activities such as riding a bicycle, smoking, praying, dancing, saluting or reading newspapers. based on an interview with the monkey trainer, it could take six months to one year to train one monkey to do the tricks and it pretty much depends on the monkeys themselves. in one day, they can repeat the same performance for twenty times. they train the monkeys by method of action repetition that somehow also reflects the characteristic of everyday modernity: “repetition-of-the-same”. it is interesting to observe how the performance has not only affected by modernity, but more than that, it actually performs the concept of modernity. every elements of the performance, not only the training of the monkeys, is based on repetition. the trainer and the gamelan player are all doing the same thing everyday repetitively. the monkey dance performance has always been regarded as a marginal culture, and it is probably the reason it goes unnoticed. it circulates around the lower class society, and its main purpose is entertainment for children. monkey dance performance today has been commercialized and industrialized. there is a special school for monkeys where animal trainers train the monkeys and rent tem. there are also “monkey dance lords” who have many trained monkeys and musical instruments and hire people to perform. to deal with the difficulty of playing gamelan, tape recorder is used as the replacement. modernity obviously has a great impact on them in their mode and means of performance.   monkey t before, t that ther manage moderni drive the well as authority foreign c nathanie culturesmoderni educatio tradition placeme them, m performe people w street pe space. p which in is no cul as one’s globaliza before, t is still pr perform y dance trans to perform i the urban spa re is no sing to occupy zation play a e performers an occupatio y to nurture countries kee el von einsi -to let them zation bring on. bandung nal culture. t nt in specifi make them ea ers, the auth who live out erformers in a politically, b n time expect lture without s local cultu ation causes the origin of retty much fr in the urban nsformation … in the city, th ace is a conf gle straightfo certain urba an important s to enter the on. on the o any kind o eps pushing edel argues t m flourish a g competitio attempts to thus, the con ic urban spac asier to be co ority is some tside the est an insecure p by letting the tantly results t place. cultu ure is not a local values f monkey dan free of any lo n space. image ….. (anton su hey firstly ha flicting area orward answ an spaces in t role in the n e urban space other hand, of traditional the local cu that local au alongside fo on among ci establish its ndition bring ces reveals t ontrolled and ewhat distru tablished soc position whe em perform c s in concensu ure has to be an uncommo s to be a rar nce performa ocal claim. i 4: doger mon utandio) ave to negoti between the wer to explai n the city. negotiation. e. it is a ma globalization l culture. th ulture aside. thority has to reign ones” ities in indo self as a cul s win-win so the authority d supervised ustful toward ciety with th ere the author continuously us about the p e localized” ( on thing tha rity that need ance is unkno argue that th nyet performan iate its place e authority, p in the reason i am certain first, the cap atter of survi n that brings he flow of k in shelter, th o give “… su ” (26). to t onesia in ma ltural city, a olution for th y’s strategy t d. mason arg d them, fearin heir own rule rity can any t y, the authori performance (5). this batt at happens i ds maintenan own, so the his could be t nce under the in the urban public and th n why event n though th pitalist cultu ival for them s cultural in knowledge a he family, a upport to ind the authority any domain a city that em hem. howev to localize as gues that wh ng of their d es (16). th time remove ity desires to e. yamashita tle of claimin in indonesia nce and nurt monkey dan the leverage flyover n space. as m he newcomer tually the pe hat globaliza ure and mode m, both as a c nsecurity com and informat and the envi digenous and y, globaliza s: business, mbraces and ver, i notice s well as ma hen it comes dangerous po his prejudice e them from t o form public a argues that ng a particula a lately. the turing. as m nce performa for the perfo   19 mentioned rs. i find erformers ation and ernization culture as mpels the tion from ironment, d national ation and tourism, d nurtures that their arginalize s to street otential as puts the the urban c opinion “… there ar culture e rise of mentioned ance itself ormers to 20 i context, urban co space, bu dance pe the urba configur requires urban str for a mo motorcy in bandu lights cre t different and cul everyday this sync this “mo everyday temporar emptied moment marx’s c alienatio in the resear i find at lea ommuters/dw ut now there erformance l an space: stre res the street continuous reet, street ju oment. stree cles have to ung that it be eate ambival traffic light t temporal ex ltural theory y modernity chronization onotony” res y is momenta rily and rout of any sign spent at any concept on f on brought a rch of everyd ast there are wellers. befo e are certain leaves its tra eet junctions t as the gatew audience, an unctions are t junctions a wait in turn ecomes an in lent meaning street junct s as the mark xperience” th ry: an intro is a synchro of time dail ults in the e arily ceased tinely emptie nificant mark y traffic light factory work about by mo day life, the two everyd fore the tran strategic spo aditional mod s. cohen-cru way to the m nd street jun the spots wh are other inev to cross them nseparable p gs to the urba tion between p ker of street hat mark each duction, ben onization ba y. they for mptying of t and the amb ed; it might o kers that wo ts signifies n k, highmore odern capital jurna question of ay lives invo nsformation ots where the de of perform uz states tha masses” (2). nctions are th here people vitable result m. traffic ja art of the ev an dwellers. pasirkaliki and junctions be h and every n highmore ased on minu ce the urban time. when bivalent value offer them sa ould differen no different m e states that lism’ (7). e al lingua cul whose every olved: the m and displace e two encoun ming, it dire at, “the usu driven by e he best opti are accumul s of city dev am on street j eryday life. d pasteur stre ecome one o day of the ur e further arg utes and sec n commuters n urban comm e of everyda anctuary, deli ntiate one m moments to t the moment everyday mo ultura vol.6 n yday is the fi monkey danc ement, they nter each oth ectly occupie ual rhetoric o economic ne on for the p lated and wh velopment, w junctions has street junct eet, bandung of the “routin rban commut gues that, “t onds” (6). t to obey them muters stop ayness creeps ight, pain, or moment from the urban com t is “… part odernity in a no.1 mei 201 first to answe e performers both share her. once the es a strategic of street perf eeds, the perf performers. i here they hav where lines of s become so ions with the ne daily mon ters. in every the everyda traffic lights m. within m at traffic lig s upon them. r boredom, “ m the next” mmuters. b t of intensifi a city is sign 12: 14-23 er. in this s and the different e monkey c place in formance formance in a busy ve to stop f cars and common eir traffic nitors”, “a ryday life ayness of s perform modernity, ghts, their . time is …time is (7). any orrowing ication of nified by     monkey dance transformation ….. (anton sutandio) 21 busyness and work pressure. bandung commuters, similar to other big cities also experience the alienation. weigert supports this concept of alienation by stating that urban dwellers become more individualized in the city. similar to ben hamper’s statement in rivethead: tales from the assembly line on the relationship between the assembly line and the stretching out of time, every second and every minute people spent at traffic lights “was a plodding replica of the one that had gone before” (8). repetition of the time spent waiting for the traffic lights turn green is an unbearable boredom. when the monkey dance performance enters this “modernity boredom sphere”, it inevitably disturbs the urban commuters’ everydayness through the exotic, unfamiliar ambience they bring. both the urban commuters and the performers sense the displacement; to the urban commuters: the sight of monkeys and sound of gamelan in the midst of a busy street that do not blend into its surroundings; to the performers: lines of car, sound of engines, blaring horns, and ignorant audience. the everyday modernity of urban commuters becomes temporarily unrecognizable with the disruption by the unfamiliar attempting to blend into the urban everyday life. adopting lefebvre’s term, their encounter provides opportunities to create “moments” of vivid sensations, “… a promise of the possibility of everyday life, while at the same time puncturing the continuum of the present’… moments in this context “… are those instances of intense experience in everyday life that provides an immanent critique of the everyday” (115). the performance somehow draws the audience from their present and brings them to a bizarre everyday. the promise the performance brings might mean the escape from the boredom that works for both parties. to the performers, new space and audience may bring new experience and more income. however, this “escape” does not necessarily signify positive meaning; the sight of the “other” could trigger any possible sensations: pleasure, delight, shocked or even disgust. when two groups of people encounter each other in a certain place and time, dialogue will follow, and this ongoing dialogue is dynamic and ambivalent. this encounter is what lefebvre states as the “lived experience” through which people structure their everyday life. the structure itself is dynamic; it may change daily through endless encounters with the familiar as well as the unfamiliar banality of daily life. how people deal with this daily encounter determines the meaning they give to their life and it may or may not prevent them from the tanglement and boredom of everyday modernity. with this in mind, i will return to the concept of boredom that results from the ‘emptying of time’. as highmore states, the debilitating boredom is caused by the repetition of the same action. the future of the monkey dance performance will likely become boredom if they stay the same. their repetitiveaction-based method of performance mirrors the modernity synchronization of time. although the gamelan sound and spectacle of monkeys are still unfamiliar to the urban life, gradually they will enter the realm of urban life and incorporated into it. when that happens, then the encounter with the urban commuters will lose its sensations. their transformation and displacement bring them more audience and income and paradoxically may cost them their uniqueness and identity. conclusion the discussion of everyday life is slippery and difficult to grasp. there is no straightforward answer on what everyday may bring in the future. everyday is dynamic and made complex by various elements that surround it. globalization and modernization are two major elements in this research. they become the driving force of the monkey dance performance’s transformation and displacement. modernity has greatly affected the traditional performance both positively and negatively. in the new place, they have to negotiate with the authority on the urban space they occupy. the suspicious approval by the authority only shows that the monkey dance performance is in the midst of conflicting arena between political and economical interest. street junctions in bandung become their stage and traffic lights lines become their moments. to the urban commuters, traffic lights become the emptying of time; they have to obey the synchronization of time imposed by the traffic lights. referring to highmore’s concept on boredom, the encounter of the monkey dance performance with the urban 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 14-23 commuters at traffic lights bring opportunities for both to find new meaning and sensations in their everyday life. the unfamiliar exotic everyday of the performers collide with the everyday of urban commuters at traffic lights where boredom gives birth to possible “moments”. these moments may temporarily bring ambivalent change on the structure of everyday. due to the ambivalence, the encounter of the two different everyday also may end up in many things, something, or nothing. there is no straightforward way of understanding urban encounters in public space. when nothing happens, boredom meets boredom and results in more boredom. in cities in the 21st century: urban issues and challenges, sharifah norazizan rashid states the irony of a city which is supposed to be “socially just, ecologically sustainable, politically participatory, economically productive, and culturally vibrant” (1) seems to always lag behind in achieving all that. there is no single city in the world that has successfully managed that. watson argues that city as, “…a space of segregation, division, exclusion, threat and boundaries” (1) is ambivalence par excellence. in the modern globalized city, anything can and cannot happen. the traditional monkey dance performance, trying to taste the city and gain benefit from it has involuntarily sucked into the mechanization of city. max weber argues that everyday life in the city has become an iron cage and society is the prison. being ambivalent, he also states his historical axiom that city air makes one free. to the performers, city offers new opportunities and freedom, but the everyday modernization at the same time puts them in a “cage”. globalization and everyday modernization result in what yamashita calls “hybridization and the localization of culture”. monkey dance performance has definitely changed the moment it enters the urban space. how far they will change the urban everyday modernity or be changed by it is still an open discussion as the process is continuing to this very moment. references austin, joe. taking the train. new york: columbia up, 2001. print. blue sky. “bandung pasupati flyover: 2.5 km with 300 meter cable stayed bridge”. skyscrapercity forums. issue 12 spring 12. 28 september 2005. web. 25 january 2010. . blue sky. “bandung pasupati flyover: 2.5 km with 300 meter cable stayed bridge cohen-cruz, jan. (ed.). radical street performance: an international anthology. london: routledge, 1998. print. colombijn, freek et.al. (eds.). kota lama kota baru: sejarah kota-kota di indonesia. jogjakarta: penerbit ombak, 2005. print. d. dienaputra, reiza. “bandung 1906-1970: studi tentang perkembangan ekonomi kota”. kota lama kota baru: sejarah kota-kota di indonesia. freek colombijn, et.al. (eds.). jogjakarta: penerbit ombak, 2005. 188-210. print. de certeau, michel. the practice of everyday life. steven f. rendall (transl.). berkeley: uc press, 1984. print. d.s. katong. “jembatan pasupati bandung”. flickr yahoo. 29 october 2008. web. 27 february 2010. . gottdiener, m. and leslie budd. key concepts in urban studies. london: sage publications, 2005. print.     monkey dance transformation ….. (anton sutandio) 23 hamper, ben. rivethead: tales from the assembly line. warner books: new york, 1991. print. highmore, ben. everyday life and cultural theory: an introduction. london: routledge, 2002. print. highmore, ben (ed.). the everyday life reader. london: routledge, 2002. print. katam, sudarsono and lulus abadi. album bandoeng tempo doeloe. bandung: polar, 2006. print. mason, bim. street theatre and other outdoor performance. london: routledge, 1992. print. rahardjo, budi. “doger monyet”. padepokan budi rahardjo. 31 may 2008. web. 26 january 2010. < http://rahard.wordpress.com/2008/05/31/doger-monyet/>. rashid, sharifah norazizan syed abd., et.al. (eds.). cities in the 21st century: urban issues and challenges. selangor: upm press, 2002. print. rifu. “bandung-jakarta…dengan sepeda lipat!!!” apapun lah. wordpress.com. 31 january 2009. web. 27 february 2010. < rifu.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/img_0743.jpg>. von einsiedel, nathaniel. shelter, the family, and the environment. urban management programme, regional office for asia and the pacific: kuala lumpur (?), 1994. print. watson, sophie. city publics: the (dis)enchantments of urban encounters. abingdon: routledge, 2006. print. weigert, andrew j. sociology of everyday life. new york: longman inc., 1981. print. yamashita, shinji and j.s. eades. (eds.). globalization in southeast asia: local, national, and transnational perspectives. new york: berghahn books, 2003. print. microsoft word 01_ing_ herri susanto procedure of teaching grammar_setting procedure of teaching grammar ….. (herri susanto) 89  procedure of teaching grammar using memory enhancement herri susanto sekolah tinggi teknologi bontang jl. ir. h. juanda no. 73, bontang, east kalimantan herriaudrey@yahoo.com abstract teaching grammar has been regarded as a process of understanding from the context. it means a teacher teaches the pupils contextually more than just the rules. however, i have my own experience that teaching grammar methods must depend on the purposes of learning grammar. some people learn grammar as a means to fulfill the syllabus needs for schools but other people learn grammar for special purposes out of school syllabus, such as for entrance test. for these reasons, the methods of teaching grammar should be different. the students who learn grammar based on the school syllabus probably needs longer procedure of learning that usually uses contextual teaching through listening, speaking, writing, and reading. nevertheless, students who learn grammar for test need shorter procedure of learning such as memorizing. therefore, i propose giving a workshop of teaching grammar using memory enhancement as another alternative teaching grammar method. this workshop would show the class that grammar can be learnt through memory enhancement process, i.e.; mind map, music, memory technique and drill to boost up students understanding for test preparation. keywords: teaching grammar, teaching procedure, memory enhancement abstrak pengajaran tata bahasa dianggap sebagai proses pemahaman konteks. artinya seorang guru mengajarkan siswa lebih secara kontekstual dari pada sekedar aturan. namun, berdasarkan pengalaman saya sendiri bahwa metode pengajaran tata bahasa bergantung pada tujuan pembelajarannya. beberapa orang belajar tata bahasa sebagai sarana untuk memenuhi kebutuhan silabus sekolah sementara orang lain belajar untuk tujuan khusus seperti ujian masuk. untuk alasan ini, metode pengajaran tata bahasa harus berbeda. para siswa yang belajar tata bahasa berdasarkan silabus sekolah mungkin perlu prosedur belajar yang lebih lama yang biasanya menggunakan pembelajaran kontekstual melalui pelajaran mendengarkan, berbicara, menulis, dan membaca. namun demikian, siswa yang belajar tata bahasa untuk ujian perlu prosedur belajar yang lebih singkat seperti menghafal. oleh karena itu, saya mengusulkan untuk memberikan lokakarya pengajaran tata bahasa dengan peningkatan memori sebagai metode pengajaran alternatif. workshop ini akan menunjukkan bahwa tata bahasa dapat dipelajari melalui proses memori perangkat tambahan, yaitu; peta pemikiran, musik, teknik dan latihan memori untuk meningkatkan pemahaman siswa untuk persiapan ujian. kata kunci: pengajaran tata bahasa, prosedur pengajaran, peningkatan memori 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 89-97 introduction teaching grammar is very important in language teaching, whether it is presented for teaching english as second language (esl) or even for teaching english as a foreign language (efl). both presentations purposes; therefore, need appropriate approaches to apply. when students’ goal is linguistics competence, then they tend to learn grammar using broadly speaking, in teaching grammar, there are two approaches that can be applied: deductive and inductive (thornburry, 1999). thornburry (1999, p.29) defines that a deductive approach starts with the presentation of rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied, while inductive approach starts the explanation with some examples from which a rule is inferred. based on my experience of teaching grammar for test takers, the appropriate approach used is deductive approach. through the deductive approach, a teacher tries to teach the rule explicitly to the learners so that they are ready to cope with exercises given. having given the explicit rule, the learners become more confidence in doing certain tasks. to be successful in applying the approach, the teacher needs to provide numerous exercises. in other words, teaching deductively works from the general into the specific. in this paper, i would like to stress that there are four important points to discuss. the points are target of learners, teachers’ role, memory enhancement technique and tools, and procedure of teaching which are connected one to another bounded in one package of teaching process. target of learners teaching grammar is not as easy as it seems since there should have better treatment matched with the target of teaching. thornburry (1999, p.27) explains there are ten factors to consider when determining appropriation. the factors include age, level, size of the group, constitution of the group whether monolingual or multilingual, the need, interest, materials and resources availability, cultural factors, and educational context whether the learners study at school or somewhere else. here, age factor is one of the essential factors to consider forming a class setting. if one class has the same level, age, and the same goal, this eases the performance of teaching. moreover thornburry (1999) adds stressing on the way of teaching grammar between different ages must be think about deeply. he tends to place adults to study grammar implicitly so they can learn through rules and examples. he says: “the age of the learners is very important. researchers suggest that children are more disposed to language learning activities that incline toward acquisition rather than toward learning… adult learners, on the other hand, may do better at activities which involve analysis and memorization (27)”. in short, adults can be taught grammar in more serious way such as giving memorization techniques and analyzing the grammar patterns than children. besides, adults seem more ready to have memorizing techniques. pressley & dennis-rounds (1980) examined the use of mnemonics at two different age levels (middle school vs. high school students). the results showed that only the high school students were able to successfully transfer the memory strategy to other dissimilar information. thus, adults once again are more appropriate to learn memorizing than children. teacher’s role in line with the teaching approaches showed above, teacher’s role is more dominant than the students. a teacher has a very important role in the teaching and learning process since the teacher is the model for the students to do activities in class and out of class. however, the role of the teacher procedure of teaching grammar ….. (herri susanto) 91  sometimes is used only as a motivator, and facilitator. these two points of view underline two teaching methods brought in the classroom. hence, the teaching methods can be grouped into two namely, pupil-centered and teacher-centered. according to alabi (2008, p.843) teacher-centered method puts teachers are the main actors while the pupils are passive listeners. the pupils remain silent the most of the time during the lesson. on the other hand, pupil-centered is the opposite of teacher-centered. pupil-centered methods the teachers act as guide or adviser to the pupils, suggesting activities that are appropriate. the pupils are actively doing the study under the leadership of the teacher. in other words the teacher is the central of all activities to manage and to advise the learners in the teaching process. based on my experience, teacher-centered method can be applied for language competence in its learning process. mostly, the teacher gives teaching presentation in front of the class and the learners listen and do exercise based on what the teacher instructs. for example when teachers should teach for test takers, like; toefl, toeic, and university entrance test, they should learn grammar by the guidance of their teachers. since the stages of teaching focus on the teacher acts, teachercentered method is the most appropriate methods than learner-centered method in the classroom. using teacher centered method means there will be no activity like role-play, discussion, and other activities required to communicate among the learners as a media to practice the materials given. having known the target of the students and teacher’s role in applying deductive approach in the class to set the class readiness for teaching grammar, next, now i move to the core of discussion of memory techniques and procedure of teaching. memory technique teaching students with memory enhancement mean teaching students use memory technique or link-word method (joyce & weil, 2000) and also additional tools to improve the memory (this technique has been used for quite some time in the classrooms (atkinson, 1975; lorayne and lucas, 1974, rose, 1995; jensen and markowitz, 2003). atkinson and pressley (as cited by joyce & weil, 2000) summarize that memory techniques proved to be effective to help students to learn new materials. even atkinson’s early studies observed that the memory techniques were about 50 percent more effective than conventional rote methods. memory technique is also called as mnemonics. according to tony buzan (1986, p.16), he says “the memory technique or mnemonics were a system of memory codes that enable people to remember whatever it was they wished to remember”. these techniques have been known for long time ago used to remember fact and to remember information. in the past people memorized some information using method of loci. according to www.intelligen.inc.com, it states the definition of loci method “the ancients remembered things by imagining taking a familiar walk, and placing the things to be remembered at locations along the way.” this method works because it organizes the material to be remembered and it encourages elaborative processing and memorable imagery. therefore, harry lorayne (1995, p.20) says “mnemonics, which is a large part of a trained memory, is not a new or strange thing”. besides, he adds that mnemonics is not a new or strange thing because it is true that the word “mnemonic” is derived from the name of the greek goddess, mnemosyne; and a memory system was used as far back as early greek civilization. thus, mnemonic is something that assists on memory. no wonder, if many ancient great people could remember a number of locations, names, etc without any mistake using this technique. for example, lucius scipio was able to remember the name 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 89-97 of people of rome, cyrus was able to recall thousands soldiers of his army by name and seneca could memorize and repeat two thousand words, after hearing them once. recently, many researchers have developed this techniques, such as levin, morrison, mc given, mastropieri, & scruggs, 1986; scruggs & mastropieri, 1992 (as quoted by richmond et al, 2000). they believed that mnemonic instruction, a specific memory technique, as one of the more effective ways to improve eight-grade science knowledge. in conclusion, the greek orators (speakers) in the past up to students in the recent years would use this method to help them memorize. they used techniques of memorizing whether it is method of loci or mnemonic to remember names, dates, etc. buzan (1984, p.63) also agrees with the need of using mnemonics since its function is to remember something more easily and quickly, and then to remember it too much longer afterwards, must be more than simple tricks. memory enhancement tools learners need tools to strengthen the memory because information is sometimes easy to remember and easy to forget. having learned the memory technique or mnemonics there are three more additional strategies used that are also able to enhance memory. they are mind map, break time, and music. the following explanation will explore those three tools. mind map according to tony buzan (2007), a mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked to and arranged around a central key word or idea. mind maps are used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing. in other words, mind map is a creative and effective way to place whatever stated in mind which then is visualized into a diagram started with central key words on it. tony buzan says that mind map is used to do many things in creative ways, this means that the processes of making mind map should relate to the function of brain sides; the left side and right side. the left brain represents the capability of stating words, numbers, and logic while the right brain represents the capability to for pictures, colors, and imaginations. gannerud and ronnerman (2005) also observed that the use of mind map creates a good interaction between researchers and teachers, and it allows teachers’ own talk about their everyday work to become visualized in an effective and clear way (p. 79). furthermore, mind map was successfully applied in many subjects at schools such as mathematics, psychology, and language (meier. 2007, puskhar. and brinkman. 2003). next, puskhar strongly underlined that the mindmaps enhance, above all, the student’s ability to effectively store information, that is, to retain and comprehend it. tony buzan (2007, p.122) observes that mind map is one of ways to ease the learners to arise imagination and memory. buzan is quite agreeing that mind map rules an important role besides other ways to memorize some important information. in order to memorize words and vocabulary, everybody may use mind map since there are rules to make the mind map succeed helping the maker. there are association, imagination, ideas, colors, lines and symbols inside it. furthermore, he also states that mind map can be used for any goals, such as mind map for working, mind map for meeting, mind map for planning etc. the creativity can be seen from how the maker uses their idea to link one key word to another and another key word to others. the link of one sub key word to others is called creativity because the maker tries to use his brain to think deeper about what the relation of his ideas to others. procedure of teaching grammar ….. (herri susanto) 93  the association is the action from the maker to use his imagination to use pictures, colors, images for the representative of his creativity. from all steps mentioned, they will ease the maker to recall his idea through his own mind map. as it is pointed by buzan (2003, p.97), there are two kinds of creativity; imagination and association. he adds that in order to train creativity, mind map is needed. imagination and association always present in the process of making a mind map. the more the learners get used to making the mind map in groups, in pairs or even alone, the more they understand how to build their own memorizing through mind mapping. music another way to succeed in learning is through listening to music. why? the following explanation will discuss the importance of music for learners. music has become central culture and plays important role to influence people’s mind and emotion. music is also believed to be a favorite choice to accelerate learning (prashnig, 2007 p.185). according to irvin (prashnig, p. 2007, p.187), he says that music gives great benefit to brain while music used to stimulate the brain to work well. he made a very well known research in 1993 reveal the correlation between listening to classical music and learning. the result explained that the students who listened to mozart had greater score than those who did not have the music while they were studying. researchers say that; however, not all kinds of music suit for stimulating brain. don campbell, as mentioned on hardiwinoto (2003, p.45), states that people must be selective to choose kinds of music that is suitable to enhance the brain’s function. campbell then concludes that sound, song and rhythm physically, emotionally, and spiritually strengthens thinking to make someone more creative. moreover, hal a.lingerman hardiwonoto (2003, p.50) finds that music gives not only as a cure for treatment but positives effects to baby’s brain also. therefore, then howard gardner (hardiwinoto.2003, p.51-52), multiple intelligences theory founder, underlines music intelligence is one of the seven multiple intelligences models which always exist in somebody’s intelligences. de porter et al (2000, p.73) refers to what lozanov found that baroque composition helps learners to work better and remember more about what they study since music stimulates and strengthens to study consciously or not. this correlates to the right brain function, the right brain as a place for music store which then stimulates the brain to study better. furthermore, according to stephanie merek, a lozanov teacher, points out that only whole classical composition are now used in lozanov classes because they reach and synchronize the whole mind and produce the entire dynamics of inner life (rose, 1997, p.71). what do the composers think about the use of classical music including baroque composition? de porter et al (2000, p.75-76) explains there are three things to remember for the use of music in learning process such as synchronizing the feeling, increasing learning result, and enhancing creativity. hence, there are several recommendations stated almost on every book which enhance the creativity of learning for in the class. the recommended musics are: mozart flute concertos, relax with the classics: andante and pastorale, six duets for two flutesz, cannon in d by pachebel, and the instruments of classical music (volume one). music for cheer uses: tv’s greatest hits series and for our children by disney. meanwhile, the recommended musics for break uses are: soundtracks movies, oldies hits, contemporary jazz, and ethnic music. music for relax uses: windham hill records: a winter’s soltice, out of silence by yanni, deep breakfast by ray lynch. 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 89-97 types of music above are recommended to playing during the whole activities. however, there should be underlined what condition and when the right time the music can be played on the class to assist the teacher to deliver the materials. discussion teaching procedure the process of teaching and learning applying memory enhancement seems different from traditional teaching and learning than the formal process conducted at schools. this can be observed from the steps of teaching and learning in the classroom which took the steps from the collaboration of multiple intelligent theories. here are the steps of teaching procedures that could be applied classes compared with traditional teaching in formal schools (tabel 1): tabel 1 comparisons of memory enhancement teaching procedure and traditional teaching procedure memory enhancement teaching procedure traditional teaching procedure (1) opening (with giving mind map) (2) delivering materials (with giving mnemonics forms) (3) having a break (having relaxation, listening to music and listening to motivation’s audio) (4) drilling (practicing the mnemonics technique) (5) closing (repeating the mnemonics forms) (1) opening (without giving mind map) (2) delivering materials (without giving mnemonics forms) (3) – (no breaking time for relaxation, listening to music and listening to motivation’s audio) (4) drilling(practicing the mnemonics technique) (5) closing (repeating the mnemonics forms) these five phases of teaching procedure are ruled for teaching grammar done in 60 minutes from the opening until the closing. here are the teaching procedures using memory enhancement tools. opening with mind map the first step to start teaching is giving mind map to the learners in the class. this activity is done by the teacher by drawing a simple mind map in front of the class ten minutes before the students enter the class. when the learners get into the class, the teacher can explain in short about what topic will be discuss then. the teacher explains the topic by showing the mind map and makes some interaction with the learners by giving short questions relating to the materials will be given that day. this first procedure reveals that mind map will lead the learners’ mind into the core of grammar which then is continued the materials delivery of memory technique presentation. therefore along with tony buzan’ statement that mind maps are used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing (2007). delivering materials by giving memory technique the usage of the memory technique or mnemonic reveals that learning grammar is not a must thing to do for teachers and learners to study the grammatical patterns as key points to answer grammar items in a test. if learners memorize bunches of unorganized vocabulary, the learners tend to get difficulties to answer a certain grammar item because they do not know what key words to procedure of teaching grammar ….. (herri susanto) 95  underline from the items. the results will be different in case of memorizing vocabulary with mnemonic in teaching english grammar. the role of memory technique is very important to emphasize since it will help the learners to recognize the right answer from certain key words given in the items. however, all efforts to memorize the list of mnemonics need to practice many times. practicing is a way to train the information that the learners acquire. the more the learners practice the information, the more the information will stay longer in the memory. as mnemonic involves imagination and creativity, the visual learners will receive the topic given easily and will apply it in the test. as the basic characteristic of visual learners loves to make imagination, see something beautiful in colors, and pictures. mnemonic has one of the characteristics. the mnemonic is associated in someone imagination by linking words into something that the learners understand and imagination. all memory techniques are presented in words which are funny, imaginative, and meaningful. having a break time this is the time for learners to have a break. it takes about five minutes to relaxation or out of the activity of learning the lesson. the learners stop doing all activities of learning such as noting, reading, discussing and asking questions from the materials given. it is the time of the teacher to lead the learners to have in a relax situation, the teacher may ask them to have a little brain gym, listening to favorite songs, and give motivational words. buzan (1984) and rose (1995) suggest that the time break is essential for learners to relax from learning. they say that time break can be done after 30 minutes of learning. the function is to complete the learning process, to incubate the information that the learners receive during the period and to keep the learners concentration keep high. the more time break given the better the concentration can be controlled. drilling (practicing the mnemonic) having learned the mnemonic given, the learners can apply what it in drilling session. they can practice and it by practicing mnemonic with various items offered and the teacher leads them to practice. drilling and rehearsing are very important to do after receiving new mnemonic. indeed, lorayne (1995, p. 20) adds that memorizing should be practiced repeatedly because memory is habit. drilling the mnemonic also needs the awareness of the learners to pay attention to the key words showed from the items. here is the example of the drilling session, item number eight on topic of gerund (foster. 2008). “do you like rendra?” “yes, i’m looking forward … his play tomorrow.” a. seeing b. to be seeing c. to see d. to seeing e. see the topic of item above is gerund, the learners have to understand what the basic concept of gerund is when they understand about the basic concept of gerund from the explanation before, and then they have to identify the key word from the item above. the teacher reads item aloud in front of the class, and then he gives the learners the key words from the item. 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 89-97 the key word is looking forward. having recognized the key words, they should recall their memory to the mnemonic that they have learned before. the mnemonic is o, be olaccu to + ving. it means that all list of the mnemonic must be followed by to and then the following verb must be in ing form. the mnemonic stands for: object to be opposed to look forward to be accustomed to + ving confessed to be/get used to from the list of mnemonic above, one of the words is look forward to so the learners then may choose one of the multiple choices to find out which one of the choices is in ing form. therefore the right answer is (d) to seeing. the teacher keeps the drilling session by reading the items and asks the learners of what the key words are, what mnemonic matches with, and what the answer suit for the items presented until the class is over. closing the teacher closes the learning session by asking about what mnemonics that the learners study from the topic that day. this closing time is possible to use for repeating the mnemonics given to the learners randomly. implications the implications of the teacher factor in teaching using memory techniques or mnemonics are many. the teacher should learn the way of forming mind map and mnemonic for every material or topic that will be delivered in front of classroom. he should not be satisfied alone with the training he received in his institution. he should explore more and then train the learners to make their own mind map and mnemonics based on their creativity. the teacher should also actively search for the right music to play in the class. he should take time to synchronize the music through the learning process. thus, teacher is the real model that can lead learners to success (alabi, 2008). conclusion when an institution decides the age, the level, the materials, and the needs of the learners’ goal to learn grammar for test, it must consider the approaches and the techniques given in the classroom. memory technique or mnemonic has been applied for many researches and they observe that this technique is more effective than the traditional ones. i propose that this technique could be used in grammar classroom; however, it will be more effective if the additional tools such as mind map, music, breaking time are included in the process of transferring. in brief, all process of the teaching procedure must be applied in one package. thus, through these efforts, the results of enhancing memory will be easily reached. procedure of teaching grammar ….. (herri susanto) 97  references alabi, amos oyetunde. (2008). the teacher as a resource in the planning and implementation of primary english classes. pakistan journal of sciences, 5 (8), 841-844. atkinson, r.c. (1975). mnemotechnics in second language learning. american psychologist, 30, 821. 828. buzan, tony. (1984). use your head. london: guild publishing. buzan, tony. (1986). use your memory. london: guild publishing. buzan, tony. (2003). head strong: memperkuat hubungan otak dan tubuh untuk mendapatkan fisik dan mental yang fit, (cetakan kedua). jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. buzan, tony. (2007). buku pintar mind map, (cetakan keempat). jakarta. gramedia pustaka utama. de porter, bobby. (2000). quantum teaching. bandung: kaifa. foster, bob & mulyana, ade. (2008). kumpulan soal dan pembahasan bahasa inggris snmptn 2001 – 2008, um-ugm 2003-2008, dan umb 2008 soal dan pembahasan. bandung: ganesha operation. gannerud, eva & ronnerman, karin. (2005). studying teachers’ work through mind-maps. new zealand journal of teachers’ work, 2(2), 76-82. hardiwinoto & setiabudi, tony. (2003). anak unggul berotak prima. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. joyce, b. & weil, m. (2000). models of teaching, (6th ed.). boston: allyn and bacon. lorayne, h., & lucas, j. (1974). the memory book. new york: stein and day lorayne, harry. (1995). how to develop a super power memory. florida: frederick fell. meier, p.s. (2007). mind-mapping, 52, 1-4. accessed from http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/sru/socialresearchupdate  prashnig, barbara. (2007). the power of learning styles. bandung: kaifa. pressley, m., & dennis-rounds, j. (1980). transfer of a mnemonic keyword strategy at two age levels. journal of educational psychology, 72(4), 575-582. richmond, aaron s., cummings, rhoda, & klapp, michael. (2008). transfer of the method of loci, pegword, and keyword mnemonics in the eight grade classroom. researcher, 21(2). rose, colin. (1995). accelerated learning: action guide. iilinois: nightingale conant. rose, colin. (1997). accelerated learning: how memory’s secrets unlocked the way to relaxed, easy learning. great missenden, bucks: accelerated learning systems. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 31 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 31-38 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1595 the effectiveness of pre-service english teachers’ collaborative genre-based writing feedback didik rinan sumekto english education department, widya dharma university jl. ki hajar dewantara, klaten utara 57438, klaten, indonesia didikrinan@unwidha.ac.id received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 20th december 2016/ accepted: 9th january 2017 how to cite: sumekto, d. r. (2017). the effectiveness of pre-service english teachers’ collaborative genre-based writing feedback. lingua cultura, 11(1). 31-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1595 abstract this study investigated the collaborative genre-based effectiveness among the pre-service english teachers (psets). data collection used the genre-based writing feedback observation upon its reflection and instruction and need analysis questionnaire. the data analysis used multivariate statistics method to generalize the writing tests. the findings show that the psets’ feedback supported the interaction, accountability, and interdependence. these aspects are due to the collaborative participation in groups, in which the psets work with the flexibility, entirely performed the quality, and contributed in positive attitude during the meetings and assignments. the feedback emphasiz the learning improvement within the formative reflection through the general linear model (glm) repeated measures analysis, where f=6,114 and p<0,01. this study concludes that the collaborative genre-based writing feedback has the positive response from the psets. the determinant ranges gains in between 85% to 90% after a series of genre-based writing lectures were conducted. keywords: pre-service english teachers, collaborative genre-based effectiveness, writing tests introduction an urgent requirement for learning model needs to bridge and strengthen students-lecturers and studentsstudents relationships, cognitive and non-cognitive skills, mutual responsibilities, maturation, and problem resolutions in order to require creative thinking and problem solving. the instructional strategy requires a collaborative understanding among students to support the learning model. according to schamber and mahoney (2006), the collaboration is needed to improve the quality of the critical thinking and decision making among students to complete tasks. the grouplearning or peer-feedback collaboration fosters the reflective thinking and a greater awareness and understanding of the learners toward the writing instruction approach (storch, 2011), it also integrates learning and promotes collegiality (souers et al., 2007), including academic achievement, intergroup relationships, acceptance of mainstream students, and self-esteem increase (osterholt & barratt (2010). collaboration enables students to reduce polarization, to a certain benefit for students who are on the edges of the system and poorly relative performance (muijs et al., 2011), since the collaborative approach requires learners to work in groups and search for understanding, solutions, and/ or creating a product (delucchi, 2006). activities such as discussion, group work and problem-based learning to find solution, mostly enhance conceptual change and individual construction. the objective is to encourage students to convey their ideas and to understand the thinking of others (nicholls, 2002). an effective instruction is the key to sustain students’ academic achievement involved in genrebased writing progress through the lecturer’s writing class. therefore, an effective writing course accommodates students’ needs (schulz, 2009). in accomplishing students’ effective writing within various genre-based topics, an orientation to the process becomes the priority to its step. ferris and hedgcock (2005) point out that the orientation to the process focuses particular attention on procedures for solving problems, discovering ideas, expressing themes, and revising emergent texts. meanwhile, widodo (2006) proposed two genre-based writing instruction cycles that can be applied, namely: writing within the class and writing independently. writing within the class cycle associates with (1) building knowledge of the field, (2) exploring genre(s), and (3) joint text construction, whilst writing independently involves: (1) building knowledge of a similar field, (2) drafting, revising, and conferencing, and (3) editing and publishing. myskow and gordon (2010) point out that the basic generic constituents of an essay, such as a thesis statement at the end 32 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 31-38 of an introduction and topic sentence(s) at the beginning of body paragraphs have often been prescriptively emphasized as a requirement in the genre-based writing classes that students compose their own essays in accordance with these formulaic patterns. morgan et al. (2004) exemplify that students’ writing works may start from personal letters. the peers provide the constructive feedback on the draft and students repeat to work on the draft as the next tasks. after achieving the constructive feedback, they refine the works further. thus, students will perform better and use strategic thinking skill (nayan et al., 2010) by discussing with peers, presenting and defending ideas, exchanging diverse beliefs, questioning other conceptual frameworks, and actively engaging in the writing process (brown, 2008). genre is considered as a simple term and used to identify different types of written text. to support this view, genre-based approach emphasizes the written product as a means of expressing the intended meaning for the specific audience and context with a process approach in order to balance thinking and composing with the final product (lee, 2012) based on its own features and structures (sullivan, zhang, & zheng, 2012). genre is a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use language to respond to recurring situations they frequently use and draw on their repeated experiences with such texts to read, understand and write them relatively easily (hyland, 2008). these necessities generate and organize ideas using an appropriate choice of vocabulary, sentence, and paragraph organization but also to turn such ideas into a readable text (richards & renandya, 2002; widodo, 2006), as well as to transfer ideas from their native language (e.g. indonesian) into the target language (e.g. english), especially for nonnative students. the students systemically acquire an awareness of relevant text in writing to manipulate information and accomplish different purposes. besides, situation also relates to students’ confidence to conduct the real and meaningful context in writing (swami, 2008; ahn, 2012). they can produce their own examples of the same genre more effectively and provide them with a concrete opportunity to acquire the conceptual and cultural frameworks in particular purposes (ahn, 2012). therefore, students are able to develop all phases of writing process and make the sub-processes and skills explicitly through predicting the strategy types (negari, 2011). substantially, genre-based approach can be significant relevance for l2 students learning to write, since the identification and analysis of textual features in genrebased classrooms can support students with knowledge about the linguistic and structural elements of different kinds of writing (lee, 2012). writing effectiveness relates to the social and cognitive dynamics in using the specific criteria (pritchard & honeycutt (2007; dix & cawkwell, 2011). the orientation toward writing instruction, according to kern (2000) consists of three approaches, namely: product-based, process-based, and genre-based approach. the product-based approach focuses on the inner core of design: (1) the interaction between texts and (2) structural resources needs to create them. the process adds elements from the middle layer of communicative context, whilst genre-based approach addresses the outermost layer of social-cultural context. as the academic clue, ahn (2012) categorizes seven genres generally instructed to the syllabus to meet a standard qualification, such as recount, procedure, narrative, report, description, explanation, and exposition, which are shown in table 1. table 1 commonly seven genres instructed genre social purpose writing examples recount to reconstruct past experiences by retelling events in original sequence personal letters, police reports, insurance claims, incident reports procedure to show how something is done instruction manuals, science, reports, cookbooks narrative to entertain and instruct via reflection on experience novels, short stories report to present factual information, usually by classifying things and then describing their characteristics brochures, government and business reports description to give an account of imagined or factual events travel brochures, novels, product details explanation to give reasons for a state of affairs or a judgment news reports, textbooks exposition to give arguments for why a thesis has been proposed editorials, essays, commentaries 33the effectiveness of pre-service english .... (didik rinan sumekto) these genres may start from the beginning to the end of the procedure, initiating with texts, so-called how a text is structured and organized at the level of the whole text relating to its purpose, audience and message to make the text effective (hyland, 2008). meanwhile, table 2 shows the connectors used in genre-based writing (widodo, 2006). these connectors guide the students to compose good sentences or paragraphs and allow for a specific targeting of lexicon-grammatical features on particular structures (wennerstrom, 2006). according to hill (2007), genre-based writing’s purposeful feedback focuses on providing how to assist students’ cognitive apprenticeship, similarly judges the feedback provision, and advocates learners to improve ability to critique their academic writing. the feedback may be intended on the clinical case study–either real or hypothetical, small discussion groups, collaborative learning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and lecturer’s style concentrating on the group progress (gijbels et al., 2005). meanwhile, the process puts an emphasis on thinking and composing, learnercenteredness, and the facilitative role of instruction in the writing classroom (lee, 2012) as a part of an evaluation, peer assessment is applied as an interactive assessment method that enhances students’ interpretation and reflection, maximizes lecturers’ understanding of students-centered performance. hence, students are capable of learning how to criticize their peer works and accept peer criticisms. therefore, the critical thinking skills and the self-reinforcement will develop through this method, since peer assessment requires cognitive activities such as reviewing, summarizing, clarifying, providing feedback, diagnosing errors and identifying missing knowledge or deviations (lai & lan, table 2 connectors used in genre-based writing a comparison – contrast pattern sentence connectors comparison contrast pair word conjunction like…; similar to; the same…as… unlike…; dissimilar to; different from coordinate conjunction ...and... but; yet correlative conjunction ... both… and…; not only…but also… not available conjunctive adverb likewise; similarly however; nonetheless; and nevertheless transition expression in the same way; in like manner on contrary; in contrast to; by contrast; on the other hand comparative pairs as… as…; more/-er than…; less… than… as not…as…; more-/ -er than…; less…than… sub-coordinating conjunction not available while, whereas, although, even though, though transitional signals for connecting sentences showing a conclusion briefly; in short; to summarize; in brief; shortly; in conclusion; to conclude; in other words; and to sum up. indicating generalization as a rule/ a general rule; generally speaking; broadly speaking; in general/ a general sense; commonly; and normally/frequently expressing illustrations/ fact/ examples actually; for example; in fact; as a matter of fact; and for instance indicating an argumentation besides; furthermore; moreover; further; and in addition (to this) 2006). furthermore, peer assessment also enables students in genre-based writing classes to receive critical feedback, to give critical feedback to peers before the final version of written work (falchikov, 2001) is submitted and assessed. for example, a better writing can be possible when students’ feedback are gained from their peers with the control of writing system, mechanics of writing (punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation, numbering, and spelling), and grammar to solve the problem in writing effectiveness (nezakatgoo, 2011). in addition, a success in genre-based writing may be related to attitudes upon writing, apprehension about writing, self-efficacy (erkan & saban, 2011; huwari & aziz, 2011), and anxiety levels increase (huwari & aziz, 2011). in brief, writing process provides the necessary information for appropriate feedback in reviewing the rubric, considering the social-cultural and classroom context, being open to diverse expression modes– expressing experiences and purposes upon language use, using feedback information, and assessing students’ writing products appropriately (spence, 2010). the processes and products of students’ genre-based writing feedback shall be academically linked to syllabus design, lesson plan, task, and assignment development. scores, grades, and evaluative feedback shall also consistently contribute to learning processes and to the measurable improvement of their holistic writing skills (ferris & hedgcock, 2005). pappamihiel, nishimata, and mihai (2008) emphasize that genre-based writing rubric refers to an objective assessment where it adapts the analytic scoring system due to the genre-based writing components, such as content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics as measured to the peer feedback design. the analytic scoring, according to weigle (2002), also rates 34 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 31-38 on the content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics basis to provide more detailed information about their performance in different writing aspects. ferris and hedgcock (2005) underlined that the descriptors can be constructed to represent distinct discursive and linguistic course objectives (e.g., argumentative structure, figurative language, logical connectors use, complex as opposed to simple syntax), and weightings for textual components that vary to encourage students to direct their efforts upon improving targeted skills. cyr et al. (2014) also agreed that the scoring rubric as a set of criteria and standards links to the specific learning objectives and assign a numeric value to coincide with each criteria category. it provides students’ feedback outlining the extent to which criteria has been reached and allows for a standardized evaluation. alternatively, huang (2009) reported three factors, such as raters’ linguistic backgrounds, previous experiences, and prior training in assessment that affect the genre-based writing rating. the impact of these factors corresponds to the accuracy, precision and ultimately the fairness of writing assessment results. however, this study identifies two learning experiences, in terms of pre-service english teachers’ collaborative genre-based writing competence and its effectiveness during the collaborative works. methods thirty seven pre-service english teachers (psets), sarjanawiyata tamansiswa university, yogyakarta participated in writing course iii during the running semester. the observation and pre-test and post-test were applied within the first week of september to the fourth week of october 2015. this study began with the cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient that fulfilled the requirements with the gained score from 0,795 to 0,869. according to ghozali (2001), a variable would be reliable if the value of cronbach’s alpha contribution was >0,60. the reliability coefficient calculation adopted the cronbach’s alpha formulation with genova program, as shown in table 3, and would be valid if the value was r>0,30. the lecturing session was based on the first lesson plan taught table 3 psets’ variance toward collective genre-based writing variance sum squares df mean square f sig. (p) recount paragraph 33,482 1 33,482 6,184 0,018 narrative paragraph 25,107 1 25,107 7,570 0,009 descriptive paragraph 21,494 1 21,494 7,658 0,009 table 4 normality test result group k-s z pre-test sig. (p) pre-test k-s z post-test sig. (p) post-test decision experiment: recount 0,836 0,487 0,838 0,483 normal narrative 0,949 0,340 1,001 0,269 normal descriptive 0,773 0,588 0,806 0,534 normal control: recount 0,889 0,407 1,074 0,199 normal narrative 0,801 0,543 0,962 0,312 normal descriptive 0,587 0,881 0,199 0,400 normal in genres, namely: recount, narrative, descriptive paragraph. the results of cronbach’s alpha reliability were 0,795 for recount; 0,833 for narrative; and 0,869 for descriptive paragraph. the normality test was analyzed through the kolmogorov-smirnov (k-s z) technique, where the value of p>0,05 with two tailed test (santoso, 2001). out of 37 psets, the test of sample distribution data had a normal distribution. table 4 showed the statistical analysis results. the normality test of the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraph were gained through the pre-test and post-test. first, the experimental group pre-test showed that the recount paragraph result was k-s z=0,836; p=0,487; the narrative paragraph was k-s z=0,949; p=0,340; and the descriptive paragraph was k-s z=0,773; p=0,588. second, the experimental group post-test showed that the recount paragraph was k-s z=0,838; p=0,483; the narrative paragraph was k-s z=1,001; p=0,269, and descriptive paragraph was k-s z=0,806; p=0,534. third, the control group pre-test showed that the recount paragraph was k-s z=0,889; p=0,407, the narrative paragraph was k-s z=0,801; p=0,543), and the descriptive paragraph was k-s z=0,587; p=0,881). fourth, the control group post-test showed that the recount paragraph was k-s z=1,074; p=0,199), the narrative paragraph was k-s z=0,962; p=0,312), and the descriptive paragraph was k-s z=0,199; p=0,400. based on the pre-tests and post-tests, there was no significant result from the expected distribution difference toward the factual distribution of the normality test. thus, the normality test had a normal distribution. data collection which consisted of (1) instruction process observation, was applied to analyze the genre-based writing feedback; (2) reflection and instruction evaluation, was used to analyze the genre-based writing feedback; and (3) analysis questionnaire, was used to identify psets’ genre-based writing competence. these three instruments were applied sequentially in the monitoring activities and instruction evaluation steps during the lectures using the likert scale system. data analysis used the multivariate statistics method by applying the general linear model (glm) repeated measures and non-parametric statistics technique. the generalizability design (webb & shavelson, 35the effectiveness of pre-service english .... (didik rinan sumekto) table 5 variance component of psets’ pre-test variance source sum square df mean square f sig. (p) group pre-test: recount paragraph 13,493 1 13,493 1,461 0,235 narrative paragraph 0,168 1 0,168 0,044 0,836 descriptive paragraph 12,592 1 12,592 1,719 0,198 error pre-test: recount paragraph 323,318 35 9,238 narrative paragraph 134,859 35 3,853 descriptive paragraph 256,435 35 3,853 total pre-test: recount paragraph 177,738 37 narrative paragraph 185,801 37 descriptive paragraph 177,255 37 table 6 variance component of psets’ post-test variance source sum square df mean square f sig. (p) group post-test: recount paragraph 33,482 1 33,482 6,184 0,018 narrative paragraph 25,107 1 25,107 7,570 0,009 descriptive paragraph 21,494 1 21,494 7,658 0,009 error post-test: recount paragraph 189,491 35 5,414 narrative paragraph 116,082 35 3,317 descriptive paragraph 98,235 35 2,807 total post-test: recount paragraph 197,542 37 narrative paragraph 205,277 37 descriptive paragraph 201,107 37 2005) was to generalize collaborative genre-based writing tests. the quasi experimental design was used to conduct the pre-test and post-test (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2007) of recount, narrative, and descriptive genre-based writing. results and discussions three aspects were measured to collect the important information during the implementation of pre-service english teachers’ (psets’) feedback. they consisted of interaction, accountability, and interdependence. these aspects verified the participation level in groups, in which psets worked with the genre-based writing schedules flexibility, showed the entirely work performance quality, and contributed a positive attitude during the quizzes. the psets’ collaborative genre-based writing indicated very significant improvement, where p<.01 after the participants attended some genre-based writing lectures, engaged by the collaborative work and collective feedback at the end of the learning activities. the paired t-test showed the gained mean and standard deviation among these genrebased paragraphs. the recount paragraph was m=2,744; sd=1,347, narrative paragraph was m=2,767; sd=1,771, and descriptive paragraph was m=3,488; sd=1,594. the correlation coefficients (p) showed r=0,30 and p<0,05 after the experimental groups joined in three different lesson plans. these psets’ collaborative genre-based writing competences attempted at experiencing the transfer of learning competence, which reflected to psets’ creativity, content understanding, social interaction, and problem solving through the learning activities. further, the rating scale inventory used 5-likert rating scale, whilst the collaborative genre-based writing reliability used the generalizability analysis. the variance component estimation complied with the generalized analysis of variance system (genova 3,1), a software program for generalizability analysis to determine the percent variance associated with each component (hunt et al., 2009) towards the assessment criteria. from 37 respondents (n=37), eight groups were assigned to join in genre-based writing lectures, whilst the variance component estimation referred to groups’ pre-test results of recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraph as shown in table 5. it could be seen from table 5 that psets’ pre-test had performed an achievement on the genre-based writing. first, the p value of recount paragraph was 0,235% (as shown by the experimental group, the score was 70,85; whereas the control group’s score was 71,18). second, the narrative paragraph achievement was 0,836% (as shown by the experimental group, the score was 71,73; whereas the control group’s score was 71,79). third, the descriptive paragraph achievement was 0,198% (as shown by the experimental group, the score was 69,86; whereas the control group’s score was 70,92). meanwhile, table 6 extracted psets’ post-test achievement in recount paragraph achievement, where p value was 0,018% (experimental group score was 75,20 36 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 31-38 and control group score was 73,20); narrative paragraph value was 0,009% (experimental group score was 76,25 and control group score was 74,52); and descriptive paragraph value was 0,009% (experimental group score was 75,35 and control group score was 73,76). the pre-test and post-test results, as shown in table 7 describes psets’ achievement (after pre-test and post-test) through the mean square of the recount paragraph with the value of 89,485, the mean square of the narrative paragraph with the value of 29,385, and the mean square of descriptive paragraph with the value of 66,989. the generalizability (ρ2) coefficients and collaborative genre-based writing variances upon the feedback procedure were achievable with the value of 0,37919. thus, the rating scale feedback of the collaborative genre-based writing might generalize the instruction context. the collaborative genre-based writing accommodated the procedural problem solving, enhanced, and improved the language use. the point concerned with the simple structure, familiar and precise vocabulary used in accommodating psets’ collective genre-based writing competence. the psets performed four collaborative genre-based writing facts. first, based on the class observation held on the odd semester in 2015-2016 academic years, the collaborative genre-based writing groups participated during the lectures. the groups had the creative activities and efforts during the learning experience. the psets were proactive and more responsive to think and complete the assessment tasks assigned. they were also well-prepared in influencing and understanding with each other. it was reported that the majority of the group members involved in discussion with others during the lectures, rather than asking the writing lecturer. this learning experience indicated that the collaborative genre-based writing implementation seemed to be showing progress. second, the lectures orientation focused on the collective genre-based writing introduction. it provided psets opportunities better in understanding the collaborative learning management and procedure, and working with peers, although they needed time more to make adjustment in the collaborative works. third, the writing lecturing session suggested that the feedback was necessary to drill the psets in dealing with problems relating to grammar, content, vocabulary, organization, and mechanics purposes. the existing feedback should support to the procedural problem solving linearity that achieved input-process-output, while the result analysis upon psets’ writing errors was reflected by the peer feedback’s inputprocess-output phase. the sustainable feedback devices would acknowledge the problem solving on the genre-based writing process and its beneficially retrospective design to review the procedural work. fourth, the rubric-based feedback device was not apparently sufficient to apply for the genre-based writing selected themes. as the feedback solution, the rubric device was redesigned and supported by applying the checklist system which enabled to control and examine the problem solving. however, the checklist turned out to be more applicable by mostly psets to conduct the feedback practices. as an important thing, a number of alternative ideas among psets’ multiple backgrounds were set forth as a major obstacle to realize that how far they had achieved the genre-based writing competence in a required standard. this condition changed psets’ learning behavior from individual to collaborative works. the simplification design increased psets’ problem solving awareness level, so that the transfer of learning actualization could be observed and analyzed through the analytic scoring rubric and checklist system. table 7 variance component of psets’ (n = 37) gain upon collaborative genre-based writing variance source sum square df mean square group gain: recount paragraph 89,485 1 89,485 narrative paragraph 29,385 1 29,385 descriptive paragraph 66,989 1 66,989 error gain: recount paragraph 68,785 35 1,965 narrative paragraph 161,318 35 4,609 descriptive paragraph 112,200 35 3,206 total gain: recount paragraph 688,000 37 narrative paragraph 676,000 37 descriptive paragraph 942,000 37 conclusions the collaborative genre-based writing was positively influential and essential to the problem solving. the learning management context emphasized on the previous learning experience and competence aspects towards the psets’ previous competence. the feedback was functionally proven to be applied for the learning outputs improvement through the formative reflection, by which indicated the input variables, the learning difficulty levels, and materials organization designed. the collaborative genre-based writing increased the feedback in each lesson plan, whilst the learning outputs contributed to psets’ competence. this contribution was indicated through the generalized linear model (glm) repeated measures analysis for each lesson plan feedback towards the proposed null hypothesis test, where f=6,114 and p<0,01 in terms of gaining the multivariate results. the collaborative genre-based writing effectiveness was gained through the analytic scoring rubrics and/or the checklist system measurement. the analytic scoring system was widely used in the procedural knowledge substance and sequential learning experience to support the learning experience, whereas the checklist system was conditionally addressed to the selected genrebased writing themes. thus, the collaborative genrebased writing competence was preeminently required to the genres, which are: recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraph. the peer feedback effectiveness had a significant result and its determinant range in between 85% to 90% for collaborative genre-based writing. the effectiveness includes psets’ creativity factors, collaboration increase, learning difficulty reduction, learning organization strength, and problem solving orientation. references ahn, h. 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(2006). designing a genre-based lesson plan for an academic writing course. english teaching: practice and critique, 5(3), 173-199. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 135 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 135-139 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3710 when the unspoken speaks: as seen in andriani marshanda’s you used me and letter to god poems andreas akun english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45 palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia akun@binus.edu received: 11th july 2017/revised: 04th december 2017/accepted: 24th january 2018 how to cite: akun, a. (2018). when the unspoken speaks: as seen in andriani marshanda’s you used me and letter to god poems. lingua cultura, 12(2), 135-139. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3710 abstract repressed unresolved psychological conflicts for some people can be safely channeled into a poetical literary work as— despite its short and audio-visually framed and limited form— it could speak of bigger ideas with more freedom, and english as a medium had its own capacity to truthfully communicate the ideas. the goal of this study was to reveal the spoken and the unspoken truths behind andriani marshanda’s poetic expressions and their visualization in the unspoken 1: you used me and the unspoken 2: letter to god. this research focused on how english played an important role in safely channeling the ideas and how oxymoronic metaphors used in the poems speak more of the unspoken words and worlds within the poems. it used library research by employing a textual analysis of the selected poems using macherey’s concept of the spoken and unspoken. the additional data were also taken from the real life of the author found in printed and electronic media. the analysis will be focused on the revelation of the silence or unspoken that unconsciously infiltrates the spoken or expressed lines of the poems. it is concluded that the poems speak more bluntly of the persona’s lack of freedom, feelings of being exploited, incongruous and dilemmatic state of mentality, and a newly perceived, happily anticipated, and more truly liberated life. keywords: unspoken, poems, metaphor, english, repression introduction when a piece of literary work is produced, there is no doubt that a reason exists for its production. it can be the author’s own direct life experience or her/his indirect encounters through others’ experience, be it of sadness or happiness, the traumatic past events, unresolved conflicts from the past, or unadmitted present and future desires. in this context, a literary expression is metaphorically best thought of as a safe channel or lodging harbor for the restlessness of the soul. out of diverse literary expressions, poetry is a strong, compact, and effective medium for this channeling due to its brevity, poeticality, imagery, and indirectness. poetry provides the opportunity for the creator to convey deeper, unspoken meanings especially when it is read through its metaphorical expressions (camp, 2008). according to sansom and dickinson in d’abdon (2016), poetry is a rhythmical form of words which express an imaginativeemotional-intellectual experience of the author that will create a similar experience in the mind of his/her readers or listeners. when the poetry is specifically written in english, another special meaning is also at work as it is true in the two poems discussed in this paper. the goal of this research is to disclose the spoken and the unspoken truths behind andriani marshanda’s poems and their visualization in her controversial recently released videos entitled the unspoken 1: you used me and the unspoken 2: letter to god (marshanda, 2014). this research focuses on how english plays an important role in safely channeling the ideas and how oxymoronic metaphors are used in the poems speak more of the unspoken realities depicted in the poems. besides the poems, the author’s background, other posted poems, and testimonies are used in analyzing the spoken truths and at the same time revealing the unspoken ones. andriani marshanda, born 1989, is an indonesian young and talented actress and singer. she has been active in this entertainment world starting as an advertising model since she was the first grade of elementary school. she was mostly known as “lala”, a nice, cinderella-like character she played in television series bidadari (angel), from 2000 until 2005. in 2009, she was in the news a lot because of her publication of the self-recorded video on youtube, showing her anger toward her bullying school friends and her depressed personal life that she clarified later as a part of psychological therapy for her troubled past. she was married 136 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 135-139 to ben kasyafani in 2011, and they have a daughter, and then turned herself into a motivator for artists by sharing her life lessons learned from the past. but early this year (2014), she was again in the news as she sued her husband for a divorce for the undeclared reason (except her claim of having irreconcilable differences of opinion between them).her life controversy goes on up until today, especially when she published her poem videos on youtube where she claimed to be “used” by someone and that she finally found understanding of god’s love and the true feeling of happiness. these last videos triggered controversy because she later admitted openly that her mother had “used” her after being forced by her mother to undergo mental treatment in a hospital because she has since 2009 been considered as suffering bipolar disorder (susanto & desideria, 2014). and moreover, she appeared in the second video without wearing hijab as to show more freedom. the conflict between marshanda and her mother is now open to the public. it uses poetry because generally speaking, poetry has the potential to contribute to human beings’ happiness as stated by gioia (1992), “as wallace stevens once observed, ‘the purpose of poetry is to contribute to man’s happiness.’ children know this essential truth when they ask to hear their favorite nursery rhymes again and again. aesthetic pleasure needs no justification because a life without such pleasure is one not worth living.” poetry though has long been marginalized and turned into the subculture, is undeniably powerful for human beings to better understand the power of language in expressing even the unspoken truths (akun & andreani, 2015). as stated earlier, poetry is an effective medium to channel the repressed materials. poetry is a medium in which language has been maximally selected and utilized for the purpose of exposing something unspoken and significant. the power of language in poetry has been recognized in contrast with various other ways. if advertising world exploits language to convince, and politicians rhetorically manipulate language to persuade, poetry, however, uses language to reveal the truth about real-life experience, as stated: “language is a power that is used in many ways. advertising exploits language to convince us we are buying not only a product but a bit of class, or sexiness, or sophistication. politicians hire speechwriters to play on our sense of patriotism, our fears, our compassion for others…poems, on the other hand, use language to tell the truth, to accurately portray someone’s experience or vision; that’s the source of their power, and of their effects on the world” (addonizio & laux, 1997). poetry is capable of telling the truths lying beneath the surface of the spoken words (davis & fosl, 2016). it is especially through the use of metaphors, related to the psychological content of the poem such as the trauma of the past, and to some extent functioning as a healing therapy for the relentless souls, at least in nattily channeling the repressed conflicts. anker (2009) has stressed this point when he has said that language and metaphor are important not only in describing the traumatic experience but also in helping the therapeutic process of healing the psychological wounds by expressing the repressed trauma into literary text (through the creative process). so that the fractured traumatic experience and the broken or disorder mentality can be brought back into order language and metaphors are not only essential in the experience and description of trauma, but also in the process of healing. finding words and formulating a narrative is a way of encoding trauma within the structure of language to bring order into the fragmented and splintered experience of the condition of trauma. the role of metaphor and creative literary production in healing process is clearly associated with the very notion of metaphor itself where transfer happens. modell (2005) has defined metaphor as a cognitive tool that enables the transfer of meaning between dissimilar domains. the greek term metaphora literally means transfer. metaphor retains a paradoxical quality in that there are an “as-if” plays of similarity and difference and not a rigidly specified identity of meaning. as metaphor enables the transfer of meaning between dissimilar domains, transference repetition, the similarity of affective responses between the differing domains of the past and the present can be understood as a metaphoric process. therefore, as anker (2009) has stated in his emphasis on the role of metaphor as a healing medium through the creative process, the creative metaphoric expression may practically help to heal the troubled psyche through the transformation of metaphor, symbols, and patterns in words and visualizations. further, fainsilber and ortony (1987) have discussed at least three communicative functions of metaphor based on three hypotheses: inexpressibility, compactness, and vividness. first, the metaphor may enable someone to express something difficult or even impossible if it is expressed in the common or literal use of language. second, metaphor makes it possible to convey a great deal of information succinctly because of its nature as a compact means of communication. third, metaphors may help capture the vividness of phenomenal experience that they can pain a richer and more detailed picture of our subjective experience that might be expressed by literal language. in this research, the metaphor is narrowed into what it is called the oxymoronic metaphor. it is where the image used in the metaphor is a juxtaposition of two seemingly opposite terms but as pattillo (2007) has said that when joined, harmonize to make an ingenious point, epigram, or image, an oxymoron must seem to be contradictory but upon inspection reveal an unexpected unity. etymologically, oxymoron comes from the word oxy which means sharp, and moros means dull, juxtaposed as to form a sharp dullness, signifying foolishness with a point. in this context, the unity, the point, means more of the troubled united image formed by two contradictory sides. in her poetry, marshanda uses english because it is a universal means of communication, with the possibility of reaching perhaps the widest audience. most of all, modern english is the most egalitarian language where for example in the use of the pronoun, it does not need to differentiate to whom to speak to; the elders, royals, youngsters, labors, employers, intimates, etc. the pronoun “you” for instance can be safely used for all of these social groups in any moods of communication: anger or peace, sadness or happiness, doubt or certainty, hopefulness or hopelessness, etc. further, the use of english by non-native speakers of english generally indicates social prestige, indirectly revealing selfesteem, intelligence, capability, education, class, and so on. the researcher chooses the unspoken speaks because macherey (2006) has emphasized the importance of paying more attention to the unspoken parts of a literary work because the work with its spoken (or written) expression is 137when the unspoken speaks:.... (andreas akun) never complete and self-sufficient. the completeness of the work only matters when both the spoken and the unspoken elements of the work have been taken into consideration. the unspoken can be silences or absences, something unconsciously unsaid or something missing. the spoken or the speech of a literary work comes from the silence that always accompanies it. macherey (2006) has said that the moment of absence finds the speech of the work. silences shape all the speech. it is obvious that there is no speech or spoken part of the work without the silence or the unspoken part. interestingly, this unspoken is by macherey (2006)— borrowing freud—named the unconscious, and it is really important to investigate it as he said that this is why it seems useful and legitimate to ask of every production what it tacitly implies, what it does not say. speech eventually has nothing more to tell that people investigate the silence for it is the silence that is doing the speaking. methods this is library research by employing a textual analysis of the selected poems using macherey’s concept of the spoken and unspoken. the data are taken from two written poems and their visualization through official videos. the poems are composed by marshanda herself entitled you used me and letter to god. additional data are also taken from the real life of the author found in printed and electronic media. the analysis will be focused on the revelation of the silence or unspoken that unconsciously infiltrates the spoken or expressed lines of the poems. results and discussions the use of english, instead of indonesian, for the author is something special. besides her fondness of english in her blog writings and other poetic writings, the english medium signifies her aim for a wider audience globally— though with the possibility of limiting the number of audiences nationally—so that her voice can be heard by more people. these people are presumably with more critical understanding both nationally and internationally because their understanding of english has classified them into such social groups. specifically, however, the use of english is more political as it gives the author more liberated medium of expression in connection with the content of her writings. this can be traced in the use of the pronoun “you” in both poems. in the first poem, you used me; the author can safely address her anger, disappointment, and condemnation to the target “you” as free as she wishes because as an egalitarian language, the modern english provides this possibility. the anger shown in the poem is addressed to someone close to the persona’s life. it can be her mother, her father, husband, or siblings. the use of english nowadays does not differentiate to whom the persona is speaking. she can socially and psychologically speak bluntly and show anger even to her own mother (based on the author’s own confession in a tv talk show that it is the mother who has ‘used’ her) which is almost impossible to be done in indonesian. english has given her space to speak with more freedom and more understanding. the first poem is actually speaking of thing the persona does not do so far about her repressed conflicts as indicated by the basic title the unspoken. this unspoken has finally been spoken through this poem, revealing the fact that the persona has long been used or exploited by the ‘you’. this unspoken has been strongly expressed through the use of metaphors in the poems, describing who the persona and the exploiter are. the persona describes herself as “silent stupid doll” placed in the exploiter’s “small fake stage”. further, she also describes herself as an “easy target” and “a fool” to show her disappointment, condemnation, and anger. on the other hand, the exploiter is metaphorically depicted as the false/fake angel or true/evil monster or loser, and when combined will form a strong oxymoronic and dilemmatic metaphor “angelic monster” or “monstrous angel”, none of which is easy or unproblematic to deal with. this oxymoronic metaphor has rightly represented the deep psychological conflicts suffered by the persona because the two images exist in the same person very dear to her. this is verified by the lines in the poem such as, you used me oh, you used me as a silent stupid doll you put me on your small fake stage (lines 1-4) (marshanda, 2014). the person who can use or exploit the persona has the power to put her on the limited world as seen through the metaphor “small fake stage” so that she feels voiceless, brainless, and helpless, just like a silent stupid doll who can only give fun for the user without the ability to have the fun itself. this powerful image can easily play hero as well in front of the persona and the world, since the exploiter’s position makes it possible, forcing the persona to feel as an easy target, leaving her with no self-defense because she is helplessly forced to tear down her armor, most tragically let the exploiter “grab my heart and drain the life out of it” (line 13). this is very tragic and evil because the persona’s life has been robbed as signified by her lost heart (life, love, compassion, empathy). the persona even feels idiotic or thoughtless (just like a doll). her stupidity has tragically brought her to a false or wrong internalization of self-love as she said “i thought i was good in loving myself” (line 8) on the fake framed stage created by the exploiter. fortunately, the persona soon realizes the exploitation and turns herself into a fighter against the domination. all the exploitation is then ended by the persona’s realization of the abuse. “now i am moving on… while i’ll shine cos i’m going for the stars… while i’ll spread love cos of the strength of my honesty… now it’s time to close the book… yes finally i’ve opened my eyes” (lines 19-29) (marshanda, 2014). however, the poem does not only speak of the spoken (actually, this is the speech of the unspoken fact that the author has suffered from being used) of the persona’s exploitation and her realization of it with an act of getting out of the pain. referring to macherey’s theory (2006) of the unspoken—that beyond the speech there is a silent part of the work doing the speaking—the poem actually speaks of the other side of the problem. it is beyond the strength of the persona in taking her way of escaping the exploitation. the psychological dilemma unconsciously surfaces, presumably shattering the mentality of the persona. this dilemma takes 138 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 135-139 the form of the oxymoronic metaphor “monstrous angel” or “angelic monster” to describe the “you” as the exploiter. why? who is this “you”? this person is like an angel in the persona’s life but a monster as well at the same time. based on the author’s life background as testified in her special interview with alvin adam, the real me, in just alvin talk show in 10th august 2014, the one who exploits her is her own mother. a mother is undoubtedly an “angel” and also hero to her, giving birth to her, taking care of her ever since; but she is also a “monster” in the sense that she has set the bad image of a family (broken family image, failed mother and father image since the persona’s traumatic childhood). it is shattering her supposedly unifying understanding of parental love (and hatred) and then controlling the persona’s life in such a way that it leaves her with no freedom and independence even until she is 25, including financial matters. the traumatic childhood can be traced in the author’s motivating sharing video from failure to hikmah (2013). all this unspoken dilemmatic mentality can only be understood from her uneasy use of the metaphor angel and monster in the first poem. while in the second poem letter to god, the persona shows her new enlightened feeling of true love. this love is heavenly since she claims that she finally knows god and his love through her downs in life (“breakdowns, meltdowns, stressed-ups, and crash-downs”, line 7). this new love has wondrously brought her to new beauty and happiness in her life. most of all, the enlightenment is so real, and all have convinced her that she deserves love and happy life (lines 20-21). the above speech of this poem is clear, and the use of metaphor “letter” indicates that this experience is indirect and long-lasting, some sharing of feelings to god, and a letter of thankfulness. however, the visualization of the poem is interesting when talking about the unspoken side of the work in comparison to the previous poem. the controversy of the second poem happens only because of the author’s (also the persona of the poem) appearance without wearing the hijab. the spoken emphasis of the first poem is focused on the persona’s lack of freedom, her new realization of escaping from the lack in pursuing “the world’s greatness” with honesty to herself and true love. now, in the second poem, her emphasis is on the fact that she deserves the true love and real happy life. and this speaks of the unspoken fact that taking off the hijab is to some extent a symbol of reaching the freedom that can be seen in the following lines (marshanda, 2014). “and now i can’t believe life could be this beautiful that i can ever be this happy i thought i am about to die cos i never felt this way not once as real as this now” (lines 11-15). this means that she never experiences a real beautiful life and true happiness. it is because as the first poem has shown that she is exploited or used in such a way that she has no freedom at all. it includes her decision once to wear hijab as a part of her coping with the troubled mentality, later in her attempt to be a motivartist (motivator artist, with business consequences as well). but now she has come to the point of reaching a liberated life through her understanding of god’s will in testing her with hard times, as she finally says in the following lines (marshanda, 2014). “but it is you trying to let me know, that i deserve love i deserve a happy life and this has finally become real” (lines18-22). these lines speak another unspoken fact that with the family (mother, father, husband, sister, brother, etc.) so far there is no happy life. therefore, it is logical for instance if in the author’s real life she sues her husband for a divorce, leaving her family/mother for independent life and business because she has no freedom to be her true self there. the taking off the hijab in the video and later in her real life is for the time being the unspoken sign of this reality. it indicates that she is honest with herself and especially in her reaching of ‘the world’s greatness’ or ‘going for the stars’ with a new enlightened and more liberated life just for her own self. conclusions it has been proven that poetic expressions can help someone to channel her repressed trauma and dilemma into a piece of literary work. and to a certain degree, this channeling is actually an act of healing the hurt soul and coping with life pressures. english for a non-native speaker of english is a useful means of communicating this unspoken material because of its egalitarian nature. moreover, metaphorical expressions have also strengthened the possibility of expressing a more complicated mentality state as a dilemma between love and hatred as expressed in oxymoronic metaphors of angelic monster or monstrous angel. the article has also shown that beyond the spoken speech of the poems about exploitation and efforts to escape from it. the deeper unspoken meanings also surface such as the fact that the persona has faced the difficult psychological dilemma of the mother-daughter relationship, or a truly liberated life can only be reached when one has got enlightened honesty to oneself even though this can be considered controversial by others such as the author’s taking off the hijab. overall, it is true that poems, as stressed by addonizio and laux (1997), have used language to tell the truth, to accurately portray someone’s experience or vision. the one marshanda is doing up to his moment in telling her truth of aspiring for a more liberated life. references addonizio, k., & laux, d. (1997). the poet’s companion: a guide to the pleasures of writing poetry. new york: w. w. norton & company, inc. akun., & andreani, w. (2015). pluralism and hydribity in instant poems: taxonomizing indonesian students’ degree of nationalism through their creative process. journal of literature, language & culture (coes&rj-jllc), 1(1), 1-15. anker, j. (2009). metaphors of pain: the use of metaphors in trauma narrative with reference to fugitive pieces. literator, 30(2), 49-68. camp, e. showing, telling, and seeing metaphor and “poetic” languange. the baltic international yearbook of cognition, logic and communication, 3, 1-24. 139when the unspoken speaks:.... (andreas akun) davis, m., & fosl, p. s. (2016). lies like the truth: on plato’s ‘lesser hippias’. congent arts & humanities, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2015.11330 79. d’abdon, r. (2016). teaching spoken word poetry as a tool for decolonizing and africanizing the south african curricula and implementing “literocracy”. scrutiny 2, 21(2), 44-62. doi: 10.1080/18125441.2016.1192676. fainsilber, l., & ortony, a. (1987). metaphorical uses of language in the expression of emotions. metaphor and symbolic activity, 2(4), 239-250. gioia, d. (1992). can poetry matter? retrieved on july 24th, 2014 from http://www.danagioia.net/essays/ecpm. htm. macherey, p. (2006). a theory of literary production. london: routledge & kegan paul. marshanda, a. (2014). the unspoken – episode #1 – you used me. (video) the unspoken. jakarta, indonesia. 3mins. marshanda, a. (2014). the unspoken – episode #2 – letter to god by marshanda. (video) the unspoken. jakarta, indonesia. 3mins. modell, a. h. (2005). emotional memory, metaphor, and meaning. psychoanalytic inquiry, 25(4), 555-568. pattillo, j. l. (2007). oxymoron: a contradiction that isn’t. the vocabula review, 9(5). susanto, g. a., & desideri, b. (2014, 18 august). misteri marshanda dan bipolar disorder. retrieved from https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/2092728/ misteri-marshanda-dan-bipolar-disorder. microsoft word 05_ch_ ma feng the individual features_setting 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 128-135 the individual features of indonesian-chinese mini-novels 印华微型小说的个体特色 ma feng (马峰) department of chinese studies, ics, universiti tunku abdul rahman, jalan universiti, bandar barat, 31900, kampar, malaysia mafengde_2009@hotmail.com abstract this article talks about mini-novels in the new period of indonesian chinese literature. through the overall developing trend of mini-novels’ corpuses, analyzes the individual creative features: firstly, the humor of mo mingmiao’s mini-novels; secondly, the compassion of xiao xing’s mini-novels; thirdly, yuan ni’s emotional sonata of the lost key-ring. by combination of themes and techniques of the three mini-novels corpuses, the article focuses on the analysis of three writers’ distinctive writing style. keywords: indonesian chinese literature, the new period, mini-novels     内容摘要      本文对新时期印华微型小说创作进行探讨,透过印华微型小说的总体发展趋势分析个人微型小 说集的创作特色:一、幽默诙谐的《莫名妙极短篇》;二、悲天悯人的《晓星极短篇》;三、袁霓 的情感奏鸣《失落的锁匙圈》。结合三本微型小说集的创作主题与技巧,重点分析印华三位作家各 具特色的创作风格。    关键词:印华文学,新时期,微型小说            the individual features ….. (ma feng) 129 前言 微型小说以其独特的魅力在当代文坛占据一席之地。其短小精悍如利刃,雕刻出大 千世界的芸芸众生;其旨趣内蕴如天籁,流淌着人生哲理与生命反思;其推陈出新如腾 蛟,幻化成精彩纷呈的文学奇葩。当前,信息化时代推动了微型小说的蓬勃,让其在文 学的殿堂自然成长,焕发出一片生机盎然的图景。印华文学在新时期发展迅速,其微型 小说创作也不断突破。“所谓‘新时期’的印华文学,又称‘复兴期’的印华文学,具 体的是指 1996 迄于今。(东瑞,2006:2)” 1998 年出版的《印华微型小说选》是印华微型小说创作的发轫,收录 52 位作家的 96 篇佳作,是印华文坛微型小说创作试验的丰硕成果。小说题材涉及情爱纠葛、师生情 谊、家庭伦理、生活点滴、人生道理等;其创作手法灵活多变,有巧妙的谋篇布局,有 幻境、儿童视角的独特叙事,有精雕细琢的心理刻画,有淋漓尽致的情感抒发。 2004 年出版的《印华微型小说选二集》是第二届印华金鹰杯微型小说创作征文比赛 的结晶,也掀起了印华微型小说创作的高潮。全书分成“印华写作人作品”和“第二届 金鹰杯印华微型小说征文比赛获奖和推荐发表作品”两部分,收录 60 位作家的 86 篇作 品。莎萍先生评价道,“虽然微型小说写的只是生活的一个侧面,一些小片断,但却很 浓缩,读多了集合起来也是一个广阔现实的反映,也能拼凑出生活的缩影。(莎 萍,2004:7)”《小说选》从“情、理、趣、幻、欲”等方面展现印度尼西亚当代生活的 全景图,生活百味齐聚(马峰,2009:2)。 “情”侧重亲情、爱情、友情、邻里情;“理” 从个人、企业、社团到政党、民族、国家,品评时弊,启人深思;“趣”有逗人一笑的 家庭琐事,有蕴含深意的以小见大;“幻”以梦幻、科幻、玄幻交织;“欲”充满了对 金钱、名利的嘲讽与反思。 印华两次集体创作展现了新时期印华写作人的蓬勃生机,丰富了微型小说的主题与 技巧,也为精彩纷呈的个人集的不断呈现带来契机。《做脸》(2002)、《世界华文女 作家微型小说选》(2004)等多国微型小说合集则为印华写作人提供了交流切磋的平台, 也推动了印华微型小说不断融入与走向世界。莫名妙、晓星、袁霓微型小说集的出版是 印华微型小说不断走向成熟的标志,各具特色的创作呈现出印华文学的非凡魅力。 一 幽默诙谐的《莫名妙极短篇》 莫名妙的微型小说幽默风趣,耐人寻味。《莫名妙极短篇》初版于 1998 年,收录 54 篇文章,与《印华微型小说选》堪称印华微型小说合集、个人集的开山之作,极大地 推动了新时期印华微型小说的发展。其作品在嬉笑中蕴含对人生的冷静思考,以风趣调 侃的笔调窥探大千世界的奥妙莫测;令人捧腹的大笑,其乐融融的微笑,无可奈何的冷 笑,一针见血的嘲笑,生命的“轻与重”在笑声中飘荡;笑声远去,或凝眉沉思,或辛 酸流泪,或愤懑不平。东瑞对小说集分类编排,并在序中做了全景式的评析,“莫名妙 的极短篇,基本文风是轻松、诙谐和幽默的。幽默乐观的个性与生俱来,难得的是人文 合一。他比别人的极短篇多了一份娱乐性。(东瑞,1998:16)” 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 128-135 善用语言的高手,寓通俗与幽默于一体。《买橘树》的俚语,“你肚子里有几条虫, 不要以为我不知道。(莫名妙,1998:40,本章引文皆摘自该书)”山人瞒天过海施妙计, 太太心知肚明捅破绽。《浪漫情怀》的通俗,“同搭一架飞机,就像把鸡蛋放在一个篮 子里一样,危险得很。李太是他家的老母鸡,宝贝得很呢。”《陆小姐》愿者上钩的调 侃,“我因贪生怕死,当时妻子还年青,孩子又小,所以保险公司不找我,我也会自动 送上门。”《特长》的夸张,“人爱狗,狗亲人,人狗和睦相处,为世界的稳定与和平 作出一定的贡献。”《出书记》的美丽期待,“他想象书的出版,像沙漠上突然出现绿 洲一样,让人惊叹、向往、奔走相告。”《过站》一次火车过站的“乌龙糗事”,“当 时我别无选择,就这样跟一个萍水相逢的人踏入他家;世事难料,这一踏竟是三十年, 真不可思议。他说,他为了那次的错误,得付出终生的代价。而我,也为了一次的过站, 只好跟随他走到人生的终点。” 故事情节的对比,无奈与幽默交融。当医生碰到醉汉,会心一笑,《医生生气》在 所难免。《唉,真惨》面临破产,富者穷日子甜过;领了花红,穷者富日子苦过。《避 难》众人忙上山避暑,林嫂急下山避难,清静难寻的无奈。《我像阿 q》对自我虚荣的 冷嘲。《衣钵真传》中儿子小熊“讲假话、骗老师、偷试卷”被学校开除,老张为“鬼 才”付出了代价。《村长有气》不顾居民利益,一心想上电视的村长。《意外惊喜》宛 若《麦琪的礼物》,一个哭笑不得,一个含泪微笑。林嫂要买音响送丈夫,林哥要买洗 衣机送妻子,二人给“我”的生意带来意外惊喜,最后礼物退回,二人收获惊喜,“我” 却徒留意外!《旧瓶》故事娓娓道来,免费机票、人寿保险、体检按部就班的进行,验 尿突生枝节,王小姐好心给他“旧瓶换新尿”,结果却上演了“你怎么会有身孕”的闹 剧,原来尿也分男女,结局让人开怀大笑。 结尾的画龙点睛,潜蕴机智与幽默。《盆栽》夫妻比试盆栽,盗贼辨别优劣。“是 啊,我们告诉警察说,那人与我们同好,又是识货的人,人生难得一知己,我们希望快 将他释放,想与他结交呢。”《君子》“唉,吃盐比饭多终究是不好,这个道理我比他 更清楚。”一语双关,幽默风趣。夜不闭户者的君子论,大意失荆州的高血压。《一双 勤劳的手》现代文明的反思,“这回,乡下人没看到城里的现代文明,而城里人却惊奇 地发现一双勤劳的手。还有一段失落已久的回忆。”结尾余音袅袅,现代人寻找曾经失 落的回忆。不收欠债的《高境界》,以硬纸皮字条嘎然而止,“本人患有严重健忘症, 如故疾复发,请仁人君子施援手与下址和电话联系……”《知音》作者在故事中的显现, “我”是一个爱好写作之人,与日光同事,相谈甚欢如知音,结尾处日光太太郁郁之言 可谓醍醐灌顶,“日光旧病又复发了,他看了您的作品后,彻夜难眠,他说你真是莫名 其妙,一派胡言……”且不论作者是有意为之,还是无心插柳之举,“莫名其妙”四字 足以让人对“莫名妙”的诙谐拍手称快。 灰色调的漫画,反讽与幽默的震撼。《闭目养神》小雄见义勇为惹苦恼,老王闭目 养神逃事端。《老板的信用》首忠言相劝,尾发怒讥讽,“阿海,我们做人第一要诚实, 要讲信用,不可有贪念。……‘没钱赚,还讲什么信用!’老板怒不可遏,他是那么的 理直气壮。”《保密的故事》守口如瓶的反讽,妻子、表妹让隐私传到了阿曼女友家, 导致婚事取消。《兄弟俩》寓意深刻,表现“手足情深”与生死无情的纠葛,潜蕴亲情 的“轻与重”。“他看似无情,内心却是炽热。他好像漠不关心,其实他是深思熟虑, 他有一个全盘为弟弟着想的周密计划:他为弟弟保存一笔数目可观的钱,在弟弟有急需 the individual features ….. (ma feng) 131 的时候,他会拿出来全力支持他。”最后,弟弟穷困潦倒中与世长辞。哥哥的爱充满了 反讽,留给读者无尽的疑惑。 情爱的变奏曲,欢快与沉重共鸣。《女推销员》、《邮差》一个推销爱情,一个邮 递姻缘。《征服》“玩世不恭者”的倾心征服,《择偶》“真正王老五”的缘分难求。 夫妻闹剧在《分歧》、《一段情》、《他和她》、《辞职不干了》、《完美的婚事》中 展现的淋漓尽致,会心一笑,别有一番生活情趣。《锦囊妙计》丈夫出差,妻授以锦囊 妙计“能省则省,能赚则赚”。文章短小精悍,宛若文言小品,活灵活现。《冲红灯》 旧情人的暧昧插曲,《你是应该信任我的》多角爱情的重奏,祥伯对朱太培养感情,对 鲁莽妻子的忠言,对助手咪咪的暧昧。 人情的浓重淡薄,感动与调侃映衬。《婆婆与奖杯》、《调虎离山》、《孩子留洋》、 《我不怕你变胖》、《老人的喃喃自语》表现婆婆的关爱、外甥女的狡猾、母亲的挂念、 母女的代沟及老人的孤寂。《生日》、《快点跑》、《师生情》、《苹果情》再现母女 情、侄儿情、师生情、读者情的浓重,《不服气》、《芳邻》、《修车》、《呕吐》令 人感叹人情友谊的淡薄。《先生,你怎么不讲理》细腻的心理刻画“让座”的辛酸。《一 无所有》泥菩萨尚能救人的苦笑,“唉,反正已欠上百亿,再加上这两吊又何妨,多欠 一点,少一点,反正都是不能清的债,有何不同!”无奈调侃中显现人情的浓重。 二 悲天悯人的《晓星极短篇》 晓星的创作富有浓郁的现实情怀,善用现实主义的笔法描写人间百态。《晓星极短 篇》初版于 2006 年,是《印华微型小说选二集》创作高潮后个人微型小说集的又一次 丰收。小说集共 42 篇,由七个专辑组成:海啸惊魂、甲醛兴波、泰山压顶、闲游学海、 善恶交错、点点滴滴、冥思生死。其内容题材丰富,运用一条悲天悯人的主线贯穿全书, 可谓“心忧苍生善恶念,胸怀天下不平事。”他敢怒敢言,或为小人物奔走疾呼,或为 政府弊病痛心不已,或为投机取巧者敲响警钟;他善恶分明,时而针砭恶人盗贼的行径, 时而倾吐惩恶扬善的宏旨,时而感叹生死轮回的无常。 海啸惊魂:勾勒灾难来临的众生相。《水落石出》欲扬先抑,对中国救灾队“逾期 食品”的疑虑。《“顽固”本色》人道主义的伟大,行善的执着与顽固。《改邪归正》、 《手》通过两只手的善恶对比,一个是“浪子回头只为金”的恶徒 sam,一个是舍己救 人的英雄候殷彪。《扶摇直上》描绘惟恐天下不乱的趁火打劫者,“那是自然,我们还 得要感谢这地震,再震多几次我们不扶摇直上也难啊!(晓星,2006:26,本章引文皆 摘自该书)” 甲醛兴波:“民以食为天”,为富不仁的奸商却给人们的生活蒙上了挥之不去的阴 影。甲醛让人对豆腐敬而远之,“老王的豆腐臭了”反而让其生意兴隆。“臭名远扬” 不仅保住了豆腐的清白,也让老王恢复了声誉。“老王终于明白了,昨日那批‘舍生取 义’的豆腐以他们的‘生命’捍卫了它们同伴的清白,以它们的身躯证明了一个真理: 事实胜于雄辩!”《臭豆腐的价值》以清白豆腐影射肮脏商人,不仅批评了损人利己的 奸商,同时也衡量了生意之道、为人之本。《“生态”平衡》让人哭笑不得,把握商机 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 128-135 的小姐略施妙招,“反正吃了甲醛,再喝叶绿素、贴膏药把毒素洗出、吸出,不就得了 吗?”《狗仔上电视》则让人欲哭无泪,狗仔因甲醛而大享免费美餐。这是狗仔的“幸 运”,还是老板的无奈? 泰山压顶:抒写小人物的辛酸血泪。《几家欢乐几家愁》“通天晓”如萍道出了承 包工程的秘闻,路的几番折腾,肥了投机倒把之徒,苦了平民百姓之家。《电视上怎么 说?》邮政局的退休金是苏米亚蒂一家的希望,刚领的微薄退休金却是一堆假钞。“你 一点都没错。我们是依法办事。要你出庭作证正是要为你洗脱罪名,还你一个清白。” 出庭作证真的能还她一个清白吗!《水涨船高》是卡车司机乌佐同卸货费、保安费、过 路费、修路捐等无尽关卡的“一场没有硝烟的战争”。《不为最先》针砭了警察局的办 事效率,主人公“勇闯”受尽办理驾驶执照之苦,最终在无尽无望的等待中愤然离去。 《刑不上大夫》大红斑为生计而倒卖燃油,所得收入却要孝敬警察,“特殊人物特殊处 理”让他大惑不解,“贪污受贿,赚取非法外快,那他们俩不也要蹲监狱吗?”《这可 是件奇事》一贫如洗的杜蒂没领到燃油津贴金,而有摩托车、电视的苏瓦诺却满载而归, “我坦白告诉你们吧,除了把值钱的东西暂时藏起来之外,这里头还有一个窍门,那就 是:你还得给村长五万盾的疏通费,懂得这个窍门的成千上万呢……”。《民以“水” 为天》道破自来水局的伎俩,《十字路口》刻画交警的百般刁难,《可别传出去》痛斥 市长的假公济私。 闲游学海:或敬佩,或感叹,或忠告,学海无涯的反思启迪。《姑姑》在困难时期 的使命,“风声紧,姑姑就转到学生家里继续教华文。风平浪静,她又到回小巷还是继 续教。照她的话说是:她离不开小巷。但小巷里的人则说:是小巷缺不了她。”《为校 争光》教导主任与羽毛球“国手”的较量,名校校规与为校争光将一决高下。《最后的 一课》永源在高中毕业的狂欢飚车中丧命,青春的色彩斑斓霎那间烟消云散。《返老还 童》好学不倦的老人的忆苦思甜与谆谆盼望。《班门弄斧》从薛老头对补习班的刁难引 出对年轻人虚心钻研的忠告。 善恶交错:《来者不善》刻画了假冒公务员的敲诈勒索之徒,天衣无缝的双簧让店 主不知所措,终究未能逃出两个“瘟神”的圈套。《与人方便》却惨遭勒索,令人怀疑 “绅士”与警察是否也是双簧。《有理走遍天下?》苏瓦诺在拳打脚踢中的狼狈相给人 们解除了疑问,警察也在暴徒的挑衅下落荒而逃,真可谓“有理也寸步难行。”《丰年 泣》欧阳理丰收的无奈,有人“借光”让丰收的橘子不断涌入市场,最终“橘子的价钱 一下子由山颠掉到了谷底。忽喇喇似大厦倾,昏惨惨似灯将尽。呀!一场欢喜忽悲辛。” 《贪关难“过”》骗人的集资公司让众人的贪欲淋漓凸现。《姗姗的秘密》一个孩子的 善良用心;《一枕黄粱》一个奶奶的辛酸孤寂,谴责亲情的遗失,咳嗽让奶奶的安享天 伦之乐成为空中楼阁。 点点滴滴:信手拈来,处处精妙,寓宏旨于微章,以点滴小事隐喻生活大道理。《小 黑点》结尾点破题旨“这小黑点真的神通广大,放任它下去,不但能毁了一颗牙;也能 毁了一个团体,甚至一个国家!疏忽不得啊!”《夜》对机器三轮车由讨厌到赞美,司 机的故事激发了对劳动者的吟唱。《秘诀》行窃与忠诚只在一念间,尔崛的善有善报。 《孰之过?》面对骗子高超伎俩的无奈。《远亲不如近邻》步惊辉“忍”的哲学在邻居 the individual features ….. (ma feng) 133 的“额外关照”下终于土崩瓦解。《“愚”中有诈》愚人节的玩笑也是对现实骗局的一 次彩排。《北京的来客》皇甫娇悲喜两重天,出书不易的苦恼,知音难寻的惊喜。 冥思生死:感叹生死轮回的无常,悲悯抱憾终生的过错,赞颂求生意志的坚强。《端 午忏》挥之不去的伤痛记忆,浓重的忏悔悲情。《生死一线隔》疏忽大意险酿千古恨, 两次降血糖的药险些要了婆婆的命。《防不胜防》、《阴差阳错》思索生命的偶然,一 个酷爱养生的老头子却被天上落下的飞机碾死,一个小生命因妈妈的怒火而遭到突如其 来的灭顶之灾。《生死攸关一念间》朦胧的意识流动与清醒细腻的触觉结合,冷静描写 人求生意志的坚强。 三 袁霓的情感奏鸣《失落的锁匙圈》 袁霓的创作以情见长,其爱情描写细腻中凸现深刻,忠诚与背叛、虚假与真挚、辛 酸与慰藉相交织,编织出爱的迷网,多声部共奏出情感的交响乐。运用精雕细刻的笔法, 寓理于情,绘构出真假善恶交融的“爱情辩证法”。袁霓有女性作家的细腻,“袁霓虽 善于写儿女情,但她更重视描写心潮的波澜起伏,使之开阖自如,令人荡气回肠。(苏 永延,2010:22)”《失落的锁匙圈》初版于 2010 年,是袁霓微型小说创作历程的汇流, 其颇具魅力的创作也使印华个人微型小说集茁壮成长。小说集分爱情篇、社会篇、亲情 篇,共 35 篇。《圆不了的月》、《痴》、《命运》、《母亲》曾收录于《印华微型小 说选》,《呈堂证物》、《慈善企业》、《丰收》曾收录于《印华微型小说选》(二集), 《杀人的刀》曾收录于《做脸》,《呈堂证物》、《三个皮箱》、《圆不了的月》、《痴》 曾收录于《世界华文女作家微型小说选》。 爱情篇宛若“爱的万花筒”,恋人、夫妻、情人都粉墨登场,幻想、隔阂、虚伪皆 暴露无遗。爱的执着,让人心酸的抉择,让人心痛的结局。《猎物》爱情与正义的较量, 丽娜“出卖”自己的男友。《半包瓜子》回忆与现实的交错,历史的伤痛与青春的无虑 交融,曾经的腼腆少年执着的爱,用瓜子贯穿全文,“几十年来,这个好朋友一直在默 默付出,从爱情慢慢升华为真挚的友情,几十年来关心她,始终如一。而她一直认为是 理所当然的,从不会去珍惜。现在,把他最后送的瓜子全部吃完,当作接收他的感情吧。 (袁霓,2010:37, 本章引文皆摘自该书)” 夫妻恩怨情仇的纠结,精妙构思与形式创新的结合,婚姻在殿堂与地狱间徘徊。“作 家不仅仅对色彩斑斓的婚姻家庭悲剧进行描写和揭示,而且着力凸现作品中人物内心世 界和性格的复杂性;更重要的是这些小说灌注了作家对印尼华人婚姻家庭状况的忧患与 反思。(陈贤茂,1999:307-308)”《短讯》采用对话体的形式,六组短信展现夫妻间的 猜疑。《x+y 的计划》公司的欠债、妻子的唠叨,面对内忧外患,“他”竟有了杀妻的 心思,不料计划却被妻猜透。夫妻的隔阂恰如“他人就是地狱!”《情敌》夫妻伦理箴 言,感情与理智的碰撞,如何才能营造温馨的家、温暖的巢? 婚外恋让多少家庭妻离子散,是寂寞后的慰藉,还是沉迷后的难舍?《10:10》两 个“美满”家庭,两颗“寂寞”的心,一次偶然,王之恩与心柔如遇知音,开始了每晚 10:10 的电话约会。结局,王之恩飞机遇难,激发了她迷失后的身份思考,“她是什么 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 128-135 身份?她反问自己?什么都不是,只是电话中谈话投契的朋友。”《跪》一个男人与两 个家庭的故事,对负心男人的谴责。故事在雨中来去,大雨让他们喜结姻缘,同时也浇 灭了她的梦。“你们走吧,不必回来了。世界上再刻骨铭心的事,都将春梦了无痕……” 雨水的姻缘与崩溃,泪水的感激与忏悔,每个人的跪各具嘲讽意味。 幻想让爱情焕发七色光芒,梦醒楼空徒劳无奈!《伴娘》情妇的爱情幻想,“寒意 的眼光”如影随形,如同挥之不去的魅影;《生日那一天》“第三者”的爱情幻想,美 丽幻想与清醒现实的素描;《李有恒》推销员的爱情幻想,城市陷阱与纯朴农村的对照, 逃离城市的肮脏,爱情的幻灭也是“首都碰运气”梦想的幻灭。《痴》店员的爱情幻想, 凌斐对男人的“痴迷”,男人对女友的“痴情”,一个女装皮包勾起无尽辛酸!“凌斐 耸耸肩笑。笑容中有些许悲伤,为自己一心执着地幻想,为了自己堆砌太大的希望而可 笑。她看着他的背影走出店去,好像也把整个店的亮丽和生气带走了,凌斐愣了一会才 慢慢地把心一点一点收拢来。”凌斐为痴付出了代价,男人的痴又将如何?希望不是“落 花有意,流水无情。” 爱情掉包的痛楚在《圆不了的月》中淋漓尽致的呈现。“夕阳把天织成一张巨大的 橙红色的网,把她网在里面。她满身疲惫,满心忐忑和犹豫,在橙红色的网里踽踽而行, 她希望这条路永无尽头,让她做着永不醒的梦。”美梦惊醒,曾经的男友成了自己的爸 爸。“门外,橙红色的天网已收拢,黑夜开始笼罩大地,没有星、没有月,路灯却开始 亮了,她慢慢地走着,走着走着跑起来,他在后面叫着她,她越跑越疾,把他的声音远 远丢去,最好让黑夜把苦痛和往事一起埋葬……”极富张力的语言与细腻的心理刻画结 合,让爱情的伪善与亲情的虚假原形毕露,倾诉心被吞噬的伤痛与梦被撕裂的悲哀。 “社会篇”入木三分的雕刻善恶众生相。《“家”之国》的科幻,《遁》的玄幻, 《十字路》、《杀人的刀》、《呈堂证物》的梦幻,亦真亦幻中透射人生真谛。《米》、 《慈善企业》、《面包》探讨人的同情心,揭示人性的善恶。《吉屋出售》连环骗局的 迷惑,《丰收》官僚惠顾的苦恼,《雅加达的圣诞夜》宗教和谐的期盼。“亲情篇”运 用细腻的笔触勾勒亲情的酸甜苦辣。《拮据》、《三个皮箱》、《达尔梭的遭遇》、《恐 惧症》抒写经济危机、五月暴乱给人精神与肉体的双重创伤。生命历程的苦涩艰辛:《十 八年》爱情与亲情的纠葛,《母亲》梦幻与现实的惊悚,《上报》人生苦难的浓缩,《命 运》亲情的泯灭,《豹子》父子的传奇,《求神》阿婆的苦衷。《祖母口中的祖父》宛 如一曲清新的笛韵,祖母的爱恨交集,遥远温馨的回忆悠扬而至,祖父的传奇也是华人 创业的艰辛史。《失落的锁匙圈》描述一段辛酸回忆,铺叙印度尼西亚华人几十年的风 云史,叹惋阿狗的悲惨命运。 结语 印华文学发展曾充满了曲折险阻,“一九六五年印度尼西亚政局变化,印华文学陷 入困境,九十年代末解冻,文学欣欣向荣,较之以前印华文学更有本土特色。(庄钟庆, 2010:13)”新时期随着作家队伍的复苏壮大,在诗歌、散文、小说创作等方面都取得了 突出的成绩。回顾新时期文学,印华微型小说的创作经过探索实验正逐步走向成熟。 the individual features ….. (ma feng) 135 参考文献 东瑞:《印华微型小说选》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,1998.7。 印华作协,获益编辑部:《印华微型小说选二集》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,2004.12。 华文微型小说学会:《做脸》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,2002.7。 钦鸿:《世界华文女作家微型小说选》,上海:上海人民出版社,2004.12。 莫名妙:《莫名妙极短篇》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,1998. 12。 晓星:《晓星极短篇》,雅加达:印华作协出版,2006.10。 袁霓:《失落的锁匙圈》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,2010.6。 东瑞:《流金季节续篇》,香港:获益出版事业有限公司,2006.11。 杨振昆:《东南亚华文文学论》,重庆:重庆大学出版社,1994.10。 陈贤茂:《海外华文文学史》(第三卷),厦门:鹭江出版社,1999.8。 王列耀,颜敏:《困者之舞:印度尼西亚华文文学四十年》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007.7。 马峰:《千岛文化缩影》,《印华文友》37 期,雅加达:印华作协,2009 年 8 月。 庄钟庆《印华文学多面观》,《印华文友》38 期,雅加达:印华作协,2010 年 1 月。 苏永延:《印华文学复苏以来发展管窥》,《印华文友》38 期,雅加达:印华作协,2010 年 1 月。 copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 39 lingua cultura, 11(1), may 2017, 39-45 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i1.1726 the moves of indonesian application letters sri hapsari wijayanti faculty of economic, atma jaya catholic university, jln. jend. sudirman no. 51, karet semanggi, dki jakarta 12930, indonesia sri.hapsari@atmajaya.ac.id received: 18th november 2016/ revised: 28th november 2016/ accepted: 9th january 2017 how to cite: wijayanti, s. h. (2016). the moves of indonesian application letters. lingua cultura, 11(1). 39-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i1.1726 abstract job application letter is one of many types of written communication. every context has its own way to write application letter. this article aimed to know the pattern of moves of solicited and unsolicited job application letters, as well as to identify the structure patterns of moves and language used in indonesian application letters generally. the corpus were 62 application letters. the data were analyzed by using quantitative and qualitative descriptive methods. the research finds that the indonesian application letters consist of nine obligatory moves: opening salutation, offering candidature, introducing candidature, promoting candidature, enclosing documents, willingness to action, stressing the facts, thanking, and closing salutation. the movement structure has similarity with the application letter from other countries as previous studies. the difference lies in the label of used terms. the implicitness and inability to express self-quality could be referred to the indonesian culture known as modesty and inhibition in telling about oneself. keywords: application letters, indonesian application letters, genres, written communication introduction in daily life, people use language to get effective communication for many functions. the communicative event among the members of society that interact each other to reach the purposes of communication is known as genre. genre, according to swales (1990), is described as, “a class of communication events, the members of which share some sets of communication purposes […]“ “the genre names inherited by the parent discourse community…” (sadeghi & samuel, 2013). genre refers to, “a sociolinguistics activity in which the participants are able to achieve goals” (henry & roseberry, 2001). in short, genre is a communicative event to reach the goal of the participants. understanding genre means understanding the texts and the contexts. (bhatia, n.d.). there are abundant studies on how people in society communicate through the analysis method of genre (khan & tin, 2012). it is originated from swales’ research related to teaching english for specific purposes (esp), particularly the introduction analysis of academic writing (cook, 2011). since then, there have been many researchers of genre analysis from various professional and academic settings. one of the professional genres which get much attention from many researchers is job application letters. a job application letter is one kind of genres that aims to promote the job applicants to attract the attention or invite responses from employers (bhatia, 1993). the letter is based on the applicant willingness (unsolicited letters) or based on the information from media or someone known (solicited letters). the application letter becomes an introductory letter accompanying the resume. genre analysis uses two approaches: one focus on text analysis and the other focus on social contexts or discourse community. malinowski, as cited by nkemleke (2004) pointed out that to understand text, the understanding of context on how the text occurred is needed. in social perspective, genre is considered as a dynamic thing that changes following the need of communication users. a genre is described as a communicative event that uses language form and content as a representation of communication purposes realized by the same society members: a genre comprises a class of communication events, the members of which share some set of communication purposes. these purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre. this rationale shapes the schematic structure of the discourse and influences and constraints choice of content and style (swales, 1990). job application letter is a form of written communication. every context has its own way to write application letter. writing an application letter is not different with writing business letters, such as product offer, advertisement, company brochure, leaflet (khan & tin, 2012) and a complaint letter (nkemleke, 2004). in a cover letter, there is a persuasive element to persuade the 40 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 39-45 employers to do an action to call the applicants for an interview (gillaerts, 2003) or invite the applicants to join the recruitment procedure (guffey & du-babcock, 2008). table 1 shows that a job application letter has the same organization with the purchasing letter. it starts with the way of the writer attracts the reader’s attention, then the writer introduces self-qualification, give the proof, and finally ends by pushing the reader to do an action. since the letter is influential, the writer of an application letter should have ability to promote himself by showing the compatibility of the jobs with the requirements (petty & cacioppo, 1986, cited from soroko, 2012). this confirms, following bhatia’s (1993) statement, cited from (al-ali, 2006): the type of genre whose main communication function is to make relevant the qualification and professional experience of the applicant to the specifications of the job advertisement in order to persuade the employer to hire the applicant. genre of job application letter has long attracted the attention to be studied from various views. many previous researchers have studied how members of a community to use their language in job application letters. anything else has observed job application letters in crosscultural or compared between application letter and other business letter such as the letter of intent, product sale or purchase or service, and also studied the language use in table 1 the comparison of business promotion letter and an application letter business promotion letter application letter attract attention attract attention introduce the product introduce the qualification give the proof give the proof push an action push an action (source: purwanto, 2011) table 2 recapitulation of previous studies on moves based on contexts bhatia (1989) cited from khan & tin (2012) bhatia (1993) henry & roseberry (2001) al-ali (2006) soroko (2012) khan & tin (2012) corpus size 200 not known 40 90 182 26 context south asia not known south east asia, uk, usa jordan poland pakistan move scheme self-glorification establishing credentials opening opening reference to the advertisement addressing self-degradation introducing the candidature: referring to a job advertisement referring to the source of information showing interest in the offer referring to the source of information adversary glorification offering candidature offering candidature applying for the job emphasizing the match between the author of letter and the prospective employee establishing credentials: essential detailing of candidature stating reasons for applying glorifying the institution indication of the applicant’s professional skills listing qualifications ` indicating value of the candidature stating availability promoting candidature description of the applicant’s educational background and professional skills predicting success offering incentives promoting the candidate enclosing documents description of the applicant’s positive personality traits detail experiences enclosing documents listing relevant skills, abilities invoking compassion demonstration of the applicant’s professional experience highlighting personality soliciting response stating how skills, abilities were obtained soliciting response listing the benefits to the company of hiring the applicant emphasizing skills and achievements using pressure tactics listing qualifications indicating willingness for personal interview expectation of further contact referring the enclosed documents/cv ending politely naming present job ending politely expression of respect offering candidature predicting success glorifying the employer listing publications ending politely giving reasons for leaving present job soliciting responses (favorable) demonstrating knowledge of target position expressing gratitude polite ending closing the courtesy welcoming response inviting favorable consideration thanking offering to provide further information (source: cited from khan & tin (2012), added by researcher) 41the moves of indonesian application letters .... (sri hapsari wijayanti) the opening and closing. however, the move and language of application letter written in bahasa indonesia still have not been studied yet. this study has implication for the teacher to teach effective writing for application letters. the following table 2 shows the previous studies on move in an application letter from several contexts. this study uses a theory of genre analysis from bhatia (1993). genre analysis is used widely to identify move components by many researchers because it is more powerful in interpreting structure of text moves and lexical grammatical components (kong, 1998, cited from al-ali, 2006). genre analysis is defined as a linguistic realization of some social activity (cannor, 1996, cited from al-ali, 2006). in language society, each communicative event uses different moves based on the purpose of communication (bhatia, 1993; swales, 1990, cited by al-ali, 2006). the communication purpose in an application letter is the reason why the letter is written (sadeghi & samuel, 2013). this article ha several aims, which are (a) to know pattern of moves of solicited and unsolicited application letters; (b) to identify structure patterns of moves and language used in indonesian application letters generally. methods the corpus is job application letters within the period 2012-2014 that have been written by indonesian native speakers. the writer of the letter aims to apply for the position as lecturer in one of private university in jakarta. the letters were sent to human resouce development (hrd) office, the head of department, the dean of the faculty, rector, or vice rector of the private university. the corpus consists of 62 application letters consisting of: 33 letters written by males and 29 letters by females. most of them (43 persons) wrote the letters based on their willingness (unsolicited letter). the data can be seen in table 3. table 3 the amount of sample based on gender gender solicited unsolicited amount male 12 21 33 female 7 22 29 total 19 43 62 the application letters were written by the applicants having bachelor and master degrees or the ones pursuing their master and doctoral degrees. some of them have some work experiences as lecturer or other occupations. the letters which are written based on the job vacancy at mass media or only information given by someone are called solicited letters. those information sources come from kompas daily (2012), website joblist.com (2013), and jobstreet.com (2014). the letters written based on the job vacancy usually require the qualification needed by the employers. in this study, the personal information of the applicant is not revealed. the procedure of this study was conducted by categorizing the move structures based on communication function and then identifying move’s language used. the identification was performed by reading and checking through the data. to reduce the complexity in categorizing the data, each data was coded based on types of the letters (solicited letters/sl or unsolicited letters/us; the number of list of sl/us; the number of direction of the letters (rector/r, vice rector/vr, dean/d, vice dean/wd, head of department/k, or head of hrd); and sex (f/m)). for example: (sl/37/d-12/f). in identifying the move structure, this study hired an assistant from the same major (as a coder) and made a consensus if there is a difference in perception. the techniques of analysis were qualitative and quantitative descriptive methods. qualitatively, the data were analyzed with content analysis by identifying moves based on functional semantic criteria. this is based on the concept from dubois (1997), cited by al-ali (2006) that stated, “move is functional semantic unit whose length depends on the purpose of the writer and its language realization. “ a move can be applied in one sentence or more, or even in one clause of phrase (swales, 1990). the communication function of each unit was connected with the purpose of the application letter in general. quantitatively, data were analyzed by counting the frequency and its percentage occurrence of each move and organization models of application letters. results and discussions generally, the application letters in indonesian consist of 15 moves (table 4): 10 moves are obligatory move and 5 moves are arbitrary move. the application letters were written as the company or institution advertisements (solicited letter) contained shorter moves than the ones that based on the applicants’ willingness (unsolicited letter). the number of moves in solicited letters is 11; while in unsolicited letters is 14. the only move that is not found in the unsolicited letter is the referring to source information. moves that are not found in solicited letters are (a) stating reasons, (b) offering preference, (c) praying, and (d) offering service. table 4 the move structures based on source of job vacancy move structure (khan & tin, 2012) solicited letters unsolicited letters opening salutation v v referring to source information v stating reasons v offering candidature v v introducing candidature v v promoting candidature v v offering preference v glorifying institution v v enclosing documents v v willingness to action v v stressing the facts v v praying for employer v offering service v thanking v v closing salutation v v 42 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 39-45 from all of the observed data, it is found that the job application letters (solicited and unsolicited) consist of moves which are detailed in table 5. table 5 move structure in job application letter move structure total (n = 62) total (%) opening salutation 57 92 referring to source information 19 31 promoting candidature 34 55 glorifying institution 3 5 offering candidature 49 79 introducing candidature 43 69 offering preference 7 11 offering service 1 2 glorifying institution 1 2 praying for employer 3 5 stating reasons 4 6 enclosing documents 39 63 willingness to action 39 63 stressing the facts 34 55 thanking 60 97 closing salutation 58 94 by observing the frequency of occurrence in the letter, glorifying institution in obligatory move is only 5% out of the whole data (see table 5). in conclusion, referring to table 4, there are nine obligatory moves appear in a high percentage, which are: (1) opening salutation, (2) offering candidature, (3) introducing candidature, (4) promoting candidature, (5) enclosing documents, (6) willingness to for example: (sl/11/k-2/m) dengan hormat, berdasarkan informasi dari rekan-rekan dosen pengajar fe di uxy jakarta tentang peluang untuk menjadi staf pengajar kk. saya ingin mengambil kesempatan itu untuk menjadi staf pengajar di fe uxy. saya as, (dengan gelar), lulus tahun 2000 di uxy, fe manajemen konsentrasi manajemen keuangan. saat ini saya sedang mengambil sekolah magister manajemen di uxy jakarta. dalam dunia pendidikan saya pernah mengajar di laboratorium komputer fe selama lebih dari 5 tahun. bersama surat ini saya sertakan juga riwayat hidup (curriculum vitae). besar harapan saya dapat mengambil peluang tersebut. terima kasih. hormat kami, aa, s.e. dear sir, [opening solutation] based on the information from lecturer colleagues at economic faculty of uxy jakarta about the opportunity to be a lecturer of kk [referring to source information], i want to take the chance to be a lecturer at economic faculty of uxy jakarta. [offering candidature]. i, as (with the degree), graduating in 2000 from management department economic faculty of uxy, majored at finance management. right now, i am enrolling management master at uxy jakarta [introducing candidature]. in education, i have ever taught at computer laboratory of economic faculty for more than 5 years [promoting candidature]. enclosed are my curriculum vitae [enclosing documents]. i really hope that i am able to take that opportunity. [willingness to action] thank you [thanking] sincerely, aa (with degree) action, (7) stressing the facts, (8) thanking, and (9) closing salutation. from those nine moves, the applicants are able to elaborate the message by adding the arbitrary moves, such as referring to source information (in solicited letters); stating reasons, glorifying institution, praying for employer, offering preference, and offering service (in unsolicited letters). in this research, the arbitrary moves in unsolicited letters are also found in the solicited letters. the differences with the previous studies are shown in table 6. which shows that some moves found in the research are similar with the ones found in the previous studies although the positions are not the same. for example, in this study, move of offering candidature occurred after or before referring to source information. yet, this move occurred after referring to the source of information (henry & roseberry, 2001). therefore, there is a similar move but in different position. another move that is also similar to the previous studies is promoting candidature although with the different naming: establishing credentials (bhatia, 1993), while soroko (2012) gave detailed description about this move into several steps. move of promoting candidature in this research has concluded the steps: indication of the applicants’ professional skills, description of the applicants’ educational background and professional skills, description of the applicants’ positive personality traits (soroko, 2012). the difference of move naming was also found among this research and the previous studies. for example, in this research, the position of the jobs applied is called offering candidature but soroko (2012) named it showing interest in the offer. moreover, this research has the term willingness to action, but other studies has soliciting response (bhatia, 1993; al-ali, 2006; khan & tin, 2012), or welcoming response (henry & roseberry, 2001). 43the moves of indonesian application letters .... (sri hapsari wijayanti) table 6 shows that the moves found in this research and previous studies are universal features for application letters. those moves are: (1) opening salutation, (2) referring to source information (in solicited letters), (3) offering candidature, (4) promoting candidature, (5) enclosing documents, (6) willingness to action, and (7) thanking (polite ending, closing salutation). regarding the second research question, the following describes the research findings of the language used in move of job application letters. usually, many indonesians use dengan hormat or salam hormat as the opening of letters, also in job application letters. in solicited letters, the applicants did not state the source of job vacancy information if the information was from someone who works in internal institution. see the example below for example: based on the information from lecturer colleagues at economic faculty of uxy jakarta about the opportunity to be a lecturer of kk ,… ( s l / 1 1 / k 2/m) regarding to the information about the job vacancy, i am writing this letter to apply for the position of part time lecturer in faculty of economy. (sl/22/d8/m) but, if the job information was from website or daily newsletter, they stated the source of job information in detail or sometimes not: regarding to the job vacancy at kompas newspaper, december 1st 2012, your institution needs some teaching staff…. (sl/33/d-7/m) regarding the information from uxy website that the institution is in demand for lecturer position at accounting department… (sl/41/d-7/f) another move of job application letter is offering candidature which expressed explicitly by almost applicants. for instance: i want to take the chance to be a lecturer at economic faculty of uxy jakarta. (sl/11/k-2/m) with this letter, i am name : an address : taman meruya ilir subject to teach : international tax and tax seminar, thesis writing supervisor (tax major) since : 2003 – present other activities at uxy: scholarship committee uxy since : 2008 – present writing this letter to apply for a permanent lecturer position 20 hours at faculty of economics, particularly in tax subject. (us/42/d-18/f) in promoting the abilities themselves, many candidatures did not declare them explicitly. the effective application letter should expose the applicant’s qualifications and work experiences so that recruiter has a good first impression before he read the curriculum vitae completely. for example: i, as (with the degree), graduating in 2000 from management department economic faculty of uxy, majored in finance management. right now, i am enrolling management master at uxy jakarta. in the field of education, i have ever taught at computer laboratory of economic faculty for more than 5 years (sl/11/k-2/m) before closing the application letter, many applicants enclose some documents such as certificates and academic transcripts, letter recommendation, and identity table 6 the differences of the current study and the previous studies move bhatia (1993) henry & roseberry (2001) al-ali (2006) soroko (2012) khan & tin (2012) this study (2015) • opening salutation v v v • referring to source information v v v v v • stating reasons v v • offering candidature v v v showing interest in the offer v v o introducing candidature v v v • promoting candidature establishing credentials v v • indication of the applicant’s professional skills. • description of the applicant’s educational background and professional skills. description of the applicant’s positive personality traits. v v • offering preference stating availability v • glorifying institution v glorifying employer v • enclosing documents v v v v v • willingness to action soliciting response • offering to provide further information • welcoming response • soliciting response • indicating willingness for personal interview expectation of further contact soliciting responses (favorable) v • stressing the facts v • praying for employer v • offering service v • thanking ending politely thanking ending politely expression of respect ending politely v • closing salutation closing the courtesy v 44 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.1, may 2017, 39-45 card for ensuring the recruiters about their conditions and qualifications. for example: completing the requirement, attached are: (1) curriculum vitae, (2) a copy of certificate (bachelor’s and master’s degree), (3) a copy of writings, and some published books, and (4) photo 3 x 4. (us/4/d-8/m) following the enclosing moves are willingness to action. it is used by the applicant to get attention and get action from recruiters to welcome them for interviewing, testing or just considering them, which can be seen in the following example: i hope that you are willing to deliberate this application and invite me for the next process. (us/10/k-1/m) i hope that you would consider my application and give me an opportunity to have a test and an interview. (us/48/vr-3/f) the latest of application letter move is thanking or expressing gratitude. this move expressed very briefly such as thank you. besides, various expressions are also used, such as thank you for your attention, thank you for your attention and opportunity, thank you for your attention and help. move of introducing candidature as well as stressing the facts appear in all the corpus of data. it was also found in bhatia (1993) and in context of south east asia, uk, usa (henry & roseberry, 2001). therefore, in the context of south east asia, move of introducing candidature is generally used. it means that the applicants tend to describe his or her personal information earlier in the application letters briefly. the excerpt of introducing candidature can be seen as follows: allow me to introduce myself: name : drs. bm, m.a place, date of birth: february, 22nd 19xx religion : christian protestant address : jl. pi blok a-999 phj bekasi 17124 phone number : 999999 (us/9/vr-2/m) move of stressing the facts, as a pre-closing move since it leads to the latest move of thanking, is also commonly inserted in indonesian formal letters, such as invitation, power of attorney, and business letters. stressing the facts can also be found in data. the following example shows the expression prior to thanking, written in italic mode: thus i convey. … thank you for your attention. (us/58/d-9/f) i am writing this letter in all conscience. thank you for your attention and cooperation. (sl/37/d-12/f) thus i convey. thank you for your attention. (us/35/d-21/f) conclusions the job application letter is a persuasive letter. thus, job applicants are required to be creative in presenting the oneself very well by using effective language. indonesian application letters contain the obligatory moves structure, i.e. opening salutation, offering candidature, introducing candidature, promoting candidature, enclosing documents, willingness to action, stressing the facts, thanking, and closing salutation. the move structure has the similarity with the application letter from other countries as reported on previous studies (see table 6 above). the difference lies in the label of used terms. the implicitness and inability to express self-quality could be referred to the indonesian culture known as modesty and inhibition in telling about selves. as a result, the recruiters should find the details about job applicants through the attached supporting proof (enclosing documents), although the information is not stated explicitly in the letter. another example, in solicited letter, the applicants do not clearly declare the source of job information if they got the information from someone who is working at the institution where they are applying. the applicants are also expected to provide little information about his or her professionalism. it could actually motivate the recruiters to follow up their letter by calling them for the next test or interview session. the result of this research contributes to the improvement of effective writing in bahasa indonesia by indonesian native speakers. since the culture is an important factor in genre (martin, 1985 and ventola, 1987 in al-ali, 2006), future research should involve cross-cultural research such as making comparison between indonesian application letters and other languages in south east asia to know the difference of moves that used by the two countries and also used for language learning. moreover, the studies on politeness, language aspects (spelling, sentence, paragraph, cohesion, and coherence) are interesting to be fatherly investigated. references al-ali, m. n. (2006). genre-pragmatic strategies in english letter-of-application writing of jordanian arabicenglish bilinguals. the international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 9(1), 119– 139. bhatia, v. j. (1993). language use in proffessional setting. london: longman. bhatia, v. k. (n.d.). interdiscursivity in critical genre analysis. retrieved february 24, 2015, from http:linguagem.unisul.br/paginas/ensino/pos/ linguagem/eventus/cd/english/361.pdf cook, g. (2011). discourse analysis. new york: routledge. gillaerts, p. (2003). a text linguistic and genological approach to the letter of application. journal of linguistics, 31, 105-117. guffey, m. e., & du-babcock, b. (2008). essentials of business communication. singapore: thomson. henry, a., & roseberry, r. l. (2001). a narrow-angled corpus analysis of moves and strategies of the genre: ‘letter of application. english for specific purposes, 20, 153-167. khan, a., & tin, t. b. (2012). generic pattern in application letters: the context of pakistan. relc journal, 43(3), 393-410. nkemleke, d. (2004). job application and student’s complaint letters in cameroon. world englishes, 23(4), 601-611. 45the moves of indonesian application letters .... (sri hapsari wijayanti) purwanto, j. (2011). komunikasi bisnis. jakarta: erlangga. sadeghi, v., & samuel, m. (2013). genre analysis of the letters of appeal. discourse studies, 15(2), 229245. soroko, e. (2012). the presentation of self in letters of application: a mixed-method approach. journal of employement counseling, 49, 4–17. swales, j. m. (1990). genre analysis english in academic and research settings. cambridge: cambridge university press. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 89 introduction indonesia is a nation that has great cultures with the values of local wisdom. the wisdom has been ingrained in people’s hearts. the good values have taken root, become the philosophy of society, and transform into a local wisdom. referring to the law no 32/2009 on the protection and environmental management chapter i article 1, point 30; local wisdom is noble values that applicable in the governance of public life to protect and manage the environment sustainably. local knowledge means the local wisdom that can be understood as local ideas that are thoughtful, full of wisdom, valued embedded and followed by their peoples.in the concept of anthropology, local wisdom is known indigenous or local knowledge or local genius that becomes the basis of cultural identity. the core values of local cultural policies can be used as guidance in life. surely a lot of indonesian society becomes the norm in the rules in life. indonesia is a religious nation that the values underlying such wisdom. but there are also norms of the local wisdom that has been passed down from their parents for generations. however, some local wisdom here begins to be forgotten, especially by teenagers. this article is part of a research by kartika et al., (2014), she has explained that the singkuh is the appropriate or misappropriate done by besemah ethnicnal group. in singkuh contains verbal communication studies. besemah ethnical group is located in pagaralam, south sumatra. in their daily life, they are using the rules from their parents. for example, there are rules in using a name or a specific call to family. the term for the family is known by tutughan that has a special meaning for the user community. surely it would be a different meaning if local rules apply to other communities. generally, meaning is at the level of cognitive that shaped by local communities. likewise, with this singkuh is formed as a result of the interactions among the ethnics. the philosophy of meaning in a specific community will create a behavior that they do. for examples is the meaning of debus in the art of pencak silat that originated from the province of banten that has meaning human strong, fearless, and fear only to allah swt. another example is the values of local wisdom should be provided to the students, so that students can behave according to local wisdom. the purpose of lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 89-93 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.1424 verbal communication culture and local wisdom: the value civilization of indonesia nation tina kartika communication department, faculty of social and politics science, university of lampung prof. dr. soemantri brojonegoro street/ 1 kelurahan kedaton, bandar lampung city, lampung province, code post 35144. indonesia tn.kartika@yahoo.co.id received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 23rd august 2016/ accepted: 20th september 2016 how to cite: kartika, t. (2016). verbal communication culture and local wisdom: the value civilization of indonesia nation. lingua cultura, 10(2). 89-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.1424 abstract indonesia is a nation with cultural diversity and area. this caused a lot of the uniqueness of culture in everyday life. this uniqueness was generally a positive value to maintain the harmony of human beings and nature. the discussion of this article was the verbal communication, the study of the wisdom of the nation speech-language indonesia, and local wisdom in civilization. the words expressed in the local wisdom among others are fearless (need fear only god almighty), self-sacrificing or spirit of nationalism (patriotism), orderly, loyal, affectionate, hardworking, consensus, mutual help, and creative. positive values here needed to be crystallized in people’s lives; it would be the identifier of the indonesian people. this research was conducted in five districts of pagaralam, south sumatra. the method used was qualitative. data collection techniques included participant observer/observation, observation without participation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. this article finds that if local wisdom actually exists in everyday life, the nation of indonesia has carved beauty behave in civilization itself. the local wisdom of the nation begins values, the rule in the family, and then developed in the community. a positive value of local wisdom is the identifier of civilized society and the need to preserve indonesia. keywords: culture, verbal communication, local knowledge, civilization 90 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 89-93 education should be appropriate based on local wisdom so that the students will be familiar with the life of the social environment, culture, and nature (nadlir, 2014). many of the values exist in the society of the indonesian people, but is this the values are truly a role model for behavior? how the values create a civilization? the cultural values of the nation will be better when the values are institutionalized. the problem is why the local wisdom does not interest to most young people. local knowledge is not only known in indonesia but also in other countries such malaysia. malaysia is known as the country with multi-religious and multi-ethnic just like indonesia. ethnicity in malaysia consists of ethnic of chinese, indian, malay, and indonesian, while the religious is also diverse such as islam, christianity, buddhism, hinduism, and others. there are clear rules in this country that people will affect people’s lives. the multi-ethnic and multi-religious attitude requires a high tolerance for the differences of others. discipline and respect for others are an absolute attitude that must exist within the human soul. if there is no tolerance, then the chances of conflict will be very large. thailand is another example of the country that runs local wisdom in educational implementing and cultural learning process. cultural learning model is the recommendations for improvements at the national level and the local community. diversity creates an independent economic strengthening and moral values (ubol et al., 2015). the learning model of multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious society can actually be applied in indonesia. the true understanding of multi-cultural, multiethnic, and multi-religious society can be applied since young. the understanding of tolerance through education formal and non-formal education will create a perception of behavior in society. if the positive perception is built from childhood, the more likely the children will behave positively. likewise, if the negative perception is built from childhood, then the child will be a tendency to behave negatively. suryaman (2014) has explained that there are good things that can be applied to success. for example, curriculum implementation of business culture and multicultural education which should be reflected in the subjects. synergy with foundations, parents, stakeholders’ relevant agencies are the others examples in determining the success of the local wisdom. curriculum of business culture and multicultural education should be accompanied by five pillars of success that can make students think well. five pillars are known as paksa (pray, attitude, knowledge, skill, actions). pray shows that indonesia is a religious nation that can guide people to behave well. attitude means the expected behavior in accordance with the applicable rules. pray is accompanied with good manners, polite, and friendly. knowledge shows the indonesian people can not miss the development of science. skill is the ability to continue their lives. while, the action is behavior towards success. strong, fearless, honest, self-sacrificing (patriotic), fearing only to god, paksa (pray, attitude, knowledge, skills, and action), singkuh (appropriate and inappropriate to do) are considering as the local wisdom. pray characterize someone who has faith in god, while the attitude is the manners that expected for students to success. they are all positive behaviors that must be maintained. essentially, the values of the local wisdom are the values that will accompany the civilization of indonesia in doing things. methods this research is conducted in five districts of pagaralam, south sumatra. the research questions are (1) how is the descriptions of verbal communication singkuh on besemah ethnical group? (2) how is the application singkuh on ethnic besemah? (3) how is the local wisdom on besemah ethnical group? (4) how is the verbal and nonverbal communication in besemah ethnical group? subsequently is developing research questions that contextsensitive research. the method used is qualitative. data collection techniques include participant observer/observation, observation without participation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. the informants arethe elders or people who are respected in the five districts of pagaralam, and traditional leaders (those who know the custom) in the five district of the city pagaralam.the main data source is the informant interviews. analysis of data is through data reduction (grouping similar data), interpretation and decision-making, and conclusions.the discussion develops from local knowledge, the use of a language community, and then the results of research. it can be said that local knowledge and use of this language as the embryo of the civilization. results and discussions cultural impact on the use of language (sociolinguistics) is found in indonesian society. generally, indonesian people consume rice as a staple food. naming an object will be much more if the object is often used. there are some terms for example padi, gabah, beras, nasi, bubur, lontong. however, the term only one word in the english language is rice (kuswarno, 2008). cultural impact on the use of language can be seen in proverbs of jambi community that known as seloko-seloko, for example, bini sekato laki, anak sekato bapak. this term is affected the patrilineal system (takiddin, 2014). there are rules for speaking in besemah ethnical group that it should not speak recklessly. the informantnamed abdul hamid on august 29th 2014 has explained the examples of singkuh are calling the father’s sister ‘mother’, calling wife ‘love’ in public, and talking about sex with parents. calling with endearments to the husband/wife in front of many people, especially with the spoiled verbal behavior is taboo. the call for older sister’s father is uwak or bibik. when it calls with the word “mom” to the father’s sister, it means that the father and his sister are husband and wife. and it is forbidden for brother and sister marries in islam law where the majority of ethnic besemah is moslem. furthermore, the informant named ijasi on august 29th 2014, the religious leader has explained other examples of singkuh among others are talking about sex (sexual intercourse) to the wife’s sister-in-law/in-law/wife’s brother in-law, calling dear to the husband/wife in front of parents, talking about other women besides his wife in front of wife’s brother in-law. all of them are the taboo things to say in basemah ethnical group. it aims to honor his wife’s family. besides that talking about another woman is also taboo because it can be considered that man has an affair. another aim of that rule is the husband honor his wife in front of others. this value of local wisdom in accordance to the proverb of jangan banyak tangge ndek dinaiki or it does 91verbal communication culture and local wisdom: .... (tina kartika) not allow to divorce (kartika, 2013). the next informant is nimiati that being interviewed on august 29th 2014. she has explained that the values are contained in singkuh that have meaning humanitarian boundary, limitations relationship, avoid intercourse in the family, such as father and daughter, brother and sister, etc. the further explanation, the informant named rubaya has explained on august 9th 2014 that the value that contained in singkuh. singkuh teaches sundi/sigi or in indonesian language means boundary of politeness in friendship. it is said to avoid sex crimes such as between parents and children or uncle and nephew and others. furthermore, another informant named tamrin has explained on august 29th 2014 that singkuh teaches the value of politeness, manners, friendship barrier, or how act wiser in friendship. explanation from these informants tells that besemah ethnical group rules should be adhered to maintain the harmonious relationship between husband and family, likewise, the wife’s family with the husband’s family. beside that there are certain rules between brother and sister. the other thing that shoul be maintained in this ethinical group is to avoid the bad relationship that intercourse on the family are forbidden to marry. these rules are agreed by upon generations of their parents. figure 1 shows the chart of interaction, symbol/language, and society. interaction function of symbol person interactionin society (group) figure 1 the chart of interaction, symbol/language, and society (source: syam, 2009) communication, language, and culture can not be separated. when someone talks about culture, then he/she also will talk about language and communication. generally, culture can be seen, and vice versa. the examples of the culture that can be seen are artifacts, objects, handmade outcome other humans. while the example of the unseen culture is the results of the human mind. to convey ideas and mind, or organize the achievement of good work, of course, it requires a tool. the tool that is needed is language. so the language is a very important role in the civilization of a nation. discussion of the language, it can be divided into the verbal and nonverbal language. communication is the process of delivering a message that complies with what is expected. the language, the media, and the attitude are a circle that can not be separated. the advertisers need a facility to convey its message to the consumer, and its facility is language (natashia, 2015). the many ways of communication can also be served as a messenger, entertainment, and a promotional tool. as a messenger function, the information is really up to the desired person. when the culture, language, and communication have usefulness and uniqueness to the particular community, it will have a value of local knowledge. the uniqueness of the local culture is inseparable from the community were settled, such as in the mountains, the coast, hinterland or urban. brunvand folklore expert from the united states classifies folklore into three types; they are verbal folklore, partly verbal folklore, and folklore instead of oral (nonverbal folklore). while the the proverbial is included in oral folklore (danandjaja, 2007), and many of it that developed in the indonesian culture. for example in the sunda ethnical group can be said that dibere sabuku menta sajeungkal, dibere sajeungkal menta sadeupa ... or given a little, then the request becomes multiply or it shows the arrogant side of someone (riyanto et al., 2015). the proverb meaning explains that a person’s behavior sometimes brash and later the demand will multiply. surely we can not be a brash human being. this adage is not only hearing in sunda ethnical group, but it is known by other ethnical groups in indonesia. another proverb that shows the local wisdom is mpuk didengi lui jangan merusak jadilah or if you can not make things right, do not damage, seganti setungguan or it is said about a sense of unity (kartika, 2013). the value of local knowledge can be seen in the proverb; mpuk didengi lui jangan merusak jadilah is becoming better human beings. the attitude is not disturbing is wise. syair of persian origin enters into indonesia along with the advent of islam. later it was evolved into the word syu’ur which means poetry in a general sense (akmal, 2015). the poetry of tepung tawar berbeas kunyit, supaya menjauh segala penyakit, berlapang dada didalam sempit, mensyukuri nikmat walaus edikit has a specific meaning. and it is poetry pride for the people of riau (akmal, 2015). the meaning of poetry is religious advice that we should be grateful to god almighty, although it is only a little god favors. surely there is many more poetry in indonesian society about the tolerant issues. how the values of local wisdom are realized in everyday life actually is the embryo of civilization in indonesia. local knowledge is knowledge that transformed into human behavior. there are two aspects of the philosophy of local wisdom, namely (a) ideas, mind, abstract; (b) concrete things that can be seen (wagiran, 2012). another example of local wisdom is known mukemel, the cultural value system from gayo. mukemel is the dignity of the people gayo. bemukemel refers to tertip, setie, semayang-gemasih, mutentu, amanah, genap-mupakat, alang-tulung (musanna, 2011). meaning of self-esteem can be defined with the meaning of shame. shame culture is very well developed in everyday life. communities also apply to the work ethic in institutions, for example, a shame when comes late, shame if people do not complete the job properly, the shame of misbehaving. tertip (discipline), setie (faithful), semayang-gemasih (affection), mutentu (diligent/ hard worker), amanah (honest/responsibility), genapmupakat (principle of consultation for the best solution), alang-tulung (mutual help) are positive value in the act. the positive values need to be inculcated from childhood. inculcation of the positive value is applied starting from the family. then it applies in institutional, for example at schools. at school, students can learn up with the help of teachers. the positive values will be easier if there are in the school curriculum. a positive value in the act one example is politeness. value politeness is discussed by nababan that she explains speech (part of the verbal language) has the principles of politeness. politeness principle means words that do not force, impressed friendly, respect, not harmful, not offensive and attention to nonverbal aspects (nababan, 2012). 92 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 89-93 of course, the politeness of speaking has the profound philosophy. philosophy of values politeness, for example (1) respect for others, (2) respect the rules of conduct, to behave courteously that shows that human discipline, (3) polite behavior shows we are a nation of peace. another example is the regulation of local wisdom in kaili, central sulawesi. such knowledge is the rules to maintain harmony between nature human beings as a residence and a guard, such as preservation of forests, lakes lindu, taboo says, other ceremonies, and sanctions against violations (saleh, 2013). nature as human habitation provides a source of life. the diversity of plants and animals should be preserved. one way to keep the local wisdom relating to the code of conduct is our attitude to nature, for example, hompongan. hompongan is planting rubber trees on the land lengthwise as well as boundary and buffer forests in national parks bukit duabelas in jambi (takiddin, 2014). besides hompongan, orang rimba also has legal rules which they took as the code of conduct that known as seloko-seloko. seloko-seloko is the proverb, and the example of it is banyak damn tempat beteduh means that when we have many problems, there are so many places to ask for help. another example of provebs (seloko-seloko) is di mano biawak terjun di situ anjing telulung; it means that when we do something wrong, the local laws are used to prosecute the doer. besides that, bini sekato laki dan anak sekato bapak means patrilineal applied to orang rimba is also another example of selokoseloko (takiddin, 2014). where we are, then there are also regulations that people must obey. often this is known as proverb dimana bumi dipijak disitu langit dijunjung. the real equation of dimana bumi dipijak disitu langit dijunjung and di mano biawak terjun di situ anjing telulung show local wisdom. it shows that local wisdom is not only owned by orang rimba in jambi province but also other ethnical groups. another local wisdom is the role of traditional institutions and the management of traditional institutions to preserve the performance of such wisdom, for example, balisoan community eats together after the harvest activities. the deepest value in eating with fellow residents in the village balisoan is familiarity and discussion among citizens (alus, 2014). furthermore, local wisdom in madura culture, wahyuningsih (2014) has explained the ads on the mobile phone version of the samsung galaxy gading and giselle. it shows the point of madura ethnical group that thanks to god after the rice harvest then held the karapan sapi. karapan sapi and typical pronunciation of madura is a cultural symbol, although the packaging is wrapped with mobile ad samsung galaxy. the explanation of the local cultural values have very strong philosophical stated in words or sentences that developed in the community, such as fear only to god, honest, patriotic, religious communities, orderly, disciplined, faithful, affectionate, peace-loving, hardworking, consensus, deliberation, mutual help, and creative. barker has said that the functions of language are naming and labelling, doing interaction, transferring the information (mulyana 2005). figure 2 shows how the interaction, language, and culture can build civilization. the problem is how the values of these policies completely or is not implemented in the community. better values are acceptable then tolerate other people. indeed, the capital of indonesia typical civilization is making the nation’s unique culture of another nation. the fact can not be denied that the province of bali is the tour for the foreign and domestic; there is a specific, hospitality, and security. one of indonesian nation’s problems is less polite language use, especially in children and adolescents. mainizar (2013) has explained many parents can do in coaching language in early childhood as pioneering and laid the foundation of language in children, motor exercises, adapt, maintain and supervise the child’s language and prevent children speak disrespectfully. developing language skills of children can be done through play and communicate actively with the family (mainizar, 2013). one effort to solve these problems is the indonesian government must increase the understanding of local knowledge to the young generation. for example in education, the curriculum in primary schools, junior high schools, and senior high school are using the local curriculum. besides that, the young generation is asked to use local languages on certain days and certain places. the next solution is the using of traditional clothing or traditional dance in certain ceremonies. besides that, the typical of greeting of an area and behavior is preserved. local regulations may be made in such a way to preserve local wisdom. figure 2 interactions, language, and culture inbuildingcivilization conclusions the local wisdom of the nation begins values, the rule in the family, and then developed in the community. a positive value of local wisdom is the identifier of civilized society and the need to preserve indonesia. singkuh on besemah ethnical group as follows talking about sex (intercourse) to the brother, or sister, parents, and do not use language of tutughan or specific call in a brother, a husband or wife to call very affectionate such as “dear” in public, talking about another woman in front of lautan (the name of a man’s brother’s wife), talking girlfriend on your sister or brother. language, culture, and communication are inseparable studies. one form of local wisdom is verbal communication that the crystallization of human minds, for example, fear only to god, honest, patriotic, religious communities, orderly, disciplined, faithful, affectionate, peace-loving, hard-working, consensus, deliberation, mutual help, creative, etc. another form of local knowledge rules to guide behavior to the fellow human beings and the natural behavior. the goal is for the harmony of man with man and man with nature. 93verbal communication culture and local wisdom: .... 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(fu ruomei) an analysis of the hanyu pinyin errors of the indonesian students 印尼学生汉语拼音偏误分析 fu ruomei chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 rosemary@binus.edu abstract pinyin is a valuable tool for students who learn chinese as a second language. through years of teaching practice and observation, some errors in indonesian students’ understanding and using in pinyin were summed up, including the phonetic alphabet equated to the actual voice entirely caused the mispronunciation; lack of understanding in some special provisions in pinyin caused the confusion of vowels “u” and “ü”; improperly placement of tone marks; did not understand the pinyin word-segmentation resulting in memory and understanding of chinese based on chinese characters instead of the word as a unit. these errors disturbed the accuracy of chinese students’ pronunciation, caused problems in chinese vocabulary understanding. it is very important for indonesian chinese language learners to lay a solid foundation of pinyin and develop good habits in the use of pinyin. keywords: pinyin, alphabet, word-segmentation, phonetic sound, tone mark placement 摘要 对 汉 语 作 为 第 二 语 言 学 习 者 而 言 , 汉 语 拼 音 是 一 个 十 分 重 要 的 学 习 工 具 。 作 者 通 过 教 学 实践及观察,总结出印尼学生在汉语拼音的理解、掌握上存在的一些错误,包括:把字母拼音跟实 际 语 音 完 全 等 同 起 来 造 成 读 音 错 误 ; 不 了 解 汉 语 拼 音 方 案 中 的 一 些 规 定 , 造 成 韵 母 “ u ” 和 “ ü ” 的 混 淆 ; 不 能 正 确 标 注 汉 语 拼 音 声 调 ; 不 了 解 汉 语 拼 音 的 分 词 连 写 , 造 成 对 汉 语 的 记 忆 理 解 是 以 “ 字 ” 为 单 位 而 非 以 “ 词 ” 为 单 位 。 这 些 错 误 对 学 生 汉 语 发 音 的 准 确 性 , 汉 语 词 汇 的 掌 握 造 成 了 一 定 的 困 扰 。 打 好 汉 语 拼 音 基 础 , 养 成 良 好 的 汉 语 拼 音 使 用 习 惯 , 对 于 汉 语 学 习 者 十 分 重 要 。 关键词:拼音,字母,语音,分词连写,标调 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 21-23 前言 汉语拼音方案》1958年2月由第一届全国人民 代表大会批准作为正式方案公布推行。汉语拼音方案 的诞生为外国人学习汉语提供了一个十分有帮助的学 习工具。掌握汉语拼音对习惯了表音文字的印尼学生 而言比掌握汉字要容易得多。汉语拼音在学生学习汉 语的初期起到十分重要的作用,对于汉语学习也有事 半功倍的作用。掌握汉语拼音有助于更好地掌握汉语 字音,建立字音、字义间的联系,从而为进一步掌握 汉字字形做好准备。 汉语拼音对汉语学习者的重要作用不言而喻。 印尼语为母语的汉语学习者,由于其母语的文字使用 的是以拉丁字母为载体的表音文字,故而在汉语学习 中对同样采用拉丁字母的汉语拼音有很大的依赖。汉 语拼音在其汉语学习中也起到了十分重要的作用。但 笔者在汉语教学中发现,建国大学中文系三年级学生 虽然已经经过两年多的汉语学习,但在拼音方面仍存 在一些问题。一些学生由于没有正确掌握汉语拼音, 在汉语发音上仍存在很大问题,造成了汉语学习的困 难。究其原因是汉语拼音的基础没有打好,造成错误 的一再重复。 内容 汉语拼音方案是在过去各种记音法的经验总 结。国家通用语言文字法第18条规定:“国家通用语 言文字以《汉语拼音方案》作为拼写和注音工具,《 汉语拼音方案》是中国人名地名和中文文献罗马字母 拼写法的统一规范,并用于汉字不便或不能使用的 领域。(黄伯荣、廖序东,2007:23)《汉语拼音方 案》已被联合国国际标准化组织(iso)确认为汉语 拼写的国际标准。随着世界汉语教学的发展,《汉语 拼音方案》已经成为海内外汉语教学不可或缺的拼音 工具。国际公认《汉语拼音方案》在语言学上是完善 的。 虽然汉语拼音在学习中是学生十分有利的学习 助手,相对于汉字也较容易掌握。但在汉语拼音的掌 握中还是存在一些问题,在这里一一指出,以纠正一 些常见错误,提高汉语拼音运用的准确度,避免由于 对汉语拼音掌握不够扎实而产生的问题。文章着重分 析由于对汉语拼音缺乏全面细致了解,甚至由于存在 一些误解而产生的错误。希望通过总结教学过程中发 现的学生在拼音方面的错误引起对此问题的重视。“ 赵元任《语言问题》(商务印书馆,1980)在谈到语 音学习时指出,只要开始两三个礼拜就应该把所有的 困难都给战胜。因为两三个礼拜要是不给它弄清楚 啦,以后你再学到文法、再增加词汇的时候啊,你就 把这些错的音老用了,所以不能不在最初的时候把这 个习惯弄好。”(蒋以亮,1998:377) 了解拼音方案,正确书写拼音,在学习之初打 好基础,以避免由于错误的一再重复而造成巨大的时 间和精力的浪费。由于缺乏对汉语拼音的正确了解, 而产生错误,甚至养成了错误的认读习惯,这对学生 提高汉语发音水平,促进汉语学习有百害而无一利。 发音错误 总体而言,中文系三年级学生对汉语拼音已经 有一定基本的认识。除个别学生外,大部分学生对于 汉语拼音中的大部分声母、韵母都已经能够准确发 音。与最初学习汉语时相比,受母语影响而产生的 将送气塞音“p、t、k”发成不送气音“b、d、g” ,将不送气塞音“b、d、g”浊化的现象已不存在。 但对于印尼语中不存在的舌尖前音“z、c、s ”与 舌尖后音“zh、ch、sh、r”的发音仍存在问题, 主要体现在舌尖前音与舌尖后音的混淆。学生具备 发“z、c、s 、zh、ch、sh、r”的能力,但当以 上声母与韵母拼合成音节时就会产生“z、c、s ” 与“zh、ch、sh”混淆。单独读辅音“r”时会 将“r”错读为元音“er”。 普遍存在的问题是“e”音的错误。错误主要 存在于元音“e”出现在舌尖后音“zh、ch、sh、r” 后时。具体为:把“车”发成“吃”,“遮”发成“ 只”,“车”发成“吃”,“蛇”发成“时”,“ 热”发成“日”。究其原因,发舌尖后音时口腔开口 度小,舌尖上翘,当发半高元音“e”时口腔未能及 时打开,未能及时实现从舌尖音到舌面音的转变。 由于采用相同的字母,学生常将“i”行韵母 与舌尖音“-i”混淆,将“-i”都读作[i]。曹文 (2002:23)在《汉语语音教程》中提到归纳音位的 互补原则,“汉语拼音中的i这个字母,当它出现在 z、c、s后面时,它的实际发音[]与 di、ti、ni中的 i [i]是不一样的。但是之所以都用“i”这个音来表 示,就是因为[ ]和[i]在普通话中出现的环境永远是 不一样的。“zh、ch、sh、r”后面的i[ ]也是同样 的道理。教学中一定要强调i实际代表三个音位。 “《汉语拼音方案》拼写汉语的字母,不是一 个符号代表一种发音的国际音标,所以不能要求一个 字母只有一种读音。字母与语音的关系一般都是如 此,它们之间总体上就是音位和音位变体的关系。” (王理嘉,2005:42-43)这是汉语拼音学习中非常 重要的一个大前提。教师一定要反复明确字母与语音 间并非是一一对应,一成不变的关系。“不要把拼写 系统的设计与普通话音位系统的分析完全等同起来。 因为作为一种供注音识字用的字母系统,它还有一般 语音和音位分析不需要考虑的问题,如音节拼写形式 的简短,阅读醒目,书写方便而彼此又易于区别,等 等。”(王理嘉,2005:44) 学生通过拼音字母的书写方式记忆发音,把字 母的发音与音素等同起来造成一些语音发音错误。 尤其是ü行韵母与u行韵母的区别。这是印尼学生常 见的易错点。《汉语拼音方案》韵母表后有规定,ü 行韵母跟声母j、q、x拼的时候,ü上两点省略,写 成ju、qu、xu,但ü跟声母n、l拼的时候,仍然写成 nü、lü。这就造成了困扰,由于不了解这一规定, 学生会按照字母写法发音,将ü读作u,从而造成 将“学”中的韵母“üe”读作“ue”。“去”的韵 母“ü”读作“u”。 《 汉 语 拼 音 方 案 》 中 的 韵 母“iou、uei、uen”在前接声母时写成“-iu、ui、-un”,省略式的语音根据是这三个韵母在一定条 件下中间的主要元音会弱化,其中iou的音变规律只 受声调的影响。学生在读省写韵母时,由于不了解 原形韵母形式,仅仅根据字母写法发音,造成发音 的跳跃,不连贯。这三个主要元音的音变规律,语 音学家徐世荣曾简括为“上去不变阴阳变,舌根不 变舌尖变。”帮助学生掌握这一口诀,有助于学生 掌握这三个复韵母的发音。“在初级阶段的拼音教 学中,因材施教,因地制宜,需要时也可采用《方 案》韵母表中的全拼基本式,例如把“朽”的拼写 形式写成“xiou”,“贵”写成“guei”、“棍”写 成“guen”。这种变通形式可以起语音提示作用,表 示中间加括号的元音在正式书写时应该省略。”(王 理嘉,2005:41-42) 23an analysis of the hanyu ….. (fu ruomei) 建议汉语教师在课堂语音教学中因人制宜,创 造一些权宜的变通的教学方法。关键是要开导学生不 能把字母拼音跟实际语音完全等同起来,要在教师的 引导下,根据实际语言去学会汉语拼音,然后用汉语 拼音去学习汉语,而不是简单地按照字母去硬拼字 音。自然语言中细微复杂的语音变化,无论哪一种字 母系统都是无法而且也是不需要全部表示出来的。 明确汉语拼音方案字母与实际发音间的关系, 应侧重记音位变体的发音。准确掌握汉语拼音方案, 熟识21个声母,39个韵母,了解隔音字母y、w的作用 和使用条件。了解韵母写法与读音的关系。 大学生已经具备一定的理解能力,不同于儿童 语言学习的方式。完全可以用学生母语对汉语拼音系 统进行完整介绍,从全局角度整体了解,再具体到细 节。在理解的基础上学习,而不是死记硬背,知其然 不知所以然。 书写错误 声母书写不规范 拼音书写中不重视字母大小写的区别。存在 非句首拼音首字母也大写,甚至出现大小掺杂书 写方式,特别是“j”和“j”,“q”和“q”混 用。如:“见解jianjie”“邮件youjian”“全面 quanmian”。 韵母书写不符合拼音方案 汉语拼音方案》规定,用ɑo、iɑo 表示[ ] 的音,其中“o”只表示从[a]滑向[u]的滑动方向。 不标作u,而标作o,是为了字形清晰,避免手写体 u和n相混。不了解这一特殊规定的学生会按照读音 将“ɑo”写作“ɑu”。 标调错误 不标注声调 只写声母、韵母不标注声调,甚至认为没有必 要标注声调。无视声调是汉语音节重要组成部分的事 实,认为声调很难,从而回避标注声调。布置作业、 课堂考查需要标注汉语拼音时,学生会反复和教师确 认是否要加注声调,甚至以加注声调为苦。一方面知 道汉语声调的重要性,另一方面却在平时学习中放松 要求。这自然对汉语学习没有什么好处。 标注位置错误 造成错误的根本原因是没有掌握标调规则。大 部分学生知道调值应标注在韵母上,单韵母音节声调 的标注问题不大。主要问题是在韵母i上标调时,常 常忽略要将i上面的一点略去,造成i上既有点又有调 号。教师讲解时用“有一顶帽子就好,不能戴两顶帽 子。”来解释,学生在笑声中很容易就能理解和接 受。但问题出在,学生在学习之初并没有在这一方面 受到严格要求限制,造成“我知道应该怎么抹掉,但 是习惯了,忘了。”习惯成自然,汉语拼音学习之初 养成的坏习惯在以后的学习中必将成为学习的障碍。 这也是为什么强调,从一开始就应该让学生全面、正 确了解汉语拼音方案的原因所在。 复韵母声调的标注会出现一些错误。知道声调 应标注在元音上,但具体标在哪个元音上则概念模 糊。基本上是认准a、o、e、i, 有这些元音就标在 上边,对音节liu、hui的声调标注则因人而异,有的 选择都标在u 上,也有的选择都标在i 上, 甚至在 不确定情况下,也有标在两个字母之间,以求蒙混过 关。教师介绍汉语拼音声调的同时,应该强调标调口 诀的重要性,要求学生在理解的基础上熟记口诀“a 母出现莫放过,没有a母找e、o。iu、ui两韵标在 后,“i”上标调把点抹。”标调口诀便于帮助了解 标调规则,好记易懂。拼音书写中严格要求必须按规 则标注调号,绝对不能放松要求。 分词连写错误 汉语可以用汉字来书写,也可以用汉语拼音来 书写。用汉语拼音来书写汉语,最理想的形式是以 词为单位。汉语拼音按词分写的一套规则,正式的名 称叫做“汉语拼音正词法”。“正词法”包括许多内 容。但是,怎样按词分写是最主要的内容。具体地 说,词本身要连写在一起,词与词之间要留出空格, 即词与词要分写。这种书写形式现在叫做“分词连 写”。《汉语拼音方案》不是拼音文字的方案。它主 要用于汉字注音、拼写普通话,以及中文信息处理等 各方面。由于语言的最小单位是词,所以用汉语拼音 来书写汉语时,除了给单个汉字注音的情况外,在大 多数场合最理想的办法是以词为书写单位(商务印书 馆辞书研究中心:2002,3)。汉语的语言单位是词而 不是字。一个学习汉字的人,要经过相当的阅读训 练,才能在大脑中形成“自动切分词语的机制”,也 才能顺畅地进行阅读。印尼学生在拼音书写中,另外 一个普遍存在的问题是没有分词连写。学生习惯于按 字书写,虽然从某种意义上讲按字写拼音会更加清 晰。但这不利于对汉语词汇的掌握,毕竟语言的最小 单位是词而不是字。这也不利于学生对词义的掌握, 甚至会影响阅读能力的提高。 结语 拼音学习是汉语学习的基础,打好拼音基础无 疑对汉语学习有十分重要的辅助作用。从低年级做 起,从基础做起,让学生能够全面正确地理解和掌握 汉语拼音方案。接触汉语之初,专门对汉语拼音进行 详细介绍;明确字母与语音之间的关系并非一一对 应,一成不变;严格要求掌握标调规则,杜绝只写声 韵母不标声调的行为;养成分词连写的习惯。这不但 可以提高以后汉语学习的效率,更重要的是正确掌握 汉语拼音这一工具,避免产生不必要的错误。 参考文献 曹文.( 2002).汉语语音教程. 北京:北京语言文化大 学出版社 黄伯荣,廖序东. (2007). 现代汉语(增订四版) 上、下册.北京:高等教育出版社 商务印书馆辞书研究中心. (2002).新华拼写词典.北 京:商务印书馆 赵元任.( 1980).语言问题.北京:商务印书馆 蒋以亮.(1998).语流教学初探.语言教学与研究,第4 期 林奕高,王功平.(2005).印尼留学生习得汉语塞音和 塞擦音实验研究.语言教学与研究,第4期 王理嘉. (2005).《汉语拼音方案》与世界汉语语音 教学.世界汉语教学,第2期 microsoft word 03_anastasia_setting prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 129 prinsip dasar budha zen dalam chanoyu anastasia merry christiani widya putri1; ratna handayani2 1,2 japanese department, faculty of letters, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 ratnahandayani@binus.edu abstract one of the japanese traditional cultures that had been well known since the 16th century was chanoyu, the tea ceremony presented for the guests and carried out in chasitsu. tea was introduced in japan in the 16th century by bhiksu zen. formerly, the tea was used for a light stimulation for meditation, drug ingredients, media for buddha zen dissemination, dan developing chanoyu spiritual basic. one of the tea ceremony masters, sen no rikyu, used four basic principles in chanoyu, those were harmony (wa), respect (kei), purity (sei), silence (jaku). article elaborated the four basic principles of buddha zen in tea ceremony applied in urasenke chanoyu. library research and descriptive analysis were applied in this research. the research results indicate that there are wa-keisei-jaku principles and wabi sabi concepts in the japanese tea ceremony. keywords: tea ceremony, chanoyu, buddha zen abstrak salah satu kebudayaan tradisional jepang yang cukup terkenal dan masih ada hingga saat ini sejak abad ke-16 adalah chanoyu (upacara minum teh), yakni upacara minum teh yang disajikan untuk tamu dan dilaksanakan di chasitsu. teh mulai diperkenalkan ke negara jepang sekitar abad ke16 oleh biksu zen. awalnya teh hanya digunakan sebagai suatu sarana stimulasi ringan untuk menolong mereka dalam bermeditasi,sebagai ramuan obat, sebagai alat untuk menyebarkan agama buddha zen, dan meletakkan dasar spiritual bagi chanoyu. sen no rikyu, salah seorang master upacara ini selalu menggunakan empat prinsip dasar dalam chanoyu, yakni keharmonisan (wa), penghormatan (kei), kemurnian (sei) dan ketenangan (jaku). artikel menjabarkan empat prinsip dasar dalam unsur budha zen yang terdapat dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke. metode penelitian rnenggunakan metode kepustakaan dan deskriptif analisis, yaitu mendeskripsikan data yang diperoleh kemudian menganalisisnya. hasil penelitian ini adalah bahwa di dalam setiap rangkaian upacara minum teh atau chanoyu terdapat unsur zen yaitu unsur wa-kei-sei-jaku dan konsep wabi sabi. kata kunci: chanoyu, chashitsu , zen 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 129-139 pendahuluan salah satu kebudayaan jepang yang menjadi tradisi dalam masyarakat jepang hingga saat ini adalah chanoyu (tradisi upacara minum teh. kebudayaan menurut suparlan dalam madubrangti (2008:15) adalah pedoman menyeluruh bagi kehidupan sebuah masyarakat yang memiliki kebudayaan tersebut. setiap orang sebagai anggota masyarakat adalah pendukung kebudayaan yang menggunakan model-model tatanan sosial masyarakat secara selektif, yang mereka rasakan paling cocok atau terbaik untuk dijadikan acuan bagi interpretasi yang penuh makna untuk mewujudkan tindakan-tindakan dalam menghadapi lingkungannya dan memanfaatkan berbagai sumber daya yang terkandung di dalamnya. tindakan-tindakan dilakukan sesuai dengan dan berada dalam batas-batas pranata sosial yang cocok. chanoyu (茶の湯) atau upacara minum teh adalah ritual tradisional jepang dalam menyajikan teh untuk tamu. turner dalam madubrangti (2008:29) mengungkapkan yang dimaksud dengan ritual, ritual merupakan kewajiban yang harus dilalui seseorang dengan melakukan serangkaian kegiatan, yang menunjukkan suatu proses dengan tata cara tertentu untuk masuk ke dalam kondisi atau kehidupan yang belum pernah dialaminya. penjelasan singkat chanoyu chanoyu dilihat dari karakter huruf kanjinya terdiri dari huruf-huruf sebagai berikut cha (茶) artinya teh, no (の) sebagai partikel penghubung, dan yu(湯) air hangat atau air panas. arti kata chanoyu secara harafiah adalah “air panas untuk teh”. chanoyu mempunyai nama lain yakni chado (茶道) yang berarti “cara pembuatan teh”, namun kemudian berkembang lebih luas menjadi upacara minum teh dalam tradisi jepang. teh bukan hanya dituang dengan air panas dan diminum, tapi sebagai seni dalam arti luas. upacara ini sebenarnya merupakan suatu metode yang mempunyai struktur sangat rumit dalam menyiapkan minuman yang terbuat dari serbuk teh, untuk disajikan kepada sekelompok tamu yang dihormati. upacara minum teh jepang ini menyangkut unsur-unsur lain dari kesenian seperti kesenian keramik dalam penggunaan perabot minum dan makan, juga seni menata taman dan seni arsitektur yang berfungsi dalam penataan tempat upacara tersebut. upacara minum teh mencerminkan kepribadian dan pengetahuan tuan rumah yang mencakup antara lain tujuan hidup, cara berpikir, agama, apresiasi peralatan upacara minum teh dan cara meletakkan benda seni di dalam ruangan upacara minum teh (chashitsu) dan berbagai pengetahuan seni secara umum yang bergantung pada aliran upacara minum teh yang dianut (plutschow:1986). menurut tradisi jepang, maka chanoyu biasanya diadakan pada sebuah ruang tertentu yang disebut chashitsu artinya “ruang teh”. terdapat dua jenis chashitsu, yaitu sebuah bangunan tersendiri yang terdiri dari beberapa ruang atau ruangan yang berada dalam suatu bangunan namun dikhususkan untuk upacara minum teh. rumah teh biasanya berupa bangunan sederhana yang kecil dan terbuat dari kayu. letaknya di area yang terpisah pada bagian yang tenang, namun pada masa kini biasanya terdapat di kebun atau taman. sedangkan ruang teh biasanya berupa ruangan kecil di dalam rumah, kuil, biara, sekolah atau bangunan lain. di rumah jepang, ruangan dengan lantai tatami bisa digunakan sebagai ruangan teh, ataupun juga dapat digunakan untuk fungsi yang lain. dalam upacara ini, teh disiapkan oleh seorang ahli khusus dan disajikan untuk sekelompok kecil orang, dengan tata cara tertentu. untuk bisa menjadi ahli chanoyu, dibutuhkan pengetahuan mendalam tentang tipe teh, kimono, kaligrafi jepang, ikebana dan berbagai pengetahuan tradisional lain. itulah sebabnya tidak sembarangan orang bisa menjadi ahli chanoyu, bahkan mungkin dibutuhkan proses belajar puluhan tahun. bagi orang-orang yang ingin ikut ambil bagian dalam chanoyu pun diwajibkan memiliki pengetahuan etika yang berlaku dalam upacara ini. hal ini tak mengherankan, karena chanoyu telah menjadi salah satu bagian paling penting dari tradisi jepang. prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 131 ketika berada dalam ritual chanoyu peserta diharapkan untuk jauh dari keduniawian, baik permasalahan dalam dunia politik, negara, dan kehidupan sehari-hari tujuannya untuk dapat masuk ke dalam dunia spiritual teh (tanaka:1998). peserta yang menjalani ritual berada dalam liminalitas. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh turner dalam madubrangti (2008:29) mengenai liminalitas dalam ritual yaitu, seseorang atau kelompok yang menjalani ritual berada dalam liminalitas (sistem dalam proses ritual yang penyelenggaraannya bersifat terbuka, dan berada dalam struktur yang terorganisasi secara teratur), yaitu masa seseorang atau kelompok menjalani suatu rangkaian kegiatan yang diperlukan dalam kehidupannya. rangkaian kegiatan ini dilakukan di suatu lingkungan yang bersifat umum dan terbuka sebagai sebuah peristiwa. pada saat itu seseorang atau kelompok wajib menjalani ritual. mereka diatur oleh aturan-aturan, tradisi, kaidah-kaidah, dan upacara yang berlaku selama peristiwa itu berlangsung. sejarah singkat budha zen teh pertama kali diperkenalkan di jepang melalui ajaran buddha yang berasal dari cina pada abad ke-6, namun sebelum tahun 1191 teh belum benar-benar memiliki arti bagi masyarakat dan teh mulai berkembang pada zaman kamakura (1185-1333) yang diperkenalkan oleh eisai (1141-1215), seorang biksu zen yang baru kembali dari cina. eisai seorang pendiri zen aliran rinzai dengan membawa benih-benih teh dan menanamnya di kuil-kuil zen, sehingga eisai dikenal sebagai “bapak penanam teh di jepang” (suzuki, 1973 : 272). dengan menanam benih-benih teh di kuil-kuil jepang khususnya kuil zen secara tidak langsung sebagai suatu cara agar para biksu dapat lebih berkonsentrasi pada saat melakukan meditasi. karena chanoyu sangat dipengaruhi oleh budha zen itulah sebabnya di dalam chanoyu setiap peserta diharapkan mengalami ketenangan, di dalam ajaran zen seseorang dapat mencapai pencerahan melalui meditasi dan disiplin, serta mengajarkan tentang hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan hubungan antara sesama manusia. eisai memperkenalkan teh dalam bentuk bubuk matcha (teh hijau bubuk dengan kualitas tinggi yang biasanya digunakan untuk upacara minum teh) yang dibawanya dari tiongkok sebagai obat. teh dan ajaran zen menjadi populer sebagai unsur utama dalam penerangan spiritual. menurut tradisi, bodhidharma, yang meninggalkan india untuk memperkenalkan buddhisme zen di cina pada tahun 520, menganjurkan agar teh dipergunakan untuk menambah kesiapan selama meditasi. di klenteng-klenteng buddha selama dinasti t’ang (618-907), diselenggarakan sebuah ritual dengan mempergunakan teh dalam bentuk batu bata. teh berbentuk bata ini digiling sampai menjadi serbuk, lalu dicampur air panas di dalam ketel, dan kemudian dituangkan ke mangkuk-mangkuk keramik. buddhisme masuk ke jepang kira-kira pada pertengahan abad keenam, yakni selama periode nara (710-794). pengenalan kebudayaan cina ke jepang mencakup juga pengenalan minuman teh yang dikaitkan dengan meditasi agama buddha. (danandjaja, 1997 : 279). zen adalah salah satu aliran buddha mahayana. kata zen (禅) berasal dari bahasa jepang, sedangkan bahasa sansekerta adalah dhyana. di tiongkok dikenal sebagai chan yang berarti meditasi. aliran zen memberikan fokus pada meditasi untuk mencapai penerangan atau kesempurnaan. dari abad ke-12 dan abad ke-13, perkembangan lebih lanjut dari aliran zen adalah seni zen, mengikuti perkenalan aliran ini oleh dogen dan eisai setelah mereka pulang dari tiongkok. seni zen sebagian besar memiliki ciri khas lukisan asli (sumi-e dan enso) dan puisi (haiku). tata upacara teh yang dilakukan oleh para biksu zen adalah mereka berkumpul di depan gambar dari pendiri zen yang pertama yaitu boddhidharma dan mereka secara bergantian meminum teh dari mangkuk yang sama. pada akhir abad ke – 15 kebiasaan untuk menghidangkan teh dipelajari dengan seksama oleh biksu murata shuko (1423-1502), seorang pengikut biksu zen terkenal, yang telah mengetahui banyak tentang tata–krama minum teh sebagaimana yang dilakukan dalam istana para “shogun”. berbeda dengan kebiasaan pada saat itu, yang selalu menggunakan ruangan-ruangan besar dan peralatan dari cina yang mewah, ia lebih senang untuk menghidangkan teh salam ruangan 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 129-139 yang kecil dengan peralatan produksi lokal dan dalam jumlah yang terbatas. dengan cara itu murata shuko merasakan bahwa menghidangkan teh bukan hanya sekedar upacara, dan ia pun menyajikan teh dengan cara yang lebih berdasarkan pada nilai estetika. kemudian pada abad ke – 16 seorang pedagang bernama takeno joo mengembangkan konsep tentang tata-krama minum teh yang sama sekali baru, yaitu wabi. terjemahan langsung dari wabi adalah “cara pedesaan”. namun yang dimaksudkannya dalam hal ini adalah wabi dalam hubungan dengan keadaan bathin, sehingga lebih tepat bila diterjemahkan sebagai “kesederhanaan atau kerendahan hati”. cara minum teh dengan penuh kesederhanaan tanpa kemegahan dikembangkan lebih lanjut oleh pengikut takeno joo, dia adalah guru teh “sen no rikyu” (1522-1591). abad ke-16 tradisi minum teh telah menyebar ke seluruh golongan masyarakat di jepang. figur yang paling dikenal dalam dunia chanoyu saat itu adalah sen no rikyu (1522-1591), yang mengajarkan konsep ichi-goichi-e (satu kehidupan satu kesempatan), bahwa setiap pertemuan chanoyu harus dianggap berharga, karena hal itu tak dapat diulang lagi. beliau menyempurnakan tehnik penyajian dalam teh. rikyu mempertunjukkan hal yang berbeda, yakni dengan menunjukkan urutan ketika tamu atau peserta minum teh tiba di tempat penyelenggaraan, hingga tata cara membuat teh beserta aturan-aturannya. tata cara tersebut masih berlaku hingga saat ini. berdasarkan konsep pemikiran zen, rikyu membuat empat prinsip dasar dalam chanoyu yaitu wa (和) yaitu keharmonisan, kei (敬) yaitu rasa hormat, sei (精) yaitu kemurnian, dan jaku (寂) yaitu ketenangan (sadler, 1962 : 102). keempat konsep tersebut membentuk standar hidup bagi orang yang melakukan chanoyu dan menjadi simbol saat melakukan berbagai tahapan dalam upacara teh. gaya rikyu kemudian diteruskan oleh putranya yang bernama sōan (1578-1658), yang terkenal karena kesederhanaanya dan kepekaannya. putra-putra sōan kemudian mendirikan alirannya sendiri-sendiri. mereka adalah urasenke, omotesenke, dan mushanokojisenkei. urasenke merupakan wakil dari seni upacara teh rakyat jelata, dan omotesenke merupakan wakil dari seni upacara teh dari kalangan bangsawan. lebih dari empat ratus tahun telah berlalu sejak sen rikyu hidup di kyoto, namun kota tersebut masih kaya akan peninggalannya. sekitar lima belas menit dengan berjalan kaki dari kyoto imperial palace, dapat ditemui bangunan kampus urasenke yang terdiri dari ruangan teh yang tertata rapi, termasuk tempat tinggal sen shoshitsu, beliau merupakan keturunan ke lima belas dari sen rikyu, yang sekarang merupakan maha guru-teh di sekolah teh urasenke. pembahasan beberapa konsep dan teori yang digunakan dalam menganalisis chanoyu aliran urasenke: konsep buddha zen zen adalah salah satu aliran dalam agama buddha mahayana. secara harafiah zen berarti meditasi, yang berasal dari bahasa cina yaitu chan dan dalam bahasa sansekerta adalah dhyana. kata zen(禅 )berasal dari bahasa jepang. aliran ini menekankan praktek meditasi (zazen) sebagai sarana untuk mencapai pencerahan (satori). menurut shoshitsu (1988 : 96) menjelaskan tentang zen, mengatakan: 「禅」というのは、サンスクリットのジャーナから由来する名称である。ジャーナは 瞑想を意味する。専一に瞑想することによって至上の自己了解に到達することができ る、というのが禅の主張するところである。瞑想は仏の悟りに入るための六つの道の なかの一つである。 prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 133 arti: zen adalah sebuah nama yang berasal dari bahasa sansekerta yaitu dhyana. dhyana berarti meditasi. zen menuntut untuk dapat mencapai tingkat memahami diri sendiri serta mempertahankan zen itu sendiri dengan meditasi. meditasi merupakan salah satu dari enam jalan menuju pencerahan sang buddha berdasarkan sejarah, meditasi sebagai salah satu ciri dari ajaran buddha zen yang diperkenalkan ke cina oleh biksu india yang bernama bodhidharma (532 m). huineng (638-713) generasi ke-6 dari aliran chan yang mengalami perubahan dari dinasti tang berfikir bahwa ia adalah pendiri buddha zen yang sebenarnya. walaupun pendeta buddha zen cina datang ke jepang dan berusaha untuk menyebarkan tradisi chan, tetapi itu tidak berkembang dalam aliran agama buddha jepang sampai pada saat eisai dan dogen memperkenalkannya. ajaran zen banyak mempengaruhi seni kebudayaan jepang. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat shiratori (2007 : 195) yang mengungkapkan : 元々は中国からの輸入ではあるが、道元と栄西がそれを日本的な禅宗にし、結局は茶 道・華道・能など禅的な文化をつくることになったのである。 arti: awalnya zen berasal dari cina, namun oleh dogen dan eisai diubah menjadi agama buddha zen jepang sehingga pada akhirnya chado, kado dan noh menjadi kebudayaan zen. di dalam zen, meditasi atau bertapa merupakan pokok ajaran agama ini. mereka berpendapat bahwa pengikutnya dapat mencapai keringanan melalui meditasi zen dan chanoyu menjadi pendukung pemahaman dan kedisiplinan yang merupakan bagian dari meditasi zen. seperti pendapat tanaka (1998 : 15): the tea ceremony borrowed much from zen religion because the first tea masters were priests, who, since the fourteenth century, had exerted a marked influence on japanese culture and social customs. they taught their followers that enlightenment can only be reached through zen meditation, and the tea ceremony became a means of disciplining the mind. thus the saying “tea and zen are inseparable” was born. arti: upacara minum teh banyak meminjam dari agama zen karena ahli teh pertama adalah pendeta zen, yang sejak abad ke-20, telah menggunakan pengaruh yang ditandai dalam kebudayaan jepang dan adat istiadat kemasyarakatan. mereka mengajarkan pengikut-pengikutnya bahwa pencerahan hanya dapat dicapai melalui meditasi zen, dan upacara minum teh menjadi sebuah cara mendisiplinkan pikiran. jadi telah lahir sebuah kalimat yang mengatakan “teh dan zen tidak dapat dipisahkan.” pengekspresian zen dalam kehidupan orang jepang dapat terlihat dalam ikebana, arsitektur ruangan teh, lukisan dan chanoyu. kesemuanya menampilkan kekosongan, kesederhanaan, keharmonisan, dan keseimbangan. seni teh memiliki hubungan yang erat dengan zen, seperti yang dikatakan oleh suzuki (1991 : 273) di bawah ini: we can see now that the art of tea is most intimately connected with zen not only in its practical development but principally in the observance of the spirit that runs through the ceremony itself. the spirit in terms of feeling consists of “harmony” (wa), “reverence” (kei), “purity” (sei), and “tranquility” (jaku). 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 129-139 arti: dapat kita lihat sekarang bahwa seni teh memiliki banyak hubungan yang erat sekali dengan zen, tidak hanya di dalam perkembangan yang praktis tetapi terutama di dalam semangat ibadat yang melalui upacara itu sendiri. semangat itu sendiri berisikan perasaan yang terdiri dari keselarasan (wa), rasa hormat (kei), kemurnian (sei), dan ketenangan (jaku). konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku sebagai unsur dalam budha zen berdasarkan konsep pemikiran dalam zen, sen no rikyu (1522-1591) membuat empat konsep dasar chanoyu yaitu keharmonisan (wa), rasa hormat (kei), kemurnian (sei), dan ketenangan (jaku). prinsip-prinsip itu merupakan usaha keras dari para pelaksana upacara teh untuk menggabungkan ke dalam kehidupan sehari-hari kehidupan mereka. prinsip-prinsip ini merupakan sebuah cerminan dari sebuah roh dan jiwa yang bersih dari sen no rikyu. berikut empat prinsip yang mendasari semua aturan-aturan dari upacara teh dan mewakili di saat yang sama dalam teladan tertinggi (shoshitsu, 1997: 13). shoshitsu (1997: 13) menjelaskan tentang wa-kei-sei-jaku sebagai berikut, wa (keharmonisan) adalah hasil dari hubungan interaksi antara tuan rumah dan tamu, makanan yang disajikan dan peralatan yang digunakan mengikuti irama dari alam. hal tersebut menggambarkan baik ketiadaan semua hal maupun ketetapan pada suatu perubahan tuan rumah berinteraksi dengan para tamu, keduanya saling memikirkan satu sama lain sebagaimana jika berada dalam posisi sebaliknya. wa berarti keserasian atau keharmonisan, keserasian di antara sesama manusia, antara manusia dengan alam dan keserasian peralatana minum teh dengan cara penggunaanya. kei (rasa hormat) adalah kesungguhan hati yang melepaskan kita untuk membuka hubungan dengan lingkungan yang paling dekat, yakni sesama manusia dan alam, yang saling menghargai dengan sikap sopan santun satu sama lain. sei (kemurnian), melalui tindakan yang sederhana dalam pembersihan adalah bagian yang terpenting dari upacara minum teh, baik dalam persiapan sebelumnya, menyajikan teh yang sesungguhnya dan setelah para tamu pergi, membereskan kembali peralatan teh, serta pada saat penutupan akhir dari ruang teh. tindakan seperti membersihkan debu pada ruangan dan membersihkan daun-daun yang berguguran dari jalan setapak pada taman dan semuanya merupakan tindakan pembersihan “debu keduniawian” atau penambahan secara lisan, dari hati dan pikiran menjadi satu. hal lain juga diungkapkan oleh suzuki (1991 : 281) mengenai sei (kemurnian) sebagai berikut: “purity”, estimated as constituting the spirit of the art of tea, may be said to be contribution of japanese mentality. purity is cleanliness or sometimes orderliness, which is observable in everything everywhere concerned with the art. fresh water is liberally used in the garden (roji), in case natural running water is not available, there is a stone basin filled with water as one approaches the tearoom, which is naturally kept clean and free from dust and dirt. arti : “kemurnian”, dinilai sebagai perolehan jiwa dari seni minum teh, yang mungkin bisa dikatakan untuk dapat memberikan kontribusi dari mentalitas orang jepang. kemurnian adalah kebersihan atau terkadang sesuatu yang rapi di mana hal tersebut nampak pada segala sesuatu dan segala tempat yang memberikan suatu karya seni. air segar biasanya digunakan dalam taman (roji), dalam hal ini jika tidak ada air mengalir di taman, maka biasanya tersdapat penampung air dari batu yang terisi air yang terhubung ke ruang perjamuan teh, untuk menjaga kebersihan dari debu dan kotoran. prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 135 jaku (ketenangan) menurut shoshitsu (1997 : 14), bahwa ketenangan adalah sebagai konsep estetika khusus dalam upacara teh, dengan melaksanakan ke-tiga prinsip utama yaitu keharmonian, rasa hormat, dan kemurnian di dalam kehidupan kita sehari-hari secara terus menerus, seseorang dapat mewujudkan ketenangan. hubungan “ketenangan” sebagai elemen yang keempat membangkitkan jiwa atau semangat dalam seni teh, dalam karakter cina chi atau jaku dalam bahasa jepang. jaku adalah sabi. akan tetapi sabi mengandung makna lebih dari sekedar “ketenangan”. dapat dikatakan bahwa makna sabi yang sesungguhnya adalah “ketenangan”, “kedamaian”, “ketentraman” dan jaku lebih sering digunakan dalam kesusasteraan agama buddha yang merupakan “kematian” atau “nirwana”. dalam hubungan yang dipergunakan pada seni teh, jaku berbarti “kemiskinan”, “kesederhanaan”, dan “kesendirian”. hal ini berarti sabi memiliki makna yang sama dengan wabi. wabi dan sabi berasal dari zen yang menonjolkan kesederhanaan yang mengungkapkan kerendahan hati (suzuki, 1991 : 284). konsep wabi – sabi salah satu unsur dalam budha zen wabi adalah sebuah estetika dan asas moral yang mendukung kenikmatan dari sebuah ketenangan, hidup santai dari keprihatinan duniawi. dimulai dengan pertapaan yang menekankan pada kesederhanaan, keindahan tipe yang keras dan sebuah ketenangan di mana keadaan mental yang sulit dipahami. wabi juga mempunyai pengertian yang sama dengan sabi. persamaan lain dari kata yang berasal dari pikiran susah dan kehidupan miskin ini adalah wabi, dan kata ini banyak terdapat dalam waka, renga, haiku, noraku, dan chanoyu. secara bahasa kata wabi adalah kesepian atau keterasingan, dan dia mewakili kesederhanaan dan ketenangan. tujuan wabi sebenarnya bukan untuk menguasai cara teh namun lebih kepada menciptakan sebuah harmoni baru yang dipraktekkan ke semua unsur teh dengan mengutamakan rasa kesederhanaan (varley & kumakura, 1994 : 60). menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku dan konsep wabi-sabi dalam tatakrama chanoyu . berikut ini analasis terdapatnya konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku dan wabi sabi dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke. analisis konsep wa dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke terdapatnya konsep wa dari konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke ini adalah persiapan yang dilakukan teishu sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu, yaitu ketika teishu membersihkan roji dan chashitsu dan pelaksanaan chanoyu di dalam chahsitsu, yaitu ketika teishu menyajikan chakaiseki untuk para tamu yang disesuaikan dengan musim. lalu, ketika teishu mempersiapkan peralatan teh yang akan digunakan dengan menyelaraskan tema yang disesuaikan dengan warna peralatan dan suasana hati. menurut analisis kami konsep wa di atas sesuai dengan yang diungkapkan oleh shoshitsu (1997:13), wa (keharmonisan) adalah hasil dari hubungan interaksi antara tuan rumah dan tamu, makanan yang disajikan dan peralatan yang digunakan mengikuti irama dari alam. hal tersebut menggambarkan baik ketiadaan semua hal maupun ketetapan pada suatu perubahan tuan rumah berinteraksi dengan para tamu, keduanya saling memikirkan satu sama lain sebagaimana jika berada dalam posisi sebaliknya. wa berarti keserasian atau keharmonisan, keserasian di antara sesama manusia, antara manusia dengan alam dan keserasian peralatana minum teh dengan cara penggunaanya. 136 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 129-139 teori shoshitsu juga didukung oleh pettigrew (2007), yang mengatakan, bahwa wa melambangkan keharmonisan. seperti keharmonisan pada alam, teishu akan berusaha membawa keharmonisan ini ke dalam chashitsu (ruangan teh) dan taman di sekitar sukiya (rumah teh). analisis konsep kei dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke persiapan yang dilakukan teishu sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu, yaitu membersihkan debu dari peralatan teh serta membersihkan roji, di mana teishu memiliki rasa hormat kepada peralatan yang digunakan dan hormat kepada alam. setelah membersihkan peralatan, langkah selanjutnya adalah persiapan tamu sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu. tamu harus memberikan hormat ketika teishu datang dengan membungkukan badan dan ketika tamu memasuki chashitsu lewat nijiri guchi yang memiliki ukuran sangat rendah dan kecil dengan membungkukkan kepala dan badan mereka. kemudian, pelaksanaan chanoyu di dalam chashitsu, yaitu pada saat tamu mengagumi kakemono yang terdapat pada tokonoma dengan berlutut sambil membungkukan badan mereka, mengamati kama (ketel) dan furo (perapian) yang disebut haiken, saling memberikan salam antara tamu dengan teishu, dan ketika teishu memberikan mangkuk teh kepada tamu dan tamu menerima dengan membungkuk lalu mengangkat mangkuk tersebut dan diputar sambil mengaguminya dan dengan segera meminum teh itu dengan mengeluarkan suara. terakhir, mengakhiri chanoyu, yaitu pada saat tamu akan pulang mereka mengucapkan terima kasih dan membungkukkan badan kepada teishu, kemudian sebelum keluar dari chashitsu tamu berlutut dan membungkukkan badan mereka di depan tokonoma. menurut analisis, konsep kei di atas sesuai dengan pettigrew (2007), yang mengungkapkan bahwa kei, melambangkan rasa hormat. para tamu harus menghormati segala sesuatu, segala hal tanpa melibatkan status atau posisi mereka dalam kehidupan. mereka harus merangkak melalui pintu masuk kecil yang dinamakan nijiri guchi untuk dapat masuk ke dalam ruangan. kei adalah bagian dari konsep zen yang memiliki peran penting di dalam chanoyu. kei menurut shoshitsu (1997: 13) adalah kesungguhan hati di mana melepaskan kita untuk membuka hubungan dengan lingkungan yang paling dekat, sesama manusia dan alam. di mana saling menghargai dengan sikap sopan santun satu sama lain. rasa hormat menuntut struktur sosial dalam upacara teh, untuk saling menghormati satu sama lain di antara peserta, terutama melalui dasar etiket minum teh. analisis konsep sei dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke adalah persiapan yang dilakukan teishu sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu, yaitu ketika teishu membersihkan roji dari kotoran dan daun-daun berguguran, dan membersihkan tangan dan mulut dengan air segar pada tsukubai; persiapan tamu sebelum melaksanakan aktivitas dalam chashitsu, yaitu ketika tamu diperciki air oleh hanto, membersihkan tangan dan mulut dengan air yang ada di tsukubai; pelaksanaan chanoyu di dalam chashitsu, yaitu ketika tamu masuk ke dalam chashitsu dengan melewati nijiriguchi dengan merangkak dan membungkuk, teishu membersihkan kembali ruangan chashitsu, tamu membersihkan tangna dan mulut mereka sekali lagi sebelum masuk ke dalam chashitsu, teishu membersihkan peralatana teh dengan air sebelum digunakan , dan pada saat tamu membersihkan pinggiran teh bekas dia minum; pada saat mengakhiri chanoyu, yaitu pada saat teishu membersihkan peralatan teh. menurut analisis, konsep sei di atas sesuai dengan shoshitsu (1997:13), yang mengatakan bahwa, sei (kemurnian), melalui tindakan yang sederhana dalam pembersihan adalah bagian yang terpenting dari upacara minum teh, baik dalam persiapan sebelumnya, menyajikan teh yang prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 137 sesungguhnya dan setelah para tamu pergi, membereskan kembali peralatan teh, serta pada saat penutupan akhir dari ruang teh. tindakan seperti membersihkan debu pada ruangan dan membersihkan daun-daun yang berguguran dari jalan setapak pada taman dan semuanya merupakan tindakan pembersihan “debu keduniawian” atau penambahan secara lisan, dari hati dan pikiran menjadi satu. hal lain juga didukung oleh pettigrew & richardson (2008) mengenai sei yaitu melambangkan kesucian. merangkak ke dalam ruang teh, berarti bahwa seseorang meninggalkan segala pikiran dan kegelisahan dari kehidupan sehari-hari. ruang teh merupakan dunia yang berbeda di mana seseorang dapat menghayati kembali, secara perlahan dan menikmati kehadiran teman-teman. analisis konsep jaku dalam chanoyu aliran urasenke analisis terdiri dari persiapan tamu sebelum melaksanakan aktivitas dalam chanoyu, yaitu ketika tamu melewati roji dengan langkah yang tenang, dan pelaksanaan chanoyu di dalam chashitsu, yaitu ketika teishu mempersiapkan chakaiseki dengan tenang, tamu bersikap tenang di dalam chashitsu. menurut analisis kami konsep jaku di atas sesuai dengan yang diungkapkan oleh shoshitsu (1997: 14), bahwa ketenangan adalah sebagai konsep estetika khusus dalam upacara teh, dengan melaksanakan ke-tiga prinsip utama yaitu keharmonian, rasa hormat, dan kemurnian di dalam kehidupan kita sehari-hari secara terus menerus, seseorang dapat mewujudkan ketenangan. konsep jaku yang diungkapkan oleh shoshitsu juga didukung oleh pendapat pettigrew & richardson (2007) mengenai jaku yaitu melambangkan ketenangan. hanya setelah tiga konsep pertama (keharmonisan, rasa hormat dan kemurnian), ditemukan, dialami dan dicakupi seseorang akhirnya dapat mewujudkan ketenangan. analisis konsep wabi-sabidalam chanoyu aliran urasenke pelaksanaan chanoyu di dalam chashitsu, yaitu ketika tamu berada di dalam chashitsu mereka melepas dan tidak memikirkan hal duniawi untuk bisa merasakan ketenangan, dan ketika teishu menggunakan peralatan teh yang digunakan sangat sederhana. menurut analisis kami konsep wabi sabi di atas seperti yang diungkapkan suzuki (1991: 284), bahwa hubungan “ketenangan” sebagai elemen yang keempat membangkitkan jiwa atau semangat dalam seni teh, yang dalam karakter cina adalah chi atau jaku dalam bahasa jepang. jaku adalah sabi. akan tetapi sabi mengandung makna lebih dari sekedar “ketenangan”. dapat dikatakan bahwa makna sabi yang sesungguhnya adalah “ketenangan”, “kedamaian”, “ketentraman” dan jaku lebih sering digunakan dalam kesusasteraan agama buddha yang merupakan “kematian” atau “nirwana”. dalam hubungan yang dipergunakan pada seni teh, jaku berbarti “kemiskinan”, “kesederhanaan”, dan “kesendirian”. hal ini berarti sabi memiliki makna yang sama dengan wabi. wabi dan sabi berasal dari zen yang menonjolkan kesederhanaan yang mengungkapkan kerendahan hati. pendapat lain diungkapkan oleh varley & kumakura (1989) tentang sabi adalah kata sabi berasal dari kata sabu sebagai kata kerja, sabishii sebagai kata sifat yang berarti sepi dan tenang, dan arti dalam kehidupan manusia ialah ketenangan yang ingin dicapai oleh orang-orang yang sudah meninggalkan kehidupan dan hal-hal keduniawian. dasar pemikiran sabi adalah ketenangan dan kesepian yang diungkapkan dalam bidang kesenian. sabi banyak diungkapkan dan berkembang di dalam waka, renga, noh, haiku dan chanoyu. dalam perkembanganya wabi sabi dipakai secara bersama-sama dan saling berkaitan. 138 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 129-139 hal lain juga didukung oleh abercrombie (2001: 125), yang mengatakan bahwa, “wabi”, adalah prinsip kesunyian, pengendalian, kesegaran, dan sesuatu yang baru, dan “sabi” sebagai pelengkap prinsip dari kecantikan yang ditemukan pada sesuatu yang sudah berusia dan agung. keduanya dapat mencapai keseimbangan harmonisasi di dalam lingkungan kita yang dapat kita lihat pada alam. penutup berdasarkan konsep pemikiran zen, sen no rikyu (1522-1591) seorang ahli teh yang sangat terkenal, membuat empat prinsip dasar dalam chanoyu yaitu wa (keharmonisan), kei (rasa hormat), sei (kemurnian), dan jaku (ketenangan). keempat konsep tersebut membentuk standar hidup bagi orang yang melakukan chanoyu dan menjadi simbol saat melakukan berbagai tahapan dalam upacara teh. maksud dari keempat prinsip dasar chanoyu yaitu “wa” berarti keserasian, keserasian di antara sesama manusia, antara manusia dengan alam dan keserasian peralatan minum teh dan cara penggunaannya. “kei” berarti rasa hormat. rasa hormat atas segala sesuatunya yang mana berasal dari rasa syukur yang tulus. “sei” berarti kemurnian, serta menyiratkan baik kebersihan keduniawian maupun kebersihan jiwa. “jaku” berarti ketenangan atau ketenangan pikiran yang datang dari pemahaman atas ketiga prinsip sebelumnya. semua prinsip di atas sangat mempengaruhi dalam tata-krama pada chanoyu, bagaimana urutan-urutan tata-krama memiliki hubungan yang erat dengan prinsip wa-keisei-jaku dan prinsip wabi sabi yang terdapat dalam tahap persiapan sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu, tahap pelaksanaan chanoyu, dan tahap penyelesaian dalam melaksanakan chanoyu. keseluruhan tahap-tahap dalam chanoyu terdapat konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku dan konsep wabi sabi yang merupakan bagian dari konsep zen. menurut analisis kami bahwa di dalam chanoyu khususnya aliran urasenke terdapat unsur-unsur zen yaitu konsep wa-kei-sei-jaku dan konsep wabi sabi yang terlihat pada tahap persiapan sebelum melaksanakan chanoyu, tahap pelaksanaan chanoyu, dan tahap penyelesaian chanoyu, maka dapat kami simpulkan bahwa rangkaian tata-krama dalam chanoyu memiliki hubungan yang erat dengan konsep zen, yang terlihat dari kegiatan yang dilakukan pada saat menjalani serangkaian tata-krama chanoyu. daftar pustaka abercrombie, s. (2001). “wabi sabi: a new look at japanese design / wabi sabi style”. interior design. new york: jun 2001. vol. 72, iss. 8; p125 danandjaja, james.1997. folklore jepang ( dilihat dari kacamata indonesia). jakarta: pustaka utama grafiti. madubrangti, d. (2008). kebudayaan jepang: perkawinan dan busana pengantin tradisioanal jepang. nikken, jurnal penelitian kejepangan, vol.9, no 1, issn 1411-0733, p3148 pettigrew, j., & richardson, b. (2008), the new tea companion. kentucky: benjamin press. plutschow, h.e. (1986). historical chanoyu. tokyo: the japan times, ltd. sadler, a. l. (1998). cha-no-yu the japanese tea ceremony. tokyo: charles.e.tuttle. company. prinsip dasar budha ….. (anastasia merry christiani widya putri; ratna handayani) 139 shiratori, h. (2007). bukkyō chō nyūmon. tokyo: php kenkyūsho shoshitsu, sen xv. (1988). chanoyu: the urasenke tradition of tea. tokyo: the weather hill, inc. shoshitsu xv, sen. (1997). tea life tea mind. tokyo: john weather hill, lnc. suzuki, d. t. (1991). zen and japanese culture. tokyo: charles.e.tuttle. company tanaka, sen’o. (1998). the tea ceremony. japan: kodansha international and dai nihon chado gakkai varley, p., & kumakura isao. eds. (1989). tea in japan: essays on the history of chanoyu. honolulu: university of hawaii press tindak tutur memohon dalam bahasa jepang (irai): jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 76 tindak tutur memohon dalam bahasa jepang (irai): analisis skenario drama televisi jepang love story karya eriko kitagawa rita susanti japanese department, faculty of literature, nasional university, jl. sawo manila, pejaten pasar minggu, jakarta selatan, uniritas@yahoo.co.jp abstract the aim of this article was to know the social and cultural factors in the speech acts regarding requests in japanese. data were taken from the japanese drama entitled love story. analysis was done qualitatively by identifying, classifying, and explaining. the result indicated that there were three factors influencing the speech acts of requests in japanese, those are the situation; the relationship between the speaker and the hearer; and the third is the social status, social interaction, and age. it is concluded that the speech does not mainly concern that the meaning should be easily understood but it also has to consider the socio cultural factor of the spreaker. keywords: speech act, request, sociocultural abstrak artikel bertujuan mengetahui faktor sosial dan budaya tindak tutur memohon dalam bahasa jepang. data diambil dari skenario drama jepang yang berjudul love story. analisis dilakukan secara kualitatif dengan mengidentifikasi, mengklasifikasi, dan menjelaskan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya tiga faktor yang mempengaruhi tindak tutur memohon dalam bahasa jepang, yaitu situasi; hubungan antara pembicara dan pendengar melalui interkasi masyarakat jepang; dan status sosial, interaksi sosial, dan usia. disimpulkan bahwa tuturan diajarkan tidak hanya agar maknanya dapat dipahami tetapi juga harus memperhatikan faktor sosial budaya pengguna bahasa. kata kunci: tindak tutur, tutur memohon, sosial budaya tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 77 pendahuluan penelitian dilatarbelakangi oleh kenyataan bahwa manusia memerlukan suatu alat untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang lain, yaitu bahasa. harimurti (dalam kushartanti, 2005:3) mengatakan bahwa bahasa adalah suatu sistem lambang bunyi bersifat arbiter yang digunakan oleh para anggota kelompok sosial untuk bekerja sama, berkomunikasi, dan mengidentifikasikan diri. selain menyampaikan informasi, komunikasi juga bertujuan memelihara hubungan sosial diantara penutur dan petutur. bahasa jepang dijadikan objek penelitian karena bahasa jepang bukan sebagai sistem yang berdiri sendiri tetapi ada sistem lain yang melengkapinya, yaitu faktor sosial dan budaya. menurut simatupang (1983:3), penelitian bahasa yang berdiri sendiri tidak akan memberikan gambaran yang lengkap mengenai bahasa karena dalam bahasa juga ada sistem makna dan fungsi yang mengikatnya dengan hal yang berada di luar bahasa, yaitu konteks sosial budaya dan dunia kenyataan. konteks sosial budaya bagi masyarakat jepang berhubungan dengan keberadaan mereka dengan kelompoknya yang terbagi dua, yaitu uchi „dalam‟ dan soto „luar‟. selain itu, mengacu pada perilaku budaya masyarakat jepang itu sendiri. drama televisi menjadi sasaran penelitian karena di dalamnya terdapat banyak percakapan dengan situasi masyarakat jepang saat ini sehingga dapat memberikan gambaran sosial budaya keseharian mereka. fokus penelitian ini adalah tindak tutur memohon bahasa jepang. tindak tutur menurut gunarwan (1991:1) adalah jika kita berbicara atau mengeluarkan ujaran (apakah ujaran tersebut berupa kalimat, frase, atau kata) apa yang keluar dari mulut kita dapat dianggap sebagai tindakan, istilah yang lazim digunakan adalah speech act. memohon adalah meminta dengan rendah hati, sopan, atau hormat. searle (1976:1-20) menjelaskan bahwa memohon termasuk ke dalam tindak direktif, yaitu tindak tutur yang ilokusinya meminta petutur untuk melakukan apa yang ditanyakan di dalam tuturan penutur. penelitian terfokus pada tindak tutur memohon bahasa jepang yang diteliti melalui sebuah skenario drama jepang. di dalam skenario tersebut tergambar cara orang jepang mengungkapan suatu permohonan dalam kehidupan mereka sehari-hari. ancangan pragmatik menjadi salah satu bagian penting penelitian karena faktor eksternal di luar bahasa mempengaruhi cara mengungkapkan tindak tutur memohon tersebut. adapun permasalahan yang akan diteliti, yaitu ragam ungkapan memohon apakah yang dipilih oleh penutur di dalam sumber data serta bagaimana ungkapan tindak tutur memohon tersebut dituturkan oleh masyarakat jepang; faktor kesantunan mana yang menentukan sebuah tuturan memohon bahasa jepang digunakan oleh masyarakat jepang. agar penelitian ini lebih terfokus, penelitian tindak tutur memohon bahasa jepang dibatasi pada ujaran yang mengandung makna memohon di dalam skenario drama televisi jepang yang berjudul love story, ditulis oleh eriko kitagawa pada tahun 2000. sumber data yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah skenario drama televisi love story yang ditulis oleh eriko kitagawa. skenario itu ditulis pada tahun 2000 dalam bentuk novel kemudian karena banyak disukai oleh masyarakat jepang maka pada tahun 2001 dituangkan ke layar televisi menjadi sebuah drama. skenario itu dijadikan sumber data karena kuatnya nuansa budaya jepang serta variatifnya penggunaan tindak tutur memohon, baik dalam kehidupan sehari-hari maupun di lingkungan pekerjaan. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 78 pembahasan tinjauan pustaka tindak tutur memohon pada penelitian ini dapat dikatakan sebagai penelitian sosiopragmatik karena yang diteliti adalah penggunaan bahasa di dalam sebuah masyarakat budaya di dalam situasi tertentu. sosiopragmatik adalah gabungan dari sosiologi dan pragmatik. sosiologi yang dimaksud mengacu kepada sosiolinguistik, digunakan untuk meneliti tentang ungkapan yang digunakan berikut faktor penentu tindak tutur memohon dan pragmatik untuk meneliti struktur bahasa secara eksternal, yaitu tindak tutur tersebut dalam wacana berikut faktor sosial budaya sebagai penentu ungkapan memohon tersebut dituturkan. menurut trosborg (1995:37) bahwa sosiopragmatik mengacu pada analisis pola interaksi di dalam situasi sosial tertentu dan atau sistem sosial tertentu. pada awalnya, penelitian pragmatik adalah suatu bidang yang dianggap tidak penting dalam ilmu linguistik bahkan dianggap sebagai ilmu di luar penelitian linguistik. akan tetapi, setelah kemunculan austin (1962), searle (1969), dan grice (1967) para linguis mulai memasukan pragmatik ke dalam teori tata bahasa, terutama sesudah berkembangnya teori speech act „tindak tutur‟, sosiolinguistik, psikolinguistik, dan ilmu kognitif pada umumnya. hal tersebut terjadi karena mereka sadar bahwa mempelajari bahasa tidak saja dari segi linguistik tetapi juga pengaruh bahasa di masyarakat. leech (1983) dalam bukunya principles of pragmatics mengatakan bahwa pragmatik dapat bermanfaat untuk menjelaskan bagaimana sebuah ungkapan mempunyai makna dalam suatu situasi dengan penekanannya pada analisis kesantunan. pragmatik berbeda dari tata bahasa dalam menentukan dasar tujuan dan penilaian. mey (1993) dalam bukunya pragmatics an introduction mengatakan bahwa pragmatik adalah kajian mengenai kondisi dari penggunaan bahasa yang digunakan oleh manusia yang bergantung pada konteks sosial dengan penekanan penggunaan bahasa tersebut dipengaruhi oleh kebiasaan sosial. keuntungan yang didapat dari mempelajari pragmatik dikemukakan oleh yule (1996:4) dalam bukunya pragmatics, yaitu seseorang dapat mengatakan apa yang orang lain maksudkan, asumsi mereka, tujuan mereka, dan berbagai tindakan (seperti memohon) pada saat berbicara. lalu pragmatik dikatakan berhubungan dengan kajian makna sarana komunikasi penutur (penulis) dan diinterpretasikan oleh petutur (pembaca). oleh karena itu, dapat dikatakan pragmatik adalah kajian tentang makna yang dituturkan, makna konteks, serta bagaimana mendapatkan lebih banyak makna dari yang dituturkan. tindak tutur yang merupakan bagian dari kajian pragmatik, pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh charles morris pada tahun 1938 kemudian dikembangkan oleh austin (1962) dalam bukunya how to do things with words. teori tersebut memperkenalkan konsep pengggunaan bahasa sebagai sebuah tindakan, dalam arti sebuah tuturan berfungsi bukan saja menyampaikan informasi tetapi sebenarnya terdapat tindak „melaksanakan sesuatu‟ dalam sebuah tuturan. austin membedakan tiga jenis tindakan, yaitu (1) tindak lokusioner, (2) tindak ilokusioner, dan (3) tindak perlokusioner. tindak lokusioner adalah tindak mengatakan sesuatu, yaitu mengucapkan sesuatu dengan makna kata, seperti saya lapar. saya sebagai orang pertama tunggal dan lapar mengacu pada perut yang kosong. tindak ilokusioner adalah tindak melakukan sesuatu. pada tindakan itu ada maksud dan fungsi dari ujaran tersebut, dari contoh saya lapar dimaksudkan untuk meminta nasi. tindak perlokusioner adalah mengacu pada akibat yang dihasilkan penutur dengan mengatakan sesuatu. tindak perlokusioner lebih ditekankan pada diri petutur. oleh karena itu, dapat dikatakan bahwa implikasi tindak lokusioner terhadap petutur itulah yang disebut dengan tindak perlokusioner dan implikasi tersebut dapat membuat petutur menjadi marah, senang, simpati, dan sebagainya. kemudian teori speech act dipertegas lagi oleh murid austin yang bernama searle dalam bukunya speech acts an essay in the philosophy of tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 79 language. searle (1969:23) menjelaskan bahwa yang termasuk dalam tindak ilokusioner adalah verba yang menunjukkan makna perintah, memohon, meminta maaf, dan sebagainya. tindak tutur yang digunakan dalam suatu masyarakat tidak dapat dipisahkan dari sopan santun yang berlaku pada masyarakat tersebut karena menyadari bahwa komunikasi sehari-hari selalu berkisar pada kesantunan. kesantunan dalam berbahasa juga akan mempengaruhi strategi yang digunakan ketika mengungkapkan suatu ujaran. kesantunan atau politeness menurut yule (1996:60) „di dalam suatu interaksi kesantunan mempunyai makna memperlihatkan kesadaran akan muka orang lain. dalam hal ini, kesantunan dapat menghilangkan jarak sosial atau keakraban dalam sebuah situasi.‟ muka yang dimaksudkan oleh yule dapat dijelaskan melalui teori brown levinson (1978). menurut mereka, muka face terdiri atas muka positif positive face dan muka negative negative face. nosi muka positif adalah the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others „keinginan dari setiap anggota agar keinginan mereka menjadi disukai oleh sekurang-kurangnya sesama anggota‟. muka positif mengacu pada citra diri setiap orang yang berkeinginan agar apa yang dilakukannya merupakan nilai yang ia yakini diakui orang lain sebagi suatu hal yang baik. muka negatif adalah the want of every competent adult member that his action be unimpeded by others „keinginan dari setiap anggota dewasa yang mempunyai kepandaian agar tindakan mereka tidak dihalangi oleh orang lain‟. muka negatif mengacu kepada citra diri setiap orang yang berkeinginan agar ia dihargai dengan jalan membiarkannya melakukan tindakannya. muka dalam sebuah interaksi dapat dipermalukan dan dapat juga dilindungi. oleh karena itu, peserta tutur wajib saling menjaga muka. akan tetapi, dalam sebuah tindak ujaran keterancaman terhadap muka pasti akan terjadi. tindak seperti itu oleh brow dan levinson (1978:16) disebut sebagai face threating act (fta) atau yang berarti tindakan mengancam muka. niyekawa (1991) dalam bukunya minimum essential politeness mengatakan bahwa cara yang sopan untuk bicara dalam bahasa jepang adalah dengan memperhatikan aturan tata bahasa, seperti nomina, pronomina, dan verba. selain itu, bagi orang asing langkah awal untuk belajar berbicara bahasa jepang dengan baik adalah dengan memahami struktur sosial masyarakat jepang, kelompok dan hadiah. pada struktur sosial masyarakat jepang, status dan hierarki merupakan dua hal penting yang harus diperhatikan ketika melakukan suatu ujaran. hierarki ditentukan oleh tingkatan dan posisi, status sosial, umur, dan gender. kelompok, suatu kelompok dalam masyarakat jepang dapat menunjukkan bahwa bahasa jepang yang digunakan pada umumnya menunjukkan identitas kelompok yang menaungi mereka. hadiah, memberikan hadiah merupakan cara mengekspresikan penghargaan mereka. jadi, terkandung makna giving „memberi‟ dan receiving „menerima‟. pada bahasa jepang ada dua istilah yang digunakan untuk request, yaitu yousei dan irai. kedua kata tersebut secara garis besar bermakna sama tetapi di dalam kamus jepang – indonesia dibedakan menjadi yousei bermakna meminta dan irai bermakna memohon. meminta atau memohon adalah meminta dengan rendah hati, sopan, atau hormat. pada penelitian ini akan digunakan istilah memohon. hal itu dipertegas oleh alwi hasan (2003:353) bahwa dalam bahasa indonesia ada bentuk kalimat permohonan. permohonan adalah jika pembicara, demi kepentingannya, minta lawan bicara berbuat sesuatu. dalam kamus new japanese – english dictionary karya koh masuda (1974:548) ditegaskan bahwa irai dapat disepadankan dengan request. pada penelitian ini akan digunakan teori anna trosborg (1995:187) untuk menjelaskan „memohon‟. teori kaneko shiro untuk ragam ungkapan memohon dan teori mizutani & mizutani untuk membahas faktor penentu kesantunan bahasa jepang jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 80 nosi memohon menurut anna trosborg (1995:187) tentang tindak tutur memohon sebagai berikut: a request is an illocutionaru act whereby a speaker (requester) convey to a hearer (requestee) that he/she wants the requester to perform an act which is for the benefit of the speaker. „request termasuk dalam tindak ilokusi, yaitu tindak tutur yang penuturnya ingin agar orang lain berbuat atau melakukan sesuatu untuknya dan keuntungan ada dipihak penutur. tindakan memohon yang dimaksud di atas dapat berbentuk non-verbal, seperti memohon akan sesuatu, memohon melakukan tindakan, atau memohon suatu jasa, dan dapat juga dalam bentuk memohon verbal, seperti memohon informasi. makna memohon dalam bahasa jepang seperti tertulis dalam kamus kokugo daijiten (1976:375), memohon atau irai 依 頼, yaitu 1. あるものによりかかって、それを頼みにする。また、たのみとする もの。 „memohon akan sesuatu. juga,mohon suatu barang‟ 2. 物事を頼むこと。 „hal memohon segalanya.‟ fungsi memohon tosborg membagi tindak tutur memohon dalam tiga bagian. pertama, memohon sebagai tindak impositif. tindak impositif digunakan ketika penutur menginginkan orang lain melakukan sesuatu untuknya dan hal itu merupakan suatu beban bagi orang lain tersebut. permohonan berupa barang dan jasa. kedua, memohon sebagai tindak fta. tindak fta (face-threathing act) bermakna penutur sebagai seseorang yang melakukan permohonan, berusaha untuk mempunyai kekuasaan atau memegang kendali atas pendengar. hal tersebut dapat menimbulkan gangguan pada muka negatif pendengar. penutur pun akan berisiko kehilangan muka apabila pendengar menolak permintaan penutur. ketiga, memohon sebagai tindak tutur yang berbeda dari tindak tutur impositif. pada bagian ketiga ini dikatakan bahwa dalam suatu permohonan, tindak dilakukan semata-mata karena keinginan penutur dan biasanya merupakan beban bagi pendengar. ada dua ciri utama pada tindak tutur memohon ketiga, yaitu “keuntungan bagi penutur” dan “beban bagi pendengar”. pada prinsipnya yang menentukan adalah usaha keras dari penutur untuk mempengaruhi pendengar. ragam ungkapan memohon bahasa jepang kaneko shiro penelitian mengenai memohon secara khusus masih sedikit sekali di dalam bahasa jepang, para linguis jepang lebih banyak menjelaskan cara menggunakan ragam ungkapan memohon. ragam ungkapan memohon bahasa jepang mempunyai bentuk tertentu. menurut kaneko shiro dalam nihongo journal (2004 juni), ragam memohon dapat dikelompokkan dalam tiga bagian, yaitu onegai o suru, pada bagian ini terdapat tingkatan memohon dari yang terendah hikui sampai yang tertinggi „takai’; kyoka o onegai suru; dan sono hoka no onegai no hyogen. berikut ini, keterangan teori shiro tersebut. お願いをする onegai suru (membuat permohonan) ungkapan memohon pertama onegai suru dalam penggunaannya mengandung sifat mulai dari yang rendah „hikui’ sampai kepada permohonan yang bersifat tinggi „takai’, permohonan itu dikelompokkan dalam beberapa bagian sebagai berikut. 1. ~ て (1) ち ょ っ と来て „ke sini sebentar‟ (nihongo journal:35) tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 81 2. ~ てもらえる (2) こ こ に来ても ら え る? „tolong ke sini? (nihongo journal:35) 3. ~ てくれる shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ragam ini. 4. ~ てもらえない shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ragam ~te moraenai 5. ~ てくれない (3) 辞 書、か し て く れ な い? „pinjam kamusnya? (nihongo journal:35) 6. ~てください (4) 明 日は朝 9 時に集 まっ て く だ さ い „besok tolong kumpul pukul 9 pagi.‟ (nihongo journal:35) 7. ~ てもらえますか (5) ペ ン チを貸 して も ら え ま す か。 „boleh pinjam tang?‟ (nihongo journal:35) 8. ~ てくれますか shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ini 9. ~ てもらえませんか shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ragam ini. 10. ~ てくれませんか (6) ペ ン チを貸 して く れ ま せ ん か。 „boleh tidak pinjam tang?‟ (nihongo journal:35) 11. ~ ていただけますか shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ragam ini. 12. ~ てくださいますか shiro tidak memberikan contoh untuk ragam ini. 13. ~ ていただけませんか (7) 推 薦 状を書い ていただけませんか。„bisa tolong tuliskan surat rekomondasi?‟ (nihongo journal:35) 14. ~ てくださいませんか (8) 推 薦状を書い て く だ さ い ま せ ん か。„bisa tolong tuliskan surat rekomondasi?‟ (nihongo journal:35) 許可をお願いする kyoka o onegai suru (memohon izin) kelompok kedua itu digunakan pada waktu memohon izin sesuatu. menggunakan bentuk verba を~さ(せて). shiro memberikan beberapa contoh seperti berikut. 1. ~さ(せ て (9) 写 真、撮ら せ て (友 達に) „fotokan‟ (nihongo journal:35) 2. ~さ(せ て) く れ る (10) 電話、つかわせて/つかわせてくれる? (友達に) „boleh pinjam telepon?‟ (nihongo journal:33) 3. ~さ (せ て ) く れ な い (11) 留 学さ せ て く れ な い?(親に) „izinkan saya belajar di luar negeri? (kepada orang tua) (nihongo journal:35) 4. ~さ (せ て) く だ さ い (12) 留 学さ せ て く だ さ い。 „tolong izinkan saya belajar di luar negeri.‟ (nihongo journal:35) jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 82 5. ~さ( せ て) も ら え ま す か (13) 意 見を言 わせ て も ら え な す か?。 „izinkan saya mengeluarkan pendapat saya? (nihongo journal:35) 6. ~さ( せ て)い た だ け ま せ ん か/ く だ さ い ま せ ん か (14) 明日、つか わせていただけませんか/ くださいませんか „besok, bolehkah saya menggunakannya?‟ (nihongo journal:33) そのほかのお願いの表現 (ungkapan memohon yang lainnya) kelompok ketiga menunjukkan ungkapan yang digunakan untuk memaparkan keadaan sekarang, seperti perasaan, keadaan, dan keinginan. hal tersebut dilakukan agar penutur memahami hal yang diinginkan. kalimat yang di dalam kurung adalah kalimat yang sebenarnya ingin diucapkan. seperti contoh berikut ini. (15) のどがカラカラなんですけど….(水を飲ませてください) „kerongkongan saya kering‟…. (izinkan saya minum) (nihongo journal:33) (16) こどもが寝ているので….(しずかにしてください) „anak saya sedang tidur‟……...(mohon tenang) (nihongo journal:33) berdasarkan pengelompokkan ungkapan memohon dari shiro, di dalam penelitian ini hanya akan dibahas ungkapan memohon pada kelompok onegai suru dan kyoka o onegai suru. pada ragam memohon bahasa jepang tersebut terdapat bentuk memohon yang termasuk ke dalam keigo 敬語 atau dalam bahasa inggris disebut honorific. keigo menurut tsujimura toshiki (1992:4) secara umum dapat dikatakan sebagai kata-kata yang mengungkapkan rasa hormat atau lebih rinci lagi, keigo adalah ungkapan khusus yang digunakan oleh penutur sebagai rasa hormat terhadap petutur atau orang yang dijadikan topik pembicaraan. menurut tsujimura, ragam memohon yang termasuk honorific adalah ~ te itadakemasuka, ~ te kudasaimasuka, ~ te itadakemasenka, ~ te kudasaimasuka, ~ sasete itadakemasuka, dan ~ sasete kudasaimasenka. kesantunan bertutur kata bagi masyarakat jepang masih merupakan bagian penting ketika mereka mengadakan interaksi termasuk di dalamnya ragam memohon. menurut ide sachiko dan megumi yoshida (2002:444-447), kesantunan digunakan untuk menghindari terjadinya konflik dengan lawan bicara dan menciptakan komunikasi tersebut terlihat lebih sopan. kesantunan direalisasikan dalam bahasa verbal dan non-verbal. kesantunan berbahasa pendekatannya dapat diteliti melalui penggunaan bahasa dan ekspresi bahasa. pendapat sachiko ide dan megumi yoshida menjelaskan adanya faktor yang menentukan kesantunan berbahasa di dalam wakimae. hal tersebut dipertegas lagi oleh mizutani dan mizutani (1987:3) bahwa ada tujuh faktor penentu kesantunan berbahasa dalam bahasa jepang di dalam buku mereka how to be polite in japanese. adapun ketujuh faktor tersebut sebagai berikut. faktor pertama adalah tingkat keakraban, misalnya ketika berbicara dengan orang yang baru dikenal, seseorang akan menggunakan bentuk sopan, seperti はじめまして 私はジョンソンです。 よろしく „senang berkenalan dengan anda, saya jonson. faktor kedua adalah usia. orang yang lebih tua usianya akan berbicara dengan ragam biasa kepada orang yang lebih muda sedangkan orang yang lebih muda akan berbicara dengan ragam sopan kepada orang yang lebih tua usianya. jika seusia, mereka menggunakan ragam percakapan biasa. hubungan senpai-kohai „senior-yunior‟ ternyata sangat kuat di antara pelajar jepang, khususnya di tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 83 antara pelajar yang berada dalam satu kelompok maupun di perusahaan dan lingkungan kerja. senpai akan menggunakan ragam biasa dan kohai harus menggunakan bahasa sopan. faktor ketiga adalah hubungan sosial. hubungan sosial yang dimaksud adalah hubungan antara majikan dan pekerja, penyedia jasa dan pengguna jasa, guru dan murid. hubungan itu disebut hubungan profesionalitas. pada umumnya, orang yang mempunyai status sosial lebih tinggi akan menggunakan ragam bahasa biasa dan bawahan akan menggunakan ragam sopan atau sangat sopan. faktor keempat adalah status sosial. orang yang status sosialnya tinggi akan menggunakan bahasa sopan, seperti keluarga kaisar, kantor berita, dan sebagainya. faktor kelima yang juga mempengaruhi adalah jenis kelamin. tuturan dianggap lebih akrab jika berbicara dengan sesama jenis kelamin. faktor keenam adalah keanggotaan kelompok. orang jepang menggunakan ekspresi dan istilah yang berbeda bergantung kepada siapa mereka berbicara. misalnya, seorang suami akan menyebutkan nama istri ketika berbicara tentang dia dengan seseorang. pada faktor keenam itu ada dua pengelompokkan, yaitu in-group „dalam kelompok‟ dan out-group „luar kelompok‟. anggota dalam kelompok seperti keluarga dan teman sekantor dan luar kelompok, yaitu orang-orang yang mempunyai hubungan jauh dengan penutur. faktor terakhir adalah situasi. orang-orang akan menggunakan tingkatan bahasa yang berbeda situasi, bahkan ketika berbicara dengan orang yang satu tingkat. ketika mereka bertengkar bahasa yang digunakan dapat berubah dari bentuk sopan menjadi akrab atau dari akrab menjadi sopan. analisis data berikut adalah analisis data. data yang ditemukan berjumlah lima puluh empat data dan yang ditampilkan pada analisis dua belas data. kedua belas data tersebut merupakan ragam memohon yang muncul pada film drama jepang love story, terdiri atas sepuluh ragam memohon yang termasuk onegai suru „memohon sesuatu‟ dan dua data yang termasuk kyouka o onegai „memohon izin‟. analisis tindak tutur memohon onegai o suru ‘memohon sesuatu’ data 1 ragam ungkapan memohon ~て ( ~ te) misaki : お母さん。ちょっとまって „ibu nanti dulu.‟ ibu misaki : これ 以 上 待ってたら、ミイちゃ ん 40 に な っ て 50 に な っ て 60 にな ち ゃ ううの よ。そ し た ら、お 母 さ んな ん て も う死ん じ ゃ て い な いの よ。 „kalau nanti-nanti terus, mi akan berumur 40, 50, atau 60 tahun. kalau begitu ibu mungkin sudah mati.‟ data 1 menceritakan tentang misaki yang diminta oleh ibunya untuk mau menemui lelaki yang akan diperkenalkan kepadanya karena sampai usia misaki 30 tahun ia masih belum menikah. bentuk memohon ~て pada kata ちょっとまって „tunggu sebentar‟merupakan ungkapan memohon yang paling rendah dari ragam memohon shiro. hal tersebut terjadi karena peserta tutur adalah keluarga, yaitu ibu dan anak sehingga termasuk ke dalam keanggotaan kelompok. data 2 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てもらえる (~te moraeru) kakak kano : まずその白い髪を黒く染めたまえ。そのだら しの ない格好もど うにかした まえ。そして定職につく。 それを証明するものをウ チに送りなさい。 „pertama cat rambutmu menjadi hitam. penampilan yang tidak rapi diperbaiki. lalu mempunyai pekerjaan tetap dan kirim buktinya ke sini‟. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 84 nabetomo : わかりました。そうしたら、香乃ちゃんのこと、 許してもらえ る んですね „baiklah. kalau saya melakukan hal itu, saya diizinkan untuk berhubungan dengan kanou, yah.‟ data 2 menceritakan keinginan nabetomo untuk menemui misaki. namun, yang menerima telepon adalah kakak laki-laki misaki, ia tidak suka penampilan nabetomo. oleh karena itu, nabetomo menanyakan apa yang harus ia lakukan agar dapat bertemu dengan misaki. bentuk memohon ~てもらえる (~te moraeru) pada kata、許してもらえ る んですね „diizinkan yah‟ merupakan bentuk memohon yang lebih halus dari ~te . adanya bentuk ~ne pada akhir kalimat menunjukkan penekanan akan persetujuan dari petutur. faktor yang menentukan ragam memohon tersebut diujarkan adalah keanggotaan kelompok, nabetomo adalah orang luar dari keluarga misaki. selain itu, usia karena usia nabetomo lebih muda dari kakak misaki dan faktor situasi karena nabetomo menginginkan izin dari kakak misaki, data 3 ragam ungkapan ~てくれる (~te kureru) redaktur : 悪いけど、これ明日までに 清 書しといてくれる? „enggak enak sih, tetapi tolong tulis kembali dengan rapi semua ini. ditunggu besok, ya?‟ misaki : はい、わかりました。 言うしかなかった。 „ya, baiklah. hanya itu yang dapat saya katakan.‟ data 3 menceritakan tentang permohonan dari atasan misaki agar misaki menuliskan kembali laporan kerjanya dengan rapi. bentuk memohon ~てくれる pada kata 清 書しといてくれる?‟tulis kembali‟ penggunaannya setingkat dengan ~te moraeru, hanya ~te kureru subjeknya adalah orang kedua/ketiga, dalam hal ini redaktur. faktor yang menentukan permohonan tersebut diujarkan adalah tingkat sosial karena redaktur atasan dari misaki. selain itu, situasi yang tidak formal (bukan dalam rapat), sehingga redaktur menggunakan betuk kamus ~kureru. data 4 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てもらえない kou : 気になるんだ。 „kamu merasakannya‟ nabetomo : とかなんかいって。自分が書けないから来てるんでしょ。今、僕は、 初めてスケートがうまくいった時みたいに、スイスイ描けてて, 描くのが楽しく仕方ないんです。あっち 行ってもらえないかな。 „bicara apa kamu! kamu datang ke sini karena kamu tidak dapat melukis. sekarang, untuk pertama kali saya dapat membuat sket dengan bagus, dapat menggambar dengan enak dan menyenangkan. tolong deh kamu pergi ke sana.‟ data 4 menceritakan percakapan yang terjadi di kamar nabetomo. nabetomo baru saja merasa bahagia karena lukisan yang ia buat akan dijadikan cover buku oleh kantor misaki. namun, kou, tetangga nabetomo tidak begitu menghargai lukisan karya nabetomo dan nabetomo tidak menghiraukan komentar kou. lalu nabetomo memohon pada kou untuk keluar dari kamarnya dengan menggunakan bentuk memohon ~てもらえない. walaupun menggunakan bentuk ~nai pada bagian akhir bukan berarti menjadi klimat tersebut bermakna negatif tetapi untuk menghaluskan permohonan tersebut karena kou usianya lebih tua dan status sosialnya juga lebih tinggi dari nabetomo. data 5 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てくれない (~te kurenai) kou : その弁当が、なかなか旨いんだ。鍋友のやつ、わざわざ自慢しに見せびらか しに, ここに来たんだ。あそうだ。今度来る時に、cd を買って来てくれないか。 tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 85 半分以上食べてやった。 „bekal itu benar-benar enak. gara-gara nabetomo dengan bangga datang untuk memamerkan bekalnya, maka saya makan lebih dari setengah. oh ya, nanti waktu datang ke sini lagi, tolong belikan cd, ya?‟ data 5 terjadi di apartemen kou. misaki ada di tempat kou karena ia ditugaskan oleh kantornya sebagai editor karya kou. pada saat akan pulang, kou meminta misaki untuk membelikan cd lagu-lagu kenangan. karena hubungan mereka hubungan kerja serta kou status sosialnya lebih tingga maka kou menggunakan bentuk memohon ~てくれない (~te kurenai). bentuk itu lebih halus dari ~te kureru dan ~nai pada bagian akhir bukan bermakna negatif tetapi untuk menghaluskan. walaupun hubungan mereka sebagai orang luar dan dalam tetapi mereka sudah akrab. situasi pada saat itu tidak formal karena pekerjaan itu dilakukan di apartemen kou. data 6 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てください kou : うん 、こっちもいいかな „ehm., apa yang ini juga bagus,ya?‟ iketani : 瀬さん、まだ時間あるんで、ちょっと 考えてみてください。 えーっと、あさってまでに考えといてくださいね。 „nagase, masih banyak waktu, jadi, tolong pikirkan dulu. oh ya, tolong pikirkan sampai lusa, ya?‟ percakapan pada data 6 terjadi di aparteman kou. iketani datang ke apartemen itu bersamasama dengan misaki untuk memperlihatkan desain sampul yang cocok untuk novel terbaru kou. kou juga terlihat kebingungan karena semua desain terlihat bagus. lalu ia minta saran kepada misaki tetapi iketani mengingatkan kou bahwa batas waktunya lusa. ketika iketani memohon kepada kou digunakan bentuk ~てください. bentuk tersebut adalah bentuk yang umum „mottomo ippanteki‟ ketika memohon sesuatu kepada orang lain. faktor hubungan sosial yang menentukan bentuk memohon tersebut digunakan karena kou adalah klien dari perusahaan iketani. data 7 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てくれますか kou : それ、見ててくれますか なたが、それ、見ててくれますか。クビ、撤回しましょう。担当になってく ださい。 „maukah kamu mengeditnya?‟ kamu maukan mengedit karya saya? mari kita lupakan pemecatan dirimu. jadilah editor saya.‟ percakapan pada data 7 terjadi di depan kantor misaki. misaki sedang mengangkut barang miliknya karena ia baru saja diberhentikan dari tempatnya bekerja. kou terkejut mendengar misaki dipecaat, sebenarnya ada yang ingin dikatakan oleh kou tentang analisis misaki terhadap novel terbarunya. lalu kou memohon kepada misaki agar tetap menjadi editornya menggunakan bentuk ~ てくれますか. bentuk tersebut lebih tinggi tingkat kesopanannya dari bentuk ~te kudasai dan digunakan oleh kou karena misaki bukan karyawan perusahaan penerbit buku kou lagi. bentuk ~te kuremasuka menunjukkan situasi yang formal karena posisi misaki sebagai orang luar. faktor hubungan sosial menjadi penentu bentuk tersebut digunakan karena kou ingin mempekerjakan misaki sebagai editornya. data 8 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てもらえませんか nabetomo : お茶って葉貸してもらえませんか ね。急なお客さんで „bolehkan saya minta teh bubuk. di rumah ada tamu yang datang tiba-tiba. kou : 悪い。きらしている。そうだ、ちょっと入らないか? „maaf, teh saya habis. oh ya, mau masuk sebentar?‟ jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 86 percakapan pada data 8 terjadi di apartemen kou. nabetomo datang ke tempat kou untuk meminta teh dan digunakan bentuk memohon ~てもらえませんか. bentuk tersebut termasuk ke dalam bentuk yaya teinei „agak sopan‟ pada ragam memohon shiro. walaupun situasinya informal tetapi karena status sosial kou lebih tinggi serta usia kou yang lebih tua dari nabetomo makan ragam memohon tersebut digunakan. data 9 ragam ungkapan memohon ~てくれませんか nabetomo : あの、ぼくをひとりにしてくれませ んか。 „eh, dapat tinggalkan saya sendiri?‟ kou : え…? „eh ….? percakapan pada data 9 terjadi di apartemen nabetomo. kou seperti biasanya singgah ke apartemen itu untuk bercakap-cakap dengan nabetomo tetapi pada hari itu perasaan nabetomo sedang tidak enak karena ia mendengar bekas pacarnya akan menikah. nabetomo tidak ingin diganggu, ia ingin menyendiri. oleh karena itu, ia menggunakan bentuk memohon~てくれませんか agar kou meninggalkan apartemennya. bentuk memohon tersebut setingkat dengan ~te moraemasenka, yaitu ragam memohon yaya teinei „agak sopan‟. faktor yang menentukan ragam tersebut digunakan adalah faktor usia dan status sosial kou yang lebih tinggi dari nabetomo, walaupun situasinya bersifat informal. data 10 ragam ungkapan memohon ~ていただけませんか kakak kanou : ちょっと。お話聞いていただけませんか。 „sebentar. tolong dengarkan cerita saya?‟ nabetomo : 何ですか „ada apa?‟ percakapan pada data 10 terjadi di depan kamar nabetomo. kakak kanou sedang mencari adik perempuannya yang sudah lama tidak pulang ke rumah. dulu adik kanou adalah teman dekat nabetomo.kakak kanou ingin bicara dengan nabetomo dan ia menggunakan ragam memohon ~て いただけませんか karena mereka belum pernah bertemu dan mereka bukan termasuk satu kelompok. walaupun usia kakak kanou lebih tua tetapi ia menggunakan bentuk yang sangat sopan „hijouni teinei‟ dalam ragam memohon. selain itu, situasi mempengaruhi ragam tersebut digunakan karena kakak kanou sangat mengharapkan informasi dai nabetomo analisis tindak tutur memohon kyouka o onegai suru ‘memohon izin’ data 11 ragam ungkapan memohon ~せてくれ kou :[カレーを作らせてくれ」康言って、さっそくシャツの腕をまくり 始めている。 „izinkan saya membuat kare di sini. lalu kou menggulung lengan bajunya.‟ nabetomo : 自分ん家で作りゃあいいじゃないですか。 „apa tidak lebih baik di rumah kamu masaknya?‟ percakapan pada data 11 terjadi di apartemen nabetomo. pada saat itu kou baru saja selesai belanja dan ia ingin memasak di tempat nabetomo. ketika kou memohon izin untuk masak kou menggunakan ragam memohon ~せてくれ. bentuk memohon ini berasal dari ~せてくれる, kou memendekkan bentuk tersebut dengan menghilangkan ~ru karena status sosial kou yang lebih tinggi, usia kou yang lebih tua dan hubungan mereka sudah akrab. selain itu, situasi seperti ini sudah sering dilakukan oleh kou. tindak tutur memohon … (rita susanti) 87 data 12 ragam ungkapan memohon ~せていただきたいん kou : 何の用だ „untuk apa ke sini? misaki : これ、今度先生の単行本「海へ行く日」が刊行して二年だったの で文庫化させていただきたいんですけど、 つきましては、 その 契約 書をお持ちしました。 'karena karya “umi e iku hi” sudah diterbitkan dalam bentuk tankoubon selama dua tahun, izinkanlah kami menerbitkannya dalam bentuk bunkouka ‘buku dengan ukuran saku‟. lalu, kami juga membawa surat kontrak.‟ percakapan pada data 12 terjadi di apartemen kou. misaki datang ke sana karena ditugaskan oleh kantornya untuk meminta izin pada kou sebagai penulis novel agar diizinkan mencetak novel karya kou dalam ukuran saku. ragam yang digunakan oleh misaki adalah ~せていただきたいん, bentuk ~itadakitai berasal dari itadaku bentuk sopan dari morau, lalu ditambahkan dengan ~tai yang mempertegas keinginan tersebut. faktor hubungan sosial sangat mempengaruhi ragam tersebut digunakan karena misaki mewakili kantornya dan situasi saat itu bersifat formal walaupun berlangsung di apartemen kou. namun, misaki tidak menggunakan tingkatan memohon izin yang sangat sopan karena sebenarnya hubungan peserta tutur sudah akrab dan terjalin dalam waktu yang lama, sehingga digunakan bentuk ~seteitadakitain. penutup berdasarkan uraian pada pembahasan dapat disimpulan bahwa sebuah tuturan diujarkan bukan hanya maknanya dapat dipahami oleh petutur tetapi juga harus memperhatikan faktor sosial budaya yang ada pada pengguna bahasa. pada bahasa jepang, terdapat berbagai ragam ungkapan memohon dan pemilihan ragam tersebut berdasarkan parameter kesantunan yang berlaku dalam masyarakat jepang. jumlah data yang ditemukan sebanyak lima puluh empat data. ragam memohon yang terbanyak ditemukan pada kelompok memohon onegai suru „memohon sesuatu‟, yaitu sebanyak 10 ragam memohon dan dua ragam memohon pada kelompok kyouka onegai „memohon izin‟. banyaknya kelompok onegai suru digunakan karena situasi bersifat informal. walaupun percakapan yang terjadi berhubungan dengan pekerjaan. faktor kesantunan yang menjadi penyebab dipilihnya ragam memohon tersebut adalah faktor hubungan sosial, status sosial, usia, keanggotaan kelompok, dan situasi. namun, dari semua faktor tersebut situasi menjadi penentu yang utama. jurnal lingua cultura vol.2 no.1 mei 2008: 76-88 88 daftar pustaka aijmer, k. 1996. conversation routines in english: convention and creativity. longman: london & new york:. austin, j.l. 1965. how to do things with words. new york: oxford univrsity press. brown, p. and levinson, s. c. 1978. politness some universals in language usage. london: cambridge university press. gunarwan, a. 1992. “persepsi kesantunan direktif di dalam bahasa indonesia diantara beberapa kalangan etnik di jakarta.” makalah pada pellba 5. jakarta: kanisius. _______. 1999. “tindak tutur melarang di kalangan dua kelompok etnis indonesia: ke arah kajian etnopragmatik.” makalah pada pellba 13. jakarta:kanisius. hymes, d. 1974. foundation in sosiolinguistics. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. kondansha international. 1983. an encyclopaedia of the japanese language. tokyo. kushartanti. dkk. 2005. pesona bahasa. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. levinson, s. c. 1993. pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. leech, g. 1983. principless of pragmatics. london: longman group. masuda, k. 1974. new japanese-english dictionary. tokyo: kenkyusha. nakane, chie. 1981. masyarakat jepang. trans. bambang kussriyanto dan biro terjemahan satya karya. jakarta: sinar harapan. niyekawa, a. m. 1991. minimum essential politeness. tokyo: kondansha international. osamu mizutani and nobuko mizutani. 1987. how to be polite in japanese. tokyo: the japan times. purwo, b. k. 2000. kajian serba linguistik. jakarta: bpk gunung mulia. searle, j. r. 1969. speech act. london: cambridge university press. shiro, ka. 2004.juni. onegaisuru. nihongo journal, 33-34. simatupang, maurits dakhtar soaloon. 1983. “aspek sosial budaya dalam berbahasa.” pidato pengukuhan dalam jabatan guru besar tetap pada fakultas sastra universitas indonesia. sumarsono dan paina partana. 2004. sosiolinguistik. yogyakarta: sabda. trosborg, a. 1995. interlanguage pragmatics; request, complains, and apologies. new york. berlin: mounton de gruyler. tsujimura, n. 2002. the handbook of japanese linguitics. victoria: blackwell publishing. tsujimura, t. 1992. keigo no youhou. tokyo: kakugawa shoten. yule, g. 1996. pragmatics. english: oxford university press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 141 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 141-147 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.2475 non-native speakers’ rhetorical commonalities in writing script introduction section iskandar abdul samad1; bustami usman2; novalia rizkanisa3; siti sarah fitriani4 1, 2, 3,4 english education department of syiah kuala university, banda aceh jl. teuku nyak arief, kopelma darussalam, banda aceh 23111, indonesia 1iskandar.abdul.samad@unsyiah.ac.id; 2bustami55@yahoo.com; 3novalia.rizkanisa@gmail.com; 4ssfitriani@gmail.com received: 01st may 2017/revised: 28th november 2017/accepted: 13th december 2017 how to cite: samad, i. a., usman, b., rizkanisa, n., & fitriani, s. s. (2018). non-native speakers’ rhetorical commonalities in writing script introduction section. lingua cultura, 12(2), 141-147. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.2475 abstract this research analyzed the rhetorical pattern (rp) of script introduction section written by undergraduate students at four selected universities in aceh. information about the rp of introduction section had been found in literature, including the work of indonesian students in general. however, specific information about the rp of the work of efl students in aceh was not determined yet. the main aim of the study was to explore whether acehnese students performed the exact pattern of written academic english. understanding the rp of this section was important because it helped readers to have a description of the whole script. a qualitative method was applied in this study to draw the rp through the content analysis. the data were taken from twenty undergraduate students’ scripts at four selected universities. cars model was used to analyze all the data. in general, the result shows a unique rp of the introduction section by acehnese students where rp of introduction section maintains the circular way of thinking. keywords: rhetorical pattern, introduction section, writing script, non-native speakers introduction english is considered as a foreign language in many countries, including indonesia. learners whose english is not their first language, have tendencies to interfere their target language (english) with the convention of their native language (l1) in their writing. it is inevitable that this kind of fact becomes a challenge to all teachers and students. many kinds of research have been conducted to examine students’ writing whose english is not their first language. one of the focuses is on the rhetorical pattern (rp) of research introduction section. swales (1990) who has proposed creating a research space (cars) model and used it as a tool to analyze the research article. it finds that in the introduction section, the majority of efl/esl journals/articles are influenced by their first language convention. the rp of the writing is different from the convention in l2. the similar finding is also found by gecikli (2013). in his research, he finds that turkish students do not fully follow the moves and steps application in cars model for their ph.d. dissertation. sheldon (2011) on his study, also shows considerable variations of english writing from the three groups of writers. writers whose english is their l1 is clearly good in writing english. yet, those whose english is their l2 do not display a good resemblance to the english convention. these researchers’ findings are evidence that different students have their own way of writing. these variations are influenced by their native language. therefore, it is convinced that l1 interferes l2 in the way of writing the academic texts. additionally, what has been done by choe and hwang (2014) in their research, it finds that even tough korean students maintain good resemblance with cars model, but the content is rather a liberal form of the cars model. a brilliant idea also comes from wijayanti (2017) who analyzes different corpus but it still with the similar point. she analyzes the job application letter which becomes the introductory part accompanying the resume. then the result yields that indonesian as a cultural background lies in the job application letter. in indonesia, writing a script is a must for undergraduate students to graduate (samad & adnan, 2016). this script is written in a formal way that sounds academic. the academic writings include script, thesis, and dissertation. in indonesia, the term used for these academic texts is different according to the level of education. for 142 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 141-147 undergraduate, it is called script; the thesis is called for master’s degree, and dissertation is for doctoral degree (samad, 2016). writing the script is essential for university students to complete their studies. even, students are required to perform orally and defend it to what has been written in the script. if they do not complete it, they can not graduate and receive a bachelor certificate (samad & adnan, 2017). for the purpose of this research, researchers attempt to find out students’ rp of their undergraduate script introduction section at two universities, islamic and nonislamic universities in aceh. the common issue among students in this country is that students find it difficult to produce appropriate writing for the introduction section. swales and feak (2001) have mentioned that dealing with the introductory part is difficult and quite troublesome for non-native speakers. the introductory part maintains the richness of a research idea. understanding the rhetorical pattern of writing this section is important because it is considered as a window to the whole script. some researchers have provided in the literature the rp of introduction section (e.g., hinkel, 2004; swales & feak, 2001). one of the examples of the rp of introduction section can be seen in the overall shape of a research article in figure 1. figure 1 overall pattern of research article (swales & feak, 2001) figure 1 indicates the typical pattern of a research article which consists of introduction, methods, results and discussion. for this research, the focus is limited to the introduction section of the script written by efl students in aceh. this section is important because it attracts the reader’s attention. as stated by swales and feak (2001) that the introduction section provides the rationale for the paper, moving from general discussion of the topic to the particular question or hypothesis being investigated. the students are required to locate their research ideas into paragraphs to give the clear direction of what the writers are going to find out. the introduction section provides relevant idea related to the topic in the research so that readers understand. creating a research space (cars) is a common model used by researchers to analyze rp of research article introduction. this model is pioneered by swales (1990) that provides a series of analytical units in terms of moves and steps. there are three moves in cars model. move 1 is establishing a territory with three steps. step 1 is claiming centrality, step 2 is making the topic generalization, and step 3 is reviewing items of previous research. move 2 is establishing a niche with step 1 is counter-claiming, step 2 is indicating the gap, step 3 is the question – raising, and step 4 is continuing the tradition. move 3 is occupying a niche with step 1 is outlining the purpose, step 2 is announcing present research, step 3 is announcing principal findings, and step 4 is indicating the structure of research article. after the previous version, swales (2001) has proposed a new version with three moves. move 1 is establishing a research territory. it can be done by; (a) showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional), (b) introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (obligatory). move 2 is establishing a niche that can be done by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way (obligatory). move 3 is occupying a niche. it can be done by; (a) outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research (obligatory), (b) announcing principal findings (optional), (c) indicating the structure of research paper (optional). the swales’ model above has several moves and steps. this revised cars model in 2001 seems easy to understand. the term obligatory and optional are used in each move. swales keeps revising the model in which in 2005 that he completed another model. this model is the latest model. the researchers use this model as an analytical tool for this research. the details of moves and steps can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 moves and steps in research article introduction (swales, 2005) many researchers have used this latest cars model. sheldon (2011) uses the model in figure 2 to examine the rhetorical differences in introduction of the research article by english l1, l2, and castilian spanish l1. suryani et al. (2014) also use that model toward english written text by malaysian. then, khamkhien (2015) also conducts the research by using this model toward thai journal. as aforementioned, this present study attempts to draw the rp of introduction section of english undergraduate script that is written by acehnese students with the standardized rhetorical pattern of the introduction 143non-native speakers’ rhetorical .... (iskandar abdul samad et al.) section. this finding could be considered as the initial stage prior to giving any treatment for participants to be able to write appropriate introduction section which is suitable for international readers. this research contributes to two benefits; practically, this article could help lecturers to teach their students. secondly, this article could contribute to the body of knowledge by filling the gap in the literature regarding the rp of introduction section written by acehnese efl students in four universities/institutes in aceh, indonesia. the combination of islamic and non-islamic universities is still rare to be presented. therefore, the result of this research could contribute significant benefits to both practical and knowledge significance. methods this research is conducted by using a qualitative study that is investigating the rp of introduction section of the scripts written by the acehnese students. the qualitative research focuses on the research of social phenomena on giving and obtaining culturally specific information to the feelings and perceptions of the participants under research (lodico, spaulding, & voegtle, 2006). the content analysis is used in this study, which attempts to analyze the rhetoric reflected in students’ introduction section (schreiber & asner-self, 2011). the corpus data are required to deal with the number of english undergraduate scripts written by acehnese students. the researchers collect 20 undergraduate scripts of english education department students from four selected universities/institutes in aceh. two universities are islamic universities (iain zawiyah cotkala langsa and uin ar-raniry) and the other two are non-islamic universities (samudra langsa university and syiah kuala university). the data are acquired from each university library and official digital library. the researchers analyze the whole part of introduction section using creating a research space (cars) model proposed by swales (2005). it is scrutinized to discover the rhetorical pattern in the introduction section based on swales’ framework. as stated by sheldon (2011) that a move describes patterns of organizational content, which carry a particular role in the overall goals of the research introduction. results and discussions the introduction section is considered to be the most complicated part for some writers, especially for efl writers. by adapting the cars model by swales (2005), this research analyzes the rhetorical pattern reflected in the introduction section of twenty acehnese undergraduate students’ scripts. then, the analysis is done by utilizing the cars model by swales which proposes three moves. the whole part of the introduction section is analyzed in this analysis. the researchers analyze the whole parts of introduction section by using cars model. then, the data are gathered from the move analyses which then are tabulated in table 1. ugs is undergraduate script. move 1 contains one step and eight sub-steps. move 2 contains three steps. and move 3 contains seven steps. table 1 moves occurrences in english undergraduates thesis introduction number of scripts moves move cycle number of paragraph move 1 move 2 move 3 ugs 1 6 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 12 ugs 2 7 2 5 1 2 1 2 1 3 18 ugs 3 7 2 5 1 2 1 2 1 3 10 ugs 4 8 2 5 1 2 1 2 1 3 15 ugs 5 7 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 7 ugs 6 8 1 5 1 2 1 3 6 ugs 7 5 2 5 1 2 1 3 10 ugs 8 4 2 5 1 2 1 3 6 ugs 9 2 2 4 1 2 3 6 ugs 10 5 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 6 ugs 11 5 2 6 1 2 1 2 1 3 11 ugs 12 4 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 5 ugs 13 5 2 6 1 2 1 3 11 ugs14 6 2 6 1 2 1 2 1 3 14 ugs 15 6 1 6 1 2 1 3 8 ugs 16 5 1 4 1 2 3 11 ugs 17 6 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 13 ugs 18 6 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 10 ugs 19 6 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 11 ugs 20 4 2 5 1 2 1 2 3 11 144 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 141-147 based on table1, it can be seen that 20 scripts of introduction have considerable variations of moves. the number in the column move 1-3 is referring to items of each section in figure2, which is used as an analytical tool for this research. besides, the move cycle shows how the students create their rhetorical pattern that becomes their preference in their writing. most of the written texts have similar move cycles in the introduction section. furthermore, as revealed by gecikli (2013), the length of introduction results in a change in the number of moves. the longer the length of introduction is, the higher frequencies of moves are. above all, the researchers carry out closer scrutiny of each of the three moves. notably, all undergraduate scripts contain the three main moves which are considered as complete. the steps and the sub-steps in each move in the theses are discussed in more detail. table 2 is the description of the first move. move 1 is establishing a territory (citation required). table 2 detailed occurrences of move 1 in introduction section structure of move 1 number of scripts step 1 topic generalization of increasing specificity 20 (i) reporting conclusion of previous studies 10 (ii) narrowing the field 20 (iii) writer’s evaluation of existing research 14 (iv) time-frame of relevance 20 (v) research objective/process of previous studies 13 (vi) terminology/definitions 20 (vii) generalizing 6 (viii) furthering or advancing knowledge 0 from table 2, it can be seen that step 1 of move 1 which informs readers that the basic field of their research is surely employed by all acehnese students. the following text illustrates step 1. ugs 1 is “reading is one of the four language skills taught and learned at school and university. through reading, the students can develop another language skill such as writing”. the sub-step (i) is “reporting conclusions of previous studies” was used only in 11 scripts which are illustrated: ugs 2 (i) based on previous research on teaching speaking, it was found that the general problem faced by students in speaking skill is the student cannot speak english actively. the finding of previous studies can reflect the richness of the current literature, but there are only ten scripts that put sub-step (i). the rest of the scripts locate too much general knowledge in this part or making the general statement toward the study. then, the sub-step (ii) “narrowing the field” is an obligatory in acehnese undergraduate scripts. it is firmly shaped, for example, in the introduction section written by ugs 8: ugs 8 (ii) this thesis talks about bitter experiences. bitter experience is the great unhappiness or sad event in person’s life. the corpus texts of ugs 8 imply the scope of the research area that is proposed by the students to narrow their present research. yet, the term narrowing the field does not solely indicate the placement of the thesis. the next sub-step is (iii) “writer’s evaluation of existing research” with only 14 scripts using it. one of the examples is written by ugs 14. ugs 14 (iii) some writers define a difficult text according to the sentence-length. the text with the longer sentence and longer words are more difficult to understand. having the current literature can increase the certainty of the research. similarly, sub-step (iv), “timeframe of relevance” presents the supporting disciplines in the research where citations are required in this sub-step. ugs 5 (iv) it is important to help the students reduce their errors. we need to know the source of error to overcome the problem. scholar mentions two main sources of errors, namely inter-lingual and intra-lingual. inter-lingual refers to the interference of learner’s mother tongue to the target language. then, intra-lingual refers to the students’ lack of knowledge of target language. the firm sub-step (vi) in the introduction section reflects that the acehnese students are aware of the importance of research literature in their scripts and this part absolutely needs to include the citation. besides, this substep can give readers the background information needed to understand the research. last but not least, the following sub-step (vii) has a lower number of occurrences in the introduction section of the acehnese undergraduate scripts. ugs 11 (vii) the important thing of the test analysis is first, to improve the quality of the test itself and the second is to assess and examine each test item in order to obtain qualified test before use and reuse. the lower number of occurrences of sub-step (vii) is due to the unfamiliarity of the acehnese students in generalizing the whole part in their scripts. the last one is sub-step (viii) “advancing knowledge”. unfortunately, the last sub-step is totally absent in the acehnese introduction section. from the analysis of step and sub-steps of move 1, the researchers find the sub-steps included in move 1 are not ordered sequentially in their scripts. move 2 is establishing the niche (citation possible). this second move presents the research through the description of the problem and giving a detailed limitation of the research. as it can be seen in table 3, the occurrences of move 2 have a larger number. eventually, some of the corpus scripts use the citation to support the research. specifically, step 1 a has the greatest occurrences in move 2 which is illustrated in the example. 145non-native speakers’ rhetorical .... (iskandar abdul samad et al.) table 3 detailed occurrences of move 2 in introduction section structure of move 2 number of scripts step 1 a (s1a) indicating a gap 20 step 1 b (s1b) adding to what is known 17 step 2 presenting positive justification (optional) 0 ugs 6 (s1a) even though reading has been taught from elementary school, it cannot be sure that all students in junior high school level can understand the reading text well. based on the illustration, it can be seen that the acehnese students try to highlight problematic issues in their research and give critical comments addressing the gap. this step also works as a justification strategy in leading them to the necessity of conducting the research question. on the contrary, step 1b is only included in 17 scripts. this number shows the acehnese students are able to reinforce the information already known to relate to the research question. the example can be seen in ugs 5. ugs 5 (s1b) some scholars have same ideas that how error analysis can be used to provide the information for teachers about the errors made by students in their speaking. it might help the teachers to reduce students’ error in speaking performance. the next step is step 2, “presenting positive justification”. as stated in swales’ model, step 2 is clearly optional. from the analysis, the use of step 2 in the twenty scripts of acehnese students is absolutely absence. based on the description of move 2, it is found that the acehnese students have enough awareness of establishing the niche in their research by writing step 1a/1b. even though, it is undeniable that they still reflect their unfamiliarity with english writing convention. the final move is “presenting the present work” or move 3 with possible use of citation. as revealed by swales (2005), move 3 is served by outlining the research purpose, stating its structure and main features, and announcing the principal outcomes. the detailed description of move 3 can be seen in table 4. table 4 detailed occurrences of move 3 in introduction section structure of move 3 number of scripts step 1 (s1) announcing present work descriptively and/ or purposively (obligatory) 20 step 2 (s2) presenting research questions or hypothesis (optional) 20 step 3 (s3) definitional clarifications (optional) 20 table 4 detailed occurrences of move 3 in introduction section (continued) structure of move 3 number of scripts step 4 (s4) summarizing method (optional) 10 step 5 (s5) announcing principal outcomes (pisf)* 2 step 6 (s6) stating the value of the present paper (pisf)* 9 step 7 (s7) outlining the structure of the paper (pisf)* 0 *pisf: probably in some fields by verifying the corpus data, the researchers find that all of the acehnese scripts in this research write step 1, “announcing present work descriptively and/or purposively” in the last paragraph of the research background part, which is also in the introduction section. the example is shown in ugs 7. ugs 7 (s1) it is really expected for the teacher to employ the stad method in making the good achievement for the students to write the descriptive writing. based on the explanation, the writer interested in conducting a research entitled “the using stad method in improving students writing descriptive paragraph to the tenth grade students of mas ulumul qur’an langsa”. the above example shows that the acehnese students truly make claims of the research. the next step is step 2, “presenting research question or hypothesis” which is illustrated in ugs 17. ugs 17 (s2) based on the explanation, the problem of the study is: does collaborative learning improve reading skill to the class of smpn 1 karang baru? all acehnese students in this research write this step in their scripts to give a precise description of what their research is trying to find or measure. the further step is step 3, “definitional clarifications”. although swales highlights this step as optional, all acehnese students include this step in their script. for example: ugs 10 (s3) as one said, moral value is simply an important kind of instrumental value. actions and traits of character have moral value insofar as they contribute in certain way of to happiness: to enhance pleasure or reduce pain or both. step 3 in the introduction is used to inform readers of how specific concepts are understood in each study. moreover, the aim of this step is to situate the research in a specific area that needs attention. this step has a good portion of the acehnese scripts analyzed for this research. only half of the scripts involved in this research include step 4 “summarizing methods”. the choice of step 4 is based on the standard of writing procedure in each university. one of the examples is: 146 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 141-147 ugs 16 (s4) the correlation study is used in this study to see the correlation between reading comprehension and writing ability to the eleventh grade students of smkn 4 langsa. from the example, it can be seen that the research methodology is firmly elaborated and outlined to show readers the methodology used in the research. the next one is step 5 “announcing the principal outcomes”. this step has a lower number of occurrences. only two scripts represent this step as in the following example: ugs 15 (s5) facebook group also allowed for most immediate feedback and fun interaction that the writer hopes will motivate students to write. i can claim that facebook group will benefit the students in motivating them to write autonomously. the acehnese students obviously seem to restrain in announcing the main findings of their studies. the examples above are not fully good examples of step 5, but the tendencies of the text imply the announcing of the principal outcome. step 6 “stating the value of the present research” is similar to the scope of the study written in students’ scripts. ugs 10 (s6) from all the books, the writer just take one book entitled “the aesop for children; with pictures by wilo winter. the writer chose this book because the language in this book is simpler than other books and each story ending has a conclusion or moral value. there are only nine scripts that include step 6 in the introduction while this step is absence from the other 11 scripts. those who do not include step 6 in their script think that they have presented their research in step 1, where they make strong claims for the validity of their research. the last one is step 7 “outlining the structure of the paper”. as stated in the cars model, step 7 is in the term of pisf which stands for ‘probably in some fields’. from the analysis that researchers did to the students’ scripts, none of them wrote step 7. particularly, the acehnese students of this research have no obligation to announce the structure of their paper. as a matter of fact, the researchers find that the acehnese students in this research realize the use of move 3 using step 1, 2, and 3. however, step 4, 5, and 6 are used less in their scripts. the cyclical pattern of cars move is considered essential to see how acehnese students elaborate their research idea in the introduction section. undoubtedly, paying attention to the cyclical pattern of moves is also of paramount importance. the previous table has already shown the cyclical pattern of moves. table 1 shows that 12 scripts display similar move cycles in the moves formula of 1-2-1-2. then, the rest of the scripts display the formula 1-2-1-3, 1-2-3, 1,2,2,3. from these move cycles, it can be concluded that acehnese students tend to put the foundation of their research territory first by providing the background. although the idea is a little unorganized, they still tend to establish the niche and present their studies firmly in the last move or move 3. additionally, as it is argued by swales (2005), the length of introduction may affect the shape of the cycle moves. due to this reason, a longer introduction has a greater probability of cycling. as mentioned, it can be proven that the numbers of paragraphs in the introduction section of students’ scripts influence its move cycling. twenty undergraduate scripts in this research accomplish all the three moves, namely move 1 (establishing the territory), move 2 (establishing the niche), and move 3 (presenting the present work). based on the scripts, the acehnese students also completely carry out the obligatory part of each move, such as establishing territory with citation required, indicating a gap and announcing the present research. notably, according to swales (2005), the use of step 2 “presenting research question” and step 3 “definitional clarifications” in move 3 is optional. on the contrary, both steps seem to be an obligatory step in the acehnese undergraduate scripts. indeed, it can be proven that the acehnese students used both steps in their introduction section. it is also supported by chahal (2014) in his research that move 1 achieves primarily in the introduction. the students lay the information on the research discussed. conversely, none of them write the “furthering/advancing knowledge”, “presenting positive justification” and “outlining the structure of the paper” in the script. due to their unfamiliarity with those parts, they never use those steps/substeps. this unfamiliarity could be influenced by the students’ first language as it is also found in the work of gecikli (2013) and sheldon (2011). based on the cyclical pattern of moves, it can be seen that most of the cyclical patterns are in the formula 1-21-2-3. the formula shows that move 1 and move 2 recur in the acehnese scripts. the recurring patterns to justify the identification of gap seem to be a dominant way that helps the students build the gap in their research. hence, the acehnese students tend to apply a circular way in the introduction of the script. this result is also found in huda (2016) in which the students apply the circular way in presenting their introductory part. they start the introduction by explaining the general area of their research. then, narrowing the research is in the middle of introduction, or it is placed at the end of the text. even though most of the acehnese students have applied the rhetorical pattern as suggested by swales, however, the arrangement of the move and steps remains disordered. again, this is evidence that students’ first language interferes the way of writing in their target language. conclusions most acehnese students write the introduction section for their scripts have fulfilled cars model as it is proposed by swales (1990). however, the order of steps is not exactly the same as in the cars model. there is slightly difference between cars model and the rhetorical pattern used by the acehnese students. since the basic language is the difference, then the remarkable distinction of written academic english exist. this result becomes a unique and could extend the information of types of rhetoric in script writing. lecturers and students could teach students rhetorical pattern of the script as it is highly required to make readers convinced with the information delivered in the script. 147non-native speakers’ rhetorical .... (iskandar abdul samad et al.) references chahal, d. (2014). research article introductions in cultural studies: a genre analysis explorations of rhetorical structure. journal of teaching english for specific and academic purposes, 2(1), 1-20. choe, h., & hwang, b. h. (2014). a genre analysis of introductions in theses, dissertations and research articles based on swales’ cars model. korean journal of applied linguistic, 30(1), 3-31. gecikli, m. (2013). a genre-analysis study on the rhetorical organization of english and turkish phd theses in the field of english language teaching. international journal of business, humanities, and technology, 3 (6), 50-58. hinkel, e. (2004). teaching academic esl writing. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. huda, t. (2016). reflection of rhetorical pattern in the introduction of academic research reports. proceeding of international conference on teacher training and education, 1(1), 657-662. khamkhien, a. (2015). textual organisation and linguistic features in applied linguistics research articles: moving from introduction to methods. international e-journal of advances in social sciences, 1(2), 111120. lodico, m., spaulding, d., & voegtle, k. h. (2006). method in educational research. san fransisco: jossey-bass. samad, i. a. (2016). improving students’ competence in the thesis defence examination in two universities in aceh, indonesia. unpublished doctoral dissertation. armidale: university of new england. samad, i. a., & adnan, z. (2016). generic structure of an important, but neglected, academic genre, thesis event examination, and its pedagogic implications. proceeding of tesol indonesia international conference edition, university of mataram. lombok: ele publishing. samad, i. a., & adnan, z. (2017). using a genre-based approach to prepare undergraduate students for an english thesis defence examination: an experimental study to address the pedagogical controversy’. linguistik indonesia journal, 35(1), 75-93. schreiber, j., & asner-self, k. (2011). educational research. new jersey: johnwiley & sons. sheldon, e. (2011). rhetorical differences in ra introductions written by english l1 and l2 and castilian spanish l1 writer. journal of english academic purposes, 10, 238-251. suryani, i., kamaruddin, h., hashima, n., yaacob, a., rashid, s. a., & desa, h. (2014). rhetorical structure in academic research writing by non-native writers. international journal of higher education, 3(1), 29-38. swales, j. m. (1990). genre analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. swales, j. m., & feak, c. b. (2001). academic writing for graduate students: essential task and skill. ann arbor: university of michigan. swales, j. m. (2005). research genre; exploration and application. new york: cambridge university press. wijayanti, s. h. (2017). the moves of indonesian application letters. lingua cultura, 11(1), 39-45. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 163 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 163-167 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.4057 teaching spoken narrative by using silent viewing video technique to senior high school students ana muslimah department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university jl. airlangga 4, surabaya 60258, indonesia 11020084005.ana@gmail.com received: 11th october 2017/revised: 12th december 2017/accepted: 09th january 2018 how to cite: muslimah, a. (2018). teaching spoken narrative by using silent viewing video technique to senior high school students. lingua cultura, 12(2), 163-167. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.4057 abstract this research aimed to describe the implementation of silent viewing technique in teaching speaking narrative to develop students’ ideas in learning process. there were 34 senior high school students in sman 1 driyorejo who participated in this qualitative study. this research used three instruments such as checklist observation, interview, and questionnaire. the result shows that the use of silent viewing technique is successful and effective. the students can make good storytelling after the implementation. it also makes the students easily absorb the new knowledge and share their ideas and opinions based on what they have watched in the silent video. keywords: teaching speaking, narrative speaking, silent video viewing introduction nowadays, learning a second or foreign language is important for the students to communicate with native speakers. to communicate with other people means to express thoughts, feelings, and information effectively through the four language skills. as known, speaking is one of the important skills in english because that it is the first mode in which children acquire language. it is part of the daily involvement of most people with language activities (efrizal, 2012). this is also supported by fisher and frey (2007). they explained that speaking was human act and process of sharing and delivering information, emotions, and ideas in the spoken form. by mastering english speaking skill, people can communicate with all people from foreign countries. the teacher should motivate the students to use english and create an enjoyable atmosphere to make the students interested in learning speaking. according to anjomshoa and sadighi (2015), the motivation is an important contribution to language achievement in the learning process. it measures the knowledge structure of languages such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. it also includes the four basic skills of the language such as listening and reading (receptive skills), and speaking and writing (productive skills). the teacher has to be creative to combine methods, materials, and techniques to attract the students’ interests. one way to help students to improve their speaking is by using a video in language classes. moreover, cakir (2006) explained that most of the teachers liked the video because it could motivate the students, brought the real world into the classroom situation, contextualized language naturally, and enabled the students to experience authentic language learning. moreover, the video is a learning tool which can provide students with visual, contextual, and non-verbal features. these features can help the students to compensate any lack of comprehension. in addition, harmer (2002) affirmed that the use of videotapes had been a common feature in language teaching for many years. it is not a new thing to use a video in speaking lesson. this statement is also supported by berk (2009) who believed that video materials could draw on the students’ multiple intelligences and learning styles to maximize their understanding. it means that when videos and multimedia learning are combined, an empirical basis is provided for the use of videos in the process of teaching languages. he also mentioned that such courses enhanced the students’ comprehension and understanding and would be more beneficial for the students in their early stages. in other words, harmer (2002) classified five video viewing techniques for teaching and learning process. those were fast forward, silent viewing for language, silent viewing for music, freeze frame, and partial viewing. according to harmer (2002), viewing techniques are designed to build 164 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 163-167 student’s interest through activities of predicting. therefore, when they watch the overall video sequence, they will have some expectation about it. based on those explanations, one of the useful techniques that the teacher used to teach speaking narrative is silent viewing technique. according to shahani and tahriri (2015), in silent viewing technique, the teacher plays a video with normal speed without the sound. then, the students have to guess what the characters are saying. the teacher can also play the video with sound again to check the answers. furthermore, jenskin and jhonson (2011) stated that silent viewing was an excellent way for stimulating speaking and writing. the students could sharpen their interpretations of the story, actress, and many actions depicted on the screen. moreover, the students will predict the story in the video. they also have to retell the story that they have seen. it means that silent viewing video technique can increase student’s ideas or imagination about the story. in this study, silent viewing is used to teach spoken narrative. it allows the students to think about some information which they get by watching a video in silence. to use this technique, the researcher adopts the technique from stempleski and tomalin (2001). it consists of several ways in its implementation. those are pre-teaching, preparing the situation, giving questions, playing the sequence, discussing, playing the sequence again, and comparing the students’ guesses. it is interesting to conduct a study about silent viewing technique for the students in english speaking class. it is because the video may carry out many kinds of teaching technique to fulfill students’ needs in speaking english speaking skill. in the present study, the researcher is fascinated to investigate the use of silent viewing technique in teaching narrative spoken to senior high school students in sman 1 driyorejo. thus, the benefit of this study is to provide the information in the field of video teaching technique. it also expected to be beneficial for the teachers. it is necessary to have a clear idea of how to use the appropriate technique in teaching process to make the learning process more interesting for the students. based on the background of the study, the statements of the problem are formulated. first, it is how the implementation of silent viewing video technique is in teaching spoken narrative to the eleventh graders. second, it is how the students’ and teacher’s responses are toward the implementation of silent viewing video technique in teaching and learning spoken narrative. methods this research used qualitative research method to describe the use of silent viewing video technique in teaching spoken narrative. according to donald et al. (1985), qualitative research also requires small purposive samples because it analyzes the information in-depth analysis. thus, this research described the phenomenon or activity in the form of words, without any statistical calculation. in qualitative research, the data collected are in the form of words or pictures, documented books, and the other notes rather than numbers. the subject of the study is the students of xi ipa 4 in sman 1 driyorejo which consists of 34 students. moreever, an english teacher of xi ipa 4 also would be observed. the data are collected by utilizing three instruments. first, the researcher uses observation checklist as guidance to observe the use of silent viewing video technique in teaching spoken narrative text. the researcher takes the data during the observations at the beginning of the lesson from the material explanation, and the application of the technique, to the closing of the lesson. second, the interview is used to gather data about opinions, beliefs, and feelings by using their words. the interview can be classified into three types. those are the structured interview, unstructured interview, and semi-structured interview. the structured interview is an interview in which the respondents have to answer the ordered questions guided by the interviewer. meanwhile, the unstructured interview is when the interviewer gives the questions which are relatively unpredictable. then, the combination of two types of interviews mentioned is the semi-structured interview. the researcher uses the structured interview in this study because it can elicit more personal responses and viewpoints of the students about their perceptions related to the questions about the used technique. the researcher gives the teacher about 20 questions and uses a video recorder to avoid the missing information that may happen during the interview. third, the questionnaire is related to the students’ responses after the teacher has used silent viewing video technique in teaching spoken narrative. the students are asked to choose the appropriate answers from the questions based on their opinion and thought about the techniques and how the technique can motivate them. the other instruments that the researcher uses are rubric speaking score by thornbury (2005). it aims to measure the students’ fluency in learning activities. that rubric includes performance, content, fluency, accuracy, pronunciation, and vocabulary. those instruments are regarded sufficient to investigate how the implementation of silent viewing technique in teaching spoken narrative. the procedures start by giving narrative video with silent viewing as the technique in every meeting. after the material has been given, the students have to retell the story in turn. the feedback from the teacher during the teaching and learning process is given at the end of the lesson. results and discussions in recent years, technology has been integrated with the curriculum to maximize communicative language teaching. according to berk (2009), video is an audiovisual educational tool. it is an important aid to stimulate and facilitate foreign language learning. therefore, teaching english in countries like indonesia has become more interesting and challenging for both teachers and students with the emergence of videos. it is because video provides students with content, context, and language. in the implementation, the teacher uses silent viewing technique systematically. based on stempleski and tomalin (2001). they asserted that video was used in every level of proficiency both as additional material for language reinforcement and skill practice. the observation was held on april 2nd, 8th, and 22nd, 2015 in sman 1 driyorejo. the class started at 12.15pm. before the class begins, the teacher prepared the lcd, laptop, and active speaker. in pre-teaching, the teacher greeted the students and stimulated them through a brainstorming activity. many students were able to answer the teacher’s questions about narrative correctly. the teacher told the students that the material is about narrative. then, in preparing the situation, the teacher showed power point 165teaching spoken narrative.... (ana muslimah) slide and some examples of narrative cover stories such as pinocchio, beauty and the beast, snow white, and others. after that, the teacher gave some questions to the students about narrative text in general. the questions were the definition, the generic structure, the language features, and the function of narrative. before playing the sequence, the teacher informed the students that they would watch a narrative video using silent viewing technique in the first meeting. the video would be played without sound (silent). then, the students should guess what the story in the video is about. sometimes the teacher stopped the video to stimulate student’s thinking. the teacher showed the title and the image of the video and distributes a paper of learning sheet. the teacher told the students that they should take notes about the story and use the notes to help them retell the story. moreover, the teacher said that they had to answer the question on learning sheet. after the video had been played, the teacher gave the students some minutes to answer the questions in the learning sheet and asked them what the story is about. then, the teacher and the students discussed the silent video. in the discussion, the students participated actively. then, they discussed their prediction, and the teacher played the video again and turned the volume on to compare and to know the students’ prediction correctly. in the last activity, the teacher asked the students to perform. the teacher gave some suggestions and comments after the students performed. from those three meetings, the students showed a positive response. for example, they were active to answer and asked some questions related to the material. after each student performed, the teacher gave reinforcement to the students by saying “excellent, good, give applause, and others”. the teacher did not forget to give an evaluation of the students’ speaking performance. the teacher evaluated the content related to the generic structure of the narrative when the students performed in front of the class. the teacher explained that the evaluation could cover some aspects such as intonation, pronunciation, gesture, and expression. then, the teacher commented on student’s performance which lacks those aspects. based on the evaluation of students’ result, the researcher categorizes it into several classifications according to thornbury (2005). there are 30 students who get the score of 70 – 92. around 11 students get score of > 70, 17 students get > 80,2 score. moreover, there are students who get the score of > 90. there are only 4 students gotten the score of < 70. most of the students show an active response in the learning process to predict the story in the video. this result is supported by jenskin and jhonson (2011). they stated that silent viewing was an excellent way to stimulate students’ speaking ability. moreover, from performance show, most of the students have a good score from some aspects. table 1 shows the result of students’ speaking score. moreover, the researcher also uses the questionnaire to know the students’ response toward the implementation of this technique. many students have the positive response to the use of silent viewing as a media in learning spoken narrative. the result is shown in table 2. table 1 students’ result in using silent viewing technique in speaking no students number score no students number score 1 6254 69 18 6276 90 2 6255 80 19 6277 83 3 6257 72 20 6278 70 4 6258 89 21 6279 92 5 6260 81 22 6280 70 6 6261 68 23 6281 81 7 6262 74 24 6282 80 8 6264 81 25 6283 79 9 6265 89 26 6284 87 10 6266 82 27 6285 70 11 6267 87 28 6286 81 12 6268 76 29 6287 77 13 6269 79 30 6288 58 14 6272 77 31 6289 87 15 6273 78 32 6290 88 16 6274 83 33 6291 68 17 6275 89 34 6292 82 table 2 the result of questionnaire number options number options a b c d a b c d 1 23 11 7 7 19 6 1 2 22 12 8 4 20 9 1 3 11 22 1 9 6 21 5 1 4 3 27 4 10 14 19 1 5 11 17 4 2 total 99 183 52 6 6 10 22 3 1 166 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 163-167 there are 10 questions in the questionnaire. each of question was followed by four options: (a) very interested, (b) interested, (c) less interested, (d) not interested. the first and second questions are related to the students’ opinion about the implementation of video in speaking narrative. in the first question, 23 students choose option (a), 11 students pick option (b), and no students choose the option (c) and (d). for the second question, 22 students select option (a) and 12 students choose option (b). the third and fourth question is about the implementation of silent viewing as a technique in teaching spoken narrative. in the third question, there are 11 students choosing option (a), 22 students in option (b), and only one student in option (c). for the fourth question, there are only three students in option (a), 27 students in option (b), and 4 students in option (c). in the fifth question, 11 students choose option (a), and 17 students choose option (b). moreover, in the same question, 4 students choose option (c), and 2 students choose option (d). then, sixth and seventh questions are about the students’ opinion in using silent viewing video technique in teaching spoken narrative. in the sixth question, there are 10 students choosing option (a), 22 students in option (b), 3 students in option (c), and 1 student in option (d). next, for the seventh question 7 students select option (a), and 19 students pick option (b). however, 6 students choose option (c), and 1 student selects the option (d). then, two questions (number 8 and 9) are regarding the students’ opinion about their achievement in using silent viewing video technique in teaching spoken narrative. in the eighth question, 4 students vote for the option (a), 20 students for option (b), 9 students for option (c), and 1 student for option (d). moreover, for the ninth question, 6 students choose option (a), and 21 students pick option (b). then, 5 students agree in option (c), and 1 student chooses option (d). the last one question is related to students’ motivation in using silent viewing video technique. in the last question, 14 students choose option (a), 19 students for option (b), and 1 student for option (c). based on the result mentioned, it shows that most of the students are interested in silent viewing video. it can be seen that the options (a) and (b) are chosen by students. the students enjoy predicting the story in the video. moreover, it makes them easy to find some ideas when they start to make good storytelling after watching the video. however, some students are still afraid to share their opinion in discussing. it is shown from options (c) and (d) chosen by the few students. not only the researcher observes the students’ response, but the researcher also interviews the teacher to know the detail information about silent viewing technique. based on the result of teachers’ interview on april 22th, 2015, silent viewing technique by using a video for teaching spoken narrative can stimulate students’ ideas and their imagination (jenskin & jhonson, 2011). there are 20 questions for the teacher. from the result of the interview, it shows that the teacher uses silent viewing technique because she wants to vary her technique by using a video. it aims to make the students enjoy, relax, and feel excited. moreover, she states that silent viewing is implemented through some steps. those steps are preparing and presenting the material; asking the students to watch the video and taking some notes; asking some questions to stimulate the students thinking; asking the students to guess and predict what happen in the video; playing the video again with sound; asking the students to retell the story; and giving individual performance score (stempleski & tomalin, 2001). in teaching and learning process, she usually walks around the class, tries to encourage the students to be active, controls the class, gives a comment, answers the students’ questions, and corrects the students’ errors in speaking. sometimes, she also finds some problems. first, it is lack of students’ acceptance in silent viewing video technique. although the use of video in silent viewing as a technique is not new in teaching and learning process, the students do not like it. sometimes students feel uncomfortable with the activity which they should think and try to understand all parts of the story. however, they can accept this technique in learning speaking. second, the students are silent in the classroom. they are not confident to share their opinion because they are afraid that they make some mistakes. third, it is the domination of performance by some students. the domination of one or two students in the classroom activities exists. they think that they know and can predict the story well. thus, the other students are not confident when they want to be active in the classroom. fourth, there is students’ boredom. this problem comes when the students watch the video and try to understand the story. they are not patient to hear the sound of the video. fifth, there is a lack of vocabulary. it is faced by students in english lesson. this can be solved by giving new words as many as possible every time, and the vocabulary can be increased automatically. in this activity, most students need english dictionary to look for the meaning of the words which they do not know before. this takes much time and makes them feel bored. last, the students are not confident. this is a natural problem when they want to express their opinion or when they will retell the story in front of the class. they do not believe that they can do it well. it can be solved by teachers’ motivation. sometimes the teacher can give a question to make the students more active to speak in the learning process. conclusions silent viewing is a technique which can be used in the video-based lesson to teach speaking (harmer, 2002). it is an effective technique that the teacher uses in teaching spoken narrative in sman 1 driyorejo. based on the result of the observation, there are some conclusions in the implementation of silent viewing technique. first, the teacher uses silent viewing technique by implementing some steps. it starts by explaining the language feature and generic structure; showing the video; playing the video at normal speed and with lowest volume; stopping the video; stimulating students thinking by giving some questions related to the video (discussion), predicting what characters say or guessing what happen in the story; and playing the video again with sound. in the implementation of this technique, it makes teaching and learning process effectively. there is progress from the first meeting until the last meeting. second, there are some difficulties with the silent viewing technique that has been implemented. there are some students who have little problems when they watch the movie. moreover, there are some problems like the lack of students’ acceptance, silent students in the classroom, domination of high performer student, students’ boredom, lack of students’ vocabulary, less of self-confidence. however, the teacher can overcome those problems. 167teaching spoken narrative.... (ana muslimah) third, the students’ response in speaking ability can be known from students’ scores in five components of speaking. those are content, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and accuracy (thornbury, 2005). most of them get an excellent and good score. few students get an average and poor score. they expect that silent viewing video technique can enhance their ability in speaking. by using silent viewing technique, it has a great effect on the students’ speaking skill. the limitation of this present research is the eleventh graders of science class (xii ipa 4) in senior high school. furthermore, this study is examined the use of silent viewing technique to make the students more active and interest in the narrative lesson as stated in the result before. in other words, the researcher conducts this study in order to give some input to the teacher and students who are involved in the process of teaching and learning english especially speaking. the researcher is suggested that other researcher who will use silent viewing video technique in teaching and learning speaking should give an appropriate and interesting video for students. references anjomshoa, l., & sadighi, f. 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(ratna handayani; dkk) 45 eksistensi shinto dalam shogatsu ratna handayani1; felicia2; sonya munadir syah3 1,2,3 japanese department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, ratnahandayani@binus.edu@binus.edu abstract shinto as one of traditional beliefs of japanese people unconsciously gives much influence in the cultural activities of japanese people. therefore, the authors had examined the existence of shinto in shogatsu by distributing questionnaires to the 20 respondents of osaka university students. the article clarifies the intensity level and purpose of japanese people in carrying out shogatsu, in relation to the shinto as a traditional belief of japanese people. by use of the library research, analytical descriptive, and questionnaire method, it can be concluded that the majority of japanese people do the activity of shogatsu as a custom or tradition, without understanding the real purpose of shogatsu. actually, shogatsu is highly associated to shinto elements in it. keywords: shinto, shogatsu, tradition abstrak shinto sebagai salah satu kepercayaan tradisional masyarakat jepang, tanpa disadari banyak berpengaruh dalam kegiatan kebudayaan masyarakat jepang. oleh karena itu, penulis telah meneliti keberadaan shinto dalam shogatsu melalui angket yang disebarkan pada 20 responden mahasiswa osaka university. artikel ini menjelaskan tingkat intensitas dan tujuan masyarakat jepang melakukan kegiatan dalam shogatsu, sehubungan dengan keberadaan shinto sebagai kepercayaan tradisional masyarakat jepang. dengan menggunakan metode penelitian kepustakaan, deskriptif analisis, dan angket, dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar masyarakat jepang melakukan kegiatan shogatsu sebagai kebiasaan atau tradisi, tanpa memahami tujuan kegiatan shogatsu yang sesungguhnya. sebenarnya shogatsu sangat berkaitan dengan unsur shinto di dalamnya. kata kunci: shinto, shogatsu, tradisi jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 46 pendahuluan untuk menguasai suatu bahasa tidaklah cukup hanya dengan mempelajari bahasanya saja, melainkan perlu ditunjang dengan mempelajari budaya negara pengguna bahasa tersebut. ketika bonvillain (2003) membicarakan makna dan pemakaian bahasa, ia menekankan bahwa bahasa mengandung makna dan maksud dari si pembicara, yang dapat diketahui dari budaya dan bahasa. pentingnya keterkaitan peran budaya dalam pemakaian bahasa ini dikatakannya bahwa bahasa diperkaya fungsinya dari orang yang menggunakannya. fungsi bahasa dan makna yang disampaikan adalah situasi, sosial, dan budaya. shinto sebagai salah satu kepercayaan tradisional masyarakat jepang, tanpa mereka sadari banyak berpengaruh dalam kegiatan yang merupakan kebudayaan masyarakat jepang. berkenaan dengan itu, kami akan meneliti studi eksistensi shinto sebagai kepercayaan tradisional jepang yang diterapkan pada salah satu kebudayaan jepang, yang tiap tahun dilakukan oleh masyarakat jepang, yakni shogatsu. responden penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa osaka university. di jepang, mayoritas masyarakatnya menganut agama buddha dan shinto. setelah itu, mayoritas terbanyak adalah kristen yang mulai berkembang pesat. di antaranya ada pula orang yang menganut 2 agama sekaligus. menganut salah satu agama memang dianggap tidak begitu penting oleh masyarakat jepang. pada umumnya, orang jepang tidak tahu ajaran agama dan tidak punya minat pada ajarannya. datang ke kuil atau melakukan suatu ritual dan perayaan bagi orang jepang sendiri itu semua merupakan kebiasaan, bukan merupakan kegiatan agama (ishizawa, 2005). shinto merupakan kepercayaan pribumi jepang, yang bermula pada sejarah kuno dan mitos pada masyarakat jepang. kegiatan peribadatan mengutamakan pemujaan terhadap arwah nenek moyang dan alam lingkungan. sebagai agama asli bangsa jepang, shinto telah memberikan banyak pengaruh di dalam kehidupan masyarakat dan kebudayaan jepang (akasaka, 1989:113). arti kata shinto yang paling mendasar adalah kepercayaan religius, yang ditemukan pada adat setempat dan diwariskan secara turun temurun di jepang, termasuk juga di dalamnya kepercayaan pada hal gaib (tsuda, 1965:10). di dalam shinto tidak ada doktrin ataupun kitab suci, namun kepercayaan ditunjukkan dengan perayaan. sebelum adanya kuil shinto (jinja), rakyat biasanya mendatangi berbagai tempat alam untuk memuja kami. pada salah satu tempat tertentu, mereka berkumpul pada hari tertentu, mengundang datang dewa, dan mengungkapkan rasa terima kasih dengan memberikan persembahan (inohana dan edizal, 2002:95). shogatsu adalah sebuah perayaan tahun baru di jepang dan merupakan salah satu kegiatan tahunan terpenting bagi masyarakat jepang. perayaan shogatsu tidak hanya sehari, tapi dirayakan selama 3 hingga 7 hari pertama bulan januari. meskipun begitu, perayaan utamanya tetap terpusat pada tanggal 1 januari. shogatsu juga sering disebut dengan oshogatsu, untuk bahasa lebih sopannya (sudjianto, 2002:101). menurut story of shogatsu and ‘koh hajime’ dalam nippon kodo (2007), bagi masyarakat jepang shogatsu memiliki makna sebagai semangat baru di permulaan tahun yang baru. tenaga yang telah terkuras di tahun kemarin akan terisi dan segar kembali di awal tahun yang baru. semua orang merayakan tahun baru dengan gembira dan juga berdoa semoga di tahun yang akan datang akan terus hidup dalam damai dan dilimpahi segala kebaikan. tujuan perayaan shogatsu untuk menyambut datangnya sang dewa terhormat, yang biasa disebut oleh masyarakat jepang dengan toshigamisama. yang dimaksud dengan toshigami adalah kami yang turun ke dunia pada saat tahun baru, dengan tujuan untuk menghidupkan kembali energi bumi (dunia). semua persiapan yang dilakukan menjelang shogatsu ditujukan untuk toshigami eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 47 tersebut. sebutan untuk toshigami kini juga ditujukan kepada arwah para leluhur keluarga. oleh karena itu, perayaan shogatsu juga merupakan salah satu bentuk penghormatan kepada arwah para leluhur (brandon dan stephan, 1994:17). tujuan jangka panjang penelitian ini adalah memberikan pemahaman yang mendalam tentang kebudayaan jepang, yang nantinya dapat berguna dalam pemakaian bahasa jepang, khususnya bagi mahasiswa sastra jepang universitas bina nusantara. tujuan jangka pendek penelitian ini adalah memberikan pemahaman yang mendalam tentang budaya jepang, khususnya tentang eksistensi shinto dalam shogatsu melalui hasil angket, dan memahami terdapatnya unsur-unsur shinto pada shogatsu, serta dapat memperkaya materi mata kuliah masyarakat dan kebudayaan jepang. metode penelitian metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah studi kepustakaan dan deskriptif analisis. selain itu, digunakan juga metode angket untuk mendapatkan data tentang pandangan masyarakat jepang terhadap keberadaan shinto dalam shogatsu. studi literatur dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan data dari perpustakaan universitas bina nusantara dan japan foundation, serta mencari data dengan menggunakan internet. setelah data kepustakaan terkumpul, dilanjutkan dengan metode deskriptif analisis dan angket. teknik angket digunakan untuk mendapatkan informasi yang benar dari subjek penelitian, dengan memperhatikan ruang lingkup penelitian. bentuk pertanyaan dalam angket bersifat tertutup, yakni responden diberi pilihan untuk menjawab pertanyaan sesuai dengan pendapat dan pandangan pribadinya. angket disebarkan kepada 20 orang responden, yakni remaja jepang, khususnya mahasiswa jepang dari universitas di jepang. cara penyebaran angket menggunakan teknik angket tidak langsung, yakni peneliti mengirim angket kepada mahasiswa jepang tanpa bertemu langsung dengan responden dan responden mengirim kembali angket yang sudah dijawab tersebut. hasil data angket berasal dari angket yang telah disebar secara tidak langsung kepada 20 responden, yang kemudian dikembalikan oleh 17 responden. pembahasan gambaran singkat hasil dari data angket hasil dari data angket tersebut terdiri dari 2 macam, yakni hasil angket tingkat partisipasi responden terhadap 12 macam kegiatan pada shogatsu dan hasil angket berdasarkan tujuan responden melakukan tiap jenis kegiatan pada shogatsu, yakni: oosouji, mochitsuki, memajang kadomatsu, memasang shimenawa, memasang shimekazari, memajang kagamimochi, makan kagamimochi bersama-sama setelah perayaan tahun baru, memajang gohei atau shide, memajang sakaki, melakukan hatsumode, melakukan norito di otera, serta melakukan shinsen di otera. analisis konsep shinto dalam melakukan kegiatan shogatsu shogatsu merupakan perayaan tahun baru di jepang yang biasa dirayakan oleh seluruh rakyat jepang. dalam shougatsu biasanya terdapat 12 jenis kegiatan yang dilakukan menjelang tahun baru, pada hari tahun baru, dan setelah perayaan tahun baru selesai. dari data angket, dapat diketahui alasan responden melakukan kegiatan shogatsu, baik karena memahami tujuan kegiatan dalam shogatsu tersebut dilakukan, maupun karena kebiasaan atau karena alasan kesenangan atau keindahan. berikut ini kami akan menganalisis terdapatnya konsep shinto, khususnya pada unsur-unsur shinto, dalam tujuan responden melakukan tiap kegiatan shogatsu dari 12 kegiatan yang ada. namun, sebelumnya akan kami jelaskan terlebih dulu hasil data angket mengenai tingkat partisipasi responden terhadap tiap kegiatan tersebut. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 48 analisis unsur shinto dalam melakukan kegiatan oosouji pada shogatsu sebelum menganalisis data angket tujuan responden melakukan kegiatan oosouji, kami akan menjelaskan tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan oosouji pada shogatsu. berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden terhadap pelaksanaan oosouji, menunjukkan bahwa 6 persen responden tidak penah melakukan oosouji, tidak ada responden yang jarang sekali atau kadang-kadang melakukan ousouji, selebihnya yakni 94 persen responden melakukan kegiatan oosouji dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. berdasarkan data tersebut menunjukkan cukup tinggi jumlah responden yang melakukan kegiatan oosouji menjelang shogatsu. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 1, “mengapa anda melakukan oosouji secara besar-besaran sebelum hari shogatsu?.” responden yang memilih jawaban a. karena tradisi atau kebiasaan, sebanyak 76 persen. sementara itu, tidak ada yang memilih jawaban b. karena menyenangkan, maupun memilih c. untuk menyambut toshigami. sedangkan responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan oosouji tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 1 tersebut. untuk mengetahui jawaban yang tepat dari pertanyaan angket tersebut, responden harus memahami arti oosouji terlebih dulu. menurut sudjianto (2002:81), oosouji adalah kegiatan pembersihan secara besar-besaran yang dilakukan menjelang shogatsu. oosuji tidak hanya dilakukan di rumah-rumah, tapi juga di kuil, gedung sekolah, perkantoran, dan tempat lain. kegiatan pembersihan yang dilakukan yaitu meliputi menyapu, mengepel, serta mengelap seisi rumah untuk menghilangkan seluruh debu dan kotoran yang ada. biasanya semua orang ikut terlibat dalam kegiatan ini. mengenai tujuan dilakukannya oosouji, brandon (1994:17) mengatakan bahwa, tujuan dari oosouji adalah untuk menyambut datangnya sang dewa terhormat, yang biasa disebut oleh masyarakat jepang dengan toshigamisama. mereka meyakini bahwa sang toshigami hanya mau mendatangi rumah-rumah atau tempat-tempat yang dalam keadaan bersih. berkaitan dengan tujuan dilakukannya kegiatan oosouji pada shogatsu, menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan oosouji, yakni terdapatnya unsur penyucian (harai) dalam konsep shinto pada kegiatan oosouji. hal ini sesuai dengan yang dikatakan oleh robinson (2006), bahwa di dalam shinto terdapat 4 penegasan dalam jiwa shinto dan salah satunya adalah kebersihan fisik. kebersihan fisik berkaitan dengan penyucian. dalam konsep ini ditegaskan bahwa kebersihan adalah unsur yang penting dalam shinto. kondisi kita harus dalam keadaan bersih atau suci bila ingin bertemu kami, misalnya saat mengunjungi kuil. demikian pula dengan oosouji, masyarakat meyakini bahwa keadaan rumah harus bersih bila ingin dikunjungi oleh kami tersebut. berdasarkan analisis di atas, jawaban yang tepat dari pertanyaan angket nomor 1 adalah c. untuk menyambut toshigami. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab dengan benar. analisis melakukan kegiatan mochitsuki pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan mochitsuki pada shogatsu, 12 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan mochitsuki, selebihnya yakni 88 persen melakukan kegiatan mochitsuki, dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 2, “mengapa anda mengikuti kegiatan mochitsuki beberapa hari menjelang shogatsu?.” responden yang memilih jawaban a. karena tradisi atau kebiasaan, sebanyak 53 persen, dan yang memilih jawaban b. karena menyenangkan, sebanyak 24 persen. sementara itu, tidak ada yang memilih jawaban c. untuk persembahanan kepada kami sebagai rasa syukur. sedangkan responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan mochitsuki, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 2 tersebut. eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 49 untuk mengetahui jawaban yang tepat, responden harus memahami lebih bulu makna mochitsuki. mochitsuki, menurut sudjianto (2002:65-66) merupakan kegiatan membuat mochi (kue beras) secara tradisional, yang dilakukan 3 hari menjelang tahun baru. bahan dasarnya menggunakan beras khusus yang disebut dengan mochigome. menurut analisis kami, dalam kegiatan mochitsuki terdapat konsep shinto di dalamnya, yakni terdapat unsur persembahan (shinsen) dalam shinto. hal ini dikarenakan mochi yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan mochitsuki, sebagian dipersembahkan kepada kami. makna dari mochitsuki adalah ungkapan rasa syukur manusia kepada kami. dengan menumbuk padi dengan usu dan kine, serta memberikan hasil dari mochitsuki tersebut kepada kami, maka manusia dapat mengekspresikan wujud rasa terima kasih mereka kepada kami yang telah memberkati mereka sepanjang tahun. menurut analisis kami, mochi memiliki kaitan erat dengan unsur persembahan dalam shinto karena mochi selalu digunakan di berbagai ritual shinto sebagai persembahan kepada kami. hal tersebut sesuai dengan pendapat ono (1992:54), yang mengatakan bahwa beras dipersembahkan di banyak kesempatan dalam perayaan dan ritual-ritual shinto, baik dalam bentuk beras, maupun sesudah diolah menjadi kue beras yang dikenal dengan mochi. beras merupakan persembahan dan pujian kepada dewa di jepang. berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 2, ”mengapa anda mengikuti kegiatan mochitsuki beberapa hari menjelang shogatsu?.” maka jawaban yang tepat adalah c. untuk persembahan kepada kami sebagai rasa syukur. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. analisis melakukan kegiatan memajang kadomatsu di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden terhadap kegiatan memajang kadomatsu di rumah, terlihat hanya 7 persen responden yang tidak pernah memajang kadomatsu, selebihnya yakni 93 persen memajang dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 3, “mengapa anda memajang kadomatsu di rumah anda pada shogatsu?.” berdasarkan data angket, terdapat 4 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/ kebiasaan, sejumlah 1 persen responden menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah, sementara tidak ada responden yang menjawab c. sebagai penunjuk jalan bagi kami untuk datang berkunjung. responden yang tidak memajang kadomatsu pada shogatsu tidak diperkenankan menjawab peranyaan nomor 3 tersebut. kadomatsu menurut brandon dan stephan (1994:64), adalah dekorasi tradisional shogatsu yang terbuat dari rangkaian bambu, batang pohon cemara, dan ranting pohon plum, yang biasanya diletakkan di depan serambi atau pintu rumah. selain itu, juga dipasang di depan pertokoan, sekolah, maupun perkantoran. menurut analisis kami, kadomatsu berfungsi untuk mengundang, menjemput, atau menyambut datangnya kami atau arwah para leluhur. hal ini sesuai dengan sakurai (1991:40-42), bahwa penggunaan tumbuhan hijau merupakan hal yang vital dalam shinto karena tumbuhan hijau tersebut akan menjadi tanda atau penunjuk jalan bagi kami untuk datang berkunjung. selain berfungsi sebagai penunjuk jalan untuk kami, kadomatsu juga memiliki fungsi untuk mencegah masuknya unsur-unsur negatif atau roh-roh jahat. menurut sakurai (1991:40-42), bambu dan cemara juga digunakan dalam shinto sebagai simbol penyucian. hanya dengan meletakkan bambu atau tumbuhan cemara di suatu tempat tertentu, menandakan bahwa tempat tersebut telah disucikan. oleh karena itu, menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto, yakni terdapatnya unsur penyucian (harai) dalam kegiatan memajang kadomatsu pada shogatsu. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 50 berdasarkan analisis di atas, jawaban yang tepat untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 3, ”mengapa anda memajang kadomatsu di rumah anda pada shogatsu”, adalah jawaban c. sebagai petunjuk jalan bagi kami untuk datang berkunjung. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. analisis memasang shimenawa di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan memasang shimenawa di rumah, memperlihatkan 41 persen responden tidak pernah memasang shimenawa, selebihnya, yakni 59 persen mengikuti kegiatan tsb dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 4, “mengapa anda memasang shimenawa di rumah anda pada shogatsu.” terdapat 8 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi atau kebiasaan, 1 persen responden yang menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah, dan tidak ada responden yang menjawab c. untuk melindungi hal-hal negatif dan roh-roh jahat. responden yang tidak memasang shimenawa pada shogatsu, tidak diperkenankan menjawab angket pertanyaan nomor 4 tersebut. shimenawa 「注連縄」 merupakan tali atau tambang yang terbuat dari jerami yang dijalin hingga membentuk hiasan, yang digantung secara melintang di depan gerbang atau pintu masuk. pada shimenawa biasanya sering ditambahkan shide, yaitu kertas berbentuk zig-zag yang sering digunakan dalam ritual shinto. shimenawa dipercaya dapat melindungi dari hal-hal negatif atau ketercemaran. (brandon dan stephan, 1994 : 51). menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan memasang shimenawa di rumah pada shogatsu, yakni terdapatnya unsur penyucian (harai) dalam kegiatan tersebut. menurut sakurai (1991: 42), di dalam shinto ada beberapa benda yang dipercaya dapat menyucikan serta melindungi dari ketercemaran dan roh-roh jahat atau hal-hal negatif lainnya, seperti bambu, shimenawa, tumbuhan sakaki, dan cemara. dengan menaruh benda-benda tersebut di suatu tempat, menandakan bahwa tempat tersebut telah disucikan. shimenawa sering digunakan di kuil-kuil shinto untuk mencegah masuknya roh jahat. berdasarkan analisis di atas, maka jawaban yang tepat untuk pertanyaan angket no. 4 mengapa anda memasang shimenawa di rumah anda pada shogatsu, adalah jawaban c. untuk melindungi dari hal-hal negatif dan roh-roh jahat. sementara tidak ada responden yang menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 4 tersebut dengan tepat. analisis memasang shimekazari di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan memasang shimekazari di rumah, terdapat 2 persen responden tidak pernah memasang shimekazari, selebihnya, yakni 71 persen mengikuti kegiatan tersebut dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 5, “mengapa anda memasang shimekazari di rumah anda pada shogatsu.”. terdapat 10 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/ kebiasaan, 1 persen responden yang menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah dan tidak ada responden yang menjawab c. untuk melindungi dari hal-hal negatif dan roh-roh jahat. sedangkan responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan memasang shimekazari, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 5 ini. shimekazari merupakan hiasan yang terbuat dari rangkaian shimenawa, yakni tali atau tambang dari jerami yang dijalin hingga membentuk hiasan yang digantung secara melintang di depan gerbang atau pintu masuk dan biasanya sering ditambahkan shide, yaitu kertas berbentuk zigzag dan sering digunakan dalam ritual shinto, serta ditambahkan pula ornamen khusus lainnya dan biasa dipasang di depan pintu masuk. fungsi shimekazari adalah menangkal masuknya roh jahat dan juga melambangkan sebuah keberuntungan (sudjianto, 2002:97). eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 51 tiga buah ornamen yang paling umum pada shimekazari adalah daidai (jeruk masam), daun yuzuriha, dan daun urajiro. daidai memiliki arti ”dari generasi ke generasi”, semacam hubungan antara orang tua dan anak. daun yuzuriha memiliki makna dapat memperkuat hubungan antara ayah dan anak. sedangkan daun urajiro memiliki makna sebagai keharmonisan hubungan antara suami dan istri (stephan, 1994:55). menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto pada hiasan shimekazari, yakni terdapatnya unsur penyucian (harai) dalam shinto. pada shimekazari menggunakan bahan utama shimenawa, yakni tali jerami yang dijalin hingga membentuk hiasan yang digantung melintang, yang di dalam shinto digunakan untuk melindungi dari ketercemaran, sama halnya dengan fungsi shimekazari. shimekazari juga digunakan untuk menyambut datangnya toshigamisama, sehingga shimekazari juga harus terlihat hijau dan segar seperti halnya kadomatsu, dengan menambahkan tumbuhan hijau, yakni daun urajiro dan daun yuzuriha. selain itu, pada shimekazari juga sering ditambahkan shide, yang sering digunakan dalam ritual penyucian shinto. seperti yang dikatakan oleh takemoto (2006), bahwa kertas putih juga sering digunakan dalam ritual shinto sebagai simbol penyucian, seperti halnya shide (kertas berbentuk zig-zag) yang sering digunakan dalam berbagai ritual shinto. oleh karena itu, menurut analisis kami, pada hiasan shimekazari terdapat konsep shinto, yakni terdapat unsur penyucian (harai). berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan nomor 5, ”mengapa anda memajang kagamimochi di rumah anda pada shogatsu?.” jawaban yang tepat adalah c. untuk melindungi dari hal-hal negatif dan roh-roh jahat. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. analisis memajang kagamimochi di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan memajang kagamimochi di rumah, terdapat 24 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan memajang kagamimochi, selebihnya yakni 76 persen mengikuti kegiatan tersebut dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 6, “mengapa anda memajang kagamimochi di rumah anda pada shogatsu.” terdapat 53 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/ kebiasaan, 6 persen responden yang menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah dan 12 persen responden yang menjawab c. untuk persembahan kepada kami. sedangkan responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan memajang kagamimochi, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 6 ini. kagamimochi 「鏡餅」 adalah dekorasi khas shogatsu yang terbuat dari mochi berbentuk bundar pipih, yang diletakkan bertingkat dengan ukuran terbesar di bawah dan terkecil di atas. mochi ini disebut kagamimochi karena bentuknya yang menyerupai cermin. dalam bahasa jepang, kagami berarti cermin (sakurai, 1991:46). kagamimochi 「鏡餅」 merupakan makanan yang ditujukan kepada kami dan diletakkan di tempat-tempat tertentu yang diperkirakan kami akan hadir, seperti di dapur, ruang tengah atau pada kamidana. dekorasi ini menyimbolkan banyak hal, di antaranya adalah tahun yang datang dan pergi. menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto pada kegiatan memajang kagamimochi ini, yakni adanya unsur persembahan (shinsen) dalam shinto, yang salah satu bentuknya adalah makanan. kagamimochi digunakan sebagai persembahan khusus yang ditujukan untuk kami. kami merupakan roh spiritual suci yang dipuja dalam shinto dan mochi merupakan persembahan yang paling umum diberikan pada kami dalam berbagai perayaan dan ritual shinto. hal tersebut sesuai dengan ono (1992:54), bahwa beras dipersembahkan di banyak kesempatan dalam perayaan dan ritual-ritual shinto, baik dalam bentuk beras, maupun sesudah diolah menjadi kue beras yang dikenal dengan mochi. beras merupakan persembahan dan pujian kepada dewa di jepang. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 52 bentuk mochi yang bundar pipih seperti cermin, merupakan suatu hal yang sangat penting dalam shinto. dahulu, cermin sering digunakan sebagai pesembahan yang khusus diberikan kepada sang dewi matahari, yang disebut dengan amaterasu o mikami, sehingga cermin merupakan salah satu benda yang dianggap suci dalam shinto. hal tersebut sesuai dengan kato (1971:22), yang mengatakan bahwa dalam ajaran shinto ada beberapa benda yang dianggap suci seperti pedang, cermin, dan permata. tiga benda ini umumnya diletakkan di altar shinto (kamidana) sebagai persembahan pada kami. cermin dan permata merupakan benda milik amaterasu (dewi matahari). berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 6, ”mengapa anda memajang kagamimochi di rumah anda pada shogatsu?.” maka jawaban yang tepat adalah c. untuk persembahan kepada kami. terdapat 12 persen responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. analisis melakukan kegiatan makan kagamimochi bersama setelah perayaan shogatsu selesai berdasarkan data partisipasi responden dalam kegiatan makan kagamimochi bersama setelah perayaan shogatsu selesai, terdapat 35 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan tersebut, selebihnya terdapat 65 persen responden yang melakukan kegiatan makan kagamimochi bersama setelah perayaan shogatsu selesai, dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada angket nomor 7, “apa tujuan khusus anda turut makan kagamimochi yang dipotong untuk dimakan bersama setelah perayaan tahun baru selesai?.” terdapat 53 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/kebiasaan. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab b. mempererat kebersamaan, dan 6 persen responden yang menjawab c. mempercayai akan mendapat kekuatan kami dari mochi tersebut. bagi responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan tersebut, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan nomor 7 ini. seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya, mengenai makna kagamimochi 「鏡餅」 adalah dekorasi khas shogatsu yakni mochi berbentuk bundar pipih, yang disusun bertingkat dengan ukuran terbesar di bawah dan terkecil di atas. mochi ini disebut sebagai kagamimochi karena bentuknya yang menyerupai cermin. dalam bahasa jepang, kagami berarti cermin (sakurai, 1991:46). kagamimochi dipercaya mengandung kekuatan kami di dalamnya. oleh karena itu, juga sering disebut dengan chikaramochi, yang berarti “mochi kekuatan”. setelah perayaan tahun baru selesai, mochi tersebut dipotong untuk dimakan bersama-sama oleh seluruh anggota keluarga, karena dipercaya orang yang memakan mochi tersebut akan mendapatkan kekuatan kami dari chikaramochi tersebut. menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan makan kagamimochi bersama ini, yakni terdapatnya unsur yang keempat dalam shinto, yang disebut naorai. menurut ono (1992:57), naorai merupakan pesta jamuan sakral atau suci setelah perayaan atau upacara shinto. naorai berarti ”makan bersama-sama dengan kami”. dahulu di jepang, pada saat perayaan panen, terdapat kepercayaan bila kita memakan beras yang baru panen bersama kami, maka kita akan mendapatkan kekuatan kami. seperti yang dikatakan oleh inohana dan edizal (2002:96), bahwa dengan memakan beras baru pada perayaan panen padi bersama kami, mereka percaya dapat bersatu dengan jiwa kami dan memperoleh tenaga gaib dari kami. hal ini sama dengan kagamimochi yang dipercaya dapat memberikan kekuatan kami apabila memakannya. berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 7, “apa tujuan khusus anda turut makan kagamimochi yang dipotong untuk dimakan bersama, setelah perayaan tahun baru selesai”, maka jawaban yang tepat adalah c. mempercayai akan mendapat kekuatan kami dari mochi tersebut. berdasarkan angket tersebut, hanya 6 persen responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. sementara itu, sebagian besar menjawab a. karena tradisi/ kebiasaan. eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 53 analisis memajang gohei atau shide di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden terhadap kegiatan memajang gohei atau shide di rumah, terdapat 58 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan memajang gohei atau shide di rumah, sedangkan selebihnya yakni 42 persen responden memasang gohei atau shide di rumah dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. berdasarkan data angket pada pertanyaan nomor 8, “mengapa anda memajang gohei atau shide di rumah anda pada shogatsu?.” terdapat 29 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/kebiasaan, tidak ada responden yang menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah, dan 12 persen responden yang menjawab c. untuk persembahan kepada kami. sementara itu, responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan memajang gohei atau shide tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 8 ini. untuk mengetahui jawaban yang tepat dari pertanyaan angket tersebut, perlu memahami terlebih dulu arti gohei dan shide. gohei [御幣] merupakan dekorasi altar yang berupa 2 buah shide yang ditempel pada sebatang kayu atau bambu dan diletakkan di toshidana (altar khusus yang dipersiapkan untuk menyambut datangnya toshigami) pada saat shogatsu. selain itu, gohei juga diletakkan di tempat lain seperti di dapur dan tempat-tempat lainnya, yang diperkirakan kami akan hadir di tempat tersebut. gohei juga merupakan salah satu bentuk persembahan yang ditujukan kepada toshigamisama. berbeda dengan dekorasi shogatsu lainnya yang disimpan kembali setelah perayaan selesai, gohei tetap dibiarkan terpajang di tempatnya sepanjang tahun, namun selalu diganti atau diperbarui saat akhir tahun (brandon dan stephan, 1994:76). menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto pada fungsi hiasan gohei, yakni terdapatnya unsur persembahan dalam shinto yang disebut dengan shinsen. dalam hal ini, gohei sering dipakai dalam ritual shinto sebagai persembahan pada kami, dengan meletakkannya pada toshidana, yang merupakan altar untuk menaruh persembahan kepada kami pada saat shogatsu. hal tersebut sesuai dengan ono (1992:55), bahwa gohei juga merupakan salah satu persembahan bagi kami, yang terbuat dari 2 buah shide yang ditempel pada sebuah tangkai kayu atau bambu. pada saat shogatsu, gohei juga merupakan salah satu bentuk persembahan bagi sang toshigami. berdasarkan analisis di atas, maka untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 8, mengapa anda memajang gohei atau shide di rumah pada shogatsu?.” jawaban yang tepat adalah c. untuk persembahan kepada kami, yang dijawab oleh 12 persen responden. analisis memajang sakaki di rumah pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan memajang sakaki di rumah pada shogatsu, terdapat 46 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan itu, selebihnya adalah 54 persen responden melakukan kegiatan memajang sakaki di rumah pada shogatsu dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 9, “mengapa anda memajang sakaki di rumah pada shogatsu?.” terdapat 35 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/kebiasaan. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab b. supaya terlihat indah dan 12 persen responden yang menjawab c. untuk persembahan kepada kami. responden yang tidak melakukan kegiatan memajang sakaki tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan nomor 9 ini. ranting tumbuhan sakaki 「榊」 merupakan salah satu hiasan persembahan pada saat shogatsu yang diletakkan sepasang, di dalam vas bunga di atas altar khusus. selain itu, ada juga sakaki yang digunakan untuk persembahan dengan menempelkan kertas putih pada sakaki, yang disebut dengan tamagushi「玉串」(brandon dan stephan, 1994:76). jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 54 menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto pada fungsi ranting tumbuhan sakaki, yakni terdapatnya unsur persembahan (shinsen) dalam shinto, karena ranting sakaki digunakan sebagai persembahan simbolis dalam shinto pada shogatsu. hal tersebut sesuai dengan ono (1992:55), bahwa persembahan simbolis biasanya adalah ranting tumbuhan sakaki yang sudah ditempeli dengan kertas putih, yang disebut dengan tamagushi. selain itu, terdapatnya unsur penyucian (harae) dalam shinto pada fungsi sakaki, karena sakaki juga merupakan tumbuhan suci yang sering digunakan sebagai media penyucian dalam shinto. dengan menaruh benda-benda tersebut di suatu tempat, menandakan bahwa tempat tersebut telah disucikan. berdasarkan analisis di atas, maka untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 9, “mengapa anda memajang sakaku di rumah pada shogatsu?.” jawaban yang tepat adalah c. untuk persembahan kepada kami, yang dijawab oleh 12 persen responden. analisis melakukan kegiatan hatsumode pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket mengenai tingkat partisipasi responden dalam melakukan kegiatan hatsumode, terdapat 18 persen responden yang tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan hatsumode, selebihnya sebanyak 82 persen responden melakukan kegiatan hatsumode pada shogatsu, dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 10, “mengapa anda melakukan hatsumode pada shogatsu?.” terdapat 35 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/kebiasaan. sementara itu, tidak ada yang menjawab b. karena menyenangkan dan 35 persen responden menjawab c. untuk berdoa kepada kami. bagi responden yang tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan hatsumode, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 10 tersebut. kunjungan pertama ke kuil-kuil di tahun yang baru dikenal dengan istilah hatsumode「初詣 」. perayaan shogatsu dirayakan selama 3 hingga 7 hari berturut-turut, namun puncak perayaannya pada tanggal 1 januari.. pada pagi hari pertama saat tahun baru, yang disebut dengan gantan「元旦」, umumnya orang-orang pergi ke kuil-kuil shinto (jinja) ataupun ke kuil buddha (otera) untuk memohon keberkahan kepada kami agar diberikan kehidupan yang baik, kesehatan, serta kemakmuran selama sepanjang tahun. biasanya selama 3 hari berturut-turut, kuil akan dipenuhi oleh antrian orangorang yang datang berkunjung untuk berdoa (brandon dan stephan, 1994:109). menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan hatsumode, (kunjungan ke kuilkuil yang biasanya dilakukan di hari pertama di tahun baru, yang bertujuan untuk berdoa kepada kami). dalam konsep shinto, terdapat unsur norito (permohonan) pada hatsumode tersebut. pergi mengunjungi kuil dan berdoa merupakan salah satu bentuk ritual pemujaan dalam shinto. hal ini sesuai dengan ono (1992:55-56 ), bahwa unsur yang ketiga dalam pemujaan shinto adalah permohonan (norito). yang dimaksud dengan norito yaitu upacara permohonan yang dilakukan di kuil. berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 10, mengapa anda melakukan kegiatan hatsumode pada shogatsu?.” maka jawabah yang tepat adalah c. untuk berdoa kepada kami. terdapat 35 persen responden yang menjawab pertanyaan nomor 10 tersebut dengan tepat. analisis melakukan kegiatan norito pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan norito di jinja pada shogatsu, terdapat 64 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan norito di jinja pada shogatsu, sisanya 36 persen responden melakukan kegiatan norito di jinja, dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 55 pada pertanyaan angket nomor 11, “mengapa anda melakukan norito di jinja pada shogatsu?.” terdapat 18 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/kebiasaan. sementara itu, tidak ada responden yang menjawab b. karena menyenangkan dan 6 persen responden menjawab c. sebagai bentuk pemujaan dan memohon kepada kami. sementara itu, responden yang tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan tersebut tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 11. yang dimaksud dengan norito adalah upacara permohonan yang dilakukan di kuil (jinja). norito secara formalnya dipimpin oleh pendeta, namun juga dapat dilakukan secara individu. salah satu bentuk norito adalah permohonan yang dilakukan di kuil (jinja) pada saat shogatsu tersebut. orang-orang berdatangan ke kuil untuk melakukan permohonan kepada kami. menurut analsis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan norito di jinja (kuil), yakni terdapatnya unsur ketiga dalam shinto, norito, yang berarti permohonan pada kegiatan norito dalam shogatsu. menurut ono (1992:55-56), yang dimaksud dengan norito adalah upacara permohonan yang dilakukan di kuil. berdasarkan analisis di atas, mengenai pertanyaan angket nomor 11, “mengapa anda melakukan norito di jinja pada shogatsu?.” maka jawaban yang tepat adalah c. sebagai bentuk pemujaan dan memohon kepada kami. berdasarkan data angket, hanya 6 persen responden yang menjawab dengan tepat. analisis melakukan kegiatan melempar koin di jinja pada shogatsu berdasarkan data angket tingkat partisipasi responden melakukan kegiatan melempar koin di jinja, terdapat 12 persen responden tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan melempar koin di jinja pada saat shogatsu. untuk selebihnya, terdapat 88 persen responden yang melakukan kegiatan tersebut dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. pada pertanyaan angket nomor 12, “mengapa anda melempar koin di jinja pada saat shogatsu?.” terdapat 41 persen responden yang menjawab a. karena tradisi/ kebiasaan, 6 persen responden yang menjawab b. karena menyenangkan, dan 29 persen responden yang menjawab c. sebagai bentuk persembahan kepada kami. bagi responden yang tidak pernah melakukan kegiatan melempar koin di jinja pada saat shogatsu, tidak diperkenankan menjawab pertanyaan angket nomor 12 tersebut. di hari pertama tahun baru, orang-orang melakukan hatsumode, yakni pergi ke kuil untuk berdoa dan memohon kepada kami. selain berdoa, mereka juga melemparkan koin ke dalam kotak suci yang terdapat di dalam kuil, sambil menepukkan tangan dua kali dan berdoa. menurut analisis kami, terdapat konsep shinto dalam kegiatan tersebut, yakni terdapatnya unsur persembahan (shinsen) dalam shinto. hal ini sesuai dengan pendapat ono (1992:53), bahwa unsur kedua yang terpenting dalam pemujaan shinto adalah persembahan (shinsen). bentuk dari persembahan ini bisa dibedakan menjadi 4 jenis, yaitu berupa uang, makanan atau minuman, material (barang), dan benda simbolis. persembahan berupa uang, yaitu dengan melempar koin ke dalam kotak suci. bentuk lain dari persembahan uang adalah dengan mendonasikan uang kepada kuil untuk kepentingan kuil, serta keperluan perbaikan kuil. berdasarkan analisis di atas, untuk pertanyaan angket nomor 12, “mengapa anda melempar koin di jinja pada saat shogatsu?.” maka jawabah yang tepat adalah c. sebagai bentuk persembahan kepada kami. sedangkan responden yang menjawab dengan tepat ada sebanyak 29 persen responden. jurnal lingua cultura vol.3 no.1 mei 2009: 45-57 56 penutup sesuai dengan yang dikatakan oleh ishizawa (2005), bahwa orang jepang sendiri melakukan suatu ritual dan perayaan sebagai kebiasaan bukan sebagai pelaksanaan kegiatan agama. hal ini juga dapat dilihat pada data hasil angket penelitian yang ditujukan pada mahasiswa jepang, khususnya dari osaka university. berdasarkan data angket tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar responden melakukan 12 kegiatan yang biasa dilakukan pada shogatsu, meskipun dengan tingkat intensitas yang berbeda-beda. tujuan sebagian besar responden melakukan 12 kegiatan pada shogatsu tersebut karena tradisi atau kebiasaan, serta sangat sedikit yang bertujuan melakukan kegiatan pada shogatsu karena pemahaman responden tentang tujuan kegiatan pada shogatsu yang memang berhubungan dengan konsep shinto. oleh karena itu, dapat diketahui berdasarkan data angket tersebut tentang fenomena responden, dalam hal ini mahasiswa jepang, terhadap pemahaman eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsurunsur shinto dalam shogatsu. berdasarkan pendapat para peneliti kepercayaan shinto, dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapatnya eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsur-unsur shinto, yakni penyucian (harai), persembahan (shinsen), permohonan (norito), dan pesta jamuan sakral setelah shogatsu selesai (naorai), pada 12 buah kegiatan pada shogatsu. berikut ini terdapatnya eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsur-unsur shinto dalam kegiatankegiatan pada shogatsu. pertama, terdapatnya eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsur penyucian (harai) pada kegiatan: oosouji (pembersihan secara besar-besaran), memajang kadomatsu di rumah, memasang shimenawa di rumah, dan memasang shimekazari di rumah. kedua, terdapatnya eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsur persembahan (shinsen) pada kegiatan: mochitsuki, memajang kagamimochi, memajang gohei atau shide, memajang sakaki, dan melempar koin di kuil (jinja). ketiga, terdapatnya konsep shinto, khususnya unsur permohonan (norito) pada kegiatan: hatsumode dan norito di jinja. keempat, terdapatnya eksistensi shinto, khususnya unsur naorai (makan bersama di akhir perayaan) pada kegiatan makan kagamimochi yang dipotong untuk dimakan bersama setelah shogatsu selesai. berdasarkan data angket, kita dapat mengetahui fenomena responden terhadap pemahaman mereka pada tujuan kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan pada shogatsu. dengan demikian, bila ingin memahami lebih dalam makna dan tujuan kegiatan yang dilakukan pada shogatsu, kita perlu membaca hasil penelitian sebelumnya dari para ahli peneliti masyarakat dan kebudayaan jepang, khususnya tentang shinto. daftar pustaka akasaka, m. (1989). jepang dewasa ini. tokyo: international society for educational information. bonvillain, n. (2003). language, culture, and communication: the meaning of messages. new jersey: prentice hall. brandon, r. m., dan barbara b.s. (1994). spirit and symbol the japanese new year. hawaii: honolulu academy of arts. inohana, t., dan edizal. (2002). mengerti bahasa dan budaya jepang. padang: kayupsak. eksistensi shinto..... (ratna handayani; dkk) 57 ishizawa, t. (2006). “pandangan kaum muda terhadap kebudayaan.“ esai-esai tentang masyarakat jepang. diakses 16 desember 2006, dari http://www.02.246.ne.jp/~semar/seminarunair/seminarunair.html. kato, g. (1971). a study of shinto: the religion of the japanese nation. london: curzon press. ono, s. (1992). shinto, the kami way. tokyo: charles e. tuttle company. robinson. (2006). “shinto”. ontario consultants on religious tolerance. diakses 8 juni 2007, dari http://www.religioustolerance.org/shinto.htm. sakurai, t. (1991). understanding japan: japanese beliefs. tokyo: international society for educational information, inc. sudjianto. (2002). istilah masyarakat dan kebudayaan jepang. bekasi: kesaint blanc. tsuda. (1965). nihon shoki. tokyo. _______. “story of shogatsu and ‘koh hajime’.” nippon kodo. (2006). diakses 31 maret 2007, dari http://www.nipponkodo.com/message0501.html. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 129 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 129-134 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.2068 english syllabus for accounting students and the needs of english in business world djuria suprato1; ienneke indra dewi2; christine paulina3 1, 2, 3 english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45 palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1djuria@binus.ac.id; 2ienneke@binus.edu; 3christine_paulina@binus.ac.id received: 20th april 2017/revised: 14th november 2017/accepted: 09th january 2018 how to cite: suprato, d., dewi, i. i., & paulina, c. (2018). english syllabus for accounting students and the needs of english in business world. lingua cultura, 12(2), 129-134. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.2068 abstract this research aimed to evaluate english courses and syllabus in bina nusantara university, particularly in the accounting department, whether it was appropriate in the workplace. this study was conducted by interviewing 54 bina nusantara university graduates from accounting department of 2013-2014 and three from big four public accountant firms in jakarta. the result of the interview was analyzed qualitatively. the purpose of the interview was to get more detailed information about the benefit of english courses that they had at bina nusantara university. besides that, the researchers had also interviewed with some public accounting firms in jakarta to find out the level of english skills required and the standard scoring system used as a reference in their companies. with structured data collection, it can be concluded that the students need to practice english to improve the communication skills of speaking and writing to get good reports in english. bina nusantara university has provided adequate training, and the results can be felt by the graduates who are now working in multinational and international companies. keywords: english, syllabus, business world, graduate students introduction everyone needs education as one of the important skills to get a brighter future. one of the basic that is given to students is english skills besides the major skills. as known, nowadays english is one of the important supportive skills in a business world. a good english skill is one of the requirements for everyone who wants to work either in a national or international company. according to deambrosis (2009) in setzler (2013), companies find that their primary source of competitive advantage lies in the knowledge they possess, so they are investing more in training their staffs. furthermore, since 2016, indonesia has entered the free trade area that opens the opportunity for everyone to work across the asean countries. therefore, schools and universities are appropriate places to equip every student with basic-english skills and prepare for better future (oecd, 2015). as esl (english as a second language) educators, how can they tailor the lessons to meet best of needs that the student populations seek to reach? how can they determine if they have been successful in helping reach the needs of the students? to optimize learning, a teacher should have opportunities to meet his/her students and to speak with them face to face before beginning the class series, even with their parent to create good communication. (prozesky, 2000; graham-clay, 2005). according to adzmi et al. (2009), english courses help the students to perform the skills and expose it. however, those exposures are not enough to develop their competency in the required skills. most probably, they cannot function well in their academic studies and career. in helping the students to improve their english skills, lecturers have to plan sufficient syllabus. the syllabus is needed in a teaching and learning process. the syllabus is defined as a form of planning that manages teaching and learning activities, class management, and an evaluation of a course of study (pusat pengembangan sistem pembelajaran lembaga pengembangan pendidikan universitas sebelas maret, 2007). the syllabus is an important factor in teaching and learning process in a class (öztürk, 2013; slattery & carlson, 2005). it helps teachers to deliver the message clearly to students and to re-evaluate the objective of the study. therefore, it needs to be analyzed whether it still can be used or needs to be revised. li (2014) has stated that english business teaching in colleges and universities face many challenges including optimizing course design, setting teaching goals, updating teaching concepts, training teachers, and compiling textbooks. bina nusantara university is a global university that provides facilities for students to improve their english 130 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 129-134 skills. the material of the courses such as english entrant (for the first semester students); english in focus (for the second-semester students); and english savvy (for the third-semester students) are taken from test of english as a foreign language (toefl) exercises. the content of english syllabus taught is toefl materials in three semesters. these three-course materials are almost the same for each semester. the only difference among these three courses is the scoring. the higher the level is the higher score the students have to get. phillips (2008) has stated that toefl is used to measure the english proficiency for foreigners. toefl test is used as a reference by many companies, english courses, or universities as a standard to measure someone’s english skills. bina nusantara also uses toefl as the entrance test to select new students to know the level of their english skills. the same thing applies to the companies in hiring new employees. many companies use toefl score as the measurement in determining which candidates can be accepted (shohamy, 2007). the problem is whether the materials taught are enough to prepare them to enter big companies. thus, the researchers try to dig more information about the needs of companies in recruiting new employees. according to powers (2010), there are four types of skills in toefl test includes reading, listening, speaking, and writing. reading skill consists of three long reading texts and questions related to the academic text. students have to answer questions on the stated details, inferences, sentence restatements, sentence insertion, vocabulary, pronoun reference function, and overall ideas. listening skill has six parts. some common types of listening skills that are usually appeared are the conversation, discussion, or an academic lecturer. the questions on this skill are defining the main idea, details, function, stance, inferences, and overall organization. the next is speaking skill. the students need to give an opinion about an academic aspect and also their opinion based on reading the text. writing skill is divided into two parts. in the first part, the students are asked to write their opinions based on a given reading text. in the second part, students need to write an essay with minimum 300 words. some topics that are prepared for students include presenting, telephoning, negotiating, meeting, and socializing. meanwhile, the topics for listening exercises are note-taking for information in academic lecturers or discussions and social conversations. students are also given assignments to practice their reading skills. moreover, some of the topics are vocabulary, skimming, scanning, summarizing, paraphrasing, and inference. as the homework for students on off class session, they are given assignments to write an academic english writing. the type of the writing can be a narrative, argumentative, comparecontrast, agree-disagree, or preference. all materials are prepared in course outline (syllabus) in every semester. another standard to measure english skill proficiency in the business world is test of english for international communication or toeic (nicholson, 2015). toeic is the english test used to measure one’s knowledge of english profession (related to the occupation). toeic is used to certify someone’s english skill and to strengthen someone’s profile (fanani, 2014). based on the toeic test from www. ets.org, since 1979, organizations around the world have used the toeic® test to hire, place, and promote employees (ets-toeic, 2018). there are some differences between toefl and toeic. the first difference is that toeic is more commonly used in the business, while toefl is frequently used in an academic. the second difference is on the material and the questions. the third difference is the variety of skills. in toefl test, there are four skills (reading comprehension, listening comprehension, speaking, and writing skills). meanwhile, in toeic, there are only two skills, reading comprehension and listening comprehension (prabhat, 2011; chujo & oghigian, 2009). moreover, international english language testing system (ielts) is another variation of english test used to measure someone’s level of english skills (witt, 2003). normally, ielts is used for students who will continue their studies abroad, especially to english-speaking-country. witt (2003) has said that ielts examination assesses how well a person understands and uses the english that he/she needs to study in an english-speaking country. there are four components examined in ielts; those are listening, speaking, writing, and reading. it takes about 2 hours 44 minutes to complete all test. the differences between ielts and toefl are on the reading and writing tests. on the toefl test, students need to write an essay based on one topic only, and they need to give an opinion on one statement. however, on ielts, the writing test is divided into two parts. the first part is academic writing and the second part is general training writing. on academic writing, students are asked to write based on the data provided, such as graphic, charts, or table. they have to write 150 words minimum in 20 minutes. moreover, the students are also asked to write an opinion, argument, or solution or to evaluate ideas. they have to write 250 words in 40 minutes. then, general training writing is divided into two sections. in the first section, the students need to respond on a case by writing an information letter and explain the situation. they have to write 150 words in 20 minutes. in this section, the students’ writing skills will be evaluated, especially on individual correspondence. the second section is the same as academic writing. for speaking test in ielts, the examiner will not only examine the answers from students, but he/she will also examine how fluent students speak english. according to suminto (2010), toefl, toeic, and ielts are some varieties of english test. those are widely used not only in the academic but also in the business. all english tests are good, but all depends on the need or the requirement needed for each company. as the final results, students are expected possess the ability in using all english skills in the business world. among those three english tests (toefl, ielts, and toic), which one is commonly used in a business especially for binus university graduates? thus, the researchers tried to dig more information about the needs of companies in recruiting new employees by sending questionnaire to them and called 54 accounting graduates of binusian 20132014. this research aims to evaluate the syllabus of the english courses at bina nusantara university. the result of this evaluation is to see whether the english syllabus in bina nusantara university is appropriate or needs improvement. therefore, bina nusantara university graduates can practice their english skills in a workplace. the result of this research will give positive feedback not only to the english department but also to the subject content coordinator and the english lecturers. the result for subject content coordinator and english lecturer is to see the appropriateness and effectiveness of english materials to college students, particularly to accounting department. 131english syllabus for accounting.... (djuria suprato et al.) methods the researchers have interviewed 54 bina nusantara university graduates from accounting department of 20132014 and three public accountant firms from big four in jakarta. all the information about university graduates is obtained from bina nusantara alumni resource center. the result of the interview is analyzed using the qualitative method. the purpose of the interview is to get more detailed information about the benefit of english courses that they have in bina nusantara university. besides that, the researchers have also interviewed with some public accounting firms in jakarta to find out the level of english skills required and the standard scoring system used as a reference in their companies. these are some steps that the researchers have taken. the researchers collect all accounting university graduates 2013-2014 data from bina nusantara alumni resource center. the researchers choose the respondents that are predicted to work in accounting firms or multinational companies. based on the data, the researchers contact the graduates and ask their job by emails. after collecting the answer, the researchers classified them into two parts, the entrepreneur and the employee’s group. the researchers only focus on university graduates who are working in a company. while collecting graduates data (54 working graduates), the researchers also search for the contact of big four companies in jakarta (4 firms but only 3 replied our questionnaire) and call them to find the email of the human resource department to send the questionnaire. for the un-replied email from graduates, the researchers call them to have the interview. after the questionnaires are sent, the researchers follow up and collect the answer to the questionnaire. all data collected from bina nusantara university graduates and the big four companies in jakarta have useful input to this research. the information from graduates gives clear pictures on the effectiveness of english courses in bina nusantara university and the development of english courses syllabus. meanwhile, the result from big four companies gives the information on the needs of english skills for employees in the workplace. results and discussions the direct interview is done by phone to the selected graduates. 54 graduates are interviewed. 47 of them are employees and have started working since they graduated (87%). moreover, 4 of them (7%) are unemployed, and 3 of them (6%) have their business (entrepreneurs). the summary can be seen in table 1. from a total of 47 bina nusantara university graduates in the company, not all of them has english test as entrance test. the data is in table 2. based on table 2, it shows those who have the english test in applying job are 57%. it is because the company is a multinational and international company, foreign companies, penanaman modal asing (pma foreign direct investment), consultants, and other business developments that require the employees to have better english skills. in contrast, it can be seen that from 47 of graduates who work at a company, 43% of graduates do not require an english test in applying for a job. the reason is that many of them are working in local companies or stateowned enterprises that do not require an english test at the beginning. table 1 classification of data items total percentage employee 47 87% unemployment 4 7% entrepreneur 3 6% total 54 100% table 2 entrance test for applying job total percentage english test when applying for the job 27 57% no english test when applying for the job 20 43% total 47 100% based on the data, 57% of graduates who take initial tests when applying for a job say that all four skills previously taught in college have an advantage in the real working world. the main needed skills according to the respondents are speaking (45,46%), listening (27,27%), writing (16,36%), and reading (10,91%) sequentially. speaking skill is certainly indispensable especially when they face the work interview. meanwhile, listening is required at the time they listen to questions by the interviewer. reading and writing are used more when they are asked to make a report or write an opinion about certain things. to obtain further data, the researchers ask all four existing skills (speaking, reading, writing, and listening), which are the most widely used in the workplace every day. the highest percentage is writing skill (30,43%), then followed by speaking (28,26%), listening (21,74%), and reading (19,57%). from the result, it can be seen that the use of english in the real world of work is greater (59,57%) compared to the use of the indonesian language. it means that english is needed in daily work as they have to communicate. in addition, from 54 graduates who are interviewed, they are divided into two categories. those are students whose toefl score is <500 and toefl scores is >500. 47 graduates who get a toefl score of <500 take the classes of english entrant, english in focus, and english savvy. on the other hand, 15 graduates with toefl score of >500 take the subject of english for business presentation and written english for business communication. the rest graduates forget the result. the result can be seen in table 3. table 3 graduates’ toefl score toefl score bina nusantara university entrance test bina nusantara university before graduate test total % total % <500 29 62% 9 19% >500 15 32% 34 72% forget the score 3 6% 4 9% 47 100% 54 100% the students take english subject for three semesters. at the end of the course, they take toefl test to determine their scores. it can be a comparison between before entering 132 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 129-134 the university and after they complete their course. 62% of them whose toefl scores at the beginning of <500 indicate a significant rise to 72% by the time they graduate. they can get a toefl score of >500. it means that students can increase their english ability in three semesters. for graduates who have to take english tests at the beginning of applying for a job (57%), they agree that the most needed skills are speaking, and followed by listening, writing, and reading. the result is in table 4. table 4 skills needed for the entrance test in applying job skills total selected (%) listening 15 27,27% speaking 25 45,46% reading 6 10,91% writing 9 16,36% total 55 100% it is clear that speaking skill is the most needed especially during the initial interview. some of them suggest providing job interview exercises for students as the respondents do not get this exercises before. furthermore, listening skill is useful to them during the interview with expatriates. this skill is primarily needed to listen to questions from the interviewer. reading and writing skills are required at the time of the written test, but it is not a problem for graduates as it is easier. it is in line with ngah et al (2011)’s research. it has said that the input from listening and reading will be used as the output in the writing and speaking tests. so, it can be said that the speaking skill as the most needed one. in daily work, not all graduates agree that they need english. however, the percentage of using english every day is greater than the percentage of no answer. it is 59,57% compared to 40,43%. it can be seen in table 5. table 5 using english in daily work description total % yes 28 59,57% no 19 40,43% total 47 100% moreover, table 6 shows data collected from the distribution of skills required in the use of daily english language. writing skills is the most needed to make a report and answer and send e-mails in english. speaking and listening are needed at the time of communication especially with the foreigner boss. sometimes they need to speak english with clients. since communication skills seems to be prevalently at the top of many employability skills lists, it is vital to understand the employees view communication skills. proficiency in english means the ability to present ideas, explain issues and problems, to speak up in a constructive manner, to resolve problems, to understand issues and problems faced by companies and to come up with workable solutions to problems are all good communication and interpersonal skills sought after by employers (chang in ngah et al., 2011). table 6 skills needed for daily work skills total selected (%) listening 10 21,74% speaking 13 28,26% reading 9 19,57% writing 14 30,43% total 46 100% the last question in the interview is suggestions or input for the development of the improvement of english subject. the summary of suggestions from respondents shows in table 7. table 7 suggestion from respondents no suggestions total 1 more speaking & listening 32 2 materials/the topic must be adjusted to the department 18 3 extending the exercise of toefl/toeic 11 4 lecturers should actively and creatively stimulate the students to practice 11 5 grammar exercise is still needed 6 6 the materials are suitable/good 6 7 lecturers/students must use full english 5 8 language laboratory should be renovated to be used optimally 4 9 the students need more writing and reading excercise 3 10 english subject should be added (more than three semesters) 2 11 no more leak test questions 2 12 all students need english for business presentation 1 total 101 based on the suggestion, the graduates expect more speaking and writing practice for students. although the university has provided language laboratory as their facility for practicing, many students do not use it well. moreover, lecturers must socialize and encourage students to use it. they do not have enough time to practice in the classroom, especially if they get a big class. the second most suggested idea is that materials or teaching topic should be more geared toward the business or the material can be adjusted to the departments so that they can minimize the difficulty in entering the real working world. they can get the general topic for all english material. the third most suggested is that the lecturers have to multiply the toefl or toeic exercises in class and stimulate students to practice english. therefore, lecturers are required to be active and creative in teaching the material to students. thus, the students do not become lazy or bored in the classroom. for speaking class, they have to wait for their turn to discuss the topic. the researchers also provide the results of a survey of companies particularly the three of big four public accounting firms. all the public accounting firms conduct an english test in the recruitment process. they use english in daily work, especially in writing report. sometimes, speaking and listening are used especially with expatriate accountant or clients. two of the firms state that english 133english syllabus for accounting.... (djuria suprato et al.) skills obtained at the university are not enough, so they provide training of business writing and conversation skills for the staff. meanwhile, another firm agrees that english lessons which graduates obtain at the university are enough, so the additional training is not required. they have selected all candidates with good english proficiency. one of the firms uses toeic as the entrance test, and two firms use internal test. two firms do not set the standard score, and the other firm sets the standard score based on candidate’s position using the test score analysis. one firm agrees that all skills are necessary. however, the other firm says that writing is the most necessary skill. the other firm agrees that writing and speaking are needed. from the results of interviews with bina nusantara university graduates who already work and compare it with the results of the survey in the three (out of four) public accounting firms, it can be concluded that the english is one of the needed abilities in the multinational and international company. as previous research done by adzmi et al. (2009) concluded that relevant actions should be taken as to ensure the needs of the students are fulfilled and they can perform effectively in the program and future career, binus also would like students are equipped with english abilities in facing their career in the future. all of the skills taught during the lectures (speaking, writing, reading and listening) have good benefits for them. powers (2010) has explained that each language skill is the overall ability to communicate. it is important, of course, to be able to understand the written and spoken word, and to produce english both orally and in written form, so the test we conducted included four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) to know which skill is the most tested (shown in table 4). it is related to individual overall communicative ability in which they use daily in workplace. in doing their job, employees need their writing and reading skill to communicate (through letters, e-mails, memos, reports, proposal, etc.) and speaking and listening used in daily communication (presentation, meeting etc.). conclusions the ability to speak english is very important and the main provision especially when one will enter the working world. with good english skills, a person can work in a multinational company and can also work abroad. schools and universities are also a great place for someone to improve his/her english skills. bina nusantara university has tried to equip english skills to all students. one of the ways is to create a structured english syllabus to be taught to the students of non-english departments. the material taught is more about toefl practice. in addition, bina nusantara university also provides facilities such as language laboratory so that students can practice listening independently. the end goal is that when students graduate, they already have a pretty good preparation and are ready to compete in the business world. although the researchers have difficulty in contacting both graduates and big four accounting human resources, and finally only got three accounting firm that answered our questionnaire and 54 graduates to convince that english is one of the important aspects in hiring employees. the four skills are very important (speaking, listening, writing, and reading). practicing daily english (speaking) in communication and written english for reporting are two most important skills. then, reading is also useful for communication particularly in reading instruction in daily work. from the discussion, it can be concluded that the syllabus of english used is good enough. however, it will be better if the material can be adjusted to the department concerned. the lecturer is expected to be more creative in providing materials and encourage students to practice regularly. the addition of speaking and writing materials is to improve speaking and writing skills. then, topics customized need to be based on the department they are taking. while, the companies need the prospective employees to be able to use english, so that, the university prepares students well. references adzmi, n. a., bidin, s., ibrahim, s., & jusoff, k. 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(2003). how to prepare for ielts. uk: british council. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 117 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 117-121 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3733 bahasa indonesia-english code-mixing in writing business emails: understanding the communicative purpose robby andre master of linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university jl. dharmawangsa dalam, surabaya 60286, indonesia robby.andre-2016@fib.unair.ac.id received: 24th april 2017/revised: 12th november 2017/accepted: 12th december 2017 how to cite: andre, r. (2018). bahasa indonesia-english code-mixing in writing business emails: understanding the communicative purpose. lingua cultura, 12(2). 117-121. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3733 abstract the research had two objectives, those were to investigate the use of code-mixing in the business emails which could be categorized as asynchronous computer-mediated communication, and to calculate the most prevalent occurrences of codemixing in the business emails. the data were gathered from the business emails of corporate sales officer in the british institute surabaya and its corporate clients from january to june 2017. code-mixing typology acted as the primary tool in identifying and classifying the code-mixing in the data. the analysis of data yielded a total of 209 code-mixing occurrences. from the result, it can be seen that code-mixing insertion is ranked as the most prevalent occurrences of code-mixing with a total of 115 occurrences (55,02%). it is followed by code-mixing congruent lexicalization with 78 occurrences (37,32%), and code-mixing alternation with 16 occurrences (7,66%). furthermore, the result of the study shows that the occurrences of code-mixing categories in the business emails may have some communicative purposes, such as emphasizing the main idea of the utterances or referring to the specific lexical items which deal with the knowledge of certain fields. keywords: code-mixing, computer-mediated communication, asynchronous communication, business emails introduction code-mixing as communicative competence is majorly examined in its connection to the bilingualism. in this case, this communicative competence plays an important role in providing opportunities to individuals in expressing their feelings or thoughts and shaping their identity. this communicative competence also serves some assistance to the individuals in fulfilling the satisfaction of their personal and social needs through the languages that they use (muysken, 2000). the phenomena of code-mixing of several languages have long intrigued researchers who have scrutinized what are the possible reasons that trigger such occurrences (cárdenas-claros & isharyanti, 2009; goldbarg, 2009; huang, 2009; senaratne, 2009; das & gambäck, 2013; singh & kanskar, 2013; sutrismi, 2014; bukhari et al., 2015; halim, nadri, & mahmood, 2015). however, a few studies that have been conducted only focus on the analysis in the face-to-face interaction (senaratne, 2009). some studies analyze the occurrences of code-mixing in the context of computer-mediated communication. it further analyzes the informal setting like internet chatting, or facebook and twitter status (cárdenas-claros & isharyanti, 2009; huang, 2009; sutrismi, 2014; bukhari et al., 2015; halim, nadri, & mahmood, 2015). code-mixing has been defined in numerous definitions from the several past decades. in early studies, code-mixing is defined as an ‘abnormal behavior’. according to haugen (1953), except in abnormal cases, speakers have not been observed to draw freely from two languages at once and at any given moment they are speaking one language. kachru (1978) has defined code-mixing as a strategy utilized by the speakers in transferring linguistic units from one language to another. this might result in a restricted or not so restricted code of linguistic repertoire. it includes mixing of lexical items, full sentences, or the embedding of idioms. in this case, there will be no limit to insertion. moreover, blanc and hamers (2000) have defined code-mixing as a strategy that transferred elements of all linguistic levels and units ranging from a lexical item to a sentence. they also examine that the occurrence of code-mixing happens due to the lack of competence. furthermore, muysken (2000) has defined code-mixing as an intra-sentential code switching or intra-sentential codealternation that occurred due to the use of two or more languages below clause level within one social situation. similarly, gardner-chloros (2009) has asserted that codemixing occurs because of the innovation created by the speakers in inserting the content words into the grammatical structure of another language. based on the given definitions of code-mixing, it is obvious that there is a similarity among those definitions. 118 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 117-121 most of the researchers define code-mixing as a transfer of linguistic items, in most instances content words or constituent insertions from one language to another. besides that, most of the given definitions also mention about the insertion of the certain word from one language to another. it can result in the asymmetrical involvement of languages in the bilingual lexicon. according to muysken (2000), there are three major categories in code-mixing: insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization. the first category of code-mixing is the insertion. based on muysken (2000), insertion usually occurs when there is the incorporation of lexical items from one language to another. moreover, the term ‘insertion’ that is proposed by muysken (2000) corresponds to the notion of ‘transference’ by clyne (1991). figure 1 illustrates a graphic representation of insertion in code-mixing. figure 1 illustration of code-mixing insertion (source: muysken, 2000) in figure 1, the word ‘a’ stands for lexical items of the first language. meanwhile ‘b’ represents lexical items of the second language that has been inserted in the utterance by the speaker. the example of the code-mixing insertion can be seen as follows: “mohon bantuannya untuk direschedule kelas saya.” (i need your help to reschedule my class.) the example is taken from one of the business emails by one of the corporate clients of tbi surabaya. in this case, the client asks for help from tbi’s corporate sales officer to reschedule his english class. the shared professional background of tbi corporate client and corporate sales officer in the specific language is the reason for the client to unconsciously insert an english lexical item into bahasa indonesia written conversation. second, muysken (2000) has defined the second structure as the two languages are alternated indistinctively both at the grammatical and lexical level. these kinds of structures are categorized as code-mixing alternation. figure 2 illustrates the code-mixing alternation. in figure 2, a and b are the representation of the two languages. it represents the code-mixing alternation in the form of utterances produced by the speaker. the example is the representation of code-mixing alternation between bahasa indonesia and english. it can be seen as follows. “i think, kita lebih fokus terhadap teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini.” (i think, we better focus on the technique of data collection in this research.) figure 2 illustration of code-mixing alternation (source: muysken, 2000) according to the example, the speaker uses english in the first part of his/her utterance. interestingly, when it comes to the notion of the technique of data collection of the research that the speaker may currently work on, he/ she switches the code to bahasa indonesia. in this case, the speaker may want to underline the main point of his/her utterance by utilizing his/her first language. the last category of code-mixing proposed is codemixing congruent lexicalization. in this category, the speaker tends to combine two languages in term of their grammatical structures. it can be lexically filled with the lexical items from either language. figure 3 shows the codemixing congruent lexicalization. figure 3 illustration of code-mixing congruent lexicalization (source: muysken, 2000) a and b are the representation of the two languages. it represents the code-mixing congruent lexicalization in the form of utterances produced by the speaker. to understand this code-mixing, the researcher provides the example of this code mixing as follows. “meeting hari ini akan membahas tentang urgent agenda yang akan dilakukan within this week” (today’s meeting will discuss about the urgent agenda that will be done within this week) based on the example, the speaker utilizes bahasa indonesia and english in his/her utterance. the speaker talks about the meeting that will discuss the urgent agenda. it needs to be done within this week. moreover, the occurrences of code-mixing can be examined in this study by using computer-mediated communication. herring and androutsopoulos (2015) have asserted that computer-mediated communication is basically a communication that commonly takes place among people. it is conducted through the computers as the media of the communication. this kind of communication is also valued as one of the alternatives in communication. 119bahasa indonesia-english code-mixing .... (robby andre) it provides computer users with some various options such as chat rooms, blogs, instantly delivered messages through the internet, and others. in addition, computer-mediated communication is essentially utilized as the media of communication that can be used by the computer users based on their needs. herring (1996) has classified the computermediated communication into two categories based on the term of delay. those are synchronous computermediated communication and asynchronous computermediated communication. synchronous computer-mediated communication occurs in the real time. it could be further seen from the communication through the relay chats, chat rooms, instant messaging, and tweets. on the contrary, asynchronous computer-mediated communication allows the computer-mediated communication users to access the media at a different time. this could be done through emails, blogs, and wikis. crystal (2006) has suggested that these forms of computer-mediated communication might trigger an evolution of spoken and written language. essentially, language is based on its genre which is spoken and written. in this case, written language tends to concentrate on the structural complexity, formality, and abstraction. meanwhile, spoken language can be characterized as a more dependent and structurally simpler language. herring and androutsopoulos (2015) have emphasized that in the environment of computer-mediated communication, one of the most significant elements of language is the combination of the spoken and written language. the written communications in the computer-mediated communication environments are unclear. it is due to the combination of the spoken and written genre. this also occurs in the asynchronous computer-mediated communication where the computer users sometimes combine both genres to emphasize the point to the other users (crystal, 2006). this is done by the users to achieve the goal of the communication and make the communication work effectively. most studies in code-mixing in computer-mediated communication have analyzed synchronous communication. one of the earliest studies which examined code-switching and code-mixing in computer-mediated communication environments is cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009). they analyze english, spanish, and bahasa indonesia use in the internet chatroom. those are uttered by 12 nonnative speakers of english from spanish and indonesian. the finding has suggested that code-mixing become the second most common code used by the speakers in this study. moreover, among the categories of code-mixing, the code-mixing alternation is ranked as the highest categories in the internet chatroom of the participants. the highest number of code-mixing insertion in the internet chatroom by the participants is because code-mixing insertion does not require a high language proficiency at a lexical level compared to the code-mixing alternation and congruent lexicalization. those require the speaker to master the language at the grammatical and semantic levels fully. das and gambäck (2013) have investigated the characteristic of code-mixing in social media texts of english-bengali and english-hindi. they gather the data from two corpora (english-bengali and english-hindi). the result of this study shows that reduplication is ranked as the most common code-mixing in english-bengali and english-hindi. this finding supports the finding of the other studies which find that reduplication is the most common code-mixing in south-east asian social media texts. sutrismi (2014) has examined the code-mixing in social media posts (facebook) of indonesian youngsters. the data is gathered from facebook posts of indonesian youngsters, and they further classify it into several categories based on suwito’s theory. the result suggests that there are six types of linguistic forms of code-mixing in the data. those are single word and compound word as the highest type of code-mixing (63,16%), noun phrase, verb phrase and preposition phrase (18,42%), hybrid (9,21%), clause (5,26%), reduplication (2,63%), and blending (1,32%). however, there is a similarity among the previous studies. they mainly analyze the types of code-mixing in synchronous communication. hence, this study, by contrast, utilizes business emails as the object of this study to examine the code-mixing in the emails. furthermore, to gain more insight into the various types of code-mixing and their frequencies, this study aims at identifying the types of code-mixing and calculating the most prevalent codemixing that occurred in the business emails. reflecting the current condition in indonesia, code-mixing may become one of the most criticized and undervalued linguistic phenomena. this phenomenon remains the subject of controversial debate in linguistic areas. despite its popularity and the phenomenal usage by most speakers, many believe that in mixing two languages, speakers are not speaking either language properly. due to this argument, the researcher can assume that the underlying significance of code-mixing as a mechanism of language change is being ignored. related to the object of this study, the researcher scrutinizes the phenomena related to the code-mixing in the business emails. these business emails are further gathered from one of the english provider institutions in indonesia named as the british institute (tbi). the emails are further taken from the interaction between the corporate sales officers of tbi and their corporate clients. moreover, the study is conducted to fulfill the gap between the studies that have been conducted in investigating the code-mixing in social media texts. it only focuses on the informal setting of the interaction between the users. therefore, the present study is expected to provide the types of code-mixing of bahasa indonesia-english in business emails or more formal situation. in relation to the background of the study, the researcher is curious to formulate two research questions. first, it is what the categories of code-mixing are in the business emails of corporate sales officers of tbi and their corporate clients. second is what the most prevalent category of code-mixing is in the business emails of corporate sales officers of tbi and their corporate clients. through the research questions that are formulated in the study, the researcher sees the necessity to dispose of objectives of the study. there are two objectives in the study. first is to figure out what categories of code-mixing in the business emails of corporate sales officers of tbi and their corporate clients. second is to find out the most prevalent category of code-mixing in the business emails of corporate sales officers of tbi and their corporate clients. methods the data are gathered from business emails of corporate sales officer of tbi surabaya with the corporate clients. the emails are gathered from january to june 2017 or about 257 emails approximately. the gathered emails 120 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 117-121 as the data in the study are the interactions between the corporate sales officer of tbi surabaya as the professional representative of the institution and its corporate clients who take the in-house training programme in tbi surabaya. the analysis of the data begins with the identification of code-mixing by highlighting the words, phrase, or sentences. the researcher also uses the code-mixing typology proposed by muysken (2000) to classify the codemixing category. moreover, the calculation of code-mixing occurrences and frequencies are conducted to figure out the most prevalent code-mixing in the business emails of corporate sales officer of tbi surabaya with the corporate clients. afterward, the discussion about the most prevalent code-mixing is provided by the researcher to gain depth knowledge about the possible reason which triggers the occurrences of the code-mixing. moreover, in relation to the data analysis, the researcher uses computer-mediated communication. results and discussions according to data, the researcher finds the occurrences of three categories of code-mixing proposed by muysken (2000). in this case, results for code-mixing in the data show that from 257 emails, it consists of 3.223 words. there are 115 occurrences (55,02%) correspond to the category of insertion. moreover, 16 occurrences (7,66%) fulfill the definition of alternation, and 78 occurrences (37,32%) are congruent lexicalization. table 1 provides the distribution and the percentage of the occurrences of codemixing categories. table 1 distribution of the occurrences of code-mixing classification no code-mixing categories total occurrences of each category percentage 1. code-mixing insertion 115 55,02 2. code-mixing congruent lexicalization 78 37,32 3. code-mixing alternation 16 7,66 total 209 100 as presented in table 1, code-mixing insertion (55,02%) is the most prevalent occurrences of code-mixing categories. it occurs in the business emails compared to code-mixing congruent lexicalization that corresponds to 37,02%. meanwhile, code-mixing alternation has 7,66%. this result proposes that code-mixing insertion as the most prevalent occurrences may reflect the communicative purpose of the speakers. the speaker sometimes inserts certain words to the utterance to strengthen the main notion of the arguments. moreover, the result of the study in term of the occurrences of code-mixing insertion supports the findings of cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009). the case of insertion of a word from one language to another requires minimum competence at a lexical level compared to the congruent lexicalization or alternation. those require the speaker to master the language at the grammatical and semantic levels fully. according to the data, the researcher finds 115 occurrences related to the code-mixing insertion. among those, there are 98 occurrences (85,21%) categorized as a noun. this result supports the findings of cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009). they also found that in the codemixing insertions, noun contributes the highest number compared to the other word classes. this may occur because the data of the study are from business emails. the major topics of the discussion talk about business and financial situation that cover various specific nouns. furthermore, das and gambäck (2013) have also emphasized that the use of specific nouns become one of the possible reasons for the speakers to do the code-mixing insertion in their utterances. besides that, the code-mixing insertion that contributes the highest number in terms of occurrences also may deal with the language proficiency of the speakers. in this case, the speaker tends to use insertion because it only requires a minimum level of language proficiency compared to the other code-mixing categories. the other code-mixing categories require the speaker to master the grammatical and semantic level of a language to create a well-comprehended utterance. moreover, the occurrences of code-mixing insertion may be triggered by the speaker’s intention to highlight the main point the utterances. the speaker utilizes the lexical items from another language. for example, “berikut terlampir adalah revisi dari draft invoice tbi surabaya” or “terima kasih atas penawaran dan kerjasamanya yang sangat baik serta fast response” (“the following attachment is a revision of the invoice draft of tbi surabaya” or “thank you for the offers and the excellent and fast response cooperation”). from both examples, the phrase ‘draft invoice’ and ‘fast response’ are the main point of the utterances. in this case, the speakers tend to use english in her/his utterances to highlight the main point of his/her utterances. this result is also in line with the other findings of the previous studies (cárdenas-claros & isharyanti, 2009; das & gambäck, 2013; sutrismi, 2014). the use of lexical items from another language occurs because speaker wants to highlight the main point of the utterances. then, code-mixing congruent lexicalization is ranked as the second most prevalent occurrences of codemixing in the study. muysken (2000) has defined codemixing congruent lexicalization as the combination of two languages regarding their grammatical structures. it could be lexically filled with the lexical items from either language. based on the data, the occurrences of code-mixing congruent lexicalization are 78 occurrences (37,32%). in code-mixing congruent lexicalization, the verb is commonly found in the data about 48 out of 78 (61,53%). this result is in line with the findings by sutrismi (2014). sutrismi (2014) has agreed that verb contributes the highest number of occurrences among the other word classes. the occurrence of code-mixing congruent lexicalization is dominated by the verb. it may happen because of the goal of the texts. the data are regarding some business correspondences. therefore, the speakers may attempt to communicate some specific aspects by utilizing english to assist the audience in understanding the speaker’s notion. for example, “mohon infonya kapan untuk invoice ini bisa di-submit ke hms” or “sementara ini mohon untuk di-hold terlebih dahulu sampai surat tersebut bisa kami kirimkan ke ibu” (“please inform us when this invoice can be submitted to hms” or “in the meantime, please hold the letter first until we can send it to you). in both examples, the speaker tends to utilize code-mixing congruent 121bahasa indonesia-english code-mixing .... (robby andre) lexicalization to express his/her concern about the topics of conversation through the emails. ‘di-submit’ and ‘di-hold’ are the real examples of congruent lexicalization. in those examples, the speaker tends to combine the grammatical and lexical aspects between bahasa indonesia and english by inserting the following words ‘submit’ and ‘hold’. it utilizes the passive voice of bahasa indonesia by combining those words with the prefix ‘di-’. therefore, the words ‘di-submit’ and ‘di-hold’ sounds are accepted in bahasa indonesia. code-mixing alternation is the next in the occurrences of code-mixing categories proposed by muysken (2000). however, it occurs at the lower rate than code-mixing insertion or code-mixing congruent lexicalization. it occurs only 16 occurrences (7,66%). this result is contradicted by the findings of cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009). they confirmed that there is no occurrence of code-mixing alternation in their study. this may happen because data that are utilized in the study is quite different from the data of cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009). this study utilizes business emails as the main data where they can be categorized as asynchronous communication. meanwhile, the data of cárdenas-claros and isharyanti (2009) use msn chats as the main data where it is classified as synchronous communication. besides that, the form of language between this study and previous study may also affect the occurrences of code-mixing alternation. in this case, the data of this study mostly uses formal language, while the data of the previous study utilizes everyday language. furthermore, the language proficiency of the speakers may also affect the occurrences of code-mixing alternation. the way the speakers communicate in the internet chatting is not complicated compared to the communication through emails which mostly discuss the business correspondence. the speakers need to master grammatical and semantic level to create well-structured utterances to create a smooth communication with the other speakers. conclusions although the results from this study cannot be generalized about indonesians’ code choice, several results support previous studies on code-mixing in computermediated communication. furthermore, the results suggest that there are various code-mixing in the communication through business emails. the most prevalent code-mixing is the code-mixing insertion. meanwhile, the second most prevalent codemixing is code-mixing congruent lexicalization, and the least prevalent code-mixing is code-mixing alternation. this may happen due to the language proficiency of the speakers. as stated before, the code-mixing insertion becomes the most prevalent code-mixing in the data because the speaker only needs a minimal requirement of language proficiency compared to the code-mixing congruent lexicalization or alternation. those require the speaker to master the language from grammatical and semantic aspects. further study in comparing code-mixing occurrences based on gender and age groups is critically needed. it may assist the researchers to gain a better understanding of these phenomena, specifically, to the computer-mediated communication or asynchronous communication. references blanc, m., & hamers, j. f. 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(1978). code-mixing as a communicative strategy. in j. alatis (ed.), international dimensions of bilingual education (pp. 107−124). washington, d. c.: georgetown university press. muysken, p. (2000). bilingual speech: a typology of code mixing. cambridge: cambridge university press. senaratne, c. d. (2009). sinhala-english code-mixing in sri lanka: a sociolinguistic study (ph.d. dissertation). singh, a., & kanskar, a. (2013). pos tagging of hindienglish code mixed text from social media. international journal of science and research (ijsr), 5(10), 1018−1021. sutrismi. (2014). the use of indonesian english code mixing in social media networking (facebook) by indonesian youngsters (undergraduate thesis). microsoft word 06_yenny_setting 162 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 中西妇女形象的异同—— 以《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》为调查对象 the analysis of differences and similarities of eastern and western women’s images in liang sanbo yu zhu yingtai and romeo and juliet novel yenny chinese department, faculty of language and culture, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 yenny_yzp@gmail.com 内容提要          《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是中方和西方著名的两部经典爱情小说,深受中西读者 一代又一代的喜爱。前一部与《白蛇传》、《孟姜女》和《牛郎织女》并称中国古代四大民间传说;后 一部出自于英国戏剧大师莎士比亚之手,常被误称为莎翁四大悲剧之一。这两部小说除了表现出中西文 化不同的概念,在女性形象、社会背景等方面上也显示出中西的不同文化。笔者通过收集有关的资料, 通过这两部小说描述了中西妇女在教育、婚姻、爱情、性格、妇女地位方面的性形象的异同。调查结果 表示:中西妇女在爱情观和性格方面是相同的,而他们的教育观念、婚姻观念及社会地位却不相同。    关键词:  妇女、形象、中方、西方、《梁山伯与祝英台》、《罗密欧与朱丽叶》      abstract sanpek engtay and romeo juliet are the two famous classic love novels from eastern and western countries. they are liked by many generation of eastern and western readers. both novels describe the image of women at each decade. engtay represents the image of women at feudalism era while juliet represents it renainsance era. in this article, the writer did research at education, marriage, love, women's personality, and women's position at each decade. library research was done in this study with the purpose of letting people know the differences and similarities of women's images between those two decades it can be concluded that in both writings, they have some similarities when describing love, mindset, and women's personality. the differences are about education, marriage, and women's position at feudalism and renainsance decades. keywords: women, image, eastern, western, san pek eng tay, romeo and juliet             the analysis of differences ….. (yenny) 163   前言 《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是中西文学史上的两大文学巨著,都是感人至 深的爱情悲剧。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是英国剧作家莎士比亚著名的悲剧,而《梁山伯与祝英 台》是中国最有名的四大传说之一,也是惟一在世界上产生广泛影响中国民间的传说,所以作 者不明显。但张恨水先生把这篇传说重新写过。这篇论文里《梁山伯与祝英台》的小说就是张 恨水重新写过的小说。 这两个故事都描述了一对情人悲剧性的爱情故事。剧中的主人公为了真爱不顾一切,反对 了父母的意见,触犯了传统习俗,但到最后又不约而同地为了爱情而舍弃年轻的生命。笔者发 现虽然两部小说的内容相似,但由于中西方文化的差异,使故事中的女形象表现出不同。祝英 台代表了中国封建社会的女性形象;而朱丽叶却代表了西方复兴时期的女性形象。这两个不同 点激发了笔者更深一步研究,增加了读者们的知识。 内容 一、《梁山伯与祝英台》故事简介 《梁山伯与祝英台》是中国最有名的四大传说之一,也是惟一在世界上影响甚大的中国民 间的传说。《梁山伯与祝英台》故事在民间流传已有一千四百六十多年,是家喻户晓的故事。 故事流传深远,被誉为爱情的千古绝唱,有东方《罗密欧与朱丽叶》之称。《梁山伯与祝英 台》没有固定的作者,它是民间一代传一代。故事可能是在魏晋南北朝的特定文化背景下产生 的,后经不断修改、加工而形成的。作为一种传统民间文化,《梁山伯与祝英台》就是在丰富 的艺术形式下,在内容上体现出完美人性的赞赏,正因为如此,它成为了最受欢迎的中国古典 戏曲,受到世界其他国家的喜爱 。这个故事描述了 1600 多年以前的东晋末年,即士族与平民 对立,爱情自由与传统束缚不能并存的时代。它不仅写了悲剧,而且写了理想,表示了中国人 民的理想观念。 故事就是这样描写的: 好动活泼的女孩祝英台,对外面的世界充满了好奇。有一天她要求父母让她到杭州求学。 父母本来很反对,但因为英台不断地坚持她的立场,父母只好答应了她的要求。她女扮男装到 学校去上课。在前往学校的途中,英台遇到了新同学梁山伯,英台对清秀斯文又富正义感的梁 山伯一见钟情,两人结伴同行。英台与山伯在学校认真辛勤的读书,下课后也经常一起出游。 每日的相处,让两人的感情越来越好。对英台而言,这是段最甜蜜的时光,而她对山伯的心意 也越来越坚定。三年后,英台家里忽然来了信要她立刻返家,挂念家里的英台在回家之前,对 山伯表达了自己的情感,纯朴的山伯却没感受到英台的感情。英台要求山伯在一百天之内去她 家拜访。回到家中的英台却发现自己将被许配给马文才,英台反对父母安排的婚姻,因此英台 每天不吃也不喝,在内心默默祈祷山伯尽快来访。 山伯得知英台的身份后很高兴,就决定去英台家拜访她的父母。可到了英台家,他得知英 台已被许配给马文才了。他带着悲痛的心离开了祝家,虚弱的山伯终因不堪悲伤而死去。山伯 的死讯传到英台,使英台内心哀痛不已。婚礼的那一天英台穿着美丽的婚纱,去了山伯的墓 前。就在此时,英台对山伯说她愿意为他死,永远在一起。忽然天便黑,下了一场大雨,打了 164 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 一劈雷,墓碑突然崩裂了,山伯温柔微笑牵引着英台。英台缓缓走入墓中,两人化成翩翩彩 蝶,双双飞向天际。 二、《罗密欧与朱丽叶》故事简介 威廉-莎士比亚(1564-1616)是欧洲文艺复兴时期文学最杰出的代表。他的创作广泛地反 映了当时英国的政治、经济、思想、文化、风俗和习惯,可以当作那个时代的一部形象化的历 史的参考书。威廉-莎士比亚 1564 年 4 月 23 日出生于英国中部艾汶河上的斯特拉福镇的一个 富有市民家庭。 莎士比亚的悲剧被看作是他成就的顶峰。他的悲剧多样产生在第二个创作时期,因此这一 时期又称之为悲剧时期。莎士比亚其中一个最有名,最广受观众欢迎的悲剧就是《罗密欧与朱 丽叶》。这个故事是沙士比亚早期创作中的一部悲剧,但无论主题思想还是艺术风格,都和这 一时期的喜剧接近。该剧来源于 1554 年意大利作家班戴洛的一个故事,是一出关于浪漫爱情 的悲剧。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是莎士比亚悲剧中浪漫主义抒情色彩最浓的一部悲剧,也是一曲 反对封建主义,倡导自由平等,个性解放,婚姻自主的颂歌。 故事就是这样描写的: 凯普莱特和蒙太古是是维罗那城市的两个大家族,而这两个大家族有着长久的仇恨,经常 械斗。蒙太古家有个儿子叫罗密欧,品行端方,是个大家都很喜欢的小伙子。有一天,他听说 自己喜欢的一个女孩要去凯普莱特家赴宴,为了见一眼这位女孩,他和自己的朋友戴上面具, 混进了凯普莱特家的宴会场。可是,在这次宴会上,他被凯普莱特家的独生女儿朱丽叶深深吸 引住了。这天晚上,朱丽叶美若天仙,是宴会的主角。罗密欧上前向朱丽叶表示了自己的爱慕 之情,朱丽叶也对罗密欧有好感。可是,当时双方都不知道对方的身份。真相大白之后,罗密 欧仍然不能摆脱自己对朱丽叶的爱慕。他翻墙进了凯普莱特的果园,正好听见了朱丽叶在窗口 情不自禁呼唤罗密欧的声音。显然,双方是一见钟情。 第二天,罗密欧去见附近修道院的神父,请他帮忙。神父答应了罗密欧的要求,觉得如果 这爱情如果能成全,两家的矛盾就能化解了。罗密欧通过朱丽叶的奶娘把朱丽叶约到了修道 院,在神父的主持下结成了夫妻。这天中午,罗密欧在街上遇到了朱丽叶的堂兄提伯尔特。提 伯尔特要和罗密欧决斗,罗密欧虽然不愿决斗,但他的朋友觉得罗密欧没面子,就和提伯尔特 决斗,结果被提伯尔特借机杀死。罗密欧大怒,拔剑为朋友报仇,杀死了提伯尔特。 城市的统治者决定驱逐罗密欧,下令如果他敢回来就处死他。朱丽叶很伤心,她非常爱罗 密欧。罗密欧不愿离开,经过神父的劝说他才同意暂时离开。这天晚上,他偷偷爬进了朱丽叶 的卧室,度过了新婚之夜。第二天天一亮,罗密欧就不得不开始了他的流放生活。罗密欧刚一 离开,出生高贵的帕里斯伯爵就向朱丽叶父母求婚。凯普莱特非常满意,命令朱丽叶下星期四 就结婚。朱丽叶去找神父想办法,神父给了她一种药,服下后就像死了一样,但四十二小时后 就会苏醒过来。神父答应她派人叫罗密欧,会很快挖开墓穴,让她和罗密欧远走高飞。朱丽叶 依计行事,在婚礼的头天晚上服了药,第二天婚礼自然就变成了葬礼。 神父马上派人去通知罗密欧。可是,罗密欧在神父的送信人到来之前已经知道了消息。他 在半夜来到朱丽叶的墓穴旁,杀死了阻拦他的帕里斯伯爵,掘开了墓穴,他吻了一下朱丽叶之 后,就掏出随身带来的毒药一饮而尽,倒在朱丽叶身旁死去。等神父赶来时,罗密欧和帕里斯 已经死了。这时,朱丽叶也醒过来了。人越来越多,神父还没来得及顾及朱丽叶,就逃走了。 朱丽叶见到死去的罗密欧,也不想独活人间,她没有找到毒药,就拔出罗密欧的剑刺向自己, 倒在罗密欧身上死去。两家的父母都来了,神父向他们讲述了罗密欧和朱丽叶的故事。失去了 the analysis of differences ….. (yenny) 165 儿女后,两家的父母才清醒过来,可是这都已经太迟了。从此,两家解除了恩怨,并在城市中 心为铸造了罗密欧和朱丽叶的金像。 三、《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代的家庭生活背景 《梁山伯与祝英台》描述了中国封建时期的生活,而《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是英国文艺复兴 时期的作品。不过这两个故事都有一样的背景,就是爱情与封建主义的争论。虽然故事里的主 角都是相亲相爱,但他们的爱情面对了很多坎坷。为了爱情,他们反对了家人的意见,最后他 们为了爱情而死去。 1.《梁山伯与祝英台》时代的家庭生活背景 《梁山伯与祝英台》的故事发生在东晋(公元 345 年357 年)末年。那个时代士族与平 民对立,爱情自由与传统束缚不能并存的时代。那时战争连年,人民的生活很辛苦,没有平安 日。虽那时已有了学堂,但学堂只供给男生学者读书,女生并不能享有教育权。有的贵族家庭 让他们的女儿受教育,但这些女子们只能在家里学习,根本不能去学堂和大家一起学习。到了 成年,这些女子们也不允许随便交朋友, 反而被深居闺阁。她们只可以在家里管理家务、刺 绣或做一些女孩子该做的事等等。女儿的未来都由父母来安排,她们只能服从父母的安排。自 己不可以争取自己的意见。(nio, 2004:viii) 2.《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代的家庭生活背景 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是莎士比亚 1594 年写出的一部悲剧。莎士比亚创作的初期正当英国 尹丽莎白女王统治的极盛时期(人文素养读本,2004:139)。那时发生了很多社会、政治以 及智力的改革。男女都已有平等的地位了,可以享有相同的受教育权(nio, 2004:vii)。罗密欧与 朱丽叶为了对自由爱情的追求,敢于不顾家族的世仇,敢于违抗父命,甚至以死殉情,这在封 建社会末期,可说是一种反封建的激进行为,对当时和后来的反封建斗争起了一定的促进作 用。妇女开始要求解放,在故事里的朱丽叶反对父母安排的婚姻(人文素养读本,2004: 164)。 四、《梁山伯与祝英台》、《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代的女性形象 形象是人的精神面貌、性格特征等的具体表现,并以此引起他人的思想或感情活动。它就 象一种介质存在于人的主体和客观的环境之间。每个人都通过自己的形象让他人认识自己,而 周围的人也会通过这种形象对你做出认可或不认可的判断。这种形象不仅包括人的外貌与装扮, 而且包括言谈举止、表情姿势等能够反映人的内在本质的内容。(百度,2010) 从心理学的角度来看,形象就是人们通过视觉、听觉、触觉、味觉等各种感觉器官在大脑 中形成的关于某种事物的整体印象,简言之是知觉,即各种感觉的再现。有一点认识非常重 要:形象不是事物本身,而是人们对事物的感知,不同的人对同一事物的感知不会完全相同, 因而其正确性受到人的意识和认知过程的影响。由于意识具有主观能动性,因此事物在人们头 脑中形成的不同形象会对人的行为产生不同的影响。(百度,2010) 从《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,我们可以从各个方面理解到女主角的形 象。这两个故事是中西方典型的爱情故事,都讲述了一对情人诚心诚意地爱对方,但他们的爱 情都受到其他方面的约束,不能走在一起:梁山伯与祝英台的爱情受到家庭与社会的约束;而 罗密欧与朱丽叶的爱情因父母的自尊不能走在一起。爱情最初只是简单地喜欢对方,但随着精 神世界的发展,爱情越来越复杂,逐渐超越了“喜欢”的界线。爱情是一种奇妙的精神产物, 166 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 人们创造爱情、品尝爱情,有时却被爱情折磨地死去活来却心甘情愿(百度,2010)。梁山伯 与祝英台、罗密欧与朱丽叶就是因为爱情折磨死了,他们最后宁愿为了爱情牺牲了自己,牺牲 了他们年轻的灵魂,牺牲了他们的前途, 因为对他们来说没有爱情就是没有什么前途了。 1.《梁山伯与祝英台》时代的女性形象 《梁山伯与祝英台》不但讲述了爱情故事,还描述了一个女性的坚强,叙述了一个女性为 了自己的权力以及任务而坚持地争取。其实故事从开始到最后都描写了祝英台在教育方面以及 婚姻方面成为了妇女解放的先行者。从故事中提到的女性形象,我们可以理解到东晋时代的女 性是如何。 中国非常重视教育,古代也不例外。父母有责任教育自己的儿女。男女都必须受到教育, 只是教育的项目与方法不太一样。据传统观念,父母给儿子与女儿的教育不同:儿子应该学习 文学、历史、哲学、艺术等,他们一般都从家庭教师或学堂接受教育;而女儿只有贵族女儿才 能在家里受到与儿子基本相同的教育,如文学、艺术等。但所有女性都得学习女人应掌握的技 术,如做饭、刺绣等,以便她们将来嫁出去做好准备。除此之外,女儿还有学习有关“三从四 德”的观念。所谓的“三从”,是指:未嫁从父,既嫁从夫,夫死从子。而“四德”是指: 德、容、言、工。她们所学的都是为了以后侍候丈夫与孩子。 我们从祝英台父母所说的话可以知道祝英台时代只有男孩可以读书,女孩却没有机会在学 校读书,只能在家里受教育。 英台的母亲对英台说 :“孩子,你说话怎么好像做白日梦一样?你知道吗,孔子有 三千多个的学 生,但没有一个是女生。就算你父亲让你去杭州读书,在那儿你一定 会遇到困难的,你会空手而 回!所以说,孩子你还是别再胡思乱想了。” (nio, 2004:8)   祝老爷对夫人说 :“这样吧,明天你去见英台,告诉她我会请一个老师到家里来教 她。要花多少钱也无所谓。” (nio, 2004: 23)   虽然祝英台知道她的时候女人是不能像男人受到教育,但她还是不断坚持她的心愿,为了 想要去杭州求学,女扮男装,危害她自己的生命她也不怕。为了受教育,反对父母她也做得 到。古代父母的致命是不可违抗,儿女违抗父母表示儿女不孝顺,这是巨大的罪。可见,英台 是个刚烈、坚决、不容易放弃、固执的女性。 英台对父亲说 :“爹,你确定了吗,孔子的三千多个学生没有一个是女生?还是,没有一个女扮男 装的学生?,所以,若你让我去杭州读书,我会女扮男装的,爹,你放心吧。” (nio, 2004: 8) 英台对银心说 :“讨厌,这才开始!我一定要去杭州读书,不然我不会放弃 的。 (nio, 2004: 17)   母亲对父亲说 :“英台的态度还是不变,她一滴水也不喝,一口饭也不吃,这样下去 会出人命。” (nio, 2004: 22) 母亲对父亲说 :“那个孩子我管不着了,她的立场改不了,除非她饿死。” (nio, 2004 : 29) 最后,英台的坚决终于得到父母的成全,她女扮男妆去杭州求学。在求学的过程中,英台 也表现得很出色。她比梁山伯优秀学生还要聪明,得到了梁山伯的赞赏。她是个又努力又有才 华的学生。每天下课后都会自己复习课文。这表示了事实上女人能力也不亚于男人。 the analysis of differences ….. (yenny) 167 梁山伯对英台说:“你聪明,很多朋友都赞扬你。甚至有人说你像汉朝的文学家。” (nio, 2004 : 117)   梁山伯对英台说:“小弟,你真聪明,一开口就会编出一首好诗。” (nio, 2004: 127) 梁山伯很高兴地说 :“小弟,你好棒啊。刚看到一些树,你就会编出一首诗。” (nio, 2004 : 118)   梁山伯与祝英台一起在杭州读了三年的书,两人互相欣赏对方的才华,这使英台深深地爱 着山伯。学习了三年后,英台家里来信叫英台回家。英台很难受,一方面她不许反抗父母的要 求,另一方面英台对山伯有了深重的感情。英台不敢表白她自己对山伯的感情。可见,那个时 代的女性认为她们应该保守,不能随便表露自己的感情,谈情求婚应是男人先主动。英台为了 想表现出她对山伯的感情,就用委婉的方法来暗示她对山伯的感情。 英台对山伯说 :“现在我记得了,以前我买毛笔时,我已把一支毛笔送给你,希望 它们以后可以成 果。”   英台对山伯说 :“确实是,这些都是我喜欢的东西,但如果现在我把东西送给你一定 是有原 因的。以后我回去了,如果哥哥看到这些蝴蝶镇纸就会感觉到我在你身边,你 就会想念我们在一 起的时刻。” (nio, 2004 : 110-111) 英台对山伯说 :“你来拜访我吧,越快越好,反正只要你来不只是这些花是你的,甚至我家花园的 花都是你的。” (nio, 2004 : 121) 虽然英台的父亲成全了英台求学的心愿,但其实古代女性都被认为学历不用太高,没有学 历也没问题,女性也不需要太聪明。英台父亲的话就表示了这一点。古代的女性只需要会做家 务,照顾好丈夫就可以了,因此那个时代的女性应该学会下厨煮菜。这种手艺是决定女人嫁出 去后在婆家的身份和地位。一个媳妇如果不能做家务,不是真正的女人,这不但能收到婆家成 员的歧视,也将被社会瞧不起。英台作为那个时代的女人,却有着不同的想法,她已经有了妇 女解放的思想。英台对自己的原则非常有信心,她已不像那个时代的女人一直被社会控制她们 的一举一动,约束她们的思想和自由。 父亲对英台说 :“女儿是想继续读书,但今年已经停学了,不方便一个女人继续读书.” 李老爷对祝老爷说 :“确实是,如果一个女人有那么高的学历的确有点不方便。” (nio, 2004 : 153-154) 李夫人对英台说 :“这边的书都是著名学者的书。可惜的事我以前读不到;关于 历史,我所知道的 很少。小姐,你真行有怎么多的书。那我想,你对家务活儿不必 亲自下手,对吧?” 最后一句话的意思 :“你一定没本事下厨。” 英台明白了李夫人的意思,英台笑着说 :“家务活儿,缝衣服,刺绣活,全都是 女人的义务,也许 我做的不太好反正至少我也做过了,对吧?在这方面我父母不太 计较。但这证明了女人的义务我 也能做。” 李夫人又对英台说 :“下厨,煮菜也做过吗?” 英台又明白了李夫人的意思,她又笑着说 :“李夫人 一定也有女儿吧,回去麻烦您问 您女儿,你就会得到答案了。” 李夫人听了无话可说。 (nio, 2004 : 168-169) 婚姻是终生大事,现代时代应该由双方一起来决定的,但古代的婚姻都是由父母来安排 的,孩子没权利决定自己的婚姻。此外,古代的婚姻媒婆的责任重大。她通过介绍对方来决定 168 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 子女的婚姻大事,这往往给古代的孩子们带来悲剧和痛苦。对传统社会来说婚姻是一件非常非 常有意义以及非常重要的事。他们最期待的就是从婚姻得到后代,这样表示孩子对父母的孝 敬。这种传统婚姻,孩子是没有反抗的权利,这属于“三从”的其中一个内容,即:“未嫁从 父”。祝英台也不例外。 祝老爷对夫人说:“这就是你的错误,我以前也是听你的话让英台去杭州求学。你想三年的时间, 我们的心有安心过吗?但现在,婚姻是终生大事,我们再也不给她 选择的权利了。更何况对方是 马家,这不是很好吗?” (nio, 2004 : 157) 五天后祝老爷宣布英台的婚姻已定下来了,就是 :祝英台许配给马文才。聘金 很快就送来了。因 此,没时间反对了。(nio, 2004 : 172) 可见,古代妇女的地位还是很低。根据孔子的思想中国的家庭制度是属于父系制度,男人 是家庭的决定权。男人的地位总是比女人高和重要。男人可以拥有全世界,而女人只可以拥有 一个家。《梁山伯与祝英台》里也表现出这一观点: 母亲对英台说:“你别再胡思乱想了,我们家没有儿子,就把女婿当成儿子看待。如果你嫁给了马 文才,你们的儿子就可以当成祝家的后代,这不是很好吗?” (nio, 2004 : 278) 父亲对母亲说:“岂有此理,不可能一个女人可以养活一个家?好了你别再管了,反正到了那一天 我会用各种手段逼她上轿子 (嫁人)。”(nio, 2004 : 279) 虽然知道作为女人不能反抗父亲,但为了爱情,她能不顾一切跟家人作对,甚至为了爱情 牺牲自己的生命。梁山伯和祝英台拥有真心真意爱情,不管有多少人反对他们在一起,但他们 还是坚持到底,为了爱情而死。其实英台也难以做事,一方面她尽力不跟父母作对,一方面她 坚持自己的爱情,自己的立场 英台自言自语地说:“我也不想和父母有什么矛盾,所以不想跟他们说太多。但我 已决定了不管怎 么样,我宁愿死也不要嫁到马家。” (nio, 2004 : 182) 英台写给山伯的信也证明了他们是相亲相爱的:“一看完你给我写的信,我的眼泪不定地流着。我 了解你说的每一句话。你要好好照顾身体,我只希望你早日康复。关于我们的事,我们只能根据 老天的安排走。但你放心,我已决定我这一辈子只要嫁给你!” (nio, 2004 : 220) 到最后英台也为了坚持自己的爱情而死。在她嫁出去的那一天,英台吩咐花轿经过山伯的 坟墓,这表示了她对山伯真诚的爱。她最后决定跟随山伯,跳进山伯的坟墓。两人后来化成翩 翩彩蝶,双双飞向天际。 通过《梁山伯与祝英台》的故事情节以及祝英台的思想、对话等形象可以理解到当时女性 已经开始有了女性解放的概念,她们开始敢于反抗父母的意见,反对父母安排的婚姻,而自己 决定自己的未来。 英台对银心说 :“算了吧。难怪爹爹反对我们去杭州读书。原难要照顾好自己很难,更何况我们是 女扮男装去求学。我希望一百多年后的女性可以大大方方地读书。可惜的 是我们早出生了。” (nio, 2004: 149) the analysis of differences ….. (yenny) 169 英台对父亲说 :“是我自己答应要嫁给梁山伯的,不可以吗?而你呢?因为你是 我父亲所以你就可 以随便把我卖给马家?这样公平吗?(nio, 2004: 275) 此外,从英台的形象描述了女性解放的思想。例如:第一,祝英台是一个很刚烈的女性, 她不断地坚持自己的立场。她决定了女扮男装去杭州求学,这对那时代的女性来讲是一件不可 能的事;第二,因她的理想主义,她反对了父母安排的婚姻,坚持要与山伯在一起。这按照那 时代的风俗习惯,女性根本没有权利决定自己的婚姻,全都应由父母来安排的;第三,英台勇 敢地拒绝嫁给马文才,最后还为了她所坚持的爱情而死,终于实现了她跟梁山伯结婚的愿望变 成了一双蝴蝶。从这三方面,我们可以看到这就是女性解放的成果。 2.《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代的女性形象 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》也是一部英国著名的爱情悲剧,讲述了一对情人因两大家族的仇恨, 害了他们不能走在一起,牺牲了他们的爱情、青春和前途。与中国封建社会不太一样的是英国 复兴时期的妇女不像中国封建社会的妇女被看不起。英国复兴时期的时候,若一个家庭没有儿 子,他们就把女儿当成他们的后代,可以说英国男人与女人在家庭地位上受到比较平等的看待 与对待。 朱丽叶父亲对求婚者说 :“别太着急,先让她度过美好的青年时期,不然她会后悔 的。最主要的, 她是我在世界上唯一的希望,也是我唯一 的继承人。” (shakespeare, 2007: 44) 此外,英国复兴时期的妇女可受教育,不像中国封建社会的妇女只可以在家里学礼节、礼 仪。英国复兴时期的妇女都有一定的学问。 “就像罗密欧一样,那个女孩也是贵族的女孩,得到善行的培养,在一座著名的学校 学习,被一个 著名的老师教智慧学问。” (shakespeare, 2007: 11) 但与中国传统文化一样,《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代的婚姻也由父母来安排。父母给子女选 的对象都是门当户对。虽然如此,父母还给孩子选择的权利。下面的会话证明西方婚姻本来是 父母安排的,但孩子也有权利决定自己的婚姻。 求婚者对朱丽叶父亲说 :“你们俩家都是可敬的家庭,话说回来,我的求婚您有什 么反应。” 朱丽叶父亲对求婚者说 :“就像我刚说的,我的女儿对婚姻这件事还不太懂。年龄 也不到 14 岁。 再等她变成成熟的女人再说吧。” (shakespeare, 2007: 43-44) 那个时代的妇女年龄很小就已经开始嫁人了, 成为了母亲。她们 14 岁时,父母就开始忙 给她们找结婚对象。但朱丽叶却不同,她不想像那个时代的妇女一样,因为年龄的问题就乱嫁 出去,也不原意父母给她安排婚姻。这表示朱丽叶开始敢反抗父母的旨意,开始有了女人解放 的思想。 母亲对朱丽叶说:“朱丽叶,你都 14 岁了,对婚姻你有什么看法?” 朱丽叶对母亲说:“我到现在还没想到有这种荣誉” 170 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 母亲对朱丽叶说:“现在你就可以开始想你的婚姻,你的未来了。我们城市里的女人,年龄想你那 么大女人都当母亲了。我以前生下你的时候年龄比你还小。” 朱丽叶对母亲说:“我会喜欢一件事若这件事值得我喜欢,而且是我自己喜欢的” (shakespeare, 2007: 55-57) 朱丽叶后来见到了罗密欧,对罗密欧产生了深厚的感情,于是她不管家族的仇恨多严重, 仍然不顾一切地想与罗密欧在一起,甚至愿意抛弃她的姓。 朱丽叶对罗密欧说:“罗密欧,为什么你是蒙太古是的人,我也宁愿不当凯普莱特的人,这样我们 不是可以在一起了吗?” 朱丽叶又对罗密欧说:“你的名字才是我的仇人。但你就是不蒙太古是的人。什么是蒙太古是,它什 么都不是,找一个别的名吧。一个名字有什么意义呢?” 罗密欧对朱丽叶说:“为了证明我对你的爱,我什么都敢做,连你的家人我都不怕。” (shakespeare, 2007: 93) 朱丽叶是个性格刚强的女人。她非常相信罗密欧,不管罗密欧犯了什么错误,她都相信自 己的爱人。 朱丽叶对奶娘说 :“杀死我的表哥确实不是一件好事,可是我表哥首先要杀死我的丈夫。我表哥的 死一定是因为他要杀死我的丈夫。” (shakespeare, 2007: 158) 英国那时代的女性对感情这件事比较坦白。她们敢于向对方表达自己的感情。罗密欧与朱 丽叶甚至敢于在没有父母的允许下自己举行婚礼。 朱丽叶对罗密欧说:“罗密欧,我问你,你是不是爱上我了?我相信你一定已爱上我了。但你放心 吧,你还是相信我,我比谁还忠实,我承认我有点不好意思对你坦白,但我早就在心理承认我爱 你。” (shakespeare, 2007: 94) 朱丽叶对罗密欧说:“我只希望你可以永远陪着我。” 过了几天罗密欧与朱丽叶两人自己举行婚礼。 他们不顾家人的反对。只要他们互相恩爱就行了。(shakespeare, 2007: 112) 朱丽叶也是个勇敢的女人,是一个很重视爱情的女人。为了证明她对罗密欧的真爱,不顾 一切牺牲了自己的生命。 朱丽叶对神父说 :“要我嫁给帕里斯伯爵,我宁愿死。只要我可以和罗密欧在一起,你要我面对最 可怕的事我也无所谓。” (shakespeare, 2007: 200) 然后神父给了朱丽叶一个成全爱情的办法,就是让她把毒药喝下去,然后装死,42 小时 后她会醒过来。朱丽叶不怕地使用这个办法。晚上回到家后,朱丽叶把一切都准备好了。然后 她冒险把毒药一口喝下去。希望醒过来以后可以和罗密欧在一起。神父也写信通知罗密欧这个 办法,但没想到罗密欧却没收到有关信息,他冒了险去朱丽叶的坟墓,看到死去的朱丽叶后, 他也决定自己不想活下去了,最后罗密欧把自己带来的毒药一口喝光了,倒在朱丽叶的身旁死 去。醒过来的朱丽叶看到罗密欧已经死了,她就立刻拔出罗密欧的剑刺向自己,倒在罗密欧身 the analysis of differences ….. (yenny) 171 上死去。他们去世的消息,让这多年生活于仇恨的两个家族清醒过来,可是已经迟了。从此, 两个家族消除了积怨,并在城中为罗密欧和朱丽叶铸了一座金像。 结论 一、《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代女性形象的相同: (一) 中西女性非常重视爱情,他们愿意为爱情牺牲,不管将来会发生什么事,他们都会 一起面对,但因为父母反对以及家族仇恨让他们牺牲了自己的生命。 (二) 祝英台和朱丽叶时代的女人开始有了解放的思想。她们开始证明女人也不亚于男 人。英台觉得女人和男人的地位都是平等的,男人可以读书,女人应该也是可以读 书。祝英台和朱丽叶勇敢地反对父母所安排的婚姻。 (三) 祝英台和朱丽叶的个性表示了中西的女性形象是一个强烈、勇敢、有信心的女性。 她们勇敢地坚持自己的立场。 二、《梁山伯与祝英台》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》时代女性形象的差异 (一) 中国社会非常重视男人,男人的地位比女人高,因中国的家庭制度是父权制。一个 家庭如果没有儿子就不是一个完整的家庭。儿子才是一个家庭的继承人。在教育方 面也一样,只有男人才可以读书,女人只可以在家里学习,她们所学得也是家庭教 育,是将来用来侍候自己的老公;而在英国,男人和女人的地位都是平等的。女人 拥有受教育权,可拥有丰富的学问,可向著名的教师求学。如果一个家庭没有儿 子,女儿也可以当继承人。 (二) 中国的女人比较保守,不敢于表白自己的感情。她们还非常重视那时候的习俗,就 是女人不应该先对男人表达感情;但英台却不同,英国女性敢于用很多例子来表白 她的感情。 参考文献 高妙红.(2008).梁山伯与祝英台[z],2010 年 3 月 2 日参考于 http://gb.cri.cn/1321/2008/02/29/1766@1959742.htm   李振林.(2003).中国古代女子全书“女儿规”[m], 兰州:甘肃文化出版社 李振林.(2003).中国古代女子全书“女儿俗”[m],兰州:甘肃文化出版社 李振林.(2003).中国古代女子全书“女儿品”[m],兰州:甘肃文化出版社 王建辉.(2004).中国文化知识精华[m], 武汉:湖北人民出版社 人文素养读本编辑委员会.(2004).假如维纳斯不断壁[m],太原:北岳文艺出版社 谭宗 燕.(2007).《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》的差异分析[j],潍坊教育学院 学报(journal of weifang educational college),20(1) 172 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 162-172 魏金龙、李嫦英.(2010).《梁山伯与祝英台》与《罗密欧与朱丽叶》悲剧差异及其根源[j], 2010 年 3 月 5 日参考于 http://zjk365.net/a/lunwenzixun/2010/0323/8716.html  温伯格.(2004).莎士比亚论人生[m],北京:中国商业出版社   中央电视台.(2008).梁祝传说留遗恨,马家后代不满背百年黑锅[z],2010 年 3 月 2 日参考于 http://news.xinhuanet.com/video/2008‐02/29/content_7692998.htm 爱情[z]. 2010 年 3 月 2 日参考于 http://baike.baidu.com/view/1348.htm 梁祝[z] , 2010 年 3 月 2 日参考于 http://ww,liangzhu.org    人物形象设计是什么?[z],2010 年 3 月 5 日参考于 http://wenwen.soso.com/z/q93039446.htm    形象[z],2010 年 3 月 5 日参考于 http://baike.baidu.com/view/245411.htm    张恨水[z],2010 年 3 月 5 日参考于 http://www.zsxx.net/web/teacher/ylh/zhanghenshui.htm    arianto, e.(2008).citra diri diakses 10 maret 2010 dari http://erwin-arianto.blogspot.com/2008/05/citra-diri.html ebrey, p. b. 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(2007). romeo juliet. jakarta: navila. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 195 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 195-202 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.4011 investigating the influence of think-pair-share approach toward students’ reading achievement didik rinan sumekto english education department, widya dharma university jl. ki hajar dewantara, klaten utara 57435, indonesia didikrinan@unwidha.ac.id received: 27th september 2017/revised: 04th december 2017/accepted: 18th december 2017 how to cite: sumekto, d. r. (2018). investigating the influence of think-pair-share approach toward students’ reading achievement. lingua cultura, 12(2), 195-202. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.4011 abstract this research aimed at investigating the influence of think-pair-share approach on the performance of ninth-grade students’ reading achievement. this classroom action research involved 35 public secondary school students in pandowoharjo, sleman, special region of yogyakarta. they were selected by purposive sampling method. data collection used the naturalistic observation technique and narrative reading text in the selected meetings. after a series of reading activity, a twenty-numbers multiple choice test was given to all respondents. data were analyzed by using mixed analysis; self-reflective spiral model and descriptive statistics. think-pair-share stimulated students’ participation and performance in reading, in which it increased the functional communication, discussion, decision taking, and conflict reduction in groups learning. the finding also showed that students’ mean of readed performance was 63,85 in the first cycle and increased to 66,00 in the second cycle. these cyclical outputs fulfill the minimal passing grade criteria. this research concludes that applying think-pair-share as a suitably alternative learning approach that helps the students develop their collaborative skills. keywords: think-pair-share approach, student achievement, reading achievement introduction in a regular school agenda, teachers and the headmaster begin their meeting with a reflective talk. the headmistress, in this case, starts with the importance of engaging students in classroom discussions by familiarly advocating the teachers. she has said, “those who are talking the most are also learning the most” (goldsmith, 2013). this empirical case is frequently found where teachers mostly dominate talks in front of the class, while students inactively sit down and participate only when they are asked to. in part of understanding that phenomena, students’ interaction can be reasonably well-functioned in harmonizing their day-to-day reading class by being given opportunities to share their knowledge, learn from one another, and practice important social skills either in diversity or inclusive classrooms (friend & bursuck, 2009). this conditional learning reflects the critical thinking that triggers the open-mindedness, analytic proneness, systematic tendencies, curiousness, and cognitive maturity (kaddoura, 2013). when maximizing the small-group activities, a teacher needs to reorganize groups and gives students equal opportunities to learn from and become convenient with others (conderman, bresnahan, & hedin, 2011; friend & bursuck, 2009). for instance, in a reading class, a teacher may pose questions in his/her class, either reviewing the previous topic or drilling the current paragraphs whilst they are in structured and stimulating discussions. these activities tend to invite recollection of information, fuller participation, and higher-level thinking (jones, 2008). reading comprehension constructs the meaning to work with a deeper understanding of concepts and information presented in a text (rapp et al., 2007). any text involves a combination of word recognition skills, links to new information to prior knowledge and application for the appropriate strategies, such as locating the main idea, making connections, questioning, inferring, and predicting (westwood, 2008). this comprehension process deals with the cognitive and linguistic abilities, such as vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, constructed sentences, paragraphs, and texts (lems, miller, & soro, 2010). aside from that, it also deals with the recollection of background knowledge, sentence processing, verbal reasoning, working memory (mccardle, scarbough, & catts, 2002), word identification, and called decoding (pressley, 2006). the sources are available through articles, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, and online-based sources (pang et al., 2003). hence, to help students achieve their reading skills, 196 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 195-202 a teacher needs to choose an interesting reading topic and method through a selection of good reading materials that introduce interesting ideas, stimulates discussion, excites imaginative responses, and fascinates the lesson (lems, miller, & soro, 2010). a teacher may strategically focus the reading instruction on searching for information through scanning and skimming technique, integrating information, evaluating, criticizing, using information, entertaining reading for general comprehension (grabe, 2009), and doing a repeated reading (therrien, gormley, & kubina, 2006). on the other hand, horner and o’connor (2007) have recommended that the weaker readers regularly practice to reach a stage of understanding reading topics, whilst being independent, self-regulating, and constructing strategies. those facts reflect students’ reading activity, participation, and performance, in which most students still find difficulties in harmonizing a good pattern of reading habit. however, some experts also believed in student’s barriers when joining the reading class. several studies have investigated the empirical outputs of why reading weaknesses are still found among students. according to weekes et al. (2008), the weaker readers are laborious and are slow in identifying words. they commonly seem to find difficulties in connecting ideas after reading a comprehensive passage. meanwhile, sencibaugh (2007) has criticized these problems with students’ critical thinking, cognitive interaction, and rigid monitoring upon students’ comprehensiveness to find meanings whilst reading. another weakness related to the poorly inferred meaning beyond the words written on pages and insufficiency of details (cragg & nation, 2006). these frequently causal factors have constituted readers’ limited vocabulary knowledge, lack of fluency and familiarity with the reading topics, the difficulty level of the readability, inadequate use of effective strategies, verbal reasoning, problems with processing information, and problems in recalling information after reading (westwood, 2008). furthermore, students may effectively use an imprecise language when communicating with their peers. the student-centered learning is characterized by openended tasks and collaborative learning modes that lead to constructivist learning interaction in the classroom, which accommodates both teacher’s and students’ engagements (kumpulainen & wray, 2002). in relation to the expectation of learning modes and interaction, an approach of thinkpair-share that was firstly developed by frank lyman at maryland university in 1981, and it has been implemented in this present study. during the years, this approach has been established as a collaborative discussion strategy (jones, 2008; kaddoura, 2013). think-pair-share approach engages the learners to think silently about the question, pair up, and discuss their possible responses and answers. later, the pairs share their responses and answers with the other pairs, teams, or the entire groups (othman & othman, 2012). this approach does not only mitigate the absentmindedness issue that is caused by teacher’s excessive talks, but it allows students to proceed information, clarify thinking, and negotiate meaning that is focused on the verbal interactions (anderson & esquierdo, 2011). substantially, the solutions are shared within the class to promote individual accountability (getter & rowe, 2008; johnson, johnson, & smith, 2006). thinkpair-share provides three functional types in a sequential order; individual, intra-group, and inter-group (chen & chiu, 2016). it accommodates time for the teacher to pose a question, for students to think and sharing in pairs, and for each pair to share back to the whole class (nwaubani et al., 2016; pardeshi, 2016). by collaborating with peer. so far, peer’s collaboration indicates the learning contribution processes (sumekto, 2014). thus, think-pair-share promotes a variety of responses, including analytic, comparative, inferential, and evaluative reasoning (street, 2002) and plays a positive role in improving students’ oral communicative skills and enhancing students’ motivation to learn better (raba, 2017). this positive engagement complies with the think-pair-share experience in which most students believe that it equips them better to solve the extension problems. think-pair-share drills also help students apply the subject content to real-world situations (getter & rowe, 2008). as shown in table 1, there are three activities in reading class that can be engaged through the think-pair-share approach. for this purpose, each student in a group is given certain information to gain an idea (brown, 2007) and train the habit of students together with other peers through the information exchanges (silver, strong, & perini, 2007). as well as the collaborative feedback. the feedback may address some reading genres (sumekto, 2017) to perform reading skills, if the collaborative learning is conditionally facilitated (sumekto, saleh, retmono, & sofwan, 2015). the activity also stimulates students’ discussions and guides them to contribute their thoughts before responding openly (street, 2002). when facing group-to-group exchange with one important difference, every learner delivers the idea to the others. consequently, this practical learning approach accommodates an equal opportunity to all learners to be successful (cook & hazelwood, 2002). the previous study has portrayed teacher’s teaching experience in the classroom. accordingly, the students have found that unattractive reading activities make for a monotonous learning method. the reading activities table 1 reading activities engaged in think-pair-share subject area think:individually, students… pair: as partners, students… share: as a whole class, students… reading identifying one character in a short story or passage. they have a few minutes to write the adjectives, and describe the character. sharing the adjectives, selecting two or three to share with the whole group, planning a rationale for choosing these with references to the text. reporting the selected adjectives and giving the reasons, reading with voices, and discussing the sections of text that support or conflict with the adjectives, using all adjectives to write a simple paragraph about the character. (source: chen & chiu, 2016) 197investigating the influence .... (didik rinan sumekto) have indicated several problems, such as inappropriate pronunciation, limited vocabulary, and uncomfortable learning environment. the learning’s focus quickly turns monotonous and easily becomes reluctant. furthermore, teacher’s reading file has also documented that students’ reading achievement is still not well-performed. 20 (51%) ninth-grade students have not met the minimal passing grade. this records that only 15 (49%) students have met the passing grade criteria as determined by 60. referring to prior students’ reading achievement, they seem to be in an uneasy learning atmosphere to comprehend the reading activities. the objectives of this present research deal with investigating the influence of think-pair-share learning approach through the performance of the ninth-grade students’ reading behavior. hence, this research strives to answer the following research questions: (1) how does think-pair-share approach influence the ninth-grade students’ reading activity? (2) does think-pair-share approach increase the ninth-grade students’ reading performance? methods this research uses the purposive sample of 35 ninth-grade students with the composition of 20 females and 15 males in an intentionally designated class. this research is set at a lower public secondary school (sekolah menengah pertama negeri) in pandowoharjo sub-district, sleman district, special region of yogyakarta. the reading material is based on the 2013 curriculum (k-2013). the standard competence has accommodated the social function, text structure, and linguistic features that are written in the narrative text. the topics address fairy-tales and short stories as documented in the teaching syllabus. the reading course is commenced in the first semester of the 2016/2017 academic year. all participants are equally given an opportunity to take part in the reading activities based on genders, a term of study, academic performance to provide maximum insight, and understanding of what they naturally involve in reading class. as part of teaching and learning strategy, think-pairshare is equally designed for all participants. the reading material is delivered within four weeks. the method includes teacher’s introductory explanation and small groups based discussions. during the activity, students with the same group are assigned to a decisive-touch topic. in applying think-pair-share, the teacher firstly poses a question which results in the group members simply and individually pausing to think of their responses. secondly, the activity turns to pairs, and the members finally share their responses to the question with the peers. after a few minutes of discussion, the teacher gives a signal, such as asking for students to raise their hand, and finally, the class turns its attention back to the teacher (conderman, bresnahan, & hedin, 2011; goldsmith, 2013; kaddoura, 2013; nessel & graham, 2007; robertson, 2006). data collection is set in the naturalistic observation in which the researcher observes the situations, frequencies, patterns, and trends in the reading class. this situation corresponds with the cyclical procedures, continuously refined methods, and interpretations based on cycles’ understandings (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2007) to accommodate the following qualitative descriptions on both cycles. then, it is followed by 20 multiple-choice tests consisting of four choices (a, b, c, and d). data analysis uses the conditionally mixed-design analysis of the cyclical spiral of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting (kemmis & mctaggert, 1992), and the non-parametric statistics that analyze the frequencies, descriptive, and chisquare test upon students’ first and second cycle in reading achievements. results and discussions this research presents the data analysis that is employed from its cyclical spiral, namely; planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. first of all, the classroom observation is conducted twice with the time allotment of 2x45 minutes in the first and second week of october 2015. the first session focuses on planning the action. the session is jointly discussed between the english teacher, mrs. novarini, and the researcher on deciding the selected reading materials. the discussion focuses on the fairy-tale of grandma pakande and the folklore of bugis people. the second step is the action, in which the reading class is designed with the think-pair-share approach. the material addresses the narrative-based paragraph for which students have worked on collaboratively with their peers. the teacher begins her class with the generic structure issue. it specifies the orientation, events, and re-orientation, and it also explains the narrative text upon the lexico-grammatical context. it emphasizes the use of simple past tense. as a part of comprehending the generic structure and lexicogrammatical context of the narrative text, group members are advised and drilled how to construct the pattern of positive, negative, and interrogative sentences. in the ending session, the teacher asks for students to finalize their sentence construction at home, making the upcoming narrative text to be discussed at the next meeting. the second observation is conducted in the second week of october 6th, 2015. at the beginning session, the teacher reviews and discusses the topic with the students upon the delivered material in the previous meeting, and asks for them to work in groups again. herein, the research is continued with planning and doing the action. the actions are jointly done with the first cycle reflection session. they continue discussing the fairytale of grandma pakande and the folklore of bugis people. the classroom talks begin with the initial discussion on the lesson plan, the standard competence, the achievement criteria indicator, and the narrative text as engaged in reading activities. the students are divided into small groups by a prior notice from the teacher. the group members are randomly selected based on their background academic diversity. next, the class starts by doing the action. the english teacher commences her reading class at 07:00 a.m. with her students. when stepping into the classroom, the teacher habitually conveys her warm greetings to her students, who then t signs a pre-agenda in the morning activity in this session. all students enthusiastically reply the greetings and welcome their teacher’s attendance for the reading session with a friendly manner. after taking a few seconds for praying, the class begins with an introductory statement on the narrative text’s generic structure at 07:05 a.m. this part relies on the orientation, complication, and resolution. the class has also explained the purpose of dealing with actual or imaginative experience in different ways, both individually and collaboratively. following that, the teacher allocates different and relevant issues for group discussions. as documented in the 198 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 195-202 teaching syllabus, the discussion focuses on the indonesian folklore, entitled grandma pakande of soppeng district, south sulawesi. the teacher recounts in a brief introductory, the story of grandma pakande. this bugis folklore is foretold as an evil fairy who is keen on kidnapping children at night, all within 15 minutes. when the teacher ends her brief explanation, the time shows 07:20 a.m. while following the teacher’s brief story, some students continue to read the text in a silent manner. in the next 20 minutes ahead, come the students’ turn to read and understand the comprehensive content, details of vocabulary meaning, and paragraphs inference implied through the grandma pakande text. after allocating 20 minutes to read, the students are immediately reminded by the teacher to stop reading. meanwhile, the time shows 07:40 a.m., and it is five minutes before the class ends. the teacher asks the students to pay attention regarding the running topic. she re-emphasizes the substantial points written in the grandma pakande text by exemplifying the theme, setting, character, and possibly teaching value set by. the class is about to be over, and there are two minutes left, and the teacher offers her students to ask questions and give inquiries, but they seem to be reluctant to do it. finally, the teacher bid them goodbye and shortly walks out of the class at 07:45 a.m. the next meeting is scheduled for october 8th, 2015. the reading session starts at 08:15 a.m. as it has been fully experienced in the first observation, the teacher and students repeat the session with the grandma pakande folklore. first of all, the habitual greeting and praying moments from inside the classroom are still engaged within three minutes. after those moments immediately pass, the teacher directly requires the students to stay within their former groups as they are formatted and read the folklore for 10 minutes. she also reminds the students to work collaboratively applying for the think-pair-share approach. the groups are assigned into four up to six members in each group. after using their 10 minutes to read, the students are given a reading quiz with 20 multiple-choices. they stop reading and start to work on the quiz. the students should completely finish the quiz within 20 minutes. when the time shows 08:48 a.m., the students stop working and have fully prepared to discuss the quiz with their peers. anyway, the teacher announces to them that they still have another 12 minutes left. specifically, all group members are given opportunities to set up their ideas freely when understanding and constructing the irregular verb, present, and past tense through the multiple-choice items. the students’ works seem to be conducive, and they showcase an appropriate manner and understanding the roles in the classroom. most students bring printed dictionary and digital dictionary that are facilitated by their android mobile phones. both of these learning tools are suggestively allowed to use. empirically, the students use them to search and identify the sentence patterns and the meaning of difficult words, as well as to construct the point of views. furthermore, the conducive learning matches rentoule’s (2016) idea that highlights the reading situation addresses the students to construct the meaning through interactions to text, such as decoding, comprehending, and analyzing through the scanning and skimming evidence. this concept epitomizes the group members, especially when compromising the internal cognitive processes. for example, after reading the passage, the students are able to describe what they are thinking about the particular character’s motives, setting, and plot. aside from that, the students might also respond to teacher’s questions about the nature of the character, setting, and plot to be part of their brainstorming exploration. by investigating the influence of think-pair-share, the storytelling is accordingly viewed to be one of the important activities in secondary students’ reading class, since those who have difficulties in grasping the meaning, attempt to follow the story through the mimics and gestures. in this part, the students listen to other peers who deliver the story of grandma pakande in front of the class. after listening, the students discuss it with their best understanding. the social skills are shared among others in relation to the storytelling of grandma pakande. this shows their mutual understanding in collaborative works. after the story-telling session ends, the assessment is fully given to evaluate their think-pair-share approach through the process of telling and performing the story as a part of the discussion. think-pairshare is well-prepared in order to construct an appropriate learning strategy into its applicability. empirically, the reading activity is designed in the following steps; a group consisting of four to six students, in which every group member should be silently thinking and doing the quiz individually. group members then pair and discuss with the peers, and they finally share the discussion topic with the peers. this experiential activity corresponds with fatimah’s (2015) ideas. secondly, the paired storytelling technique is well-facilitated. this technique accommodates an interaction among students, teacher, and reading materials to harmonize teacher’s teaching creativity and interaction, as well as to maximize students’ receptive and productive skills, such as proficiency, flexibility, novelty, elaboration, and evaluation. the effects of using think-pair-share are deeply evaluated through students’ contribution analyses during the observation. the issues include the quality of responses, time to think, engagement in collaboration, prediction, imagery, summary, and higher-order thinking skills. for example, “was grandma pakande an evil fairy who is keen on kidnapping children at night?” in reply to the question, “do you think something would happen tonight?” the students share it in pairs reflectively without thinking most of the time. replying the question, one of the students, named sheryl, responds with two answers, “yes, she was an evil fairy” and “grandma pakande would kidnap the children tonight if they play outside the house.” however, other students have additional answers to complete the responses with their logic and elaboration of ideas. within minutes of this session whilst reading the story of grandma pakande, the teacher drills again by asking, “what did the story talk about when it is the sort of children who do not obey to their parents’ advice?” emmanuel and rohyati are stuck to share their ideas promptly. in this part of the activity, the teacher lets her students work independently. she gives a chance to her students to be active learners. she stimulates them for the sharing session by asking, “was she taking the children away for the whole night?” “how did grandma pakande prey the children?” to which both students spontaneously reply, “before preying the children, grandma pakande took them away for the whole night, and she prepared to eat them with the boiled water.” apart from one situation where emmanuel denies showing his collaboration during the first think-pair-share session, both participants are willing to collaborate and contribute steadily when asked for the second time. however, the initially demonstrated role seems to be a less vocal group. 199investigating the influence .... (didik rinan sumekto) as noted, all names used in this study are pseudonyms. the influence of think-pair-share generates a more constructive learning circumstance in which students in the group become enthusiastic to participate concisely, particularly when their peers are inaccurate in telling the points. this learning experience notes students’ achievement as the impact of the applied teaching strategy. according to bamiro (2015), the result is a sensitive and significantly various among students’ low, medium, and high cognitive entry behavior. the results confirm the positive effects of the strategy on students’ reading. it might engage students’ oral language use, thinking, meta-cognitive awareness, and reading achievement. the adaptability of the think-pairshare approach suits the learning focus among students’ groups. the experts figure out this learning circumstance could be implemented appropriately with students’ academic diversity and believed that teacher’s carefully planned instruction taught the language structure and precise use of words and phrases. it can be worked through both modeling and engaging practices that increase students’ experimentation and continuous growth in reading (lapp, fisher, & frey, 2013). so far, the students have demonstrated a better conceptual understanding, greater persistence, and increased engagement when the collaborative and interactive learning methods are used (slavich & zimbardo, 2012). marzano and pickering (2005) have pointed out that the think-pair-share might be effectively engaged with the time preparation, and students’ personal interaction could motivate other students with little intrinsic interest in a certain reading topic. moreover, the teacher might engage the entire class and encourage quiet students to answer questions without standing out among their classmates. it means that the think-pair-share could be flexible and supportive of applying for the small group based discussion with more complex tasks. according to conderman, bresnahan, and hedin (2011), the small groups enable students to interact, share answers, receive feedback, and practice social skills. the small groups, as designed in think-pair-share, allow the group members to move fluidly between their l1 and l2. occasionally, reorganizing groups provide the learners with opportunities to learn from and to become comfortable with others. on the other hand, the non-parametric statistics analyses indicate students’ reading performance through the multiple-choice tests. the reading test still adapts the story of grandma pakande to construct the genuine and consistent learning situation as it used to be investigated in think-pair-share approach. firstly, the following frequencies and descriptive statistics refer to students’ reading achievements. the respondents who have participated in the reading test have also shown their various achievement categories. it can be seen in table 2 and figure 1. the frequencies results of students’ reading achievement in cycle 1 show that 5 students (14,3%) gain 55,00; 11 students (31,4%) gain 60,00; 7 students (20%) gain 65,00; 10 students (28,6%) gain 70,00; and 2 students (5,7%) gain 75,00 in multiple-choices reading tests. table 2 analyzes the descriptive statistics for the first cycle reading achievement with 35 test takers. the score ranges in between 55,00 and 75,00. the standard deviation is 6,073 which indicates a sizable achievement of students’ variability scores. the statistics for skewness (0,049) and kurtosis (-1,112) are insignificant for 35 test takers in the first cycle enrollment, showing that the data are normally distributed. meanwhile, the mean of the first cycle score is 63,85 and the highest achievement is identified into moderate category with 51,4%. figure 1 establishes the influence of the reading achievement which depicts the students’ academic performance. however, the relationship in the line graph does not explain whether this relationship is statistically significant. this figure reasonably records important information about the performance of reading tests as delivered in cycle 1. the results notify that this might increase into a more significant score with a better quality of think-pair-share practices. table 2 descriptive statistics for students’ reading achievement in cycle 1 n min. max. mean std. dev. skewness kurtosis students’ reading achievement in cycle 2 35 55,00 75,00 63,8571 6,07378 0,049 -1,112 valid n (list wise) 35 figure 1 frequency of students’ reading achievement in cycle 1 200 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 195-202 next, in this part of the analysis discusses the chisquare test for goodness of fit as shown in the result of the first cycle reading achievement. the analysis identifies responses in different categories as it establishes females and males’ chi-square test by category. the overall difference between females and males’ chi-square tests for the reading achievement are statistically significant, where c² = 8,500 (4, n = 20), p<0,075 for females and c² = 3,333 (4, n = 15), p<0,504 for males. therefore, a chi-square test for goodness of fit shows that there is no significant difference in the proportion of the majority of reading achievements indicated in the current sample (n=35). furthermore, students’ reading achievement is also documented in cycle 2. the frequencies are classified into seven levels; 6 students (17,1%) gain 55,00; 7 students (20%) gain 60,00; 10 students (28,6%) gain 65,00; 4 students (11,4%) gain 70,00; 4 students (11,4%) gain 75,00; 2 students (5,7%) gain 80,00; and 2 students (5,7%) gain 85,00 in objective reading tests. table 3 analyzes the descriptive statistics for the second cycle reading achievement with 35 test takers. the score ranges in between 55,00 and 85,00. the standard deviation is 8,557, indicating a measurable achievement of students’ variability in scores. the statistics for skewness (0,641) and kurtosis (-0,263) are inconsiderable for 35 test takers in the second cycle enrollment, showing that the data are normally distributed. meanwhile, the mean of the second cycle score is 66,00 and the highest achievement is subsequently identified into moderate category with 48,6%. figure 2 verifies the final achievement of students’ reading achievement which addresses test-takers’ academic background. however, the relationship in the line graph does not explain whether this relationship is statistically significant. this figure reasonably records important information about the performance of reading tests as depicted in cycle 2. the results recommend that this might be worthwhile to receive the result of a more significant score with a better learning quality of think-pair-share approach in the near future. furthermore, this part of the analysis discusses the chi-square test for goodness of fit as shown in the result table 3 descriptive statistics for students’ reading achievement in cycle 2 n min. max. mean std. dev. skewness kurtosis students’ reading achievement in cycle 2 35 55,00 85,00 66,0000 8,55776 0,641 -0,263 valid n (list wise) 35 figure 2 frequency of students’ reading achievement in cycle 2 of the second cycle reading achievement. the analysis identifies responses in different categories as it establishes females and males’ chi-square test by category. the overall difference between females and males’ chi-square tests for the reading achievement is statistically significant, where c² = 9,400 (6, n = 20), p<0,15 for females and c² = 2,667 (4, n = 15), p<0,61 for males. therefore, a chi-square test for goodness of fit shows that there is no significant difference in the proportion of the majority of the reading achievements as indicated in the current sample (n=35). conclusions this research addresses the implementation, participation, and performance of the ninth-grade students’ reading class as they construct the think-pairshare learning approach in the analytic, comparative, and experiential evaluation. the think-pair-share approach leads a positive engagement, in which most of the group learners have a sense of self-awareness and confidence to solve problems and effective guidance to find the authentic learning circumstances. this approach stimulates the broad-mindedness, propensity, and cognitive maturity among students. when implementing the think-pair-share approach, the group members precede information, clarify their ideas or thinking, and discuss the substance of reading materials within the verbal interaction focus. on the other hand, students’ reading achievement upon 20 multiple-choice tests has not increasingly indicated a satisfactory result. although the mean is 66,00, the students entirely only meet the minimal passing grade criteria of 60,00. the cyclical results prove that the increase of the ninth-grade students’ reading achievement gains 2,15 digits. students’ unsatisfactory results upon the reading achievement still correspond with their poor inference of meaning of some vocabulary in text and insufficiency to details of the meaning. these influential aspects constitute students’ reading habits’ readability. another point of view is in regards to the chi-square analysis. its goodness of fit classifies females and males’ statistically significant results, 201investigating the influence .... (didik rinan sumekto) where p<0,075 for females and p<0,504 for males in the first cycle, and p<0,15 for females and p<0,61 for males in the second cycle. it means that there is no significant difference in the proportion of the majority of reading achievements shown by the respondents (n=35). another research limitation conveys the scope of research setting and the analysis model that corresponds with the sample size determination. although the results can be applicable to other reading strategies, but think-pairshare approach cannot be generalized. being experienced to this observational-based learning pattern, students may be well-prepared in dealing with other relevant approaches, such as jigsaw, number-heads together, and studentsteam achievement division to initiate and promote a better reading preparation, whilst strengthening teacher’s formative assessment. the positive and constructive collaborations also support students’ awareness to work with peers to gain the cognitive and non-cognitive achievements, and to stimulate students’ analytic skill and critical thinking in a sustainable reading. references anderson, m. g. a., & esquierdo, j. j. 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(2008). what teachers need to know about: reading and writing difficulties. victoria: acer press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 301 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 301-307 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.3991 who are anxious and supposed to be “jakarta one”?: a systemic functional linguistics approach endras setyadi wicaksono1; djatmika2; sumarlam3 1,2,3pascasarjana universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36 a, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1endrasiano@gmail.com; 2djatmika@uns.ac.id; 3sumarlamwd@gmail.com received: 18th september 2017 /revised: 15th january 2018 /accepted: 19th january 2018 how to cite: wicaksono, e. s., djatmika., & sumarlan. (2018). who are anxious and supposed to be “jakarta one” ?: a systemic functional linguistics approach. lingua cultura, 12(3), 301-307. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.3991 abstract the purpose of this research was to know the structure of debate and the difference of usage of modulation by the candidates in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. the debate in a general election was a new medium in the campaign. this research revealed the form and meaning of dominated modulation used by the candidates by applying systemic functional linguistics (sfl). this was a descriptive qualitative research using observation method in collecting the data. the source of data was a video of the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. the data contained aspect of grammar and lexicon of the speech. then, it was analyzed by using identity-method by sudaryanto and content analysis suggested by spradely. the result shows that there are two forms of modulation marker. it is modulation of inclination that is dominantly used by the first candidate and third candidate. then, the second candidate dominantly uses modulation of obligation. the domination is a strategy of each candidate to defend and prioritize their programs to lead dki jakarta for the next five years. keywords: systemic functional linguistics (sfl), debate, pilkada candidates introduction a debate is one of the new media for the campaign. nowadays, candidates do not need to gather people in a large field for oration, tour the city with various vehicles that have been equipped with attributes or put an advertisement containing the profile of the candidate on billboards in the strategic locations. moreover, technology contributes to the effectiveness of the debate by broadcasting it through electronic media such as television, radio, and the internet. besides the technology, language also has an active role in exchanging the information between speakers. without language, technology will not affect anything in this world. the connection with the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017 is that language helps the candidates to convey their ideas to the public. language can influence people in decision-making during voting. through language, the purpose of holding a campaign can be well packaged. therefore, the candidates will use the language that can attract audiences’ sympathy, persuade the audiences to choose them, and reflect their integrity to be elected as a leader. the words that will compose their statements are the chosen words that reflect the background of each candidate. asror (2015) has stated that the politicians struggle to persuade the society by taking linguistics’ aspects to build their images. those images consist of words and grammatical structures. it means that the candidates exploit the language, whether by word or grammar to achieve their goal in this event. the candidates use it in different ways based on their goal dan their background. thus, the researcher wants to know how the candidate achieves their goal by language. wang (2014) who has analyzed the religious texts uses scripture bible as the source of his data. he also wants to reveal the interpersonal meaning between human and their lord through mood and modalities. the results show that the language has helped make the relationship between god and human closer directly and indirectly. in this research, the researchers use the candidate’s speech at the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017 as the data. vold (2006) has analyzed several researches from two disciplines namely linguistics and medicine. it is in three different languages, english, french, and norwegian produced by male and female researchers. he has also compared the use of epistemic modalities to these three variables. there are the three types of epistemic modalities that are a possibility, probability, and certainty. it has focused on the type of possibility and probability. this research compares the use of modalities that are used by 302 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 301-307 the candidates, especially modulation modality taken from halliday’s theory. pastor (2012) has also studied english-language written by english-speaking authors and non-english speaking authors. pastor only uses epistemic modalities focusing on the modal verb. this research also discusses modal verb as one way of expressing modalities. however, there is one more way to uncover the modalities that is an expansion of the predictor. besides, there is some research which has been done by some researchers about the political issues. they are asror (2015), maretha (2016), and erlynda (2016). however, those researchers used a discourse analysis approach to uncover the phenomena in the text. this phenomenon is the difference with this research. while in this research, the researchers want to discuss the political text by using systemic functional linguistics (sfl), especially on its modalities to uncover the phenomena in the text. the text refers to the speech of the candidates in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. modality in the sfl is one of the appropriate theories for answering the problem. it is the elements of sfl that realize the speaker’s assessment of the content of his/her speech. modality is a sign that the writer or speaker is presenting a personal view rather than an objective fact (bankole & ayoola, 2014). moreover, the sfl involves the context of the situation to understand the meaning of a speech (pusparini, djatmika, & santosa, 2017). without using the context of the situation, the meaning of a speech may not fit the speaker’s meaning. the debate is discussion or exchange of an opinion on a matter by giving each other reasons to defend their opinions (darby, 2007), according to tarigan (2008), this debate is an argument for determining whether a proposal is good or not. it is supported by a team called affirmative and denied by another team called negation. from these two concepts, it can be said that this debate is a process of exchange of argument more than one person to achieve a victory. the debate can happen anywhere, for example in politics, companies, law, and education. the debate in politics is used as a medium of a campaign to win the elections. the participants of the debate can convey their visions to the audience so the community can know the programs of the candidates. the debate in this research is an event which gives an opportunity to the candidates of the governor to convey their vision and mission for the next five years hold by kpu dki jakarta and is broadcasted by selected channel. the context of the situation is the environment of the text or the things surrounding the text. the context of this situation is also termed as register. as halliday stated in djatmika (2012), an abstraction connects language variations with a variety of social contexts. when a language is used, there is a variable that affects the language whether it is used in spoken (speech) or written (text). furthermore, djatmika (2012) has explained that there are three aspects in the context of the situation; field, tenor, and mode. the text in this research is the speech of the candidates in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. when it is related to the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017, the context of the situation can be explained as follows. the field is the kind of activity done by the participants. in this case, it is a debate. the theme of debate at that night is the population and quality improvement of jakarta society. then, the tenor is the participants in the activity. tenor in the debate is the moderator, and the first candidate (agus harimurti yudhoyono and sylviana murni), the second candidate (basuki tjahaya purnama and djarot saiful hidayat), the third candidate (anis baswedan and sandiaga salahuddin uno), panelists, and audiences. the mode is a manifestation of the implementation of the activities that undertaken by the participants. in short, it is the role of language. the mode in the debate is a persuasive spoken language in the form of a dialogue among the candidates. according to halliday (2014), the modality refers to the area of meaning that lies between yes and no, and the intermediate ground between positive and negative polarity. it implies that the purpose of a speech has a degree of certainty, so it is arguable. it is because the lexis that marks the modality is not really in the positive or negative poles, such as ‘yes’ and ‘no’, but they are between them. modality has four variables. however, only two variables are discussed in this research. those are the types and value. modality is classified into two, namely modalization and modulation. modalization refers to a proposition meaning. meanwhile, a proposition is a semantic function of a clause in the exchange of information (halliday, 2014). it means a clause that has a modalization marker only gives or demands information. its clause is formed as statement or question as shown in the following example. example: that will be john. will that be john? modalization markers can be a finite modal operator, modal adjunct, and a combination of both. table 1 and table 2 show the finite modal operator and modal adjunct. table 1 types and value of finite modal operator high med low + must, ought to, need will, would, should can, may, could, might mustn’t, can’t, couldn’t won’t, wouldn’t needn’t table 2 types and value of modal adjunct high medium low probability certainly probably possibly, perhaps, maybe usuality always, never usually sometimes, ever, often, seldom modalization also has two categories, namely probability and usuality (halliday, 2014). the probability marker is used to give information which has not been known yet by the speaker. in other words, the speaker does not know whether the information is true or false. an example of a probability marker is as follows. example: that will be john. that is probably john. then, the usuality marker is used to express how often the participant does the activity in the speech. here is the example of usuality marker (halliday, 2014). 303who are anxious and supposed... (endras setyadi wicaksono et al.) example: he usually sits there all the day. he will sit there all the day. moreover, modulation is the proposal meaning. it means a clause that has a modulation marker has the meaning of giving or receiving goods and services. a clause that has modulation markers is usually a command. however, not all of the clauses of the proposal are commands. it is influenced by the context of the situation when the speech occurs. a clause of a proposal can also be in the form of a question or a statement. here is the example (halliday, 2014). example: shall i go home? go home! let’s go home! there are two types of modulation. those are obligation and inclination. the way to express modulation is different from modalization. modulation has only two ways to express the marker. they are a finite modal operator (table 1). then, the expansion of the predicator uses a passive verb and an adjective (table 3). table 3 types and value of expansion of predicator high medium low obligation required to supposed to allowed to inclination determined to anxious to willing to obligation marker is used to express a command. the example is as follows (halliday, 2014) example: you must go home! john’s supposed to go. moreover, inclination marker is used to express an offer. here is the example. example: i will help them (halliday, 2014) i am anxious to help them (halliday, 2014) another variable of modality is value. according to halliday (2014), the third variable in modality is the attached value to the modal judgment. there are high, medium, or low. based on the theory, it is the degree of modality markers to interpret a speech. every candidate has their strategy to influence the society. it is in line with the claim made by katrňáková (2001). the speakers have the choice in realizing the modality. it is showed from the difference of domination of modality usage in each segment. there are some issues discussed. those are how is the structure of debate in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017 and how is the difference of usage of modulation by the candidates in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. therefore, the purpose of this research is to know the structure of debate and the difference of usage of modulation by the candidates in the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. the result is expected to explain sfl, especially the modality in revealing the speaker’s assessment in the content of his/ her speech. moreover, the results of this research provide information to the public about the way of thinking and the attitude of the candidates in their speech to lead dki jakarta for the next five years. methods this research uses descriptive qualitative study. it describes the activity in the form of the word sequence. the related issues provide a more-in-depth understanding. the source of data in this research is a speech of the candidates at the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017. the data of this research are the grammar and lexicon of the speech. method of data collecting is observation. first, the researchers observe the use of language used by the candidates by watching the event (third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017) on television. the researchers also download the video from youtube, so it can be observed again when the researchers want to analyze the data. second, the speeches are transcribed to make it easier for the observation. after transcribing the speeches, the noting technique is used by the researchers in finding the clauses that contain the modulation marker. third, those clauses are noted by using code. after collecting the clauses, the researchers classify the clauses into tables and analyze the data. the researchers use the identity method by sudaryanto and content analysis technique by spradely. identity method is a method in which the deciding device is outside and not part of the language (sudaryanto, 2015). this method is used to distinguish segments at the event. then, the researchers also use the dividing-key-factors technique as a primary technique and differentiating technique as an advanced technique to differentiate it between opening, content, and closing of the event. finally, a content analysis technique finds the form, meaning, and function of social behavior. in this case, it is a modulation usage in the debate. generally, analyzing data in qualitative research is divided into four; those are domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and cultural theme analysis (spradley in onwuegbuzie, leech, & collins, 2012). results and discussions the researchers show the structure of debate as a social process to represent the social context of the text. then, the researchers show the types of modulation found in the speeches of the candidates. according to santosa (2003), every social process has a specific social purpose. the process has a sequence or series of event to achieve its purpose. in the text, a series of event is called genre. nevertheless, the genre is not only applied in a text which can be read (product) but also in an event (process). this also happens in a society. so, it can be applied to the debate. it is because the third session debate of pilkada dki jakarta in 2017 is organized by kpu dki jakarta and has a series of event to achieve the goal. the debate of pilkada dki jakarta is a political event. language used in a political area has the power to persuade. a genre which has a goal to persuade is an exposition text that is made to express opinions and persuade the reader or the speaker (kurniawati & kurniawan, 2017). by combining their statement, it can be said that the debate of pilkada has three series of events. then, the debate of pilkada dki jakarta consists of six sessions. those sessions are divided into three segments that are distinguished by whether there is an interaction among the candidates or not. the first and second sessions are exposing vision and mission based on the theme by each candidate and answering a question from panelists. both 304 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 301-307 sessions are called opening segment (os) which has a similar function to the first series in exposition text called thesis. there is no interaction among the candidates in this segment. next, the third session is answering a question from panelists about candidates’ programs and listening to the responses from other candidates. it means that each candidate gets different questions. in the fourth session, they ask each other and respond to each other. both sessions are called content of segment (cos) which has a similar function to the second session in exposition text called argumentation. there is an interaction among the candidates in this segment. the fifth session is answering a similar question from panelists. the sixth session is expressing their closing statement. both sessions are called closing segment (cls) which has a similar function to the last series of exposition text called a recommendation. there is no interaction among the candidates in this segment. figure 1 shows the structure of the debate. figure 1 structure of the debate the modulation clause is marked by the use of lexis formed as finite modal operator and expansion of the predicator. lexis of finite modal operator found on the debate are harus (must), akan (will), dapat (can), perlu (need), ingin (will), mesti (must), bisa (can), mau (will), and seharusnya (should). some examples are as follows. (1) satpol pp harus diberdayakan sesuai dengan tupoksinya (d3.p1.236). (satpol pp must be empowered in accordance with their duties and functions.) (2) saya perlu jelaskan (d3.p2.81). (i need to explain.) (3) ... warga jakarta bisa imun terhadap godaan narkoba (d3.p3.56). ‘... jakarta society can protect their self from drug.’ example (1), (2), and (3) are clauses which use high, medium, and low value of modal operator to express obligation by using lexis; harus (must), perlu (need), and bisa (can). the other way to express modulation is by using the expansion of the predicator. there are two forms, a passive verb, and an adjective. lexis of expansion of the predicator by a passive verb on the debate are dibutuhkan (needed), and disarankan (suggested). the lexis that is not found in the debate is diharuskan (required to), diharapkan (supposed to), and diperbolehkan (allowed to). the mentioned predicators by passive verb are shown as follows. (4) bahwa di sini peran perempuan juga pemberdayaan perempuan di sini juga sangat dibutuhkan (d3. p1.69). (that role and empowerment of women are needed here.) (5) sehingga kepada yang bersangkutan disarankan untuk pindah sekolah (d3.p2.356). (so they are advised to move to another school.) example (4) and (5) are clauses using the medium value of expansion of the predicator by a passive verb. those express obligation by using lexis of dibutuhkan (needed) and disarankan (suggested to). moreover, lexis of expansion in the predicator by an adjective found on the debate is keras (serious), betul-betul (really), and benarbenar (really). here are the statements. (6) kami betul-betul sangat anti kepada korupsi (d3. p2.228). (we are really against corruption.) (7) supaya masyarakat betul-betul mampu bertanggng jawab (d3.p2.231). (so that people can really be responsible.) (8) kita sangat keras untuk melawan narkoba (d3. p2.71). (we are very serious against the drugs.) example (8) is a clause with a high value of expansion of the predicator by an adjective. it shows obligation by using lexis of keras (serious). moreover, there are some modulated clauses in the debate. those are: (9) mereka mendamba-dambakan itu (d3.p1.308). (they yearn for it.) (10) saya mencoba menjawab bu silvy dan mas agus (d3.p3.289). (i try to answer mrs. silvy and mr. agus.) example (9) is a modulated clause of the low value of inclination by using lexis of mendamba-dambakan (yearn). meanwhile, example (10) is a modulated clause of the low value of inclination by using lexis of mencoba (try to). then, the researchers show the frequency of modulation usage by the candidates. thus, the researchers can discuss the meaning of dominating modulation used by the candidates related to the structure of the debate. in the debate of pilkada dki jakarta from the first segment to the end, there are 76 clauses produced by the first candidate, 45 clauses by the second candidate, and 55 clauses by the third candidate. table 4 and table 5 show the frequency of modulation usage by the candidates. table 4 obligation usage frequencies c num of clauses obligation ∑ % h m l 1st 383 32 3 2 37 9,7 2nd 415 23 3 3 29 7,0 3rd 399 5 0 10 15 3,8 ∑ 1193 81 305who are anxious and supposed... (endras setyadi wicaksono et al.) table 5 inclination usage frequencies globally c num of clauses inclination ∑ % h m l 1st 383 4 9 26 39 10,2 2nd 415 0 4 12 16 3,8 3rd 399 3 17 20 40 10 ∑ 1193 95 there are 176 clauses which use the modality of modulation and 81 clauses use modulation of obligation. the first candidate produces 37 clauses, the second candidate has 29 clauses, and the third candidate states 15 clauses. meanwhile, there are 95 clauses in the modality of inclination. the first candidate has 39 clauses, the second candidate produces 16 clauses, and the third candidate states 40 clauses. moreover, the first candidate uses 32 clauses of high obligation. it is more dominant than other categories. similarly, the second candidate also uses high obligation more than other categories with 23 clauses. however, the third candidate tends to use low inclination dominantly. they use 20 clauses of low inclination. it can be seen in table 6. table 6 obligation usage frequency based on the structure of debate str deb c num of clauses obligation % h m l os 1st 51 4 1 9,8 2nd 53 1 2 5,7 3rd 53 4 7,5 cos 1st 296 27 3 1 10,5 2nd 310 21 2 7,4 3rd 311 5 3 2,6 cls 1st 36 1 2,8 2nd 52 2 1 5,8 3rd 35 3 8,6 ∑ 1193 based on table 6, it shows that the first uses modulation of obligation a lot. they produce 10,5% of clauses in cos. the lexis used by the first candidate as the obligation is harus (must), perlu (need), seharusnya (should), and jangan (do not). in this segment, the candidates are given the opportunity to answer questions from the panelists in accordance with their vision and mission. then, the other candidates give a response. the first candidate takes advantage of this session to press the society about the importance of a program to be realized. this is shown by the use of the high value of modulation of obligation. it is the most between the other two candidates in their statement. it is enough to arouse the society in realizing their programs. in addition, cos provides opportunities for candidates to ask each other and respond to each other. here are the examples of some clauses produced by the first candidate in the content segment. (11) kita harus cegah dengan berbagai cara ... (d3. p1.107) (we must prevent it with many ways.) (12) oleh karena itu kita harus meyakinkan bahwa seluruh korban narkoba benar-benar mendapatkan treatment yang tepat (d3.p1.77-78). (therefore we must make sure that all drug victims really get the right treatment.) (13) rasanya, kita perlu konsisten dalam sikap, tindakan, dan hal-hal lainnya (d3.p1.326). (it seems, we need to be consistent in attitudes, actions, and other things.) example (11) uses lexis of harus (must) as the high value of modulation of obligation. the candidate uses kita ‘we’ as a subject on the clause. kita (we) refers to the speaker and the audience, so the jakarta society understands that the candidate invites himself and all people in jakarta to understand the program (process) in the clause. in example (12), the candidate also uses lexis harus (must) as the high value of modulation of obligation and kita (we) as the subject of the clause. it indicates that the activity (process) in the clause is significant to all of the participants. this result is in line with ayuningtias (2014) and valipour and aidinlou (2011). in a political speech, harus (must) (modality system) and kita (we) (pronoun) are exploited linguistics feature to launch the social process. the second candidate uses modulation of obligation dominantly on cos. there are 7,4% of clauses produced by the second candidate. the second candidate uses lexis such as harus (must), perlu (need), musti (must), boleh (may), bisa (can), janganlah (do not) as the modulation of obligation. it is 21 high-value clauses. those clauses contain invitation, proscribe, and command for the candidates and society. on the other hand, the first candidate uses modulation of obligation more dominant than the second candidate. both candidates prefer to produce clauses with proposal meaning in this segment. it may be because they can argue by asking and responding to each other in this segment. the followings are clauses produced by the second candidate in this segment. (14) janganlah gunakan fitnah-fitnah (d3.p2.212). (do not use slanders.) (15) dan tidak boleh membuka tempat hiburan lagi (d3. p2.80). (and may not open entertainment venues any more.) example (14) uses lexis janganlah ‘do not’ as a high value of modulation of obligation. this example has a request meaning not to do an activity of slandering. this is in line with the meaning of modulation that is a proposal in the form of requesting goods and services (halliday, 2014). moreover, the third candidate uses modulation of obligation dominantly on cls. every candidate is given the opportunity to answer the same question and state the closing statement. the third candidate exploits this occasion by asking permission to the society of jakarta to give a chance for the third candidate to lead jakarta for the next five years. the clause aims to influence the people in jakarta so that they will choose the third candidate. it shows from the use of three clauses which have a low value of modulation of obligation. the third candidate uses lexis like harus (must), perlu (need), and bisa (can) as the realization of the modulation of obligation. here are some clauses stated by the third candidate on cls. 306 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 301-307 (16) izinkan kami menyampaikan di sini (d3.p3.391). (allow us to express here.) (17) dan izinkan kami memastikan… (d3.p3.392). (and allow us make sure..) examples (16) and (17) use lexis of izinkan (allow) as low value of modulation of obligation. the example has a command for jakarta society to grant the second candidate permission to perform an activity (process). based on the number of clause usage marked by modulation of obligation in table 4, the first and second candidate are more dominant than the third candidate. both candidates use modulation of obligation on the cos. it shows that both candidates try to confirm the importance of their programs. they are anxious to show that there are many things should be fixed in jakarta. table 7 inclination usage frequency based on the structure of debate str deb c num of clauses obligation % h m l os 1st 51 3 5 6 27,5 2nd 53 0 3rd 53 2 7 1 18,9 cos 1st 296 4 18 7,4 2nd 310 13 7 6,5 3rd 311 1 8 15 7,7 cls 1st 36 1 2 8,3 2nd 52 1 5 11,5 3rd 35 2 4 17,1 ∑ 1193 in the modulation of inclination (table 7), the first candidate uses it dominantly on os. they produce 27,5% of clauses in this segment. the first candidate uses lexis such as akan (will), ingin (want), bisa (can). this segment is exploited by the first candidate to open the society’s mindset about their willingness to realize their programs. the followings are some clauses stated by the first candidate on the opening segment. (18) saya akan menutup tempat-tempat transaksi narkoba tanpa tebang pilih (d3.p1.17). (i will close the places of drug transactions indiscriminately.) (19) kita ingin meningkatkan prasarana dan sarana yang semakin ramah untuk disabilitas (d3.p1.19). (we want to improve the infrastructure and facilities that are pleasant to disability.) example (18) shows lexis akan (will) as a medium value of modulation of inclination. the subject used by the candidate is saya (i). it indicates that the candidate has a desire to perform the activities (process) contained in the clause. similar with the example (19), both clauses are the offer of the first candidate to the jakarta if they are elected to be governor and vice governor. offering something is a form of the meaning of the proposal (djatmika, 2012). the second candidate uses clauses of modulation of inclination dominantly on cls. they produce about 11,5% of clauses in this segment. the second candidate uses lexis like ingin (want), pingin (want), and mau (want). the second candidate plans to close the debate by giving a statement which shows their enthusiasm in realizing their programs. meanwhile, the third candidate is more dominant than the first candidate in using modulation of inclination. they produce 17,5% of this clauses in this segment. the followings are some clauses stated by the second and the third candidate in cls. (20) kami ingin anak-anak itu sehat (d3.p2.392). (we want these kids to be healthy.) (21) kami ingin warga dki yang sudah kami didik dengan baik, (d3.p2.412) (we want citizens of dki that we have educated well,) (22) dan kita akan konsisten di sana (d3.p3.379). (and we will be consistent.) (23) maka, semua warga jakarta akan bekerja bersama untuk mewujudkan kota yang maju (d3.p3.364). (then, all citizens of jakarta will work together to realize a developed city.) examples (20) and (21) show lexis of ingin (want) as the low value of modulation of inclination. meanwhile, examples (22) and (23) use lexis of akan (will) as the medium value of modulation of inclination. the two lexises indicate the degree of inclination of the candidates to do something. based on the information, it is known that example (22) and (23) produced by the third candidate have a higher degree of a tendency than examples (20) and (21). based on the difference in the value, it shows that both candidates have a different assessment of what they say. it is in accordance with munfarida (2014). finally, the third candidate uses modulation of inclination more on os. they have 18,9% of clauses in this segment. the third candidate uses lexis such as akan (will), ingin (want), and bisa (can). like the first candidate, the third candidate also exploits this segment to open the society’s mindset about their willingness to realize their programs. however, the first candidate is more dominant than the third candidate in using this clause type. they produce 27,5% of clauses in this segment. the followings are some clauses stated by the third candidate on os. (24) kami akan undang mereka terlibat (d3.p3.21). (we will invite them to be involved.) (25) anak-anak kita bisa menyebarkan pertumbuhan di seluruh wilayah daripada jakarta (d3.p3.43). (our children can spread economic growth throughout the region in jakarta.) examples (24) and (25) illustrates lexis of akan (will) as the medium value of modulation of inclination. the clause uses kami (we) as the subject. it represents the candidate for governor and candidate for vice governor. the candidate wants to show they have a desire to do something (process). based on the number of clauses marked by modulation of inclination on table 5, the first candidate and the third candidate use it more dominant than the second candidate. it happens because the first and third candidates are the challengers. therefore, they must offer their program to the society more often than the second candidate. they must show their willingness and enthusiasm in realizing their programs, especially for jakarta. on the other side, the second candidate is a defender. they are the governor and vice governor who have been known by the jakarta people. 307who are anxious and supposed... (endras setyadi wicaksono et al.) people have known the result of their performance as a leader, so they do not need to give a new commitment. conclusions based on the analysis, it can be concluded that the structure of exposition text can be applied to the debate of pilkada dki jakarta. it is because both have a similar social function which is persuading. it is in line with previous research that the language used in a political area has the power to persuade. every candidate has their strategy to influence the society. it is in line with the claim made by katrňáková. the speakers have the choice in realizing the modality. they may affect the society by showing the importance of their program and their enthusiasm, defending their statement, offering something, or suggesting the idea. it shows the difference of domination of modulation usage in each segment. however, this research is only limited to modulation, part of modality that is used in political context, especially debate. the future research is expected to have the similar approach to the other political text, such as speech or advertisement. the next research can also use another element of systemic functional linguistics, such as appraisal, to reveal the speaker’s assessment of the content of his/her speech. references asror, a. g. 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(2014). the mood and modality in the bible: a systemic functional perspective. theory & practice in language studies, 4(2), 255–261. microsoft word 05_ig_akun; endang ernawati.docx 162 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  binary opposition and multiculturalism shown in the struggle of mataram kingdom power during reign of amangkurat i akun; endang ernawati english department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 akun@binus.edu; ernaw@binus.edu abstract this research aims to learn a potential and a struggle of the chinese in clash of power during amangkurat i (1646-1677) reign. the chinese role was represented by rara oyi and her parents, ki and nyi mangun. literature study is done by applying binary opposition which is part of post collonialism theory. analysis is done by showing evidences related to binary opposition, which are good versus bad, man versus woman, powerful versus powerless, majority versus minority, oppressor and oppressed, rich versus poor, and love versus hate. it can be concluded that all aspects of binary oppositios and multiculturalism are presented clearly in rembulan ungu novel written by bondan nusantara. keywords: binary opposition, power struggle, mataram kingdom, amangkurat i abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan pembelajaran yang diperoleh dari perjuangan bangsa china selama pemerintahan amangkurat i (1646-1677). kelompok minoritas china diwakili oleh rara oyi, dan orangtuanya, yaitu ki dan nyi mangun. penelitian ini menggunakan studi pustaka dengan menerapkan post-kolonial teori, khususnya binary opposition, meliputi kebaikan lawan keburukan, peran pria lawan wanita, kelompok kuat lawan kelompok lemah, kelompok mayoritas lawan minoritas, penindas lawan yang ditindas, kaya lawan miskin, dan cinta lawan benci. simpulan yang dapat ditarik adalah bahwa semua aspek binary opposition dan multikultural dapat tergambar dengan jelas di novel rembulan ungu karya bondan nusantara. kata kunci: binary opposition, perjuangan kekuasaan, kerajaan mataram, amangkurat i binary opposition and ….. (akun; endang ernawati) 163  introduction chinese people in java island have existed before the arrival of the kubilai khan troops which attacked kartanegara of singosari (1280-1367). since then, they have become part of java citizen. in the beginning of the settlement, they were merchants, farmers, and not involved in the regime that governed java. along with the time, some of them achieved good positions in the government. the role of chinese people in the regime in java can also be seen during the reign of amangkurat i (1646-1677) who involved the chinese in the clash of his power. in rembulan ungu bondan put the position of oyi, the chinese girl who was the coming mistress of the sultan, as the important role in the clash of amangkurat i and his own son adipati anom. the coming of oyi actually was to replace the position of “ratu malang” the most beloved mistress of amangkurat i who died. oyi is the daughter of oei ma oen who made friend with jaka pekik, helping sultan agung to attack dutch in batavia. they won. pekik was given the position in surabaya and married with ajeng pandansari, the relative of sultan, while ma oen, becoming ki mangun, got a position in banyuwangi. oyi was brought to mataram in order to replace the position as the beloved mistress. she was educated as a good mistress who was able to sing in javanese and to please the sultan in the proper javanese tradition. however, before oyi was seen by the sultan, adipati anom, the son of amangkurat i saw her first and they fell in love. sultan knew this and tested the loyalty of his son by ordering him to kill oyi. oyi who knew that adipati anom hesitated to kill her, ran into him who was holding a “keris” (javanese traditional weapon which is wavy double-bladed dagger), and sacrificed herself for her lover. the characters in rembulan ungu are analyzed to find out how the chinese took roles in clash of power in mataram during amangkurat i. further, the study elaborates the binary opposition depicted through mainly the chinese characters as a negotiating means to cope with the power problems. the study only focuses on major characters in bondan nusantara’s rembulan ungu, they are rara oyi, ki mangun, amangkurat i, adipati anom, and pangeran pekik who involved in the clash of the power during amangkurat i. the goal of this research is to learn a potential and struggle of the chinese in clash of power during amangkurat i (1646-1677). this study is also expected to contribute to the awareness of our national reality of multiculturalism, especially the chinese role, which became undeniable realities in the progress of our national identity formation and strengths. the theoretical background begins with the history of amangkurat i. when sultan agung, the well-known and powerful king of mataram passed away, he appointed his son, raden mas sayidin to be his successor. in 1645 he was promoted to be the mataram king entitled susuhunan ing alaga. then, in 1646 he got his formal coronation and his name was changed to kanjeng susuhunan prabu amangkurat agung, meaning a person who was able to manage the power and land. finally, the writer could assume that the meaning of the king’s name was not in line with people’s expectations. it was in contrary with his father, sultan agung, who had attacked voc (dutch colonial company) for two times. amangkurat i was decided to join voc for economy and political purposes. not just having company with voc, amangkurat i also showed other decision that was totally 164 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  different with his father, the late sultan agung. he murdered some people who did not seem agreed to his policy, for example his father in law, pangeran pekik, from surabaya who had seized rara oyi for his son, pangeran adipati anom. amangkurat i also closed ports, destroyed ships in coastal cities. amangkurat i decided to move the former capital of mataram, karta, a palace built from wood, to the new capital city in plered which was built from the red-bricks layer. the moving to the new palace at plered was rioted by the rebellion of raden mas alit, his younger brother. raden mas alit did not agree to his brother’s policy in killing the senior persons in his palace, and his decision was supported by the moslem leaders at that time. finally raden mas alit died together with 5.000 people who were assassinated in the palace yard. surely, amangkurat i did not inherite his father’s kindness, wisdom, and heroism, instead of indulging his personal emotion. de graaf, the writer of babad tanah djawi commented that amangkurat’s wills were against the culture. he played his sadistic actions so that the rules of the country became ruined. the mataram kingdom that had been developed by his father was ruined by the uncontrolled deeds of his son. barraclough and stone ( 1989, p.176) stated that in 1671 amangkurat i led the ruler by doing harsh policies. he sought dutch assistance agains the rebels that attacked his palace. in his sickness he ran away to japara, but he was robbed by people who did not know him. finally in 1677, he passed away in poor condition in tegalwangi. amangkurat i also practiced polygamy. apparently, the reason is only for the sake of his pleasure. amangkurat i had fought with his own son, raden rahmat, or adipati anom who had a love affair with a girl who would be taken as his wife, rara oyi,. finally, he asked his son to kill rara oyi, so that neither one of them would marry her. rara oyi, a small village girl had become the victim of culture. without her permission, her father easily gave her to a king to be married. it could be because oyi’s father was either afraid to the king or wanted to climb into higher society by being the king’s father-in-law. rara oyi was loved by the man who was a son of the king who would promoted her to be his wife. and, she did not think that there were too many victims that might be beyond her expectation. based on the story, it is indicated that the east people has long been marginalized and trivialized through the universalism of the western norms and standards through edward said’s orientalism (1978), pointing critically to the dominating way practiced by the west within eurocentric discourse. this is clearly seen in the following review by three postcolonial thinkers, bill ashcroft, gareth griffiths and helen tiffin: “edward said’s orientalism examines the ways in which eurocentrism not only influences and alters, but actually produces other cultures. orientalism is ‘a way of coming to terms with the orient that is based on the orient’s special place in european western experience’ (1978: 1) or ‘the western style for dominating, restructuring and having authority over the orient’ (3). this authority is, in said’s view, a product of a systematic ‘discipline’ by which european culture was able to construct and manage the orient during the post-enlightenment period” (ashcroft, et al., 2007). the underestimating way of representing the east as “the other” has been depicted obviously through the binary oppositions, especially through literary and art works where the east has been described as mostly negative: lazy, stupid, exotic, mystical, terrorizing, weak, irrational, and so on. on the other hand, the west is pictured as just the opposite. the following quotation shows biased representation of the east traits and qualities: “orientalism was an extended critique of western representations of the orient that had, said argued, depicted the east as exhibiting cultural traits and qualities that were fundamentally different from, indeed opposite to, the west. orientalists portrayed the east as the west’s weak and irrational ‘other’, a shadowy reverse mirror image of a vigorous and reasonable occident. far from offering a ‘real’ binary opposition and ….. (akun; endang ernawati) 165  image, orientalist discourse, said controversially claimed, was a construction, which placed the ‘orient’ in a discourse that repeatedly expressed and reinforced unequal power relations between the west and the east” (chew and richards, 2010). another dominant thinking from said is related to the idea of cultural and civilization mixtures of different entities. this idea has much developed later by another post-colonial thinker hommi k. bhabha. said’s basic idea is outlined as followed, excerpted from his book culture and imperialism: “this is preposterous, since one of the great advances in modern cultural theory is the realization, almost universally acknowledged, that cultures are hybrid and heterogeneous and, as i argued in culture and imperialism, that cultures and civilizations are so interrelated and interdependent as to beggar any unitary or simply delineated description of their individuality”. (said, 2003) method this study is presented qualitatively based on library research. media used is a novel entitled rembulan ungu by bondan nusantara. the theories of post-colonialism especially binary opposition is applied. analysis is done by analysing the minor chinese characters, which are rara oyi, her father ma oen, and her mother yin ma to the binary opposition theory. the history of the chinese during amangkurat i (1646-177) and the clash of the power is gathered in order to find out the role of the chinese characters in the novel. results and discussion the binary shown in this novel are good versus bad, man versus woman, powerful versus powerless, rich versus poor, as well as love versus hate. good versus bad good versus bad in the novel was presented as follows. the good person was represented by wirareja family, who took care of oyi as their own daughter. when oyi was ordered to come to amangkurat i, nyai wirareja felt pity to oyi that the girl became the mistress of the greedy king, (nusantara, 2011: 355-356). here, nyai wirareja shows her quality as a good person. she loved oyi as her own daughter, and she did not let her go to amangkurat i as his mistress, because she knew that oyi would not become happy. she was afraid that oyi would have miserable life with amangkurat. nyai wirareja knew that amangkurat was a bad person and treated people whom he disliked very badly. eventhough wirareja and his wife did all good things to amangkurat, he slapped wirareja in the face when amangkurat knew that oyi was in love with adipati anom. (nusantara, 2011: 424). amangkurat is not a grateful person. he did not know how to thank the people who were loyal and worked for him. wirareja and his wife are loyal to amangkurat, but he did not treat them well. he also humiliated wirareja in front of many people. another binary of good and bad is shown through the existence of panjalu and sekar pandan in one side versus suragedug and his friends on the other side. panjalu and sekar pandan were good people, while later were considered as bad people (nusantara, 2011, 148). 166 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  man versus woman the binary between man versus woman was presented in the following evidences. as a wife, yin ma does not agree with her husband’s decision. but what makes her sad the most is her position as common person who cannot reject the king’s will (nusantara, 2011: 113). the binary is shown here when yin ma as a common person had to let her daughter go as directed by jaka pekik. her position as a wife is not the same as her husband. she does not dare to say no, although she does not agree with his husband to send their daughter to mataram to serve amangkurat i as his mistress. brought to mataram, oyi was projected to substitute ratu malang, the late beloved mistress of amangkurat i. she told adipati anom when he asked her who she was and what she was actually doing in the house of wirareja, that she would be the mistress of amangkurat. (nusantara, 2011: 247). here, as an ordinary woman during the era of amangkurat i, oyi was considered powerless than man. she was used as an amusement of the ruler. she is considered as one of the ruler’s properties. she cannot say no when she disagrees with something. not only the ordinary women who are considered the powerless, but also the aristocrat woman, like ratu batang who is treated badly by the man (amangkurat i). when amangkurat i knew that ratu malang died, he suspected ratu batang and her parents collaborated to kill his beloved mistress. he threatened ratu batang to have a death penalty if she was proven to poison ratu malang. (nusantara, 2011: 157). amangkurat i was so powerful and mean to women that she did not love. she only loved ratu malang, his beloved mistress, and he considered ratu batang as the killer of his beloved mistress because of her jealousy. that was the reason why he threatened ratu batang and her parents to have a death penalty. the binary of man versus woman is also shown through nyai dubruk and her son wirapatra. wirapatra did not show his respect to nyai dubruk. he did not love her although she loved him so much. and, because of nyai dubruk’s loyalty to amangkurat i, wirapatra got a good position in mataram kingdom (nusantara, 2011: 350). there is no good relation between wirapatra and nyai dubruk. the mother tried hard to make his son happy and successful. she did everything to her son but her son did not love her. wirapatra thought that nyai dubruk loved amangkurat more than him. in fact, there is a unique relation between nyai dubruk and amangkurat. although amangkurat was not her own son. since taking care of amangkurat i since he was a baby, nyai dubruk loved him as her own son. when amangkurat’s mistress passed away, he did not let her be buried. he only wanted to be with the mistress. finally, he let her go after nyai dubruk told amangkurat that it was not good for him to act weird like that one. (nusantara, 2011: 54-57). amangkurat loved his mistress so much that it makes him crazy. he did something illogically and uncontrolled. he did not want to do anything except accompanying the dead body of his mistress. he let his mistress go after nyai dubruk sadly told amangkurat that as a mataram ruler, it was not good to moan for a long time for his late mistress. nyai dubruk persuaded him to be a ruler who acted logically and had a dignity and did not do any fool things. binary opposition and ….. (akun; endang ernawati) 167  powerful versus powerless the binary of powerful versus powerless can be divided into colonizer and colonized, javanese and non javanese, as well as the oppressor and oppressed, as follows. the binary of colonizer and colonized is illustrated as follows. having less power than jaka pekik, ma oen and his family had to obey the order of the ruler, here represented by jaka pekik, in the name of amangkurat i. ma oen told his wife that he actually knew his wife’s sadness, but he felt that oyi could deal with her new life more happily. he said sorry to his wife as sending oyi to mataram, but oyi’s joining mataram ruler would be written in javanese history of power (nusantara, 2011: 1156). here, it is clearly shown that ma oen is colonized by the ruler, jaka pekik. jaka pekik had an idea to substitute ratu malang, the late mistress of amangkurat i, with oyi, the only child of ma oen. ma oen cannot say anything except obeying the order of jaka pekik. ma oen feels that jaka pekik has given them everything: position and power in banyuwangi. so it is the time for jaka pekik to show his loyalty to amangkurat i, although it sacrifices his own family. as the daughter of ma oen, rara oyi is also colonized. when she was brought to mataram to live in the house of wirareja before becoming the mistress of amangkurat i, she had to learn how to eat, write, and dance. in the training of dancing given by nyai wirareja, she could not concentrate because she always remembered about her hometown, banyuwangi. many times nyai wirareja asked her to repeat the dance taught by her, oyi always looked sad. (nusantara, 2011: 279). oyi felt that she was being used since she was powerless. she was brought to mataram not because of her own willing. she was sent to amangkurat as part of his father loyalty to the ruler, and she could not say no to his father’s decision. becoming a powerless person forces oyi not to speak frankly about herself. moreover she was trained as a javanese aristocrat woman. she expressed her condition through her song lyrics sent to adipati anom. reading that lyric, adipati anom realized how hard to become oyi who was forced to become his father’s mistress. she was brought from banyuwangi, far away from mataram, separated from her parents, alienated from environment, then her right was limited. all of these reasons were only for amangkurat’s amusement (nusantara, 2011: 305). oyi did not dare to speak or write frankly. what she could do was writing what she feels through lyrics. if she spoke the truth, she would be assassinated by amangkurat because she was considered disloyal to the ruler. javanese as majority versus non javanese as minority is illustrated as follows. the majority here is represented by the javanese, as the ruler and as common people. on the contrary, the minority is represented by ma oen and his family. before living in banyuwangi with his family, ma oen had come to surabaya twice a week when he had been a sailor. he had many friends, from common people to officer. those people (the native/javanese) always called him as ki mangun; maybe because of their tongue which was difficult to pronounce a chinese name (nusantara, 2011: 57). the first binary of the majority and the minority is shown through the relation between the javanese—from common people to officer—and ma oen as a chinese. both of them have a good relation although ma oen is the minority. moreover ma oen is considered as part of the javanese. then, he is given the javanese name, ki mangun. 168 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  the second binary is shown through javanese versus the people from madura. mataram kingdom was helped by people from many ethnics, for example people from madura. however, amangkurat with his stupidity asked the dutch to maintain his power. (nusantara, 2011: 256). before amangkurat was crowned as the ruler of mataram kingdom, the kingdom was supported by people from many ethnics, but amangkurat did not treat them well. moreover he always came to the dutch to help him to rule the kingdom. then the people from madura such as trunajaya rebelled against amangkurat. the third binary is shown through the relation of the javanese with people from makassar, karaeng galengsong. karaeng galengson, who was an ex-commander in war of sultan hasanuddin, hid from the dutch. (nusantara, 2011: 257). karaeng galengsong was accepted well by the javanese. they had a good relation, when karaeng galengsong robbed the ship of the dutch, then he distributed to javanese people and some became the supply for war. oppressor and oppressed binary opposition is shown by the following evidences. oyi cried and felt frightened when she was brought to the house of wirareja as ordered by amangkurat i. many times she shouted to call the name of panjalu, someone who was considered as her adopted brother. (nusantara, 2011: 156). oyi’s frightened feeling and her cried show oyi’s being oppressed. first, she is forced to bring to amangkurat i is not based on her willing, but as part of her family sacrifice to the ruler. oyi, who is still very young, shouts to show that she is actually depressed with her condition. on the other hand, when amangkurat i looked at the face of oyi, who was very similar to ratu malang, he realized that both looked the same, and amangkurat i could not hide his passion and love to oyi. in fact, oyi was brought to mataram because of the idea of ratu wandan and jaka pekik, the parents-in-law of amangkurat and the parents of ratu batang. they were afraid if the position of ratu batang was taken by ratu malang, the late mistress of amangkurat i who was considered being poisoned. (nusantara, 2011: 156-7). amangkurat i as the oppressor here was very mean and powerful. he could do everything he wanted to the common people. he suspected ratu wandan and jaka pekik as people who poisoned ratu malang, her beloved mistress. he thought so because he felt that the parents of ratu batang were afraid if their daughter did not have a position as the first lady, and substituted by ratu malang. it also means that the position of adipati anom, the son of ratu batang, is being threatened. moreover, amangkurat said that he would kill anybody who killed his late mistress. actually amangkurat i did not want to meet ratu wandan and jaka pekik, those who were considered as the killer of his late mistress. after nyi dubruk, his nanny, spoke to him, he allowed them to meet him in imogiri graveyard, a cemetery for the family of mataram ruler. amangkurat i wanted them to swear that they were loyal to him and he ordered them to kiss his feet (nusantara, 2011: 158). as a powerful person, the ruler of mataram, amangkurat i can do anything he wants, including asking his parents-in-law to kiss his feet to show their loyalty. when they did as what he wanted, his anger to them vanished. moreover, when he knew that there was a girl from banyuwangi who was similar to his late mistress, ratu malang, he was very happy. oyi, who was projected to be the beloved mistress of amangkurat felt hat she was being alienated. in wirareja’s house she had a beautiful clean room, but she felt that she was like the bird in a cage. the room was the cage which limited her freedom. as a human being, oyi had right to whom she loved, but she questioned how her parents and her adopted brother sent her to an old man, amangkurat i, the ruler of mataram (nusantara, 2011: 168-9). binary opposition and ….. (akun; endang ernawati) 169  oyi felt depressed when she thought about her parents and adopted brother, panjalu, who let her be taken as the coming mistress of amangkurat i. she is oppressed here, and it can be shown through the metaphor which compares her room in wirareja’s house with the cage of a bird. although she is given a beautiful and clean room, she feels that she is alienated from the environment. she does not have freedom. rich versus poor the richness of amangkurat i was shown when he built a new palace. people wondered why he had to build a new palace, because the palace where he lived in was still in good condition. in fact, some of the buildings were wrecked because of the earthquake. amangkurat i asked ki reksawana to find out wood of good quality of for his palace (nusantara, 2011: 85). this condition shows that amangkurat is rich. although the condition of his palace is not bad, he wants to build a new palace, with good quality material, such as wood. he wants the person who knows about wood, choose the best and the oldest wood to build his new palace. compared to other people, amangkurat i was rich but he could not control his money. his son, puger, knew about it. actually he did not agree when his father borrowed some money from the foreign traders, because he had to pay the interest. that was not charity (nusantara, 2011: 338). puger, the son of amangkurat i knows that his father likes to borrow some money from the foreign traders. the money given is not for free. he is afraid that the money becomes the trouble for his father, because amangkurat has to pay the interest. another rich condition is represented by the noble, and poor is represented by common people. it can be seen when danupaya and panjalu passed the street in their way to do the order of adipati anom to go to the palace where adipati anom lived. a long the way to go to the palace, they saw the children and the farmers who looked unhealthy. they could not eat because of the famine. crying, the children asked for food for the mother. when they saw a carriage coming, they approached it and asked for charity. they looked disappointed when the passengers of the carriage did not give them anything (nusantara, 2011: 465) here, the binary of rich and poor is shown through the condition of the noble and the poor. the poor cannot eat because of the famine. they have to work hard in order to be able to eat. even the poor beg for the noble. the poor assumes that the passengers of the carriage are the noble, but they do not give them money. the poor asks money to buy food. the second binary is proven through the dialog of the soldiers who talk about the condition of their family. one of the soldiers said that they did not have to involve with the problem of the noble. they were lucky if they could eat rice in the town, not like their relatives in the village who ate sweet potatoes (nusantara, 2011: 467). it can be seen how miserable the condition of common people during the reign of amangkurat i. even they cannot eat rice. rice is the representation of good economy. when there is no rice, it means that the condition of economy is not good. eating sweet potatoes is an alternative because the people do not have rice since it is very expensive. it is different from the condition of the noble. they could always get the rice by corrupting the rice given to the ruler. it happened because there was no supervision from the ruler. the corrupted rice is then given to the foreign trader to be sold. the seller, on the other hand, because they had to pay some incentive to the officer, they had to increase the price of the rice. eventually, only the rich could buy the rice. (nusantara, 2011: 467). 170 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  the noble does not care about the condition of the people. without being supervised, they can corrupt the rice which is actually given to the ruler as the tax. the sellers also take part in the bad condition of economy. they cannot do anything except increasing the price of the rice because of the bribery. when the price of the rice is high only those who have money can buy it. in this condition only the rich or the noble who can buy the money. the common people, who do not have money, have to eat alternative food such as sweet potato or cassava. love versus hate lover opposite to hate indicates some evidences in the novel. the first love shown in the novel is the love of amangkurat i to his beloved mistress ratu malang. he loved her so much, even when she died, he accompanied her dead body for days. amangkurat i tried to find out the cause of his mistress’ death. he suspected everybody, included his parents-in-law, ratu wandan and jaka pekik, and his wife, ratu batang (nusantara, 2011: 54-55). amangkurat i could not face the reality that his beloved mistress already died. he hugged the dead body of his mistress and did not let her go to be buried. he also swore that he would kill whoever poisoned his mistress and made her die. nyai dubruk, the nanny of amangkurat i since he was a baby, told him to let the mistress go. she said it was not good for the ruler as amangkurat i to moan for days, and not good for his health. nyai dubruk loved amangkurat i so much and took care of him just as her own son. (nusantara, 2011: 55). the love of nyai dubruk makes amangkurat i realize that he must not be sad forever. he, as the ruler, cannot be seen weak in front of his people. amangkurat i respects nyai dubruk and only nyai dubruk who can convince her to let he mistress be buried. he loves nyai dubruk as his own mother. on the other hand, the only son of nyai dubruk, wirapatra, did not love her. wirapatra thought that nyai dubruk did not love him, and only loved her husband. her husband, wiguna, was the father of wirapatra, but he did not know it. (nusantara, 2011: 350). without knowing that wiguna was his own father, he thought that nyai dubruk only loved her husband not him. nyai dubruk always thought about wirapatra, tried to get the position for her son in the palace, but basically wirapatra still hated his mother. another love and hate relation is shown through adipati anom and oyi versus amangkurat i. although knowing that oyi was the prepared to be the next mistress of his father, adipati anom dared to make affair with her. when amangkurat i knew it, he was very angry. he yelled and called the name of adipati anom. (nusantara, 2011: 488). oyi and adipati anom loves each other. they know that they break the rule. the son of amangkurat i supposes not to have love affair with the mistress of his father. when knowing about their love affair, amangkurat i is very angry and asked them to come to him. in the palace, oyi was humiliated because she was put in the cage, similar to the cage for wild animal. previously no one knew who was inside it. when the cage was opened, adipati anom was shocked because oyi was in it. (nusantara, 2011: 489). here, oyi sacrifices herself in the name of love to adipati anom. amangkurat i wants to prove his son’s loyalty to him in front of the people. he puts adipati anom in dilemma whether to prove his loyalty to his father or to love oyi. amangkurat i asked adipati anom to show his loyalty to him by killing oyi at that time. adipati anom was panicked. he cried and asked for mercy many times because he could not do what was ordered by his father, killing his lover, oyi (nusantara, 2011: 489). binary opposition and ….. (akun; endang ernawati) 171  adipati anom is not an independent person as well self-confident person. he is a coward, he cannot accept the consequence of his action. when he is asked to show his loyalty by killing oyi or being sent to a forest called lipuro, he can only cry and cannot choose one of the two options. because of her love to adipati anom, oyi did not want him to be humiliated. she pitied him because he could not choose one of the two options. without waiting too long, oyi committed suicide by stubbing herself to the ‘keris” (javanese weapon) hold by adipati anom. (nusantara, 2011: 497). actually adipati anom is given two choices, and he can choose to be sent to lipura if he loves oyi, but he does not choose one of them. oyi, on the other hand, to prove her love to adipati anom, cannot stand anymore. she killed herself by coming to the weapon held by adipati anom. conclusion rembulan ungu, a novel by bondan nusantara, tells a lot about post colonialism especially binary oppositions. binaries shown in this novel are about good versus bad; man versus woman; powerful versus powerless which is explained more to colonizer and colonized, javanese as majority versus non javanese as minority, oppressor and oppressed; rich versus poor as well as love versus hate good versus bad is when nyai wirareja shows her quality as a good person versus her son wirapatra who is a bad guy; oyi as a good person versus amangkurat who is not a grateful person; the existence of panjalu, sekar pandan in the good side and suragedug and his friends on the bad side. man versus woman can be seen when yin ma did not dare to say no, although she did not agree with her husband to send oyi to become the mistress of amangkurat. the hate of amangkurat to his wife ratu batang and the hate of wirapatra to his mother nyai dubruk also shows the bad relation of man and woman. binary of powerful versus powerless can be categorized into colonizer and colonized, javanese as majority versus non javanese as minority, oppress versus oppressed as well as rich versus poor. firstly, in colonizer and colonized is shown in ma oen as being less powerful than jaka pekik. secondly, javanese as majority versus non javanese as minority is represented to the existence of javanese as majority and chinese, people from madura as well as makassar as the minority. thirdly, oppressor and oppressed is shown in amangkurat versus oyi, ratu wandan and jaka pekik on the other side. the last is rich versus poor that can be seen in the condition of amangkurat and the noble versus the common javanese people. although the condition of his palace is not bad, he wanted to build a new palace, with good quality material, such as wood. the condition of the noble is the same as amangkurat that they liked to corrupt and collect the money. the common people on the other hand were in poor condition that they had difficulty to eat proper food. in love versus hate, it is shown that amangkurat loved her late beloved mistress, ratu malang. as the opposite, he hated oyi and adipati anom because of their love affair. in fact, oyi was prepared to be the mistress of amangkurat to substitute ratu malang. amangkurat also hated his wife, ratu batang, his parents in law ratu wandan and jaka pekik as their conspiracy to poison ratu malang and to make oyi met adipati anom. another love and hate relation is between nyai dubruk and wirapatra, his son. wirapatra thought that nyai dubruk did not love him, and only loved her husband, but actually she loved her son very much. 172 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 162-172  references ashcroft, b., griffiths, g., and tiffin, h. (2007). key concepts in post-colonial studies. london: routledge. barry, p. (2009). beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory (3rd ed.). manchester: manchester university press. chew, s. and richards, d. (2010). a concise companion to postcolonial literature. oxford: wileyblackwell. purwadi. (2007). sejarah raja-raja jawa. yogyakarta: media ilmu. ricklefs, m.c. (1991). sejarah indonesia modern. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. said, e.w. (2003). orientalism. london: penguin books. microsoft word 06_jp_rosita_setting efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 67 efektifitas mind mapping dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang pada pemelajar tingkat dasar rosita ningrum japanese department,faculty of letter, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 ningrum@binus.edu abstract article clarified the research entitled 「「初級学習者における日本語の語彙学習においてのマイ ンド・マッピングの効果」which were translated as "the effectiveness of mind mapping in japanese vocabulary learning for a basic level learners". in previous studies, mind mapping was tested on reading skill, but for this research it was focused on vocabulary with the assumption that the language learners usually got difficulties in learning both languages. technique of mind mapping was tested on a two-semester student to find out the effectiveness of its techniques in learning japanese vocabulary. this research used experimental methods. this design involved two groups of subjects. one group, as experimental group, was given the mind mapping learning technique, and the other group (the control group) was treated with the conventional learning techniques. data were taken in two ways, the quantitative method was using instrument in the forms of pre test and post test on both sample class. the qualitative method applied interview to complete the descriptive data analysis. then, the pre test and post test data were analyzed by measuring the normality of data and test-t to know to what extent the effectiveness of mind mapping techniques was successfully applied to the sample. to strengthen those results, the outcomes of interview was transcribed to see the sample’s responses in line with mind mapping techniques to the study of japanese vocabulary. the research result indicates that mind mapping technique is proven more effective in learning japanese vocabulary compared to the conventional way. keywords: mind map, vocabulary, japanese abstrak artikel menjelaskan penelitian berjudul「初級学習者における日本語の語彙学習においてのマイ ンド・マッピングの効果」yang diterjemahkan dalam bahasa indonesia sebagai “efektifitas mind mapping dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang pada pemelajar tingkat dasar”. pada penelitian terdahulu, teknik mind mapping banyak diujikan pada keterampilan membaca, sedangkan pada penelitian ini, mind mapping difokuskan pada kosakata dengan asumsi peneliti melihat kendala pembelajar bahasa asing yang sama sekali baru dalam mempelajari bahasa keduanya. teknik mind mapping diujicobakan pada mahasiswa semester dua dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui efektifitas teknik mind mapping dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. penelitian ini menggunakan metode eksperimen murni dengan melibatkan dua kelompok subjek. satu diberi perlakuan eksperimental dengan teknik mind mapping (kelompok eksperimen) dan kelompok lain (kelompok kontrol) diperlakukan dengan teknik pembelajaran biasa. data diambil dengan dua cara, yakni kuantitatif dengan membuat instrumen berupa pre test dan post test pada kedua sampel kelas serta data kualitatif berupa wawancara untuk melengkapi hasil analisis data secara deskriptif. selanjutnya, seluruh hasil data pre test dan post test dianalisis dengan mengukur normalitas data dan uji-t untuk mengetahui sejauh mana efektifitas teknik mind mapping berhasil diterapkan pada sampel. untuk menguatkan hasil tersebut, hasil wawancara ditranskripsi untuk melihat tanggapan atau respon dari sampel tentang teknik mind mapping pada pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. diperoleh hasil bahwa teknik mind mapping terbukti lebih efektif dipakai dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang dibandingkan dengan cara konvensional.. kata kunci: mind map, kosakata, bahasa jepang 68 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 pendahuluan bagi pembelajar bahasa jepang, penguasaan kosakata mutlak diperlukan. menurut mulyadi (2007: 17), dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa, pembelajar diharapkan mampu menguasai empat keterampilan berbahasa, yaitu menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. empat keterampilan di atas erat kaitannya dengan sedikit banyaknya kosakata yang dikuasai pemelajar. sampai saat ini pemelajar terutama di tingkat pertama, sangat tergantung dengan kosakata yang diberikan pengajar di kelas dan buku teks. kondisi pembelajaran diatas cenderung menimbulkan keengganan pemelajar untuk mempelajari kosa kata di luar dari yang diberikan pengajar di kelas. bahkan untuk kosa kata yang berhubungan dengan aktifitas (doushi) cenderung diberikan sesuai dengan yang ada di buku teks. mind map dapat dijadikan tool stimulus untuk pemelajar menambah atau mengembangkan kosakata sampai tiada batas. satu kata bisa mengurai belasan bahkan ratusan kata yang saling berkorelasi. teknik ini terbilang sangat mudah sehingga tidak mustahil dikuasai kedua belah pihak (pengajar dan pemelajar) untuk mengoptimalkan pembelajaran dua arah. metode dan alur penelitian metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode eksperimen dengan menggunakan dua kelompok yaitu kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol. teknik mind map ini akan diujicobakan di dalam kelas dengan menciptakan lingkungan sedemikian rupa agar semua variabel yang terkait dapat dimanipulasi, dikontrol dan diamati dengan seksama, sehingga lebih mendekati lingkungan aslinya (sutedi, 2009: 19). data penelitian ini berupa data kuantitatif, yaitu skor pre test dan post test sebelum dan setelah pembelajaran. sedangkan data kualititatif berupa tanggapan responden yang diperoleh melalui wawancara. jenis eksperimen yang dipilih adalah eksperimen murni dengan desain pre test post test control group design. desain ini melibatkan dua kelompok subjek, satu diberi perlakuan eksperimental (kelompok eksperimen) dan kelompok lainnya (kelompok kontrol) tidak mendapat perlakuan apa-apa. pembahasan pembelajaran diekspetasikan dapat menimbulkan atau menyempurnakan pola laku dan membina kebiasaan sehingga pemelajar menjadi terampil (danasasmita, 1994: 64). oleh karena itu, pengajar perlu memahami pemilihan tentang pendekatan, metode, dan teknik mengajar. bila pendekatan mengandung muatan filosofis pembelajaran, metode mengungkapkan rancangan keseluruhan pembelajaran. sedangkan teknik adalah upaya-upaya pengajar untuk membahasakan metode sesuai dengan pendekatan yang telah ditentukan. dryden (2000: 127) menghimbau pangajar untuk berani mengeksplorasi banyak teknik pembelajaran yang memungkinkan pemelajar belajar lebih cepat, dan lebih baik. karena tidak ada satu teknik mengajar dan belajar yang benar-benar efektif menjangkau keunikan siswa yang beragam. kosakata machi hiromitsu dalam sudjianto dan dahidi (2004: 97) memberikan konsepsi kosakata (goi) dari kanji /i/ 彙 pada kata /goi/ 語彙 adalah atsumeru koto ’kumpulan’ atau ’himpunan’ atau didefinisikan sebagai go no mure go no atau atsumari yang berarti kumpulan kata yang berhubungan dengan suatu bahasa atau dengan bidang tertentu dalam bahasa itu. efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 69 dalam nihongo noryoku shiken atau dalam bahasa indonesianya dikenal dengan sebutan ujian kemampuan bahasa jepang (the japanese language proficiency test), kosakata (語彙) merupakan salah satu kemampuan yang diukur dari kemampuan berbahasa jepang yang lain (huruf, membaca, gramatika dan menyimak). ujian tersebut dibedakan menjadi empat level, dimulai dari urutan yang terendah: level 4 dengan minimum penguasaan kosakata sebanyak 800 kosakata. kemudian, pada level 3, minimum penguasaan kosakata peserta sebanyak 1500 kosakata, level 2 sebanyak 6000 kosakata dan terakhir level 1, sebanyak 10.000 kosakata (sudjianto, 2009: 80). dengan adanya sistem baru noryoku shiken yang akan diberlakukan 2010 ini, batasannya menjadi level 5 (sama dengan level 4 pada sistem lama), level 4 (sama dengan level 3), level 3 (berada di level 2 dan 3 pada sistem lama), level 2 (sama dengan level 2) dan level 1 (sama dengan level 1). artinya perbedaannya hanya pada level 3 yang dibuat sebagai level peralihan dari level 3 ke level 2 yang memiliki kecenderungan terlalu jauh dan berat dalam hal batasan kemampuan bahasa jepang. beberapa pengertian dalam teknik pembelajaran kosakata freeman dalam setiadi (2007: 78) memandang pembelajaran bahasa asing sebagai sebuah sistem yang dinamis, kompleks dan non linear. pemelajar tidak dapat statis apabila menginginkan penguasaan bahasa yang maksimal. kosakata memegang peranan penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa bahkan indikator kemampuan bahasa. terutama dalam pembelajaran bahasa jepang yang memiliki ribuan kata yang baru untuk pemelajar sendiri. menurut thornburry (2002: 78), pembelajaran kosakata dapat disajikan dengan mengajak pemelajar mengkaji tentang sinonim, antonim, atau yang lain dengan menggunakan berbagai teknik seperti penggunaan kamus, semantik mapping, atau diagram pohon. berdasarkan pengalaman selama peneliti mengajar bahasa jepang, variasi atau alternatif teknik pengajaran kosakata mutlak dipikirkan, di antaranya dengan e kado (kartu gambar). hal ini cukup menstimulus pemelajar untuk menghafal kata-kata. canning (2001: 53) mengungkapkan salah satu teknik untuk mengilustrasikan dan mengklarifikasikan suatu arti kata dalam pembelajaran kosa kata dapat menggunakan media gambar sebagai stimulus visual. hal ini membantu pemelajar dalam memprediksikan informasi. selain itu pembelajaran kosakata juga dapat diberikan dengan teknik mnemonic. teknik ini berupa pengandaian dengan benda, atau “linking” (mengingat sesuatu berdasarkan hubungan dengan suatu hal lain). mind map sebagai teknik pembelajaran kosakata selama ini pemelajar hanya mendapatkan what to learn dari apa yang dipelajarinya di kelas. di sisi lain penguasaan how to learn dapat menguak keberhasilan belajarnya, dan itu yang sering terlewat oleh pengajar. ketidakseimbangan aspek how to learn dan what to learn, menyebabkan belajar bukan aktivitas yang menyenangkan. penguasaan what to learn dan how to learn yang seimbang, diharapkan menumbuhkan stimulus positif dan kecintaan pemelajar untuk menambah yang ilmunya tidak hanya di kelas dan melahirkan kontinuitas self motivated atau kemandirian belajar. sayangnya, menurut thonburry (2002: 13) pengajar jarang merasa peka untuk mengasah kemampuan kosakata pemelajar untuk lebih berkembang ditambah lagi memikirkan teknik yang menyenangkan. pembelajaran kosakata yang mudah diserap dan selalu tersimpan dalam ingatan dalam jangka waktu yang lama oleh pemelajar memerlukan teknik pembelajaran yang tepat, menarik dan jauh dari ketegangan (thornburry, 2002: 144). salah satu caranya dengan menggunakan musik dan menggunakan mind mapping. diperlukan stimulus seperti membuat jejaring kata, dari satu kata kunci menjadi belasan, puluhan bahkan ratusan agar dapat digunakan maksimal terutama untuk mendukung empat aspek keterampilan bahasa lainnya. 70 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 definisi mind map penggunaan mind map memungkinkan otak belahan kiri dan kanan bekerja beriringan. beban yang selama ini hanya dipikir pada daya otak kiri, dapat disinergikan bersama otak kanan. kegiatan apapun yang melibatkan otak kiri dan otak kanan sekaligus pasti menyenangkan, seperti apabila kita membaca komik, menonton film kartun, atau main games. dalam sebuah film kartun selalu ada unsur gambar, warna, cerita (khayalan), dan emosi yang terlibat (senang, sedih, seru) di samping teks ceritanya. gambar, warna dan cerita khayalan adalah unsur otak kanan dan teks adalah unsur otak kirinya. dengan demikian, otak kiri dan otak kanan pada saat yang bersamaan digunakan dua-duanya secara seimbang. begitu pula dengan membaca komik dan games. cara kerja mind map mind map adalah salah satu teknik how to learn. tahap pertama setelah tema ditentukan dan kata kunci hasil curah gagasan dituliskan, dilukis, dan ditandai dengan warna atau simbol tertentu (wikipedia). analoginya sebagai berikut, pengajar dapat menstimulus pemelajar dengan cara memberikan kata kunci taberu, kemudian pemelajar diminta membayangkan kata-kata yang berkorelasi dengan kata taberu. hasil penemuan dapat langsung mengacu ke bahasa jepangnya, kanji, atau kata berbahasa indonesia atau bisa pula berupa gambar-gambar saja. pemelajar membuat coretancoretan dari kata kunci yang diberikan pengajar menjadi urutan kata yang memiliki korelasi. dengan langkah seperti itu, pemelajar akan terbiasa memikirkan kata-kata yang berhubungan dengan apa yang dipelajari dengan dinamis. jika pemelajar menemukan kesulitan mencari padanan kata dalan bahasa jepangnnya, pemelajar menjadi termotivasi untuk membuka kamus. sehingga kendala pengajar membiasakan pengajar membuka kamus sejak tingkat awal menjad teratasi. pengajarpun tidak perlu repot membahas seluruh kosakata yang ada di buku. ajak pemelajar mengkhayalkan satu kata kunci. kata kunci ini, pasti di dalam imajinasi pemelajar adalah gambar. gambar selalu penuh dengan warna. stimulus pemelajar dengan kata わえ あしの家 seperti gambar 1. langsung saja pemelajar membayangkan apa saja yang ada di rumah. imaji yang terbayang dapat berupa bagian-bagian besar kecil dari rumah seperti kamar mandi, dapur, kamar atau mengerucut ke bagian yang sangat spesifik seperti televisi yang ada di kamarnya, atau anjing yang pemelajar pelihara di rumahnya. gambar 1 visualisasi konsep mind map pada ide 私の家(rumah saya) gambar dan warna-warna menyebabkan otak belahan kanan menjadi lebih aktif dan secara otomatis otak kiri pun menyeimbangkan diri. saat itu ada yang bekerja beriringan, yakni memori atau ingatan pemelajar atas kosakata yang pernah mereka pelajari sebelumnya dan daya imajinasi mereka menelusuri cabang-cabang dari kata tersebut menjadi sub cabang yang lebih kecil, dan detil. artinya, efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 71 selalu ada kata baru (新しい言葉) yang akan terpikirkan. dan ini bagus sekali untuk penambahan kosakata pembelajar. bahkan dapat melampaui kata-kata yang seharusnya belum mereka pelajari. misalkan mereka sedang mempelajari bab 12 dari buku minna no nihonggo i, kemudian dengan stimulus kata kunci dengan teknik mind map, pemelajar dapat memikirkan kata di bab 17 atau di luar buku teks sekalipun. secara garis besar keuntungan menggunakan mind map, pertama, mengembangkan kemampuan visual, berpikir kreatif dan percaya diri. yang dimaksud di sini adalah apabila pemelajar diberi kesempatan untuk membangun korelasi yang terhubung dengan tema atau kata yang diberikan pengajar, tentu akan menstimulus kepercayaan diri pemelajar. pemelajar akan terbiasa mengeluarkan respon yang mendukung ketercapaian materi. satu pemelajar mungkin akan menemukan sepuluh pengembangan kata ie misalnya, dan pemelajar seterusnya menjadi dua belas, bahkan ratusan. dan visi yang tercipta dari kemaharajaan pikiran setiap orang mungkin sekali berbeda. satu pemelajar bisa berpikir ie itu terdiri dari kamar, dapur, kursi, bangku, meja, sedangkan pemelajar lain menemukan kata keluarga, ayah, ibu, adik dan mungkin saja menjadi lebih spesifik sampai dengan kompleks. kedua, karena kelas diswitch menjadi pembelajaran yang atraktif dan interaktif, tekanan atau stress akan ekspetasi pengajar dapat direduksi. pemelajar menjadi lebih rileks dan bisa mengeksplorasi mata kuliah dengan baik. ketiga, menyenangkan. bahkan dapat dikembangkan ke arah ice breaker (pemecah kebekuan) dalam bentuk game, role play dan lain-lain. keempat, ketercapaian pemahaman suatu topik atau mata kuliah menjadi lebih mudah baik untuk pengajar dan pemelajar. analisis hasil penelitian untuk mengetahui adanya peningkatan kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang mahasiswa, maka perlu diketahui kemampuan awal kosakata bahasa jepang mahasiswa pada kelas sampel (kelas kontrol dan kelas eksperimen). untuk mengetahui kemampuan awal mahasiswa, mereka diberi tes awal (pretest). kemudian kelas eksperimen diberikan perlakuan khusus yaitu menggunakan teknik mind mapping, sedangkan kelas kontrol menggunakan teknik konvensional atau biasa yakni teknik grammar translation. setelah seluruh pembelajaran selesai dilaksanakan, kedua kelas sampel diberikan tes akhir (postest). pemberian tes akhir diberikan untuk mengetahui peningkatan kemampuan penguasaan kosakata bahasa jepang mahasiswa. hasil penelitian kelas kontrol peneliti menerapkan teknik grammar translation pada kelas kontrol. penerapan teknik ini dilakukan sebanyak empat kali, pada tanggal 29 maret 2011, 01 april 2011, 05 april 2011 dan 08 april 2011 selama 90 menit. jumlah responden yang mengikuti teknik grammar translation ini adalah 17 orang. untuk mengukur keberhasilan teknik grammar translation, peneliti mengambil hasil test sebelum dan sesudah dilakukannya teknik grammar translation. statistik deskripsi kelas kontrol data hasil tes awal kelas kontrol menunjukkan nilai terendah 4,13 dan nilai tertinggi 9,75. rerata nilai tes awal (pretest) kelas kontrol adalah 7,30 dengan standar deviasi 1,931. sedangkan untuk tes akhir (postest), responden menunjukkan nilai terendah 5 dan nilai tertinggi 10. untuk rerata nilai postest pada kelas kontrol adalah 8,10 dengan standar deviasi untuk hasil postest adalah 1,607. kemudian dari hasil tabel tersebut di atas peneliti mendeskripsikan dalam bentuk grafik sehingga dapat memperlihatkan dengan jelas kenaikan hasil test antara pretest dan postest dengan teknik grammar translation. berikut adalah gambar grafik hasil pretest dan postest kelas kontrol dapat dilihat pada gambar 2. 72 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 pre_test post_test gambar 2 hasil pre test dan post test kelas kontrol gambar 2 menggambarkan keragaman kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang siswa pada kelas kontrol ketika pretest dan kenaikan pada hasil postest. uji normalitas kelas kontrol uji normalitas dilakukan untuk mengetahui apakah data pretest berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal atau tidak. selain itu, uji normalitas data berfungsi sebagai asumsi dasar untuk menentukan jenis uji statistik yang digunakan dalam analisis selanjutnya. untuk menguji normalitas data pretes dan postes kelas kontrol, digunakan statistik uji chi kuadrat x² = σ (f0 – fh)² fn di mana : x² = chi square ; f0 = frekuensi yang diobservasi fn = frekuensi yang diharapkan. dengan taraf signifikansi α sebesar 5% (0,05). pasangan hipotesis yang akan diuji adalah sebagai berikut: h0: data pretest dan postest menunjukkan bahwa sampel berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal h1: data pretest dan postest menunjukkan bahwa sampel berasal dari populasi yang tidak terdistribusi normal dengan α = 0.05 dari rumusan di atas, diperoleh hasil uji normalitas pada kelas kontrol seperti pada tabel 1. efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 73 tabel 1 hasil tests of normality dari kelas kontrol berdasarkan hasil pengolahan data pretest dan postest pada kelas kontrol diperoleh hasil bahwa χ2 hitung kelas kontrol adalah 0,200 untuk pretest dan 0.200 untuk post test. hasil uji normalitas untuk pretest dan postest perlakuan teknik grammar translation lebih besar dari 0,05, sehingga kesimpulan statistika yang diambil adalah ho diterima, artinya bahwa hasil pretest dan postest dari teknik grammar translation berasal dari populasi yang menyebar normal. kemudian dari hasil test uji normalitas untuk kelas kontrol terdapat hasil beberapa grafik, seperti terlihat pada gambar 3 dan gambar 4 berikut. gambar 3.normal q – q plot untuk hasil pretest kelas kontrol gambar 4 normal q – q plot untuk hasil postest kelas kontrol 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 dari gambar normal q – q plot untuk kedua hasil pretest maupun postest di atas menunjukkan bahwa titik-titik nilai data terletak kurang lebih dalam suatu garis lurus, sehingga mendukung kesimpulan di atas bahwa data pretest maupun postest berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal. uji t-test pada kelas kontrol peningkatan nilai rata-rata menunjukkan adanya peningkatan pemelajar sebelum dan sesudah menggunakan teknik grammar translation dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. adapun korelasi kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang antara dua buah sampel pretest dan postest dengan teknik grammar translation ditunjukkan dengan nilai koefisien korelasi r = 0,907 dengan nilai signifikansi korelasi sebesar 0,000 < α = 0,05. ini berarti korelasi antara nilai kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang responden ketika pretest dan postest menunjukkan korelasi positif yang signifikan seperti terlihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2 hasil paired samples correlations dari kelas kontrol hasil di atas perlu diperkuat dengan pengujian hipotesis mengenai perbedaan yang kentara dan signifikan pada nilai postest daripada nilai pretest. hipotesis ini adalah sebagai berikut, h0 adalah teknik grammar translation tidak berpengaruh pada hasil belajar kosa kata bahasa jepang. h1 adalah teknik grammar translation berpengaruh pada hasil belajar kosakata bahasa jepang. hasil uji signifikansi terlihat pada tabel 3. tabel 3 uji signifikansi nilai rata-rata pretest dan postest kelas kontrol pengujian hipotesa ini memperlihatkan hasil seperti pada tabel 1, yakni dengan nilai-p = 0.001. karena nilai-p < 0,05 maka h0 ditolak atau dengan kata lain hasil postest pada kelas kontrol lebih tinggi secara signifikan dibandingkan hasil pretest. hasil tersebut dapat ditarik kesimpulan efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 75 bahwa teknik grammar translation pada kelas kontrol berpengaruh pada hasil pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. hasil penelitian kelas eksperimen kemudian peneliti menerapkan teknik mind map pada kelas eksperimen. penerapan teknik ini dilakukan sebanyak empat kali, pada tanggal 29 maret 2011, 01 april 2011, 05 april 2011 dan 08 april 2011 selama 90 menit. jumlah responden yang mengikuti teknik mind map ini adalah 16 orang. untuk mengukur keberhasilan teknik mind map, peneliti mengambil hasil test sebelum dan sesudah dilakukannya teknik mind map. statistik deskripsi kelas eksperimen data hasil pretest kelas eksperimen menunjukkan nilai terendah 5,00 dan nilai tertinggi 9,63. rerata nilai tes awal (pretest) kelas eksperimen adalah 7,14 dengan standar deviasi 1,33. sedangkan untuk postest, responden menunjukkan nilai terendah 8,25 dan nilai tertinggi 10. untuk rerata nilai postest pada kelas eksperimen adalah 9,18 dengan standar deviasi adalah 0,54. kemudian dari hasil tabel tersebut di atas peneliti mendeskripsikan dalam bentuk grafik sehingga dapat memperlihatkan dengan jelas kenaikan hasil test antara pretest dan postest dengan teknik mind mapping, seperti terlihat pada gambar 5. 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 pre_tes t pos t_tes t gambar 5 hasil pretest dan postest kelas eksperimen kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang responden pada kelas eksperimen sebelum treatment tidak seragam, dan ada kenaikan nilai yang cukup baik setelah treatment dan kemampuan siswa semakin seragam. uji normalitas kelas eksperimen uji normalitas dilakukan untuk mengetahui apakah data pretest berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal atau tidak. selain itu, uji normalitas data berfungsi sebagai asumsi dasar untuk menentukan jenis uji statistik yang digunakan dalam analisis selanjutnya. untuk menguji normalitas data pretes dan postest kelas eksperimen, digunakan statistik uji chi kuadrat x² = σ (f0 – fh)² fn di mana : x² = chi square ; f0 = frekuensi yang diobservasi 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 fn = frekuensi yang diharapkan. dengan taraf signifikansi α sebesar 5% (0,05). pasangan hipotesis yang akan diuji adalah sebagai berikut: h0 : data pretest dan postest menunjukkan bahwa sampel berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal h1 : data pretest dan postest menunjukkan bahwa sampel berasal dari populasi yang tidak terdistribusi normal dengan α = 0.05 tabel 4 hasil tests of normality dari kelas eksperimen berdasarkan hasil pengolahan data pretest dan postest pada kelas eksperimen yang seperti digambarkan pada tabel 4, diperoleh hasil bahwa χ2 hitung kelas eksperimen adalah 0,200 untuk pretest dan 0.200 untuk post test. hasil uji normalitas untuk pretest dan postest perlakuan teknik mind mapping lebih besar dari 0,05, sehingga simpulan statistika yang diambil adalah terima ho, artinya dapat dikatakan bahwa hasil pretest dan postest dari teknik mind mapping berasal dari populasi yang menyebar normal. kemudian dari hasil test uji normalitas untuk kelas eksperimen memperlihatkan grafik seperti gambar 6 berikut. efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 77 gambar 6 grafik normal q – q plot untuk hasil pretest kelas eksperimen gambar 7 grafik normal q – q plot untuk hasil postest kelas eksperimen q – q plot untuk kedua hasil pretest maupun postest di atas menunjukkan bahwa titik-titik nilai data terletak kurang lebih dalam suatu garis lurus, sehingga mendukung simpulan di atas bahwa data pretest maupun postest berasal dari populasi yang terdistribusi normal, seperti terlihat pada gambar 6 dan gambar 7.. uji t-test pada kelas eksperimen peningkatan nilai rata-rata menunjukkan adanya peningkatan pemelajar sebelum dan sesudah menggunakan teknik mind mapping dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. adapun korelasi kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang antara dua buah sampel pretest dan postest dengan teknik mind mapping ditunjukkan dengan nilai koefisien korelasi r = 0,791 dengan nilai signifikansi korelasi sebesar 0,000 < α = 0,05. seperti pada tabel 5 berikut. tabel 5 hasil paired samples correlations dari kelas eksperimen ini berarti korelasi antara nilai kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang responden ketika pretest dan postest menunjukkan korelasi positif yang signifikan. 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 hasil di atas perlu diperkuat dengan pengujian hipotesis mengenai perbedaan yang kentara dan signifikan pada nilai postest daripada nilai pretest. hipotesis ini adalah sebagai berikut, h0 adalah teknik mind mapping tidak berpengaruh pada hasil belajar kosa kata bahasa jepang. h1 adalah teknik mind mapping berpengaruh pada hasil belajar kosakata bahasa jepang. tabel 6 uji signifikansi nilai rata-rata pretest dan postest kelas eksperimen paired differences mean std.deviation std. error mean t df sig.(2-tailed) pretest-postest -2.04000 .96416 .24104 -8.463 15 .000 pengujian hipotesa ini memperlihatkan hasil seperti pada tabel 6, yakni dengan nilai-p = 0.000. karena nilai-p < 0,05 maka h0 ditolak atau dengan kata lain hasil postest pada kelas eksperimen lebih tinggi secara signifikan dibandingkan hasil pretest. hasil tersebut dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa teknik mind mapping berpengaruh pada hasil pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang. interpretasi data dari hasil analisis dari segi kuantitatif (uji statistik) dan kualitatif dari hasil wawancara, peneliti menginterpretasikan secara keseluruhan data yang telah diperoleh sebagai berikut: kondisi kelas sebelum mendapat perlakuan teknik mind mapping pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang sebelum mengikuti ujicoba teknik mind mapping dilakukan dengan teknik grammar translation. teknik ini tergolong teknik konvensial yang cukup lama ada dalam teknik pembelajaran bahasa jepang. pengajar mengajarkan kosakata ( 語 彙 ), tatabahasa (文法), percakapan (会話) atau pemahamaan bacaan (読解) dengan menerjemahkan langsung dari bahasa kedua ke bahasa satu. peningkatan pemahaman dalam hal ini penambahan kosakata bahasa jepang dilakukan dengan terpaku pada buku teks yang dipakai di kelas. waktu yang tidak mencukupi untuk memenuhi standar 800 kata pada level 4 noryoukushiken (sudjianto, 2009: 80), menuntut pemelajar mempunyai cara untuk menambah kuanntitas kosakata bahasa jepang. selain itu dorongan untuk terus menggunakan kata-kata yang sudah dipelajari secara simultan dan terintegrasi dengan mata kuliah lain, mengharuskan pemelajar memiliki kemampuan untuk mengingat dalam jangka lama. hal ini cukup berat. dari hasil pretest di kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol (pada lampiran) terlihat banyak kosakata yang sudah mereka pelajari sebelumnya, tidak bisa terjawab seperti kosakata きょう (hari ini), なつ (musim panas), おんなのこ (anak perempuan), じてんしゃ (sepeda) りょこう(tamasya/piknik), さかな (ikan) dan masih banyak lagi. padahal kosakatakosakata tersebut sudah dipelajari pemelajar sebelumnya. pada hasil wawancara ditemui beberapa fakta bahwa pemelajar memiliki beban mata kuliah yang cukup padat sehingga mudah sekali lupa. pemelajar mensiasati kesulitan mengingat (memorize) dan menambah kosakata dengan teknik yang cukup beragam seperti dengan mendengarkan lagu, menonton film atau membaca komik berbahasa jepang. efektifitas mind mapping ….. (rosita ningrum) 79 peningkatan kosakata bahasa jepang setelah mendapat perlakuan teknik mind mapping hampir seluruh responden menjawab suka dengan teknik mind mapping untuk pembelajaran kosakata bahasa jepang, dalam hal ini untuk mengingat (memorize) dan menambah. temuan di lapangan juga menangkap kecenderungan responden beralih menggunakan teknik mind mapping ini untuk pembelajaran yang lain seperti sejarah jepang, kebudayaan jepang atau bahkan keterampilan berbahasa lainnya seperti percakapan (kaiwa) dan tata bahasa jepang. responden mengaku menyukai dan menemukan cara belajar (how to learn) yang baru dan menyenangkan. selain itu pada pertanyaan grand tour question (pertanyaan awal/luas) ketika wawancara, ditemukan beberapa responden yang pernah, dan atau telah menggunakan mind map dalam pembelajaran semasa sma. meskipun bukan hal yang baru, responden menyatakan lebih mampu dan menyadari bahwa mind mapping juga dapat diterapkan dengan menyenangkan pada pelajaran bahasa. secara statistik, digambarkan bahwa hasil postest meningkat di kedua kelas (grafik 4.1 dan 4.2). perbedaannya adalah bahwa kelas kontrol mengalami peningkatan yang rangenya tidak terlalu tinggi, misalnya nilai pretest 5 menjadi 5,5, atau 9, 5 menjadi 9, 88. tetapi pada kelas eksperimen dengan perlakuan teknik mind mapping, responden mengalami kenaikan yang cukup tinggi. misalnya pada salah satu responden mendapat nilai pretest 5,13 dan meningkat menjadi 8,25 pada nilai postetsnya atau mengalami kenaikan sebesar 60, 82%. contoh lain mendapat nilai pretest 5 dan meningkat menjadi 8,50 pada postestnya (70%). hal ini terlihat dari kosakata yang digunakan dalam soal tes dapat dijawab dengan baik. hasil di atas diperkuat dengan hasil wawancara bahwa mind map dapat menstimulus mereka mempelajari kosakata bahasa jepang dengan lebih mudah dan menyenangkan, 100% atau seluruh responden menjawab dapat. hal ini membuktikan bahwa mind map yang peneliti jelaskan pada bab 2 memang efektif. responden diberi waktu untuk mengingat kosakata yang telah dipelajari sebelumnya dengan cara yang menyenangkan. ketika ujicoba dilakukan, peneliti mengajak responden pada aktifitas yang mengarah pada pengembangan kosakata. dalam pengembangan itu terlihat kosakata baru bermunculan dari setiap responden. selain itu responden menyukai teknik mind mapping karena kekuatan pada warna, gambar, dan catatan yang menyenangkan daripada catatan mereka sebelumnya yang sarat kata-kata. mengenai kekuatan mind mapping dalam hal mengingat (memorize) dan menambah penguasaan kosakata bahasa jepang ditemukan jumlah yang hampir seimbang antara mengingat (memorize), menambah penguasaan kosakata bahasa jepang dan dapat memanfaatkan teknik mind map untuk kedua-duanya, mengingat (memorize) dan menambah penguasaan kosakata bahasa jepang. responden mengatakan akan menggunakan teknik mind mapping dalam pembelajaran bahasa dalam hal ini kosakata bahasa jepang. selain karena hasil pembelajaran meningkat, responden mengakui kemudahan teknik ini untuk mengatasi kendala-kendala belajar, memberikan kepercayaan diri untuk terus menggali atau menambah khazanah kosakata bahasa jepang sampai dengan pencapaian yang mereka inginkan, serta mind mapping ini mudah diterapkan (applicable/practical) oleh pemelajar. penutup teknik mind mapping dapat meningkatkan kemampuan kosakata bahasa jepang mahasiswa jika dibandingkan dengan menggunakan teknik konvensional. teknik mind mapping mudah dimengerti dan dipakai dalam mempelajari kosakata bahasa jepang di kelas dan secara mandiri. dengan menggunakan teknik mind mapping, tekanan mengingat (memorize) kosakata bahasa jepang dapat direduksi dengan lebih menyenangkan. selain itu, terbukti dari hasil tes dan wawancara bahwa mahasiswa terstimulus dengan baik dalam mempelajari kosakata bahasa jepang menggunakan teknik mind mapping. 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 67-80 daftar pustaka buzan, t. (2003).the mind map book. butler and tanner ltd, london buzan, t., dan susi purwoko (alih bahasa) (2003). mind map untuk anak. gramedia, jakarta canning. c, wilson. (2001). visuals&language learning: is there a connection? the weekly column, article 48, februari 2001. retrieved, august, 27, 2005, from http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/feb2001/art.482001.htm dryden, g., dan jeanette vos. (2000). revolusi cara belajar. kaifa, bandung danasasmita, w., dan sutedi, d. (1994). strategi belajar mengajar bahasa jepang. bandung: fpbs ikip, bandung riswanda setiadi. (2007). “sosialisasi bahasa dalam pemerolehan bahasa asing-sebuah kajian metateoritis”. jurnal fokus 1, 78 sudjianto. (2009) media belajar dan pembelajaran bahasa jepang. fpbs upi, bandung sudjianto dan dahidi. (2004). pengantar linguistik bahasa jepang. kesaint blanc, jakarta thornbury, s. (2004). how to teach vocabulary. longman, england yadi mulyadi. (2007). “pendekatan semiotika sebagai pendekatan alternatif dalam pembelajaran analisa teks bahasa perancis”. jurnal fokus.1, 44 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 241 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 241-246 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4081 implementation of positive language to promote effective language teaching classrooms for state junior high school amrina rosyada1; ana widyastuti2; agustina ramadhianti3 1,2,3department of english education, faculty of language and arts, university of indraprasta pgri jl. nangka no. 58 c tanjung barat, jakarta selatan, indonesia 14mrin4@gmail.com; 2anawidyastuti35@gmail.com; 3agustinaramadhianti79@gmail.com received: 27th october 2017 /revised: 22nd november 2017 /accepted: 07th february 2018 how to cite: rosyada, a., widyastuti, a., & ramadhianti, a. (2018). implementation of positive language to promote effective language teaching classrooms for state junior high school. lingua cultura, 12(3), 241-246. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4081 abstract the research aimed to determine the influence of positive language to promote the effective language teaching classrooms in state junior high school. the effective language teaching classroom was measured quantitatively by applying a correlational research design. the method conducted several steps as procedures of investigation in analyzing the data, namely: (1) data collection,(2) data analysis, and (3) data interpretation. engaged by 142 students of eighth-grade and four language teachers, findings have shown that there is a positive correlation between positive language and effective language teaching classrooms. the results are hoped to be as teachers’ and students’ guidance in implementing positive language to building their effective language teaching classrooms, gaining their confidence and ability to learn and use knowledge and skills to interact and fully participate in education. keywords: positive language, effective language, classroom teaching, state junior high school introduction classroom as part of the environment is the place where formal learning mostly takes place. additionally, not many learners spend their times to study out of the classroom. for these reasons, the moments where learning occurs have to be optimally benefited. this will be much determined by how teachers are able to manage and organize the classroom. meanwhile, the learners with the age of junior high school level are characterized by high curiosity and eagerness to try new adventures and challenge new experience in the process of learning. moreover, by the presence of advanced technology and information, students are able to find external sources to comprehend their language knowledge and implement their new language vocabulary in their real-life activities, in the classroom context or outside the classroom. in this situation, teachers are encouraged to come up with the students’ knowledge and curiosity, offer the new experience of the learning process, and implement various interesting language without the ignorance of the language principles. this present research is quantitative research. this quantitative research aims to find a significant correlation between the use of positive language and effective language teaching classrooms. the teachers encourage the students by using positive language to promote the positive language teaching classrooms. the teachers ask students to answer some questions and appreciate all the answers positively. in the classes, the teacher also chooses appropriate words to express appreciation to students regarding their engagement in the learning process. during the learning process, some teaching media such as videos and songs are also functioned as the teaching media. students look very enjoyable in the environment of the classroom and with the words of the teachers. students express their thoughts and share their answers freely and interactively. students also choose and reflect their ideas in respect to their classmates and their teachers. with this situation, the effective language teaching classrooms are established. during the research, questionnaires, note-taking, and recording are taken from the environment of the classroom. the results reveal that both students and teachers need a collaborative interaction to promote their effective language teaching classrooms. this result is shown in the significant correlation value between positive language knowledge and positive language in use. it means that the more students and teachers use their positive language knowledge, the more effective language teaching classrooms can be established. sieberer-nagler (2015) has stated that classroom management is intended to provide students with more 242 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 241-246 opportunities to learn all of the things that a teacher does to organize students, space, time, and materials so that the students’ learning can take place. students should be able to carry out their maximum potential, which allows them to develop appropriate behavior patterns. teachers must deal with unexpected events and have the ability to control student behavior by using effective classroom management strategies. effective classroom management and positive classroom climate construction are essential goals for all teachers. teachers are mostly experts in the subjects they teach, but they are very often having some problems with discipline. it is important for teachers to have an in-depth understanding of their subjects that they teach, but it is also important for them to have an understanding of the students’ interests and styles of learning. problems that teachers have in managing students’ behavior are fundamentally problems of students’ motivation. therefore, effective teaching practices are closely related to both management and motivation. teacher language is one of the most important and powerful tools to motivate students’ learning motivation and to build a positive classroom environment. researchers believe that teacher language is more than what the teacher’s say. teacher language is a tool to lift the students up to their highest potential, and in the other side, it is also a tool that can tear them down. as an expert teacher for years, denton (2013) has stated that: “teacher languagewhat we say to students and how we say itis one of our most powerful teaching tools. it permeates every aspect of teaching. we cannot teach lesson, welcome a student into the room, or handle a classroom conflict without using words. our language can lift students to their highest potential or tear them down. it can help them build positive relationships or encourage discord and distrust. it shapes how students think and act and, ultimately, how they learn.” during 20 years of denton research in teaching and language use, she formulates five guiding principles for positive language in supporting effective language teaching classroom which is be direct; convey faith in students’ abilities and intentions, focus on actions not abstractions, keep it brief, and know when to be silent (denton, 2013). thus, this five-guidance formula allows teachers to build their classrooms where students feel safe, respected, and engaged. the more teachers use positive language in their classrooms, the more students are influenced by the positive climate of their classrooms. once the climate of positive classrooms is created, the teachers can be called effective teachers. related to effective teachers, many kinds of research have been investigated to identify the characteristics of this issue. one of the comprehensive investigations is held in korea. this research investigates the characteristics of effective english teachers as perceived by 169 teachers and 339 students in high school in korea, with a selfreport questionnaire consisting of three categories: english proficiency, pedagogical knowledge, and socio-affective skills. overall, the teachers perceive significantly different characteristics than the students in all three categories with the teachers ranking english proficiency the highest in contrast to the students who rank pedagogical knowledge the highest. the student subgroups also hold different perceptions of effective teaching. high achieving students report different characteristics than low achieving students in pedagogical knowledge and socio-affective skills, whereas the male students demonstrate different characteristics from the female students in socio-affective skills. the findings have implications for knowledge-based teacher education for current and prospective english teachers (park & lee, 2006). another investigation is spread widely in the united states engaged by more than 300 teachers and 10.000 student responses in two middle schools in the western united states. by applying quasi-experimental research for over four years, the research has finally found that the school with positive climate significantly decreases tardiness, unexcused absences, and office discipline referrals compared to the school with poor positive climate. it also significantly improves in teacher ratings of school climate (caldarella et al., 2011). the same research in the usa and engaged by 578 californians teachers that have also found the relations among teachers’ perceptions of ell (english language learners) strategies and school programs, teachers’ ratings of collective efficacy in meeting all students’ needs, and the general school climate. descriptive data and two multiple regression analyses suggest two primary findings: teachers perceived collective efficacy for english language development (eld) instruction is higher than their individual efficacy (relative to previous studies), and measures of general school-wide collective efficacy when associated with the perceived strength of eld practices and programs. these results suggest that school-wide reforms designed to improve ell instruction might yield greater collective efficacy (téllez & manthey, 2015). in turkey, there have been numerous kinds of research reporting on the characteristics of teacher talk and the role of it with regard to learners’ learning a second or foreign language. in the present research, 16 young turkish learners of english as a foreign language and one turkish efl teacher are participated. data are collected by means of audio-recording, and then they are analyzed by conversation analysis methodology. as a result of this research, several characteristics of the participating teacher’s language use are identified. the identified categories are analyzed under two headings; construction and obstruction. direct error correction, content feedback, prompting, extended wait time, repairing are identified as the subcategories of constructive teacher talk. on the contrary, turn completion, teacher echo, extended use of initiation-response-feedback turn-taking are the subcategories of the obstructive talk (inceçay, 2010). another research in istanbul has found that emphasize of student-centered educational topics is usually on the effect of teachers’ attitudes on students’ academic success with a lack of lifespan developmental perspective. a teacher with his/her teaching methods and furthermore with his/her attitudes and behaviors provides his/her students to gain a mentally healthy personality and to have a new clear world view by leaving unforgettable traces on them. this is a pre-study to uncover how attitudes of teachers affect the personalities and performances of students. in this sense, this research will provide an emic understanding of education and the dynamics of the relationship between teachers and students beyond the limited areas of classes and courses. the sample group of research consists of totally 353 students from different departments of istanbul kultur university and maltepe university. by giving a questionnaire, the students are asked to give samples of their primary school, secondary school, high school, and 243implementation of positive language... (amrina rosyada et al.) university teachers’ positive and negative attitudes and behaviors as well as to tell how it affects their personality development and performances by giving samples. the most important findings of the research have evidenced that teachers’ positive attitudes have positively influenced students’ personality as well as their live performances. based on these findings, teachers’ role in lifespan education as beyond a simple knowledge transformation is discussed (ulug, ozden, & eryilmaz, 2011). in indonesia, the research on how teachers comprehend and establish the positive language teaching and learning environment is applied in bogor. the research has found that the existence of positive english language teaching and learning environment are important aspects for the teachers to support the success of english learning in the classrooms setting. the situation found could be created by the influence of the teachers’ teaching style, the physical environment of the classroom, and the consideration of the use of their learners’ native language in class (putra, 2013). such issues have also been investigated in another investigation. the research is conducted to examine the contributions of leadership, supervision, and working motivation to indonesian elementary school teachers’ performance and policy recommendations. engaged by 122 teachers in jambi province, sumatra, indonesia, the findings have indicated that there is a significant contribution of leadership, supervision, and working motivation on teachers’ performance (hadiyanto et al., 2017). promoting effective language teaching classrooms is one of the teachers concerns which are for the sake of achieving success in language teaching and learning process. when such environment exists in the classroom, it is believed that the learners would be highly motivated, much more interested in participating within the classroom activities and experience more fun and challenging process of learning the language. regarding the need of establishing such environment, it will be very interesting and beneficial to research how junior high school teachers comprehend the concept of positive language to promote and establish effective language teaching classroom for the learners and the learning process. teaching languages to young learners need positive language as one of the tools to develop effective language teaching classrooms. it is convinced that classroom management has become one of the teaching skills that every teacher has to possess. thus, it is expected that classroom management in the positive environment should be developed and managed, both by the teachers and the students. methods the research basically aims to determine the degree of association between the implementation of the positive language and effective language teaching classrooms for state junior high school. the degree of association is measured quantitatively by analysing the relationship between positive language and effective language teaching classrooms. this research approach is quantitative correlational research (creswell, 2012). there are two variables of the research, positive language and effective language teaching classrooms. therefore, the research is statistically calculated the data with the product moment correlation coefficient to express the linear relationship between positive language and effective language teaching classrooms. the research design can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 research design descriptions: x: positive language y: effective language teaching classroom the correlational analysis is determined by comparing the significant value of r observed and r table; when the r observed is higher than r table. it means there is a significant correlation between the positive language and the effective language teaching classrooms, and on the contrary. the instruments used in this research are students’ and teachers’ questionnaires. one participant is given two measures of questionnaires which are related to positive language and effective language teaching classroom. the questionnaires are administered at one point in time during the research. the questionnaire consists of the open-ended questionnaire for teachers and close-ended questionnaire for students. the research is conducted in smp n 98 jakarta, located in jagakarsa district, south jakarta. the population of this research is all the 8th grade language teachers and 8th-grade students of smp n 98 jakarta, in the academic year of 2017/2018. there are four language teachers and 216 students as the population. from the population, all language teachers and 142 students are chosen purposively as the sample. the data are analyzed based on researchers’ note-taking, recording, the students’ answers, and teachers’ answers to their questionnaires. the data collection adopts the instructional steps in conducting a correlational study from creswell (2012) who identifies three important steps of investigation, namely: (1) observing, where note taking and video records are employed to students and teachers during the research. once the recordings are taken, the researchers make an implementation log for the positive language and the effective language teaching classroom formula as the feedback. (2) interviewing, where questionnaires are assigned to students and teachers at one point in time during the research. the questionnaires should cover all information about the teachers’ perceptions and students’ perceptions of the positive language in use and the effective language teaching classrooms. (3) documenting, where the data are collected from the state junior high schools that are standardized by the government. it means the potential threats can be ignored. the scores of questionnaires are collected and documented after one point in time of the research. the documented data then are being analyzed. results and discussions based on the data documentation, this research is engaged by four language teachers and 142 students of 8th grade in the academic year of 2017/2018. the teachers are comprised of two english teachers and two bahasa teachers. the english teachers are all females while the bahasa teachers are one male and one female. teachers’ age is around 50 years old ranged from 49 years old to 59 years old. the teachers’ teaching experiences are more than 10 years ranged from 17 years to 39 years. students are 244 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 241-246 comprised of four classes which are class viii-a with 35 students, class viii-b with 36 students, class viii-d with 36 students, and class viii-f with 35 students. all students are aged from 13 years old to 14 years old. for the total sample of 142 students, there are 53 male students and 89 female students. based on the results of the research data collection, the researchers conduct a descriptive analysis that performed a general data of the research. the analysis of data descriptive can be performed in table 1. table 1 students’ descriptive data no. descriptions positive language knowledge positive language in use 1 class aenglish 77 89 2 class denglish 82 93 3 class bbahasa 75 72 4 class fbahasa 77 79 from table 1, the researchers perform the general information about positive language knowledge and positive language in use for students. the data are statistically calculated and performed in percentage. it can be seen that all respondents have equal knowledge about positive language. for all students, the percentage value is higher than 70%, which is the minimum value is 75% and the maximum value is 82%. it means that students have sufficient knowledge about positive language. moreover, for positive language in use, the respondents have the high-level implementation which ranges from above 70% to more than 90%. table 1 shows that the minimum value is 72% while the maximum value is 93%. this situation means that students generally use positive language in their language learning process and daily activities in their classrooms. among the classes, the data also show that class d gets the highest percentage both for the students’ positive language knowledge and positive language in use. meanwhile, class b gets the lowest percentage both for students’ positive language knowledge and in use. thus, it can be said that the sufficient knowledge of the positive language that the students have, the better a positive language in use in their classrooms can be established. the situation is not promoted as a single action by the students but also supported by the teachers’ conditions, both in teachers’ positive language knowledge and in use. four language teachers are divided into english teachers and bahasa teachers, the descriptions of the data can be seen in table 2. table 2 shows that all of the teachers have sufficient knowledge on positive language ranged from 76% to 88%, and they can apply the knowledge on positive language in use satisfactorily ranged from 80% to 90%. among four language teachers, the teacher in class d has the strongest knowledge of the positive language with the percentage of 88% while the teacher in class f has the weakest knowledge of the positive language with the percentage of 76%. in the implementation of positive language in use, a very interesting situation appears. the teacher in class f with the lowest percentage of the knowledge has a better value of positive language in use, much better than the teacher in class a. with the percentage of 76%, the teacher in class f can implement the knowledge into the positive language in use of 85%. oppositely, the teacher in class a that has much stronger knowledge of the positive language of 82% can implement the positive language in use of only 80%. meanwhile, the teachers in class d and b have an equal percentage for the implementation of positive language in use which is 90%. it can be said that both teachers effectively build the positive language teaching classrooms. table 2 teachers’ descriptive data no. teachers positive language knowledge positive language in use 1 class a-english 82 80 2 class d-english 88 90 3 class b-bahasa 82 90 4 class f-bahasa 76 85 according to the research findings, moreover, the researchers conduct the correlational analysis to determine the significant correlation between the variables; which are the positive language knowledge and in use that promoting the effective language teaching classrooms. the data show a very interesting correlation coefficient value between positive language in use and the effective language teaching classrooms. the correlation coefficient value in each class can be seen in table 3. table 3 significant correlation class n rxy rtable viii-a english 35 0,345 0,334 viii-d english 36 0,167 0,329 viii-b bahasa 36 0,161 0,329 viii-f bahasa 35 0,113 0,334 table 3 shows that all classes have a positive correlation coefficient value. this result indicates that as variable if one increases, the other variable increases too. in this case, the correlation shows that as the positive language in use increases, the effective language teaching classrooms increases too. though, table 3 shows explicitly that only one class gets the moderate correlation which is class viii-a; while another three classes get weak correlation value, which are class viii-d, viii-b, and viii-f. based on the research hypothesis, when the r research is higher than r table, it can be said that there is a significant correlation between the variables. thus, it can be seen that the significant correlation only takes place in class viii-a. it means that there is a significant correlation between the positive language and the effective language teaching classrooms in class viii-a; while in other classes there is no significant correlation. the correlational analysis clearly shows that even the teacher in class a has the lowest percentage of positive language in use, the effective language teaching classrooms can be established. based on the researchers’ note-taking during the observation and the result data of the students’ 245implementation of positive language... (amrina rosyada et al.) questionnaire, the moderate correlation value in class viii-a is not dominantly performed based on positive language from the teacher. many other variables promote the effective language teaching classrooms. comprehensively, students indicate several variables in promoting effective language learning classrooms. among the variables, students prefer to have good learning material as the dominant variable to establish the effective language teaching classrooms. in orderly, the variables are learning the material, teacher’s language, classroom environment, teaching aids, and the teacher’s personality. the statistical data of the effective language teaching classroom variables can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 effective teaching factors the effective teaching factors are arranged in high to low contribution as showed in figure 2, namely; learning material, teacher’s language, classroom environment, teaching aids, and teacher’s personality. the results show 23,01% for learning material, 21,24% for teacher’s language, 19,47% for classroom environment, 18,58% for teaching aids, and 17,70% for teacher’s personality. the research shows some similarities to the previous researches. this current research results in 23,01% of learning material and 21,24% of teachers’ language. it means that students prefer teachers with sufficient learning material rather than the teacher’s language. it is parallel to the results of students in korea who perceived knowledgebased teacher education for their current and prospective english teachers. moreover, the current results also put teacher’s language and classroom environment as the second and the third main contributions of the effective learning classrooms. this is similar to the research in californians’ students, usa. both pieces of research agree that effective language teaching classrooms can be established by the contributions of the positive language environment. meanwhile, another result of this research shows that only 17,70% of teachers’ personality affects the language teaching classrooms. contrary, the previous research in turkey finds that teachers’ positive attitudes have positively influenced students’ personality as well as their live performances. with the results, the process of teaching languages to young learners needs positive language as one of the tools to develop effective language teaching classrooms. it is convinced that classroom management has become one of the teaching skills that every teacher has to possess. thus, it is expected that classroom management in the positive environment should be developed and managed, both by the teachers and the students. though, the presence of the advanced technology and information, positive language has its own contribution to the learning process. positive language at its place after the learning material still gives positive correlation to the effective language teaching classrooms. this situation means that classes with the higher positive language in use have the higher effective language teaching classrooms. both teachers and students have the responsibility and significant contribution to establish the effective language teaching classrooms. it is not only from teachers to student and students to teachers but also among teachers and among students itself. the more students and teachers use the positive language in the language teaching classrooms, the more effective language teaching classrooms can be established. with these descriptions, it is clearly proved that the effective language teaching classrooms can be supported by many tools. one of the most important tools is the use of positive language, both by the teachers and the students. based on the result data and the hypothesis analysis, it can be said that the effective language teaching classrooms are promoted by positive language as the main tool and supported by other tools. conclusions from the hypothesis test and the discussion of the findings, the positive language in use is proved to be effective in promoting positive language teaching classrooms in state junior high school. it can be seen from the results of the hypothesis analysis which define the significant correlation between the score of positive language in use and effective language teaching classrooms criteria, whether it is in moderate or low correlation value indeed, there are other variables that influence the effective language teaching classrooms, such as teacher’s personality, learning material, teaching aids, and classroom environment. it can be said that the effective language teaching classrooms is promoted by positive language and many variables or tools. it means that classes with the higher positive language in use have the higher effective language teaching classrooms. both teachers and students have significant contributions to the effective language teaching classrooms. it is a wonder that the student-teacher contributions significantly promote the effectiveness of language teaching classrooms, in parallel. the research needs another instrument and deep analysis for this matter. since the research has a limitation in time allotment, it is determined to continue the research on student-teacher parallelism in promoting effective language teaching classrooms. moreover, the research is furtherly set to be a parallel contribution of school and home environment in establishing students’ positive performances. the final conclusion can be said that beyond the presence of advanced technology and information, teachers and students have their own important contributions to the learning process. teachers and students need variable tools to establish the effective teaching classrooms. one of the important tools is positive language that they have to preserve positive language as their identity, as part of their classrooms culture. the more students and teachers use the positive language in the language teaching classrooms, the more effective language teaching classrooms can be achieved. in this way, the final outcome of the learning process that is the best performance of the students can be achieved. 246 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 241-246 references caldarella, p., shatzer, r. h., gray, k. m., young, k. r., & young, e. l. (2011). the effects of school-wide positive behavior support on middle school climate and student outcomes. research in middle level education, 35(4), 1–14. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed). boston: pearson education, inc. denton, p. (2013). the power of our words: teacher language that helps children learn (responsive classroom) (2nd ed). usa: center for responsive schools, inc. hadiyanto., mukminin, a., failasofah., arif, n., fajaryani, n., & habibi, a. (2017). in search of quality student teachers in a digital era: reframing the practices of soft skills in teacher education. turkish online journal of educational technology, 16(3), 70–77. retrieved from http://www.scop5us.com/inward/ record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85025076916&partnerid=40 &md5=857f958bc2754cd7970db5dc59bb39c2. inceçay, g. (2010). the role of teacher talk in young learners’ language process. in procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2(2), 277–281. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.010. park, g., & lee, h. (2006). the characteristics of effective english teachers as perceived by high school teachers and students in korea. asia pacific education review, 7(2), 236–248. http://doi.org/10.1007/bf03031547. putra, j. r. (2013). creating a positive english language teaching and learning environment in eyl classroom setting. retrieved on march 23rd 2017 from http://eprints.umk.ac.id/340/28/proceeding_ teylin_2.224-267.pdf . sieberer-nagler, k. (2015). effective classroommanagement and positive teaching. english language teaching, 9(1), 163-172. http://doi. org/10.5539/elt.v9n1p163. téllez, k., & manthey, g. (2015). teachers’ perceptions of effective school-wide programs and strategies for english language learners. learning environments research, 18(1), 111–127. http://doi.org/10.1007/ s10984-015-9173-6. ulug, m., ozden, m.s., & eryilmaz, a. (2011). the effects of teachers’ attitudes on students’ personality and performance. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 30, 738–742. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2011.10.144. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 45 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 45-52 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.2113 teachers’ understanding of formative assessment mohammad arsyad arrafii1; baiq sumarni2 1,2departement of english language education, faculty of education for language and arts, ikip mataram jln. pemuda no.59a, mataram, nusa tenggara barat 83125, indonesia 1moh_arrafi@yahoo.com; 2meniq84@yahoo.com received: 01st august 2017/ revised: 28th september 2017/ accepted: 07th october 2017 how to cite: arrafi, m. a., & sumarni, b. (2018). teachers’ understanding of formative assessment. lingua cultura, 12(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.2113 abstract the research explored teachers’ understanding of formative assessment in the secondary school level, particularly in the context of english teaching and examined factors related to the teacher assessment in the literacy level. to achieve the intended purposes, a self-designed instrument named teacher formative assessment literacy questionnaire (tfaltq) was emploted. cronbach alpha measured the internal consistency of items that measuring the latent constructs were adequately accepted (α= 0,67), and exploratory the factor analysis using rotation matric revealed a robust factor loading of the variance explained with kmo statistic of 0,72. the questionnaire was distributed to all english teachers who taught in the secondary high school in central lombok. there were 243 teachers from public and private high schools were participated in the study. the participants came from both public school and religious school, regardless of their school types and level. using the case of 243 english teachers, the analysis reveals that the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment is inadequate and that four dimensions of teachers’ formative assessment literacy and understanding are revealed. these include an assessment to serve the accountability purpose, examination/test driven learning, the procedural approach to learning and assessment, and the receptive role of students. the multiple hierarchical regression analysis is performed to identify athe factors that are influencing the teachers’ formative assessment literacy. the analysis suggests that the teachers have a poor understanding of formative assessment, insufficient training in assessment and gender is a strong predictors of teachers understanding of formative assessment. keywords: formative assessment, assessment literacy, secondary school teachers, english lesson introduction the role of assessment as a part of teaching and learning is essential to gather reliable information for teachers. it draws the informed judgments about the learner progress against the task criteria as well as to provide the feedback for both teachers about how they teach and the students about how they learn. the assessment also allows teachers to make decisions about further stages of teaching and learning process. to be effective, assessment should be designed and developed based on the principles of effective assessment practices. developing effective assessment involves several steps, including identifying the learning goals and targets, planning how to assess, writing good quality items, using marking practices, and selecting an assessment forms (nitko & brookhart, 2011). selecting a form of assessment should be based on their impact on expected student’s learning outcomes, feasibility, validity, and reliability. the classroom assessment cannot be separated from its improvement purposes. it is used to gather information about students’ learning through collecting evidence of their performance and use this evidence for quality improvement. such assessment with the purpose of providing feedback to student learning as well as to teachers’ teaching performance is best known as formative assessment. research has indicated that the use of formative assessment as the classroom assessment is beneficial to improve students’ academic performance (black & wiliam, 1998). it is also considered that formative assessment is an alternative solution for meaningful instruction which is likely able to improve the quality of the education. however, in the indonesian context, the formative assessment seems to have a peripheral rule in assessing the students’ performance. instead, the summative assessment seems to dominate the assessment practices in the classroom. in primary and secondary education level, a large stakes assessment takes dominant rule for assessing the student learning. arrafii and suhaili (2015) have indicated that the common practice of assessing the students’ learning in indonesian secondary classroom is mainly summative. in these regards, despite its beneficial effects on learning, the formative assessment also encounters some barriers for the application (oecd, 2005). the literature 46 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 45-52 argues that heavy workloads for the teachers’ for applying the formative assessment are one of the barriers, especially when it is applied in the large classroom size which is commonly found in indonesian classroom. at the same time, the students from the indonesian perspective, they are required by the education system to be prepared for the national examination. thus, instead of giving the attention to achieve intended learning goals described in the curriculum and syllabus, the teaching and learning process emphasizes on testing the preparation in which the teachers are busy preparing strategies to help the students to answer and pass the national examination. this also may impede the teachers from using the formative assessment. in addition, the teachers’ understanding about formative assessment may be insufficient which prevents them implementing the formative assessment in the classroom (bennet, 2011; arrafii & suhaili, 2015). until recently, little is known about the teachers’ literacy level and practice of formative assessment in the secondary school, particularly in central lombok. arrafii and suhaili’s (2015) qualitative study indicates that the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment is inadequate. however, this finding could not be generalized to the larger population due to the nature of qualitative research design. for this reason, the quantitative research to uncover and generalize the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment with representative teacher sample in the central lombok is urgently needed. the purposes of this research are to find out whether tfalq serves as a useful instrument for evaluating in-service teachers’ formative assessment literacy in indonesia, particularly in central lombok. it aims to investigate the teachers’ literacy of formative assessment, and to find out the factors that related to teachers’ literacy of formative assessment. defining the formative assessment can be broadly defined as a form of assessment that focuses on the process of learning for improvement of the students’ performance. however, until recently, the definition of formative assessment is still vague, and there is no consensus as to what the term of formative assessment means. very often, the formative assessment may be understood to have similar ideas to diagnostic the assessment. however, some of the authors consider these two assessments as two separate practices (nitko & brookharts, 2011) with different purposes. while the diagnostic assessment is designed before the instruction and merely for the sake of planning instruction, the formative assessment seeks an understanding of the status of the learning with the purpose of identifying next steps for the improvement (assessment reform group, 2010). black and wiliam (1998) have defined the formative assessment as, “all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged”. black and wiliam (1998) have highlighted the power of assessment to provide feedback, the importance of the social context of learning, and some issues related to the distinction between the formative and summative purpose of assessment. they also find the beneficial effects of the formative assessment towards the student learning have been well documented in the literature. however, hattie and jaeger (1998) have criticized black and wiliam’s review because their position strongly supported the importance of assessment and feedback for teaching while neglecting the learning. hattie (2005) has suggested the assessment is about teaching as much as it is about learning. for formative assessment to deliver its promise, feedback must relate to how the students learn. according to hattie (2005), a comprehensive theory of formative assessment must include a theory of learning because it is not necessarily for the learner who has a problem. it may include the teacher or teaching methods that need remediation. whereas, popham (2008) has defined the formative assessment as, “a planned process during which the teacher or students use the assessment-based on the evidence to adjust ongoing learning and instruction”. further, hattie and jaeger (1998) have proposed five postulates of formative assessment. the first assessment is the achievement enhanced to the extent that teachers’ set challenging goals relative to the present student competencies. the second assessment is the achievement enhanced through feedback (of certain types). the third assessment is the achievement enhanced if students are taught to accept feedback to verify, rather than enhance, their sense of self-efficacy. the fourth assessment is the achievement enhanced to the extent that teachers become more automatics in key teaching competencies, so spend more time on feedback. the fifth assessment is the achievement enhanced by re-conceptualizing existing information as well as acquiring new information. this explicitly states that the formative assessment should include the goal setting (and standards), assessment design, performance evaluation (against standards), informative feedback, and the action of both teachers’ (and possibly peers). for an assessment to be formative, it requires feedback which indicates the existence of a gap between the actual level of work being assessed and the required standard (taras, 2005). responding to the critics, black and wiliam (2009) have revisited a theory of formative assessment. they argue that practice in a classroom is formative to the extent that the evidence about student achievement is elicited, interpreted, and used by the teachers and learners or their peers to make decisions about the next steps in the instruction. they also refer to the classroom practices as being formative or not only if they are intended to provide feedback. if a so-called formative assessment activity is not used to provide feedback, it is hardly formative. however, feedback should be understood at the same circumstance by both teachers’. otherwise, the feedback remains worthless for learning. for this reason, black and william (2009) have identified the need for communication between teacher and student about the interpretation, the feedback given to the students, and the next step because the feedback could not be formative unless it is understood. in addition, peer as an element of formative practices could be necessarily involved (black & william, 2009). based on the cases studies, the research related to formative assessment, oecd (2005) has identified the six key elements of formative assessment. it includes the establishment of a classroom culture that encourages interaction and the use of assessment tools, the establishment of learning goals and tracking of individual student progress toward those goals, the use of varied instruction methods to meet diverse student needs, the use of varied approaches to assessing student understanding, the feedback on student performance and adaptation of instruction to meet identified needs, and the active involvement of students in the learning process. meanwhile, bennet (2011) has proposed two ideas for the meaningful definition of formative assessment. he asserts that the formative assessment should have a theory of 47teachers’ understanding .... (mohammad arsyad arrafii; baiq sumarni) action and a concrete instantiation. theory of action should specify the entities of formative assessment, including the characteristics and components that provide rationales for each characteristic and components. it should also hint the synergy of both entities to work together to produce the intended learning outcomes (bennet, 2010). meanwhile, the concrete of instantiation illustrates how the formative assessment works in a real setting and how it reflects the theory. as part of this idea, bennet (2011) has presented “keep learning on track” (klt or ets) program as an adequate example of the theory of action and concrete instantiation of formative assessment. the theory of action of klt is based on one big idea and five key strategies. the big idea is teachers use evidence to adapt teaching and learning to meet immediate learning needs minute-by-minute and day by day (ets, 2010). the five keys strategy are sharing learning expectation (i.e., clarifying and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success), questioning (i.e., engineering effective classroom discussions, questions and learning tasks that elicit evidence of learning), feedback, selfassessment (i.e., activating students as ownership of their own learning), and peer assessment (i.e., activating students as instructional resources for one another). this theory of action and instantiation can guide the teacher to implement formative assessment in the classroom and meet the beneficial effect of formative assessment on student learning (bennet, 2011). assessment development should consider the principles of effective assessment. the principles of assessment include a variety of principles which classified and described in many ways depending on the frame of reference that used. according to linn & miller (2005), to be effective, there are five general principles of assessment to be taken into consideration; the first principle is that clear specification of what to be assessed (learning targets) in the assessment process. this principle requires a specific description of the characteristics of learning targets to be assessed should be in advance before the selection or development of the assessment procedures. learning targets could be a basic cognitive process dimension of revised bloom’s taxonomy; remember and understand or higher cognitive dimensions such as evaluate and create or both. the second principle is an assessment method that should be selected because of its relevance to the characteristics or performance to be measured. frequently, the assessment methods are selected based on their objectivity, accuracy, or convenience. however, the assessment methods are appropriate for some user and inappropriate for the others. in assessing the student achievement, it is necessary to match the desired learning goals and the types of assessment method that is used. when a teacher is eager to find the students’ ability to develop and organize ideas and write a well-integrated composition as learning goals, the multiple-choice test would be a poor choice, and another form such as essay writing would be better one. the third principle is that the comprehensive assessment requires a variety of the assessment method. this principle indicates that none of the single types of assessment can test a vast array of learning and development outcomes. the achievement tests such as multiple choice and short answer test are useful to measure the knowledge, understanding, and application outcomes, but essay tests and other written projects are more appropriate to assess the capability to express ideas and organize them. the quality assessment uses several different tasks, such as samples of writing, student retelling, records of independent reading, self-evaluations, and checklists. in making these choices, the teacher should have a trust on his/her own intuition based on the knowledge and observations of the students. besides, the formal types of assessments which have proclaimed their validity and reliability using various statistical procedures, the use of informal assessment such as questioning, studentteacher dialogues, and teacher observations is essential. the fourth principle is that the proper use of assessment methods requires the awareness of their limitation. this principle indicates that every assessment procedure from a well-developed measurement instrument, such as the standardized achievement test, to rather some crude assessment devices, self-report technique, the subject to various types of measurement errors. however, a keen awareness of assessment instruments makes it possible to use them effectively than the cruder instrument. the greater its limitation, the more caution it is required in its use. the last principle is that the assessment is a means to an end, not an end itself. this principle emphasizes the role of assessment as a process of obtaining the evidence and information about the instructional decisions that are made on, not as the purpose itself. from the assessment principles discussed, it can be drawn some of the characteristics of quality assessment, such as clear learning targets and appropriate assessment methods, which are useful to involve when constructing the high-quality assessment. stiggins (1995) has listed some of the requirements for quality assessment. he also believes that a high-quality assessment should have some clear targets. when designing the assessment task, the teacher should determine the clear targets of assessment, includes specific competence and capability that should be demonstrated by the students. teachers should understand what they are assessing whether the skills, knowledge, product, or reasoning. they also should set the focus purposes of assessment that they construct. in addition, a quality assessment should have proper methods to examine student achievement. the different learning targets request different assessment method. besides that, the assessment should include sound samplings that allow the teacher generates the confident inferences about how the respondents would have given all the possible exercises. finally, the accurate assessment is free to bias and distortion. similarly, butler and mcmunn (2006) have proposed the quality assessment should include clear purposes of assessment tasks which are generally divided into three; summative, formative, and diagnostic purposes. however, airasian (2001) have argued that among the characteristics of quality assessment mentioned, the most important quality of assessment is whether it is valid and reliable. assessment validity refers to whether the information being gathered by assessment tasks is relevant to the decision that needs to be made. without validity, the assessment data would not lead to the correct decision. assessment reliability indicates the consistency of assessment information gathered by the assessment tasks. inconsistent information does not help the teacher to make decisions (linn & miller, 2005). nevertheless, moss (2003) has warned that a single assessment does not reflect the holistic picture of the student performance, even though the level of the assessment validity and reliability seem to be strong. there is a need to consider several different means of assessment to enhance the appropriateness of the decisions that are made. further, linn & miller (2005) have suggested some 48 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 45-52 considerations in preparing the relevant assessment tasks. their suggestions include matching between the tasks and desired outcomes, gaining a representative sample of tasks, exclude irrelevant barriers to the performance, and avoiding unintended clues in the objective test items. in addition, to its validity and reliability, selecting the assessment method should be based on the kinds of performance to be assessed, whether it is designed to assess knowledge, reasoning, skills, products, and dispositions (butler & mcmunn, 2006). these five areas need different types of assessment methods. when the intention is to assess knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving, then selected response test items can be used to test the student mastery of subject matter knowledge (stiggins, 1995). the selected response tests the items that include multiple-choice, true-false, matching, and fill-in test items. if the teacher wants to assess their skills, they could use a performance method of assessment. nitko and brookhart (2011) have differed 10 types of performance assessment, namely structured, on-demand tasks, paperpencil tasks, tasks requiring other equipment and resources, demonstration, typical performance tasks, long-term project, individual and combining group project, experiments, oral presentations and dramatizations, and simulations. the research has indicated that there are some factors that are affecting teachers’ assessment literacy, such as gender and major, education and assessment training, and teaching experience (mertler, 2004). alkharusi (2011) has found that measurement and testing knowledge of preservice teachers’ assessment literacy tend to vary according to the gender and major. the research has reported that the male teachers tend to have a higher level of measurement and testing knowledge than the female teachers. and those pre-service teachers specializing in areas such as english language, math, and science, tend to possess a higher level of measurement and testing knowledge than those who are specializing in performance areas such as art education and physical education. the assessment training and teaching experience are also considered as important factors that influencing teacher’ assessment literacy. when comparing the assessment literacy of pre-service and in-service teachers, the studies indicate that the assessment literacy level of pre-service teachers tends to be lower than the in-service teachers (mertler, 2004). meanwhile, the assessment training is considered to have the positive impact on the teachers’ feeling regarding assessment and confidence in using assessment. it is indicated by the teacher performance on a post-test is on average higher than their performance on the pre-test (mertler, 2009). other factors which may influence the teachers’ assessment literacy include the school resources, socio-economic status, and education level. although, the former studies that are addressing these assume that the factors are scarcely available. these related factors are considered important and may influence the teachers’ assessment literacy. therefore, they are included in the research. the massive research studies have been conducted to address the issues in formative assessment. most of the researchers have focused on the impact of formative assessment on the students’ learning. however, little has been conducted to investigate the teachers’ knowledge and practice of formative assessment. work of crossouard, pryor, and torrance (2004), keen (2005), wylie and lyon (2015), and knight (2003) are few exceptions. crossouard, pryor, and torrance (2004) have found that the participants in their research and the educators as the students in an educational doctorate program has little theoretical understanding of formative assessment, which may affect their ability to promote learning in their students. however, this study is not intended to investigate the teachers’ knowledge about formative assessment; rather it seeks the teachers that live in experience with formative assessment and has been conducted at the higher education level. the research on the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment has documented that many of the teachers do not understand the formative assessment comprehensively after investigating the english trainee students’ understanding the formative assessment in the writing development topic. keen (2005) has concluded that trainees of english teaching have lack ability to identify the strengths, achievements, and shortcomings in the students’ writing. their assessment also lacks the accuracy which avoids them being able to suggest the directions for students’ writing development and to inform their own planning and teaching. similarly, knight (2003) has reported that the teachers in two primary schools in new zealand are unclear about what constitutes and the effective formative assessment, especially to the effective feedback. they struggle to define effective feedback with any details. moreover, as part of formative assessment, the feedback gains adequate attention. research on students’ perception of effective feedback often finds the students that do not think the feedback is important for their learning. duncan (2007) has claimed that the students do not pay attention nor make sense to their teacher feedbacks and comments. one of the reason is they might not understand the purposes of the feedback process. in addition, it is well documented in the literature that the teachers see the feedback as disintegrated part of learning process and is considered as a teacher that owned endeavor (taras, 2005). from the teachers’ perspective, hattie and timperley (2007) have assumed that many of the teachers tend to focus on the correctional aspects rather than the instructional aspects of feedback. in the indonesian context where this research is conducted, to extend to the writers’ knowledge, the issue of the teachers’ formative literacy assessment remains largely unexplored. methods the researchers have administered the questionnaire to all english teachers who teach in the secondary high school in central lombok. there are 243 teachers from public and private high schools in central lombok that are participated in the study. the participants come from both public school and religious school, regardless of their school types and level. the research employs the survey design. according to creswell (2011), the survey design is a procedure in quantitative research by which the investigators administer a survey to a sample or to an entire population of people to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors or characteristics of the population. particularly, the research uses the crosssectional survey design by which the investigators collect the data at one point in time. the main instrument that is used to collect the data is the teacher formative assessment literacy questionnaire (tfalq) which is self-designed and developed by the team of the researchers. the questionnaire is intended to measure the teachers’ knowledge and understanding of the basic principles of the formative classroom assessment practices. 49teachers’ understanding .... (mohammad arsyad arrafii; baiq sumarni) it consists of 29 items with four options of response that reflects the extent to which teachers understand formative assessment. the items are scored from 1-4 with a high total score reflects the advanced understanding of formative assessment literacy. the design and development of tfalq are informed by several assessment theories underpinning formative assessment. these include the distinction between the assessment of learning and assessment for learning, the performance versus mastery learning goal orientation (watkins et al., 2000). the notions of convergent and divergent approaches are to assessment (torrance & pryor, 2001), assessment of learning strategies and practices (black & wiliam, 2009; assessment reform group, 2010). table 1 provides a sample of items in the tfalq. table 1 the samples of items in the tfalq based on your current knowledge about assessment, to what extent do the following statements constitute formative assessment? very little little some a lot classroom questionings in formative assessment are not mainly used to elicit factual knowledge from students teachers ensure that students have shared similar understanding of learning targets with their teachers the measure of internal consistency of cronbach alpha is used to test the reliability of the instrument. meanwhile, the validity of the instrument is measured using principal component analysis (pca) with orthogonal rotation matrix on the items of the teacher assessment literacy questionnaire determined how many constructs are included in the instrument. applying these procedures are answered by the first research question. to answer the second research question, since the items in tfalq are scaled with four options that scored between 1-4 with a high total score reflects a high level of assessment literacy, the accumulation of the response gained by the teachers are used to indicate the teachers’ formative assessment literacy. to answer the third research question, the multiple linear regressions are employed. the regression analysis is a set of statistical techniques that allow one to assess the relationship between one dependent variable and several independent variables (tabachnick & fidell, 2007). further, regression analysis could suggest the evidence for which of the predicting factors exerts the most influence on the dependent variable. regression analysis in this study investigates the factors that are influencing the teachers’ formative assessment literacy at the teachers’ demographic factors such as sex, socioeconomic status, education level, teaching experience, and further assessment training. prior to the multiple regression analysis, an exploratory analysis is conducted, including the screening for missing data, means, variances, skewness, kurtosis, normality, outliers, and correlation analysis. the exploratory analysis confirms the variables that included in the regression model from those excluded. only variables with less than 5% of missing value are normally distributed, linearly related to dependent variables are included in the regression model. for the categorical variables, the categories with adequate frequency are included in the regression model. according green as cited in field (2009), to indicate the sample size for each of the nominal predictors in regression analysis, it depends on the objective of regression analysis, whether to test the overall fit of the regression model or to test the contribution the individual predictor within the model. when the objective is to test the individual predictor, which is the objective of this study. green has suggested using a minimum sample size of 104 + k, where k is the number of predictors in the regression model. if the predictors are 5, the minimum sample size would be 109. hence, the category with less than 109 cases emerges to the category that meets this rule of thumb. further, the correlation analysis is conducted to ensure that the continuous variables correlate with the dependent variable. if an independent variable correlates with the dependent variable with the minimum of r = 0,05, it will be included in the model (cohen et al., 2003). the regression analysis will suggest which factors that predicting the teachers’ assessment literacy of formative assessment and propose the strength of each factor affecting the outcome variable. results and discussions results of the research presented here derive from 243 teachers in lombok. there are 359 copies of questionnaires that are distributed to the public and private schools/madrasah in central lombok, and the researchers receive 280 returned questionnaires. after screening the questionnaire, many of them are incomplete and contained massive missing, and therefore removed for analysis. hence, only 243 cases are carried out for further analysis. the demographic characteristics of respondents are shown in table 2. the male participants and non-public servant teachers dominate to participate. from the highest education qualification group, the numbers of diploma graduates outweigh those with master degree holders. the study is conducted from august 2nd to 31st 2016. table 2 the demographic information of the participants in the study (n=243) sex occupational status qualification male female pns non-pns s1 s2 163 80 108 138 235 8 tfalq consists of 29 scale items which measure five latent constructs that related to formative assessment. these constructs and items are four items of the purposes of formative assessment, five items of sharing learning intention and criteria for success, seven items of strategic questioning and classroom dialogue, six items of feedback that bring learning forward, and seven items of self and peer assessment. based on the reliability analysis using cronbach alpha, the reliability of the scale for each construct in the tfalq is adequate. similarly, the analysis 50 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 45-52 of the instrument validity using keiser-mayor-olkin (kmo) coefficient reveals a robust factor solution for all constructs that measured, yielding six latent factors, above 1 eigenvalue. however, one factor lies on the cross point (inflection). thus, it is considered beyond the construct of tfalq that can be seen in table 3. table 3 coefficient of validity and reliability of tfalq no constructs α kmo 1 purposes of formative assessment 0,65 0,77 2 sharing learning intention and criteria for success 0,75 3 strategic questioning and classroom dialogue 0,53 4 feedback that bring learning forward 0,72 5 self and peer assessment 0,58 the analysis of dimensions of teachers’ formative assessment understanding using exploratory factor analysis (efa) reveals that tfalq has comprised of four dimensions of teachers understanding of formative assessment. these dimensions are assessment serves accountability purpose that reflected in items 2, 7, 23, 28; examination/test driven learning (items 1, 10, 16, 21); procedural approach to learning reflected in items 4, 5, 9, 11, 27; and receptive role of students revealed in items 6, 19, 25. the analysis of the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment reveals that teachers’ understanding of formative assessment is relatively poor. the mean score achieved by the teachers in the research is 47,3, out of 100 (m= 47,3, sd= 0,53). this replicates roughly similar evidence that is reported by other studies. investigating the teachers’ assessment literacy, plake, impara, and fager (1993) have concluded that teachers’ knowledge of classroom assessment is insufficient, and they are not adequately prepared to assess student learning. it shows as evidenced by only 66 percent of the correct answer provided by the teachers in assessment literacy inventory test. the mean score of the teachers’ response is 23 out of 35 items. similarly, campbell, murphy, and holt (2002)’s study that reported the pre-service teachers (m=21) average the two fewer questions answered correctly than the in-service teachers (m=23). mertler (2004) has studied the assessment literacy of both pre-service and in-service teachers, and then statistically compares the two groups. using a slightly modified version of the teacher assessment literacy questionnaire, he obtains similar results to both plake, impara, and fager (1993) and campbell, murphy, and holt (2002)’s studies. the average score for in-service teachers is equal to 22 items answered correctly. the score is quite like that obtained by plake, impara, and fager (1993) who gained the average of 23 points. an inadequate theoretical understanding of teachers about formative assessment has also been revealed by other studies by crossouard, pryor, and torrance (2004), keen (2005), and knight (2003). the low level of teachers’ literacy of formative assessment in the indonesian context may be explained by lack of further training on assessment literacy and practice. usually, the training program that is provided for secondary english teachers mainly focused on the methodological aspect of teaching with lesser attention to the assessment process and of student work or performance. for instance, english language training for madrasah english teachers in three regions of lombok; west lombok, central lombok, and mataram train in-service teachers to be able to understand and apply communicative english language teaching (eltis, 2010). the training program strongly emphasizes on didactic approaches of teaching, enhancing the teachers’ knowledge and skills of teaching methodology without strong attention on assessment. in addition, the teachers in central lombok have been settled and engaged in a long tradition of high stake evaluative system of assessment which drives their current knowledge and understanding of assessment. their knowledge of assessment is within the boundaries of summative assessment rather than the formative assessment. in other words, formative assessment is beyond the black box (black & wiliam, 1998) of teachers’ classroom assessment practice. it is likely that the teachers may have an implicit understanding of formative assessment. they are still far legging in the theoretical concept of formative assessment because of the existing tradition or culture of high stake summative testing. table 4 illustrates the factors that may influence the teachers’ formative assessment literacy. it is shown that in the model 1, the gender has been proven to be a significant factor that is predicting formative assessment literacy. the female teachers are more likely to have a better understanding of formative assessment than male teachers do. however, the other two predictors in the model 1 (occupational status as being public servant/pns or nonpns and education qualification as being either diploma/s1 or master degree/s2 graduates) do not significantly predict the teachers’ understanding of formative assessment. this may be explained by the fact that the teachers’ exposure on the assessment during their candidature of the teacher in the tertiary education level and the master degree training does not provide sufficient training on assessment. most universities and teacher training institutes teach the only single subject that related to the assessment which is offered in two hours in a weekly meeting. for instance, english department students are required to complete a single language testing module during their academic years. moreover, this module strongly focuses on testing and statistical calculation rather than on the teaching and learning improvement aspect of assessment. however, in the model 2, none of the demographic predictors are proven to have a significant impact on teachers’ formative assessment literacy. whereas, the other factor, such as professional training on assessment, is the significant predictor. it has suggested that the significant effect of the gender is probably mediated by the professional training. the teachers who are reported to receive further professional training on assessment are more likely to outperform those who are reported to have a lack of professional training regardless of their gender. it is therefore recommended that the professional training on the assessment should be integrated into formal education and the assessment that focused on training should be widely offered for in-service teachers across indonesia. 51teachers’ understanding .... (mohammad arsyad arrafii; baiq sumarni) table 4 the results of hierarchical regression analysis of teachers’ demographic factors on formative assessment literacy predictors model 1 model 2 β β sig β β female (male as reference) 0,31 0,13 0,03 0,03 0,01 non pns (pns as reference) -0,09 -0,04 0,09 -0,47 -0,22 s2 (s1 as reference) 0,12 0,05 0,69 0,60 0,27 professional training 0,40 0,02 r2 for model 1 = 3,3% r2 for model 2 = 18,9%; sig at α = 0,05 conclusions tfaltq which has been validated with 243 english teachers in lombok, has been used to obtain the data about secondary high school teachers’ understanding of the formative assessment. the analysis of the survey data has revealed four dimensions of teachers’ formative assessment literacy and understanding. these include the assessment that serves an accountability purpose, examination or test-driven learning, procedural approach to learning and assessment, and receptive role of students. in addition, the research has identified some related factors that influencing the teachers’ formative assessment literacy and the analysis suggests that the teachers have poor understanding of formative assessment, insufficient training on assessment and gender are strong predictors of teachers understanding of formative assessment. the research has recommended that a further professional training program to improve in-service teacher theoretical understanding of formative assessment needs to be urgently conducted. and the teacher training institute needs to offer more assessment related to the courses, addressing issues on formative assessment literacy and practices, and providing more time allocated for such courses. references airasian, p. w. 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(1995). assessment literacy for 21st century. phil delta kappan, 77(3), 238-245. tabachnick, b. g., & fidell, l. s. (2007). using multivariate statistics. boston: allyn & bacon. taras, m. (2005). assessment, summative and formative: some theoretical reflections. british journal of educational studies, 53(4), 466–78. torrance, h., & pryor, j. (2001). developing formative assessment in the classroom: using action research to explore and modify theory. british educational research journal, 27(5), 615-631. watkins, c., carnell, e., lodge, l., wagner, p., & whalley, c. (2000) learning about learning. london: routledge. wylie, e. c., & lyon, c. j. (2015). the fidelity of formative assessment implementation: issues of breadth and quality. assessment in education: principles, policy & practice, 22(1), 140-160. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 317 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 317-321 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4159 parmi (production, attention, retention, motivation, and innovation): an alternative to improving scientific writing skills indrya mulyaningsih1; sarwiji suwandi2; budhi setiawan3; mohammad rohmadi4 1jurusan tardris bahasa indonesia, fakultas ilmu tarbiyah dan keguruan, iain syekh nurjati jl. perjuangan by pass sunyaragi, cirebon 45131, indonesia 2,3,4prodi pendidikan bahasa indonesia, program pascasarjana, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, jebres, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1indrya.m@gmail.com; 2sarwijiswan@uns.ac.id; 3buset.74@gmail.com; 4rohmadi_dbe@yahoo.com received: 02nd march 2018 /revised: 13th march 2018 /accepted: 04th april 2018 how to cite: mulyaningsih, i., suwandi, s., setiawan, b., & rohmadi, m. (2018). parmi (production, attention, retention, motivation, and innovation): an alternative to improving scientific writing skills. lingua cultura, 12(4), 317-321. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4159 abstract this research aimed to describe the development of scientific writing model based on parmi. the stages included: creating prototypes; and developing models through four stages, focus group discussions, experts’ considerations, limited trials, and extensive trials. the research involved students and lecturers from staib (islamic bunga bangsa institute), staic (islamic institute of cirebon), staima (islamic institute of ma’had ali), and isif (fahmina institute of islamic studies) between july and december 2014. in these model included a philosophical foundation, either a concept or a principal; its application; and its effects. it finds that based on expert judgment, this model is feasible to be developed and piloted. the results of the limited trials provide some improvement, especially on the application of parmi. based on the results of extensive trials it can be concluded that parmi can improve students’ ability in scientific writing. keywords: parmi, scientific writing, writing skills introduction the success of scientific writing research involves several factors such as learners, teachers, learning models, and learning evaluations. without learning models, it is hard to build, improve, and develop students’ scientific writing skills. therefore, a parmi-based learning model (production, attention, retention, motivation, and innovation) is expected to solve students’ problem in scientific writing. as an acronym, parmi is expected to facilitate learning. as a combination of bandura’s social learning and its innovation, it emphasizes students’ attention, motivation, production, and retention (bandura, 1989). these four components have a big share in learning to write scientifically. writing is a manifestation of innovation and creativity. the more a person is creative, the greater his or her innovative attitude will be in developing and improving scientific writing skills. bandura’s research provides an overview of (1) modeling that serves to acquire new behaviors; (2) to prove the separation between learning and performance; (3) the importance of learners’ perceptions of the learning environment; (4) the existence of an exemplary person or model; and (5) the learner has expectations of behavior change (denler, wolters, & benzon, 2009). bandura modeling principle is observational learning or modeling. someone in learning always begins by observing the object or model observation. in the observation, there are four components that are very important, namely attention, retention, production, and motivation (salkind, 2009). learners should have attention to the material or object to be learned. retention refers to the process necessary to reduce and change what is observed in symbolic forms that can be stored for later use. the production process is required when the learner draws on the stored code and seeks to do what has been observed. motivation is the key to understanding why learners are involved in previous sub processes. one’s success in writing (lo & hyland, 2007) and speaking (alemi & daftarifard, 2010) are closely connected to the motivation of students and lecturers. motivation can come from within and from outside (nilsen, 2009). one of the motivation to learn because the language is used in everyday life (lucas et al., 2010). so, lecturers should be able to find, understand, and pay attention to student’s learning motivation (mahadi & jafari, 2012). to get success in writing, it can be done by the 318 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 317-321 redesign of learning (hasegawa, 2013). there can be in the form of curriculum development in universities to maximize memory and students’ skills (kellogg, 2008). learning should involve the learner actively. in addition, learners need to be motivated to practice the knowledge of writing that they already have (giridharan & robson, 2011). scientific writing is a way of expressing ideas necessary to think (suyanto & sutinah, 2011) because to write is a part of critical thinking skills (bair & mader, 2013). the characteristics of critical thinking, among other things, are to find the right and reliable information and sources (munandar, 2011) that focus on various aspects (sutrisno, 2012). the form of scientific papers can be papers, reviews, activity reports, and proposals (kalidjernih, 2011). the scientific paper must contain universally accepted truths, in terms of country, language, and culture (mart, 2012). during this time, learners tend only to pay attention to the content and ignore the aspects of writing in writing scientific papers (muqowim, 2011). parmi is the development of social learning theory. bandura theory mentions four components, namely attention, retention, production, and motivation. this research adds one component that is innovation (sharples et al., 2013). innovation is one manifestation of creativity. the more a person is creative, the greater his or her innovative attitude. in order to facilitate the mention of the five components are then synchronized to parmi. events previously experienced or observed by a child may affect behavior and attitudes. strengthening the model shown by the social environment is very influential on the learner. people basically behave not just to adapt to others, but because of the motivation and reaction to their own actions associated with self-assessment (bandura & cervone, 1986). this research aims at developing the conceptual framework of a parmi-based learning model, as follows: (1) the philosophical foundation underlying a parmi-based learning model, both conceptual and principal; (2) steps of a parmi-based learning model; and (3) the impact of a parmi-based learning model. methods the research activity is based on the glanz’s model theory and the zuber skeritt’s model (sada & maldonado, 2007), encompassing a focused selection, data collection, analysis and interpretation of data, reflection, and modification. here are the steps involved: (1) creating the prototype of parmi based learning model; (2) piloting the parmi-based learning model covering four stages such as fgd (focus group discussion), experts’ judgment, limited trial, and extensive testing; and (3) establishing the parmibased learning model. research subjects on a limited trial are conducted to 35 students at the islamic high school of bunga bangsa (staib). research subjects on a wide-ranging trial are students from the department of islamic religious education included 25 from staima, 30 from staic, and 30 from isif. the validity of data triangulation, method, and peer-debriefing involve two experts, namely prof. andayani, m.pd. and dr. hisyam zaini, ma. data validity is also conducted in a workshop attended by lecturers of indonesian general course language, students in iain syekh nurjati cirebon, vice dean for academic affairs, and vice rector for academic affairs. a limited trial is conducted six times from september to october 2014. a broad trial is conducted in each of the seven meetings from november 2014 december 2014. results and discussions a parmi-based scientific writing model is developed through a juridical, conceptual, and empirical framework. the juridical foundation is mainly concerned with the letter of the director general of higher education (direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi, 2012). the conceptual foundation is a variety of experts’ opinions and relevant research synthesized to determine the success of learning, students’ conditions and needs as applied in the cirebon-based islamic institutes. here are the steps in developing parmi. first, the researcher accommodates the needs of lecturers, students, and stakeholders related to basic general course (mkdu) bahasa indonesia learning model in accordance with the learning objectives. second, gather ideas or ideas in the form of embryonic learning models to be designed. the third is compiling the framework of the learning model. the framework is organized so that the writing is focused on the idea that will be submitted and does not deviate to other issues that need not be discussed. fourth is fixing the concept. learning models should be written using a mature and precise concept. fifth is asking for consideration of students, lecturers, and related parties and expert’s judgment. the parmi learning model has five main components, namely production, attention, retention, motivation, and innovation. model structure of parmi-based learning model has seven stages of activities. these seven stages are (1) gathering as much information as possible about the learning problems to uphold aspects of motivation, attention, and production; (2) identifying information by focusing on aspects of retention and production; (3) choosing the most interesting information concerning the scholarship that depends on aspects of innovation, and production; (4) exploring information and facts to support data and deal with aspects of motivation, attention, retention, innovation, and production; (5) explaining the facts and data pertaining to selected problems that contain aspects of attention, retention, and production; (6) analyzing facts and data about both newly acquired and long-held knowledge that examines aspects of retention, innovation, and production; (7) summarizing the results of the analysis to support the production aspect. basically, each of these stages involves the ability of students in the indonesian language, especially the scientific barrel. the student’s knowledge of this scientific barrel is heavily dependent on his/her motivation, attention, and retention. the higher the motivation, attention, and retention they have, the better the writing is produced. the fact that sometimes students are less motivated and less heavyweight against this scientific barrel. the facts show that students are less motivated and do not apply this scientific variety and only use general language rules obtained in the previous education level. therefore, the retention aspect is indispensable. the social system of learning model of parmi requires good cooperation between lecturers and students as well as between students. lecturers assist students in fostering motivation and attention, strengthen retention, and produce creative writing. a parmi-based learning model integrates knowledge into problem-solving and students’ 319parmi... (indrya mulyaningsih et al) innovation. role of the lecturer is the motivators and facilitators who monitor every progress of students’ work. lecturers are expected to assist students in facing difficulties when they implement the technique of writing and search for referral sources. the support system of this model can be used for product-oriented courses or outcomes that focus on capabilities. a parmi has instructional impacts and companions. a parmi learning model shows (1) the growing interest in writing; (2) growing confidence in writing the ability; (3) creative; (4) producing papers and sending them to journals, both internal and external; (5) a scientific integration between the theories in the classroom and the real problems in society; and (6) a change of mindset between students and lecturers mainly connected to a lecturer’s position, which is regarded as more and more frightening. a focus group discussion (fgd) is to get input and suggestions from the lecturers of indonesian general course. the fgd is conducted on monday, july 15, 2014, in the tadris bahasa inggris room, iain syekh nurjati cirebon. the fgd is attended by representatives of indonesian general course students and lecturers in cirebon-based ptais. the prototyped aspects of parmi-based scientific writing model consist of seven aspects. first, it needs to be reviewed about individual student writing skills. parmi does many activities in groups. the existing sap lesson plan has not shown individual student activity. however, personal ability should also be noted as writing is a personal activity. group work should only be a means and not a goal. therefore, the students’ personal ability should be maximized. second, students need to be given tasks that involve reading activities, both books, and news. writing is closely related to reading habits. students now tend to be less in reading, especially reading books. if the reading or knowledge is very minimal, it is very likely that students will have difficulty in writing. the more knowledge that the students have; the easier analyze and conclude. the analysis is an activity that links various knowledge and information with existing problems. knowledge and information are expected to solve the problem. that is why it is called by the conclusion. students must be able to think critically. the ability to think critically is obtained through much reading and much information. third, students are given a place to display or show the work. basically, students want to make the work that is known and read by many people. one of these containers is a journal; local, national, and international. the existence of a journal greatly motivates students to write. therefore, students need to create a journal for writing contents that have been made. fourth is held the activities related to scientific writing. the existence of activities or competitions related to scientific writing certainly can also motivate students. especially if in the race, there are various rewards, either in the form of money, goods, certificates, and others. this, of course, will make students motivated. fifth is ensuring students’ cognitive abilities related to the rules of writing scientific papers. the lecturer should ensure the student’s ability to write scientifically. this is so that the selection of learning materials appropriate or as needed. mkdu bahasa indonesia (subject) is only once a week (100 minutes) with total learning in one semester only 14 times. this short learning time allocation will, of course, have an impact on the success of the learning objectives. the time is narrow and while there are so many materials that must be given that leads to ineffective learning. therefore, an analysis of the students’ knowledge of scientific writing is very important. sixth, the application of parmi takes a long time. based on sap lesson plan, it can be seen that students’ activities are too many. it takes a lot of time that is not enough if only given two credits. therefore, parmi needs to be considered or designed so that it can be done only one semester. seventh, it needs to be firmness of parmi activity on learning. some lecturers may have motivated students in every lesson. some lecturers have also given tasks in the form of making papers to students. however, do the lecturer’s activities include parmi? therefore, there needs to be clarity and firmness of the strategies that lecturers have done with the strategy on parmi. there are experts’ consultations or assessments that aim to get feedback, suggestions, validation, and approval. validation is obtained from the indonesian language, and literature teaching experts, prof. dr. andayani, m.pd., and learning experts at ptai, dr. hisham zaini, m.a. the given input includes the associated with sap needs to be reviewed. one component in sap, basic competence (kd) is still written with the format of learning objectives. this is because there is a difference between kd and learning objectives. kd means the minimal or basic ability that the learner should have while the learning objectives are more of the things to be achieved. in addition, there are still some indicators that are not in accordance with the basic competency. that is, the indicator given has not been referenced or leads to kd. the concept of parmi needs to be emphasized especially in learning. although in practice, the implementation of parmi is highly dependent on lecturers that would be better if given an example. examples of it can be through multiple rpp (rencana pelaksanaan pembelajaran/lesson plan). therefore, in the rpp it should be clear of its parmi steps. it is necessary to review the evaluation to find out the students’ scientific writing ability with final semester evaluation. both of these evaluations are clearly different. while parmi wants to know or aim at students’ scientific writing ability. therefore, it is necessary to evaluate which can specifically measure students’ ability in writing scientific papers. the instrument used to measure students’ writing skills is by writing papers. it is necessary to review the selection of such instruments. the object of research that related is the first semester students. first semester students still do not have scientific competence according to the department. the courses taken in the first semester are still general. therefore, the science that is associated with the department has not much and deep. this, of course, will greatly affect the contents of the paper written. it can be said a good lesson if past, intermediate, and future lessons have relevance. the learning must be sustainable and not separate between one meeting with another meeting. therefore, parmi should also bring this up. limited trials are conducted at the mathematics teacher education department (pgmt), islamic institute of bunga bangsa (staib) in cirebon for two months or eight meetings. these limited trials are (1) applies prototypes that have been adapted to the feasibility concept 320 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 317-321 of a parmi-based learning model, learning objectives, lecturers’ and students’ needs analysis; (2) evaluates prototyped implementation results; (3) corrects deficiencies during the prototyped implementation; and (4) re-applies the improved prototype in the next meeting. limited trials include implementation, evaluation, strategy improvement, and material improvements based on the previous lesson plan. during the process of implementing a prototype of parmi based scientific writing learning model, there are several advantages and disadvantages. the advantages of parmi are (1) the lecture atmosphere is different from the usual; (2) the students are directly involved in learning; (3) inter-students synergize; (4) students can learn about interview techniques; and (5) the students can prepare an interview report. there are also some shortcomings found during the implementation process of parmi-based scientific writing learning model. first, the students have difficulty determining and finding the person to be interviewed. this happens probably because students do not know the skills and knowledge of others related to the problem. all this indicates that the student does not think positive to others. students doubt the ability of others, although, in fact, everyone can argue. the truth of that opinion can be returned to the theory. the essence of this activity is positive thinking to others. this attitude is one manifestation of awareness and sensitivity to the environment. second, some members of the group do not work or do not perform the task maximally. this is because the number of group members is too many. especially male students are more silent than female students. male students rely on female students. this situation can be concluded that male students lack the motivation and responsibility in performing the task. this attitude can be because the division of labor in the group is less good and less equitable. third, the task is less clear. students do not understand the task given by lecturers. this is partly due to differences in students’ understanding of concepts, lack of knowledge of students about assigned themes, and students lack confidence in the work or the results of their writing. students tend to dare not ask to clarify the task to be done. fourth, the time provided by lecturers is too narrow. the students feel the time given by the lecturers is minimal. students have to deal with tasks, find people to interview, do the interview, and report. during this time students are not accustomed to working fast. after the implementation and evaluation of the prototype, the next step is to repair the prototype based on the shortcomings of the previous meeting. the final part of the limited trial is the paper assignment. some errors found on the job are general guide of bahasa indonesia (ejaan yang disempurnakan/eyd), sentence, numbering, themes, source information, and references. in eyd, after a limited trial of seven meetings, there are still 25 or 15% of students who make mistakes on eyd. the error is mainly in the use of capital letters, foreign word writing, and the writing of ‘di’ as a foreground. the sentences used by 31 or 19% of students are long sentences. even tend to be written in the oral variety. this results in the reader not understanding the meaning of the sentence. this long sentence has only one subject located at the beginning of the sentence. the rest is an expansion sentence that has no subject and is associated with a comma (,) or the words ‘dan’, ‘lalu’, and ‘terus’. in numbering, students still use symbols, such as; ● or ◄ for details. this is done by 18 or 11% of students. for the themes, student paper uses the theme of a general nature, i.e., 30 or 18%. the formulation of issues raise around; (a) how to learn math well? (b) what difficulties experienced when learning mathematics? (c) how to make children like to learn math? these issues are so general that the discussion is too broad or less focused. students find it difficult to find sources of information. this can be known from the existing bibliography, 29 students or 17% only contains four sources. the source does not come from books or journals, but from blogs on the internet. and the students are still wrong in writing the page in the bibliography. this error is done by 33 or 20% of students. students only write pages in the bibliography containing information sources from the internet. other identities, such as author name, publication year, and title of writing are not written down. students also do not include time information when accessing the post. the department of islamic religious education at ma’had ali islamic institute (staima), cirebon islamic institute (staic), and institute for islamic studies of fahmina (isif) carry out a wide-ranging trial of the parmibased scientific writing model. the results of extensive trials in staima cirebon show (1) limited time to discuss the materials; (2) students’ lack of reading ability; (3) the lack of campus infrastructure especially internet networking and information technology. the average value of pretest is worth up to 63,32 and posttest is worth up to 72,16. the extensive trials in staic increase the mean values of pretest (64,57) and posttest (71,46). thus, by using the parmi-based scientific writing model, students’ ability in scientific writing can be improved. extensive trials in isif cirebon show that the mean pretest score is 63,76, while the mean posttest rate is 74,43. in short, students’ score in scientific writing is improved by 14,33%. here are the t-test results using the spss 21 application. conclusions the development of a parmi-based scientific writing model has been declared feasible by experts, lecturers of indonesian general course, and students who take the mkdu bahasa indonesia. experts’ judgment of the prototype is concerned with give input about (1) basic competence specification; (2) other related indicators; (3) strict loading of parmi steps; (4) specific evaluation; (5) instruments; and (6) learning materials. parmi includes five steps, they are production, attention, retention, motivation, innovation. production is students write problem-solving in the form of paper according to the rules that apply. attention is students write scientific by observing the rules of the language of a scientific barrel, systematic writing, citation techniques, and rules of reference. retention is students explore the knowledge of writing that is already owned and matched with the latest information. motivation is lecturers provide motivation related to the benefits of scientific writing. innovation is students explore the various themes and problems that occur around it and find a solution. parmi includes five steps. parmi is a development of social learning bandura. the stages of bandura learning include attention, retention, motivation, and production (armp). various researches have proven that social learning bandura can improve learning outcomes. however, the various researches do not focus on aspects of innovation. therefore, parmi 321parmi... (indrya mulyaningsih et al) adds innovation at this stage of learning. innovation focuses on the learner’s ability to solve a problem. this is related to a problem can be solved in various ways. the ability to find alternative solutions is what called innovation. that is, scientific writings written by learners are not only in the form of copies of previous writings. the ability to innovate needs to be possessed by learners in order to be able to solve various problems faced. as previously stated, parmi focuses on scientific writing skills. the target is students. students who are treated with parmi are first semester students so that they are not maximal. first semester students have not received scientific courses according to the chosen study program. this makes written papers or scientific works do not have in-depth theoretical studies. however, parmi can help students capture a problem and find alternative solutions. that is, these problems and solutions are not the result of imitating other people’s ideas, but are the result of innovation. parmi is a new learning model as a result of bandura’s development. therefore, no other research has used this learning model. as a new learning model, parmi still has limitations. that is, research needs to be done using parmi for a variety of learning. during this time, the new parmi is used as limited to the learning of scientific writing at the state islamic religious colleges. parmi is expected not only to be used for scientific writing learning, but also for other learning. parmi is also expected not only to be practiced in islamic universities but at various levels of education, both religious and public. references alemi, m., & daftarifard, p. 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(2013). innovating pedagogy policy makers. united kingdom: the open university. https://doi. org/10.2791/83258. sutrisno. (2012). kreatif mengembangkan aktivitas pembelajaran berbasis tik. jakarta: referensi. suyanto, b., & sutinah. (2011). metode penelitian sosial (1st ed.). jakarta: kencana. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 339 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 339-343 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4113 the correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size riza weganofa1; rizky lutviana2 1,2 english education department, universitas kanjuruhan malang jl. s. supriadi no.48, bandungrejosari, malang 65148, indonesia 1rizaweganofa@unikama.ac.id; received: 11th january 2018 /revised: 23rd july 2018 /accepted: 06th august 2018 how to cite: weganofa, r., & lutviana, r. (2018). the correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size. lingua cultura, 12(4), 339-343. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4113 abstract this research aimed at describing the correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size. the findings of this research were expected to predict how much the two variables correlate. this research was beneficial as inter internet users in indonesia were growing in numbers (55 billion users in 2011), and most of them were students. their intensity in using internet would affect on education, later. thus, it was important to see whether there was a strong positive correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size. passive vocabulary became the limitation of this research as it could explain how big students’ ‘vocabulary reservoir,’ and thus, it could predict the active vocabulary size. this was a correlational research involving randomly 81 senior students of english education department. the instruments used were a set of vocabulary test, and a questionnaire on internet literacy. using two-tailed significant level, it is found that the result of rho is -0,001 with 0,993 of significant level. therefore, there is no correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size. it can be concluded that there are other factors which affect students’ passive vocabulary. keywords: internet literacy, passive vocabulary, vocabulary size introduction vocabulary size still becomes an important part in determining the success of learning both first and second language. several researchers state that there is a strong mutual correlation between vocabulary learning and second language learning (koizumi & in’nami, 2013). other researchers, further, mention that vocabulary mastery is crucial because it covers all words that students need to comprehend to access background knowledge, express ideas, communicate, and learn new things (rupley, logan, & nichols in davoudi & chavosh, 2016). when a student communicates using ungrammatical sentences, the interlocutor might try to guess the intended meanings. yet, when he does not have an adequate ‘vocabulary reservoir’ in his memory, he barely cannot access any idea in his head to be spoken out. as 2.0 technology emerges in education, students get abundant access to absorb information. simultaneously, this information might enrich their vocabulary size. thus, it can be predicted the depth and width of someone knowledge by analyzing their vocabulary size (dale in ahmadi, ismail, & abdullah, 2012). thus, the term internet literacy is first introduced by the california department of education in 1996 (wulandari, 2013). she summarizes that internet literacy is captured by someone when she can combine technology literacy and information literacy. technology literacy means the ability to use a computer, software application, database, and other technologies for educational, working, or privative goals. meanwhile, information literacy is defined as the ability to identify when certain information is needed, and the ability to search, evaluate, arrange, and use the information effectively. vocabulary size is usually connected with reading skill, in which it will determine whether students academically succeed or not. wanzek, al otaiba, and petscher in almumen (2015) claim that one of the big reasons a student is dropped out of school is their poor reading skill. this poor reading skill is probably caused by a poor academic vocabulary teaching (alemi & lari, 2012). laufer (1997) and nation (2001) in ahmadi, ismail, and abdullah (2012) add that in order to have successful teaching, students ought to understand and know the vocabulary of the text. generally, there are two types of the word; oral and print. words that are spoken out called oral words, meanwhile words that are understood or got from reading called print words (beck, mckeown, & kucan in ahmadi, ismail, & abdullah, 2012). luckily, indonesian students have no significant difficulty, as japanese and arabic, as 340 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 339-343 english oral orthography words have similarities with its written words. oral words are basically productive, while print words are receptive. productive vocabularies are vocabularies that students use to speak and write ideas, meanwhile, receptive vocabularies are vocabularies used to help them understand a passage and understand a conversation. mokhtar, rawian, and fauzee (2013) call these as active and passive vocabulary. understanding both active and passive vocabulary is important in communication. mokhtar, rawian, and fauzee (2013) state that modern global communication, mainly using the internet, need a good understanding of both vocabulary. students do not only read and listen to information from the internet, but they also respond to them written and oral. passive and active vocabulary size is not constant. it means there are moments when someone tries a new word, or stores certain words that are less favorable or revise stored words, and others. mokhtar, rawian, and fauzee (2013) define passive vocabulary as a vocabulary that is needed to process text or a conversation. further, they classify the depth and width of vocabulary size that someone has into five levels; 2.000 words, 3.000 words, 5.000 words, university level (above 5.000 words), and 10.000 words. each level indicates a certain teaching-learning objective. nation (in mokhtar, rawian, & fauzee, 2013) mentions that level 2.000 – 3.000 contains words that are most frequently used in daily communication. level 5.000 words are the minimum limit for students to understand daily communication in the classroom. further, university-level indicates vocabulary size that students must master to help them understand academic texts and talks. today, students are called millennial generation, as they are born and raised surrounded by 2.0 technology. presky in liu (2010) also agrees with this statement as he calls today’s students as digital natives, as they spend almost their lives surrounded by computer, video games, ipod, smartphones, and other digital devices. mccorkindale (2010) adds that social media sites are reaching their popularity, and one of them is facebook. he cites facebook website which states that there are 300 thousand active users on september 2009 and this shows 70% inclination compare to six months earlier. today, there are more than 45 thousand active group users and more than 10 thousand active users join various pages each day. tess (2013) summarizes from various researches on the facebook statistic that 94% of university students are facebook users and spend 10-30 minutes a day and have 150-200 friends. harvard in tess (2013) mentions that 90% of undergraduate students have a facebook account in 2011. presky in walker and white (2013) states that a generation raised and grows surrounded by computer have the ability to use digital devices that earlier generation may reluctant to it. this kind of ability is called internet literacy. however, walker and white (2013) warn that this concept might mislead to an assumption that all young generation is interested in, motivated to, and keen on digital technology. brown and czerniewizc (in walker & white, 2013) argue that this assumption is over generalized. this statement goes hand in hand with alemi and lari (2012) findings in their research. it concludes that both learning vocabulary media used by the students, either sms or conventionally printed vocabulary, both their reading achievements are increasing. there are some studies have reported the use of the internet in english teaching, including vocabulary which indicates that millennial students are able to boost their vocabulary size using digital technology. abidin et al. (2011) conclude that electronic glossary is more effective to help students increase their vocabulary size. bataineh (2014) also underlines the use of an electronic dictionary is very helpful to help students learn vocabulary. however, the settings of the reported researches mostly regard english as the second language, such as malaysia and jordan. however, teaching english in the indonesian context is regarded as a foreign language. both malaysia and jordan also have higher human development index. thus, this research is imperative to investigate the correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size in a different perspective, specifically in view of english as a foreign language. in other words, although young students already mingle with the internet; expose to english vocabulary still becomes another challenge for them. this research lies in the fact that almost all senior students are already equipped and familiar with how to use the search engine on a computer. lecturers are also a lot of exploration on how to ‘live’ the internet both in and out of the classroom. lecturers demand many things that push students to acquaint with the internet, such as download teaching materials on campus repository site, send tasks through email, search teaching techniques, and further do thesis consultation through whatapps. however, the fact that english is regarded as a foreign language will give more interesting data. this research aims at investigating whether there is a correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size. the findings of this research will give beneficial information for students, on how they should use the internet, for teachers, on how they should use internet for teaching vocabulary and how far they should go on it. based on previous researches by abidin et al. (2011) and bataineh (2014), the hypothesis for this current research is: h1 = there is a positive significant correlation between senior students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size. this research takes senior students from a private university as the subject of the research, in which there are only a few of them are in advance level of english proficiency. this research also limits the discussion on passive vocabulary. methods this is correlational research. it aims at describing the correlation between students’ internet literacy and passive vocabulary size. therefore, the continuous variables in this research are internet literacy and passive vocabulary size. this research focuses on passive vocabulary as it can determine the ‘vocabulary reservoir’. by knowing students’ passive vocabulary size, the active vocabulary can be predicted. this research takes randomly 81 out of 136 senior students of english education department. most of them come from east of indonesia, such as adonara, manggarai, sumba, ende, lemabata, and few come from west kalimantan, and java. in order to answer the research question, the researcher develops two instruments. the first instrument aims at measuring students’ internet literacy through the questionnaire. they are asked to choose how good they use 341the correlation between... (riza weganofa; rizky lutviana) internet, under four spectrums: exactly know and mostly use (sm), know and frequently use (m), barely know but rarely use (cm), not really know and not use (km), and not know and never use (tm). the second instrument is the passive vocabulary test (pvt). this is a multiple choice test, covering vocabulary, collocation, and lexicon. before distributing the instruments, the researchers do validity and reliability test. an expert on vocabulary and communication are asked to validate the instruments based on four criteria: (a) suitability with the aim of the research, (b) clarity and format, (c) level of difficulty, and (d) appropriateness. meanwhile, to test its reliability, the researcher uses cronbach alpha. this has done by having a pilot testing to 21 students who do not belong as the subject of this research. then, it is analyzed to answer the question. some statistic components, such as frequency, mean score, and the percentage will be used to get mean percentage score (mps). further, to test the hypothesis, the researchers apply a pearson product moment coefficient to determine the correlation. results and discussions before the researcher does correlational testing between students’ internet literacy and passive vocabulary size, the researcher does descriptive test for the distributed questionnaire. the questionnaire contains four aspects of testing internet literacy; the ability to use the various search engine, the ability to access various information, the ability to validate information gathered, and the ability to use online news. the respondents of this questionnaire will be categorized into three groups; novice user, intermediate user, and advanced user. it is found that 75,3% respondents are novice users, 24,3% are intermediate users, and the rest 9,8% are advanced users. further, the researchers also do a descriptive test for the second instruments by calculating the mean score of students’ result in the vocabulary test. it is found that the mean score from 81 students is 44,57 from range 0–100 score. also, the researcher has five classifications of vocabulary size. it is found that none of the students has an excellent vocabulary size, but most of them (37%) have a fairly good vocabulary size. it can be seen in table 1. table 1 frequency and percentage of vocabulary size category range score frequency (f) percentage (%) excellent 100 80 0 0 good 79 60 15 18,52 fairly good 59 40 37 45,68 fair 39 20 28 34,57 poor 19 0 1 1,23 total 81 100 the researchers use internal consistency reliability. internal consistency reliability is reliability that is got from testing between item test consistency which shows subject consistency in responding to a test in one shot testing. reliability testing towards vocabulary test becomes utmost necessary as in correlational research; the result of the coefficient correlation is based on the sufficient instrument. in other words, research which uses an instrument with low reliability and a questionable validity will result in a useless finding for knowledge (ary et al., 2010). thus, the researchers use cronbach alpha to measure the reliability of vocabulary test. the coefficient range is divided into: alpha < 0,7: inadequate ƒ alpha > 0,7: good ƒ alpha > 0,8: excellent it is found that the alpha for the instrument is 0,724. it can be said that the test used by the researcher has good internal consistency reliability. thus, the researcher is allowed to use the test as it meets the requirement of a good instrument to gather data. in order to answer the research question, whether students who belong to advanced users of the internet also have high passive vocabulary size, the researcher uses pearson product moment. the researcher sets the significant level at 0,05 of two-tailed measurement. it is found that rho (r) is -0,001 in 0,993 significant level. it can be seen in table 2. table 2 correlation test passive vocabulary internet literacy passive vocabulary pearson correlation 1 -0,001 sig. (2-tailed) 0,993 n 81 81 internet literacy pearson correlation -0,001 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,993 n 81 81 by looking at rho (r = 0,001), it can be concluded that there is no correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size, and vice versa. although it is not absolute zero, it indicates there might be a slight correlation that it is not moving quite farther from zero. thus, the null hypothesis of this research, there is no correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size, cannot be tackled, as ary et al. (2010) explain. rho which is farther from zero indicates a stronger correlation, and the other way around, rho which is closer to zero indicates a weaker correlation. in other words, it can be concluded that there are other factors affect students’ passive vocabulary size. the emergence of technology affects the growth of a language. the use of digital communication for the past 20 years affects the way people communicate. people start to use social media, such as facebook, twitter, path, or others as a way of communicating. in a research done by bmi (wulandari, 2013) mentions that indonesia is one of the countries which consumes internet browsing with high intensity in 2009, including 661 pages each month per person. this high number affects the growth of new vocabularies among internet users (walker & white, 2013). for example, the word googling as a verb in english emerges as the synonym of a search engine on the computer in the 2000s or the word vlog as a coinage for video plus blog. these words spread among digital technology users and most teachers cannot understand as fast as young students can. teachers, who are grown up one generation earlier before web 2.0 era comes, get vocabulary through 342 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 339-343 reading books and attending conventional classes. it differs from today’s students who can absorb new vocabulary as easy as clicking the play button. in fact, the term technolect comes to describe a language which is created for a certain technology. the term digital natives is defined by prensky (in walker & white, 2013) as a generation who has a natural ability to interfuse with technology. these digital natives are demanded to comprehend digital competence (walker & white, 2013). there are four important elements that should be comprehended: procedure competence, socio-digital, digital discourse, and strategic competence. first, procedure competence is the ability to use technology both hardware and its application. this sounds that this competence deals with simply how to turn on a laptop, press delete button, or search for news on youtube. however, students are expected to comprehend how, when, and why they choose a certain device, not only doing grammar-translation from a various button on the laptop. the second competency is socio-digital. this can be defined as the ability to make a decision on what is the appropriate things to do in various social contexts, both the choice of device and language. in order to invite a professor as a speaker in a conference, for instance, students must decide to use email rather than facebook to show polite intension. third, digital discourse competence is defined as the ability to be creative in developing tasks given, for example, videotaping, editing, or publish a video. this competence sounds to be technical, but communicative discourse competence is needed to type texts, giving a correct title for the picture, choose correct connecting words or write subheadings. the last competence is strategic competence. it is defined as the ability to solve problems using knowledge on technology and language. for example, when students have got problems dealing with academic matters, they can browse the information, validate with other information, ask friends in the facebook group, send email, and other ways. the term digital natives sometimes is connected with the term internet literacy. internet literacy is defined as the ability to use the internet effectively and efficiently for learning purpose. being effective can be achieved when students want to seek certain information. they know the correct keywords while being efficient means are able to find information fast and cost-efficient. internet is one of the good resources to help students enrich their vocabulary size. internet provides many features for its users, such as download, upload, blogging, tag links, video call, game consoles, or online peer-editing. this wide opportunity should help many learners when they have sufficient internet literacy. however, it can be generalized that all of today’s students can use the internet optimally. there are only 9,8% students in this research are categorized as advanced users, in which later it is found that there is no correlation between students’ internet literacy and their passive vocabulary size. adegoke and osokoya (2015) also summarize from their research that easy access towards the internet does not affect students’ academic achievement. further, they mention that information gathered from the internet does not directly correlate with their educational needs at school. in other words, they tend to use the internet to do non-educational purposes, such as watch film, play games, surf social media, then search for information on their major. adegoke and osokoya (2015) state students tend to browse for entertainment seems to also happen in indonesia. communication and information affairs (in wulandari, 2013) confirms that most of the internet users use the internet to access social media. in 2011, indonesia was the second largest rank of facebook users in the world, and the third rank of twitter users (wulandari, 2013). this might cause the result of this research, in which there is no correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size. students spend more time to chat and check friends’ statuses, which are written in indonesian, rather than read a journal article or listen to bbc online or cnn live streaming or subscribe to online magazines, such as reader’s digest or the jakarta post to enrich vocabulary. it can be seen in table 3. table 3 online newspaper and magazine statement strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree i subscribe to any online newspaper or magazine, such as the jakarta post, reader’s digest, the new york times, etc. 0% 8% 82% 10% table 3 indicates that although the internet gives easy access globally, not all students can wisely take benefit of it. nugroho in wulandari (2013) warns that the euphoria of the internet has been shaped on social media as a new trend in society. people tend to jump into their social media account, such as instagram, whatapps once they are connected to the internet. the use of social media pushes language acquisition because it provides a pleasing informal environment for students to learn the language. various facilities provided by the internet, specifically the internet, give a bigger space to all students equally. it provides more opportunities for students to communicate, explore their imagination, as well as learn anytime and everywhere. however, the subject of this research seems cannot explore themselves more than they think. the result shows that students do not use the facilities provided by the internet for their academic purpose. conclusions the development of technology is so fast that it seems to push everyone to evolve, including how teachers and students use technology. digital era proposes a solution towards time and space boundary by open access information. moreover, it proposes easy access for learning, including learning vocabulary. this current research correlates passive vocabulary size of senior efl students and their ability to use the internet. the finding of this research is limited on discussion of passive vocabulary, and thus another research on other vocabulary coverage will complement this finding. younger subjects are suggested for further research to precisely represent the ‘technologyliterate’ students. moreover, other learning environment context, esl for example, might give different result. based on the calculation using pearson product moment, it is found that the result of rho is -0,001. thus, it can be concluded that there is no correlation between 343the correlation between... 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(2013). the needs of internet literacy in an ongoing process of economic stability. jurnal ilmu komunikasi, 10(1), 49-62. microsoft word 08_ig_abdul aziz.docx 188  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  humorous writing exercise using internet memes on english classes abdul aziz turhan kariko english department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 aziz_comi@binus.ac.id abstract this study discusses internet memes found by internet users and how they appeal for them, by deconstructing what internet meme is and what it does. analysis are conducted especially on how the relation between images, text, and meanings connect with each other to form social messages, political messages, universal emotions, or merely to make humor and entertain its users. researcher examines five samples of internet memes on the internet and decodes their relation between images, texts, and meanings using semiotics. these samples are then introduced as writing assignments to two binus university’s english department classes and one global english class. the study reveals that humor and creativity in using internet memes are related to the students’ achievement in their studies. keywords: internet memes, images, text, semiotics, humor abstrak penelitian ini membahas internet meme yang ditemukan oleh pengguna internet dan bagaimana internet meme menarik bagi mereka, dengan mendekonstruksi apa itu internet meme adalah dan apa efek yang dihasilkannya. analisis yang dilakukan terutama pada bagaimana hubungan antara gambar, teks, dan makna yang terhubung satu sama lain untuk membentuk pesan sosial, pesan politik, emosi publik, atau sekedar membuat humor yang menghibur. peneliti menguji lima sampel internet meme di internet dan menghubungkan antara gambar, teks, dan makna menggunakan semiotika. sampel ini kemudian digunakan sebagai tugas menulis untuk dua kelas jurusan bahasa inggris binus university dan satu kelas bahasa inggris global. penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa humor dan kreativitas dalam penggunaan internet meme berhubungan dengan prestasi siswa dalam studi mereka. kata kunci: meme internet, gambar, teks, semiotika, humor     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 189  introduction according to penguin english dictionary, meme is a behavioral or cultural trait that is passed on by other than genetic means, e.g by imitation. the term is first coined in 1976 by richard dawkins, as an example of replicator, information copied in evolutionary process. examples are habits, skills, stories, or games passed on by imitation. range from valuable inventions, scientific theories, art creations, to ‘viruses of the mind’, such as chain letters or false beliefs. memes provide a powerful new way to combine few things such as, creativity, art, message, and humor in the internet culture. public relations, advertising, and marketing professionals have effectively used internet memes as a form of viral marketing to create marketing "hype" for their product or service. internet memes are considered as cost effective and sometimes become a trend. the practice of using memes to market products or services is known as memetic marketing (flor, 2000). the term internet meme according to pcmag.com can be existed in the form of an image, video, story or joke that is voluntarily passed from one internet user to another via e-mail, blogs and social networking sites. considered a form of art, internet memes are created to promote individuals, groups, movies, art, music and products, as well as to perpetrate a hoax or just be funny. they can disappear in days or last for years (pc magazine, n.d.). memes are also used in education. scott stillar, who teaches english at the university of tsukuba in japan, thinks that one type of internet memes, the rage comics, are a great way to teach the english language. rage comics themselves are cartoons using an ever-growing set of internet memes. he feels that rage comics are special because they consist of well known faces and expressions–anger, shock, defeat, surprise, pleasure, success, or horror, which therefore mean to show universal feelings or emotions of varying degrees under a variety of conditions (wolford, 2011). rage comics are used as vehicles for sharing experiences with humor (hoevel, 2011). the writer intends to examine how students use their creativity in using these memes. this paper will also serve as an alternative way to understand what the students are currently thinking or feeling, without having to ask them bluntly. the writer considers the urgency of this research as a way to keep up with the internet culture to show an alternative of communication and a cost-effective way of mass advertising. additionally, it is to improve students’ media literacy concerning the study of signs/symbols, philosophy, and how images and text relates each other and creates a new meaning. these memes contain humor, universal emotions, social message, cultural message, political message, and many more. from the background study above, it also shows how effective it is in teaching language. every meme has its own theme. therefore, it allows the user to always come up with newer and more creative ideas in delivering its message. method this study examines five samples of internet memes on the internet and decodes their relation between images, texts, and meanings using semiotics. semiotic approach is basically qualitativeinterpretative, that is a method that focuses itself on signs and texts as its study, as well as how researchers interpret and decode the texts and the signs themselves. 190  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  semiotics is applied as a method to approach texts on media with an assumption that the media themselves are communicated through the elements of signs that they already carried. the signs that are carried on the media are also filled with certain interests that show their own complexity, because signs on media is certainly never carries a single meaning. analysis are conducted especially on how the relation between images, and the production of meanings connect with each other to form social messages, historical, religious, political, or just universal emotions. the researcher examines 5 samples of internet memes specifically the ones with image and caption that produce meaning. the relation between images, texts, and meanings is then decoded using semiotics. after the analysis, these 5 samples (plus 11 more samples) were then introduced and given to two binus university’s english department classes and 1 global english class as writing assignment. the research shows many results, such as the students’ humor in making jokes, their own feeling at particular subjects, etc. theoretical framework modern semiotics analysis are said to be popularized by two figures, ferdinand de saussure, a linguistic expert from switzerland (1858-1913) and charles sanders pierce, an american philosopher (1839-1914). ferdinand de saussure (1916) states that a sign consists of two inseparable elements, that is as signifiant that has a meaning and absorbed within human’s cognition (penanda), and signifie (‘meaning’ or the content of the sign). barthes (2009) developed saussure’s theory by telling that a characteristic of a sign is based on a relation of two aspects; a form (signifier that he called as expression) and content (a signified that he called as contenu). according to saussure, signs always consisted of three faces: the sign itself, material aspect (letter, image, shape, motion, etc.) from signs that serve function to signify or the one produced by the material aspect (signifier), and the conceptual aspect that is pointed by the material aspect (signified). meanwhile, signification is ‘something that points’ signifier to signified. in semiotic analysis, this concept of signification is important to be remembered because in searching the functioning of systems of signification, sometimes we have to find signified, because signifier is known while the signified is not yet clear, and vice versa. signs according to peirce are something[s] that represent something[s] or refer to a particular meaning. if the meaning is based on a particular agreement or social convention, that sign is called symbols. so, every phenomenon that exists in the society, whether it is an object, behavior, even a thought, is seen as symbols that ‘represent’ or ‘refer to’ a particular meaning outside/beyond the sign itself. the color, red, for instance; independently does not mean anything, except the color itself. but, if the color takes part as in culture, for example, is used in traffic lights (representative), then it will also represent “prohibition” (object) in human cognition. for its use in traffic lights, as a representative, the color red is related with ‘prohibition’ (object) is a result of social convention and even international convention. additionally peirce states that signs exist because of a process that he called semiosis. this process starts with the insertion of an element of sign that exists on ‘outside’ into human’s senses, which is representative or ground, that might be compared saussure’s signifier. if the process using our senses has already happened, the next process inside human cognition process is a referencing of what is called object, which is a matter (meaning) that is represented by representative. for example, when we see a red light, because we already know the valid convention, the red light is considered as ‘prohibition’ (object), which we may compare it to saussure’s signified.     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 191  the next process is called interpreting, which when we create an interpretation related with the situation that we are in right now. if the red light is located on the streets as a road sign while we’re driving a car, we will interpret it as a law obligation to stop and then we will interpret it as a permission to proceed by law if the light changes into green. interpretan affects our behavior during a particular situation. the process of interpreting a sign’s meaning from representative, objects and interpretant called ‘semiosis’ happens really fast inside our mind. since what actually sensed is representative, often times representative is called a sign. it is interesting that peirce saw the semiosis as a neverending continuous process (unlimited process). he thought that interpretans can be received by our mind and seen as a new sign, or a new representamen. meaning, a red light that has been interpreted by human’s cognition is extended into a new representamen, for instance it becomes a ‘prohibition’ sign that refer as ‘sanctions for violators’ which then creates an interpretan as a law/prohibition that must not be violated. then, the new interpretan transforms into even newer representamen, for example becoming ‘a heavy financial sanction’ that creates another interpretan a sanction that would make us not afford to pay. this is how semiosis continous without an end. results and discussion the writer analyzes five samples of internet memes, with three sub-samples each. specifically only on images that contain characters and humor-based captions, these memes are posted anywhere on the internet from 4chan.org or 9gag.com, and they are even shared by users on social media network facebook. the writer takes three samples and their varieties of random memes and then analyzes them on how the image and the caption are used to create meanings to provide entertainment to user. memes that are analyzed are taken from a site called memegenerator.net, one of the many sites that provide memes to be customized according to its users. success kid meme below is the first example of internet meme (figure 1). figure 1. sampe 1: success kid meme. figure 1 shows a character called success kid, an adorable toddler clenching a fist while expressing a determined and victorious pose towards the viewer. the cheeky-faced angelic baby first showed up in early 2008 and spread across several social media networks. the early months of success kid showed the picture of the baby with the caption “ima f*ck you up”, making it both funny and offensive. the image eventually transformed into the same photo with a different 192  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  tagline/caption. today the photo is used to depict different episodes of successful events along with accompanying text. success kid appears to be hilarious and witty, saying many of the things that we wish we could say but do not have the courage to do so. there is something so funny about the juxtaposition of an adorable little baby with such a fierce look of determination on his face, accompanied with a variety of texts to create meanings that represent universal emotions. the first image of success kid is accompanied with a caption that says “puzzle says 2-4 years, only took 1”, which gives meaning to the picture that the toddler feels victorious for completing a puzzle for only 1 year that normally takes 2-4 years. on the second image, the caption is written differently by another user: “fart in class, nobody notice it!!” that depicts an everyday life situation when a student farts in class without nobody noticing it. again, the text and the image is coherent to be juxtaposed with one another. the last image of the success kid has a caption that says “murdered someone, got away with it”, which of course is quite impossible for a baby to murder someone intentionally (even get away with it). in reality, there are laws to punish someone to commit a murder, and usually people will not be able to get away with it because the authorities will do whatever they can to arrest them. the image and the text creates a meaning of how good the feeling is after killing someone and get away with it. this image and the text are combined with each other for entertainment purposes. the most interesting man in the world meme this meme is called as the most interesting man in the world (figure 2), which it all began when as a commercial of dos equis beer. the company released a set of commercials with this character, with each one showing his extreme level of interestingness and charm. the ads were aired locally in 2006, and gained much more attention when they went national in 2009. figure 2. sample 2: the most interesting man in the world. actor jonathon goldsmith is the one who playing the role, along with the voice of will lyman doing the narration. the youtube video became a trend in 2009, reaching over one million views. the most interesting man in the world character has since appeared on its own, and has featured the key catchphrases spoken at the end of the commercial: “i do not always drink beer, but when i do, i prefer dos equis.” the main formula of this meme parody is taken from one of the lines in the commercial: “i do not always do x, but when i do, i y,” like shown above. the first image says “i do not always study for test, but when i do, they’re cancelled”, it shows how he feels unlucky/lucky (depends on the interpretation) to study sometimes but to have the tests cancelled by the teacher. the second image says “i do not always go to work, but when i do, i fall asleep” that can possibly mean he is an incompetent worker but still being proud about it, which is funny considering the image shows a charming and trustworthy old man. while the function of the     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 193  third image that says “i do not always have sex, but when i do, it’s with your mom” is to mock the viewer that the meme has sex with the viewer’s mom, of course this caption only serves as a joke and entertainment purposes. philosoraptor meme the meme called philosoraptor below (figure 3) wonders about all the questions in our lives that we should be asking. unlike normal philosophers, philosoraptor is a character who has the courage, the fortitude, and the insight to ask innocent questions such as “if a vegetarian eats vegetables, does a humanitarian eat humans?” figure 3. sample 3: philosoraptor meme. the meme is considered as a wildly intelligent looking dinosaur, accompanied with philosophical statements or questions about the society, cultural phenomenons, etc. the philosoraptor is shown to be able to pick apart and examine all flaws related in the poor treatment of gay people in the society. philosoraptor states: “why do the religious say that sin is natural, but homosexuality is unnatural, even though they consider it a sin?” the first image says “if feminists hate men so much, then why do they dress like them?” creates an argument/debate that feminists dress like men even though they probably hates the idea of men being more superior than them, which gives the idea that the way they dress is backfiring at them. the second image says “what if god plays sims… and we are the characters” refers to a video game called the sims where people can play as god to have characters in the game to build houses, get a job, have relationships, have sex with other characters, etc. this caption creates an annoying but brave idea that god is possibly playing a game with humans in real life and he can actually control them in such a way to his amusement. the last image is a question that asks “if satan punishes the evildoers, doesn’t that make him good?” to challenge viewers to think that satan is actually serving under god to punish bad people, which automatically means that satan is in fact doing a good thing, not as bad as what people thought. good guy greg meme below is a character called good guy greg (figure 4), which is a refreshingly nice character, a rare type of meme in the meme world. 194  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  figure 4. sample 4: good guy greg. at first, he may seem irresponsible, but as soon as users are familiar with him, he’s a hilariously helpful guy. the meme shows a photo of a man, smiling around a homemade cigarette. viewers might see the meme smoking not only a homemade cigarette, but probably smoking a ganja (weed, joint, pot). good guy greg is depicted as a really good guy, easygoing, kind, always keeps his cool. he may not be the smartest character, or may not get all the jokes, but he does nice things. the variations of this meme have greg in full good guy mode, not quite getting the joke but still being really nice. notable examples of good guy greg include his photo with the lines: “disappears for half an hour – shows up with burger king for everyone.” the first image says “crush is breaking up with her bf, help them go back together”, shows how good guy greg even helps his crush (a girl that he likes) to go back with her ex-boyfriend. while in reality it is rare to have someone to do the thing that good guy greg does, normally someone would seize and take advantage of the situation. the second image says “knows you’re broke, buys you pizza” shows how we want to have an ideal friend that do nice things to us when we are in the need, in other words, this image and text how we long for an ideal friend (or even to be an ideal person), same with the third image that says “borrows ur car, fills up gas and change oil”, how good the good guy greg (read: ideal friend/man) is to even change the oil of the car that he borrows. high expectation asian father meme high expectations asian father (figure 5) plays a role as a stereotype of highly demanding, perfection-seeking asian parent, as he pushes his children beyond the limits of endurance in matters of education and even overall performance. figure 5. sample 5: high expectation asian father. the meme was developed and became popular in 2010. even though it only serves a stereotype for asian fathers, the meme is still popular and relevant with all people who have ever had someone push them to do better. much of the humor lays in the perception of asian parents, especially     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 195  of the first generation, pressuring their children to study harder and do better or suffer their anger in the form of grave disappointment, humiliation, even harsh punishments. the meme shows a photo of the head of an asian man wearing glasses, with a wrinkled forehead, along with a sense of disappointment and wonder on his face. high expectation asian father has some variations from mispronunciation of words, misunderstanding certain words and phrases; ensuing from their improper use. the meme is famous for pushing his children to getting a grades in school, for example, “remember, you’re an asian, not a bsian!!!” the first image says “you get aon exam? that’s asian f” shows a disappointment of the asian father toward his child for only getting an a(a minus) instead of a (or even a+), it also means how grade ais actually grade f for asians. the second image says “you need to go to the doctor? at your age, i was a doctor” is to humiliate his child that he/she is not a doctor yet, unlike his father who already became a doctor at his/her age. the asian father didn’t even try to get the child to go see a doctor for his/her sickness, instead he scold him and feel disappointed at him for not becoming a doctor yet. the last image is an example how the asian father misunderstood a word by yelling “vitamin c? why not vitamin a?” shows how stereotypical asian fathers are sometimes not really smart to misunderstand certain words, clouded by his extreme expectation for his son to get grade as in school. humorous writing memes exercise for binus university’s students the researcher also did an experiment to two classes at bina nusantara; one first semester class students of english department (01pag) and one third semester of english global smart class (03pbm). the researcher gave handouts consisting of 12 memes for them to fill in. those memes are: (1) high expectation asian father (heaf); (2) bad luck brian (blb); (3) the most interesting man in the world (tmimw); (4) good guy greg (ggg); (5) grumpy cat (gc); (6) scumbag steve (ss); (7) success kid (sk); (8) y u no…? (yun); (9) lazy college senior (lcs); (10) overly attached girlfriend (oag); (11) futurama fry ‘not sure if x or y’ (ff); (12) unhelpful teacher (ut) (see appendix). in this experiment, students are given freedom to fill out the memes with their own understanding. theses memes, of course, are humor regarding everyday life situations. the researcher took five best samples from each class, and then analyzed them to see their understanding on these memes. in 01pag class, bill lorenzo (student id 1601277031) has a very interesting insight on these memes. for heaf, for example, he wrote “facebook? you face book and study or back in the closet!”. he also did an interesting one about blb, “eats chilli dog, catches a cold”. for tmimw, he related the meme with one of them most popular culture icon in the world, justin bieber. he wrote, “i do not always say never, but when i do, i rub it in justin bieber’s face”, relating it to one of his songs never say never. bill also did a good one using the gc meme, he wrote, “twinkle twinkle little star, i want to hit you with a car.” and finally, using the ut, he wrote “you got that question wrong, now go figure out yourself why,” which he probably said this due to his experience with a teacher in the past. next in pag is amira intan amir, she did a good one with blb, she wrote “travel with a plane for the very first time… snake plane.” as a student, she expressed her feelings about her grades, by saying “grades, y u no increase?” in yun. she also probably shared her disappointment about her teacher by saying “wants you to collect (submit) the assignments on time, still forget to check on them after 2 weeks holiday” in ut. and finally, using the oag, she wrote “i deleted all of your friends number, you do not need them, you always have me.” a 7th semester student who is repeating the paragraph writing course, jovinus chandra (id 1200975715), wrote two interesting jokes using the memes. using ss, he wrote “invites you to dinner, 196  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  asks you to cook.” while in ut, he wrote “gives you exam, that she hasn’t taught you yet,” probably expressing his frustration on doing an exam that his teacher hasn’t taught yet, or in other words, a reallife past experience. next is linda tanuwijaya, she gave an interesting remark using heaf, she wrote “so you are a b-boy? why can’t you be a-boy?” indicating the funny yet misunderstood heaf about what a b-boy is, due to his high expectation of a’s for his son’s school grades. amira also did a good one using the oag, she wrote “i will get my name tattoed on your face, so whenever you look yourself on the mirror you’ll forever remember me.” and finally, probably expressing her frustration in losing weight, using the yun, she wrote “fat, y u no burn?” the last student in 01pag is debby andita, who gave three interesting captions in some of the memes. in heaf, she wrote “gets an a-, grounded.” while in blb, she wrote “gets a phone number from a hot girl in thailand, is actually a guy.” finally, probably expressing her frustration on people who do not return pens in a class after borrowing them, she wrote “borrows a pen in class, actually returns it to you after class” in ggg. next class is 03pbm, which consists of information system students with toefl score above 450, meaning that they have better english than the first semester english department students (01pag). first is andiga (1501163073), he wrote two interesting jokes using the blb and lcs; for blb, he wrote “discovers porn for the first time… his grandparents.” while for lcs, he wrote “homework: read page 10-20… great, no homework then”, which probably tells us how students are not really interested in reading. even though it’s only a joke, the researcher is certain that there’s a little bit of truth in this comment, meaning teachers really need to improve the reading culture of the students. next is albertus a. (1501152050), he wrote three clever jokes using the tmimw, yun, and ut. first, using tmimw, he said “i do not always get assignment, but when i do, it’s about 9gag,” commenting on the rarity of doing this kind of exercise in english writing. then, in yun, he wrote “y u no? print these memes in color???” commenting on how the researcher should gave the handouts in colors, not just a black and white copy. lastly, using the ut, he wrote “always said “’all students have same potential to success’… use term ‘idiot’ at least 5 times per session,” probably expressing his disappointment on teachers who do that kind of thing, or it also probably came from his past reallife experience. next is felix (1501167866), who, using the tmimw, he wrote “my house doesn’t always get flooded, but when it does, it’s on exam [day],” probably expressing his rare moment in experiencing flood during exam day. meanwhile, using the ss, he wrote “stop smoking… his own cigarettes,” probably expressing his experience in having a bad friend who stopped smoking his own cigarettes. after felix, next is ragnar kumara (1501156250) who wrote three interesting jokes using the blb, tmimw, and yun. in blb, he wrote “finally gets the love of his life… alarm clock rings.” in this meme, ragnar cleverly used his imagination in creating a situation where someone is having a love of his life when he suddenly realizes that it is only a dream when the alarm clock rings. next, using the tmimw, he wrote “i do not always caption memes, but when i do, all the funniest ideas are gone.” he cleverly expresses how he used to have funny ideas to caption these memes but they are already gone. lastly, using the yun, he wrote “money, y u no have sex and multiply?” which is also clever, since it is not easy to write a good joke. ignatius albert (1501144566) has two interesting jokes that he come up using these memes, one is using the blb, which he wrote “download national anthem, death sentenced for piracy.” this is a clever joke since it is rare to have someone penalized for downloading a national anthem (especially in indonesia) let alone given a death sentence. the other one he used ss in which he wrote a very funny joke by saying “sees your binusmaya logged on… write love letter to dean.” the last student in pbm is, yesika kristina, who made some interesting jokes using the ggg, ss, oag, and ff. using the ggg, she wrote “borrow[s] your nds ytd… ‘i filled in some new games’” that serves as the opposite of ss, in which she wrote “borrow[s] your nds ytd… ‘what nds?’” depicting an example of a good friend and a bad friend. next in oag, she wrote “couple tee [shirt]? how about     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 197  couple ring?” depicting a possessive girl who wants to keep her lover using couple’s ring, similar to wedding ring. lastly, in ff, she cleverly wrote “not sure if it’s chocochips… or raisin[s],” showing how chocolate chips and raisins can really look the same at first glance in the 03pbm class, the researcher also found similar captions between the students, regarding binus university’s entrepreneurship class subject. femme (1501170135) for example, shares her frustration about the class subject using the yun, in which she wrote “b.e.c, y u no make it simple?” femme’s classmate, ernie (1501145575), also shares her frustration about the class subject. she wrote, “entrepreneurship… y u no make everything easier?” the same goes to aditya gisella (1501152025) and anonymous student in 03pbm, they wrote “bec… y u no make all simple?” and “”entrepreneurship class… y u no missing from this world?” although this assignment is humorous, the researcher thinks that these similar jokes that the students share together need to be taken seriously by binus entrepreneurship center, so that they can improve the class subject and support binus university’s goal. in 01pcg class, most of the students do not really seem to show much understanding toward the internet memes. it can be concluded that way because the researcher had problems in finding good jokes or humor written by the students. therefore, they have yet to show any creativity, unlike the other classes (01pag & 03pbm). in this class, for example, yuliana (1601229505) wrote using the heaf, “get c in one class, lose internet”. she also wrote using the ff, “not sure if she’s a girl, or just beautiful boy.” lastly, she also didn’t know that it is inappropriate to write “f**k off!” in which she wrote using the gc. the latter, however, shows that the internet memes can be used in revealing student’s emotion. william james (1601266425), only gave one interesting joke, in which he wrote, using the ff, “not sure if a pig or cat stung by bees.” meanwhile, cynthia (1601252073), wrote two interesting ones, using the gc and ff, she wrote “you do not laugh at my meme? good!” and “not sure if they are laughing at my joke, or just faking it.” winih widya utami (1601246562) wrote two interesting ones also, using the oag and ff, she wrote “baby, you have to reply my texts, or i will call your mom” and “she is a beautiful girl, not sure if she’s arabian or indian.” lastly, vania natalia (160128160), wrote two interesting jokes, using the tmimw and the oag, she wrote “i do not always fall in love, but when i do, she has a husband” and “y u no reply my text 2 second[s] ago?. conclusion internet memes serves as a humorous way to have fun with context, words, images, meaning, symbols, culture, popular culture, etc. the fact that it only needs an image of something or someone accompanied with a caption/text can generate different meanings. it can be interpreted and customized anyway the user wants it. take good guy greg meme for example, it is only picture a young caucasian man smiling around a homemade cigarette which is then called as good guy greg, while in reality we do not really know if the guy’s name is greg, and if he is a good person. even if it was, it would take a research to find the truth that he really is a ‘good guy greg’. internet memes allow users to produce meanings according to the theme of a picture; it also contains language formula as shown in the most interesting man in the world meme. sometimes users also write/generate meanings while not following the formulas/themes, just to have fun with it. internet memes require users to be creative in producing meanings in respect to symbols, words, and contexts. it is similar on how advertisements in the form of images works; an image + word[s] = meanings. internet memes are examples of how images, texts, art, language, creativity, myths, and popular culture relate with each other, which then is open for multi-interpretation regarding its user. these memes contain humor, as well as reflecting universal emotions, social message, cultural message and many more. 198  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 188-199  samples taken from 01pag and 03pbm revealed a wide variety of interesting topics in everyday life activities; such as the economy of the students, popular culture icon (justin bieber), students’ grades, disappointing teachers, good friends or bad friends, students’ problems, the binusmaya, frustrating class subjects (binus entrepreneurship), or just simple everyday life jokes. while in 01pcg class, the researcher didn’t see any better results (jokes/humor) as shown in the other two classes, further examination is necessary to reveal the answer to this findings. so far the researcher has one hypothesis; that these humor and creativity in using the internet memes are related to the students gpa, and smarter students show better results in creating jokes or good humor. references allen, r. e. (n.d.). meme. in penguin english dictionary (page 866). london: penguin group. barthes, r. (2009). mitologi. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana. flor, nick v. (2000). web business engineering: memetic marketing. accessed january 29, 2012, from pearson informit website: http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=19996. hoevel, ann. (2011). geek out: the know your meme team gets all scientific on teh intarwebs. accessed january 29, 2012,from cnn website: http://geekout.blogs.cnn.com/2011/10/11/theknow-your-meme-team-gets-all-scientific-on-teh-intarwebs/. pc magazine . (n.d.). encyclopedia term. accessed january 29, 2012, from pcmag.com: http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=internet+meme&i=59911,00.asp totona, s. (2010). miskin itu menjual: representasi kemiskinan sebagai komodifikasi tontonan. yogyakarta: resist book. wolford, josh. (2011). teaching the english language with rage (comics): ffffffuuuuuuuuuuuu. accessed january 29, 2012 from webpronews/social media website: http://www.webpronews.com/teaching-the-english-language-with-rage-comics-201111     humorous writing exercise ….. (abdul aziz turhan kariko) 199  appendix students memes writing exercise template: high expectation asian father bad luck brian the most interesting man in the world good guy greg grumpy cat scumbag steve success kid y u no …? lazy college senior overly attached girlfriend not sure if … unhelpful teacher 8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 a brief analysis of vocabulary teaching in teaching chinese as a second language 浅谈对外汉语词汇教学策略 temmy chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 temmy@binus.edu abstract the goal of the article was to develop mandarin vocabulary teaching material for indonesian people and foreigners. teaching material was developed by cutting vocabulary, called chunk theory. article clarified chunk theory, basic strategy of teaching chunk theory, and the basic idea of teaching chunk theory; gave opinions and some important factors related to chunk theory. it can be concluded that there is a significant factor in teaching chunk theory, that is, a meaning transformation process to different context. it can be more (chunk up), less (chunk down), and similar (chunk laterally). keywords: chunk theory, vocabulary, strategic teaching, mandarin language 内容提要 摘要:词汇在语言中占有重要的地位,词汇教学是语言教学的重要组成部分。近年来,人们越来越意 识到词汇在对外汉语和华文教学中的重要性,于是开拓了很多词汇教学的新思路,但是词汇教学仍然存在缺 憾。本文引进词块教学理论以期望能够提高对外汉语和华文词汇教学质量。本文将介绍词块理论知识,阐述词 块教学策略的理论基础和词块教学的基本思路,提出词块教学建议,以及提出词块 教学中应该注意的一些问 题,最后在前人研究的基础上概括了词块教学法的优点。 关键词:语感, 形成,运作机制, 判断功能 9a brief analysis ….. (temmy) 引言 关于语感达主观态度。语言学家 wilkins(1972 )在 linguistics in language teaching一书中论述 了词汇在交际中的重要性:“没有语法,能表达的 内容很少;没有词汇,则什么也表达不了(without grammar very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed)。”词汇在 语言中占有这么重要的地位,词汇教学自然成了语言 教学的重要组成部分。近年来,人们越来越意识到词 汇在对外汉语教学中的重要性。一些学者提出了“语 言教学应以词汇为中心”。然而当前对外汉语词汇教 学的现状并不令人满意,于是开拓词汇教学的新思路 以提高对外汉语教学的质量便成为了对外汉语教学界 的共识。“与汉语作为第二语言教 学几乎是同时产生的教学法是词本位教学”, 之后各种词汇教学思路如雨后春笋般出现,如字本 位教学、“语素法”的词汇教学、篇章层面的词汇 教学、网络化词汇教学、集合式词汇教学法[2]、词 汇—语法教学,但是词汇教学依旧显得薄弱。 词汇教学现状及目的 目前课堂上大多数还是采用传统的词汇教学 法,这种传统的词汇教学表现为三个基本特征:一是 词汇教学在语法的框架内进行,语法是学习语言(包 括词汇)的前提和重点。二是词汇教学往往注重的是 词义教学。教学的重点多放在让学生掌握并熟记生词 的词典意义。词汇学习变成了孤零零的单词记忆,忽 略了产出性运用,忘记了学习词汇的目的是为了提 高语言运用能力,为了更好地交际。这样,学习者 在说话、写作、阅读等交际过程中就面临多方面的 问题:1.使用时搜索不到所需词汇;2.词汇使用不 恰当、不得体;3.词汇使用不符合语言习惯、不地 道;4.搭配不当、句子程式错误,语言使用环境不 当,滥造词语。三是这种词汇教学法一味地追求词汇 的广度和数量,忽视了词汇知识的深度和质量。同 时,这种教学法把应作为整体的固定组合形式拆散, 在交际过程中需要时再根据语法规则进行临时的组 合,这样也必然影响到语言输出的流利性。例如,彭 志平编写的第二册《汉语阅读教程》仍然贯穿着这样 的教学思想,其“生字”部分把固定组合形式拆散。 其实,没有必要列出“生字”部分的,因为“字—— 词(词组)”部分已经包含了生字。我们认为应该把 这部分省掉,同时丰富“字——词(词组)”部分中 的常用搭配,不仅可以节约篇幅,还有利于词汇教 学。 很显然当前的词汇教学状况不尽人意,很难达 到对外汉语和华文词汇教学的目标那么如何改变这一 现状,以适应对外汉语和华文教学的需要?我们有必 要借鉴英语作为第二语言教学中词汇教学的成果,引 进词块理论。 词块的定义 词块是词与词的特殊组合,它的特殊性在于“ 词语的搭配和同现一旦成为常态,它们之间便可能因 结合上的惯性而产生一定的黏聚力,并最终使它们 的组合具有类格式化的倾向。”[5]它是一种预制的 言语单位,要使用时只需稍微加工就可以组成符合语 法的句子,变成流利的语言。 词块分类 1992 年nattinger 和 decarrico 直接将多词 现象和语言教学联系起来,强调了它们在语篇中的衔 接功能,并将其分成四类:多词词组、程式性话语、 限制性短语、句型框架。1994 年lewis 重新对词汇 进行了定义,把词汇分成四种:单词和多词结构、习 惯搭配、惯用句型、句子框架和引语。我国学者对汉 语语块的分类各有千秋。周健(2007)结合汉语和汉 语教学的实际,把汉语词块粗分为三:1.词语组合搭 配语块,如“引起\产生 强烈的共鸣 ”。2.习 用短语,包括习惯用语、熟语等,含固定形式和半固 定形式。尤其是那些平时常说的、词典里又多半查找 不到的短语,如“撒腿就跑 ”。3.句子中连接成分 等类固定结构,如“既然 ……就”、“非但 ……反 而”等。贾光茂(2008)根据结构是否可变这条准则 将汉语语块分为“凝固结构”和“半凝固结构”。“ 凝固结构”包括:日常用语,熟语、名言警句、诗句 名篇、宣传语\术语、广告词、歌词\戏曲词、经典 台词。半凝固结构相当于限制性短语和句型框架,结 构可以变化。王慧(2007)从形式的角度将汉语词块 分为四类:1.句子层面的固定语块;2.句子层面的带 空语块;3.短语层面的固定语块,4.短语层面的带空 语块。杨金华(2009)把各类熟语和复句关联词排除 在语块之外,将语块分为三类:1.内部成分不变的组 合,如“三位一体”;2.不变成分加可变成分的组 合,如“大家(众人、上下、彼此)一条心”;3.框式 组合,如“吸引……的眼球”。 从以上学者的各种分类可以看出词块的某些特 性,它既区别于习语又不同于自由搭配。习语的结构 不容任何变动,因而无创造的空间,自由搭配属临时 的组合,缺少预测性,不易掌握,而词块正好是介于 这两者中间的半固定搭配。另外,词块分类还显示出 这样一个显著的特点,从词汇层到句子层,词块构成 成分之间在结构上的离散性增大,即词块内部可供语 用变化的空间越来越大,这正是创造性使用词汇的空 间。这些也正是对外汉语和华文词汇教学亟待开发的 空间。 对外汉语教学新策略—词块教学 (一)语块教学策略的理论基础 所谓的语块教学策略,就是教师在教学过程 中,运用语块理论,对汉语中一些固定词语、类固定 短语和固定用法等语块加大教学力度,让学生掌握其 语法、语境和语篇意义,然后通过对大量语块的反复 教授和练习,充分调用学习者已有的语言知识和认知 能力,把词汇学习和语法学习结合起来,从而提高学 习者语言综合运用能力的一种教学方法。这种教学法 的提出不是凭空而来的,而是有一定的语言学理论基 础和语言习得理论基础。 (二)语言由语法化的词汇组成 语言传统上分语音、语法和词汇三部分。但 是,近年来这一观点受到挑战,无论是从语言研究 角度还是从教学角度都被认为是不妥当的,主要是 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 针对语法和词汇。michael lewis (1993)在论述语 法和词汇的关系时指出,语言由语法化的词汇组成, 而不是由词汇化的语法组成。(language consists of grammaticalised lexis,not lexicalised grammar.) widdowson (1993 )也指出语法服务于词汇。 其实,早在 1978 年halliday 就阐明词汇也是最精 细的语法这一观点,他干脆把词汇、语法合在一起 ,统称为词汇语法(lexicogrammar)。语法和词汇之 间的关系实在是太密切了,它们的界限有时候很难划 得很清楚,你中有我,我中有你,也可以说语法不仅 仅是一套组词造句的规则,还应该包括词汇在内[6] 。它们之间的关系应该是:语法是为词服务的,语法 在词与意思之间起着中介作用,是达到交际的一种手 段。而传统的语法教学正相反,词只是为了举例而 用,词为语法服务,而不是语法为词服务。我们认为 传统的语法教学在处理语法和词的关系方面存在着方 向上的颠倒。 (三)并非只有语法具有生成性,词块也具备生成功 能 halliday(1978 )认为词汇系统并非是事后填 入由语法所定义的一组空位(slot)的某些东西。词汇 的语法性还表现在开放性词类也能充当语法功能,因 而也具备一定的生成功能。这类词在语言中占大多 数。这种观点克服了词汇与语法对分的传统观的刻板 性,表现出了一种更为辩证的语言观。在书面语篇教 学中,周健提出过“框架化范文展示,学生填充式模 仿”的教学方法,这正体现了词块的语法功能,即根 据一定的语法规则和语块构成形式,能成批地生成若 干同类短语。先看范文:中国人的姓氏到底有多少 呢 ? 据最近的调查,中国人的古今姓氏实际上多达 22000 个。当代中国人使用的姓氏约有 3500 个左 右。其中李、王、张、刘和陈是中国的大姓。如果把 这五个大姓的人口加起来 ,估计就有三亿五千多万 人 ,几乎占了中国全部人口的三分之一。 (四)语言输出重在“知其然” 学习一门语言,目的在于培养学习者使用这种 语言的能力,使学习者养成正确运用这种语言的习惯 和语感。语言课是技能课,不是理论课或知识课。 语言知识讲解的重点应是在特定的交际语境中该“ 说什么 ”、“怎么说 ”、“限定条件是什么 ”。 对于第二语言学习者来说,“知其然”往往比“知 其所以然 ”更重要。例如,汉语的词语搭配,有些 易于理性辨析,有些就不容易说清楚。比如只能说“ 不可思议”或“难以思议”,就不能说“可以思议” 或“易于思议”;“方方面面”能说,“地地方方” 就不能说……还有大量的、一般中国人都不明其理的 习惯性说法,与其做烦琐的理据分析,不如就让学生 记住固定搭配,反复操练使用,形成语感。krashen 曾指出过,有计划的、循序渐进的语法教学不能促进 学习者的语言表达能力;lewis(1993)指出没有任何 证据可证明明晰知识有助于语言表达;nattinger和 decaricco(1992)语言输出的流利程度不取决于学 习者大脑中储存了多少生成语法规则,而取决于词汇 组块储存的多少,是词汇组块使人们流利地表达自 我。这些预制组块具备有效提取的优点,同时还能使 说话者的注意力集中在语篇的层次结构而不是局限于 单个的词上。他们的这些观点得到后来的一些语料库 语言学及语言习得研究的验证. (五)词块教学策略的实施 1、 词块教学策略的基本思路 词块教学策略实施的基本原则和途径与其他教学 法相似,总体流程也是包括信息输人和信息导出 两个环节。所谓的信息输人,就是教师充分发挥 能动性,首先要在制定教学方案和教学计划以及 备课时都要对对外汉语教学中的语块知识点进行 总结分类,然后通过系统地课堂讲授帮助学生来 识别各种语块,对各种语块的功能、语法特点和 使用环境进行详细分解,完成学生对知识的接受 过程。在信息输人结束以后,信息的导出则要发 挥师生的互动作用,一方面教师要组织和提供大 量的范例,对学过的语块知识点进行针对性的练 习,通过教师的有向导出来巩固学生学过的知识 并为己所用。 2、 词块教学建议 强化词块意识,注重词块教学,提高学生使用词 块的能力。王慧(2007)通过实证研究的方法指 出汉语学习者掌握和使用语块的情况并不好;从 词块使用的实际情况来看,留学生主要是使用 连接性语块和搭配语块,很少使用熟语语块和插 入性语块。也就是说学生的语块意识还不强,没 有将最能体现汉语特色的语言当作一个整体来 学习。因此,对外汉语教师应该强化语块教学意 识,将语块教学贯穿到语言学习的各个环节中 去。 3、 加强汉语虚词语块的教学 汉语是缺乏严格意义上的形态变化的语言,主要 是靠语序和虚词来表现语法关系。虚词更多的是 体现一种语法意义,而语法意义是体现在与之共 现的横向或纵向的词语搭配中的,因此虚词教 学不能单独进行,而是要将之放到整个语言中 去教。例如,“对”主要出现在以下语块中,“ 对……说”、“对……感兴趣”、“对……来 说/而言”、“对……了解/清楚”、“对着+地 点”。因此,我们在讲“对”的时候,应该将“ 对”组成的语块以整体的形式告诉学生。又如“ 从来”一词,我们应将组合成“从来没有”、“ 从来不”语块来教学。 4、 实施语块教学应该区别对待。 区别对待就是要根据汉语水平这个实际,采取不 同的语块教学策略。对于初学者来说,语块教学 重在固定的实词语块,重视记忆在语言学习中的 作用。而对于中级来说,语块教学重在带空层面 的短语语块。初级者和中级者的语块教学的目的 都是在于打好语言学习的基础。对于高水平的汉 语学习者,语块教学要全面不能偏重任何一种。 语块教学的最终目的是培养他们灵活使用语块的 能力,学会通过语块模板来构建新的话语。 11a brief analysis ….. (temmy) 5、 重视背诵在汉语词块教学中的作用 “熟读唐诗三百首,不会作诗也会吟”、“书读 百遍,其义自现”等名言都证明了读和记忆对语 言学习的重要意义。熟读和反复背诵有利于培养 语感和扩充语言储备,是语块教学得以实现的保 障。对教师的启示就是应重视背诵在语言学习中 的作用。 6、 词块教学中应注意的问题 (1)汉语教学中词块的选择应该是高频率与可 学性、交际影响力三者相结合。如果词块是语言 教学的更佳单位,并且我们的教学目的是培养学 生的交际能力语用能力、汉语语感能力,那么哪 些词块才是最应选择出来进行教学呢?我们认为 汉语教学中词块的选择应该是高频率与可学性、 交际影响力三者相结合。刘慧通过实证的方法, 分析了留学生在语块使用类别的分布状况上的主 要特点:1.句子层面的带空语块使用最频繁,这 主要集中在关联词语的使用上。2.短语层面的固 定语块使用频繁。3.短语层面的带空语块使用也 较多 4.句子层面的固定语块使用得很少。从整 体上来看,短语层面的语块和带空层面的语块使 用得比较频繁。这主要还是取决于这两类词块的 记忆性和生成性强的自身优势,因此可学性也 强、交际影响力也大。 (2)汉语教学中单词与词块是不能偏废的两个 方面。词块的基础是单词,单词是词块不可缺少 的组成成分。例如:“引起(产生)(强烈的)共鸣 ”中包括“引起”和“共鸣”两个单词,但一起 出现的频率相当大。词块更注重的是词与词之间 的共现关系,是词汇的语用功能。如果放在一 起记忆使用时就不必花费时间考虑“共鸣”前该 用哪个动词了。如果说传统概念中的单词是“砖 块”的话,词块则好比预制件,拼在一起就是一 幢完整的房子,单词与词块是不能偏废的两个方 面。因此,词汇教学中单词的字音、字形以及最 基本的词典意义等是不能省略的,但是在夯实单 词记忆的同时,我们的注意力要过渡到词汇学习 更大的单位——词块,帮助学生运用地道的汉语 进行交际。 词块教学策略的作用和价值 词块兼有语法和词汇的特征,是一种语言使用 惯例,暗含着一定的潜语境,同时具有相对固定的形 式和可预测的性质,能缩小期待的范围,预测语篇 的内容。另外,词块还是记忆的理想模式。词块是较 大的言语单位,有时甚至是整个句子,所以一次性 记忆的单词量增大,可是记忆的容量增大并没有加大 记忆的难度,因为词块的意义是置于特定的语境,所 以比脱离语境单独背词汇更容易记住,而且不容易遗 忘,因而词块往往作为整体被学习、使用,并保留在 记忆中。词块的重要性还突出表现在以下方面,“即 汉语语序的单位,严格来说,并不是词,而是语块, 句子内的顺序是‘语块序列’而不是‘词序’”。正 因为词块有着独特的性质,因此词块教学也有着独特 的优势。关于词块理论在语言习得和教学中的作用和 价值,已有很多人研究论述过。 结语 综上所述,以词块为单位进行词汇教学,有着 很大的优越性。它符合语言学习的规律,能极大地促 进第二语言学习者交际能力的提高。但是任何一种教 学法都不能单独地完成对外汉语和华文词汇教学的任 务。在对外汉语词汇教学中应该倡导多重教学思路, 将语素法教学、词本位教学、语块教学法结合起来。 同时,我们更应该注重语块教学,因为汉语语块仍旧 是待开发的资源,而且我们要走的路还很长。吕必松 指出“一种新理论从提出到试验再到推广应用需要一 个相当长的周期,我们主张把可供应用的理论及时应 用到教学中来,就是希望尽可能缩短这个周期,也就 是尽可能缩短理论发展和教学发展之间的时间差,只 有这样,才能加快对外汉语教学发展的步伐。”[9] 因此,我们希望有更多的专家学者对汉语词块进行深 入的、突破性的理论研究和教学实证研究。 参考书目 chamot, a.u. (1987). the learning strategies of esl students. in a. wenden & j. rubin (eds.). learning strategies in language learning. us: prentice hall. 谢天蔚.(2006).博客、维基、网播与中文教学。 徐晶晶 黎加厚 . (2007). podcast在教学中的应用研 究 《远程教育杂志》(双月刊)年第6期。 徐子亮 吴仁甫.(2005)《实用对外汉语教学法》北 京大学出版社。 张和生.(2006).《对外汉语课堂教学技巧研究》商 务印书馆出版社。 microsoft word 09_jpg_ indah apriani penelitian fukugodoshi_setting 166 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” dalam novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas humaniora, binus university jl. k.h. syahdan no. 9, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 rmanurung@binus.edu; indahapriani04@gmail abstract japanese is a language that comprises a unique grammar. internal structure is its uniqueness and can be studied like syntax. one study of japanese language syntax is functions of “fukugoudoushi” 「て いる」 . this theme was chosen to understand the whole functions of “fukugoudoushi” 「ている」. as the corpus of data, a natsuo kirino’s novel jiorama is used. this study implements descriptive analytical method and literature review. from the results obtained, it is concluded that fukugoudoushi "て いる" has six functions, where the main function shows sustained activity and activity result. keywords: fukugoudoushi「ている」, jiorama abstrak bahasa jepang adalah bahasa yang memiliki keunikan gramatika. struktur internal merupakan keunikannya dan dapat diteliti seperti sintaksis. satu kajian sintaksis bahasa jepang adalah fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」. tema ini dipilih untuk memahami fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」secara utuh. sebagai korpus data digunakan novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino. metode deskriptif analitis dan studi kepustakaan digunakan dalam studi ini. dari hasil yang didapat, disimpulkan bahwa fukugoudoushi 「ている」 memiliki enam fungsi, di mana fungsi utamanya menunjukkan kegiatan berkelanjutan dan hasil kegiatan. kata kunci: fukugoudoushi「ている」, jiorama fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 167 pendahuluan menurut samsuri (1994:4) bahasa tidak terpisahkan dari manusia dan mengikuti di dalam setiap pekerjaannya. mulai saat bangun tidur pagi sampai malam waktu beristirahat, manusia tidak lepasnya memakai bahasa. saat manusia kelihatan tidak berbicara, pada hakikatnya ia masih juga memakai bahasa karena bahasa adalah alat yang dipakainya untuk membentuk pikiran dan perasaannya, keinginan, dan perbuatan-perbuatan; alat yang dipakainya untuk mempengaruhi dan dipengaruhi, dan dasar pertama-tama dan paling berurat akar dari masyarakat manusia. selain itu, bahasa digunakan sebagai alat untuk menyampaikan sesuatu ide, pikiran, hasrat dan keinginan kepada orang lain (sutedi, 2004: 2). adapun definisi atau pengertian dari bahasa adalah sistem lambang bunyi yang arbitrer dan konvensional yang digunakan oleh para kelompok sosial untuk bekerja sama, berinteraksi, dan mengidentifikasi diri (kridalaksana dalam chaer, 2007: 32). jadi, dari definisi di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahasa berfungsi sebagai alat untuk melakukan interaksi, menyampaikan dan menerima pesan, informasi kepada dan dari orang lain baik itu secara lisan maupun tulisan. selain hal tersebut, di antara semua ciri budaya, bahasa merupakan ciri pembeda yang paling menonjol karena dengan bahasa tiap kelompok sosial merasa diri sebagai kesatuan yang berbeda dari kelompok lain. bagi kelompok-kelompok sosial tertentu, bahasa tidak sekedar sistem tanda, melainkan sebagai lambang identitas sosial (kushartanti, 2005: 5-6). mengingat betapa pentingnya peranan bahasa dalam kehidupan sehari-hari seperti sebagai sarana komunikasi, interaksi dan memahami orang lain, semakin banyak orang yang mempelajari bahasa terutama bahasa yang berasal dari negara lain atau disebut dengan bahasa asing. pengertian bahasa asing dalam kamus besar bahasa indonesia (2008) adalah “bahasa milik bangsa lain yang dikuasai, biasanya melalui pendidikan formal dan yang secara sosiokultural tidak dianggap sebagai bahasa sendiri.” setiap negara di dunia memiliki bahasanya masing-masing. indonesia menggunakan bahasa indonesia sebagai bahasa nasional dan begitu pula dengan jepang yang memiliki bahasa nasional sendiri yang dikenal dengan sebutan bahasa jepang. pada masyarakat jepang istilah bahasa jepang disebut dengan nihongo (日本語). bahasa jepang digunakan sebagai bahasa resmi dan bahasa yang menghubungkan antara satu anggota masyarakat dengan anggota masyarakat jepang lainnya. dengan demikian dapat dikatakan bahwa bahasa jepang digunakan oleh kelompok sosial. sebagai sarana komunikasi dan interaksi yang hanya digunakan oleh manusia, sebuah bahasa dapat dikaji secara internal dan eksternal. secara internal pengkajian bahasa tersebut hanya dilakukan terhadap struktur internal bahasa itu saja, seperti struktur fonologi, struktur morfologi, atau struktur sintaksis (chaer, 2005: 1). pada penelitian ini, penulis akan membahas salah satu kajian bahasa secara internal yaitu bidang sintaksis. sudjianto dan dahidi (2004:11-12) menjelaskan bahwa bahasa jepang adalah bahasa yang unik. keunikannya adalah apabila kita melihat para penuturnya, tidak ada satu pun negara di dunia yang menggunakan bahasa jepang sebagai bahasa nasionalnya. selain itu, bahasa jepang merupakan salah satu bahasa yang ada didunia dan memiliki keanekaragaman dalam hal tata bahasanya. keanekaragaman tersebut dapat dilihat dari banyaknya jenis kelas kata atau hinshi (品詞) bahasa jepang. keanekaragaman dalam suatu bahasa pada akhirnya akan memunculkan berbagai aturan dalam penggunaan masing-masing bahasa tersebut. aturan-aturan yang berbeda yang terdapat di antara bahasa asing satu dengan bahasa asing yang lainnya menimbulkan kesulitan untuk mengerti dan memahami bagi pembelajar bahasa asing. salah satu aturan tersebut adanya fukugoudoushi 「ている」 dalam bahasa jepang. pada studi ini penulis akan meneliti fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」 karena seringkali dijumpai dan muncul di dalam buku pelajaran. akan tetapi, belum banyak dan masih sedikit buku pelajaran yang membahas tentang fungsi-fungsi dari fukugoudoushi 「ている」 ini secara utuh dan lengkap. 168 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 oleh karena itu, penulis tertarik untuk meneliti fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」 yang terdapat di berbagai buku pelajaran bahasa jepang. buku yang akan digunakan penulis sebagai korpus data dalam penelitian ini adalah novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino. novel ini penulis gunakan sebagai korpus data karena di dalam novel tesebut banyak ditemukan contoh kalimat yang menggunakan fukugoudoushi 「ている」 . ruang lingkup permasalahan yang akan diteliti oleh penulis adalah beberapa fungsi dari fukugoudoushi 「ている」 pada kalimat-kalimat bahasa jepang yang terdapat dalam novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino. sedangkan manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah agar para pemelajar bahasa jepang terbantu dalam mengerti dan memahami fungsi-fungsi dari fukugoudoushi 「ている」 dalam bahasa jepang secara utuh dan lengkap. untuk studi ini metode yang penulis gunakan adalah deskriptif analitis dengan cara mengumpulkan teori-teori yang sesuai dengan permasalahan yang terdapat di dalam penelitian dan mendeartikelkan atau menjelaskan serta menguraikan teori-teori tersebut, dan selanjutnya melakukan analisis data. dalam melakukan analisis data penulis akan mengorganisasikan atau mengurutkan datadata yang telah terkumpul kemudian mengaitkannya dengan teori-teori sehingga pada akhirnya ditemukan suatu kesimpulan. selain menggunakan kedua metode tersebut penulis juga melakukan studi kepustakaan dengan mengumpulkan data dari buku-buku yang didapatkan dari berbagai perpustakaan seperti perpustakaan universitas bina nusantara, the japan foundation dan lainnya. pembahasan kajian teori fukugoudoushi masuoka dan takubo (1993:16) mengatakan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan atau fukugoudoushi 「複合動詞」 adalah penggabungan klausa yang terdapat pada verba (klausa awal dan klausa selanjutnya) sehingga dapat membentuk sebuah verba secara majemuk. pembentukan atau fukugoudoushi「複合動詞」selain menggunakan sifat pada verba pada klausa awal, juga menggunakan verba bentuk pasif atau judoukei「受動形」dan bentuk kausatif atau shiekikei「使役形」. pembentukan atau fukugoudoushi「複合動詞」dengan menggunakan verba pasif atau judoukei「受動形」dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut: 最近、また、この種の小説が読まれはじめた。 ‘buku seperti ini sudah mulai dibaca akhir-akhir ini.’ pembentukan atau fukugoudoushi 「 複 合 動 詞 」 dapat juga dilakukan dengan cara menghilangkan sifat pada verba pada klausa lanjutannya secara sufiks atau akhiran. verba yang dibentuk dengan menggunakan aturan ini seperti 「ー込む」、「ーかかる」seperti 「飛びかかる」 dan「通りかかる」、「ーかける」seperti「呼びかける」dan「話しかける」、「ーつく」seperti 「飛びつく」dan「すがりつく」、「ーつける」seperti「痛めつける」dan「はねつける」、「ー かえる」seperti「しょげかえる」dan「あきれかえる」、「ーこける」. penggunaan 「ー込む」di dalam kalimat dapat dilihat dari contoh di bawah ini: その話を聞いて、私は考えこんだ。 ‘mendengar cerita itu membuat saya termenung.’ fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 169 masuoka dan takubo (1993:17) mengatakan bahwa fukugoudoushi dapat dikelompokkan menjadi dua jenis: tekei fukugoudoushi 「テ形複合動詞 」 dan renyoukei fukugoudoushi 「連用形複合動詞 」. tekei fukugoudoushi 「テ形複合動詞 」 atau bentuk-te dapat dikelompokkan menjadi tiga jenis, yaitu: (1) verba yang berkaitan dengan aspek, seperti 「ーている、ーてある、ー てしまう、 ーていく、ーてくる」; (2) verba yang berhubungan dengan kegiatan memberi dan menerima, seperti 「ーても らう、ーていただく、ーてくれる、ーてくださる、ーてあげる、ー てやる、ーてさ しあげる」; (3) verba lainnya, seperti 「ーておく、ーてみる、ーてみせる」. renyoukei fukugoudoushi 「連用形複合動詞 」 atau fukugoudoushi yang berfungsi sebagai kata penghubung dapat dikelompokkan menjadi empat jenis, yaitu: (1) verba yang berhubungan dengan aspekv seperti 「ーはじめる、ーだす、ー かける、ーつづける、ーおわる、ーおえる、 ーやむ、ーあがる、ーあげる」; (2) verba yang menunjukkan makna pencapaian, seperti「ーつく す、ーぬく, ーとおす、ーきる」; (3) verba yang menunjukkan makna non pencapaian, seperti 「ー忘れる、ーそ こな う、ー損じる、ーそびれる、ーしぶる、ーかねる、ーおとす」; (4) verba lainnya, seperti 「ーある、ーなおす、ーかえす、ーつける (kebiasaan)」. menurut masuoka dan takubo (1993:112) yang dimaksud dengan fukugoudoushi –te iru「て いる」adalah salah satu bentuk yang berkaitan dengan aspek, yaitu verba –te kei + iru, aru, shimau, iku, kuru. verba (te + iru) atau (te iru) adalah hal terpenting dalam ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan aspek. menurut yoshikawa (1989:55-56), verba atau kata kerja dapat dikelompokkan sebagai berikut (tabel 1): tabel 1 pengelompokkan verba atau kata kerja kelompok verba pembentukan contoh kata verba yang mengalami perubahan kuat (五段動詞) -u で終る 読む、書く,行く verba yang mengalami perubahan lemah (一段動詞) -eru, -iru で終る 食べる、見る、教える verba tidak beraturan (不規則動詞) 来る、する (「勉強する」「運動する」 selanjutnya yoshikawa menyatakan bahwa pembentukan verba –te dalam bahasa jepang seperti berikut ini (tabel 2): 170 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 tabel 2 pembentukan verba –te kelompok verba pembentukan contoh kata verba yang mengalami perubahan kuat (五段動詞) う、つ、る:って む、ぶ、ぬ:んで く:いて 「例外」 ぐ:いで す:して 会う:会って、打つ:打って、取る:取って 読む:読んで、飛ぶ:飛んで死ぬ:新で 行く:行って 泳ぐ:泳いで、かぐ:かいで 話す:話して、写す:写して verba yang mengalami perubahan lemah (一段動詞) る 見る:見て、教える:教えて食 verba tidak beraturan (不規則動詞) 来る:来て、する:して seperti yang dikatakan masuoka dan takubo (1993:112) bahwa verba –te + iru 「ーて+いる」 menjadi verba –te iru「ーている」. tapi tidak selamanya iru 「いる」akan berbentuk sama. kindaichi dalam suzuki (1989:65) mengatakan tentang perubahan iru dari-te iru seperti berikut ini: iru dari-shite iru adalah sebuah verba, sehingga mengalami perubahan bentuk kata. contohnya yaitu yondeiru, yondeita, yondeinai, yondeimasu… dalam kalimat percakapan bentuk atau fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ーシテイル」 (tabel 3) sering diubah ke bentuk 「シテル」. tabel 3 perubahan bentuk-iru「-いる」 kata dasar perubahan bentuk contoh いる いた 読んでいた いない 読んでいない います 読んでいます sumber: kindaichi dalam suzuki (1989:65) variasi bentuk lain dari -iru 「いる」adalah-shite oru「ーしておる」,-shite irassharu「ー していらっしゃる」– te shimau 「ーてしまう」. menurut masuoka dan takubo (1993:114) bahwa fungsi-fungsi fukugoudoushi 「複合動詞」 adalah sebagai berikut: menunjukkan kondisi dari suatu kegiatan yang berlangsung secara berkelanjutan. contoh: 太郎は音楽を聴いている。 fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 171 ’tarou terus mendengarkan musik’. menunjukkan kondisi hasil dari suatu kegiatan. contoh: 家の前に大型トラックが止まっている。 ’truk berhenti di depan rumah’ menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan yang terjadi secara berulang-ulang. verba –te iru 「ーている」 dapat menunjukkan kegiatan yang berulang-ulang. untuk menjelaskan fungsi tersebut dalam kalimat dapat digunakan subyek yang sama atau subyek lain. contoh: 走者は何度もコーチの方をうかがっている。 ‘pelari berulang kali bertanya tentang teknik berlari kepada pelatih.’ 競技会場に選手が次々に到着している。 ‘satu per satu para atlet tiba di lapangan atletik.’ menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan keselesaian. agar makna fungsi yang menunjukkan kegiatan keselesaian lebih jelas, pada kalimat disertai kata 「もう」,「既に」,「まだ」dan verba bentuk negasi. contoh: その記事は、既に読んでいる。 ‘saya sudah membaca artikel itu’. 先生にはまだ相談していない。 ’saya belum mendiskusikannya dengan dosen’; menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan yang berkaitan dengan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup. untuk menjelaskan fungsi verba-te iru 「ーている」yang menunjukkan kegiatan yang berupa pengalaman atau riwayat hidup, digunakan contoh berikut ini: 花子は 2 度カナダを訪れている。 ’hanako dua kali pergi ke kanada.’ 日本はこの種目で 1960 年と 1968 年に金メダルを取っている。 ‘jepang mendapat medali emas pada perlombaan ini pada tahun 1960 dan 1968.’ verba bentuk-te iru 「ーている」berfungsi untuk menunjukkan sifat turunan dari suatu obyek (ciri khas dan karakteristik) jika batas waktu kegiatannya dipersempit. dari sifat turunan obyek tersebut dapat menunjukkan kegiatan peralihan atau transisi. contoh: 鈴木さんは会社に勤めている。 ‘tuan suzuki bekerja di perusahaan.’ 鴨川は京都の街を流れている。 ‘sungai kamogawa mengaliri kota kyoto. ’ oleh karena itu, untuk menunjukkan proses transisi dari hasil kegiatan dapat dilihat pada contoh berikut: この車はハンドルが左側に付いている。 ‘setir mobil ini ada di sebelah kiri.’ 172 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 花子は少しやせている。 ‘hanako agak kurusan.’ perhatian: verba bentuk –te iru 「ーている」 pada dua contoh di atas sering juga diganti dengan menggunakan verba bentuk –ta 「タ形」+ nomina 「名詞」. contoh: ハンドルが左側に付いた車 ‘mobil yang bersetir kiri.’ やせた人 ‘orang yang bertubuh kurus.’ berdasarkan analisis yang telah penulis lakukan terhadap kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung fukugousdoushi「ている」 yang terdapat di dalam novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino dengan menggunakan teori takashi masuoka dan yukinori takubo dan teori-teori pendukung lainnya, penulis menemukan fungsi-fungsi sebagai berikut: fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」yang menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan berkelanjutan situasi: masaaki pulang ke mansion setelah berbincang-bincang dengan honda. sesampainya di rumah, masaaki masuk ke ruang tamu dan melihat mitsuko menghentak-hentakkan kaki di koridor. melihat sikap mitsuko tersebut, masaaki teringat dengan sikap chie. lalu, ketika masaaki menyenderkan pundaknya ke sofa mitsuko langsung menanyakan sesuatu padanya (jiorama, 1998:252). mitsuko : 「ねえ、下の人ね、あれから会った?」 ‘kamu tadi bertemu dengan orang di lantai bawah ini, ya?’ masaaki : 「いや、会わないよ」 ‘tidak.’ mitsuko : 「また何か言ってきたのか」 ‘atau nanti kamu akan bertemu dengannya?’ masaaki : 「そうじゃないのよ」 ‘tentu saja tidak.’ mitsuko : 「あの人ね、朝っぱらから変な声出してるのよ」 ‘orang itu sejak pagi terus saja bersuara aneh, lho.’ masaaki : 「どんな?」 ‘suara aneh seperti apa?’ untuk memperjelas analisis terhadap kutipan percakapan di atas, penulis menggunakan pembentukan fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba berikut (tabel 4). tabel 4 analisis fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba dasu「 出す」 bentuk dasar bentuk 「ている」 出す 出している sumber: yoshikawa (1989:86) fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 173 dari kalimat ini percakapan di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa mitsuko menanyakan masaaki apakah dia pernah bertemu dengan wanita yang ada di lantai bawah mansion mereka. masaaki mengaku bahwa dia belum pernah bertemu dengan orang tersebut. lalu, mitsuko memberitahu masaaki bahwa orang yang tinggal di lantai bawah mansion mereka sejak pagi bersuara aneh. pada kalimat di atas terdapat verba dasu 「出す」yang diikuti oleh fukugoudoushi「ている」sehingga berubah menjadi dashiteiru「出している」. fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba dasu「出す」 tersebut berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kegiatan yang berkelanjutan. kegiatan berkelanjutan pada kalimat di atas dipertegas dengan penggunaan adverbia waktu yaitu asapparakara 「朝っぱらから」 yang menunjukkan bahwa orang yang tinggal di lantai bawah mansion masaaki dan mitsuko sejak pagi hari terus bersuara aneh. hal ini sesuai dengan miki (2000) yang menyatakan bahwa apabila adverbia waktu -kara 「ーから」diikuti oleh verba 「ている」, maka akan menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan berkelanjutan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan fukugoudoushi pada verba 「出している」 dapat dilihat pada gambar 1 berikut. gambar 1. pembuktian fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ている」 pada data 2 (sumber: miki, 2000). analisis fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ている」yang menunjukkan kondisi hasil kegiatan situasi: beberapa malam belakangan, yuuri mengalami mimpi buruk dan menakutkan. mimpi yang dialaminya selalu sama. di dalam mimpinya, dia didatangi oleh ringo, anjing hitam milik ayahnya yang dulu telah dibunuhnya. 何日目の夜だったか。ユウリは寝苦しさに目を覚ました。リンゴがユウリの下腹 部を舐めていた。おぞましさにはっとして起き上がると、リンゴはユウリの体の上に覆い被 さるようにして見下げろしていた。喉を狙っている。ユウリは恐ろしさに心臓がとまりそう になった。「た、助けて……」 辛うじて声を上げると、リンゴは素早く逃げて行った。ドアが少し開いている。 ユウリは夢を見たのかと思い、ベッドサイドの照明を灯した (jiorama, 1998:178). ‘entah sudah beberapa hari ini. yuuri mengalami mimpi buruk saat tidur. ringo menjilati bagian perut bawah. ringgo tersentak kaget ketika yuuri bangun, lalu membungkuk di atas tubuh yuuri. ringo sedang mengincar kerongkongan yuuri. yuuri menjadi gusar dan jantungnya seperti berhenti. “ to..tolong!!!” yuuri berteriak dengan sekuat tenaga dan ringo pun pergi melarikan diri secepat mungkin. pintu sedikit terbuka. setelah bermimpi seperti itu, yuuri menyalakan lampu yang ada di sudut tempat tidurnya.’ untuk memperjelas analisis terhadap kutipan kalimat di atas, penulis menggunakan tabel pembentukan fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba berikut (tabel 5). 174 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 tabel 5 analisis pembentukan fukugoudoushi「ている」 yang melekat pada verba aku「 開く」 bentuk dasar bentuk 「ている」 開く 開いている sumber: yoshikawa (1989:86) pada kalimat di atas terdapat verba aku「開く」yang diikuti oleh fukugoudoushi「ている」 sehingga berubah menjadi aiteiru「開いている」. verba aku「開く」merupakan jidoushi 「自動詞. jidoushi「自動詞」aiteiru「開いている」pada kalimat di atas menjelaskan bahwa pintu kamar sedikit terbuka setelah ringo berlari keluar karena mendengar teriakan yuuri. dengan demikian, fukugoudoushi 「 て い る 」 yang melekat pada verba aku 「 開 く 」 tersebut berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kondisi hasil kegiatan. hal ini sesuai dengan masuoka dan takubo (1993:114) yang menyatakan bahwa agar verba-te iru 「ーている」dapat menunjukkan hasil kondisi kegiatan, verba seperti 「止まる」、「消える」、「開く」harus diubah ke verba bentuk lain. verba aku 「開く」di atas mengalami perubahan ke dalam bentuk –te iru 「開いている」. bagan pembuktian penggunaan fukugoudoushi pada verba 「開いている」dapat dilihat seperti berikut (gambar 2). gambar 2. pembuktian fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ている」 pada data 1 (sumber: masuoka dan takubo,1993:114). analisis fungsi fukugoudoushi「ている」yang menunjukkan kegiatan pengulangan situasi: kazumi dan wanita muda sedang mengobrol di kamar hotel cinta. kazumi dan wanita muda itu membicarakan tentang pekerjaan mereka sebagai wanita tuna susila. kazumi bercerita kepada wanita muda bahwa dirinya mulai merasa tidak nyaman dan malu dengan pekerjaan tersebut. その一言に打ちのめされたことは認めなくなかった。そして、いつもように、冴え ないと蔑んだ男からお金をもらって寝ることと事体にひりついた屈辱を感じている (jiorama, 1998:11). ‘aku tidak menghiraukan omongan orang tentang diriku. tapi jika selalu dipandang rendah oleh pria yang tidur dan memberiku uang maka dengan sendirinya aku merasa malu.’ untuk memperjelas analisis terhadap kutipan kalimat di atas, penulis menggunakan tabel pembentukan fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba berikut (tabel 6). fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 175 tabel 6 analisis fukugoudoushi「ている」 yang melekat pada verba kanjiru「感じる」 bentuk dasar 「ている」 感じる 感じている sumber: yoshikawa (1989:86) pada kalimat kutipan di atas terdapat verba kanjiru 「 感 じ る 」 yang diikuti oleh fukugoudoushi「ている」sehingga menjadi kanjiteiru 「感じている」. fukugoudoushi「ている」 yang melekat pada verba kanjiru 「感じる」di atas berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kegiatan berulang. kegiatan berulang pada kalimat di atas dipertegas dengan penggunaan adverbia itsumo「いつも」 yang menunjukkan bahwa kazumi selalu merasa malu apabila tidur dengan pria yang telah memberinya uang. perasaan malu yang dirasakan oleh kazumi ini terjadi secara berulang-ulang selama dirinya selalu mendapat perlakuan yang sama dari para tamunya. hal ini sesuai dengan satou (2004:184) yang menyatakan bahwa apabila adverbia itsumo 「いつも」diikuti oleh verba –te iru 「ている」, akan menunjukkan kegiatan yang dilakukan tidak hanya sekali tetapi berulang. bagan pembuktian penggunaan fukugoudoushi pada verba 「感じている」dapat dilihat seperti berikut (gambar 3). gambar 3. tabel pembuktian fungsi fukugoudoushi-te iru 「ている」 pada data 1 (sumber: satou, 2003:184). analisis fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ている」yang menunjukkan kondisi keselesaian dari suatu kegiatan situasi: masaaki baru saja pulang dari pesta penyambutan karyawan baru yang diadakan oleh perusahaan tempatnya bekerja. sesampainya di mansion, masaaki melihat mitsuko yang menunggunya di pintu masuk dengan wajah penuh kecemasan. お帰りなさい」玄関に迎えに出た美津子が憂い顔をしている。 十時過ぎだというの に、まだ化粧も落としていない (jiorama, 1998:213). ‘ “selamat datang “. masaaki bertemu mitsuko yang menampakkan wajah khawatir di pintu masuk. meskipun sudah pukul sepuluh lewat malam hari, mitsuko belum menghapus dandanannya.’ untuk memperjelas analisis terhadap kutipan kalimat di atas, maka penulis menggunakan tabel pembentukan fukugoudushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba berikut (tabel 7). 176 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 tabel 7 analisis fukugoudoushi「ている」 yang melekat pada verba otosu「落す」 bentuk dasar bentuk 「ている」negatif 落す 落していない sumber: kindaichi dalam suzuki (1989:65) dari kutipan kalimat di atas dapat dilihat bahwa masaaki baru saja pulang dari pesta penyambutan karyawan baru yang diadakan oleh perusahaannya. sesampainya di mansion masaaki melihat istrinya yang belum menghapus riasan wajah walaupun sudah pukul 10 malam. pada kalimat di atas terdapat verba otosu 「落す」yang diikuti oleh fukugoudoushi「ている」negatif sehingga berubah menjadi otoshiteinai「落していない」. fukugoudoushi「ている negatif 」yang melekat pada verba otosu 「落していない」tersebut berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kegiatan keselesaian. masuoka dan takubo (1993:115) menyatakan bahwa kondisi kegiatan keselesaian memilki dua makna, yaitu keselesaian dan ketidakselesaian. fukugoudoush「ている negatif 」 pada kalimat di atas berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kegiatan ketidakselesaian. kegiatan ketidakselesaian pada kalimat di atas dipertegas dengan penggunaan adverbia mada 「まだ」menunjukkan bahwa masaaki melihat mitsuko yang belum menghapus riasan wajah walaupun sudah pukul sepuluh malam hari. hal ini sesuai dengan ikeda dalam konishi (1999:71) yang menyatakan bahwa apabila adverbia mada 「まだ」 diikuti oleh verba –te iru 「ている negatif」, akan menunjukkan kegiatan ketidakselesaian. bagan pembuktian penggunaan fukugoudoushi pada verba「落としていない」dapat dilihat seperti berikut (gambar 4). gambar 4. pembuktian fungsi fukugoudoushi-te iru 「ている」 pada data 1 (sumber: masuoka dan takubo, 1993:115). analisis fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru 「ている」 yang menunjukkan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup pada sub bab ini penulis mengumpulkan kalimat-kalimat yang memiliki pola fukugoudoushi 「 て い る 」 dan kemudian melakukan analisis terhadap data yang berupa kalimat-kalimat fukugoudoushi 「ている」yang terdapat di dalam novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino. setelah melakukan pengumpulan dan analisis data, dalam sub bab ini penulis tidak menemukan adanya kalimat yang menjelaskan fungsi fukugoudoushi 「ている」yang menunjukkan riwayat hidup atau pengalaman. fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 177 analisis fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru「ている」 menunjukkan kegiatan transisi atau peralihan situasi : kazumi dan wanita muda sedang asyik mengobrol, lalu suara air yang mengucur dari shower semakin deras dan membesar. suasana di dalam kamar hotel cinta secara tiba-tiba berubah menjadi aneh. perubahan suasana kamar hotel yang tiba-tiba menjadi aneh ini membuat kazumi tidak nyaman. バスルームからはシャワーの音が相変わらず激しく聞こえて 来る。カズミは時間の 感覚が少しおかしくなっているのかと不 安に思もった。たまらず、腕時計を載せたサイド テブールのほ うを振り返る。(jiorama, 1998:20). dari kamar mandi terdengar suara shower yang semakin besar. kazumi tiba-tiba merasa suasana di sekelilingnya menjadi aneh dan merasa tidak nyaman. lalu, kazumi mengarahkan posisi jam tangannya ke arah sudut meja. untuk memperjelas analisis terhadap kutipan kalimat di atas, maka penulis menggunakan tabel pembentukan fukugoudoushi「ている」yang melekat pada verba berikut (tabel 8). tabel 8 analisis fukugoudoushi「ている」 yang melekat pada verba naru「なる」 bentuk dasar bentuk 「ている」 なる なっている sumber: yoshikawa (1989:86) dari kutipan kalimat di atas, terdapat verba naru「なる」yang diikiti oleh fukugoudoushi 「ている」sehingga berubah menjadi natteiru 「なっている」. fukugoudoush「ている」yang melekat pada verba naru 「なる」 tersebut berfungsi untuk menunjukkan kegiatan transisi atau peralihan. kegiatan transisi atau peralihan pada kalimat di atas dipertegas dengan penggunaan ajektiva -i atau disebut ikeiyoushi 「イ形容詞」okashii「おかしい」yang kemudian diikuti oleh verba natteiru 「なっている」 yang menunjukkan bahwa kazumi merasa suasana kamar hotel cinta berubah menjadi aneh. perubahan suasana itu dimulai dengan deras dan besarnya suara air yang mengucur dari shower di kamar mandi. proses transisi atau peralihan terlihat dari asyiknya wanita muda dan kazumi mengobrol yang menandakan suasana kamar yang menyenangkan dan berubah menjadi sedikit aneh yang ditandai dengan kutipan kalimat sukoshi okashiku natte imasu 「少しおか しくなっている」. verba natte iru 「なっている」inilah yang menunjukkan kegiatan transisi atau peralihan. hal ini sesuai dengan kindaichi (1989:189) yang menyatakan bahwa apabila ikeiyoushi 「イ形容詞」diikuti oleh verba -natteiru 「ーなっている」menunjukkan kegiatan yang mengalami transisi atau peralihan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan fukugoudoushi pada verba 「なっている」 dapat dilihat seperti berikut (gambar 5). 178 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 166-179 gambar 5. pembuktian fungsi fukugoudoushi-te iru 「ている」 pada data 1 (sumber: kindaichi, 1989:189). penutup setelah melakukan analisis terhadap kalimat-kalimat bentuk verba –te iru「ている」yang terdapat di dalam korpus data yaitu novel jiorama karya natsuo kirino pada sub bab hasil dan pembahasan, penulis dapat menyimpulkan bahwa fukugoudoushi「ている」merupakan salah satu jenis dari doushi (verba) yang berkaitan dengan aspek. menurut masuoka dan takubo (1993), fukugoudoushi 「 て い る 」 memiliki enam buah fungsi yaitu menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan berkelanjutan, menunjukkan kondisi hasil kegiatan, menunjukkan kegiatan pengulangan, menunjukkan kegiatan keselesaian, menunjukkan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup, dan menunjukkan kegiatan transisi atau peralihan. penulis menemukan dua belas contoh kalimat yang menggunakan fukugoudoushi 「ている」 pada korpus data. dari dua belas data tersebut, penulis menemukan dua data yang menunjukkan kondisi kegiatan berkelanjutan, dua data yang menunjukkan kondisi hasil kegiatan, tiga data yang menunjukkan kegiatan pengulangan, tiga data yang menunjukkan kegiatan keselesaian, dan dua data yang menunjukkan kegiatan transisi atau peralihan. walaupun demikian, di dalam novel jiorama tidak terdapat contoh kalimat yang menunjukkan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup. dari hasil analisis data tersebut, penulis tidak menemukan contoh kalimat dari fungsi fukugoudoushi 「 て い る 」 yang menunjukkan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup karena menurut masuoka dan takubo (1993), untuk menggambarkan pengalaman atau riwayat hidup yang biasanya digunakan adalah verba bentuk ta + koto ga aru「タ形+ことがある」. pada penelitian ini, penulis hanya menemukan kalimat yang mengandung fungsi fukugoudoushi –te iru「ている」yang sesuai dengan teori masuoka takashi dan takubo yukinori adalah sebanyak 12 buah kalimat. penulis menyadari bahwa penelitian ini masih jauh dari kesempurnaan. penulis menyarankan bahwa penelitian ini dapat dilanjutkan dengan korpus data yang berbeda. atau peneliti lain dapat juga memilih topik yang berbeda dengan topik penelitian ini. meskipun topik yang dipilih berbeda, penulis mengharapkan bahwa topik yang akan diteliti oleh peneliti lain tersebut masih berhubungan dengan aspek seperti fungsi fukugoudoushi「てくる」atau「ていく」. fungsi “fukugoudoushi –te iru” ….. (indah apriani; rudi hartono manurung) 179 daftar pustaka bahasa asing. (2008). dalam kamus besar bahasa indonesia daring. diakses 4 febuari 2008 dari http://bahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/kbbi/index.php. chaer, abdul. (2007). linguistik umum. jakarta: rineka cipta. kindaichi, haruhiko. (1989). nihongo doushi no asupekuto. tokyo: mugi shobou. kridalaksana, harimurti. (2007). kelas kata dalam bahasa indonesia (edisi kedua). jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. kushartanti. (2005). pesona bahasa: langkah awal memahami linguistik. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. masuoka, takashi & takubo, yukinori. (1993). kiso nihongo bunpou. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan. sutedi, dedi. (2004). dasar-dasar linguistik bahasa jepang. bandung: humaniora utama press. sudjianto & dahidi, ahmad. (2004). pengantar lingusitik bahasa jepang. jakarta: kesaint blanc. yoshikawa, taketoki. (1989). nihongo bunpou nyuumon. tokyo: aruku kabushiki kaisha. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 179 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 179-185 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3976 typography, morphology, and syntax characteristics of texting haryono1; bambang lelono2; asrofin nur kholifah3 1, 2, 3 japanese language department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university jl. soeparno no. 1, karangwangkal purwokerto, central java indonesia 1haryonoku@gmail.com; 2bambang.lelono58@yahoo.com; 3asrofinnur@gmail.com received: 20th september 2017/revised: 24th november 2017/accepted: 12th december 2017 how to cite: haryono., lelono. b., & kholifah, a. n. (2018). typography, morphology, and syntax characteristics of texting. lingua cultura, 12(2), 179-185. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3976 abstract the main purpose of this research was to investigate indonesian, english, and japanese linguistic characteristics of short text messages (sms) performed by students. in particular, this research tried to seek linguistic characteristics in terms of typography, morphology, and syntax. furthermore, the long term purpose of this research was to find out the difference of linguistic characteristics of those languages as well as its socio-pragmatic implication of the short text messages. this research applied content analysis for its method which made use of records or document as the main source of data in terms of recording, official records, text book, reference, letter, autobiography, pictures, movies, cartoon, etc. meanwhile, technique of analysis included several stages such as defining text, categorizing text, verifying text category, assessing the accuracy of text coding, revising the criteria of text coding, reassessing the category of text coding, coding entire texts, and finally reassessing the accuracy of coding. the identical language characteristics between sms used by the student to communicate with their lecturers and universal language charateristics are found in this research. the research expectedly provides the main resource for improvement of language learning that enables students to use language appropriately. keywords: typography characteristic, morphology characteristic, syntax characteristic, texting introduction linguistic characteristics in communication between students and lecturers in terms of short messages through social media likely arise when the use of mobile phones as a means of global communication significantly increases. they introduce attractive features including phone calls, videophone, radio, television, internet, camera, and audio player. furthermore, there is also a feature of sending and receiving short messages which can be in the form of short message service (sms) and instant messaging (im). the strength of im over sms is that im enables the user to send the message via the internet. thus, it allows users to send more messages than when they use sms. this fact is supported by an information company stating that in 2012, there are 19 million messages sent from im surpassing the number for sms which is 17,6 million messages (meyer, 2013). the issue arises when students use particular language style to communicate with lecturers through short messages (henceforth called as sm), which is found to be less appropriate and less acceptable. diction, spelling, and sentences that they express tend to violate grammatical rules. on this point, research on linguistic characteristics used by students through sm to their lecturers in the faculty of humanities of jenderal soedirman university is important to investigate. thus, this research focuses on linguistic characteristics particularly in the level of typography, morphology, and syntax. this is then followed by identifying the meaning with contrastive analysis to improve students’ awareness to use language appropriately while communicating. this research is beneficial in providing the explanation on the linguistic characteristics in indonesian, english, and japanese in terms of typography, morphology, and syntax. meanwhile, this research theoretically contributes to the universal concept formulation on linguistic characteristics of sm in terms of typographic that is concerned with morphological and syntactical aspects. the typographic aspect is concerned with general feature of printed matter (punctuation, phonetic spelling, pictorial, symbol, and emoticons), morphological aspect with the structure of the word, while syntactical aspect with the structure of sentences. therefore, this research is aimed at developing language skill mastery in accordance with grammatical rules. this research is mainly based on the following considerations; (1) there is a pattern change of written 180 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 179-185 communication by using sm which results in the change of language use performed by students to their lecturers. this pattern of communication, according to segerstad (2002), consists of four patterns; pattern in using email, web chat media, instant messaging (im), and sms. (2) inappropriateness and acceptability of linguistic characteristics that are performed by students to their lecturers through the messages they send. their language is frequently unclear and inappropriate since they have different linguistic characteristics from the common written style. (3) the various sociocultural and ethnic background of both students and lecturers. (4) only a few studies on the linguistic characteristics are performed by students to their lecturers through sm. accordingly, it is important to conduct this research since it provides the description on students’ use and ability in engaging communication with their lecturers in terms of the use of linguistic characteristics, which is appropriate and acceptable in their alma mater. based on this background, the research questions are then formulated as follows: (1) how are the linguistic characteristics on the sm performed by students in communicating with their lecturers in the faculty of humanities of jenderal soedirman university? (2) how are the implications of linguistic characteristics on the sm performed by students in communicating with their lecturers in the faculty of humanities of jenderal soedirman university? sm is basically a kind of communication containing text as the message. as suggested by brown, shipman, and vetter (2007), it is evident that sms messaging is becoming a widely used communication mechanism for cell phone users. it is also supported by thurlow and poff (2011) who stated that text is a short message written and sent through the service of mobile phones, pda, smartphones, and web browsers. hence, im and sms belong to sm. the language used in sm has its own characteristics, which are different from common language practice even though they have the same function as to express thoughts and ideas. this is in accordance with kahari (2014) who has argued that the language of texting has its own style, and the dominant features in sms language are the use of abbreviations; slang; syntactic reductions; asterisk emoting; deletion of parts of speech especially subject pronoun, preposition, articles, copula, auxiliary or modal verbs; and contractions. it is also in line with richardson and lenarcic (2009) who have asserted that forms of multimedia communication such as email and instant messaging have been observed as one of language stylistic evolutions. the language used via computer and mobile phone based communication is considered the emergence of new form of language. thus, this new form of language does not apply to normal patterns of either written or spoken language. hamzah, ghorbani, and abdullah (2009) have argued that the new patterns are regarded as an indicator of the quality degradation due to electronic media’s effect. they explain that linguistic characteristics used in sm, including spelling, punctuation, and abbreviation, are not based on standard language. consequently, this results in the language quality used by students which also affects the language used in daily communication. research on the use of sm in communication conducted by thurlow and poff (2011) have shown the following findings: (1) in hongkong, male students who received monthly pocket money from their parents are regarded of having higher social status for their high frequency of sending sm. (2) in hongkong and japan, adults of low social interaction ability tend to use sm in communication rather than phone call. lastly, (3) mothers in america, who come from the philippines, use sm to keep in touch with their children. from these facts, it can be concluded that the use of sm is as a means or pattern of communication which is commonly performed by people and globally used by world society. it is also supported by koross and kipkenda (2016) who have said that the use of sms texting is pervasive and that sms text styles messaging could heighten the tendency among students to adopt nonstandard uses and contracted forms of english words in their class work, examinations, and research reports. at last, the language used in sm can be classified into a new language used which embed certain linguistic characteristics which are different from common language. the word characteristic is derived from greek, charakteristikos. it consists of ‘character’ and ‘-istikos’ or ‘–istic’, meaning distinct or basic nature. hence, the characteristic is a part of things that differentiate them from others. linguistics, according to collin, derives from ‘linguist’ and ‘–ic’ or ‘–icaf’. linguistics deals with language and studies about language. therefore, linguistic characteristics refer to certain characteristics of linguistic aspect used in communication through sm, which covers phonological, morphological, and syntactical level. according to baron (2008) and brown, shipman, and vetter (2007), sm linguistic characteristic, in general, is its focus on the aspect of abbreviation, acronym, misspelling, vowel omission, subject pronoun, and punctuation. it is also said by vosloo (2009) that sm language is a phonetic abbreviation which is phonologically acceptable although they are inappropriate in terms of spelling. sm linguistic characteristics according to thurlow and poff (2011) are: (1) conventional and unconventional abbreviated form; (2) letter-number homophones; (3) non-standard spelling by changing into phonetic transcription; (4) the separation of compound words, the use of capital or small letter throughout words in text, shortened forms of words, the use of symbols and emoticons; as well as (5) unambiguous abbreviated form. linguistic characteristics in this research cover typography, morphology, and syntax. typographic characteristics include punctuation (full stop, comma, and space), capital letter, sound deletion, use of symbols and/ or emoticons (letter homophone, number homophone, and letter-number homophone), phonetic spelling, symbols, and emoticons. as supported by lyddy et al. (2014), this is an important contribution to the understanding of the processing of spelling variants. morphological characteristics involve initials, abbreviation, shortened form, repetition, and dominant diction of certain group. meanwhile, the syntactical characteristics are limited to one out of four aspects, namely the sentence complexity categorized into simplex, complex, compound, and compound-complex sentences. the first characteristic is punctuation which consists of the use of full stop, comma, and space. tim pengembang pedoman bahasa indonesia (2016) has said that full stop [.] is used: (1) at the beginning and the end of a sentence, except for interrogative and exclamation; (2) after number or letter in a diagram, summary or list; (3) to separate number of hour, minute, and second which indicates time or duration; (4) to separate author, title, publishing in reference; and (5) to separate thousands number and its multiplication which show certain number. comma has several functions including to be used: (1) between components in numbers; 181typography, morphology, and syntax .... (haryono et al.) (2) to separate clauses in compound sentence which use conjunction to show contrast; (3) to separate the main clause from dependent clause; (4) after words or inter-sentences connector at the beginning of the sentence; (5) to separate direct quotation from the other part of the sentence; and (6) between one’name and their academic title. on the other hand, the function and location of comma [,] are related to expression and certain components. these are (1) to flank unbounded additional information; (2) separate between words in a sentence; (3) to separate name, address, part of address, place and date, name of place, which is respectively arranged; (4) to separate reversed name in references; (5) to be used in footnotes; (6) to be used in numbers and currency; and (7) to avoid misreading after the information at the beginning of the sentence. therefore, space is punctuation which typographically plays an important role in marking one word to another and as an inter-sentence marker in sm. the second characteristic is the capital letter. according to tim pengembang bahasa indonesia (2016), the capital letter is used in certain place and function. it is used as an initial letter in a sentence; the first letter in direct quotation; the first letter to address god and its pronoun, holy book, the first letter of noble title, descent, and religion followed by name of person; the first letter of title and rank followed by name of person; the first letter of each word in one’s name; the first letter of nation’s names, ethnic group, and language; the first letter of year, month, day, holiday, and historical moments; the first name of geographical name, state, government, legal document, newspaper, title of article; the first letter of kinship; and the first letter of pronoun. the third characteristic is vowel deletion. the deletions found in text messages are expected to correspond with reductions in speech. in text messages, the letters which represent vowels in unstressed positions should be deleted within the domain of the weakly accented syllable. it happens because: (1) consonants bring more information than vowels, and (2) this deletion does not confuse the readers in comprehending the message. the fourth is replacing words or syllables with symbols or emoticons, which consists of letter/number homophone and letter-number homophone. the fifth is phonetic transcription which is necessarily classified into phonemic transcription under the study of phonetics and phonology. according to tim pengembang pedoman bahasa indonesia (2016), phonemic transcription consistently describes each phoneme in a language by one symbol while phonetic transcription illustrates each variant of phoneme or sound by one symbol. the sixth is emoticons or smiley, which is a facial image commonly used in the email to express the certain feeling. according to crystal (2008), the emoticon is derived from ‘emote’, meaning expressing emotion and designed to show facial expression based on the certain feeling of the sender. it can be either positive or negative expression. in other words, emoticons are symbols provided in mobile phone to show facial expressions representing sender’s or receiver’s feeling. morphology studies about word formation from the smallest unit of meaning are called morpheme. morphological process in sm includes initials, abbreviation, cutting, repetition, and diction. initials, as greenbaum (2009) and plag (2009) have described, is a deletion of an entire letter in a word except for the initial letter. this can be pronounced with the spelling of the former one by one without sounding like a word. the abbreviation is a process of deleting the certain element in a word. unlike initials, it maintains more than one letter in the intended word. cutting is a word formation by cutting or omitting certain letter or syllable in a word and form a new shorter word. hence, it is one of the word formation processes that are done by omitting certain sound/letter or syllable. the next characteristic is diction. richardson and lenarcic (2009) have defined diction as an author’s word selection of what is considered effective and appropriate. the aspect used as the focus of the research is inappropriate and ineffective dictions by students in engaging communication with their lecturers. it is particularly concerned with the different role and social class among participants. in literal meaning, the syntactical characteristic is related to the rule of phrase and clause formation. it particularly deals with the number of elements which form a sentence which is then classified into simplex and complex (alwi et al., 2008). in contrast, carter and mccarthy (2006) categorize it into (1) simplex sentence consisting of one main clause, (2) compound sentence with two or more main clauses, and (3) complex sentence with one main clause and one or more subordinate clause. meanwhile, droga and humphrey (2005) have stated that simplex sentence contains one main clause, compound sentence two or more independent clauses, and complex sentence a combination of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause. that being said, the independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own while dependent clause cannot. this particular aspect involves: (1) analyzing the context of communication between students and lecturers in terms of participants, place, theme, the communicative function for the social dimension covering degree of closeness, participants’ social status, background and types of interaction, as well as purpose or topic of interaction. (2) relating the result of factor analysis and social dimension of students and lecturers’ communication to the five language styles namely intimate, informal, consultative, formal and phatic. (3) examining linguistic characteristics used with the language style which should be applied. lastly, (4) to interpreting relevant similarity and difference of real characteristics and ideal one. methods this research is applied to the students of 2015/2016 class from the faculty of humanities in jenderal soedirman university. moreover, it employs content analysis. this method is selected since: (1) it is a process of describing and analyzing text to represent the content through a process of selecting such as calculating word frequency as well as the qualitative assessment on the words or terms used. (2) it requires categorizing qualitative textual data into groups of the entity or similar conceptual category to identify consistent pattern and relation among variables. this is a descriptive content analysis by applying procedures as follows: (1) collecting sm in indonesian, english, and japanese sent from students to lecturers, (2) studying other relevant research focusing on the same topic to determine the focus of the research, (3) comprehending relevant literatures to formulate criteria as the base of data analysis, (4) analyzing data, (5) reducing data, (6) reanalyzing data, (7) presenting findings, and (8) drawing conclusion. the data of this research are sm linguistic 182 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 179-185 characteristics in indonesian, english, and japanese produced by students. the data are collected through the following steps: (1) asking for students’ and lecturers’ willingness to collect their messages, (2) transforming sm into documents in the form of microsoft words and excel, and (3) presenting sm into the table. then, the procedures of data analysis in this research are carried on as follows: (1) arranging data coding, (2) categorizing data, (3) re-checking the classification and coding, and discussing it with researcher and team (a doctor of linguist and translator), (4) explaining pattern of linguistic characteristics, (5) presenting the frequency of each characteristics, (6) explaining the different characteristics in indonesian, english, and japanese in sm, (7) comparing the real characteristics to the ideal characteristics, and (8) drawing conclusion. results and discussions this research analyzes the linguistic characteristics of students’ sms in terms of punctuation and capitalization in indonesian, english, and japanese. these characteristics include the use of full stop (fs), comma (co), space (s), and capitalization (ca). three types of those are: (1) using fs, co, s, and ca in accordance with grammatical rule; (2) using fs, co, s, and ca without accordance with grammatical rule; as well as (3) not using fs, co, s, and ca (see appendix 1). the use of full stop in sms done by the humanities students is not always in accordance with the grammatical rule. nevertheless, the correct use of full stop is found at the beginning and the end of the sentence while the incorrect use is identified in particular position of the sentence. this punctuation is not only used as a sentence marker but also the linguistic marker in the level of the word. the use of the comma in this research is rarely found. ideally, the comma is used to add details of information and appositive marker. it is also used to separate clauses of compound sentences which contain contrast or difference in meaning. space is naturally used among students to separate words within phrases, clauses, and sentences. however, incorrect use of space is still identified in the use of space which precedes comma, full stop, and the question mark, the use of space to beautify paragraph, and the use of space in the passive voice. the use of this punctuation is inconsistently applied. according to tim pengembang pedoman bahasa indonesia (2016), capital letter is used as the initial of first word in a sentence, direct speech, the god address, name of holy book, month, year, holiday, geographical name, state or country, governmental institution, name of book, magazines, newspaper, title of article, and the first letter of abbreviation. in this research, the incorrect use of capital letter is found in the beginning, middle, and end of certain words which should not necessarily be used. inconsistency use of full stop, comma, space, and the capital letter is caused by either the students’ intention to be straightforward to the topic or their low comprehension of the use of punctuation (see appendix 1). the use of emoticon is relatively rare in this research. the purpose of using emoticon is to express the particular emotion, either positive or negative. the emoticon ☺ is used to express request and gratitude; to express expectation, the sadness of being declined, and permitted. however, this emoticon is only used to express positive emotion by far. the omission is frequently used by the students, yet it does not change the meaning. it is commonly done by omitting vowel in pronoun, address, verb, noun, interrogative word, adverbs, and omitting particular letter. however, this omission is still understood by the receiver most probably because of the consonant dominance. this next type is frequently used by the students in communicating with their lecturers. the common forms of this types are letter homophone (bt for buat; cs for because; tq for thank you; ur for your; bw for buat; sns for sensei), number-homophone (2 for two; 4 for four), letter-number homophone (b4 for before; 2day for today) and symbol or picture (se(x) for sekali; di(+) for ditambah; di(-) for dikurangi). the use of letter homophone is rarely found in this research. several examples include the use of liat for lihat; oke for ok; gud morning for good morning; and bcs for because. the use of letter homophone, vowel, particular letter omission, and boiled forms tend to be the same as the general use of text message. this type is generally used to express common terms such as btw for by the way, and the letter d for the preposition di. the abbreviated form commonly used by the students include those which are generally recognized such as b. indonesia (bahasa indonesia), lg (lagi), angk (angkatan), ma ksh (terima kasih), byk (banyak), thx (thanks), emg (emang), yg (yang), and mjd (menjadi). repetition is seldom used by the students. the repetition can be the full repetition as in kira2 (kira-kira) and sungguh2 (sungguh-sungguh); or partially repetition such as saudara/i (saudarasaudari). the unique finding of this type is the presence of number 2 (two) and letter x which are used on their own (kmrn2 for kemarin-kemarin and kr2 for kira-kira), altogether (benar2x for benar-benar and kira2x for kira-kira), and/or put between letters (mdh2n for mudah-mudahan; ti2p for titip). reduction is one of the most common forms used by the students of the faculty of humanities. the reduced form occurs by deleting one syllable or more in certain position like in the beginning (biss (habis)) and tuk (untuk); in middle (hub (menghubungi)), and/or in the end of word (jap for japanese; eng for english; grad for graduate; and info for information). the use of colloquial form is realized through its root, such as: ganggu for mengganggu; butuh for membutuhkan; bantu for membantu; and tanya for bertanya. in addition, some informal forms are still used, for example ko for kok; udah for udah; banget, ga, or gag for enggak; pengen for ingin; mo for mau, and doank for doang. the use of simplex sentence, complex sentence, compound sentence, complex-compound sentence are also identified in this research. simplex sentences are the most dominant of the findings, yet some complex sentences are also found by the absence of the conjunction. the use of simplex sentences does not mean that it contains short message only, but it cannot be separated from the basic function of the cellphone which only accommodates brief message. conclusions from the findings and analysis, the conclusion are as follows; (1) the use of punctuation and capitalization by students is inconsistent, and it occurs as they want to be straightforward to the topic they discuss (see appendix). it also happens due to their lacks of competence in using 183typography, morphology, and syntax .... (haryono et al.) these punctuations. (2) the use of letter homophone, the vowel and particular letter omission, boiled forms, and phonetic spelling in short text messages tend to be similar to the general use in daily communication in the faculty of humanities (see appendix). (3) the use of morphological characteristics is realized through abbreviation, repetition, omission, and tolerable colloquial language (see appendix 2). (4) the use of simplex sentences cannot be separated from the basic function of the cellphone which only accommodates brief message. however, several complex sentences are also found. further research that is arranged after this research is completed. the findings which describe the use of linguistic characteristics in the level of punctuation, typography, morphology, and syntax will be followed up with characteristic differences on those four levels. this will be done alongside an analysis of sociopragmatic relevance on the short message service among students of the faculty of humanities in jendral soedirman university. references alwi, h., dardjowidjojo, s., lapoliwa, h., & moeliono, a. m. (2008). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (3rd ed). jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pembangunan bahasa dan balai pustaka. baron, n. s. (2008). always on: language in an online and mobile world. new york: oxford university press. brown, j., shipman, b., & vetter, r. (2007). sms: the short message service. journal of computer society, 40(12), 106-110. http://doi.ieeecomputersociety. org/10.1109/mc.2007.440. carter, r., & mccarthy, m. (2006). cambridge grammar of english: a comprehensive guide spoken and written english grammar and usage. cambridge: cambridge university press. crystal, d. (2008). txtng: the gr8 db8. oxford: oxford university press. droga, l., & humphrey, s. (2005). grammar and meaning: an introduction for primary teachers. new south wales: target texts. greenbaum, s. (2009). the oxford english grammar. new york: oxford university press. hamzah, m. s. g. b., ghorbani, m. r., & abdullah, s. k. b. (2009). the impact of electronic communication technology on written language. us-china education review, 6(11), 75-79. kahari, l. (2014). language of texting, patterns and factors of language choice in text messaging of university of zimbabwe, shona-english bilinguals. international journal of humanities and social science, 4(1), 156163. koross, r., & kipkenda, p. k. (2016). the short message service (sms) texting style of communication and its impact on kenyan university students’ written communication skills. international journal of scientific research and innovative technology, 3(6), 151-162. lyddy, f., farina, f., hanney, j., farrell, l., & o’neill, n. k. (2014). an analysis of language in university students’ text messages. journal of computermediated communication, 19(3), 546-561. https:// doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12045. meyer, d. (2013). chat apps have overtaken sms by message volume, but how big a disaster is that for carriers? retrieved on november 14th 2016 from https://gigaom.com/2013/04/29/chat-apps-haveovertaken-sms-by-message-volume/. plag, i. (2009). word formation in english. new york: cambridge university press. richardson, j., & lenarcic, j. (2009). sms-push first and then students will pull administrative information in higher education? in proceedings of the 20th australasian conference on information systems. melbourne, australia. pp 571-581. segerstad, y. h. (2002). use and adaptation of written language to the conditions of computer-mediated communication (doctorate dissertation). sweden: göteborg university. retrieved on november 5th 2015 from http://nl.ijs.si/janes/wp-content/ uploads/2014/09/segerstad02.pdf. thurlow, c., & poff, m. (2011). text messaging. in s. c. herring, d. stein, & t. virtanen (eds.), handbook of the pragmatics (pp 1–24). berlin & new york: mouton de gruyter. retrieved on november 5th 2015 from http://nl.ijs.si/janes/wp-content/ uploads/2014/09/thurlowpoff11.pdf. tim pengembang bahasa indonesia. (2016) pedoman umum ejaan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. vosloo, s. (2009). the effects of texting on literacy: modern scourge or opportunity. paper presented at the shuttleworth foundation. retrieved november 5th 2015 from http://stevevosloo.com/2009/04/21/theeffects-of-texting-on-literacy-modern-scourge-oropportunity/. 184 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 179-185 appendix 1 fs = full stop characteristic co = comma accordance with linguistic rule and using fs, co, s and ca (*) not accordance with linguistic rule and using fs, co, s and ca (**) not using fs, co, s and ca (***)s = space ca = capitalisation short message (sm) examples fs data in sm meaning * alright miss. thank you. alright miss. thank you. ** thank you… thank you. *** thank you thank you. co data in sm meaning * alhamdulillah thanks bu afin. alhamdulillah, thanks bu afin. ** good morning, miss, do you go to campus today? good morning miss, do you go to campus today? *** assalamu alaikum ibu i am havid fahlevi f1f012016 i want to ask when i could see to do consultation? assalamu alaikum ibu, i am havid fahlevi f1f012016 i want to ask when i could see to do consultation? s data in sm meaning * good evening miss. i am annisa rizkiah. i put my draft last monday. when will i meet you? thank you. good evening miss. i am annisa rizkiah. i put my draft last monday. when will i meet you? thank you. ** ruangan nya penuh semua bu. ruangannya penuh semua bu. *** trimakasihya bu, udah menambahkan nilai untuk saya terima kasih ya bu, sudah menambahkan nilai untuk saya ca data in sm meaning * assalamu alaikum bu afin. i want to ask your availability for my semhas. will you be available on monday, august 22, at 08.30? assalamu alaikum bu afin. i want to ask your availability for my semhas. will you be available on monday, august 22, at 08.30? ** gud morning miss, sorry miss my sia is locked. could you unlock it? thank you good morning miss, sorry miss my sia is locked. could you unlock it? thank you *** assalamu alaikum bu afin, can i see you today to consult my draft? assalamu alaikum bu afin, can i see you today to consult my draft? 185typography, morphology, and syntax .... (haryono et al.) appendix 2 a = abreviation characteristic r = repetition accordance with linguistic rule and using a, r, o and c (*) not accordance with linguistic rule and using a, r, o and c (**) not using a, r, o and c (***)o = omission c = colloquial short message (sm) examples a data in sm meaning * fiqqi faisal 2014 kelas b (saya ) fiqqi faisal (dari angkatan) 2014 kelas b ** pak bagus maaf kenapa sy nilai ilbud c ya? pak bagus, maaf kenapa saya nilai ilmu budaya (mendapat) c ya? *** none none r data in sm meaning * kalau besok kira-kira jam berapa bapak bisa? kalau besok kira-kira jam berapa bapak bisa? ** iy ibu sama sama iya ibu. sama-sama *** none none o data in sm meaning * saya ingin konsul dan sharing mengenai morfologi bu. kapan ibu ada waktu luang bu? terimakasih saya ingin konsultasi dan sharing mengenai morfologi bu? kapan ibu ada waktu luang? terima kasih ** trimakasih banyak ya bu maaf mengganggu terima kasih banyak ya bu. maaf mengganggu. *** (none) (none) c data in sm meaning * none none *** none terima kasih bu. saya senang. none 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 a brief analysis of the acrostic in chinese language in teaching chinese as a foreign language 浅析对外汉语离合词 lydia anggreani; agustian chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 lydiaanggreani@gmail.com; agustian@binus.edu abstract acrostic is a special phenomenon of the modern chinese language. it is a combination of lexical and syntactical that across “vocabulary” and “grammar” categories. the morphemes can be combined and can also be separated by various form changes depending on its development. acrostic is always been a crucial part in teaching chinese language to foreigners and less developed than other parts of the teaching. this study used quantitative method to analyze the problems associated with the acrostic in teaching chinese to foreigners. source of the data was learners’ exercise and assignment. the discussion in this article was viewed from the perspective of the outside-oriented teaching, grouped into 3 main sections. the first was in terms of the usability characteristics to the acrostic developments in the acrostic grammar study. the second, based on the results of the questionnaire regarding the use of acrostic, research analyzed students’ main mistakes and their causes. the third was to observe the condition of teaching acrostic. this research is expected to help teachers and learners of mandarin understand and overcome the difficulties in learning acrostic. keywords: acrostic, grammar, teaching, chinese language 摘要 离合词是现代汉语中一种特殊的语言现象,它集词法和句法为一身,跨越“词汇”和“语法”两大范 畴,其内部语素可“分”可“合”,具有多样的扩展变化形式。离合词一直是对外汉语教学中的薄弱环节, 落后于其他方面的教学。本文从外向型教学的角度,分为三个主要部分:一、对于离合词语法上的研究,从离 合词的特点到扩展形式的应用。二、针对离合词应用进行的调查问卷结果,分析分析学生偏误的重点和原因。 三、探讨对外汉语离合词教学的现状。本文采用了收集资料一研究方法,并浅析关于离合词在对外汉语教学中 有关问题。本文收集学生的听写、练习以及作业当作资料库。希望这篇文章有助于对外汉语教师了解留学生学 习离合词的困难 关键词:离合词, 语法, 教学, 汉语 49a brief analysis of the acrostic ….. (lydia anggreani; agustian) 前言 离合词是现代汉语中一种特殊的语言现象。陆 志韦在《汉语的构词法》中正式提出“离合词”这一 概念。张涤华、胡裕树在《汉语语法修辞词典》中 这样定义“离合词”的:“意义上具有整体性、单一 性,但结构上有时可以分开或扩展的语素的组合。这 类词合则为一,离则为二,即合着的时候是一个词、 分开的时候是一个短语。” 研究方法 本文采用学生的听写、练习以及作业当做资料 库。由于他们在学习汉语当中无意中遇到各种各样的 离合词形式,也是受到母语的影响就可能会出现偏 误。这篇文章也采用了问卷调查搜集相关的资料。 内容 离合词的特点 “离合词”多数为口语词,母语本为汉语的人 在使用离合词的过程中受到“语感”潜移默化的影 响,基本上不会出现什么语法错误。而对于将汉语作 为第二语言来学习的留学生来说,“离合词”的特殊 性,使对外汉语离合词的习得颇有难度。要想让留学 生正确地把握离合词,从而减少偏误的产生,我们就 要对离合词的语法特点有一个清楚的了解。 意义构成 ab的意义构成具有词的特点,ab的意义不等于 a义与b义的简单相加,意义具有整体的粘着性。 组合成分 (1) 大部分离合词不能带宾语,只有少数离合词可 带。 例如:“放心”、“担心”、“讨厌”等表示 心理活动的离合词可以带宾语,并且带宾语时 离合词不能用扩展式。 (2) 一些离合词可以受程度副词的修饰。 如:“放心”、“讨厌”、“关心”、“担 心”“吃惊”等表示心理活动的离合词,可以 同时带宾语并且受程度副词修饰。还有一些离 合词只能受程度副词修饰,不能带宾语。如: “吃亏”、“要命”、“扫兴”。 (3) 离合词带时量宾语、程度补语、数量补语等重 复动语素。 ①理发理了一个小时。 *他理发一个小时。 ②歌唱得很好。 *他唱歌很好 倒装 一些离合词宾语素可提前;大多数离合词如有 逻辑上的宾语,可以用介词把宾语提前,也可以插在 中间。 见面——他的面没见过 ④跳舞——舞跳得很棒 ⑤见面——跟他见面/见他一面 帮忙——给他帮忙/帮他的忙 重叠 大部分离合词可重叠,但重叠方式与一般动词 不同,不是aabb式,而是aab式。 我们去散散步吧。 我们来谈谈心吧。 离合词与动态助词的共现大部分离合词中间可 以插入其他成分,如:“了”、“着”、“过”等动 态助词。 *我们见过面。 *正理着发呢。 脱落 a或b可借助语境单独表达ab的词义,即b或a删 略,使其中一个构词成分表达ab的意思。 他现在发烧吗? 烧!(保留b成分表达ab义) 你还洗澡吗? 洗!(保留a成分表达ab义) 离合词的扩展形式(引自王燕明《对外汉语离合词扩 展形式的分级教学》) 根据对离合词扩展形式通用性的考察,我们按照通用 性由高到低,列出离合词常用扩展形式。 常用扩展形式排序: ⑴ v+了+o ⑵ v+过+o ⑶ v+(了/过)+补(动量)+o ⑷ v+的+o ⑸ v+什么+o ⑹ v+补(结)+(了)+o ⑺ v+补(可能)+o ⑻ v+(了/过)+数+量+o ⑼ v+补(起)+o+(来) ⑽ v+个+o ⑾ v+着+o ⑿ v+点儿+o ⒀ v+代+(的)+o ⒁ v+(了/过)+补(时量)+o ⒂ v+补(上)+(了)+o 倒装式 定+o+v+补 连)+o+也/都不/没+v 把+o+v+补 离合词的应用研究 离合词的分级教学 初级、中级和高级的学生对不同的扩展形式的 反应是不同的,根据他们的正确率对扩展形式进行排 序。(以下内容引自王燕明《对外汉语离合词扩展形 式的分级教学》) 50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 表 1 初级 1. v+数+量+o (73.1%) 2. v+个+o (58.0%) 3. v+了+o (56.8%) 4. v+点儿+o (48.1%) 5. 连+o+也/都没/不+v (48.1%) 6. v+过+o (46.3%) 7. v+着+o (45.7%) 8. v+补(可能)+o (40.7%) 9. v+补(起)+o+来 (40.7%) 10.v+补(时量)+o (40.4%) 11.把+o+v+补 (40%) 12.v+什么+o (37.0%) 13.v+补(结果)+o (35.4%) 14.v+补(动量)+o (32%) 15.v+补(上)+了+o (31.5%) 16.v+的+o (29.6%) 17.v+代+(的)+o (22.2%) 18.定+o+v+补 (20.3%) 表 2 中级 1.v+过+o (87.8%) 2.v+了+o (79.0%) 3.v+个+o (66.9%) 4.v+什么+o (63.4%) 5.v+补(可能)+o (61.0%) 6.v+数+量+o (57.5%) 7.v+补(时量)+o (54.3%) 8.v+点儿+o (52.4%) 9.v+补(起)+o+来 (46.3%) 10.v+补(结果)+o (45.4%) 11.v+补(动量)+o (42.1%) 12.v+着+o (41.5%) 13.连+o+也/都没/不+v (39.3%) 14.定+o+v+补 (36.1%) 15.v+补(上)+了+o (34.1%) 16.v+代+(的)+o (32.9%) 17.v+的+o (22.3%) 18.把+o+v+补 (21.1%) 表 3 高级 1.v+过+o (89.5%) 2.v+了+o (77.2%) 3.v+什么+o (68.4%) 4.v+个+o (64.9%) 5.v+补(时量)+o (60.5%) 6.v+数+量+o (60.5%) 7.v+点儿+o (57.9%) 8.v+补(动量)+o (57.9%) 9.连+o+也/都没/不+v (57.0%) 10.v+补(可能)+o (52.6%) 11.v+代+(的)+o (40.8%) 12.定+o+v+补 (39.5%) 13.v+补(结果)+o (35.1%) 14.v+补(起)+o+来 (34.2%) 15.v+的+o (31.6%) 16.v+补(上)+了+o (30.3%) 17.把+o+v+补 (29.8%) 18.v+着+o (23.7%) 根据以上统计数据,首先我们可以认可的是, 总体来讲,结构简单、使用频率高、习得较早的离合 词扩展形式往往是学生掌握较好的,这是我们所乐意 看到的结果,因为出于实际应用角度,高频离合词扩 展式最是需要被牢牢掌握的。而对外汉语离合词的教 学也并非是无从下手、无迹可寻的。学生在学习过程 中,也确实对某一扩展式习得时间越久,越容易掌 握。这就为我们在扩展式教学的前后关系安排上做出 了认可,我们需要将常用、结构简单的离合词扩展式 提到较为前面的阶段进行教学,其他使用频率较低的 扩展式可安排在后期教学。 依据上面提到的标准,我们尝试对离合词扩展形式的 教学进行分级。 1. 初级阶段教学: ① v+数+量+o ② v+个+o ③ v+了+o ④ v+点儿+o ⑤ v+过+o ⑥ v+补(可能)+o ⑦ 连+o+也/都没/不+v ⑧ v+补(起)+o+来 ⑨ 把+o+v+补 ⑩ v+着+o 2.中级阶段教学: ① v+什么+o ② v+补(动量)+o ③ v+补(时量)+o ④ v+补(结果)+o ⑤ 连+o+也/都没/不+v 51a brief analysis of the acrostic ….. (lydia anggreani; agustian) ⑥ v+补(起)+o+来 ⑦ 把+o+v+补 ⑧ v+着+o ⑨ v+代+(的)+o 3. 高级阶段教学: ① v+代+(的)+o ② 定+o+v+补 ③ v+的+o ④ v+补(上)+了+o ⑤ 连+o+也/都没/不+v ⑥ v+补(起)+o+来 ⑦ 把+o+v+补 ⑧ v+着+o ⑨ v+补(结果)+o 离合词使用的偏误 1. 插入扩展的偏误。 (1) 将动态助词“了、着、过”直接放在离合词 之后。 ① 我们昨天见过面了。 *我们昨天见面过了。 ② 我洗过澡了。 *我洗澡过了。 有时候,离合词中间还可以加入助词“的”。 如:“你什么时候开的会?”对于这样的表达 法,学生也是不会自觉使用的。 (2) 扩展式中间插入数量补语时,将“了、过” 放在数量补语之后。 ③ 我们见过几次面了? *我们见几次面过了 ④ 我们都已经跳了一会舞了,他才来。 * 我们都已经跳舞了一会了,他才来。 (3) 插入补语时,有些学生会回避离合词的表达 方式,而是借助能愿动词来表达。 ⑤ 这件事请我帮不上忙了。 *这件事情我不能 帮忙了。(此处语法并没有错误,但回避了 离合词的表达法) ⑥ 上夜班就睡不了觉了。 *上夜班就不能睡 觉了。(同上) (4) 将人称代词放在了离合词之后。 ⑦ 我们今天帮了他的忙,他要请我们吃饭。 *我们今天帮忙了他,他要请我们吃饭。 2. 重叠问题 离合词的重叠式较为特殊和典型,有些学生将其 与一般动词相混淆,误用为“abab”式。离合词 的重叠形式多数为“aab”,部分也可用“a了 ab”、“a一ab”式。 ⑧ 我们在操场上散散步。/我们在操场上散了 散步。 *我们在操场上散步散步。 ⑨ 我们好久不见了,这周末见见面吧。/我们 好久不见了,这周末见一见面吧。 *我们好久不见了,这周末见面见面吧。 3. 离析形式的泛化 这类情况有的是学生将习得的离合词的扩展式盲 目应用到了与之相似的其他词: ⑩ 他们中文学的很好,因为玛丽帮助他们。 *他们中文学得很好,因为玛丽帮他们助。 也出现在不该离析的时候错误离析了: ⒒ 你和他见面的时候,他在干什么? *你和他见了面的时候,他在干什么? 对外汉语离合词的教学研究 离合词是汉语中一种特殊的语言现象,也是对 外汉语教学中的难点。首先,离合词作为汉语词汇中 一种特殊的语言现象,其可“分”可“离”的性质, 使其跨越“词汇”和“语法”两大范畴,变化形式的 多变,使留学生难以驾驭。其次,汉语的本体研究对 离合词的认识还不够深刻且颇有争议,因而,对外汉 语教学中离合词的教学工作缺乏足够的理论指导。最 后,离合词是汉语中“特立独行”的语言现象,留学 生母语中普遍没有这种词语的“离合”现象,母语的 负迁移为留学生汉语离合词的习得制造了很多误区。 20世纪八十年代至今,随着我国改革开放的深 入、国家经济实力和政治地位的提高,来中国学习汉 语的外国留学生人数日益增多,掀起了“汉语热”。 在学习过程中,离合词运用的偏误不断出现,离合词 的教学成为了对外汉语教学中的难点,也由此展开了 对对外汉语离合词教学的研究。 由于离合词本身的特殊性,导致其必然成为对 外汉语教学中的薄弱环节。如何教授离合词,一直是 对外汉语教学中的“老大难”问题。自20世纪八十年 代起,不少学者开始从对外汉语教学的角度对离合词 进行了大量的探讨。最早提出从对外汉语教学角度出 发研究离合词问题的是李清华学者,他认为离合词是 一种特殊的词。 吕文华在1994年首次提出,应该把离合词作为 一个专门的语法项目列入对外汉语教学中。她认为, 以往的教材对离合词基本上没有开展教学,没有一部 教材为离合词立项,介绍特点。她强调,为离合词立 项理由充足:“一是离合词数量众多,《现代汉语词 典》里面已有2500多条,而且还在增加;二是有相当 数量的离合词是高频词,而且在初级阶段就已经出 现;三是离合词是对外汉语教学中的一个难点,因为 离合词在词汇意义上相当于一个词,在学生母语中往 往又有相对应的单词,所以学生常常把离合词当做一 个单词来使用,常犯语法错误。” 结论 对外汉语教学中,涉及到的语言点非常多,而 离合词作为汉语词汇中不缺少的一部分,对于汉语教 学的整体成果有着非常重要的影响。而由于离合词本 身所具有的特点与用法都区别于其他汉语词汇。对外 汉语离合词的教学中存在的问题主要集中在以下几个 方面: (一)离合词本体研究的不深入彻底且颇有争论,使 对外汉语离合词的教学缺乏针对性强的理论指导。 52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 对外汉语教学界,对离合词的界定主要有三种 说法:词说:短语词说:词组说。①“词说”以李清 华学者为代表,他认为:“这些离合词的两个成分, 已经凝固成一个特定的意义,表示一个单一的概念, 因此不扩展时具备了词的资格。”②“短语词说” 以吕文华学者为代表,他认为:“动宾式(离合词) 很明显不能看做是词,它的可扩展性与一般的复合词 明显不同。而学习这一组合式的关键正是要将它与一 般的动词区别开来,当然划作词组也不符合这一组合 式的特点。所以动宾式(离合词)应成为动宾式短 语词。”③“短语说”以李大忠学者为代表,他认 为:“离合词里边的动词成分,带上宾语成分以后, 仍然保留着原动词所具有的全部语法性质。这恰好证 明了这个动词性成分本身就是动词,自然带上宾语后 就是词组了。”离合词语法性质的界定,涉及到现代 汉语中词和短语的划界问题。由于离合词集词法和句 法为一体,所以很难将其词汇意义和语法意义分割开 来。关于离合词的定名,定性问题,学术界至今没有 一套统一且明确的界定,这就给语言研究、教材编 写、词典编纂和课堂教学都带来了一定程度的困扰, 使对外汉语离合词的教学很难有针对性强的理论指导 做支撑。对外汉语离合词的教学也成为了对外汉语教 学中的薄弱环节,远远落后于对外汉语其他方面的教 学。 (二)对离合词重视不够,将离合词“词汇化”,在 教学中也没有突出离合词的特殊性 离合词的特殊性,使它从一般词汇中分离了出 来,在对外汉语教学中,应该给予“特殊照顾”。然 而,“教材里边一般找不到有关注释”,在对外汉语 教材中,几乎没有几本教材把“离合词”当做专门的 语法点或者语法现象来解释和教授,只是把它们当做 一般的词条来处理,草草地将它们“词汇化”了。很 多留学生反应并不知道自己经常使用的词,如:“洗 澡、睡觉、见面、理发”等是离合词,老师们在教授 的过程中也没有很明确地强调这些词是离合词,是具 有语法性质的特殊词。课堂上也并没有系统地学习和 反复地练习离合词的语用方法,使得留学生频频出现 离合词的使用偏误。例如,《现代汉语词典》中忽略 了对离合词的特殊说明,如“见面”被解释为“彼此 对面相见”,而对“见面”作为一个离合词的特殊语 法功能并没有任何说明,仅仅凭借字面上词义解释, 留学生往往会造出一些带有语法错误的句子。如:“ 我们明天见面他/他们昨天见面过了/我和她就见面过 一次”。然而,这些偏误完全是可以通过讲解“见 面”的离合用法来避免的。离合词是跨域“词汇” 和“语法”两大范畴的特殊词,兼具词和短语的双重 性质。因此,离合词的教学应从词法和句法两个方面 入手。离合词的扩展形式无论在课文、语法讲解还是 课后练习中都要有意识的突出。 (三)受学习者母语以及学习汉语过程中过度泛化的 汉语语法规则的负迁移作用 第二语言学习者在汉语离合词的习得上主要受两 方面的负影响较大:①英语以及学习者母语对离合词 的学习所产生的负迁移作用②在汉语学习的过程中, 过度泛化的语法规则所产生的负迁移作用。归根结 底,两种负迁移作用产生的原因在于第二语言学习者 难于区分离合词和一般动词在用法上的不同。 离合词是一种特殊的语言现象,在汉语第二语言 学习者的母语中基本上都没有跟汉语离合词类似的语 言现象。在现行的通用教材中,对于生词的注释大都 是以英汉对译的形式出现的,且不说学习者的母语是 否为英语,即便是他们的母语为英语,也由于汉语和 英语在表达上的偏差以及在英语中没有这种词的“离 合”用法,因而在多数情况下,仅仅靠词的英汉对译 而不加以任何使用说明,学生很难从教材中获得关于 离合词的准确信息。如果学生的母语不是英语,这往 往更容易产生偏误,因为学生还需要经受英语和母语 的双重误导。 汉语第二语言学习者不仅可能受到英语和自身母 语的负迁移作用,还可能受到汉语学习过程中,过于 泛化的汉语语法规则的诱导。例如:大部分动词都具 有重叠形式,如“学习学习”、“研究研究”等等, 表示轻松、时间短和尝试等含义,而对于离合词“散 步”,有很多学生就会把它看做是一般的动词,用错 误的重叠形式“散步散步”来表示时间短。 (四)对离合词涉及的语法点认识不够到位。 “离合词”的特殊性,在于它集词法和句法为一 身,兼跨“词汇”和“语法”两大范畴,离合词的扩 展形式多种多样,灵活自由,并且还有大量的潜在状 态需要在语境中激活,这就使它比一般动词所涉及的 语法点要更难把握。 离合词不能带宾语,是五十年代初有关离合词 讨论中一个以偏概全的说法。我们对外汉语离合词教 学在基础阶段和中高级阶段都存在着盲点,甚至还 会对学生产生误导,对此,赵金铭(1984)早就提 出:“离合词与双音短语的语法功能不同,其中之 一就是短语不能再带宾语而离合词还可以‘直接带宾 语,把动作的对象表达出来。’”所以,我们在进行 对外汉语离合词的教学过程中,要不断地对“离合 词”这个特殊群体进行深入的再认识,研究出一套准 确且全面的习得理论,使对外汉语离合词的教学不再 是盲点。 (五)忽视了对离合词语用功能的使用与纠正。 目前对外汉语离合词教学,无论是教材内容、 课堂讲解还是语言的技能训练,对离合词的语用功能 都还强调得不够。离合词的出现,使得缺乏形态变化 的汉语富有“动感”,离合词是为了适应汉语这种缺 乏形态变化的语言表达的需要而形成的。因此,离合 词形式的不同有着其各自独特的语用功能,它可以根 据具体的语境和表情达意的需要,灵活地采用离或合 的形式,选择插入什么样的成分或采用什么样的结构 形式,这也是汉语词汇丰富性和多样化的表现形式之 一。 外国的课堂教学模式和中国的课堂教学模式有 别,更加注重学生自主学习的过程,而中国的对外汉 语教学多是面向成年留学生,这就使得大部分教学只 53a brief analysis of the acrostic ….. (lydia anggreani; agustian) 能在课堂上进行,而且在有限的课堂上需要掌握的知 识很多。初级阶段要掌握大量的词汇和语法知识,而 离合词的数量众多且不断的增长,老师难免会厚此薄 彼,显然不可能对离合词进行逐一的讲解,即使是使 用高频的离合词也不大可能面面俱到。而没有一定“ 量”的积累,就很难期望学生发生“质”的飞跃。因 此,在对外汉语离合词教学的过程中,要通过大量的 语言材料来帮助学生更好的体会和理解离合词的语用 以及修辞方面的特征,其语言材料不能仅仅来自课本 和课堂上的语境练习,还要努力给留学生创造课下资 源,比如找中国语伴或者让留学生课下进行搭伴练 习。 “在日常的口语中出现的离合词的数量远远超 过书面材料中”离合词的数量日益增多,尤其在口语 中表现突出,因此,将离合词的习得融入日常的生活 交际中,更容易被学生接受。但是很多时候留学生在 课堂以外的实际交流中经常出现离合词的使用偏误, 由于离合词在扩展形式上的偏误很多时候不影响语义 的表达,因此他们的错误使用常常被作为交际对方的 中国人所容忍,久而久之,留学生就会认为他们的表 达是正确的,当错误的使用成为一种习惯时,想改正 过来就困难了,所以在与留学生的日常交流中,要抱 有负责任的态度积极对留学生出现的偏误进行纠正, 要正确的使用课下资源,不然会弄巧成拙。 总而言之,离合词的教学是对外汉语教学中的 薄弱环节,存在很多不足,需要我们的研究和改进。 参考文献 柯彼德. (1990). 汉语作为外语教学德语法体系急需 修改的要点,第三届国际汉语教学讨论会论文 选[m].北京:北京语言学院出版社。 陆志韦. (1957). 汉语的构词法[m]. 北京:科学出 版社。 李清华. (1983). 谈离合词的特点和用法[j].语言教 学语言研究。 李大忠. (1996). 外国人学汉语语法偏误分析[m]. 北京:北京语言大学出版社。 吕文华. (1999). 短语词的划分在对外汉语教学中的 意义[j].语言教学与研究。 孟国. (2011). 对外汉语十个语法难点的偏误研究 [m], 290. 北京大学出版社。 饶勤. (1997). 离合词的结构特点和语用分析——兼 论中高级对外汉语离合词的教学[j]. 汉语学 习, 1(97)。 王燕明. (2011). 对外汉语离合词扩展形式的分级教 学[j], 30(1).和田师范专科学校学报。 王海秀. (2004). 近十年来的离合词研究综述[j].内 蒙古大学汉语言系。 于歌. (2009). 对外汉语教学中的离合词教学[j], 5.语言教学研究。 杨泉. (2011). 基于hsk作文语料库的留学生离合词 偏误计算机自动纠错系统初探[j], 5.语言文 字应用。 张涤华、胡裕树. (1988). 汉语语法修辞词典[m]. 安徽:教育出版社。 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 247 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 247-252 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4175 code-mixing in online discussion forum among progressive farmer: revealing sundanese culture wisdom in agriculture community miko harjanti1; sumardjo2; djuara lubis3; nani suhanda4 1, 4ministry of agriculture of the republic of indonesia jl. raya puncak km 11 ciawi bogor, indonesia 2, 3faculty of human ecology, bogor agricultural university jl. kamper, komplek ipb dramaga bogor, indonesia 1mikoharjanti@gmail.com; 2sumardjo252@gmail.com; 3djuaralubis@gmail.com; 4149nani@gmail.com received: 13th december 2017 /revised: 11th january 2018 /accepted: 13th february 2018 how to cite: harjanti, m., sumardjo., lubis, d., & suhanda, n. (2018). code-mixing in online discussion forum among progressive farmer: revealing sundanese culture wisdom in agriculture community. lingua cultura, 12(3), 247-252. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4175 abstract this research aimed to explore the cultural wisdom which encouraged the spirit to empower the community and to reveal code-mixing utilization in the conversation. this research was conducted in progressive farming communities in west java and banten provinces. they communicated through an odf (online discussion forum) bridged by whatsapp group (wag) social networking app. content analysis method could reveal the wisdom of the sundanese culture that underlined the spirit of the progressive farmers. the observation period was from august 25 november 26, 2016. during the observation period, there were 10.313 statements emerged in the discussion. nvivo 8 software was used to analyze discussion themes. 20 statements were displayed in the results section as they could reflect the research questions. in code-mixing indonesian and sundanese, the progressive farmers also expressed their efforts to nurture young farmers by conducting training. the result shows that code-mixing of indonesian and local language as mother tongue in the discussions accelerates mutual understanding because of cultural similarity between actors. it also implies that communication technology could be utilized for maintaining indigenous cultural wisdom. keywords: content analysis, code-mixing, culture wisdom, online discussion forum, progressive farmer, farmer leaders introduction internet and communication technology (ict) has been used in the rural regions of indonesia. the internet has delivered lots of information on the rural society. however, this is not easily absorbed by the farmers due to language. language appears to be an issue in internet-mediated group communication. in online communication, the more homophilous means, the more likely people adopt the information (wang et al., 2008). the communication occurs more effectively when actors are homophilous, which means actors share common meanings, attitudes, and beliefs. thus, conducting the discussion in indonesian collaborated with local language as mother tongue facilitates understanding because of cultural equality among actors. language reflects the prevailing cultural values within a community. risager (2007) has mentioned the existence of cultural linkage with the language as language culture. risager also says that intercultural competence is the process to build the mental capability to harmonize cultures through language. sundanese language is used by sundanese who lives in the province of west java or what they often call the tatar sunda. sundanese language becomes the mother tongue of the west java population which counts more than 47,3 million or 18% of indonesia’s population (statistic indonesia, 2017). in general, the sundanese are those who daily use the sundanese language and practice sundanese culture. previous kinds of research have explored sundanese language in various aspects, but none of them relate to the interaction bridged by the internet. pertiwi, sudaryat, and solehudin (2013) have described social psycholinguistic aspects in sundanese proverbs to reveal the character of the sundanese people. they reveal six aspects of psycholinguistics in sundanese proverbs that are: (1) work together; (2) helping each other; (3) mutual respect; (4) friendship; (5) kinship; and (6) harmonious. while suherman (2012) has stated, the entry of islam in west java affects all aspects of sundanese life, as evidenced by the abundance of vocabularies derived from arabic in the vocabulary of 248 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 247-252 sundanese language vocabulary. purnomowulan et al. (2017) have revealed that the use of sundanese proverb and alphabet is declining. thus, the values of its cultural wisdom have not been practiced maximally. they examine the effect of the game cards, and popular fashion products increase loyalty to the sundanese culture. this research tries to answer the challenge to reveal the wisdom of sundanese culture differently. this research will shows the sundanese wisdom from the language used in group interaction via the internet. code mixing emerges in the sentence which has grammatical attributes and lexical features of multiple languages (muysken, 2000). previous kinds of research have been using the code mixing in various media interactions and various languages in the world, but the researchers have not found research of code mixing in the agricultural sector. luke (2015) has revealed code mixing of indonesian and pamona local language in the facebook closed group in discussing the political dynamics. luke describes how participants build awareness to preserve local languages and promote solidarity between members. further, yuliana, luziana, and sarwendah (2015) have mapped the use of english and indonesian language codes by celebrities in public statements. yuniawan (2005) has studied code mixing of indonesian sundanese language and javanese language in the governmental sector of brebes society. arifin and husin (2011) have revealed the student attitudes of code mixing of english and malay language, while kia et al. (2011) have explored code-mixing in the entertainment report of malaysian chinese newspapers. thus, code mixing studies have not been found in the agricultural sector, even though in fact code mixing is used in various sectors of human life including the agricultural sector. this research presents novelty by analyzing the use of code mixing in the agricultural world. information technology emerges as a strategic issue in the agricultural sector for the reason of disperses location of the actors. moreover, the use of smartphones begins to penetrate the remote area. the progressive farmers realize that less face-to-face interaction leads to weak cooperation network. to overcome this challenge, progressive farmers conduct online discussions using the whatsapp application installed on the smartphone. smartphone hardware is chosen as communication tool due to its portable size; thus it is easy to bring in daily activities. additionally, whatsapp is chosen because this application is widely used throughout indonesia. group communication bridged by the internet assists progressive farmers to deliver their ideas, share knowledge, and give mutual support. the information posted by a participant will be read by all members without having to meet directly. the language used in online discussion forum (odf) interaction is different from the language used every day. members often mix indonesian vocabulary with sundanese, choose non-standard words, use emoticons, and abbreviate words. this is in line with herrings and androutsopoulos (2015) which state that the actors in the online conversations tend to abbreviate the words so that the meaning cannot be revealed by a single expression. the meaning is expressed from the whole conversation by paying attention to phrases, emoticons, styles, and relationships between texts. the language used in this research is indonesian and sundanese as the native language of the people of west java and banten. code mixing in discussion forums reflects the local wisdom of sundanese culture in promoting the role of progressive farmers in the community. the inspiration of local wisdom comes from the results of daily interactions in the community. kinds of previous research have not revealed the use of code mixing in the closed group discussions of farmers’ community. this research reveals the novelty of code mixing in the progressive farming community who work voluntarily to develop their community. in addition, the characteristic of progressive farmers is own the ability to utilize the internet to communicate and search for information. analysis of the use of the code-mixing is expected to reveal the cultural background that underlies the spirit in the agricultural world. based on this phenomenon, the objectives of this article are to explore; (1) how the sundanese cultural wisdom appears on odf conversation encourages the progressive farmer spirit to empower the community, (2) how code mixing is utilized in odf conversation by progressive farmers in term of farmer regeneration. methods the present research uses the content analysis to figure out variety and explanation for doing code-mixing in odf. content analysis method gives guidance to the researcher to organize data coding. hsieh and shanon (2005) have explained three options for content analysis. the first option, data coding is conducted during analysis which may support the researcher to gain the wider understanding of the phenomenon. the second option applies the existing theory or prior research to develop the initial coding; this method is called for directed content analysis. the third option is the summative approach to content analysis which means that coding analysis conducted on particular content rather than analyzing the data as a whole in order to answer the research questions. based on the aim to explore the contextual meaning of code-mixing, this research chooses to apply the summative content analysis. the research is started by quantifying the statements in the discussion script in order to understand the contextual use of the words or content as suggested by robinson (2007) and hsieh and shanon (2005). the second step, data are classified into categories of the code-mixing group and non-code-mixing group. the code-mixing group contains all statements that have bahasa and sunda words in one statement. the non-code-mixing group contains statements that only have words in bahasa. the example of a non-codemixing statement is: je: saya ingin sekali petani mampu membuat pupuk dan pestisida sendiri sehingga suatu saat subsidi pupuk dicabut oleh pemerintah, petani sudah tidak kebingungan lagi. this statement in bahasa means that he expects farmers able to prepare or make their own fertilizer and pesticide. thus someday if fertilizer subsidy is eliminated by the government, the farmer would not be confused. the number of non-code-mixing statements is more dominant than code-mixing statements as reveal in figure 1. the non-code-mixing data are abandoned, then the analysis concentrates only on the code-mixing data. the fourth step is conducting summative coding with two organizational codes that reflect the research questions (maxwell, 2009); (1) sundanese cultural wisdom as the spirit to empower the community, (2) farmer regeneration. the fifth step is interpreting the statements. to get the best 249code-mixing in online discussion... (miko harjanti et al.) interpretation, the researcher conducts interviews with the participants. the interpretation also complemented with theories to sharpened the analysis. this research is conducted on an online discussion forum conducted through the whatsapp group (wag) social networking application. primary data for content analysis is from messages sent by community members to the odf. secondary data is from research result, journal, and research journal. the odf consists of 98 progressive farmers located in west java and banten provinces. the observation period is from august 25 november 26, 2016. this data is part of the researcher’s dissertation. during the observation period, there are 10.313 statements emerged in the discussion. nvivo 8 software is used to analyze discussion themes. 20 statements are displayed in the results section as they can reflect the research questions. in the result and discussion part, statements are shown in the original language submitted by the participants, then translated in english for publication purposes as has been conducted by luke (2015), and salihah and miniharti (2017). showing statements in original language will give the clearer picture of sundanese wisdom in real life. in order to highlight code-mixing, the sundanese vocabularies printed in bold and italics while indonesian vocabularies in italics, as has been practiced by luke (2015). results and discussions kartika (2016) proves that cultural wisdom exists in the south sumatera language. she reveals local wisdom such as nationalism, affectionate, hardworking, mutual help, creative, and others are expressed in the local language vocabularies. sundanese language owns lots of proverbs inherited from the ancestors. rosidi (2005) has mentioned that proverb has the function to show language proficiency, and its other functions are: (1) to give advice; (2) to refute the argument of the other; and (3) to describe the situation or circumstances. proverbs can be a reference to recognize the situation or human nature especially the sundanese. figure 1 total statements compared to code-mixing statements per day the discussion on odf occurs every day. the statements posted by the participants are fluctuating each day ranging from 3 up to 486 statements. the comparison of total statements and code-mixing statements in daily basis during the observation period is illustrated in figure 1. the figure shows that code-mixing appears every day in the chat in fluctuating amount. it means that participants of the discussion get used to combining indonesian and sundanese language in their interaction through the internet. the following sundanese wisdom is displayed by odf participants to express the noble values of the sundanese culture that underlies their passion for working. sundanese culture teaches how to behave with god, fellow human beings, nature, senior, and junior. post 1 ny: kaluhur jujur ngabantu, kagigir ngais tarapti, kahandap cekas ngabina, kaluar janglar motekar, bakti ka diri, seba ka negri, jeung tawakal ka illahi. we should help honestly to the senior (elder people), should keep the tidiness/discipline to the fellow peers, should nurture deftly to junior/student (younger people), should be innovative and creative to outsider, love yourself, devote and obey to the state, and surrender to god. post 2 gu: kumaha tah ki? what does it mean sir? post 3 ny: eta pepatah ki sunda, kanggo ngaberdayakeun patani. advice of sundanese ancestors that is related to farmer empowerment. post 4 ny: sakecap saparipolah, estuning ngaraksa lampah, ngadeg dina lelenjeur, nangtung dina galur, teu endag kalinduan, teu robah ku mangsa, cirining sunda sayati. carana sunda sanyata nyekeul pageuh lelenjeur tri tangtu sunda buana: ka luhur pengkuh kanu agung; ka gigir nyaah kasasama; ka handap ngaraksa samasta. harmonious in expression and action, truly nurturing behavior, standing in truth, standing by the rules, unchanging by influence, unchanging by time and condition, the character of the true sundanese. the sundanese hold tightly to the truth by implementing three life provisions of the sundanese: (1) up (for god) obedient to god; (2) to the edge (to other) affection to others; (3) down (to nature) preserving the nature. post 5 ar: urang sambungkeun…sabilulungan, sauyunan, sareundeuk saigel, sabobot sapihanean, nu ngagaduhan arti sareng makna silih asah, silih asih, silih asuh. eta semangat kebersamaan patani dalam pemberdayaan. let me continue...help each other, work together, harmony in movement, harmony in ideas. all of it have similar meaning with mutual learning, mutual compassion, mutual care, that are the spirit of farmers togetherness in empowerment. post 6 ac: tah didieu kang karek kabuka, jati dirina patani, ieu salah satu nu nangtukeun modar, hirup jeng hurip na sakabeh manusa jeng turunan nana ka harep. well, this is the characteristics of the farmers, those 250 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 247-252 who become one of the determinants of the death and life of humans and their descendants in the future. post 7 na: pan aya manpaat jeung maslahat, ulah ninggalken mudarat ka umat. give benefit, do not leave any loss to society. post 8 nu: mantap...lanjut kang, kaharti pisan...ku basa kieu nu keuna mah...mang jumanta ge, patani nu dipilemburan bakal “kacerna”. good, keep continuing brother ...... it’s easy to understand by using this language (sundanese language) ... uncle jumanta who is farmers in the remote area could grasp the meaning. the benefit of code mixing is expressed by post 8. this is in line with shah (2017) who has underlined that delivering information in the mother tongue is more convenient to understand the concept. this participant’s statement has proved that local language as the mother tongue is indispensable in internet-mediated communication. the discussion’s participants mix indonesian and sundanese vocabulary in their statements to express their ideas. muysken (2000) explores three types of code-mixing: (1) code-mixing appears as the inclusion of lexical aspects or complete parts from one language into a structure from the other language. (2) code-mixing appears as congruent lexicalization or shared grammatical structure. (3) codemixing shows as alteration or modification among the structure of languages. code-mixing in this discussion appears as the first type, which is the insertion of indonesian and sundanese vocabularies interchangeably. code-mixing utilization will be emphasized in the result by showing the sundanese vocabularies printed in bold and italics, and indonesian vocabularies in italics. topics appear in the discussion is declining interest of the younger generation to work in the agricultural sector. the statements of post 9 and 10 express their concerns. post 9 ny: rumaja tani, kirang hangkeut kana usaha tani teh...aya paribasa “tani timbul daki, dagang timbul hutang“ anu kumaha atuh, usaha tani supados “menarik” rumaja tani teh. post 10 su: katingalna murangkalih ayeunamah, nu generasi instan tea...hoyong langsung panen tanpa proses. post 9 expresses the sundanese proverbs “farming causes stains, trading causes debt” which lead decreasing interest of young generation to agriculture. while post 10 concerns the low spirit of the young generation, who wants to harvest without going through the process of farming. this concern leads to a question on the strategies to make farming attractive to young farmers. based on their experience in assisting young farmers in the field, these progressive farmers try to construct young generation perception and analyze the background reason. post 11 ri: masalah rendah minat rumaja menjadi patani berdasarkan pengalaman karena: 1. bertani itu capek dan butuh proses 2. orang tua patani lebih senang anaknya menggeluti bidang lain diluar pertanian 3. info peluang kerja yg minim 4. kata mereka kalau jadi patani nggak usah sekolah. post 12 wa: leres, rumaja ayeuna sulit sekali melirik pertanian...khususnya wilayah bekasi...dimana menjadi salah satu kawasan industri terbesar. post 13 su: kadangkala pertanian kurang diminati margi faktor pamasaran hasil panen yang selalu dikuasai tangkulak. participants reveal several words in the sundanese dialect, for example patani (petani means farmer), pamahaman (pemahaman means understanding), tangkulak (tengkulak means middleman), conto (contoh means example), rumaja (remaja means youth), tanamkeun (tanamkan means disseminate), satuju (setuju means agree). the phenomenon of mixing dialect is in line with the second typology of muysken (2000) which states that code-mixing appears as congruent lexicalization or shared grammatical structure. the progressive farmers often receive complaints from young farmers or students who are apprenticing in their fields. progressive farmers also observe their environment. based on these facts, post 11 composes social construction that the declining interest of the young generation to work on the agricultural sector triggered by; (1) perception that working in agriculture sector is dirty and need to work hard. (2) parents who work as farmers support their children to work in the other sector. (3) it is lack of information on employment opportunities in the agriculture sector. (4) the assumption that working in the agricultural sector does not require higher education. (5) post 12 adds that the industry and other sectors are more attractive than the agricultural sector. while (6) post 13 adds that the obstacle of selling agriculture products because the market is dominated by the middleman who controls the price. after finding the causes, then the progressive farmers discuss the strategies they could provide to support the interest of the younger generation in agriculture. post 14 ya: urang harus bisa memberikan conto ka generasi muda bahwa pertanian itu menyenangkan dan dapat memberikan keuntungan yg besar. tunjukkan fakta bahwa dengan bertani kita bisa hidup sejahtera. post 15 ha: satuju untuk mengenalkan pertanian ini kepada anak-anak muda mangka na urang oge kedah tiasa milari inovasi-inovasi baru yang punya daya tarik kuat kepada anak. post 16 ri: kami mencoba mengenalkan konsep bertani nu gampil sarta henteu kotor. kami memperkenalkan sayuran dalam pot, beeding plant permanen, budidaya labu butternut. sekarang sedang merancang vertikal garden untuk sayuran pekarangan dan akuaponik. encouraging young generation’s interest in agriculture is not sufficient by statements only. experience 251code-mixing in online discussion... (miko harjanti et al.) proves that the young generation will be interested if they have seen evidence of successful farming (post 14). post 15 and post 16 reveal that applying the latest innovation of farming technology which is easier and less dirty are more appealing to the younger generation than conventional methods. abbas et al. (2014) have suggested that the natural agricultural regeneration from parents to children is not sufficient to build capability. the natural regeneration usually emerges in the low educated environment that is less able to eliminate the increasing agribusiness opportunities. progressive farmers should show the success in agribusiness, show novelty in cultivation techniques, and give interesting learning models to the young farmers. the real effort of progressive farmers to support the regeneration of agriculture is to organize training for school students, as well as the apprenticeship for the younger generation who are studying agribusiness. post 17 ya: sekarang ada program atc bagi siswa non pertanian, saat mereka ikut atc, urang ulah ngan ngenalkeun pertanian saja tapi kita cuci otak mereka agar benar-benar tertarik kepada pertanian. agricultural training for young farmers is usually conducted within a few days. progressive farmers compose training materials which consist of cultivation technique, marketing, agribusiness finance management, as well as strengthening entrepreneurship spirit. the learning process can be done classroom in the classroom or field practice. post 17 explains one type of training for young farmers entitled agri training camp (atc). in addition to providing agricultural technical materials, atc also provides outbound activities and outdoor games (abbas et al., 2014). post 18 ya: saat ini hampir semua menjadi tempat magang/ prakerin oleh siswa smk jurusan pertanian.....saat itulah urang tanamkeun jiwa wirausaha pertanian ka rumaja. post 19 ri: kami menjalin kerja sama dengan smk khususnya kejuruan pertanian tujuan na memberikan pamahaman dunia pertanian yang semakin berkembang dari waktu ke waktu. kami melakukan kerja sama simbiosis mutualisme. jadi saling mengikat diri dalam suatu mou, baik pemanfaatan sdm maupun sarana praktek. the progressive farmer conducts an apprenticeship program in order to disseminate the spirit of agricultural entrepreneurship to the young farmer (post 18). this occasion is applying the participatory approach which means combining learning while working (abbas et al., 2014). especially for school student apprentices, the progressive farmer may coordinate with schools, in order to arrange apprenticeship materials according to the needs of the participants (post 19). assisting the young farmer generation according to progressive farmers is in line with the sundanese wisdom in post 20 as follow: post 20 ac: dinu kiwari ngancik bihari seja ayena sampeureun jaga, eta salah dahiji jiwa satria sunda. the sundanese wisdom that inspires the progressive farmers has meant that all things people enjoy today are the work of the predecessors and what people do today will be enjoyed by our children and grandchildren later. working in the agricultural sector provides benefits that flow from generation to generation. similar to the previous code-mixing study by luke (2015), yuliana, luziana, and sarwendah (2015), yuniawan (2005), arifin and husin (2011), and kia et al. (2011), this research has also found that the use of code-mixing has helped the user to express their ideas in both languages. code-mixing strategy has helped to grasp the meaning. however, this research has explored deeper the wisdom culture as the basic spirit of the participants to develop the agriculture sector. this issue does not explore by the other previous research. the use of code-mixing in this research has strengthened the spirit of participants to dedicate their work to their community. conclusions communication technology is notorious as the local wisdom threat. however, this research has shown that communication technology can be a medium to strengthen cultural wisdom. the content analysis of the odf text shows that code-mixing bahasa and sundanese language have revealed sundanese cultural wisdom. this culture wisdom has underlain the spirit of the progressive farmer to develop their community. the result proves the significance of code-mixing study for multilingual society. code-mixing is a reliable strategy to facilitate the exchange of information via internet-mediated communication in a multilingual society in order to achieve convergence meaning. by mixing the vocabulary, participants of online discussion able to solve communication barriers, such as misunderstanding. moreover, code-mixing strategy helps participants who have limited vocabularies in their first and second language to express ideas in both languages. as mentioned in the introduction that the researcher has not found other research of code-mixing in the agricultural world, thus, there are opportunities for future research to explore the use of code-mixing in the agricultural world either through social media, online discussion forums, mass media, or direct interaction. recently, the online discussion forums are used wide-spread as media connection by professional groups to discuss their work, students, or social organizations. however, the research of code-mixing in online discussion forums is still limited. thus, the researchers recommend for the future research to investigate the use of code-mixing in the online discussion forums as media discussion of various communities in society. the limitation of this research is not reviewing the grammar of bahasa or sundanese. this is due to the purpose of the research which focuses on the meaning of code-mixing. to achieve the purpose, this research has interpreted the code-mixing and conduct interviews with participants. the researchers recommend for future research to explore the grammar or other linguistic features of the observed languages. utilizing code-mixing language, the progressive farmers have also expressed concerns about farmer regeneration phenomenon. they manage training as efforts to assist young farmers. the participants interpret their 252 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 247-252 activity in the agricultural sector as a dedication to creating benefits that flow from generation to generation. the development of technology is driving more interaction conducted via internet-mediated in a textual way, and it tends to left local language as well as local wisdom. this research implies the importance of awareness of communication actors to preserve indigenous cultural wisdom in their daily internet-mediated communication. thus, it is important for communication actors to understand the functions of local languages cultures in order to align harmony. references abbas, s., ismail, m., sobirin, m., & gendari, d. 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(chen chongjie; dkk) 173 通过《聊斋志异》分析中国封建社会的社会现实 analysis of society conditions/reality during chinese feudal era in the novel liaozhai zhiyi chen chongjie1; yoan2; kelly3 1chinese department, hainan normal university 2,3 chinese department, faculty of language and culture, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 cchen369@yahoo.com.cn 内容提要 《聊斋志异》是清代小说家蒲松龄创作的一部以志怪为主的文言短篇小说集,它不是单纯的奇异 故事,而是以奇异色彩叙写人生作品通过现实世界与虚幻世界来影射当时封建社会的社会现实。为了进 一步理解《聊斋志异》的现实意义,笔者通过《聊斋志异》中的一些故事,以叙述分析法从教育、政 治、爱情、经济以及伦理道德等方面分析作品反映出的社会现实。《聊斋志异》借狐鬼花妖之形,写嬉 笑怒骂之情,通过各种神鬼妖精的动人故事,从教育、政治、爱情、经济以及伦理道德等方面反映了广 阔的现实生活,内容积极丰富:抨击科举制度的腐朽和弊端、暴露封建统治的黑暗和罪恶、歌颂青年男 女追求婚恋自由的行动、展示了女性在经济上的独立与社会地位的提高、总结了社会人生的经验教训。 关键词:聊斋志异、封建社会、社会现实、蒲松龄、神鬼妖怪、中国 abstract liaozhai zhiyi is a compilation of short stories created by the qing dynasty novelist, pu songling. the main concept is not centered on regular ghost stories, but the author told a story on real life and the fantasy world by describing realities of society life in the feudal era. the author, through stories in liaozhai zhiyi, analyses social reality in their education, politics, love, economic and moral aspects. the author of liaozhai zhiyi uses of a lot of stories concerning fox spirits, ghosts, and other types of spirits in portraying his critics and anger towards incidents happening in feudal china. analysis shows that liaozhai zhiyi broadly depicts social reality happening in feudal era in education, politics, love, economic and moral aspects. liaozhai zhiyi also criticizes the corrupt government official examination scheme, and the crime and decadence of the feudal government. in contrast, the stories also praised the freedom of young men and women seeking love in marriage, endorsing young men and women to reject arranged marriages, showing women in the economic independence and social advancement, and summed up the lessons of social life. keywords: liaozhai zhiyi, feudal era, social reality, pu songling, ghosts and spirits, china 174 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 173-182 前言 鬼的观念产生于人类早期对灾异、疾病、死亡等无法理解现象的认识上,他们认为有一种 神秘的力量在支配着人间的一切,而这种力量又超越自然,让人无法理解,为了去理解它,人 们就开始创造有关鬼的观念,创造出各种各样的鬼现象和鬼故事,这引起一些文人的兴趣,记 录下来,成为“鬼笔记”。有些文人记录鬼事时,还进行了加工整理,有的还进行了再创作, 就这样渐渐地产生了鬼小说。 明清时期,由于封建政治严酷,文人们很难秉笔直书,批评时政,抨击奸佞。一些人遂借 鬼谈人,直抒胸臆,又痛快又安全。 在以志怪传奇为特征的文言小说中, 富有创造性、文学成就 高的是清初蒲松龄写的 《聊斋志异》。全书共有短篇小说 491 篇。题材非常广泛,内容极其丰富。多数作品通过谈狐 说鬼的手法反映了 17 世纪中国的社会面貌,对当时社会的腐败、黑暗进行了有力批判,在一 定程度上揭露了社会矛盾,表达了人民的愿望。但是,其中还夹杂着一些封建伦理观念和因果 报应的宿命论思想。 《聊斋志异》借鬼谈人、充满奇异色彩,引起了笔者更近一步研究的兴趣。笔者通过《聊 斋志异》当中的一些故事,从教育、爱情、政治、经济,以及社会伦理道德等方面分析作品反 映出的社会现实。 内容 一、蒲松龄与《聊斋志异》的成书过程 《聊斋志异》是一部著名文言短篇小说集。在《聊斋志异》的名字当中,“聊斋”是清 代小说家蒲松龄的书屋名称,“志”是记述的意思,“异”指奇异的故事。 (一)蒲松龄的生平 蒲松龄(1640-1715),字留仙,别号柳泉,山东淄川(今淄博市淄川区)人。清顺治十 五年(1658),十九岁的蒲松龄参加科举考试,在县、府、道三次考试都考第一,录取蒲松龄 的是山东学政、大诗人施闰章。但接连四次乡试(举人考试)却名落孙山。追根究底,并非是 他无才,学识不够,科举考试的八股文在形式上有严格要求,但蒲松龄却写成了一篇既像小品 又像小说的文章,不符合八股文的要求。虽然如此,爱才如命的施闰章却欣赏蒲松龄栩栩如生 的小品文。 蒲松龄虽然得到施闰章的赞赏,其他考官却不会认可。他们都是用呆板的八股文做敲门砖 取得功名的,只会写那样的文章,也只欣赏那样的文章。因为施闰章的赏识,也可以说是“误 导”,蒲松龄在 初参加科举考试时就偏离了轨道。 大作家蒲松龄为“举人”功名,用了不少于三十年的时间反复参加考试,屡战屡败,屡败 屡战。年过半百的蒲松龄被考试折磨得身心憔悴,却不肯放弃对举人的追求,直到七十二岁时 才援例补了一个岁贡生。 analysis of society ….. (chen chongjie; dkk) 175 蒲松龄二十五岁时,他跟哥哥们分家,家分得很不公平,对蒲松龄不利。为了养家糊口, 蒲松龄从此开始了长达四十五年的私塾教师生涯。私塾教师是得不到功名的读书人的出路。蒲 松龄在缙绅人家——毕家坐馆为生,教富家子弟读书。他在毕家足足待了三十个年头,七十岁 才撤帐归家终老。身份地位很低的农村私塾教师确实生活艰难。 14 至 19 世纪,是中国封建社会衰落的明清时期。1661 年,民族矛盾与阶级矛盾非常尖 锐,被长期战争破坏的社会生产亟待恢复。在这种情况下,老百姓的生活很困苦,蒲松龄也不 例外。蒲松龄 愁的是如何不让催税的人登门。当时官吏为了催税,搞所谓“敲比”,就是把 欠税的人拖到公堂上打板子,有时甚至会把人活活打死。蒲松龄为了交税,要卖掉缸底的存 粮,卖掉妻子织的布,甚至卖掉耕牛。蒲松龄一生很贫苦,始终是劳苦大众中的一员。 (二)《聊斋志异》的成书过程 “蒲松龄从小就喜欢天马行空的作品,酷爱小说。他青少年时代是明末清初,在那个混乱动荡改朝 换代的岁月里,人的生活困苦,种种社会现象引起了作家深沉的思考。蒲松龄大概在分家以后, 做私塾教师时,就开始写《聊斋志异》。” (百家讲坛栏目组,2007:521) 蒲松龄写《聊斋志异》时受到了朋友的反对。他的朋友张笃庆与孙蕙认为写志怪小说不利 于科举,应该放弃创作,但蒲松龄没有采纳朋友的劝告,仍然写出了《聊斋志异》。虽然蒲松 龄写《聊斋志异》的事受到了朋友们的劝阻,但他却受到了一位台阁大臣王士祯的赏识。这让 蒲松龄非常激动,真诚地希望王士祯能给《聊斋志异》写序,可王士祯 终没有给他写。 《聊斋志异》的故事其中有采自当时社会传闻;也有就前人的记述加以改制、点染的,如 《种梨》与原本于《搜神记》中的《种瓜》的基本情节相同;还有完全或基本上有作者虚构的 狐鬼花妖故事,如《婴宁》、《黄英》、《公孙九娘》等。蒲松龄从小“喜人谈鬼”,搜集很 多怪异故事,又融进自己的生活经验和思想感情进行创作。在康熙十八年(1679)春,他将已 经写成的篇章结集成册,定名为《聊斋志异》。 科举的失意和生活的清苦,使蒲松龄能够更多地接触劳动人民,并对他们产生同情。蒲松 龄一辈子没当上官,这反而使他得以专心于写作,到 75 岁离开人世的时候(清康熙 54 年,公 元 1715 年)给人们留下了一个内容丰富、情节感人的《聊斋志异》。 二、《聊斋志异》的奇异世界 从根本上说,文学创造的反映对象是社会生活。社会生活是文学创造的反映对象,也是文 学创造的唯一源泉,无论作家在作品中写的是什么,归根到底都根源于社会生活。作家总是生 活在一定的社会环境、一定的文化传统中,他选择何种生活为创造的具体客体,都必然受到社 会生活这个“一般客体”的规定和制约。而进入具体创造过程中,创作主体的一切创造性活 动,包括虚构、想像、情感投射、观念移注等,都不可能离开具体客体进行纯粹任意的胡编乱 造和情感发泄。(童庆炳, 2008 :96,98) 蒲松龄写的《聊斋志异》也脱离不了社会生活。蒲松龄通过现实世界与虚幻世界来影射他 当时的社会生活。现实世界指人界;虚幻世界指仙界、冥界和妖界。中国道家认为,宇宙分为 三界:上则仙,中则人,下则鬼。人行善积德可以成为神仙,神仙贬谪到人间就成为了凡人, 176 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 173-182 凡人作恶就成了鬼,而鬼积德行善就可以复生为人。所以仙界是道家认为的 高的境界,也是 中国老百姓民间传说的 高的境界。(英子, 2005) 人、神、鬼三界在《聊斋志异》没有明显的界线,人可以出入鬼神世界,而鬼可以在人间 为非作歹。这三界都被作者用作故事的框架而故事内容包含着社会现实的或作家个人心迹的景 象。 (一)神仙世界 “在古代小说家笔下,仙界存在于天界,存在于海底龙宫,存在于深山洞府,是不老不死的乐园。 那里有奇树珍果,香花瑶草,美人仙乐,玉液琼浆,有永远的享乐和永恒的生命。到了《聊斋志 异》里,仙界除了天界、龙宫、深山洞府之外,还经常出现所谓“点化”的仙境,人不需要寻仙, 尘世就是乐土,仙乡就在现实中。” (马瑞芳,2007:3) “聊斋遇仙题材的小说有一种“幻由人生”的哲学。“幻由人生”是整个聊斋小说的哲学理念。“幻由人 生”的意思是“幻境是由人在心里制造出来的”,“只要你对生活中的美好事物执着地追求,热切地盼 望,你所期望的一切就可以在你面前出现”。” (马瑞芳,2007:101) 在聊斋仙界里,没人催税,没有贫困,没有欺凌,人们过着安乐、幸福的生活,是一种 真、善、美的世界。《聊斋志异》的仙界代表了作者向往的理想生活,表达了下层贫苦大众的 美好愿望,而这个“仙界”在当时社会中是不可能存在的,只能是作者的理想。 在《聊斋志异》当中,以仙境为背景的故事,有《丐仙》等。《丐仙》中,丐仙用他的法 术给高玉成展示出难以可信的美景:寒冬腊月的后院突然变得春天般温暖,异鸟成群,青鸾、 黄鹤、凤凰、巨蝶。这些异鸟飞来飞去给丐仙和高玉成捧茶,巨蝶变成了美丽的舞女,跳起舞 来。这个像仙境般美丽的景象其实是虚幻的,它不是现实景象,而是人生所向往的美好地方。 人们希望能够在这样美好的地方生活,他们不必担忧任何事情,能安心地享受生活中的幸福。 可惜,这美好的地方在封建社会时期却是不可能存在的。 (二)幽冥世界 “前人认为,人死为鬼,鬼形成阴界。人死为鬼,灵魂归泰山,泰山神下边有若干管理机构。等到 佛教传入中国,佛教的地狱概念和中国传统鬼故事结合,阴世有了更完整的结构,有形形色色的 鬼。” (马瑞芳,2007:4) 阴世 为明显的代表是地狱,地狱被一些人认为是人死后灵魂回到的地方。在《聊斋志 异》里,阴世不只是指地狱,灵魂、女鬼、恶鬼的形象也形成了神秘的阴世。 聊斋写的是生活中并不存在的鬼,而且用鬼魂影射社会,有深刻的社会背景和现实意义。 在《席方平》里,席方平为受凌辱的父亲入冥府申冤,层层上告。没想到,地狱的城隍、郡 司、冥王各级衙门都已被羊某贿赂了。不但不能为父亲申冤,自己也屡受冥府酷刑。 analysis of society ….. (chen chongjie; dkk) 177 地狱是对人生前行为总清算、对恶行恶德总惩罚的场所,也可以说是阴间的监狱和刑场, 是公正无私、主持公道的地方,在蒲松龄笔下却变成一个混乱的地方,黑暗更甚于阳世。冥 王、城隍向来被传为铁面无私的法官,在《席方平》中竟成了贪赃枉法的赃官酷吏。这无声胜 有声地暗示出当时阳世政府比阴世政府的腐败更严重,各级部门的酷吏官官相卫,公正的生活 很难来实现。《席方平》批判了当时封建社会的政府的腐败,对冥间的揭露其实就是对现实社 会的揭露。 (三)妖精世界 “凡是人类之外的动物、植物、器物变化成人,或者虽然没变化成人却能像人一样说话,跟人交 往,就叫妖精。《聊斋志异》写了很多自然界精灵:天上的小鸟、水中的白鳍豚、地上的鲜花、 深山的狼虫狐豹,甚至书里的蠢虫、田野的老鼠,都扮演重要的角色。聊斋的精灵或妖精不是吃 唐僧肉的妖精,而是帮助人、爱护人的护法者,充满情与义的妖精。” (马瑞芳,2007:6,91,93) 聊斋写精灵是为了阐明很深的社会伦理。《阿绣》中的狐女为赢得刘子固的爱情,幻化成 刘子固所爱的阿绣,在美与爱的竞争中却被刘子固对阿绣的痴情感动,意识到阿绣的真和美, 便转而促成刘子固与阿绣结合,让所爱者爱其所爱。蒲松龄通过《阿绣》歌颂了高尚的哲学, 也是美的哲学。狐女以德报怨,替刘子固找到真阿绣,不是爱情的第三者,而是真爱的缔造 者。狐女在追求外表美的同时,也获得了内心美。 《聊斋志异》里绝大部分篇章叙写的都是神仙狐鬼精魅故事,具有超现实的虚幻性、奇异 性,往往添加些虚幻之笔,在现实人生的图画中涂抹上奇异的色彩。狐鬼花妖故事不完全是在 原来迷信意义上,而是弃其内质,存其形态,从而摆脱了神道意识的拘束。神仙、狐、鬼、花 妖,都是出自他个人的心灵的创造,个中有所寄托、寓意。他以假虚拟狐鬼花妖故事抒写人生 苦乐,抒发情怀,及寄托忧愤。 三、《聊斋志异》中反映出的社会现实 社会生活作为文学创造的反映对象是特殊的,其特殊性主要是 : 第一,是整体性的社会 生活。文学反映的生活不局限于某一方面或层次,而是多方面生活的交融、渗透,是现象与本 质、具体与一般相统一的社会生活。第二,是具有审美价值的社会生活。所谓具有审美价值的 生活,不仅包括本身直接具有美的属性的生活,也包括那些本身不直接具有美的属性,甚至是 丑的,但经过审美的提炼和转化之后,具有审美价值的生活。第三,是作家体验过的社会生 活。就是说,只有作家体验过的生活,才能成为文学创造的实际客体。这种体验是审美体验, 主要是情感体验。所以,文学创造的实际对象是审美化、情感化了的生活。(童庆炳, 2008 :96)《聊斋志异》反映出人生中各种各样的生活方面,如爱情、教育、经济等方面, 而它里面的每个故事又不只是单纯地反映出一种生活方面而已。一个故事会涉及到其他的生活 方面。下面是对《聊斋志异》中的一些比较突出的故事的分析。 (一)教育方面 科举考试历来都是朝廷选拔人才的重要方式,也是文人走上政治仕途的重要途径。随着历 史发展,到了明清时期时,特别是清朝,科举制度被少数腐败官僚垄断。他们徇私舞弊。这导 致了一些有才华的文人得不到功名。 178 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 173-182 《叶生》里,有个文章诗词都写得绝好的读书人叶生,却屡试不中。故事结尾,叶生终于 考中举人,此时自己却发现早已经过世了。《叶生》的故事是取材于蒲松龄的个人悲剧,描写 了科举时代才华出众而遭遇悲惨的读书人,抒写了科举时代读书人为科举制度所害的苦痛,表 达了作者怀才不遇的愤懑。作品批判了科举制度的不公平。叶生怀才,却一辈子得不到功名, 连人都已经变成鬼魂,他还是一直追求功名,不放弃他的意愿。蒲松龄通过叶生的形象寄托了 万千不得志的读书人对科举考试的期望。 《考弊司》里有个管理着书生的考弊司司主,他有个特殊规定,就是凡初次来谒见他的秀 才,都要割下一块腿肉。如果贿赂些钱,就不必要受罚了。阴界本来是个能够争取公正的地 方,在《考弊司》里的阴间里却发生了舞弊。《考弊司》反映了当时科举制度的欺压与弊端, 揭示了当时封建统治考试中的种种腐败和毛病,这是多么黑暗的考场。 《于去恶》写陶圣俞赶赴乡试时,遇到要赴试的冥中之鬼于去恶。在冥间士子入闱考试的 前一天得检查试官。可这次考试,文昌帝君奉命外出,于是检查试官之事没人去管,试官中都 是不学无术和爱钱如命的一类人。试后于去恶虽然自负,但终于落第。陶生在阳间也是落第。 直到科场舞弊案发之后,陶生才考中。通过《于去恶》故事,蒲松龄讽刺封建时代科举考试的 黑暗和种种弊端。无论在阳间还是在阴间的科举考试都是一样腐烂,发生了许多不公平的事 件。对冥间的暴露其实就是对现实社会的暴露。考官都是爱钱的,不录取有才华的书生,却录 取能贿赂而无才华的书生。 此外还有涉及到教育方面的故事,如《贾奉雉》、《王子安》、 《叶生》等故事。聊斋志异从科举考试的方方面面,通过鬼怪故事揭露了给人造成危害的腐 败、落后的科举制度,描绘出一个充满弊端的黑暗考场。贪欲的考官都欺压着文人,死板的八 股文限制文人发挥自己的才能。这导致有才华的文人屡次考不中。 (二)爱情方面 爱情是美好的;爱情是幸福的;爱情也是痛苦的,古往今来爱情是人们永恒的话题。《聊 斋》中通过的鬼神形象,展现出各种可悲、可叹、可歌、可泣的爱情。 《连城》故事里讲述了连城的父亲史孝廉想挑女婿。连城看上了穷士乔生,但史孝廉嫌乔 生穷,想挑有钱人做女婿。连城被父亲逼迫与王生订婚,可连城生生死死都要跟乔生在一起。 不久,连城竟死了。乔生也悲痛过度而死。在阴间两人重逢。乔生在朋友的帮助下和连城双双 还魂。哪知王生贿赂贪官,把复生的连城判给了他家。连城在王家不吃不喝,并要上吊,王生 没有办法,只好放连城回家。乔生和连城永远在一起。《连城》表现了男女主人公在争取爱情 的过程中,同封建礼教和世俗观念的曲折斗争。封建社会时期女人没有权力来选择自己理想的 对象,婚姻是由父母来决定的,男女要跟自己所爱的人在一起是很难实现的事情,更何况男女 两个人的身份与地位不一样。在这个爱情故事里,以封建家长、官府为一边,以真心相爱的青 年男女为另一边,在金钱不能诱、威武不能屈、生死不能隔的恋爱面前,父母之命、金钱、官 府都被打败了。 孙子楚是《阿宝》的男主人公,一只手长了六个指头。阿宝是美丽的富家少女,家里给她 选女婿。孙子楚就向阿宝求婚,阿宝却开玩笑叫他把第六指砍断。孙子楚果然那样做了。他痴 情得连魂魄都离开身体,跟随着阿宝。被感动的阿宝同意嫁给他。过了三年,子楚病死。阿宝 非常难过,自尽上吊。这感天动地的痴情打动了阎王,放他们夫妇同回人间,成就了“千古一 对情痴”。这个故事写的是痴情,全篇笔笔写痴,字字关情,主要围绕孙子楚的“痴”、 “情”做文章。在当时现实社会,在男女之间只要有“真心”、“至情”,就可以冲破一切阻 力,终成眷属,实现婚姻理想。这种爱情观,突破了封建主义的束缚。 analysis of society ….. (chen chongjie; dkk) 179 《画皮》写妻子陈氏为了救王生,忍受着极大羞辱把乞丐吐出的鼻涕粘痰吞下去。没想 到,她吞下去的鼻涕粘痰竟能救活王生。《画皮》描绘了一个对丈夫很忠贞及热爱的妻子形 象,表达了对丈夫纯贞的爱情。为了救活这已经背叛了自己的好色丈夫,妻子还是愿意去做任 何能做的事情,连羞辱自己的事她都干了。事实上,很难找到像陈氏那样贤惠、忠实的妻子, 很少人能做到像陈氏一样所做的事情,纯贞地、执着地爱一个人并没有那么简单的。 此外,涉及到爱情方面的还有《瑞云》、《婴宁》、《青凤》等故事。 通过多样奇妙的故事,《聊斋志异》展示出很多年轻男女怎样去跟不合情合理的封建婚姻 制度与封建礼教斗争的故事,怎样去争取自己的自由和幸福,如《连城》。有的通过“痴情” 的人物形象表达了人们热烈的爱情。为了他们具有的“爱情”,他们去反对束缚着他们的世俗 观念和封建礼教。此外,有的故事还赞扬了贤妻对丈夫的忠贞之心与执着的爱。 (三)政治方面 政府该爱护人民,给人民一个安宁的生活,可在落后的封建时期,很多官僚贪污、为私情 而欺压了无辜的人民。这造成了混乱的境况。 《席方平》里,先死的羊某害死了席方平的父亲。席方平为父亲申冤,魂赴冥府,层层上 告,可城隍、郡司都已受羊某的贿赂,非但不能为父亲申冤,自己也倍受酷刑。他又向阎王控 告城隍、郡司,不料阎王没有给他做主,却惩罚他。席方平继续告状,终于告到二郎神那儿, 从阎王到鬼卒都被二郎神严惩,让席方平和父亲复活。席方平在阴司的遭遇,实际上是当时人 间官吏与人民的关系的真实写照。《席方平》实际是对封建社会人间酷吏官官相护、残害人民 的控诉。《席方平》描绘了当时有那么腐败的政府系统,那么多赃官酷吏因贪钱而虐待了无辜 贫苦的平民,平民很难得到公正与权力。 《促织》讲述了有个爱斗蟋蟀的皇帝,为了满足自己的爱好,不断地让百姓进贡蟋蟀。一 些官员为了讨好上司,强迫每家每户按人口派蟋蟀。往往为了一只蟋蟀,闹得家破人亡。《促 织》批判了当时社会的腐败和黑暗,影射了封建统治的残害人民的罪行,以及生活在那个时代 的百姓疾苦。为了满足统治者的欲望,百姓都牺牲了他们宝贵的生命,可在统治者的眼中,它 却毫无意义、毫无价值。 《梦狼》中,白翁梦见他来到做县令的白甲的官署。他进去一看,堂上堂下都是狼 ,而 阶前白骨如山。忽然来了两个金甲猛士捉住白甲,白甲扑地化成虎,猛士把白甲的门牙敲了。 白翁醒了后,急忙派小儿子带上他的告诫信去白甲那儿看看。没想到,小儿子一到那儿,看到 白甲因骑马已经摔掉了门牙。 蒲松龄把当时的官吏都比喻成虎狼。虎狼是凶猛吃人的动物, 官吏就像虎狼那样凶猛,残酷地虐待老百姓,使老百姓受苦,在他们的酷刑下,连人命都没 了。这些贪赃纳贿的官吏确实还比虎狼更厉害。通过《梦狼》,蒲松龄想警告那些贪赃枉法的 官吏。故事里,白甲终于得到报应。《梦狼》给人们的启示是恶行肯定会有恶报,希望官吏们 会爱护老百姓。 此外,涉及到政治方面的还有《梅女》、《罗刹海市》、《公孙九娘》等故事。 《聊斋志异》从政治方面来看,通过鬼怪故事抒发了人民对当时政府的不满。官吏酷虐地 残害老百姓,而老百姓却无能力或权力去复仇。这些人民的仇恨,在《聊斋志异》里通过幻想 的形式都得到了申诉。《席方平》、《梅女》等故事描绘了被虐待的人民如何拼命地争取公 正,赞扬了那些被压迫的人民反抗斗争的精神,展示出“正义必胜”的坚强信念。 180 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 173-182 (四)经济方面 古代,男主外,女主内。男生在外挣钱来养活家庭,而女生在家作家务,抚育孩子。可, 在《聊斋志异》中,却出现了很有经济头脑的女强人。 《小二》写“绝慧美”的女子赵小二,她为人灵巧,经营才能超过男人。她开个琉璃厂, 生产的灯样子新颖,其他工厂都比不了。几年功夫,她就变成 富有的人了。小二对工人管理 很严格,工人没有一个吃闲饭的。努力的工人受到奖励,偷懒的工人罚跪。《小二》展示了在 经济发展中女性的独力与地位的提高。小二是个女经营者,她善于管理工人。小二懂市场,她 知道怎样满足顾客的要求、怎样去掌握市场。女生不只是呆在家里、做家务而已,依靠别人生 活,而自己能独立,去掌握自己的命运。 《黄英》写嗜菊如命的马子才邀请刚遇到的陶家姐弟住在他家南院。陶三郎和黄英是菊 仙,他们把卖花当成事业做。不久,马子才的妻子病死,娶黄英为妻。几个月后,马家的东西 都是从陶家拿来,马子才耻以妻富,认为黄英破坏了他的清风高名。黄英以她的经营能力养活 了家庭,马子才不但不以她为荣,反而觉得黄英伤害了男子汉大丈夫的自尊心。故事表达出当 时的传统男性观的观念。在封建社会中,女性没有社会生存能力,一般靠丈夫生活。 《细柳》里叙述了细柳是个相夫教子、勤俭持家的好妻子。细柳不喜欢做家庭的事情,她 却接管丈夫经营的家业田产,并处理得很好。细柳把家里的事务都管得井井有条。古代,男主 外,女主内。男人在外为官为商为陇耕,而女子在家就是裁剪做饭教育孩子了。细柳不但管好 家里,连丈夫的家业也被她管理得很好。细柳已给女人做出了榜样,无论是在事业上还是在家 庭上,她都是一个成功的女人。 《聊斋志异》从经济方面来看,蒲松龄通过聊斋女性展示了女性在经济上的独立与地位 的提高。当时女人都没有社会生存能力和地位,只能靠丈夫生活。可在《聊斋志异》的一些故 事,女人却能够自己独立,他们不再是家庭负担,而是能养活家庭的富有头脑的经营者。 (五)社会伦理道德方面 道德是人们共同生活及其行为的准则和规范。道德通过人们的自律或通过一定的舆论对社 会生活起约束作用。《聊斋志异》通过神鬼妖精的形象告诉了人们怎么去做人,给了我们很多 的人生启示。 《画皮》里,王生清早走路,遇到一个漂亮姑娘。王生心里产生邪念,把美女带回家,跟 她同居。妻子劝他将这女子打发走,可王生不听。没想到,美女竟是一个披上人皮的恶鬼。 终,恶鬼掏取了王生的心,走了。《画皮》蕴含着具有广泛警世作用的生活哲理。蒲松龄用这 个怪异故事来劝谕世人,人必须心地正直,不要走邪门歪道。不要像王生那样,因心底产生邪 念,而 后失去了宝贵的生命。心底有邪念的或者做坏事的人 终肯定会受到果报。世界上, 有很多像《画皮》里的“恶鬼”,披上好人的外表来欺骗、陷害人们。头发一样黑,人心谁可 知,因此,世界上善良、幼稚的、头脑简单的人要提高警惕,不要上当受骗。 《劳山道士》写了王生从小就羡慕道家的法术,听说劳山上有很多仙人,就去访求。王生 就被一个道士收下来,可道士不教给他法术,让他天天砍柴。王生吃不了苦,很想回家,可一 看到道士的法术,他又忍耐下来了。终于苦不可忍,跟道士要求回家,且要求道士教他一个小 法术。道士就教他穿墙的法术。当时试验很灵,没想到,回到家给妻子表演时却触壁跌倒。这 analysis of society ….. (chen chongjie; dkk) 181 篇故事至今有启发意义:人想取得成就,必须付出艰苦劳动,就像小说写的,老老实实砍柴, 从 基础工作做起,想取巧,走捷径,没有不碰壁的。做任何事情,我们都要有毅力,刻苦努 力地追求它,不要容易放弃。想要得到好成就,就要尽力去争取它。 《聂小倩》说到深夜有个美丽女子聂小倩主动送上门,说要跟正直的书生宁采臣亲热。宁 采臣断然拒绝。美女又拿来一锭黄金,宁采臣却把黄金丢到院子里。对美人和黄金却不动心, 于是他才能免于灾难。聂小倩这两手实际上很有现实性、普遍性,古往今来男人大多数都很难 度过两个关,这就是金钱关和美人关。但是在《聂小倩》里的宁采臣却给社会做出了榜样,没 被美人引诱,也没被金钱吸引。通过《聂小倩》蒲松龄表达了他对人们的希望,希望在道德败 坏的封建时代,人们都能像宁采臣一样拥有着一颗纯正、正直的心肠。 此外,涉及到伦理道德方面的还有《翩翩》、《婴宁》、《种梨》等故事。 《聊斋志异》充满道德训诫意义,对人进行教育和劝诫:教育人要心底善良、诚实、乐于 助人、吃苦耐劳、知过能改等等。它总结了社会人生的经验教训,也热情地歌颂了普通人的种 种美德和情操。 结语 《聊斋志异》的故事大多数是现实主义和浪漫主义结合的作品,通过神鬼花妖精怪形象反 映了广阔的现实生活,内容非常丰富:暴露封建社会政治的黑暗、腐败;抨击统治阶级的罪 恶;歌颂被压迫人民反抗斗争精神;揭露科举制度的弊端和罪恶;揭露封建婚姻制度的不合 理;赞美超越生死的爱情力量;歌颂青年男女反对封建压迫、挣脱封建礼教束缚、争取婚姻自 由等要求和行动;女性的独立与社会地位的提高;总结了社会人生的经验教训。 聊斋三界之间没有界限,不管在教育、爱情、政治或其他方面的故事,三界都穿插变换。 人间解决不了的问题,就到阴间来解决,阴间解决不了,就到仙界去解决。在三界之间,仙界 是 高的境界,人们 向往的境界。聊斋三界故事在意蕴上有所分工:冥界题材主要负载对社 会的批判;妖界故事主要负载对芸芸众生的广泛观察和思考;仙界故事主要负载作者真善美的 理想。蒲松龄期望读者不是信以为真,而是能领会寄寓的意蕴。 《聊斋志异》能广泛地流传到现在,是因为社会的黑暗及人们对美好的追求还依然存在, 它不仅有反映社会现实生活的作用,而且作为人们行为的指南针,指导着人们努力去追求“真 善美”这一人生的 完美境界。 参考文献 百家讲坛栏目组.(2007).百家讲坛精品集[m]. 上海:上海文艺出版社 冯胜利、冯禹. (2006).用中文谈中国[m]. 北京:北京语言大学出版社 方迎九、赵锦丽等.(2003).中国文学名著快读[m]. 四川:四川文艺出版社 金素芳、徐国普.(2009).聊斋志异[m]. 杭州:浙江少年儿童出版社 182 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 173-182 李家巍、曲德来. (2006). 中国文化十万个为什么[m]. 北京:辽海出版社 刘泽彭.(2007).中国历史常识[m]. 北京:高等教育出版社 刘晓. (2009). 论《聊斋志异》中的择偶标准及其审美情趣[j]. 西南农业大学学报(社会科 学版),7.(2):130-133. 流穿蜂.(2001年1月).蒲松龄[z] 2010年1月4日参考于 http://baike.baidu.com/view/7721.htm#8 马书田.(2008).中国鬼神[m]. 北京:团结出版社 马瑞芳.(2007).马瑞芳说聊斋[m]. 北京:作家出版社 南帆、刘小新、练暑生. (2008). 文学理论基础[m]. 北京:北京大学出版社 蒲松龄.(2007)).聊斋志异:连环画珍藏版[m]. 天津:天津人民美术出版社 孙桂文、高延晶.(2003).中国通史[m]. 河南:海燕出版社 童庆炳. (2008). 文学理论教程教学参考书(修订二版)[m]. 北京:高等教育出版社 英子.(2005年10月).马瑞芳说聊斋之《仙境》[z]. 2010年1月4日参考于 http://www.cctv.com/program/bjjt/20051019/101409.shtml.2005-10-19. 袁行霈.(2004).中国文学史[m]. 北京:高等教育出版社 袁行霈. (2002). 中国文学概论[m]. 北京:高等教育出版社 第七章《聊斋志异》[z]. 2010年7月18日参考于 http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/4title4200499131247/z4.htm nio, joe lan. (2004). sastra cina sepintas lalu. jakarta: pt. bhuana ilmu populer 97bilinguality and socioeconomic status (ses): ….. (risa r. simanjuntak) bilinguality and socioeconomic status (ses): approaching non-singular factor to a child’s cognitive development risa r. simanjuntak english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan-palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 risarsimanjuntak@binus.edu abstract article attempted to argue that bilingualism have positive contributions toward a child’s cognitive development. by applying library research the discussion is focused on the contribution bilingualism had in mitigating socioeconomic detrimental effects on a child’s learning. article started with discussing aspects of cognition, especially those shown through speech productions, of a bilingual child, then moving forward to discuss previous findings and arguments from the research pertaining to the issue of low socioeconomic status (henceforth ses) and cognition. finally, the discussion concluded that bilingualism should be discussed as a complex system of learning and not as separate strands of a child’s learning. keywords: bilinguality, sosioeconomic status, cognitive development, children abstrak artikel menjelaskan bahwa bilingualisme mempunyai kontribusi positif terhadap perkembangan kognitif anak. dengan menggunakan metode studi pustaka diskusi difokuskan pada sejauh mana kontribusi bilingualisme yang mampu meringankan dampak kerusakan sosial ekonomi terhadap pembelajaran anak. artikel dimulai dengan mendiskusikan aspek kognitif, khususnya yang ditunjukkan kemampuan berbicara anak yang mempunyai bilingual, kemudian mendiskusikan hasil penelitian terdahulu, dan argumentasi riset terkait dengan isu status sosioekonomi yang rendah dengan kemampuan kognisi. akhirnya, analisis menyimpulkan bahwa bilingualisme seharusnya didiskusikan sebagai suatu sistem pembelajaran yang kompleks, dan tidak terbatas pada pembelajaran anak. kata kunci: bilingual, status sosial ekonomi, perkembangan kognitif, anak 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 introduction early 1970s marked the start of rigorous discussions on how socioeconomic labeling can be derived from speech-productions. basil bernstein’s social psychological perspectives on restricted and elaborated code had triggered various reactions on the impediments to learning caused by socioeconomic factors (labov, 1972; danzig, 1995). the opponents argue that the notion is heavily biased to middle-class family and even may not be relevant to communities outside us, or white people (labov in douglas, 2013; and bohlmann, 2013). within the discussion of bilingualism, bernstein’s theory acts as the proponent of the verbal-deficit approach, and identifies low socioeconomic conditions as detrimental to cognition (bernstein, 1961). his words, ‘preventing the wastage of working class educational potential’ (bernstein, 1961:368), was often misunderstood and later on labeled quite inseparably with ‘cultural deficit’ theory (sadovnik, 2001:687). growing out from bernstein’s controversial and misunderstood finding, the issue of low ses and cognition is worth studying, both as a part of sociological discussion on education and more specifically as part of the study of linguistics. article attempts to argue that bilingualism have positive contributions toward a child’s cognitive development. in this occasion the discussion is focused on the contribution bilingualism has in mitigating socioeconomic detrimental effects on a child’s learning. in doing so, article will start by discussing aspects of cognition, especially those shown through speech productions, of a bilingual child, then moving forward to discuss previous findings and arguments from the research pertaining to the issue of low socioeconomic status (henceforth ses) and cognition. finally, the discussion will conclude that bilingualism should be discussed as a complex system of learning and not as separate strands of a child’s learning. methods article applied a library research as the approach for its arguments. it began by displaying major findings from the area of language acquisition. the next step was discussing research findings in cognition of bilingual children, which also included research in ses and bilingualism. finally conclusion was drawn and further implication on research in this area was offered. results and discussions studies in bilingualism discuss the issues of language acquisition and the development of cognition (peal, 1962; mcnab, 1979; pinker, 1994; baker, 2001, bialystok, 2001; goodz and poulin-dubois, 2001; hamers & blanc, 2004; yip, 2007; montrul, 2008; adesope, 2010). within the area of acquisition, research flourishes to explain how a child could manage the learning by negotiating the languages (hamers & blanc, 2004; goodz & poulin-dubois, 2001). in explaining the child’s cognition development, the works presented by bialystok, a neuropsychologist, are often cited and her works have given more fundamental ground on how bilingualism process has been mapped in the brain of a child (bialystok, 1997, 2001, 2010, 2011). more interestingly, the child’s environment and whole aspects of life have been noted to be contributive to the overall cognition and language development (pinker, 1994; yip, 2007; baker, 2001; hamers & blanc, 2004). connections between bilingualism and the child’s socioeconomic environment become increasingly important area to be explored (bialystok, 2010; adesope, 2010; leikin, 2013) and become the important assumption for any current bilingualism study. following this assumption, a study by poulin-dubois and goodz (2001) was initiated by the curiosity to find more evidence whether early exposure to two languages may have detrimental affect towards language acquisition. the study was conducted among middle-class ses babies. the babies were still in their babbling stage and the researcher found out that the babies were babbling in the dominant languages, english and french. the study suggested that there was no different functioning in either one of the languages and therefore no negative effect had been shown towards language acquisition caused by bilingualism. in studies of bilingualism and bilinguality, the age of bilingual children has been known to be a success factor (chomsky, 1981 in bialystok, 2001; hamers & blanc, 1989, 2004). while there is a prevalent preference on early age, bilingualism in adults is an area of interest in the study of bilingualism. montrul (2008) discussed cases of adults acquiring new languages and discussed the validity of a biological or critical period (initially introduced by chomsky). her research also provided important explanation on the outcome of late bilingualism. montrul’s research correspondingly became the hallmark of adult l2 acquisition and behavior. another study conducted in 2010 provided data from previous 63 studies (involving 6,022 participants). the meta-analysis was the result of extraction of this vast pool of data, following some established protocols and procedures. the extracted data showed that bilingualism is reliably associated with several cognitive outcomes (adesope, 2010). these outcomes include increased attentional control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, and abstract and symbolic representation skills. (adesope, 2010). following this study leikin (2013) had examined the possible effect of bilingualism on creativity. the study was carried out involving nonmathematical and mathematical problem solving among very young bilingual and monolingual preschoolers(leikin, 2013). the results showed that early bilingualism and bilingual education influenced the children’s general and mathematical creativity with the differences were in favor of the bilinguals (leikin, 2013). on the ground of these previous studies, i would like to discuss how ses would contribute in the overall discussion of bilingualism and cognitive development. this is important to start with the definition on bilingualism. unlike many misconceptions posited by common people (among the myths are bilingualism will create semilingual children and bilinguals are people with split-personalities), grosjean (2002, in an interview) says that: 99bilinguality and socioeconomic status (ses): ….. (risa r. simanjuntak) “bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in one’s everyday life and not knowing two or more languages equally well and optimally (as most laypersons think)” http://www.francoisgrosjean.ch/interview_ en.html this statement is echoed by hamers and blanc (2004) by saying that bilingualism is simply “languages in contact” (2004:1). in more specific, hamers and blanc (2004) uses the term bilinguality to discuss bilingualism in personal level, which is related to the bilingual individuals. this natural position has previously been stated by pinker (1994), saying that the acquisition of a language itself is indeed an innate capacity, an instinct. by this notion, there are various nuances of bilingualism, of whether it is consecutive or simultaneous bilingualism and aspects related to bilingualism, such as age, context and other socio-cultural factors. grosjean (2002) later added that bilinguals are unique and worth to be studied as such and not always in comparison with the monolinguals. this is because a bilingual “uses two languages separately or together for different purposes, in different domains of life, with different people” (grosjean, 2002). most often, because the needs and aims of the two languages being used are different, the language performed is rarely equally or completely of the same fluency. he said further that bilingualism has become the norm in today’s world (in hamers and blanc, 2004). hamers and blanc (2004) underlines this notion and even commented that it will be the monolinguals which should be considered as unique or anomalies in this globalized world. moreover, commenting on bernstein verbal-deficit perspective, grosjean (2002) says that bilinguals use to find themselves at various points along a situational continuum which induce particular language modes, or with bernstein’s term code. therefore, occurrence of interference, code-switching, borrowing, and others are well served in their own contexts. this is therefore, should not be mistaken as linguistic or communication inability (grosjean, 2002). following hamers and blanc (1989 in 2004) range of acquisition period of bilingual children, competence in both languages are often seen from the side of balanced bilinguals. these mean, studies done claiming bilingualism negative contribution to cognitive development are often biased, because these study only include children who are expected to show similar proficiency in two languages (hamers and blanc, 2004). similar concern has also been posited by peal and lambert (1962, in hamers & blanc, 2004) as well as mcnab (1979 in hamers & blanc, 2004). they noted that selecting only to balanced bilingual subjects there could be biased in the findings. hakuta and diaz (1985 in hamers & blanc, 2004) showed that more balanced bilingual children scored higher on non-verbal intelligence tests. to this point, cognitive development showed no direct link to the children’s ses background, but rather their age of acquisition. i therefore argue that ses becomes one of the factors for bilingualism. this previously has been mentioned by groesjean (2002), saying that there are many possible reasons on why one becomes a bilingual. noble, norman, and farah reported their study in 2005 showing evidence of clear association between childhood ses and executive function performance. aspects of this association are the family environment, particularly factors involving the quality of the parentchild relationship and the children ability to cope with stress. although the research is still in its early stage, it is important to underline that the existence of ses-related differences in executive function and brain function may vary and may change according to situations (noble, norman, & farah, 2005). the findings on brain-related activities in bilingual children have been discussed in great competence by ellen bialystok. in one of her articles, bialystok (2010) strongly presented the benefits of being bilinguals showing more dominant executive control in nonverbal tasks requiring conflict resolution. she also discusses the system in which bilingual children control the use of the language, borrowing the theories of binding from noam chomsky, which later develops into the development of figure 1 summary table of psychological dimensions of bilinguality (hamers & blanc, 2004:26) 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 government-binding theory (chomsky, 1981) and later simplifies it (chomsky, 1995). she agrees by saying that there is universal and hypothetically applicability being involved in bilingual brains (bialystok, 2010:38). i argue that ses cannot be considered as a single factor but rather an integral part of a child’s bilinguality, which has been shown from previous assumptions from a number of psychometric studies (hamers & blanc, 2004:87). although sociocultural factors are often linked to many school achievements of ethnic minorities, other facts contributing to the school achievements may arise. there are reports related to immigrant group of children coming from diferent cultural backgrounds with low ses. these children have performed linguistically and cognitively well as compared to their monolingual peers (troike, 1984:96). the low ses however, may not be the single factor as other social factors may create the forces for both linguistic performance as well as the children wider academic performance. two of the factors linked to bilinguality are discussed by hamers and blanc (1989 in 2004). those are the availability of l2 community and the valorization of the l2 (hamers & blanc, 2004). these factors move the discussion of ses and bilinguality to the wider dimensions of cognitive organization. in this point of view, the presence and valorization of l2 provide the membership and the cultural identity of the l2 (hamers & blanc, 2004). accordingly, a child will acquire l2 much more easily when the l2 community is available and when the l2 is highly valued by the wider community (hamers & blanc, 2004). in illustrating these interrelated factors, hamers and blanc (2004) propose the framework for socio-cognitive development, in order to explain the language functions or competence, as follows: figure 2 sociocultural interdependence hypothesis (hamers & blanc, 2004) it could be noted that in additive situation, both languages may have relevantly more opportunities to come as a complete supportive system to the children’s academic challenges, whereas the subtractive situation could prevent a child to use both languages as repository for problem solving (hamers & blanc, 2004). meanwhile, others have questioned whether the performance is not caused by the children’s bilinguality but rather by other ‘limitations’, such as accessibility to knowledge (hamers & blanc, 2004). other limitations may include access to counterparts or people as partners for study and communication, as well less equally supportive psychological conditions that could hinder children to be more confident, self-relying individuals (hamers & blanc, 2004; baker, 2001; yip, 2007). a research done by peal and lambert in 1962 explores the socio-cultural dimension but not in specific to low ses. meanwhile, wei (2001) shows interesting reports in which low ses may contribute to the bilingual children’s cognitive development. however, this is not the singular factor because the low ses may be caused by wider political stance, such as the presence of solidarity in hemnesberget, norway (wei, 2001:111) which contributes positively to bilingualism. grosjean has also mentioned that other factors are equally determinative for a child’s performance,. “the reasons that bring languages into contact and hence foster bilingualism are many: migrations of various kinds (economic, educational, political, religious), nationalism and federalism, education and culture, trade and commerce, intermarriage, etc.” (2002). as these factors trigger various linguistic activations, children would then use their languages to fulfill these needs. naturally, what hamers and blanc’s (2004) has proposed is true: that socio-cognitive interactional connectionist model should be established in explaining the lo-ses connection to bilinguality. fundamental to this proposition is the non-academic strands that are amalgamated in the life of the children: security, friendship and interactions. it is also well noted that for better understanding the connection between low ses and cognitive development in bilingual children, bialystok’s (2010) notion of the universal system (following chomsky’s universl grammar) and grosjean (2002) mapping of form and function need to be carefully studied. this is because low ses can be detrimental when there is absence of security and valorization because according to grosjean’s (2002) argument, these will limit the children’s ability to fulfill their needs through language. moreover, as berstein has confessed to his readers and opponents, the use of codes or languages need not be seen as creating deficit, they only display how socio-economic and cultural norms work in the society (bernstein, 1961). this will eventually put studies on bilingualism and cognition into the bigger map of societal planning. conclusion it has been argued that bilinguality of a child and their cognitive development should not be exclusively linked to their (low) ses condition. it has also been proven from various researches that other factors, such as the availability of l2 community, interactions using l2, access to knowledge, as well as valorization of l2 are among the factors detrimental or beneficial for low ses children. therefore, further researches that take these complexities into account and using wider population are needed to better explain the facets of bilinguality and bilingualism. 101bilinguality and socioeconomic status (ses): ….. 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(n.d.). reflections on rocontextualizing bernstein’s sociology in teachers’ instructional strategies. retrieved october 16, 2013, from http:// cerme8.metu.edu.tr/wgpapers/wg10/wg10_ bohlmann_straehler_pohl.pdf bullock, b. a. (2009). the cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching. (b. a. bullock, ed.) cambridge: cambridge university press. chomsky, n. (1981). lectures on government and binding. dordrecht: foris. chomsky, n. (1995). the minimalist program. cambridge, ma: mit press. danzig, a. 1995. “applications and distortions of basil bernstein’s code theory”. in a. sadovnik, knowledge and pedagogy: the sociology of basil bernstein. norwood, nj: ablex. douglas, m. (n.d.). a history of grid and group cultural theory. retrieved from http://projects.chass. utoronto.ca/semiotics/cyber/douglas1.pdf goodz, n and poulin-dubois, d. (2001). “language differentiation in bilingual infants”. in j. a. cenoz, trends in bilingual acquisition, pp. 95-106. amsterdam: john benjamins. grosjean, f. (2002, february). interview on bilingualism. (j. navracsic, interviewer) retrieved from http:// www.francoisgrosjean.ch/interview_en.html hamers, josiane. f and blanc, michel h. a. (2004). bilinguality and bilingualism. (1st edition). cambridge: cambridge university press. labov, w. (1972). academic ignorance and black intelligence. retrieved from http://www.theatlantic. com/past/docs/issues/95sep/ets/labo.htm leikin, m. (2013). “the effect of bilingualism on creativity: developmental and educational perspectives”. journal of bilingualism, pp. 431-447. mcnab, g. (1979). “cognition and biligualism: a reanalysis of studies”. linguistics, vol. 17, pp. 231255. montrul, s. (2008). incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: re-examining the age factor. amsterdam: john benjamins. noble, k. g., norman, m. f., farah, m. j. (2005). “neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children”. developmental science, vol. 8 no. 1, pp. 74–87. peal, elizabeth and lambert, wallace e. (1962). “the relation of bilingualism to intelligence”. psychological monographs, vol. 76, pp. 1-23. pinker, s. (1994). the language instinct. new york: basic books. sadovnik, a. (2001, vol. xxxi, no. 4, december). basil bernstein (1924–2000). prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (paris, unesco: international bureau of education), pp. 687-703. treffers-daller, j. (2009). code-switching and transfer: an exploration of similarities and differences. in b. a. bullock (ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. troike, r. (1984). “social and cultural aspects of language proficiency”. in c. rivera, language proficiency and academic assessment (pp. 10). clevedon: multilingual matters. wei, l. (2001). the bilingualism reader. new york: routledge. yip, v. a. (2007). the bilingual child. cambridge: cambridge university press. microsoft word 07-juju juangsih.doc pendekatan story telling ….. (juju juangsih) 183  pendekatan story telling dalam pembelajaran dokkai: penelitian terhadap mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang juju juangsih jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang, fakultas pendidikan bahasa dan seni, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi) jl. dr. setiabudhi no. 229 bandung 40154 jawa barat indonesia juangzu@yahoo. com abstract the research was conducted in accordance with the phenomenon occurred in dokkai learning in which the students show lack understanding on reading. the aims of the research are: (1) to obtain clear description of the findings comprehensively about the reality in dokkai learning of the students of jpbj fpbs upi as the learning goals through the story telling approach; (2) to figure out the difficulties and factors influencing the low level of understanding japanese reading (dokkai). the population of the research is the third semester students of japanese education department fpbs upi bandung as 19 students taken randomly from chuukyuu dokkai i course. qualitative method is employed using quasi experimental design. thus, in the research, there is no control group as the comparing class. from the result of data analysis, we find that (1) according to the questionnaire result, 90% of the respondents respond that the story telling approach in dokkai course is interesting; (2) the students must be able to comprehend the reading text and then retell it; (3) the class becomes more active and effective. keywords: chuukyuu dokkai, story telling, students, difficulties, factors, level of understanding abstrak pada pembelajaran chuukyuu dokkai saat ini, banyak siswa kurang memahami bacaan yang dibacanya. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan paparan hasil penelitian secara komprehensif tentang realitas pembelajaran chuukyuu dokkai pada mahasiswa jpbj pfbs upi sebagai hasil pembelajaran melalui pendekatan story telling, dan untuk mendapatkan gambaran mengenai kesulitan dan faktor yang mempengaruhi rendahnya tingkat pemahaman dalam membaca pemahaman (dokkai). populasi pada penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa semester iii jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang fpbs upi bandung sebanyak 19 orang yang diambil secara random pada mata kuliah chuukyuu dokkai i. metode kualitatif digunakan pada penelitian ini dengan teknik kuasi eksperimen, sehingga pada penelitian ini tidak ada kelas kontrol sebagai kelas pembanding. dari hasil analisis data diketahui bahwa: (1) berdasarkan hasil angket, 90% responden menjawab bahwa pendekatan story telling pada mata kuliah chuukyuuu dokkai ‘membaca pemahaman tingkat menengah’, menarik; (2) selain dapat membaca cerita, mahasiswa dapat memahami bacaan tersebut dan dapat menceritakan kembali bacaan tersebut dengan bahasanya sendiri; (3) kondisi kelas hidup dan ramai. kata kunci: chuukyuu dokkai, story telling, mahasiswa, kesulitan, factor, tingkat pemahaman 184 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 183-187  pendahuluan keterampilan membaca seperti yang disebutkan oleh tarigan (1992:8) merupakan salah satu keterampilan yang sulit seperti halnya keterampilan menulis. untuk melatih mahasiswa agar terasah keterampilan membacanya, di dalam kurikulum pendidikan bahasa jepang ada mata kuliah dokkai. mata kuliah ini merupakan mata kuliah yang berkesinambungan, ada dari semester satu sampai semester tujuh dan merupakan mata kuliah bersyarat dan berjenjang. artinya bahwa mahasiswa tidak bisa mengambil mata kuliah di semester berikutnya apabila nilai mata kuliah ini tidak lulus pada semester yang bersangkutan. sehingga dengan kata lain, mata kuliah ini termasuk mata kuliah wajib bagi mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang upi. kata dokkai, apabila kita lihat dari penulisan dalam huruf kanjinya 読解, terdiri dari dua buah huruf yaitu 読 む (yomu, artinya membaca) dan 解 く (toku, artinya membuka; membongkar; menyelesaikan; menguraikan; memecahkan; membatalkan (kamus daigakushorin:721). sehingga kata dokkai tidak hanya mempunyai arti membaca tetapi dapat memahami apa yang dibacanya. hal ini sejalan dengan pengertian dokkai yang terdapat dalam kamus daijiten, di sana dituliskan bahwa: 読解とは文章を読みその内容を理解すること。 dokkai towa bunshouwo yomi, naiyou wo rikai suru koto. ‘dokkai adalah hal membaca tulisan dan memahami isinya’. dari definisi tentang dokkai yang terdapat dalam kamus daijiten tersebut, kita dapat memahami bahwa yang dimaksud dengan kata dokkai bukan hanya membaca saja,tetapi harus sampai pada tahap memahami isi bacaannya. sehingga untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, pada saat pembuatan silabus, pengajar membuat perencanaan pengajaran yang dapat menggiring mahasiswa untuk mempunyai keterampilan mamahami bacaan. di lain pihak, berdasarkan hasil rapat evaluasi semester gasal 2010/2011 diketahui bahwa kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mata kuliah chuukyuu dokkai dan jitsuyou dokkai masih sangat kurang. hal ini dapat dilihat dari jawaban hasil ujian tengah semester dan ujian akhir semester yang kurang begitu bagus, yaitu masih banyak mahasiswa yang menjawab pertanyaan apa adanya dari bacaan tanpa ada perubahan sedikitpun. kurangnya kemampuan dalam membuat rangkuman dari bacaan tersebut dijadikan salah satu indikator bahwa mereka belum mampu memahami isi bacaan tersebut secara benar. berdasarkan permasalahan tersebut, penulis sebagai salah seorang tim pengajar mata kuliah dokkai ingin mencoba menerapkan pendekatan story telling untuk membiasakan mahasiswa supaya terampil dalam mengungkapkan kembali apa yang dibaca dan dipahaminya dengan menggunakan bahasa sendiri. istilah story telling sendiri mungkin sudah tidak asing lagi dalam pengajaran bahasa terutama dalam mata kuliah percakapan. pada penelitian ini, penulis meminjam istilah tersebut untuk mencoba menumbuhkan kemampuan mengungkapkan hasil bacaan dengan kalimat yang dibuat oleh mahasiswa sendiri. secara operasional penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memperoleh: (1) paparan hasil penelitian secara komprehensif tentang realitas pembelajaran chuukyuu dokkai mahasiswa jpbj pfbs upi sebagai hasil pembelajaran melalui pendekatan story telling; (2) gambaran mengenai kesulitan dan faktor yang mempengaruhi rendahnya tingkat pemahaman dalam membaca pemahaman (dokkai). pendekatan story telling ….. (juju juangsih) 185  metode metode yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif dengan pendekatan kuasi eksperimen. penelitian deskriptif adalah penelitian yang dilakukan untuk menggambarkan, menjabarkan suatu fenomena yang terjadi saat ini dengan menggunakan prosedur ilmiah untuk menjawab masalah secara aktual (sutedi, 2009). sehingga sifat penelitian ini menjabarkan, memotret segala permasalahan yang dijadikan pusat perhatian peneliti, kemudian dibeberkan apa adanya. sedangkan pendekatan yang digunakan adalah eksperimen semu (quasi eksperimen) yaitu penelitian dengan one group pretest-posttest design yaitu penelitian yang dilaksanakan pada satu kelompok saja tanpa pembanding. populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa semester iii jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang fakultas pendidikan bahasa dan seni universitas pendidikan indonesia. sampel penelitian adalah mahasiswa kelas 3a yang sedang mengambil mata kuliah chuukyuu dokkai i. kegiatan penelitian dilaksanakan pada bulan agustus-september 2011 sebanyak delapan kali pertemuan ditambah pre-test dan post-test. sedangkan tempat penelitiannya dilaksanakan di kelas bahasa jepang jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang fpbs upi bandung. hasil dan pembahasan materi yang digunakan untuk bahan bacaan diambil dari buku pelajaran chuukyuu dokkai i yang dibuat oleh para pengajar bahasa jepang jpbj fpbs upi bandung. materi yang dibahas pada treatment ke-1 adalah materi awal yang ada di buku pelajaran chuukyuu dokkai 1 yaitu tentang 「oogoe taikai」. pada treatment pertama, pengajar menyuruh responden untuk menceritakan bacaan kepada temannya menggunakan dua bahasa yaitu bahasa indonesia dan bahasa jepang. pada saat menceritakan dalam bahasa indonesia, responden tidak mengalami kesulitan, tetapi ketika mereka diminta untuk menceritakan dalam bahasa jepang, masih banyak responden yang kebingungan untuk menyusun kalimatnya. pada treatment kedua, tema yang dibahas mengenai「anatano kuni dewa」. materi pada pertemuan ke-2 ini cukup panjang sehingga pada saat latihan membaca, responden memerlukan 3-4 kali pengulangan. walaupun ceritanya panjang, tetapi isi ceritanya cukup menarik sehingga sebagian besar responden dapat mengungkapkan kembali cerita tentang 「anatano kuni dewa」dalam bahasa jepang, walaupun ada beberapa responden yang menceritakan urutan isinya tidak sesuai dengan teks. sehingga ada beberapa responden yang refleks membetulkan cerita temannya yang kurang tepat materi treatment ketiga mengenai 「arubaito」. walaupun istilah 「arubaito」dalam bahasa indonesia‘kerja paruh waktu’ sudah tidak asing lagi di kalangan mahasiswa jurusan bahasa jepang, tetapi karena banyak dari responden tidak melakukan kerja paruh waktu seperti halnya mahasiswa di jepang, maka pada saat brainstorming memerlukan waktu yang lebih banyak untuk menyamakan persepsi. materi untuk tema「arubaito」ini dalam buku teks ditulis secara tategaki ‘dari atas ke bawah’, sehingga banyak responden yang merasa kesulitan untuk membacanya. selain itu banyak kosa kata dan kanji baru yang belum dipelajari sehingga responden cukup sulit membaca dan memahaminya. untuk memudahkan responden dalam memahami teks, penulis menyuruh responden untuk mencari intisari bacaan dari setiap alinea. kegiatan menceritakan kembali teks yang dibaca untuk jenis bacaan dengan bentuk teks yang seperti ini cukup menjadi kendala. 186 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 183-187  materi treatment keempat bertemakan 「chikyuu ga atatakakunaru. ini bukan merupakan materi pengenalan budaya jepang, sehingga pada saat brainstorming, penulis tidak menemukan kesulitan. tema 「chikyuu ga atatakakunaru」 ini menceritakan tentang pemanasan global, hal-hal yang menyebabkannya dan beberapa cara yang dapat dilakukan untuk mengurangi pemanasan tersebut. isi ceritanya menarik dan sesuai dengan kondisi yang ada sekarang, sehigga responden merasa tertarik pada saat menyimak bacaan ini. walaupun pada akhir cerita ada bagian yang kosong yang harus dipikirkan oleh responden, tetapi karena isi cerita sebelumnya dapat dimengerti sebagian besar tidak mengalami kesulitan. materi treatment kelima adalah tentang 「jidouhanbaiki」. pada saat brainstorming, penulis menanyakan kepada responden mengenai jidouhanbaiki atau mesin penjual otomatis. responden di luar dugaan mengetahui betul tentang mesin penjual otomatis yang ditanyakan oleh penulis. sehingga pada saat apersepsi dapat berjalan dengan lancar. pada saat pemahaman bacaan ada beberapa responden yang kelihatan tidak memahami urutan penggunaan mesin penjual otomatis. untuk memberikan pemahaman tersebut, penulis kemudian memperlihatkan foto tentang mesin penjual otomatis. materi tentang mesin penjual otomatis ini cukup panjang, sehingga responden cukup kesulitan dalam memahaminya. supaya mudah dalam memahami cerita ini, penulis kemudian meminta mereka untuk membuat resume intisari dari setiap alinea. pada saat bercerita ada beberapa responden yang berusaha membaca kembali buku teks untuk memastikan jumlah mesin penjual otomatis. treatment keenam bertemakan 「norimonono rekishi」. materi pada pertemuan ke-6 ini merupakan materi yang paling pendek dan mudah disimak oleh responden. penulis hanya menerangkan beberapa kosa-kata dan kanji baru. kemudian pada saat berceritapun mereka antusias untuk menceritakan dalam bahasa jepang kepada temannya. ada beberapa orang yang sudah terbiasa dengan bercerita, mereka dapat menceritakan materi yang mereka simak dengan menggunakan bahasa mereka sendiri, tetapi ada juga yang masih belum percaya diri masih menggunakan bahasa yang sama dengan bahasa yang ada di buku teks. treatment ketujuh adalah tentang 「 doubutsuno me 」 . materi pertemuan ke-7 tentang 「doubutsuno me」 atau dalam bahasa indonesia ‘mata hewan’ merupakan materi yang menarik. pada saat apersepsi, penulis mencoba memulainya dengan bertanya mengenai pengalaman ke kebun binatang dan melihat berbagai hewan di sana. selanjutnya menanyakan tentang bentuk-bentuk mata hewan yang berbeda. pada tahap ini penulis meminta kepada beberapa responden untuk menceritakan mengenai hal tersebut. pada saat bercerita, responden tidak mengalami kesulitan untuk menceritakannya dalam bahasa jepang. mereka dapat membuat intisari dari setiap alinea dan menceritakannya kembali menggunakan bahasa mereka sendiri. materi yang digunakan untuk treatment ke-8 adalah mengenai 「 anatawa nandoshi umare?」. tema 「anatawa nanidoushi umare」 merupakan materi terakhir yang dijadikan materi penelitian. materi ini menceritakan tentang asal muasal adanya shio kelahiran dalam setahun. cerita tentang asal muasal shio kelahiran menarik bagi responden, selain ceritanya tidak begitu panjang, isi materinya juga mudah untuk difahami sehingga tidak menyulitkan penulis pada saat pbm. penutup pada bab sebelumnya telah dipaparkan mengenai kondisi pengajaran mk chuukyuu dokkai 1 dengan menggunakan pendekatan story telling. berikut merupakan beberapa hal yang dapat penulis simpulkan dari hasil penelitian ini, yaitu: (1) berdasarkan hasil angket, 90% responden menjawab bahwa pendekatan story telling pada mata kuliah chuukyuu dokkai ‘membaca pemahaman tingkat pendekatan story telling ….. (juju juangsih) 187  menengah’, menarik; (2) selain dapat membaca, mahasiswa harus dapat memahami bacaan kemudian dapat menceritakan kembali bacaan tersebut; (3) kondisi kelas hidup dan ramai. selain itu ada beberapa jawaban responden mengenai pendekatan story telling dalam pembelajaran chuukyuu dokkai sebagai berikut: (1) dengan adanya tuntutan untuk menceritakan kembali, menimbulkan keinginan untuk memahami makna setiap kalimat; (2) menceritakan kembali isi teks dengan bahasa sendiri, lebih menarik; (3) bisa lebih memahami dan memperdalam isi bacaan; (4) menceritakan kembali dengan bahasa sendiri lebih mudah difahami; (5) dapat menceritakan intisari dari sebuah cerita tanpa harus sama dengan teks aslinya; (6) dapat mengingat dengan mudah dalam jangka waktu yang lama; (7) mudah memahami bacaan; (8) dengan menceritakan kembali siswa akan lebih memahami bacaan tersebut. kemudian ada beberapa hal yang dapat dijadikan masukan bagi para peneliti atau pengajar mk dokkai dalam menggunakan pendekatan story telling ini, yaitu: (1) pendekatan story telling untuk mk dokkai dapat dijadikan salah satu alternatif model pengajaran. tetapi model ini sedikit sulit diterapkan di tingkat bawah karena perbendaharaan kata yang dimiliki mahasiswa di tingkat bawah masih kurang; (2) pada saat menerapkan model ini diusahakan mahasiswa tidak menjiplak kalimat yang mereka baca sebelumnya pada teks bacaan. mereka sebaiknya dituntun untuk dapat menyampaikan cerita tersebut menggunakan kalimat mereka sendiri; (3) pengajar harus memilih teks yang tidak terlalu sulit. daftar pustaka kindaichi, kyousuke. (1978). kokugo daijiten. tokyo: gakken. suenaga, akira. (1984). gendai nihongo indonesiago jiten. tokyo: daigakushorin sutedi, dedi. (2009). penelitian pendidikan bahasa jepang. bandung: penerbit humaniora. tarigan, henry guntur. (1992). membaca sebagai suatu keterampilan berbicara. jakarta: angkasa. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 295 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 295-300 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4206 redefining banyumas local values: symbolisms in batik motifs dyah raina purwaningsih1; ika maratus sholikhah2; erna wardani3 1,2 english departement, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university 3 education departement. faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university jl. hr boenyamin 708, purwokerto, jawa tengah 53122, indonesia 1deeraina3@gmail.com; 2ika.linguistika@gmail.com; 3ernawardani@yahoo.com received: 11th december 2017 /revised: 07th february 2018 /accepted: 20th february 2018 how to cite: purwaningsih, d. r., sholikhah, i. m., & wardani, e. (2018). redefining banyumas local values: symbolisms in batik motifs. lingua cultura, 12(3), 295-300. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4206 abstract this research aimed to find the types of signs using peircean semiotic theory namely icon, index, and symbol in banyumas batik motifs. the researchers were going to describe the banyumas local values depicted in each of the batik motifs. moreover, banyumas local values were reflected from the explained batik motifs. this research was a descriptive qualitative research by applying embedded-case study. the research was limited on banyumas batik motifs which contained natural symbols; they were jahe rajang, lumbon, babon angrem, peksi gowok, and serayuan. there were two types of data to be analyzed, namely primary and secondary data. there were two key informants that the researchers met and interviewed to obtain more reliable data. to gain the primary data, the researchers conducted some series of interview with the first informant, a banyumas batik artisan who was very dedicated to maintain the existence of batik tulis (hand-painted batik). meanwhile, to gain the secondary data, the researchers visited a banyumas culture activist. the results show that banyumas batik motifs are made with certain purposes and meanings. each of the motifs analyzed in this research carries important signs. it reflects the values and beliefs adhered by the local people. through these motifs and the appreciation of batik, banyumas local value like cablaka (straightforward, honest, and genuine) reflects the index as one type of sign. keywords: local values, banyumas local values, symbolism, batik motif, semiotics introduction the research on batik and semiotics is not a new thing. there has been some research on both aspects. batik as indonesian cultural heritage also exists in other parts of indonesia such as kalimantan, papua, sumatera, and so on. tyas (2013) has conducted semiotic research on samarinda batik focusing on the peircean types of sign. the research reveals two batik motifs that represent the characteristics of samarinda, namely ikan pesut (plain water dolphin) and saroong (samarinda special cloth) motifs. the former depicts the motto of samarinda, that is samarinda kota tepian. moreover, the picture of the grey dolphin reflects both positive and negative traits of the city including elegance, modesty, high quality, stability, eternity, wisdom, and doubtfulness. in addition, dolphin also shows samarinda as a city that is close to nature, and it contains a meaningful message always to keep the city naturally friendly. meanwhile, the saroong represents the original cloth of samarinda which is known worldwide. despite the similarity to the previous research, this research investigates different types of sign reflected in banyumas batik motifs. it will lead the researchers to the finding on banyumas local values. other research on batik has also been conducted by saddhono et al. (2014). they focus more on the philosophical meaning of batik and kimono motifs. the researchers reveal that batik motifs contain particular intention related to life perspective and belief on the old days. meanwhile, kimono motifs deal with age, status, wealth, and other aspects. kimono batik (kimba) may appear as a strategic collaborative cultural product in the global creative industry by using kimono pattern with batik motif. it keeps both philosophical meanings of the original products. fourseason kimba can be a model of how developing a global product is. high-valued cultural products of two different cultures are creolized in respect to the cultural identity where the original products belong to. then, semiotics refers to the study of signs as stated by eco in chandler (2007). semiotics deals with everything that can be taken as a sign. in a semiotic sense, the signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures, and objects. it refers to the physical form which represents an object, feeling, event, and others. semiotics helps people in studying how meanings are made and how reality is 296 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 295-300 represented. it becomes important in an academic field since in human life, the sign serves many functions. it allows people to recognize and identify patterns. then, it can be the plan for taking actions acts as a model of particular phenomena (sebeok, 2001). moreover, semiotics functions to signal the existence of species; communicate messages within the species and be the model of incoming information from the external world. in conclusion, semiotics deals with the signs used to deliver the idea, information, and command which enable people to develop their perception toward what is heard, seen, felt, and smelled (natashia, 2015). in analyzing the sign, there are two leading scholars’ perspectives on semiotics theory. they are a swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure and american philosopher charles sanders pierce. the primary focus of saussure’s theory is the language as a system of a sign. the theory relies on the twodimensional system, the consensus or conventional system, the networking relationship between signs system and the arbitrary system (yakin & totu, 2014). while in chandler (2007), saussure argues that signs are interpreted as a part of the formal, generalized, and abstract system. his conception of meaning is structural and relational, rather than referential. saussurean model is known as a dyadic model which focuses on linguistic signs; a signifier and signified. the signifier is defined as the physical form of the sign that refers to something which can be seen, heard, touched, smelled, or tasted. sounds, letters, and gestures are the illustration of signifier concept by saussure. then, signified is interpreted as the more abstract thing which deals with the concept of the sign. the sign is the whole association of the signifier with the signified. the relationship between them is referred to signification. moreover, the connection between them is arbitrary. it can be seen in figure 1 and 2. figure 1 saussure’s dyadic meaning (source: chandler, 2007) figure 2 concept and sound pattern (source: chandler, 2007) in figure 1 and figure 2, the signified is the concept of the shady tree which brings the tranquility and other benefits to the people around, and the signifier is the word of the tree. furthermore, saussure defines signifier as the sound pattern or linguistic sign while the signified is a mental image representing the concept in people‘s mind. thus, the concept of signified and signifier represents the thought and sound. the meaning of a sign is not in its relationship to other signs within the language system, but it is in the social context of its use. saussure’s interpretation is influenced by his theory about the distinction between langue and parole. langue refers to the system of rules and convention which is independent. meanwhile, parole is the use in a particular instance. saussure focuses on langue than parole. then, saussure emphasizes that study of the sign should be divided into synchronic (at a given point in time) and diachronic (the investigation of how signs change in form and meaning over time) (sebeok, 2001). another model is a triadic model formulated by charles sanders peirce. it consists of three aspects of sign. there are representamen, interpretant, and object. representamen refers to the form which the sign takes. interpretant deals with the sense made of the sign. then, the object is something beyond the sign to which it refers. therefore, the sign is a unity of what is represented (the object), how it is represented (the representamen), and how it is interpreted (the interpretant). pierce’s theory of triadic meaning or also known as the triangle of meaning is illustrated in figure 3. figure 3 pierce’s triadic meaning (source: chandler, 2007) pierce offers three modes of relationship between sign vehicles and what is signified; those are icon, index, and symbol. these modes are also known as types of meaning. in general, the icon is a sign which resembles for what they stand as. the index is a sign that indicates a fact or condition, and symbol is a sign that bears an arbitrary relationship to what they stand for (suhor, 1992). in addition, based on chandler (2007) and merrel (2001), an icon refers to the sign that correlates with its object by its similarity or resemblance. portrait or photograph is a good illustration of the icon which represents the original item. photograph of cat directly represents the cat itself. the index is a sign that interrelates with semiotics object through some actual, physical, or imagined a causal connection. this refers to a mode in which the signifier is directly connected in some way to the signified. this can be interpreted as the indicators of a fact or condition. cause and effect relationship also characterize index. for example, the natural sign like smoke is an index of the existence of fire. thunder is an index indicating the rain, and footprints are also categorized as an index since it indicates the coming of someone. 297redefining banyumas local values... (dyah raina purwaningsih et al.) then, the symbol is more complicated that it involves social convention in extracting the meaning. in interpreting symbol, signifier does not resemble the signified. the meaning is purely conventional; the relationship must be agreed and learned. morse code, traffic lights, and national flight are some illustrations of the symbolic mode. the characteristics of those three modes are displayed in table 1. table 1 the example of three modes of relationship between sign vehicles and what is signified of pierce icon index symbol physically similar direct connection habit or norm not arbitrary human-made can be inferred or observed arbitrary or conventional the meaning should be learned the icon is the simplest mode since it merely shows the represented object directly or physically similar to the object. printer icon as illustrated in table 1 is an icon of printing function since it resembles printer physically. the word of print is not classified as the icon since it does not represent printer physically. the index is defined as a sensory feature of the particular object. the meaning contains in the index can be inferred and observed. a dark cloud is the index of the rain. people can predict the rain will come soon if there is a dark cloud indicating this natural phenomenon. this cause and effect relationship is the characteristics of the index. the next type is a symbol which cannot be interpreted since the meaning is based on the convention. symbol associates the object indirectly. thus, the meaning should be learned and agreed. diamond has the characteristics that represent eternity. it is solid, timeless, and highly endurant. batik is one of indonesia’s valuable heritages that represents its cultures, and the various motifs depict people’s way of life. the origin of batik is not recorded. however, in a.d. 70, there was a finding of the similar manner of batik clothing design in egypt (elliott, 2013). the method was found seven hundred later in china. it is believed that the indonesian batik motifs are influenced by indian and chinese motifs brought by the merchants. during its development in indonesia especially in java, batik gets influences from three major religions: buddhism, hinduism, and islam. those religions bring their characteristics. buddhism and hinduism bring interlocking and intersecting circular designs known as kawung. meanwhile, muslim prohibition against depicting human forms is about the change in the batik designs into new shapes like flat arabesques and calligraphy (elliott, 2013). in indonesia, batik experiences a wider recognition as the condition of the people is gradually changing. a long time ago, people especially the youth assumed batik as an old-fashioned and traditional style. it was only used by certain people in certain occasions such as a wedding party, traditional ceremony, and other formal occasions. nowadays, batik is becoming more popular at every level of society. many schools and formal institutions make batik as one of the uniforms on particular days. along with the modification of batik style and design, today’s teenagers also wear batik as one of their fashion items. wearing batik is a way to preserve batik from its extinction. batik develops very well, especially in java. however, in other regions, it also develops in certain ways depending on the local culture in which it grows. in java, one of the regions that has batik as its local heritage is banyumas, central java. it is located in the southern part, far away from the keraton (palaces) of yogyakarta and surakarta that are said to be the centers of javanese culture. banyumas possesses its batik design which reflects the values adhered by the people. banyumas batik began its production after the war in 1830 in sokaraja, one of the districts in banyumas. people in banyumas weaved the fabrics and used the natural colors from plants and fruits. then, it reached the popularity in 1965-1970. banyumas batik emphasizes symbolic motif rather than decorative as found in batik pekalongan. one of the characteristics which differ banyumas batik from others is the color. banyumas batik uses the natural colors like white, black, brown, and yellowish white. in addition to the categorization as natural colors, those colors symbolize particular representation. for example, black represents the power, strong belief, and willingness. brown refers to the color of the soil and represents some positive personality traits such as modesty and down to earth. moreover, yellow symbolizes hope, bright future, and glory. another characteristic is the motif. as mentioned previously that hinduism, buddhism, and islam mostly influence the javanese batik motif. each of those early major religions brings their characteristics that can be seen through the basic motif designs. ecological awareness of banyumas people also brings about the development of batik motifs such as the use of floral and animal motifs. some examples of banyumas batik with floral motifs are manggar, kawung cakra, kawung beton, jae rajang, kopi pecah, ceplok pala, kanthil ukel, godong tel, kluwihan, and lumbon. whereas the examples of animal motifs can be seen in lar sawat, urang watang, merak ngigel, peksi gowok, babon angrem, kidang tlatas, ayam puger, walang kekek, and ramatan motifs. the last characteristic is the painting method. banyumas batik is painted on both sides that resulted in totally the same patterns of both inner and outer sides. it reflects the philosophy of cablaka, originated from cara blaka. it means saying something straightforward. this symbolizes banyumas people’s personalities who always tell the truth or something the way it is. this painting method makes banyumas batik more expensive than the other batik clothing which is painted only on one side. banyumas batik is rich in symbolic meaning. it contains moral values as well as cultural values. one of the motifs is urang watang. urang means shrimp and watang means an old wood. shrimp is an animal that lives in the sea, river, or lake. shrimp periodically face skin changing. however, as it grows older, the skin changing rarely happens resulting in the hard, strong, and solid skin. as a consequence, shrimp like to be alone in a quiet place. the characteristics of urang watang represent a person’s personality who is calmer and wiser when he grows older. in this period, they tend to improve themselves and become humbler and politer. 298 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 295-300 the researchers are interested in conducting semiotics research on banyumas batik motifs, particularly on natural motifs. it reflects certain meaning dealing with the local values preserved by the people. the research aims to find the types of sign contained in banyumas batik motifs using peirce’s theory of sign. the researchers are going to describe the banyumas local values depicted in each of the batik motifs. methods this research is a descriptive qualitative research by applying embedded-case study. according to creswell (2014), qualitative research is an approach to explore and understand the meaning of individuals or groups ascribed to a social or human problem. this research is embedded because the researchers determine the problem and focus of the research before conducting the research as written in the problem statements. the researchers limit the research on banyumas batik motifs which contain natural symbols. there are two types of data to be analyzed, namely primary and secondary data. there are two key informants that the researchers meet and interview to obtain more reliable data. to gain the primary data, the researchers conduct some series of interview with the first informant, a banyumas batik artisan who is very dedicated to maintain the existence of batik tulis (hand-painted batik). the name of the batik is rusmini darmono derived from the owners of the batik house. the information about the meaning of jahe rajang, peksi gowok, babon angrem, and lumbon motifs is obtained from the first informant. meanwhile, to gain the secondary data, the researchers visit a banyumas culture activist named ahmad thohari. he provides the researchers with the information about banyumas local value and philosophy. the information gained from him is used to support the information obtained from the first key informant. results and discussions flora and fauna are the commonest traditional batik motifs found in indonesia that is influenced by hinduism and buddhism cultures. there are four natural banyumas batik motifs discussed in this research. there are jahé rajang, lumbon, babon angrem, and peksi gowok. those motifs are designed as the reflection of the message delivered by the artisan. in this research, each of them is analyzed using the peircean theory of sign that covers icon, symbol, and index. table 2 icon, symbol, and index of jahé rajang icon index symbol usefulness remedy, ritual, recipe first, in jahé rajang that can be seen in table 2, the icon of the motif is the whole thing printed on the fabric which represents ginger (jahé in javanese). the name of this motif is realized in the design. when people look at this clothing, they will see the picture of sliced ginger. this banyumas batik motif indexes the usefulness of jahé for javanese people. as said by many semioticists, the index is directly connected to the signified in some way. the index can be observed and is not arbitrary because it sometimes reflects the cause-effect relationship between the object and the concept thought by the observer. ginger indexes many benefits for a human being, and it is often associated with some function such as cooking and home remedy. ginger is often used as a cooking ingredient to reduce the fishy smell of fish or meat. it is also used to reduce cough by making it into a warm beverage. in the past, ginger might be common in javanese rituals such as a ritual to avoid misfortunes. a person is said to be beneficial if he/she can do something for other people as well as for the environment. a person should learn from ginger that can be used to cure cough. he/she has to try helping those who are in need. the symbol is more complicated to be understood because it is related to the social convention. to extract the meaning, the researchers need an agreement. in jahé rajang batik motif, the ginger symbolizes banyumas value that a person has to be beneficial for others. people can learn the value of life from ginger that has many benefits for the human being. ginger symbolizes the positive values that should be adhered by banyumas people. to reach that degree, a person needs to go through a process. sometimes a person has to face obstacles to become maturer just like the ginger that needs a certain process to become a cooking ingredient. it might be processed differently to become a home remedy. table 3 icon, symbol, and index of lumbon icon index symbol adaptability and usefulness can grow in any place, even without special treatment. all parts are useful for daily needs. second, other than jahé rajang, another natural banyumas batik that is derived from floral design is lumbon as seen in table 3. the iconic sign of this motif is seen through the design. the design of this motif resembles a local plant called lumbu or taro leaves. two indexical signs can be seen in this motif; adaptability and usefulness. the lumbu is very adaptable and easy to find, and it can grow in any place and any situation. people can find it almost in every garden of banyumas house. in addition, it does not even need special treatment to grow well. sometimes, the owner does not even realize that the plant grows well in their gardens. besides adaptability, it also shows usefulness since all parts of the plant are useful for human beings or animals. the leaves, trunk, and root can be processed into various kinds of food. moreover, the plant is also often used to feed fish. the plant of lumbu indirectly symbolizes positive traits of banyumas people that can be seen in their daily lives. the symbol of this motif is also related to the index. banyumas people are known to be down to earth, friendly, 299redefining banyumas local values... (dyah raina purwaningsih et al.) and helpful. they can easily make friends with other people. they are also known to be down to earth. in banyumas social life, everyone has equal status. no one has a higher position than the others. in the neighborhood, they also like to help each other without being asked. for example, they like to conduct communal work. they are also straightforward and tend to avoid fakeness because there is no social gap among the society. however, lumbu also symbolizes the inferiority of banyumas people. it is due to its distance from yogyakarta and surakarta keraton (palaces) as the centers of javanese culture. the distance causes the dialectical difference between banyumas and yogyakarta-surakarta. banyumas has its javanese dialect that is called as ngapak by other javanese native speakers. because of this dialect, banyumas people are often underestimated and considered inferior. this experience is indirectly related to the characteristics of lumbu as a local plant whose existence is often ignored. however, it does not reduce the usefulness of the plant. it teaches us that a person has to be adaptable in any circumstances without expecting special treatments from the surrounding. it also teaches us that people have to give benefits to other people and the environment. people can learn from the plant that to be useful for others, sometimes people have to sacrifice themselves. however, it does not mean that people will lose the self-existence like lumbu that always exist in every situation. another traditional batik motif that has the similar local wisdom to lumbon is a motif called kawung. the name is based on the design that resembles a palm tree cut into pieces. palm is called aren in the indonesian language. it is one of the useful plants that can easily be found in indonesia. it reflects some positive personality traits that should be held by human beings. all parts of the tree can be used for various needs. the trunk and branches can be made into a broom and other household utensils. meanwhile, the fruit can be made into food and sugar. it reflects the essence of human beings as social creatures that should be beneficial for others (parmono, 2013). table 4 icon, symbol, and index of peksi gowok icon index symbol the perfection of life and afterlife a person’s life is complete when she/he has fulfilled both physical and spiritual needs. third, for peksi gowok, animal batik motif is also full of philosophy and value adhered by javanese people. in banyumas itself, some animals are also believed to have symbologies representing local beliefs. one of the examples is a bird in table 4. the icon of this motif is seen in the design. it resembles the name of the motif, and people can obviously see it. in this batik motif, there are pictures of peksi (bird) and gowok (name of the fruit). those pictures carry certain meaning. javanese-hinduism belief influences this motif. based on the theory used in this research, the index of this motif is the direct connection between bird (peksi) and the belief system of banyumas people. the bird represents the perfection of life and afterlife. peksi is believed as the representation of life perfection. it is related to a javanese saying that a man’s life is considered complete when he has reached five basic needs. those are a house, a wife, a horse, a weapon, and a bird. there is also the relation between gowok and banyumas local value that is not found in other cultures. as for gowok, no direct connection can be made. based on the information gained by the researchers, there are two possibilities for extracting the meaning of gowok. first, it is a name of local fruit found in java and kalimantan. second, it is related to an old tradition held by a certain society in some parts of banyumas. the bird symbolizes a person’s longing for nobleness in this life and afterlife. it is also often related to the determination to fulfill the material needs by going to work at days and returning home to fulfill the spiritual needs at noons. the symbolic sign of gowok can be analyzed through two arguments. gowok is a kind of fruit that commonly grows in certain parts of central java and kalimantan. for javanese people, it represents modesty because the fruit is quite cheap and easy to find in traditional markets. it symbolizes javanese people as modest people that do not like being in the spotlight. another symbol observed is gowok. it is a name of an old taboo tradition held by some banyumas people. the tradition is called gowokan that comes from a philosophy that a man is the leader of his family, and before getting married he should be well-prepared for that role. in order to prepare a man for marriage life, the groom to be is trained by a mature woman at the age of 23-30 years old on how to be ready for doing his role as a husband, especially in sexual activity. the training lasts for several days. during those days, the man lives together with the trainer (septiningsih, 2012). the tradition does not exist anymore due to some factors such as religion, norms, and social ethics. bird and gowok symbolize an ideal life of a banyumas man. a man’s life is complete when he has already reached material and spiritual achievements. table 5 icon, index, and symbol of babon angrem icon index symbol mother’s protection to her children a mother will always protect her children in any situation, since their childhood until their adulthood. fourth, babon angrem is one of banyumas batik motifs with animal design as seen in table 5. unlike peksi gowok that reflects a man’s life, babon angrem is a motif representing banyumas women. the name of this motif is derived from the design that shows a hen incubating its offsprings. babon is the javanese term of hen, and angrem is the javanese term for incubating or brood. the indexical sign of this motif is the protection because there is a direct connection between the design of a hen opening its wings with the concept of javanese parents. in javanese culture, a mother is identical with protection, caring, and affection for her children. babon angrem is usually very protective to its offsprings. it will not let anything harm its offsprings so it will go wherever 300 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 295-300 the offsprings go. it reflects the javanese parenting concept. the parents, especially mothers, play an important role in guiding the children with love, affection, and patience. the symbol that can be analyzed from this motif is a hen with open wings. it symbolizes the roles played by javanese women in their family. women in javanese culture play important roles that somehow cannot be applied to other cultures. in javanese culture, a mother takes care of her children since their infanthood until adulthood. a mother will always protect her children no matter what happens and no matter how old they are. it is different from western culture in which a child can live apart from his/ her parents when she/he is at the mature age. moreover, the signs contained in those batik motifs show us that batik motifs are designed with certain purpose and intention. it is to maintain certain values adhered by certain society. conclusions based on the research findings, the researchers conclude that banyumas batik motifs are made with certain purposes and meanings. each of the motifs analyzed in this research carries important signs. it reflects the values and beliefs adhered by the local people. jahé rajang, lumbon, babon angrem, and peksi gowok are examples of banyumas batik motifs containing local values adhered by the people whose existence must be maintained. jahe rajang tells us that human beings have to be beneficial for others and to reach that degree, they have to go through certain process just like the ginger itself that needs the process to be more useful. lumbon motif teaches people to be adaptable in the situation. it also tells people to be sincere in giving benefits to their surrounding because sincerity is the key to a peaceful heart. peksi gowok shows people the balance of worldly life and the afterlife. the former is about the accomplishment of material needs, and the latter is the fulfillment of spiritual needs. on the other hand, babon angrem reflects teaching for banyumas women to be ideal figures of a mother for their children. batik is not merely part of fashion items. it is a cultural identity that has to be preserved especially by the youth. the researchers expect that this research can give a contribution to the development of batik research and industry in the future. this research may be inspiring for those who are interested in batik to create other motifs that reflect other unexplored banyumas local values. in addition, those analyzed batik motifs in this research are very likely to be renewable into different media for the future research. for example, it can be carved on gold bars and used as a landmark and advertisement media. the more motifs created are, the more available ideas for researchers to explore are. it will be very good for the development of the research atmosphere in indonesia. references chandler, d. 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(2001). signs: an introduction to semiotics. toronto: university of toronto press. septiningsih, d. s. (2012). memaknai tradisi persiapan perkawinan sebagai pendidikan seksualitas pada budaya modern. prosiding seminar fakultas psikologi ump. purbalingga, indonesia. suhor, c. (1992). eric: semiotics and the english language arts. language arts, 69(3), 228−230. tyas, f. y. (2013). analisis semiotika motif batik khas samarinda. ejournal ilmu komunikasi, 1(4), 328−339. yakin, h. s. m., & totu, a. (2014). the semiotic perspectives of peirce and saussure: a brief comparative study. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 155 (november), 4−8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2014.10.247. microsoft word 06_ch_ sri haryanti penerapan sistem_setting 136 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 136-143 penerapan sistem pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di beberapa sekolah di indonesia sri haryanti chinese department, faculty of humaniora, binus universtiy jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 sharyanti@binus.edu abstract since mandarin language is started to be implemented at schools, many schools begin the learning process of this language. unfortunately, they do not consider the teacher’s ability in delivering the knowledge. there are a lot of teachers without the basic knowledge of mandarin but they do the learning activity of this language so that it is undeniable that they found a lot of difficulties in class. those teachers are not able to transfer the knowledge totally as well as they actually can do. this situation describes negative side to the students related to their studies. in implementing mandarin class, schools must have specific purpose, nevertheless, it will be much better if the schools consider as well the benefit for the students after they have the class. in accordance to the writer’s experiences since 2006 until now, she tries to describe several facts happening at schools which provide the mandarin class. the writer use process standard as the reference in writing this paper. she hopes the experiences she writes will be able to give valuable contribution in order to the improvement of teaching and learning process of mandarin language in the future. keywords: teaching and learning process, mandarin class, school, mandarin teachers abstrak sejak bahasa mandarin mulai diberikan di sekolah-sekolah umum, banyak sekolah yang menyelenggarakan kelas bahasa mandarin. sayangnya banyak sekolah penyelenggara tidak memperhatikan kompetensi dasar guru. terdapat banyak guru mandarin yang belum memenuhi kriteria dasar pengetahuan bahasa mandarin dan menjadi guru bahasa mandarin, hal ini sangat mempengaruhi proses belajar mengajar di kelas. keadaan ini tentu saja akan sangat mempengaruhi minat serta ketertarikan siswa terhadap mata pelajaran bahasa mandarin. sekolah yang memiliki kelas bahasa mandarin sebaiknya memperhatikan standar guru agar dapat mencapai hasil pembelajaran yang maksimal. berdasarkan pada pengalaman sejak 2006-sekarang penulis berusaha menuliskan hasil pengamatan terhadap beberapa sekolah yang menyelenggarakan kelas mandarin. dalam menulis makalah ini penulis menggunakan metode pengamatan serta kepustakaan guna mencari teori-teori yang mendukung. penulis berharap dari penulisan ini dapat memberikan masukan guna peningkatan standar dasar guru serta proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di masa depan yang lebih baik. kata kunci: proses pembelajaran, kelas mandarin, sekolah, guru mandarin penerapan sistem ….. (sri haryanti) 137  pendahuluan bahasa mandarin sebagai salah satu bahasa yang penting di dunia dan kedudukan bahasa mandarin di indonesia perlahan-lahan menjadi sebuah bahasa yang penting. sejak bahasa mandarin tidak lagi menjadi sebuah bahasa yang harus disembunyikan, peminat peserta didik untuk mempelajari bahasa mandarin pun semakin meningkat, terlebih ketika di indonesia bahasa mandarin menjadi sebuah bahasa yang wajib diajarkan di tingkat sekolah menengah umum. maka dimulailah vase awal proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin pada tingkat sekolah menengah umum. tidak hanya sekolah menengah umum swasta yang ramai menyelenggarakan pembelajaran bahasa mandarin tetapi juga sekolah menengah umum negeri. sekolah penyelenggara berharap dengan adanya pendidikan bahasa mandarin tidak hanya untuk meningkatkan kemampuan siswa dalam penguasaan bahasa tetapi juga untuk menambah nilai plus sekolah tersebut dikalangan siswa. bahasa mandarin menjadi sebuah pelajaran yang tidak boleh tidak ada di sebuah sekolah menengah umum, sekolah-sekolah mulai menyelenggarakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin, sayangnya kemajuan ini belum diimbangi dengan kesediaan guru pengajar yang berkompeten dibidangnya. banyak sekolah penyelenggara bahasa mandarin membuka kelas bahasa mandarin dengan sumberdaya seadanya hanya demi untuk meningkatkan mutu pendidikan di sekolah tersebut. penulis tertarik untuk membahas mengenai kesiapan sekolah dan tenaga pengajar dalam menyelenggakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin di sekolah, bagaimana sebaiknya sebuah sekolah mempersiapkan proses pendidikan bahasa mandarin yang dimulai dengan kompetensi guru serta fasilitas lainnya yang akan menunjang sistem pembelajaran siswa. penulis berharap tulisan ini mampu menjadi bahan pertimbangan sekolah-sekolah yang akan menyelenggarakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin, tidak hanya untuk keperluan sekolah saja tetapi juga untuk siswa yang akan menerima proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin tersebut. pembahasan peraturan pemerintah peraturanpemerintah no.19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan. standar nasional pendidikan adalah kriteria minimal tentang system pendidikan di seluruh wilayah hukum negara kesatuan republik indonesia. standar nasional pendidikan meliputi standarisasi standar proses, standar kompetensi lulusan, standar pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan, standar sarana dan prasarana, standar pengelolaan, standar pembiayaan dan standar penilaian pendidikan. untuk menunjang standar ini, badan standar pendidikan nasional (bspn) juga mengeluarkan buku yang mengatur tentang standar kompetensi dan kompetensi dasar yang harus dimiliki setiap sekolah penyelenggara dalam pendidikan terkait dalam hal ini pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. dimana melalui pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di sekolah menengah umum siswa diharapkan akan mampu untuk mencapai standar minimum dalam pembelajaran bahasa mandarin yang meliputi: kemampuan dasar dalam keterampilan mendengarkan, berbicara, membaca dan menulis serta mampu berkomunikasi menggunakan bahasa mandarin sederhana. untuk mencapai standar minimal seperti yang sudah ditetapkan berdasarkan peraturan pemerintah no.19 tahun 2005, pemerintah juga mengeluarkan peraturan pemerintah no.16 tahun 2007 yang mengatur mengenai standar kompetensi guru.pemerintah juga mengeluarkan aturan pemerintah yang mengatur bahwa setiap sekolah harus memenuhi standar minimal sistem pendidikan yang akan 138 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 136-143 diselenggarakan agar tercipta proses belajar mengajar yang baik. peraturan ini tertuang pada peraturan pemerintah no.19 tahun 2007. selain itu pemerintah masih mengeluarkan peraturan pemerintah no.41 tahun 2007 yang mengatur tentang standar rencana pendidikan, proses penyelenggaraan pendidikan di sekolah dan proses penilaian hasil pendidikan di sekolah. keberhasilan sekolah dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan bahasa mandarin selayaknya harus memenuhi kriteria seperti yang sudah tertuang di dalam peraturan pemerintah. bagaimana sekolah mampu untuk menyelenggarakan pendidikan yang berkualitas juga dibutuhkan pengawasan mutu dari department pendidikan, agar sasaran yang diharapkan dapat tercapai. penyelenggaraan pendidikan bahasa mandarin di smu pendidikan di sekolah merupakan proses pembelajaran seseorang dalam sejarah perkembangan kepribadiannya dalam bermasyarakat, serta pengembangan pengetahuan, keahlian dan sistem budaya (chen houde, you xiao jiaoyu, 2001, p.17-18). pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di sekolah menengah umum bertujuan untuk mengembangkan peserta didik dalam berkomunikasi lisan dan tulis serta untuk memahami dan menyampaikan informasi, pikiran dan perasaan. melalui pembelajaran bahasa mandarin diharapkan peserta didik dapat tumbuh dan berkembang menjadi warga negara yang cerdas dan terampil serta dapat memahami budaya asing guna dikembangkan dalam pembangunan nasional. dalam kelas bahasa mandarin peserta didik juga dimotivasi untuk secara aktif terlibat dalam proses pembelajaran tertutama dalam hal bacaan baik yang berupa media cetak maupun yang berupa media elektronik. dengan demikian siswa akan mampu memahami budaya orang lain dan akan lebih memahami budaya bangsa sendiri, sehingga mereka akan memiliki konsep berpikir yang lebih kritis. pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di sekolah menengah umum memiliki alokasi waktu yang disediakan adalah empat jam per minggu. tetapi hal ini juga disesuaikan dengan kebijakan dari pihak sekolah terkait. biasanya pada sekolah menengah umum pembelajaran bahasa mandarin hanya diberikan dua jam per minggu. berdasarkan pengalaman dan pengamatan penulis terhadap sistem pendidikan bahasa mandarin di sekolah menengah umum sejak tahun 2006 sampai sekarang, penulis mengeluarkan hasil pengamatannya terhadap beberapa sekolah penyelenggara pendidikan bahasa mandarin. penulis pernah menjadi tenaga pengajar pada sebuah sekolah menengah umum dan juga menjadi tenaga petatar untuk pelatihan guru bahasa mandarin tingkat regional dan tingkat nasional. melalui pengamatan inilah penulis berusaha menuangkan hasilnya ke dalam bentuk tulisan ini. smu muhammadiyah 23 klender pada tahun 2006-2007 penulis pernah membantu sebagai pengajar bahasa mandarin pada sebuah sekolah menengah umum muhammadiyah 23 klender, jakarta timur. pada saat itu guru yang mengajar bahasa mandarin di sekolah tersebut akan mengikuti pelatihan guru di china selama satu bulan maka sekolah mencari guru pengganti selama beliau tidak hadir dalam proses pembelajaran. pada saat yang bersamaan, pemerintah indonesia dan pemerintah china sedang mengadakan kerjasama mendatangkan guru-guru mandarin langsung dari china sebagai volunteer, penulis juga ikut membantu mendampingi pengajar volunteer tersebut. dari yang penulis ketahui, sekolah tersebut sudah menyelenggarakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin kurang lebih selama 1 tahun, berdasarkan hal ini maka penulis berasumsi bahwa siswa di sekolah tersebut sudah mendapatkan dasar-dasar dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin seperti yang tertuang dalam buku standar kompetensi dasar yang harus dimiliki oleh siswa selama proses pembelajaran tersebut. tetapi ketika penulis bertugas menggantikan kelas guru tersebut, penulis penerapan sistem ….. (sri haryanti) 139  menemui kendala yang sangat besar, siswa sama sekali tidak memahami dasar-dasar pengetahuan bahasa mandarin, bahkan siswa tidak mampu membaca hanyu pinyin seperti yang ditetapkan dalam standar kompetensi dasar. bukan hanya tidak mampu membaca hanyu pinyin bahkan siswa sama sekali tidak memahami apa yang sudah mereka pelajari selama menerima pendidikan bahasa mandarin. sekolah merupakan tempat untuk menerima sistem pembelajaran yang lebih terarah dan orangtua menitipkan anak mereka untuk mendapatkan pengajaran yang lebih baik di sekolah tersebut. tetapi jika sekolah penyelenggara hanya demi meraih keuntungan dan menyelenggarakan pendidikan yang belum siap ia berikan, apakah hal ini adil bagi siswa maupun orangtua yang menitipkan anaknya ke sekolah tersebut. tidak tercapainya standar pendidikan yang diharapkan pada sekolah ini bukanlah sepenuhnya kesalahan siswa yang dianggap malas tetapi juga terjadi pada guru pengajar yang memberikan materi dari bahasa mandarin serta pihak sekolah penyelenggara yang tidak memilih guru yang berkompeten dalam memberikan pendidikan bahasa mandarin. ketika penulis bertemu dengan guru bahasa mandarin yang mengajar di sekolah tersebut penulis berusaha menggunakan bahasa mandarin sederhana yang seharusnya dimiliki seorang guru sebagai standar kompetensi guru bahasa mandarin. sayangnya guru tersebut sama sekali tidak mampu untuk berkomunikasi secara sederhana dengan menggunakan bahasa mandarin kepada penulis. bagaimana guru tersebut akan mampu menjadi pendamping dari guru volunteer yang kelak akan hadir di sekolah tersebut? pada akhirnya penulislah yang menjadi guru pendamping volunteer tersebut selama satu tahun keberadaannya di sekolah tersebut. smu negeri 9 jakarta pada tahun yang sama, penulis juga mengamati beberapa sekolah menengah umum yang menyelenggarakan kelas bahasa mandarin dan kebetulan menerima bantuan dari pemerintah untuk guru volunteer dari china. pemerintah berusaha untuk memberikan bantuan kepada pihak sekolah penyelenggara bahasa mandarin, tetapi sayangnya tidak dibarengi dengan kesiapan pihak sekolah dan guru dalam menerima kehadiran mereka seperti yang juga terjadi pada sekolah menengah umum negeri 9. pada tahun ini kebetulan terjadi banjir besar yang menyebabkan tempat tinggal guru tersebut kebanjiran, guru tersebut bermaksud untuk pindah tempat tetapi pihak sekolah tidak bersedia memberikan fasilitas yang lain karena ia berusaha untuk mendapatkan tempat tinggal yang lain. beruntung ada keluarga yang mau menampung beliau, tetapi timbul masalah yang lain, pihak pemilik rumah tidak bisa berbahasa mandarin yang menyebabkan banyak sekali kesalahpahaman di antara guru volunteer serta pemilik rumah, sayangnya kemampuan bahasa mandarin guru pendamping yang mengajar di sekolah tersebut tidak memadai sehingga tidak mampu memahami apa yang dibutuhkan guru volunteer dan pemilik rumah. smu negeri 11 jakarta hal semacam ini tidak hanya terjadi pada sekolah ini tetapi juga terjadi pada sekolah menengah umum negeri 11 di halim, jakarta timur. sekolah ini juga memperoleh guru volunteer. karena iklim dan cuaca jakarta dan tempat asalnya yang sangat berbeda membuat guru tersebut mengalami beberapa gangguan kesehatan. guru tersebut berusaha untuk meminta bantuan guru pendamping untuk menemaninya ke dokter. namun komunikasi antara guru volunteer serta guru pendamping mengalami banyak kendala, sehingga kondisi guru tersebut tidak juga membaik. sekali lagi pihak sekolah tidak banyak membantu kepada guru tersebut dikarenakan komunikasi yang tidak lancar di antara kedua pihak. 140 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 136-143 smu negeri 54 jakarta pada tahun 2008 penulis mengamati sekolah menengah umum negeri 54 yang pada saat itu juga menyelenggarakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin. pengamatan penulis lakukan melalui keponakan penulis yang kebetulan bersekolah di sekolah tersebut dan juga merupakan siswa yang menerima pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. penulis mengamati bagaimana dia mendapatkan proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dimulai dari penulis menanyakan mengenai dasar percakapan bahasa mandarin serta bagaimana cara membaca hanyu pinyin yang merupakan dasar dari pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. siswa sama sekali tidak mampu mengucapkan kalimat sederhana dalam percakapan sehari-hari dan tidak mampu menulis huruf hanyu pinyin yang menjadi standar pembelajaran hal ini dikarenakan ketika guru mengajar di depan kelas guru hanya menyuruh siswa menyalin apa yang tertulis dibuku ajar tanpa menjelaskan dan memberi contoh bagaimana membaca kata demi kata bahkan kalimat yang tertulis di buku teks yang mereka gunakan. tidak hanya itu saja seringkali guru hanya memberikan tugas kepada siswa untuk mencontoh tulisan karakter han pada buku tanpa memberikan sistematika penulisan karakter han yang benar, hal ini membingungkan siswa dalam proses pembelajaran bahkan menimbulkan kebencian siswa terhadap mata kuliah bahasa mandarin. hal ini juga diperparah dengan guru seringkali memberikan teks bahasa mandarin hanya dengan menggunakan hanyu pinyin dan hanyu pinyin yang diberikan bukanlah hanyu pinyin yang memenuhi standar yang seharusnya. yayasan pendidikan di bali pada tahun 2009 kebetulan penulis diminta sebuah yayasan pendidikan di bali untuk memberikan pengajaran bahasa mandarin di universitas selama 1 bulan untuk siswa-siswa yang akan menyelesaikan tugas akhirnya sebagai tambahan bekal mereka kelak. selama 1 bulan di bali penulis mengamati ternyata yayasan tersebut tidak hanya menyelenggarakan pendidikan ditingkat universitas tetapi dimulai dari tk, sd, smp dan smu. kebetulan pada tahun yang sama penulis mengikuti pelatihan guru mandarin di salah satu universitas di beijing, china, dan bertemu dengan guru-guru yang berasal dari bali yang mengajar pada yayasan tersebut. pada waktu mengikuti pelatihan di beijing kesemua guru-guru itu mengaku bahwa mereka tidak memiliki basic dalam bahasa mandarin dan dikirim untuk mengikuti pelatihan selama satu bulan. ketika penulis mengetahui bahwa keberangkatan mereka ke china untuk mengikuti pelatihan adalah untuk mempersiapkan mereka dalam mengajar bahasa mandarin di tingkat tk dan sd, penulis menjadi semakin terkejut, dengan berbekal pelatihan satu bulan mereka berani mengajar bahasa mandarin? apakah mereka sudah mampu memenuhi kompetensi dasar yang harus dimiliki seorang tenaga pengajar bahasa mandarin.? selama satu bulan penulis berada di yayasan tersebut tidak ada satupun guru yang datang untuk berbagi pengalaman ataupun pengetahuan mengenai bahasa mandarin walaupun penulis sudah mengatakan bahwa mereka boleh mengikuti kelas yang penulis ajarkan di yayasan tersebut. penataran bahasa mandarin untuk guru smu se-asean pada tahun 2010 penulis berkesempatan bekerjasama dengan departemen pendidikan dalam hal ini seameo untuk berpartisipasi sebagai tenaga petatar dalam memberikan pengajaran bahasa mandarin untuk guru-guru sekolah menengah umum di tingkat wilayah asean. peserta berasal dari berbagai negara asean antaralain, malaysia, myanmar, filipina, thailand, singapura, dan indonesia sebagai negara penyelenggara. tujuan pelatihan ini tidak hanya untuk meningkatkan proses pengajaran bahasa mandarin tetapi juga untuk bertukar pengalaman dengan guru-guru bahasa mandarin dari berbagai negara asean. terlihat jelas perbedaan tingkat kemampuan berbahasa mandarin guru-guru dari indonesia dibandingkan dengan dari singapura, malaysia ataupun thailand, dimana sebagian besar guru-guru dari indonesia tidak mampu berkomunikasi dengan bahasa mandarin yang sederhana dengan mereka. penerapan sistem ….. (sri haryanti) 141  di tahun yang sama penulis juga menjadi petatar untuk guru-guru mandarin sekolah menengah umum tingkat nasional yang diselenggarakan oleh departemen pendidikan dalam hal ini p4tk. guru-guru yang mengikuti pelatihan berasal dari berbagai daerah di indonesia. guru-guru mandarin tersebut memiliki latar pendidikan yang beragam dari yang benar-benar lulusan sastra china baik s1 maupun d3, pengguna bahasa mandarin sampai yang hanya mengikuti kursus bahasa mandarin. terlihat jelas perbedaan mereka ketika harus berbicara bahasa mandarin ataupun dalam menulis karakter han di mana bagi seorang pengguna bahasa mandarin ataupun mereka yang merupakan lulusan sastra china komunikasi tidak menjadi hal yang sulit, tetapi tidak untuk sebagian guru yang hanya berdasarkan dari pendidikan kursus, mereka menemui kesulitan dalam berkomunikasi menggunakan bahasa mandarin. begitu juga yang terjadi dalam penulisan karakter han, di mana guru-guru yang hanya mendapatkan pendidikan melalui kursus ketika menulis hanyu pinyin masih mampu mengikuti tetapi ketika diharuskan menulis dengan karakter han mereka menemui kendala terbesar. kendala dan masalah ini masih berlanjut sampai ketika penulis juga memberikan pelatihan yang sama pada pelatihan guru untuk tingkat nasional p4tk di jogjakarta, meskipun sudah sedikit lebih membaik tetapi masih ada juga guru-guru yang hanya menerima pendidikan bahasa mandarin melalui lembaga kursus. sementara ditingkat regional peserta dari indonesia sudah lebih mengalami peningkatan dalam standar keikutsertaan guru. analisis penyelenggaraan pengajaran bahasa mandarin di smu pada kurun waktu 2006-2007 sistem pembelajaran bahasa mandarin di sekolah menengah umum yang memang baru saja dimulai masih banyak terdapat kekurangan tidak hanya dibidang kompetensi dasar seorang guru tetapi dari pihak sekolah pun mereka masih tidak memiliki tujuan yang khusus dalam pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. sekolah berlomba-lomba membuka kelas bahasa mandarin tanpa memperhatikan kedua hal ini, sehingga terkesan sekolah hanya ingin meraih keuntungan dengan membuka kelas bahasa mandarin dengan tujuan meningkatkan minat siswa untuk memilih sekolah tersebut. hal ini tentu saja tidak sejalan dengan semangat peraturan menteri pendidikan no 16 dan 41 tahun 2007. terlihat dengan banyaknya sekolah yang hanya sekedar menyelenggarakan kelas bahasa mandarin tanpa melihat kompetensi dasar guru yang mengajar. pada masa ini terdapat banyak sekali sekolah-sekolah penyelenggara yang kebetulan memiliki guru volunteer dari china dan guru bahasa mandarin tetapi terjadi banyak sekali kesalahpahaman dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan, tidak hanya dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan seperti yang terjadi di sekolah menengah muhammadiyah 23 jakarta tetapi juga kesalahan dalam komunikasi pada sekolah menengah umum 9 dan 11 di mana guru pendamping tidak mampu menjembatani antara pihak sekolah dengan guru volunteer dari china. situasi yang terjadi pada kurun waktu ini dimungkinkan terjadi dikarenakan pada masa itu pendidikan bahasa mandarin masih menjadi pelajaran yang baru sehingga pihak sekolah berkeinginan untuk menjadi bagian dari sekolah yang menyelenggarakan pendidikan bahasa mandarin, selain itu dengan mendapatkan guru volunteer dari china maka pihak sekolah dapat juga menaikan pamor mereka sebagai sebuah sekolah yang berkualitas. pada tahun 2008-2009 kendala yang dihadapi penyelenggara kelas bahasa mandarin timbul dari guru yang tidak memenuhi standar kompetensi yang dibutuhkan untuk mengajar bahasa mandarin. hal ini sangat mempengaruhi proses belajar yang diperoleh oleh siswa dengan demikian standar nilai yang diharapkan tercapai dalam pembelajaran bahasa mandarin seperti yang tertuang dalam peraturan pemerintah no 41 tahun 2007 tidak dapat tercapai. bagaimana siswa dapat menerapkan hasil pembelajaran bahasa mandarin seperti yang diharapkan dalam peraturan pemerintah mengenai standar pendidikan yang berkualitas serta hasil yang diharapkan dari proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin yaitu kemampuan berbicara secara lisan, kemampuan untuk menulis hanyu pinyin serta kemampuan menulis karakter han, jika kompetensi dasar guru yang mengajar saja tidak terpenuhi. ketidaklancaran proses belajar mengajar tidak hanya mempengaruhi hasil belajar dan nilai 142 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 136-143 yang diharapkan tetapi juga dapat mempengaruhi minat dan ketertarikan siswa dalam mempelajari suatu ilmu. jika guru yang mengajar bahasa mandari tidak menguasai bahasa mandarin dan bahkan tidak menguasai sistem pengajaran bahasa mandarin. hal ini akan membuat siswa terbebani dalam belajar bahkan siswa dapat membenci pelajaran bahasa mandarin tersebut. kesulitan dan kebencian siswa terhadap suatu mata pelajaran khususnya bahasa mandarin bukan dikarenakan ilmu itu sendiri tetapi bisa disebabkan karena guru yang mengajar tidak memiliki kompetensi dasar yang dimiliki oleh guru bahasa mandarin. terkadang pihak sekolah juga sudah berusaha mengirimkan gurunya untuk mendapatkan pendidikan bahasa mandarin guna meningkatkan kemampuan guru dalam mengajar bahasa mandarin tetapi pihak sekolah lupa jika guru yang mereka kirim untuk mengikuti pelatihan ke luar negeri tersebut adalah guru yang tidak memiliki dasar kemampuan dan kompetensi berbahasa mandarin. hanya dengan mengandalkan hasil pelatihan yang diterima selama 1 bulan guru tersebut diharapkan dapat mengajar bahasa mandarin di sekolah penyelenggara. proses pembelajaran yang diharapkan tentu saja tidak mungkin dapat tercapai. pada tahun 2010-2011 penulis melihat sudah adanya partisipasi pihak pemerintah dalam hal ini departemen pendidikan dalam meningkatkan kemampuan kompetensi guru mandarin di tingkat sekolah menengah umum. departemen pendidikan melalui seameo dan p4tk menyelenggarakan pelatihan guru bahasa mandarin guna meningkatkan metode serta kemampuan kompetensi dasar yang harus dimiliki oleh guru bahasa mandarin. pelatihan ini tidak hanya untuk meningkatkan kemampuan dasar berbahasa mandarin tetapi juga guna meningkatkan metode pengajaran yang diberikan kepada siswa. meskipun pelatihan yang berusaha diberikan oleh pihak seameo dan p4tk sudah tergolong baik tetapi arah dan tujuan yang diharapkan dari pelatihan masih belum terlihat jelas yaitu apakah melalui pelatihan ini diharapkan kemampuan mengajar guru bahasa mandarin yang meningkat ataukah melalui pelatihan tersebut diharapkan kemampuan dasar berbahasa mandarin guru tersebut meningkat. sebaiknya pelatihan yang dirancang dan diberikan kepada guru mandarin haruslah terpisah antara untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mengajar bahasa mandarin serta peningkatan standar kompetensi guru dengan demikian diharapkan pelatihan yang diberikan akan lebih terarah dan sasaran yang diharapkan juga menjadi lebih jelas. penutup melalui pengalaman dan pengamatan yang dilakukan penulis selama kurun waktu 2006-2011, penulis menyimpulkan bahwa meskipun sistem pengajaran bahasa mandarin perlahan-lahan mulai meningkat, tetap dibutuhkan pengawasan terhadap sekolah-sekolah penyelenggara. pengawasan ini dibutuhkan untuk dapat mengatur dan meningkatkan standar kompetensi guru yang mengajar bahasa mandarin dan juga agar tercapai hasil proses pembelajaran yang diharapkan berdasarkan dari peraturan pemerintah. dengan adanya pengawasan mutu dan standar guru yang mengajar bahasa mandarin, akan tercipta juga proses belajar mengajar yang lebih baik dan dapat mendorong minat siswa untuk lebih dalam mempelajari bahasa mandarin. untuk mampu meningkatkan standar kompetensi guru, dibutuhkan juga suatu metode pelatihan yang tepat untuk guru-guru bahasa mandarin agar mampu membantu mereka untuk meningkatkan kemampuan tidak hanya dalam kemampuan berbahasa mandarin yang dibutuhkan sebagai dasar pengajaran bahasa mandarin tetapi juga guna peningkatan kemampuan mengajar bahasa mandarin guna mentransfer ilmu yang mereka miliki kepada siswa. penerapan sistem ….. (sri haryanti) 143  daftar pustaka chen houde. (2001). jichu jiaoyu xin gainian youxiao jiaoxue.beijing: beijing jiaoyu kexue chuban she. cui yonghua. (2005). hanyu ketang jiaoxue jiqiao. beijing: beijing yuyan daxue chubanshe. li bo. (2006). duiwai hanyu jiaoxue lilun yanjiu. beijing: beijing shangwu yinshuguan. liu xun. (2006). hanyu zuowei di er yuyan jiaoxue qianlun. beijing: beijing yuyan daxue chubanshe. menteri pendidikan nasional ri. (2005). peraturan pemerintah kementrian pendidikan nasional no. 19 tahun 2005. jakarta: kementrian pendidikan nasional/ menteri pendidikan nasional ri. (2007). peraturan pemerintah kementrian pendidikan nasional no. 16 tahun 2007. jakarta: kementrian pendidikan nasional. menteri pendidikan nasional ri. (2007). peraturan pemerintah kementrian pendidikan nasional no. 19 tahun 2007. jakarta: kementrian pendidikan nasional. menteri pendidikan nasional ri. (2007). peraturan pemerintah kementrian pendidikan nasional no. 41 tahun 2007. jakarta: kementrian pendidikan nasional. zhang hesheng. (2006). duiwai hanyu jiaoshi suzhi yu jiaoshi peixun yanjiu. beijing: beijing shangwu yinshuguan. 87various dimensions ….. (irfan rifai) various dimensions of globalization and their implications for the leadership and management of education irfan rifai english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 irifai@binus.edu abstract globalization impacts worldwide societies in economic, social, political, cultural and many other aspects. helped by the great invasion of technology, these impacts are accelarated in the past few years. countries of the world are now competing, strengthening alliances, and restructuring themselves: in and out, to be able to cope with the fast changing world. this is a salient moment for educational sector. realizing how vital its role is, governments are advised not to take wrong implications considering its damaging impacts. this article presents the various dimensions of globalizations taken from different resources and offers implications that leaders of educational sector can do to cope with the challenges of the globalized world have to offer. keywords: globalization, leadership, management, education sector abstrak globalisasi memberi dampak ekonomi, sosial, politik, budaya, dan banyak aspek lain kepada masyarakat dunia. dengan invasi teknologi yang luar biasa, dampak globalisasi merambah makin cepat pada beberapa tahun belakangan ini. negara di seluruh dunia berkompetisi, menguatkan ikatan hubungan, dan menstrukturisasi negara mereka dari luar dan dalam agar bisa mengatasi perubahan dunia yang amat cepat, khususnya di sektor pendidikan. dengan menyadari betapa penting globalisasi, maka pemerintah diminta untuk tidak mengambil keputusan salah karena dampaknya bisa buruk. artikel menghadirkan dimensi globalisasi yang dikutip dari berbagai sumber dan menawarkan implikasi bagi pemimpin di sektor pendidikan untuk mengatasi tantangan dunia global. kata kunci: globalisasi, kepemimpinan, manajemen, sektor pendidikan 88 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 introduction globalization is the term that has globalized itself in the past few years. it has caused debates starting from the meaning of the term to the impacts of the process. some excessively believe that globalization has had huge impacts to all the sectors of life. some just take the word for granted and claiming that there has been exaggeration of reactions to the word. the latter party even extremely claims that there is no such thing as globalization. regardless of the question whether there globalization does exist or not, this paper argues that there are indeed some marks left by what is so called the global borderless phenomenon that affects all regions of the world in a variety of sectors including the economy, technology, politics, the media, culture, and the environment. to identify its marks, globalization can then be examined by breaking down these dimensions. the next big debate among scholars and policy makers are on the discussions to find appropriate educational measures or policies to anticipate the impacts of globalization to the society in the dimensions mentioned above. the debates mostly lay on the matter whether a nation has skillful and well prepared people to play the role in a competitively globalized world and on how to retain one’s cultural identity in a multicultural society. one critical issue that emerges from all of these restructuring processes is the central role of knowledge, education and technology. these things are becoming increasingly important factors of production. more importantly, some scholars argue, than land, labor and capital. realizing a mixture of impacts of globalization and the need to have a set of educational tools to deal with the issues, this essay proposes some implications for the leadership and management of education in ensuring an appropriate education for the challenge and the trends that globalization brings. methods the research applied library research. the article seeks to find whether the issues addressed above would be justifiable to use in improving the quality of policies in education especially ones related to globalization issues. current studies on the issues are examined to see whether the suggested ideas would be implicative from the leadership and management perspectives. the process of the review can be summed as follows. figure 1 cronin’s literature review process figure 1 clarifies that in the first phase is selecting the topic, those are topics related to indonesia’s education, the topic is narrowed down into suggesting alternatives in dealing with globalization.the send phase is searching the literature: a selection of books and news from reliable news papers are used as sources of data and academic journals are used as references. then, gathering, reading and analyzing: the theories on the issues are studied and examined. successful and unsuccessful stories on the implications of the issues from the researches are highlighted and summed up. factors that determine failures and successes are to be noted. the final phase is reviewing: the factors noted are reviewed to seek the possibility of applying them in indonesia’s rural education setting. discussion globalization has been seen by many scholars as one big phenomenon that consists of various dimensions. waters (in bottery, 2003) believes that a more precise meaning might be that globalization is a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding. waters also argues that there are at least three different forms of globalization–economic, political, and cultural–and that they are able to act as global forces largely because they are mediated by symbols; the more symbols they are, the more easily they are diffused around the world. while according to cheng (2003), globalization refers to the transfer, adaptation and development of values, knowledge, technology and behavioral norms across countries and societies in different parts of the world. cheng also claims that it is characterized by the growth of global networking, global transfer, and interflow in technological, economic, social, political, cultural and learning aspects; international alliances and competitions. from both scholars it can be concluded that the development and the usage of technology has opened up the borders of the world and makes the economical, political, and cultural globalization easier. these three dimensions of globalization are intertwined to each other seeing that one dimension brings effect to another. economic dimension this is undoubtedly the supreme form of globalization. the economic globalization in the past few years are marked with the dominant roles of some developed countries like usa and japan and big transnational firms like yamaha, microsoft, mcdonald, etc and international organizations like world bank and imf . bottery (2003), argues that the economic globalization is best characterized as the convergence of three different factors. the first characteristic is the increasing movement of capital around the world, in and out of a country, through information and technology. the second characteristic is the existence of supra national bodies such as the wto, the world bank, and the imf. these organizations have been in the role of facilitating capital flows in a global free-market scenario. they come with conditions and to some developing countries, the conditions can be very burdening. the last characteristic is the increased influence of transnational companies (tncs). let us take mitsubishi as an example. with the 89various dimensions ….. (irfan rifai) value larger than the gross national product of indonesia, denmark, saudi arabia or turkey, (morgan in bottery, 2003), nation states then have to compete against one another in terms of sweeteners, tax-breaks and financial inducements in order to persuade such tncs to locate their factories on their soil. not all countries, however, gain the benefits of the economic globalization. stern (2001), reports that although globalization has helped reduce poverty in a large number of developing countries, there are some 2 billion people live in the countries that are left behind. it is because there have been weak governance and policies in nonintegrating countries, tariffs and other barriers that poor countries and poor people face in assessing rich country markets, and declining development assistant. today, the large multi national corporations wield enormous power. of the hundred largest economies today, 51 are corporations and only 49 are nation states (sacks, n.d.). to challenge this situation, some developing countries strive to protect their economy by releasing themselves from the interdependency of organizations like imf and world bank or trade with other developing nations to minimize the economical gap. the impacts of economic globalization are then shown in its deeper integration and more rapid interaction of economies through production, trade, and financial transactions by banks and multinational corporations, with an increased role for the world bank and the international monetary fund, as well as the more recent world trade organization that brings various impacts to the world. political dimension to talk about this particular form of globalization, let us compare the world’s political situation in the past with that of the present. few years ago before the globalization took place; states are the dominant actors in the international arena. international politics ultimately rests on force (its use or its credible threat), and politics of military security take precedence over politics of economic or social affairs. now, states are no longer the only key actors, military issues no longer dominate, conditions under which force is an effective tool have declined, and international politics centers around international organizations like imf, the world bank, wto, ngos, etc, rather than interstate relations. giddens (1999) believes that the era of nation states is over. political leaders have less influence over people and the older form of geopolitics is over. singer (n.d.) argues that international organizations are not the only factors to blame for this situation. according to him, even without the wto, the growth of global economy is enough to mark a decline in the power of nation-state. it is because there are lower barriers to trade and investment, and the accelerated pace of technological change; have infused global commerce with unprecedented energy. political globalization has indeed referred in part to an increasing trend toward multilateralism, in which the united nations plays a key role, national non-governmental organizations act as watchdogs over governments, and international ngos increase their activities and influence. some scholars have called this the making of a global civil society. political scientists and sociologists have pondered the prospects of the nation-state and national sovereignty in a context of regionalization and globalization in which international financial institutions have increasing power over national economies and state decision-making. some political scientists are also studying the trends toward democratic consolidation in terms of a global process of democratization. cultural dimension wadam (2006), in a lecture on globalization and culture in flinders university, defines that all the means of communication, art, material things and objects that a society has in common is culture. it involves the cultivation of the minds, the civilization and learning of a society. held et al (1999 in sanderson, nd) interpret culture as the social construction, articulation and reception of meaning. when can a culture turn to a global phenomenon then? nowadays, discussions on cultural globalization lead to worldwide cultural standardization, as in “coca colonization” and “mcdonaldization”, cultural pluralism, and “hybridization”. it is reasonable because the various aspects of globalization have promoted growing contacts between different cultures, leading partly to greater understanding and cooperation and partly to the emergence of transnational communities and hybrid or mixture identities. but globalization has also hardened the opposition of different identities. this has taken the form of reactive movements such as fundamentalism, which seek to recuperate traditional patterns, including patriarchal gender relations, in reaction to the “westernizing” trends of globalization. giddens (1999) puts it as the reason for the revival of local cultural identities in different parts of the world. held (2001) believes that national cultures are more fragile than the nation’s states. the global communication marked by the role of mass media leads to multiculturalism or hybridization. localization happens even in developed countries and none of these countries has taken this localization issue for granted. however, held suggests that nations should not think that national cultures alone provide the resources and goods which can solve these global public policy issues. in a multicultural based society, there is a challenge whether communications can be led to a force of a greater understanding, transparency, and harmony. the decision is up to ours. singer (n.d.) is convinced that if the revolution in communication has created a global audience, then we might need to justify our behavior to the whole world. amartya sen (in legrain, 2003), is quite right when he said that “the culturally fearful often take a very fragile view of each culture and tend to underestimate our ability to learn from elsewhere without being overwhelmed by that experience” . the impacts of globalization on education english has become our first global trend for the past decade. many countries see that english language acquisition is one of the important factors in the competition of the global era. some developing countries even let their students to the english speaking countries to gain not only 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 the knowledge and skills but also the english mastery. the english speaking countries automatically gain the benefit of this trend. in 2000 alone, according to the report from the australian education international (2000 in handerson, 2005), there were 13.129 international students enrolled in australian schools, most of whom were students from asia, from a non-english speaking background. the second impact of globalization is that it has turned education to be market oriented. the nation states, with the demand of fulfilling what the market needs, should react strategically in coming out with proper educational policies. bottery (2003) believes that the marketization of services, the state’s use of private sector and the popularity of business values dominate the thinking and policies of western governments have intruded and ‘ captured the discourse’ of both education and public policies in general. bloom (in griffith, 2005) argues that economic success in global market requires the confluence of liberalized trade relations, human development (particularly education), and growth promotion policies. those countries that cannot support mass primary and secondary education cannot compete in the global market. the links between economic globalization and educations systems are then clear—global economic movements demand of countries that they prioritize the design of a competitive economy above all other issues; to this end, the education system is drawn into and is seen as primary contributor to this competitiveness. the countries’ future depends on their efforts in making their people having the necessary skills, knowledge and values to enable them to contribute to their social, cultural and economic development nationally and globally. investment capital should no longer be cheap labor but skilled labor. education should provide the foundation for young people to develop the necessary skills. the implications for the leadership and management of education in a lecture about globalization, ben wadam once posted some questions whose answers may become the framework for leadership and management implication on education. “what is education for? to pass on the culture and values of society to its young? to prepare people for the world of adult work? to reproduce the class system and to teach people their place in life? (wadam, 2006, slide 5) the questions above contain important elements in education; culture and values, economy (the skills to survive), and social skills. delors (n.d.) argues that education should be considered as the principal means available to foster a deeper and more harmonious form of human development and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression and war. furthermore, the aec’s adelaide declaration of national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century (mcteeya, 1999 in handerson, 2005) states that schooling should assist young people to contribute to australia’s social, cultural and economic development in local and global context. before making policies on education, it is important that the policy makers pay attention to various aspects of human development, both physically and psychologically, and the phenomenon happening in time that may effect the development process in the future. in educational policy making, delors (n.d.) suggests that there should be efforts to overcome the tensions between global and local, individual and universal, tradition and modernity, long term and short term considerations, the need for competition and the concern for equality of opportunity, the tension between the extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human beings’ capacity to assimilate it and lastly, the tension between spiritual and material. in short, delors suggests a balance consideration between local and global, as it is also stated by cheng (2003), who believes that it is necessary to consider localization and individualization in responding to the effects of globalization. he names this process as ‘triplization’ process i.e. a process that form a basis for paradigm shifts in planning educational reforms and developing new pedagogic methods and environments that will facilitate students’ learning in facing the challenges of globalization. knowing your context is definitely a crucial thing to do to come out with winning policies. the ideal implications for educational management and leadership is then ones that recognize local, individual and the characteristics of various dimensions of the current phenomenon; globalization. working on localization and globalization will also give students multiple sources of learning. the policy makers should be thinking of ways that these students have the facilities to get to know their local and international networks at the same time. the following table proposes some ideas that the management and leadership of education may take into account. table 1 the implications of management and leadership on various dimensions of globalization the characteristics of globalization from various dimensions implications for educational leadership and management globalization is substantially marked with the fast transfer and adaptation of knowledge and cultures and appear in: • technology ( ict ) • multiculturalism • international cooperation and alliance • global society • international competition • global networking • international standards to take full advantage of the relevance between education with the local, individual, and dimensions of globalization. • ict learning; internet, web-based, etc. • interactions with people across countries and cultures and background • partnership in academics (exchanging students/ teachers) • community based curriculum • community collaboration and involvement in creating global networks • development of human potentials in technology, culture, economy, and social aspects. 91various dimensions ….. (irfan rifai) conclusion globalization comes with various dimensions and brings huge effects to countries across the world. countries are left with not much choice but adapting with the changes that suddenly hit them economically, politically and culturally. education is considered as a way of dealing with this phenomenon. this essay argues that a thorough analysis on the dimensions of globalizations and their effects may become a good start in the efforts of producing appropriate policies on educational development. localization and individualization need to be put as two main considerations. the ideal implications for educational management and leadership is then ones that recognize both local, individual, and the characteristics of various dimensions of the current phenomenon: globalization. references bottery, m. (2003). globalization and the educational policy context. in davies, b & burnham, j.w. (eds.), handbook of educational leadership and management (pp.155-164). london: pearson, longman. cheng, y.c. (2003). globalization, localization, and individualization of education for the future. in davies, b & burnham, j.w. (eds.), handbook of educational leadership and management (pp.660670). london: pearson, longman. delors, j. (n.d.). education: the necessary utopia. from halsey, j. (2006) a compilation of reading material for edes 9628 (globalization: issues and challenges). school of education: flinders university. giddens, a. (1999). runaway world: how globalization is reshaping our lives. profile books. griffith, a. i. (2005). globalization, culture and education in the new millenium. canadian journal of education, 28(3), 569. handerson, d. (2005). what is education? situating history, cultural understandings and studies of society and environment against neo-conservative critics of curriculum reform. australian journal of education, 49(3), 306–309. held, d. (2001). globalization, cosmopolitanism and democracy: an interview. constellations, 8(4). legrain, p. (2003). cultural globalization is not americanization. the chronicle review, 49(35), b7. sacks, j. (n.d.). the dignity of difference: how to avoid the clash of civilizations. london: continumbo. singer, p. (n.d.). one world: the ethics of globalization. stern, n. (2001). globalization, growth and poverty: building an inclusive world economy. retrieved september 27th, 2006 from http://www.worldbank. org/research/global/slides/prr/index.htm. wadam, b. (2006). globalizing education; culture, development, globalization and education. a presentation given in edes 9628, september 2006. flinders university: school of education. microsoft word 03 juju_setting analisis kesalahan ….. (juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros) 19 analisis kesalahan penggunaan hyoogen “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang pada mahasiswa upi bandung juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros program studi pendidikan bahasa jepang, universitas pendidikan indonesia jl. dr. setiabudhi no. 229 bandung 40154 jawa barat abstract this research will study the use of “temo ii” of 31 students seventh semester in upi. this study uses analysis descriptive method by collecting data from students to take 20 questions. it can be concluded that the understanding of the use of “temo ii” of students show good scores about 53,39 % at average. there are three students who get 14 points (70%) which is the highest score. on the otherhand there is one student who gets 5 points (25%) which is the lowest score. although the result shows they are above average, but some students still missuse the word “temo ii”. moreover, they think the word “boleh” in indonesia can be replaced by “temo ii”. however, the word “boleh” can not usualy be defined by “temo ii”. keywords: hyoogen “temo ii”, “boleh” abstrak artikel ini meneliti penggunaan “temo ii” oleh 31 mahasiswa yang duduk di semester vii di upi. penelitian menggunakan metode analisis deskriptif dengan mengumpulkan data dari mahasiswa untuk menjawab 20 pertanyaan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan “temo ii” oleh para mahasiswa cukup baik dengan nilai rata-rata 53,39 %. terdapat tiga mahasiswa yang mendapat nilai 14 (70%) yang merupakan nilai tertinggi. di lain sisi ada satu siswa yang mendapat nilai 5 (25%) yang merupakan nilai terendah. walapun hasil menunjukkan nilai di atas rata-rata, namun beberapa mahasiswa masih salah menggunakan kata “temo ii”. terlebih lagi, para mahasiswa tersebut berpikir bahwa kata “boleh” dalam bahasa indonesia boleh digantikan“temo ii”. kata “boleh” pada umumnya tidak dapat diselaraskan dengan kata “temo ii”. kata kunci: hyoogen “temo ii”, “boleh” 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 19-27  pendahuluan bagi pembelajar bahasa jepang, ungkapan “temo ii” dipergunakan ketika meminta atau memberikan ijin untuk mengerjakan sesuatu. sedangkan dalam bahasa indonesia, ketika diijinkan atau memberikan ijin untuk melakukan suatu kegiatan, maka akan mengungkapkannya dengan kata “boleh”. sehingga banyak terjadi kasus bahwa pembelajar bahasa jepang di indonesia mempergunakan ungkapan “temo ii” ketika meminta atau memberikan ijin. seperti kasus di bawah ini, ketika ingin menanyakan nama lawan bicara, banyak mahasiswa yang mengungkapkannya menjadi kalimat「名前を知ってもいいですか」. kalimat tersebut secara gramatika bahasa jepang tidak salah, tetapi dalam kondisi seperti ini ungkapan “temo ii” tidak lazim diucapkan. ungkapan yang benar untuk kalimat tersebut adalah「名前を教えてください」. kasus yang lain adalah sebagai berikut, ketika seorang mahasiswa menawarkan jasa untuk membantu membawakan buku dosennya, dalam bahasa indonesia biasanya diungkapkan dengan kalimat “pak, bolehkah saya membawakan tas anda?” dalam kalimat tersebut, ada kata “bolehkah” yang mengandung makna menawarkan jasa. kata “bolehkah” ini diartikan sama dengan penggunaan ungkapan “temo ii”, sehingga pada saat mengungkapkan kalimat “pak, bolehkah saya membawakan tas anda?” dalam bahasa jepang menjadi 「 先生、本を持ってもいいですか。」.     kecenderungan kesalahan seperti inilah yang sering terjadi pada pembelajar bahasa jepang, mereka mengganti kata “boleh” dalam bahasa indonesia menjadi “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang. dari permasalahan di atas, penulis akan menganalisis pemahaman dan kesalahan penggunaan “temo ii” yang dibuat oleh pembelajar bahasa jepang pada semester 7 universitas pendidikan indonesia dengan melaksanakan tes tertulis. berdasarkan latar belakang di atas, rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini sebagai berikut : 1. bagaimanakah pemahaman mahasiswa semester 7 universitas pendidikan indonesia terhadap ungkapan “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang. 2. apakah yang menjadi penyebab terjadinya kesalahan penggunaan ungkapan “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang. adapun tujuan penelitian ini ada adalah sebagai berikut : 1. menganalisis pemahaman penggunaan ungkapan “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang 2. menganalisis penyebab kesalahan ungkapan “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang metode yang dipakai dalam penelitian ini adalah metode deskriptif analisis. responden nya adalah mahasiswa semester 7 jurusan pendidikan bahasa jepang universitas pendidikan indonesia sebanyak 31 orang. pengambilan data dilakukan dengan tes tertulis dalam bentuk pilihan ganda sebanyak 20 soal yang dilaksanakan pada september 2010. alasan penulis mengambil data pada mahasiswa semester 7 karena mereka sudah mempelajari pola ungkapan “temo ii” ini pada semester 1, sehingga dianggap faham penggunaannya dan tentu saja dianggap layak untuk dijadikan objek analisis. pembahasan data yang sudah dikumpulkan, kemudian diklasifikasikan dan dianalisis berdasarkan kategori ungkapan “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang dan kata “boleh” dalam bahasa indonesisa sebagai referensi sebagai berikut: analisis kesalahan ….. (juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros) 21 menurut endo (2008) “temo ii” dalam bahasa jepang dikategorikan sebagai berikut : 1. meminta ijin 許可を求める(許可) pada kategori ini, kalimatnya diakhiri dengan kata tanya. pola kalimatnya adalah sebagai berikut : 意志vテモイイデスカ(テモイイ)/a クテモイイデスカ(テモイイ)/n・na デモイ イデスカ(テモイイ) contoh : このパンフレットをもらってもいいですか。 ‘bolehkah saya mendapatkan pamflet ini?’ 2. meminta ijin 許可求め(譲歩) pada kategori ini sebelum “temo ii” terdapat kalimat negative diakhiri dengan kata tanya. pola kalimatnya adalah sebagai berikut : 意志 v<ナク>テモイイデスカ(テモイイ)/a<クナ>クテモイイデスカ(テモイイ) /n・na<ジャナク>テモイイデスカ(テモイイ) contoh : (医者に)もう薬を飲まなくてもいいですか。 (kepada dokter) ‘bolehkah saya tidak minum obat ini lagi?’ 3. mendapatkan ijin 許可与え(許可) pada kategori ini menggunakan pola kalimat sebagai berikut : 意志 v テモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ)/a クテモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ)/ n・na デ モイイデスヨ(デモイイヨ) contoh : (学生から質問があって、先生が)このパンフレットは持って帰ってもいいで すよ。 (ada pertanyaan dari mahasiswa, dosen berkata)’ pamflet ini boleh dibawa pulang loh’ 4. mendapatkan ijin 許可与え(譲歩) pada kategori ini menggunakan pola kalimat sebagai berikut : 意志 v<ナク>テモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ)/a<クナ>クテモイイデスヨ (テモイ イヨ)/n・na<ジャナク>テモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ) contoh : (市役所の職員に印鑑を忘れたことを伝えたとき、職員が) じゃ、印鑑じゃなくてもいいですよ。この欄にサインしてください。 (ketika berkata kepada pegawai balai kota mengenai stempel yang tidak terbawa, kemudian pegawai balai kota berkata) ‘kalau begitu tidak pakai stempel pun boleh, silahkan anda tanda tangan di kolom ini’. 5. permohonan 申し出 pola kalimat dalam kategori ini sebagai berikut : 意志 v テモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ)/a クテモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ)/ n・na デ モイイデスヨ(デモイイヨ) contoh : (都合が悪くて、先輩がサークル連絡会に行けないとき) ぼくが代わりに行ってもいいですよ。 (ketika senior tidak dapat mengikuti rapat ekskul karena sakit) ‘bolehlah saya yang mengantikannya’ 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 19-27  ungkapan lain dari contoh di atas adalah 僕が行きましょうか。pada kategori ini diri kita yang melakukan, sedangkan yang berhak memutuskan dan memperoleh benefitnya adalah lawan bicara. artinya adalah yang akan pergi adalah saya, sedangkan orang yang menentukan apakah akan pergi atau tidak adalah lawan bicara dan yang mendapatkan keuntungan dari aktifitas tersebut adalah lawan bicara. 6. penyumbangan 提供 pada kategori ini menggunakan pola kalimat sebagai berikut, 意志 v テモイイデスヨ(テモイイヨ) contoh : (傘がなくて、困っている人を助けたいと思って)なんなら、この傘を使って もいいですよ。 (ketika akan ingin membantu orang yang sedang kesusahan karena tidak punya payung) ‘kalau begitu, boleh pakai payung ini lho’ ungkapan lain dari contoh di atas adalah この傘をお使いください.pada kategori ini orang yang melakukan aktifitas, yang berhak memutuskan dan memperoleh benefit adalah lawan bicara. arti kalimat di atas adalah orang yang menggunakan payung, yang menentukan apakah akan menggunakan atau tidak payung tersebut dan yang akan mendapatkan benefit adalah lawan bicara. 7. anjuran 提案 dalam kategori ini menggunakan pola kalimat sebagai berikut : 意志 v テモイイデスネ(テモイイネ)/a クテモイイデスネ(テモイイネ)/ n・na デ モイイデスネ(デモイイネ) contoh : 夕方は車が込むから、電車で行ってもいいですね。 ‘karena biasanya sore hari kereta penuh,bolehkan pergi pakai kereta?’ ungkapan lain dari contoh di atas adalah 電車で行きましょうよ。pada kondisi ini, yang melakukan, yang berhak memutuskan dan yang mendapatkan benefit adalah kedua-duanya, yaitu diri sendiri dan lawan bicara. 8. permakluman 宣言 (許可) kategori ini menggunakan pola kalimat sebagai berikut: 意志 v テモイイデスカ(テモイイカ)/ a クテモイイデスカ(テモイイカ)/ n・na デモイイデスカ(デモイイカ) contoh : (スピード違反した車を止めた警察官が)ちょっと、免許証を見せてもらっ てもいいですか。 (polisi yang memberhentikan mobil yang melanggar karena ngebut) ‘maaf, bolehkah saya melihat sim (anda)?’ ungkapan lain untuk contoh kalimat di atas adalah 免許証を見せてもらいますよ。 penelitian terdahulu mengenai kata “boleh” dalam bahasa indonesia tidak ada, sehingga penulis mengkategorikannya sebagai berikut : 1. bolehkah kata bolehkan memilih makna meminta ijin. contoh : bolehkan saya menginap di rumahmu? analisis kesalahan ….. (juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros) 23 2. boleh tidak/nggak kata boleh tidak/nggak memiliki makna meminta ijin sambil merajuk. contoh : boleh nebeng pulang nggak? 3. boleh kata boleh memiliki makna memberikan ijin. contoh : kalau tidak enak badan, kamu boleh pulang duluan. 4. tidak …pun boleh contoh : karena masih sakit, tidak mandipun boleh. 5. perbolehkan saya untuk … contoh : perbolehkan saya untuk mendampingimu sepanjang hidupku berdasarkan hasil penelitian, nilai tertinggi yang diperoleh responden adalah 14 point (70%) sebanyak 3 orang, sedangkan yang paling rendah adalah 5 point (25%). nilai rata-rata yang diperoleh adalah 53,39% sehingga dapat dikatakan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menguasai “temo ii” sudah cukup baik. dalam menganalisis data yang diperoleh, penulis hanya menganalisis pemahaman mahasiswa mengenai “temo ii” menjadi 5 kategori yaitu : meminta ijin 許可を求める (許可) tabel 1 data hasil tes no kalimat jawaban benar salah 5 (ketika meminta ijin untuk pulang kepada atasan) apakah saya boleh pulang? a.帰ってもいいですか。 b.帰らせていただきたいんですが。 c.帰らせてもいいですか。  30 (96,8%) b 1 (3,2%) c 9 boleh tahu nama anda? a.名前を知ってもいいですか。 b.名前を教えてください。 c.名前を知りたいんです。 11 (35,5%) b 16 (51,6%) a 17 (karena sudah memiliki sim) kalau sudah 17 tahun lebih, boleh naik motor sendiri. a.17 歳になったら、バイクに乗れます。 b.17 歳になったら、バイクを運転しても いいです。 c.17 歳になったら、バイクに乗ってもいいです。 8 (25,8%) a 22 (71%) b pada soal nomor 5 ini, 96.8% atau sebanyak 30 orang responden menjawab betul. padahal pada opsion ini tidak menggunakan ungkapan “temo ii” . pada soal no.9, masih banyak responden yang menjawab salah dalam menggunakan kalimat “temo ii” yaitu sebanyak 51,6%. jawaban yang benar terdapat pada kalimat opsion (b)「名前を教え てください」. sebenarnya kalimat tersebut bukan kalimat yang asing dan baru didengar oleh responden. kesalahan ini terjadi karena responden sangat terpaku pada kalimat bahasa indonesia yang mengandung kata "boleh" yang diterjemahkan 「てもいい」dalam bahasa jepang. 24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 19-27  pada soal no 17 ini, kalimatnya: "(karena sudah memiliki sim) kalau sudah 17 tahun lebih, boleh naik motor sendiri". responden lebih banyak menjawab (b) 17 歳になったら、バイクを運転 してもいいです(△1) . kalimat opsion (b) ini, kalau diterjemahkan secara gramatika merupakan kalimat yang benar, tetapi tidak lazim digunakan oleh penutur asli bahasa jepang. mendapatkan ijin 許可与え(譲歩)   tabel 2 data hasil tes no kalimat jawaban benar salah 14 boleh nebeng pulang gak? a. バイクに乗って帰ってもいいですか。  b. バイクに乗せてもらってもいいですか。  c. バイクに乗ってもらってもいいですか。  16 (51,6%) b 10 (32,3%) a pada soal no. 14 dengan kalimat "boleh nebeng pulang nggak?", hampir setengah dari jumlah responden menjawab benar (51,6%) yaitu opsion (b) 「バイクに乗せてもらってもいいですか」. kalimat dengan pola 「v(さ)せてもらう」mempunyai arti pembicara meminta/bertanya kepada seseorang dengan sopan untuk memperbolehkan melakukan sesuatu. sehingga opsion (a) バイクに乗 って帰ってもいいですか(x2) menjadi kalimat yang tidak berterima dalam kondisi tersebut, karena pada kalimat (a) mengandung pengertian bahwa pembicara meminta ijin untuk pulang dengan naik motor. sedangkan kalimat "boleh nebeng pulang nggak?" mengandung pengertian yang sama dengan opsion (b) yaitu pembicara meminta ijin kepada lawan bicara untuk ikut naik motornya. permohonan 申し出 tabel 3 data hasil tes no kalimat jawaban benar salah 10 kamu boleh meminjam hpku, tapi tolong dijaga ya! a. 僕の携帯を貸せますが、大事にしてくださいね。 b. 僕の携帯を貸してもいいですが、大事にしてくださいね。 c. 僕の携帯を使ってもいいですが、大事にしてくださいね。 10 (32,3%) b 11 (35,5%) a 10 (32,3%) c 13 (karena hari ini teman berulang tahun, menawarkan diri untuk mentraktir teman) perbolehkan saya untuk mentraktir kamu hari ini! a. 今日は僕に払わせてください。 b. 今日は僕が払ってもいいですか。 c. 今日は僕が払えます。 24 (77,4%) a 5 (16,1%) b 18 (melihat dosen berjalan sambil membawa banyak buku) sensei, boleh saya bawakan? a. 先生、本を持ってもいいですか。 b. 先生、本を持ちましょうか。 c. 先生、お持ちします。 18 (58,1%) b 7 (22,6%) a     jawaban responden untuk soal no.10 ini hampir rata, opsion (a) sebanyak 11 orang, opsion (b) dan (c) yang masing-masing sebanyak 10 orang. jawaban yang benar untuk kalimat “kamu boleh meminjam hpku, tapi tolong dijaga ya!” adalah opsion (b) 僕の携帯を貸してもいいですが、大事                                                              1   △ memiliki arti secara gramatika benar, tetapi tidak lazim digunakan.  2 ×= salah  analisis kesalahan ….. (juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros) 25 に し て く だ さ い ね . kesalahan responden dalam menjawab soal ini karena banyak yang menerjemahkan kata "boleh" pada kalimat "kamu boleh meminjam hpku, tapi tolong dijaga ya! menjadi "dapat/ bisa". sehingga kata " boleh meminjam hpku" menjadi「僕の携帯を貸せますが、 …」, padahal jawaban yang benar untuk kalimat tersebut menggunakan pola kalimat “temo ii” sehingga kalimat yang berterima untuk kalimat di atas, adalah 「僕の携帯を貸してもいいですが、 …」 kalimat soal no 13, (menawarkan diri untuk mentraktir teman) “perbolehkan saya untuk mentraktir kamu hari ini" . dari 31 orang responden, sebanyak 24 orang (77,4 %) menjawab benar, dan sisanya menjawab salah. jawaban yang benar untuk soal tersebut adalah opsion (a) 今日は僕に払 わせてください。 pada kondisi seperti ini, tidak perlu menggunakan pola kalimat 「てもいいです か」, penggunaan ungkapan「v 使役てください」lebih tepat digunakan pada kondisi ini karena kalimat "perbolehkan saya untuk mentraktir kamu hari ini" sedikit mengandung "pemaksaan" 「強制」 bukan meminta izin「許可求め」. sehingga kalimat opsion (b) 「今日は僕が払ってもいいですか」 tidak berterima. bentuk soal no. 18, 19, 20 sama, yaitu pada ketiga kalimat tersebut mengandung pengertian menawarkan diri melakukan sesuatu untuk orang lain. dalam bahasa jepang menggunakan ungkapan 「v ましょうか」 . responden banyak yang menjawab benar pada soal no. 18 dan 19, tetapi pada soal no.20 dengan soal "bolehkah saya membantu membawakan tas anda?" responden banyak menjawab salah. jawaban yang paling banyak pada soal no.20 ini adalah opsion (c) 「かばんを持っ てあげてもいいですか」. sedangkan jawaban yang benar adalah opsion (a) 「かばんを持ちまし ょうか」. mungkin hal ini terjadi karena responden kurang teliti dalam memahami soal. pada soal no. 18 dan 19 digunakan kata “boleh”sedangkan untuk soal no. 20, digunakan kata “bolehkah”. menyediakan 提供 tabel 4 data hasil tes no kalimat jawaban benar salah 4 (karena saya mendapatkan bonus, maka ketika akan mentraktir teman) kalian boleh makan sepuasnya. a. 好きな食べ物をどんどん食べてくださいね。 b. 好きな食べ物をどんどん食べてもいい ですよ。 c. 好きな食べ物をどんどん食べます。 9 (29%) a 20 (64,5%) b 7 (salesman mobil menawarkan cara pembayaran kepada konsumen) pembayaran mobil itu boleh dicicil. a. その車は月払いでいいです。 b. その車は月払いで払ってもいいです。 c. その車は月払いで払ってください。 5 (16,1%) a 26 (83,9%) b 8 menulis jawaban ujian boleh pakai pensil boleh pakai balpoin. a. 試験の回答には鉛筆かボールペンを 使ってくださ い。 b. 試験の回答には鉛筆でもかボールペン でもいいです。 c. 試験の回答には鉛筆でもボールペンで 書けます。 3 (9,7%) a 23 (74,2%) b pada soal no. 4, sebanyak 64,5 % responden menjawab salah, sedangkan hanya 29.0% saja yang menjawab benar. seperti kesalahan pada nomor 3, kesalahan ini terjadi karena responden mengganggap bahwa kata "boleh" pada kalimat "kalian boleh makan sepuasnya" apabila diungkapkan ke dalam bahasa jepang menjadi 「好きな食べ物をどんどん食べてもいいですよ」. padahal pada 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 19-27  kalimat "kalian boleh makan sepuasnya" mengandung pengertian mempersilahkan yang artinya "orang yang makan adalah pihak lawan, yang menentukan apakah mau makan atau tidak juga pihak lawan, dan yang mendapat keuntungan dari kegiatan itupun pihak lawan”. sehingga dalam bahasa jepang, kalimat "kalian boleh makan sepuasnya" menjadi (a)「好きな食べ物をどんどん食べてく ださい。」masuk dalam kategori「提供」. makna yang paling tepat untuk kalimat "pembayaran mobil itu boleh dicicil" dalam bahasa jepang adalah opsion (a) 「その車は月払いでいいです」. tetapi responden banyak yang memilih opsion (b) 「この車は月払いで払ってもいいです」. opsion (b) mengandung pengertian bahwa konsumen boleh membayar tiap bulan boleh juga tidak. sehingga kalimat ini menjadi tidak sopan apabila digunakan untuk konsumen. sebanyak 74,2% responden menjawab salah untuk soal nomor 8 ini, hanya 3 orang saja yang menjawab benar. kalimat "menulis jawaban ujian boleh pakai pensil boleh pakai balpoin" mengandung pengertian 「提供」yang berarti bahwa pembicara menyuruh/mempersilahkan peserta ujian untuk memilih apakah ingin menggunakan balpoin atau pensil. sehingga jawaban yang benar untuk kalimat ini adalah opsion (a) 「試験の解答に鉛筆かボールペンを使ってください」. kelaziman dalam bahasa jepang tabel 5 data hasil tes no kalimat jawaban benar salah 6 (pada saat menanggap seseorang tidak punya keberanian untuk melakukan suatu hal sering diucapkan kalimat ) : boleh juga nyalinya a. 勇気を持ってもいいね。 b. 勇気があるね。 c. 勇気が出てもいいね。 15 (48,4%) b 10 (32,3%) c 11 kalau boleh, saya mau pinjam buku paket itu. a. できたら、その教科書を借りたいです。 b. よかったら、その教科書を貸して いただけますか。 c. できたら、その教科書を借りてもいい ですか。 17 (54,8%) c 9 (29%) b 12 (di ruang baca tertulis) boleh membaca, tapi tidak boleh makan dan minum a. 本を読めますが、飲食は禁止です。 b. 本を読んでもいいですが、飲食は禁止です。 c. 本を読むのは大丈夫ですが、飲食は禁止です。 15 (48,4%) a 9 (29%) c 16 buku yang sudah usang ini masih boleh digunakan. a. この古い本はまだ使えます。 b. この古い本はまだ使ってもいいです。 c. この古い本はまだ使えます。 23 (74,2%) a 6 (19,4%) b pada soal no.6 jawaban yang terbanyak dan benar berjumlah 15 orang (48,4 %) yaitu opsion (b) 「 勇 気 が あ る ね 。 」 . kata “boleh” pada kalimat “boleh juga nyalinya” memiliki arti ‘mempunyai keberanian’. penggunaan kata “boleh” yang menyatakan arti ‘mempunyai keberanian’ hanya terdapat dalam bahasa indonesia, sedangkan dalam bahasa jepang kalimat tersebut tidak dapat diungkapkan dengan menggunakan ungkapan “temo ii”. sehingga opsion (a)「勇気を持ってもいい ね」dan (c) 「勇気が出てもいいね」 tidak berterima dalam bahasa jepang. analisis kesalahan ….. (juju juangsih; noviyanti aneros) 27 penutup berdasarkan analisa data yang diperoleh, diketahui bahwa kesalahan terjadi karena responden belum memahami makna ungkapan “temo ii” dan hubungannya dengan siapa pelaku dari kegiatan yang dibicarakan, siapa yang memutuskan dan siapa yang mendapatkan keuntungan dari kegiatan tersebut. dari 20 soal yang diteskan kepada responden, pemahaman tentang penggunaan ungkapan “temo ii” ini, baru 53,39 % saja yaitu yang berkenaan dengan penggunaan secara gramatika. sedangkan untuk penggunaan kalimat yang sesuai dengan kelaziman penutur asli (orang jepang) masih banyak terjadi kesalahan. supaya mahasiswa dapat mengungkapkan kata “boleh” dalam bahasa jepang secara benar dan alamiah, perlu diberikan pemahaman mengenai situasi dari kalimat yang akan diungkapkannya. daftar pustaka badudu, j. s., & zain, s. m. (2001). kamus umum bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. endo, n. (2008).「日本語学習者による初級文型~テモイイの捉え方について-「初級文型の 硬直化」の問題から-」『日本語教育』137 号 .japan. kokusai kouryuu kikin. (2002). kyoukasho wo tsukurou chuutoukyouiku muke shoukyuu nihongo souzaishuu. japan: the japan foundation. okazaki, s. (1991). roorupurei de manabu kaiwa 2 konna toki nanto iimasuka. japan:boujinsha. sutedi, d. (2005). pengantar penelitian pendidikan dan bahasa jepang. bandung: upi. tomomatsu, e., mizamoto, j., & wakuri, m. (2008). donna toki dou tsukau nihongo hyougen bunkei 200 shou・chuukyuu. japan: aruku. microsoft word 02_ing_ jaclyn; menik the analysis of_setting 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 98-107 the analysis of creative writing teaching through story book reading for the first grade students of tunas muda international school jaclyn ryani agus; menik winiharti english department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 jaclyn.agus@ymail.com abstract one method to support the success of teaching of writing skills is using story books. it has many kinds of benefits that provides the students more creative and challenging texts that require personal exploration, easier understanding of information which are commonly hard to comprehend and remember, and easier illustration in making connection among various elements and concepts being taught. this research deals with teaching creative writing through story book reading, and it is aimed at finding whether this method is beneficial or not in increasing creativity in writing. the study is carried out using a pre-test and post-test design to 14 students from the first grade. between the two tests, the students were provided with basic knowledge of creative writing. the data of the research were the scores of the pre-test and post-test compared and analyzed based on the rubric of ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions. the pre-test result shows that 29% of the students achieve the standard of achievement. after the creative writing process, the post-test result indicates that 93% of the students achieve the standard of student achievement in creative writing. keywords: creative writing, teaching, story book reading, pre-test, post-test abstrak salah satun metode untuk mendukung keberhasilan pengajaran menulis adalah menggunakan buku cerita. metode ini memiliki berbagai manfaat, di mana menyediakan siswa teks yang lebih kreatif dan menantang yang membutuhkan eksplorasi pribadi, lebih mudah memahami informasi yang sering sulit untuk memahami dan mengingat, dan menyediakan ilustrasi yang lebih mudah dalam membuat koneksi di antara berbagai unsur dan konsep-konsep yang diajarkan. penelitian ini berkaitan dengan pengajaran menulis kreatif melalui membaca buku cerita yang ditujukan untuk menemukan apakah metode ini bermanfaat atau tidak dalam meningkatkan kreativitas dalam menulis. penelitian ini dilakukan menggunakan desain pre-test dan post-test untuk 14 siswa kelas satu. di antara kedua tes, para siswa diberi pengetahuan dasar tentang menulis kreatif. adapun data penelitian ini adalah nilai pra tes dan pasca tes yang dibandingkan dan dianalisis berdasarkan rubrik ide, organisasi, pilihan kata, kalimat kelancaran, dan konvensi. hasil pra tes menunjukkan bahwa 29% siswa mencapai standar prestasi. setelah melewati proses menulis kreatif, hasil pasca tes menunjukkan bahwa 93% siswa mencapai standar prestasi siswa dalam menulis kreatif. kata kunci: menulis kreatif, pengajaran, membaca buku cerita, pra tes, pasca tes the analysis of creative ….. (jaclyn ryani agus; menik winiharti) 99 introduction students need to have a good writing skill. they need to learn to write different kinds of writing starting from the beginner level. they will bring this ability to their adulthood where they face the global world that demands them to be able to listen, speak, read, and write in english. however, many students have never fully achieved the ability of expressing ideas or thought in writing, even in their native language. this is because the students are seldom exposed to the writing practice. they lack in practice to use their imagination and creativity in writing. so when it comes to the writing story activity, they have difficulties in expressing their ideas and feelings into written language. the essence of writing is choice and writing is considered the means to communicate in a way that is “profound, or funny, or provocative, or highly persuasive” (veit, gould & clifford, 2001). from another view of writing, murray (2004, p. 29) and perl (1995, p. 43) define writing as “a creative discovery procedure characterized by the dynamic interplay of content and language: the use of language to explore beyond the known content.” however, writing, in language teachers’ opinions, is “a language skill which is difficult to acquire” (tribble, 1996, p. 3). it is “a process that occurs over a period of time, particularly if we take into account the sometimes extended periods of thinking that precede creating an initial draft” (harris, 1969, p. 10). tribble also stresses that writing “normally requires some form of instruction” and that “it is not a skill that is readily picked up by exposure” (1996, p. 11). creative writing in creative writing, the writer uses words and imagination, usually in the form of stories and poems. campbell (1998) states that bringing the entertainment of texts (reading and writing) to our students as a means of facilitating their language acquisition is what teaching creative writing is about. at any proficiency level, there may be places in the curriculum where reading literature and writing creatively may provide breadth and interest to the lesson. nevertheless, finding appropriate material for the writing class is sometimes difficult for the teachers since writing has no subject matter of its own. one benefit of having story books as the reading content of a composition lesson is that the readings become the subject matter for the compositions. in composition lesson whose reading content is story books, students make inference, formulate their own ideas, and look closely at a text for evidence to support generalizations. thus, they learn how to think creatively, freely and critically. (spack, 1985:719). in this case, chen (2006) did a project in which she used children’s literature to promote efl university students’ narrative thinking and enhance their writing ability through a task of story reading and writing. she has found that: (1) children’s literature when selected carefully, can be a valuable resource for integrative efl learning since stories tend to invoke imagination and desire for creating, composition classes can be conducted more than the drab routines of “students-write” and “teachercorrect”; (2) sharing and publication with the assistance of computer technology can empower student writers and develop a writing community in the class; (3) time, support and practice can provide scaffolds for unskilled or low self-esteemed students; (4) varrative genre knowledge gained through explicit instruction can promote efl students’ narrative thinking and facilitate the task of reading and writing stories. 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 98-107 in the mean time, hişmanoğlu (2005) has found that literature plays an important role in the english programs of many non-speaking countries. however there are very few pedagogicallydesigned appropriate materials that can be used by language teachers in a language classroom. he also stated that the teacher has an important role in teaching english through literature. first, he should determine the aim of language teaching in relation to the needs and expectations of the students. second he should select the appropriate language teaching method, teaching techniques, and classroom activities. then, the teacher should select the literary texts relevant to the aim and the objectives of his teaching. additionally, coonrod and hughes (1994) conducted the research in a kindergarten where 22 students from five different cultures began a journey of formal learning. they integrated the subjects taught through the story books that they had chosen carefully. they conducted the lesson for a week which focusing on different skills based on bloom’s taxonomy theory. in summary, through the use of concrete referents and comprehensible information linked by literacy selections, language minority students can develop concept and content knowledge, even at the beginning level. through teacher questioning which combines higher order of thinking skills such as analyzing, synthesizing, and predicting with basic interpersonal communication skills, language development is facilitated. the use of literature content tends to increase the motivation of students as they have found with the nonenglish speaking children with whom they have worked in early childhood and kindergarten classes. based on these grounds, the idea of conducting this study is actually to encourage the students to read more and then explore and use their imagination in the writing activity and also to have the knowledge of the process of making a masterpiece of creative writing. there are four problems that act as the main guidance in doing this research and observation: (1) is reading story books beneficial in increasing creativity in creative writing?; (2) how are the story books used to teach creative writing?; (3) what genres of story books could be used?; (4) what are the difficulties in teaching creative writing using the story books? the subject of the research was the first grade students of tunas muda international school in academic year 2009 – 2010. there were twenty seven students in grade one, and they were separated into two classes, 1d and 1n. the class chosen as the subjects of this research was the 1n class, which consisted of seven girls and seven boys. this research represented action research, where the story book reading was applied based on the teaching instructions in the classroom. the aim of the action research approach was to find out the changing of a situation after the application of a procedure taken. therefore, there was a pre-test before the action was taken, and a post-test after the action was done. after the pre-test was done, in a couple of sessions, several story books were introduced and at the end, the students produced their own piece of writing. afterwards, the progress of the students’ writing ability was analyzed by comparing the writing results on the given task before and after the writing process. before the analysis was done, a hypothesis was built based on the problem identification and the theoretical background, and this hypothesis was made through the use of story books. the hypothesis was that the use of story books can help the first grade students to increase their writing skill. discussion the teaching of creative writing through story book reading was done in two parts. cycle one was the introduction or the brainstorming session and cycle two was the presentation of the process of writing. each cycle consisted of several activities, and once they were completed, it was called a cycle. before the story book was introduced, a pre-test was given to find the students’ ability in writing a the analysis of creative ….. (jaclyn ryani agus; menik winiharti) 101 short story. after the creative writing sessions were held, the students were given a post-test in which they were asked to compose their own story based on the unit they were studying, which was about a festival. cycle one in this cycle, the students started to learn how to write a good story. they were familiarized with the model of writing which was learnt through different kinds of story books. this cycle focused on the writing process. it helped the students and the teachers know about the processes that they had to go through in order to produce a good piece of writing. during this cycle the researcher did the pre-writing activities which helped formulate ideas before the writing began. the teacher chose a book titled ‘psid and bolter’ and the students were briefly introduced with an explanation of some key vocabularies. after the reading, the teacher brought students’ attention to some story writing strategies by asking these questions: (1) character: who are the people or animals in the story?; (2) setting: when and where does the story happen?; (3) problem: what trouble does the character face?; (4) plot: what happens when the character try to solve the problems? the students were then asked to choose a character (either an animal or person of their choice). they also must think of the character namely an animal or a person, a boy or a girl, name, age, place it lives and time of day. for each day of the week, they must write what the character liked to do. students were then asked to draw pictures to answer the questions prompts namely: (1) beginning: what is your character? what is your character’s name? where does it live? what time of day is it? what is your character’s problem?; (2) middle: how does your character try to solve the problem?; (3) end: how is the problem solved? how does your character feel? the last step was to use their pictures to write a story to include the story parts. the students used three different pencil colors to differentiate the beginning, middle and end. reading one story in a class is certainly not inspiring enough for creative writing. since frequency ensures fluency in writing, the students were demanded to complete a book report in another session. each of them chose one storybook from their own library at home, and then they had to complete the book report form which explained the characters, setting, problem and plot of the book. cycle two in cycle two, the students were asked to find out more about a festival that interested them, in relation of unit of inquiry entitled ‘festival’. namely: australia day, anzac day and mother’s day. each student was to be inspired by the festival they had chosen for the setting. they must follow the writing process to complete their story: step 1 – pre-writing: to make a story plan by answering the questions in the beginning, middle and end. step 2 – writing: to use their story plan to write a first draft, with a beginning, middle and end. step 3 – revising: the teacher will ask questions to the students to ensure more detail is needed. step 4 – editing: to check their work for capital letters, end marks and spelling. step 5 – publishing: to make a final copy, read their work to someone and reflect on their favorite part of the writing process. 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 98-107 rubric and scoring both the pre-test and post-test were scored using the rubric scoring guideline set by the tunas muda international school standard (tabel 1). the rubric scoring guideline consists of five stages: ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency and conventions, with each stage worth 20 points. table 1 rubric scoring guideline for first grade creative writing stages of development proficiencies score ideas • your story has a main character. • your story has a problem. • a suitable title was given and written correctly. 20 organization • beginning: names the main character, the setting and the problem. • middle: tells how the main character tries to solve the problem. • end: tells how the problem is solved. 20 word choice • usage of strong nouns, verbs, and modifiers. • portray create clear, vivid pictures. 20 sentence fluency • skillfully written, show variety and are easy to read. • the sentences connects to one another. 20 conventions • the first line was indented, and the sentences flowed in paragraph form. • the use of correct spelling. • each sentence started with a capital letter. • there was space between each word. • each sentence ended with an end mark. 20 total 100 (source: tunas muda international school) the average score according to tunas muda international school standard is 75%. anything below 75% is considered consolidating, which means the students need to work harder to improve the score. pre-test result in the pre-test, the students were asked to compose a short story about their recent holiday. the test was done before the creative writing unit started, so that the level of students’ abilities in writing can be determined. the topic of a holiday was chosen because it was easy to relate to and required imagination and creativity. the result of the pre-test can be shown in table 2. the analysis of creative ….. (jaclyn ryani agus; menik winiharti) 103 table 2 pre-test result the result of the pre-test showed that only four out of 14 students achieved the standard of scoring 75 and above. the rest of the class, ten out of 14 scored below 75. the creative writing process the creative writing was part of the last unit of english, which was about ‘festival’. this particular unit started at the end of april 2010 until the end of may 2010. each session consists of three parts; beginning, middle and end. particularly in creative writing unit, at the beginning of every lesson, the teacher always read a story to stimulate and to lead on to the next activity. the middle or the main activity was planning or writing a story. at the end of the lesson, the teacher would sum it up by reviewing the previous activities. below was the detail of every activity in the creative writing unit from start to finish. on the first session, the teacher read a story book titled ‘psid and bolter’ to the class. in every session she read two to three chapters at the beginning of every lesson. after reading the story, the students were introduced to story parts, and were asked to name them as per this story example. then the students were asked to choose a character of their own choice, as part of the pre-writing process. it could be a person or animal. then they had to write what the character liked to do (or their activities) everyday, for each day of the week. on the second session, still on the pre-writing process, the students were asked to draw pictures to describe the beginning, middle and end of the story. they were also asked to write the keywords in describing the character and the situation. it appeared that the students enjoyed expressing themselves through drawings. on the third session, the students wrote their own story based on the two previous pre-writing activities they had done. the story was written in paragraph form and the students used three different colors of pencil to differentiate the beginning, middle and end. their story must consist of the four main points previously discussed: character, setting, problem, and plot. most of the students in the class finished writing the story in one session, but some took two sessions to finish it. 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 98-107 then the students were asked to fill out a book report on the weekend. they might choose the book they wanted from their own collection at home. after reading, they had to distinguish and fill out the character, setting, problem, and plot in each box. on the fourth session, the students were introduced to several festivals: australia day, anzac day and mother’s day. the teacher gave explanations about each holiday and the students were to choose one they liked most out of the three holidays. then they made a story plan by answering the questions with the key words in the beginning, middle and end. this pre-writing activity was similar to the previous one mentioned above. on the fifth session, the students used their story plan to make a rough draft of their story in their handwriting book. after they finished, the teacher revised their work by asking them to add more details that were necessary to add to their stories. at the end of the lesson, the teacher edited the students’ work for capital letters, end marks and spelling. on the last session, the students made a final copy of their story in a decorative paper. on the other side of the paper, they drew their characters to make it more presentable. the post-test result after creative writing sessions were held, the students were given a post-test. the instruction in this test was the same as that in the pre-test. the result can be seen in table 3. table 3 post-test result from the post-test, it shows that after the teaching process, the average score increased from 69 to 82, which meant that the students had a better understanding in writing a short story and they were able to produce a good piece of writing. there were 13 students who were able to achieve a good progress in writing short stories and based on the standard of achievement; it was very high. the analysis of creative ….. (jaclyn ryani agus; menik winiharti) 105 the comparison between the result of the pre-test and post test table 4 summarizes the result of the pre-test and that of the post-test. in this table, the results of the two tests are compared. table 4 the comparison between the result of the pre-test and post-test name test results pre-test achievement post-test achievement achieved consolidating achieved consolidating student 1 65 70 student 2 65 78 student 3 60 80 student 4 70 81 student 5 75 82 student 6 65 82 student 7 65 83 student 8 75 83 student 9 70 84 student 10 65 85 student 11 65 85 student 12 70 87 student 13 80 88 student 14 85 90 total score 975 4 10 1158 13 1 average 69,64 82,71 the pre-test showed that out of 14 students, the average score was 69. based on this result, there were more students who did not know how to write a good creative writing and only four out of 14 students who could make a good short story, which meant that the students’ achievement in creative writing was low before the creative writing using story book was taught. on the other hand, the post-test result showed that the average score increased from 69 to 82. it indicates that the students had a better understanding in writing a short story and they were able to produce a good piece of writing. it is clearly seen from table 4 that the increase of the scores was significant, and the students had improved their achievement and skills in writing a short story. additionally, at the end of the creative writing unit, the students said that the guidance in the writing process were very useful and made it easier for them to write a good short story. the books that had been read in the classroom gave them ideas about the story organization. conclusion in terms of classroom practice and instruction design, this research has the following implications. first, children story books when they are selected carefully can be a valuable resource for teaching and learning creative writing since stories can develop children’s imagination and desire for creating and composing stories. the students are inspired to use different ways to analyze, review and play with a story. they also share their writing and what they have read. there are no specific criteria in choosing a story book. one of the things that are put into consideration before choosing a book is the level of difficulty of english; whether the students could easily understand the context of the book, and whether the words are too difficult to understand. the other important thing to consider is the character, setting, plot and problem. these components are the key in understanding and 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 98-107 creating a good story. therefore, students must be able to identify them and later create a good story that consists of these four components. second, sharing and publishing their stories can build the students’ self-confidence and self-esteem as writers. last but not least, the process of creating a story is a very important skill that the students should have as the foundation for their further education. furthermore, from the analysis on the previous section, by comparing the results of the pre-test and post-test, it is shown that reading story books are evidently beneficial in increasing their creativity. in fact, the majority of the students have shown improvements on the five stages of rubric. based on the observation, the teaching process and the analysis, it can be concluded that the love of reading can motivate students to write a short story more creatively. story book is a good alternative to teach english especially in writing. it is also clear that the use of story books for teaching creative writing improves the students’ ability in writing skills. writing is not difficult to teach if the teacher can find a good and fun way to deliver it. teaching creative writing through story books is a good start for students who do not like to write. the students also find it easy when they know the strategy or the process they should follow to produce a piece of writing. even though some students found difficulty on the pre-writing stages, with appropriate help and exercise they were able to enjoy the writing process thoroughly. there are two methods in introducing a story book. first is that the teacher reads it, and it can be applied if the level of english is a little bit difficult; and second is that the students read by themselves. both methods are applicable, but the level of difficulty must be put into consideration before choosing a story book. the story books that are used in the creative writing unit are mostly fiction. the reason is simply because fiction could trigger the imagination to be more creative. however, the teacher can also use non-fiction books to provide varieties of literature genres to the students. based on what has been taught on the creative writing unit, a good story is expected to have four main elements: character, setting, plot and problem. it also has to have a clear structure of beginning, middle and end. all of the writings that the students produced after being taught creative writing, have all of these elements. in teaching creative writing to the first grade, the only difficulty was that some of the students have difficulty in expressing their ideas. although most of them have varieties of ideas and imagination, they need a lot of guidance in understanding the concept to write a good piece of writing. references byrne, d. 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(2001). writing, reading, and research. london: longman publishing group. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 309 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 309-315 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4233 foreignization and domestication of indonesian cultural terms in the novel gadis pantai translated into english gede eka putrawan department of language and arts education, faculty of teacher training and education, the university of lampung jl. prof. dr. ir. sumantri brojonegoro no.1, gedong meneng, lampung 35145, indonesia gputrawan08@fkip.unila.ac.id received: 28th december 2017 /revised: 15th february 2018 /accepted: 22nd february 2018 how to cite: putrawan, g. e. (2018). foreignization and domestication of indonesian cultural terms in the novel gadis pantai translated into english. lingua cultura, 12(3), 309-315. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4233 abstract the research was aimed at investigating categories of indonesian cultural terms translated into english, explaining techniques of applied translation, and analyzing foreignization and domestication ideologies applied in the translations of indonesian cultural terms into english in the novel gadis pantai that was translated into the girl from the coast. this research was conducted through descriptive-qualitative approach. the data were collected through document analysis including content analysis and thematic analysis. the results show that there are five categories of cultural terms identified in the novel which are translated by using 16 techniques of translation, including the applications of single and double techniques of translation. in addition to foreignization and domestication ideologies of translation, it is also revealed that there is also partial foreignization and partial domestication ideologies of translation since some of the indonesian identified cultural terms are translated through combinations of two different techniques of translation; combinations of source-languageand target-language-oriented techniques of translation. the most frequently-applied ideology of translation is domestication (82,20%), followed by foreignization (9,82%), as well as partial foreignization and partial domestication (7,98%). keywords: foreignization, domestication, cultural terms introduction vermeer in sadiq (2015) has opposed the view that translation is just a matter of language for years. to him, it is a cross-cultural transfer that a translator should be bicultural or even multicultural. one of the most difficult problems in translating is found in the differences between cultures, the source language (sl) culture, and that of the target language (tl) because, as stated by larson in morina (2013), different cultures have different focuses. the notion of ‘cultural term’ is very common in translation, especially in literary translation. newmark in widiatmi (2014), for example, states that culture refers to the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. he further states that cultural focus leads to translation problems since there is a cultural gap or distance, between the sl and that of the tl. to cope with cultural terms, two basic ideologies of translation, domestication and foreignization should be applied. the ideologies are closely related to linguistic and cultural points of view. in the domesticating translation, a translator attempts to produce a target language translation as naturally as possible. she/he tries to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text in the sl for tl readers through a clear and fluent style of translation that the tl readers feel like reading an original text, not a translated one. on the contrary, in foreignizing translation, a translator attempts to take the tl readers to the foreign culture of the sl and make them feel linguistic and cultural differences. here, the tl readers can recognize that they are not reading an original text but that of translated. in many books and articles, the terms domestication and foreignization are often considered ideologies, strategies, or methods of translation. when the translators believe that their translation is acceptable and correct, it means that domestication and foreignization are considered ideologies. molina and albir (2002) have stated that translation method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in terms of the translator’s objective, i.e., a global option that affects the whole text. there are several methods that may be chosen, depending on the aim of the translation; interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense), 310 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 309-315 literal (linguistic transcodification), free (modification of semiotic and communicative categories), and philological (academic or critical translation). strategies are procedures (conscious or unconscious, verbal or nonverbal) used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying out the translation process with a particular objective in mind. translators use strategies for comprehension (e.g., to distinguish main and secondary ideas, establish conceptual relationships, and search for information) and for reformulation (e.g., paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the original). because strategies play an essential role in problemsolving, they are a central part of the sub-competencies that make up translation competence. strategies open the way to finding a suitable solution for a translation unit. the solution will be materialized by using a particular technique. therefore, strategies and techniques occupy different places in problem-solving; strategies refer to the parts of the process, techniques affect the result. this research focuses on domestication and foreignization as ideologies of translation viewed from the application of techniques of translation. venuti in judickaite (2009) states that the domestication involves the ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to (anglo-american) target language cultural values. to make it more explicit, when a translated product becomes very transparent and easy to read, it is very likely that such translation is domesticated. as opposition to domesticating, the foreignizing translation should signify the difference of the foreign text, yet only by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language. considering this quote, the ‘cultural codes’ of the tl should be sacrificed in order to make the readers of a translated text feel the taste of foreignness. hatim and mason in aslani and salmani (2014) have stated that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs, and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups. they make a distinction between ‘the ideology of translating’ and ‘the translation of ideology’. the former refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating, within a social and cultural context (the choice, for example between venuti’s domesticating and foreignizing translation), while the latter refers to the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs into processing a text. many pieces of research on cultural translation and ideologies of translation have been conducted. jayantini (2010) has discussed the procedures of translation that are utilized by the translator in translating the technical terms from english into indonesian. the characteristics of domestication and foreignization are applied to the translation of technical terms from english into indonesian, and kinds of phenomena taking place in english-indonesian technical translation in terms of procedures of translation and the characteristics of domestication and foreignization. to translate the english biosecurity-related terms into indonesian, five procedures of translation are applied by the translator; they are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, and adaptation. out of 482 technical terms, 16 terms (3,31%) are translated through borrowing procedure, 190 terms (39,42%) through calque, 216 terms (44,81%) through literal translation, 13 terms (2,70%) through transposition, and 47 terms (9,75%) through adaptation. she has found that the translator always applies single techniques of translation in rendering a term. in addition, geng (2009) has discussed the analysis of the cultural phenomena in english in terms of words, idioms, and allusion. through his research, he also tries to stimulate more concentration on the approaches to deal with the cultural phenomena in translating from english into chinese. he states that domestication and foreignization should go along with and complement each other. newmark in maasoum and davtalab (2015) and amininadji (2016) have classified culture-specific terms into five categories which include: (1) ecology which refers to particular cultural terms on flora, fauna, winds, plains, and hills. (2) the material culture which is further subdivided into sub-categories that refer to various types of national food, clothes, transport, houses, and towns. (3) the social culture which refers to cultural terms of work and leisure. (4) the social organization which refers to national organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts (political, religious, and artistic). (5) gestures and habits which refer to gestures and habits closely related to culture. molina and albir (2002) have stated that the translation method, strategies, and techniques are essentially different categories. they define technique of translation which is based on two premises; (1) the need to distinguish between method, strategy, and technique; (2) the need for analysis and functional concept of translation techniques. they further state that techniques of translation have five basic characteristics; they affect the result of the translation, they are classified by the comparison with the original, they affect micro-units of text, they are by nature discursive and contextual, and they are functional. the word ‘technique’ itself refers to a way of doing an activity which needs skill and competence. therefore, the technique of translation can be defined as the way used by translators in translating smaller units of language (words, phrases, or expressions) from the sl into the tl. molina and albir (2002) propose 18 techniques of translation, which include adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, linguistic amplification, linguistic compression, literal translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution (linguistic, paralinguistic), transposition, variation. as stated by newmark, cultural focus leads to translation problems because of that so-called cultural gap or distance between the sl and that of the tl. it can be defined that translating a cultural term is not that easy. a translator, therefore, should find the most appropriate technique of translation and decide whether the term is foreignized or domesticated in the tl. the focus of this research is on viewing foreignization and domestication, ideologies of translation that are applied in the translations of indonesian cultural terms into english in terms of words, phrases, or expressions in the novel gadis pantai that is translated into the girl from the coast. in other words, this research is aimed at investigating categories of indonesian cultural terms translated into english, explaining techniques of translation applied in the translations, and analyzing foreignization and domestication ideologies of translation applied in the translations of indonesian cultural terms into english in the novel. the novel gadis pantai is written by pramoedya ananta toer, one of the greatest writers in indonesia, firstly published in 1962. he has more than 30 works of fiction and nonfiction that have been translated into more than 30 languages. this novel is then translated into english, the girl from the coast, by samuels, a native speaker of the 311foreignization and domestication... (gede eka putrawan) target language that the translator is expected to be able to render the sl text into his language, as natural as possible. it contains a lot of indonesian cultural terms translated into english. thus, it is considered representative as the data source for this research. through this research, readers are expected to have more theoretical and practical insight on cultural translation in terms of techniques of translation and ideologies of translation. moreover, the readers are also expected to realize that culture is important to take into account when translating texts especially literary texts. methods this research is conducted through descriptivequalitative approach. the data, indonesian cultural terms, used in this research are taken from toer’s work gadis pantai and its english version the girl from the coast. the data are collected through document analysis involving skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough examination), and interpretation. this method consists of content analysis and thematic analysis. the former refers to the process of organizing information into categories related to the central questions of the research (bowen, 2009), while the latter refers to a form of pattern recognition within the data, with emerging themes becoming the categories for analysis (fereday & muir-cochrane in bowen, 2009). in addition, leedy and ormrod in williams (2007) have stated that content analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of materials. it is aimed at identifying patterns, themes, or biases. williams (2007) further states that content analysis review forms of human communication including books, newspapers, and films as well as other forms. the data source in this research is repeatedly and carefully read to find out information of cultural words, phrases, or expressions in the sl text and their translations in the tl. the occurrences of the indonesian cultural terms are then classified in accordance with the categories of culture as qualitative evidence. the translation techniques and ideologies applied in the translations of the indonesian cultural terms are then analyzed descriptively. results and discussions there are 163 indonesian cultural terms are identified in the novel in five categories as proposed by newmark in amininadji (2016) and maasoum and davtalab (2011). he classifies culture-specific terms into five categories which include (1) ecology (flora, fauna, winds, etc.); (2) material culture (artifacts; food, clothes, houses and towns, transport); (3) social culture (work and leisure); (4) social organization (political and administrative, religious, artistic); (5) gestures and habits. table 1 shows indonesian cultural terms based on newmark’s categories. then, the analyses of each category of cultural terms are made by presenting some examples considered as representative data. only the interesting ones are prioritized to be presented. some examples of the analyses can be seen in table 2. in the data 127 of table 2, ketupat is translated into ‘packets of cooked rice’. ketupat is made from rice that has been wrapped in woven young coconut leaves pouch and boiled. as the rice cooks, the grains expand to fill the pouch and the rice becomes compressed. ketupat is very familiar in indonesia, especially in javanese and balinese culture. everyone in indonesia knows what ketupat is. there are many varieties and shapes of ketupat, e.g., ketupat nasi – wrapped in a square shape and ketupat pulut – wrapped in a triangular. since the culture of the target language does not have ketupat, the translator renders it into ‘packets of cooked rice’ even though it cannot represent the exact meaning of the ketupat itself. in the data 114 of table 3, kusir is translated into ‘driver’. kusir is a person who controls a horse-drawn carriage, while the driver in the target language means a person who drives a car. based on the definitions, it is clear that in source language culture the terms kusir is very specific, while the driver is too general. since target language culture does not have a term which is exactly the same as the term kusir, the translator then renders it into the driver that is very acceptable to the target language readers. table 1 indonesian cultural terms no. terms frequency % category 1. fauna 1 0,61 ecology 2. features 1 0,61 total 2 1,22 3. clothes 9 5,52 material culture4. food 13 7,99 5. house; household goods and house surroundings 15 9,20 6. transports 5 3,06 7. medium of exchange 4 2,45 total 46 28,22 8. work 15 9,20 social culture9. leisure 3 1,84 10. personal names and terms of address 19 11,66 11. kinship 2 1,22 total 39 23,93 12. social administration 33 20,24 social organization – political and administrative 13. religion 26 15,95 14. artistic things and craft 7 4,30 15. history 3 1,84 total 69 42.34 16. habits 3 1,84 gestures and habits17. special words used in relation to a particular thing or activity or condition 4 2,45 total 7 4,29 grand total 163 100 312 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 309-315 table 2 the example data 127 data sl tl 127 cuma setahun sekali kegirangan dan kedamaian semacam ini terjadi: di waktu lebaran haji, dan seluruh kampung nelayan turun ke laut, menyerahkan ketupat pada dewa laut, meminta berkah dan memohon jangan hendaknya diganggu dalam pekerjaan seharihari (toer, 2003:170). such festivity and gaiety usually came but once a year, on the day of pilgrim’s homecoming, the tenth day of the twelfth month on the moslem calendar, when the families of the fishermen gathered on the shore to offer packets of cooked rice to the gods of sea and to pray for their blessings in return and that they not be bothered by the gods when doing their work (toer, 2002:170). table 3 the example data 114 data sl tl 114 “kau pernah ke kampung nelayan, man?” gadis pantai bertanya pada kusir tanpa mengacuhkan kata-kata mardinah (toer, 2003:142). the girl ignored the comment, focusing her attention on the driver instead: “have you ever been to a fishing village?” (toer, 2002:139). table 4 the example data 111 data sl tl 111 “sudah malam tidurlah, kalau tidak, kau tak perlu pergi besok. aku khawatir kau masuk angin kelelahan.” (toer, 2003:139). “it’s late. go to sleep. if you don’t get some sleep, you won’t be able to go tomorrow morning. you’re going to catch a chill.” (toer, 2002:136). in the data 111 of table 4, the term masuk angin is translated into ‘catch a chill’. this term is very popular in indonesia. masuk angin can be literally defined as wind entering one’s body. it actually refers to slight cold, masuk means ‘to enter’, while angin means wind. when someone suffers from masuk angin, they believe that wind has made them sick. masuk angin is a symptom of getting sick such as feeling dizzy and feeling sick inside the stomach. it is a term for feeling unwell. staying awake all night long, lack of sleep, having windows open while driving a car, going outside on windy night or day without wearing a jacket, can make someone feel unwell and masuk angin. there are many ways to draw out the wind from those who are suffering from masuk angin, including eating or drinking warm food and drinks, getting massaged, having traditional tonic, and kerokan. kerokan is done by rubbing on oiled coin over back skin carefully and repeatedly until it becomes red. the purpose of kerokan is believed to allow the air from the stomach to come out by burping and farting. the burping and farting symbolize the wind trying to escape. western culture does not have the term masuk angin. in the west, people do not have masuk angin; they only have a runny nose, a headache, frequent sneezing, a fever, a cough, and they call them as ‘a cold’. they say they have ‘a cold’ when they suffer from one of the symptoms mentioned. it means that catch a chill or catch a cold is the best english equivalent to refer to masuk angin according to western culture. the translator has rendered the term masuk angin into catch a chill well so that it is culturally acceptable to target language readers. in addition to the categories of indonesian cultural terms above, techniques of translation applied in the translation of the cultural terms are also identified and analyzed as presented in table 5. table 5 techniques and ideologies of translation no. techniques frequency % ideologies 1. pure borrowing 16 9,82 foreignization total 16 9,82 2. adaptation 47 28,83 domestication3. compensation 4 2,45 4. description 24 14,72 5. discursive creation 2 1,23 6. e s t a b l i s h e d equivalent 30 18,40 7. generalization 18 11,04 8. modulation 5 3,07 9. reduction 1 0,61 10. p a r t i c u l a r i z a tion 2 1,23 11. c o m b i n a t i o n of established equivalent and reduction 1 0,61 total 134 82,20 12. amplification 1 0,61 partial fore i g n i z a t i o n and partial d o m e s t i c a tion 13. combination of pure borrowing and modulation 1 0,61 14. combination of pure borrowing and description 1 0,61 15. combination of pure borrowing and reduction 9 5,52 16. combination of pure borrowing and adaptation 1 0,61 total 13 7,98 grand total 163 100 the identified indonesian cultural terms are translated by using 16 techniques of translation in three ideologies which include foreignization, domestication, and partial domestication – partial foreignization ideologies of translation. table 6 is the examples of the analyses of techniques and ideology of translation. in the data 42 of table 6, the translator does not make any modifications when rendering the terms pak karto into the target language; he retains it. the pure borrowing 313foreignization and domestication... (gede eka putrawan) technique of translation is applied since the term is unknown in the target language culture, this decision is not a wrong choice, and it is done due to cultural differences between indonesian culture, especially javanese, and english culture. in addition, by borrowing the cultural term above into the target language, it means that the translator tries to introduce indonesian culture, especially javanese, into the target language, english. table 6 the example data 42 data sl tl 42 mengapa bicara saja tidak berani, sedang ia suka memekik-menjerit panggil-panggil si kuntring, ayamnya? panggil-panggil kawankawan bermainnya? panggil-panggil pak karto.. (toer, 2003:41). why couldn’t she make herself open her mouth? if she were at home, she’d have no problem screaming at her pet chicken kuntring or calling out for her playmates, or laughing along with pak karto. (toer, 2002:35). table 7 the example data 111 and 119 data sl tl 111 “sudah malam tidurlah, kalau tidak, kau tak perlu pergi besok. aku khawatir kau masuk angin kelelahan.” (toer, 2003:139). “it’s late. go to sleep. if you don’t get some sleep, you won’t be able to go tomorrow morning. you’re going to catch a chill.” (toer, 2002:136). 119 dia dapat persen minum air gula-jawa (toer, 2003:147). he gets some molasses (toer, 2002:145). in the data 111 and 119 of table 7, masuk angin is translated into catch a chill, gula-jawa into molasses by using adaptation technique of translation since target language culture does not have concepts which are exactly the same as the terms presented. the translator’s purpose in rendering those terms as shown in table 7 through adaptation technique of translation is to make his translation sound more natural, so that target language readers have a similar strong feeling when reading the translated novel as source language readers do. table 8 the example data 74 data sl tl 74 ia tidur di bale kawani emak (toer, 2003:83). she had joined her mother on the sleeping platform (toer, 2002:80). in the data 74 of table 8, the bale is translated into the sleeping platform by using compensation technique of translation. bale is not only used for sleeping, but also for sitting, meeting, and others. the translator adds the word ‘sleeping’ in the translation of bale into ‘sleeping platform’ with the purpose of introducing and emphasizing what the term bale is used for in the context of the situation. table 9 the example data 45 data sl tl 45 “bilang pangestu,” emak mendesak (toer, 2003:45). “say thank you to your papa,” her mother urged (toer, 2002:39). in the data 45 of table 9, the term pangestu is translated into thank you by the translator through discursive creation. here, he produces a temporary equivalence which is totally unpredictable for the term pangestu by rendering it into thank you. pangestu itself actually means blessing, good wishes, or prayers. table 10 the example data 96 and 120 data sl tl 96 “tidak menurut ustad, pamanda.” (toer, 2003:118). “not according to our teacher, uncle.” (toer, 2002:115). 120 ..belum juga mereka berpapasan dengan dokar lainnya. grobak pun tak ada mereka papasi (toer, 2003:149). ..had yet to meet another vehicle, even an oxcart (toer, 2002:148). the terms ustad and dokar, in the data 96 and 120 in table 10, are translated into teacher and vehicle through generalization technique of translation. ustad refers to a male muslim religious teacher who always attempts to improve behavior in line with islamic thinking and usually teaches at an islamic boarding school, while teacher means someone whose job is to teach in a school, the subjects they teach may be history, geography, english, etc. here, it is clear the translator generalizes the term ustad into the teacher in the target language. also, in translating dokar into the vehicle, the translator also applies generalization since there are many kinds of vehicles, such as the car, motorcycle, carriage, etc. table 11 the example data 46 data sl tl 46 hari ini biasanya dipanggil bendoro bupati (toer, 2003:45). at this time of day, he’s usually with the regent (toer, 2002:40). in the data 46 of table 11, bendoro bupati is simply translated into regent. here, the translator applies two different techniques of translation, established equivalent and reduction techniques of translation. on the one hand, the translator suppresses a source language information 314 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 309-315 item in the target language by deleting the term bendoro, but on the other hand, he just translates the word bupati through established equivalent technique into regent. in addition to sl-oriented and tl-oriented techniques of translation, some techniques of translation are also sl partially-oriented and tl partially-oriented techniques of translation. the sl partially-oriented and tl partiallyoriented techniques of translation include amplification and combinations of sl-oriented and tl-oriented techniques of translation. amplification is considered sl partiallyoriented technique of translation since it introduces details that are not formulated in the st; information, explicative paraphrasing. for example is by adding bulan puasa kaum muslim when translating a noun ramadhan, so it becomes …ramadhan, bulan puasa kaum muslim,.. footnotes are also a type of amplification. a cultural term is not merely translated by using a single technique of translation. it can also be translated by using more than one technique of translation through combinations of sl-oriented techniques of translation and that of tl-oriented. the combinations consist of two different techniques of translation. some of the identified data in the novel gadis pantai are translated into tl, the girl from the coast, by using these combinations of techniques of translation. table 12 is the examples of sl partially-oriented and tl partially-oriented techniques of translation analysis. table 12 the example data 29 data sl tl 29 ia berkopiah haji (toer, 2003:31). on his head was a kopiah, the kind of rimless hat she had seen worn by men who had made the pilgrimage to mecca (toer, 2002:25). in the data 29 of table 12, kopiah haji is translated into kopiah with some details. it means that the translator applies the amplification technique of translation since he introduces details that are not formulated in the source text by explicative paraphrasing. the details of the term kopiah haji in the source text are not formulated, while in the target text, the translator gives an explicative paraphrase ‘the kind of rimless hat she had seen worn by men who had made the pilgrimage to mecca’. on the one hand, the term is partially oriented to the source language by retaining the term kopiah, on the other hand, it is also partially oriented to the target language through explicative paraphrasing. table 13 the example data 12 data sl tl 12 ..sebuah pendopo dengan tiga baris tiang putih (toer, 2003:16). a traditional pendopostyle structure, the roof of which was supported by three parallels rows of columns (toer, 2002:9). in the data 12 of table 13, the term pendopo is translated into the traditional pendopo-style structure. the translator applies description technique of translation in rendering the term, yet he also borrows the term pendopo itself. in this case, two different techniques of translation are applied, it is partially oriented to the source language by retaining the term pendopo (pure borrowing), and at the same time, it is also partially oriented to the target language through the application of description technique. the findings of the applications of techniques of translation in this research are not in line with the findings found by jayantini (2010) who states that the translator always applies single techniques of translation in rendering a term. in this research, the translator applies not only single techniques of translation but also combinations of two different techniques of translation. based on the analysis of techniques of translation, it can be identified that 9,82% of the cultural terms are foreignized. it means that the target language readers can feel linguistic and cultural differences between indonesian culture and that of english. in applying the foreignization ideology of translation, the translator only uses pure borrowing technique of translation in rendering some cultural terms from indonesian into english. through the application of foreignization ideology of translation, the translator has introduced the source language culture into that of the target. the application of domestication ideology of translation is through some tl-oriented techniques of translation; they are adaptation, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, modulation, reduction, particularization, and the combination of established equivalent and reduction. in this research, 82,20% of the cultural terms are domesticated that is the most frequently-applied ideology of translation. it means that most of the cultural terms found are rendered as naturally as possible into the target language. as venuti in judickaite, (2009) has stated that domestication involves the ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text (indonesian cultural terms) to the target language (english) cultural values. when a translated product becomes very fluent and easy to read, it can be said that such translation is domesticated. 82,20% of the indonesian cultural terms in this research are domesticated to make them more explicit in the target language. a translator, usually, applies either foreignization or domestication ideology of translation in his/her translation through the applications of techniques of translation; tl-oriented and sl-oriented techniques of translation. however, in this research, the translator does not only apply two ideologies of translation but also applies partial foreignization and partial domestication ideology of translation. it turns out that some cultural terms identified in the novel gadis pantai and its translation the girl from the coast are partially foreignized and partially domesticated through the applications of combinations of two different techniques of translation; combinations of sl-oriented and tl-oriented techniques of translation. it means that in translating the indonesian cultural terms identified in the novel, the translator applies not only one technique of translation, but also several combinations of two different techniques. amplification technique is also considered partial foreignization and partial domestication since it retains an sl cultural term in tl, and at the same time, introduces details that are not formulated in the sl through explicative paraphrasing. according to the analysis of techniques of translation, 7,98% of the cultural terms are partially foreignized and 315foreignization and domestication... (gede eka putrawan) partially domesticated into the target language, english. partial foreignization and partial domestication are applied through amplification technique of translation and some combinations of two different techniques of translation including amplification, the combination of pure borrowing and modulation, the combination of pure borrowing and description, the combination of pure borrowing and reduction, and the combination of pure borrowing and adaptation. it is in line with what is stated by geng (2009) that domestication and foreignization should go along with and complement each other. larson (in morina, 2013) states that different cultures will have different focuses. when cultures are similar, there is less difficulty in translating. this is because both languages will probably have terms that are more or less equivalent for various aspects of the culture. when, however, the cultures are very different, especially indonesian and english, so it is often very difficult to find equivalent lexical items. conclusions there are 163 identified indonesian cultural terms classified into five categories translated by using 16 techniques of translation in the novel gadis pantai and its translation the girl from the coast including the applications of single and double techniques of translation – sl-oriented technique of translation; tl-oriented techniques of translation; and sl partially-oriented and tl partially-oriented techniques of translation. after analyzing the techniques of translation, the analysis of the ideology of translation and the most frequently-applied ideology of translation could also be made. there are, in fact, two basic ideologies of translation, foreignization, and domestication. however, in this research, it is revealed that some indonesian cultural terms are also partially foreignized (partial foreignization) and partially domesticated (partial domestication). it can also be concluded that the most frequently-applied ideology of translation is domestication (82,20%). however, this research also has some limitations. due to the nature of the research questions, it is based on the descriptive-qualitative approach in which the researcher is the only instrument for data collection. in addition, this research also focuses on ideologies of translation applied to the translations of cultural terms in a novel. the limitations point towards topics is to be addressed in the future. a few areas to investigate for future research include the use of other research instruments for data collection, e.g., interviews and questionnaires to describe the phenomena under investigation more deeply, and the use of other data sources including sensitive or religious texts. references amininadji, o. (2016). a study of culture specific items and translation strategies in bahrām beyzā’ī’s play “marionettes”. master’s thesis. montreal: université de montréal. aslani, m., & salmani, b. (2015). ideology and translation: a critical discourse analysis approach towards the representation of political news in translation. international journal of applied linguistics and english literature, 4(3), 80–88. https://doi. org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.4n.3p.80. bowen, g. a. (2009). document analysis as a qualitative research method. quality research journal, 9(2), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/qrj0902027. geng, x. (2009). an analysis of the cultural phenomena in english and its translation. asian social science, 5(12), 141–144. jayantini, i. g. a. s. r. (2010). domestication and foreignization taking place in technical translation of the bilingual glossary of biosecurity. thesis. denpasar: udayana university. judickaitė, l. (2009). the notions of foreignization and domestication applied to film translation: analysis of subtitles in cartoon ‘ratatouille’. jaunųjų mokslininkų darbai, 2(23), 36-43. retrieved from http://su.lt/bylos/mokslo_leidiniai/jmd/09_02_23/ judickaite.pdf. maasoum, s. m. h., & davtalab, h. (2011). an analysis of culture-specific items in persian translation of ‘dubliners’ based on newmark’ s model. theory and practice in language studies, 1(12), 1767-1779. molina, l., & albir, h. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta, 47(4), 498–512. https://doi.org/10.7202/008033ar. morina, m. m. (2013). translation issues. academic journal of interdisciplinary studies, 2(4), 163–171. https://doi.org/10.5901/ajis.2012.v2n4p163. sadiq, j. (2015). negotiating translation studies: a leap from linguistic dynamics to cultural dynamics. indian scholar, 2(2), 13–21. toer, p. a. (1962). the girl from the coast. translated by willem samuels. 2002. new york: hyperion. toer, p. a. (2003). gadis pantai. jakarta: lentera dipantara. widiatmi, y. d. (2014). cultural words in english translation of ayu utami’s saman. the 3rd unnes international conference international conference. semarang, indonesia. pp 846–857. retrieved from http://eltlt. org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/proceedingseltlt-2014.pdf. williams, c. (2007). research methods. journal of business & economic research, 5(3), 65–72. https://doi. org/10.1093/fampract/cmi221. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 105 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 105-109 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.3918 turn-holding cues in multi-participant conversations in downton abbey television series titik sudartinah1; emi nursanti2 1,2english literature department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri yogyakarta jln. colombo no. 1, yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1titiksudartinah@uny.ac.id; 2emi141516@gmail.com received: 25th october 2017/ revised: 15th november 2017/ accepted: 29th november 2017 how to cite: sudartinah, titik., & nursanti, emi. (2018). turn-holding cues in multi-participant conversations in downton abbey television series. lingua cultura, 12(1), 105-109. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.3918 abstract this study aimed to identify the turn-holding cues in downton abbey television series and describe the factors contributing to the effective use of them. this study used a descriptive qualitative method. the data were multi-participant conversations in the television series, specifically the first three episodes of the first season. the procedures for conducting the study were collecting the data, completing them with their context, setting, and then analyzing them. the result shows that to hold a turn, speakers use cues such as filled pause, verbal filler, tactically placed silent pause, new start, grammatical incompleteness, and rush-through. the speakers’ attempt to hold the turn are successfully accomplished as they can continue finishing their utterances without any interruption from other participants. the factors contributing to the effective use of turn-holding cues are putting the cues at strategic places, and most importantly, cooperation among participants. keywords: turn-holding cues, multi-participant conversation, downton abbey introduction people are basically homo loquens which means social creatures that are good at speaking and communicating. as the need to communicate is one of the basic needs of human, they always want to have conversations with others to talk about many things, starting from trivial to serious matters. this is an activity of exchanging information which involves two parties, the speaker and the hearer. as language is very contextual, defining a conversation is not always easy and simple as sometimes there are some utterances that cannot be interpreted literally. mey (2009) has stated that when meanings are interpreted based on the sentence structure or the literal meaning, the linguistic analysis which can be employed is syntax or semantic analysis. however, when the one to be revealed is the meaning intended by a speaker, which may be different from the literal meaning, then pragmatic analysis will be more appropriate. mey (2009) has further explained that pragmatics is the study of the relationship between sign and the language users interpreting it. in doing a pragmatic analysis, one should also consider the context. it is related to who is involved and where, when, and in what situation the communication occurs. as the focus of this study is on conversation structure, the area of pragmatics that fits the scope is conversation analysis. mazeland (2009) has stated that conversation analysis is a systematic study of the ways, specifically the principles and practices, that participants use when they organize a conversation in everyday interaction. the conversation meant here is one that happens unplanned in a natural situation, not in a language laboratory. here, both the analysis and the conversation are systematic in the sense that they are conducted in an organized way. nevertheless, the organized nature of conversation does not necessarily happen. clark (2007) has proposed that face-to-face conversation have rules and structures which vary depending on several factors. thus, in having a conversation, the speakers are actually applying the rules in structuring the conversation smoothly and efficiently. in this case, conversation analysis is meant to obtain a picture of the sequence of conversation procedures; how utterances are produced, and how a participant understands and responds to another. one fundamental unit in conversation analysis is turn-taking, which refers to a collaborative process of the changing of speakership (clarks in adolphs, 2008). it is an essential part of the conversation basic system (stivers et al., 2009). the elements which make up a turn is called turn constructional unit (tcu). this is the basic unit of utterance recognized from its grammatical construction such as in the form of a sentence, clause, phrase or even word, its intonational packaging, and completed action(s) (schegloff, 2007). in completed actions, specifically, the end of tcu 106 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 105-109 may mean an opportunity for other speakers to take the turn in interaction (napitupulu & siahaan, 2014). schegloff (2007) has further stated that the organization of turn-taking is the most essential organizations of practice for talk-ininteraction. this is because there is a possibility of being responsive where a participant would show that what he/she is saying and doing, is the response to what the other has said and done, and where one participant should talk after the other, one speaker at a time. therefore, it is an important part of a conversation as it enables participants to exchange roles as speaker and hearer, which makes information exchange happen. unlike the structure, sound, or meaning of languages which tend to be different, something which is almost the same in conversations in all languages is that there is turn-taking (levinson, 2016). this implies that turntaking is an integral part of the conversation in all languages. although turn-taking is universal, it is also culturally specific at the same time. the principles on how a good or appropriate conversation should be may vary across cultures (liddicoat, 2007; sidnell, 2009; stivers et al., 2009). in addition, sidnell (2009) further argues that turntaking varies in different periods of time as well. therefore, the speakers need to take into account the local customs on when one should take a turn in a conversation. this also implies that conversation analyst conducting studies on turn-taking in different places and periods of time may find different results. in line with him, clark (2007) has proposed that the three basic strategies of turn-taking are taking a turn, holding a turn, and yielding a turn. taking a turn is done by a speaker who wants to speak, whether to initiate a conversation, give a response, or interrupt the current speaker. holding a turn, meaning to keep on talking, is done when the speaker cannot continue speaking which prompts him/her to stop to reformulate what he/she is going to say. meanwhile, yielding a turn is a moment when a speaker willingly gives the coming turn to another participant. to apply those strategies, a speaker may employ certain linguistic devices or give some signals to other participants for the changing roles to occur smoothly. to hold a turn, a speaker may sometimes use signals called turn-holding cues in order to prevent other participants to take the turn while the speaker is thinking of his/her next statement. gravano and hirschberg (2011) have defined turn-holding cue as a means to prevent the hearers from making turn-taking attempts. in other words, these are linguistic devices used by a speaker to maintain his/her speaking turn. mclaughlin in anderson, beard, and walther (2010) have provided some turn-holding cues, such as incomplete grammatical element, maintenance of intonation contours, and filled pauses. schegloff (2007) has proposed the cue of rush-through, while pipek (2007) has added tactically placed silent pause, stalling, lexical repetitions, and new starts as other cues for holding the turn. since good management of turn-taking is the key to successful information exchange, all conversation participants should be aware of their roles by which they can apply the turn-taking strategies appropriately. among the three turn-taking strategies, holding the turn may seem to be the most difficult one. this is due to the fact that a speaker often cannot control or hold the turn during the conversation since sometimes it is hard to think of what to be said while still talking at the same time. thus, sometimes the speaker needs to stop talking for a while then rethink of what to say next. however, this is also risky because the pause can sometimes be interpreted by other participants as an opportunity to take the turn. therefore, the turn-holding cue is chosen as the field to investigate within this study. the research questions of this study are; (1) what are the turn-holding cues employed by the characters in multiparticipant conversations in downton abbey television series? (2) what factors contribute to the effective use of the cues? considering that, there are fewer studies on turnholding cues compare to turn-taking and turn-yielding signals. the researchers believe that this study will reveal many interesting findings, especially those related to language usage in the past. methods the data of the study are multi-participant conversations in downton abbey television series. unlike multi-participant conversations, the turn-taking strategies in two-participant conversations are quite predictable. hence, the multi-participant ones are more preferable as it involves many participants and may result in more dynamic turntaking. downton abbey, a popular television series in 2016 which tells the life of aristocrats in 1900s, is chosen as the object of analysis for its historical and cultural background. when the data of most studies on conversational analysis are taken from present language usage in everyday interactions, the series set in the british kingdom from 1912 to 1925 may provide different findings as the data come from the language used by the noble family in the past. this is a descriptive qualitative study as the data are in the form of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences rather than numbers. the results are shown in description or explanation of the observed phenomena. the data are collected by watching the television series and recording the relevant data by making the transcript. they are then documented with their context or setting to get a thorough understanding of the situation. after the data are collected, the next step is to analyze them. since the focus of this study is on the turn-holding strategies, the first step is to investigate the cues given by speakers to hold their turns. after that, the data are analyzed to decide whether the strategies applied are effective or not. then, the researchers observe factors that may lead to this effectiveness or ineffectiveness, conducted as the last step in the data analysis. results and discussions in a conversation, a speaker surely wants to deliver the information smoothly for the information exchange to be accomplished clearly and effectively. however, in a certain condition sometimes there is something that is blocking the speaker’s mind that he/she is not able to convey the information well. when such situation happens, and he/ she feels that there is still something left to say, he/she will try to hold the turn. however, since to keep talking while thinking of what to say next is not easy, the speaker needs to employ some strategies.to let other participants know that the current speaker wants to hold the floor, he/she may give some cues (levinson & torreira, 2015). these are meant to prevent other conversation participants from making turntaking attempts (gravano & hirschberg, 2011). this study has found some turn-holding cues that are employed by the characters, the first of which is filled pause. while a silent pause may indicate that a speaker has finished 107turn-holding cues in multi-participant .... (titik sudartinah; emi nursanti) speaking, a speaker who still wants to hold the floor may use a filled pause to avoid others from taking the turn. it can be done in two ways; by pronouncing the vowel of a syllable in a longer duration or by using some commonly filled pauses, such as uh, um, and hm. to hold the floor, the speaker uses this filled pause while thinking of what to say next. the use of this cue is seen in the following dialogue. 1 carson : the dowager countess is in the drawing room. 2 robert : i’ll come now. 3 carson : she asked for lady grantham. 4 cora : i wonder what i’ve done wrong this time. 5 carson : a:::nd the new valet has arrived, my lord. 6 robert : has he? hm... thank you, carson. after carson announces where the dowager countess is, in turn 5, he uses a conjunction ‘and’ pronounced in a longer duration as a signal that he wants to add more information. by giving that signal, he can make other participants stay silent while paying attention to what he is going to say. besides, other than becoming a cue of holding the turn, the long duration of ‘and’ may imply something else. he does this because he feels uneasy to tell the next information as he thinks that the new valet, the one proposed by robert, does not have the capability to be a good valet as he is crippled. in turn 6, robert also uses a turn-holding cue by using the filled pause ‘hm’. this is a common expression used by people when they think about what they are going to say. however, the ‘hm’ spoken by robert, in this case, is not a turn-holding cue but a backchannel or sign of acknowledgment. he says so to inform that he understands the information that carson has conveyed. besides a filled pause, the second cue used by a speaker to hold the turn is a verbal filler. by employing a verbal filler, other participants may wait for the speaker’s next utterance. some common verbal fillers are ‘well’, ‘you know’, and ‘i mean’. the data analysis shows that the characters in downton abbey frequently use the verbal filler ‘well’ compared to other verbal fillers as shown in the example following. 1 robert : you don’t have to worry she may be president, but i am the patron so you’re quite safe with me. 2 matthew : my mother was right, then. the man’s life was saved. 3 clarkson : well, . . . i like to think we were both right. but i’m not sure lady grantham will be so easily convinced. 4 robert : then we must strengthen the argument. cousin isobel wants something to do? very well. let’s make her chairman of the board. she’d like that, wouldn’t she? 5 matthew : certainly she would. 6 robert : then my mother will have to listen to her. she’s been an absolute ruler there for long enough. it’s time for some loyal opposition. 7 clarkson : well, . . . . if you’re quite certain, my lord. 8 robert : what were you going to say? 9 clarkson : well, . . . . at the risk of being impertinent, on your own head be it. in this conversation, all utterances that are spoken by clarkson begin with ‘well’. in turn 3, after matthew praises his mother who has successfully saved drake’s life, clarkson begins his response with ‘well’. in turn 7, after robert says that violet should share the power with isobel and listen to isobel, clarkson responds by starting his utterance with ‘well’ again. in the last turn, after robert urges him to honestly explain what he means, he once again uses ‘well’ at the beginning of his response. in turn 2 and 6, at the end of their utterances, matthew and robert do not specifically yield the floor to clarkson. it means that anyone involved in the conversation may give a response. clarkson wants to take the turn but also needs some time to think of what to say which is why he starts his utterances with the verbal filler ‘well’, followed with a pause, in turns 3 and 7. robert then specifically gives the next turn to clarkson in turn 8, but he keeps responding in the same way. knowing that clarkson wants to say something, albeit the pause after each ‘well’, other participants wait for what he is going to say. other than functioning as a turn-holding cue, those verbal fillers are employed by clarkson because he is a bit hesitant about what he says as it is contradictory from what is spoken by other participants. this implies that, other than giving the signal to other participants that a speaker is not donned with the utterance, the verbal filler may also indicate that a speaker is a bit hesitant about what he/she is going to express. the third cue employed by the characters in holding their turn is a silent pause. a silent pause generally indicates that a speaker is done in delivering the information which marks it as the right time for other participants to take the turn. however, when the silent pause is placed at a strategic place, other participants will know that it is a signal to for them to not take the turn and instead wait for the speaker to finish the utterance. this can be seen in the dialogue below. 1 cora : there was a letter from mr. napier in the evening post. 2 mary : umm.. did he accept? 3 cora : not yet. 4 edith : perhaps he thought it was too obvious. 5 cora : apparently he's bringing a friend with him, an attache at the turkish embassy. a(-) mr. (-) kemal pamuk. he's the son of one of the sultan's ministers and he's here for the albanian talks. cora, the mother of mary and edith, tells mary that her close friend, mr. evelyn napier has sent a letter informing his plan to visit downton abbey. then, in turn 5, when she conveys in detail that napier is bringing a friend and she cannot remember his name, she uses a silent pause after ‘a’ and ‘mr’. the silent pause after ‘mr’ is quite long as cora needs to open and read the letter she is holding. however, other participants still wait for her to finish her utterance. in this case, cora puts the silent pause at strategic places by tactically putting the silent pause after mentioning 108 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 105-109 ‘mr’. it is because her daughters must be curious about the name of mr. napier’s friend, so they will patiently wait for her to mention the man’s name. the fourth cue used by a speaker to hold a turn is by speaking a new start. this is usually done by a speaker who cannot continue what he is saying. thus, before finishing one tcu to hold the floor, he/she conveys another tcu. this is presented in the following dialogue. 1 charles : you think you're such a big man, don't you? just cos you're a lord, you think you can do what you like with me. 2 robert : i think it... 3 : ..because it is true. after charles comments about lord grantham’s power, in turn 3, robert can only say ‘i think it…’ and he cannot continue what he is saying. however, as he still wants to hold the floor, he takes back the turn with a new start. usually, when a speaker seems not to be able to continue his/her utterance which is indicated by a pause, other participants will take the turn in order to keep the conversation going. however, although robert has stopped his utterance because he is unable to continue it, there are no other participants to take the turn in this situation. this is caused by the social background among them. other participants do not dare to take the turn when lord grantham has not finished his utterance because among all the participants, he is the one with the highest social rank. when there is a participant taking the turn before the ‘man in power’ finishes his turn, it is regarded as an impolite behavior. this study also finds that grammatical incompleteness is the fifth turn-holding cue given by the characters in downton abbey. it is usually done by a speaker mentioning conjunction followed by a pause. it can be a turn-holding cue because conjunction is a grammatical element that needs to be followed by a subordinate clause. the use of grammatical incompleteness as a turn-holding cue is illustrated in the following dialogue. 1 hughes : can i help your ladyship? 2 cora : this is the button we're missing from my new evening coat. i found it lying on the gravel. but . . . i was shocked at the talk i heard as i came in. mr crawley is his lordship's cousin and heir. you will, therefore, please accord him the respect he is entitled to. 3 o'brien : but you don't like him yourself, m'lady. you never wanted him... in the second line, cora, who is looking for o’brien, finds that he is talking about matthew crawley. cora thinks that it is not appropriate for a servant to talk about any member of his master’s family with no respect. cora starts her utterance by saying what she originally has intended to do by coming downstairs to the servants’ dining room to give the missing button from her evening coat. then she continues her turn by commenting on what she has just heard. however, she does not say the comment directly in one stretch of utterance. she rather starts by mentioning a conjunction ‘but’ to hold the turn, then gives a pause after this. knowing that cora wants to continue her statement, other participants keep waiting in silence until she finishes her turn. besides functioning as a cue that a speaker wants to hold the turn, cora’s choice to use the conjunction ‘but’ enables other participants to notice that something wrong must be happening because ‘but’ here indicates that cora’s next statement is something contradictory. the last cue employed by the characters in downton abbey to hold the turn is by doing a rush-through. it is done by shortening the pause duration between two tcus. as a pause may indicate that a speaker has finished his turn and other participants may take over the turn. this very short pause is meant to avoid other participants taking the turn as what can be seen in the following conversation. 1 mary : edith, what are you thinking? 2 edith : you know, i don't dislike him as much as you do. 3 mary : perhaps you don't dislike him at all. 4 edith : perhaps i don't. 5 mary : well, it's nothing to me. i've bigger fish to fry. 6 sybil : what fish? 7 edith : are we talking about e-n? 8 mary : how do you know that? have you been poking around in my things? noticing that edith knows the name of a man that mary is in love with, bursting with anger, mary asks two questions at once with a very short pause between them in turn 8. she does this in order to avoid others to hold the turn when she has not finished interrogating edith. here, mary uses the cue of rush-through between her first and second tcu. with a very short pause between two utterances, other participants do not have any opportunity to take over the turn. those six cues are the signals given by speakers in downton abbey to warn other participants not to take the turn when they feel that they are unable to deliver the utterance smoothly. when they finally can continue their turn without any interruption or turn transition after giving the cues, the speakers may have effective use of cues to hold the turn. in the data analyzed within this study, all turn-holding cues given by speakers make the hearers in multi-participant conversations avoid taking the turn and keep waiting until the speakers have completely finished their utterance. the effectiveness of these turn-holding cues is supported by several factors, of which place the cues at strategic places is one of them. however, one which seems to be the most significant factor is cooperation among participants. a turn-holding cue works well when the hearers, who have noticed that the speaker is going to hold the floor, willingly wait until the speaker finishes his/her utterance. considering the object of the study, which is conversations in a television series set in the british kingdom in the past era, all turn-holding cues may indicate that politeness and respect among conversation participants are highly valued. this is due to the fact that all of the cues have successfully made the speakers hold the floor and continue to completely finish their utterances without any interruption. conclusions communicating is the basic need of human and having the conversation is a way of doing that. the conversation actually contains rules and structures that 109turn-holding cues in multi-participant .... (titik sudartinah; emi nursanti) most participants are not aware of. among those structures, taking the turn is one of which that makes up a conversation sequence, making changing roles between a speaker and hearer possible. turn-taking has three basic strategies; taking a turn, holding a turn, and yielding a turn. among the three, holding a turn seems to be the most difficult one. in spite of the speaker’s effort to think of what to say next while giving a signal to the hearers not to take the floor, the signal put in the wrong places may make an effort useless. in relation to the first research question, this study has found that in downton abbey television series, there are six turn-holding cues used by the speakers in multi-participant conversations. they are; filled pause, verbal filler, tactically placed silent pause, new start, grammatical incompleteness, and rush-through. all efforts done by the speakers to hold the floor by using those cues are successfully accomplished, indicated by their ability to finish their utterance without any interruption from other participants. meanwhile, for the second research question, it is found that the factors contributing to the effective use of those cues are putting the cues at strategic places and cooperation among participants. the way the people speak and behave in the past era, as what is set in the television series under study, which highly values politeness and respect is an important factor making the cooperation work well. references adolphs, s. 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(2009). universals and cultural variation in turn-taking in conversation. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america, 106(26), 10587–92. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903616106. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 351 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 351-355 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4142 implementing process writing strategy using weblogs to improve students’ ability in writing descriptive text abdullah syarofi1; deny kuswahono2; hendi rizky3 1,2,3magister ilmu linguistik, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas airlangga jl. dharmawangsa dalam, airlangga, surabaya 60286, indonesia 1syarofi.syafi@yahoo.com; 2denykuswahono-2016@fib.unair.ac.id; 3hendi.rizky@gmail.com received: 21st november 2017 /revised: 23rd february 2018 /accepted: 01st march 2018 how to cite: syarofi, a., kuswahono, d., & rizky, h. (2018). implementing process writing strategy using weblogs to improve students’ ability in writing descriptive text. lingua cultura, 12(4), 351-355. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4142 abstract this research aimed at improving the ability of the x mia 3 students of senior high school 2 lamongan in writing descriptive text through the implementation of process writing strategy facilitated by weblogs. this research was a collaborative action research which consisted of four stages: planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting. the data required were gathered by using observation checklists, field notes, and questionnaire. the results of the above-mentioned instruments indicate that the students show their active participation and good interest in attending the learning activity. the group discussion regarding the assigned objects in the pre-writing stage and the implementation of media weblogs can make the students participate more actively when the learning procedure is implemented. meanwhile, the writing ability of the students also improves as proven by the fact that every student can successfully increase his/her score in at least 10 points, which indicates an improvement to a higher level. it is also found that all of the writing aspects, such as content, organization, and language are improved due to the activity of pre-writing that the students do. the observation towards the assigned objects and idea generation makes the students have a clear plan regarding what to write on the draft. keywords: writing process, writing strategy, weblogs, students` ability, descriptive text introduction before the 1970’s, writing instruction focuses on rules of grammar (pour-mohammadi, abidin, & fong, 2012). today research shows that it is more important to create an environment that encourages students to take risks in their writing which means less concentration on conventional rules of writing and more on the expression of ideas. among the four basic skills to master in learning english, writing is often thought as the most important and difficult one. the importance of writing comes from its usefulness, while the difficulty of writing comes from the complexity that the writer should consider. writing is a fundamental component of language. when a child writes, thoughts and knowledge are blended together creating a unique meaning (jones, reutzel, & fargo, 2010). consequently, students identify the skill of writing, as more difficult than listening and reading (berman & cheng, 2010). writing has always been seen as an important skill in english language acquisition. this importance is due to the fact that it reinforces grammatical structures and vocabulary that educators strive to teach their students. it is the area in which learners need to be offered adequate time to develop their writing skill. therefore more time should be devoted to it in the classroom containing ells so that they will be prepared to effectively communicate in real life as well as academic situations (ismail, 2011). exposing them to the writing process itself through various venues is an excellent way to reach this goal. additionally, writing skill can be developed when the learners’ interests are acknowledged and when they are given frequent six opportunities actually to practice writing (ismail, 2011). the aspects contained in the writing product such as content, organization, and language demand the writer has a high order of thinking skill. the writer has to always consider whether those aspects have been encompassed before the writing product is eventually published. the stated difficulty can lead the learners to be lazy and uninterested in doing writing activity. this phenomenon is proven by what has been found by the researchers in the preliminary research conducted in the x mia 3 class of senior high school 2 lamongan. the result of the preliminary research shows that the students have problems with both ability and participation in writing. the problem of writing ability can be seen from the average score resulted from the students’ recent descriptive texts assessed which are only 59,5. most of the students’ works have problems with developing the ideas or the content. the ideas are not rich, organising the text in a sequenced order; one idea 352 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 351-355 is often not related to another and dealing with grammar and vocabulary. the grammatical errors and misspellings frequently occur. meanwhile, according to some students who are asked in an unconstructed interview, they argue that the writing activity created by the teacher is mostly monotonous since the writing task is usually given without being facilitated by some strategies or media. therefore, it is obvious that the students of x mia 3 need strategy and attractive medium which are able to improve the students’ writing skill and involve the students’ active participation in searching about the topic being discussed. in order to solve the writing problems raised, the researchers have proposed the process writing strategy to be implemented. process writing strategy demands the writer’s focus on the proceedings of making a good composition, and restrain them from imitating the modeling of text. comparing to other strategies, process writing has special stages that differ it from the others. by getting the feedback on the draft from others, the writer is able to recognize and revise what needs to be improved. consequently, the writing quality will be better. however, the stages of process writing require much time to be done in class. therefore, the researchers employ media weblogs to make the activities done in the class more time-saving. the weblog is chosen as the medium due to its features that can help english learners write better. weblogs can be personalized and decorated based on the owner’s preference. there are two objectives of this research. first, to find out if process writing strategy using weblogs has a significant impact on the improvement of students’ ability in writing descriptive text. second, to give students knowledge about how to implement process writing strategy using weblogs. kelley (2008) has noted that such personalization of weblog can encourage learner’s sense of possession over the ideas and has them sustain the spirit and motivation. meanwhile, the students, as well as the teacher, can also give feedback towards the writing works posted. zhang (2009) affirms that one of the weblog’s facilities in which the comments and feedback are given enables the learners to know and learn what should be revised on the draft posted. using a blog requires no knowledge of html consequently, due to this ease of use despite not being created for use in the language classroom, in educational settings worldwide students are increasingly using blogs and a lot of support for blogs has been generated. blogs offer a collaborative environment whereby students can read each other’s posts, and in some blogs, they have a facility to comment on each other’s work. therefore, students are essentially writing for an audience which is said to improve writing capacity (zhang, 2009). in this research, weblogs are combined to facilitate process writing strategy in order to improve the x mia 3 students’ descriptive text writing skill. weblogs are utilized when the students do pre-writing; the picture of assigned objects and list of vocabulary are posted on the teacher-researchers weblog page, drafting; the students write the rough draft directly on the weblog page, giving feedback to each other, revising and editing the drafts based on the feedback given, and posting the final draft. methods the research is carried out at senior high school 2 lamongan located in jl. veteran no. 1 lamongan. the subjects of this research are the students of x mia 3 in the second semester of the 2014-2015 academic year. this class has 40 students consisting of 17 boys and 23 girls. however, the research is focused on 37 students since the other three cannot attend the meetings in which treatment and final task are given. this research belongs to the collaborative action research which consists of four stages; planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting. in the planning stage, the researchers and the collaborator have prepared the strategy of process writing, lesson plan, material that are taken from various sources, media, and research instruments such as observation checklist, field notes, and questionnaire. besides, the criteria of success are also set. the students have to increase their scores in at least 10 points and participate actively during the lesson proven by the field notes, and observation checklist resulting good score. in the implementing stage, the researchers teach the descriptive text to the students based on the procedure written in the lesson plan. in the observation stage, the collaborator is observing the teaching-learning activity in the class using the observation checklists and field notes. in the reflecting stage, the researcher and the collaborator have evaluated the result of the student’s work and the data recorded in the research instruments to decide whether they have reached the criteria of success. this research takes a cycle consisting of four meetings conducted on february, 4th, 11th, 18th, and 25th. in brief, the learning procedure is as follows. firstly, the students are delivered some fundamental knowledge about descriptive text and how to use weblogs as the media. secondly, the students have composed a descriptive text in groups. thirdly, the students individually do pre-writing in which ideas are collected and generated. fourthly, every student does drafting and posting the draft on his/her weblog page. fifthly, at home, the students give peer feedback through weblogs. lastly, the students revise and edit directly on the weblogs. methods of collecting data applied in this research are observation, questionnaire, interview, test, and documentation. observation is conducted at the time when the learning process took place. it is conducted with an observation sheet which equipped with observation guidelines. questionnaires are distributed to students and filled by them. questionnaire functioned to figure out students’ response before and after implementing process writing strategy using weblogs. the interview is conducted on respondents who are free to answer some questions asked by the researcher without being bound to particular answers. test of writing descriptive text is held before and after implementing process writing strategy using weblogs. it aims at measuring students’ ability in writing descriptive text. documentation is taken at the time when the learning process takes place. it is held to obtain the record of students’ behavior and activities during the learning process. the documentation is reinforced analysis on each stage. methods of data analysis used in this research are the qualitative method and quantitative method. qualitative method is used to analyze data which obtained from observation, interview, and documentation during the learning process. the analysis is conducted within three steps as follows: (a) observing entire data which have been obtained; (b) arranging the data in units; (c) categorizing them to figure out the change of students’ behavior in writing the descriptive text based on the implementation of process writing strategy. quantitative method is used to analyze data which obtained from the written test. the result of data 353implementing process writing... (abdullah syarofi et al.) analysis quantitatively is counted in the following steps: (a) calculating and summarizing their scores; (b) calculating their average scores. results and discussions the improvement of the students’ writing ability is indicated by the scores they achieve in the final task conducted at the end of the implementation compared to the ones obtains in the preliminary research. it is found that the average of the final writing score obtained by the students increased in 16,4 points (range 0-100). the final writing score obtained in the preliminary research is 59,5 and increase into 75,9. furthermore, the average score for every writing aspect also gets improved. in terms of content aspect, the increase is three points (range 0-20). the average score of content aspect in the preliminary research is 13,2, while in the final task is 16,2. it is found in the students’ works have improvements on the quantity (length) and the quality of the idea developments. even though some students still miss some points in describing the assigned objects, the ideas they develop are complete. in the aspect of the organization, the increase is 4,6 points (range 0-20). the average organization aspect score in the preliminary research is 9,9, while the final task is 14,4. the texts produced by the students are organized based on the generic structure of the descriptive text, and there are more connectives the students used to make the text more coherent. lastly, in terms of language aspect, it is found that there is an increase in 0,6 points (range 0-10). the students use a wider range of vocabulary, and more appropriate grammar and word choices in their works. in terms of content aspect, the average score obtained before the treatment is only 13,2 categorized as fair, while the average score obtained after the treatment is 16,2 categorized as good. therefore, the content aspect score has increased in 3 points (range 0-20) and successfully improved from fair to good level. the students’ content aspect improvement does not merely happen when they are producing the final task. their progress could also be seen when they are making both group and individual work compositions. it is found that in those activities, there are improvements on the quantity (length) and the quality of the idea developments. even though some students still miss some points in describing the assigned objects, the ideas they developed are complete. the students have also got improved on the language aspect. the average score (range 0-10) of the language aspect obtained by the students in the preliminary study is only 6,6 categorized as fair and can increase 0,6 points into 7,3 categorized as good in the final task. in the group and individual activities, the students’ progress on the language aspect could also be indicated. the students use a wider range of vocabulary, and more appropriate grammar and word choices. meanwhile, it is also found that every student can successfully increase his/her score in at least 10 points. there are only two out of 37 students (5,40%) who obtain the minimum point increase, while the other 35 students (94,6%) have successfully increased their writing scores in more than 10 points. it means that one of the criteria of success has been met. the first meeting is used to deliver some fundamental knowledge about descriptive text and how to do clustering and listing to generate the ideas, and how to use media weblogs. in the very beginning of time, the students are mostly quiet. however, when some exercises are given in the form of a powerpoint presentation slide, the students start showing their active participation. the teacher-researcher has planned to ask the students to open the teacherresearchers weblog page in order to read the modeling text posted there. however, the number of laptops brought by the students that day is not adequate, so the students who do not bring laptop are given the example of the descriptive text printed on a piece of paper, and are shown the text through the use of lcd projector. the students read the text seriously, and some of them try to figure out the meaning of difficult words by using dictionary and internet. after that, the teacher-researchers explain how to do clustering and listing. the students actively suggest the name of the objects being described, as well as their characteristics and the teacher-researchers, write down what the students mention into clusters and list. moreover, then the students are delivered how to use weblogs as the media. the students pay attention, and some of them ask about the technical issues and work submission through weblogs. in this meeting, the students start practicing making a descriptive text in groups. firstly, the students open the teacher-researcher weblog page and see the picture about the rest area in lamongan. in groups, they are asked to generate the ideas by making a list or drawing clusters on their paper or book. it seems that most of them prefer listing to cluster. the students look very busy and enthusiastic in discussing the topic and generating the ideas with their groups. when the teacher-researchers visit them to give supervision, many of them ask about how well they have generated the ideas. having done with the generating ideas, all of the groups then develop the rough drafts based on the ideas they generate and post it on the leader’s weblog page. at the beginning of this meeting, the students are shown the samples of the groups’ writing works to be discussed. when the discussion is conducted, most of the students actively try to identify the errors and give suggestions on how the errors should be revised. some of them also give some questions regarding the use of grammar in descriptive text. after that, the students start producing the writing composition individually using the process writing and weblogs. pre-writing and drafting stages are done in this meeting. the students open the teacher-researchers weblog page and generate the ideas based on the picture posted there. similar to what has been found in the previous meeting, the students prefer using the listing to clustering. the students are allowed to discuss the topic with their groups, and it seems that the students are very active and enthusiastic in giving ideas. not few of the students also debate with their friends when they have different perspectives. knowing that the teacher-researchers then supervise them to give and decide the better suggestion. in the drafting activity, the students who bring laptop are allowed to directly type the works, while the others are asked to write a draft on their books. at home, all students post the works and give comments to each other. in this meeting, the students are asked to open their weblog pages and read the comments that have been given by their peers and the teacher-researchers. the teacherresearchers also have printed the feedback for those who cannot bring a laptop to school. for the students who do not post their works on the weblogs, the teacher-researchers then ask for their works and directly give them some feedback. after all, the students who have got the feedback, 354 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 351-355 then start to revise and edit their works. there are some of the students who do not understand the feedback; however, they bravely ask help from the teacher-researcher. then the teacher-researcher walks around the class to supervise them. as what has been known in the previous explanation that the students’ scores get an increase in all kinds of writing aspects. it represents the improvement of the students’ writing skill. it can happen due to some reasons. first, in the process writing activity, the teacher gives guidance to the students to compose better writing work. when the writing activity is done, the teacher-researchers always provide the supervision to the students regarding any difficulty they have. and the teacher-researchers also give an assist peer review through weblogs before the students revise and edit. it is also found that all of the writing aspects, such as content, organization, and language get improved. it is due to the activity of pre-writing that the students do. the observation towards the assigned objects and idea generation make the students have a clear plan regarding what to write on the draft. the most significant improvement of students’ writing works lies on the organization aspect which increases in 4,6 points. in the preliminary research, most of the students write their descriptive text in only a paragraph, and the connectives are also rarely used. while after the implementation, all students write their texts by arranging it based on the generic structure of the descriptive text and using more connectives. consequently, their writings are more coherent and well-understood. the improvement of the organization aspect is mostly caused by the fact that the students are given feedback and reminded to use more connectives and pay attention to the text arrangement in the revising and editing stages. so, the students are more aware of such aspect of the descriptive text. furthermore, the activity of giving peer review through weblogs before doing revising and editing also makes the students more aware of not making mistakes. it is in line with what harmer (2007) has said that peer review encourages the students to monitor each other, as a result, helps them to become better in self-monitoring. meanwhile, the various appropriate comments are given by the students also indicate that the students have had a good understanding of the materials related to the descriptive text. the students show their good attention and participation towards the learning activity. it can happen due to some reasons. firstly, the students have various activities to do which do not make the learning activities monotonous. as the impact of implementing process writing strategy, the students are more challenged in doing the stages of process writing strategy. for instance, the pre-writing stage, in which the students have to generate the ideas, can empower them to think creatively. in doing this, the students are divided into several groups. consequently, the students are very active in giving and debating the ideas in their groups. as what brown (2007) has said, group works is an effective way to promote the students’ motivation and participation in expressing the ideas. secondly, the teacher-researchers employ the technological teaching and learning aids during the class, such as the use of powerpoint presentation in explaining the materials, and the weblog site to fulfil the writing process. this fact has approved what foroutan, noordin, and hamzah (2013) have said that technology allows the students to engage in the attractive activities and enjoy the process of learning. furthermore, since the existence of weblogs, it is found that the students enjoy posting their works on weblogs and decorating the weblog pages very creatively. this fact is in line with what kelley (2008) has said that the feature of weblogs which may be personalized can encourage the learner’s spirit and motivation. the students show their eagerness in giving peer feedback through comment box provided by weblogs. giving feedback in such a new way makes them interested. lin, groom, and lin (2013) point out that weblogs provide learners with an attractive feature that can enhance the opportunities to communicate with teachers and peers. the activity of giving feedback to each other also indicates that the students have high enthusiasm in doing every step of the learning procedure. although they are outside the class, the students still show their willingness to get involved in giving peer feedback. conclusions based on the results of the research and its discussion, it can be concluded that the implementation of process writing strategy using weblogs can improve the ability of the x mia 3 students of senior high school lamongan in writing a descriptive text. it is due to the fact that the students get prepared with the ideas to be developed and learned some vocabulary in the pre-writing stage. besides, when the students are revising and editing their drafts, they can recognize what should be added and omitted towards their descriptive texts. meanwhile, the group discussion regarding the assigned objects in the pre-writing stage and the implementation of media weblogs can make the students participate more actively when the learning procedure is implemented. lastly, the suggestions would like to be given to english teachers, educational institutions, and future researchers. for the english teachers, the strategy of process writing can be one of the alternatives to increase the students’ writing ability. in order to make the class activity more attractive, and timesaving, the media weblogs can be employed to facilitate the students to do the stages in process writing. for educational institutions, it is highly recommended that internet access and personal computers can be provided to facilitate the teaching-learning activities, so the media proposed in this research can be easily implemented by the teachers. the last is for future researchers. they may conduct further research related to the implementation of process writing strategy using weblogs in other genres of the texts and levels or semesters of the subjects. however, this research is still limited to the writing of descriptive text and no further research to follow it up due to limited time and cost. hence, for future research, the researchers hope that the other research on the same field can be conducted on the other kinds of text, such as narrative text, explanatory text, persuasive text, etc., and the other student’s grades. references berman, r., & cheng, l. 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(2008). the impact of weblogs on the affective states and academic writing of l2 undergraduates. unpublished dissertation. charlottesville: university of virginia. lin, m. h., groom, n., & lin, c. y. (2013). blogassisted learning in the esl writing classroom: a phenomenological analysis. educational technology & society, 16(3), 130-139. pour-mohammadi, m., abidin, m. j. z., & fong, c. l. (2012). the effect of process writing practice on the writing quality of form one students: a case study. asian social science, 8(3), 88-99. zhang, d. (2009). the application of blog in english writing. journal of cambridge studies, 4(1), 64-72. 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013 : 36-38 research on difficulty in indonesia students learning chinese language 浅析印尼学生学习汉语的难点 lydia anggreani chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 lydiaanggreani@gmail.com abstract chinese has become the world’s second language. each language has its own law, as is the chinese. indonesian students have difficulty in learning chinese which are are not surprising. every language has various characteristics, so do chinese and bahasa indonesia. article analyzes difficulties to learn chinese, especially for indonesian students, those are tone, grammar, sounds of “er hua” such as alice retroflex. the respondents are 100 indonesian students who are randomly selected for testing samples analyzed. since there is no tone in bahasa indonesia, it makes a lot of indonesian students in the learning process often appear in chinese foreign accent phenomenon. this article expects to explore the problem by studying the formation of the causes and solutions. indonesian students learning chinese was designed to provide some teaching and learning strategies. keywords: learning language, learning difficulties, chinese language, bahasa indonesia, error analysis 摘要 汉语已成为世界第二语言。在印尼学习汉语的人日益增多。每种语言都有各自的规律。汉语和印尼也 是如此,印尼学生学习汉语都有困难。学习汉语困难对印尼学生来说也就不足为奇了。每一种语言都有各特 点,汉语和印尼语也如此。本文在印尼学生学习汉语当中的困难成为本文的研究问题,即语音、语法、汉字。 本文通过对随机抽取100个印尼学生样本进行测试分析,得出来的是在声调方面,由于印尼语是没有声调的语 言,这让很多印尼学生在学习汉语过程中常常会出现洋腔洋调的现象。本文通过研究希望能探究问题形成的原 因及解决方法。旨在学习汉语的印尼学生提供一些帮助,希望通过本文对对外汉语教师提供一些建议。 关键词: 印尼语 偏误分析 汉语 教学策略 37research on difficulty in indonesia students ….. (lydia anggreani) 前言 印度尼西亚位于亚洲东南亚部。除了中国以 外,印尼华人在世界上占最多的国家之一。汉语对国 家各个领域的突出影响,使得印尼成为近年来席卷世 界的汉语热潮中一股不可忽视的力量。据不完全统 计,每年印尼赴中国留学人数均在5000人次左右。 每种语言都有不同的规律,印尼语和汉语也是如此。 不免在印尼学生学习汉语过程当中,都会遇到不少困 难也会做出不少偏误。经过本人与其他印尼人的交流 过程中,发现印尼人在发音、语法和汉字等方面会做 出不少的偏误,甚至会闹笑话。因此,这激起了本人 的研究兴趣。希望通过这篇论文可以了解印尼人做出 偏误的原因和解决问题的策略,还希望能提供对对外 汉语界献出一点的知识。 研究方法 首先,本文使用了偏误分析理论的创始人 corder 认为第二语言习得者的错误和第一语言学习 者的错误,都存在系统性和非系统性的区别。在此 基础上,他还区分了两个概念——“差错”(mistake)和“偏误”——(error):差错是非系统的 错误,属于语言性质运用的错误,是因为不能运用语 言知识而产生的,学习者无法自己改正;偏误属于系 统性错误,是由于语言知识缺乏而产生的,也是学习 者语言使用能力欠缺的一种表现,学习者自己能够改 正。此次调查,是通过问卷调查做出来的。本人共发 出150份问卷,实际收回100份。本人随机发给一年级 至四年级的学生,反映出他们在学习过程中遇到的课 程包括听、说、读、写。问卷设计由三个部分而组 成:第一部分是关于语音(声调、儿化音、轻声、翘 舌音、戳口音);第二部分是关于语法(趋向补语) ;第三部分是关于汉字。以这三个部分成为攻破的难 点。希望通过测试的过程以及对测试结果的分析,借 助可靠的数据和具体的途径,使难点形成的原因更真 实、直观的表现出来。 以下是对主要问题的具体分析。语音76学生觉 得掌握汉语声调较困难;语法32个学生觉得掌握汉语 语法较困难;汉字67 个学生觉得掌握汉字较困难。 在语音方面有56个学生觉得掌握汉语中的儿化音有困 难;有55、61、7、42各学生分别觉得掌握汉语的轻 声、翘舌音和戳口音有困难。 内容与分析 语音偏误 学习汉语首先遇到的就是语音问题,对于母语 为印尼语的学生来说同样如此。本人在课堂观摩当 中,发现了一些语音上的问题。以下主要对印尼学生 出现语音偏误的几个方面及各自的原因进行简单分 析。 声调偏误 声调的偏误最易为人察觉,因为汉语声调的数 目比声母和韵母少得多,声调在原因结构中的负担自 然也重得多。声韵母的发音差别不易察觉,可是如果 某个声调读不准,很快就会被别人听出来。在被调查 的100个人当中,有76个人觉得掌握汉语声调比较困 难,占76%,比例最高。众所周知,汉语有四个声调 (阴平,也就是我们通常说的第一声,阳平,也就是 第二声,上声为第三声,去声为第四声),而对印尼 学生来说,掌握声调的发音却非常困难。尤其是三声 变调,学生们读起来普遍感觉很别扭,在与他人交流 时容易产生误会。究其原因,主要是印尼语是一个非 声调的语言,在印尼语里声音的高低只表示强调词语 里头的某个部分,没有区别意义的作用。因此声调成 为印尼留学生准确发音的最大障碍。掌握标准汉语的 学生仅3%,模糊的29%,而完全不会和不清楚的有34% 。 儿化音 儿化音问题在调查中也占有很大比例,为56% 。发儿化音对印尼留学生来说并是不太难的事。但相 对他们的母语来说,这毕竟是一种新的发音规律,运 用时常将它忽略或出现偏差。出现偏差的主要问题在 于,分不清哪些词该发儿化音,哪些不该发,哪些儿 化音属于普通话,哪些儿化是地方方言。由于词性和 词义理解不清,误用儿话音的现象时常发生。 画huà (动词) 画儿huàr(名词) 破烂pòlàn(形容词) 破烂儿pòlànr (名词) 头tóu(脑袋) 头儿tóur (领头的人) 后门hòumén(后面的门) 后门儿hòuménr(非正当途轻) 轻声 在轻声这一问题上,有55%的学生感到困难。 对印尼留学生来说轻声的问题与儿话音的问题差不 多,它也是新的语言规律,在交流时没有养成使用的 习惯。经常出错之处主要也是分不清哪些词该读轻 声,哪些不该读轻声。与儿话音类似,由于使用了轻 声,原有词语在词性和词义方面都发生了很大变化。 是否使用轻声,得依照具体语境来定。这需要学生在 深入掌握发音规律的基础上,依据当下情景灵活运 用。 东西 dōngxī(方向) 东西dōngxi (物体) 利害lìhài (利与害) 利害lìhai (同“厉害”) 翘舌音 61%的比例本人对翘舌音的问题格外关注。通 过交流中发现造成翘舌音发音不准确的原因也各不相 同。主要原因有:第一,他们中间有些人发不出翘舌 音。第二,有一些人会发翘舌音,但使用不当。平舌 和翘舌经常发生混淆。出现这些问题的原因是:一、 印尼语里面没有翘舌音,所以他们很难掌握正确地发 音方法。二、对翘舌音这方面的知识学习得还不够。 三、即使学习了这方面的知识,但缺乏足够的练习也 使他们难于掌握好翘舌音。四、受到汉语中方言的影 响。 戳口音 调查中有42个人觉得戳口音很难。主要是因为 印尼语里面没有“yu”这个音,但是有“yi”这个 音。因此有些人经常把“yu”读成”yi”。例如: 雨,学,去,鱼……,他们读成:yi(以), xie( 斜), qi(气), yi(疑)……。 语法偏误 语法偏误在调查中主要涉及到句式杂糅,词语 的使用。杂糅又叫结构纠缠、结构混乱,这是第一语 言习得中常在的语病。吕叔湘、朱德熙(1952/2002 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013 : 36-38 )认为,杂糅是时而要用这种结构,时而要用那种结 构,结果是两种结构都用了。在第二语言汉语习得分 析中,也有零星涉及到杂糅的。杂糅偏误是一种语法 形式上的偏误类型。杂糅其中有语序错误。汉语语法 与印尼语法有所不同。比如: 汉语 :我在食堂吃饭 印尼语:saya makan di kantin (我吃饭在食堂) 汉语 :我在门口等你 印尼语:saya tunggu kamu di pintu (我等你 在门口) 依据不同的语法,汉语和印尼语的主语、谓 语、宾语在句子中的语序也各不相同,这就给印尼留 学生在理解和运用上造成很大困难。本人身为印尼人 也意识到,印尼人习惯于照母语的语法习惯组织语 句,组织出来的语句往往会是病句。 比如:汉语中的趋向补语“来”和“去”的用法: 进来——————进去 出来——————出去 在印尼语里,两者在词义上没有详细区分。比如: 进来,进去——在印尼语都是masuk 出来,出去——在印尼语都是silahkan keluar 因为两词在母语中没有意义上的区分,他们在运用时 也常常会混淆。 汉字偏误 问卷显示,有67%的人感到汉字难写。像英语 一样,印尼的字词由26个字母拼成。但作为象形文字 的汉字,其基本组成单位是笔画。这一点成为非象形 文字圈的最大障碍。尤其是形近字的区分,例如: 术,木,本 休,体 戍,成,戊 印尼学生有时候分不清楚。如果不仔细看,很 难分辨出其中的不同。由于汉语里面,还有很多不同 的字发相同的音,而本人只限于以上的例子。如果书 写错误也可能造成理解上的困难。在那你学生学习汉 语的过程中,由于词汇系统不都完整,词义掌握不彻 底,所以经常出现同音字替代的现象。 印尼学生在书写上出现的错误原因有多方面。 首先,汉字本身具有不同于其他语言的特点。从结构 上来看,是一种平面形文字。每个文字都是一个结构 紧密的图形。从记录汉字的特点来看,汉字是形、 音、义为一体来记录汉语语素的符号,学习汉字不仅 要知音、知义还要知形。因此,学习汉字对于印尼学 生来说一向被视为学习汉语最难的部分。汉字同音、 近音字、多义字多,这些特点都是造成印尼学生汉字 偏误的原因。一些研究学者指出,意符形近换用是汉 语史上俗子所由产生的一条途径。这类偏误以汉语为 第一语言的人也常出现,尤其是初级阶段的学习者。 教学对策 印尼学生是在无汉字背景的学习者,主要是使 用拼音文字。据徐子亮(2005:7)《实用对外汉语教 学法》无汉字背景的学习者在学习汉语过程中有几个 特点:一、听说比读写容易;二、书写和识记汉字 难;三、利用母语识记汉语词语;四、句式的掌握和 应用以简单句为主。由于以上的特点对外汉语课堂教 学方法和策略提出了更高的要求。本人经过用心观 摩几位老师教学过程中,总结了一些对于本人具有价 值的经验。如,教师运用各种教学手段提高学生的学 习积极性;在汉字教学中,先强调汉字由易到难的笔 顺和笔画,还要让学习者了解和熟悉单一笔画及其走 向;采用差别教学的策略,对不同水平的学生采取有 区别的教学方法。 在此次调查中,不仅发现了许多汉语学习过程 中出现的问题和困难,彼此之间通过交流还收获了不 少学习经验和心得。从中本人整理出效果获得公认的 几条建议,仅供大家参考。 在校学习 在学校学习主要是指在课堂上、在老师的指导 下学习。因在老师的指导下,他们可以更快的学好汉 语,也可以说出标准的普通话。在课堂上要认真听 讲,多记笔记,积极发言,认真完成作业。除此之 外,“不怕”的精神也很重要。这里所说的“不怕” 指的是:不怕发错音、不怕造错句、不怕写错字。勤 开口,勤动手,只有这样才能学好汉语。当对外汉语 教师本人也要提出小小的意见。在学校学习,老师在 教学过程中的主导作用至关重要,因此,老师有必要 了解印尼语与汉语之间的差别。面对学生在学习过程 中遇到的各种困难,老师才能有针对性地提出解决方 案。 非在校学习 非在学校学习主要是指自学或在生活环境中学 习,我们认为这是在华留学生的学习优势。良好的语 言环境对学习汉语至关重要。留学生应主动与身边 的华人交朋友,多听、多看新闻,多看一些有意义的 书,将学校学到的知识灵活运用到实际生活中,体 会汉语的精妙之处。所谓“功夫在室外”就是这个道 理。本章也要给印尼学生或印尼留学生建议。 印尼学生要学好汉语应该先掌握好正确的训练 方法和基本知识:(1)常听一级甲等的播音员讲话, 加深对声调的印象;(2)不要怕自己讲错,多与身边的 朋友进行日常口语对话,学以致用,孰能生巧;(3)先 掌握好声母、韵母的发音部位、发音方法和发音特 点,再反复练习;(4)归纳总结儿化音和轻声的词语, 重点记忆;(5)掌握好上声的抑扬顿挫,汉语双音节的 前短后长,前轻后重等韵律知识。 结论 对于印尼学生来说,学汉语困难重重主要源于 母语与汉语之间的巨大差异。还有,印尼学生学习汉 字的困难是因为印尼语是非象形文字,而汉语是象形 文字形成的。因此,在学习的过程中,关键要先放弃 自己母语的语言规律,在头脑中重新建立新的汉语语 言规律,才能克服困难,取得长足进步。由于时间的 限制,搜集的材料十分有限,在此基础上作出的一些 分析也难免国语粗鄙浅陋。 参考文献 王建勤. (2004). 汉语作为第二语言的学习者语言系 统研究. 北京:北京语言大学出版社. 刘珣. (2002). 汉语作为第二语言教学简论. 北京: 北京语言文化大学出版社. 刘珣. (2007). 对外汉语教育学引论. 北京:北京语 言文化大学出版社. 徐子亮. (2005). 实用对外汉语教学法.北京:北京 大学出版社. 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 on the form and judgment function of sense of language 试论语感的形成及其判断功能 duan wenhua sichuan normal university, chengdu, sichuan, 610068 397106464@qq.com abstract in parole communication, people are always able to judge whether others’ expressions are proper or not, understandable or not, elegant or not. in the field of teaching chinese as a foreign language, teachers can also quickly point out the problems in students’ expressions and writing. this kind of direct sense is called sense of language. generally speaking, sense of language is considered as a kind of “ability of subjective judgment”. in fact, there is a guide behind sense of language, which is profound rational theory proved by psychology and cerebral science. sense of language will be discussed carefully in this article. keywords: student’s high achievement, learning styles, learning strategies, group style 摘要 在言语交际中,交际者总是能对他人的表达做出得体与否、清晰与否、优雅与否等直观判断;在对外 汉语教学中,老师们也总能快速地指出学生们表达以及写作上的问题。这种对语言的直观感受被称为“语感” 。一般而言,语感被理解为一种“主观判断力”,实质上,语感判断的背后有深刻理性知识的指导,其运作具 有心理学、脑科学的证明。本文将对语感做详细探讨。 关键词:语感, 形成,运作机制, 判断功能 13on the form and judgment function ….. (duan wenhua) 引言 关于语感,王尚文(2006)曾讲了个故事:“ 一次,他遇到两个小孩,一个四岁、一个五岁,二人 均穿着新衣服,王问四岁孩子:‘是你的衣服漂亮还 是她(另一个小孩)的衣服漂亮?’小孩答到:‘我 们两个的一起漂亮。’刚说完,五岁小孩忙说:‘不 是一起漂亮,要说都漂亮。’然后四岁的孩子照着五 岁孩子的意见,重说了一遍。王问五岁孩子为什么不 说‘一起漂亮’,要说‘都漂亮’,孩子说到‘不知 道’。”这个故事说明,现实社会中,当人们听到或 看到不符合本民族语言规则的句子时,总能快速地做 出判断或进行修改。这种直觉判断力能在短时间内有 效指出言语句子合适与否、正确与否,达意与否。学 界普遍把对语言的直接感受称为语感;把这种直觉判 断力称为语感判断力。 虽然人类生活在不同的国家或民族,讲不同的 语言,但都具有语感判断力。语感除了在言语生活中 有意或无意的使用外,语言研究中,语言学家们也经 常运用它。例如:现代汉语完句探讨中用语感判断句 子的完整与否;对外汉语教学中借用语感寻找偏误所 在等等。语感判断虽被人们广泛运用,但对于这种“ 玄妙”的“感觉”,人们并不清楚它的形成,更不清 楚它的运作过程。鉴于语感判断的“普遍性”“神秘 性”和“重要性”,本文将对其做简单探讨。 有关语感的论说 语感在语文教学中最早由夏丏尊(1928)提 出,随后各家都对语感进行了描述。如:叶圣陶 (1963)认为语感就是对语言文字的敏锐感觉。吕叔 湘(1986)“语感包括语义感,就是对一词的意义和 色彩的敏感;包括语法感,就是对一种语法现象是正 常还是特殊,几种语法格式之间的相同相异等等的敏 感。当然也包括语音感,有的人学话总是学不象,就 是因为对语音不敏感。”(吕叔湘.学习语法和训练 语感[m].语文学习,1985,1.)相比而言,叶先生点出 语感具有“敏锐”的特点,认为语感的实质是一种感 觉。而吕先生则把语感的内容细分为语义、语法和语 音三种,语感的实质是对语音、语义、语法等各方面 的敏感。二位先生不约而同的指出了语感的敏锐性特 点,均强调了语感的对象为语言文字,可见对语感有 较深的认识。前辈们的相关研究对继续深入讨论语感 具有重要的启发和指导意义,但语感的丰富、复杂远 超过学者们的论述。 近年来,部分学者对语感作了进一步研究。陆 俭明(2005):“语感不妨可以理解为凭个人的直觉 对某个语言表达的好坏,其中包括语言表达的得体 与否,到位与否、贴切与否、精当与否、简练与否、 正确与否,甚至还包括怎么表达才更好、怎么修改 一个欠妥的甚至是错误的表达等所作出的判断。”( 该段话引自王培光《语感与语言能力》一书的序言部 分,该序由陆俭明所作)王培光(2005)“语感是觉 得语言合适不合适的能力,又是反省与修订语言的能 力。”(王培光.语感与语言能力[m].北京:北京大 学出版社,2005,第15页)两位学者都不约而同的谈 到了语感的判断功能,可见就语感的功能而言,判断 功能是其最为重要的功能之一。 除了对语感的对象、功能的论说外,也有学者 对语感的运作过程进行了阐述。王尚文(2006):“ 它是感性与理性奇妙的统一,能够魔术般地把视听 主体有关的感受、表象、联想、理解、情感等从无意 识中唤醒起来,并把它们引到‘前台’来作生动的 表演。”(王尚文.语感论(修订三版)[m].上海: 上海教育出版社,2006,第40页)这一论述从对语感 的感性认识上升到理性分析,指出语感的运作牵涉到 主体的表象、联想、理解、情感等因素,并在这些因 素的协同下起作用。同时,也意识到语感的实质是感 性和理性的统一,感性表现的背后有理性知识的支 撑,应该说对语感的研究更深了一步。 关于语感,大家注重从语言角度进行阐释,突 出语感的内容和作用,这是十分必要和正确的。语 感二字既然有“语”,一定跟语言密切相关,同时还 包括“感”。“感”即感觉,它是一种简单、低级的 心理活动,但也是一种十分重要的心理活动。说其 重要是因为它是人进行复杂思维以及深入认识客观 对象或问题的重要影响因素。心理学中的“感觉剥 夺”(“感觉剥夺”实验由美国心理学家d.o.hebb和 w.hbexton等主持进行的,实验主要是通过各种方法 剥夺人对感觉信息的接收)试验即是对其重要性的最 好论证。 综上,我们认为语感是一种语言能力,是对语 言合适与否(是否符合该语言的语法、语用和语义, 以及是否符合该语言的社会文化环境等)进行直接、 快速判断的心理活动,其运作应该有深层的心理机 制。 语感的形成 语感并不是与生俱来的,它随着人的成长而逐 渐形成。首先,人的口、眼、耳等感知器官、以及所 有器官的指挥中心——大脑,为语感的形成提供了生 理基础,生理基础为语感形成的前提条件。在具备生 理基础的同时,个人母语及其社会、生活环境为语感 的形成提供了“大环境”,而具体的个人言语交际场 景则为语感的形成营造了“小环境”。因此,语感的 形成可大致理解为:生活在特定语言、社会环境中的 个人,通过对母语以及客观环境的不断认识、反应, 在与他人的频繁交际中逐渐形成的一种能对母语句子 进行判断的能力。这一定义突出了语感的“后天形成 性”特点,即语感的“可塑性”特点。(语感的“可 塑性”表现为,可通过阅读、写作的有意识训练,使 语感能力逐渐提高) 个人在后天的生活和学习中不断塑造语感,塑 造的过程实质是“语言知识”的积累过程。“语言知 识”不仅仅指语言研究中所谓的“主、谓、宾、定、 状、补”等句法成分,以及主谓、动宾、偏正等具体 结构关系,它包括个人在特定语言环境中(一般为 母语)接触到的各种言语句子以及用各种言语形式反 应客观现实而逐渐内化成的、用母语组词造句的一般 规则和原则。这种“规则”或“原则”以隐性姿态储 存于人的无意识中。之所以说它潜存于无意识中,是 因为人们无法察觉它的存在,更不能说清楚它的具体 内容,但能不受限制的自由运用。因此,行为主义者 们认为语感就是一种语言习惯。除规则外,“语言知 识”还包括各种语言材料,例如词、短语、句子等。 语言材料同样靠后天言语活动不断积累。输入的材料 或提取出的规则经大脑加工后,以“图式”(心理学 中,“图式”指学习者原有的知识结构)的形式储存 在大脑中。心理语言学家们把这种图式称为“语感 图式”。对于语感图式的特点,王尚文(2006)说 到:“语感图式深深植根于集体无意识,储藏于个人 无意识,仅仅因外部的刺激或内在的需要而表现为意 识。”。对于语感图式的论说正好解释了语感为什么 是一种“玄妙”感觉的疑惑。 语感图式的形成,实质是人脑加工的结果。对 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 于人类大脑的这种加工能力,美国心理学家斯洛宾于 1971年指出:“儿童的大脑先天构造是这样的,它可 以加工、整理构成人类语言特点的那些结构。”(王 尚文.语感论(修订三版)[m].上海:上海教育出版 社,2006,第138页)也就是说,大脑是语感以及语 感判断能力形成的基础。 语感的形成除“语言知识”外,还包括主观情 感因素,情感因素是语感判断的一种主导力量,是个 人对言语表达恰当与否、得体与否的一种主观态度。 具体而言,面对同一句子,不同的感知者会有不同的 主观感受。 综上,语感的形成是在后天的言语生活中,不 断积累“语言知识”,并通过大脑内化为一个个“语 感图式”储存在大脑无意识中的过程。语言知识的内 化包括“抽象”和“直接吸取”两种方式。抽象主要 对接收到的各种言语形式进行提取、分类和加工,以 形成言语规则;直接吸收主要吸取各种言语材料,比 如词汇、句子、语音等等。规则和材料的积累不仅有 利于语感的形成,也为我们生成言语句子提供了基 础。 语感的判断功能 关于语感的功能,王尚文主要提出了理解功 能、联想功能以及情感功能。受王先生的启发,根据 言语主体和言语材料的关系,我们把语感的功能分为 理解判断功能和指导监督功能。其中理解、判断功能 主要对听读活动起作用;而指导、监督功能对说、写 活动起指导、监督作用。在此我们主要对语感的判断 功能进行探析。 语感判断的依据及表现形式 语感判断的依据 上文谈到,语感的形成不仅需要一定的生理基 础,更需要“后天”对“语言知识”的不断积累。“ 语言知识”既有在母语环境中收集的规则和材料,也 包括社会生活中实际语言运用所得经验、技巧的累 积,这些都是语感判断的依据之一。 个人成长过程中不断积累的“语言知识”是我 们语感判断的主要依据,是同一母语使用者语感判断 力形成的主要来源。语感判断力的形成是共性和个性 结合的结果。共性指同一语言及语言环境,以及相同 的社会、生活环境。共性在言语中表现为,同一母语 使用者遵循共同的语言规则、使用相同或相似的语言 材料等。比如汉语中几乎所有人都对“饭吃我。”“ 小明路走。”等类似句子表示无法接受。人们无法接 受并不是因为人人都懂得此类句子不合句法规则或语 义规则,而是因为在汉语的“语言知识”中没有此类 表达形式,在实际言语交际中,未出现过类似的表 达。 “语言知识”的共性保证了同一母语者们之间 的正常交际,使不同的人对同一言语对象的语感判断 可能一样。然而,社会中的个体,其生活经历、学习 程度、生活环境等都存在差异,每个人所积累的知识 也存在差异,因此所形成的语感也具“个体性”。具 体表现为,对于同一言语句子,不同个体语感判断的 结果不同。对于语感判断的共性和个性,可通过一个 实际调查证明。我们以问卷的形式考察了以汉语为母 语的大学生对于句子“我吃了苹果。”“王经理吃 鸭。”“我写了信。”“小王擦车。”“小明的眼 睛大。”“田芳老实。”是否是一个完整的句子。 结果 50位被调查者中有45人认为是完整句子,5人 认为是“非完句”。这一结果表明,说同一母语的人 对本语言中句子的判断具有共性(即结果差不多), 但也存在部分分歧,分歧即语感个性的体现。(该测 试中,尽量排除一切干扰,让被测试者独立的、不加 思索的做出回答,以保证测试的有效性。被测试者为 四川师范大学文学院汉语言文学专业大二学生,平均 年龄为20岁。) 语感判断的表现形式 语感判断的表现形式为一种语言直觉。比如在 对某一具体句子得体、完整、适当等进行判断时,能 做出迅速的判断。这种判断耗时短,没有思维的参 与,也无心理分析过程,只是一种直观的反应。之所 以认为其表现形式为直觉,是因为判断者或感知者 一般只感觉到句子不能令其满意,但对于句子究竟哪 儿出了问题,在短时间内无法言表,除非给予他较长 的分析时间。对此,王尚文认为语感能够迅速、准确 地对言语对象做出正确、真伪、是非、美丑的直觉判 断,的确是一位可敬的理论家、艺术家。 刹那间不假思索的反应表明语感判断的时间性 以及非思维性的特征。这一直觉反应背后是长期不断 积累、感知、比较、揣摩、学习、练习的结果。 语感判断的运作过程 语感既是一种语言能力,也是一种心理活 动——感觉。感觉是人脑对直接作用于感觉器官的刺 激物的个别属性的反映,它是知觉的重要构成部分, 是人进行主观判断分析的基础。感觉的产生先由刺激 物刺激,再通过内导神经把刺激传向中枢神经,在传 输过程中,内导神经进行初步的加工,待传递的信息 到达大脑皮层及皮层下区域后,各种信息在此进行复 杂的分析和综合,从而形成感觉。 以语感对某一句子完整与否的判断为例,其过 程大致为:句子作为刺激物,其形式通过视觉器官传 入,并由内导神经传入大脑中枢,立即在整个大脑中 展开检索,查看是否有与之匹配的条目,此时,处于 无意识中的“知识网”被激活,关于句子的所有知识 由无意识层面转为有意识层面,并激活各个类型的“ 语感图式”以作为判断的标准。如果所呈现的句子无 对应的“图式”,接收者则表现出对该句子“不懂” 或“不理解”;若有相应的“图式”,则迅速与图式 进行匹对,判断句子是否完整。在判断过程中,检索 与发出判断指令几乎是同时进行的,整个过程十分短 暂,完全凭借个人感觉。 对判断活动进行进一步分解发现,语感对句子 的判断主要是靠同化运作完成的。心理学对同化的解 释是:“当外部刺激作用于图式时,图式总是从已有 水平出发来理解新的知识和经验,图式对输入的刺激 物加以选择和改造,以使刺激能够被纳入现有的图式 中去,这个过程就称为同化。”(林崇德.发展心理 学[m].北京:人民教育出版社,2009,第50—52页) 王尚文认为“同化就是听读主体利用原有图式对言语 对象的辨认和区别,是原有图式向言语对象的移植, 通过同化把它整合到原有图式之中,或者甚至是按照 基本的语感图式形成一个派生的新图式,他是原有的 基本图式的延伸。”(王尚文.语感论(修订三版) [m].上海:上海教育出版社,2006,第154页)简单 而言,对句子的判断,实质是运用判断者已有的知识 结构对输入句子的形式进行辨别,若句子的形式能与 已有图式吻合或基本吻合,首先意味着该句子能够被 理解,即能够被已有图式整合或所谓同化。句子形式 与图式的吻合程度,决定了句子可接受的等级,越是 15on the form and judgment function ….. (duan wenhua) 和图式接近的句子其可接受性就越高,句子的判断就 越快。 实质上,语感判断的过程是一种“刺激—反 映”的过程,是一种快速的心理分析活动。 结语 表面而言,语感是一种简单、直觉的反应。而 实质上,这种“敏捷的反应”是建立在对不同言语对 象进行不断理性认识、思考和加工的基础上的,是思 维性和理解性的结晶。对此我们可简单理解为:语感 的实质是一种理性认识,而表现方式则为感性认识。 正是理性认识的指导,使语感判断具有一定的合理性 和科学性;正是感性的迅速反应,排除了其它一切干 扰判断的因素,使判断结果更具客观性。对此王尚文 有过高度评价,一个人的语感总是始终如一地忠实于 他的心灵,处处形影相随。这也是语言研究中,学者 们选择“语感判断法”判断句子的重要原因之一。 当然,语感判断也具有一定的缺陷。比如,对 言语的理解或判断过于肤浅、或由于个人语言知识积 累不够、判断的主观因素过强等,导致判断模糊或不 准确。 通过本文的探讨可知,语感判断不仅仅只是一 种个人感觉,其背后有理性知识的指导。语感判断是 一种可靠的判断方法,能用于语言研究。在认识上, 我们应消除对语感判断的“偏见”。 参考文献 王尚文.(2006).语感论(第三版)[m].上海:上海教 育出版社. 王培光.(2005).语感与语言能力[m].北京:北京大学 出版社. 叶奕乾等.(1991).普通心理学[m].上海:华东师范大 学出版社. 桂诗春.(2000).新编心理语言学[m].上海:上海外语 教育出版社. 艾森克、基恩著.(2003).高定国等译.认知心理学 [m].上海:华东师范大学出版社. 李海林.(1996).论语感的心理特征[j].南京师范大学 学报(社会科学版). 谯伟.(1997).论语感的心理学基础[j].首都师范大学 学报(社会科学版). 杜扬.(2002).语感的本质、形成规律及培养途径[j]. 贵阳师范高等专科学校学报(社会科 学 版). 陈勇.(2010).再论语感的内涵、生成机制及其培养 [j].天津师范大学学报(基础教版). 林宣龙、潘旭辉.(2010).试论语感及其心理运作机 制—兼说语感对语文教学的启示[j].江苏教 育研究. microsoft word 08 bernidick_she had 'balls_setting “she had ‘balls’”: ….. (bernidick bryan p. hosmillo) 61 “she had ‘balls’”: islamic liberalism and the modern woman in a contemporary malaysian fiction in english bernidick bryan p. hosmillo english department, ateneo de manila university, philippines ichthus_10@yahoo.com abstract the paper wants to dissect the plurality of contemporary malay society by focusing on the construction of woman sexuality as charged with an amalgam of islam parochialism that is seen as a restrictive sociopolitical mechanism and (de)concentrated modernization that decentres religious functions in contemporary malay society and uses instead a rather ‘filtered’ islam as colour for the contours of life. further, the paper underscores the fictive, yet real advances of the malay woman in terms of critical consciousness and beauty manifested in cultural materialism as both are seriously equated to power. the woman, however, with all the intellectual and material elevation intervenes with (masculine) sexualisation. hence, the paper capitalizes the necessity to examine the complexities of masculine sexualisation, as fortified by western modernity, which is a process of recognizing the feminine presence that inevitably generate erotic desire to sexual fantasy that ultimately constructs the woman. the paper’s major thrust is to reconceptualise the notion of power anchored in the ideological framework of its polysemous nature. such progressive elucidation of the concept creates tension between empowerment and domination which is a relevant concern in feminist politics and interpretations in that the specific implication of such reconceptualization is the object of becoming not oppressors, but of becoming liberated that in the discourse of malayness is largely problematic as it is always perceived to be antithetical to revitalization of islam through authentic malaysian literature in english for ‘liberalism’ in this case, is associated with the rupture of women’s sexuality. keywords: islam, modernity, karim raslan, liberalism, female sexuality abstrak makalah ini ingin membedah pluralitas masyarakat melayu kontemporer dengan berfokus pada pembangunan seksualitas perempuan yang diisi dengan campuran dari parokialisme islam yang dipandang sebagai mekanisme sosial-politik yang membatasi dan (de) modernisasi terkonsentrasi yang mebuat fungsi agama terdesentralisasi dalam masyarakat melayu kontemporer dan sebagai gantinya menggunakan agak islam yang 'disaring' sebagai warna untuk kontur hidup. selanjutnya, artikel menggarisbawahi, kemajuan fiktif namun nyata perempuan melayu dalam hal kesadaran kritis dan keindahan diwujudkan dalam materialisme budaya karena keduanya disamakan serius dengan kekuasaan. wanita, bagaimanapun, dengan semua campur ketinggian intelektual dan material dengan seksualisasi (maskulin). oleh karena itu, artikel ini mengkapitalisasi kebutuhan untuk memeriksa kompleksitas seksualisasi maskulin, seperti dibentengi oleh modernitas barat, yang merupakan proses mengenali kehadiran feminin yang pasti menghasilkan keinginan erotis hingga fantasi seksual yang merupakan konstruksi akhir pada wanita. isu artikel ini adalah untuk melakukan rekonseptualisasi gagasan kekuasaan berlabuh dalam rangka ideologis alam polysemous nya. penjelasan progresif konsep ini menciptakan ketegangan antara pemberdayaan dan dominasi yang merupakan keprihatinan yang relevan dalam politik feminis dan interpretasi bahwa dalam implikasi tertentu konseptualisasi tersebut adalah objek bukan menjadi penindas, tetapi menjadi dibebaskan bahwa dalam wacana kemelayuan sebagian besar bermasalah karena selalu dianggap bertentangan dengan revitalisasi islam melalui sastra malaysia otentik dalam bahasa inggris untuk 'liberalisme' dalam hal ini, terkait dengan pecahnya seksualitas perempuan. kata kunci: islam, modernitas, karim raslan, liberalisme, seksualitas perempuan 62 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 61-72 introduction on the 2nd day of a conference organized by a catholic university in central java, indonesia, the writer met a malay woman (therefore, muslim) who dismissed a coarse explanatory notes about the pervasive presence of femina and indonesian editions of cosmopolitan magazines she saw in jakarta. her unequivocal disgust had nothing to do with the scholar who presented a study on those magazines, but with the ‘exploitation’ of women those magazines perform. what interests me in the comment of this character was her infectious ‘passionate’ observation that made a significant veiled feminine part of the audience share her criticism. such passionate conceptual development on the idea that women’s magazines basically erupts the entire movement of progressive women emancipation that, to slavoj zizek (2008), ‘inexorably function as a lure which prevents us from thinking’. as a beginning scholar from a very diversified, anomalous, and almost shapeless fanatic society, uncovered women are not atypical in cultural representations of the public like television and magazine. but to hear a veiled woman in a passionate cry not wanting to strip off her burqa (woman’s head-to-foot veil) under a violent sun is very peculiar. such kind of subjectivity arouses my attention in that it debunks a huge scholarship (western at that) which often equate muslim women’s clothing to barbarism and impediment to liberalism. just like the malay woman i met in the conference, carmody (2010) claims that “[l]iberalism, like all other big-picture political discourses, creates a certain kind of subject, one that is free to fully participate in the capitalist system.” thus, liberal ideology, as it always extends freedom to ‘unfree’ populations, becomes hegemonic and rather impedes the movement toward rights-based utopia. such kind of ambivalence is the central concern of this paper and it is my hope that certain malay subjectivities (not only by woman, but also of others) shall be scrutinized dispassionately. in a non-fictional prose entitled ‘anti-islam and all that jazz’ in his second published book, salleh ben joned (1994) criticized a type of thinking about literature in malay critical writing. his attack was chiefly pointed to the ideal that encik affandi articulated against professor muhammad haji salleh of universiti kebangsaan malaysia (national university of malaysia). after a publication of the ukm’s professor’s inaugural lecture called puitika melayu (malay poetics), encik affandi averred that the ukm professor heavily worshipped the west for using western literary theories to formulate the conceptual basis of traditional malay literature. moreover, encik affandi speculated that the professor was very anti-islamic. the dispute between the two giants in malay literary theory is just consequential to a movement that started to dominate not only the religious activity of malaysia, but also its politics and causal to more intricate and problematic debates like ‘what is the true malay concept of literature?’ or ‘how to appropriate non-malays’ involvement in bahasa malaysia writing?’ before i discuss these very amorphous tensions in malay/sian literature, i believe that it is very necessary to elucidate the context of islamic revivalism which exacerbates and to some extent even ignite these forms of debate. although southeast asia is the most populous islamic region, within islamic studies the region has been perceived as an image at the margins and so has gained only a limited attention. vincent j.h. houben (2003) believes that the special characteristic of sunnite islam in southeast asia is portrayed through its mysticism. mysticism facilitates the fusion of islamic with pre-islamic cultural forms which is usually a route of malay literary theorists in conceptualizing malay literary theory (ben joned, 2004). malaysia is one among several countries engaging in a systematic wave of islamic resurgence or revivalism. a concomitant feature of the intense islamization of the region is the change in lifestyle in that malays are not to be engrossed in the material aspects of life anymore, but to share a common romantic nostalgia for a pristine and idealized islamic past. “she had ‘balls’”: ….. (bernidick bryan p. hosmillo) 63 mohammad abu bakar (1981) historicizes in great detail the origins of islamic resurgence in malaysia telling that two groups were directly involved in the movement. the first was the arabic and religious-educated group that urged the malay populace to uphold the teachings of the koran and the hadith (prophetic tradition) after merdeka (independence). this particular group operated through islamic organizations namely jamaat tabligh (lecture group) and darul arqam (the house of arqam) which began the spread of fundamentalist ideas at the grass-roots level. however, of the two, darul arqam seems to be more convincing because it was mainly composed of malays and subscribed to diplomatic manner of propagating islam. the second group responsible for the resurgence was primarily composed of educated students in english and malay tongues. the angkatan belia islam (muslim youth organization) was the most resounding active player in the entire process of proselytization providing basic platform for students to continue their dakwah (missionary) activities and propagating ideal shariah (islamic laws) to the younger malay generation vociferously. generally, there are four characteristics of islamic revitalization operating in the context of southeast asia. hussin mutalib (1990) discusses these characteristics lucidly starting with the explication that the resurgence necessitated malays to view islam as al-adin, ‘that is, a total, comprehensive, and all-encompassing way of life’. malay secularists, who viewed islam as a religion and hence separated from political fabric, perceived such a fundamentalist movement ‘as an attempt to turn back the clock of progress’ (mohammad abu bakar, 1981). secondly, muslims were encouraged to view muslims in all geographical spaces within the framework of a global muslim ummah (worldwide islamic community). thirdly, the revivalism nurtured islamic fundamentalist values that all muslims in the movement have to adhere fixedly. finally, the movement was characterized by an increase of establishment of movement-type bodies and ‘some of these organizations have sought to transform their modus operandi from organizational activities into that of an islamic movement’ (mutalib, 1990). in an enormous attempt to desecularize the socio-political fabric of modernizing malaysia, ethnicity, class and sexuality are interactive in evolving ways within malaysian society. for david camroux (1996), the most important position is ‘that being a malay is for all intents and purposes the same as being a muslim’. however, christopher furlow’s (2009) analysis poignantly clarifies the question of malay identity in the context of the revivalism. he discusses the issue by providing a framework established by the leading organizations that led an anti-british movement, the malayan national party (mnp) and the united malay’s national organization (umno). mnp defines ‘malayness in terms of religion, race, and language. in contrast, umno used race, language, and custom’. clearly, the place of islam becomes the defining difference on the dynamic dialectics on malay identity. in a technoscientific and multiethnic malaysian society (camroux, 1996), literature becomes a ruptured space-a fixed situation of fluid disputation and therefore a space whose function is amorphous. salleh ben joned (1994) in an essay “the (malay) malaysian writer’s dilemma” questions pejoratively: i feel, in fact, i know in my blood and my bone that i belong to tiny minority. every time i sit down to write, i am bugged by these troubling questions: who am i writing for, in actual fact and ideally speaking? what am i supposed to be loyal to? in my pessimistic moments, i even wonder if i have any audience to write for; if the element of stubbornness in my notion of loyalty and fidelity had not condemned me to a no man’s land.(page 48) salleh ben joned (1994) uses the term ‘malaysian’ to denote two things: ideal and language. his works (specifically as i please) would use the premise, a line in koran that reads ‘there is no compulsion in religion.’ definitely, he excludes himself from those writers who have developed a sense of compulsion to be proactively part of islamic revivalism. if religious choice is not served to a true malay, for salleh ben joned, a malay also considers individual choice as part of his vocabulary, particularly language. unlike traditional and conservative writers who are being continuously islamized, he emphasizes the strengths and capability of english language and the malay tongue to malaysian literature rather than restricting himself into the use of vernacular alone. in stark contrast, 64 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 61-72 writers like alias ali, ruhi hayat, keris mas and shahnon ahmad contributed a lot not only in the creation of malay fiction, but also in the massive movement of islamic revivalism. keris mas and shahnon ahmad were awarded the most prestigious literary award in malaysia, i.e. anugerah sasterawan negara (national literary award) in 1981 and 1982, respectively. for these authors, islam is ‘a conscious model for positive social sentiments in malay villages (kampong) and as a symbol of malay nationalism with the potential to refashion and improve modern malaysia’ (banks, 1990). purposely, after committing to generate an islamic literature (as a large part of islamic revivalism), shahnon ahmad writings became didactic ‘using pious muslim to demonstrate the importance of islam in the moral world of the malay village’ (banks, 1990) that creates islamic fundamentalist sensitivity and religious basis for his writings; the need to be righteous and morally upright. interestingly, harry aveling (2000) dismisses that shahnon ahmad does not further illuminate the gender construction of womanhood...in that women ‘for all their involvement...do not have power so much as they are implicated in the power of men’. laurent metzger (1991) shares the same conviction that ‘women...in his novels...tend to play second fiddle, are dominated by their male counterparts and they accept such domination’. malay fiction, as inclined by islamic revivalism or some scholars would call as religious nationalism, uses islam as a language of control, thus ostensibly eliminating feminine discourse preserving phallogocentrism. malaysian literature, on the other hand, not only resists some convention of uptight malay fiction, but also and more importantly becomes a proactive strategy to understand/interpret malay culture most particularly when malay fiction fails to do so. following the veins of salleh ben joned is a bumigeois in the name of karim raslan. in 1996, he published a book comprising of eight short stories (raslan, 1996). karim raslan has authored four books (ceritalah: malaysia in transition, ceritalah 2: journeys through southeast asia, ceritalaha 3: a dream deferred, and heroes and other stories) all written in english. his avant-gardism on anathema (e.g. homosexuality) in his sole fiction collection has drawn an ambivalent critical response from scholars and writers. he spent 22 years of living and studying in the homeland of his english mother and went back to malaysia after earning a degree from cambridge university. just like salleh ben joned, karim raslan not only uses the english language in writing because of his western education and higher social status, but also largely because of his defiance and criticism to the nation’s existing socio-political ideologies. two short stories shall be analyzed in this paper for the purpose of confronting the dilemma of the modern muslim (malay) woman which is often ‘slippery’ in malay discourse. very interestingly, the two short stories (the beloved and sara and the wedding) present women’s liberal sexuality that to a great extent curtails patriarchal dominance, thus, emancipating the feminine. this paper argues that the modern woman’s sexuality in the short stories is deliberate, performative assumption with great emphasis on mind, body, and beauty. furthermore, the selfauthored sexuality becomes ‘real’ when the feminine presence is erotically desired by the other which grandstands that sexuality is neither self-sufficient nor wholly contingent. it is also underscored in this paper that eroticism, as a political mechanism and manifestation of sexuality, is a challenge to masculine virility and to the concept of malay social order and not just a dislocated lust (nafsu) effected by modernization. hence, sexuality of the modern malay woman, as it appears to potentially undermine islamic umma (social and religious community) and the bangsa (nation), is always linked to larger social and political change. i situate the two short stories within the context of islamic revivalism and approach them using davina cooper’s framework which is a disintegrative theory drawn from neo-marxism, radical feminism, and poststructuralism. “she had ‘balls’”: ….. (bernidick bryan p. hosmillo) 65 method davina cooper’s framework (cooper, 1995) centres around four key concepts: power, sexuality, the state and struggle. i have three main reasons why cooper’s framework is heavily useful in this paper. firstly, her framework positions on the premise that ‘sexuality, as a disciplinary structure, identity and culture shapes state form and practice’ (1) which is totally how the texts of karim raslan, as this paper maintains, works. it is a representation of structured sexuality that shapes the state. secondly, her framework focuses on very important matters of this paper like the notion of power in malaysian literature in english. the concept is usually clarified in ambiguous terms whether it is present or not, but not necessarily elucidating the characteristics of the present power. cooper’s framework has a conscious effort to regard this special concern. finally, the framework responds to questions i would like to give an answer in this paper, e.g. poststructuralist feminism would assume in particular that the concept of power is inevitable, does it necessarily follow that domination too is? so is inequality? the paper’s major thrust is to reconceptualise the notion of power anchored in the ideological framework of its polysemous nature. such progressive elucidation of the concept creates tension between empowerment and domination which is a relevant concern in feminist politics and interpretations in that the specific implication of such reconceptualization is the object of becoming not oppressors, but of becoming liberated that, in the discourse of malayness is largely problematic as it is always perceived to be antithetical to revitalization of islam through malaysian literature for ‘liberalism’ in this case, is associated with the rupture of women’s sexuality. however, as this paper argues that such kind of writing is not antithesis, but rather an attempt to create a new consciousness, a representational alternative thesis to reshape the socio-political landscape, it is necessary to question: to what extent does liberal sexuality, as a transformational mechanism, in contemporary malay fiction (1) positively mediate the already fragmented and multifaceted state of affairs and (2) empower women? what are the characteristics and quality of such power? moreover, this paper questions: how does the absence/presence of metaphorical panopticon in the characters of nooralissa firdaus and sara create a female ideological framework that significantly paralyzes stereotypical roles and functions of women in malay culture? these questions shall be answered through careful and detailed analysis of the central characters in the two short stories. results and discussions the new malay woman mahathir’s vision 2020, in a very clear sense, is a social policy fabricated to generate national unity and perceptibly new jatidiri bangsa (national identity) (furlow, 2009). in the 1995 book entitled the voice of asia co-authored with shitaharo ishihara, who was tokyo’s mayor, in which mahathir mentions: in formulating vision 2020, we had to define what we meant by ‘developed country’. does the term refer simply to a per capita income of at least us$ 16,000, or does it also imply stability and solid cultural value? all these factors have to be considered, but it is clear that wealth alone does not constitute development. no country is really developed, for instance, if it has money but no technology. nor is a country developed, in our sense of the word, if it has money and technology but lacks firm moral values. many western societies, for example, are morally decadent. there is diminishing respect for the institutions of the family and marriage, and some even permit same-gender marriages. to us, that is not development. you must maintain cultural and moral values. we do not want to be just a rich country. (mohamad & ishihara, 1996) 66 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 61-72 certainly, mahathir imagines a malaysian knowledge-society (k-society) that grandstands money, technology, and moral values. by moral values, he pertinently means the (re)constructed behaviour of the new malay as a result of islamic revivalism. unlike western modernization, ‘mahathir argues that the west has separated religious and secular life and replaced religious values with hedonistic ones like materialism, sensual gratification, and selfishness that are leading the west to an impending collapse’ (furlow, 2009). comparatively, jan (2002) believes that behavioural construct is regulated by the desire of society in the preservation of its cultural norms. some aspects of malay/sian behaviour that are considered feminine are as follows: • not being forthright, assertive, or aggressive; • not being blunt in expressing one’s view; • not causing interpersonal conflict or avoiding ‘loss of face’ (omar, 1992). the optimistic construction of the new malay not only fictionalizes a malay/sian community, but also detaches the malay from social irregularities, such as ethnic tensions, caused by modernization itself and secular cultural representations. in a skewed malay/sian terrain, ‘subjectivities are formed and reformed as a result of power practices’ (cooper, 1995). the calculated behaviour of the malay woman, for instance, is representational but to a great extent, contestable. the short stories would respond to current calculation of the new malay woman in four planks. first, both women in the stories are independent of paternal control. nooralissa (the beloved) in the following passage escapes from the shadow of her famous businessman father: ‘you’re the only one now, the others have deserted me. even my mother and father.’ and she started sobbing. (9) the central character is educated and charming, but because she wanted to marry a rich man even out of love, she ended disgraced and confined in solitude by her husband. with the hope of being rescued, the lawyer nooralissa called to her journalist ex-lover named johari. johari narrates the story and portrays nooralissa or alissa in his vocabulary from his extensive memory about her. on the other hand, sara (sara and the wedding) was graced by her second cousin ramli in the following passage: ‘see how you looked after your family when your father died. you’re baikso good,’ he added, his voice full of awed admiration. sara shook her head. ‘no, it was nothing. any daughter would have done it. i just fulfilled my duty.’ (95) after the death of her father, sara took charge of family negotiations. her ability of leading a family is just a signification of rule-a property that has always been associated with men. interestingly, both central characters are lawyers, a masculine profession. the linearity and rationality of the discipline connected to women challenge pre-conceived patriarchal concerns that women are more emotional and often articulates non-consciously (therefore, uncontrolled) generating irrational practice. the text, however, is an essential demystification of gender myth. a. raksasataya (1968) emphasizes that in a socio-cultural sense, southeast asian women ‘are oriented toward domestic affairs’ and are taught ‘to follow, to depend on, and to respect men’. in the context of islamic revivalism, for instance, islam explicitly positions women at men’s caprice. interestingly, this articulation fuels a great deal of dialectical movements whether it exploitative of women or actually a mechanism of empowerment. there is a good deal of clarification on that area in this paper. but certainly, in karim raslan’s fiction the feminine is not very effeminate anymore. sara actually became a famous lawyer; known for her diligence and commitment. this brings the second characteristic of new malay woman, nooralissa and sara are both an asset. thus, the presence of the women is important and functional. in the following passage, johari’s mother actualizes the importance of malay woman: “she had ‘balls’”: ….. (bernidick bryan p. hosmillo) 67 she says that now but at the time she was ecstatic: she told half of malacca and virtually all of alor gajah that i was going out with alissa after i had brought her home just the once. within a week she’d already chosen the baju she was going to wear for the bersanding and who was going to be my pengapit, worrying herself half to death, trying to figure out how she would carry herself when talking to alissa’s parents. they’re so rich, so sophisticated, she’d say. it wasn’t a serious worry, it was more a delicious kind of ‘worry’, the kind that occupies your mind for hours pleasantly. (16) obviously, sara is an asset because she is a famous character. in the same way, nooralissa is an asset because she hails from a decent and rich family. needless to say, the social gratification of the central characters is based on the presence of technology. in this case, technology can be referred to the pleasurable concepts that can be attached to the women, like fame and richness. as i follow the framework of cooper, the social conception that the central characters are assets, whose presence is important to society, is a technological effect that is conceived as the productivity of power. the third characteristic is, of the irreducibility of the woman. the malay woman is unimaginable, incalculable. nooralissa dismisses this very powerful line about her being irreducible: she had also made me promise that i’d never write about her-a bond that i’d broken almost immediately. ‘me? i’m irreducible!’ she’d said at the time, laughing as she threw back in my face with an impertinent tilt of her head, a word i’d used only minutes before. ‘i can use big words, too, shukor but that doesn’t make me a writer. besides my life is going to be boring that no one will ever want to write about me. i’ll marry well-no, not you, you’re too poor. i’ll have three children and attend lots of charity teas with all my sisters. nooralissa tells johari that she’s irreducible not that she is too rich and beautiful to be written by a monetarily poor journalist like him, but that as a man, writing a woman in his own words is unlikely representational. klages (2007) discusses poststructuralist feminism which is helpful in understanding nooralisa’s claim on her irreducibility: [s]ubjects who are further away from the controlling influence of the centre have more play, more ‘freedom’ to move and to behave as they wish. the capacity to avoid, escape, or evade the structuring rules of the centre of a structure or system is what lacan and the poststructuralist feminist theorists call jouissance which is the french word for ‘orgasm’. the word in poststructuralist terminology means pleasure that is beyond language, beyond discourse, something that can’t be expressed in words or in the structure of language, and which in fact is disruptive to that structure. this form of pleasure, or any activity or position that escapes the rules and structures held in place by the phallus, is specifically feminine pleasure, a feminine jouissance which is unrepresentable in language, and which interrupts representation, disturbs the linear flow of language, and rattles the foundations of the structure of the symbolic. thus jouissance can be considered a type of deconstruction, as it shakes up the fixity and stability of the structure of language and puts signifier into play, making them slippery and indeterminate. (klages, 2007:97) helene cixous enters the debate by first coining the term ‘phallogocentric’ borrowing derrida’s ‘logocentric’, ‘a term to describe western culture’s preference for speech over language’ (klages, 2007), then ascertains that since the symbolic order is phallogocentric and that prosaic writing, such as the texts that are being discussed in this paper, represents the symbolic order which is centred on phallic discourse that ultimately represses the feminine, a clear-cut positioning of the text has to be drawn in this paper. i concede two layers of repression in karim raslan’s texts that have something to do with feminist ideals. first, karim raslan is not a woman, therefore, an other in feminine discourse. second, the text is in prose and not in poetry that it makes jouissance far from 68 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 61-72 reach because as helene cixous continues, poetry is more likely to accommodate a signifying system that embraces ‘play’, more fluidity, ambivalence, and multiple meanings. however, in the context of production and representation of malay culture, the notion of the ‘phallogocentric’ talk is always inevitable and is almost invisible in the sense that it is totally tolerated. what i acknowledge as viable is to dissect how malay culture, as a phallogocentric order, subordinates and represses the feminine. surely, the text of karim raslan is not sufficient to exhaust the enormous ‘struggle’ of the malay woman, but it attacks the tension in such an extraordinary, brave, and witty waythrough women’s sexuality that is commonly perceived as impalpable in malay sense. what this paper wants to capitalize is that particular strength of the texts. finally, the central characters exhibit liberal ideology. nooralissa, in the account of johari, seemed to be blunt and very assertive. her character is a special departure from a malay woman who had been conceived as a shadow of the substance: she nodded and then carried on talking to the columnist, ignoring me as she spoke. ‘...as my father says, the main issue now is not the judges but the judiciary itself-whether or not it’ll survive. they’re happy enough to see it die and the traditions thrown away.’ ‘i’m afraid you’re right,’ he replied. ‘and what are you doing about it? you’re all just toadies. especially your newspaper, encik johan, yours is the worse-vicious slander is what you publish.’ by now she had turned to me and though she was speaking in subdued tone her words were-each one of them-as biting as a slap across the face. ‘i am just the journalist...i don’t control what the paper says. i wish i did but i don’t. besides my name is johari.’ and i stopped, a little taken aback by the sharpness of her attack. ‘i am sorry,’ she replied. she was more conciliatory now. ‘i didn’t mean to be rude. anyhow your editors should be shot!’ ‘young lady, you’re too spoken for your own good.’ the columnist said to her quietly, ‘the walls have ears.’ ‘so what?’ and she swept her hand across her forehead imperiously. i was impressed. the woman was sexy and she had ‘balls’. (19) nooralissa’s liberal ideology is characterized primarily by her assertiveness and fearlessness. she commits herself to her strong language that does not eliminate her womanhood. when she criticized the newspaper which was affiliated with johari, she accepted subordination when she apologized but never did she recant her words. as a result, she was able to sustain the revered attention of the man. hence, the new malay woman is empowered in karim raslan’s text because she is capable of exerting power. cooper (1995) argues that any form of resistance implies domination, then resistance requires ‘at least a certain ability to impact’. moreover, structuring systems such as gender and class are strong determinants of empowered subject positions. it is noteworthy to mention that johari married a woman in lesser image than nooralissa. the romanticism of johari to his past, generally, is a double-edged sword. on one hand, it empowers nooralissa in a confessional sense because as johari listens to her, it allows her to execute that social urge to explain and justify. on the other hand, the wife of johari was silenced in the text that is safe to read as the absence of production of power. what is apparent in the situation is the complex and dynamic relation of malay women to men. in the same way, gerhard believes on understanding the limitations of sexual ideologies that controlled women’s lives (hollibaugh, 2002). there was a period in feminist movement that the phrase ‘all women’ actually signified always white, straight, and middle to upper class. thus, i argue that malay woman’s notion of power is always determined by individual subject positions and not by universal concept of resistance. sara, on the other hand, faces a larger struggle in realizing power. unlike nooralissa, sara was described as plump, homely, and sweaty. so she finds herself not attractive at all and that predicament was a considerable mishap in her life since malay culture asserts that marriage of malay woman is a non-negotiable direction. tong & turner (2008) believes that ‘the pressure against being single in a society where “she had ‘balls’”: ….. (bernidick bryan p. hosmillo) 69 marriage was regarded as a compulsory norm was the main cause’ for marriage even if a modernizing society such as malaysia ‘brings about opportunities for them to pursue their self-actualization and to choose their lifestyles’. definitely, sara felt the pressure and to some length, ostracism of her family in the following passage: here she was dashing about, worrying about her sister’s wedding when, in actual fact, the mere thought of it made her feel unwanted and shamed. why should she care that shahnaz’s pelamin was uneven? it wasn’t her bersanding. she was the one who was expected to grow old and useless on a steady diet of loneliness and solitude. they didn’t seem to care that she supported half the family, that she had her own successful legal practice, that outside the home she was respected and admired. damn them, they didn’t care-she was just the fat-fat one who was still unmarried. (92) indubitably, the passage lets non-malays know that the concept of family is a disciplinary structure, too. at this point, i feel it essential to explain what the state really means. cooper (1995) maintains that the state has a multiple and contested identity in that it is ‘contingently articulated, multifaceted phenomena with no fixed form, essence, or core’. but she suggests charting a middle course between an approach which argues that the state is definable and another promoting discursive relativism. i particularly want to elaborate on the frameworks positioning of the concept of the state because i believe that there is a significant relationship between the concept of the state and the concept of family, as both function in punitive terms. i argue that the malay concept of family functions as a mechanism through which the state continuously operates. it appears to be that malay family serves as a condensed manifestation of economic, racial and gendered power that legitimate even personal views and subject positions. what interests me is the fact that the central government restructuring becomes unendingly dynamic because it is already embedded in malay culture to be egalitarian, thus, communal. sara overcomes her struggle slightly because of dispassion, but largely of the desire for power. conclusion panoptic gaze and female transcendence as the story of nooralissa comes from the heavy memory and perspective of johari, readers are given the chance to scrutinize the mind or memory of johari. this is very interesting to me because his account is partially reflecting the truth, i.e. factual, but largely truthful. johari’s account is centred on the perspectival premise that nooralissa loves to be worshipped, as in: ‘tell me you love me, shukor. you’re a writer, a man who uses words. use them to worship me.’ and johari loves to worship, as in: whatever i professed to have felt and thought about her in my poetry, i saw that in reality i had hardly bothered myself with the woman. alissa, my alissa, had been nothing more than a resource. interestingly, both of them wanted a fictional worship, something that is abstract, written, and shapeless. specifically, there are three positions that, i argue, as the cornerstone of her liberal ideology. first, she is a rule. second, she is foreign, eerie, and even unearthly to johari. lastly, she acknowledges sexual intercourse as part of her. johari recounts that one day, nooralissa left her ‘one day with nothing more than a crumpled selandang and a stash of her contraceptive pills’ (raslan, 1996). ‘the essential task imposed on 70 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 61-72 bodies in society’ is simplified in the idea of ‘government of sex’ (wilder, 1998). in malay culture, ‘family planning ideology’ is viewed ‘as ultimately a threat to’ malays’ ‘national survival’ (ong, 1990). the state, i.e. central government, encourages malay families to have many children as a good way of increasing wealth and ensuring success of the race. ong (1990) believes that family planning challenges two key elements of masculinity: (1) a man’s regulation over his wife’s sexuality and (2) a man’s ability to raise children . in this light, malay masculinity is derived in twofold: one is from his power to control feminine presence and the other is through economic prowess. johari’s masculinity is totally destroyed by nooralisa’s transgression. what keeps me speculating is the fact that johari maintained his passion for nooralisa despite her disobedience to malay custom. in the days before she disappeared from my life, she had always been ‘sunny’. and i don’t mean ‘sunny’ in malaysian sense-our sun cracks the back of your head like a shovel. she was ‘sunny’ in the new zealand sense of the word (or at least what i imagine it to be since i’ve never been to new zealand). she was bright and yet soft; warm and delicate-like salem ‘cool country’ ads that they repeat on the television hour after hour. i remember thinking that fate had really smiled on her: she was beautiful, she was rich and she was lovely. (13) johari perceives nooralissa as somebody from the outside, something foreign, almost unearthly. he imagines her in strictly ideal and poetic terms. johari’s perception of nooralissa is like a fictive sensation that he actually becomes the mirror which she uses to worship her beauty (schroeder, 1988). the battle seemed so important then, the sort of thing that would have kept alissa and i up until the early hours of the morning arguing: she was as passionate in bed as she was in her arguments. (18) nooralissa’s treatment to sex as a non-private affair is a political and cultural strategy to liberate sexuality. cooper (1995) argues that the ‘sexualisation of everyday life and the rejection that sexual politics as an exclusive concern of a young, educated elite undermines social inequality’ (4). but for johari, the liberation of nooralissa’s sexuality is detrimental. machin & thornborrow (2006) argue that the primary function of discourse of sex is to ‘challenge previous, more conservative regimes’. indeed, malay woman’s power is not presented in ‘public social domain, but in fictionalized spaces’ with the presence of fictionalized masculinity. johari’s active imaginative eroticism was countered by nooralissa’s loveless attachment. fuchs (1980) discusses the advantageous points of loveless eroticism: the erotic may include, but certainly need not include, love. a lesson that de beauvoir teaches well-particularly in her novels-is the evil of the dependency of woman and, relatedly, how perfect a medium the emotion of love is for this. she finds the woman in love a necessarily conflicted human being, first because of the nature of love itself, and second because of the ease with which love becomes a real trap for a woman, to the extent that it provides her with a reason for being satisfied with less than freedom.(304-305) johari’s character was constructed based on feminine passion so he continuously thinks that nooralissa would be his, just with a need of ‘little editing’. simone de beauvoir (1980) suggests that woman may overcome erotic passivity that man and culture require of her by ‘the creation, within heterosexual couples, of a reciprocal relationship between female and male, in order that woman’s subjectivity be permitted and acknowledged, as her body is desired’. such desire was the source of her power. her total rejection, as masochistic compulsion to him, inspired an idealization of a muse free from any regulation of the state or anybody, because even the maker couldn’t totally understand the fictive creation whose power was nevertheless fictive as well. “she had ‘balls’”: ….. 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(mariana) 81 池莉小说的女性形象塑造的演变 evolution of the women images in chi li’s novel mariana chinese department,faculty of humaniora, bina nusantara university, jln kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 enc0r3_she@yahoo.com 摘要 池莉是 20 世纪 80 年代有成就的女作家之一,在她的作品中塑造了形形色色的女性 形象。她所塑造的女性是从守着传统文化观念走向觉醒型,并且分别论述了她们生存 所显示的文化在状态和文化价值观念。池莉正是以这些不同类型的女性形象塑造,来 思索中国女性的生存意义,探寻现代女性的文化价值,从而显示了作家的文化探索精 神和独特的审美追求。 关键词:池莉小说, 女性形象, 生存状态, 文化背景 abstract chi li, one of the outstanding women writers in the 1980’s, portrays various images of women in her works. female image that chi li describe is from obedient to tradition type until self determination and independence, and gain a clairvoyance of that female’s culture existence state and the value conception separately. chi li thinks deeply of the meaning of chinese female’s life, in search of the culture value of contemporary female throughout the different female images, which figured in the novel, and it revealed the sprits in exploring of culture and the unique aesthetics taste of the author. keywords: chi li’s novels, female images, the status of life, culture’s background 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 81-88 前言 池莉的创作之路始于 1978 年,与多数作家或者说从事写作的人一样。池莉也是由 写诗而写小说。池莉的小说创作可以分为三个阶段。第一阶段是 80 年代中期,这个阶 段是她的学步期。这时期池莉的创作是充满青春气息,因此她所塑造的女性虽然已生 活在当代时期但仍然还守着中国传统文化的观念。代表作品有《月儿好》、《雨中的 太阳》、《细腰》。第二阶段是 80 年代中期到 90 年代中期,这个阶段是属于池莉的 成名期,在这个阶段用池莉的话来说,是一个“撕裂自己”的过程。由守着传统观念 的女性转向了为关注普通市民的日常生活的描绘,在这里池莉所塑造的女性已经开始 意识到自己在社会和婚姻的位置,以及懂得了如何保护自己。代表作品有《你是一条 河》、《不谈爱情》、《太阳出世》。第三个阶段是 90 年代中期开始延续至今,这个 阶段是池莉的发展期。在这里池莉所塑造的女性不但已经有了女性意识的觉醒,而且 还拥有了独立的人格形象。代表作品有《破云处》、《小姐你早》、《生活秀》和 《口红》。 守着传统文化观念的女性形象 池莉第一阶段的小说创作是荡漾在这种诗意的文学理想之中。因此她的小说使用 童年的温馨的梦想审视人们的现实生活。然而这个阶段的小说中的女性形象塑造拥有 了传统文化的观念。 中国传统文化都特别强调女子对男子的服从。占据中国传统文化核心地位的儒家 学派就特别强调“君为臣纲,父为子纲,夫为妻纲”。它明确将君臣之间,父子之 间,夫妻之间的纲常伦理相提并论,从国家权力结构、家庭关系结构到男女之间的主 次地位都做出了相当明确的规定。君臣之间,它强调臣对君必须是无条件“忠诚”; 父子之间,它强调子对父必须是无条件“孝敬”;夫妻之间,它则是强调妻对夫必须 是无条件“服从”。忠诚与否,孝敬与否和服从与否,成为衡量为人臣者,为人子者 与为人妻者是否合格标准。 1 即使当今中国女性的社会地位已发生了翻天覆地的变化, 但无可否认的是,封建的传统文化观念对她们的影响却仍然巨大,女性不平等的社会 角色和社会地位依然存在。在传统文化观念,很多女性还是被约束在“孝妇、贤妻、 良母”的文化规范中,对传统文化观念的依附性非常明显,自主意识也很薄弱。 有些的池莉早期小说都有这类的传统女性形象。如:《月儿好》的明月好、《雨 中的太阳》的丁老太、《细腰》中的“她”。这一类的女性是受传统文化观念响巨 大,呆板死守女性传统规范的女性。她们的生存方式和人生观念就是;牢记传统女性 的清规戒律,敢于承担和忍受生活的种种重压和磨难,对丈夫则无私奉献,终身享 受,表现出传统女性的贤淑贞节。 1 梁巧娜著《性别意识与女性形象》,北京:中央民主大学出版社,2004 年,12 页 evolution of the women images ….. (mariana) 83 《月儿好》中的明月好。明月好事一位贤淑的农村妇女,她有传统女性的美德。 从她的立身行事上,尤其是婚爱观念上,我们可以看出,她收到了封建传统文化观念 的严重毒害。小时候,她当了童养媳,出嫁后,青春失偶的她便固守着女性的传统美 德规范,“守志”不嫁。她自己担负起扶养教育两个儿子的重大责任,过着孤儿寡母 的清盆生活,经受了一个女人难以支撑的精神危机和生活艰难的煎熬。从作品的描述 中,我们可以看到传统文化观念对她产生的深刻影响。传统的道德伦理是她安贫守 志,行为端淑的精神支柱。用今天的观念来看,凭她的条件,如果不守传统规范,她 完全可以重建家庭,少受煎熬。但是,她为了付出受到了人们的尊重,这不仅是因为 她的工作出色,而是因为她的举止符合传统女性观念的规范。这也就恰恰说明周围人 们也是一传统观念来衡量女性的。 《雨中的太阳》的丁老太也是一个固守传统观念的典型悲剧人物。丈夫被抓丁, 一去就没有消息,她自己支撑家庭,含辛茹苦地将三个儿子养育成人。为了等候那不 知生死的丈夫,她自己一个人在孤苦零丁中度过了余生——“她在漫长的等待中熬干 了身子,至死也未能如愿。”她固守的这份信念,导致了她一生的苦难和不幸。 《细腰》中的“她”则轻信着对方的一个又一个空诺。孤灯只影地守候了一生。 她毫无怨言地将青丝候成白霜,将美丽熬成病弱,她满足于自己为他营造的夜鸟归巢 的感觉,满足于自己所扮演的倾听者角色。她回首着他在外面世界的所有苦恼、烦闷 和焦躁,再将它们转化成微笑、愉悦、安详回赠给他。这样的献身精神使她的神情献 出了生母般的柔和宁静,圣徒般的淡泊与悠远。 从上面的表述可以了解到池莉所塑造的女性的思想观念和行为模式大同小异,就 是为男人而活着,甚至敢于为男人牺牲自己,她们的世界里惟独没有自己的位置。显 而易见,封建传统观念的严重毒害是导致她们悲剧命运的重要原因。这一时期池莉的 女性意识刚刚从封建男权主义的桎梏下破土萌芽,她大力赞颂女性的容貌,温良的脾 性,坚忍的品格,赞颂她们的宽容大度、忘我牺牲。殊不知,她正是在按照传统的男 权价值刻度及男权对女性性别角色的期待,塑造着她笔下的女性人物形象。 自我意识的女性形象 女性的清醒,这是指女性的一种自我意识的觉醒。自我意识在人的意识结构中, 占有特别重要的地位。自我意识的本身就是作为主体的自我,通过外界、与他人、与 社会发生关系,而达到对自己的特性、自己的地位、自己的价值以及发挥其潜力的可 能性意识。自我意识是由自我认知、自我体验、自我意志三方面构成的。 自我认知就是对自我的认识、了解。这种认知并不单单是对自我身体、心理特征 的了解,更重要的是对自己的位置、角色,对自己的权利、义务、责任的了解。倘若 缺乏这种自知,就不能自我支配,也就无人格可言了。 自我体验是自我意识的另一个重要侧面,是自己对自己的态度、情感的感受、洞 察、把握、并使之不断丰富起来,自我体验是与社会相联系的,从中要表现出一个女 84 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 81-88 性的控制力,这是女性人格情感特征的起码条件。随着女性社会生活的日益扩大,这 种情感不能都是一种体验,它表现出的应该是一种对社会真、善、美与假、恶、丑的 明确分辨。 自我意志是自我意识 重要的体现,也可以说是自我意识的核心。它包括自我愿 望、自我理想、自我命令等一系列意念活动。正因为有这一系列意念活动,才能 终 对自己的活动做出抉择,进行调节,使自我意识客体化、外在化。 池莉在第二个阶段所塑造的女性已经开始有了自我意识,也就是说开始有了所谓 女性的人格。她们已经清醒地意识到自己在社会的地位以及对自己有利益的事情,并 使之不断丰富起来。在这个阶段池莉所塑造的女性在社会生存的方法以及意念。她们 对以自我愿望、自我理想、自我命令等一系列意念活动做出了抉择,进行调节。为了 生存她们甚至敢于突破传统观念,为了保留自己的意念她们敢于不择手段的解决她们 的难题。因此在这个阶段虽然她们已经正确地认识自己与别人、与社会的关系,并在 生活中打上了自己的烙印。 《你是一条河》的辣辣。这部小说讲述了母亲辣辣面对八个孩子需要她独自抚养 的极端残酷生活困境,接受现实,顽强生存的故事。她将那些幼小的孩子们组织起 来,剁莲子、搓麻绳、拣猪毛。她既是工头,也是勤劳的标率。为了生存,她得去偷 偷卖血,得应付各种险恶,得应付社会疯狂动荡所带来了的种种变故。为了生存,她 必须不择手段,甚至以默许儿子的偷盗行为和出卖自己的肉体等丧失道德规范的行为 作为代价。辣辣生活的环境是特殊的,所处的年代是特殊的,因而也就造成了她特殊 的性格,她对于孩子的亲情不再与母性的温柔与抚慰,仅剩于供给食物使其能够存 活,除此而不顾及其余。虽然辣辣的生活很艰苦,但她自己已经意识到她自己的角 色,她没有选择跟别人再婚,不是因为她守贞,而是因为她自己意识到,那些男生是 因为看她能会生养而要娶她。因此辣辣决定拒绝了追她的男人。 《不谈爱情》中的梅莹,是一个自主自立的精神,在人生的紧要关头,她能把握 住自己的命运的航船,使其免于搁浅停泊。梅莹作为一个成功职业女性,在她的身上 体现出一种精明干练、成熟且迷人的品格,作为主人公庄建非的人生指导者———良 师益友的角色,她能清醒自如地执掌着生活的托柄。而做庄建非的情人,她没有了封 建主义思想的束缚,她不惧怕自己的欲望的表达与欲望的满足,但并不给予它特殊的 位置与特殊的意义。她从容不迫地处理着感情、家庭和工作间的复杂关系。在梅莹身 体现了当今知识女性主体位置的自觉,按传统的审美观念而言,梅莹是属于不守妇道 的女人,但她却能成功地主宰自己的事业和情感生活。 除了梅莹之外,《不谈爱情》 中的吉玲也是一个有趣的角色。吉玲是一个未受过 太多教育的市民阶层的女人,她生活在相对传统的中国市区之中,她不甚崇高的人生 理想显示了她原本传统的女性角色。她的人生目的是找个社会地位高的丈夫。虽然她 的愿望实现了,但她意识到她本身失去了所谓的尊严。无论是她的丈夫庄建非还是庄 建非的家人一点都不尊重她,不把她放在眼里。尊重之于吉玲高于她现实利益的算 计,为了这个目的吉玲冲破传统的观念敢的跟庄建非提出离婚。在这里吉玲就意识到 evolution of the women images ….. (mariana) 85 自己的身份,并且意识到要被庄建非以及庄建非的家人认同,因此她不顾传统观念, 逼庄建非懂得了如何尊重吉玲,并且用另外的态度重新接受吉玲。 《太阳出世》中的女主人公李小兰,本是一个没有多少文化的粗俗女青年,甚至 在结婚的当天还当街撒泼。但在经历了生儿育女的艰难后,她终于意识到自己的角 色,并变得成熟了。她不但学会了如何做父母,也学会了如何做妻子,更学会了传统 的生活之道,从而变得“对所有充满爱意,充满宽容”。在家庭生活中,李小兰意识 到了做女人和做母亲的角色,并且将自己一步步地塑造成传统的贤妻良母。 拥有独立人格的女性形象 90年代的中国社会、经济、文化生活进入了重大的转型期,改革开放后的中国 社会加大了商业化的步伐,时代的变革给人们的社会价值观念带来了巨大的变革,由 此也带来了女性价值观念的深刻改革。改革开放后的中国女人不再是男人的附属品, 不再唯男人是从,逐渐成为一个独立的人,一个独立的女人,她们在经济上独立,在 政治上独立,在生活上独立,这种独立意识的显现是女权主义和女性意识的萌芽。 在这个阶段的池莉,无论是她本人还是她的一系列作品都发生了根本性的转变。 从1990年开始,池莉对作品中的新题材、新风格进行了新的探索,从而走上了不 断探索女性意识内涵的广阔道路。池莉曾这样谈到自己的觉醒:“女性自我意识的觉 醒是近年来随着改革开放才渐渐萌发的,我的小说想提示的就是当下女性意识的自我 觉醒与自我探索,女人原本是不认识女人的,认识自己 不容易。” 2 至此,池莉实现 了由传统观念的女性形象写作向女性主义协作的重大转型。 在这个阶段池莉小说中塑造了不只是受过高等教育的知识分子女性而且也塑造了 没受过教育出身于市民阶层的女性,她们共同的性格都是勇敢、泼辣、在琐屑、平庸 的生活中追求个性,追求个人存在的权利,靠个人的努力为自己赢得幸福。这些女性 不再依附于男人而存在,她们成了生活的主角,在爱情婚姻上学会了思考,学会了取 舍,学会了权衡利弊,更学会了对生活的精打细算。 《云破处》的曾善美在遭遇变故之前是一个很受大家欢迎的传统女性。她气质高 雅、容颜可人而又性情温良如小鸟依人,在单位里邻居中都有着极好的人缘和口啤。 丈夫金祥也一直以她为荣:妻子出生于大城市的高知家庭,重点大学外语专业毕业, 可谓新时代的知识女性,特别值得荣耀的是她以处女置身嫁给了自己。在金祥眼里, 妻子的一副好身材,一张光滑可人的脸,一身白衣黑裤,活生生地把他这个来自于红 安乡下,有着贫穷和丑陋过去的男人的人生价值充分证明出来了。然而事实上曾善美 却有着坎坷不幸的遭遇:年幼时父母和弟弟因食物中毒猝然死亡。举目无亲的情况下 被阿姨收养。然而正是在姨妈家,年少的她却又遭到姨父强奸和表弟诱奸,这种难以 启齿的痛苦经历只能深埋心底。姨妈为使她顺利嫁给金祥而偏方,以鸡心血代替处女 红满过金祥。原以为嫁给金祥找到了终身幸福,殊不知在丈夫眼里自己纯粹是个精致 2 《上海电视周刊》,2000年10月a期 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 81-88 花瓶,是个标识丈夫人生价值、完善丈夫社会形象的工具。当她在金祥的同学聚会上 偶然揭开了“531兵工厂食物中毒案”之谜,发现了毒死自己全家的杀人凶手后, 一种巨大震撼撕裂了她曾经努力弥合的青少年时代留下的心灵伤痕,撕裂了十五年来 笼罩在自己婚姻生活中的温情脉脉的面纱。她一改从前温良端淑的天使模样,变得沉 着冷静,老谋深算,言行果敢。她决心主持正义替天行道。她首先撕下了金祥“满口 仁义道德,一肚子男盗女娼”的虚伪面纱,然后直刺其要害,让他在男权文化观念中 构筑起来的所有关于女性的神话全部土崩瓦解。 后,曾善美带着对姨父对表弟对金 祥德满腔仇恨,将力刀深深地插进了那个卑劣至极的男人的心脏,她终于以无比的勇 气与力量,以 激烈的方式表达了自己 彻底的反抗,实现了自己与传统的决裂。 《小姐你早》中的戚润物也是一个事业型的当代知识女性,同时也是一个在家庭 中处于边缘地位的女性。在家中,丈夫王自力是掌管家中经济大权的当家人。她只是 丈夫可有可无的一个附属品。丈夫无视她的人格尊严,与小保姆发生关系却还理直气 壮,把家中残疾的儿子留下也心安理得。作品中的另一位女性李开玲是汪自力派来的 临时保姆。她也是一个具备中国女性所有传统美德的当代女性。她“守口如瓶,忠诚 不二,一诺千金,忍辱负重,善解人意,吃苦耐劳,母性十足”,是一个符合传统女 性文化观念的女性典范。即使如此,在现实的文化场景中,她还是沦为了被男性所抛 弃和鄙视的对象:“当年她的局长 后抛弃她而回到他邋遢的老婆身边,这是李开玲 解不开的结和永远的痛”。“女人的顿悟绝对来自心痛的时刻。” 3 现实的阵痛使戚润 物和李开玲彻底认清了自己的不幸命运,她们开始认真反思自己作为一个女人的尊 严、价值和意义,开始反抗传统的男权社会。如果曾善美对金祥的杀人罪行是用消灭 其肉体的方式来说“不”的话,那么,戚润物、李开玲等对王自力说“不”的方式就 是消灭其作恶之源——金钱,让他失去立足生活的经济基础,重新沦为穷光蛋,戚润 物发现王自力的丑行后,发自本能的喊出“离婚”来抗议。岂料却正中王自力下怀: “很好,你今天总算说了句人话”。王自力派来充当保姆角色的李开玲让她明白离婚 是王自力巴不得的事,因为“他现在找一个年轻姑娘是轻而易举的事,而你却一天天 人老珠黄。”在李开玲的精心指导下,她开始反思自己,研究王自力。她终于明白自 己固守的那些原则是如此无力,明白了对王自力这样的男人无法讲道德讲良心。她决 定打击王自力并制定了方案。她开始在善待自己的同时又不断戏耍王自力,让他 离婚 梦总在快做圆时破灭。她采用温柔一刀,收买“糖衣炮弹”艾月来使美人计。在老中 青三位女性的精心谋划下,王自力中计了。他为艾月狠花金钱,为离婚痛付巨款,末 了艾月卷款出逃,检查机关开始对他的问题展开调查,这一切使王自力彻底失败。戚 润物她们以“姐妹联谊”的方式,向“五千年的封建男权意识”发起了挑战,以一种 撕裂传统的方式,表达了女性自主自强,捍卫尊严的生命价值观。 池莉在《破云处》和《小姐你早》中都展示了新时代女性生的坚韧和活的魅力, 她们原本具备着女性的美德却全被男人伤透了心,面对所受到的伤害,这些女性重新 审视自己的生活,重新认清自身的价值,于是,一种全新的生活开始了,一个全新的 形象也呈现出来,她们的变化使那些男人身败名裂、一无所有。她们向“五千年的封 建男权意识”挑战,她们不仅让那些男人受到惩罚,并且让世人对她们刮目相看。在 3 池莉:《小姐你早》,《池莉文集》(第六卷),南京:“江苏文艺出版社,1998年,第136 页” evolution of the women images ….. (mariana) 87 这里的女性不再以三从四德,逆来顺受的所谓传统“美德”来束缚自己,而且是勇于 反抗,讨回自己的尊严和赢得一切。 池莉在这个阶段不仅塑造了对爱情婚姻理性的女性,还塑造了对生活清醒的女 性。这些女性很现实,她们对生活有着清醒地认识,为了生活她们可以放弃一切,有 着理想的生活,美好的情感,高雅的情趣的基础。在这方面池莉所塑造的女性虽然已 受到男性的伤害,但是她们没有采用偏激的方式,把男人才在自己的脚下,而是运用 自己的能力和智慧拿回自己所失去本该属于自己的东西。那些女性都能勇敢地面对生 活,靠自己的双手,靠自己的努力为自己开辟新生的环境。她们在生活当中很会抓住 机遇,运用智慧抓住自己的机会改写自己的人生。 《口红》中的女主角江晓歌,是个有思想、有个性,并且具有现代女性的品质。 她拒绝把自己当作生育的机器,从不重男轻女,当自己的丈夫移情别恋,她却自责自 己跟宁岸的暧昧关系,便愤怒而离去,同时以离婚为代价保留自己的尊严。离婚后的 江晓歌没有颓唐、没有倒下,而是艰苦创业。她开过出租,倒卖过衣服, 后,在外 婆的帮助下有了自己的公司,凭着她的聪明和才干很快使公司进入良性循环,她成为 了女性中的强者,她的独立自主、自强不息的精神感染了许多人,但更使人佩服的事 仍保持着传统女性中的优良品质如娴雅温柔、尊老爱幼、有情有意等。当宁岸生活困 难的时候,她不露身色地帮助他,当前夫的公司出现危机的时候,她又不计前嫌上门 去抚慰。江晓歌以自己的自强不息赢得了爱和尊敬。她是生活中的强者,女性中的楷 模。她那种独立奋斗的女性精神,以及能冷静地面对生活创痛、精神压力。这种意识 意味着女性在更大程度上的独立,真正找到了自我,也找到了与男性平等的参与生 活、参与战争、实现女性的自我价值的思考方式和行为方式。 《生活秀》的来双杨更是让人耳目一新,她在吉庆街卖鸭颈,母亲早逝,父亲抛 下四个儿女再婚。十六岁的来双杨不得不挑起生活的重担,靠自己的双手来养活弟 妹。来双杨在上班时不慎引起火灾,被工厂除名。 后一丝生活的希望断了,她被生 活抛向无敌的深渊。为了养活嗷嗷待哺的弟妹,她在吉庆街及其煤火炉子,靠炸臭干 子为生, 后发展为久久酒店和卖鸭颈。在生活的历练中,她懂得了人情事礼和经营 法则。通过小恩小惠拉拢父亲和继母,她取得了老房子的继承权。为了找回祖上留下 的老房子,她利用乡下姑娘九妹,把九妹嫁给了张所长得了花痴的儿子以达到目的, 但对于九妹并不是无情无义而是肝胆相照。她不顾法律为弟弟偷买毒品,并且为不争 气的哥嫂承担起照顾侄子的责任。为了防止妹妹万一倒霉,好有个退路,赶紧替妹妹 交上管理费。她对生活是非常冷静的,对亲情是挚烈的。 她来自社会底层,生活的磨 难使她成熟、坚强,也教了她许多人生经验。她是个聪明、狡猾、精于算计、敢于抗 争,这一切都是因为她源于注重实际的品格。 在这个阶段池莉塑造了形形色色的女性形象,她们在逆境中顽强挣扎,在不平中 努力反抗,在困境中奋身突围,在艰难中明智选择,具有着高度生存智慧和极强的生 活能力。从她们身上我们可以看到现代女性为自己做主的人生思想以及以自我为中心 的人生目标,她们从容不迫,又稳稳当当地执掌着生活的舵柄。这类颇具规模的妇女 群像在当代社会中闪烁着柔和而坚定的光芒,她们不为任何人而活,完全是自己的主 88 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 81-88 人,这充分体现了女性群体的觉醒,成为新时代女性形象的表征。这些丰富多彩、形 态各异的女性形象,达到了审美的极致,为新时期的女性文学画上了精彩的一笔。 结语 池莉小说的女性形象根据它的阶段发生了变化。第一阶段池莉所塑造的女性虽然 已生活在当今时代但还受到传统文化观念,她们的思想观念和行为模式都是为了男人 而活,她们不惜牺牲自己的位置,为了满足男人的需求,成为男人真正的附属品。第 二个阶段池莉所塑造的女性形象已经开始觉醒,她们已经意识到她们生存的目的,并 且为了达到目的敢于不择手段。这个阶段她们开始突破了所谓的传统观念,走向女权 主义的道路。第三个阶段池莉所塑造的女性已经有了独立的人格,在社会上有了地 位、尊严、权力。她们不再是为了男人而活,而是为了自己而活下去。她们为了找回 自己的尊严甚至敢于对那些男人包袱,以满足精神上的需求。 参考文献 梁巧娜 ·性别意识与女性形象[m]·北京:中央民主大学出版社,2004 : 12 上海电视周刊[j]·上海,2000 年 10 月a期 池莉·小姐你早、池莉文集(第六卷)[m]·南京:“江苏文艺出版社,1998 池莉。不谈爱情 [m] · 武汉:长江文艺出版社,1995. 池莉·生活秀[g] //池莉近作竞选.武汉:长江文艺出版社,2003:241 刘梦琴、赵秋棉·新时代女性形象的表征——池莉笔下的女性形象探析[j]·河北:衡水学院学 报,2008 microsoft word 04_akun_setting 140 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 140-148 the portrayal of indonesian image in 2007 kompas selected short stories: social problems, criticisms and hopes akun english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, akun@binus.edu abstract article aimed at exploring social problems reflected in 15 selected short stories printed in kompas during 2007 both explicitly and implicitly. specifically, this research is focused on the mapping of dominant social problems raised by the short stories, the social criticisms strongly voiced by the authors and the hopes of a better situation implicitly reflected in these interesting short stories. this study applies the defamiliarization effect promoted by bertolt brecht and negative dialectics or negative knowledge by theodor adorno, specifically in analyzing the literary works as a criticism tool. the result of the research shows that phenomena of social problems current lately in indonesian context like identity, poverty, corruption, religious tensions, moral degradation, politics dirtiness, minority group problems, social security, natural disasters and the like are clearly seen and teased in these writings. keywords: social problems, social criticism, defamiliarization effect, negative dialectics, hopes abstrak artikel mengupas permasalahan sosial yang tercermin di dalam 15 cerita pendek pilihan harian kompas tahun 2007 baik secara gamblang maupun secara tersirat. secara khusus, penelitian akan difokuskan pada pemetaan permasalahan sosial yang secara dominan diangkat oleh cerita pendek, kritik sosial yang disuarakan oleh para pengarang, serta sejauh mana harapan akan membaiknya keadaan secara implisit dipancarkan oleh cerita menarik ini. penelitian ini akan menerapkan konsep efek defamiliarisasi bertolt brecht dan dialektika negatif theodor adorno terutama dalam mengkaji ceritaa tersebut dalam wujudnya sebagai sebagai alat kritik. fenomena permasalahan sosial yang marak belakangan ini seperti identitas, kemiskinan, korupsi, keagamaan, kemerosotan moral, kebobrokan politik, kelompok minoritas, keamanan sosial, bencana alam dan semacamnya terbukti secara kental diangkat dan diusik melalui tulisanini. kata kunci: permasalahan sosial, kritik sosial, efek defamiliarisasi, dialektika negatif, harapan the portrayal of indonesian image ….. (akun) 141 introduction short stories, when most of all presented through nationally distributed and acclaimed newspaper such as kompas daily, for sure bring rich national social problems current in this country to the surface. in some way, when an author jots down her or his ideas into (short) stories, actually at the same time she or he is also jotting down whether consciously or unconsciously her or his responses and thoughts on what are flaring up in her or his surroundings, and of what interests her or him much. donald hall has stated about this when he wrote, “whatever people do, they express the times they live in. when authors write, they reflect their own era by deploring it, by celebrating it, or even by writing to escape it” (hall, 2002: 1275). this mostly means that those authors crystallize their life experiences in responding to life phenomena and do it in different ways: some may criticize and mock, some others celebrate with full expectation, and even some probably write to escape the reality because they feel restless, embarrassed and infuriated towards the social life condition that keeps worsening and getting harder. whatever the forms and reasons, a work is consequently and certainly born either directly or indirectly because of it. kompas daily is a consistent and efficient medium to accommodate these worries, complaints and hopes by selecting (with its own certain considerations and restriction, of course!) and publish all the stories regularly every week accompanied by the illustrating pictures that cannot be equalized to the stories themselves because illustrated pictures are seen as independent creative works that cannot easily represent the short stories. around 50 short stories are published every year and about 15 stories will be chosen as the best selected stories with one selected best short story then decided as the title of the collection to finally be republished. according to the managing director of kompas (pambudy, 2008:ix), the last three years (2006, 2007, 2008) the mechanism of selecting the stories has been changed and developed by not involving the inside committee from kompas anymore, different from what has traditionally done for so many years. the new mechanism involves people from outside kompas management considered to be competent of giving judgment on this selection process. in 2006, nirwan dewanto and bambang sugiharto got the honor to do the selection process and they resulted the anthology called ripin named after the chosen best short story, while in 2007 ayu utami and sapardi djoko damono di the responsibility with cinta di atas perahu cadik as the result, and the last in 2008, rocky gerung and linda christianity did the job and they came up with smokol. for this study, i am going to discuss only one of them i.e. the 2007 anthology. referring back to a fictitious literary work as a mirror reflecting what is flaring up in the society responded by certain authors (they are possibly flaring up themselves!), i am going to elaborate some dominant social problems found in the anthology, what social criticisms are delivered, and how are hopes still seen to be symbolically brought by the stories although the situation is quite gloomy. some of the short stories uniquely make use of the characters and explore unusual themes. for that reason, an appropriate approach is needed to discuss the stories so that the conveyed message can be well understood. in short, the theoretical perspective promoted by bertolt brecht with his concept of defamiliarization effect and theodor adorno’s negative knowledge are going to be applied. bertolt brecht is known for his alienation concept (developed from russian formalist’s defamiliarization concept) which is much practiced and applied in drama performance. brecht labeled his developed realism theory as “anti-aristotelian”. if aristotle’s concept stresses much on the universality and unity of tragedy elements that end in their success on providing audience (also readers) with emotion catharsis by having empathy on the story characters and drifted away in the story plot, brecht on the other hand showed his opposition against this concept. he said that the plot of 142 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 140-148 the story which is structured in such a way that can make the audience drifted away must be avoided. the reason is simple; the social injustice must be presented as something unnatural and truly shocking, not as an integral and natural part of the story which is oftentimes unable to be recognized consciously anymore. “it is all too easy to regard ‘the price of bread, the lack of work, the declaration of war as if they were phenomena of nature: earthquakes or floods’, rather than as the results of exploitative human agency” (selden, widdowson & brooker, 1997:97). therefore, to avoid the fact of drifting the audience or readers in the form of accepting social reality passively, it is suggested to shake the illusion of the reality in a deplorable and shocking way through the usage of alienation effect presented through the characters that are easily recognized but seem to be so strange at the same time. according to brecht, only through this way critical judgments can be produced by people who enjoy the work. further, brecht emphasized that the elements inside the character have to be understood from outside, and depicted not as simple and familiar but the other way around, “the situation, emotions and dilemmas of characters must be understood from the outside and presented as strange and problematic” (pp98). by applying the alienation technique, brecht actually was not a faithful follower of realism (although this is still debatable), because if this alienation effect is applied to realism formula, he will fail: “brecht would have been the first to admit that, if his own ‘alienation effect’ were to become a formula for realism, it would cease to be effective. if we copy other realists’ methods, we cease to be realists ourselves: ‘methods wear out, stimuli fail. new problems loom up and demand new techniques. reality alters; to represent it the means of representation must alter too’.” (pp99). the above quoted lines are in line with ayu utami’s prolog in the anthology when she argued upon her choice of fifteen selected stories included in the anthology, in which she questioned “why realism is not enough anymore? ” the fact that realism used in the old time, used to be enough, is now not enough anymore. what actually makes it insufficient? (pambudy, 2008:xiii-xiv). further, sapardi djoko damono mentioned non-realist stories that sound strange as “fable” (pp139). for me, to understand and analyze these selected literary works does need a different approach, and here it goes when brecht’s method is felt to serve best the purpose. besides, a similar approach which is developed by theodor adorno is considered to necessary to complete the understanding of these selected stories. for adorno, a work of art, including a work of literature, will contain more strength in criticizing reality if the piece of work is separated from the very reality: “for adorno, art, including literature, is detached from reality and this is the very source of its strength. popular art forms only confirm and conform to the norm of a society but true art takes up a critical stance, distanced from the world which engendered it: ’art is the negative knowledge of the actual world.’ he saw the alienation evident in the writing of proust and beckett as proving such ‘negative knowledge’ of the modern world” (carter, 2006:60); next, selden and friends added that in adorno’s view literary works have no direct connection with reality, not as lukacs’ view about realism: “adorno criticized lukacs’ view of realism, arguing that literature does not have a direct contact with reality. in adorno’s view, art is set apart from reality; its detachment gives it the portrayal of indonesian image ….. (akun) 143 its special significance and power. modernist writings are particularly distanced from the reality to which they allude, and this distance gives their work the power of criticizing reality” (selden, widdowson & brooker, 1997: 100). therefore, the process of separating or distancing between literary work and reality is a necessary process which supposedly constitutes an alienation process where literature lovers are presented with strange unnatural problems. only through this way the readers or audience will never felt drifted and finally understand the criticism targets aimed by the literary work. for adorno, a work of art cannot merely reflect the social system within a society, but it can at the same time play a role in that society as a “teaser” of which existence is sometimes irritating, and then negating the reality, which finally results in an indirect understanding of what is famously known as “art is the negative knowledge of the actual world” (100) as has been slightly discussed above. in relation to kompas selected short stories to be analyzed in this study, i have decided to discuss 4 (four) short stories which are in my opinion very interesting and full of the process of distancing from realities in this country which are so easy to be recognized but at the same time so strange (through the use of alienation/ defamiliarization effect i suppose); they are: cinta di atas perahu cadik (love on a small boat by seno gumira ajidarma), lampu ibu (mother’s lamp by adek alwi), kisah pilot bejo (pilot bejo’s story by budi darma), dan tukang jahit (the sewer by agus noor). the analysis will be started by exploring and surfacing the social problems raised by the short stories, and then discuss how far those stories or “fables”--to borrow damono’s term—distance themselves from the readers and then targeting the social phenomena being criticized, and lastly, there will be a discussion on hopes for a better future, at least symbolically, that are still in anyway shining through the stories. research method this is a library research of the four selected short stories mentioned above through a close reading of the texts (the stories) by applying the concept of defamiliarization effect promoted by bertolt brecht and negative dialectics or negative knowledge by theodor adorno. results and discussion there are various social problems raised by kompas selected short stories in this anthology. to mention a few, we have social problems on love affairs and moral degradation which are obviously not only screened much on television or film theatres (cinta di atas perahu cadik), problems around poverty and injustice (tukang jahit, cinta di atas perahu cadik), corruption, pretense and role playing (lampu ibu), the wrack or collapse of public service (kisah pilot bejo), drugs problems (lampu ibu), modern culture invasion (lampu ibu, kisah tukang jahit) and other social problems. i observed beyond the surface and in depth, the four short stories actually present the problems differently and shockingly, that are sometimes beyond the readers’ expectation. the readers are left with no choices but to accept the reality that even though the problems seem to be common and natural, they are totally represented through weird characters and properties (tukang jahit, pilot bejo, lampu, sukab-hayati-waleh-dullah). in this way, the readers will feel alienated and not drifted in the form of sympathy towards the characters or events. 144 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 140-148 when reading cinta di atas perahu cadik, we will find something strange and shocking, for example how come a husband (dullah) gives permission to his own wife (hayati) to sail-have love affair with someone from the same village (sukab) and prefers watching tv to commenting on or concerning about his wife’s leaving with the other guy to whom according to the old lady (who also has had enough experience in love affair) he should have killed him, “sudah mencabut badik dan mengeluarkan usus sukab jahanam itu!” (p. 3). or the attitude from sukab’s wife (waleh) who should have been tortured, poor, given birth to a mute child, and been ill for long because of her husband’s betrayal, but then gives her agreement and prays for her cheating husband’s happiness with the new other woman (hayati), “aku memang hanya orang kampung, ibu, tetapi aku tidak mau menjadi kampungan yang mengumbar amarah menggebu-gebu. kudoakan suamiku pulang dengan selamat—dan jika dia bahagia bersama hayati, melalui perceraian, agama kita telah memberi jalan agar mereka bisa dikukuhkan” (p. 6). what a shocking response; a mentally tortured wife with an angel’s heart who is so hard to find nowadays! the more shocking part is the fact that this love affair is open and nobody feels awkward at all even from the doers of the affair (kukeb-hayati) just like a normal or common couple of lovers (remember this is not common!) the world seems to belong to them only; parents, children, neighbors, parents in law do not need to be given any care or attention, what matters is only their romance, “—tetapi mata keduanya menyala-nyala karena semangat hidup yang kuat serta api cinta yang membara” (p. 8), what counts is their instant happiness and they like it even though it is bad and morally wrong if related to faithfulness to their previous wife or husband. moreover, they fully understand of what they are doing as mature adult people as emphasized at the end of the story, “namun keduanya juga mengerti, betapa bukan urusan siapa pun bahwa mereka telah bercinta di atas perahu cadik ini” (p. 9); who cares! this is how we are shocked by the uncommon and strange attitude showed by the characters in the story. although the love affair theme is so common found in daily experiences around us, we still feel alienated by this reality inside the story. by this way, we cannot indeed be drifted along the storyline (no experience of aristotle’s catharsis), what exists on the other hand is feelings of irritation and finally we realize that all problems are not merely black and white, that we cannot at once blame anybody that easy, and here is the criticism intended by the author and his work seems to serve the purpose. in the next short story, lampu ibu, we are faced with the role playing and lamp metaphor, which is so close to our daily life, but then when it is put side by side to the word ibu (mother), it becomes strange: lampu ibu? what is actually lampu ibu? this story of corrupt political leaders’ habits and attitudes, which practice corruption in togetherness, depicts how a politician, some sort of members of the parliament, can pretend to be sick in order to be free of legal charge or at least postpone the police arrest on their illegal practice. there is at the start a doubt about the story of corruption involvement here whether the accused bang palinggam is really involved or really clean. his confession stresses that, “namun, hingga detik ini, bunda, aku tetap bersih. terkutuk aku bila mendustai bunda,”(p.17). the confession from the politician’s mouth strongly states that he is clean, he even takes a vow against his mother or condemns himself if he is not truthful on this matter, but at the beginning it is described that he sounds to need an apology, “suara bang palinggam terdengar pelan, sayu, seperti minta dimaafkan” (p. 17). why does he need apology for if he is clean? the next part seems to contradict bang palinggam’s early confession and defense that strongly suggests his involvement the portrayal of indonesian image ….. (akun) 145 “kalau begitu, mengapa kau mengelak diperiksa, nak? kenapa berpura sakit? mengapa tidak kau beberkan saja semuanya?’ ‘tidak sesederhana itu, bunda.’ ‘di mana rumitnya?’ tidak terdengar suara. aku muncul. abangku melirik. menarik napas, melihat bunda lagi. mukanya kuyu. loyo. ‘aku punya atasan, bunda,’ ujarnya bak mengadu. suaranya makin lunak, hampir menyerupai bisik. ‘aku punya kawan. aku juga kader partai....’ (p. 17). it is clear then that bang palinggam is directly or indirectly involved in committing corruption crime so that he is described to be so trembling and weak and finally after being lectured by the mother he slowly cries: “terpana menatap bunda. matanya perlahan berkaca-kaca. dia menunduk” (p. 17). indeed, the content of the story is related much with the pretense and hypocrisy. for example, we are forced to be involved in the situation awkwardness of the son who picks up her mother to the airport because he tries hard to cover what really happens to the family (although the mother has actually known what happens), or the pretending situation about the arrest of herman as a character by the police because of his involvement in drug abuse and then covered up as going away for a mountain climbing. the content is full of pretense. however, going back to the lamp that seems strange, this story is shocking us with the presence of a mother character that never stops lighting the “lamp light” of honesty and truth. do we feel sympathy toward the mother who even though has been 80 years old is still busy controlling her children and grandchildren? from the awkwardness of situation described earlier, it is strongly felt that the mother’s presence is considered as “obstacle” that requires pretense. once again, the title with the word “lamp” for me is a tool to make us distance the corruption reality strongly seen around us, especially in the politics realm as conducted by bang palinggam, and the mother image that is so determined in lighting or voicing the honesty and truth with no certainty and indication for its success. the next story, kisah pilot bejo, shows that alienation effect applied inside the story is more obvious. almost all parts of the story are presented in the form of a storyline to clearly ridicule through the use of some comical characters, such funny but representative names as bejo, slamet, untung, sugeng, waluyo, wilujeng, paman bablas, dokter gemblung, aa (amburadul airlines), sa (sontholoyo airlines). we are removed or distanced from the present mushrooming airlines industries, including the high frequency of flight accidents – also including the disappearance of planes and hundreds of passengers inside through the presence of this super neglectful bejo pilot’s extraordinary story. we know that the reality on this bejo pilot who since his high school time (even from his being inside his mother’s womb, perhaps) has relied on his being lucky is only a tool for the author to shock the readers – a tool to distance the literary work from reality – in order to realize how disastrous and bad our airlines reality has been. pay attention to the expression used by the author as follows: ”dibanding dengan ayahnya, kedudukan pilot bejo jauh lebih baik, meskipun pilot bejo tidak lain hanyalah pilot sebuah maskapai penerbangan aa (amburadul airlines) yaitu perusahaan yang dalam banyak hal bekerja asalasalan. selama tiga tahun aa berdiri, tiga pesawat telah jatuh dan membunuh semua penumpangnya, dua pesawat telah meledak bannya pada waktu mendarat dan menimbulkan korban-korban luka, dan paling sedikit sudah lima kali pesawat terpaksa berputar-putar di atas untuk menghabiskan bensin sebelum berani mendarat, tidak lain karena rodanya menolak untuk keluar. kalau masalah keterlambatan terbang, dan pembuatan jadwal terbang asal-asalan, ya, hampir setiap harilah” (p.20). every day is passed by the practice of reckless management of the airline, what is important is gaining profit as much as possible (in line with the capitalist boss’ wishes), meanwhile the passengers or 146 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 140-148 customers’ need is never prioritized or even considered, even until the end of the story, there is no change, the lucky bejo still clings to his working principle. ”semua penumpang menjerit-jerit, demikian pula semua awak pesawat termasuk kopilot, kecuali dia yang tidak menjerit, tetapi berteriak-teriak keras:’bejo namaku! bejo hidupku! bejo penumpangku!’ pesawat berderak-derak keras, terasa benar akan pecah berantakan” (p. 26). all is reckless, and this functions in adorno’s view as an irritant so that the readers are positioned that is distanced from reality in order for them to be able to have critical perspectives toward the reality being raised by the literary work and finally criticize the very reality existing around them. in the last short story tukang jahit, the use or exploitation of the character and plot by the author in the story which is experimentalist also happens. although the story seems to a fairy tale as commented by ayu utami (pambudy, 2008:xxii), for me this a way used by the author to once again through the use of the ”sewer”metaphor to criticize indonesian people’s life reality that is getting harder, finally culminating to a reality signaled by the fact of ”queuing for kerosene” (p. 105). getting back to the use of metaphor, i agree with sapardi djoko damono who has stated that language device can distance us from reality because we can mention a to mean b or mention b to mean c or a, and so on: ”piranti bahasa ini jelas menjauhkan kita dari realitas karena ’bilang begini maksudnya begitu’ (p. 145)”. thus in this way, the effect wanted by the author can work properly: to distance the readers from the reality raised in the story so that they can have a strategic position to see clearly what is being criticized by the author with his work and finally be critical on the existing reality, because – if quoting back bretch – facts about social injustice must be presented as if the reality is so unnatural and shocking, not as facts so integrated with the readers or audience that need to be cried for like the ones in television series so that the readers are made to forget their reality and do not have the ability to criticize the reality. the storyline of this tukang jahit comprises of impossible things in denotative meanings like ”menjahit hati orang yang lagi sedih” (p. 102), ”menjahit luka hati ibu” (p. 103), ”...bisa melihatnya, tetapi tak bisa menyentuhnya. benang yang tak akan habis bila dipakai untuk menjahit seluruh pakaian yang ada di dunia ini” (p. 103), ”memintal benang kesabaran” (p. 104), ”menjahitkan kekecewaan” (p. 105), and some other instances. all cannot be understood in a direct way, but interestingly they are put side by side with the real and so easily understood everyday realities such as ”lebaran” (pp. 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105) ”toko fashion, factory outlet, butik dan pusat perbelanjaan di kota” (p. 102), ”ngantre minyak tanah” (p. 105), ”pulang kampung” (p. 106), ”nganggur” (p. 106), and so on. this can absolutely create defamiliarization effect, so close but at the same time so strange, that cannot drift the readers with the story but to trigger critical thoughts toward the harsh realities being discussed. the social problems put forward by the four short stories are full of real problems in this country. if i may summarize the problems are moral degradation such as love affair, corruption, ignorance due to capitalism domination and poverty. the next question is whether there is a hope of being free from this social problems implied in these four short stories. out of the four, kisah pilot bejo is the most cynical and hopeless. with its cynical, mocking and sarcastic tone, the author ends the story with the most unorganized situation in the airlines industry. there is no optimistic character believing that this rotten condition is possible to be fixed (perhaps the author feels the same way too!). the only optimistic character is bejo who is deeply drowned in the super unorganized and corrupt airline system. however, behind the other three stories, if studied in depth, we can still find implied hopes for a better situation beyond the darkness of the depicted realities. coincidentally, they still present three female characters who have idealism (does this mean women are more sensitive toward these social the portrayal of indonesian image ….. (akun) 147 phenomena?) in facing the difficult situation. in cinta di atas perahu cadik, an old grandmother is presented as someone who feels sick (read: care) of the sukab-hayati’s love affair. she is the one who moves the story forward because she is so irritated and goes here and there without being able to be ignorant of what happens. besides, she wants to convey a moral message to women especially that her bad past experience of being cheated by her husband may not happen to her next fellow generation. at least, if there is someone who cares just like this old lady, then the hope to change is still there. next, in lampu ibu, it is clear that we can meet similar character, a mother of 80 years old, a grandmother too, who never feels tired of lighting the lamp of honesty and truth, as stated at the end of the story, ”kalian sekarang memang bukan lagi anakku yang dulu.’ bunda mengedarkan senyum, juga kepadaku.’apalagi kau, palinggam, kini sudah bercucu pula. namun takdir seorang ibu, nak, selalu terdorong menyalakan lampu hingga akhir hayatnya” (p. 18). it is obviously seen that the mother is not hopeless, still keeps her smile although she knows her son has been deeply involved in the act of putting off his mother’s lamp, but still she keeps struggling this the end to set fire to the lamp because she is a caring character. finally, in tukang jahit, once again another mother character (who finally becomes a grandmother too at the end of the story she is presented as a child asking her father) is presented as a figure with wisdom and hope not to give up against life difficulties. she is a mother who has an understanding of high life philosophy mainly in facing poverty. this is proven because at the end this mother is successful in transferring the understanding of life philosophy to her child (then transferred to the child’s own child) so that the child can understand why there are so many people who are unhappy in this country due to the high price of that happiness, as mentioned in this quotation:”barangkali, sekarang ini kebahagiaan memang seperti minyak tanah. tidak semua orang dengan gampang mendapatkannya. bahkan untuk sekadar bisa menikmati kebahagiaan pada hari lebaran pun kini orang mesti antre berdesak-desakan” (p. 106). so, even though the situation is so difficult, the mother and her child-grandchild are depicted in this story as not hopeless, but understand the situation. the symbolic hope is still owned by them because in anyway there are still sewers who can sew all sad, disappointed and broken hearts, and other thousands of grieves and sorrows. conclusion every story can be read as a medium that reflects whatever happens in the real world. but not all stories present the life realities as they are with convincing storylines that can drift the readers away in the conflicts so that they forget or insensitive toward the social criticism aimed by the story. this is in line with bertolt brecht and theodor adorno who both emphasize the importance of alienation effect or defamiliarization effect created by the story that has the capability of creating a distance between the literary work and the real world, that this literary work functions to irritate the readers so that they can criticize the reality. out of the four short stories chosen in this study, it is proven that the authors present the storylines and characters that are not common, mostly shocking, to give space for the readers to criticize the raised social phenomena. in this way, the readers can have a more strategic and objective standing position in understanding the social criticism aimed by the authors, and thus becoming more critical too toward the reality. the social problems such as love affairs, corruption, totally unorganized public services and also poverty that have lately colored the face of this country have been presented by the authors through their special way, and behind all the social problems, the hope for a better future is still implicitly seen through the presence of old female characters who seem to be irritated and hopeless but actually remain caring. 148 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 140-148 references carter, d. (2006). literary theory: the pocket essential. herts: pocket essentials hall, d.( 2002). to read literature: fiction, poetry, drama. boston: heinle & heinle thomson learning. pambudy, n.m. (ed). (2008). cinta di atas perahu cadik: cerpen kompas pilihan 2007. jakarta: penerbit buku kompas. selden, r., widdowson, p., & brooker, p. (1997). a reader’s guide to contemporary literary theory. london: prentice hall. microsoft word 10_jp_elisa carolina.doc pengaruh sistem senioritas ….. (elisa carolina marion; dkk) 207 pengaruh sistem senioritas atau nenkojoretsu terhadap perkembangan karir karyawan lokal berpendidikan s1 di perusahaan jepang di indonesia elisa carolina marion, ratna handayani, natsumi koda japanese department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 emarion@binus.edu abstract seniority system in japan known as nenkojoretsu is a culture that influences the management system of japanese companies operating in indonesia, including the promotion system for career development of the employees. this study aims to find out more about the seniority system which runs on japanese companies in indonesia. this research can also broaden the knowledge of japanese language students who seek a career in japan corporates. we use a questionnaire as data collection technique. the result is then analyzed using descriptive analysis. this study finds that there is a position change for respondents who occupy staf positions for more than fifteen years of work since entering work. though, some of them have not changed position yet. keywords: career employees, japanese corporate, nenkojoretsusei, seniority abstrak sistem senioritas di negara jepang atau yang dikenal dengan istilah nenkojoretsu adalah salah satu budaya yang banyak memberikan pengaruh terhadap sistem manajemen perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia, termasuk sistem promosi bagi perkembangan karir karyawan. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui lebih dalam mengenai sistem senioritas yang dijalankan di perusahaan jepang di indonesia. penelitian ini juga dapat membuka wawasan mahasiswa pembelajar bahasa jepang yang ingin berkarir di perusahaan jepang. teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah dengan penyebaran angket yang kemudian hasilnya akan dianalisis menggunakan metode analisis deskriptif. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa ada perubahan posisi bagi responden yang menduduki posisi staf sejak masuk bekerja dalam perkembangannya selama lebih dari lima belas tahun bekerja, dan ada pula yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi. kata kunci: karir karyawan, perusahaan jepang, nenkojoretsusei, senioritas 208 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 207-213 pendahuluan indonesia sebagai negara yang cukup subur dan memiliki jumlah penduduk yang cukup banyak, menjadi salah satu negara tujuan investasi oleh pihak asing, tak terkecuali negara jepang. berdasarkan artikel “investasi jepang di indonesia melonjak” dalam cri online (2012), volume investasi jepang di indonesia tahun 2011 tercatat us$ 1,5 miliar, bertambah lebih dari dua kali lipat dibandingkan pada tahun 2010 yang senilai us$ 710 juta. meningkatnya jumlah investasi ini menggambarkan bahwa peluang bagi penduduk lokal bisa bekerja dan mengembangkan karir di perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia juga meningkat. sistem senioritas atau yang lebih dikenal dengan istilah nenkojoretsu merupakan salah salah satu budaya yang memberikan ciri khas tersendiri bagi negara jepang. sistem ini banyak memberikan pengaruh terhadap sistem manajemen bagi perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia, termasuk dalam sistem promosi bagi perkembangan karir karyawan yang berada di dalamnya. sistem ini sangat jauh berbeda dengan sistem promosi yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan barat. sistem manajemen barat menitik beratkan pada performa kerja dan top down decision makings. di perusahaan amerika, karyawan direkrut berdasarkan skills, dan kompetensi atau keahlian mereka sangat dihargai (culpan, 1993:41). sedangkan pada perusahaan jepang ditentukan oleh senioritas, usia, jenis kelamin dan status perkawinan. perbedaan sistem promosi pada kedua perusahaan tersebut yang menjadi alasan bagi peneliti untuk mengadakan penelitian mengenai ”pengaruh sistem senioritas atau nenkojoretsu terhadap perkembangan karir karyawan lokal berpendidikan s1 di perusahaan jepang di indonesia”. metode penulis menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif dengan mendapatkan data melalui angket dan wawancara mendalam serta studi literature. pendekatan kualitatif adalah suatu proses penelitian dan pemahaman yang berdasarkan pada metodologi yang menyelidiki suatu fenomena sosial dan masalah manusia. pada pendekatan ini, peneliti membuat suatu gambaran kompleks, meneliti katakata, laporan terinci dari pandangan narasumber dan melakukan studi pada situasi yang alami (creswell, 1998). wawancara dilakukan terhadap manajemen, bagian human resource development perusahaan, dan karyawan lokal khususnya yang berpendidikan s1. wawancara dilakukan hanya kepada beberapa orang saja yang memiliki pengalam yang lebih lama dan dapat mewakili dari pihak perusahaan. data angket dan interview yang dikumpulkan adalah mengenai pengaruh system senioritas terhadap perkembangan karir karyawan yang berpendidikan s1 di perusahaan tersebut. selain itu peneliti juga mengumpulkan data melalui angket dan wawancara kepada karyawan lokal, yang bekerja di perusahaan jepang tersebut. kuisiner berisi mengenai tanggapan karayawan lokal terhadap sistem senioritas yang dijalankan oleh perusahaan jepang tersebut, khususnya terhadap perkembangan karir karyawan lokal berpendidikan s1 yang bekerja di perusahaan jepang tersebut. hasil dan pembahasan bagian ini akan menjelaskan hasil dari angket yang disebarkan ke pt kds indonesia. jumlah responden adalah sebanyak 20 orang. terdapat 7 nomor pertanyaan, yaitu: (1) jenis kelamin responden; (2) usia responden; (3) pendidikan terakhir responden; (4) lama bekerja di pt kds indonesia; (5) posisi/jabatan saat ini; (6) posisi awal bekerja di pt kds indonesia; (7) urutan pengaruh sistem senioritas ….. (elisa carolina marion; dkk) 209 perubahan posisi yang dialami selama bekerja di pt kds indonesia. hasil questioner dianalisis melalui diagram sebagai berikut (gambar 1 – 7): 55% 45% jenis kelamin responden laki laki perempuan gambar 1. diagram jenis kelamin responden. dari 20 responden yang dilibatkan dalam penelitian ini, terdapat kombinasi antara responden yang berjenis kelamin laki-laki dan perempuan. responden yang berjenis kelamin laki-laki sebanyak 1satu orang atau dengan prosentase 55% dan responden yang berjenis kelamin perempuan sebanyak 9 orang atau dengan prosentase 45%. 0% 5% 85% 10% usia responden <30 tahun 30-40 tahun 40-50 tahun >50 tahun gambar 2. diagram usia responden. dari gambar 2 di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa mayoritas responden berusia antara 40-50 tahun, yaitu sebanyak 17 orang atau 85%. kemudian dua orang responden berusia di atas 50 tahun, dengan besar prosentase 10 %. sedangkan hanya terdapat satu orang responden yang berusia di bawah 30 tahun. 50% 20% 30% 0% pendidikan terakhir responden smu diploma (d i, d ii, d iii) gambar 3. diagram pendidikan terakhir responden. 210 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 207-213 dari gambar 3 di atas, terlihat sekali bahwa 50% dari responden hanya berpendidikan smu, yaitu sebanyak 10 orang. sedangkan 20% dari 20 responden berpendidikan terakhir diploma, dan 30% dari responden berpendidikan sarjana. dan tidak ada seorang pun dari 20 responden yang berpendidikan s2. 0%0% 0% 100% lama bekerja responden <5 tahun 5-10 tahun 10-15 tahun >15 tahun gambar 4. diagram lama bekerja responden. dari gambar 4 di atas, dapat dilihat bahwa 100% dari jumlah responden memiliki lama bekerja di atas 15 tahun di pt kds indonesia. hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa seluruh responden memiliki rasa loyalitas yang tinggi terhadap perusahaan. keterangan 1 staf 2 supervisor 3 kepala bagian 4 manajer 5 tidak menjawab gambar 5. diagram posisi/ jabatan respoden saat ini. data responden menunjukkan posisi atau jabatan responden di pt kds indonesia saat ini adalah staf sebanyak 35%, yaitu tujuh orang; supervisor tidak ada; kepala bagian sebanyak 25%, yaitu lima orang; dan manajer sebanyak 40%, yaitu delapan orang. semua responden menjawab pertanyaan nomor 5 ini dalam angket. bila dihubungkan dengan pertanyaan sebelumnya dalam angket, mengenai lamanya responden bekerja di perusahaan tersebut, semua responden telah bekerja di perusahaan tersebut lebih dari lima belas tahun. keterangan 1 staf 2 supervisor 3 kepala bagian 4 manajer 5 tidak menjawab gambar 6. diagram posisi responden pertama kali bekerja di perusahaan ini. pengaruh sistem senioritas ….. (elisa carolina marion; dkk) 211 berdasarkan gambar 6, jabatan responden ketika pertama kali berkerja di pt kds indonesia menunjukkan bahwa, 75%, yaitu 10 orang, adalah staf. tidak ada yang menduduki jabatan sebagai supervisor saat pertama kali bekerja. kemudian sebanyak 20%, yaitu 4 orang, menjabat sebagai kepala bagian dan sebanyak 5%, yaitu satu orang menjabat sebagai manajer. data ini memperlihatkan bahwa sebagian besar karyawan menduduki jabatan pertama kali bekerja sebagai staf, hanya beberapa orang saja yang langsung menduduki jabatan sebagai kepala bagian dan hanya satu orang yang langsung menduduki jabatan sebagai manajer. bila dihubungkan dengan latar belakang pendidikan, sebagaian besar responden memiliki pendidikan terakhir smu, karena itu sebagaian besar responden menduduki jabatan pertama kali di perusahaan tersebut sebagai staf, jabatan karyawan pada umumnya. posisi pertama kali bekerja terbanyak ke dua adalah kepala bagian dan manajer. bila dihubungkan dengan data mengenai pendidikan terakhir responden, sebagaian besar memiliki latar belakang pendidikan s1 dan lama bekerja yang rata-rata sama dengan semua responden yaitu di atas 15 tahun. hanya satu orang yang berlatar belakang pendidikan s1, yang menduduki jabatan pertama kali bekerja mulai dari staf. keterangan: 1. staf, pendidikan terakhir sma 2. staf, pendidikan terakhir diploma 3. staf, supervisor 4. staf, supervisor. kepala bagian 5. staf, supervisor, kepala bagian, manajer. 6. kepala bagian, manajer 7. manajer. gambar 7. diagram urutan posisi yang pernah dialami responden sampai saat ini. berdasarkan gambar 7, urutan posisi yang pernah dialami responden selama bekerja di perusahaan sampai saat ini ada beberapa macam. posisi staf dan tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sebanyak 30%, yaitu enam orang. bila dihubungkan dengan pertanyaan sebelumnya dalam angket, mengenai lamanya bekerja, menunjukkan bahwa semua responden telah bekerja selama lebih dari lima belas tahun. bila dihubungkan dengan pendidikan terakhir responden yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sejak sebagai posisi terendah, yaitu sebagai staf, menunjukkan bahwa responden dengan pendidikan terakhir sma dan tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sejak pertama kali masuk sebagai posisi terendah, yaitu staf, terdapat sebanyak empat orang dari 10 orang yang berpendidikan terakhir sma. berdasarkan data kuisioner dapat diketahui resonden yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sejak pertama kali kerja yaitu: empat orang (20%) di posisi staf dengan pendidikan terakhir sma, dan dua orang (10%) dengan pendidikan terakhir diploma. sementara responden yang berpendidikan terakhir sma tetapi mengalami perubahan posisi sejak pertama kali masuk sebagai staf sebanyak enam orang dari seluruh responden yang berpendidikan terakhir sma yang berjumlah 10 orang. dua dari empat responden berpendidikan diploma mengalami perubahan posisi, baik yang dimulai dari staf maupun yang tidak. hal ini menunjukkan terdapatnya perubahan posisi pada responden sejak sebagai staf, juga terdapat posisi lebih tinggi di atas staf bagi karyawan baru, meskipun hanya sebagian kecil karyawan yang dapat memiliki langsung memiliki posisi tinggi tersebut. bila posisi staf yang tidak mengalami perubahan sejak bekerja di perusahaan ini dikaitkan dengan sisten nenkojouretsu dalam perusahaan jepang di jepang pada umumnya, tentu perlu dilihat kembali kondisi di bagian tempat staf tersebut bekerja. sesuai dengan konsep nenkojoretsu, bahwa 212 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 207-213 sistem promosi di perusahaan jepang berbeda dengan di amerika serikat yang menitikberatkan pada prestasi individual, sedangkan pada perusahaan jepang ditentukan oleh senioritas, usia, jenis kelamin dan status perkawinan. perubahan posisi dari staf menjadi supervisor dialami 5% responden, yaitu satu orang. perubahan posisi dari staf, supervisor, hingga kepala bagian dialami 30% responden, yaitu enam orang. perubahan posisi dari staf, supervisor, kepala bagian hingga manajer dialami 15% responden, yaitu tiga orang. perubahan posisi dari kepala bagian menjadi manajer, juga dialami 15% responden, yaitu tiga orang. posisi yang tidak berubah dari manajer sebanyak dialami 5% responden, yaitu satu orang. gambar 8. diagram pendidikan terakhir dan urutan posisi responden. berdasarkan gambar 8, perubahan posisi berkaitan dengan pendidikan terakhir sebagai berikut: empat orang responden atau sebanyak 20% berpendidikan s1 awal bekerja sebagai staf kemudian naik menjadi supervisor; satu orang atau sebanyak 5% responden mengalami perubahan posisi dari kepala bagian menjadi manajer. responden berpendidikan terakhir s1 yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi adalah yang langsung menduduki posisi sangat tinggi, sehingga tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sampai saat ini. responden tersebut sebanyak 5%, yaitu satu orang dari seluruh responden. ada responden yang sejak awal bekerja di pt kds indonesia menduduki posisi staf mengalami perubahan posisi dalam perkembangannya selama lebih dari lima belas tahun bekerja, dan ada pula yang tidak. sebagian besar dari responden yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi berpendidikan smu. kondisi mengenai staf berpendidikan terakhir sma dan belum mengalami perubahan posisi yang lebih tinggi selama lebih dari lima belas tahun perlu diteliti lebih lanjut di bagian responden tersebut bekerja. bila dikaitkan dengan sistem nenkojoretsu pada perusahaan jepang di jepang pada umumnya, hal ini bisa terjadi apabila atasan responden di bagian responden bekerja memiliki masa kerja di perusahaan tersebut yang lebih lama dari responden, tanpa mempertimbangkan prestasi maupun pendidikan terakhir. responden yang berpendidikan terakhir s1 yang sejak awal bekerja di perusahaan menduduki posisi staf, dalam perkembangannya selama lebih dari lima belas tahun bekerja mengalami perubahan posisi yang lebih tinggi. dengan demikian sistem nenkojouretsu pada responden berlatar belakang s1 tidak terdapat di perusahaan ini. di samping hasil mengenai responden yang berpendidikan s1, di penelitian ini juga ditemukan hasil yang menarik di mana mayoritas dari responden yaitu sebesar 50% berpendidikan smu dan 100% dari responden memiliki masa kerja yang cukup lama yaitu di atas 15 tahun. 50% dari responden yang berpendidikan smu memiliki jabatan sebagai manajer di perusahaan tersebut. dari hasil wawancara, diperoleh hasil bahwa perusahaan melakukan pelatihan bagi para karyawan sejak mereka mulai bergabung. pada akhirnya sesuai dengan rentang waktu lamanya bekerja, para karyawan yang dianggap berkompeten, dipercaya untuk menjabat sebagai manajer meskipun hanya pengaruh sistem senioritas ….. (elisa carolina marion; dkk) 213 berpendidikan smu. pelatihan dilakukan dalam bentuk on job training (ojt) dan training terkait skill bekerja. bentuk pengiriman training di perusahaan induk yang berada di jepang sesuai dengan bidang yang ditekuni seperti produksi, quality control, quality assurance, dll. simpulan penelitian ini dilakukan pada pt kds indonesia melalui angket yang disebarkan ke 20 orang responden. dari hasil questioner diperoleh bahwa 50% responden hanya berpendidikan smu, yaitu sebanyak 10 orang; 20% berpendidikan diploma; 30% responden berpendidikan s1. s1 adalah pendidikan tertinggi dari seluruh responden. 100% responden telah bekerja di pt kds indonesia lebih dari 15 tahun. selama lebih dari lima belas tahun bekerja, ada responden yang sejak awal bekerja di pt kds indonesia menduduki posisi staf mengalami perubahan posisi, dan ada pula yang tidak. sebagian besar dari responden yang tidak mengalami perubahan posisi berpendidikan smu. empat dari 10 responden berpendidikan smu tidak mengalami perubahan posisi sejak pertama kali masuk sebagai posisi terendah, yaitu staf. dua dari empat responden berpendidikan diploma mengalami perubahan posisi, baik yang dimulai dari staf maupun yang tidak. responden yang berpendidikan terakhir s1 yang sejak awal bekerja di perusahaan menduduki posisi staf, dalam perkembangannya selama lebih dari lima belas tahun bekerja mengalami perubahan posisi yang lebih tinggi. dengan demikian sistem nenkojouretsu pada responden berlatar belakang s1 tidak terdapat di perusahaan ini. daftar pustaka creswell, john w. (1998). qualitative inquiry and research design. los angeles: sage publication. cri online (2012). investasi jepang di indonesia melonjak. diakses dari http://indonesian.cri.cn/201/2012/01/27/1s124757.htm. culpan, r. and kucukemiroglu, o. (1993). a comparison of u.s. and japanese management styles and unit effectiveness. management international review, 33 (1), 27 – 42. microsoft word 10_endang ernawati_setting identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 201 identifying problems in students’ final projects based on scientific writing guidelines endang ernawati english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, ernaw@binus.edu    abstract article analyzed student’s difficulties and abilities in writing their final projects, which were undergraduate theses and undergraduate paper conducted by some students at the english department, bina nusantara university. this was a preliminary study to support an appropriate student guideline in writing their final project. the study was conducted by applying qualitative methods that was by analyzing the four theses and one paper in terms of their format: titles, introduction, theoretical background, analysis, conclusion, bibliography, and paper rubric to analyze the contents. it can be concluded that generally, students, guided by their mentor/lecturer, understand the final paper guidelines and they are able to apply it in their thesis and paper. but, there are still lack of clarity and relevancy in expressing their ideas properly, and their ability in writing in both english and bahasa indonesia must be improved. these problems can be overcome by socializing the writing guidelines to both students and lecturers, providing them with critical thinking skills, cooperation with library that will guide them in information literacy skills, and language center that will improve their writing skills. keywords: final project, scientific writing, writing guidelines, undergraduate theses, paper abstrak artikel menganalisis kesulitan dan kemampuan mahasiswa untuk menulis tugas akhir mereka berdasarkan panduan penulisan tugas akhir yang telah diterbitkan jurusan sastra inggris, fakultas bahasa dan budaya, universitas bina nusantara. studi ini merupakan langkah awal untuk melakukan kajian penulisan ilmiah yang lebih spesifik dan penulisan pedoman penulisan karya ilmiah yang lebih tepat buat mahasiswa di binus. studi dilakukan dengan metode kualitatif, yaitu menganalisis 4 thesis dan 1 paper di bawah bimbingan penulis. analisis dilakukan dengan menilai format penulisan, yaitu judul, pendahuluan, landasan teori, analisis, simpulan, penulisan daftar pustaka berdasarkan apa, dan analysis kandungan tulisan berdasarkan rubrik. disimpulkan, mahasiswa dengan arahan dosen pembimbing mampu menafsirkan panduan penulisan ke dalam karya tugas akhir mereka dengan baik, tetapi masih terdapat kekurangan terkait dengan “clarity” dan “relevancy” di dalam mengekspresikan isi penelitian, dan kelemahan dalam penulisan dalam bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia. kelemahan ini dapat diatasi dengan sosialisasi pedoman penulisan ilmiah kepada mahasiswa dan dosen pembimbing, bekerja sama dengan perpustakaan yang akan membimbing mereka menguasai ketrampilan berliterasi informasi, dan pusat bahasa yang akan membina kemampuan berbahasa mereka. kata kunci: tugas akhir, penulisan ilmiah, pedoman penulisan, skripsi, paper 202 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  introduction subjects related to students’ ability in scientific writing have been taught from the early semesters; namely writing, grammar, research methods, and scientific writing. those subjects are taught to foster students’ cognitive and affective aspects of learning. the main purpose is for the students to be able to do research as well as write their report in the form of undergraduate theses and paper properly. to support class learning process, library as the heart of the university, has information literacy (il) programs in which the library users are educated to be independent in finding information. practice in library operation is done by proper placement of books and non-books collections, education on how to access and use them properly, and then utilize all those collections legally and ethically in the form of scientific writing. educating library users to be information literate is by motivating them to recognize information they need, ability to find the appropriate information, and use them properly to create a new knowledge/information that will be documented and publish as library collections. in writing undergraduate theses, students were guided by lecturers, in which they are guided to apply skills and theories of scientific writing into a real research and undergraduate theses as a requirement to achieve s1 degree. lecturer guidance is conducted in one semester or at least ten times consultation until the undergraduate theses is finished. so, it can be said that students are already prepared properly before they conduct research and write undergraduate theses and paper. the provisions of writing skills, research method, and scientific writing are already given with the purpose of producing a good quality thesis, but in reality, qualified undergraduate theses have not really been achieved. methods the study used qualitative method. article explored four undergraduate theses and one diploma paper in their application of scientific writing rules. to what extent the students were able to apply scientific writing rules in their scientific writing in terms of formats and paper rubric. study was done by qualitative method in which four undergraduate theses and one diploma (d3) paper with the following titles listed in table 1 were explored. table 1 list of theses and paper explored in this research no author year title type 1 yuliastuti. 2005 analysis of the conscious and unconscious mind of sheila’s behavior in one child by torey hayden undergraduate theses 2 wendy wijaya 2010 the analysis of racism through characters derek vinyard and daniel vinyard in american history x movie undergraduate theses 3 maria hernanda ika kristiani 2009 an analysis of woman’s struggle in upholding the family honour in a walt disney movie mulan undergraduate theses 4 siska yuliana 2009 semiotic analysis on sign across non-verbal communication in ferd’nand wordless comic strip undergraduate theses 5 imelda liaury 2004 an analysis of sheila’s character in one child by torey hayden paper of d3 program identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 203 introduction analysis this study was based on scientific writing regulation published by the english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university. thesis or students’ final project have been analysed based on their structure, these elements were title; abstract; keywords; introduction consisting of background, problems, scope and limitation, goals, and research methods; theoretical background; analysis; conclusion; summary; references; and rubric analysis. scientific writing regulation for undergraduate theses and paper from the english department, binus university is summarised as follows (binus university english department, 2010). an undergraduate thesis (skripsi) is divided into 5 chapters. chapter 1: introduction, consisting of: background of study described general problems, why did the writer interested to the topic, the advantage of researching the topic. problem formulation problems were issued by the writer to find its solution/answers. problem identity can be in either in affirmative or question sentence. the answer of the problem must be conducted by research. scope and limitation this sub title clarified scope and the limitation which is the smaller than the scope that will be analyzed, for example the scope is the novel, drama, the subject or research, while the limitation was the main character, methods of teaching subject, object of the research, analyzed data, etc. the purpose of defining this scope and limitation is to create the focus of the research. goal(s) and functions(s) goals were achievements that will be presented in the end of research. goals can be the answer or solution of the problems. functions was the condition if the goals were already achieved, taken from the readers’ point of view. it is optional in the research. research methods this is a slight clarification of methods that will be explored in chapter 3: analysis. the writer can mention the way the research will be conducted; those are qualitative or quantitative research. in general the methods mention respondent, informants, research instruments: questionnaires, interview guidance, time, and place. qualitative research can be in the type of library research, and the writer has to mention theories that will be applied in analysis. chapter 2: theoretical background this chapter presents some theories from many experts related to the topic of research. the writer quotes properly based on apa style to avoid plagiarism. review of some past researches was done by mentioning problems, goals, and methods, and results that have been done to previous research. by presenting this review, the writer will know the position of this research among those that have been done, as well as showing the value of the research. chapter 3: research analysis this chapter is the essence of the research in which the writer will analyse how to collect, analyse, and evaluate data based on the goals of research and of course the research problems. if the writer does a library research, this chapter will analyse the main character based on the chosen theories. 204 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  chapter 4: conclusion and suggestions conclusions describe the essence of research that is in line with problem formulation and goals of the research. the statement must be clear and concise. suggestions are optional. it can be a chance of the future research that can be done by the next students. chapter 5: summary summary clarifies the research in bahasa indonesia that describes the research in order the nonindonesia readers understand the background, methods, and conclusion of the research. (binus university english department, 2010) abstract after writing undergraduate theses, the writer should complete it with abstract which is a “miniature” of the research. abstract functions as a “short description” in which the readers can grasp the research and decide to continue to read the whole thesis or not. abstract consists of goals, method, analyse, and conclusion of the research. (apa, 2007). quotation quotation format was written based on apa style of writing. quotations consist of direct and indirect quotation. direct quotation permits the writer writes “statement” as it was written on the literature sources with a limited portion, while indirect quotation was done by paraphrasing the sources to avoid plagiarism. the basic quotation format was name of author, year of publication, and the related page(s). references writing references is also written based on apa style of writing. it is done for textbooks (author, year of publication, title, (edition), city, publisher); articles (author, (month, year), title of article, title of journal, volume, number, and related page. if the writers use articles from the internet, they have to mention year of upload, time when the writers get the information, and its url address. based on apa style, author is written by last name first and followed by its initials. title of book/article was written by preceding capital letter, followed by title case, except for personal name and place. for additional analysis, the study used research paper rubric to evaluate grade the whole undergraduate theses and paper content, as follows. table 2 research paper rubric expert proficient apprentice novice integration of knowledge the paper demonstrates that the author fully understands and has applied concepts learned in the course. concepts are integrated into the writer’s own insights. the writer provides concluding remarks that show analysis and synthesis of ideas. the paper demonstrates that the author, for the most part, understands and has supplied concepts learned in the course. some of the conclusions, however, are not supported in the body of the paper. the paper demonstrates that the author, to a certain extent, understands and has applied concepts learned in the course. the paper does not demonstrate that the author has fully understood and applied concepts learned in the course. topic focus the topic is focused narrowly enough for the scope of this assignment. a thesis statement provides direction of the paper, either by statement of a position or hypothesis. the topic is appropriately focused but lacks direction. the paper is about a specific topic but the writer has not established a position. the topic is too broad for the scope of this assignment. the topic is not clearly defined. identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 205 table 2 research paper rubric (continued) expert proficient apprentice novice depth of discussion in-depth discussion & elaboration in all sections of the paper. in-depth discussion & elaboration in most sections of the paper. the writer has omitted pertinent content or content runs-on excessively. quotations from others outweigh the writer’s own ideas excessively. cursory discussion in all the sections of the paper or brief discussion in only a few sections. cohesiveness ties together information from all sources. paper flows from one issue to the next without the need for headings. author’s writing demonstrates an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. for the most part, ties together information from all sources. paper flows with only some disjointedness. author’s writing demonstrates an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. sometimes ties together information from all sources. paper does not flow. author’s writing does not demonstrate an understanding of the relationship among material obtained from all sources. does not tie together information. paper does not flow and appears to be created from disparate issues. headings are necessary to link concepts. spelling & grammar no spelling &/ or grammar mistakes. minimal spelling &/or grammar mistakes. noticeable spelling & grammar mistakes. unacceptable number of spelling and/or grammar mistakes. sources more than 5 current sources, of which at least 3 are peerreview journal articles or scholarly books. sources include both general background sources and specialized sources. specialinterest sources and popular literature are acknowledged as such. all website utilized are authoritative. 5 current sources, of which at least 2 are peer-review journal articles or scholarly books. all websites utilized are authoritative. fewer than 5 current sources or fewer than 2 of 5 are peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books. all websites utilized are credible. fewer than 5 current sources or fewer than 2 of 5 are peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books. not all websites utilized are credible, and/or sources are not current. citations cites all data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. cites some data obtained from other sources. citation style is either inconsistent or incorrect. does not cite sources. source: cornell & colorado (2004) results and discussions title analysis titles that the students chose have met the requirements. their titles’ lengths are varied from 10 words to 14 words and cover analysis of the chosen topics. (see the theses and paper titles in the methods section). introduction analysis referring to the format of four undergraduate theses and one paper, it can be said that all the students have already known and aware of its format. all of these final papers are consisted of: title, abstract, table of content, introduction, theoretical background, analysis, conclusion and suggestion, and summary. based on cooley and lewkowics (2003:9), there are still many weaknesses made by the authors that need further guidance from their lecturers. the analysis using rhetorical moves is as follows. all the four undergraduate theses and paper have already contained background, problems formulation, scope and limitation, goals, and research methods. but, they are not written in focus, for example in writing background of study, the authors cannot mention clearly why they are interested in the topics that will be developed into their researches. 206 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  thesis no 1 did not mention the background properly but the author mentioned the main problem as follows, “… but, when there is something going wrong in the family, like divorce or bad things that happens in their family, it will influence their own children’s life”. this thesis statement will be proved in the research. the fact, the background should mention the writer’s interests in conscious and unconscious mind of a child, not the effects of broken parents to their child. thesis no 2 presented racism topic and its background still explores deeply on racism, for example by showing a definition to conform the meanings, and followed by thesis statement that said,”… people have different perception in understanding racism…” that will be proved in the analysis through a comparison between of derek and daniel vinyard’s characters. so, this thesis has a good clarity and relevance in their topic and background presentation. there is a good correlation between topic and background of study presented in thesis no 3. the topic title was”... women struggle in upholding the family honours”, and the background that said,”…women must struggle hard to prove themselves in society.” in this relationship, upholding the family honours can be closely associated to women struggle to develop their roles in society. siska yuliana (2009) in thesis no 4 mentioned “non-verbal communication” as having (wordless) comic as object media, while in her background of study she started “communication” as the basic concept, followed by verbal and non-verbal communication. in the last part, her thesis statement said that,”… unfortunately, not all people understand the meaning of comic, … therefore the readers cannot enjoy and understand the comic.” in her paper, siska defined ferd’nand comic strip as a combination between picture and body language. this thesis presented a good correlation, which is clarity and relevancy between the chosen topic and its background. related to the paper no 5 title, irrelevance between title and background is also found where the title was “analysis of sheila’s character …” and the background said, “whenever they (parents) are separated, children are the first suffering objects for its impact”. so, the author interests to sheila’s unusual character and parent’s behaviour is totally different. evaluating from the clarity and relevancy point of view, it can be concluded that from the 4 undergraduate theses and 1 paper, there are 3 theses and one paper that meet the requirement. the indicator is the availability of a strong indicator tone in the first and second paragraph of those thesis and paper. as of, the following sentences that said: 1. “this thesis will analyse a novel entitled ,….” 2. “in order to prove that racism and its impact still exist, the writer chooses …movie which offers more rationale storyline about racism” 3. “this research analyses wordless comic using ferd’nand comic strips.” … 4. “the focus of discussion in this thesis is on the main character …” 5. “this paper will analyse sheila, … that had been abandoned by her mother and lived with her drunken father.” those sentences indicated that the authors already aware of their purpose in doing the library researches by mentioning media (novel, comic, and movie) and the related topics, such as the main character of the media. review of related literatures one of the relevance factors in research indicates its review on the previous researches having the same topic s. by doing literature review, the researchers prove that they are able to analyse others’ work so that they know position or “state of the art” of their present researches and they are able to communicate or know the link of the former researches. literature review also proves that the researchers have a good critical thinking in which they want to create a new aspect of the same topic identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 207 of research, for example by applying different method, problem formulation, goals, object of research, and analysis. literature review presented in the final project is as follows. yuliastuti (2005) presented literature review in “summary of the related paper” in chapter 2 by clarifying papers that she have explored. but, she did not mention what the difference and values that she would do in her next research. she also mentioned 15 textbook and no articles in her bibliography at the end of her thesis. wendy wijaya (2010) presented literature review from his bibliography that is consisted of 23 textbooks, 1 thesis, 2 journal articles, and 1 reference book. in his first chapter he stated,” the thesis with racism topic has already researched by many people, for example …. by yuliani, a binusian 2008. the problem presented ….the goals … .the research analysis …., and conclusion.” wendy also mentioned “another research related in racism issue by jessica ringrose (2003).”. he mentioned jessica’s quantitative research, he also analyzed an article wrote by john bird in 2007 with the topic “psychoanalysis and racism”. he explored the research’s problem, goals, applied library research, theories, analysis, and conclusion clearly. finally, wendy related those previous researches with his by saying that,” based on the related literature research in racism issue above, it can be considered that the writer’s research is useful to conduct and will be presented in a thesis entitled ….” there was no literature review in the thesis no 3. maria hernanda ika kristiani (2009) did not present literature review. from 9 references, she only presented one journal article (by ming tsui and it was not deeply analysed). she quoted the content of article as a theory in chapter 2 that she would apply in her analysis. the article presented the division of chinese family. siska yuliana (2009) in thesis no 4 only mentioned 19 textbooks and 3 reference books in her references, with no journal articles. that was why she could not present the literature review, instead of some definitions and theories in chapter 2, theoretical background. imelda liaury (2004) did not present literature review in chapter 1, and she only had 11 textbooks and no journal articles in her bibliography. from literature review analysis, it can be concluded that only one thesis that presents literature review with the purpose of saying that his research is valuable enough to be conducted. it means that he can learn from others’ research some points related to his topic. this literature review was closely related with his bibliography consisting of 1 related thesis and 2 articles as comparison and input. it was the current thesis (2010) when the writer has been guided, so it can be said that the more current research, the more students are aware of the utilization of primary sources that is article and thesis. therefore, the skill of information retrieval, such as finding and using e-scientific journal, retrieving information from internet, by applying simple and advance search must be prioritized. to support this needs, reference librarians plays important role in developing information literacy, that is how to recognize the needed information, how to find them, and use them legally to create new knowledge. on the other hand, literature review also indicates that the student researchers need some guidance related to the theories that will be used in research. usually, students choose theories only based on previous research and not from exploring other researches or the impacts on theories for the result and conclusion. this indicates that the students were not capable of integrating or comparing each reference they obtained. they have not explored the correlation of one researcher and the other in defining theories and methods they have chosen, do they have same basic thinking in doing research with the same topic? in reality, the student researchers just made a bibliographic list having subject or keyword related to their thesis topic. in this case, students need guidance in how to evaluate others’ primary research to choose their real research, and critical thinking skills that will develop students’ skill in evaluating others’ researches. 208 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  the awareness of doing literature review based on primary research is in line with the university policy to develop research and publication that becomes the main priority at present. the utilization of article and previous research as primary sources should be socialized to users; namely lecturers, students, and researchers in binus university. ministry of national education support in the form of e-journal subscription and some research grants are also utilized by students. problems, scope and limitation, and goals analysis research problems in the form of statement of problem or problem formulation is the basic of research. it is closely related to the goal of research in which the goals will answer or clarify the problems. to make the research focus, there will be scope and limitation of research. scope is a broader term than limitation and these terminologies have already been understood by the student researchers in their theses/paper. yuliastuti (2005) focused the problem on conscious and unconsciousness of the main character, limited by applied theories, and the goals would answer the problem, that was finding reason why the main character doing unpredictable and destructive actions. wijaya (2010) stated problem formulation on how racism belief development and its impacts to the main characters, scope mentioned the used movie, and the two brother characters, and the goals indicated answer to the problem formulation that was to find out factors that influence the understanding and practice of racism between the two brothers. kristiani (2009) stated in her problem formulation on how the main character become a hero but also regarded as the “other” by society. her scope of research is the main character and the goal was the answer for the problems. yuliana (2009) mentioned problem formulation on why the sign and meaning can be understood by readers, scope indicated the media (wordless comic) and the readers, and finally the goals stated the answer to the problem formulation. liaury (2004) stated her statement of problems on how, reason, and appropriate treatment for the destructive behaviour of the main character, scope indicated the main character behaviour, and the goals clarified the problems. conclusion for the above analysis indicated that all the student researchers already understand the meaning and function of statement of problems or problem formulation, scope and limitation, as well as goals of researches. it means that “relevance”, “clearness”, and “logical thinking” have been mastered by students. research methods analysis research methods for thesis and paper in binus were located in chapter 1 because formerly it was a research proposal that have been approved. there are disadvantages of presenting research method in chapter one due to its limitation of 100 to 250 words, therefore they could only describe the type and sequence of used methods and it would be too limited and unclear. research methods consist of research paradigm that has been chosen, why this methods are appropriate to this research, the positive as well as negative views, respondent selection and its reason, instrument, such as questionnaires, interview guidelines, other infrastructure, data collection, analysis, and evaluation, as well as conveying the research results into conclusion that is related to the goals or research. in fact, the presentation of research methods in the study is as follows. thesis no 1 by yuliastuti (2005) mentioned the research steps , those were library research as the basic analysis, read the novel, find textbooks and reference books at the library, finding data from internet, and apply the theories. thesis no 2 by wijaya (2010) mentioned library research as the basic analysis, the steps of doing the research: seeing and analyzing movies, finding textbooks, articles, thesis, and reference book. theories were found from the textbooks and primary research analysis, analyzing film scripts evaluated by selected theories and concepts, analyzing information, and drawing conclusions. identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 209 thesis no 3 by kristiani (2009) mentioned library research as the basic analysis, then followed by steps she did : watching and matching script to the film, finding and select literatures for theories, how to analyze the media and related theories. maria told the steps very detail but she did not mention the relationship between the research results and the goals. thesis no 4 by yuliana (2009) mentioned library research to consider theories and field research by distributing questionnaires to respondents, reason to consider respondent, time, place, and instruments of research. this was better way to present research method, but she did not mention data collection, analysis, and evaluation in drawing the conclusions. paper no 5 by liaury (2004) mentioned library research as the basic research, finding textbooks, and place to find those literatures, such as binus, atmajaya, and ui libraries. based the five research methods presentations, it can be concluded that students have not comprehended on how to present research methods. they just decide the methods and told their steps to do. the thesis instructor (lecturers) should guide them what is meant by research methods, what is the requirements, and drawing solution. generally, the students present details of their methods steps. only on thesis no 4, the author was able to mention research specification, even though she did not mention data management until finding conclusions. students generally cannot present a reason or justification of selecting the methods, including what is the strength and weakness of that methods. this also will apply to the respondent and instruments considerations. it seems that students imitated the past researches that will be applied in theirs. in general they only present the research steps, as follows: the research method that the writer used … is library research. first, the writer read the novel…. then, the writer looked for the reference books in … that related to topic. in completing others information, the writer looked for some data in the internet. and at last, the writer used …. in doing analysis. (thesis no 1) quotation analysis in presenting theoretical background in chapter ii, the students should master on how to quote others’ works for direct quotation, and the skill of paraphrasing for indirect quotation. after reading the five theses and papers, it seems that sometimes students cannot paraphrase because they do not know how to do this, or they think that if they already paraphrase, they do not need to mention the sources (authors). the presentation of direct quotation in apa style is as follows: “plot is the sequence of incidents … composed” (perrine, 1970. p.42)—(thesis no 1) according to kennedy (2003),” exposition usually in the beginning ….introduced”. (thesis no 1) kelley griffith (2006) has clearly mentioned the differences by defined the character is a person….(p.54) — (thesis no 2) character can be defined as,” all the mental or moral qualities …others,”(1995, p.186) (thesis no 2) di yani (2000,p.55) said,” static or unchanging character, they ….progress.” (paper no 5) point of view is,” the position from which …..” (stanford, 2003, p. 32) (paper no 5) from those six direct quotations it can be said the students already know how to do a direct quotation. they mentioned authors, year of publications, and related pages. there were two types of direct quotation, the author as the first statement before presenting the content and when the authors were mentioned after the clarification of the content. as of the regulation, the length of content is less than 3 lines or less than 40 words. the quotation is embedded in one paragraph. 210 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  besides the correctness in doing direct quotation, there are still some mistakes in doing indirect quotation. indirect quotation was done for the sources length was more than 3 lines or 40 words, so that they have to quote in separate paragraphs. the name of the author or sources must be mentioned. or, they have to paraphrase in paragraphs. examples presented by the chosen thesis were as follows. in china the eldest man is the head of the family. he has the authority of the family, while the younger and women have less power. • elder men held a strongest power within the family, and the young …….…….……….…. …………………………………………………………………………………….…………… the young, both women and men, had very little say in decisions that involved them ………………….… (riley, 1994, p.2). • in the journal entitled ….., tsui ( 1989, p. 737-738) wrote that there are five types of family in china. (paraphrasing) ………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………….(etc.). (theses no 3) • point of view point of view is,”……… (original text) ..……………” (stanford, 2003, p.32) kennedy (1979,p.18) said that ,”narrator is (original text) … “ and he divided narrator into six categories: narrator as a participant (writing in the first person) — (original text) 1. (term, original text) 2. (term, original text) narrator as a non-participant (writing in the third person) — (original text) 1. (term, original text) 2. (term, original text) 3. (term, original text) 4. (term, original text) --(paper no 5) from those two examples consisting of a undergraduate theses and a paper, it can be seen that the two students already know how to quote and paraphrase properly, even students who wrote undergraduate theses was able to compare one author’s thought with others in the form of literature review. but, the author of paper 5 was still unsure to how to do paraphrasing; she wrote all the original text from the textbook even in the same format, (see her numbering style). one thing that is good is that she still puts the source in the quotation. for all student researchers, the style of writing quotation and paraphrasing still can be developed by finding literatures that are not similar so that theoretical backgrounds as well as literature review become interesting, because the researchers are able to present argumentative ideas of the authors/experts. making evidences analysis since the three theses and one paper samples using library research, the analysis was done by applying intrinsic element of literature consisting of exposition (character, setting, motivation, and basic conflict), conflict, climax, and resolution; some theories related to the main character or topic analysis, such as semiotics, psychoanalysis by freud, feminisms, racism, etc. on the text or film pictures. one thesis used quantitative research. the presentation of evidences is as follows. identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 211 (thesis no 2) there is a statement from derek when he acts as second leader … to the young skinheads, as follows: “all right, listen up. we …. (evidence, original text, 8 lines, 120 words) ………………” (sources) the statement from derek about their country condition makes sense …… he mentions about the loss …………………………………… (students’ statement analysis, 2 paragraphs (6 lines ; 11 lines) ………………………… thesis no 4 presented quantitative methods that were analysis based on collected questionnaires using descriptive analysis as follows. research methodology covers instruments, data collection, ………… (1 paragraph) instrument …………………………………...... (3 paragraphs, including filling questionnaire examples) data collection ……………………………… (2 paragraphs) population and sample ……………………………….. (1 paragraph) analysis …………………………………………… (11 paragraphs, including pictures analysis, table) paper no 5 presented her analysis by showing evidences as follows. protagonist character 1. sheila is a brave child, she never presents her cowardice (student statement) …………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………… (1 paragraph evidence, original text ) 2. if she is annoyed by others she will fight ……………….. (student statement) ……………………… (1 paragraph evidence, original text from the novel) 3. good physical endurance ( student statement) …………………(1 paragraph, clarification: student statement ) …………………(1 paragraph evidence, original text from the novel) ……………… (1 paragraph, clarification: student statement) based on the three analyses, it can be concluded that students already know how to show evidences as well as analysing data of quantitative research. balance of students’ statement commenting or clarifying original text as evidences is good, except for the beginning analysis done by the research paper. imelda just gives a short clarification (1 paragraph) for one paragraph evidence. it shows that her critical thinking as d3 student is still limited compared to s1 students. theses done by s1 students are able to analyse or clarify the evidences better, in which for 1 paragraph evidence he is able to clarify with the length of more than one paragraph. and, student who did quantitative research was able to present her analysis that meet clarity, relevance, and critical thinking aspects. plagiarism plagiarism is a presentation of others’ words, sentence, and ideas as her/his own. this occurs when a writer clearly uses language, ideas, and primary sources, without mentioning its original sources (name, title, publication year, related pages). as of information literacy concept, one of the requirements is the students’ ability to use the information legally and ethically. it means that they cannot do plagiarism practices. in practice, students’ thesis and paper presentation related to plagiarism is as follows. 212 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  thesis no 1 mentioned the chosen novel, author’s bibliography and her published works without mentioning the sources in chapter 1 (background of study). in chapter 2 she put the correct quotation on her theories and concept presentation, and she put pages on the quoted original sources in chapter 3. thesis no 2 is not guilty of plagiarism by mentioning the sources in chapter 1 (background of study, literature review), chapter 2 (definition, concept), and in chapter 3 (evidences). thesis no 3 has successfully avoid plagiarism by mentioning the sources in chapter 1 (background of study, literature review), chapter 2 (definition, concept), and in chapter 3(evidences). thesis no 4 did not mentioned sources in her two paragraphs in the background of study (chapter 1), good quotation in chapter 2, and she did not supposed to put the sources in chapter 3 because she already collected, tabulated, and analysed data in chapter 3. paper no 5 did not mention source in one paragraph in the background of study. in chapter 2 she mentioned sources in her definition and concept presentation, but her quotation was quite lengthy and not paraphrased. in chapter 3 she is good in quotation. based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that the five students are aware of avoiding plagiarism in their theses/paper. thesis no 1 and paper no 5 neglected to put the sources, but for one or two paragraphs in her background of study. this is maybe because the authors think that if they have paraphrased the content, they do not need to put the sources. therefore, socialization on how to do the right quotation and paraphrasing must be developed so that students are more aware. conclusion and suggestions analysis conclusions are clear and concise statements that should be in line with problem formulation and goals of the research. the problems encountered by students are their incapability to draw conclusions based on the theories in chapter 2 and analysis in chapter 3. usually, they still repeated their statements in chapter 3 without making its in line with problem formulation as well as goals. here are conclusions from the selected theses and paper. thesis no 1: conclusions consists of 6 paragraphs and not really related to one problem formulation having optional question (whether or not) . there are still two paragraphs repetition from the analysis in chapter 2, saying,” sheila is a child who lack of love and care, especially from her ma and pa…” and ,” all of sheila’s actions and behaviour cannot be understood by many people….”. the main ideas of those two paragraphs are related to problems formulation but the supporting ideas are imitating sentences that have mentioned in chapter 3. the rest 4 paragraphs tend to state sheila’ parents bad behaviours to her than analysing her conscious and unconscious deeds. thesis no 2: conclusions consist of 7 paragraphs and related to one problem formulation having how and why questions related to the topic. the answer in the conclusion presented a comparison between the two main characters experiences in understanding and applying racism belief until they are recovered. thesis no 3: conclusions consist of 3 paragraphs and related to 3 problem formulation having “how” questions related to hero and “the other” topics. each paragraph in the conclusion answers one problem formulation, and it si the ideal one. thesis no 4: conclusions consist of 7 paragraphs and related enough to the 3 questions on understanding, comprehension, and relationship between sign and its meanings. conclusion presented evaluation of data analysis based on quantitative research that already answer the research problems but still needs skill in conciseness. paper no 5: conclusions consists of 5 paragraphs and not related enough to the 3 problems formulation on “how” and “what” questions on sheila’s specific behaviour. there were only 3 paragraphs that answered problem formulation, and the other two paragraphs represent suggestions on how appropriate treatments for sheila, and the other paragraph presented on identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 213 how parents must behave properly to their children so that they could grew to be good children. these two paragraphs the fact belong to the suggestion, not conclusions. based on the above explanation it can be concluded that students are still get difficulties in relating problems formulations and conclusions. they usually more focus on drawing conclusions from the analysis, and consequently not all problems formulations can be answered. to remedy this matter, a good guidance from the mentors are needed to patiently clarify to the students on how to relate problem formulations, goals, and conclusions. lecturers can select a proper thesis and discuss it in class. suggestion analysis suggestions are optional. it can be a chance of the future research that can be done by the next students. most of the researches presents conditions or suggestions related to the topic and analysis, such as, parents and teacher proper behaviour for the “special” child (thesis no 1, paper no 5); the chance of applying different theories and comparing media for the next research (thesis no 2), suggestion for using media non-comic (thesis no.4), and no suggestion for thesis no 3. therefore, it can be concluded that suggestions written on the above theses and paper are based on the analysis and development of future research. suggestions present a chance for developing other research based on the available weaknesses, are shown in thesis 2 and thesis 4. while suggestions which is based on the analysis are presented in thesis no.1 and paper no.5. it had better present suggestion related to the future research than just based on the analysis. summary analysis summary clarifies the research in bahasa indonesia describing the research in order nonindonesia readers understand the background, methods, theories, analysis, and conclusion that have been presented in chapter 1 up to chapter 5 of the research. the study indicates that thesis no 1, thesis no 2, and thesis no 3 presented background of study and research process in chapter 1 to chapter 5. thesis no 4 presented background of research, quantitative research methods, and research report presentation from chapter 1 to chapter 5. the last paper presented background of study and a slight description of research in chapter 1 to chapter 5. from the above analysis it can be concluded that all the students already understand the content of summary of thesis/paper in chapter 1. the weakness of presentation is in their bahasa indonesia yang baik dan benar application in which most of them are still influenced by english translation, for example the using of the words di mana dan dari which is supposed to be translated from,” new york is a place where daniel was born”, where it should have been translated into “new york adalah tempat daniel dilahirkan.”. also, the phrase “the result of research” is translated into “hasil dari riset”, which should have been only “hasil riset”. student weaknesses among others are not being able to differentiate between “di” as a prefix written separately (di awal, di antara) and “di” as a a verb which should have been written together (dipukul, dibeli). also with splitting of compound words such as tanggung jawab, bertanggung jawab, andpertanggungjawaban. bibliography analysis writing references or bibliography is based on apa style. it is done for textbooks (author, year of publication, title, (edition), city, publisher); articles (author, (month, year), title of article, title of journal, volume, number, and related page. if the writers use articles from the internet, they have to mention year of upload, time when the writers get the information, and its irl address. based on apa style, author is written by last name first and followed by its initials, except for indonesian 214 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  names where often there is no last name. title of book/article is written by proceeding capital letter, followed by title case, except for personal name and place. as for the rules, the students wrote their bibliographies as follows. paper no 5 (2004) textbook: di yanni, r. (2000). literature.reading fiction,poetry and drama. singapore: mcgraw-hill companies,inc. internet source: hein, s. (2004). definition and history emotional intelligence. retrieved on march 19,2004, from (http://www.google.com) thesis no 1 ( 2005): textbook, written : di yanni, r. (2000). literature reading fiction, poetry and drama. singapore: mcgraw –hill international. correction: di yanni, r. (2000). literature: reading fiction, poetry, and drama. singapore: mcgraw hill international. internet source: stringer, kathi. defence mechanism. retrieve on march 5,2005 from http://www.toddlertime.com/terms/defence.htm. thesis no 3 (2009) textbook : di yanni, r. (2001). literature reading fiction, poetry, and drama. new york: mcgraw-hill higher education. internet source : ming tsui. (1989). changes in chinese urban family structure. journal of marriage and the family, 15 (3),737. retrieved june 23, 2009, from proquest sociology database. (document id: 1718078). thesis no 2 (2010) textbook: barry, p. (2009). beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory. new york : manchester university press. journal article : lane, c. (2002). psychoanalysis and colonialism redux: why mannoni’s “prospero complex” still haunt us .journal of modern literature, 25. retrieved april 20, 2010 from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=464582531&sid=1&fmt4&clientid=68814&rqt=309&vname=pqd the above analysis based on year representation it can be concluded that even though the english department has clearly described apa style in writing bibliography, the students still wrote in different verses. it means that the students do not why they must follow the rules, especially with the using of capital letter, title case, coma, space, how to write author name, etc. also, there is a tendency identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 215 that the lecturers who guided them did not check these bibliographical lists; they more focused in the research contents. the fact, writing bibliographies or references must be checked its information because the next researchers have to find them for doing the next research or other academic writings. details of bibliography must be traceable, therefore do not give wrong information for scientific writing. example that can be seen from the analysis is the city and publisher name for di yanni’s textbooks. paper no 5 mentioned singapore: mcgraw-hill companies, inc.; whereas thesis no 1 mentioned: singapore: mcgraw –hill international; thesis no 3 mentioned: new york: mcgraw-hill higher education. those facts must be checked by the students and lecturers by asking them to bring the sources and then check the references together. abstract analysis after writing undergraduate theses, the writer should complete it with abstract which is a “miniature” of the research. abstract functions as a “short description” in which the readers can grasp the research done. the reader then may decide to continue to read the whole thesis or not. abstract consists of goals, method, analyse, and conclusion of the research (apa, 2007). hyland (2000:67) mentions rhetorical moves in an abstract; those are introduction, purpose, method, product, and conclusion. in the study, all of the students abstract consisted of goals of the research, applied methods, analysis, and conclusions in one paragraph consisting of 150-250 words. rubric based analysis based on table 2 on research paper rubric, the thesis and paper presentation is shown in table 3. table 3 presentation of theses and paper in the research thesis no 1 thesis no 2 thesis no 3 thesis no 4 paper no 5 integration of knowledge proficient, because she mostly has applied the conscious and unconscious behaviour on the main character that lead to answer the research’s problem. expert, because he fully understand and has applied concepts of the development of racism on the two brothers based on the correct theory and concept. the analysis answers statement of problems. proficient, because she, mostly, has applied the heroic and “the other” concepts to analyse the main character that answer the research problems. expert, because she fully understand and has applied concepts of semiotics to the wordless comic analysis. this will answer the research problems. apprentice, because the author, understand and applied some concepts on the analysed novel to answer the research problems topic focus proficient, because the topic is appropriately focus but lacks of direction, she did not mention thesis statement. proficient, the topic is appropriately focused but lacks direction. there is no thesis statement. proficient, there is no clear thesis statement as analysis guidance. proficient, there is no clear hypothesis for analysis guidance. apprentice, because the topic is broad and there is no thesis statement. 216 jurnal lingua cultura vol.4 no.2 november 2010: 201-217  table 3 presentation of theses and paper in the research (continued) thesis no 1 thesis no 2 thesis no 3 thesis no 4 paper no 5 depth of discussion proficient, in-depth discussion & elaboration in most sections of the paper. expert, in-depth discussion & elaboration in all sections of the paper. proficient, in-depth discussion & elaboration in most sections of the paper. expert, in-depth discussion & elaboration in all sections of the paper. proficient, in-depth discussion & elaboration in most sections of the paper. cohesiveness proficient, ties most reference information from all sources expert, ties all reference information from all sources proficient, ties most reference information from all sources proficient, ties most reference information from all sources apprentice, sometimes ties together information from all sources. spelling & grammar apprentice, noticeable spelling & grammar mistakes. proficient, minimal spelling &/or grammar mistakes. apprentice, noticeable spelling & grammar mistakes. proficient, minimal spelling &/or grammar mistakes. apprentice, noticeable spelling & grammar mistakes. sources apprentice ,fewer than 5 current sources from 15 textbooks. proficient, there are 5 current sources of 23 textbooks, 1 thesis, 2 peer reviewed journal article, and 1 reference book. websites utilized are authoritative. apprentice, from 9 references, she only got one journal article by ming tsui and it was not deeply analyzed. apprentice, fewer than 5 current sources of 19 textbooks and 3 reference books in her references, there was no article. apprentice, fewer than 5 current sources of 11 textbooks and no article. citations proficient , cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. proficient. cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. proficient. cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. proficient. cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. does not cite sources. proficient. cites most data obtained from other sources. apa citation style is used in both text and bibliography. conclusion based on the format analysis on the 4 thesis and 1 paper it can be concluded that: (1) in the introduction in chapter 1: students still find difficulties in writing their background of study. usually they write problems formulation instead of why are they interested in the topic. they also cannot differentiate between statement of problem and the problem formulation. research method only mentions the steps of collecting data; (2) students present theoretical background are only inspired by the former thesis/paper. they cannot analyze what is the advantage and disadvantage of its theory related to the chosen topic. solutions can be done by giving then skills in information retrieval and making literature review from the primary source; (3) the format of theses and paper should be more socialized to both students and lecturers who guide them so that the quality of theses and papers can be achieved; and (4) cooperation with library and language center are needed to improve students’ ability in information retrieval and writing skills. identifying problems ….. (endang ernawati) 217 references american psychological association. (2007). concise rules of apa style. washington, dc: american psychological association. binus university english department, (2010). thesis guidelines, jakarta: binus university. cooley, l., & lewkowicz, j. (2003). dissertation writing in practice. turning ideas into text. hongkong: hongkong university press. cornell college & colorado college (2004), examples of assessment tools, downloaded from http://www.coloradocollege.edu/library/acmassign/tools.html kristiani, m. h. i. (2009). an analysis of woman’s struggle in upholding the family honour in a walt disney movie mulan, unpublished undergraduate theses, binus university liaury, i. (2004). an analysis of sheila’s character in one child by torey hayden. d3 program final paper. hyland, k. (2000). disciplinary discourse: social interactions in academic writing, new york: longman wijaya, w. (2010). the analysis of racism through characters derek vinyard and daniel vinyard in american history x movie , unpublished undergraduate theses, binus university yuliana, s. (2009). semiotic analysis on sign across non-verbal communication in ferd’nand wordless comic strip, unpublished undergraduate theses, binus university yuliastuti. (2005). analysis of the conscious and unconscious mind of sheila’s behavior in one child by torey hayden , unpublished undergraduate theses, binus university 63factors affecting ….. (sri haryanti) factors affecting result in chinese proficiency test (hsk) level 6: reading section and preparation strategies 影响hsk6级阅读的因素及应对策略 sri haryanti sichuan normal university rongyuan 1405 no 5 jing’an road, jinjiang district, chengdu, sichuan, pr china 610066. thincele@yahoo.com abstract chinese proficiency test (hsk) is an internationally standardized exam which tests and rates chinese language proficiency. the highest level in this test is level 6. the writing part of the test consists of 3 (three) parts, namely, (1) listening, (2) reading, (3) writing. furthermore, the reading part is made of 4 components. level 6 of this test implies a high degree of difficulty. this paper specifically looked on how to prepare effectively for participants to be able to work on the reading part in order to achieve best result. this article used the methods of literature review and observational study as well as field research and would also incorporate the author’s personal experience in taking the test into recommending strategies for doing the reading part in a level 6 hsk test. finally, research suggested several techniques and tips that might assist participants in achieving maximum scores in handling the reading part of level 6 hsk test. keywords: chinese proficiency test (hsk), reading difficulty 摘要 新汉语水平考试是国际汉语能力标准化考试,新汉语水平考试的最高等级是6级,考试内容分为四个部 分,其中阅读是其中一个重要组成部分。对于考生来说,新汉语水平考试6级的阅读部分难度较高,考生新汉 语水平6级考试阅读部分做的结果的好坏,直接关系着其是否能顺利通过6级考试。这篇论文主要以文献研究法 和调查法两种方式,结合前人的研究成果和自己新汉语水平考试的经验实践,提出了解决新汉语水平考试6级 阅读问题的一些技巧和应对策略,希望能给要考汉语6级的朋友一些借鉴。 关键词: 新汉语水平考试6级, 阅读, 难度, 问题和技巧 64 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 前言 新汉语水平考试是一项国际汉语能力标准化考 试。在新汉语水平考试6级考试分三个部分、听力、 阅读和书写。,按写着的经验考生对阅读部分觉得难 度较高,所以这本论文只是写关于阅读部分。通过跟 其他留学生的研究,大多留学生会觉得阅读部分是最 难的。怎样面对新汉语水平考试阅读部分,还有考试 如何备考新汉语水平考试是这篇论文写得目的。通过 这篇论文希望能帮助考生如何面对新汉语水平考试特 别是阅读部分。 新汉语水平考试6级阅读部分介绍 新汉语水平考试是一项国际汉语能力标准化考 试,重点考查汉语非第一语言的考生在生活、学习和 工作中运用汉语进行交际的能力。新汉语水平考试有 6级,新汉语水平考试6级(hsk6级)是其中之一。 新汉语水平考试6级考查考生的汉语应用能力,通过 hsk6级的考生可以轻松地理解听到读到的汉语信息, 以口头或书面的形式用汉语流利地表达自己的见解。 新汉语水平考试6级主要面向掌握5000及5000 以上常用词语的考生。考查内容包括听力部分,考题 共有50题、阅读部分,考题共有50题和书写部分,书 写共有1题,全部考试约140分钟(含考生填写个人信 息时间5分钟)。 新汉语水平考试6级阅读分四个部分:第一部 分,共10题。每题提供4个句子,要求考生选出有语 病的一句;第二部分,共10题。每题提供一小段文 字,其中有3到5个空格,考生要结合语境,从4个选 项中选出最恰当的答案;第三部分,共10题。提供 两篇文字,每篇文字有5个空格,考生要结合语境, 从提供的5个句子选项中选出答案;第四部分,共20 题。提供若干篇文字,每篇文字带几个问题,考生要 从4个选项中选出答案。阅读部分共有50题,考试时 间有45分钟。如果看考查题和时间举行考生要掌握好 两个部分,就是考题和时间,每题在1分钟左右必须 做好。如果考虑到每个部分的难度,做好每个题都还 要看具体情况。 新汉语水平考试6级阅读难度 在新汉语水平考试6级阅读部分每个部分难度 都不同。在第一部分,要求考生选出有语病的一句。 对考生来说这个部分难度较高,所以有的考生选择最 后才做这个部分。在这个部分让考生选择有语病的句 子加上时间很紧难度相当高。病句难度有一些原因 如:每个句子长短不同、有一些不太熟悉的词汇、读 的速度还有考生不知道到底哪一个原因会影响那个句 子成为病句。从这些原因来看我们可以看如果一个题 句子较长的话,对考生来说会带来麻烦,就是看长句 子都会让考生产生紧张心理,还有如果读的速度不快 会影响到选择答案。有时候考生读的速度挺快可是碰 到了不熟悉的词汇也会影响到他们的答案。最糟糕就 是如果每个句子都已经读完但还是不知道到底是哪一 句有病句。这样就会花很多时间去考虑。 在第二部分,要求考生从4个选项中选择出最 恰当的答案,每题提供一小段文字,其中有3到5个空 格,考生要结合语境。考生要理解词汇的用法、单位 和词汇的近义词。有时候考生碰到在四个选项中有不 熟悉或不懂怎么用的词汇,这样也会产生紧张而变成 随便选择答案。也有时候只要看前面的答案而没有注 意到最后的答案就直接选择,这样也会出现错误。 第三部分,提供两篇文字,每篇文字有5个空 格,考生要结合语境,从提供的5个句子选项中选出 答案。在这个部分一般的文字有点儿长,还有内容 有各种各类的类型,如文化、科学、技术等。考生一 看比较长的文字就会感到很紧张,还有文字的内容也 不熟悉,读的速度不那么快,都会影响考生选择的答 案。也有考生把所有的文字读完才回答,这样会浪费 很多时间。 第四部分,提供若干篇文字,每篇文字带几个 问题,考生要从4个选项中选出答案。每篇文字长短 和难度不同,如果碰到较难的文章考生就紧张而且一 直想那篇文章这样会浪费时间。第四部分共有20题, 大概有4到5篇文字。每篇文字内容不同,有关于生活 方面、科学方面或艺术方面等等。每个考生的兴趣也 不同,所以碰到比较熟悉的文章考生很快就会回答, 而碰到不熟悉的文章考生会花较长的时间。不只是内 容会影响考生做好第四部分还有另外的如:词汇量, 每篇文字大概有400到500个字而不是所有的词汇考生 都会读,所以如果碰到不熟悉的词汇会影响考生的答 案;读的速度,有的考生读文字的时候速度有点慢, 考生无法抓紧时间这样会产生紧张而会随便选择答 案。 结语 新汉语水平考试是一项国际汉语能力标准化考 试,重点考查汉语非第一语言的考生在生活、学习和 工作中运用汉语进行交际的能力。新汉语水平考试6 级是新汉语水平考试最高的考试部分。阅读是其中一 个考查部分。备考新汉语水平考试不是一两个月准备 的事,而是贯穿考生学习汉语的全过程。新汉语水平 考试6级要求是考生已经掌握好5000个字以上词汇, 这个词汇不是要天天背的词而是通过考生平常学习过 程掌握到的词。 考生在报名后才开始准备考试会出现很多问 题,就是因为考生的备考不够,有时候他们也只是注 意被生词而已和不懂如何用那个词。这会影响考生对 阅读考试的问题,还有如果在阅读速度不够快在考试 的时候也会影响考生的信心。 新汉语水平考试6级阅读部分,需要考生对语法 理解和词汇量的掌握上要特别强。考生要多看报纸、 小说、杂志等,了解很多文章的内容,这样会增加考 生的词汇量还有培养提高阅读速度。在一般汉语课堂 特别是语法课上,老师们也要强调语法理解、词语使 用等,这样会帮助将来学生参加汉语水平考试。最重 要的是备考时,考生要多做新汉语水平考试模拟考 试,每次都要严格按照考试时间举行模拟测试。培养 这样的习惯可以帮助考生减少考试时的紧张心理。每 个部分的时间要按照考生自己的能力来安排,哪一个 部分较强的话时间的安排可以少一点。还有语法老师 要多鼓励学生理解语法和近义词的用法。还有最重要 的就是考生自己的心理要调整好,这样可以帮助其轻 松应考。 参考文献 陈香.(2012).《新hsk考试辅导教程6级》,北京:高等 教育出版社。 college of international education. (2011, 2 november). 新 hsk六级介绍. accessed from http://cie.upc.edu.cn/ cie/news_read.aspx?eid=%20118 李珠花.(2012).《新汉语水平考试六级阅读第一部分病 句试题统计与分析》,[硕士学位论文].武汉: 华中科技大学。 70 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang efektif untuk jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara kelly rosalin; agustian chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 krosalin@binus.edu; agustian@binus.edu abstract article discussed the writing principles that must be considered in compiling chinese language teaching material specifically used for marketing communication students regarding the interest and target of marketing communication of bina nusantara university. the methodologies used are descriptive quantitative for distributing questionnaires and qualitative approach through observation and interview. research found the appropriate and effective chinese language teaching material would enhance the standard of chinese language learning. at present, chinese language teaching material used by marketing communication students has not been able to fulfill their requirements. in addition, the target learners of the teaching material are universal. keywords: teaching material, marketing communication, chinese language abstrak penelitian membahas tentang prinsip-prinsip penulisan yang harus diperhatikan dalam penyusunan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin. bahan ajar yang disusun khusus digunakan untuk mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran dengan memerhatikan kepentingan dan target program studi komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara. metodologi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kuantitatif deskriptif untuk penyebaran kuesioner dan pendekatan kualitatif melalui observasi dan wawancara. penelitian menemukan bahwa bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang sesuai dan efektif dapat meningkatkan standar pembelajaran bahasa mandarin. hal ini disebabkan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan sekarang masih belum dapat memenuhi kebutuhan mereka. ditambah lagi, bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan masih bersifat umum. kata kunci: bahan ajar, jurusan komunikasi pemasaran, bahasa mandarin 71prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin ….. (kelly rosalin; agustian) pendahuluan perekonomian china kini menduduki peringkat ke-2 terbesar di dunia, di bawah amerika serikat. china berhasil menggeser jepang yang sudah 40 tahun menjadi negara dengan perekonomian terbesar ke-2 di dunia (qomariyah, 2011). economy watch meramalkan bahwa pada 2035, china diprediksi mampu menggeser as sebagai negara dengan ekonomi terbesar nomor 1 di dunia. pertumbuhan ekonomi china yang begitu pesat membuat jumlah orang yang ingin belajar bahasa mandarin makin banyak (economy watch, 2010). data dari forum internasional bahasa mandarin di shanghai menyebutkan bahwa kini ada lebih dari 2.027 universitas dari 85 negara di seluruh dunia yang menawarkan kursus bahasa mandarin. peningkatan penawaran ini terutama dipicu oleh keberhasilan china dalam mengajukan diri sebagai tuan rumah olimpiade dan keberhasilan dalam masuknya china menjadi anggota wto. data statistik dari forum yang sama juga menyebutkan bahwa ada sekitar 25 juta orang yang berminat mempelajari bahasa mandarin. (tanaga, 2008) di indonesia sekarang sudah ada beberapa universitas yang membuka jurusan sastra china dan juga terdapat banyak lembaga kursus bahasa mandarin. di universitas bina nusantara bahasa mandarin tidak hanya dipelajari oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan sastra china, tetapi juga oleh beberapa jurusan di luar sastra china yang mewajibkan mahasiswa/i untuk mengambil program bahasa mandarin, seperti jurusan komunikasi pemasaran, hotel management, manajemen, hubungan internasional, dan juga komputer akuntansi. penelitian ini mengambil jurusan komunikasi pemasaran sebagai objek penelitian karena jurusan ini mewajibkan mahasiswa/inya untuk mempelajari bahasa mandarin selama 4 semester. selain itu, dibandingkan jurusan lain, program bahasa mandarin jurusan komunikasi pemasaran banyak sekali mendapatkan tanggapan positif maupun negatif dari mahasiswa dan dosen. melalui pengalaman langsung dari peneliti, ditemukan bahwa bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang dipakai oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran masih kurang sesuai kebutuhan mereka dan juga masih menggunakan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin terbitan china. di sisi lain, minat mahasiswa/i terhadap pembelajaran bahasa mandarin masih sangat kurang. prastowo (2011) menyebutkan bahwa dengan adanya dinamika dan perkembangan dalam dunia pendidikan, pendidik dituntut untuk lebih kreatif dalam melakukan berbagai inovasi pembelajaran. salah satunya adalah inovasi perlu dilakukan terhadap bahan ajar. oleh karena itu, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menemukan prinsip-prinsip yang harus diperhatikan dalam penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin untuk meningkatkan minat mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. metode metode penelitian yang dipakai dalam penelitian ini adalah metode penelitian gabungan antara metode kualitatif dan kuantitatif. pendekatan kuantitatif dipakai untuk mengetahui minat mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran terhadap materi yang dipelajari. sementara pendekatan kualitatif dipakai untuk mengetahui sasaran dan tujuan dari program studi komunikasi pemasaran setelah mahasiswa/i mempelajari bahasa mandarin. teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan membagikan kuesioner untuk mahasiswa/i tahun pertama jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara. kuesioner diberikan kepada mereka yang sudah mendapatkan pelajaran bahasa mandarin i dan ii pada semester 1 dan 2 di kampus anggrek dan kampus alam sutera. selain melalui kuesioner, wawancara dilakukan terhadap ketua jurusan komunikasi pemasaran untuk memperkuat analisis data. hasil dan pembahasan kebutuhan bahasa mandarin jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara merupakan universitas pertama yang mewajibkan mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi semester 1 dan 2 untuk mengambil mata kuliah bahasa mandarin sebagai mata kuliah wajib dengan bobot 4 sks dan lulus dengan minimal nilai c. dapat dilihat bahwa betapa penting mata kuliah bahasa mandarin bagi mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara. ini juga merupakan salah satu daya tarik yang membuat jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara berbeda dengan universitas lainnya yang memiliki jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. jurusan komunikasi pemasaran memilih mata kuliah bahasa mandarin sebagai mata kuliah wajib untuk mendukung visi dan misi universitas bina nusantara menuju world class university, sehingga setiap jurusan wajib mempersiapkan lulusannya untuk bekerja di perusahaan global. seiring dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi tiongkok yang sangat pesat, banyak sekali perusahaan tiongkok yang melakukan investasi di indonesia, sehingga terlihat bahwa lulusan yang memiliki kemampuan berbahasa mandarin akan mendapatkan peluang yang sangat besar untuk bekerja di perusahaan global. selain itu, banyak sekali kebutuhan dari luar seperti permintaan dari kalangan industri yang membutuhkan mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran yang fasih berbahasa mandarin untuk magang maupun bekerja di tempat mereka. meskipun demikian, hanya sebagian kecil mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran yang sudah menguasai bahasa mandarin sebagai bahasa ibu, seperti mahasiswa/i yang berasal dari bangka, riau, pontianak, medan, dan lain-lain. bahkan, di antara mereka sudah ada yang menjadi penerjemah. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, dari 185 mahasiswa/i sebelum mengambil jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara, terdapat 95 mahasiswa/i yang sama sekali tidak mempunyai dasar bahasa mandarin. sedangkan 90 mahasiswa/i lainnya sudah mempunyai dasar bahasa mandarin dengan rata-rata waktu belajar adalah 5 tahun 4 bulan. dari 90 mahasiswa/i ini terdapat 14 mahasiswa/i yang sudah mempelajari bahasa mandarin lebih dari 11 tahun. dengan demikian latar belakang penguasaan bahasa mandarin setiap mahasiswa berbeda-beda, sehingga menyebabkan adanya jarak antara mahasiswa/i yang mempunyai dasar bahasa mandarin dengan yang tidak mempunyai dasar sama sekali. 72 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 sementara itu, ada sebagian dari mereka yang tidak mempunyai ketertarikan terhadap bahasa mandarin. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, dari 185 mahasiswa/i terdapat 99 mahasiswa/i yang menyukai bahasa mandarin dengan alasan yang paling umum karena ingin mempelajari bahasa asing selain bahasa inggris, menambah wawasan, dan bermanfaat. sedangkan 83 mahasiswa/i lainnya tidak menyukai pelajaran bahasa mandarin dengan alasan utama menurut mereka bahasa mandarin terlalu susah untuk dipelajari terutama bagian karakter china (hanzi). ini juga menjadi salah satu alasan utama mereka tidak menyukai bahasa mandarin. berdasarkan hal tersebut, jurusan komunikasi pemasaran ingin mahasiwa/i yang tidak mempunyai dasar dan tidak begitu tertarik dengan bahasa mandarin juga dapat menguasai bahasa mandarin setelah mengambil mata kuliah ini. harapan dari jurusan komunikasi pemasaran adalah agar bahasa mandarin yang dipelajari oleh mahasiswa/i komunikasi pemasaran lebih mengutamakan berbicara dan membaca serta sesuai dengan dunia profesi mereka. dengan begitu mereka dapat bekerja dengan perusahaan yang menggunakan bahasa mandarin, yang dalam jurusan komunikasi pemasaran terdapat 4 jenis peminatan, seperti digital journalism, broadcasting, marketing public relation, dan cooperate public relation. diharapkan, dalam mata kuliah bahasa mandarin mereka diberikan materi tentang pengenalan dunia profesi yang sesuai dengan peminatan yang dipilih oleh mahasiswa/i tersebut dalam bahasa mandarin, sehingga ketika mereka mendengar istilah-istilah yang terkait dalam bahasa mandarin, mereka tidak akan merasa asing. misalnya untuk bidang peminatan digital journalism, mahasiswa/i dapat mengerti kosakata yang berhubungan dengan wartawan, narasumber dalam bahasa mandarin. untuk bidang peminatan broadcasting, diharapkan mahasiswa/i dapat dibawa ke dunia kerja, seperti menjadi presenter, penulis naskah, rumah produksi, dan lain-lain. untuk bidang peminatan marketing public relation, diharapkan mahasiswa/i diberikan pengetahuan maupun pengenalan yang berhubungan dengan event, branding serta cara berinteraksi, negosiasi dalam bahasa mandarin. sedangkan untuk peminatan cooperate public relation diberikan pengetahuan maupun pengenalan terhadap bagian-bagian yang ada dalam perusahaan, seperti posisi, image perusahaan, serta reputasi perusahaan dalam bahasa mandarin. dengan demikian, mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran akan terbantu. ketika memasuki dunia global, mereka mempunyai nilai tambah dan lebih mudah beradaptasi dengan lingkungan kerja karena mereka sudah dibekali dengan pengetahuan dan pengenalan bidang mereka dalam bahasa mandarin. mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran memiliki berbagai ekspektasi setelah mengambil mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i dan ii di universitas bina nusantara. berdasarkan jawaban kuesioner terdapat 142 mahasiswa/i yang berharap mereka dapat menguasai bahasa mandarin dasar, meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa mandarin mereka, fasih berbicara bahasa asing seperti bahasa mandarin selain bahasa inggris. selain itu, mahasiswa/i juga berharap bahasa mandarin yang mereka pelajari dapat digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari mereka maupun dalam dunia kerja sehingga menjadi nilai tambah ketika mereka melamar kerja. bahan ajar bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang dipakai jurusan komunikasi pemasaran adalah buku hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) volume 1 dan 2 (hanban, 2006), untuk mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i yang digunakan mahasiswa/i semester 1. sedangkan untuk mata kuliah bahasa mandarin ii menggunakan buku hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) volume 3 dan 4 (hanban, 2006). bahan ajar bahasa mandarin hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) merupakan proyek utama yang direncanakan dan diorganisasi oleh china national office for teaching chinese as a foreign language (nocfl), yang menggunakan perkembangan teknologi multimedia sebagai cara pengajaran yang baru. tujuan utama dibuatnya bahan ajar ini adalah membina kemampuan pembelajar untuk berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan bahasa mandarin, menggunakan berbagai metode pengajaran seperti multimedia, cd, f2f, buku teks, dan buku latihan untuk memenuhi permintaan pembelajar bahasa mandarin bagi orang asing baik di tiongkok maupun di luar tiongkok yang tidak dibatasi oleh waktu, tempat maupun kemampuan berbahasa mandarin. setiap volume dari bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) terdiri dari dua buku, yaitu buku teks dan buku latihan. setiap volume memiliki 10 topik dan cerita dalam buku teks hanyu changcheng berkaitan dengan bisnis, cinta, legenda, dan kontemporer. sedangkan topik-topik yang ada dalam buku teks berkaitan dengan ekonomi, budaya, olahraga, etika, dan lain-lain. teks secara terorganisasi menggabungkan alur cerita dengan pembelajaran bahasa, bahasa yang digunakan nyata, alami, asli, dan praktis. bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) volume 1 sampai 4 diperuntukkan pembelajar bahasa mandarin dasar. isi buku-buku ini berkaitan dengan informasi pribadi, kemampuan berkomunikasi, kehidupan sehari-hari, belajar, bekerja, serta kegiatan dalam masyarakat. tujuannya adalah mengatasi masalah komunikasi menggunakan bahasa mandarin dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. buku teks hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) terdiri dari 5 bagian, yaitu bagian pengenalan karakter utama dalam percakapan, tabel jenis kata, daftar isi, unit, glosarium. setiap unit dalam bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) terdapat 2 bagian yaitu kosakata dan 3 buah dialog. tabel 1 merupakan contoh kosakata dalam bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese). sedangkan gambar 1 merupakan contoh dialog dalam bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese). tabel 1 daftar kosakata bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) 1 在 zài 介 at, in, on 2 家 jiā 量 measure word 3 公司 gōngsī 名 firm, company 4 工作 gōngzuò 名 to work 5 大家 dàjiā 代 everybody 73prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin ….. (kelly rosalin; agustian) gambar 1 dialog unit 1 lesson 2 tidak semua materi yang terdapat dalam bahan ajar ini digunakan sebagai materi untuk mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i dan bahasa mandarin ii jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. tabel 2 menunjukkan topik-topik yang dipelajari oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran untuk bahasa mandarin i. tabel 2 topik bahasa mandarin i great wall chinese volume i great wall chinese volume ii the basic chinese phonetic and tones birthday introducing self place nationality buy job telephone age transportation friends asking and offering address family time introduce friends tabel 3 adalah topik-topik yang dipelajari oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran untuk bahasa mandarin ii. tabel 3 topik bahasa mandarin ii great wall chinese volume iii great wall chinese volume iv the basic chinese phonetic, tones, strokes and character our class weather shopping habit majority and ability how to post a letter campus life the basic chinese speaking and writing future and dream money, exchange rate, currency planning about vacation sick, illness holiday vacation prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin jurusan komunikasi pemasaran menurut li (2006), bahan ajar merupakan petunjuk pengajaran bagi pengajar, yang bertujuan untuk membantu pengajar melaksanakan kegiatan mengajar dan bahan ajar juga merupakan pegangan dasar bagi pembelajar untuk belajar, sehingga pembelajar dengan bahan ajar saja dapat belajar autodidak. dalam melakukan kegiatan pengembangan bahan ajar, beberapa pertimbangan penting yang perlu dipahami mencakup (1) mengidentifikasi tujuan pembelajaran, (2) melakukan analisis pembelajaran, (3) menganalisis peserta didik dan konteks, (4) menulis tujuan instruksional khusus (kompetensi dasar), (5) mengembangkan instrumen asesmen, (6) mengembangkan strategi pembelajaran, (7) mengembangkan dan menyeleksi materi pembelajaran, (8) mendesain dan melakukan evaluasi formatif, (9) melakukan revisi, dan (10) mendesain dan melakukan evaluasi sumatif (dick, carey, & carey, 2005). kriteria penggunaan bahasa dalam pengembangan bahan ajar, muslich (2010) menyebutkan kriteria kelayakan bahasa yang baik, antara lain sebagai berikut. pertama, kesesuaian pemakaian bahasa dengan perkembangan inelektual, sosial, dan emosional siswa. kedua, pemakaian bahasa yang komunikatif, indikatornya adalah keterbacaan pesan dan ketepatan kaidah kebahasaan. ketiga, keruntutan dan keterpaduan alur pikir, indikatornya adalah keruntutan dan keterpaduan antarbab serta antarparagraf (muslich, 2010: 303-305). komponen utama di dalam sistematika bahan ajar adalah (1) tinjauan kompetensi, (2) pendahuluan, (3) bagian inti, (4) penutup, (5) daftar pustaka, dan (6) lampiran (pannen & purwanto, 2011). menurut xun (2010), bahan ajar yang baik adalah bahan ajar yang isinya berkaitan erat dengan budaya setempat. dalam penulisan bahan ajar ada beberapa prinsip dasar yang perlu dipatuhi seperti terfokus, bersifat praktikal, bersifat ilmiah, menarik, sistemik. oleh karena itu, penulis beranggapan dalam penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin untuk jurusan komunikasi pemasaran harus memerhatikan tiga buah prinsip utama dalam penulisan, yaitu terfokus, bersifat praktikal, dan menarik. terfokus bahan ajar pada umumnya sangat peka terhadap kebutuhan siswa, yang sekalipun buku ajar tidak disusun secara khusus bagi siswa, buku ajar bisa membantu siswa dalam efisiensi waktu dan uang; dan buku ajar mampu beradaptasi dan berimprovisasi terhadap kebutuhan siswa (o’neill, 1982). bahan ajar adalah sesuatu yang dipelajari oleh siswa, bahan ajar yang tidak mengenal pembelajarnya adalah bahan ajar yang hanya omong kosong, mengenali pembelajar adalah hal yang penting dalam menggunakan bahan ajar (xiaobing, 2012). berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, 168 mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara merasa bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan sekarang dapat membantu mereka belajar bahasa mandarin. sedangkan 17 mahasiswa/i sisanya merasa bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang mereka gunakan sekarang tidak membantu mereka belajar bahasa mandarin. 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 akan tetapi, menurut 161 mahasiswa/i, bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan mereka karena bahan ajar yang digunakan sekarang tidak sesuai dengan tingkat mereka yang masih pemula, terlalu susah dan rumit untuk dipelajari, dan masih kurang berhubungan dengan jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. sedangkan hasil wawancara dengan ketua jurusan komunikasi pemasaran, ibu ulani yunus, menyebutkan bahwa beliau sudah melihat bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan serta sudah melakukan wawancara dengan dosen pengajar dan mahasiswa/i yang sudah mengambil mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i dan ii. menurutnya, bahan ajar yang digunakan sekarang, jika untuk tingkat pemula yang belum bisa berbahasa mandarin, akan membuat mereka stres karena materi yang diberikan terlalu banyak dan tidak dibawa ke dunia mereka. topik yang ada juga terlalu luas dan umum, kecuali jika mereka ingin dicetak menjadi pembicara dalam bahasa mandarin; namun dalam jurusan komunikasi pemasaran, bahasa mandarin merupakan salah satu mata kuliah yang mendukung keterampilan berbahasa mahasiswa/i dan bukanlah fokus utama. bahan ajar yang terlalu mendasar dan meluas akan menghilangkan minat mahasiswa/i yang belum mempunyai dasar bahasa mandarin. dilihat dari topik yang dipelajari untuk mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i dan bahasa mandarin ii, bahan ajar yang dipakai oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran masih kurang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan permintaan dari jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, dari sejumlah topik yang dipelajari dalam mata kuliah bahasa mandarin i, hanya ada 5 topik yang menarik perhatian mereka. topik introduce self adalah topik dengan jumlah peminat terbanyak sebanyak 113. sedangkan topik job; asking and offering; the basic chinese phonetic and tones; introduce friends, masing-masing menempati posisi kedua, ketiga, keempat, dan kelima. selain kelima topik tersebut, topik-topik lain tidak terlalu diminati oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. untuk mata kuliah bahasa mandarin ii, 95 mahasiswa/i memilih topik mengenai the basic chinese speaking and writing. sedangkan untuk topik campus life; the basic chinese phonetic, tones, stroke and character; money, exchange rate and currency; majority and ability, masing-masing menempati posisi kedua, ketiga, keempat, dan kelima. gambar 2 dan 3 menunjukkan topik bahasa mandarin i dan ii yang diminati mahasiswa/i. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 th e b as ic … in tr o d u ce s e lf n at io n al it y jo b a ge fr ie n d a d d re ss fa m ily ti m e in tr o d u ce fr ie n d s b ir th d ay p la ce b u y te le p h o n e tr an sp o rt at io n a sk in g an d … jumlah topik yang dipilih gambar 2 topik bahasa mandarin i yang diminati mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran gambar 3 topik bahasa mandarin ii mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran dari 185 responden, 73 mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran merasa topik-topik di atas sudah cukup sehingga tidak perlu ada penambahan topik. sementara itu, 112 mahasiswa menginginkan topik tambahan, dengan 11 mahasiswa/i menginginkan topik tambahan berupa percakapan sehari-hari yang bisa diterapkan dalam kehidupan dan 101 mahasiswa/i lainnya menginginkan topik tambahan mengenai kebudayaan china, bisnis maupun broadcasting yang berhubungan dengan jurusan. topik-topik tersebut masih kurang sesuai karena bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan masih merupakan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang masih bersifat umum. yang dimaksud dengan “umum”, yaitu bahan ajar yang bisa dipakai oleh pembelajar bahasa mandarin di seluruh dunia dengan tidak membedakan negara maupun budaya pembelajar tersebut. selain itu, dilihat dari bagian kosakata yang ada di dalam bahan ajar ini hanya ada hanzi, pinyin, dan arti dalam bahasa inggris. sedangkan bagian dialog hanya terdapat hanzi dan pinyin, tidak disertai dengan penjelasan maupun penerjemahan ke dalam bahasa inggris. bahan ajar ini jika digunakan oleh pembelajar pemula bahasa mandarin di indonesia tidak sesuai. bagi pembelajar pemula, adanya terjemahan ke bahasa indonesia dan bahasa inggris akan dapat membantu mereka dalam memahami serta menguasai bahasa yang dipelajari. akan lebih baik jika bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan oleh pembelajar pemula bahasa mandarin memiliki terjemahan dalam bahasa indonesia maupun bahasa inggris karena bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang dilengkapi dengan terjemahan bahasa inggris tidak cukup membantu pembelajar pemula indonesia dalam mempelajari bahasa mandarin. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) volume 1 sampai 4 yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa jurusan komunikasi pemasaran masih tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan permintaan jurusan komunikasi pemasaran dalam mempelajari bahasa mandarin. bahan ajar hanyu changcheng (great wall chinese) volume 1 sampai 4 merupakan bahan ajar yang dibuat untuk pembelajar bahasa mandarin secara umum dan terfokus pada komunikasi pada kehidupan sehari-hari. hal ini membuat mahasiswa jurusan komunikasi pemasaran dalam mempelajari bahan ajar ini merasa kurang sesuai dengan kebutuhan mereka. yang mereka perlukan adalah 75prinsip penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin ….. (kelly rosalin; agustian) komunikasi yang bisa digunakan dalam bidang ilmu mereka. sekarang ini masih belum ada bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang dibuat khusus untuk mahasiswa jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. oleh karena itu, pemilihan topiktopik dalam pembuatan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin untuk komunikasi pemasaran harus lebih selektif agar dapat menyesuaikan sesuai kebutuhan dan tujuan pembelajaran bahasa mandarin untuk jurusan ini. bersifat praktikal bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran juga harus bersifat praktikal. ini disebabkan kebutuhan jurusan komunikasi pemasaran adalah bahasa mandarin yang dipelajari oleh mahasiswa/i nya lebih fokus pada percakapan dan membaca. melaluinya, mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran hanya perlu bisa membaca karakter han dan juga mampu merespons ketika berkomunikasi dalam bahasa mandarin. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara merasa cara belajar bahasa mandarin yang efektif jika diurutkan dari jumlah terbanyak yang dipilih adalah latihan percakapan (97), melalui multimedia seperti lagu, menonton film (72), latihan soal untuk me-review pelajaran (59), belajar kosakata yang berhubungan dengan jurusan markom (53), membuat proyek atau tugas berkelompok seperti recording, video (44), belajar berdasarkan buku teks (37), dan lainnya (11) seperti bermain games dan belajar di luar kelas. sedangkan dari 4 kemampuan dasar yang harus dimiliki dalam menguasai bahasa mandarin, mahasiswa/i memilih kemampuan mendengar (72 orang) sebagai bagian yang paling mereka sukai. kemampuan berbicara sebanyak 54 orang, kemampuan membaca 42 orang, dan kemampuan menulis hanya ada 27 orang. dilihat dari hasil kuesioner yang ada, dapat disimpulkan bahwa mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran senang dengan kegiatan belajar dan mengajar yang aktif dan juga lebih menyukai belajar bahasa mandarin secara lisan, yaitu dengan mendengar dan berbicara. oleh karena itu, pembuatan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin untuk jurusan komunikasi pemasaran harus dilengkapi dengan latihanlatihan yang sesuai dengan karakteristik mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran yang suka berbicara, aktif, kreatif, senang tampil di depan umum, dan lainlain. latihan –seperti membuat video, presentasi, syuting film, membuat drama (role play), interview, serta beberapa permainan yang membantu mereka dalam menguasai bahasa mandarin akan lebih menarik minat mereka dalam belajar bahasa mandarin. menarik pembuatan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin harus memiliki prinsip dasar dari pembuatan bahan ajar, yaitu menarik. bahasa mandarin bukanlah bahasa yang mudah untuk dipelajari, melainkan bahasa yang sering kali dianggap sulit oleh pembelajar bahasa mandarin, terutama oleh orang indonesia, karena bahasa indonesia menggunakan alfabet sebagai bahasa tulisnya. untuk memotivasi seorang pembelajar bahasa mandarin agar tertarik belajar bahasa mandarin, tidak hanya dari cara pengajar mengajar yang menarik. bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan harus mampu membuat pembelajar merasa tertarik untuk belajar. bahan ajar adalah pegangan dasar bagi pembelajar untuk memperlajari suatu hal. bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang menarik bagi mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran adalah bahan ajar yang tidak monoton. isi materi dari bahan ajar sesuai dengan kebutuhan bidang yang mereka tekuni. di samping itu juga dapat diselingi dengan pengenalan budaya tiongkok, agar ketika mereka berhubungan dengan orang tiongkok asli, tidak akan terjadi culture shock. simpulan berdasarkan hasil dan pembahasan, maka disimpulkan bahwa bahan ajar yang digunakan oleh mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran universitas bina nusantara sekarang tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan permintaan dari jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. sedangkan jika dilihat dari sisi mahasiswa/i, mereka merasa topik yang diberikan tidak sesuai dengan bidang dan kemampuan bahasa mandarin mereka, sehingga bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang digunakan sekarang perlu ditinjau kembali. berdasarkan wawancara dan kuesioner yang sudah dilakukan, untuk saat ini belum ada bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang sesuai dan dapat memenuhi kebutuhan jurusan komunikasi pemasaran. dengan demikian perlu dilakukan penulisan bahan ajar bahasa mandarin yang dikhususkan untuk mahasiswa/i komunikasi pemasaran. bahan ajar tersebut harus memegang tiga prinsip penulisan bahan ajar yaitu terfokus, bersifat praktikal, dan menarik. tiga prinsip ini juga harus disesuaikan dengan karakteristik mahasiswa/i jurusan komunikasi pemasaran itu sendiri. daftar pustaka dick, w., carey, l., carey, j. o. (2005). the systematic design of instruction (6th ed). new jersey: pearson. economywatch. (2010, 13 okt). china economic watch analysis: the world’s largest economy by 2035? diakses dari http://www.economywatch.com/ economicanalysis/china.html hanban. (2006). 长城汉语-生存交际1(great wall chinese-essentials in communication1). beijing: beijing language and culture university press. hanban. (2006). 长城汉语-生存交际2(great wall chinese-essentials in communication2). beijing: beijing language and culture university press. hanban. (2006). 长城汉语-生存交际3(great wall chinese-essentials in communication3). beijing: beijing language and culture university press. hanban. (2006). 长城汉语-生存交际4(great wall chinese-essentials in communication4). beijing: beijing language and culture university press. li, q. (2006). 对外汉语教材研究 (penelitian bahan ajar bahasa mandarin untuk orang asing). beijing: the commercial press. muslich, m. (2010). text book writing. yogyakarta: arruzz media. 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 o’neill, r. (1982). why use textbooks. elt journal, 36(2), 104–111. pannen, p & purwanto. (2011). penulisan bahan ajar. jakarta: pusat antar universitas untuk peningkatan dan pengembangan aktivitas instruksional ditjen dikti dinas. prastowo, a. (2011). paduan kreatif membuah bahan ajar inovatif. yogyakarta: diva press. qomariyah, n. (2011, 14 feb). kalahkan jepang, ekonomi china kini terbesar kedua di dunia. diakses dari http://finance.detik.com/read/ 2011/02/14/103031/1570639/4/ tanaga, s. (2008, 17 feb). pentingnya bahasa mandarin di era pasar global. diakses dari http://sylvietanaga. com/2008/02/17/pentingnya-bahasa-mandarin-diera-pasar-global/ xiaobing, z. (2012). 对外汉语教学入门 (the guidance of teaching chinese to speakers of other languages). guangzhou: zhongshan daxue chubanshe. xun, l. (2010). 对外汉语教育学引论 (pengenalan pendidikan bahasa mandarin sebagai bahasa asing). beijing: beijing language and culture university press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 375 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 375-381 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4397 translation techniques and their impacts to the modality orientation’s shift in the jungle book movie subtitle arifah tenny romdhati1; mangatur nababan2; riyadi santosa3 1,2,3english literature, faculty of cultural sciencies, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1tenny10@student.uns.ac.id; 2amantaradja@yahoo.com; 3riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id received: 26th march 2018 /revised: 25th april 2018 /accepted: 08th may 2018 how to cite: romdhati, a. t., nababan, m., & santosa, r. (2018). translation techniques and their impacts to the modality orientation’s shift in the jungle book movie subtitle. lingua cultura, 12(4), 375-381. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4397 abstract this research aimed to analyze the translation techniques used by the subtitler to translate modality orientation and the impact of the translation techniques on the modality orientation shifts in “the jungle book” movie subtitle. this research was a descriptive qualitative research. the data in this research were words, phrases, and clauses as the marker of modality orientation in the movie, and translation techniques used by the subtitler. modality orientation was obtained through content analysis based on systemic functional linguistics (sfl) theory as proposed by halliday and matthiessen (2014). then, translation techniques were obtained through focus group discussion (fgd) as proposed by molina and albir (2002). the findings show that the subtitler uses seven techniques to translate modality orientation. they have established equivalence, modulation, discursive creation with established equivalence, deletion, transposition, discursive creation, and reduction with established equivalence. the subtitler uses established equivalence to translate orientation that produces same category, value, form, and orientation. deletion technique, modulation, and creation discursive with established equivalence cause the loss of modality in the target language. applying modulation, transposition, discursive creation, and reduction with established equivalence techniques make a shift on the modality orientation and also produce different meaning in the target language. the change of value in modality in the target language is caused by the use of modulation and reduction with established equivalence technique by the subtitler. keywords: translation techniques, modality orientation, translation shift introduction in translation, different grammar systems between the source and target language become one of the difficulties for a translator. one of the grammar systems is modality. baker (2001) has stated that modality can vary widely from language to language and has to be handled sensitively and carefully in translation. meanwhile, evseeva and kozlova (2016) have said that modality is a complicated and contradictory interpretation in linguistic. the translation itself consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (eugene & taber, 1982). but, when translating modality, it is not the only equivalence in meaning but also in the form of the modality. moreover, macali (2000) has said that getting equivalent in form between the source language and the target language is very difficult to achieve because every language has its system to express meaning. thus, the priority should be in meaning rather than the form. however, a shift in the form may lead to misinterpretation in modality translation. in translating modality, both meaning and form must be taken into consideration because if the form of modality changes, the orientation of modality will also change; it will impact the change of authority (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the study of modality has long been a focus of interest in translation. many researchers identify the equivalence and translation shift in terms of meaning (kranich, 2009; nurfitri, risagarniwa, & kadir, 2014) and form; i.e., semimodal (hasanah, 2012; knežević & brdar, 2011), modal auxiliary verb (zhang, 2015), modal adverb (ramón, 2009) and modal verb (jalis & rahim, 2014). then, setiarini (2011), wang and chen (2014) and soelistiyowati (2016) specify their research only on modal would, shall, can, and 376 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 375-381 could. besides, another researcher examines the translation of meaning and value of modality using systemic functional linguistic (lian & jiang, 2014). putri (2014) has analyzed the modality shift in movie subtitle. however, that research does not analyze how translator transfers modality in the target language as arvianti (2016) and moindjie (2015) do in their research. most of the research use novel, newspaper, and legal texts as their data source. from the result of the previous research review, the researcher has not found any research on the translation of modality orientation which is a representation of authority (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). besides, previous research does not analyze the impact of the translation techniques to the translation shift of modality orientation. modality is a speaker judgment (halliday & matthiessen, 2014) or speaker attitude (baker, 2001) of what is being said. modality lies between the areas of meaning ‘yes’ and ‘no’ and also between positive and negative polarity. halliday and matthiessen (2014) have stated that modality orientation is related to the authority in context. halliday differentiates between subjective and objective orientation based on its function in the language (subjective – interpersonal and objective – ideational) and its relation to the utterance (verstraete, 2001). the orientation of modality can be expressed through the use of the finite modal operator, modalization verb, modulated verb, and mood adjunct (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). orientation can be said as implicit if the modality uses finite modal operator, mood adjunct, and modulated verb (usually, possibly, must, be going to), or explicit if the modality uses modalization verb and relational clause with modal complement (i think that ……, its likely that …..), and subjective orientation if the modality uses (i think that …, i know that …..) or objective if the modality uses (it is likely that ….., it is usual that …). orientation shows the source of modality and shows how the speaker is responsible for the judgment that he/she expresses through linguistic forms (thompson, 1996). the orientation is subjective when the speaker shows that he/she is the source of modality. then, the orientation is objective when the speaker gives suggestion or judgment about the possibility of something in an objective way (yang, zheng, & ge, 2015). in this research, the researchers use movie subtitle as a source of data. the researchers choose subtitling because in subtitling, the subtitler must obey subtitling rules such as the subtitle length that is no more than two lines (3540 characters of the line) and not more than four seconds of duration (fois, 2012). therefore, the subtitler sometimes presents a dialogue of the target language in a simpler form, and this may cause a shift in term of form and meaning. it is because not all messages and information from the source language are transferred into the target language subtitle due to the limited time and space. the aims of the research are to find out the translation techniques applied by subtitler to adjust to the limited time and space rules, and to find out the translation shift on modality orientation in movie subtitle. this research will give insight to the subtitler about how to handle the orientation modality in subtitling. moreover, in this research, the researchers use the jungle book movie that is released in 2016. this movie is directed by favreau that is popular not only for kids but also for adults. it is proved that this movie has 7,5 rating from 10 rating (m.imdb.com). besides, this movie is released twice, that is in 1967 with cartoon version and 2016 with animation version. methods the objectives of the research are to find out the translation techniques used by the subtitler and the translation shift on modality orientation in the jungle book movie subtitle. this research is a descriptive qualitative research. the data of this research are primary and secondary data. the primary data are divided into two data; (a) linguistic data (words, phrases, clauses which mark of modality orientation); (b) translation data (translation techniques used by the subtitler to translate modality orientation in the movie subtitle). then, the secondary data are additional data including information, results, or previous research findings about modalities, especially orientation of modality. the object of the research is indonesian subtitle of the jungle book movie released in 2016 with 106 minutes duration. the data are obtained through content analysis and focus group discussion (fgd). the linguistic data are examined based on systemic functional linguistics as proposed by halliday and matthiessen (2014) and the translation techniques are analyzed based on molina and albir (2002). in this research, the researchers analyze the modality in terms of type (probability, usuality, obligation, inclination, and ability), form (finite modal operator, mood adjunct, modalization verb, and modulated verb), value (high, median, low) and orientation (subjective, objective, implicit, and explicit) in the english utterances of the movie. the results are then compared with modality in the target language subtitle. after that, the researchers conduct a focus group discussion with two informants (raters) to identify the translation techniques used by the subtitler. the discussion is then followed by another discussion examining the impact of translation techniques to the modality’s translation shift. results and discussions there are 200 and 38 modality orientations found in the movie. those modality orientations are subjective implicit, subjective explicit, objective implicit, and objective explicit orientation. after analyzing the modality orientation in english utterances, those modality orientations are then compared with the modality orientations in indonesian subtitle to find out the translation techniques. from 18 translation techniques proposed by molina and albir (2002), there are only seven translation techniques used by the subtitler to translate modality orientation. those translation techniques are established equivalence, modulation, deletion, transposition, and discursive creation. besides, there are also some data that use two techniques such as reduction with established equivalence and discursive creation with established equivalence. then, the researcher analyzes the translation shift as the impact of translation techniques used by the subtitler. for the modality orientation which has same type, form, and value in target subtitle can use the established equivalence (table 1) and discursive creation with established equivalence (table 2) technique. the examples of translation techniques used by the subtitler which do not produce the shift in indonesian subtitle can be seen in table 1. in table 1, the subtitler uses established equivalence to translate ‘would’ve’. in english utterance, ‘would’ve’ expresses probability with high value. the orientation of modality is subjective implicit orientation which is realized by the use of the finite modal operator. modality 377translation techniques and... (arifah tenny romdhati et al.) has subjective orientation if the speaker is a source of the modality. in this case, mowgli is the source of modality. his judgment of the probability of his success is coming from himself. he is sure about this success, so he uses modality with high value. table 1 example of established equivalence 002/00:01:36,436/tjb mowgli is hunting with wolves and bagheraa. english utterance indonesian subtitle mowgli: yeah, but if the branch didn't break, i would've made it. mowgli: ya, jika dahan itu tidak patah, aku pasti berhasil. the orientation ‘would’ve’ is translated into ‘pasti’ which has same modality type, form, value, and orientation. the subtitler uses established equivalence to translate the modality orientation. this technique means that the subtitler uses the correct translation that is equivalent in indonesian dictionary and grammar system (molina & albir, 2002). the orientation also has been adapted to the context of the situation, so it does not cause shifts in the target language. this finding is in accordance with arvianti (2016) previous research that this technique produces equivalency, both meaning and forms, in the target language if the translation has already adapted to the context of the text. so, this technique produces a natural translation in the target language. table 2 shows the example of discursive creation with established equivalence. table 2 example of discursive creation with established equivalence 076/ 00:30:27,500/tjb mowgli was caught by the snake, and mowgli told tza that bagheraa should be here soon. english utterance indonesian subtitle tza: we should never be alone. tza: kita seharusnya tidak boleh sendiri. in the english utterance in table 2, ‘should never’ expresses obligation with medium value. that modality has subjective implicit orientation realized by the use of the finite modal operator. then, the subtitler translates ‘should never’ into ‘seharusnya tidak boleh’ in indonesian subtitle. the subtitler uses discursive creation with establishing equivalence to translate ‘should never’. established equivalence is used to translate ‘should’ into ‘seharusnya’, and discursive creation is used to translate ‘never’ into ‘tidak boleh’. established equivalence and discursive creation techniques used by the subtitler do not produce the shift in the target language. the type of modality (obligation), the form and the orientation (subjective implicit) are equivalent in indonesian subtitle. for the modality orientation which has different type in target subtitle, it has modulation (table 3), reduction with established equivalence (table 4 and 5), and discursive creation (table 6) technique. there are some examples of translation techniques used by the subtitler which produce different type in the target language. table 3 shows the example of modulation. table 3 example of modulation 097/ 00:38:49,000/tjb baloo asks mowgli to help her to take honey in the cliff. english utterance indonesian subtitle baloo: you can do it! baloo: kau pasti bisa! in english utterance in table 3, baloo convinces mowgli that he can climb the cliff. ‘can’ has a meaning of obligation with low value. ‘can’ in table 3 has a meaning that “the speaker commands the addressee that he can climb the cliff. because the modality has low value, the addressee does not have obligation to do what the speaker says”. but, the command is told implicitly rather than explicitly. ‘can’ is the finite modal operator. it indicates that the modality orientation is subjective implicit orientation. in indonesian subtitle, ‘can’ is translated into ‘pasti’. based on the context, ‘pasti’ expresses baloo’s certainty about the probability that mowgli can climb the cliff. the meaning and the type of modality change in target subtitle. the subtitler uses modulation to translate that orientation of modality. table 4 shows the reduction with established equivalence. table 4 example of reduction with established equivalence 005/00:01:47,336/tjb mowgli fails when he is practicing hunting with the wolves and bagheraa. english utterance indonesian subtitle wolves: he's never gonna make the council. wolves: dia takkan masuk dewan. in table 4, ‘never gonna’ has a meaning of probability. the speaker has high commitment about the possibility that “mowgli is impossible to join the council”. ‘never gonna’ has objectively implicit orientation. it is translated using reduction with established equivalence technique. ‘never’ refers to ‘not’ and ‘ever’. ‘never’ means ‘tidak pernah’ in indonesia, but the subtitler only translates ‘not’ into ‘tak’ and reduces ‘ever’ which means ‘pernah’. ‘tak’ in indonesia indicates negative polarity like ‘not’. then, established equivalence is used to translate ‘gonna’ into ‘akan’. so, the meaning changes into willingness in the target language. because the meaning of the modality is not translated in the target language, the accuracy decreases. table 5 example of reduction with established equivalence 218/ 01:15:48,900/tjb mowgli runs off from loise temple. bagheraa and baloo protect mowgli from loise. english utterance indonesian subtitle bagheraa: if anything happens to that kid, i'll never forgive myself. bagheraa: jika sesuatu terjadi pada anak itu, aku tidak akan memaafkan diriku. 378 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 375-381 in table 5, ‘will never’ expresses a meaning of probability. the form of that modality is the finite modal operator. based on the context of the situation, ‘will’ does not stand alone but ‘will’ and ‘never’ are a unit which expresses the speaker’s judgment about the probability. in that case, bagheraa ‘will never’ forgive herself if something bad happens to mowgli. it can be defined as a bagheraa’s promise. bagheraa tells subjectively because that judgment comes from himself. that modality is told implicitly in that proposition which is realized by the use of the finite modal operator. ‘never’ modifies the word ‘will’. ‘will never’ in indonesia means ‘tidak akan pernah’. the subtitler translates ‘will never’ into ‘tidak akan’. the subtitler uses established equivalence to translate ‘will’ into ‘akan’. ‘never’ refers to ‘not’ and ‘ever’. but, the subtitler reduces the word ‘ever’ and only translates ‘not’ into ‘tak’. however, the form of modality changes into finite modal operator in target subtitle. the change of modality form will impact to the orientation of modality. in indonesian subtitle, the orientation changes into implicitly subjective orientation. table 6 shows the example of discursive creation. table 6 example of discursive creation 077/ 00:30:27,500/tjb mowgli is caught by the snake. mowgli tells tza that bagheraa will pick him up. english utterance indonesian subtitle mowgli: he should be here soon. mowgli: dia akan segera kesini. ‘should’ in table 6 does not express the meaning of obligation but it expresses the meaning of possibility. it has medium value. ‘should’ has the implicitly subjective orientation which is indicated by the use of the finite modal operator. based on the context, ‘should’ means that something is likely or will probably happen. mowgli only gives information to tza that bagheraa should come to pick her up. but, the subtitler translates ‘should’ into ‘akan’ which expresses a meaning of willingness. although that translation has the same orientation between the source language and target language, that translation produces different meaning in the target language. in source language, the modality has a meaning of probability, but in the target language, the modality has a meaning of inclination. the subtitler uses discursive creation to translate ‘should’. this technique establishes a temporary equivalence that is out of context (molina & albir, 2002) and it is not appropriate with the meaning of that modality. for the modality orientation which has different modality orientation in target subtitle, there are some examples of translation techniques used by the subtitler, such as transposition (table 7) and modulation (table 8). these techniques cause the modality orientation in english utterances are different with modality orientation in target subtitle. table 7 shows the example of transposition. ‘maybe’ in the example of table 7 expresses bagheera’s certainty about preposition that he speaks. bagheraa shows his judgment toward the possibility about mowgli’s knowledge of baloo’s trick. because the judgment comes from bagheraa (speaker), the orientation of modality is subjective. then, the implicit or explicit orientation itself refers to the form of modality. so, this modality has implicit orientation because it is realized by the use of mood adjunct. table 7 example of transposition 156/ 00:52:33,300/tjb bagheraa wants to help mowgli. english utterance indonesian subtitle bagheraa: maybe i can be of help. bagheraa: mungkin aku bisa menolong. then, the subtitler uses transposition technique to translate ‘maybe’ into ‘mungkin’ in the target language. in english utterance, ‘maybe’ is mood adjunct, whereas ‘mungkin’ in the target language is finite modal. the shift in the form of modality is caused by the difference of the grammatical system between the source and target language. transposition technique means that the subtitler changes the grammatical category in the target language (molina & albir, 2002). therefore, in modality translation, transposition technique is obligatory technique (moindjie, 2015). on the other hand, the limitations of time and space on subtitling can also be the reason why the transposition technique is an obligation technique. furthermore, that shift in modality translation occurs when the grammatical structure in the source language is not available in the target language (arvianti, 2016). although the form of modality is different between the source language and target language, it does not impact the accuracy of the translation quality because the meaning of modality is the same. another technique is modulation. table 8 shows the example of modulation. table 8 example of modulation 159/00:55:29,200/tjb bagheraa and baloo see mowgli who helps elephants in the jungle. english utterance indonesian subtitle baloo: you know i'd never teach him to mess around with elephants. baloo: kau tahu, aku takkan mengajarinya macam-macam dengan gajah. the utterance in table 8, baloo expresses his frequency about an event that he never does. ‘never’ in table 8 expresses a meaning of usuality. ‘never’ has implicitly objective orientation which is indicated by the use of mood adjunct. according to halliday and matthiessen (2014), the modality has implicit objective orientation if the form of modality is mood adjunct or modulated verb. the subtitler uses modulation to translate ‘never’. in indonesia, the meaning of ‘never’ is ‘tidak pernah’, but ‘never’ is translated into ‘tidak akan’ in indonesian subtitle. the form of modality changes into the finite modal operator. modulation technique causes the orientation of modality changes from implicitly objective into implicitly subjective orientation. for the modality orientation which has different value in target subtitle, there are some examples of the techniques, such as modulation (table 9) and reduction 379translation techniques and... (arifah tenny romdhati et al.) with established equivalence (table 10). table 9 shows the example of modulation. table 9 example of modulation 141/00:46:14,100/tjb at a night, shera khan meets the wolf’s children without their mother permission. english utterance indonesian subtitle shera khan: but, the one you have to watch out for is the cuckoo bird. shera khan: tapi yang perlu kau waspadai ialah burung kukuk. the example in table 9, the speaker (shera khan) has high power in the jungle, so it has the authority to ask or command other animals. it can be seen from the use of modal finite ‘have to’ which has high value. that modality expresses a meaning of obligation. ‘have to’ has a meaning that the addressee is obligated to do what the speaker asks. the orientation of modality is subjective implicit orientation. but, the subtitler translates the modal ‘have to’ into ‘perlu’ in indonesia that has medium value. thus, the value of modality in the target language is reduced. in that case, the subtitler uses modulation to translate that modality. table 10 shows the reduction with established equivalence. table 10 example of reduction with established equivalence 173/ 00:58:51,400/tjb baloo pretends that mowgli is not his friend. it aims to make mowgli angry and be ready to go to the man village. english utterance indonesian subtitle baloo: i certainly never thought of you as my friend. baloo: aku tak pernah menganggapmu teman. ‘certainly never’ expresses the speaker’s judgment about usuality. the orientation of modality is implicitly objective which is indicated by the use of mood adjunct. that modality has high value. ‘never’ has low value, but the use of ‘certainly’ in table 10 makes the value of modality increases from low to high. the subtitler uses reduction and established equivalence to translate ‘certainly never’. established equivalence is used to translate ‘never’ into ‘tidak pernah’. this meaning is equivalent to target subtitle because it has been adapted to indonesia dictionary and grammar system. then, the subtitler uses reduction to translate ‘certainly’ in target subtitle. as a result, the value of modality decreases. for the modality orientation which is loss in target subtitle use some techniques, such as deletion (table 11), reduction with established equivalence (table 12), modulation (table 13), discursive creation (table 14). table 11 shows the example of deletion. in table 11, bagheraa expresses his judgment about probability which is realized by a high degree of the finite modal operator ‘must’. ‘must’ in table 11 does not tell about obligation but it tells about the probability of something. the use of finite modal operator indicates that the modality has subjective implicit orientation. ‘must’ is not translated into indonesian. the subtitler uses deletion techniques to translate that modality. it causes speaker’s judgment and authority toward mowgli that is realized by the high finite modal operator to be lost. deletion technique which is used by the subtitler to translate modality orientation will impact to the translation quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability. table 11 example of deletion 001/00:01:33,301/tjb mowgli is practicing hunting with wolves and bagheraa. but, mowgli fails. english utterance indonesian subtitle bagheraa: you must be the very worst wolf i’ve seen. bagheraa: kau srigala terburuk yang pernah kulihat. the next technique for the modality orientation which is loss in target subtitle is the reduction with established equivalence that can be seen in table 12. table 12 example of reduction with established equivalence 073/ 00:22:41,000/tjb mowgli was caught by monkey (loise). loise asked mowgli where he came from. english utterance indonesian subtitle loise: i never been there myself. loise: aku belum lihat. in the english utterance in table 12, ‘never been’ has a meaning of usuality. the form of that modality is mood adjunct, so it indicates that the orientation of modality is implicitly objective orientation. the subtitler uses reduction with established equivalence to translate ‘never been’. established equivalence is used to translate ‘been’ into ‘belum’, and the subtitler reduces ‘never’ which has a meaning of ‘tidak pernah’ in indonesian. however, the modality is a loss in target subtitle. besides, loise’s judgment about what is being said is lost in the target language. the next technique for the modality orientation which is loss in target subtitle is modulation. it can be seen in table 13. table 13 example of modulation 235/ 01:31:50,500/tjb bagheraa asks baloo to tell mowgli that he has to leave this jungle. english utterance indonesian subtitle baloo: no. we were never friends. baloo: no, kita bukan teman. based on the context of the situation in table 13, baloo pretends that he and mowgli are never friends. it is because baloo wants mowgli to leave the jungle and go to the man village. ‘never’ in that utterance in table 13 has the meaning of usuality. that modality has implicitly 380 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 375-381 objective orientation and has low value. the subtitler uses a modulation technique to translate ‘never’ into ‘bukan’. it causes the modality loss in the target language. according to molina and albir (2002), modulation means that the subtitler changes his/her point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation to the source text. the next technique is discursive creation. it can be seen in table 14. table 14 example of discursive creation 003/ 00:01:39,644/tjb mowgli is hunting with bagheraa but he fails. english utterance indonesian subtitle bagheraa: crossing upwind, breaking from your numbers. if you can't learn to run with the pack… bagheraa: melawan arah angin, terpisah dari kawanan. jika tidak berlari dalam kawanan in the example in table 14, the subtitler uses discursive creation to translate ‘can’t’. ‘can’t’ in english utterance expresses the meaning of ability. ‘can’t’ in table 14 has implicitly subjective orientation because it is indicated by the use of the finite modal operator. ‘can’t’ is translated into ‘tidak’ in indonesian subtitle. it causes the modality in the target language to lose. as a result, the authority (orientation) of the context is lost. table 15 shows the distribution of translation techniques and translation shift of modality orientation in the jungle book movie subtitle. table 15 the distribution of translation techniques and translation shift of modality orientation in the jungle book movie subtitle tt translation shift ∑ eq type form value loss ee 137 137 tr 22 22 mod 1 3 1 20 3 28 del 30 30 dc 2 1 3 dc+ee 1 2 3 red+ee 5 8 2 15 ∑ 139 10 23 30 36 238 ee: establish equivalence; tr: transposition; mod: modulation; del: deletion; dc: discursive creation; dc+ee: discursive creation+ establish equivalence; red+ee: reduction+ establish equivalence; eq: equivalence; type: different type; form: different form; value: difference value; loss: loss in target language). the table 15 shows that the translation which is equivalent between the source and target language is dominant in this research. the subtitler uses established equivalence to translate modality marker. in this research, this technique does not produce a shift in target language because the translation has already adapted with the context of the situation when the utterances happen, grammatical structure, and indonesian dictionary (arvianti, 2015). then, the shift in term of form is caused by the use of transposition and modulation techniques. the subtitler has to change the grammatical category because the grammatical structure between the source and target language is different. in this research, the subtitler has to change the word class in the target language. it is because indonesian does not have the finite modal operator. this is one of the subtitler’s translation strategies in order to express the same meaning in both languages (soelistiyowati, 2016). furthermore, the loss of orientation modality marker is dominantly caused by the deletion of modality marker in the target language. this finding adds the previous research’s finding by arvianti (2015) that only discursive creation and reduction techniques will impact the loss of modality marker in the target language. there are no bad or good translation techniques in translation. it is based on the appropriateness of the translation technique chosen by the subtitler when he/ she translates the modality. there are many factors why the subtitler uses those techniques; the first is a different grammar system. indonesian does not have a finite modal operator, so the subtitler cannot avoid the shift in term of form in the target language. not all modality markers in the source language are translated with the same form in the target language (setiarini, 2011). the second is the subtitler competence. it refers to the strategies chosen by the subtitler in the translation process. the subtitler can choose translation techniques based on the problem that he/she faces. the decision that the subtitler takes which is related to the translation techniques will impact to the accuracy, acceptability, and readability of the translation result. conclusions the examination on translation techniques and translation shift toward modality orientation reveals that the translation techniques used by the subtitler to translate 300 and 38 orientation modalities are established equivalence, modulation, transposition, discursive creation, deletion reduction with established equivalence, and discursive creation with established equivalence. the impacts of translation techniques used by the subtitler to the translation shift are the orientation modality is equivalent to target subtitle, orientation modality has a different type in target subtitle, modality orientation is different in target subtitle, modality orientation has a different value in target subtitle, and modality (orientation modality) is lost in target subtitle. established equivalence does not produce a shift in the target language. the subtitler already adapts the orientation with the context of the situation and also adapts to the grammatical system in the target language. besides that, modulation and discursive creation with established equivalence also do not produce a shift in the target language. moreover, the modality orientation that has a different meaning (type) in target subtitle is caused by the subtitle used modulation, discursive creation, and reduction with established equivalence. modulation and transposition produce different modality orientation in target subtitle. modality orientation that has a different value in target subtitle is caused by the subtitler who uses modulation, reduction with established equivalence, and discursive creation with established equivalence. then, the loss of modality and orientation modality caused by the use of deletion, modulation, discursive creation, and reduction with established equivalence. 381translation techniques and... (arifah tenny romdhati et al.) from the research, all aspects of meaning, form, and value must be taken into consideration when translating modality. it is because any changes in modality form will impact the speaker authority (orientation) and any changes of modality value will impact the speaker commitment and degree of certainty. thus, when translating modality, the translator must take account of these aspects of the modality to produce a good quality of the translation. the researchers limit the research only on the modality orientation markers (words, phrases, or clauses) and their translation in the jungle book movie subtitle based on halliday and matthiessen (2014) and molina and albir (2002). due to the limitations of the researchers’ ability and time, there are research gaps that can be continued by the further researchers. because of this research only focuses on translation techniques and how these techniques impact to the modality orientation shift in the jungle book movie subtitle, further researchers can continue examine how translation techniques can impact to translation quality of modality systems. so, the researchers can know the accuracy of the modality translation in the target subtitle and also the subtitler can find out which translation techniques that produce good translation quality in target subtitle. furthermore, because of the modality is a speaker judgment of the possibility or necessity, the further researchers can analyze the translation modality in every character in the film or novel. so, the researchers can see the tendency of the characters when using modality. moreover, further researcher can add other approaches such as discourse analysis or pragmatic to support the further research. references arvianti, g. f. 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(2011). shift and modulation on the translation of modal would into indonesian. proceeding pesat (psikologi, ekonomi, sastra, arsitektur & sipil) universitas gunadarma, 4, 2-6. soelistiyowati, r. r. r. (2016). pengungkap modalitas can dan could pada penerjemahan bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia. ranah, 5(2), 167-177. thompson, g. (1996). introducing funtional grammar. london: edward arnold. verstraete, j. c. (2001). subjective and objective modality: interpersonal and ideational functions in the english modal auxiliary system. journal of pragmatics, 33(10), 1505-1528. https://doi.org/10.1016/s03782166(01)00029-7. wang, j., & chen, x. (2014). misuse of shall in the english translation of china’s legal text. world journal of english language, 4(1), 25-31. https://doi. org/10.5430/wjel.v4n1p25. yang, a., zheng, s. y., & ge, g. c. (2015). epistemic modality in english-medium medical research articles: a systemic functional perspective. english for specific purposes, 38, 1-10. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.esp.2014.10.005. zhang, h. y. (2015). comparative analysis of modal auxiliary verbs in english and in chinese. sino-us english teaching, 12(2), 128-136. https://doi. org/10.17265/1539-8072/2015.02.007. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 279 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 279-287 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4301 the impact of translation techniques on shifting meaning of ordering speech act agustina aloojaha1; m. r nababan2; djatmika3 1,2,3linguistics and translation study, postgraduate, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1agustinanipualoojaha@gmail.com; 2amantaradja@yahoo.com; 3djatmika@uns.ac.id received: 05th january 2018 /revised: 27th february 2018 /accepted: 16th march 2018 how to cite: aloojaha, a., nababan, m. r., & djatmika. (2018). the impact of translation techniques on shifting meaning of ordering speech act. lingua cultura, 12(3), 279-287. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4301 abstract this research was a follow-up research from some previous research which had discussed some imperative speech act, but it had not deeply discussed ordering speech act. the research aimed to find out the impact of translation techniques on shifting the meaning of ordering speech. the data were sentences which accommodate ordering speech act taken from the novel “christ the lord out of egypt” and its translation in indonesian taken from the novel “kristus tuhan meninggalkan mesir”. the data collected through document analysis, questionnaire, and forum group discussion (fgd). from the findings, there were 15 types of translation techniques which were used in translating, namely, established equivalent, variation, addition, implicit, explicit, adaptation, modulation, pure borrowing, generalization, particularization, transposition, reduction, paraphrase, discursive creation, and naturalized borrowing. the result indicates that the translation techniques that cause shifting meaning of ordering speech act are the addition, reduction, and discursive creation. keywords: translation, translation techniques, ordering speech act introduction as the times progressed, the scope of information transferred from one country to other country is widespread. it begins on the translation of the scripture, then the object of translation develops in the transfer of technology, science, even the exchange of cultural information that including translation of literary works such as novel, prose, poetry, drama, and so on (pelawi, 2014). the reason the researchers choose the religious novel because it is one popular novel that interest by many readers and ever aired in the cinema last year so it can be guaranteed its data update. translation is an activity to translate between two or more languages that are one language called source language (sl) and other language called target language (tl) (warwal, 2015). the function of translation is to help people who cannot access the information of the other countries because of the problem of language. so the translation is a way for solving the problem of the people to get certain information in other languages. in the midst of the urgency of translation activities, it turns out that there are various books translation which are still difficult to understand. not because of the high language used so readers have difficulty understanding and cannot enjoy when reading the book, but because the contents and meanings in the original text have been adapted in the target language. this should be noted by translator though the styles and approaches for used by the translators are not the same, example one translator used molina and albir’s opinion and the other translator used baker’s opinion. but, it is still necessary for the translator to pay attention to one of the translation standards that is the element of accuracy (nababan, 2012). larson in emzir (2015) has stated that the element of accuracy in translation refers to the exact meaning of the original text in sl when translating to the tl is still same meaning as the original meaning. the accuracy aspect is the most important aspect other than the acceptability aspect and the legibility aspect due to the main point of the translation is to defend the original meaning in the tl. based on the explanation, then surely the translator is a person who must have a basic knowledge of translation and pragmatics that learning about the context meaning of the text. that is because translating is essentially not just about transferring the meaning behind words and sentences in the sl into the tl, but there are also many things that must also get attention to discover the real meaning, as well as the context in the situation, the linguistic context, and the cultural context (emzir, 2015). the context is an important thing in translation, even if the translator is bilingual and multilingual, he/she is unable to produce a good and understandable translation if he/she does not understand the 280 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 279-287 sl context. so that, the translation does not confuse or give wrong information to readers, it should be done by someone who has competent on translation study and linguistics to translate professionally and responsibly (sudana, suyasa, & marsakawati, 2014). talking about translation, it is inseparable from how a translator understands the context of the text to be translated because it will greatly influence the translation results. the context refers to pragmatics study that will help the translator to know what the meaning of the text. pragmatics is one branch of linguistics that studies about the context of speech act either in a conversation or in writing text (sudana, suyasa & marsakawati, 2014). the focus of this research lies in the translation study and pragmatics that the science is to analyze the meaning of the speech rather than the meaning of the utterance. pragmatic attempts to bridge the meaning of the sentence and the meaning of the speaker along with the understanding of the speaker’s intentions that can be done well by analyzing the context of the speech. dylgjerii (2017) has stated that pragmatics is the study of how the language is used to communicate. pragmatics cannot be separated from speech act which is a talking activity between speaker and partner, not just information exchange. furthermore, austin in bayat (2012) has indicated that three acts can occur simultaneously while performing a statement, namely, locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. therefore, this research is related to the act of illocution. according to searle in akinwotu (2013), the illocution is classified into five different forms of speech which each has a communicative function. the five kinds of speech are assertive, directives, expressive, commissives, and declarations. assertive is the form of speech that binds the speaker to the truth of the proposition expressed, for example stating suggesting, boasting, complaining, and claiming. directives is namely the form of speech intended by the speaker to make an effect on the partners to take action, such as ordering, commanding, requesting, advising, and recommending. expressive is a form of speech that serves to express or show the psychological attitude of the speaker to a situation, such as thanking, congratulating, pardoning, blaming, praising, and consoling. commissives is namely the form of speech that serves to declare a promise or offer, such as promising, vowing, and offering something. and the last, declarations is speech-form connecting speech content and reality, such as resigning, dismissing, christening, naming, obtaining, excommunicating, and punish (sentencing). from the explanation of the speech acts, the researchers focus on the act of directive speech that specifically on ordering speech act. ordering speech can be expressed in various ways such as: (1) with imperative sentences (close the door!), (2) with explicit performative sentences (i ask you to close the door!), (3) with performative sentences fenced (actually i ask you to close the door!) (4) with a statement of necessity (you must close the door), (5) with a wish statement (i want the door closed), (6) with the formulation of advice (what if the door is closed?), (7) with question preparation (you can close the door?), (8) with a strong signal (with a door like that, i’m cold), with a subtle gesture (i’m cold) (rahardi, 2005). from the various ways of ordering speech, it is concluded that there are two basic things, namely the existence of direct speech and indirect speech (purwaningrum, 2017). the degree of speech continuity can be measured based on pragmatic clarity. as pragmatic clarity, ordering speech act is more transparent, it will be direct speech, and it can be said impoliteness. while less transparent will be indirect speech will become more politeness. such phenomena in indonesian culture are very common. especially in ordering speech act, indonesian often use indirect speech to respect the partners when speakers give an order to command them even the position between the speaker and the partner is different in social class. if it is seen from the aspect of politeness, it is acceptable, but the accuracy in terms is low because of the conflict with the rule and the meaning of ordering speech act (kuncara, nababan, & samiati, 2013). it is associated with the case of translation, the translation techniques that used the translator to translate ordering speech act are based on indonesian culture as an example the translator added particle ‘lah’ in ordering speech act. thus the translation results are based on indonesian culture nevertheless it has reduced the accuracy of the translation. methods this research includes translation study on ordering speech act using the descriptive qualitative method. qualitative method is a method of research conducted in which researchers conduct observations, interviews, or review documents. this research is also descriptive because the research is more focused on data in the form of words, sentences, or images that its meaning is more meaningful and able to trigger the emergence than just serving the numbers or frequency (santosa, 2012). in relation to the field of translation, this research is a product of translation on ordering speech act. the source of data is a novel entitled christ the lord out of egypt by anne rice and its translation in bahasa indonesian kristus tuhan meninggalkan mesir by esti ayu budihabsari. the data collection techniques are usually closely related to the type of the data to be used (rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016). so the types of data source are document and informant. data collection techniques are conducted in 3 ways; document analysis (content analysis), questionnaire, and focus group discussion (fgd). document analysis is done by getting the data related to ordering speech act in the sl (english) to the tl (indonesian). in addition, questionnaires are conducted to get information related to the types of translation techniques while fgd is done to get deep information about translation techniques used. results and discussions in general, the directive speech act has two forms of speech acts, namely direct speech acts and indirect speech acts (winarti et al., 2015). in this research, the researchers discuss the directive speech act of ordering speech. the analysis of ordering speech act in the source language and target language indicates two forms of ordering speech act; these are ordering directly and ordering indirectly. ordering directly speech appears as many as 113 times or 77,40%, and ordering indirectly speech appears as many as 33 times or 22,60 %. in these findings, the act of direct speech in a conventional manner without exposure indicates the act of speech commands by the speaker to his/ her partner. while indirect speech, in conveying the intent to command, speakers do not use imperative sentences but rather 281the impact of translation... (agustina aloojaha et al.) interrogative and declarative sentences. the following example shows each speech acts of ordering directly. sl: “jesus, speak up!” tl: “yesus, bicaralah!” the situation context in the example is master fails to persuade joseph’s family to stay in egypt. he could no longer argue with joseph who has made the decision to leave egypt. therefore jesus’ decision is the last decision that master wants to hear. master tells jesus to speak, to choose whether to stay in egypt or to return to nazareth with his family. the next is the example of ordering indirectly in the declarative sentence. the situation context is master rebukes and tells joseph to be silent because joseph has spoken improperly about king herod. sl: “joseph, it’s not wise to say such a thing.” the teacher said. tl: “joseph, tidak bijaksana berbicara begitu.” kata sang guru. the next is the example of ordering indirectly in the interrogative sentence. the situation context is wrathfully teacher snaps at the question to tell people who keep shouting at jesus’ family to be silent. sl: whoever could think this child is dead? tl: siapa yang bisa menganggap anak ini mati? based on the results of the analysis, from 18 translation techniques by molina and albir (2002), 15 types of translation techniques are found to analyze the data, they are established equivalent, variation, addition, implicit, explicit, adaptation, modulation, pure borrowing, generalization, particularization, transposition, reduction, paraphrase, discursive creation, and naturalized borrowing. all of these 15 types of data will discuss in this section. based on the appearance frequencies of the translation technique, it is known that the dominant technique is the established equivalent. this is because the terms or expressions those equivalents can be found in the target language. the established equivalent technique is commonly used by translators to translate the meanings contained in the dictionary but with consideration of the context of speech events, so that the translation results in accordance with the purpose of speech (emzir, 2015). in this research, technique is commonly used by translators to translate nouns, adjectives, verbs, exclamations, noun phrases, decipherers, prepositions, etc. the following examples are the sources data from the novel. data number c1/bsu6/bsa14 with situation context that the master snaps and tells those who keep saying that eleazar has died to be silent. in this speech, the bold word is data that is used in the established equivalent technique. it uses terms that are commonly used daily in the target language. the word which translates to ‘siapa’ is a noun (pronoun), and the dead word is translated to ‘mati’ is an adjective. sl: who said he was dead? tl: siapa bilang dia sudah mati? data number c1/bsu6/bsa14 with the situation context that eleazar, the playmate of jesus, keeps shouting at jesus and his family so that master is angry and tells eleazar to stop shouting. the word ‘stop’ is translated to ‘berhenti’ is a verb and ‘shouting’ is translated into ‘berteriak’ is also a verb. sl: eleazar, stop shouting! tl: eleazar, berhentilah berteriak! data number c1/bsu6/bsa15 with the situation context crying mary (the mother of jesus) tells jesus to see the blood and the wounds that are on his eyes and face because eleazar struck jesus. almost all of the utterances use the established equivalent technique. the word ‘oh’ is translated to ‘oh’ an exclamation, ‘look’ to ‘lihat’ (verb), ‘what’ into ‘apa’ (decisive word), ‘happened’ into ‘terjadi’ (verb), and ‘to’ be ‘pada’ is the proposition. words translated from sl to tl are common terms in everyday life. sl: “oh, look what happened to you,” she said. tl: “oh, lihat apa yang terjadi padamu,” katanya. next is data number c1/bsu9/bsa21 with the situation context that master rebukes and tells joseph to be silent because joseph speaks improperly about a king like herod’s king. the word ‘not’ that is translated into ‘tidak’ is an adverb, ‘wise’ becomes ‘bijaksana’ (adjective), ‘to say’ to be ‘berbicara’ is the verb, and ‘such a thing’ becomes ‘begitu’ (noun phrase). the words also use terms that are common in society. it can be seen in the example below. sl: “joseph, it’s not wise to say such a thing,” the teacher said. tl: “yusuf, tidak bijaksana berbicara begitu,” kata sang guru. data number c1/bsu10/bsa23 with the situation context that master fails to persuade joseph’s family to stay in egypt. he could no longer argue with joseph who has been unanimous in his decision to return to his hometown. so the teacher wants to hear little jesus’ decision. master instructs jesus to make his choice, stays in egypt with filo and master or returns to nazareth with his family. in this example, the word that uses the equivalent technique is ‘speak up’ that is translated into ‘berbicara’ is a common verb. sl: “jesus, speak up!” he said. tl: “yesus, bicaralah!” katanya. the second frequency sequence that is used in the translation technique of variation is 108 times or about 13,95%. this technique is used to translate subjects like ‘i’ and ‘me’ into ‘ku’ or ‘aku’, ‘you’ is translated into ‘mu’, ‘kamu’, ‘kalian’, also ‘your’ is translated into ‘kepunyaanmu’ or ‘kepunyaan kalian’. furthermore, ‘he/ she’ are translated into ‘dia laki-laki’ and ‘dia perempuan’. variation technique is also used to translate predicates like ‘make’ into ‘bikin’, then ‘said’ and ‘tell’ is translated to ‘bilang’, etc. this use aims to adjust to the context of speech events such as formal or informal situation adjustment and consideration of the proximity of the relationship between characters. the following are examples of data translated by variation technique. data number c1/bsu5/bsa12 with the situation context that salome (jesus’ cousin) tells jesus to revive eleazar because he has seen jesus make birds of clay and 282 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 279-287 the birds live in his hands and then fly into the air. in this sample of data, the variation technique used in the word is ‘him’ that is translated into ‘dia’. sl: “just make him come alive, jesus, the way you made the birds come alive!” tl: “bikin dia hidup, yesus, seperti saat kau menghidupkan burung-burung itu!” the implicit technique is applied when the translator implicates messages from the source language in the target language. however, messages from the source language can still be conveyed. data number c3/bsu18/bsa44 shows situation context that little jesus re-acting applies implicit techniques. seeing joseph hurriedly interrupts the conversation, he asks who is the born child. so joseph emphatically tells jesus to be silent and no longer asks about the so-called son and cause of herod’s atrocity in jerusalem. sl: “remember, i told you that there were some questions that i didn’t want for you to ask.” tl: ingat, aku sudah mengatakan padamu, ada beberapa pertanyaan yang sebaiknya tak usah kau tanyakan.” in the sentence, the word ‘i’ in sl is not translated in tl. however, it does not affect the meaning of the sentence because the context of the informal situation also the context is easy to understand. the translation technique of addition is one part of the amplification translation technique. the technique of translation of amplification is a translation technique that adds information or details to the tl but it is not contained in the sl. the addition of this technique is only the information used to help deliver the message or the reader’s understanding. additions should not alter messages that exist in the sl text. however, in the case of this research, translation techniques have resulted in less accurate translations or shifting meaning on ordering speech act. based on the data which conducting from questionnaire and forum group discussion, the researchers find that the addition techniques are the techniques which have the big impact toward shifting meaning of ordering speech act because it is used quite a lot that appears 42 times. it can be seen from five data below. data number c1/bsu6/bsa14 with indexing information that it is teacher’s address to eleazar who shouts to jesus’ parent. sl: eleazar, stop shouting! tl: eleazar, berhentilah berteriak! data number c1/bsu10/bsa23 with indexing information that is instructed by master to jesus to make a decision to follow her parents to nazareth or to stay in egypt with the master. sl: “jesus, speak up!” tl: “yesus, bicaralah!” data c2/bsu12/bsa29 with indexing information that is delivered by mary (the mother of jesus) on the sidelines of a family meeting to take a decision back to nazareth. he tries to get people to recall the events seven years ago when jesus was born. sl: “think of all the signs,” said my mother. tl: “pikirkanlah semua tanda-tandanya,” kata ibuku. data number c8/bsu42/bsa101 with indexing information that is delivered by the wild rebels to the frightened family of jesus at the side of the room. sl: “well, look here,” said the man with the helmet. tl: “wah, coba lihat ini,” kata pria yang memakai helm. data number c23/bsu136/bsa321 with index information that is said by alfeus to the children to give the first room for the jews, the greeks takes purgatory. sl: “let the jew go through purification before they enter,” said my uncle alphaeus who was with us. tl: “biarkan yahudi yunani yang menjalani penyucian terlebih dulu sebelum mereka masuk,” kata paman alfeus yang juga bersama kami. from the five described data, in addition to the translation techniques there is a particle ‘lah’ and then politeness marker ‘coba’ and words that contain the intentions of omnipotence that is ‘terlebih’. particles ‘lah’ is one of the particles or class words associated with the word other. this partisan cannot stand on its own and when spoken and written, it must be united with the other word to give the full meaning. these particles are used in imperative sentences (ordering or commanding) as a confirmation of even a smoothing of imperative meaning. however, this research has found the function of ‘lah’ contains more smoothing meaning. meanwhile, the word ‘coba’ on imperative speech is used as a marker of politeness. furthermore, the word ‘terlebih’ in pragmatic science is less acceptable, but in the context of the word said it refers to omission. an explicit technique is a translation technique in which the translator expresses explicitly what the implicit or hidden meanings or messages are in the sl. the use of this technique aims to readers can easily understand the message in sl. data number c5/bsu32/bsa77 shows the situation context of the tension between the soldiers and the pilgrims; one of the male pilgrims, who boldly and courageously instructs the soldiers to inform herod and caesar that no one could rule them out of the temple except god. sl: take those words to herod. take to caesar!” tl: katakan itu pada herodes. katakan pada kaisar!” in this speech, the word ‘take’ is translated to ‘katakan’ with the intention that readers better understand the context of the current speech and the character of each character. modulation is a translation technique that translators use by changing the viewpoint of the tl. in this research, modulation techniques are used by translators at the level of clauses and phrases. data number c8/bsu44/bsa106 shows the situation context of feeling unable to argue with elizabeth, cleopas tells joseph to do something to cancel elizabeth’s plans. elizabeth plans to give her son (john) to the essene for their upbringing when she is dead. sl: “joseph, don’t let this pass,” said cleopas. tl: “joseph, jangan diam saja,” kata cleopas. 283the impact of translation... (agustina aloojaha et al.) in this data, the translator changes the viewpoint of the sl which is translated as ‘jangan biarkan ini berlalu’, but the translation is certainly not fitting and sounds strange to the reader so that it translates to ‘jangan diam saja’. this technique makes the resulting translations sound familiar, easy to understand, without reducing the accuracy. the technique of translation of adaptation is a technique used by translators by replacing cultural elements as contained in the tl. in this research, adaptation techniques are applied to the mention of people’s names and place names. data number c17/bsu92/bsa216 shows that in nazareth, jesus is sent to school by joseph. moreover, in that school, the teachers again question the status of jesus. it makes little jesus cries, so the teacher calls him and tells him to look ahead, toward master. the change of name of the person and place in this two data match the existing culture in the target language. sl: “look at me, jesus bar joseph,” said the rabbi tl: “lihat aku, yesus bin yusuf,” kata rabi itu data number c3/bsu18/bsa45 is given the talk of the people that jerusalem is a pilgrim’s destination city from all over the world. jesus tells his younger sister, salome, to imagine how the city of jerusalem and what is there so that everyone wants to go there. sl: “salome, just think of it, people from all over the empire are going to jerusalem.” tl: “bayangkan, salome, orang-orang dari seluruh penjuru kekaisaran datang ke yerusalem.” pure borrowing technique is used for the translator to translate messages in sl that are not found matching in tl. in this research, pure borrowing techniques are used for the mention of people’s names. data number c1/bsu6/bsa14 shows eleazar; the playmate of jesus continues to shout at jesus and his family so that master could not bear it. master shouts and tells eleazar to stop shouting. sl: eleazar, stop shouting! tl: eleazar, berhentilah berteriak! translators use generalization techniques by searching for a more general equivalent of tl. it is used because there is no specific match in tl culture so, in order to help readers tl easily understand the message contained in sl, the translator translate it by looking for the more common equivalent. data number c2/bsu12/bsa29 shows that mary tells them to remember the magi from the east who comes that night with gold, frankincense, and myrrh to worship the jesus. in this data, there is the word the man in the sl meaning ‘three magi from the east’ but by the translator translates more generally, i.e., the ‘orang-orang’ (people), so that more easily understand by the reader. sl: “think of the night when the man from the east came. why that alone...” tl: “ingat malam ketika orang-orang dari timur datang. itu saja...” paraphrasing techniques are used by interpreters by quoting the words in the sl sentence into the tl. paraphrases are used by translators to help the reader fully understand the true meaning in the sl. data number: c3/bsu18/bsa44 shows little jesus re-acting. seeing joseph hurriedly interrupts the conversation, he asks who is the born child? so joseph emphatically tells jesus to be silent and no longer asks about the so-called son and cause of herod’s atrocity in jerusalem. in this data, the sentence ‘i did not want for you to ask’ in sl is paraphrased be ‘sebaiknya tak usah kau tanyakan’ in tl. it is intended to help the reader tl more fully understands the meaning of sl naturally. sl: “remember, i told you that there were some questions that i didn’t want for you to ask.” tl: ingat, aku sudah mengatakan padamu, ada beberapa pertanyaan yang sebaiknya tak usah kau tanyakan.” transposition technique is a technique used by a translator by replacing the grammatical category of the source language in the target language. this is done because of the difference in grammar between sl and tl. in this research, transposition is used by translators in the phrase level in words. data c1/bsu5/bsa12 shows that salome (jesus’ cousin) tells jesus to revive eleazar because he has seen jesus make birds of clay and the birds live in his hands and then fly into the air. in this data, there is a shift of units from the ‘come alive’ phrase in sl to be ‘hidup’ in tl. sl: “remember, i told you that there were some questions that i didn’t want for you to ask.” tl: ingat, aku sudah mengatakan padamu, ada beberapa pertanyaan yang sebaiknya tak usah kau tanyakan.” transposition technique is a technique used by a translator by replacing the grammatical category of the sl in the tl. this is done because of the difference in grammar between sl and tl. in this research, transposition is used by translators in the phrase level in words. data c1/bsu5/ bsa12 shows that salome (jesus’ cousin) tells jesus to revive eleazar because he has seen jesus make birds of clay and the birds live in his hands and then fly into the air. in this data, there is a shift of units from the ‘come alive’ phrase in sl to be ‘hidup’ in tl. sl: “just make him come alive, jesus, the way you made the birds come alive!” tl: “bikin dia hidup, yesus, seperti saat kau menghidupkan burung-burung itu!” the reduction technique is a translation technique in which the translator removes or limits the information to the tl with certain considerations, e.g., for the effectiveness of the word. in this research, however, reduction techniques can reduce the level of speech magnitude sentence by experiencing a shift of meaning in the source language. data c1/bsu5/bsa12 shows that salome (jesus’ cousin) tells jesus to revive eleazar because he has seen jesus make birds of clay and the birds live in his hands and then fly into the air. sl: “just make him come alive, jesus, the way you made the birds come alive!” tl: “bikin dia hidup, yesus, seperti saat kau menghidupkan burung-burung itu” in this data, eliminating the word ‘just’ in the tl does not affect the integrity of the message but results in a shift in meaning because it occurs between two young children, salome and jesus, their siblings and playmates. however, jesus is older than salome so salome respects him as a big 284 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 279-287 brother. so actually the meaning of the sayings in the word using the word ‘just’ actually only give suggestion to jesus because she has seen jesus makes birds of clay and the bird lives in his hands. however, because it eliminates the word ‘just’ in the tl, the speech is more to the meaning of a firm reign when the real meaning is not so. so it is said that this technique reduces the level of accuracy. data c12/bsu68/bsa164 tells about after the soldiers leave, joseph and mary hug and kiss old sarah. mary says to all the children to come closer to sarah because she wants to introduce the children to her. sl: “all of you come here to old sarah,” she said to us children. tl: “kalian semua mendekatlah ke sarah,” katanya pada anak-anak. in this data, the reduction technique is used to reduce or eliminate the word ‘old’ on tl. this omission is possible to do because it does not affect the integrity of the message as in the speech but it impacts on the shift of meaning because removing the word ‘old’. sarah position equates with the children, though the children are his grandchildren. when a translator uses a more concrete, precise, and specific term from general to specific, then at that particular technique of particularization is applied. thus, the term language of a common source language is changed to a more specific term in the target language. data: c5/bsu32/bsa76 is an example of data that uses particularization techniques. the situation context is joseph tells mary to stay with jesus, hold his hand, not to let go. sl: “get him, pull him down.” tl: “pegang dia, tarik dia.” in this data, the term ‘get him’ means ‘mendapatkan dia’. it is translated into a more specific term on the target language i.e., ‘pegang dia’. translators use specialized techniques to translate more general terms into more specific ones. translators use discursive creation technique by searching for their temporal equivalents, so they tend to differ from their original meaning. data c12/bsu65/ bsa155 shows the situation when they have not had time to get a shelter. they suddenly are confronted by a group of roman soldiers. one of the soldiers tells his friends to see joseph’s family standing in fear before them. sl: “well, look at this,” said one of the man in greek, “it seems you’re the only people that live in nazareth.” tl: “wah, coba lihat ini,” kata salah seorang tentara itu dalam bahasa yunani, “sepertinya kalian satusatunya orang yang tinggal di nasaret.” this technique is used by the translator to translate the word ‘well’ which means ‘baik’ to be the exclamation ‘wah’ in tl. this equivalent aims to make the translation more acceptable to the reader, but it tends to produce a less accurate translation. the naturalized borrowing technique is part of the borrowing technique where the word from sl is translated according to the tl spelling to make the translation seems natural. in this research, the technique is used in the mention of the name. data c13/bsu73/bsa176 shows when cleopas is still in doubt with their security. then alfeus rebukes and tells cleopas to stop complaining and fear. sl: “cleopas leave it,” said alphaeus. tl: “cleopas sudahlah,” kata alfeus. from the findings of translation techniques used to translate the speech, it has found the translation techniques that cause the shift in the meaning of order speech are an addition, reduction, and discursive creation. the addition translation technique is one part of the amplification translation technique. it is a translation technique that adds information or details to the tl but is not contained in the sl. the addition of this technique is only the information used to help deliver the message or the reader’s understanding. the addition should not alter messages that exist in the sl text. from the data that have been described, there are 42 data translation techniques addition used in the tl. it is obvious that the most widely used is the ‘lah’ particle, then the marker of politeness ‘coba’, and the word containing the meaning of omission that is ‘terlebih’. furthermore, it can be explained that the ‘lah’ particle is one of the particles or word class associated with another word. this partisan cannot stand on its own when spoken and written, but it must be united with the other word so as to give the full meaning. these particles are used in imperative sentences as a confirmation, even as a smoothing of imperative meaning. based on the results of the analysis of the 40 data, it is found that the function of ‘lah’ particle here contains smoothing meaning. this is contrary to the basic principle of the imperative sentence in this case the convincing speech which is convincingly speaking is a decisive ruling. so here it can be concluded that in the translation that uses the translation techniques of addition has affected the accuracy level to be low due to many distortions of meaning. despite the styles and approaches used by translators based on the prevailing culture in indonesia, it can not be taken for granted because one of the standards of translation is the element of accuracy. accuracy refers to the exact or derogatory meaning of source language when translated to the target language. moreover, this element is the main requirement of the translation work that is received in the community. although the acceptability and legibility of a translation are still high, it reduces the level of accuracy so that it impacts the shift in meaning. in other words, scientifically the accuracy of a text needs to be maintained because it is translated from two languages from two different cultures. therefore, the function of translation must be given the information accurately without distorting the original meaning from the sl to tl. meanwhile, using the word ‘coba’ in imperative speech will make the utterance more meaningful and more polite than imperative speech without using the word ‘coba’. to express the meaning of commanding in imperative speech, the use of the word ‘coba’ will lower the level of its imperative speech. using such a form, as if the spoken counterpart is treated as a person parallel to the speaker despite the fact that the rank between them is very different. the assumption that the partner speaks parallel to the speaker will save the face of both parties. such a thing will sustain politeness in the activity of speech but violates the meaning of the order speech. while the word ‘terlebih’ is in pragmatic science less acceptable, in the context of the speech, the word refers to let others. because the imperative sentences of omission can also mean a sentence that tells or instructs to let something happen and means asking for permission to prevent something from being obstructed. based on the explanation 285the impact of translation... (agustina aloojaha et al.) of the addition technique translation can be concluded that the impact of the use of translation techniques can reduce the level of imperative speech, especially the commanding speech because it affects the level of accuracy to be low because of the distortion of the meaning of speech. the technique reduction of translation is the reduction of information contained in the sl when translated into the tl. it aims to compress information from sl by eliminating or implicating the information into the tl. compacting of information performed should not alter messages in the sl text. in this research, three data are found related to the use of reduction translation techniques. as in the example data presented in the results findings, the use of translation reduction techniques, in which the word ‘just’ omitted makes the meaning of the speech more assertive. it is conventionally accepted but the meaning of sl changes. because the meaning of the utterance is subtle, the conversation takes place between salome and jesus, who at that time are both still young. jesus is seven years old while salome (jesus’ sister) is still about three years old. so it is not possible for salome to rule jesus as firmly as in the tl. further reducing or eliminating the ‘old’ word in the tl is a distortion of meaning because it aligns sarah and the children or in other word diminishes the meaning of tribute to sarah. though sarah is the grandmother of the sons of joseph, cleopas, and alfeus. thus it is clear that the use of translation reduction techniques result in the distortion of meaning so that the meaning of speech on the tl becomes less accurate. the discursive creation technique is an unexpected or out of context temporary matching. in this research, the researchers find one data using discursive creed translation technique that is word well translated into word ‘wah’. the use of translation technique of discursive creations in both instances in the context of its meaning is acceptable, but the accuracy of sl to tl is less acceptable because distortion has occurred the meaning of the ordering speech. table 1 (see appendix) presents ordering speech act, the translation techniques, and the translation quality. it is a table of component analysis of the level of accuracy, acceptability, and readability (nababan, 2012). he has stated that the score 3 can be said the translation is very good, score 2 is average, and score 1 is low. based on table 1 (see appendix), to translate the ordering speech act the established equivalent appears as many as 400 times, variation is 88 times, implication is 36 times, addition is 42 times, explicitation is 36 times, modulation is 20 times, adaptation is 16 times, pure borrowing is 9 times, generalization is 4 times, paraphrase is 4 times, transposition is 3 time, reduction is 3 times, particularization is 2 times, discursive creation is also 2 times, and naturalized just 1 time. further, the accuration of ordering directly is 2,64% that means almost less accurate, acceptability is 2,99% that means good, and readability is 3,00% that means very good. while the accuration of ordering indirectly is 3,00%, that means very good, as well as the acceptability and readability. furthermore, the total level accuration, acceptability, and readability of the ordering speech act show that the accuration is 2,82%, the acceptability is 2,99%, and readability is 3,00%. from these result, the whole level of ordering speech act is very good because the translator uses the more established equivalent technique for translating than other translation techniques, so it makes the translation is communicative, natural, and well accepted. in another hand, the translation almost is less accurate because the translator used addition technique, reduction technique, and discursive creation technique on ordering directly. the addition is used by the translator to make the translation is well communicative based on indonesian culture, but it contradicts the foreign language as english. moreover, the reduction is used by the translator to reduce the words to condense the information in the target language, but it is eliminating the meaning of the source language. then the discursive creation is used by the translator to find out the order word based on indonesian style like word ‘wah’ that is translated from the word ‘well’, so it impacts to the meaning of the original context. besides, the three translation techniques are impacting the meaning of ordering speech act. conclusions the most important communication function of this discussion is the attempt of the translator to provide information naturally as well as to maintain the continuity of the relationship between the communicants. so that it can be said that although the language is used as the tool that contains very complicated rules to command how a person should speak for the interpersonal relations of the wearer to be preserved. then there are certain strategies that speakers use to speak with the partners. however, it can not be denied that the conventional meaning of a speech that also needs to be considered to be considered when assessing the level of accuracy. this research is based on translation study that analyzed ordering speech act in translation novel. thus the research has found two ways to express ordering speech acts are ordering directly and ordering indirectly. moreover, this research finds 15 translation techniques used in translating the data. besides, in the 15 translation techniques, the researchers find three translation techniques that cause the impact of shifting meaning. these techniques are the addition, reduction, and discursive creations. from the three translation techniques, the most technique widely used is the addition technique. the translator uses the addition technique as an example she added particle ‘lah’ on ordering directly, and it has reduced the value of commanding. although it can be received by indonesia readers because indonesia culture is not direct, it has reduced the original meaning of the text. the other hand, it is an attempt of the translator to make translation more natural and communicative so the readers can easily understand the translation text. in addition, it is already said in the discussion that acceptability and legibility of ordering speech act in this novel are high but accuracy becomes almost less accurate due to the quality of ordering speech on ordering directly is almost less, and it is like requesting speech act. references akinwotu, s. a. 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(agustina aloojaha et al.) appendix table 1 ordering speach act, translation techniques, and translation quality no the forms of ordering speech act translation tecniques translation quality ee var imp add ex mod ad pb gen par tra re par dc nb acc accep read 1 ordering directly 292 64 33 42 23 9 13 6 4 2 3 3 1 2 2,64 2,99 3,00 2 ordering indirectly 108 24 3 13 11 3 3 2 1 1 3,00 3,00 3,00 total 400 88 36 42 36 20 16 9 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 2,82 2.99 3,00 microsoft word 10_jpg_ rini widiarti penerjemahan metafora_setting 180 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 180-186 analisis penerjemahan metafora: studi kasus metafora dalam novel yukiguni karya kawabata yasunari dan terjemahannya daerah salju oleh ajip rosidi rini widiarti program studi sastra jepang, fakultas sastra, universitas darma persada jl. radin inten ii (terusan casablanca), duren sawit, jakarta riniwidiarti07@yahoo.co.jp abstract this study aims to describe the form of metaphorical translation of the source language (sl), japanese, into the target language (tl), indonesian, as well as the equivalences in tl. the study also explains any the translation procedures used by the translator to get a natural translation so that the metaphor contained in the target text is able to give the same impression with the original text. data were collected from the work of kawabata yasunari “yukiguni” novel and the translation "daerah salju" by ajip rosidi. metaphor data were obtained by recognizing the collocation incompatibility of that the referent of a word des not match common sense. the results found are tl metaphors are translated in two forms of metaphor and non metaphor. forms of non-metaphor are divided into simile and non-figurative expression. the results showed that procedure of modulation translation plays an important role to convey the meaning of tl, especially about viewpoint changes and explicit indication. viewpoint changes occur on metaphorical imagery while explicit indication occurs at similarity points. transposition procedure is not only used to generate a natural translation in terms of language but also to divert the message from sl to tl. noted equvalences are widely used by translators to explain the concept of japanese culture. keywords: metaphorical translation, non-metaphor, simile, non-figurative expression abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguraikan bentuk terjemahan metafora bahasa sumber (bsu), bahasa jepang ke dalam bahasa sasaran (bsa), bahasa indonesia, serta padanannya dalam bsa. penelitian ini juga menerangkan prosedur penerjemahan apa saja yang digunakan penerjemah untuk mendapatkan hasil terjemahan yang wajar sehingga metafora yang terdapat dalam teks sasaran dapat memberikan kesan yang sama sesuai teks asalnya. data dikumpulkan dari novel “yukiguni” karya kawabata yasunari dan terjemahannya “daerah salju” oleh ajip rosidi. data metafora diperoleh dengan mengenali ketidakcocokan kolokasi karena referen dari sebuah kata yang digunakan tidak cocok dengan makna yang kita gunakan. hasil yang ditemukan adalah metafora bsu diterjemahkan dalam dua bentuk metafora dan non metafora. bentuk non metafora dibagi dalam kategori simile dan ungkapan non figuratif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan prosedur penerjemahan modulasi memegang peran penting untuk menyampaikan makna bsu, terutama perubahan sudut pandang dan gejala eksplisitasi. perubahan sudut pandang terjadi pada citra metafora sedangkan eksplisitasi terjadi pada titik kemiripan. prosedur transposisi digunakan tak hanya untuk menghasilkan terjemahan yang wajar dari segi bahasa tetapi tidak untuk mengalihkan pesan dari bsu ke bsa. pemadanan bercatatan banyak digunakan oleh penerjemah dalam menjelaskan konsep kebudayaan jepang. kata kunci: terjemahan metafora, non metafora, simile, ungkapan non figuratif analisis penerjemahan metafora: ….. (rini widiarti) 181 pendahuluan gejala kebahasaan metafora hampir terdapat dalam semua bahasa. dalam metafora terjadi pengalihan makna yang terjadi karena referen darisebuah kata yang digunakan tidak cocok dengan makna yang kita gunakan. bentuk pengalihan yang “menyeleweng” dalam hal metafora bukan makna kata yang dipakai secara metaforis melainkan penerapan makna yang bersangkutan, yaitu makna itu diterapkan kepada suatu referen yang tidak sesuai dengan makna tadi. (verhaar, 1986:129). metafora dapat dikatakan sebagai suatu bentuk pengalihan makna dengan menggunakan analogi. contoh: aku terus memburu untung; nani jinak-jinak merpati; mereka ditimpa celaka; kereta api saling berkejaran seperti anak kecil. menurut wahab (1991, p85) terdapat metafora yang bersifat universal dan metafora yang terikat budaya. metafora universal ialah metafora yang mempunyai medan semantis yang sama bagi sebagian besar budaya di dunia, baik lambang kias maupun makna yang dimaksudkan. kemudian, metafora yang terikat budaya adalah metafora yang medan semantisnya terbatas hanya pada satu budaya karena penutur satu bahasa mempunyai pengalaman fisik dan pengalaman kultural yang khusus dimiliki sendiri, tidak dimiliki oleh penutur dari budaya lain. tidak semua metafora dapat diartikan dengan mudah. oleh karena itu, jika metafora diterjemahkan secara harfiah, kata per kata sering terjadi salah pengertian. larson memberikan sejumlah alasan mengapa metafora sulit diartikan dan tidak dapat diterjemahkan secara harfiah. di antaranya citra yang digunakan dalam metafora tidak dikenal dalam bahasa sasaran, topik metafora tidak diungkapkan dengan jelas, terdapat titik kemiripan yang implisit sehingga sulit dikenal atau mungkin juga bahasa sasaran tidak membuat perbandingan seperti yang terdapat dalam metafora bahasa sumber. berbicara mengenai karya terjemahan jepang, di indonesia memang banyak karya jepang yang telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia tetapi sebagian besar merupakan hasil terjemahan dari bahasa inggris. kebanyakan karya jepang yang langsung diterjemahkan dari bahasa jepang ke bahasa indonesia adalah komik anak-anak maupun komik orang dewasa. hal itu terjadi karena bahasa komik adalah bahasa yang sederhana dan lebih mudah dipahami dengan adanya gambar. fenomena mengenai sedikitnya karya jepang yang langsung diterjemahkan dari bahasa aslinya menunjukkan kurang produktifnya penerjemah indonesia dalam melakukan penerjemahan karya jepang. kegiatan penerjemahan itu kurang produktif karena jarang orang indonesia yang menguasai bahasa jepang secara memadai sekaligus mengetahui teknik menerjemahkan. meskipun dalam penerjemahan penguasaan dua bahasa merupakan syarat untuk menjadi penerjemah, dwibahasawan tidak otomatis mahir menerjemahkan. masalahnya adalah sedikitnya orang yang menguasai teknik atau cara menerjemahkan. oleh karena adanya berbagai masalah tentang penerjemahan metafora, dalam penelitian ini dirumuskan permasalahan: (1) apa terjemahan metafora bahasa jepang ke dalam bahasa indonesia; (2) dengan mengamati hasil terjemahan, sejauh mana pergeseran bentuk, pergeseran makna, pergeseran sudut pandang dan pergeseran medan makna yang diperlukan agar terjadi kesepadanan dalam teks terjemahan. dalam penelitian ini terdapat beberapa hal yang menjadi tujuan saya dalam meneliti penerjemahan metafora jepang, yaitu: menemukan perpadanan metafora bahasa sumber dengan terjemahannya dalam bahasa sasaran serta menemukan pergeseran bentuk, medan makna dan pergeseran sudut pandang dalam hasil terjemahan. hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan suatu pengetahuan mengenai metafora bahasa jepang bagi pihak yang mempelajari bahasa jepang juga penelitian ini diharapakan dapat memberikan kontribusi pemikiran tentang hasil karya terjemahan dari novel yukiguni. 182 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 180-186 metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kualitatif yang sifatnya deskriptif untuk mengungkapkan terjemahan metafora jepang dengan unsur-unsur budaya yang meliputinya dan perpadanannya dalam bahasa indonesia. penelitian metafora jepang ini menggunakan sumber data berupa novel, yaitu yukiguni karya kawabata yasunari yang diterjemahkan oleh matsuoka kunio dan ajip rosidi menjadi daerah salju pada tahun 1987. novel ini dianggap sebagai salah satu karya puncak kawabata yasunari (1899-1972). teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan mengambil cuplikan-cuplikan kalimat yang mengandung metafora membentuk korpus data. setelah terkumpul, data diserahkan ke penutur asli untuk diuji kebenarannya apakah semua data termasuk kategori metafora atau tidak. analisis data dilakukan menggunakan teori pembandingan serta prosedur penerjemahan berupa pergeseran makna (modulasi), pemadanan berkonteks, pemadanan bercatatan untuk kalimat dan satuan-satuan bahasa yang lebih kecil (newmark, 1988, p.81). pembahasan analisis data menurut newmark beberapa faktor mempengaruhi penerjemah dalam menerjemahkan metafora, yaitu pentingnya metafora dalam konteks faktor budaya dalam metafora, tingkat komitmen pembaca, dan pengetahuan pembaca. tidak semua metafora dapat diartikan dengan mudah. oleh karena itu, jika metafora diterjemahkan secara harfiah, kata per kata sering terjadi salah pengertian. larson (1988, p.263-264) menyatakan bahwa tidak semua metafora dapat diartikan dengan mudah. menerjemahkan metafora secara harfiah sering mengakibatkan makna yang salah, nihil, atau taksa. ada sejumlah alasan mengapa metafora sulit diartikan dan tidak dapat diterjemahkan secara harfiah: (1) citra yang digunakan dalam metafora mungkin tidak dikenal dalam bahasa sasaran; (2) topik metafora tidak diungkapkan dengan jelas; (3) adanya kenyataan bahwa titik kemiripan dapat ditafsirkan secara berbeda-beda dalam kebudayaan yang berbeda; (4) tiap bahasa berbeda dalam frekuensi pemakaian metafora dan cara menciptakannya. larson juga memberikan cara menerjemahkan metafora sebagai berikut: metafora dapat dipertahankan jika kedengarannya wajar dan jelas bagi pembacanya. contoh: 時間が 流れる/jikan ga nagareru, 意味をつかむ/imi wo tsukamu, 女の勘はするどい/onna no kan wa surudoi. contoh itu dalam terjemahannya bentuk metafora tetap dipertahankan yaitu ”waktu mengalir”, “menangkap makna”, “firasat wanita sangat tajam”. metafora dapat diterjemahkan sebagai simile, yaitu dengan menambahkan kata seperti, bagai, bagaikan, dan lain-lain. contoh: 眉は三日月/mayu wa mikazuki diterjemahkan menjadi “alisnya bagaikan bulan sabit”. metafora bahasa sumber dapat digantikan dengan metafora bahasa sasaran yang mempunyai makna yang sama. contohnya adalah seperti yang dikemukakan oleh hiyuu hyogen jiten (showa 52) 花の生涯/はなのしょうがい . makna harfiah ungkapan itu adalah “seumur hidup bunga” sedangkan makna kiasnya adalah kehidupan yang singkat tetapi mempunyai kesan yang indah. ungkapan ini biasanya digunakan pada musim semi karena pada saat ini bunga-bunga bermekaran indah. bunga mempunyai masa kehidupan yang singkat ketika bermekaran terlihat sangat indah tetapi keindahan itu hanya sebentar karena akan hilang seiring dengan layunya bunga. kehidupan yang singkat tapi mengesankan disimbolkan dengan proses mekarnya bunga sampai layunya bunga. kita dapat menggantikan metafora itu dengan metafora bahasa indonesia yaitu “seumur jagung”. analisis penerjemahan metafora: ….. (rini widiarti) 183 metafora dapat dipertahankan dengan menerangkan maknanya atau menambahkan topic dan/atau titik kemiripannya. contoh: 花のかんばせ/ hana no kanbase diterjemahkan menjadi “wajah bunga, cantik seperti bunga.” makna metafora dapat dijelaskan tanpa menggunakan citra metaforisnya. contoh: 頭に富士 の雪をいただく/atama ni fuji no yuki wo itadaku diterjemahkan menjadi pusing. makna harfiah metafora itu adalah: menerima salju gunung fuji di atas kepala. newmark (dalam the ubiquity of metaphor) menyebutkan metafora asli dalam sebuah teks ekspresif harus diterjemahkan secara literal baik sifatnya universal, budaya ataupun personal. ia berasumsi bahwa penerjemah berupaya untuk menerjemahkan metafora seakurat mungkin tanpa ada pengurangan. akan tetapi jika metafora itu juga merupakan sebuah simbol, arti metafora itu terkadang diisyaratkan oleh penerjemah, lebih banyak penyimpangan metafora berasal dari norma linguistik bahasa sumber, kasus yang paling menonjol untuk terjemahan semantik. beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi penerjemah adalah pentingnya metafora dalam konteks, faktor budaya dalam metafora, tingkat komitmen pembaca serta pengalaman pembaca. prosedur penerjemahan metafora menurutnya ada tujuh bentuk; lima diantaranya sama dengan yang dikemukakan larson di atas. dua bentuk lainnya adalah: (1) simile ditambah penjelasan maknanya; (2) metafora yang dilesapkan. apabila suatu metafora terdapat berulang-ulang dalam sebuah teks, dalam penerjemahannya metafora itu dapat dilesapkan dengan catatan teks sumber bukanlah teks ekspresif. pelesapan ini dilakukan jika penerjemah menilai metafora itu tidak begitu penting dan fungsi metafora itu sudah terpenuhi pada bagian lain dari teks sumber. beekman dan callow mengusulkan cara menerjemahkan metafora menjadi bentuk-bentuk: (1) metafora (tetap dipertahankan); (2) simile, metafora diterjemahkan menjadi bentuk simile; (3) nonfiguratif; (4) gabungan bentuk metafora, simile dan non figuratif. berikut ini adalah contoh analisis penerjemahan metafora: contoh 1: 小さい瞳のまわりをぼうっと明るくしながら、 つまり娘の眼と火とが重なった瞬間、彼女の眼は夕闇の波間に浮かぶ、妖しく美しい 夜光虫であった/ chiisai hitomi no mawari wo bôtto akarukushinagara, tsumari musume no me to hi to ga kasanatta shunkan, kanojo no me wa yûyami no namimami ni ukabu, ayashiku utsukushii yakôchû de atta. (雪国: 11) api itu menerangi samar-samar sekitar hitam mata gadis itu, yaitu ketika mata si gadis dengan api itu saling tumpang tindih sehingga mata itu menjadi yakochu yang indah dan ajaib yang terapung-apung di atas ombak gelap malam (ds, p.27). ] metafora dalam contoh ini adalah: 彼女の眼は夜光虫であった. kanojo no me yakôchû de atta/mata itu menjadi yakochu topik dalam metafora ini adalah mata yoko, citra adalah yakochu dan titik kemiripan adalah keindahan yang bersinar di malam hari. mata dianalogikan dengan yakochu (makhluk kecil-kecil yang terapung di air laut dan memancarkan sinar pudar pada malam hari, kunang-kunang) yang mendeskripsikan kecantikan seorang geisha ataupun wanita yang bekerja di restoran/bar. analogi dengan yakochu biasanya digunakan untuk wanita pekerja malam di restoran atau geisha, bukan untuk menggambarkan kecantikan wanita pada umumnya. terjadi modulasi bebas dalam metafora彼女の眼は夜光虫であったuntuk memperjelas makna. penerjemah menambahkan kata “menjadi” untuk memperjelas pesan kawabata tentang keindahan mata wanita yang dianalogikan dengan yakochu. yakochu adalah hewan yang memancarkan sinar pudar pada malam hari sehingga terlihat indah dan bercahaya. pada siang hari keindahan itu 184 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 180-186 tidak terlihat sehingga para wanita pekerja malam dianalogikan dengan yakochu ini karena biasanya mereka berhias pada malam hari ketika akan menghadapi tamu. kecantikan mereka pun hanya terlihat pada malam hari seperti halnya dengan yakochu. penerjemah menerjemahkan metafora ini dengan model padanan bercatatan, yakochu tidak diterjemahkan tetapi diberi catatan dalam glosarium. ada informasi yang dapat diselipkan ke dalam terjemahan itu, jika sesuai tetapi kebanyakan latar belakang ini harus diberikan dalam pengantar, catatan atau glosarium. contoh 2: tsu: それゆえ島村は悲しみを見ているというつらさはなくて、夢のからくりを眺めている ような思いだった。不思議な鏡のなかのことだったからでもあろう/ soreyue shimamura wa kanashimi wo miteiru to iu tsurasa wa nakute, yume no kara kuri wo nagameteiruyôna omoi datta. fushigina kagami no naka no koto datta kara de mo arô. (雪国:10) karena itu shimamura tidak merasa tertekan karena melihat sesuatu yang menyedihkan, melainkan ia merasa melihat sesuatu adegan dalam mimpi. mungkin karena semuanya itu terjadi dalam cermin yang ganjil (ds, p.25). metafora dalam kalimat di atas adalah 不思議な鏡のなかのことだったからでもあろう. (mungkin karena semuanya itu terjadi dalam cermin yang ganjil). untuk memahami makna yang sebenarnya dibutuhkan konteks karena 不思議な鏡 (cermin yang ganjil). yang dimaksud dalam penceritaan ini bukanlah cermin yang digunakan untuk memantulkan cahaya atau alat untuk melihat wajah atau sosok seperti yang didefinisikan dalam kamus 学研国語大辞典:光の反射を利用して、 (自分の)顔.姿などをうつして見る道具. topik dalam metafora itu adalah adegan antara yoko dan yukio. citra terjadi dalam cermin yang ganjil. titik kemiripan dalam metafora itu tidak disebutkan karena itu diperlukan konteks untuk memahaminya. makna metafora itu dapat dipahami dengan melihat kembali penceritaan awal. penceritaan dimulai dengan jendela kaca yang dianalogikan sebagai cermin untuk melihat bayangan tokoh lain. kawabata pada awal teks ini telah membangun situasi metaforis dengan kalimat 外は夕闇がおりて いるし、汽車のなかは明りがついている。それで窓ガラスが鏡になる。/soto wa yûyami ga oriteirushi, kisha no naka wa akari ga tsuiteiru. sore de mado garasu ga kagami ni naru. (雪国:8) di luar hari sudah gelap dan di dalam gerbong lampu menyala. maka kaca jendela menjadi cermin (ds, p.23). suasana yang dibangun oleh pengarang adalah situasi di dalam kereta api pada waktu malam hari. tokoh shimamura memperhatikan seorang gadis dan laki-laki yang sedang sakit melalui jendela kereta api karena di luar hari sudah gelap dan di dalam gerbong lampu menyala. maka kaca jendela menjadi cermin yang memantulkan bayangan gadis itu dengan segala aktifitasnya. kaca jendela dianalogikan sebagai cermin yang ganjil. untuk mengetahui mengapa shimamura menyebut cermin itu sebagai cermin yang ganjil diperlukan konteks. kawabata menggambarkan tokoh shimamura ini sebagai seseorang yang tidak percaya dengan hubungan cinta antara laki-laki dan perempuan. itaru kawashima dalam 川端康成の世界(dunia kawabata yasunari) menyebutkan cinta, ketika mulai bersemi di hati manusia sudah disertai tanggung jawab. cinta, terutama antara pria dan wanita membutuhkan tanggung jawab yang besar, dalam yukiguni tergambar cinta komako kepada shimamura tetapi sebaliknya tidak jelas dengan cinta shimamura. analisis penerjemahan metafora: ….. (rini widiarti) 185 contoh 3: tsu: 袖口が辷って長襦袢の色が厚いガラス越しにこぼれ、寒さでこわばった島村の瞼にしみ た/ sodeguchi ga subette nagajuban no iro ga atsui garasu koshi ni kobore, samusa de kowabatta shimamura no mabuta ni shimita. (雪国:86) ujung kimononya agak melorot dan nampaklah warna juban panjang melalui kaca mobil yang tebal dan meresap ke dalam kelopak mata shimamura yang kaku karena kedinginan (ds, p.201). topik dalam metafora 長襦袢の色が厚いガラス越しにこぼれ (nampaklah warna juban panjang melalui kaca mobil yang tebal) adalah 長襦袢の色(warna juban panjang) kemudian citra adalah 厚いガラス越しにこぼれ . titik kemiripan tidak disebutkan secara eksplisit. dengan membandingkan topik dan citra, serta pengetahuan tentang konteksnya diketahui bahwa titip kemiripan adalah terlihat atau nampak. 色がこぼれ/ iro ga kobore arti harfiahnya adalah warna meluap sehingga tumpah atau tercecer. kata koboreru digunakan untuk zat cair ataupun minyak. kawabata menggunakan metafora ini untuk menggambarkan keindahan warna juban yang mendominasi suasana. komako saat itu mengangkat sebelah lengannya seperti hendak memeluk jendela mobil yang ditumpangi oleh shimamura. pada saat mengangkat lengannya, bagian luar lengan kimononya melorot sampai batas lengan sehingga terlihatlah lengan juban yang berwarna indah. kawabata secara spesifik tidak menyebutkan apa warna juban itu akan tetapi biasanya merupakan warna yang disesuaikan dengan kimono bagian luar sehingga terlihat indah. shimamura melihat melalui kaca mobil. keindahan warna juban itu meresap ke dalam kelopak mata. kawabata menggunakan ungkapan tersebut untuk menunjukkan bagaimana indahnya warna juban itu. metafora ini memperkenalkan konsep kimono (pakaian tradisional jepang). penerjemah mempertahankan kata juban (pakaian dalam khusus untuk kimono) dan memberikan artinya dalam glosarium. akan tetapi bagi pembaca yang tidak mengetahui seperti apakah kimono itu akan sulit untuk membayangkan keindahan “pakaian dalam”. karena makna pakaian dalam adalah sesuatu yang dipakai di dalam tubuh dan tidak ditonjolkan untuk keindahan sedangkan juban meskipun berupa pakaian dalam tetapi warnanya menarik dan juban tidak sepenuhnya disembunyikan dalam kimono tetapi diperlihatkan pada bagian leher. kemudian ada dua macam ukuran untuk lengan juban yaitu ada yang pendek dan ada yang panjang. kebetulan yang dipakai oleh komako adalah juban yang berlengan panjang karena itu disebut 長襦袢/nagajuban (juban panjang). metafora 長襦袢の色が厚いガラス越しにこぼれ /nagajuban no iro ga atsui garasu koshi ni kobore (nampaklah warna juban panjang melalui kaca mobil yang tebal) diterjemahkan menjadi ungkapan non figuratif. terjemahan metafora itu adalah ‘nampaklah warna juban panjang’ yang sebetulnya tidak secara tepat menggambarkan keindahan warna juban yang meresap sampai ke dalam mata shimamura. selain itu konsep juban tidak dikenal dalam kebudayaan bahasa sasaran. oleh karena itu, tidak ada kata atau frase dalam bahasa itu yang dapat dengan mudah digunakan dalam terjemahan. penerjemah harus mempertimbangkan tidak hanya kedua bahasa itu, tetapi juga kedua kebudayaan itu. penerjemah harus memungkinkan pembaca mengerti amanat itu dengan mempertimbangkan latar belakang teks sumbernya, dan menyediakan informasi yang diperlukan. informasi tentang juban diberikan dalam glosarium: pakaian dalam khusus untuk kimono. 186 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 180-186 penutup hasil penelitian menunjukkan prosedur penerjemahan yang memegang peranan penting untuk dapat menyampaikan makna bahasa sumber adalah modulasi, terutama perubahan sudut pandang dan gejala eksplisitasi. untuk membuat terjemahan yang efektif kita harus mencari makna bahasa sumber dan menggunakan bentuk bahasa sasaran yang dapat mengungkapkan makna itu dengan wajar. perubahan sudut pandang terjadi pada citra metafora sedangkan eksplisitasi terjadi pada titik kemiripan. prosedur transposisi digunakan untuk menghasilkan terjemahan yang wajar dari segi bentuk bahasa tetapi tidak untuk mengalihkan pesan dari bahasa sumber ke bahasa sasaran. pemadanan bercatatan banyak digunakan oleh penerjemah dalam menjelaskan konsep kebudayaan jepang akan tetapi catatan yang dibuat masih terlalu singkat sehingga sulit bagi pembaca sasaran untuk dapat menangkap informasi dalam bahasa sumber secara jelas. metafora yang terdapat dalam novel yukiguni banyak dilatarbelakangi oleh konsep kebudayaan yang tentunya berbeda dengan kebudayaan khalayak pembaca sasaran. oleh karena itu, catatan yang diberikan sebaiknya dalam bentuk pengantar sehingga dapat memberikan gambaran informasi secara jelas kepada khalayak bahasa sasaran. metafora dalam novel yukiguni sebagian besar diterjemahkan menjadi metafora lagi dalam bahasa indonesia. metafora dalam yukiguni juga banyak berhubungan dengan konsep kebudayaan masyarakat jepang, misalnya: konsep tentang geisha, kimono (pakaian tradisional jepang), tumbuhan, hewan, musim (salju, gugur) dan lain-lain. meskipun metafora bahasa jepang diterjemahkan kembali menjadi metafora dalam bahasa indonesia, beberapa konsep budaya tidak memiliki padanan dalam bahasa indonesia sehingga pesan kawabata yasunari mengenai kecantikan geisha dan keindahan salju tidak secara tepat tersampaikan karena pembaca sasaran mengartikan terjemahan berdasarkan berdasarkan kebudayaan dan pengalamannya, bukan berdasarkan kebudayaan dan pengalaman penulis. daftar pustaka beekman, j. & callow, john. (1974). translating the word of god. michigan: zondervan publishing house. rosidi, ajip dan matsuoka, kunio. (1987). daerah salju. (terj. yukiguni karya kawabata yasunari) jakarta: pustaka jaya. yasunari, kawabata. (1935). yukiguni. nihon bungaku zenshu. japan: shuppansha 54 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 integrasi pembelajaran kanji dengan pembelajaran sakubun untuk meningkatkan kemampuan menulis timur sri astami; rosita ningrum; felicia budihardja japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 timur_astami@yahoo.com; ningrum@binus.edu; fbudihardja@binus.edu abstract research aims to find the influence of strategies used in intermediate kanji learning, i.e. in a more applicative class using kanji, on middle kanji and composition class (sakubun). research viewed and compared the influence of students’ mark in intermediate kanji with their mark in sakubun. the questionnaire used in this research was the strategy inventory for language learning (sill) consisting of 50 questions associated with types of strategy to learn kanji. the result obtained using t-test and correlation test was the students’ mark in kanji affected their mark in sakubun. the relationship is the higher mark in kanji, the higher mark in sakubun. as a conclusion, student essay writing ability is affected by the numbers of kanji remembered and used by students. keywords: kanji, sakubun, sill abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mencari pengaruh strategi yang digunakan dalam pembelajaran kanji tingkat menengah, yakni pada kelas yang lebih aplikatif dalam menggunakan huruf kanji, pada kelas kanji menengah dan kelas mengarang (sakubun). penelitian menghitung dan membandingkan pengaruh nilai intermediate kanji dengan nilai sakubun. kuesioner yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah strategy inventory for language learning (sill) yang terdiri dari 50 pertanyaan terkait dengan jenis strategi dalam mempelajari kanji. hasil yang diperoleh menggunakan uji t dan uji korelasi adalah terdapat hubungan nilai kanji dengan nilai sakubun. makin tinggi nilai kanji, maka makin tinggi nilai sakubun. simpulan dalam penelitian ini adalah kemampuan menulis karangan mahasiswa, selain faktor linguistik, juga dipengaruhi oleh faktor nonlinguistik, yaitu banyaknya huruf kanji yang diingat dan digunakan mahasiswa dalam menulis karangan. kata kunci: kanji, sakubun, sill 55integrasi pembelajaran kanji ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) pendahuluan dalam mempelajari bahasa jepang, ada empat kemampuan yang harus dipelajari, yaitu menulis, membaca, mendengar dan berbicara. dalam menulis ada hal-hal yang harus dipelajari oleh pembelajar bahasa jepang. yang pertama adalah menulis huruf hiragana yang digunakan untuk menulis huruf atau kata-kata dari bahasa jepang asli. lalu ada huruf katakana yang digunakan untuk menulis kata-kata serapan dari bahasa asing. selain itu, ada juga huruf kanji yang berasal dari china. sebelum pembelajar bahasa jepang mempelajari huruf kanji, awalnya pembelajar mempelajari dahulu huruf hiragana dan katakana. pada dasarnya cara baca huruf kanji ditulis dengan huruf hiragana dan katakana. huruf hiragana digunakan untuk menulis cara baca kun (kunyomi) yang merupakan cara baca asli dari jepang. sedangkan huruf katakana digunakan untuk menulis cara baca on (onyomi) yang merupakan cara baca asli dari huruf china yang pelafalannya sudah disesuaikan dengan lidah orang jepang. pembelajaran huruf kanji di jurusan sastra jepang, universitas bina nusantara terbagi menjadi enam semester. semester satu sampai semester empat merupakan pembelajaran kanji tingkat dasar, semester lima dan enam merupakan pembelajaran kanji untuk tingkat menengah. pada pembelajaran kanji tingkat dasar, pembelajar harus mempelajari kurang lebih 500 huruf kanji tingkat dasar (kano, et al., 2010:198–200). hal ini cukup menyulitkan para pembelajar terutama pembelajar yang tidak pernah mempelajari huruf kanji sebelumnya, atau dengan kata lain pembelajar yang berlatar belakang non kanji. karena selain pembelajar harus mempelajari cara baca kanji tersebut baik secara kunyomi maupun onyomi, pembelajar juga harus mempelajari arti dari kanji dan kanji gabungan dari kanji dasar tersebut. sedangkan pada pembelajaran kanji tingkat menengah, kesulitan yang dialami pembelajar adalah pada saat pembelajar harus mempelajari kembali huruf kanji tingkat dasar agar tidak lupa. selain itu, pembelajar harus pula mempelajari huruf kanji baru yang terdapat pada kanji tingkat menengah. untuk itulah variasi pembelajaran pada mata kuliah kanji diperlukan, khususnya kanji tingkat menengah yang memiliki variasi kanji jukugo (kano, et al., 1993:5). selanjutnya para pembelajar non-kanji, menurut douglas (2010) dalam penelitiannya di amerika, menunjukkan bahwa kecenderungan responden menerapkan kosakata yang digunakan dalam berbicara ketika diterapkan pada kosakata yang digunakan dalam tulisan--baik berupa huruf kana maupun kanji--lebih sedikit. selain itu, masing-masing kemampuan menulis dan membaca huruf kanji antara pembelajar terdapat kesenjangan antara yang bisa dan tidak bisa menulis maupun membaca huruf kanji. pembelajar semester enam selain mendapatkan mata kuliah intermediate kanji 2, pembelajar juga mendapatkan mata kuliah mengarang 2 (sakubun 2). pada mata kuliah ini, pembelajar membuat karangan sesuai dengan tema yang telah ditentukan oleh pengajar. tema yang ditentukan beragam dan pembelajar mengembangkan tema tersebut menjadi satu karangan. ada beberapa kesulitan yang dialami pembelajar dalam mata kuliah mengarang ini, di antaranya kesulitan menempatkan tata bahasa yang tepat dalam karangan. selain kesulitan dalam tata bahasa, pembelajar juga mengalami kesulitan dalam menempatkan kanji dalam dalam kalimat. beberapa kesulitan tersebut di antaranya adalah pembelajar sering salah menempatkan huruf kanji yang tepat ke dalam kalimat. pembelajar yang memiliki kemampuan bahasa jepang yang baik, kadang-kadang menulis kata-kata yang seharusnya tidak ditulis dengan huruf kanji, tetapi ditulis dengan huruf kanji. sedangkan pembelajar yang memiliki kemampuan bahasa jepang yang kurang baik, kadangkadang tidak menggunakan kanji-kanji tingkat dasar dan menengah dalam kalimat. hal inilah yang menjadi masalah karena pembelajar kurang dapat menggunakan huruf kanji secara tepat dalam karangan. metode penelitian ini adalah penggabungan pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif. secara kualitatif diambil untuk pendeskripsian yang penuh tentang pendekatan komunikatif. sedangkan secara kuantitatif data yang diperoleh dihitung secara statistik guna mengukur pengaruh nilai kanji pada keberhasilan menulis karangan bahasa jepang pada mahasiswa. rumus yang dipakai adalah uji t paired samples untuk melihat peningkatan nilai ratarata yang menunjukkan adanya peningkatan kemampuan penerapan kanji pada mata kuliah mengarang atau sakubun. selain itu nilai sakubun dan kanji juga dianalisis menggunakan uji korelasi. uji korelasi digunakan untuk menguji tentang ada tidaknya hubungan antarvariabel satu dengan lainnya serta menegaskan hubungan kemampuan kanji dengan kemampuan mengarang mahasiswa. instrumen lain yang digunakan adalah kuesioner. kuesioner yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah strategy inventory for language learning (sill) dikembangkan oleh oxford (1994). sill terdiri dari 50 pertanyaan terkait dengan jenis strategi mempelajari kanji, yakni berupa strategi langsung terdiri dari memori, kognitif, dan kompensasi; sedangkan strategi tidak langsung berupa metakognitif, afektif, dan sosial (oxford 1994:293-300). lebih lanjut, bourke dalam musashi (2006) menambahkan silk (strategy inventory learning kanji) yang merujuk pada sill. ia menyebutkan bahwa silk terbagi menjadi 2, yakni strategi langsung dan tidak langsung. strategi langsung ditinjau secara fonetik, frekuensi, struktur, respons, pengalaman, bushu, story, kakijun, urutan, visualisasi, self monitor, kompensasi. sedangkan strategi tidak langsung berupa perencanaan pembelajaran, evaluasi pembelajaran, dan pembelajaran kooperatif. hasil dan pembahasan penelitian memaparkan analisis data yang diperoleh, yaitu untuk mengetahui sejauh mana pembelajar dapat mengaplikasikan huruf kanji yang telah dipelajari dalam mata kuliah intermediate kanji 2 ke mata kuliah mengarang 2. khususnya, aplikasi huruf 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 kanji yang berkaitan dengan strategi yang digunakan oleh respoden dalam mempelajari kanji. serta, bagaimana tanggapan responden terhadap proses aplikasi kanji dalam pembelajaran mengarang. untuk mengetahui adanya penggunaan kanji yang sesuai dan terintegrasi pada mata kuliah kanji ke dalam karangan, maka perlu diketahui kemampuan awal mereka. untuk mengetahui kemampuan awal mahasiswa, mereka diberi tes awal (pretest). setelah seluruh pembelajaran selesai dilaksanakan, sampel diberikan tes akhir (posttest). pemberian tes akhir diberikan untuk mengetahui peningkatan kemampuan menulis kanji yang diintegrasikan ke dalam karangan bahasa jepang pada mahasiswa. hasil analisis nilai kanji untuk mengukur penerapan kanji di dalam mata kuliah mengarang bahasa jepang, peneliti mengambil hasil tes sebelum dan sesudah sesi pembelajaran selama satu semester. hasil pretest dan posttest tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel 1. tabel 1 hasil pretest dan posttest kanji no nama mahasiswa pretest posttest 1 r1 65 85 2 r2 55 70 3 r3 65 83 4 r4 68 98 5 r5 65 65 6 r6 95 100 7 r7 95 100 8 r8 58 75 9 r9 50 58 10 r10 83 90 11 r11 55 73 12 r12 68 65 13 r13 55 63 14 r14 63 88 15 r15 68 83 16 r16 55 65 17 r17 80 85 18 r18 48 65 19 r19 98 98 20 r20 83 98 21 r21 30 43 22 r22 73 78 23 r23 63 56 24 r24 93 85 25 r25 55 78 26 r26 65 73 27 r27 65 75 28 r28 58 75 29 r29 60 73 30 r30 68 80 tabel 1 hasil pretest dan posttest kanji (lanjutan) no nama mahasiswa pretest posttest 31 r31 78 93 32 r32 60 73 33 r33 53 75 34 r34 83 98 35 r35 85 88 36 r36 48 60 37 r37 70 90 data hasil pretest menunjukkan nilai terendah 30 dan nilai tertinggi 98. rata-rata nilai tes awal (pretest) adalah 67.0 dengan standar deviasi 15,13. sedangkan untuk posttest, responden menunjukkan nilai terendah 43 dan nilai tertinggi 98. untuk rerata nilai posttest adalah 78,37 dengan standar deviasi adalah 13,95. (gambar 1) gambar 1 hasil pretest dan postest kanji hal tersebut menandakan kemampuan kanji pada responden tidak seragam. kenaikan nilai yang cukup baik terlihat dari nilai posttest. hasil analisis nilai mengarang (sakubun) untuk melihat kemampuan mengarang bahasa jepang, peneliti mengambil nilai pretest dan posttest. makin baik nilai di mata kuliah mengarang atau sakubun, diasumsikan makin banyak kanji-kanji yang diterapkan mahasiswa. hasil pretest dan posttest tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel 2. tabel 2 hasil pretest dan postest sakubun nama mahasiswa pre test post test r1 68 65 r2 94 98 r3 79 82 r4 79 76 r5 94 94 r6 86 96 r7 96 98 r8 86 86 r9 80 62 r10 87 88 r11 83 82 r12 87 85 57integrasi pembelajaran kanji ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) tabel 2 hasil pretest dan postest sakubun (lanjutan) nama mahasiswa pre test post test r13 67 83 r14 67 86 r15 88 89 r16 75 76 r17 96 99 r18 78 90 r19 85 85 r20 81 87 r21 67 66 r22 87 100 r23 82 98 r24 93 93 r25 90 93 r26 76 75 r27 90 90 r28 70 64 r29 73 74 r30 78 74 r31 98 100 r32 90 93 r33 88 74 r34 99 97 r35 83 94 r36 79 61 r37 96 88 data hasil pretest menunjukkan nilai terendah 67 dan nilai tertinggi 98. rata-rata nilai tes awal (pretest) adalah 83.64 dengan standar deviasi 9,23. sedangkan untuk posttest, responden menunjukkan nilai terendah 62 dan nilai tertinggi 100. untuk rata-rata nilai posttest adalah 84,89 dengan standar deviasi adalah 11,56. (gambar 2) gambar 2 hasil pretest dan posttest sakubun berdasarkan hal tersebut, kemampuan mengarang mahasiswa mengasumsikan kemampuan penggunaan kanji. uji t-test pada kelas kanji peningkatan nilai rata-rata menunjukkan adanya peningkatan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menerapkan penggunaan kanji dalam tugas mandiri di kelas kanji maupun di kelas mengarang. adapun korelasi kemampuan penggunaan kanji antara dua buah sampel pretest dan posttest ditunjukkan dengan nilai koefisien korelasi r = 0,829 dengan nilai signifikansi korelasi sebesar 0,000< α = 0,05 seperti pada gambar 3 berikut. ini berarti korelasi antara nilai pretest dan postest menunjukkan korelasi positif yang signifikan. gambar 3 hasil paired samples correlations dari hasil pretest dan posttest kanji hasil tersebut diperkuat dengan pengujian hipotesis mengenai perbedaan yang kentara dan signifikan pada nilai posttest daripada nilai pretest. hipotesis ini adalah sebagai berikut: h0 = kemampuan kanji tidak berpengaruh pada hasil belajar bahasa jepang; h1 = kemampuan kanji berpengaruh pada hasil belajar bahasa jepang. gambar 4 uji signifikansi nilai rata-rata pretest dan posttest pengujian hipotesis memperlihatkan hasil seperti pada gambar 4, yakni dengan nilai-p = 0.000. karena nilai-p < 0,05, h0 ditolak. atau dengan kata lain, hasil posttest lebih tinggi secara signifikan dibandingkan hasil pretest. uji t-test pada kelas sakubun peningkatan nilai rata-rata menunjukkan adanya peningkatan kemampuan penerapan kanji pada mata kuliah mengarang atau sakubun dilihat dari nilai predan posttest. adapun korelasi antara dua buah sampel pretest dan posttest ditunjukkan dengan nilai koefisien korelasi r = 0,708 dengan nilai signifikansi korelasi sebesar 0,000< α = 0,05 seperti pada gambar 5. gambar 5 hasil paired samples correlations dari hasil pretest dan posttest sakubun 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 ini berarti korelasi antara nilai pretest dan posttest menunjukkan korelasi positif yang signifikan. hasil pengujian diperkuat dengan pengujian hipotesis mengenai perbedaan yang kentara dan signifikan pada nilai posttest daripada nilai pretest. hipotesis ini adalah sebagai berikut: h0 = kemampuan kanji tidak berpengaruh pada hasil mengarang bahasa jepang h1 = kemampuan kanji berpengaruh pada hasil mengarang bahasa jepang gambar 6 uji signifikansi nilai rata-rata pretest dan postest pengujian hipotesis memperlihatkan hasil seperti pada gambar 6, yakni dengan nilai-p = 0.001. karena nilai-p < 0,05, h0 ditolak. atau dengan kata lain, hasil posttest lebih tinggi secara signifikan dibandingkan hasil pretest. uji korelasi antara nilai kanji dan sakubun uji korelasi digunakan untuk menguji tentang ada tidaknya hubungan antar variabel satu dengan lainnya. uji ini untuk menegaskan hubungan kemampuan kanji dengan kemampuan mengarang mahasiswa. di bawah ini adalah hasil antara nilai posttest kanji dengan nilai posttest sakubun. gambar 7 uji korelasi nilai kanji dan sakubun berdasarkan hasil uji korelasi nilai kanji dan sakubun (gambar 7), diketahui rata-rata nilai posttest kanji adalah sebesar 78.37 dengan standar deviasi 13.95. kemudian, rata-rata nilai posttest sakubun adalah 84.89 dengan standar deviasi 11.56. hipotesis: h0 = ada hubungan nilai posttest kanji dengan nilai posttest sakubun; h1 = tidak hubungan nilai posttest kanji dengan nilai posttest sakubun. berdasarkan uji korelasi terdapat hubungan nilai posttest kanji dengan nilai posttest sakubun. besarnya nilai hubungan tersebut sebesar negatif 0,398. sifat korelasi negatif menunjukkan makin rendah nilai posttest kanji, maka makin rendah nilai posttest sakubun. sebaliknya, makin tinggi nilai posttest kanji, maka makin tinggi nilai posttest sakubun. nilai signifikansi r-hitung sebesar 0,015, berarti hubungan tersebut siginifikan atau diterima pada probabilitas 5%. hasil analisis angket dalam kaitannya dengan materi pada intermediate kanji, berikut jawaban responden yang berkaitan dengan strategi belajar yang digunakan oleh responden. dalam mempelajari intermediate kanji, sebagian besar responden (90%) menjawab kadang-kadang mengasosiasikan huruf kanji dengan kelompok yang sama artinya dengan huruf kanji yang sudah dipelajari sebelumnya (gambar 8). gambar 8 jawaban responden belajar kanji dengan asosiasi kemudian, sebagian besar responden (50%) menjawab kadang-kadang mempelajari huruf kanji dengan membuat cerita berdasarkan buku referensi tentang pelajaran huruf kanji dan huruf kanji yang diceritakan oleh pengajar di kelas (gambar 9). gambar 9 jawaban responden belajar kanji dengan cerita 59integrasi pembelajaran kanji ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) lalu sebagian besar responden (49%) menjawab kadang-kadang mempelajari huruf kanji dengan menghubungkan kanji dengan arti dari karakter dasar kanji, dengan mengingat karakter dasar kanji dan mengelompokkan kanji yang mempunyai karakter dasar yang sama (gambar 10). gambar 10 jawaban responden belajar kanji berdasarkan karakter dasar huruf kanji lebih lanjut, dalam kaitannya dengan strategi mengatur belajar, gambar 11 menunjukkan jawaban responden yang berkaitan dengan strategi mengatur belajar yang digunakan oleh responden. sebanyak 44% responden kadang-kadang mengalokasikan waktu untuk mengatur jam belajar, khususnya belajar kanji tiap hari/ minggu. sejumah 20% responden menyatakan cukup sering untuk mengatur jam belajar ketika mempelajari kanji. gambar 11 jawaban responden dalam mengatur waktu belajar kemudian sebanyak 32% responden kadangkadang menggunakan kartu kanji dalam mempelajari kanji. sementara 26% responden menyatakan cukup sering menggunakan kartu kanji dalam mempelajari kanji. (gambar 12) gambar 12 jawaban responden dalam menggunakan kartu kanji lalu sebanyak 33% responden kadang-kadang menggunakan komputer dalam mempelajari kanji khususnya yang berkaitan dengan games kanji. sementara 33% responden menyatakan cukup sering menggunakan komputer dalam mempelajari kanji, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan games kanji. simpulan berdasarkan hasil olahan data dan hasil interpretasi data, penelitian dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut. pertama, pembelajaran mengarang berkaitan dengan proses pemerolehan pengetahuan yang diperolehnya berupa kosakata, kalimat, hingga tata bahasa. makin baik isi karangan tentunya akan banyak mengunakan kosakata, kalimat, hingga tata bahasa sesuai dengan tema karangan yang diminta. kedua, pada pembelajaran mengarang (sakubun) tentu menggunakan huruf hiragana, katakana, dan kanji pada karangan yang dibuat. ketiga, pembelajar dapat mengaplikasikan huruf kanji yang telah dipelajari dalam mata kuliah intermediate kanji 2 dalam mata kuliah mengarang 2. keempat, mata kuliah intermediate kanji akan lebih bisa berguna secara maksimal untuk pembelajar apabila dihubungkan dengan mata kuliah lain, dalam hal ini mata kuliah mengarang (sakubun). kelima, berdasarkan hasil analisis nilai predan posttest terdapat korelasi yang signifikan dan erat bahwa pengetahuan kanji memengaruhi kemampuan mengarang bahasa jepang pada mahasiswa. saran beberapa saran yang ingin peneliti sampaikan kepada pihak-pihak yang berhubungan secara langsung atau tidak langsung pada hasil penelitian ini di antaranya perlunya integrasi pada mata kuliah kanji dan mengarang terutama dalam pemilihan tema, kosakata kanji, dan penyajian materi atau buku dan selain mata kuliah kanji, yakni kemampuan mengarang mahasiswa menarik untuk diuji dengan menghubungkan pada kemampuan penggunaan tata bahasa jepang dalam mengarang (sakubun). daftar pustaka douglas, m. o. (2010). analysis of kanji ability of heritage learners of japanese. jhl journal. available at http://www.aatj.org/resources/sig/ heritage/ejournal/vol3.pdf kano, c., shimizu, y., takenaka, h., ishii, e., & akustsu, s. (1993). intermediate kanji book i. tokyo: bonjinsha. kano, c., takenaka, h., ishii, e., & shimizu, y. (2010). basic kanji book i. tokyo: bonjinsha. musashi, y. (2006). jsl児童に対する漢字指導研 究―日本語能力の向上を目指した内容重視の アプローチを通じて― available at http://www.gsjal.jp/kawakami/dat/master05d.pdf oxford, r. (1994). gengogaku sutorateji. tokyo: bojinsha. microsoft word 09_zhang & ying_setting the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 95 当前印尼华文教学与教材使用情况考察 the condition of mandarin language learning in indonesia zhang shenglin; yi ying   huaqiao university, bina nusantara university zsl1819@yahoo.com.cn ; yi_ying@binus.edu 摘要 为了掌握当前印尼华文教学与教材的使用情况,我们以问卷调查和访谈的形式对印尼的华 文学生及其家长、华文教师、华文教学专家进行了一次范围较广的抽样调查,通过数据分析, 初步掌握了目前印尼学生学习华文与教师教授华文以及华文教材使用的基本情况,并总结其中 存在的问题。分析得知,目前华裔仍是印尼华文学习者的主要群体,但其他族裔学习者正迅速 增加;多数学生学习汉语的动机与华裔身份文化认同和就业需要有关;汉语目前在印尼属于第 二外语,尚无法撼动英语的强势地位;印尼过去存在的华文师资与教材短缺问题近年来有了很 大的改进,但尚未根本解决,特别是在专业师资提升和华文教材本土化方面。 关键词:印尼 , 华文教学, 教材, 调查, 数据分析 abstract the condition of mandarin language learning in indonesia was still a main issue for mandarin lecturers and researchers in china and indonesia. to find out the clear condition, a research having a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was done, in which questionairs were distributed and interviews with mandarin students, lecturers, and experts were conducted. respondents were selected by random sampling. after data analysis, a conclusion which indicates a general condition and some problems in the process of teaching and learning mandarin, as well as the use of learning materials can be presented. the research results show that at present, the mandarin learners are still dominated by the descendants of tionghoa, even though learners coming from non-tionghoa’s descendants are getting increase; learners’ motivation in studying mandarin is closely related with the self-identity as tionghoa’s descendants and the job’s demands; mandarin language still belongs to the second language in indonesia and has not able to replace the domination of english; the insufficiency of lecturers and learning materials in the past have significantly provided, but this condition has not solved the problems, especially which concerns to the improvement of the quality of learners and local learning materials. keywords: language learning, mandarin language, learning materials 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 前言 近年来,印尼的华文教学发展势头迅猛,规模不断扩大,为了准确认识印尼当前的华文教 学情况和华文教材使用情况,我们以问卷调查和专家访谈的形式,对印尼从事华文教学的学校 培训机构及相关专家进行了一次限定规模的调查采访。形式主要为问卷调查和专家访谈两种。 由于印尼国土分布较广,而华文教学在各地皆有开展,调查必须覆盖主要的地区,所以问 卷调查采取按地区分布抽样的方式。调查选取了爪哇岛、苏门答腊、加里曼丹、苏拉威西岛等 几个华文教学的重镇,以一些大中城市的学校为主要调查对象,包括大、中、小学的教师(含 幼儿园教师)、学生、家长,还有 8 位华文教学专家,共调查了 602 人。调查方法主要包括: 1、查阅印尼政府或学校已公布的相关信息资料;2、向各地联系人(华文教师、教育界人士) 咨询、了解当地华文教学的情况和相关数据;3、发放调查问卷(共发出 1000 份,收回有效问 卷 594 份。)4、专家访谈。通过当面访谈或电邮、电话访谈的形式,按照访谈提纲对 8 位华 文教学专家进行了访谈,专家包括大学中文系老师、中文学校校长、印尼华文教学界知名人士 等。 内容 调查问卷(访谈)分布与统计 这次调查总计发放问卷 1000 份,收回有效问卷 594 份,其中学生问卷 357 份、教师问卷 148 份、家长问卷 89 份。问卷具体如下: 一、学生问卷 357 份:坤甸(39 人),日惹(13 人),廖岛(27 人),万鸦老(45 人),万 隆(45 人),苏西(60 人),锡疆 (22 人),雅加达(新雅学院)(10 人),雅加达 (建国大学)(39 人),雅加达(智民学院)(26 人),日惹默罕默德惠民大学(人 31)。 二、教师问卷 148 份:坤甸(5 人),日惹(8 人),廖岛(9 人),万鸦老(7 人),万隆 (7 人),苏西(2 人),锡疆(10 人),泗水国立大学(6 人),建国大学(10 人), 泗水贝特拉大学(5 人),教师-集美培训(79 人)。 三、家长问卷 89 份:坤甸(19 人),日惹(8 人),廖岛(9 人),锡疆(21 人),建国大 学(7 人),万鸦老(13 人),泗水国立大学孔子学院(5 人),雅加达智民学院(7 人)。 四、调查访谈专家 8 人: 1、陈玉兰博士,雅加达智民学院校长,资深华文教学专家。 2、陈清章,万隆融华学校校长,资深华文教学专家。 3、李秀珍,泗水贝特拉大学中文系前系主任,资深华文教师。 4、陈静美,泗水贝特拉大学中文系资深教师,泗水国立大学华文教师。 5、林雪莹,雅加达建国大学中文系前系主任,资深华文教师。 6、萧素珍,日惹穆罕默德迪亚回教大学中文教授,日惹殊同三语学校校长。 7、罗宗钜,锡疆华文教学基金会主席,资深华文教师。 8、叶铧蒂,棉兰苏北大学中文系讲师,国际汉语教育硕士。 the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 97 调查问卷数据分析 一、学生调查问卷数据分析: 本次调查共收回有效学生问卷 357 份,其中大学生填写的问卷 133 份,中学生 174 份, 另有 50 人是当地中文学校的学生。 学生性别比例:男 124 人,占 34.7%;女 233 人,占 65.3%。抽样数据女生比例大大高于 男生,基本反映了印尼学华文的学生中女生多于男生的现状。 学生国籍(民族):印尼族裔 143 人,占 40%;印尼华人(华裔)215 人,占 60%。 学生年龄:以 90 后为主,特别是 1992 年-1997 年期间出生的青少年,即年龄 14 岁至 19 岁的学生占了大多数。 学生学习汉语的时间:学习 1 年者最多,占受调查者的 21.5%;学习汉语 3 年以上者也占 了一定比例。 学习者的第一语言:大多为印尼语,占 61%;其次为汉语方言(福建闽南话、客家话、潮 州话等),占 41%。统计告诉我们,有些人的第一语言不止一种,这显示出东南亚华人使用语 言的复杂性。另外,调查对象中也有 6%的人是以汉语普通话为第一语言的,几类不同调查对 象的回答都印证了这一结果,这是一个值得关注的现象。 学生学习汉语的动机:呈现出三大趋向,第一是对中国文化感兴趣者,占 31.6%;第二是 为以后找工作增加实力者,占 31%;第三是有民族认同感者,即认为身为华人应该学习汉语, 占 30.5%。其他动机排序依次为:第四,父母要求学汉语;第五,学校要求学汉语。当然,由 于动机选项可以做多项选择,结果肯定存在多重动机并存的现象。 对于汉语课程的评价:由于是自由选项,学生的汉语课程选项很多,最集中的课程是《中 文》(或称《汉语》、《标准汉语教程》)及《汉语听说》。 每周上课次数:多数为 1-2 次,其中每周 1 次者占 40.6%;2 次者占 29%。每节(次)课 长度一般为 40-90 分钟。 每周课余学汉语的时间:多为 1-2 小时,其中 1 小时者占 27.5%;2 小时者占 12.6%;也 有一些学生课余没有安排时间学汉语。 学生所在班级的人数:一般是 10-30 人,其中 11-20 人者居多,占 35%;21-30 人者次之, 占 31%;也有少数班级超过 50 人。 汉字学习情况:目前印尼学生基本以学习简体字为主。统计显示,学习简体字者占 78.7%; 简体与繁体都学者也不少,约占 20%;不学汉字者为零。 学生学过的其他语言:选项以英语最多,占 88.8%;学过日语和其他语言的也有,但很少。 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 常用汉语教材依次是: a. buku pelajaran bahasa mandarin(汉语课本)。 b. 《标准汉语教程》(王国安编,上海教育出版社)。 c. 《基础华语》(周健,人民教育出版社)。 d. 《汉语教程》(杨寄洲编,北京语言大学出版社)。 e. 其他。 对所使用汉语教材的评价:多数学生对教材的评价是肯定的,选项以符合和非常符合者 居多;但也有一些项目回答不满意者较多,主要集中在“有无配套练习册”、“有无配套的磁 带光盘”和“可以在网络上学习”这三项。问题所针对的主要是中国大陆版的教材,可见这些 方面还需要进一步改进。另据笔者了解,实际上很多大陆版教材是有配套练习册和磁带(光盘) 的,只是在印尼不易买到,在某些地区华文教材发行的渠道可能存在一些问题;还有,出于经 济考虑,印尼学生往往习惯使用复印教材,所以没有配套的练习或磁带光盘。 学生使用汉语过程中感觉最困难的项目依次是:1 说汉语;2 写汉字;3 听汉语;4 译汉语; 5 读汉语。 学生学习汉语过程中感觉最困难的项目依次是:1、拼音(注:笔者以为是声调);2 语 法;3 汉字;4 词汇。 学汉语存在的其他的困难:反映最多的依次是:1、缺乏语言环境;2、汉语声调难掌握; 3、汉字笔画难掌握。 希望得到哪些帮助:学生回答较集中的方面有:1、提供配套学习资料(磁带、光盘);2、 结识中国朋友和中国老师;3、希望采用更有趣的课本。等等。 二、华文教师调查问卷数据分析: 本次教师抽样调查了 148 人,其中中小学华文教师 85 人,占 57%;大学中文教师 32 人, 占 21.6%;中文学校(补习班)教师 15 人,占 10%;此外还有少数幼儿园老师。 教师男女比例:男教师 22 人,占 15%;女教师 126,占 85%。 教师所学专业分布:汉语言文学专业最多,占 35%;对外汉语专业第二,占 29%;此外还 有英语及其他专业。由此看出,近年来由于各方的努力,印尼华文教师的结构已发生巨大变化, 专业教师所占比例越来越高,并渐渐成为主流。 教师学历:本科学历者最多,占 46.6%;拥有硕士学位者也达到 8.8%(近年增加较快,一 是应印尼教育部的要求,大学中文教师必须拥有中文专业硕士学位;二是这几年刚从中国获得 硕士学位回国从教的人较多;还有一些则是聘请的具有硕士学位的中国教师);此外,高中学 历者仍占占 30%。 教师国籍(民族):受调查者以印尼华人(华裔)为主,占全部调查对象的 88%;其他为 印尼族人和中国人。 the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 99 教师从事华文教学的时间:40%以上的教师执教 5 年以上,其中 10 年以上者占 20%;5-10 年者占 21.6%。 教师任教课程的门数:多为 1-2 门,其中只教一门课者最多,达到 69%;教 2 门课者有 16%。 负责的主要课程:列举最集中的是华文课(中文、汉语),属于综合课,占 51%。其他还 有“听力”、“口语”等课程。 修这门课的总人数:100 人以下占 34%,100 人-200 人占 10.8%。其余是 200 人以上的。 班级规模:20 人以下的小班教学略多一些,其中 10 人以下小班占 27%;10-20 人班级占 26.3%;其余是超过 20 人的班级。此统计可以印证学生调查表所反映的数据。 汉字教学:以简体字教学为主,其中只教简体字者比例最高,占 82.4%;简体字繁体字都 教者也有一些,占 13.5%;不教汉字者是极少数,占 1.3%。值得注意的是,调查中没有出现只 教繁体字的情况。 全校学习汉语的学生人数:100 人以下者最多,达到 31%;也有一些华文学校学生人数很 多,其中超过 1000 人的占 16.9%。 全校汉语教师人数:1-3 人者最多,达 30%;20 人以上者占 21.6%。 有无教学目标:91%选择有华文教学目标。 有无统一的教学大纲:73.6%选择学校有统一的华文教学大纲。 地方是否将汉语定为必修课:50%回答是;46.6%回答否;其他无回答或不明确。 汉语在印尼为第几外语:回答第二外语者占 60%;第三外语者占 33.8%。 汉语的竞争语言:回答英语者占 94%;日语占 10.8%(数据有重叠)。 汉语教材由谁确定:回答由学校教育主管部门确定者最多,占 35%;其次为中文项目负责 人,占 31.7%;再次为授课老师,占 21%;最后为国家教育主管部门,占 13.5%。 教材来源:直接使用中国出版教材者比例最高,占 38.5%;其次为中国出版教材的引进版, 占 27%;第三为当地与中国合编的教材,占 20%,第四是自编非出版教材,占 12.8%;第五是 印尼本土编写的教材,占 10%(选项可能有重复)。 教材媒介语:印尼语占 68%;英语占 21%;中文占 6%。 列举的常用教材依次为:1、《汉语》(北京华文学院编)15.5%;2、《小学华文》(新 加坡编)12.8%;3、《中文》(暨南大学编)8.8%。其他依次为《汉语教程》(北京语言大学 出版)、《好学生华文》(新加坡)、《华语》(厦门大学陈荣岚教授主编)。 教师对教材实际使用情况的评价:多数老师选择符合,但其中也有几个项目评价为不符合 的比例较高。评价为不符合比例较高的项目依次为:1、“有网络媒体支持”, 29%评价不符 合;2、“有相关音像资料可供视听”,27%评价不符合;其他依次为:“教材注重表述当地文 化”、“充分利用社区语言文化资源”、“有丰富的语言文化学习活动”、“材料贴近学生生 活”。可见印尼目前所用华文教材仍以外来教材为主,综合配套和教材内容本地化两方面比较 欠缺,尚不能完全满足实际的需要。 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 华文教学存在哪些争议:第一、应不应该教汉字、何时教汉字,占 46.6%;第二,课堂教 学以操练法为主还是以任务法为主,占 42.5%;第三,繁简字教学问题,占 27%。 目前华文教学存在哪些问题:第一是缺乏配套教材特别是多媒体教材,占 69%;第二是缺 乏优秀师资,占 64%;第三是教学形式不够活泼,占 51%。 目前还需要哪些汉语教材:主要意见集中起来,依次为:1、多媒体教材;2、关注日常生 活的教材;3、有趣的教材;4、中文印尼文双语教材;5、专门针对印尼学生的教材;6、教师 手册;7、综合配套教材。 调查反映了印尼华文教材的发展方向,一是急需开发多媒体教材;二是中国大陆版华文教 材的形式内容需要更加活泼;三是开发针对印尼本地国情与文化环境的教材。 教师列举的常用华文教材: a 北语版系列教材 1、《汉语教程》(杨寄洲,北京语言文化大学出版社)。 2、《汉语阅读教程》(彭志平,北京语言文化大学出版社)。 3、《汉语听力教程》(杨雪梅,北京语言文化大学出版社)。 4、《新实用汉语课本》(刘珣,北京语言大学出版社,中国国家对外华文教学领导小组 办公室规划教材)。 b 北大版系列教材: 《博雅汉语》(李晓琪,北京大学出版社)。 c 新加坡版教材: 《好学生华文》胡林生,印尼文化事业私人有限公司出版社(global indo publishing house)(小学课本)。 《小学华文》(chinese language for primary schools),白宗德,新加坡教育部课程 规划与发展署,epb-pan pacific 教育出版社。 《中学华文》毛丽妃、蔡晓娜等,新加坡教育部课程规划与发展司出版社。 d 其他: 1、《中文》系列教材(暨南大学华文学院编,暨南大学出版社)。 2、《汉语》系列教材(北京华文学院编,暨南大学出版社)。 the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 101 3、《华语》(bahasa tionghua),陈荣岚主编,印度尼西亚国民育部审定通过,中国国家 汉语国际推广领导小组办公室规划教材,教育科学出版社出版-中国北京(中学课 本)。 4、 《基础华语》(周健编,人民教育出版社) 5、 buku pelajaran bahasa mandarin(汉语课本) 6、 《标准汉语教程》(王国安编,上海教育出版社) 三、家长调查问卷分析: 家长调查共收回有效问卷 89 份,孩子就读大中小学的都有。 孩子所在学校的类型:以中小学为主,占 74.6%;大学占 20%。 家长性别:男性 40 人,占 45%;女性 49 人,占 55%。 家长学历:具有本科以上学历者 40 人,占 45%。其他包括大专、高中等学历。 家长国籍(民族):以印尼华人为主,占 78.6%;其次为印尼族人,占 15.7%。 孩子目前所在年级:小学四年级、五年级最多,其次为初中。 孩子学习汉语的时间:1-3 年最多,占 40%;5 年以上者也有一些。 孩子就读的汉语班:初级和中级最多,占 90%;高级者很少。 孩子在家用什么语言:说汉语方言(福建闽南话、客家话、潮州话)的最多,占 56%;说 印尼语及其他语言者占 55%;也有 19%的学生在家说汉语普通话。 孩子是否学过其他语言:回答是的占 80.1%。 孩子学习汉语的目的:回答“对就业有帮助”一项比例最高,占 50.6%;其他依次为:了 解中国文化,占 46%;自己是华人、寻根的需要,占 40%;汉语是学校必修课,占 30%。 孩子每周在学校学习汉语的时间:多数为 1-3 小时,占 83%,也有少数甚至达到 10 小时 以上。 家长认为这个长度是否合理:回答是的占 42.7%;回答太短的占 30%。 孩子是否学习汉字:回答是的占大多数,其中孩子只学简体字的占所有受访者的 76.4%, 繁简都学的占 16.8%;不学汉字的极少,只占 1%。 所在汉语学习班的人数:20 人以下的居多,其中 10 人以下的占 34.8%;超过 40 人的班级 极少见。 对教学效果的满意度:选择“一般”和“比较满意”的较多,占 59.5%。 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 对教师、教材、学校环境的满意度:对学校环境满意的比例最高,超过 50%;其次是对教 师的满意度,达 40%;对教材的满意度最低,为 31%。 是否经常辅导孩子的汉语课程:选择一般、较少、很少的占多数,有 78.6%;也有家长从 未辅导过孩子。 孩子使用汉语过程中的困难:“说汉语难”最突出,占了 56%;其次为“译汉语难”,占 48%;第三为“写汉字难”,占 47%。 孩子在学习汉语过程中的困难:依次是,1、语法难占 57%;2、汉字难占 51%;3、词汇难 占 38%;拼音最容易(此数据与学生问卷的调查结果有出入)。 孩子学汉语过程中希望得到哪些帮助:意见比较集中的,一是希望孩子能用汉语交流;二 是提高孩子的学习兴趣。 三、问卷调查与访谈结果综述: 印尼学习华文的学生人数众多,学习华文的需求非常旺盛,而且仍处于高速增长阶段。印 尼的华文学习者中华裔群体是主要力量;学生的年龄普遍不大,以 90 后的学龄青少年为主; 多数学生有过学习其他外语特别是英语的经验,汉语目前在印尼属于第二外语;多数学生学 语的动机与华裔身份文化认同和就业需要有关,属于综合动机;学生学习汉语的时间(学时) 偏少,大多在每周 90 分钟以内;普遍缺乏语言环境,存在一些困难,特别是汉语声调和怎样 用汉语表达方面。印尼学生对目前学校的华文课堂教学基本满意,但教材五花八门,中国大陆 版的、台湾版的、新加坡版的、马来西亚版的、印尼本地版的和本地教师自编未出版的都有, 虽然中国版教材已占上风,但这些教材依然有些水土不服,大都存在本地化程度不够的问题。 虽然印尼政府教育部门对中小学汉语教材的使用有统一化的意愿,但政策制定及实施情况显然 并不十分到位,汉语教材的研究、开发、推广还有很大的空间。印尼存在多年的华文教材问题 近年来虽然取得了很大的进步,但并未从根本上解决,特别是在华文教材本土化方面还需做出 努力。 印尼的华文师资短缺问题曾经是困扰当地华文教学发展的一大因素,特别是上世纪末华文 教学刚开始复苏的那几年;近年来,随着一大批本地华文教师在中国受训后回国任教,以及各 地学校与中国高校的广泛合作,中国援派教师及志愿者发挥了重要影响,师资短缺的情况得到 了很大的改观,华文教师青黄不接的问题已基本解决,但由于印尼巨大的需求,华文教师的数 量从总体上看还存在较大的缺口,教师的学历层次和专业水准也有待进一步提高。 通过专家访谈,我们了解到,目前印尼还比较缺乏专家级的华文教学研究学者,高水平的 华文教师也属凤毛麟角,真正意义上的华文教学研究从宏观到微观领域都急需开拓。 印尼的华文教学现阶段仍处于快速发展时期,不仅保持了解禁后迅速复兴的势头,而且出 现了一些新的发展形势。一是快速实现了华文教学的转型,从认识到实践各个方面,大家取得 了普遍的共识,即现在印尼的华文教学已明确定位于第二语言教学,而非传统意义上印尼华侨 华人的母语教育。二是印尼开展华文教学的地域非常广,遍及全国各地,特别是华人集中分布 的岛屿和城市;三是印尼华文教学的层次和办学形式非常丰富,从大学到中小学、幼儿园,从 全日制学校到补习学校(补习班),从成人教育到适龄学生教育都有;第四是已经与中国开展 广泛的合作交流,包括官方与民间等各种渠道。五是华文教学的经济实用目的凸显,汉语的商 the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 103 业应用价值极大地影响着印尼的华文教学。六是印尼华文教学近年来正在演变为双语教学或三 语教学中一个选项,各地的双语学校或三语学校纷纷成立,正在成为印尼华文教学的一种新趋 势。 参考文献 王 尧 美 . 2007 “ 对 外 汉 语 教 材 的 创 新 ” . 语 言 教 学 与 研 究 language teaching and linguistic studies , 4 余千华,樊葳葳,陈琴. 2012“汉语学习者话题兴趣及其与对外汉语教材话题匹配情况调查研 究”.语言教学与研究 language teaching and linguistic studies . 01 王 曦 . 2010 “ 对 外 汉 语 教 材 编 写 的 几 个 细 节 问 题 ” . 现 代 语 文 ( 语 言 研 究 版 ) modern chinese.12 齐沛. 2003“对外汉语教材再评述”.语言教学与研究 language teaching and linguistic studies. 01 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 附:学生调查问卷(教师问卷与家长问卷类似而略有差异)② a 背景资料 a1.所在学校的类型:1.大学 2.中小学 3.中文学校 4.孔子学院 a2.性别:1.男性 2.女性 a3.年级:1.高中一年级 2.高中二年级 3.高中三年级 4.大学一年级 5.大学二年级 6.大学三年级 7.大学四年级 8.硕士生 9.博士生 10.其他(请写出)__________ a4.所修汉语课的类型:1.汉语专业课 2.汉语选修课 3.不适用 a5.国籍 印尼 1.本土人 2.印尼华人 其他 3.(请写出) the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 105 a6.出生年月: _____年_____月 a7.学习汉语时间:_____年______月 a8.家庭常用语:1.印尼语 2.汉语普通话 3.汉语方言 4.其它___________ a9. 学习汉语的目的(可多选):1.对中国文化感兴趣 2. 汉语比较容易学,易拿学分 3. 教学计划中要求的必修课程 4. 受其他老师和同学的影响 5. 父母要求学 6. 我是华人,华人应该学习汉语 7. 为以后找工作增加实力 8. 商务、学术交流 9.其它(请写出)___________ b 教学与教材现状 b1.课程名称(只填一门):___________________ b2.每周上课节数:___________________ b3.每节课的长度:______________分钟 b4.每周课余学习汉语的时间:_________________小时 b5.所在汉语学习班的人数:__________人 b6.是否学习汉字: 是 1.只学简体字 2.只学繁体字 3.都学 否 4.不学汉字 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 95-107 b7.学过的其他语言:1.英语 2.日语 3.其它(请写出)____________ b8. 请写出一本常用教材: b9(1).教材名:____________________ b9(2).作者:______________________ b9(3).出版社:____________________ b10.请您对该教材进行评价,1 代表不符合,5 代表极为符合 评价项目 不符合 有点符 合 符合 非常符 合 几位符 合 词 汇 及 解 说 1.每课的生词数量对我来说 是合适的 1 2 3 4 5 2.生词在课文中反复出现, 足以让我记住 1 2 3 4 5 3.生词清楚地解释怎么用、 在什么情况下用 1 2 3 4 5 4.课文的内容和我的年龄和 心态相符 1 2 3 4 5 5.课文内容有意思 1 2 3 4 5 6.课文逐渐从易到难 1 2 3 4 5 7.课文的长度合适 1 2 3 4 5 语 法 解 释 8.对语法的解释清晰、明白 1 2 3 4 5 9.语法解释的外语翻译准 确、明白 1 2 3 4 5 10.对语法的解释没有很多 专门的术语 1 2 3 4 5 11.对语法的解释说明有合 适/足够的例子帮助我们理 解 1 2 3 4 5 12.语法解释清楚地告诉我 们在什么情况下使用这些词 汇语法结构 1 2 3 4 5 练 习 13.练习的数量合适 1 2 3 4 5 14.练习有意思、我喜欢做 1 2 3 4 5 15.练习能很好地复习生词 和语法 1 2 3 4 5 16.练习的排列从易到难 1 2 3 4 5 17.练习的题目很清楚 1 2 3 4 5 the condition of ….. (zhang shenglin; yi ying) 107 18.练习有参考答案 1 2 3 4 5 格 式 及 配 套 19.版面设计好,字体大小 合适,能清晰区分每个部分 1 2 3 4 5 20.插图和内容紧密配合, 增加内容的说服力/生动性 1 2 3 4 5 21.页面编排合理,内容和 题目之间不必频繁翻页 1 2 3 4 5 22.有配套的练习手册 1 2 3 4 5 23.有配套磁带或光盘等材 料 1 2 3 4 5 24.可以在网络上学习 1 2 3 4 5 25.教材的价格合理 1 2 3 4 5 c 争议与困难 c1.使用汉语过程中,哪方面比较困难: 1.听汉语 2.说汉语 3.读汉语 4.写汉字 5.译汉语 c2.在学习汉语的过程中,哪方便比较困难: 1.拼音 2.词汇 3.语法 4.汉字 c3.在学习汉语的过程中,还存在哪些困难? c4.在学习汉语的过程中,希望得到哪些帮助? 注释: ① 2011 年 8 月,福建省侨办联合集美大学在厦门集美举办了印尼中小学华文教师培训,共有 八十多位教师参加培训。数据即采自参加这次培训的部分教师。 ② 此问卷主要依据中山大学汉语教材基地所作问卷而略有改动。 101reading journal ….. (menik winiharti; dkk) reading journal as a way to improve students’ comprehension toward a textbook reading material menik winiharti; agnes herawati; esti rahayu english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 mwinih@gmail.com; aherawati@binus.edu; erahayu@binus.edu abstract reading journal is one way to record students’ independent learning based on text they read. this study was conducted to find out the students’ level of reading comprehension through some notes written in the reading journal, the extent to which the activity of writing reading journals improved students’ reading comprehension, whether the students got benefit from reading journal. there were 104 respondents coming from four different departments in bina nusantara university were asked to read a text related to the subject they learned in a certain session. then they were assigned to write a journal that records the things they had read. when this task was finished, the lecturer ran a quiz containing related questions to check whether they really understood the content of the text. afterwards, students were to fill in a questionnaire regarding their opinion on the impact of the reading journal toward their reading comprehension. the findings indicate that more than half of the participants appear to understand the material well, and the task plays a certain role in improving students’ understanding. the most crucial thing is that most students think they get benefit by writing the reading journal. keywords: reading journal, writing, reading comprehension abstrak reading journal merupakan salah satu cara untuk merekam pembelajaran mandiri mahasiswa berdasarkan teks yang mereka baca. artikel menjelaskan manfaat jurnal membaca, yaitu untuk mengetahui tingkat pemahaman mahasiswa terhadap teks bacaan yang ditulis pada reading journal, menemukan sejauh mana aktivitas menulis reading journal mampu meningkatkan pemahaman mahasiswa terhadap bahan bacaan, dan untuk mengetahui apakah mahasiswa mendapatkan manfaat dengan menulis reading journal. responden sebanyak 104 mahasiswa berasal dari empat jurusan berbeda di universitas bina nusantara diminta untuk membaca teks yang berhubungan dengan ilmu yang mereka pelajari di sesi tertentu. kemudian mereka ditugasi untuk menulis sebuah jurnal dengan mencatat hal-hal yang mereka telah baca. saat tugas diselesaikan, dosen mengadakan kuis untuk memeriksa apakah mereka benar-benar memahami isi teks. setelah itu, mahasiswa mengisi kuesioner terkait dengan pendapat mereka tentang dampak reading journal terhadap pemahaman bacaan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa lebih dari setengah responden memahami materi dengan baik, dan tugas penulisan reading journal ini cukup berperan dalam meningkatkan pemahaman mahasiswa. hal yang paling penting adalah sebagian besar mahasiswa berpikir bahwa mereka mendapatkan manfaat dengan menulis reading journal. kata kunci: jurnal membaca, menulis, pemahaman bacaan 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 introduction textbook reading comprehension is critical in the individual educational successes. without adequate textbook reading comprehension, students may struggle in many subject areas. subjects, other than reading comprehension, where comprehension is significantly important, include science, social studies, programming, and many more. in the area of science, culture, and social studies, research indicates that many students lack of prior knowledge and reading strategies to generate inferences; thus, the students comprehend the textbook poorly. it is also found that students lack of specific reading strategies to generate inferences that aid in the understanding of texts. (mcnamara, 2004) in relation to university students’ ability in comprehending the content of a textbook, educators need to provide instructions as well as tools to improve their students’ comprehension ability, since the research indicates that reading comprehension plays an important role in increasing academic achievement and in gaining problem solving ability as well. talking about tools that are used in gaining students’ textbook reading comprehension ability, research shows that some various tools can be applied, such as reading and vocabulary inventory, qualitative reading inventory and reading journal. reading journal itself is one method that lecturers can use to improve students’ textbook reading comprehension ability. the use of reading journals may bring students’ academic attainment to meet the standard competencies, and students will ultimately perform better in their academic work where reading plays a primary role. this study tries to explore the effects of reading journals toward the comprehension of a textbook material. journal writing/learning logs/reading response logs is a process that allows learners to move between low and high levels of reasoning (murray, 1990). journal writing belongs to writing for learning which internalizes the information that the students are trying to learn and allow the students to become active participants in their own. furthermore, journal writing is one way to promote metacognitive development, making the students aware of what they do not know (rowan, 1990).vacca and vacca (1999) stated when teachers integrate writing and reading, they help students use writing to think about what they will read and to understand what they have read. mcintosh and draper (2001) added that learning logs take neither a great deal of time nor much class time, but they have tremendous value for teachers and students. in relation to the reading activity, composing a journal is a very motivational instrument when utilized as a part of the activity that it makes a student read with a reason subsequently focusing on a deeper level of perception. reading journal is designed to aid students with critical reading skills. it means active and skillful conceptualizing, applying, synthesizing and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experiences, reflection, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action (scriven & paul, 1996). they allow the students to admit confusion, to ask questions, to make connections and to read with attention (wilson, 1989). the journal gives students a place to record their thoughts, feelings and reactions to the text they are reading. students use the reading journal to record questions about the text as well as responses to it. when there is a purpose for reading, the students become more critical, thus improving their textbook reading comprehension (wilson, 1989). as students read to eliminate their confusion and develop their comprehension, they begin to make connections between passages of the text and their own experiences. bean (1996) encourages creating reading logs to make students interact with texts. he mentioned that students can summarize the text, connect it to personal experience, argue with it, and evaluate it. writing a reading journal make students to grope, wrestle with confusion on their own and they often make surprising discoveries (wilson, 1989). furthermore, wilson (1989) stated that reading journal allows students to pause and mull and ponder, then it slows them down and encourages them to pay attention to the slow unfolding of a work of a textbook. it creates readers. method the participants of this research are 104 students from four departments in bina nusantara university. they are 30 students of information system department, 30 students of information technology department, 11 students of english department, 33 students of japanese department. there are three instruments used in the research: reading journal, quiz, and questionnaire. first, the students are assigned to read a text at home. this text is supposed to be discussed in the classroom in the following week. after reading the text, they are asked to write a journal that reports things they have read. this reading journal consists of five items: those are title of the text, a short summary of the text, things the students have learned: new vocabularies/terms and knowledge, comments or opinion: students’ own comment or opinion toward the content of the text, and questions arise: students might ask questions regarding their understanding toward the content of the text. to make sure their real understanding, the students have to do a simple quiz related to the text material they read. the result of the quiz supports the result of writing the reading journal, with regard to the improvement of the students’ comprehension toward textbook reading materials. in addition, after the activity of reading journal is finished and the lecturer has already held a quiz, the students are asked to fill in a questionnaire which is distributed in order to know their opinion toward the activity of writing a reading journal. several questions regarding students’ understanding and journal’s function are asked. the questions use indonesian language since the respondents coming from the three departments are not of english department. in addition, this indonesian questionnaire is meat to make the respondents easier to answer. here are the questions: 1. menurut anda, apakah penulisan “reading journal” secara keseluruhan bermanfaat untuk menunjang proses pembelajaran? (do you think that writing a “reading journal” is generally useful to support the learning process?) 103reading journal ….. (menik winiharti; dkk) 2. dengan mengerjakan tugas “reading journal” apakah anda merasa lebih siap menghadapi pertemuan kuliah berikutnya? (by completing the task of “reading journal”, do you feel better prepared for the next class session?) 3. apakah seluruh konsep dan istilah yang ada dalam bacaan yang ditugaskan kepada anda dapat dipahami? (can the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading be understood?) 4. kalau jawaban atas pertanyaan no.3 di atas adalah “tidak”, apakah anda menyiapkan pertanyaan yang berkaitan dengan hal itu untuk diajukan kepada dosen pada saat kuliah? (if the answer to question number 3 is “no”, do you prepare the related questions to be submitted to the lecturer in the class session?) 5. apakah anda merasa terbantu dengan adanya tugas penulisan “reading journal”? (do you think that the task of writing “reading journal” helps you understand the whole idea of the text?) furthermore, after the data have been collected, the analysis is conducted based on the results of the reading journal, the quiz, and the questionnaire. the reading journal is assessed based on the overall comprehension that the students show in their work. the result is categorized into three: good, fair, and poor. this classification is based on the following rubric, as seen in table 1. table 1 rubric for reading journal items assessed good fair poor quality of information (related to brief summary) information clearly relates to the main topic. it includes several supporting details. information clearly relates to the main topic. no details. information has little or nothing to do with the main topic. opinion response includes at least 3 relevant, thoughtful opinions which show insight response includes 12 relevant opinions response includes no relevant opinions questions arise thoughtful, relevant and reflective questions are asked (related to application of the theory/topic) obvious questions are asked (not related to the application of the theory/topic) no questions are asked source: http://rubistar.4teachers.org/index.php?screen=c ustomizetemplate&bank_rubric_id=8§ion_id=5& then the result of the journal and that of the quiz are compared to find whether the students are consistent in both writing the journal and answering the questions in the quiz. afterwards, the answers of the questionnaire are analyzed to find how reading journals give impact to the students’ comprehension ability and how far they think that the journal is useful. results and discussion the evaluation of the reading journal is based on the overall comprehension that the students get after reading a text, which is categorized into three: good, fair, and poor. afterwards, to ensure whether they really understand the text, their general comprehension written in the journal is compared to the result of the quiz. this quiz result is also categorized into three: good—if the score is above or equals to 80, fair—if the score is ranged from 70 to 79, and poor—if the score is below 70. furthermore, to know the students’ opinion toward the journal writing, whether it is useful for them, the result of the questionnaire is also analyzed as seen in table 2. the table describes the result of the journal shown by the students of information system as well as their quiz scores. table 2 the result of reading journal and quiz score in information system department number of students journal result quiz score category good fair poor good fair poor total 22 7 1 total 13 17 0 73.3% 23.3% 3.3% 43,3% 56,7% 0% table 2 indicates that out of 30 students of information system department, 22 of them have written their journal quite well, 7 students have done it fairly, and only 1 student has performed poorly. it means that 73,3% of them comprehend the text quite well, 23,3% do it fairly, and only 3,3% does it poorly. however, the result of the quiz does not always prove exactly the same. table 3 shows the comparison between the result of the reading journal and quiz score in the information system department. table 3 the comparison between the result of reading journal and quiz score in information system department category journal (number of students) quiz (number of students) % of improvement or decrease good 22 13 ↓ 40,1 % fair 7 17 ↑ 42,9% poor 1 0 ↓ 100% table 3 shows that 13 students (43,3%) have performed well in the quiz, meaning that they have got score above or equals to 80. the rest of them, 17 students (56,7%), have achieved scores between 70 and 79, meaning that they perform fairly in the quiz. interestingly, no student performs poorly in the quiz. compared to the result of the reading journals, these numbers do not prove the assumption that those who write their reading journal well will also perform well in the quiz. there is a decrease as many as 40,1% in the quiz in the good category (9 from 22). accordingly, an improvement of 42,9% is shown in the fair category. 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 table 4 describes the result of the reading journal shown by the students of information technology as well as their quiz scores. table 4 the result of reading journal and quiz score in information technology department students number journal result quiz score category good fair poor good fair poor total 22 8 0 total 27 3 0 73.3% 26.7% 90% 10% 0% table 4 indicates that out of 30 students of information technology department, 22 of them (73,3%) show good comprehension in their reading journal and the rest (8 students or 26,7%) have comprehended the assigned reading fairly. surprisingly, no student has written the journal poorly. however, the quiz scores do not always prove the same. here is the comparison between the result of the reading journal and the quiz score, as shown in table 5. table 5 the comparison between the result of reading journal and quiz score in information technology department category journal (number of students) quiz (number of students) % of improvement or decrease good 22 27 ↑ 22,7% fair 8 3 ↓ 62,5% poor 0 0 table 5 shows that 27 students (90%) have performed well in the quiz, meaning that they have got score above or equals to 80. compared to the result of the journal, this number shows an improvement of 22,7% 5 from 22). consequently, those who perform fairly in the quiz decrease as many as 62,5% (5 from 8). amazingly, no student found to perform poorly in the quiz as no one found to comprehend poorly in the journal. table 6 describes the result of the reading journal shown by the students of japanese department as well as their quiz scores. table 6 the result of reading journal and quiz score in japanese language and culture department students number journal result quiz score category good fair poor good fair poor total 12 9 12 total 15 7 11 36.4% 27.2% 36.4% 45,5% 21,2% 33,3% table 6 indicates that out of 33 students of japanese department, 12 of them have written their journal quite well, 9 students have done it fairly, and 12 students have performed poorly. it means that 36,4% of them have comprehended the text quite well, 27,2% have done it fairly, and 36,4% have performed poorly. in this class, the result of the quiz does not always prove the same as that of the journal. here is the comparison, as shown in table 7. table 7 the comparison between the result of reading journal and quiz score in japanese department category journal (number of students) quiz (number of students) % of improvement or decrease good 12 15 ↑ 25% fair 9 7 ↓ 28,6% poor 12 11 ↓ 8,3% the table shows that 15 students (45,5%) have performed well in the quiz, meaning that they have got score above or equals to 80. meanwhile, 7 students (21,2%) have achieved scores from 70 to 79, meaning that they perform fairly in the quiz, and there are 11 students (33,3%) have got scores below 70, which means that they perform poorly in the quiz. these numbers show an improvement in the good category and indicate a decrease in the fair and poor categories. compared to the result of the journal in the good category, the result of the quiz improves as many as 25% (3 from 12). in the fair category, the quiz result decreases as many as 28,6% (2 from 9), while in the poor category, the quiz result decreases 8,3% (1 from 12). table 8 describes the result of the reading journal shown by the students of english department as well as their quiz scores. table 8 the result of reading journal and quiz score in english language and culture department students number journal result quiz score category good fair poor good fair poor total 5 5 1 total 8 1 2 45,5% 45,5% 9% 72,7% 9% 18,2% in the english department, out of 11 students there are 5 students (45,5%) who have well comprehended the assigned reading, while 5 students (45,5%) have written their journal fairly and only 1 student (9%) has comprehended the reading poorly. however, the quiz shows different result. here is the comparison: table 9 the comparison between the result of reading journal and quiz score in english department category journal (number of students) quiz (number of students) % of improvement or decrease good 4 8 ↑100% fair 5 1 ↓80% poor 1 2 ↑100% 105reading journal ….. (menik winiharti; dkk) the table reveals that there are 8 students (72,7%) who have performed well in the quiz, while there is only 1 student (9%) who shows his/her average performance, and two students (18,2%) have performed poorly in the quiz. these numbers suggest that there is an improvement in the good category (100%). consequently, the number of those who have performed fairly in the quiz has decreased as many as 80% (4 from 5). unfortunately, the number of those who shows their poor performance has doubled 100% (1 from 1). from all departments, the number of students who has comprehended the assigned reading can be encapsulated in table 10. table 10 the summary of journal result of four departments number of students department good fair poor total information system 22 7 1 30 information technology 22 8 0 30 japanese 12 9 12 33 english 5 5 1 11 total 61 29 14 104 average 58,7% 27,9% 13,4% 100% it is clearly seen from the table above that 58,7% students in average have achieved good category resulted from the journal they have written. in other words, more than half of the participants appear to comprehend the assigned reading well. meanwhile, 27,9% of the participants are of fair category and only 13,4% of them do not comprehend the assigned reading well. furthermore, when the results shown in table 10 are compared to the whole results of the quiz, table 11 summarizes it. table 11 the whole comparison between the result of reading journal and quiz score in four departments quiz score compared to journal result information system information technology japanese english average good ↓ 40,1 % ↑ 22,7% ↑ 25% ↑100% ↑49% fair ↑ 42,9% ↓ 62,5% ↓ 28,6% ↓80% ↓57% poor ↓ 100% ↓ 8,3% ↑100% ↓ 54,2% table 11 suggests that from four departments, three departments show improvement in the good category. it means that in these departments, the number of students who perform well in the quiz has increased as compared to the whole results of the journals. correspondingly, the number of students who has performed fairly in these departments has decreased. however, there are two departments whose students are of poor category show improvement also. in other words, the number of students in this category has decreased, and one department has no student to perform poorly. after the reading journal is assigned and the quiz is held, students are then asked to fill in a questionnaire which contains five questions. the analysis toward the answers of these questions is conducted apart from the analysis of the journal results and quiz scores. the answers are analyzed to find out whether or not the reading journal is useful for the students. here are the answers found from four different departments. the result of the questionnaire found from students of information system department can be illustrated in table 12. table 12 reveals that 90% of the students of information system department think that writing a reading journal is generally useful to support their learning process. 73% of them feel better prepared for the next class session after completing the task, and 77% can understand the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading. even though there are 23% of the students who do not and doubt to understand all the concepts in the assigned reading, there are only 13% who prepare the questions to be asked in the next class session. overall, 87% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the text. table 12 the result of the questionnaire in information system department 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 table 13 the result of the questionnaire in information technology department table 14 the result of the questionnaire in japanese department table 15 the result of the questionnaire in english department table 13 suggests that in information technology department, 93% of the students think that writing a reading journal is generally useful to support their learning process. then, after completing the task, 77% of them feel better prepared for the next class session, and 80% can understand the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading. although there are 20% of the students who do not and doubt to understand all the concepts in the assigned reading, there are only 10% who prepare the questions to be asked in the next class session. all and all, 90% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the assigned reading text. students of japanese department have answered the questions in the questionnaire and the result can be summarized in table 14. table 14 illustrates that 76% of the students in japanese department think that writing a reading journal is generally useful to support their learning process. 75% of them feel better prepared for the next class session after completing the task. in spite of this, only 18% of the students can understand the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading. although there are 81% of the students who do not and doubt to understand all the concepts in the assigned reading, there are only 9% who prepare the questions to be asked in the next class session. interestingly, 85% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the reading text. table 15 illustrates the result of the questionnaire found from students of english department. 107reading journal ….. (menik winiharti; dkk) table 15 indicates that in english department, 100% of the students think that writing a reading journal is generally useful to support their learning process; 100% of them also feel better prepared for the next class session after completing the task; 80% can understand the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading. on the contrary, there are only 18% of the students who understand all the concepts in the assigned reading, thus 82% do not and doubt to understand them. in spite of this, only 18% prepare the questions to be asked in the next class session. surprisingly, 100% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the assigned reading text. from all participants of four different departments, the whole result of the questionnaire can be summarized in table 16. table 16 the result of the questionnaire in english department table 16 shows that from four different departments, 88% of the students think that writing a reading journal is generally useful to support their learning process. then, after completing the task, 77% of them feel better prepared for the next class session, and 53% can understand the whole concepts and terms in the assigned reading. although there are 47% of the students who do not and doubt to understand all the concepts in the assigned reading, there are only 12% who prepare the questions to be asked in the next class session. in general, 88% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the assigned reading text. conclusion from four departments—department of information system, department of information technology, department of japanese language and culture, and department of english language and culture, it is found that 58,7% students in average have achieved good category resulted from the journal they have written. in other words, more than half of the participants appear to comprehend the assigned reading well. meanwhile, 27,9% of the participants are of fair category and only 13,4% of them do not comprehend the assigned reading well. it is also found that from four departments, three departments – information technology, japanese and english – show improvement in the quiz scores, which is in the good category. in these departments, the number of students who perform well in the quiz has increased 49% in average as compared to the whole results of the reading journals in the same category. correspondingly, in these departments the number of students who has shown fair performance has decreased 57% in average. this decrease is in fact due to the increasing in the good category. however, there are two departments – information system and japanese – whose students are of poor category show improvement. in other words, the number of students who has performed poorly in the quiz has decreased as compared to the result of the journal in the same category. additionally, one department – information technology – has no student to perform poorly.thus, it can be concluded that the writing of reading journal plays a certain role to increase students’ understanding toward a text, even though it is not incredibly significant. furthermore, it is crucial to find that 88% of the students think that the task of writing the reading journal helps them understand the whole idea of the assigned reading text.even though the effect of writing a reading journal is not very significant toward the improvement of students’ understanding toward a text, the questionnaire results suggest that most students agree with the usefulness of this activity. in other words, the task of writing a reading journal is very beneficial for them, especially in helping them understand the idea of a text. references bean, j. c. (1996). engaging ideas:the professor’s guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, and active learning in the classroom. san fransisco: josseybass. mcintosh, m.e. & draper, r.j. (2001). using learning logs in mathematics: writing to learn. mathematics teacher, 94, 554–557. mcnamara, d. s. (2004). sert: self-explanation reading training. discourse processes, 38, 1–30. routledge: taylor and francis group. murray, d. m. (1990). writing to learn. texas: holt, rhinehart and winston. 108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 rowan, k. e. (1990). cognitive correlates of explanatory writing skill. written communication, 7(3), 316– 341. scriven, m. & paul, r. (1996). defining critical thinking: a draft statement for the national council for excellence in critical thinking. retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/university/ univlibrary/library.nclk vacca, r. t. & vacca j. a. l. (1999). content area reading. literacy and learning across the curriculum. 6th ed. new york: addison-wesley. wilson, n. (1989). learning from confusion: questions and change in reading logs. english journal, 78(7), 62–69. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 111 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 111-115 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3999 the acceptability of religious terms translation in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam nadia gitya yulianita1; mangatur nababan2; djatmika3 1, 2, 3 postgraduate, linguistics study program of universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no.36a, jebres, kota surakarta, jawa tengah 57126, indonesia 1nadiagy_93@student.uns.ac.id; 2amantaradja@yahoo.com; 3djatmika@uns.ac.id received: 18th september 2017 /revised: 15th january 2018 /accepted: 18th january 2018 how to cite: yulianita, n. g., nababan, m., & djatmika. (2018). the acceptability of religious terms translation in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam. lingua cultura, 12(2), 111-115. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3999 abstract this research aimed to find out the used translation’s techniques and the acceptability of the translation. this was a descriptive qualitative research and an embedded-case study. based on semantic and relevance theory, the researcher determined good translation. this research was conducted by listing the religious terms found in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam. then, the researchers compared the source language and target language to identify the translation techniques. finally, the researchers and raters assessed the acceptability of the translation by conducting focus group discussion (fgd). the result shows that the translator uses established equivalent, borrowing, literal, particularization, generalization, transposition, reduction, addition, explication, and discursive creation. besides, the average rate for the acceptability of the translation is 2,8 out of 3. it means that the translation is mostly in accordance with the norm and rule of language in the target text. keywords: acceptability, translation quality, translation techniques, religious terms introduction religion can be considered as guidance for many people. in indonesia, there are six religions which are recognized by the government, namely islam, christian, catholic, hindu, buddha, and kongfuze. because of the righteousness in those religions, many people want to do missionary, so that righteousness can be spread all over the world. moreover, in accordance with the technology development, the missionary work is easier because people do not have to meet directly. those good values from every religion can be written or told through the internet. however, this missionary work may be difficult because of the language difference. therefore, translation is required to overcome this problem. translating the terms related to religion is not easy since religion is usually related to culture. according to newmark (1988), culture is a particular way of living in a society which uses language as a tool for communication. in other words, the source text may have different culture with the target text. it is possible if the terms which exist in the source text may not exist in the target text. moreover, nababan (2003) stated that a word might have social or cultural meaning in a particular society, but that word might mean something else in another society. because of the challenge in translating terms related to culture, there are already many researchers who conduct researches about it. most of them use the category from newmark (1988) in identifying the cultural terms (ahmad, 2011; barathayomi, 2012; khoirunnisa, 2015; nurhidayah, 2015; simanihuruk et al., 2013; simarmata, 2015). there are five categories of cultural terms from newmark (1988), and the religious term is one of them. most of the previous researches use novels as the object of the study. on the other side, there are also some researchers who only focus on religious terms (elshiekh & saleh, 2011; agliz, 2015; alghamdi, 2016; elewa, 2014; hassan, 2016; mehawesh & sadeq, 2014; sharififar, 2010). however, most of those researches only discuss the translation from arab to english or vice versa. moreover, a book is rarely used as the object of those previous studies. moreover, those previous studies do not assess the translation quality based on theory from nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). the researcher decided to use the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam to be the media of this research. this book is chosen because it is a best-seller book in america. in addition, this book has been translated into bahasa indonesia, and it contains many religious terms. there are two research questions. first, it is what the used translation techniques are to translate religious terms in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam. second, it is how the translation techniques affect 112 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 111-115 the acceptability of religious terms in the book. these two research questions determine the research objectives. those are to find out the translation techniques of the religious terms and to see the acceptability of the religious terms. all of the terms related to religion are considered as religious terms. the researchers use semantic and relevance theory to explain a good translation when it comes to translating religious terms. furthermore, those theories help the researchers to decide the proper translation techniques which are proposed by molina and albir (2002). meanwhile, the translation quality assessment is based on the theory from nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). according to that theory, there are three aspects which are highlighted in assessing translation quality, namely accuracy, acceptability, and readability. accuracy means the translator translates the message from source text to target text accurately. meanwhile, acceptability concerns the proper translation based on the norm and rule of language in target text. on the other hand, the readability is whether the translation can be understood easily or not. every aspect has the score range from one to three. however, this research only focuses on the acceptability of the translation to find out whether the translation is accepted in the target language or not. there are some benefits which are expected from this research. first, it can give information to the people whether the translation of religious terms in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islamis is acceptable or not. second, it is expected to give more insight for the translator on how to produce an acceptable translation of religious terms. third, this research can encourage future researchers to conduct research about the translation of religious terms. methods this research highlights the use of translation techniques to translate the religious terms in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam and the effect of those techniques on the quality of the translation (acceptability). since translation techniques are always related to the translation in the target language, this research is called translation research which focuses on the product (nababan, 2007). moreover, this research uses a descriptive qualitative method to explore and describe the translation of religious terms in multicultural society. it has been mentioned that this research goal is to find out the translation techniques and the translation quality of religious terms in the book. therefore, the researchers only focus on the religious terms in the book. moreover, these terms are only limited to words and phrases. these terms are the data of this research. there are two data in this research. those are main data and secondary data. the main data consist of the religious terms in the form of words and phrases. meanwhile, the secondary data is the result of previous researches related to the translation of religious terms. these secondary data is not included directly in this research. these data are only used as references to get the main data. the researchers also use document analysis in this research. this technique is used in to collect the religious terms from the book. in addition, it is used to identify the translation techniques. the translation techniques of religious terms can be decided by comparing the source text and the target text. for the translation quality, the researchers use focus group discussion (fgd). it is a discussion with the raters to decide the score of acceptability. this is done by involving two raters and the researchers. those raters already have the master degree in translation, and they also have experiences in assessing translation quality. the raters and researchers give the score to each translation based on the acceptability assessment instrument which is proposed by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). this instrument has three levels of the qualitative parameter. the raters and researchers give the score to every religious term translation based on the parameter. if the score is one, it means that the translation is not acceptable. if it is two, it means that the translation is less acceptable. meanwhile, three means that the translation is acceptable in the target language. after collecting the data, the researchers analyze them by comparing the source text and the target text to determine the translation techniques and calculated the numbers. then, the researchers calculate the average score of acceptability of the translation from fgd. finally, the researchers try to seek the pattern between the used translation techniques and the effect of those techniques to the acceptability of the translation. results and discussions around 240 religious terms are used as the linguistics data of this research. after listing the religious terms, the researchers decide the translation techniques using theory by molina and albir (2002). from 18 translation techniques, there are 10 techniques which are mainly used to translate the religious terms (established equivalent, borrowing, literal, particularization, generalization, transposition, reduction, addition, explication, and discursive creation). moreover, the raters give the score of acceptability to each translation from range one to three. the score indicates whether the translation is not acceptable, less acceptable, or acceptable. table 1 examples of established equivalent no. source text target text acceptability 1. heaven surga 3 2. hell neraka 3 3. a sin suatu dosa 3 4. the qur’an al qur’an 3 established equivalent means the translator uses the correct translation which exists in the dictionary or the daily life in the target language. the examples of religious terms which are translated using this technique in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam book can be seen in table 1. the first and second examples have established equivalent technique because the indonesian translation of “heaven” is “surga” and “hell” is “neraka”. those terms refer to the places where all people will go after the end of the world. “heaven” is a place where all good people will go to because it is a place full of beauty and favor. meanwhile, “hell” is a place to torment people who do bad things when they live. then, “sin” is a term which refers to the burden that a person has after he or she disobeys god’s rules. “the qur’an” is the holy book for muslims, and it is usually known as “al qur’an” in bahasa indonesia. as for the translation quality, all of the examples are translated accurately and can be well-accepted in 113the acceptability of religious .... (nadia gitya yulianita et al.) bahasa indonesia. the raters give the highest score to each translation. it means that the translator already uses the right techniques to translate those religious terms. table 2 examples of borrowing no source text target text translation techniques acceptability 1. masjid al haram masjid al haram pure borrowing 2 2. mohammedanism mohammadisme naturalized borrowing 3 3. rabbi rabbi pure borrowing 2 4. umar ibn al khattab umar bin khattab naturalized borrowing 3 there are two kinds of borrowing, namely pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing. pure borrowing means the translator borrow the term from the source text directly to be the translation in the target text. meanwhile, naturalized borrowing means the translator also borrow the term from the source text, but it has been naturalized to be more acceptable in the target text. the examples of those techniques are presented in table 2. “masjid al haram” is translated into “masjid al haram”. there is no difference between the target text and the source text. therefore, it is called pure borrowing. this also happens to the third example. in fact, those translations have more common translation in the target text (“masjidil haram” and “rabi”). meanwhile, the second and fourth examples are translated using naturalized borrowing because the translation is almost the same as the source text. it can be seen that pure borrowing technique causes the translation less acceptable in the target text, while naturalized borrowing technique is acceptable. table 3 examples of literal no source text target text acceptability 1. abraham’s bosom pelukan ibrahim 1 2. books of vision kitab visi 1 literal is the applied technique of translating word per word. usually, the translation is out of context. the examples of the translation which use this technique are shown in table 3. “abraham’s bosom” is a religious term from christian. it is related to purgatory (a step which is done after people die to clean their sins before they enter heaven). however, this term is literally translated into “pelukan abraham” (abraham’s hug) since the meaning of “bosom” is chest or hug. as for the second example, the translator literally translated the term “books of vision” into “kitab visi”. in fact, the term “kitab visi” does not exist in the target language. therefore, this technique causes the translations become unacceptable in the target language. moreover, particularization is a translation technique which translates a term using more specific term than the source text. this happens when there is more specific term in the target text than the source text. thus, the reader may understand the term. table 4 shows the examples of particularization technique. table 4 examples of particularization no source text target text acceptability 1. scarves jilbab 3 2. a religious scholar syaikh 3 the term “scarves” has a general meaning if it is translated into indonesia using semantic theory. it may mean a kind of fabric to cover something. however, it is translated into “jilbab” (a veil for muslim women). therefore, the meaning which is general is translated more specifically. this also happens to the second example. “a religious scholar” may refer to the scholar from any religions, but it is translated into “syaikh” (a scholar in islam). it means the translator uses the more specific term in the translation. table 5 examples of generalization no source text target text acceptability 1. alimony and palimony tunjangan perceraian 3 2. christianity nasrani 3 generalization technique is the opposite of particularization. it means the translator uses more general term than the source text to translate the term. the examples of this technique can be seen in table 5. “alimony” means an amount of money that a man has to pay for his partner after the divorce. meanwhile, “palimony” means a substitute of alimony in case that people are not married but they have lived for a long period then decided to end their relationship. those terms have slightly different meaning, but they are translated to be more general in the target text. meanwhile, in the second example, the term “christianity” refers to the christian. this term is translated into “nasrani” (a term which refers to catholic and christian) which is more general than the source text. table 6 examples of transposition no source text target text acceptability 1. baptized pembaptisan 3 2. a scarf on her head berjilbab 3 transposition technique changes the grammatical category of the source text. for instance, a term which is a verb in the source text is translated into a noun in the target text. the examples are in table 6. the first example shows that a verb in the source text is translated into a noun in the target text. meanwhile, the second example exposes that translation is a verb, and the source text is a noun. this change of grammatical category is called transposition. however, the translations are still acceptable in the indonesia language because it obeys the language rules. reduction technique means to reduce the information of the source text when it is translated into the target text. it aims to compress the information from the source text by removing or stating the information implicitly in the target text. table 7 shows the examples. 114 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 111-115 it can be seen that the first and second examples have more information than the translations. however, the translator removes the information because those terms are well known in the target text without translating the information. that is why even though the information is missing, the translations are still acceptable in the target text. table 7 examples of reduction no source text target text acceptability 1. the muslim holy book, the qur’an al qur’an 3 2. ayatul kursi, or verse of the throne ayat kursi 3 table 8 examples of addition no source text target text acceptability 1. pilgrimage berziarah (berhaji) 3 2. yarmulkes yarmulk (tutup kepala laki-laki yahudi) 3 addition is a part of amplification technique. addition means adding information about the term in the target text. this technique can also be considered as the opposite of reduction. table 8 shows the examples. the first and second examples use addition technique. it is because the translations have information in the brackets. even though there is added information in the translations, they are still acceptable in the indonesia language. table 9 examples of explication no source text target text acceptability 1. paradise surga firdaus 3 2. a level plain padang makhsyar 3 3. muhammad nabi muhammad 3 explication is also a part of amplification. it means the translator explicitly mentions the added information in the target text. it is different from addition because the added information in explication aims to make the term is more specific for the readers. the examples can be seen in table 9. “paradise” means the highest level of heaven. in indonesia, most of the people are islam and surga firdaus is also the highest level of heaven according to islam. that is why the first example is acceptable in the target text. “a level plain” is translated into padang makhsyar (a plain where people wait for their judgment after they die). this technique is called explication because the translator explicitly mentions the name of the plain in the target text. for the third example, the translator also explicitly mentions the term nabi (prophet) even though the source text does not mention it. discursive creation refers to the use of temporary relevance to translate a term. it is usually out of context. table 10 shows the examples. table 10 examples of discursive creation no source text target text acceptability 1. welcoming consecration berkah bayi yang baru lahir 3 2. fallen angels malaikat yang dikutuk 1 the first example uses discursive creation technique because the common term in the target language is upacara aqiqah (ceremony to welcome newborns in islam). therefore, the translator makes up a translation which is not related to the actual meaning. however, the translation is still acceptable in the target language because it is based on the rule of language in bahasa indonesia. meanwhile, the common or correct translation of “fallen angels” is actually “malaikat yang diusir dari surga” (angels that are expelled from heaven). in the book, the translation of “fallen angels” becomes “malaikat yang dikutuk” (angels that are cursed). it proves that the translator makes a new translation which is not related to the actual meaning. moreover, in the culture of target text, all of the angels are considered kind, and they are not cursed. however, if they do not behave, they can be expelled from heaven according to christian. it means that the concept of the cursed angel is not quite accepted in indonesia. it can be seen from table 1 to table 10 that the use of translation technique may affect the quality of the translation regarding acceptability. there are some techniques which lead to the highest score of acceptability, and the others may lead to the lower score of it. some techniques which cause the translation acceptable in the target language are established equivalent, naturalized borrowing, particularization, generalization, transposition, reduction, addition, and explication. meanwhile, pure borrowing causes the translation to be less acceptable because the translation is still in the foreign language. on the other hand, literal and discursive creation techniques make the translation unacceptable in the target language because the translations do not fulfill the norm and the rule of language in the target language. however, there is an exception, such as in the first example in table 10. the translation in that example is acceptable in the target language because it fulfills the rule of language in the target language even though the translator makes the translation out of context. however, the acceptability of the translation of religious terms is high with the average score of 2,8. it means that the translations are mostly in accordance with the norm and rule of language in the target language. conclusions in conclusion, translating the terms which are related to religion is quite challenging for a translator. this may happen because there are some terms which exist in the source language but it does not exist in the target language. however, this problem can be overcome by using the proper translation technique to achieve high acceptability in the target language. the translation techniques which are used to translate the religious terms in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam are established equivalent, borrowing, literal, particularization, generalization, transposition, reduction, addition, explication, and discursive creation. 115the acceptability of religious .... (nadia gitya yulianita et al.) the most frequently used technique to translate religious terms in the book is established equivalent. this technique is mostly used by the translator because it produces the frequently used term which exists in the dictionary. this will make the translation automatically acceptable since it is in accordance with the norm and language rule in the target language. there are also other techniques which make the translation acceptable, namely naturalized borrowing, particularization, generalization, transposition, reduction, addition, and explication. on the other hand, the translation techniques which produce less acceptable translation are literal, pure borrowing, and discursive creation. all of those translation techniques cause the translation to get an average score of 2,8 in acceptability. this score is given by the raters and researcher through fgd. this score is quite high because the maximum score is 3. in other words, the translation of religious terms in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam is acceptable. it means that almost all of the translations follow the norms and language rule in the target text. hence, the target readers can accept the translations without any complaints on the suitability of the translations and the language rule in the target language. references agliz, r. (2015). translation of religious texts: difficulties and challenges. arab world english journal, 4, 182– 193. ahmad, s. (2011). analisis terjemahan istilah istilah budaya pada brosur pariwisata (thesis). medan: universitas sumatera utara. alghamdi, r. s. (2016). translating religious terms and culture in “the sealed nectar”: a model for quality assessment (doctoral dissertations). leeds: university of leeds. barathayomi, w. (2012). strategi penerjemahan istilah budaya dalam novel olive kitteridge: kritik terjemahan berdasarkan model analisis teks yang berorientasi pada penerjemahan. depok: universitas indonesia. elewa, a. (2014). features of translating religious texts. journal of translation, 10(1), 25–33. elshiekh, a. a. a., & saleh, m. a. (2011). translation versus transliteration of religious terms in contemporary islamic discourse in western communities. international journal of english linguistics, 1(2), 141-147. hassan, s. s. (2016). islamic religious terms in english – translation vs. transliteration in ezzeddin ibrahim and denys johnson-davies’ translation of annawawī’s forty ḥadīths. the international journal of translation and interpreting research, 8(1), 117– 132. https://doi.org/10.12807/ti.108201.2016.a08 khoirunnisa, r. (2015). kajian terjemahan istilah budaya dalam novel “the bliss bakery trilogi # 1” ke dalam bahasa indonesia (master’s thesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. mehawesh, m. i., & sadeq, a. (2014). islamic religious expressions in the translation of naguib mahfouz novel “the beginning and the end”. research on humanities and social sciences, 4(12), 7–18. molina, l., & albir, h. a. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta: translators’ journal, 47(4), 498. https://doi. org/10.7202/008033ar nababan, m. (2003). teori menerjemah bahasa inggris. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. nababan, m. (2007). aspek genetik, objektif dan afektif dalam penelitian penerjemahan. linguistika, 14(26), 15–23. nababan, m., nuraeni, a., & sumardiono. (2012). pengembangan model penilaian kualitas terjemahan. kajian linguistik dan sastra, 24(1), 39–57. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall. nurhidayah, v. a. (2015). analisis teknik dan kualitas terjemahan istilah budaya dalam film ‟percy jackson and the olympians the lightning thief” (master’s thesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. sharififar, m. (2010). applicability of newmark’s procedures to translation of religious cultural elements from english into persian. iranian journal of applied language studies, 2(1), 169–190. simanihuruk, b., santo, p., medan, t., & muchtar, m. (2013). analysis of translation techniques and shifts of batak toba cultural terms in inside sumatera: tourism and lifestyle magazine. kajian linguistik, 10(2), 195–207. simarmata, n. b. (2015). analisis teknik penerjemahan dan kualitas terjemahan dari bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa batak toba yang terdapat dalam dubbing film jesus (master’s thesis). surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. microsoft word 05 paramita_setting the dynamic identity: ….. (paramita ayuningtyas) 37 the dynamic identity: analysis of gender identity in breakfast on pluto by patrick mccabe paramita ayuningtyas english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract article focused on gender identity in breakfast on pluto by patrick mccabe. by using stuart hall’s concept of identity, the analysis showed that gender identity had the potential to be deconstructed, as shown by the identity transformation done by patrick braden. positioning by other people and his own body happened to be barriers for his identity transformation. however, those barriers basically could not stop patrick’s transformation to be a woman. patrick had its own strategies in changing his gender identity, which were gender deconstruction, body decoration, and language. it can be concluded that breakfast on pluto offers a discourse of identity that is dynamic. identity is a becoming process that will happen endlessly in human’s life. keywords: dynamic identity, gender identity, transgender abstrak artikel menganalisis identitas gender yang terdapat pada novel breakfast on pluto karangan patrick mccabe. analisis dilakukan berdasarkan konsep identitas milik stuart hall. analisis memperlihatkan bahwa identitas gender berpotensi menjadi dekonstruksi, seperti yang diperlihatkan oleh patrick brandon ketika dia melakukan transformasi identitas, dengan pokok permasalahan cara memposisikan dirinya dengan orang lain. walaupun demikian, semua kendala tersebut tidak bisa menghentikan niat patrick untuk mengubah diri menjadi perempuan, bahkan dia mempunyai strategi sendiri dalam mengubah status gender, yaitu pengubahan gender, dekorasi tubuh, dan bahasa. dapat disimpulkan bahwa breakfast on pluto menawarkan suatu perbincangan identitas yang dinamis. identitas menjadi suatu proses yang akan terus terjadi selama manusia masih hidup. kata kunci: dinamika gender, identitas gender, perubahan gender 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 37-46 introduction in western fictions, one of the earliest works of literature that touched the issue of transgender is orlando (1928) written by virginia woolf. in orlando, woolf wrote about an english gentleman living in elizabethan era who changes his gender identity. there are many other novels that deal with the similar issue, such as myra breckinridge (1968) by gore vidal and the well of loneliness (1928) by radclyffe hall. one contemporary novel that discusses transgender issues is breakfast on pluto (1998) by patrick mccabe. mccabe is currently known as one of the best irish authors. he was born on april 27th, 1955 in clones, ireland, and has published several novels, namely the butcher boy (1992) and winterwood (2006). one of the significant traits in mccabe’s novels is that the characters come from the marginalized group in society, and in breakfast on pluto, the marginalized protagonist is patrick braden, a transgender. the writer uses the word “ transgender” and not “transsexual” because patrick does not do the operation that concerns to gender transformation. patrick braden is a young man growing up in an irish small town named tyreelin. he was born from the forbidden relationship between father bernard, a catholic priest, and his house maid. considered as a disgrace, patrick is then sent to a house owned by braden family. since he’s still a teenager, he already tries to transform his gender identity by applying several ways. after moving to london to find his mother, patrick then changes his name to ‘pussy’ and becomes high class ‘female’ prostitute. compared with other narratives that talk about transgender lives, breakfast on pluto has its own uniqueness either in structural or in intrinsic aspects. from structural aspect, this booker prizenominated book combines a form of novel and the writing of patrick braden himself. patrick’s writing is an autobiography that he writes after a suggestion from a psychiatrist named dr. terrence. intrinsicwise, the most significant element of this novel is the characterization of patrick braden. instead of being gloomy, patrick tends to handle his identity conflict with such a relaxed and happy-go-lucky attitude. however, does patrick’s gender identity transformation run smoothly? is there any barrier that he has to face in his transformation? then, how does patrick manage the barrier? by studying the characters, characterization and the relations between characters, i am going to answer those research questions above in this paper. the purpose of this research is to analyze the gender identity transformation done by patrick in the midst of society that still rigidly holds the traditional concept of masculinity and femininity. after that, this paper is also going to see the identity discourse offered by breakfast on pluto. stuart hall’s concept about identity will be used to help me answer the problems. according to hall, identity is a fluid construction, not only a process of being but also becoming. therefore, identity is a neverending process in human’s life, depending on social condition, space, place, time and other cultural aspects (rutherford, 1990: 225). identity also means how people position themselves and how they are positioned by other people. in other words, identity is a matter of position, not essence, and this position is influenced by internal factors (subjectivity) and external factors, such as socio-cultural interaction with other people. methods the research used library research to analyze gender identity and gender dynamic that concerned to the main character of the novel, patrick mccabe. the dynamic identity: ….. (paramita ayuningtyas) 39 analysis there are some obstacles in gender identity transformation as the following discussions. other people’s judgment as written by ann oakley, gender is a psychological and cultural term (in prabasmoro, 2006:5). gender is a social construction that is built based on sexual differences. the word ‘social’ in the definition means that gender is not fixed and essential, but it is shaped by the society. consequently, the concept of gender will be very various, depending on every social community, including tyreelin social community where patrick grows up and lives. breakfast on pluto is set in tyreelin in the decades of 60’s and 70’s. tyreelin is a small town located in the southern of irish border. generally, it can be concluded that tyreelin citizens are still obedient to traditional values because they still go to the church every sunday. another example of this submission is nolan family who still enjoy their cup of tea together: the nolan family of no. 39, the square, tyreelin, are at the table having tea and not watching telly at all (p. 156, underlined by me). in matters of gender and sexuality, the tyreelin people still grasp this traditional patriarchal value: men should be masculine while women should be feminine. the concept of masculinity in tyreelin community can be studied in its relation with irish conflict at that time. during patrick’s teenage years, tyreelin also suffers the impact from irish political conflict: ... and no matter where you went in tyreelin, everyone was waving a tricoloured flag or singing an irish ballad (p. 18). all men involved in the conflict between ira and england, for instance patrick’s childhood friend, irwin, are described as macho and tough guys. irwin is considered as ‘a real soldier’ because he bravely states his opposition to english government in public. (peter & fry, 1988 p.304). wars represent aggressiveness, and aggresiveness is labeled as masculine. on the other side, patrick does not care at all with the political conflict. this attitude of patrick strengthens the opposition between masculine men (ira and irwin) and effeminate men (patrick). as said by irwin, ira will not give a care to effeminate/weak men like patrick: ‘the provisional ira have a lot more to do than be bothered with dying-looking bastards the likes of you, braden!’ (p. 21). meanwhile, according to patrick, they who get involved in the war are ‘those who shall never know the pleasure to be gleaned from prettying one’s hair or making up one’s eyes’ (p. 38). in his perspective, ira are those guys who do not know the bliss of dressing up and putting the make-up on. in other words, they are masculine guys because wearing make-up is not an element of masculinity. in this context, ira can be read as a representation of masculinity. in developing his feminine side, patrick puts some popular culture actresses that he sees on television as his feminine role models. growing up without his real parents, patrick cannot find any role model in helping him form his gender identity. (lauer & lauer, 2008). after patrick is born, patrick’s mother, eily, puts him in braden family’s house and goes to london. while patrick’s father, father bernard, never takes care of patrick since patrick’s existence will ruin his good image as a catholic priest, who is supposed to live chastely. patrick’s relationship with his step mother, whisker, cannot be categorized as a healthy one either. in his writings, patrick never calls whisker mom, and he thinks that whiskers wants to take care of him because she is paid by father bernard, not because of love and pity. besides never getting a visit from his father, patrick also cannot find a male figure in braden’s family because whiskers braden never has a husband, even though she has several children. traditionally, braden family is not a complete family. in the aspect of gender identity role model, patrick does not find his role model in his family environment. 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 37-46 in the end, patrick acquires his role models in mass media, in forms of female singers and actresses. in chapter 3, patrick imagines himself dancing with an actor named efrem zimbalist junior: ... saying: ‘hello, patricia!’ into the mirror and pretending i was dancing with efrem zimbalist junior! (p. 12). from the name patricia, it can be concluded that in his mind, he imagines himself as a woman. instead of identifying himself with efrem zimbalist junior, he chooses more to be patricia. it is clearly seen in which position he puts himself in the relationship of men and women. the female singers and actresses become significant figures for patrick in finding a gender identity that suit his subjectivity: it was pointless explaining to them that i wasn’t all that interested in sex and that all i wanted was for lorne or efrem to say to me: you see this spread? it’s all yours. your name’s going on the door, patrick! it’s all yours from now on! (p. 14). for patrick, instead of sex, his wish to be a famous actress is the main reason why he wants to become a woman. from that particular wish, patrick starts to dress glamorously like dusty springfield, a 60’s female singer idolized by drag queens, and lulu, another 60”s british female singer. schrock et.al. interviewed a number of transsexual people and found that in changing their gender identity, these people need ‘role models’ that represent femininity (2005: 322). in the process of training their body to look more feminine, the transsexual people copy women around them or see the women in mass media. same as these interviewed transsexual, patrick forms his woman identity by searching for feminine figures. the fixed gender concept of masculinity/femininity is one obstacle for patrick in forming his new gender identity. tyreelin people who hold on to that fixed concept see the feminine patrick as a kind of abnormality, placed outside the ‘supposed’ gender order. this perspective appears in the attitude of minor characters such as bar customers and charlie’s mother, in which charlie is patrick’s childhood friend. the wholeness of patrick’s gender identity is assessed, questioned and then denied by them. for instance, in chapter ten, patrick goes to a bar in tyreelin with charlie and irwin. at that moment, patrick has started to dress femininely. his unusual appearance amazes the other customers: at which i was definitely now becoming adept, disporting myself in glam-rock satin jackets and unspectacular denim (ugh!) jeans but still attracting attention. effortlessly gathering compliments: ‘look at him! he’s wearing women’s’ clothes!’, ‘jesus! look at that!’ and other assorted idiocies! (p. 38) even though patrick himself admits that what he wears tonight is not attractive (unspectacular denim), his whole appearance still attracts other people’s attention (the word still is even in italic). with their rigid gender concept, tyreelin people still see patrick’s femininity as strangeness. however, patrick does not really care about other people’s comments. he considers those opinions as stupid things. the negative opinion from tyreelin people does not make patrick feel cornered, yet at one point someone’s judgment makes him nervous. when he comes home from london, in which he works as a bar singer, patrick pays a visit to charlie’s house. charlie’s mother is surprised to see patrick’s feminine looks: you should have seen the face of her mother when we went down looking for her belongings. she turned as white as a ghost when she saw me and backed off as if i was going to assault her or something. ‘is that you, patrick?’ she said. ‘patrick braden?’ and when i said yes, dropped her voice and said, shakily, but still looking up and down: ‘i’ll get them for you’ i just stood there on the doorstep, adjusting my skirt and twisting buttons on my blouse, waiting for her to invite me in – which she didn’t! (p. 185). charlie’s mother is shocked (turned as white as a ghost) when he sees patrick wearing a skirt and a blouse. she even steps back, as if patrick is a terrifying creature ready ‘to assault her or something’. she is also no longer friendly to patrick by not inviting him to come in. this attitude the dynamic identity: ….. (paramita ayuningtyas) 41 causes patrick to feel uncomfortable, as shown by actions like adjusting the skirt and twisting the buttons. patrick’s nervousness shows that although at first he does not give a care to other people’s opinion, charlie’s mother’s judgment – someone that he has known since his childhood – starts to shake the gender identity constructed by him. the identity of mother and patrick’s male body bodies are human beings’ given condition which is not easy to modify. in its relation with identity issues, bodies are visible identity signifiers. for example, someone with a penis will be identified as a male; while someone with a vagina will be a labeled as a female. how does that fact affect patrick’s identity transformation? in the next sub-chapter, i will analyze how patrick’s male body limits his desirable gender transformation. not only being a woman in terms of appearance, patrick also wants to become a mother. in chapter eleven, the teenage patrick explicitly says that he wants to have a vagina so he can have his own children: ... thinking to myself how if i did somehow manage to get a vagina, one thing i was certain of, and i didn’t care even who it was with, was that i wanted at least ten of family (p. 40). that quotation indicates that patrick has a desire to be a biological mother. patrick’s desire to be a mother roots in a psycho-social matter, his deep longing to meet his real mother. dr. terrence reveals that reason from psychological point of view: ‘i think the truth is, patrick,‘ i can hear him saying, ‘is that maybe you always secretly wanted to become her. eily. .. ‘(p. 94). overtly, dr. terrence says that patrick wants to be a mammy-like figure. after giving birth to patrick, mammy (as patrick usually calls his mother) goes to london and gives his son to braden family. she never appears in patrick’s life. meanwhile, patrick never considers whiskers as an ideal mother because she raises him only for financial reasons. with an intention not to follow mammy’s and whiskers’ step, patrick is eager to be a good mother for his children. to him, a mother has the responsibility to take care of her children: i just genuinely felt that if you bring someone into this world then it is your responsibility to care for and look after them! and if you don’t, then you are wrong and i don’t care who you are (p. 101). in that quotation, patrick believes that what mammy does, which is leaving him, actually should not have been done. learning from two mother figures in his life, patrick tries to be an ideal mother, the one who is always there for her children. therefore, patrick’s wish to acquire the mother identity negates the essentialism concept that maternal characteristics exist naturally in women. through patrick, it can be concluded that maternal characteristics are shaped by matters of subjectivity and psycho-social condition. in line with his wish to be a mother, patrick wants to have a true female body, as signified by a vagina. this craving for female’s sexual organ is supported by his opinion about sperm: i think it was because it seemed so ridiculous that such a miniscule amount of liquid could cause so much heartache (p. 107). after knowing his own mother’s experience and also martina sheridan’s experience, patrick thinks that men – represented by sperm – often bring heartache to women. in this case, sperm symbolizes men’s superiority over women since either mammy or martina is helpless after being pregnant. nevertheless, patrick who is biologically male still chooses to have a female sexual organ. however, it is impossible for patrick to fully construct this mother identity. born as a male, patrick’s own body restricts that desire. his body does not have the capacity to be pregnant and to deliver a baby. a vagina and also a womb belong to females, and the originality of female bodies (male bodies as well) are not easily copied. this time, patrick’s subjectivity is not in agreement with his body because patrick’s male body builds a barrier for his gender identity transformation. 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 37-46 strategies for gender identity transformation the gender identity transformations happened in the novel which covers gender and sexual deconstruction, women decoration and narrative strategy are as follows. gender and sexual identity deconstruction although facing several obstacles in changing his gender identity, patrick finally has his own strategies in dealing with the obstacles. one of his strategies is gender identity deconstruction. by having a feminine appearance, patrick has bravely opposed the rigid gender values held by tyreelin people. not only that, patrick also deconstructs the concepts of masculinity and femininity by tearing down the feminine stereotypes in the society and in the end, he does not care anymore about gender and sexual boundaries. in patriarchal way of thinking, women are often stereotyped as inferior and weak creatures in every field of life. however, to patrick, being a woman does not necessarily mean he will accept any stereotype about women. he has his own perception about what kind of woman identity that he pursues, a woman free from any kind of oppression. when his boyfriend, eamon, calls patrick by ‘brasser’, patrick feels insulted: it simply shall not be tolerated! (p. 35). to him, the nickname refers to a common dublin housewife: what am i then, darling? a dublin fishwife in tattered nylons, holding up a doorway with a fag-end on her lip? (ibid). the quotation above also indicates how he positions himself as a woman. he does not want to be an ordinary working class housewife because, as previously told, he wants to be a famous actress. being an actress here signifies that he also wants to acquire power, either money or admiration from his fans. patrick believes that femininity does not denotate weakness. stuart hall mentions in rutherford (1990: 225) that identity is a becoming process that always happens, depending on social and cultural condition, time and place etc. patrick’s encounter with various people and various social conditions then shows his dynamic identity. moreover, he also pays no heed to gender and sexual boundaries. patrick often states that he is longing to have a masculine man next to him: rock solid handsome man, mysterious kind she liked. who would bassvoiced coo: ‘i love you!’ and make her stomach gurgle till she’d swoon (p. 2). he then dates several guys by positioning himself as a woman. yet the text also points that patrick also enjoys physical contacts with women. for example, patrick once makes out with charlie, his friend: yummy breasts of all time as little tongue goes travelling down to belly-town! and other secret places! ... but charlie – with her it was so close to exultation, one almost didn’t want to go (p. 54). the word ‘exultation’ in the quotation shows how patrick really enjoys that moment. the existence of louise, the landlady, also causes ambiguity in patrick’s sexual identity. on one side, when being with his boyfriend bert, patrick fully dresses as a woman. on the other hand, he also shows no objection when louise dresses him as a masculine man. furthermore, patrick also has some sexual intercourses with louise and takes pleasure from it: after a while i started to like it (p. 91). he does not seem confused with his fast-changing gender identity. he consciously plays the role as a man in front of louise. the interesting thing is he asks some ‘payment’ from louise: louise as part of the bargain had been doing my hair so beautifully – with pins and clips and slides, not to mention providing me with creams and lotions for your skin that you would absolutely die for ... (p. 92). it can be seen here how patrick treats gender identity as a game, in terms of his relationship with louise. by entertaining louise as a man, he can satisfy his needs to look more feminine by undergoing hair and body treatment. the dynamic identity: ….. (paramita ayuningtyas) 43 body decoration to be a woman according to judith butler (1990: 25), ‘gender is always a doing’. masculinity and femininity are determined by actions, including how someone changes his/her bodily appearance. in breakfast on pluto, patrick’s body is an important medium for his identity transformation. even though his male body restricts his wish to be a mother, patrick does not stop his project to be a woman. by decorating his body, he tries to strengthen his female subjectivity. makeup is one effort to make patrick’s body look more feminine. since his teenage years, he already find happiness through makeup: none of which i was aware of, of course, being much too busy dabbing on whiskers’ lipstick (cutex coral pink, would you believe!) and saying: ‘hello, patricia!’ into the mirror and pretending i was dancing with efrem zimbalist junior! (p. 12). he even once tries to steal makeup from a store, as shown by irwin’s words: ‘you’re out of your mind!’ irwin said. ‘breaking into shops to steal cosmetics! you’re a head-the-ball, braden!’(p. 20). in irwin’s opinion, what patrick does is a crazy action; especially because he is a man who is not supposed to wear makeup. however, patrick’s action indicates how strong his effort to change his gender identity he even dares to commit a crime. patrick also writes in details what are the makeup and body treatment he applies: ... my arms i filled with max factor, johnson’s baby oil, blinkers eye-shadow, oil of ulay, silvikrin alpine herb shampoo, eau de toilette, body moisturizers, body washes, cleansing milks, st laurent eye and lip make-up, noxene skin cream and cover girl professional mascara (p. 35-36). to him, to be real woman means he has to put makeup on and treats his body with moisturizer. with so many kinds of makeup and body treatment, it can be seen how strong his effort to be a true woman is: an effort to cover his male face and body. another body decoration that patrick applies is the way he dresses. schrock et.al (2005) write that ‘[c]lothing is more than a gendered text; it helps transform the physical body into a gendered vessel’. clothes are gender identity signifiers because clothes are divided into menswear and womenswear according to the colour and the pattern. a man must wear male’s clothes, and a woman must wear female’s clothes. in this modern era, it is common to see women wearing trousers who used to be male’s clothes only. however, in many cultures skirts and dresses are still for women only so if a man wears it, he will be considered abnormal. for patrick, clothes are vital tools in changing his gender identity. he even carefully chooses the clothes he is going to wear. treating female actresses as feminine figures, patrick picks out glamorous clothes, such as feather boa and luxurious velvet dresses. when shopping with charlie, patrick buys a lot of female’s clothes: knitted tops in white, purple, lavender, blazing orange, stanistripe velveteen pants, turtle-necked leotards, flouncing skirts, ribbed stretch-nylon tights (p. 36). inspired by those actresses, patrick starts to dress glamorously. this hyper-feminine appearance helps him in changing his male body into a female one. while these next quotations demonstrate how patrick pays attention to the small details to what he wears: ... hipster trousers suits she slipped, blouson tops and milkmaid maxis (p. 131). including an explosion of white fur with the shortest black dress ever – not to mention the fabbest chanel-y suit, saxone shoes and a delicious white satin skirt! (p. 134) ... i was wearing only a simple brown suede skirt, black ribbed tights and a pink, lambswool cardigan with some flowers on the front (p.190). 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 37-46 the detailed descriptions about clothes, like the use of layered adjectives, imply how obsessed patrick is in decorating his male body to look like a female body. just like when he steals some makeup from a store, patrick also steals his neighbour’s clothes to fulfill his wish to look like a woman. although he says that his neighbour’s clothes are ugly (i mean can you imagine what i looked like in those voluminous monstrosities!), patrick still steals from his neighbour’s laundry. the reason why he steals is because he is not allowed anymore to touch his stepsisters’ clothes, so the easiest way to get female’s clothes is to steal. next, the biggest reason is that he wants to look like female actresses that he sees in television: but i was so frustrated – dying to dance with efrem so much that i couldn’t get it out of my mind! (ibid). the words ‘frustrated’ and ‘dying’ here have strong connotations. again, the words highlight patrick’s strong desire to be a woman. patrick does pay a lot of attention to his outer-looks, even when a shooting just happens in tyreelin. while irwin is busy calming the shocked charlie, what patrick does is: … i sat with them in the darkened square, shamefully not thinking about the dead victims or their relatives but what combination of my luscious goodies i should go and try on first! (p. 39). patrick’s attitude that focuses on appearance only is shown in chapter 38 as well when a london bar is just bombed. he worries more about ‘ her lovely ice-cream pink mohair’ and ‘gorgeous black pleated mini-skirt’, which is torn due to the explosion. he also gets panicky when his stocking is torn because he is afraid people might look at his hairy leg. with the help from clothes, patrick tries to conceal his male body. female subjectivity is embodied (in prabasmoro, 2006: 264); therefore it needs to be put in material forms. just like makeup, clothes are also important tools for patrick to decorate his body to look like a female one, and both things bring happiness to him. in this case, in the end corporeality connects with subjectivity to construct a complete self-identity. by decorating his body, patrick feels more complete as a ‘woman’. gender identity and narrative strategy after experiencing many incidents in london, including a bombing by ira in a bar, patrick’s mental condition turns unstable. consequently, he asks for a help from a psychiatrist named dr. terrence. in order to understand patrick’s psychological state more, dr. terrence requests patrick to write a kind of autobiography then entitled ‘the life and times of patrick braden’. hall states that identity is also a matter of self-representation (1996: 4). therefore, patrick’s autobiography can be seen as a tool for him to represent himself to the world. language becomes a way to construct the gender identity that he desires. based on that reason, this next sub-chapter will analyze how the structural aspects of patrick’s autobiography (such as pronouns and point of view) reflect patrick’s dynamic identity. in the first chapter of breakfast on pluto, mccabe refers to patrick with the word ‘girl’, as seen in the chapter title ‘i was a high class escort girl’. this chapter introduces the protagonist character, and mccabe takes the readers to think that the narrator ‘i’ in this chapter is a girl. however, as the story goes, patrick’s real sex is revealed. in novel-level, the story is seen from first person point of view with patrick as the narrator. when writing his autobiography, patrick often uses the pronoun ‘i’ as well. this gives a friendly tone is his writings. moreover, the pronoun ‘i’ underlines his awareness as a subject, instead of an object. as an example, in chapter 2 patrick uses the pronoun ‘i’ when he tells about an advice given by his teacher. fed up with patrick’s rebellious attitude, patrick’s teacher tells him to ‘try and stop this anti social behaviour’ then to ‘fit in’. in this chapter, the event is witnessed from first person point of view, as shown by the constants use of ‘i’. this signifies patrick’s effort to be an independent subject that cannot be controlled by the society. the dynamic identity: ….. (paramita ayuningtyas) 45 on the other hand, the use of ‘he’ and ‘she’ confirms what kind of gender identity that patrick wants in a certain context. when being with particular people, patrick wants to be seen as a woman. because of that, he uses the pronoun ‘she’, like when he is with bert: and now she sits there facing dearest berts! (p. 76). in a particular context, which is in front of the men that he loves, patrick positions himself as a woman. while the pronoun ‘he’ is rarely used by patrick. he uses ‘he’ only when he imagines a happy childhood that he never has: and patrick in his dreams, he thinks: ‘i am so happy, and i thank god for giving me this, but most especially for my mammy’ (p. 110). the masculine pronoun is employed by patrick to denote to himself in his imagination: the little patrick with a happy childhood. nevertheless, in the end patrick’s uses of pronoun cannot be classified rigidly because sometimes in one chapter, patrick uses several pronouns and points of view. in chapter 14, patrick uses three pronouns to refer to himself. in this chapter, patrick is going to leave tyreelin to go to london after the death of his first boyfriend, eamon faircroft. in the first paragraph, he uses the word ‘he’, as seen in this next excerpt: obviously he would never forget the man with whom he had spent such a short but beautiful time, occasionally, as he sat there on the summer seat ... (p. 52). he also calls himself as patrick pussy, the name that still has the masculine atmosphere. however, in the next paragraph, patrick refers to himself as ‘she’: ... fag –puffing workmen hammering planks across the door as puss she weepily waved goodbye (ibid). in the extract, patrick clearly positions himself as puss and uses the pronoun ‘she’. the quotation is taken from the scene when patrick decides to move to london to start a new life. at first he uses ‘he’, but then after that he uses ‘she’ to denote to pussy, his new identity. it can be read as a farewell to his previous identity, a young man named patrick braden, and a welcome to his new self, puss or pussy. yet in the last parts of chapter 14, the story is seen from the first person point of view. the shifting of pronouns and points of view shows how patrick’s dynamic identity cannot be limited by only one pronoun and point of view. not only pronouns, names are also proven to be a significant aspect in patrick’s gender transformation. names are the main signifier of someone’s identity, and there are cultural rules in naming someone. as written by prabasmoro in her essay ‘nama, menamai dan proses menjadi’, bodies should be named accurately according to the sex: feminine names for female bodies and masculine names for male bodies (2006: 70). patrick braden is the name given by whiskers braden, patrick’s step-mother. in irish society, patrick is a masculine name given to a boy. patrick is often called as paddy, and paddy is an irish name that represents irish men. in other words, it is a very masculine name. yet as his gender identity transformation goes on, patrick prefers to be called with another name: a name that reflects his desire to be a woman. patrick chooses the name pussy as his feminine name. the name comes up to him when he is drunk: by the time we got home – ten more harps on the bus – i was so tiddly that i just knew about my own name. ‘paddy pussy, dahling!’ i had decided to say to anyone who happened to cross my path (p. 39). this is the starting point of the name change. at first, he uses paddy pussy, the combination of masculine and feminine name. then, after fully ready to accept his transformation as a woman, he prefers to be called only pussy. the name pussy has the feminine atmosphere because it implies softness, often categorized as a feminine characteristic. moreover, the name pussy also has a sexual connotation that eventually shows what kind of gender and sexual identity wanted by patrick. according to encyclopedia britannica 2006, besides a cat, pussy also refers to female sexual organ, in particular vulva. pussy also means ‘the female partner in sexual intercourse’. the name pussy chosen by patrick brings the connotation that reduces women only as a sexual organ, and it can be read as a reflection of patrick’s strong desire to own a complete female body. 46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 37-46 conclusion identity concept by stuart hall has been used as a starting point to see the fluidity of identity. as long as people live, their identity will always be in movement. because gender is a social construction, it always has the potential to be deconstructed and reconstructed by people. through a young man named patrick braden, breakfast on pluto has shown the readers how gender identity is not a strong wall that cannot be torn down. in his effort to change his gender identity, patrick must face obstacles like people’s judgment and even his own male body. however, eventually it is his subjectivity that has the biggest role in determining his identity. in order to gain the identity as a woman, he employs several strategies, which are gender and sexual deconstruction, body decoration and narrative strategy. patrick has shown that he can freely and consciously become anybody that he wants to. gender and sexual differences in society do not obstruct his way. in fact, he enjoys the fluidity of his identity because he can gain benefits from it. in conclusion, my analysis on breakfast on pluto supports the concept that identity is a dynamic process, and as long as we live, we will always experience this process. references fry, p.s., & fry, f.s. (1988). a history of ireland. london: routledge. hall, s.(ed). 2003. representation: cultural representations and signifying practices. london: sage publications. hall, s.,& du gay paul (eds). (1996). questions of cultural identity. london: sage publications. mccabe, p.( 1998). breakfast on pluto. london and basingstoke: picador. prabasmoro, a. p. (2006). kajian budaya feminis: tubuh, sastra dan budaya pop. yogyakarta: jala sutra. rutherford, j. (ed). (1990). identity: community, culture, difference. london: lawrence and wishart. schrock, d., et.al. (2005), juni. ‘transsexuals’ embodiment of womanhood’, gender and society vol 19 no 3. london: sage publications. tong, r.p.(2006). feminist thought: pengantar paling komprehensif kepada arus utama pemikiran feminis, trans. aquarini priyatna prabasmoro. yogyakarta: jalasutra. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 77 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 77-82 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.4040 [woman]’s world portrayed in literary works of jane austen gusti ayu praminatih1; homsatun nafiah2 1,2master`s program in linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university jln. airlangga 4, surabaya 60258, indonesia 1gusti.ayu.praminatih_2016@fib.unair.ac.id; 2homsatun.nafiah_2016@fib.unair.ac.id received: 25th october 2017/ revised: 22nd november 2017/ accepted: 02nd december 2017 how to cite: praminatih, g. a., & nafiah, h. (2018). [woman]’s world portrayed in literary works of jane austen. lingua cultura, 12(1), 77-82. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.4040 abstract the aim of this research was investigating how jane austen portrayed [woman] in the18th century through literary works. six major novels were used as data. hence a qualitative method was employed. the novels were converted using antconc. then, were identified the 50 highest collocations of [woman] based on three main categories in part of speech namely adjective, noun, and verb. the results reveal that jane austen portrays [woman] in the 18th century with positive and negative aspects; internal and external qualities that reflected through adjectives. jane austen often uses concrete and abstract nouns related to domestic property collocated with the word [woman]. furthermore, the verbs that collocate with [woman] in jane austen’s literary works are productive verbs. the researchers find that the adjectives, nouns, and verbs that attach to [woman] in jane austen novels are related to the domestic sphere and their quality of being strong, logical, and intellectual. keywords: [woman]’s world, literary works, jane austen, stylistic, corpus linguistics introduction a corpus is the collection of both written and spoken texts that can be used to represent the language variety, consider the number of its connotations, machine-readable form, sampling and representativeness, finite size, and the idea (lüdeling & merja, 2009). the term for corpus linguistics refers to the study of language data on a large scale that employs computer in order to analyze extensive of transcribed utterances or written texts in the study of language; procedures and methods for studying language (mcenery & hardie, 2011). another definition of corpus linguistics comes from lindquist (2009) who explains corpus linguistics as a methodology and comprising a large number of related methods which can be used by scholars in much different theoretical learning. furthermore, biber (2011) also has a similar statement that corpus provides actual language use that can be employed as a device in conducting researches, one of them can be applied in the study of literature. it is a common practice that the students tend to rely on their intuition when it comes to criticizing the characters in literary works. the presence of corpus would be beneficial in assisting the students in the study of literary works especially the aspects that cannot be accomplished intuitively. mahlberg (2007) has revealed the use of corpus device to analyze a novel. the literary works that selected are charles dicken’s novels. the results show that clusters interpretation can be the indication of local textual functions. therefore, mahlberg (2007) has said that there are benefits in using corpus device in literary stylistic and criticism. the researchers are interested in employing corpus, particularly antconc ver.3.4.4w (anthony, 2014) in analyzing literary work. thus, the researchers chose jane austen. jane austen is widely known as one of the british prominent female novelists, and her novels are mostly discussed. thus, the researchers formulate a research question as follows; how is the [woman] in the 18th century portrayed through jane austen’s literary works. consequently, the aim of this research is investigating how the [woman] in the 18th century is portrayed by jane austen through literary works. the researchers expect the research contributes to literary field especially stylistics and the usage of corpus device. by employing corpus device, the results of how is the [woman] in the 18th century portrayed by jane austen through literary works will be easily retrieved through concordance. in order to do so, jane austen’s literary works are selected. the researchers select six major novels written by jane austen to be processed using antconc ver.3.4.4w. consequently, the researchers classify three main categories in part of speech namely adjective, noun, and verb that attach to the collocation of [woman]. fischer-starcke (2009) has analyzed the keywords and frequent phrases of jane austen’s pride and prejudice. as a result, fischer-starcke (2009) has found the patterns 78 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 77-82 of dominant keywords and the most frequent phrases such as mental concept and emotions, expressions of uncertainty, expressions describing communication, and negatively connoted words and their colligation with grammatical negations. furthermore, the research shows the family relationship that people in jane austen era often use their daughters to raise the social status through marriage. it also discusses how female characters of the novels are developed. the characters live under strong patriarchy situation yet they still appear as strong and independent women. thus, fischer-starcke (2009) has suggested using corpus stylistics as a potential device that can be employed in conducting literature research. mahlberg (2010) has analyzed the keywords in jane austen’s pride and prejudice by comparing the novel with 18 others novelists from the 19th century. the keywords are obtained by employing corpus wordsmith device. one of the keywords found in jane austen’s novel is the noun civility. mahlberg (2010) further explains that there are two options for analyzing the keywords. the first is by comparing the keyword civility in jane austen’s novel with the other 18 novelists. the second option is to link the analysis of civility on the body language in pride and prejudice. mahlberg’s (2010) research also suggests the benefit of a corpus in literary criticism. another research has been conducted by nolen & richardson (2016) that investigate citation analysis of landmark works in english literary studies. they examine jane austen’s persuasion because it is the most read novel in 2011 to 2013 in english department where the research is conducted. they employ mla international bibliography to find the citation pattern. the results indicate that there is no correlation between seminal and landmark works in literary scholarship. however, citations analysis is beneficial for identifying the pattern of use of literary scholarship. there are two differences between the current research and three related research. firstly, the difference is the data source of the research. fischer-starcke (2009), mahlberg (2010), nolen & richardson (2016) are concerned with only one of jane austen’s novels. on the other hand, the current research uses six novels of jane austen. therefore, the current research has larger size and composition of the corpus. secondly, the difference is the type of corpus device fische-starcke (2009) employs corpus stylistic, mahlberg (2010) employs wordsmith device, and nolen & richardson (2016) use mla international bibliography in order to process the data. in the current research, the researchers select antconc ver.3.4.4w (2014) to proceed the data. currently, in order to conduct the research, the researchers use some theories related to adjectives, nouns, and verbs classification. based on its definition, the noun is a word that refers to a person, (such as ann or doctor), a place (such as paris or city) or a thing, a quality or an activity (such as plant, sorrow or tennis) (oxford learners’ dictionaries, 2017). while verb is a word or group of words that expresses an action (such as eat), an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist) (oxford learners’ dictionaries, 2017). in addition, adjective is a word that describes a person or thing, for example big, red and clever in a big house, red wine and a clever idea (oxford learners’ dictionaries, 2017). adjectives can be categorized based on three semantic types of large adjective classes that are proposed by dixon (2009). the adjective classes are described as; (1) core semantic types, they are; dimension (big, small, long, etc), age (new, young, old, etc.), value (good, bad, lovely, etc.), and color (black, white, red, etc.). (2) peripheral semantic types, they are; physical property (hard, soft, heavy, etc.), human propensity (jealous, happy, kind), speed (fast, quick, slow, etc.). (3) semantic types in large adjective classes, they are; difficulty (easy, difficult, tough, etc.), similarity (like, unlike, similar, etc.), qualification (define, true, probable, etc), quantification (all, whole, many, some, etc.), position (high, low, near, etc.), cardinal numbers (first, last together with other ordinal numbers). the researchers employ delahunty and garvey’s (2010) theory to classify functional characteristics of a noun. the noun is divided into a modifier of other nouns and the head of a noun phrase. some functions traditionally associated with nouns (e.g., subject, direct and indirect object of clauses, an object of a preposition, subject and object complement) are the functions of noun phrases. they propose two classes of nouns; (1) concrete nouns name classes of physical things, e.g., floor, car, paper, etc. (2) abstract nouns refer to words that are not physical or things that existed only in minds, e.g., goodness, truth, reason, etc. additionally, the researchers also employ the theory from haspelmath and sims (2010), who divide three characterizations of each adjective, noun, and verb as; (1) in many languages, nouns have affixes indicating number (singular, plural, dual, etc.), case (nominative, accusative/ direct object, ergative/subject, dative/indirect object such as we, them, or dinner), possessor person/number (such as my, your, his, etc.), and definiteness. (2) verbs have affixes indicating tense (present, past, future), aspect (imperfective, perfective, progressive), mood (indicative, imperative, optative, subjective, etc.), polarity (affirmative, negative), valence-changing operations (passive causative), and the person/number of subject and object(s). (3) in a fair number of languages, adjectives have affixes indicating comparison (comparative degree, superlative degree, equative degree), and in a few languages, adjectives are inflected for agreement with the noun that is modified. methods there are five steps in conducting this research. firstly, six major novels in the form of pdf soft files entitled sense and sensibility (1811), pride and prejudice (1813), mansfield park (1814), emma (1816), northanger abbey (1817), and persuasion (1818) are selected considering their popularity. secondly, the files are then converted into the .txt format. thirdly, the .txt files are processed into antconc ver.3.4.4w by (1) clicking file and input the novels in .txt format, (2) applying 4l to 4r to the windows span, (3) choosing sort by frequency, (4) clicking advanced (checklist the option use search term(s) from list below, write the word ‘woman’ and its plural form ‘women’, henceforth ‘woman’ will be written in bracket [woman] and clicked apply), and (5) clicking start. it can be seen in figure 1. fourthly, the researchers select the highest 50 adjectives, 50 nouns, and 50 verbs that collocated with [woman]. the last step, the researchers click each word of adjectives, verbs, and nouns of [woman] to obtain the context or detail information. the researchers exclude the adjectives, verbs, and nouns that do not suit with the aim of the research. figure 2 shows the results of collates of [woman]. 79[woman]’s world portrayed .... (gusti ayu praminatih; homsatun nafiah) figure1 steps of advanced option of [woman] (source: antconc, advanced option of [woman]) figure 2 result of the collocates of [woman] (source: antconc, the collocates of [woman]) after obtaining the data, the researchers classify them based on three selected theories. the theory of semantic types of large adjective classes dixon (2009) is used to classify the adjectives. delahunty and garvey’s theory (2010) is used to classify the nouns, and haspelmath and sims’s theory (2010) is used to classify the verbs. results and discussions three main categories in part of speech are presented in this analysis. they are adjectives, nouns, and verbs that have a high frequency with the collocation of the word [woman] in jane austen’s novels. table 1 shows three semantic types of large adjective classes by dixon (2009). table 1 noun collocates of [woman] no. adjective dixon semantic category 1. young age 2. good value 3. pretty physical property 4. married human propensity 5. lovely value 6. little dimension 7. fine value 8. charming value 9. amiable value 10. sensible value 11. elegant value 12 better value 13. sure qualification 14. poor value 15. old age 16. kind human propensity 17. pleasing value 18. great human propensity 19 beautiful physical property 20. happy value 21. delightful value 22. clever value 23. capable human propensity 24. superior position 25. single human propensity 26. proud value 27. odd cardinal number 28 intelligent value 29 happiest human propensity 30. fortunate human propensity 31. excellent value 32. dear value 33. accomplished human propensity 34. able human propensity 35. worth value 36. worse value 37. warm value 38. wanted human propensity 39. valuable value 40. vain value 41. usual human propensity 42. unfortunate human propensity 43. true qualification 44. tall dimension 45. sweet human propensity 46. stupid value 47. strong physical property 48. silly value 49. rich value 50. respectable value total 50 50 (source: antconc, the noun collocates of [woman]) 80 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 77-82 in table 1, it demonstrates that the word “young” (rank 6) is the first adjective in top 50 adjectives of [woman] in jane austen’s novels that become the highest word in adjective categories. the word “respectable” (rank 271) becomes the last word in the adjective category. based on adjectives categories by dixon (2009), the data shows that 25 words belong to value category (good, lovely, charming, amiable, sensible, elegant, better, poor, pleasing, happy, delightful, clever, proud, intelligent, excellent, dear, worth, worse, warm, valuable, vain, stupid, silly, rich, and respectable); 13 words belong to human propensity category (married, kind, great, capable, single, happiest, fortunate, accomplished, able, wanted, usual, and unfortunate and sweet); 3 words include in physical property (pretty, beautiful, and strong); 2 words (young, and old) refer to age category; 2 words are in dimension category (little, and tall); 2 words are classified as qualification category (sure, and true); 1 word is in difficulty category (fine); 1 word is in position category (superior); and 1 word refers to cardinal category (odd). adjective classifications in jane austen’s novels also have categories that indicate [woman]’s social and marital status. the researchers classify them as; (1) adjectives of women marital status; married and single (human propensity), (2) positive adjectives of [woman]’s social status; capable, fortunate, accomplished, able (human propensity), superior (position), proud, worth, valuable, rich, respectable (value), (3) negative adjectives of [woman]’s social status; poor and vain (value), unfortunate (human propensity). in addition, adjective classifications in jane austen’s novels show that woman internal and external qualities. the researchers classify them as; (1) positive adjectives of [woman]’s internal quality; good, lovely, amiable, sensible, elegant, better, charming, pleasing, delightful, clever, intelligent, excellent, dear, worth, warm, silly (value); fine, sure, true (qualification); kind, great, happy, happiest, wanted, usual, sweet (human propensity); strong (physical property). (2) negative adjectives of [woman]’s internal quality; odd (cardinal); worse, stupid (value). (3) adjectives of [woman]’s external quality; young and old (age); pretty and beautiful (physical property); little (dimension); elegant (value); kind (human propensity); and tall (dimension). jane austen has successfully portrayed [woman] in her era through the adjectives of [woman] that are written in her literary works. jane austen depicts [woman] in the 18th century as an ideal housewife whose domain area is maintaining a home, and at the same time, they also appear with so many good qualities beyond the domestic sphere. table 2 shows noun classifications based on delahunty and garvey (2010). the total numbers of the classification are obtained by selecting top 50 frequencies of the word [woman] in jane austen’s novels. it can be divided into 20 concrete nouns and 30 abstract nouns. the word woman becomes the highest nominal word (rank 30) that is used in jane austen’s novels. the last word of the 50 highest nouns in jane austen’s novels is the word marriage (rank 303). the 20 words that classified as concrete nouns are woman, world, man, men, lady, slave, writing, room, house, home, heart, friend, face, word, son, society, sis, mother, model, and mistress. there are 11 words that belong to noun person/living creatures such as woman, man, men, lady, slave, friend, son, society, sis, mother, and mistress. 9 words refer to noun things/other categories; they are world, writing, room, house, home, heart, face, word, and model. most of the words have positive meaning except slave. the abstract nouns of [woman] consists of 30 words; love, fortune, miss, wish, thought, mrs, understanding, time, sense, nature, feelings, character, board, meaning, manners, idea, friendship, duty, comfort, travelling, thinking, style, sound, shame, rank, pretensions, present, pity, opinion, and marriage. the verbs collocated with the word [woman] are listed based on haspelmath and sims (2010) theory. table 3 shows three parts of tense are shown in these categories (present, past, progressive). table 2 noun collocates of [woman] no. concrete abstract 1. woman love 2. world fortune 3. man miss 4. men wish 5. lady thought 6. slave mrs 7. writing understanding 8. room time 9. house sense 10. home nature 11. heart feelings 12. friend character 13. face board 14. word meaning 15. son manners 16. society idea 17. sis friendship 18. mother duty 19. model comfort 20. mistress travelling 21. thinking 22. style 23. sound 24. shame 25. rank 26. pretensions 27. present 28. pity 29. opinion 30. marriage total 20 30 (source: antconc, the noun collocates of [woman]) table 3 verb collocates of [woman] no. present part progressive 1. like married looking 2. do thought marrying 3. love saw wishing 4. marry said 5. make loved 6. know did 7. wish used 8. think seen 81[woman]’s world portrayed .... (gusti ayu praminatih; homsatun nafiah) 9. sort met 10. see knew 11. reigns accomplished 12. loves wanted 13. believe thrown 14. talk opened 15. say made 16. mean grown 17. give felt 18. find 19. want 20. hear 21. feel 22. comprehend 23. wonder 24. seems 25. refuse 26. plays 27. looks 28. knows 29. imagine 30. happen total 30 17 3 (source: antconc, the verb collocates of [woman]) the verbs consist of 30 words of the present tense, 17 words of past tense, and three words of progressive tense. the verb married is the highest with the rank 54. the lowest position is verbs engaged with the rank 336. there are 30 words that show present tense that formulated into plural subject (women, they, we, etc.) or personal subject (i) such as like, do, love, marry, make, know, wish, think, sort, see, believe, talk, say, mean, give, find, want, hear, feel, comprehend, wonder, refuse, imagine, and happen, and single subject (woman, she, he, it, or personal names), such as reigns, loves, seems, plays, looks, and knows. furthermore, 18 words are categorized in past tense forms; married, thought, saw, said, loved, did, used, seen, met, knew, accomplished, wanted, thrown, opened, made, grown, felt, and engaged. in the last tense category, there are three words that refer to progressive tense, such as looking, marrying, and wishing. the researchers also classified the verbs into three categories; transitive verb, intransitive verb, and transitive and intransitive verb. transitive verb consists of 16 verbs that need an object such as love, loves, loved, like, said, say, felt, mean, make, used, accomplished, made, believe, want, wanted, and imagine. intransitive verb consists of 5 words in top 50 verbs that do not need an object such as looking, talk, looks, wonder, and happen. transitive and intransitive verb consists of 29 verbs that include in this category such as married, marry, marrying, see, saw, seen, met, hear, feel, know, thought, think, comprehend, knew, knows, do, sort, reigns, give, find, did, thrown, seems, refuse, plays, opened, grown, wish, and wishing. those three verb categories show that transitive and intransitive verb are frequent verb categories used in jane austen’s novels that is followed by the transitive verb and intransitive verb. most of the verbs in jane austen’s novels describe how [woman] typically behave and how they spend their daily life in the 18th century in england. the words such as love, loves, loved, marry, married, and marrying represent [woman] expectations to love and be loved in return and also getting married to someone. the words make, made, accomplished, thought, think, comprehend, knew, knows, do, did, grown are pointed as productive verbs that indicate how typically british women must behave in the 18th century. conclusions based on adjective classifications, [woman] in jane austen novels are portrayed based on their (1) marital status; married and single (human propensity), (2) positive aspects of [woman]’s social status, such as capable, fortunate, accomplished, able (human propensity); superior (position); proud, worth, valuable, rich, respectable (value), (3) negative aspects of [woman]’s social status, such as poor and vain (value); unfortunate (human propensity). the adjective classifications in jane austen’s novels also show [woman]’s internal and external qualities. they are (1) positive aspects of [woman]’s internal quality; good, lovely, amiable, sensible, elegant, better, charming, pleasing, delightful, clever, intelligent, excellent, dear, worth, warm, silly (value); fine, sure, true (qualification); kind, great, happy, happiest, wanted, usual, sweet (human propensity); strong (physical property). (2) negative aspects of [woman] internal quality; odd (cardinal); worse, stupid (value). (3) aspects of woman external quality; young and old (age); pretty and beautiful (physical property); little (dimension); elegant (value); kind (human propensity); and tall (dimension). based on noun classifications, there are 20 words that classify as concrete nouns such as woman, world, man, men, lady, slave, writing, room, house, home, heart, friend, face, word, son, society, sis, mother, model, and mistress. 11 words belong to noun person/living creatures such as woman, man, men, lady, slave, friend, son, society, sis, mother, and mistress. nine words refer to noun things/ other categories; world, writing, room, house, home, heart, face, word, and model. most of the words have positive meaning except slave. the abstract nouns of [woman] consist of 30 words; love, fortune, miss, wish, thought, mrs, understanding, time, sense, nature, feelings, character, board, meaning, manners, idea, friendship, duty, comfort, travelling, thinking, style, sound, shame, rank, pretensions, present, pity, opinion, and marriage. based on verbs classifications, the researchers identify that there are 30 verbs in the form of present tense that formulate into plural subject (women, they, we, etc). or personal subject (i), such as like, do, love, marry, make, know, wish, think, sort, see, believe, talk, say, mean, give, find, want, hear, feel, comprehend, wonder, refuse, imagine, and happen, and single subject (woman, she, he, it, or personal names), such as reigns, loves, seems, plays, looks, and knows.there are 17 verbs in the form of past tenses married, thought, saw, said, loved, did, used, seen, met, knew, accomplished, wanted, thrown, opened, made, grown, felt, and engaged. and there are 3 verbs in the form of progressive tenses such as looking, marrying, and wishing. the researchers also categorize the verbs into 16 transitive verbs consisting of 16 verbs that need an object such as love, loves, loved, like, said, say, felt, mean, make, used, accomplished, made, believe, want, wanted, and imagine. intransitive verbs consist of the highest five 82 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 77-82 frequency of words that do not need an object such as looking, talk, looks, wonder, and happen. transitive and intransitive verbs consist of 29 verbs such as married, marry, marrying, see, saw, seen, met, hear, feel, know, thought, think, comprehend, knew, knows, do, sort, reigns, give, find, did, thrown, seems, refuse, plays, opened, grown, wish, and wishing. the researchers conclude that the adjectives, nouns, and verbs that attach to word [woman] in jane austen novels are closely related to the domestic sphere and their quality of being strong, logical, and intellectual. eventually, based on the corpus data and the three types of part of speech analysis, the researchers conclude that [woman] in jane austen literary works had both qualities of being an ideal [woman] in the 18th century, at the same time [woman] appear to be strong, logical and intellectual. references anthony, l. 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(2017). adjective. retrieved from http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ definition/english/adjective?q=adjective microsoft word 09 mo qi zhang yingfang_setting the way of narrative ….. (mo qi; zhang yingfang) 73 长篇小说《秦腔》叙述手法论 the way of narrative on the novel qinqiang mo qi(默崎); zhang yingfang(张英芳) 陕西师范大学文学院中国现当代文学博士) college of chinese language and literature, shannxi normal university, xi'an,china) moyida@126.com, 1269268738@qq.com abstract jiapingao’s novel qinqiang is paid attention to by some experts recently because of the way of narrative. it is made up by 3 parts: primitive and life-streaming composition;the way of separated-perspective, the moving perspective,imagism;the development of narrative perspective.all these make jia’s novel more perfect and unique. the way to study the novel is to use narrative theories, cultural analysis and close reading.in a word,jia’s ways of narrretive in his novel qinqiang has been in a new highland in china. keywords: jiapingao, qinqiang, the way of narrative 内容提要 贾平凹的长篇小说《秦腔》在评论界引起注目的原因之一即是它的叙述手法。其特点是: 原生态、生活流的铺陈呈现;散点透视的运用;意象主义的沿续;叙述视角的灵动与创新。这 使其小说作为一种有意味的形式而更加圆润、成熟,逐渐形成贾氏长篇小说创作的独特风格。 关键词:贾平凹, 秦腔, 叙述手法 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 73-79 前言 自 2005 年长篇小说《秦腔》问世以来,中国内地文坛反应热烈,作家贾平凹以此于 2008 年获得中国长篇小说最高荣誉——茅盾文学奖。该小说通过对中国西部农村某地清风街近一年 的生活呈现式的描写,再现了近年来中国内地农村生活的急剧变化,在对社会巨变的描摹中折 射了传统文化与现代文化在中华大地的剧烈碰撞。这部作品延续了贾平凹二十多年来一贯坚持 的文化批判视角,也向世人展示了贾平凹的文化心态:面对社会的激变,他心中充满矛盾,主 观情感上对传统文化即将消亡的惋惜与眷念,对现代性文化到来的无奈;客观理性上对旧文化 糟粕的批判,对现代化的接受。作品在保持了《废都》以来一贯的原生态、生活流、意象主义 的同时,在叙述视角的转换上也具有新的开拓。这使《秦腔》的创作达到了中国长篇小说创作 的新高度。 原生态、生活流的铺陈呈现 在一个文化多元、社会快速发展的时代,读者早已厌倦了作家们絮聒不止的“启蒙”教导, 也不满那些虚假僵硬、过分程式化的现实主义创作。从上世纪 90 年代起,贾平凹就尝试用“蹲 下”、“真诚”与读者平等地交流的方式,与读者聊天,“跟家人和亲朋好友说话,不需要任何技 巧了,平平常常只是真,而在这平平常常只是真的说话的晚上,我们可以说的很久,开始的时 候或许在说米面,天亮之前说话该结束了,或许已说到了二爷的那个毡帽。过后想一想怎么米 面就说成了二爷的毡帽?这其中是怎样过渡和转换的?一切都是自自然然过来的呀!”⑴正是在 这种看似随意、自然的叙述中,蕴藏着作者对生活和生命不尽的情感,以及其对文学创作的独 特的态度。如同 1993 年出版的《废都》,《秦腔》偌大的一部作品,竟然没有任何章节,而基本 上是“无序而来,苍茫而去,汤汤水水而又黏黏糊糊”⑵,这使作品更易形成一种团块式结构, 各种意象密切交织,以达到从形式上就能表现生活的混沌状态的程度,形成与平淡生活同构化 的特点。 《秦腔》这部四十万字的长篇巨著,故事发生的时间跨度将近一年,而其中既没有中心人 物,也没有严格的故事线索,仅仅是如流水帐一样记述清风街的“鸡零狗碎的泼烦日子”。⑶作 家写下此书,是要给自己的老家棣花街“树起一块碑子”。⑷很显然,阅毕作品,我们能深切感 受到作家对故乡——也是对整个中国农村——现状复杂的情感态度。面对中国农村快速巨大的 发展,随之而来的是现代与传统两种文化的激烈冲撞,传统文化面临着全线溃败的危险。理智 与情感的矛盾使得作家更迷茫甚至惶惑不安。作家反对简化生存难题,反对独断论思维,他不 敢也不能做这场战争的裁判。在痛苦的纠缠中,作家贾平凹老老实实地用笔来呈现出清风街— —这个缩小的中国农村——上生活本然的混沌、平淡中蕴藏的激烈冲突,把自己的主观评价隐 藏在作品深处。正如冯有源所说:“纵观平凹自己的小说,确是隐蔽了他的倾向性和见解的。他 对人生的感悟、对生活的看法,不是作者直接跳出来说教,或是冒昧地打岔,他才不这样煞风 景的。他总是用情节、人物,或人物的语言、行动、心理活动来表现”。⑸我们知道,贾平凹不 是一个小说创作的“形式主义”的狂热追求者——为形式而形式,重形式而轻内容——在这里, 《秦腔》以原生态的取材方式,以散点透视的手法来展现生活的复杂与浑莽,这是作家为表达 自己惶惑的内心而采取的最恰当的表现形式。 the way of narrative ….. (mo qi; zhang yingfang) 75 正是对典型的现实主义文学叙事的颠覆,对以往有关情节、人物概念的消解,使《秦腔》 的创作达到了新的高度,其内容与形式得到了较为完美的统一。然而,正如列宁所言,真理再 前进一小步,就是错误。针对《秦腔》的生活流、原生态的叙事,也有一些人表示质疑,中国 读者向来的阅读习惯是重情节、重人物的,而《秦腔》把这两项抽取了一大部分,这势必会影 响普通读者的阅读兴趣。诚如作家所担心的“在时尚于理念写作的今天,时尚于家族史诗写作 的今天,我把浓茶倒在宜兴瓷碗里会不会被人看作清水呢?穿一件土布袄去吃宴席会不会被耻 笑为贫穷呢?”⑹大量的生活细节的罗列、点染,而没有一个贯穿的情节主线,有时也会很容 易滑到生涩枯燥的境地。贾平凹经过了几十年的艰难探索,经历了对社会生活的表现——再现 ——呈现的三个层面的转变,终于成功地找到了一双与其内容相得益彰的小说形式。在对社会 生活的原生态的不动声色的呈现之中,以生活流的记录,表现作家自己对丰富、复杂的社会生 活的言说。 散点透视、移步换景的运用 自长篇小说《浮躁》以后,贾平凹在国内外文坛上迅速崛起,台湾作家三毛在给贾平凹的信中 都表示出对此作品的欣赏,“‘天狗’与‘浮躁’可是反反覆覆,也看了快二十遍以上”,称他为“大 师级”的作家⑺。然而,作家在序言中写到:“我再也不可能还要以这种框架来构写我的作品了。换 句话说,这种流行的似乎严格的写实方法对我来讲将有些不那么适宜,甚至大有了那么一种束缚”。 ⑻读者看来是成功的作品,作家却以其敏锐的感觉、超前的意识,不再简单的满足于称誉之辞,而 是在创作的痛苦中感觉到此种流行的创作方法对自己性情及审美趣好的压抑。故而作家把它看作“我 必要先踏着别人的路子走”以“修我的性和练我的笔”。⑼作家自身在寻求新的超越,寻求对自己以 往成功的突破。“中西文化深层结构都在发生着各自的裂变,怎样写这个令人振奋又令人痛苦的裂变 过程,我觉得其中极有魅力,尤其作为中国的作家怎样把握自己民族文化的裂变,又如何在形式上 不以西方人的那种焦点透视办法而运用中国画的散点透视法来进行,那将是多么有趣的实验!”⑽其 实早在这宣言正式提出的四年前,作家在《“卧虎”说》一文中,就已具有了这种自觉的创作意识, “卧虎重精神、重情感、重整体、重气韵,具体而单一,抽象而丰富,内向而不呆滞,寂静而有力 量,平波水面,狂澜深藏……以中国传统的美的表现方法,真实的表达现代中国人的生活和情绪, 这是我创作追求的东西。但是实践却是那么艰难,每走一步,犹如乡下人挑了鸡蛋筐子进闹市,前 虑后顾”。⑾ 故而,从《妊娠》开始,贾平凹就在一步步地进行着自己散点透视的中国画式的写作风格的实 验,这种风格真正被人注意,是于一九九三年的《废都》开始的。从此而始,一直到 2005 年的《秦 腔》,甚至最近出版的《古炉》,这些作品,基本没有贯穿的主体情节,也不注重写人物的性格和命 运,它只是写了许多生活的碎片,写了许多的笑话、奇闻逸事、风俗故事。作家在描写这些琐碎事 件及细节时有滋有味、烘托渲染、水到渠成、画龙点睛,而后这些碎片以一种似乎是随意的讲述方 式连缀起来。而这种连缀不是一个故事一个故事的勾连串缀,而是生活碎片的连缀,展示出如日常 平淡的生活般的流动。它用散点透视的手法,不去着意塑造典型环境中的典型人物,而是敷衍与点 染,把一个个细节给敷衍开来,多方点染,浓墨重彩,形成独特的中国写意山水的效果。正如小说 的叙述人张引生所说: 清风街的故事从来没有茄子一行豇豆一行,它老是黏糊到一起的。你收过树上的核桃吗,用长竹竿 打核桃,明明已经打净了,可换个地方一看,树梢上怎么还有一颗?再去打了,再换个地方,又有 一颗。核桃永远是打不净的。⑿ 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 73-79 贾平凹在作品的形式创新与内容的深刻把握中,形成了自己独特的东方韵味。这种汲取了中国 传统绘画艺术的生活与艺术同构化表现手法,也适合于中国式的重整体感觉、精神气蕴的审美方法 的阅读接受。因此,他的小说从结构上看是充分散文化的,以情感、意象来带动一个个小的生活碎 片,不是着力于寻求典型事件、情节,而是隐藏的更深,使人物、事件或某种情绪缓慢地流淌而出, 如生活的自然流动,去呈现一幅幅生活之像,看似不经意地如同对生活的自然主义描写,而其中大 有深意在焉。这样他的作品便形成散文化、诗化的品格。由此很多评论者经常把他的小说与沈从文 的作品进行比较研究。 意象主义、主体精神的沿续 许多研究贾平凹小说的评论者认为他的小说是运用意象主义的方法来进行创作的。这在费秉勋 先生和韩鲁华教授的理论批评文字中均能找到此种观点,尤其是后者,更为详尽地从贾平凹文学意 象的创造发展到其文学意象形态、意象审美特征等多个角度,分析了贾平凹小说创作中的意象问题。 ⒀ 贾平凹在一九八六年出版的《浮躁》序言中就曾经这样讲出其文学宣言式的追求目标:“艺术家 最高的目标在于表现他对人间宇宙的感应,发掘最动人的情趣,在存在之上建构他的意象世界”。⒁ 我们纵观他从那以后的所有长篇创作,都可以明显地看到意象主义小说的影子,沿着既定的文学目 标,他执著地进行着意象的艺术探索。从《废都》、《白夜》、《土门》到《高老庄》、《怀念狼》一系 列作品,一个个文化意象如排山倒海纷至沓来。诚如贾平凹所言:“艺术就是虚构的东西。我就是要 在现实的基础上建立自己的一个符号系统,一个意象世界”。⒂其实,他的上述几部长篇的题目无不 是文化意象的浓缩。 古人云:言不尽意,立象以尽意。⒃故而意象的构成离不开言、象、意,具象化的景物与抽象 的作家所要表达之意,二者有机结合,便构成了意象。文学的意象就其构成来说,可以有纯客观的 自然世界、人类世界以及由人类所创造的历史文化与意识观念的对象化世界。即文学意象的建构、 创造,上述这些都可以作为意象创造的对象。这样,就贾平凹的文学意象而言,也可以从总体上分 为自然意象、人类社会中人的意象与事的意象以及由人类所创造的历史文化与意识对象化的意象三 种类型。 其实就《秦腔》而言,它本身也是意象叙事的产物,并且它延续了贾平凹以前作品中意象叙事 的几乎所有特点。作品中运用了大量的丰富、生动、鲜明的意象。首先是自然意象,如夏天义淤地 的女阴形的七里沟,象征了夏天义的土地意识;夏天义的麦穗、七里沟的鸟夫妻以及引生插在土中 生长起来的木棍,都有着自然意象的特点,并且都是围绕着夏天义朴素的土地意识而产生的。泛滥 成灾的地虱婆、流泪的白果树,表达了传统农业文化的某些劣根性的难以根除以及对传统文化即将 衰亡的隐喻性哀悼。 而作为人、事意象出现的有仁、义、礼、智的去逝,白雪生的“没屁眼儿”的孩子,引生的自 残与他对白雪的痴情,以及夏天智家的痒痒树,万宝酒楼里住着的房客马大中等等。作为历史文化 意象出现的有:秦腔——这是通篇一个最大的文化意象,象征了古老悠久的中国传统文化;县上秦 腔剧团的演出活动与陈星的自弹自唱的流行歌曲“演唱会”的冲突与抗衡;土地公、土地婆被村人 重新发掘并安放于土地庙;大清堂大夫赵宏声的对联以及不管是啥病都贴膏药的治疗方法;白雪与 the way of narrative ….. (mo qi; zhang yingfang) 77 夏风的离异等等。所有的这三类意象交织在一起,共同形成了《秦腔》丰富多彩的意象世界。如夏 天义经常在痒痒树下挠痒,这一象征性意象则暗示了夏天义与当今时代的不同的文化品格间的矛盾 对立,以至产生出背上痒的病症,这也与《白夜》中的宽哥得了严重的牛皮癣相似。再如秦腔的演 出、脸谱,白雪及夏天智对秦腔的痴迷,都象征性地表现了中国古老的传统文化,并以白雪的纯洁 美貌,赋予秦腔神圣与高洁的品味,故而展现出作家在道德情感上对秦腔及它所象征的文化的亲近 与仰慕。然而,随着锣鼓点儿的响起,对面就是陈星弹吉它的流行歌曲的演出,这一寓意明显的象 征性行为,一是表明了新的文化的迅速崛起,再则表现出传统文化走向末路的尴尬——不仅秦腔观 众蜂涌而去,甚至连秦腔演员都去做陈星的铁杆歌迷——在以市场为导向的大众文化和现代化的商 业文化的挤压之下,高雅的传统文化已经辉煌难再,其颓败之势不可避免。夏家老一代仁、义、礼、 智的相继故去,从其命名来看,象征着传统伦理道德的丧失,而以金、玉、满、堂命名的下一代已 经成为新的小家庭的主人,随着拜金时代的到来,他们与他们的下一代——光利们,形成同伙与共 谋,甚至亲自参与了对老一代传统文化的“谋杀”行为。在小说的结尾处,夏天义被轰然倒塌的崖 坡深深地埋于土地之中,这一象征性意象,既表现出作家对传统文化的眷念与喟叹,同时也表现出 对夏天义一意孤行的文化保守色彩的理性批判。 叙述视角的灵动与创新 在叙述视角的选择上,贾平凹做到了对自己以往作品的突破,并不仅仅原于引生这位叙述人的 某种缺陷——清风街人称他为疯子,更重要的在于小说采用一∕三人称并置并有机融合的独特视角。 这种开拓性的写法,使得《秦腔》这部小说真正成为了一种有意味的形式。 《秦腔》的叙述视角,是由张引生来担任的,而他这个叙述人显得极为别致。引生在表面上看 来疯疯癫癫,像个神经病,但是他在大部分时间都是正常人,只不过有时过于情痴意迷。如果他是 完全意义上的病态之人的话,那么他们的言行将会变得毫无意义可言。作家聪明之处就在于他巧妙 地运用了这种非常态的人的性格分裂的特点,真真假假、虚虚实实地表达了作家的创作意图。他可 以客观地描述所有的人和事,又可以自由出入于真假虚实的广阔时空之中。作家在赋予其“人格分 裂”特点的同时,又给予他具有超现实的灵异类人物的魔幻色彩:引生可以看到人头顶上表现生命 之气的光焰,能像 x 射线一样穿透人的肉体……这样的叙事手法,是作家贾平凹早已烂熟于心、运 用自如的。从长篇小说的创作来看,贾平凹由《浮躁》开始,就已经显露出他对民间神秘文化的偏 爱与痴迷,从《废都》开始,神秘主义叙事已成为贾平凹不可或缺的小说创作的观念支撑。对习惯 了贾平凹作品的读者来说,如果没有了魔幻神秘灵异一类的成分,那么可能就不是真正意义上的贾 平凹的作品了。关于他在小说中对诸多的神秘文化的呈现与思考,也从另一面表明了贾平凹对艺术 审美、人生世界的一种自己独特的认知与人生感悟。 引生这一人物,不是带有某种“愚圣”色彩的人物,并非与其他作品中的此类人物一致,他只 是带有灵异色彩的清风街上的普通农民。作家以他为叙述人,很明显是对知识分子启蒙话语的有意 放弃。作家此前的长篇小说从 1993 年的《废都》到 2000 年的《怀念狼》,持续了贾平凹知识分子启 蒙文化批判的立场。它是知识分子对故乡的回望,而故乡民众则成为被启蒙、被改造而有待觉悟的 对象。由此而来的是一种俯视视角,从而使乡土失却了自身的自足性与客观性。故而,贾平凹在作 品中,以“疯子”引生的视角来看待一切,这明显地与上述知识分子启蒙话语中的俯视视角大相径 庭。这样更易形成乡土叙事的原生态、自足性效果,它是一种平视视角,甚至是仰视性的。随着视 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 73-79 角镜头的转换,我们得到的是另一个新奇的世界,于是作品就通过这样一种视觉镜头,给我们展现 农业文化的解体与衰败。因为引生的文化归属是趋向传统的,故而其镜头在原生态呈现生活的同时, 也是以旧文化的立场而展开的,我们自觉不自觉地便会被引入到这一视角下的伦理道德中去观察清 风街了,但是作家也不会落下多少话柄,因为这是一个时不时会“疯”一下的人在说话。这是作家 选择视角极为高明的地方。 无论作家怎样隐藏掩饰自己的情感,我们总能通过蛛丝马迹来觉察它。引生的叙述视角,在一 定程度上也是贾平凹的,这是一个为“农民贾平凹”而专门设定的叙述视角。故而,有的论者也指 出《秦腔》之中明显的具有一隐一显的两个叙述者。⒄在这里,作家的叙述视角分裂为两个向度, 一为引生的视角,另一个则是以夏风的视角而展开,带有俯视性的知识分子视角,以此来审视、批 判清风街的诸种文化显现。夏风不喜欢秦腔,在一定程度上意味着他对中国传统文化的拒斥,最终 导致与白雪的离异,而夏风也最终不可能再回到清风街。夏风在传统文化的母胎中成长,却又注定 成为了她的掘墓人。故而,夏风的视角,是一个隐含的视角,而它与作为引生的视角结合起来,才 真正构成了作家整体意义上的观察视角。虽然作品中夏风出场不多,并且大多情况下是以被人轻视 甚至是鄙视的伦理眼光来评判的,然而我们也知道,我们这种感觉是作为显在叙述视角的张引生的 立场观察的,因此我们得出的对夏风的评判也应该是出自张引生的。而真正的作家的态度是对所有 的人、事构成的文化变迁,持一种同情、悲悯的,同时又是惶惑难以简单评判的态度。正如同王国 维对悲剧的分析,“通常之道德、通常之人情、通常之境遇”⒅造成的生存与人的错位的一种悲剧, 而这种无错之错中,每个人都得为这个悲剧承担部分的责任。正如谢有顺所说,“在《秦腔》里,很 难找到绝对的对与错、是与非,里面的人物之间即便一时有隔阂和冲突,这个冲突也很快就会被化 解”。⒆显然,引生与夏风视角的分裂,也表明了作家本身的分裂——一种情感与理性的分裂。 在叙述视角中,作品的叙述人称的变化也是非常独特的地方。整部作品基本统一于引生的第一 人称叙述,但是常常在文字、事件的流淌之中,脱离了第一人称的叙述轨道,滑向第三人称的叙述 形式。比如,本来是第三人称的叙述,却突然插入“话说到这儿,我得插一段了”,作家以第一人称 写了一段插叙,然后又转为第三人称的叙述视角⒇。这种奇妙的人称变化,使作品更具有形式上的 内在张力。众所周知,第一、三人称的视角方式,其艺术效果是截然不同的,前者更易于表达亲历 性的情感,更注重个人的主观情感表现,以限制性视角从情绪上更易赢得读者;后者则呈现出全知 性的冷静、客观,易于让读者对人物、事件有全局的把握,如上帝般俯看世事人生。作家在《秦腔》 中,做到了人称转换的巧妙结合,故而,读者既能随引生的视线融入清风街的日常生活,又能抽身 而出,做冷静的旁观者。作家在描写事件时,如果引生在场,则让其充当叙述人,如不在场,就变 为第三人称的全知视角。作家能够自如地利用人称的转换在日常生活的铺叙中向前推进,而不使人 感到生硬突兀。 由于叙述人称的变化,自然也就使得整部小说语言面临着很大的挑战。主要叙述人引生是一个 文化水平不高,清风街土生土长的农民,故而作家在用第一人称叙述时,语言必须随着引生这一人 物而定,它必须是口语的、低文化层次的、甚至是罗嗦不清、逻辑混乱的。整个文本所表现的语言 基调已经定下,那么,作为全知视角的第三人称的语言必须与前者基本保持一致——否则会破坏一、 三人称的有机融合——这显然是对全知视角语言自由翱翔的束缚。好在作家对语言的把握非常准确、 到位,使得整部作品的两种叙述语言做到了有机结合。如郜元宝所言:“《秦腔》放弃了这种努力, 整套语言系统完全口语化了,……叙述语言和小说中人物的语言没有区别”。(21) the way of narrative ….. (mo qi; zhang yingfang) 79 总之,在《秦腔》的叙述视角、人称转换以及由此而产生的语言问题中,作家做得非常出色, 与其前几部作品相比,有着较大的突破。正如作家在后记中所言,“我惟一表现我的,是我在哪不经 意地进入,如何地变换角色和控制节奏”。从这两点看,作家无疑成功地掌控了胯下的这匹文本之烈 马。 总之,作为一位主体精神型的作家,贾平凹追求的更多的是主体精神的高扬,其小说更具有抒 情性的诗化小说的特点。并且在长篇小说《秦腔》中,贾平凹保持了《废都》以来生活流、原生态 的取材,散点透视、移步换景的主要手法,并在叙述视角中进行灵活转换,具有了新的开拓,更加 高举主体精神的意象主义大旗。这使得贾平凹成为了中国现代文学诗化小说传统接力棒的后继者, 更有可能成为当今时代诗化小说的领跑者。 参考文献 ⑴ 贾平凹:《白夜•后记》,华夏出版社,1995 年 7 月版,第 386 页。 ⑵ 贾平凹:《高老庄•评点本》之《后记》,长江文艺出版社,2003 年 12 月版,第 358 页。 ⑶、⑷贾平凹:《秦腔•后记》,作家出版社 2005 年 4 月版。 ⑸ 冯有源、贾平凹:《平凹的艺术》,上海人民出版社,1998 年 9 月版,第 191 页。 ⑹、⑿贾平凹:《秦腔》,作家出版社 2005 年 4 月版。 ⑺ 见三毛致贾平凹的信,《贾平凹散文自选集》,漓江出版社,1987 年 10 月版,第 614 页。 ⑻、⑼贾平凹:《浮躁•评点本》之《序言之二》,长江文艺出版社,2003 年 12 月版,第 3 页。 ⑽ 同上,第 4 页。 ⑾ 贾平凹:《贾平凹散文自选集•卧虎说》,漓江出版社,1987 年 10 月版,第 556 页。 ⒀ 费秉勋:《贾平凹论》,西北大学出版社,1990 年版;韩鲁华:《精神的映像》,中国社科出版社, 2003 年版。 ⒁ 贾平凹:《浮躁•序言之二》,作家出版社,1993 年 9 月版,第 4 页。 ⒂ 贾平凹:《坐佛•关于小说创作的答问》,太白文艺出版社,1994 年 11 月版,第 217 页。 ⒃ 叶朗:《中国美学史大纲》,上海人民出版社,1985 年 11 月版,第 70 页。 ⒄ 王红:《〈秦腔〉的叙述者与叙述视角》,《咸阳师院学报》,2010 年第 1 期。 ⒅ 王国维:《王国维、蔡元培、鲁迅点评〈红楼梦〉》,团结出版社 2004 年 1 月版,第 18 页。 ⒆ 谢有顺:《尊灵魂,叹生命——贾平凹、〈秦腔〉及其写作伦理》,《当代作家评论》2005 年第 5 期,第 6 页。 ⒇ 贾平凹:《秦腔》,作家出版社 2005 年 4 月版,第 62 页。 (21)郜元宝:《贾平凹研究资料•关于〈秦腔〉和乡土文学的对话》,天津人民出版社,2005 年版, 第 3 页。 microsoft word 03_ing_ sushama kasbekar use of imagery_setting 108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 108-114 use of imagery and metaphor in aravind adiga’s the white tiger sushama kasbekar assumption university mail box 23, assumption university, soi 24, ramkhameng, bangkok-10240, thailand sushamakasbekar75@gmail.com abstract this paper focuses on the use of imagery and metaphors in arvind adiga’s the white tiger (2008). the writer deliberately and skillfully uses animal imagery and other kinds of metaphors to highlight the intrinsic values of his characters and present themes and characters vividly. this paper highlights how this imagery and metaphor has been used by the writer to bring out the thematic rich and poor divide or the servitude of the poor and overbearing opulence of the rich. the metaphors give added value to the themes and the characters and provide an immediate verbal picture. keywords: imagery, metaphor, the white tiger abstract makalah ini berfokus pada penggunaan citra dan metafora dalam novel arvind adiga the white tiger (2008). penulis secara sengaja dan terampil menggunakan citra hewan dan metafora jenis lain untuk menyoroti nilai-nilai intrinsik karakternya dan tema masa kini serta karakter secara jelas. tulisan ini menyoroti bagaimana citra dan metafora digunakan oleh penulis untuk mengemukakan tema kesenjangan kaya dan miskin atau penghambaan si miskin dan kemewahan yang mendominasi dari si kaya. metafora memberikan nilai tambah bagi tema-tema tersebut dan para karakternya serta memberikan gambaran lisan langsung. kata kunci: pencitraan, metafora, the white tiger use of imagery ….. (sushama kasbekar) 109 introduction the white tiger was aravind adiga’s maiden venture which brought him the prestigious booker prize award in 2008. the book was well received with a platitude of critical acclaim as well as controversy. manjula padmanabhan (2008) says that the book is: “a tedious, unfunny slog, ... compelling, angry and darkly humorous…but is this school boyish sneering the best we can do? is it enough to paint an ugly picture and then suggest that the way out is to slit the oppressor’s throat and become an oppressor oneself?” (padmanabhan). while roy (2008) says, “it is hard to refute that the writer presents a negative picture of the country, but as david godwin has opined, “it really isn’t the job of a writer to be the ambassador for his country. a writer’s commitment is to the truth as he sees it”, (roy, 2008, p.4). even if do not enter into this controversy, we realize that the book is hard hitting and presents the negative side of the country. adiga does this both thematically as well as through a generous use of imagery and metaphors. thematically adiga draws upon the important rich-poor divide amongst the teeming millions of the fascinating south asian sub-continent, india. he points out that the rich live in their fabulous homes while the poor are subject to toil and servitude. when considering imagery in this paper it means: “the formation of mental images, figures or likenesses of things, or of such images collectively,” (dictionary.com). on the other hand, metaphors seek similarity. this similarity is often in one specific respect. hintikka and sandhu are of the opinion that: “in order to understand it, the hearer not only has to understand what this similarity is but to realize that there obtains such a similarity. sometimes the hearer had not been aware of the relevant similarity until the metaphor shocked or otherwise forced him or her to cognizance of it.” (hintikka & sandu, 1994, p.178) therefore the metaphor serves to highlight the similarity and enhances the meaningfulness of the phrase or its components. it embellishes highlights and adds luster. it also startles by its very comparative nature. it is definitely used by writers as a literary device as a mode of creativity. discussion jungle, light and darkness the population of the novel is presented as enmeshed in a jungle. time and again the novelist refers to india as a “jungle” where balram halwai the protagonist has to carve a life for himself. a reference to the jungle is made by the protagonist when he says, “on the fifteenth of august, 1947 – the day the british left – the cages had been left open; and the animals had attacked and ripped each other apart and jungle law replaced zoo law ” (adiga, 2008, pp.63-4). this “orwellian” insight, as opined by tony d’souza (2009) is prompted by adiga’s narrative technique which is to present scattered images from the animal kingdom. these images make up the fabric of his tale and present the predicament of the poorer characters fighting the might of the rich ones: when balram learns to drive the car from an older driver he says, “the road is a jungle, get it?” 110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 108-114 the reference is not only to the literal road but the road upon which the young balram is going to tread the journey of life. balram’s story is that of a poor boy from a small village of laxmangarh in north india. his family sends him to dhanbad to fend for himself at a tea shop. however, his landlord and mentor take him to delhi where he learns to drive and serve his master. balram’s life is a life of servitude. he has to serve his master with abject humility both as a driver and a cook. however, under his outer calm, as he works he realizes the chasm between the rich and the poor. he realizes that to overcome this deep divide he would have to take some drastic action. meanwhile when he works as a driver for his landlord’s son he is forced to take on the blame in an accident. the accident was due to the drunken negligence of his master’s westernized wife. his master forces him to accept the blame. however balram has his revenge when he murders his master to be free for the rest of his life. he leaves delhi for bangalore and works as a taxi operator providing cars for those who work at call centers. soon he has a fleet of 27 cars and proves himself as an entrepreneur. the metaphor of the “jungle” is juxtaposed with reference to areas of “light” and “darkness”. the jungle has been described as having a dual personality: and “an area of darkness” and an area of light. these are places within india where balram travels. the india described by the writer is: “two countries in one: an india of light, and an india of darkness” (adiga, 2008, p.14). the india of light constitutes the wealth, power, technology and knowledge depicted after balram reaches delhi and later bangalore. in the earlier part of the novel is the india of darkness in the village of laxmangarh to which balram belongs and to the mining town of dhanbad where he works. this is characterized by misery, destitution and illiteracy. darkness also includes another significant metaphor: “the black river” (adiga, 2008, p.14) a reference to the river ganges. balram holds the river responsible for bringing darkness to the country. the river is also described as “full of faeces, straw, soggy parts of human bodies, buffalo carrion, and several kinds of industrial acids” (adiga, 2008, p.15). the river ganges is revered by the hindus, the predominant religious sect within the country. it is held to be the daughter of the vedas, a protector, one who breaks the chain of birth and rebirth. yet, in the novel the river demarcates the dark where balram lives his abject poverty stricken life. balram is born to poor parents in a tiny hell hole called laxmangarh in the area of darkness. he describes his father as stated below: “my father’s spine was a knotted rope, the kind the women use in villages to pull water from wells; the clavicle curved around his neck in high relief, like a dog’s collar; cuts and nicks and scars, like little whip marks in his flesh … the story of a poor man’s life is written in his body, in a sharp pen.” (adiga, 2008, p. 26-27). the white tiger however, balram, the protagonist, is different. his personality is like that of the white tiger. this metaphor used to describe him makes the inspector of schools who visits his village to remark that: “you, young man, are an intelligent, honest, vivacious fellow in this crowd of thugs and idiots. in any jungle, what is the rarest of animals – the creature that comes along only once in a generation? “i thought about it and said” “the white tiger.” “that’s what you are, in this jungle” (adiga, 2008, p.35). use of imagery ….. (sushama kasbekar) 111 thus balram is set apart as a personality, a white tiger; one who literally cuts through tremendous odds to become an entrepreneur even if it means murdering his own master. his act makes him a fugitive in bangalore where he declares: “a white tiger keeps no friends. it is too dangerous.” (adiga, 2008, p.302). why did adiga use this metaphor? he explains: “i watched him walk behind the bamboo bars. black stripes and sunlit white fur flashed through the slits in the dark bamboo; it was like watching the slowed down reels of an oldblack-and white film. he was walking in the same line, again and again – from one end of the bamboo bars to the other, then turning around and repeating it over at exactly the same pace, like a thing under a spell” (adiga, 2008, p.276). thus, the metaphor of the white tiger signifies that balram, the protagonist and anti-hero in the novel is different, willing to carve a niche for himself to throw off the shackles of poverty, destitution and injustice even though he has to murder his own master. he raises his voice to give vent to his anger at being pushed around and humiliated by people who do everything to crush his sense of urgency. he is particularly outraged at the rich, the authorities, the corrupt police and the law who conspire with the rich to keep the poor in their humble state. thus, the white tiger or balram is on a rampage which leads him to some kind of salvation in the form of an entrepreneur in the modern city of bangalore. as emphasized by mendes: “in india’s current state of affairs, the cunning and resourceful protagonist posits that there are only two ways that an uneducated and under privileged individual can rise above the restrictions imposed by caste and crime: crime and politics, there are only two destinies in india: either eat or get eaten up” (adiga, 2008, p.64). he therefore chooses to prey rather than be the victim. this makes him an anti-hero. this character is central to the story but does not possess any heroic qualities but he becomes the hero because he is the protagonist of the story. what made adiga create this kind of protagonist? adiga’s first-hand meeting the poor of india inspired him to create this protagonist: “many of the indians i met while i travelled through india blended into balram; but the character is ultimately of my own invention. i wanted to depict someone from india’s underclass – which is perhaps 400 million strong – and which has largely missed out on the economic boom, and which remains invisible in most films and books coming out of india” (di martino, 2008). the stork, the raven, and the buffalo balram is a rough hewn countryman who seeks greener pastures when he realizes that his lot can only be improved if he rebels and does something drastic. this puts him up against his own masters: the have’s versus the have-nots. balram’s masters have been metaphorically described as “the stork", the buffalo, and raven etc.: “ the buffalo was one of the landlords in laxmangarh. there were three others, and each had got his name from the peculiarities of appetite that had been detected in him.” “the stork was a fat man with a fat moustache, thick and curved and pointy at the tips. he owned the river that flowed outside the village, and he took a cut of every catch of fish caught by every fisherman in the river, and a toll from every boatman who crossed the river to come to our village.” “his brother was called the wild boar….” “the raven owned the worst land which was the dry….” “the buffalo was the greediest of the lot….” (adiga, 2008, p.24). 112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 108-114 khan (2009, p. 86) reiterates, “one of the devices of portraying the landlords of the village lies in his use of animal characters which appears close to the art of orwell in his novel ‘the animal farm’.” this comparison is apt since it portrays the brute and base qualities of the animals personified by the men in the novel. further, here the landlords and wealthy businessmen have been depicted as avaricious and exploitative. they are ready to acquire the land of the poor peasant’s, take away their prized possessions and always underpay them. even their women were not spared: they were sexually exploited. adiga’s picture is dark and brings out the exploitative nature of the landlords piercingly. the rooster coop “the rooster coop” is an extended metaphor used by the writer. as the protagonist writes his fifth letter to the chinese premier, wen jiabao he introduces the rooster coop as a place where hundreds of pale hens and brightly colored roosters are stuffed tightly into wire-mesh cages; frightened of impending death from the young butcher. “yet they do not rebel. they do not try to get out of the coop” (adiga, 2008, p.173). this metaphor explains that the roosters alias subservient servants in the coop never steal their master’s money or jewels. the servants are entirely trustworthy and the writer considers it as the basis of the entire indian economy (adiga, 2008, p.175). as to why they don’t break free of this bondage is explained by the writer as the bonds of the indian family which trap them to their work. the writer further elaborates: “only a man who is prepared to see his family destroyed – hunted, beaten, and burned alive by the masters – can break out of the coop.” balram like other servants tied to the family master was trapped: “i was trapped in the rooster coop” (adiga, 2008, p.179). balram however tries hard to break the coop and escape; though his inherent servitude traps him. he knows that he is in the coop because of his abject poverty and if he breaks free his family would be at risk. however when he sees the white tiger at the delhi zoo pacing up and down he knows that he could emulate him and break free of the shackles constricting him. finally, the story ends with his breaking the coop when he slits his master’s throat with the jagged ends of a broken whiskey bottle and seeks to become his own master and run an enterprise. he has no remorse about it either: “i’ll never say i made a mistake that night. in delhi, when i slit my master’s throat. i’ll say it was all worthwhile to know, first for a day, just for an hour, just for a minute, what it means not to be a servant.” it is necessary for him to murder his master to be free of the vicious binding of the coop. half-baked person an oft-repeated metaphor is that of a half-baked person, someone who is partially educated. as explained by the by the protagonist: “ ‘the autobiography of a half-baked indian’. that’s what i ought to call my life’s story. me, and thousands of others in this country like me, are half-baked because we were never allowed to complete our schooling. open our skulls, look in with a penlight, and you’ll find an odd museum of ideas: sentences of history or mathematics remembered from school textbooks…” (adiga, 2008, pp.10 – 11). further on the writer emphasizes how his story, the story of a half-baked indian changes as he makes a big effort to become an entrepreneur. he elaborates that fully formed fellows, after twelve use of imagery ….. (sushama kasbekar) 113 years of school and three years of university wear nice suits, join companies but take orders from other men for the rest of their lives. while he, a half-baked fellow, becomes an entrepreneur. enjoined to the concept of a half-baked fellow is the parallel of indian cities and towns which are ill planned and grow haphazardly. balram, as the new entrepreneur, seeking a new avenue goes through many cities and towns. most indian cities and towns are ill planned and the writer draws a metaphoric parallel between the protagonist and the cities and town: both ill planned and half-baked: “in his journey from village to city, from laxmangarh to delhi, the entrepreneur’s path crosses any number of provincial towns that have the pollution and noise and traffic of a big city – without any hint of the true city’s sense of history, planning and grandeur. half-baked cities, built for half-baked men.” (adiga, 2008, p.52) the great socialist in the earlier part of the story when balram works at a tea shop in dhanbad he encounters “the great socialist”. this metaphor is used forth this politician who is ostensibly a champion of the poor and the downtrodden. his party’s symbol is a pair of hands breaking through handcuffs. this symbolizes the poor shaking off the rich. he had ruled the area of darkness for a long time. though thoroughly corrupt with 93 criminal cases pending against him he was hand in glove with the judges in the area of darkness who did not sentence him to prison for his misdeeds since they received overt favors from him. balram’s master and landlord seeks to unseat the politician, the great socialist from power, but he cannot pit himself against this corrupt ruthless man who, on the one hand pretends to be a champion of the poor and on the other has amassed a fortune for himself salted away in a safe locker in a swiss bank. the poor, whom the great socialist professes to help, voted for him because he was superior to their masters. the masters and landlords had to bow to him: “that was the positive side of the great socialist. he humiliated all our masters – that’s why we kept voting him back in.” (adiga, 2008, p.105). this politician has been skillfully drawn as a socialist, a champion of the poor whom he paradoxically exploits to maintain his own power. the metaphor paradoxically explains his ruthless side, for he is neither “great’ nor a ‘socialist’. conclusion adiga has therefore tried to present his characters with the use of metaphors. these metaphors embellish, but they add more meaning subtlety and insidiously. they are often scathing, adding gore to this tale of deprivation and poverty. this technique is by no means new or unique: “indians, in particular are accustomed to the art of employing imagery in their conversational deliverance or philosophical deliberations: “talking metaphorically or obliquely by implication is generally natural with indians’” (poonkodi, p.186). though the novel has been variously criticized for being iconoclastic, bringing the negative side of india to the fore it is a commendable effort to voice the grievances of the under-privileged and poorer sections of society. the writer has certainly used fascinating imagery and metaphors to embellish his scintillating tale. 114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 108-114 references adiga, a. (2008). the white tiger. noida: harper collins publishers and india today group. espy, w. r. (1983). the garden of eloquence. new york: harper and row. di martino, n. (2008). interview with aravind adiga. retrieved 18 november 2011 from http://universitybookstore.blogspot.com/2008/10/nick-interviews-aravind-adiga.html. hintikka,j., & sandu, g. (1994). aspects of the metaphor. netherlands: kluwer academic publishers, martinus nijhoff publishers. khan, m. q. (2009). the white tiger: a critique, (vol.1, no.2). retrieved 18 2011 from http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/ojs/index.php/jlcms/article/viewfile/34/32. mendes, a. c. (2010). exciting tales of exotic dark india: adiga’s the white tiger. retrieved 29 november 2010 from http://www.jcl.sagepub.com/content/45/2/275 poonkodi, m. (2009). the voice of servility and dominance expressed through animal imagery in adiga’s the white tiger. language in india, 9 (11). padmanabhan, manjula (2008). the outlook, india. retrieved 1 november 2008 from http://www.outlook.com/fulli.asp?fodname-20081014xfname-books & sid – 188888. roy, amit. (2008). aravinda adiga wins ‘god’ of agents. the telegraph. october, 2008, p.4 43the cooperative principle:….. (agnes herawati) the cooperative principle: is grice’s theory suitable to indonesian language culture? agnes herawati english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 aherawati@binus.edu abstract article discussed how native speakers of indonesian observed grice’s maxims. one hundred conversations contributed in live talk show from varied indonesia television channels were analysed. the results show that grice’s maxims are fulfilled in many conversations. nevertheless, in other situations, two kinds of non-fulfilment of the maxims are observed. first, the speaker deliberately exploits a maxim, which is suitable to grice’s theory. second, the speaker fails to observe but does not exploit a maxim, which leads to some interpretations of the cultural patterns of the indonesian language: communicative politeness, high context culture and the needs of harmony in communication that are considered as the manifesting of indonesian culture. keywords: cooperative principle, maxims, cultural identity, cultural values abstrak artikel mendiskusikan tentang penutur asli bahasa indonesia menerapkan maksim grice. metode yang digunakan adalah studi pustaka, dengan mencermati dan menganalisis 100 percakapan talk show dari beberapa channel televisi. hasil menunjukkan bahwa maksim grice diterapkan dalam beberapa percakapan. namun pada situasi lain, dua hal yang tidak dapat dipenuhi: pertama, pembicara secara nyata menerapkan maksim yang sesuai dengan teori grice. kedua, pembicara gagal untuk menerapkan namun tidak secara benar sehingga menimbulkan penafsiran terkait dengan pola budaya bahasa indonesia, yaitu komunikasi yang santun, budaya yang tinggi, dan kebutuhan harmoni di dalam komunikasi yang dipertimbangkan sebagai manifestasi budaya indonesia. kata kunci: prinsip kerja sama, maksim, identitas budaya, nilai budaya 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 43-48 introduction in order to communicate successfully, human beings are supposed to obey to a certain mode of interaction. for this reason, the linguist, herbert paul grice, developed a mode of interaction for successful communication called the cooperative principle (cp) and its maxims based on ordinary language philosophy. the cp has been mentioned in many pragmatics works such as yule (1996) and grundy (2000) for its influence on the field of pragmatics. the objective of this study is to investigate to what extent native speakers of indonesia observe grice’s maxims and to analyze whether the maxims are suitable the indonesian socio-cultural norms and cultural values system, since “cultural values systems influence discourse patterns and promote the different communicative styles” (clyne, 2006). furthermore, this study also discusses whether the gricean theory is really culturally interdependent, observed in indonesian culture that is based on the language-cultural identities and sociocultural norms and values of the indonesian society. in order to communicate successfully, each interlocutor in every conversation is needed to follow certain conversational rules. based on this condition, grice developed the cp which every person should obey in order to realise a successful communication. grice (1989) states the cooperative principle as follows: “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of talk exchange in which you are engaged.” furthermore, he develops the classification of maxims into: a. maxim of quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. 1. do not say what you believe to be false. 2. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. b. maxim of quantity: 1. make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of exchange). 2. do not make your contribution more informative than is required. c. maxim of relation: be relevant. d. maxim of manner: be perspicuous. 1. avoid obscurity of expression. 2. avoid ambiguity. 3. be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. be orderly. below is the example of all maxims in one conversation. (1) a: where is juliet? b: she is in her room, i’m sure. it can be seen that speaker b, according to grice’s framework, observes all of the maxims as he answers speaker a’s question clearly (manner) and truthfully (quality). moreover, speaker b’s contribution is sufficiently provided (quantity), and his answer is directly relevant to speaker a’s question (relation). interlocutors in a conversation are often expected to follow all principles in order to communicate successfully. however, there are certain situations in which people fail to observe the maxims; they may intentionally or unintentionally fail to follow the maxims because of their purpose of interaction. grice (1989:30) states that a participant in a conversation may fail to fulfil a maxim in various ways as stated: (1) he may quietly violate a maxim; if so, in some cases he will be liable to mislead. (2) he may opt out from the operation both of the maxim and of the cooperative principle; he may say, indicate or allow it to become plain that he is unwilling to co-operate in the way the maxim requires. he may say, for example, i cannot say more; my lips are sealed. (3) he may be faced by a clash: he may be unable, for example, to fulfil the first maxim of quantity (be as informative as is required) without violating the second maxim of quality (have adequate evidence for what you say). (4) he may flout a maxim; that is, he may blatantly fail to fulfil it. on the assumption that the speaker is able to fulfil the maxim and to do so without violating another maxim (because of a clash), is not opting out, and is not, in the view of the blatancy of his performance, trying to mislead, the hearer is faced with a minor problem: how can his saying what he did say be reconciled with the supposition that he is observing the overall cooperative principle? this situation is one that characteristically gives rise to conversational implicature; and when a conversational implicature is generated in this way, i shall say that a maxim is being exploited. furthermore, grice makes a distinction between violating a maxim and openly flouting a maxim. if the speaker flouts a maxim, he has deliberately and openly failed to observe one or more maxims for (a) communicative purpose(s), which leads to implicatures in a conversation. below is an example of flouting a maxim: (2) leila: whoa! has your boss gone crazy? mary: let’s go get some coffee. (yule 1996: 43) according to yule, mary intentionally flouts the maxim of relevance to make an implicature in her answer to leila’s question. there are certain reasons that makes mary reply to leila’s question by unrelated answer and leila has to make some inference from mary (for example, the boss might be nearby) and she understands why mary makes an apparently non-relevant remark. the implicature here is that mary cannot answer the question in that context. on the other hand, grice defines maxim violation as “is quiet and unostentatious”. if the speaker violates a maxim, he or she is liable to provide insufficient, ambiguous, or irrelevant information, which might negatively affect communication and do not lead to implicatures. let us consider the following example for a better understanding about maxim violation. this example is an extract from a fictional interaction between thompson and his girlfriend, ginny: (3) thompson has been refusing to kiss ginny, her girlfriend. so, she starts to think he may be having an affair: ‘thompson. i’ve got to ask you this.’ she stopped. ‘ask me then ¬–’ ‘will you give me a truthful answer? however much you think it’ll hurt me?’ 45the cooperative principle:….. (agnes herawati) ginny’s voice had a little quaver. ‘i promise.’ ginny looked at him. ‘is there another girl?’ thompson raised his chin and looked at her. ‘no,’ he said. ‘there isn’t another girl.’ later thompson asserts that he is not having an affair with another girl but with another man, but ginny cannot help believing him on the basis of information he provides (thomas, 1995). the fact is that thompson is having an affair with another man, but he does not want to reveal such information; therefore, he misleads ginny and, according to grice’s framework, violates conversational maxims. besides the two kinds of non-fulfilment of the maxims mentioned above, some other kinds of nonobservance of the maxims have also been discussed. in certain interaction, the speaker does not observe the gricean maxims because he or she may infringe, opt out of, or suspend a maxim (mooney, 2004). based on cross-cultural perspectives, there is one question rising whether grice’s cp and its maxims can be observed similarly in different cultures/discourse style. clyne (1994:12) claims: “contrasts in discourse structures indicate an anglocentric element in the maxims of the cooperative principle as worded by grice and their inapplicability or limited relevance to cultures where content and knowledge are core values.” wierzbicka (1991) also states that it is quite impossible to apply a cooperative principle (if it exists) of a language to another language because there are different modes of interaction in cultural differences. furthermore, keenan (2000) also discussed the relation between grice’s conversational maxim and cross-culturally. concerning the maxim of quantity cross-culturally, keenan (2000:217218) states that: “in testing the maxim “be informative” crossculturally, we do not expect to find that in some societies the maxim always holds and in some societies the maxim never holds. it is improbable, for example, that there is some society in which being informative is categorically inappropriate. differences between societies, if there are any, are more likely to be differences in specification of domains in which the maxim is expected to hold and differences in the degree to which members are expected to conform to this maxim. in some societies, meeting the informational needs of a conversational partner may be relatively unmarked or routine behaviour. in other societies, meeting another’s informational needs may be relatively unexpected or marked behaviour.” kochman (1981) shows different ways of communicative cooperation between blacks and whites. for instance, in black american culture, being cooperative means saying a lot and showing immodesty. kochman, therefore, makes a distinction of the differences of communicative strategies between blacks and whites, claiming that black and white cultural differences are generally ignored when attempts are made to understand how and why black white communication fails. the reason is: “cultural differences play a covert role in the communication process. when blacks and whites interact in public meetings, their agenda does not typically include a discussion of the way they are interpreting each other’s behaviour, the reasons they are interpreting it as they do, or the way they are expecting the meeting to evolve.” (kochman, 1981:7) this is contrary to the cp, which assumes that people in conversations should be cooperative by providing no more or less information. method techniques of data collection in this study were conducted by observation and note-taking while conversations were carried out. one hundred conversations taken from live talk shows on different indonesian television channels were observed and transcribed into indonesian for analysis. the subjects in the conversations were varied. they were between 20 and 50 years old; having different occupations such as football player, singers, businessmen, governmental officials, politicians, actors and actresses, etc. while the topics of the conversation were varied also. they could be about politics, economics, or even personal matters. the data indicate that, in many situations, the interlocutors in conversations observe the gricean maxims. nevertheless, in many other instances, the speakers do not follow the maxims. therefore, there are two conversational settings to be analysed: fulfilment of the maxims and non-fulfilment of the maxims. results and discussion results of the data show that the four maxims: quantity, quality, relation, and manner are observed in different degrees, as shown in table 1. table 1 fulfilment of the maxims quantity quality relation manner 33 (33%) 100 (100%) 90 (90%) 45 (45%) from 100 conversations, the results indicate that the maxim of quantity is not observed in all conversation in terms of the two sub-maxims: “make your contribution as informative as is required” and “do not make your contribution more informative than is required”. the percentage for maxim of quantity is quite small. a typical feature of the observance of the maxim of quantity lies in the fact that the information expected to be provided in these situations is not very complicated. the speakers’ simple questions lead their conversational partners to providing sufficient information which fits the criteria of fulfilling the maxim of quantity. as for the maxim of quality, it might be quite difficult to observe to what extent the speaker fulfils the 46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 43-48 maxim in terms of its criteria: “do not say what you believe to be false” and “do not say for which you lack adequate evidence”. the problem here is how the outsider is able to understand whether what the speakers said were true or not. however, from the researcher’s observation and on the basis of the information provided by the interlocutors in the conversations and the different contexts, all the conversations followed the maxim of quality because the speakers do not say what they believe to be false and certainly, they do not say for which they lack sufficient evidence nor do they intend to deceive their addressees. in term of maxim of relation, most conversations are relevant to the questions raised by the speakers in the conversations. as can be seen in table 1 above, 90 out of 100 conversations follow the maxim of relation. these conversations do not change the topic of the conversation and hence fit the goal of the speaker in asking the question. the results also show that once a conversation is stuck to the maxim of quantity, it also does not follow the maxim of manner. only 45% of the conversations fulfil this maxim. however, some interlocutors in the interactions did not make their conversations in a clear way. some conversations here are usually the political talk show, in which the speakers tend to answer the questions ambiguously, and not being briefly and orderly either. there are two kinds of non-observance which need to be analysed in this research: deliberately exploiting a maxim which fits the gricean framework and not exploiting a maxim. according to grice, in many situations, speakers in talk conversations openly and blatantly fail to observe a maxim. in this case, they intentionally flout a maxim in order to achieve a certain purpose of communication. out of 100 contributions from our data, conversations belonging to this category are relatively small for quality and relation maxims, however the floating maxims are quite high in maxim of quantity and maxim of manner, as can be seen in table 2. table 2 deliberately exploiting a maxim quantity quality relation manner 67 (67%) 2 (2%) 4 (4%) 54 (54%) there are many situations in which the speaker intentionally flouts the maxim of quantity and which, statistically, equals 67%. in this situations, it can be found that the speakers tend to answer more than what are needed. for example: (4) wartawan : kira-kira ada berapa jumlah perempuan yang mendapat aliran dana dari ahmad fthonah? pengacara: ada sekitar 30 perempuan. akan tetapi jumlah ini masih akan terus bertambah mengingat bahwa proses penyidikan masih akan terus berlangsung. interviewer : approximately, how many women got the cash from ahmad fathonah? lawyer: there are 30 women, approximately. however, this number will increase since the investigation has not finished yet. instead of only saying more than 30, the lawyer adds some information more than what is being asked. one important aspect that should be noticed in this conversation is the lawyer intends to say that there are more than 30 women got the cash from ahmad fathonah, however he did not say it directly. the results also show that there are only two conversations in which the propositional content of two contributions is not related to the topic introduced. the speakers in this case openly flout the maxim of quality. only two out of one hundred conversations belong to this category, which makes only 2%. as for the maxim of manner, there are 54 situations in which the speakers fail to observe the maxim, i.e. 54 %. flouting this maxim takes place in many conversations. the following example is taken from our data: (5) a: apakah anda menyukai jenis musik ini? b: sebelumnya saya menyukai jenis musikpop, akan tetapi kemudian saya lebih tertarik pada jenis musik dangdut ini. a: do you like this type of music? b: i liked pop music before, but next i was more interested in this dangdut music. instead of saying no, i don’t (like it), speaker b makes her contribution in an unclear way and intends her partner to understand what she means. one important aspect that should be noticed in this conversation is that speaker b was a pop singer, and that it is a pride for some singers in indonesia. she might have thought that she would be happy by becoming a pop singer but then she found that dangdut is more interesting. however, there must be a reason why either the lawyer or the dangdut singer cannot speak out. therefore they make their conversations in this way in order to avoid a face-threatening act. if they had expressed their opinions more directly, their illocutionary act might be interpreted as a threat to another person’s face. therefore, they have to perform a face-saving act. for this reason, the speakers deliberately have to fail to observe the maxim of quantity and maxim of manner in this circumstance so that they can achieve her goal of communication. it is quite noticeable that, in many speech situations, the interlocutors fail to observe the gricean maxims according to the cp. however, the way they fail to fulfil a maxim is completely different from those grice suggests. the speakers in these interactions often fail to fulfil the maxims of quantity and manner: they make their conversational contributions more detailed than is required. it should be stressed that a maxim non-observance of this kind is not intentional and that it does not lead to any implicature. the speaker does not intend or expect his socalled unnecessarily long contribution to be recognised by the hearer and the hearer himself is satisfied with the way the speaker responds to his question; the speaker, in turn, is understood as being cooperative. the number of non-fulfilment of this kind is quite considerable. in 60 out of 100 conversations, the maxim of quantity is not observed, which makes 60%, and in 70 conversations, the maxim of manner are not followed, which equals 70%. as for the maxims of relation and quality, no conversations are in this category as shown 47the cooperative principle:….. (agnes herawati) in table 3. table 3 failing to fulfil but not exploiting a maxim quantity quality relation manner 60 (60%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 70 (70%) the results indicate that there is a considerable amount of situations in which the speakers do not follow the maxims of quantity and manner in terms of the cp. in the case of non-observance of the maxim of quantity, the speakers provide additional information before or after the core information they want to convey. furthermore, they often speak in an unclear way and so fail to observe the maxim of manner according to the cp. nevertheless, the speakers in these situations fail to observe but do not exploit a maxim in order to achieve their communicative goal. why does this happen? the possible interpretation lies in the cultural patterns of the indonesian language: communicative politeness, high context culture, and the values of harmony in communication. communicative politeness is highly valued in indonesian society. this empirical study shows that, after having made their main conversation, the speakers add even more information which may be regarded as unnecessary: (6) a: manakah yang anda pilih, menjadi model atau pemain sepak bola? b: saya lebih memilih menjadi pemain sepak bola, ketimbang menjadi model. menjadi seorang model dituntut untuk selalu berpe nampilan sempurna karena masyarakat kita melihat model sebagai figur yang harus enak dilihat. a: which one do you prefer, being a model or football player? b: i prefer to be a football player, not being a model. being a model means have to be a perfect man because our society sees a mod el as a always good-looking figure. in speaker b’s mind, it seems that the information i prefer to be a football player is not sufficient with respect to the question which one do you prefer, being a model or a football player? he provides much more information, which is unrelated to the choice between being a model or being a football player. all the aspects he contributes after mentioning the choice between the two occupations represent the reasons for his choice. the answer to the question why speaker b makes his conversation in such a way lies in the concept of politeness in communication. indonesian people sometimes think that providing enough information such as the response yes, i do to the question do you like being a football player? seems to be uncooperative and impolite in everyday conversations. therefore, the conversation should be something like: yes, i do. because being a football player gives me unimagined experiences. in brief, native speakers of indonesian often communicate additional information in order to expand their conversations for reasons of communicative politeness. indeed, politeness is a means of conversational cooperation among indonesian people. this politeness is shown by providing more information than the partners expect. there is one more thing that should be taken into consideration: the concept of communicative politeness here is not employed on the spot: the speaker does not exploit a maxim (the maxim of quantity in this case) in the very moment in order to be polite in conversations. politeness in indonesian seems to be placed in the speaker’s mind from his or her early childhood on. therefore, the concept of communicative politeness represents indonesian cultural aspect. one reason why many speakers in our data often communicate with their partners in an unclear way is what hall and hall (1989) suggests as high context culture, which is also considered as an important component of indonesian cultural identity. high context culture is defined in such a way that most of the information is either in the physical context or initialized in the person, while only very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. high context transactions feature preprogrammed information which is in the receiver and in the setting, with only minimal information being encoded in the transmitted message. they also states: “when talking about something that they have on their minds, a high-context culture individual will expect his interlocutor to know what’s bothering him, so that he doesn’t have to be specific. the result is that he will talk around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place expect the crucial one. placing it properly – this keystone – is the role of his interlocutor. to do this for him is an insult and a violation of his individuality.” (hall & hall, 1989:113) according to gudykunst et al. (1996), high context communication is also indirect, ambiguous, harmonymaintaining, reserved and understated. high context culture is sometimes considered a reason why there are misunderstandings in intercultural communication due to its respective characteristics. people often encounter severe problems understanding their counterparts and interpreting correctly what the latter want to convey. furthermore, in high context communication, the speaker provides part of the message and leaves the rest to be filled in by the listener. although the speaker talks around what he wants, he expects the listener to understand what he actually wants to say. there are many situations in which the speakers fail to observe grice’s maxim of manner, but they do not exploit this maxim so as to achieve their communicative goal, which leads to the possible interpretation of another indonesian cultural value: harmony in communication. suseno (1995) states that harmony is the central of indonesian culture as communalism and collectivism lead indonesian people to the notion of harmony. thus, indonesian people do not want to perform a facethreatening act but choose a face saving act in order to avoid conflict. suseno (1995) also claims that the indonesian values of preserving harmony and concern for a facesaving act sometimes make the hearer in a conversation pretend that he understands everything although actually he understands less or even nothing. because of the notion of harmony, the hearer often accepts ambiguous utterances 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 43-48 and rarely complains about potential contradictions. this may result in misunderstandings in conversations, which will lead to a non-observance of the maxim of manner. conclusion in our study, the interlocutors in the conversations in some situations observe all the maxims, especially those of quality and relation. in many situations, however, the maxims of quantity and manner are not observed in a way that is different from what grice suggests, which leads to a possible interpretation of the cultural patterns of the indonesian language. the gricean maxims of quantity and manner are culturally dependent and differently observed in indonesian culture, possibly because of the different notions of “quantity” and “manner” in indonesian language culture in comparison with anglo-american language culture(s) theoretically suggested by grice. however, it should not be thought that indonesian people deliberately do not follow the maxim of quantity and maxim of manner because different cultures show different discourse patterns, which is a crucial point in intercultural communication. every discourse community develops its own rules of community behaviour, which become part of their individual and group identity. failing to recognize such aspects creates stereotypes (clyne, 2006). the linguistic behavior of indonesian language then presents the cultural patterns of this language. in order to communicate successfully with indonesian people, speakers with different cultural backgrounds should therefore understand indonesian cultural identity. there may be a cooperative principle in every discourse context, but how it can be built up depends upon the discourse patterns of each culture. furthermore, in order to match cultural variation, grice should be culturally adapted to fit the cultural norms, values, and identities of each society (clyne 1994). references clyne, m. (1994). intercultural communication at work: cultural values in discourse. cambridge: cambridge university press. ______. (2006). some thoughts on pragmatics, sociolinguistic variation, and intercultural communication. intercultural pragmatics, 3(1), 95-105. grice, h. p. (1989). studies in the way of words. cambridge: harvard university press. grundy, p. (2000). doing pragmatics. london: arnold. gudykunst, w. b., et al. (1996). the influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self-construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. human communication research, 22(4), 510-543. hall, e. t., & hall, m. r. (1989). understanding cultural differences. yarmouth, maine: intercultural press. keenan, e. o. (2000). the universality of conversational postulates. in kasher, asa (ed.). pragmatics: critical concepts. london & new york: routledge. kochman, t. (1981). black and white styles in conflict. chicago: university of chicago press. mooney, a. (2004). co-operation, violations and making sense. journal of pragmatics, 36(5), 899-920. suseno, f.m. (1995). pluralisme dan reaktualisasi pancasia:. indonesia satu indonesia beda indonesia bias membangun bhineka tunggal ika di bumi nusantara. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. thomas, j. (1995). meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. harlow /munich: longman. wierzbicka, a. (1991). cross-cultural pragmatics: the semantics of human interaction. berlin: mounton de gruyter. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 83 lingua cultura, 12(1), february 2018, 83-88 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i1.4013 code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan islamiah bastiar1; sri marmanto2; sumarlam3 1,2,3 linguistics department, graduate school, sebelas maret university jln. ir. sutami no.36a, surakarta, indonesia 1miabastiar@rocketmail.com; 2marmanto@staff.uns.ac.id; 3sumarlamd@gmail.com received: 25th october 2017/ revised: 24th november 2017/ accepted: 06th december 2017 how to cite: bastiar, i, marmanto, s., & sumarlan (2018). code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. lingua cultura, 12(1), 83-88. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.4013 abstract the purposes of this research were to describe the form of the code-switching and factors of code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. the used method was descriptive qualitative and employed a sociolinguistics study using poplack approach. data sources were activities and informants. meanwhile, the type of data were the form of speech in the conversation. data collection was done by observation, field notes, recording, and interviews. miles and huberman interactive analysis and dell hymes, ethnography communication method was used in the analysis. the result of this research shows that form of the code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan are tag switching consists of 21 data and inter-sentential consists of 41 data. the data are taken from indonesian language, banjar language, kutai language, java language, and bugis language, and factors of community language, culture, tribe, and environment existing in segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan also influences the way of code-switching in selling and buying transaction at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. keywords: code-switching, selling and buying, market, sociolinguistics introduction humans as social beings in interaction require communication which can be understood by each other. communication process requires a tool to convey the message that is language. widdowson (2009) has argued that language can be seen as distinctive because of its intricate association with the human mind and with human society. moreover, bloor and bloor (2013) have added that when people use language to make meanings, they do so in specific situations, and the form of the language that they use in discourse is influenced by the complex aspects of those situations. in the daily situation and various places, there are many varieties of language communication occur. one of them is language communication in selling and buying at the market. in those activities, sellers and buyers have different language conversations in accordance with ethnic and cultural background and also are expressed in the form code. a code is a symbol of nationalism that is used by people to speak or communicate in a particular language-a dialect, a register, an accent or a style on different occasions and for different purposes (yuliana, luziana, & sarwendah, 2015). from the use, the phenomenon among sellers and buyers’ speech can be defined as code-switching. apple in chaer & agustina (2014) has stated that code-switching is a transitional phenomenon of language usage due to changing circumstances. in another opinion, code-switching is not only between languages but can also occur between various or styles contained in a language (hymes in chaer & agustina, 2014). in considering the conversation whether codeswitching or not, it should be known by several characteristics. suandi, (2014) has divided the characteristics of code-switching, namely; (1) the code change occurs due to the contact language and the interdependence (language dependency), (2) the switching of code will occur because the public or the speaker is a bilingual or multilingual and or diglossic person, (3) instead of the code of use of the language or code it supports its own function-itself in accordance with the contents of the context, and (4) the function of each language is adapted to the situation related to the change of speech content. besides that, it is necessary to take into account the speakers’ linguistics preferences, their competences, and the conversational context (alfonzettti in lehti-eklund, 2013). in addition, it is also viewed from the sentence structure, such as a positive, negative, interrogative, or imperative sentence. in this research, segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan is considered as the research object. reasons for choosing this market are; segiri market is one of the existing big traditional markets in samarinda, east kalimantan, in the market, there are several tribes found as sellers and 84 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 83-88 buyers, such as banjarnese, bugisnese, kutainese, and javanese, and the market is the main market handling export and import, such as vegetables and fruits from outside of the east kalimantan, such as south sulawesi. in order to analyze code-switching, poplack approach is employed. poplack in putra (2015) has argued that codeswitching refers to the utterance-internal juxtaposition in unintegrated form of over linguistic elements from two or more languages, with no necessary change of interlocutor or topic. in addition, poplack in azlan & narasuman (2013) have divided code-switching into three items, namely; tagswitching, intra-sentential, and inter-sentential. in addition, sardar et al. (2015) have defined that tag-switching refers to the insertion of a tag phrase from a language into a statement from another language. inter-sentential code switching involves in a change occurring at a clause or sentence level, where each clause or sentence is either in one language or the other. inter-sentential cs requires high proficiency in both l1 and l2 compared to tag-switching cs as it involves in the clause or sentence change. intrasentential which is perceived as the most complicated type of code-switching that occurs within the clause or sentence boundary. although intra-sentential cs is the most frequent type of cs in conversations, however, most of the proficient bilingual or multilingual speakers avoid using intra-sentential cs as it contains the highest syntactic risk. although intra-sentential cs is the most frequent type of cs in conversations, however, most of the proficient bilingual or multilingual speakers avoid using intra-sentential cs as it contains the highest syntactic risk. from those explanations, the researchers discuss two research problems. they are how is the form of the codeswitching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan? what are influence factors of codeswitching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan? moreover, the objective of this research are to describe the form of the code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. to describe influence factors of code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. in addition, the benefits of this research are theoretically and practically. theoretically is to examine the code-switching theories in selling and buying transactions, especially by using poplack approach. while practically is to provide more comprehension about developing and commonly local languages used in segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. methods type of this research is a qualitative descriptive. fraenkel and wallen (2012) have argued that descriptive studies describe a given state of affairs as fully and carefully as possible. because this research is sociolinguistics study, poplack approach is also used. fishman in thesa, nababan, and marmanto (2017) have defined that sociolinguistics is a study of characteristics of language variation, language function, and language user. these three elements always interact and mutually change each other in a speech society. related to sociolinguistics, it is focused on the codeswitching form. the form is limited on the tag-switching and inter-sentential switching by focusing on sellers and buyers that spoke indonesian language, banjar language, kutai language, bugis language, and java language as research data. this research is conducted at segiri market located in samarinda, east kalimantan. four market areas existing at segiri market are considered as the location for obtaining data, namely; (1) fish market, (2) staple market, (3) vegetable market, and (4) clothing market. meanwhile, data collection techniques used are observation, field notes, recording, and interview. for the observation, the researchers become nonparticipant and observe any activity of selling and buying in the five market areas of segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. for field notes, the researchers write every selling and buying transaction using code-switching from indonesian language, banjar language, kutai language, bugis language, and java language in the five market areas of segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. for recording, the researchers record every selling and buying transaction in the five market areas of segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan by using the tape recorder. and for interviews, the researchers conduct the semi-structured interview to four sellers of the market by preparing the list of question which is simple and can easily be understood. in order to analyze data, an interactive analysis is used. it consists of three stages, namely data reduction, display data, and conclusion drawing or verification. in data reduction, the researchers gain many data and reduce it from several unimportant and irrelevant data found. in display data, after reducing those data, the researchers display and organize it into data in table 1 that is presented on the results and discussion part. in conclusion drawing or verification, the researchers write the conclusion based on the strong and valid evidence which are proposed on the first step (miles & huberman in moleong, 2014). moreover, the further language data in the form of conversation is analyzed by the ethnographic method. the ethnographic method used is a speech component of speaking expressed by hymes in sumarsono (2008), namely; s (setting and scenes) is segiri market samarinda. it is the place of the research and 04.00-09.00 a.m and 04.0006.00 p.m as the time for collecting data; p (participants) is sellers and buyers in segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan; e (ends), language used of the sellers and buyers should relate to the aim of the conversation; a (act sequences) is the content and meaning of selling and buying transaction; k (keys) is direct or indirect selling and buying conversation, the idea of the conversation, and sentence structure; positive, negative, interrogative, or imperative sentence; i (instrumentalist) is communication devices, such as the gesture; n (norms) is ethics or norms of interaction in selling and buying transaction; g (genre) is the language variation which is used in communication activity. results and discussions in this research, tag switching and inter-sentential switching are found by the researchers. tag switching consists of 21 data and inter-sentential consists of 41 data. the details of those findings of code-switching used at five existing market areas in segiri market samarinda including code variation can be seen in table 1. based on table 1, it shows that there are five languages in the selling and buying in five market areas existing at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. those languages are indonesian language, banjar language, kutai language, bugis language, and java language. moreover, description of the code variation on table 1, it is interpreted on (1) form, (2) participant, and (3) code variation among five languages. 85code-switching in selling and buying .... (islamiah bastiar, et al.) first, in the form of code-switching, it is classified into ts (tag-switching) consists of 21 data and intersw (inter-sentential switching) consists of 41 data. the details of ts (tag-switching) are; fish market is 6, staple market is 5, vegetable market is 4, and clothing market is 6. meanwhile, the details of inter-sw is fish market consists of 10 data, staple market consists of 10 data, vegetable market consists of 12 data, and clothing market consist of 9 data. second, in the participant, it is classified into seller and buyer. the details of the seller are; fish market consists of 3 data, staple consists of 3 data, vegetable market consists of 3 data, and clothing market consists of 4 data. meanwhile, the details of the buyer are; fish market consists 5 data, foodstuff consists of 5 data, vegetable market consists of 5 data, and clothing market consists of 5 data. third, in the code variation among five languages, it is classified into bg-bi (bugis language-indonesia language) consists of 3 data, bb-bg (banjar languagebugis language) consists of 1 data, bi-bg (indonesian language-bugis language) consists of 5 data, bi-bb (indonesian language-banjar language) consists of 21 data, bb-bi (banjar language-indonesian language) consists of 20 data, bk-bb (kutai language-banjar language) consists of 2 data, bi-bk (indonesian language-kutai language) consists of 3 data, bb-bk (banjar language-kutai language) consists of 2 data, and bi-bj (indonesian language-java language) consists of 2 data. in order to gain the further explanation of those forms, the researchers will explain tag switching and inter-sentential switching; (a) the code-switching form of tag-switching, and (b) the code-switching form of intersentential switching. in this research, the explanation of code-switching in the form of tag switching which is found. the first examples of it, the participants are the seller, dn (p), 46 years old, while the buyer is ma. buyer : plastikmu dulu. (your plastic bag, please!) seller : berapa kilo? (how many?) buyer : sekilo setengah aja. berapa? (just a half kilograms, how much is it?) table 1 data of code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market number description code variation fish market staple market vegetable market clothing market total 1 form ts 6 5 4 6 21 inter-sw 10 10 12 9 41 2 participant seller 3 3 3 4 13 buyer 5 5 5 5 20 3 code variation among five languages bg-bi 3 0 0 0 3 bb-bg 1 0 0 0 1 bi-bg 3 1 1 0 5 bi-bb 4 6 5 6 21 bb-bi 4 3 5 8 20 bk-bb 0 1 1 0 2 bi-bk 2 0 0 1 3 bb-bk 0 1 0 1 2 bi-bj 0 0 2 0 2 note: ts = tag-switching, inter-sw = inter-sentential switching, bi = indonesia language, bb = banjar language, bg = bugis language, bk = kutai language, bj = java language. seller : kasih cukup dua kilo aja. kalau satu setengah empat lima. dua kilo lima puluh lima. (give me two kilograms, if one kilogram is forty five rupiahs. two kilograms is fifty five rupiahs) buyer : hamma, kenapa mahal sekali ikan? (oh my god, why is the fish price expensive?) seller : kosong ikan. (the fish is empty) that conversation takes place in the fish market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, seller dn and buyer ma employ indonesia and bugis language. in the conversation, the buyer ma is shocked after knowing the fish’ price and said “hamma”. based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it indicates that as a lingual form of the code-switching, namely; tag-switching. it switches from indonesia language to bugis language. moreover, the sentence is also categorized as an interrogative sentence, because it shows that the sentence is a question sentence which needs an answer. the second example of code-switching in the form of tag switching, the participants are the seller, ds (p), 50 years old, and the buyer is ph. buyer : hitung dulu. sama hutangku kemarin ya!. (count first with my owe yesterday!) seller : garam 1 pcs, kacang 5kilo, ketan 2kilo, gula lembek 1 bungkus, gula pasir 2 kilo, kanji 2 bungkus, petis 4, (sambil menghitung). dua ratus lima ribu, ditambah yang kemarin seratus tiga puluh dua. jadi tiga ratus tiga puluh tujuh ribu. (salt is 1 pcs, peanuts is 5 kilograms, sticky rice is 2 kilograms, soft sugar is 1 pcs, sugar sand is 2 kilograms, starch is 2 pcs, petis is 4 pc) (while counting) two hundred five thousand plus one hundred thirty two. so, three hundred thirty seven thousand) buyer : wadak leh, ampun habis lagi duit. (oh god, my money is broken) 86 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 83-88 that conversation takes place in the food market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller ds and the buyer ph employ indonesia and kutai language. in the conversation, the buyer ph is shocked because she has to pay much than usual and says “wadak leh” of those staple that she buys. based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it indicates that a code-switching form found is tag-switching. it switches from indonesia language to kutai language. besides that, the sentence is also categorized as a declarative sentence which shows an argument sentence. the third examples of code-switching in the form of tag switching, the participants are the seller mt (p), 42 years old, and the buyer mk. buyer : waluh tiga ribu bisa kah? (labu tiga ribu bisa?) (pumpkin is three thousand, can it?) seller : wadak leh, kada kawa segitu. kalo kam handak lima ribu. (tidak bisa, kalau mau lima ribu). (it can’t, if you want i give you five thousand) buyer : kada usah dah kabanyakan banar. (tidak jadi kebanyakan sekali). (no, it is too much). that conversation takes place in the vegetable market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller mt and the buyer mk employ banjar and kutai language. the buyer mk just would like to buy pumpkins with price rp3.000,00,because, in the market, it is usually sold with price rp5.000,00,-. the seller mt replies “wadak leh”. based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it is indicated that code-switching form found is tag-switching. it switches from banjar language to kutai language. the sentence is categorized as declarative sentence contains information or argument. the fourth examples of code-switching in the form of tag switching, the participant are the seller, fx (l), 35 years old, and the buyer is bl. buyer : bang, kulot mana yang hitam. (bang, which one is black kulot?) seller : aw, cukup emang pakai kulot? (enough for using it?) buyer : mawarahakan abang ni. (mengolok abang ini) (are you moking?) seller : kada, biasa ikam pakai levis pang ku liat, kalo ai kada cukup kan pakai hini. (sambil tertawa) (tidak, biasanya kamu pakai levis aku lihat, siapa tau gak cukup pakai ini). (no, you used to have levis, who knows i can use it enough!) that conversation takes place in the dress market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller fx and the buyer bl employ indonesia and banjar language. in the conversation, the seller fx is shocked because the buyer bl asks about kulot pants and said: “aw, cukup emang pakai kulot?” based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it is indicated as a lingual form of the code-switching, namely tag-switching. it switches from indonesia language to banjar language which shows shocking expression. in addition, the sentence is also categorized as an interrogative sentence, because it shows a question which needs a question. in this research, the use of code-switching of intersentential switching is also found. in the first example, the participants are the seller an (l), 35 years old, and the buyer is pw. buyer : berapaan nila sakilo? (berapa nila sekilo?). (how much is it?) seller : ampat puluh. (empat puluh). (forty) buyer : larangnya pang, biasanya jua dua puluh delapan. (mahal sekali, biasanya dua puluh delapan ribu). (it is very expensive, it is usually twenty eight thousand) seller : kawa ai. (bisa saja) tapi ekornya aja ya? (it can, but just the tail, yes?) buyer : gak apa ekornya, tapi kasih sekarung ya!. (no problem for tail, but it is given now!) that conversation takes place in the fish market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller, an, and the buyer pw employ banjar and indonesia language. in the conversation, the buyer pw asks about parrot fish and bargains it. the seller, an, replies “tapi ekornya aja ya.” based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, the sentence used is indicated as a lingual form of the codeswitching, namely inter-sentential switching. it switches from banjar language to the indonesian language. besides that, the sentence is also categorized as an interrogative sentence, because it needs an answer. the second examples of the use of code-switching of inter-sentential switching, the participants are the seller gt (l), 29 years old, and the buyer is zn. seller : belanja apa? (what do you shop?) buyer : biasa. (as usual) seller : ambil sendiri aja ya, nanti ku hitung. (take it by yourself, i will count it later) buyer : kamu aja, tur!. (you, tur!) seller : tumben betul gak seperti biasanya. biasa na alabawenni ajana melo isuro. (sambil tersenyum) (biasa ambil sendiri gak usah disuruh). (you used to take it by yourself without requested) that conversation takes place in the cuisine market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller gt and buyer zn employ indonesia and bugis language. the seller gt asks the buyer zn about what she wants to buy. then, the seller gt asks the buyer zn to take by himself and tells, “biasa na alabawenni ajana melo isuro.” based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it is indicated as a lingual form of the code-switching, namely; inter-sentential switching which has meaning, “you used to take it by yourself without requested.” it switches from 87code-switching in selling and buying .... (islamiah bastiar, et al.) indonesia language to bugis language. besides that, the sentence is also categorized as a declarative sentence with an argument. the third examples of the use of code-switching of inter-sentential switching, the participants are the seller xz (p), 40 years old, and the buyer is xy. seller : sayur bu? (vegetable, mam?) buyer : berapa yang ini? (nunjuk kangkung). (how much is it?) (pointing kale vegetables) seller : dua lima ribu. bayam lima ribu seikat. (twenty five thousand. spinach is five thousand) buyer : segar-segar ya sayurnya. (vegetables look fresh) seller : yaiyalah bu segar-segar. nek subuh yo apik, nek wis awan yo alum. (kalau subuh ya bagus, kalau sudah siang ya layu). (that is right. if it is dawn, they look fresh, but if it is afternoon, they do not) that conversation takes place in the vegetable market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller xz and the buyer xy employ indonesia and java language. in the transaction, the seller xz offers the vegetables to buyers, buyer xy asks those vegetables’ price and buys it because those vegetables look fresh. the seller xz tells to the buyer xy that if they sell in the dawn, those vegetables look fresh, but it does not look fresh if it is sold in the evening, as she said: “nek subuh yo apik, nek wis awan yo alum.” based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it indicates that code-switching form found is inter-sentential switching. it switches from indonesia language to java language. besides that, the sentence is also categorized as a declarative sentence. it can be viewed from the act contains information. the fourth examples of the use of code-switching of inter-sentential switching, the participants are the seller am (l), 38 years old, the buyer is ob. buyer : kada, bang. berapaan lah sebuting? warnanya pang apa ajalah? (tidak, bang. berapa satu? warnanya apa saja?) (no, how much is it? what color?) seller : warnanya banyak nanti. (banyak warnanya). pilih aja dulu kamu. kena kucarikan warnanya. (nanti aku carikan warnanya). (i will look for its colors) buyer : warna biru ada kah? (warna biru ada?) (is blue available?) seller : yang kayak mana bentuknya? (yang seperti apa modelnya?) (what model do you want?) buyer : yang hini nah (sambil menunjuk salah satu model baju koko yang ada). (yang ini) (this one) seller : hini lah...(sambil menyerahkan mode baju yang dimaksud). (ini) (here it is). that conversation takes place in the clothes market area of the segiri market. during the conversation, the seller am and the buyer ob employ banjar and indonesian language. the buyer ob asks about the clothes colors at the shop; then the seller am suggests to choose the model of clothes first because those clothes have many colors. the seller tells, “pilih aja dulu kamu.” based on the analysis of the underlined sentence, it indicates that a lingual form of the code-switching used, namely; inter-sentential switching. it switches from banjar language to indonesia language. besides that, the sentence is also categorized as an imperative sentence, because it contains a request. from all the samples of the conversation showed, it is found only two types of code-switching form, namely; tag switching and inter-sentential switching. the most dominant of code-switching form used at the market is intersentential, while tag switching is just used at the surprised expression of the seller as well as the buyer. those analysis have similar results with research of sutrisni (2005). from the research, it is found two forms of code-switching used, namely; code-switching in the form of language switching, and speech act switching. they switch from java language to indonesia language. besides that, there are two code-switching in the form of speech level, namely; code-switching from ngoko level to kromo level, and code-switching from krama level to ngoko level. being compared with another research, there is also a difference from koban (2013), namely; this research just focuses on the national language, namely turkish and english. meanwhile, in this research, it is focused on four local languages and one national language, the scope of the research is a city, namely; new york city. meanwhile, in this research, it is scoped at one market, namely; segiri market, and poplack’s approach is just used for two majors, namely: intra-sentential and inter-sentential. meanwhile, in this research, it is just focused on tag-switching and intersentential. from those results, it can be discussed by the researchers that tag switching occurs due to the speaker would like to explain or show shocking expression to the listener. this type is usually found in the first sentence, such as hamma, wadak leh, lopet, hadeh, uma ai, kada, iya, and aw. those codes are the code-switching from indonesia language to bugis language, banjar language to kutai language, indonesian language to kutai language, and banjar language to the indonesian language. based on the results, tag switching consists of 6 data at the fish market, 5 data at the staple market, 4 data at the vegetable market, and 6 data at the clothes market. then, inter-sentential switching is found in the sentence. in this research, this type occurs from indonesia language to kutai language, indonesia language to bugis language, banjar language to bugis language, indonesia language to java language, and banjar language to kutai language. based on the findings, inter-sentential found is 10 data at the fish market, 10 data at staple market, 12 data at the vegetable market, and 9 data at the clothes market. relating with poplack’s (1980) explanation, tag switching is defined as insertion of another language into the lingual unit of the sentence of the language spoken as the language in speech. meanwhile, inter-sentential switching is defined as the form of the transition of the speaker’s utterance into the sentence or clause. moreover, koban (2013) in his research’s conclusion adds that studying code-switching in language contact situations, one should also consider the influence of other social variables 88 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 1, february 2018, 83-88 such as the participants, the setting, and the topic of the conversation on the type and frequency of code-switching. from discussions, it can be pointed out that lingual forms of code-switching found at segiri market are tag switching and inter-sentential switching as well as five languages identified, namely; indonesia language, banjar language, bugis language, kutai language, and java language. besides that, factors of community language, culture, tribe, and environment existing in the market also influence the way of code-switching among buyers and sellers. it is supported by toribio (2009) who argues that three types of factor contribute to the form taken by codeswitching in a particular instance; factors independent of particular circumstances in which the varieties are used, which affect all the speakers of the relevant varieties in a particular community; factors that are directly related to the speakers, both as individuals and as members of a variety of subgroups; factors within the conversations where codeswitching takes place. conclusions based on the results of analysis and discussion, the researchers can make two conclusions based on the research problems proposed. first, form of the codeswitching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan are tag switching consists of 21 data, and inter-sentential consists of 41 data. the data is taken from indonesian language, banjar language, kutai language, java language, and bugis language. besides that, tag switching and inter-sentential switching are used in the form of declarative, imperative, and interrogative sentences. in addition, the most dominant of code-switching when selling and buying transaction taking place is inter-sentential switching, while tag switching is just used in the form of surprise expression by the sellers as well as the buyers. second, factors of community language, culture, tribe, and environment existing in segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan also influence the way of code-switching in selling and buying transaction at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. relating to the implication of this research, there are three implications which can be noted. this research is the first research conducted at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan. the research has given one new information for the authority of segiri market samarinda about selling and buying transaction of the market that it is not only indonesian language, but also local languages, such as bugis language or banjar language used in selling and buying. the it shows that area of segiri market samarinda still keeps culture in selling and buying transaction through language whether indonesian language or native language at the market. references azlan, n. m. n. i., & narasuman, s. 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(kelly rosalin) developing specific chinese teaching material for indonesia based on a comparison between chinese and english teaching materials 印尼汉语国别教材的对比分析 ——以《当代中文》(印尼语版) 与《初级标准华语》为例 kelly rosalin chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 krosalin@binus.edu abstract teaching material is a foundation of language learning. it is also a very important tool in teaching and learning process. especially for students who learnt in non-chinese environment, during the learning process, they can only rely on teachers and teaching materials. article was based on previous research about teaching methods. article used two teaching materials that have indonesian language translation contemporary chinese and chuji biaozhun huayu. besides, it compared the content and designed to analyze the similarities and differences of these teaching materials. through the analysis, research gives solution in teaching materials design. keywords: elementary chinese teaching materials, comparative analysis, contemporary chinese, chuji biaozhun huayu 内容摘要 教材是语言学习的基础,是对外汉语教学的最主要工具之一尤其是对于在非汉语环境中学习汉语的学 生。他们在学习汉语时,只能依赖课堂教学环境中的教师和教材。笔者参考前人已有研究成果为基础,选取两 套有印尼语注释的汉语教材----《当代中文(入门级)》与《初级标准华语》,对两套初级汉语教材的设计和 内容等方面进行对比研究,分析两套教材的异同之处。通过对两套教材的比较,提出一些自己对如何编好一部 针对印尼学生的初级汉语教材的看法。 关键词: 初级汉语教材;对比分析;《当代中文(入门级)》;《初级标准华语》 66 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 引言 吕必松(1996)认为教材是课堂教学的基础和 直接依据,要提高课堂教学的质量,就必须有理想的 教材。如果教材不理想,甚至根本不适用,就难以提 高课堂教学的质量。汉语教材具有一定的地位以及作 用,它直接影响到汉语教学的质量并影响到学生对学 习汉语的积极性,好的教材具有激发学生的学习兴趣 的作用,便于学生吸收并了解教材里的内容。 在汉语教学的世界里,汉语国别教材的编写和 开发越来越受到重视并显得更为重要与迫切。为了满 足各国对汉语的需求,中国国内编写了一些国别化教 材。目前的状况是在印尼所使用的汉语教材大多数是 中国国内编写的汉语通用性教材。这些教材虽然不是 很适合印尼学习者学习,但是要找到真正的适合印尼 学习者使用的印尼国别教材还存在一定的问题。主要 的问题就是这些教材还缺乏针对性。因此,笔者选取 两部初级印尼汉语国别教材的综合课教材《当代中 文》与《初级标准华语》,通过比较和评估,从几个 方面对比评价,分析出它们各自的长处和不足,并总 结出它们所存在的问题。希望能够为印尼汉语国别教 材提供实用的建议和意见。 内容 教材概况 《当代中文(入门级)》多文种教材,即在通 用性汉语教材的版本上作出多语种翻译的教材。此教 材已翻译成43个文种,有英、韩、德、泰、日、印尼 等多种国家语言,是目前世界上将出版语种最多权威 成人汉语教材并在2009年12月举行的孔子学院大会上 获得优秀国际汉语教材奖。这套教材是在对外国大学 实地考察的基础上,充分考虑国外汉语教学环境的特 点编写而成的。《当代中文(入门级)》多文种系列 (印尼语版)是一套专门针对母语为印尼语的汉语零 起点学习者而设计。教材内容注意情节、情景的个性 化和人情味,话题的情趣性和人性化,通过特定的十 时实用交际任务把结构、功能、文化点有机结合起 来。这套教材的主要目标是培养学生对汉语的理解能 力和交际能力,尤其听、说、读、写各项语言技能。 全套教材共有三本,包括《课本》、《练习册》与《 汉字本》。《当代中文》的教材体例是每个课的重 点、词语、课文、语音、语法、参考词语、文化点。 印尼语版的教材做了本土化的处理,所以更适合印尼 汉语学习者的需求。本论文将选择《当代中文》入门 级多文种系列的课本和练习本进行详细地分析。 《初级标准华语》是专门为印尼学生编写的教 材。《初级标准华语》是2006年北京语言大学出版社 出版,由宋燕坤编著,这本教材特请从事华语教学 的印尼籍华语教师 ibu elly romy 担任教材印尼语 翻译。专门针对印尼成年人学习汉语而编写的系列 教材,作为国别教材,其针对性和、专业性与实用 性十分突出。这套教材的主要目标是帮助学生掌握和 理解规范、自然、得体的语言表达,并能够实现的有 效的交际。这套教材共有四本教材,《初级标准华 语》第一册的教材体例是课文、生词、语法、注释、 学拼音、练习、你知道吗、挑战词汇、写汉字、轻松 时刻、北京的名胜。《初级标准华语》第二册和第三 册的教材体例没有学拼音的部分,而北京的名胜部分 以扩展图片来代替,但在第三册已没有写汉字的部分 了。本论文选择《初级标准华语》第一册、第二册与 第三册进行分析。 这两套汉语教材都是针对零起点汉语学习者学 习汉语。两者都是中国国内编写的汉语教材。 《当代中文(入门级)》与《初级标准华语》对比及 分析 本文是通过对教材的评估来对比这两套汉语教 材。首先,我们应该知道什么是教材评估。李泉认为 教材评估就是根据特定的标准或原则对教材设计和实 施的成败得失、优势高下进行评议和估量。也就是评 估教材的成功之处、失误之处、不足之处,以及该有 的是否已有、已有的是否合理、合理的是否创新、创 新的是否突出,等等。李泉还认为评估的范围和内容 可以多角度、多层次的全方位评估,比如,生词量及 重现率是否适当教材练习是否覆盖全部或主要教学内 容;语法注释是否简明准确;有无有配套材料及教师 手册等方面。 关于类似的研究,徐蔚曾在《美国两部汉语教 材的对比分析》中,把两套美国汉语教材主要以列表 的形式进行了对比,包括:(1)配套资料;(2)课 本的结构与编排;(3)课文形式;(4)语法出现形 式;(5)生词;(6)练习形式;(7)文化的呈现 方式及与课文的关系;(8)板式和装帧设计;(9) 汉字教学。本文想通过徐蔚所提出的这几个方面对两 套印尼国别教材进行对比分析。 配套资料 表1 配套资料 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 学生资源 课本、汉字本、练习 册和录音光盘2张、网 络教学资源(http:// jxzy.chinese.cn) 第一册到第三册 从表中可看出《当代中文(入门级)》比《初 级标准华语》的配套资料更为丰富。这两套教材都没 有教师手册,而且《初级标准华语》没有附加辅助资 料。好的教材一定要有辅助资料(录音光盘)及教师 手册。教师手册作为教材体系中不可缺少的一部分, 教师手册是为帮助,特别是青年教师更好地使用该教 材而编写的,它对提高教学质量有着非常重要的作 用,尤其是对于国外本土汉语教师来说,教师手册是 作为教学的指南针,帮助教师明确每课的教学目的, 起导向作用,便于教师做好授课的准备。 课本结构与编排 课本体例 表2 课本体例 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 前言 前言 目录 范围和顺序 目录 课文等 课文等 附录:人物表、语法术语表、 普通话声韵配合总表、印尼 文课文、词语索引、语法项 目索引 附录:人物表、词类对照表、 课后练习参考答案、词汇表 (包括专名) 67developing specific ….. (kelly rosalin) 《当代中文(入门级)》的目录中有“范围和 顺序”,而《初级标准华语》的目录中只有话题。 表3《当代中文(入门级)》 范围和顺序范例(第一课) 第一课 您贵姓 pelajaran ke-1 siapa nama keluarga kamu? fonetik: modifikasi nada “不” tatabahasa: pola kalimat sederhana 1: subye k+ kata kerja (+ objyek) kata tambahan + kata kerja kalimat tanya 从表格可以看出《当代中文(入门级)》的目 录中包含了话题、印尼翻译、语音、语法等内容。这 套教材的附录内容也比较丰富,它比《初级标准华 语》多的部分主要有普通话声韵配合总表、印尼文课 文以及语法项目索引,而《初级标准华语》比《当 代中文(入门级)》多的部分主要是课后练习参考答 案。对于汉语学习者来说,综合课的难点就在于它的 语法部分。因此,笔者认为在附录中有“语法项目索 引”的部分是有利于学生复习语法部分。至于《初级 标准华语》附录中的“课后练习参考答案”,笔者认 为没有必要出现,免得学生在做练习时,参考后面的 答案。课后练习参考答案的部分应该放在教师手册 中。 课文的结构 表4 课文每一课结构 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 依次分别为:范句、词语(核 心词、补充词语)、课文、注 释、语音、语法、扩充词语、 文化知识 依次分别为:课文、生词、语 法、注释、学拼音(第一册) 、练习、你知道吗、挑战词 汇、写汉字、轻松时刻、拓 展图片 语言教材一般由词汇、句型、课文和练习等部 分组成的。在《当代中文(入门级)》教材中没有练 习部分,是因为它把练习题集中在练习册上。与《 初级标准华语》相比,《当代中文(入门级)》有一 个特点,就是在每一课最前面有一个板块“范句” ,“范句”提示本课所要学的句型及主要内容,引起 学习兴趣。因此,在学习之前,学生能够先了解,这 一课大概学什么内容。而与《当代中文(入门级)》 相比,《初级标准华语》有两个特点:第一“轻松时 刻”,这个部分能起到寓教于乐、加深记忆、活跃课 堂的效果,通过游戏帮助学习者利用他们所学到的词 汇连接日常生活、社区和文化。例如:以《初级标准 华语》第二册的第十九课“比一比”为例,大家一起 列出蔬菜、水果的名称,看有多少种,然后比一比谁 记得最多;第二“拓展图片”,每课的拓展图片中都 插入了一些有关中国风土人情的图片。这些图片与课 文内容相应,也能够起到活跃课堂气氛的作用。 课文形式 表5 课文形式 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 课文出现形式 汉字上注拼音 第一册至第三册:汉 字上都注拼音 注释 汉字和印尼语 汉字、印尼语、拼音 徐蔚认为课文注有拼音是有利有弊。一方面降 低了汉字认读的难度,尤其是对一些学习比较困难或 者年级比较大的汉语学习者,另一方面也容易培养成 汉语学习者对拼音的依赖性。 这两套教材的课文都注了拼音,笔者认为在《 初级标准华语》的第二册和第三册应该不必注拼音 了,开始标注了调号。对于《当代中文(入门级)》 应该前10课还可以注拼音,第十一课开始应该只标注 了调号,采取这种的方法,能够让学生习惯认读汉 字,不依赖着拼音。而在“注释”部分也出现了文边 注,《当代中文(入门级)》的“注释”部分只是采 用汉字和印尼语来简单说明功能,而在《初级标准华 语》的“注释”部分,采用了汉字、拼音和印尼语说 明,这样能够使学生更快地了解注释所解释的内容。 语法出现形式 表6 语法出现形式 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 语法点说明 印尼语 汉语和印尼语 例句出现形式 第一课至第8课:汉字注拼音 第9课至第12课:汉字 第13课:汉字与印尼翻译 第14课至第20课:汉字 第一册: 第一课至第8课:汉 字、注拼音、印尼 语翻译 第九课:汉字和印尼 语翻译 第二册与第三册:汉 字、注拼音、印尼 语翻译 《初级标准华语》的语法点说明是使汉语和印 尼语解释,而《当代中文(入门级)》只用印尼语解 释。对于零起点的汉语学习者来说,使用印尼语来说 明语法点是很有必要的,利于学生的容易理解。 《当代中文(入门级)》的语法例句形式是相 当不错,但是针对初级的汉语学习者,在每个句子应 该有印尼语注释是比较好的。而在《初级标准华语》 的第二册和第三册,应该把拼音删掉,因为能够养成 学生对拼音的依赖性。 生词形式及数量 表7 生词形式及数量 《当代中文(入 门级)》 《初级标准华 语》 生词出现形式 简体字、词性( 印尼语)、拼 音、印尼语译 简体字、繁体 字、拼音、词 性、印尼语译 生词数量 生词(包括专名) 685(共22课) 991(共27课) 补充生词 296 250 共计 981 1241 《当代中文(入门级)》的生词分为生词、专 名与补充词语三个部分,而《初级标准华语》的生 词分为生词与专名两个部分,该教材把补充词语放在 挑战词汇部分。这两套汉语教材对生词的解释简明易 懂,采用了直接翻译法,使用印尼语解释生词,使学 生对词语理解起来更直观、更准确,减少了因翻译的 不准确的问题给学生带来在应用上的错误引导。 从表格可以看出,《初级标准华语》的生词量 词比《当代中文(入门级)》多,这两套教材对生 68 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 词数量的控制比较合理,《当代中文(入门级)》教 材每课文的词汇量平均都控制在31个生词左右,而《 初级标准华语》教材每课文的词汇量平均都控制在36 个生词左右(不包含补充词语)。另外,《初级标准 华语》还有一个比较突出的特点,每一课的生词表都 同时列出了简体字和繁体字。根据maharani在《印尼 华文教学中繁体字的使用情况及其未来的使用预测》 ,“华文教学中使用繁简体汉字的选择要立足于教 学的主要目的,她并建议使用简体汉字教学到一定程 度,要到如繁体汉字教学,使教学对象也懂繁体汉 字,才利于教学对象阅读繁体汉字文献。”因此,把 繁体字纳入生词表是有必要的。 练习形式 表8 练习形式 《当代中文(入门级)》 《初级标准华语》 课 本 练 习 出 现 形 式 在课本没有练习部分 练习中出现的汉子都注 有拼音 类 型 及 数 量 语音练习(10);汉字练 习(1);词组练习(7) ;句子练习(13);综合 练习(5) 练 习 册 类 型 及 数 量 语音练习(4);词组练习 (3);句子练习(11); 综合练习(4) 没有练习册 汉 字 练 习 册 类 型 及 数 量 汉字练习(12);拼音练 习(2);词组(2);句 子练习(1) 没有汉字练习册 教材中的练习部分对学习和教学起着十分重要 的作用。教师通过练习可以了解学生的学习情况。《 当代中文(入门级)》与《初级标准华语》教材的练 习部分都已经涉及到听说读写四项技能的训练,题型 丰富,有语音练习、汉字练习、词组练习、句子练 习、综合练习。这两套教材的练习是由死到活以标 准,“ 死”是指机械练习或形式练习,如:语音练 习(辨析声母、辨析韵母、重复语音等),“活”是 指活用联系,如:综合练习 (说一说、描写图片、 回答问题等)。 《当代中文(入门级)》有一个比 较突出特点,这本教材设计了拼音练习。针对零起点 的学生,拼音练习是非常重要,零起点的学生刚开始 学习汉语时,不认字,因此,拼音对他们起着十分重 要的作用。《初级标准华语》从第一册至第三册的练 习中出现的汉字都注拼音,笔者认为第二册开始,练 习中的汉字应不必注拼音,助于学生认字的能力。《 当代中文(入门级)》的练习册的提示题都只使用印 尼语,笔者认为练习的提示题应该有汉字与印尼语, 这样才能让学生逐步地熟悉汉语。 文化呈现方式 《当代中文(入门级)》每一课后有“文化知 识”,用印尼语介绍一些跟课文相关的文化知识,比 较简短。与之相比,《初级标准华语》每一课都有“ 你知道吗”,“你知道吗“,这部分是介绍中国文化 知识并使用汉字与印尼语来介绍,内容比较丰富,几 个课的“你知道吗“配有真实的图片,以第一册的 第七课的“你知道吗“为例,介绍关于长城的烽火 台,在“北京的名胜“的部分配有一张烽火台的真实 图片。但《初级标准华语》的文化知识跟课文内容无 关。笔者认为在文化知识的部分所介绍的中国文化知 识应与课文内容有相应的联系。每个文化知识也需要 配有相关的真实图片。 版式和装帧设计 赵金铭拟定的对外汉语教材评估表,其中一个 的评估的项目是对教材的形式的标准,教材的形式主 要设计版式和装帧设计。赵金铭对版式和装帧设计 主要的要求是教材开本合适,使用方便、插图数量适 当,与内容配合紧密、版面活泼新颖,吸引学习者以 及教材内容适用不同字号编排。 《当代中文(入门级)》与《初级标准华语》 这两套教材已经符合赵金铭所提出的标准。《当代中 文(入门级)》与《初级标准华语》采用两色印刷, 每一页页眉列出可序号及课文名称,方便使用。《初 级标准华语》的插图数量比《当代中文(入门级)》 多,但两套教材在课文或者练习部分所采用的图片不 是真实图片,《初级标准华语》只在“拓展图片”的 部分与第三册采用真实图片。 笔者认为如果图片来源于真实图片,如真实生 活场面,能够使学生感到很自然也很亲切,能够引起 学生对教学内容的兴趣,而且所插入的图片也要与教 学内容相关。 汉字教学 印尼是属于非汉字圈的国家,对于印尼汉语学 习者来说,要学习并掌握汉字并不是很简单的事情。 汉字是表音和表义的文字,不是像印尼文字是拼音文 字。因此,在汉语教材必须重视汉字教学,尤其是针 对零起点与初级学生的汉语教材,才能为汉语学习者 在书写汉字打好基础。 《初级标准华语》没有专门设计汉字教学的部 分,只设计汉字练习,就是写汉字,只有在第一册和 第二册。而《当代中文(入门级)》在汉字本是专 门针对汉字教学而编,不仅介绍了汉字的基础知识、 包括汉字结构、偏旁、壁笔顺等,而且在汉字本也 有许多涉及到汉字教学的练习,汉字的练习形式也是 多样, 如:写汉字、看拼音写汉字、补上遗漏的笔 画、猜一猜汉字的组合、写出含有下列部件的汉字等 等。可以看出来,《当代中文(入门级)》的编者很 注重汉字教学。 结论 通过以上分析和比较,可以看出《当代中文 (入门级)》与《初级标准华语》各有长处和短处。 笔者通过以上的对比分析得出在为印尼编写汉语教材 要考虑到九个方面。第一,在配套资源方面,一定要 有辅助资料(录音光盘)及教师手册。第二,在课本 结构和编排方面,教材的目录中需要有范围和顺序, 使学生更详细、清楚地了解通过这本教材他们会学到 什么。第三,从课文形式方面看,初级教材的课文内 容的前十课或第一册都能注有拼音以及印尼翻译,降 低了汉字读写难度并让学生更容易了解课文内容,但 从十一课或第二册开始不必再注拼音,而需要标注了 调号与印尼语翻译。第四,教材的语法形式应使用汉 69developing specific ….. (kelly rosalin) 语和印尼语说明。第五,生词数量要一定的控制上, 每个课文的生词量要平均,生词表同时列出简、繁体 字,更适合印尼学生。第六、练习形式要多样并针对 印尼学生学习汉语的难点作为出发点。第七、从课本 对文化知识的处理上,文化知识的内容要丰富,如果 能够对比印尼与中国的文化是比较好。第八,从版式 和装帧设计看,教材所有的插图应采用真实土图片, 才能够引起学生的兴趣。第九,因为印尼是非汉子圈 的国家,针对印尼学生的汉语教材应更注重汉字教学 方面。 参考文献 李泉.(2006).对外汉语教材研究.北京:商务印书 馆. 徐蔚.(2011).美国两部汉语教材的对比分析——《 中文天地》和《新实用汉语课本》.云南师范 大学学报,9(2):20-26. 周蕾.(2009).泰国高校初级汉语精读课教材对比 研究——以《汉语教程》与《基础汉语》为 例.硕士学位论文.厦门:厦门大学. maharani.(2008).印尼华文教学中繁体字的使用情况 及其未来的使用预测.汉字运用与国(华)语 文教学国际学术研讨会论文集. 宋燕坤.(2006).初级标准华语(第一册).北京: 北 京语言大学出版社. 宋燕坤.(2006).初级标准华语(第二册).北京: 北 京语言大学出版社. 宋燕坤.(2007).初级标准华语(第三册).北京: 北 京语言大学出版社. 吴中伟.(2010).《当代中文》入门级(课本).北 京:华语教学版社. 吴中伟.(2010).《当代中文》入门级(练习册).北 京:华语教学版社. 吴中伟.(2010).《当代中文》入门级(汉字本).北 京:华语教学版社. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 273 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 273-277 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4072 cina-surabaya dialect spoken to younger, same age, and older addressee in surabaya khalis fadillah linguistics, faculty of humanities, airlangga university jl. dharmawangsa dalam, surabaya 60286, indonesia khalis.fadillah@gmail.com received: 11th october 2017 /revised: 11th january 2018 /accepted: 22nd february 2018 how to cite: fadillah, k. (2018). cina-surabaya dialect spoken to younger, same age, and older addressee in surabaya lingua cultura, 12(3), 273-277. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4072 abstract this research focused on the way tionghoa ethnic people used cina-surabaya as the dialect produced by them to speak to a younger, same age, and older addressee. looking at the differences on how cina-surabaya dialect used for the different age gap, the problems of the research were differences in how tionghoa ethnic people used cina-surabaya dialect and how tionghoa ethnic people used cina-surabaya dialect to speak for different age gap. in this research, the researcher applied the descriptive qualitative method with four steps; they were recording the data, organizing the data, transcribing the data, and summarizing or interpreting the findings. the result shows that their dialect has a different pattern in their utterances based on the addressee they are talking. on the linguistics features, they add some prefix and suffixes from the original javanese language and take it as their language in expressing several words. keywords: cina-surabaya dialect, tionghoa ethnicity, sociolinguistics introduction indonesia has known as a nation who has hundreds of ethnic groups that speak many different languages. those different ethnic groups also create a system or an order following their environment that is somehow called a culture. culture is a cognitive system, a system that is consist of knowledge, beliefs, and values that are in the minds of individual members of society (kalangie, 1994). culture can also be called as social behavior. in human life, social behavior is like a reflection of the culture they profess. for example, their behavior in speaking or expressing opinions. the way someone speaking or expressing views could show who they are and how they are supposed to be treated. referring to each social behavior as a reflection of the culture that human profess, language becomes the first thing that comes to mind to show the first impression of each society. language becomes the key to explain how a person managed the specific situation in having a great situational perception and general knowledge. the language also seems to develop into some devices to integrate contextual information (mishra, srinivasan, & huettig, 2015). therefore, knowing how to use a language is needed more than understanding the language itself. a person who knows how to use a language instead of understands the language and knows how to use it could be considered as having mutual intelligibility with the person they are talking. surabaya is the capital city of east java, located in indonesia that has much population from different ethnicity who seeks for their better life or even continuing their growth. the location of surabaya that is along the edge of madura strait and has much population from different ethnicity which makes surabaya people known as the egalitarian people who believe that all people are equal and deserve the same opportunities in education, politics, as well as trading goods. knowing that surabaya is in east java, people in surabaya also known as javanese people who are unique because they barely use the javanese language in three level of politeness. the language in javanese which is called ngoko are the best-known language in surabaya because it is the easiest to be understood and has a closer meaning to the indonesian language. another unique perspective that surabaya has with a population around 6.484.206 also includes tionghoa ethnicity people whom best known as the successful trader who lives in surabaya (karsono & suprapto, 2014). these tionghoa ethnicity people are not only living in surabaya but also have their way of communicating with the other people. the way the communicates apply in how they communicate with the same ethnicity which is tionghoa in surabaya either older, younger, or the same age, and how they communicate with different ethnicity which is javanese people who live in surabaya. agnes, who is one of tionghoa who lives in surabaya, also has stated that she uses cina-surabaya language to speak with her friends. cina-surabaya language is the combination of javanese and chinese language that is produced by tionghoa ethnic people in surabaya. 274 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 273-277 the article focuses on the way tionghoa ethnic people use cina-surabaya as the dialect that is produced by them. dialect and language are both ambiguous terms even though ordinary people know the meaning of each term quite freely in their speech (wardhaugh, 2010). dialect is known as the varieties of how local people use their language for formal or informal speech. in javanese, it is known as krama inggil and krama (formal) and ngoko (informal). meanwhile, language is known to be the superordinate category and the standard variety of a language, or the main language known in every single person in one place (wardhaugh & fuller, 2015). looking at how javanese and indonesian language are generally known in using it on the different way, cina surabaya could be a unique dialect to be analyzed on the way it used for different speech to the person whom speakers are talking to. based on the background of the research, the problems are formulated as: (1) is there any differences in how tionghoa ethnic people use cina-surabaya dialect to the younger, same age, and older person in surabaya? (2) how do tionghoa ethnic people use cina-surabaya dialect to speak towards younger, same age, and older person in surabaya? referring to tionghoa dialect in using the javanese language, most people in surabaya call it cina-surabaya dialect; there are several types of research that also define about that phenomenon. the first research is by sartini (2004) that has defined the variety of language used by cina-surabaya in talking with the same ethnicity using the descriptive qualitative method to identify its linguistic features. the result of this research is cina-surabaya usually uses hokkien (chinese) to talk with the same ethnicity, and they use javanese or indonesian to talk with different ethnicity. the differences between this research and sartini’s is that this article not only identifies about cina-surabaya variety in talking with the same ethnicity or different ethnicity with them, but also the way they talk with younger, older, and same age person. another research is written by sari (2014) that has identified the structural basis and pattern in pronunciation uses by cina-surabaya in having a conversation with the other person they are talking. by using the descriptive qualitative method, it is found that there is the change of phoneme, removal in phoneme, and additional in phoneme of javanese language. there is also the process of affixation and reduplication as the result of morphology reveals by the author. there are differences between this research and sari’s that are on the chosen topic. this present research is sociolinguistics research about how cina-surabaya interacts using their dialect according to the ages that the person is talking with, while sari’s research is a phonology and morphology article about identifying the pattern of linguistics features they are using. urban (2013) also write an article about chinese indonesian identity to the united states people. he has stated that the identity of chinese indonesian is complicated and in an incomplete process. the result of the research shows that the chinese culture in indonesia resulted in a new stereotype. it is then concluded that chinese indonesians keep on being the excluded population from both indonesia and the united states because constructing their communities has a lot of varying concepts from chinese people. in addition to the phenomena happened from cina-surabaya dialect, this research may be able to show differences on how tionghoa people in surabaya uses cina-surabaya dialect for younger, same age, and older addressee. the result of this research may help sociolinguistics studies on chinese indonesian to elaborate the way cina-surabaya dialect expressed as their uniform and culture. this research is not only defined linguistics patterns produced by cina-surabaya dialect which had been investigated on the previous research, but also the formality and differences of cina-surabaya dialect regarding the use of it for different age of the addressee. as explained before by mishra, srinivasan, & huettig (2015), the language will always develop according to the use of the speakers. it can be concluded that this research is important for the future researcher to elaborate on this area of the study. methods the method that is used to gather the data in this research is a descriptive qualitative method. descriptive qualitative is an interactional sociolinguistics approach using data that has been recorded and transcribed to gain knowledge that is needed among speakers of a certain language (wardhaugh & fuller, 2015). recorded data including audio are needed to gain information as much as possible in a natural interaction between speakers and another speaker. concerning on this research that focuses on the way cina-surabaya interact with same or different ethnicity and investigating the way they speak with a younger, older, or same age person, recorded data is chosen to be the way in gathering the data. by gathering the data using recorded audio, the data would be easier to transcribe, and some of the utterances which are unique according to cina-surabaya dialect could be drawn easily according to the context and place on the researcher takes the data. in this case, the researcher uses conversation analysis to get a naturally occurring speech in exploring several conversations of a community (hancock, ockleford, & windrige, 2007). there are four steps in a descriptive qualitative method to gather the data of this research that are recording the data, organizing the data, transcribing the data, and summarizing or interpreting the findings. in recording the data, the researcher uses an audio recorder to get the data of natural conversations between cina-surabaya with the same ethnicity of different ethnicity. the researcher also recorded their dialect in expressing something to their addressee. in recording the data, the researcher takes for about ten audiorecorded conversations to be analyzed. in organizing the data, the researcher uses ten audiorecorded conversations to classify the data, defining whom the speakers are talking to and what kind of dialect they use in the conversation. this step is done to make it easier for the researcher or the reader to understand the differences of a dialect to another dialect that is used by the subject. next step is transcribing the data. in this step, the researcher transcribes or writes all the data to investigate its important contents and analyze cina-surabaya dialect that is spoken during the conversation. in summarizing and interpreting the data, the last step is done to find the result of the data and answer the question according to the problem of the research. after the data are already organized and transcribed, the researcher analyzes the differences in the dialect used by cina-surabaya when they speak to the same ethnicity and different ethnicity. there is also the information about how they talk to the same age, older, and the younger person they are communicating with to know if cina-surabaya has a different level in speaking to express their politeness such as the javanese language. 275cina-surabaya dialect... (khalis fadillah) results and discussions the data found shows that tionghoa ethnicity people who live in surabaya have several different dialects from their cina-surabaya dialect if talking to an addressee who is younger than them. according to the speaker’s pattern in talking to a younger addressee, there is the use of the title in calling the addressee that is not supposed to be used in surabaya. the conversation below is about tionghoa ethnicity person who is talking to a younger addressee that has the same ethnicity as her and has a close relationship with each other. the addressee is the speaker’s neighbor’s son who is about to go out with his friends, and at that time they meet and are having a light conversation about the addressee’s home that is going to be renovated and go for sale. a1 is younger addressee and s1 is the speaker. a1: “nantik mau dijual..mau pindahan, ya di usung i gitulah.” (“it is going to be sold, we are going to move out.”) s1: “sak mama lu kabeh?” (“including your mom?”) a1: “iya” (“yes”) s1: “opo’o? bosen a nang mulyosari?” (“why? are you bored living in mulyosari?”) a1: “banjir e..” (“flood everywhere.”) s1: “ha? banjir? lha rumah lu ya banjir a?” (“what? flood? does your house also ot flood?”) a1: “iya sampe masuk rumah..” (“yes, it gets into my house.”) the conversation between tionghoa ethnicity person who uses cina-surabaya dialect shows that there are several powers in a relationship from the speaker. the speaker uses full ngoko that is considered as informal javanese language to talk to the addressee. by using that dialect, the power of the speaker is higher than the addressee because the speaker is also older than the addressee. another mark also shows in the use of the title, the speaker uses ‘lu’ as in ‘elu’ that means ‘you’ in calling someone else, but that title usually. the reason why the speaker uses that title to call the addressee is that the addressee is tionghoa ethnicity person who moved from jakarta, and he uses that title in the way to call each other back then, but he does not use it to call the speaker because the speaker is not from jakarta. another conversation between those people also shows the use of javanese language as cina-surabaya dialect. in the conversation, the speaker is talking about another topic of job offers for the addressee who has the same ethnicity as her. still, the speaker uses ngoko as in informal javanese language to the addressee. s1: “loh lu wis mari kuliah ta?” (“have you finished your study?”) a1: “sudah.” (“yes, i have.”) s1: kerja nak mana?” (“where do you go to work now?”) a1: “belom kerja e...” (“i have not work yet.”) s1: “belom?” (“you have not?”) a1: “belom dapet.” (“i have not.”) s1: “belom dapet? yo cobok’o kono nok internetinternet kono.” (“you have not got? just try the job offering on the internet.”) several words are not included in both javanese language and indonesian language, those words are spoken on the previous conversation are sometimes even called as cina-surabaya language. it is called cina-surabaya language because the only people who usually use those words are tionghoa ethnicity who lived in surabaya. words such as ‘nak’, ‘cobok’o’, and ‘nok’ are mentioned according to the conversation between two people as above. in cina-surabaya dialect, ‘nak’ and ‘nok’ has slightly the same meaning that is ‘in’. in the javanese language, it is supposed to be ‘nang’ for an informal word and ‘ing’ for a formal word of ‘in’, while in indonesia it is supposed to be ‘di’. the use of those words also has no special rules on how and when does it has to be used, but tionghoa ethnicity people who lived in surabaya mentioned those words in their utterances continuously. the other word that is shown is ‘cobok’o’ which means ‘try it’ in english. that word may be borrowed from the indonesian language which is ‘coba’ or malaysian which is ‘cuba’. meanwhile, the javanese language has different varieties of this term which is coba/nyoba/jajal that is an informal (ngoko) language. another data found is how tionghoa ethnicity person uses cina-surabaya dialect to the same age addressee. in the conversation below, the speaker is talking about how the addressee supposed to prepare her food for the family. the addressee in the conversation is also a tionghoa ethnicity who is the speaker’s neighbor, and the speaker is about to go to the market with that addressee to buy some groceries for making breakfast. s2 is speaker while a2 is the same age addressee. s2: “hahaha.. ayo cik, budal jam piro? he budal jam piro?” (“hahaha..come on sister, what time do you go to work today?”) a2: “jam enem mesti’e” (“it supposed to be at 6:00 o’clock.”) s2: “masak?” (“are you cooking for today?”) a2: “masak..” (“yes, i am.”) s2: “gak tuku?” (“you did not order food?”) a2: “nggak, gak tuku. pantangan, mangan awan thok.” (“no, i am not. it is a taboo, i only eat in the afternoon.) on the way the speaker has a conversation with the same age addressee who also has the same ethnicity, the speaker uses all ngoko javanese languages with chinese title in calling the addressee. it shows that the speaker uses ‘cik’ as in ‘tajik’ that means ‘sister’ in the chinese language. referring to the way the speaker called the addressee, the speaker has the same age as the addressee. not only the way the speaker uses ‘tajik’ to call the addressee but also from the way she uses ngoko which is informal in javanese, there are some solidarity and no power in their conversation. both speaker and the addressee use that ngoko javanese languages with a little mark of cina-surabaya dialect by calling each other uses title in the chinese language. 276 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 273-277 the cina-surabaya dialect also is shown when the speaker asks the addressee about time that she is supposed to go to work, the addressee also answered with ‘jam enem mesti’e’ that means ‘it is supposed to be at 6:00 o’clock’. ‘mesti’e’ is javanese language but it is not supposed to be added with ‘e’ at the end of that word because ‘mesti’ usually used alone with no suffix, but in cina-surabaya dialect it is added with ‘e’ like the way the speaker gives emphasize that it is an important notice. in the javanese language, if someone is about to say ‘supposed’, it would be ‘sakjane’ instead of ‘mesti’e’. another conversation between tionghoa ethnicity people who live in surabaya also happens with a javanese addressee. according to the conversation below, it shows that cina-surabaya dialect also has the proper way on how calling people who have different ethnicity with them. it is quite unique because the title differences that are used also differentiate in accordance with whom they are talking to. the way they are calling someone with different ethnicity they use another title, even though the addressee has the same age with that addressee who has the same ethnicity as them. apparently, it is not considered as racist because both of the addresses are fine with the way the speaker called them differently. it is accepted by the society even though it seems a little bit odd, especially when the speaker differentiates between the same ethnicity and different ethnicity from her on the way she calls those addresses. s2: “de’e mlebune kan rebo, kemis kan prei. dadi mari mlebu mene prei, mene mlebu neh..” (“he/she go to work on wednesday, thursday is an off day. so after he/she go to work, tomorrow he/ she got an off day, but the next day he/she supposed to go to work again..”) a2: “loh harian ta bayarane?” (“does he/she paid daily?”) s2: “gak..maksudte di itung iku..” (“no, i mean it is paid on the way he/she go to work.”) a3: “maksudnya uang makannya” (“she means on the lunch money.”) s2: “gak, maksudte gak kenek iku lho mbak.. kan pitulas dino kerjone..” (no, i mean he/she does not get it, sister..he/she goes to work seventeen days in a month.”) that conversation is happening at midnight when the speaker visits her neighbor house and has a conversation with the addressee that has different ethnicity with her. the conversation is about the speaker (s2) who tells something to the addressee (a2) and the addressee’s husband (a3) about her son/daughter who works 17 days in a month. there are no distinctive features of the language that used in cina-surabaya dialect in their utterances except the way she calls the addressee. tionghoa ethnicity person who talks with javanese person still uses ngoko javanese in their utterances because the speaker and the addressees have the same age. one time, the addressee uses the indonesian language as in ‘maksudnya uang makannya’. it happens because the addressee is talking with her husband and it surely needs formal utterances for a wife to talk to her husband. a word that stands out in the way cina-surabaya dialect expressing something is the uses of ‘mbak’ as a title to call the addressee who is javanese. from the previous conversation, the speaker uses ‘tajik’ to call someone in the same age who has the same ethnicity with them but when the speaker talked with someone who has a different ethnicity, it becomes ‘mbak’ that means sister in the javanese language the result of the data about how cina-surabaya dialect uses to the older addressee shows a very different way in the language used. while a speaker who talks to the younger or same age addressee uses ngoko javanese as the way they produce utterances, tionghoa ethnicity person who talks with older addressee uses mostly indonesian with a little bit of javanese language in their utterances. for tionghoa ethnicity people who live in surabaya, indonesian language with minimum use of javanese words is the krama (formal) version of their language. however, the conversations that are transcribed between tionghoa ethnicity people with the older addressee are defined below. s3 is the speaker, while the a4 is the older addressee. s3: “cuman aku itu..ke bca, tapi staff it. tapi gak diterima..” (“i tried..to bca, as an it staff. but not accepted.”) a4: “lah belom..belom.. belom be’e” (“maybe not accepted yet.”) s3: “nggak, memang gagal..” (“no, i was rejected.”) a4: “oh gagal?” (“oh, rejected?”) s3: “iya udah diomongi, langsung gagal..dari dua ratus orang mek berapa gitu yang dapet.” (“yes, they told me on the spot. from 200 people applied only a few accepted.”) according to that conversation, the speaker has no power in the conversation with the addressee because the addressee is older than him. to show respect for the addressee, the speaker mostly answers and responds the addressee’s utterances with the indonesian language even though the addressee barely uses the indonesian language. in the conversation, the addressee uses all javanese ngoko (informal) to the speaker because the speaker is younger than her. another feature found is when the addressee tries to use more javanese language such as ‘belom be’e’ that means ‘maybe not accepted yet’ in a friendlier way to give the speaker clue that he can use javanese too when talking to her, but instead of responding with javanese language the speaker still use indonesian language as in “nggak, memang gagal” it means “no, i was rejected”. the indonesian language that is used by the speaker shows that he gives respect to the addressee because the addressee is not close to him and the addressee is also older than the speaker. the next conversation shows the distinction between how older addressee responds to a younger speaker who is tionghoa ethnicity person. the conversation is about a speaker from tionghoa ethnicity (s3) who is talking with older addressee who is javanese (a5) and older addressee that has the same ethnicity with the speaker (a4). there are no special features in the conversation below because apparently cina surabaya dialect mostly uses the indonesian language to speak with the older addressee. s3: “iya..” (“yes..”) a5: “teknik ya? ngambil teknik?” (“engineering? did you take engineering?”) s3: “iya, teknik elektro.” (“yes, eletronical engineering.”) 277cina-surabaya dialect... (khalis fadillah) a4: “karek kerjone tok wes..” (“just finding a job now..”) (pause) a4: “yawes sampek no wes.. ngobrol lagi..” (“okay just tell her, the speaker’s mom,.. we will talk later..”) s3: “iya.. hehe. sebentar ya, ini mau pergi..” (“okay.. hehe. just a minute, i need to go.”) a4 and a5: “iyaa..” (“okay..”) in responding to the speaker, the older addressee who has different ethnicity from the speaker, use indonesian because she knows that the speaker only uses indonesian in talking to the other person. it might also be because the speaker is not close with the addressee (a5) too that they both use the indonesian language to talk with each other and to avoid misunderstanding in their utterances. meanwhile, another older addressee (a4) who has a closer relationship with the speaker still uses cinasurabaya dialect with the speaker. the addressee has a closer relationship because the addressee said, “yawes sampek no wes” to the speaker that means the addressee wanted the speaker to say something to his mother as what the addressee just says to him. the feature in cina-surabaya dialect that is shown there is ‘sampek no’ that means ‘tell her’. the word ‘sampek no’ is considered as cina-surabaya dialect because it is not an indonesian nor javanese language. in the indonesian language ‘sampek no’ would be ‘sampaikan’ and in the javanese language, it would be ‘kandani/kandanono’ especially if the addressee uses ngoko in her javanese language. conclusions the result of this research shows that there are differences of how tionghoa ethnicity people in surabaya uses cina-surabaya dialect on how they say something to someone younger, same age, and older. the distinctive features also show on how they differentiate the title in calling the same ethnicity and different ethnicity person they are talking. to talk with a younger addressee, tionghoa ethnicity person will use cina-surabaya dialect with a javanese ngoko (informal) pattern of their utterances. one example in the use of cina-surabaya dialect is in the making of new words from borrowed indonesian or malaysian language such as ‘cobok’o’ that means ‘try it’. in this case, cina-surabaya dialect does not differentiate between talking to the same ethnicity or different ethnicity addressee because it has the same pattern in the use of their language towards them. the other result is how cina-surabaya dialect uses to talk with the same age addressee. in this case, the speaker will use javanese ngoko pattern in their language with a combination of cina-surabaya dialect words. the differences that show between how tionghoa ethnicity person interacts with the same ethnicity and different ethnicity is by the way they call the person they are talking. according to the result, cina-surabaya dialect will call someone who has the same ethnicity using the title in the chinese language such as ‘tajik’ and javanese to call someone from javanese ethnicity such as ‘mbak’. another result is how cina-surabaya dialect shows in the way they interact with someone older than the speaker. apparently, there are distinctive features in the way they talk to someone older because tionghoa ethnicity person who lives in surabaya will say something in the indonesian language to show that they respect the older addressee. it can be seen from the result that even though the addressee responds with fully javanese informal language, the speaker will still respond using the indonesian language. thus, indonesian language with a little bit of javanese pattern might be cina-surabaya dialect to talk in a formal way to the addressee. the result of this research might be slightly different from the result of sartini’s research. she has stated that cina-surabaya usually uses hokkien (chinese) to talk with the same ethnicity and they use javanese or indonesian to talk with different ethnicity. meanwhile, the result of this research shows that they are not only using the chinese language in the way they are talking with the same ethnicity, but they also conduct the javanese language in their utterances. referring to cina-surabaya dialect that has a variation on the way it delivers, it is then in line with wardhaugh and fuller’s research that have stated that dialects is a variety in one language including the standard variety and refers to one of the norms in a language. however, there are several suggestions for the further research that might conduct this type of research in their next journal. the first suggestion is that the future researcher might conduct this type of research for a longer period to get more data to be analyzed. another suggestion also is given for further researcher to observe not only the conversation of the subject but also their gestures in delivering their utterances in a conversation because language is not only produced by the utterances but also symbol such as gestures in delivering some meaning. references hancock, b., ockleford, e., & windridge, k. (2007). an introduction to qualitative research. nottingham: the nihr research design service for yorkshire & the humber. kalangie, n. s. (1994). kebudayaan dan kesehatan (pengembangan pelayanan kesehatan primer melalui pendekatan sosial budaya). jakarta: pt kesaint blanc indah corp. karsono, o. m. f., & suprapto, w. (2014). the downfall of chinese family businesses in east java, indonesia. international journal of academic research, 6(6), 298-304. mishra, r. k., srinivasan, n., & huettig, f. (2015). attention and vision in language processing. new delhi: springer. sari, e. n. (2014). pemakaian bahasa oleh etnis tionghoa di surabaya: suatu kajian fonologi dan morfologi. skriptorium, 2(2), 32-41. sartini, n. w. (2004). varietas bahasa masyarakat cina di surabaya (kajian bahasa antaretnik). linguistika, 14(26), 1-18. urban, g. s. (2013). the eternal newcomer: chinese indonesian identity from indonesia to the united states. a journal of transdiciplinary writing and research from claremont graduate university, 3(1), 1-11. wardhaugh, r. (2010). an introduction to sociolinguistics (6th ed.). chichester: john wiley & sons, inc. wardhaugh, r., & fuller, j. m. (2015). an introduction to sociolinguistics. chichester: john wiley & sons, inc. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 345 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 345-350 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4118 directive speech acts and hedges presented by female main characters of jane austen’s novels citra suryanovika1; novita julhijah2 1,2 english department, sekolah tinggi bahasa asing pontianak jl. gajah mada no. 38, benua melayu darat, pontianak, kalimantan barat 78121, indonesia 1csuryanovika@yahoo.com; 2novitamuqaddam@gmail.com received: 09th november 2017 /revised: 22nd february 2018 /accepted: 09th march 2018 how to cite: suryanovika, c., & julhijah, n. (2018). directive speech acts and hedges presented by female main characters of jane austen’s novels. lingua cultura, 12(4), 345-350. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4118 abstract this research aimed at identifying the category of directive speech acts found in the utterances of six female characters of six jane austen’s novels (elinor dashwood of sense and sensibility, elizabeth bennet of pride and prejudice, fanny price of mansfield park, emma woodhouse of emma, anne elliot of persuasion, and catherine morland of northanger abbey), and explaining the hedges used in directive speech acts. the research employed a descriptive qualitative method to collect, analyze, and discuss the findings which closely related to the classification of directive speech acts of female main characters in jane austen’s novels and the use of hedges in directive speech acts. the findings show that directive speech acts are formed imperatively, declaratively, and interrogatively. from all existing categories of directive speech acts (ask, order, command, request, suggestion, beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, and advise), the female main characters in jane austen’s novels only presents ask, request, advice, and suggestion. hedges found in directive speech acts are not only used to show hesitancy but also to present certainty (i believe, i must) of the speakers’ previous knowledge. in addition, hedges are not the only marker that may show uncertainty, because exclamation ‘well!’ and ‘oh!’, as well as the contrasting conjunction are used to pause due to the uncertain statement. keywords: directive speech acts, hedges, female main characters, jane austien`s novels introduction the research is derived from the hypothesis that speech act categories are able to identify, classify and reveal the differences between men’s and women’s language. however, previous scholars tend to interpret the story or characters by using literary theories. this article aims at elaborating the pragmatic approach on classic literature highlighting female characters’ utterances. jane austen’s greatest works are indubitable as seen in the distinct strength of her main characters. she accentuates the vigorous struggle of a female in the era when a woman has to strive for her social class, and austen successfully draws the diverse characteristics in her six novels. austen strongly shows that emma woodhouse (emma, 1985) lives in and belongs to the upper-class society, and sadeq (2017) acknowledges it. in the narration of emma, austen (2015) presents emma woodhouse as a perfect young woman who has everything. on the contrary, fanny price represents a lower class society; her mother willingly put her under bertram’s care because she cannot afford to take care of many children (austen, 2014). catherine morland is quite fortunate. her father is a respectable clergyman in wiltshire so that he can raise her ten children modestly (austen, 2003). briefly, austen distinguishes the family situation of fanny price from catherine morland. she also narrates that anne elliot’s father has a noble title in the upper-class society, but his luxurious lifestyle leads him to be heavily in debt (austen, 2015). meanwhile, she makes a distinctive story in sense and sensibility and pride and prejudice, elinor dashwood obtains inheritance from her father, and a financial support from her half-brother (2014), while bennet’s daughters do not inherit longbourn, bennet’s house, because the eligible heir is their cousin (mr. collins) as stated by her father “…and nothing can clear mr. collins from the guilt of inheriting longbourn.” (austen, 2014). however, both characters are still able to interact with the upper-class society. briefly, austen portrays lower class in fanny price’s family situation, the middle class in catherine morland’s humble life, while upper class in emma woodhouse, elizabeth bennet, elinor dashwood, and anne elliot. jane austen’s novels are closely discussed by using 346 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 345-350 literary criticism; one of her novels is discussed by gao (2013) by describing the ideal man of jane austen’s pride and prejudice. he has stated that there are 387 pieces of research on this novel. hua (2013), differently, employs critical discourse analysis to check the english lexicon in jane austen’s sense and sensibility. therefore, the aforementioned explanation supports a hypothetic idea that searle’s speech acts can identify various utterances to represent the actions of six female main characters of jane austen which depict their different social status. speech acts have been broadly examined by searle (1981) and levinson (1995) acknowledge austin’s notion which explains one engages in a future action when he/she speaks. al-hindawi, al-masu’di, and mirza (2014) have stated that austin introduces five general classes which are in accordance with their illocutionary force (verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives). afterward, searle (1981) has proposed an alternative taxonomy because he has observed that austin’s taxonomy is english illocutionary verbs, inconsistent and unclear principles, and overlapping categories. thus, searle (1981) has suggested five categories of illocutionary acts: (1) assertives is to commit the speaker (in varying degrees) to something’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition, for example, boast, complain, conclude, and deduce. (2) directives are employed when the speakers want the hearer to conduct one future action as directed, the verbs for directive speech act are ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, and advise. (3) commissives are the speaker commits to do one future action (promises). (4) expressives are about the expression of psychological state; the verbs are thank, congratulate, apologize, condole, deplore and welcome. (5) declarations is about the change of status or condition, included the performatives class. in spite of searle’s explicit classification, the former scholars tend to define searle’s classification differently, as found in akinwotu (2013) who has analyzed political discourse classified commanding, requesting, condemning, warning, urging, and disagreeing into directive speech acts as found in his data. in the meantime, both acheoah (2017), and muhartoyo and kristin (2013) agree that some of searle’s directive speech acts include asking, inviting, ordering, requesting, and begging. differently, ad-darajji et al. (2012) set offer as commissive-directive speech acts because the addressee conducts the speaker’s expected action. it is explained by saddhono and kasim (2016) that the directive speech acts are conveyed imperatively, declaratively, and interrogatively depending on the relevant context, which is preceded by levinson (1995). he explains that all languages universally have imperative, interrogative, and declarative sentence referring to order, assertion, and assert respectively. blum-kulka and olshtain (1984) have identified request speech acts by considering alerters, supportive moves, and head acts. and they also suggest five strategies for identifying apology speech acts because a speaker tends to choose one of the strategies or combine them to express an apology. the strategies are: (1) an ifid; (2) a cause of violation; (3) a speaker’s expression to show his/her responsibility; (4) an offer; (5) a promise. in the meantime, alzeebaree and yavuz (2017) say that there are 10 strategies from four categories in request strategies based on trosborg’s taxonomy, the categories are indirect request (hints), conventionally indirect which is hearer-oriented condition (hearer’s ability, willingness, permission, and suggestory formulae), conventionally indirect which is speaker-based conditions (wishes, desires/needs), and direct request (obligation, hedged/unhedged performatives, and imperative). furthermore, there is al-aadeli (2013) who has stated that suggestion and advice have different ifids. he says that advice is produced by the speaker who has former knowledge about matters discussed, which the hearer does not know. advice linguistic strategies include direct, indirect conventionalized, and indirect non-conventionalized. meanwhile, suggestion linguistic strategies are direct (performative verb in imperative forms), conventionalized (interrogative form), and indirect (implicit message). antaki and kent (2012) have found three factors influencing request level to adults with intellectual abilities; the quality, inaccuracy, and requester’s responsibility. searle’s classification has hitherto been used to analyze novels or plays. there is oktoberia, hamzah, and sari (2013) who have analyzed directive speech acts in the movie scripts of harry potter; the deathly hallows and bride wars movie scripts. yarahmadi and olfati (2011) have found five categories of speech act in anton checkov’s the seagull, while ainurrohmah (2011) has found that representative speech act is dominantly employed by the characters in stephanie meyer’s new moon. furthermore, there are jabber and jinquan (2013) as well as han and burgucu-tazegül (2016), the former researchers focus on the analysis of the modal verbs can, will, and must in obama’s speeches, while the latter analyzed direct, indirect refusal, and adjuncts to refusals by using the approach suggested by beebe (1990). in addition, han and burgucu-tazegül (2016) have classified direct refusal into two categories, indirect refusal into 12 categories, and adjuncts to refusals into five categories. in short, directive speech acts including ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray, entreat, suggestion, invite, permit, and advise are able to be found in declarative, imperative and/or interrogative forms. methods the research employs a descriptive qualitative method to collect, analyze, and discuss the findings which closely relate to the classification of directive speech acts of female main characters in jane austen’s novels and the use of hedges in directive speech acts. the researchers collect utterances made by six main female characters of jane austen’s novels; they are eliinor dashwood of sense and sensibility (austen, 2014), elizabeth bennet of pride and prejudice (austen, 2014), fanny price of mansfield park (austen, 2014), emma woodhouse of emma (austen, 2015), catherine morland of northanger abbey (austen, 2003) and anne elliot of persuasion (austen, 2015). data collection is conducted chronologically; the researchers list the utterances of female main characters talking to all supporting characters, along with the addressees, topic of discussion, place, and purpose of speaking in order to have a complete understanding of the context and speaker’s intention. subsequently, the researchers employ purposive sampling; they only choose the utterances addressed to their future life partners. in analyzing the data, the researchers employ pragmatic theory especially searle’s classification to identify the category of directive speech acts in the 347directive speech acts... (citra suryanovika; novita julhijah) utterances so that the findings present the most dominant to the least dominant of directive speech acts found in female main characters’ utterances. besides, the researchers will also show how hedges are used in directive speech acts. results and discussions the researchers have identified directive speech acts from 453 utterances of female main characters addressed to their future husband; particularly 122 catherine morland’s utterances, 104 fanny price’s utterances, 104 emma woodhouse’s utterances, 90 elizabeth bennet’s utterances, 20 elinor dashwood’s utterances, and 14 anne elliot’s utterances. out of 453 utterances, the researchers have found 130 utterances that consist of directive speech acts. the categories of directive speech acts found in six novels are ask questions, request, suggest, and give advice in declarative, imperative, and interrogative forms. the first category, asking a question, is found in all female main characters which deliver questions in order to get an affirmative response, confirmation/further explanation, or to begin a conversation (as a small talk). the questions are formed by whs, auxiliary, or modal verbs in interrogative forms. emma woodhouse as an upper-class woman makes two or more questions in one utterance as emma asks mr. knightley about the news he has. emma uninterruptedly asks (49), “news! oh! yes, i always like news. what is it?—why do you smile so?—where did you hear it?—at randalls?” (emma, 162). she is really curious about the news as she makes four questions in one utterance. meanwhile, fanny price expresses her curiosity by asking one question with hesitancy, (99) “and what,” said fanny (believing herself required to speak), “what could you say?” (mansfield park, 422). the utterance (99) is about mary crawford’s disappointment in fanny who has rejected her brother. differently, hedges (i think, perhaps, i suppose, i am sure, i am afraid) in declarative forms are found in some characters, particularly elizabeth bennet, anne elliot, emma woodhouse, dan catherine morland. hedges, for example, have found in the utterance (69) and (119), catherine morland asks henry tilney about the reason why captain tilney approaches isabella thorpe who has been engaged to her brother. she says (69), “then you do not believe isabella so very much attached to my brother?” (northanger abbey, 143); (119) “then you do not suppose he ever really cared about her?” (northanger abbey, 204). both utterances are declarative forms because the marker then concludes what she believes but have interrogative functions as seen in the use of question mark. similarly, elizabeth bennet’s utterances number (38) is the declarative form which begins with hedges. she conveys her presupposition about mr. bingley’s future plan when she and mr. darcy are in parsonage. she says (38), “i think i have understood that mr. bingley has not much idea of ever returning to netherfield again?” (pride and prejudice, 173). the usage of ‘i think’ in the utterance (38) indicates that the speaker is not really sure about what she talks about, as mentioned by coates (2013) that female speakers employ hedges because they are sure or unsure about what they talk. in the meantime, the exclamation ‘good god!’ is found in emma woodhouse and catherine morland. the exclamation is used to express their surprise toward the news they hear. it can be seen in catherine morland’s utterance in (88) ‘mr. tilney!’ ‘good god!’, she continues, not attending to his address, “how came you here? how came you up that staircase?” (northanger abbey, 183). utterance (88) has the exclamation which is preceded by the address term shows that catherine morland actually does not expect mr. tilney when she explores the northanger abbey to feed her suspicious curiosity. besides, tags question is also found in fanny price’s utterance (did not you). she and edmund bertram walk in the shrubbery, and she asks him about his opinion of the owens. the utterance, (98) “the miss owens—you liked them, did not you?” (mansfield park, 329) shows the use of question tag aiming at seeking for the hearer’s positive response. the second category that dominantly produced is request speech acts. the researchers employ trosborg’s strategy to identify the requests. request speech acts are found in five of six female main characters; elizabeth bennet, fanny price, emma woodhouse, anne elliot, and catherine morland. the requests are made to politely ask the hearer to do things she expects and to forbid the hearers to do unexpected actions. affirmative responses are usually given prior to imperative request as seen in this utterance: (62) “oh, yes. be so kind as to apologise for us to miss darcy. say that urgent business calls us home immediately. conceal the unhappy truth as long as it is possible, i know it cannot be long.” (pride and prejudice, 265). elizabeth bennet asks fitzwilliam darcy to let his sister know that they leave pemberley wood, the imperative politely delivered by the marker be so kind, which has similar meaning please kindly. however, the request becomes an instruction as seen in the marker say that, which means that the speaker specifically instructs the hearer to do as she strongly asks. similarly, elizabeth bennet also uses the imperative form in the utterance (72) and (82) when she asks mr. darcy to do her expected action and to strongly require the hearer to give his response. the utterance (72), “think only of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure.” chapter 58 p. 348, and (82) “now be sincere; did you admire me for my impertinence?” (pride and prejudice, 359) are conveyed when they walk to lucases. the utterance (72) has a strong imperative marker ‘think only’ which stresses the expected action, while the utterance (82) begins with a declarative form functioning as an alerters. when elizabeth bennet’s requests are imperatively delivered to hope for the hearer’s expected actions, fanny price’s requests are filled with an exclamation. the exclamation ‘oh!’ and address term ‘cousin’ are found in some utterances. fanny price asks edmund bertram to stop praising her in the utterance (61), “oh! don’t talk so, don’t talk so,” ch iii p 184, and she requests her cousin to stop talking when she says (67), “oh! cousin, stop a moment, pray stop!” (mansfield park, 241) because she wants to consult about the mary crawford’s necklace. the exclamation functions as a pause to her requests. pausing supports the speaker to minimize the requests she makes which has an impact on the hearer. besides, fanny price also uses contrasting conjunction as in (6), “but, cousin, will it go to the post?” (mansfield park, 17). the utterance (6), however, is made when she is ten years old and has just met her cousin for the first time. after she knows edmund better, she tends to begin requests with an exclamation. in emma woodhouse’s utterances, requests are made by indicating her wish and looking for hearer’s willingness that is showing suggestory formulae and imperative strategy. she has a different opinion from george knightley about frank churchill, she requests him to act kindly to frank by 348 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 345-350 using ‘i wish’ as found in the utterance (39) and (90); (39) “oh, the difference of situation and habit! i wish you would try to understand what an amiable young man may be likely to feel in directly opposing those, whom as child and boy he has been looking up to all his life.” (emma, 139-140); (90) “i wish you would read it with a kinder spirit towards him.” (emma, 418). conditional clauses are used to present suggestory formulae and to seek for hearer’s willingness as seen in (66) and (84). the utterances are (66), “with you, if you will ask me.” (emma, 310); (84) “no,”—“i should like to take another turn. mr. perry is not gone.”— “i stopped you ungraciously, just now, mr. knightley, and, i am afraid, gave you pain.—but if you have any wish to speak openly to me as a friend or to ask my opinion of anything that you may have in contemplation—as a friend, indeed, you may command me.—i will hear whatever you like. i will tell you exactly what i think.” (emma, 402). the utterance (66) is about the man whom she wants to have a dance with, it is a direct response to the question of george knightley. while the utterance (84) begins with alerters (i stopped you ungraciously, just now, mr. knightley), supportive moves (and, i am afraid, gave you pain), and ended with head acts (but if you have any wish to speak openly… you may command me). the narration is dominant in jane austen’s persuasion; thus, anne elliot only has a small quantity of utterances. anne’s utterance is the request category of directive speech act. the request is the imperative form that begins with alerters (about past experience), supportive moves (her supporting decision), and head acts as in (13) “do not mistake me,” (persuasion, 230) that justifies her decision on the canceled engagement. in catherine morland’s utterances, there is one request delivered differently that uses hedged strategy. she uses ‘i have one favour to beg’ to get hearer’s approval (alerters). the utterance is (102), “i have one favour to beg, that, if your brother should be coming here, you will give me notice of it, that i may go away.” (northanger abbey, 91). her supporting move is seen from the use of the conditional clause, and the head act is in imperative form (you will give me notice of it). the third and fourth category of directive speech acts, suggestion and advice, are conveyed differently. the suggestion of linguistic strategies used by the female main characters is direct and conventionalized type of suggestion. in direct type, elizabeth bennet’s and catherine morland’s utterances use imperative strategies. the marker ‘pray’ and auxiliary ‘do’ form the imperative suggestion; (11) “do divert me, i own, and i laugh at them whenever i can. but these, i suppose, are precisely what you are without.” (elizabeth) ch 11 p. 56; (62) “pray advise him for his own sake, and for everybody’s sake.” (catherine) (pride and prejudice, 142). the marker ‘pray’ in catherine morland’s suggestion has the same meaning with the use of the marker ‘pray’ found in fanny price’s and emma woodhouse’s utterances in the request. in both categories, ‘pray’ is used to soften the imperative requests or suggestions. it is an adverb that has similar meaning with please. considering the advice linguistic strategies of alaadeli (2013), advices made by elinor dashwood, elizabeth bennet, fanny price, emma woodhouse, and anne elliot use the declarative strategy of direct type. al-aadeli (2013) says that the example of declarative strategy is ‘you should/ ought to/must/had better,’ however, hedges (i believe) has found in elinor’s utterances precede the declarative form. elinor’s utterance (14), “i believe that you will find him, on farther acquaintance, all that you have heard him to be, and as you will be such very near neighbours (for i understand the parsonage is almost close to the mansion-house) it is particularly important that he should be all this.” (sense and sensibility, 271-272) indicates that declarative begins with the hedges to ascertain edward that he will meet colonel brandon’s to thank him directly. fanny price’s utterance (91), “at least i hope you must, think the better of him for it. i hope it does him some service with you.” (mansfield park, 418) also begins with wishes explaining her uncertainty of the advice. most of the advice in declarative strategies address to the hearers. however, there are two advice made by the speaker for her own benefit, which is found in fanny price’s and anne elliot’s utterances; (19) “i should like to see sotherton before it is cut down, to see the place as it is now, in its old state; but i do not suppose i shall.” (mansfield park, 53-54); (7) ‘i should very much like to see lyme again,’ (mansfield park, 173). fanny’s utterance in (19) and anne’s utterance in (7) show that the advice they make for themselves is seen from the use of ‘i should’. beside declarative strategy, there is one utterance made by fanny price using negative imperative strategy. the negative imperative strategy based on al-aadeli (2013) uses forbidden statement like ‘don’t worry’. emma woodhouse’s utterance in (83), “oh! then, don’t speak it, don’t speak it,’ she eagerly cried. ‘take a little time, consider, do not commit yourself.” (emma, 402) has an exclamation ‘oh!’ as well as ‘take a little time’ used to soften the negative imperative ‘do not’. there is only one hint strategy found, catherine morland firstly meets henry tilney who is eager to ask her about her experience in bath, politely she advises him to stop asking in (1), “you need not give yourself that trouble, sir.” (northanger abbey, 26). the noun ‘trouble’ is a polite marker indicating that the speaker considers the hearer’s condition. the categories of directive speech act are presented in declarative, imperative, and interrogative forms. the researchers have found that hesitancy in making requests is not only shown by the use of hedges but also the presence of exclamation as well as contrasting conjunction prior to the intended message. all female characters in six jane austen’s novels employ hedges in all categories of directive speech acts. elinor dashwood’s hedges are ‘i believe’ in advice. elizabeth bennet uses hedges differently, the marker ‘i think’, ‘i might’, ‘i am almost afraid’, and ‘i must’ is found in asking questions, while ‘perhaps, i hope’ and ‘i suppose’ in the request. differently, fanny price only has one hedge (i should) in delivering suggestion. emma woodhouse indicates her uncertainty by using ‘perhaps’ in making the suggestion, while ‘i hope’ in advice, and ‘i wish’ in the request. in making advice and request, anne elliot uses hedges ‘i should’ and ‘perhaps’, while catherine morland uses hedges ‘suppose’ in asking a question. in short, hedges by coates (2013) includes ‘i think’, ‘i’m sure’, ‘you know’, ‘sort of’, and ‘perhaps’ are also used in directive speech acts. another marker ‘i should’, ‘i might’, ‘i hope’, ‘i suppose’, ‘i wish’, ‘i am almost afraid’ are explaining uncertainty, while ‘i believe’ and ‘i must’ show certainty. beside hesitancy, the exclamation ‘well, oh!’ is also used to pause the speakers’ real intention (request or ask questions). likewise, contrasting conjunction ‘but’ has the same functions, emma woodhouse’s utterance in (73), “nothing at all. however, is not this a sudden scheme?” (emma, 361) employs contrasting conjunction to show different opinion from the former statement. 349directive speech acts... (citra suryanovika; novita julhijah) seeing the solidarity scale between speakers and hearers, the high solidarity scale of fanny price and edmund bertram shows that asking some questions is the most dominant category of directive speech acts in fanny price’s utterances. likewise, asking some questions is the most dominant category of directive speech acts in low solidarity scale represented by five couples of five austen’s novels. it also occurs to another category of directive speech acts, a slight difference in the quantity of each category. it means that solidarity scale does not have a major influence in the category of speech acts. conclusions the findings are in line with saddhono and kasim (2016) that directive speech acts forming imperatively, declaratively, and interrogatively. however, from all existing categories of directive speech acts (ask, order, command, request, suggestion, beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, and advise), austen’s female main characters in six novels only employ directive speech acts to ask questions, to make request, and to express advice and suggestion. in particular, six characters make questions and express advice in their utterances. however, only elinor dashwood (sense and sensibility) who does not make the request, and anne elliot (persuasion) does not make the suggestion. despite their social class differences, all characters employ imperative strategies in making requests, and declarative strategy in expressing advice. only emma woodhouse (emma) or catherine morland (northanger abbey) use the different strategy in making requests or expressing advice. in requesting, emma woodhouse uses suggestory formulae, while catherine morland uses hedged strategy. in delivering her advice, emma woodhouse proposes with a negative imperative strategy (direct advice), while catherine morland uses hints indirect non-conventionalized advice. differently, five characters employ varied strategies in delivering suggestion. elinor dashwood (sense and sensibility), emma woodhouse (emma), and fanny price (mansfield park) similarly use possibility strategy conventionalized suggestion, catherine morland employs imperative strategy direct suggestion, while elizabeth bennet (pride and prejudice) utilizes direct and conventionalized suggestion in her utterances. briefly, the different social class only influences the way they deliver their request or advice. hedges are found in austen’s female main characters in six novels when they use directive speech acts. the use of hedges in all female characters of austen proves coates’s theory that female speakers use hedges. hedges are not only used to show hesitancy but also to present certainty (i believe, i must) of the speakers’ previous knowledge. in addition, hedges are not the only marker that may show uncertainty, because exclamation ‘well!’ and ‘oh!’, as well as the contrasting conjunction are used to pause due to the uncertain statement. the research of speech acts focusing on female main characters is hopefully able to broaden the characteristics of women language since hedges used by all austen’s female main characters, regardless of social status. it is necessary to pay attention to another supporting or male characters’ utterances since this research only focuses on certain characters. the next researchers also have a chance to conduct a linguistic analysis on text, especially classic novels as many former scholars still focus on literary criticism, in which they observe the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of the story and ignore the linguistic properties. references acheoah, j. e. 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(2011). speech act analysis of anton chekhov’s “the seagull”. journal of basic and applied scientific research, 1(12), 2522–2527. microsoft word 07_jpg_ratna shousika edit_setting 144 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  dampak peningkatan jumlah wanita bekerja karena meningkatnya taraf pendidikan terhadap fenomena shoushika di jepang (2002-2007) ratna handayani; mayumi salim jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas humaniora, binus university jln. k.h. syahdan no. 9, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ratnahandayani@binus.edu abstract shoushika is a phenomenon facing today's japanese society. shoushika become a trend since the increasing female workers delay childbearing which consequently decrease the birth growth in japan. due to the decreasing number of future generations, the rate of japanese economy is hampered and causes restlessness in society about the future. the author felt the need to analyze the underlying problems of women workers that delay having children. its objective is to find the background of working japanese females delaying childbearing in relation with the rising level of education, career and salary, referring to the feminism theory developed in japan. keywords: shouhika, female workers, feminism, education, career, salary abstrak shoushika merupakan sebuah fenomena besar yang dihadapi masyarakat jepang saat ini. permasalahan shoushika menjadi trend semenjak bertambahnya wanita bekerja yang menunda memiliki anak yang mengakibatkan menurunnya pertumbuhan kelahiran di jepang. berkurangnya generasi penerus membuat laju perekonomian jepang terhambat dan menimbulkan keresahan dalam masyarakat akan masa mendatang. penulis merasa perlu menganalisis hal-hal yang melatarbelakangi wanita pekerja yang menunda memiliki anak. hal ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui latar belakang wanita bekerja di jepang menunda memiliki anak dalam kaitannya dengan meningkatnya jenjang pendidikan, karier, dan gaji yang ditinjau dari teori feminisme yang berkembang di jepang. kata kunci: shoushika, wanita bekerja, feminisme, pendidikan, karier, gaji dampak peningkatan ….. (ratna handayani; mayumi salim) 145 pendahuluan dalam menjalani kehidupan, manusia memiliki kodrat. kodrat itu antara lain; lahir, menikah dan meninggal dunia. pada umumnya wanita menikah di usia yang lebih muda daripada pria. wanita di dunia wilayah berkembang menikah di usia sangat muda (crawford & unger, 2004). hal ini disebabkan kurangnya tingkat pengetahuan pendidikan serta tingkat kesejahteraan ekonomi. oleh karena itu banyak wanita dalam usia remaja yang menikah muda baik dari turut campur tangan keluarga ataupun atas dasar cinta. dalam menjalani pernikahan, tentunya wanita diharapkan menjadi ibu rumah tangga yang dapat mengerjakan seluruh pekerjaan rumah tangga sepenuhnya. menurut lopata dalam imamura (1992) definisi ibu rumah tangga ialah wanita yang bertanggung jawab pada kehidupan rumahnya, dengan dia mengerjakan sendiri ataupun memperkerjakan orang lain untuk mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah tangga. abad ke-21 dicirikan dengan persaingan di dunia kerja dan peluang kerja, sehingga membuka peluang besar bagi wanita untuk masuk dalam dunia kerja. hal ini disebabkan dengan meningkatnya wanita yang berpendidikan,dan kemampuan bekerja yang setara dengan pria. seiring dengan tingginya tingkat pendidikan dewasa ini, banyak wanita usia dewasa awal memasuki dunia profesionalisme dengan bekerja. semakin tingginya pendidikan yang dimiliki, dapat menunjang mereka untuk cepat memiliki pekerjaan dengan jabatan yang bagus. banyaknya wanita yang bekerja setelah mereka menyelesaikan pendidikan membawa akibat bagi tugas perkembangan lain. semakin tinggi tingkat pendidikan yang dijalani, semakin berambisi pula para wanita menjadi pekerja. hal ini meningkatkan komitmen terhadap karir dan penundaan pernikahan. wanita pada usia awal yang bekerja atas keahlian yang dimilikinya, secara otomatis akan menunda diri mereka untuk menikah dan menjadi ibu untuk beberapa tahun kedepan tanpa promosi untuk memperoleh jabatan yang tinggi dalam pekerjaan (steinhoff & tanaka, 1989). akan tetapi, menurut seo (1990), ”wanita bekerja saat ini, minimal telah menamatkan pendidikan menengah ke atas, berumur tiga puluhan, bekerja dan mungkin memiliki anak”. bagi wanita, bekerja merupakan kesempatan untuk menunjukkan diri. dengan bekerja memungkinkan seorang wanita mengekspresikan dirinya sendiri dengan cara yang kreatif dan produktif untuk menghasilkan sesuatu yang mendatangkan kebanggan terhadap diri sendiri, terutama jika prestasinya mendapatkan penghargaan dan umpan balik yang positif. melalui bekerja, wanita berusaha menemukan arti dan identitas dirinya, dan pencapaian tersebut mendatangkan rasa percaya diri dan kebahagiaan. di samping kebutuhan rasa percaya diri, wanita bekerja di luar rumah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan finansial mereka (rini, 2002). kebutuhan finansial ini terkait dengan kebutuhan untuk mencukupi perekonomian rumah tangganya. hal ini ditegaskan oleh tachibanaki (2010) bahwa setelah menikah mereka melanjutkan bekerja di luar atau menjadi pencari nafkah sepenuhnya. berdasarkan uraian di atas, pada usia awal manusia tidak hanya mempersiapkan diri untuk menikah dan membina keluarga melainkan juga bekerja. oleh karena itu tidak mengherankan bila hampir sebagian besar individu dewasa awal, berkecimpung dalam dunia kerja, baik laki-laki maupun perempuan. sejak berakhirnya perang dunia ii dan munculnya industrialisasi di jepang, sistem negara keluarga dihapuskan. perang dunia kedua menahan pertambahan penduduk kota karena selama perang arus penduduk yang kembali ke daerah pedesaan lebih banyak daripada jumlah penduduk kota. dibandingkan masyarakat pedesaan, masyarakat kota lebih cepat mengalami perubahan dalam sistem keluarga sebagai akibat dari banyak mendapat pilihan variasi pekerjaan dan terbatasnya lahan untuk medirikan rumah bagi tempat tinggal mereka. asas demokrasi mulai diberlakukan dalam kehidupan berkeluarga dengan munculnya tenaga kerja wanita dalam berbagai bidang (tobing, 2006). 146 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  perkembangan industri yang pesat disertai dengan penurunan angka ketergantungan keluarga petani mengakibatkan sejumlah besar laki-laki muda dewasa meninggalkan lapangan kerja pertanian dan mencari pekerjaan di sektor non-pertanian. akibatnya kebanyakkan lahan-lahan pertanian hanya dikerjakan oleh anggota keluarga berusia lanjut dan kaum wanita. industrialisasi di jepang semakin maju dan profesi di bidang perindustrian menjadi mata pencaharian terbanyak yang kemudian mengubah jepang menjadi negara industri. selain itu, meluasnya pemikiran individualistik dan digalakkanya pendidikan bagi semua warga mengakibatkan munculnya tenaga kerja wanita. menjelang akhir tahun 1990-an untuk petama kali jumlah tenaga kerja di jepang menurun secara amat tajam, akibat resesi ekonomi hal inilah yang membuat kehidupan perempuan di jepang dalam dunia pekerjaan mengalami peningkatan, karena mulai menyetarakan kesempatan bekerja bekerja dengan laki-laki. hal ini mendorong perempuan masuk ke pasar tenaga kerja, tidak saja sebelum menikah, melainkan juga setelah mereka menikah. oleh karena itu, para wanita bekerja ini memilih untuk menunda memiliki anak dalam usia produktif mereka untuk melahirkan. hal inilah yang membuat penulis ingin meneliti hubungan peningkatan jumlah wanita bekerja sehingga menyebakan timbulnya fenomena shoushika di jepang saat ini, karena fenomena shoushika telah membuat keresahan dalam masyarakat dewasa jepang saat ini. menurut data jumlah kelahiran penduduk dalam departemen kesehatan dan kesejahteraan jepang tahun 2009, jumlah kelahiran bayi di jepang pada tahun 2002 ialah 1.190.547 orang dan pada tahun 2007 jumlah kelahiran bayi di jepang menurun menjadi 1.089.818 orang. akibat tingkat kelahiran yang terus menurun, jepang dihadapkan pada masalah berkurangnya pertambahan generasi penurus. seperti yang telah kita ketahui, bila tingkat kelahiran tidak meningkat, seluruh penduduk jepang akan mulai menurun lebih dari 1 persen pertahun. oleh karena itu mengakibatkan ketidakstabilan terhadap masa depan pertumbuhan perekonomian dan sosial di jepang. hal ini menyebabkan terjadinya fenomena shoushika yang menimbulkan keresahan dalam masyarakat mengenai siapa yang akan membiayai dan merawat mereka ketika memasuki usia senja kelak. penulis tertarik untuk menganalisis fenomena bankonka yang dilatarbelakangi oleh tingginya pendidikan wanita jepang yang mengakibatkan munculnya fenomena shoshika. (fenomena penurunan tingkat kelahiran bayi), dengan memfokuskan penelitian pada tahun 2000-2005. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan latar belakang peningkatan fenomena bankonka yang dihubungkan dengan tingginya penididikan wanita, sehingga berdampat pada munculnya fenomena shoshika. manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah agar kita lebih memahami lebih dalam hal-hal yang melatarbelakangi fenomena bankonka, khususnya yang dilatarbelakangi oleh tingginya pendidikan wanita, yang mengakibatkan munculnya fenomena shoshika di jepang pada tahun 2000-2005. penulis menggunakan dua metode. metode yang pertama ialah metode studi kepustakaan dengan mengumpulkan data-data yang diperoleh dari buku, majalah, jurnal, artikel. selain itu penulis juga menggunakan metode penelitian deskriptif analitis, menjelaskan data-data yang diperoleh dari buku, majalah, jurnal,artikel, dan kemudian menganalisisnya. pembahasan hubungan meningkatnya jenjang pendidikan pada wanita jepang terhadap peningkatan jumlah wanita pekerja yang menimbulkan shoushika setelah perang dunia pertama, para wanita muda di jepang ikut terjun dalam dunia kerja setelah mereka menamatkan sekolah. pada saat itu wanita dan pria memiliki kesempatan yang sama dalam mengemban pendidikan setinggi-tingginya. para ibu menyekolahkan putrinya sehingga putrinya dampak peningkatan ….. (ratna handayani; mayumi salim) 147 dapat memiliki kesempatan untuk memperoleh kemakmuran dan kesejahteraan dalam hidupnya. dengan pendidikan, orang tua menaruh harapan, anaknya akan memperoleh banyak pilihan hidup. tingginya pendidikan yang dimiliki oleh anak perempuan, membuat banyak kemungkinan perubahan hidup bagi perempuan untuk mempunyai hidup lebih baik dari orang tua mereka serta akan meningkatkan prestise bagi orang tua anak tersebut. menurut tachibanaki (2010), beberapa hal yang memotivasi seseorang untuk mengejar pendidikan, yaitu: (1) pendidikan membawa seseorang pada pekerjaan yang bagus dan meningkatkan kekuasaan; (2) belajar di sekolah sangat berguna untuk menambah jaringan pertemanan dengan lainnya; (3) pendidikan sebagai penyaring pengetahuan, pengetahuan secara ilmiah, dan karakter; (4) mengejar pendidikan memungkinkan seseorang untuk bersaing dengan orang yang melanjutkan kembali sekolahnya atau untuk menunda memasuki dunia bekerja; dan (5) pendidikan memberikan keuntungan dalam menetapkan mencari pasangan menikah. dengan banyaknya motivasi seseorang mengejar pendidikan menurut tachibanaki (2010) sebelumnya, maka tidak mengejutkan bahwa banyak penduduk jepang saat ini melanjuti pendidikan hingga ke jenjang pendidikan yang tertinggi sebagai modal untuk memiliki masa depan yang baik. hal ini dapat dilihat pada gambar 1. gambar 1. diagram jumlah siswa berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan tahun 2005. dengan melihat diagram di atas, terlihat adanya kecendrungan banyaknya jumlah murid pada tahun 2005 di atas, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tingginya jumlah siswa pada pendidikan tingkat dasar sangat berarti dan wajib bagi kehidupan anak-anak di jepang.tidak hanya menyekolahkan anak-anak pada tingkat dasar, para orang tua di jepang pun menyekolahkan anak-anaknya hingga ke tingkat universitas, diploma, institut teknologi, dan sekolah kejuran khusus lainnya. dapat dilihat juga dalam table diagram jumlah siswa pada tahun 2005 di halam sebelumnya, bahwa banyak siswa setelah menamatkan pendidikan sekolah menengah keatas melanjutkan pendidikan ke universitas sebanyak 2,865 siswa. pentingnya memiliki jenjang pendidikan yang tinggi, dapat kita lihat pada grafik berikutnya. pada grafik selanjutnya kita akan melihat perkembangan jumlah perempuan yang melanjuti pendidikannya hingga universitas. 148 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  gambar 2. grafik wanita dewasa yang lulus dari universitas. berdasarkan grafik wanita dewasa yang lulus dari universitas (gambar 2) menurut ministry of education, culture, sport, science & technology dalam tong (2008). menurut analisis penulis perkembangan grafik wanita dewasa yang lulus dari universitas menunjukkan bahwa, jumlah wanita yang lulus dari universitas akan terus meningkat setiap tahunnya. hal ini juga menunjukkan bahwa para orang tua terus mengupayakan putrinya untuk memperoleh pendidikan setinggi mungkin yang setara dengan laki-laki sesuai dengan konsep pemikiran feminisme. ditegaskan oleh tong (2008) bahwa, dengan memberikan pendidikan awal yang sama bagi anak-anak perempuan dan laki-laki, serta mengakhiri prasangka, yang pada gilirannya akan menuntut redistribusi besar-besaran atas sumber daya dan perubahan kesadaran yang besar. sesuai dengan pernyataan tachibanaki mengenai motivasi seseorang mengejar pendidikan, yaitu pendidikan memberikan keuntungan dalam menetapkan mencari pasangan menikah. apabila memiliki pendidikan yang tinggi, wanita dapat menentukan kebebasannya dalam menentukan jalan hidupnya, salah satunya dalam menentukan pasangan hidup sesuai dengan kriterianya. pada dekade selanjutnya, wanita jepang memilih pasangannya dengan kondisi yang berbeda dengan pada masa orang tua mereka. dewasa ini ada tiga hal yang dijadikan kriteria, yaitu: tingginya tingkat pendidikan, tingginya tingkat pemasukkan, tingginya kualitas penampilan secara fisik. atau kriteria ini dikenal dengan istilah “three highs”. wanita yang mendapatkan pasangan hidup yang sesuai dengan tiga kriteria tersebut tentunya merasa bangga. setelah mengetahui kriteria memilih calon pasangan hidup wanita dewasa jepang saat ini, kita akan melihat grafik perkembangan jumlah pasangan yang menikah (gambar 3). gambar 3. grafik pekembangan jumlah pasangan yang menikah. 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000 2002 2003 2004 2005 wanita lulusan universitas 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 22 ・ 30 ・ 40 ・ 50 ・ 60 2 7 ・ 17 21 婚 姻 率 ( 人 口 千 対 ) 婚姻件数 婚 姻 率 昭和22年 最高の婚姻率 昭和47年 最高の婚姻件数 1 099 984組 昭和・・年 平成・年 平成21年 推計値 5.7 万組 婚 姻 件 数 平成21年推計 714 000 組 昭和22年 12.0 図4 婚姻件数及び婚姻率の年次推移 dampak peningkatan ….. (ratna handayani; mayumi salim) 149    keterangan : 人口千対 = jumlah penduduk per 1.000 orang 婚姻件数 = kasus pernikahan 昭和 = tahun showa ( 1926 – 1986 ) 平成 = tahun heisei ( 1988 – sekarang ) 婚姻率 = tingkat pernikahan 万組 = jumlah per 10.000 pasangan berdasarkan perkembangan grafik jumlah pasangan yang menikah dari departemen kesehatan, buruh, dan kesejahteraan. perkembangan jumlah pasangan yang menikah antara kurun waktu tahun 2002 hingga tahun 2007 mengalami sekali kenaikan jumlah pasangan yang menikah pada tahun 2006. dan juga mengalami banyak penurunan tingkat jumlah pasangan yang menikah. setelah menikah, tentunya kita harus melihat berapa banyak pasangan yang melahirkan anak, karena salah satu tujuan dari menikah ialah memiliki keturunan. surbakti (2008) mengatakan bahwa, salah satu tujuan pernikahan adalah untuk melanjutkan keturunan. setiap pasangan pernikahan secara normal pasti mengingkan keturunan sebagai buah pernikahan mereka. pada gambar 4, bisa dilihat perkembangan tingkat kelahiran. gambar 4. grafik perkembangan kelahiran bayi di jepang. keterangan : 人口千対 = jumlah penduduk per 1.000 orang 出生数 = banyaknya kelahiran 昭和 = tahun showa ( 1926 – 1986 ) 平成 = tahun heisei ( 1988 – sekarang ) 会計特殊生率 = tingkat kelangsungan hidup membandingkan dengan grafik sebelumnya, yaitu grafik perkembangan jumlah pasangan yang menikah dengan grafik jumlah perkembangan bayi yang dilahirkan, kedua grafik ini menunjukkan berbanding lurus. pada kedua grafik ini menunjukkan bahwa pada tahun yang sama, perkembangan jumlah pasangan menurun, jumlah kelahiran bayi pun ikut menurun. bisa dilihat pada kedua buah grafik di atas, pada tahun 2002 hingga tahun 2005, baik jumlah pasangan yang telah menikah dan memiliki anak, keduanya menunjukkan jumlah yang menurun. akan tetapi, pada tahun 0 1 2 3 4 5 22 ・ 30 ・ 40 ・ 50 ・ 60 2 7 ・ 17 21 出生数 合計特殊出生率 (昭和22~24年) 最高の出生数 2 696 638人 第2次ベビーブーム (昭和46~49年) 2 091 983人 平成17年 最低の出生数 1 062 530 最低の合計特殊出生率 1.26 万人 300 200 100 0 昭和・・年 8 出 生 数 合 計 特 殊 出 生 率 第1次ベビーブーム 図1 出生数及び合計特殊出生率の年次推移 1 360 974人 昭和41年 ひのえうま 平成21年推計値 1 069 000 人 平成・年 150 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  2006 jumlah pasangan yang menikah dan kelahiran bayi sedikit meningkat. dan kedua grafik tersebut kembali lagi mengalami penurunan di tahun 2007. menurut analisis penulis, penurunan tingkat jumlah pasangan yang menikah dihubungkan dengan kriteria mencari calon pasangan hidup yang ditetapkan oleh wanita jepang saat ini ialah disebabkan oleh faktor pendidikan tinggi yang dimiliki oleh wanita jepang saat ini. oleh karena itu banyak dari wanita tersebut yang terus fokus mengembani jenjang pendidikan yang tinggi, dan mulai menikmati keuntungan yang ia peroleh dengan memiliki pendidikan yang tinggi sehingga bagi wanitawanita yang memiliki pendidikan tinggi ini mencari pasangan hidup bukanlah sekedar untuk memiliki keturunan. akan tetapi, mencari pasangan hidup adalah suatu kebutuhan hidup berbagi bersama baik secara pola pikir, keuangan, pengalaman hidup, dan lain sebagainya.oleh karena itu, ketika wanita ini telah menemukan pasangan yang cocok sesuai dengan kriteria saat ini, maka mereka tidak bertujuan langsung memiliki keturunan. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa banyak pasangan muda di jepang yang telah menikah, namun tidak terlalu mengupayakan memiliki keturunan secepatnya. inilah yang mengakibatkan munculnya fenomena shoushika (penurunan tingkat jumlah kelahiran bayi). menurut analisis penulis, tingginya pendidikan yang diembani oleh perempuan jepang saat ini menunjukkan penyetaraan perempuan dalam bidang akademi, sangatlah penting bagi perempuan untuk memperoleh kesempatan berkehidupan yang lebih layak sama halnya dengan laki-laki. hal ini juga dipertegas oleh mill & taylor dalam tong (2008), bahwa jika ingin mencapai kesetaraan seksual, atau keadilan gender, masyarakat harus memberikan perempuan hak politik dan kesempatan, serta pendidikan yang sama yang dinikmati oleh laki-laki. dengan pemikiran ini banyak orang tua yang menyekolahkan putrinya setinggi mungkin, sehingga putrinya memperoleh pekerjaan yang baik dan menjadi kebanggan bagi mereka sebagai orang tua dan di mata masyarakat. dampak peningkatan karier & upah/gaji terhadap peningkatan jumlah wanita bekerja yang mempengaruhi timbulnya shoushika pada awal perkembangan era industri di jepang, wanita dipekerjakan menjadi buruh di industri tekstil. pada masa itu industri tekstil yang terkenal yaitu sutera dan kapas. industri ini menjadi komoditas utama diprioritaskan untuk diekspor ke luar negeri. kemudian para wanita yang memiliki pendidikan agak tinggi, dengan lulusan sekolah menengah ke atas, juga bekerja di berbagai macam jenis pekerjaan kantoran atau dikenal dengan istilah ‘white collar’ atau kerah putih (mackie, 2003). pada saat ini wanita jepang memiliki pendidikan tinggi, tidak hanya untuk mengatur rumah tangganya kelak, tapi juga sebagai modal awal mereka untuk memperoleh pekerjaan sebagus mungkin, baik dari segi jabatan maupun gaji yang diperoleh. wanita yang telah menikah, yang beristirahat dari pekerjaanya, kemudian memutuskan kembali lagi memasuki dunia bekerja, biasanya akan mendapat posisi pekerjaan yang lebih rendah daripada posisi pekerjaannya sebelum menikah. selain itu juga, kebanyakan dari para wanita yang berhenti dari pekerjaanya saat menikah, tidak akan memperoleh jenis pekerjaan yang sama dengan pekerjaan yang telah dia tinggalkan sebelumnya, karena dibutuhkannya jenjang karier yang panjang untuk memperoleh posisi manajer dalam sebuah perusahaan yang besar. oleh karena itu, banyak manajemen dalam sebuah perusahaan mendiskriminasi para wanita yang meninggalkan perusahaan demi keluarga dan anak untuk mencari wanita muda berbakat lainnya untuk bekerja dalam perusahaannya. usui, rose & kageyama (2003) mengemukakan bahwa manajemen berkeyakinan bahwa investasi perusahaan pada wanita muda adalah layak ketika mereka meninggalkan perusahaan untuk memiliki anak. ada pola sistematis diskriminasi terang-terangan terhadap perempuan dalam perusahaan sesuai dengan kondisi pernikahan, keluarga, dan usia” (p. 97). dampak p sebuah m wanita m dipekerja perusaha pernikah karena it kerja dan w memasu jenjang k menerim sarjana d membua mempero h mempero departem berskala m disebabk informas teknik i mengiku kemamp tersebut bidang-b bagi para k peningkata pernyataan u manajemen muda yang akan secara aan. akan t han ataupun k tu, tidak mem n memperole wanita lajan uki pernikaha karir lebih tin ma perempua diploma) dar at perempuan oleh posisi ja hal ini diteg oleh promos man, dan kep a besar (yang gambar dari ta menurut ana kan majunya si dan komun nformatika uti disiplin il puan dirinya untuk mem bidang peker a laki-laki m jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy jpy an ….. (ratna usui, rose & di perusahaa memiliki ke a baik dan tetapi, ketik keluarga, wa mungkinkan eh jabatan ya ng dan mu an dan menja nggi. karena an dengan le ripada karya n menyamak abatan dalam gaskan oleh si jabatan ma pala divisi), kompensasi r 5. grafik per ahun ke tahun bagi lu alisis penuli bidang ilmu nikasi ialah b ataupun tek lmu tehnik i bekerja, sam mperoleh gaji rjaan yang b mengerjakann y 160.00 y 165.00 y 170.00 y 175.00 y 180.00 y 185.00 y 190.00 y 195.00 y 200.00 y 205.00 y 210.00 200 a handayan & kageyam an memang emampuan u memiliki ke ka wanita in anita tersebut bagi wanita ang ditinggal uda yang di adi ibu ruma a perusahaan evel pendidi awan laki-lak kan kualifika m perusahaan edwards (2 anajer hingga selain itu ju i gajinya lebi rubahan gaji aw n berdasarkan ulusan baru pe is, peningka u pengetahua bidang yang knik komput informatika a ma halnya d i yang sama baru bagi w nya. 04 2005 ni; mayumi sa ma (2003) me benar ada d untuk mend esempatan m ni memutus t akan didisk yang berhen lkannya pada ipekerjakan ah tangga se n tidak mau m kan yang le ki dari perusa asi dengan p n besar. 2002) bahwa a ke tingkata uga hampir s ih besar darip wal bagi lulus industri (total erguruan tingg atan upah ke an dan teknol dikerjakan o ter. akan te ataupun tekn dengan lakia tingginya anita untuk 2006 2 alim) enjelaskan b dan telah te atangkan ke memperoleh kan untuk kriminasi dal nti kemudian a perusahaan atas kemam elama bebera mempromosi ebih rendah ahaan yang pria, dalam a lulusan un an paling ting selalu dapat pada perusah san baru dan t untuk semua gi dimulai dari erja dalam logi di jepan oleh para laki etapi, denga nik kompute -laki. hal in dengan kary dikerjakan, 2007 me per kon ma list dan info tran per ece keu rea tem sert bahwa sistem ersusun siste euntungan b tingkat jab meninggalka lam manajem n berniat kem n sebelumnya mpuannya, a apa tahun, ta ikan wanita i (sekolah me sama. oleh hal ini yaitu iversitas cen ggi seperti (k diterima dal haan firma be tingkat peruba ukuran perus i ¥1000. bidang info ng saat ini. pa i-laki seperti an adanya w er, wanita in i membuka yawan laki-l meskipun su ncakup industri rtambangan nstruksi anufaktur trik, gas, dan peny n panas formasi & komuni nsportasi rdagangan grosir eran uangan & asurans al estate mpat makan dan m ta akomodasi m diskrimina matis. pada agi perusaha batan tertent an perusaha men perusaha mbali memasu a. akan pensiu anpa dipromo ini, perusaha enengah ke karena itu, a u menyetara nderung lebi kepala bagia am perusaha erskala sedan ahan upah sahaan) ormasi dan t ada umumny i lulusan disi wanita yang i telah meny peluang bag laki serta ter udah menjad yuplai air ikasi dan si minum 151 asi dalam awalnya aan akan tu dalam aan demi aan. oleh uki dunia un ketika osikan ke aan selalu atas atau alasan ini akan agar ih mudah an, kepala aan firma ng). teknologi ya bidang iplin ilmu berhasil yetarakan gi wanita rbukanya di umum 152 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  usui, rose & kageyama (2003), mengemukakan bahwa: “gender differences in seniority provide one explanation for the wide gender gap in wages. over the years, women have gained more seniority on the job and the gender gap in seniority has shrunk considerably. on average, women’s continuous job tenure is five years shorter than that of men. however, it has not reduced the earnings gap beetween men and women in accordance with recent increases in women’s seniority. education is another explanation for wage disparities for women” (p. 96). perbedaan gender dalam senioritas menyediakan satu penjelasan atas kesenjangan gender luas dalam upah. selama bertahun-tahun perempuan mendapatkan banyak kesenioritasan dalam pekerjaan dan kesenjangan gender dalam senioritas meningkat secara signifikan. akan tetapi, hal itu telah mengurangi kesenjangan pendapatan antara laki-laki dan perempuan sesuai dengan peningkatan barubaru ini di senioritas perempuan. pendidikan merupakan penjelasan untuk perbedaan upah untuk perempuan. pernyataan usui, rose & kageyama menjelaskan bahwa, selama ini masalah jenis kelamin menjadi penyebab kesenioritasan dalam perolehan upah. gender menjadi perbedaan seseorang dalam memperoleh upah. selama bertahun-tahun perempuan mendapat diskriminasi dalam perolehan upah. akan tetapi, akhir-akhir ini telah banyak peningkatan dan perubahan dalam kesenioritasan perempuan sehingga masalah kesenjangan gender dalam perolehan upah mulai teratasi. salah satu penyebab perubahan dalam kesenioritasan perempuan adalah tingginya tingkat pendidikan yang dimiliki oleh perempuan. dengan pendidikan yang tinggi, masalah kesenjangan gender dalam perolehan upah mulai menghilang. menurut analisis penulis, bagi wanita bekerja yang berambisi untuk mendapatkan gaji bagus serta karier yang tinggi, menunda memiliki anak adalah pilihan yang mereka harus ambil. untuk memperoleh posisi manajerial dalam sebuah perusahaan jepang dibutuhkan tidak hanya kecakapan dalam mengerjakan pekerjaan, tapi juga loyalitas pengabdian pada perusahaan tersebut. panjangnya waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memebuktikan loyalitas dalam perusahaan membuat wanita bekerja tidak memiliki waktu untuk memiliki apalagi merawat anak. hal ini dipertegas oleh tachibanaki (2010) yang mengatakan jika wanita ingin mandiri dalam ekonomi dan ingin melanjuti pekerjaannya karena merasa memiliki dan mengurus anak sangat memberatkan, mereka lebih baik menunda memiliki anak. hal inilah yang menyebabkan munculnya fenomena shoushika (penurunan tingkat kelahiran bayi). menurut analisis penulis, dengan terbukanya kesempatan promosi jenjang manajerial atau karier lainnya, wanita bekerja ini memperoleh gaji yang tinggi. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat jepang saat ini telah menyetarakan hak-hak perempuan untuk memperoleh kesempatan untuk turut serta dalam sektor-sektor publik. pemikiran masyarakat jepang ini sesuai dengan pemikiran feminisme seperti yang diungkapkan oleh tong (2008) yang menjelaskan bahwa tujuan umum dari feminisme liberal adalah untuk menciptakan masyarakat yang adil dan peduli tempat kebebasan berkembang. hanya di dalam masyarakat seperti itu, perempuan dan juga laki-laki dapat mengembangkan diri. harapan bahwa masyarakat membuka cara pandang mereka mengenai kebebasan, bahwa kebebasan dapat diperoleh baik laki-laki maupun perempuan dalam mengembangkan diri. sistem hierarki dalam perusahaan di jepang lama-kelamaan memudar, sehingga diskriminasi gender dalam pekerjaan dihilangkan sehingga baik laki-laki dan perempuan bersaing secara sehat untuk memperoleh jenjang karier dan gaji yang bagus. hal ini sesuai dengan pemikiran feminisme menurut suharto (2006), baik feminisme liberal dan feminisme radikal kedua feminisme ini menolak sistem hierarkis yang berstarata berdasarkan garis gender dan kelas. dampak peningkatan ….. (ratna handayani; mayumi salim) 153 penutup seiring perkembangan zaman, dengan banyaknya pahampaham feminisme dari dunia barat yang dipopulerkan oleh kaum sosialis, penyetaraan hak antara laki-laki dan perempuan mulai ditegakkan. dahulu, laki-laki dalam keluarga tradisional jepang sangatlah penting perannya dalam keluarga. selain sebagai ahli waris seluruh kekayaan di dalam rumah, peranan laki-laki juga sebagai pencari nafkah. oleh karena itu, laki-laki diberi kesempatan untuk mengemban pendidikan setinggi mungkin, serta bekerja di luar rumah, tanpa perlu turut serta mengurus kehidupan di dalam rumahnya. setelah masuknya paham-paham feminisme tersebut, para orang tua yang memiliki anak perempuan, mulai menyekolahkan anaknya hingga ke jenjang perguruan tinggi dengan harapan bahwa putrinya dapat memperoleh kehidupan yang sejahtera untuk masa depannya kelak, serta menjadi kebanggan orang tua sama halnya dengan anak laki-laki. wanita yang memiliki latar belakang pendidikan yang bagus, biasanya akan memperoleh pekerjaan yang bagus pula. banyaknya perusahaan bertaraf internasional di jepang, yang menerima para wanita muda yang memiliki otak cemerlang dan berasal dari lulusan perguruan tinggi. peluang ini dimanfaatkan para wanita muda untuk berkarir di usia produktif mereka. dengan memiliki pekerjaan yang bagus serta jabatan yang bergensi, dengan sendirinya wanita tersebut mendapatkan gaji yang tinggi. hal ini tentunya membuat wanita semakin termotivasi untuk terus bekerja walaupun telah menikah. banyak dari wanita jepang yang telah bekerja sebelum menikah, kemudian setelah menikah tetap melanjuti pekerjaan mereka tanpa perlu berhenti dari pekerjaan mereka. hal ini karena sudah menjadi kebudayaan perusahaan jepang yang memberlakukan peraturan untuk memperoleh promosi jabatan dilihat dari lamanya seorang karyawan mengabdi pada perusahan. selain itu perusahaan juga memperhatikan cara bekerja dan kecakapan pegawainya di dalam perusahaan. keterbatasan yang dialami oleh wanita jepang pada generasi terdahulu, telah membuat wanita jepang pada generasi sekarang ini untuk lebih lama menunda memiliki anak walaupun usia mereka adalah usia produktif wanita untuk melahirkan. dari uraian-uraian yang dikemukan oleh penulis di atas, penulis menarik kesimpulan bahwa meningkatnya taraf pendidikan yang dimiliki perempuan jepang saat ini membawa perempuan ini menjadi wanita pekerja baik sebelum menikah ataupun setelah menikah. oleh karena itu, penundaan memiliki anak yang banyak terjadi pada wanita bekerja dan telah menikah di jepang saat ini dilatarbelakangi oleh meningkatnya taraf pendidikan yang dimiliki oleh perempuan jepang saat ini serta banyaknya waktu yang dibutuhkan oleh wanita bekerja untuk menunjukkan keloyalitasannya dalam sebuah perusahaan sehingga memperoleh jenjang karier dan gaji yang tinggi. kebanggan karena dapat berkarya di luar dalam bentuk bekerja yang diterima oleh wanita jepang telah memberikan pengaruh yang besar dalam kehidupannya. dengan bekerja, mereka dapat mengekspresikan dirinya; tidak hanya melakukan pekerjaan rumah tangga saja. mereka juga memperoleh wawasan yang luas, dan membuat diri mereka lebih berpikiran maju. kemudian, kemapanan ekonomi serta jabatan tinggi yang mereka peroleh telah membuat mereka menjadi wanita yang mandiri dan mendedikasikan kehidupannya untuk pekerjaan. sehingga para wanita bekerja di jepang, memilih untuk menunda memiliki anak selama mereka bisa mengejar karier di usia produktif mereka. perbedaan gender antara pria dan wanita di kalangan masyarakat jepang yang telah mengalami proses waktu yang panjang mulai mengalami pemudaran dan kaum pria jepang pun mulai belajar member kesempatan dan menghormati kaum wanita dengan persamaan hak asasi manusia. 154 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.2 november 2011: 144-154  daftar pustaka crawford, m., & unger, r. (2004). women and gender. new york: the mc grawhill. imamura, a. e. (1992). urban japanese housewives. usa: university of hawaii press. mackie, v. (2003). feminism in modern japan. china: everbest. rini, j. f. (2002, 28 mei). wanita bekerja. e-psikologi online. diakses pada 12 juli 2010, dari http://www.e-psikologi.com/epsi/artikel_detail.asp?id=115 seo, a. (1990). women get on the job. look japan september 1990: 8. steinhoff, p. g., & tanaka, k. (1989). women managers in japan. new york: m.e sharp. suharto, e. (2006). teori feminis dan pekerjaan sosial. yogyakarta. surbakti, e. b. (2008). sudah siapkah menikah. jakarta: elex media komputindo. tobing, e. (2006). keluarga tradisional jepang. depok: iluni kwj. tong, r. p. (2008). feminist thought. yogyakarta: jalasutra. tachibanaki, t. (2010). the new paradox for japanese women: greater choice, greater inequality. japan: international house of japan. usui, c., rose, s., & kageyama, r. (2003). women, institutions, and leadership in japan. asian perspective 27, (3), 85-123. 39the hegemony of english ….. (e. yohanita irene) the hegemony of english in public discourse e. yohanita irene english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 nita88nita@yahoo.com abstract this article looks at the relation of the global role of english to the english hegemony found in the jakarta post articles. it highlights the readers’ point of view, specifically the arguments they used in opposing the education and culture ministry plan to scrap english from elementary school curriculum. it underlines the contemporary phenomenon of english as a world language and the role it plays in contributing to the dominance of english reflected on the readers’ opinion. keywords: hegemony, english, public discourse abstrak artikel menjelaskan hubungan peran global bahasa inggris dengan hegemoni bahasa inggris yang dimuat pada artikel koran jakarta post. artikel mengungkapkan pandangan pembaca, terutama argumen mereka terhadap rencana kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan untuk menghapuskan mata pelajaran bahasa inggris pada kurikulum sekolah dasar. menurut pendapat pembaca, hal ini berlawanan dengan fenomena bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa dunia dan juga peran bahasa inggris tersebut pada dominansi bahasa inggris. kata kunci: hegemoni, bahasa inggris, diskursus publik 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 39-42 introduction as part of the government’s plan to revise the national curriculum that will be implemented next school year, english will no longer be a subject taught in elementary schools. the deputy education and culture minister, musliar kaslim, stated that the omission intended to give more than enough time for students to master the indonesian language first before submerging into foreign languages (the jakarta post, 2012). the plan raises pros and cons among the readers. in indonesia, the notion that english is in fact has become the essential cornerstone which plays a dominant position in education is specifically shown by the phenomenon of the teaching of english starting in early childhood education level. the teaching of english in kindergarten level indicates that english has become a “basic skill” learnt by younger children, rather than something that older children or adults might want to acquire later. this phenomenon, however, with the assumption that children haven’t learnt to understand the indonesian language yet, is one of the concerns stated by the deputy education and culture minister when reasoning the plan of omitting english from primary school. english is no longer only of concern to the people living in britain, united states or australia, but it is now entrenched worldwide, as a neo-colonialism power. neocolonialism, which constitutes the policy where a major power uses economic or political, means to exert its influence over undeveloped nations or areas to gain control. the control over the nations could be economic, cultural or linguistic and can be demonstrated simply by larger powers promoting their own culture in these independent nations. phillipson (2003:48) writes, “in the contemporary world, english language teaching seems to be marketable worldwide. there is a demand for material products and resources (books, jobs for english teachers, space on timetables) and for immaterial resources (ideas, teaching principles).” this is of significance to britain, as the director-general of the british council stated in the 1987/88 annual report (page 8): “britain’s real black gold is not north sea oil but the english language. it has long been the root of our culture and now it fast becoming the global language of business and information. the challenge facing us is to exploit it to the full.” (ibid). this article firstly attempts to look at the authors’ point of view, specifically the arguments they used in opposing the education and culture ministry plan to scrap english from elementary school curriculum. secondly, it attempts to see the relation of the global role of english to the english hegemony found in the articles. the research questions that will be explored in the article are what arguments have been used to justify the need of learning english in elementary school?, and how can one, in a theoretically informed way, relate the global role of english to the english hegemony? in order to provide a basis for tentative answers to the research questions, the literature review presents the theoretical framework for the analysis. this part deals with the theory of english hegemony. ‘hegemony’ means the success of the dominant classes in presenting their definition of reality, their view of the world, in such a way that it is accepted by other classes as ‘common sense’. the general ‘consensus’ is that it is the only sensible way of seeing the world. any groups who present an alternative view are therefore marginalized. (goldberg, n.d.). english hegemony, as the manifestation of linguistic imperialism, has spread globally, which indicates the dominant status of english as the most commonly used language today. ammon (1992:78-81) points out the dominance of english by providing same statistics about the dominance of english. according to him, (1) english has the greatest number of speakers reaching as many as 1.5 billion people; (2) english is designated as official languages of as many as 62 nations; (3) english is the most dominant language in scientific communication with 70-80 percent of academic publications being published in it; (4) english is the de facto official and working language in most international organizations; (5) english is the most taught foreign language across the world. burchfield (1985:160) states: “english has also become a lingua franca to the point that any literate educated person is in a very real sense deprived if he does not know english.” the dominance of english, in fact, also creates discriminatory prejudices against who can’t speak english considered incompetent and inferior. for instance, people who write up their research in languages other than english probably will have their work ignored by the international community. moreover, textbooks written in english are used in virtually almost all university degree programs, which imply that english is a pre-condition for higher educational qualifications. nevertheless, this domination, according to tisci (n.d.), is not a recent product of the globalization, but it is the result of the political, economic, military and cultural power of english speakers in the history. crystal (2003) underlines that this status occurs neither because today english is the language most taught as a foreign language and the official language in over seventy countries, nor because of the simplicity of its grammar, like somebody believes. the adjective is rather due to the fact that english is the current language of the diplomatic and economic relationships, of the academic world and of the cultural industry. these are all domains that, especially at this moment of large globalization, need an international language. hence, from this point of view, it is clear that “english was in the right place at the right time” (crytal, 2003:46). method the research analyses some articles on the jakarta post readers forum and opinion. there are three articles to be analysed, which highlight the disagreement to the omission of english from elementary school curriculum. the analysis undertaken here serves to illustrate the english hegemony in the context of the three texts. the paper concludes with a brief summary of the results and some reflections on proposed counter-strategy to the english hegemony, before considering some possible next steps for future research. 41the hegemony of english ….. (e. yohanita irene) results and discussion couple of days after the jakarta post reported an interview with the deputy education and culture minister for education, musliar kasim, about the omission of english from elementary school as part of the new curriculum effective next school year; there were quite strong reactions among the readers. the article skillfully gains the readers’ attention and generates pros and cons. english as the dominant language sugiharto (2012) has written an opinion hoping to contribute some ideas in opposing for the english abolition issue. as he writes in his opening paragraphs, he states, “omission of english from the curriculum is as harmful for our relationships with developed countries which value english over other foreign languages — australia, the united states, india to name but three. opposing english is tantamount to opposing globalization and modernity.” (par 3) such reason, which describes the disagreement of omission of english, reflects an anxiety that indonesian diplomatic relations with some english speaking countries are at risk. this reason, on valuing english as a powerful language of international communication, seems to equate the importance of english with globalization and modernity deprivation, to the point that the people of any country are in a very real sense deprived if they do not know english. while there is a sense in which sugiharto (2012) is making a valid observation, as an unqualified generalization it is false. there are lots of non-english speaking countries that make good relations with english speaking country. what is more challenging about his claim is the question of the link between non mastery of english and the globalization and modernity deprivation. there is clearly no simple causal relationship between them, but to deny that there could be any link would be to ignore the fact that english has a dominant position in science, technology, medicine, research, books and business. english has also been widely dispersed around the world, it is the official language in 83 countries/regions (iso), spoken in 105 other countries. (nationonline, n.d.). sugiharto (2012) makes clear that, “it is not surprising to see that most, if not all, the comments in the jakarta post’s readers’ forum are very pro-english and full of well-worn labels such as “lingua franca”, “the window of the world”, “world language” and “the language of wider communication”. the labels of english presented on the writing imply the author’s appeal to the power of english as the dominant language. in addition, the author attempts to confirm that, “these positive attitudes to english demonstrate people’s awareness of the importance of the language of global access.” the term lingua franca is an ambivalent one. in the report on the conference on the teaching of english as a second language, held at makarere, uganda, in 1961, a lingua franca is defined, for the purposes of the report as “any non-english language which is widely used, or taught in schools for use, between nationals of the same country, but which is not the mother tongue at all.” (makarere report, 1961:5). phillipson (2003:42) says: “the restriction of lingua franca to country-internal uses is bizarre, but the placing of english in category of its own, superior to all other languages which are merely lingua francas or vernaculars, is a clear example of colonialist discourse, being used here as the neo-colonialist order was ushered in.” the term is now frequently applied to dominant international languages and the tendency is to promote english as the only lingua franca which can serve modern purposes. according to phillipson (ibid) this discourse also puts english into a class of its own. this reinforces the dominant ideology, which presupposes that english is the most eligible language for virtually all significant purposes. in the end of the article, when describing the benefit of his ideas, the author makes clear that his idea is an exalted ideal: “rather than simply glorifying the values of english and telling students that learning english offers massive benefits to their future lives, it is far more urgent to help them challenge language by exploiting and appropriating it by virtue of their identities, cultural norms and values, and tradition.” although the author successfully describes the benefits of the plan, they do not adequately demonstrate that it would be workable. he also pays little attention to the possibility that it might be better to exploit indonesian identities, cultural norms and values by means of english, instead of vice versa. english as commodity in his article, trimono (2012) claims that every government policy will always have its pros and cons. but, the classic problem with almost all government decisions is that the solution does not address the problem. the title of the article attempts to question the government’s plan of eliminating english as a subject in elementary school. the author argues, “it is important to master english as it is generally used worldwide. it opens a larger network and broadens knowledge. it reflects the modernity and globalization that we should face and not avoid. in order to compete with other countries, especially our neighbors, we need to accelerate our development by empowering citizens with the communication and language skills set that is internationally accepted.” this point of view underlines english as commodity, where it has economic as well as ideological aspects. since the plan first mentioned by the deputy education and culture minister for education, musliar kasim, the teaching english in elementary school has become a controversial activity. highlighting the author’s point of view that we need to accelerate our development by empowering citizens with the communication and language skills set that is internationally accepted, it is wise if we reflect on some questions addressed by canagarajah (1999:3): “does english offer third world countries a resource that will help them in their development, as western governments and development agencies would claim? or is it a trojan horse, whose effect is to perpetuate their dependence?” the article’s structure was logically developed overall, with the use of short paragraphs helping the reader access the main points more easily. in his point of view, however, the author does not mention nor elaborate further the suggested ways to make english lessons more attractive. it is one thing to make good packaging english 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 39-42 in indonesia, a nation-state with a pluralistic society. it is quite another to establish such programs in a developing country with varying cultural traditions and governmental structures. the dominance of english as normal and positive phenomenon the third chosen is an article written by herlina (2012). in her article, she highlights the equal rights of those less fortunate children with the children from middle to upper class to have access to the international language. she writes: “it means the government has denied those in the lower-class access to the international language which play significant role in the globalized world.” a statement of this type is dangerous because it seems to describe the wide spread of english as a natural phenomenon, preventing us from understanding its negative aspects. even if the current tendency is to consider the dominance of english as a normal and positive phenomenon, there are some sociolinguists who have tried to find the risks connected to it. for instance, the japanese journalist, tsuda (2012) analyses three of these problems. the first of them is the linguistic and communicative inequality. if english dominates communication, native speakers of english will be more able to control and manipulate advantageously a conversation than non-native speakers of english. this situation leads to hierarchical communications system in which relationships between participants are asymmetrical and contributes to maintain in a linguistic guise the gap between rich and poor. the other two types of problems, the linguistic discrimination and social inequality and the colonization of the consciousness, go beyond the linguistic system. (tsuda, 2012) conclusion the results of the study suggest that english hegemony is reflected on the readers’ opinion. the reasons presented in the readers’ opinion value english as a powerful language of international communication which seems to equate the importance of english with globalization and modernity. language is part of culture, therefore equity among languages will mean also mutual respect among cultures that will not ever seen as opposed and substitutable but rather like complementary. in this manner we will have also a democratization of diplomatic and economic relationships that means a real respect of human rights. contrary, nowadays english serves to be the language of human rights because it is the language most used during the conferences and meetings of international organizations such as the united nations. but it is paradoxical that a language of human rights contributes through its diffusion, to deprive other languange, people, especially minorities, of their basic human rights, linguistic or economic, social and civil. further research is recommended to investigate the result, for different groups in society. references canagarajah, s. (1999). resisting linguistic imperialism in english teaching. oxford university press. crystal, d., (2003). english as a global language. cambridge university press. goldberg, m. (n.d.). hegemony. rerieved from http://faculty.washington.edu/mlg/courses/definitions/hegemony.html herlina. (2012, oct 22). imo view: english vs mother tongues. retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/10/22/imo-view-english-vsmother-tongues.html nationonline. (n.d.). most widely spoken languages in the world. retrieved from http://www.nationsonline. org/oneworld/most_spoken_languages.htm phillipson, r. (2003). linguistic imperialism. oxford university press. sugiharto, s. (2012, oct 20). cutting a foreign tongue? retrived from http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/10/20/ cutting-a-foreign-tongue.html tisci, r. (n.d.). is english a language that unifies or that divides. retrieved from http://www.academia. edu/1460923/is_english_a_language_that_unifies_or_that_divides. trimono, r. (2012, october 24). why should we sacrifice english? retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost. com/news/2012/10/24/your-letter-why-should-wesacrifice-english.html tsuda, y. ( 2012). the hegemony of english and strategies for linguistic pluralism: proposing the ecology of language paradigm. retrieved from http:// miresperanto.com/en/english_as_intern/hegemony_of_english.htm copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 267 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 267-272 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4063 extensive reading (er) practices and the development of language fluency resky januarty english department, post graduate school, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta, indonesia kiky.januarty@gmail.com received: 10th october 2017 /revised: 21st november 2017 /accepted: 07th february 2018 how to cite: januarty, r. (2018). extensive reading (er) practices and the development of language fluency. lingua cultura, 12(3), 267-272. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4063 abstract this research aimed at investigating the extensive reading (er) practices of the students and the development of language fluency. the design of the research was a qualitative study using purposive sampling technique. the data were collected by conducting interview and distributing questionnaire to 20 postgraduate students in sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia. furthermore, the research revealed some findings on the types of reading materials preferred, reasons and benefits of reading, the effect of the extensive reading practices for the development of language fluency and academic achievement. the results indicate that students prefer the enjoyable reading as their reading sources. moreover, the books suggested by the teachers to read also become their favorite materials because they obtain some advantages especially in developing language fluency. the finding also implies that extensive reading practices also affect the students’ academic achievement. keywords: extensive reading, language fluency, reading practices, academic achievement introduction nowadays, students’ oriented activity is primarily more emphasized in giving the learners’ role in the language learning process considering their needs and interest. for those reasons, the effective language learning should consider the students’ need and interest. students tend to be more motivated when they are able to find their interest in language learning especially when many benefits come along and show the development of language fluency. they have to recognize first the particular topic or subject in language learning which they are interested in and the intended learning outcomes for the students. one of the essential components of language learning and lifelong learning for all learners is reading. reading is an important skill in obtaining experience that links people in a way far beyond distance or time. learners can gain a lot of individual experiences to broaden horizons, identify, extend, and intensify their interest and obtain a deeper understanding of themselves and other human beings in the world. reading is a substantial lifestyle which must be considered by the learners in order to cope with new knowledge in a changing world. reading makes way for a better comprehension of one’s own experiences, and it can be an exciting voyage to self-contrivance. panigrahi and panda (1996) have said, “it is the art of interpreting printed and written words, the most effective process of conscious learning which influences the extent and accuracy of information as well as the attitudes, morals, beliefs, judgment, and action of readers.” carrell and carson (1997) have stated that in extensive reading, there are some points which should be considered. they refer to reading a large quantity of books and also practicing rapid reading. the activities focus on how to understand the meaning rather than the language. extensive reading (er) is different from intensive reading (ir). in ir, the students usually work with short texts and close guidance from the teacher. the purpose of ir is facilitating the students to obtain detailed meaning from the text, to enhance reading skills, and to develop vocabulary and grammar knowledge. it is essential for the teachers to note that these two approaches are for teaching reading. er and ir should not be seen as being in opposition, as both serve different but complementary purposes (carrell & carson, 1997; nuttall, 1997). moreover, in many language classrooms, ir seems to be the dominant approach to teaching reading. this is despite evidence that the use of ir alone in the classroom will not help the learners develop their reading fluency. however, as an important skill, fluency tends to conceivably be acquired by learners only after the exposure to massive quantities of written text repeatedly. from many definitions about extensive reading, numbers of expert agree that er involves the independent reading of a large quantity of material for information or pleasure (renandya, rajan, jacobs, 2009). it means that everyone should consider the available resources first before implementing the er. the resources should be enjoyable and fit the students’ level, for example, novel, magazine, comic, newspapers, and other 268 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 267-272 kinds of literature which meet students’ interest and are well-written on the basis of students’ current level. krashen (1997) has stated that the way of learning the foreign language is by understanding messages. thus, when someone understands what people say, he/she is able to comprehend what is being read. these conditions happen when he/she repeatedly focuses on the meaning of a large number of messages. this theory has been proposed by a number of theorists. moreover, stephen krashen who formalizes this position into a theory known as the ‘input hypothesis,’ which he later calls the ‘comprehension hypothesis’ (krashen, 2004 as cited in renandya, 2007). the comprehension hypothesis is basically formulated on the basis of krashen’s conception regarding (n+1) formula. the symbol ‘n’ refers to students’ current level of language proficiency which has been generally active as students use that language proficiency for producing and interpreting meanings. also, the symbol ‘1’ indicates a little bit higher level of language proficiency which can be reached and acquired by students when they use their ‘n’ as the schemata. therefore, a comprehensible hypothesis refers to the substantial contents of input which comprise a big part of students’ current language proficiency and a small part of a new level of language proficiency which is reachable when students exert their big part of language proficiency. the composition of (n+1) should underlie the selected texts or books which become the resources of extensive reading activity. accordingly, this inserted composition will guarantee that the selected extensive reading resources are comprehensible. furthermore, to trigger students to be enjoyable in reading massively, the comprehensible extensive reading resources should meet students’ interest. another useful definition of extensive reading is offered by davis (1995) from a classroom implementation perspective. he states that an extensive reading program is a supplementary class library scheme, attached to an english course, in which pupils are given the time, encouragement, and materials to read pleasurably, at their own level, as many books as they can, without the pressures of testing or marks. thus, students are competing against themselves, and the teachers are asked to provide the motivation and monitoring ascertains that they read the maximum number of books and proper books with the time given. the key words are quantity and variety, rather than quality, so that books are selected for their attractiveness and relevance to the students’ lives, rather than for literary merit. it can be inferred from the explanation above that the teachers need to facilitate the students to find out their interest and to guide them finding out the suitable reading materials in order to develop their fluency. in order to get lots of benefit from extensive reading, students must read regularly and abundantly. research shows that, while variables such as variety and availability of reading materials are important, it is the quantity of reading that correlates most highly with students’ reading enhancement and general language learning gains (renandya, rajan, & jacobs, 2009; renandya, 2017). thus, the amount of reading is a key aim of an extensive reading program. also, since sustained motivation is needed for students to read regularly over a period of time, increasing students’ motivation is also an important aim. students who are motivated are likely to read more and students who read more tend to be more motivated too. there is a reciprocal relationship between motivation and extensive reading (day & bamford, 1998). previous research related to extensive reading is conducted by chun, choi, and kim (2012) about the effects of extensive reading and paired-associate learning on longterm vocabulary retention. based on converging evidence from behavioral and electrophysiological measures, the research reports the first evidence that er and pal (phase alternating line) are effective in promoting shortterm vocabulary retention. the findings indicate that repetition without the aid of context (i.e., pal) may lead to short-term retention, but not too long-term retention. the findings of this research are parallel with the consensus from l1 vocabulary research and some l2 research in that extensive reading is a significant contributor to vocabulary acquisition. the findings of this research challenge the claims and findings of many l2 researchers who support the l2 vocabulary acquisition over er. from the research, it can be understood that the er gives a big contribution to the vocabulary acquisition. thus, it is known that vocabulary is one of the important aspects that influence the development of language fluency. quantitative research has the same orientation to extensive reading is conducted by kirin, poolsap, and plongthong (2012), the result of their research shows that students who read more pages perform better in their reading comprehension and speed. the research enacted by kirin, poolsap, and plongthong (2012) engages the selected 44 chinese students who register for a thai reading course at a university in thailand. the reading task is integrated into the reading course. the reading strategies and practice using a traditional approach are the main focus of this activity. regarding the result of reading comprehension, the analysis has revealed that both of groups perceived themselves as having a high level of comprehension. it shows that those who read more rated their comprehension at the same level, while those who read less rated at a lower level. the finding has revealed that quantity and the speed of reading can affect the reading comprehension. the more the students practice reading, the more they will improve their comprehension and strategy in reading skill. this research aims to investigate the er practices among postgraduate students and explore their interest. it also finds out the benefits derived from the er practices toward the academic purposes and the other possible benefits in daily life. methods the research aims to investigate the students’ perception of extensive reading practices. the design of the research is a qualitative descriptive study using purposive sampling technique. 20 postgraduate students from a university in indonesia are selected to participate in this research based on their experience through extensive reading practices. there are four males and 16 females. they have a good reading habit and good skills in english. most of the participants also have a toefl score of more than 500. those reasons are taken into consideration by involving the 20 postgraduate students from sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia in this research. the researcher conducts the interview in this research as a method to collect the data and distribute an open-ended questionnaire that consists of several questions. furthermore, the researcher does a descriptive qualitative method. the researcher analyzes the data based on creswell theory. the analysis of the data is done in the following steps; collecting the data from 20 participants, classifying the data by coding to generate the setting and people, 269extensive reading (er) practices... (resky januarty) selecting/displaying the data to make it easier in analysis and interpreting data which is involved interpretation or meaning of the data. in addition, the researcher has interpreted it by adopting the qualitative narrative inquiry framework. it is used to examine and extract information from the open-ended questionnaire and interview. results and discussions students’ motivation is much influenced by the environment since the participants of the research are the postgraduate students. they tend to have a good reading habit. as mentioned, this research aims to explore the er practices and their interest in reading. the researcher also wants to find out the types of reading materials chosen. the benefits derived from the er practices toward the academic purposes and the other possible benefits in the daily life also become the attention in this research. the research finding indicates that 80% of the participants are women and they outnumber the men by a percentage of 20%. women are dominated in the target population since most of the students which the researcher takes the data are women. all the respondents are indonesian citizens who come from various places. in the first question, the participants are asked to mention the toefl score they have obtained in the latest test. from 20 participants, there are 16 students (80%) who have an adequate toefl score for academic purposes. as a description, the participants have the various score from 510 – 587. there are four participants (15%) obtain toefl score below 500; their score ranged from 470 – 475. the data are described in table 1. table 1 participants’ toefl score distribution toefl score number of participants <500 4 500 – 510 4 511 – 520 1 521 – 530 3 531 – 540 3 541 – 550 551 – 560 2 561 – 570 1 571 – 580 1 581 – 590 1 591 – 600 >601 total 20 table 1 indicates that most of the participants (80%) of the research obtain a good score in toefl test. it implies that they have good proficiency in english skill. the data also show that some of the participants obtain a toefl score below 500; the researcher then conducts a deep interview with four of the participants. most of the reason is that it is the first time they take the toefl test, and they do not have adequate experience in doing the particular test. another reason is they do not have adequate preparation before taking the test because of the academic activities so that they cannot obtain the maximum score. from the reasons, it can be concluded that having toefl score below 500 or obtaining the score below the standard score for the academic purposes do not indicate that the test takers do not have good proficiency in english. it can be happened because of the several reasons that have been mentioned. as stated by nuttall (1997) that the best way to improve one’s knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers. the next best way is to read extensively in it. the data indicate that extensive reading is a crucial aspect of language acquisition. 16 participants mentioned obtain the toefl score above 500 which is adequate for some academic purposes; most of them turn out to be avid readers of english. it is shown by the results of the findings which describe the other section of this research. in a number of correlational researches in esl (english as a second language) or efl (english as a foreign language) context, the amount of reading has been shown to be positively correlated with various aspects of second and foreign language competence. er gives a significant effect in toefl test scores and in the ability to judge the grammatically complex english structure. the next question, participants are asked to choose what kind of reading materials that they like to read to develop their language fluency. there are three choices; novel or comic, academic books, and newspaper or magazine. the participants can also give other options. the findings are eight participants (40%) choose novel or comic as their reading materials. academic books are chosen by seven participants (35%) as their reading materials. four participants (20%) choose the newspaper or magazine as reading materials that they like to read. one participant (5%) chooses other and mentions islamic books as the reading material. it can be seen in table 2. table 2 types of reading materials preferred kinds of reading materials number of participants novel or comic 8 academic books 7 newspaper or magazine 4 other (islamic books) 1 total 20 another question asked of the participant is, “what are the reading materials you preferred?” table 2 indicates that most of the participants prefer to read non-academic reading materials compared to academic materials. among the non-academic materials, they prefer novel or comics, newspaper or magazines, and islamic books. those reading materials do not relate to their academic background implicitly. the result of novel and comics as the highest rank of the reading materials is expected as the most of the postgraduate students love to read enjoying reading materials. this interesting finding expresses a positive association attitude toward reading of enjoyment establish a positive attitude toward reading where despite the academic needs placed upon the postgraduate learners, they still make the time to read types of reading materials such as fiction or other enjoyment sources. one of the indicators of reading achievement is reading for pleasure or enjoyment reading. it can be seen as a motivating factor toward building their love for books and reading in general (dent & yannotta, 2005). reading this kind of materials can give many advantages to the students in many aspects, such as, learn about other places or times, stimulate their imagination, and 270 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 267-272 gain insight into human nature, able to follow their specific hobby or interest as well as acts as a form of escapism from ‘unpleasant’ world (tella & akande, 2007). in addition, reading these types of materials increases reading ability as students apply more reading skills and strategies often. however, in the academic context, students are expected to focus more on their textbooks or academic books. nevertheless, the data reveal that the academic books are in the second rank of the type of reading materials preferred by the participants. this evidence can imply that the students now have a wide range of materials to select to read as they have many accesses to the wide variety of reading materials. according to calkins (1996), as cited in noor (2011), learners who do a varied amount of voluntary reading demonstrate positive attitudes toward reading and that these readers are considered the best readers. another aspect that the researcher focused on is the number of books read by the participants. thus, another question asked of the participants is, “how many books do you read in a month?” it is crucial to know since one of the principles of er practices is reading a large quantity of books. as stated by davis (1995) that an extensive reading program is a supplementary class library scheme, attached to an english course, in which pupils are given the time, encouragement, and materials to read pleasurably, at their own level, as many books as they can, without the pressures of testing or marks. the sentence ‘as many books as they can’ explains that the numbers of books read play important role in developing language fluency. the amount of reading is a key aim of an extensive reading program. also, since sustained motivation is needed for students to read regularly over a period of time, increasing students’ motivation is also an important aim. students who are motivated are likely to read more, and students who read more tend to be more motivated too. there is a reciprocal relationship between motivation and extensive reading (day & bamford, 1998). the data are shown in table 3. table 3 amount of books read in a month amount of books number of participants 1 book 3 2 – 3 books 9 4 – 6 books 7 7 – 9 books 0 ≥ 10 1 total 20 table 3 indicates that nine participants (45%) read 2 – 3 books in a month as the first rank of the amount of reading books. on the other hand, seven participants (35%) read 4 – 6 books in a month. in the third rank, there are three participants (15%) read one book in a month. the last one is one participant mentions 10 books to be read in a month. from the data in table 3, it can be inferred that the participants have the various amount of reading books. it is related to the reading frequency which can enhance their reading skills and strategies. according to brown (2009), reading frequency is an imperative aspect of related reading. when students read frequently, they expand their vocabulary and world knowledge while simultaneously enhancing their reading skills and strategies. on the other hand, if they do not practice their reading, then the ability to refine their skills and strategies is lost. in addition, a positive attitude toward reading has a positive correlation with the reading frequency and reading attitude of the students. unfortunately, the measurement of reading frequency focuses on the amount of time spent on reading. research in investigating the number or the length of the books read in a particular time has been minimal and inconclusive. thus, the attention of investigating the correlation between reading frequency and reading fluency can be conducted in the further research. in this research, the participants are also asked a question, “please mention the reasons why you read.” according to overall descriptions of reasons to read mentioned by the participants, the researcher classifies into three main reasons. it can be seen in table 4. table 4 reasons to read reasons to read number of participants gaining information 10 academic purposes 10 reading for pleasure 13 from the data in table 4, it shows that the participants have mostly three reasons for reading. they are reading for gaining information, reading for academic purposes, and reading for pleasure. the participants are asked to explain their reasons in detail. most of the participants mention more than one reason. student 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, and 17 argue that reading is for gaining information. they need reading to enrich their knowledge and acquire new information in the several fields of study. this is encouraging to note that many respondents want to educate themselves by reading. thus, they are not only read the materials which relate to the academic background but also try to find out other new knowledge for supporting their academic and personal life. student 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, and 19 argue that reason for reading is for academic purposes. it is to develop comprehension in some particular subjects and do some assignments. reading academic books enables them to do their schoolwork and to obtain grades. in a similar line, such purposes are relevant in their daily lives as students who are required to read in college as parts of lessons or to prepare for the exam. this finding has confirmed the observation by harmer (2004) as cited in johari et al. (2013) that reading for the utilitarian or instrumental purpose is viewed as the main reason on why people actually read. students 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, and 20 argue that the reason for reading is for pleasure. most of them read for enjoyment. they tend to choose the topic which they are interested in to entertain them. it is also called as ‘reading as a hobby’. it is probably due to the existence of other fun or interesting activities. in line with the reasons for reading, the participants are asked to answer the question about, “according to you, what is the benefit of reading?” there are some benefits explained by the participants. some of the benefits are mentioned in the different ways, but it is the same in concept. they are gaining knowledge, enjoyment, improving english skill, and developing language fluency. the participants explain that by reading a lot, they can gain knowledge for their academic purposes in doing assignments and also conducting research. reading is an enjoyable activity for them, especially storybooks such as a novel or other kinds of fictions they can be more imaginative. reading for 271extensive reading (er) practices... (resky januarty) pleasure also kills the boredom; they will not feel stressed when reading particular reading materials such as novels or others which can make them feel relaxed and entertained. the prominent aspects that occur in the benefits of reading are reading a lot can develop english skills and language fluency. one of the participants explains in very detail description of the benefits he gains from reading a lot. he feels more sensitive to catch communicative meanings from the text he reads although sometimes he loses some lexical meanings of few words in the text due to the limited vocabularies. moreover, he can still guess and predict to find his own convenient meaning from those words. he also explains that it improves his natural sensitivity toward grammar because the more he reads, the more he psychologically deals with the challenging grammar. reading naturally improves grammar ability even in higher level ones like grammars in toefl. reading also provides opportunities to improve vocabularies. uniquely, it can lead to deal with comprehending words functionally and contextually with other parts which commonly preceded or follow those words. by reading, the readers can more understand contextual collocation. reading also improves the ability to write a lot because reading can lead to understand about the organization, the ideas of writing and naturally gets the same sense as the reflection from reading. it also can help to be more creative and gives many chances to be critical thinking and have lots of supporting ideas to talk. the next question asked of the participants is, “do you think that reading habit will affect to your academic achievement? please explain it.” 90% of the participants definitely agree that reading habit and those two aspects have the strong correlation. reading habit can give a chance to learn more in deep the collegial subjects. sometimes with reading can gain some inspiration to read a subject in more detail than learning topics furnished by the lecturers in the syllabus, especially when there is an interesting in the particular subject. in addition, 75% of the participants also stated that, by reading regularly, they could get a lot of input in mind. it is proven when doing assignments, the students have a good reading habit will efficiently to deal with many kinds of assignment, and it will help them acquire a good achievement in the academic. nonetheless, there is a participant who states that reading habit sometimes cannot give many benefits for the academic achievement because sometimes what she has read does not have any correlation with the particular academic purposes. moreover, she emphasizes that reading can help her in building language skills. language fluency becomes one of the prominent issues dealing with extensive reading practices. day and bamford (1998) have stated that extensive reading is also good for learning a second or foreign language. extensive reading works with both young and older learners of english in both esl and efl settings. many of the research report a large gain in reading and other aspects of language proficiency. the results are also claimed by krashen (1997) who has stated that the longer the length of the reading program, the bigger and more robust the impact of extensive reading is. the last question asked to the participants is, “do you think that reading habit will affect to your language fluency? please explain it.” 90% of the participants strongly agree that extensive reading practices can develop their language fluency. the reasons are various. some of them have stated that by reading, they can learn the words, sentences, collocations, and also the culture. thus, it can develop their language fluency as a learner. another reason is the more they read, the more they can get natural or contextual uses of phrases or vocabularies, and more direct effect on the language fluency in speaking, reading, and writing. it is mentioned by some participants that for reaching a higher level of linguistics ability along with maintaining and improving the fluency, reading is the best natural input. other participants state that they have to use background knowledge such as linguistics and nonlinguistics knowledge, thus automatically the skill will also enhance. however, not all of the participants agree that reading can develop language fluency. he states that to develop it, people have to practice it by speaking. however, he agrees that in order to be able to speak fluently, people have to read a lot to enrich vocabularies, collocations, and others that can support in speaking skill. conclusions this research reveals that 90% of the respondents have experience in implementing extensive reading and have strong beliefs regarding its effects on language development. the findings of the research reveal that postgraduate students who practice extensive reading mostly have a good score on toefl test for the academic purposes. it ranges from 470 – 587. they also have various types of reading materials, and the number of books read in a month. mostly read 2 – 10 books a month. this research also explains several reasons why they love reading, and the benefits come up after doing the extensive reading practices. 12 out of 20 participants (60%) tend to read some enjoyable reading materials. they choose to read novel, comic, magazine, newspaper, and other kinds of reading materials with some particularly interesting topics which are easy to understand and make them enjoyable while reading. another principle of extensive reading which is fulfilled by the students is that they read a number of books in a month, even though there are still three participants (15%) who read only one book in a month, but at least they read, and it can help them to develop their language fluency or gain information. it is in line with carrell and carson who state that extensive reading generally involves the rapid reading of large quantities of material or longer readings (e.g., whole books) for general understanding, with the focus generally on the meaning of what is being read than on the language. other interesting findings are the reason why they read, and the benefits occur which come after that. the result shows that they read for gaining information, reading for academic purposes, and reading for pleasure. furthermore, the participants mention some of the benefits in the different ways, but it is the same in concept. they are gaining knowledge, enjoyment, improving english skill, and developing language fluency. the development of language fluency becomes a prominent issue for efl. they try to utilize many ways to develop it. extensive reading practice is one of the activities which recently implemented by the efl. extensive reading works with both young and older learners of english in both esl and efl settings. on a final note, 75% of the participants state that sometimes they do not have adequate time to read several kinds of enjoyable reading materials that they like due to the full schedule of classes and assignments. most of the time they spend to read the course books or other academic 272 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 267-272 materials to support their knowledge and achievement during the study. this research also suggests another researcher to conduct wider research due to the limited time and participants. however, it is expected that another relevant research will be conducted in the school which has already implemented the extensive reading program with adequate resources . references brown, d. (2009). why and how textbooks should encourage extensive reading. elt journal, 63(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccn041. calkins, l. m. (1996). lessons from a child. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. carrell, p. l., & carson, j. g. (1997). extensive and intensive reading in an eap setting. english for specific purposes, 16(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s0889-4906(96)00031-2. chun, e., choi, s., & kim, j. (2012). the effect of extensive reading and paired-associate learning on long-term vocabulary retention: an event-related potential study. neuroscience letters, 521(2), 125–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.069. davis, c. (1995). extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? elt journal, 49(4), 329–336. https:// doi.org/10.1093/elt/49.4.329. day, r.r., & bamford, j. (1998). extensive reading in the second language classroom. england: cambridge university press. dent, v., & yannotta, l. (2005). a rural community library in africa: a study of its use and users. libri, 55(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1515/libr.2005.39. harmer, j. (2004). the practice of english language teaching. harlow: longman. johari, a., tom, a. a., morni, a., & sahari, s. h. (2013). students’ reading practices and environments. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 3(1), 17– 28. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v3i1.187. kirin, w., poolsap, p., & plongthong, j. (2012). promoting extensive reading among chinese students learning thai as a foreign language. procedia engineering, 32, 1178–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. proeng.2012.02.074. krashen, s. (1997). the comprehension hypothesis: recent evidence. english teachers’ journal (israel), 51, 17–29. noor, n. m. (2011). reading habits and preferences of efl post graduates: a case study. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 1(1), 1-9. https://doi. org/10.17509/ijal.v1i1.95. nuttall, c. (1997). teaching reading skills in a foreign language. the electronic journal for english as a second language, 3(1), 1–19. panigrahi, c., & panda, k. c. (1996). reading interests and information sources of school going children: a case study of two english medium schools of rourkela, india. malaysian journal of library and information science, 1(1), 57–65. renandya, w. a. (2007). the power of extensive reading. relc journal, 38(2), 133–149. https://doi. org/10.1177/0033688207079578. renandya, w. a. (2017). should you be teaching reading intensively or extensively? singapore: nanyang technological university. renandya, w. a., rajan, b. r. s., & jacobs, g. m. (2009). extensive reading with adult esl learners of english as a second language. relc journal, 30(1), 39-61. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882990300010. tella, a., & akande, s. (2007). children reading habits and avaialbility of books in botswana primary schools: implications for achieving quality education. the reading matrix, 7(2), 117–142. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.001. microsoft word 01 rita_setting analisis bagan aktansial ….. (rita susanti) 1 analisis bagan aktansial cerita anak jepang urashima taro rita susanti jurusan bahasa dan sastra jepang, fakultas sastra, universitas nasional, jl. sawo manila, pejaten, pasar minggu, jakarta uniritas@yahoo.co.jp abstract thisi research is a kind of a research focusing on linguistic which uses semiotic in order to find out what lies behind the content of a children’s story. the subject of this research is an ancient story of a japanese children called mukashi banashi. it comes with the title of urashima taro which has been translated into indonesia language. through semiotic analysis, the story may be conducted in a syntaxical and semantical way. according to syntax analysis, there are two episodes in the story. in this first episode urashima taro becomes the subject of the research while in the latte, the turtle is the subject. we may learn that the story plott and the flow of the story have gone through a flashback process. in the structure or “batih”, it is known that the story has a complex relationship due to its expansion plot. based on the semantic analysis, it is also know that the main/lead character of the story is urashima taro and the other characters are urashima taro’s mother and the queen. the morale message of the whole story is dedicated to all children reading it. keywords: children story, semiotic abstrak penelitian ini adalah penelitian pada bidang sastra yang menggunakan semiotika untuk menngetahui makna apa yang terkandung dalam cerita anak. cerita anak yang dijadikan fokus penelitian adalah cerita anak jepang zaman dahulu mukashi banashi, berjudul urashima taro yang telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia. melalui semiotika analisis cerita dapat dilakukan secara sintaksis dan semantik. berdasarkan analisis sintaksis, ada dua episode dalam cerita anak tersebut. episode pertama yang menjadi subjek adalah urashima taro dan pada episode kedua, yang menjadi subjek adalah kura-kura.selain itu, dapat diketahui alur penceritaan dan pengaluran yang mengalami satu tahapan cerita kembali ke belakang. pada struktur batih diketahui awal cerita mempunyai hubungan yang bercabang. berdasarkan analisis semantik, dapat diketahui bahwa tokoh utama dalam cerita anak tersebut adalah urashima taro dan tokoh bawahannya adalah ibu urashima taro dan ratu. pesan moral kepada anak-anak merupakan makna yang terkandung dalam cerita tersebut. kata kunci: cerita anak, urashima taro, bagan aktansial 2 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 1-9 pendahuluan semiotika akhir-akhir ini banyak digunakan untuk menganalisis sebuah karya sastra. dulu kita ketahui cara menganalisis karya sastra, terutama pada novel, cerita pendek, dan lainnya hanya terfokus pada tokoh, penokohan, dan alur. semiotika berasal dari bahasa yunani semion, berarti tanda. jadi, semiotika adalah studi tentang tanda. menurut sudjiman dan zoest (1992:5) semiotika adalah studi tentang tanda dan segala yang berhubungan dengannya, cara berfungsinya, dan mempergunakannya. semiotika terdiri atas tiga bagian, yaitu sintaks semiotika (studi tanda yang berpusat pada penggolongannya dan menonjolkan hubungan tanda dengan tanda lainnya), semantik semiotika (studi tanda yang menonjolkan hubungan tanda-tanda dengan acuannya dan dengan interpretasi yang dihasilkannya), serta pragmatic semiotika (studi tanda tentang hubungan antara tanda dengan pengirim dan penerimanya). karya sastra yang akan diteliti adalah cerita anak-anak jepang. analisis cerita dilakukan secara semiotika dan menggunakan teori todorov tzvetan dan a.j greimas (budiman, 2004). menurut todorov analisis cerita dapat dilakukan dengan tiga aspek naratif, yaitu aspek sintaksis (kombinasi berbagai unit struktur atau in presentia), aspek semantik (isi cerita), dan aspek verbal atau pragmatik (manipulasi istilah maupun frasa). namun, yang akan digunakan dalam penelitian in hanya aspek sintaksis dan aspek semantik. sementara itu, teori greimas tentang aktan dan fungsi digunakan untuk menganalisis alur cerita yang merupakan bagian dari analisis sintaksis. cerita anak jepang dengan judul urashima taro menceritakan tentang kehidupan urashima dengan ibunya. mereka hidup dalam kemiskinan. pada suatu hari urashima menolong seekor kurakura dan sebagai balas budi kura-kura mengajak urashima ke istana bawah laut. tanpa pamit kepada ibunya, urashima pergi bersama kura-kura. kehidupan di istana bawah laut membuat urashima lupa kepada ibunya. pada suatu waktu, tiba-tiba urashima teringat kembali akan ibunya dan akhirnya, ia berpamitan kepada ratu sebagi pemilik istana. urashima pulang dengan membawa hadiah kotak yang tidak boleh dibuka dalam keadaan apa pun, lalu urashima diantar oleh kura-kura ke pantai. betapa terkejutnya urashima ketika ia tidak menemukan rumah dan ibunya. orang-orang kampung mengatakan bahwa ibunya telah lama meninggal. urashima bingung, ia tidak tahu lagi apa yang harus dilakukan. kemudian urashima membuka kotak pemberian ratu dan terjadi perubahan drastis pada diri urashima, ia berubah menjadi seorang kakek tua dan tak lama kemudian menjadi burung bangau. kerangka teori analisis sintaksis teori sintaksis atau hubungan in prasentia digunakan untuk menganalisis alur cerita. istilah ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan serangkaian peristiwa yang saling berkaitan secara logis dan disebabkan oleh suatu tindakan. analisis secara sintaksis terdiri atas. aktan dan fungsi analisis aktan dan fungsi merupakan analisis alur cerita yang didasari hubungan antar aktan. menurut greimas tidak satu pun cerita dapat menjadi suatu totalitas yang bermakna tanpa didasari struktur aktansial. setiap unsur yang ada di bagan disebut dengan bagan aktansial dan aktan-aktannya diteliti melalui tindakan. aktan adalah sesuatu yang menyempurnakan atau menjalani perbuatan. aktan dapat berupa orang, pelaku yang dipersonifikasikan, mengacu pada binatang, suatu barang, atau keberadaan yang abstrak. berikut ini adalah bagan aktansial greimas. analisis bagan aktansial ….. (rita susanti) 3 gambar 1 bagian aktansial greimas (greimas, 1972) pada bagan aktansial di atas terdapat enam aktan, sebagai berikut. − pengirim adalah pihak yang mempunyai karsa untuk meraih objek. − objek adalah sesuatu yang ingin diraih oleh keinginan si pengirim. − subjek adalah seseorang yang mengemban tugas dari si pengirim. subjeklah yang melakukan pencarian objek. − penolong adalah pihak yang membantu subjek dalam pencarian objek. − penentang adalah pihak yang menghalangi subjek dalam pencarian objek. − penerima adalah pihak yang akan menikmati dan menerima objek yang berhasil diraih oleh subjek. bagan fungsional dan fungsi fungsional atau bagan fungsional terdiri atas (1) situasi awal; pengirim mengirimkan keinginan atau kewajiban akan perbuatan kepada penerima. (2) transformasi; terdiri atas cobaan awal, subjek memperoleh kecakapan yang diperlukan untuk melakukan perbuatan atau misi yang direncanakan, cobaan utama, mengacu kepada peristiwa atau perbuatan yang utama, subjek sudah dipersiapkan dan objek penyelidikan dipertaruhkan, cobaan akhir, pada tahapan ini hasil peristiwa sudah tampak, yaitu berhasil atau tidak. (3) situasi akhir; menggambarkan keadaan pada tahap akhir dari subjek. analisis semantik analisis semantik disebut sebagai analisis in absentia. aspek semantik adalah hubungan antara unsur yang hadir dan unsur yang tidak hadir dalam teks. analisis semantik terdiri atas, tokoh, ruang, dan waktu (latar). analisis tokoh difokuskan pada analisis perawakan, sifat, dan pikiran. tokoh dapat apa saja, seperti, individu, binatang dan sebagainya. pembahasan analisis sintaksis analisis dengan bagan aktansial pada bagan aktansial menggambarkan episode-episode yang terjadi dalam cerita anak tersebut. 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 1-9 episode i menolong kurakura urashima taro kepuasan hatikebaikan hati anak-anakikan gambar 2 episode i cerita urashima taro episode ii gambar 3 episode ii cerita urashima taro cerita yang dianalisis dengan bagan aktansial ini, terdiri atas dua episode. pada episode pertama, subjek adalah urashima taro, karena dialah yang mengemban tugas dari pengirim, yaitu kebaikan hati. objeknya adalah menolong kura-kura dan penerimanya adalah kepuasan hati dari urashima taro. penolong adalah ikan, karena dengan ikan tangkapannya urashima dapat menolong kura-kura, sedangkan penentang adalah anak-anak yang menyakiti kura-kura. episode dua, subjek berubah menjadi kura-kura, karena kura-kura ingin mengungkapkan rasa terima kasih. rasa terima kasih ini sebagai pengirim. objeknya adalah menyenangkan urashima taro dan penerima adalah urashima taro. penolong adalah kekayaan laut yang dapat membuat senang hati urashima dan penentangnya adalah waktu yang terbatas bagi urashima untuk berada di bawah laut. analisis dengan bagan fungsional bagan fungsional menggambarkan tahapan dari situasi awal, transformasi, dan situasi akhir. analisis bagan aktansial ….. (rita susanti) 5 tabel 1 bagan fungsional cerita urashima taro situasi awal transformasi situasi akhir cobaan awal cobaan utama cobaan akhir urashima dan ibunya hidup miskin menolong kura-kura berhasil menikmati kemewahan berhasil kembali pada keadaan semula gagal, jadi tua urashima sebagai bangau bagan fungsional hanya dibuat satu, walaupun bagan aktansialnya ada dua. hal tersebut dikarenakan ketidakjelasan fungsi kura-kura pada cerita anak tersebut. pada bagan ini situasi awal digambarkan urashima taro dan ibunya hidup dalam kemiskinan. pada tahapan transformasi yang terdiri atas tiga cobaan urashima mengalami kegagalan dan juga keberhasilan. cobaan awal, urashima menolong seekor kura-kura yang diganggu oleh anak-anak dan ia berhasil menolongnya. cobaan utama, urashima menikmati kemewahan sebagai ungkapan rasa terima kasih kurakura dan ini pun berhasil. cobaan akhir, urashima mengalami kegagalan dan kembali pada keadaan semula. situasi akhir digambarkan dengan berubahnya urashima menjadi burung bangau. alur penceritaan alur penceritaan menggambarkan alur cerita yang sebenarnya, berisi poin-poin penting yang disebut juga dengan sekuen. berikut ini sekuen dari cerita anak tersebut. 1. kehidupan urashima dan ibunya dalam kemiskinan 2. urashima pergi memancing untuk makan 3. menolong kura-kura yang disiksa teman-temannya 4. menukar ikan tangkapan dengan kura-kura 5. urashima dan ibunya tidak dapat makan 6. bertemu kembali dengan kura-kura 7. diajak kura-kura ke istana bawah laut 8. memakan bola ajaib agar dapat bernafas di dalam laut 9. ratu dan pengawal menyambut urashima 10. urashima dijamu dengan kemewahan istana bawah laut 11. meninjau istana bawah laut dengan empat pintu ajaib, ditemani oleh ratu 12. memasuki pintu pertama, kamasr musim semi dengan keindahan bunganya 13. memasuki pintu kedua, kamar musim panas dan berenang di sungai 14. memasuki pintu ketiga, kamar musim gugur dengan hidangan kuenya 15. memasuki pintu keempat, kamar musim dingin dengan hamparan saljunya 16. teringat akan ibunya dan memohon diri untuk kembali ke rumah 17. ratu menyerahkan kotak sebagai hadiah dengan syarat tidak boleh dibuka 18. kembali ke pantai dengan menunggang kkura-kura 19. bertanya kepada penduduk desa tentang ibu dan rumahnya 20. cerita penduduk desa: ibu dan rumahnya sudah tidak ada 21. urashima menangis, ternyata ibunya sudah meninggal 22. urashima membuka kotak dan menjadi kakek-kakek tua 23. berubah menjadi burung bangau 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 1-9 alur penceritaan ini terdiri atas dua puluh tiga sekuen yang menggambarkan perjalanan tokoh utama, yaitu urashima taro dari kehidupan awalnya dengan ibunya yang berada dalam kemiskinan. akan tetapi, urashima pun sempat menikmati kemewahan, yaitu kemewahan istana bawah laut, hal ini sebagai ungkapan rasa terima kasih kura-kura karena pernah ditolong oleh urashima. namun, kemewahan itu hanya sesaat dan ketika urashima kembali ke pantai untuk menemui ibunya, kemewahan itu hilang serta ia pun tidak dapat bertemu dengan ibunya, karena menurut penduduk desa ibunya sudah meninggal. ternyata kehidupan di bawah laut yang dirasakan hanya sebentar kira-kira dua sampai tiga bulan oleh urashima di dunia nyata (di daratan) sudah seratus tahun. hadiah yang diberikan oleh ratu dibuka oleh urashima, lalu ia pun berubah menjadi seorang kakek tua dan kemudian burung bangau. pengaluran pengaluran adalah hal yang menjelaskan bagaimana alur ditampilkan atau dengan kata lain, pengaluran berisi fakta-fakta yang ada di lapangan. adapun pengaluran pada cerita anak urashima taro sebagai berikut. 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 6 – 7 – 8 – 19 – 10 – 11 – 12 – 13 – 14 – 15 – 16 – 17 – 18 -20 – 21 – 22 – 23 hasil dari pengaluran, cerita tersebut berlangsung dengan tahapan teratur. ada terdapat satu tahapan cerita kembali ke belakang, yaitu peristiwa ibu urashima sudah meninggal seratus tahun yang lalu. hal tersebut disadari oleh urashima ketika ia kembali ke pantai dan bertanya kepada penduduk desa. struktur batih struktur batih atau disebut juga hubungan sebab akibat pada analisis ini menggambarkan hubungan yang terjadi dan akibat yang didapat dari luar cerita anak urashima taro. (gambar 4) berdasarkan struktur batih yang sudah digambarkan di atas, dapat dilihat pada awal cerita ada hubungan bercabang. struktur nomor ii dan iii bergabung sehingga terjadi penukaran dengan ikan tangkapan. struktur nomor v dan vii bergabung menjadi si ibu tinggal sendiri dan selalu bersedih hati. pada akhir cerita, alur penceritaan berjalan teratur. analisis semantik analisis semantik yang akan dibahas, yaitu tokoh pada cerita anak urashima taro adalah tokoh utama dan tokoh bawahan. tokoh utama adalah urashima taro. urashima menjadi tokoh utama karena ia memegang peranan penting atau tokoh sentral, bahkan menjadi pusat sorotan cerita. urashima adalah seorang anak yang berbakti kepada orang tua. setiap hari ia pergi memancing ikan untuk mencukupi makan bagi dirinya sendiri dan ibunya. ia tidak ingat akan ibunya, ketika berada di bawah laut. hal itu disebabkan oleh kekuatan ratu istana bawah laut. walaupun kekuatan ratu sangat kuat, tetapi ingatan urashima akan ibunya kembali lagi, saat ratu menghidangkan kue mochi. lalu urashima berpamitan untuk kembali ke pantai menemui ibunya. tokoh bawahan adalah ibu urashima dan ratu. disebut tokoh bawahan karena tokoh yang tidak sentral kedudukannya di dalam cerita, tetapi kehadirannya sangat diperlukan untuk mendukung tokoh utama. ibu urashima adalah seorang ibu yang sangat sayang kepada anaknya. ketika urashima tidak kembali dari memancing ikan, ia menangis setiap hari sampai akhirnya meninggal dunia. tokoh ratu sebenarnya adalah tokoh yang tahu membalas budi, yaitu dengan menjamu urashima secara berlebihan. akan tetapi, karena kekuatannya ada terkesan ratu berperilaku jahat, karena membuat pikiran urashima lupa akan ibunya dan juga membuat urashima selalu tampak muda. analisis bagan aktansial ….. (rita susanti) 7 i. kemiskinan iv. penukaran dengan ikan hasil tangkapan v. tidak dapat makan iii. anak-anak mempermainkan kura-kura ii. kebaikan hati vi. pertemuan kedua dengan kura-kura vii. kepergian ke istana bawah laut viii. rasa terima kasih ix. si ibu tinggal sendiri dan selalu bersedih hati xi. kehidupan senang x. kematian ibu xii. tindakan masuk 4 pintu ajaib sesuai musik xiii. melihat kue mochi yang dihidangkan oleh ratu xiv. setelah 100 tahun yang dirasa 2-3 bulan, kembali ke darat dibekali kotak ajaib xvi. mencari keterangan tentang ibunya xvii. berita kematian ibu xviii. kesedihan dan keputusasaan xix. membuka kotak ajaib xx. menjadi tua dan akhirnya burung bangau gambar 4 struktur cerita urashima taro simpulan bagan aktansial yang dikemukakan oleh a.j. greimas digunakan untuk menganalisis karya sastra berupa cerita anak. penggunaan bagan aktansial menghasilkan dua episode di dalam cerita anak tersebut. masing-masing episode menunjukkan subjek adalah urashima dan kura-kura, objek adalah menolong kura-kura dan menyenangkan urashima, pengirim adalah kebaikan hati dan rasa terima kasih, penerima adalah kepuasan hati dan urashima, penolong adalah ikan dan kekayaan laut serta penentang adalah anak-anak dan waktu. bagan fungsional pun dikerjakan berdasarkan atas teori 8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.5 no.1 mei 2011: 1-9 greimas. situasi awal, urashima dan ibunya hidup di dalam kemiskinan. pada tahapan transformasi, cobaan awal dan cobaan utama mengalami keberhasilan, sedangkan cobaan akhir mengalami kegagalan, dan urashima menjadi tua. situasi akhir digambarkan dengan berubahnya urashima menjadi burung bangau. alur penceritaan atau disebut juga dengan sekuen, menggambarkan urutan cerita sejak urashima tinggal di desa ditepi pantai sampai ia kembali lagi ke sana. pada pengaluran tersebut terlihat kisah kembali mundur, yaitu urashima baru menyadari kalau ibunya telah lama meninggal dunia. ia menyadari hal itu ketika kembali ke pantai, lalu bertanya kepada penduduk desa dan hal ini dapat dilihat dengan jelas pada hubungan sebab akibat dalam struktur batih. berdasarkan analisis di atas dapat ditarik suatu kesimpulan bahwa makna yang terkandung dalam cerita anak urashima taro adalah pesan moral pada anak-anak. seorang anak tidak boleh melupakan orang tua baik dalam keadaan senang, maupun susah dan bila hendak pergi ke suatu tempat harus minta izin terlebih dahulu kepada orang tua. daftar pustaka budiman, k. (2004). imaji tuhan dalam novel chimmoku karya endo shusaku jakarta: universitas indonesia. greimas, a. j. (1972). semantique structurale. paris: larousse. hirata, shogo. (1994). urashima taro, terj. arina abubakar. jakarta: elex media komputindo. sudjiman, p, & aart van zoest, a. v. (1991). eds., serba-serbi semiotika. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. zoest, aart van. (1991). semiotika, terj. ani soekowati. jakarta: yayasan sumber agung. lampiran sinopsis pada zaman dahulu kala di umabe jepang, hiduplah seorang nelayan bernama urashima taro yang tinggal bersama ibunya. pada suatu hari, pagi-pagi sekali urashima pergi memancing. setelah lama menunggu dengan terpaan angina yang kuat, ia mendapatkan ikan untuk makan malamnya. di tepi pantai, ketika ia bermaksud pulang ke rumah, dilihatnya anak-anak sedang membalik-balikan tubuh seekor kura-kura. ia memphpn pada anak-anak untuk melepaskan kura-kura, tetapi anak-anak tersebut menolaknya. akan tetapi, ketika urashima menawarkan ikan tangkapan sebagai pengganti kura-kura, anank itu baru mau melepaskan kura-kura. beberapa waktu kemudian, ketika urashima sedang memancing di laut, tibha-tiba muncul kura-kura yang pernah ditolongnya. sekali lagi kura-kura itu mengucapkan terima kasih dan mengajak urashima untuk berkunjung ke istana bawah laut. urashima langsung menyetujuinya. dengan memakan sebuah bola ajaib untuk dapat bernafas di dalam laut, lalu pergilah urashima dengan menunggang kura-kura masuk ke dalam laut. di sana sudah menanti ratu dan para dayang istana. urashima disambut meriah dan dijamu dengan kemewahan istana bawah laut. urashima diajak berkeliling istana serta menikmati kamar empat musim. pada saat berada di kamar musim dingin, ratu menghidangkan kue mochi, tiba-tiba urashima teringat akan ibunya, lalu ia mohon pamit pada ratu untuk ekmbali ke pantai. dengan dibekali hadiah sebuah kotak, kembalilah urashima ke pantai ditemani oleh kura-kura. analisis bagan aktansial ….. (rita susanti) 9 setelah tiba dipantai, segera urashima berjalan menuju rumahnya. ternyata rumahnya telah hancur dan urashima terus berteriak ke sana kemari memanggil ibunya. oleh karena, ia tidak menemukan ibunya, bertanyalah ia kepada penduduk desa. mereka menjawab bahwa ibunya telah meningga seratus tahun yang lalu. ibu urashima meninggal karena manangis setiap hari memikirkan dirinya yang tidak pulang juga ke rumah. urashima merasa putus asa dan akhirnya ia membuka kotak yang diberikan oleh ratu, kotak tersebut sebenarnya tidak boleh dibuka. lalu dari dalam kotak keluarlah asap dan tak lama kemudian urashima berubah menjadi kakek tua. ternyata hidup yang diraskan sebentar di bawah laut sama dengan seratus tahun hidup didaratan. dengan pelanggran itupun urashima di akhir cerita berubah menjadi burung bangau. penggunaan partikel ….. (imelda) 1 penggunaan partikel で dan に oleh mahasiswa program studi sastra jepang universitas hasanuddin makassar imelda jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas sastra universitas hasanuddin jln. perintis kemerdekaan km.10, tamalanrea, makassar april_27meil@yahoo.com abstract japanese language is a language that has different sentence structure with bahasa indonesia. in addition, particles or 助词 are also characteristis in japanese. there are so many of them, causing the basic level japanese language learners confused. therefore, as a new study program, studies based on goyou or dai ni gengou shuutoku are conducted as a mean to look at the problems occured in japanese language learning at unhas. this study used qualitative research method. population was taken from japanese literature, faculty of literature, universitas hasanuddin. twenty two from second year students were the sample and randomly selected. based on the results, the research concludes that the explanation of the use of particleで and に in minna no nihongo i was not all covered, especially on particle に . the explanation of the use of particle に, especially verb 住ん で い ます, 入り ます, 乗り ます, is very prone to errors. this is due to the verb is unfamiliar or infrequently used by respondents in the sentence. therefore, teachers can fill insufficient explanation in the book, so that the error can be minimized. whereas, errors/goyou occurred on particle で are more on the functions of the particle for the scope, places of activities, and abstract tools.. keywords: particle use, college students, minna no nihongo i abstrak bahasa jepang adalah bahasa yang mempunyai struktur kalimat yang berbeda dengan bahasa indonesia. selain itu, partikel atau 助詞 juga adalah ciri dalam bahasa jepang. jumlahnya begitu banyak, menyebabkan pembelajar bahasa jepang tingkat dasar sangat bingung. oleh karena itu, sebagai prodi baru, penelitian berbasis goyou atau dai ni gengou shuutoku merupakan salah satu cara untuk melihat masalah yang terjadi di dalam pembelajaran bahasa jepang unhas. penelitian menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. populasi diambil dari mahasiswa sastra jepang fakultas sastra unhas. sedangkan yang menjadi sampel penelitian 22 responden mahasiswa berasal dari mahasiswa tingkat ii sastra jepang, fakultas sastra, universitas hasanuddin, yang dipilih secara acak. berdasarkan hasil, penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa penjelasan penggunaan partikelで dan に dalam minna no nihongo i tidak semuanya tercakup, khususnya penjelasan partikel に. penjelasan tentang penggunaan partikel に terutama pada kata kerja 住んでいます, 入ります, 乗ります sangat rentan dengan kesalahan. hal ini disebabkan kata kerja ini tidak familiar atau jarang digunakan oleh responden dalam kalimat. oleh karena itu, pengajar dapat mengisi penjelasan yang kurang memadai dalam buku tersebut, sehingga kesalahan tersebut dapat diminimalkan. sedangkan kesalahan/goyou yang terjadi partikel で, lebih banyak pada fungsi partikel で untuk cakupan, tempat pelaksanaan aktivitas, dan fungsi partikel ini untuk alat yang abstrak.. kata kunci: penggunaan partikel, mahasiswa, minna no nihongo i jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 1-5 2 pendahuluan bahasa menjadi media yang digunakan oleh manusia dalam berkomunikasi. selain itu, bahasa pada dasarnya juga merupakan alat integrasi dan adaptasi sosial, alat kontrol sosial, dan alat ekspresi diri. seopomo (2002) mendefinisikan bahasa bersifat sistematik karena mengikuti ketentuan-ketentuan atau kaidah-kaidah yang teratur. setiap bahasa mengandung unsur-unsur yang membentuk sebuah kalimat. begitu pula dengan bahasa jepang bahasa jepang. menurut sutedi (2008:73) pada umumnya jenis kata pembentuk kalimat terdiri dari: 名詞 (nomina), 動詞 (verba), 形容詞(adjektiva), 助動詞 (kopula), 助詞 (partikel), 接続詞(kata sambung), 副詞(kata keterangan), dan 感動詞 (kata seru). setiap jenis kata tersebut bisa dikelompokkan lagi ke dalam beberapa bagian yang lebih spesifik lagi. salah satu jenis kata dalam bahasa jepang adalah 助 詞 (partikel). jumlah partikel yang sangat banyak dan beberapa di antaranya mempunyai arti yang mirip menyebabkan pembelajar sering merasa kebingungan. “partikel itu susah,” adalah kalimat yang sering terucap oleh pembelajar bahasa jepang terutama di tingkat dasar. sebagai pembelajar bahasa asing, merupakan suatu hal yang menarik jika dapat menggali lebih dalam bagaimana fungsi dan penggunaan partikel tersebut (dalam hal ini partikel で、dan に). penulis menganggap bahwa sebagai prodi yang berdiri sejak 2005, sastra jepang memerlukan banyak penelitian yang berhubungan dengan feedback hasil pengajaran (input) terhadap mahasiswa sebagai pembelajar bahasa jepang. pada program studi sastra jepang unhas penulis masih banyak menemukan kesalahan-kesalahan penggunaan partikel yang dilakukan oleh para mahasiswa. oleh karena itu penelitian tentang pemerolehan bahasa menjadi sangat penting. sakoda (2001:2) mengatakan: 第二言語の習得や習得課程にかかわるさ まざまな現象を研究する学問である。つまり、 学習者は第二言語をどのように習得していくの か、なぜ誤用かが産出されるのか研究が必要だ。 partikel merupakan salah satu dasar atau fondasi dalam struktur gramatika bahasa jepang yang harus dikuasai oleh seorang mahasiswa. jika ingin mempelajari atau bahkan ingin menguasai bahasa jepang, seorang harus memperkuat dasar struktur bahasa jepang terlebih dahulu. partikel で dan にadalah salah satu partikel yang penggunaannya ditemukan dalam banyak wacana lisan maupun wacana tulis bahasa jepang. dalam pembelajaran bahasa jepang dasar, kedua pertikel ini diajarkan karena penggunaannya dapat saling menggantikan, sehingga sangat penting untuk menganalisis kemampuan mahasiswa sastra jepang unhas dalam memahami penggunaan kedua partikel tersebut. berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut, penulis mengkaji pemahaman partikelで danに oleh mahasiswa tingkat dua jurusan sastra jepang fakultas sastra universitas hasanuddin. adanya penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan manfaat yang berarti bagi dunia pendidikan antara lain: untuk meningkatkan pemahaman dan penguasaan partikel で danに bagi mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang fakultas sastra universitas hasanuddin khususnya dan bagi seluruh pembaca artikel ini pada umumnya. selain itu, artikel diharapkan dapat digunakan bahan acuan bagi para peneliti lain yang membahas topik yang sama. lebih lanjut, artikel dapat dijadikan referensi bagi dosen dalam pengembangan tata bahasa jepang pada mata kuliah bahasa jepang dan kompetensinya. dalam penelitian ini, penulis juga menggunakan beberapa hasil penelitian terdahulu yaitu sakoda (2001) yang membahas tentang apa yang seharusnya dipelajari oleh pengajar pada saat mengajar seperti bagaimana memahami pelajaran yang akan diajarkan, bagaimana mengulang pelajaran dan kesadaran atas pengajaran yang diberikan kepada siswa. selain itu, penulis juga menggunakan penelitian terdahulu yaitu error analysis of particles ”ni” and ”de” oleh yasuda, dkk (2004) yang menganalisis responden pembelajar bahasa jepang dari china dan thailand dengan menggunakan input buku ajar 「みんな の日本語i・ii」 hasil penelitian mereka menggambarkan bahwa pembelajar selalu berpikir bahwa mempelajari partikel itu dengan cara 「名詞・動詞+助詞」. lebih lanjut yasuda (2004:22) mengatakan: インタビューでは「『いす』は場所名詞なので『 に』」とか「動かない静的なものの後ろには『に』 が来る」、「『前』の後はいつも『に』」など、独 自の方法で助詞を選択していることが分かった。一 方、「で」は「手段」、「範囲」など、「用法」で 区別していることが多いようだった。 yasuda (2004) juga mengatakan bahwa fungsi partikel de yang berfungsi untuk menerangkan kondisi dalam buku ajar minna no nihongo muncul sangat sedikit sehingga perlunya kemampuan pengajar untuk mengulang contoh kalimat yang sama kepada mahasiswa untuk menimbulkan kembali ingatannya. dari penelitian tersebut, penulis menganggap adanya keterkaitan antara buku ajar, kemampuan pengajar dan pembelajar untuk membedakan penggunaan partikel, tidak hanya melihat pada struktur penempatan partikel tapi juga fungsi partikel tersebut dalam konteks kalimat. metode penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. metode penelitian kualitatif sering disebut metode penelitian naturalistik karena penelitiannya dilakukan pada kondisi yang alamiah (natural setting). metode kualitatif disebut juga sebagai metode etnografi karena pada awalnya metode ini lebih banyak digunakan untuk penelitian antropologi budaya; disebut sebagai metode kualitatif karena data yang terkumpul dan analisisnya lebih bersifat kualitatif (sugiyono, 2010). populasi diambil dari mahasiswa sastra jepang fakultas sastra unhas. sedangkan yang menjadi sampel penelitian adalah 22 responden mahasiswa berasal dari mahasiswa tingkat ii sastra jepang fakultas sastra universitas hasanuddin, yang dipilih secara acak. penggunaan partikel ….. (imelda) 3 hasil dan pembahasan fungsi partikelでdanに dalam minna no nihongo i (1998) fungsi partikelで (de) berikut ini dipaparkan perbandingan penggunaan partikel で dalam minna no nihongo i dan nihongo no bunpo: tabel 1 fungsi partikel de no. bab partikelで fungsi minna no nihongo 1 5 タクシーでうちへ帰ります。 “partikel de dipakai untuk menunjukkan alat yang dipakai. (1998:40) 2 7 ファクスで資料を送ります。 “partikel de dipakai untuk menunjukkan alat/cara dalam melakukan perbuatan. (1998:52) 3 7 日本語でレポートを書きますか。 “partikel de dipakai untuk menunjukkan alat/cara dalam melakukan perbuatan. (1998:52) 4 6 駅で新聞を買います。 “partikel de di sini tempat nyata setelah kata benda yang menunjukkan tempat dan menunjukkan tempat kejadian. (1998:47) 5 21 7月に京都でお祭りがあります。 “kesempatan sesuatu hal yang dilakukan.”(1998:137) 6 12 私は1年で夏が一番好きです。 tidak dijelaskan pada tabel 1 dapat diketahui bahwa fungsi partikel で dalam minna no nihongo i hanya terdapat tiga fungsi saja yaitu sebagai alat, tempat dilaksanakannya suatu kegiatan dan batasan lingkup atau jumlah. fungsi partikel で yang tidak muncul adalah fungsi yang bermakna terbuat dari (bahannya masih dapat terlihat/tidak teroleh sepenuhnya) atau 材料 (bahan), 原因 (sebab), dan 動作主 (pelaksana). meskipun demikian, dalam minna no nihongo i terdapat fungsi partikel で yang tidak dijelaskan, yaitu pada bagian kalimat no.6. pada bagian ini, hendaknya pengajar dapat mempersiapkan penjelasan yang baik dan benar kepada pembelajar tentang fungsi partikel de yaitu sebagai suatu batasan atau lingkup kuantitas. partikelに(ni) pada tabel 2 partikel に , dapat diketahui bahwa kalimat yang muncul menggunakan partikel に (lihat no.2) tidak ada penjelasan gramatikalnya. hal ini disebabkan pada bab sebelumnya (lihat kalimat no.1) telah muncul penjelasan partikel tersebut. selanjutnya, tergambarkan pula bahwa dalam minna no nihongo i (1998), fungsi partikel に yang muncul hanya 4 fungsi saja yaitu fungsi 存在場所 (keberadaan), fungsi partikel dengan kata kerja yang membutuhkan lawan ‘相手’, 動作主 (objek dari suatu pekerjaan), kemudian 採用の時 (waktu terjadinya suatu kegiatan). berikut ini beberapa fungsi partikel ni yang muncul dalam minna no nihongo i (1998): tabel 2 partikel ni no. bab partikelに fungsi minna no nihongo 1 4 私は朝六時におきます. “menunjukkan waktu kejadian .” (1998:35) 2 5 3月25日に日本へきま した。 tidak dijelaskan 3 7 私は木村さんに花をあげま した。 “memerlukan sasaran kepada siapa memberikan, meminjamkan. (1998:52) 4 7 家族と友達にクリスマスカ ードを書きます “memerlukan sasaran kepada siapa memberikan, meminjamkan. (1998:52) 5 7 わたしはサントスさんにお 土産をもらいました。 “dari siapa kita menerima maka ditambahkan partikel ni.” (1998:53) 6 7 わたしは会社の人に本を借 りました。 “memerlukan sasaran kepada siapa memberikan, meminjamkan. (1998:52) 7 1 机の上に写真があります。 “tempat adanya suatu benda atau benda (kata benda) dinyatakan dengan partikel ni. (1998:70) 8 10 家族はニューヨークにい ます。 “tempat adanya suatu benda atau benda (kata benda) dinyatakan dengan partikel ni. (1998:70) 9 15 マリアさんは大阪に住んで います。 “tempat adanya suatu benda atau benda (kata benda) dinyatakan dengan partikel ni. (1998:70) 10 6 あした友達にあいます。 “berjumpa dengan seseorang.” (1998:42) pada tabel 2 partikel に , dapat diketahui bahwa kalimat yang muncul menggunakan partikel に (lihat no.2) tidak ada penjelasan gramatikalnya. hal ini disebabkan pada bab sebelumnya (lihat kalimat no.1) telah muncul penjelasan partikel tersebut. selanjutnya, tergambarkan pula bahwa dalam minna no nihongo i (1998), fungsi partikel に yang muncul hanya 4 fungsi saja yaitu fungsi 存在場所 (keberadaan), fungsi partikel dengan kata kerja yang membutuhkan lawan ‘相手’, 動作主 (objek dari suatu pekerjaan), kemudian 採用の時 (waktu terjadinya suatu kegiatan). penggunaan partikel で danに oleh mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang fakultas sastra universitas hasanuddin. rentang kesalahan partikelで danにdengan jumlah 17 hingga 22 pada tabel 3 berikut tingkat kesalahan responden paling banyak terjadi pada fungsi partikel で untuk cakupan atau lingkup dan alat yang bersifat abstrak. kesalahan terjadi sebanyak 22 buah. tabel 3 rentang kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah antara 17 hingga 22 soal kalimat partikel penggunaan fungsi benar salah 31 私 は 1 年 で 夏 が 一番すきです。 で partikel de untuk cakupan atau lingkup 0 22 24 日 本 語 で レ ポ ー トを書きますか。 で menyatakan alat rentang kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 11-16 pada tabel 4 dapat dilihat bahwa responden pembelajar bahasa jepang belum memahami dengan baik gramatikal penggunaan kata kerja bergerak yang mempunyai tujuan seperti ~に行きます yang berarti pergi,~に 来 ます berarti datang, dan~に帰ります yang berarti pulang (lihat soal no. 3, 13, dan 48). ketiga kata kerja ini jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 1-5 4 dikuti dengan ungkapan tujuan. pada soal seperti ini kecenderungan salah juga banyak karena responden menukar posisi partikel へ dan partikel に. misalnya salah satu jawaban yang diambil pada soal no. 3, yaitu フランスに 料理を習いにへいきます。seharusnya menjadi フラ ンスへ料理を習いにいきます。kedua fungsi partikel ini memang sangat lah mirip, karena keduanya sama-sama mengekspresikan pergerakan. namun partikel へ menunjukkan suatu perpindahan dari tempat yang satu ke tempat yang lain, sedangkan partikel に lebih mengekspresikan tujuan. bagian gramatikal ini yang menurut penulis harus lebih ditekankan dan diajarkan kepada pembelajar bahasa jepang. karena sebagai pembelajar yang berinput bahasa ibu bahasa indonesia, partikel ini terkadang disalahartikan menjadi “di” misalnya pada kalimat “saya pergi di bandung”. selanjutnya kesalahan yang didominasi oleh partikel に , yaitu fungsi partikel ni yang mengekspresikan arah masuk seperti yang tergambar pada soal no. 50 “も う日本の生活に慣れましたか”。yang berarti “apakah anda telah terbiasa dengan kehidupan di jepang?”. pada fungsi ini, partikel に digunakan untuk mengekspresikan arah masuk atau sudah terbiasa dengan kehidupan di jepang. begitu juga pada soal no.18 “梅田から電車に乗 りました”, partikel に digunakan untuk mengekspresikan arah subjek masuk ke dalam kereta. ada pun jumlah kesalahan muncul sebanyak 15 buah. jumlah kesalahan yang juga banyak juga terjadi pada kalimat soal. 37 “私は会社の人に本を借りまし た”. pada bagian ini fungsi partikel に lebih mengekspresikan やりもらいpada gerakan yang meminjam kepada orang lain. karena itu kata kerja seperti 借ります, 教えます, banyak menggunakan partikel ini. selanjutnya fungsi partikel に yang cenderung lebih bersifat tidak aktif seperti pada kata kerja ここに座ってください yang berarti silahkan duduk di sini (lihat soal. 53). kata kerja座るsenantiasa menggunakan partikel に yang dapat diartikan “di”. berikut ini responden dengan tingkat kesalahan antara 11 hingga 16 buah pada partikel-partikel seperti pada tabel berikut. tabel 4 kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 11-16 soal kalimat partikel penggunaan fungsi benar salah 18 梅田から電車に乗 ります に menyatakan nuansa gerakan masuk ke dalam menggunakan partikel ni 11 11 35 7月に京都でお祭 りがあります。 で menyatakan keberadaan suatu perayaan menggunakan partikel de 7 15 37 私は会社の人に本 をかりました。 に menyatakan arah meminjamkan menggunakan partikel ni 9 13 48 京都へ花見に行き ます。 に menyatakan perpindahan tempat digunakan partikel e, dan tujuannya menggunakan ni 2 dan 10 10 dan 12 50 もう日本の生活に 慣れましたか。 に menyatakan telah terbiasa pada suatu hal, karena itu menggunakan partikel ni 7 15 53 ここに座ってく ださい に partikel ni juga digunakan untuk kata kerja yang tidak aktif seperti duduk 7 15 rentang kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 10-5 pada tabel 5 jumlah kesalahan yang banyak terjadi lebih banyak pada kata kerja yang jarang digunakan seperti kata kerja demasu (lihat soal no. 36). jumlah kesalahan sebanyak 9 buah. selain itu kata kerja arimasu/imasu yang bermakna ”mempunyai” cenderung salah karena responden lebih terfokus pada penggunaan kata kerja tersebut sebagai makna keberadaan. tabel 5 kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 10-5 soal kalimat partikel penggunaan fungsi benar salah 41 テレサちゃんは10歳 になりました。 に partikel ni menggambarkan ekspresi adanyak perubahan misalnya usia 9 tahun menjadi 10 tahun 17 5 43 マリアさんは大阪に 住んでいます。 に partikel ni juga digunakan untuk kata kerja yang tidak aktif seperti duduk, tinggal dan sebagainya. 17 5 46 家族はニューヨーク にいます。 に partikel ni digunakan untuk kalimat keberadaan imasu untuk benda hidup. 13 9 49 あした友達に会い ます。 に partikel ni menunjukkan pihak lawan bicara. dalam hal ini partikel ni berarti “dengan”. 13 9 rentang kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 4-0 pada tabel 6 penggunaan partikel で dan に, dalam soal, adalah bentuk kalimat yang paling sering digunakan oleh responden dalam menulis karangan, maupun dalam pembelajaran bahasa jepang di kelas. selain itu, kata kerja yang muncul pun adalah kata kerja yang sering digunakan dalam aplikasi pembelajaran. pada penggunaan partikel pada soal ini tidak banyak mengalami kesalahan. dari data berikut dapat digambarkan bahwa responden tidak banyak melakukan kesalahan pada fungsi partikel で sebagai alat (yang berwujud), tempat melakukan aktivitas, penggambaran waktu, やりもらいseperti あげる、くれ る、もらう. tabel 6 kesalahan partikel dengan jumlah 4-0 soal kalimat partikel penggunaan fungsi benar salah 4 タクシーでうちへ帰 ります で fungsi partikel de sebagai alat 22 5 5 1週間に一回テニス をします。 に partkel ni untuk mengungkapkan cakupan atau lingkup suatu waktu 18 5 8 3月25日に日本へ来 ました。 に partikel ni menggambarkan suatu waktu tertentu. 22 9 9 私はサントスさんに お土産をもらいま した。 に penggunaan partikel ni untuk kata kerja yari morai seperti moraimashita (memdapat) 21 9 10 ここに名前を書いて ください。 に partikel ni menggambarkan tempat menulis nama atau tempat melakukan kegiatan 21 15 私はあさ六時におき ます。 に partikel ni menggambarkan suatu waktu tertentu. 21 16 駅で新聞を読み ます。 で partikel de menunjukkkan tempat beraktivitas membaca 21 19 私は木村さんに花を あげました に penggunaan partikel ni dan wo untuk kata kerja yari morai seperti moraimashita (memdapat) 19 penggunaan partikel ….. (imelda) 5 simpulan berdasarkan pembahasan, penulis mengambil simpulan bahwa penjelasan penggunaan partikelでdan に dalam minna no nihongo i tidak semuanya tercakupi; khususnya penjelasan partikel に. penjelasan tentang penggunaan partikel に terutama pada kata kerja 住んで います, 入ります, 乗ります sangat rentang dengan kesalahan. hal ini disebabkan oleh kata kerja ini tidak familiar atau jarang digunakan oleh responden dalam kalimat. oleh karena itu, pengajar dapat mengisi penjelasan yang kurang memadai dalam buku tersebut, sehingga kesalahan tersebut dapat diminimalkan. pengaruh kata kerja yang kurang familiar atau jarang diaplikasikan dalam bentuk penulisan karangan atau sakubun, maupun dalam latihan-latihan menjadi salah satu faktor penyebab timbulnya kesalahan penggunaan partikel yang cukup menonjol. responden pada dasarnya memahami fungsi beberapa partikel seperti partikel に dan で, hanya saja terbatas penggunaannya pada kata kerja yang cukup familiar bagi responden. responden lebih banyak terfokus pada kata kerja dan ”penerjemahan arti” kata kerja tersebut dalam bahasa ibu bahasa indonesia saja, sehingga dalam menentukan penggunaan partikel responden tidak memahami konteks kalimat. pada kata kerja やりもらい yang menggunakan partikel に lebih banyak yang penggunaanya tepat karena responden terbiasa dengan kata kerja くれる、もらう、 あげる. namun pada kata kerja seperti 借ります, tingkat kesalahan responden sangat tinggi. hal ini disebabkan responden kurang menggunakan kata kerja ini dan tidak mengetahui arti kata kerja ini dengan baik. daftar pustaka a network. (2005). minna no nihongo. surabaya: pustaka lintas budaya. sakoda, h. (2001). 第二言語習得研究の深さと 広 が り ー 学 習 者 の 学 び 方 か ら 教 師 の 考 え方― . diakses dari dspace. bunka.ac.jp/ dspace/.../1/004031324_01.pdf‎) soeparno. (2002). dasar-dasar linguistik umum.yogyakarta: tiara wacana yogya. sutedi, d. (2008). dasar-dasar linguistik bahasa jepang. edisi ketiga. bandung: humaniora. yasuda, h. (2004). 格助詞「に」「で」の誤用研究~ タイ・中国の日本語学習者を対象に~. japan. diakses dari www.naruto-u.ac.jp/repository/.../370 2011080111251) 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 exploring gender on efl learners’ beliefs about language learning hanna sundari; irfan hadi; nurhayati indraprasta, pgri university jln. nangka no. 58, tanjung barat, jakarta selatan hanna.sundari@gmail.com abstract article aimed to describe language learners’ belief system and to investigate how significance the language learners’ beliefs are between them in language learning. using both qualitative and quantitative approaches, this research took 111 femaleand 32 male-first semester college-students majoring in english education as respondents. the instrument was 34-item balli questionnaire designed by horwitz. the findings of the research showed that females and males’ language beliefs about language learning are mostly in similar fashion. the significant differences in responses were on the beliefs related to language and intelligence, enjoyment in practicing english, learning english-speaking cultures, having english-speaking friends, and motivation in learning english. keywords: language learning, language learning belief, gender abstrak artikel menggambarkan sistem keyakinan berbahasa pembelajar dan mencari tahu seberapa signifikan perbedaan keyakinan berbahasa antara pembelajar pria dan wanita. dengan pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif, penelitian ini mengambil sampel 111 pembelajar wanita dan 32 pemelajar pria pada semester 1 mahasiswa program pendidikan bahasa inggris. instrumen penelitian adalah balli kuesioner yang dirancang oleh horwits. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa keyakinan berbahasa baik pembelajar pria maupun wanita pada umumnya sama. meskipun demikian, perbedaan yang signifikan tampak pada kaitan bahasa dan kecerdasan, kesenangan dalam berlatih bahasa inggris, budaya bahasa inggris, memiliki teman penutur asli, dan motivasi dalam belajar bahasa inggris. kata kunci: pembelajaran bahasa, kepercayaan pembelajaran bahasa, gender 129various dimensions of globalization ….. (hanna sundari; dkk) introduction learners’ belief about language learning is considered as a significant factor to determine successful language learning, like many other factors. schoenfeld (in bernat & llyod, 2007:79) stated that one’s belief systems, social cognitions, and metacognitions are a driving force for intellectual performance. intellectual performance involves acquisition and learning second/foreign language. a study by maftoon and shakouri (2012) showed that there was certainly a relationship between the students’ belief system and their choices of strategies. dealing with factors influencing language learning, gender differences, as one of sociocultural factors, has been observed in language use. lakoff (in coates, 2007: 62–63) drew attention to a wide range of gender differences in language use and argued that differences were directly related to the relative social power of male speaker and relative powerlessness of female speakers. research by moriam (2005) among japanese and bangladeshi learners showed that there were some differences speaking strategy used by either male or female learners. study in language learning belief and gender has also been conducted by some researchers. research by rieger (2008:37) investigated 61 students in secondary school in budapest. the result showed that both gender and the target language significantly affect language learner’s belief about language learning. with regard to gender, the only significant difference found was the perceived importance of practicing the target language with authentic written text. in short, even though the studies related to language learning belief and gender have been done in many countries, it still has a plenty of improvement particularly for learners in indonesia. this research is to describe and investigate language learners’ belief system and gender among the college-students in indonesia. furthermore, this research is to ascertain if there were any significant differences in responses among the students. in language acquisition and learning, belief has different definitions. according to the mainstream approach, belief is,”cognitive entities in learner’s mind; belief is as stable, statable, and fallible.” meanwhile, the discursive approach viewed belief as, “socially constructed and variable from one person to another as well as from context to another” (maftoon & shakouri, 2013:42). understanding learner’s belief is important. insightful belief about language learning process may end up with successful learning. moreover, belief determines learner’s learning strategies, classroom anxiety and cognitive performance (mesri, 2012:99). for instance, a student who thinks that learning language is mostly about grammar conventions will spend much time and effort on mastering it. on the other hand, a student who believes that special ability is necessary to learn foreign language, but s/he does not possess it, may start learning with negative expectation. second/foreign language researches have shown that beliefs are quite stable within the learner, strongly held, and resistant to change (mesri, 2012). on the contrary, maftoon and shaouri (2013:43) wrote since language acquisition is as part of knowledge through discourse, the knowledge means partly repeated words and thought formulated by others. as a result, beliefs reflect personal views. horwitz (in fujiwara, 2011:88) categorized language learning belief onto the following five themes: (1) foreign language aptitude, (2) the difficulty of language learning, (3) the nature of language learning, (4) learning and communicative strategies, and (5) motivations and expectations. horwitz constructed 34 items of language learning questionnaire, namely balli questionnaire. the relationship between gender and language use has been investigated for years. sociolinguists distinguish between sex – a biological term – and gender, the term used to describe socially constructed categories based on sex (coates, 2007). then it has two terms of gender, masculine and feminine. gender identity is seen as a social construct rather than as a “given” social category. as west and zimmerman (1987, in coates, 2007:66) eloquently put it, speakers should be seen as “doing gender” rather than statistically “being” a particular gender. the understanding that gender is a social and cultural construction became widespread in early 1990s. differ from that, gender now is conceptualized as something that is “done.” it is never static but it produced actively and in interaction with others every day of lives (coates, 2007:66). gender now is constructed locally and interacted with race, class, sexuality and age. numerous studies in the issues of language learning belief and gender have been done for years. research by bernat and lloyd (2007) has been significantly influenced for next study about related issues. they found that overall males and females held similar belief about language learning. males and females seem to respond similar fashion in the term of (1) foreign language aptitude, (2) difficulty in learning a language, (3) the nature of language learning, (4) strategies in learning and communication, and (5) motivations and expectations. meanwhile male and female seem to differ significantly in their beliefs that multi-linguals are very intelligent, with more females agreeing with the statement. they marginally differ in their enjoyment of practicing english with australians, with women enjoying it less. in additional to bernat and llyod’s research findings (2007), it was found similar opinions between females and males in almost all terms. most respondents agreed that children learn a foreign language easier than adult; that some people have a special to learn it and everyone can learn to speak it. moreover, they also believed that some languages are easier than others; that it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures and the best way to learn english is in english speaking country. furthermore, they thought that it is important to speak english with excellent pronunciation and practicing and repeating it a lot as well as they would like to learn and speak english very well. the survey also showed the respondents find english medium. then, if spend 1 hour/ day, they think it would take around 3 to 5 years to speak the language very well; some believed it needs more than 1 hour/day. on the other hand, still on bernat and llyod’s research findings (2007), respondents disagreed with the statement related to learning how to translate from own 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 language as the most important part of learning. besides, they disagreed that you shouldn’t say anything in english until you can say it. the beliefs which differ significantly between males and females are that multi-linguals are intelligent and it is enjoyment to practice english with native speakers. findings of a study by rieger (2009) on hungarian efl learners’ beliefs about language learning showed that they generally agree with the statements given. they believe children are easier to learn foreign language and some people have special ability on learning it. they also agree that some languages are easier, reading and writing english are easier that speaking and understanding it as well as best way to learn it is in english-speaking country and learning a new words and excellent pronunciation are important. the respondents seem english medium; as a result, they, if spending 1 hour/day, would take 3 to 5 years to speak it very well. the study by rieger also found that the respondents disagree that people who are good at math are not good at learning language. they do not believe that women are better language learners. they do not think that you shouldn’t say anything until you can say it correctly. for motivation, in fact, hungarian efl learners do not find learning english to get to know native speakers better. however, it is to have better job opportunities. in 2011, fujiwara (2011) recruited 542 state university students in bangkok, thailand to be investigated their beliefs about language learning related to dimensional structure and cultural variations. the result showed that five-factor structure was identified for the language learning belief. they are (1) learning and communication strategies (2) important aspects in language learning, (3) expectation and difficulty of learning language, (4) nature and aptitude of language learning, and (5) difficulty and ability in language learning. furthermore, mesri (2012) explored among 90 male and female iranian university students ages ranged from 18-31. the research has proved statistically that there is no significant effect on gender on learners’ beliefs to learn english. there was also no significant difference between their beliefs and gender. finally, research by maftoon and shakouri (2013) analyzed about relationship between learner’s belief system and the choice of language learning strategies among 39 males and 41 females college-students from islamic azad university, iran. the findings concluded that the students had a general positive belief about learning language; mostly in their motivations and expectations. however, language learning strategies were found to be weakly correlated with beliefs. as a result, the more students used a particular strategy group, the less positive belief they held about language learning. the studies about language belief as mentioned above have been conducted in many countries such as australia, hungarian, iran and thailand. the result showed various results over countries. this may indicate that language learner’s belief is related to not only personal views and opinion but also age, culture, and region. method the respondents of the research were 143 fresh college-students in indraprasta pgri university academic year 2013/2014. they were at first semester in english education program. they consisted of 32 male collegestudents and 111 female college students. the survey instrument consisted of 34 items from the “beliefs about language learning inventory” (balli) designed by horwitz (1987) on a five-point likert scale. the original version of balli contained 34 items questionnaire. this instrument is widely used in much research (bernat & llyod, 2007; fujiwara, 2011). the balli measures language learning beliefs in five areas/dimensional themes is as follows:foreign language aptitude, the difficulty of language learning, the nature of language learning, and learning and communicative strategies. at the second phase, to assess whether the difference was significant or not between female and male college students’ language learning belief, the data from balli would be tested quantitatively using wilcoxonmann-whitney test (uji mann-whitney u, 2009; uji wilcoxon, 2010) helped by spss 21.0 version. results and discussion foreign language aptitude this dimensional theme, foreign language aptitude, assesses respondents’ perceptions of language learning related to age, ability, and gender. from all nine statements, two statements differed significantly in responses between female and male college students. the responses of statement 1 – 9 can be seen in figure 1. responses for the first statement “it is easier for children to learn a foreign language” on the chart above showed that 63% female-students and 12.5% malestudents agree that children are easier to learn foreign language. even 17% femaleand 62.5% male-students strongly agree to the statement given. in short, a majority (79%) believed that children learn foreign language easier. however, there was no significant difference in responses between maleand female-students (p-values 1.000 < 0.05). the second statement stated that “some people have a special ability for learning foreign languages.” a majority (79%) agrees and strongly agrees that some people have special ability in learning foreign languages. nonetheless, 14.6% college-students fell into “neutral.” in fact, with p-values 0.206 (> 0.05), there was not any significant difference in responses between female and male students. responses in the third statement “people from my country are good at learning foreign languages” went to variety of answers. 15% respondent disagreed that indonesian people are good at learning foreign language. a bigger percentage (83%) fell into neutral options. on the contrary, the small portion (38%) agreed with the statement. wilcoxon-mann-whitney tests showed no significant difference responses between females and males, p-values 0.388 (> 0.05). on the fourth statement “it is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to learn another one,” participants responded variously. a small percentage (18%) did not agree; whereas, a majority (64%) believed that one can learn another foreign language. meanwhile, 131various dimensions of globalization ….. (hanna sundari; dkk) another 24% did not decide. moreover, with p-values 0.602 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference responses between females and males. the chart on statement 5 “people who are good at math or science are not good at learning foreign languages” showed that most participants (58%) disagreed. however, a sizeable portion (29%) neither agreed nor disagreed that people who are good at math and science are good at learning foreign language. the rest (13%) agreed with the statement. with p-values 0.099 (> 0.05), female and male responses did not differ significantly on the item. with p-values 0.487 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference responses between females and males on sixth statement “i have a special ability for learning foreign languages.” only a few students (5%) agreed they do not believe that they have special ability. a sizeable portion (40%) neither agreed nor disagreed. majority students (78%) believed that they have special ability in learning foreign languages. responses on statement 7 “women are better than men at learning languages” showed that a sizeable portion (38%) agreed; on the other hand, the other (38%) disagreed with the statement. the rest (24%) did not decide who better learner is. with p-values 0.000 (< 0.05), wilcoxon-mann-whitney test scored significant difference in responses between females and males. it indicates that female students are more likely than males to believe women are better language learners than men. furthermore, item 8 stated “people who speak more than one language are very intelligent” showed a vast majority (85%) agreed. meanwhile, only 13% neither agreed nor disagreed. in contrast, a very small portion (6%) did not believe that multi-lingual people are intelligent. wilcoxon-mann-whitey test, with p-values 0.008 (< 0.05), showed that there was any significant difference in response between females and males. this means that they are not in the same opinion where females slightly more likely believe than males that multi-lingual people are intelligent. on item 9 stated “everyone can learn to speak a foreign language”, the largest percentage of participants (92%) agreed with the statement. only small portion (6%) neither agreed nor disagreed. moreover, p-values scored 0.07 (> 0.05) resulted in no significant difference in responses between females and males. figure 1 charts of statement 1-9 responses the difficulty in language learning the second dimensional theme, difficulty in language learning, explores students’ perception of language learning dealing with how difficult english language is and which skill they consider more difficult. besides, it also yields their perception on how long one can speak english well. the responses of statement 10–12 can be seen in figure 2. first of all, item 10 stated “some languages are easier than others”. the chart (figure 2) showed that only a very few students (2%) disagreed with the statement. however, a significant portion (64%) of participants believed that some languages are easier. yet, a sizeable percentage (36%) did not decide whether they agreed or not. from wilcoxon-mann-whitney test, p-values scored 0.952 (> 0.05). this means no significant difference in responses between females and males. 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 responses for item 11”it is easier to speak than understand a foreign language” showed variety in percentages. 18.8% of respondents disagreed that speaking is easier than understanding a foreign language. while a sizeable portion (43%) felt speaking easier. however, 38% of them did not decide if speaking is easier than understanding a foreign language. in fact, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males due to p-values 0.487 (> 0.05). figure 2 charts of statement 10–12 responses for item 12, the statement was “it is easier to read and write english than to speak and understand it”. a majority of respondents (54%) agreed with the statement. in contrast, a small percentage (13%) disagreed. yet, a sizeable portion (33%) of them did not decide whether reading and writing english is easier than speaking and understanding. with p-values 0.321 (> 0.05), responses did not differ significantly between females and males. figure 3 charts of statement 33¬–34 responses two items—named item 33 and 34—were on the last position on the questionnaire because of different item categories. nonetheless, they were included in this theme (the difficulty of language learning). the responses of statements 33–34 can be seen in figure 3. responses for item 33 “the english language is: very difficult, difficult, medium, difficult, easy, very easy” showed that most respondents (73%) found that english medium difficulty. a sizeable portion (16%) thought english easy; yet, the rest (10%) believe it difficult. in fact, p-value scored 0. 782; so that, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. the last item on this theme, item 34 stated ”if someone spent 1 hour/day learning a language, how long would it take them to speak the language very well?”. the largest portion (48%) of respondents thought that if someone spent 1 hour/day learning a language, s/he would take 1 to 2 years to speak it very well. a significant percentage (33%) of respondents even believed that s/ he only needed less than 1 year. moreover, the small percentage (15%) of respondents thought it would take little longer, 3 to 5 years. with p-value 0.283 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. 133various dimensions of globalization ….. (hanna sundari; dkk) figure 4 charts of statement 13–18 responses nature of language learning the nature of language learning elaborates learners’ perception about the most important part of learning a foreign language: vocabulary, grammar, and translation. it also figures out english speaking country and cultures. the results are displayed on the bar charts in figure 4. responses for item 13 stated “it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures to speak english” were fairly spread over the response categories. the largest percentage of respondents (46%) disagreed with the statement. a significant portion (30%) of them neither agreed nor disagreed to learn english cultures. meanwhile, the rest (24%) believed that it is necessary to learn cultures when learning english. from wilcoxonmann-whitney test, mean rank of women (8.33) was lower than men (15.63) with p-values 0.017 (< 0.05). this indicates that females are more likely than men to disagree it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures to speak english. on item 14 stated “it is best to learn english in an english speaking country”, the participants responded variously in all categories. the smallest percentage (18%) of responses neither agreed nor disagreed. meanwhile, a sizeable portion (36%) disagreed that best way to learn english is in an english speaking country. a majority (46%) thought that learning english in its speaking country is best way. yet, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males, with p-values 0.242 (> 0.05). in additional to the items above, item 15 stated “the most important part of learning a foreign is learning a new word”. a vast majority (86%) of respondents agreed that learning a new word is the most important part, while 9% of neutral option and 5 % of disagreement. with p-values 0.017, there was any significant difference in response between females and males because mean rank of women scored 8.33 lower than men, 15.63. it means women are more likely to believe learning vocabulary is the most important in learning language. responses for item 16 stated “the most important part of learning a foreign language is learning grammar” showed that most respondents (76%) agreed with the statement. on the hand, only small portion (8%) of them disagreed that grammar is the most important part in language learning. the rest (16%) felt into neutral option. then, with p-values 0.340 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. furthermore, statement 17 stated that “learning a foreign language is different than learning other academic subjects”. most respondents (73%) agreed with the statement. however, a sizeable portion (22%) disagreed that learning foreign language is different than learning other subjects. then, with p-values 0.729 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. on statement 18 stated “the most important part of learning english is learning how to translate from my own language”, a vast majority (74%) of respondents agreed. however, a sizeable portion (22%) thought that translating from own language is not important part in learning english. with p-values 1.000 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 learning and communication strategies the fourth dimensional theme of language learning belief, as learning and communication strategies, assesses learners’ opinion on pronunciation, practicing english, making mistakes and using media. the research findings are presented below and the responses of statement 19–26 can be seen in figure 5. firstly, item 19 stated “it is important to speak english with an excellent pronunciation”. most respondents (79%) agreed with the statement. meanwhile, a sizeable portion (16%) did not decide whether excellent pronunciation is important to speak english or not. with p-values 0.289 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. responses for item 20 “you shouldn’t say anything in english until you can say it correctly” showed most respondents (66%) disagreed with the statement. the small percentage (17%) of them believed that you should say anything in english correctly. the other (17%) neither agreed nor disagreed. besides, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males due to p-values 0.901 (> 0.05). to continue the items above, item 21 stated “i enjoy practicing english with the native speakers i meet”. the largest percentage (52%) of respondents agreed with the statement. the smaller portion (38%) went to neutral option. in addition, wilcoxon-mann-whitney test showed mean rank of women (9.00) was lower than mean rank of men (11.14). meanwhile, p-value scored 0.04 (< 0.05). it indicates that there was any significant difference in responses between females and males where females are more likely than men to enjoy practicing english with native speakers. responses for item 22 stated “it’s ok to guess if you don’t know a word in english” showed variety in all categories. the biggest percentage (35%) of respondents agreed with the statement. in contrast, a sizeable portion (34%) thought that it is not ok to guess a word. the rest (31%) did not decide whether it is ok or not to guess a word. with p-values 0.564 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in response between females and males. moreover, item 23 stated that “it is important to repeat and practice a lot”. an overwhelming majority of respondents (90%) agreed and strongly agreed with the statement. also, with p-values 0.060 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference. as a result, responses between females and males were in the similar fashion. responses for item 24 stated “i feel shy speaking english with other people” showed that most respondents (59%) disagreed with the statement. meanwhile, a sizeable percentage (20%) of them did not decide whether they felt shy speaking english or not. in fact, with p-value 0.055 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. on item 25 stated “if beginning students are allowed to make mistakes in english, it will be difficult for them to speak correctly later on”, responses were spread over the response categories. the largest percentage (43%) of respondents disagreed with the statement. meanwhile, a sizeable portion (24%) neither agreed nor disagreed. the rest (32%) believed that making mistake make the leaners difficult to speak correctly. then, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males, with p-value 0.102 (> 0.05). the last item on this theme, the item 26 stated ”it is important to practice with cassettes/tapes or cd rooms”. most respondents (71%) agreed with the statement. meanwhile, a smaller percentage (22%) of them did not believe that cassettes/tapes or cd rooms important in practicing english. with p-value 0.191 (> 0.05), there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. figure 5 charts of statement 19–26 responses 135various dimensions of globalization ….. (hanna sundari; dkk) figure 6 charts of statement 27-32 responses motivation and expectation motivation and expectations, the last dimensional theme on language leaning belief, explores whether respondents will learn english well or not and its benefits. moreover, it figures out respondents’ opinions about english-speaking friends/native speaker. the results are presented below and the responses of statement 27–32 can be seen in figure 6. dealing with motivation to learn english, item 27 stated “i believe i will learn to speak english very well.” an overwhelming majority (94%) of respondents agreed with the statement. it indicates that they have high motivation to learn speaking english very well. with p-value 0.032, responses between females and males differed significantly. then, mean rank of women (8.50) was lower than mean rank of men (11.36). this means females are more likely than men to learn speaking english very well. secondly, with p-value 0.706, item 28 “people in my country feel that it is important to speak english” showed that there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. most respondents (82%) agreed with the statement. while, a sizeable portion (16%) of respondents neither agreed nor agreed; the rest (2%) disagreed that people in indonesia feel that it is important to speak english. responses for item 29 stated “i would like to learn english so that i can get to know native speakers better” showed a majority (73%) of respondents agreed with the statement. however, significant portion (24) did not believe that they learn english to get to know native speakers better. in fact, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males, p-value 0.268 (> 0.05). on item 30 stated “if i learn to speak english very well, i will have a better job opportunities”, it resulted in vast majority (86%) of respondents’ agreement. they believed that good competence in english will give them better jobs. meanwhile, a sizeable percentage (12%) neither agreed nor disagreed. with p-value 0.320, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. furthermore, item 31 stated “i want to learn to speak english very well”. an overwhelming majority (97%) of respondents highly motivated to learn speaking english. with p-value 0.305, there was no significant difference in responses between females and males. the last item on this theme stated “i would like to have english-speaking friends.” the large majority (88%) of respondents wanted to have english-speaking friends. the small portion (9%) did not decide whether they wanted to have them or not. this item, with p-value 0.025 (< 0.05), was marginally significant difference in responses. it also showed that a higher mean rank of woman (8.91) compared to men (5.50). it indicates that women are slightly less likely than men to have englishspeaking friends. 136 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 discussion first of all, female and male are generally in a similar fashion of language learning beliefs in all categories of the questionnaire. only 7 of 34 statements give significant difference in responses among them. in the first point, most respondents in a vast majority of percentage agree that children are easier than adult in learning language; that some people have special ability for it. these are consistent to the studies by bernat and llyod (2007) and rieger (2009). females and males in this study mostly believe that they have special ability in learning language. this differs from what bernat and llyod (2007) and rieger (2009) found on their surveys. efl students at australian university neither agree nor disagree they have special ability in learning foreign language; meanwhile, hungarian students do not believe that they have it. furthermore, most respondents agree that some languages are easier than others; that learning a new word, excellent pronunciation and practicing a lot are important part of learning foreign language. they also thought that learning language is different than other academic subjects; that practicing with audio visual aids is important. these are also similar with the research findings by bernat and lloyd (2007) and rieger (2009). still consisted with bernat and llyod’s results, most respondents believe and want to learn to speak english very well. they think english important for people in indonesia and would like to have english-speaking friends. they learn english to have better job opportunities as well as to know native speaker better. however, rieger (2009) found that efl learners in hungarian neither agree nor disagree whether they learn english to get to know native speaker better. like research findings by bernat and llyod (2007) and rieger (2009), most respondents in this study do not think that people who are good at math or science are not good at learning foreign languages. then a vast majority of respondents also disagree that you shouldn’t say anything in english until you can say it correctly. regarding to english difficulty, research results by bernat and llyod (2007), reiger (2009) and the present study are alike. the majority of respondents think english medium. however, opinions about how long it will take to speak it very well if one spends 1 hour/day differ among the three studies. survey by bernat and lyod (2007) showed that it will take three to five years; on the other hand, research by rieger (2009) showed that hungarian respondents believe it will take much longer, 5 to 10 years. meanwhile, indonesian respondents consider learning english much easier; it will only take 1 to 2 years. in the term of gender difference in responses, the present study showed that women are more likely to believe than men that they are better language learners. then women are more likely to agree that people who speak more than one language are very intelligent as on bernat and llyod (2007). nonetheless, it is different from efl learners in australian where women enjoy less in practicing english with native speakers; efl female college-students in indonesia are more likely to enjoy it. from this survey, it is also found that woman are more likely to disagree that it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures to speak english and to believe that learning a new word is the most important part of learning language. besides, women are more likely to believe that they will learn to speak english very well. however, males are more likely than women to have english-speaking friends. these results are not found on either bernat and llyod (2007) or reiger (2009). conclusion from the survey, it can be found several conclusions that female and male college-students mostly agree with the statements, some neutral options and disagreement. in short, females and males in this study respond in a similar fashion. in addition to the description of language learning beliefs, significant differences in responses also occur between males and females, 7 out of 34 statements on the questionnaire. it is found that women are more likely than men to believe that they are better language learners as well as women are more likely to agree that people who speak more than one language are very intelligent. moreover, they are also more likely than men to enjoy practicing english with the native speaker. still related to gender and its significant differences, females and males differ significantly in beliefs. women are more likely to disagree that it is necessary to learn about english speaking cultures to speak english and to believe that learning a new word is the most important part of learning language. besides, women are more likely to believe that they will learn to speak english very well. however, males are more likely than women to have english-speaking friends. nevertheless, some weak points occurred when getting the representative data. firstly, the ratio of the samples between females (n= 111) and males (n= 32) were not in balance or even. by increasing the ratio of samples in balance probably make the obtained data more representative. secondly, the findings of present research only reveal language learners’ beliefs about language learning with no consideration on their different cultural backgrounds, personality types, language competences and other individual factors. as a consequence, perhaps the results cannot be generalized for other foreign language situations even in indonesia. for further research, it may explore language learning belief across different education level, cultural background as well as other stable individual factors such as personality types. references ariyoso. (2009). uji mann-whitney u. retrieved feb 3, 2014 from http://statistik4life.blogspot. com/2009/12/uji-mann-whitney-u.html bernat, e., & llyod, r. (2007). exploring the gender effect on efl learners’ belief about language learning. australian journal of educational & developmental psychology, 7, 79–91. coates, j. (2007). gender. in c. llamas, l. mullany, & p. stockwell, the routledge companion to sociolinguistics (pp. 62–68). new york: routledge. fujiwara, t. (2011). language learning beliefs of thai efl university students: dimensional structure 137various dimensions of globalization ….. (hanna sundari; dkk) and cultural variations. electronic journal of foreign language teaching, 8(1), 87–107. maftoon, p., & shakouri, n. (2013). relationship between learners’ beliefs system and the choice of language learning strategies: a critical study. international journal of research studies in language learning, 2(2), 39–48. mesri, f. (2012). exploring the gender effect on iranian university learners’ beliefs to learn english. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 2(6), 98–106. moriam, q. m. (2005). speaking strategy use by the efl students in japan and bangladesh. journal of international developmental and coorporation, 12(1), 47–61. rieger, b. (2009). exploring gender and target language effect on hungarian efl learners’ belief about language learning. in j. horvath, m. nikolov, & r. lugossy, uprt 2008: emppirical studies in english applied linguistics (pp. 29-42). pecs: lingua franca csoport. statistics of your live. (2010). uji wilcoxon. retrieved feb 3, 2014 from http://exponensial.wordpress. com/2010/05/13/uji-wilcoxon/ copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 209 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 209-214 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.4284 literature on student book and its effect for developing elementary school teaching materials emi febrina ningrum primary education, postgraduate program, yogyakarta state university jl. colombo, no.1, caturtunggal, d. i. yogyakarta 55281, indonesia febrinaemi@gmail.com received: 10th january 2018/revised: 07th february 2018/accepted: 20th february 2018 how to cite: ningrum, e. f. (2018). literature on student book and its effect for developing elementary school teaching materials. lingua cultura, 12(2), 209-214. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.4284 abstract this research applied the qualitative research content analysis on the 4th grade of elementary school students which aimed to know the literary material contained in the 2013 curriculum student book in indonesia as the compulsory guidebook. the results of this research could be useful for guidelines for the development of literary materials by teachers when implementing learning planning. the findings show that students’ literature material is only about 30% of the indonesian language learning material found in the 4th grade of elementary school. the lesson was limited to reading the text of the story then answering questions about the content of the text. in general, literary competence material in student books has not been emphasized on the cultivation of literary concepts. the development of literary materials in the 4th grade of elementary school should include the introduction of literary concepts, analyzing the contents of literary texts, and applying moral values in literature to be applied in daily life. keywords: literary books, literary learning, elementary school material, teaching development introduction elements of life found in literature make each literary work contain useful moral values in the educational world. therefore, literature becomes a part of the lesson materials learned in various schools in the world. some countries using literature in their school curriculums are greek (aravani, 2012), united states, german (wally, levinger, & grainger, 2005), and indonesia (djuanda, 2014). in indonesia, literature becomes a part of learning curriculum from elementary school. literature is included in indonesian language learning material for elementary school (kemendikbud, 2013). it is included in the evaluation category of progress in international reading literacy study (pirls) 2011 as a survey conducted for iv grade students in elementary schools (suryaman, 2015). indonesia has the 42nd rank of 60 participating states. various studies have been conducted to maximize literary learning to increase the literary competence of students, use of literature to develop other lesson materials, and moral values of literary learning in elementary schools. meanwhile, analysis of literary materials in elementary school books for students in indonesia is less specific to get attention. as one way to meet the need, this research analyzes literary materials in elementary school books for students. the results of research can be used as the guideline in developing literary teaching materials which should be done by teachers so that the literary learning can be maximum. the literature contains elements of feeling, beauty, language play, and meaning. literary work is different from non-literary work because the former contains beauty when its contents are enjoyed. literature learned in elementary schools is included in children literature. children literature is a child literary where its contents and language are consistent with intellectual and emotional progress level of children. the benefit of children literature is to increase children love to read, being a key to science. it is also able to develop aspects of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor intelligence of the children because it needs contemplation, idea precipitation, maturity, specific steps which will be different between one author and others. form, style, and language are used in a typical literary work. literary work has specific logic and beauty (siswanto, 2013). literary learning is learning, which tries to develop a literary appreciation competence, literary critique, and literary-creative process. learned appreciation competence is the competence to enjoy and appreciate literary work. students are directly asked to read, analyze, and enjoy literary work. learning of literary critique will develop the competence of students to understand and evaluate literary 210 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 209-214 work. creative learning of literature tries to teach students to write literary work (siswanto, 2013). indonesian language learning in elementary schools consists of two parts, namely, the competence of students to speak and appreciate literature. literary teaching aims at increasing the competence of students to enjoy, implement, and understand literary work. educational values, which can be absorbed by kids from literary readings, are to help develop language, improve competence to read, increase competence to write (djuanda, 2014). through literature, students feel easier to self-express, dare to suggest, dare to think differently and become more enthusiastic in developing imagination. in addition, the students will gain many moral educations, which are gained by the unusual way but these are pleasuring and concerning thought. the use of literature should become the materials which cannot be separated from education and teaching in each of age and education levels (irawati & purwani, 2013). curriculum in indonesia has repeatedly been improved. the recent improvement is to change learning into theme-based called as 2013 curriculum that uses thematic-integrative approach. indonesian language lesson is used to drag other lessons. combination of other lessons in indonesian language lesson makes indonesian language lesson becomes contextual, so its learning is more attractive. indonesian language lesson is included in lesson whose contents are developed by the central in more times than other lessons, namely, 7-hour learning per week (kemendikbud, 2013). it proves that the indonesian language lesson becomes a vital lesson to teach in elementary schools. generally, indonesian language learning designed in 2013 curriculum is text-based learning. the text is presented as material, which is studied for various lessons. four aspects of language skills are to scrutinize, read, write, and speak lead in the curriculum, but literary learning materials in the 2013 curriculum are less than the previous one (wulan, 2014). language teaching material is everything consciously used to increase students’ language experience and knowledge. materials may be video, dvd, email, youtube, dictionary, grammar book, worksheet, and workbook of students (tomlinson, 2011). teaching materials are associated with competence, which must be owned by students after following specific learning. it implies that, in arranging teaching materials, it is needed to consider coverage of teaching materials with presentation systematic, namely, from the simple to the complex. to produce quality teaching materials, it is needed the specific criteria as the benchmark. the good teaching materials must have the following criteria; (a) novelty (such as unusual topic, illustration and activity); (b) variety (such as, solving unit boring routinely with unexpected activities and using many different text types taken from various source types; (c) attractive presentation (such as use of attractive color); (d) appealing content (such as attractive topic for students); (e) achievable challenge (such as challenging task for students to think) (tomlison, 2011). teaching materials consist of three following aspects: knowledge (fact, concept, principle, and procedure), skill, and attitude (value) (prastowo, 2012). knowledge is associated with understanding, characteristics, and types of literary works, whereas skill is related to the process of literary appreciation, and finally attitude is associated with values gained after appreciating literature. literary work has the specific mandate, which is applicable to daily life. various studies on literature in elementary schools have been conducted in both indonesia and other countries. it is the background of how important the literary learning to be applied to maximize the benefit of literature so students can really feel that. in elementary school age, according to piaget, students are included in the concrete-operational stage. the operation is a reversible mental action, while the concrete operation is action applicable to concrete and real object (santrock, 2011). students have been able to understand and interpret oral and written communication to make students understand (papalia & feldman, 2014). therefore, various studies on the use of literature to develop language and moral of students are conducted in elementary schools. arravani (2012) has researched on systematic teaching to read poetry in greek elementary schools is to increase the attraction of children in reading and helping their oral skill by enriching their glossaries and creative thinking. design of teaching is based on rosenblatt’s transactional theory. findings indicate that: (a) small children illustrate poetry programs as a most pleasuring part of language art; (b) involvement and motivation to increase children’ reading and (c) through poetry programs, children develop the better reading skill. wally, levinge, and grainger (2005) have researched on the cultural theme can be an effective medium to attract students in science. programs described here uses current kid literature in multi-purpose chemical lesson activities. these activities produce excitement for elementary school students because integration of literary series by harry potter is famous for the direct experiment. djuanda (2014) has researched about literary learning in 2013 curriculum is literary activities that get few better portion. the curriculum approach signalizes the pressure on development of attitude and character, where literature is the rich material to be a basis to sharpen personality and character. considering that, the literature contains extraordinary personal and educational values. results of basic competence analysis of permendikbud no.57/2014 indicate that literary materials included in book contents are less sufficient (very less sufficient) because contents of teacher and student books, derivatives of basic competence have already been mapped thematically-integrally. next is research by nensilianti (2012) on competence to interpret elementary school students’ story. this research uses the pre-experimental quantitative approach. results of research indicate that the model of story mapping is effectively applicable to increasing of competence to appreciate the story of 5th-grade students of elementary schools. other research is the development of enrichment book to write kid stories containing character values based on content and language integrated learning (clil) for elementary school students with high class. this character values describe the development and determine the effectiveness of enrichment book (neina, mardikantoro, & supriyanto, 2015). viewed from important literary learning for elementary school students, this research aims at understanding literary materials found in student book of 2013 curriculum in indonesia as compulsory manual used for most students in indonesia. so, the results of this research can be useful for the guideline to develop literary teaching material by teachers when they are planning learning. literary materials are not found in student book yet can be added to the development of teaching materials that are completed by teachers. in details, this research tries to answer the following questions: (1) are there any 211literature on student book.... (emi febrina ningrum) literary materials found in student book of the 4th grade of elementary school in indonesia? (2) what are depth literary materials found in the book of 4th-grade students of elementary schools in indonesia? (3) what is the design of literary teaching material development for 4th-grade students in elementary school, which should be organized by teachers? methods this research adopts the qualitative method using literary study method with content analysis. content analysis is also meant as a systematic technique to analyze message meanings and way to express messages. initially, content analysis develops in communication science world, but its development is now used in various sciences, including the literary world. content analysis aims at; (a) describing the tendency of communication contents/messages, (b) tracing scientific development, (c) exposing difference in communication/ messages, (d) comparing media or level of communication/ messages, (e) displaying propaganda technique, (f) detecting presence of propaganda or closed ideology, (g) finding style peculiarity, and (h) identifying intention and characteristic of communicator/writer. although there is quantitative characteristic, content analysis develops into a qualitative form (krippendorf, 2004). the qualitative content analysis develops and roots from literary study, social study, and contemporary critic studies such as cultural studies and feminist theory. point of content analysis is to understand the contents and purpose of a text. to understand contents, it needs the descriptive study to understand the purpose of the text. it makes inferences and interpretations based on analysis construction. subjects of this research are student books of 2013 curriculum used by 4th grade of elementary school students in indonesia. it becomes the subjects because these books are used by nearly all elementary school students in indonesia that are applying 2013 curriculum. parts of the studied book include indonesian language lesson in lesson integration part. analyzed student books are nine books with different themes. data collection techniques used in this research is observation. the researcher observes literary material content in the book for the 4th-grade students. the observations are recorded to be analyzed later. researcher uses the method of content analysis in analyzing. during that process, the first thing to do is to classify the data. data analysis is a series of studying, grouping, systematization, interpretation, and verification of data so that the data will have social, academic, and scientific value. in this research, the researcher wants to know the percentage and how deep the literary material included in the 4th-grade student book. data analysis is performed with a table of basic competencies and literature learning activities that contain in the book. the researcher analyzes the suitability and depth of the data from material presented so that it could obtain a draft of literature teaching materials that need to be developed by teachers to complete shortages of students’ books. results and discussions according to this research, it can be considered that; (1) how many percentages of literary material in the subject indonesian language for 4th-grade students? (2) what kind of literary material that contained in that book. after that, every literature material will be studied how deep the sense of literature contained. the shortages will appear as this analysis is finished and the future development will be conducted. the 4th-grade student’s books in the 2013 curriculum consist of nine themes. the themes are; (1) the beautiful of togetherness, (2) always save the energy, (3) caring toward other beings, (4) job sharing, (5) my hero, (6) my goals, (7) the beautiful of diversity in my country, (8) my living place, (9) how rich my country is. every material in those themes is integrated into indonesian language subject. materials of indonesian language are selected from 20 basic competencies applied in moe regulation no 24 the year 2016 about main and basic competencies in the 2013 curriculum for basic and middle education phase. based on the 2013 curriculum, the basic competencies of indonesian language for the 4th grade students are as follow: (3.1) look at the main and supporting ideas that come from the texts, writings, or visual media. (4.1) organize the information that come from the texts according to the interrelation among ideas into the draft. (3.2) look at the interrelation among ideas that come from texts, writings, or visual media. (4.2) presenting the result of observation pertaining to the interrelation among ideas into the writing. (3.3) look for an information from one figure through interview by using a list of questions. (4.3) reporting the result of the interview using proper language and sentences in the paper. (3.4) comparing two different procedure text on how to use stuffs. (4.4) presenting the procedure in the paper and oral method by using proper language and sentences. (3.5) explain the personal statement about content of the literature books (story, folklore, etc). (4.5) communicate that personal statement with supporting reasons and argument in the paper and oral method. (3.6) look for the content and moral value of a written and spoken poem for entertainment purposes. (4.6) read the poem made by themselves in a proper way and expression. (3.7) look for new knowledge in the non-fictional text. (4.7) deliver to the class about that new knowledge. (3.8) compare the new and past information from the non-fictional text. (4.8) deliver to the class about the result of comparison. (3.9) pay attention to the figures on the fictional text. (4.9) deliver to the class about the result of figures’ identification. (3.10) compare the character of each figures. (4.10) deliver the result of that figures’ comparison. literature learning process in the 4th-grade student’s book in indonesia can be found only in three themes, one theme in the first semester, and two themes in the second semester. those themes are theme 4 (job sharing), theme 6 (my goals), and theme 8 (my living place). meanwhile, there are only eight points of basic literature competencies in the indonesian language out of 20 included. it shows that there is more activity in language development than literacy ability of the student. if it counts percentage, the literacy material for the student is only approximately 30% of all material of indonesian language for the 4th-grade student. literacy material that is contained in indonesian language subject should be analyzed in every learning activity in literacy competency. the analysis should be conducted by matching the indicators with learning competencies to see the depth of material that will be presented in the book. after that, the learning material will be matched to the indicators to see its suitability. according to the analysis, literacy material in the 212 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 209-214 student’s book can be seen in table 1. it can be seen that literacy material for the 4th-grade students can build a personal statement about the content of the literature books (story, folklore, etc.) through intrinsic elements and poem appreciation. those do analyze the content and moral value and supporting poem elements following with write and read the poem, also identify fictional text with its elements. from the basic competencies applied, the indicator of literacy competencies for the 4th grade student are; (1) identify intrinsic element of the story, (2) find the moral value with personal statement, (3) assess the comment toward a folklore, (4) present the assessment toward the story’s elements (figures, conflicts, moral value), (5) explain the arguments and reasons of the assessment, (6) identify the poem, (7) identify the message of the poem, (8) identify the structure of the poem, (9) write the poem, (10) read the selfwritten poem in a proper way and expression, (11) identify the figure of fictional story, (12) identify the character of figures of the fictional story, and (13) presenting the result of identification. table 1 basic competencies, indicators, and literacy material for the 4th grade student basic competencies indicators materials building a personal statement about the content of literacy books (story, folklore, etc) (1) identify intrinsic element of the story; (2) assess the story’s element by using personal statement; and (3) giving comment toward a folklore. 1. definition of kid’s literacy. 2. differences between kid’s literacy and other readings. 3. intrinsic elements of kid’s story. 4. assessment toward the story. communicating the personal statement about content of literacy books with supporting arguments and reasons in written and spoken way. (1) present the intrinsic elements of the story (figures, conflicts, moral values) by using personal statement and (2) explain the reasons and arguments of story’s assessment in written and spoken way. look for the content and message of the poem with entertainment purposes. (1) identify the content of the poem; (2) identify the message of the poem; and (3) identify the number of lines and rhymes of the poem. 1. intrinsic elements of the poem. 2. technique to write a poem. 3. technique to read a poem. read the self-written in proper way and expression as the method of self-expression. (1) write a poem and (2) read the poem in a proper way and expression. table 1 basic competencies, indicators, and literacy material for the 4th grade student (continued) basic competencies indicators materials look at the figures on the fictional text. compare the character of each figures. (1) identify the figures of fictional story and (2) identify the characters. 1. definition of fictional story. 2. differences between fictional and nonfictional story. 3. intrinsic elements on fictional story. deliver the result of figure’s identification. deliver the result of that figures’ comparison. presenting the result of fictional story’s identification. according to the analysis of basic competencies and indicators, so it gets a list of learning material that supposed to be presented in student’s book. the material that supposed to be presented in competency to build personal statement about the content of literature books is the definition of kid’s literacy, differences between kid’s literacy and other readings, intrinsic elements, and assessment toward intrinsic elements of the story. in the competency of the poem with content and message that look for entertainment purposes can be showed by intrinsic elements of the poem, the technique of writing, and reading a poem. in the competency that pays attention to the figures of fiction’s story, it consists of the definition of a fictional story, differences between fictional and non-fictional story, and intrinsic elements of the fictional story. according to basic competencies analysis, indicators, and literacy material that presented in the student’s book, it is known that there is a lack of literacy material. in theme 4 about competency to build personal statement toward the content of literacy story, the majority of the learning process is about read literacy text (kid’s story) and followed by questions pertaining to that text. therefore, the student’s concept of definition and differences of literacy text is not achieved. the presented literacy text is a chosen text by integrating other subjects. then, explanation about the type of text and supporting literacy element is not presented yet. it implies the narrow understanding of the student. meanwhile, now it is the time to teach the student about literacy concept. in theme 6 on competency to identify the content and message of poetry, there are also presenting the poetry’s shortage. first, there is no literacy material about differences of poetry with other literatures. meanwhile, it becomes more important for teachers to teach this concept to their student so that when the students are asked to write a poem, they know what they should write. second, the material of poetry writing is limited to verse (pantun), and modern poetry, there is no clear classification of types of poetry. third, the explanation is limited to lines and rhymes. while the other poem’s elements are not discussed yet in the book. fourth, in the basic competencies, there is the activity to read poetry in a proper way and intonation, but there is no guidance on how to read the poetry properly in the book. moreover, this 213literature on student book.... (emi febrina ningrum) material is important as one of the basic knowledge of the student so that they can explore more about creative writing since it is the most literature practice compare to other writing activities. theme 8 on identifying characters in a fictional text also has the shortage. there are no explanations of the types of the fictional story although the book has been using various kinds of text. it becomes an issue since the students need literacy understanding to identify fictional stories. then, there is no learning material to differ between fictional and non-fictional text. it needs the emphasizing the characteristic feature of that kind of text with its example. lack of literary material in the book of the 4th grade in elementary school is caused by the inclusion of science subjects and social subjects in indonesian subjects. every literary text contained in indonesian subjects is used to convey ipa (sciences) and ips (socials) materials. this makes the discussion of the literary material on indonesian subjects themselves to be reduced compared with the literary material in the indonesian language subjects of the previous curriculum. the discussion of literary texts is presented more about the content of other subjects in the text, rather than the literary aspects of literary theory. the lack of discussion of the literary aspects of indonesian material makes the students’ understanding of the literary builder’s element low. the learning time of indonesian subjects is seven hours per week should be maximized for the development of students’ literacy skills. in fact, the amount of time is allocated more for language materials. this can be seen in the number of basic competencies of language materials are more than the basic competence of literary materials. meanwhile, literary learning has an important purpose of developing morals, writing skills, speaking, listening, and fostering a reading attitude. through the results of the literary content analysis in the book of students as a mandatory handbook of the 4th grade of 2013 curriculum, it is necessary to develop literature materials by teachers as a supplement to increase the literary knowledge of students who have not been listed in the 2013 curriculum student books. through the discovery of the lack of literary content in the 4th grade in elementary schools, the teaching materials should be developed by teachers to maximize the learning of literature. to maximize the learning of literature, the teachers should do some assignments. in the basic competence to elaborate opinions about the content of fairy tales, the material that should be developed is the discussion of the intrinsic elements of various types of old stories. the types of old stories that need to be discussed are legends, fables, fairy tales, and witty stories. the intrinsic elements that need to be introduced are the theme, character, place, and time of the story, as well as the story itself. furthermore, it can be added to link the story with daily life so that students can practice the moral message of the story. in the basic competence of poetry appreciation, the material that needs to be developed is to distinguish poetry with children’s stories, introducing old poems and new poems, identifying intrinsic elements of poetry, writing poetry, and reading poetry. in the material types of poetry can be epitomized old poetry is pantun so that students can distinguish pantun and new poetry. in writing poetry, the students are directed in the procedure of writing poetry so that students can write poetry intact. in the basic competence of identifying fictional characters, the material that needs to be developed is to identify fictional characters, types of fictional characters, comparisons of characters of fictional texts, and to link character characters in everyday life. through the activities of knowing fictional characters, it is expected to develop the morale of students through exemplary characters in the story. from the discussion, this research focuses on three points. first, the percentage of literary materials in the learning of indonesian’s 4th-grade elementary school is 30%. second, the literary material that is contained in the 4th grade of elementary school students in indonesia is about traditional stories, poetry, and fiction. third, the lack of literary material contained in the student’s book is limited to the ability to answer the questions written in the text so that it needs to be added to the theoretical limitations of literary concepts. in addition, the material presented is less diverse because there is a lot of repetitive material. the difference of this research with previous research is the previous research discusses the development of learning about poetry (aravani, 2012), the benefits of popular children’s stories in learning (wally, lavinger, & grainger, 2005), and the influence of learning models on the ability to appreciate fairy tales (nensilianti, 2012). these three kinds of research focus on the importance of literature for students as well as appropriate strategies for the success of literary learning while this research is focused on the analysis of literary learning materials used in most schools in indonesia. in addition, there are kinds of research on the development of children’s story-writing books (neina, mardikantoro, & supriyanto, 2015). the research produces an enrichment book that can be used in one of the literary learning activities, while this research produces a list of literary learning materials needed in the fourth grade of the elementary school based on student book analysis results. it is also different with research by djuanda (2014) that is limited to the analysis of literary materials on the curriculum, while this research is the more in-depth analysis of student books. conclusions refer to the discussions, it can be concluded that theme 4 about competency to build personal statement toward literature, the learning process is only limited to reading a text to be followed by questions about that text. there is no explanation about the types of literature and its supporting elements. in the material of understanding and reading a poetry that is included in theme 6, there is no explanation on the differences between poetries and process, characteristic of the poetry, and the technique on how to write and read poetry. meanwhile, in theme 8 about the figures and their characteristic, the 2013 curriculum has not set the material to the understanding the figures and their characteristic, differences between fictional and nonfictional text, and the supporting elements of the literature. therefore, there should be a development to the teaching materials for elementary students. this research is still limited to the book for 4th-grade students in content analysis. there has been no survey of literary materials that are needed by elementary school students who are adapted to the times. it is necessary to conduct development research that produces the appropriate literary materials for the 4th-grade students of the primary school. 214 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 209-214 references aravani, e. (2012). the role of teaching poetry in developing literacy in greek primary school: a case study. australasian journal of early childhood, 37(4), 51–58. djuanda, d. (2014). pembelajaran sastra di sd dalam gamitan kurikulum 2013. mimbar sekolah dasar, 1(2), 191–200. irawati, r. p., & purwani, n. (2013). nilai-nilai moralitas dan budaya asing dalam sastra anak terjemahan melalui pemaknaan sastra anak. lingua, 9(1), 46-53. kemendikbud. (2013). kurikulum 2013: kompetensi dasar sd/mi. jakarta: kemendikbud. krippendorf, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: sage publications. neina, q. a., mardikantoro, h. b., & supriyanto, t. (2015). pengembangan buku pengayaan menulis cerita anak bermuatan nilai karakter berdasarkan content and languange integrated learning (clil) untuk siswa sekolah dasar kelas tinggi. seloka jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 4(2), 50–57. https://doi.org/http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/ index.php/seloka/issue/view/885 nensilianti, n. (2012). model pembelajaran pemetaan cerita dalam peningkatan kemampuan mengapresiasi dongeng siswa sekolah dasar. indonesian journal of educational studies, 11(2). papalia, d. e., & feldman, r. d. (2014). experience human development: menyelami perkembangan manusia (12th ed.). jakarta: salemba humanika. prastowo, a. (2012). panduan kreatif membuat bahan ajar inovatif: menciptakan metode pembelajaran yang menarik dan menyenangkan. yogyakarta: diva press. santrock, j. w. (2011). masa perkembangan anak: children. jakarta: humanika, salemba. siswanto, w. (2013). pengantar teori sastra. malang: aditya media publishing. suryaman, m. (2015). analisis hasil belajar peserta didik dalam literasi membaca melalui studi internasional (pirls) 2011. litera, 14(1), 170–186. https://doi. org/10.21831/ltr.v14i1.4416 tomlinson, b. (2011). materials development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. wally, l. m., levinger, n. e., & grainger, d. w. (2005). employing popular children’s literature to teach elementary school chemistry: an engaging outreach program. journal of chemical education, 82(10), 1489-1495. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed082p1489. wulan, n. s. (2014). perkembangan mutakhir pendidikan bahasa indonesia: kurikulum 2013 sekolah dasar. mimbar sekolah dasar, 1(2), 176-184. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 155 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 155-161 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3729 how non-native writers realize their interpersonal meaning? adip arifin english language education department, stkip pgri ponorogo jl. ukel no. 39, kertosari, babadan, ponorogo, indonesia adip83@stkippgriponorogo.ac.id received: 24th july 2017/revised: 04th december 2017/accepted: 28th december 2017 how to cite: arifin., a. (2018). how non-native writers realize their interpersonal meaning? lingua cultura, 12(2), 155-161. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3729 abstract this research was aimed at describing and explaining the interpersonal meaning, types of mood system, and modality found in the thesis abstracts. the method used was descriptive qualitative and specifically designed as discourse analysis. the data were taken from two abstracts, written by undergraduate students, majoring in english language education at different colleges in ponorogo, east java. they were non-native of english. units of analysis were clauses, words, and phrases. the data were analyzed by using interpersonal meaning theory, proposed by halliday. the result of this research reveals that firstly, the interpersonal meaning of the abstracts is realized through wordings of the clauses based on the mood system (subject and finite), while the residue is realized through the element of predicator, complement, and adjunct. secondly, the mood types found are mostly declarative, and only a few of them are interrogative. the declarative form is characterized by order of subject followed by finite, while the interrogative form is characterized by the use of question word, instead of the order of finite and subject. thirdly, in terms of modality, the abstracts dominantly display the use of low degree modality (can, could, may) which signals the writer’s intention to weaken the authority toward the readers. keywords: non-native writers, interpersonal meaning, mood types, modality, abstracts introduction there are many ways of determining functions of languages. one approach is to consider grammar as one of many resources that language has, which helps to communicate (al-mekhlafi & nagaratnam, 2011). another approach is focusing on the functions of grammatical structures and their meanings in the social context. the latter approach of grammatical analysis is called functional; it is systematic functional linguistics, as originally developed by the outstanding british linguist, halliday in the 1960s. therefore, it is important to pay attention on how language makes meanings in spoken or written discourse in terms of grammar and meanings. o’donnell (2011) characterizes that sfl is more closely dealt with sociology that explores how language is used in social contexts to achieve the particular goal. it presents the way of exploring the language deeper. the exploration is not only in the level of language form and its structure, but it goes deeper to the level of meaning and its functions. differs from the former theory of language, called traditional grammar, which discusses a lot on the part of speech, (noun, adjective, verb, and adverb), systemic functional linguistics combines the structures and the organization of meanings. hence, systemic functional linguistics views the language elements (clause) based on its functions. feng and liu (2010) have stated that systemic functional linguistics is a theory of language centered on the notion of function. for instance, in the sentence of “rooney bought a pair of shoes yesterday”, traditionally, the sentence consists of a subject (rooney) as a noun, a verb or predicate (bought), an object (a pair of shoes) that is classified as a noun phrase consisting of two words, and an adverb of time (yesterday). while the systemic functional linguistics views the sentence from the function of each element. “rooney” functions as the participant, doer, or the actor; “bought” functions as a process of doing; “a pair of shoes” functions as a goal, and “yesterday” as a circumstance of time. in short, systemic functional linguistics deals with describing and explaining what language does in the given context. in fact, everyone uses the language to express their feeling or meanings in daily life. it means that they are producing the text every day. widdowson (2007) has defined the text as the actual use of language. the form of language use (text) can be various, such as informal conversation, dialogue, spoken/written text, presentation, speech, and 156 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 155-161 even academic text. in order to create an understandable text, the meanings must be realized well, because it will enable the readers/hearers to catch the meaning easily. moreover, it also avoids them from ambiguous or even misleads information. this aspect is very important to be paid attention by the speaker/writer. discussing the meaning is actually dealing with the discussion of the text. the text is basically made of meanings in order to be communicated, need to be encoded and expressed through a system of graphic, phonic and/or visual signs (miller, 2017). in fact, it is true if every text contains the meaning(s). as sfl (systematic functional linguistics) categorized that the meanings of text can be categorized into three meta-functions; textual, ideational, and interpersonal meaning. the textual meta-function is realized by the thematic structure and patterns of cohesion (wang, 2014). textual meaning deals with theme and rhyme, how the information is structured, what information is put, and why put it there. ideational meaning deals with who initiates what kinds of actions or events, who responds to those actions, and how those actions are carried out. furthermore, kazemian, behnam, and ghafoori (2013) conclude that the ideational function is to convey new information and to communicate a concept that is unknown to the hearer. while interpersonal meaning is realized in the lexicogrammar through selections of mood systems. the mood system is realized through the subject and finite. haratyan (2011) states that interpersonal metafunction concentrates on social roles and relations through formality degree, pronouns, clausal mood (whether declarative, imperative, or interrogative), etc. in addition, nan and liu (2013) have concluded that interpersonal meaning embodies all the use of language to express one’s opinion, influence one’s behavior, and maintain relationships with others. referring to halliday’s work (1994), interpersonal meaning displays the interactivity of the language within a text. interactivity focuses on how language users act upon one another through language, both in spoken or written language. consequently, the text used in communication must be closely related to the speakers and hearers, the writers and the readers. practically, the research of interpersonal meaning is realized through two components; they are mood and residue element of the clause. it allows for the expression of attitudes and evaluations and is realized by mood and modality (bilal, 2012). then, the mood element comprises subject and finite, and/or mood adjunct; while the residue comprises predicator, complement, and some adjuncts, such as mood, polarity, comment, vocative or circumstantial adjunct. furthermore, halliday in nur (2015) claims that the function of interpersonal meaning is to enact humans’ diverse and complex social relations which relate to a text’s aspects of tenor or interactivity. the analysis of interpersonal meaning in a text has been done through many kinds of research. the researchers take various texts as the object, such as speech, song lyric, advertisement, and spoken texts. the previous studies dealing with the analysis of interpersonal meaning have been conducted by some researchers, such as feng and liu (2010), ayoola (2013), and jingxia, na, and qing (2015). feng and liu (2010) have analyzed the interpersonal meaning of obama’s public speech. their research has explored the realization of mood, modal auxiliary, personal pronouns in pronoun system, and tense shift. their findings show that obama makes full use of the language to achieve his political purpose in his speech by using different devices to fulfill interpersonal meaning. ayoola (2013) has studied the interpersonal metafunction of selected political advertisements in some nigerian newspapers. he analyzes eight different political advertisements from different newspapers. his research focuses on finding out “how the politicians use language to express their viewpoints to reflect the political context through advertisement”. the findings show that the interpersonal meaning of a structure does not always correspond with its lexicogrammar analysis as the political advertisers use various mood types to interact, negotiate, establish and maintain good relations with and as well change the behavior of the readers. another previous research is conducted by jingxia, na, and qing (2015). the research investigates the interpersonal meaning within the 50 data, collected from the marriage advertisements. the research has focused on the personal pronouns found in the data and described the interpersonal meaning manifested by personal pronouns. by both quantitative and qualitative research, it shows that personal pronouns are largely used in marriage advertising texts and contributed to the realization of interpersonal meaning. other research on interpersonal meaning has also been conducted by more researchers at present (see i̇lhan, 2016; yuliana & imperiani, 2017). ilhan (2016) has studied on the mathematics teacher’s realization of interpersonal meaning in theory and practice. the result of research reveals that the mathematics teacher realizes the counterproductive social roles and relationships for the knowing/learning to come alive. while yuliana and imperiani (2017) investigate interpersonal meaning in newsletters that are offered by educational institutions (three general and three islamic). the result of the research shows that both institutions use the common features of modality, mood types, and the dominant use of declarative. based on these many kinds of previous research, none of them has studied the interpersonal meaning of academic texts. as known in the education field, the academic text is very important to realize the knowledge of science. the form of academic texts can be various, such as journal article, paper, textbook, and research report, or even an abstract. as a part of the larger research report, the abstract has structure, as text. the abstract is written in short and concise writing which commonly includes some element, such as the aim/objective of the writing, the method, and the result of research. basically, an abstract is only a part of larger work which commonly put at the beginning of a work. by reading the abstract, the readers are expected to be able to scan the information core inside the whole work. the elements of the abstract can be varied depending on the discipline. commonly, a work of social science or scientific work will include the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work, while the work of humanities will cover the thesis, background, and conclusion. the form of abstract is not a review or evaluation of work being abstracted. the abstract usually is completed by the keywords to ease the readers keep the focus on the important point presented in writing. considering the background of the research, the research of interpersonal meaning in the academic text, such as abstract, is necessary to be conducted. that is why, this research is aimed at describing as well as explaining; (1) interpersonal meaning, (2) types of mood system, and (3) types of modality found in the abstracts, written by the undergraduate students. 157how non-native writers realize.... (adip arifin) there are some reasons for choosing the meaning analysis as the topic of the research and necessary to be conducted, firstly, when people use the language, they are actually producing the text. studying the meaning is actually studying the text, whether it is spoken or written. secondly, meanings of text become the core of communication, both in written and spoken form. when people interact each other in communication, they negotiate meaning to the hearers, as well as the readers. thirdly, only a few types of research focus on analyzing the abstract, written by the undergraduate students who are majoring in english language education. therefore, this research is expected to be beneficial particularly for students who are preparing their thesis, english lecturer, and those who are the concern in linguistics study. methods considering the objective of this research and the nature of the problem, this research uses the descriptive qualitative method, which specifically designed as discourse analysis. widdowson (2007) defines discourse analysis as, “the analysis about language (either spoken or written) as the act of communication.” the sources of the data in this study are two abstracts written by the undergraduate students, majoring in english language education, at different colleges in ponorogo, east java. the writers are non-native of english, and both are the native of indonesian language. the two abstracts are taken randomly. units of analysis in this research are words, phrases, and clauses. in order to meet the trustworthiness of data, the researcher asks two english language lecturers from different universities who are expert in discourse analysis to be the proofreaders. the focus of proofreading is mainly on the analysis of the data, starting from classifying the clause, describing and interpreting the findings. the data analysis is based on sfl perspective on interpersonal meaning. the chronological steps of data analysis are dividing the clauses, identifying the mood system (subject and finite), classifying mood types, identifying the degree of modality, and interpretations. after analyzing the interpersonal meaning, mood types, and the degree of modality, the next step is interpreting the findings. for instance, if the mood system is realized through the order of subject and followed by finite, then the mood types is called declarative. it is the mood of the statement, and so gives information (adejare, 2013). besides that, if the clause consists of the modality, then the researcher also analyzes its degree; consisting of low, middle, and high. results and discussions the findings of this analysis are divided into three major parts; they are interpersonal meaning, the types of mood system, and the types of modality. based on the analysis, the findings reveal that each abstract consists of mood and residue element. the mood element is realized through the use of subject and finite, while the residue element is realized through predicator, complement, and adjunct. the analysis of interpersonal meaning is based on the clause that is why; the researcher classifies the abstracts based on its clauses rather than sentences. the researcher classifies the abstracts into 20 and 27 clauses. so, totally, there are 47 clauses in the data. in terms of mood system to realize the interpersonal meaning, 21 clauses use “to be” (is, was, are, were) as the finite, 7 clauses use modal as the finite, and 19 clauses use the main verb as the finite. in case of the residue element, which covers predicator, complement, and adjunct, less than a half of the whole data use predicator, exactly only 22 clauses, while the rest do not. then, there are 38 clauses which use complement, and only 9 clauses do not use the complement. in case of adjunct, the researcher finds 28 clauses which use it, and 19 clauses do not. after analyzing the interpersonal meaning, the next step to analyze the data is identifying the types of mood system; consisting of declarative, imperative, and interrogative. the types of mood are characterized by order of subject and finite in the clause. if the subject followed by finite (subject + finite), the mood is declarative; if the finite followed by the subject (finite + subject), the mood is interrogative; and if the order of mood is finite only (without the subject), the mood is imperative. based on the findings, the researcher finds out that the first and second abstract dominantly use the declarative form to realize the mood system. in the first abstract, the 20 clauses are in the form of declarative at all. within the second abstract, the researcher finds out that most of the clauses use declarative form, exactly 23 out of 27 clauses. it is equal to 85%. besides using the declarative form, the second abstract also uses the interrogative form to realize the mood system. even though the researcher only finds out 4 out of 27 clauses, but it gives the variation in realizing mood system. from the whole data of mood types, the imperative form is not used at all. the detail of mood types can be seen in table 1. table 1 the findings of mood types object declarative interrogative imperative abstract 1 20 0 0 100% 0% 0% abstract 2 23 4 0 85% 15% 0% based on the findings as presented earlier, the interpersonal meanings which found in two abstracts consist of mood and residue element. specifically, the mood system is realized through the subject and finite, the residue is realized through the use of predicator, complement, and adjunct. in this case, the subject and complement are typically realized by the nominal groups, the finite is realized by to be (is, was, are, were), the predicator is realized by the verbal group, while the adjunct is realized by an adverbial group or prepositional phrase. by analyzing the realization, then the mood types can be determined, whether in the form of declarative, interrogative, or imperative. as known, in systemic functional linguistics, the different order of subject and finite will represent the different speech functions. in sfl, speech functions which expressed by the language users are divided into three, declarative, interrogative, and imperative. in one hand, if the speaker/ writer intends to give information, then the form of speech function chosen is declarative. if the speaker/writer intends to demand the information, the appropriate form of mood type is interrogative. on the other hand, if the speaker/ writer intends to give an order or command, the appropriate 158 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 155-161 form of mood type is imperative. the use of three different speech functions is realized through what is so called as the mood system. in case of mood types, the researcher finds only two types of mood used, they are declarative and interrogative, and none of them use imperative. the use of the declarative form is due to the function of the abstract; that is to inform the reader about the essence of research report instead of demand information. the use of declarative form signals that the writer informs the readers about his/her works in short writing. besides the use of declarative, the researcher also finds the interrogative forms in the second abstract. in this case, the interrogative forms are used to explicitly state the research questions by using the question words (how, which) and do not realize the information demand. the detail of interpersonal meaning in the first abstract can be seen in table 2. table 2 the detail of interpersonal meaning in the first abstract through the mood and residue element song is the product of art. song is the product of art. subject finite complement mood residue the interpersonal meaning of the datum is realized through the mood and residue element. in this case, the word ‘song’ is functioned as the subject, ‘is’ has functioned as the finite, while ‘the product of art’ is the residue, which is functioned as the complement. the datum in table 2 displays how the abstract writer intends to make sure that the ‘song’ is undeniable as ‘the product of art’. the use of finite ‘is’ indicates the general truth of the statement. in case of mood types, the clause uses the declarative form because the order of mood element is subject and then followed by finite. the declarative form means to state the information or statement. table 3 the detail of interpersonal meaning that used the modal as the finite every song lyric could be analyzed by the macrostructure aspect. every song lyric could be analyzed by the macrostructure aspect subject finite predicator adjunct mood residue differ from the previous datum; the realization of meaning in table 3 uses the modal as the finite, but it is still realized through the structure of mood and residue. in detail, the subject of the clause is represented by ‘every song lyric’ and the finite used is ‘could’. the subject is the nominal group, while the finite belongs to modality. besides that, the clause uses predicator and adjunct as the residue. in this case, the predicator is ‘be analyzed’ and the adjunct is ‘by the macrostructure aspect’. the datum in table 3 displays how the abstract writer intends for not making sure that the ‘every song lyric’ is still debatable which ‘could be analyzed by the macrostructure aspect’. the use of finite ‘could’ indicates that actually there is another way of analyzing it, besides the use of ‘macrostructure aspect’ as the tool of song lyric analysis. in case of mood types, the clause uses declarative form, due to the order of subject and followed by finite. table 4 the detail of interpersonal meaning through the mood and residue element which e.s.a’s procedures is the most effective on students understanding of english? which e.s.a’s procedures is the most effective on students understanding of english? subject finite complement adjunct mood residue the interpersonal meaning of the datum in table 4 is realized through the mood and residue element. in this case, the words ‘e.s.a’s procedures’ are functioned as the subject, ‘is’ has functioned as the finite, ‘the most effective’ is the complement, and ‘on students understanding of english’ is functioned as the circumstantial adjunct. looking at to the order of subject and finite, the mood type is declarative, but because the clause is initiated by the question word ‘which’ the mood types of the datum in table 4 is interrogative. table 5 the example of interpersonal meaning through the mood and residue element this research had been done at sman 1 dolopo in april 2016. this research had been done at sman 1 dolopo in april 2016 subject finite predicator adjunct mood residue the interpersonal meaning of the datum in table 5 has realized through the mood and residue element. in this case, the words ‘this research’ are functioned as the subject, ‘had’ is functioned as the finite, ‘been done’ is the predicator, and ‘at sman 1 dolopo in april 2016’ has functioned as the circumstantial adjunct, which explains the place and the time. the datum in table 5 also displays how the script abstract writer intends to make sure that ‘this research’ is undeniable been done at ‘sman 1 dolopo in april 2016’. because the clause uses finite ‘had’, it means that the event is ‘no longer happen’, and has done in the past. looking at to the order of subject and finite, the mood types is declarative. table 6 the example of interpersonal meaning through mood and residue element they will be easier to absorb and gain the knowledge. they will be easier to absorb and gain the knowledge subject finite predicator complement mood residue 159how non-native writers realize.... (adip arifin) the interpersonal meaning of the datum in table 6 is realized through the mood and residue element. in this case, the personal pronoun ‘they’ is functioned as the subject, ‘will’ is functioned as the finite, which indicates the futurity. that datum also displays how the script abstract writer uses the modality to complete the realization of mood. besides that, the residue of the clause is realized through predicator ‘be’ and complement ‘easier to absorb and gain the knowledge’. looking at to the order of subject and finite, the type of mood is declarative. in case of modality, the types are divided into three categories. they are low, middle, and high modality. the low degree of modality comprises of ‘can’, ‘may’, ‘could’, and ‘might’. the middle degree of modality covers ‘will’, ‘would’, ‘shall’, ‘should’, ‘is to’, and ‘was to’. while the high degree of modality includes ‘must’, ‘ought to’, ‘have/has to’, and ‘had to’. based on the findings, a few numbers of modality are used. exactly, there are only three modalities used in the first abstract and four modalities are used in the second abstract. in case of degree, most of the modalities used (could, can, may) are classified into the low level and only one modality which belonged to the middle level (will). the detail can be seen in table 7. table 7 the findings of modality object degree of modality low middle high abstract 1 could, can abstract 2 can, can, may will the different degrees of modality, such as low, middle, and high, signal the different kinds of interpersonal relationship between the writer and reader or between the speaker and the hearer. for example, the use of expressions related to a low degree of modality influences the strength of a claim and thus can indicate the lower degree of authoritativeness or expertise assumed by the writer. the high level of modality signals the high degree of authoritativeness between the writer and reader or between the speaker and the hearer. modality plays an important role in carrying out the interpersonal meaning of clauses. it shows in what degree the proposition is. basically, modality refers to the space between ‘yes’ and ‘no’, between ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ signal the speaker/writer’s judgments of the probabilities or the obligations involved in what she/he says. the followings are the examples of analysis on the degree of modality in the abstracts. “every song lyric could be analyzed by the macrostructure aspect.” the use of ‘could’ indicates the low level of modality which seen as the lowest degree of pressure. it signals the possibility of using ‘macrostructure aspect’ as the tool of analysis, instead of ‘a must’ to use it. regarding the use of modality, the writer intends to weaken the authority of the readers. as a result, the distance between the writer and the reader is shortened. on the other hand, the semantic meaning of ‘could’ is had the ability to do something. “in order to the situation, mrs. rindang wahyu wijayanti, m.pd., as an english teacher, may select the best method in her teaching like e. s. a. (engange, study, activate) method”. in the example above, it will not discuss the grammatical mistake found in the above clause but focus on the use of modality. the use of ‘may’ signals the low degree of modality. it also used to weaken the writer’s authority toward the readers. the semantic function of ‘may’ is used to express the possibility. “they will be easier to absorb and gain the knowledge.” the use of modality ‘will’ signals the strong wish and determination. it can also be used as the modal verbal operator. the different degree of modalities indicates how strong the speaker/writer’s intention. in this case, ‘will’ belongs to the middle degree of modality. meanwhile, the medium degree of modality commitment of ‘will’ further confirms that more actions will be taken in the future. conclusions considering the findings and discussion, it can be concluded that; firstly, the interpersonal meaning of abstracts, written by the undergraduate students, is realized in the wordings of the clauses based on the mood system (subject and finite), while residue is realized through the element of predicator, complement, and adjunct. secondly, the mood types found are mostly declarative, and only a few of them are interrogative. it is due to the characteristic of the abstract which functioned for giving information, instead of demanding information or asking the reader to do something. the declarative form is characterized by order of subject followed by finite, while the interrogative is characterized by the use of question word, instead of the order of finite and subject. thirdly, in terms of modality, the abstracts dominantly display the use of low degree modality (can, could, may) which signals the writer’s intention to weaken the authority towards the readers. considering the focus of the research and its limitation, other kinds of research on the similar object can be done in order to enrich the result of research. thus, the research on textual and ideational meaning are highly possible to do so. acknowledgement this work would not been possible to be finished without the support of my colleagues. my sincere thanks go to mrs. sri wuli fitriati, ph. d. (state university of semarang) for her professional guidance and support. i felt blessed to have her as my lecturer. she has guided me how to write the good article. my thanks also go to amalia rahmawati, m.pd. (stikes muhammadiyah kudus) and dina novita wijayanti, m.pd. (muria university of kudus) for their assistance in analyzing the data. references adejare, r. a. (2013). the manifestation of mood and modality in texts. international journal on studies in english language and literature, 1(3), 24–34. retrieved from www.arcjournals.org. 160 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 155-161 al-mekhlafi, a. m., & nagaratnam, r. p. (2011). difficulties in teaching and learning grammar in an efl context. international journal of instruction, 4(2), 69-92. ayoola, m. o. (2013). an interpersonal metafunction analysis of some selected political advertisements in some nigerian newspapers. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(8), 165-178. bilal, h. a. 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(adip arifin) appendix abstract 1 a critical discourse analysis of the songs in gypsy heart album by colbie caillat song is the product of art that has been widely used to be analyzed. it is caused that the song has an important role in society, whether to express an idea, share information, entertain, motivate or persuade people’s thought. this research is aimed at analyzing the critical aspects of five songs’ lyric in the gypsy heart album by colbie caillat. this research used qualitative approach that was specifically designed as critical discourse analysis by van dijk. the data were collected through observation and documentation. the technique of analyzing data was philip mayring technique, which consisted of selection, sample, analysis of the context or background information, and transcription. the results of this research were as follows: (1) every song lyric could be analyzed by the macrostructure aspect that showed its general meaning; through the macrostructure aspect, the song writer intention was easy to be caught; (2) the superstructure aspect of the song lyric determined the part of idea and message in a song; (3) the microstructure aspect specifically described the song by determining the semantic, syntax, stylistic, and rhetoric aspects. so, it can be concluded that first, every song lyric has a specific traits. the trait can be in the form of structure, scheme, and way of delivering message. second, the critical aspects need to be comprehended to get the idea of song as well as the song writer intention. keywords: critical aspect, critical discourse analysis, song lyric abstract 2 the implementation of esa (engange, study, activate) in teaching english at the tenth grade of sman 1 dolopo madiun education is the process of any activities which can give the big effects in changing the mind of someone that can be formed from any situations and any levels. then, education always related with the teaching process in the school where communication between teacher and students happens. in order to the situation, mrs. rindang wahyu wijayanti, m.pd., as an english teacher, may select the best method in her teaching like e. s. a. (engage, study, activate) method. the statement problems of this research are such as 1) how is the implementation of e.s.a in english teaching at the tenth grade of sman 1 dolopo madiun in academic year 2015/2016?., 2) which e. s. a’s procedures is the most effective on students understanding of english?, 3) how are the students perception on the implementation of e. s. a. toward their understanding? furthermore, the objectives of this study are to describe the implementation of e. s. a. (engage, study, activate) in teaching english at the tenth grade of sman 1 dolopo and to know the most effective e. s. a’s procedures. moreover, it needs to know the students perception on this implementation. this research had been done at sman1 dolopo in april 2016. in this research, the researcher used case study qualitative method to explain the implementation of e.s.a. in teaching english at tenth grade students. the researcher used observation, interview, and documentation to collect the data. observation was applied to observe the implementation of e.s.a. and students’ condition in the class. interview was used to collect the data from the english teacher and students. documentation was applied to support the data that had been collected from the observation and interview. in order to analyze the data, the researcher used data reduction, data display, conclusion, and verification. the result of this research can be summarized below: 1) the implementation of e.s.a. in teaching english at the tenth grade students of sman 1 dolopo is divided into three procedures which is appropriate in any topic of english. 2) the most effective of e.s.a’s procedure on students understanding of english is patchwork. 3) the students’ perception on the implementation of e.s.a. toward their understanding are varies. if the students have good perception in english and teacher’s way to present the lesson, they will be easier to absorb and gain the knowledge. keywords: engage, study, activate and teaching english microsoft word 10_anna seo_setting   108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 108-116 徐光启的天教补儒思想 xu guangqi’s thought on supplementing confucianism with christianity 徐真瑛 anna seo phd candidat, peking university 摘要 明末传教士来华之后,在接受并推广基督教信仰的少数中国士大夫中,徐光启是最具有影响力的人 之一。徐光启提出了天主教“补儒易佛”思想,对以后基督教在中国的传播有深厚的影响。但是有的学 者认为他的思想不是纯粹的基督教思想,而是儒家思想和天主教的一个大杂烩;有的学者认为徐光启的 神学缺乏基督论;还有的学者认为徐光启的天教补儒思想是以儒家为最高价值的,他的最终目的是实现 儒家的政治理想。本文主要通过分析徐光启和传教士们的著作,探讨徐光启对天主教的理解与实践,来 考察他是如何将天主教与儒家思想结合起来的。本研究发现,基督论是徐光启的天主观念的核心;徐光 启对儒学的看法已经不完全是中国传统的看法,而是通过天主教重新诠释的。在徐光启看来,儒家的最 高价值就是敬畏上帝,与天主教的最高价值一致。徐光启从事科学也是以归诚上帝为终极目的。徐光启 以天主教为框架,系统地将天主教、儒家思想与科学结合起来,建立了以敬畏天主为最高价值的天教补 儒思想。    关键词:徐光启,天主教,儒家思想 abstract xu guangqi is one of the most influential chinese scholars who accepted christian faith during the late ming dynasty. his idea of “supplementing confucianism and replacing buddhism by christianity” had great impact on the development of christianity in china. his idea, however, has often been accused of syncretism, and genuineness of his christian faith has been put into question. some argue that his theology lacks christology. others suggest that his ultimate goal was to achieve the confucian political ideals through adopting some of the christian moral teachings. through the analysis of xu guangqi’ works and life, we find that he accepted all the essential christian doctrines and christology is the core of his understanding of “tianzhu”. his view on confucianism itself is transformed through christian perspective. in his new understanding, the ultimate goal of confucianism is to serve and to worship “tianzhu”,same as christianity. the ultimate problem of life is to save one’s soul.xu guangqi considered his scientific works as a way to propagate christian faith, since science was seen as an integral part of christian thought and practice. his idea of “supplementing confucianism by christianity” integrated confucianism into the overarching framework of christian thought. keywords:xu guangqi, christianity, confucianism   xu guangqi’s thought ….. (anna seo) 109 内容 明末传教士来华之后,在接受并推广基督教信仰的少数中国士大夫中,徐光启是最具有影 响力的人之一。徐光启提出了天主教“补儒易佛”思想,对以后基督教在中国的传播有深厚的 影响。但是有的学者认为他的思想不是纯粹的基督教思想,而是儒家思想和天主教的一个大杂 烩;有的学者认为徐光启的神学缺乏基督论;还有的学者认为徐光启的天教补儒思想是以儒家 为最高价值的,他的最终目的是实现儒家的政治理想。 本文主要通过分析徐光启和传教士们的著作,探讨徐光启对天主教的理解与实践,来考察 他是如何将天主教与儒家思想结合起来的。 本研究发现,基督论是徐光启的天主观念的核心;徐光启对儒学的看法已经不完全是中国 传统的看法,而是通过天主教重新诠释的。在徐光启看来,儒家的最高价值就是敬畏上帝,与 天主教的最高价值一致。徐光启从事科学也是以归诚上帝为终极目的。徐光启以天主教为框架, 系统地将天主教、儒家思想与科学结合起来,建立了以敬畏天主为最高价值的天教补儒思想。  关键词:徐光启,天主教,儒家思想 徐光启(1562—1633), 字子先,上海人。万历三十一年(1603)受洗成为天主教徒,时年四 十二岁,圣名为保禄(paulus),次年成进士,累官至太子太保、礼部尚书兼文渊阁大学士, 谥文定。徐光启是中国历史上一位极为独特的思想家、科学家和政治家。 明末传教士来华之后, 在真正地接受并且推广基督教信仰和西方科学理论的少数中国士大夫中,徐光启是最具有影响 力的人物之一,被称为“中西会通第一人”。 徐光启在利玛窦的天教合儒之说的基础上,提出了以天主教“补儒易佛”的主张。 徐光启 将从西方接受来的宗教信仰和科学知识,与中国已有的思想传统结合起来,并运用于修身、 齐 家、治国等方面,成为一位具有开创性的儒家天主教徒。 但是关于徐光启的评价随着时代的演变在不断发生变化,对他的“天教补儒”主张也有不 同的解释,甚至他的基督徒身份也从不同的角度被怀疑。《明史》本传 1 、阮元的《畸人传》 2 都 关注他在科学上的成就,而完全忽略他的宗教思想和宗教活动。1906 年黄节撰写的《徐光启传》, 涉及到他的宗教活动,但他认为徐光启“盖阳尊其教而阴取象数之学,以为己用”,“从事西 学,思窥其象数之学以救汉宋以来空言论学之失” 3。 法国著名汉学者谢和耐(jacques gernet)也怀疑徐光启信仰的纯粹性。谢和耐认为中西 方在思维方式、世界观、道德观、语言上存在着不可跨越的间隔,中国人无法理解、接受三位 一体、道成肉身、耶稣受难等基督教的核心教义。 4 尤其是中国人对基督受难的反应,大部分 是无法理解,完全排斥,少数信徒也并没有接受基督论。他说:“十七世纪的中国基督徒,在 他们的著作中从来没有提及耶稣,而只是对上帝表示尊敬。” 5 所以中国信徒的信仰不是纯粹 的基督教信仰。徐光启的信仰也是儒家和基督教的一个大杂烩。 6 孙尚扬和钟鸣旦,对此提出批评,指出徐光启认为儒家思想有局限,必需要天主教的补充; 并且他认为灵魂的拯救是人的终极问题。柯毅霖神父(fr. criveller gianni) 的《明末基督论》, 证明了徐光启接受了基督论。 7 许理和认为中国基督徒的著作以天主为中心,然而对耶稣人格即其与他有关的奥秘,特别   110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 108-116 是对天主降生成人却不甚在意,他们的作品中缺乏基督论,用“天主主义”这一词概括中国信 徒神学的特点。钟鸣旦反驳了这种错误观念。但是钟鸣旦和柯毅霖认为因为中国人更容易接受 天主观念,而非基督观念,并且由于用语的争论也集中在天主观念上,因此信徒的作品中有关 天主的论题更多。 8 最近,李春勇与陈卫平撰写的《徐光启评传》肯定徐光启的信仰是真诚的。 但是,还认为 徐光启“没有放弃以儒学为最高价值的传统”。 9 韩国学者金尚根(sangkeun kim)也主张徐 光启只是被西方科学和基督教的补儒易佛思想上的价值所吸引,他仍然是一位儒家。 10 本文主要通过探讨徐光启对天主教的理解与实践,来更全面地考察他是否接受创造万物、 三位一体、道成肉身、受难救赎等核心教理。徐光启的神学是否缺乏基督论?他是如何将天主 教与儒家思想结合起来的?徐光启的最终目的是否是为了实现儒家的理想? 徐光启所持的“补 儒易佛”主张是否以儒家思想为最高价值,在儒家的框架内接受天主教?他的思想是否是一个 “大杂烩”? 徐光启对基督教理的理解 徐光启是否接受创造论、三位一体、道成肉身、耶稣受难等核心教义?徐光启的神学是否 缺乏基督论?通过以下几方面,我们将对徐光启信仰的核心进行探讨。 第一,徐光启在《景教堂碑记》云,“天地万物皆创矣”(页 531),陈明他接受了天主创造 万物的教义。 第二,徐光启第一次接触天主教,就是通过耶稣基督像。徐光启在《跋<二十五言>》记载 自己入教的经历,从瞻仰耶稣基督像说起:“昔游岑嵩,则尝瞻仰天主像设,盖从欧罗巴海舶 来也”(页 87)。“天主像设”指的就是耶稣基督的像。徐光启通过耶稣像一开始接触“道成 肉身”这一教理。 在徐光启看来中国人认识天主也就是通过耶稣基督像。这说明天主像对他的印象非常深刻。 在 1632 年写的《景教堂碑记》中,徐光启说: 我中国之知有天主也,自利子玛窦之来宾始也。其以像设经典入献大廷,赐食大官,与 士大夫交酬问答,因而传播其书,兴起有众也。自万历庚子利子在入都门始也。其荘严 祠宇,崇奉圣像,使闻风企踵者瞻仰依归也,自万历辛亥利子之赐茔授室始也(页 531)。 第三,据传教士柏应理(philippe couplet,1623-1693,撰的《徐光启行略》和利玛窦的《利 玛窦中国传教史》对徐光启入教过程的叙述,传教士给他讲解三位一体和道成肉身等一切核心 教义,并且给他《天主实义》和《天主教要》等书,徐光启读完后,衷心悦服,决心入教。《徐 光启行略》描述徐光启入教的过程: 庚子,再入南都,知利玛窦来自太西传天主正教,因往候,略闻其旨。归来得一梦,见一圆堂 中,设有三台:一有像,二无像,既醒,不识何解,大以为异。癸卯,又至南都,访利先生。 时利子已往都门,明坚罗先生出接,即引瞻拜天主像。罗子谓天主三位一体,兹则第二位降生 为人之像。公忽忆前梦,始惊疑,以告罗子,亦受天主默启,因具讲圣教之理。公听之至暮无 倦志;更访其旨,罗子因以利子所译《实义》及《教要》诸书送阅。公持归邸舍,彻夜不寐,   xu guangqi’s thought ….. (anna seo) 111 读之欣喜无已。遂曰:我平生善疑,至此而无可疑;平生好辨,至此而无可辨;即立志愿受教。 待旦复入堂求教…… 《天主实义》主要讲创造论,但最后也讲天主降生、童女诞生、复活升天。《天主教要》 包括《天主经》、《天神朝拜圣母经》、《信经》、《十诫》、《四规》、《悔罪规文》等。 《天主经》是耶稣教弟子们的祷告文,《天神朝拜圣母经》的内容是天神来告知圣母她将要通 过圣灵怀孕生子。《信经》的主要内容为三位一体和基督的降生受难复活升天: 我信全能者天主罷德勒,化成天地。我信其惟一费略,耶稣契利斯督,我等主。我信其因 斯 彼利多三多,降孕,生於玛利亚之童身。我信其受难於般雀比剌多居官時,被釘十字架,死而 乃痊,我信其降地獄,第三日自死者中復生。我信其升天,於全能者天主巴德勒之右坐。我信 其日后从彼而来审判生死者。我信 斯彼利多三多。我信有圣而公厄格勒西亚圣神相通功。我信 罪之赦。我信肉身之复生。我信常生。亚孟。 利玛窦(matteo ricci, 1552-1610)的《中国传教史》也记载此事,徐光启整夜研读《天 主教要》和《天主实义》,并且《天主教要》里的祷告经文都背下来了(卷下,页 409)。徐 光启在《跋<二十五言>》说:“启生平善疑,至是,若披云然了无可疑;时亦能作解,至是, 若游溟然,了亡可解;乃始服膺请事焉”(页 87)。由此可知,徐光启确实接触而接受了三位 一体、道成肉身的教理。 第四,传教士们傅洗并不简单随意,他们对愿意入教者总要进行严格的考核,以确认他们 理解并相信天主教教义,有意成为真正的基督徒。1605 年在至函罗马耶稣会士卢多维科•马塞 利(ludouvico maselli)神父的书信中利玛窦写道:“长期以来,我恪守的宗旨就是宁缺勿滥。 我们对这些教友进行了十分严格的考核,给他们打下了十分扎实的要理基础”(《利玛窦中国 书礼》,页 166)。 1608 年至耶稣会士吉罗拉莫 科斯塔(girolamo costa)神父的信中又写道:“目前的教 友已经有两千多人了。数量的确不多,因为,在这些大城市,我们的宗旨是少而精。如果数量 很多,却并不符合基督信徒之名,宁可没有”(《利玛窦中国书礼》,页 169)。 第五,在南京教难时,反教人士猛烈攻击基督论,徐光启明确表明自己相信其道理。南京 礼部拿获王丰肃等 13 名信徒后写的安民告示《拿获邪党后告示》列出天教之非,其中说:“乃 彼夷自刻《天主教解要略》,明言天主生于汉哀帝某年,其名曰耶稣,其母亚利玛,是西洋一 胡耳。又曰被恶官将十字枷钉死,是胡之以罪死者耳。焉有罪胡而可名天主者乎?” 11 徐光启 针对此写《辨学章疏》,勇敢地承认自己就是基督徒,并且帮助其传播:“臣尝与诸陪臣讲究 道理,书多刊刻。则信向之者臣也。”如果西士有罪,他愿意与他们同受惩罚。 12 他辩护天主 教说,“盖所言天主生育拯救之恩,赏善罚恶之理,明白真切”。 13 其中“拯救之恩”指的是 耶稣基督为世人赎罪而拯救灵魂之恩惠。 在他对天主教的理解中,耶稣基督的拯救灵魂的恩惠 与创造万物、主宰赏罚一起具有核心地位。 第六,徐光启表明他接受了传教士们所传的,与中国传统里的上帝非常不一样的天主。传 教士龙华民反对利玛窦的合儒传教方法,为了坚守天主教的纯粹性,他强调中国的上帝和天主 教的天主的区别。他对中国基督徒进行了调查,并在其中记载了与徐光启的对话:“(徐光启)   112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 108-116 认为上帝不可能是我们的天主,古今文人均对天主一无所知。他相信古今中国人都不知道天主 是什么。但既然神父们出于善意称天主为上帝,那么中士就不得反对。而且由于这个称号是相 称的,他断定我们将归于天主的特性归于上帝是好的而且必要的。” 14 他所接受的天主是创造 万物的、降临到世界的、在十字架上死而复活的、拯救灵魂的、 三位一体的,所以他说古今文 人对天主一无所知。他的意图也许在于表明自己信仰的纯粹性。他所说的天教补儒,最大的一 点意义可能是对中国人天主观有补充。 最后,在徐光启为艾儒略的《天主降生言行记略》写的《大讚诗》中描述了他信仰的核心。 柯毅霖指出,此首诗证明徐光启“清楚地把握了基督教的本质”。 15 并且他用诗经的格式和语 言来赞扬天主,准确,典雅地陈述了基督教教义和基督徒的生活,在形式和内容上,非常好地 结合了天主教和儒家思想。《大赞诗》全文如下: 维皇大哉,万汇原本;巍巍尊高,造厥胚浑。 抟捖众有,以资人灵;无然方命,忝尔所生。 蠢蠢黔首,云何不淑?曾是群諐,上墋下黩。 帝曰悯斯,降于人间;津梁耳目,卅有三年。 普拯横流,诞彰神奇;舍尔灵躯,请命作仪。 粤有圣宗,十又二子;述宣宏化,以迨亿祀。 如日之升,逾远而光。千六百载,达于兹方。 兹方云何?膺受多祐。正教西来,大眷东顾。 凡我人斯,仰瞻辽廓。敢曰无主,敢曰不若? 大文无雕,经涂无诡。秉心三德,守诫二五。 若罔不升,违罔不坠。勖矣前修,无作后悔。 后悔则那,亟其改旃。鉴尔一息,贳尔百年。 如山匪嵬,如海匪渊。矢志崇闳,以隆德馨。 根据以上分析,笔者认为,徐光启的信仰与其说是天主教与儒家的大杂烩,不如说更接近 纯粹的天主教的教理。 天教补儒 李春勇、陈卫平虽然肯定徐光启是虔诚的基督徒,但是他们主张徐光启“没有放弃以儒学 为最高价值的传统” ,他的最终目的是借助天主教伦理思想,实现治国平天下的儒家理想。下 面,我们将通过研究徐光启如何看待基督教思想和儒家思想的关系,探讨“天教补儒”思想的 内涵。 第一,应当指出,徐光启对儒学的看法已经不完全是中国传统的看法,而是通过天主教重 新诠释的。在徐光启看来,儒家的最高价值就是敬畏上帝,与天主教的最高价值一致。他在概 括天主教时,用儒家的词语说,“其说以昭事上帝为宗本”,“大者修身事天”,“其大者以归 诚上帝,乾乾昭事为宗, 朝夕瞬息,亡一念不在此” 16 ,他所说的上帝和天就是天主,主张天 主教和儒家的终极目的,最高价值是一致的。 第二,徐光启所说的“天教补儒”与其说是以儒为最高体系的,不如说是承认儒家思想的 不足,以及强调以天教补充儒教的必要。徐光启认为儒家的理想通过儒家思想不能达到,但是 如果奉行天主教,儒家的理想也可以实现。 17 徐光启在《辨学章疏》说:   xu guangqi’s thought ….. (anna seo) 113 臣常论古来帝王之赏罚、圣贤之是非,皆范人于善、禁人于恶,至详极备。然赏罚是非, 能及人之外行,不能及人之中情。又如司马迁所云:颜因之夭,盗跖之寿,使人疑于善恶 之无报,是以防范愈严,欺诈愈甚。一法立,百弊生。空有愿治之心,恨无必治之术…… 必欲使人尽为善,则诸陪臣所传事天之学,真可以补益王化,左右儒术, 救正佛法者也。 虽然儒家思想极为重视道德伦理,但儒家极为详细的规范也不能从根本上改变人的性情。徐光 启认为对天主的爱信与畏惧能够改变人的性情,使人尽为善。他认为天主教的教理是“天理人 情之至”,可以补充儒家思想的不足之处和其最终的困难。 徐光启强调天主教道德体系之所以切实可行是由于其对天主的信仰。他的道德伦理观是一 个整体的一部分,与天主观互相有机结合,不可分离。徐光启的叙述非常清楚地概括了天主教 与其伦理观的关系。“(天主教的)一切戒训规条,悉皆天理人情之至。其法能令人为善必真、 去恶必尽。盖所言天主生育拯救之恩,赏善罚恶之理,明白真切,足以耸动人心,使其爱信畏 惧,发于由衷故也。” 18 第三,徐光启非常系统地区分大者与小者,其终极目的与手段,宗教、伦理与科学的关系, 并且非常清楚地表明他从事翻译科学、数学书的目的是为了传播天主教。他在《辨学章疏》说: “顾惟先生(利玛窦)之学,略有三种:大者修身事天;小者格物穷理;物理之一端,别 为象数”。一一皆精实典要,洞无可疑。其分解擘析,亦能使人无疑。而余乃亟傅其小者, 趋欲先其易信,使人绎其文,想见其意理,而知先生之学可信不疑,大概如是,则是书 之为用更大矣。” 由此可知,徐光启从事科学、数学的目的,就是为了使人知道天主教可信无 疑。(孙尚扬,1994,页 171) 然而,谢和耐认为科学技术与天主教没有任何关系,徐光启的思想是儒家思想、科学与天主 教之间一个缺乏系统的结合。 这里不像传教士们想象和认为的那样,指在纯世俗理论与宣扬超越一切真谛的宗教之间 进行角色的分配,而是指在儒教那不太明确的世俗和宗教体系与传教士们的伦理、宗教 和科学之间的结合。徐光启的这种看法不是也载于一部有关水法著作的序中了吗?而水 法则是一个没有任何基督教特征的学科。(gernet, p. 49)   事实上,不同于谢和耐的观点,在天主教看来世界都是在天主里统一的。耶稣会从建立伊 始,就参与了各种各样的学术活动,包括教学、研究和著述。“在所有事物上找到上帝”是推 动他们研究的动机。在他们看来,上帝创造了宇宙万物,因而万物都隐藏着他的智慧、知识和 他对人的慈爱。科学研究是理解上帝,与上帝沟通的一条路径。于是,他们将研究领域从与教 会有关的学科(像哲学和神学)推广到所谓“世俗”或者“日常”的学科,很多修道士在经院 里研究科学。他们研究的领域包括神学、论理、辨学、科学、技术、政治等,这些形成了一个 完整的学术体系。与谢和耐的观念相反,天主教是一个包括世俗和科学的体系。 儒家思想也具有同样完整的体系,包括形而上与形而下,徐光启用儒家的术语概括西学为: “大者修身事天,小者格物穷理”。徐光启在《几何原本杂议》说,几何学的益处在于“能令 学理者祛其浮气,练其精心”。在徐光启看来,格物与修身有密切的关系,儒家格物的目的是 修身治国平天下,修身的终极目的是事天,他们都把学问与道德相结合,赋予科学研究以宗教 或者道德目的,这是天主教与儒家思想的一个非常重要的共同点。 儒家与天主教观念都不同与 谢和耐所代表的将宗教、世俗、伦理与科学等各个学问都分离的观点。从天主教与儒家思想的 角度看,宗教、伦理与科学等学问互相不可分离。这就是天教补儒的一个非常重要的基础。   114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 108-116 第四,徐光启在面对人生中最严肃的时刻,仍能以天主教为最高价值为指导。徐光启认为 人的终极问题不是现世的治国平天下,而是灵魂的拯救。据利玛窦《畸人十篇》,利玛窦讲死后 的审判,徐光启回应,“实人生最急事,吾闻百惊怖其言焉”,“此皆忠厚语,果大补于世教也。 今而后,吾知所为备于死候。世俗之备于死也,特求坚厚棺椁、卜吉宅兆耳,孰论身后天台下 严审乎?”(页 207,213)由此可见徐光启确实相信死后天主审判,认为备于死侯是“人生最 急事”,这也解释了他为何劝家人与很多朋友入教。 方豪(2007) 在《中国天主教人物传》说,“光启受洗后第一件事,便是想邀请神父到上海 家乡开教,并设法让全家人都信教” 19 。1606 年,徐光启的父亲徐思诚 20 与独子徐骥也受洗成为 天主教徒。他的妻子、岳父、孙子、孙女也都受洗了 21 。1608 年,徐光启请利玛窦派一名神父 到上海指导,利玛窦就派了郭居静前往。在不到两年的时间里,上海的天主教徒已经有二百多 人,主要归功于徐光启的热情 22 。根据徐宗泽的研究,李天经“与徐文定公善,听其劝而入教”。 金声也“与徐光启善”而“领洗入教” 23 。 徐光启在他的岳父重病临死的时候写的一封家书中,提到:“外公一病遂不起,闻之伤悼痛 切。……所幸者已得进教,又不幸先生不在,临终不得与解罪,不知汝曾令吴龙与一讲悔罪否? 此事甚急,凡临终者即无先生在,不可不自尽也。只要真悔,无不蒙赦矣。” 24 方豪指出“光 启对于其岳父临终时是否悔罪,极为关心。” 25 可见徐光启的确相信拯救灵魂是“人生最急事”, 也可以看出他在生活里活出了他的信仰。在他面对人生中最严肃的时刻,仍能以天主教为最高 价值指导。 因为他自己有了如此的信心,所以他确信事奉天主能够实现儒家不能达到的理想。 因为天主教包括关于永恒的信条,在永恒面前“王化”是短暂的目标。虽然徐光启肯定追求该 理想,但是在他眼里它不再是人生最急事,或者最大事。 徐光启在生活上体现以天主教为最高价值,但仍然尽量采用儒家传统的天儒合一思想。 我 们可从他筹办父亲丧礼一事中窥知一二。1607 年他的父亲去世,在京丧葬。徐光启跟利玛窦商 议,决定丧仪丧礼一切从礼,免教外人疑信天主教徒轻薄先人,礼仪则遵守教会典规,兼采儒 家丧礼中不背教规者。利玛窦记述: 他对于父亲,多尽孝思,用不朽的木(楠木)作一棺,价值一百二十元宝(意大利银 币),适合自己的官身。但是他特加小心,绝不行一违反教规的礼仪;事事都同神父们商 量。因此这次丧仪,在京师里成了一件新奇事,大家说是见所未见。……去世后几天我们 为他父亲举行隆重的追思礼,在堂中设一奠状,上盖黑绒长幔,周围安置蜡烛多支,有设 香炉,焚烧葆乐博士(徐光启)的儿子所寄来的香料。葆乐博士亲自到堂,身着丧服,衣 粗麻衣,戴白布巾,腰系绳,足踏素鞋,式奇样特,白色乃是这里的丧色。神父们唱弥撒, 葆乐博士和亲友等都满意这种丧仪。 26 丧礼的一切礼仪代表人们对生死的看法,徐光启“特加小心,绝不行一违反教规的礼仪”, 即按照天主教的典规操办父亲的丧礼,这表明他接受天主教的生死观,并且对教外人表明自己 的信仰。丧礼是在儒家传统中最重要的礼仪之一,作为士大夫,按照天主教的礼仪举办父亲的 丧礼,在当时来说是一件非常不简单的事。通过利玛窦的叙述可以看出,徐光启与利玛窦十分 谨慎地对待这件事情,在遵守天主教的教规的前提下,也尽量采用儒家传统礼仪,这无疑体现 了他们的天教补儒思想,就是说以天主教为框架,尽量采用儒家传统。 换句话,徐光启的思想和实践也可以用他概括天主教的几句话来代表:“其大者修身事天; 小者格物穷理;物理之一端别为象数……”“其大者以归诚上帝,乾乾昭事为宗。朝夕瞬息,亡 一念不在此。” 27   xu guangqi’s thought ….. (anna seo) 115 结论 根据以上分析,可以总结以下的结论:徐光启系统地将天主教、儒家思想与科学结合起来, 建立了以天主为最高价值的天教补儒思想。他的天主观念是纯粹的基督教的观念。 他提出天教 补儒,认为通过天教对中国传统的上帝观、灵魂观与生死观的补充, 可以实现儒家的理想,从 而可以用天主教作为框架结合儒家思想,并在自己的生活中加以实践和运用。 此外,徐光启从 事科学也以归诚上帝为终极目的。 可以说徐光启的思想不是儒家与天主教的大杂烩,而是以天 主教为最高价值的儒家与天主教的有机结合。 参考文献 [比]柏应理撰、张星曜编次:《徐光启行略》,徐宗泽编《徐文定公逝世三百年纪念文汇编》北京:圣教 杂志社,1933 年。 [美]邓思: 《从利玛窦到汤若望--晚明的耶稣会传教士》,上海:上海古籍出版社, 2003 年。 方豪:《中国天主教史人物传》,北京:宗教文化出版社,2007 年。 黄节:《徐光启传》,《国粹学报史篇》1906 年 第十九期,中国科学院中国自然科学史研究室编:《徐光启 纪念文集--纪念徐光启诞生四百周年》,北京:中华书局,1963 年。 [意]利玛窦《利玛窦中国书礼》宗教文化出版社,2006 年。 李春勇、陈卫平《徐光启评传》,南京:南京大学出版社 2006 年。 李之藻编辑:《天学初函》(共六册),台湾:台湾学生书局版,1965 年。 罗光:《徐光启传》,台北:传记文学出版社,1981 年。 孙尚扬:《利玛窦与徐光启》,北京:新华出版社,1993 年。 孙尚扬:《基督教与明末儒学》,北京:东方出版社,1994 年。 孙尚扬,[比]钟鸣旦:《1840 年前的中国基督教》,学苑出版社,2004 年。 王重民辑校:《徐光启集》,上海:上海古籍出版社,1984 年。 徐昌治:《破邪集》,载郑安德:《明末清初耶稣会思想文献汇编》,第五卷,第 76 页。 徐宗泽: 《中国天主教传教史概论》,上海,上海书店,1990 年。 钟鸣旦(nicolas standaert)、杜鼎克(ad dudink)编:《耶稣会罗马档案馆明清天主教文献》,台北利氏 学社,2002 年。 criveller, gianni, preaching christ in late ming china: the jesuits’ presentation of christ from matteo ricci to giulio aleni,taipei: taipei ricci institute, 1997 gernet, jacques, trans. by janer lloyd, china and christian impact: a conflict of cultures, ny: cambridge university press. 1985. kim, sangkeun, strange names of god: the missionary translation of the divine name and the chinese responses to matteo ricci’s “shangti” in late ming china, 1583-1644, peter lang publishing, 2004.   116 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 108-116                                                               1 《明史》卷二百五十一,说“从西洋人利玛窦学天文历算火器,尽其术。”徐光启著,王重民编:《徐 光启集》,上海:上海古籍出版社,1984 年,第 550 页。  2 载于《畴人传》第三十二卷。 阮元评价徐光启说: “从西洋人利玛窦学天文推步,尽得其术,为译《 几何原本》、《测量法义》等书。……利氏东来,得其天文数学之传者光启为最深”。徐光启著,王重 民编:《徐光启集》,上海:上海古籍出版社,1984 年,第 580 页。  3 黄节:《徐光启传》,《国粹学报史篇》1906 年 第十九期,中国科学院中国自然科学史研究室编:《徐光 启纪念文集--纪念徐光启诞生四百周年》,北京:中华书局,1963 年。  4 jacques gernet, chine et christianisme, action et reaction. paris, 1982. english version entitled china  and the christian impact: a conflict of cultures, trans. by janet lloyd. cambridge, england. 1985.    5  同上,p.223.    6  同上,p. 66.  7  criveller, gianni, preaching christ in late ming china: the jesuits’ presentation of christ from matteo  ricci to giulio aleni, taipei: taipei ricci institute, 1997[意]柯毅霖著,王志成、思竹、汪建达译:《晚 明基督论》,四川人民出版社,1999 年。  8  同上,页 345  9  李春勇、陈卫平《徐光启评传》,南京:南京大学出版社  2006 年。第 173 页。  10  kim, sangkeun, strange names of god: the missionary translation of the divine name and the chinese  responses to matteo ricci’s “shangti” in late ming china, 1583‐1644, peter lang publishing, 2004.p.225.  11  徐昌治:《破邪集》,载郑安德:《明末清初耶稣会思想文献汇编》,第五卷,第 76 页。  12  徐光启:《辨学章疏》,王重民编《徐光启集》,上海:上海古籍出版社,1984 年,第 432 页。  13  同上,第 432 页。  14 longobardi, responsio, 222, sangkeun kim, strange names of god, p.222. 15  同上,页 335.  16  徐光启:《跋〈二十五言〉》, 《徐光启集》,第 87 页。  17  孙尚扬指出,这是对当时的儒家来说是“令人惊奇的结论”。孙尚扬:《基督教与明末儒学》, 北京:东方出版社,1994 年,第 176 页。  18  徐光启:《辨学章疏》,《徐光启集》,第 432 页。  19  方豪:《中国天主教人物传》,北京:宗教文化出版社,2007 年,第 73 页。  20  徐光启说他父亲“于阴阳医术星相占候二氏之书,多所通综,每为人陈说讲解,亦娓娓终日。晚 年悉弃去,专意修身事天之学”。徐光启:《先考事略》,王重民:《徐光启集》,上海:上海古 籍出版社,1984 年,第 526 页。  21  徐光启的孙女徐甘第大(candida xu) (1607-1680)也成为当时著名的基督徒,帮助传教士建立许 多教会,照顾乞丐和被遗弃的女婴,帮助在教难中遇难的传教士们。 宋美龄的外祖母为徐光启第 九世女孙;宋美龄说:“徐氏自徐光启以来,教理为世代不易之信仰。”徐家共出了徐允希、徐宗 泽、徐懋禧、徐应桥、徐俊兴等十二位神父。现在台湾的徐俊兴神父是徐光启第十一代世孙。  22 [美]邓思: 《从利玛窦到汤若望--晚明的耶稣会传教士》,上海:上海古籍出版社,2003 年,第 84、97 页。 23 徐宗泽: 《中国天主教传教史概论》,上海,上海书店,1990 年,第 190、191 页。 24 徐光启:《家书 十一》,《徐光启集》,第 492 页。 25  方豪:《中国天主教史人物传》,第 74 页。  26  fonti ricciane.  (d’elia)vol. ii. p. 361.  罗光:《徐光启传》,第 47 页。    27 徐光启:《跋〈二十五言〉》, 《徐光启集》,第 87 页。   24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 feminism and the literature of pramoedya ananta toer 女性主义与普拉穆迪亚•阿南达•杜尔的文学创作 cendrawaty tjong chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 cencen_zzz@yahoo.com abstract feminism refers to the social ideological trends that women ask for equal rights as well as the results of ideology when women know the world, the ego, and the sexual relationship in their process of seeking self-liberation. this paper starts with describing the periods in which indonesian women acknowledged and was associated with western feminism as well as analyzing its period of development. this paper aims at researching the feminism idelology of pramoedya ananta toer, a leading indonesian writer, including the factors which affect his opinion on women and the expression of his feminism, which is richly displayed throughout his works. the finding of this research shows that in pramoedya ananta toer’s perspective, equality between men and women is manifested in the partnership between men and women, that this partnership is applied in every aspect of lives, which is advanced-throught in indonesian’s patriarchal society. keywords: feminism, women movement, indonesian, pramoedya ananta toer 摘要 女性主义是泛指妇女要求平等权利的社会思潮,是妇女在寻求自我解放的过程中,认识了世界、认识了 自我、认识了两性关系的一种认识成果和思想结晶。本文首先叙述印尼接受西方女性主义的过程,在此为背景 下,探讨了印尼著名作家——普拉穆迪亚•阿南达•杜尔的女性主义思想及其作品中的表现。根据普拉穆迪亚小 说里的观点,所谓的男女平等就是男性和女性在生活的任何方面都是合作的伙伴,这种看法当时在父权制的印尼 社会中确实是很先进的。 关键词:女性主义、女性运动、印尼、普拉穆迪亚 25feminism and the literature ….. (cendrawaty tjong) 前言 普拉穆迪亚•阿南达•杜尔 (1925一2006) 生 于中爪哇小镇布洛拉,是印尼著名的作家。他的生活 多数在监牢度过:荷兰殖民时期,他被关进三年监 牢;印尼旧秩序政府时期因他写了《印尼华侨》被政 府逮捕,坐了一年的监牢;1965年九•三o事件后以共 产主义者的罪犯被苏哈托政府逮捕,没有经过法律审 判就被抓进监牢并流放了14年,直到1979年12月才被 释放;释放后还被国家软禁,1999年才被印尼政府完 全释放、洗清罪名,得到平反并获得人生自由。 黑暗的人生历程以及艰苦的监牢生活并没有磨 灭他的写作能力,反而磨练了他的人生经验,使他写出 许多作品,最优秀的代表作——《四部曲》经过了多 次烧毁才创造出来的。作为作家,他在印尼没有什么 地位,一直以来没有被印尼政府与文学界重视。他被 称为“左翼文学家”、“共产主义文学家”。1979年 虽然他被政府释放,但在印尼失去了言论自由、公民 权利等社会活动。虽然如此,他在国际上是位有知名 度的作家。他的作品被翻译成39多种语言,多次获诺 贝尔文学奖提名。从1988年至2005年,他获得了很多 国际奖。美国康奈尔大学教授安德生(ben anderson) 誉之为“东南亚在世的最伟大作家。”1995年普拉 姆迪亚获得菲律宾文学奖,这引起了印尼文学界的轰 动。26个印尼文学家以及文化文人提出强烈的抗议, 逼迫菲律宾文学基金会取消他们做出的决定,因为他 们认为普拉姆迪亚曾是印尼人民文化协会为代表的左 翼文化机构的相关人物,因此不值得获得此奖。 普拉姆迪亚一生中创作了50多种作品,包括小 说、短篇小说、散文和评论。笔者发现他的作品都表 现了丰富的女性主义思想。普拉姆迪亚的作品里所涉 及到的女性都表现出勇敢与战斗的精神。这表明普拉 姆迪亚非常赞同与支持印尼妇女为争取男女平等而斗 争。在普拉姆迪亚时代,这些观点是非常独特和新颖 的,而在目前的印尼社会,还有很多妇女都受到歧视 和虐待,可见部分的印尼妇女还不能摆脱父权式的社 会制度。普拉姆迪亚的女性观却能给印尼妇女带来一 个新的看法和思考。本文视图通过分析普拉姆迪亚代 表作对此加以阐述,给读者提供一些参考资料。 内容与分析 世界各国女性主义和妇女运动并不是孤立的” 印尼也是如此,它的女性运动及女性思想跟当时的世 界思潮存在密切的关系。西方女性主义在世界妇女解 放中起了启蒙和推动作用,西方女性运动浪潮大大地 影响了印尼的妇女运动。 女性主义或女权主义这个词最早出现在法国, 意味着妇女解放。它后来传到英国和美国,逐渐流行 起来。女权主义是泛指妇女要求平等权利的社会思 潮。女权主义又称“男女平等主义”或“男女平权主 义。” 女权主义又称“女权运动”,是资本主义国家 妇女在经济、社会、文化、政治等各个领域争取男女 平等,争取从根本上改变妇女社会地位和社会作用的 一种理论与运动。在西方,女权运动最初是追求男女 平等,指争取教育平等和政治上的平等,尤其是争取选 举权。后来,女权主义者开始意识到男女不平等的原 因是因为性别的因素,所以女权运动变成分析男女为 何不平等,审视男女的权利架构,强调性别分析,因此 它不但包括女权问题,也包括性别分别问题,就是反对 包括性别歧视在内的一切不平等。 女性主义产生的背景 女性主义的产生与父系社会有密切的联系。世 界上大多数文化都存在男人胜于女人、男人比女人 重要的支配性观念,因此女人一般被认为是男人的奴 隶、生孩子的工具、满足男人性爱的器皿。历史女人 屡屡成为政治上的牺牲品。她们没有地位和权利,可 以被男人送来送去,也可以被男人卖出去。 这样的歧视源于特定文化背景。很多国家的 父系社会把《圣经•创世纪》当作男人高于女人的依 据。《圣经•创世纪》第2章22一23节写道:“耶和华 神就用那人(指“亚当”)身上所取得筋骨造成一个女 人,领她到那人跟前。那人说:“这是我骨中的骨,肉 中的肉,可以称她为女人,因此她是从男人身上取出 来的。”女人后来也成为男人的灾难,《圣经•创世 纪》第三章讲的是女人首次违背上帝禁令吃了智慧之 果,然后劝男人也尝一尝,导致男人犯罪,从此上帝与 人类永远隔离。由于女人犯了吃那智慧之果的原罪, 《圣经•创世纪》第3章16节说明上帝惩罚女人:“我 必多多增你怀胎的苦楚,你生产儿女必多受苦楚。你 必恋慕你丈夫,你丈夫必管辖你。”《圣经》里上帝 要男人管辖女人的这个惩罚成为基督教社会世世代代 的依据。除了《圣经》以外,还有其它经典也提到男 人比女人重要或好于女人的依据,如:伊斯兰教的《 古兰经》第4章“7世纪”里写着:“男人掌管女人,因 为真主把他们中的一个造得比另一个更好,因为男人 用财产供养女人,所以女人是应该驯阴及的。”;古 罗马法中有这样一条文:“女人由于心性轻浮,即使长 大成人也要有人监护。”(《12法典》)(啜,2005) 印尼社会是个父系社会,也是个重视宗教的国 家。人民认为理性、逻辑、智力、主动、高贵都代 表男人;而混乱的情感!无法控制的性欲、被动、野 心、下贱都是代表女人。社会里两性不平等以及不公 平的态度和思想一直以来都成为女性主义的斗争对 象,也是女性主义产生的背景。 女性主义在印尼的传播和影响 西方占领了印尼四百多年,在这四百多年里, 印尼经济、社会都受到了西方资本主义、殖民主义 的影响。18-19世纪的西方大型地出现女权主义的浪 潮。西方妇女通过女性运动争取选举权、受教育权、 就业权等。到了20世纪60年代西方的女性运动注重于 追求妇女解放和自由、反对传统的男女不平等和男性 对女性的歧视和奴役,改变妇女的地位。 印尼作为西方统治的殖民地之一,也难免不受 西方妇女潮流的影响。印尼女性运动和解放思想都离 不开卡尔蒂妮,她被印尼社会称为女性解放之母,后 来也成为印尼妇女的一个典范。卡尔蒂妮被列为印尼 女性解放的先驱,她一直努力地引导着印尼妇女冲出 封建专制的牢笼,逐步走向妇女解放的道路。卡尔蒂 妮接受到荷兰教育,常接触荷兰早期女性主义者的想 法并加以讨论。她和斯德拉•基韩德拉小姐四年的沟 通期间,常交换妇女运动的一些意见。斯德拉•基韩 德拉小姐是个社会主义积极分子,她争取工人阶级的 教育权,也主张帮助妇女摆脱封建的婚姻制。她和卡 尔蒂妮的友谊,再加上卡尔蒂妮阅读过很多书籍,尤 其是阅读那些与女性解放有关的书籍,给卡尔蒂妮很 大的影响,使她思考印尼妇女的情况,盼望着印尼妇 女的解放,不受任何束缚,可以走出家庭的牢笼,她 也通过她看到的妇女情况和自己的经验体会印尼妇女 不平等的地位,最后她认为印尼妇女应获得与男性同 等的机会,争取教育权等权利。卡蒂妮的早期女性主 义思想表现在几个方面:一、她非常盼望妇女可以独 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 立。1899年5月25日她给斯德拉•基韩德拉小姐的信中 写道:“我非常想认识一个我仰慕的妇女,他独立及 自信、活泼及坚强,她不只为自己工作,也为社会工 作,给人类带来一些幸福。想起那个时代,我就热血 沸腾。”(pane,a.,2005: 写给miss.zeehandelaar 1899年5月25日的信) ; 二、卡尔蒂尼赞同自由主义 女性主义争取与男性同等的教育权。她给斯德拉•基 韩德拉小姐1899年5月25日的信中表述这个问题:“我 们妇女还被旧封建思想捆牢着,只有少数妇女才能享 教育。”;三、卡尔蒂尼反对社会对妇女的歧视,她 要求男女都能受到公平的待遇。1900年8月23日她给 斯德拉•基韩德拉小姐的信中写着:“我要生男孩儿, 也要生女孩儿,我会公平地教育他们,除掉那些重男 轻女的习俗。男人从小受宠爱,他们从小受到的教育 是歧视女人地位的教育。我要同等地教育我的孩子, 不分男女,而且要教他们不可歧视对方!要互相尊敬 彼此。我要删除男女的界限,因为人类是同等的。” ;四、卡尔蒂尼看不惯“一夫多妻”的婚姻制,她也 要求婚姻关系中的男女要平等。1900年8月23日她给 斯德拉•基韩德拉小姐的信中写着:“上帝创造女人成 为男人的同伴。女人的幸福是可以与丈夫共度平安和 同等的婚姻。但是,如果我们的宗教允许男人拥有很 多妻子,那么这样的同等婚姻如何达到呢?” 据阿利维亚的看法,以卡尔蒂尼争取的妇女权 利的印尼女性主义比较适合归纳为自由女性主义。但 是,卡尔蒂尼也认为,争取妇女的解放不只是妇女的任 务,也属于男性的任务。印尼人民不能进步,如果女 性落在后边的话。女性的进步是提高印尼社会的地 位,男性不是女性的敌人,而是女性的工作伙伴,因 此女性也应该完成当母亲的任务。 20世纪中期至六五年九•三o事件前是印尼社 会组织的发展时期。20世纪初至20年代女性会议受 到卡尔蒂尼思想的启发,因此这时期的女性思想体 现出卡尔蒂尼自由女性主义思想。从20年代末至六 五年九•三o事件前,印尼女性主义开始趋向于社会 主义。20年代女性主义的代表人物是苏卡俄西(sukaesih)和姆纳西亚(munasiah)等。姆纳西亚在三宝 垄的女性运动会议表示:“以前妇女是家庭的太阳, 但是现在妇女是资本主义的工具。其实妇女自古以 来川流不息地反抗,但还是受压迫。如今出现了很 多妓女,这是谁的错?这就是资本主义和帝国主义的 错! (acehmarxist,2007)她们这些看法受到了荷 兰共产主义者——斯内夫利特(hendricus jose phus franciscus mariesneevhet)的反资本主义的影响。 她们认为女性受压迫与资本主义剥削劳动有关,因此 女性的真正敌人是资本主义。30年代初苏加诺在他政 治生涯中开始接触了马克思主义,因此对他来说,印 尼女性主义应该偏向于社会主义。他强调印尼妇女只 谈男女平等是不足的,打倒资本主义才是当务之急 (arivia,2001)。印尼独立以后至六五年九•三o事 件前,印尼出现了很多妇女组织,这些妇女组织有的偏 向卡尔蒂尼自由女性主义思想,有的偏向于激进女性 主义思想,也有的认为女性思想应该回到伊斯兰教女 性思想,但更多的是偏向社会主义的女性思想,因为当 时阁尔瓦妮成为当时最大和富有影响力的女性组织。 她们支持苏加诺,认为苏加诺对于女性的任务的看法 是正确的。 六五年九•三o事件后女性思想被控制,政府创 造了一个“母亲主义”女性思想,此女性思想把印尼 古代封建思想、伊斯兰教和爪哇思想混合起来,创造 符合印尼的女性形象,认为女性形象的定义是有道德 修养、相信宗教、能装饰自己、服从男性、听从命 运、不爱说话等的女性形象。这时期激进主义女性运 动己经不存在了,女性的身体成为政府的商品也成为 商业的商品,女性也成为男人性欲的对象,建设国家 的机器人、权力的牺牲品。这时期的妇女组织只有女 性的聚集活动,并没有商讨全国各个阶层妇女面临 的问题(妇女强暴、就业问题、拐卖妇女与未成年人 等),而且妇女组织里的妇女职位取决于她丈夫在政 治上的地位和权力,丈夫的权力和地位越高,妻子在 妇女组织的任务的职位越高,因此这时期的妇女被男 性控制、失去了原有的权利,也是妇女落后的一个时 期。98年印尼暴乱,政府没有立即帮助那些受害的妇 女,这种歧视引起社会上的震怒,导致新的妇女民族 改革。前任总统苏哈托下台后,随着外国女性思想的 传入,印尼女性主义摆脱母亲女性主义思想,出现了 很多新趋向,如激进女性主义、后殖民女性主义、环 境女性主义、后现代女性主义等。这时期也出现了很 多妇女组织,妇女们重新进入社会和政治舞台,争取 她们在苏哈托政府前拥有过的或目前该拥有的权利。 她们对国外的女性主义思想加以思考,提倡妇女应该 从苏哈托政府创造的母亲主义解放出来,创造出一个 更符合本国国情、历史和文化背景的女性主义。阿利 维亚及其他女性主义者表示目前妇女的压迫不仅是因 为文化和父权制或男权制,而且也因为全球商业化、 新资产主义、新帝国主义和消费主义的扩张,因此印 尼目前的女性主义应该主张妇女关注话语,让话语成 为妇女的权力,妇女也要自由做主、自由作决定,妇 女解放是女性和男性共同合作摆脱新帝国主义的压 迫。不能否认,人们对某种事情的观点是受到环境(文 化、历史、政治)影响的,普拉姆迪亚的女性主义也 是如此。在印尼女性主义特定的历史文化背景下,产 生了他自己的女性主义。下文就是笔者对普拉姆迪亚 的女性主义的分析。 普拉姆迪亚对女性主义的接受 普拉姆迪亚的小说大部分写那些受到殖民主 义、帝国主义、爪哇封建主义、资本主义压迫的普通 老百姓。他的小说里也提到各种各样的奋斗妇女,而 且这些奋斗都是失败的。普拉姆迪亚也常提到民族 革命的观点,他认为印尼的革命或独立斗争必须也包 括资产阶级革命、社会主义革命和反封建!反殖民的 斗争。他认为只有基层人民组织起来才能完成这场革 命。通过阅读及查询一些参考文献,笔者发现普拉姆 迪亚的女性主义思想受到几个方面的影响: 一、普拉姆迪亚母亲、父亲和外婆的影响 普拉姆迪亚的父母支持前总统苏加诺的民族革 命,他父亲也是前总统苏加诺组织的社团的积极分子, 除此之外,他父亲也是民族教育的积极分子。他父亲 接受民族主义左派反殖民主义的思想,认为无产阶级 才是国家的栋梁。后来他母亲也受丈夫的影响,全心 支持她丈夫,变成其中一个女性运动积极分子。那时 候这些民族活动受到荷兰政府严格的监督普拉姆迪亚 的父亲也为此失去供养家庭的可能,过着贫困的生 活。为了生计,普拉姆迪亚的父亲终于再次进入荷兰 政府学校教书,这个决定使全家人失望。普拉姆迪亚 的父亲承受不了如此打击,便走进赌场,整天都在那 儿混生活,因此全家的经济都落在普拉姆迪亚母亲的 肩上。 笔者认为普拉姆迪亚的女性思想最初受到他小 时候家庭的影响,而这个家庭的影响可以表现于三个 方面: 27feminism and the literature ….. (cendrawaty tjong) 第一、普拉姆迪亚在每次访问都会提到他母 亲,由此可见,母亲对他小时候的影响很大。如:普拉 姆迪亚1991年7月26日在接受keessnoek(荷兰人)的采 访时, 说:“我母亲是个理想的母亲,我这样说不是 因为她是我的母亲,但是我越来越想念她所作所为。 我非常尊重她的教导,她说过:‘要成为自己的主人, 拼命地干活,享受自己劳动的成果。如果你长大了,就 去欧洲留学。’我17岁之前每天下午都去放牧,碰到 了荷兰政府的学生时,他们一定取笑我,我就因放牧 而觉得羞耻。有一次我向母亲诉说我的感情,母亲便 批评我,说:‘应该羞耻的不是你,而是他们,因为他 们怕劳动。劳动才是光荣,谁不敢劳动就是无耻。’ (boef&snoek,2008:112-113) 普拉姆迪亚母亲对他生活上的影响,特别在评 价妇女的标准上。她视劳动为荣耀,不管在贫困还是 艰难的情景下都不恳求别人的怜悯。她主张只有拼命 地干活,才能享受劳动的成果。母亲的这些看法使他 认为女性不应该只依赖以男性,女性也应该劳动,要 为前进奋斗,但最重要的是她也能吃苦。她的母亲希 望她的孩子们能够去欧洲追求更高的学问。普拉姆迪 亚曾提过,他把印尼的革命比成女性的身体,特别是 他母亲的身体。普拉姆迪亚母亲的性格很坚强但身体 很脆弱,不过她脆弱的身体从不扑灭她奋斗的精神, 也没有阻碍她参与各种各样活动的精神。 第二、普拉姆迪亚多次提到母亲对他的重要 性,使大家都认为普拉姆迪亚的女性主义思想是因为 他受到了母亲的影响,不过笔者认为如果说普拉姆迪 亚的女性思想只受到他母亲的影响,这不能说完全 正确的,没有他父亲早期的影响,就没有完整的普拉 姆迪亚女性思想。普拉姆迪亚提到,他父亲的爱国精 神和反殖民主义精神曾使他成为普拉姆迪亚生活上最 爱慕的父亲,但自从父亲因经济危机而回到荷兰政府 学校教书后,他开始觉得父亲背叛了他的梦想,从此对 父亲失望。除此之外,普拉姆迪亚也提到:‘他父亲是 个坚固及勇敢的男人,他充满了梦想和前进的想法, 敢为其梦想奋斗。他为了让印尼人民获得同等的教育 权,不堪牺牲自己或家庭。可惜的是,在面对挫折的时 候,他就轻而放弃。他父亲也是个文学创作者,是个自 由主义的爪哇人,他不做宗教礼拜,爱慕爪哇文化, 厌恨封建主义,但不知不觉也支持爪哇封建主义。’ (teeuw,1997:10)虽然普拉姆迪亚对父亲失望,但普 拉姆迪亚也承认,他的尖锐的民族意识、对一切不公 平事物的奋斗精神、对爪哇社会的一切看法及把教育 成为建设国家和解放人民的一切看法都是因为受到父 亲的影响。普拉姆迪亚父亲把无产阶级成为国家栋梁 的看法加上他反殖本主义和封建主义的精神,都给青 年时期的普拉姆迪亚一定的影响。 第三、除了父母的影响,普拉姆迪亚也受到他 外婆的影响。普拉姆迪亚提到,他外婆是个活泼、耐 心、不轻易放弃、勤奋和真正的劳动者。她意识到 她的地位比她的丈夫和孩子低,甚至没有与她的女婿 讲过话。虽然她生活很穷,但她从不向女儿和女婿追 求过什么,探访孙子们时,总是带着小礼物给孙子们 并宠爱他们,对普拉姆迪亚来说,除了母亲以外,外 婆也是他最爱的女人(teeuw,1997:14)。笔者认为, 普拉姆迪亚外婆对他的影响也体现在他反爪哇主义的 态度。普拉姆迪亚外婆成为爪哇封建主义的牺牲品, 普拉姆迪亚把危害人民的爪哇封建主义称为“爪哇主 义”,就是对上司忠心耿耿!盲目地服从比我们地位高 的人。普拉姆迪亚也认为爪哇语或爪哇文化的烙印, 存在上级和下级、贵族和平民等方面的鸿沟,就是爪 哇主义的缘故,印尼人民才解放不了,从古代到现代一 直被侵略。 从上文,我们可以看出普拉姆迪亚父母和外婆 对他年轻时的影响,这些影响坚定他后来的思想,除了 坚定了他的社会主义现实主义,也坚定了他的女性思 想。 二、高尔基作品:《母亲》及其他文学作品的影响 普拉姆迪亚小学毕业后,经过母亲的同意,去 泅水市广播学院读书。这时期他开始接触很多文学作 品,如:奥诺雷•德•巴尔扎克(honore de balzac)和 埃米尔•左拉(emile zola)的作品,爪哇的心灵书, 《de laatste stuiptrekkingen》(描写反英国帝国 主义的战争)等。这些书对他以后的文学创作有一定 的影响,使他的创作都取材于现实生活。后来,他去 日本帝国主义政府承认的中学上课,这时期他接触了 穆哈玛•哈大写的希腊哲学,打开了他对理智的理解, 他说:‘从那段时刻起,我开始抬高人类的理智。’ (teeuw,1997:17) 普拉姆迪亚1991年7月26日在接受kees snoek( 荷兰人)的采访时也提到:“我最喜欢的作者是约 翰•恩斯特•斯坦贝克(john steinbeck),我翻阅了 他的作品《人与鼠》,对他写实的文学手法表示衷 心的钦佩。我也喜欢安东民德圣•埃克苏佩里(anthony de saint exupery)描述人类在自然的存在, 他把人类描述为大自然里巨大力量,但成为个人 的存在,这个力量是渺小的。”普拉姆迪亚从芬兰 作者lode zielens学到“思想与现实没有分隔” 的想法;他从马克西姆•高尔基(maxim gorky) 那儿学到“人类应该知道他们的历史”的思想。 (boef&snoek,2008:169-170) 1955年普拉姆迪亚翻译了高尔基的《母亲》。 在翻译过程中,普拉姆迪亚开始对高尔基的社会主 义现实主义引起了兴趣。后来,这部作品启发了普拉 姆迪亚,写了《印尼文学与社会主义现实主义理论》, 认为文学是消除殖民主义、帝国主义和资本主义的主 要工具,它应该为人民群众服务,而不是为贵族或资 产阶级服务,除此之外,作家要从现实的革命发展中真 实地、历史具体地去描述现实,作品描写的真实性和 历史具体性必须与用社会主义精神从思想上改造和教 育劳动人民的任务结合起来。高尔基的《母亲》给普 拉姆迪亚个人带来其它的意义,就是:“把最高的荣 耀赐给世人从来不知道尊敬的母亲。”普拉姆迪亚把 高尔基的写作方式比喻成“某个人拿着房柱摇动,使 整个房子都动摇了。”高尔基描写的母亲是个生活在 20世纪初俄国民族革命时期的一个妇女,她支持并帮 助她孩子和他的朋友们同资本主义斗争,成为一个为 社会主义而奋斗的无产阶级革命者的英雄形象”高尔 基描所创造的母亲的形象,给普拉姆迪亚后来创造四 部曲的温托索罗姨娘(nyai ontosoroh)的形象起了 启发作用。普拉姆迪亚对温托索罗姨娘的奋斗表示 敬佩。他通过故事里所发生的事件,也通过故事的主 人公,一个名叫“明克”的爪哇族知识分子的个人对 话,述说了普拉姆迪亚对女性的一些想法,如:父权 制、爪哇封建主义、殖民主义、资本主义和种族主义 是女性受压迫的因素,因此妇女若要解放就应该与父 权制、爪哇封建主义、殖民主义、资本主义和种族主 义的一切不公平制度而奋斗,但这些奋斗应该是女性 和男性共同努力。 除了以上文学作品外,普拉姆迪亚也很敬佩卡 尔蒂尼的奋斗和女性思想。他阅读卡尔蒂尼的书信、 阅读荷兰有关女性解放和女性主义的小说:钟女士(c. 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 goekoop de jong)的《hilda van suylenburg》和 荷兰社会女性主义胡根(cornelie lydie huygens)的 《barthold meryan》,并通过这两个小说去批评卡尔 蒂尼的女性解放,认为只有革命才能推翻旧制度,改 为新制度(toer,2007:169)。他评价卡尔蒂尼的女性 解放的时候,也提到卡尔蒂尼不仅是印尼妇女解放的 先锋,也是爪哇封建主义的批评者和反抗者,是印尼 现当代历史的起源。 三、印尼前总统苏加诺的影响 印尼前总统苏加诺是普拉姆迪亚最敬佩第二个 人物,普拉姆迪亚接受男性杂志采访时说:“自从前总 统苏加诺下台以后,印尼到目前为此都还没出现真正 的领导。前总统苏加诺是印尼领导的榜样,他掌握各 个方面的知识,如:文化、政治、历史、地理等,现在 还没有领导在知识方面模仿前总统苏加诺。他是我理 想的领导形象。”前总统苏加诺是普拉姆迪亚偶像 之一,他非常尊重他”前总统苏加诺曾说过:“人民 大众必须参与民族革命才能改变国家,不要看轻人民 大众,因为他们才是改革的中心力量。”普拉姆迪 亚一定比任何人理解前总统苏加诺的话语,因为后来 他把人民大众现实的生活都表现在他的作品中。前总 统苏加诺非常支持女性争取她们的妇女权力,但是他 强调如果妇女单单争取男女平等是不足的,她们也必 须打倒资本主义,因此前总统苏加诺非常支持妇女参 政。阁尔瓦妮成为印尼独立后最大的妇女组织,除了 争取妇女在各个方面的权利(教育权、政治权、婚姻 权、就业权等),也支持印尼独立、反殖民主义和帝国 主义。前总统苏加诺偏爱这个无产阶级的代表团,认 为它才是真正的妇女组织,那时候出现的其他妇女组 织都被前总统苏加诺批评为贵族妇女组织。没有任何 书籍提到前总统苏加诺对女性运动思想影响到普拉姆 迪亚的女性思想。普拉姆迪亚只有多次提到他非常尊 敬苏加诺的思想,认为苏加诺的思想是正确的。笔者 认为以普拉姆迪亚对前总统苏加诺的爱慕和尊敬为根 据,不妨说他也受到苏加诺的女性思想的影响,再 说,我们在普拉姆迪亚的四部曲里对洪山梅的描述可 以体会到“妇女必须参政”的女性思想博得普拉姆迪 亚高度赞赏。 笔者认为普拉姆迪亚的女性主义受到的以上三 方面影响是互相联系的,互不分隔,形成了普拉姆迪 亚女性思想的整体性。母亲成为他评价其他女性的标 准;父亲鼓励他对社会上所有不公平的一切而进行奋 斗;外婆的遭遇影响他对爪哇封建主义的看法;在翻 译高尔基的《母亲》的过程中,他奠定了社会主义现 实主义的文学理论;普拉姆迪亚对前总统苏加诺的爱 慕和尊敬,使之接受了他的妇女观。 普拉姆迪亚作品中的女性主义 “没有妇女就没有人类;没有人类就没有人赞 美上帝。妇女生育时喊出的声音、流出的血和汗就是 唯一赞美上帝的理由。”(明克,《足迹》430页) 普拉姆迪亚的作品提到很多女人的命运与奋 斗。她们向殖民主义、资本主义和爪哇封建主义而展 开斗争。当笔者阅读普拉姆迪亚的作品时,感觉到普 拉姆迪亚的经历、思想等深深地表现在他的作品中和 他创作的人物思想中。他的代表作——布鲁岛四部 曲,使读者进入了一个真实的历史背景,感受到人物的 情景变化和人物的互相矛盾;他创作的《海女儿》、 《密达——可爱的金牙小姐》、《拉拉萨蒂》、《万 登南部发生的事件》都表现出对被侮辱、被损害的小 人物和妇女的极大同情。这些作品描述妇女所面对的 问题,提出他对妇女命运的感受、看法和思想。笔者 认为普拉姆迪亚提出的女男不平等的问题到现在为止 都仍然存在社会中。妇女的社会地位非常低,我们可 以从普拉姆迪亚作品中看到这个问题: 一、女性被社会视为弱者,而男性被社会视为强者的 情景 由于女性的社会形象常常被视为弱者,因此男 性在任何方面都被社会认为比女性更有用。波伏瓦 在《第二性》中分析了女性是男性的“他者”的处 境,认为:女性的特征都是社会造成的,女性并不是 生而为女性,而是逐渐形成的。她指出女人因为体力 较差,当生活需要体力时,女人自觉是弱者,男人用 法律形式把女人的低等地位固定下来,而女人还是甘 心服从。这“他者”的处境使妇女被视为社会上的弱 者。普拉姆迪亚的《万国之子》第15章讲述了这个问 题:阿章(华桥富翁)想霸占温托索罗姨娘的财产,他想 了狡猾的计划,利用美人计,劝罗伯特(温托索罗姨娘 的长子)利用一切手段争夺温托索罗姨娘的财产.罗伯 特认为这计划万不可行,因为他还有一个妹妹,但阿章 便说:“一个妹妹,也值得那么愁眉不展么?;您妹妹 不过是个女子。您妈妈不过是个土著妇女。对您来 说,她们有什么力量? 她们无能为力。少爷,女流 之辈就像脆弱的香蕉树杆,不堪一击。我说您是唯一 继承人,言下之意,她们俩都不在话下,就跟没有她们 一样。” 此观点也在《拉拉萨蒂》里表现出。拉拉 萨蒂对她生为女人感到很遗憾。她看到荷兰殖民政 府对待他们占领的地区的人民,就觉得很生气。她 想:“如果我是男子,我会做很多事,如果我是男子, 我也即将烧毁这个荷兰殖民政府占领的地区。”拉拉 萨蒂后来想领导人民向荷兰殖民者奋斗,但她母亲对 她说:“你应该即刻离开这个地区,你若呆在这里就会 不幸,而且将危害其他人。你只是个弱女子,也没有什 么武器,你不可能带领这里的人奋斗。”(117页) 普拉姆迪亚通过他小说里的人物对话,来描述 社会上把妇女视为弱者而男子却被视为强者、战斗 者的状况,所以男子若知道女子比他强,他的心就觉 得不安、不服。《万登部发生的事件》120页就提表 现出此观念:村长计划农民的妻子们都学认字,但这 个计划轰动全村,到处都听到不满的尖叫声。有农民 说:“我不能认字,难道我妻子就会认字?”;又有人 说:“女人比男人聪明,成何体统?”;《玻璃屋》 里也提到这个问题。小说里提到西蒂•苏达利是第一 个敢在公众面前说话的女人,她也领导人们向荷兰殖 民主义反抗。她比卡尔蒂尼更先进。可是伊斯兰教领 导们都认为她与妓女没有什么区别,她这样做是一种 卖身体的行为。她虽然很漂亮,也很有魅力,但如果 一个女人没有当妻子的条件,漂亮和魅力又有何用处? ;知识分子也觉得她是丈夫所害怕的典型妇女,他们 说:“哪有男子敢娶学识高的女子?”(《玻璃屋》 :374和406页) 二、女性常成为男性的工具和他们的性机器 由于妇女被社会视为弱者,因此妇女常受到男 性的侮辱并往往被他们任意对待。此观点也可以从普 拉姆迪亚的作品《人世间》里看到:温托索罗(或萨妮 庚)的父亲为了得到高的职位,把萨妮庚卖给荷兰人。 那个荷兰人得到了温托索罗,心里很高兴。他把萨妮 庚待为他的娃娃似的。萨尼庚说:“他把我抛向空中, 又用手从腰间把我按住,使劲地摇晃着我,这使我稍 微清醒一点。他又把我站在地板上。我仍然站不稳。 他用双手保护我,不让我择倒。我摇晃了一阵子,最 29feminism and the literature ….. (cendrawaty tjong) 后还是栽倒在床沿上了(92页)。”后来温托索罗姨 娘说: 当别人的姨娘,生活很辛酸的。她是卖给别人 的家奴,义务是满足主人的欲望,什么事情都得顺从 她的主人。她必须随时提防发生种种可能:主人把她 玩够了,玩腻了,说不定哪一天会把她和她生下的孩子 一起赶走。因为不是正式婚姻,生下的子女在土著民 中也被人瞧不起(94页)。” 普拉姆迪亚也通过密达的对话提到女人只有成 为男人发泄兽欲的玩物。密达认为:男性如果对女人 存在什么目的,他就会变成绵羊似的,他们这样做是 为了发泄他们的兽欲。密达很爱阿玛,可是阿玛只 把密达当为他的性机器。当他知道密达怀孕了,就说 密达因想结婚而骗了他。他对密达说,他是不可能 娶她的,因为他怕被社会对他的批判。(参考于《迷 达——可爱的金牙小姐》,92-93页) 三、如果有什么不吉利的事发生,女性就成为社会的 替罪羊 如果她们的行为有什么不端就认为她们是下贱 的女人,使全家蒙羞。在《万登南部发生的事件》的 小说里,穆索老爷因他的霸道而受到了人民的反抗, 他认为他所面临的不愉快的问题是他妻子造成的。他 打了妻子并说:“你这个倒霉的女人!”(46页);此 外,普拉姆迪亚的布鲁岛笔记也写到这个问题:日本 帝国主义拐骗妇女,骗她们说去新加坡或东京受更高 的教育,事实上是骗她们去当日本士兵的慰安妇。她 们被强奸,被当作日本士兵的玩具;她们没有得到法 律的保护。印尼独立后,这些女性不敢回家,因为她 们对她们的过去感到羞耻,而且认为她们回家也只 能使自己和家人丢脸。(参考于《军队掌里的年轻处 女》:13-54 页) 笔者认为普拉姆迪亚女性主义在作品中的表现可以分 成以下几个方面: (一)父权制是压迫妇女的源头 普拉姆迪亚在小说里常提到女性的社会地位非 常低,她们没有自己的主见,连身体和命运都由父亲 或男人来决定的。普拉姆迪亚认为父权制是压迫女性 的源头。如《人世间》第5章里提到温托索罗姨娘讲 述她被父亲卖掉成为荷兰人的小妾的经历。她的终身 大事都由父亲做主。一旦终身已定,那么女人全心全 意地侍候那原来并不相识的男人,侍候他一辈子,一 直侍候到他死,或直到他嫌弃她,把她赶走为止。女 人是别无他路可走。温托索罗姨娘说:“我必须听从 父母的吩咐,尤其不能违抗我的父亲。我毕竟是个女 儿,我对父亲无能为力。母亲的眼泪和劝说阻止不了 灾难的发生。世界啊,我不理解它,它亦不属于我、连 我自己的身体,也都不归我所有!” 普拉穆迪亚大部分的作品里常指父权制造成女 性的生活不愉快。《万国之子》里提到 苏拉蒂(温托索罗的侄女)也因为父权制受到压 迫。当他父亲决定要把她送给荷兰人——普利肯博 时,她不能反抗,因为她从小受到的教育是把父亲或 其他男人的话当作圣旨。苏拉蒂本人畏惧父亲。苏 拉蒂的生活乐趣从此消失殆尽。《海女儿》讲述一个 渔民的女儿的故事。她喜欢渔民的生活,可被逼嫁给 一个不相识的男人,被送进豪华的房子,那儿充满了侍 候她的女佣。她对她获得的财产并不愉快,因为她知 道她富裕的生活是用她的人生的自由换来的,从此她 失去了自由、失去了她拥有的权利,如:失去了说话 和喊叫的权利,她很清楚,从此将失去了她愉快地生 活。她把她的新生活描述为她的新生活太多铁线、阻 拦铁手和使她害怕的各种各样的神灵。她把自己比喻 为从鸡群里被抢走的小鸡,必须单独地生活、不能拥 有朋友,只能听从命令。她认为这生活好冷淡、好寂 寞啊! 普拉姆迪亚通过他小说里创作的女角色的对话 和感受来表示他对父权制社会的看法。在父权制社会 里,妇女的地位通常被认为低于男人,她们没有任何 权利,连自己的命运、身体都得由男人来支配。普拉 姆迪亚通过小说来表现父权制造成女性的压迫,使妇 女过着痛苦的生活。 (二)爪哇封建主义是妇女压迫的一个因素 爪哇岛是印尼从古至今的重要政治、文化、艺 术、教育、经济等各个方面的中心,因此印尼在很 多方面都把爪哇民族思想作为各个方面的评价标准, 如女性的贤妻良母的标准、下司对待上司的标准等。 普拉姆迪亚在接受采访的时候也多次批评爪哇封建礼 节,他通过小说里的人物的对话来表现出作者对爪哇 封建礼节和爪哇封建思想的批评。如《人世间》里的 明克多次对爪哇屈尊爬行的习俗表示批评。他讨厌跪 拜并认为跪拜是个羞辱的礼节:“跪拜是什么意思 呢? 跪拜即是低三下四,卑躬屈膝地尊崇祖先和达官 贵人。如果可能,甚至还要做到头地相接!啊,我绝 不能让我的子孙将来再忍受这样的羞辱。”(第133135页)。明克学了欧洲科学以后,就觉得跪拜是一个 不符合理智的动作。当他去温托索罗姨娘家做客,看 到女佣端来可可牛奶时,并没有像侍候其他土著老爷 那样显得低三下四地躬身弯腰,甚至还用惊奇的目光 望着明克,这使明克觉得很新奇,因为这些情况是在 土著老爷家里决不可能存在着,女佣在土著老爷家里 除了必须躬身弯腰地走路,也永远不能抬起头来。明 克想:如果这世界上没有阶级,人们可以在别人面前 直着腰走路,这样的生活该是多么有意思呀!(参考 于《人世间》:第22页) 普拉姆迪亚在他的《海女儿》的作品里很明确 地描述了爪哇封建主义对妇女的压迫,他也通过作品 里的女主人公的感情变化来说明爪哇封建主义是压迫 妇女的其中一个因素: 《海女儿》里的女佣教海女儿不能大声地说 话,不能有什么主见,女人的任务只有侍候男人。海 女儿进入了如此的爪哇封建的家庭常常感到惧怕、发 抖,她想反抗,但无能为力。她想起她从前在海边的 生活,那时她想说什么就说什么,她可以大声哭,她 也可以大喊大叫,没有什么人可以阻止。如今她只能 小声地说话,不能大叫,做什么事都自由,她只能随乡 入俗。以前她还可以把目光向四处看,如今她只能看 着地,不能抬头与人相望,使她不知到底还能看到什么 东西(19和37页)。海女儿不明白,心理也觉得很繁 乱,她想:难道县大爷比大海还要可怕,比大海更有权 力吗? 为什么父亲能因为县大爷而逃跑呢? 我父亲从 不怕大海,但为什他现在逃跑呢?我也不曾怕过大海, 但为什么我很怕县大爷呢? 为什么? 父亲比县大爷 还要强壮,而县大爷却是个脸色苍白,又瘦又脆弱的男 人,但为什么所有人都怕他呢? (48页) 普拉姆迪亚通过海女儿和其他人对县大爷的恐 惧,来指明这里的县大爷代表的是爪哇封建主义,并 描述了爪哇封建主义带给女人的心理压迫。爪哇封 建社会里,人们非常重视社会的阶级。社会地位越高 的人越受人们的尊敬与服从,社会地位低的人应该尊 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 重地位高的人,也应该全心全意服从他。《玻璃屋》 里庞厄玛南也提到爪哇封建阶级的丑陋:“上司责骂 我,我就责骂我的下属,下属便责骂他的妻子,妻子 责骂孩子,孩子呢? 他就责骂仆人。仆人是人类最低 的阶级。晚上工作了以后她便进入卧室痛哭一场,但 第二天她还是照常服从上司,照样工作,照样挨骂。 她是绝不可能离开上司的。 (35页) 普拉姆迪亚也在小说里指出妇女受到爪哇封建 主义思想的压迫。如他在《足迹》里写到明克和他母 亲不同观念的对话。明克用笔反杭资本主义,他的母 亲知道了后就急匆匆地去编辑部找他,她很担心她儿 子的安全。她对明克的做法焦急不安,也认为他何苦 那样做。母亲觉得明克不用为农民命运忧虑。明克告 诉母亲在中国 ,人民已经推翻了清王宫,建立共和 国,不需要皇帝了。可是他母亲看不起那些华人,因 为他们不懂爪哇文化:“你是指那些华人的国家吗? 中国算什么? 有什么值得提的? 那些华人不懂爪哇 文化,没有什么了不起的!她们哪懂我们的礼仪?” (444页) 以上几个情节就是普拉姆迪亚通过小说来描述 爪哇封建主义对女性的身体动作的压迫、心理压迫、 思想压迫。根据普拉姆迪亚作品里的描述,妇女的身 体动作受到压迫,她们不能随意行动,跟男子存在着一 定的区别。她们做什么事都不自由,不能大声地说 话,没有自由选择权,不能有主见,应该依赖男性,这种 封建主义的要求使妇女受到心理和思想的压迫。 (三)殖民主义也是压迫妇女的因素 殖民主义是指一个比较强大的国家对外扩张领 土、建立殖民地的政策,是资本主义国家采取军事、 政治和经济手段,占领!奴役和剥削弱小国家、民族和 落后地区,将其变为殖民地、半殖民的国家。普拉姆 迪亚在小说里好几次提到女性是国家发达的一种条 件,如果女性不解放那么国家也不会发达。女性是社 会中受到压迫最多的社会成员,除了受到家庭的压迫 之外也受到社会的压迫。普拉姆迪亚还通过小说也表 示:殖民地女性不仅受到父权制和封建主义的压迫, 也受到了殖民主义的压迫,这种压迫是所有殖民地所 面临的问题。普拉姆迪亚在他的小说里指明:殖民主 义国家常把殖民地人民视为不文明、贫穷、落后、没 有文化、受到传统束缚、软弱无能。 普拉姆迪亚也通过小说里的西方女性或受到西 方文化影响的女性跟没有受到西方文化影响的女性对 比,说明西方女性由于具备先进意识因而她们不容易 受男性的压迫,而印尼女性受到殖民主义的种种限制 和压迫,变成落后和软弱。《人世间》里的明克对温 托罗索姨娘的看法代表了土著人民对受到西方文化影 响的妇女的思想。明克自从接受西方教育以后,就觉 得印尼土著人民不如西方人,他也通过受过西方文化 影响的温托索罗姨娘和其他土著妇女的对比指明西方 教育的作用。明克非常欣赏姨娘,因为她不仅能讲一 口这么好的荷兰语,而且更主要的是她在男性客人面 前没有那么繁文褥节。他觉得非常好奇姨娘作为一个 小妾,怎么能表现得像欧洲妇女那样开明大方(第3 页)。普拉姆迪亚还通过米丽娅姆给明克的信说明西 方人认为他们是最先进的民族,而殖民地人民都不文 明、落后:“明克,当荷兰妇女们听到一个爪哇土著妇 女竟能用自己的文字写信时,人们都惊诧不已。长期 以来,荷兰妇女都一直认为,东印度的土著妇女还生活 在石器时代,仍处在野蛮无知的状态。”(《万国之 子》:第140页) 荷兰殖民政府统治期间,印尼流行纳妾的习 俗。荷兰男子认为纳妾是一件对他们有利的事,因为 纳妾是没有法律合约的,所以他们可以随时放下责任, 抛弃妾和她的孩子们。印尼土著女子成为荷兰殖民 统治者的性工具,受到了压迫。《人世间》里温托罗 索姨娘多次当姨娘的苦处 ,说她是是卖给别人的家 奴,义务是满足主人的欲望,什么事情都得顺从她的主 人。她必须随时提防发生这种可能:主人把她玩够了, 玩腻了,说不定哪一天会把她和她生下的孩子一起赶 走。因为不是正式婚姻,生下的子女在土著民中也被 人瞧不起(第94页)。温托索罗姨娘的女儿和明克恋 爱,可是荷兰殖民政府的法律不承认温托索罗女儿和 明克的恋爱。姨娘很生气,她说:“他们不把土著 民殊在脚下是不甘心的。在他们看来,土著民必定有 罪,欧洲人肯定洁白无瑕(第313页)。温托索罗姨娘 后来在法官面前说:“我原来的名字叫萨妮庚,地位是 一位拼妇。在我给别当娇妇时,我生下了安娜丽丝,仅 仅是因为梅莱玛先生是欧洲人,就没有指控我与他的 关系。那么,为什么我女儿与明克先生的关系却成问 题呢? 难道就是由于明克先生是土著民的缘故吗? 对 于其他欧印混血儿的父母,你们怎么提都不提呢? 在 我与梅莱玛先生之间,有着奴律办的从属关系,对于这 一点,法庭却置若同闻。我的女儿和明克先生真诚相 爱。欧洲人能够用金钱买我这样的上著女人当娇妇, 难道这样买卖比真诚的爱情更合理吗?倘若欧洲人因 为有钱有势,就能那样做,那么为什么土著民的真诚 爱情,反而却遭到讽刺、嘲笑呢?”(322页)可是检 察官凶狠地告诉姨娘和明克,说姨娘的女儿是欧混血 儿,是印欧混血儿,她比作为土著人的姨娘和明克的 地位高贵。姨娘非常生气告诉法官人:“ 是谁使我 沦为别人的拼妇的? 是谁逼迫土著妇女给欧洲人作 姨娘的呢? 是你们!是你们这些被尊为老爷的欧洲 人!”(第323页) 后来普拉姆迪亚也通过明克崇拜西方人到厌恶 他们的思想转变来阐明殖民主义是压迫整个人民(包 括妇女在内)的一个因素。普拉姆迪亚通过小说中的 温托索罗和明克言语来表示他对妇女受压迫的思考, 认为妇女除了受父权制和封建主义的压迫之外,也受 到殖民主义的压迫:“我没有上过学,孩子,没有人教 我去崇拜欧洲人。你上了十几年的学。你都学些什 么了呢?无非还是学那老一套:学五体投地地崇拜他 们,崇拜到竟忘了自己是什么人,忘了自己的家乡。 即使如此,上学的人还是比较幸运的。至少,他可以 了解到,别的民族是怎样用自己特有的方式,去掠夺 其他民族的财富的。”(第377页) (四)资本主义也是压迫妇女的其中一个因素 资本主义是以资本家占有生产资料和剥削雇用 劳动者为基础的社会制度。它的基本特征是生产力高 度发展,鼓励自由的市场经济,政府对经济的干预尽 量少;商品生产发展到最高阶段,成为社会生产普遍 的和统治的形式,劳动力也变成了商品;资本家占有 生产资料,用雇用劳动的方式剥削工人阶级,生产的目 的是创造利润;以使用机器的大生产为特征,生产社 会化同资本主义的私人占有制之间的矛盾构成资本主 义社会的基本矛盾,这一基本矛盾贯穿于资本主义发 展的始终,它在经济上具体表现为个别企业生产有组 织和整个社会生产的无政府状态的矛盾,在政治上表 现为资产阶级和无产阶级的矛盾;与资本主义生产关 系的统治形式相适应,资本主义以前的各种上层建筑 被资产阶级的上层建筑所代替,产生了资产阶级的国 家政权、法律制度和思想体系,形成包括资本主义生 产方式和与它相适应的上层建筑的社会制度。 31feminism and the literature ….. (cendrawaty tjong) 女性的社会地位很低,但她们是社会的重要成 员。借普拉姆迪亚在小说里的话:如果一个国家的妇 女受到压迫,那么那个民族就不能受到别人的尊敬。 妇女是生存、生活、传宗接代、兴旺发达和繁荣茂盛 的象征(参考与《足迹》:第105页;《人世间》:第 464页)。恩格斯说过:社会的进步可以用女性的社 会地位来衡量,也就是说如果一个国家的女性受到压 迫,社会就不能进步。普拉姆迪亚也在小说《足迹》 的洪山梅(中国青年)和明克的对话里叙述了资本主义 同帝国主义成为压迫人民的因素。洪山梅说:“瓦特 发明蒸汽机,开辟了英国工业革命的新纪元,随之产生 了英国帝国主义,原始资本的积累以及劳动和资本 的分家使有色种族变成英国资本的牛马。”(第202 页) 普拉姆迪亚在他的小说里描写了资本主义压迫 妇女的形式。资本主义把妇女当作商品交易:“殖民 主义只对资本家有利,它们的恶手却弄脏了贵族们的 手,使贵族们为了获得利益而去压迫平民。”(《玻 璃屋》:第33页)资本家和殖民政府知道爪哇的贵族 们都为了荣耀和权力而生活,对爪哇贵族们地位和别 人的尊敬是他们生活中最重要的目的,他们都不愿意 失去荣耀、地位和权力:“越常跟西方人打交道的职 业,意思是就越尊贵。西方人是权力的象征,而权力可 以召唤金钱。”(《人世间》:第251-252页)因此资 本家和殖民政府利用爪哇贵族的弱点去压迫农民或其 他底层人民,甚至逼百姓把自己的女儿卖给他们。普 拉姆迪亚作品里的温托索洛姨娘和温托索罗侄女—— 苏拉蒂就是其中例子,她们被其父亲当作商品与资本 家进行交易。温托索罗姨娘认为她成为了奴隶,除了 为丈夫的农场做牛做马,也必须服侍丈夫。从温托索 罗姨娘和苏拉蒂的角度来看,她们的家庭是资本主义 制度的受害者,自己则是资本主义的牺牲品。 (五)种族主义也是压迫女性的因素 种族主义是一种自我中心的态度,认为自己所 属的团体,例如人种、民族或国家,优越于其他团体。 普拉姆迪亚作品里也提到种族主义的危害。它诱使人 们相信,被认为先进的民族可以随便对待那个比它落 后的民族。这种压迫是包括女性在内的。普拉姆迪亚 作品里也提到此观念。如:《人世间》里的温托索 罗姨娘给她女儿讲她小时候的故事时,提到种族区别, 她告诉女儿,根据习俗一位守规矩的姑娘是不能抬起 头,睁开眼去看一位陌生的男宾的。如果客人是位白 人,那就更不合适了(第89页)。温托索罗姨娘觉得 消除种族区别可以使她和她丈夫平等,殖民主义和资 本主义的灌输,大家都认为白人优越于有色皮肤的民 族。温托索罗真盼望着可以与白人平等,因此她模仿 荷兰妇女杂志所写的妇女形象。实践了一段时间后, 她便问丈夫她是否像西方女人,她丈夫认为她不需要 改变成一位荷兰妇女,也没有必要成为荷兰妇女。他 认为姨娘比那些西方妇女更聪明、更能干,比她们任 何人都强(第100页)。 普拉姆迪亚也通过温托索罗姨娘的儿子(罗伯 特)提到种族区别的问题,罗伯特认为自己所属的种族 高于他母亲的种族,因此他母亲也应该服从他。在罗 伯特看来,至高无上的事情就是当一名欧洲人,所有 的土著民都必须屈服他。(《人世间》: 第71页) 此外,温托索罗姨娘的丈夫的合法儿子——毛里茨. 梅莱玛也看不起温托索罗姨娘,因为他认为温托索罗 姨娘是地位下贱的女人,她勾引了他父亲。除此之 外,他认为温托索罗姨娘是有色土著民族而且不是基 督教徒,比基督教的白人种族地位还要低。毛里茨. 梅莱玛的说的话和态度打击了温托索罗姨娘。她崇 拜的欧洲文明却高高在上,欺负了她,侮辱了她的种 族、社会地位、宗教和孩子。 普拉姆迪亚通过了小说中的一些情景告诉读 者:种族主义确实是压迫人民思想(包括女性)的一种 工具。自称高贵的民族将欺负它认为低于自己的民 族,并逼迫低于它的民族承认它的种族地位。其后果 可以从小说里的梅莱玛先生对温托索罗姨娘模仿西方 女性的行为的话语看出来:梅莱玛先生认为温托索罗 姨娘可以把西方的好处学过来,但不需要全模仿西方 女性的特征,需要保持她本人的特征。另外,其后果也 可以从温托索罗姨娘批评明克的话语看出来:温托索 罗批评明克因为崇拜白种族而忘了他本身的种族。( 参考《人世间》:第377页) (六)阶级也是压迫女性的因素 女性在各个方面都受到压迫,一个民族受到压 迫的同时,女性也受到压迫。其实是因为父权制也好, 封建主义!殖民主义、资本主义也好,这都是阶级的压 迫。普拉姆迪亚小说里也表示了阶级压迫女性的观 点,如:《玻璃屋》里庞厄玛南说:“上司责骂我, 我就责骂我的下属,下属便责骂他的妻子,妻子责骂 孩子,孩子呢?他就责骂仆人。仆人是人类最低的阶 级。晚上工作了以后她便进入卧室痛哭一场。 姨娘们地位很低,不是荷兰人的合法妻子,因此 没有受到法律保护。普拉姆迪亚通过小说里明克的想 法来表示了社会上各个阶层的人民都歧视姨娘们。明 克想:“看来谁都了解那些姨娘们家里的道德情况。 她们下流,淫乱,无文明可言。她们呀,都是妓女, 是没有人格的人,生来就注定要堕入泥潭,被人遗弃 的。社会上的每个阶层、每个民族,无论是土著民、 欧洲人,还是中国人、阿拉伯人,没有一个是不谴责她 们的家庭的。”(《人世间》:第53页) (七)普拉姆迪亚的作品里提到女性解放首先就是妇 女要受教育,接着妇女应该向所有压迫她们的势力作 斗争。最重要的是:妇女应该先勇敢解放自己、参与 社团,通过社团的团结奋斗才能把她们从压迫中解放 出来。 普拉姆迪亚非常注重科学对人类的影响。他的 四部曲的最前面的一段就写着明克对科学的体会:“ 在我这一生中,在我这短暂的一生中,我己经体会到科 学给我带来了无限美好的前景。”;在《人世间》小 说里,明克多次为温托索罗姨娘的知识而惊叹不已, 如:他为温托索罗姨娘能讲一口学院式的、发音十分 标准的荷兰语感到非常钦佩(第20页)。当时殖民主 义制度压迫人民,不许人民受教育,只有得到特权的 贵族孩子们才能获得荷兰教育。一个土著女子会说很 好的荷兰语是一件不同寻常的事。当明克知道了温托 索罗姨娘阅读了很多欧洲书籍也感到很惊讶,这使他 更敬佩姨娘,认为她是一生中见过最有学问的土著妇 女(第204页)。明克也通过与他母亲的对比,说明 温托索罗姨娘的特点。他认为温托索罗姨娘受过教育 后,是个非常先进的女人,言语非常开放;而他母亲却 受到封建主义的压迫,视野狭窄,将世界上所发生的事 当成美丽的神话,跟母亲对比,温托索罗姨娘相对来 说是个妇女解放的形象,原因是她学习不辍,追求先 进的科学知识。 妇女也应该向所有压迫她们的势力做斗争。普 拉姆迪亚《人世间》的小说里对此问题叙述得非常 清楚。小说里讲到荷兰政府法院不承认温托索罗姨娘 是安娜丽丝的母亲,它们也不承认安娜丽丝和明克的 婚礼。这是因为明克是土著民,而安娜丽丝是混血儿 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 的缘故。由于在法律上温托索罗没有抚养安娜丽丝的 权利,因此法院逼安娜丽丝回荷兰,使温托索罗姨娘 和她的女儿受到隔离。可是温托索罗姨娘不屈服,她 说:“明克,我们要进行反杭。你有胆量吗,孩子? 尽管没有法律专家,我们也要反抗,我们将成为反 杭白人法庭的第一批土著民,难道这不是一种繁荣 吗?”(第372-373)他们明白,自己的官司打不赢, 但他们有责任进行反杭,以维护自己的权利,一直到 无法反抗为止。虽然后来他们的反抗失败,但温托索 罗说:“我们已经反杭了,孩子,我的孩子!我们已经 尽了最大的努力,做了最体面的反杭。”(第402页) 普拉姆迪亚《万国之子》的小说里也提到名叫 苏拉蒂的女子(温托索罗姨娘的侄女),她受到父权制 和资本主义的压迫。她父亲把她卖去当一个荷兰资本 家的小妾。她不想自愿当小妾,不想被成低贱!没有 价值的妇女。她知道她不能反抗父亲,但也不愿不反 抗,最后她决定用其他的方法来反抗,她故意让那个 荷兰人传上传染病,因病而故。 普拉姆迪亚小说里还提到妇女的其它反抗方 式,如扎巴拉小姐用笔墨反抗封建主义,温托索罗姨 娘用追求学问、劳动和话语的方法来反抗社会压迫。 普拉姆迪亚小说里提到:需要团结起来,先解放自己。 普拉姆迪亚通过他小说的人物对话描述了女性解放就 是全体女性努力的结果,也是内心激烈斗争的成果。 (八)普拉姆迪亚非常赞成妇女参加劳动,小说里也 可以体现出参加劳动是一种解放妇女的形式,普拉姆 迪亚的四部曲里有很多地方称赞参加劳动的妇女 例如,明克第一次参观温托索罗姨娘农场的时 候,看到很多妇女参加劳动,心里不禁地呼唤:“啊, 妇女!妇女也能参加农场工作!妇女也能穿白粗布工 作服!这些农村妇女,也都穿起工作服来啦!她们不 再在自家的厨房围着锅台转啦!”(《人世间》,第 29页) 后来当明克知道安娜丽丝是工长的时候,更加 惊讶和钦佩。他没有想到娇媚稚气的安娜丽丝却是男 工和女工都必须听从她的吩咐的工长。他也想象不到 那些农村妇女竟然离开了锅台,穿上了工作服,和男 工们混合在一起,到别人的农场去寻找生计。明克更 不能相信温托索罗姨娘也是个能干的女子,可以处理 行政事务、跟银行打交道。 在小说《足迹》里普拉姆迪亚通过特.哈尔 记者和明克的讨论,进一步肯定了“劳动可以解放女 性”的观点。特.哈尔说:“只有自由劳动能够提高 土著民的身份和价值,而强迫命令就使他们   愚昧。只有自由劳动才能把被遗忘和被排挤的 科学和知识还给他们。自由劳动将使他们摆脱对神的 恐惧,不怕警察,也不怕东印度公司的雇佣兵,只有这 样才产生出真正的土著民来。”(《足迹》:第24页) 如果从以上关于劳动的观点来看,温托索罗姨 娘是普拉姆迪亚所塑造的最理想的代表形象。温托索 罗说过:“自食其力的人是幸福的。因为自己的事业 成功而感到快乐,是自己的苦心经营促使了事业的发 展。”(《人世间》:第41页)温托索罗姨娘也说, 她学到的所有知识和劳动提高了她的身价和价值。 她证明出劳动使自己不依靠任何男子,受到人们的尊 敬。 (九)普拉姆迪亚不赞成“一夫多妻”制 普拉姆迪亚小说里创造出的女性都表现出反对 一夫多制的倾向,如四部曲里提到的扎巴拉小姐非常 厌恶男子纳妾,她认为这是一个不尊敬妇女的行为; 当明克在街头听到一个妇女为她丈夫纳妾的问题与丈 夫争吵,他就想:这样的妇女生活似如地狱,难道生活 就要如此吗?这样的生活又有什么意思?;小说里的 明克也多次表示他不想娶几个小妾,他想到他祖母的 话:娶两个以上妻子的男人没有一个不是骗子。不管 他自己愿意不愿意,肯定都是骗子。(《人世间》: 第227页) (十)男女平等就是女性和男性都可以享有同样的权 利 普拉姆迪亚小说里,所谓的男女平等就是女性 和男性可以享有同样的权利,如工作权、表决权、同 酬权、受教育权、参政权等。他们共同努力,占有同 等的社会地位。妇女应该有权得到与男性同等的教育 和工作机会,应该有权发表她们的意见。这可从《人 世间》里的明克敬佩温托索罗姨娘的原因看得出来。 明克认为姨娘可真不是一位普普通通的姨娘。她在一 位荷兰高中的洋学生面前,看不出有一点自卑感。她 敢于发表自己的意见。她充分意识到自己的力量(第 75页);此外从马赫达.皮特斯对明克的对话也看得 出来普拉姆迪亚有关男女平等的观念。马赫达.皮特 斯认为温托索罗姨娘身上最使人钦佩的长处是勇于表 明自己的见解,即使这种见解未必正确,她不怕出错, 白折不挠,有胆量从自己的错误中学习(第262页) ;从四部曲的明克和扎巴拉姑娘的思想,也可以看出 普拉姆迪亚所谓的男女平等的含义是地位平等。明克 很羡慕荷兰人夫妻平等,丈夫没有把他妻子当作奴 仆;而妻子也没有把自己当作丈夫的奴仆。明克认为 这样的婚姻是多么美妙啊!可是明克也认为这样的妇 女从印尼土著民族里是寻找不到的。可是,对扎巴拉 姑娘来说,她不同意西方人的女性解放,她认为男性不 是女性的敌人,而是女性的合作伙伴。女性和男性需 要得到相同的权利才能平等,因为她认为每个多余的 权利就是压迫。(《足迹》:第353页) 普拉姆迪亚女性主义的流派 通过阅读普拉姆迪亚的一些作品,笔者体会到 普拉姆迪亚的女性主义非常丰富。他不仅把女性受压 迫的因素看为纯粹的父权制,而且多方面地揭示了它 的社会根源。根据普拉姆迪亚在小说中所表达的观 点,笔者认为普拉姆迪亚的女性主义偏向后殖民女性 主义和社会主义女性主义。 (l)后殖民女性主义 后殖民女性主义在20世纪80年代后才蔚为风 潮,这并不是说以往无此类的论述,而是反映出白人 女性学者在传统权力架构中的弱势地位。女性虽然在 各种文化中都有受压迫的情况,但她们所受压迫的形 式是不同的。有的女性群体认为女性除了在性别上受 压迫外,也受到种族、民族的压迫。有色人种女性与 第三世界的女性主义由此产生。1983年沃克批评过去 的女性流派,认为它们关注的问题是西方白人女性所 面临的问题,忽略了第三世界女性、下层女性和有色 人种所面临和关注的问题。后殖民女性主义认为那些 女性主义流派忽略了男女性别以外的压迫,忽略了经 济剥削、政治问题;她们认为殖民压迫才是问题的关 键词。后殖民女性主义拒绝将女性的压迫问题纯粹归 结为父权压迫。们认为:第一世界白人女性主义占全 球女性主义重要地位,很少考虑其他种族、阶级女性 的问题。莫汉蒂(c•t•mohanty)指出,西方女性主义 者在提到“妇女”这个范畴的时候,不约而同地把它 看作一个先验的、统一的,有着一致利益和欲望的整 33feminism and the literature ….. (cendrawaty tjong) 体,而有意无意地忽略了它内部包含的阶级、种族、 文化等差异。她们表述第三世界妇女受压迫的特征 时,她便加上第三世界的特征,而这第三世界的特征 是“不发达”,因此第三世界的女性的形象便塑造为 贫穷的、落后的、没有文化、受到传统束缚的、家庭 趋向的、没有权利意识的、宗教趋向的、依赖性的、 软弱无能的等等;与之相对立的,西方女性主义者认 为西方女性是受过教育的、有文化的、文明的、具有 权利意识的、能够主宰自己的命运的、前进的。后殖 民女性主义也认为男性不一定是女性的敌人,而是携 手共事的同志。后殖民主义女性主义强调,女人之间 因种族、阶级、文化等因素导致的差异,必须被纳入 女性议题来探讨,不可只强调性别认同,忽略种族歧 视、经济和政治、殖民主义和帝国主义等相关因素。 根据以上的理解,普拉姆迪亚小说里的女性观 点真的是偏向于后殖民主义女性主义,因为他认为女 性受压迫不是纯粹因为父权制,也有种族、民族、阶 级、政治上的压迫。小说里揭露了荷兰殖民主义制度 对人民尤其是对女性的压迫。小说里也可以看出:由 于荷兰殖民主义的影响,西方白族女性(以及所有西方 人)都自称或被称为前进的、受教育的、有文化的、 文明的、具有权利意识的;而印尼土著女性(以及土 著民)却被认为是落后的、贫穷的、受到传统束缚 的、没有权利意识的、宗教取向的、依赖性的、软弱 无能的。四部曲里的明克接受西方教育以后就觉得西 方女性在任何方面都比土著女性先进和有文化,他没 有看到这个“落后、不文明”等特征正因为当时政治 上的压迫,亦即殖民主义的压迫。后来温托索罗姨娘 代表土著女性指出:正是殖民主义思想压迫了土著女 性、造成了种族歧视。普拉姆迪亚的小说也认为,女 性首先要先解放自己、团结起来,勇敢地向所有压迫 他们的因素开战。普拉姆迪亚也通过小说里的扎巴拉 小姐的看法,把男女平等列为男性和女性互相协助, 享有相同的权利”男性不是女性的敌人,而是携力共 事的合作伙伴。 (2)社会主义女性主义 马克思主义关于物质决定精神!经济基础决定 上层建筑的思想对女性主义有很大的影响,成为社会 主义女性主义研究妇女问题的一个基本理论依据。社 会主义女性主义认为,把“阶级”仅用来区分与生产 资料有关的不同社会群体过于狭窄,因为女性也是一 个阶级,认为女性摆脱压迫的道路就是克服女性的异 化和消除劳动的性别分工,它最终的目标是使社会上 男女阶级的划分归于消失。社会女性主义认为女性在 生活的一切方面系统地处于不利地位,这不是个人的 能力原因造成的,而是历史和社会原因造成的,有的甚 至直接指出妇女受压迫起源于私有财产制的经济结 构,并认为阶级压迫是更基本的压迫,所以男权压迫同 阶级同样重要,二者都是压迫妇的女形式,因此改变妇 女被压迫的处境或改变女性的不利地位不能仅仅靠个 人的努力,而是要为女性争取特别的保护性立法,以及 各种救助弱势群体的特殊措施,以此争得同男子平等 的地位。社会主义的一个主要现实斗争要求就是男女 同工同酬。社会主义女性主义认为,在资本主义社会 中,生产、生育、性和儿童社会教化在家庭中结合在 一起,相互依存,是女性受压迫的原因。米歇尔在《妇 女:最漫长的革命》里提到了此问题。她向社会呼唤, 说:“只有改变紧密结合成统一体的生产、生育、性 和儿童的社会化问题,妇女才能真正获得解放。她还 指出,在这四个方面问题,经济因素(生产)仍然是主要 的,但必须伴有同其他三个因素相一致的政策,这些政 策在直接行动的特殊关头所起到的作用可能超过经济 因素。从以上的观点来看,社会女性主义主张妇女必 须参与阶级斗争和社会主义革命,推翻资本主义私有 财产制度并将男权制的心理加以转变;它主张妇女进 入劳 动力市场,与男工同工同酬,也消除劳动的性别 分工,使男女阶级的划分归于消失;它也主张把家务 劳动变成公共生产,使家务劳动社会化,使妇女无酬劳 动变成有酬劳动,从而实现妇女的劳动价值及人格价 值,这样才能实现男女平等,使妇女真正解放。(啜大 鹏,2001:318-320) 笔者认为普拉姆迪亚小说的女性观点也偏向于 社会主义女性主义。他的四部曲提到爪哇社会的四 个阶级:婆罗门、刹旁利、吠舍和首陀罗。这些印度 阶级传进爪哇,为爪哇社会所运用”普拉姆迪亚的四 部曲和其它小说里提到爪哇阶级对人民的压迫,属于 低阶级的人民无论什么原因都应该听从和服从属于 高阶级的人民;属于低阶级的人民在社会里无论有 多么能干,也不能超过属于高阶级的人民。妇人也是 个阶级。普拉姆迪亚也通过他的小说叙述了这一点, 不同阶级的妇女有不同阶级的行为和态度,如:《海女 儿》提到贵族妇女(刹旁利)看不起吠舍级妇女,她们 不能与吠舍级的妇女沟通,社会也指定了刹旁利级的 妇女的任务命令低阶级的妇女;而低阶级的妇女的任 务是服从高阶级的妇女。普拉姆迪亚小说里除了叙述 了妇女之间的阶级压迫,他也叙述了男女之间的阶级 压迫,因为无论那个女子有很高阶级,她的阶级也比男 子低。四部曲里的明克厌恶爪哇的社会阶级和语言阶 级,认为阶级是造成爪哇人愚昧无能的因素,也是因为 阶级爪哇人反抗不了殖民主义和资本主义,因此明克 一直表现出反抗爪哇阶级。《海女儿》里的海女儿意 识到阶级的压迫,她想反抗但无能为力。除此之外,普 拉姆迪亚指出在资本主义社会里,家庭是妇女最常受 到压迫的领域。生儿育女、维持家庭是妇女的天性, 她在家庭里的无酬劳动(如:做饭、照顾孩子等)被社 会认为是女性应该做的事情。这些家庭压迫是与资本 主义压迫人民相似的。四部曲里的温托索罗姨娘就是 受资本主义制度压迫的妇女代表。她在家庭受到压 迫,做了所有女性应该做的任务,但社会却不承认她所 做的;她也要为丈夫打扮,一直要注意自己的仪表,认 为不注意仪表的妇女是无能;她也没有性自由权、对 自己的身体没有任何权力,埋没了温托索罗姨娘的潜 能。这些家庭压迫是与资本主义压迫人民的形式相似 的。温托索罗姨娘进入劳动市场后,就能发挥她的能 力,享有与男人相同的工作权力,成为一个世人敬佩的 女人。不过,虽然温托索罗已经解放自己,但是她还脱 离不了社会里的一些制度,她还是被那些制度压迫。 明克作为先进的知识分子开始也拥有压迫妇女的思 想,认为妇女的地位低,但是通过解放他自己的思想, 摆脱了父权制,对女性的想法和态度就有所改变。普 拉姆迪亚通过温托索罗姨娘和明克来表示男性并不是 女性的敌人,也并不是女性和男性的生理区别引起了 社会对女性的压迫,而是社会制度导致女性的压迫。 普拉姆迪亚通过他小说里的一些情节、人物的心理矛 盾和人物对话来表现出社会制度和阶级观是社会和历 史造成的,因此推翻社会制度和阶级、改变社会男权 制的社会心理可以使男女平等。从以上的普拉姆迪亚 小说的观点看,笔者认为他的女性主义偏向于社会主 义女性主义。 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 24-35 总结 女性主义是泛指妇女要求平等权利的社会思 潮,是妇女在寻求自我解放过程中,认识了世界、认识 了自我、认识了两性关系的一种认识成果和思想结 晶。女性主义的产生与父系社会有密切的联系。世界 上大多数文化都包含了男人胜于女人、男人比女人重 要的主导观念,因此女人被看成为男人的奴隶、生孩 子的工具、满足男人性爱的器皿,成为政治上的牺 牲品、经济上的商品。她们没有社会地位和权 利。印尼也是如此,女人的社会地位低于男性,甚至 常被认为是男性的奴隶。女性主义在印尼的传播,与 印尼成为西方殖民地及西方资本主义在印尼的发展背 景有密切的关系。随着西方国家和印尼文化!经济及 政治的交流,,西方女性主义的思想也渐渐地融入了 印尼社会,启迪了印尼女性的思想,使她们首次思考自 己在印尼社会中的地位,要求男女在社会上包括受教 育、参政、就业等方面的平等,主张妇女解放。 笔者把普拉姆迪亚在作品中所表达的女性主义 观点归纳为以下几点:父权制是压迫妇女的源头;封 建主义、殖民主义、资本主义、种族主义、阶级也是 压迫女性的因素;女性解放就是妇女首先要受教育, 接着妇女应该向所有压迫她们的势力作斗争,但最重 要的,妇女应该先勇敢解放自己!参与社团,通过社团 的团结奋斗才能把她们从压迫中解放出来;妇女应该 进入市场上的劳动,因为市场上的劳动是解放妇女的 形式;反对“一夫多妻”制;男女平等就是女性和男 性都可以享有同样的权利。笔者体会到普拉姆迪亚作 品里的女性主义观点非常丰富,他不是把女性受压迫 的压迫看为纯粹的父权制,而且多方面寻找其根源, 并叙述了妇女解放和男女平等的形式。根据普拉姆迪 亚在小说里对女性问题的一些叙述,笔者认为普拉姆 迪亚的女性主义比较偏向后殖民女性主义和社会主义 女性主义。笔者认为,所谓的男女平等不是女性和男 性在任何方面都是一样的,而是女性可以享有与男性 相同的权利”解放妇女不能靠个人的力量,它应该靠 全体社会成员的努力和合作。笔者很赞同普拉姆迪亚 的女性主义,认为妇女解放就是妇女除了应该有机会 与男性受到同样的教育外,也可以做与男性同样的工 作,同工同酬,妇女应该团结起来,勇敢地向压迫她们 的社会制度奋斗,但最重要的还是思想上的改变,因为 世界上最可怕的压迫并不是身体上的压迫,而是思想 上的压迫,因此改变所有社会对男女平等的看法才是 最关键的。笔者对普拉姆迪亚思考女性问题的敏锐感 到敬佩。他已经看到种族主义和阶级对妇女的压迫, 目前的印尼女性主义正在往这条路上走。印尼女性 主义正为男女阶级的压迫而开战,主张消除宗教对她 们身体的压迫(争取穿着自由权、性自由权,注重女 性身体的快乐和感受性,反对女性身体快乐的压抑) ,主张妇女进入劳动市场,与男性同工同酬,主张消 除资本主义的压迫(如家庭暴乱、印尼家庭里的主仆 的压迫、妇女在劳动市场上所受到的暴乱和不公平对 待等),主张妇女争取与男性相同的权利(如工作机会 权、财产权、政治权、表决权)。笔者相信,通过印尼 女性主义的斗争,将减少印尼妇女的压迫。笔者认为, 印尼女性主义的前景就是将把女性主义和宗教意识结 合在一起,寻找适合印尼社会的女性解放之路。 参考文献 啜大鹏.(2001). 女性学.北京:中国文联出版社 李银河. 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(2007). panggil aku kartini saja. jakarta: lentera dipantara. toer, p. a. (2003). larasati. jakarta: lentera dipantara. tong, r. p. (2006). feminist thought. yogyakarta: jalasutra. perspektif perempuan. diakses dari http:// w w w / j u r n a l p e r e m p u a n . c o m / y j p . jpo/?act=perspektif%7c-36%7cx pada tanggal 28 febuari 2008 vol. 12 no.2 may 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been acredited by dikti under the decree number 51/e/kpt/2017 and indexed in crossref, microsoft academic search, google scholar, indonesian publication index (ipi), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index (sinta), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents nadia gitya yulianita; mangatur nababan; djatmika the acceptability of religious terms translation in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam .............. 111-115 robby andre bahasa indonesia-english code-mixing in writing business emails: understanding the communicative purpose ..... 117-121 umu arifatul azizah; tosriadi how difficult is claiming knowledge? a study from cognitive domain perspective in writing international scientific article ......................................................................................... 123-128 djuria suprato; ienneke indra dewi; christine paulina english syllabus for accounting students and the needs of english in business world .................................... 129-134 andreas akun when the unspoken speaks: as seen in andriani marshanda’s you used me and letter to god poems ................. 135-139 iskandar abdul samad; bustami usman; novalia rizkanisa; siti sarah fitriani non-native speakers’ rhetorical commonalities in writing script introduction section .................................. 141-147 zulfadli aziz; ika apriani fata; syarifah balqis “wait, how do i say that in english?” communication strategies for english as a foreign language learners ....... 149-154 adip arifin how non-native writers realize their interpersonal meaning? ............................................................... 155-161 ana muslimah teaching spoken narrative by using silent viewing video technique to senior high school students .................. 163-167 maryani; lewinna christiani aguskin university students’ understanding on cultural activities in american culture class .................................... 169-177 haryono; bambang lelono; asrofin nur kholifah typography, morphology, and syntax characteristics of texting .............................................................. 179-185 dewi puspitasari; eka marthanty indah lestari reader-response study on characteristics of arafo women in nodeko’s web manga dokushin ol no tatemae to honne .................................................................. 187-193 didik rinan sumekto investigating the influence of think-pair-share approach toward students’ reading achievement .................... 195-202 eusabinus bunau; rohani mohd yusof morpheme {bun-}: an example of morphological process through affixation in bidayuh-somu language .............. 203-208 emi febrina ningrum literature on student book and its effect for developing elementary school teaching materials ...................... 209-214 vol. 12 no.2 may 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x 16 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 keterkaitan new hsk dan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi pauw budianto1; noviana laurencia2 jurusan sastra china, fakultas sastra, universitas kristen maranatha, bandung jln. prof. drg. soeria soemantri no. 65, bandung 40164, jawa barat 1pauwbudianto@yahoo.com; 2noviana_lau@yahoo.com abstract this research is to find out the correlation between the new hsk (hanyu shuiping kaoshi)/international mandarin proficiency test and the mandarin skill curriculum in higher education in indonesia, with case study at chinese department of maranatha christian university bandung. methods used in this research are survey and literature studies, with quantitative and qualitative analytic description. the results show that new hsk could be used as achievement tests for students of chinese department at each level of study. besides, new hsk could also be one of measurement tools for curriculum needs analysis, which means that the change of students’ achievements in new hsk would decide the adjustments of the mandarin skill curriculum at whole. keywords: new hsk, mandarin skill curriculum, higher education abstrak penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan korelasi antara new hsk dan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi dengan studi kasus di jurusan sastra china universitas kristen maranatha bandung. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode survei dan kajian pustaka dengan deskripsi secara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa new hsk dapat digunakan sebagai tes prestasi (achievement test) untuk mahasiswa jurusan sastra china dalam setiap jenjang studi. selain itu, new hsk dapat juga dijadikan sebagai salah satu alat ukur untuk analisis kebutuhan kurikulum. artinya, keberhasilan mahasiswa dalam new hsk akan menentukan penyesuaian kurikulum mandarin secara menyeluruh. kata kunci: new hsk, kurikulum bahasa mandarin, perguruan tinggi 17keterkaitan new hsk ….. (pauw budianto; noviana laurencia) pendahuluan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi indonesia saat ini secara umum mengacu pada kurikulum program bahasa mandarin untuk orang asing yang ada di universitas-universitas di china, yang kurikulum dirancang untuk pembelajar pemula. bahan ajar yang digunakan pun umumnya mengadopsi serial buku teks yang digunakan di negeri itu walaupun dalam penggunaannya dilakukan penyesuaian-penyesuaian sejalan dengan kebutuhan real masing-masing institusi. walaupun demikian, pengadopsian kurikulum dan bahan ajar ini tidak serta merta menyelesaikan semua persoalan pengajaran bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi di indonesia karena dalam praktiknya terdapat banyak kendala. sebutlah latar belakang budaya, kompetensi pengajar, teknik pengajaran, kekosongan lingkungan berbahasa mandarin untuk mempraktikkannya, konteks materi dalam buku ajar, alokasi jumlah jam pelajaran, kecepatan belajar peserta didik, standardisasi kompetensi dan faktor-faktor lainnya. sehingga tujuan/target kurikulum tidak bisa persis seperti yang diterapkan untuk mahasiswa asing yang belajar di china. tujuan tersebut, misalnya, mensyaratkan pencapaian level tertentu dalam tes kompetensi bahasa mandarin internasional yang dikenal luas dengan sebutan new hsk (hanyu shuiping kaoshi). tes kompetensi bahasa mandarin internasional new hsk tersebut sebenarnya memudahkan penetapan target/tujuan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi di indonesia. meskipun penetapan target tidak harus persis sama dengan universitas di china, target disesuaikan dengan kondisi nyata berbagai faktor di masing-masing institusi. penetapan target berdasarkan new hsk ini tentu harus ada dasar pertimbangan yang bisa dipertanggungjawabkan, sehingga realistis dan dapat dicapai oleh mahasiswa. oleh karena itu dibutuhkan kajian keterkaitan new hsk dengan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi di indonesia. tulisan ini membahas keterkaitan antara new hsk dengan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi dengan studi kasus di jurusan sastra china di uk maranatha, bandung. tinjauan pustaka kurikulum dan tes bahasa (dalam tarigan, 1999:62– 63; 98–99) pendekatan sistematis terhadap kurikulum bahasa mencakup analisis kebutuhan, tujuan pengajaran, dan pengujian/testing, bahan ajar, dan pengajaran. unsurunsur tersebut kemudian dievaluasi terus-menerus untuk mencapai hasil terbaik. kegunaan pengujian atau tes dalam kurikulum merupakan salah satu fungsi sentral. pengujian atau tes sering kali merupakan komponen untuk penaksiran kebutuhan, yang sangat berpengaruh terhadap rancang bangun dan pelaksanaan suatu program bahasa, sehingga sangat berperan penting untuk pengembangan kurikulum bahasa. secara tradisional ada empat jenis tes yang umum digunakan, yaitu: tes kecakapan (proficiency test), untuk menguji seberapa baik seorang pembelajar dapat menggunakan suatu bahasa; tes tingkat (placement test), untuk menempatkan pembelajar pada tingkat yang tepat; tes prestasi (achievement test), untuk mengukur perolehan kecakapan berbahasa dari suatu program; dan tes diagnostik (diagnostic test), untuk mendiagnosa masalah pembelajaran, seperti kesulitan fonetik dan faktor-faktor lain. new hanyu shuiping kaoshi (new hsk) hsk (hanyu shuiping kaoshi) adalah sebuah perangkat tes bertaraf internasional untuk mengukur kemampuan bahasa mandarin bagi pembelajar asing. pada tahun 1991 hsk mulai digunakan secara internasional. hsk ini terbagi menjadi tiga tingkat/jenjang, dengan total 11 level, yaitu tingkat dasar (level 1–3), tingkat menengah (level 3–8), tingkat mahir (level 9–11). peserta ujian memilih tingkat yang ingin diikutinya dan hasil tes akan menentukan level yang dicapai. sejak november 2009, hsk tipe baru telah diterbitkan yang disebut new hsk. new hsk menggantikan hsk tipe lama, yang terdiri dari dari enam level terpisah. new hsk ini diterbitkan dengan berbagai pertimbangan ilmiah, antara lain karena kekosongan tes bahasa mandarin yang bisa diikuti oleh pembelajar pemula, yang baru belajar dalam waktu singkat dan baru menguasai sedikit kosakata. hal ini juga terkait dengan kepentingan penyebaran bahasa mandarin secara luas ke seluruh dunia. adapun ciri-ciri positif new hsk antara lain adalah (zhang jinjun dkk, 2010; hanban, 2009) sebagai berikut. pertama, menjunjung fungsi komunikatif dan standar. new hsk tingkat dasar dan menengah lebih menjunjung fungsi komunikatif berbahasa mandarin, sementara di tingkat mahir juga menekankan penggunaan bahasa mandarin yang tepat, akurat dan standar. kedua, terdiri dari dua sistem tes, yakni tes percakapan dan tes tertulis yang saling terpisah. new hsk terdiri dari dua sistem tes tertulis dan lisan yang terpisah. tes tulis terdiri dari enam level, dan tes lisan terdiri dari tiga tingkatan dasar, menengah, dan mahir. ketiga, secara umum lebih menekankan kemampuan mendengar dan berbicara. selain mendirikan tes lisan yang terpisah, dalam sistem tes tertulis pun porsi jumlah soal mendengar (listening) ratarata mencapai 50%. keempat, tes dan pengajaran saling selaras. sistem hsk lama dibuat terpisah dari sistem pengajaran atau buku teks bahasa mandarin yang beredar luas. sistem new hsk dibuat dengan pertimbangan adanya keselarasan antara pengajaran bahasa mandarin dengan tes kemampuan yang digunakan, sehingga mendorong siswa pembelajar untuk semakin meningkatkan diri dalam proses belajarnya. mengusung prinsip proses belajarmengajar sebagai yang utama, tes kemampuan sebagai penunjang. kelima, cakupan penggunanya luas. hsk tipe lama hanya terdiri dari 3 tingkatan (dasar, menengah, mahir) dengan rentang level per tingkat sangat sangat lebar, misalnya tingkat dasar mencakup level 1, level 2, dan level 3, dengan jumlah kosakata antara 400-3000. sehingga bagi pembelajar pemula yang ingin mengikuti tes untuk pertama kalinya harus juga mempelajari sebanyak 400-3000 kosakata sekaligus. sementara new hsk memberikan rentang pilihan level 1 (150 kosakata) sampai dengan level 6 (5000 kosakata) sesuai kebutuhan 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 pengguna. keenam, berbasis kosakata, dengan tetap memerhatikan penggunaan aksara han. new hsk menetapkan lingkup kosakata tertentu untuk setiap level secara realistis namun tetap mempertimbangkan penggunaan aksara han, sehingga pemilihan kosakatanya efektif. dengan demikian meskipun jumlah kosakata yang ditetapkan tiap level relatif terbatas, keefektifan penggunaan aksara han tetap, sehingga kualitasnya tetap terjaga. ketujuh, lingkup kosakata per level sangat jelas (lihat tabel 1). kedelapan, banyak menggunakan gambar untuk memudahkan komunikasi. kesembilan, untuk level 1 dan level 2 masih diberikan pinyin untuk memudahkan peserta. tabel 1 target jumlah kosakata new hsk level new hsk jumlah kosakata deskripsi total baru 1 150 150 dirancang untuk pembelajar yang bisa mengerti dan menggunakan beberapa aksara dan kalimat sederhana untuk berkomunikasi, dan mempersiapkan mereka untuk belajar bahasa mandarin lebih lanjut. 2 300 150 dirancang untuk pembelajar yang dapat menggunakan bahasa mandarin sederhana dan langsung, dan menerapkannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. 3 600 300 dirancang untukn pembelajar yang dapat menggunakan bahasa mandarin untuk memenuhi penggunaan dalam hidup sehari-hari, belajar, dan bekerja, dan dapat menyelesaikan sebagian besar dialog yang mereka temui. 4 1200 600 dirancang untuk pembelajar yang dapat berdiskusi menggunakan bahasa mandarin dalam berbagai topik yang relatif luas dan mampu berkomunikasi dengan pembicara asli dengan kualitas yang baik. 5 2500 1300 dirancang untuk pembelajar yang sudah dapat membaca surat kabar dan majalah berbahasa mandarin, menonton film berbahasa mandarin, serta mampu menulis dan menyampaikan pidato berbahasa mandarin yang cukup panjang. 6 5000 2500 dirancang untuk pembelajar yang dapat dengan mudah mengerti segala informasi yang disampaikan dalam bahasa mandarin dan dapat mengekspresikan diri dalam bahasa mandarin dengan lancar baik lisan maupun tulisan. tabel 2 mata kuliah bahasa mandarin dan perkiraan kosakata no semester kuliah mata kuliah keahlian bahasa mandarin (jurusan sastra china uk maranatha bandung 2013/2014: 3-5) jumlah sks jumlah jam pelajaran jumlah jam pelajaran ideal (li quan, 2011: i-vi) perkiraan jumlah kosakata baru per level (li quan, 2011) 1 tahun ke-1 semester 1 bahasa china terpadu pemahaman tulis pemahaman lisan percakapan 14 sks 168 332 750 2 semester 2 bahasa china terpadu pemahaman tulis pemahaman lisan percakapan 14 sks 168 332 750 3 tahun ke-2 semester 3 bahasa china terpadu pemahaman tulis pemahaman lisan percakapan mengarang dasar* 14 sks 168 270 850 4 semester 4 bahasa china terpadu pemahaman tulis pemahaman lisan percakapan mengarang dasar* 14 sks 168 270 850 5 tahun ke-3 semester 5 bahasa china terpadu pemahaman tulis pemahaman lisan percakapan menulis praktis* 10 sks 120 240 850 6 semester 6 bahasa china terpadu bahasa china media cetak* china today* percakapan 10 sks 96 240 850 7 tahun ke-4 semester 7 bahasa china terpadu* 2 sks 24 600 8 semester 8 bahasa china terpadu* 2 sks 24 600 jumlah 78 sks 912 1684 6100 19keterkaitan new hsk ….. (pauw budianto; noviana laurencia) kurikulum keahlian berbahasa mandarin di jurusan sastra china uk maranatha kurikulum jurusan sastra china uk maranatha didesain dengan jumlah total 144 sks, yang ditempuh dalam 8 semester, mencakup mata kuliah-mata kuliah keahlian berbahasa mandarin, pengetahuan bahasa mandarin, pengetahuan budaya china, mata kuliah penunjang dan mata kuliah umum baik tingkat fakultas maupun universitas, serta mata kuliah terkait tugas akhir. total sks mata kuliah keahlian berbahasa mandarin adalah 78 sks,terdiri dari mata kuliah bahasa china terpadu, pemahaman tulis, pemahaman lisan, percakapan, mengarang dasar, menulis praktis, bahasa china media cetak, dan china today, dengan total jam pelajaran sebanyak 912 jam pelajaran (1 jam pelajaran setara dengan 50 menit). buku teks yang digunakan untuk pengajaran keahlian berbahasa mandarin di jurusan sastra china saat ini adalah fazhan hanyu/developing chinese terbitan beijing language university, beijing, china (li quan, 2011) yang terdiri dari level dasar, menengah, dan mahir. beberapa mata kuliah disesuaikan oleh pengajar masing-masing. sebaran mata kuliah tersebut dalam kurikulum dapat dilihat dalam tabel 2. metode penelitian ini merupakan perpaduan penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif yang bersifat deskriptif analitis. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode survei dan kajian literatur. survei dilakukan dengan mengkaji hasil ujian simulasi new hsk yang diselenggarakan dalam beberapa tahun terakhir secara berkala di jurusan sastra china uk maranatha. kajian literatur meliputi kajian terhadap kurikulum akademik di jurusan sastra china uk maranatha, literatur terkait new hsk, buku teks bahasa mandarin yang digunakan di jurusan sastra china uk maranatha, kajian perbandingan capaian kosakata kurikulum dan new hsk, serta kajian dari literatur-literatur lainnya terkait teori kurikulum bahasa dan tes evaluasi proses pengajaran bahasa sebagai bahasa asing. hasil dan pembahasan perbandingan capaian kosakata kurikulum dan target kosakata new hsk dengan melihat tabel 3 yang mengacu pada capaian kosakata dalam kurikulum dan target kosakata new hsk dari level 1-6, dapat diamati bahwa jika faktor kemampuan penguasaan bahasa terutama hanya dilihat dari penguasaan kosakatanya, mahasiswa akan mencapai level tertinggi tes new hsk pada saat setelah menyelesaikan semester 6 dan/atau semester 7. artinya, tingkat jumlah kosakata yang dikenal atau dikuasai oleh mahasiswa pada saat memasuki semester 7 atau pada saat memasuki semester 8, dapat memenuhi tuntutan jumlah kosakata minimal untuk level 6 new hsk. hal ini memberi sinyal bahwa dengan kurikulum yang ada, prediksi optimis hanya bisa menargetkan mahasiswa untuk bisa lulus tes new hsk level 6 di semester 7 dan/atau 8. tabel 3 perbandingan capaian kosakata kurikulum dan kosakata new hsk tingkat/semester perkiraan jumlah kosakata per level buku teks (li quan, 2011) kosakata new hsk per level baru total level new hsk total baru tahun ke-1 semester 1 750 750 level 1 150 150 semester 2 750 1500 level 2 300 150 tahun ke-2 semester 3 850 2350 level 3 600 300 semester 4 850 3200 level 4 1200 600 tahun ke-3 semester 5 850 4050 level 5 2500 1300 semester 6 850 4900 level 6 5000 2500 tahun ke-4 semester 7 600 5500 semester 8 600 6100 dengan cara yang sama, prediksi optimis dapat dilakukan sebagai berikut. mahasiswa yang telah menyelesaikan semester 4 (sedang menempuh semester 5) setara dengan new hsk level 5; mahasiswa yang sudah menyelesaikan semester 2 (sedang menempuh semester 3) setara dengan new hsk level 4; mahasiswa yang telah menyelesaikan semester 1 (sedang menempuh semester 2) setara dengan new hsk level 3. prediksi ini dapat ditabulasi seperti pada tabel 4. hasil simulasi new hsk dan pembahasan survei terhadap hasil tes simulasi new hsk mahasiswa sastra china uk maranatha dalam beberapa tahun terakhir ditampilkan dalam tabel 5. tabel 4 perkiraan level new hsk berdasarkan kurikulum mahasiswa semester keprediksi level new hsk semester 1 semester 2 semester 3,4 semester 5,6 semester 7,8 level 2-3 level 3 level 4 level 5 level 6 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 dari tabel 5 nampak bahwa hasil tes simulasi menunjukkan hasil dengan tingkat kelulusan yang tinggi. anomali terjadi pada simulasi tes desember 2012 level 5 new hsk yang diikuti oleh mahasiswa semester 7 saat itu. data menunjukkan tingkat kelulusan 45% , dengan tingkat kegagalan yang lebih tinggi yakni 55%. akan tetapi, data ini terkoreksi setelah tahun berikutnya, pada desember 2013 diadakan tes simulasi level 5 untuk mahasiswa semester 7 tahun tersebut, dan menunjukkan hasil tingkat kelulusan 95%, dengan tingkat kegagalan yang hanya 5%. barangkali anomali ini disebabkan faktor adanya keberagaman mahasiswa yang mengikuti semester 7 saat itu, dimana sebagian mahasiswa adalah mahasiswa yang mengulang atau tinggal kelas, dengan tingkat kemampuan yang sangat heterogen. dari data, dapat diamati bahwa mahasiswa semester 1 yang baru kuliah selama 1 bulan, mampu lulus tes simulasi new hsk level 1 dengan tingkat kelulusan 93%. hal ini menunjukkan bahwa mahasiswa yang masuk jurusan sastra china uk maranatha pada tahun 2013 sebagian besar sudah pernah mengenal bahasa mandarin yang mungkin didapatkan dari bangku sekolah menengah. mahasiswa semester 3 yang mengikuti simulasi pada bulan september 2013 sebenarnya adalah mahasiswa yang baru 1 bulan mengikuti kuliah di semester 3, dan bisa dikatakan adalah mahasiswa yang baru menyelesaikan semester 2. data menunjukkan hasil simulasi yang sangat baik, dimana tingkat kelulusan untuk level 2 maupun level 3 adalah 100%. mahasiswa semester 5 yang mengikuti tes simulasi level 4 juga menunjukkan tingkat kelulusan yang sangat tinggi. tes ini diadakan pada bulan desember (2012 dan 2013), yang berarti bahwa mahasiswa yang mengikuti simulasi adalah mahasiswa yang sudah menempuh mata kuliah di semester 5, dan akan naik ke semester 6. data simulasi tahun 2013 menunjukkan adanya kenaikan signifikan dari hasil simulasi tahun 2012. ini menunjukkan target simulasi yang merupakan mahasiswa semester 5 semakin mempunyai kualitas kemampuan bahasa mandarin yang lebih baik dibandingkan degan angkatan sebelumnya. mahasiswa semester 6 dan 7 yang mengikuti tes simulasi new hsk level 5 menunjukkan hasil tingkat kelulusan yang sama-sama tinggi. tetapi dapat kita amati bahwa mahasiswa semester 7 mempunyai tingkat kelulusan yang lebih tinggi, yakni 95%, sementara mahasiswa semester 6 hanya mencapai tingkat kelulusan 80%. karena sebetulnya pada saat simulasi dilakukan, tabel 5 hasil simulasi new hsk level simulasi new hsk diikuti mahasiswa semester kedesember 2012 september 2013 desember 2013 maret 2014 lulus gagal lulus gagal lulus gagal lulus gagal level 1 semester 1 93% 7% level 2 semester 3 100% 0% level 3 semester 3 100% 0% level 4 semester 5 87.5% 12.5% 100% 0% level 5 semester 6 80% 20% level 5 semester 7 45% 55% 95% 5% mahasiswa semester 6 tersebut baru mengikuti perkuliahan di semester 6 selama kurang lebih 2 bulan atau setengah semester, sementara mahasiswa semester 7 yang saat itu mengikuti simulasi pada bulan desember merupakan mahasiswa yang sudah selesai menempuh perkuliahan di semester 7, dan akan memasuki semester 8. berdasarkan analisis terhadap hasil survei tes simulasi new hsk di atas, dapat ditarik kesimpulan sementara yang merefleksikan kondisi nyata pencapaian level new hsk oleh mahasiswa sastra china uk maranatha, ditabulasikan dalam tabel 6. tabel 6 perkiraan level new hsk berdasarkan tes simulasi mahasiswa semester keprediksi level new hsk semester 1 semester 2 semester 3 semester 4 semester 5 semester 6 semester 7 semester 8 level 1 level 2 level 3 level 3-4 level 4 level 4-5 level 5 level 5-6 prediksi kesetetaraan level new hsk di setiap jenjang kurikulum tabel 5 dan tabel 6 menunjukkan hasil prediksi level new hsk di setiap jenjang kurikulum. tabel 5 murni berdasarkan jumlah perkiraan capaian kosakata berdasarkan buku teks yang digunakan dalam kurikulum, sementara tabel 6 berdasarkan data hasil tes simulasi new hsk. data prediksi level new hsk berdasarkan kurikulum pada tabel 5 menunjukkan kecenderungan yang lebih tinggi di setiap jenjang dibandingkan data prediksi level new hsk berdasarkan tes simulasi pada tabel 6. perbedaan ini kemungkinan disebabkan oleh adanya ketimpangan jam pelajaran yang digunakan secara real dalam proses belajar mengajar sehari-hari dibandingkan jam pelajaran ideal yang dibutuhkan untuk menyelesaikan materi per jenjang kurikulum (lihat tabel 2), yang ratarata hanya setengahnya saja. sehingga kemungkinan besar jumlah kosakata yang ditargetkan kurikulum tidak sepenuhnya dikuasai oleh pembelajar. dengan membandingkan tabel 5 dan 6 tersebut, dapat disusun prediksi rata-rata level new hsk di setiap jenjang kurikulum, yang ditabulasikan dalam tabel 7 berikut. 21keterkaitan new hsk ….. (pauw budianto; noviana laurencia) tabel 7 prediksi rata-rata level new hsk di setiap jenjang kurikulum mahasiswa semester keprediksi level new hsk berdasarkan kurikulum prediksi level new hsk berdasarkan tes simulasi prediksi level new hsk rata-rata semester 1 semester 2 semester 3 semester 4 semester 5 semester 6 semester 7 semester 8 level 2-3 level 3 level 4 level 4 level 5 level 5 level 6 level 6 level 1 level 2 level 3 level 3-4 level 4 level 4-5 level 5 level 5-6 level 1-2 level 2-3 level 3-4 level 4 level 4-5 level 5 level 5-6 level 6 dari perkiraan rata-rata level new hsk per tingkat kurikulum dalam tabel di atas, dapat terlihat bahwa sebaran keenam level new hsk dalam 8 semester kurikulum tidak merata, dimana level 1-4 new hsk dapat tercapai hanya dalam empat semester (semester 1-4), sementara untuk mencapai level 5 dan 6 membutuhkan waktu yang sama, yakni empat semester juga (semester 5-8). hal ini merupakan salah satu kelemahan new hsk yang jarak antar levelnya tidak linear melainkan eksponensial, sehingga setiap level new hsk tidak dapat dilalui secara gradual oleh pembelajar, diperlukan waktu belajar yang jauh lebih panjang untuk mencapai dua level terakhir tingkat mahir (level 5-6). hal ini bisa menyebabkan menurunnya motivasi mahasiswa untuk meraih level tertinggi new hsk. simpulan pertama, new hsk selain berfungsi sebagai tes kecakapan (proficiency test), dapat juga berfungsi menjadi tes prestasi (achievement test) bagi mahasiswa program bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi saat ini, dan menjadi alat ukur komprehensif yang selaras dengan jenjang program bahasa mandarin dari tahun pertama sampai dengan tahun keempat atau dari semester 1 sampai dengan semester 8. kedua, new hsk juga dapat menjadi salah satu alat ukur bagi analisis kebutuhan kurikulum bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi saat ini. jika peta hasil pencapaian mahasiswa terhadap tes new hsk berubah, ini merupakan sinyal perlunya dilakukan kembali kajian kurikulum bahasa mandarin yang ada secara keseluruhan, untuk disesuaikan kembali dengan kebutuhan. kemudian, ketiga, sebagai masukan untuk jurusan sastra china atau bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi, perlu ada langkah konkret untuk melakukan integrasi new hsk sebagai tes prestasi bagi mahasiswa di setiap jenjang pendidikan per semester atau per tahun akademik. dengan demikian keberhasilan dan kebutuhan kurikulum pendidikan bahasa mandarin di perguruan tinggi akan makin terukur. keempat, sebagai simpulan terakhir, penelitian berpendapat new hsk jauh lebih baik dari dari versi yang lebih dahulu. akan tetapi, penelitian juga menyimpulkan, selain ciri-ciri positif tersebut, new hsk juga mempunyai kelemahan yang perlu mendapat perhatian baik oleh pengguna ataupun penyusun tes tersebut. pendapat penelitian, jarak antarlevel new hsk yang tidak bersifat linear, melainkan eksponensial, dirasakan loncatan yang sangat besar, terutama di level 4-5-6, yang membuat pembelajar tidak bisa secara gradual mencapai level tertinggi, bahkan mungkin bisa terhenti cukup lama di antara level-level tersebut. daftar pustaka confucius institute headquarters (hanban).(2009). materi presentasi pengenalan new hsk oleh sub divisi tes hanban china (ppt) di jakarta. hanban. (2012). struktur tes new hsk, dari http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hanyu_ shuiping_kaoshi jurusan sastra china uk maranatha bandung. (2013). buku panduan akademik. bandung: sastra china uk maranatha. li quan (editor utama).(2011). seri buku teks bahasa mandarin fazhan hanyu/developing chinese. edisi ke-2. beijing: beijing language university. tarigan, h. g. (1999). dasar-dasar kurikulum bahasa. edisi revisi. bandung: angkasa. zhang jinjun dkk.(2010). laporan penelitian hsk (hanyu shuiping kaoshi yanzhi baogao). diakses dari http://blog.sina.com.cn/zhangjinjun. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 233 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 233-239 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4235 effect of computer mediated communication and face-to-face communication on the students’ writing vita vendityaningytas1; erlik widiyani styati2 1,2department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas pgri jl. setiabudi no. 85, madiun, indonesia 1venditya@gmail.com; 2wistya@gmail.com received: 18th december 2017 /revised: 13th february 2018 /accepted: 27th february 2018 how to cite: vendityaningytas, v., & styati, e. w. (2018). effect of computer mediated communication and face-to-face communication on the students’ writing. lingua cultura, 12(3), 233-239. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4235 abstract this research aimed to investigate the effect of computer-mediated communication (cmc) and face-to-face (f2f) communication on the students’ writing. the subjects were the english department students of the fourth semester at the private university in madiun. the researchers employed the students in class a and b as the research subjects. the research method used was a quasi-experimental design. the research design was divided into pre-test, treatment, and post-test. both of the two groups were given pre-test to see the homogeneity of the two groups. the experimental group was given cmc, and the comparison group was given f2f communication. then, both of the two groups were given post-test. the data collection technique was done by giving the students a writing test. data analysis was done by employing the independent t-test. the result shows that the students’ writing after employing f2f communication is more effective than students’ writing after employing cmc. the students like to share the ideas directly than they employ cmc because it is more complicated. in addition, it is because the students find difficulty in sharing the ideas through cmc, so, f2f communication is better than cmc on the students’ writing quality. keywords: computer-mediated communication, face to face, writing introduction nowadays, many learning activities are based on the technology to support the 21st century of learning styles. students are encouraged to corporate themselves in using technology in the digital area. the use of the internet, mobile, online videos, and others medium are demanded to gain better learning quality. thus, the use of the computer as the medium of learning activities is usually used in the classroom. computer-mediated communication is one of the medium used in the target of learning. warschauer (1997) has stated that cmc technology has the features that make it possible to promote and to provide more chances in the learning process of interaction due to the use of the internet. furthermore, the research of cmc has been conducted by many researchers, such as alolimat and abuseileek (2015), becker-beck, wintermantel, and borg (2005), camacho (2008), cha (2007), daniels (2012), fageeh and mekheimer (2013); hardaker (2010), lo (2009), mahdi (2014), moloudi (2011), perry (2010); sapp and simon (2005); tidwell and walther (2002); and warschauer (1995). al-olimat and abuseileek (2015) have shown the highest significant mean scores and writing performance by using computer-mediated corrective. becker-beck, wintermantel, and borg (2005) have mentioned about interaction used in cmc units that contain a direct reference. camacho (2008) has focused on computer-mediated communication (cmc) on writing, cha (2007) has focused on communication modes on peer feedback pattern, daniels (2012) has established a strong social presence between students and the instructor in cmc. fageeh and mekheimer (2013) have studied using blackboard on cmc to teach academic writing. hardaker (2010) has studied about trolling in cmc, lo (2009) has focused on cmc in writing, mahdi (2014) has focused the implementation of cmc on fostering the language learning. moloudi (2011) has focused on online and f2f peer review, perry (2010) has studied about f2f and cmc, sapp and simon (2005) have studied about comparing online and f2f in writing. while tidwell and walther (2002) have studied computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations; and the last warschauer (1995) has focused on computer-mediated collaborative learning. all of the previous research has investigated the use of cmc and f2f communication in the teaching-learning process in the classroom. the use of cmc facilitates the students’ learning 234 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 233-239 in the classroom. there are two types of cmc, namely synchronous and asynchronous. the synchronous is done in the real time or the online discussion with one another. then, the asynchronous is done in the delayed time such as email. pour and tahriri (2016) have focused on the effect of synchronous cmc on efl (english as a foreign language) learners’ collaboration. cha (2007) have studied communication modes which focus on peer feedback pattern. the research has investigated the two different cmc modes namely synchronous and asynchronous on writing. the result has shown that there are different patterns on chatting as the synchronous modes and bulletin board as the asynchronous mode on efl writing classes. then, according to baltes et al. (2002), cmc may be an efficient mode of circulating the information. ocker and yaverbaum (1999) have studied asynchronous cmc. the result has indicated that asynchronous cmc is effective than f2f communication pertaining to the quality of learning, quality of the content, quality of the solution which are very satisfying. thus, many previous pieces of research have been conducted in the area cmcby using synchronous and asynchronous. the use of f2f communication brings the students to have better interaction directly in the teaching-learning process. it is a media communication used by the students to interact with one another in teaching learning in the classroom. the students can exchange their ideas in discussing the particular topic one another. meyer (2003) has focused on the research on using f2f communication to dig more the higher order thinking of the students. this research has provided many themes in the discussion using f2f communication. the result has indicated that the use of f2f communication effective to have better mode communication in the teaching and learning process. it has shown that f2f communication provides some reinforcement for affirming the higher-order thinking of the students and increases the number of responses in the integration of the teaching-learning process. the students participate in the discussion pertaining to the information and various activities to reinforce the ideas and promote better discussion. the use of cmc and f2f communication are also used in writing classroom for both of the esl (english as second language) and efl context. camacho (2008) has investigated about synchronous computer-mediated communication (scmc) on writing. the students in scmc outperform well than the other group on writing fluency. the students find that using scmc affects the positive benefit in term of linguistics on writing. fageeh and mekheimer (2013) have investigated on using blackboard on cmc to teach academic writing. it has aimed to improve the students’ attitude on academic writing. the result has shown that the use of blackboard on cmc facilitates students’ to improve the students’ writing, creates interactions on collaboration, and reinforces to do scaffolding on learning within their online community. ho and savignon (2007) have investigated f2f and computer-mediated peer review in efl writing. li and zhu (2013) have researched small writing group using wikis to see the pattern of cmc effective or not. the results of the research indicate that the evaluation of individual work needs to be emphasized so as to facilitate equal contribution and reciprocal interaction. furthermore, perry (2010) has examined differences modes of communication on using f2f and cmc are experienced for individuals communicating with the other students in partner discussion. thus, f2f communication is formed in pair discussion for the students and used in writing class. the researchers have found the limitation or discrepancy on the previous research on cmc and f2f communication on the students’ writing. ho (2015) has mentioned that the investigation aims to pair up the procedure on the different modes of communication in the different group. it might affect the quality of the students’ learning on peer and discussion. the experimental might be conducted to see the effectiveness of the modes. thus, the researchers formulate the research problem as, “do the students who are taught by using cmc have better writing quality than the students who are taught by using f2f communication? furthermore, this research is intended to know whether the effect of cmc is effective than f2f communication on the students’ writing quality. methods the research investigates the effect of cmc and f2f communication on the students’ writing quality. it is conducted at the university level at the english department of universitas pgri madiun. all the students at the fourth semester of english department are the population of the research. there are 52 students in an intact class. the participants are 26 students in the experimental group and 26 students in the comparison group. the procedures of using cmc and f2f communication are divided into different teaching practices. the two different teaching practices are conducted in the experimental group and the comparison group. the use of cmc is conducted in the experimental group and the use of f2f communication in the comparison group, the design can be seen in figure 1. experimental study group experimental (cmc) group comparison (f2f) figure1 design experimental study the activity of using cmc is divided into some stages. first, the students are given the topic to be discussed in the asynchronous or in the delayed time. the students are sent the topics to be written in good form of writing. there is no explanation in this teaching practice. the students are only asking one another with their friends during the writing time. after finishing their writing, they submit the result in the final draft to the lecturers by sending the lecturer an email. by this activity, the lecturer could assess the students’ writing. it is to know whether this strategy helps the students well or otherwise, they find the difficulty in writing. the activity of using f2f communication is conducted in the conventional teaching such as in the pair work discussion. there are three stages in this activity namely opening, whilst, and closing activity. in the opening activity, the main activity is motivating the students to join the teaching-learning process well. the whilst activities are: (1) the students are paired in randomly, (2) the lecturer explains the topics to the students, (3) they are given opportunities to discuss together to find or share the ideas 235effect of computer.... (vita vendityaningytas; erlik widiyani styati) about the topic they are going to write, (4) after discussing about the topic they begin writing individually. finally, the closing activities are given chances to the students to ask question referring to the topic and ask them whether f2f communication provides them a lot or not in preparing their ideas before they start writing. to collect the data in this research, it is done by giving the students the test. writing test is given to the students to see which treatment is effective in helping the students in writing. the researchers make the writing test about the argumentative essay. argumentative essay is one of the types of the writing which the students should master well on writing skill. it is constructed before the research is employed. the validity of the writing test is obtained from the construct and content validity. the construct validity is fulfilled when the writing prompt requires the students to write, and there is a scale to assess. then, the content validity is seen from the coverage of the task. the reliability is obtained from the use of inter-rater reliability test. the researchers involve the inter-raters to know the consistency of the test. the raters are given the training to assess the students’ writing. the raters are involved to avoid the biased judgment of the writing score. the two raters are also involved in scoring the writing test. the researchers also construct the scoring rubric of writing that is based on the organization, content, grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary. to analyze the data which are collected from the students’ writing, statistical product and service solution (spss) 17 is used. the descriptive statistics and independent t-test are used to measure any statistically significant differences in the result of students’ writing both of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. the researchers use the significance level of .05. two hypotheses are testing to be used to discuss the result of the research. the hypotheses are; ho: there is no significant difference between the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. h1: there is the significant difference between the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. results and discussions the description of this research is explained based on the analysis of the students’ score in pre-test and posttest. the groups are treated in different treatments. the experimental group is given cmc, and the comparison group is given f2f communication. there are four tables in the following which can provide the findings’ description. table 1 provides the descriptive statistics pre-test both of the two groups which are employed computer-mediated communication and face-to-face communication. table 2 provides the independent sample t-test of the pre-test both of the two groups which are treated by cmc and f2f communication. table 3 provides descriptive statistics post-test both of the two groups which are employed cmc and f2f communication. while table 4 provides the independent sample t-test of the post-test both of the two groups; cmc and f2f communication. table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of pre-test both of two groups which are treated by cmc and f2f. it shows the number of the subjects, mean, the standard deviation, and standard error deviation of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. there are 26 students in both of the two groups (cmc and f2f). the mean of the cmc is 73,0385, and the mean of f2f communication is 72,4615. the standard deviation of cmc is 6,47754, and the standard deviation of f2f is 7,42014. the standard error mean of cmc is 1,27035 and standard error mean of f2f is 1,45521. the results of the two groups show the actual difference. this means that there is no significant difference between both of the two groups of cmc and f2f. it means that the two groups are homogenous. furthermore, table 2 is an independent sample t-test to show the significant difference between the two groups. table 1 descriptive statistics of pre-test both of groups which are employed cmc and f2f f2f n mean std. deviation std. error mean cmc 1,00 26 73,0385 6,47754 1,27035 2,00 26 72,4615 7,42014 1,45521 table 2 shows the result of the independent sample t-test of pre-test both of two groups which are treated by cmc and f2f. the independent t-test is used to see the homogeneity of the two groups. it is used to provide whether the two groups of cmc and f2f communication in the same ability to be continued in the next stages. the result of the sig. is 0,152. it can be seen from the levene’s test for equality of variances. it indicates that the result exceeds the level significance of 0,05. the complete table of the result can be seen in appendix 1. this means that there is no significant difference between both of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. thus, ho cannot be rejected. this result shows that the two groups are homogenous. furthermore, the two groups are given the treatments of cmc and f2f communication. table 3 descriptive statistics of post-test both of group which is employed cmc and f2f f2f n mean std. deviation std. error mean cmc 1,00 26 81,7308 3,21941 0,63138 2,00 26 86,6154 1,44435 0,28326 table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of post-test both of two groups which are treated by cmc and f2f. the results show the number of the students, the mean, the standard deviation, and standard error deviation of the two groups of both. there are 26 students in both of the two groups (cmc and f2f). the mean of the cmc is 81,7308, and the mean of f2f communication is 86,6154. the standard deviation of cmc is 3,21941, and the standard deviation of f2f is 1,44435. the standard error mean of cmc is 0,63138 and standard error mean of f2f is 0,28326. the result shows that the mean of f2f communication is higher than the group of cmc. there is significant difference means both of the two groups. furthermore, table 4 is the independent sample t-test to show the significance of the two groups. table 4 shows the result of the independent sample t-test of pre-test both of two groups which are treated by cmc and f2f. the independent t-test is used to see a 236 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 233-239 significant difference between both of the two groups. the result of the sig. is 0,000. it can be seen from the t-test for equality of means. it indicates that the result is lower than the significance level of 0,05. the complete table of the result can be seen in appendix 2. this means that there is a significant difference between both of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. thus, ho can be rejected. furthermore, the result of face-to-face communication is better than the group which is treated by cmc. the results of pre-test both of the two groups are homogenous. it can be seen from the mean both of the two groups which do not show the actual difference. the mean of the cmc is 73,0385, and the mean of f2f communication is 72,4615. it is also found that the significance level of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication exceeds the level of significance. the result of the sig. is 0,152. it can be seen from the levene’s test for equality of variances. thus, the groups are homogenous before both of the two groups are given the treatment by using cmc and f2f communication. the results of post-test both of the groups show the actual difference of means. the mean of the cmc is 81,7308, and the mean of f2f communication is 86,6154. the result shows that the mean of f2f communication is higher than the group of cmc. it can be stated that the use of f2f communication is better than the use of cmc. the result of the sig. is 0,000. it can be seen from the t-test for equality of means. it indicates that the result is lower than the significance level of 0,05. this means that there is a significant difference between both of the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. the result of the research shows that f2f communication is better than cmc on the students’ writing. the previous hypotheses which are mentioned that ho which stands for there is no significant difference between the two groups of cmc and f2f communication can be rejected. thus, h1 is accepted that there is the significant difference between the two groups of cmc and f2f communication. there are many reasons and implications that the use of f2f communication is helping the students to gain better writing that succeeds to help the students in writing activity. the use of f2f communication makes the students more understandable in communicating with one another for exchanging or sharing the ideas. becker-beck, wintermantel, and borg (2005) have found f2f communication effects the students in writing. f2f communication is better than cmc on the students’ writing. it is effective in helping the students’ work on writing. the students share the ideas directly without waiting for the internet connection to share with the other friends. moreover, f2f communication makes the students interact with one another on their discussion. unlike, the students who write by using cmc only performs better at generating tasks. it requires little richness of communication environment. using f2f communication can strengthen the good communication and achieve social constructivism. vygotsky (1978) has mentioned that the discussion one another student can gain social constructivism and collaboration. using f2f communication creates social constructivism and interact one student with another student. daniels (2012) has found that f2f can be used to integrate the students’ attitude and the students’ social-emotional in the learning activity. the students are more active in writing and become competitive to assert themselves in their discussion to start writing. it considers the students become autonomy in teaching and learning community. it contrasts with the previous research findings from lo (2009). he has reported that using online mode helps the students seek the solution to solve the problems in teaching activity. the use of cmc is suggested to use the tool and open sources relating to the material. cmc affects the students’ task in the classroom. it is used to communicate, discuss, and co-build the knowledge from the collected information by using technology and using the internet connection. it is the weakness of cmc that the students cannot discuss directly. this means that the communication is delayed until the students have found the connection to exchange their information. ho (2015) has found f2f communication is effective in helping the students to solve their writing problem. it constructs their thinking before the students start to write. then, the use of f2f communication also affects the students’ preferences in interacting with others. the students feel that f2f communication is directing them to share the ideas directly than using the online mode of communication such as cmc. the students’ behaviors are also affected during the entire discussion in f2f communication. so, f2f is better to help the students in sharing the ideas to build the social constructivism. using f2f communication can improve the component of writing such as grammar, vocabulary, organization, and style. jones et al. (2006) have found that the students’ writing in f2f communication is closed on the main issues of grammar, vocabulary, and style. f2f communication helps the students to write effectively according to the writing aspect specifically on grammar, vocabulary, and style. in addition to, wichadee (2013) has mentioned that using f2f communication can support the students in one another in writing activity. the students review and give suggestion directly on how to start writing. the students can motivate one another directly in writing activity. the use f2f communication can promote interaction with one another in giving review and suggestion on the aspect of grammar, vocabulary, and style of the students’ writing. furthermore, it can be said that f2f communication is more effective in producing writing quality than cmc. f2f communication is easier and more natural than in online discussions. qiyun and huay (2007) have reported that f2f communication is the efficient medium of communication in writing. it supports multicommunications, provides more social interaction, and leads the direct clarifications. in addition to, ho and savignon (2007) have investigated the global issue of writing on f2f communication that has focused on peer review. the students have to give the review, comment, and also the suggestion to others students’ writing that helps the students to improve the writing. the students are not only provided written feedback but also given chances to clarify ideas and exchange opinions one another. on the other hand, using cmc makes the students have to rely only on feedback on the document itself without communicating directly. furthermore, the use of f2f communication is effective in giving the students peer review, easier, and more natural than cmc. in conclusion, the effect of f2f communication is better than cmc on the students’ writing. there are many reasons to support the result of f2f towards the students’ writing quality. the reasons are: (1) f2f communication makes the students more understandable in communicating with one another for exchanging or sharing the ideas, (2) f2f communication can strengthen the good communication and achieve social constructivism, (3) f2f 237effect of computer.... (vita vendityaningytas; erlik widiyani styati) communication can improve the component of writing such as grammar, vocabulary, organization, and style, and (4) f2f communication is easier and more natural than in online discussions. conclusions this research depicts that there is the significant difference between the use of cmc and f2f communication towards on the students’ writing quality. the use of f2f communication is better than the use of cmc that the result is different from the hypotheses testing which is ample in the beginning. there are many reasons that the effect of f2f communication is effective. it makes the students more understandable in exchanging or sharing the ideas before the students start writing. besides that, it can strengthen the communication of the students and improve the students writing component, and it is more natural and easier done in the classroom. this research has the limitation that can be done for the future research or investigation. it is suggested to do the research on the cmc and f2f communication on the writing quality and writing performance. it can incorporate the students’ learning styles and the different task of writing in using cmc and f2f communication. it is hoped better result for the future research. references al-olimat, s. i., & abuseileek, a. f. 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(2-tailed) mean difference std. error difference lower upper var00001 equal variances assumed 2,118 0,152 0,299 50 0,766 0,57692 1,93169 -3,30299 4,45683 equal variances not assumed 0,299 49,105 0,766 0,57692 1,93169 -3,30474 4,45859 appendix 2 table 4 independent sample t-test (post-test both of groups which is employed cmc and f2f) levene's test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means 95% confidence interval of the difference f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference std. error difference lower upper var00001 equal variances assumed 10,680 0,002 -7,059 50 0,000 -4,88462 0,69201 -6,27456 -3,49468 equal variances not assumed -7,059 34,672 0,000 -4,88462 0,69201 -6,28994 -3,47929 microsoft word 03_mariana.docx the social status of ….. (mariana) 143 the social status of female characters in chi li’s novels 池莉小说中女性的社会地位 mariana chinese departmentfaculty of humaniora, bina nusantara university jln kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 enc0r3_she@yahoo.com 摘要 池莉是一个新写实女作家,作品是以武汉地区的老百姓为主题,内容描写了武汉生活中的 形形色色。池莉的作品根据不同的阶段具有不同的社会背景,第一阶段是 20 世纪 80 年代初, 也称学步期,第二阶段是 20 世纪 80 年代中到 90 年代中,也称成名期,最后是 90 年代末到现 在,称发展期。根据不同的阶段池莉所塑造的女性也具有不同的社会地位以及生存方法。第一 阶段池莉所塑造的女性具有传统文化的观念,那些女性既没有独立人格的理想,也没有社会的 地位。到了第二个阶段池莉所创造的女性已能够从男性的困境中逃出来,这个阶段的女性已开 始能够在社会里寻找她们的生存理想和地位。虽然在第二阶段池莉所塑造的女性已经能够在社 会里已开始独立的生存,但因为传统观念的约束使她们离不开三从四德的思想以及服从男性的 理想。第三个阶段池里所塑造的女性已经有了个人的理想和想法,她们已慢慢脱离男性对于她 们的约束,开始独立,甚至敢于不靠男性生存。 关键词:池莉小说 女性 社会地位 abstract chi li is a novelist writing “new realism” novels based on the custom of wu han people. chi li’s works have different social background according to different period stages. the first period of her works was at early 80s called beginner period. the second period was at mid 80s until mid 90s called famous period. the last period was at the end of 90s until now called evolution period. chi li created different female characters on different work stages. at the first period, chi li described the females were still obedient to the tradition. their self-determination consciousness was weak and depended to men. at the second period, chi li’s female characters were changed into awaken ones who sought a new way of life. they could survive and make life by themselves, but the traditional concepts still influenced their thoughts. they still believed that devotion to men was the life idealism. meanwhile, strong personality, strong self-determination consciousness, independence were female characters found in chi li’s last period works. keywords: novel, new realism, female character, social background 144 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 143-148 前言 人类两性地位的变化,是与生产力的发展分不开的。原始社会时期,生产力极其低下,社 会充满了恐惧与威胁,人们经常因为各种原因而死亡,导致人口数量锐减,而人口数量对于一 个氏族的生存尤为重要。于是人们一方面想办法让自己活下去,另一方面则把希望寄托于生出 更多的孩子来,这使女性受到人们的崇拜,这应该是中国女性最值得骄傲的时期———母系氏 族时期。生活在这个时期的女性应该说是“生正逢时”。虽然她们不能和现代的女性相比,但 是最起码在男人面前还是有身份有地位的。然而封建私有制的出现却彻底改变了她们的命运, 而且这一改变就是两千多年。 从社会发展的进程来看,中国的封建时期创造了许多光辉灿烂的文化对后世影响之深,流 传之厂,使历史一大进步,但是从女性的地位来看,却是一段苦难的历史,生活在这一漫长历 史时期的女性,与其是说在生活,不如是说在炼狱,她们除了感慨自己生不逢时,还能怎样选 择呢?封建社会在前期父系氏族取代母系氏族的转变以及西周与嫡长子继承者为核心的宗法制 度等因素影响下,男子已完完全全占统治地位,封建“家长制度”也已形成。妇女在男权的统 治下逐渐退出了国家经政治济的领域,没落到家庭领域的最底层,从而导致女性作为社会人身 份的缺失。其表现在:在封建家庭中,一切家产的支配权和家务的管理权都统一掌握在男性家 长手里。 男性权利的膨胀首先使女性退出了经济舞台。她们生产的丝织品不能独立的处置,必须依 附于男性才能体现其价值,她们独立向国家交的赋税也被分配在男人名下,这就说明女性已经 失去了独立的经济支配权,她们的人生价值将通过男人来实现。而女性一旦失去了对立的经济 能力,那么意味着她们已经沦落为男人的附属品,至此对于男人而言,他便已经确立了自己至 高无上的权利。其实现代社会也一样的,女人一旦失去经济能力,那是很可悲的。 而如今虽然已经讲究“男女平等”,但还有的地方还明显表露“重男轻女”的思想,在家 庭里有的女生虽然生活在当代的社会,但仍抱着不生男不罢休的思想。由此看来封建社会男尊 女卑的观念在当时的社会占有着何等的高度。封建社会的女子根本没有机会也没有权力去学校 受教育,只能在家中接受有别于男子的有限的“女教”即用规矩劝告戒的方式秀导,劝说妇女 从小到大的行为举止应该如何做,以符合封建礼教的规范,使得妇女从内心到外表自觉自愿地 服从父权和夫权,根本不可能像现在的女性可以接受和男生同等的关于社会,自然、经济、人 生等的教育,因而“三从四德”使成了她们认识社会和处世的社会道德的规范,恭顺便成了她 们的生存准则,生育便成了她们的生活意义,“女子无才便是德”就成了一句极富赞美的话了, 可是我们从这声赞美中听到的却是来自远古的悲凉。 随着时代的变化社会对男女之间的教育已开始有了平等的待遇,可随如此还是明显表露出 不平等的地位以及义务。就拿现代女性的地位,就算她们已受到高等的教育但还是离不开“女 生干得好不如嫁得好”的道理。这句话表示无论女性在社会里如何努力的表现她们自己,永远 也不会达到像男性受到的待遇。在社会眼里女性虽然干得好但要是她们在家庭方面仍干的不好 就等于达不到标准的女生。因此女性在社会里生存。必须面对社会对于她们的两职要求,也就 是说除了能够在社会里生存,同时也必须能做个好妻子、 好母亲才算有稳重的社会的地位。 池莉的作品按照阶段也有所不同,第一阶段池莉所塑造的女性因为比较传统,缺少受教育, 在社会里面也无法独立,因此她们比较有依赖性。第二个阶段的女性虽然在社会上有了一定的 地位,也已经收到了跟男性一样的教育,但还受到社会的偏见。有的女性因为社会的变化而慢 慢地改变自己,饮水思源,我们可以把这些女性列为自我觉醒女性。有的女性在社会的变化中 the social status of ….. (mariana) 145 接受不了新的思想使她们变的堕落,我们可以把这些女性列为沉浸于封建思想的女性。第三个 阶段作者所塑造的女性已经能在社会上有了一定的位置,她们变得独立,甚至有的女性能够不 靠男人而活下去。我们可以把这些女性称为自立自主的女性。 具有封建思想的女性 池莉是一个写实的作家,因此她展示的小说是社会的镜子。作者在第一阶段所塑造的女性 虽然生活在现代社会,但因为那时候的女性还缺乏教育,所以她们的思想具有封建的思想,加 上环境还没有脱离传统观念, 使那时代的人较重男轻女,而池莉在第一阶段所塑造的女生的 自我依赖比较强,她们还没办法独立生活。如《月儿好》的明月好和《细腰》的她,她们的人 生目标就是为了能够好好找个依靠夫唱妇随。 《月儿好》的明月好,从小已经是个孤儿,被人家卖了当个童养媳。从小已经失去了择偶 的资格。为了能当个李尚宾的好老婆她逼着自己配合李尚宾,为了能成为匹配的妻子她愿意跟 着李尚宾读书认字。为了支持李尚宾,明月好痴痴地等待李尚宾出去念书。谁知道命运玩弄她, 李尚宾毕业了以后就跟城市女孩儿结了婚。被抛弃的明月好只好听人家的安排嫁给陌生人。刚 结婚几年丈夫就死了,她必须独自一个人照顾两个孩子。明月好的日子遇到很多波折,但在面 对问题的时候明月好从头到尾一直没有自己的主张选择她想要的事情,而她的人生一直被别人 安排。 《细腰》里的她把自己花在对婚姻爱情的等待上,她丝毫都没有为自己的未来着想。当她 所等待的男人回来的时候,她想尽办法好好的招待他像上帝一般。她甘愿固守着家,等着男性 的光临,她能满足于自己为他营造的夜鸟归巢,满足于自己所扮演的倾听着的角色。她能回首 着他在外面世界的所有苦恼、烦恼和焦虑,再将它们转化为微笑、愉悦和安详回赠给他。从这 个人物我们能看到她是一个典型的为男性制造的传统女性,她对于她自己的未来一点儿都没有 思想与主张。 以上的两个女性是典型的具有封建社会思想的女性,对于她们的未来两者一点儿想法都没 有,她们把性命献给男性,认为结婚生子是她们的人生重大事件。面对困难时她们只能做出接 受命运的心态,并且听从人家的安排。在这个阶段池莉想要让读者明白一个女性只要拥有一。 个家庭就能够在社会里立柱。她们甚至敢为了这样的身份地位而抛弃名利与爱情。这样悲惨的 命运从古到今以生存在每个女性的思想里。 具有改革思想的女性 文革期间政府开始实行所谓的男女平等,在社会里不只男性有一定的职业,女性也必须担 起赚钱的责任,这样的变化造成女性有了各种各样的反应,有的容易接受而把握这次机会改造 自己,有的因为从小已经被塑造成为男性的附属品而无法接受这个事实,甚至有的试着接受与 面对这样的变化但到最后无法继续下去而崩溃,各种各样的反应引起了作者在第二阶段塑造了 不一样的女性形象。作者在这个阶段塑造的女性形象有两种,第一是自我觉醒的女性,第二是 沉浸于封建思想的女性。 (一)自我觉醒的女性 作者第二个阶段里塑造了一个拥有封建思想的女性,但因为环境的变化以及她们所 吸收的经验引起那些女性在她们的生活中发生了变化,像脱胎换骨一样的变化。如《不 谈爱情》的吉玲和《太阳出世》的李小兰。 146 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 143-148 《不谈爱情》里的吉玲出身于底层阶级的女性,从小一直住在花楼街,是一个贫民 的环境。吉玲的母亲是个老来变胖的邋遢女人,喜欢坐在大门敞开的堂屋里独自玩扑克 牌,松弛无力的唇边叼一支香烟,任凭烟灰一节节滑落在油腻的前襟上。父亲从十三岁 起就到馨香茶叶店当徒工。熏得一身茶香,面色青白,十指纤细柔弱,又出落了一张巧 嘴巴。其巧有二:一是品茶,二是善谈。属于那种不管对象是谁都能聊个天昏地暗的人 物。五个女儿全都讨厌父亲,公开地不指名地叫他为"鼻涕虫",因为几个女儿先后找的 几个男朋友都因为被父亲粘住大谈其花楼街掌故和喝茶的讲究而告失败。吉玲的四个姐 姐在这事上都是自己蹦哒过一阵子,其中两个姐姐还未婚先孕,但终归哭呀闹呀的没成 功,最后还是由介绍人牵线搭桥完的事。四个姐夫第一个是皮鞋店售货员,第二个是酱 油厂工人,第三个是铁路上搬道岔的,第四个是老亏本也不知做什么生意的个体户,腰 里总是别一把弹簧刀惶惶如丧家之犬。对这群人,吉玲眼角都不斜他们。眼看母亲、姐 姐又在为自己蠢蠢欲动,吉玲说: “我的事不用你们管。我自己解决。”因为这样的 困境使她厌恶这样的生活,并且不像历史重演,因此她想要改造自己的命运,找个社会 地位比她高的男生结婚。虽然后来她达到了目的,但是男生的家长完全不同意他们在一 起,甚至不把吉玲当一回事,结果牺牲的终究是吉玲和她的家人的自尊与面子。吉玲利 用她的婚姻改造她在社会的地位,虽然她必须受到丈夫与丈夫的家人的鄙视,但对于她 来说这样的牺牲使她获得她想要的生活环境。 《太阳出世》中的李小兰出生于干部的家庭,因此她从小没有吃过苦。面对婚姻生 活时才发现生活没有她想象的那么容易。最明显的是当李小兰在怀孕期间瘦成了一根蒜 苗,颧骨处出现了大片的棕色妊娠斑,腹部像营养不良的小孩一样膨胀着。孩子生出来 以后,为了能够给孩子过上好日子,双职工的李小兰和赵胜天辛辛苦苦找个工资不高的 保姆帮他们看孩子。为了能让孩子健康成长,她和丈夫付出了他们所有的积蓄买最好的 奶粉给孩子吃,而且还受了家长的批评。李小兰在建立她的小家庭和面对社会的险恶当 中学习了如何在社会里活下去,并且付出一切代价为身边的人而生活。 (二)沉浸于封建思想的女性 池莉所塑造的女性有的还具有传统的观念。当社会改变了女性就要面对新的思想, 而有些女性因为从小已经受到封建思想的影响,面对新的社会环境她就没法独立,因她 们没有具备那些知识,加上她们还没有思想的准备,因此引起她们在面对新的社会时, 她们会表现出保留传统思想,甚至反抗那些改变。有的女性面对新的环境就变得脆弱, 甚至因跟不上社会的要求而崩溃。像池莉塑造的《一夜盛开如玫瑰》的苏素怀和《你是 一条河》的辣辣,她们在面对新的思想的时候发生了抗拒。 池莉在《一夜盛开如玫瑰》中所塑造的苏素怀是一个沉醉于浪漫激情之中的女性。 为了显示女性浪漫梦想的悲剧性质,池莉将这个女人设计成一个成熟而有实力的女人, 试图以此通过其最后的可怜命运,来显衬浪漫梦想带给女性的莫大伤害。走在夜色中的 苏素怀,并不知晓自己会成为男人的猎物,因为她根本没有意识到这是属于男人的夜。 形单影孤的她,在这样一个夜晚,甚至还满怀着渴求浪漫的幽怨:“她既然如此忧伤, 为什么在她离婚之后就再也没有男人追求她?为什么在一个偶然开会开得晚了的夜晚, 她的身边竟没有一个送她也归的人?”从这里就看得出来,此刻的苏素怀尽管已经经历 过一次离婚,却对男人还没有完全失望,她对男生的依赖性还很强,甚至对爱情的信仰 也仍然没有幻灭。因此她在这样的环境等于是一个很容易被捕获的猎物。虽然“毫无疑 问的苏素怀是一个很有地位很有名气的人”,并且“无论是白天还是夜晚,苏素怀永远 是智慧与冷峻”,但是这并不足以防范女性浪漫弱点所招致的危险。所以当陌生的男性 出租车司机蓦然闪现在苏素怀的身旁时,我们就看到,她的“智慧与冷峻”的防堤立即 the social status of ….. (mariana) 147 决口了。她一次又一次被出租车司机从曼柔情的话语和动作所击中。在招架及迎合这个 男人“无声的扩张和侵略”的过程中,苏素怀不知不觉“拥有了一种小羔羊般的迷人情 调”。浪漫的游戏伊始,苏素怀便提前入戏,自动作了对方的俘虏。虽然她一直保持着 清醒的身份意识,告诫自己“他只是一个出租车司机而已!”但是她仍旧没有办法阻止 自己在分别时,献上“很长很长的很深入很深入的一个亲吻”。池莉于此提供的这一浪 漫游戏,自始至终就是缺乏诚意的。彬彬有礼的外表之下,掩饰的是不动声色的性别较 量。双方谁都没有像彼此真正袒露心迹。但问题是,一旦步入这种游戏,在池莉看来, 女生从来是不可能像男性那样做到超然物外的。最后,女性总会主动变为表演者,而男 性则始终是一个冷静的看客。因此到头来,受伤的就只能是女性了。所以,在这场浪漫 游戏的尾声中,我们看到,当苏素怀得知那位出租车司机告诉自己的电话和姓名全是假 的时,她发生了“人生第一次崩溃”,结果不得不被人送进精神病院。这就证明苏素怀 在她的生活中虽然已经吸收了一定的学问,在社会里也有了一定的地位,但对于男生的 依赖性还是很明显的。她没办法从她的封建思想脱身,也没办法不靠男人生活下去。 《你是一条河》中的辣辣把她的生命献给了孩子。为了能当个好妻子辣辣生了很多 孩子证明了她是一个贤妻良母,当丈夫死了她试着寻死,丈夫的死对于辣辣来说是一种 很大的打击和转折,辣辣的人生此地改变了。辣辣独自养活了她那八个孩子,忍辱负重 的面对残酷的社会,这一切都是为了“吃饱穿暖”这四个字。 孩子的不理解使她必须 接受孩子的冷眼与反抗,面对孩子的批评辣辣只能把孩子的话当着耳边风。辣辣完全不 注意和重视社会的巨大变化,因此无法理解孩子离家出走的想法。为了混口饭吃辣辣甚 至愿意违背道德允许孩子偷窃东西。为了不像添加任何麻烦辣辣拒绝所有接近她的男生 继续当个寡妇。晚年的辣辣还一直为长大的孩子操心是因为她根本无法接受孩子的变化。 从池莉的作品能看到,池莉所塑造的女性在于面对社会的变化具有各种各样的反应, 但为了适应社会的要求她们在变化当中还保留着传统的思想。她们仍离不开封建的思想。 表面上说男女已开始平等,实际上她们仍渴望被男性保护,仍渴望拥有完整的家。这就 证明在这个阶段虽然已经发生了改革,虽然口口声声说男女开始平等,但女性仍摆脱不 了女性该应尽的义务。在这样的变化池莉所塑造的女性为了能够在社会里保留她们一定 的地位,就使用不同的方法试着适应社会的要求。 具有自立自主思想的女性 池莉在第三个阶段的作品中将女性人物形象放到了一个新的位置上,池莉所塑造的女性已 经完全脱离男性,因为她们在社会上已经得到了解放,使她们将托举上历史的舞台,要求她们 和男人一样承担公民的义务责任,接受男性社群的全部行为推测,在一个阶段的、无差异的社 会中与男人并肩作战;而在另一方面,因为她们已经意识到自己的位置,使她们更清楚地能看 到男人最丑陋的一面。 在这个阶段的女性会因为受到不公平的命运而抗争,能为了找回自己 的尊严而不断进步的充分体现。笔者想要把池莉笔下的《生活秀》的来双杨和《口红》里江晓 歌作为自主自立的代表。 《生活秀》中的来双杨从小过着苦哈哈的日子,母亲从小已去世,父亲因为受不了而跟别 的女人私奔。长女的来双扬为了养活弟弟妹妹从小已经在家门口卖油炸臭干子。虽然后来已经 有了自己的事业,但是她要担起的责任很大,要为侄子提供好的教育条件,供他以后出国,要 为妹妹解决单位的管理费,又要为弟弟违法提供毒资给他吸,还要解决老房子的产权问题以及 自己的感情问题。虽然这些都是生活琐事,但没有任何人能够帮得了她,也没有任何人能够成 为她的依靠,成为她诉苦的对象,然而面对那么多的困难的时候来双杨并不灰心,她能够冷静 地思考,利用任何机会,甚至能够果断地判断事情。来双杨就这样用自己的力量去寻找生活的 意义。她又有着极为浓厚的传统的家本位思想,她的家就是由侄子、妹妹和弟弟构成的,她为 148 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 143-148 了他们的生存而努力地生存。她以现代意识于一身顽强坚韧的生活,展示了独立自主,拼搏奋 斗的市民女性的精神文化品格。 《口红》中的江晓歌是个有思想、有个性具有现代女性的品质。她选择了自己的配偶,胆 敢反对父母而跟丈夫赵耀根结婚,当了人家的媳妇儿以后为了帮助丈夫从牢里出来,她忍辱负 重伺候那些被丈夫打伤的病人,以及到丈夫的单位请求支持信,为了能支持丈夫下海江晓歌忍 受被婆婆赶出家门辛苦的过日子,她还特地为丈夫跟别人借钱还债作为丈夫下海的本钱,不想 让父亲难过而独自一人忍受痛苦。江晓歌是个懂事、稳重的孩子,离了婚以后她所受得苦并没 有结束。父亲为了帮她能过上好日子特地为她买了一辆出租车作为赚钱的本钱,但是因为江晓 歌的善良却不小心被人家骗了,害她不得不把唯一的出租车给卖了。此外还为了违法生意而被 警察抓了坐牢。江晓歌一波三折的面对问题使她却变得谨慎稳重,做事考虑三思,面对困难永 不退缩,无论在任何地方都不会违背自己的原则和性格。因此后来的江晓歌就成了成功的独立 自主的女性。 根据以上的小说,池莉在第三个阶段在于面对社会已经有了脱胎换骨的思想,她们不在于 男性而活,而为自己而活下去。她们不是为了社会的眼光而活下去,而是为了怎么样生存而活 下去。池莉想要通过她的作品呈现个读者,女性因为受了高等教育而能够独立,因为社会的逼 迫而有了人格的生存能力,她们是为了自己而生存下去,男性在她们的眼光里已不是生存的主 要目标,因此她们的人格更坚强,更自信,更成熟。就算社会里被称为失败的女性,但对于她 们本身来说,她们对这样自由的生活感到自豪。 结语 池莉根据不同的阶段形容女性在社会里不同的地位以及她们的生存方法。第一阶段,池莉 所塑造的女性具有很浓的封建思想,为男性与家庭而活。第二阶段,池莉描述了社会的变化, 因为改革开放使女性在社会里的地位发生了变化,甚至因为这样的变化使女性在虚幻中相信有 男女平等的思想。虽然她们已经开始相信男女平等的思想,但是在于接受过程她们遇到了不同 的挣扎,不同的态度。池莉在第二阶段所描塑的女性虽然已经有了一定的社会地位,但仍摆脱 不了男性以及家庭的生存。第三个阶段池莉所塑造的女性已经能够为了自己而活下去。经过刮 风大雨而变得更坚强独立,因此她们的生活能够毫无依靠男生。这三个阶段中池莉在于创造女 性描述了女性在社会里的变化步骤,使她们具有脱胎换骨的变化,由弱变强、由传统变自由的 思想。 参考文献 梁巧娜• (2004) • 性别意识与女性形象• 北京: 中央民主大学出版社• 池莉• (1998) • 小姐你早、池莉文集(第六卷)• 南京: “江苏文艺出版社• 池莉• (1995) • 不谈爱情 · 武汉:长江文艺出版社• 池莉• (2003) • 生活秀[g] //池莉近作竞选.武汉:长江文艺出版社• 刘梦琴、赵秋棉• (2008)• 新时代女性形象的表征——池莉笔下的女性形象探析• 河北:衡水学 院学报• copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 203 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 203-208 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3962 morpheme {bun-}: an example of morphological process through affixation in bidayuh-somu language eusabinus bunau1; rohani mohd yusof2 1department of languages and arts education, faculty of teacher training, tanjungpura university, pontianak jl. profesor dokter h. hadari nawawi, pontianak, kalimantan barat 78115, indonesia 2academy of malay studies, university malaya, kuala lumpur jl. universiti, 50603 kuala lumpur, wilayah persekutuan kuala lumpur, malaysia 1eusabunau@yahoo.com; 2hanis687@gmail.com received: 29th september 2017/revised: 15th january 2018/accepted: 19th january 2018 how to cite: bunau, e., & yusof, r. m. (2018). morpheme {bun-}: an example of morphological process through affixation in bidayuh-somu language. lingua cultura, 12(2), 203-208. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3962 abstract the goals of this research were to identify the allomorph of morpheme {bun-}, describe its affixation process, and determine the function of the allomorphs. the qualitative method was applied to gather the data from an informant who was done by recording technique on the field research. the informant was a bidayuh-somu language native speaker. the collected data included the derivational words derived from free morpheme that was root, base, and bound morpheme. the free and bound morpheme were then sorted into nominal and verbal class, as well as described qualitatively. affixation as one of the morphological processes to derive complex derivational word in bidayuh-somu language involved free and bound morpheme. morpheme {bun-} was chosen as an example to describe the process of affixation in deriving complex derivational word of the language. it is found that the morpheme {bun-} is a prefix and verbal, affixed to the verb, and noun and adjective. therefore, it functions both as class-maintaining and class-changing. moreover, it is identified that the morpheme {bun-} has five allomorphs, namely /bu-/ with its alternant /bur-/ and /b-/, and /bum-/, /bun-/, /bun-/ and /bu -/. the morpheme {bun-} is affixed to free morpheme which is initiated with all consonant and vowel phonemes. the morpheme {bun-}also bears meanings. keywords: affixation, morpheme and allomorph, bidayuh-some language introduction for bidayuh-somu people, the word of bidayuhsomu refers to bi ‘people’, dayuh ‘land’ and somu ‘uphill’ (of the hill) or upstream’ (of the river). therefore, bidayuhsomu means the people of the uphill or upstream land. as an ethnic, the bidayuh-somu is the sub-ethnic of bidayuh. as a big ethnic, the bidayuh can be found in indonesian kalimantan and malaysian sarawak borneo. other subethnics of bidayuh to mention are bidayuh-bakati in district bengkayang and bidayuh-simpang in district ketapang. for bidayuh-somu people, the word of bidayuhsomu refers to bi ‘people’, dayuh ‘land’ and somu ‘uphill’ (of the hill) or upstream’ (of the river). therefore, bidayuhsomu means the people of the uphill or upstream land. as an ethnic, the bidayuh-somu is the sub-ethnic of bidayuh. as a big ethnic, the bidayuh can be found in indonesian kalimantan and malaysian sarawak borneo. other subethnics of bidayuh to mention are bidayuh-bakati in district bengkayang and bidayuh-simpang in district ketapang. the bidayuh-somu people use their language to create terminologies in naming their traditional shiftingcultivation activity, ritual, and festival (bunau, 2013). the terminology is the combination of the free and bound morpheme. the terminology is as follows: 1. /nowu?/ is an activity to clear bush and other small plantations and trees of the cultivation land. 2. /rɔbɔ?/ is an activity to cut down bigger diametersized of trees of the cultivation land. it is done after /nowu?/. 3. /nicual/ is an activity to burn the cut trees, cleared bush and other small plantations of the cultivation land. this activity is done after /rɔbɔ?/. 4. /nurua?/ is an activity to plant paddy seeds grain. this is done after /nicual/. 5. / obu/ is an activity to weed wild bush and grass in cultivation land that blocking paddy to grow. this weeding activity is done after /nurua?/. 204 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 203-208 6. /nat↔p/ is an activity to harvest paddy crops. the activity is done after / obu/. 7. /mpokat bay/ is a ritual to feed the spirit of cultivation utensils or tools like axe, short machete or chopping knife and stone sharpener. the ritual is done before /nowu?/. 8. /nsani punowu?/ is a ritual to bless and launch the cultivation series of activities. it is done before / nowu/. 9. /mpokat bi ɔ?/ is a ritual to feed the spirit of paddy seeds grain. this ritual is done before /nurua?/. 10. /mpokat sukuh/ is a ritual to feed the spirit of pregnancy of paddy trees for fruiting best paddy crops. the ritual is done before /nat↔p/. 11. /nsani jurua/ is a ritual to bless and secure the barn to store paddy crops. it is done before /mpori? sɔwɔ?/. 12. /mpori? sɔwɔ?/ is a festival to celebrate the end of one-year shifting-cultivation activities. figure 1 map of bidayuh-somu peoples and their language in district sanggau, kalimantan barat (source: http://www.mapsofworld/indonesia/ provinces/kalimantan-barat.html//) the underlined phonemes indicate that the nasalization and affixation is a process to free morpheme that is involved to form the derivational complex word by employing allomorph nasal /m-/, /n-/, /n-/ and / -/, and allomorph /pun-/ to the first phoneme of the free morpheme. it shows that the bound morpheme of the language is firstly formed through nasalization before its prefixation process. in general, the complex word formation covers affixation, reduplication, compound and acronym. nevertheless, the limitation of this research is affixation involving a bound morpheme found in the bidayuh-somu language, that is {bun-}. the problems in this research are; (1) what are allomorphs of morpheme {bun-}?, (2) what is their function? meanwhile, the objective of the research is to identify the allomorph of morpheme {bun-}, describe its affixation process, and determine the function of the allomorphs. in brief, the objective of this research is to describe the process of complex word formation employing morpheme {bun-} to root word of the bidayuh-somu language. the approach that referred for this research is structural (booij, 2007). based on the structural approach, a word is a form that has meaning. the form is simple and complex. therefore, the complex word particularly derivational word is the form that has meaning (kieffer & lesaux, 2007). this research is on general linguistic that is focused on morphology. furthermore, morphology is a study of complex word formation process that employing free and bound morpheme (adejumo & bade, 2014). it means the process of morphology to form the complex word that are involving combination or arrangement of free and bound morpheme, in general, consists of affixation, reduplication, and compounding. based on the structural approach, the complex word derived from the process of morphology is a structure or construction of free and bound morpheme (booij, 2007). thus, the complex word based on its structure consists of at least one free and one bound morpheme, one free and one free morpheme, or one bound and one free morpheme, or one bound, one free, and one bound morpheme (omar, 2009). in the structure of the word, the morpheme is recognized as prefix, infix, suffix, and circumfix (tambusai et al., 2016). it indicates that based on word structure or construction, the presence of the prefix is situated before free morpheme, while infix is between first consonant and vowel phoneme of the free morpheme. the presence of suffix is after the free morpheme (herman, 2015), while the presence of circumfix is before and after free or root morpheme (yurtbasi, 2015). hence, the morpheme is an analysis unit to recognize the structure of the word and its classification (omar, 2009). since morphology as a word formation is a relation between form and meaning, therefore the form is a combination of free and bound morpheme, while meaning is to function as class-maintaining or classchanging (booij, 2007). this research is on morphemes and their structures to word formation involving affixation. affixation is a process of forming the derivational word by affixing affixes to free morpheme (zainuddin, 2016). in other words, affixation is a process of attaching affixes to free and/or bound morpheme (denham & lobeck, 2010). furthermore, the morpheme is an element that establishes word (omar, 2009). in connection with the morpheme, the free morpheme may stand alone as the word while the bound morpheme requires other morphemes to stand as the word (yusof, 2016). moreover, the morpheme is determined from allomorph, and the morpheme has at least one allomorph (anderson, 2009). and the addition, “allomorph is morpheme in its real usage” (omar, 2009). in addition, allomorph is pronunciation by context (anderson, 2009). by this context, the pronunciation may differ based on the consonant and vowel phoneme sounds of the initial or final word or syllable. based on its type, allomorph is divided into two types; those are positional and free. the positional allomorph is conditioned phonologically, grammatically, and lexically. free allomorph or free alternant, according to omar (2013), is a variation which occurrence is not constrained by any conditions and its exchange does not change the meaning of word derived. besides the free allomorph, positional allomorph of morpheme {bun-} in this bidayuh-somu language research also covers an allomorph that is conditionally phonological. to determine a morpheme, a base allomorph should be chosen to symbolize the morpheme. if a morpheme has more than one allomorphs, one of them should be chosen to represent the list of allomorphs as a symbol of the morpheme (omar, 2009). the base allomorph, as stated by omar (2009), is determined based on its occurrence frequency, 205morpheme {bun-}:.... (eusabinus bunau; rohani mohd yusof) productivity, and form of similarity. meanwhile, allomorph is determined based on its characteristics, that is similar in term of phonology, function and meaning (omar, 2009). methods the bidayuh-somu language is only spoken and not written. therefore, the method applied to gather the data for this research is a field research or field linguistics. the upstream field research is a method to study language or dialect that has never been studied (omar, 2008). the data that are taken from bidayuh-somu people oral tradition and oral utterance is gathered by implementing recording technique. the data are the complex derivational word that consists of free and bound morpheme and its allomorph recorded from bidayuh-somu language informant. the informant is selected to gather the data for language that have never been studied from the native speaker of the language (omar, 2008). the informants are female and male native speaker of age ranging from 48 to 55 years old. according to omar (2009), complex word classification is nominal and verbal. therefore, the collected data of this research are sorted into multiple word class that are nominal and verbal. for this research concern, the complex word class is verbal. since the language is still oral, the data are transcribed phonemically to provide its sound symbol. the technique of data analysis is descriptive that is applied to describe the structure or construction of the language features (omar, 2013), that is morpheme {bun-} and its allomorphs. the area of the community that speaks the bidayuh-somu language is too wide. so, for this study purpose, the data are taken from village sebuduh in subdistrict kembayan, district sanggau, west kalimantan, indonesia. the distance of the village from pontianak, the capital city of west kalimantan province, is about 240 kilometers and can be reached by road. the map of the region is shown in figure 1. results and discussions the result shows that the bound morpheme {bun-} is prefix and verbal. the morpheme is class-changing as well as class-maintaining. the morpheme is class-maintaining when it enters verbs, and class-changing when it enters nouns and adjectives. the morpheme {bun-} generally derives from intransitive verbs. the intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object to stand as a verb. the presence or absence of the object is situational, depending on the context of the sentence. in the process of its affixation, the morpheme {bun-} is affixed to be free morphemes which are verbs, nouns, and adjectives that begin with all consonant and vowel phonemes. the result of the analysis shows that morpheme {bun-} has five allomorphs. they are; (1) allomorph /bu-/ and alternant /bur-/ and /b-/, (2) allomorph /bum-/, (3) allomorph /bun-/, (4) allomorph / bun-/, (5) allomorph /bu -/. the list of allomorphs indicates that morpheme {bun-} has distinctive allomorphs. the distinction is on the presence and/or absence of nasals and retroflex sound after phoneme /u/, the difference of nasals and retroflex sound of phoneme /m/, /n/, /n/, / / and /r/, and the covert or ellipse of sound /u/ in allomorph /bu-/ when it is affixed to free morpheme begun with phoneme /u/. the five allomorphs are conditionally phonological, meanwhile the /bur-/ and /b-/ are alternant to allomorph /bu-/. the occurrence of conditionally phonological allomorph is determined by its adjacent sounds or phonological features. moreover, free allomorph is an allomorph that freely alternates with another allomorph of the same morpheme-based on language use context, and it does not change the meaning. allomorph /bu-/+n, where n is nasalization, is a base allomorph that taken to represent morpheme {bun-}. allomorph /bu-/ and its alternant /bur-/ and /b-/, allomorphs /bum-/, /bun-/, /bun-/ and /bu -/ are members of the morpheme {bun-}. the determination of allomorph /bu-/+n as base allomorph is based on criteria of determining base allomorph, that is its frequency, productivity of occurrence, and its harmonious phonological shape. furthermore, the process of affixation indicates that nasalization occurs by its initial phoneme of free morpheme before accepting the morpheme {bun-}. nasalization is a process of prefixing nasal phoneme or nasal sound to initial phoneme of the free morpheme. its prefixation is both replacive and additive. it means that the replacive prefixation is a process to replace the first phoneme of free morpheme using nasal phoneme. meanwhile, the additive prefixation is a process to add nasal phoneme to the first phoneme of the free morpheme. moreover, the nasalization is present by initial phoneme of free morpheme before accepting other prefixes in particular condition of the phoneme (yusof, 2016). therefore, the process of the nasalization is replacive and additive, and in general, it forms active verbs. in allomorph /bu-/ and its alternant /bur-/ and /b-/, the process of affixation identifies that this allomorph is both class-maintaining (see examples no. 1-5) and classchanging (see examples no. 6-15). the data show that this allomorph is affixed to free morpheme which are verbs, nouns, and adjectives begun with all consonant and vowel phonemes. based on the analysis, allomorph /bu-/ generally derives intransitive verbs. the affixation process of allomorph /bu-/ to free morpheme is as follows: a. allomorph /bu-/ as class-maintaining: 1. /birih/ = ‘to buy’ /bubirih/ = ‘buy’ 2. /donah/ = ‘to gain’ /budonah/ = ‘gain’ 3. /goyap/ = ‘to hang out’ /bugoyap/ = ‘hang out’ 4. /kayuah/ = ‘to row’ /bukayuah/ = ‘row’ 5. /tere/ = ‘to toast’ /butere/ = ‘toast’ b. allomorph /bu-/ as class-changing: 6. /noga/ = ‘beside’ /bunoga/ = ‘to be beside’ 7. /mora/ = ‘yam’ /bumora/ = ‘to have yam’ 8. /coli/ = ‘disease’ /bucoli/ = ‘to have disease’ 9. /jora?/ = ‘deer’ /bujora?/ = ‘to have deer’ 10. /silowar/ = ‘pant’ 206 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 203-208 /busilowar/ = ‘to wear pant’ 11. /honda/ = ‘motorcycle’ /buhonda/ = ‘to ride motorcycle’ 12. /lompok/ = ‘leak’ /bulompok/ = ‘to leak’ 13. /roya/ = ‘drool’ /buroya/ = ‘to drool’ 14. /warok/ = ‘shop’ /buwarok/ = ‘to have shop’ 15. /yayan/ = ‘darling’ /buyayan/ = ‘to call darling’ the examples of affixation process imply that alternant /bur-/ and /b-/ is considered together or identical. they are affixed to free morphemes which are nouns that start with vowel phonemes. nevertheless, alternant /b-/ is affixed only to free morphemes that initiated with vowel /u/. they can freely replace or alternate to each other. free alternation as seen in examples below are influenced by the alternation of language use, from formal to informal, language style of the speaker, and as language variation or dialects (omar, 2009). moreover, it is found out that the affixation of allomorphs /bu-/, /bur-/, and /b-/ to free morpheme begin with vowel phonemes does not change the meaning of the word. the examples of affixation of allomorphs /bur-/ (see examples no. 1-5) and allomorph /b-/ (see examples no. 6-7) as alternant of allomorph /bu-/ to free morpheme begin with vowel phonemes are as follows: a. allomorph /bur-/ as alternant /bu-/: 1. /anok/ = ‘towel’ /buanok/ } = ‘to have towel’/buranok/ 2. /eney/ = ‘carrier’ (made of rattan) /bueney/ } = ‘to have carrier’/bureney/ 3. /ikat/ = ‘fish’ /buikat/ } = ‘to have fish’/burikat/ 4. /oma/ = ‘father’ /buoma/ } = ‘to have father’/buroma/ 5. /ontah/ = ‘light’ /buontah/ } = ‘to lighten’/burontah/ b. allomorph /b-/ as alternant /bu-/: 6. /uta?/ = ‘upstream’ (of river) /buuta?/ } = ‘to have upstream’/buruta?/ /buta?/ 7. /ula?/ = ‘bay’ (of river) /buula?/ } = ‘to have bay’/burula?/ /bula?/ the process of affixation in bidayuh-somu language identifies that allomorph /bum-/ is class-changing. it is affixed to free morphemes which are nouns. the derived words that resulted from the affixation of this allomorph are intransitive verbs. it is found out that before accepting the morpheme {bun-}, the free morpheme firstly undergoes nasalization process using nasal /m-/ to initial phoneme of the free morpheme. it is an additive nasalization process. consequently, the first phoneme of the free morpheme is overt. the first phoneme of the free morpheme that is overt results double homorganic nasal-oral form at the beginning of free morpheme (yusof, 2016). the double homorganic nasal-oral form of the free morpheme is /mp/. the examples of affixation show that allomorph /bum-/ are affixed to free morpheme begun with plosive /p/. the examples of the process of affixation of allomorph /bum-/ are as follows: 1. /picua?/ = ‘corner’ /bumpicua?/ = ‘to have corner’ 2. /par↔h/ = ‘leaf (for spice)’ /bumpar↔h/ = ‘to have spice (of leaf)’ 3. /parɔ?/ = ‘table (for offering)’ /bumparɔ?/ = ‘to have table to offer’ 4. /paney/ = ‘watch-tower (in the middle of cultivation)’ /bumpaney/ = ‘to have watch-tower’ based on the examples of affixation process in bidayuh-somu language, it is implied that allomorph / bun-/ is class-changing (please see examples no. 1-3) as well as class-maintaining (please see examples no. 4-5). the examples also show that this allomorph is affixed to free morphemes which are verbs and nouns. data of this research show that the verbs of this allomorph derived are intransitive. based on the analysis, it is found that before it is affixed to free morpheme, the allomorph firstly undergoes nasalization process additively using nasal /n-/ to initial phoneme of the free morpheme. apparently, first phoneme of the free morpheme is overt. it means that the process of nasalization creates double homorganic nasal-oral form at the beginning of free morpheme, that is /nt/, /nc/, and /ns/. moreover, the examples indicate that allomorph /bun-/ is affixed to free morpheme started with plosive /t/, affricate /c/ and fricative /s/. here are the examples: 1. /torat/ = ‘holder’ /buntorat/ = ‘to have holder’ 2. /tirat/ = ‘place to lay egg’ /buntirat/ = ‘to have place to lay egg’ 3. /turu/ = ‘egg’ /bunturu/ = ‘to lay egg’ 4. /ciat/ = ‘to defense’, ‘to cover’ /bunciat/ = ‘defense’, ‘cover’ 5. /siut/ = ‘to speed’ /bunsiut/ = ‘speed’ the data analysis of this research implies that the verbs resulted from the process of affixation of allomorph / bun-/ is intransitive. the examples indicate that allomorph /bun-/ is class-changing (see examples no. 1-2) and class-maintaining (see examples no. 3-4). the process of affixation in bidayuh-somu language shows that the allomorph is affixed to free morpheme which are nouns 207morpheme {bun-}:.... (eusabinus bunau; rohani mohd yusof) and verbs initiated with plosive /k/. the examples indicate that this allomorph undergoes additive nasalization process before it is affixed to free morpheme by adding nasal /n-/ to initial phoneme. obviously, first phoneme of the free morpheme is overt. like allomorph /bum-/ and /bun-/, the nasalization process of this allomorph /bun-/ also results double homorganic nasal-oral form at the beginning of free morpheme, that is /nk/. the examples are as follows: 1. /kar↔h/ = ‘ginger plant’ (in the wood) /bunkar↔h/ = ‘to have ginger plant’ 2. /kala?/ = ‘fruit plant’ (in the wood) /bunkala?/ = ‘to have fruit plant’ 3. /kɔnɔ?/ = ‘to enjoy’ /bunkɔnɔ?/ = ‘enjoy’ 4. /korot/ = ‘to suffer’ /bunkorot/ = ‘suffer’ the examples of affixation process in bidayuhsomu language shows that allomorph /bu -/ is classmaintaining (examples no. 1-3) as well as class-changing (example no. 4). the data analysis identifies that allomorph /bu -/ is affixed to free morpheme which are verbs and nouns started with fricative /s/. analysis of the data also finds out that the derived words resulted from the process of affixation using this allomorph is intransitive verbs. the process of affixation indicates that allomorph /bu -/ undergoes replacive nasalization process before it is affixed to free morpheme by replacing its initial phoneme with / -/. consequently, the initial phoneme of the free morpheme is covert. in other word, first phoneme of free morpheme is replaced. the examples are as follows: 1. /sae/ = ‘to tweet’ /bu ae/ = ‘tweet’ 2. /sa iat/ = ‘to hamper’ /bu a iat/ = ‘hamper’ 3. /serek/ = ‘to trail’ /bu erek/ = ‘trail’ 4. /sowa?/ = ‘pain’ (inside chest) /bu owa?/ = ‘to have chest pain’ 1. meaning of morpheme {bun-} in general, a verb with prefix functions to word formation indicates that there is an action (omar, 2009). the meaning of the prefix morpheme {bun-} is determined by the action. therefore, the meanings of the morpheme {bun-} are to result or come up, to possess, to alight, to go to or forward, to do, reciprocal, imperative, to experience. the affixation of morpheme {bun-} to free morpheme, intransitive verbs it derives, and its meaning are as in the following sentences: 1. meaning ‘to result, ‘to come up’: /sampey bumpiret idɔ?/si? kay o nopikn↔h/ until-neck vein (out)-speak-even-not-people-hear. even you speak until the neck vein comes up, no one listens. 2. meaning ‘to possess’: /ma? a? tutuarn↔h/ oma budi burode? nan oyawati/ if-use-its-story-budi’s father-sibling-withwati’s mother. based on the family-tree, budi’s father is sibling to wati’s mother. 3. meaning ‘to alight’: /jaja?-jaja? at yoh agal busubi/ cakes-that-all-full of ants all that cake is mobbed by ants. 4. meaning ‘to go to’, ‘forward’: /bu erek so? soju? nik sɔbɔ? nih kɔjɔ?n↔h/ track-from-upstream-to-downstream-the tracefootprint the trace of the footprint is tracking from upstream to downstream. 5. meaning ‘reciprocal’: /pusatn↔h jeh osik o bugawey/ tao? dege? m↔g↔iyu o butere/ although-was-over-people-paddy thanksgiving festival-but-stil-sound-people-toast although paddy thanksgiving festival was over but still it sounds that people is keeping to toast. 6. meaning ‘to result’: /jimpat no? rankat koyuh yoh man kayn↔h burarah no? jorat/ arrange-in-stack-firewood-that-in order to-not-scattered-by-road please arrange the firewood in the stack in order not to be scattered by the road. 7. meaning ‘to do’: /kuat babey juaka/ kay o kɔlɔ? buponu o burode?/ porih/ said-granddad juaka-not-people-ever-marry-people-sibling taboo granddad juaka said, “people never marry to their sibling, it’s taboo.” 8. meaning as an ‘imperative’. /buraso mat babeymu?/ jorat bek/ slow down-take-your granddad-the path-not good slow down your walk when taking granddad, the path is not good. 9. meaning ‘to undergo’. /m↔d↔ap bunkorot/ ap koyuh di?ad↔ah/ life-suffering-nothing-is-available life is suffering, nothing is available to count on. based on the analysis of the examples of word formation process, the rule and function of morpheme {bun-} affixation to first phoneme of free morpheme in bidayuh-somu language are (1) allomorph /bu-/ is affixed before all consonant and vowel phonemes, and functions as class-maintaining and class-changing. alternant /bur-/ and /b-/ is affixed before vowel /u/ and is found out to function as class-changing only. (2) allomorph /bum-/ is affixed before plosive /p/ consonant and the presence of phoneme /p/ is overt. this allomorph functions as class-changing. (3) allomorph /bun-/ is affixed before plosive /t/, affricate /c/ and fricative /s/ consonant. these three phonemes are overt. the allomorph /bun-/ is identified to function as classmaintaining and class-changing as well. (4) allomorph /bun208 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 203-208 / is affixed before plosive /k/ consonant and the phoneme /k/ is overt. this allomorph functions as class-maintaining. (5) allomorph /bu -/ is affixed before fricative /s/ consonant. the presence of phoneme /s/ is covert. this allomorph is found out to function as both class-maintaining and classchanging. based on the description, it can be said that the bound morpheme {bun-} of the bidayuh-somu language is similar with the bound morpheme {be-} found in iban language (see omar, 2013). its similarity is primarily observable in term of its function and meaning. the function of morpheme {bun-}, if it is compared to morpheme {be-}, is also class-maintaining and class-changing. the morpheme {bun-}, like morpheme{be-}, is verbal since it enters verbs and nouns. although the two bound morphemes are different in form, but they are similar in meaning. please have a look the following bound morpheme {be-} usage in iban language as in omar (2013): 1. /jalay/ = ‘to walk’ /bejalay/ = ‘walk’ 2. /jaku/ = ‘to speak’ /bejaku/ = ‘speak’ 3. /langkau/ = ‘hut’ /belangkau/ = ‘to have hut’ 4. /huma/ = ‘cultivation’ /behuma/ = ‘to have cultivation’ conclusions the morpheme {bun-} is prefix and verbal. the examples show that morpheme {bun-} functions are more as class-changing compared to class-maintaining. it means that this morpheme {bun-} enters free morpheme of the bidayuh-somu language that is nouns and adjectives that frequently compared to verbs. the affixation process of morpheme {bun-} mostly derives intransitive verbs depending on the presence of the object in the sentence. the morpheme {bun-} is affixed to free morphemes which are verbs, nouns, and adjectives. the allomorph of morpheme {bun-} is /bu-/ and its alternant /bur-/ and /b-/, allomorphs /bum-/, /bun-/, /bun-/, and /bu -/. in the process of affixation, the morpheme {bun-} is affixed to free morphemes begun with all consonant and vowel phonemes. the process of affixation of morpheme {bun-} indicates that the process of nasalization to root morpheme occurs before accepting the morpheme {bun-}. the nasalization is both additive and replacive. the additive nasalization process results in double homorganic nasaloral at the beginning of free morpheme. meanwhile, the replacive nasalization process causes the first phoneme of the free morpheme covert or replaced. the morpheme {bun-} bears meanings. the meaning, as it is found in the context of bidayuh-somu language sentence is to result or come up, to possess, to alight, to go to or forward, to do, reciprocal, imperative, and to experience. this research is limited for it only covers one bound morpheme of the bidayuh-somu language, that is {bun-}. it is only describe an example of process of affixation using one verbal prefix. thus, this research does not fully cover the description of complex word formation of the language. further research to venture related to this research is a research on process of affixation of the bidayuhsomu language. it will require field research to record daily utterances to finding the list of all bound morpheme of the language. moreover, the nasalization as part of affixation of this language seems rich in number. therefore, future research on the nasalization process employing nasal sounds or nasal phonemes is potential to conduct. references adejumo, a., & bade, n. o. (2014). a practical approach to word formation process in english. international journal of research in humanities, arts, and literarture (impact: ijrhal), 2(11), 49-58. alloy, s., albertus., & istiyani, k. p. (2008). mozaik dayak: keberagaman subsuku dan bahasa dayak di kalimantan barat. pontianak: institut dayakologi. anderson, s. r. (2009). phonologically conditioned allomorphy in the morpohology of surmiran (rumantsch). edinburg university press journal, 1(2), 109-134. booij, g. (2007). the grammar of words: an introduction to morphology. new york: oxford university press inc. bunau, e. (2013). dayak indigenous people’s knowledge on forestry and traditional shifting-cultivation. in l. rajamani, & n. esa (eds.), the relevance of science to local knowledge (pp. 86-97). pulau penang: universiti sains malaysia. denham, k., & lobeck, a. (2010). linguistics for everyone: an introduction. boston: wadsworth cengage learning. herman. (2015). suffixes found in narrative writing at grade eight of smp methodist pematang siantar. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosrjhss), 20(4), 40-48. kieffer, m. j., & lesaux, n. k. (2007). breaking down words to build meaning: morphology, vocabulary, and reading comprehension in the urban classroom. the reading teacher, 61(2), 134-144. omar, a. h. (2008). kaedah penyelidikan bahasa di lapangan. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. omar, a. h. (2009). nahu melayu mutakhir. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. omar, a. h. (2013). the iban language of sarawak: a grammatical description. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. tambusai, a., nasution, k., widayati, d., & jufrizal. (2016). morphological typology of affixes in riau malay. international journal of humanities and social science, 6(8), 43-53. yurtbasi, m. (2015). building english vocabulary through roots, prefix, and suffix. global journal of foreign language teaching, 5(7), 44-51. yusof, r. m. (2016). bahasa melayu urak lawo’: pulau adang, thailand. kuala lumpur: dewan bahasa dan pustaka. zainuddin. (2016). a study on derivational affixes of indonesian noun-formation in newspaper editorial: a semantic perspective. international journal of english linguistic, 6(4), 148-155. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 357 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 357-362 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4268 second language writing anxiety of indonesian efl students reni kusumaningputri1; tri ayu ningsih2; wisasongko3 1,2,3english department, faculty of humanities, jember university jl. kalimantan no. 37, kampus tegalboto sumbersari, jember 68121, indonesia 1reni.fib@unej.ac.id; 2triayu72@gmail.com; 3wisasongko@yahoo.co.id; received: 25th january 2018 /revised: 13th april 2018 /accepted: 25th april 2018 how to cite: kusumaningputri, r., ningsih, t. a., & wisasongko. (2018). second language writing anxiety of indonesian efl students. lingua cultura, 12(4), 357-362. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4268 abstract this research reported the types, as well as the causal factors of writing anxiety experienced by 44 volunteered indonesian student writers from the first and second year of college. this research applied two questionnaires to get descriptions of types and causal factors of writing anxiety; second language writing anxiety inventory (slwai) and causes of writing anxiety inventory (cwai), and interview. the findings show that cognitive anxiety is found to be the most experienced type of writing anxiety among both students’ levels. there is a slight difference in the result of cwai questionnaire in that three major causal factors of freshmen writing anxiety are language difficulties, time pressure, and insufficient writing practice. meanwhile, the causal factors of sophomores are insufficient writing practice, language difficulties, and insufficient writing technique. these suggest that classroom instructions need to gear on improving students’ linguistic capabilities and writing techniques through modeling. keywords: writing anxiety, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, avoidance behavior, cwai introduction spielberger as cited in horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986) defines anxiety as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with the arousal of the automatic nervous system. learning english for foreign language learners constantly provokes anxiety. horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986) who have proposed the concept of foreign language anxiety (fla) in 1986, are the most cited experts discussing fla. foreign language anxiety is a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process (horwitz, horwitz, & cope, 1986). this anxiety causes english learners sometimes difficult to comprehend materials, avoid taking writing class (cheng, 2002), and even to hinder the progress of development of their l2 academic works’ productions (kurt & atay, 2007). anxiety in efl contexts causes students to be less engaged in learning (pappamihiel, 2002). possibly, this leads to negative impacts on their performance (kondo & ling, 2004). it is undeniable that writing in english for almost all foreign language learners is a tough case. there are some challenges students shall usually face when performing writing in the l2 like english. chamot (2005) identifies that beginning level students struggle with finding the words they need and remembering grammatical conventions, whereas more advanced students find it difficult to link their ideas with coherence and to produce appropriate target language discourse. besides, ideas blockage that is experienced by both novice and professional writers also plays a substantial role in why writing can be a challenging task. in classrooms, the fear of negative evaluation by the teachers and peers and worry about timed-writing even make the students harder to develop their english writing skills. writing anxiety phenomenon is indeed not the only individual but also classical in a way that it deals with instruction, teachers, and tasks (daly & wilson, 1983). this highlights the fact that classrooms act as provoking places where anxiety is initiated and grows. initially, the exploration of foreign language anxiety only focuses on the area of speaking, which is believed as a skill that most frequently evokes anxiety among the students. at present, there have been a number of research that discusses anxiety on other skills, for instance in speaking or oral performance (gkonou, 2014; liu, 2006; woodrow, 2006), listening (chang, 2008; lu & liu, 2015), reading and listening (chow, chiu, & wong, 2017). however, writing anxiety is considered less researched compares to other skills (gkonou, 2011). furthermore, to the best of the knowledge, research of writing anxiety carried in 358 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 357-362 the indonesian context is scarcely reported. this research reports an understanding of the indonesian learners’ writing anxiety in one of the indonesian universities located in east java. exploring the anxiety they face while learning writing in classroom signifies the urgent call for the description about how classroom situation leads to anxiety. thompson as cited in lan, hung, and hsu (2011) explains writing anxiety as a fear of the writing process that outweighs the projected gain from the ability to write. hassan (2001) states writing anxiety as situational-specific anxiety which is defined as a general avoidance of writing and of situations perceived by the individuals to potentially require some amount of writing accompanied by the potential for evaluation of that writing. usually, the condition of writing anxiety will get worse when the students are required to write in the language other than their first language. it is because clearly, second language writing is strategically, rhetorically, and linguistically different in important ways from l1 writing (silva, 1993). the important ways include content, organization, vocabulary, and language use. the construct of second language writing anxiety is understood to be classified under three subscales; cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior (cheng, 2004). he agrees that cognitive anxiety refers to learners’ mental aspect when they experience anxiety, including negative expectations, preoccupation with performance, and concern about others’ perceptions. maclntyre and gardner (1994) believe that anxiety consumes cognitive resources because when a learner becomes anxious, he/she initiates negative self-related cognition such as ‘thoughts of failure’ (e.g., “i will never be able to do this.”), self-deprecation (e.g., “i am just no good at this.”), and avoidance (e.g., “i wish this was over.”). somatic anxiety refers to one’s perception of the physiological effects of anxiety. learners with somatic anxiety are shown to increase their autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states such as nervousness and tension. they tend to sweat, shake, and increase their heart rate, suffer a headache, and rapid breathing. meanwhile, avoidance behavior refers to the behavioral aspect when the learners are anxious. learners with avoidance behavior, for instance, will find ways and situations so that they do not have to write in english or to write compositions and to write compositions, not in the classroom. to explain why this writing anxiety appears, there are causes of writing anxiety inventory (rezaei & jafari, 2014). it is to classify ten factors, which can evoke writing anxiety among the students. first is fear of the teacher’s negative evaluation. watson and friend as cited in horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1991) define fear of negative evaluation as apprehension about others’ evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and expectation that others will evaluate oneself negatively. because of this learners feel uncomfortable being watched by peers and teachers (na, 2007), and feel afraid of losing face (ohata, 2005). second is fear of tests. this is rooted in fear of negative evaluation. leaners are fear of negative consequences of poor grade (ohata, 2005). in most educational settings, tests are assigned via writing. learners are anxious because they know that their writing will be judged based on ideas elaboration, argument development, vocabulary variety usage, and texts’ aesthetic quality (leki as cited in özturk & çecen, 2007). third is spelling, syntax, morphology, and mechanics also burden learners and evoke writing anxiety (raisman as cited in özturk & çecen, 2007). fourth is insufficient writing practice leads learners to focus more on the form. when learners focus more on forms, they will experience more writing apprehension (gunge & tayler, 1989 as cited in shawish & abdelraheem, 2010). unskillful writers who do not possess a fairly good understanding of the process of composing and skill or technique of writing will suffer from poor writing performance (daud, daud, & kassim, 2005). fifth is the problem with topic choice. bachman and palmer as cited in zhang (2011) say that low level of topical knowledge causes writers to suffer anxiety. learners who are instructed to write about the politics of which is a topic he/she is not familiar with will experience anxiety more compare to those who are more familiar with politics. sixth is a linguistic difficulty. horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986) find that foreign language learners have high anxiety because of language difficulties. challenges in vocabulary, grammar rules, and idea flow impede writing performance. seventh is pressure for perfect work. the selfimposed pressure for perfect work usually makes learners experience writing anxiety. thinking about the difficult standard and hard works that await put more anxiety to learners. along with low self-confidence in writing, learners experience high anxiety (marwan, 2007). ninth is time pressure. writing in english undeniably requires longer time because writers need to display the flow of ideas in l2. learners need extra time to plan, write, and revise their composition. if time is limited, learners usually feel insecure and failure. the tenth is the high frequency of writing assignments. this causal factor is present though in a small percentage (rezaei & jafari, 2014). this research envisages anxiety from two different levels of learners; freshmen and sophomores to get detailed descriptions on what type of anxiety and their causal factors of anxiety in their first and second year english learning in indonesian college. these years usually are the initial years that focus on the sharpening of college learners’ language skills. as classroom research, this research aims at profiling student writers’ types of anxiety and their causes. this research does not focus on differences of the academic level, yet highlights the classroom context of both levels where participants take writing courses and its implications on the arousal of writing anxiety. this research focuses on two research questions. first is what are types of writing anxiety experienced by the participants. second is how each type of writing anxiety plays roles in the participants’ learning writing. this research will also try to provide some pedagogical implications of the research in relation to writing anxiety of efl learners for classroom use. methods this research uses a mixed-method research approach in a way that it combines elements of quantitative and qualitative approach to gain the depth, breadth, and corroboration of the data (johnson, onwuegbuzie, & turner, 2007). on the quantitative strand, the participants of this research are selected on the basis of probabilistic or random sampling as all members have an equal chance to be selected. meanwhile for the qualitative strand, purposeful sampling is used with a consideration that the selection is made based on a criterion of participants that have experienced a central phenomenon being explored in this research (creswell & clark, 2011). there are 44 indonesian englih foreign language (efl) student writers over 131 students from one of 359second language writing... (reni kusumaningputri et al.) universities in eastern part of java that signed on the consent form to participate in this research. they took the writing course in the first and second year of their undergraduate degree. these participants are female and male students aged 18-19 years old. they are two classes that participate in the research. writing 01 course is a course offered for freshmen. this course is aimed to equip students with how to write sentences by comprehending the parts of speech and their functions. writing 03 course, on the other hand, is offered for sophomores. students are able to take this course after they pass writing 01, writing 02 (advanced sentence building for instance complex, compound sentences, and how functions relate and build sentence meaning). writing 03 focuses on paragraphs writing, especially academic essay. their level of english proficiency is around preintermediate based on the initial placement test assigned by the university. the present research uses two kinds of questionnaires as the source of data. the first questionnaire is second language writing anxiety inventory or slwai (cheng, 2004). slwai consists of 22 items, of which are designed to assess the level and the type of anxiety of the students. slwai is used as a measure of writing anxiety because it has been proved highly reliable and valid (cheng, 2004). slwai has good internal consistency, with a cronbach alpha coefficient reported of 0,91 (cheng, 2004) and is widely used as a measure of foreign/second language writing anxiety (rezaei & jafari, 2014). the second questionnaire used is causes of writing anxiety inventory or cwai (rezaei & jafari, 2014). this questionnaire consists of 10 items developed based on causes of foreign language writing anxiety. cwai questionnaire for now as it is found is a reliable tool for identifying causal factors of efl writing anxiety as it is developed from classroom observation and the summary of previous research available on this issue. both questionnaires apply a likert-type 5-choice response format; 1 (strongly agree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neither agree nor disagree), 4 (agree), and 5 (strongly disagree). the questionnaires items are translated into bahasa indonesia so that the participants can understand each item without linguistic constraints and give correct responses towards the questionnaires. this also increases the trustworthiness of the data. for data collection, the researchers hand over two questionnaires to the students after obtaining the signed participants’ consent forms. the questionnaires are given to the participants promptly after they finish their final writing examination. the two questionnaires are taken at home to let the participants pay sufficient attention to the contents of the questionnaires. the collection of questionnaires is made shortly the next day after it is distributed to minimize the biased results. it is also done to consider excessive test anxiety after the examination, but still, the students can feel the atmosphere of fear of writing test (as one of the causal factors of efl writing anxiety) as they do the exam on the same day as they answer the questionnaires. after the data have been collected, coded, and tabulated, spss version 2.0 is used to analyze the results of the type of writing anxiety and its causal factors. afterward, the interview is assigned to nine selected participants who, according to the statistical analysis on the slwai questionnaire, belong to the high, moderate, and low level of anxiety. the maximum score of slwai is 110, and the minimum is 22. this is to say that participants scored above 65 are grouped into high anxious, and those scored below 50 is low anxious. meanwhile, those scored in between is moderate anxious. the interview is aimed at clarifying and exploring the data of causal factors of writing anxiety (cwai) to give the description of experiences and perspectives of the participants from three different levels of anxiety. the interview along with the results of slwai and cwai are then interpreted descriptively to allow pictures of how participants experience anxiety and how anxiety plays a role in their learning english writing. results and discussions based on the data of the questionnaires and interviews, the researchers have found the types of writing anxiety of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior experienced by the participants in their learning writing. further findings of each kind of writing anxiety are described in table 1 and table 2. table 1 writing anxiety of sophomores n sum mean std. deviation cognitive 24 72,83 3,03 0,68 somatic 24 69,00 2,88 0,78 avoidance 24 53,86 2,24 0,59 table 2 writing anxiety of freshmen n sum mean std. deviation cognitive 20 62,91 3,16 0,67 somatic 20 59,30 2,97 0,71 avoidance 20 43,12 2,16 0,76 based on the spss descriptive statistics, cognitive anxiety for the sophomores presents the sum of 72,83 and the mean score of 3,03 which means that cognitive anxiety is significantly the highest if compares with other subscales/ types. hence, cognitive anxiety is determined as the most common type of foreign language writing anxiety faced by the majority of sophomore students. the finding of this research is different from the previous research from min and rahmat (2014). in their research, somatic anxiety comes as the most dominant type. however, three previous research from cheng (2004), rezaei and jafari (2014), and also zhang (2011) have stated that cognitive anxiety is as the most common type. min and rahmat (2014) have suggested that the difference in result may occur because of the divergent type of respondents. the participants of four research from cheng, zhang, rezaei and jafari, as well as this research, are from non-technical department based students; meanwhile, min and rahmat’s participants are from technical department students who are not good enough to be able to handle nervousness and tensions (min & rahmat, 2014). the dimensions of writing anxiety as presented in table 2 show that cognitive anxiety is also the most dominant type of writing anxiety among the freshmen. it marks the highest sum (62,91) and the highest mean (3,16) as compared to other subscales, somatic and avoidance. cognitive anxiety is any mental activities in 360 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 357-362 the human brain, and it refers to learners’ mental aspect. they experience anxiety, including negative expectations, preoccupation with performance, and concern about others’ perceptions (cheng, 2004). students with cognitive anxiety have high pressure of tests and evaluation on efl writing (zhang, 2011). when cognitive anxiety is found as the most common type, it means the students give a lot of attention to the external factors, such as peers or teachers’ evaluation on the students’ writing (cheng, 2004). the cognitive behaviors of the students when they are writing english compositions are very diverse. some of the participants have mentioned in the interview that they feel worried and uneasy when they know that their compositions are evaluated and discussed together in classrooms. the participants are afraid of their classmates to deride their english writing compositions. they add that they are afraid if their english compositions will be scored bad. cognitive anxiety plays a great influence in disturbing students when they are composing english writing at hand. students will be more anxious when they overburden themselves to perform writing without mistakes both linguistically and content-based. negative thoughts, such as the thought of failure in writing, self-deprecation, and avoidance make worse their anxiety. this suggests that students suffering cognitive anxiety must fight against several negative factors that come from outside. moreover, they must be able to learn to control their minds, so that they can minimize their anxiety levels. the second focus of this research discusses the causes of writing anxiety experienced by the participants. in this second section, some implications from the findings are also discussed. results of cwai questionnaire assigned to the participants can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 causes of efl writing anxiety of sophomores figure 1 shows the result of cwai from sophomore participants. as can be seen in figure 1, the primary causal factor of writing anxiety among the participants is insufficient writing practices (12,6%). the minimum intensity of writing practice both inside and outside the class is considered as the main source for the foreign language writing anxiety. based on the questionnaire, participants feel that practices need to be doubled in dosage. participants with the low level of anxiety experience more writing practice outside the class help them. when asking what writing practice they do, they answer any practices of writing in english including writing captions in instagram, facebook, or other social media. the feeling of getting used to practicing writing help them to boost their confidence to write. participants with the high level of anxiety have stated that most of the time, they do not know how to put thoughts into good writing. this suggests that practices with models of text can help improve their writing ability and eliminate their anxiety. beside insufficient practices, linguistic difficulties present as the second higher causal factor of writing anxiety with 11,8%. the sophomores decide that language difficulties are another cause of experiencing foreign language writing anxiety. from the interview, participants with moderate and high anxiety level of writing observe that correct grammar and structures are their focuses when writing in english. they feel too much burden of worrying about whether their writing is grammatically and structurally correct than whether their moves in the overall writing. this suggests that teacher’s way of giving feedback for students’ writing needs balancing between the representation of voice and coherent moves among the paragraphs and the feedback on grammatical and structural correctness. lack of vocabulary, syntactic complexity, and semantic area (i.e., the meaning of words and word parts) also worry the participants resulting in more anxiety experienced. these findings are consistent with the results of the previous invention, for example, the research result of zhang (2011), which make clear that the language difficulties is the first main cause of the emergence of writing anxiety on the students. another finding is from one of the previous research of this research, namely rezaei and jafari (2014). referring to their research, linguistic difficulty is the third source of the cause of writing anxiety among their participants. the similarity of two previous research with this research is that all of them emphasize language difficulties as the common problem typically encountered by students when learning writing in a second language or foreign language. hence, the students with insufficient practice and lack of experiences in writing often give too much concern on the form. when they are thinking a lot about the form, more anxious they will be. the third major factor of writing anxiety is insufficient writing technique with 10,9% of the answer. this result is very different from previous research. in zhang’s research (2011), insufficient writing technique comes as the second last factor. the same case happens with rezaei and jafari’s finding (2014) that insufficient writing technique is the ninth factor of 10 causes of foreign language writing anxiety. both of the research show that insufficient writing technique is a minor cause, however, in this research, insufficient writing technique is determined as one of the main causal factors of writing anxiety of the sophomores. this suggests that the students have problems in composing process and skill development. students with insufficient writing technique are easier to be anxious because their anxiety is a result of their poor writing skill’s development. there is a different result between freshmen and sophomores on cwai. the cwai result of the freshmen, can be seen in figure 2. the result of cwai questionnaire shows that language difficulties, time pressure, and insufficient writing practice are the chief causal factors of writing anxiety perceived by freshmen participants. though slightly different in the order of most causal factors of anxiety, both freshmen and sophomores have stated that language difficulties are a major challenge in writing which evokes anxiety. 361second language writing... (reni kusumaningputri et al.) figure 2 causes of efl writing anxiety of freshmen when asking why language difficulty becomes one of three major causal factors of their writing anxiety, the freshmen participants perceive themselves having lack of experiences of writing in english, having inadequate mastery of vocabulary, committing more grammatical errors, and feeling confused about correct spelling and sentences structures. because of those linguistic difficulties, they face difficulties in expressing their writing in english, which in the end lead them to experience writing anxiety. this suggests that teacher may put more balanced emphasis on assessing the progress of writing development instead of only focusing on how many mistakes of grammar and structure students make while writing. this paradigm of assessing process along with product may ease students’ anxiety. time pressure and insufficient writing become two major causes of writing anxiety. from the interview, the participants have observed that they feel that time is one of the enemies in producing good writing. lack of skills or writing technique apparently contributes to this causal factor of writing anxiety. as they are not so sure of what is good writing, and what to write when asked by the teacher, they feel their anxiety rise. this suggests that teachers should train students on timed writing exercises so the students can practice more and adjust their time for composition. conclusions regardless the academic level of the participants, cognitive anxiety appears as the common type of writing anxiety among the sophomores and the freshmen. the sophomores present cognitive anxiety in the sum of 72,83 and the mean score of 3,03, while the freshmen scored 62,91 for the sum with the mean of 3,16. the causal factors of writing anxiety are insufficient writing practice, language difficulties, insufficient writing technique, and time pressure. these findings show that classrooms instructions may inflict the causes of anxiety arousal of the student writers. instructions that put the focus on an individual work being contested with others worse these participants’ anxiety. this suggests that classroom climate regarding peers interaction and student-teacher interaction holds a significant contributing factor to cognitive anxiety arousal. this research also shows evidence that students have observed that practices and models of good writing are extremely necessary to lessen anxiety. to optimize the result of writing practices, writing instruction, which emphasizes both the process and on the product, should be underscored. this helps students see that writing is a process of accentuating voices in a coherent manner. this puts a highlight on classroom practices that writing does not take only correct forms of sentences. more guidance from teachers to enhance writing techniques, training students for timed tests, providing prompts with familiar vocabulary, encouraging students to see that committing mistakes as a part of learning help to lessen students’ writing anxiety level. this research has some limitations. first, the participants in the interview session are small in number. although this may give the depth and breadth of exploration toward the issue, yet more participants will provide more various findings. second, because this research does not aim to generalize the findings as it focuses more on how classroom gives impacts to students’ writing anxiety, thus to find generalization power, other researchers may take more participants by a survey method. future research on what instruction assists learners to lessen their writing anxiety will complete the understanding on the application of this research for practical use in classroom. references chamot, a. u. 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(2011). a study on esl writing anxiety among chinese english majors: causes, effects, and coping strategies for esl writing anxiety. kristianstad: kristianstad university. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 333 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 333-338 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4789 expressions of attitudes in students’ narrative writing: an appraisal analysis sri wuli fitriati1; yuni awalaturrohmah solihah2; tusino3 1,2 english language and literature department, universitas negeri semarang jl. kampus sekaran gunungpati, semarang 50229, indonesia 3english language teaching and applied linguistics, universitas muhammadiyah purworejo jl. kh. ahmad dahlan 3 & 6, purworejo 54111, indonesia 1sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id; 2missyunisolihah@gmail.com; 3tusino_1982@yahoo.com received: 26th june 2018 /revised: 27th july 2018 /accepted: 03rd august 2018 how to cite: fitriati, s. w., solihah, y. a., & tusino. (2018). expressions of attitudes in students’ narrative writing: an appraisal analysis. lingua cultura, 12(4), 333-338. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4789 abstract this article investigated attitude, one of subsystem appraisal, in the english as a foreign language (efl) university students’ narrative writings. five narrative writing was selected purposefully from undergraduate students of the english department at a local private university in central java. the findings demonstrate that the affect is the most dominant subsystem of attitude used in the students’ narrative writing to convey feelings and emotion of characters and events in the stories in order to make the readers involved in the stories. the prominent finding of this research implies that most students used expressions of attitudes which belong to basic english words and repetition of same words. this present research suggests english language teachers and lecturers pay more attention to the explicit teaching of attitudinal words usage in writing, especially narrative writing. keywords: attitude expressions, student writing, narrative writing introduction writing is one of the most important skills that should be mastered by students in educational settings. writing skills is a complex process. moreover, it is difficult to write in english as a foreign language. it involves how to develop ideas in written language by employing generic structure and linguistic features to achieve the communicative purposes of particular genres. sulistyo and heriyawati (2017) assert that, “students not only have to put their ideas into a sufficient content, but they have to put into account style of organization and language use dealing with grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics.” kusumawardhani (2015) adds that, “writing is related to the content, the language, and grammatical rules.” this means students need to improve their writing skills in order to convey their ideas in a text through their competence of grammatical rules, generic structure, and language features effectively and appropriately. in the english as a foreign language setting, the students are required to write different text types. it aims at expressing students’ ideas, opinions, and experiences in their real life by creating different text types. yulianti (2018) states that writing covers the great range of styles a student will perform in his daily lives. this indicates that the students have the opportunity to share what they want to convey based on their living situations and experiences while writing a text. in this light, efl university students have received such knowledge to enrich their writing skills in order to ease themselves in creating different text types. there are several text types that can be created, including description, explanation, instruction, narration, and argumentation (knapp & watkins, 2005). those text types can lead the efl university students to deliver their ideas relating to daily lives. this present research focuses on exploring the narrative text type because this text type can help students share their ideas through imaginative stories of narratives. adam (2015) argues that, “narrative writing can develop students’ imaginative thinking and participate in literary understanding as a whole.” thus, writing a narrative is one of the most important activities to develop efl university students’ writing skills. narrative writing involves the communicative purposes that should be achieved by the students, especially efl university students. this aim of text type is to amuse or entertain the readers with the imaginative stories. it is in line with knapp and watkins (2005) who state that, “narrative is simply about entertaining a reading audiences.” they add that narrative also has a powerful social role beyond that of being a medium for entertainment. kusumawardhani (2015) states that narrative writing involves a variety of purposes such as to illustrate and support ideas with anecdotes, to 334 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 333-338 entertain readers with revealing stories. this means that writing narrative helps students to convey their imaginary ideas, as the main purpose of narrative texts is to entertain the readers, and the stories may contain moral values, such as folktale, fable, or legend found in the students’ own culture. through the narrative, it helps the students to develop their imagination and cultural gaps in the text (adam, 2015). further, knapp and watkins (2005) have stated that narrative also involves the sequential events that consist of orientation, sequences/events, and resolution. narrative text is a text which has these elements; setting, plot, theme, characters, problem, and solution. the student writers are taught to follow the generic structure of a narrative text, i.e., orientation, sequences of events (the problems occurred), and resolution (gerot & wignell, 1994). in order to achieve this entertaining purpose of a narrative text, students need to comprehend the narrative style in terms of vocabulary, sentence structures, and other language features in the plots or sequences, characters, problems, and solutions or other aspects of the story. one of the ways to develop the stories is through the use of appraisal, or the evaluative use of language. white (2015) has stated that an appraisal is a particular approach to exploring, describing, and explaining the way language is used to evaluate, to adopt stances, to construct textual personas, and to manage interpersonal positionings and relationships. this theory is a developmental theory from halliday’s interpersonal metafunction proposed by martin and white (2005) to represent a greater detail how students writers, i.e., efl university students seek to explore the way they use lexical items to express and negotiate attitudes with their readers. this theory is divided into three domains; attitude, engagement, and graduation. in this present research, the researchers focus on attitude as the main domain of appraisal theory. attitude is concerned with the feelings, including emotional reaction, judgements of behavior, and evaluation of things. it is divided into three regions of feeling; affect, judgement, and appreciation (martin & white, 2005). through three regions of attitude, it covers the writers’ ideas relating to their feeling toward the topic. it discovers the ways writers convey their feelings, judgements, and appreciation of things, especially the topic of their writing. the first region of attitude is affect. affect is concerned with expressing positive and negative feelings; do people feel happy or sad, confident or anxious, and interested or bored? those emotions of feelings can be classified into four types; inclination, happiness, security, and satisfaction. the inclination expresses the feelings of desire toward the phenomena from the writers, e.g., hope, want, miss, and wary. happiness involves the feeling of being happy or sad, and the possibility of liking or disliking toward phenomena, e.g., love, cheerful, hate, and sad. security covers the feeling of peace and anxiety in relation to the environment, e.g., confident, comfortable, frightened, and uneasy. satisfaction deals with the feeling of goals and frustration in relation to activities that people are engaged, e.g., enjoy, busy, bored, and angry. (martin & white, 2005). the second region of attitude is the judgement that deals with the evaluations of people’s behavior that they admire or criticize, praise or condemn. those evaluations of judgement are divided into five types; normality, capacity, tenacity, veracity, and propriety. normality involves the evaluation of how unusual/special someone is in his/her behavior, e.g., familiar, lucky, old-fashioned, and odd. capacity deals with the judgement of someone’s capability in his/her behavior, e.g., powerful, competent, weak, and unproductive. tenacity covers how dependable someone does something, e.g., adaptable, brave, unreliable, and impatient. veracity includes how truthful someone’s behavior is, e.g., honest, tactful, deceitful, and manipulative. propriety is the evaluation of behavior toward how ethical someone does something, e.g., good, polite, arrogant, and greedy. (martin & white, 2005). the third region of attitude is appreciation. it concerns with the different ways someone evaluates all things, including human-made objects, performances, and natural phenomena. it is classified into the reaction, composition, and valuation. reaction deals with the evaluation of the impact that is affected and quality that is involved in things, e.g., good, bad, exciting, and predictable. the composition includes the appreciation of things toward the balance and complexity toward the phenomena, e.g., easy, consistent, difficult, and contradictory. valuation is the evaluation of value that is included in things, e.g., creative, real, genuine, and insignificant. (martin & white, 2005). previous research on appraisal study has spread in the students of efl setting. the scholars predominantly focus on the investigating appraisal study in the argumentative essays (mei & allison, 2003; xinghua & thompson, 2009; jalilifar & hemmati, 2013; liu 2013; and yang, 2016). however, xinghua and thompson (2009) and liu (2013) have specifically evaluated attitude resources in efl students’ argumentative writing. xinghua and thompson (2009) have carried out the research to analyze appraisal resources in argumentative writing, but they focus on one of the appraisal systems, i.e., attitude resources. this research is a contrastive study to compare argumentative writing in english and chinese from one chinese efl student as their l1 and l2. the findings indicate that there is a similar percentage of appreciation, while in affect and judgement are different percentages between their l1 and l2 writings. it means that their language use in l1 and l2’s argumentative writing are similar to give their evaluative assessment/appreciation toward the topic given. morever, liu (2013) has examined the evaluation in chinese university efl students’ english argumentative writing. this research aims at investigating the use of evaluative language in terms of attitude between highand lowrated english argumentative essays by two chinese university efl students. the result finds that highrated essays are able to convey their arguments through argumentative essays in order to take the stance and build strong persuasion. furthermore, previous researches on examining students’ narrative have predominantly focused on analyzing the students’ mistakes and errors in writing narratives (e.g., kusumawardhani, 2015; luthfiyati, latief, & suharmanto, 2015; qomar, 2016). those scholars research to figure out the students’ problems in writing narratives in order to enhance their writing ability. concerning appraisal study, horarik (2003) has researched to investigate the role of appraisal systems in narrative discourse from the point of view of writer/reader position. he uses martin’s (2000) and white’s (2000) theory in his research. the data are short written narrative texts in a formal english examination for australian students. the findings show that the narrative builds the readers’ empathy and discernment through affect and judgement resources. unlike the previous researches that are described, this 335expressions of attitudes... (sri wuli fitriati et al.) present research investigates how the attitude resources are used in narrative texts by using martin and white’s (2005) framework. there have been a few research to discover the distribution of attitude resources in the narrative writing. it has been underlain with the basis that linguistic features of attitude in narrative texts are needed to be used to describe the main characters of the story. the narrative text refers to an imaginative story with complication or problematic events, and it tries to find the resolutions to solve the problem. considering its importance, narrative writers are supposed to make use of appraisal expressions properly in order to draw readers’ attention to feel like getting involved in the narrative story. therefore, this present research aims to explore and analyze the use of expressions of attitudes in the narrative texts that are produced by efl student writers. methods this present research aims at exploring the students’ ability in using and selecting appropriate words which show attitudes and discovering the attitude resources in the efl university students’ narrative writing. to fulfill this aim, the researchers use the written discourse analysis as research design. according to celce-murcia and olshtain (2007), discourse is defined as the studies beyond the sentence boundaries which investigates everyday conversation, the written discourse of all types, narrative, and other kinds of written or spoken text. the researchers take five narrative texts written by five undergraduate students majoring in the english language education at a local private university in central java. there are 26 students of the third semester in the academic year of 2017/2018 attending a genre-based writing class. the texts are taken at the middle of the semester. these five students’ texts are purposefully selected from a collection of students’ works, especially those texts which are about indonesian folklore. five narrative texts analyzed are the legend of prambanan temple, malin kundang, timun mas, joko tarub, and the legend of toba lake. those narratives belong to legends or folktales from indonesia. the analysis is done by dividing each paragraph into single clauses, then identifying and categorizing the words and clauses by using martin and white’s (2005) theory of appraisal. the analysis focuses on appraising items which show the attitude that is covering affect, judgment, and appreciation. results and discussions the findings on the distribution of attitude in the efl students’ narrative writing are presented in table 1. as mentioned before, five narrative writing is analyzed to discover to what extent the appraising items of attitude in their writing. in table 1, t stands for text. the detailed frequency among five texts is described in table 1. table 1 shows a predominance of attitude, namely affect in the students’ narrative writing which constitutes 40,9%, followed by appreciation (32,3%), and judgement (26,8%). this indicates that the efl university students mostly produce affect that can be seen from the main characters of stories to show their feelings. this finding is similar to the study of horarik (2003). the use of affect as a dominant domain of attitude demonstrates that the students convey the feeling/emotion to the characters in the text so that the readers can involve in the stories given. horarik (2003) argues that the use of affect in the narratives helps writers to create ‘reader empathy’ in order to describe feelings and emotional individuals relating to the character’s internal evaluations of events. this means that a dominant occurrence of affect is important to fulfill the aims of narrative itself which entertains/amuses the readers. the appraising items of affect are useful to deliver the characters’ feeling/emotion so that the readers can possess similar feeling relating to the description of feeling in the writing. the detail categories and samples of attitudinal words are presented in table 2. table 2 maps out the detailed description of appraising items of affect as the most dominant distribution in the students’ narrative writing. table 1 summary distribution of attitude attitude t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 total freq freq freq freq freq freq % affect 18 4 5 11 14 52 40,9 judgement 7 5 2 8 12 34 26,8 appreciation 9 7 6 11 10 41 32,3 total 127 100 table 2 distribution of appraising items of affect types t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 total freq freq freq freq freq freq % inclination 5 0 1 2 1 9 17,3 happiness 8 3 4 6 5 26 50 security 4 1 0 3 7 15 28,9 satisfaction 1 0 0 0 1 2 3,8 total 52 100 based on table 2, the predominant affect type in students’ narrative writing is happiness (50%), security (28,9%), inclination (17,3%), and satisfaction (3,8%) respectively. regarding affect analysis, the higher distribution of happiness can be seen in the efl university students’ narrative writing. this indicates that the students convey their feeling of happiness involving in the text. the excerpts can be seen in the finding section in which those appraising items show the feeling/emotion of happiness from the characters positively and negatively. the students tend to build empathy from the readers while reading the text in order to understand the stories in the text by conveying the feeling of un/happiness as the subsystem of affect. it helps the readers involve in the stories of text in which the readers can imagine the feeling of characters in the stories. the example of appraising item of inclination is the excerpt from text 5 “he (king of pegging) never wanted [-inclination]”. student 5 conveys the main character’s feeling of desire in the text by using appraising item ‘wanted’. this means student 5 would like to deliver her feeling of the desire not to do something in this context. 336 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 333-338 moreover, the excerpt from text 4 “joko tarub was very sad [-happiness]” involves the appraising item of happiness. this means student 4 delivers his feeling of unhappiness toward that clause. he conveys jaka tarub’s feeling of unhappiness because of something in the context. the clause from text 1 “jonggrang felt so worried [-security]” includes into the feeling of insecurity that is conveyed by student 1 in the text. the appraising item ‘worry’ indicates that the student would like to convey insecurity that is felt by jonggrang in the context. student 5 has appraising item in the excerpt “he was sorry [-dissatisfaction]”. he conveys his feeling of dissatisfaction through king of pegging’s in which he does not satisfy toward the situation in the context. further, the samples of judgment in five narrative writing from efl university students are described in table 3. table 3 distribution of appraising items of judgement types t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 total freq freq freq freq freq freq % normality 1 0 0 0 0 1 2,9 capacity 1 0 2 4 1 8 23,5 tenacity 5 2 0 4 5 16 47,1 veracity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 propriety 0 3 0 0 6 9 26,5 total 34 100 from table 3, it can be seen that the predominant judgement type in students’ narrative writing is tenacity (47,1%) followed by propriety (26,5%), capacity (23,5%), normality (2,9%), and veracity (0%). as to judgement analysis, the use of social esteem (capacity, normality, and tenacity) is higher than social sanction (veracity and propriety) in their writing. this indicates that the narrative writing tends to describe the writers’ judgment to the dependability of characters in the stories. the students convey their judgment of characters’ behavior in terms of tenacity in order to deliver how dependent characters to do something in the text. it helps the readers to know the detailed events of characters in the stories in terms of characters’ dependability. the excerpt “prince bandung had a special [+normality] power” involves the appraising item to judge the main character’s behavior in the text. student 1 conveys his judgement of how special power of prince bandung bondowoso in the context. student 1 also conveys his judgment of capacity in the clause “king baba was a powerful[+capacity] king”. this means that student 1 deliver his judgment of king baba’s behaviour. it describes how capability baba as a king in the context. the appraising item ‘dare’ in the excerpt “how dare[+tenacity] you are” includes into tenacity by student 1. he would like to judge the behavior of the character in the text. he conveys how dependability of roro jonggrang to do something in the context. the excerpt “i will reply your kindness[+propriety]” involves the appraising item of propriety. student 5 deliver his judgement of character’s behavior in the text in terms of ethics relating to the culture. the appraising item ‘kindness’ involves how far the ethics of character to do something in the context. table 4 involves the samples of appraising items of appreciation. table 4 distribution of appraising items of appreciation types t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 total freq freq freq freq freq freq % reaction 3 3 5 4 3 18 43,9 composition 1 4 1 2 6 14 34,1 valuation 5 0 0 3 1 9 22 total 41 100 table 4 shows the predominance of appreciation type in students’ narrative writing. the distribution of reaction is 43,9% followed by composition (34,1%) and valuation (22%). it can be seen that reaction is the highest distribution in their narrative writing. this shows the intention of students uses the evaluation/appreciation of things in terms of quality and impact. it eases the readers to know how the quality and impact of characters and events in the stories. thus, the readers engage into the stories relating to the appreciation of characters and events itself. the example of appraising item of reaction is shown in the excerpt “a very beautiful[+reaction] woman” from text 5. this indicates that student 5 conveys his appreciation toward thing in which it describes the quality of woman in the context. he appreciates how beautiful a woman she is in the text. the excerpt “he became a rich[+composition] trader” includes into appraising item of the composition. student 2 deliver his appreciation toward thing in the text. he appreciates the complexity to be a rich trader that is hard to follow by the others in the context. student 1 has the excerpt “you are a useless[-valuation] prince” identified as example appraising item of valuation. he conveys his appreciation toward the value of prince in the text. he describes the prince who has no priceless pride in the context. as a result, the distribution of attitude in the efl university students’ narrative writing demonstrates the way students convey their ideas to create a text suitable with the communicative purpose of the text itself. to achieve the goal of the purpose of the text, the students use the affect as the most dominant distribution in writing narratives. this means that the students convey mostly the characters’ feelings of inclination, happiness, security, and satisfaction than judging character’s behavior or appreciating things/ characters in their writing. the use of attitudinal expressions in the students’ narrative in this research shows that they generally use simple words and used them repetitively. following fry and fountoukidis (2000), “there are the most basic english words in english, ranked infrequently order.” they list 1000 most frequently used words in their textbook in which those words are used by the students in this present research. based on the findings of this research, the students tend to use the basic english words that are easy to comprehend, for example, beautiful, clever, rich, special, old, powerful, etc. this finding is similar to the research findings of luthfiyati, latief, and suharmanto (2015); fareed, ashraf, and bilal (2016); and qomar (2016). those researches indicate that undergraduate students have their linguistic proficiency (syntax and vocabulary) by using common words in their writing. it helps the readers understand what the texts talk about, especially in narrative text. wolsey, grisham, and hiebert (2012) assert that, “the 337expressions of attitudes... (sri wuli fitriati et al.) linguistic choice including vocabulary/word contributes to the complexity of that text.” they add that the complexity can influence students’ ability to comprehend and remember texts. thus, by using basic english words, the students’ narrative writing decrease the complexity of the text. in other words, their texts are understandable. not only using basic english words but also repeating same words are involved in their narrative writing. those repetition can be shown on text-1 (the legend of prambanan temple) and text-3 (timun mas) as follows. the first sample of repetition is taken from text-1 (the legend of prambanan temple) where the student uses the word ‘best’ four times to appreciate the value of objects that are described in the text. the excerpts are described below. “.... i command you to lead our best warriors to conquer prambanan....” (paragraph 4, sentence 3). “ yes, father. i will prove you that i am the best. i will not disappoint you, answered prince bandung...” (paragraph 5, sentence 1). “..... then, prince bandung headead to prambanan with his best warriors” (paragraph 6, sentence 2). “.... you have shown us that you are the best one to be ing of pengging in the future....” (paragraph 10, sentence 3). text-3 (timun mas) shows a lot of repetition in using attitudinal expressions by using the word ‘happy’ three times to express happiness for the story. the excerpts are as follows. “....the old widow was so happy to hears that because she will have child” (paragraph 1, sentence 5). “...the old widow was so happy...” (paragraph 2, sentence 4). “....finaly, timun emas went back to home and lived happily ever after with the old widow” (paragraph 3, sentence 11). wolsey, grisham, and hiebert (2012) declare that, “repetition reduces the complexity of the vocabulary found in texts students read.” it indicates that the repetition helps the readers obtain the sequences of the story in the narrative texts. thus, the readers are familiar with the repetitious words in the texts that make them understand the texts talk about. therefore, the use of basic english words and repetition make the readers ease to get stories in the narrative writing. conclusions this present research focuses on the analysis of efl university students’ narrative writing that explores how attitude resources and flows across the texts. this research concerns how the students manipulate linguistic choices in the attitude throughout their texts as well as the students’ problems in writing a narrative relating to the use of attitudinal resources in their writing. the finding shows that a dominant distribution of attitude is affect in the students’ narratives which constitutes 40,9%, followed by appreciation (32,3%), and judgement (26,8%). this finding indicates that the higher affect is useful to achieve the communicative purpose of the narrative text itself. to amuse and entertain the readers, the students use more affect to convey the feelings/emotion that are shown in the characters and events of stories. it helps the readers involved in the stories. it is important for the readers to understand what the writers express their ideas in the stories. also, the distribution of attitude in their text includes the use of basic english words and repetition that help readers understand the stories in the texts. this present research explores five students’ narrative texts taken from a genre-based writing class. the findings of this research can not be generalized as the representation of all of the students’ writing competence in the whole class. despite this limitation, for future research, it can be suggested that researchers explore many more students’ writings to gain deeper understanding on the students’ writing competence in general. through this present research, methodologically, researchers and teachers can develop more explicit ways of identifying problems of efl students from an appraisal perspective. a pedagogical implication might be that teachers should refer back to the importance of meaningfocused teaching rather than teaching grammar separately from contexts. teachers can instruct students to write simple narratives centering on some attitude words. some attitude words describe the flow of narrative stories so that students are required to provide such words or expressions in the narratives. through this exercise together with the instructions from teachers, students can learn how to use attitudinal resources in the writing step by step and understand the meaning of evaluation. attitudinal resources can be used across the whole narratives and need to be taught explicitly in the writing process. references adam, a. a. s. 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(2018). learning strategies applied by the students in writing english text. journal on english as a foreign language, 8(1), 19-38. 70 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 students’ high achievement on learning style preferences in chinese department, binus university 印尼建国大学中文系高学习成就学生学习风格之分析 yetty go chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 yetty@binus.edu abstract every student certainly demonstrates different achievement in her/his chinese language learning process because every student has her/his own individual way to resolve their problems in learning. in learning process, student’s individual differences exist. these differences lead to different learning speed and learning style of the student. the purpose of this study was to investigate the high achievement students’ learning styles. this study was based on reid’s learning styles theory and also uses reid’s perceptual learning style preference questionnaire (plspq) to investigate student’s learning styles. the main finding of this study is that student’s learning style preference is group style. according to student learning style preferences results, students prefer to learn together with others or in group and learn in a more interactive way. keywords: student’s high achievement, learning styles, learning strategies, group style 内容摘要 每个学生在学习中文的过程中,展现的成就肯定有所不同,因为每个学生都有他们自己采取的学习以 及解决学习困难的方式。学生在学习上都有个别差异所在,这些个别差异使得学生展现出不同的学习效率和 学习风格。本研究旨在探讨印尼建国大学中文系高学习成就学生学习中文的学习风格。本研究的学习风格是以 reid的学习风格论述,并采用reid的“知觉学习风格偏好量表”(plspq)为本研究的研究工具。研究发现, 印尼建国大学中文系高学习成就学生倾向于小组风格为学习风格,这表明学生比较喜欢与他人或者小组一起学 习,以互助学习更佳。 关键词: 高学习成就的学生,学习风格、学习成就、中文、小组风格 71students’ high achievement ….. (yetty go) 前言 每个学生在学习中文的过程中,展现的成就肯 定有所不同,因为每个学生都有他们自己采取的学习 以及解决学习困难的方式。学生在学习上都存在着个 别差异,除了在种族、文化、母语、性别等方面有所 差异以外,其它也包括学生的学习能力、动机、兴 趣、态度等,这些在学习上的个别差异也反映出学习 者在学习速率和学习风格的不同。 近年来出现不少有关学习者个别差异的研究, 有些研究中内容还进一步地探讨学习者的学习动机、 学习策略、学习风格等因素与学习成就的关系,结果 表明这些因素对学生的学习成就会产生直接或者间接 的影响(楊翼,1998)。学生的学习风格偏好影响他们 在学习上的成就,学生的学习风格越多,学习成就就 越高。 本研究以印尼建国大学中文系的学生为研究对 象,并采用“知觉学习风格偏好量表”(plspq)进 行学习风格测试。希望本研究得出的结果可以了解高 学习成就学生们在学习上采用的学习风格,能帮助教 师了解学生的学习情况以及找到有效的教学法,这能 提高教学效率,并提高学生的学习成就。 研究方法 研究对象 本研究的研究对象是232位印尼建国大学中文 系2009-2013学年度一年级至四年级学生中的2013年 下学期的综合课、听力课、口语课以及写作课成绩的 学期总分得85-100分,在印尼建国大学中文系该分数 范围是属于a级。高学习成就的印尼建国大学中文系 学生人数分配,如下表: 表1高学习成就的学生人数分配 科目 人数 百分比 综合课 听力课 口语课 写作课 79 56 95 83 34% 24.1% 40.9% 35.8% 研究方法 本研究以量表调查法,调查印尼建国大学中文 系高学习成就学生的学习风格偏好类型。本研究采用 reid的“知觉学习风格偏好量表”(plspq)来测试学 生的学习风格,并使用电脑统计软体spss 20进行资 料统计与分析。 本研究的学习成就是采用印尼建国大学中文系 2009-2013学年度一年级至四年级学生的2013年下学 期的学期总分为依据。本研究主要采用综合课、听力 课、口语课以及写作课的成绩,成绩的总分包括期中 考试成绩、期末考试成绩以及平时成绩(指教师在上 课给的小测验或功课的平均数)。 研究工具 reid(1984)的知觉学习风格偏好量表(perceptual learning style preference quesionnaire, plspq)主要通过30个陈述问题鉴定学生偏好以何种方 式吸收、处理和储存新的信息以及掌握新技能,主要 以视觉风格(visual)、听觉风格(auditory)、动觉 风格(kinesthetic)、触觉风格(tactile)、小组风 格(group)或者个人风格(individual)六种学习风格 (reid, 1984)。 本量表形式为5等likert量表,1 代表「非 常不同意」,2代表「不同意」,3代表「没意见」 ,4代表「同意」,5「非常同意」,其分为六个部 分,有视觉(visual)、听觉(auditory)、动觉(kinesthetic)、触觉(tactile)、小组(group)以及个人 (individual)。每个部分共有5题,视觉部分由第6 题、10题、12题、24题和29题为代表,听觉部分由第 1题、7题、9题、17题和20题为代表,动觉部分由第2 题、8题、15题、19题和26题为代表,触觉部分由第 11题、14题、16题、22题和25题为代表,小组部分由 第3题、4题、5题、21题和23题为代表,个人部分由 第13题、18题、27题、28题和30题为代表。 笔者采用该量表的原因为通过该量表我们可以 了解学生在学习上使用什么风格来吸取、保留并学会 华语文。除此之外,reid的知觉学习风格偏好量表涉 及面广、题量适中、已被广泛运用于语言领域的研究 中(wintergerst, decapua & verna, 2003)。 内容 学习风格的定义 学习风格的概念,是于1954年,由美国学者 herbert thelen首次提出,但是学习风格一词是直到 1970年前后才真正出现。根据brown(2007)所指出, 风格(styles)是指个人持续不变的倾向或偏好,风格 是智能运作与人格种类的普遍特质,介于情感与认知 之间。人的风格取决于自己内化整体世界的方式,但 由于内化过程不完全和认知有关,因此我们认为学习 风格中融合了生理、情意及认知领域。 keefe 与jenkins (1997)认为学习风格是认 知、情意与生理行为三者表现的特征。此特征是学习 者对学习环境的感觉、互动及反应的一种相对稳定特 质。学习风格一般是用来鉴定学习者的学习及学习偏 好的方式。dunn与dunn (1993) 认为学习风格是生理 与发展个人特征的总合,使同样的教学,有可能对一 些学习者有效,但对其他学习者无效,因为每个学习 者都有不同的专注力、处理,及保留新或较困难信息 的方式。学习风格是学习者吸取新信息使用的方式, 如使用整体型或分析型解决学习困难或倾向哪一种感 官方面学习(oxford, 2003)。 本研究认为学习风格是学生利用独特性且习惯 性的特质来吸收、处理与保留新信息或新技能的学习 方式,其受到认知、情意等因素的影响。每个学生都 有自己独特的学习风格偏好,而学习风格并没有好坏 的标准。学习风格立即影响到学习成就,能了解自己 的学习风格的学习者,能让自己的学习成就更佳(游 政男,2000)。 reid 的学习风格类风格 reid (1995)认为每个学生都以不同的方式学 习,学生的学习风格偏好可显示其以不同的情况下学 习更佳。reid把学习风格分为六类风格,即视觉风格 (visual)、听觉风格(auditory)、动觉风格(kinesthetic)、触觉风格(tactile)、个人风格(individual)及小组风格(group)。 reid的六类学习风格,详 细说明如下: 72 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 1. 视觉风格:以视觉为偏好的学习者以看书里、 黑板上及练习本里等从视觉刺激获取的信息学 习更佳。这些学习者以阅读新信息或指示,记 忆并了解得更佳。学习者根本不需要通过很多 口语说明,就可以自己一个人独立学习。 2. 听觉风格:以听觉为偏好的学习者通过听他人 说话或解释可学习新信息。这些学习者以朗读 或动口说较容易记忆所学的新信息。学习者通 过听讲座、与他人会话和听口头指示等听觉输 入学习更佳。 3. 动觉风格:以动觉为偏好的学习者较喜欢肢体 活动学习新信息。这些学习者参与活动、户外 教学,及课堂上的扮演角色记忆信息更佳。 4. 触觉风格:以触觉为偏好的学习者动手做事, 如在实验室做实验、动手拼图模型等触摸或亲 自动手完成学习任务更佳。写笔记或写指示也 可以帮学习者记忆更好,以亲自参与有关活动 会帮他们了解新信息。 5. 个人风格:以个人风格为偏好的学习者比较喜 欢单独读书。这些学生单独学习时,学得比较 好。单独学习时,学习者能够学会新信息及促 进学习过程。 6. 小组风格:以小组风格为偏好的学习者,偏爱 在小组里或者与他人一起完成学习任务,一起 读书。通过小组合作可促进学习者的学习过程 与学会新信息。 本研究主要想了解印尼建国大学中文系学生是 比较倾向于哪种风格类型来吸取与保留信息,因此, 笔者根据reid的学习风格论述作为探讨印尼建国大学 中文系学生的学习风格偏好类型框架。 探讨高学习成就学生的学习风格 学习者的学习风格可分很多种,有些人习惯一 个人单独学习,对这种学习者来说,其他人的存在可 影响他的学习过程,也有些学习者如果跟其他人或者 群体一起学习时,才可以学得更好(dunn, 1983)。 游政男(2000)指出能够了解适合自己学习风格的学习 者、能让学习成就更佳,学习成就高的学生能够使用 许多学习策略来调整个人学习方式并解决学习困难( 吴越,2004)。 为了了解得高成就学生的学习风格偏好类型, 许多研究者对学习风格与学习者的中文学习成就进行 分析,以下为高学习成就者的学习风格偏好之一些研 究: 研究內容 研究者與年代 研究發現 高学习成就 学生的学习 风格偏好 彭妮絲(2011) 廖康伶(2008) 中高及中等阅读理解能力的学习风 格倾向于视觉风格。 字汇学习成就测验得高分的学习者 之风格类型是听弱视弱,占被试者 的50%。 学习风格并无熟优孰劣之分,学生如能选择适 合个人的学习风格,其能够快速地吸收新信息,并能 够快速地掌握语言能力。 印尼建国大学中文系高学习成就学生学习风格偏好类 型 高综合成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 高综合成就的学生,小组风格(m=2.795)为其 第一高,视觉风格(m=2.570)为其第二高,个人风格 (m=2.552)为其第三高,触觉风格(m= 2.448)为其第 四高,动觉风格(m=2.408)为其第五高,最低者为听 觉风格(m=2.329)。研究结果显示,高综合成就的学 生倾向于小组风格为学习风格偏好类型。学生通过小 组讨论某语法点,或一起完成综合练习,能够提升他 们的综合课的成就。 表2 高综合成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 学习风格 总数 平均数 标准差 排名 视觉风格 听觉风格 触觉风格 动觉风格 个人风格 小组风格 203.4 184.0 193.4 190.2 201.6 220.8 2.570 2.329 2.448 2.408 2.552 2.795 .5511 .5044 .5166 .6222 .6612 .5809 2 6 4 5 3 1 高听力成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 高听力成就的学生,小组风格(m=2.829)为其 第一高,视觉风格(m=2.507)为其第二高,动觉风格 (m=2.468)为其第三高,触觉风格(m=2.396)为其第四 高,个人风格(m=2.296)为其第五高,而最低者为听 觉风格(m=2.268)。研究结果显示,高听力成就的学 生倾向于小组风格为学习风格偏好类型。虽然学生不 是倾向于听觉风格,但是听力成就还可以得高分,表 示通过小组学习的方式,也可以提升听力的能力。 表3 高听力成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 学习风格 总数 平均数 标准差 排名 视觉风格 听觉风格 触觉风格 动觉风格 个人风格 小组风格 140.4 127.0 134.2 138.2 128.6 158.4 2.507 2.268 2.396 2.468 2.296 2.829 .5173 .4336 .4756 .5673 .6150 .6260 2 6 4 3 5 1 高口语成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 高口语成就的学生,小组风格(m=2.743)为其 第一高,视觉风格(m=2.602)为其第二高,个人风格 (m=2.556)为其第三高,触觉风格(m= 2.465)为其第 四高,听觉风格(m=2.356)为其第五高,而最低者为 动觉风格(m=2.413)。研究结果显示,高口语成就的 学生倾向于小组风格为学习风格偏好类型,这表明通 过小组方式学习,学生更有机会运用华语文来讨论、 分享、交际等,并提升学生的口语成就。 表4 高口语成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 学习风格 总数 平均数 标准差 排名 视觉风格 听觉风格 触觉风格 动觉风格 个人风格 小组风格 247.2 223.8 234.2 229.2 242.8 260.6 2.602 2.356 2.465 2.413 2.556 2.743 .5780 .5513 .6150 .6816 .7277 .5788 2 5 4 6 3 1 73students’ high achievement ….. (yetty go) 高写作成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 高写作成就的学生,小组风格(m=2.694)为其 第一高,视觉风格(m=2.547)为其第二高,个人风格 (m=2.523)为其第三高,触觉风格(m= 2.482)为其第 四高,动觉风格(m=2.463)为其第五高,而最低者为 听觉风格(m=2.337)。研究结果显示,高写作成就的 学生倾向于小组风格为学习风格偏好类型,学生可以 在小组里面分享个人的经验,多讨论能增加学生的华 语文字句,能够帮助增加写作文的技能。 表5 高写作成就的学生其学习风格偏好类型 学习风格 总数 平均数 标准差 排名 视觉风格 听觉风格 触觉风格 动觉风格 个人风格 小组风格 211.4 194.0 206.0 204.4 209.4 223.6 2.547 2.337 2.482 2.463 2.523 2.694 .5301 .5084 .5562 .6112 .6573 .5458 2 6 4 5 3 1 结语 本研究透过量表调查法,针对232位印尼建国 大学中文系2009-2013学年度一年级至四年级高学习 成就学生进行学习风格测试,研究结果显示高学习成 就印尼建国大学中文系综合课、听力课、口语课以及 写作课成就较高学生的学习风格偏好类型主要为小组 风格,与视觉风格为主次风格。这表明学生与他人或 者与小组一起学习中文时,亦通过视觉工具上课时, 学习得快并能提升学习成就。 根据研究得出的结果,笔者建议针对倾向于小 组风格的学生,教师在教学时可以使用分组讨论或者 比较活动性的教学法,这很适合学生的学习风格,并 可以改善倾向于个人风格的学生之学习模式,并提升 他们的学习成就。若针对倾向于视觉风格的学生教师 可以多用图片、图表、图示或其他视觉工具并利用带 动作的学习,其能够使视觉风格的学生表现的较好( 彭妮丝,2011)。笔者也建议学生应该对自己的学习 风格加以了解,其能够帮助自我学习达到较佳的效 果、吸收更快、保留更久。除此之外,学生能够调整 并掌控自己的学习过程,如此能够帮助学生提升自我 学习成就,成为成功的学习者。 参考文献 廖康伶.(2008).国中生知觉学习风格,字汇学习策 略与字汇学习成就之相关研究.国立云林 技大 学技术及职业教育研究所硕士论文. 彭妮丝. 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(1995). learning styles in the esl/efl classroom. boston:heinle&heinle. wintergerst, a.c., decapua, a., and verna, m. (2003). conceptualizing learning style modalities for esl/efl students. system, 31, 85–106. 29metaphors expressing emotions ….. (novi liana ko; menik winiharti) metaphors expressing emotions in lisa kleypas’s rainshadow road novel novi liana ko; menik winiharti english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 mwinih@gmail.com abstract metaphors have been always interesting to explore since they are able to represent many things, one of which is feelings. article examined the metaphorical sentences which expressed emotions found in lisa kleypas’s the rainshadow road. library research was conducted to find the kinds of emotions which were expressed by the metaphorical sentences. it was also done to figure out what the metaphors refered to. another objective was to reveal the most dominant emotion which appeared through the metaphors expressed in the novel. the analysis used metaphor theory to compare the dictionary meaning and the metaphorical one. the result shows that there are various emotions which are expressed through the metaphorical sentences. happiness is found as the most dominant emotion which appears in the novel. keywords: technology use, translation, testing effect, language learning abstrak metafor selalu menarik untuk dibahas karena mampu mengekpresikan dan mewakili banyak hal, salah satunya adalah rasa. artikel mengupas kalimat metafora yang mengekspresikan emosi dalam novel rainshadow road karya lisa kleypas. studi pustaka dilakukan untuk mengetahui jenis emosi yang diekspresikan melalui kalimat metafora. hal ini dilakukan juga untuk mengetahui makna yang dituju metafora tersebut. tujuan lain adalah untuk mengungkapkan jenis emosi yang paling dominan yang diekspresikan melalui metafora yang terdapat dalam novel. analisis data menggunakan teori metafor untuk membandingkan makna kamus dan makna metafora. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat bermacam emosi yang diekspresikan melalui kalimatt metafor dalam novel tersebut. rasa bahagia (happiness) adalah emosi yang paling dominan yang muncul. kata kunci: metafor, kalimat metafor, emosi 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 introduction generally, there are two meanings of a language, literal and non-literal meaning. according to palmatier (2000), literal language is “something what it says”, while non-literal language is “something other than what it says.” in other words, literal meaning refers to the real or concrete thing, and non-literal meaning refers to something unreal or abstract (knowles & moon, 2006). knowles and moon (2006) point out that literal meaning is “the basic and physical meaning”, while nonliteral meaning associates some kind of comparison or identification, and if it is interpreted literally, it would be nonsensical, impossible or incorrect. metaphor is one kind of figurative languages or non-literal meaning. according to knowles and moon (2006), metaphor is “the use of language to refer to something other than what it was originally applied or make a connection between two things”. in other words, metaphor is used to refer to the original thing or to refer the literal meaning with the non-literal meaning. in addition, people choose metaphors to communicate what they think and how they feel about something, and to explain what a specific thing is like, or to deliver a meaning in a creative way (knowles & moon, 2006). to analyze metaphors, there are three elements needed: vehicle, topic, and ground. (knowless & moon, 2006:9-10). topic is the intended meaning of the metaphor (not the literal meaning), while the vehicle is the metaphor (words or phrases). additionally, the ground is the connection between the literal and the metaphorical meaning that provide the key to how effective the vehicle is. they also argue that by examining the ground, it can be seen how the metaphor works, like in which meaning is being conveyed or in which particular features of the literal meaning of the vehicles are being transferred to the topic. the example in analyzing the metaphor can be seen below. context: be prepared for a mountain of paper work metaphor/vehicle: mountain meaning/topic: a large amount connection/ground: ideas of size, being immovable and difficult to deal with (knowless & moon, 2006) in the example, the ground of the metaphor is mountain which has the idea of size or being immovable, but there may be some other features which might have been drawn on mountain, such as cold, rocky, snow capped, or infertile. (knowless & moon, 2006:10) furthermore, dewi (2008) has done a study about metaphors that express emotions in a sidney sheldon’s novel the sands of time. she has found that the emotions that the metaphors mostly express are anger, happiness, and sadness. in addition, yuditha (2010) has done the research about metaphors related to anger that are expressed by indonesian speakers and how they deal with their anger. she has found that indonesian speakers see the dangerous side of anger that they need to guard and they prefer to hold back their anger inside by swallowing it or corporate with it. according to pettinelli (2012), emotions and feelings are similar in the nature, but emotions are stronger and deeper than feelings, and feeling is more like sensations. besides, according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, emotion is “a strong feeling such love, fear, or anger; the part of a person’s character that consists of feelings.” drummond (2012) classifies emotions into 10 types, i.e. happiness, caring, depression, inadequateness, fear, confusion, hurt, anger, loneliness, and remorse. on the other hand, kövecses (2000) groups emotions into anger, love, fear, lust, pride, surprise, happiness, sadness, and shame. these emotions can be expressed through metaphors. this study explores emotions which are expressed in metaphors. it tries to discover the types of emotions and the meaning of the metaphorical expressions. method the data are metaphorical sentences that express emotions. there are thirty three metaphorical expressions which are collected from lisa kleypas’s the rainshadow road (2012). the data are analyzed using the theories of metaphors and emotions to know the kinds of emotions that the metaphors express. then, they are analyzed based on the meaning that they want to convey using knowless and moon’s (2006) framework of analyzing metaphors. the connection between the literal and metaphorical meaning is analyzed to find what the metaphors actually refer to. personal interpretations are also included to get the meaning of the metaphorical sentences. results and discussion the meaning of metaphorical sentences there are eleven kinds of emotions which are expressed through thirty three metaphorical sentences. however, the discussion in article is limited to eleven metaphorical sentences, each of which represents one type of emotions. anger context: instantfury sent hot blood to his face. vehicle: hot blood topic: a very strong anger in this case, there is a man whose name is sam. sam is asked by justine to take care of lucy, who has just gotten an accident in his house, but sam doesn’t want to do it, and then justine says that she will ask his boyfriend and his friends who are the bikers to take care of lucy. again, sam does not agree with justine’s second idea. within this context, the writer of the novel says “instantfury sent hot blood to his face”. hot blood is used to describe anger in the metaphorical sentence above. it consists of “hot” and “blood”. according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, “hot” means a high temperature and producing heat, while blood is “the red liquid that flows through the bodies of humans and animals.” as stated in the context 31metaphors expressing emotions ….. (novi liana ko; menik winiharti) above, fury has already describe anger, but there is hot blood that comes in the metaphorical term which means a very strong anger until it appears on the face. in addition, when people get angry, usually their body or blood temperature will get higher, and based on the meaning of “hot” which is a high temperature producing heat, so it means that the blood of sam is in a high temperature when he is very angry. therefore, “sent hot blood to his face” means that the very strong anger is obviously seen on his face. in this context, instead of handing lucy to the bikers, sam angrily accepts for taking care of her in his house. sam’s angry look is so obvious because when he sees lucy, lucy says that he looks angry. hurt context: “and lucy would have to swallow her hurtpride and get over it.” vehicle: swallow topic: acceptance the story tells that alice is thinking about her wedding with kevin because when she gets married to kevin, it will solve some problems which are getting financial support, proving to alice that kevin loves her most, and she and her mother will plan the wedding together. then, she thinks that “lucy would have to swallow her hurt pride and get over it.” this metaphorical sentence shows the emotion of hurt because it is true that lucy feels hurt remembering that kevin has cheated with her sister – alice – but her sister doesn’t feel sorry at all, and now they are going to get married. swallow in the dictionary means “to make food and drink go down throat into stomach” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary). in the metaphorical sentence above, swallow means acceptance because it is impossible to swallow hurt because hurt is not concrete. the connection between the literary and metaphorical meaning of swallow is the idea of acceptance or putting something inside. the further meaning of acceptance is that lucy has to accept or put inside herself the hurt she feels because sooner or later, kevin will be one of their family members. trust context: “your lack of trust wounds me.” vehicle: wounds topic: being hurt emotionally based on the story in the novel, “your lack of trust wounds me” is the sam’s respond when lucy says that she does not trust sam to pick a t-shirt for her while she is in the closet-sized bathroom to clean herself after being spilled with beer by some drunks. lucy is afraid that sam will pick the t-shirt with skull picture, stupid saying or dirty language. lucy also says that she does not know sam well enough and does not really trust him considering their meetings happen only for several times. as stated in the merriam webster learner’s dictionary, wound means “to injure (someone or something) by cutting or breaking the skin.” the context meaning is not the lack of trust that injures the person physically because trust or the lack of trust is abstract, but the lack of trust of someone can cause an emotional pain to a person. in this case, sam feels hurt emotionally because lucy does not have enough trust to him, as what has explained previously. the metaphor clearly shows the emotion of hurt because wound in the metaphorical sentence above expresses the emotional hurt that sam feels. anxiety context: he had been seized with grim anxiety. vehicle: seize topic: feeling the emotion suddenly and strongly he in the metaphorical sentence above refers to sam. in this case, sam has been seized with grim anxiety from the moment he has gotten a call from justine and justine tells him that lucy has an accident. the metaphor expresses the emotion of anxiety using the word of seized which means “to take somebody/ something in your hand suddenly and using force.” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, 2011) the meaning of the metaphorical sentence above must not be that sam has suddenly been taken forcibly and physically by anxiety. based on the context, he suddenly and strongly feels anxious when he receives a call from justine telling him about lucy’s condition. this metaphorical sentence and the context clearly shows the emotion of anxiety because of the word of anxiety itself and after sam has received the call from justine, he goes straight to the clinic in fifteen minutes. depression context: “wait until he hits bottom”. vehicle: bottom topic: reaching the deepest depression the metaphorical sentence above is talking about alex (one of sam’s brother) who feels depressed after his divorce with his wife. alex’s wife has taken almost alex’s money away, so alex has run out of cash and drinking alcohol is the only way that makes alex survive. then, sam asks mark about what they should do to help their brother, alex. mark says “wait until he hits bottom.” the metaphorical sentence shows the emotion of depression because bottom indicates the “the lowest part of something” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary). in this context it means the deepest depression, not that alex reaches the lower part of depression physically. therefore, when alex has reached the deepest part of his depression and he doesn’t know what to do to survive, then it is the time for sam and mark to decide what they should do to help their brother. shame context: she looked so thoroughly guilty and redfaced with worry that it actually gave weight to the crazy idea that had entered sam’s mind. vehicle: red topic: feeling blushed because of shame 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 lucy and holly are watching television in the living room while drinking a glass of juice. while holding the small ruby red antique juice glass, holly talks about how to get the color of the glass and about hand-made glass. then, lucy teaches holly how to make sun catcher, and the first step is to create a design in a paper. watching holly drawing her sun catcher, lucy is busy with her mind, daydreaming. lucy thinks about having an art class for children in her studio while playing with her juice glass. suddenly, her fingers turn hot, and the glass begins to change shape in her hand. then the glass disappears, becoming a hummingbird. holly is surprised. while they are trying to get the red humming bird out, holly calls sam. after sam helps them, sam asks them about how the bird gets into the house. holly says it is because of lucy. lucy makes the bird out of the juice glass. then, lucy looks so thoroughly guilty and red-faced with worry that it actually gives weight to the crazy idea that had entered sam’s mind. red is used in the context to describe the face that indicates shame. according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, red is “having the color of blood or fire.” the meaning of the metaphor is not that lucy’s face is full of blood, but it means that her face becomes red indicating blushed. lucy is blushed because she is ashamed. as stated in chapter two that shame is “the feelings of sadness, embarrassment and guilt that you have when you know that something you have done is wrong or stupid” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary), lucy feels the shame because of what she has done by creating the hummingbird out of glass. she feels guilty to sam for showing the magic in front of holly because it is wrong, and she shouldn’t do it in front of a kid. that’s why she is blushed and showing the emotion of shame. hope context: the woman who pinned all of her hopes on sam would almost certainly end up with a broken heart. vehicle: pinned topic: to really hope something will be achieved sam is a man who does not do the long term relationship because he does not believe in the marriage. his vision of marriage comes from his parents who have unhappy marriage because his parents are alcoholic, they usually scream in front of their children and anyone, fight with no boundaries, and theydo not hesitate to broadcast secrets. that is why sam does not want to have a marriage. then, when lucy is thinking about sam that she wants to tell him that he is more than he thinks, the writer of the novel writes “the woman who pinned all of her hopes on sam would almost certainly end up with a broken heart.” pinned comes from the word pin which is a small thin piece that is made from metal with a point at one end, and it is used to hold pieces of cloth together temporarily. (cambridge dictionary online) according to merriam webster learner’s dictionary, pin means “a thin piece of wood, metal, or plastic that is used for holding things together or for hanging one thing from another.” however, as stated in merriam webster dictionary, pin as a verb means to fasten, to join, or to secure something using a pin, and “to hold fast or immobile.” the vehicle means “to really hope something will be achieved” because when hopes are pinned to something, it means that there is a feeling of being secure, holding tight on the hopes and having a wish that it will be achieved. the metaphor clearly shows the emotion of hope because in the metaphorical sentence, it talks about the women who really hope that someday sam might be able to love someone and might change his mind to be in the long-term relationship. however, that kind of hope will never come true because sam does not believe in marriage including the long-term relationship. so, if the women who hung out with sam, and have these expectations or wishes, they will end up with a broken heart. lust context: the glassy softness aroused him instantly, filling him with hard charging heat. vehicle: hard charging heat topic: a very strong sexual desire when lucy and sam are having lunch, lucy sees kevin and alice. lucy is panic and she is not ready yet to see them. not knowing what to do, lucy asks sam to kiss her. while they are kissing, sam thinks that he has wanted lucy during lunch and wants to take lucy to do something more than kissing, and then the writer of the novel writes “the glassy softness aroused him instantly, filling him with hard charging heat.” as stated in oxford learner’s dictionary, hard means “solid, firm or stiff and difficult to bend or break.” according to merriam webster dictionary, charge means “to lay or put a load on or in” and “to restore the active materials in (a storage battery) by the passage of a direct current through in the opposite direction to that of discharge.” however, according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, heat means “the quality of being hot, the level of temperature, and a strong feeling.” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary) metaphorically, hard charging heat means feeling a very strong desire or a strong sexual passion, because “hard” and “heat” indicate strong according to the literal meaning, while “charging” which means filling in indicates “feeling.” therefore, the metaphor means that sam feels a strong or a passionate sexual desire. when sam is kissing lucy, and the touch of lucy’s softness makes sam feels the strong desire of sexual excitement and want to do something more than just kiss. love context: “i want you to find a man who thinks you’re the sun and the moon.” vehicle: the sun and the moon topic: important and precious lucy’s mother calls lucy after she hears surprised news from alice. it is that alice, her second daughter is having a relationship with kevin, lucy’s former boyfriend. they have a conversation about how alice and kevin hurt 33metaphors expressing emotions ….. (novi liana ko; menik winiharti) lucy and about her mother who becomes the second wife of her father. at the end of the conversation, her mother says “i want you to find a man who thinks you’re the sun and the moon” to lucy. even though the background of the context does not show the emotion of love, but the metaphorical sentence which is said by lucy’s mother shows the emotion of love that she wants her daughter to find a man that really loves her daughter and thinks that her daughter is the sun and the moon. the metaphorical sentence uses the word sun to express the emotion of love which according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary means “a star that shines in the sky during the day and it gives earth heat and light.” the metaphorical sentence also uses the word moon which means “the round object that moves around the earth once every 27½ days and shines at night by light reflected from the sun.” (oxford advanced learner’s dictionary) the metaphorical sentence above refers to love, that it happens when people think that you shine them during the day, give heat and light to them, and also think that you give them light at night. however, the real meaning is not like that because human cannot shine, cannot give people heat and light. therefore, the meaning of that metaphorical sentence is a person who is being loved will be very important and precious to someone, as human thinks that sun and moon are important to the earth. lucy’s mother wants lucy to find a man who thinks that lucy is very important to him and who thinks that he really needs her, cannot live without her, like the earth that needs the sun and the moon. happiness context: it was heaven, sitting there while sam worked the shampoo through her hair, his strong fingers rubbing her scalp. vehicle: heaven topic: feeling happy since lucy has gotten an accident, she is being taken care by sam. when she is taking bath, she wants to wash her hair, but she cannot do it by herself because she is injured. then, when she tries to reach the shampoo, she feels hurt in her body. so, she asks sam to help her washing the hair. according to cambridge dictionaries online, heaven means “in some religions, the place, sometimes imagined to be in the sky, where god or the gods live and where good people are believed to go after they die, so that they can enjoy perfect happiness.” the metaphorical sentence clearly shows the emotion of happiness as stated in the dictionary that heaven is a place where people feels happy, and in the novel, lucy feels happy at that time. therefore, it is not about lucy who is in heaven, but it is about happiness that she feels happy as she is in the heaven, a place where people enjoy the perfect happiness. lucy feels happy because when she is injured and cannot do many things by herself, including washing her long hair, sam is willing to help her. she is so happy that sam wants to help her wash her hair, and when sam is washing her hair it feels like she is in heaven. fear context: a cold feeling settled into sam’s chest and at the back of his neck. vehicle: cold topic: afraid the day after the window that lucy has made for sam’s house has installed, the magic happens in sam’s vineyard. the vineyard is greener than usual, and the soil is also richer than before. both alex and sam know that it is because of the stained window that lucy has made for their house. sam thinks that it is because of love. then, sam thinks about his past, his parents. he thinks that he can be with lucy if he just lets everything go, lets his past go. without talking to alex, sam grabs the key of his truck and goes to lucy’s condo. unfortunately, he does not find her there. then, he goes to lucy’s studio and does not find her, too. suddenly a cold feeling settles into sam’s chest and at the back of his neck. cold is the metaphor which is used in the metaphorical sentence above. according to merriam webster dictionary, cold is “having a relatively low temperature or one lower than normal or expected” and “marked by a lack of the warmth of normal human emotion, friendliness, or compassion.” the metaphorical sentence above does not mean that sam is feeling cold physically, but he is feeling cold emotionally. the cold that he feels is not unfriendliness, but it is meant in the metaphor or the context above that he is feeling afraid. the cold feeling indicates the emotion of fear because sam has already come to both lucy places, but he cannot find her anywhere. when the cold feeling settles to his chest and neck, the situation makes him feel afraid. sam feels the fear in his body when he cannot find lucy because at that time sam is afraid that lucy has gone to new york before he confesses his love to her. the frequency of occurrence there are various kinds of emotions which are expressed in the metaphorical sentences in the rainshadow road novel. they are anger, hurt, trust, anxiety, depression, shame, hope, lust, love, happiness, and fear. the number of metaphors that express these types of emotions vary. therefore, the distribution of the types of emotions that the metaphorical sentences express is summarized in the following table. table 1 frequency of occurrence of metaphorical sentences expressing emotions no types of emotion numbers of metaphorical sentences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 anger hurt trust anxiety depression shame hope lust love happiness fear 5 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 5 9 1 total 33 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 table 1 shows that there are five kinds of emotions that only have one metaphorical sentence for each of them. they are trust, anxiety, hope, shame, and fear. meanwhile, there are three metaphorical sentences that indicate hurt, depression, and lust. furthermore, anger and love are each indicated through five metaphorical sentences. however, the dominant emotion that appears in the novel is happiness. it is expressed through nine metaphorical sentences. on the contrary, the least dominant emotions appear in the novel are trust, anxiety, hope, shame, and fear. each of this emotion is only described by one metaphorical sentence. conclusion article presents three points of finding. the first finding deals with the types of emotions which are expressed by the metaphorical sentences. there are eleven kinds of emotions, i.e. anger, hurt, trust, anxiety, depression, shame, hope, lust, love, happiness, and fear. the indicated emotions are also supported by the story of each character in the rainshadow road novel, whose topic is about love and betrayal. in total, there are thirty three potential metaphorical sentences that express emotions. the second finding deals with the meaning of the metaphors. it is concluded that people can express their emotion through metaphors. the metaphors that refer to the emotions actually describe the characters in the novel, for example, “i want you to find a man who thinks you’re the sun and the moon.” this metaphorical sentence expresses love. it is said by lucy’s mother to her daughter that she wants her to find a man that thinks she is important to him, like the sun and moon that is important to earth. the third finding deals with the most dominant kind of emotion that appears in the novel. there are five emotions that only have one metaphorical sentence for each of them. they are trust, anxiety, hope, shame and fear. furthermore, there are three metaphorical sentences that indicate each kind of emotion of hurt, depression, and lust. anger and love are each indicated through five metaphorical sentences. however, there are nine metaphorical sentences that indicate happiness. therefore, it is concluded that the most dominant kind of emotion which is expressed by metaphors in the novel is happiness. on the contrary, there are five emotions which are found the least dominant emotions. they are trust, anxiety, hope, shame and fear. it can be generally said that people usually use metaphors to express feeling or specific things in their conversation. this result supports knowless and moon idea (2006) that people choose metaphors to communicate what they think and how they feel about something, and to explain what a specific thing is like, or to deliver a meaning in a creative way. references dewi, i. i. (2008). analyzing the english metaphors and metonymies indicating emotions. proceedings from the fifth conference on english study, 197–201. jakarta: pkbb unika atmajaya. drummond, t. (2012). vocabulary of emotions. retrieved april 2, 2013 from http://www.sba.pdx.edu/faculty/ mblake/448/feelingslist.pdf kleypas, l. (2012). rainshadow road. uk: st. martin’s paperbacks-macmillan. kövecses, z. (2000). metaphor and emotion. cambridge: cambridge university press. merriam webster learner’s dictionary. (n.d.) retrieved june july 2013 from www.learnersdictionary. com merriam webster dictionary. (n.d.) retrieved april 1 – july 28, 2013 from http://www.merriam-webster. com knowles, m. & moon, r. (2006). introducing metaphor. new york: routledge. oxford advanced learner’s dicitonary. (n.d.). retrieved march 1 july 28, 2013 from http://oald8. oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com palmatier, r. a. (2000). food: a dictionary of literal and non-literal term. united states of america: greenwood press. pettinelli, m. (2012). emotions and feelings and the difference between them. retrieved april 3, 2013 from http://cnx.org/content/m14334/latest/ yuditha, t. (2010). indonesian metaphorical conceptualizations of anger: does anger taste delicious or disgusting? proceedings from kolita 8, 47–52. jakarta: pkbb unika atmajaya. microsoft word 03_ig_almodad_setting 24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 evaluating the usefulness of an english course at binus university: freshmen’s perspectives – quantitative approach almodad b. asmani english department, faculty of language and culture, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 abstract article examined the feedback and responses provided by binus university freshmen students concerning their study experiences of taking an english subject, called english entrant, as part of their compulsory english course program at binus university during the odd semester of 2010/2011. the research was to find out whether such program has been useful and effective for these students in terms of the teaching quality, course contents and independent learning system commonly applied at binus university. the research applied the quantitative approach with the focus on finding the general tendency of these students in evaluating the program based on numerical data. in the initial stage of the research, the writer selects the random sample of four to five english entrant classes ranging from small to large number of students. the results are that the teaching methodology applied in english entrant tends to be highly acceptable if the lecturers are more communicative and engaging with their students. the speaking format in the classroom is also more preferred by the students if it focuses more on the fluency and clarity rather than the accuracy. lastly, the independent learning system is more likely to be appreciated by these students if it can provide the proper feedback and improvement for their english learning experiences. keywords: english course, freshmen, english entrant abstrak artikel membahas masukan dan respon mahasiswa baru di universitas bina nusantara yang sedang mengambil mata kuliah english entrant, sebagai salah satu mata kuliah wajib pada semester ganjil 2010/2011. tujuan penelitian adalah mengevaluasi apakah english entrant bermanfaat dan efektif bagi mahasiswa ditinjau dari kualitas pengajar, materi, dan sistem pembelajaran mandiri yang diterapkan di universitas bina nusantara. penelitian menggunakan metode kuantitatif yang berfokus pada temuan terkait tendensi umum mahasiswa dalam mengevaluasi english entrant berbasis data angka. responden ditentukan secara random sampling, yaitu dipilih empat – lima orang dari setiap kelas, tergantung dari besar atau kecilnya jumlah mahasiswa dalam kecil kelas tersebut. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa metode pengajaran yang disukai adalah apabila dosen lebih komunikatif dengan mahasiswa, format berbicara di kelas disukai yang lebih berfokus pada kelancaran dan kejelasan, dari pada ketepatan berbicara, dan sistem pembelajaran mandiri yang disukai adalah apabila sistem tersebut dapat memberi dampak yang benar sehingga mampu memperbaiki pengalaman mereka dalam belajar bahasa inggris. kata kunci: pengajaran bahasa inggris, mahasiswa baru, english entrant evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 25 introduction the research project is closely linked to the previous study results on the issues of why and how binus university students value english in terms of the general, academic and elt (english language teaching) contexts (see asmani: 2010). from the results, it shows that binus university students have the tendency to value english of both benefits and universal factors that english can bring into their lives, such as in economic, communicative (here meaning communication and transport), cultural, social and educational contexts. the information has contributed to the english program design in the institution, including english entrant course. for the past semesters of 2010/2011, freshmen students of binusian 2014 have become the first ‘customers’ to ever undergo the teaching and learning process of this new program. a variety of responses, both from teachers and students, has been emerged from this new course scheme with the apparent results of growing needs of collecting and recording the necessary data for future improvement and/or maintenance of the program. teachers’ responses have been particularly notable and abundant. however, the students’ perspectives have always been the focus of the writer since they are the subjects who experience directly the effects of the new learning process, which is greatly different in nature and procedure from the long-traditional grammar-based english classes in the institution. these are all the reasons why the writer needs to evaluate the running program, so as to gain as much information as possible from the students’ perspectives because their voices contribute significantly to the final establishment of the new scheme. this has been in line with the binus university attitude, which has always put main emphasis on customer satisfaction in balance with other academic and supporting factors. purposes of the study the purpose of the research is to find out whether the new english program has proved useful for the students of binusian 2014 in ways that correspond to their general preferences and future careers, as discussed in the previous study of how and why they value english in certain contexts. the research is also to find out aspects of these students’ evaluation in terms of aspects in the teaching process, course contents, and independent learning system. therefore, the research project aims to find out: • how they rate the usefulness of the teaching process, course contents, and beyond-class learning activities? • what suggestions or input they may give regarding the teaching process, course contents and beyond-class learning activities? significance of the study the study has some academic significance in a way that it provides the detailed explanation on the general tendency these students might have in their ways of evaluating the english course program in the institution. the information is very valuable for the institution, since it can show how far these students are satisfied with the teaching-learning process they are dealing with. the result of the findings can also provide important input for the english teachers, since some aspects of the teaching process are directly linked to the actual practice of teaching performance like presentation techniques, materials preparation, individual approach, etc. the research also provides useful input for the curriculum designer of the english course program, since the findings will benefit in two ways. first, it tells how useful the aspects of the course outline for these students either for academic purposes or for future careers. second, it tells how appropriate the course implementation is with the learning styles and characteristics of these students. lastly, the research can give feedback information for the language center unit and binus university concerning the usefulness for beyond-class learning activities, such as self-study for reading and listening, conversations clubs and tutorials, extracurricular activities, etc. 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 reviewing the literature the research project is based on some observations and studies about the application of communicative language teaching (clt) approach in asian contexts, in which local cultural values and practices may be in direct conflict with the western teaching and learning ways. siemon (2010: 40) states that “... chinese students’ english learning strategies are primarily focused on reading and writing, on grammar and translation, and on memorization of vocabulary.” however, research has shown that this traditional method has ‘failed to develop an adequate level of communicative competence (i.e. the ability to use the target language for authentic communication)’ (hu 2002: 93). however, she also reminds that due to large class sizes of generally 50 to 60 students as well as economic restraints, clt approach may be difficult to apply in the real classroom, and she suggests arrangements like ‘group discussion, pair work and language labs may overcome this difficulty’ (2010: 42). regarding learner-centered curriculum, brown (2003: 49) states that “students can be observed working individually or in pairs and small groups on distinct tasks and projects”. mccombs and whistler in brown (2003: 49) mentioned two essential factors that contribute to the success of the learner-centered approach in educational contexts. the two essential factors include characteristics of the learners and teaching practices. furthermore, richards (2001) specifies four biggest factors that contribute significantly to achieve quality teaching in a language institution. they are institutional factors, teacher factors, teaching factors and learner factors. under the institutional quality indicators, he highlights the question of “which type of curriculum best meets student needs?” (p. 202). he mentions influential factors such as equipment, support staff, teacher workspace, teaching facilities, and class size. under the teacher factors, he highlights “practical knowledge”, which is the teacher’s repertoire of classroom techniques and strategies (p. 209). under the teaching factors, “the communicative approach” (p. 215) is described as one of the teaching models that can be applied in language programs. in the approach, “the focus of the teaching is authentic communication; extensive use is made of pair and group activities that involve negotiation of meaning and information sharing. fluency is a priority” (p. 215). in summary, according to richards, all of these four factors contribute to the improved and high quality of teaching practice at a language institution. under the learner factors, brindley in richards (2001, 223) states that, “when learners and teachers meet for the first time, they may bring with them different expectations concerning not only the learning process in general, but also concerning what will be learned in a particular course and how it will be learned. the possibility exists, therefore, for misunderstanding to arise. it is, accordingly, of vital importance that, from the beginning of the course, mechanisms for consultation are set up, in order to ensure that the parties involved in the teaching-learning process are aware of each other’s expectations. if learners are to become active participants in decision making regarding their own learning, then it is essential that they know the teacher’s position and that they be able to state their own. teachers, conversely, need to canvass learners’ expectations and be able to interpret their statements of need.” in the same vein, richards (2001: 223) mentions that courses may expect their learners to represent some different roles in the learning process, such as “manager of his or her own learning, independent learner, need analyst, collaborator and team member and peer tutor.” willing (1985, cited in nunan 1988, 93) specified four different learner types in the population he studied: • concrete learners, who preferred games, pictures, films and video, talking in pairs, learning through the use of cassettes, and going on excursions. evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 27 • analytical learners, who liked studying grammar, studying english books, studying alone, finding their own mistakes, having problems to work on, learning through reading newspapers • communicative learners, who liked listening to native speakers, talking to friends in english, watching tv in english, using english in shops, and learning english words by hearing them and learning by conversations. • authority-oriented learners, who liked the teacher to explain everything, writing everything in a notebook, having their own textbook, learning to read, studying grammar, and learning english words by seeing them. all of the aspects discussed in the above literature show that in order to be successful in implementing its academic program, a language institution should shift its gravity from a totally teacher-focused direction to a more balance state between teacher-centered and student-centered one. another factor that contributes significantly to the success of a language institution is the facility of self-access center, in which students can access the additional materials, either in printed copies or in multimedia format, to support their learning experiences in the program. concerning the self-access center, harmer (2007: 404-405) mentions some characteristics of a good self-access center, which are: • classification system, where there is a clear description, coding, labeling, indexing or database of all the type of materials and the level they are designed for. • pathways, where students are given suggestion about the next materials, suggested by software, or assistants and teachers can help students to use the center’s contents and benefits further • training students, in which students need to be trained to use programs and centers best • making self-access centers appropriate for students, where materials and tasks should be designed specifically to have groups working together in pair or group interaction • keeping interest going, where students’ involvement in using sac should be maintained through a variety of means such as feedback sheets, sac-users’ committee, newsletter, website, reward for regular attendance, etc. susan mclean orlando suggests that the kind of learning that happens in formal setting ‘may represent only a fraction of the learning experienced by participants’ (mclean orlando in harmer 2007: 407). harmer (2007: 407) also adds that students will use english in the real world outside the classroom, so students need to learn to access and investigate english on their own. he also gives some examples of the methods that promote students’ independent learning, such as tasks or reports of using english outside the class, extensive reading and listening assignments, learning journals and records, etc. research design general research approach instead of trying to find the ‘universal laws’ underpinning a social world (cohen et al., 2000), i will focus on the general tendency of these students in evaluating the usefulness of an english course they have studied during the odd semester of 2010/2011. after that, i will try to link their ratings in this regard with some related views in the elt pedagogy. thus, i will try to find out their pattern of responses to the statements that i will design in the instrument. based on the nature of this knowledge, my position in this research project is more towards the positivist/empiricist epistemology, which is more concerned with generalization, prediction and control. 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 based on the nature of my research, i apply the approach of quantitative data gathering and analysis. by using a quantitative methodology in the research project, i focus on more context-free generalizations of the observed social phenomenon by examining the relationship of the variables. here, i rely on statistical results represented with numerical data. data collection i use survey questionnaires to collect the data, and my target population consists of all binusian students of 2014 who take english entrant classes at binus university in the odd semester of 2010/2011. questionnaires to find out how these students evaluate the course usefulness, i use statements representing the teaching quality, the course contents and the beyond-class learning activities. i use arguments that are carefully considered as representing the fundamental principles in evaluating an english course, based on the ideas of some authors. these statements provide many possible responses regarding how the students rate the usefulness level of the english course they were taking to find out whether the program has met their needs and demands. i give the statements in the form of questionnaires of predominantly selected-response questions with some open-ended items. the selected-response items enable me to maintain the precision and clarity of my research problems in a way that the possibility of the students to give answers or responses, which deviate from the real problems, can be put at a minimum level. it is very hard to control this in open-ended questions or interviews alone. wiersma (1991) notes that ”selectedresponse items enhance consistency of response across respondents, data tabulation generally is straightforward and less time-consuming than for open-ended items” (p. 176). in my consideration, the pre-coded items also help students think about the criteria they evaluate in this matter, which might already exist unconsciously in their minds. open-ended items alone take more time and effort for them to think again about these criteria. furthermore, the statements that i provide in the questionnaire are already thought of and formulated carefully to represent many possible criteria that best reflect how students evaluate an english course in binus university. since i measure how strong their average responses to each statement are, it asks for degrees of agreement. here, i use a kind of likert scaling with five or more choices, ranging from ’strongly agree’ to ’strongly disagree’. mcdonough and mcdonough (1997) note that each statement is related to each other, and the respondents’ responses ’can be summed over the whole questionnaire’ to produce a measure of strength.. due to some considerations of the high response rate, non-respondents’ exclusion, the spread of respondents and reasonable costs, i personally administer the questionnaire to the participants by asking the permission of time and opportunity from some english lecturers teaching their classes in the odd semester of 2010/2011 across campuses at binus university. participants i divide the participants into two groups of binusian freshman 2014 who take english subjects in the odd semester of 2010/2011 at binus university, which are: • undergraduate students studying at faculty of computer studies (120 students) • undergraduate students studying at other faculties (120 students): o undergraduate students studying at faculty of economics and business (40 students) o undergraduate students studying at faculty of communication and multimedia (40 students) o undergraduate students studying at faculty of language and culture (40 students) evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 29 these binusian students are chosen as the participants in my research project due to some reasons. first, all students of non-english department studying at binus university must take english course as the compulsory subjects. this results in a large number of english-studying students who need a special academic consideration and treatment to meet the aims and objectives as expected. second, because i am the coordinator of all english course program at binus university, i am in a better position to investigate any issue of the english course running in terms of the appropriateness and usefulness of the teaching methodology delivered, the curriculum designed and the beyond-class activities conducted. since there are subpopulations in the population to be sampled and due to the fact that it is not homogeneous, i will use the approach of stratified random sampling, where “all strata are represented in the sample, and the sample members are selected from each stratum at random” (wiersma, 1991: 253). for allocation of sample size among strata, i will use proportional allocation method, where “the allocation of strata members in the sample is proportional to the numbers of members in the strata of the population” (wiersma, 1991: 253). data analysis: quantitative for quantitative analysis, i use the anova statistical analysis to test the hypotheses as follows: 1. null hypothesis 1: the responses means for binusian students rating english entrant under two different groups of faculty are equal. 2. alternate hypothesis 1: the responses means for binusian students rating english entrant under two different groups of faculty are not equal 3. null hypothesis 2: the responses means for binusian students rating english entrant under three different categories of criteria are equal 4. alternate hypothesis 2: the responses means for binusian students rating english entrant under three different categories of criteria are not equal my independent variable is group difference (faculties) and criteria category (teaching methodology, course contents and beyond-class activities), and my dependent variable is the student’s responses. i choose the anova statistical analysis due to various reasons. first, i use single items with likert scale response format for measurement of the dependent variable (responses), whose data is on interval scale. second, i will test the significance of the difference between the means of two independent samples under two independent variables, and the anova statistical analysis applies in this procedure. the data collected will be presented in a 2x2 multifactor analysis of variance to find out the combined effect of the faculty difference and the criteria category to the student’s responses. by using the model, i will analyze: 1. whether there is a significant difference of the students’ responses under two groups of faculty 2. whether there is a significant difference of the students’ responses under three categories of criteria if there is a significant difference in the first point, i describe how different the students’ responses are distributed under each group of faculty, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are different. if there is no significant difference in the first point, i describe how similar the students’ responses are distributed under each group of faculty, and i will interpret the findings as to why they are similar. 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 research report data presentation responses data of binus university students from two faculty groups in evaluating english entrant under three categories of criteria is presented in the table below: table 1 students’ evaluation on english entrant from two faculty groups under three categories of criteria computer studies non-computer studies teaching 40 means 1 σx = 163.16 x = 4.08 σx2 = 670.5 40 means 4 σx = 172 x = 4.3 σx2 = 746.38 σxr1 = 335.33 x r1 = 4.19 course 40 means 2 σx = 151 x = 3.77 σx2 = 574.55 40 means 5 σx = 162.33 x = 4.05 σx2 = 667.61 σxr2 = 313.33 x r2 = 3.91 independent learning 40 means 3 σx = 140.83 x = 3.52 σx2 = 502.02 40 means 6 σx = 134.83 x = 3.37 σx2 = 465.58 σxr3 = 275.66 x r3 = 3.44 σxc1 = 455.16 x c1 = 3.79 σxc2 = 469.16 x c2 = 3.90 σx total = 924.33 σx2total = 3626.66 x grand mean = 3.85 data summary the responses data of the four student groups under the two faculty groups with two question categories is summarized in the table below: table 2 summary of a 2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance of six student groups source of variance ss df ms f level of significance between columns (studies) 0.73 1 0.73 4.29 – between rows (criteria) 22.67 2 11.33 66.64 0.01 column by rows (interaction) 2.25 2 1.12 6.58 0.01 between groups 25.65 5 5.13 within groups 41.06 234 0.17 total 66.71 239 evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 31 three f ratios are listed in the table. to find the significance of each of these values, the writer consults the table of f values in the appendix. to use the table, the writer uses the number of degrees of freedom associated with each f ratio (df for the numerator) and the number of df associated with the within-groups mean square (df for the denominator). the between-columns f ratio is 4.29. consulting the table, with 1 and 234 df, the writer finds that an f ratio of 3.89 or more is needed for significance at the .05 level, and an f ratio of 6.76 or more is needed at the .01 level. because the obtained value of 4.29 is higher than 3.89, but lower than 6.76, the writer can conclude that the difference between the responses of the students from computer studies and from other studies is statistically significant at the .05 level but not at the .01 level. the between-rows f ratio is 66.64. with 2 and 234 df on the table, the obtained value of 66.64 far exceeds both 3.04 (.05 level) and 4.71 (.01 level). the writer can conclude that the difference of the students’ responses to evaluate english entrant under criteria of teaching, course and beyond-class activities are statistically significant at both the .05 level and the .01 level. the column-by-rows f ratio is 6.58. with the same df (2 and 234), the obtained value also exceeds both of the values on the table (3.04 and 4.71), and is thus significant at the .05 level and the .01 level. data interpretation data interpretation of the first f ratio the first f ratio (between columns) is not significant and shows that the faculty groups do not differ significantly from one another in their effect on the responses of the students in answering the questions. the analysis, a comparison of the combined responses of groups 1, 2 and 3 (x = 3.79) with the combined responses of groups 3, 4 and 5 (x = 3.90), was not statistically significant, so i do not have sufficient evidence to make any conclusions about the faculty conditions. data interpretation of the second f ratio the second f ratio (between rows) is significant and shows that the three categories of criteria differ significantly from one another in their effect on the responses of the students. this analysis is a comparison of the combined responses of groups 1 and 4 (x = 4.19), with the combined responses of groups 2 and 5 (x = 3.91), and the combined responses of groups 3 and 6 (x = 3.44). from the significance of this f ratio i can infer that the difference between the evaluation attitudes of the students towards three criteria of english entrant, which are teaching aspects, course content, and independent learning system, is beyond chance expectation. because i have a significant f ratio for the difference, i conclude that among freshmen students of binusian 2014: • fully supporting attitudes and more can be expected from these students when they evaluate the teaching aspects of english entrant • almost fully supporting attitudes can be expected from the students when they evaluate the course contents of english entrant • neutral attitudes can be expected from the students when they evaluate the independent learning system of english entrant teaching under the teaching criteria, both groups of students give the average mean scores of 4.08 and 4.3 respectively, which indicate that they tend to show a preference towards teaching features in english entrant. the teaching aspects include whether the teacher has communicated the materials 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 clearly, has prepared for classes, has organized class effectively, has stimulated students’ interest in the subject, has been responsive to student problems, and has delivered an appropriate teaching methodology. based on statistical results, the writer concludes that generally freshmen students of binusian 2014, whether they are of computer and non-computer studies, tend give a more positive attitude towards some teaching aspects of english entrant. course under the course criteria, both groups of students give the average mean scores of 3.77 and 4.05 respectively, which again show that they tend to give a more agreement response, though not fully. the course aspects include the materials’ aims and objectives, contents, designs, the curriculum methodology, the assessment system, and the overall course program. based on the statistical results, the writer concludes that freshmen students of binusian 2014, no matter of which faculty they study at, tend to favor (though not fully) with the course contents in english entrant. independent learning system under the criteria of beyond-class activities, both groups of students render the average mean scores of 3.52 and 3.37, which show that they tend to give a more neutrality response towards beyondclass learning activities. the beyond-class activities include the activities of reading journal, writing tasks on gslc (guided-self learning classes), listening assignments at laboratories, speaking practice at tutorial program, english extra-curricular activities, and the independent learning system in general. based on the statistical results, the writer concludes that freshmen students of binusian 2014 generally tend to be neutral with some aspects of independent learning activities in and around the campus. data interpretation of the third f ratio the third f ratio shows the interaction effect between the two variables: faculties and evaluation criteria. the significance in this case means that the effect of faculty differences on these students’ responses in evaluating english entrant depends on the criteria choice. among the students evaluating the teaching aspect of english entrant, the difference between responses of computer students and non-computer students is 0.22 point (4.3 – 4.08). among the students evaluating the course content of english entrant, the difference between responses of computer students and non-computer students is 0.28 point (4.05 – 3.77). among the students evaluating the independent learning system of english entrant, i find a difference between responses of computer students and non-computer students of only 0.15 point (3.52 – 3.37). because the f test indicates that the interaction is significant, i can conclude that responses of non-computer students makes more difference when they evaluate the course content of english entrant than when they evaluate the teaching aspect or the independent learning system. conclusion the first quantitative finding shows that the average responses of the computer students are not statistically different from those of the non-computer students. this means that the faculty group difference does not make any effect on the way these students value english entrant. so, both groups of students generally tend to judge english entrant in relatively the same way of perspectives. evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 33 the second quantitative finding shows that there are significant differences among all students’ average responses to teaching criteria questions, those to course criteria questions, and those to independent learning system questions. this means that the criteria choices give effects on the way these students evaluate english entrant, with the results that: • fully supporting attitudes (mean 4.19) can be expected from these students when they evaluate the teaching aspects of english entrant • almost fully supporting attitudes (mean 3.91) can be expected from these students when they evaluate the course contents of english entrant • more neutral attitudes (mean 3.44) can be expected from these students when they evaluate the independent learning system of english entrant the third quantitative finding shows that the interaction effect of the faculty differences and evaluation criteria are significant. the significance in this case means that the effect of faculty differences on these students’ responses in evaluating english entrant depends on the criteria choice. since the difference between average responses of computer students and non-computer students evaluating the course content is the highest (0.28 point), i can conclude that responses of noncomputer students makes more difference when they evaluate the course content of english entrant rather than when they evaluate the teaching aspect or the independent learning system. results of the study the findings of the quantitative analysis have generated some valuable input and implications for the elt contexts at binus university: • the teaching methodology of communicative language approach, which is predominantly employed in english entrant, can achieve a high degree of acceptance and success in term of students’ feedback and achievements, if only the instructors are socially communicative and highly engaging with their students. • the course content of english entrant will be more appreciated by these students if the speaking format still emphasize on fluency and clarity rather than accuracy, • the independent learning system will be more appreciated by these students if it provides access for these students to improve their language learning experiences beyond the class activities. references asmani, a.b. (2010). how do binus university undergraduate students value english in the general, academic, and elt context? lingua cultura. 4(1), 51-61. breen, m. no date. a pragmatics of language teaching: from practice to principles. in richard, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. brindley, g. (1984). needs analysis and objectives setting in the adult migrant education program. in richard, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. brown, k. laboard. (2003). from teacher-centered to learner-centered curriculum: improving learning in diverse classrooms. education. 124 (1), 49-54. cohen, l., l. manion, et al. (2000). research methods in education. london: routledge farmer. 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 harmer, j. (2007). the practice of english language teaching. essex: pearson education limited. hu, g. (2002). potential cultural resistance to pedagogical imports: the case of communicative language teaching in china. language, culture and curriculum. 15(2), 93-105 mccombs, b. l. (1997). self-assessment and reflection: tools for promoting teacher changes toward learner-centered practices. in brown, k. laboard. (2003). from teacher-centered to learner-centered curriculum: improving learning in diverse classrooms. education. 124 (1), 50. mccombs, b. l. and whistler, j. s. (1997). learner-centered classroom and schools: strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement. in brown, k. laboard. (2003). from teacher-centered to learner-centered curriculum: improving learning in diverse classrooms. education. 124 (1), 49. mcdonough j., and mcdonough s. (1997). research methods for english language teachers. uk: arnold. mclean orlando, s. (2006). the importance of informal learning in efl. in harmer, j. (2007). the practice of english language teaching. essex: pearson education limited nunan, d. (1988). the learner-centered curriculum. new york: cambridge university press. richard, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. siemon, anne. (2010). learning english in china: is communicative language teaching a reality? australian journal of language and literacy. 33 (2), 39-42. usher, r. (1996). a critique of neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research. in d. scott and r. usher (eds), understanding educational research. london: routledge. wiersma, w. (1991). research methods in education. usa: allyn and bacon. evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 35 appendices computation for quantitative data the total sum of squares is found by using the formula: sst = σxt2 – (σxt)2 n based on the above formula, the value of the total sum of squares is: sst = 3626.66 – (924.33)2 240 sst = 3626.66 – 854385.94 240 sst = 3626.66 – 3559.94 sst = 66.71 the sum of squares between groups is found by applying the formula ssb = σxb2 = (σx1)2 + (σx2)2 … – (σx)2 n1 n2 n based on the above formula, the value of the sum of squares between groups is ssb = (163.33)2 + (151)2 + (140.8)2 + (172)2 + (162.33)2 + (134.83)2 40 40 40 40 40 40 – (924.33)2 240 ssb = 26676.68 + 22801 + 19833.0 + 29584 + 26351.02 + 18179.12 40 40 40 40 40 40 – 854385.94 240 ssb = 666.91 + 570.02 + 495.82 + 739.6 + 658.77 + 454.47 – 3559.94 ssb = 3585.59 – 3559.94 ssb = 25.65 the sum of the squares within groups is obtained by subtracting the sum of squares between groups from the total sum of squares: ssw = sst – ssb 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 the value of the sum of squares within groups is ssw = 66.71 – 25.65 ssw = 41.06 the between-columns sum of squares represents the sum of the squared deviations caused by the difference between the column means and the grand means. it is found by using the formula: ssbc = (σxc1)2 + (σxc2)2 + … – (σx)2 nc1 nc2 n the sum of squares between the columns for the data shown in the table is ssbc = (455.16)2 + (469.16)2 – (924.33)2 120 120 240 ssbc = 207170.62 + 220111.10 – 854385.94 120 120 240 ssbc = 1726.42 + 1834.25 – 3559.94 ssbc = 0.73 the between-rows sum of squares is the sum of the squared deviations caused by the difference between the row means and the grand mean. the value is found by using the formula: ssbr = (σxr1)2 + (σxr2)2 + … – (σx)2 nr1 nr2 n the sum of squares between the rows for the data shown in the table is ssbr = (335.33)2 + (313.33)2 + (275.66)2 – (924.33)2 80 80 80 240 ssbr = 112446.20 + 98175.68 + 75988.43 – 854385.94 80 80 80 240 ssbr = 1405.57 + 1227.19 + 949.85 – 3559.94 ssbr = 22.67 ssint = ssb – (ssbc + ssbr ) ssint = 25.65 – (0.73 + 22.67) ssint = 2.25 df for between-columns sum of squares = c – 1 = 2 – 1 = 1 df for between-rows sum of squares = r – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 df for interaction = (c – 1) (r – 1) = (2 – 1) (3 – 1) = 1 x 2 = 2 df for between-groups sum of squares = g – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5 evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 37 df for within-groups sum of squares = n – g = 240 – 6 = 234 df for total sum of squares = n – 1 = 240 – 1 = 239 questionnaire english entrant student appraisal form explanation the purpose of this questionnaire is to provide the new english mku program with feedback on its performance during the odd semester of 2010/2011 in binus university. your feedback is an important element in the ongoing process of assessing and improving the teaching and learning process within the institution. please think carefully before making your judgments. direction: student comments should apply only to the performance of the teacher, undertaken course, and beyond-class learning activities course : ______________________________ class code : ______________________________ semester : ______________________________ academic year : ______________________________ teaching in general, i have found that this teacher: 1. has communicated class materials clearly (presentations, strategies, tips, etc) strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 2. has been well prepared for classes (textbook contents, multimedia application, activities format, etc) strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 3. has organized class effectively (time management, tasks allocations, speaking spots, etc) strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 4. has stimulated my interest in the subject (motivation, sense of humor, comfortable learning environment, etc) strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 24-39 5. has been responsive to student problems (feedback, questions, answers, etc) strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 6. having considered various aspects of the performance of the designated teacher, how would you rate the teaching methodology overall? excellent good acceptable poor very poor course in meeting your study needs and abilities: 1. how do you rate the aims and objectives (target scores, fluency in speaking, etc) of this course? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate 2. how do you rate the materials content (business/academic topics, speaking/listening/reading/writing skills, no formal grammar etc) of this course? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate 3. how do you rate the materials design and organizations (activities sequence, textbook grading, tasks composition, etc) of this course? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate 4. how do you rate the curriculum methodology (communicative approach) of this course? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate 5. how do you rate the assessment system (task-based and computer-based scoring) of this course? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate 6. having considered various aspects of the performance of the undertaken course, how would you rate the course program overall? very appropriate appropriate somewhat appropriate least appropriate not appropriate evaluating the usefulness ….. (almodad b. asmani) 39 independent learning system for your study support and improvement: 1. how do you rate the reading journal (textbook timetable, vocabulary development, etc)? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 2. how do you rate the writing tasks on gslc sessions? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 3. how do you rate the listening assignments at lab? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 4. how do you rate the speaking practice at tutorial program? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 5. how do you rate other english extra-curricular activities groups? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 6. having considered various aspects of the performance of yourself as a student, how would you rate the independent learning system overall? very useful useful somewhat useful least useful not useful 61a comparison on hyponymy ….. (kristina indah setyo rahayu) a comparison on hyponymy and cultural symbolism of six color words between chinese language and bahasa indonesia 汉印尼语六大颜色词的下位词与文化象征意义对比 kristina indah setyo rahayu program d3 bahasa china fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas sebelas maret jln. ir. sutami 36a kentingan surakarta 57126 kristinaindah@hotmail.com abstract color words originate from natural world. in general different languages have similar patterns of color hypernymy. nevertheless, when it comes to color hyponymy, it is not the case. specific color hyponyms have emerged because different countries have different cultures. besides, color words are also rich in cultural symbolism. in other words, same colors in different countries have different cultural symbolisms. this paper analyzed six color words (red, white, yellow, blue, green, and black) between chinese language and bahasa indonesia to find similarities and differences both in hyponymy and in culture symbolism. keywords: chinese language, bahasa indonesia, colour word, hyponym, culture symbolism 内容摘要 颜色词源于自然界,各种语言对于颜色上位词有相似的概念。而对于颜色的下位词却不是如此。出现 颜色下位词不同与每个国家的环境有关。另外,颜色词还包含有不同的文化象征意义。换句话说,同样的颜色 词在不同的国家有不同的文化象征意义。本文对汉语、印尼语中红、白、黄、蓝、绿、黑六大颜色词的下位词 和文化象征意义进行对比,分析、比较其中的异同。 关键词: 汉语,印尼语,颜色词,下位词,文化象征意义 62 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 绪论 汉语颜色词从古代汉语至现代汉语一直受到学 者的重视。关于汉语颜色词发表的文章或写的论文甚 至书也是五花八门。进行汉语颜色词与其他语言对比 研究也不少。尤其是对汉英颜色词的对比。因为英语 毕竟是国际的第一语言,同时代表了西方国家的语 言。 学者们在进行汉英颜色词对比研究时,不仅获 得汉语作为中国的语言与英语作为西方国家的语言相 同和相反的意思。而且,还了解到中西文化的区别。 研究内容、方法 本文研究的主要内容是就汉印尼“红”、“ 黄”、“蓝”、“绿”、“白”和“黑”六大颜色词 的下位词与文化象征意义进行对比。 通过比较研究,分析汉印颜色词及其背后文化 的异同。虽目前已有了许多汉语颜色词和别的语言对 比研究的成果,笔者想本文能够为颜色词研究方面提 供一个补充。 本文主要内容是对比汉语和印尼语中的六个颜 色:“红”、“黄”、“蓝”、“白”、“黑”“ 绿”,选择这六个颜色原因是因为,前五个是现代汉 语纯色基本颜色。那么,“绿”是现代人们所说“安 全”颜色,认为也值得研究。 本文的写作,主要是通过理论分析、对比研究 两种语言的特点。笔者使用了《现代汉语词典》第五 版,为参考汉语中的颜色词语的主要参考文献。同时 也使用了《印尼语大词典》(kamus besar bahasa indonesia),为参考印尼语中的颜色词语的主要参 考文献。另外,文中有些资料来自:http://www. wikipedia.org/(维基百科网),文中不再具体标 出。 研究内容、方法 环境、习俗对颜色词的下位词具有很大的影 响,即引起了不同颜色词的下位词。颜色词的下位词 表达了语言的特点与某个地方的文化。此外,由于颜 色是源于自然界,同时在不同语言也会出现相同颜色 词的下位词。 1. 红 汉语的“红”,印尼语是“merah”。 红的概念 《现代汉语词典》第五版指出,“红”是指像 鲜血的颜色;象征喜庆的红布;象征顺利、成功或受 人重视、欢迎;象征革命或政治觉悟高;红利;姓。 《印尼语大词典》指出,“红”是指像鲜血 的颜色或者含有鲜血的颜色。可见,在汉语与印尼 语中,同样使用“血”来形容红色。另外,印尼语 中,“红”的义项没有汉语多。 表1 汉语中红的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1 赤红 红 8 嫩红 像初开杏花那样的 浅红色 2 大红 很红的颜色 9 浅红 淡红 3 橙红 像橙子那样红里带 黄的颜色 10 深红 浓红 4 绯红 鲜红 11 血红 像鲜血那样的红色 5 粉红 红和白合成的颜色 12 红彤彤 很红 6 红润 红而滋润 13 红艳艳 红的鲜艳夺目 7 鲜红 形容颜色红而鲜艳 表2 印尼语中红的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1 merah bata 像砖头的 8 merah lembayung 像初开杏花那 样的浅红色 2 merah bungur 带紫色的 9 merah marak 淡红 3 merah dadu 粉红色的 10 merah masak 浓红 4 merah darah 血红 11 merah merang 像鲜血那样的 红色 5 merah delima 像石榴的 12 merah muda 很红 6 merah hati 像心脏的 13 merah murup 红的鲜艳夺目 7 merah jambu 像番樱桃的 14 merah segar 汉语与印尼语中,“红”的下位词都比较丰 富。印尼语的 “merah segar”、“merah darah” 与汉语的“血红”、“鲜红”、“绯红”完全对 应。“merah masak”、“merah merang” 与“红 润”、“赤红”相同。 表示深红,除了“merah tua”和“深红”以 外,印尼语还有“merah hati”、“merah bata”。 而且,汉语有“红彤彤”、“红艳艳”。 汉语的“大红”与印尼语的 “merah murup” 、“merah marak” 相互对应。颜色比较浅的红 色,印尼语有“merah dadu”、“merah delima” 、“merah jambu”、“merah muda”,汉语有“粉 红”、“浅红”和“嫩红”为相对应。 印尼语的 “merah bungur”、“merah lembayung”,也是“红”颜色的一种。这种颜色在 汉语“红”颜色中没有相当的对应。汉语的“橙红” 在印尼语“红”颜色词汇没有相当的对应。 汉语中像“红扑扑、红彤彤、红艳艳”等词 语,印尼语中也能用翻译成别的说法,就是“红” 词前面加“ke-”,后面加“-an”,成“kemerahmerahan”(好像红似的),如: (1) di senja hari pegunungan di ufuk barat kelihatan menjadi biru kemerah-merahan.(傍晚时,在西边 的山上看起来蓝红彤彤的。) (2) dia gadis yang sangat pemalu,sekali mendapat pujian mukanya menjadi kemerah-merahan.(她是个害羞 的姑娘,一说她好听的话,一下子就红扑扑的) “merah bata(像砖头的)”是印尼语“红” 颜色的下位词比较特别。砖头是印尼人建筑主要 63a comparison on hyponymy ….. (kristina indah setyo rahayu) 的东西。这在汉语没有,因为中国人的建筑几乎不用 砖头的。 2. 白 印尼语“putih”是汉语“白”的意思。汉语 有“红白喜事”,告诉了人们“红”和“白”颜 色对中国人来说具有很强的重要性。作为国旗的 颜色,红白色对印尼人来说这两种颜色是很神圣 的颜色。 白的概念 据《现代汉语词典》第五版,“白”颜色的 意思是 1.(形)像霜或雪的颜色(跟“黑”相对) 。2.(形)光亮;明亮。3.清楚;明白;弄明白。4. 没有加上什么东西的;空白。5.象征反动。因为“ 白”在汉语有几种意思和意义,其中不是“白”颜色 的意思。所以,笔者只调几个意思。 据《印尼语大词典》里,印尼语“白”颜色意 思是 1.像棉花的颜色。2.(形)纯洁;清白。3.( 形)苍白。 表3 汉语中白的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1 粹白 纯粹;纯白 5 白茫茫 形容一望无边的白 (云、雾、雪、大 水等) 2 白皑皑 形容霜、雪等 洁白 6 白蒙蒙 形容烟、雾、蒸气 等白茫茫一片,模 糊不清。 3 白花花 白得耀眼 7 乳白 像奶汁的颜色 4 白晃晃 白而亮 8 雪白 像雪那样的洁白 表4 印尼语中白的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 1 putih bersih 洁白 2 putih kuning 淡黄 3 putih meta / metah 非常白 4 putih kapas 像棉花白 5 putih susu 奶汁白 “白”颜色是无任何颜色,也是说素色。汉语 表示白色使用了霜、雪、雾等,真正的表达了白色是 什么样的颜色。印尼语白色主要是表示纯洁、洁净的 意思,最多是用像奶的颜色来形容,所以白颜色词汇 很少用到其他事物来形容它。 印尼语的“putih bersih”与汉语的“粹白” 相同对应。汉语中与印尼语的“putih meta/ metah” 相对的有“白花花”、“白光光”。至于“putih susu”就与“乳白”相同的语义特征。 “白皑皑”、“白茫茫”、“白蒙蒙”,“ 雪白”,在印尼语里没有相对应的,印尼语中只能 称“putih”或相近的短语翻译。 “putih kapas(棉花白)”,是印尼语中最 有代表“白”颜色的下位词。因为棉花是织布的主要 原料。印尼的五项原则的第五个是说“印尼人民的社 会正义”,使用棉花和稻子来象征,意思就是希望人 民过得好。 3. 黄 黄色,印尼语是kuning。 黄的概念 《现代汉语词典》第5版,指出“黄”是指 1.(形)像丝瓜花或向日葵花的颜色。2.指黄金。3. 指蛋黄。4.(形)象征腐化坠落,特指色情。 《印尼语大词典》指出,“黄”是指像姜黄或 黄金的颜色。 表5 汉语中黄的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1. 黄灿灿 形容金黄而 鲜艳 7. 姜黄 形容像姜那样的 黄色 2. 黄澄澄 形容金黄色 8. 嫩黄 像韭黄那样的浅 黄色 3. 鹅黄 像小鹅绒毛那 样的黄色; 嫩黄 9. 蛋黄色 像鸡蛋黄的 4. 金黄 黄而微红略像 金子的颜色 10. 米黄 白而微黄的颜色 5. 橘黄 比黄色略深像 橘子皮的颜色 11. 乳黄 像奶油那样的淡 黄色 6. 橙黄 像橙子那样黄 里带红的颜色 表6 印尼语中黄的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 1 kuning emas 金黄色 2 kuning ke-emasan 黄灿灿 3 kuning gading 淡黄色,米黄色 4 kuning telur 蛋黄 5 putih kuning 淡黄 印尼语的“黄”颜色的语义场没有汉语多。印 尼语的“kuning emas”与汉语的“金黄”、“黄澄 澄”对应。印尼语的“kuning ke-emasan”与汉语 的“黄灿灿”对应,都有 [发亮的金黄] 语义特征。 这表示在两种语言之间都认为黄色为“贵色”,因为 黄金是贵重的东西。所以,“金黄”、“黄灿灿”之 类的下位词有相同的概念。 印尼语的 “kuning gading”、“putih kuning”与汉语的“米黄”、“乳黄”相互对应。印 尼语的“kuning telur”与汉语的“蛋黄色”对应, 都有 [像黄鸡蛋的]语义特征。 虽然印尼语“黄”颜色的概念是指像姜黄的颜 色,但在下位词中没有“姜黄”的颜色。至于,汉语 的“鹅黄”、“姜黄”、“嫩黄”,印尼语只能称 kuning或近似的词语翻译。 4. 蓝 印尼语的“biru”是指汉语“蓝”颜色的意思。 蓝的概念 对于蓝色这个颜色,汉语和印尼语有同样的概 念,是像晴天空的颜色。 64 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 表7 汉语中蓝的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1. 宝蓝 鲜亮的蓝色 7. 湖蓝 浅蓝 2. 碧蓝 青蓝色 8. 蔚蓝 像晴朗的天空的 颜色 3. 靛青 深蓝 9. 海蓝 像大海那样的蓝 颜色 4. 蓝晶晶 蓝而发亮 (水、宝石) 10. 湛蓝 深蓝色(天空、 湖海) 5. 蓝盈盈、 蓝莹莹 蓝得发亮 (天空) 11. 浅蓝 淡蓝 6. 天蓝 像晴朗的天空颜色 表8 印尼语中蓝的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 1 biru gerau 带黑色 2 biru langit 天蓝 3 biru laut 海蓝 4 biru muda 浅蓝 5 biru tua 深蓝 印尼语中使用一个词来代表天空的蓝,就是 “biru langit”,而汉语中使用了几种说法是,“ 天蓝”、“蓝盈盈”、“蓝莹莹”、“蔚蓝”,还 有“湛蓝”也是蓝色天空的意思。只是“湛蓝”比“ 天蓝”稍微深一些。 印尼语的 “biru laut” 与汉语的“海蓝” 、“湖蓝”、“湛蓝”相互对应。汉语的“宝蓝” 、“碧蓝”、“蓝晶晶”,印尼语中没有相对应的。 印尼语的“biru tua”和“biru muda”,只是指“ 浅蓝”和“深蓝”的意思,而没有具体的相对事物来 代表。“biru gerau”是比深蓝色稍微深一些。 5. 绿 hijau是印尼语的“绿”。绿色与草木、树叶, 还有自然和环保连在一起。 绿的概念 《现代汉语词典》第5版指出,“绿”颜色是 指像草和树叶茂盛时的颜色,有蓝和黄而成。《印尼 语大词典》指像树叶的颜色。 表9 汉语中绿的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1. 碧绿 青绿色 9. 豆绿 像青豆那样的 绿色 2. 翠绿 像翡翠那样的 绿色 10. 苹果绿 浅绿色 3. 苍翠 深绿(草木等) 11. 深绿 浓绿 4. 浅绿 淡绿 12. 橄榄绿 像橄榄果实那样 的青绿色 5. 湖绿 淡绿 13. 绿茸茸 形容碧绿而稠密 6. 草绿 绿而略黄的颜色 14. 绿生生 形容碧绿而鲜嫩 7. 黛绿 墨绿 15. 绿莹莹 形容晶莹碧绿 8. 葱绿 浅绿而微黄的 颜色 16. 绿油油 形容浓绿而润泽 表10 印尼语中绿的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 1 hijau gadung 浅绿 2 hijau lumut 墨绿 3 hijau maya-maya 鲜绿 4 hijau muda 浅嫩绿 5 hijau tua 深绿 印尼语的“hijau gadung”与汉语的“草绿” 、“碧绿”、“豆绿”、“翠绿”相对应,只是浓 度有差异。“hijau lumut”、“hijau tua”与“ 黛绿”、“苍翠”、“深绿”完全有相互对应。至 于“hijau muda”是与“浅绿”、“苹果绿”相同。 汉语中的“橄榄绿”、“绿茸茸”、“绿生 生”、“绿莹莹”、“绿油油”,印尼语的“hijau maya-maya”为这些颜色的对应。“葱绿”印尼语, 只能称为“hijau”。 6. 黑 “黑”,印尼语是“hitam”。“黑”颜色作为 最深的颜色,引起了种种的意义与概念。形容“ 黑”颜色的食物也是五彩缤纷。 黑的概念 “黑”的意思是: 1.(形)像煤或墨的颜色 (跟“白”相对)。2.(形)黑暗。3.(名)夜晚; 黑夜。4. 秘密;非法的;不公开的。5.(形)坏; 狠毒。印尼语意思是像木炭的颜色。 表11 汉语中黑的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1. 乌黑 深黑色 6. 黑蒙蒙 形容光线昏暗, 看不清楚 2. 墨黑 非常黑;很暗 7. 黑黢黢 形容很黑 3. 漆黑 非常黑;很暗 8. 黑魆魆 形容黑暗 4. 黑洞洞 形容黑暗 9. 黑油油 形容黑得发亮 5. 黑糊糊 形容颜色发黑 10. 乌油油 形容黑而润泽 表12 印尼语中黑的下位词 no 词目 词典释义 no 词目 词典释义 1. hitam berkilat 黑油油 5. hitam legam 乌黑;漆黑 2. hitam birat 又黑又丑 的人 6. hitam kumbang 乌黑;漆黑 3. hitam jengat 乌黑;漆黑 7. hitam manggis 紫黑色(像山竹 皮的颜色) 4. hitam lotong 乌黑;漆黑 8. hitam pekat 乌黑;漆黑 65a comparison on hyponymy ….. (kristina indah setyo rahayu) 汉语和印尼语的“黑”的下位词,都表示“ 黑暗、黯然”的颜色。印尼语的“hitam jengat” 、“hitam lotong”、“hitam legam”、“hitam kumbang”、“hitam pekat”与汉语的“乌黑”、“ 墨黑”、“漆黑”、“黑洞洞”、“黑咕隆咚”、“ 黑黢黢”、“黑魆魆”,都有相同的语义特征。 印尼语是“hitam berkilat”,汉语有“黑 油油”和“乌油油”相同的意思。而,黑蒙蒙 [模 糊的],印尼语也没有相同的意思。另外,印尼语 的“hitam birat”与汉语的“黯黑”,不同的语义 特征。 文化象征意义对比 语言与文化有很密切的关系。我们用语言表现 出文化,同时语言也是文化的一部分。语言中的词汇 有多种来源,其中之一是颜色。那些包含颜色语素 的词却不表示色彩概念的词语,往往那些词语的“所 指”千差万别,如红人、白眼、绿豆、黑店等等。 含颜色语素的词语不是反映对象的特点,而是指构词 上“含颜色”。 关于颜色与文化的联想意义,叶军在《现代汉 语色彩词研究》指出,含颜色词可以归纳出两种情 况,一种是色彩语素直接参与含色彩词语的意义构 成,揭示含色彩词语所指事物的色彩特征。如:绿 豆、黑板、白衣战士、蓝皮书等词语。这些词语中的 颜色语素都反映了该含色彩词语所指事物的颜色特 征。另一种是,色彩语素间接参与含彩词语的意义构 成,即其在含色彩词语的意义构成中起比喻、象征或 借代作用。如:红人、白旗、黄道吉日、黑社会、看 清等等。这些词语没有出现颜色的本义。 1. 红 汉语中含“红”的颜色词语: 1. 红白喜事 :男女结婚是喜事,高寿的人病 逝的丧事叫喜事。有时也说红白事。泛指 婚丧。 2. 红榜 :指光荣榜。 3. 红包 :包着钱的红纸包儿,用于馈赠或 奖励等。 4. 红灯区 :指某些城市中色情场所集中的地 区。 5. 红火 :形容旺盛、兴隆、热闹。 6. 红利 :指企业分给股东的利润或分给职 工的额外报酬;参加集体生产单位的个人 所得的额外收益。 7. 红娘 :媒人的代称。 8. 红旗 :红色的棋子,是无产阶级革命的 象征;竞赛中用来鼓励胜者的红色旗子; 比喻先进。 9. 红人 :称受宠信或重用的人;成走红的 人。 10. 蹿红 : 迅速走红。 11. 红心 :比喻忠于无产阶级革命事业的思 想。 12. 红运 :好运气 13. 红装 :妇女的红色装饰,泛指妇女的艳 丽装束。;指青年妇女。 14. 满堂红 :形容全面胜利或到处兴旺。 以上例子中,显示出在汉语里含“红”颜色词 语,大都表示吉利、热烈、庆祝、重视、受欢迎等。 中国人对红色已有传统的概念,在戏剧打扮红脸谱的 演员是演关胜、好人等角色。中国古代的建筑色彩主 要也用红色,显示高贵、富丽的感觉。总而言之,红 榜、红包、红股、红人、红运等词语在汉语中是与幸 福、快乐等意义相关联。 印尼语中“红”的象征意思有:火、停止、禁 止、刺激、革命、流血、暴力、勇敢、冲动。 下面是印尼语含“红”的颜色词语: 1. si jago merah(红公鸡):是指火灾 2. daerah merah(红地区):受到政强迫拆迁的 地区(政府的计划为了建公共设施)。 3. angka merah (赤字):学生成绩单上的不及 格分数 4. benang merah(红线):连接两件事情的关 系。 5. langau merah(红牛虻):接受贿赂等谋取不 义之财的人。 6. kartu merah(红牌):1. 最后的警告。 2. 处 分,处罚的,因犯错误而下场(一般是在运动 比赛)或被炒鱿鱼。 7. perusahaan pelat merah(红牌子的公司): 国家的公司。 8. (mendapatkan)lampu merah (受到红灯): 被炒鱿鱼。;没有得到许可。 以上由“红”构成的词语中,最多是表示禁止 或停止的意思。如:红地区、红牌、(受到)红灯、 赤字。对于“红牌的公司”是一种特殊情况,因为在 印尼所属于国家的,都用红色来形容。如:公务员所 用的汽车或摩托车的号码牌是以红色为主,因为都是 属于的国家的。 红色离不开革命的精神。中国和印尼同样使用 了红色作为国旗,因为革命和勇敢、勇气联在一起。 红军、红旗、红心等都含有革命的意义。 在汉语和印尼语里有相似的词语像汉语的“红 灯区”、“校样”与印尼语的“红地区”和“赤字” ,具有不同的意思。 红色在巴厘岛的印度教里,表示第二地位 (kasta ksatria)。是指贵族、军队、国家的领导 甚至总统或主席。 在汉语里“红”颜色几乎是代表褒义词,而在 印尼语中不都是。 2. 白 汉语中含“白”的颜色的词语 : 1. 白榜 :对人进行处分或批评的布告。 66 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 因多用白纸写,所以叫白榜。 2. 白丁 :封建社会里指没有功名的人。 3. 白璧微瑕 :洁白的玉上面有些小斑点,比 喻很好的人或事物有些小缺点。 4. 白璧无瑕 :洁白的玉上面没有一点儿 小斑点,比喻人或事物完美无缺。 5. 白领 :指从事脑力劳动的职员。 6. 白色收入 :指按规定获得的工资、津贴等 劳动报酬,具有公开性。 7. 白色恐怖 :指在反动政权统治下,反革 命暴力所造成的恐怖,如规模的屠杀、逮 捕等。 8. 白事 :指丧事。 9. 白眼 :眼睛朝上或向旁边看,是看不起 人的一种表情。 10. 白眼儿狼 :比喻忘恩负义的人。 11. 白纸黑字 :白纸上写的黑子,指见于书面 的确凿的证据。 12. 白字 :写错或读错的字;别字。 “白”颜色在汉语有丰富又有矛盾的意思。一 方面是与红色有相反的意思——反动、悲哀,如:白 榜、白丁、白事、白灾,甚至有“白色恐怖”的名 称。这些词语和死亡、没有功名还有一些不吉利的事 情几乎都连在一起。 汉语的“白”颜色和哀悼、死亡有密切的关 系,但是从那件事情我们也会找到一种深刻的感情, 就是思念和孝顺。因为在葬礼时,穿白色的衣服也叫 白色孝服。葬礼是哀悼的日子,穿着最朴素、最简单 的衣服来表明对亲人死亡的悲痛。 另一方面是含有纯洁、清白、正当、合法的象 征意义。像白璧无瑕、白色输入是褒义词。这一方面 的意思和印尼语具有相同的概念。 印尼语里含有“白”的词语: 1. anak putih(白孩子):是指兄弟姐妹的 第七个孩子。 2. baju putih(白衣):老百姓。 3. benang putih(白线):单纯;纯洁。 4. bubuk putih(白粉):是指吗啡。 5. hidung putih(白鼻子):色狼。 6. darah putih(白血):贵族的血统(与“ 蓝血”的意思相同)。 7. mobil putih(白车):救护车。 8. putih hati(白心):诚实;乐意助人。 9. berputih tulang(白骨头):去世;死 亡。 10. memutihkan mata(使眼睛变白):使感到 羞愧 。;刺痛人心 印尼语的“白”颜色主要是表示忠诚、诚实的 意思,像benang putih(白线)、putih hati(白 心)。此外,印尼的国旗是红白色。因为印尼人对 白色的忠诚、纯洁和洁白有深刻的概念。印尼的国花 是茉莉花,也是代表真诚的意思。不奇怪在印尼,送 别人“红包”时,是用“白包”,是表示诚心诚意的 心意。 无论是汉语还是印尼语,白色与善事也有联想 意义。如:白衣天使、白衣战士、mobil putih(白 车)。 另外,印度教认为白色是印度教里面最高的地 位,指知识分子、印度教的牧师。他们相信那些人是 神圣人,因此使用了白色来代表。 当然,在印尼语白色也有贬义,可在印尼人心 目中白色就是忠诚、真诚的代表。 3. 黄 汉语中含“黄”的颜色词语: 1. 黄包车 :人力车 2. 黄道吉日 :迷信的人认为宣于办事的好日 子。 3. 黄毒 :指毒害人思想的淫秽的书刊、音 像制品等。 4. 黄花 :除了是指菊花以外,还指没有过 性的行为的(青年男女)。 5. 黄口小儿 :指婴儿、多用来讥诮无知的年 轻人。 6. 黄片 :指内容淫秽的影视片。 7. 贩黄 :贩卖黄色书刊、录像带、光盘 等。 印尼语包含“黄”的颜色的词语: 1. korps baju kuning(穿着黄衣服):卫生 员 2. bendera kuning(黄旗):表示哀悼 3. buku kuning(黄书) :廉价小说。;( 印尼古兰经学馆采用的)伊斯兰教教义课 本。 4. kartu kuning(黄卡):部门发出给求职 者的填表,内容是求职者简介、学历等说 明。 5. koran kuning(黄色报纸):写关于明星 闲话的报纸 6. lampu kuning(黄灯):表示警告 7. semangat bambu kuning(龙头竹精神): 争取国家,勇敢面对敌人的精神,爱国之 心。 8. sirih kuning(黄色的蒌叶):比喻漂亮 的姑娘 9. pantat kuning(黄色屁股):比喻小气的 人 黄色是中国人的象征之一。外国人一听“黄 河”就知道是指中国。中国人的皮肤属于黄皮肤,土 地也是黄土地。可见,黄色与中国人有密切的关系。 汉民族过去的皇帝所有的事情几乎都会与黄色有关, 67a comparison on hyponymy ….. (kristina indah setyo rahayu) 如:“黄袍”是天子的“龙袍”、“黄钺”是天子 的“依仗”、“黄榜”是天子的诏书等等。因而,黄 色就成为贵族的颜色——皇帝,所以表示高贵、尊 贵、贵族的颜色。 在印尼黄色也成为贵族的代表颜色,只是不像 在中国那么普遍。在几个地方像日惹和梭罗还保留“ 宫殿和皇帝”的形象。他们在举行活动时主要是穿着 金灿灿的衣服,表示他们的地位比一般人高一些。 除了高贵以外,印尼人视黄色为吉祥和庄严的 象征。在举行主要活动时,印尼人一般会准备“黄 饭”。不仅是成为礼饭,而且表示吉利、顺利完成一 切。 印尼语中的“semangat bambu kuning(龙头 竹精神)”,是一种表示激烈的精神。当印尼成为别 的国家的殖民地时,印尼人没有什么高级的武器,老 百姓就以竹枪作为武器。带着简单的武器和巨大的勇 气最后打败了殖民者。 黄色最常用是表示警告,像“lampu kuning( 黄灯)”。在运动或比赛我们也会常用“黄牌”,意 思就是给运动员或教练员出示的黄色警示牌。可,在 印尼语“kartu kuning”还有另外意思,即政府的规 定给求职者在求职时必须填的表格。 另外,黄色在巴厘岛印度教里面是指第三地位 的人。他们主要是在国家从事经济事业人,老板、会 计人员等有关经济方面的事业。 随着社会的发展,黄色的意义在汉语中也发生 了变化。以上的例子说明了在现代汉语,黄色已经含 有贬义——表示色情的颜色。“黄”颜色在汉语是很 特别的颜色,从传统包含了褒义的颜色至现代变成贬 义的颜色,是一种很大的差异。 4. 蓝 汉语中含“蓝”的颜色词语: 1. 蓝领 :某些 国家或地区指从事体力劳动 的工人,他们劳动时一般穿蓝色工作服。 2. 蓝青官话 :方言地区的 人说的普通话, 夹杂着方音。 3. 蓝色农业 :指进海水产养殖业,因海水的 蓝色的,所以叫蓝色农业。 4. 蓝图 :用感光后变成蓝色(或其他颜 色)的感光纸制成的图纸。;比喻建设计 划。 印尼语包含“蓝”颜色词语: 1. baju biru (蓝衣):犯人在监狱穿的衣 服。 2. darah biru(蓝血):贵族的血统 3. film biru(蓝色电影):色情片或者黄色 片。 4. buku biru(蓝本):社会名人录。;写上 对某件事情的意见、建议的书。;官方报 告 蓝色使人们想到蓝色的天空和大海,给内心平 静的感觉。汉语中,“蓝”往往用“青”来表示。 如,“青天”、“青云”是天空蓝天的意思。所谓大 海的颜色,“蓝色农业”来称呼在海水工厂或工作 人。 而蓝色在印尼语中除了表示天空的颜色,印尼 语蓝色多指高贵、贵族的血统。同时也包含了贬义, 就是指色情的事情或东西。这一点是与汉语中黄色的 意义相同。 5. 绿 汉语中含 “绿”的颜色词语: 1. 绿地 :指城镇中经过绿化的空地。 2. 绿肥 :把植物的嫩茎叶反压在地理,经 过发酵分解而成的肥料。 3. 绿肺 :比喻能吸收二氧化碳并释放出氧 气的绿地、森林等。 4. 绿帽子(绿头巾):称妻子 有外遇为戴绿 帽子。 5. 绿色壁垒 :指为了保护本国或本地区环境 和经济利益而附加的进出口贸易条件及限 制措施,如提高进口产品质量标准或实行 高额征税等。 6. 绿色标志 :环境标志 7. 绿色食品 :指无公害、无污染的安全营养 型食品。 8. 绿色通道 :指医疗、交通运输等部门设 置的手续简便、安全快捷的通道;泛指简 便、安全、快捷的途径或渠道。 印尼语包含“绿”颜色的词语: 1. baju hijau(绿衣) :军人或军队 2. pupuk hijau(绿肥):把植物的嫩茎叶反 压在地理,经过发酵分解而成的肥料。 3. masih hijau(还很嫩):是指经验还不多 的人,末成熟的。 4. meja hijau(绿色桌子):法庭 5. jalur hijau(绿通道):城市中的绿化地 带 6. kodok hijau (青蛙):在中国常说“收 保护费”,但不一样的是在中国是流氓干 的,而在印尼则是由政府人员(治安) 收。 7. lalat hijau(绿苍蝇):高利贷 8. lampu hijau(绿灯):收到许可 9. palu hijau(绿锤子):法官的决定 绿色联想到自然的和谐和宁静,也给人们带来 了新鲜感。绿色在许多国家包括中国和印尼也成为军 队的服装颜色。不仅与自然有关,而且与保护、安全 也有关系。 对于环保、健康等绿色联想意义,汉语和印 尼语里没有太大的差别。如:绿肥、绿色食品、 68 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 开绿灯、绿色通道的说法。随着环境保护运动的开 展,“绿色”更深入人心,其作为“生命”象征的联 想意义已经在世界范围内取得了普遍的共识。 不过,在汉语里绿色还表示卑微、贫贱。古代 的汉代以后,服色成为人社会等级地位的代表。皇帝 穿着黄色服装、贵族穿着红色服装,而学士及下级官 员穿着绿色服装。所以,绿色就成为官卑职小、地位 低微的读书人的代称。还有,在古典戏剧中悲剧的女 性是“青衣”,妓院被称为“青楼”。至今,在中国 对绿色还是有特别的想法就是对“戴绿帽子”或者“ 绿帽子”可以说是一种忌讳的说法。尤其是,对男生 来讲,意思就是妻子有外遇就是给丈夫戴上绿帽子。 印尼语中,绿色是形容经验还不多的人或者 对某件事情不熟悉的人——“masih hijau”(还很 嫩),就像小孩那样那么幼稚和单纯。另外,印尼语 里 最常用的说法是“meja hijau(绿桌子 )”,指 法庭的意思。 在印尼的一些地方,绿色表示神秘、不可思议 的事情。举例子,在日惹的南海(pantai selatan) ,有个迷信就是去南海时,不能穿着绿色的衣服。因 为绿色是南海皇后的服装。如果穿着绿色等于与皇后 奋斗。还有印尼人也有一种迷信是“buto ijo”,即 绿色的巨人。在传统故事,“buto ijo”是又坏又可 怕的角色。虽如此,至今印尼人还相信“buto ijo” 的存在。 6. 黑 汉语中含“黑”的颜色词语 : 1. 黑暗 :比喻(社会状况)落后;(统治 势力)腐败。 2. 黑白 :比喻是非、善恶。 3. 黑帮 :指社会上暗中活动的犯罪团伙其 他反动集团或其成员。 4. 黑车 :指没有牌照的或非法运营的车 辆。 5. 黑地 :指没有登记在国家地亩册子上的 田地。 6. 黑店 :杀人劫货的客店(多见于早期白 话)。;指没有营业执照非法经商店、客 店等。 7. 黑户 :指没有户口的住户。也指没有营 业执照的商号。 8. 黑话 :帮会、流氓、盗匪等所使用的暗 语。;指反动而隐晦的话。 9. 黑货 :指漏税或违禁的货物。 10. 黑名单:反动势力为进行政治迫害而开列 的革命者和进步人士的名单。;指有关部 门对不合格产品或违反规约的企业、个人 等开列的名单,通过一定渠道向社会公 布。 11. 黑色收入 :指通过贫污、受贿等非法手段 取得的收入。 12. 黑社会 :指社会上进行犯罪活动及其他 非法活动的各种有组织的黑暗 势力,如反 动帮会,流氓、盗窃集团,走私、贩毒团 伙等。 13. 黑市 :暗中进行非法买卖的市场。 14. 黑窝 :比喻坏人隐藏或干坏事的地方。 印尼语包含“黑”颜色的词语: 1. anak hitam(黑孩子):兄弟姐妹的第八 个孩子 2. awan hitam(黑云/阴天):伤心、悲哀因 为某件事。 3. belanda hitam(黑荷兰):是指支持荷兰 队(印尼殖民)的当地人。 4. benang hitam(黑线):忌讳的事情 5. buku hitam(黑本):坏人记录 6. dunia hitam(黑世界):是指黑社会 7. kambing hitam(黑羊):替罪的人。 8. ilmu hitam(邪恶法术):邪恶,违反宗 教的法术 9. jalan hitam(黑路):违反的方法 黑色——黑暗的颜色,给人们带来了一种神秘 感,严肃的感觉。在古代中国,黑色是“正色”,作 为北方和冬天之色,它象征着万物的归宿和终结。黑 色在封建社会时曾经是尊贵之色。我们知道中国的水 墨画和书法是中国文化的代表之一,水墨画只使用墨 水来画画、写字,这推到了黑色为尊贵色。 黑色在印尼也被认为尊贵的颜色。印尼的巴迪 克多使用黑色或棕色为基本颜色。原因不仅因为要 搭配印尼人的皮肤,最重要是黑色或棕色是尊重的颜 色,穿起来时让人会有自豪感。印尼人对漂亮、可爱 的男或女孩一般用“hitam manis”(黑里俏)的说 法来形容。 由以上的词汇,无论在汉语或印尼语里面,黑 色与“白”颜色相反的意义,往往被人们联想到黑 暗、犯罪、非法,等邪恶的意义。像黑社会、黑名 单、黑窝等词汇在汉语和印尼语具有差不多的概念。 印尼语中,黑也是指法术(不好的),如:“ilmu hitam”、“dunia hitam”、“jalan hitam” 。“belanda hitam (黑荷兰)”的说法出现因为 印尼曾经被荷兰殖民。“黑”指背叛国家的印尼人。 当时有些当地人为了自己的利益,而背叛了自己的国 家。印度尼西亚共和国成立以后,就很少使用这个词 汇。 在印尼巴厘岛的印度教里面,认为黑色是下低 级(老百姓)(kasta sudra)的颜色。老百姓靠身 体的力量来工作或生活,他们的单纯、忠诚、听上 级的话。他们做具体的工作来帮助国家,像农夫、渔 夫、工人等等。 我们知道“绿色食品”指无害的食品,而汉语 中还有“黑色食品”的说法。可是,它是褒义词,指 颜色呈黑色或黑褐色的食品,营养价值相对较高的像 黑米、黑芝麻、木耳等等。 69a comparison on hyponymy ….. (kristina indah setyo rahayu) 结论 我们的世界是五颜六色、多姿多彩的世界。大 自然就是颜色词的主要来源。因此,在种种语言中, 颜色词的主要意义有客观性的意义。但是,文化的联 想意义,就有不同的概念。 笔者在对比汉语和印尼语颜色下位词的过程中 发现,两种语言之间的基本颜色下位词具有异同。对 于一些形容词素的颜色,汉语和印尼语似乎有相似的 意义。如,表示深色或浅色的颜色。 因为不同国家的环境和情况、植物、动物等的 原因,产生了不同颜色的下位词。如,汉语里的“雪 白”、“橄榄绿”、“乌黑”、“鹅黄”等。在印尼 语里没有相对应的词。相反如此。汉语里有重叠色彩 词,像“白茫茫”、“黑油油”、“黑沉沉”等。这 类词,印尼语没有。这是汉语颜色词的特点。这类 词,表示强调的意思。而在印尼语中使用了深度比较 高的颜色词来形容。 另外,文化、语言和民族心理互相连接。从颜 色象征意义我们可以连接到国家的历史、经济、信教 等方面的关系。印尼语的颜色词大多与西方有相似的 概念,原因是因为历史上印尼被殖民国家占了几百年 的历史(350年多的历史)。在这么长的时间或多或 少对印尼的文化带来了重要的影响。 印尼是以五个信仰为主,每个信仰对每种颜色 有自己的观念。如,基督教,认为白色是纯洁的颜 色、伊斯兰教,以绿色为主要颜色等其他信教。这对 颜色词象征意义也有关。 中国对颜色的观念从古代封建社会开始。古代 的中国人,按照自然和皇帝来决定颜色的概念。因为 古代的中国人相信皇帝是“天子”,或多或少皇帝对 中国人的思想也有影响。封建社会灭绝后,中国向西 方国家开始开放起来,从而就慢慢开始引进了西方国 家的文化。 以上原因,产生了汉语和印尼语颜色象征文化 意义的异同。如红色和白色。对中国人和印尼人来 说,都是很重要的颜色。中国的“红白喜事”、印尼 的国旗都离不开这两种颜色。但是,这两种颜色在两 个国家有较大的区别。印尼人认为,“白”颜色是表 示真诚、诚实。所以在婚礼时,人们给的“红包”是 用白色的包来放现金。还有,对“腐化坠落、色情的 东西或事情”,在现代汉语使用“黄”颜色来形容, 印尼语,使用“蓝”颜色来形容。 本文对汉印尼语基本颜色词的下位词对比,发 现不同的自然环境影响到其下位词。另外,历史、宗 教对民族心理也有密切关系,因而对颜色词的文化象 征意义在不同民族与国家产生了不同的观念。 参考文献 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编.(2007). 现代汉语词典(第5版).北京: 商 务 印 书 馆. departemen pendidikan nasional. 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(rima devi) struktur keluarga jepang kontemporer dalam tiga novel karya ogawa yoko rima devi jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas andalas rima_devi2004@yahoo.com abstract ogawa yoko as a japanese novelist mostly features the life of contemporary japanese society in her novels. one that stands out from her works is the image of the japanese family structure. ogawa outlines the japanese family structure in contrast to the japanese family structure in actual society, as in the novel kifunjin a no sosei, hakase no aishita suushiki, and miina no koushin. these three novels depict japanese family structure more complex than her other novels. how ogawa described japanese family structure in the three novels is the issue on this article. this article is a literature study; data were collected from the three novels and analyzed using sociological literature approach and the concept of japanese traditional family known as ie system. this paper shows that there was an implementation of the ie system in the three novels yet it was only a part of the ie concept. keywords: ogawa yoko, ie system, family structure abstrak ogawa yoko sebagai seorang novelis berkebangsaan jepang kebanyakan menampilkan kehidupan masyarakat jepang kontemporer dalam novel-novelnya. salah satu yang menonjol dari karya-karyanya adalah gambaran struktur keluarga jepang. ogawa menguraikan struktur keluarga jepang bertolak belakang dengan struktur keluarga jepang dalam masyarakat yang sebenarnya, seperti pada novel kifunjin a no sosei, hakase no aishita suushiki, dan miina no koushin. pada ketiga novel ini terlihat penggambaran struktur keluarga jepang lebih kompleks bila dibandingkan dengan beberapa novelnya yang lain. bagaimana ogawa menggambarkan struktur keluarga jepang dalam ketiga novel di atas menjadi permasalahan pada tulisan ini. tulisan ini merupakan kajian kepustakaan dengan data dikumpulkan dari ketiga novel kemudian dianalisis menggunakan pendekatan sosiologi sastra dan konsep keluarga jepang tradisional, yaitu sistem ie. dari tulisan ini diketahui bahwa pada ketiga novel masih terdapat penerapan sistem ie namun hanya bersifat sebagian saja dari konsep ie. kata kunci: ogawa yoko, sistem ie, struktur keluarga 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 pendahuluan ogawa yoko adalah salah seorang novelis perempuan jepang yang produktif menghasilkan karya. hingga saat ini terhitung lebih dari 40 buah karya ogawa yoko sudah diterbitkan baik berupa novel maupunesai. kisah-kisah yang dituliskan oleh ogawa yoko dalam novelnya menurut seorang penggemar ogawa yoko dalam blognya, ogawayouko.blog.shinobi. jp, menyatakan bahwa ogawa dapat merangkai kata-kata sedemikian rupa sehingga terasa indah seperti alunan musik mozart, keburukan atau kebencian digambarkan secara tersembunyi, dan akhir dari cerita sering tidak terduga sehingga membuat novel-novelnya terlihat cantik. mengenai tokoh utama yang dimunculkan dalam novel ogawa menurut hasebe (2004), ogawa dengan gaya tulisan yang acuh dan tak peduli menampilkan tokoh-tokoh yang aneh. seperti diungkapkan oleh takahara (2004), tokoh-tokoh tersebut mempunyai kekurangan secara fisik dan keterbatasan secara mental. ito (2004) menambahkan tokoh utama dalam karya ogawa kebanyakan adalah seorang perempuan, selain itu ada tokoh lansia, anak-anak, dan ilmuwan laki-laki. para tokoh utama ogawa juga digambarkan tokoh yang kehilangan anggota keluarganya seperti kematian ayah, suami, atau saudara laki-laki. para lelaki yang digambarkan dalam karya ogawa kebanyakan mempunyai kekurangan fisik atau penyakitan. tokoh cerita yang digambarkan oleh ogawa dalam novelnya pada umumnya memiliki keterbatasan, seperti kekurangan baik fisik maupun mental, tak berdaya, tidak ada tempat bergantung secara finansial ataupun emosional, penyakitan, usia lanjut, dan sebagainya. ogawa mempertemukan tokoh-tokoh ini pada novelnovelnya dalam satu ruang atau tempat yang disebut rumah. mereka ditampilkan saling bahu-membahu, saling membantu, saling melindungi, saling menyayangi satu sama lain. bukan itu saja, para tokoh cerita ini juga diberikan peran masing-masing sesuai dengan usia mereka seperti anak-anak, orang dewasa, dan lansia. hal ini dapat dilihat dalam tiga novel ogawa yoko yaitu kifunjin a no sosei『貴婦人 a 蘇生』(kebangkitan bangsawan a) (2005) (disingkat kas), hakase no aishita suushiki 『博 士の愛した数式』(rumus yang dicintai sang profesor) (2005) (disingkat has), dan miina no koushin 『ミーナ の行進』 (parade miina) (2006) (disingkat mnk). berdasarkan beragam susunan anggota keluarga yang digambarkan oleh ogawa yoko pada ketiga novel ini, ada persamaan mendasar sebagaimana yang disebutkan oleh morioka (1993:1) dalam definisi keluarga: upaya mencapai tujuan sebuah keluarga yaitu mencari kesejahteraan yang didukung oleh jalinan rasa kasih sayang sesama anggotanya. melihat susunan anggota keluarga yang tergambar dalam ketiga novel ogawa yoko tersebut menimbulkan pertanyaan bagaimana struktur anggota keluarga jepang saat ini dan apakah sama dengan yang tergambar dalam novel ogawa yoko. televisi nasional jepang nhk pada 2010 mulai memberitakan fenomena baru dalam masyarakat jepang kontemporer yang disebut dengan istilah muen shakai. muen shakai adalah masyarakat yang tidak mempunyai hubungan kekerabatan satu sama lain. simpulan ini diperoleh setelah ditemui banyak kasus kematian seseorang yang hidup sendiri, meninggal dunia seorang diri, dan kematiannya baru diketahui berhari-hari bahkan berminggu-minggu setelah itu dalam keadaan yang sangat mengenaskan. berdasarkan berita yang diturunkan oleh harian japan today (kuchikomi, 2011) diketahui bahwa pada 1987 ditemukan kasus muenshi di tokyo yaitu 788 orang laki-laki dan 335 orang perempuan. pada 2006 terdapat 2.362 orang laki-laki dan 1.033 orang perempuan. dari data terakhir ini setidaknya setiap hari ada 10 orang yang muenshi di tokyo. menurut taylor (2012) kebanyakan yang ditemukan muenshi adalah para lansia yang sudah bercerai dari pasangannya baik bercerai hidup maupun bercerai mati. namun dari penuturan shukan jitsuwa dalam harian japan today, fenomena muenshi sudah meluas ke kalangan anak muda jepang. perbincangan di nhk, januari 2011, juga membenarkan bahwa kasus muenshi tidak hanya ditemukan pada lansia tetapi juga pada anak muda. makin meningkatnya kasus muenshi di jepang terutama di tokyo dipicu oleh berbagai faktor. dari perbincangan di nhk tersebut dijelaskan bahwa faktor pemicunya adalah kurangnya interaksi antar sesama karena sebagian besar masyarakat jepang sekarang menjalani hidup dalam keadaan melajang, bercerai atau pengangguran. mereka ini tinggal seorang diri di satu rumah tanpa ada anggota keluarga yang lain. fenomena muenshakai ini menimbulkan berbagai pertanyaan mengenai anggota keluarga yang lainnya. bila ditelusuri mengenai keluarga di jepang, bentuk dan struktur keluarga mengalami perubahan dari keluarga tradisional yang menjalankan sistem ie, menjadi keluarga batih. berdasarkan sistem ie ini, anak laki-laki pertama atau chounan adalah pewaris kekayaan dan semua aset keluarga; sementara anak laki-laki kedua dan seterusnya harus meninggalkan rumah asalnya dan membentuk keluarga baru bila sudah menikah. akan tetapi, sejak berakhirnya perang dunia kedua jepang mulai menggiatkan pembangunan di bidang perindustrian yang membutuhkan banyak tenaga kerja. perkembangan industri ini membuat anggota masyarakat yang bukan pewaris dari ie berbondong-bondong pindah ke kota dengan membawa serta keluarga mereka. dalam dunia industri yang dianggap modern, bentuk keluarga yang dianggap sesuai adalah bentuk keluarga batih, yang hubungan kekeluargaan lebih berorientasi pada hubungan suami istri (vogel, 1971;goode, 2007;tobing, 2006:58). keluarga batih yang anggotanya hanya terdiri dari satu generasi yaitu suami, istri, dan anak-anak yang belum menikah, tidak terikat oleh peraturan sebagaimana keluarga tradisional dan hubungan diantara sesama anggota keluarga berdasarkan persamaan dan keadilan (fukutake, 1967;fukutake, 1989; tobing, 2006:52). oleh karena itu, tidak mengherankan bila kemudian masingmasing anggota keluarga dapat memilih dan menentukan jalan hidup mereka sendiri seperti menikah atau melajang seumur hidup, memiliki anak atau hanya hidup berdua sebagai suami istri secara sah ataupun hidup bersama di luar pernikahan dan sebagainya. tanpa disadari, kondisi masyarakat jepang yang seperti ini telah memicu terjadinya penyusutan jumlah anggota keluarga hingga ada satu keluarga hanya terdiri dari satu orang, penyusutan 79struktur keluarga jepang kontemporer ….. (rima devi) jumlah kelahiran, dan peningkatan jumlah lansia. kondisi masyarakat jepang saat ini dengan meningkatnya kencenderungan untuk hidup dalam keluarga batih ataupun hidup melajang seumur hidup menimbulkan pertanyaan bagaimana dengan ikatan yang terjalin diantara sesama anggota keluarga. hasegawa dan hama (2007:351), nakane (1993), dan tobing (2006:44) menyatakan bahwa dalam masyarakat jepang saat ini masih dijumpai penerapan sistem ie namun ikatannya sudah melemah akibat berkurangnya jumlah anggota dari ie. berkurangnya jumlah anggota dari ie juga mengakibatkan terputusnya satu ikatan dari ie sehingga anggotanya tercerai-berai. hal ini dapat terjadi karena tidak adanya pewaris, karena tidak mempunyai anak, maupun karena hidup melajang. selain itu, anak yang lahir di luar nikah tidak diakui dalam sebuah ie (dore, 1971). kisah dalam tiga novel ogawa yoko yang disebut sebelumnya, para tokoh cerita yang telah tercerai-berai dari keluarga–atau bisa disebut terputus hubungan dari ie-nya– yaitu pada novel kas, bibi yuli yang telah kehilangan suami dan gadis yang telah kehilangan ayahnya; pada novel has, mibojin yang telah kehilangan suaminya, hakase yang kehilangan kakak laki-lakinya, kaseifu dan ruto yang sama-sama anak di luar nikah; dan pada novel mnk, tomoko yang kehilangan ayahnya dan nenek rosa yang kehilangan suaminya, dikumpulkan oleh ogawa dalam satu ruang sosial yang disebut dengan keluarga. para tokoh ini terputus hubungan dari ie-nya karena telah kehilangan suami, ayah, ataupun saudara laki-laki yang merupakan pewaris tunggal dari ie-nya, ataupun karena kelahiran di luar nikah. walaupun berkumpul dalam satu rumah, sebenarnya posisi mereka dalam rumah tersebut adalah orang asing dan tidak termasuk dalam struktur keluarga jepang, baik keluarga tradisional maupun keluarga batih. berdasarkan latar belakang yang telah diuraikan, bahwa pada ketiga novel terlihat penggambaran struktur keluarga jepang lebih kompleks bila dibandingkan dengan beberapa novel ogawa lainnya, maka masalah pada penelitian ini adalah bagaimana ogawa menggambarkan struktur keluarga jepang dalam ketiga novel ini. manfaat dari penelitian, selain dapat mengidentifikasi struktur keluarga dalam tiga novel ini, juga sebagai satu kontribusi peneliti pada khazanah pengetahuan mengenai kritik sastra jepang terutama di indonesia. metode sebuah karya sastra ditulis oleh seorang pengarang yang berasal dari satu kelompok masyarakat tertentu. karya sastra tersebut ditulis dengan tujuan untuk dibaca dan dinikmati oleh masyarakat di mana pengarang itu berasal. seorang pengarang menulis karya sastra seperti novel tidak akan dapat melepaskan diri dari pengaruh masyarakatnya. mengenai hal ini sudah dijelaskan sejak zaman plato dan ditegaskan oleh aristoles bahwa karya sastra adalah cerminan masyarakat. bila melihat gambaran masyarakat yang ditiru dalam sebuah karya maka sebuah karya sastra dapat ditelaah dengan menggunakan pendekatan sosiologis yang dikenal dengan sosiologi sastra. oleh damono (2013) pendekatan ini dikelompokkan menjadi dua bagian yaitu pertama adalah pendekatan yang berdasarkan kepada anggapan bahwa sastra merupakan cermin proses sosial-ekonomis belaka. yang dilihat dari sebuah karya adalah faktor-faktor yang berkaitan di luar sastra dengan mengabaikan teks sastra itu sendiri dan menjadikan teks tersebut sebagai gejala kedua atau epiphenomenon. kelompok kedua bertolak belakang dengan yang pertama yaitu lebih menekankan teks sastra sebagai bahan analisis. hal terpenting dan utama sekali dilakukan pada pendekatan ini adalah menganalisis teks untuk melihat strukturnya dan hasilnya digunakan untuk memahami lebih dalam gejala sosial yang tampak di luar sastra. wellek dan warren (1993:111) membagi sosiologi sastra menjadi tiga kategori yaitu pertama sosiologi pengarang, profesi pengarang, dan institusi sastra. kedua isi karya sastra, tujuan serta hal-hal lain yang tersirat dalam karya sastra itu sendiri dan yang berkaitan dengan masalah sosial. ketiga permasalahan pembaca dan dampak sosial karya sastra.ketiga kategori ini membuat analisis karya sastra menggunakan sosiologi sastra menjadi lebih detail dan terfokus pada satu permasalahan yaitu apakah pengarang saja, pembaca saja, atau karya saja. telaah karya sastra yang menggunakan sosiologi karya lebih berfokus kepada masyarakat yang terdapat di dalam karya tersebut kemudian melihat masyarakat sebenarnya di mana pengarang berasal. telaah mengenai sosiologi sastra menggunakan konsep-konsep yang terdapat di dalam ilmu sosial. pada tulisan ini tiga karya ogawa yoko ditelaah dengan menggunakan konsep keluarga jepang tradisional yaitu sistem ie yang akan diuraikan pada bagian pembahasan. hasil dan pembahasan sistem ie masyarakat jepang sejak zaman tokugawa sudah diatur dalam susunan masyarakat feodal yang terdiri dari empat lapisan masyarakat yaitubushi, nomin, kosakunin, dan shonin. bushi adalah masyarakat samurai; nomin adalah petani; kosakunin adalah pengrajin; dan shonin adalah pedagang. dari keempat lapisan masyarakat ini petani adalah masyarakat mayoritas. keempat lapisan masyarakat menjalankan sistem kekerabatan yang disebut dengan sistem ie. sistem ie ini pada awalnya dijalankan oleh masyarakat golongan bushi atau samurai saja. kemudian sistem ie diberlakukan pula pada lapisan masyarakat lainnya pada zaman meiji yang dikukuhkan dalam undang-undang dasar jepang atau meiji minpo. (rebick& takenaka, 2006) masyarakat jepang menggunakan dua istilah untuk keluarga, yaitu: ie dan kazoku. kata ie lebih mengacu pada sistem kekeluargaan tradisional, sedangkan kata kazoku sepadan dengan family pada bahasa inggris. istilah kazoku lazim digunakan untuk mengacu pada keluarga secara umum. pada masa sekarang kazoku dapat dimaknai juga dengan keluarga modern. sementara pada istilah ie, selain bermakna keluarga, juga mengacu pada satu adat istiadat atau kebiasaan yang mengatur anggota keluarga tersebut dalam menjalankan kehidupan seharihari sebagai anggota ie. ie sebagai adat istiadat yang berlaku dalam masyarakat jepang tradisional hingga berakhirnya perang 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 dunia kedua, kiranya bukan hanya sekelompok individu yang membentuk sebuah keluarga besar, mereka di dalamnya juga menjalankan usaha atau bisnis keluarga (kagyou) dengan menggunakan aset keluarga (kasan) yang mereka miliki. pada masyarakat petani misalnya, kasan mereka adalah lahan pertanian. semua anggota ieakan terlibat dalam usaha pertanian yang merupakan kagyou mereka. ie yang juga merupakan satu unit dalam masyarakat menjalankan bisnis keluarga, selain itu mereka juga berusaha untuk menjaga kesinambungan dari unit ie-nya yang dijaga secara turun-temurun. anggota yang tercatat dalam ie adalah anggota yang masih hidup dan anggota yang sudah meninggal dunia. untuk mengenang jasajasa leluhur mereka, tiap-tiap ie melaksanakan upacara pemujaan leluhur. pada masing-masing ie terdapat butsudan atau altar tempat pemujaan. pemujaan arwah leluhur ini dipimpin oleh ketua ie atau kachou. pada pelaksanaan pemujaan arwah leluhur terutama pada perayaan besar seperti obon matsuri, dibutuhkan dana yang cukup besar terutama untuk menyiapkan segala peralatan yang berkaitan dengan upacara tersebut. semua pelaksanaan pemujaan ini adalah tanggung jawab kachou dan biaya upacara diambil dari anggaran rumah tangga ienya. tujuan dari sebuah ie adalah secara terus-menerus mempertahankan jati dirinya walaupun yang menjadi anggota ie silih berganti. pergantian susunan anggota dari generasi ke generasi terjadi akibat kematian, kelahiran, dan perkawinan. walaupun sebuah ie disebut sebagai sekelompok individu yang hidup bersama dan membentuk keluarga, keluarga di sini mempunyai cakupan yang sangat luas. individu yang menjadi anggota dari ie bukan hanya anggota yang saling memiliki hubungan darah, melainkan juga terdapat anggota yang tidak memiliki hubungan darah sama sekali. seorang anak yang lahir dalam satu ie, secara langsung sudah menjadi bagian dari ie tersebut. namun bila si anak sudah dewasa, keanggotaannya dapat berubah berdasarkan posisinya di dalam ie dan jenis kelaminnya. calon dari pewaris ie ditentukan berdasarkan garis keturunan langsung dan memiliki hubungan darah yaitu anak laki-laki sulung atau chounan. sementara anak lakilaki kedua, ketiga, dan seterusnya, bila sudah dewasa dan menikah, harus meninggalkan ie. begitu pula dengan saudara perempuannya, bila sudah menikah, secara otomatis menjadi anggota dari ie suaminya. kecuali adik laki-laki bungsu, bila sudah menikah, tetap dipertahankan untuk tinggal di ie asalnya. tujuannya adalah bila sewaktu-waktu kachou meninggal dunia dan pewarisnya belum mampu untuk menggantikan tugas sebagai kachou, adik bungsu ini akan mengambil alih tugas tersebut untuk sementara waktu hingga diangkat pengganti kachou yang sah. adik laki-laki yang sudah menikah dan meninggalkan ie-nya dapat bergabung dengan ie lain sebagai hokonin atau pembantu. atau bila ie tersebut mempunyai kekayaan yang cukup dapat pula membentuk ie yang merupakan cabang (bunke) dari ie asalnya (honke). dalam ie yang baru ini, adik laki-lakinya secara langsung menjadi kachou dan akan membentuk pula keanggotaan ie-nya. ditetapkannya peraturan bahwa pewaris ie hanya diserahkan pada anak laki-laki sulung bertujuan agar harta kekayaan ie tidak terbagi-bagi atau terpecah. misalnya dalam ie petani, lahan pertanian yang mereka miliki dan merupakan warisan dari leluhur mereka biasanya tidak begitu luas. bila lahan ini dibagi-bagi ada kemungkinan lahan menjadi makin kecil sehingga tidak memadai lagi untuk menjalankan usaha bersama dalam satu kelompok ie. manfaat lain dari pewarisan tunggal ini terlihat pada kesinambungan dari sebuah ie yang merupakan tujuan utamanya. sistem pewarisan yang diberlakukan dalam ie disebut dengan pewarisan primogetur atau pewarisan yang hanya diberikan kepada satu orang pewaris tunggal (fukutake, 1989:37). gambar 1 adalah susunan keanggotan dari struktur ie dalam torigoe (1998:16). gambar 1 struktur ie gambar struktur ie memperlihatkan tiga kelompok yang dibagi menjadi (a), (b), dan (c). kelompokkelompok ini disebut dengan setai atau rumah tangga dan masing-masing setai memiliki kepala rumah tangga yang dipegang oleh laki-laki. pada kelompok (a) terlihat kachou memiliki tiga anak.anak laki-laki sulung atau chounan menikah dan memiliki tiga anak pula, yang anak laki-laki sulung atau chounan telah menikah namun belum mempunyai keturunan. bila garis keturunan ini diteruskan dan hanya pada kelompok (a) saja disebut sebagai keluarga yang memiliki hubungan langsung dan memiliki hubungan darah. anak-anak kachou yang lain akan pergi meninggalkan ie karena mengikuti ie suaminya bagi anak perempuan dan karena membuka cabang ie (bunke) bagi anak laki-laki. kelompok (b) adalah keluarga yang mengikut pada ie, yang tidak memiliki hubungan secara langsung namun memiliki hubungan darah sebagai adik dan kakak. sedangkan kelompok (c) adalah keluarga yang tidak memiliki hubungan langsung dan tidak pula memiliki hubungan darah. keluarga yang mengikut pada ie ini disebut dengan hokonin. di sini terlihat bahwa kelompok (b) masih memiliki hubungan kekerabatan dengan kelompok (a), sementara kelompok (c) sama sekali tidak memiliki hubungan kekerabatan. untuk kelompok (c) ada yang tinggal serumah dengan kachou ada pula yang tinggal terpisah dan hanya datang untuk melakukan pekerjaan yang berkaitan dengan bisnis ie-nya. keluarga yang tergabung dalam kelompok 81struktur keluarga jepang kontemporer ….. (rima devi) (c) ini tidak selalu orang yang tidak dikenal sama sekali. ditemukan juga hokonin pada satu ie adalah kerabat jauh dari kelompok (a). struktur keluarga dalam novel kas pada novel kas terdapat tokoh cerita yaitu bibi yuli, gadis, niko, dan ohara. bibi yuli adalah seorang perempuan rusia yang menikah dengan lelaki jepang bernama tuan h. kematian tuan h membuat bibi yuli menjadi pewaris tunggal dari kekayaannya yang cukup banyak karena dari pernikahan mereka tidak dikaruniai anak. bibi yuli yang sudah berusia 79 tahun sangat terkejut dengan kematian suaminya yang mendadak sehingga kesehatannya menurun drastis dan butuh perawatan di rumah sakit. sementara tuan h sendiri mempunyai saudara perempuan yang menikah dengan seorang dosen dan mempunyai seorang anak perempuan dan seorang anak laki-laki. suami adik perempuan tuan h tiba-tiba didapati meninggal dunia pula di ruang kerjanya sebulan setelah kematian tuan h. anak perempuannya yang bernama gadis sangat terpukul atas kepergian pamannya dan disusul ayahnya. kemudian atas kesepakatan keluarga, bibi yuli tinggal bersama gadis agar gadis dapat menjaga bibi yuli yang sudah lansia. untuk itu gadis mendapatkan bantuan biaya kuliah yang tinggal setahun lagi dari warisan pamannya. baik bibi yuli maupun gadis telah sama-sama kehilangan kepala keluarga yang mengayomi kehidupan mereka. walaupun secara ekonomi mereka tidak kesulitan karena warisan dari tuan h lebih dari cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup mereka, gadis merasa perlu mengenalkan niko kekasihnya kepada bibi yuli agar dapat menjaga mereka berdua. dan benar saja, tanpa diduga datanglah seorang kolumnis dari majalah pencinta binatang yang diawetkan bernama ohara. kedatangan ohara yang semula ingin melihat koleksi binatang buas yang diawetkan peninggalan tuan h, berubah ketika ohara menduga keras bahwa bibi yuli adalah putri anastasia, anak raja nikolai ii dari rusia, yang berhasil melarikan diri saat seluruh keluarganya dibantai pada perang yang berkecamuk di rusia. niko berusaha menjaga dan melindungi bibi yuli dan gadis dari hal-hal yang tidak diinginkan terutama dari rongrongan ohara yang mendaulat dirinya menjadi manajer bibi yuli, dan kemudian mendatangkan para tamu yang ingin bertemu dan meminta tanda tangan putri anastasia. sikap ohara yang lancang membuat gadis sangat khawatir namun karena bibi yuli merasa senang mendapat kunjungan dari banyak orang, akhirnya kehadiran ohara diterima seperti keluarga sendiri oleh gadis dan bibi yuli sebagaimana mereka menerima kehadiran niko. gadis kemudian tanpa segan menitipkan bibi yuli pada ohara sementara dia pergi kuliah ke kampusnya. hubungan yang terjalin antara bibi yuli, gadis, niko, dan ohara, dapat dikatakan sebagai ikatan batin sebuah keluarga. hal ini terlihat ketika bibi yuli didapati oleh gadis sedang sekarat dan akhirnya meninggal dunia, orang yang pertama dihubungi gadis adalah niko. kemudian semua hal yang berkaitan dengan pemakaman bibi yuli diselenggarakan hingga selesai oleh ohara. dalam artikel di majalah yang ditulisknya ohara secara terbuka menyatakan bahwa dirinya merasa sudah dijadikan sebagai anggota dari keluarga bibi yuli. (ogawa, 2005:232) dari pemaparan, bila hubungan antar tokoh dikaitkan dengan sistem kekeluargaan yang terdapat dalam sistem ie, dapat digambarkan sebagai berikut. pada gambar2 terlihat bibi yuli sebagai kepala keluarga atau kachou dari anggota keluarganya yaitu gadis, niko, dan ohara. bibi yuli menjadi kachou setelah suaminya tuan h meninggal dan semua harta kekayaan diwariskan kepadanya. tuan h memang memiliki seorang saudara perempuan yang merupakan ibu dari gadis. namun dalam sistem ie, bila seorang perempuan menikah maka secara otomatis akan keluar dari ie asalnya dan bergabung denganie suaminya (vogel, 1965:166). semua hak yang dimiliki oleh seorang perempuan dari ie asalnya juga hilang termasuk hak waris dan mendapatkan waris dari ie suaminya sebagaimana halnya dengan bibi yuli yang menjadi pewaris. sementara gadis memiliki hubungan kekerabatan dengan bibi yuli, namun tidak memiliki hubungan darah sehingga hubungan kekerabatan mereka tidak langsung. menurut sistem ie, gadis masuk ke dalam ie ayahnya namun setelah gadis tinggal serumah dengan bibi yuli, maka gadis menjadi bagian dari keluarga bibi yuli. posisi gadis dalam keluarga bibi yuli tetap sebagai keponakan yang bertugas menjaga dan mengurus keperluan bibi yuli dan mengatur urusan rumah tangga. dalam teks tidak dijelaskan apakah gadis diangkat menjadi anak oleh bibi yuli, namun setelah kematian bibi yuli, gadislah yang mengatur semua harta peninggalan bibi yuli seperti menjual rumah dan membayarkan biaya pemakaman bibi yuli beserta pajaknya dengan uang hasil penjualan harta tersebut (ogawa, 2005:228), menjual binatang yang diawetkan melalui perantaraan ohara (ogawa, 2005:229) dan memberikan pada ohara kepala jaguar yang diawetkan (ogawa, 2005:230). tindakan gadis ini menunjukkan bahwa posisi gadis dalam keluarga bibi yuli adalah anak angkat atau yoshi. sedangkan niko dan ohara dikategorikan sebagai hokonin. berdasarkan pemaparan, maka struktur keluarga yang tergambar dalam novel kas bukanlah struktur keluarga besar seperti dalam sistem ie walaupun ada beberapa konsep dalam sistem ie yang dijalankan seperti tata cara pewarisan, yoshi, dan hokonin. gambar 2 menunjukkan struktur keluarga dalam novel kas. gambar 2 struktur keluarga dalam novel kas 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 struktur keluarga dalam novel has tokoh yang muncul dalam novel has adalah hakase, mibojin, kaseifu, dan ruto. keempat tokoh ini disatukan dalam rumah hakase yang merupakan adik ipar dari mibojin. setelah kakak laki-laki hakase meninggal dunia, semua aset yang dimilikinya jatuh ke tangan istrinya, mibojin. hakase yang masih berada dalam ie yang sama dengan mibojin selain dapat menempati rumah di paviliyun dari rumah induk yang ditempati oleh mibojin, hakase juga mendapatkan biaya hidup dari mibojin yang menjadi kepala keluarga setelah kakak laki-laki hakase meninggal dunia. hakase mengalami kerusakan otak akibat kecelakaan mobil membuatnya hanya memiliki memori 80 menit saja. untuk itu mibojin mempekerjakan seorang pengurus rumah yang disebut kaseifu untuk mengurus keperluan hakase seperti memasak, mencuci, menyetrika, membersihkan rumah dan pekerjaan rumah lainnya. kaseifu mempunyai seorang anak laki-laki berumur 10 tahun bernama ruto. atas permintaan hakase, ruto diizinkan datang ke rumahnya sepulang sekolah dan ruto diperbolehkan menunggu ibunya selesai bekerja di rumah hakase. sembari menunggu jam kerja kaseifu berakhir, hakase mengajarkan matematika kepada ruto. hakase yang mantan profesor matematika memperlakukan ruto seperti anak sendiri. hakase memperhatikan halhal yang berkaitan dengan ruto yang tidak diperhatikan oleh kaseifu seperti pelajaran di sekolah, makanan yang dimakan dan kesehatan ruto. kaseifu yang tidak bersuami sangat senang ketika anaknya mendapat perhatian dari hakase karena sejak lahir ruto tidak pernah mendapatkan kasih sayang seorang ayah. sikap dan tindak tanduk hakase terhadap kaseifu dan ruto mencerminkan sikap seorang ayah kepada keluarganya. walaupun mibojin pada awalnya tidak menyukai kedekatan mereka bertiga disebabkan oleh kecurigaan mibojin terhadap kaseifu yang dikira akan memperalat anaknya untuk mendapatkan harta hakase, pada akhirnya mibojin dapat merasakan kedekatan yang terjalin diantara mereka adalah tulus. mibojin yang telah terlanjur memecat kaseifu kembali mempekerjakan kaseifu di rumah hakase. hubungan yang terjalin antara para tokoh cerita novel has ini bukanlah sebagai bentuk hubungan keluarga tradisional ataupun keluarga modern. menurut devi (2010) hubungan antartokoh ini terjalin dalam membentuk satu keluarga yang disebut dengan keluarga alternatif yang dipimpin oleh hakase sebagai kepala keluarga. berdasarkan sistem kekerabatan dalam ie, struktur keluarga yang terbentuk dapat diilustrasikan seperti gambar 3. berbeda dengan penelitian devi (2010 & 2012), bahwa kepala keluarga adalah hakase, pada gambar 3 kepala keluarga atau kachou adalah mibojin. sebagai seorang istri yang telah kehilangan suami dan tidak memiliki anak seorangpun, maka mibojin berhak menjadi pewaris dari ie suaminya dan berhak mengatur anggota keluarga berikut kasan atau harta dari ie-nya. di sini terlihat bagaimana mibojin mengatur perekonomian keluarga dengan menjual semua aset dari pabrik tenun milik suaminya kemudian membangun apartemen mewah di atas tanah bekas pabrik tersebut. apartemen mewah ini kemudian disewakan dan dari uang hasil sewa tersebut mibojin menghidupi dirinya dan hakase (ogawa, 2003:17–18). mibojin pula yang mengatur tempat tinggal hakase yaitu di paviliyun sementara mibojin tinggal di rumah induk. mengenai pemisahan tempat tinggal ini juga bersesuaian dengan sistem ie, di mana kachou tinggal terpisah dengan anggota keluarga lainnya yang tidak memiliki hubungan darah langsung dengannya. sementara kaseifu dan ruto termasuk ke dalam kelompok hokonin dikarenakan tidak memiliki hubungan darah ataupun hubungan kekerabatan baik dengan mibojin maupun hakase. gambar 3 struktur keluarga dalam novel has struktur keluarga dalam novel mnk novel mnk memiliki struktur keluarga yang lengkap sebagai keluarga besar di mana para tokoh cerita yang muncul adalah para anggota keluarga yang dipimpin oleh erich bersama istrinya hiromi. kemudian mereka dianugrahi dua orang anak yaitu anak laki-laki berusia 18 tahun bernama ryuuichi dan seorang gadis belia usia 11 tahun bernama minako atau lebih akrab dipanggil dengan miina. dalam keluarga ini juga tinggal bersama mereka nenek rosa yaitu ibu kandung erich. susunan anggota keluarga yang terdiri dari tiga generasi ini membuat keluarga ini memenuhi persyaratan sebagai keluarga besar. keluarga besar yang dipimpin oleh erich juga menaungi anggota lain yaitu yoneda sebagai pembantu rumah tangga dan kobayashi sebagai tukang kebun. selain itu selama setahun penuh tinggal pula di rumah keluarga ini seorang gadis bernama tomoko yang merupakan anak dari saudara perempuan hiromi. kehadiran tiga anggota keluarga lain yang tidak memiliki hubungan darah yaitu yoneda dan kobayashi, dalam sistem ie mereka dikategorikan sebagai hokonin. demikian juga halnya dengan tomoko, juga masuk ke dalam hokonin walaupun tomoko memiliki hubungan kekerabatan dengan hiromi istri erich, namun dalam sistem ie tomoko mengikut kepada ie dari ayahnya sendiri sehingga posisinya hanya sebagai orang yang mengikut saja. keluarga besar ini memiliki sebuah perusahaan minuman kesehatan yang diberi nama fressy. perusahaan ini sudah dikelola oleh tiga generasi yaitu kakek dari 83struktur keluarga jepang kontemporer ….. (rima devi) erich, ayahnya dan erich sendiri setelah ayahnya meninggal dunia. dari hasil perusahaan ini pula ayah erich pergi bersekolah ke jerman hingga dapat mengembangkan perusahaan menjadi lebih baik yaitu dengan menambahkan radium pada minuman tersebut. selain itu ayah erich selama tinggal di berlin berkenalan dengan seorang gadis jerman kemudian menikahinya dan membawanya tinggal di jepang. agar sang istri merasa betah tinggal di jepang, ayah erich membangun rumah mewah ala spanyol di perbukitan di pinggir kota. adanya aset keluarga atau kasan berupa rumah dan usaha keluarga atau kagyou berupa pabrik minuman membuat keluarga ini benar-benar terlihat menjalankan sistem ie dari segi struktur keluarga. kemudian erich yang merupakan anak satusatunya dari pernikahan ayahnya dengan gadis jerman yang kemudian dipanggil dengan nenek rosa, juga disekolahkan ke jerman agar dapat mengembangkan perusahaan mereka menjadi lebih baik. erich dipersiapkan sebagai chounan untuk menggantikan ayahnya sebagai pemimpin ie mereka. berbeda dengan ayahnya, erich tidak menikah dengan perempuan jerman karena terlalu asik bekerja di laboratoriumnya. erich malah menikah dengan staf yang membantunya bekerja di pabrik, yaitu hiromi. pada akhir cerita, setelah kematian nenek rosa dan yoneda, erich menjual kasan dan kagyou-nya kemudian hidup berdua dengan istrinya hiromi. sementara anaknya ryuuichi dan miina tinggal terpisah dan membentuk keluarga sendiri. dalam sistem ie, menjual kasan dan kagyou ini adalah sesuatu yang memalukan bagi seorang kachou karena bisa dianggap tidak mampu menjalankan bisnis keluarga dan tidak mampu mempertahankan kesinambungan dari ie-nya.struktur keluarga yang terbentuk dalam novel mnk dapat diilustrasikan pada gambar 4. gambar 4 struktur keluarga dalam novel mnk simpulan berdasarkan pemaparan, simpulan mengenai struktur keluarga dalam tiga novel ogawa yoko (kas, has, dan mnk) yang dikaitkan dengan sistem ie bahwa dalam ketiga novel ini masih terdapat penerapan konsep dari sistem ie namun penerapan tersebut hanya bersifat sebagian saja. ogawa yoko tidak menggambarkan struktur keluarga tradisional dan tidak pula menggambarkan struktur keluarga modern. ogawa yoko selaku penulis novel berkebangsaan jepang dan tinggal di jepang belum mampu melepaskan diri sepenuhnya dari budaya nenek moyangnya dalam hal ikatan yang terjalin dalam keluarga yaitu sistem ie. ogawa juga belum mampu menerima sepenuhnya budaya asing terutama dalam hal struktur keluarga batih. dalam novel mnk, struktur keluarga yang dibangun pada awal penceritaan sama dengan sistem ie, dengan adanya kachou, chonan, kasan, dan kagyou. akan tetapi, pada akhir cerita erich sebagai kachou tidak mewariskan ie-nya pada chounan yaitu ryuuichi tetapi malah menjual pabrik dan rumahnya. di sini ogawa yoko memutuskan hubungan dengan struktur keluarga tradisional. dalam novel has dan kas, sama halnya dengan novel mnk, struktur keluarga yang dibangun pada awalnya menggambarkan konsep yang terdapat dalam sistem ie, yaitu pewarisan harta pada istri yang telah ditinggal suami. namun pada pertengahan cerita, pewaris ini membentuk keluarga lagi. struktur keluarga yang dibentuk bukan berdasarkan sistem ie dan bukan pula berdasarkan struktur keluarga modern. mereka para tokoh cerita merasa sebagai satu keluarga walaupun tidak ada ikatan kekerabatan secara langsung di antara mereka. ini bersesuaian dengan penelitian devi (2010 & 2012) bahwa struktur keluarga yang terbentuk dalam novel has adalah keluarga alternatif demikian juga dalam novel kas. daftar pustaka devi, r. 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(1993). kazoku shakai gaku (8 th ed). tokyo: yuhikaku. nakane, c. (1993). kazoku no kouzo (9th ed). tokyo: tokyo daigaku shuppankai. nhk. (n.d.) diakses dari http://www.nhk.or.jp/pr/english/ toptalk/soukyoku_e/s_e1101.htm ogawa, y. (2006). miina no koushin. tokyo: chuokoronshinsha. ogawa, y. (2005). kifunjin a no sosei. tokyo: asahi shinbunsha. ogawa, y. (2003). hakase no aishita suushiki. tokyo: shinkosha. rebick, m., & takenaka, a. (eds.). (2006). the changing japanese family. london and new york: routledge. takahara, e. (2004, februari). ogawa yoko no kioku. yuriika shi to hihyou, tokushuu ogawa yoko, pp. 99–104. taylor, m. (2012).the unknown citizen.anthropoetics the journal of generative anthropology, 18(1). diakses 25 februari 2013 dari http://www. anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap1801/ tobing, e. (2006). keluarga tradisional jepang dalam persfektif sejarah dan perubahan sosial. depok: iluni kwj. torigoe, h. (1985). ie to mura no shakaigaku. tokyo: tokyo daigaku shuppansha. vogel, e. f. 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(m. budianta, penerjemah.). jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 289 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 289-293 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4307 error analysis in the use of affixation in indonesian language paper written by thai students susrina kalee1; yumna rasyid2; liliana muliastuti3 1pendidikan bahasa, pascasarjana, universitas negeri jakarta 2linguistic terapan, pascasarjana, universitas negeri jakarta 3fakultas bahasa dan seni, universitas negeri jakarta jl. rawamangun muka, rt. 11/rw. 14, rawamangun, jakarta 13220, indonesia 1asusrinakalee@gmail.com; 2yumna.rasyid@unj.ac.id; 3liliana.muliastuti@unj.ac.id received: 07th january 2018 /revised: 27th february 2018 /accepted: 16th march 2018 how to cite: kalee, s., rasyid, y., & muliastuti, l. (2018). error analysis in the use of affixation in indonesian language paper written by thai students. lingua cultura, 12(3), 289-293. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4307 abstract this research aimed to describe the form of errors in using affixation in indonesian language paper written by thai students. the data were words and sentences that contained errors. the research was qualitative research using content analysis method. this research used interactive model data analysis through three steps. those were data reduction, presentation of data, as well as conclusion and verification. the results show that there are some errors; 72 errors in using affixation: 21 or 29% errors in prefix, 9 or 13% errors in suffix, 9 or 13% errors in confix, and 33 or 46% errors klofiks (combination of affixes). the error is caused by two factors; 7% of interlingual errors and intralingual factor including 7% of overgeneralization and 86% of ignorance of rule restriction. however, the results also show that thai students have not mastered or understood the structure of indonesian language. the results can be used to develop the techniques of teaching indonesian structure, especially the use of affixation. therefore, the thai students can improve the ability to use indonesian language by channeling it in academic writing. keyword: error analysis, affixation, indonesian language introduction language is a mean of expression. people express their feeling, emotion, thought, need, and desire, and others through language. moreover, symbol and gesture can be considered as language. language can be defined as verbal, physical, biological innate, and a basic form of communication (choudhury, 2014). based on this opinion, language is a communication tool used by humans in a community. when one learns a language, one will also relate to language skills directly. these language skills include listening, speaking, reading, and writing. writing is an essential language skill to communicate with people indirectly. however, writing is one of the productive skills and the most difficult to master. in written language, the writers are required to pour ideas or thoughts into words so that it can be conveyed to the reader clearly and thoroughly. writing is more complicated that it tests a person’s ability to use a language and the ability to express ideas. as a result, a person needs to write not only coherently but also correctly. it requires more time and effort (liu & braine in sattayatham & ratanapinyowong, 2008). however, not only the writers can convey clear and coherent ideas, but also arrange proper sentences that it becomes a complete and unified series of writing. moreover, papers are scientific writing containing thoughts on a particular problem or topic based on systematic field-based data with logical and objective analysis” (barnawi & arifin, 2015). nowadays, many foreign students come to study in indonesia especially students from thailand. in general, thai students in jakarta are majoring in english, economics, pharmacy, medicine, indonesian language, and others. although half of the thai students are not from indonesian language major, they still have to study indonesian language as a compulsory subject. in learning indonesian language, the foreign students, indeed experience various obstacles and abundant mistakes, especially in writing papers. using indonesian language as a second language, foreign students cannot avoid errors. the higher the number of errors is, the lower the level of achievement of their language learning target will be (anjarsari, suwandi, & mulyono, 2013). mistakes cannot be avoided in the learning process. native-speaking students can even make language errors. learning and mistakes cannot be separated. in this regard, kotsyuk (2015) has mentioned that error is not taken as 290 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 289-293 bad signs of non-performance. in teaching or learning, it should not be eliminated at any cost. it is considered as a necessary part of the language learning process. based on this understanding, language error is an error that shifts from the standard rule and deviates from indonesian language grammar rules. the language error cannot be self-corrected until further relevant input is provided and converted into intake by the learner implicitly or explicitly. in other words, error requires further relevant input to take place before they can be self-corrected. meanwhile, the mistake can be only corrected by the students themselves if the deviance is pointed out to them (james, 2013). the comparison of error and mistake is shown in table 1. table 1 comparison between error and mistakes category point of view error mistake 1. source competency performance 2. character systematic non-systematic for a while 3. duration takes long mastered 4. the linguistic system not mastered deviation 5. result deviation self-aware 6. correction wanted (source: tarigan, 2008) error analysis (ea) is a technique for identifying, classifying, and interpreting the unacceptable forms of a language systematically. it occurs in the production data of someone’s learning either a second or foreign language (richards & schmidt in napitupulu, 2017). then, theoretical analysis is a method by researchers in identifying, classifying, and interpreting the mistakes made by learners in learning the language. it can be in learning the first language or the target language. morphology comes from the word ‘morph’ means form, and the word ‘logy’ is science. then, morphology means the science of form (chaer in nurjam’an, mahajani, & budiana, 2015). besides, affixation is a process that converts lexemes into complicated words. in this process, lexeme changes its form to a certain category, so the status of a word has changed the meaning of the word too (kridalaksana, 2007). the morphological error is a mistake of using language caused by choosing wrong affixes or words, misrepresenting compound words, and choosing an incorrect word form (tarigan & tarigan, 1995). morphological errors can occur in speaking or writing. moreover, indonesian language affixation structure is different from other language structure. chaer (2008) has stated that affix is a morpheme that cannot be the basis of word formation. however, it becomes an element of word formation in the affixation process. affix is divided into five types. those are prefix, suffix, infix, confix, and klofiks (combination of affixes). it can be identified the errors found in thai students’ paper. the error factor of the target language for learners can be divided according to different perspectives. james (2013) has mentioned there are two causes of the error; interlingual and intralingual errors. however, richards (1974) has classified language errors into three types; interlingual, intralingual, and developmental errors. although there are three causes of language errors, the researchers pay more attention to two sources of errors (interlingual and intralingual error). it is because developmental errors are errors in the language itself. based on james (2013) and richards (1974), there are two factors causing language errors, namely interlingual and intralingual errors. intralingual errors are caused by source language interference that leads to a negative impact on the target language. this is usually because learners often transfer meaning from the source language they have already mastered. the influence of the source language on the target language studied can be known from the sentence structures formed by the learners. it tends to shift the pattern of the structure and culture of the language learned. intralingual errors usually appear due to overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restriction, incomplete application of rules, and false concept hypothesized (richards, 1974). based on the characteristics of the errors mentioned, it is seen that learners often make mistakes in the comparison of two different language systems. the researches on indonesian language errors made by foreign students have been done since many years ago. darsita (2014) has examined the use of indonesian language sentences by foreign language speakers. in the research, it is found that there are many errors. first, it is the syntax error. here are the examples. 1. dan matahari tidak menyinari di malam hari. (and the sun does not shine at night.) 2. saya tidak membersihkan di halaman. (i do not clean in the yard.) sentence 1 indicates misuse of the preposition in front of the subject. in indonesian language grammar, the subject is not preceded by a preposition. meanwhile, sentence 2 indicates to possess the pattern of subject (s) which is saya (i), predicate (p) tidak membersihkan (do not clean), the description of the place di halaman (in the yard). this sentence does not have a description of what is being cleaned in the yard. second, there is the morphological error. the example can be seen in sentence 3. 3. adik tidak mau saya perokok. (my sister does not want me smoker.) sentence 3 shows morphological error. perokok (smoker) consists of two morphemes; bound morpheme and free morpheme. those are peand rokok. the error lies in the construction of word with noun structure occupying prefix of pewhich functions as predicate. the other morphological errors are affixation use, word omission, reduplication, and word formation. third, it is the semantic error. here are the examples. 4. ... di banyak panas oleh karenanya hujan tidak menyinari bumi (in many hot therefore rain does not shine on earth...) sentence 4 contains the semantic error in the word of menyinari (shine) that menyirami (pour down) should be used instead. generally, the error occurs because the foreign students possess limited vocabulary and do not master the indonesian language. darsita (2014) has argued that the common language errors made by foreign students in writing indonesian 291error analysis in the use of affixation... (susrina kalee et al.) language sentences can be distinguished in several aspects. those are spelling, word formation, affixation, and sentence order. it can cause different meaning and understanding of a word used in a sentence. this research limits the scope by analyzing the misuse of affixation in indonesian language papers written by thai students. this research aims to explain the form of errors on the morphological level in the use of affixation by thai students in their papers and look for the factors of errors made by them. moreover, the central problem question in this research is what the forms of morphological error, especially in the use of affixation by thai students in indonesian language papers. methods the data in this research are words or sentences containing errors in the use of affixation. the data are 10 (ten) papers of thai students from various majors in jakarta. the research uses the qualitative approach with content analysis method. data selection incorporates the purposive sampling technique. data collection in this research is conducted by the researchers directly. the research steps consist of seven stages. there are (1) collecting thai students’ papers, (2) selecting and assigning 10 papers as data source, (3) rereading the papers, (4) underlining the errors, (5) inserting the data into the analysis table, (6) recapitulating the number of errors, and (7) analyzing the data. then, this research uses interactive model data analysis through three stages. those are data reduction, data presentation, as well as conclusion and verification. results and discussions the affixation usage errors classification made by thai students can be seen in table 2. there are 72 errors found in the use of affixation, 21 errors (29%) in prefix, 9 errors (13%) in suffix, no error in infix, and 9 errors (13%) in confix. moreover, 33 errors (46%) are in klofiks. table 2 affixation errors classification no affixation errors number of errors % 1. prefix 21 29% 2. suffix 9 13% 3. infix 0 0% 4. confix 9 13% 5. klofiks (combined affixes) 33 46% total 72 100% (source: chaer, 2008) first, the misuse of the prefix is quite various. the errors are an incorrect prefix, unnecessary prefix, prefix omission, and typing errors. the examples are shown as follows. 1.1. buah–buahan mudah ditemukan di mana saja, terbuah di dalam kebun dan ada jual di pasar. (fruits are easily found everywhere, fruit in farm, and sold in market). 1.2. setelah itu, kerajaan akan membuka acara dengan memberi nasihat pada para wisudawan. (after that, kingdom will open the event with an advice to the graduates). 1.3. guru dituntut untuk mengembangkan keahlian yang di miliki dan menyalurkannya kepada siswa. (teachers are ought to develop their skills and transfer them to the students). 1.4. nurulhuda daut, alumni mahasiswa asing dari thailand, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi) mengatakan bahwa perbedaan antara wisuda di indonesia dan di thailand sangat beda, salah satunya adalah serah ijazah. (nurulhuda daut, a foreign alumnus from thailand, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi) says the graduation in indonesia and thailand is very different, one of them is diploma handover). sentence 1.1 contains the improper use of prefix on terbuah. it should use a prefix of berto berbuah. next, in sentence 1.2, there is an error because this sentence does not need affix on the word of kerajaan. the proper use of the word should remove the affix into raja. then, the error in sentence 1.3 is caused by the separation of di miliki. it should be merged. the affixes and base word should be combined into dimiliki. in addition, sentence 1.4 contains affix omission in the word of beda. the prefix of beris needed to form berbeda. this form of error is often found and done by students repeatedly. second, the misuse of the suffix is also various. there is an inaccuracy in the use of the suffix. forms of errors found are the omission of suffix, unnecessary suffix, and misuse of suffix. here are the examples. 2.1. thai salad ini bahan pokok dari buah-buah dan sayur-sayur. (the main ingredients of this thai salad are from fruits and vegetables). 2.2. acara wisuda di indonesia dimeriahkah oleh wisudawan-wisudawati, keluarganya dan temantemannya. (indonesian graduation ceremonies are enlivened by the graduates, their family, and friends). 2.3. masukin bawang putih dan cabe di dalam lumpang tumbuk agar pecah dan masukin udang kering tumbuk lagi sebentar agar udang kering hancur. (put garlic and chili in pestle so it is crushed and put dried shrimp and crush it again). sentence 2.1 contains an error because there is a suffix omission of buah-buah and sayur-sayur. both words should be written with suffix. the correction should add a suffix of –an into buah-buahan and sayur-sayuran. then, sentence 2.2 has an error on the word of keluarganya. it does not need to use suffix because in the context of the sentence above contains a suffix of –nya, it needs to be only keluarga without –nya. the error in sentence 2.3 is also incorrect use of a suffix of masukin. it is because, in indonesian language grammar, there is no suffix of –in. it is only used in everyday conversation. the proper use should be add –kan, and it becomes masukkan. third, there is no error in infix. fourth, some confix errors are found in the paper. there is an inaccuracy of confix in the paper, and the student repeatedly performs it. the errors found are confix omission, misuse of affixes, and confix typing error. the example can be seen as follows. 292 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 289-293 3.1. nurulhuda daut, alumni mahasiswa asing dari thailand, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi) mengatakan bahwa perbedaan antara wisuda di indonesia dan di thailand sangat beda, salah satunya adalah serah ijazah. (nurulhuda daut, foreign student alumni from thailand, universitas pendidikan indonesia (upi) said the graduation in indonesia and thailand is very different, one of them is diploma handover). 3.2. selain itu kamboja mengadukan kasus tersebut kapada mahkamah internasional (pbb) untuk menjelaskan tentang kepemilikan wilayah yang di sengketakan. (in addition cambodia reported the case to the international court of justice to explain the ownership of disputed area). 3.3. ada yang menghitungnya per satuan massa tembakau dan bahkan ada juga yang menghitungnya per satuan batang rokok. (some calculates it per unit from tobacco mass and some even calculates it per unit of cigarettes). sentence 3.1 contains a confix omission error in the word of serah. the confix of pe-an should be used instead to form penyerahan. meanwhile, sentence 3.2 comprises improper use of di sengketakan. it should use the proper confix of per-an. then, the base should be combined to form persengketaan. the sentence 3.3 has the same error. it should combine confix and the base word to form persatuan. fifth, varied misuses of klofiks are found in thai students’ paper. the form of error found is klofiks omission. moreover, they do not assimilate the word that should be assimilated. however, there are some assimilated words should be assimilated. the other errors are inappropriate klofiks, and errors in the formation of words. here are the examples. 4.1. coba kita ingat nikmat allah yang tak terhingga, setiap saat mengalir dalam tubuh kita. (try to remember allah’s immeasurable gift, it is in us). 4.2. evaluasi merupakan subsistem yang sangat penting dan sangat di butuhkan dalam setiap sistem pendidikan,... (evaluation is an important subsystem and is needed in every education system,…). 4.3. awalnya pemerintah thailand bersikukuh ingin menyelesaian konflik ini secara bilateral,... (at first, thai government wanted to address the conflict bilaterally,…). 4.4. ...dan penggunaan rokok juga harus diberi batasan yang dikeluarkan oleh dari peraturan undang-undang mengenai siapa saja yang boleh mengkonsumsi rokok dan umur berapa saja yang diperbolehkan. (…and cigarette use should be limited and regulated by law regarding people who can consume cigarettes and what age is allowed). sentence 4.1 shows a klofiks omission error in ingat. in this sentence, the word must use klofiks. so, the proper use is klofiks of me-kan to form mengingatkan. for sentence 4.2, there is a mistake of writing di butuhkan. it should be combined to form dibutuhkan. next, sentence 4.3 possesses an improper klofiks in menyelesaian. it should be klofiks of me-kan to form menyelesaikan. sentence 4.4 contains a mistake that the beginning letter of /k/,t/,/s/, and /p/ in a word does not get assimilated. in mengkonsumsi, it has two morphemes. a bound morpheme is klofiks of me-i. then, a free morpheme is konsumsi. the basic word begins with the letter /k/. however, the proper use of this word is to assimilate the word, so it becomes mengonsumsi. the frequent affixation errors found is the misuse of klofiks. based on table 3, the affixation errors of indonesian language are caused by two factors; interlingual and intralingual factors. first, the interlingual error is caused by a mother language interference to the target language. in the interlingual factor, there are 5 errors (7%). the examples are as follows. table 3 causes of affixation errors classification no cause of errors % 1. interlingual 5 7 % 2. intralingual overgeneralization 5 7 % ignorance of rule restriction 62 86% incomplete application of the rule 0 0% false concept hypothesis 0 0% total 72 100% (source: richards, 1974) 1.1.1 coba kita ingat nikmat allah yang tak terhingga, setiap saat mengalir dalam tubuh kita. (try to remember allah’s immeasurable gift, it is in us). 1.1.2 dengan membaca pasal kesembilan, kita bisa tahu kondisi seperti apa yang membuat setan datang atau pergi. (by reading article 9, we understand which condition that invites and drives out the devil). in sentence 1.1.1, there is an error of klofiks omission on ingat. it should use the klofiks of me-an to form mengingatkan. in addition, sentence 1.1.2 contains klofiks error which is tahu. the word of tahu should be embedded with klofiks of me-i. thus, it becomes mengetahui. this error occurs because of the mother language interference to the target language. learners use non-standard language in scientific writing. the word is unacceptable as it violates indonesian language grammar. second, the factor of intralingual error is in the target language itself. in other words, the factor of error is caused by the complicated rules of the target language. as a result, the learners have difficulty and cause mistakes. in intralingual factor, 67 errors (93%) are found. in detail, there are errors (7%) in overgeneralization, and 62 errors (86%) in ignorance of rule restriction. there are no errors in the incomplete application of the rule and false concept hypothesis. overgeneralization is the main cause of the intralingual error. the error occurs because of applying a certain rule in the language learning. however, the rules of the target language are different. the examples are as follows. 2.1.1 acara wisuda di indonesia dimeriahkah oleh wisudawan-wisudawati, keluarganya, dan temantemannya. (indonesian graduation ceremonies are enlivened by the graduates, their family, and friends). sentence 2.1.1 shows a mistake in the use of affixes on keluarganya. keluarganya does not need to use suffix of -nya to form keluarga. the word does not violate indonesian language grammar. however, the use of suffix is not appropriate in the word and context as the end of 293error analysis in the use of affixation... (susrina kalee et al.) the sentence already contains a suffix. this error can be identified as overgeneralization. third, the ignorance of rule restriction occurs when the learners have limitations on the target language. thus, the learners apply the rule of the target language in inappropriate situations. here are the examples. 3.1.1 rokok biasanya dijual dalam bungkusan berbentuk kotak atau kemasan kertas yang dapat di masukkan dengan mudah ke dalam kantong. (cigarettes are usually sold in square or paper packs that can be easily put into a pocket). 3.1.2 merokok dapat menyebabkan kanker, serangan jantung, impotensi, dan gangguan kehamilan dan janin di setiap bagian bawah bungkus rokok, tetap saja tidak dapat merubah pola pikir masyarakat kita yang sudah kecanduan merokok. (smoking can cause cancer, heart attack, impotence, and pregnancy and fetal failure in all bottom pack of cigarettes, but it cannot change the mindset of people who are already addicted to smoking). sentence 3.1.1 contains an incorrect use of the rule of di masukkan. the affix and the base word must be merged to form dimasukkan. di masukkan is not acceptable in indonesian language grammar. this error occurs because the students do not master the rules in the target language. in sentence 3.1.2, it displays the misuse of omission. the correct form of bungkus should embed the suffix of –an to form bungkusan. it is unacceptable in indonesian language grammar. this error occurs because the student has not grasped the full understanding of the rules of the target language. therefore, the students ignore the rules or not use the rules in the target language correctly. fourth, the incomplete application of rules can also be a failure to achieve complete knowledge of the foreign language. there is no error in this part. fifth, the false concept hypothesis uses the wrong concept. in this factor, the learners borrow a part or element from a part of the structure and put it in the wrong position. there is no error in here. conclusions based on the research data, ea in affixation of indonesian language paper written by thai students are many. affixation usage errors include five errors. the errors include 21 errors (29%) in prefix, 9 errors (13%) in suffix, 9 errors (13%) in confix, and 33 errors (46%) in klofiks. the most errors done by the students are klofiks. in addition, the errors found in the students’ papers are caused by two factors; they are interlingual and intralingual factors. in the interlingual factor, there are 5 errors (7%) and intralingual factor has 67 errors (93%). the error caused by intralingual factor includes overgeneralization (5 errors or 7%) and ignorance of rule restriction (62 errors or 86%). the errors of indonesian language occur due to the lack of language mastery by foreign students. it can be said that the students have limitations on the target language. in accordance with the results, the students need to improve the ability to understand the morphology, especially in the use of affixation. to improve their skill, the students also need to absorb more knowledge by reading books, articles, or scientific papers related to the use of affixation. for teachers of foreign students, they should teach indonesian language grammar deeply, especially the use of affixation. thus, the students can improve their ability in using indonesian language that they can form good and well-structured sentence in scientific papers. references anjarsari, n., suwandi, s., & mulyono, s. (2013). analisis kesalahan pemakaian bahasa indonesia dalam karangan mahasiswa penutur bahasa asing di universitas sebelas maret. basastra, 1(2), 250−262. barnawi., & arifin, m. (2015). teknik penulisan karya ilmiah. yogyakarta: ar-ruzz media. chaer, a. (2008). morfologi bahasa indonesia: pendekatan proses. jakarta: rineka cipta. choudhury, r. u. (2014). the role of culture in teaching and learning of english as a foreign language. international journal of multi disciplinary research, 1(4), 1−20. darsita, s. (2014). penggunaan kalimat bahasa indonesia oleh mahasiswa penutur bahasa asing. al-turāṡ, 20(2), 11−21. james, c. (2013). errors in language learning and use: exploring error analysis. uk: routledge. kotsyuk, l. m. (2015). english language error analysis of the written texts produced by ukrainian learners: data collection. cognitive studies études cognitives, 15, 389–395. kridalaksana. (2007). pembentukan kata dalam bahasa indonesia. jakarta: pt. gramedia pustaka utama. napitupulu, s. (2017). analyzing linguistic errors in writing an english letter: a case study of indonesian undergraduate students. international journal of language and linguistics, 5(3), 71−77. nurjam’an, m., mahajani, t., & budiana, s. (2015). analisis proses morfologis afiksasi pada teks deskriptif peserta didik kelas vii. pedagogia jurnal ilmiah pendidikan 7(2), 274-283. richards, j. c. (1974). error analysis perspectives on second language acquisition. london: longman. sattayatham, a., & ratanapinyowong, p. (2008). analysis of errors in paragraph writing in english by first year medical students from the four medical schools at mahidol university. silpakorn university international journal, 8, 17−38. tarigan, h. g. (2008). menulis sebagai suatu keterampilan berbahasa. bandung: angkasa. tarigan, h. g., & tarigan, d. (1995). pengajaran analisis kesalahan berbahasa. bandung: angkasa. 11analisis makna kanyouku ….. (felicia) analisis makna kanyouku yang menggunakan kanji koshi dalam kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms felicia japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 fbudhardja@binus.edu abstract idiom is quite interesting to discuss since it contains a lot of connotations. this study examined the meaning of kanyouku (idiom) which used koshi (eye) kanji in kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. the method used in this study was library research by collecting data from kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. the purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the use of koshi (hips) in the japanese idiom was. after analyzing the idiom that uses koshi (hips),the research concludes that the meaning contained in the idiom was connotations. keywords: analisis makna, idiom, koshi, connotation abstrak sebagai salah satu bagian bahasa, idiom merupakan hal yang cukup menarik untuk dibahas. dalam idiom, banyak sekali makna konotasi yang terkandung. tema yang diteliti dalam artikel adalah makna kanyouku (idiom) yang menggunakan kanji koshi (mata) dalam kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah studi pustaka dengan mengumpulkan korpus data dari kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui sejauh mana penggunaan koshi (pinggang) dalam idiom jepang. setelah melakukan analisis pada idiom yang menggunakan koshi (pinggang), penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa makna yang terkandung dalam idiom tersebut adalah makna konotasi. kata kunci: meaning analysis, idiom, koshi, konotasi 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 11-15 pendahuluan bahasa merupakan lambang bunyi yang arbitrer yang digunakan oleh para anggota masyarakat untuk bekerja sama, berinteraksi, dan mengidentifikasikan diri (kridalaksana, 2001). bahasa terdiri atas dua jenis yaitu bahasa lisan dan bahasa tulisan (felicia, 2007). sebagai salah satu bagian dari bahasa jepang, kanyouku (idiom) merupakan hal yang cukup menarik untuk dibahas. dalam idiom, banyak sekali makna konotasi yang terkandung. inoue (1989) menyatakan: 慣用句というのは二つ以上の語が結び ついて、全体で一つの固決した意味を 表すもので、文中では、一語相当のも のとして用いられる。したがって。個 々の語の意味や文法的な動きとは別個 の存在である。 kanyouku adalah gabungan dua kata atau lebih, biasanya mewakili satu makna secara keseluruhan, yang digunakan sebagai suatu kesesuaian dengan satu kata. oleh karena itu makna dan fungsi gramatikal dari setiap kata mengandung suatu pengertian dari kata lain. dalam teori kanyouku, kunihiro (1985) menyatakan: 言語研究において、文法意論とは別に 慣用句が問題にされるのは慣用句が文 法の一般的な規則ならびに個々語の普 通の意味だけでは律することのできな い性質のものだからえある。」 idiom merupakan ungkapan ang dipermasalahkan terkait dengan karakteristik idiom tersebut yang tidak bisa diduga seperti makna kata pada umumnya dengan aturan tata bahasa dan teori semantic bahasa yang bersangkutan. sering kali orang salah mengartikan kanyouku karena sifatnya yang tidak dapat diartikan begitu saja berdasarkan kata-kata yang membentuknya. momiyama (1996) menyatakan bahwa makna kanyouku adalah gabungan dari makna dua kata atau lebih yang sudah ditetapkan. makna kanyouku yang dihasilkan tidak bisa dicerna berdasarkan makna leksikal maupun makna gramatikal gabungan lata pembentuk kanyouku tersebut. makna kanyouku tidak dapat dimasukkan ke kaidah umum gramatikal yang berlaku atau tidak dapat diramalkan dari makna unsur-unsurnya. namun kanyouku jenis tertentu masih dapat diprediksikan maknanya ditinjau secara historis komparatif dan etimologis, serta asosiasi terhadap lambang yang dipakai karena masih terlihat adanya hubungan antara makna keseluruhan dengan makna leksikal unsur kata pembentuk kanyouku (aldora, 2012). penelitian ini membahas tentang makna kanyouku yang menggunakan kanji me (mata) dalam kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian pustaka dengan mengumpulkan korpus data dari kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idiom. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui sejauh mana penggunaan koshi (pinggang) dalam idiom jepang. metode metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah studi pustaka dengan mengumpulkan korpus data dari kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idiom. teori pendukung dijelaskan sebagai berikut. semantik semantik dalam bahasa indonesia berasal dari bahasa yunani sema (kata benda) yang berarti tanda atau lambang. kata kerjanya adalah semaina yang berarti menandai atau melambangkan. jadi, ilmu semantik adalah ilmu yang mempelajari hubungan antara tanda-tanda linguistik dengan hal yang ditandainya. yang dimaksud dengan tanda atau lambang di sini adalah tanda-tanda linguistik. menurut sausure (2007) tanda linguistik terdiri dari: (1) komponen makna yang menggantikan yang berwujud bunyi bahasa; (2) komponen yang diartikan atau makna komponen pertama. kedua komponen ini adalah tanda atau lambang. sedangkan yang ditandai atau dilambangkan adalah sesuatu yang berada di luar bahasa atau yang lazim disebut referen. jadi ilmu semantik juga dapat dikatakan sebagai: (1) ilmu yang mempelajari hubungan antara tanda-tanda linguistik dengan hal-hal yang ditandainya; (2) ilmu tentang makna atau arti. ichiro (1991) seorang ahli semantik modern mengemukakan dalam aldora (2012) bahwa semantik adalah ilmu yang mempelajari makna dari kata, frasa, dan kalimat. menurutnya, jika melihat sebuah makna dengan sudut pandang secara objektif maupun secara fisik, banyak hal yang berbeda dan tidak sesuai. dalam melihat sebuah makna dalam kondisi seperti itu, lebih baik menggunakan sudut pandang secara subjektif. hal ini karena kata atau kalimat merupakan sesuatu yang digunakan oleh manusia dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dan dari setiap individu akan lahir makna-makna yang berbeda antara satu dengan yang lainnya. medan makna menurut chaer (2007), yang dimaksud dengan medan makna (semantic domain, semantic field) atau medan leksikal adalah seperangkat unsur leksikal yang maknanya saling berhubungan karena menggambarkan bagian dari bidang kebudayaan atau realitas dalam alam semesta tertentu. kata-kata atau leksem-leksem yang mengelompok dalam satu medan makna, berdasarkan sifat hubungan semantisnya dapat dibedakan atas kelompok medan kolokasi dan medan set. kolokasi menunjuk pada hubungan sintagmatik yang terdapat antara kata-kata atau unsur-unsur leksikal itu. misalnya: “tiang layar perahu layar itu patah dihantam badai, lalu perahu itu digulung ombak dan tengelam beserta isinya.” kata-kata layar, perahu, nelayan, badai, ombak, dan tenggelam merupakan kata-kata dalam satu kolokasi, satu tempat atau lingkungan yang sama, yaitu lingkungan kelautan. j. trier dalam parera (2004) mengatakan bahwa perbendaharaan kata sebuah bahasa tersusun rapi dalam 13analisis makna kanyouku ….. (felicia) medan-medan dan dalam medan itu setiap unsur yang berbeda didefinisikan dan diberi batas yang jelas sehingga tidak ada tumpang tindih antara sesama makna. ia mengatakan bahwa medan makna itu tersusun sebagai satu mosaik. setiap medan makna itu akan selalu tercocokan antara sesama medan sehingga membentuk satu keutuhan bahasa yang tidak mengenal tumpang tindih. sebagai contoh, j. trier memberikan contoh dengan menurunkan dua medan makna dari kata pandai sebagai berikut: cerdik bijak terpelajar berpengalaman terdidik cendikiawan sumber: parera (2004) denotasi dan konotasi menurut keraf (2009), kata yang tidak mengandung makna atau perasaan-perasaan tambahan disebut kata denotatif, atau maknanya disebut makna denotatif. sedangkan makna kata yang mengandung arti atau tambahan, perasaan tertentu atau nilai rasa tertentu di samping makna dasar yang umum dinamakan makna kotonatif atau konotasi. keraf (2008) menyatakan bahwa makna denotatif disebut juga dengan beberapa istilah lain seperti makna denotasional, makna kognitif, makna konseptual, makna ideasional, makna referensial atau makna proposional. disebut makna denotasional, referensial, konseptual, atau ideasional karena makna itu menunjuk (denote) kepada suatu referen, konsep atau ide tertentu dari suatu referen. disebut makna kognitif karena makna itu bertalian dengan kesadaran atau pengetahuan: stimulus dan respon menyangkut hal-hal yang dapat diserap panca indera dan rasio manusia. makna ini disebut makna proposisional karena bertalian dengan informasi-informasi atau pernyataan-pernyataan yang bersifat faktual. makna denotatif dibedakan sebagai relasi antara sebuah kata dengan barang individual yang diwakilinya, dan relasi antara sebuah kata dan cirri-ciri atau perwatakan tertentu dari barang diwakilinya (keraf, 2009). menurut chaer (2007), makna denotatif adalah makna asli, makna asal atau makna sebenarnya yang dimiliki oleh sebuah leksem. jadi makna denotaif ini sebenarnya sama dengan makna leksikal. makna konotatif disebut juga makna konotasional, makna emotif, atau makna evaluatif (keraf, 2009). makna konotatif adalah suatu jenis makna di mana stimulus dan respons mengandung nilai-nilai emosional. makna konotatif sebagian terjadi karena pembicara ingin menimbulkan perasaan setuju-tidak setuju, senangtidak senang, dan sebagainya pada pihak pendengar. di lain pihak, kata yang dipilih itu memperlihatkan bahwa pembicaranya juga memendam perasaan yang sama. memilih makna konotasi jauh lebih berat jika dibandingkan dengan makna denotasi. oleh karena itu, pilihan kata atau diksi lebih banyak bertalian dengan pilihan kata yang bersifat konotatif. jika suatu kata mengandung konotasi yang salah, misalnya kurus-kering untuk menggantikan kata ramping dalam sebuah konteks yang saling melengkapi, makna kesalahan semacam itu mudah diketahui dan diperbaiki. hal yang sulit adalah perbedaan makna antara kata-kata yang bersinonim tetapi mempunyai perbedaan arti yang besar dalam konteks tertentu (keraf, 2009). sinonim sering dianggap berbeda hanya dalam konotasinya. dalam kenyataannya terdapat sinonim yang hanya mempunyai makna denotatif, tetapi ada juga sinonim yang mempunyai makna konotatif. misalnya pada kata mati, meninggal, wafat, gugur, mangkat, berpulang memiliki denotoasi yang sama yaitu peristiwa jiwa seseorang telah meninggalkan badannya. akan tetapi, kata meninggal, wafat, berpulang mempunyai konotasi tertentu yaitu mengandung nilai kesopanan atau diangggap lebih sopan. ssedangkan mangkat mempunyai konotasi lain, yaitu mengandung nilai kebesaran dan gugur mengandung nilai keagungan dan keluhuran. sebaliknya, kata persekot, uang muka atau panjar hanya mengandung makna denotatif (keraf, 2009). chaer (2007) menyatakan bahwa makna konotatif adalah makna lain yang ditambahkan pada makna denotatif tadi yangn berhubungan dengan nilai rasa dari orang atau kelompok yang menggunakan kata tersebut. hasil dan pembahasan analisis makna kanji 「目」secara denotasi pada bagian ini, penulis menganalisis makna kanji 「目」secara denotasi sesuai dengan arti yang didapat pada kamus koujien (1991) nelson (2001) dan matsuura (1994). makna kanji koshi 「腰」secara denotasi: sumber makna 腰 koujien 人体の脊柱の下部で、骨盤の上の屈折し 得る部分 terjemahan: bagian tubuh yang berada diantara tulang belakang dan panggul yang bisa dibengkokkan nelson pinggul pangkal paha matsuura pinggang dalam nelson (2001) dan matsuura (1994), kanji koshi 「腰」diartikan sebagai pinggang, pinggul, dan pangkal paha . dalam koujien (1991), 「腰」diartikan sebagai bagian tubuh yang berada di antara tulang belakang dan panggul yang bisa dibengkokkan. analisis makna kanji 「腰」secara konotasi pada bagian ini, penulis menganalisis makna kanji 「腰」secara konotasi sesuai dengan arti yang didapat pada kamus koujien, nelson dan matsuura. makna kanji koshi 「腰」secara konotasi: sumber makna 腰 山のふもとに近いところ terjemahan: tempat yang dekat dengan kaki gunung nelson bingkai lis di bagian bawah dinding batang gelas anggur matsuura menetap 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 11-15 dalam nelson, kanji 腰diartikan sebagai bingkai, lis di bagian bawah dinding, dan batang gelas anggur. dalam matsuura, kanji 腰 diartikan menetap. sedangkan menurut koujien, kanji 腰 diartikan sebagai tempat yang dekat dengan kaki gunung. analisis koshi ga takai 「腰が高い」yang bermakna “tidak sopan, arogan, sombong, angkuh” dalam mencari makna kanyouku 「慣用句」koshi ga takai 「腰が高い」terlebih dahulu penulis akan meneliti tiap morfem yang membentuk kanyouku 「慣用 句」tersebut. ga merupakan partikel setelah nomina untuk menunjukkan nomina tersebut adalah subjek (masuoka, 2000). untuk memahami makna dari kata takai 「高 い」berikut ini dipaparkan medan makna takai 「高い」 menurut koujien, kokugo jiten dan matsuura. makna takai 「高い」menurut koujien: dalam koujien, takai 「高い」diartikan dengan berada di atas. untuk lebih jelasnya, penulis memberikan medan makna kanji takai 「高い」menurut kokugo jiten sebagai berikut: makna takai「高い」menurut kokugo jiten: dalam kokugo jiten, takai「高い」diartikan dengan berada di posisi atas. untuk lebih jelasnya, penulis akan memberikan medan makna kanji takai「高い」 menurut matsuura sebagai berikut: makna takai 「高い」menurut matsuura dalam matsuura, terdapat satu makna dari takai 「高い」yaitu tinggi. makna yang sama juga didapat dari koujien dan kokugo jiten. bila dihubungkan dengan kanyouku 「慣用句」koshi ga takai 「腰が高い」, hal yang dianggap tinggi adalah sifat arogan atau tidak sopannya seseorang. analisis koshi ga nukeru 「腰が抜ける」yang bermakna “kaget hingga tidak dapat bergerak” dalam mencari makna kanyouku 「慣用句」koshi ga nukeru 「腰が抜ける」terlebih dahulu penulis akan meneliti tiap morfem yang membentuk kanyouku 「慣用 句」tersebut. ga merupakan partikel setelah nomina untuk menunjukkan nomina tersebut adalah subjek (masuoka, 2000: 49). untuk memahami makna dari kata nukeru 「抜ける」berikut dipaparkan medan makna nukeru「 抜ける」menurut koujien, kokugo jiten dan matsuura makna nukeru「抜ける」menurut koujien: dalam koujien, nukeru 「抜ける」diartikan dengan barang atau benda yang dalam keadaan tersambung, terlepas keluar karena adanya pukulan dari benda yang panjang. makna nukeru 「抜ける」menurut kokugo jiten: dalam kokugo jiten, nukeru「抜ける」diartikan dengan jatuh dan terpisah dari dalam suatu tempat. makna nukeru 「抜ける」menurut matsuura: dalam matsuura, terdapat makna dari nukeru 「抜 ける」yaitu lepas. makna tersebut juga didapat dari kou15analisis makna kanyouku ….. (felicia) jien dan kokugo jiten. jika dihubungkan dengan kanyouku 「慣用句」koshi ga nukeru 「腰が抜ける」, hal yang dianggap lepas adalah perasaan amat sangat terkejut sehingga seolah-olah pinggang terlepas dari badan. analisis koshi ga tsuyoi「腰が強い」yang bermakna “ulet, tidak mudah menyerah” dalam mencari makna kanyouku「慣用句」koshiga tsuyoi「腰が強い」terlebih dahulu penulis akan meneliti tiap morfem yang membentuk kanyouku「慣用 句」tersebut. ga merupakan partikel setelah nomina untuk menunjukkan nomina tersebut adalah subjek (masuoka, 2000). untuk memahami makna dari kata tsuyoi「強 い」di bawah ini adalah medan makna tsuyoi「強い」 menurut koujien, kokugo jiten dan matsuura. makna tsuyoi「強い」menurut koujien: dalam koujien, tsuyoi「強い」diartikan sebagai kuat dan tabah. makna tsuyoi「強い」menurut kokugo jiten: dalam kokugo jiten, tsuyoi「強い」diartikan dengan memiliki pertahanan yang cukup kuat dan tidak mudah dirusak. makna tsuyoi 「強い」menurut matsuura dalam matsuura, terdapat makna dari tsuyoi 「 強い」yaitu kuat dan tahan. dalam kokugo jiten dan koujien, terdapat pula makna yang sama yaitu memiliki pertahanan yang cukup kuat dan kuat. jika dihubungkan dengan kanyouku「慣用句」koshi ga tsuyoi「目が回 る」, hal yang dianggap kuat adalah kondisi pinggang yang selalu digunakan untuk menyangga bagian tubuh di atasnya pada saat bekerja. sedangkan pada makna ulet dan tidak mudah menyerah, dapat diperjelas pada makna tsuyoi pada koujien yang memiliki arti kuat dan tabah. simpulan setelah melakukan analisis pada idiom yang menggunakan koshi (pinggang), penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa dalam idiom tersebut, makna yang terkandung di dalamnya adalah makna konotasi. selain idiom yang menggunakan koshi 「腰」masih banyak idiom lain yang menarik untuk dibahas. penulis menyadari bahwa masih banyak kekurangan dalam penelitian ini dan penulis mengharapkan masukan dari pembaca setelah membaca artikel ini. daftar pustaka aldora. (2012). analisis kanyouku kuchi yang terdapat dalam kodansha’s dictionary of basic japanese idioms. skripsi tidak diterbitkan. jakarta: universitas bina nusantara. chaer, a. (2007). linguistik umum. jakarta: rineka cipta. keraf, g. (2009). diksi dan gaya bahasa. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. matsuura, k. (1994). kamus bahasa jepang-indonesia. kyoto: kyoto sangyo university press. nelson, a. n. (2001). kamus kanji modern. jakarta: kesaint blanc. parera, j. d. (2004). teori semantik. jakarta: gelora aksara pratama. pusat bahasa. (2008). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. vol. 12 no.3 august 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been acredited by dikti under the decree number 51/e/kpt/2017 and indexed in crossref, microsoft academic search, google scholar, indonesian publication index (ipi), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index (sinta), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents firman budianto representation of science, technology, and memory of postwar japan in japanese anime ............................. 215-220 ahmad madkur english for specific purposes: a need analysis on english course in islamic banking department ...................... 221-226 novita dewi beyond translation: clarity, sensitivity, and artistry in benedict anderson’s reading of indonesian literature ...... 227-232 vita vendityaningytas; erlik widiyani styati effect of computer mediated communication and face-to-face communication on the students’ writing .......... 233-239 amrina rosyada; ana widyastuti; agustina ramadhianti implementation of positive language to promote effective language teaching classrooms for state junior high school ........................................................................................................ 241-246 miko harjanti; sumardjo; djuara lubis; nani suhanda code-mixing in online discussion forum among progressive farmer: revealing sundanese culture wisdom in agriculture community .............................................................................................................. 247-252 taufiqulloh; yuvita; endang sulistianingsih analysis of student attitudes to develop a self-assessment model of genre-based writing class ...................... 253-258 siti nuraisiah; mangatur rudolf nababan; riyadi santosa translating attitudes toward sexism in gone girl novel (an appraisal theory approach) ................................ 259-266 resky januarty extensive reading (er) practices and the development of language fluency ............................................. 267-272 khalis fadillah cina-surabaya dialect spoken to younger, same age, and older addressees in surabaya ................................ 273-277 agustina aloojaha; m. r nababan; djatmika the impact of translation techniques on shifting meaning of ordering speech act ....................................... 279-287 susrina kalee; yumna rasyid; liliana muliastuti error analysis in the use of affixation in indonesian language paper written by thai students ......................... 289-293 dyah raina purwaningsih; ika maratus sholikhah; erna wardani redefining banyumas local values: symbolisms in batik motifs ............................................................... 295-300 endras setyadi wicaksono; djatmika; sumarlam who are anxious and supposed to be “jakarta one” ?: a systemic functional linguistics approach.................... 301-307 gede eka putrawan foreignization and domestication of indonesian cultural terms in the novel gadis pantai translated into english ... 309-315 vol. 12 no.3 august 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in may and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education and indexed in crossref, directory of open access journal (doaj), academic research index (research bib), bielefeld academic search engine (base), scientific indexing service (sis), world catalogue (worldcat), indonesia publication index (ipi), indonesian research repository (neliti), and google scholar. research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua vol. 11 no.2 november 2017cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x table of contents dedi sumarsono; abdul kadir bagis; moh. arsyad arrafii students’ needs to develop english writing materials ......................................................................... 67-71 anna marietta da silva a semiotic study of one ready-to-drink tea billboard advertisement in jakarta ......................................... 73-77 rentauli mariah silalahi assessing university students’ critical thinking skill by using the toefl itp reading test .............................. 79-83 arina isti’anah stylistic analysis of maya angelou’s equality ..................................................................................... 85-89 triana salihah; menik winiharti how a betawinese family implement politeness in their daily conversation .............................................. 91-96 anton sutandio; erica apriliani female psychology in august strindberg’s the stronger ....................................................................... 97-101 elihami increasing students’ reading comprehension through cognitive strategies of senior high school of sidenreng rappang regency ..................................................................................................... 103-107 ardi marwan the assessment of english teachers’ ability to write a scientific article in english ....................................... 109-114 aidatul chusna; m. taufiqurrohman; lynda suzanna gender role in rural life: an audience reception analysis on banyumas films in reformation era .................... 115-119 husni mubarok; nina sofiana cooperative integrated reading and composition (circ) and reading motivation: examining the effect on students’ reading ability ............................................................................. 121-126 index ....................................................................... ............................................................ 127-130 vol. 11 no.2 november 2017cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x 109a discussion on a code sound reading system: ….. (wiwik andreani; junita) a discussion on a code sound reading system: a case study of i can read greenville language center wiwik andreani; junita english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah – kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 wiwik@binus.edu abstract article described the code sound reading system applied in i can read (icr) greenville language center. the research was done qualitatively through the observation of teaching and learning process in three different classes of icr 1 level at the center. a pre-test and post-test for reading were taken from book 2 of icr 1. participants were three classes with three different teachers having different working experiences. the results of the research were: (1) the use of code sounds in reading was useful to improve students’ reading skill which was shown by the increasing of correctly pronounced code sounds; (2) the students’ reading skill and reading comprehension had improved, regardless the teachers’ teaching style. in conclusion, a code sound reading system is successful in helping students to improve their reading skill and reading comprehension, regardless the teachers’ teaching style. keywords: code sound, teaching style, reading skills, reading comprehension abstrak artikel menjelaskan sistem membaca bunyi kode (code sound reading system) yang diterapkann di i can read (icr), suatu pusat bahasa di greenville. penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif, yaitu dengan melakukan observasi proses belajar mengajar di tiga kelas tingkat 1 yang berbeda di icr. materi tes awal dan tes akhir diambil dari buku 2 di icr 1. responden adalah tiga kelas dengan tiga guru yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar berbeda. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa (1) penggunaan kode bunyi dalam membaca bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan keterampilan membaca pelajar yang ditunjukkan dengan meningkatnya pengucapan suara dengan benar; (2) kemampuan keterampilann dan pemahaman membaca pelajar meningkat, tanpa memandang gaya mengajar para guru. disimpulkan, sistem membaca menggunakann kode suara berhasil membantu ketrampilan dan pemahaman membaca siswa, tanpa memandang gaya mengajar guru. kata kunci: kode suara, gaya mengajar, keterampilan membaca, pemahaman membaca 110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 introduction the need of communicating in english is nowadays getting higher and higher, especially in the coming 2015 globalization. in big cities, such as jakarta, there are more and more academic institutions such as international schools, english courses, and other learning centers that offer english learning. some parents in jakarta, nowadays, communicate with their children mostly in english from early age. in addition, they select either national plus or international schools which use english as their daily instruction. therefore, children get used to english and have great english speaking skills. however, they probably need other skills, like reading skill, too as it is a fundamental skill that helps children to succeed at school. reading in english is not as easy as reading in indonesian. the phonics system of indonesian is simple as we pronounce all letters the same as they sound. however, the sounds of what we hear and the letters of what we see in english are far different. english has diphthongs, silent sounds, diagraphs, phonemes, and many other combinations of letters that produce one sound (see bald, 2007). donat (2003) wrote that children are necessary to learn and develop their skill of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. there are ways to learn about the relationship between the sounds and the letters of alphabetical words. in addition, children learning the phonics system are able to learn to read more quickly than children who are not trained with the phonics system. furthermore, there is an evidence found that teaching sounds, not the letter name, along with the letters of the alphabet is important because it can develop children’s phonics skills that help them when they start reading and writing (konza, 2011). in addition, konza (2011) stated that teaching children to read using phonics instruction is necessary to help them to be independent readers, which certainly help them to gain other literary skills. other previous research also show that phonics method successfully develops children’s reading skills. julia (2007) uses qualitative research method by doing observation and analysis on reading comprehension and vocabulary of kindergarten students who are able to recognize and read a-z sounds of words and understand many special sounds with their patterns after they are taught using phonics methods. then, a current research done by widyawati (2013) proves that phonics system of “x” language course is successful as the students of target level observed show significant improvement in recognizing and pronouncing letters, in distinguishing between words and syllables and doing blending and stretching of words. it proves that the phonic system and teaching approach of target level help students to read in english. in addition, another research done by johnston, mcgeown, and watson (2012) states that phonics teaching method is more successful when synthetic phonics teaching is applied. they find out that students who are taught using synthetic phonics perform better that those who use analytic phonics. the students are all better in word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. based on the previous research, it is concluded that there is a relationship between teaching reading approaches and students’ reading ability. students who are taught using phonics teaching method are better and faster in developing their reading skills and comprehension, especially when they use synthetic phonics. therefore the research is concerned with the code sound reading system used in a language center in jakarta, especially the children in level icr 1. there are some problems to be solved: how far is the reading system successful, particularly on students’ reading skills and reading comprehension? what are the influences of teachers to students’ performance? teaching approaches to young learners early education seems very important in this modern era. parents always like their children to have excellent skills such as in languages, art, music, sports, and so on. hence, a right teaching approach to children is necessary as it is the start of their education. there are many kinds of approaches to educate children and based on pritchard (2009:5), teacher centered method is categorized as behaviorist psychological approaches and student centered method, on the other hand, is shown in constructivist and humanistic psychological approaches. behaviorist approach is a teacher-centered approach that focuses on changing children behavior with rewards in order to encourage children for doing well. the rewards need to have value to children; they can be stamps, stickers, extra points, certificates, sweets, verbal, and public praise. by giving valuable rewards, children habitually follow the rules and enjoy the learning environment. children automatically listen to the lesson and follow teacher’s instruction as they want to get the rewards. constructivist approach is the style of teaching that concerns with the child as individual who likes to learn and explore about something by themselves. in teaching using this method, teachers allow children to learn and find out the new words, patterns, sounds when necessary. they are not strictly taught with the complicated rules; on the other hand, the teacher gives clues and hints in teaching materials and children try to find out the strategy and explore the language by themselves. humanistic approach plays important role in this research. teachers try to be a facilitator in teaching children. they step back and encourage children to learn naturally. children are taught to stress on their inner thought and feeling, thus they can make their own choices to get involved in the lesson. the motivation from the children themselves let them learn and improve automatically. rewards are not essential for this teaching approach. with the aim for delivering learning materials well, teachers need to create a balance between the interaction of students and themselves. it is not an ideal teaching style if teachers become a taskmaster children fear or even teachers are being kind and friendly teachers without any control for the students. therefore, there are several classroom management strategies that are suggested by linse (2005:187) in order to establish an efficient learning environment, those are: establish clear rules at the beginning of the year; it is important to have rules that are stated in positive terms and establish what the children are expected to do clearly. teachers need to review the rules, demonstrate or point out expected behavior. 111a discussion on a code sound reading system: ….. (wiwik andreani; junita) teach the concept of appropriate and inappropriate behavior; as a teacher of young learners, they need to make sure that they comment on the appropriateness of the children’s behavior and not on the children themselves. in addition, teachers have to ensure that the moment they correct children’s behavior, they do not interpret themselves as bad children. offer rewards judiciously; teachers may give appreciation in terms of presents, stickers or other things the children like. unwittingly, by giving rewards, teachers can contribute to an atmosphere of competition that can encourage children to do better. plan more than you think you will need; teachers should ensure that they have had enough preparation for the lesson. they should plan and be ready for any suddenchaos; hence they must have a set of back-up activities that can be used when there are technical errors. for example, the students are doing fast on their exercise and asking for their next materials; the photocopiers break down and cannot make copies for the materials, and so forth. balance activities; gaining young learners’ attention while teachers are teaching is one of the difficult tasks for teachers. most children will not put long attention to one topic or activity more than 15 minutes. thus, in order to keep children engaged, the teacher should create a balance of activities for every lesson. provide specific feedback; teachers are supposed to correct students’ behavior and give specific and related feedback at the time they are misbehaving. for example, they can ask students to stop looking out the window and start doing their exercise with an award. it can be stickers, presents or even the applause from all students. the teacher should never embarrass or shame the child who is misbehaving. know when to use the child’s native language; first thing that teacher should do is to create an english learning environment at the classroom, especially. hence, the teacher is supposed to use english when teaching as it is a better way for children to get used to with the language. however, there are moments, particularly facing students who are sad, crying, having bad mood, etc before they go into classroom or having difficulties in understanding the explanation, the teachers might use their native language. method the research method used was a qualitative research by looking closer to i can read code sound reading system in three classes of i can read i (icr 1) level through their reading skills and reading comprehension. the participants were the students in three classes of icr 1 level and their three different teachers who had different working period: one year, three months, and one month in the center. the three teachers had been trained before they were sent to the classrooms. the instruments of this study were in a form of reading test taken from one of the stories in book 2 of icr 1. the reading test used was the same both for pre-test and post-test. the pre-test was done before the students started studying book 2 and the post-test was done after they finished all code sounds in book 2. the students read the story one by one and the mistakes done were collected as data. in addition, there were five questions asked to students to record their reading comprehension. results and discussion in the study, the children were introduced to a new code sound and they read training word lists using screener. the screener was used in order to help them in blending words as they learn to spell at the same time they learn to read. after the children finished the training word lists, they continued reading three short stories containing the code sounds. the children reviewed all the code sound patterns in every session so that they got familiar with the sound and the letter represented. all of these can be seen in the lesson plan of this level. then, by looking at the lesson plan and the material taught in icr 1, the writer concluded that the children in this level were categorized as early readers (lyon & moore, 2003). they had started to read more complex patterns (e.g. /scream/, /crumbs/), vowel patterns (e.g. / ir/, /oy/), and produce clusters (e.g. /th/, /br/). as early readers, icr 1 students were able to identify unknown words by only giving pattern sounds to them. along with the types of readers, icr 1 children in this analysis were grouped in syllable-juncture stage (lyon & moore, 2003). this is one of reading stages where children can spell most single-syllable words correctly, except for polysyllabic words and apply concepts such as doubling consonants and adding affixes. from the lesson plan, it can be found out that children were taught mostly polysyllabic words and pattern sounds in reading and spelling activity, as shown in table 1. table 1 lesson plan of icr 1 no. description 1. settling down (5 minutes) teacher (t) prepares the material and properties such as: code card, screener, and training words list on board. when students (s) come, t can have small talk about their day, school, holiday, and so on. 2. review abc board (5 minutes) t asks students one by one to review the alphabetical chart, blend chart and code card. when they all know the sounds very well, t may skip this part. 3. introduce new sound and practice the training words (10 minutes) t introduces new sound and asks s to repeat the sound till they can pronounce it correctly. t use big screener to take them through blending the training words written on the whiteboard. t listens to each student’s blending at least three five words. s practice the new sound using all the training word lists on the text book. 4. reading time (20 minutes) s finish story 1 and go to difficult words. t explains the meaning and retells the story using simple words with the help of icr story picture. then, t asks the comprehension questions. t does the same steps for story 2 and mark the next story 3 which is to be read at home during the following session. 5. reading comprehension (10 minutes) s try to answer the questions in full sentence. t helps them to get used to it. t can set one question for one child or they can compete and raise their hands to answer. the correct one gets extra point. 6. spelling practice and spelling test (5 minutes) t quickly lists down new spelling words for the following session. s find and circle them on their text book. t writes h/w on the page to remind them to practise at home. 7. farewell (5 minutes) it is time to go home. t gives stamps and stickers. t asks s to tidy up their seat and belongings. they have to line up and say good bye to the teacher and friends before going out from class. 112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 from the observation, it is identified that the teachers in class a, b, and c shared the same teaching style. the teachers used democratic teaching style. it is a way of teaching to let students express their idea when doing the task given. the teachers only observed and corrected them when something goes wrong, especially when they did inappropriate behavior. the teachers appreciated and praised students who were nice and able to focus during the lesson. democratic style can be seen when the students discussed a story, expressed their opinion about a picture or ending of the story, etc. along with the democratic style, the teachers also applied permissive teaching style. the teachers followed rules which had been made together with the students. for example: students had to put their bags on the shelves after taking out text book, notebook, chop sheet, and pencil; students who behaved nice would get extra chops and stickers; before going out from the class, students tidied up the table and chair; and so on. however, the rules sometimes were not used and the teachers allowed students to do what they liked. for instance, the students sat on the seat they liked and put their bags under the chair. besides democratic and permissive teaching styles, teachers used guided reading strategy as the teaching reading method. this method allows each student to get involved in the reading activity. based on the observation, the guided reading was divided into three steps. first, the pre-reading stage started with the introduction of the new code sound and training words lists (vocabulary) which would help students in their reading understanding later on. second, reading stage started when one student began to read while the teachers listened to him/her and checked the mispronounced words. the other students used their own text book and followed the students who were reading. they had their own part in each story. the last, the post-reading stage was done when they finished reading and started the discussion. before the teachers asked questions, they retold and explained the story using icr story picture. all students participated to answer the reading comprehension in order to get extra points. in relation to the teaching style, the teachers implemented several strategies to manage the class during the teaching and learning process. the teachers had their rules that had to be followed, such as: put the bag in proper way, sit nicely, listen to the lesson, and follow the instruction. then, when the students were able to behave well, they would be offered rewards. the number of chops and stickers were given based on their behavior and performance in the class. by giving rewards, the students were supposed to have courage to compete with the others and do better in the class. then, during the observation, it is also found out that the teachers always tried to correct students’ behavior by giving specific and related feedback at the time they were misbehaving. for example, when da from class c disliked spelling, ms. e supported him to stop playing and started the practice. when he did the practice, the teacher gave rewards and wrote it on the board. this strategy seems important as da got his present and the other students started to do it diligently. hence, in the 8th session, da accepted the spelling test and he even got good score. the teaching approach applied in the class is humanistic approaches. according to pritchard (2009), it is also categorized as student centered method. this approach is characterized by having teachers who did not only give and introduce the code sound, but also let the students get involved in the learning teaching process. the students read the training words and the reading text independently. the teachers only facilitated and guided them to make sure they understood about the code sound and the text they read. moreover, teachers’ humanistic approach can be seen when they always greeted students cheerfully and tried to create comfortable learning environment. the teachers never blamed and made the students disappointed although they did mistakes. instead, the teachers helped them personally to correct the mistake, or asked others to help their friends. all of this proved that teachers always treated them as a human being who has brain to think and heart to feel. the teachers also taught the students to consider others and helped them when necessary. furthermore, it is discovered that the teachers used behaviorist approach as well. based on the theory of pritchard (2009), it is grouped as teacher centered method where the teachers used rules and rewards to change and control students. this approach can be seen when the teachers used stickers and chops as rewards. whenever the students were not nice in class, the teacher then promised to give more chops and stickers if they could be nice and follow the lesson. during the observation, it can be seen the teachers’ teaching approaches gave big influences to students’ performance. through humanistic approach, the teachers provided comfortable and joyful learning environment where the students could easily understand the story with the attractive story pictures and teachers’ story telling. when the teachers were introducing new code sound and reading the story, they were given screener and small code board to help them read properly. in addition, teachers taught them to help each other. so, for example, a student from class b always helped her friends next to her when she/he did not understand certain vocabulary. in class a, ad was found to be one of the clever students in the class, but the teacher sometimes asked her to retell the story to her friends who did not come in the previous meeting. this strategy encouraged students to be confident to speak out and make the students understand faster as they could listen to her friends’ story. behaviorist approach also gave impacts in controlling students’ behavior. the rules and awards given had been a habit for the students. they did not see those as rules anymore after they got used to it. for instance, ms. e always asked her students to follow the reading passage when the other was reading. those who followed the reading would get extra chops. based on the observation, ms. e always asked the students to do the same thing. in the fifth session, ms. e did not need to say the rule again. in fact, the students got used to the rule and were aware to follow the reading when their friend was reading. another example from other classes are the fact that the students now automatically put their bag on the shelves, took out the book and chop sheet before the class started, and tidied up the chair and their belongings before they went home, as shown in table 2. 113a discussion on a code sound reading system: ….. (wiwik andreani; junita) table 2 summary of teaching steps in icr 1 no. steps based on the observation (september 30th november 4th) 1. settling down before students arrived in the class, teacher (t) prepared the material and properties such as: code card, screener, and training words list on board. when students came, t greeted them cheerfully and gave them a warm welcome. when students first come into the class, they were taught to put the water bottle on the other desk, take out and give their books and chop sheets to teachers, put their bag in the shelves, and sat down nicely. before the lesson started, t asked and had short discussion about how their day/school was. everyone shared their story. t created a comfortable and fun learning environment before they studied. 2. review alphabet, blending and diagraph and code card t pointed to the board and asked students to utter the code one by one. sometimes t needed more time to review and guided particular students who still could not pronounce the sound well. the teachers encouraged them to say loudly and gave extra chops/stickers when they could pronounce the sounds properly. teachers usually praised and gave complement to what the students had done. when they did mistakes, t asked to repeat and corrected the pronunciation. 3. introduce new sound and practice the training words after reviewing the abc board, t pointed to the code board and asked students to sound the code one by one. they started with the pictures that contained ‘new target sound’ for each meeting. then, each student pronounced the new target sound. then, they moved to the word listed on board. they followed teachers to read the training words listed. the students then were given changes to read the training words one by one. when one was reading, the other had to listen and followed the words. t gave rewards to those who followed the reading. sometimes t needed more time to review and guided particular students who still could not pronounce the sound well. similar with number 2, t praised and gave complement to what students have done and always corrected if they were wrong. 4. reading time t asked students to read one sentence/one paragraph each student. t requested students to follow their friend who was reading. when they read incorrectly, t fixed the wrong pronunciation directly. when they had known the correct pronunciation, the students read again the wrong part one more time. if there were unfamiliar and difficult/long words, teachers asked all students to try and the one who could utter the words correctly would get extra chops/stickers. after finishing reading, the teachers explained the story and the new vocabulary to the students. t used story pictures with interesting story-telling style. ms. w always told the story attractively with loud voice and gestures. ms. h liked to gather students in around and started the story telling. ms. e used her skills of imitating the sounds of each character in the story. the students were interested and focused on the explanation as they had reading comprehension where each student would be asked questions about the story. 5. reading comprehension students closed their book and were ready to answer the questions from t based on the story read before. t asked them to raise hand if they knew the answer. all teachers in 3 classes had similarity to encourage students who were shy and quiet to answer first. when they were correct, t gave rewards. 6. spelling practice and spelling test t always gave spelling homework for students to practice at home. hence, t only needed to use one to two minutes to check whether the students were ready for the spelling or not. if all were prepared, the students listen carefully to the words sounded and wrote it down. after that, t checked the spelling, and when there were wrong mistakes; students wrote again three times each wrong answer. 7. farewell it was time to go home. t gave chop on their chop sheets. the number of chops given was based on students’ behavior in the class, i.e. active or passive. t also gave stickers to each student. stickers were given to motivate them to be nice and behave as what t asked them to do. before going home, students were asked to put back the color pencils, chairs, clean up the class, and line up behind the door. these practiced them to build their sense of responsibility. ms. w. always asked their students to line up from the shortest to the tallest and did high five one by one with her. ms. h. encourage her students as who could tidy up faster can be in the first of the line. ms. e. also did the same thing with ms. h. the students all said good bye to the teacher. after 10 sessions of observation, the students have been able to recognize the target sound in book 2. in the last meeting of book 2, all students did the reading test. class a did the reading test on monday november 4th; class b did the test on friday november 1st; and class c was on wednesday november 6th. table 3 is the post-test and pre-test result of the students in three classes. table 3 the result of pre-test and post-test no. name short /u/ short /oo/ long /a/ long /e/ pre post pre post pre post pre post class a 1. ad 5 / 21 21/21 2 / 11 11/11 4 / 14 13/14 4 / 35 34/35 2. ch 4 / 21 19/21 0 / 11 11/11 4 / 14 9/14 3 / 35 27/35 3. wh 6 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 11/11 1 / 14 12/14 3 / 35 30/35 class b 1. ar 4 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 11/11 0 / 14 13/14 0 / 35 31/35 2. br 5 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 10/11 1 / 14 14/14 3 / 35 35/35 3. dy 3 / 21 19/21 0 / 11 9/11 0 / 14 13/14 1 / 35 27/35 4. el 1 / 21 20/21 0 / 11 10/11 1 / 14 14/14 3 / 35 32/35 5. jo 4 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 11/11 2 / 14 14/14 3 / 35 33/35 6. sa 4 / 21 21/21 1 / 11 10/11 1 / 14 14/14 2 / 35 34/35 7. so 2 / 21 21/21 3 / 11 9/11 1 / 14 14/14 3 / 35 33/35 class c 1. bry 4 / 21 21/21 1 / 11 11/11 1 / 14 14/14 2 / 35 34/35 2. cl 5 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 11/11 1 / 14 13/14 2 / 35 33/35 3. da 0 / 21 18/21 0 / 11 11/11 0 / 14 14/14 2 / 35 33/35 4. je 3 / 21 21/21 0 / 11 11/11 3 / 14 13/14 2 / 35 25/35 5. ka 1 / 21 17/21 1 / 11 10/11 1 / 14 12/14 2 / 35 30/35 6. ph 4 / 21 20/21 0 / 11 10/11 2 / 14 13/14 3 / 35 32/35 114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 from table 3, it can be seen that all students had improved a lot and had been able to recognize the target sounds in book 2. they have improved from knowing nothing about the code to be able to read text containing the targeted codes fluently. in addition, they all enjoyed learning with the teachers. the teachers approached their students differently, yet, the result was the same. they all can recognize the code sounds and read the reading stories well. after the post-test, the students were asked five questions based on the story they read and they had to write the answers to the questions. due to their skills, most of the answers were not written in right spelling; however, they were still accepted as the correct one. here is the result of the reading comprehension in class a, class b, and class c, as shown in table 4. table 4 the result of reading comprehension no. name q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 total correct number percentage class a 1. ad f t f t t 3 60% 2. ch t t f f t 3 60% 3. wh t t f f t 3 60% avg 60% class b 1. ar t t f f t 3 60% 2. br t t f t t 4 80% 3. dy t t f f f 2 40% 4. el t t f t t 4 80% 5. jo t t f f t 3 60% 6. sa t t f f t 3 60% 7. so t t f t t 4 80% avg 65.7% class c 1. bry t t f f t 3 60% 2. cl t t f t t 4 80% 3. da f t f f t 3 60% 4. je t t f f t 3 60% 5. ka t f f t t 3 60% 6. ph t t f f t 3 60% avg 63.3% according to the data stated in table 4, it is found out that without teachers’ explanation and the story pictures used during the story telling, the students could answer in average 3 questions correctly. there was only one student who answered two questions correctly. it means that the students’ reading comprehension skill was not bad. they did not have much problem in answering reading comprehension although they did not listen to teachers’ explanation and saw icr story picture. on the other hand, this proves the importance of teachers’ retelling story skills and media used such as pictures. thus, it can be concluded that all students understood the story and were able to answer the questions after they heard the explanation from the teachers. in relation to their reading skill and the result of the reading comprehension, it is concluded that teachers’ teaching style influenced students’ reading comprehension. the influences could be seen from students’ reaction when they had reading comprehension in the class as provided in the summary of the observation. despite using different style of storytelling, all students were still able to understand and enjoy the story. based on the observation, all students could answer all questions provided correctly. they could also retell the story using their own words. they even could memorize and explain the new vocabulary from the reading. in fact, each teacher’s storytelling strategies let the students excited and understand the story. hence, it is important to be noted that the students can still perform well although they learn throughout different ways of attractive storytelling. conclusion as a conclusion, the code sound reading system was proven successful to help students in reading. this can be seen from the students’ performance before and after being taught using the system. after learning the code sounds, most of the students got almost perfect pronunciation for the targeted sounds. some of them even showed their improvement from having difficulties in reading to having no problem with the reading english text. then, evaluating from how the teachers teach and guide the students during the learning process, it was found out that the teachers’ teaching style and strategies helped 115a discussion on a code sound reading system: ….. (wiwik andreani; junita) and encouraged students during the lesson. the phonics instruction applied makes reading become easier for the students. the teaching style and teachers’ management during the lesson also give positive impact on students’ behavior. the students have apparently changed and acquired the target level little by little. furthermore, the analysis also shows that the teaching style affects students’ reading comprehension. by having several time of explanation about the story, the students can completely understand the story they read. as a result, they are able to answer the reading comprehension given. references bald, j. (2007). using phonics to teach reading and spelling. london: paul chapman. donat, j. d. (2003). reading their way: a balance of phonics and whole language. usa: scarecrow press. johnston, r. s., mcgeown, s., & watson, j. e. (2012). long-term effects of synthetic versus analytic phonics teaching on the reading and spelling ability of 10 year old boys and girls. reading and writing, 25(6), 1365–1384. konza, d. (2011). phonological awareness. research into practice, 1(1), 1–8. linse, c. t. (2005). practical english language teaching: young learners. (d. nunan, ed.) new york: mcgraw-hill. lyon, a., & moore, p. (2003). sound systems: explicit, systematic phonics in early literacy contexts. usa: stenhouse. pritchard, a. (2009). ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (2nd ed.). london: routledge. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 149 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 149-154 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.3745 “wait, how do i say that in english?” communication strategies for english as a foreign language learners zulfadli aziz1; ika apriani fata2; syarifah balqis3 1, 2, 3 fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris, syiah kuala university, aceh jl. hasan krueng kalee no.21, darussalam, banda aceh 23111, indonesia 1zulfadliaziz@unsyiah.ac.id; 2ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id; 3sybalqis@gmail.com received: 31st july 2017/revised: 09th september 2017/accepted: 18th january 2018 how to cite: aziz, z., fata, i. a., & balqis, s. (2018). “wait, how do i say that in english?” communication strategies for english as a foreign language learners. lingua cultura, 12(2), 149-154. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3745 abstract this research aimed to investigate communication speaking skill strategies applied by two groups of english foreign language learners in two boarding senior high schools in aceh, indonesia. of the successful group, there were 52 learners and of the less successful group 24 learners. to collect the data, this study employed the observation sheet adapted by tarone (1978), which determined nine categories of communication strategies; approximation, word coinage, circumlocution, literal translation, language switch, mime, appeal for assistance, topic avoidance, and message abandonment. the students were observed during their speaking class. the result of this research is the literal translation, approximation, and language switch become the most frequent strategies used by the less successful learners. it implies that the students have had difficulties communicating in the target language. on the other hand, successful learners prefer to use approximation, literal translation, and appeal for assistance strategies. it implies that the students tend to speak and communicate well, if not yet fluently. based on the findings, it is suggested that english teachers should introduce several communication strategies for both groups of learners to improve their effective communication. keywords: communication strategies, effective communication, successful learners, less successful learners, efl introduction the process of communication occurs between speaker and interlocutors (dynel, 2010). the speaker communicates meanings and the interlocutors make suitable conclusions. moreover, the aim of communication in the context of language itself is to communicate efficiently and use the language accordingly. students should be able to communicate in three types of discourses: interpersonal, transactional, and functional. in the process of foreign language teaching and learning, communicative skill in the form of speaking is the most essential skill (oradee, 2012). in the teaching and learning process in a language classroom, students use their speaking skills to interact not only with the teacher but also with their classmates. interaction occurs when two or more speakers have an effect upon one another in the speaking process. to communicate effectively, students should be able to speak with one another without any gaps in communication. communication problems usually arise when students interact with friends in the classroom. yang and gai (2010) have mentioned that communication strategies help students cope with unpredictable situations during the learning process in a classroom. in order to convey meaning when communication problems emerge, the students are more likely to make efforts by applying certain strategies. therefore, communication strategies are to solve difficulties when trying to achieve the main goal of students’ communication. mei and nathalang (2010) have conducted research about communication strategies used by chinese efl university students and whether proficiency levels influence the use of communication strategies. the participants consist of 117 students from first-year arts and science majors, classified into low and high english proficiency levels. moreover, the data are collected from one-way (identification task) and two-way (role play task) speaking tasks. the research divides communication strategies (css) into four groups: avoidance, inter-language based on css, transfer by using l1-based css, and inter-language negotiation. the result of the study reveals that inter-language based on css (57,6%) is the strategy most frequently used by students, the second most frequent is inter-language negotiation (39,6%), the third is avoidance (26,3%), and the last is l1-based css (21%). the finding also shows that low proficiency students 150 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 149-154 tend to use avoidance and l1-based css strategies more often than high proficiency students. on the other hand, high proficiency students use inter-language based on css and inter-language negotiation more frequently than low proficiency students. thus, inter-language based on css and inter-language negotiation are more beneficial strategies since they involve active attempts to overcome communication problems. in addition, ugla, adnan, and abidin (2013) have conducted the research about communication strategies (css) that is used by malaysian students. the participants include 50 malaysian students at universiti sains malaysia. the data are collected using questionnaires adopted from dornyei & scotts’s taxonomy of css (199). the result of the research shows that the top four strategies that students frequently use are retrieval (3,38%), use of all-purpose words (3,36%), code-switching (3,12) and circumlocution (3,0). their results suggest that malaysian esl students have problems with poor vocabulary since they use these strategies at a low rate. there have been a few types of research on communication strategies of efl learners in aceh indonesia. thus, this research endeavors to fill the gap on research dedicated to communication strategies in the context of efl learners by differentiating between successful and less successful learners in indonesia. communication strategies are efforts made by speakers and interlocutors to achieve a shared meaning. in other words, communication strategies are the attempts to bridge the gap between the linguistic knowledge of second-language learners and the linguistic knowledge of interlocutors in real communication situations. approximation, mime, and circumlocution may be used to bridge this gap while communicators may resort to message abandonment and avoidance when the gap seems unbridgeable (sukirlan, 2014). zhao and intaraprasert (2013) have asserted that communication strategies refer to knowledge or ability used by efl students to deal with oral communication problems. these problems are often the result of inadequate linguistic knowledge in oral communication. it is clear that using communication strategies helps the speaker overcome difficulties when delivering messages and allowing communication to continue. tarone (1978) has suggested that there are nine main types of communication strategies: paraphrase (which includes approximation, word coinage, circumlocution, literal translation, language switch, mime, appeal for assistance, topic avoidance, and message abandonment). topic avoidance occurs when a student simply does not talk about concepts for which the vocabulary or other meaning structures are not known. then, message abandonment is the strategy in which a student, unable to continue talking about a concept due to a lack of meaning structure, stops in the middle of speaking and gives up. the approximation is the use of a target language vocabulary item or structure, which the student feels shares enough semantic features with the desired items to their satisfaction although they know it is incorrect. word coinage is based on the student’s creation of a new word. circumlocution in the circumlocution strategy, the students describe the characteristics or elements of an object or action instead of using the appropriate target language item. the conscious transfer has two elements, literal translation and language switch. the first strategy is the literal translation. it means that the students translate wordto-word from the native language to the target language. the second is language switch which refers to the student’s use of the native language term or pronunciation without bothering to translate it into the target language. appeal for assistance is the strategy in which the student asks for the correct lexical term to the interlocutor because of their limited knowledge of lexical terms in the target language. mime occurs when the student uses non-verbal strategies or gestures in order to replace a target meaning structure in the communication process. talley and tu (2014) have clarified that in the process of language learning, speaking becomes a simple way to deliver messages. duong (2014) has stated that pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, accuracy, and fluency are commonly considered the principal components of speaking. pronunciation, which refers to the performance of the way in which a word is produced, is considered a component of oral proficiency (pinget et al., 2014). vocabulary refers to words (objects, actions, and ideas) that the student uses to communicate in the oral and written language. moreover, vocabulary is an aspect they must know to increase their comprehension (heidari, karimi, & imani, 2012). grammar is a set of rules that determine the structure of a language and how to combine units of a language to communicate and relate to what one wants to say or write (al-mekhlafi & nagaratnam, 2011). furthermore, accuracy refers to producing and understanding words and structures, pronunciation, syntax as well as the meaning of messages of a language in the speaking process without making mistakes that can disturb the flow of the interaction (kuśnierek, 2015; fata, 2014). finally, yang (2013) has defined fluency as the ability to speak smoothly and continuously at an effective speed in which the speakers do not always have to stop to think of the right word. english as a foreign language (efl) classroom can be defined as the study of english by students who live in places in which english is not the first language learned for communication (tuan, 2011). moreover, al-mekhlafi and nagaratnam (2011) have argued that the students of the efl classroom mainly use the target language in the classroom only because it is not the primary language in their country. yang and gai (2010) have mentioned that communication strategies help students cope with unpredictable situations during the classroom learning process. it explains that the efl classroom is the situation where the students are studying english in a non-english speaking country, and the target language is only used in the classroom during teaching and learning process. the researchers have found that communication problems usually arise when students interact with friends in the classroom. in order to convey meaning when communication problems emerge, the students are more likely to make efforts by applying certain strategies. therefore, communication strategies are to solve difficulties when trying to achieve the main goal of students’ communication. here, the research problem is formulated as what are the communication strategies applied by efl learners of successful and less successful learners in aceh? methods in order to examine the use of communication strategies, this research is guided by the research question; what are the communication strategies applied by successful and less successful learners? this research 151“wait, how do i say that in english?” .... (zulfadli aziz et al.) employs a qualitative design that is adapted from creswell (2009) especially by having observation guidelines. the observation guidelines are promoted by tarone (1978). the researchers have observed two types of students; successful and less successful. the reason is to compare these groups to find out which communication strategies do they apply the most and least. the standard of having these two groups is by examining their english scores provided by the class teacher. the data are collected from the students in their speaking classroom. there are 52 successful and 24 less successful learners from two boarding senior high schools in aceh. these schools are chosen based on the teachers’ lesson plan on communication strategies application. this research employs the communication strategies based on tarone’s (1978) taxonomy since it is the eldest and most completed theory on communication strategies in english language teaching. to collect the data, the researchers gather utterances produced by students, which are afterward classified into the communication strategies. in total, there are 83 utterances produced by both groups. this is a continued study of experimental research on communication strategies to improve students’ speaking skill. in the previous study, it is shown that the mean score of control class is higher than the experimental class, which means that the communication strategies successfully promote learners to have better speaking skill. results and discussions the results reveal that literal translation is the most dominant type of communication strategy that students apply with 27 utterances (32,5%). this is followed by approximation with 25 utterances (30,1%). the third strategy is the appeal for assistance with 16 utterances (19,3%), language switch with 12 utterances (14,4%), message abandonment with 2 utterances (2,5%), and the least-frequently applied is topic avoidance with only 1 utterance (1,2%). meanwhile, circumlocution, word coinage, and mime strategies are not applied by students as communication strategies when having interaction with their classmates. the chart for this result can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 the percentage of each communication strategy used by learners in classroom interactions the most frequent strategy utilized is literal translation, making it the highest ranked in terms of application frequency of all strategies with a total number of 27 utterances (32,5%). the researchers have identified that some students directly translate word–to-word from indonesia to english. examples of literal translation can be seen in the following excerpts: e1: ...“it isn’t break or morally wrong if the students eat what they want.” e2: “junk food makes basic the diseases in the future.” regarding e1 and e2, the research reveals that the students produce the utterances, “break or morally wrong” and “make basic”, via literal translation. in this case, the students directly translate word-to-word from native to target language. while they do not have enough linguistic knowledge to produce the correct collocation, the utterances are sufficiently correct for the interlocutor to understand the speaker’s aims for the conversation to continue. the second ranked strategy in the speaking process is approximation with a total number of 25 utterances (30,1%). students apply this strategy to substitute their desired meaning. examples of approximation are shown in the following excerpts: e3: ” it feels delicious” e4: “we very attention to you e3 and e4 indicate that the student uses approximation strategy “feels” and “attention”. initially, the student wants to say “taste”, but she apparently has difficulties to say it. therefore, she uses the word “feel” to compensate. the student feels that it shares equal meaning with the target word. the later utterance of “attention to you” is also assumed by students to be an adequate alternative to “care about you”. the research reveals that appeal for assistance culminates is 16 utterances (19,3%). the researchers have identified that the students mainly use this strategy because of being nervous or lacking of vocabulary. that being said, it is important to note that these students are afraid of making mistakes. thus, many students likely believe that it would be better to ask the interlocutor for assistance rather than producing the wrong words. the examples of appeal for assistance are presented in the following excerpts: e5: ...“but it kind of taking one side… what to say? keputusan? e6: “i think the teenagers are the most… how to say? tanggung jawab? in these utterances, the researchers assume that the students use the appeal for assistance to try getting help from the interlocutor directly. they speak by expressing the indonesian word and then asking what the word is in engish. the appeal for assistance in this utterance is “what to say? keputusan?” and “how to say? tanggung jawab”. the fourth strategy is language switch. it occurs in 12 utterances (14,4%). the researchers have found that this strategy is employed by students when they do not have an idea of certain vocabularies in the target language. examples of language switch can be found in the following excerpts: e7: “it is just a one side keputusan without thinking of other people” e8: “the teachers have kewajiban to remind the students not to buy junk food” as evidence in e7 and e8, the students use the language switch strategy to compensate their ideas. the utterances that indicate the language switch are “keputusan” (decision) and “kewajiban” (obligation). it is obvious that the students directly switch the word from indonesian to english because of a lack of vocabulary. since the students have no words to substitute the intended words, they use language switch to reach their intended communication goal. 152 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 149-154 the fifth strategy is message abandonment which is ranked fifth in terms of frequency of application with 2 utterances (2,5%). this strategy is identified when students leave a message unfinished because of some language difficulty. here are the excerpts of message abandonment: e9: “there are many kinds of food especially for junk food and it’s…so, what do you think who is the most responsible for teenager health?” e10: “because we don’t have the rights to forbid them to eat whatever they want and i think …. as seen in e9 and e10, the students implement message abandonment strategy. in the beginning, the student tries to complete her thought, but she stops in the middle of the utterance because she does not have the vocabulary needed or she has some language difficulty. in both cases, they discontinue their speech, as indicated by the ellipses. the last strategy is topic avoidance. this is applied on one occasion (1,2%). an example of topic avoidance can be seen in the following excerpt: e11: “no, if the school … junk food products, it will give negative effects for students so, …. junk food is a bad idea. the topic avoidance strategy is used by the students to navigate around certain vocabulary. the students prefer to avoid some words or intended elements because of a lack of linguistic resources. furthermore, circumlocution, word coinage, and mime are the strategies that the students do not incline to employ during the speaking process. the researchers suggest that the nature of the task has not prompted a need to use these types of strategies. the students do not attempt to create a new word to convey their messages. the results reveal that the less successful learners do not apply all of the communication strategies in their communication processes. the researchers have reported that the total number of communication strategies that the less successful learners have used is 44 utterances. the sequence of communication strategies of the less successful learners from the most frequently to the least frequently used is literal translation with 16 utterances (33,6%), approximation with 10 utterances (22,7%), language switch with 8 utterances (19,2%), appeal for assistance with 7 utterances (16,1%), message abandonment with 2 utterances (4,6%), and topic avoidance with 1 utterance (3,8%). literal translation, approximation, and language switch are the strategies most frequently used by less successful learners during the speaking process. in addition, appeal for assistance, message abandonment, and topic avoidance are less frequently utilized by less successful learners. this is presumably because they feel that those strategies are not helpful for them in solving their communication problems. the successful learners apply five communication strategies out of nine types with an overall total of 39 utterances. the approximation is ranked second with 15 utterances (38,4%), followed by the literal translation with 11 utterances (28,2%), appeal for assistance with 9 utterances (23,1%), and language switch with 4 utterances (10,3%). nevertheless, successful learners rely most heavily on three types of communication strategies; approximation, literal translation, and appeal for assistance. moreover, the strategies that the successful learners rarely use are language switch because they have greater language proficiency. furthermore, topic avoidance and message abandonment strategies are not applied by successful learners because they do not need to avoid topics or certain words. aside from that, language switch is identified as a strategy that is frequently used by less successful learners, whereas successful learners prefer to use the appeal for assistance strategy to compensate their problems in communication. less successful learners prefer to apply three types of communication strategies; literal translation, approximation, and language switch. successful learners prefer to use approximation, literal translation, and appeal for assistance. in addition, less successful learners have four communication strategy applications during the speaking class. this applied communication strategies can mean that both successful learners and less successful learners are enthusiastic and aware of carrying on communication. the research suggests that the students believe each of those strategies is the easiest to help them handle their communication problems. successful learners use those types of strategies in speaking because they know how to solve communication problems and they have the abilities to apply them. the differences between successful learners and less successful learners can be examined on the use of topic avoidance and message abandonment strategies. therefore, it can be concluded that less successful learners tend to apply topic avoidance and message abandonment strategies more often than successful learners. the researchers have identified that literal translation strategy is the one most frequently used by the students with 27 utterances (32,5%). hence, the literal translation is a helpful strategy for students to overcome problems in communication. this finding is corroborated by moattarian and tahririan’s work (2013), which has reported that literal translation is in the top three most helpful communication strategies for students in their communication needs. meanwhile, the approximation is the second most frequently used strategy with 25 utterances (30,1%). the finding is in agreement with uztosun and erten (2014), in which they have reported that turkish efl learners often apply the approximation strategy by finding alternative vocabulary items that may send the intended message to the interlocutor. the appeal for assistance strategy emerges out of 16 utterances (19,3%). the students appeal for assistance when they do not know the words, assuming that asking the interlocutor is better than producing the wrong words. this finding is similar to the research by ugla, adnan, and abidin (2013), which has revealed that the appeal for assistance strategy is a better way for students to solve their difficulties during communication than avoiding their intended meaning. language switch is the fourth mostfrequently used strategy with 12 utterances (14,4%). the students use this strategy because they do not know the target language vocabulary and they prefer to switch to their native language. previous research has shown similar findings where students apply language switch because they do not know the specific term (hua, nor, and jaradat, 2012). the result of this study has also indicated that students do not frequently use avoidance strategies. topic avoidance culminates in just 1 utterance (1,2%) and message abandonment in 2 utterances (2,5%). this finding suggests that students do not easily give up in delivering messages and they prefer to try using other strategies to help them solve communication problems. the result is consistent with nakatani, makki, and bradley (2012) in their study of iranian efl learners with findings that the learners seldom 153“wait, how do i say that in english?” .... (zulfadli aziz et al.) leave messages incomplete by abandoning their utterances or avoiding some words that they do not know when in difficulty. meanwhile, circumlocution, word coinage, and mime strategies do not arise in this study. furthermore, the researchers have identified that communication strategies that can help less successful learners’ problem in delivering their idea in speaking process are the literal translation, approximation, and language switch. this is in line with the findings of abunawas (2012), mentioning that efl jordanian students’ best strategy is to use a variety of the active strategies (not including abandonment strategies). finally, it is shown that both successful and less successful learners show the slightly different amount of communication strategies application. although the total number of communication strategies applied by the students is quite different, they use those strategies with different frequency. the less successful learners relay on literal translation, approximation, and language switch. on the other hand, successful learners prefer to apply approximation, literal translation, and appeal for assistance. language problems and difficulties are commonly faced by students when attempting to convey their ideas in oral communication processes. that assertion is in line with oradee (2012) who has assumed that students are experiencing english language speaking anxiety because they believe that they should produce faultless sentences. consequently, they are reluctant to speak and have the tendency to be silent. in order to handle the difficulties that students face, they need to use a tool to reach the goals of their communication. after comparison with the previous studies, it is revealed that communication strategies apart from tarone’s (1978) theory are; use of fillers with 546 utterances (70%), self-repetition with 189 utterances (25%), and self-repair strategies with 36 utterances (5%). use of fillers and selfrepetition strategies are known as strategies that let the students gain more time to think before continuing to the next utterances. the finding is supported by khoiriyah (2015) in her study. it obtains that when the students experience difficulties in describing, they use the fillers while pausing and repeat the previous words to make time for what will be said next. self-repair strategy is applied by students because they realize that they have made a mistake and initiated to repair the utterances. the finding is related to zhao and intaraprasert (2013) where they revealed that the application of self-repair strategy based on the students’ self-initiated corrections in their own speech. in conclusion, applying communication strategies can be a meaningful way for students to handle problems in their oral communication process. khoiriyah (2015) has revealed that being able to communicate effectively is the optimal goal of all language learners. therefore, despite the difficulties they face while delivering messages, they rely on employing various communication strategies. finally, the researchers have elaborated the application of communication strategies used by low and successful learners. if the frequency with which they use a strategy is constant, it seems that the determining factor is the type of strategy employed. conclusions the research has examined 83 utterances of communication strategies applied by both groups of learners, successful and less successful. the learners do not apply three types of communication strategies; circumlocution, word coinage, and mime strategies. successful learners apply communication strategies in 39 utterances, which are 15 utterances of approximation, 11 utterances of literal translation, 9 utterances of appeal for assistance, and 4 utterances of language switch. thus, approximation, literal translation, and appeal for assistance are the strategies most frequently utilized by successful learners. on the other hand, less successful learners apply 44 utterances of communication strategies in which 16 of them are the literal translation, 10 utterances of approximation, 8 utterances of language switch, 7 utterances of appeal for assistance, 2 utterances of message abandonment, and 1 utterance of topic avoidance. literal translation, approximation, and language switch are the most frequently used strategies by less successful learners. to sum up, among 83 utterances; 27 utterances are literal, 25 utterances of approximation, 16 utterances of appeal for assistance, 12 utterances of language switch, 2 utterances of message abandonment, and 1 utterance of topic avoidance. from this, it can be seen that literal translation is used by both groups of learners. this implies that successful and less successful learners have difficulty to communicate in the target language. thus, the teacher is suggested to expose another way of communication to develop students’ speaking achievement. this research’s limitation results in the researchers not being able to go into the details of why the strategies are applied. hence, the researchers invite all those who are interested in conducting further studies of a similar topic to consider the reason of why particular strategies are applied. in addition, it is best to gain the respondents on a larger scale of different age, achievement, language use, and attitudes toward their communication strategies. references abunawas, s. n. (2012). communication strategies used by jordanian efl learners. canadian social science, 8(4), 178–193. al-mekhlafi, a. m., & nagaratnam, r. p. (2011). difficulties in teaching and learning grammar in an efl context. international journal of instruction, 4(2), 69–92. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. london: sage publications ltd. duong, t. m. (2014). an investigation into effects of roleplay in an efl speaking course. global journal of foreign language teaching, 4(2), 81–91. dynel, m. (2010). on “revolutionary road”: a proposal for extending the gricean model of communication to cover multiple hearers. lodz papers in pragmatics, 6(2), 283–304. fata, i. a. (2014). ”is my stress right or wrong”? studying the production of stress by non-native speaking teachers of english. studies in english language and education, 1(1), 59-68. heidari, f. l., karimi, f., & imani, a. (2012). vocabulary learning strategy instruction: it’s impact on english for specific purpose vocabulary achievement and reading comprehension. middle-east journal of scientific research, 12(11), 1488–1496. 154 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 149-154 hua, t. k., nor, n. f. m., & jaradat, m. n. (2012). communication strategies among efl students an examination of frequency of use and types of strategies used. gema online journal of language studies, 12(3), 831–848. khoiriyah. (2015). communication strategies applied by high level of efl students in extensive speaking class. nusantara of research, 2(1), 1–9. kuśnierek, a. (2015). developing students’ speaking skills through role-play. world scientific news, 7, 73–111. mei, a. n., & nathalang, s. s. (2010). use of communication strategies by chinese efl learners. chinese journal of applied linguistics, 33(3), 110-125. moattarian, a., & tahririan, m. h. (2013). communication strategies used in oral and written performances of efl learners from different proficiency levels: the case of iranian efl university students. sheikhbahaee efl journal, 2(1), 21–37. nakatani, y., makki, m., & bradley, j. (2012). free to choose: communication strategy use in efl classrooms in iran. iranian journal of applied linguistics, 15(2), 61–83. oradee, t. (2012). developing speaking skills using three communicative activities (discussion, problemsolving, and role-playing). international journal of social science and humanity, 2(6), 533–535. pinget, a. f., bosker, h. r., quené, h., & jong, n. h. (2014). native speakers’ perceptions of fluency and accent in l2 speech. language testing, 31(3), 349–365. sukirlan, m. (2014). teaching communication strategies in an efl class of tertiary level. theory and practice in language studies, 4(10), 2033–2041. talley, p. c., & tu, h. l. (2014). implicit and explicit teaching of english speaking in the efl classroom. international journal of humanities and social science, 4(6), 38–45. tarone, e. (1978). conscious communication strategies in interlanguage: a progress report. in h. d. brown, c. yorio, & r. crymes (eds.), teaching and learning english as a second language 77. washington dc, usa. pp. 194–203. tuan, l. t. (2011). negotiating tasks in efl classrooms. journal of language teaching and research, 2(1), 13–25. ugla, r. l., adnan, n. i., & abidin, m. j. z. (2013). study of the communication strategies used by malaysian esl students at tertiary level. international journal of english language education, 1(1), 130–139. uztosun, m. s., & erten, i. h. (2014). the impact of english proficiency on the use of communication strategies: an interaction-based study in turkish efl context. journal of language and linguistic studies, 10(2), 169–182. yang, d., & gai, f. p. (2010). chinese learners’ communication strategies research. cross-cultural communication, 6(1), 56–81. yang, y. (2013). the development of speaking fluency: the 4/3/2 technique for the efl learners in china. international journal of research studies in language learning, 3(4), 55–70. zhao, t., & intaraprasert, c. (2013). use of communication strategies by tourism-oriented efl learners in relation to attitude towards english speaking and english language and exposure to oral communication in english. international journal of scientific and research publications, 3(5), 1–8. microsoft word 01_ig_masda_setting errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 1 errors in english ads and fallacious trends of job advertisements in jakarta masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling faculty of letters universitas kristen indonesia jakarta jl. mayjen sutoyo 2, cawang, jakarta abstract article investigated the errors found in job advertisements from kompas newspapers and the fallacious trends. the methodology used in this paper was descriptive qualitative. data were gathered randomly from job advertisements from kompas in 2008. the data were analyzed through the following steps: first, the data were gathered and classified into errors from l1 interference, and errors from lack of grammatical knowledge. after causes of errors were explained, then the fallacious trends were described. data showed the inconsistency of translating job’s titles because of l1 interference. errors due to lack of grammatical knowledge were classified into four categories of omission, addition, and substitution. from 44 data of omission and addition, the inflection (ending –s and -ed) mostly occured. there were 24 cases found from the errors of substitution regarding the class words, preposition, and agreement. fallacious trends that job’s ads written in english that were free from errors proved to be contrary to the fact. keywords: job advertisement, english ads, fallacious trends, job advertisement. abstrak artikel menjelaskan penelitian tentang kesalahan yang ditemukan dalam iklan lowongan pekerjaan dari koran kompas dan kesalahan pandangan mengenai lowongan pekerjaan berbahasa inggris. metodologi yang digunakan adalah deskriptif kualitatif. data dianalisis melalui langkah berikut. pertama data dikumpulkan dan dikelompokkan sesuai kesalahan karena pengaruh bahasa pertama dan kesalahan karena kurangnya pengetahuan tata bahasa. sesudah kesalahan tersebut dijelaskan, kemudian kesalahan pandangan mengenai lowongan pekerjaan berbahasa inggris dijabarkan. data menunjukkan adanya kesalahan menerjemahkan nama pekerjaan. kesalahan karena tata bahasa dibagi menjadi tiga yaitu pengurangan, penambahan, dan substitusi. dari 44 data, kesalahan pengurangan dan penambahan yang terbanyak adalah infleksi (akhiran –s, dan –ed). dari 24 data kesalahan substitusi, yang terbanyak adalah kesalahan kelas kata, preposisi, dan kesesuaian antara subjek dan kata kerja. dengan demikian terbukti bahwa lowongan pekerjaan berbahasa inggris tidak lepas dari kesalahan. kata kunci: iklan lowongan pekerjaan, iklan berbahasa inggris, fallacious trends. 2 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 introduction english as an international language has been widely used in almost all fields, including advertisements. choices of using english rather than indonesian indicate privilege, prestige, and mingles. lie (kompas, 2002) stated that english has become an elite language in some developing countries and it has a relationship with the social stratification in that community. everything that sounds english is greatly fancied because it may leave a first-class impression. as gunarwan (kompas 2003), a sociolinguist, mentioned, to be in a high class society in the global world, indonesian people must be able to speak english. job advertisements in indonesia are mostly written in english. as an example, from 350 job advertisements randomly taken from three editions of kompas – local newspapers in jakarta – 196 (56%) are written in english, 142 (41%) in indonesian language (bahasa) with english job titles, and only 12 (3%) purely in indonesian. it shows that english is very popular in job ads in kompas, the most reputable newspapers in indonesia. english is one of important requirements to get good jobs, obtain better positions, and have higher income. english does not only mean that the applicants should be able to speak english, but it also indicates that the company which publishes the ads is respectable, reliable and reputable. advertisement is a public notice or announcement, usually paid for, as of things for sale, needs, etc. (webster’s new world college dictionary). in job ads, the potential customers are the job seekers. to persuade them to read the ads, the advertisement titles are written in english, such as ‘urgently required, challenging opportunity, excellent opportunity, and walk in interview. besides, to make the ads more interesting, most job titles are also written in english, like electrician, logistic manager, and human resource staff instead of “tehnisi listrik, manajer logistik, and staf sumber daya manusia”. subsequently, it is not surprising that many job advertisements in kompas newspapers, whose english content is supposed to pass the good image of the companies, turns out to contain a lot of errors. these errors, however, usually are not people’s attention because of the false believe, that published job advertisements in english, especially in reputable newspapers like kompas, must have been free of errors. the fallacious trend of using english advertisement seems normal and accepted as long as people can understand the idea or the message. this makes the errors in job advertisements arise repeatedly. since indonesian language has several differences from english in its morphological level and syntactical level, so the phenomenon of the source language becomes common errors in using english in advertisements. this phenomenon is frequently labeled with a l1 interference, as sometimes we can find the expression like ‘join with us’ (* to join with our…. kompas 19 july 2008 p.51). the error ‘with’ appears probably because the literal translation of “bergabunglah dengan kami”. the appropriate statement should be “join us” without the word “with”. this type of error, eventhough seems minor, indicates a sign of not having adequate grammatical knowledge. it indicates that it is very important to edit the language use of english in job advertisements in daily kompas. review of related literature some studies have been conducted concerning errors produced by those who use english as a second or foreign language, especially students. fauziati (2003) found interlanguage errors in english textbooks for junior high school students in surakarta. from the errors in the area of vocabulary and grammar, she stated that the english used in those textbooks were still at the level of interlanguage (resemble to the first language). errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 3 gustinefa (2007) carried out a research of error analysis on learners’ journal writings. she found out that most of the errors occured was the result of intralingual transfer (overgeneralization, simplification, and incomplete knowledge of english/ grammatical rules) rather than interlanguage (interference from the native language). she classified the errors into 4 categories: addition, omission, substitution, and ordering. from those categories, the errors of substitution was the most frequently committed by the efl learners. regarding the errors from the linguistics point of view, nobles (2006) explains the top grammar errors haunt web pages. she explained the errors mostly occur in the web including puctuation (it’s = it is, periods or commas, and hypen); spelling (e-mail vs. email), and s-v agreement (singular – plural). stojanovska-ilievska (2007) goes over the errors made by macedonian learners of english that includes grammar (tenses and subject deleted); vocabulary (no one to one translation equivalents between macedonian and english); pronunciation (long and short vowels); and spelling (consonants, vowels, and diphtongs). some studies concerning fallacy mostly discuss a kind of error in reasoning from phylosophy or logic point of view (gregwright, paul 2005) like ad hominem (meaning "against the person")— attacks the person and not the issue, or bandwagon—creates the impression that everybody is doing it and so should you [means that we usually imitate what other person does]. sgarbossa (2006) explains the logical fallacies and ethics in everyday language. in her study, she gives explanation that fallacious arguments can point to seemingly compelling conclusions that are, however, invalid and often misaligned with ethical principles. by focusing on the inextricable link between ethics and language, her article reviews some of the most common logical fallacies to help in detecting (and avoiding) them. crawford (1997) conducted a research of ten common fallacies about bilingual education which does not relate to the fallacy of philosophy. he discusses the fallacies of bilingual education, which led to some assumptions, that there are a number of commonly held beliefs about bilingual education that run counter to research findings. based on his research, he clarifies some of the myths and misconceptions surrounding language use and bilingual education in the united states. methodology this study investigates the errors found in job advertisements from kompas newspapers and the fallacious trends. the methodology used in this paper is descriptive qualitative. data are gathered randomly from job advertisements from kompas in 2008. types of job advertisements found in kompas consist of 4 types: ad1 ) purely in english; ad2) advertisement titles and job titles in english; ad3) only job titles in english; and ad4) purely in indonesian. the data used are taken only from ad1, ad2, and ad3. the data are analyzed through the following steps: first, the data are gathered and classified into errors from l1 interference like literal translation especially in job titles, and errors from lack of grammatical knowledge. after that, the causes of errors are explained. finally the fallacious trends are described. this investigation then, divided into two parts: the errors and fallacious trends of job advertisements written in english in kompas newspapers. corder 1973 (in lengo 1995) refers to errors as breaches of the code. errors deviate from what is regarded as the norm. the norm here means the deviation of grammatical rules. the fallacious trend in this study, however, has no connection with the fallacies of philosophy mentioned above. the word fallacious, taken from fallacy, means a false or mistaken idea or opinion (webster’s new world college dictionary). the fallacious trend refers to the false belief of using english in job advertisements which firstly thought to be free of errors, but 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 they unfortunately content plenty of errors. based on current study, this clarifies some of the misconceptions surrounding english use in job advertisement written in english in daily kompas. regarding the grammatical errors, this study explains the language transfer (literal translation especially in job titles) and lack of grammatical knowledge of english. language transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. language transfer is also known as l1 interference (wikipedia). larsen (1984) divided the kinds of translation into 7 types from the very literal translation to the unduly free translation (very free translation). one of those types larsen called as inconsistent mixture translation. inconsistent mixture translation is a partially modified translation that is modified the order and grammar into the acceptable sentence structure in the target language. lack of grammatical knowledge of english makes a lot of errors in the sentence structure used in the job ads. the commit of errors, according to corder (1973:277), fall into four main categories: omission of some required element; addition of some unnecessasy or incorrect element; substitution of an incorrect element; and misordering of elements. errors in this study are analyzed based on corder’s four categories. results and discussion the body of job advertisements consists of the head, that is the name of the company or advertisement title such as urgently needed and great opportunity. then comes the introduction, job titles, qualifications or requirements, and finally the address of the company. the grammatical errors are commonly found in the introduction and job titles. errors l1 interference ( inconsistent mixture) some cases of errors due to the l1 interference are as follows: 1. l1 interference in the case of literal translation that is using indonesian expression in writing english expression. for example: university graduate in background mechanical engineering (kompas 23/2/08). this sentence is the literal translation of tamat dari universitas dengan latar belakang tehnik mekanika’. it shoud be written in english as ‘university graduate with mechanical engineering background’ 2. l1 interefence is mostly found in the writing of most job’s titles. the interefence are showed as inconcistent mixture of translation of job’s titles. there are 3 types of inconsistency found in the data. case 1: forms of job’s titles used indonesian construction (noun + adjective) but maintained using english word instead of indonesian, as in the following data: errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 5 data indonesian english staff akunting staf akunting accounting staff staff keuangan staf keuangan financial staff staff promosi staf promosi promotion staff manager keuangan manajer keuangan finance manager asisten manager proyek asisten manajer proyek project manager assistant cashier hotel kasir hotel hotel cashier case 2: job’s titles are written in the form of indonesian language, but maintain using english words, such as: data indonesian english staf maintenance staf pemeliharaan maintenance staff staf engineering staf teknisi engineering staff staf administrasi staf administrasi administration staff kredit kontrol executice eksekutif kredit kontrol credit controll executive elektrikal mekanikal mekanik elekrik electrical mechanic case 3: job’s titles are written mixing english and indonesian language. data are taken from the ad3 (only job titles are written in english). example 1 suzuki finance kesempatan berkarir sebuah perusahaan pembiayaan resmi motor…. membutuhkan para profesional muda yang dinamis, kreatif dan inovatif sebagai: 1. branch manager 2. credit analysist (ca) 3. marketing head (mh) 4. credit marketing officer (cmo) 5. ar officer/collector (aro) 6. staff promosi 7. operation staff ....... etc. the writing of job tittles preferable using english words rather than indonesian are probably because of the idea that english is more popular than indonesian. example 2 andalan chevrolet membutuhkan: 1. sales supervisor 2. sales consultant /sales excecutive 3. kepala bengkel 4. parts head 5. adm. senior spare parts example 2 shows the incostency of using indonesian and english in the job titles. this probably because the writer seems difficult to find the equivalent words in indonesian or lazy to look up the words in proper indonesian. example 3 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 (kompas 28/06/08) urgently required (the gandhis memorial international school) music teacher (for choir and orchestra) chemistry teacher it teacher bahasa indonesia esl teacher p.e. teacher/ guru olah raga …etc example 3 uses english in most part, but only write bahasa indonesia to refer to a teacher of bahasa, and guru olah raga, to refer to p.e teacher. the indonesian equivalen (guru olah raga) is icluded since p.e teacher sounds unfamiliar. the inconsistency probably shows that the practice of mixing indonesian and english is common and accepted. it may also imply that we do not give interest to the inconsistency of language use. lack of grammatical knowledge errors based on lack of grammatical knowledge are classified into the category of omission, addition, substitution, and misordering. each category is then explained at the syntactical and morphological level. omission a lot of cases are found concerning the omission of required elements: the omission of articles no data corrections sources 1 pt buana capital is seeking people with a high dedication to fill position to fill the following positions 05/07/2008 2 fluently in english and mandarin both oral & written is must fluency in english and mandarin both oral & written is a must 05/07/2008 3 please send your application quoting job code in the email subject or at the right side of envelope at the right side of the envelope 05/07/2008 4 we thank all applicant, however only those candidates selected for interview however only those candidates selected for an interview 05/07/2008 5 ability speaking in mandarin is most prefered. ability to speak in mandarin is the most prefered. 05/07/2008 6 we invite you to submit your resume to address stated below to the address 24/02/2008 7 degree s1 transportation management or its equivalent. degree s1 transportation management or the equivalent. 23/02/2008 8 panca group is fast growing restaurant company with multi brands and franchises as well as branches in many big cities in indonesia is seeking some qualified, dynamics and creatives people for the following positions: panca group a fast growing restaurant company 05/07/2008 errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 7 the omission of inflection no  data  corrections  sources  1  general requirement  general requirements  05/07/2008  2  specific requirement  specific requirements  05/07/2008  3  good communication skill  good communication skills  05/07/2008  4  fast growing palm oil plantation company based  in jakarta required human resource with a good  personality  human resources  05/07/2008  5  has good interpersonal skill  has good interpersonal skills  05/07/2008  6  an attractive renumeration package, benefits and  challenging working environment and excellent  career growth in the company would be offered to  the successful candidate.  successful candidates  05/07/2008  7  we thank all applicant, however only those  candidates selected for interview  we thank all applicants,  however, only those candidates  selected for interview  05/07/2008  8  we are an injection and blowing plastic industry  looking for qualified and competent personel for  the position of:  qualified and competent  personnels  05/07/2008  9  ability to read technical drawing and good  understanding of the mention software program  "solidwork", "autocad", "unigraphic"/ "delcam"   software programs  05/07/2008  10  fresh graduate  fresh graduates  05/07/2008  11  high school graduate  high school graduates  05/07/2008  12  we are an organization which provide quality  solutions in medical waste management service  with a mission of enhancing public health,  environment and safety in the provinces of  indonesia, seeking dynamic, dedicated and  suitably qualified staff to fill the following  positions.  an organization which provides  23/02/2008  13  qualification for retailer  qualifications for a retailer  24/02/2008  14  graduate in agricultural science or related fields  graduated from agricultural  science or related fields  05/07/2008  15  to apply, please send your application letter, cv,  recent pasport sized photograph, copy of  certificates and put the code on the top left  envelope, at the latest two week after this  advertisement to:   at the latest two weeks after this  advertisement to:  20/07/2008  16  a fast growing company, invites suitable  candidates for the following position:  the following positions  23/02/2008  17  graduate from reputable university with relevant  degree  graduated from reputable  university with relevant degree  05/07/2008  8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 the omission of preposition no data corrections sources 1 s1 (majoring accountancy or finance s1 (majoring in accountancy or finance) 2 graduated from s-1 majoring accounting from reputable university graduated from s-1 majoring in accounting from reputable university 05/07/2008 3 good understanding cad-cam, cncmiling process and manufacturing machines good understanding of cad-cam 05/07/2008 4 familiar with all the labour law and relevant statutory requirements in indonesia. familiar with all of the labour law 23/03/2008 5 at least 5 years working experience in all the human resource functions. working experience in all of the human resource functions. 23/03/2008 6 if you are ready to be part of our winning team, we are currently seeking a rated commercial pilot / experienced on the b-737 family of aircraft as a first officer. if you are ready to be a part of our winning team 22/03/2008 7 we offer a highly attractive compensation and benefit package. attractive compensation and a benefit package 01/03/2008 the omission of conjunction no data corrections sources 1 key performance indicator for this position will be sales volume, customer & market share, new costumer development, profitability development, and profitability 24/02/2008 2 having good knowledge in accounting, finance, taxes having good knowledge in accounting, finance, and taxes 05/07/2008 the omission of punctuation no data corrections sources 1 strong knowledge on channel management (distributors, contractors etc) (distributors, contractors, etc.) 24/02/2008 2 you are responsible for daily sales activities, marcom activity, identify retrofitting and project sales, preparing marketing plan etc. preparing marketing plan, etc. 24/02/2008 from 36 data, the omission of inflection (ending –s plural, -s third person singular, and –ed verb) is of the most frequent happen. others are the omissions of articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. it not only shows lack of knowledge of english, but also l1 interference for such types (like articles and inflection) which do not exist in indonesian language. another possibility is that articles, prepositions, inflections, conjuntions, and punctuation mostly considered as trivial parts. errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 9 addition additions of some unnecessary element are also found as the following data: the addition of inflection no. data corrections sources 1. please send your application letter and cv within 1 weeks to: within 1 week 23/02/2008 2. panca group is fast growing restaurant company with multi brands and franchises as well as branches in many big cities in indonesia is seeking some qualified, dynamics and creatives people for the following positions: dynamic and creative people 05/07/2008 3. interest candidates shoulds submit a full cv with recent photograph, position code, past and present employment and professionals qualification, within 14 days after the date of this advertisement to below address: should submit 05/07/2008 4. you will have to develop logistics needs and compliance requirements for the company and drive the implementation you will have to develop logistic needs 20/05/2008 5. 8 years experiences in marketing field, having engineering and technical knowledge is preverable 8 years experience 05/07/2008 6. interest candidates shoulds submit a full cv with recent photograph, position code, past and present employment and professionals qualification, within 14 days after the date of this advertisement to below address: professional qualification 05/07/2008 the addition of punctuation no. data corrections sources 1. interest candidates shoulds submit a full cv with recent photograph, position code, past and present employment and professionals qualification, within 14 days after the date of this advertisement to below address: professional qualification within 14 days (no comma) 05/07/2008 2. garuda indonesia, is committed to provide safe, comfortable air transportation in indonesia and internationally. garuda indonesia is committed to provide (no comma) 01/03/2008 the data shows that the addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element happens not as frequent as the omission elements. most cases are on the inflection (ending –s) to the words which does not need to be added. 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 substitution substitution is another case that occus a lot in the data. the substitution of class word no. data corrections notes source 1. fluently in english and mandarin both oral & written is must fluency in english and mandarin both oral & written is a must substitution: noun 23/02/2008 2. specially requirement special requirements substitution: adjective 23/02/2008 3. good communication and fluent in english is a must. good communication and fluency in english is a must. substitution: adjective 23/02/2008 4. develop and presentation of market analysis for potential business opportunities develop and present market analysis substitution: verb 05/07/2008 5. you should be able to demonstrate excellence in your previous employment. you should be able to demonstrate excellency in your previous employment. substitution: noun 05/07/2008 6. ability speaking in mandarin is most prefered. ability to speak in mandarin is the most prefered. substitution: to infinitive 05/07/2008 7. ability to maintenance electrical & mechanical ability to maintain electric & mechanic substitution: verb 05/07/2008 8. ability to maintenance electrical & mechanical ability to maintain electric & mechanic substitution: adjective 05/07/2008 9. computer literated and having good command of english computer literate substitution: noun 10. garuda indonesia, is committed to provide safe, comfortable air transportation in indonesia and internationally. air transportation in indonesia and international. subtitution: adjective 01/03/2008 the substitution of preposition no. data corrections sources 1. university graduate in background mechanical engineering university graduate with mechanical engineering background 23/02/2008 2. computer literate and having good command in english good command of english 23/02/2008 3. indonesian citizen aged about 35-45 years old indonesian citizen aged between 35-45 years old 05/07/2008 4. graduate in agricultural science or related fields graduated from agricultural science or related fields 05/07/2008 5. minimum 3 years experience as an accounting supervisor at palm oil plantation company minimum 3 years experience as an accounting supervisor in palm oil plantation company 05/07/2008 errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 11 the substitution of agreement no. data corrections notes sources 1. a new develop hotel company in jakarta, looking for energetic candidate which have qualification a new develop hotel company in jakarta is looking for energetic candidates who have qualification substitution: pronoun 2. interested applicants should submit your complete application, cv, photo (red colour), copies of related documents and contact number to: interested applicants should submit their complete application substitution: pronoun 05/07/2008 3. panca group is fast growing restaurant company with multi brands and franchises as well as branches in many big cities in indonesia is seeking some qualified, dynamics and creatives people for the following positions: panca group a fast growing restaurant company substitution: double verb 05/07/2008 the substitution of conjunction data corrections notes sources garuda indonesia, is committed to provide safe, comfortable air transportation in indonesia and internationally. to provide safe and comfortable air transportation subtitution: n 01/03/2008 the substitution of paralel verbs data corrections notes sources plan for business growth by identifying opportunities and consistently pursuing them to successful closure plan for business growth by identifying opportunities and consistently pursue them to successful closure substitute: pursue (paralel with plan) 05/07/2008 the substitution of punctuation data corrections notes sources to apply for this opportunity, please go to: http://www.garuda-indonesia.com/career and complete the on-line application form. or bring your application in person to : recruitment department, 2nd floor garuda indonesia management building, garuda maintenance facility, soekarno-hatta, cengkareng, tangerang banten, before march 31, 2008. complete the on-line application form, or bring your application in person to: substitute: comma and no capital o 01/03/2008 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 1-13 the substitution of articles data corrections notes sources also, he should have an commissioning experience also, he should have a commissioning experience substitution 05/07/2008 there are 24 cases found from the errors of substitution. most errors are concerning the class words, preposition, and agreement. other errors are the misuse of conjunction, paralel verbs, punctuation, and articles. misordering no data are available regarding misordering of element. since there are a lot of errors found from the job ads mentioned above, it indicates that the occurence of errors are neglected. it is probably still accepted to have the errors as long as the ads are understood. it also means as long as the job ads use english, it does not really matter. fallacious trends of english job advertisements fallacy 1: job tittles in english use correct english. this study shows that not all job titles use correct english. example: data correction assistant manager claim claim assistant manager assistant marina manager marina assistant manager fallacy 2 : job ad title in english use english in its content some job ad titles in english use indonesian language in the introduction. for example, from 46 job ad titles in english, only 10 of them use indonesian language. fallacy 3 : english job title will use english for job names; indonesian job title will use indonesian names for the job the names of jobs mostly used english whether or not the language is in english or indonesian. it seems that using english for the job names are more appropriate than using indonesian names. errors in english ….. (masda surti simatupang; yusniaty galingling) 13 conclusion errors in english job ads occur as the result of the l1 interference and lack of grammatical knowledge. english is used mostly because of the trend that using english will give the impression of prestige and privilege. no matter whether the ads in english contain errors or not, it does not give a lot of effects because english is considered as a prestige. that is why english is used to attract people’s attention and becomes the trends in job advertisements. references corder, s.p. (1973). introduction applied linguistics. harmondsworth: penguin education. crawford,j.1997. ten common fallacies about bilingual education. eric digest. http://www.kidsource.com/education/ten.fallacy.biling.ed.html dowden, b.( 2008). the internet encyclopedia of philosophy. email: dowden@csus.edu california state university, sacramento. endang fauziati. (2003). interlanguage errors in english textbooks for junior high school students in surakarta. teflin (teaching english as a foreign language in indonesia) journal vol. 14 no. 2, pp. 179-192. gregwright. fallacies (adapted from sahakian and sahakian’s ideas of the great philosophers). http://www.gregwright.info/subpage42.html gustinefa. (2007). error analysis of efl learners’ journal writing: evidence for interand intralingual transfers. conest 4 (fourth conference on english studies), pp. 124-130. larsen, m.l. (1984). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence. usa: university press of america. lengo, n. (1995). what is an error? forum magazine vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 20-32. newall, p.( 2005). a guide to fallacies. http://www.galilean-library.org/int16.html nobles, r.(2006). top ten grammar errors that haunt web pages. http://www.translationdirectory.com/article1167.htm sgarbossa, e.(2006). “heads i win, tails you lose”: logical fallacies and ethics in everyday language. translation journal language and communication. vol. 10, no. 4. http://www.accurapid.com/journal/38fallacies.htm stojanovska-ilievska, n.( 2007). common errors made by macedonian learners of english due to l1 interference. http://chi.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/1114/1. microsoft word 04_chi_agustinus sufianto.docx the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 149  分析廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河清明节传统习俗的区别 the comparison of qingming festival in bengkalis city, riau, and in sungailiat, bangka agustinus s. (黎欢仁); nita anggastia; yanti hayani chinese department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 asufianto@binus.edu 内容提要 清明节在中国有着独特的地位,是中华民族的重大纪念日,对祖先的追悼与祭祖是传统社 会民众生活的重要内容,所以祭祖仍为民族生活中的大事。清明节表现了一个孩子的孝心,对 父母或祖先的孝心报恩是一种具有德育美育教材的文化,这传统文化从几千年代一直持续到现 在。笔者为了提高对廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河清明节传统习俗的知识,通过调查与采访做了 这项研究。在这项研究中,笔者发现了廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河的清明节传统习俗有很多区 别。围绕着这种情况笔者采访了那两个地方。   关键词:清明,节日,传统习俗 abstract qingming festival is a great festival and tradition for chinese to commemorate their ancestors. this activity is considered necessary to do by chinese nation. qingming festival reflects xiaoxin ( 孝 心 ) which means devotion toward the elderly or ancestor and is regarded as an educational culture. this tradition is well preserved until now. this study is objected to compare the qingming festival held in bengkalis city, riau, and one held in sungailiat, bangka. by visiting directly those places and interviewing some chinese people there, we will study and conclude some comparison on this subject. keywords: qingming festival, tradition, chinese people, ancestor           150 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  前言 人类生活在地球上,具有很多传统节日,几乎全国各地有他自己的节日特色。节日使生活 增添了光彩,也使生活有了希望,节日是紧张的放松,节日是必然的自由,节日是辛勤的快乐。 俗谚说 “阴司盼月半,小孩盼过年”。有了节日,人们就有了盼头。 “百里不同风,千里不同俗”节日文化是多姿多彩的。不同的节日有不同的传说,不同的 习俗,以及不同的祈祷方式。每一个传统节日承载着本民族的文化遗产,都记录着本民族的生 活习俗,民族的精神,心理和信仰。节日又是文化交流的最好平台。 清明节是中国重要的民间传统节日,是中国的祭祖节日。时间在农历 3 月,公历 4 月 5 日 前后。清明节与元宵节、立夏、端午节、中元节、中秋节、冬至和除夕并称“八节”。各地清 明节习俗虽然不尽相同,但基本以扫墓祭祖、踏青郊游、寒食赐火为主题。 由于笔者分析的题目范围限定了这两个地方,所以主要介绍了廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河 的清明节传统习俗,以及廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河清明节传统习俗的区别。我们所知道不同 地方的节日有不同的习俗,不同的祈祷方式,以及不同的特色。 通过这个题目,我们希望能够对那两个地方的清明节传统习俗更加了解,还希望能够提高 我们对清明节的知识趣味,人与人之间的友谊,以及爱护文化。 廖岛猛卡力斯清明节传统习俗 廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会每年都有扫墓与为祖先祭拜的习俗。清明节,人们纷纷到坟地进行 祖坟祭礼,叩头与致敬,代表一个孩子的孝敬。此外,廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会认为以父母或祖 先的名义做善事,这样能够赞扬他们的恩惠也给他们带来欢喜。 在庆祝清明节,廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会有自己传统习俗的方法。自古以来,他们已有祭祖 与扫墓的习俗。一般廖岛猛卡力斯华人死后基本上用土葬,做一个坟墓。每年清明,他们就去 看望,整理一下坟前的草木,祭拜并供奉食物,还有烧金纸或纸币,纸所做的其他祭品如纸衣、 纸鞋等。这就是扫墓,俗称“上坟”。祭扫的时间并不限定在清明当天,但在前十天,后十天的 范围内均可。民间有 “清明朝祖,前十后十”之说。所以,这些规定使人们更容易选择天内,尤 其是远方的亲人们。 按照廖岛猛卡力斯传统习俗,清明节禁忌较多。首先是寒食禁火,即在清明的前一天,只 能吃准备好的凉菜。其次,清明节当天不宜参加喜事如结婚这样的喜事,如果要举行喜事的话, 也应避免在清明节当天。其三,扫墓不宜在黄昏或夜晚进行,扫墓严禁大声嬉笑,不许喧闹乱 跑,否则视为对先人失敬。其四,扫墓不宜穿红衣。最后按照传统习俗,孕妇,在例假中的女 性不能参加扫墓活动。 the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 151  在清明当天,廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会比平常早点起床,他们正忙着准备祭扫的祭拜装备。 临去坟地之前,为了获得祭扫祖坟的许可,他们在家里得先祭拜玉皇大帝。 每个祖坟之旁都有一个小的坟墓,这坟墓人称土神。据廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会的传统习俗, 祭拜祖坟之前,他们得先祭拜土神。祭拜土神的目的是请求土地神让父母或祖先能来到人间, 打开大门让父母或祖先能过来跟我们会面。 祖坟所需要的祭品包括: 1. 大香 三支 2. 小香 三支(每个人) 3. 蜡烛 两支 4. 金纸或纸币 不限制 5. 墓纸 不限制 6. 发糕 一个 7. 仙头 五个 8. 方形糕点 五个 9. 水果 五个 10. 红菠萝 两个 11. 茶 三杯 12. 白酒 三杯 13. 白花 一盆 14. 糖果 一包 土神所需要的祭品包括: 1. 小香 五支(每个人) 2. 蜡烛 两支 3. 金纸或纸币 不限制 4. 墓纸 不限制 5. 仙头 三个 6. 方形糕点 三个 7. 水果 三个 8. 白酒 一杯 9. 糖果 一包   其他祭品如:纸衣、纸鞋、纸车、纸飞机和纸房等。祭礼过后他们把这些祭品火烧了。以 表示后辈给先人送来了日常用品。 152 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  所有的祭品放在那两个坟墓之后(土神与祖坟),首先必须朝土神祭拜,祭拜土神并不需 要大香,只用五支小香就可。按照传统,必须是老一辈或家长先祭拜。朝土神用五支小香祭拜, 过后其他成员跟着祭拜。祭拜土神是请求土地神让他们的父母或祖先能来到人间,打开大门让 父母或祖先过来跟我们会面,以及让他们知道他们的子女或孙子女已经来探望了。 祭拜新土后,跟着就是祭拜祖坟。然而朝祖先祭拜,首先必须用三支大香,然后继续在墓 碑前用三支小香祭拜,其他成员跟着祭拜,只用三支小香就行。 祭礼过后,不久亲人们开始进行装墓活动,装墓就是装饰坟墓。通常他们使用墓纸贴在坟 墓的四周方面,有的纸上可个以用小石头压着,另放一沓在墓碑上。坟上的墓纸作为坟地的顶 棚,他们相信有了这个顶棚能给先人保暖,免先人躺在地下受凉。 最后是火烧纸钱仪式。他们相信火烧了的纸钱能直接寄给先人,有了纸钱,希望祖先在阴 间和平生活,也表现尊敬上代祖宗。除了烧纸钱之外,还把所带的用纸所做的其他祭品,如: 纸衣、纸鞋、纸车、纸飞机、纸房等火烧了。这都是根据梦中所收到的先人要求而定,如果没 有收到要求的话,就不必进行火烧其他祭品仪式。火烧纸钱后,亲人们开始朝祖坟和土神行礼, 双手合起来位于胸前,叩头行礼,再返回家中。 邦加里压河清明节传统习俗 邦加里压河华人社会到现在仍庆祝清明节,通称清明扫墓。在华族生活中,清明节主要是 纪念祖先的日子。邦加里压河的华人社会,至到现在有庆祝清明节的风俗习惯是清扫和祭拜自 己祖先的坟墓。邦加里压河华人社会都相信如果我们做善事,我们能赞扬祖先的恩惠,赞扬祖 先的教育和相信冥冥中能帮祖先在阴界有幸福的生活。 在庆祝清明节,邦加里压河华人社会有祭祖和清扫坟墓的习俗。邦加里压河华人把已仙逝 的亲人殓于棺木,然后以佛礼好好的安葬,做了一个坟墓。每年清明节,亲戚纷纷探望祖先的 坟墓,清扫、祭拜、奉献各种食物还有烧金纸、纸衣或纸所做的其他祭品。这就是祭祖。清明 扫墓没肯定时间多长,主要到了清明节,全家一大早就起床,冲洗干净,换了清洁衣服,一家 人欢欢喜喜去看亲人。按照邦加里压河传统习俗,庆祝清明节只有一个禁忌,就是在例假中的 女性不能祭拜土神,但可以祭拜祖坟。   每个祖坟之旁都有一个小坟墓。这小坟墓人称土神。根据邦加里压河华人社会的传统习俗, 祭拜祖坟前,他们得先祭拜土神。祭拜土神是请求土神把关闭了的阴界大门打开了,使得父母 或祖先能过来跟我们会面,看看他们亲爱的子孙。祭拜土神和祖坟前,他们必须准备所需要的 祭品,那些祭品都放在那两个坟墓上。 the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 153  祖坟所需要的祭品包括: 1. 大香 三支 2. 小香 九支(每个人) 3. 蜡烛 两支 4. 金纸 不限制 5. 茶 三杯 6. 白酒 五杯 7. 米饭 一碗 8. 熟鸡 一个 9. 遮目鱼 一个 10. 熟猪 七克 11. 豆腐与丸子汤 一碗 12. 鸡蛋 一盘 13. 汤圆 一碗 14. 梨子 三个 15. 苹果 三个 16. 桔子 三个 17. 菠萝 两个 18. 糕点 三个 19. 芝麻球糕 三个 20. 新鲜草 一盆 土神所需要的祭品包括: 1. 大香 三支 2. 小香 九支(每个人) 3. 蜡烛 两支 4. 金纸 不限制 5. 茶 一杯 6. 白酒 一杯 7. 米饭 一碗 8. 熟鸡 一个 9. 遮目鱼 一个 10. 熟猪 七克 11. 梨子 一个 12. 苹果 一个 154 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  13. 桔子 一个 14. 糕点 一个 15. 芝麻球糕 一个 其他祭品如: 纸衣、纸鞋、纸车、纸飞机和纸房。他们把献给祖先的这些祭品火烧了,相 信在阴界中能收到。 所有祭品放在那两个坟墓后,首先必须朝土神祭拜。按照传统习俗,家长或老一辈先拜土 神,必须用三支大香,接下去是九支小香。过后才轮到其他家族成员,用九支小香就可。烧过 了的香都须插入在坟墓的祭坛。祭柏土神是请求土地神把阴界大门打开了,使得父母或祖先能 过来跟亲爱子孙会面,心灵之会面。 祭拜土神后,跟着就是祭拜祖坟。然而现只须三支大香,然后继续用九支小香。其他成员 跟着祭拜,只用九支小香就可以。烧过了的香都须插入在坟墓的祭坛。烧了香后,我们必须再 用手祭拜,双手合起来位于胸前,恭恭敬敬的行了三鞠躬。 祭拜过后,子孙们开始装饰坟地和拔草种花。把金纸折成一条小小花,然后全部都插入在 祖坟上,作为坟地的顶棚,他们相信有了这个顶棚能给已仙逝了的祖先或父母亲保暖,免他们 躺在地下受冷了。除了把金纸折成小花以外,他们也常把金纸折成两条长带子,放在坟地的左 右面上,这两条长带子又给坟地另一优美的风光。然后插些小蜡烛围绕坟地的边缘,作为坟地 的篱笆。  最后的仪式是火烧金纸或纸币,按照传统习俗,金纸或纸币火烧了就能给先人带来安全。 有了金纸或纸币,希望能帮助祖先或父母在阴界避免贫穷的生活。除了烧金纸或纸币以外,也 把所带了的用纸所做的其他祭品,如:纸衣、纸鞋、纸车、纸飞机和纸房火烧了。火烧金纸等 后,还必须等全香都烧剩不多了,就是扫墓时间快要结束了,亲友开始朝祖坟和土神行礼,双 手合起来位于胸前,恭恭敬敬的行了三鞠躬,一边在心里祷告求祖先或父母在九泉之下保留我 们生活快乐,身体健康。 廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河清明节传统习俗的 对比研究 通过这项研究,笔者发现了猛卡力斯与里压河的清明节习俗有些区别,即:祭品方面的区 别,传统习俗方面的区别,祭礼方面的区别,装饰坟墓方面的区别,以及禁忌方面的区别。 在这两个地方,最明显的区别是在扫墓的时间。猛卡力斯的扫墓时间并不限定在清明节当 天,但前十天,后十天的范围内均可,但里压河只在清明节当天举行而已。 the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 155  第一节 祭品方面的区别 表一、廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河的土神祭品的对比  廖岛猛卡力斯 邦加里压河 祭品 总数 祭品 总数 小香 五支 大香 小香 三支 九支 蜡烛 两支 蜡烛 两支 金纸或纸币 不限制 金纸 不限制 墓纸 不限制 无 无 白酒 一杯 白酒 一杯 无 无 茶 一杯 无 无 米饭 一碗 无 无 熟鸡 一个 无 无 遮目鱼 一个 无 无 熟猪 七克 仙头 方形糕点 三个 三个 糕点 芝麻球糕 一个 一个 水果 三个 梨子 苹果 桔子 一个 一个 一个 糖果 一包 无 无 廖岛猛卡力斯的土神祭品之意 : 一、五支小香代表五行(金、木、水、火、土)。烟能传 的很远,代表长久,永恒;香的香 味敬给土神。 二、两支蜡烛代表亮光与平衡。 三、金纸或纸币是已故者用的纸钱。又是祭祖所烧的纸钱。 四、墓纸是五色纸剪成长方形,用来装饰土神坟地。 五、一杯白酒是敬给土地公公喝的。表达慰劳和感恩之意。 六、三个仙头是敬给土地公公吃的。 七、三个方形糕点是扫墓的主要糕饼。每年清明节,廖岛 猛卡力斯华人都做这种糕饼。 156 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  八、三个水果,因为土地公公只有一位,所以三个就够了。而且他们相信奇数有成功的含义。 九、一包糖果以示亲人们在一年里就会过一个甜蜜的日子。 邦加里压河的土神祭品之意 : 一、三支大香的意思是代表三路(陆、海、空),烟能传 的很远代表长久,永恒;香的香味 敬给土神 。 二、九支小香,“九”字来由是“九九长”,代表长命百 寿,前途长远,希望凡是吉祥之事都能久。 三、两支蜡烛代表亮光与平衡。 四、金纸代表银行支票。 五、一杯白酒是敬给土神喝的。 六、一杯茶是敬给土神喝的。 七、一碗米饭是敬给土神吃的。 八、熟鸡,遮目鱼,和熟猪是用来敬给土神的。 九、一个糕点和芝麻球糕是敬给土神吃的,因为在邦加里 压河很容易买到的,所以用这两糕 饼。 十、一个梨子,苹果和桔子,这些水果也是敬给土神吃的;水果不多,因为土神只有一位。 表二、廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河的祖坟祭品的对比  廖岛猛卡力斯 邦加里压河 祭品 总数 祭品 总数 大香 小香 三支 三支 大香 小香 三支 九支 蜡烛 两支 蜡烛 两支 金纸或纸币 不限制 金纸 不限制 墓纸 不限制 无 无 白酒 三杯 白酒 五杯 茶 三杯 茶 三杯 无 无 米饭 一碗 无 无 熟鸡 一个 无 无 遮目鱼 一个 无 无 熟猪 七克 无 无 豆腐与丸子汤 一碗 无 无 鸡蛋 一盘 the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 157    廖岛猛卡力斯的祖先祭品之意 : 一、 三支大香代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲)。又表示 尊敬上代祖宗。 二、 三支小香,表示对已故者的感恩图报,烟能传的很远 代表长久,永恒;香的香味敬给先人。 三、 两支蜡烛代表亮光与平衡。 四、 金纸或纸币是已故者用的纸钱。本意是希望祖先在阴 间和平生活,不受穷,以及表达对已故亲人的感恩。 五、 墓纸是五色纸剪成长方形,用来装饰祖坟。 六、 三杯白酒是代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲)。又表 示亲密无间。 七、 三杯茶是代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲)。扫墓敬茶是廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会的风俗 习惯。 八、 一个发糕以示家家户户年年进步发大财。 九、 五个仙头是先人喜欢吃的糕饼。五个代表五行(金、 木、水、火、土)。 十、 五个方形糕点是扫墓的主要糕饼。五个代表五行(金、 木、水、火、土)。 十一、两个红菠萝以示招来喜气和吉祥。两个代表万事平衡 ,悲欢平衡。 十二、一包糖果以示亲人们在一年里会过一个甜蜜的日子。 十三、一盆白花代表先人花园的草木。 无 无 汤圆 一碗 发糕 仙头 方形糕点 一个 五个 五个 糕点 芝麻球糕 三个 三个 水果 红菠萝 五个 两个 梨子 苹果 桔子 菠萝 三个 三个 三个 两个 糖果 一包 无 无 白花 一盆 新鲜草 一盆 158 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  邦加里压河的祖先祭品之意 : 一、 三支大香的意思是代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲),又可解释为三路(陆、海、 空),意思是 广泛开路。 二、 九支小香,“九”字来由是“九九长”,代表长命百寿,前途长远,希望凡是吉祥之事都能   长久。 三、 两支蜡烛代表阴阳平衡,万事平衡。古人都很聪明,蜡烛需要两支因为如果只有单支, 放左放右都不方便,放在正中呢,有遮住了大香与神位。别忘了,这些传统是古代传下 来的,古代的人穿的长袍都是又长又阔的长袖袍,一不小心被火烧了。 四、 金纸代表银行支票。 五、 五杯白酒代表五行(金、木、水、火、土)。 六、 三杯茶代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲),又象征三敬茶,尊敬上代祖宗。 七、 一碗米饭是敬给祖宗吃的。 八、 熟鸡,遮目鱼,和熟猪,又称三生,意思是三种有生命的动物。这三生是人们通常喜爱 吃的也是最易买到的。 九、 豆腐与丸子汤,鸡蛋,汤圆,是三种已故者最喜爱的食物。 十、 三个蛋糕与芝麻球糕是敬给祖宗吃的,因为在邦加里压河很容易买到的,所以用这两种 糕饼。每种糕饼有三个是代表上三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲)。 十一、三个梨子,苹果和桔子,这些水果除了颜色好看以外,也是很普通的水果,很容易买到。 每种水果有三个代表三代(曾祖父、祖父、父亲)。但是如果放于一个小盘子上,那么 三个水果排起来就好看。 十二、两个黄梨(菠萝),梨的发音与“利”相同是代表有利,利益;有利于他们下一代。菠萝 有两个代表生活平衡,生计平衡。 十三、一盆新鲜草代表蔬菜也代表他们花园的草木。  第二节 传统习俗方面的区别 廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河清明节习俗的区别 : 一、 在廖岛猛卡力斯,祭扫的时间并不限定在清明当天,但在前十天,后十天的范围内均可 但在邦加里压河,清明扫墓没肯定时间多长,主要是在清明当天。 二、 按照邦加里压河华人社会传统习俗,祭扫时,必须火烧用纸所做的其他祭品。但廖岛猛 卡力斯华人社会相信,火烧其他祭品都是根据梦中所收到的先人要求而定,如果没有受 到要求的话,就不必进行火烧其他祭品仪式。 三、 在庆祝清明节,廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会除了祭扫之外,还喜欢进行些户外活动,如踏 青,放风筝。放风筝是廖岛猛卡力斯华人社会清明节时所喜爱的活动。这个活动到今还 the comparison of….. (agustinus s. (黎欢仁), dkk) 159  有,他们相信清明节放风筝可以祛病祈福。但是在邦加里压河华人社会,他们没有进行 任何户外活动。  第三节 祭礼方面的区别 廖岛猛卡力斯的祭礼 : 一、 临去坟地之前,为了获得祭扫祖坟的许可,他们在家里得先祭拜玉皇大帝。 二、 祭拜土神是祭扫过程中的最初仪式,祭拜祖坟之前,他们得先祭拜新土。按照传统, 必须是老一辈或家长先祭拜。朝新土用五支小香祭拜,过后其他成员跟着祭拜。 三、 朝祖坟祭拜,首先必须用三支大香,然后继续在墓碑前用三支小香祭拜,其他成员跟 着祭拜,只用三支小香就行。 四、 祭礼过后,不久亲人们开始进行装墓活动,装墓就是装饰坟墓。 五、 最后是火烧纸钱仪式。除了烧纸钱之外,还把献给先人的其他祭品例如:纸衣、纸鞋、 纸车、纸飞机、纸房等火烧了(不须)。 邦加里压河的祭礼 : 一、 按照传统习俗,祭拜祖坟前,他们得先祭拜土神。首先家长必须用三支大香祭拜,接下 去用九支小香。过后才轮到其他家族成员,用九支小香就可以。 二、 祭拜祖坟,首先用三支大香,然后继续用九支小香。其他成员跟着祭拜,只用九支小香 就可以。 三、 祭拜过后,子孙们开始装饰坟地和拔草种花。 四、 最后的仪式是火烧金纸或纸币。除了烧金纸或纸币以外,也把所带了的用纸所做的其他 祭品,例如:纸衣、纸鞋、纸车、纸飞机和纸房火烧了(必须)。 第四节 装饰坟墓方面的区别 廖岛猛卡力斯的装饰坟墓活动 : 一、 平常使用五色墓纸装饰坟墓。 二、 通常他们把墓纸贴在坟墓的四周献置,有的纸上可以用小石头压着,另放一沓在墓碑 上。这沓墓纸又给祖坟另一优美的风光。 三、 坟上的墓纸作为坟地的顶棚,他们相信有了这个顶棚能给先人保暖,免先人躺在地下受 凉。 邦加里压河的装饰坟墓活动 : 一、 平常使用金纸装饰坟墓。 160 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no. 2 november 2012: 149-161  二、 通常他们把金纸折成一条小小花,然后全部都插入在祖坟上,作为坟地的顶棚,我们相 信有了这个顶棚能给已故者保暖。 三、 金纸也折成两条长带子,放在坟地的左右面上,这两条长带子又给坟地另一优美的风 光。 四、 插些小蜡烛围绕坟地的边缘,作为坟地的篱笆。 第五节 禁忌方面的区别 廖岛猛卡力斯的清明节禁忌 :  一、 寒食禁火,即在清明的前一天,只能吃准备好的凉菜。这是为了纪念介之推的牺牲,因 为介之推的传说与寒食节相干密切。 二、 清明节当天不宜参加喜事;结婚这样的喜事,也应避免在清明节当天举行。因为清明节 是祭祖节日,而婚事是一种喜事,所以祭祖与喜事相对,这恐怕一生会不吉利。 三、  扫墓不宜在黄昏或夜晚进行,扫墓严禁大声嬉笑,不许喧闹乱跑,否则视为对先人失敬。 四、 扫墓不宜穿红衣。原因是因为红色是代表喜气,所以扫 墓不可以穿红衣。 五、 孕妇,在例假中的女性不能参加扫墓活动,否则会对先人与土神失敬。 按照邦加里压河传统习俗,庆祝清明节只有一个禁忌即在例假中的女性不能祭拜土神,但 可以祭拜祖坟。由于土地公公是一位神仙,地位比先人高的多,所以我们得尊敬他。 结论 廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河华人社会到现在还进行和庆祝清明节传统习俗。他们认为清明 节有独特的地位,是中华民族的重大纪念日,对祖先的追悼与祭祖是传统社会民众生活的重要 内容。 在庆祝清明节,廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河华人社会有自己传统习俗的方法。这两个地方 的清明节习俗虽然不尽相同,但基本以扫墓祭祖为主题。每年清明节,他们就去探望祖先的坟 墓、清扫、祭拜、供奉各种食物还有烧金纸、纸币、纸衣或纸所做的其他祭品。这就是祭祖。 通过这项研究,笔者发现了廖岛猛卡力斯与邦加里压河的清明节传统习俗有很区别。所以笔者 从几个方面分析这些区别,即祭品方面的区别,传统习俗方面的区别,祭礼方面的区别,装饰 坟墓方面的区别,以及禁忌方面的区别。 祭品方面的区别可以从食物来看,例:在猛卡力斯一般素食,但在里压河一般用肉类。传 统习俗方面的区别可以从祭扫时间来看,例:在猛卡力斯祭扫时间并不限定在清明节当天,但 在里压河只在清明节当天而已。祭礼方面的区别可以从小香数量来看,例:在猛卡力斯,祭拜 祖坟用三支小香,在里压河却用九支小香。装饰坟墓方面的区别可以从不同的纸类看,猛卡力 斯一般用彩色墓纸,但里压河用金纸。还有禁忌方面的区别,猛卡力斯的清明节禁忌比里压河 较多。 the comparison of….. 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(2004). peradaban tionghoa selanjang pandang. jakarta: bhuana ilmu populer. yusuf, tedy. (2001). sekilas budaya tionghua di indonesia. jakarta: bhuana ilmu populer. 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 6-10 the difference of oral reading and writing of tiociu language 潮州方言的文白异读现象 lily thamrin program studi pendidikan bahasa mandarin, fkip, universitas tanjungpura jln. a. yani, pontianak, kalimantan barat chenpeiying1806@gmail.com / lilythamrin1806@gmail.com abstract article presented the difference of oral reading and writing of tiociu guangdong language, tiongkok. the language is divided by its oral and writing regulation consisting of three factors: consonant, vocal, and tone, as well as the description of different tiociu reading dialect. article focused on the analysis and description of the oral reading and the writing of tiociu language, which is divided into two parts: the tiociu phonetic system and the different regulation of oral reading and tiociu writing. it can be concluded that the different reading of oral and writing of tiociu language is mostly shown in the consonant pronunciation, whereas the vocal pronunciation less happened. keywords: oral reading, writing, tiociu language 摘要 本文主要讨论广东潮州方言的文白异读,分别从声母、韵母、声调三个方面分析潮州方言的文白异读 规律以及对潮州方言的文白异读进行描写。笔者主要讨论与描写潮州话的文白异读,具体分为两个部分:第一 部分是潮州话的音系;第二部分是潮州话文白异读的规律。通过归纳,我们可以看出韵母方面的文白异读比较 多,声母方面的文白异读比较少。潮州方言的文白异读类型归纳起来主要有六种:一是韵母声调不同,声母不 同;二是声母声调相同,韵母不同;三是声调相同,声母韵母不同;四是声母相同,韵母声调不同;声母韵母 相同,声调不同;六是声韵调都不同。 关键词: 潮州话, 闽语, 文白异读 7the difference of oral reading….. (lily thamrin) 引言 目前研究文白异读的文章已经不少了,大多 数的汉语方言都有文白异读的现象,但程度上有所 不同。比如:海口方言的文白异读有229个(杜依倩 2007),北京话的文白异读只有42个(曹先擢2001) ,广州话和客家话的文白异读大概有300个左右,是 在北京话与闽南话之间(刘镇发2003)。通过描写与 考察潮州方言的文白异读现象,可以反映出方言史, 甚至汉语音韵史某一阶段性、地域性特征。同时,它 与构词、构型的关系又突破了文白异读作为语音现象 的特征。因此,潮州方言的文白异读具有重要的研究 价值。 潮州话属于闽语的次方言,流行于广东东部的 潮汕平原。潮州话是最古老的方言之一,它保留较多 中古音的特点。文白异读是方言不同历史层次字音 的整合,方言里的文白异读反映了字音的不同历史 层次,是方言语音特点的重要表现。一般来说,白读 音用于口语,又称说话音,保存了更多地历史语音遗 留;文读音用于书面语,又称读书音,受到同时代共 同语更多影响。 文白读丰富是闽方言的共同特征,潮州话的文 白异读与其他闽南方言的文白异读相似,形成文读和 白读两个不同的系统。林春雨(2007)指出文白异读 一般规律性强,所以只有一个读音的字基本上都可以 根据规律判断其属于文读音还是白读音,文读音一般 以更接近官话系统读音为特征。而刘镇发(2007)发 现广州话梗摄开口三四等韵字的文白异读比较独特: 一是文读不是来自官话,而是来自本方言,二是白读 音可能是通过语言接触而移植过来的,换句说,文读 是固有的,白读是晚近的发展,而且是语言接触的 结果。 潮州话的音系 声母(18个,包括零声母 p 补斧盘把 ph抱浮蜂 b 梅卖米 m 毛名望 t 东代题度 th讨头拖 n 软努肉 l喇鲁老雷 ts水珠罪晴 tsh星试抄 s受输衫 z 儿惹绕 k 家姜基跪 kh 考气苦 g牛误外 ŋ 伍研雅 h狐害火 ǿ 碗奥芋 韵母(85个) ɿ 资徐书而 i 是字喜基 u 富如取有 a 炒亚巧早 ia 加车写骑 ua 华播拖 e 虾叉茶姐 ue 杯回花过 o 宝短澳初 io 票叫少 ɯ 举语鱼除 ai 排来开介 uai 怪 oi 批题街矮 ui 悲飞对鬼 au 包老交欧 iau标焦绍 ou 布古斗后 iu 丢友手彪 ã 担三角酵妈 ĩã 拼件声影 ũã 搬 ẽ 病猛星庚 ũẽ 横关妹 õ 俄望两 ĩõ 娘枪羊 ĩ 鼻尼圆 ãĩ 埋爱还 ũãĩ 果 õĩ 殿闲蚕 ũĩ 县畏危 ãũ 好傲 ĩãũ 尧苗 õũ 虎奴 ĩũ 休幽扭 am 含甘咸针 iam 点淹占闪 im 林深寻 aŋ班眼唐冬 iaŋ 凉香长 uaŋ方装光宣 eŋ平敬登宫 ieŋ 扁天善犬 ueŋ叛川欢全 oŋ 中充封公 ioŋ 恭穷营永 ɯŋ 郎仓段银 iŋ 民仁轻现 uŋ 寸军文 ap 答杂鸽 iap 蝶妾劫涉 uap 法 ip 立给执 ak 北角木乐 iak 别切侄设 uak 塑浊 ek 碧式特陆 iek 略雀弱跃 uek 拔决劣越 ok 牧足国或 iok曲浴蓄 ɯk 乞 ik 笔灭直日 uk 不出屈 aʔ 甲搭插 iaʔ 壁摘食额 uaʔ 泼割活 eʔ 百厉册 ueʔ 缺刷 oʔ 薄桌托 ioʔ 惜石页 iʔ 铁接舌 uʔ □喝luʔ oiʔ 八节 auʔ 乐 iauʔ □ 翻 iuʔ □挤kiuʔ ẽʔ 脉 ũẽʔ 物 õʔ 膜 ĩʔ □粘khĩʔ m 姆 ŋ̍ 远黄 ŋ̍ʔ □睡 声调 潮州话的声调共有8个,平上去入各分阴阳 阴平 33 姑爸家山知开诗蜂龟 阳平 55 柴鹅铜平陈寒迷 阴上 53 姐感尾早底死 阳上 35 内五老坐倍虹 阳去 213 吊教照菜唱世 阳去 11 地谢事用 阴入 21 识竹笔急 阳入 4 笛杂合药佛 潮州话的文白异读 声母文白异读对应举例 古非敷奉三母字,在潮汕方言中文读为[h-],白读音 为[p-][ph] 芳huaŋ³³ / phaŋ³³ 翻huaŋ⁵³ / põĩ⁵³ 蝮 hok²¹ / pak²¹ 妇hu³⁵ / pu³⁵ 飞hui³³ / pue³³ 夫 hu³³ / pou³³ 麸hu³³ / phou³³ 纺huaŋ⁵³ / paŋ⁵³ 缶 hu⁵³ / pao⁵³ 饭 huaŋ³⁵ / puŋ¹¹ 辐hok²¹ / pak²¹ 瓠 hok²¹ / pak²¹ 反 huaŋ⁵³ / poĩ⁵³ 放 huaŋ²¹³ / paŋ²¹³ 蝠hok²¹ / pak²¹ 缝 hoŋ⁵⁵ / phoŋ⁵⁵ 肪 huaŋ⁵³ / paŋ³³ 费 hui²¹³ / pi²¹³ 捧 hoŋ³⁵ / phoŋ³⁵ 仆 hu²¹³ / phok²¹ 微母字白读重唇音 [b -] 或 [m -] 无 bu⁵³、mou³⁵ 吻 buk²¹、muk²¹ 纹 buŋ⁵⁵、muŋ⁵⁵ 8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 6-10 舌上音知彻澄母字文读为[ʦ-] 或 [ʦh-],白读[t-] 或[ th-],如: 在 ʦai³⁵ / to³⁵ 丈~夫 ʦiaŋ³⁵ / ta⁵³ 锄ʦho⁵⁵ / te⁵⁵、the⁵⁵ 注 ʦu²¹³ / tu²¹³ 张 ʦiaŋ³³ / tĩõ³³ 长生~ ʦiaŋ⁵³ / tiõ⁵³ 长~短 ʦhiaŋ⁵⁵ / tiõ⁵⁵ 诈 ʦa²¹³ / te²¹³ 诛 ʦu³³ / tu³³ 转 ʦuaŋ⁵³ / teŋ⁵³ 胀 ʦiaŋ²¹³ / tiõ²¹³ 奓 ʦia²¹³ / te²¹³ 缠 ʦhaŋ⁵⁵ / tĩ⁵⁵ 缀 ʦhuak²¹ / tue²¹³ 住 ʦu⁵³ / tiu¹¹ 疑母字潮音通常白读为 [ ŋ ] ,文读为 [h] 我ŋo⁵³/ua⁵³ 五ŋou³⁵/u⁵³ 古以母字文读为 [ ǿ ] ,白读为[ h ]、 [ s ] 煜au²¹³/hiok²¹ 液ek⁴/sioʔ⁴ 游 iou⁵⁵/siu⁵ 翼ek⁴/sik⁴ 榕 ioŋ⁵⁵/seŋ⁵⁵ 匣母字文读音为 [ h ] ,白读音为[ k ] 悬 hiaŋ⁵⁵/kui⁵⁵ 挟 hiap²¹/koiʔ²¹ 廨 hai³⁵/kai²¹³ 咸 ham⁵⁵/kiam⁵⁵ 汗haŋ⁵³/kuã¹¹ 寒haŋ⁵⁵/kuã⁵⁵ 衔 ham⁵⁵/kã⁵⁵ 晓母字 文读音为 [ h ] ,白读音为[ kh ] 许he⁵³/khou⁵³ 呼鸡 hou³³/khou³³ hak²¹/khuaʔ²¹ 云母字一部分文读音为[ ǿ ],白读音为[ h ] 远 iaŋ⁵³ / hŋ³⁵ 雨u⁵³ / hou³⁵ 日母字文读音为[ z ] ,白读音为[ n ] 或 [ l ] 让 ziaŋ⁵³/niõ¹¹ 忍 zim⁵³/luŋ⁵³ 染ziam⁵³/ni⁵³ 纫 zim⁵³/nɯŋ⁵⁵ 汝 zɯ⁵³/lɯ⁵³ 瓤ziaŋ⁵⁵/nɯŋ⁵⁵ “船禅”白读为 [ʦ-]、[ʦh-],文读为 [s-] (船)食ʦiaʔ⁴/sik⁴ 禅)树ʦhiu¹¹/su 上 ʦiõ³⁵/siaŋ³⁵ 见母字白读都读为舌根音[k-]或[kh-] 家ke³³ 个kai¹¹ 姑kou³³ 乖kuai³³ 句ku²¹³ 九kau⁵³ 矿khuaŋ²¹³ 脚kha³³ 箍khou³³ 金kim³³ 韵母文白异读对应举例 假摄开口二等帮组字文读为[a]、[ia] ,白读为[e] 爸pa¹¹/pe³⁵ 把pa⁵³/pe⁵³ 马 ma⁵³/be⁵³ 加kia³³/ke³³ 家kia³³/ke³³ 假kia⁵³/kẽ⁵³ 遇摄合口一等文读音为[u],白读音为[ou] 夫hu³³/pou³³ 塗tʽu⁵⁵/tʽou⁵⁵ 妇hu³³/bou³³ 五u⁵⁵/ŋou³⁵ 互hu³⁵/hou¹¹ 麸hu³³/phou³³ 古ku²¹/kou²¹ 图thu⁵⁵/tou⁵⁵ 鸪ku³³/kou³³ 糊hu⁵⁵/kou⁵⁵ 素su²¹³/sou²¹³ 哺pu²¹³/pou¹¹ 狐hu⁵⁵/hou⁵⁵ 葫芦hu⁵⁵lu⁵⁵/hou⁵⁵lou⁵⁵ 胡hu⁵⁵/hou⁵⁵ 顾 ku²¹³/kou²¹³ 橹 lu⁵³/lou⁵³ 乌 u³³/ou³³ 止摄开口三等字 文读为[i],白读为[ai]、[ui] 、[ue] 西si³³/sai³³ 痞phi⁵³/phai⁵³ 狸 li⁵⁵/lai⁵⁵ 利 li³⁵/lai¹¹ 气khi²¹³/khui²¹³ 衣i³³/ui³³ 屁 phi³⁵/phui²¹³ 卑pi³³/pui³³ 糜mi⁵⁵/mue⁵⁵ 髻 ki²¹³/kue²¹ 蟹摄开口三四等字文读为[i],白读为[oi] 低ti⁵³/toi⁵³ 底ti⁵³/toi⁵³ 礼li⁵³/loi⁵³ 詈 li²¹³/loi²¹³ 黎li⁵⁵/loi⁵⁵ 稗pi⁵³/phoi¹¹ 果摄开合口一三等字文读为[o],白读为[ua] 柯ko³³/kua³³ 磨mo⁵⁵/bua⁵⁵ 萝lo⁵⁵/lua⁵⁵ ²¹ 歌 ko³³/kua 效摄开口一等字文读音为[au],白读音为[o] 毛mau⁵⁵/mo⁵⁵ 告kau²¹³/ko²¹³ 好hau⁵³/ho⁵³ 栳 lau⁵³/lo⁵³ 醪lau⁵⁵/liau⁵⁵ 淘thau⁵⁵/to⁵⁵ 枣 ʦau⁵⁵/ʦo⁵⁵ 草ʦhau⁵³/tsho⁵³ 曹ʦhau⁵⁵/ʦho⁵⁵ 藁 kau⁵³/ko⁵³ 缟 kau⁵³/ko⁵³ 懊 au²¹³/o²¹³ 鏖 au³³/o³³ 槁kau⁵³/ko⁵³ 抱 phau³⁵/pho³⁵ 蟹摄开口一二等字文读为[ai] ,白读为[oi] 界kai²¹³/koi²¹³ 矮 ai³³/oi³³ 盖kai²¹³/koi²¹³ 揩kai³³/koi³³ 流摄开口一三等字文读音为[iu],白读音为[au]、[ u ] 瘤liu⁵⁵/lau⁵⁵ 昼tiu³⁵/tau²¹³ 留liu⁵⁵/lau⁵⁵ 溜 liu²¹³/lau²¹³ 纽niu⁵³/nau³⁵ 流liu⁵⁵/lau⁵⁵ 寇 khou²¹³/khau²¹³ 垢kou²¹³/kau⁵³ m有 iu⁵³/u⁵³ 丘 khiu³³/ku³³ 九 kiu⁵³/kau⁵³ 宕摄开口一等字文读为[aŋ] ,白读为[eŋ] 缸 kaŋ³³/keŋ³³ 糠 khaŋ³³/kheŋ³³ 岗kaŋ³³/keŋ³³ 塘thaŋ³³/theŋ³³ 挡taŋ²¹³/teŋ²¹³ 当taŋ⁵⁵/teŋ⁵⁵ 嗓 saŋ⁵³/seŋ⁵³ 堂 thaŋ⁵⁵/taŋ⁵⁵ 深摄开口一二等字文读音为[aŋ],白读音为[uã] 、[õĩ] 丹taŋ³³/tuã³³ 安aŋ³³/uã³³ 霰saŋ²¹³/suã²¹³ 竿kaŋ³³/kuã³³ 秆kaŋ⁵³/kuã³³ 瘫thaŋ³³/thuã³³ 鼾haŋ³³/huã³³ 蛋taŋ²¹³/tuã³³ 晏 aŋ²¹³/uã²¹³ 干 kaŋ³³/kuã³³ 案aŋ²¹³/uã²¹³ 癍paŋ³³/poĩ³³ 瘢paŋ³³/poĩ³³ 拣 kaŋ⁵³/koĩ⁵³ 梗摄开口三四等字文读为[eŋ],白读音[ĩã] 情ʦheŋ⁵⁵/ʦĩã⁵⁵ 盛seŋ/sĩã 成seŋ⁵⁵/ʦĩã⁵⁵ 锭teŋ³⁵/tĩã³⁵ 聘pheŋ²¹³/phiã²¹³命meŋ³⁵/miã¹¹ 定teŋ³⁵/tiã¹¹ 名meŋ⁵⁵/miã⁵⁵ 坪pheŋ⁵⁵/phiã⁵⁵ 通摄合口一三等字文读音为[oŋ],白读音为[aŋ] 功koŋ³³/gaŋ³³ 冻toŋ²¹³/taŋ²¹³ 洪hoŋ⁵⁵/aŋ⁵⁵ 空khoŋ³³/khaŋ³³ 笼loŋ⁵³/laŋ⁵³ 篷phoŋ⁵⁵/phaŋ⁵⁵ 洪hoŋ⁵⁵/aŋ⁵⁵ 红hoŋ⁵⁵/aŋ⁵⁵ 董toŋ⁵³/taŋ⁵³ 脓loŋ⁵⁵/laŋ⁵⁵ 桐 thoŋ⁵⁵/thaŋ⁵⁵ 曈thoŋ⁵⁵/taŋ⁵⁵ 洞thoŋ¹¹/taŋ¹¹ 动 toŋ³⁵/taŋ³⁵ 骏ʦoŋ³³/ʦaŋ³³ 东 toŋ³³/taŋ³³ 中toŋ³³/taŋ³³ 重toŋ³⁵/taŋ³⁵ 同toŋ⁵⁵/taŋ⁵⁵ 松 soŋ⁵⁵/saŋ⁵⁵ 冬toŋ³³/taŋ³³ 效摄开口三四等字文读为[ iau ] ,白读为 [ io ] 表 piau⁵³/pio³³ 挑thiau³³/thio³³ 曜iau³⁵/io¹¹ 标 phiau⁵⁵/pio⁵⁵ 小 siau⁵³/sio⁵³ 招ʦiau³³/ʦio³³ 摇 iau⁵⁵/io⁵⁵ 山摄开口三四等字文读音为[iaŋ],白读音为[i ̃] 、[õĩ] 绵 miaŋ⁵⁵/mĩ⁵⁵ 见 kiaŋ²¹³/kĩ²¹³ 燕 iaŋ²¹³/ĩ²¹³ 舷hiaŋ⁵⁵/hĩ⁵⁵ 扁 piaŋ⁵³/pĩ⁵³ 边 piaŋ³³/pĩ³³ 天thiaŋ³³/thĩ³³ 面miŋ³³/mĩ³³ 匾piaŋ⁵³/pĩ⁵³ 鞯ʦiaŋ³³/ʦĩ³³ 变 piaŋ²¹³/pĩ²¹³ 癜tiaŋ³⁵/toĩ¹¹ 研ŋiaŋ⁵³/ŋoĩ⁵³ 殿tiaŋ³⁵/toĩ¹¹ 楝liaŋ¹¹/noĩ⁵⁵ 9the difference of oral reading….. (lily thamrin) 宕摄开口三等字音为[ iaŋ ],白读音为[ iõ ] 张ʦiaŋ³³/tĩõ³³ 洋iaŋ⁵⁵/ĩĩõ⁵⁵ 阳iaŋ⁵⁵/iõ⁵⁵ 乡hiaŋ³³/hiõ³³ 糨ʦiaŋ²¹³/ʦiõ²¹³ 梁liaŋ⁵⁵/niõ⁵⁵ 养iaŋ⁵³/iõ⁵³ 镶siaŋ³³/siõ³³ 相siaŋ³³/sio³³ 痒iaŋ³⁵/ʦiõ³⁵ 章ʦiaŋ³³/ʦiõ³³ 炀iaŋ⁵⁵/iõ⁵⁵ 长长大ʦiaŋ⁵³/tiõ⁵³ 姜kiaŋ³³/kiõ³³ 娘niaŋ⁵⁵/niõ⁵⁵ 烊 iaŋ⁵⁵/iõ⁵⁵ 想 siaŋ⁵³/siõ³⁵ 杨iaŋ⁵⁵/iõ⁵⁵ 樟ʦiaŋ³³/ʦiõ³³ 量liaŋ⁵⁵/niõ⁵⁵ 胀ʦiaŋ²¹³/tiõ²¹³ 鲳 ʦhiaŋ³³/ʦhiõ³³ 梁liaŋ⁵⁵/niõ⁵⁵ 梁liaŋ⁵⁵/niỏ⁵⁵ 量liaŋ⁵⁵ / niõ⁵⁵ 通摄合口三等字文读为[ ioŋ ],白读为[ eŋ ] 雄 hioŋ⁵⁵/heŋ⁵⁵ 壅ioŋ⁵³/eŋ⁵³ ioŋ⁵⁵/seŋ⁵⁵ 穷khioŋ⁵⁵/keŋ⁵⁵ 山摄合口一二等字文读音为[uaŋ],白读音为[uã] 鳗buaŋ⁵³/mũã⁵⁵ 换huaŋ²¹³/uã¹¹ 盘phuaŋ⁵⁵/puã⁵⁵ 掼kuaŋ²¹³/kuã³⁵ 宽 khuaŋ³³/khuã³³ 还huaŋ³³/huã³³ 山摄合口一二等字和宕摄合口一三等字文读音为 [uaŋ],白读音为[eŋ] 全ʦhuaŋ⁵⁵/ʦeŋ⁵⁵ 传thuaŋ⁵⁵/teŋ⁵⁵ 算suaŋ²¹³/seŋ²¹³ 光kuaŋ³³/keŋ³³ 管kuaŋ⁵³/keŋ⁵³ 穿ʦhuaŋ³³/ʦheŋ³³ 卷kuaŋ³⁵/keŋ⁵³ 转ʦuaŋ⁵³/teŋ⁵³ 栓ʦhuaŋ⁵⁵/seŋ⁵⁵ 深摄开口三等字文读为[im],白读音为[am] 淋lim⁵⁵/nam⁵⁵ 曾摄开口一三等字文读为[eŋ],白读为[aŋ]、[iŋ] 曾 ʦeŋ³³/ ʦaŋ³³ 承seŋ⁵⁵/ siŋ⁵⁵ 咸摄开口三四等字文读音为[iam],白读音为[ ĩ ] 添 thiam³³/thĩ³³ 钳 khiam⁵⁵/khĩ⁵⁵ 拈niam³³/nĩ³³ 咸摄开口一二等字文读音为[am],白读音为[ã] 三sam³³/sã³³ 揞am³³/ã⁵³ 淡tam³⁵/tã³⁵ 咸摄开口二等字文读音为[-p],白读音为[-ʔ] 夹 kiap²¹/koiʔ²¹ 挟hiap⁴/oiʔ⁴ 山摄开口一二三四等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 蔑mik⁵/biʔ⁵ 拔puak⁴/poiʔ⁴ 撒sak²¹/suaʔ²¹ 热 ziak⁴/zuaʔ⁴ 刮 kuak²¹/kuaʔ²¹节ʦak²¹/ʦaʔ²¹ 山摄合口一三等文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 末 muak²¹/buaʔ⁴ 伐huak⁴/huaʔ 阅 luak²¹/luaʔ²¹ 厥khiak²¹/khiaʔ²¹ 臻摄开口三等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 乞 khek²¹/kheʔ²¹ 臻摄合口一等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 窟khuk²¹/kuʔ²¹ 宕摄开口一三等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 烙 lok⁴/luaʔ²¹ 骆 lok⁴/loʔ⁴ 索sok²¹³/soʔ² 作ʦak²¹/ʦoʔ²¹ 约 iak²¹/ioʔ²¹ 略liak⁴/liaʔ⁴ 梗摄开口三四等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 逆 ŋek⁴ / geʔ⁴ 剔thek²¹/thak²¹ 液 ek⁴ / sioʔ⁴ 曾摄开口一等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 刻 khek²¹/khak²¹ 通摄合口三等字文读音为[-k],白读音为[-ʔ] 曲 khek²¹/khak²¹粬 khek²¹/khak²¹ 文白异读的层次 广东潮州话“下”有四个不同的读音:hia³⁵ ;e³⁵ ;ke³⁵; he³⁵,从声韵调的系统性来看, 从声母hia 、he可归纳为文读;ke为白读层,韵母 分-ia为文读;-e为白读。另外还可归纳e是最早的层 次;ke是第二的层次;he是第三的; hia是最后的层 次因为假摄开口二三等字文读音为a、ia白读音为e。 表2 例字 声母 韵母 声调 文读1 文读2 白读 文读 白读1 白读3 下 h h k ia e e e 阳上 在广东潮州话“方”有4种不同读法:huaŋ³³ 方向; hŋ³³药方; puŋ³³姓方; paŋ³³平房。如果 以文白异读系统性来出发,以声韵调为文白异读研究 的基本单位,我们可以归纳出4个读音中声母可以分 为文读h-和白读p-两个层次:韵母分为白读1-ŋ是最 早的层次;其次白读2 -aŋ和白读3 -uŋ是同一个层 次,最后文读音 uaŋ,所以有 3个层次;声调只有 一个层次。 表3 例字 声母 韵母 声调 文读1 文读2 白读 文读1 白读1 白读2 白读 3 方 h h p uaŋ ŋ aŋ uŋ 阴平 在潮州话和闽南漳平话“陈“有三种不同读 音,一般认为一种文读,两种白读。(张振兴) (1992)把tin³³看作是文读,把ʦan³³、tan³³看作 是白读主要是从语汇因素考虑,因为中药名的读音 通常是文读,“安陈”的ʦan³³和作姓氏、当地地名 用tan³³都出在口语词里,口语词的读音通常是白 读。所以我们可推出潮州话把ʦhiŋ⁵⁵看作文读音,把 thiŋ⁵⁵、 taŋ⁵⁵看作是白读音。 表4 文读 白读1 白读2 闽南漳 平话 tin³³陈皮,中药名) ʦan³³(安陈) tan³³(1.姓,陈村) 广东潮 州话 ʦhiŋ⁵⁵(陈皮,中 药名) thiŋ⁵⁵(陈列) taŋ⁵⁵ (1.姓,陈村) (张振兴)(1992)从语音标准来看,“陈”是 臻韵澄目字,根据文白异读的系统性,在漳平话里,臻韵 读-an是白读层的读音,读-in是文读层的读音;澄母读t是白读层的读音,读ʦ-是文读层次的读音。在潮汕话,臻 摄合口三等字读-aŋ是白读音层的读音,读-iŋ是文读音层 的读音,澄母读t-、th-是白读层的读音,读ʦ、ʦh-是文读 层的读音。这说明最早的白读层是taŋ⁵⁵,其次是thiŋ⁵⁵, 最后才出现文读层ʦhiŋ⁵⁵。 表5 例字 声母 韵母 声调 文读1 文读2 白读 文读1 文读2 白读 行 h h k ẽ eŋ iã 阳平 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 6-10 以 上 的 表 可 归 纳 为 声 韵 的 文 白 异 读 层 次,“kiã⁵⁵步~”可归为最早的白读层读音,因为 kiã⁵⁵是最早出现在口语词汇里 ,其次“hẽ⁵⁵时~” ,最后才出现“heŋ⁵⁵~李”。 声调方面的文白异读对应举例 古浊声母去声字今文读为阳上,白读为阳去的: 健 kiaŋ³⁵/kiã¹¹ 互 hu³⁵/hou¹¹ 赖 nai³⁵/lua¹¹ 定 teŋ³⁵/tiã¹¹ 命 meŋ³⁵/miã¹¹ 浪 laŋ³⁵/nɯŋ¹¹ 艾 ŋai³⁵/hiã¹¹ 烂 laŋ³⁵/miã¹¹ 树 su³⁵/ʦhiu¹¹ 易 i³⁵/koi¹¹ 曜 iau³⁵/io¹¹ 哺 pu³⁵/pou¹¹ 癜 tiaŋ³⁵/toĩ¹¹ 饭 huaŋ³⁵/puŋ¹¹ 利 li³⁵/lai¹¹ 古浊声母去声字文读音为阴上,白读音为阳去的: 汗 haŋ⁵³/kuã¹¹ 奶 nai⁵³/ni¹¹ 稗 pi⁵³/phoi¹¹ 韧ziŋ⁵³/zuŋ¹¹ 古清浊声母上声字文读音为阳平,白读音为阳上的: 五 u⁵⁵/ŋou³⁵ 颔ham⁵⁵/am³⁵ 古浊声母去声文读音为阳上,白读音为阴去的: 屁 phi³⁵/phui²¹³ 迸 peŋ³⁵/poŋ²¹³ 昼tiu³⁵/tau²¹³ 古清浊声母上声文读音为阴上,白读音为阳上的: 远 iaŋ⁵³/heŋ³⁵ 纽niu⁵³/nau³⁵ 想 siaŋ⁵³/siõ³⁵ 耳zɯ⁵³/hĩ³⁵ 缶 hu⁵³/pau³⁵ 古浊声母字入声字文读音为阳入,白读音为阴入的: 嫡 tek⁴/tiak²¹ 瘪 pik⁴/biʔ²¹ 翼ek⁴/sik²¹ 古清声母平声字文读音为阴上,白读音为阳平的: 肪 huaŋ⁵³/paŋ³³ 秆 kaŋ⁵³/kuã³³ 古浊声母上声字文读音为阴平,白读音为阳上的: 瓦 ua³³/hia³⁵ 爸pa³³/pe³⁵ 古浊声母去声字文读音为阴入,白读音为阴去的: 尉uk²¹/ue²¹³ 缀 ʦhuak²¹/tue²¹³ 古浊声母上声字文读音为阴去,白读音为阴上的: 睇 thi²¹³/thoĩ⁵³ 垢kou²¹³/kau⁵³ 结语 以上分别从潮州话声、韵、调三方面列举文读 音和白读音的对应关系。从中可以看出:韵母方面的文白 异读较多,声母方面的文白异读较少。归纳起来,潮州方 言文白异读主要有六种不同类型: 第一、韵母声调相同,声母不同的: 妇 hu³⁵/pu³⁵ 岁sue²¹³/hue²¹³ 痣 ʦi²¹³/ki²¹³ 注 ʦu²¹³/tu²¹³ 蜜mik⁴/bik⁴ 第二、声母声调相同,韵母不同的。例如: 糜 mi⁵⁵/mue⁵⁵ 西si³³/sai³³ 菠 po³³/pue³³ 平 pheŋ⁵⁵/pe⁵⁵ 小sio⁵³/siau⁵³ 第三、声调相同,声母韵母不同。例如: 红 hoŋ⁵⁵/aŋ⁵⁵ 纺huaŋ⁵³/paŋ⁵³ 缠ʦaŋ⁵⁵/tĩ⁵⁵ 鳃 sai³³/ʦhĩ³³ 鳝 siaŋ³⁵/ʦuã³⁵ 梁liaŋ⁵⁵/niõ⁵⁵ 第四、声母相同,韵母声调不同。例如: 互 hu³⁵/hou¹¹ 定teŋ³⁵/tiã¹¹ 纽niu⁵³/nau³⁵ 迸peŋ³⁵/poŋ²¹³ 健 kiaŋ³⁵/kiã¹¹ 奶nai⁵³/ni¹¹ 第五、声母韵母相同,声调不同。例如: 消 siau³⁵/siau³³ 第六、声韵调都不同。例如: 朗laŋ³⁵/nɯŋ¹¹ 艾ŋai³⁵/hia¹¹ 耳zɯ⁵³/hĩ³⁵ 翼 ek⁴/sik²¹ 饭 huaŋ³⁵/puŋ¹¹ 嫡tek⁴/tiaʔ²¹ 参考文献 北京大学中国语言文学系语言学教研室编(2002)《汉 语方言词汇》,语文出版社。 曹先擢 (2001) 关于普通话文白异读的答问,《辞 书研究》第一期 陈忠敏 (2003) 重论文白异读与语音层次,《语言 研究》第3期。 杜依倩 (2007) 海口方言的文白异读,《海南大学 学报人文社会科学版》第2期。 林春雨 (2007) 广东南澳岛云澳话文白异读及历史层 次,《广东技术师范学院报》第5期 刘镇发 (2007) 从方言比较看广州话梗摄开口三四等 韵字文白异读的由来,《方言》第4期 刘镇发 (2003)粤语和客家语在文白异读上的比较, 《第六届国际粤方言学研讨会论文集》,澳门 中国语文学会 张振兴 (1992) 《漳平方言研究》,北京中国社会科 学出版社。 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 123 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 123-128 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.4075 how difficult is claiming knowledge? a study from cognitive domain perspective in writing international scientific article umu arifatul azizah1; tosriadi2 1,2graduate school of english department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a kentingan, surakarta, indonesia 1umuarifatulazizah@gmail.com; 2adytandjung7@gmail.com received: 16th october 2017/revised: 11th january 2018/accepted: 15th january 2018 how to cite: azizah, u. a., & tosriadi. (2018). how difficult is claiming knowledge? a study from cognitive domain perspective in writing international scientific article. lingua cultura, 12(2), 123-128. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.4075 abstract this research examined and elaborated the challenges in claiming knowledge faced by students relating to writing in the international scientific article in english. the participants were 20 english master students from one of the universities in indonesia. the researchers used a questionnaire to find out the coverage level of the difficulties regarding knowledge claim in writing for publication. the researchers also chose purposive sampling technique because the chosen respondents had the adequate experience in writing international scientific article. the researchers find that knowledge explication that considers the writer to use complex thinking is the most difficult stage of thinking in writing the international scientific article. surprisingly, knowledge analysis is the easiest one for the participants. despite this, the researchers hope that the findings lead to useful insight into how the students claim the knowledge well. eventually, discovering the exact method to improve students’ competency in claiming knowledge will be the further study. keywords: claiming knowledge, cognitive perspective, international scientific article introduction flower and hayes in manchón (2009) has stated that writing is a cyclical cognitive activity in which the writers formulate the ideas into language and transcribing the idea into writing. as a thinking process, the writer can draw the concept of writing and then can give unlimited revisions before the writer publish the work (brown, 1994). thus, it leads to a paradigm that if the writers write well, they need to know what they are talking about without underestimating knowledge in writing. it means that in writing, the writers bring knowledge into being, and they record and preserve it. however, in term of high-level education, many people argue that students’ and scholars’ mind look like an empty bucket to be filled by many sources of knowledge such as books, articles, lecturers, and tutorials that will support them in their writing process. agreeing with this surrounding, undeniably, students in tertiary education are required to construct the idea from the expert’s perspective in their writing. however, they are not considered as the expert on the related topic because of their high quality of writing (tardy, 2010). it is important to realize that the students or the writers, in this case, need to learn and to write to make the good article. the students must be aware at the outset in particular fields of knowledge that they have never studied before, they can bring certain method. it is usually mentioned as preconceptions, prejudices, a certain amount of disjointed knowledge, and a certain facility (taylor, 2009). writing for publication becomes a prominent academic work in higher education which can be assumed from ware in lilis and curry (2010). it is stated that academic writing for research publication takes place around the globe, involving 5,5 million scholars, 2.000 publishers, and 17.500 research/higher education institutions. many graduate students try writing process to complete the paper assignment, write for an international conference, or prepare a manuscript to publish in the reputable journal as the requirement of study. in language education, writing for publication can be seen as a good way to gain the professionalism in the competitive world. casanave and vandrick (2008) have argued that writing international scientific article becomes a critical issue for those in language education. it is becoming the inevitable corollary of the apparent purpose of securing and keeping an academic position. moreover, researching and writing about the related topic in teaching area lead to the increase of professional and intellectual academics to share their 124 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 123-128 knowledge. they probably become better practitioners in the process of critical thinking in writing. additionally, writing for publication is not considered as the easy project for students in a college. in another word, there are many challenges in the writing process. collins (2015) has summarized that the most common barriers for graduate students in writing for an article. it includes lacking adequate training for writing, having the concept of writing is not for me, feeling like they do not have adequate knowledge, mismanaging the time, allowing the others to involve in their project, and discounting the origin of writing. however, it is difficult for faculty to support or give the necessary attention to all students to develop their writing skill. roberts (2016) has stated that to make writing for publication becomes easier, it is started by getting a draft and continued by putting anything down, developing the idea, revising, and refining. this case seems highly possible to be concerned for the writer. zhu as cited in jiang, borg, and borg (2017) have found that many chinese scholars prioritize publications in the international journal as the current trend. the scholars in indonesia should follow this trend too. rathert and okan (2015) have agreed that writing for publication is not only for teacher learning but it also could improve the quality of teaching in the classroom and inform research. however, writing for publication is rather challenging for relevant parties. salager-meyer (2014) has explained that the teacher in this case as the researchers face the difficulty in writing academically. they conduct valid and reliable research on the basis of international publication for the loose of sense in writing communicatively. then, the teachers sometimes avoided taking up writing due to unfavorable working conditions. next, borg as cited in rathert and okan (2015) has assumed that writing for the international scientific article is not regarded as a core duty of teachers. additionally, the psychological distance between teachers and research might be based on teachers’ concerns that research is potentially parasitical. the researchers often believe in serving their needs by exploiting the teachers’ contexts (cochransmith & lytle in rathert & okan, 2015). the exclusion of teachers from participation in educational discourse is often promoted institutionally to prevent them from raising their voices in decision-making processes beyond the classroom (perrillo in rathert & okan, 2015). for the most part, these are categorized as the problem appearing from teachers’ paradigm. therefore, salager-meyer (2008) has analyzed the main problems that are faced by most peripheral journals and national role states in scientific activities in developing countries. the challenges involve the discursive (language related) and non-discursive problems that are faced by peripheral researchers. she finds that non-native writers are rejected in the elite journal because their weaknesses in using english, providing their argument, and lacking facilities such as internet connection. moreover, flowerdew (1999) in hongkong finds that there are many difficulties faced by chinese students in writing for international publication. one of the difficulties is the way to claim knowledge. the point could be noted from the research is the possible alternative to claim knowledge easily. the other research is karimnia (2013) who explores the researchers of tefl in iranian universities. it is found that they face the difficulty in embedding the knowledge, describing their work accurately, and arranging their claim effectively due to problems with vocabulary. comparing to these researches, the similarity of this research is it investigates the difficulties that are faced by the non-native writer in writing the international scientific article. one of the difficulties is how the participants use their knowledge in writing. however, the focus is different. this current investigation uses five stage of the cognitive domain. meanwhile, the previous researches focus on language, discourse organization, and vocabulary. another perspective about claiming knowledge should be discussed from byers (2016). he has argued that there is undeniably a relevant concept for cognitive development. it could be gained through a critical appraisal of a particular way of conceptualizing or characterizing (exemplified by the above question) as a tool for scientific inquiry. furthermore, he adds that claiming knowledge is what a person is known about the use of various forms of the verb ‘know’ (as well as related verbs such as to understand, to be aware, etc.) accompanied by a propositional expression of what is known. he offers the study of claiming knowledge of children’s to the cognitive development. he attempts to characterize the children’s knowledge regarding claiming knowledge. it is repeatedly invalidated by children’s inconsistently normative uses of counting. the children attempt to infer the hidden structural or generative basis for behavior such as the underlying conceptual structures that guide children’s use of numbers and counting. this is in line with a cognitivist goal of going inside the black box and inferring the hidden mechanisms of thought and behavior. moreover, characterizing children’s knowledge regarding propositional knowledge claims such as propositional statements involve the verbs ‘know’ or ‘understand’. for example, she knows the meaning of number three. propositional claiming knowledge is commonly made in everyday life, and might also be found in psychological research. elsewhere, it has been claimed that these approaches commit a sort of category error insofar they conflate descriptions of developmental processes. then, he argues that claiming the descriptions of capacities have been misapplied as descriptions of knowledge in the form of internal representations (byers, 2016). furthermore, in claiming knowledge in design, beck and stolterman (2016) have discussed the possibility that it might be an effective way to distinguish the design discipline from other disciplines. it compares the kinds of claiming knowledge that is made in journal publications from the natural sciences, social sciences, and design. in this context, it can be distinguished as an intellectual culture by its object of study. for instance, the natural sciences learn the natural world, the social sciences learn the social world, and design research learns the artificial world. studying the artificial world can be meant learning the way designers think about possible futures and designed artifacts or theorizing the design process or other topics. studying these topics necessarily requires a repertoire of research. each approach potentially produces different kinds of knowledge. it can be seen that this repertoire manifests in the variety of research backgrounds and training in the design discipline that is likely to possess. a shortlist of backgrounds can include the cognitive science, linguistics, management science, design, and the humanities. these backgrounds can potentially lead to research that produces different kinds of knowledge. for instance, a cognitive scientist likely produces factual knowledge that can be shown to be true or false. meanwhile, humanities scholars may produce value knowledge, which cannot be proven true or false. another way to distinguish an intellectual culture 125how difficult is.... (umu arifatul azizah; tosriadi) may be to look at one of the products of its inquiry, claiming knowledge. linking between making knowledge and second language, matsuda and silva (2005) have shown an example of meta-disciplinary historiography. it is based on careful and critical processes collection, corroboration, and interpretation of historical data. then, during formative years of second language studies and its constituent fields, a number of scholars make serious attempts to take stock of the past to understand the present and consider the directions for the future. then, there is the argument that social scientific research method is the dominant mode of knowledge making. christopher (2016) has shown the wider context of claiming knowledge which could be seen at narrative research in education. he argues that it is commonly administered in research methodology. in narrative research, researchers capture the testimony of the participants relating to several topics. as an illustration, researchers explore the opinion from participants about how they feel about teaching. such testimony in narrative educational research commonly relies on teachers. they provide explanations of how their background, knowledge, and expertise have shaped them to teach in the manner in which they do teach. relating to claiming knowledge, bereiter and scardamalia as cited in mcnif (2015) have summarized that in writing for publication, the writer should use the cognitive domain as an extended model in claiming knowledge. there are five models appeared. first, knowledge telling refers to the description of the author regarding what she/he has been done in work. second, knowledge transformation is when the author considers how the message of the study is transferred and shared with the reader communicatively. third, knowledge analysis means the author has to reflect critically on the knowledge that they embed on the research. what they write has to be considered in a communicative way. fourth, in knowledge synthesis, the author has to explain their work communicatively so the readers could understand it. fifth, knowledge explication is considered as complex thinking. the author has to elaborate the work in detail and conclude the theory that they adopt from practice critically. based on several previous types of research, the gap is the previous investigation on the writers or participants’ skill in claiming knowledge in writing the article is in a general way. to fulfill the gap, the researchers will investigate it by using the cognitive domain perspective to explore the participants’ problems. then, to conduct this research, the researchers figure out some university students that have an academic work to write the international scientific article. thus, the researchers choose 20 university students who have special characteristic from english master degree in one of the universities in indonesia. it is to find out the level of difficulty of claiming knowledge in writing the international scientific article. then, to reach the objective of this research, the researchers formulate the research question. it is how difficult “claiming knowledge” is in writing for the international scientific article based on cognitive domain perspective. methods the purpose of this research is to identify the level of difficulty faced by university students at claiming knowledge in writing the international scientific article. it is examined by using cognitive domain perspective of students. the concern of this research does not only figure out the problem in particular section of research but also examines the difficulty in claiming knowledge on the general part of an academic article. this research uses quantitative approach by counting the mean of difficulty options from each indicator. it aims to find out the level of difficulty. the participants involved are 20 university students (14 females and 6 males) from one of the universities in indonesia. all participants are students of english master degree who have the assignment to write the international scientific article in an academic writing class. they are chosen by using purposive sampling since they have particular characteristics such as educational background. the most considerable thing is their experience in facing the process of writing an international article that is suitable for this research. based on the surrounding, they are highly considered as the representative of the indonesian university students of master degree level. moreover, a closed-ended questionnaire is considered as the best technique to find out the difficulty level of this research. it provides several questions and options. according to fraenkel and wallen (2009), this technique allows participants to select the answer from a number of options. therefore, it is easy to use, score, and code to analyze. the questionnaire is self-constructed by considering the questions from research by azizah and budiman (2017). the questionnaire consists of 10 questions classified from five indicators of cognitive domain perspective. then, it is categorized on three levels: not difficult, moderately difficult, and strongly difficult. the questionnaire is distributed using google form. ary et al. (2010) have stated that questionnaire is constructed and placed on the website to allow the respondents to answer the questions and submit it easily. this way is considered as an effective and efficient technique since the researcher and respondents are not necessary to meet face to face. then, literature triangulation is used in analyzing the findings. thus, some theories are involved in the discussion. results and discussions the questionnaires are distributed to the students to figure out the level of difficulty at claiming knowledge based on cognitive domain perspective in writing for the international scientific article. after the data are collected, it shows the percentage. then, mean of the difficulty level is displayed as the benchmark of describing the data. the result is in table 1. table 1 percentage of students’ responses on difficulty level statements not difficult moderately difficult strongly difficult sometimes i am confused to draw the concept of my research. 15,8 15,8 68,4 i often get difficulty to explain what i have done in my research. 0 36,8 63,2 126 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 123-128 table 1 percentage of students’ responses on difficulty level (continued) statements not difficult moderately difficult strongly difficult i find it is difficult to convey my perspective from other related articles. 10,5 36,8 52,7 i do not find the proper way to convey the idea to the reader. 0 63,2 36,8 i find that it is difficult to give my critical thinking in my writing. 15,8 26,3 57,9 i argue that it is hard to put my knowledge communicatively in my writing. 5,3 52,6 42,1 i find it is difficult to conclude some related articles. 0 57,9 42,1 i think that the process of summing up the related article is not easy to explain in communicative way. 0 31,6 68,4 i find that it is difficult to explain my perspective toward theory in detail. 5,3 10,5 84,2 it is difficult to think and comment critically the theory i want to embed in my research. 10,5 15,8 73,7 mean 6,32 34,73 58,95 it is revealed that 68,4% participants agree that statement 1 is strongly difficult. the students find the difficulty in drawing the concept of research. similarly, statement 2 remains the same as statement 1. it reveals that explaining what students have done in research is strongly difficult that reaches 63,2%. moreover, statement 3 follows the previous statement that 52,7% of students feel it is strongly difficult to convey their perspective from other related articles. meanwhile, statement 4 is categorized as the moderately difficult level with 63,2% of participants choose this difficulty level to convey the idea to the readers. it seems to have a different perspective on the previous statement. in statement 5, it shows that students feel it is not easy to give critical thinking in writing with 57,9% of students choose strongly difficult. in statement 6, the students agree that putting the knowledge communicatively in writing is not too difficult. it can be seen that the highest rate of 52,6% is at the level of moderately difficult. moreover, it shows that percentage of moderately difficult increases slightly by 5,3% in statement 7 with 57,9% of students agree that concluding some related articles is not a considerable problem in writing. next, statement 8 is categorized as the strongly difficult level by students. they have the problem in explaining the conclusion of related articles in a communicative way. then, it can be seen that the highest peak is at strongly difficult with 84,2%. the students agree that explaining a theory based on their perspective is highly difficult. statement 10 is classified as the strongly difficult level. the students find it is really hard to comment critically the theory they want to embed in the writing. it reaches 73,7%. table 2 shows the conclusions of 10 statements from table 1. each question is combined, and the mean is counted. it can be seen that statement 1 and statement 2 are categorized as the first indicator in cognitive domain perspective, namely knowledge telling. meanwhile, statement 3 and statement 4 are categorized as the second indicator or knowledge transformation. then, it is sequentially from statement 5 to statement 10. table 2 percentage of difficulty from cognitive domain perspective domains not difficult moderately difficult strongly difficult knowledge telling 7,9 26,3 65,8 knowledge transformation 5,25 50 44,75 knowledge analysis 10,55 39,45 50 knowledge synthesis 0 44,75 55,25 knowledge explication 7,9 13,15 78,95 mean 6,32 34,73 58,95 overall, based on the data, it can be assumed that english master degree students face the difficulty in claiming knowledge based on cognitive domain perspective. it is the highest level. to claim knowledge in their work, it can be classified as the strongly difficult process. beck and stolterman (2016) have concluded that the difficulty of making the knowledge claim could be considered from several aspects. those are the social construction, the status, and the relationship between claiming knowledge within and across disciplines. meanwhile, parkinson (2011) has examined that particularly claiming knowledge in the discussion section in an article could be argued and proven by using the lexico-grammar. the writers’ role in the discussion section is embedding the data, method, and reference argumentatively to construct knowledge. therefore, prominent features in such argument are the expression of causal, conditional and purposive meaning, ways of asserting proof, and mental and verbal processes. it allows readers’ insight into the thought processes of the author or directs the reader’s thoughts. claiming knowledge as socially designed has a rich history in the sociology of science. because of this, claiming knowledge in an article must be readable by the readers worldwide. this is why the researchers need to consider the using of language as bloch (2003) has argued that the use of evaluative language in scientific discourse is the effective way to make the reader of an article in an interaction indirectly. however, there may be a tendency to think of claiming knowledge in a given publication as designed by the researchers mentioned. the discussion about knowledge claims as having high or low status means that individual authors do not determine the status of their claims. colleagues and peers decide whether the claims 127how difficult is.... (umu arifatul azizah; tosriadi) are acceptable, and these acceptable claims are significant. moreover, claiming knowledge builds on or around other claiming knowledge. the researcher’s concern that new scientific theories must have greater explanatory power than its predecessor theory. in this sense, new scientific theories are better than its predecessors because it has greater explanatory power. however, it is apparent that the same criteria do not apply for horizontal knowledge growth. in horizontal knowledge structures, new additions can complement existing knowledge claims, or they can forge new ground. conclusions the current issue of writing for publication leads to an obligation for the academics to write international scientific article intensively. it aims to increase the academic position and status that is necessitated in the education. from this research, it is found that claiming knowledge has the high level of difficulty. it is concluded that claiming knowledge still becomes a challenge faced by english master degree students. after exploring the issue of claiming knowledge, it can be assumed that it involves many subjects of the field. in another word, it is considered as the important part of multidisciplinary since it will affect the result of particular research in which every writer must embed their knowledge. however, it should be understood that knowledge as something that must be created and renewed through interaction with physical objects, a communicative act with other actors or artifacts representing knowledge, or reflective accomplishments in one’s mind. the latter may also be characterized as a communication process where ego enters into dialogue through the act of taking on the role of a generalized alters towards her/him. accordingly, the readers are expected to be more skilled to claim knowledge in the research since it is a crucial part to meet a communicative text/passage scientifically. this research implies particular suggestion that can be conducted for education designer in indonesia. it suggests that between teachers and students who are categorized as the researchers in higher education must pay attention to several important aspects of writing for publication to have the reputable article. this shows that the high written quality can support the academic status. moreover, it will be more useful if students are given certain guidelines to write the proper article. eventually, discovering the proper method to develop students’ ability in claiming knowledge will be the further study. acknowledgement the researchers gratefully acknowledge the funding support received for this project is from indonesia endowment fund for education (lpdp) scholarship references ary, d., jacobs, l. c., sorensen, c., & razavieh, a. 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(2014). writing and publishing in peripheral scholarly journals: how to enhance the global influence of multilingual scholars? journal of english for academic purposes, 13, 78–82. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2013.11.003. tardy, c. m. (2010). writing for the world: wikipedia as an introduction to academic writing. in english teaching forum. taylor, g. (2009). a student’s writing guide: how to plan and write successful essays. new york: cambridge university press. 49analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif ….. (djuria suprato) analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia pada novel morning, noon and night karya sidney sheldon djuria suprato english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 sdjuria@yahoo.com abstract a translated novel can enrich the culture and life of other nations. in order to properly understand the intended meaning of the author, the translator must understand both the source language and the target language. meaning is an important element in the translation. article explained the results of the study of the passive sentences of the source language (english) translated into indonesian. the results of the study show that not all of the passive sentences of the source language can be translated in the form of passive sentences in target language. instead, the passive sentences can be translated in the form of active sentences because of the meaning contained. keywords: translation, passive sentences, english, bahasa indonesia abstrak sebuah novel terjemahan dapat memperkaya pengetahuan budaya dan kehidupan bangsa lain. agar dapat memahami dengan baik makna yang dimaksud penulis, penerjemah harus memahami kedua bahasa baik bahasa sumber maupun bahasa sasaran.makna merupakan unsur terpenting dalam terjemahan. artikel memaparkan hasil kajian bentuk kalimat pasif dari bahasa sumber (bahasa inggris) yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia. hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa ternyata tidak semua kalimat pasif bahasa sumber dapat diterjemahkan dalam bentuk kalimat pasif. akan tetapi, kalimat itu bisa diterjemahkan dalam bentuk kalimat aktif oleh karena makna yang terkandung di dalamnya. kata kunci: penerjemahan, kalimat pasif, bahasa ingris, bahasa indonesia 50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 49-56 pendahuluan melalui novel terjemahan, pembaca dapat mengenal budaya dan kehidupan bangsa lain yang kemudian memperkaya pengetahuan. banyak hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam menerjemahkan sebuah cerita dari bahasa sumber ke bahasa sasaran. salah satunya adalah memiliki gaya bahasa dan budaya yang bisa diterima oleh pembaca bahasa. dalam menerjemahkan cerita novel yang berbahasa asing ke dalam bahasa indonesia, cerita haruslah dapat diterima pembaca indonesia, sehingga dapat bernilai sastra tinggi. penerjemahan adalah kegiatan mengalihkan pesan dari suatu bahasa (bahasa sumber) ke bahasa yang lain (bahasa sasaran). karena setiap bahasa, per definisi, mempunyai sistem dan struktur yang “tertutup” (sui generis), penerjemahan masih mungkin untuk dilakukan. lebih lanjut, penerjemahan bukanlah sekadar menggantikan sebuah teks dalam bahasa sumber ke bahasa sasaran, melainkan harus bertindak sebagai alat komunikasi, yang mempunyai maksud dan makna yang terkandung di dalamnya. agar dapat menjadi alat komunikasi yang baik, penguasaan kalimat dalam bahasa sasaran perlu diperhatikan. hal itu dimaksudkan supaya makna yang disampaikan pengarang cerita dapat disampaikan kepada pembaca bahasa sasaran dengan makna yang sama, sehingga cerita benar-benar menarik. pengalihan makna atau pesan dari bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran pada dasarnya dilakukan dengan menggunakan leksikon dan struktur gramatikal yang sesuai dalam bahasa sasaran dan konteks budaya. agar isi cerita dapat dipahami, tentu saja penerjemah harus menggunakan kalimat yang komunikatif. secara umum dalam bahasa inggris kalimat dapat dibedakan menjadi empat jenis, yaitu: (1) kalimat berita, (2) kalimat tanya, (3) kalimat perintah, dan (4) kalimat seru. di antara empat jenis kalimat universal tersebut yang paling banyak dipakai dalam buku dan tulisan ilmiah adalah kalimat berita (= statement) dalam berbagai bentuknya, seperti: kalimat positif dan negatif, kalimat aktif dan pasif, kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung, kalimat biasa dan pengandaian, kalimat sederhana, majemuk, dan kompleks. semua kalimat itu hanya dapat dipahami dengan baik sesuai dengan bentuknya yang berkaitan dengan waktu tindakan yang terkandung dalam kalimat itu terjadi–dalam bahasa inggris disebut tenses. artikel memfokuskan pembahasan pada terjemahan kalimat pasif dari bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia. kalimat aktif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya melakukan suatu tindakan, sedangkan kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya menderita (dikenai suatu tindakan) dari yang disebut dalam predikat. kalimat aktif yang dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif adalah kalimat aktif yang mempunyai objek. jadi kalimat tersebut merupakan kalimat yang memiliki verba transitif. contohnya: someone has stolen my books (kalimat aktif dengan objek books); kalimat aktif ini dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif my books have been stolen. pemahaman tata bahasa inggris penting dalam menerjemahkan kalimat ke dalam bahasa indonesia tanpa mengurangi makna. tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa setiap terjemahan terdapat pergeseran makna, namun setiap penerjemah pastilah akan meminimalisasi pergeseran makna tersebut dengan mencari padanan kata yang paling tepat dalam bahasa sasaran sehingga tidak mengurangi isi cerita yang akan disampaikan oleh pengarang. penerjemah dapat dinilai melakukan kesalahan dalam terjemahan hanya jika kesalahan itu semata-mata kesalahan bahasa. namun dalam hal lain, penerjemahan menyangkut soal kiat pribadi penerjemah dalam kapasitas retorika. bahkan, dalam penerjemahan teks sastra faktor estetika dan selera memengaruhi proses penerjemahan. pemahaman tata bahasa indonesia pun tidak kalah penting. penafsiran dalam bahasa indonesia dilakukan dengan menggunakan verba berprefiks didan menggunakan verba tanpa prefiks di-. akan tetapi, dalam penerjemahan bisa saja tidak menggunakan penafsiran yang sudah baku karena disesuaikan dengan makna yang terkandung di dalamnya, bahkan diterjemahkan dalam bentuk bukan kalimat pasif (kalimat aktif). fokus penelitian adalah penerjemahan bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif dalam novel bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia. translation atau penerjemahan selama ini didefinisikan melalui berbagai cara dengan latar belakang teori dan pendekatan yang berbeda. catford (1965) menggunakan pendekatan kebahasaan dalam melihat kegiatan penerjemahan dan ia mendefinisikan sebagai, “the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language)”. artinya, menerjemahkan makna suatu teks ke dalam bahasa lain sesuai dengan yang dimaksudkan pengarang. newmark juga memberikan definisi serupa, “it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text”, artinya menerjemahkan makna. newmark juga mendefinisikan penerjemahan sebagai suatu keahlian. lebih lanjut ia mengemukakan: “translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” penerjemahan merupakan suatu keahlian untuk mengubah pesan tertulis dan/atau pernyataan dari satu bahasa ke bahasa yang lain dengan pesan dan/atau pernyatan yang sama. menurut nida dan taber, yang paling penting dalam penerjemahan adalah beralihnya pesan atau makna bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dan, sedapat mungkin, menyesuaikan bentuknya, serta diungkapkan sewajar mungkin, seperti yang mereka katakan, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (1996). moentaha (2006) mendefinisikan terjemahan sebagai proses penggantian teks dalam bahasa sumber dengan teks dalam bahasa sasaran tanpa mengubah tingkat isi teks bahasa sumber. namun perlu ditekankan bahwa pengertian “tingkat isi” harus dipahami secara maksimal dan luas, yakni tidak hanya yang menyangkut arti dasar (material meaning), ide atau konsepsi yang terkandung dalam tingkat isi, tetapi juga semua informasi yang ada dalam teks bahasa sumber, semua norma bahasa, seperti makna leksikal, makna gramatikal, dan nuansa stilistis/ nuansa ekspresif. penerjemahan adalah proses penggantian atau 51analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif ….. (djuria suprato) transformasi pesan dari bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dengan memperhatikan kaidah yang berlaku pada bahasa sasaran. kesepadanan makna adalah hal yang penting dalam proses penerjemahan. untuk mendapatkan terjemahan yang memiliki makna yang sepadan, penerjemah harus memahami bahasa sumber, baik dari segi gramatikal maupun leksikal. penerjemahan ke dalam bahasa sasaran pun harus bersifat komunikatif dan ekspresif. ada ahli yang beranggapan bahwa bahasa adalah sebuah sistem simbol yang bersifat manasuka dan dengan sistem itu suatu kelompok sosial bekerja sama (machali, 2000). ada juga ahli bahasa yang beranggapan bahwa bahasa adalah sebuah sistem berstruktur mengenai bunyi dan urutan bunyi bahasa yang sifatnya manasuka, yang digunakan, atau yang dapat digunakan dalam komunikasi antar individu oleh sekelompok manusia dan yang secara tuntas memberi nama benda, peristiwa, dan proses dalam lingkungan hidup manusia. dari kedua definisi tersebut dapat dikatakan sebagai berikut. pertama, bahasa merupakan sistem yang mempunyai struktur sebagaimana halnya dengan sistem lain. bahasa memiliki pola dan berdasarkana pola itulah bahasa digunakan. kedua, bahasa merupakan sistem bunyi yang bersifat manasuka. bunyi bahasa tercipta secara manasuka dan bunyi ini tidak memiliki makna, bunyi itu kemudian disusun pula secara manasuka sehingga kemudian timbul kata yang membawa makna tertentu. ketiga, bahasa itu memungkinkan terjadinya komunikasi antarpribadi. komunikasi inilah yang merupakan fungsi utama bahasa. sebagai alat komunikasi bahasa bertugas untuk menyampaikan informasi atau sebagai alat untuk menerima informasi. kalimat aktif dan kalimat pasif kalimat aktif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya melakukan suatu tindakan. sedangkan kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya menderita (dikenai suatu tindakan) dari apa yang disebutkan dalam predikat. alwi (2003) mengemukakan pengertian aktif dan pasif dalam kalimat menyangkut beberapa hal: (1) macam verba yang menjadi predikat, (2) subjek dan objek, dan (3) bentuk verba yang dipakai. penafsiran dalam bahasa indonesia dilakukan dengan dua cara: (1) menggunakan verba berprefiks didan (2) menggunakan verba tanpa prefiks di-. tidak semua kalimat aktif dapat dijadikan pasif. yang dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif adalah kalimat aktif yang mempunyai objek. kalimat perintah (command) dan kalimat seru (exclamation) juga tidak dapat dijadikan pasif. kalimat pasif dalam bahasa inggris kalimat pasif dalam bahasa inggris selalu menggunakan to be dengan past participle + kata kerja bentuk ketiga: to do – did – done. bentuk kata kerja ini digunakan dalam semua kalimat pasif dalam bahasa inggris. be dapat berupa berbagai bentuk sesuai dengan tenses: am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, will be, etc. rumus bentuk pasif menurut berbagai “tense” adalah sebagai berikut: present tense: am/is/are + past participle, misalnya: “is translated” past tense: was/were + past participle, misalnya: “was written” present paerfect tense: have/has + been + past participle, misalnya: “has been promoted” past perfect tense: had + been + past participle, misalnya: “had been decreased” present future tense: will/shall + be + past participle, misalnya “will be taught” past future tense: would/should + be + past participle, misalnya “would be sold” present continuous tense: am/is/are + being + past participle, misalnya: “is being taught” past continuous tense: was/were + being + past participle, misalnya: “was being thrown”. modal auxiliaries: modals + be + past participle, misalnya: “can be understood”, “should be studied”, “may be omitted”, “must be transferred” beberapa jenis kalimat pasif adalah sebagai berikut: (a) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya (doer, agent) tidak dikenal, contoh: passive : one of our windows was broken active : someone broke one of our windows. (b) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya tidak jelas atau tidak penting. contoh: passive: english is spoken all over the world active: people of all over the world speak english. (c) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya diketahui atau diberi tekanan. contoh: passive: the fish is being eaten by the cat active: the cat is eating the fish. (d) kalimat pasif yang berarti keadaan. bentuk kata kerja to beverb –ed yang dikenal sebagai bentuk kalimat pasif tidak selalu menunjukkan suatu perbuatan, melainkan ada yang menunjukkan suatu keadaan. contoh kalimat pasif yang menunjukkan perbuatan: the door was opened by a thief by force. contoh kalimat pasif yang menunjukkan keadaan: the small child is already bored with his new toy. kalimat pasif yang berarti keadaan disebut juga stative passive (penggunaan past participle sebagai adjective/kata sifat). be dapat diikuti oleh adjektiva (adjective). adjektiva ini mendeskripsikan atau memberi informasi tentang subjek kalimat. be dapat diikuti dengan sebuah past participle (bentuk pasif). past participle tersebut sering kali seperti adjektiva. past participle ini mendeskripsikan atau memberi penjelasan tentang subjek kalimat. past participle digunakan sebagai adjektiva dalam beberapa hal umum dan dalam ungkapan sehari-hari. kadang-kadang past participle ini diikuti kata depan (preposisi) tertentu dan objek. contoh: ann is married to alex i don’t know where i am. i am lost. the window is broken. 52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 49-56 kalimat aktif dan pasif sesuai dengan tenses kalimat aktif dan pasif dapat dibuat sebanyak tenses yang ada. jika kalimat aktif diubah menjadi pasif, atau sebaliknya, tenses tidak boleh diubah. dengan kata lain, tenses kalimat aktif dan pasif harus sama. contoh bentuk kalimat pasif dalam berbagai tenses adalah sebagai berikut: simple present: mary helps john --> john is helped by mary present progressive: mary is helping john --> john is being helped by mary present perfect: mary has helped john --> john has been helped by mary simple past: mary helped john --> john was helped by mary kalimat pasif dalam bahasa indonesia alwi (2003) mengatakan bahwa pengertian aktif dan pasif dalam kalimat menyangkut beberapa hal: (1) macam verba yang menjadi predikat, (2) subjek dan objek, dan (3) bentuk verba yang dipakai. beberapa contoh kalimat aktif dalam bahasa indonesia adalah sebagai berikut: (1) pak toha mengangkat seorang asisten baru. (2) ibu gubernur akan membuka pameran itu. (3) pak saleh harus memperbaiki dengan segera rumah tua itu. (4) kamu dan saya harus menyelesaikan tugas ini. (5) saya sudah mencuci mobil itu. (6) kamu mencium pipi anak itu. semua contoh kalimat menunjukkan bahwa verba yang terdapat dalam tiap kalimat adalah verba transitif, baik yang ekatransitif maupun yang dwitransitif. karena kalimat itu transitif, paling tidak, ada tiga unsur wajib di dalamnya, yakni subjek, predikat, dan objek. verba transitif yang dipakai adalah dalam bentuk aktif, yakni verba yang memakai prefiks meng-. pemasifan dalam bahasa indonesia dilakukan dengan dua cara, yaitu (1) menggunakan verba berprefiks didan (2) menggunakan verba tanpa prefiks di-. jika simbol s digunakan untuk subjek, p untuk predikat, dan o untuk objek, kaidah umum untuk pembentukan kalimat pasif dari kalimat aktif dalam bahasa indonesia adalah sebagai berikut. cara pertama, (1) pertukarkanlah s dengan o, (2) gantilah prefiks mengdengan dipada p, (3) tambahkan kata oleh di muka unsur yang tadinya s. untuk contoh kalimat aktif dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif sebagai berikut. kalimat (1): seorang asisten baru diangkat oleh pak toha. kalimat (1) dapat juga dibuat: seorang asisten baru diangkat pak toha. kalimat (2): pameran itu akan dibuka oleh ibu gubernur. keberterimaan kalimat (1) dalam bentuk yang pertama dan kedua menunjukkan bahwa kehadiran bentuk oleh pada kalimat pasif bersifat manasuka. akan tetapi, jika verba predikat tidak diikuti langsung oleh pelengkap pelaku (yang sebelumnya subjek kalimat aktif), maka bentuk oleh wajib hadir. atas dasar itulah maka bentuk kalimat (3) berikut kita terima: kalimat (3) rumah tua itu harus diperbaiki dengan segera oleh pak saleh. sedangkan bentuk tanpa kata ‘oleh’ tidak bisa diterima sebagai bentuk kalimat pasif (‘rumah tua itu harus diperbaiki segera pak saleh’). pemasifan dengan cara pertama itu umumnya digunakan jika subjek kalimat aktif berupa nomina atau frasa nominal seperti contoh kalimat (1)-(5) di atas, jika subjek kalimat pasif berupa pronominal persona, padanan pasifnya umumnya dibentuk dengan cara kedua. akan tetapi, kalau subjek kalimat aktif itu berupa gabungan pronominal dengan pronominal atau frasa lain, maka padanan pasifnya dibentuk dengan cara pertama itu. karena itulah bentuk kalimat pasif kalimat (4) ‘tugas ini harus kamu dan saya selesaikan’, yang dibentuk dengan cara kedua, kita tolak sebagai bentuk pasif kalimat (4) di atas. kehadiran kata oleh pada kalimat (4) adalah wajib, jadi kalimat pasif yang berterima dari kalimat (4) adalah ‘ tugas itu harus diselesaikan oleh kamu dan saya’ cara kedua, padanan pasif dari kalimat aktif transitif yang subjeknya berupa pronominal dibentuk dengan cara kedua. adapun kaidah pembentukan kalimat pasif cara kedua itu adalah sebagai berikut: (1) pindahkan o ke awal kalimat, (2) tanggalkan prefiks mengpada p, (3) pindahkan s ke tempat yang tepat sebelum verba. cara kedua ini bila diterapkan pada contoh kalimat (5), bentuk kalimat pasifnya adalah ‘mobil itu sudah saya cuci’. dengan cara yang sama, dapat pula diperoleh bentuk pasif dari contoh kalimat (5) sebagai padanan kalimat aktifnya adalah: ‘pipi anak itu kamu cium’ jika subjek kalimat aktif transitif berupa pronominal persona ketiga atau nama diri yang relatif pendek, padanan pasifnya dapat dibentuk dengan cara pertama atau kedua sepeti tampak pada contoh berikut: contoh (a) aktif: mereka akan membersihkan ruangan ini pasif 1: ruangan ini akan dibersihkan (oleh) mereka pasif 2: ruangan ini akan mereka bersihkan. contoh (b) aktif : dia sudah membaca buku itu. pasif 1: buku itu sudah dibaca olehnya/(oleh) dia pasif 2: buku itu sudah dibacanya/dia baca. contoh (c) aktif : ayah belum mendengar berita duka itu. pasif 1: berita duka itu belum didengar (oleh) ayah. pasif 2: berita duka itu belum ayah dengar. jika subjek kalimat aktif transitif itu panjang, padanan kalimat pasifnya dibentuk dengan cara pertama. jadi, bentuk seperti berita duka itu belum didengar oleh susilowati tidak dapat diubah menjadi berita duka itu belum susilowati dengar pembentukan kalimat pasif dengan cara kedua dari kalimat aktif transitif yang subjeknya berupa pronominal persona ketiga atau nama diri pada umumnya terbatas pada pemakaian sehari-hari. pronomina aku, engkau, dan dia (yang mengikuti predikat) pada kalimat pasif cenderung dipendekkan menjadi ku-, kau-, dan –nya seperti pada contoh kalimat berikut: a.1. surat itu baru aku terima kemarin a.2. surat itu baru kuterima kemarin. b.1. buku ini perlu engkau baca. b.2. buku ini perlu kau baca. c.1. pena saya dipinjam oleh dia. c.2. pena saya dipinjam olehnya. 53analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif ….. (djuria suprato) perubahan kalimat aktif transitif yang mengandung kata seperti ingin atau mau cenderung menimbulkan pergerseran makna, contoh: andi ingin mencium tuti; tuti ingin dicium andi. pada kalimat pertama adalah kalimat aktif, jelas bahwa yang ingin melakukan perbuatan mencium adalah andi, tetapi pada kalimat kedua, orang cenderung menafsirkan bahwa yang menginginkan ciuman itu adalah tuti dan bukan andi. tafsiran makna kalimat pasif yang berbeda dengan makna padanan kalimat aktif itu timbul karena kodrat kata ingin yang cenderung dikaitkan dengan unsur di sebelah kiri yang mendahuluinya. hal ini tampak lebih nyata pada keganjilan pasangan kalimat ‘andi ingin mencuci mobilnya’ ‘mobilnya ingin dicuci andi’ arti pasif dapat pula bergabung dengan unsur lain seperti unsur ketaksengajaan. jika kalimat aktif diubah menjadi kalimat pasif dan dalam kalimat pasif itu terkandung pula pengertian bahwa perbuatan yang dinyatakan oleh verba itu mengandung unsur yang tak sengaja, maka bentuk prefiks yang dipakai untuk verba bukan lagi di-, melainkan ter-. perhatikan perbedaan kalimat (1) dan kalimat (2) yang berikut ini: (1) a. penumpang bus itu dilempar ke luar. (1) b. penumpang bus itu terlempar ke luar. (2) a. dia dipukul kakaknya. (2) b. dia terpukul kakaknya. kalimat (1a dan 2a) menunjukkan bahwa seseorang melakukan perbuatan itu dengan niat dan kesengajaan. sebaliknya, kalimat (1b dan 2b) mengacu ke suatu keadaan atau ke ketidaksengajaan si pelaku perbuatan. pada kalimat (1b) mungkin saja penumpang tadi terlempar oleh orang lain, atau mungkin juga oleh guncangan bus yang terlalu besar. di samping makna ketaksengajaan itu, verba pasif yang memakai ‘ter-‘ juga dapat menunjukkan kekodratan; artinya, kita tidak memasalahkan siapa yang melakukan perbuatan tersebut sehingga seolah-olah sudah menjadi kodratlah bahwa sesuatu harus demikian keadaannya. contoh kalimat berikut: (a) gunung merapi terletak di pulau jawa. (b) soal ini terlepas dari rasa senang dan tidak senang. pada contoh (a) dan (b) tidak ada unsur sengaja atau tidak sengaja, dan kita pun tidak memasalahkan siapa yang meletakkan gunung itu atau yang melepaskan soal ini. bentuk kalimat pasif lain yang bermakna adversative tampak pada contoh berikut: (c) 1. soal itu diketahui oleh orang tuanya. (c) 2. soal itu ketahuan oleh orang tuanya. (d) 1. partai kita dimasuki unsur kiri. (d) 2. partai kita kemasukkan unsur kiri. di sini perlu ditekankan bahwa makna kalimat yang predikatnya memakai ke-an ini adalah pasif dengan tambahan makna adversatif, yakni makna yang tidak menyenangkan. teori perubahan tata bahasa (structural change) dalam kalimat pasif dalam menerjemahkan teks dari bahasa indonesia ke bahasa inggris, bentuk kalimat pasif sebaiknya dikuasai oleh penerjemah karena di sinilah letak kesalahan sintaksis. dalam bahasa inggris kata kerja dalam kalimat pasif mempunyai beragam bentuk sesuai dengan tenses. secara umum rumus bentuk tersebut bisa disimpulkan sebagai – kata kerja pembantu (auxiliary verb) + indikasi pasif + past participle. kata kerja utama (main verb) dalam kalimat pasif harus berbentuk past participle. dalam kalimat pasif, subjek kata kerja adalah objek pada kalimat aktif yang mana berarti bahwa subjek yang sebenarnya bukan pelakunya, ia hanya subjek kalimat. dalam kalimat pasif, pelakunya diungkapkan dengan frasa “oleh”. namun frasa tersebut boleh dihilangkan karena sudah jelas siapa pelaku kata-kerja tersebut. kata kerja pasif bahasa inggris diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia dengan menggunakan awalan diatau terdi depan kata kerja. termempunyai makna konotasi bahwa perbuatan tersebut tidak disengaja. contohnya: “the child was struck by a car”; terjemahannya: “anak itu tertabrak oleh mobil”. dalam kalimat itu, biasanya mobil tidak dengan sengaja menabrak seorang anak. hal itu terjadi karena ketidaksengajaan. metode metode penelitian yang dilakukan adalah metode kualitatif dengan teknik analisis isi teks yang terdiri dari teks novel bahasa inggris dan teks novel bahasa indonesia. penelitian ini merupakan deskripsi kajian pada novel yang mencakup terjemahan kalimat pasif dan perubahan tata bahasa yang terjadi. metode kualitatif adalah metode penelitian yang bertujuan membuat deskripsi, gambaran atau lukisan secara sitematis, faktual dan akurat mengenai fakta, sifat serta hubungan antarfenomena yang diselidiki secara kualitatif. fakta yang dimaksud adalah data pada penerjemahan kalimat pasif dalam novel bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa sumber dan dalam bahasa indonesia sebagai teks bahasa sasaran dalam novel morning, noon and night yang diterjemahkan oleh tim penerjemah pt gramedia pustaka utama. hasil dan pembahasan data diperoleh dari novel morning, noon and night versi bahasa inggris yang ditulis oleh sidney sheldon. penerjemah novel ini adalah hendarto setiadi. novel yang terdiri dari 35 bab dengan 388 halaman ini diterjemahkan ke dalam 35 bab 433 halaman. semua kalimat pasif bahasa inggris berpola subject + be + past participle didata, kemudian dicari hasil penerjemahannya dalam novel pagi, siang dan malam. tahap selanjutnya adalah melakukan pengelompokan yang terdiri dari tiga kelompok, yaitu: (1) terjemahan yang menggunakan pola kata kerja pasif yang berawalan di-; (2) terjemahan yang menggunakan pola kata kerja pasif yang berawalan ter-; dan (3) terjemahan bukan keduanya. data penelitian adalah data kalimat pasif novel morning, noon and night karya sidney sheldon. novel terdiri dari 35 chapter dengan 388 halaman seluruhnya. 54 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 49-56 semua data yang disajikan berasal dari novel yang berbahasa inggris dengan pola kalimat pasif yang memiliki kata kerja be+past participle untuk semua jenis dan bentuk tenses. terdapat 268 kalimat pasif di dalam novel bahasa sumber. setelah kalimat pasif bahasa sumber didata, didata pula hasil penerjemahan dalam novel terjemahannya pagi, siang dan sore (dalam bahasa indonesia). semua data kalimat pasif dalam bahasa inggris diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa indonesia dalam beberapa pilihan bentuk kalimat. dari hasil penelitian, ternyata terdapat 3 kelompok yang telah disebutkan. oleh penulis, kelompok 3 dipersempit menjadi kelompok 3a dan 3b untuk memudahkan penelitian karena jumlah data kelompok 3 ini menyamai jumlah kelompok 1. seluruh data kalimat pasif yang terdapat dalam novel ini berjumlah 268 kalimat, yaitu 120 kalimat terjemahan verba di+kata kerja (kelompok 1), 27 kalimat terjemahan verba ter+kata kerja (kelompok 2), 17 kalimat terjemahan verba ber+kata kerja (kelompok 3a) dan 104 kalimat terjemahan lain-lain (kelompok 3b). untuk kelompok 3b ini termasuk di dalamnya terjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa inggris menjadi kalimat aktif dalam bahasa indonesia, misalnya: dalam chapter thirty four page 429 kalimat pasifnya: “... while you are being questioned.” diterjemahkan menjadi: “....saat menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan kami.” sebaran persentasi data tersebut terdapat pada tabel 1 berikut. tabel 1 persentase kelompok data kelompok terjemahan jumlah kalimat pasif % 1 kata kerja yang berawalan ‘di-‘ 120 44,78 2 kata kerja yang berawalan ‘ter-‘ 27 10,07 3a kata kerja yang berawalan ‘ber-‘ 17 6.34 3b lain-lain 104 38.81 jumlah 268 100 data yang ditemukan dikelompokkan dalam beberapa jenis kalimat pasif bahasa inggris yaitu: (1) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya (doer, agent) tidak dikenal, antara lain seperti contoh berikut ini: (1a). “do you know we’re followed, mr.stanford? (chapter one, page 3) (1b). “anda tahu kita diikuti, mr.stanford?” (bab 1, halaman 11) (2a). “there are no chance that we were followed, dmitri?” (chapter two, page 17) (2b). “kita tidak diikuti, dmitri?” (bab 2, halaman 26) (2) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya (doer, agent) tidak jelas atau tidak penting, antara lain seperti contoh di bawah ini: (3a) you are cleared for take off. (chapter two, page 15) (3b) anda diijinkan lepas landas. (bab 2, halaman 24) (4a) his weekends were totally devoted to the children. (chapter four, page 36) (4b) akhir pekannya dikhususkan bagi mereka. (bab 4, halaman 45) (3) kalimat pasif yang pelakunya (doer, agent) diketahui atau diberi tekanan. kalimat pasif yang pelakunya (doer, agent) diketahui atau diberi tekanan, contohnya antara lain: (5a). it is surrounded by a spectacular and enchanting landscape of hills and valleys covered with flowers, orchard and pine forests. (chapter one, page 5) (5b) ….., dikelilingi bukit-bukit dan lembah-lembah yang menawan. (bab 1, halaman 13,14) (6a) capitaine durer, dressed in an impressive new uniform, was being interviewed by an rai television crew from italy. (chapter seven, page 60) (6b) capitaine durer, dengan seragam baru yang mengesankan, sedang diwawancarai oleh kru tv rai dari italia. (bab 7, halaman 73) (4) kalimat pasif yang berarti keadaan, contohnya sebagai berikut: (7a). she was awed. (chapter two, page 21) (7b). sophia terkagum-kagum. (bab 2, halaman 31) (8a). “i’m retired” (chapter three, page 30) (8b). “aku sudah pensiun” (bab 3, halaman 41) (9a). harry wasn’t satisfied with that. (chapter seven, page 53) (9b). harry rupanya belum puas. (bab 7, halaman 64) dari data jenis kalimat pasif yang ditemukan ini terdapat berbagai jenis tenses yang tidak secara khusus dikelompokkan karena penulis tidak memfokuskan penelitian pada tenses. deskripsi bentuk kalimat terjemahan kalimat dalam bahasa indonesia dapat dibedakan menjadi kalimat aktif dan kalimat pasif. penerjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia bisa dalam bentuk kalimat pasif maupun aktif. bentuk kalimat pasif dalam novel morning, noon and night ini sebagian diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif dan sebagian tidak diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif. bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif sebanyak 54,85% (kelompok 1 dan kelompok 2). bentuk terjemahan bukan kalimat pasif sejumlah 45,15% (kelompok 3). kelompok 3 yang cukup dominan jumlahnya ini merupakan kalimat aktif. beberapa contoh terjemahan dalam bentuk kalimat pasif yang verbanya berawalan diadalah sebagai berikut: (10a). he was accompanied by a strikingly lovely young brunette… (chapter one, page 3) (10b). ia ditemani wanita muda..(bab 1, halaman 11) (11a). …i hate to be disturbed on weekends. (chapter 55analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif ….. (djuria suprato) four, page 37) (11b) …. aku tidak suka diganggu pada hari minggu,.. (bab 4, halaman 47) (12a). funeral services were to be held three days later. (chapter seven, page 66) (12b). upacara pemakaman akan diadakan tiga hari kemudian. (bab 7, halaman 79) dari beberapa contoh terjemahan diketahui bahwa bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif yang verbanya menggunakan awalan dimemiliki subjek yang dikenai tindakan. penerjemahannya masih mempertahankan bentuk yang sama. beberapa contoh terjemahan dalam bentuk kalimat pasif yang verbanya berawalan ter-, antara lain: (13a) she had been devastated by the news of woody’s marriage, but she was too proud to reveal it. (chapter ten, page 99) (13b) ia sangat terpukul oleh berita mengenai perkawinan woody, namun tidak mau memperlihatkannya. (bab 10, halaman 117) (14a) he was caught, and his brother escaped. (chapter 16, page 202) (14b) hal tertangkap, sementara kakaknya lolos. (bab 16, halaman 232) (15a) the nielsen family is scattered around the united states, (chapter twenty-two, page 279) (15b) keluarga nielson tersebar di seluruh amerika. (bab 22, halaman 317) bentuk kalimat pasif juga menggunakan verba berawalan teryang subjek dikenai tindakan. ada kalanya penerjemahan tidak bisa mempertahankan bentuk yang sama untuk mendapatkan makna yang sesuai dengan bahasa sumber, penerjemah harus mencari bentuk kalimat lainnya yaitu kalimat aktif. beberapa contoh kalimat terjemahan dalam bentuk yang bukan kalimat pasif adalah sebagai berikut: (16a). when they were finished, they made their way back to the villa. (chapter one, page 11) (16b). sehabis makan, mereka langsung kembali ke vila. (bab 1, halaman 11) (17a). by then, he was involved with someone new. (chapter seven, page 54) (17b). saat itu stanford sudah menemukan wanita lain, dan.. (bab 7, halaman 66) berdasarkan beberapa contoh, dapat dilihat bahwa kalimat pasif yang diterjemahkan bukan ke kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang berarti keadaan atau stative passive (kata kerja past participle sebagai adjektiva) seperti “they were finished”, dan “i’m puzzled by something, simon.” jelaslah bahwa bentuk kalimat pasif yang diterjemahkan sebagian adalah bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa indonesia dengan kata kerja berawalan di-, ter-, dan yang bukan bentuk kalimat pasif. ini menunjukkan bahwa bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif dalam bahasa inggris tidak semuanya diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif juga. analisis bentuk kalimat terjemahan dari temuan penelitian diperoleh data kalimat pasif bahasa inggris yang berpola kata kerja be + past participle dalam semua bentuk tenses diterjemahkan dan semua jenis kalimat pasif yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif bahasa indonesia yang memiliki kata kerja yang berpola kata kerja dengan awalan didan yang berpola kata kerja dengan awalan ter-, serta bentuk yang bukan kalimat pasif. kalimat pasif yang berawalan dimemiliki pelaku, baik yang jelas maupun yang tidak diketahui, seperti pada contoh kalimat 10 sampai dengan 12. kalimat-kalimat ini merupakan kalimat tunggal (yang memiliki satu klausa) yang memiliki pola subjek + verba pasif (berawalan di-) + objek atau pelengkap. kalimatkalimat ini mudah dipahami. kalimat pasif yang berawalan termemiliki makna unsur ketidaksengajaan, kekodratan ataupun keadaan, seperti pada contoh kalimat 14 dan 15. kalimat yang memiliki bentuk yang bukan kalimat pasif memiliki pola kata kerja dengan awalan ber-seperti contoh berikut: (46a) both teams were lined up now, side by side. (chapter ten, page 110) (46b) kedua tim telah berbaris, berdampingan. (bab 10, halaman 130) kalimat tersebut merupakan kalimat aktif dimana subjeknya sebagai pelaku (lihat lampiran 1, kelompok 3). bentuk kalimat yang bukan kalimat pasif juga memiliki pola kata kerja kalimat aktif lainnya yang menunjukkan subjek sebagai pelakunya, seperti contoh berikut: (47a) the newspaper had been filled with the story. (chapter eight, page 70) (47b) pihak pers dengan gencar meliputi peristiwa tersebut. (bab 8, halaman 84) jumlah kalimat terjemahan dalam bentuk kalimat yang bukan kalimat pasif (+/45%) yang kata kerjanya berawalan berdan berawalan medan yang lainnya hampir menyamai jumlah kalimat terjemahan dalam bentuk kalimat pasif (+/55%) yang kata kerjanya berawalan di dan berawalan ter-. hasil temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa penerjemah menyajikan terjemahan kalimat pasif dalam bentuk kalimat pasif maupun kalimat aktif. kalimat pasif bahasa sumber yang tidak bisa diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif, diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat aktif, yang memiliki makna yang sama. seperti pada contoh kalimat 16 dan 17 pada bab iv: was involved yang berarti ‘terlibat, tersangkut’, tetapi penerjemah menggunakan kata ‘menemukan’. jika penerjemah menggunakan terjemahan ‘terlibat’ atau ‘tersangkut’, makna kalimatnya akan kurang pas dan memengaruhi bagian cerita yang ada. pemilihan kata ‘menemukan wanita lain’ lebih cocok untuk kalimat ini. di sini jelas bahwa penerjemah mengutamakan tingkat kebermaknaan cerita dari pada bentuk kalimat terjemahannya. penulis juga menemukan sebuah kalimat pasif positif yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat negatif, yaitu: (48a). woody was too ashamed to look at the others. (chapter ten, page 114) (48b). woody tidak berani menatap mereka. (bab 10, halaman 135) 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 49-56 was too ashamed memiliki arti harfiah ‘terlalu malu’. frasa ini terlalu kaku jika digunakan dalam kalimat, sehingga penerjemah memilih ‘tidak berani’ yang memiliki kesan yang sama dengan gaya bahasa yang luwes walaupun dalam bentuk penerjemahan yang berbeda dari bahasa sumber. ‘tidak berani’ tidak selalu karena malu, ‘tidak berani menatap’ bisa terjadi karena takut. terjemahan ini tidak memengaruhi makna kalimat, tetapi bentuk terjemahan ini tidak bisa mewakili bentuk terjemahan secara keseluruhan karena data yang diperoleh hanya satu. simpulan dari deskripsi data dan pembahasan pada analisis data penerjemahan kalimat pasif berbahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia pada novel morning, noon and night dapat disimpulkan bahwa bentuk kalimat terjemahan kalimat pasif dari bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia adalah dalam bentuk kalimat pasif dan dalam bentuk bukan kalimat pasif (kalimat aktif). ternyata dari data yang diperoleh terdapat terjemahan kalimat yang bukan kalimat pasif yang jumlahnya hampir sama dengan terjemahan kalimat pasif (54, 85% kalimat pasif dan 45,15% kalimat aktif). bentuk terjemahan kalimat pasif disesuaikan dengan makna kalimat. kalimat pasif yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bentuk kalimat pasif pada umumnya yang memiliki pelaku, baik yang pelakunya jelas maupun yang tidak dikenal. kalimat pasif yang diterjemahkan ke dalam kalimat yang bukan kalimat pasif adalah kalimat pasif yang berarti keadaan (stative passive). bentuk kalimat tidak dipengaruhi oleh tenses bahasa inggris. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kalimat aktif merupakan kalimat yang komunikatif dalam penyajian terjemahan novel agar menarik bagi pembacanya. oleh karena itu penerjemahkan kalimat pasif dari bahasa sumber tidak harus dilakukan. penerjemah tidak harus mempertahankan bentuk kalimat pasif dalam bahasa sasaran, namun harus ada penyesuaian makna kalimat yang disampaikan. bentuk kalimat bukanlah yang menjadi pola utama dalam penerjemahan, melainkan makna kalimat. daftar pustaka alwi, h., et al. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. azar, b. s. (1989). undestanding and using english grammar (2nd ed). new jersey: prentice hall regents. ______. (1992). fundamentals of english grammar (2nd ed). new jersey: prentice hall regents. hasibuan, r. s.(1991). teori terjemahan dan kaitannya dengan tata bahasa inggris. jakarta: dian rakyat. machali, r. (2000). pedoman bagi penerjemah. jakarta: gramedia. moentaha, s.(2006). bahasa dan terjemahan. jakarta: kesaint blanc. newmark, p. (1981). approaches to translation. uk: pergamon press. ______. (1988). a texbook of translation. uk: prentice hall international. ______.(1991). about translation. uk: multilingual matters. nida, e. a. (2003). the theory and practice of translation. boston: brill leiden. sheldon, s. (1995). morning, noon and night. ny: warner book. setiadi, h. (2009). pagi, siang, dan malam. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 369 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 369-373 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4288 language attitude and language choice in bilingual academic learning environment udiana puspa dewi1; criscentia jessica setiadi2 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1udewi@binus.edu; 2csetiadi@binus.edu received: 12th january 2018 /revised: 13th april 2018 /accepted: 25th april 2018 how to cite: dewi, u. p., & setiadi, c. j. (2018). language attitude and language choice in bilingual academic learning environment. lingua cultura, 12(4), 369-373. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4288 abstract the objectives of this research were to observe the language attitude and factors determining language choice of english department students of bina nusantara university. the observation carried out by exploring the motivation, language choice, and language practice of the english department students. the data were collected through a questionnaire, which was designed to capture the students’ motivation in studying english, language choice, and practice. the result of this research shows that the english department students hold the positive attitude toward english, which are shown through the statement of the majority of the students who argue that english is an international language and offers more career opportunities. the two main factors determining the use of english are the role of the lectures and the english language exposure in the academic environment. this result is expected to provide a context to design an effective english learning process to encourage students in practicing the language. keywords: language attitude, language choice, english as foreign language, learning environment introduction pennycook (2010) has explained that english is too often assumed to be a language that holds out the promise of social and economic development to all who learn it, equal opportunity, and the world needs in order to communicate. the assumption is considered to be one of the motivations why people across the globe to learn english. english has become a world language, which is utilized in various aspects of international relations, tourism, global media, science, technology, and education. aldosari (2010) has claimed that english is learned by over 150 million children in primary or secondary schools, as a foreign language, as a compulsory or an optional language in most countries. thus, the use of english across context has always been an appealing topic to observe. this research focuses on the attitude and language choice in the bilingual academic learning environment in indonesian universities. indonesia is considered as a proper object to conduct an observation of english using across context because it provides a clear illustration of a nonenglish-speaking country, where english has become more popular in recent years. lauder (1998) has noted that based on its function for educational purposes, english is positioned in third place after indonesian as the main language and the regional vernaculars. many people take an english course and join or enroll in the english department to learn english. the problem faced by many bilingual schools and english course in indonesia is the condition where students do not use english outside or inside the classroom. for that reason, observation of students’ language attitude and choice in the bilingual academic environment is important to provide a context in designing an effective learning process to encourage students in practicing english. indonesia is a country, which has more than 500 regional languages spoken all over the country. indonesia is known for its highly multicultural and multilingual society, which indonesian is the national language. sneddon (2003) has assumed that the existence of english in indonesia is seen as a representation of prestigious cultures. the assumption is derived from the history of the existence of the language that was taught in secondary school during the dutch colonization era. thus, only rich and educated indonesian people who got access to learn english. from this perspective, it is important to examine the relationship between the language attitudes of students and how it affects their language inside and outside the classroom. as mentioned by padwick (2010), the nature of learning does not only depend on intellectual ability but also on the learners’ attitude toward the language. attitude, in this case, refers to what gardner (1985) defines as a person’s values and beliefs, which encourage or discourage 370 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 369-373 the language choice they made. according to jaspal (2009), language does not only serve the role as an instrument of communication but it also “constitutes an important marker of social identity at various levels of human interdependence, e.g., subcultural or national”. therefore the attitudes and values of users or non-users will influence language use and language choice. crawford, pablo, and lengeling (2016) elaborates the individual attitudes towards a language will impact, for example, on the value places on the language, invariably, and how much of it may be used by first language speakers or learned by second language speakers. in other words, the status of the language in a particular society also influences the attitudes of speakers as well as non-speakers. it shows that language attitudes provide an explanation to determine the factor influencing language choice. language choice is a reflection of speakers’ attitude toward a language. positive language attitude will promote encouragement to the language use and the other way around. the objective of this research is to explore factors, which determine language choice of english department students at bina nusantara university inside and outside the classroom. the factors will be observed by looking at their language attitude and motivation in learning their second language. english department students at bina nusantara university are chosen to be an object of the research because they are considered as a sample of the bilingual community. the majority of the students speak indonesian in their daily language and english as the foreign language. the data will be collected through questionnaires where 100 students will be asked related to language attitude and language choice. the questionnaire is designed to expose the students’ language attitude, which affects their language use and motivation to learn the language. the language attitude performed through the questionnaires by the students will reflect the factors that determine their language choice inside and outside the classroom. methods the data of this research will be collected through the questionnaire. the questionnaires are distributed to 100 english department students of bina nusantara university. the students are asked to fill specific questions related to their language practice and language attitude. the questions are structured to see whether the learning environment and their motivation of learning english affect their language practice, in this case the use of english. asking the question about people’s opinion toward certain language variation and practice through questionnaire is an effective method to observe language attitude and ideology besides interviewing (choi, 2003). this method is considered as a direct method, which includes “forms of overt questioning about the meanings of linguistic varieties” (coupland, 2007). thus, by using this method, researchers give the respondents form, which contains questions related to their language choice, practice, and ask the respondents to give their opinion about it. english department students of bina nusantara university is selected as the sample to observe language choice and attitude based on their bilingual learning environment setting. the university situated in jakarta where most of the population speak indonesian only, local language in family setting for some immigrant, and english occasionally. english is only used for specific purpose (international school, international meeting, and english major classes). english department students of bina nusantara is seen as one social network which has similar language practice since they belong in the similar academic learning environment. the opinion given by the students further is analyzed to see whether the positive or negative attitude they reveal toward the use of english language affect their choice in academic learning environment. the proportion of language choice stated in the questionnaire by the students is the indicator of the attitude. the factors determining language choice is observed through the language practiced by everyone involved in the academic learning environment stated by the students. the correlation between these two indicators is used to determine factors determining language choice. results and discussions the first part of the questionnaire focuses on the motivation of the students in choosing english department as their major in the university. this question is intended to capture the attitude of the student toward the english language. the motivation for learning the language indicates whether the attitude is positive or negative. table 1 shows that the number one reason is the assumption that english is considered as the international language. therefore 30% of the students consider that learning english is important to be part of an internationalized and globalized world. another prominent finding in table 1 is a positive attitude toward the english language, which shows through 20 students who study english for the career opportunity reason. the students assume that studying english is a guarantee to get a good job once they graduate. the second part of the questionnaire focuses on the language chosen by the students for different purposes. the findings are presented in table 2. table 1 why do you learn english? no reasons n 1. international language 30 2. personal interest 22 3. career opportunity 20 4. reading sources 10 5. improving english skill 8 6. communicative purpose 4 7. early background 4 8. irrelevant answer 2 table 2 language choice of english department students language choice reading speaking writing english 66 44 62 indonesia 30 50 32 both 2 6 4 no answer 2 0 2 the result in table 2 compares the language choice used by students for different purposes; reading, speaking, 371language attitude and language... (udiana puspa dewi; criscentia jessica setiadi) and writing. the numbers in table 2 indicate the percentage of 100 students as the participants. for speaking purpose, the majority of the students (66) prefer to use english instead of indonesian or other languages. similarly, for writing, 62 of the 100 students prefer english. the distinctive finding shows in the language choice of speaking, 50 of the students think that they feel more comfortable to speak in indonesian compared to english and other languages. table 3 language choice for classroom delivery and the reasons language choice n reasons english 84 seek improvement (35) mandatory use (24) language exposure (20) reason not provided (4) out of comfort (1) indonesia 8 out of comfort (4) both 8 mandatory use (1) situational use (1) reason not provided (2) despite the fact that all classroom delivery must be in english, the finding in table 3 shows that if the students can choose the language delivery, there are 8 students prefer mixed indonesian and english for classroom delivery and 8 of the students only prefer indonesian as language delivery. meanwhile, the 84 of the students still prefer english as the classroom delivery. most of the reasons stated by the students are related to seek improvement, mandatory use, and language exposure. the data shows that english is the most favored language chosen by the students as the language of classroom delivery. the third part of the questionnaire focuses on the frequency of language that is used by the lecturers that are observed by the students. the findings are divided into three main concerns; the first is the observation of languages used by the lecturers, second is the use of english based on the participant, and the third is the use of english based on the setting. it can be seen in table 4. table 4 language used by lecturers language used by lecturers n english 86 indonesia 10 indonesia english 4 table 4 shows the result of the language used by the lecturers in class delivery based on the students’ observation. the data shows that 86 of the students state that their lecturers always use english in the class for the delivery. there are still 10 of the students who think that the lecturers mostly use indonesian. the other two think that the lecturers use mixed english-indonesian as classroom delivery. table 5 shows that 48 of the students only use english when they talk to the lecturers. only 16 of them that are used english to talk to everyone. table 5 also implies that the strongest english exposure to the students come from the lecturers and friends. table 5 language use based on participants participants n lecturers 48 friends 24 everyone 16 parents 6 friends and family 2 online pals 2 table 6 language use based on settings setting n in class only 32 at campus (inside and outside classroom) 22 everywhere 18 at home 16 internet forum/ online pals 8 church 2 only when it is needed 2 the data in table 6 indicates that there are 54 students only use english in the class and at the campus. even though, there are 18 of students get english exposure everywhere. the finding shows that there are three positive attitudes shown by the students toward english. the majority of the students study english because of the three main reasons; (1) english as an international language; (2) personal interest; and (3) career opportunities. the positive attitudes become motivations for the students to learn english. as it is observed by rahimi, riazi, and saif (2008), positive language attitudes will encourage learners to have a positive orientation towards the second language. in the process of second language learning and foreign language learning, positive attitude and high motivation are one of the facilities, which should be acknowledged by the students and lecturers. based on that perspective, the positive attitudes that are shown by english department students of bina nusantara university are an excellent foreground in designing and choosing the kind of learning method or exposure for the students. the three reasons mentioned by the majority of students are considered as the starting point to create an environment where the students get the language exposure. the assumptions of english as an international language and career opportunities are clearly related with the idea of english as a commodity in the globalized world. by possessing the commodity, in this case, english as the economic benefit will be gained. the benefit the english offers have motivated the students to learn the language. this means that the value of language is measured based on the way it serves the economic demand from society. the students assume that mastering english will give them the opportunity to get a good job and access to the global community. as it is described by heller (2010), english has increasingly become the potential ‘world’ languages. this shapes the language choice of the people in favor of economically powerful languages and all the lifestyle associated with them. therefore, through the ideology that english is a global language, which brings economic 372 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 369-373 benefit, the language choice of the students is observed in relation to their language ideology. block (2010) has framed that the object of language in the globalized context related to its function as the international language but it switches from grammatical consideration to the communicative purpose. the competence developed in learners is expanded from the traditional language learning. the concern is focused more on the communicative purpose and not limited on the lexical, syntactical, morphological, and phonological level. therefore to achieve successful language learning, language exposure around the learning environment must be examined. based on the context of language attitude revealed in the part of the questionnaire, the frequency, language choice, and language used by the students are discussed further to find out whether their attitude is coherence with the language use pattern and the exposure of the environment to use english. based on the observation of the language choice from the students, the majority of the students prefer to use english for writing and reading. on the other hand, the majority of them prefer indonesian for speaking. this finding leads into an interesting discussion when the researchers put it on the context of english as an international language concept framed by block (2010). the main concern in language teaching in the global context is to shift the main concern for the communicative purpose. the fact that the students prefer to use indonesian in term of speaking proves that the students are still lack of oral communication skill in english. the majority of the students choose english as the language delivery in the classroom. the three major reasons are to seek improvement, mandatory, and language exposure. the three reasons indicate the students realize that the frequent use of english will improve their english and academic environment, such as classroom as the best place to get the exposure. despite their choice of english as language delivery, they are still lacking speaking skill. therefore, the factors affecting the lack of communicative skill are observed through the following part of the questionnaire where the students are asked about the frequency of english used based on the setting and the participants. the finding indicates several important points related to factors affecting the language choice by students. based on the setting, english is frequently chosen in the academic environment. 32 of the students use english in the class, and 22 of the students use english inside and outside of class in the campus. based on the participants, english is used by the students most of the time when they talk to the lecturers (48) and their friends (24). 86 of the students mention that their lecturers always use english in the class; thus they have a chance to speak english when they are in the classroom. different social contexts influence the outcomes of researches related to attitudes towards language learning. the effects of attitude might be much stronger in a context where there is much more opportunity for contact between learners and target language speakers than in a foreign language context, where learners are not in close contact with the target cultures and beliefs. from the discussion, in the indonesian context, the two main factors of english used by english department students are the role of the lecturer and the academic environment. these two factors are forming the students’ contact with the target language, in this case english. thus, the language attitude and language choice of the students are heavily depending on the language used by the lecturers and the academic environments. the finding and the discussion point out that the role of the lecturers is very crucial in determining the language choice of the students. the rule that is made in the english department, which requires all of the lecturers and the students use english in class has successfully regulated the frequent use of english. there are still small numbers of the students (4) who claim that most of the lecturers still use mix indonesian-english and the other ten claim that most of the lecturers even use indonesian in-class delivery. the reason for the mix is the explanatory concept part of the lecture. the students who claim their lecturers still use mix or indonesian mention that they switch their language from english to indonesian or mix it with indonesian to explain the core concept of the topic within the subject. the students explain that some lecturers unconsciously switch the language to indonesian when they try to explain things that are considered complicated to be explained in english. this habit forms an attitude that indonesian is considered a simpler language. it affects the language choice of the students where they prefer to use indonesian for the communicative purpose. in another research, chalak and kassaian (2010) figure out that the attitude is highly affected on the success of language acquisition. thus, the attitude implied from lectures’ language choice has a great impact on the process of language learning, especially on the language choice of the students. to achieve successful language learning, the lecturers must have more awareness of their language choice. the use of the language other than english must be avoided in the classroom to provide an example to the students that in term of oral communication. another factor affecting the language choice of the students is the setting of english use. the finding underlines the fact that students only use english in the academic setting. the majority of the students mention that the only exposure they get to speak english is in the university environment. 32% of the students only use english in the class, and 22% use english inside and outside the classroom. only 18% of the students use english everywhere. this shows another reason why students do not choose english when they are speaking. this is an important finding for designing language learning strategy. as stated by rahimi, riazi, and saif (2008), in many cases, the pattern of language exposure in the efl context affects the degree and nature of the proficiency level also the motivation of the learner. further, the learning of new language varieties and its social association in school are highly dependent on lecturer attitudes toward language diversity. therefore, the problem faced by the students, related to the lack of language exposure, is the same problem with the most english students in multilingual society, where english is only considered as the foreign language. in indonesia context, english is not even considered as the second language. the first language of most students in the english department of bina nusantara university is indonesian and their second language is their local language. therefore, there is almost no exposure to english use outside the academic environment. the data shows 16 of them use english at home and none of them use english in public places. it shows that the academic environment plays the most important role in creating english exposure for the students to improve their skill in communicating orally in english. 373language attitude and language... (udiana puspa dewi; criscentia jessica setiadi) conclusions based on the research questions, there are two significant findings previously discussed in the previous chapter. the two research questions being observed are the attitude of english department students of bina nusantara university hold toward the use of the english language and the factors determining the language choice of english department students. the finding emphasizes two important points; (1) the students hold the positive attitude toward english, and (2) the factors affecting the students’ language choice are the role of the lecturers and language exposure in the academic environment. the positive attitude is shown through the statement of the majority of the students who argue that english is an international language and they also state that the language offers more career opportunities. the factors affecting the language choice are the role of the lecturers and language exposure in the academic environment. the students prefer to use english for writing, reading, and listening to classroom delivery from the lecturers but most of them still prefer to use indonesian for speaking out of comfort. based on the participant and setting observation, english is mostly used to talk to lecturers and in academic environments. therefore, these two factors determine the language exposure of english speaking to english department students at bina nusantara university. this research is limited to situational and case-based language choice in academic context. the findings of this research suggest that further research related to curriculum design and english exposure to the english department students must be carried out. the problem raised through the discussion is the lack of exposure for the students to use english outside the academic environment. a curriculum and mandatory rule related to english language use, as language delivery must be designed based on the research finding. another problem pointed out from the finding is the fact that student prefers to use indonesian for speaking. it shows that language exposure related to oral communication still needs improvement. based on the motivation, the majority of the students argue that they learn english because english is assumed as the international language, which promises them more career options. this language ideology can be used as a foundation to develop more communicative oriented language learning in the english department. references aldosari, h. (2010). from language and literature to culture teaching: teaching efl beyond one standard dialect. paper presented at the seccll conference in georgia southern university in statesboro, ga, on southeast coastal conference on languages & literatures, april 1-2, 2010. block, d. (2010). globalization and language teaching. in coupland, n. (eds), the handbook of language and globalization. west sussex: wiley-blackwell chalak, a., & kassaian, z. (2010). motivation and attitudes of iranian undergraduate efl students towards learning english. gema online journal of language studies, 10(2), 37-56. choi, j. k. (2003). language attitudes and the future of bilingualism: the case of paraguay. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 6(2), 81-94. coupland, n. (2007). style: language variation and identity. cambridge: cambridge university press. crawford, t., pablo, i. m., & lengeling, m. m. (2016). struggling authorial identity of second language university academic writers in mexico. profile: issues in teachers’ professional development 18(1), 115-127. gardner, r. (1985). social psychology and second language acquisition: the role of attitudes and motivation. london: erward arwold. heller, m. (2010). the commodification of language. annual review of anthropology, 39, 101-114. jaspal, r. (2009). language and social identity: a psychosocial approach. psych-talk, 64, 17-20. lauder, m. (1998). indonesia’s linguistic diversity. in john h glynn (ed.), indonesian heritage: language and literature (72–73). jakarta: archipelago press. padwick, a. (2010). attitudes towards english and varieties of english in globalizing india. newcastle: university of groningen. pennycook, a. (2010). english and globalization. in j. maybin and j. swann (eds.), the routledge companion to english language studies (113-121). new york: routledge. rahimi, m., riazi, a., &saif, s. (2008). an investigation into the factors affecting the use of language learning strategies by persian efl learners. canadian journal of applied linguistics/revue canadienne de linguistiqueappliquée, 11(2), 31-60. sneddon, j. (2003). the indonesian language: its history and role in modern society. sydney: university of new south wales press ltd. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 227 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 227-232 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4173 beyond translation: clarity, sensitivity, and artistry in benedict anderson’s reading of indonesian literature novita dewi graduate program of english language studies, sanata dharma university jl. affandi tromol pos 29, depok, yogyakarta 55002, indonesia novitadewi@usd.ac.id received: 27th november 2017 /revised: 11th january 2018 /accepted: 31th january 2018 how to cite: dewi, n. (2018). beyond translation: clarity, sensitivity, and artistry in benedict anderson’s reading of indonesian literature. lingua cultura, 12(3), 227-232. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4173 abstract this research was to reconfirm anderson’s theory (and praxis) of translation, i.e., transfer of language and culture from one to another with clarity, sensitivity, and high artistry. the analytical method used the application of diverse translation strategies to achieve pragmatic equivalence, i.e., the use of footnotes and foreignization-domestication principles. to consolidate the discussion, this research examined closely anderson’s english translation of part of titie said’s “bidadari” in his analysis of the novel and his translation of pramoedya ananta toer’s short story “nyonya dokter hewan suharko”. the results indicate that what appears in his translation work is a broad range of discourses that help expound foreign-language (in this case english) intelligibility from the translating (indonesian) one. his treatment of domesticating and the foreignizing translation is critically done owing to his gift of interests, passion, and persistence in the subject. keywords: footnotes, pragmatic equivalence, foreignization, domestication introduction benedict anderson’s mastery of new languages and cultures in his mid-career has made him suspicious that this rare polyglot must have owned more than mortal powers (hirschman, 2011). hirschman’s statement of commendation is read when anderson received the 2011 albert o. hirschman prize, one of the prestigious awards in social science. after english (plus, probably, irish dialects) and spanish, indonesian is the first asian language he becomes proficient at. with anderson opens the door for interdisciplinary indonesian studies that are marked by the establishment of the journal indonesia during his graduate school days at cornell. next, his comparative inclination allows him to work seriously and later publishes original research in thailand and philippine studies while learning thai and tagalog language, literature, and culture. since then, numerous research and publications in the expanding fields of southeast asian studies by later scholars have indebted to the immortality of his works to date. his classic appeared in 1983, imagined communities, to mention but one has continued to inspire scholars of varied disciplines such as history, literary studies, political sciences, and many more. indeed, speaking of translation and literary studies, imagined communities is one among numerous works by anderson which is most relevant to cite as proven by literary scholars including the notable jonathan culler. arguing that the rise of print culture and especially the rise of novels and newspapers expedite the translational translation, culler (1999) has claimed that anderson helps people think through the possibility of imagining a nation as a shared, special collectivity among strangers. however, what is relevant to the present discussion is the translation’s effects on literary history as shown later by walkowitz (2009) who build on this seminal work of anderson. she has argued that transnational translation of novels in the varied, multiple, and the comparative edition is helpful in encouraging networks of collectivity. as it is, benedict anderson’s contribution is important up until the present time with the rise of migrant writings, diaspora studies, trends in comparative literature, and translation studies. added to anderson’s gift of interests, passion, and tenacity in the subject, such as interdisciplinary scholarship on indonesia especially by means of literature is his critical and transformative vision for the country he loves most. it is the critical and transformative vision that differentiates anderson’s translations from the often framed, eurocentric, ideologically manipulated translation of non-western texts into english which is used globally as lingua franca (lefevere, 2016; house, 2013; ning, 2010). the wealth of research on anderson’s contribution to translation studies focus mostly on his seminal theory, that is, the spread of newspapers expedites the formation 228 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 227-232 of imagined communities that become the basis of a nation (bielsa & bassnett, 2008; walkowitz, 2009; buden et al., 2009). anderson’s important influence on transnational translation in the asian region has also been documented as in his own book published two decades ago, the spectre of comparisons: nationalism, southeast asia, and the world, comparing as it does indonesia, the philippines, and thailand. while studies on anderson’s translation of texts in the philippines and thailand have been done as for instance in the works of, respectively, aguilar et al. (2011) and jackson (2005), research on the translation dynamics in indonesia is scarce although anderson’s translation of indonesian texts abounds. it is thus important to discuss anderson’s legacy. his communicative and stylish translation of indonesian texts into english is worth discussing. this article, therefore, is to show how benedict anderson’s translations of indonesian literature go beyond changing words and/or interlingua meaning transfer. dewi (2016) has said that translation is an intersection point (linguistic, cultural, and symbolic) to a system which is often ignorant of the linguistic and cultural specificities inferred in the source text. while translation is commonly understood as a process of transferring meaning and sense from one source language (sl) to the target language (tl), anderson resists this conventional definition of translation. translation for anderson (1996), as proven in his many transnational translations, is more than the communication of meaning of an sl text by means of an equivalent tl text. anderson’s translations involve a broad range of discourse to expand on language intelligibility. although anderson’s translated texts appeared decades ago, his trajectories may provide insights to translation studies that is now an integral part of the study of cultures and comparative literature (bassnett, 2006). anderson’s commentary on the fictionalization of transgender lives in indonesia, as this research will soon show, is pertinent to juxtapose with today’s indonesian coercive handlings of this community. in addition, the translator’s gender-sensitive approach in translating one indonesian short story discussed is, likewise, contextually apt in cultural terms. methods the nature of this research is translation studies theoretical application and its implications (tymoczko, 2005; hatim, 2014; munday, 2016). used as two main research data are benedict anderson’s article on titie said’s novel and his translation of pramoedya ananta toer’s short story. the secondary data comprises of several issues on theory and practice of translation. this article contends that the translation of literary works is inclusive of the interpretation thereof (bassnett and lefevere, 1998; johnson, 2002; tymoczko, 2005). as such, two different but related text-types are used in the discussion, i.e., literary analysis and a piece of literature. specifically, this research attempts to point out first, the use of footnotes, and secondly, anderson’s handling of domestication and foreignization issues. therefore, a number of translation strategies which are well-matched to his translation praxis will be used in the analysis. they include techniques of footnoting (eco, 2012) and glossary compilation (samuelsson-brown, 2010) as well as various trajectories in foreignizing vis-à-vis domesticating translation chiefly from bassnett (2006) and munday (2016). to procure concepts of smooth translation, also consulted in this research is venuti’s renewed edition (2008) of his classic the translator’s invisibility that was published for the first time nearly two decades ago but still relevant to date. results and discussions to begin with the first translation case, the data used here is anderson’s own article (1996). this article is a book chapter in laura sears’ fantasizing the feminine in indonesia – an esteemed, oft-quoted book by esteemed gender specialists. the intention of this current research is not to discuss the novel, but simply to look at salient points in the way anderson translates parts of the novel for the purpose of his article. titie said’s novel bidadari brings anderson’s attention, hence his analysis on the bizarre, or to use anderson’s own term ‘phantasmagoric’ novel published during suharto’s time (1996). in anderson’s thorough assessment, the novel has a dreamlike quality as shown by his footnoted comment in the epigraph of his article, “deliriously outré late-new order novel” (anderson in sears, 1996). a few words about the novel are necessary. published in 1990, bidadari tells of the oscillation of psychological and social frustration experienced by a metropolitan homosexual couple. the novel’s protagonist is michael dimaz antonio daturuntu or micky the effeminate son, the youngest of three siblings of a menadonese ghastly businessman and solonese noblewoman. titie said casts micky as a character with insecure identity (a woman trapped in man’s body). micky’s parents, especially his masculine father and international trader of exotic animals kept for leather goods and delicacy food, tries very hard to train him to be like his macho brothers tobias and donald who will all soon take over the business. meanwhile, his gentle mother has no courage to interfere but to obey her husband. meant ‘heavenly nymphs’, the title of the novel refers to our womanlike hero who is unnerved, blissful, and peaceful like angels in the sky with stars as companions. frequently bullied and shouted at home, micky with his mother’s help goes to surabaya to live with his uncle but changes his mind and takes a ferry instead to lampung leaving no messages to his family. upon knowing that his father and tobias have been stalking him, micky frantically throws his body overboard and gets injured and five months later finds himself lying in a mental hospital having undergone psychiatric treatment for his impermanent memory loss. micky manages to escape to makasar, poses himself like an escaped tomboy girl, checks in at a hotel and subsequently wraps himself in women’s clothes. in this hotel, hallucination hits him; he is haunted by the bizarre animals in his family farms and begins to scream hysterically. it is here that the romantic journey begins when a handsome, sensual mas tonny comes to help by nursing, soothing and treating micky like his younger sister and calls him kahyang, a short form of the javanese word kahyangan that means heaven. tonny (raden mas fathoni kusumonegoro) is a successful businessman who then brings kahyang/micky home, and the two live together as brother and sister. tonny-kahyang intimacy invites envy and it impatience of kamardi, the architect and now in charge of tonny’s luxurious three-story house which is also his office on the most lavish street in makasar. tension arises when kamardi finds the couple in bed and accuses them incestuous with which they reveal that they are not related 229beyond translation: clarity, sensitivity.... (novita dewi) and soon decide to get married. since people in makasar know them as siblings, they get married in surabaya and will move shortly to jakarta. micky’s now dying father has continued to look for him and sent donald and tobias to take micky back to receive forgiveness. when the brothers appear, a fight follows between them and the duet tonny-kamardi. it is during the struggle that the brothers, attempting to reveal micky/kahyang’s identity, strip him naked, and toss him against the wall leaving him unconscious. micky finally wakes up a month later lying again in a hospital bed and regains his memory, having been puzzled over his marriage to tonny. kissing micky lovingly, tonny says that he knows from the very first time that micky is not a girl. the story ends with the sex-change operation, and the couple lives a good life like a ‘normal’ husband and wife. this present discussion would argue that benedict anderson’s use of footnotes to accompany the discussion of the novel deserves particular attention. anderson analyses the story whilst translating the essential parts throughout his commentary that are possibly hard to understand intelligibly by non-indonesian. in so doing, he uses footnotes; and his footnoting technique is of the comprehensive and sophisticated kind. to begin with, the title of the article draws in itself an interesting clue for the thrills inside thus: “bullshit!” s/he said: the happy, modern, sexy, indonesian married woman as transsexual”. here is the quote at the beginning of anderson’s article followed by his own translation. “bullshit!” aku meniru gaya amerika yang selalu diucapkan kamardi. “sungguh, kahyang. saya berusaha mengasihimu sebagai adik, tapi ternyata tidak berhasil. saya ternyata mencintaimu…” “bullshit!”⃰ “bullshit!” i imitated the american-style swearing that kamardi always used. “honest, kahyang. i tried to love you as my little sister, but it turns out i failed. it turns out i love you in a deeper way…” “bullshit!” underneath the quote is the author’s explanation in mini-notes for the word “bullshit” as follows: “a characteristically mestizo exchange in titie said’s deliriously outré late-new order novel bidadari” (anderson in sears 1996). here, it seems that anderson is interested in tonny’s manner of seducing kahyang/micky using the english interjection “bullshit”, which is culture-specific in english speaking countries. for clarity sake, anderson provides some little information about this common use of codeswitching by the indonesian middle class, hence leaving this “characteristically mestizo exchange” untranslated. as a gifted translator, anderson could have used the concept of equivalence for this outburst of mixed nonsense and disbelief often uttered by two people in love such as ‘gombal’ (literally means ‘rag’ to show uselessness), ‘bohong!’ (short for ‘jangan bohong!’ or don’t lie to me, please). given that anderson has a deep understanding and very good grasp of both languages and cultures, he retains the word “bullshit” for his english readers to show the dynamic use of language and social class in indonesia. a literal translation is indeed a useless translation. this is to say that using comprehensive footnotes, anderson’s translation here agrees with the notion that nonequivalence. in this case, his retention of the original english word sometimes gives results in a “better” translation (kashgary, 2011). his equivalence is pragmatic, or what hatim (2014) earlier calls it as cross-cultural pragmatics. the doyen of translation theory in the likes of paul newmark and the eminent bible translator eugene nida as well as some recent authors avoid footnotes, except to carry wordplay. the example can be seen from eco (2012) that has said: “there are losses that we could consider absolute. they are the cases when it is not possible to translate, and if such cases occur, let’s suppose, in the middle of a novel, the translator falls back on the ultima ratio, introducing a footnote and then the footnote ratifies her defeat. an example of absolute loss is provided by many wordplays.” other writers in favor of footnotes include delabastita (2002) with his three-prong strategy, i.e., prototext, metatext, and prototext-metatext in place of footnotes. similarly, although undesirable sometimes, says ordudari (2007), the use of footnotes can be seen as the best in terms of translation strategy and translation procedure. it is because the foreign language readership could benefit from the text as much as the source readers do. thus, being said, there are 18 footnotes that anderson provides the readers with his analysis of the novel bidadari. half of the footnotes discuss the rendering of several indonesian terms into english in a sound, clear, and precise explanation. to take but one example is the indonesian loan word ‘konglomerat’. to quote his footnote in full: “konglomerat is probably most gracefully translated as “tycoon”, but this would miss the wonderfully insouciant way in which a gray, abstract, collective institutional noun in english has become a very vivid, concrete, personal, and titillatingly [sic] menacing noun in indonesian” (anderson in sears, 1996). rereading anderson’s article in today’s indonesia, his observation of primordial, anti-chinese (business baron) feeling of the country is all the more relevant. for the last few years, sectarianism has threatened the integrity of indonesia as a nation-state. one example is the religious-ethnic card currently played in indonesian politics as evident in the 2017 jakarta gubernatorial election (wilson, 2017; suryadinata & negara, 2017; lim 2017). the lgbt group has also found a hard time amidst the increase of conservatism in indonesia (see, e.g., boellstorff, 2004; oetomo, 2010; khanis, 2013; boellstorff, 2016). next, another important footnote anderson mentions, in the beginning, is the use of the third-person singular pronoun. anderson uses random translation and paraphrase of the indonesian word ‘dia’ into ‘he’ and ‘she’ throughout the article. english third-person singular is gender-marked, while the indonesian 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person singular are uninflected for gender. it is surprising that anderson promotes the use of gender-neutral language when such an issue is almost unheard of in the 1990s. when referring to micky, anderson makes an alternating usage of ‘he’ and ‘she’ as follows: family tensions rise to the point where the mother secretly gives micky some money, and tells him to go and live with his kind uncle in surabaya. instead, micky takes the ferry to lampung, fleeing any contact with her family. (anderson in sears 1996). 230 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 227-232 the recently mounting use of non-binary pronouns although yet to be formalized yet in the us universities is evident of anderson’s innovative use of gender queer pronoun. as reported by the bbc news in 2015, the lgbt resource center of the university of wisconsin-milwaukee has been widely copied and circulated non-binary pronoun cards across the us since 2011. the card contains a list of 8 (eight) pronouns, i.e. ‘e/ey’, ‘he’, ‘per’, ‘she’, ‘sie’, ‘they’, ‘ve’, ‘zie’, and its corresponding pronouns in each position (subject, object, possessive, reflexive). thus, ‘he/ she’, ‘him/her’, ‘his/her’, ‘his/hers’, and ‘himself/herself’ become respectively, ‘ey’, ‘em’, ‘eir’, ‘eirs’, and ‘eirself’, or ‘zie’, ‘zim’, ‘zir’, ‘zirs’, and ‘zirself’. according to the research centre director, the use of gender-neutral language is to support inclusive environment in order to respect individual’s preferred gender identification (chak, 2015). indeed, in today’s mounting demand for gender equity and all-inclusiveness, anderson’s usage of “s/he” in the title and all through the assessment of the novel can be seen as a language overture to the increasingly spread of these unfamiliar pronouns. as it is, anderson could have aptly given “bullshit” sie said for the title of his article. here it can be seen that not only does anderson provide the readers with a sound literary analysis, but he also has a lot to offer through his fine translation; sociology of literature, culture, and politics of indonesia. to sum up, for now, anderson’s article is replete with footnotes, but not a single one is intrusive. in fact, the footnotes are of great assistance to the untrained eye of indonesian language and culture. one can liken it with, for example, peter kalkavage’s erudite translation of plato’s timaeus whereby the translator makes an extra effort to include footnotes and glossary for the benefit of the inexperienced readers of plato and those who hardly read greek (altman, 2014; see also bloom, 2017). the discussion now turns to the second translation case, i.e., ben anderson’s very own translation of indonesian literature. anderson’s familiarity with pramoedya ananta toer’s writing needs no explanation. the weekly assignment for students of southeast asian studies at cornell university, saya shiraishi recalls, is to translate pramoedya’s works among other indonesian literary pieces into english (shiraishi, 2011). this section is to discuss anderson’s translation of one pramoedya’s short story nyonya dokter hewan suharko that previously published in studies on southeast asia journal. the text used herein is taken from tales from djakarta, a collection of pramoedya’s short stories translated and published by equinox (toer, 2000). the main translation technique shown in translating the short story includes anderson’s effective oscillation of foreignization-domestication. foreignization is the retaining foreignness, culture-specific items of the original, (e.g., personal names, national cuisine, historical figures, streets or local institutions), while domestication is transparent, fluent style of translation to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the target language reader. to use venuti’s (2008) vision of the invisibility of the translator, the technique is no other than ‘sending the reader abroad’ vis-à-vis ‘bringing the author back home’. this article will argue that benedict anderson does both gracefully. first is the catchy title: mrs. veterinary doctor suharko. anderson translates the honorific term nyonya dokter hewan into mrs. veterinary doctor, which might put any english speaking reader to smile, yet appears normal to readers of the source culture. indeed in indonesia, let alone in the 1960s, it was still common to call a wife by her husband’s surname plus his professional title. doctors, lawyers, government officials, and many more are all male pursuits that women hardly occupied. when a woman is called ‘bu lurah’, for example, she is the wife of pak lurah (sub-district head). no women have ever taken the helmet of leadership even at the smallest constituency level until a few years ago. it is not up to the country’s post1998 democratization era that women have obtained the opportunity to become government officials in indonesia. only when a woman gets an official or professional position, she can use her name – a case in point being lurah susan, the controversially appointed sub-district head of lenteng agung, south jakarta in 2014. it must be restated here that the political landscape has changed since anderson’s translation of the short story in question appeared. one research, for example, claims that despite the predominantly muslim population, indonesia has gradually adopted a non-arab islamic democracy by supporting women leaders (fattore, scotto, sitasari, 2010), notwithstanding the post-truth politics shown in the latest case of the gubernatorial election in jakarta (lim, 2017). thus, anderson’s adoption of foreignizing technique in translating the honorific name of the doctor’s wife in the short story is to be understood against the backdrop of indonesia’s cultural norms of the time. another instance of anderson’s foreignization is leaving the words ‘5.000 rupiah’ untranslated from its original ‘rp.5.000’. mindful of the fact that the naturalness and smoothness of the translated text are usually achieved at the expense of the cultural and stylistic messages of the source text (yang, 2010), anderson makes use of wordlist to supplement the information. he provides the glossary at the end of the story using mostly domestication, and again, his comprehensive footnotes. the examples are surat piutang (iou), sitje (dutch word for the sofa footnoted), morris (an english make of car footnoted), and djaran kepang (hobby horses with the interactive footnote) (anderson, 1996). the use of glossary plus footnotes is useful as to give immediate contexts to ease the readers. suffice it to say here that anderson’s discursive strategy to either foreignize or domesticate his translation products is contingent upon his interpretation of the given cultural situation and historical moment of the source country to where the text(s) belong. it is interesting to note that anderson’s idea of the nation (and translation) is among the diverse concepts employed by such a leading figure in translation theory as venuti says (2008). thus, believing that language is a powerful instrument for the formation of a nation-state, anderson’s translation of a text from sl to tl aims to challenge the ethnocentric tendency and ignorance of cultural differences often seen in the dominant culture. while, english-speaking readers enjoy the fluent and natural-sounding translation, indonesian readers, likewise, do not feel culturally oppressed or intimidated by the representation. conclusions this article has firstly shown that for readers of both indonesian and english, anderson’s translations show clarity. his translation strategies include footnotes, pragmatic equivalence, foreignization, and domestication. secondly, the discussion has also shown that anderson’s translation is praised for its sensitivity. his 231beyond translation: clarity, sensitivity.... (novita dewi) knowledge of indonesian languages and cultures allows him to become the cultural ambassador for international readers. understandably, an acceptable translation should produce the same or at least similar effects on the target readers the way the original work generates effects on the source readers. anderson, however, goes beyond the boundary of acceptable translation. his translation has made source readers (read: indonesian) of the novel become more aware of the milieu with which the novel is written. he does this with empathy without losing even once his critical outlooks. indeed, to reflect on his translating strategy in today’s indonesian politics thwarted lately by extremism, anderson’s translation products may shed light on the country’s uphill journey toward democracy. finally, artistry is the third characteristics of anderson’s translation that this research attempts to reveal. he resists conventional translation by revisiting the closed, normative usage of translation strategies. his translation is therefore fluent, erudite, and graceful, thanks to his multilingual tongue. charles hirschman quoted at the beginning of this article is right to say in the conclusion of his speech that benedict anderson is an impossible model for other scholars to follow because of his extraordinary multifaceted, imaginative, and craving for the creation of new fields of (southeast asian) studies. anderson translates intellectually and artistically. his cultural translation has opened up theoretical, critical, and textual problems in translation studies, literature, history, and anthropology alongside their own intrinsic and political meanings. given that this present research limits itself in examining anderson’s translation of two pieces of indonesian literature, further research needs to pursue his translation of other indonesian literary texts. in addition, literary translation of other indonesian writing by other translators is likewise worth pursuing, not only for comparative analyses but also to challenge hirschman’s conviction of anderson’s matchless virtuosity. references aguilar, f., hau, c., rafael, v., & tadem, t. 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(2010). brief study on domestication and foreignization in translation. journal of language teaching and research, 1(1), 77-80. https://doi. org/10.4304/jltr.1.1.77-80 copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 253 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 253-258 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4064 analysis of student attitudes to develop a self-assessment model of genre-based writing class taufiqulloh1; yuvita2; endang sulistianingsih3 1,2,3english education department, universitas pancasakti jl. halmahera no.km. 01, kota tegal, jawa tengah 52121, indonesia 1taufiqkayla@gmail.com; 2yuvieazfa@gmail.com; 3endang.sulistia@gmail.com received: 09th october 2017 /revised: 21th november 2017 /accepted: 13th february 2018 how to cite: taufiqullah., yuvita., & sulistianingsih, e. (2018). analysis of student attitudes to develop a self-assessment model of genre-based writing class. lingua cultura, 12(3), 253-258. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4064 abstract this research aimed to develop learners’ autonomy in english as foreign language (efl) writing class, in particular, it was applying self-assessment. it enabled learners to raise their awareness in learning and to improve the goal orientation. the research also helped teachers to reduce their burdens of assessment and entailed a long-term effect on the learner’s autonomy. the objective of this research was to figure out student attitudes in developing a self-assessment model of genre-based writing class. quantitative and qualitative analysis were utilized to draw the findings of this research. it was conducted at the english education department, faculty of teacher training, pancasakti university in the even semester of the academic year 2016/2017. the data were collected from a questionnaire, classroom observation, and focus group discussions. the results of this research present students’ problems, perceptions, and needs toward the teaching and learning process of genrebased writing classes attended as preliminary research to develop a self-assessment model of efl writing. keywords: student attitudes, self-assessment model, genre-based writing introduction in the efl (english as foreign language) learning, writing is one of the important subjects learners must do. students of any english department in indonesian colleges or universities, for instance, should be able to pursue good performance in writing to meet daily course assignments or even to complete their study (taufiqulloh, 2014). however, for lecturers, teaching writing is often assumed to be a frustrating task due to its complexity in many aspects from format, mechanics, content, organization, grammar, and sentence structures. also, they have often tied in the situations that the students are reluctant to write, and do not know how to start their writing. many still think that writing is about the talent. this opinion is not entirely incorrect. moreover, writing activities become not only normal parts of classroom life but also the opportunities for the students to achieve almost instant success in improving their writing skill. to create such a situation, selecting or developing an appropriate model or method of teaching writing is necessary based on students’ and teacher’s needs. this research presents the needs analysis in developing a self-assessment model of genre-based writing class. self-assessment is also aimed at promoting learners’ autonomy as this issue has received many concerns from many teachers, practitioners, and researchers from many parts of the world. learner autonomy is one of the issues that need to be addressed when the focus is on the learner in present-day elt (english language teaching) (illés, 2012). self-assessment drives learners not only need to be competent but also to be autonomous in learning. the principle of autonomy stands out as one of the first foundation stones of successful learning. the ability to set one’s own goals both within and beyond the structure of a classroom curriculum, to pursue them without the presence of an external prod, and to independently monitor that pursuit all keys to success (brown, 2004). according to illés (2012), learner autonomy can be defined as the capacity to become competent speakers of the target language who can exploit the linguistic and other resources at their disposal effectively and creatively. so, it can be drawn that autonomous learners are independent in problem-solving and decision-making process. from the background previously described, it can be said that self-assessment is considered to be a practical tool in promoting learner autonomy in efl class. some studies claimed the effectiveness of self-assessment in efl/esl writing class; birjandi, (2010), matsuno (2009), wang and wang (2007), oscarson (2009), and taufiqulloh, (2015). however, such researches are not derived from the results of needs or attitudes analysis of the lecturers and or students. this research analyzes the student attitudes as the initial 254 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 253-258 step in developing a self-assessment model in efl genrebased writing class. it aims at exploring students’ problems, perceptions, on the writing classes they attended. it also presents the students’ perceptions about self-assessment in efl writing and what kind of self-assessment model needed in genre-based writing instruction in particular. self-assessment offer independent learning to students to promote learners’ autonomy which becomes the trends of present-day elt. it is a key issue in autonomous learning and enables students to set goals and to monitor and evaluate their learning. according to oscarson (2009), a fundamental reason for self-assessment is then to help the learner becomes aware of achievement reached at any given time and over a longer term, and in this way enhance learning. however, self-assessment is effective since it involves the students and enables them to see possibilities for reflection, redirection, and confirmation of their learning efforts. students often need support in understanding the importance of self-assessment, in becoming independent evaluators of their progress, and in setting goals for future learning. self-assessment in writing, in particular, enables students to gain more control as writers. they could write within a series of steps of writing: planning, outlining, drafting, polishing, and writing the final copy. selfassessment could be embedded in some or whole steps of the writing process. throughout this way, students can identify their strengths and weaknesses in writing and find out how to cope with them. self-assessment encourages the learners to recognize their strengths and weaknesses in learning, and cope with various learning problems (taufiqulloh, 2014). however, students cannot stand by themselves in applying practices of self-assessment in the classroom. they must be led. teachers or lecturers play an important role in directing students in implementing the instruments of selfassessment in efl writing class. students must be endorsed to raise their critical thinking in learning to write through self-assessment. thus, teacher feedback is beneficial for directing students in implementing self-assessment practices in the efl writing. in writing instruction, feedback is usually given by the teacher when the writing process is implemented. teacher gives comments or suggestions on the students’writing relating to various aspects of writing such as format, mechanics, content, organization, grammar, and sentence structures (taufiqulloh, yuvita, and yuliarto, 2016). beside teacher feedback, peer feedback is also a crucial part in implementing self-assessment practices for students in the classroom. it is a type of assessment performed by equal status learners. the assessor finds and discusses the strengths of weaknesses of students’ writing performance for further improvement. meanwhile, self-assessment itself can also be implemented in other types of writing including genrebased writing as raised in this research. the term “genre” is used nowadays in many contexts. in efl writing, it relates to how the writer groups texts together and typically use language in certain situations. according to hyland (2007), genre refers to abstract, socially recognized ways of using language. it is based on the idea that members of a community usually have little difficulty in recognizing similarities in the texts they use frequently and are able to draw on their repeated experiences with such texts to read, understand, and perhaps write them relatively easily. learning to develop genre-based writing works enables students to produce their writing as the social and cultural practice. also, they can develop their social communicative competence by including the rhetorical understanding of a text. the focus will be on the language and discourse features of particular texts and the context in which the text is used. the students are expected to comprehend the social function, the generic structure, and the language feature of a text. to reach the goals of genre-based instruction an appropriate approach or model is required. the teaching of writing utilizing a teacher-centered approach today is often considered as a frustrating task and many ends in failure. this research presents the needs analysis in designing a model of self-assessment in the genre-based writing class for efl learners, the students of english education department of pancasakti university. the results of this research are used as the bases in developing a model in genre-based writing class focusing on student-centered approach and promoting learner autonomy. needs analysis is one of the crucial parts when teachers plan to design curriculum, syllabus, and implement a model or method in efl classroom. it also relates to the goals and content of the instruction. as nation & macalister (2010) have stated that needs analysis is directed mainly at the goals and content of a course and it examines what the learners know already and what they need to know. one of the issues raised in this research is to collect information students, in particular, in developing a self-assessment model as a part of writing instruction. it is carried out to find out the information about the students’ goals in learning genre-based writing, their obstacles or barriers, and its alternative solutions. it is also to explore the comprehension of both lectures and students on the concepts and practices of self-assessment efl writing. methods this is a descriptive qualitative study that aims at exploring the students’ attitudes in efl genre-based writing class. the data are gathered from a questionnaire, classroom observation, and focus group discussions that intended to explore the students’ perception during attending genrebased writing class, problems encountered, and their perceptions on self-assessment in genre-based writing. the establishment of the questionnaire, in particular, is based on the objective of this research. initially, the objective of this research is identified to formulate the content of the questionnaire; making statements and determining the options (answers) in or order that it reaches its content validity. a try-out is also conducted to a group of students to test its validity and reliability. the results show that the questionnaire is valid and reliable. to collect the data of this research, the questionnaire is distributed to distributed to 60 students of english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, pancasakti university, who attend genrewriting classes, in the even semester of the academic year 2016/2017. throughout the questionnaire, students’ learning experiences in learning genre-based writing are collected including their personal goals, the objectives of instruction, the learning materials and methods, assessment processes, and learning outcomes. the first part of the questionnaire contains 12 closed statements. students write their answers on scale 1 – 4 indicating the different type of responses (1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=agree somewhat, and 4=disagree). the second part contains five open-ended questions for students 255analysis of student attitudes... (taufiqulloh et al.) to answer indicating the problems or obstacles in learning genre-based writing, the efforts they made to deal with these, and their future expectations in learning. the last part of the questionnaire also consists of 5 open-ended questions indicating students’ perceptions on self-assessment in writing, the types of self-assessment needed in the genrebased writing class, and problems may occur in utilizing self-assessment in writing. the data are also collected from the classroom observation intended to match the information collected from the questionnaire and the field conditions. so focus group discussion also conducts with writing and students relating to self-assessment in genre-based writing and involved three writing lecturers and 20 students. for data analysis, editing and tabulating technique are used. editing is to verify the data collected from the questionnaire, observation sheet, and focus group discussion. the data are then tabulated or displayed in tables completed with its degrees of frequency and then analyzed thoroughly. the results of the analysis become the finding of this research. results and discussions quantitative and qualitative analysis are utilized to draw the findings of this research. descriptive statistics are used for any quantitative data. the data from open-ended questions are collected into some categories. the order of the results concerning with the needs analysis of this research is the results and analysis of survey questionnaire on students’ perceptions of genre-based writing class, students’ answers on open-ended questions, classroom observation, and focus group discussion. using spss 22, the results of the survey questionnaire relating to students’ perception after attending genre-based writing class are presented in table 1. table 1 shows the perception of students in attending the genre-based writing class. 56,7% of students respond to their agreement on the materials which are easy to follow. 73,4% of the students chose strongly agree and agree to the statement 6 that during writing course, they are assigned to more writing exercises. in statement 7,70% of students choose to strongly agree and agree that they learned the writing process when doing their writing exercises. 56% of them also gather the feedback from their peers and lecturers after they finish their writing. moreover, 51,6% chose strongly agree and agree that the learning outcome is shared. however, it seems that students have more negative responses to such a survey questionnaire. 60% chose to agree somewhat and disagree that the instructional are communicated thoroughly at the beginning of the course. 56,7% of them disagree that the course materials are sufficient enough, contain much weight. 81,7% of students think that the presentation of the materials is not interactive. also, 61,7% students have stated that they are not led by their lecturers to figure out their problems and share with others to deal. moreover, 55,3% students respond that the class does not motivate them to write better. the results described in table 1 that students have positive and negative responses regarding their experience during attending the teaching and learning process of genre-based writing class they attended. to conclude, students have more negative responses to such genre-based writing instruction. table 1 students’ perception of genre-based writing class no statements n 1 2 3 4 1 the instructional goals were communicated thoroughly 60 0 40 55 5 2 the materials contained much weight 60 3,3 40 55 1,7 3 the materials were easy to follow 60 1,7 55 40 3,3 4 the presentations of materials were structured and systematic 60 6,7 40 48,3 5 5 the presentation of materials was interactive 60 0 18,3 70 11,7 6 students were assigned to do more writing exercises 60 36,7 36,7 26,7 0 7 students learned writing process 60 13,3 56,7 25 5 8 students figured out their problems and shared with others 60 15 23,3 60 1,7 9 students gathered feedback from others 60 6,7 50 38,3 5 10 the class made use of technology such as computer and internet 60 1,7 41,7 15 41,7 11 learning outcome was shared 60 13,3 48,3 28,3 10 12 the class motivated students to write better 60 11,7 25 43,3 20 mean 9,2 39,6 42,1 9,2 1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 agree somewhat, 4 disagree the survey questionnaire of this research also figures out problems commonly faced by students during writing course instructions, their efforts to deal with, and their expectation for future learning. the results are presented in table 2. as described in table 2, the second part of the survey questionnaire of this research contains five open-ended questions for the students to respond. the answers are then collected and analyzed based on its level of frequency. in statement 1, 15% of students write that they lack ideas when starting their writing as the most. this problem is the most dominant one faced by the students when doing writing tasks. they could not elaborate their ideas to enrich the content of their writing. 22% of students respond that they are often tied to the students that they are unable to start their writing. some techniques or methods implemented by teachers in the class does not enable them to write their writing easily. this is also another dominant problem students faced. moreover, the problems in writing are also caused by poor mastery in vocabulary (20%), inaccuracies in grammar (17%), and difficulties to use mechanical aspects of writing (8%). moreover, many of their writing works do not meet unity and coherence either (8%). responding to the problems encountered during attending the writing course, students make some efforts to deal with. drawn from table 2, it is found that 28% of them write that they have to do more writing exercises to improve their writing. 22% of them write that they have to learn more to master vocabulary, 20% write they have to do more 256 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 253-258 exercises in grammar, 13% respond to study more with friends, and 8% write that they have to build up motivation and read a lot of writing texts. the most interesting here is that students need to build up motivation in writing. it is one of the important factors students must have in writing. otherwise, it will end in failure. table 2 students’ problems in writing class, their efforts to deal with, and their expectation in future learning no questions answers percentage 1 what problems do you usually face in writing? lack of ideas 25 difficult to start writing 22 lack of vocabulary 20 grammar inaccuracies 17 improper use of writing mechanical aspects (punctuation, capitalization, diction, spelling, etc) 8 less coherent and united writing 8 2 of the problems previously mentioned, what is the most dominant one? lack of ideas 58 difficult to start writing 42 3 what efforts have you have made in dealing with your learning problems? do more writing exercises 28 learn more about vocabulary 22 study more about grammar 20 study writing more with friends 13 build motivation to write 8 read a lot of writing texts 8 4 what kind of learning goals do you want to achieve in the future learning of genre-based writing? to be able to write with good content 58 to be able to write with good grammar and vocabulary 42 5 in your opinion, what kind of genrebased writing class should be an ideal one for you? should be more student-centered 58 should involve students more in assessment practices 25 i have no ideas about it 17 table 2 also presents students’ expectation in the future writing course. among the many parts of needs analysis in this research, this should be put into major consideration to plan future writing course. 58% of them write that the future writing course should be more studentcentered and 25% write that they have to be more involved in their writing assessment. this indicates that during the writing course instruction, students do not involve in the assessment of their writing. teachers still play a central role in assessing their students’ writing works. and 17% of them have no ideas about the type of genre-based writing class that should be ideal for them. the last part of the questionnaire indicates students perceptions about some issues related to self-assessment. the results are described in table 3. as seen in table 3, it is found that 83% of students do not know about self-assessment in writing. 17% of them write that they know a bit about self-assessment and never implement it in their writing. it indicates that students are not familiar with the concepts and practices of self-assessment in general. however, after the concepts of self-assessment are introduced, 50% of students are quite sure that selfassessment enables them to write well. 33% of students still feel doubtful since they never implement it and 17% of students have no ideas about it. table 3 also shows the importance of self-assessment when it is implemented in a writing course instruction. 67% of students believe that selfassessment enables them to write better. throughout selfassessment, they think they can practice polishing (editing and revising) their writing draft. 25% of students believe that self-assessment can promote learner autonomy, and 8% of students have no ideas about it. for the implementation of self-assessment in a writing course instruction, most students agree that it should be implemented during the writing course. table 3 also figures out when students can implement self-assessment in a genre-based writing class or course. 67% of students chose during the writing course, 17% of students chose after the course, and the rest have no ideas about it. finally, table 3 shows students still feel doubtful whether or not they can implement self-assessment due to their low ability to write. table 3 students’ perception and needs about self-assessment in efl writing no questions answers percentage 1 what do you know about self-assessment in efl writing? i don’t know about self-assessment 83 i know a little about of self-assessment (definition) but never implement it in my writing 17 2 do you think that s e l f a s s e s s m e n t will be useful for you in learning to write? if yes, state your reasons? yes, sure. it will 50 yes, but i am sure whether it will improve my writing 33 not at all 17 3 what kinds of selfassessment do you need in learning genre-based writing? -self-assessment that enables me to write better 67 i can write more by myself (promote learner autonomy) 25 i have no ideas about it 8 4 when do you think you can use selfassessment in the genre-based writing class? during the writing course 67 after the writing course 17 i have no ideas about it 17 257analysis of student attitudes... (taufiqulloh et al.) table 3 students’ perception and needs about self-assessment in efl writing (continued) no questions answers percentage 5 what problems will you probably face when using self-assessment in your writing? i am not sure whether i can assess my writing because my writing skill is not good 67 i have no ideas about it 33 after a survey questionnaire is distributed to 60 students as the participants of this research, the collected answers or responses are analyzed using descriptive statistics as previously described. the classroom observation is conducted during may 2017, once in a week with 100 minutes (duration) of each. it is intended to find out the supplementary data regarding needs of students and lecturers in writing course instruction, genre-based writing in particular. the results are similar to those of the questionnaire. the results show that at the beginning of the course, the instructional goals are not well communicated by lecturers to the students. also, lecturers only present the concepts of writing, after that assign the students to create a writing task by selecting one of the given topics or type of text, and ask them to submit their works. lecturer plays the central role in assessment. if this happens continuously, the writing instruction will end in failure because it does not give more opportunities to the students to evaluate their writing. the use of a single assessment in performance tests like writing test certainly is inappropriate because it can result in potentially biased evaluations (matsuno, 2009). during the classroom observation, it is found that the writing process is implemented in the writing course. students should write throughout five stages; pre-writing, planning, writing (drafting), polishing, and writing the final draft. writing is a process of creating, organizing, writing, and polishing. the steps of the process are creating ideas, organizing the ideas, writing a rough draft, and the last is polishing the rough draft by editing it and making revisions (oshima & hogue, 2006). however, during writing practices, students are not encouraged to search for feedback from peers and teachers. feedback is an important part of self-assessment. tutor feedback and student learning are inseparable. regarding self-assessment in writing, it is found that both lecturers and students are not familiar with the concepts and practices of self-assessment. they consider self-assessment as other types of assessment; peerassessment, teacher-assessment, collaborative assessment, and others. they do not have a concern to implement self-assessment as an alternative technique in the writing class. for that reason, the concepts and sample practices of self-assessment in writing are presented in the classroom. students are encouraged to get to know closer about what self-assessment looks like and how it is implemented in a writing course instruction. another technique employed in this research is the focus group discussion. it is intended to discuss the results of both the survey questionnaire and those of classroom observation conducted before. to this, the draft (prototype) of the self-assessment model in the genre-based writing class is presented. the results show that both lecturers and students agree that self-assessment could be used as an alternative technique in the future genre-based writing instruction. the self-assessment model should measure both cognitive and metacognitive aspects of the students in learning. it does not only enable students to write using self-editing strategies but also serves them with some instruments to raise their awareness and motivation to do more writing exercises. through self-assessment, students are encouraged to possess metacognitive skills such as self-regulation and self-monitoring, and it is important for the development of autonomous learning skills (oscarson, 2009). the results also show that both lecturers and students agree that mini-lesson should be conducted as one of the important parts of the model that is a key element of selfassessment. taufiqulloh (2015) has developed a model of self-assessment in efl essay writing class. responding to the results of this research, the selfassessment model of a genre-based writing class that will be developed in the next study should contain mini-lesson. it consists of modeling and reviewing. it is about setting criteria with the involvement of the students so that self-assessment practices in the classroom can be worked out successfully. throughout the mini-lesson, the teacher presents some models of well-organized writing works which have clarity in meaning, accuracy in format, mechanics, grammar, sentence structures, and clarity in content and organization. another part of the mini-lesson is reviewing. here the teacher provides some writing work to be reviewed with students in the classroom to figure out their strengths and weaknesses. such a lesson enables students to comprehend various types of written texts critically. students review the samples based on the concepts they have learned. it can be done continuously. after this activity is done, students begin to write their works following the steps of the writing process (creating, drafting, assessing, polishing, and writing the final copy). in the creating stage, students generate the ideas about the topic assigned by the lecturer by employing some techniques such as clustering, listing, and brainstorming. the product of this stage is writing an outline. in the second stage, students begin to write their works following the outline, and they can write anything about the topic. after finishing this stage, students do self-assessment on their writing. they assess their writing regarding format, mechanics, content, organization, grammar, and sentence structures. finally, they revise and submit the final draft. the self-assessment model that will be developed in the next study will contain some instruments measuring cognitive and meta-cognitive aspects that are embedded in all steps of the writing process. conclusions to this point, it can be summarized that the results of students’ attitude analysis show that the students, in general, have more negative responses on the genre-based writing class they attended relating to the presentation of learning materials, the instructional method or technique, assessment, etc. moreover, students also have some problems in learning to write as poor ideas, weak grammar, difficulties to start their writing, etc. relating to self-assessment, students agree that self-assessment can be an alternative solution to cope with the situations. teaching and assessing genre-based writing tasks in the department are still teacher-centered that result in poor writing achievement of the students. relating to draft or prototype of the model that is introduced and discussed with both lecturers and students, some important 258 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 253-258 feedback is gathered for the refinement of the model before it is implemented in the field. the next research following this is developing a self-assessment model of efl genre-based writing class. meanwhile, as this research is conducted in the english education department, pancasakti university tegal, the results or findings of this research cannot be generalized. hopefully, this research can give both theoretical and practical benefits to the students of the department. acknowledgement the authors are the teaching staffs of english education department, pancasakti university tegal central java indonesia. this is one of the research outcomes supported under the funding scheme “penelitian produk terapan (ppt) 2017” with contract no. from the directorate of research, technology, and higher education, republic of indonesia, with the contract number: 247/k/f/lppm/ ups/iii/2017. references birjandi, p. 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(2007). the addition of an affect test and self-assessment into esl writing assessment: process and effect, a case study in a non-english major postgraduate esl writing class. retrieved from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/pta/pta_ may_07_hwyw.php. microsoft word 01_ig_menik.docx ������� ������������ ������ �������� �� �� ��� ����� � ������ �� ������� ������������� ����� ��� ���!� ���� ���� ��� �� ����������� ��� �� ��� �� �������� �� �� ����������������������� �������� � ����� �� ������������������� �� � ����� �� �!��������������!� �"#����$%��������� �!��&��!�'�&��!"!(#����)#�� *#+!�*����(%!��#�!�,��(!������������--�)#�'������� ���.�#�/%�+!+#%����&���0�������)#(� �������� �� ��������������� � ���������������������� � �������� �������� ������� �� � �������!"����������#� ������������� ���1�� ����%���.��!'!�!�$,!���!������20��3��3�#���+#(.4�������+#! �!��&�!"!(#���� ���(���������23�#�!����'#,!-�!�!(!�+��!�!�'4�������+#! �++�5#!(�����1����#� ����.!�(����%� ��2��+(�! #!���!(#��! �3�#���+#(.4���+(�! #! �++�5#!(�����1��6��+#1����& %#��#���%� ��2&!+(�$����++����(!(��3�#���+#(.4�3�� �!7����*#5%(�����%� �2���!+%�3�#���+#(.4���+(�! #! �++�5#!(�����1��8!�'�9%# #���%� ��2:#!����3�#���+#(.4�;%#�! �++�5#!(�����1��9%!�'��%��' #���0����������2��!<#!��3�#���+#(.4�;%#�! �!�=��'��0�������)#(�23�#���+#(#�$��������� �*!%�!�4��! !.+#! ���1��0!%����3�!���#��'!����%� ��2�(�!,!.!�3�#���+#(.�>!�!�(!4�������+#! =��*����#��0�������)#(��20#��+�3�#���+#(.4�������+#! )#�#!��!+!�(!�,!,!��0�������)#(��23�#���+#(!+�/�#+(����!�!�!(%!4�������+#! & #+!��0�������)#(�23�#���+#(!+�/�#+(�����(�!4�������+#! ���0!��!�'�8#�!"!�(!������������23�#���+#(!+�������+#!4 ���&�!.!�#�$��#�'����#�2�$0��)��4�������+#! ���������������� ������� �!��&��!�'�&��!"!(#����)#�� ���#!�!�=#��!������ ��� #�#��+��!�� !�'������ ��''!�=���#!�+.!%����/�� �!�#�?�(!�#!�# �� ��������� �� # ����/��� ����������� ��� ���5��(������ #�!+#�� �#!%�0#�!�'��!+(�! *�+�!�5%�?11#5� 3�#���+#(!+�0#�!���+!�(!�! /!�-�+���''��� > ��/�����>�����*!.!�������/�����>���� >!�!�(!�0!�!(���@a� $� -����� @a@�����2�7(���� �4�=!7����� @a���bb ������� ������ ������������ �������� �� �� ����������������������� ���������� ������ ���� ������ � � � ������ $%��3+���1���(%��(#5��!(��#! +�#����-���#�'�)�!����+c�3����+(!��#�' #��3+#�'�d�!��!�e ��;!+���(��.�!(��!�� !�'�3�#���+#(.�!���0#��+�3�#���+#(.����������������������������������������������������� �� !��!� " ��;��-!�!(#����1�;%#��+��!���������+#!��$#���������+������������������������������������������������������� �b� ����� � $%����5#! ��(!(�+��1�=��! ��;%!�!5(��+�#��;%#�)#c+����� +���������������������������������������������������ba �b �"���� ����#��$����� ""��������!� ���%�&� � $%��;��-!�#+���?1�f#�'�#�'�=�+(#�! �#��0��'�! #+�;#(.��*#!���!���������'!# #!(��0!�'�!��������������b� ��� � � ��� �� "��� � ��� 0#�!�.�?--�+#(#���!����� (#5� (��! #+���%�"��#��(%���(��'' � �1��!(!�!��/#�'������"��� ��#�'�*�#'���1���!�'���!(������������������������������������������������������� ��� '������ ������ � /����#(!+�=�,�+%#��#�/! !�'!�������-�!��������+#! �������� ��� ��������� ������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������a � � (����(�� "��� ������!(!���(��.�$� #�'��! !������� !,!�!�� ���!#e 2���� #(#!��(��%!�!-��!%!+#+"!�>���+!������#�#�!��0!%!+!�>�-!�'4 ���� ������ ������ � ��� ������ � � � ��! �� ��� �����" �������������#�$ � �����% �� ������������������������������������������������������������ a � � �)�����*�*������ ����� � �������+�8�#(#�'�&7��5#+��3+#�'���(����(�����+ ���&�' #+%�; !++�+��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��� �"� "�'������� � !�#��#!�g#��!��)#!������,��=!5�e !�#�/�!�#1!��)��! �;#�!�����,��$���#�/�+!�(��!��.!�'�������#! �� ���& �' � ��� ������ ��! � ����� �����( ������������ ���#����) ��&������������������������������������������������������������������ ��� ������+����� ������� ,���� ��%� ��&� �,�$����������� ���'!��%��#+(������#��#(!+�!(!�������,���(+��(��%!�!-��������!�'!��/!�#��/!�.!"!��)��! 0��-���#�#�!������#�����+!%!!��>�-!�'��#�������+#! �������#��������#���� � ����������� �*������ �������" ���� �� ���+�������� �#� �� ��,���������" �������� ���� ��� �� �$ � ��������� ���) ��� ��������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ��a �$����#����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������@ ��� ������� ������ ������������ the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 117  the use of authentic materials in improving learners’ understanding in using grammar: a case study at pamulang university and binus university djasminar anwar1; menik winiharti2 1program studi sastra inggris, fakultas sastra, universitas pamulang jl. surya kencana no.1 pamulang-tangerang 2english department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 menikwiniharti@yahoo.com abstract this study discusses the use of authentic materials for non-english department students at pamulang university, tangerang, and binus university, jakarta. both universities have classes of english iii which uses published materials and toefl course books. authentic materials are provided to support the materials in the compulsory textbook. it is done to encourage students to more understand the grammar. the approach used in this study involves a pre-test, quizzes, and a post test. all these tools are used to measure whether there is a progress of the students’ performance. the students’ progress is summarized and shown in tables. additionally, at the end of the semester, after the post test is given, a questionnaire is distributed to the students to know the students’ opinion about the provided authentic materials. keywords: authentic materials, grammar, pre-test, quizzes, post test abstrak penelitian ini membahas penggunaan bahan otentik untuk mahasiswa selain dari program studi bahasa inggris di universitas pamulang, tangerang, dan binus university, jakarta. kedua universitas ini memiliki kelas bahasa inggris iii yang menggunakan materi-materi yang telah diterbitkan dan buku-buku pelajaran toefl. bahan otentik disediakan untuk mendukung materi dalam buku teks wajib. hal ini dilakukan untuk mendorong mahasiswa untuk lebih memahami tata bahasa. pendekatan yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini melibatkan pre-test, kuis, dan post test. semua alat ini digunakan untuk mengukur apakah ada kemajuan kinerja mahasiswa. kemajuan mahasiswa dirangkum dan disajikan dalam bentuk tabel. pada akhir semester setelah post test diberikan, kuesioner dibagikan kepada mahasiswa untuk mengetahui pendapat siswa tentang bahanbahan otentik yang disediakan. kata kunci: bahan otentik, tata bahasa, pre-test, kuis, post test   118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  introduction as the idea of teaching english is to use english to communicate both in oral and written way, a learner has to be able to use correct grammar. what is to write and speak must be based on correct grammar, so the messages conveyed can be understood. harmer (2007) points out that the right sentences are those which contain the right structures. grammar used in the real world is applied in four skills of english, i.e. speaking, listening, reading, and writing. these skills are very prominent to be mastered by the language learners, so grammar is a crucial thing to be understood. in teaching and learning process, most textbooks used are published materials. when these materials are used again and again, it can make the learners bored and become uninterested in studying the language. to deal with this problem, a teacher can provide a supplementary material which is a good choice to support the main course books. the supplementary materials are generally known as authentic materials. authentic material according to richards and schmidt is defined as: “in language teaching, the use of materials that were not originally developed for pedagogical purposes, such as the use of magazines, newspapers, advertisements, news reports, or songs. such materials are often thought to contain more realistic and natural examples of language use than those found in textbooks and other specially developed teaching materials.” (richards dan schmidt, 2002, 42) authentic texts can be used in language teaching because the text was considered attractive, engaging learners, culturally enlightening, relevant, and motivating; it is the best preparation for reading authentic texts and understanding authentic conversation or speech. (day, 2002, 2-3) another reason for the use of authentic materials, according to day, is because the material in the textbook is simplified (simplified materials) which is usually not real and is not natural and can cause a deadlock in language teaching. this is in accordance with what wilkins (1976) has proposed in guariento and morley (2001) that the authentic materials are used in the classroom with the hope that students are exposed to the language used in the real world and this will help them achieve a certain level of proficiency in the language. even guariento and morley (2001, 347) argue that in teaching there is now a general consensus on the use of authentic materials in the classroom which is beneficial to the learning process. meanwhile, melvin and stout (1987) have concluded that students who work with authentic materials have an interest in the language because they can do something with that material. students who previously are reluctant to learn later realize that the material could be useful for further achievement. at pamulang university and binus university, english iii classes use the published materials as toefl course books. the students who take english iii have taken english i and english ii. from their academic achievement, most lecturers have similar opinion that the students are still weak both in fluency and accuracy. to cope with this problem, supplementary materials – authentic materials – can be provided. the study focuses on the use of authentic materials in classes of english iii for non-english department students. the problems that will be investigated are: (1) can the use of authentic materials improve the students’ understanding in using english grammar? (2) do the students get motivated and challenged to learn english more? (3) what are the students’ opinions toward the use of authentic materials? the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 119  method the research methodology involves data source, data collection, and analysis. data sources the data of the research are gathered from the students who take english iii classes in the even semester from february to june 2011. they are 19 students from pamulang university and 30 students from binus university. the pamulang university students are majoring in computer science, while the students of binus university are majoring in computerized accounting. data collection at the first session, a pre-test is given to know the students’ ability before the authentic materials are provided for one semester. then in every two sessions, an authentic material is given to enrich the learning process. after that, quizzes are provided to know whether the students more understand the discussions. at the end of the semester, there is a post-test which is held to measure the students’ final performance. in addition, a questionnaire is distributed to know the students’ opinion about the authentic materials that are provided for one semester. the results of the pre-test, quizzes, and post-test are analyzed to find whether there is a progress. data analysis after all the data are collected, the analysis is done based on the results of the pre-test, quizzes, and post test. these results are analyzed to see whether there is a progress related to what the students have learned during the semester regarding the authentic materials that have been given. the students’ progress is described in tables. in addition, there is a questionnaire which results in the opinion of the students toward the authentic materials given. the students’ opinion is categorized into several items based on the questions in the questionnaire. they are: (1) whether the materials are interesting and challenging; (2) whether the students enjoy the class activities; (3) whether the students understand the materials given; (4) whether they are more motivated to learn; (5) whether they are improving. results and discussion pre-test results at the very first session, before the first lecture began, a pre-test is given to the students to measure their general ability in english, especially grammar. therefore, the students should not know that they were going to have a test. in other words, they are not prepared at all to do the test. the following tables show the result of the pre-test of the students of pamulang university and binus university (table 1 and 2). 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  table 1. the result of the pre-test at pamulang university student score 1 81 2 74 3 68 4 66 5 64 6 62 7 60 8 60 9 60 10 56 11 55 12 54 13 52 14 52 15 52 16 50 17 50 18 48 19 48 table 1 shows that only 1 of 19 students scores 81. in other words, there is 5,26% of the students score above or equal to 80. also only 1 or 5.26% of the students scores 70 to 79. 7 or 36.84% of the students obtain 60 to 69. 8 or 842.11% students obtain 50 to 59. 2 or 10.53% of the students obtain score below 50. from these numbers it is assumed that more than 50% of the students scored low even very low (below 60) in the pre-test held at pamulang university. table 2. the result of the pre-test at binus university student score 1 85 2 82 3 80 4 72 5 68 6 62 7 62 8 62 9 58 10 58 11 56 12 56 13 52 the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 121  14 52 15 52 16 50 17 50 18 50 19 50 20 48 21 48 22 46 23 46 24 44 25 44 26 36 27 36 28 34 29 32 30 30 table 2 shows that only 3 or 10% of 30 students score above or equal to 80. meanwhile, only 1 or 0,03% of the students scores in the range of 70 to 79; 4 or 13.33% of the students score in the range of 60 to 69; 11 or 36.67% students score in the range of 50 to 59. in addition, 11 or 36.67% of the students score below 50. these figures show that more than 50% of students score low or very low (below 60) in the pre-test held at binus university. quiz results starting from session 2, after the pre-test, the students are provided with authentic materials taken from several sources. they are texts or articles in newspapers, magazines, novels, comics, as well as scripts of movies. the discussion using these materials is based on the topics in the course outline. in every two or three sessions, the students have a quiz dealing with a certain topic. overall, there were 5 quizzes held during the whole semester in addition to the pre-test and the post-test. table 3 and 4 describe the result of the quizzes held at pamulang university and binus university respectively. table 3. the result of the quizzes at pamulang university student quiz 1 quiz 2 quiz 3 quiz 4 quiz 5 average 1 78 74 74 78 80 76,5 2 74 76 78 76 78 76,4 3 68 70 65 65 70 67.6 4 64 66 70 70 72 68,4 5 68 70 72 76 78 72.8 6 64 68 70 76 72 70 7 70 72 70 74 74 72 8 64 66 64 66 72 66,4 9 64 68 66 68 78 68,8 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  10 60 66 70 75 75 69,2 11 62 64 64 66 66 64,4 12 66 62 64 66 66 64.8 13 68 76 78 75 80 75,4 14 58 64 62 66 68 63,8 15 60 62 65 70 78 67 16 58 63 65 70 75 66,2 17 66 73 76 78 80 74,6 18 55 65 70 73 78 68,2 19 52 64 68 70 77 66,2 table 3 shows that there is no single student scores above 80. 7 or 36.84% of the students obtain a score in the range of 70 to 79. 12 or 63.16% of the students obtain a score in the range of 60 to 69, and no student scores below 60. these figures indicate that in doing the quizzes the students demonstrate their ability at an average level, because no one scores very good or very low. table 4. the result of the quizzes at binus university student quiz 1 quiz 2 quiz 3 quiz 4 quiz 5 average 1 86 85 85 92 92 88 2 78 85 85 90 88 85 3 81 82 75 76 78 78 4 66 78 77 85 83 78 5 73 85 83 82 85 82 6 69 76 82 83 83 79 7 75 80 80 80 85 80 8 81 80 84 84 83 82 9 50 63 63 65 60 60 10 61 75 75 84 82 75 11 67 79 84 79 84 79 12 62 73 73 69 74 70 13 75 86 86 83 88 84 14 80 90 86 86 89 86 15 65 75 79 84 85 78 16 73 70 79 82 84 78 17 79 81 82 81 85 82 18 69 81 83 83 85 80 19 65 77 85 86 86 80 20 59 63 63 60 63 62 21 79 83 83 82 80 81 22 78 85 85 86 90 85 23 50 64 60 64 67 61 24 79 79 79 81 80 80 25 70 84 80 80 84 80 26 76 82 80 85 85 82 27 85 88 88 88 90 88 28 78 78 83 85 84 82 29 60 68 70 71 75 69 30 70 70 79 75 79 75 in average, 17 or 57% of 30 students score above or equal to 80. 9 or 30% of the students score in the range of 70 to 79, while 4 or 13% of the students score in the range of 60 to 69. no scores under 60. these figures describe that in working on the questions in the quizzes, the students have the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 123  demonstrated their skills well enough because 4 students score in the range of 60-69 and no one score lower than 60. post-test results for the whole semester, the students deal with some sorts of authentic materials. in the last session a post-test is held to measure the improvement of the students’ ability for one semester. here are the results of the post-test held at binus university and pamulang university (tabel 5 and 6). table 5. the result of the post-test at pamulang university student score 1 88 2 86 3 83 4 82 5 80 6 78 7 75 8 76 9 78 10 78 11 73 12 74 13 80 14 70 15 72 16 67 17 80 18 76 19 80 table 5 shows that out of 19 students, 8 students or 42.11% of the students scored above or equal to 80. 10 students or 52.63% of the students scored in range of 70-79. only one student or 5.26% scored 67. these results suggest that in the post-test 94.74% of the pamulang university students scored quite well. table 6. the result of the post-test at binus university student post-test 1 87 2 90 3 70 4 69 5 69 6 69 7 63 8 57 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  9 87 10 80 11 79 12 76 13 88 14 69 15 65 16 89 17 83 18 65 19 61 20 77 21 58 22 85 23 71 24 78 25 75 26 79 27 74 28 82 29 76 30 76 table 6 above shows that out of 30 students, 9 or 30% of the students scored above or equal to 80. 11 or 36.67% of the students scored 70 to 79, while the number of students scoring 60-69 were 8 or 26.67% of the students. there are only 2 students or 6.66% of the students scored 50-59. these results indicate that the students performed better in the post-test, as evidenced by the lack of students who scored below 55. summary of all test results after the post-test given, the whole results of the pre-test, the average of the quizzes, and the post-test are observed to see whether the students improved after they obtain authentic materials during the semester. table 7 and table 8 show the whole result of the pre-test, the quizzes and the post-test. table 7. the whole result at pamulang university student pre-test average of quizzes post-test result analysis 1 81 76,5 88 improved 2 74 76,4 86 improved  3 68 67.6 83 improved  4 66 68,4 82 improved  5 64 72.8 80 improved  the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 125  6 62 70 78 improved  7 60 72 75 improved  8 60 66,4 76 improved  9 60 68,8 78 improved  10 56 69,2 78 improved  11 55 64,4 73 improved  12 54 64.8 74 improved  13 52 75,4 80 improved  14 52 63,8 70 improved  15 52 67 72 improved  16 50 66,2 67 improved  17 50 74,6 80 improved  18 48 68,2 76 improved  19 48 66,2 80 improved  table 7 illustrates that 19 students or 100% students from the pamulang university show improvement and better ability both in the quizzes and post test, compared to pre-test. nevertheless, 2 students (10.53%) show a decrease in their average result of the quizzes compared to pre-test results. however, in the post-test these students show improvement. the table also shows that 8 students score above or equal to 80 in the post test. thus, there is a 36.84% increase compared to the pre-test. 10 students score in the range of 70-79, which means that there is a 47.37% increase. as a result, there is a decrease of 42.11% within the score of 60-69, which means only one student scores in this range. the good fact is that there is no single student who scores below 60. table 8. the whole result at binus university student pre-test average of quizzes post-test analysis 1 85 88 87 improved 2 82 85 90 improved 3 80 78 70 worse 4 72 78 69 worse 5 68 82 69 improved 6 62 79 69 improved 7 62 80 63 improved 8 62 82 57 worse 9 58 60 87 improved 10 58 75 80 improved 11 56 79 79 improved 12 56 70 76 improved 13 52 84 88 improved 14 52 86 69 worse 15 52 78 65 improved 16 50 78 89 improved 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  17 50 82 83 improved 18 50 80 65 improved 19 50 80 61 improved 20 48 62 77 improved 21 48 81 58 improved 22 46 85 85 improved 23 46 61 71 improved 24 44 80 78 improved 25 44 80 75 improved 26 36 82 79 improved 27 36 88 74 improved 28 34 82 82 improved 29 32 69 76 improved 30 30 75 76 improved table 8 above illustrates that 27 or 90% of 30 students show improvement and better ability both in the post-test and quizzes compared to the pre-test. meanwhile, 3 or 10% of the students show a decline. 16 students (53.33%) show a decrease in the post-test results compared to the average results of their quizzes. however, the post-test results show an increase compared to the pre-test results. table 8 also shows that as many as 9 students score above or equal to 80, meaning that there is a 20% increase compared to the pre-test results. a total of 11 students score in the range of 70-79, which means that there is a 37% increase in the score range. the improvement also happens in score range of 60-69, although it is only 0.13%. still, there is a decrease of 30% in the range of score 50-59, which means that 2 students score low. the good news is the lack of students that earns score below 50. questionnaire results at the last session of the semester, the students are given a questionnaire about their opinion toward the materials given during the whole semester. they are asked whether the materials were interesting and challenging, whether they enjoye the class activities, whether they understand the materials given, whether they obtain more motivation to learn, and whether they are improved. the following two tables (table 9 and 10) describe the results of the questionnaire at pamulang university and binus university. table 9. the result of the questionnaire at pamulang university no question students’ options yes no not sure 1 do you think the authentic materials given in the class are interesting to study? 17 2 2 using the authentic materials, do you think the english class becomes more interesting? 19 3 do you enjoy the class activities when the authentic materials are used and discussed? 15 4 4 do you think learning english is more challenging using the authentic materials? 14 2 3 the use of authentic materials ….. (djasminar anwar; menik winiharti) 127  5 does the teacher explain the grammar items in the materials? 16 3 6 from authentic materials given, do you find enough examples of the grammar items related to the course book? 18 1 7 do the grammar items found in the authentic materials help you understand the materials in the course book? 16 3 8 do you find difficulties in studying the grammar items in the authentic materials given? 19 9 do you think you get improved on the grammar after learning english using the authentic materials? 18 1 10 do you think you become more motivated to learn english using the materials given? 6 3 total 139 22 19 from the column of students’ options, yes answers illustrate that 73.16% of the students think that the material presented are interesting, challenging and motivating. in addition, they think that they are improving their grammar. on the contrary, the no answers indicate that there are only 3 students (1.58%) who argue that the materials presented are not exciting, challenging and motivating. meanwhile, the not sure answers show that 10% of the students think that they are not certain toward their achievements and the materials provided. table 10. the result of the questionnaire at binus university no question students’ options yes no not sure 1 do you think the authentic materials given in the class are interesting to study? 22 4 4 2 using the authentic materials, do you think the english class becomes more interesting? 16 7 7 3 do you enjoy the class activities when the authentic materials are used and discussed? 15 6 9 4 do you think learning english is more challenging using the authentic materials? 18 6 6 5 does the teacher explain the grammar items in the materials? 28 1 1 6 from authentic materials given, do you find enough examples of the grammar items related to the course book? 18 6 6 7 do the grammar items found in the authentic materials help you understand the materials in the course book? 17 2 11 8 do you find difficulties in studying the grammar items in the authentic materials given? 19 5 6 9 do you think you get improved on the grammar after learning english using the authentic materials? 19 1 10 10 do you think you become more motivated to learn english using the materials given? 16 2 12 total 188 40 72 in the table above, the preferred answer yes (except for no.8 question, the answer in line is no) show that 58% of the students think that the materials provided are exciting, challenging and motivating. in addition, the materials bring improvement in terms of grammar ability. conversely, the no answers (except for the question no.8, the answer in line is yes) indicate that 18% of the students have the opinion that the materials presented were not interesting, challenging, and motivating. meanwhile, the not sure answers illustrate that 24% of students feel unsure toward their achievements and the benefits of the materials. 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 117-128  conclusion the authentic materials provided to both english iii classes at pamulang university and binus university are proven to be beneficial for the students because they gain more knowledge about the use of grammar in different kinds of authentic texts. moreover, it can be more motivating to students to study harder because the topics are not only interesting but also challenging them to further understand. due to the limited time, both english teachers of the two universities have to work more in explaining the aspects of english grammar since there are only several aspects covered in one semester. generally it can be concluded that the students have shown significant improvement in their understanding of grammar. references day, richard r. (2003). authenticity in the design and development of materials. methodology and materials design in language teaching: current perceptions and practices and their implications. singapore: seameo regional language centre. guariento, william & morley, john. (2001). text and task authenticity in the efl classroom. elt journal, 55(4), 347 – 353. oxford: oxford university press. harmer, jeremy. (2007). how to teach english. edinburgh: pearson education limited. melvin, bernice s. & stout, david f. (1987). motivating learners through authentic materials. dalam interactive language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. peacock, matthew. (1997). the effect of authentic materials on the motivation of efl learners. elt journal, 51(2), 144 – 156. oxford: oxford university press. richards, jack c. & schmidt, richard. (2002). longman dictionary of languageteaching and applied linguistics (3rd ed.). london: pearson education. 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 blended learning multimedia development to support english training at bina nusantara university melania wiannastiti english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 mwiannastiti@binus.edu abstract in 2011, bina nusantara university put developing its people as the first priority, including developing english language proficiency. this development programs had been carried out since then. some types of english trainings were given for the lecturers and staffs for some certain of times. since the time provided for the trainings was limited, it was needed to support their language development by providing an autonomous learning through a website multimedia. this article aims to first describe the steps and result of the multimedia and second to find out whether the designed multimedia was useful for learners to develop their english. the multimedia focused on learning tenses which were needed in their field of work. the process was started by designing the objectives and the level of the target learners’ english proficiency. the process was continued by designing pre-test, the material, and the post test of each tense. to find out whether the designed multimedia was useful to develop the learners english the multimedia on simple present tense was tested to random respondents. by the end of applying this multimedia, a questionnaire was given to the respondents. the result was then analyzed qualitatively. the result shows that the multimedia on simple present tense is easy to follow and useful to develop their knowledge and skills in english. keywords: english training, autonomous learning, multimedia, tenses abstrak sejak 2011 universitas bina nusantara memutuskan pengembangan pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan menjadi prioritas utama, termasuk penguasaan bahasa inggris. karena keterbatasan waktu, maka disiapkan pembelajaran mandiri (autonomous learning) melalui multimedia di internet. artikel bertujuan untuk menggambarkan langkah dan hasil multimedia, serta manfaat multimedia bagi pembelajaran bahasa inggris. multimedia berfokus pada pembelajaran tenses yang sangat bermanfaat bagi pembelajar. proses dimulai dari perancangan tujuan dan tingkat penguasaan bahasa inggris pembelajar. kemudian, dilanjutkan dengan tes awal, materi ajar, dan tes lanjutan untuk setiap tenses. uji coba dilakukan dengan multimedia berisikan materi simple present tense pada responden yang dipilih secara random. kuesioner juga dibagikan pada saat akhir uji coba. data dianalisis secara kualitatif. hasil uji coba menunjukkan bahwa konten multimedia yang berisi simple present tense mudah diikuti dan bermanfaat bagi pengembangan pengetahuan dan keterampilan berbahasa inggris. kata kunci: pelatihan bahasa inggris, pembelajaran mandiri, multimedia, tenses 93blended learning ….. (melania wiannastiti) introduction bina nusantara university through its development activities is eager to fulfill the vision to become a worldclass university in 2020. since 2011, bina nusantara university has put developing its people as the first priority, including developing english language proficiency. these development programs have been carried out since then. some types of english trainings are given for the lecturers and staffs for some certain of times. the trainings are classified in one area for staffs and four areas for lecturers. the training for staffs, in the areas of esp (english for specific purposes), consists of four types of training: english written business communication, english for secretary, english for presentation and general english. the four main areas for lecturers consist of general english, english mastery, english for teaching purposes, and english for academic purposes. since the time provided for the trainings is limited, it is needed to support their language development by providing an autonomous learning through a website multimedia. this multimedia is hoped to support them to develop their language outside of the classroom. the idea to develop this multimedia is also based on need that one or two sessions in each english training discusses grammar. grammar is very important to learn the language better, which involves structure, parts of speech, tenses etc (kirankumar & patil, 2011). since there is any similarity topic i.e. tenses, it is necessary to develop a multimedia which can be used for all participants joining the trainings. besides, the way to support their learning should be interesting and easy to make them attract to learn by themselves (brown, 2001). therefore, the aims of this paper are first to describe the steps in designing multimedia and its result. second is to find out whether the designed multimedia is useful for learners to develop their english by learning it online. the multimedia focuses on learning tenses which are needed in their field of work. actually the topic of multimedia in language learning is not the new topic in research since there are many researchers have carried out this topic for their researches as ferry and brown (1995), chang and lehman (2002), kabata and wiebe (2010), and mahajan (2012). they focused on the use of multimedia in language learning. however these researches mainly focused on how to apply the multimedia in language learning for students in the classroom while this paper focus of the designing of the multimedia for staffs and lecturers outside the classroom. there are various definitions of multimedia. some ideas come up that multimedia is the type of power point presentation only, other said that it is the audio only. mishra and sharma (2012) stated that multimedia is defined as an integration of multiple media elements including audio, video, graphics, text, animation, etc. into one synergetic and symbiotic whole that results in more benefits for the end users. according to mahajan (2011) there two types of multimedia linear and non linier multimedia. linear multimedia tools generally progress from one screen to the next and are commonly used by instructors as a supplementary teaching aid while non-linear multimedia offer viewers interactivity, control of progress, and choice in their construction of knowledge. since it is an integration of many media elements, it is necessary to design in what elements used to design the multimedia. there are many phases in designing a multi media; planning, designing, producing, testing and revising. each phase has a number of activities associated with it and has its own characteristics. as the first phase, designing multimedia is not as simple it needs planning. planning for multimedia is a much broader consideration than the design and development issues. planning contain the consideration of the purpose and the implementation afterwards. it is not only talking about what type of multimedia but more about the objectives for the users after the multimedia has been used (frey, 2010). the success of the users in using the multimedia is put on the consideration in the planning period. in the phase of designing, functional specifications and content script are necessarily used (bailey, konstan, & carlis, 2012). details such as the design of each screen, the type of navigation to be used, and the interactive characteristics of the interface are worked out. flowcharts and storyboards are created to reflect these specifications. detailed timelines are created and major milestones are established for the critical phases of the project. the next phase is producing. in this phase, it is time to develop scripts, artwork, animation, video, audio, and interface. once the scripts are developed, it is needed to have a language check to the language experts to avoid mistakes. the following step is testing. when a multimedia is completed, it is needed to test it to other party to find out the strength and the weaknesses of the result. from the comment of the users, then the phase come to the end called revising. in this phase, some comments then are used to fix the multimedia. methods descriptive qualitative was used as the method of this paper. it was done in two steps. the first step was preparing the multimedia; and the second step was handling a try-out to have participants’ ideas about the multimedia through questionnaire. there were some steps carried out in producing the multimedia. the first step was planning. in this step, corporate learning directorate (cld) and language center (lc) discussed the type of multimedia for tenses, designing the objectives and the level of target learners’ proficiency. the content of the multimedia was placed as the priority as well. the content consisted of pretest, the content: the pattern, the use and the function, and the post test. then, it was continued to type the script and asked the expert to check the script. after finishing the script, the storyboard was designed by an expert from instructional design center (idc). upon the completion of the storyboard, it came to the next step by checking and revising. once it was revised then the audio recording was done. the last step was compiling the audio and the text multimedia. to gain the feedback of the multimedia designed, some steps were taken to action. the first one was the tryout of the multimedia to some participants chosen. the participants were university students and staffs who accessed self access learning center (sallc). 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 they were asked to apply this multimedia and given a questionnaire to fill out. this questionnaire was aimed to seek some developing comments from the participants which were finally used for fixing the multimedia. results and discussion the parts of multimedia this multimedia in simple present tense is divided into some parts: the opening credit, the pretest, the content and the post test. below are the screenshot of the multimedia figure1 the opening credit figure 2 the pretest figure 3 the content figure 4 the post-test the opening credit contains the warmest welcome and the clear instruction on how to use the multimedia. there are two options offered whether the participants are going to do the pretest or directly go to the content. pretest consist of 16 question to choose and will be randomly appeared on the screen. the content itself is divided into three parts; the use, the form and the pattern. the last is the post test. after the users do the post test, the score will be appeared on the screen. when the users get lower score that the expected score, there will be an offer to be back to the content or exit the multimedia. result of the try out in this try out session, random participants were invited to do try out of the multimedia. fifty participants were asked to fill the questionnaire. there were two types of questionnaire, first the closed questions about the multimedia, the content, the audio, and the general ideas. figure 5 multimedia for self access learning from figure 5, it can be seen that from the usage for self access learning, generally more than 80% participants agreed that this multimedia can be used for self access learning. especially, part a which asked whether this multimedia can develop their knowledge about simple present tense, more than 80% agreed. however, in part b, less than 20% agreed that the pattern is easy to understand. part c was about how to differentiate the patterns in simple present tense easily. about 80% agreed that it was easy to differentiate it. part d was about whether they could learn the use of simple present tense easily, about 80% agreed about it. more than 60% agreed whether they could do the exercises in simple present tense correctly. the second section of the questionnaire was about the content of the multimedia. here is the result (figure 6). 95blended learning ….. (melania wiannastiti) figure 6 the content of the multimedia this section consists of five questions. generally the result shows the good result. in part a, almost 90% agreed that the content was clear and gave better understanding. moreover, they agreed that it gave good exercises and was contextual. section three is the questionnaire about the audio in the multimedia (figure 7). there were five questions given. the result is as follow. figure 7 the audio of the multimedia figure 7 shows that overall the audio was good. in the five parts, each shows the high percentage of agreement. moreover, none were strongly disagree whether the audio is supportive the multimedia and whether the explanation was clear. the last section of the questionnaire was the general idea of the multimedia (figure 8). here is the result. figure 8 the general idea of multimedia as the others, this section asked five general questions. when they were asked whether the objectives were clear and whether the picture was supportive, almost 90% agreed about it. almost 90% also agreed that the language used was simple and clear. on the contrary, less than 10% disagreed that the display was interesting and the scenes were well organized. the participants were also asked to give free comments and ideas about the multimedia. there were three questions asked. the first was about their general ideas about the multimedia. some answered that this multimedia could help them to understand simple present tense better and very useful, especially for the beginners since it gave the chance for the users to practice it repeatedly in different types of exercises. second, when they were asked about the strengths and the weaknesses of the multimedia there were many ideas about it. participants said that it gave them clear understanding about simple present tense. however, some parts of the audio were not clear. some participants aid that the picture were not interesting although the content were great. this multi media provided some good exercises and the score or the users but it did not give any discussion about the mistakes. furthermore, there was no information about the level of difficulties of each question. the last question given was about the users’ ideas to develop this multimedia better. some various suggestions were given. most participants suggested that the audio should be developed clearer especially the spelling. the pretest and exercises should be completed with the discussion to make the users understand the mistakes. the exercises should also contain the use of this tense in real life so later the user could practice it in real life. the picture should be more alive and interesting or even use interesting animation moreover, some suggested to use the real video of real life not only audio and picture. they suggested that the voice should be all english native speakers. conclusion the developing multimedia as a supportive self access learning material for english training for lecturers and staffs in binus university was developed. it was developed by following the steps of designing the multimedia. the result of the tryout shows that it was very helpful for the learners and easy to follow. although generally participants were happy with the result, there are still some weaknesses to fix. some suggestions were given to make the multimedia better in the future, especially the appearance, the exercises and the audio in some part which were not very clear. the explanation should use the real video to give better understanding of real life. references bailey, b. p., konstan, j. a., & carlis, j. v. (2012). demail: designing multimedia applications with interactive storyboard. retrieved from: http:// www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~mcgeemr/bailey%202.pdf brown, h. d. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: addison wesley longman. chang, mei-mei, & lehman, j. d. (2002). learning foreign language trough an interactive multimedia program: an experimental study on the effects of the relevance component of the arcs model. calico journal, 20(1), 81–98. retrieved from: 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 http://journals.sfu.ca/calico/index.php/calico/ article/download/628/494‎ ferry, b., & brown, c. (1995). technology in teacher education: using multimedia to enchance the design and make processes. australian journal of teacher education, 20(2), 5–14. retrieved from: http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1276&context=ajte frey, b. a. (2010). a model for developing multimedia learning projects. merlot journal of online learning and teaching, 6(2), 491–507. retrieved from: http://jolt.merlot.org/vol6no2/frey_0610.pdf kabata, k., & wiebe, g. (2010). challenge of developing and implementing multimedia courseware for a japanese language program. calico journal, 22(2), 237¬–250. retrieved from: http://www.ualberta. ca/~gwiebe/docs/japanesemultimediacourseware. pdf kirankumar, k. s., & patil, s. s. (2011). teaching grammar through multimedia to rural secondary school students. indian streams research journal, 1(5). issn:-2230-7850. retrieved from: http:// www.isrj.net/uploadeddata/238.pdf mahajan, g. (2012). multimedia in teacher education: perception & uses. journal of education and practice, 3(1), 5–13. issn: 2222-1735 (paper); 2222-288x (online). retrieved from: www.iiste. org mishra, s., & sharma, r. c. (2012). interactive multimedia and training. india: idea group publishing. retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde17/ pdf/intmultimedia.pdf ______. (2012). interactive multimedia design and production process. retrieved from http://www.edb. utexas.edu/minliu/multimedia/practicalaspect.pdf 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 penghapusan shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) menjadi fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) roberto masami prabowo japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 robertomasami@gmail.com abstract muenshakai is a phenomenon in japanese society that relationship disappears and a growing number of people who live their own lives. this phenomenon occurs because of the abolition of the shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) working system in about 1990. declining in marriage rates, divorce, and declining in birth rates (少子化) also lead to the formation of muenshakai. the problem limited to japanese people around the year of 2007–2013, when the elderly japanese people began to retire, lived alone, no relatives who could or would take care of them or even just going to visit. when they were sick, even died in the residence or in a public place, none of their family wanted to pay for hospital, funeral ceremony, and burial. to discuss this study, the author used descriptive analytical method. this research results the analysis of an image of contemporary japanese society with economic issues that affect the family. the conclusion of the study states japan must create a working system to ensure the community’s economy in the future. keywords: muenshakai, economic, family abstrak muenshakai adalah fenomena masyarakat jepang yang hubungan relasinya menghilang dan bertambah banyaknya masyarakat yang hidup tinggal sendiri. fenomena ini terjadi karena dihapusnya sistem kerja shūshinkoyō (終 身雇用) pada sekitar 1990. angka perkawinan yang menurun, perceraian, dan angka kelahiran yang menurun (少子化) juga menyebabkan terbentuknya muenshakai. permasalahan ini dibatasi pada masyarakat jepang sekitar tahun 2007– 2013, ketika masyarakat lansia jepang mulai pensiun, hidup sendiri, ada kerabat yang bisa atau mau mengurusnya, dan bahkan mau berkunjung ke rumah sekadar menjalin hubungan kekeluargaan. ketika mereka sakit, bahkan meninggal di tempat tinggal atau di tempat umum, keluarga tidak ada yang mau membiayai rumah sakit, upacara kematian, dan penguburan. artikel menggunakan metode deskriptif analistis. hasil penelitian menghasilkan analisis berupa gambaran masyarakat jepang masa kini dengan permasalahan ekonomi yang berdampak pada kekeluargaan. simpulan dari penelitian ini negara jepang harus menciptakan suatu sistem kerja untuk menjamin perekonomian masyarakat pada masa depannya. kata kunci: muenshakai, ekonomi, keluarga 75penghapusan shūshinkoyō ….. (roberto masami prabowo) pendahuluan beberapa tahun ini, di jepang ada kasus yang tidak bisa dikategorikan dengan “bunuh diri yang tidak teridentifikasi”, 「身元不明の自殺と見られる死者」 dan “mati dalam perjalanan”, 「行き倒れ死」, yakni dinamakan dengan “kematian yang baru”, 「新たな 死」. kematian tersebut disebabkan hilangnya hubungan kekeluargaan dan sistem kerja seumur hidup (終身雇用). dengan demikian, terbentuklah muenshakai (無縁社会) yang menyebabkan hilangnya chien (地縁) dan ketsuen (血縁), yakni hubungan antar daerah dan keluarga atau orangtua. dalam lingkungan kerja ada keterikatan sosial kerja yang dinamakan dengan shaen (社縁), hal ini pun ikut menghilang dalam beberapa waktu ini. (http://www. nhk.or.jp/special/onair/100131.html) muenshakai (無縁社会) adalah fenomena masyarakat jepang yang hubungan relasinya menghilang dan bertambah banyaknya masyarakat yang hidup tinggal sendiri (primary individual). dengan fenomena ini, istilah muenshakai dibuat oleh pusat televisi nhk di jepang pada 2010. menurut survei badan pusat statistik jepang (ministry of internal affairs and communications) pada 2011, jumlah orang jepang yang tinggal sendiri sebanyak 15.885.000 orang; persentasenya sebesar 32,1% (http:// www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/whitepaper/ja/h23/ html/nc222220.html). jika dibandingkan dengan jumlah seluruh keluarga di jepang yang sebanyak 50.928.000 unit keluarga, perbandingan masyarakat yang tinggal yang hidup tinggal sendiri kurang lebih sebanyak 2.46 orang. mereka yang tinggal sendiri ini bisa dikategorikan sebagai tanshinsetai ( 単身世帯), yakni orang yang tinggal sendiri, baik dia tidak menikah, cerai atau cerai mati, anaknya sudah keluar dari rumah karena sudah hidup mandiri. istilah lainnya disebut dengan tandokusetai (単独世帯) atau single setai (シン グル世帯). (http://www.nhk.or.jp/special/onair/100131. html) fenomena ini berawal dari dihapusnya sistem kerja shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) pada sekitar tahun 1990. hal ini disebabkan naiknya nilai mata uang jepang, persaingan dengan luar negeri, krisis moneter di jepang, dan menurunnya upah minimum pekerja di jepang. selain itu, angka perkawinan yang menurun, perceraian, dan angka kelahiran yang menurun (少子化) juga menyebabkan terbentuknya muenshakai (miyamoto, 2012). metode artikel disusun berdasarkan studi pustaka dari beberapa sumber referensi terbuka. korpus data utama dari artikel berita, khususnya nhk. selain itu, sumber referensi berasal dari buku yang membahas tentang muenshakai (無縁社会). penelitian menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif analistis. peneliti mendeskripsikan data yang ada, kemudian dianalisis untuk memperoleh simpulan. hasil dan pembahasan penghapusan shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) shūshinkoyō adalah sistem kerja jepang yang bekerja hingga pensiun tanpa pemecatan dan sistem upah berdasarkan senioritas. dalam sistem kerja ini dikenal dengan adanya perbedaan hak dan kewajiban antara perempuan, dinas atau penempatan keluar kota maupun daerah, kerja jangka panjang, dan sebagainya (naohiro, 2009). sejak 1990-an, negara jepang mengalami inflasi dan banyak perusahaan yang gulung tikar. hal tersebut pemerintah menghapuskan sistem kerja shūshinkoyō sebab pemerintah maupun perusahaan tidak bisa menjamin kerja seumur hidup dan dana pensiun para pekerja. akhirnya banyak masyarakat jepang (terutama laki-laki) yang kehilangan semangat kerja karena kehilangan jaminan masa tua atau pensiun. setiap orang pastinya mengharapkan perkerjaan yang bisa menjamin kehidupan jangka pendek maupun panjang. sistem kerja yang kebanyakan menjadi karyawan kontrak atau dalam bahasa jepangnya keiyaku shain (契約社員) menyebabkan kekhawatiran pekerja yang bekerja di perusahaan. pemecatan bisa saja terjadi karena masa kontrak habis, perusahaan gulung tikar, dan sebab-sebab lainnya yang bisa menyebabkan pemecatan sepihak (fukutake, 1989). angka perkawinan yang menurun setelah sepuluh tahun lebih dihitung dari sejak berakhirnya perang dunia ii yang berkisar tahun 1960, telah mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat, industrialisasi dan urbanisasi yang telah memengaruhi seluruh komunitas, status, dan kelas dalam masyarakat kota. pertumbuhan ekonomi ditandai dengan kebutuhan modal diutamakan dibandingkan dengan kesejahteraan sosial. keluarga tradisional jepang atau kazoku, dalam komunitas lokal dan kelompok keluarga kecil menjadi lemah yang diakibatkan pecahnya anggota keluarga antargenerasi, yakni antara generasi tua dengan generasi muda. banyak generasi muda lebih memilih pergi ke kota untuk meningkatkan kualitasnya dan generasi tua lebih memilih untuk memilih tinggal di desa. generasi muda yang datang dari desa ke kota, setelah lama pergi meninggalkan desanya sering kali tidak ada keinginan untuk kembali lagi ke kampung halaman atau ke keluarga asalnya. ada beberapa faktor yang segan untuk pulang kampung, di antaranya orangtuanya sudah meninggal, saudara laki-laki dan perempuannya telah menikah, dan keponakan-keponakannya akan menyusul hal yang sama. setelah tidak ada orang lain lagi yang dapat diharapkan, kemudian pergi ke kota untuk mencari jalan lain. persahabatan dan keanggotaan kelompok keluarga menjadi meluntur dan komunikasi dengan teman dari kampung halamannya makin berkurang (fukutake, 1989) setelah mulai bekerja dan menjalani kesibukan di kota, tinggal di daerah pinggiran kota, dan hidup sendiri, keinginan untuk mencari teman sebanyak-banyaknya di kota menjadi muncul. di antara teman-teman yang akrab bisa dianggap keluarga sendiri, terkadang temanteman yang akrab ini bisa tinggal bersama dengan tujuan saling berbagi pembayaran sewa mansion atau apartment. kehidupan semacam ini telah dibahas sebelumnya yang dinamakan kyōdōseikatsutai (共同生活対). kehidupan seperti di atas ini bisa terjadi 3 kemungkinan, yaitu: (1) jika kehidupannya bertemu dengan pasangan sesama jenis atau lebih, mereka akan hidup bersama dengan 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 tujuan saling membantu perekonomiannya; (2) jika kehidupannya bertemu dengan pasangan lain jenis dan setelah menemukan kecocokan, mereka melanjutkan ke pernikahan; (3) jika kehidupannya bertemu dengan pasangan lain jenis, mereka hidup bersama layaknya suami istri namun hubungannya tidak dilanjutkan sampai pernikahan. kehidupan yang seperti poin tiga merupakan kehidupan modern jepang yang mengikuti gaya hidup barat. gaya hidup yang seperti ini akan menghambat pernikahan. umumnya mereka yang telah melakukan hubungan seks pranikah, tidak memiliki keinginan untuk menikah. gambar 1 berikut ini adalah perubahan rasio pernikahan dan perceraian, sedangkan gambar 2 adalah usia rata-rata pernikahan pertama. gambar 1 perubahan rasio pernikahan dan perceraian (dalam 1000 populasi) (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c02cont.htm) gambar 2 usia rata-rata pernikahan pertama http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c02cont.htm) pada awal 1970-an, angka pernikahan bisa melebihi 10.000 kasus. angka menurun ketika masuk tahun 1980; dan pada 2011 menjadi 5200 kasus. sampai tahun 2011, rata-rata usia nikah mengalami perubahan dalam kurun 10 tahun, laki-laki sekitar 30.7 tahun (bertambah 2.3 tahun) dan perempuan sekitar 29.0 pada 2011 (bertambah 3.0 tahun). menurunnya angka pernikahan dan meningkatnya usia nikah ini menyebabkan salah satu menurunnya angka kelahiran. perceraian kasus perceraian juga dapat membentuk muenshakai, angka perceraian mencapai titik tertinggi pada 2002 yang sebanyak 290.000 kasus. pada 2011 angka perceraian tercatat 236.000, rasionya sebesar 1.87 per 1000 orang (gambar 1). pada 2002 (heisei 14) angka perceraian mencapai 757.331 kasus. seiring dengan berkurangnya angka pernikahan, maka angka perceraian meningkat secara perlahan-lahan dari tahun ke tahun. jumlah rumah tangga yang terdiri dari ibu dan anak pada 1995 berjumlah 625.904 rumah tangga. rumah tangga seperti ini disebabkan pihak ibu diceraikan oleh ayah, pada tahun ini juga terhitung sekitar 18.2% dibanding dengan tahun lalu. sedangkan rumah tangga yang terdiri dari ayah dan anak berjumlah 87.373 rumah tangga. rumah tangga ini juga sama sebabnya dan pada 1995 tidak banyak jumlahnya jika dibanding tahun lalu hanya 0.8%. fenomena shōshika (少子化) jika ditelusuri sejarahnya, fenomena ini berawal dari dankai no sedai (団塊の世代) dalam bahasa lain dikenal dengan the baby boom generation atau generasi ledakan kelahiran bayi. ledakan kelahiran bayi di jepang terjadi 2 generasi, pertama terjadi sekitar tahun 1947 – 1949 dan kedua pada tahun 1971 – 1974. (fukutake, 1989) setelah sepuluh tahun lebih dihitung dari sejak berakhirnya perang dunia ii yang berkisar tahun 1960, masyarakat jepang telah mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat. industrialisasi dan urbanisasi juga telah memengaruhi seluruh komunitas, status, dan kelas dalam masyarakat kota. pertumbuhan ekonomi ditandai dengan kebutuhan modal dibandingkan dengan kesejahteraan sosial. dampak tersebut memengaruhi keluarga tradisional jepang atau dento kazoku (伝統家族) yang dalam komunitas lokal dan kelompok keluarga kecil menjadi lemah. hal ini diakibatkan karena pecahnya anggota keluarga antargenerasi, yakni antara generasi tua dengan generasi muda. banyak generasi yang muda lebih memilih pergi ke kota untuk meningkatkan kualitasnya dan generasi yang tua lebih memilih untuk memilih tinggal di desa (fukutake, 1989). pada kalangan remaja yang datang dari desa dan telah berada di kota, setelah lama pergi meninggalkan desanya sering kali tidak ada keinginan untuk kembali lagi ke keluarga asal. ada beberapa faktor yang segan untuk pulang kampung; diantaranya orangtuanya sudah meninggal, saudara laki-laki dan perempuannya telah menikah, dan keponakan-keponakannya akan menyusul hal yang sama. setelah tidak ada orang lain lagi yang dapat diharapkan, kemudian pergi ke kota untuk mencari jalan lain. persahabatan dan keanggotaan kelompok menjadi meluntur dan karena perpisahan fisik ini menyebabkan hak-hak dan suara seseorang teman hubungannya makin berkurang. (nakane, 1981) pada umumnya orang jepang menikah pada usia 25–34 tahun. sebagai contoh, dari jumlah pria dan wanita berusia 25–30 tahun yang tidak menikah berjumlah 69.3% dan 58.2% pada kaum wanita. setelah tahun 1995, jumlah pria yang tidak menikah yang usianya akhir 20-an bertambah 2.5%, sedangkan pada wanita sejumlah 5.9%. sedangkan mereka yang tidak menikah yang berusia 30– 34 tahun, yaitu sejumlah 42.9% pada kaum pria dan 26.6% pada kaum wanita. angka tertinggi penduduk yang tidak menikah pada usia 25–29 tahun ada di kota metropolitan 77penghapusan shūshinkoyō ….. (roberto masami prabowo) tōkyō dengan perbandingan pada pria 79.4% dan wanita 65.3%. (www.stat.go.jp) berikut ini bentuk rumah tangga yang tercatat tahun 2000 di jepang. data ini diambil dari situs statistics bureau: relatives households households consist of the head of household and related member(s), and also include the non-relatives member(s) who live with them. i. nuclear family (1) a married couple only (2) a married couple with their child(ren) (3) father with his child(ren) (4) mother with her child(ren) ii. other relatives households (5) a couple with their parents 1. a couple with husband’s parents 2. a couple with wife’s parents (6) a couple with their parent 1. a couple with husband’s parent 2. a couple with wife’s parent (7) a couple with their child(ren) and parents 1. a couple with their child(ren) and husband’s parents 2. a couple with their child(ren) and wife’s parents (8) a couple with their child(ren) and parent 1. a couple with their child(ren) and husband’s parent 2. a couple with their child(ren) and wife’s parent (9) a couple with relative(s) other than child(ren) and parent(s) (10) a couple with their child(ren) and relative(s) other than parent(s) (11) a couple with their parent(s) and relative(s) other than child(ren) 1. a couple with husband’s parent(s) and relative(s) other than child(ren) 2. a couple with wife’s parent(s) and relative(s) other than child(ren) (12) a couple with their child(ren), parent(s) and other relative(s) 1. a couple with their child(ren), husband’s parent(s) and other relative(s) 2. a couple with their child(ren), wife’s parent(s) and other relative(s) (13) brothers or sisters only (14) other relatives households not elsewhere classified non-relatives households (15) households consisting of the head of household and those who are not related to him/her. one-person households (16) households consisting of one-person. sesuai dengan data, tercatat sebanyak 16 macam bentuk keluarga di jepang. dari 16 macam bentuk rumah tangga yang jumlahnya paling banyak adalah rumah tangga yang terdiri dari satu orang, kemudian rumah tangga yang terdiri dari 2 orang. rumah tangga terdiri dari 3 orang hanya sedikit mengalami kenaikan, bahkan rumah tangga yang terdiri dari 4 sampai 7 orang banyak mengalami penurunan. gambar 3 populasi dan rasio perkembangan populasi jepang (1920 – 2010) (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2010/basic1/pdf/ summary.pdf) sejak tahun 1995, jumlah penduduk yang berumahtangga bertambah menjadi 46.782.383 rumah tangga atau mengalami kenaikan 6.6% dengan jumlah 2.882.460 rumah tangga. komposisi rumah tangga dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai berikut; rumah tangga yang anggotanya berjumlah 2 orang, terdiri dari suami dan istri ini mengalami kenaikan 16.6%. rumah tangga yang terdiri dari satu orang atau tanshinsetai (単身世帯) mengalami kenaikan 14.9%. rumah tangga yang anggotanya berjumlah 3 orang, yaitu ayah, ibu, dan anak ini mengalami kenaikan 8.4%. jumlah rumah tangga yang anggotanya terdiri dari tiga atau lebih menjadi bertambah, tetapi rumah tangga yang anggotanya lebih dari 4 mengalami penurunan. jika dihitung sejak tahun 1995, rumah tangga hanya sejumlah 2.82% dan pada tahun 2000 mengalami penurunan menjadi 2.67%. perbandingan dari keseluruhan penduduk yang sudah berumahtangga pada tahun 1995 dengan tahun 2000 yang berjumlah 58.4% ini dinyatakan bahwa jumlah family nuclei atau 核家族 yang mengalami kenaikan 6.1% dari 25.759.709 rumah tangga (tahun 1995) menjadi 27.332.035 rumah tangga (tahun 2000). keluarga yang menikah tanpa anak mengalami kenaikan 16% dari jumlah 7.619.082 menjadi 8.835.119 rumah tangga. keluarga yang anggotanya terdiri dari ayah, ibu, dan anak mengalami penurunan sejumlah 0.8% dari 15.032.192 menjadi 14.919.185 rumah tangga atau sekitar -113.007 rumah tangga. sedangkan rumah tangga yang terdiri dari satu orang meningkat 14.9% dari 11.239.389 menjadi 12.911.318 orang. perbandingan dari tahun 2000 ke tahun 2005, jumlah family nuclei bertambah 3.9% menjadi 28.393.707 rumah tangga (57.9% dari total seluruh rumah tangga). keluarga yang menikah tanpa anak bertambah 9.1% menjadi 9.636.533 rumah tangga (19.6%% dari total seluruh rumah tangga), dan keluarga yang menikah dengan anak berkurang 1.8% menjadi 14.645.655 (29.9% dari total seluruh rumah tangga). gambar 4 perubahan jumlah keluarga (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/ 2005/kihon1/00/04.htm) 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 akhir-akhir ini bertambah banyak masyarakat jepang yang tinggal sendiri atau dalam bahasa jepangnya dokusinka (独身化) , terlebih lagi jika mereka yang sudah berusia 50 tahun dan belum menikah dinamakan dengan shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者). dari hasil penelinitian yang dilakukan sampai tahun 2012, laki-laki yang termasuk shōgaimikonsha tercatat bertambah 20% atau bertambah 7 kali lipat dibanding tahun 1980. laki-laki yang sekarang berusia 30 tahun, 20 tahun kemudian mereka akan berusia 50 tahun dan perbandingannya menjadi di antara 3 orang yang menikah, 1 orang tidak menikah. masyarakat yang tinggal menyendiri karena masalah inflasi dan masalah kesulitan pemenuhan ekonomi. (http://jp.eastday.com/ node2/home/xw/gjpl/userobject1ai72338.html) gambar 5 prediksi pergerakan shōgaimikonsha (http://bylines.news.yahoo.co.jp/dandoyasuharu/ 20130626-00025970/) grafik tersebut adalah prediksi pergerakan shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者) yang datanya diambil tahun 2010. laki-laki dan perempuan yang sekarang berusia di atas 20 tahun (laki-laki 35,4% dan perempuan 27%), 3040 tahun kemudian mereka akan menjadi manusia lanjut usia yang belum menikah. ini akan berdampak buruk pada perkembangan penduduk, termasuk muenshakai. tercatat pada 1 oktober 2010, jumlah keluarga yang memiliki tempat tinggal di jepang sebanyak 51.955.040 jiwa, persentase penduduk dari tahun 2005 sampai 2010 hanya bertambah 4.8%. penduduk yang tinggal sendiri sebanyak 16.785.000 jiwa (sebanyak 32.4% dibanding keluarga umum). jumlah anggota keluarga yang berjumlah 3 orang ke bawah makin banyak dan yang beranggota 4 orang ke atas makin berkurang. (http://www.stat.go.jp) grafik berikut ini adalah perubahan jumlah rumah tangga berdasarkan jumlah anggota keluarga – seluruh jepang dari tahun 1990 sampai 2010 : gambar 6 perubahan jumlah rumah tangga (dalam juta) berdasarkan jumlah anggota keluarga (1990 – 2010) (http://www.stat.go.jp/data/kokusei/2010/kihon1/ pdf/youyaku.pdf) keluarga inti yang bertambah 31.7% atau 6.797.909 (45.2% dari keseluruhan jumlah keluarga usia lanjut) dan jumlah penduduk manula yang tinggal sendiri atau tidak bersama keluarga bertambah 37.7% menjadi 3.032.140 keluarga (20.2% dari jumlah keseluruhan anggota keluarga manula). jumlah keluarga manula makin berkurang dan jumlah keluarga inti yang tinggal bersama kakek-nenek dan manusia usia lanjut yang tinggal sendiri makin bertambah. kakek-nenek yang tinggal bersama keluarga inti karena ayah-ibu dan anaknya yang menginginkan tinggal bersamanya. jika di antara pasangan lanjut usia meninggal, orang ini terpaksa tinggal sendiri di rumah, apartmen, dan panti jompo. rumah tangga yang anggotanya sudah usia lanjut atau di atas 65 tahun meningkat 17.7% (2.264.377 rumah tangga) dibanding tahun 1995 dengan 2000, yakni dari 12.780.227 menjadi 15.044.604 rumah tangga. sebagai perbandingan dengan luar kota besar, jumlah terbesar keluarga yang sudah usia lanjut adalah di yamagata-ken yaitu sebesar 49.8%, kemudian shimaneken sebesar 48.1%, dan akita-ken sebesar 47.8%. sedangkan jumlah terkecil ada di kanagawa-ken yang sebesar 24.7%, saitama-ken yang sebesar 25.1%, dan kota metropolitan di tōkyō yang sebesar 25.4%. gambar 7 persentase penduduk jepang (2000-2006 & 2006-2011) (http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/ 2010/basic1/pdf/summary.pdf) pada gambar 7, batang berwarna “terang” menjelaskan tahun 2000 sampai 2006 dan batang “gelap” menjelaskan tahun 2006 sampai 2011. persentase penduduk bertambah banyak di 9 propinsi, 4.6% di tōkyō, 2.9% di kanagawa-ken, dan 2.6% di chiba-ken. persentase menurun di 38 propinsi, akita-ken sebesar 5.2%, aomoriken sebesar 4.4%, dan kouchi-ken sebesar 4.0%. sejak tahun 1995, jumlah penduduk usia lanjut yang tinggal tidak bersama keluarga atau tinggal sendirian dan berusia diatas 65 tahun bertambah 829.980 jiwa atau kenaikan sebesar 37.7%, menjadi 3.032.140 jiwa pada tahun 2000. dari jumlah keseluruhan penduduk atau proporsi penduduk pada tahun 1995 sebesar 12.1% menjadi 13.8% pada tahun 2000. wanita lanjut usia yang tinggal sendirian yang berjumlah 2.290.493 jiwa (17.9% dari proporsi penduduk) dan pria lanjut usia yang berjumlah 741.647 jiwa (8.0% dari proporsi penduduk). 79penghapusan shūshinkoyō ….. (roberto masami prabowo) jumlah rumah tangga usia lanjut yang tinggal sendiri, terbanyak ada di kagoshima-ken yang sebesar 22.%, di tōkyō sebesar 20.3%, di osaka sebaesar 19.4%. sebagai perbandingan yang terkecil ada di 6.9% di yamagata-ken, di niigata-ken sebesar 7.9%, dan di ibaragi-ken sebesar 8.6%. rumah tangga dengan perekonomian kelas menengah terdiri dari keluarga yang hidup dengan penghasilan kecil dan penghasilan yang besar. kebutuhan sehari-hari dan bulanan yang sering menjadi masalah dalam keluarga. jika penghasilan dari suami atau ayahnya tidak mencukupi hal tersebut, terkadang istri atau ibu mengambil alih untuk bekerja sebagai penghasilan tambahan. tahun 1990, jumlah pekerja buruh wanita di jepang ada sekitar 40% jumlahnya dibanding jumlah pria. wanita yang bekerja mencari biaya hidup ini telah hampir mencapai 70% wanita yang berusia 20-24 tahun, 54.3% wanita yang berusia 24-29 tahun, dan 50.2% wanita yang berusia 30-34 tahun. keluarga di jepang dari kalangan atas sampai menengah yang berjumlah 27.905.128 keluarga (61.% dari jumlah keseluruhan) memiliki tempat tinggal dan pekerjaan. sedangkan sekitar 12.297.660 keluarga (26.9% dari jumlah keseluruhan) yang umumnya keluarga menengah tinggal di apartment. keluarga yang memiliki tempat tinggal dan pekerjaan di kota metropolitan tōkyō sebesar 43.7%. keluarga yang menyewa apartment di tōkyō sebesar 40.3% dengan luas ruangan sebesar 63.0m2. dengan demikian dari data-data yang telah dijelaskan diatas, dihapusnya jaminan kerja, berkurangnya jumlah angka pernikahan, dan bertambahnya perceraian menyebabkan muenshakai. akhirnya karena terputusnya hubungan dengan relasinya, banyak manusia lanjut usia yang meninggal tanpa ada yang tahu atau ada yang mau mengurusnya. adapula yang putus asa, mereka bunuh diri di tempat tinggalnya atau di tempat umum. sekalipun mereka sudah meninggal, keluarganya pun tidak mau mengurus biaya atau upacara pemakaman. mereka terpaksa dengan biaya minim dengan dikremasi tanpa identitas dan dikubur massal. (http://jp.eastday.com/node2/home/xw/gjpl/ userobject1ai72338.html) simpulan fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) yang terbentuk karena dihapusnya shūshinkoyou (終身雇用), berkurangnya angka pernikahan, bertambahnya angka perceraian, dan berkurangnya jumlah anak yang lahir. hal tersebut menjadi hilangnya hubungan kekeluargaan, akhirnya banyak tanshinsetai (単身世帯), yakni orang yang tinggal sendiri, baik dia tidak menikah, cerai atau cerai mati, dan anaknya yang sudah dewasa keluar dari rumah karena sudah bisa hidup mandiri. masyarakat yang hidup sendiri yang umumnya lanjut usia ini akhirnya tidak ada kerabat yang bisa mengurus atau sekedar berkunjung ke rumahnya. ketika mereka sakit, bahkan meninggal di tempat tinggal atau di tempat umum, keluarganya tidak ada yang mau membiayai rumah sakit, upacara kematian, dan penguburan. sampai sekarang, pemerintah jepang belum bisa menyelesaikan polemik ini. salah satu solusi untuk memecahkan masalah ini adalah jaminan kerja masa depan atau pensiun kepada pekerja, yakni shūshinkoyou (終身雇用). masalah perekonomian yang memengaruhi urbanisasi demi pemenuhan ekonomi masyarakat dapat dipenuhi, dengan demikian perpecahan keluarga antar daerah dan hubungan kekeluargaan dapat teratasi. daftar pustaka fukutake, t. (1989). the japanese social structure: its evolution in the modern century. trans. ronald p. dore. 2nd ed. japan : university of tōkyō press j-cast news (2011). 単身世帯、初めて3割超える  国勢調査速報.diakses dari http://www.j cast. com/2011/06/30099968.html japan eastday – 日本語 (2012). 日本で深刻化する「 無縁社会」. diakses dari http://jp.eastday.com/ node2/home/xw/gjpl/userobject1ai72338.html ministry of internal affairs and communications (総務 省). 第2部 特集 共生型ネット社会 の実現 に向けて. diakses dari http://www.soumu.go.jp/ johotsusintokei/whitepaper/ja/h23/html/nc222220. html miyamoto, michiko. (2012). wakamono ga muenkasuru (若者が無縁化する-仕事・福祉・コミュニ ティでつなぐ). japan: chikuma shinsho. nakane, c. (1981). masyarakat jepang. penerjemah: bambang kusriyanto. jakarta : sinar harapan. naohiro, y. (2009). rōdōsijyōkaikaku no keizaigaku (労働 市場改革の経済学). japan: tōyōkeizaisinpōsha nhk. (日本放送協会). (2010). 無縁社会~”無縁死” 3 万2千人の衝撃~. diakses dari http:// www.nhk.or.jp/special/detail/2010/0131/ ______. (2011). 無縁社会 新たなつながりを求め て. diakses dari http://www.nhk.or.jp/special/ detail/2011/0211/ statistics bureau, the ministry of internal affairs and communications (総務省統計局). (2013). population census – household. diakses dari http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2005/ kihon1/00/04.htm ______.平成22年国勢調査・人口等基本集計結果 http://www.stat.go.jp/data/kokusei/2010/kihon1/ pdf/youyaku.pdf ______. summary of the result. diakses dari http://www. stat.go.jp/english/data/kokusei/2010/basic1/pdf/ summary.pdf ______. statistical handbook of japan. diakses dari http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook yahoo! news – yahoo japan corporation. (2013). 団藤保晴 (yasuharu dandō). 生涯未婚率35%、女27%に も:少子化対策無力. diakses dari http://bylines. news.yahoo.co.jp/dandoyasuharu/2013062600025970/ copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 107 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 107-114 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5122 critical thinking-related challenges to academic writing: a case of indonesian postgraduate students at a uk university udi samanhudi1; caroline linse2 1,2tesol department, queen’s university belfast university road, belfast, bt7 1nn, united kingdom 1usamanhudi01@qub.ac.uk; 2clinse@qub.ac.uk received: 13th november 2018/revised: 02nd april 2019/accepted: 15th april 2019 how to cite: samanhudi, u., & linse, c. (2019). critical thinking-related challenges to academic writing: a case of indonesian postgraduate students at a uk university. lingua cultura, 13(2), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5122 abstract this research reported indonesian students’ perspectives on challenges in writing a critical academic essay and factors causing those challenges in a university in the uk. it was a qualitative method in nature and used a semi-structured interviewing technique with open-ended questions as the main method for data collection. the results indicate four main problems the participants’ encountered in relation to critical thinking realization in their essay writing which include clarity of ideas presented, lack of critical analysis, lack of critical evaluation, and lack of precision. this research also finds three important factors causing those problems of critical thinking realization by the students in their essay writings namely lack critical awareness, lack of understanding of the critical thinking concept, and differences of academic requirements between indonesian and british context. this research is expectedly useful as an input in the re-design of syllabi and in the improvement of writing instruction that aims to promote especially international indonesian students’ critical thinking in university-level education, in line with properly addressing students’ needs and developing ct pedagogy in the site. keywords: critical thinking, academic writing, international student, british university introduction some studies have reported a continuously growing number of international students worldwide with more than 2,5 million students. they are from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds studying outside their home countries (shaheen, 2012; gichura, 2010; arkoudis & tran, 2010; koernig, 2007). many of those studies concern international students’ experiences in dealing with the higher education system in the english-speaking host countries such as the us (wang, 2009), the uk (lasanowski, 2009), australia (grayson, 2008; tran, 2008), new zealand (holmes, 2004) and canada (tran, 2008; ridley, 2004) that have also been largely documented. up until now, the united kingdom is a country that is reported to be the second most popular destination for international students to continue their studies after the united states (lillyman & bennett, 2014; findlay et al., 2012). more than 435.000 international students are reported to continue their study in various disciplines both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in universities across the uk recently (sedgley, 2011). however, entering a new system of education like in british universities is not always easy especially for international students coming from the different educational system (richmonds, 2007) and a different socio-cultural environment (yeoh & terry, 2013). students from asian countries like those coming from indonesia may encounter problems in dealing with the educational system in the uk as they must adjust from memorization of learning to critical thinking of learning tradition (indah, 2017; emilia & hamied, 2015; tapper, 2004). many international students from other asian countries such as china and india find it difficult to deal with critical thinking in writing which has been viewed by some as being exclusive to the western mode of thinking (duong, 2005). specifically, as other studies reported, asian students are lacking critical thinking abilities such as in terms of comparing, evaluating, arguing, and presenting the point of views in their writing (shaheen, 2012, 2016; fell and lukianova, 2015). in indonesian context, kartikaningsih (2016) has reported that indonesian students are lack of critical thinking in argumentative texts that they have created for course assignment purposes due to their limited knowledge in both concept of critical thinking and 108 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 107-114 approaches to apply it into their writing (junining, 2016; gustine, 2013; emilia, 2005). meanwhile, lillis and turner (2001) have said that higher education in the uk puts students writing at the center of teaching and learning with an emphasis on critical thinking performance. critical thinking in writing, as she has added, is seen as the way in which students consolidate their understanding of subject areas, as well as a common means by which ‘tutors can come to learn about the extent and nature of individual students’ understanding (lillis and turner, 2001). this clearly shows that the ability to write critically for international students is a must in order to succeed in their study in the british universities (shaheen, 2012, 2016; arkoudis & tran, 2010). however, a review of the current literature has found no research concerns indonesian students studying at uk universities in relation to their critical thinking in academic writing. critical thinking in academic writing, as it is known, has been recognized as a key skill that influences students’ success in the uk university level (shaheen, 2012). current researches by indonesian scholars have reported that critical thinking in academic writing is one that is found difficult for most indonesian students (kartikaningsih, 2016; indah, 2017; gustine, 2018; emilia, 2005) and challenges in dealing with critical academic writing for assignment purposes might also be encountered by indonesian students currently studying at the uk universities. in response to this issue, this small scale research aims to explore six indonesian postgraduate students’ perspectives on challenges in relation to critical thinking in academic writing and factors causing those challenges in applying the critical thinking concepts in their essay writing for their module assignments in one university in belfast city in the uk. this research is expectedly useful as an input in the re-design of syllabi, and the improvement of writing instruction aims to promote students’ critical thinking in university-level education, in line with properly addressing students’ needs and developing critical thinking (ct) pedagogy in the site. the united kingdom is one of many other countries in the west that put one’s ct development as its main agenda through its higher education (vyncke, 2012). within the higher education system in the uk has been made as to the main aspect of every subject given (fell & lukianova, 2015). it is an essential component of students’ set of competencies for them to successfully graduate from any degree program (swatridge, 2014). this commitment is evidenced, for example, in the national committee of inquiry in the uk higher education, 1997. this document emphasizes the importance of building inquiry tradition in higher education in the uk. this way, today generations pursuing their study in the british universities are expected to be able to challenge ideas of the old ones and to own disciplined thinking and high curiosity (shaheen, 2012, 2016). another national document concerned critical thinking skills development in the uk higher education is the framework of higher education qualifications in the uk (fheq, 2008). this document, for example, outlines concisely requirements to fulfill by both undergraduate and postgraduates students. it is stated that the ability to do problem-solving appropriately is vital for undergraduate students. it is also emphasized that students at this level are able to build reliable and coherent argumentations through tasks given by their teachers (shaheen, 2012, 2016). in addition, the students are also expected to be able to propose alternative solutions to problems and to develop existing skills and to acquire new competencies in order to make sound judgments (fheq, 2008). these documents clearly indicate the importance of critical thinking development within the framework of higher education in the uk. one of the main concerns of most international students studying in english-language country is their mastery of english especially those students are coming from non-english speaking background with such a limited practice of english both spoken and in writing (yeoh & terry, 2013; strauss, 2012; ramachandran, 2011; rosenthal, russel, & thomson, 2007). it includes those students who are coming from indonesia that are reported to have almost similar problems (arsyad, 2013). rosenthal, russel, and thomson (2007) have conducted research that is focusing on the well-being of international students in australia. it is found that 24% of international students have academic difficulties in written english, while 22% have academic difficulties with spoken english. moreover, it has been shown that the lack of english language skills directly impacts international students in terms of their academic performance and social life (li, chen, & duanmu, 2010). in addition, research is conducted in two universities in the uk by shaheen (2012) has revealed almost similar challenges faced by international students studying at the british university. she has found that most of these international students have difficulties in expressing their criticality in their academic writing due to their limited abilities and knowledge of english (shaheen, 2016). in relation to critical thinking, shaheen has also reported that students’ various conceptions of critical thinking which differ from that in british culture are the result of the cultural specificity which is different from one that is understood in the uk educational system. this has been the main reason why many international students underperform when it comes to writing assignments such as essays, dissertations, and theses (tsui, 2008; halpern, 2004; lipman, 1995). davies (2006) has said that many international students face such a problem in academic writing not only because of their insufficient abilities in english but because writing a piece of academic writing itself is a complex activity. he has further said that this happens due to students’ lack of experiences in their native backgrounds in terms of writing critical academic writing. ramachandran (2011) has contended that international students may find it easy to write with a well-structured and grammatically correct english but may lack rigor. in addition, egege and kutieleh (2004) have reported an interesting finding that south east asian students mostly find it very difficult to express their critical thinking in their academic writing such as in terms of lacking arguments, having a lack of clarity and criticality, and being descriptive in nature despite they are very good mastery of english. this occurs because in some cases, a good piece of writing can be argued poorly and being critical is related more to logical reasoning than language (egege & kutieleh, 2004). another research concludes that asian international students are considered to be passive due to a lack of understanding of the requirements of analysis and critique due to their cultural background (richmonds, 2007; tapper, 2004). it is aforementioned that being critical and analytical in students’ thinking is the main requirement to succeed in many academic disciplines in the uk higher education system (shaheen, 2012). however, some researches have reported that many international students find it difficult 109critical thinking-related....(udi samanhudi; caroline linse) to put their critical thinking in their academic writing (shaheen, 2012; knoch et al., 2015). this occurs due to their different cultural backgrounds which at the same time are obliged to adapt to an unfamiliar learning approach. most of those international students are incapable of answering analytically, not only because of the demands of writing in a foreign language but also because these students do not actually know what it is to make their own point. in addition, they also find it unfamiliar to create their own meanings in analytical ways. further, the differences in expectations between international (non-western) students and their faculties are also important issues which deserve considerable attention (shaheen, 2012). research focusing on finding out international students’ perspectives have reported the importance of support from tutors in their learning (kingston & forland, 2007; tran, 2008). in terms of academic writing, the research has also reported that tutors’ feedback on their writing are valuable and are preferred by the students to help them improve their academic writing abilities and skills (kingston & forland, 2007). tran (2008) has said that students involved in his study valued the dialogues established between them and their tutors. particularly those conversations aim to increase their understandings of the academic expectations on specific assignments and to engage as active participants in disciplinary practices. referring to the western logical convention, theorists like davis (2003) has concluded that the principles involve in critical thinking and argumentation at university level need to be taught explicitly. he argues that it is important that critical thinking skills are taught explicitly in order to help students develop their abilities in writing essays, papers, and dissertations which demand such high critical thinking. ballard and clanchy (1991) have reported that students from non-western countries often have difficulties with analytical writing. they have said that those students also consider that the precise nature of their writing is description rather than analysis. this research has also reported that even intelligent and highly educated students encounter problems in dealing with academic writing in british universities context. in this case, hammond and gao (2002) have contended that a big gap has been found between the asian and western education systems in terms of the requirements, philosophies, standards, and conceptions of knowledge (tweed & lehman, 2002). in the indonesian context, critical thinking has been a buzzword especially after the reform era in 1998 which was signed by people’s demands for freedom of expressions as citizens (emilia, 2010). indonesia needs more figures of critical thinkers in order to support the country’s future development (indah, 2017). therefore today developing citizen critical thinking through education has also been the main agenda of indonesian education (kartikaningsih, 2016). in the indonesian educational context, it is argued that referring to the international benchmark of education, the 3r basic literacy (reading, writing, and arithmetic) is not enough. this, indah (2017) has said, needs to be completed into 4r basic competencies (reading, writing, arithmetic, and reasoning). this is important in order to equip the young generation with skills needed to support their life in the future. however, some researches have reported that indonesian students’ critical thinking still need further attention for development because indonesian students’ critical thinking is still far lag behind their counterparts in other neighboring countries such as singapore and malaysia. this calls for a more comprehensive critical pedagogy in order to boost students’ critical thinking (gustine, 2013) including through teaching critical writing such as argumentative texts (kartikaningsih, 2016; emilia, 2010, 2005). methods this research is a qualitative method in nature. focusing on its method, lincoln and denzin (1994) have defined qualitative research as, “research that is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.” in this present research, the focus is on the perspectives of six indonesian students studying at the master program of tesol in one university in the city of belfast, the uk especially in dealing with challenges in writing an academic essay critically as required by the module tutors. this qualitative research focuses on smaller numbers of people participating in this research, yet the data offer detailed and rich information regarding the participants (cohen & crabtree, 2008). this present research uses a semi-structured interviewing technique with open-ended questions as the main method for data collection. scholars argues that semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions are a flexible approach, which allows the researcher to capture various and complex issues related to individuals’ perceptions and experiences (freebody, 2003; cohen, manion & morrison, 2013; patton, 1990) which in this research refers to six indonesian postgraduate students’ perspectives on critical thinking in the context of academic writing written for their assignments. this type of interview is used in this research because it is able to develop ideas widely relevant to the issues under research (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2013). finally, the use of the semi-structured interviews in the present research makes it possible for the researcher to follow up unexpected results and consume less time than other kinds of interviews, such as unstructured interviews (patton, 1990). six indonesian who are studying in the tesol postgraduate program in the school of social sciences education and social work are involved. these six participants are two male and four female students in the first semester of their study. three criteria of participants’ selections are; (1) graduate students in a uk university from indonesia; (2) have experiences of writing essays as module assignments; and (3) encountering problems related to ct issues in writing are used in this research. the similarities between these six participants are the facts that they meet all the three criteria. these participants have gained experiences writing for assignments purposes so that they both have perspectives on those processes of writing up essays in which critical thinking is highly emphasized. they both are doing essay writings as part of their assignments and express their willingness to fully participate in this research as they could express what they think about this issue in academic writing context in the postgraduate program they attach. these six students are chosen based on purposive random sampling in that the characteristics of these students meet the purpose of this research, i.e., they are students from indonesia studying at the uk university and they have problems in dealing with critical thinking issues in their academic writing. these criteria are important in order to investigate in depth their challenges as well as factors 110 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 107-114 causing their problems in dealing with academic writing they do for their assignments purposes. to follow kumar (2005), data from the interviews are analyzed by using the thematic analysis approach. in this context, all responses from the interviews conducted were clustered under each question given during the interview sessions with the six participants involved in this study. thus, emerging themes were identified and coded accordingly. all these results of the analysis were then further described and used as quoted data during the writing up sessions. all these analyses of the data are conducted manually without using any analysis software such as qsr nudist or n-vivo. this is done to ensure that the issues explored in the data could be thoroughly understood. in terms of validity issue, triangulation is conducted by referring data to the main theory of critical thinking used in this research and through member checks by having the transcripts ‘sent back’ (kvale, 1996) to the participants who have been interviewed to make sure that the results are appropriate with their responses given by them. results and discussions the six participants of this research indicate that as international students, they have found four main challenges in dealing with critical essay writing for their assignments purposes. these four problems include important aspects of critical thinking in writing as proposed by chaffee (2002) namely clarity of ideas presented, lack of critical analysis, lack of critical evaluation, and lack of precision. firstly, one of the challenges the participants have said about critical thinking issue in terms of writing is the lack of clarity of ideas in their essay which is a significant theme within the data. it is a challenge for the participants to write with clear ideas due to english barriers and lack of understanding and skills in terms of academic writing skills in english. fa, one of the participants, has said that it is difficult for them to create a good argument and clarify ideas, as in, “anytime i write an essay for my assignment, my problem would be on making myself clear in my writing. i mean, it is hard for me to make my ideas clear and easy for my tutor to understand as he/she commonly writes as feedback on my paper. well, may be because i am still lacking with english academic vocabularies.” (fa) this statement by fa coincides with the views of facione (1990) which emphasizes the lack of ability to clarify meanings, purposes, ideas, and information as the most difficult part in writing an essay (lillis and turner, 2001) and has been a main problem of many international students from asian countries (campbell & li, 2008; tsui, 2008; barkley, cross, & major, 2004); duong, 2005; mehdizadeh & scott, 2005). similarly, shaheen (2012) has also argued that international students mostly find it difficult to make clear of ideas in their writing. she has added that in weaker pieces of writing of the international students she has studied, arguments are usually provided by the students with little explanation or even without explanation at all. one of which is caused by the fact that they still encounter problems with their academic english. secondly, giving voices through critical analysis is another main problem as said by the participants. in the academic writing context, critical analysis is essential as it is required in order to meet the standard of academic writing per se (facione, 1990). as facione (1990) has further stated, in order to analyze critically, students will need to be able to organize ideas in their writing critically in such a systematic and logical way. students admit that the ability to critically analyze and to show their critical voices are so much challenging to do as found in pien has said, “my tutor always said the importance of voices and critical analysis in the academic writing as also i read in the handbook of the module. but still, i find it really hard to do.” (pien) this difficulty in providing critical voices may be an impact of their culture as many reported by previous researches (e.g., shaheen, 2012, 2016; russell et al., 2009; hammond & gao, 2002). research by russell et al. (2009) has reported that international students that are studying at the uk universities have found it difficult to show their critical voice in their writing. it is due to their home culture and/or past education experiences which do not train them with such expressions of voices (russell et al., 2009) that is very typical of the western culture of education (lillis and turner, 2001). finally, critical evaluation is another problem as found in the results of interviews with the participants. this critical evaluation is defined as the process of weighing up the strengths and weaknesses of a logical argument, or the robustness of evidence supporting an argument or theory, or the extent to which evidence does actually support the argument (paul & elder, 2006). referring to this definition, it is expected that any piece of academic writing written by the students are highly relevant to the themes given and logically organized based on those themes. in relation to this critical evaluation issue in writing, the two participating students have said that they have problems in terms of assessing arguments, ideas, claims or assumptions, and also with comparing the strengths and weaknesses of different perspectives. as it is reported by fa, “i find it hard to argue critically of theories i am using in my writing. i do not know how to evaluate arguments from other sources i used. it is hard.” (fa) another student, pien, has said that it is hard for him to do a compare and contrast of ideas regarding a certain topic that he writes, as he said: “compare and contrast of ideas relevant to my studies is one of the hardest parts in writing, i have to say that.” the fact that the students are not able to do compare and contrast very well in their academic writing is also influenced by their previous education experience in their home country, indonesia. according to them, even in writing skills class, the lecturer asks students to do more group presentations about writing rather than asks the students to write and provided feedback which is similar to a case in another asian context in which oral presentation and examination are used by lecturers for assessment of the modules (yeoh and terry, 2013). in terms factors causing students’ challenges in dealing with the critical essay writing, results of interview analysis indicate four main causes namely lack of critical thinking awareness, lack of understanding the critical thinking concept, differences of academic requirements between native and non-native context, and insufficient english language abilities. in the first place, the lack of awareness in terms 111critical thinking-related....(udi samanhudi; caroline linse) of critical thinking in the context of writing is one of the important factors causing students’ problems in dealing with critical thinking. it is found in this study that the lack of critical awareness is caused by the students’ previous educational background in indonesia which according to them put less concern on critical thinking especially in academic writing context than in the university in the uk where they currently study. dri, another participants, has said, “i have no experience in doing something called critical writing. even if what i did in my previous study in indonesia was critical writing or something i just did not know because my lecturer never told me.” the lack of awareness in dealing with critical thinking in writing is also expressed by sari, another participant of this research. she has said that she has never taught something called critical thinking or critical writing so that she found these terms even new to her. all the six participating students have also mentioned their previous educational experience in indonesia which do not put critical thinking as the main purpose of the assignments. sari has said, “the critical thinking issue is very new to me because when i was at my undergraduate degree my teacher did not emphasise critical thinking in the assignments they gave to us. they just asked us to have a classroom presentation.” all these findings clearly indicate that previous educational experiences influence students’ awareness as well as the understanding of critical thinking (shaheen, 2012; berno & ward, 2002) especially in the context of writing (russell et al., 2009). the second issue revealed in the data analyzed is the two indonesian students’ lack of understanding of the critical thinking concept as it is expected by the university in general and the tutor in particular. this lack of familiarity with critical thinking notion is considered a barrier for these students to apply critical thinking in their writing for assignments especially in the form of critical essay writing. pien has said, “i don’t understand what it actually required from my writing. it is said that as a student here we are expected to write critically, but what it is expected to do by us is not explained or demonstrated clearly by the tutors.” this statement by the participant correlates with shaheen’s (2012) findings that most of the international students involved in her research think it to be difficult to apply the critical thinking concept in their writing assignments especially essay writing. the third factor is relating to the participants’ culture. scholars have long argued that culture influences students’ critical thinking and this has been one of the main barriers for the students from other cultures. like two participating students in this research, they find it difficult to deal with critical thinking as applied in academic assignments such as essay and paper writing (shaheen, 2012). shaheen (2012) has contended that students from non-western educational culture would not be easily able to write academically. this idea is similar to what is found in this research that culture has been one main barrier for the student to be able to write critically as said by pien, “i am not so much encouraged to stay different from most people in general in terms of ideas or something. i am not used to be encouraged to think critically in this case.” another student, tia, has said, “i think it is so much different between my previous background education and the education here in the uk. for example, when it came to writing assignment, my teacher used to focus on the quantity rather than the quality of writing.” all these clearly show that although writing is the hallmark of uk higher education, conventions and standards vary between different cultures (lillis & turner, 2001). consequently, international indonesian students studying at the uk university that involved in this research face challenges in applying ct skills in their academic writing. finally, the students have said that it is their english which causes them not to be able to put clearly their critical thinking in their writing which is experienced by most international students studying in english-language country (yeoh and terry, 2013). fa has said that she has a problem with technical vocabularies and expressions that show criticality in her writing. in addition to this, she has also said that it is not only about language proficiency itself but on how to structure ideas using the language. she has said, “i studied english since i was in my primary education; for me, the issue is not the language proficiency but how to structure ideas with my english.” this finding correlates with kabilan’s idea (2000) that it is not only a matter of language proficiency when one comes into writing issue but also on how structuring ideas with critical thinking are applied in it (atkinson, 1997). in addition, shaheen (2012) has reported that international students in the uk universities have weak foundations of english so that their critical thinking development is considered poor as it is reflected in their writings. meanwhile, as paul and elder (2006) have argued that a strong relationship between positive performance in thinking and writing do exist. according to them, it is critical writing that represents’ one’s critical thinking but not with the descriptive one. all in all, these illustrated findings are in line with what barkley, cross, and major (2004) have said about nonwestern students coming to study in western universities. they have reported that international students, especially those coming from asia, find it challenging to adjust with the western culture where questioning, criticizing, refuting, arguing, debating, and persuading are the common learning features as they would also do in their writing practice (shaheen, 2012). moreover, other researches have also mentioned the factors that influence students’ cultural adaptation (campbell & li, 2008; mehdizadeh & scott, 2005), such as previous learning experiences, cultural values and beliefs, motivation and language skills (berno & ward, 2002) which bring direct implications to their practice of academic writing (shaheen, 2012). given the fact that critical thinking in the writing context is important. it is then urgent for especially university lecturers in indonesia to explicitly teach both critical thinking concepts and disposition in order to support students’ improvement ct and at the same time prepare 112 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 107-114 them to study in countries such as the united kingdom which put ct in writing context is not only important but necessary. conclusions this research has found four main problems the participants’ encountered in relation to ct realization in their essay writing including clarity of ideas presented, lack of critical analysis, lack of critical evaluation, and lack of precision. this research has also found four important factors causing those problems of critical thinking realization by the students in their essay writings. the very first problem is related to the fact that they own a lack of critical awareness that is caused by the students’ previous educational background in indonesia which according to them put less concern on critical thinking. other factors are related to their lack of understanding of the critical thinking concept as it is expected by the university in general and the tutor in particular. other two factors are relating to differences in academic requirements between indonesian and british context and insufficient english language ability. finally, apart from its limited number of participants and its focus to only a specific group of international students, this research would be useful to enrich the current body of knowledge. in that, the results could help to reveal difficulties in writing critically among indonesian students and could be used as an input in the re-design of syllabi. moreover, in the improvement of writing instruction, it aims to promote especially international indonesian students’ critical thinking in university-level education, in line with properly addressing students’ needs and developing ct pedagogy in the site. using mixed-method, future research could further investigate international students’ perception of potential programs that can help them to understand and apply ct concepts and skills in their writing. references arkoudis, s., & tran, l. 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(bena yusuf pelawi) juvenile delinquency in novel clockwork orange by anthony burgess bena yusuf pelawi english department, faculty of letters, universitas kristen indonesia jln. mayjen sutoyo no. 2, cawang, jakarta timur sylvie_surya@yahoo.co.id abstract the study aimed to reveal the role of literary work, especially a novel in reflecting the social fenomena, the juvenile delinquency in the twentieth century. the data source was an english novel ‘clockwork orange’ written by anthony burgess. the research applied library research by using reflection theory introduced by georg lukacs. analysis was presented in three parts, those were the identification of major character, social setting, and the reflection of juvenile delinquency.the findings were as follows. first, the major character was alex as his hig intensity in all the events that build the whole story. second, the social setting described the life of teenagers, especially the juvenile delinquency as social fenomena in society. third, the role of literary work in revealing the problem above faced by the twentieth century society. finally, it can be concluded that the literary work has played a very important role in revealing the social fenomena. keywords: juvenile delinquency, social fenomena, reflection theory, literary works abstrak penelitian mendeskripsikan peran karya sastra dalam mencerminkan fenomena sosial, khususnya kenakalan remaja yang marak terjadi di dalam kehidupan masyarakat. penelitian menggunakan metode studi pustaka dengan menggunakan teori refleksi oleh georg lukacs. sumber data adalah sebuah novel berbahasa inggris dengan judul clockwork orange, karya anthony burgess. analisis dilakukan dalam 3 bagian, yaitu identifikasi karakter utama, seting sosial khususnya kenakalan remaja, dan peran karya sastra yang mampu memecahkan masalah kenakalan remaja di abad ke-20. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pertama, tokoh utama dalam novel adalah alex karena intensitas keterlibatannya dalam membangun keseluruhan cerita. kedua, latar sosial dalam novel ini adalah kehidupan para remaja, khususnya tentang kenakalan remaja sebagai fenomena sosial yang terjadi pada abad ke-20. ketiga, peran karya sastra, khususnya novel dalam mengungkap fenomena kenakalan remaja tersebut. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa karya sastra sangat berperan dalam mengungkapkan fenomena sosial yang terjadi di dalam kehidupan masyarakat. kata kunci: kenakalan remaja, fenomena sosial, teori refleksi, karya sastra 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 introduction there seems to be no doubt that today many teenagers wish to express their freedom of speech by showing their emotions, anger, sadness, and happiness. they even directly and fearlessly express their dislikes to their parents or elderly people. in a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development, called adolescence also known as the period of rebellion, a child who has reached puberty often shows a variety of emotions, keeps himself/herself away from the family, and they normally have a lot of problems, either at home, school, or in their neighborhood (salagaev, 2003). today teenagers face different issues than their parents used to deal with. some issues are the same, including peer pressures, shoplifting, alcohol, drugs use, and sex. young children whose behavior deviates is also refereed to as socially defective children. they suffer from a mental defect caused by social influences that exist in society. according to kartono (2010), juvenile delinquency is a deviant behavior committed by young people which is caused by a form of the social neglect. juvenile delinquency ialah perilaku jahat (dursila), atau kejahatan/kenakalan anak-anak muda; merupakan gejala sakit (patologis) secara sosial pada anak-anak dan remaja yang disebabkan oleh satu bentuk pengabaian sosial, sehingga mereka itu mengembangkan bentuk tingkah laku yang menyimpang. (kartono, 2010:6) looking into the above-stated explanation, a fiction (novel) entitled a clockwork orange describing almost entirely about juvenile delinquency which reflects a real life in a society is worth to be analyzed. juvenile delinquency is participation in illegal behavior by children or teens or individuals who are younger than the legal age of majority. it is anti-social personality disorder under 18. this is why habitual juvenile offenders diagnosed with conduct disorder are likely to exhibit signs of antisocial personality disorder early in life and then as they mature. some times these jeveniles reach maturation and they develop into career criminals. juvenile delinquents who have recurring encounters with the criminal justice system, or in other words those who are life-course-persistent offenders, are sometimes diagnosed with conduct disorders because they show a continuous disregard for their own and others safety and/or property. once the juvenile continues to exhibit the same behavioral patterns and turns eighteen he is then at risk of being diagnosed wih antisocial personality disorder and much more prone to become a seious criminal offender. one of the main components used in diagnosing an adult with antisocial personality disorder consists of presenting documented history of conduct disorder before the age of 15. (wikipedia, n.d.) the research conducted on the basis of the reflection theory by georg lukacs to reveal that juvenile delinquency in the 20th century as reflected in the novel ‘a clockwork orange’ by anthony burgees. this research framework used reflection theory of georg lukacs. the reflection theory actually had been around since the time of aristotle in the 19th century and continued to grow. reflection theory was introduced by georg lukacs, a philosopher from hungary. he created a theory of reflection that saw a literary work as a reflection from the society as by reading the text closely, so that we found out the writer’s idea, imagination and life experience. he pointed that a literary work as knowledge about reality in condition and conflict that happened in society. the reality reflected through the literary work. based on lukacs view, reflection theory has a whole characteristic, to reflect means to frame a mental structure transposed into words. he said the novel reflects reality not only in the surface appearance, but also giving us a true, more complete, more vivid, and more dynamic reflection of reality. lukacs’ use of the term ‘reflection’ is characteristic of his work as a whole. rejecting the ‘naturalism’ of the recent european novel, he returns to the old realist view that the novel reflects reality, not by rendering its mere surface appearance, but by giving us ‘a truer, more complete, more vivid and more dynamic reflection of reality’. to ‘reflect’ is ‘to frame a mental structure’ transposed into words. (selden, widdowson, & brooker, 2005:87) he also said that a novel might conduct a reader towards a more concrete insight into reality because a literary work reflected not individual phenomena in solation, but the full process of life, however, the reader was always aware that the work was not itself reality but rather a special form of reflecting reality. lukacs would say that a reflection may be more or less concrete. a novel may conduct a reader ‘towards a more concrete insight into reality’, which transcends a merely common-sense apprehension of things. a literary work reflects not individual phenomena in isolation, but ‘the full process of life’. however, the reader is always aware that the work is not itself reality but rather ‘a special form of reflecting reality’. (selden, widdowson, & brooker, 2005:87) generally lukacs reflects an objectiive reality in the literary work and brings the three dimentional concept as the essence of realism. he also meantions ‘the reflection model’ in his work as the literature work that reflects the true reality, which is more complete, alive and dynamic. method this descriptive-qualitative research is an embedded-case study. the source data for this study consist of documents selected with purposive sampling technique trough library research. the document referred to an english novel “a clockwork orange” written by anthony burgees. the research data were collected and analyzed using data analysis technique. the problems of this research were the main/major character, social setting, and the reflection of juvenile delinquency in a novel. based on the aim of the research, the analysis is presented in three parts. they are the identification of major character, 37juvenile delinquency ….. (bena yusuf pelawi) the analysis of social setting, and the reflection of juvenile delinquency in the novel a clockwork orange by anthony burgees. results and discussion in this chapter, the theory that is used is reflection theory by georg lukacs. it is used to reveal the juvenile delinquency in a literary work, it is a novel ‘ a clockwork orange” written by anthony burgees. the analysis is divided into three sections: the major character, the social setting, and the reflection of juvenile delinquency fenomena in a literary work. the major character a major character is an important figure at the center of the story’s action or theme (di yanni, 2000:35). it means the major character is the character that has high intensity in all the events that build the story. in this novel, the major character is alex as he is always involved in the whole story, from the beginning until the end of it. it is identified in the following events: (1) alex and his three friends like to get together in the bar; (2) alex and his friends commit certain crimes; (3) alex and his friends use mask when committing crimes; (4) alex and his friends get involved in the gang fight; (5) alex and his friends steal a car; (6) alex and his friends get in a house and torture the owner; (7) alex rapes two young girls; (8) dim and georgie dissatisfaction of alex leadership; (9) alex is betrayed by dim and makes him arrested by the police; (10) alex is put behind bars for fourteen years; (11) alex has unpleasant experiences in prison; (12) alex joins in a program to shorten his sentence; (13) alex is freed from the prison because of the treatment program; (14) alex has a problem with his family; (15) alex meets with his victim; (16) alex meets with his old enemy dim and billyboy; (17) alex accidentally returns to a place where the police arrested him; (18) alex met with his old friend pete at a bar; (19) alex wants to be a good person. based on the above events, it is clearly seen that alex is the major character in this novel as he has the highest intensity involvement in events from the beginning to the end of the story that builds the story. it means that without alex’s involvement in the story, the novel will not be possible. the social setting social setting involves description of society, social group with their behavior, habits, culture, lifestyle, language, etc., as the background of the event (kenny, 1996:44–45). the social setting of the novel ‘a clockwork orange’ is the juvenile delinquency committed by a 15year-old boy and his friends in a small town in england. to identify the social setting in this novel, the analysis will be focused on the juvenile delinquency of alex as the major character. robberies they have a lot of money in their pocket. with the gang, they rob an old man’s money, mock, and hit him violently. and they share the money with the members of the gang. our pocket were full of deng, so there was no real need from the point of view of crasting any more pretty polly to tolchock some old veck in an alley and viddy him swim in his blood while we counted the takings and divided by four, ... (aco: 4) car thefts they go to the theatre park downtown to steal a car. they see very good cars. their eyes spot at a very good condition of durango ’95. they have a clever way to steal a car, so they can easily get into the car. they start the car, drive a way, but nobody notices them taking off. the autos parked by the sinny weren’t all that horrorshow, crappy starry veshches most of them, but there was a newish durango 95 that i thought might do. georgie had one of these polycleft, as they called them, on his keyrin, so we were soon aboard dim and pete at the back, puffing away lordly at their cancers – and i turned on the ignition and started her up and she grumbled away real horrorshow, a nice warm vibraty feeling grumbling all through your guttiwuts. then i made with the noga, and we back out lovely, and nobody viddied us take off. ... (aco: 22). rapes and murders alex gives two young girls some alcohol to drink until they get drunk badly and they finally lay down uncounsciously, and then alex rapes them. later on the girls awake after alex has finished with them. they scream after knowing that they are naked and put their clothes on. they leave with anger and say that alex is the beast. but they were both very very drunken and could hardly feel very much. when the last movement had gone round for the second time with all the banging and creeching about joy joy joy joy, ... they were like waking up to what was being done to their malenky persons and saying that they wanted to go home and like i was a wild beast. ... they were creeching and going o wow ow as they put their platties on, and they were like punchipunching me with their teeny fists as i lay there dirty and nagoy and fair shagged and fagged on the bed. this young sonietta was creeching : “beast and hateful animal. (aco: 51) they get into a shop owned by mrs. slouse. she is frightened of alex and his friends, so she is hiding behind the curtain. alex finds her and sexually harasses her. mrs. slouse struggles and fights back. alex beats her with a balance scale and hits her with a crowbar until her head bleeds (aco: 12-13). they also rape a woman in a shop and mess up everything inside the shop. they commit the crime not for money but for fun. they are always satisfied after doing it. “... nor to do the ultra-violent on same shivering starry grey-haired ptitsa in a shop and go smecking off with the till’s guts. but as they say, money isn’t everything. ...” (aco: 4) persecutions they come across an old man and mock him unpleasantly. they hold his hands and open the man’s mouth widely and then they pull out his false teeth and 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 throw them onto the sidewalk. they beat, kick and bleed him, take off his clotches until completely naked. and then they give a hard kick and leave. ‘you naughty old veck, you,’ i said, and then we began to filly about with him. pete held his rookers and georgie sort of hooked his rot wide open for him and dim yanked out his false zoobies, upper and lower. he threw these down on the pavement and then i treated to the old boot crush, ... so georgie let go of holding his goobers apart and just let him have one in the toothless rot with his ringy fist, and that made the old veck start moaning a lot then, then out comes the blood, my brothers, real beautiful. so all we did then was to pull his outer platties off, stripping him down to his vest and long underpants, ... and then pete kicks him lovely in his pot, and we let him go. (aco: 9-10). alex and his friends also persecute a couple, and when the couple beg for mercy,alex and his friends ignore it. they even laugh and grind over the boot on them. (aco: 38) juvenile delinquency reflected in ‘a clockwork orange’. the story begins with a gang of young boys; alex, dim, pete, and georgie. they like to hang out and commit criminals together. alex is a fifteen-year-old boy who leads the gang. they spend times in a bar, plan their unlawful actions. they drink and consume drugs. there was me, that is alex, and my three droogs, that is pete, georgie, and dim. dim being relly dim, and we sat in the korova milkbar making up our rassoodocks what to do with the evening., ... the korova milkbar was a milk plus mesto, and you may, o my brothers, ... well, what they sold there was milk plus something else. they had no licence for selling liquor, but there was no law yet against prodding some of the new veshcesh which they used to put into the old maloko, so you could peet it with vellocet or synthemecs or drencrom or one or two other veshches which would give you a nice quiet horrorshow fifteen minutes admiring bog and all his holy angels and saints in your left shoe with lights bursting all over your mozg. or you could peet milk with knives in it, as we used to say, and this would sharpen you up and make you ready for a bit of dirty twenty-to-one, and that was what we were peeting this evening i’m starting off the story with. (aco: 2-3) alex and his friends begin their unlawful actions by robbing and mistreating an old man. they rob to get a lot of money than divide the money among them and waste it together in a bar. out pocket were full of deng, so there was no real need from the point of view of crasting any more pretty polly to tolchock some old veck in an alley and viddy him swim in his blood whilewe counted the takings and divided by four, nor to do the ultraviolent on same shivering starry grey-haired ptitsa in a shop and go smecking off with the till’s guts. but as they say, money isn’t everything. (aco: 4) alex and his friends break into store. alex’s friends mess up everything insidethe store while alex is beating and kicking the owner. they intimidate the owner’s wife and sexually assault her. then you could shooshy panting and snoring and kicking behind the curtain and veshches falling over and swearing and then glass ging smash smash smash. mother slouse, the wife, was sort of froze behind the counter. we could tell she would creech murder given one chance, so i was round that counter very skorry and had a hold of her, and horrorshow big lump she was too, all nucking of scent and with flip flop big bobbing groodies on her. ... well, then she had to be tolchocked proper with one of the wrights for the scale ... so we had her down on the floor and a rip of her platties for fun and gentle bit of the boot to stop her moaning. (aco: 13) alex and his friends fight against another gang leader, named billyboy. it begins when billyboy wants to rape a girl, but the girl escapes because alex and his friends come and ruin it. they mock and challenge each other and then start fighting. billyboy and his droogs stopped what they were doing, which was just getting ready to perform something on a weepy young devotchka they had there, not more than ten, she creeching away but with her platties still on, ... they’d probably just been doing the dirty slovo part of the act before getting down to a malenky bit of ultra-violence. when they viddied us a–coming they let go of this boo-hooing little ptitsa, ... smiling very wide and droogie: how art thou, thou glooby bottle of cheap stinking chip-oil? come and get one in the yarbles, if you have any yarbles, you eunuch jelly, thou,’ and then we started ... (aco: 18-19) alex leads his friends to go downtown and then to the theatre park to find and steal a car. they have their own technique to steal a car, so they can easily steal it with no one notices it. the autos parked by the sinny weren’t all that horrorshow, crappy starry veshches most of them, but there was a newish durango 95 that i thought might do. georgie had one of these polycleft, as they called them, on his keyring, so we were soon abroad – dim and pete at the back, puffing away lordly at their cancers --and i turned on the ignition and started her up and she grumbled away real horrorshow, a nice warm vibraty feeling grumbling all through your guttiwuts. then i made with the noga, and we back out lovely, and nobody viddied us take off. (aco: 22) alex and his friends break into a house and persecute the house’s owner. the house is owned by an author of ‘a clockwork orange’ name f.alexander. they mess up the house, persecute the owner, rape the wife and let the husband see them. after they are satisfied, they let 39juvenile delinquency ….. (bena yusuf pelawi) them alive in suffer. while he filled with the author of a clockwork orange, making his listo all purple and drippping away like some very special sort of a juicy fruit. ..., who was still creech creech creeching away in very horrorshow four-in-a-bar, locking her rookers from the back, while i ripped away at this and that and the other, the other going haw haw still, and real good horrorshow groodies they were that then exhibited their pink glazzies, o my brother ... then after me it was right old dim should have this turn, ... then there was a changeover, dim and me grabing the slobbering writer veck who was past struggling really, only just coming out with slack sort of slovos liek he was in the land in a milk plus bar, and pete and georgie had theirs. ... the writer veck and his zheena were not really there, bloody and torn and making noises. but they’d live. (aco: 27-28) the corrective school named p.r. deltoid knows about what alex and his friends have badly done. the corrective school has also reminded alex not to get involved in a bad community. alex ignires the corrective school’s advice. alex still rapes two girls, instead. he takes them into his room and gives alcohol to make them get drunk; in the meantime, alex uses the opportunity to rape them. but they were both very very drunken and could hardly feel very much. when the last movement had gone round for the second time with all the banging and creeching about joy joy joy joy, these two young ptitsas were not acting the big lady sophisto no more. they were like waking up to what was being done to their malenky persons and saying that they wanted to go home and like i was a wild beast. (aco: 51) alex and his friends continue their criminal conducts. they plan to rob a house. georgie advises them to rob the house because he knows that there is only a woman and her cats in that house. and he knows there is a lot of jewelry in the house. ‘it was this house, see,’ said georgie. ‘the one with the two lamps outside. the one with the gloopy name, like.’ ‘what gloopy name?’ ‘the mantion or the manse or some such piece of gloop. where this very starry ptitsa lives with her cats and all this very starry valuable veshches.’ ‘such as?’ ‘gold and silver and like jewels. it was will the english who like said.’ (aco:60-61) alex and his friends break into a house that they call it ‘the mantion or the manse’. they mess up the house and alex confronts the owner of the house. alex beats her mercilessly until she bleeds and is uncounscious. ‘well, how lovely and all for me. but ittying towards it with my glazzies like full on it and my greedy rooker held out, i did not see the milk saucers on the floor and into one i went a short of lost balance. ‘whoops’, i said, trying to steady, but this old ptitsa had come up behind me very sly and with great skorriness for her age and then she went crack crack on my gulliver with a bit of a stick. ... and then she was going crack crack again, saying; “wretched little slummy bedbug, breaking into real people’s houses, ... so then i got real bezoomy myself, brohers, and hit out of them, ... and upper with the little malenky like silver statue and cracked her a fine fair tolchock on the gulliver and that shut her up real horrorshow and lovely. (aco: 68-69) from the analysis above, it is clearly shown that juvenile delinquency is unveiled in the novel ‘a clockwork orange’ by anthony burgess. alex, a fifteen –year-oldboy as a major character and his friends convincingly have indicated that they commit juvenile delinquency. conclusion the content of the novel portrays alex’s life. he is the subject who commits juvenile delinquency. all the events in the story show that alex gets significant involvement in the juvenile delinquency. alex has commited crimimal acts since in his early age, fifteen years old. he is the leader of a gang, together with his he commits criminal acts, such as robberies, auto theft, persecutions, rapes and murders. based on the above analysis, this research concludes that juvenile delinquency is reflected in the novel ‘a clockwork orange’ by anthony burgess. references burgess, a. ( 2012). a clocwork orange. new england: w.w. norton. di yanni, r. (2000). fiction: an introduction. united states of america: mcgraw-hill companies. kartono, k. (2010). patologi sosial 2: kenakalan remaja. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. kenny, w.(1996). how to analyze fiction. new york: random house. salagaev, a.( 2003). world youth report, the global situation of young people, jevenile delinquency. new york: random house. selden, r., widdowson, p., & brooker, p. (2005). a reader’s guide to contemporary literary theory (5th ed). great britain: pearson education. wikipedia. (n.d). juvenile delinquency. retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/juvenile_delinquency copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 161 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 161-166 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5571 correlation of learning motivation based on arcs model with english achievement of midwifery students hariyanto1; soetarno joyoatmojo2; joko nurkamto3; gunarhadi4 1doctoral program in education science, faculty of teacher training and education, sebelas maret university 2, 3,4faculty of teacher training and education, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1mashary09@gmail.com; 2strn_jo@yahoo.co.id; 3jokonurkamto@gmail.com; 4gunarhadi@fkip.uns.ac.id received: 22nd april 2019/revised: 13th june 2019/accepted: 02nd july 2019 how to cite: hariyanto., joyoatmojo, s., nurkamto, j., & gunarhadi. (2019). correlation of learning motivation based on arcs model with english achievement of midwifery students. lingua cultura, 13(3), 161-166. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5571 abstract this research aimed at analyzing the correlation between learning motivation and the english achievement of midwifery students. the research was conducted at midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo, east java, indonesia. the respondents were 39 students. data were collected through motivational questionnaires adopted from the arcs keller’s model, namely course interest survey (cis), and instructional materials motivation survey (imms). the english achievement was obtained from the score of the final exam with the correlation analysis used was pearson product moment. the result of the statistical test of the correlation between learning motivation based on students’ perception of the instructorled instruction and english achievement showed the level of significance that was 0,008<0,05 with coefficient correlation 0,431. the correlation of learning motivation based on students’ perception toward instructional materials with english achievement showed the correlation coefficient that was 0,349 with significance level 0,029<0,05. the result shows that there is a significant correlation between learning motivation and english achievement. the researchers suggest that the lecturers improve the motivation of students’ learning through improving lecturers’ competencies in teaching, using appropriate learning methods, and teaching materials that are in accordance with the field of student interest in learning. keywords: learning motivation, arcs model, english achievement introduction english is one of the subject matters taught in midwifery academy. although it is not a part of the core curriculum at the midwifery program, it is taught in almost of higher education in indonesia. the higher education must be able to facilitate their graduates in meeting the demands of qualification in entering competitive and globalized employment; one of which is the ability in english. english becomes one of the courses that have a significant role. by mastering this international language, it will be easier to communicate in writing and orally in the global community. english language skills for students, especially midwifery students, are becoming increasingly important in relation to the efforts of the indonesian midwives association as a professional organization that has the responsibility to have skillful midwives. the vision of the indonesian midwives association is becoming a professional midwife with a global standard (ibi, 2013). the indonesian midwives association also stress the importance of english, as stated in the strategic plan 2014-2018 and the work plan. one of its work programs is to collaborate with language education institutions to carry out english training for midwives and midwifery students. the midwife has an important task in health counseling and education, not only for the woman but also within the family and the community. the professional midwives with the global standard as the vision of the indonesian midwives association will not be realized if they do not have competency in midwifery scope and english competency. therefore, in the learning process, it requires competent lecturers in managing class, the lecturers who can motivate students, and able to design appropriate instructional materials. motivation is one of the most important factors that will influence students’ english achievements or performance (kurt & kecik, 2017). it has a strong relationship with students’ success or failure in english teaching. teachers must pay more attention to this aspect. motivation comes intrinsically and extrinsically. the intrinsic motivation 162 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 161-166 comes from the students; meanwhile, extrinsic motivation is stimulated from the environment such as teachers, other students, learning process, instructional materials, and so on. motivation plays a vital role in english teaching, not only aptitude but also intelligence (zhang, 2015). based on a preliminary study conducted at midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo through an interview to some students, it is known that the academy has not conducted a survey to measure their motivation toward english teaching and learning materials. it is also known that according to the students, they join english class only for passing the examination, and the learning process is held by using general english materials that are taught by teachercentered learning. students’ feedback about their motivation should be used to improve the learning process and students’ achievement. the students need english learning materials that is in line with their discipline, midwifery. they want to apply their english after graduating from the academy. the researches about motivation have been conducted in schools and higher educations. in accordance with instructional materials to motivate students, the research by kember (2016) has shown that motivational engagement is affected by instructional materials’ type, content, and characteristics, as well as individual and group factors within the classroom. meanwhile, sundari and rachminingsih (2015) have concluded that the successful english teaching is influenced by some components, such as students, teachers, instructional materials, the relationship among students, and the relationship among teacher and students. the teachers can be a motivator, decision-maker, navigator, facilitator, and researcher. the key factor is the students’ motivation, as it determines the learning process and indirectly influences the quality of foreign language proficiency. it is very important that foreign language teachers must recognize their students’ most prominent motivational features by observing their students’ classroom behavior. teachers should be able to consider these features in lesson planning and actual teaching activities while at the same time, they should become aware of the students’ developmental features and their language competencies. students’ motivation could possibly be influenced by the nature of the curriculum and teaching. kember (2016) has suggested paying more attention to eight elements, to provide a teaching and learning environment conducive to motivating students. the eight elements are (1) establishing interest, (2) allowing choice of course so that interest can be maintained, (3) establishing relevance, (4) learning activities, (5) teaching for understanding, (6) assessment of learning activities, (7) close teacher-student relationship, and (8) some of belonging between classmates. kurt and kecik (2017) have argued that to explore students’ motivation, it can use the instructional materials motivation survey (imms) and course interest survey (cis). the arcs model, according to keller, has four essential strategies for motivation instruction. they are; (1) the attention strategy is for arousing and sustaining curiosity and interest; (2) the relevance strategy is to link learners’ needs, interest, and motives; (3) the confidence strategy is to help students develop a positive expectation for successful achievement; (4) the satisfaction strategy is to provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement for effort. the arcs motivational model covers different aspects of teaching and allows students to participate actively during the learning and teaching process. khalil and elkhider (2016) have said that the arcs learning-motivational model is not only offering a framework of motivation but also intended to provide the sequence of operations to stimulate students learning motivation. the first is to arouse their attention and interests of the given task. next step, they must know these tasks closely related to themselves. then, learners should own confidence that they have enough ability to accomplish the tasks successfully. finally, they can experience a sense of recognition and achievement after fulfilling the tasks. it makes satisfaction with themselves that will be motivated to begin a new task. based on these explanations and researches, it can be concluded that the motivation of students in learning english can be affected by some factors, such as teaching materials and instructional process. this research aims to; (1) describe students’ motivation based on the instruction, (2) describe students’ motivation which is stimulated by teaching materials, (3) describe students’ english achievement, (4) analyze the correlation between students’ motivation based on instructor-led instruction and students’ english achievement, and (5) analyze students’ motivation based on their reaction to self-directed materials with students’ english achievement. methods this research design is an inferential study. it is a type of quantitative research that involves making a careful description of educational phenomena. the descriptive statistics involves the description of scores on a single variable. meanwhile, the correlation statistics describes the relationship between two or more variables (gall, gall, & borg, 2007). there are two independent variables and a dependent variable. the independent variables are the motivation of students in learning english based on their perception of instructor-led instruction, and students’ motivation based on their perception toward instructional materials. the dependent variable is the students’ english achievement. the research is designed to correlate students’ motivation during instruction with students’ english achievement and to correlate students’ motivation based on instructional materials perception with students’ english achievement. the research is conducted in midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo, east java, indonesia. in this research, the population research is 39 students of the third semester of the midwifery academy. the instruments of this research are questionnaires on motivation and final score documentation of students. the instruments used are being developed by researchers from the arcs model that is tested its validity and its reliability. the motivation of students based on their perception instructor-led instruction is measured by questionnaire adopted from course interest survey (cis) by keller. the cis has 34 items with approximately equal numbers in each of the four arcs categories. the response scale ranges from 1 to 5. this means that the minimum score on the 34 items survey is 34, and the maximum is 170. the motivation of students based on their perception about instructional materials is measured by questionnaire adopted from the instructional materials motivation survey (imms). the imms has 36 items. the relevance and confidence subscales both have nine items, the satisfaction subscale has six items, and the attention subscale has 12 items. the response scale ranges from 1 to 5. this means that the minimum score is 36, and the maximum score is 180. the english achievement data are collected through 163correlation of learning motivation .... (hariyanto, et al.) the score of english final examination. the respondents are given two types of questionnaires, namely cis and imms. after giving a response to the questionnaires, the researchers collect the questionnaires, coded, tabulated, and scoring the data. data of each variable are analyzed and presented descriptively by using descriptive percentage formula. the data of each variable are categorized into five categories: very high, high, enough, low, and very low category. the hypothesis is formulated to guide the research that is tested at the 0,05 level of significance. the null hypothesis statement is “there is no correlation between learning motivation based on arcs model and students’ english achievement.” a test of statistical significance is done to determine whether the null hypothesis can be rejected. the correlation of the independent variables and dependent variable are analyzed by the pearson product moment. results and discussions table 1 shows the students’ motivation during instruction. it is known that the majority of students’ perception of instructor-led instruction are highly motivated. the data reflects that the english teaching at midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo runs well. the teacher has an excellent competency to motivate their students during class. this research also indicates that a teacher is an important person in english foreign language teaching. table 1 frequency distribution and category reliability of students’ learning motivation based on the arcs model by using cis (course interest survey) no range of score category frequency percent 1 137-170 very high 1 2,6 2 103-136 high 34 74,3 3 69-102 enough 4 23,1 4 35-68 low 0 0 5 1-34 very low 0 0 total 39 100 based on table 1, it shows that students’ motivation in learning english which is stimulated by the instructor-led instruction is 4 (23,1 %) students have enough motivation, 34 (74,3 %) of students have high motivation, and 1 (2,6 %) student has very high motivation. teachers have different roles in class. as the motivators, they have to motivate the students to learn, while as the materials developers, they should able to create learning materials based on need analysis. burns and siegel (2018) have said in order to create an innovative teaching class, not only because teaching approaches which are implemented by the teachers, but also teachers have the courage and persistence to think creatively and initiate or extend teaching strategies. for instances, in teaching writing, it is needed a creative teacher and creative learners. the selection of an appropriate approach in the process of teaching and learning affects the students’ achievement and behavior (indrilla, 2018). strategy use in learning english is a stronger predictor of english language achievement (afshar, sohrabi, & mohammadi, 2015). learning motivation is a kind of driving force that can motivate students’ learning. actually, it is a need for learning that reflects the objective requirements of the school and society for students’ learning in the minds of the learners (khalil & elkhider, 2016). motivation has a vital role in english teaching (zhang, 2015). unmotivated students in english class should be minimized, and the teacher should manage the classroom well, and maintaining the motivation students by applying appropriate teaching method. keller’s motivational model and its components; attention, relevance, satisfaction, confidence (arcs), provide the model to address the relationship between student motivation, student interest, and using technology to interact in the classroom. table 2 frequency distribution and category of students’ learning motivation based on the arcs model by using imms (instructional materials motivation survey) no range of score category frequency percent 1 145 180 very high 0 0 2 109 – 144 high 11 28,2 3 73-108 enough 28 71,8 4 37-72 low 0 0 5 1-36 very low 0 0 total 39 100 table 2 shows students’ motivation toward selfdirected instructional materials. based on table 2, it is known that students’ motivation in learning english which is stimulated by instructional materials are 28 (71,8 %) students in enough category, and 11 (28,2 %) students have high motivation. students’ learning motivation toward instructional materials suggests that the instructional materials should be developed (johnson, 2015). teaching materials which are used in the midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo are english for general purposes. the teacher should change and develops the instructional materials into english for specific purposes. gestanti, nimasari, and mufanti (2019) have said that general english is considered no longer suitable, and it should be specified for certain purposes. in this matter, english for midwifery purposes gives chances for students and teacher to define the outcomes based on their purposes by considering their needs. english teaching materials should appropriate for the students’ need. developing instructional materials in english for specific purposes hold an important role in the learning process, in fostering students at specific knowledge discipline. canniveng and martinez (2014) have concluded that materials are a central feature for the achievement of successful language learning. zohoorian (2015), in relation to the theory of the arcs motivational model, believe that instructional design has a significant role in increasing students’ motivation. according to zohoorian (2015), by establishing interest and relevance and improving the learners’ satisfaction for instructional materials, it is possible to promote students’ motivation. 164 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 161-166 teachers’ competency in writing and developing english learning materials should be improved. according to njoku (2015), the materials are categorized under visual and audio materials which should be harnessed to make the teaching lively and interesting. type of learning materials is also influenced by the english skill of students. isazadeh, zadeh, and ansarian (2016), in their research, have found that authentic video materials and instructional materials have a positive impact on vocabulary learning of iranian efl learners. the finding implies that teachers should improve their competency simultaneously, specifically in developing english learning materials, including speaking, writing, reading, and listening materials. need analysis should be conducted before writing an appropriate english learning material, specifically english for specific purposes materials. yundayani, emzir, and rafli (2017) have suggested to the teachers who want to write english materials for academic purposes in order to write easy and understandable for the students, and the method and techniques which are implemented to instructional material must empower the students to practice. need analysis should be the foundation in designing the learning materials. english teacher of midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo should write an appropriate learning material which is in line with the field interest of students. english for midwifery purposes should be taught to increase students’ motivation, and finally improving the students’ achievement. according to barnard and zemach (2014), the writer of materials for specific purposes should have linguistic knowledge of english, have teaching experience, and have experience and interest to the specialization, have writing experience english for general purposes, be able to cooperate with others, and have an ability to assess the clarity and the effectiveness of instructional materials. meanwhile, lathif (2017) has stated that there are six factors influencing learners’ motivation for english foreign language learners in writing class. they are institutional demands, linguistic needs, enthusiastic and inspiring teachers, engaging activities and tasks, interesting topics, and positive learning atmosphere. related to this research, enthusiastic and inspiring teachers, engaging activities, and interesting topics influence students’ motivation. it is because they are related to teachers’ competency in teaching, and learning materials which are used in the teaching and learning process. table 3 shows descriptive analysis and frequency distribution of english achievement of midwifery students in midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo. table 3 descriptive analysis and frequency distribution of english achievement score frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 60 4 10,3 10,3 10,3 65 4 10,3 10,3 20,5 67 1 2,6 2,6 23,1 70 10 25,6 25,6 48,7 75 13 33,3 33,3 82,1 80 7 17,9 17,9 100,0 total 39 100,0 100,0 based on table 3, it indicates that majority students have good achievement. there are 13 respondents (33,3%) get 75 score, 10 respondents (25,6 %) get 70 score, 7 respondents (17,9%) get 80 score, 1 respondent (2,6%) gets 67 score, 4 respondents (10,3%) get 65 score, and 4 respondents (10,3%) get 60 score. the good students’ competency in english can be influenced by some factors such as teachers’ competency, students, learning process, and others. muho and dangli (2014) have said that there are six contextual elements that influence students’ motivation to learn, such as curriculum, pedagogy, peer culture, assessment practice, home support, and school ethos. in the learning process, the biggest influence on students’ motivation is the teacher. el-omari (2016) has also said that there are some factors that in influence achievement of students in learning english, such as attitudinal factor, social, socioeconomic, and extracurricular factor. table 4 shows that there is a correlation between motivations during instruction with students’ achievement. the finding emphasizes the importance of motivation to reach a good achievement. the teacher and student should be aware of it if they want to gain successful teaching and learning in english. the result of the research is supported by the previous result by becirovic (2017) that motivation has a correlation with achievement. it can be highly beneficial for teachers, parents, and students in adopting the most effective approach to teaching and learning english as a foreign language. another research by solak and cakır (2015) have also found that motivation is the strongest effect on achievement. table 4 statistic test pearson product moment between learning motivation based on their react to instructorled instruction and english achievement learning motivation based on cis english achievement learning motivation based on cis pearson correlation 1 0,417** sig. (2-tailed) 0,008 n 39 39 english achievement pearson correlation 0,417** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,008 n 39 39 **. correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed). based on table 4, it is known that the significance level is 0,008 less than 0,05. the correlation coefficient is 0,417. it means that there is a correlation between learning motivation during the instruction and english achievement of midwifery students. referring to table 5, the result of the research study also implies that there is a correlation between learning motivation and students’ english achievement. there is a correlation between students’ react to instructional materials with students’ english achievement. mosha 165correlation of learning motivation .... (hariyanto, et al.) (2014) has supported the findings that factors affecting students’ performance in english are the shortage of english teachers, the absence of teaching and learning materials, teachers” responsibilities, large class size, poor conducive teaching, and learning environment in the classroom. the several factors participating student in english class are the learning environment, the teachers, the technique, and the materials. based on salehi et al. (2015), it is concluded that learners and instructors’ attitudes towards english as the second language and foreign-language play a vital role in the success of any language course. by knowing their attitudes towards the content of the textbooks, book editors, and syllabus designers have a better understanding of what should be included in the textbooks based on learners and instructors’ need. supporting the result of these research findings, suryasa, prayoga, and werdistira (2017) have said that student with adequate motivation will become efficient language learners with ultimate language proficiency. table 5 statistic test pearson product moment between learning motivation and english achievement english achievement learning motivation based on imms english achievement pearson correlation 1 0,349* sig. (2-tailed) 0,029 n 39 39 learning motivation based on imms pearson correlation 0,349* 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,029 n 39 39 *. correlation is significant at the 0,05 level (2-tailed). based on table 5, it is known that the pearson correlation is 0,349, and the significance level is 0,029. because the significance level is less than 0,05, it means that there is a correlation between learning motivation based on students perception toward instructional materials with students’ english achievement. the findings of this research are evidence that developing successful english language teaching needs the cooperation of teachers, students, parents, to build students’ motivation simultaneously, and finally, students’ achievement will be improved. khalil and elkhider (2016) have suggested to the teachers who are interested in advancing the education must have developed competence and understanding of educational theories and the science of instruction. conclusions based on the research findings, the researchers conclude that students’ motivation in learning english based on instructor-led instruction are in the high category. most of students’ motivation in learning english, which is stimulated by instructional materials fall within the fair category. the english of midwifery students has a good achievement. there is a correlation between students’ learning motivation during instruction and the english achievement, and there is a correlation between students’ learning motivation based on their reaction to instructional materials with english achievement of midwifery students. the researchers suggest to the teacher to improve their teaching skill, applying active learning, designing english teaching materials as the students’ need, and implementing english for specific purposes, specifically english for midwifery purposes. the arcs motivational model can be used to design and develop the teaching method to stimulate students learning motivation and to develop learning materials. those activities aim to increase students’ motivation that will affect students’ achievement. acknowledgment this research was supported by midwifery academy of harapan mulya ponorogo. we thank our colleagues from sebelas maret university of surakarta, central java, indonesia who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the interpretations/ conclusions of this paper. we would also like to show our gratitude to all lecturers of doctoral degree in science education, sebelas maret university of surakarta for sharing their pearls of wisdom with us during this research, and we thank ‘anonymous’ reviewers for their so-called insights. references afshar, h. s., sohrabi, s., & mohammadi, r. m. 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(2015). motivation level: a study on the effect of an authentic context. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 192, 15-25. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.003. 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 how will the use of technology in translation and testing affect language learning? david michael bourne english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 dbourne@binus.edu abstract technology has an ever increasing impact on how we work and live. article adressed the issue of the impact of technology in two key areas of language learning. on the one side learners increasingly used technology to translate. given this trend, was there any real need to learn a language. on the other side, educational institutions increasingly used technology to rate language proficiency. given this trend, would the work of the teacher become less and less important. the survey was conducted by using quantitative method. the respondents’ age range was 18-25. there were 53 respondents, 35% were male and 65% were female. the instrument was a questionaire having 9 questions describing the students’ reliance on computer in translation. it can be concluded that learners of english indicate that they accept and welcome the role of technology in language learning, but there is a doubt that the role and participation of humans in the learning process will be completely replaced. the human element remains an important ingredient. (ee) keywords: technology use, translation, testing effect, language learning abstrak dampak teknologi makin meningkat di dalam pekerjaan dan kehidupan manusia. artikel menggambarkan dampak teknologi terhadap dua masalah yang berbeda di bidang pembelajaran bahasa. pada satu sisi, pembelajar makin meningkat dalam menggunakan teknologi pada tugas penerjemahan. dalam hal ini, apakah ada keinginan yang mendasar untuk belajar suatu bahasa. di pihak lain, institusi pendidikan menggunakan teknologi untuk menilai kemampuan berbahasa. dalam kasus ini, apakah tugas guru menjadi makin sedikit dan tidak penting. penelitian menggunakan metode kuantitatif dengan 53 responden dari mahasiswa jurusan sastra dan budaya inggris dari suatu universitas swasta di jakarta. instrumen penelitian menggunakan kuesioner dengan 9 pertanyaan yang menggambarkan ketergantungan mahasiswa terhadap komputer dalam penerjemahan bahasa. disimpulkan, mahasiswa bisa menerima peran teknologi dalam pembelajaran bahasa walaupun terdapat juga kekhawatiran bahwa teknologi akan menggantikan peran manusia di dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. diharapkan, peran manusia tetap dominan di dalam pembelajaran bahasa, bukan teknologi. (ee) kata kunci: penggunaan teknologi, penerjemahan, dampak penilaian, pembelajaran bahasa 23how will the use of technology ….. (david michael bourne) introduction article considers how the language teaching profession is affected by automation. article looks at the increasing role of technology in translation and testing and identifies the strengths and weaknesses of how this technology is applied. it will also present the views of some learners with relation to how they use technology in language learning. it almost seems too obvious to state that computer technology has had a profound effect on how we live our lives. the digital age has affected how we communicate, what we know, and how we use our free time. in fact, social media has been attributed as one of the important catalysts for the social and political changes affecting the whole country of egypt and beyond. technology has no less impact on the world of work. many jobs that were done by humans in earlier decades have already been replaced by technology. technology is likely to take more jobs in the future. pink (2005) makes the statement: “to survive in this age, individuals and organizations must examine what they’re doing to earn a living and ask themselves three questions: (1) can someone overseas do it cheaper? (2) can a computer do it faster? and (3) is what i’m offering in demand in an age of abundance?” pink (2005) also addresses the problem faced in the us of skilled jobs being taken through outsourcing. pink (2005) states: “outsourcing is overhyped in the short term. but it’s underhyped in the long term.” technology is the one of the key enablers of outsourcing. for example, it allows companies to scan, say, documents, send them anywhere in the world through a secure internet channel to be analyzed by accountants in india. however, the recent trend of outsourcing is only a step towards automation. even work that is outsourced may be replaced by a computer: “last century, machines proved they could replace human backs. this century, new technologies are proving they can replace human left brains,” says pink (2005). most of us are aware of and comment on the fact that our world is speeding up. laptop computers are becoming more and more powerful, with software applications that offer more and more capabilities. the speed of change is often summarized by moore’s “law”. gordon e. moore was the co-founder of intel corporation. in 1965, he commented, “as technology progresses, the computational capability of a computer will roughly double every two years” (ford, 2009:29). ford (ibid.) claims that moore’s law is, “an accurate observation and projection, and nearly everyone in the technology field accepts it.” if we assume that moore’s law is an accurate estimation of the rate of technological change, this exponential growth could have profound effects. some people might contend that this rate of growth is unsustainable over an extended period of time. physical restrictions are likely to hinder progress. ford (2009:3839) answers, “if the pace fell off so that doubling took four years (or even longer) rather than the current two years, that would still be an exponential progression that would bring about staggering future gains in computing power.” any job that depends on routines – that can be reduced to a set of rules, or broken down into a set of repeatable steps – is at risk. based on this prediction, automation could affect all kinds of professions, including teachers. the january 18, 2014 lead article in the economist addresses the problems and opportunities related to technology and jobs. technological progress offers benefits. these benefits, or innovations, include the introduction of new and exciting products (e.g. smart phones, tablet computers) that allow us to do new things and experience new kinds of entertainment. the benefits also include new job opportunities such as computer programmers and web designers. however, the economist (2014, january 18) also argues that such progress will have a serious impact on the availability of jobs, and that governments are nowhere near prepared to cope with this change. in line with the comments above related to moore’s law, the economist writes: “until now jobs most vulnerable to machines were those that involved routine, repetitive tasks. but thanks to the exponential rise in processing power and the ubiquity of digitized information (“big data”), computers are increasingly able to perform complicated tasks more cheaply and effectively than people.” (the economist, 2014) the same article goes so far as to reference an oxford university study which expects 47% of today’s jobs to be automated in the next two decades. natural language processing is not to be confused with neuro-linguistic processing. as is common in these matters, no single definition is unanimously accepted, but nlp refers to the use of technology to analyze authentic texts. the idea is for machines to reach the same processing capabilities as humans. if machines are able to process language in the same way that humans do, a wide range of tasks may be achieved. for example, nlp would allow humans to give verbal instructions to machines, such as telling one’s car to start, or instructing your computer to play a favourite song. liddy (2001) identifies four main capabilities for nlp. they are (1) to paraphrase an input text; (2) to translate text into another language; 3) to answer questions about the contents of a text; and 4) to draw inferences from the text. according to liddy (2001) great progress has been made with the first three competencies, but the fourth remains elusive. part of the reason for this lies in the nature of language itself. language is processed at various levels. these levels include the phonological level (for speaking), the morphological level, the lexical, syntactic, semantic, discourse, and pragmatic levels. since the lower levels, such as morphemes, words and sentences are smaller units and are rule govered, they are easier to be researched and analysed by the computer. higher levels deal with aspects such as world knowledge and are not predictably rule governed. for example, at the pragmatic level, analysis has to consider what is meant beyond just an utterance or a written sentence. the challenges faced by nlp can perhaps be 24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 summed by bryson (1990), who happily describes the complex web of english: as native speakers we seldom stop to think just how complicated and illogical english is… what, for instance, is the hem in hem and haw, the shrift in short shrift, the fell in one fell swoop? when you are overwhelmed, what is the whelm you are over, and what exactly does it look like? and why, come to that, can we be overwhelmed or underwhelmed but not semi whelmed” (bryson, 1990) various approaches to nlp are currently being adopted. they have similarities and differences, so different approaches are more effective at different tasks. in fact researchers, according to liddy (op.cit.), are developing hybrid versions of these approaches. the main point is that nlp developments have a direct impact on the way a language learner uses technology to communicate. for example, key application of nlp is that of machine translation (mt) which is discussed below. automatic, accurate and realistic translation of languages by computers can have a resounding impact on language teaching. if it becomes possible for a piece of software or application to faithfully translate english, then the need to master a foreign language becomes less and less important. if we reach a point where a person can type or speak a text into an application on their mobile device, which will faithfully translate the text into english, then there really is no need to learn english. crystal (2006) writes that such an innovation would have a two-fold effect, firstly on the status of english as a global lingua franca, and secondly that it would undermine the need for a person to learn a foreign language at all. crystal (2006) is somewhat cautious about when this will happen, however: “such a world is, of course, a very long way off. only a tiny number of languages are seen to be commercially viable prospects for automatic translation research, and few of the world’s languages have attracted linguistic research of the magnitude required to make machine translation viable. the issue is, accordingly, only of theoretical interest – for now.” as discussed, certainly the complexities of translating, or processing english offer major challenges to the computer programmers. a translator, whether human or computer needs to understand language at several different levels, including, the appropriate meaning of words, the words in a sentence and how they interact grammatically and lexically to convey meaning, as well as the situations and contexts in which texts are created. nevertheless, technology has clearly had a significant impact on the translation world. translators make the distinction between machine translation (mt), which refers to translation by a machine (i.e. computer) without human intervention. such translation, according to craciuneescu, gerding-salas, and stringer-o’keefe (2004), relies on ‘huge plurilingual dictionaries, as well as corpora of texts’. computer assisted translation (cat) offers the human translator technological tools that can be used to aid translation. such tools include terminology databases and translation memories. the consensus among translators would appear to accept the fact that use of technological tools is inevitable and has become an integral part of the work of a translator. however, it seems that most translators still see the role of a human being as paramount: “it is important to stress that automatic translation systems are not yet capable of producing an immediately usable text, as languages are highly dependant on context and on the different denotations and connotations of words and word combinations. it is not always possible to provide full context within the text itself, so that machine translation is limited to concrete situations and is considered to be primarily as a means of saving time, rather than a replacement for human activity.” (craciuneescu et.al., 2004) stupiello (2008) discusses the effect of technology in translation and echoes the ideas proffered by craciuneescu, gerding-salas, & stringer-o’keefe (2004). stupiello (2008) writes that the translator is increasingly taking the role of editor to the initial computer generated translation. stupiello’s concern is that the work of the human translator fades into the background as readers associate the final product with that of the machine, rather than the translator. stupiello (2008) concludes, ”the illusion is that the machine is able to translate may affect the way translators will be seen in the future, an impression that should be given careful consideration” (stupiello, 2008). despite some reservations regarding machine translation, zetzsche (2010) accepts that this development is part of life. zetzsche (2010) gives a long list of applications that perform this task: sdl trados, wordfast, across, memoq, alchemy, publisher, metatexis, multitrans and google translator toolkit. these applications have connectors with google translate, and other engines, most notably bing translator and yahoo babelfish. zetzsche (2010) asked the readers of his newsletter whether machine translators represented a real improvement to their work. as might be expected, there were a number of opposing opinions, with some satisfied with their use of machine translation and others not. the key concern was that the machine translator was appropriately trained to handle the genre of text that was to be input. technological developments in machine translation is one area that could impact the need for learners to learn a second language, and therefore whether they need a teacher to help them in their learning. another important area is that of automated marking systems. these systems share similar features to machine translators in their design. computer technology offers some enticing general benefits in language testing. the first benefit is that technology calculates results instantly. in addition, the computer will always rate in the same way. its ‘actions’ are predictable. another benefit is that the data created can be presented in many different ways and at an intriguing 25how will the use of technology ….. (david michael bourne) level of specificity. for example, the computer can easily tell how many people chose option ‘a’ in a particular multiple choice question, and it can produce the standard scores over a whole range of test questions. this produces a much wider range of information about the test. the computer can also control the time that a learner has to complete the test. finally, of course, the computer is much cheaper than paying a human being. one of the key areas in which computers might affect the work of a teacher is in essay rating. perhaps not surprisingly this is a highly active market, with many software companies competing to gain access to what could be an extremely lucrative market. for example, a financial times article estimated the size of the us educational consulting industry to have earned a revenue of $15.4bn in 2011, with an annual growth rate of 5% anticipated in the next 5 years. there are a number of clear advantages to using robot marking systems. most notably, time and financial savings are clearly attractive, “grading tests, particularly written responses, requires labour that publicly funded school systems have to pay for out of tightening budgets” (mishkin, 2012). williamson, bennett, lazer, bernstein, et al (2010) write that human graders entail the problems of expense, the lengthy amount of time involved in producing grades and limitations to objective and consistent marking among human graders. back in 2009, the guardian cited tim oates, a director of research for cambridge assessment,”“it’s extremely unlikely that automated systems will not be deployed extensively in educational assessment” (curtis, 2009). more recently, the media in australia report on the inevitability of robots. the herald sun newspaper (2012, may 2) describes the latest computer software that achieved very close ratings with those of humans over 16,000 essays. the newspaper’s headline states,”computers will take over marking university and high school essays from tutors and teachers within a few years, researchers claim” (the herald sun, 2012). from a more academic perspective, chapelle and douglas (2006) identify the importance of language tests delivered by computers, “many high and low stakes tests are delivered by computer and the number is increasing.” a common use of computers is to provide computer adaptive tests (cats). these tests involve a large collection of data and questions. the questions asked depend on the user’s response to the previous question, with subsequent questions becoming easier or more difficult, depending on whether the previous question has been answered correctly or not. a commercial example of such a test would be the oxford placement test, which is an online diagnostic test that is intended to place users according to the european framework of english proficiency. chapelle and douglas (ibid) identify a further advantage of cats, “cats are efficient because they present items to test takers close to their level of ability.” the multimedia capabilities of computers also offer several advantages in that they can aid authenticity. visual and audio input allows test takers to access meaning from various features of context such as setting, participants, content, tone and genre. as such, multi media test tasks delivered through technology allow us to measure a learner’s comprehension and performance in more realistic situations. increases in the power of technology have made it much easier to produce multimedia content. one well known application used to rate essays is ‘e-rater’, developed by ets. this automated essay scoring application is used to rate high stakes tests administered by ets, such as toefl and gmat. in a paper that describes the e-rated v.2, attali and burstein (2006) ague, ”results show that e-rater scores are are significantly more reliable than human scores and that the true score correlation between human and e-rater scores is close to perfect.” attali and burnstein (2006) write that in assessing the performance of e-rater (or any other automated marking system), a comparison of the computer performance against a human performance is not enough. many studies have looked at this issue, but there are additional criteria for measurement. for example, it is important to take account of how reliable raters are between tasks. to illustrate, if a student writes two essays in response to two different tasks, a reliable rater should rate both essays accurately. attali and burstein (ibid) write that e-rater demonstrates accuracy in this area, “the machine scores, on the other hand, have perfect inter-rater reliability. all this suggests that it might be better to evaluate automated scores on the basis of multiple essay scores.” in their paper, attali and burstein (2006) hint at an increased role for e-rater. they suggest that the application allows for greater standardization, where a single approach can be used to accurately rate a variety of written tasks, and provide specific feedback on features where writing is weak. if moore’s law holds true, the accuracy of computer marking systems is only going to increase as computers become more able to process all the complicated nuances of language. it should be noted that despite the enthusiastic claims of newspaper reports, there are concerns over computerized marking systems. the guardian quotes john bangs from the national union of teachers in the uk, who worries that questions will become narrower to accommodate the computer. this viewis perhaps not surprising, though, since it is the view of a union representative who would presumably be interested in protecting teachers’ jobs. however, this concern is also alluded to by ets in williamson, bennett, lazer, bernstein, et al’s (2010) report, which admits that the degree of predictability is a factor that influences the efficacy of computer raters. the more predictable an answer is, the easier it is for a computer to rate. essay questions that involve communicating opinions and creative responses do not work well: “assessment of creativity, poetry, irony or other more artistic uses of writing is beyond such systems. they are also not good at assessing rhetorical voice, the logic of an argument, the extent to which particular concepts are accurately described, or whether specific ideas presented in the essay are well founded.” (williamson, bennett, lazer, bernstein, et al, 2010). 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 in fact one academic skeptical of robot markers was given access to the e-rater used by ets. the new york times (winerip, 2012) quotes mr. les perelman, who tested the e-rater. he decided that: “…the automated reader can be easily gamed, is vulnerable to test prep, sets a very limited and rigid standard for what good writing is, and will pressure teachers to dumb down writing instruction. …once you understand e-rater’s biases, he said, it’s not hard to raise your score.” (winerip, 2012) one of the main challenges in developing computer based tests is developing the construct, or deciding what should be tested. chapelle and douglas (2006) comment,” in other words, the construct, or meaning, of “writing ability” as defined by criterion is derived from features of the essay that the computer is able to recognize: content vocabulary, discourse markers, and certain syntactic categories.” another notable consideration regarding computer tests is that the way in which the test is delivered could have an influence on performance, both positive and negative. as an example, the internet based toefl test requires the candidate to talk on a topic. since the test is internet based, the candidate talks directly to a computer using a microphone. this method may be compared to the ielts speaking test, which is based on direct face to face interaction between two humans. it is also relevant to recognize that setting can also influence test performance. given the flexibility of mobile devices and the ubiquity of wifi, a test taker can potentially take a test anywhere they like, and the setting may well impact performance. for example, a student taking a test in her favourite coffee shop while she is having a break with her friends may not perform as well as another student who goes to a study booth in the university library. test designers therefore need to pay careful thought to ways in which they will control the test taking situation. although a very enticing advantage of computer based testing is that the test can be taken at any time and place that is most convenient to the user, one significant obstacle to realizing this particular advantage is that of identity. needless to say, in a high stakes test it is essential to clearly determine that the test taker is who he says he is. if a computer test only relies on accepting passwords to represent the test taker, the security of the test becomes easily compromised, with imposters, or ‘jockies’, representing the real test taker. in february 2013 the bbc investigative documentary ‘panorama’ reported widespread fraudulent activity regarding the toeic test, where test candidates were given answers and replaced by highly competent test takers. the undercover students subsequently achieved high scores that they could use for student visa applications. ets, the company that owns toeic, has subsequently been suspended from the home office’s list of approved english test providers. method a survey was conducted in order to discover how learners view the importance of technology in language learning. the survey was completed by university students in the undergraduate programme in english literature and culture of a private university in indonesia. the respondents’ age range was 18-25. there were 53 respondent, 35% were male and 65% were female. results and discussion the results of the survey are described in table 1. meanwhile, figure 1 shows the diagram of the result. table 1 the results of the survey st ro ng ly a gr ee a gr ee . d is ag re e st ro ng ly d is ag re e t o ta l 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i use an online translation tool. computer translation is accurate. computers help me to learn english. you do not need a teacher to learn english; you can use a computer. i am comfortable speaking english to a computer. computers are good at marking essays. there will be a time when computers can translate anything we want. we will not need to study languages because computers will translate everything for us. computers are the future of language learning. 12 1 22 2 2 1 6 0 3 34 22 28 2 14 27 34 1 29 5 27 1 30 32 22 12 25 20 2 3 1 18 4 0 1 27 1 53 53 52 52 52 50 53 53 53 27how will the use of technology ….. (david michael bourne) figure 1 shows that the survey reveals ambivalent attitudes towards the role of technology in learning languages. for example, respondants generally used online translation tools. however the group were mixed about the efficacy of such tools, with a larger number tending to feel that online translation lacked accuracy. however, in contrast, most respondants agreed that, in the future, mt would be able to translate anything. with relation to technology in testing, there were mixed feelings about how computers can mark essays, although a majority agreed with the proposition. the respondants’ ambivalence is highlighted concerning their attitudes towards the role of technology in language learning. nearly all students agreed that computers are an aid to learning english, and that they will play a significant role in the future. however, respondants seemed reluctant to let go of the human touch. the majority disagreed that only a computer is needed for learning a language. there was additional disagreement that technology would undercut the need to learn a language. conclusion article has considered the speed of technological development and how this might influence the language teaching profession. the paper considered how technology impacts the field of translation and automated testing. technology has not yet mastered the art of translation, and consequently usurped the need for a person to actually learn a language. automated essay or test scoring appears to be more and more likely in the future. it therefore figure 1 the result of the research appears that the work of a human teacher will be ever more entwined with technology. learners of english indicate that they accept and welcome the role of technology in language learning, but there is doubt that the role and participation of humans in the learning process will be completely replaced. the human elemant remains an important ingredient. references attali, y. & burstein, j. (2006). automated essay scoring with e-rater® v.2. journal of technology, learning and assessment, 4(3). bryson, b. (1990). the mother tongue. english and how it got that way. new york: harper collins. chappelle, c. & douglas, d. (2006). assessing language through computer technology. cambridge: cambridge university press. craciunescu, o., gerding-salas, c., & stringer-o’keefe, s. (2004). machine translation and computer-assisted translation: a new way of translating? translation journal, 8(3). crystal, d. (2006). language and the internet. 2nd ed. cambridge: cambridge university press. curtis, p. (2009, september 25). robot computer systems to mark english essays. retrieved dec 12 2012 from http://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/ sep/25/robots-to-mark-english-essays. ford, m. (2009). the lights in the tunnel. us: acculent. liddy, e. d. (2001). natural language processing. in encyclopedia of library and information science. 2nd ed. ny: marcel decker. 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 mishkin, s. (2012, april 19). can essay-marking software pass the test? retrieved dec 12, 2012 from http:// www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f8924a5a-88aa-11e1a526-00144feab49a.html#axzz3lwilmcuj pink, d. (2005). a whole new mind. new york: routledge. stupiello, e. (2008). ethical implications of translation technologies. translation journal, 12(1). the economist. (january 18, 2014). coming to an office near you. retrieved from http://www.economist. c o m / n e w s / l e a d e r s / 2 1 5 9 4 2 9 8 e ff e c t t o d a y s technology-tomorrows-jobs-will-be-immenseandno-country-ready the herald sun. (2012, may 2). who needs teachers when computers can do the job? retrieved dec, 12 2012. williamson, d. m., bennett, r. e., lazer, s., bernstein, j. et al. (2010). automated scoring for the assessment of common core standards. new jersey: pearson–education testing service. available: https://www.ets.org/s/commonassessments/pdf/ automatedscoringassesscommoncorestandards. pdf winerip, m. (2012, april 22). facing a robo-grader? just keep obfuscating mellifluously. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/23/ education/robo-readers-used-to-grade-test-essays. html?pagewanted=all zetzsche, j. (2010). hostile takeover? welcome addition? machine translation enters the world of the translator. translation journal, 14(3). microsoft word 04_jp_chijiwa_setting 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 会話中に「相手を知っている」と言うことの会話分析的研究 ~付き合う男女のインターネットチャットを題材に~ 大阪大学大学院 言語文化研究科 日本語・日本文化専攻 博士前期課程 千々岩 宏晃 saying i know you – conversational analysis on internet-chatting by dating couples – hiroaki chijiiwa assosiate of research department japanese and japanese culture department for master and doctor degree, osaka university chiji.hiro@gmail.com 概要 中山(2003)は、普段人々は「私たちの親しさはこのぐらい」というような言語形式によって、 お互いに親しさを確かめ合うことを行わない、と述べている1。確かに、親しさ」と呼ばれる非常に曖 昧な概念において、その尺度を演繹的に決定することは非常に困難であり、ましてや、対話の中でそ のようなことを行うことは難しいであろう。しかし、人々は尺度的に行うことはないまでも、会話中 で二者間の関係に言及し、二者間の関係が発展したことを確認しあうことは「まったく」行わないの であろうか。本研究は、以上の疑問を解消するために、付き合う男女のインターネットチャットのデ ータを会話分析の手法に基づいて分析し、付き合う男女二者間で起こった言語活動による二者間の関 係の「親しさのストラテジー」としての「相手を知っている」発話の機能2を帰納的に抽出しようとす る質的研究である。心理学的見地での「透明性の錯覚」についての研究は、主に相手に自分の思考が ばれていると認知する傾向の言説であった。しかし、ここで行われていることは、発話者が被発話者 に対して「知っている」と述べる行為であり、被発話者は「知られている」と示される、という活動 であった。 キーワード:親しさ・親密度, 会話分析, インターネットチャット, 透明性の錯覚 abstract in casual conversations, japanese people do not refer to their intimacies saying “we are close this much.” it is difficult to create special scales for intimacies because the term of “intimacy” is too abstract and vague. however, don’t japanese people really scale their intimacies during their conversations? in this study, the researcher aimed to describe strategies of intimacies in japanese using method of conversational analysis onto dating couple’s casual internet chat data and analyzed “how people show their intimacies to opponent through the conversations.” for conclusion we can say; japanese people tend to say “i know you” in indirect way to emphasize the opponent’s “the illusion of transparency”. keywords: intimacies, closeness, conversational analysis, internet chatting, illusion of transparency 1 とはいっても、会話で「出会ったときはこんなに仲良くなるとは思わなかった」と述べることはたびたびあるように思われる が、これについては別に考える必要があるであろう。 2 ここでの「機能」とは、「発話機能」のことではなく、それをつかって会話参与者が何をしているかを表す。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 41 研究目的 中山(2003)は、普段人々は「私たちの親しさはこのぐらい」というような言語形式に よって、お互いに親しさを確かめ合うことを行わない、と述べている3。 確かに、親しさ」と呼ばれる非常に曖昧な概念において、その尺度を演繹的に決定すること は非常に困難であり、ましてや、対話の中でそのようなことを行うことは難しいであろう。 しかし、人々は尺度的に行うことはないまでも、会話中で二者間の関係に言及し、二者間の 関係が発展したことを確認しあうことは「まったく」行わないのであろうか。 二者間の関係の変化によって、つまり二者の関係の発展(つまり、恋愛結婚や婚約、付 き合い始めることなど)や、社会的(あるいは法的)な約束によって生まれた関係の変化を 準物理的な関係の変化の証と捉えて、関係が発展したと述べることは、比較的容易ではある 。しかし、それら関係の変化「以降」、つまり、社会的拘束による関係の変化が顕著に見ら れない二者関係はどのように二者間の関係の発展を同定し、それを二者間で認めているのだ ろうか。 本研究は、以上の疑問を解消するために、付き合う男女のインターネットチャットのデ ータを会話分析の手法に基づいて分析し、付き合う男女二者間で起こった言語活動による二 者間の関係の「親しさのストラテジー」としての「相手を知っている」発話の機能 4を帰納的に抽出しようとする質的研究である。 先行研究 本節では、本研究の基礎となる「親しさ」ならびに「親密度」に関するいくつかの研究 、言説を概観し、その研究における問題点と本研究への応用を検討する。なお、以下本研究 で述べる「親しさ」とは、大坊(2004)の述べる親密度に関する分類の中の「認知的親密感 」ならびに、親しさを保つための「対人コミュニケーション行動の連鎖(親密な行動)」に 当てはまるが、以下で述べるように帰納的研究のため、具体的定義はここでは行わない。 対人関係の社会学的言説分析の問題:加藤(2008) 加藤(2008)は、親密性に関する言説を分析することについての問題点を考察した。加 藤によれば、「親密性に関する言説の多くの概念が研究者によって操作的に定義されていた り、あるいは明確な定義のないまま日常語としての意味内容が暗黙のうちに想定されていた りする」ことが問題であり、研究対象を曖昧にするものであると述べている。 また、「客観的」概念を用いようとした社会学や心理学における量的研究(例えば、質 問紙等による回答)には、回答者がその概念の「イデオロギー(または、「あるべき姿」) 」を答えてしまう傾向がある 5とアラン(1993)を引用して述べ、「現実のあり方」と「イデオロギー」を分析的に区別 3 とはいっても、会話で「出会ったときはこんなに仲良くなるとは思わなかった」と述べることはたびたびあるように思われる が、これについては別に考える必要があるであろう。 4 ここでの「機能」とは、「発話機能」のことではなく、それをつかって会話参与者が何をしているかを表す。 5 加藤(2008 :p.16)には例えとして、「「親友と共にする行動」を「親友とともにするべき行動」としての問いと解釈される」ことが述べ られている。 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 することが問題であると述べている。さらに、加藤は対人関係に関する言説の多様性につい て述べ、それを「どう定義するか」「何が要件になるのか」「何が起こっているのか」「ど うあるべきか」の四つにまとめている。 加藤の問題点の考察は、まさにこれから本稿で述べようとするものの必要性を指摘する ものである。千々岩(2011)では、久保(1993)、中山(2003)、高木(2009)、前澤(20 08)などの問題点として、加藤が言及した「操作的定義」を挙げ、その中で行われた「親し さ」の概念を先行的に(時に十分な根拠を示さないまま)決める「演繹的研究」による研究 成果に対して疑問を呈した。 確かに、加藤が「友人と特徴づける「外的な」根拠はない」とアランを引用して述べる ように「必ずしもこのレベルの問題は重要なものとは限らない」かもしれない。しかし、こ れまでの親しさに関する研究において、「親しさ」や「友人」という尺度を用いる場面では 、多くの場合この操作的定義があり、それゆえに曖昧とした結果になってしまったことは事 実である。また、そのことは留意され、避けられるべきものである。このことは、本研究を 行う動機でもあり、3.2で詳しく示すように、本研究では帰納的研究を主とする必要が出て くるのである。 自他領域概念に基づく「笑い」の分類:早川(2000a, 2000b) 早川(2000a)は、自・他領域という点に着目し、会話における笑いについて研究した 。早川は、笑いを3つ(a類:仲間づくりの笑い、b類:バランスの笑い、c類:覆い隠す笑い )に大別し、さらにそれぞれを下位分類した。また、早川(2000b)では、それを数量的デ ータを用いて実証し、さらにa類は親しい関係間や、雑談場面、b類は「普通」の関係や、ミ ーティングの場面で多発することを述べた。 確かに、早川の研究は笑いを一括で処理する(=言語の音声的側面を考慮しない )ことで、言語の一側面である笑いの相互行為側面を抽出することに成功している 。しかしながら、分析中に使われている「親しい」関係は2.1で述べたように先行的 に決定されているものであり、それぞれの言葉の定義があいまいであることも問題 視されるであろう。 とはいえ、1で触れ、後に3.1で述べるように、これから分析するデータには音声 的側面がないため、音声的側面を排した笑いの分析は、有用であろうと思われる。 親密な関係におけるメタ認知バイアスについての研究:工藤(2007) 工藤(2007)は、自分の考えが相手に分かると推測するメタ認知バイアス(=「透明性 の錯覚」)を中心に据え、その傾向が親しい友人間で大きくなること、また、それが社会的 規範(ここでは加藤の述べる「あるべき姿」と同様の意味)と関係があるかを心理学的視点 から研究した。後者についてはその仮説が棄却されたと述べる一方、前者については肯定し 、さらに、その逆(つまり、相手の考えがわかると錯覚する傾向)も親密な友人間では高い 数値を示すことが示された。さらに、工藤は、研究の全体考察の中で、次のように述べてい る。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 43 インセンティブ6 がない状態の推測も、考慮した結果生じた判断と考えられる。友人間においては、主観的に 正確な推測をした結果が大きな透明性の錯覚として表れていると考えられる。 ((引用者 中略)) インセンティブがない状態での判断がすでに熟慮したものである可能性も指摘できるが 、逆に透明性の錯覚が熟慮しても低減できないバイアスである可能性も示唆している。その ように特に親密な関係における透明性の錯覚が頑健なバイアスであるとすれば、その背後に は適応的、機能的意味がある可能性が考えられるだろう。 工藤(2007) pp.74-75 ここで、工藤の述べる「透明性の錯覚の背後にある応用的、機能的意味」とは、まさに 本研究でこれから明らかにしようとすることと関係がある。インセンティブがない場合でも 、平時から透明性の錯覚について熟慮しているということは、親密な関係において「知られ ていること」による何かしらの「相互行為的価値」があることが示唆されているためだ。そ して、その相互行為は、まさにこの研究で使用する会話分析の分析対象として主流のもので ある(3.2参照)。 また、逆の傾向(相手の考えがわかると錯覚する傾向)についても、インセンティブが あれば、未知の間柄でも友人間と同程度の推測量が得られると述べていることも興味深い。 ただし、ここでいうインセンティブが、日常の文脈でどのような形で表れているのかは、さ らに考察をする必要があるように思われる。 先行研究から得られたこと 本節で概観したこれら三つの先行研究から、以下のようなことが導き出されるであろう 。 1. 親しさに関する分析は、その定義の操作性・曖昧性などから、帰納的研究が求められて いる。 2. 「親しい」とすでに操作的に定義された研究の中でも、本分析への適用は十分に可能で ある。(親しさに関する先行研究の価値を同定する) 3. 「透明性の錯覚」等心理学的見地は参照されるべきものであるが、それらは(その研究 デザイン上)日常性という視点に欠けている、または、実際の応用的・機能的意味につ いては考察が不十分である。 以上の三点は、本研究の動機でもあり、本研究を「行わなければならない」理由でもあ る。また、研究デザインにおいても、同様のことが言えるであろう。 6 この場合のインセンティブ(incentive)とは、「推測が正しいこと」で報酬を得られるといったような外的動機のことである 。工藤(2007)では、このインセンティブにより、透明性の錯覚における社会的規範の影響が小さくなると仮説を立てたが、 棄却された。 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 研究の方法 使用データ 本研究で使用するデータは、付き合って半年になるあるカップルのインターネットチャ ットでの会話を収集したもので、2011年3月から6月にわたって継続的に採集されたa4用紙に して60ページ(10万文字程度)の言語データである。データでの会話参与者は二名で、i国 に在住する20代前半の男性(仮名:アンドウタクヤ)と、大阪に居住する20代前半の女性( 仮名:オオウエカナエ)のカップルである。(ただし、データの 初ではまだ男性が日本に 滞在しているデータも存在する。その際は別途明言する。)なお、アンドウはオオウエより 3歳年上であり、同じ大学の先輩であった。 インターネットを利用したチャットソフトskype7での文字列をコピー・アンド・ペース トで保存し、そのまま分析資料とした。なお、このインターネットチャットのソフトウェア にはビデオ付きの通話機能が存在するため、ビデオ付き通話を行っている部分は資料から除 かれている。 この言語資料での特徴は、インターネット上での二者間のみによる会話という点で特徴 づけられている。つまり、対面ではない遠隔で行われている(2時間の時差も存在する)こ と、また、二者間のみであり、goffman(1981)のいう参与者枠組み(participation framework)のもっともプリミティブな発話者・被発話者という枠組みが適用されており、 そこに存在する会話のアドレスは、特別なコンテクストがない限りにおいて、それぞれ話中 の相手に向けて発話されていると考えることができるだろう。さらに、視線や、ジェスチャ ーといった非言語的相互行為や、アクセント、イントネーション、声色、顔の表情などを見 ることはできない。また、発話が秒単位でしか計測できないため、発話のタイミング等は推 測に頼らざるを得ず、それゆえ、発話の「仕方」よりも発話の「内容」により重きが置かれ ること(あるいは、置かざるを得ないこと)は、分析を行うに先立って述べておく必要があ るであろう。 分析方法 本稿の分析は、会話分析(conversationalanalysis)の手法を用いている。会話分析は 、エスノメソドロジー(ethnomethodology)での主流的研究方法である(山田, 好井, 山崎, 1987:p.7)そして、「エスノメソドロジストたちは、会話そのものに関心を寄せているわけ ではないし、まして言語に特別の関心をもっているわけでもない」(好井,1992)と述べられ ている。しかし、本研究では会話そのもの、つまり「話し方」と「話されている内容」は分 かちがたく存在していると位置付けている 8。よって本稿では、話されている内容とその機能的位置づけにおいても言及したい。 本稿では、チャットでのデータ(以下、チャットデータ)を時系列に沿って読み、その なかで「おおよそ、親しくない二者間では起こり得ないと思われる出来事」を抽出・分析す る。これは通常、友人たちや参与社会に存在する半知りの人々と話すような一般的な会話( generalconversation)ではなく、「付き合う」という二者間において(のみ?)起こるで あろうと考えられる特異な会話(peculiar conversation)であることを示している 7 skypeの詳細な機能については公式サイト(http://www.skype.com/ 終アクセス:2012/1/24)を参照。 8 詳しくは千々岩(2011)を参照されたい。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 45 i。それら会話を、前後のコンテクストを含めて抽出し、なにが行われているかを大まかに 現象別に書きだし、分類した。その後、それぞれの現象を大きくまとめ、さらに付き合う二 者間で特徴のあると考えられる現象3種類に分析対象を限定した 9。それらはすべて「相手を知っている」ということに基づいているため、それら分析対象 群を「相手を知っていること」と呼ぶ。 なお、フォローアップインタビューを実施し、発話の以前にある二者の共通知識につい て問う必要がある場合について質問を行い、そのことが共通の認識として存在したことを確 認する作業も行っている。 データ分析・結果と考察 第四節では、第三節で示したデータを詳しく分析していき、会話の中に存在する「相手 を知っている」ということがどのような二者の関係とかかわっているのか、分析を試みる。 これらの「相手を知っている」という要素を含意するデータは、言語資料から抽出され たものであり、これ以上の活動が、今回の言語対象の二者間における対面の場合や、他のカ ップルで行われている可能性については否定できない。しかし、冒頭述べたような状況的な 制約があり、さらに適用できる範囲は限られているものの、二者間のストラテジーを抽出す ることに全く意味がないとはいえないのではないだろうか。というのも、これら彼らが使用 しているストラテジーは、彼らが今までの社会の中で他者とのインタラクションを通して獲 得した親しさのストラテジーであり、また、それが社会的な日 常 の 知 commonsense knowledge により培われてきたものであるとすれば、他の社会の構成員が類似した、あるいは同じ活動 を行っているはずだということは想像に難くないからである。 本節では、言語資料中に発見された「相手を知っている」と述べることを分析し、それ が二者間でどのような相互行為であるのかを明らかにする。 認識の類似について言及すること チャットデータ1<開かずの観賞室>ii 新入部員のために、kキャンパスを案内した方がいいと言う話をしている。タクヤは以 前カナエを案内しているため、カナエは他の部員よりもkキャンパスの地理に明るい。[2011 /04/04] → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 [19:34:25] タクヤ: いや、案内してあげないと、かわいそうだよ [19:34:31] タクヤ: せっかくkきゃん10にいるのに [19:34:41] タクヤ: 映画部員としてのファーストステップだよ! [19:34:53] タクヤ: (ninja) ((著者注:忍者の絵文字(emoticon)が表示されている)) [19:34:58] カナエ: どこを案内しろと? [19:35:01] タクヤ: 部室 [19:35:06] タクヤ: と、部室。 [19:35:09] タクヤ: と、部室。 9 限定は多くのデータから帰納的に取り出しているため、操作的とは言えない。また、分析対象の限定は紙幅上の都合による。 10 kきゃんは、二人の大学のキャンパスの一つ。「きゃん」はキャンパスの意。 46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 → → → → 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 [19:35:12] カナエ: あ、観賞室11 [19:35:13] タクヤ: あ、観賞室明けないと12。 [19:35:20] タクヤ: おんなじこと考えてたwww [19:35:23] カナエ: 笑 [19:35:29] カナエ: しかも「あ、」って笑 [19:35:30] タクヤ: 締まってた? [19:35:33] カナエ: しまってました [19:35:37] タクヤ: なるー [19:35:45] カナエ: サオトメさん・・・ [19:35:46] タクヤ: じゃぁ、学生課か、 以下、部活の中での役割の分担の話になる。 01で、タクヤ(以下、tと記載)は新入部員にキャンパスを案内しないことは、かわい そうなことであると述べている。さらに、02でキャンパスに居るのに案内しないことの「も ったいなさ」を語る。そして、03では、それが映画部員となる第一段階であることを示し、 「忍者」の絵文字を使用する(04)。この絵文字の使用意図は不確かであるが、04から05へ 12秒程度間があることから、kへのターン交代の表示か、kへの発話催促ではないかと考えら れる。その証拠に、kは5秒後に、案内する場所はどこが適切かということをtに尋ねる(05 )。tは「部室」と06で解答し、さらに選択肢を示す目的ではなく部室しか場所がないこと を示すように「と、部室。」と、07と08で繰り返す。その3秒後、kとtは一秒差というほぼ 同じタイミング 13で、観賞室について述べる。その際、09のkよりも、10のtの方が、観賞室への態度(この 場合では、開けなければらないということ)がより明確に表れている。11では、この09と10 の同一の思考にたいし、「おんなじことを考えてた」と述べる。さらに「www」と提示さ れていることから、それがtにとって異常な事態であることがうかがわれる。12でkはそれに 同調し、13で観賞室もさることながら(=しかも)、「あ、」という感嘆詞までも同じであ ることを指摘する。14でtは、それには触れず、「観賞室が締まっていたか」という事実を 確認し、15でkはそれに答える。16でtは「なる(ほど)」と述べ、17でkは「サオトメさん ・・・」と現部長の名前をタイプする。このサオトメという人物は、部長としての責務を果 たさないという点で、二人の話題に上っていたことがあった。ここで観賞室が開いていない 事態に対し、サオトメの名前を出したことは、その責任について言及することを含んでいる ものであると考えられる。18でtは、サオトメさん発言については触れずに、観賞室を開け るための手立て(この場合では学生課に行くこと)を示唆する。 ここで特異だと考えられる点は、09~13で起こる「同じことを言うこと」である。この 現象が起こることは、06から09で繰り返し述べられている「部室」が、二人の中で「観賞室 が開いていないこと」を想起させるリソースとして働いていることに由来する。そのことは 、この現象が起こる背景に「部室」から派生する認識が、tとkの二者間で非常に類似してい ることを示している。このように、同じ言葉を述べ、それについて言及することは、キーワ 11 観賞室が手違いでカギをかけられてしまい、大学の事務所まで行き開けてもらわなければいけないことから、ずっと鍵がかか っている状態であることが、二者の共通知識としてあった。 12 以下の「締まっていた」ということから「開けないと」のミスタイプだと考えられる。 13 一秒では、10のtの発言は打つことができない。パソコンの特性上、 低26個のキーを打たねばならぬため、一秒では難しい であろうと考えられる。ゆえに、これはtが11で述べるとおり、「同じことを考えていた」ことになる。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 47 ードへ遡り、そこからの「認識の類似を示す」ことを行っているとみられる。また、「あ、 」が重なったことについても、13でkが言及しているとおり、また、「笑」で示されている 通り、通常とは違う異常な行為であることは明確だが、それにより、二人の認識の類似性を 強調していることとも言える。では、チャットデータ1の「ある言葉が二者間に同じことを 想起させ、そのことに言及する」例として、チャットデータ2を見る。 チャットデータ2 <豆太>    人は写真を撮るのが趣味である。タクヤは、カナエに写真をネット上でデータで送信し 、意見を求める。 [2011/05/12] → → → → → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 [17:57:03] ***タクヤが*****.jpg14を送信しました *** [17:57:11] タクヤ: こっちと比べて、どちらがお好きでしょうか。 [17:57:38] カナエ: 暗めの方。 [17:57:49] タクヤ: ふーむー [17:58:22] カナエ: いや、気分の問題かも [17:59:05] タクヤ: そんな、逆立ちしたら上が下で下が上だ、みたいな。 [17:59:12] カナエ: 笑 [17:59:30] カナエ: 好きなのは明るいほうだけど、今は暗いほうの気分 [17:59:39] カナエ: なんかいみわからない笑 [18:00:14] タクヤ: まぁ、カナも人間ってことだよね。 [18:00:38] カナエ: 人間です。 [18:00:47] タクヤ: ・・・ブフッ∵(´ε( ⊂=========(゚=_゚` ) 嘘じゃないよ!っ [18:01:03] タクヤ: インゲン? [18:01:15] カナエ: 豆 [18:02:46] タクヤ: (´・豆・`) [18:02:58] カナエ: そ・・・それは・・・? [18:03:10] タクヤ: 豆太。 [18:03:24] タクヤ: (∪´・豆・`)まめまめおー [18:03:42] カナエ: 私もやろうとしました笑 [18:04:57] タクヤ: あら、気が合うね。 [18:05:06] タクヤ: ねぇ、俺たち、付き合わない?(ぉ15 [18:05:10] カナエ: うーん [18:05:19] カナエ: 笑 その後、付き合っていない状態を仮定した冗談をタクヤが繰り返す。 会話は01のtが写真のデータを送信するところから始まる。02でtは、kに対して二つの写真 でどちらが好みかどうかを尋ねる。 14 jpgは画像の拡張子の一つ。*****と合わせ、タクヤがカナエに送信したファイルの名前である。 15 ここでは二人は別れておらず、付き合っている。 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 この際、注目すべき点は、文末が丁寧体表現になっているということである。この二人 の場合、通常話されているスピーチスタイル(いわゆる「基調」)は、kからtが丁寧体、な らびに語末を省略した表現(08)、および普通体(09)と混合して使用されている 16のに対し、tからkへは普通体(大阪方言も使用される)である。これはおそらく、この付 き合うという恋人関係へと移行する前に、同じ専攻・部活の先輩・後輩関係であったという ことが影響していると考えられる。しかし、ここで02の文末がそれに反し、丁寧体である。 これは、おそらく「頼みごとをする→頼みごとを引き受ける」と言う二者間の役割において 、頼みごとをすることが相手に対しての負担をかける行動であるため、ここでは二者間での 関係よりも濃く表れてスピーチスタイルのシフトが起こっていると考えられる。 03でkは、比べた写真では暗めの方が好みであることをtに告げる。tは「ふーむー」と 、kの判断がtの意思とは異なっていることを示す。05でkは、それを受け、それが「気分の 問題」であるという。06でtは、その類似例として逆立ちした時の状態を提示し、軽く非難 する。kは笑とtに対して「ごまかしの笑い」(早川2000)を行い、03の判断が好きなものと 今の気分が背反したものであると述べる(07)。08でkは、さらに05の補足として、気分の 問題でその好みの判断が揺らいでいることを述べ、09で08が補足として不適当であることを 示し、自らでも判断についてよくわからない状態であることを述べる。10で、tはkの一連の 気分の問題による判断の揺れについて、あなたも人間であるのでそれは仕方がないと述べる 。11でkは人間です、とtを肯定し、それに対し12、13でtは嘘じゃないよ、とピノキオ 17の顔文字を使う。これにより、暗に「あなたは人間ではない」と冗談風に述べていること も考えられる。14でさらに「人間」と「インゲン」と聞き間違えたように(視覚上のデータ であるため、聞き間違えることはない)発話をデザインし、kは15で豆と答える。14でのデ ザインは、インターネット会話独特のもので、視覚上で行われるチャットのやり取りでは聞 き間違えることがないにもかかわらず、聞き間違えたようにデザインするということは、ま さに日常の会話でのストラテジーがインターネットチャットにも適用されている例であると 言えるであろう。16でtは顔文字の中に「豆」という字を組み込んだものを提示し、17でkは それが何かを問う。tは18でその名前(豆太)を述べ、さらに14秒後に「豆」と犬の顔文字 ((∪^ω^) わんわんお!)を組み合わせたものを作る。20でカナエは、それに対し「私もやろうとしま した」と、tに対してその行為が、自分がしようとした行為と同じであることを述べる。tは 21で二人の気が合うこと、そして、22で(すでに付き合っているけれども付き合っていなデ ザインで)付き合わないか、と問う。その際に「(ぉ」と述べているのは、それが冗談であ ると示すためであろう。それに対し、kは23で「うーん」と冗談に対してのコメントを避け 、それが否定的に取られないために「笑」と付け加える(24)。 ここで注目したい点は、20で行われているkの「私もやろうとしました笑」という発話 である。この発話は、16での「豆」という漢字を用いたtの顔文字の装飾(おそらく顔文字(́ ・ω・`)ショボーン)に対しての連鎖(16での新しい要素の提示、17での16に対する質問、18で の応答)が終了した後に出てくる19のtの顔文字発話に対するコメントである。ここでの論 点は、「なぜ」このような発言を行うことが、kにとって必要であったのかというものであ る。ここで、チャットデータ1<開かずの観賞室>での理論の適用が可能である。「ある言 葉からの認識の派生が類似であること」を示しているのだ。つまり、16での顔文字((´・ 16 このことはより詳しく調査されるべきであろうと考える。というのも、親しさによってスピーチスタイルシフトが起こること は我々にとっては日常知であるが、どの段階でどのように行われるかについては今まで不明確であるからだ。 17 童話ピノキオで主人公のピノキオは嘘をつくと鼻が伸びてしまうことから。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 49 豆・`))に対する認識の派生方法が、tとkで似通っていることを明示的に示すために、kは このような発話を行ったと考えられる。 以上、チャットデータ1および2で行われている相互行為は、「互いの認識の類似性を示 す」ことにより、「お互いがより近い認知状態にあることを示す」ことを目的としているも のとしてとらえることが妥当であろう。このことが、相手に「認識的に寄り添おう」とする 行為なのであれば、それは二者間でどのような機能を持つのであろうか。 村山(2004)は、顧客と従業員を対象に行った親密度の長期的調査の結果で、友人関係 における関係深化の要因として「本音の自己開示」「なんらかの類似性の存在」「相手の立 場にたった心配り」の三つを挙げている。この「なんらかの類似性の存在」というのは、楠 見(1989)に初出したものであるが、おそらくこれは表層的なものを志向しているように思 える。例えば、飼っているペットの名前が一緒であるとか、妹が二人いることとか、そのよ うないわゆる「モノの偶発的類似性」についてであろう。 しかし、この会話資料から二人の間で行われているのは、「認識の類似性を相手に示す こと」であり、これがモノ的類似性に関係していながらも、もっと深層的な「思考の類似性 」とも呼ぶべきものである。双方にモノ的類似点があった場合に、人々の間で会話が盛り上 がる―ということは、往々にしてありうるし、想像に難くない。しかし、「事物に対する認 識の類似性」を認知して会話が盛り上がることは、想像しにくいにもかかわらず、このデー タに見られるもの二点は確かに、その類似性を相手に示している。よって、この類似性の提 示を親しさのストラテジーと呼ぶべき物理的証拠はないにせよ、それがその一種であること は肯定できる。 相手の行動/性質が予測の範疇だと述べること では、「認識の類似性」を相手に示すことによって、二者間の関係がより近い状態にあ ることを提示するデータを示した。では、相手を「どのように認識しているのか」について 言及するデータはあるのであろうか。ここでは、そのことに関連したデータを示したい。 チャットデータ3 <パンケーキ> 二人はtの働き先について話しており、その後、二人が所属している映画部の部長「サ オトメ」と連絡が取れない話になる。[2011/04/14] → → → → → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 [20:24:16] カナエ: あ、 [20:24:27] カナエ: サオトメさん、どうなりました? [20:24:52] タクヤ: 音沙汰ナッシング [20:24:57] タクヤ: イェア! [20:25:09] カナエ: ・・・(ノд`) [20:26:20] カナエ: ま、いっか。。。 [20:26:32] タクヤ: いいんじゃね?w [20:26:41] カナエ: いいですよね [20:26:43] カナエ: 笑 [20:26:45] タクヤ: いいいい、ほっとけw [20:26:48] タクヤ: ホットケーキ [20:27:03] タクヤ: はっ・・・パンケーキ食べたい・・・。。。 [20:27:09] カナエ: 言うと思った笑 50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 → 14 15 16 17 [20:27:13] タクヤ: www [20:27:17] タクヤ: おいしいじゃない、パンケーキ。 [20:27:25] タクヤ: 美味しいパンケーキは美味しいじゃない。 [20:27:25] カナエ: おいしいですよ。 以下、kはパンケーキを好きであり、それに対し二人の共通の先輩に言及されたという 話になる。 01で、kは「あ」という言葉で、認識が変化したことが示され、違う話題の提供を行う (この話題の前はtの勤務先についての話)。02で、サオトメという映画部の部長と連絡が 取れたかということをtに尋ねる。tは、「音沙汰なし」と、英語の「nothing(何もない) 」を組み合わせた語を03で述べ、それが英語風の表現であることを強調するように「yeah」 のカタカナ語である言葉を04で述べる。kはそれに対し、悲しい表情の顔文字を表示する(0 5)。しかし、06では、連絡が取れないことはどちらでもいいことである、という旨の発言 を行う。それに対し、07でtはkに対し賛同する。08でkは、それが妥当である確認を行い、 それを冗談風にデザインしなおす(09)。10でtはkの意見をサポートするために、「いいい い」(この「いい」の繰り返しは、いい、必要ない、ということを強調するためであると考 えられる)と述べ、さらに「放っておけ」と述べる(10)。さらにtは11で「ホットケーキ 」と述べる。これは、「ほおっておけ」から派生した「ほっとけ」を「ホットケ(ーキ)」 と読み替えたことによる言語行動で「連想」と呼べるであろう。さらに、12でtは連想を深 め「ホットケーキ」から「パンケーキ」を導き、それを食べたいという欲求の対象であると 述べる。すると、13でkは「言うと思った笑」と、相手の「パンケーキを食べたい発言」が 予測の範疇であるということを述べる。それに対し、tは「w」を繰り返し使って笑いを表 現し(14)、12の発言の妥当性を高め、同意を要求するために「パンケーキがおいしい」こ とを述べる(15)。16ではそれを訂正し、「美味しいパンケーキは美味しい」と、パンケー キの属性をさらに狭め、同意しやすいように程度を下げる。とほぼ同時に(発話された時間 を参照すると、1秒以内の出来事である)kは「おいしいですよ」とtの15に向けて同意する (16)。 ここでの注目すべき点は、13におけるkの「言うと思った」という言語活動である。文 末への「笑」の付加により冗談風にデザインされているこの活動は、12のパンケーキを食べ たいという欲求の発露へのコメントである iii。しかし、その言い方は「言うと思った」という相手の発話を予測するものであり、かつ 、前後のカナエの発言8、17とは違い、スピーチスタイルシフト(speech style shift) 18が行われている。これはいったいどのようなことを指向した活動なのであろうか。 相手の行動を予測していたと述べることは、4.1で述べた「認識の類似性」を提示して いるものとは異なり、相手の行動を予測し「自分の認識へと組み込む」作業である。つまり 、「tがホットケーキから、パンケーキへと連想を深め、それを食べたいということ」は、k にとってはすでに知っていることであり(または知っているとデザインすることが“よい” ことであり、)「私はあなたの行動がわかる。あなたの行動は認識の範疇である」と述べる ことによって、相手に「知られていること」を自覚させ、知られている関係であることを暗 に伝える手法なのである。これが相互的に実現すれば、単に一方的な関係ではなく相互的に 18 この場合では、いわゆる「ため口」と呼ばれるものではなく、kのいわゆる基調に対し丁寧体が脱落し、再度もとに戻ること を述べている。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 51 「知り合っている」(ように見える 19)関係になり、互いを互いの認識に組み込む作業につながる。そして、スピーチスタイル シフトが行われていることを加味するのであれば、それは相手への接近を示していることに なるのではないかと思われる。 チャットデータ4 <星の王子様> 昔話の話をしている途中で話題が変わり、ある共通の知人について、tが家業を継げば いいのにと提案する。 [2011/05/28] → → → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 [9:02:37] タクヤ: それに、パン屋はとても大切なものなんだ。おいしいパンが食べられる。 [9:03:10] タクヤ: ある日パン屋が全部、突然なくなったら、我々は、いったい朝、何を食べ ればいいのだろう。 [9:03:15] タクヤ: クラッカー? [9:03:27] カナエ: 笑 [9:03:42] タクヤ: ねぇ。 [9:03:49] タクヤ: 羊の絵を書いて!(違 [9:03:55] カナエ: 言うと思った。。。 [9:03:57] タクヤ: 笑 [9:04:01] カナエ: 笑 [9:04:06] タクヤ: ハーメルンの笛吹き男。 [9:04:22] タクヤ: その他に、なんか知ってそうだけど、実は知らない、西洋の昔話ってある ? 以下、家業の話題の前に話されていた昔話についての話題になる。 ここでは、07と08でチャットデータ3同様の活動が行われている。tは07で、06までとは 関係のない新しい話題の表示「ねぇ」を発話後、08の「羊の絵を書いて」という『星の王子 様』でのフレーズを引用し、それが前の話題と関係のないことを示すために、「違」という 言葉を語尾にカッコつきで付与する。それに対し、09は「言うと思った。。。」と、述べる 。ここでは、チャットデータ3と違い、その発言が09の時点では冗談風にデザインされてい ないことである。10でのtの「笑」をうけ、11でkが笑いあうまで、09は冗談化されていない 。そのあと、12でさらに 初の話題である「昔話」の中で登場したハーメルンの笛吹き男の 話題を再度提示する。 この『ねぇ、羊の絵を書いて』という表現は、これ以前の会話資料でもたびたび出現す る。よって、この会話では、『ねぇ』から派生する言語表現が二者間で常用されていること を示すために、あるいは、09の語末の「。。。」から、何度も使い古された表現に対しての 一種の「呆れ」を表示させるために使用していることが考えられる。どちらの可能性にせよ 、 終的には冗談風にデザインし直されるこの表現は、二者間の認識類似性を双方に提示す る手法であることは考えられる。 19 ここであえてように見えると述べているのは、工藤(2007)で述べられている「透明性の錯覚」の議論による。 52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 また、この「相手に関する予知が妥当であった」と示す活動は、相手の「行動」に対し ての言及だけではなく、相手の性質についても類似した活動を行うことができる。 チャットデータ5 <蛇の果物> タクヤが、カナエにサラクと呼ばれるヘビの鱗に似た皮を持つ果物を買ってきて、その 画像を送った。その後、その味について話し合っている。[2011/04/16] → → → → → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 [21:15:17] カナエ: 美味しかったですか? [21:15:22] タクヤ: いいえwww [21:15:25] カナエ: 笑 [21:15:37] カナエ: 甘いんですか? [21:15:38] タクヤ: りんごのほうが美味しい。 [21:15:44] タクヤ: んー [21:15:46] カナエ: ・・・笑 [21:16:16] タクヤ: 甘くはない。 [21:16:18] タクヤ: すっぱい? [21:16:22] タクヤ: 変な味www [21:16:28] カナエ: www [21:17:59] タクヤ: カナ、ビジュアル的に嫌いかなって思って、以て帰ってきた w [21:18:04] タクヤ: もってかえってきたw [21:18:12] カナエ: 笑 [21:18:23] カナエ: ビジュアル的に嫌いです笑 [21:18:56] タクヤ: www [21:19:13] タクヤ: だと思ったw [21:19:18] カナエ: 笑 [21:19:55] カナエ: よく分かりましたね笑 [21:20:26] タクヤ: いや、爬虫類じゃん、どう見てもw [21:20:32] カナエ: 笑 01でkは、その果物の味について、美味しかったかどうか尋ねる。タクヤはそれに対し 、02で「いいえ」と述べる。kは03でそれに笑いで返し、味の詳細について選択的に(甘い かどうか)尋ねる。05でtは、02への追加情報として「リンゴ」を比較対象として差出し、 そちらのほうが美味しいと述べる。06では、tは甘いかどうか(04kの質問)への答えとして 、「甘くはない」と否定し、自問する形で「すっぱい?」と疑問形式で提示(09)した後、 変な味、と結論づける(10)。kはそれに対して同調する笑いを行う(11)。次に、tは、12 ~13で、このサラクを持って帰ってきたことが「カナ(kのこと)がビジュアル的に嫌いで あるだろうこと」を志向していたことを述べる。14で、「持って」を「以て」と打ち間違え たことに対しての訂正を行い、15でkは12に対して笑いで返答する。さらに、16で12のtの予 測が正しいことを述べる。それに対し、17でtは笑いで応答し、「だと思った」と自ら行っ た予測が正しかったことを再度提示する。kはそれに対して「笑」と、さらに書き、「よく 分かりましたね笑」と、相手の予測に対して(おそらく肯定的に)コメントする。tは、そ れに対して、「どう見てもそのサラクは爬虫類のようである」 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 53 20ことを述べ、その推測が自らにおいては妥当であったことを述べ、kは22で笑いで応答する 。 ここでのt18の発言「だと思ったw」は、チャットデータ3、4の「言うと思った」と同 様の機能を持つと考えられる。tには、その前から「カナエ」についての先行する二者間共 通の情報(爬虫類の見た目が嫌い)があり、それをいわば駆使して「爬虫類が嫌いであると いうことは、この爬虫類の見た目をした果物も嫌いであるはずだ」という予測を行ったうえ で持って帰ってきており、それをkにあえて(ここでは「なぜ持って帰ってきたか」という ような問いはkから発せられていない)言うことで、「この行為があなたを知っていたため にできる行為であったのだ」ということを印象付けている(1213)。そして、その予測が正しかったとき(16)に、相手の性質が自らの認識のなかで同一 のものであったことを示すために、先述の「だと思った」という言葉が用いられているので ある。 本4.2節では、「相手を自ら認識に組み込む」ことを「相手に示す」ことによる、親し さのストラテジーを見た。チャットデータ3と4では、「私はあなたの行動がわかる。あなた の行動は認識の範疇である」と述べることによって、相手に「知られていること」を自覚さ せ、知られている関係であることを示すことをしている可能性についてのべた。 また、チャットデータ5では、「相手の性質を認識している」こと、また、「その認識」を 、「相手に示す」場合を考察した。 本節のそれぞれのデータで行われている活動は、相手を「自分の認識の中に組み込む」 作業であり、それが間違いでないことを「相手に示す」ことによって、認識の中に組み込ま れた関係であることが妥当であることを示す活動である。そして、それが親しさのストラテ ジーとして機能している可能性は、この会話が特異である点、そのことを伝える「理由」に ついての考察、ならびに、周辺のコンテクスト(笑いや、絵文字の使用など)により、十分 にあるであろうと考えられる。 相手の性質を知っていると語ること 節で示したデータは、どれも連想や予測というある程度前後のコンテクストをもとに、 思考活動によって相手の行動や性質を言い当てるものであった。本4.3節では、その連想や 予測を使用しない、「相手のことを知っている」と端的に述べる活動について考察したい。 チャットデータ6 <紙でざっくり> カナエが携帯ゲームをしている話から、タクヤが突然21質問をする。[2011/04/08] 01 02 03 04 [19:31:57] タクヤ: てか、何が痛いの?? ((中略 カナエが痛みの原因について話したくない旨の問答がある)) [19:33:00] カナエ: いや、ただ手を切っただけです。 [19:33:02] カナエ: 紙で。 [19:33:09] カナエ: 結構ざっくり。 20 カナエが爬虫類の皮膚の見た目が嫌いであることは、これ以前に述べられている。 21 チャットの前のコンテクストには「痛い」等を示す言葉はない。おそらく、このチャット外の活動から、このような言及に至 ったと推察される。(そうでなくても、分析に差し支えはないが) 54 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 → → → → 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 [19:33:11] タクヤ: ギャーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーー ーーーーーーーーーーーーーーーー [19:33:18] タクヤ: でた、紙wwwwwwwww [19:33:24] タクヤ: よく切るなぁwww [19:33:31] タクヤ: 紙で。 [19:33:39] カナエ: そうなんですよ。。。 [19:33:41] タクヤ: 痛そうwww [19:33:46] タクヤ: 前世、はさみとかだったんじゃない? [19:33:53] タクヤ: 今世で逆襲されてるとか。 [19:34:16] カナエ: ・・・だったら仕方ないですね。。。うん。笑 [19:34:19] タクヤ: どれどれ、見せてみ。 [19:34:22] タクヤ: ウェブカムで。 [19:34:28] カナエ: いや、いいです笑 tの発言07、08、09で行われていることは、どれも相手の傾向(ここでいえば、相手の 「紙でよく切る」という性質)を述べているものである。 ここで注目したいのは、この相手の性質を述べることが、挿入連鎖として存在すること である。02で手を切ったことを述べるkは、03、04でその負傷の原因と、程度をそれぞれ述 べる。その後、05、06でtは叫び声ととれる言葉を書き、そのあと、07で「でた、紙」と冗 談風にデザインして述べる。08、09でさらに、それが「よくあることであること」を述べる 。kはそれに同意する(10)。tは、さらに笑いながら「痛そう」と述べる。 この場合、05、06のtの叫び声の次の発話行動として選好(preferred)なのは、「痛そ う」「大丈夫?」などの、傷に対してのコメントであろう(11で起こっていることである) 。しかし、ここで「相手の性質に述べること(=紙でよく負傷する傾向があるということ) 」が、710という臨場的場面において挿入されているのは、「大丈夫?」など傷への直接的言及では なく「あなたは前もそのようなことがあった」と言うことで、相手にそれが日常的であるこ とを提示し、それが異常ではないことを提示している。そして、そのような手段に「日常性 」を差し出すことは、二者間がお互いをよく知っていることを暗示しており、その手段をで きることは、二人が「親しい」ことを察知できるその場として機能すると考えられる。 ここで、類似したもう一つのデータを見る。 チャットデータ7 <夜更かし> カナエがスカイプのビデオをonにしてくれないことを話していて、分が悪くなったタクヤが 、話をやめようと「おやすみー」と発言する。[2011/04/08] 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 [19:41:34] タクヤ: おやすみー [19:41:40] タクヤ: (´・ω・`) [19:41:41] カナエ: まだ8時前ですよ [19:41:44] カナエ: (´・ω・`) [19:41:48] タクヤ: ( ゚д゚)ネムヒー [19:42:18] タクヤ: 毎日夜、やることなさすぎて、10時ぐらいに寝られるのが、 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 55 → → → → 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 好きw [19:42:27] タクヤ: そうすると、日中、眠くない!!!! [19:42:28] タクヤ: 笑 [19:42:50] タクヤ: 私、夜更かししすぎてたんだって、気づいたw [19:43:01] カナエ: ずっと前から知ってました。 [19:43:04] タクヤ: www [19:43:04] カナエ: 笑 [19:43:15] タクヤ: 主に、カナとぐだぐだしてたからだけどne!w [19:43:27] タクヤ: あと、大学遠いから←これ、主な理由w 10で、tは06、07、08と 近の出来事を言及し、「昔夜更かししすぎていたこと」につ いて、気付いた「認識の変化」を述べる。それについて、kはそのことを「ずっと前から知 っていた」と、そのことについて既知であったことを述べる 22。それに対して、タクヤは笑って返答をする。 ここでのkの11の発言は、tのこれまでの生活リズムを知っているからこそできるもので あり、「それを述べても問題がない」関係であることが、その発話が行われる裏には隠され ている。そして、tが「気付いた」ことを、すでに既知のこととして「ずっと前から」と述 べることができることは、その二人に以前からお互いを知り合っていたという文脈的な日常 性を感じさせる。10のkの発言へのtの選好応答を考えると、「そうですか」や、「そうなん ですか」など、相手が述べた認識の変化に対してそれを受け入れるような発言が選好応答だ と考えられるが、そこであえて「私はあなたの性質のことを前から知っていました」という ことをしていることは、相手に対して親しさを提示することとして機能していることは、想 像に難くない。 チャットデータ8<面倒くさいのが嫌い> 人間関係の話をしていて、tが突然、殺虫剤の話をしだす。[2011/05/19] → → → → → 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 [22:15:48] タクヤ: この殺虫剤、オレンジの匂いがする…。。。 [22:16:03] カナエ: 嫌いですか?オレンジの匂いも。 [22:16:13] タクヤ: いいえ。も? [22:16:29] カナエ: いや、みかん嫌いって言ってたから [22:16:59] タクヤ: いや、みかん嫌いなのは、むくのが嫌なだけで [22:17:12] タクヤ: 魚もあんまりすきじゃないのは、骨をとるのがきらいなだけ で [22:17:17] カナエ: 知ってます笑 [22:17:28] カナエ: というか予想つきます笑 [22:17:37] タクヤ: 知ってるなら、なぜ聞く。 [22:17:52] カナエ: (´・ω・) [22:18:49] タクヤ: ( ´゚_つ゚)(゚⊂_゚` )ネー [22:19:10] カナエ: (´・ω・) [22:19:38] カナエ: (´・ω・)(・ω・`)マジデヨネー [22:19:43] タクヤ: でたw 22 ここで、kが現実として知っていたかどうか、ということはこのデータからはわからない。ここで大切なのは「相手の状態に ついて「既知である」ようにデザインしていること」である。 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 以後、そろそろ寝ようかという話になる。 01で、tは手元にあるとみられる殺虫剤のにおいの話に触れる。それに対し02でkは、オ レンジの匂い「も」嫌いであるか、と尋ねる。03でtは、嫌いですか、という質問に答える べく「いいえ。」と答え、さらに「も?」と取り立て助詞に触れる。kは「も」の真意につ いて「みかんが嫌いと言っていたこと」を理由として提示する。ここで述べられていること は、「ミカンが嫌い、と言われていたことから、オレンジの匂い「も」嫌いなのか」という kからtへの疑問を再構成し直すものである。それに対し、tは05で、ミカン嫌いな理由を、 皮をむくのが嫌いであると述べることによって、オレンジの匂いが嫌いであることを否定し ている。さらに、その「面倒くささ」を強化するために、魚についても述べている(0607)。kはそれに対し、「知ってます」とそれが異常であること笑いで示した後、「知って いるのではなく、予想がつく」とより現象を詳細に説明するために、言い換えを行っている 。 この相手の性質を知っているという行為(08)、または、それが予想の範囲内であると述 べる行為(09)は、チャットデータ4、7でそれぞれのtの行動が認識の範囲内であるとした kの活動と類似している。つまりここでも、「相手に自分の性質が知られていること」を自 覚させ、知られている関係であることを暗に伝える手法として登場している。 しかしながら、ここでtは、その「予想」に対して、知っているならなぜ「オレンジの 匂いも嫌い」と聞いたのか、その質問の意図について疑問を述べる形で発言する(10)。こ れは、単に発話意図を聞いているわけではなく、「本当に聞く前に知っていたのか」という ある種の相手の行動に批判的な対処をしていると見受けられる。その証拠に、それに対し、 kが11で「(´・ω・)」と反応しているのは、そこに二者間での進行性(progressivity)を 阻害する衝突(conflict)があったことを示唆する。 とはいえ、15で、kの14の発言「(´・ω・)(・ω・`)マジデヨネー」に対して、「でた」 に加え「w」が冗談としてデザインされていることから、この衝突は大きなものとならずこ こで収束しているように判断されている。 しかし、このチャットデータ8から見られるのは、この親しさのストラテジーには、大 きなリスクが伴っているということである。それは、相手を認識に組み込むことが、相手の 心情にコンフリクトとしてマイナスに作用してしまうことがあるのではないかという危険性 である。そのことを、このチャットデータ8は内包している。 4.3節では、選好応答、周辺のコンテクスト、日常性などの観点から、「相手の性質を 知っていると述べること」について考察した。多くの場合、それらの発話は、選好応答とは 別の形で提示され、なおかつ、二人の過去での共通の理解や、相手の過去の出来事などに言 及していた。そして、これは多くの場合で二人の共通の知識や共通の認識を相手に差し出す 方法として機能しており、その行為の動機となっているのは、親しさの面の強調であろうと 考えるのは、決して不自然なことではない。 しかし、チャットデータ8でも見たように、そのストラテジーは、他者を「知っている 」という心理学的側面における見地である「透明性の錯覚」とも強い関連性を見せ、それが 錯覚であった場合、また、それが偽りであると判断された場合、進行性が阻害され、衝突が 起こることも、一つの現象として確認された。 saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 57 全体考察とまとめ 本研究では、第4節を通し、付き合う男女二者間で起こった言語活動による二者間の関 係の「親しさのストラテジー」を帰納的に抽出しようと試みた。今回のデータで観察された 言語活動を類型化してみると、以下のようになる。 a:認識の類似性を相手に示す (「同じことを考えていた」の類) b:発話に対して認識的に寄り添うことを示す (「私もそれを言おうと思っていました」の類) c:自分の認識へ相手を組み込むことを示す (「言うと思った」の類) d:相手の性質・傾向を理解していることを示す (「だと思った・よくvするなぁ」の類) そして、これらに共通するのは、「相手を知っている」ことを示す、ということである。a 類であれば思考が同じであるということ、b類であれば相手の認識を、c類であれば相手を認 識へ組み込み、d類であれば相手の性質・傾向を、それぞれ「知っている」と指向する相手 へ向けて伝達しようとするのである。あるいは、人が言語で思考するという観点で見れば、 その状態を回帰的に自分に植え付けようとしているのかもしれない。いずれにせよ、相手を 知っていること、相手に知られていることを確認することが、二者間の「親しさのストラテ ジー」として使用されている。 心理学的見地での「透明性の錯覚」についての研究は、主に相手に自分の思考がばれて いると認知する傾向の言説であった。しかし、ここで行われていることは、発話者が被発話 者に対して「知っている」と述べる行為であり、被発話者は「知られている」と示される、 という活動であった。とすれば、被発話者は発話者からの言葉によって、「透明性の錯覚」 を強められている、ととることができるだろう。そして、「透明性を強く錯覚すること/強 く錯覚させること」が、親しさのストラテジーの根幹的な原理である可能性は否定できない 。また、工藤(2007)が述べたように、相手の考えがわかると錯覚する傾向において語られ たその錯覚をより的確にする「インセンティブ」についても、「親しくなりたい」という動 機が、そのインセンティブとして日常の文脈の中で働いている、と仮定すれば、この説明は より真実味を増す。ここで行われた親しさのストラテジーを仮定を含めまとめると、次のよ うになるだろう。 「付き合う男女二者間による、チャット会話における親しさのストラテジーの一端には、相 手を「知っている」ことを示すことで、相手の透明性の錯覚を強めることがある。また、そ の動機は、相手とより親しくなりたいというものである。」 本研究デザインでは、操作的定義や演繹的な研究を避け、帰納的研究に重点を置いた。 また、少数のデータからの質的研究という点から、これがこの二者間以外に適応可能かとい う議論は、いまだに残っている。だが、4節の冒頭で述べたように、このストラテジーは、 彼らが今までの社会の中で他者とのインタラクションを通して獲得した親しさのストラテジ ーであるため、他の社会の構成員が類似した、あるいは同じ活動を行っているはずであるこ とは、特記しておく必要がある。 今後の課題として考えられるのは、より量的に充実したものにすること、また、仮定段階 での言説を別の方法を用いて研究すること、また、このストラテジーが「どのくらいの」親 しさで使われるのかという観点からの研究の必要性があるだろう。 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.1 mei 2012: 40-59 文献目録 <英文> goffman, e. (1981). forms of talk. university of pennsylvania press. <和文> 加藤篤志 (2008)「対人関係の言説分析に向けて」『人文コミュニケーション学科論集』5, pp.13-20, 茨城大学人文学部紀要. 楠見幸子(1989)「友人関係の各位相に関わる要因について」日本グループ・ダイナミックス 学会, 第36回大会研究発表論文集.pp.21-22. 久保真人(1993)「行動特性からみた関係の親密さ-rciの妥当性と限界-」『実験社会心理 学研究』 第33巻 第1号, pp. 01-10. クレスウェルj.w., プラノ クラークv.l.(2010)『人間科学のための混合研究法』(大谷順子 訳) 北大路書房 工藤恵理子(2007)「親密な関係におけるメタ認知バイアス ―友人間の透明性の錯覚における社会的規範仮説の検討―」実験社会心理学研究, vol. 46, no. 1, 63-77. (2007) . 鈴木孝夫(1973)『ことばと文化』. 岩波書店 大坊郁夫(2004)「親密な関係を映す対人コミュニケーション」『対人社会心理学研究』 (4) pp.1-10, 大阪大学大学院人間科学研究科対人社会心理学研究室. 高木智世. (2009)「社会的実践としての日常会話ⅱ-「親しさ」の実践-」『論叢現代語現代文化2009』vol.03, pp.47-64. 田中ゆかり(1999)「大学生の呼称 : 場面・上下・性の異なる相手からの呼ばれ方」青山学院女子短期大学総合文化研究 所年報 7. 千々岩宏晃(2011)「「付き合う」ことによる会話の変化」大阪大学外国語学部国際文化学科 卒業論文. 中山晶子(2003)「親しさのコミュニケーション」くろしお出版. 早川治子(2000a)「相互行為としての「笑い」」『文学部紀要』第14-1号pp.01-24, 文教大学文学部. 早川治子(2000b)「「笑い」の分類に基づく数量的分析」『文学部紀要』第14-2号pp.01-24, 文教大学文学部. 前澤温子(2008)「親しさを築く日本人学生と留学生の調整行動」千葉大学大学院人文社会科 学研究科研究プロジェクト報告書第198集『言語生成と言語管理の学際的研究』接触場面の言語管理研究vol.6 村岡英裕編 千葉大学大学院人文社会科学研究科. saying i know you ….. (hiroaki chijiiwa) 59 村山和恵(2007)「顧客と従業員との親密な長期的関係に関する一考察」新潟青陵大学紀要, 第7号, pp.223-236. ライターk(1987)『エスノメソドロジーとは何か』(高山眞知子, 訳) 新曜社. 山田富秋, 好井裕明, 山崎敬一. (1987).『エスノメソドロジー 社会学的思考の解体』せりか書房. 好井裕明(1992)『エスノメソドロジーの現実 せめぎあう<生>と<常>』世界思想社. ※なお、言語資料内に使用されている顔文字の主な解説は、以下のurlに依った 「(∪^ω^)わんわんお!とは(ワンワンオとは)」「(・ω・`)とは(ショボーンと は)」 http://dic.nicovideo.jp/ ( 終アクセス:2012年2月2日) 文末脚注 i エスノメソドロジーの目的は「日常知(common sense knowledge)」の解明(ライター, 1987)であると述べられている。それゆえ、ここで分析に使用する特異な会話がある程度間主観的に抽出されていることにつ いては問題ではない。というのも、「特異な会話であると判断すること」はおそらく誰においてもそうであろうという日常知 そのものであり、それは分析される以前の言語資料的段階であり、なによりも「なぜその部分が選ばれたのか」ということこ そが分析されるべきことであるからである。(もちろん、不特定多数が「特異だと感じた部分」を研究するほうがよいことは 言うまでもないが) ii チャットデータの見方は以下の通り -------------------- ①チャットデータの番号 ②コンテクストによる大まかな題名 ③前コンテクストの説明 ④発話があった日付[yyyy.mm.dd] ⑤データ内の連番号 ⑥発話があった時間(日本より2時間遅い)[時:分:秒] ⑦後述で特記するデータ iii 13のkの発言が、11のtの「ホットケーキ」という発言を指向しているのではないかという考え方もあるだろう。しかし、発言 の秒数をみると、11から12が15秒間離れているのに対し、12から13が6秒間という比較的短い間に行われていることから、13 の発言が11へのコメントであると仮定した場合、21秒の間があることになる。このコンテクスト周辺のコメント間の秒数が 長でも12秒の間しかないことを考えると、その間は「不自然な間」になるため、13のkの言語活動は1011「ほっとけ→ホットケーキ」という連想ではなく、「ホットケーキ→パンケーキ食べたい」という後者の連想に対してのコ メントであると考えられる。 copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 67 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 67-74 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5239 writing anxiety among indonesian efl college students: levels, causes, and coping strategies delvi wahyuni1; witri oktavia2; leni marlina3 1,2,3fakultas bahasa dan seni, jurusan bahasa dan sastra inggris, universitas negeri padang jl. prof. dokter hamka, kampus unp air tawat, padang, sumatera barat 25171, indonesia 1luckydelvi@gmail.com; 2witrioktavia@fbs.unp.ac.id; 3lenimarlina.11@gmail.com received: 23rd december 2018/revised: 19th february 2019/accepted: 04th march 2019 how to cite: wahyuni, d., oktavia, w., & marlina, l. (2019). writing anxiety among indonesian efl college students: levels, causes and coping strategies. lingua cultura, 13(1), 67-74. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5239 abstract this research aimed at investigating foreign language writing anxiety experienced by indonesian efl learners studying at universitas negeri padang. the numbers of participants involved in this survey were 132 students comprising of sophomores, junior, and senior students. this research employed three research instruments: second language writing anxiety inventory (slwai) to collect data on students’ levels of writing anxiety; causes of writing anxiety inventory (cwai) to gauge information about sources of students’ writing anxiety; typologies of tactics to cope with writing anxiety. the result of this research reveals that the level of students’ writing anxiety is moderate. in addition, no significant relationship between students’ writing anxiety level and their academic level is revealed suggesting moderately anxious students outnumbering those with high and low writing anxiety at any academic level. in addition, the sources of students’ writing anxiety are problems with topic choice, linguistic difficulties, and lack of writing practice. the coping strategies used by students to overcome writing anxiety are preparation, positive thinking, relaxation, peer-seeking, and resignation (most-frequent to least frequent respectively). keywords: writing anxiety, level of writing anxiety, causes of writing anxiety, coping strategies for writing anxiety introduction for those studying a foreign language, the ability to communicate ideas in written form is an ultimate goal. however, writing has been considered as the most difficult skill to master (pimsarn, 2013; shukri, 2014; zoghipour & nikou, 2016). according to erkan and saban (2011), due to its nature as a productive skill, foreign language learners find writing challenging. cheng (2002) has suggested that writing is a cognitive and affective activities. in other words, it involves both thinking and feeling. that is why writing both in l1 and l2 is anxiety provoking (cheng, 2004a; iksan & halim, 2018). in his research, cheng (2002) has found that english as a foreign language (efl) students encounter l2 writing anxiety. in this regards, kondo &ying-ling (2004) have explained that anxiety can exhaust cognitive resources which generate serious problems for even competent students. in a similar vein, anxiety has also been hailed as one of the main sources of writing difficulty in second or foreign language learning (dacwang, 2014; rezai & jafari, 2014). thus, it is not surprising that related previous researches have discovered even efl students not only feel apprehensive about writing but also avoid writing in the language they aspire to master (pazhakh, 2007; tran, 2007; shang, 2013). this phenomenon should trigger some alarms among language educators because at the tertiary level; the ability to write well is normally perceived as the predictor of academic success (daly & miller, 1975; daly, 1979; erkan & saban, 2011; shang, 2013). in the context of present research, it seems difficult for students to fulfill academic requirements which involve writing, such as term-papers or undergraduate theses. even bright students often find themselves struggling to graduate on time because they encounter many hindrances induced by the act of writing in the english language. therefore, the urgency of conducting research on this problem, its possible factors, and students’ coping strategies stand on solid ground. several pieces of research on writing anxiety or writing apprehension (wa) itself has begun since the 1970s with the publication of daly & miller’s (1975) seminal work. in fact, they are the first to coin the term writing apprehension to describe avoidance of writing or situation involving writing and its evaluation (daly, 1979). in the efl context, research on l2 writing anxiety has started to gain momentum since the 1990s (cheng, 2004a). since then, 68 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 67-74 there has been a wealth of scholarly articles on this issue. for example, the works of cheng, horwitz, and schallert (1999) have revealed differences between speaking and writing anxiety. cheng (2002; 2004a) has explored factors associated with foreign language writing anxiety and classroom implications. cheng (2004b) has presented a scale to measure second language anxiety dubbed as second language writing anxiety (slwai), which is now widely employed by other researches concerning the levels and types of wa experienced by second or foreign language learners. later scholarly accounts on this subject have been exploring second or foreign language wa and its relations to other aspects related to it, such as causes of wa (gkonou, 2010; zhang, 2011; latif, 2012; pimsarn, 2013; rezai & jafari, 2014), strategies to cope with wa (zhang, 2011; dacwang, 2014; qashoa, 2014; nuranifar, 2014), and effects of wa (zhang, 2011; jebreil, azizifar, & gowhary, 2015). other researches explore ways to reduce second or foreign language wa (jiang, 2016; ali, kassem, & kharja, 2017; abdullah, hussin, & shakir, 2018). despite the fact that second or foreign language wa is becoming an established field of research in the indonesian context, this notion has largely been underresearched (kusumaningputri, ningsih & wisangkono, 2018). available literature shows common strands of researches on this topic are levels, types, and causes of indonesian efl students’ wa (wahyuni & umam, 2017; ariyanti, 2017; kusumaningputri, ningsih & wisangkono, 2018), wa and its relation to other aspects of writing such as writing performance and topics of writing (cahyono, amelia, & mutiaraningrum, 2016; sundari & febriyanti, 2017). although these researches can shed some lights to the notion of foreign language wa in the indonesian context, there are two rooms that need to be explored. first, all researches on levels, types, and causes of indonesian efl students’ wa that are involved small samples so generalization must be made with some cautions. second, none touches upon how indonesian efl students cope with wa they experience. therefore, the objectives of this research are (a) to investigate the possible relationship between foreign language wa and students’ academic level; (b) to find out sources of students’ foreign language wa; also, (c) to find out students’ strategies in coping with foreign language wa. for teachers of composition or writing class, the urgency to conduct researches on wa stems from the fact that students’ feeling apprehensive about writing exist. by and large, learning a second language is anxiety provoking argue horwitz, horwitz & cope (1986). when it comes to learning how to write in another language, many researches have indicated that learners’ l2 writing anxiety is greater than that of their l1 (cheng, 2004a). furthermore, cheng (2002) has suggested that competent student-writers do not necessarily perceive themselves to be free from being anxious about writing. taking this into account, it is safe to declare that writing anxiety is a problem which must be properly addressed. concerning this, cheng, horwitz, and schallert (1999) have summarized five aspects negatively influenced by writing anxiety, namely (a) the quality of the message coded, (b) the individuals’ actual writing behavior, (c) their writing performance, (d) their willingness to write or to take advanced writing courses, and (e) their career choices. due to these negative effects of writing anxiety over student-writers, daly and miller (1975) have stated that it is imperative for teachers to help students recognize the level of their writing anxiety. to measure l2 writing anxiety, it is important to use a tool which is sensitive to the nature of second or foreign language wa. to address this need, cheng (2004b) has developed the second language writing anxiety inventory (slwai) with three sub-scales, namely cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and avoidance behavior. these three dimensions can be used to identify types of writing anxiety experienced by student-writers. cheng (2004b) has contended that anxiety is a multidimensional phenomenon; therefore, a three-dimensional measure such as slwai is more qualified than other measures to analyze anxiety in order to achieve a clearer picture about efl students’ writing anxiety (level and types) can be achieved. given the debilitating effects of writing anxiety, scholarly efforts have been made to identify factors associated with it. cheng (2002) has counted self-confidence or selfperceptions, language proficiency, gender, and writing anxiety’s relation with other forms of language anxiety as factors of second language writing anxiety. furthermore, cheng (2004a) has revealed four sources of efl students’ writing anxiety, namely instructional practices, personal belief about writing and learning to write, self-perception, and interpersonal threat. moving to another context, latif (2012), who have studied sources of english wa in an egyptian university setting, finds that perceived language competence, writing performance level, perceived writing competence, instructional practice, and fear of criticism as the sources of students’ writing apprehension. similarly, rezai and jafari (2014) have reiterated that chief sources of writing anxiety among iranian efl learners are the preoccupation with performance and high expectation, fears of teachers’ negative feedback, low self-confidence, and poor linguistic knowledge. judging from what has been reviewed in the previous paragraph, there are several sources of foreign language wa. the first is students’ personal emotions such as self-confidence and their belief about learning to write which includes preoccupation with performance and high expectation. it is the first theme emerging as the factor of foreign language wa. the next factor is fear of evaluation. under this theme, interpersonal threat (fear of their mistakes are known by peers) and fear of teachers’ negative feedback can be counted as factors of wa. the third is instructional practices that might generate wa among students. cheng (2004a) has noted that his participants felt anxious when they are asked to write about topics they do not know well under a rigid time constraint to finish the task as well as teachers’ preoccupation with forms and language. the fourth is that wa can also stem from cognitive factors. in this case, students feel worried about writing because they have poor linguistic proficiency and low writing performance. all of these are the factors that correspond with components of foreign language classroom anxiety (flca). according to horwitz, horwitz, & cope (1986), flca appears in testing situations, when students preoccupy with performance and due to what they erroneously believe about language learning. all of these factors of wa remind of the notion that writing is both cognitive and affective aspects. much has been said about the relationship between foreign language learning and anxiety. researches about how efl students cope with foreign language anxiety remain scarce. to the best of the knowledge, this paucity is also true for research on strategies efl students use to cope for writing anxiety. however, efforts have been made to chart the typologies of strategies for coping with language 69writing anxiety among.... (delvi wahyuni, et al.) anxiety. kondo & ying-ling (2004) have revealed 70 tactics employed by japanese efl students. these tactics are grouped into five broad types, namely: preparation, relaxation, positive thinking, peer-seeking, and resignation. according to kondo and ying-ling (2004), cognitive, affective, and behavioral strategies are apparent in students’ coping tactics. this is in line with types of foreign language wa which have been formulated by cheng (2004b). according to kondo and ying-ling (2004), cognitive strategies, which include positive thinking and peerseeking, are tactics used to change problematic thought processes related to language learning. kondo and ying-ling (2004) have also opined that relaxation strategies, which are characterized by their affective quality, are employed to reduce bodily tension associated with emotional arousal, while preparation strategies are behavioral in nature because they focus on behavioral components of language learning that are related to effective performance in class. another research conducted by nuranifar (2014) has identified 80 foreign language coping strategies that are used by efl learners in iran. however, those strategies are found to be analogous with kondo and ying-ling’s work. therefore, this research largely relies on kondo and ying-ling’s framework to analyze strategies in dealing with writing anxiety. it is also noteworthy to review some researches which have been specifically conducted to figure out how efl students deal with writing anxiety. zhang (2011) has noted that chinese english majors prefer to transfer their l1 coping strategies to their l2 writing. in this case, they memorize or imitate available model texts. qashoa (2014) has reported three types of strategies employed by emirati efl learners to alleviate their writing anxiety. those strategies range from affective, cognitive, and testing related strategies. closer home, dacwang (2014) has investigated strategies used by students of a maritime academy in the philiphine to cope with writing anxiety. using the inventory developed by kondo and ying-ling (2004), they note that the participants utilize strategies which fall under the category of preparation, positive thinking, and relaxation. methods this quantitative research employs survey as its research design. one hundred thirty-two students majoring in english literature at universitas negeri padang take part in this research. they comprise of 76 sophomores (57%), 30 junior students (23%), and 26 senior students (20%). the involvement of such a large sample is aimed at getting a more accurate inference about the whole population (nunan & bailey, 2009). first-year students are excluded from this research because they have not undertaken any writing class at the moment of the research. at first, all participants are asked for their consent before the questionnaires are distributed. the research team also informs them to feel free to withdraw from the data collecting session that they should choose to do so without having to fear academic repercussion in the future. the data are collected during the last week of the odd semester (july-december, 2018) and the quiet week before the university final-term examination. after that, the data are collected and tabulated before being treated and analyzed accordingly. a demographic survey is conducted to gauge information about the participants’ perceived ability in writing in english. the results of this survey shows that most students (62,88%) are considered themselves fair writers, as seen in table 1. table 1 results of demographic survey (n=132) n % excellent 0 0 good 32 24,24 fair 83 62,88 not good 17 12,88 poor 0 0 this research is conducted by distributing three questions. to measure the level of students’ language anxiety, slwai developed by cheng (2004b) is employed. this 22-item inventory has been proven to be valid and reliable by means of correlation and factor analysis (cheng, 2004b). to investigate factors of writing anxiety, the researchers adopt the causes of writing anxiety inventory (cwai) that is developed by rezai and jafari (2014). both measures follow likert-type-5-choice response format; 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neither agree nor disagree), 4 (agree), 5 (strongly agree). for the present research, both inventories are highly reliable with the cronbach’s alpha value of 0,80 and 0,91 respectively. to find out how indonesian efl students cope with writing anxiety they experience, the inventory developed by kondo and ying-ling (2004) is adapted. in this case, the emphasis is given each item that the tactic is used to deal with writing anxiety in english. to gather the data, the participants are asked to tick ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to answer every question listed in the inventory. because the original questionnaires are written in english, they are translated to indonesian. to ensure the validity of the translation result, the process of back translation is conducted (nunan & bailey, 2009). the questionnaires are then being pilot-tested to 30 students majoring in english education. students from both, majors or study programs at the english department at universitas negeri padang, share a similar curriculum for basic language skills like writing. therefore, these students are part of the population albeit that they are not part of the samples (nunan & bailey, 2009). a statistical method named chi-square test is used to see whether there is a relationship between academic levels and writing anxiety. this procedure is run to compare the frequency of data (nunan & bailey, 2009). software package namely spss version 23 is used to compute the descriptive statistics to investigate the students’ writing anxiety level, causes of writing anxiety and strategies for coping with writing anxiety. results and discussions in general, the results–regardless of the participants academic level-f indicate a moderate level of students’ writing anxiety as shown in table 2. it can also be gleaned from the data that the mean score for the level of writing anxiety experienced by sophomores is higher (60,68) than that of juniors and seniors (55,63 and 56,88 respectively). in other words, the highest percentage of highly anxious students in writing anxiety is found among sophomores (22%) that is followed by seniors as much 23,1% and juniors 16,7%. 70 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 67-74 table 2 level of writing anxiety academic level grand total mean sophomores 60,68 juniors 55,63 seniors 56,88 total 57,73 legend: total mean scores <50 (low level of writing anxiety) 50-65 (moderate level of writing anxiety) >65 (high level of writing anxiety) to see a possible relationship between students’ levels of writing anxiety and their academic level, the chi-square test is executed. according to nunan and bailey (2009), this test runs to see if the observed phenomenon is by chance significantly different from what is expected. as informed by the results from table 3, it can be seen that an observed pattern of moderately anxious students outnumbering those with the low and high level of writing anxiety without regards to the length of time they have spent learning how to write in english. table 4 confirms that there is no significant relationship between these two variables (p = 0,064). table 3 chi -square analysis for academic level and level of writing anxiety level of writing anxiety high moderate low total sophomores observed 22 45 9 76 expected 19,0 42,0 15,0 76,0 % within group 66,7 61,6 34,6 57,6 juniors observed 5 14 11 30 expected 7,5 16,6 5,9 30,0 % within group 15,2 19,2 42,3 22,7 seniors observed 6 14 6 26 expected 6,5 14,4 5,1 26,0 % within group 18,2 19,2 23,1 19,7 total observed 33 73 26 132 expected 33,0 73,0 26,0 132,0 % within group 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 table 4 results of chi-square tests value df asymptotic significance (2-sided) pearson chi-square 8,887a 4 0,064 likelihood ratio 8,491 4 0,075 linear-by-linear association 2,881 1 0,090 n of valid cases 132 as long as the level of writing anxiety is concerned, students at the department of english at universitas negeri padang experience a moderate level of writing anxiety albeit there are students with high and low level of writing anxiety. this result is consistent with the study of cahyono, amelia, and ningrum (2016), yet contradictory with the results from the research of wahyuni and umam (2017); and sundari and febriyanti (2017) who find their participants to have a high level of writing anxiety. compared to results from other sociocultural contexts, this research echoes the finding of huang (2013) where the percentage of students with the moderate level of writing anxiety is bigger than that of the high and low level of writing anxiety. however, this research is at odds with the findings of zhang (2011); pimsarn (2013), rezai and jafari (2014), and dacwang (2014) whose participants are dealing with a high level of foreign language wa. despite this research cannot determine the underlying factors behind these differing results, differences in instruments, size of samples, the timing of the data collection, participants’ sociocultural background, and classroom practices might be responsible for these contradictions. all in all, it is obvious that efl students experience writing anxiety and this issue needs to be addressed adequately. in the case of the present research, the moderate level of students’ writing anxiety can possibly be attributed to several factors. first, the participants are not under the pressure of testing situation such as mid-term or finalterm evaluation when the instruments are administered. in addition, since this research does not intend to see the relationship between students’ writing anxiety and their actual ability, no writing test is given. horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986) have argued that foreign language anxiety often appears during the testing situation. in light of this theoretical ground, it makes sense that most students do not experience a high level of writing anxiety. second, instructional practices in which the participants learn how to write in english might influence the result of this research. writers such as cheng (2004a) and latif (2015) have claimed that instructional practices which include aspects such as time constraints, teachers’ feedback and criticism are factors of writing anxiety. in the context of this research, it is very likely that students are not subjected to unreasonable time constraints to finish their writing project. on the one hand, feedback might be dully given; thus, students can improve their writing resulting in a lower level of writing anxiety. on the other hand, it might not be given at all; as a result, students never really know about their actual writing ability making it unnecessary for them to feel highly apprehensive about writing. however, this interpretation is not without its shortcomings although an attempt has been made to interpret the result of this research based on previous researches and related theories, this research in the position to argue for further research to see whether timing of the data collection or classroom practices are actually crucial in determining students’ level of writing anxiety. after figuring out the level of students’ foreign language writing anxiety, this research is set to see whether there is a relationship between foreign language anxiety and their academic levels. it finds that these two variables are not significantly related. this finding confirms the results of cheng (2002) and huang (2013). in his research, cheng (2002) has noticed that there is no significant difference in terms of writing anxiety level among his participants of different academic levels. in other words, for efl learners, no matter the number of years of their learning english, writing anxiety persists (huang 2013). interestingly, while some research on efl chinese students have found that their l2 71writing anxiety among.... (delvi wahyuni, et al.) writing anxiety increases as their study time advance further (cheng, 2002; zhang, 2011), the opposite is true for the present research. it is very likely that senior students do not face challenges which are normally experienced by novice writers. in spite of the fact that the present research does not have sufficient empirical data to back this assumption, discussion of factors associated with writing anxiety which will be presented in the next part of the article might shed some light to this tentative assumption. concerning the sources of wa, figure 1 gives information about the possible sources of foreign language writing experienced by all participants of this research. overall, students profess problems with the topic of writing and linguistics difficulties are chief factors triggering their writing anxiety accounting for 56,82% and 56,06% respectively, while the opposite is true for time pressure (14%). other significant factors contributing to students’ writing anxiety are lack of writing practice (42%), preoccupation with perfect work (37,12%), and poor writing technique (34,85%). interestingly, fear of test (24,24%) and negative comments from teachers (27,27%) are not important factors engendering writing anxiety for the whole samples of the present research. while figure 2 presents the causes of writing anxiety based on students’ academic level. in general, it can be seen that while time pressure is not really a problem for the three groups of students, unfamiliar topic choices and language problems are two major sources of writing anxiety for sophomores and junior students. other important factors that are provoking writing anxiety for these two groups of students are the inadequacy of writing practice, pressure for perfect work, and insufficient writing technique. for the former, other factors which also gained a considerable percentage as causes of their writing anxiety are the high frequency of writing the assignment and low self-confidence in writing, while for the latter fear of teacher’s negative comments is found to be a rather substantial cause of writing anxiety. for senior students, it seems that none of these ten causes of writing anxiety really matter for them. however, under a more careful look, the main factors for their writing figure 1 sources of writing anxiety figure 2 sources of writing anxiety (based on students’ academic level) 72 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 67-74 anxiety are lack of writing practice and problems with the topic choice. these findings are generally in agreements with the results of other researches on this subject in indonesian context citing linguistic difficulties as one of the major causes of foreign language wa, especially for novice students (kusumaningputri, ningsih & wisangkono, 2018; wahyuni & umam, 2017). in addition, just like the findings of the previously mentioned researches, insufficient writing practice also emerges to be another important source of wa for indonesian efl learners. these results also mirror the general trend in other efl contexts as shown by researches conducted by zhang (2011), rezai and jafari (2014), and latif (2015). however, what makes this present research unique is the very high percentage of problems with the topic choice as a factor for student’s foreign language wa. it indicates that the participants do not read a lot; hence, writing in english about topics they are not familiar with makes them feel apprehensive. on the importance of reading to writing, there has been a general agreement that these two skills are closely connected (miller, mccardle & long, 2012; lee & schallert, 2016). although this research does not focus on the students’ reading ability or habits, iftanti (2012) has reported that indonesian efl university students do not have a good reading habit. in addition, students’ wa can be more exacerbated by instructional practices where teachers assign students to write about topics they have no knowledge about (cheng, 2004a). in light of these, lack of topical knowledge as the number one factor for the students’ wa, regardless of their academic level is explained. furthermore, unlike the trend of research findings in other indonesian contexts and other sociocultural backgrounds, the participants of the present research do not see time pressure, teachers’ negative comments, and fear of tests as crucial causes of foreign language wa. it is very likely that the timing of the data collection plays some role in this pattern. as explained, the students are not in any testing situation when they completed the surveys. another possible explanation for this is that the participants might have never been in any high-stakes test situation involving writing such as ielts or other standardized tests. as a result, they have yet to deal with the pressure of time constraints and the incoming evaluation of their work. this finding can also indicate that the instructional practices for the skill of writing in the context of this present research do not condition students to write more than their prescribed assignments leading to inadequacy in terms of quality writing practices and feedback. while further investigation is needed to see whether this is really the case, it explains why senior students, who will soon embark on their journey to write their undergraduate theses, flagged it as the most important source of their writing anxiety. unlike novice students, they do not count the language dimension of the writing act as the leading source of wa due to the years they have taken to study english grammar or other linguistics-related subjects. however, the upcoming compulsory and high-stake writing projects like term-papers or undergraduate theses involve more than just grammar and vocabulary that insufficient writing practice might cause them to be highly apprehensive. table 5 shows that students employ all five categories of coping strategy to deal with writing anxiety. in general, regardless of the student’s academic level, strategies under the category of preparation and positive thinking gets the highest percentage, while the opposite is true for strategies under the category of resignation. for sophomores, the proportion for positive thinking as writing anxiety coping mechanism is the highest with 76%, followed by preparation strategies (74%), and relaxation and peer-seeking strategies (57,5% and 52,6% respectively). table 5 coping strategies for dealing with writing anxiety no categories % sophomores seniors juniors 1. preparation 74,4 80,2 80 2. relaxation 57,5 55,7 54,2 3. positive thinking 76 77,1 75,3 4 peer seeking 52,6 58,3 55,3 5 resignation 10,7 15,6 11,5 for junior and senior students, the order of strategies for coping with writing anxiety is similar albeit the amount of the percentage differed slightly. in this case, the percentage for preparation strategies used by junior students is 80,2%, followed by positive thinking (77,1%), peer seeking and relaxation (58,3% and 55,7% respectively). similarly, for junior students, the top two categories for tactics to deal with writing anxiety are preparation and positive thinking with the percentage of 80% and 57,3% respectively. the next category is peer seeking (55,3%), trailed by relaxation (54,2%). despite the percentage for resignation category is very small, it can be seen that there are more junior students who chose to avoid writing (15,6%) than are in the group of sophomores and seniors (10,7% and 11,5% respectively). judging from this research, it is obvious that students use cognitive, affective, and behavioral strategies to cope with writing anxiety they experience. in addition, students also generally employ preparation strategies, which are behavioral in nature to deal with writing anxiety (kondo and ying-ling, 2004). these findings lend support to other researches on this matter such as dacwang (2014), qashoa (2014), and al-shboul and huwari (2015). another interesting finding of this research indicates different result for each level of the academic year. while junior and senior students utilize behavioral strategies more, novice students prefer positive thinking, a cognitive strategy to deal with the feeling of apprehension when they write in english. this difference may be attributed to the fact that students choose strategies they believe to be more effective in alleviating their anxiety (kondo and ying-ling, 2004). however, this difference is not that significant that for the three groups of students, preparation and positive thinking remain the top two coping strategies to deal with writing anxiety. it can be inferred from this research that students directly deal with the sources of their problems such as preparing more for the upcoming writing tasks or trying to alleviate their worry about writing in english. this is in line with zeidner (1998) who suggests that problem-focused or active coping strategies are preferred by most people and are more effective in reducing stress compared to emotionfocus coping strategies and avoidance. it also explains why tactics under resignation category are chosen the least by the students. 73writing anxiety among.... (delvi wahyuni, et al.) conclusions this research has shown that the students experience a moderate level of writing anxiety regardless of their academic year. in other words, there are more moderately anxious students at every academic level compared to those with a high or low level of writing anxiety. furthermore, the lack of topical knowledge, language problems, and inadequate writing practice are found to be major sources of writing anxiety for students of all academic levels. taking these into consideration, it is necessary for writing instructors to develop a teaching model which incorporates the connection between reading and writing to address problems with the first two factors of writing anxiety. it is also imperative for the institution where students are studying to develop a specific program to encourage the practice of writing aside from what is prescribed by the curriculum. hence, the problem of inadequate writing practice can be dealt with. in terms of strategies to alleviate writing anxiety, students employ all five categories of coping strategies proposed by kondo and ying-ling (2004), namely; preparation, positive thinking, relaxation, peer-seeking, and avoidance. in this case, preparation and positive thinking are strategies used the most by the students. regarding the finding of the research, it can be learned that anxiety is still a significant problem in writing teaching and learning process. thus, writing instructors should consider several aspects in designing their writing class. first, writing instructors should help students to be familiar with the writing topics assigned to them through some reading activities. second, the writing class should be equipped with lessons of language features related to the texts learned. third, students should be given opportunities to write on topics which are personally meaningful to them in order to encourage them to write. therefore, problems with lack of writing practice can be solved. in light of these results, it is suggested for other researchers to investigate the contexts or classroom situations which can influence the level of students’ writing anxiety. this is necessary because in the indonesian context alone the results of research on this notion have been largely mixed. regarding coping strategies for writing anxiety, the breadth of literature on this subject is still limited to tactics students use for it. it has yet to be seen whether they are effective in helping students to deal with writing anxiety or not. acknowledgment this research was funded by research grant awarded by the ministry of research and higher education, the republic of indonesia, in 2017-2018. references abdullah, m. y., hussin, s., & shakir, m. 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(2016). the impact of explicit instruction of lexico-grammatical devices on efl learners. modern journal of language teaching methods (mjltm), 6(1), 677-690. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 99 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 99-105 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5326 language code choice of male abdi dalem of karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat hanova rani eka retnaningtyas1; mangatur rudolf nababan2; dwi purnanto3 1,2,3post graduate of linguistic department, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1hanovarani57@gmail.com; 2amantaradja@yahoo.com; 3dwi.purnanto@yahoo.com received: 25th january 2019/revised: 26th march 2019/accepted: 16th april 2019 how to cite: retnaningtyas, h. r. e., nababan, m. r., & purnanto, d. (2019). language code choice of male abdi dalem of karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. lingua cultura, 13(2), 99-105. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5326 abstract this research aimed to show the language code choices of male abdi dalem of karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat because each community had its own language code choice in their daily lives, including every individual. this research was a descriptive qualitative study conducted to determine the language code choice of abdi dalem karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. data were taken using questionnaires. the form of questions used was closed questions to find out the language codes choice. in addition, the open questions were used to find out the reason for selecting particular language codes. the data were in the form of an informant’s answer about the choice of a language code and the reason for the selection. this research conducted in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat based from uu republik indonesia nomor 13 tahun 2012 concerning the diy specialities. it finds that the use of javanese kromo dominates the language code choice used by male abdi dalem. the dominance of the use of javanese kromo language is considered to be the most polite language code rather than other languages presented by the researchers in the questionnaires. the next order after javanese kromo is indonesian, javanese ngoko, bagongan, and lastly is a foreign language. keywords: language code choice, abdi dalem, karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat, bagongan language introduction the language phenomenon is always an interesting thing to be studied. this area is very dynamic. the development can go either in a positive direction or a negative direction depending on which point of views. each community has its own language characteristics, as well as every individual. every individual has the freedom to use language code. the choice of the term code is more appropriate to be used in this research because, in addition to the use of language, the researchers also need to find out the use of language variations, especially javanese language. language variations consist of regionals, social classes or social dialects or sociolects, various varieties and styles, also the uses or registers variations. this also applies in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat environment. it is one of the kingdoms in indonesia that still exists nowadays and even recognized by the nkri government with the issuance of privileged laws (republic of indonesia law number 13 of 2012 concerning diy specialties). besides being inhabited by a royal family, keraton is also a place for thousands of abdi dalem. who is a person who chooses to devote himself to the karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. abdi dalem is also called the cultural agent because he/she is expected to be able to maintain and preserve the culture so that it can be a role model for the society in general. based on these, the researchers are interested in investigating language used in these communities. abdi dalem also has their position and each function which are divided into several sections. the sequence position is starting from the lowest position to the top in the structure in kraton, those are jajar, bekel anem, bekel sepuh, lurah, kliwon, wedana, riya bupati anem, bupati anem, bupati kliwon, and bupati nayaka. each level of the position is taken for five years for abdi dalem who work as caos (they present to wait for assignments or orders), while for those who serve in the tepas (office) usually will get the promotion for 3-4 years. abdi dalem based on its duties is divided into two namely abdi dalem punakawan and abdi dalem keparak. the first is abdi dalem punakawan. they come from ordinary people and are not employees of the regional government of yogyakarta. abdi dalem punokawan consists of abdi dalem punokawan sowan (working in the office, every day at work except holidays) and abdi dalem 100 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 99-105 punokawan caos namely abdi dalem punokawan who go to work only every three days, seven days, 10 days, and 12 days once every month. the second is abdi dalem keparak, a woman who generally fulfills her obligations at kraton kilen (keputren). in general, they work with preparing tools such as sesaji when there are kraton events. as mentioned, abdi dalem in the karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat includes male and female. the number of male abdi dalem is higher that will certainly help researchers during the data collection process. in addition, the issue is also related to a little limited access to meet the females abdi dalem who are placed inside the kraton. the females abdi dalem need special permits and special procedures to be accessible to the general public. another thing that strengthened the researchers’ decision to choose males abdi dalem because they are easy to meet and make communication with the general public. in addition, they are placed in the front row, so the male abdi dalem have the possibility to use a more variety code choice rather than the females ones. there are many relevance research with this research; one of them is sari and wedasuwari (2014) that have discussed the language choice of high school students in denpasar, bali. while the research related to the use of language in the kraton’s environment is carried out among others by asih (2015) and yogatama (2017), both are using qualitative research. asih (2015) has used the listening method with notes and record techniques followed by proficient methods with interview techniques, while yogatama’s (2017) research has used record recording techniques. then it is identified and analyzed based on leech’s courtesy principles, brown and levinson’s politeness strategies, pranowo’s politeness indicators, duncan’s non-verbal language theory, and complemented by non-verbal language forms ruben and stewart (yogatama, 2017). the difference from all three, researchers chose to use a questionnaire to collect research-related data. another thing that distinguishes these two researches from this research is the main focus of the research. asih’s (2015) research focuses on the form of chit-chat (linguistic and non-linguistic markers and language-speaking intentions in that location), while highlighted’s yogatama (2017) is about verbal and nonverbal politeness in abdi dalem karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. the main purpose is to describe the use of verbal and nonverbal language as a marker of language politeness. yogatama’s (2017) research is also a qualitative descriptive study that the main location of the research is in tepas dwarapura. other researches related and similar in terms of research focus are conducted by khotimah (2014), putri (2017), dewi and setiadi (2018), and mahsusi, djatmika, and marmanto (2017). their focus relates to language code choices. khotimah’s (2014) research is a qualitative research with ethnographic models of communication. the research aims to describe the form of language choice and to describe factors that determine language choice of the sukaparna village community. the data in the research are in the form of direct speeches and interviews. putri’s (2017) research is a qualitative research using dell hymes theory. the purpose of the research is to describe the form of mixed code variation in speech and its code variations, codeswitching, and code mixing in public speech and social factors that determine code switching and code mixing. the research of sari and wedasuwari (2014); kiswadi (2016); kholidah and haryadi (2017); darwati and santoso (2017); and dewi and setiadi (2018) are related to the domain of education. the research conducted by sari and wedasuwari (2014) aims to describe the form of language choices used by students of grade xi ipa 2 sma (slua) 1 saraswati denpasar and the factors that cause it. kiswadi’s (2016) research uses 10 records of lecturers’ oral languages at educational seminars. the purpose of this research is to analyze the form, variety, and then implement the results of the analysis of code usage and the type of spoken sentence by the lecturer in the official situation as teaching material in junior high school. the other research belongs to kholidah and haryadi (2017). they have described the form of code choice used by aceh’s students of friendship domain in semarang. in another research, darwati and santoso (2017) has aimed to know the form of code choice and identify some factors that influence the advice and counsel discourse of student for the teacher in smk ma’arif 4 at kebumen. then the research conducted by dewi & setiadi (2018) has aimed to determine the language attitude and factors that influence the language choice of english department students at bina nusantara university. the research of sari and wedasuwari (2014), kholidah and haryadi (2017), kiswadi (2016), darwati and santoso (2017) use descriptive qualitative methods, while dewi and setiadi’s (2018) research is a quantitative study. in sari and wedasuwari (2014)’s research, the method of data collecting is observation, interviews, and recording. kiswadi (2016) and kholidah and haryadi’s (2017) research are similarly used listening technique and noted, but kholidah and haryadi (2017) have added simak bebas libat cakap‘s technique (sblc) and recording technique. in darwati and santoso’s (2017) research, the data are collected by using simak’s technique or listening technique and interview. this technique is completed by sadap’s technique or recording technique as the main technique during the interview process. the data collected by sari and wedasuwari (2014) is analyzed using three stages of the flow model (data reduction, data presentation, and data verification), while kiswandi’s (2016) research used agih’s method to analyze the data. in darwati and santoso’s (2017) research, the form of code choice is analyzed by baca markah’s technique or reading marked technique, the factor that influence code choice uses the contextual technique. last is the research conducted by sari, putra, and ramendra (2016), agasi, putra, and ramendra (2016), suktiningsih (2017), mahsusi, djatmika, and marmanto (2017), chuchu and noorashid (2015), and choudhury (2018). sari, putra, and ramendra (2016) have aimed to find out the kind of codes (code mixing, code-switching, code selection, and calling rules) that are used by bugis people when communicating and to find out how the bugis society on serangan island, bali uses codes to communicate with other bugis communities and the community around serangan island. the instruments used in this research are record instruments and checklists instrument. the subjects are bugis people at serangan island, bali. next is the research conducted by agasi, putra, and ramendra (2016) which aims to analyze the use and form of code used by balinese families in nusasari village. in this research, the data are collected in three domains of language use. these domains include family, environment, and friendship. observations, interviews, and documentation are carried out by researchers to obtain the data needed with recording technique, field notes, and cameras. the 101language code choice.... (hanova rani eka retnaningtyas, et al.) researchers conduct interviews with two families to get data about the code used in the village. the data collected is transcripts and analyzed. while suktiningsih (2017) has aimed to identify the factors of language choice among sasak adolescents in speeches. this research is a qualitative research. data are collected using observation, recording, and interview methods. mahsusi, djatmika, and marmanto’s (2017) research has aimed to identify code choice and to know the influence code choice in the interaction between riau students living in yogyakarta. while chuchu and noorashid’s (2015) research has aimed to identify the choice of ethnic code in intercultural communication, and their need and motivation to practice the codes in the ethnic minority multilingual environment in brunei darussalam. the research is conducted on 60 indigenous brunei ethnic groups in mukim ukong, tutong district. this research uses purposive sampling to select informants. both of these researches use recording techniques and interviews to collect data, but chuchu and noorashid (2015) have added a questionnaire to supplement the data on the research. last but not least is research conducted by choudhury (2018). it tries to formulate code choice as linguistics style and show that the speaker is sensitive to code choice. based on these researches, it can be seen that there are still a few researchers who try to examine the language phenomenon in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. the choice of location is also related to the researchers’ interest in indigenous indonesian culture, especially in the field of language. therefore, the researchers have decided to raise the issue of language code choice as the object of research. researchers assume that this can be a good start for further linguistic research in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. methods this research belongs to a descriptive qualitative research. the method used is the equivalent method. the equivalent means comparable or comparing or comparative, which is to compare the relevant discourses compiler aspects. the basic technique uses in determining the determinants elements technique or commonly mentioned as pup. the researchers use a questionnaire to collect data. the questionnaires questions are in the form of closed questions to capture the code choice of language and semiopen questions to obtain the data regarding the reason for the code choice of language. thus it is expected that it will show suitable data in accordance with the research objectives. the questionnaire consists of 25 semi-open questions. questions number 1-5 are related to language code choices in the family domain, while questions 6-25 are related to language code choices in the workplace. these questions are displayed in the form of tables to make it easier for informants to give answers. informants only need to mark the column according to the choice of language code used based on the situation raised in the question. the choice of code raised by researchers is bahasa jawa ngoko (bjn), bahasa bagongan (bb), bahasa jawa kromo (bjk), bahasa indonesia (bi), and bahasa asing (ba). then the informant is asked to write down the reasons for choosing the language code in the column provided. the data in this research are divided into two parts; they are primary data and secondary data. primary data are obtained during the research, while secondary data are obtained before the researchers are starting to collect the primary data. the secondary data in this research are in the form of information related with abdi dalem obtained from karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat database (literature and personal data of employees who become courtiers). meanwhile, the primary data are the responses from the questionnaires filled by abdi dalem. as the interviewees who are chosen with a purposive random sampling system. this research was conducted in july-august 2018 at karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. it is located in the special region of yogyakarta (diy). diy is located at 8º 30 ‘7º 20’ south latitude, and 109º 40 ‘111º 0’ east longitude which borders central java (south: indian ocean, northeast: klaten regency, southeast: wonogiri regency, west: purworejo regency, northwest: magelang regency). diy has a total area of 3185,80 km2. diy consists of 4 districts and 1 city, namely sleman regency, kulonprogo regency, bantul regency, gunung kidul regency, and yogyakarta city. this location is chosen because of the abdi dalem are considered as the cultural agent in the environment, thus the researchers assume that the location is still the right location to obtain the data in accordance with the research objectives. this is closely related to the researchers’ desire to find out how the obedience towards the abdi dalem’s language norms who live closely with javanese cultural functionary. results and discussions there are 25 informants who are abdi dalem in kraton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. they are asked to answer the 25 semi-open questions in the questionnaire. table 1 shows the responses from one of the informants that is referring to informant 24 or abbreviated into (i-24). question number 1 is what the language used by (i24) during communicating with parents or parent’s in-law. based on table 1, the informant prefers to use javanese kromo language with the reason to pay respect because the javanese language is full of politeness. question number 2 is what language code is used when speaking with a husband or wife, (i-24) prefers to choose a mixture of kromo language to respect each other. question 3 is regarding the language used when communicating with the boys, (i-24) chooses to used javanese kromo language. according to the informants, this is deemed necessary to set an example and to preserve the culture. not much different from the previous questions, question number 4 is asks about what language is used when communicating with the daughters. the response given is more or less the same as the answer to the number 4 question with the reason to set an example and preserving the culture. the question number 5 is about what language is used in communicating with others relatives (brothers, sisters, uncle, aunt, etc.), (i-24) chooses to use javanese kromo with the reason of preserving the manners. question number 6 is about the used language when talking to male colleagues who are older and have a higher position, (i-24) chooses to use javanese kromo to pay respect to the older. question number 7 is about the language used when talking to older male colleagues with an equal position. (i24) chooses to use javanese kromo to pay respect to the elder. question number 8 is regarding the language used when talking to male colleagues who are older and have a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use javanese kromo to maintain a sense of courtesy. question number 9 is about the language used when talking with the older female 102 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 99-105 coworker with a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo to pay respect and maintain the sense of courtesy. question number 10 is about the language used when talking to older female coworkers, but has an equal position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language for harmony and manners. question number 11 is regarding the language used when talking to older female coworkers, but has a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain manners. question number 12 is about the language used when talking to male colleagues who are of the same age, but have a higher position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to cultivate manners together. question number 13 is regarding the language used when talking to male table 1 code selection used by informant 24 i q bjn bb bjk bi ba 24 1 √ the informant prefers to use javanese kromo language with the reason to pay respect because the javanese language is full of politeness. 2 √ the informant prefers to choose a mixture of kromo language to respect each other. 3 √ the informant prefers to use javanese kromo language with the reason to set an example and to preserve the culture. 4 √ the informant prefers to use javanese kromo language with the to set an example and preserving the culture. 5 √ the informant prefers to use javanese kromo language with the reason preserving the manners. 6 √ the informant chooses to use javanese kromo to pay respect to the older. 7 √ the informant chooses to use javanese kromo to pay respect to the older. 8 √ the informant chooses to use javanese kromo to maintain sense of courtesy. 9 √ the informant chooses to use the javanse kromo to pay respect and maintain the sense of a courtesy. 10 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language for harmony and manners. 11 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain manners. 12 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to cultivate manners together. 13 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese language kromo, both of them are cultivating the manners. 14 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain harmony as a work colleague. 15 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain and respect each other's manners. 16 √ the informant chooses to use a combination of javanese kromo languages to respect each other's culture of manners. 17 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo languages, respect and maintain cultural courtesy. 18 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to respect and be polite to the young. 103language code choice.... (hanova rani eka retnaningtyas, et al.) table 1 code selection used by informant 24 (continued) i q bjn bb bjk bi ba 24 19 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to cultivate culture. 20 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese language kromo to keep respecting coworkers and to save danger. 21 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language because it has become a culture, to maintain manners. 22 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to preserve the culture of manners (better). 23 √ the informant chooses to use javanese kromo to maintain harmony and maintain culture. 24 √ the informant chooses to use the javanese kromo language to show that javanese could also be understood by other regions. 25 √ the informant chooses to use the kromo language because to show the javanese language already belonged to the people. total 0 0 25 0 0 acronyms: i : informant q : question bjk : bahasa jawa kromo bjn : bahasa jawa ngoko bb : bahasa bagongan bi : bahasa indonesia ba : bahasa asing (includes all languages other than the javanese and indonesian language variants) colleagues who are of the same age and have equal positions. (i-24) uses the javanese language kromo, both of them are cultivating the manners. question number 14 is about the language used when talking to male colleagues who are of the same age, but who have a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain harmony as a work colleague. question number 15 is about the language used when talking to female colleagues who are of the same age, but who have a higher position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to maintain and respect each other’s manners. question number 16 is regarding the language used when talking to female colleagues who are of the same age and have an equal position. (i-24) chooses to use a combination of javanese kromo languages to respect each other’s culture of manners. question number 17 is regarding the language used when talking to female colleagues of the same age, but have a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use a combination of javanese kromo languages, respect and maintain cultural courtesy. question number 18 is about the language used when talking to younger male colleagues and having a higher position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to respect and be polite to the young. question number 19 is regarding the language used when talking to younger male colleagues, but who have an equal position. (i24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to cultivate culture. question number 20 is about the language used when talking to younger male colleagues who have a lower position. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese language kromo to keep respecting coworkers and to save danger. question number 21 is regarding the language used when speaking with female colleagues who are younger and have a higher position. (i-24) chose to use the javanese kromo language because it had become a culture, to maintain manners. question number 22 is about the language used when talking to younger female coworkers and having equal positions. (i-24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to preserve the culture of manners (better). question number 23 is about the language used when talking to younger and lower-ranking female coworkers. (i24) chooses to use javanese kromo to maintain harmony and maintain culture. question number 24 is regarding the language used when talking to domestic tourists. (i24) chooses to use the javanese kromo language to show that javanese could also be understood by other regions. question number 25 is regarding the language used when talking to foreign tourists. (i-24) chooses to use the kromo language because to show the javanese language already belonged to the people. based on the previous elaboration of (i-24) answer, it can be known that (i-24) prefers to use javanese kromo language because it is considered more polite and respectful. this is with no exception for male and female coworkers and is not age bound, although in the certain situations (i24) chooses to use javanese ngoko as the language used to communicate with the younger coworkers. 104 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 99-105 thus, table 2 is the result data tabulation from the 25 informants who filled out the questionnaires. table 2 code selection used by 25 male abdi dalem informants bjn bb bjk bi ba 1 6 1 22 24 1 2 12 0 4 9 1 3 5 18 7 0 0 4 12 0 21 19 1 5 2 0 6 17 0 6 14 0 9 1 1 7 14 0 9 2 0 8 9 0 23 8 0 9 16 0 17 1 2 10 6 11 6 1 1 11 14 0 21 20 6 12 2 5 9 8 1 13 16 3 10 10 1 14 10 0 12 3 1 15 2 2 8 13 0 16 15 0 9 19 1 17 2 0 22 0 1 18 14 0 10 20 1 19 16 0 1 8 0 20 3 18 20 2 1 21 4 18 23 4 2 22 4 14 22 1 1 23 6 2 24 5 0 24 0 0 25 0 0 25 0 0 14 10 1 total 204 92 354 205 24 from table 2, it can be seen that the code order that commonly used by the informants is the javanese kromo, followed by indonesian language, then thinly continued with the use of javanese ngoko, next is bagongan language, and lastly is the foreign language. the foreign language is all languages other than javanese and indonesian included other regional languages. based on table 2, it can be seen that the usage of javanese kromo dominates the code choice of languages chosen to be used by the male abdi dalem. the dominance of the javanese kromo usage is because of the javanese kromo language considered to be the politest code choice of language compared to the other languages codes presented by the researchers in the questionnaires. furthermore, the javanese ngoko is used as a familiarity marker. the politeness referred in this research is as a proof of speech level variations application in javanese languages that javanese kromo language is used to pay respect to the older speech partner and or have higher positions. foreign languages are the least used code choice of language because the informants claim that they lack or do not master languages other than javanese and indonesian languages. the code choice used by the informants is appropriate if it is based on the commonly javanese speech leveling rules. in addition, it will not be appropriate if it is based on the rules in the karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. abdi dalem and all karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat’s residents are expected to use bagongan language in all situations. even, bagongan language must be used as a written language for correspondences or documents in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. the findings show that the bagongan language is still lack in usage and it raises questions about things that might cause the phenomenon. this phenomenon may be due to bagongan and javanese kromo not much different. basically, the difference between them is only in a few vocabularies. the bagongan language is combining between the javanese kromo with 11 vocabulary markers of the bagongan language. in addition, it is accompanied by the replacement of the suffix -ipun to the suffix –e or –ne. eleven of this vocabulary are between. first, henggeh [heŋgeh] generally means hinggih or enggih means iya in indonesian, yes in english. second, mboya [mboya] generally means mboten or ora means tidak in indonesian, no in english. third, manira [manirͻ] or menira [mǝnirͻ] generally means kula or aku means aku in indonesian, me in english. fourth, pakenira [pakǝnirͻ] or pekenira [pǝkǝnirͻ] generally means sampeyan or kowe means kamu in indonesian, you in english. fifth, penapi [pǝnapi] or punapi [punapi] generally means punapa or menapa means kenapa in indonesian, why in english. sixth, puniki [puniki] generally means punika or menika or iki means ini in indonesian, this in english. seventh, puniku [puniku] generally means punika or menika or iku means itu in indonesian, that in english. eighth, wenten [wǝntǝn] generally means wonten or ana means ada in indonesian, there is in english. ninth, nedha [nǝdhͻ] generally means suwawi or sumangga or mangga means silahkan in indonesian, please in english. tenth, besaos [bǝsaͻs] generally means kemawon or wae means saja in indonesian, only in english. last, seyos [seͻs] generally means sanes or seje means bukan or beda in indonesian, not in english. it can be seen in table 3. table 3 examples of sentences in bjk and bb no. language code example of sentences 1. bjk mboten dados menapa. bb mboya dados punapi. english no problem. 2. bjk buku menika kagunganipun sinten? bb buku puniki kagungane sinten? english whose book is this? 3. bjk sepatunipun sae. bb sepatune sae. english nice shoes. the example in table 3 shows that the difference between bjk and bb is very thin. in the example of the first sentence, the word mboten in bjk is changed to the mboya 105language code choice.... (hanova rani eka retnaningtyas, et al.) in bb. then the word menapa in bjk turns into a punapi at bb. both are vocabulary that only exists in the bagongan language. in the second sentence, there is a change in the word menika into puniki and the word kagunganipun becomes kagungane. the change in the word menika into puniki in the second sentence is occurred by changing the variant of the bjk vocabulary into bb. whereas the word kagunganipun there is a substitution of the suffix -ipun the suffix -ne as a bb vocabulary marker. the same thing happens in the third example, sepatunipun is changed to sepatune. the marker of change in the third example is in the substitution of the suffix -ipun the suffix –ne. based on these three examples, it can be seen that the difference between bjk and bb is not too much. therefore, it is not strange if there are still abdi dalem who do not use bb, especially those who are new. conclusions this research is related to the language code choice used by abdi dalem’s men in knh. male ad was chosen as an informant because there were more male abdi dalem than female ad. this can help researchers in obtaining data from informants. this is also related to the limited access to get data from females abdi dalem. but female abdi dalem can be used as an informant in the subsequent language research. this research concludes that not all of the abdi dalem use bagongan language when interacting in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. the abdi dalem prefers to use javanese kromo because it is considered more polite than the other code choices. as the familiarity marker, the code choice used is javanese ngoko language. furthermore, the indonesian language becomes the second choice to show the politeness because the informants think it is better to use indonesian rather than using the javanese language that is not appropriate. abdi dalem especially those who are still new have difficulty in adjusting with the rules. the external factors such as the residential environments and social environments are also suspected as the factors causing the abdi dalem for not mastering the bagongan language. however, all these allegations still have to be verified by doing further observations. thus, it can be alternative advance research for the researchers themselves or other researchers. this research is important because it helps the readers to get to know about the other variations of the javanese language which is bagongan language that is applied in karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. consequently, it can improve the circulated information’s in the community regarding the paradigm about the life in the palace environment, and also in terms of language. references agasi, i. g. a., putra, i. n. a. j., & ramendra, d. p. 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(2017). kesantunan berbahasa verbal dan non verbal abdi dalem karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat. yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 39 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 39-44 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5362 native and non-native listeners perceptual judgement of english accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of indonesian speakers syifa’ khuriyatuz zahro english education, universitas islam darul ulum lamongan jl. airlangga no. 03, lamongan, jawa timur 62253, indonesia syifa’khuriyatuz@unisda.ac.id received: 12th february 2019/revised: 20th february 2019/accepted: 22nd february 2019 how to cite: zahro, s. k. (2019). native and non-native listeners perceptual judgement of english accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of indonesian speakers. lingua cultura, 13(1), 39-44. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5362 abstract this research aimed at investigating the extent of accentedness and intelligibility as well as the acceptability of indonesian foreign-accented speech perceived by native and non-native listeners, as well as finding their correlation to each other. it used qualitative research. the participant of the research was selected using purposive sampling. the participants were divided into speakers and listeners. there are six speakers and four listeners selected. the four listeners were native and nonnative listeners who rated and transcribed six recorded reading of indonesian speakers by means of spin (speech perception in noise) test. the results show that native listeners rate the speech almost the same way as non-native listeners do. the speeches with clear and accurate pronunciation are rated highly accepted and fully intelligible, regardless of having a very strong accent. in contrast, less clear and accurate pronunciations, as well as a very strong accent of the speeches, are rated unacceptable and still reasonably intelligible. the result of the correlation test between accentedness and intelligibility as well as accentedness and acceptability of the accent finds on no account of correlation to each other. therefore, accentedness and intelligibility plus accentedness and acceptability of the accent are independent, so that strong foreign accent could stay acceptable and intelligible. the factors found to influence the judgment are the familiarity of the accent, clarity, and accuracy of pronunciation. aforementioned findings have implication to challenge english teachers in indonesia to develop meaningful activities to teach english pronunciation accurately to be regarded as fully intelligible and acceptable by listeners, especially native english listeners. keywords: native listeners, non-native listeners, perceptual judgement, english accentedness, english intelligibility, english acceptability introduction it is a fact that numerous differences between the first language (l1) and the target language of the speakers has affected the way non-native speakers speak the target language. non-native speakers definitely find it difficult to recognize the exact sounds of the target language in the correct pronunciation. in consequence, non-native speakers may produce the sound with some errors, mistakes as well as substitution influenced by their first language. one of the factors has influenced non-native speakers’ speaking practice is an accent. the influence of first language accent to speak a second or foreign language (fl) is a so-called foreign accent. non-native speakers’ pronunciation is affected by their native language accent, in which different from the pronunciation and phonological norm of the target language in speaking it (behravan et al., 2016; del puerto, lecumberri, & lacabex, 2015; natalia, andrew, & george, 2017; ryalls & perkins, 2017; schroeder et al., 2016). non-native speakers possibly produce a different degree of foreign accent compared to the expected pattern of target language pronunciation that is known as accentedness (bergeron & trofimovich, 2017; saito & shintani, 2016). accentedness implicates the listeners’ judgment of the extent to which a speaker is perceived as accented. a foreign-accented speech requires non-native speakers’ speech to be understood. since speaking is believed and regarded as the success of language learning measurement (leong & ahmadi, 2017), the intelligibility issue of foreign-accented speech experienced by the nonnative speakers is becoming apparent. for that reason, the 40 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 39-44 intelligibility is the degree to which listeners are able to recognize and understand exact words, phrases, or sentences articulated by the speakers through the recording’s sounds of the accented speakers. it is a complementary element of examination (hopf, mcleod, & mcdonagh, 2017; munro & derwing, 2015; van kuyk, kleijn, & hendriks, 2018; yazan, 2015). foreign-accented speech of speakers with different first language accent may result in different accentedness. the geographic distance undeniably affects the amount of effort to understand the foreign-accented speech of nonnative speakers. indonesia has a distant separation to an english speaking country. commonly, the indonesian people communicate with their first language instead of indonesian language as their second language (l2). approximately, 366 ethnic groups in indonesia are fluent in 669 languages and dialects (suyanto, setyowati, & pramono, 2017). their l1 accent almost persists when they speak l2 or fl (beinhoff, 2014) like speaking indonesian, arabic, and english. the foreign-accented speech also happens to an adult, including indonesian people. it is argued that the phenomenon of foreign-accented english speech is caused by l1 background and failure production of target language sounds and intonation in the appropriate manner. some previous researches concerning accentedness and intelligibility have been sought by many linguist researchers. they have proposed that accentedness and intelligibility are autonomous that a strong accent of a foreign speech is an insignificant sign of the lower intelligibility (hayes-harb & hacking, 2015; munro & derwing, 2015). among previous research on accentedness of foreign-accented speech, there is a foremost issue about how the listeners perceive the acceptability of accented speech in relation to its accentedness. the investigation of the acceptability of foreign-accented speech in accordance with its accentedness as well as its intelligibility has been observed in hong kong and japan. it is concluded that there is a moderate acceptance possibility of foreign accents in english speaking when there are no noticeable phonological features of l1 (setter, sewell, & ryder, 2014; sugimoto & uchida, 2018). it is essential for successful communication between speakers and interlocutors who have not shared the same language to make understandable utterances to prevent misunderstanding through being a proficient speaker and capable interlocutor to communicate in english as a lingua franca. therefore, the result of current research is expected to be beneficial to provide a depiction of english native and non-native judgment toward foreign-accented speech experienced by many english speakers as foreign language including indonesian. besides that, it is also to know the level of intelligibility and acceptability of indonesian foreign-accented speech to anticipate misinterpretation and confusion of weird sounds and strange pronunciation in order to succeed in english communication to english speakers around the world, specifically to those of native speakers. in addition, it is expected to provide an insightful description of the judgment of indonesian foreign-accented speech for english teachers and practitioner, especially indonesian teachers. it can be a future concern and to invent teaching methods in teaching english pronunciation and speaking to indonesian students who experienced a foreign accent in speaking the foreign language to make an intelligible and acceptable speech. based on the abovementioned background and to fulfill these expectations, this research investigates native and non-native listeners’ perceptual judgment of english accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of indonesian speakers. the research further examines the correlation between the judgment of accentedness and intelligibility analysis as well as the accentedness and acceptability of the accent judgment. the factors influenced how the judgment have been made is an additional researched issue. methods the current research is a qualitative research that aims to gain a pilot basis of native and non-native listeners’ perception of foreign-accented english speech by indonesian people. the case study includes the phenomenon of foreign accent in english speech by indonesian people. the accents examined are based on the most peculiar regional accents in indonesia perceived in a preliminary study. the peculiarity is believed as a result of some phonological absence and differences between english and the three accents. the regional accents are banjarese, sundanese, and madurese. due to a variety of accents investigated, a collective case study is applied to get a depth depiction of the multiple cases (adams et al., 2014). therefore, this research has a collective case characteristic in applied linguistics. the participant of the research is selected by means of purposeful sampling. they are divided into speakers and listeners. there are six speakers and four listeners selected. the speakers are provided speech samples which sentences are taken from speech perception in noise (spin) test. the selected sentence lists concern on some phonological aspect for each sentence. the participant’s selection is made on the basis of some criteria to decide those who are able to provide a thoughtful data of the phenomenon being researched (gentles et al., 2016; palinkas et al., 2015). the criteria of speakers’ sampling are they have indonesia nationality and particular regional language as mother tongue, they have experience in speaking english with l1 accent, attain 25 to 30 aged, and attend english educational background more than five years. to avoid gender bias, the balanced gender is selected for each of the subjects from a certain regional area. furthermore, the listeners are english native listeners (nl) and non-native listeners (nnl). both nl and nnl are selected because more non-native speakers have spoken english than its native speaker. consequently, there is a growing interaction between nnl and nnl. on account of the limitation to discover eligible native speakers from different nationalities, two american speakers are selected as nl. meanwhile, the criteria of nnl are indonesian people major in english and an efl instructor or teacher for more than five years. the verbal data in the form of the speech sample is collected by recording the speakers’ speech through reading the 20 lists of spin sentences with the sum of 150 sentences adapted from kalikow, stevens, and elliott (1977) and bada (2001). the obtained recording is then given in the judgment task to rate or judge by the listeners relating to accentedness and acceptability of accented speech on six points likert scale (likert, 1932). to analyze the numeral data attained from the judgment, rating scales are applied for two elements; accentedness that is adapted from allen (2006) and acceptability that is adapted from palacios (2009). additionally, the intelligibility assessment is made 41native and non-native listeners.... (syifa’ khuriyatuz zahro) by replicating previous researchers through a dictation task. nl and nnl are asked to transcribe in a standard orthography of a word by word listened from audiorecording (jułkowska & cebrian, 2015; munro & derwing, 2015). a comparison between the listeners’ transcription and original spin sentences is formerly done to find out the amount of listeners’ transcription correctness compared to the original to determine the level of intelligibility by six points guttman scaling (guttman, 1944). the analysis of the data of both accentedness and intelligibility as well as accentedness and acceptability of the accent is further examined through correlation test to picture whether there is a correlation between both of them. all the obtained data is required to be established to create a sense and reduce partiality as well as confirm the conclusions (amankwaa, 2016; birt et al., 2016; lather, 2017; thomas, 2017). therefore, a member is checked by interviewing the english native speakers (ns) who are required to provide feedback about the research’s findings to get additional insight in avoiding something missed (birt et al., 2016; thomas, 2017). it is a technique attempted to gain the accurateness or reliability of the findings. as a final point, triangulation is applied to confirm the findings. results and discussions the displayed figures in this section are the result of the judgment for accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of banjarese, sundanese, and madurese accents. the coding method (b, s, and m) is used as a representation of the speakers’ accent (b stands for banjarese, s stands for sundanese, and m stands for madurese). while nl and nnl are the listeners from native english and non-native english as what has been described in the research method section. figure 1 shows the distribution of perceived accentedness judgement. figure 1 the distribution of perceived accentedness judgment figure 1 shows that most accented speakers are b1 and b2. non-native listener rated b1 speaker is less accented than those of native listeners, while native listener rated b2 speaker is less accented than those of non-native listeners. the factors to affect the judgment are the clarity of the speech and the quality of the voice because some recordings have a poor quality of voice. the poorest pronunciation competency is considered to be the cause of the native listeners rating. they also consider that those very strong accented speakers must do less english speaking practice so that some strange sounds are found. in addition, all the listeners agree to rate the s1 and m2 speaker as having slightly accented speech since they are familiar with the sundanese and madurese language. besides, some listeners perceive the s2 speaker as having a strong accent and the others perceive them as a slightly accented. one nl and two nnls perceive the m1 speaker has a strong accent, but another nl rates it as slightly accented. in summary, the accentedness of indonesian speakers is slightly accented, strong accented, and very strong accented in which are categorized as accented speech. these results imply that different speakers may have a different level of foreign-accented speech even though they have identical local accented speech. first and foremost, all listeners agree that all the speeches are accented with different degree. amongst the three accents under research, banjarese accent is observed as having the highest level of foreign-accented speech of all. in accordance with the abovementioned result, the interview generated that banjarese accent is also considered as the strangest accent compared to sundanese and madurese accent. also, the interviewees suggest that there are two issues that influenced their judgment; clarity and accuracy of the speakers’ pronunciation, and listeners’ exposure to the local accent. figure 2 the distribution of perceived intelligibility level figure 2 demonstrates that there are three levels of perceived intelligibility of indonesian speakers. the levels are in 4 (reasonably intelligible), 5 (largely intelligible), and 6 (fully intelligible) that indicate the intelligible speech. impressionistically, among those six speakers, only m1 is regarded as having full intelligible speech. while b1, s1, s2, and m2 speakers are graded as having a largely intelligible speech, b2 speech is perceived as moderate intelligible to the listeners. as a matter of fact, the high level of intelligibility of indonesian speakers is not consistent with the result of accentedness judgment which suggests the high level of perceived accent. this entails that strong foreign accented speeches may be intelligible for the high amount of correctness in nl and nnl’s transcription. the interview in the result of member checking indicates that the ns is repeatedly contextualized the transcription of vague and strange pronunciation that is made by the speakers. they emphasize speakers’ clarity of pronunciation much more affected how the transcription is made. therefore, clarity of pronunciation is suggested as a must component to make the speech intelligible and understandable. this shows that some of the indonesian speakers’ pronunciation in english is still perceived as weird for ns. in brief, the result of intelligibility level of the foreign accent of indonesian speakers is regarded in a positive way that the speech is intelligible (reasonably ineligible, largely intelligible, and fully intelligible). 42 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 39-44 to relate the result of accentedness judgment and intelligibility level, the correlation test is conducted to both variables. it is found that the correlation coefficient (r values) of both variables data is -0,26 which show a weak correlation where a strong accent is not always unintelligible. thus, accentedness is not a sign of unintelligibility. this finding reinforces the earlier result by munro and derwing (2015) that there is a weak correlation between accentedness and intelligibility. they are rationally an independent element so that a strong accented speech possibly will be intelligible as well. furthermore, to further examine the correlation of accentedness and acceptability of the accent, it initially needs to describe the result of acceptability of the accent judgment. the result of the acceptability of the accent judgment is illustrated in figure 3. figure 3 the distribution of perceived acceptability of the accent figure 3 demonstrates that the foreign accent of indonesian speakers is at the level of 2 (unacceptable), 3 (slightly unacceptable), 4 (slightly acceptable), and 5 (acceptable). the m1 and m2 speakers are judged by nnl possessing an acceptable accent and rated by nl owning a slightly acceptable accent. moreover, s2 speaker’s accent is perceived as an acceptable accent by one nl but regarded as a slightly acceptable accent by other listeners in which is corresponding to the result of acceptability of s1 speaker’s accent by three listeners. on the other hand, another nl regards s1 speaker’s accent as a slightly unacceptable accent. unfortunately, b1 and b2 speakers are mostly perceived having an unacceptable accent, except for nnl who rated b1 as having a slightly unacceptable accent. this shows that b1 speaker is perceived more positively by nnl rather than nl. among the result of the acceptability judgment, b2 speaker gains the lowest result of the acceptability of the accent judgment by considering him as having an unacceptable accent by all the listeners. based on the result of the acceptability of the accent, it indicates that it is inconsistent with the result of accentedness. speakers with a very strong accent are perceived both as unacceptable and acceptable. meanwhile, speakers with a strong accent are regarded as either as a slightly acceptable or acceptable accent. in addition, to reveal the correlation between accentedness and acceptability of the accent, a correlation test is also conducted. the result of the correlation test by spss 16.0 obtained the correlation coefficient (r-value) of both data is -0,81 that is indicated a significant negative correlation between accentedness and acceptability of the accent. it is found that accentedness and acceptability of the accent are independent where a very strong accent might be acceptable by both native and non-native listeners. a further investigation is done by interview to examine the exploring factor that is affecting the judgment as discovered by previous researchers (fuse, navichkova, & alloggio, 2018; huang, alegre, & eisenberg, 2016; kang, thomson, & moran, 2019). the result yields that there are three factors affected on how a judgment is made; familiarity of the accent, clarity, and accuracy of pronunciation. the first factor affecting the judgment is the familiarity of the accent. the native listeners have less or even no familiarity with a banjarese accent but fully familiar with a sundanese accent and madurese accent since they expose more time to interact with bandung and surabaya people. such unfamiliarity may possibly influence the banjarese accent judgment, whereas the sundanese and madurese speech are familiar for the listeners. as a result, the listeners’ familiarity with the accents offered a contributing element to the judgment of both the accentedness and acceptability of the accent. this is consistent with fuse, navichkova, and alloggio (2018), huang, alegre, and eisenberg (2016), and kang thomson, and moran (2019) who have suggested listeners’ familiarity is one of the factors affecting the evaluation of non-native english speech. however, this finding is not synonymous with research by stocker (2017) who has found there is no familiarity influence on the judgment of accent. the clarity and accuracy of speakers’ pronunciation are two other factors that influenced the judgment. this is as what has been believed by nl who considered some of the speeches are unclear and have an inaccurate pronunciation. therefore, the clarity and accuracy of pronunciation influence more to the accentedness and acceptability to the accent judgment. if non-native english speakers pronounce the english word differently compared to the exact english pronunciation norm, they will possibly be unacceptable accent regardless of possessing a very strong accent. reversely, if the non-native english speakers articulate the english word clearly and accurately, they would be regarded as an acceptable accent although they are perceived as having a strong accent. in brief, accentedness and acceptability of accent judgment are mostly made on the basis of two major factors; the speakers’ clarity and accuracy of pronunciation. the issue of clarity of pronunciation is similar to earlier research findings that the purpose of pronunciation clarity is for easiness of interpretation and hearing of the spoken text in a way that no different pronunciation articulated by speakers’ in comparison to those of native english speaker version. it is one of the foremost factors that influenced the judgment making (munro & derwing, 2015; sugimoto & uchida, 2018). whereas the influence of speakers’ pronunciation accuracy in the judgment of accentedness and acceptability of the accent is a new factor found to affect the listeners’ judgment of indonesian speakers. to this effect, the accuracy of pronunciation should get significant attention for english teachers in indonesia to give more emphasis on teaching accurate english pronunciation in english classes. summing up the analysis and discussion, it is found the influence of three factors on listeners’ judgment of accentedness, intelligibility and acceptability of the accent toward indonesian speakers are listeners’ familiarity with the accent, speakers’ clarity of pronunciation and their accuracy of pronunciation. the clarity of speakers’ pronunciation more significantly gives an influence on how the judgment that is made by the listeners among those factors. 43native and non-native listeners.... (syifa’ khuriyatuz zahro) conclusions the current research seeks to examine the issue of accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of the accent among indonesian speakers ranging from banjarese, sundanese, and madurese accent. the final summation is that the perception of both nl and nnl about the foreignaccented speech of indonesian speakers mostly the same. the foreign-accented speech of indonesian speakers is regarded as highly accented in level 6, (very strong accent), 5 (strong accent), and 4 (slightly accented), as well as mostly intelligible in the level 6 (fully intelligible), 5 (largely intelligible), and 4 (reasonably intelligible). whereas, the level of acceptability of indonesian foreign accented speech is perceived as either acceptable or unacceptable in the level of 2 (unacceptable), 3 (slightly unacceptable), 4 (slightly acceptable), and 5 (acceptable). moreover, the correlation value between accentedness and intelligibility is found -0,26 means a weak relationship, while the value of accentedness and acceptability of the accent is -0,81 which regarded as strong negative correlation. therefore, accentedness and intelligibility, as well as accentedness and acceptability, are autonomous; in which strong accented speech is not always perceived as unintelligible and unacceptable speech. so that accentedness is a poor indication of intelligibility and acceptability of the accent. it reinforces the earlier research by munro and derwing (2015) who have asserted that no strong evidence of the correlation between accentedness and intelligibility. thus, they are a separate component where a foreign-accented speech is possibly intelligible. furthermore, these inconsistency findings and correlation test of both accentedness and acceptability indicate that accentedness and acceptability are as well independent to each other in which a strong accented speech may conceivably be acceptable. three factors are found to affect the way listeners both nl and nnl make the judgment of accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of the accent, they are: listeners’ familiarity and exposure of the local accent, as well as speakers’ pronunciation clarity as well as their accuracy. the familiarity of the accent factor is corroborated to some research (fuse, navichkova, & alloggio, 2018; huang, alegre, & eisenberg, 2016; kang, thomson, & moran, 2019). clarity and accuracy of pronunciation is a novel factor that affected the judgment. based on that finding, it is suggested to the indonesian english teachers to develop meaningful activities and provide authentic materials to teach english pronunciation accurately so that indonesian speech is regarded as fully intelligible and acceptable by listeners, especially native english listeners. to future research, there is a need to consider phonetics or phonological analysis as a technique of data analysis which is expected to have a linguistics concern of the intelligibility of the speech. references adams, r., jones, a., lefmann, s., & sheppard, l. 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(2015). intelligibility. elt journal, 69(2), 202– 204. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 169 lingua cultura, 12(2), may 2018, 169-177 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i2.4043 university students’ understanding on cultural activities in american culture class maryani1; lewinna christiani aguskin2 1, 2, english department, faculty of letters, maranatha christian university jl. surya sumantri no.65, sukawarna, bandung 40164, indonesia 1marumaryani@gmail.com; 2winna_ch@yahoo.com received: 05th october 2017/revised: 04th december 2017/accepted: 11th december 2017 how to cite: maryani., & aguskin., l. c. (2018). university students’ understanding on cultural activities in american culture class. lingua cultura, 12(2), 169-177. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.4043 abstract this research examined university students’ cultural understanding based on cultural activities that they had experienced. the data were gathered from 20 indonesian university students who were attending american culture class through a questionnaire and ten learning logs. these students had experienced four different types of cultural activities. they were asked to share the experiences they have had regarding the cultural activities in the questionnaire and their gained knowledge related to each cultural activities in the learning log. the qualitative data were analyzed manually and classified into tables. the findings were used to explore student’s understanding of the use of cultural activities in learning and understanding american culture. in conclusion, the students gain deeper understanding after experiencing the cultural activities regarding american culture. the cultural activities practiced in this research can be used and developed for other subjects to enhance teaching and learning process in the classroom, especially to increase students’ comprehension of the particular subjects. keywords: cultural understanding, cultural activities, american culture, university students introduction traditionally, teaching and learning situation in a classroom is focused on the teacher. in other words, teachers become the center of the classroom, especially for classes that deal with theories. the students are commonly the ones who listen to the teachers’ explanation and take notes for important issues being discussed. yuwono and harbon (2010) have stated that english language teaching in indonesia has not shown its success. they further explained that teacher is one of the various aspects that are needed to be fixed. dardjowidjojo (2000) based on his research in java island has found that english teachers in indonesia depend a lot on textbooks and curriculum guidelines but often without having the full understanding of the philosophy behind those materials or methods (as cited in yuwono and harbon, 2010). however, as it is stated by lambert and mccombs (2000) that students who are successful are the ones who get involved in their own studying, thinking, giving the thought for their studying, and be responsible for it (as cited in lambert, 2014). therefore, students should be given opportunities to get immersed in the learning process themselves. in other words, the students should be the center of the learning. by providing students with activities in class, they will have more opportunities to learn more. as students learn a second or foreign language, they also need to learn the culture of that language besides studying the vocabulary and grammar of the target language. learning another culture commonly deals with some explanations to read and understand regarding the cultural background of the language society. traditionally, teachers will tend to explain the cultural background to their students, and the students will listen to their teachers and take notes. however, it is worthy to implement cultural activities in teaching culture to students. students can become the center of learning the target culture by doing cultural activities. it is hoped that by experiencing the cultural activities, they are learning the culture at the same time as they get involved in those activities. there are various teaching method and materials that can be used to maximize students’ cultural learning as proposed by several researchers, such as the research conducted by robinson-stuart and nocon (1996), liaw and johnson (2001), bateman (2004), lee (2012), dewi (2012), chao (2013), rodriguez (2014), truong and tran (2014), and maryani (2016). only the research by dewi (2012) and maryani (2016) are conducted in indonesia, whereas the rest are conducted abroad. dewi’s (2012) research is related to american pop culture, but maryani’s (2016) research is focused on advantages of experiencing culture to learn 170 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 169-177 and understand american culture. based on her research, it is found that the participants learn the target culture more after experiencing it. as her data is only limited to students’ questionnaire and three cultural activities, it is necessary to do reduplication research with the different methodology to discover more in-depth result. therefore, this research will be significant in comprehending the usage of cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture. the purpose of this research is to discover the university students’ perceptions of cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture and the insight that the students perceive from experiencing the cultural activities related to learning and understanding american culture. the objective of this research is to discover the university students’ perceptions of cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture and the insight that the students perceive from experiencing the cultural activities related to learning and understanding american culture. the research will provide information for any lecturers who teach culture for a better teaching and learning process that focuses on the use of cultural activities in the classroom. culture has been defined in various definitions. halverson (1985) defines culture as, “civilization, the great achievements of people as reflected in their history, social institutions, works of art, architecture, music, and literature…referred as “big c” culture.” culture is also viewed as the customs, traditions, or practices that people carry out as part of their everyday lives –“small c” culture” (as cited in moran, 2001). different from halverson (1985), lustig (1999) defines culture as, “communication that focuses on the connection between one and another culture.” according to moran (2001) himself, culture is, “a dynamic, living phenomenon practiced daily by real people, together or alone, as they go about their shared way of life, living and creating their history or civilization”. muirhead (2009) further states that culture is, “a fluctuating embodiment of a group’s products, practices, and perspectives” (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016). somehow, muirhead’s (2009) definition of culture adds to moran’s (2001) definition of culture as muirhead (2009) deals not only cultural products and practices but also cultural perspectives. cultural experience has also been defined in various definitions. the cultural experience is any encounter between learners and another way of life through direct involvement with people of the other culture or indirectly through learning materials in the language classroom (moran, 2001). according to moran (2001), there are four kinds of culture learning; “knowing about, knowing how, knowing why, and knowing oneself.” knowing about means gathering cultural information, knowing how means acquiring cultural practices, knowing why means developing an understanding of fundamental cultural perspectives, while knowing oneself means self-awareness. learners need to understand themselves and their own culture as a means to comprehending, adapting to, or integrating into the culture (moran, 2001). these four kinds of cultural learning are interrelated. related to teaching and learning the culture, there is a huge difference when learners are in the cultural context themselves and when they are far away from the context. as moran (2001) states that a second language context, learning culture in the culture is significantly different from a foreign language context, learning culture from a distance; therefore, teachers should offer opportunities for students to have the cultural experience in order to improve their cultural knowledge. kukulska-hulme (2010) and lee (2009) further argue that cultural activities offer students the opportunities to experience the target culture in the real contexts which are useful both inside and outside the classroom (dema & moeller, 2012). as brown (2007) points out that language and culture cannot be separated (dema & moeller, 2012); therefore, in teaching a second language, teachers also need to address those learners with the culture of the target language. hinkel (2014) further adds the connection between culture and the usage of language become the important point of teaching language skills effectively (lessard-clouston, 2016). moreover, mckay (2002) states that learners need to think and ponder on the cultural information that they have learned so they could know the differences between the target and own culture. there are different kinds of cultural activities that can be used in teaching culture, such as critical incidents, cultural assimilators, culturgrams, role-plays, cultural simulations, field experiences, ethnography, experiential activities, cross-cultural training techniques, values clarification, film, video, literature, realia, authentic materials, and many more (moran, 2001). moreover, according to kukulska-hulme (2010) and lee (2009), cultural activities can be using social applications (e.g., facebook) and blogging (e.g., twitter); mobile internet access (browsing websites and reading news); use of multiple media (watching movies, listening to audio books, podcasts and vodcasts); locationbased activities (using gps to find a place); and user created content (making a film, creating a podcast) (as cited in dema & moeller, 2012). in this era of modern technology, it is important to include technological activities in teaching culture, such as proposed by moore (2006). he has said that technology gives opportunities for teachers to adapt any digital media to create appropriate cultural learning which can be accessed by students in the classroom (as cited in dema & moeller, 2012). moreover, gonzalez (2009) adds that technology promotes socially active language in multiple authentic contexts due to its accessibility, flexibility, connectivity speed and independence of methodological approach (as cited in dema & moeller, 2012). regarding teaching and learning culture, many researchers have conducted their research both in the second language and foreign language context. since this research will be conducted with university students as the participants; therefore, related research that will be discussed are narrowed to those at the university level. in second language context, there are three qualitative studies that are conducted. first is research by robinsonstuart and nocon (1996). their participants are 26 spanish students at san diego state university do an ethnographic interview and surveys regarding their cultural experiences. they find that the students’ attitudes toward spanish and culture learning and their listening abilities increase (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016). second is research by bateman (2004). he uses ethnographic interviews to 61 spanish students at the university of minnesota. the results show teachers’ enhanced attitudes towards spanish speakers and hispanic cultures, greater competencies in communicating across cultures and awareness of culture’s influence. the third is lee (2012) that researched 16 american undergraduate spanish students. the instruments used are personal blogs using ethnographic interviews, a questionnaire, and a survey. the results show that the 171university students’ understanding.... (maryani; lewinna christiani aguskin) students’ intercultural competence is improved (lessardclouston, 2016). in foreign language context, there are five qualitative studies that were conducted. regarding the methodology, these researchers have used qualitative methods to know the result of applying cultural activities both in and outside the classroom in learning the target culture. liaw and johnson’s (2001) and liaw (2006)’s participants, who were taiwanese university students, were paired with american students. these researchers used emails and written reports as the data source. the result was beneficial as the participants’ knowledge and interest to the target culture developed (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016). in the research, chao (2013) used diaries to complement the use of movies in teaching and learning foreign language culture for 52 english majors, whereas truong and tran (2014) used movies only for 16 vietnamese efl college students who were enrolled in english and culture class (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016). in the former study, it was found that the students’ intercultural motivations, attitude, knowledge, and awareness were improved (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016), whereas, in the later study, it was found that students’ intercultural knowledge were improved (lessard-clouston, 2016). the similar study was conducted by gomez rodriguez (2014). he used multicultural literature for his participants who were 23 efl university students (as cited in lessard-clouston, 2016). the results showed that there was the improvement in the students’ intercultural skills, knowledge, and attitudes towards the target culture (lessard-clouston, 2016). in indonesian context, there is two research conducted. first, dewi’s (2012) research which was her reflection upon her experience as a teacher, supervisor, and writer of her students’ theses that took american films, songs, fictions, and comic books as data in english departments in indonesia. it can be concluded that “if research products in american popular culture in indonesia can somehow help, the appealing yet appalling face of global connectivity may yield exciting challenges to help build our world anew: a world full of peace and equity” (dewi, 2012). second is maryani’s (2016) qualitative study. it focused on the university students’ perception on the use of three cultural activities in class, such as interviewing americans, guest lecturing, and potluck. she gathered the data by using questionnaire. it was found that these cultural activities were advantageous for the students. they understood american culture more after they have experienced and they felt enjoyed the experiences than just learning the culture from the textbook used. as maryani’s (2016) research only based on three cultural activities and questionnaire, it cannot be seen how far the students have gained the cultural knowledge. therefore, it is necessary to do another reduplication study to discover the students’ perception and enhancement regarding the understanding of the target culture through more various instruments, like the questionnaire and learning log, and different cultural activities. methods qualitative method is used in this research in order to answer the research questions tobin and begley (2004) stated that qualitative method could be used to get in-depth information of the topic, which is university students’ cultural understanding based on cultural activities practiced in american culture class. the research was conducted in american culture class, english department, in maranatha christian university, bandung, indonesia. the participants of this study were 20 students enrolled in this class from mid-june until mid-july 2016. this class was conducted in the shortterm period. there were 12 meetings in total; six meetings before the mid-term test and six meetings before the final test. each meeting lasted for 100 minutes. the students experienced four cultural activities, namely reading online articles, interviewing an american by email, having the potluck, and watching a volunteering video. regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students were asked to read online articles on various american topics related to american cultures, such as about volunteering, women’s equality, rules for gun sales, and equal pay day. these topics suit the topics discussed in the textbook used in the class. each pair was asked to read the available online article each week. after reading the article, they had to analyze the similarities and differences between the issues in the article and the textbook, also presented them in the class. regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students (in pairs) were asked to interview one american by email related to the assigned topic, such as politics, education, racial diversity, family, and leisure time. they were asked to prepare five to ten questions for the interview. in the first email, they introduced themselves to the american and informed about the details of the interview. in the second email, they sent the prepared questions to the american. they waited for about three days to one week for the reply. in the third and fourth email, they asked for clarification to unclear points in the interview result and thanked the interviewee for his or her willingness to be interviewed. afterward, they were asked to compare and contrast the interview result and the issues in the textbook, also presented them in the class. regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students were asked to practice a potluck. they prepared the american food (appetizer, main course, dessert) in pairs, such as salad, cream soup, fried chicken, burger, and pudding. this potluck was conducted in the last meeting of the class. the students shared the food with each other while discussing what they have learned for the whole semester. regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students were asked to watch a video about american volunteering activity in the class. after watching the video, they were required to report on important points of the video and to compare it with indonesian volunteering activity. the data were collected from the students’ questionnaire result and learning log. however, before collecting the data, the students were given information sheets regarding the study, consent forms, also the opportunity to ask any questions if there is something unclear for them. the participants’ names were not mentioned to keep their anonymity both in presentation or publication of this study. the questionnaire was used to answer the first research question, which is the students’ perceptions of the cultural activities that they have experienced. the interview questions were adapted from maryani’s (2016) research. some of the questions are; (1) does the discussion on recent condition in the united states help you to understand american culture? why? (2) does interviewing american people help you to understand american culture? why? 172 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 169-177 (3) does having potluck help you to understand american culture? why? the data from questionnaire and learning logs were analyzed qualitatively in order to find out the students’ perception of the cultural activities used and the students’ additional knowledge that they have gained after experiencing the cultural activities. results and discussions this section provides the findings and its discussion. the findings are presented in the following tables, and they are followed by the discussion of the findings. out of 20 participants in the research, there are only 17 of them who filled in the questionnaires. the students’ perceptions of cultural activities practice in learning and understanding american culture can be seen in table 1. table 1 students’ perceptions of reading online articles about american cultures reading online article number of students helpful 15 not helpful 2 as can be seen in table 1, out of 17 participants, 15 of them have said that reading online article helps them in learning and understanding the culture, but 2 of them have said that it is not helpful. most of them admit that reading online article helps them to understand the recent condition of the united states, as it can be seen in the following excerpt: “i can know how the american condition recently; we can see and learn about the newest article that happened there; we can understand about the current situation in the us nowadays; i can learn something from people point of view and their understanding towards it. it enriches culture.” however, those who have stated the online article is not helpful; one of them have said that he/she does not understand the article, as it can be seen in the following excerpt: “not really, because sometimes i don’t understand about the online articles.” the other said that the article was not interesting, but adds to his/her knowledge: ”it was good for knowledge but not really interesting.” table 2 students’ perceptions of interviewing american people by email interview number of students helpful 13 quite helpful 1 not helpful 3 as can be seen in table 2, out of 17 participants, 13 of them have stated that interviewing the american is helpful to learn and understand the culture, 1 of them has said it is quite helpful, but 3 of them have claimed that it is not helpful for them. most of them have admitted that interviewing american people helps them to get accurate information about the recent condition of the united states from the american point of view, as well as to relate to them. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “we get the real resource and accurate news from them; they do know a lot of things about american exactly, and we can ask them some specific of american culture; we could know the recent condition, and it is good to have a relation with the american; i can see their point of view and begin to understand it.” those who have said it is not helpful mentioned that they only get the opinion about american culture from one person, so the information is limited. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “we just know their opinion, not the fact; we only interview one person, so probably cannot be judged by one person only.” table 3 students’ perceptions of having a potluck watching a video number of students helpful 16 not helpful 1 concerning students’ perseption of having a potluck, table 3 indicates that out of 17 participants, 16 of them have stated that having a potluck is helpful to learn and understand the culture, but 1 of them has claimed it is not useful. most of them have mentioned that having a potluck helps them to understand the culture of potluck, to feel closer with their friends, and to realize that they have the similar culture like american in terms of sharing food. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “we can experience what they feel in the potluck. i think most people will understand and remember if they have experienced it; it taught me to understand about the importance of togetherness…by having the potluck, it was the best way to build the close relationship with others; i discovered that potluck is like botram in indonesia. only what makes it is unique is that people share the food they brought and it can be any food. also, it makes people become more close to one another; surprisingly, this is also happening in my town. for big occasion, we have the potluck (we called makan-makan). this is great to know that somehow my traditional event in indonesia is similar to america.” one of the students who has stated that potluck is not helpful to learn and understand american culture mentioned that the time is too short, as can be seen in the following excerpt: “the time is so short.” table 4 volunteering activity students’ perceptions of watching a video about american having potluck number of students helpful 16 not helpful 1 table 4 presents volunteering activities students’ perseption of watching video about american, out of 17 participants, 16 of them have stated that watching a video is helpful to learn and understand the culture, but 1 of them has claimed it is not useful. most of them have mentioned that watching a video helps them to understand about the culture and the way american people help others than just from the textbook. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “seeing what they do is far better than just reading it on textbook; i am a visual learner, so i need some pictures or something which is visualized to learn materials; they are willing to help other people, and they are caring, warm people; they are very kind, and they do it all with heart; besides glamorous lifestyle, we know that americans also care about each other. they like, even love to help people. it 173university students’ understanding.... (maryani; lewinna christiani aguskin) makes me want to go to america even more.” one student who has stated the activity is not helpful did not state the reason. he/she has just mentioned that it is not helpful for him/her. table 5 students’ perception of the more helpful cultural activities activity number of students reading online article 16 interview by email 1 having potluck 4 watching volunteering video 1 all of them 3 regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students are asked to choose the activity that they think is more helpful for them to learn and understand american culture. as can be seen in table 5, out of 17 participants, the most helpful cultural activity that is chosen by seven students is the online interview. they mention that they can get real information about america and its culture from the real american. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “we can ask anything that can make us aren’t curious again; i prefer this because of my american partner really good at storytelling his experience. so, it is very helpful; the online interview is more helpful for me because we get to know about america form the people who live there.” among the participants, four of them chose having the potluck as the second more useful cultural activity because they can understand the culture by experiencing it. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “potluck makes me understand more because i could see the proof. since i am a visual learner, i learn more effectively by seeing or watching; potluck, i am sort of person who has to see and prove it first whenever i get some information; potluck, it is fun.” moreover, three participants have decided that all the cultural activities practiced are helpful for them. it can be seen in the following excerpt: “all of them were very helpful for me. i am interested in learning many new things; i think most of them help me to understand american culture, because of all of them related to each other.” whereas, reading the online article and watching volunteering video are considered not so helpful activities for the participants. however, they still feel the usefulness of the activities, as can be seen in the following excerpt: “even if we don’t experience directly, we can still experience through the video; these activities are more fun and interesting.” the following tables show the students’ perceived knowledge based on each cultural activities that they have experienced. it is related to the chapter discussed in class, from reading online articles, interviewing an american by email, having the potluck, and watching an american volunteering video. regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students are asked to deliver a group presentation. each group is assigned to analyze one chapter of the book and one online article with the similar topic. in each meeting, there are two groups that discussed the same chapter, but they have different pages of the chapter to discuss. the chapters of the textbook include the topics such as traditional american values, american religious heritage, frontier heritage, the heritage of abundance, and american business. they have to summarize the parts of the chapter and make the comparison between the content of the chapter and the online article from an internet website. the news article is related to the recent condition in the us. the students have to find similarities and differences between the online article and the content of the chapter. each group delivers their presentation for about 10-15 minutes, and there is a question and answer session afterward. by doing student-centered activities, the students learn to develop reading skill, critical thinking skill, and presentation skill. it is expected that they would discover the important information related to american culture through the process of reading, analyzing, and presenting the materials. from table 6, it can be seen that from the online reading articles, students learn many things about american cultures itself. first is american women fight for women’s equality in a lot of aspects such as their earnings, their inheritance, equal rights to say, equal education, workplaces, public service, and equal pay for equal work (article 2). second is in america in order to be a better person; they have to care about another human being by volunteering ourselves (article 3). the third is the government now abandons the people in the us to buy the weapon without permission and license. fourth is the president notice more about gun selling in the us (article 4). fifth is indonesian can learn from american culture that it is a must to appreciate indonesian own beloved products and not to use the product from another country because if indonesian can appreciate their own product that means the love for the country. sixth is americans will buy the phone with the latest technology because they think it will help them to do their stuff. therefore, americans love having things new and different (article 5). seventh is in america; there is still the gap between male and female worker about position and salary. both of american and indonesian women fight for their emancipation. their business has the same motto to achieve their goals; work hard. people in america and indonesia have a chance to run their small business and then it will develop into a larger company (article 6). regarding the cultural activities practiced in learning and understanding american culture, the students are also asked to conduct an email interview with an american and deliver a group presentation. each group is assigned to analyze one chapter of the book and interview one american with some prepared questions related to the chapter. every two group discuss the same chapter, but they have different american to interview. the chapters of the textbook include the topics such as government and politics in the us, ethnic and racial diversity, education in the us, how americans spend their leisure time, and the american family. each group prepares 5-10 questions related to the chapter, and the americans answer the questions by email. the students have to find similarities and differences between the result of the interview and the content of the chapter. each group delivers their presentation for about 10-15 minutes, and there is a question and answer session afterward. by doing these activities, the students will have an opportunity to discover various opinions and perspectives of the americans related to the topics they learn. table 7, shows that from interviewing americans by email, the students learn that, “american is democratic and also republican. president and congress may come from different parties and hold on first tuesday in november. and i think american has an easier way than indonesian because 174 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 169-177 the counting does not use a lot of numbers. american just takes the majority of the vote for the winner of the state. they do not divide into each percentage like indonesian.” related to ethnic and racial diversity, they learn that, “in america, there are a lot of immigrants rather than indonesia. american people think that diversity makes their country larger and stronger. american history background also has a lot of mixture like indonesian. there are a lot of mixed people in this time and less original origin people.” related to education, they learn that, “in america: extracurricular is very important especially sport, public school does not teach religion, american can graduate earlier if the person is working hard for that. america: they did not wear the uniform, the american education mostly more expensive than indonesia, teachers in america encourage students to ask questions.” related to leisure time, they learn that, “in america, the popular sports are football, basketball, and softball, but in indonesia, the popular sports are soccer, badminton, and chess. in addition, the american citizen like fast food and junk food rather than indonesians. what we learn about american culture is they like to do sport or physical activities better than indonesian. it is because in america provide all sports facilities around the college and neighborhood.” table 6 students’ perceived knowledge based on reading online articles chapter 2 traditional american values and beliefs title of article: new us national monument honors women’s equality fight • indonesia and american women fight for their right equality. • in the article, american women fight for women’s equality in a lot of aspect such as their earnings, their inheritance, equal rights to say, equal education, workplaces, public service, and equal pay for equal work. chapter 3 the american religious heritage title of article : an all-volunteer squad of farmers is turning florida lawns into food • american and indonesian have different system in farming. in america, they have an organization to manage their farm, that’s why their system is more complete and make their farm developed. • moreover, america has department that taking care of garden, but indonesia does not have it. • there is an institution which helps/provides the citizen about gardening. • in america in order to be a better person, we have to care about another human being by volunteering ourselves. chapter 4 the frontier heritage title of article : obama outlines new rules for gun sales in the us • in america, those who pass background check can own gun. • the government now abandons the people in us to buy the weapon without permission and license. • the president notices more about gun selling in us. • everyone can have a gun. chapter 5 the heritage of abundance title of article : chinese consumers embrace new balance’s made in usa label • we learn from american culture that we have to appreciate our beloved products and not to use product from another country because if we appreciate our product that means we love our country. • american products are everywhere in indonesia (mcd, kfc, pizza hut, etc.). whereas, indonesian products are not as popular as american’s. • we learn that american people defined materialism as positive thing, they work hard and they earn money to get what they want. • americans will buy phone with the latest technology because they think it will help them to do their stuffs. therefore, americans love having new things and different. chapter 6 the world of american business title of article : on equal pay day why the gender gap still exists • female workers in america get more salary than in indonesia. • in america, there is still gap between male and female worker about position and salary. both of american and indonesian women fight for their emancipation. • american female and male workers still have a lot of gap in their salary. • female workers get lower salary than man, but actually it is the same, the different is on their work time. • in indonesia and in america are the same. women are paid less than men in indonesia, women are the same with us, they can do their job in office, or they start business in their home entrepreneur. • both of american and indonesian business have same motto to achieve their goal. the motto is “work hard”. people in america and indonesia have a chance to run their small business and then it will develop into a larger companion. moreover, related to family, they learn that “in america, sometimes children run away and live on their own. in america, children can work as long as they fulfill the role. most american children are leaving the house when they are 18 years old, but some of them choose to run away and leave on their own. american parents do not involve in their child’s marriage. yet indonesian parents feel worried and get involved in their child’s marriage.” as can be seen in table 8, the participants have learned many things related to american people and one of the cultural activities, which is having the potluck. they feel the togetherness by sharing food and drink in the potluck. they understand that american potluck is actually similar to indonesian culture, which is called botram. they also learn the diversity created in the potluck, which is the variety of food, drink, and stories shared among them. table 9, presents that the participants have learned many things related to american people, especially about volunteering. they have understood that american people are very humble, nice, caring, like helping others, warm, and kind. related to the volunteering culture, the students have learned that american people, despite their young ages, they contribute to their community by helping others in need and they do it for humanity purpose. 175university students’ understanding.... (maryani; lewinna christiani aguskin) table 7 students’ perceived knowledge based on interviewing americans by email chapter 7 government and politics in the us interviewing an american • american is democratic and also republican. president and congress may come from different parties and held on first tuesday on november. • and i think american has an easier way than indonesian because the counting does not use lot of number. american just takes the majority of vote for the winner of the state. they do not divide into each percentage like indonesian. • what we learn about american culture are american citizen expected the new national government created by institution to pursue their individual goal. then, when the government gave them welfare program, some americans who have strong tradition of individualism & self-reliance refuse this program. chapter 8 ethnic and racial diversity in the us interviewing an american • america: it is about racial and ethnic diversity, american sometimes salad bowl, immigrants people in america are a lot. • both in america and indonesia, there are many racial diversity. not only for races (in indonesia), there are many aspects like religion, culture, customs, and language. • different ethnic, different traditional law. there were a lot of history about this race issues (discrimination, african american, hispanic, etc.). some americans have racial historical background in his family. • in america, there are a lot of immigrants rather than indonesia. american people think that diversity make their country larger and stronger. • american history background also have a lot of mixture like indonesian. there is a lot of mixed people in this time and less original origin people. chapter 10 how americans spend their leisure time interviewing an american • in america, the popular sports are football, basketball, and softball, but in indonesia, the popular sports are soccer, badminton, and chess. in addition, american citizen like fast food and junk food rather than indonesian. • what we learn about american culture is they like to do sport or physical activities better than indonesian. it is because in america provide all sports facilities around the college and neighborhood. • americans do sports a lot to give strengthen in their mind and emotion and also help to compete successfully in later life. most of the americans are obesity, so newspapers which contains about diet are best-seller. they are obesity because they like eating junk food because they think that junk food is found everywhere, taste is great, cheap, and they don’t have time to cook. chapter 11 the american family interviewing an american • in america, we learn that become children without parent’s help is good because we can learn independently and survival from this life and solving the problem by ourselves. • in america, sometimes children run away and live on their own. in america, children can work as long as they fulfill the role. • most american children are leaving house when they are 18, but some of them choose to run away and leave with their own. • american parents do not involve in their children marriage. yet indonesian parents feel worried and get involved in their children marriage. table 8 students’ perceived knowledge based on having potluck • it taught me to understand about the importance of togetherness. sometimes, big things came from little things. perhaps, other people think that it was an ordinary activity. but by having potluck, it was the best way to build close relationship with others. • we can experience what they feel in potluck. i think most people will understand and remember if they have experienced it. • i discovered that potluck is like botram in indonesia. only what makes it is unique is that people share the food they brought and it can be any food. also, it makes people become closer to one another. • we can know and accept the diversity. • we can understand more about american food and drink. • it is a unique event too and it’s fun to know the culture and diversity there. from the findings, it could be seen that the students are benefited from the cultural activities practiced in class. they have experienced at least four cultural activities in studying american culture, namely reading the online article, interviewing americans by email, having the potluck, and watching american volunteering video. these cultural activities are proven to help them understand the american culture more. this finding is in line with moran’s (2001) statement that students should get the opportunities to experience culture in order to improve their cultural knowledge. furthermore, the findings are also in line with kukulska-hulme’s (2010) and lee’s (2009) statement that cultural activities are useful for students both in and outside the classroom (as cited in dema & moeller, 2012). table 9 students’ perceived knowledge based on watching volunteering videos • now i know that americans are very humble and nice people. they are willing to help other people. • besides glamorous lifestyle, we know that americans also care to each other. they like, even love to help people. it makes me want to go to america even more. • they are willingly to help other people and they are caring, warm people. • we can learn despite of their young ages, they are willing to help people. • they are very kind, and they do it all with heart. • the volunteer help people purely for humanity. • it shows their contribution to the people and i think it’s one of their habits. 176 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 2, may 2018, 169-177 as can be seen in table 1 to 4, most students think that the cultural activities are useful for them. by reading the online article, they can understand the recent condition in america. by interviewing americans, they can get real and reliable information about the american culture and its society. by having the potluck, they feel closer to another student and learn how american potluck is similar with indonesian potluck. by watching the video about american volunteering, they learn that american people are nice in taking care of each other in need. related to the use of technology in cultural activities practiced by the students, it is found that technology has helped them in experiencing the culture. the students have used multiple media, such as reading the online article, watching american volunteering video, and also sending emails to the americans. this finding is in line with gonzalez’s (2009) statement that the use of technology could promote language actively in the real contexts due to its being flexible and easy to be accessed. the fact that the students are far away from the country of the culture that they are learning about, technology has greatly helped them to connect with the americans and also to find the latest news about america. compared to maryani’s (2016) research, this research is slightly different from the previous research due to the deeper and detailed findings caused by more various research instruments used. in the previous research, the data is collected only through the questionnaire which turned out that there are unclear or short answers. as this present research uses not the only questionnaire, but also learning log; therefore, the more in-depth result could be gained, especially related to the students’ understanding of the american culture. conclusions in conclusion, the findings of this research have three pedagogical implications. first, cultural activities are needed and important for students who are learning the culture, especially those who are far away from the target culture. by having cultural activities practiced, the students learn the target culture by experiencing it at the same time. as can be seen from the findings, among four cultural activities practiced, interviewing americans and having potluck are the more helpful activities for the students to grasp the cultural knowledge. second, teachers need to provide more cultural opportunities for students so that they could gain more knowledge and understanding of the target culture. based on the findings, most students agreed that they are helped by those cultural activities. third, the use of technology supports students in getting to know more the target culture. as can be seen from the findings, the students have perceived detailed information regarding each topic discussed from interviewing the americans by email. there are several difficulties encountered by the students which affected their understanding of the american culture. first, the different level of students’ english skills that makes some of them have difficulties in understanding the online articles. second is the limitation of time regarding the email interview and the students’ presentation time. some students are eager to interview the americans more to clarify some unclear points in the interview result. however, they do not have enough time to send another email due to the deadline for doing the group presentation in class that reports the interview result and its analysis. having seen beneficial result from the students’ opinions, it is recommended to provide students with cultural practices when they learn a target culture. as by experiencing the culture, the students will gain more cultural knowledge. however, it will be worthwhile to provide students with more cultural practices besides the four activities practiced by the participants in this research, such as cultural ceremonies (halloween party, thanksgiving, etc.), outdoor music concerts, and charity programs. the cultural practices should be conducted as similar as possible like the ones in the real setting; therefore, the students could feel and experience as the closest culture as possible. it is also necessary to encourage students to use the latest technology to connect with the target culture, such as using the video conference to interview people from the target culture. however, there are at least two limitations of this research. first, the number of the participants that are involved are limited. only 17 out of 20 students participated in the present study. if the number of participants are more, the findings will be more various. second, the number of cultural activities used in the study are limited to four activities; reading article from online, doing interview to american by email, having potluck in class, and watching a video about american volunteering. the more cultural activities will result on the more insightful findings. therefore, more participants and more various cultural activities should be applied in the future research in order to get deeper insights from the participants. references bateman, b. e. 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(2014). students’ intercultural development through language learning in vietnamese tertiary education: a case study on the use of film as an innovative approach. language and intercultural communication, 14(2), 207-225. doi:1 0.1080/14708477.2013.849717. yuwono, g. i., & harbon, l. (2010). english teacher professionalism and professional development: some common issues in indonesia. the asian efl journal quarterly, 12(3), 145-163. 16 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 16-20 analisis penggunaan sorekara, soshite, dan soreni dalam website surat kabar asahi.com rudi hartono manurung japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta 11480 rmanurung@binus.edu abstract setsuzokujoshi is a particle that shows the relationship between sentences, as well as having an important role in sentences. what characterizes setsuzokujoshi is its position which is always located between two sentences. setsuzokujoshi, which is part of particles in japanese, has many types. in this study, the researcher will limit the research on the use of それから, そして, それに contained in the newspaper articles of asahi.com website. the research method used is descriptive and library methods. this study intends to determine the function of setsuzokujoshi それ から, そして, そ れに and whether it can replace each other in a sentence and that japanese language learners can determine the apparent similarities and differences between sorekara, soshite, and soreni, so that japanese language learners can use them correctly. after analyzing the data, it is found that some conclusions namelyそして is used to strengthen problems of a topic of conversation because there is awareness of the speaker. it is often used when combining a topic of conversation. while それ から is reinforcing actions in sequence-based. that is, there will be a second activity to be performed or occurring after the first activity is completed. それに has a function to add anything else to a case. because それ から has functions similar to そして, there is a possibility for そしてto be replaced by それ から or vice versa. keywords: setsuzokushi, sorekara, soshite abstrak setsuzokujoshi merupakan partikel yang menunjukkan hubungan kalimat dengan kalimat, serta mempunyai peran yang penting di dalam kalimat. yang menjadi ciri khas setsuzokujoshi adalah posisinya yang selalu terletak di antara dua kalimat. setsuzokujoshi yang merupakan bagian dari partikel, dalam bahasa jepang, memiliki banyak jenis. pada penelitian ini, peneliti akan membatasai penelitian pada penggunaan それから、そして、それに yang terdapat di dalam artikel artikel website surat kabar asahi.com. adapun metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode deskriptif dan metode kepustakaan. penelitian ini bermaksud untuk mengetahui fungsi dari setsuzokujoshi それから、そして、それ にdan apakah dapat saling menggantikan dalam sebuah kalimat dan bertujuan agar para pembelajar bahasa jepang dapat mengetahui persamaan dan perbedaan yang jelas antara sorekara, soshite, dan soreni, sehingga pembelajar bahasa jepang dapat menggunakannya dengan baik dan benar. setelah menganalisis data, penulis menemukan beberapa simpulan yaituそしてadalah penguatan masalah dari sebuah topik pembicaraan karena ada kesadaran dari pembicara. sering digunakan ketika menggabungkan sebuah topik pembicaraan. sedangkanそれからadalah tindakan menguatkan jenis secara berurutan. artinya, akan ada kegiatan kedua yang akan dilakukan atau terjadi setelah kegiatan pertama selesai dilakukan. それにmemiliki fungsi menambahkan hal lain kepada sebuah hal. karena それから memiliki fungsi yang hampir sama dengan そして, ada kemungkinan そしてdapat digantikan oleh それから atau sebaliknya. kata kunci: setsuzokushi, sorekara, soshite 17analisis penggunaan sorekara, ….. (rudi hartono manurung) pendahuluan ketika mempelajari bahasa jepang, seorang pasti akan berhadapan dengan partikel. partikel memiliki peran yang penting dalam membentuk suatu kalimat dan membuat arti dari kalimat tersebut makin jelas. adakalanya pembelajar bahasa jepang salah dalam menggunakan partikel dalam kalimat yang diucapkannya. secara garis besar, partikel (助詞) dalam bahasa jepang dibagi dalam empat jenis, yaitu: kakujoshi, fukujoshi, setsuzokujoshi dan shuujoshi. sudrajat (2001) menyebutkan sebagai berikut. setsuzokujoshi adalah partikel yang berfungsi untuk menghubungkan antara kata maupun kalimat. yang termasuk dalam kata bantu setsuzokujoshi adalah: ば、と、て も、けれど、が、のに、ので、から、し、て、なが ら、たり、ものの、ところで.setsuzokujoshi merupakan partikel yang menunjukkan hubungan kalimat dengan kalimat,serta mempunyai peran yang penting di dalam kalimat dan susunan wacana. ciri khas setsuzokujoshi adalah posisinya yang selalu terletak di antara dua kalimat. setsuzokujoshi yang merupakan bagian dari partikel dalam bahasa jepang memiliki banyak jenis. dalam penggunaanya, ada beberapa setsuzokujoshi yang memiliki fungsi dan arti yang hampir sama, misalnya konjungsi それから、そして、 それに、また、そのうえ、それで、dan lain lain. seperti contoh pada kalimat berikut ini. (a) 彼女は頭がよく有の能な秘書だ。{そして∕ それから}気立てもいい。 kanojo wa atama ga yoku yuunouna hishoda. {soshite/sorekara}kidate mo ii. dia wanita yang pintar dan sekretaris yang berbakat.{selain itu} sifatnya pun baik. (b) 連絡は以上です。….あ、{oそれから/?そ して/?それに}次回の予定は9日です。 renraku wa ijou desu. ….a.{o sorekara/soshite/ soreni} jikai no yotei wa kokonoka desu. pemberitahuan dari saya cukup. …oh iya,{lalu} rencana berikutnya tanggal 9. (iori, takanashi, nakanishi, & yamada, 2001:208) penelitian ini bermaksud untuk mengetahui fungsi dari setsuzokujoshi それから、そして、それに. kemudian penelitian juga ingin mengetahui apakah それか ら、そして、それに dapat saling menggantikan dalam sebuah kalimat dan pada situasi atau kondisi bagaimana dapat digunakan. sedangkan manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah agar para pembelajar bahasa jepang dapat mengetahui persamaan dan perbedaan yang jelas antara sorekara, soshite, dan soreni, sehingga pembelajar bahasa jepang dapat menggunakannya dengan baik dan benar. metode dalam penelitian penulis menggunakan metode deskriptif dan metode kepustakaan. metode deskriptif adalah metode dengan cara kerja membahas suatu masalah dengan menata dan mengklasifikasikan serta memberi penjelasan tentang gejala-gejala yang tampak pada data tanpa melakukan pengujian. sementara yang dimaksud dengan metode kepustakaan yaitu cara pengumpulan data yang dilakukan terhadap sejumlah naskah tertulis yang merupakan korpus data. dalam penelitian ini metode deskriptif dilakukan pada tahap penelitian data sedangkan metode kepustakaan dilakukan pada tahap pengumpulan data. kajian teori sorekara, soshite, soreni ishikawa (1978) dalam setsuzokushi soshite, sorekara, soreni, sonoue no youhou mengatakan bahwa jumlah dasar titik kalimat di bagi dalam delapan jenis klausa sebagai berikut: 市川1978の 分類(ぶんるい)によれば、 文の連接関係(れんせつかんけい)の基本的類型(き ほんてきるいけい)は八つ(順接型(じゅんせつが た)、逆接型(ぎゃくせつがた)、添加型(てんかが た)、対比型(たいひかた)、転換型(てんかんがた) 、同列型(どうれつかた)、補足型(ほそくかた)、連 鎖型(れんさがた))に分けるが、「そして」は「添 加型(てんかがた)」の「累加(るいか)、単純(たん じゅん)な添加(てんか)」に属(ぞく)し、「それか ら、それに、そのうえ」は「添加型(てんかがた)」 の「追加(ついか)」に属(ぞく)するとされている。 terjemahan: “menurut klasifikasi dari ichikawa 1978, jumlah dasar titik kalimat dibagi dalam delapan buah yaitu jenis klausa urutan, jenis klausa paradok, jenis penambahan,jenis kontras,jenis konversi, jenis berkategori sama, jenis tambahan, jenis berantai そして adalah jenis penambahan yang bersifat sederhana dan bersifat berulang ulang. sedangkan それから、それに、そのうえtermasuk jenis penambahan yang bersifat menambah.” sedangkan morita (1989) dalam setsuzokushi soshite, sorekara, soreni, sonoue no youhou melakukan analisis terhadap empat kata dan membaginya menjadi soshite (そして)、sorekara (それから) dan soreni (それ に)、sonoue (そのうえ) kemudian “soreni/sonoue (それ に/そのうえ) sorekara (それから)” dan “soreni/sonoue (それに/そのうえ) soshite (そして)” sebagai berikut: 「そして」は事柄(ことがら)の累加意識(る いかいしき)であるから、事柄(ことがら)の二重性( にじゅうせい)が強(つよ)まるのに対(たい)して、 「それに、そのうえ」は、ある事柄(ことがら)に他 (た)の事柄(ことがら)が累加(るいか)する意(い)で あるから、「それから」に置(お)き換(か)えること も可能(かのう)であるが、 「それから」は時間的 順序(じかんてきじゅんじょ)で展開(てんかい)して いく場合(ばあい)にも使用(しよう)できる。「それ に、そのうえ」は、事柄(ことがら)や話題(わだい) を累加(るいか)する説明的叙述(せつめいてきじょ じゅつ)として用(もち)いられる。接続助詞(せつぞ くじょし)「し」に通(つう)じる。これに対して、 「そして」は、一つの話題(わだい)で統一(とうい つ)されている時(とき)によく用(もち)いられ、接 続助詞(せつぞくじょし)「て」に通(つう)じる。 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 16-20 terjemahan: “そしてadalah penguatan masalah terhadap dualisme karena ada kesadaran komulatif terhadap masalah/ hal/perkara. それから adalah tindakan mengintensifkan/ menguatkan jenis secara berurutan. それに、そのうえ ada kemungkinan dapat digantikan oleh それから karena memiliki arti menambahkan hal lain kepada sebuah hal. それから dapat juga digunakan apabila mengembangkan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu.それに、その うえ digunakan sebagai pengutaraan penjelasan dalam menambahkan hal atau tema pembicaraan. bisa dipahami seperti「し」dalam setsuzokujoshi . berbeda dengan hal ini, そして sering digunakan ketika menyatukan sebuah topik pembicaraan. bisa pula dipahami seperti「て」dalam setsuzokujoshi.” hasil dan pembahasan berdasarkan analisis yang telah dilakukan terhadap kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung sorekara, soshite, soreni「それから, そして, それに」 yang terdapat dalam artikel pada surat kabar asahi shinbun dengan menggunakan teori ishikawa dan morita dan teori-teori pendukung lainnya, penelitian menemukan fungsi-fungsi sebagai berikut: analisis fungsi setsuzokushi sorekara「それから」 yang menunjukkan pengembangan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu data 1 僕(ぼく)たちの目標(もくひょう)は試合(し あい)に勝(か)つことだ。それから、シーズンの終( お)わりにどうなっているかを見(み)るよ。ただ、 最後(さいご)に勝(か)ってから、かなり時間(じか ん)が経(た)っているね。 terjemahan tujuan kami adalah memenangkan pertandingan. kemudian kita akan lihat kondisi di akhir musim nanti akan seperti apa. hanya saja karena kami menang di penghujung waktu pertandingan, berjalannya waktu terasa lumayan lama. analisis dari kalimat artikel tersebut, dapat dilihat bahwa ada dua hal yang disampaikan pada artikel tersebut. pertama mereka ingin memenangkan setiap pertandingan.kemudian pada bagian kedua mereka akan melihat kondisi akhir musim untuk menentukan langkah berikutnya. pada artikel setelah kalimat pertama selesai dilanjutkan dengan kata それから. dengan dimasukkannya それから untuk menghubungkan kedua hal ini maka それからyang seperti ini berfungsi untuk menunjukkan pengembangan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu. urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu pada artikel dapat dilihat pada mereka ingin menyelesaikan pertandingan (kegiatan pertama) baru kemudian memikirkan akhir musim liga (kegitan kedua yang ingin mereka gapai setelah kegiatan pertama dilakukan). dengan melihat hal ini makin jelas fungsi それから yang menunjukkan pengembangan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu. hal ini juga didukung dengan teori iori yang mengatakan それから berfungsi untuk mengurutkan atau menambahkan hal atau kegiatan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan setsuzokushi pada setsuzokushi sorekara「それから」dalam data dapat dilihat sebagai berikut. data 2 faカップは常(つね)に難(むずか)しいもの だと思(おも)っている。レスターは最初(さいしょ) の20分間(ふんかん)で良(よ)いプレーをしたが、 それから我々(われわれ)のプレーが良(よ)くなっ た。 terjemahan seperti biasa fa cup adalah hal yang sulit untuk dicapai. pada 20 menit awal pertandingan,pemain bermain baik. kemudian permainan mereka semakin lebih baik lagi analisis dalam kutipan percakapan diatas terlihat bahwa mereka mengatakan bahwa fa cup adalah sebuah pertandingan yang sulit untuk dimenangkan. pada awal awal pertandingan para pemain bermain baik. setelah kalimat ini selesai dilanjutkan dengan それから.それから di sini berfungsi untuk menunjukkan pengembangan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu. urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu pada artikel dapat dilihat pada kalimat pertama yang mengatakan pertandingan dimenit awal yang berjalan baik (kegiatan pertama) kemudian permainan makin baik (kegiatan kedua yang terjadi setelah kegiatan yang kedua) hal ini juga sesuai dengan iori yang mengatakan そ れから berfungsi untuk mengurutkan atau menambahkan hal atau kegiatan. bagan pembuktian fungsi setsuzokushi sorekara「 それから」dalam data dapat dilihat seperti berikut. analisis fungsi setsuzokushi soshite 「そして」yang menunjukkan penyatuan sebuah topik pembicaraan 昭和(しょうわ)11年(ねん)、昭和(しょう わ)30年代(ねんだい)、そして現代(げんだい) と、時代(じだい)が変(か)わっても同(おな)じよう に悩(なや)み、愛(あい)し、ひたむきに生(い)きる 19analisis penggunaan sorekara, ….. (rudi hartono manurung) 女性(じょせい)たちの歩(あゆ)みは、さらに未来( みらい)へとつながっていく…。 terjemahan sejak tahun 11 showa ,tahun showa 30-an dan masa sekarang, meskipun jaman berganti,sama seperti sebelumnya, kesulitan, cinta yang mewarnai perjalanan para wanita yang sungguh-sungguh dalam hidupnya adalah semakin menghubungkan mereka dengan masa depan. analisis artikel bercerita tentang kondisi wanita dari jaman ke zaman. dimulai dari tahun 11 showa ke masa 30 showa kemudian masa sekarang. di sini terlihat jelas bahwa topiknya adalah masa atau zaman tentang keberadaan wanita. meskipun terjadi pada zaman yang berbeda, pada umumnya kondisi para wanita ini tidaklah berbeda, maka penulis artikel ini mencoba menggabungkan zaman yang berbeda beda ini menjadi satu topik. meskipun berbeda beda, temanya sama yaitu zaman, penulis artikel ini mencoba menggabungkan topik tersebut menjadi satu kesatuan dengan menggunakan kata soshite yang artinya “dan” sehingga topik ini menjadi satu kesatuan. fungsi そし て ini juga didukung oleh pernyataan iori yang menyatakan bahwa salah satu fungsinya adalah menggabungkan sebuah topik pembicaraan. pembuktian fungsi setsuzokushi soshite 「そして」dalam data dapat dilihat pada bagan berikut. 次(つぎ)に成功(せいこう)したのはそれから 1週間(しゅうかん)たっていたが、数(すう)日(に ち)で成功(せいこう)率(りつ)は9割(わり)にまで 上(あ)がっていた。そして迎(むか)えた本番(ほん ばん)。高(たか)い成功(せいこう)率(りつ)でも不 安(ふあん)はあった。 terjemahan berikutnya adalah waktu yang telah berjalan seminggu setelah sukses, tetapi beberapa hari kemudian taraf kesuksesan telah meningkat menjadi 90%. kemudian bersiap menghadapi pertandingan sesungguhnya. meskipun dengan taraf kesuksesan kami di level yang sangat tinggi, rasa khawatir itu masih ada pada diri kami. analisis dalam artikel tersebut tim sepak bola yang akan bertanding sudah mempersiapkan diri melalui latihan yang serius. akan tetapi, mereka tetap merasa khawatir terhadap pertandingan yang sesungguhnya. hal itu ditunjukkan dengan penggunaan kata “ 成功(せいこう)率( りつ)でも不安(ふあん)はあった”.meskipun masih ada rasa khawatir sebenarnya mereka sudah bersiap menghadapi pertandingan sebenarnya. mereka sudah bersiap karena taraf kesuksesan persiapan mereka sudah 90%. setelah persiapan adalah menghadapi pertandingan. karena persiapan dan pertandingan adalah satu tema topik yang sama maka そして berfungsi untuk menyatukan tema tersebut. fungsi そして yang seperti ini juga didukung oleh pernyataan iori yang menyatakan bahwa salah satu fungsinya adalah menggabungkan sebuah topik pembicaraan. pembuktian fungsi setsuzokushi soshite「そし て」dalam data dapat dilihat pada bagan berikut. analisis fungsi setsuzokushi soreni 「それに」yang menunjukkan pengutaraan penjelasan dalam menambahkan hal atau tema pembicaraan 本当に偉大な指揮官の一人だ」 「それに、 一緒に練習し、プレーできた、多くの素晴らしい選 手たちもいる。彼らと分かち合った経験は、生涯忘 れないよ。 terjemahan dia salah satu kapten yang benar-benar hebat. selain itu, kami berbagi pengalaman yang sama dalam latihan, bisa bermain, juga banyak pemain hebat. dengan mereka, saya tidak akan lupa seumur hidup. analisis dalam artikel tersebut seorang pemain memuji seorang kapten tim. ternyata selain memuji dian juga mengutarakan berbagai pengalamannya bermain bersama kapten tim tersebut dan tidak akan melupakan kenangan tersebut. jika dilihat dari konteks, sebenarnya pemain ini pada awalnya kagum lalu dia menambahkan hal di luar pujian bahkan dia memberikan penjelasan dari hal-hal hebat yang dilakukan bersama. untuk memperjelas dan menambahkan hal lain dari tema pembicaraannya dia menggunakan kata それに yang berfungsi untuk memberikan penjelasan dan menambahkan hal. hal ini pun didukung oleh iori yang mengatakan bahwa salah satu fungsi soreni adalah penjelasan dari sebuah topik pembicaraan. pembuktian fungsi setsuzokushi soreni 「それに」dalam data dapat dilihat pada bagan berikut. 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.1 mei 2013: 16-20 今季のビッグチーム相手の記録(きろく)は衝 撃的(しょうげきてき)なものがある。それにナポリ の高速カウンターの前には、スピードに欠ける年老 いたチェルシーは多くの問題を抱えることになる。 terjemahan ada kejutan catatan rekor dari lawan tim-tim besar musim ini. selain itu napoli yang memiliki serangan balik berkecepatan tinggi akan menjadi masalah besar bagi chelsea yang memiliki pemain tua dan tidak memiliki kecepatan. analisis dalam artikel tersebut dikatakan ada sebuah catatan rekor dari sebuah tim yang bernama napoli. ternyata napoli ini bukan hanya memiliki catatan rekor saja tetapi juga tim yang memiliki pemain dengan kecepatan yang luar biasa dan akan membuat tim lawan harus waspada. jika dilihat dari konteks, sebenarnya tim ini pada awalnya dikatakan hanya memiliki kecepatan saja. namun setelah penjelasan pertama, muncul sebuah penjelasan tambahan. untuk memperjelas dan menambahkan hal lain dari tema pembicaraannya dia menggunakan kata それに yang berfungsi untuk memberikan penjelasan dan menambahkan hal. hal ini pun didukung oleh iori yang mengatakan bahwa salah satu fungsi soreni adalah penjelasan dari sebuah topik pembicaraan. pembuktian fungsi setsuzokushi soreni 「それに」pada data dapat dilihat pada bagain berikut. simpulan setelah menganalisis data, penulis menemukan beberapa simpulan mengenai そしてyaitu そしてadalah penguatan masalah dari sebuah topik pembicaraan karena ada kesadaran dari pembicara. そして sering digunakan ketika menyatukan atau menggabungkan sebuah topik pembicaraan. namun ada pula fungsi lainnya yaitu menunjukkan urutan kegiatan atau peristiwa. sedangkanそれか らadalah tindakan menguatkan jenis secara berurutan. artinya, akan ada kegiatan kedua yang akan dilakukan atau terjadi setelah kegiatan pertama selesai dilakukan. artinyaそれから dapat digunakan apabila mengembangkan urutan kegiatan berdasarkan waktu. それにmemiliki fungsi menambahkan hal lain kepada sebuah hal. karena それから memiliki fungsi yang hampir sama dengan そ して, ada kemungkinan そしてdapat digantikan oleh そ れから atau sebaliknya. sedangkan それに tidak dapat mengantikanそれから atau そしてkarena それにhanya penambahan hal atau tema lainnya terhadap hal atau tema pertama yang sifatnya penguatan saja. daftar pustaka iori i., takanashi s., nakanishi k., & yamada t. (2001). nihongo bunpou handbook. tokyo: 3a corporation. masuoka, t., & takubo, y (1993). kiso nihongo bunpou. tokyo: kuroshio shuppan. sudrajat, a. (2001). tata bahasa jepang lengkap. bandung: pionir jaya. yang, x., & toshiomi, b. (2004). 接続詞「そして,それ から,それに,そのうえ」の用法 (on the usage of japanese conjunctive words soshite, sorekara, soreni, sonoue). journal of hokkaido university of education, sect. humanities and social science, 54(2), 27-42. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 395 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 395-403 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4582 the role of grammarly in assessing english as a foreign language (efl) writing muhammad ali ghufron1; fathia rosyida2 1english education department, faculty of languages and arts education, ikip pgri bojonegoro 2indonesian language education department, faculty of languages and arts education, ikip pgri bojonegoro jl. panglima polim 46, bojonegoro, east java, indonesia 1ali.ghufron@ikippgribojonegoro.ac.id; 2fathia_rosyida@ikippgribojonegoro.ac.id received: 25th april 2018 /revised: 01st may 2018 /accepted: 23rd may 2018 how to cite: ghufron, m. a., & rosyida, f. (2018). the role of grammarly in assessing english as a foreign language (efl) writing. lingua cultura, 12(4), 395-403. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4582 abstract this research aimed at investigating the use of grammarly software and in what terms it was more effective in reducing students’ errors in efl writing compared to teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback). this research used the quantitative approach with a quasi-experimental design. there were 40 university students from english education study program of a private university in indonesia who were selected and randomized clustered into two; experimental and control groups. the students were tested at the beginning and the end of the research. the quantitative data were analyzed by using t-test formula. the results of the research confirm that the students whose work is evaluated by using grammarly have a significant reduction in their errors compared to those whose work is evaluated by the teacher (indirect corrective feedback). the software is shown to be more effective to reduce the errors in terms of vocabulary usages (diction), language use (grammar), and mechanics of writing (spelling and punctuation). however, it is less effective to improve the content and organization of students’ efl writing. this research can suggest efl/esl teachers with an alternative assessment for students’ writing that supports an autonomous learning environment. keywords: grammarly software, english as a foreign language (efl) writing, indirect corrective feedback, teacher corrective feedback introduction the rapid development of technology has caused significant changes in human’s life. a computer has been regarded as a revolution affecting all areas of human life, including education, throughout history. in the traditional view of learning, the teaching and learning activity was done both by the teacher and the learners through face-to-face manner (qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016; talebinezhad & abarghoui, 2013). today’s learners are well-known as digital natives or members of the net generation. they are born in the digital age and have been interacting with digital technology from an early age (arteaga sánchez, cortijo, & javed, 2014; prensky, 2001, 2010; tapscott & williams, 2008, 2010; thompson, 2013). nowadays, students may not join a teaching and learning process by attending a classroom. some educational institutions have already provided a blended learning course and even online learning course. through the blended or online learning, the students can easily access the materials from their teachers. by using smartphone or computers, students can easily input their assignments into an online form, which is then sent to a spreadsheet. the teacher can then easily assess assignments manually as well as by using a variety of automated grammar/language tools (schraudner, 2013). one of the challenges faced by efl teachers in this digital era is integrating technology into the efl classroom as an effect of globalization. besides, the teachers must be able to make the students participate in this global written english-language culture. in an efl writing class, it is a natural extension to provide students with opportunities for authentic foreign language interaction through technology (daniels & leslie, 2013). in this case, in efl writing class, the teachers may use sophisticated software to check students’ grammatical errors, spelling, vocabulary usages, punctuation, and even plagiarism action. to improve students’ efl writing, some efforts have been done by teachers. the teachers have implemented various teaching techniques, corrective feedbacks, and automatic internet software (daniels & leslie, 2013; dodgson et al., 2016; godwin, 2016; jafarian, soori, & kafipour, 2012; qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). the internet has been widely used as a potential tool in 396 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 395-403 facilitating learning and processing information. it can encourage learners to change their mind to be the person in charge of their own learning and perceive the teachers as facilitators in the teaching and learning process (kabilan & rajab, 2010). teachers, in this digital era, are familiar with some computer software (automatic internet software) to help them in their teaching and learning process, such as wiki, facebook, ms. word computer software, grammarly software, and others (kabilan, ahmad, & abidin, 2010; kuteeva, 2011; melor & salehi, 2012; yunus, salehi, & chenzi, 2012; yunus et al., 2011). one of the computer software (automatic internet software) that can be implemented in efl writing class is ‘grammarly’. it is an online proofreading website that can be used to scan documents for grammar mistakes. besides, it also provides a correction for spelling, punctuation, synonyms (vocabulary usages), and plagiarism detection. as schraudner (2013) states: “….. it also offers style-specific correction for a variety of different types of writing. in this particular study, the “student/academia” setting was used to assess student writing samples. the site also offers “context optimized synonyms” and an “adaptive spell checker” which claim to offer both spelling and word choice suggestions based on content. another feature of the site is plagiarism detection, which checks writing against a database of eight billion web pages.” grammarly software is effective to help teachers and learners in correcting efl writing. it is because grammarly is not only able to identify punctuation (such as the missing spaces after the periods) and the spelling mistakes, including the proper noun and provided several alternative possibilities for the misspelled words, but also identify fragments and offer advice on verb form, although often no suggested corrections are presented, and explanations were complex (daniels & leslie, 2013). another most common way, which has been used for many years, to correct students’ errors in efl writing is teacher corrective feedback. feedback is a traditional instructional tool for writing the course to improve the students’ writing skill. it can be used to highlight the errors in efl writing tasks, i.e., grammatical errors, spelling errors, diction errors, and so on (wichadee, 2013). corrective feedback is widely used by teachers to educate students’ inductively, by criticizing and providing comments on students’ work. corrective feedback has become a necessity for all educators and students, and it has been carried out for centuries throughout students’ learning, either in their exercise books, exam papers, or throughout the lesson itself (dodgson et al., 2016). in efl classroom, especially efl writing, corrective feedback (cf) is an inevitable teaching strategy implemented by teachers. several researches have revealed that corrective feedback is effective; however, it seems to have a variety of issues that have caused it to be unsuccessful. the students are still having difficulties in dealing with and learning from the corrective feedback itself. when they have to deal with complex linguistic errors all by themselves, they could not cope with their errors as they do not have sufficient linguistic knowledge to facilitate them (dodgson et al., 2016; van beuningen, de jong, & kuken, 2012). there are many types of corrective feedback. one of them is indirect corrective feedback. according to bitchener, young, and cameron (2005), indirect corrective feedback is where the students are given indications (highlighted parts) by their teacher on errors that have been made by the students. the indications are given in different ways such as highlighting, underlining, or coding. after the teacher gives the indirect feedback, the students will make self-correction and self-reformulation. self-correction is the learner’s ability to correct the errors by themselves (firth, 1987). self-reformulation is where students’ reformulate, by themselves, the correct version of the sentences that have an error. consequently, this provokes students’ cognitive beliefs and boosts their learning (tocalli-beller & swain, 2005). in indonesia, efl writing course in higher education, especially in english education department, is a compulsory course. efl writing course takes a lot of portion in teaching and learning process. this is because writing also becomes one of the requirements before the students graduate from their institutions (ghufron et al., 2016). therefore, to help the students in order to be able to meet the requirements, they are given a writing course during their study. although the students have been taught a writing course and various techniques have been implemented by teachers, it does not mean that they do not have difficulties when they write their final project. most of the students commonly have a problem with the grammatical aspect, vocabulary usages, misspelling words, and incorrect punctuation. these problems are also agreed by the students as they stated below: “… yeah, sometimes we are still confused by our grammar during efl writing”. (aw) “… not only grammar, we often get confused with the choice of words, and we also frequently ignore the punctuation, therefore, the meaning of our sentences is ambiguous”. (anr) “….spelling. yeah, spelling is sometimes a thing that we do not pay attention to. actually, we know the correct spelling, but frequently it is a typo”. (afm) to deal with the above-mentioned of students’ problems, this research is intended to examine the effectiveness of grammarly in reducing the errors made by the students in terms of grammar, vocabulary usages, and mechanics (spelling and punctuation). this grammarly is compared to teacher’s corrective feedback. teacher’s corrective feedback is done manually through students’ paper. the teacher gives some comments and notes dealing with the students’ writing. the teacher highlights the paper when it is found some mistakes there. this research would enable educators and researchers to identify and comprehend how computer software such as grammarly could contribute to english language learning. in addition, people could have a better picture of how efl learners could improve their language ability through online software, especially in terms of writing. with such knowledge, researchers and practitioners will be able to devise and develop specific, appropriate, and creative pedagogical ideas or methods that make effective use of grammarly for efl learning. the researchers find many types of research dealing with the use of online software/computer software in teaching and learning process, including efl writing class. there are also many articles with different length and depth in the use of online learning such as the use of fb for efl writing, the use of online grammar checkers such as grammarly, ginger, ms. word, and many more, appear in various educational as well as personal pages. 397the role of grammarly.. (muhammad ali ghufron; fathia rosyida) those articles discuss the effectiveness, the advantages and disadvantages of using computer software, the reasons to use computer software in teaching and learning process, and so on (see razak, saeed, & ahmad, 2013; naba’h et al., 2009; barani, 2011; chappelle, 2004; daniels & leslie, 2013; fageeh, 2011; qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). all the above articles indicate that the use of certain computer software has great potentials for efl learning, especially in the higher education context. hence, the researchers concur with the view of daniels & leslie (2013) that grammar checker tools and platforms such as grammarly and ginger, “that such kind of tools can help us to be a better writer” and become a new site for potential research (bloch, 2008; daniels & leslie, 2013; qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). however, there are only a few researches focus on the use of grammar checker tools. qassemzadeh and soleimani (2016) have revealed that the use of grammarly is effective in helping students in reducing the errors of efl writing. it can identify the errors are made by the students and propose the alternative answers. ware and warschauer (2006) have said that electronic feedback is a term which is used across different approaches to the teaching of writing. when the purposes of literacy take on different meanings and use in a range of contexts, so do the uses of technology come to bear in a variety of ways depending on the research lens and pedagogical frame. giving feedback to the learners can enhance their self-confidence to do their best to succeed. teacher’s feedback is the teacher’s verbal reaction to grammatical errors committed by the learners in the process of teaching and learning (prvinchandar & ayub, 2014). some researches are explaining how corrective feedback and selfcorrection impedes students’ improvement in efl writing. for example, ghandi & maghsoudi (2014) have revealed that indirect corrective feedback is more effective than direct feedback in correcting spelling errors. furthermore, ahmadi-azad (2014) has concluded that indirect corrective feedback has a positive influence on learners’ accuracy of using grammatical structures. storch & wigglesworth (2010) have also confirmed that indirect corrective feedback facilitates better writing accuracy compared to direct corrective feedback. it is also found that indirect corrective feedback is effective as it allows students to have deeper processing of the language, hence, improving grammatical accuracy compared to direct corrective feedback. while maleki & eslami (2013) have found that indirect corrective feedback group is better than direct corrective feedback group in term of delayed posttest. indirect corrective feedback and self-correction involve students’ engagement. in indirect corrective feedback and self-correction, the students need to be actively involved in learning by doing extra work cognitively. on the other hand, in the direct corrective feedback, the students are merely directly shown where errors occur and are provided the correct input straight away. the work of indirect corrective feedback requires immense cognitive engagement and social interaction (ahmadi-azad, 2014). in dealing with and learning from indirect corrective feedback, the students must be intelligent, since the nature of corrective feedback guides students through indications and trains them to solve problems, leading them towards discovery learning (chandler, 2003). decoding and doing inductive referencing are two things that must be done by students before comprehending what type of feedback the teacher is providing and why it is given (vickers, 2001). methods this research is carried out in english education study program, faculty of languages and arts education of ikip pgri bojonegoro, east java, indonesia. ikip pgri bojonegoro is the first higher institution in bojonegoro regency which focuses on educational field. english education is one of the leading study programs in this institution. in this research, 40 out of 60 students of the third semester were involved that are selected through cluster random sampling technique. since this research uses a quasi-experimental design, the subjects are divided into two groups, experimental and control group. each group consists of 20 students. the selection to become the experimental and control group is done through cluster random sampling. the two groups, then, are treated by using the different treatment. the students in the experimental group are treated by using grammarly software. in the initial of the teaching and learning process of efl writing course, they are introduced to what grammarly software is. they are trained on how to operate or use the software to rectify their writing in terms of grammatical errors, vocabulary usages, and mechanics (spelling and punctuation). after they have clearly understood how to operate this software, then, they are asked to use it in efl writing course for one semester. they are also asked to save the original text they have written and the revised version after corrected by using grammarly. this is done in order to know the improvement they have made in efl writing in one semester. in this case, the students are independently asked to check their writing with the help of grammarly. the teacher is merely as a facilitator. at last, the students submit their work to the teacher to be assessed. on the contrary, the students in the control group are treated by using teacher indirect corrective feedback. in this case, after the students write a text (in term of pencil and paper test), they must submit their work to the teacher. the teacher, then, checks and reads the students’ writing. when the teacher finds some mistakes in terms of grammar, vocabulary usages, and mechanics, she/he makes an indication by highlighting the errors and gives some notes on it. then, the paper is returned to the students and the students independently decode the teacher’s corrective feedback and revise their work based on the teacher’s notes. the last, the paper is also returned to the teacher to be assessed. the instrument used in this research is the writing test. arikunto (2004) defines that test is, “a set of questions or exercises or other means used to measure skill, knowledge, intelligence, ability, or talent of an individuals or group of people”. based on the definition, the test is a profile of the research results in the written form. this profile is then used to know the standard of students’ achievement. for educators, this profile will be used to determine the next learning process. in administering a test, it is important to set and determine an understandable instruction. the essay writing test is administered at the end of the semester. the test is in the form of the essay writing. for the experimental group, the essay writing must be written in ms. word file, since it will be evaluated by using grammarly software. on the contrary, the students’ essay must be written in a piece of paper since it will be evaluated conventionally by using teacher corrective feedback. before administering a test to the students, the researchers should firstly check the readability of the instrument. readability is defined as reading ease, especially 398 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 395-403 as it results from a writing style. to know the readability of the writing test, the researchers, firstly, ask the students who are not the members of the experimental or control group to read and understand the instruction of the writing test. the validity and reliability of writing test instrument are validated by using expert judgment. budiyono (2004) mentions that to judge whether a test instrument has high validity, it is necessary to ask for expert’s opinion. the expert judgment is to know if the test is based on the given materials, if the test is understandable, if the test is based on the blueprint, and if the instruction is clear and understandable (budiyono, 2004). in this research, the expert judgment is done by consulting the test instruction to experts. the instruction of the test, then, is evaluated its readability and its suitability with blueprint and indicators. in administering a test, it is important to set and determine understandable instruction. it is necessary since there have been some cases in which students fail to do the test due to their inability to understand the given instruction. hughes (1996) mentions some factors to write good instruction. first, the instruction should be clear and explicit. second, it should avoid the supposition that all students know what is intended. third, the test writer should not rely on the students’ power of telepathy to elicit the desired behavior. the data of this research is taken from pre and posttest data. the pre-test data is used to know that the two groups come from the same condition (balance) and have the same starting point. results and discussions the findings of this research are presented in two sections, i.e., pre-test data and post-test data. based on the result of pre-test that is given to the samples and is conducted before treatment, it is found that the two groups are in balance condition. this balance condition is a condition in which that the two groups have the same starting point. this pre-test is focused on students’ initial skill in efl writing. the students are asked to write based on a certain topic. after that, the students’ efl writing is evaluated based on the five criteria, i.e., content, organization, diction, language use (grammar), and mechanics (spelling and punctuation). the students’ writing is scored analytically based on reid’s (1993) modified scoring rubric. the summary of the pre-test is presented in table 1. as it can be seen from table 1, the mean scores of the two groups are compared to know whether or not they have the same starting point (balance condition). the results clearly reveal that both groups are in balance condition (it can be seen from the value of tobs which is lower than ttable); therefore, the two groups can be used as the samples for the further research process. for the post-test data, after the samples are tested for the initial condition and are concluded that they are in balance condition, the researchers, then, treat them with different treatment in efl writing class. for the experimental group, the researchers implement the grammarly software in assessing and correcting students’ efl writing. in this case, table 1 the summary of pre-test results groups number of students (n) mean score normality test homogeneity test balance test (t-test) t-table (α=0,01) conclusion experimental 20 48,15 normal homogeneous 0,246 2,711 tobs2,024). therefore, it can be inferred that grammarly software is more effective in reducing students’ errors in efl writing compared to teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) to teach efl writing. it can give a better effect on students’ efl writing skill. from table 3, it is revealed that grammarly software gives the better effect on three indicators of efl writing, i.e., diction, language use (grammar), and mechanics (spelling and punctuation), but it gives less effect on content and organization. on the contrary, the teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) gives a better table 2 the summary of post-test results for all indicators of writing skill groups number of students (n) mean score normality test homogeneity test t-test (t-obs) t-table (α=0,05) conclusion experimental 20 79,58 normal homogeneous 2,415 2,024 tobs>ttable, ho is rejected control 20 74,83 normal homogeneous table 3 the summary of post-test results for each indicator of writing skill efl writing indicators (reid, 1993) groups number of students (n) mean score normality test homogeneity test t-test (t-obs) t-table (α=0.05) conclusion content experimental 20 20,58 normal homogeneous 1,517 2,024 tobsttable, h o is rejectedcontrol 20 15,65 normal homogeneous language use experimental 20 21,45 normal homogeneous 8,311 2,024 tobs>ttable, h o is rejected control 20 17,00 normal homogeneous mechanics experimental 20 7,00 normal homogeneous 2,517 2,024 tobs>ttable, h o is rejectedcontrol 20 5,75 normal homogeneous 400 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 395-403 effect on two indicators of efl writing, i.e., content and organization, but it has less effect on diction, language use, and mechanics. however, for overall indicators, it can be inferred that grammarly software is more effective than teacher corrective feedback. during the implementation of grammarly software, the students are asked to evaluate their own writing independently. this encourages them to get engaged deeply in teaching and learning process. this also makes them more motivated and have positive attitudes towards the use of online learning system (fageeh, 2011). this is in line with kabilan, ahmad, and abidin’s (2010) research which reveals that online learning could motivate students well. according to blattner and fiori (2009); gass and selinker (2008), students’ motivation is a “strong predictor of success in language classes”. moreover, the use of grammarly software in evaluating efl writing can make the students identify their writing mistakes in terms of vocabulary usages, language use, and mechanics clearly and directly. besides, this software also provides alternative answers (feedback provision) for their mistakes. the students can directly opt which answer suits best for their writing. therefore, after working with grammarly software several times, the students are able to identify and choose the correct diction, grammar, and mechanics. this makes their language skill, in this case, is writing skill, improves significantly. this research is also supported by the research findings of daniels & leslie (2013), they argue that grammarly is one of software that can be used in language learning, especially in assessing or evaluating efl writing, and can give the good contribution to the improvement of language skills. the feedback provision in grammarly gives the positive contribution that makes the students easily recognize their mistakes and improve their writing (qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). saadi & saadat (2015) reveal that that using electronic feedback such as grammarly software creates a less intimidating environment for students. further, they argue that electronic feedback fosters a student-centered environment in which students themselves are responsible for their own learning as well as their strengths and weaknesses in language skills. figure 2 shows the example of grammarly software using. it provides the optional answers or feedback provision. on the contrary, the students whose works are evaluated through teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) only look at the feedback in exam papers and exercise books after the teacher returns their works. this return cannot be done directly after the students submit their work. the teacher needs more time to read, evaluate, and correct students’ works. since this feedback is given by the teacher him/herself, sometimes the feedback is not comprehensive enough. it is because one teacher must correct and give feedback to a number of students’ works. however, sometimes the students do not make any effort to understand the indications of errors and comments given. the students will correct the results of their commented paper only when the teacher instructs them to do so. otherwise, they do not put the high emphasis on indirect corrective feedback given, and there is the weak effort in learning from the errors made (dodgson et al., 2016). saadi & saadat (2015) reveal that in teacher corrective feedback, the students feel ashamed if their work is corrected by their teacher because they sometimes make silly mistakes. from the explanation, it is understandable if the students whose works corrected through grammarly software have better efl writing skill than those whose works corrected by the teacher. the students who evaluate their works with the software have a significant reduction on the errors in efl writing. that is why their writing is significantly improved. therefore, it can be inferred that grammarly software is more effective in reducing students’ errors in efl writing compared to teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) to teach efl writing. to get more comprehensive data, this research also compares the use of grammarly software to teacher figure 2 the optional answers (feedback provision) provided by grammarly software 401the role of grammarly.. (muhammad ali ghufron; fathia rosyida) corrective feedback in all indicators of writing. those indicators are content, organization, vocabulary usages (diction), language use, and mechanics (reid, 1993). this is done in order to know whether or not the use of grammarly software more effective in reducing students’ errors in each indicator of efl writing compared to teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback). based on the result which is presented in table 3, it is clearly seen that the use of grammarly software is more effective in reducing errors on three indicators, i.e., diction, language use, and mechanics. this is because grammarly software can identify efl writing mistakes and/or errors in terms of vocabulary usages, language use, and mechanics clearly and directly. grammarly is also able to identify the missing spaces after the periods and the spelling mistakes, including the proper noun and provided several alternative possibilities (feedback provision) for the misspelled words. it also can identify fragments and offer advice on verb form (daniels & leslie, 2013). further, daniels & leslie (2013) argue that grammarly is one of software that can be used in language learning, especially in assessing efl writing and can give the good contribution to the improvement of language skills. the feedback provision in grammarly also gives the positive contribution that makes the students easily recognize their mistakes and improve their writing (qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). on the other hand, the use of grammarly software has less effect on the rest two indicators of writing, i.e., content and organization. based on this research, in this case, teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) is more effective than grammarly software. the students whose works evaluated by teacher corrective feedback tend to have better content and organization. this is because in grammarly software, the system cannot detect whether or not the content of students’ writing is appropriate with the topic. the system also has low detection on the sentence movement in each paragraph, whether the paragraph has a good coherence or not. on the contrary, teacher corrective feedback pays more attention to these aspects, content, and organization. it is because the corrector is the teacher by him/herself. the teacher will easily recognize if there is a gap between the topic and the content. the teacher also can feel sensitively if he/she finds that the paragraph has bad movement and bad coherence. if it is so, the teacher, then, highlights those parts and gives comments by writing some notes on students’ paper. the students who understand the feedback given by the teacher will try to revise their works based on the suggestion. however, they have to wait for their paper until it is returned in the next meeting. in fact, the teacher does evaluate not only the content and organization, but also the other three indicators, diction, language use, and mechanics. unfortunately, the students mostly get confused with the feedback given since the comments are sometimes not clear enough, and this makes them reluctant to revise their works. actually, if the teacher is very thorough in giving the feedback, the students’ errors may also be overcome, since the students will pay more attention to the comprehensive feedback given by the teacher. however, dodgson et al., (2016) argue that teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) is important to be implemented in efl writing class as it encourages students to find their weaknesses, understand their weaknesses, and find a solution to their weaknesses. through teacher corrective feedback, the students will learn a process of personal knowledge discovery of what they know and what they do not know. they will also be able to bridge the gap by finding the correct answer. the students will internalize what they have learned through the experience of finding the correct answer. conclusions to sum up the findings and discussion, it can be inferred that the use of grammarly software in efl writing gives positive contribution in reducing errors made by the students in terms of vocabulary usages (diction), language use (grammar), and mechanics (spelling and punctuation). it also encourages the students to be autonomous and independent learners as it requires the students to independently evaluate their own works with the help of feedback provision given by the system (qassemzadeh & soleimani, 2016). however, it is less effective in terms of two writing indicators, content and organization, as the system cannot detect whether or not the content of students’ writing is appropriate with the topic. the system also has low detection on the sentence movement in each paragraph, whether the paragraph has a good coherence or not. on the contrary, those two indicators, content, and organization are significantly improved when teacher corrective feedback (indirect corrective feedback) is implemented. the teacher will easily recognize if there is a gap between the topic and the content. the teacher also can feel sensitively if he/ she finds that the paragraph has bad coherence. however, in overall, the students whose works evaluated through grammarly software have better efl writing skill as the software can help them to reduce the errors they have made significantly. the negative finding is also found from this research. some of the students are not skillful enough in using grammarly software accurately. some of the students still get confused with the feedback provision given by the system. consequently, they could not optimally self-correct their works. this mostly happens to the case of grammatical feedback for long sentences. it is due to their low linguistic knowledge; therefore, they get confused with the options provided. van beuningen, de jong, and kuken (2012) assert that students with low linguistic knowledge may not be able to deal with the interlanguage process occurs during self-correction since they have limited knowledge in the english language that can help them in finding the correct answer. this reveals that not all internet software and websites are reliable enough to be referred to. without adequate knowledge and information, some websites could not give the direct correct answers needed by the users. the findings from this research have implications to the efl writing teachers and students. the teachers should ensure that the students are skillful enough to operate the grammarly software before they ask them to use it in teaching and learning process of efl writing. it will be better if the teachers guide the students on how to operate the software and give them adequate linguistic knowledge before operating the software. the students also should learn independently and make sure that they are ready to use the software and have adequate competence in the english language. when the students are operating the software to check their works, it is suggested for the teachers to go around the class to help them if they have difficulties. it is also suggested to the teachers to not only rely on the software as it cannot comprehensively evaluate all indicators of writing, but also evaluate the students’ works 402 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 395-403 through teacher corrective feedback thoroughly. teacher corrective feedback can be used to check the content and the organization of the students’ efl writing. references ahmadi-azad, s. 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(2012). integrating social networking tools into esl writing classroom: strengths and weaknesses. english language teaching, 5(8), 42–48. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt. v5n8p42. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 389 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 389-394 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4322 the form of arguments using argument reconstruction in online media articles hestiyani parai1; endry boeriswati2; miftahulkhaira anwar3 1,2,3language education, postgraduate program, universitas negeri jakarta jl. rawamangun muka rt. 11/ rw. 14, rawamangun, jakarta 13220, indonesia 1hesti.parai@gmail.com; 2endry.boeriswati@unj.ac.id; 3hera_unj@yahoo.co.id received: 22nd january 2018 /revised: 21st may 2018 /accepted: 11th july 2018 how to cite: parai, h., boeriswati, e., & anwar, m. (2018). the form of arguments using argument reconstruction in online media articles. lingua cultura, 12(4), 389-394. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4322 abstract this research aimed to identify the form of arguments in online media articles using argument reconstruction. the data were argumentative texts written in online media article in 2017 in www.hipwee.com, malesbanget.com, and www.idntimes.com. the data studied were 44 paragraphs consisting of 150 sentences. the approach used was qualitative approach by using content analysis method. this research used the triangulation technique (combination). the simultaneous data collection was coupled with data credibility tests with various data collection techniques and sources. meanwhile, means of documentation and content analysis techniques were done to collect the data. the results indicate that the often used reasonings in online media articles are the generalization in 11 paragraphs and categorical syllogism in 28 paragraphs. the results of this research can be used to find out and develop ways of writing online media articles for writers and readers of online media articles. keywords: arguments, argument reconstruction, online media articles introduction an argument cannot be separated from the use of language. it is because language is a communication tool to convey a message from communicator to communicant. as the argument proceeds, it is certain that the communicator will process the language to convey their message and give an opinion. it is impossible for the communicator to use a language that is not understood by the communicant. if it happens, the message or opinion will not be accepted by the communicant. in addition, people who want to argue must be good at choosing words so that the others can be affected. argumentation is a specific type of discourse that is often used in daily life (mochales & ieven, 2009). the study of argumentation is crucial in many areas of artificial intelligence and text processing research such as reasoning agents or discourse analysis. moreover, argumentation is a form of rhetoric that seeks to influence the attitudes and opinions of others, so they believe and act according to what is desired by the speaker (keraf, 2008). argumentation is also the process of making arguments intended to justify beliefs, attitudes, and values so it can affect others. the primary requirement to write an argument is that the writer must be skilled in reasoning and developing a logical idea (warnick et al. in ridhani, 2013). argumentation can also be a statement both in the forms of oral and written aiming to influence and convince the listener and reader with accompanying evidence of the truth of the opinion to agree with what is said by the speaker or the writer. the primary purpose of writing an argumentation is to convince the reader and to accept or assume certain doctrines, attitudes, and behaviors (finoza in tusriawati, saman, & martono, 2014). based on these explanations, an argument is a process for objective data, facts, or evidence so that the truth can be accepted. its activity includes identifying assumptions to conclusions as it is not much different from logic. it can be concluded that logic is the science of arguments and the argument itself is logic. the practical argument is associated with a set of critical thinking abilities. critical thinking involves the ability to examine problems, questions, or situations, to incorporate all available information about what is said, to make a solution or hypothesis, and to justify one’s position. the writer can point out evidence to substantiate the reasons given (ardianto, 2015). moreover, reasoning is the activity of regularly thinking by using a certain pattern of thinking (suriasumantri, 2015). therefore, thinking is not always logical such as daydreaming. daydreaming is a thinking activity that does not have a specific pattern. it means that someone who lies is doing a thinking activity. this is because the thing the person 390 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 389-394 does is the act done consciously and requires reasoning so the lie can be believed. good reasoning is necessary to expose ideas in discourse especially in scientific discourse (brown et al. in eriyanti, 2017). disclosure of ideas or topics by using good reasoning in the discourse is at various levels. those are sentences, fragments, and discourses that have characteristics in accordance with the capacity of each level. judging from its form, the argument is differentiated into two types. first, deductive reasoning is divided into five types. there are the generalization, structural analogy, metaphorical analogy, lending analogy, and causal relationship. second, inductive reasoning is divided into three types. there are a categorical syllogism, hypothesis syllogism, and alternative syllogism. in conducting an assessment of an argument, the researchers use the argument reconstruction method. implicit premises play a huge role in argumentative discourse (bigi & morasso, 2012). furthermore, they have also said that implicit premises are crucial aspects of arguments. therefore, the argumentation analyst has to be aware of their presence and could reconstruct them. the task of reconstruction does not only distinguish implicit and explicit information, but it also determines whether the language is an argument, and decides what statements are the premises and conclusions. four elements that enable the researchers to reconstruct arguments systematically are a perspective on argumentation, two discourse principles, an analysis of the rhetorical situation, and mode-specific theories (van den hoven & yang, 2013). reconstruction has the same step. the first thing a reader intents on reconstructing arguments is examining the excerpt to determine whether it contains an argument. on some occasions, terms that typically represent inferences allow this to be done. terms such as ‘thus’, ‘therefore’, and ‘accordingly’ can alert the readers to the likely presence of inference and argument. if the syntactical cues are present, they are likely to be used. after determining that an argument is present in a text, the researchers need to determine what exactly the argument is. some process is needed to do this has already been accomplished. however, there is also an unfinished process. the next step is to find the missing premise if the conclusion is not written clearly (katzav & reed, 2008). reconstruction has the following steps. those are identifying discourse (whether there are arguments in a paragraph); identifying the type of argument; identifying premise/conclusion reconstruction; and reconstructing the explicitly represented statements/identifying meaning (cummings, 1999). as explained earlier, the argument is a process of thinking, and the outcome of this thought process can affect a person. for example, it is online media articles in www.hipwee.com, malesbanget.com, and www. idntimes.com. an argument does not only influence, but it is also capable of changing one’s thinking patterns. for example, there is an article entitled how to handle life, for those who have came into adulthood. the article does not include the theoretical sources or survey results of a study related to the title. it may not affect readers who do not read the article. almost all readers agree with the contents. this suggests that an argument, even without a clear source, it can affect the reader. based on this, an argument is related to persuasion. in articles writing, arguments expressed by the writer contain persuasive tone to influence the reader in believing the article. methods this research incorporates a qualitative research with content analysis method. the review in this research is expected to reveal the pattern of argumentation in online media articles. in this research, argument reconstruction is a tool to analyze data. the data of this research are 44 paragraphs consisting of 150 sentences from www. hipwee.com, malesbanget.com, and www.idntimes.com. the researchers choose these three websites based on the top four rating that they earn in the top 10 ranking sites. hipwee, malesbanget.com, and idntimes have earned the second until fourth ratings. moreover, the analysis is conducted from june 2017 to september 2017. there are several steps in analyzing the data. first, there is data collection which includes collecting research object, observing the data, grouping the data in each paragraph and sentence based on the discourse in the form of argumentation, explanation, narrative, and others. second, data reduction includes data classification. third, data presentation consists of determining the premise or conclusion that has been listed or unlisted in the data. fourth, the conclusion is the presentation to the conclusion of the answer to the formulation and a sub-focus of research problems. it is in the form of arguments in the online media articles. results and discussions the data consists of some paragraphs. the paragraph consists of several sentences that all components are formed with a specific purpose. to be a good paragraph, the writer requires good reasoning in compiling it. this research explains the form of arguments used by the writers of online media articles using the reconstruction of the argument. the data found in research online media articles published from june 2017 september 2017 are shown in table 1. table 1 types of reasoning types of reasoning total (paragraph) % inductive 16 34% deductive 28 56% total 44 100% (source: mundiri, 2016) based on table 1, it can be seen that from the 50 paragraphs studied. there are 16 paragraphs with inductive reasoning. then, about 44 paragraphs are deductive reasoning. about 6 paragraphs are not argument paragraphs. meanwhile, from the perspective of argument reconstruction, the data found are in table 2. from table 2, it can be seen that from 150 sentences analyzed. there are 16 sentences which have complete argument reconstruction (id, ia, ip, im). however, 134 sentences do not have the argument reconstruction stage. about 109 sentences only have id and ia, and 25 sentences are up to the third stage of reconstruction argument (id, ia, and ip). then, there are several reasonings represented in table 1. it is inductive reasoning. inductive reasoning is a procedure that stems from a particular event as a result of 391the form of arguments... (hestiyani parai et al.) observation. it may also be an opinion that refers to a general conclusion or new knowledge. based on the results of data analysis performed, there are 16 paragraphs in inductive reasoning. the results are in table 3. table 2 argument reconstruction argument reconstruction complete total less total id ia ip im id ia ip im √ √ √ √ 16 √ √ 109 √ √ √ 25 total 16 134 total 150 (source: cummings, 1999) description: id: identify discourse ia: identify argument ip: identify premise im: identify meaning table 3 types of inductive reasoning types of inductive reasoning total % generalization 12 73% structural analogy 0 0 metaphorical analogy 0 0 lending analogy 0 0 causal relation 4 27% total 16 100% (source: mundiri, 2016) generalization is a process of reasoning from some individual phenomena to a general conclusion that binds all similar phenomena to the individual phenomenon under investigation (irving in mundiri, 2016). individual phenomena as the basis of inductive reasoning in this discussion are in the form of propositions (statements). there are 12 paragraphs found. the types of generalizations found in this research are many. firstly, it is an inductive jump. an inductive jump comes from several facts. however, the facts used do not reflect the entire phenomenon (keraf, 2008). the data found with this inductive jump is seven paragraphs. for example, there is an article entitled pro-kontra soal perempuan yang berpendidikan tinggi. bagaimana pendapatmu? (pros and cons of highly educated women. what do you think?) in paragraph: jadi, buat kamu para perempuan yang ingin bersekolah tinggi, sekolahlah! kalau ada obrolanobrolan tak enak didengar, yang perlu kamu lakukan adalah menutup rapat dua telingamu. buktikan kalau keputusanmu tidaklah salah. tapi ingatlah, pendidikan tinggimu bukan berarti membuatmu bisa berbuat semena-mena terhadap sesamamu. perempuan terdidik tidak seperti itu. jadilah perempuan yang berdikari, tapi tetap menaati kodrat yang dimiliki. (so, for women who want to go to high school, go! if there are unpleasant words, all you have to do is close your ears. you have to prove that your decision is not wrong. however, you have to remember that with higher education, it does not mean that you can treat others indiscriminately. educated women are not like that. be independent women, but still obey the natural role she has.) this paragraph is said to be a generalization. it is because the last sentence in this paragraph is the main sentence, which is, “be independent women, but still obey the natural role she has.” this sentence is the main sentence because it summarizes all sentences in the paragraph, from the first sentence about the school to giving advice not to listen to those who discriminate and ask women to remain natural. seeing the facts in the paragraph, the first sentence emphasizes the reader to continue reading. however, this sentence has not represented the whole issue in the paragraph. the argument reconstruction in this paragraph is its identification of the meaning. there is ambiguity in the second sentence that is, “if there are unpleasant words, all you have to do is close your ears tightly.” this sentence gives a way to ignore those who discriminate by closing the ears. closing the ears not only means completely covering the ears but also ignoring the words of those people. second, it is without inductive jumps. generalization contains sufficient and convincing facts, so there is no chance to argue (keraf, 2008). the data found with the type of generalization reasoning is in five paragraphs. for example, it is in the article entitled jenis ‘virus’ yang kini mulai menggerogoti generasi muda indonesia. bikin prihatin asli! (the ‘virus’ type that is now beginning to weaken indonesia’s young generation. so pathetic!) in paragraph: jadikan hidup penuh dengan pengorbanan. semakin menjadi hartawan, semakin pula bertambah dermawan. semakin terkenal, maka ia pun semakin menjadi teladan. semakin tinggi suatu jabatan, semakin kebermanfaatan dan kemaslahatan yang selalu dipikirkan. (make life full of sacrifices. the richer you are, the more generous you become. the more famous you are, the more you become an example. the higher position you have, the more usefulness and welfare you can provide.) it begins with a special sentence because this sentence has not given the main idea of this paragraph yet. the main sentence in this paragraph is found in the last sentence of the paragraph. it sums up the whole paragraph from the sacrifice and generosity. the last sentence unites the four sentences into, “the higher position you have, the more usefulness and welfare you can provide”. the argument reconstruction in this paragraph is there must be a sacrifice in life. the richer a person is, the more worthy he is. thus, whoever the person is, he must make a sacrifice. the richer he is, or the higher position he has, he needs more sacrifices. however, it does not mean that those who are not wealthy or famous do not need to sacrifice. it is different for each person. secondly, the causal relationship is reasoning obtained through interconnected phenomena or a dependent relationship between two or more things (keraf, 2008). it means a result will occur if there is the cause. the causal relationship can take place in three patterns, namely cause to effect, effect to cause, and effect to effect. the data is found on this analogy in four paragraphs. 392 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 389-394 however, the researchers only find two types of causation relationships. the first type is cause to effect. this relation is from an event which is considered as a known cause. then, it moves forward to a conclusion as the nearest effect (keraf, 2008). the reasoning of causal relationships with the main sentence is the result in the three paragraphs. the example is in the article entitled jenis ‘virus’ yang kini mulai menggerogoti generasi muda indonesia. bikin prihatin asli! (the ‘virus’ type that is now beginning to weaken indonesia’s young generation. so pathetic!) in the paragraph, as follows: apalagi, pasar-pasar tradisional pun mulai ditinggalkan berganti pasar modern. seolah tak ada lagi kesempatan untuk tawar menawar secara langsung, bertemu dengan beragam orang tuk saling mengenal, menyapa bahkan mendoakan satu sama lain. yang semua itu sejatinya semakin membuat kedekatan hati dan kerekatan persahabatan serta persaudaraan antar sesama. (moreover, traditional markets begin to be abandoned to the modern market. it is as if there were no more opportunities for direct bargaining, meeting various people to know each other, greeting and praying for one another. all of that actually makes the heart closer and strengthens the friendship and the companionship with others.) the data on the cause to effect reasoning is found in the last sentence of, “all of that actually makes the heart closer and strengthens the friendship and the companionship with others.” this paragraph begins with a cause sentence. it is shown by mentioning things like, “traditional markets begin to be abandoned to the modern market.” the cause sentence supports the next sentence. indicated by the conjunction of ‘as if’, it shows the similarities that connect two sentences. therefore, this paragraph is an inductive paragraph with a cause-effect relationship. it starts with a cause sentence. the cause in the sentence is shown in, “it is as if there were no more opportunities for direct bargaining, meeting various people to know each other, greeting and praying for one another.” then, the general sentence is as the effect of the paragraph which is, “all of that actually makes the heart closer and strengthens the friendship and the companionship with others.” it is an effect because this sentence concludes the paragraph marked by ‘all of that’ which refers to the cause as mentioned earlier. the argument reconstruction in this paragraph is that now the traditional market has changed to the modern market, so there is no longer the intimacy among people. therefore, today’s changes do not only give a positive impact but also a negative impact such as the relationship between humans. it becomes tenuous due to the little interaction. the second type is effect to cause. this causal relationship is a process from an event considered as the result, then moves to the causes (keraf, 2008). the main sentence in the causal reasoning of this relationship is found in a paragraph. it can be seen in the article entitled unggah status “marthabak telor”, pria ini diringkus polisi (uploading the status of “egg martabak”, this man was arrested by the police). the paragraph can be seen as follows. jangan pernah asal mengunggah status di media sosial jika tak mau bernasib sama seperti pria asal mamuju, sulawesi barat ini. akibat membagikan lelucon di akun facebook miliknya, pria berinisial h ini pun harus berurusan dengan polisi. (do not ever upload status on social media carelessly if you do not want to suffer the same fate as this man from mamuju, west sulawesi. as a result of sharing jokes on his facebook account, the man with the initial h must deal with the police.) this paragraph is an inductive paragraph in which the main sentence is a result. then, the explanatory sentence is the reason. thus, the type of this paragraph is a causal relationship. the first sentence of this paragraph is the explanatory sentence containing the result. it begins with an explanation of why people should not follow the man who became the actor in this article. it can be seen in this sentence “if you do not want to suffer the same fate as this man from mamuju, west sulawesi.” meanwhile, the second sentence provides support to the first sentence in which the result is proved in the sentence “the man with the initial h must deal with the police.” based on these findings, the most commonly found data is the generalization and causal reasoning. generalization is the most commonly used conclusion method by online article writers. this is because generalization is easy reasoning compared to analogical reasoning. for example, in the analogy, there are some things to be compared whereas in generalization anything can be directly created in paragraphs. in relation to online media articles, the writer writes a hot topic among young people. it can be seen from the titles used by the writers. they always use interesting language. presentation of the article is written in an easy-to-understand language. based on the goals of each website, it focuses more on their target (young people and generation z). like in the article entitled jenis ‘virus’ yang kini mulai menggerogoti generasi muda indonesia. bikin prihatin asli! (the ‘virus’ type that is now beginning to weaken indnesia’s young generation. so pathetic!), it can be seen that the title is very interesting by using the word of ‘virus’. then, it raises curiosity for the reader. in one of the articles, there is a sentence, “in some of the younger generation, when they are asked what their dreams are, they directly want to be an artist, singer, and others who can be in the tv and have high salary.” it can be seen that the writer understand the desire of young people since the writer mentions things which young people want. thus, the readers feel that the articles understand what they want. in contrast to generalization, the causal relationship is not used very often by online media article writers. this is because, in the argument reconstruction, the causal relationship does not always have a premise that fills the whole paragraph. in contrast to the generalization with 11 paragraphs, several paragraphs have a complete paragraph construction (causal relationship). next, there is deductive reasoning. it is a process that generates conclusions based on common ground statements. this reasoning does not require data and facts to support the statement. however, it needs a statement that can identify things correctly so that the taken conclusions are probably true. in this research, the researchers examine some deductive reasoning that is the categorical syllogism, hypothesis syllogism, and alternative syllogism. the percentage of data in deductive reasoning is shown in table 4. in the categorical syllogism, it is a syllogism consisting of three propositions. two propositions are 393the form of arguments... (hestiyani parai et al.) general and specific premises. then, one proposition is a conclusion. table 4 types of deductive reasoning types of deductive reasoning total % categorial syllogism 28 100% hypothesis syllogism 0 0 alternative syllogism 0 0 total 28 100% (sources: mundiri, 2016) the data discovery for this categorical syllogism is 28 data. the example of this syllogism can be seen in the article entitled 6 hal yang dilakukan orang supaya dikira liburan terus, kamu termasuk gak? (6 things that would make people think that you always on vacation, how about you?). the paragraph can be seen as follows. 5. pamer cerita liburan. bukan cuma dunia maya, di dunia nyata kamu juga mesti bertindak. kalau lagi kumpul sama temen-temen, mulailah cerita tentang keseruan liburanmu. jawablah pertanyaanpertanyaan mereka dengan antusias, kamu bakal dijadikan panutan mereka deh. traveler goals, gitu! (5. showing off your holiday stories. not only in the virtual world, in the real world you also have to act. when you get together with your friends, start the story about the excitement of your holiday. answer their questions enthusiastically, you will be their role model. traveler goals!) showing off holiday stories is the fifth way the writer recommends. after posting holiday photos on social media, the writer assures the reader that they must act real as well as stated in the first sentence (main sentence). meanwhile, the second sentence explains the steps that can be followed by the reader in recounting one’s vacation in real life. then, the third sentence continues the explanation of the previous sentence. thus, the second and the third sentence are special explanatory sentences. the reconstruction in this paragraph is necessary for identifying the meaning and conclusions. there are several meanings that the reader will understand less as it is different from some things that have been mentioned by the writer. in this sentence, the writer tells the readers to tell their vacation experience to their friends. the holiday in question is real, not a made-up one. however, a holiday experience will usually appeal to those who listen to it. the conclusion in this paragraph still needs to be rewritten by the researchers. it tells that the experience of vacation is a way to tell the others that the reader goes on vacation. however, it should be a real experience because in telling a story, there will be questions from listeners who will inquire about the story. as for the other two syllogisms, the hypothesis syllogism is an argument whose major premise is the hypothetical proposition. then, the minor premise is a categorical proposition that defines or denies antecedent and consequential term to its major premise (mundiri, 2016). in addition, the alternative syllogism is a syllogism whose major premise is a disjunctive decision. meanwhile, the minor premise of a categorical decision recognizes or denies one of the alternatives or the major premise (mundiri, 2016). no data are found for these two syllogisms. this is because the categorical syllogism is a syllogism whose content is in the form of translation. it fits perfectly with the theme or discussion in an online media article. because of the elaboration of this categorical syllogism is more easily understood by the readers (young child). this is in contrast to the hypothesis syllogism that requires antecedents to support its consequences and alternative syllogism that requires alternative propositions to support its conclusions. in daily life, the alternative syllogism is often used (searching address, when people does not find it in a place, it is likely to be in b place). however, in the writing of the online article, the syllogism is rarely used. conclusions with argument reconstruction, there are many used types of arguments in online media articles. this research begins by determining the form of arguments in online media articles and analyzing argument reconstruction. this is evidenced by the number of data from both types of reasonings. from 5 articles, 44 paragraphs, and 150 sentences analyzed, 16 data are found to use inductive reasoning. about 11 data use generalization reasoning, and 4 data use cause-effect relationship. no data are found in the structural analogy, metaphorical analogy, and borrowed analogy. for deductive reasoning, 28 data are collected using categorical syllogistic reasoning. meanwhile, no data are found related to the hypothesis and alternative syllogism. based on the results of this research, it is found that the most commonly used argument form by online article writers is a generalization and categorical syllogistic reasoning. the cause-effect reasoning is also used although it is not many. references ardianto. 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(2009). creating an argumentation corpus: do theories apply to real arguments? a case study on the legal argumentation of the echr. in proceedings of the 12th international conference on artificial intelligence and law (pp. 21−30). https:// doi.org/10.1145/1568234.1568238. 394 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 389-394 mundiri. (2016). logika. jakarta: rajagrafindo persada. ridhani, a. (2013). tipe argumen wacana argumentasi tulis siswa sekolah dasar kelas tinggi. litera: jurnal penelitian bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 12(1), 146−158. suriasumantri, j. s. (2015). filsafat ilmu sebuah apresiasi terhadap ilmu, agama, dan seni. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. tusriawati, r., saman, s., & martono. (2014). upaya meningkatkan kemampuan menulis paragraf argumentasi melalui metode stad. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran, 3(12), 1−15. van den hoven, p., & yang, y. (2013). the argumentative reconstruction of multimodal discourse, taking the abc coverage of president hu jintao’s visit to the usa as an example. argumentation, 27(4), 403−424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-013-9293-z. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 231 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 231-237 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5747 cucuk lampah: cooperative principle violations to create laughter at wedding ceremony in magetan qoniatul mubarokah1; djatmika2; sumarlam3 1,2,3linguistic department, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1qonia.mubarokah@gmail.com; 2djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id; 3sumarlamwd@gmail.com received: 12th july 2019/revised: 26th august 2019/accepted: 09th september 2019 how to cite: mubarokah, q., djatmika., & sumarlan. (2019). cucuk lampah: cooperative principle violations to create laughter at wedding ceremony in magetan. lingua cultura, 13(3), 231-237. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5747 abstract the research aimed at describing the violations of cooperative principles and the factors that created humor of cucuk lampah in the wedding ceremony in magetan regency. this was a descriptive qualitative research. the subjects of this research were all humor discourse conducted by cucuk lampah. meanwhile, the objects were the data containing the violation of the cooperative principle. the data collection used observation method with the tapping technique, then sblc or free participant observation technique, note-taking technique, and video recording technique. it used a pragmatic identity method based on utterances by heuristic technique to analyze data. the result shows that in creating humor, cucuk lampah mostly violates quantity maxim. it means that cucuk lampah prefers less and more information or contribution to the interaction. cucuk lampah is free to lie, using taboo, speaking indirectly with pambiwara, and singers. cucuk lampah also uses language play by mentioning the unexpected in the utterances to build up taboo words. the violations of the quality maxim, relevance maxim, and manner maxim are also done in less number compared to quantity maxim violations. the nonobservance of the maxims mostly is violating a maxim, flouting a maxim, infringing a maxim, suspending a maxim, and the last is opting out of a maxim. keywords: humor, cooperative principle violations, cucuk lampah introduction humor is one means of communication that has different purposes and functions. humor can be done for entertaining and making others laugh. however, it can be a satire smoothly to warn someone. humor is a language play that raises the impression of laughter. it happens in informal interaction. language play of humor can be used as entertainment to comfort and reduce awkwardness when the speech takes place to the hearer, and facilitate the communication process in the social community. in the cultural context, humor can be related to social life in the community. there is particular humor that occurs at the traditional wedding ceremony, which is located in east java, especially in magetan regency. the humor is delivered by cucuk lampah in a wedding ceremony that is sacred according to local culture. in the javanese’s traditional wedding ceremony, there is a procession called kirab pengantin that consists of kirab kanarendran and kirab kesatriyan procession. cucuk lampah acts as the line leader during the process of kirab kanarendran. this procession happens when the bride moves towards the stages (pelaminan), which is guided by cucuk lampah then followed by brides, bridesmaids (domas), family, and groomsmen (manggala). the humor is delivered after kirab kesatriyan when cucuk lampah comes down from the stage. humor cucuk lampah is an interaction with pambiwara, singers, groomsmen (manggala), and bridesmaids (domas). not only as an opening way which has followed by dancing movements, but cucuk lampah in magetan regency also delivers humor that represents local people in daily activities. one of the humor function is a moral message about individuals who can adjust to their behavior as well as norms, values, and rules in a social community that is packaged in humor utterances. however, the humor also contains ridiculousness like a pun or making acronym to mock hearer. it uses cooperative principles violation to achieve laughter. wilson has stated that humor theory stands on three major theories; incongruity theory, conflict theory, and relief theory (wijana, 2004). incongruity theory explains that humor in a manner incongruity integrates two different meanings or interpretations, which are different in a complex object. parts of that incongruity is perceived suddenly by its hearer. humor stands on the theory, which is 232 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 231-237 based on the concept of conflict and incongruity by violating pragmatic rules in using language. however, in terms of linguistic study, incongruity and conflict in humor occur due to utilization of non-cooperative and impoliteness, both textual and interpersonal. consciously, the speaker and the hearer do humor, but the rules are set aside to create humor. grice (1975) has stated that the cooperative principle is classified into four maxims. first is the maxim of quantity. in this maxim, the speaker tries to contribute as informative as is required for the current purposes of exchange and does not make the contribution more or less informative than is required. second is the maxim of quality that obligates the speaker to provide true or factual information based on adequate evidence. the third is the maxim of relevance. it is treated to be the relevancy condition that is interpreted in such a way to be directly relevant to the present interaction. and fourth is the maxim of manner. it requires the participants to speak directly, clearly, avoid ambiguity, and avoid obscurity of expression. according to grice (in jenny, 1995), the cause of violation in using maxims are divided into five maxims. they are; (1) flouting a maxim; a flout occurs when a speaker obviously fails to observe a maxim at the level of what is said, with the deliberate intention of generating an implicature. (2) violating a maxim; it happens when a speaker quietly and unostentatiously violates a maxim. grice has stated (in jenny, 1995) that if a speaker violates a maxim, he/she will be liable to mislead. (3) infringing a maxim; it happens when a speaker who, with no intention of generating an implicature and with no intention of deceiving, fails to observe a maxim. in other words, the speaker has a lack of ability to express his/her intention. (4) opting out of a maxim; speaker opts for observing a maxim by indicating an unwillingness to cooperate in the way the maxim requires. the speaker deliberately implicates the truth to obey the rules or ethics codes. (5) suspending a maxim; it is hiding the truth because of the cultural code or considered taboo. there are many relevant researches with this one; one of them is nurfarida and tustiantina (2017). their research is related to humor in a wedding ceremony which includes the form of violation the cooperative maxims and the politeness maxims to create humor in the oral tradition of sundanese wedding traditions. they analyze based on the utterances of the ritual order, such as nincak endog, meuleum barupat-meupeuskeum kendi, and buap lingkung. they use data from event assistant, event guide, groom, and bride. in collecting data, they use observation method which observes the utterances of ritual order with documentation and notetaking technique. they analyze data by interpreting, which contains humor utterances. the researches related to the use of humor are also done by lestari (2015); firmansyah and rokhmawan (2016); and putra, mulawarman, and purwanti (2018). three of them are using qualitative research and obtaining the data from stand-up comedy in monologue speech. lestari’s (2015) research is about the violating of the cooperative principle and its function in humor discourse of dodit mulyanto. firmansyah and rokhmawan’s (2016) research is about speech act of the humor language used by raditya dika in stand up comedy show that is aired by metro tv. whereas putra, mulawarman, and purwanti (2018) have described the formation pattern of deviance presupposition in humor. they use observation method with free participant observation or sblc technique through listening, record technique, and note technique in collecting data. the difference between those are data analysis. in analyzing data, lestari (2015) uses the pragmatic method to analyze data with a heuristic analyze technique. firmansyah and rokhmawan (2016) use miles and huberman patterns such as data classification, data description, and data interpretation. while, putra, mulawarman, and purwanti (2018) use the identity method with immediate constituent analysis (ica). lestari (2015) has used data from comedian dodit mulyanto in stand up comedy themed ‘women’. it is identified and analyzed based on grice’s cooperative principle. firmansyah and rokhmawan (2016) have used data from comedian raditya dika on metro tv. while, putra, mulawarman, and purwanti (2018) have used data from comedian indra firmawan as a comedian in stand up comedy indonesia season 5 in kompas tv. their research is analyzed based on yule’s presupposition theory (1996), which divides into two types; structure deviance presupposition and the common one. other researches related and similar in terms of research focus are done by rifa’i (2016); amianna and putranti (2017); and sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto (2018). their focus relates to humor language. rifa’i’s (2016) research is a qualitative descriptive study that aims to describe the violating cooperative principle in online humor discourse. in collecting data, rifa’i (2016) uses reading and note-taking. then, in analyzing data, he uses the identity method with identity pragmatic technique which analyzes data based on the context of the utterances. the subject uses online humor discourse in the form of violating the cooperative principle. he analyzes the data based on grice’s cooperative theory. amianna and putranti’s (2017) research talks about the violating and the flouting conversational maxim as the forms of the non-cooperative maxim in a comedy situation. it uses the pragmatic approach to analyze data by heuristic technique. the data are obtained from season 2, episode 1 to 5 in how i met your mother. the researcher focuses on utterances the comedy players in verbal interaction that is marked by non-cooperative language. data collection techniques are conducted by observation, while conversations are carried out. their research uses grice’s four conversational maxims, and humor theories by attardo such as incongruity theory, hostility theory, and release theory. the research of floranti and saifullah (2016); listiyorini (2017); and sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto (2018) are related to humor discourse in memes. the research conducted by floranti, and saifullah (2016) examined the pattern of meme structures by using incongruity approach and classified types of humor through language style. listiyorini’s (2017) research has aimed to describe theme and topic, implicature, and linguistic aspects like phonology and semantic aspect in meme humor discourse in online media. whereas, sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto’s (2018) research has aimed to describe the use of homonymy to violate meaning as an attempt to build humor in memes, and the pattern of violating the meaning that creates of homonymy. using homonymy includes basic words, formations, foreign, and slang. homonymy occurs because of euphemism, naming, and giving pauses. the data source by floranti and saifullah (2016) is meme which taken from www.memecomic.id, facebook, and twitter from march until april 2016. the data source collected by listiyorini (2017) is 70 memes in four meme sites in online media, like www.memecomicindo.com, www. indomeme.com, www.memecomic.com, and www.1cak. 233cucuk lampah: cooperative principles .... (qoniatul mubarokah, et al.) com. the memes are taken from april to september 2015. while, sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto (2018) use meme is taken from web meme comic indonesia (mci). the data is taken for four months started from january until april 2017. the result shows that memes provide an easy way to understand for readers by supporting the image as the non-verbal aspect that can add a humorous effect. those effects include the use of homonymy to violate the meaning, themes and topics, implicature, and language aspect. floranti and saifullah’s (2016) research uses observation method in collecting data. in analyzing data, they use the inductive technique, which is the information obtained in the data source is used to make an interpretation of the final conclusion. listiyorini’s (2017) research is using captured and printed method, observation method with reading carefully, and note-taking to collect data. in analyzing data, it uses identity and distributional method. in the identity method, the determinant is not part of the language and is used to analyze conversation implicature. the distributional method is used to find out the phonology and semantic aspect that are the determinant part of the language. she has added an instrument in her research that is hardware such as a computer, laptop, printer, stationery; and software, such as the indicator or criteria of theme and topic, implicature, and linguistic aspect which is found in a meme in online media. however, in sukardi, sumarlam, and marmanto’s (2018) research, the method of collecting data is the observation method with advanced, namely notetaking technique. they use the referential identity method with inter-relational technique, which is to relate the comparison from the violation of meaning with its referent. it supports to conduct codification, data reduction, data presentation, and interpretation as well as the qualitative research framework. similar research sources from television are anisah (2016) and tiani (2017). in anisah’s (2016) research, it focuses on the form of polysemy, the relation of meaning, and the cause of meaning multiplicity in indonesian lawak club (ilk) humor discourse. the data source is taken from indonesian lawak club show. in collecting data, she uses the observation method and identity and distributional method in analyzing data. then, tiani’s (2017) research talks about the pragmatic strategy in creating humor in several indonesian television. the data source is taken from humor show waktu indonesia bercanda on net tv. it uses the observation method through recording and note-taking technique; then it is analyzed based on asa berger theory. the research of suryaningtyas and setyaningsih (2018) has aimed to identify the types of humor and to explore the multiculturalism through the javanese language expression. their research is framed by drawing on theories of humor, language play, and ambiguity. their research is qualitative descriptive. the data is from the text in sing lucu rubric in the online version of panjebar semangat magazine (http://www.panjebarsemangat.co.id/) in january until august 2012. in collecting data, they use observation method. then, these texts are analyzed by classifying the jokes based on types. next, data analysis are presented and discussed. the research on ludruk humor has been carried out by pandin (2018). his research explores humor traditional ludruk performing art based on parker dewitt theories of aesthetics principle. his research is descriptive. ludruk is analyzed through structures that characterize the unit of subject, personal and universal, unit of mind, feeling, and pleasure. the investigation uses a library research method and field study. in the library method, it uses descriptive, interpretation, and idealization. the research-related humor in systemic functional languages is done by yuwana (2019). his research aims to find out strategies in creating indonesia humor. in collecting data, he uses a listening technique by taping and writing. he applies the equalizing method by comparing technique in analyzing data. based on those researches, it can be seen that there are no researchers who try to examine the humor language of cucuk lampah in the wedding ceremony. therefore, the researchers to discuss the violation cooperative principle and the factor of violating the maxim of cucuk lampah in the wedding ceremony in magetan regency. the choice of location is related to the researcher’s interest that is cucuk lampah in the wedding ceremony. the existence of this research is expected to be able to provide the benefits in developing linguistic theory, especially in the pragmatic study. moreover, it also can give knowledge about humor discourse which is related to culture in magetan regency. methods the research design is a descriptive qualitative method which is divided into three stages. they are collecting data, analyzing data, and data presentation. the subjects of this research are all humor discourses that spoken by cucuk lampah with pambiwara roomsmen (manggala), bridesmaids (domas), and singers. meanwhile, the objects are the data that contained the violation cooperative principle. the data are taken from different cucuk lampah, which is divided into four videos in different places. the researchers choose a sample of cucuk lampah that fulfills the criteria, such as the native of magetan regency, having knowledge related to cucuk lampah, and not performing like a woman because it emphasizes non-verbal actions. cl in the data conversation stands for cucuk lampah. the method of collecting data is conducted by observation method through listening and observing every utterance that occurs in cucuk lampah. the basic technique uses the tapping technique that is done by tapping the use of language. the tapping is done by taking part in kirab procession. then (1) sblc or free participation observation technique which means the researcher is not directly involved in the interaction of humor cucuk lampah, but only listened to the conversation, (2) note technique is done to classify data, and (3) video recording technique carries out appropriately so that it does not interfere with the process of speech activity. in data analysis, after reading all the script data that are transcribed to understand the context of the situation, classification of the form of the cooperative principals’ violation and the non-observance of the maxim on the violation maxims are made. then, data are analyzed using the pragmatic identity method based on cucuk lampah’s utterances with heuristic analysis technique. it describes the pragmatic power of utterances by formulating hypotheses, then interpretation based on available data based on context. finally, the results are presented with informal and formal methods through words and sentences. this research is conducted in september-october 2018, or sapar belongs to the javanese calendar. in that month, lots of people are holding a wedding ceremony, besides the sawal and besar of the javanese calendar. this research is done in magetan regency, east java. magetan is a regency that parts of east java that located 234 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 231-237 on the direct border with central java. the boundaries of magetan regency are in south with ponorogo regency (east java) and wonogiri regency (central java), in the west with karanganyar regency (central java), east with madiun regency (east java), and north with ngawi regency (east java). this location is chosen because of cucuk lampah at the wedding ceremony in magetan is not only as an opening way that is followed by a dance, but it also delivers humor after kirab kesatriyan to entertain the guests. this is related to the researchers’ desire to find out how humor is created by cucuk lampah. results and discussions from four humor videos of cucuk lampah, there are 215 conversation data found. the results show that the four maxims of violation cooperative principle are observed. table 1 shows the forms of violation cooperative principle of cucuk lampah. table 1 the violation cooperative maxims data quantity quality relevance manner v 1 14 2 5 0 v 2 30 14 6 4 v 3 36 14 5 2 v 4 42 27 13 1 total 122 57 29 7 the results show that the percentage of the maxim of quantity violation is the most used to build humor. in the non-humor speech, the speaker and the partner are required to speak reasonably. the maxim of quantity in terms of the two sub-maxims; “make the contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of exchange, and do not make the contribution more or less informative than is required.” however, in creating humor, the opposite happens to violate the maxim of quantity. the type of this maxim violation occurs from the speaker (cucuk lampah) that deliberately violates quantity maxim in less or more information to a partner in a related situation because of hiding the irregularities of his statement and the presentation humor through related figures or intermediary character. it can be seen in data 1 that happens in the wedding ceremony of mr. kisno at pragak village, parang district, magetan regency on october 25, 2018. data 1 cucuk lampah : he iki iso parikan po ra? tahu dipangan kalong, sindene ayu, mcne gosong. (can you perform parikan or not? tofu is eaten by a bat. the sinden is beautiful, the mc is dark.) pambiwara : terus-terus, nyileh lambemu, mas. wong kok jujure koyok ngono. (keep on. let me borrow your mouth, mas. you are an honest person.) cl : aku ki ngomong kahanan loh ya. (i say the truth.) pambiwara : iyo iyo. (yes) in data 1, cucuk lampah mocks pambiwara trough manggala. cucuk lampah asks to manggala whether he could parikan about ridicule addressed by the pambiwara. immediately, pambiwara responds his annoying to cucuk lampah because of the utterance about the pambiwara’s skin color that is dark. for the maxim of manner, it might be least used in humor cucuk lampah. the criteria of this maxim are “speak directly, clearly, avoid ambiguity, and obscurity of expression” (grice, 1975). it happens contrary to when the violating of the maxim of manner occurs in utterances. the researchers’ observation finds that cucuk lampah speaks indirectly based on its context usage because it is considered not good when it is spoken directly. it can be seen in data 2 that happens in the wedding ceremony of mrs. demes at setren village, bendo district, magetan regency, on september 16, 2018. data 2 cl : rumangsamu opo peh we ki nduwe cito. opo kui? (you thought you have a goal, what is that?) pambiwara : opo? (what?) cl : mc (master of ceremony) pambiwara : opo kuwi? (what is that?) cl : mc. mc ki modal co2t. (mc. the mc provisioned with co2t) pambiwara : he kok iso co2t ki lo rumangsamu. (how come, you think of co2t.) the utterance of cucuk lampah shows that he speaks ‘co2t’. it refers to javanese indecent word that means mouth. cucuk lampah speaks his contribution indirectly that is by spelling the word ‘cocot’ (mouth) to pambiwara. it aims to have humor by speaking indirectly so that pambiwara and the listeners can guess which word is actually spelled out. cucuk lampah knows that pambiwara (master ceremony) needs skill in speaking, but he deliberately violates the word mouth with indecent word by its spelling out. the maxim of quality is lesser used than the maxim of quantity, or the percentage is the second. in terms of these, the criteria are as follows: “obligate the speaker to provide true or factual information based on adequate evidence”. it is contrary happens to violate this maxim. to achieve humor, cucuk lampah does the violation of maxim quality clearly that the listeners know this. the researchers observe that cucuk lampah indirectly does not say factual information because of the lack of ability and lack sufficient evidence. so that, cucuk lampah lies to the listener by speak up his statement. one of his statements is to mock, proud himself, declare, and others. in the term of maxim relation, cucuk lampah speaks irrelevantly with pambiwara and singers. because of the most conversation happens with pambiwara and singers. these conversations change the topic with unsuitable answer or statement from pambiwara to cucuk lampah or otherwise. there are many occasions when people are not able to convey information clearly or because they deliberately choose to lie. factors cause of failing to observe maxim are found in this data in creating humor. table 2 shows the nonobservance of the maxims on the violation of maxims. 235cucuk lampah: cooperative principles .... (qoniatul mubarokah, et al.) table 2 the non-observance of the maxims on the violation of maxims non-observances of the maxims quantity quality relevance manner flouting a maxim 69 2 6 1 violating a maxim 25 53 14 4 infringing a maxim 23 2 9 1 opting out of a maxim 2 0 0 0 suspending a maxim 3 0 0 1 total 122 57 29 7 the result shows that the violating of quantity maxims occurs because of factors from flouting a maxim. this maxim means that cucuk lampah deliberately does the implicature in order to give less and more contribution to the conversation. it is the most appearance of the nonobservances in the violating of quantity maxim. it means that cucuk lampah obviously fails to observe a maxim with the deliberate intention of generating an implicature. the researchers’ analysis indicates that cucuk lampah gives less or more contribution. it intends to produce an implicature or hidden meaning by the indirect statement. the example can be seen in data 3 that happens in the wedding ceremony of mr. kisno at pragak village, parang district, magetan regency on october 25, 2018. data 3 cl : suran wayangan neh (suran is a wayang performance again) pambiwara : halah-halah padhumu ben katut. rasah mbok takoni, engko lak diwehi mbah lurah. (halah halah, it is your wish to be the participant. do not ask. later, you will be given a job by mbah lurah.) in data 3, the utterances of cucuk lampah indicates a form of the violating of quantity maxim by providing information, which is not quite clear. in that utterance, cucuk lampah does flouting maxim and implicates the meaning or purpose to mbah lurah (headman of pragak village) intentionally. the hidden meaning is a request to be a participant in wayang performance in pragak village. ‘suran’ means ‘sura’; the month in the javanese calendar. his utterances indirectly mean asking or offering, which aims to help himself as well as getting a job. in the term of violating a maxim, the high number percentage occurs in the violation of quality maxims. it relates that both liable to mislead the contribution. in violating a maxim, the speaker quietly violates a maxim which raises the quality maxim. likewise, the humor expressed by cucuk lampah indicates the lack of ability and lack of sufficient evidence of himself. data 4 is the example that is taken from the researchers’ data. it happens in the wedding ceremony of mr. supriadi at widoro kandang village, sidorejo district, magetan regency on october 28, 2018. data 4 pambiwara : iki mang neng aku, mas dalang mas dalang. njenengan pak guru to? “nggih” aku yo ngono to. niki mangke nganune sinten? cucuk’e mangke sinten? “onok mas wakhid.” “wo mas wakhid.” langsung histeris “lah kok njenengan histeris buk”? “lah wakhid ki ibarate idola kulo saking korea.” (i was, mas dalang mas dalang. are you a teacher? “yes” i am. who will this be nganune? who will be the cucuk lampah? “there will be mas wakhid.” “wo mas wakhid” (they become hysterical). why did you became hysterical, buk?” “wakhid is like my korean idol.) cl : tao ming tse in data 4, cucuk lampah utterances ‘tao ming tse’ is a simplification of violating a maxim that violates of maxim quality by giving non-factual information. in other words, cucuk lampah has lied. pambiwara’s utterance is an artist from korea, but cucuk lampah answers tao ming tse, while tao ming tse is an actor in the drama series meteor garden from taiwan. for infringing a maxim, the highest number percentage occurs in the violation of quantity maxim. infringing a maxim happens when a speaker does not have the intention to deliver an implicature and fails in using maxim. in other words, cucuk lampah has a lack of ability to express his talks because he is not capable enough in conveying information. so, the information submitted is not well received by the listener. the example can be seen in data 5 that happens in the wedding ceremony of mrs. demes at setren village, bendo district, magetan regency on september 6, 2018. data 5 cl : sumpah apik. namanya siapa? vanesa. (i swear, it is good. what is your name? vanesa.) domas : vanesa pambiwara : oh vanesa cl : vanesa ki, opo kui sing (vanesa, is that who [pretend to play a violin]) pambiwara : kui biola (that is a violin) cl : kui loh de, pemain biola sing biolane. indonesia sing no 1 di indonesia. (that is de, a violin player who is the number one in indonesia.) pambiwara : yo jan. (yes.) in data 5, cucuk lampah provides the inability to convey the information because of a lack of ability. cucuk lampah tries to mention vanesa the same as of the violin player in indonesia. however, cucuk lampah is incompetent to mention the violin player that he actually means. this result is not being well received by listeners. it creates humor because of the confusion from the cucuk lampah itself. in the term of opting out of a maxim, the highest percentage occurs in the violating of quantity maxim. in communication, a speaker indicates an unwillingness to 236 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 231-237 cooperate in the way the maxim requires. so, the speaker deliberately opts out a maxim. it can be seen in data 6 that happens in the wedding ceremony of mr. supriadi, widoro kandang village, sidorejo district, magetan regency on october 28, 2018. data 6 cl : la iyo seniman ki riskan banget ngomong masalah sangu. (artist is very risk at talking about money.) pambiwara : ojo ngomongke duwit. (do not talk about money.) choosing opts out of a maxim is found in data 6. cucuk lampah states that talking about money (salary) is not wise or appropriate when he is on duty. cucuk lampah deliberately speaks the truth that relates the rules or ethics code about salary. the job in this matter is ‘cucuk lampah’, which participates in beauty salons. for suspending a maxim, it is the most occurrence in violation of quantity maxim. suspending a maxim occurs because of less information that is required. in suspending a maxim, the speaker hides the truth because of the cultural code or considered taboo. the example can be seen in data 7 that is taken from the researchers’ data. it happens in the wedding ceremony of mr. kisno, pragak village, parang district, magetan regency on october 25, 2018. data 7 cl : monggo sri huning masuk (come sri huning, you can come in) sri huning mustiko tuban labuh tresno lan saboyo pati ingkang prayoto anandur branti sri huning datan graito kang tinerko kadange pribadi rodok rene wuk (come a little closer, wuk) wiratmoyo putro niro surolawe adipati tuban sri huning putraning abdi wongso pati naliko inguni kapupuh ing madya logo duk prang agung klawan minak jingo hae hae hop tetep semangat (hae hae hae keep spirit) data 7 indicates that cucuk lampah reduces the maxim of the word ‘wuk’ incompletely. the real word is bawuk, which refers to the female genital in the javanese language. that word is considered a javanese indecent word, which is not well-spoken. the utterances of cucuk lampah ‘rodok rene wuk’ (a little here wuk) also violates of quantity maxim by giving less information to whom ‘wuk’ is intended. another researcher’s observation indicates that the non-observance a maxim of opting out of a maxim does not occur in violating of the quality maxim, relevance maxim, and manner maxim. it is fixed in the term that opting out of a maxim occurs because of the unwillingness to cooperate in the way maxim requires. so that the speaker (cucuk lampah) gives less information to his utterances to the listener; giving less information indicates that it violates of quantity maxim. then, suspending a maxim is applied to violate a quantity and manner maxim based on findings data in table 2. in violating manner maxim occurs because one of them speaks indirectly and in violating of quantity maxim occurs because of the contribution less or more informative than is required. cucuk lampah does opt out a maxim when violates the maxim of quantity and manner cucuk lampah speaks a bad word, taboo, or the word is not well spoken by giving less information and speaks indirectly. conclusions based on the findings and discussion, this research concludes that cucuk lampah uses the most violate of quantity maxim for creating humor. it is related of many data found that cucuk lampah prefers less and more information or contribution to his interaction. the interaction is mostly done with pambiwara than singers, groomsmen (manggala), and bridesmaids (domas). the close relationship becomes one of that humor create. cucuk lampah is easier to lie, using taboo, speaking indirectly with pambiwara and singers. cucuk lampah also does language play by mentioning the unexpected of his utterances to build up taboo words. furthermore, the way cucuk lampah fails to observe of suspending a maxim does not found in violate of quality and relevance maxim. because suspending a maxim relates a bad word or taboo in culture code. so that cucuk lampah only gives less information and speaks indirectly in suspending a maxim. cucuk lampah’s utterances in violating of the quality maxim, relevance maxim, and manner maxim not found of the unwillingness to cooperate in the way maxim requires. the only limited part of this research is the pragmatic aspect that is the form and factors of violating maxim in cooperative principle humor cucuk lampah. whereas in the semantic aspect, it can be used as alternative research for the researchers themselves or other researchers. this research is also important because it helps the readers to get to know about language play, especially in humor cucuk lampah. it can provide information about how the humor cucuk lampah is formed to give humor to the listener in the social culture at javanese traditional wedding. the taboo word or the things that are not well-spoken can be used to strengthen intimacy in humor. references amianna, j. n. r. p., & putranti, a. 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(almodad biduk asmani) correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores of listening skill versus scores of business english speaking skill among binus university sophomores almodad biduk asmani language center, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah – kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 aasmani@binus.edu abstract article found out whether binus university sophomore’s toefl ibt scores of listening skill are correlated with those of speaking skill. the research project was expected to result in the best teaching technique of delivering conversational tasks at binus university by using alternative approaches of integrated, isolated, or mixed skills. the research project applied the descriptive approach of quantitative method, and thus depends on numerical data. the research project examined the set of data under two skills of the same class groups, which were to compare the listening scores with the speaking ones. then, the degree of correlation of the two skills was tested so as to find its significance. interpretation and explanation of data was made based on the statistical results by using correlation research analysis. based on the statistical results, the listening scores significantly correlated with those of the speaking skill, and there is a moderately linear relationship between these paired scores. keywords: score correlation, speaking, listening, sophomore students, toefl abstrak artikel menjelaskan korelasi nilai toefl ibt listening mahasiswa binus university yang sedang belajar di tahun kedua dengan nilai business english speaking mereka. hasil penelitian diharapkan dapat menghasilkan teknik pengajaran yang lebih sesuai dengan tuntutan percakapan yang diharapkan oleh binus university, antara lain, dengan menggunakan pilihan pendekatan integrated, independen, atau campuran. penelitian menggunakan metode pendekatan kuantitatif dengan memasukkan data berupa angka. penelitian mengkaji kumpulan data dalam dua bentuk skill, yang semuanya ditarik dari satu kelompok subjek yang sama, yaitu dengan membandingkan nilai listening dengan nilai speaking mereka. kemudian, tingkat korelasi dari dua skill ini diuji untuk mengetahui signifikansinya. interpretasi dan penjabaran data dibuat berdasarkan penghitungan statistika dengan menggunakan correlation research analysis. berdasarkan hasil peneltian, skor listening berkorelasi secara signifikan dengan skor speaking, dan terdapat hubungan yang cukup linear antara dua pasang skor ini. kata kunci: korelasi nilai, berbicara, menyimak, mahasiswa tingkat dua, toefl 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 introduction when teachers deliver courses for international language test preparation, like toefl, ielts, or toeic, they tend to teach the four skills – reading, listening, speaking and listening – separately. the previous version of toefl, called toefl pbt (paper-based test), evaluates language skills in three separate sections, which are listening comprehension, structure/written expression, and reading comprehension. though it does not contain the speaking section, many english teachers assume that the higher the toefl pbt score is, the more likely the test taker is able to communicate english in academic contexts, though it is not always absolute. based on this framework of assumption, many education institutions in indonesia have set the minimum toefl pbt score of 500 as one of the requirements for postgraduate study entry level, regardless of the students’ actual communication performances. thus, we can see here that in many toefl pbt preparation courses and tests, there has not been any emphasis on the value of highlighting the relationships between these skills, either in the teaching and learning process, or in the test format itself. binus university has the english course program that includes toefl ibt elements in its curriculum, which are reading and listening. on the other hand, the speaking and writing are more catered for general or business themes. the curriculum has been designed in such a way to serve the dual needs of both academic and business purposes. based on my teaching experiences of the courses at binus university, i have observed that if my students scored higher on the toefl ibt listening, they tended to score higher on their speaking performance. from the circumstances and cases explained, this research would assume that it seems there is a hidden connection between the listening and speaking. hence, this research project tries to consolidate the general connection, if any, between this pair of skills, so as to find the best format of teaching to deliver these two skills in the classroom with the expectation that it allows students achieve higher and better on their english performance, both in academic and business environment. therefore, the problem formulation that the research project aims to address is to find out: whether there is a correlation between toefl ibt listening scores and business english speaking scores of binus university sophomore of academic year 2012/2013, and the strength of the relationship, if any, between toefl ibt listening scores and business english speaking scores of binus university sophomore of academic year 2012/2013 the significance of the research project is that it can generate the most suitable format of teaching and learning model in binus university to best deliver the two language skills, listening and speaking, in their proportion and functions under academic and business themes to finally meet the final expectation of academic and business purposes in the final year of their study. hinkel (2006:113) argues: “in meaningful communication, people employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem”. according to harmer (2007:265): “when we have a conversation, we need to listen as well as speak in order to maintain the interaction with the interlocutor.” thus, in the actual use of daily conversation in english, we often depend on these two skills together to maintain the interaction. there might be a relationship to some extent between listening and speaking activities, in which the two skills correlate and interact to each other to play their roles and meet their purposes for the conversation process. hence, language skills are often used in multidimensions in the communication process in the real world. it would be dangerous to look at each skill in isolation during the teaching and learning process, especially for international test preparation, where skills are often tested, scored, and described their competence individually. how receptive skills like, listening and reading, connected with productive skills, like speaking and writing needs to be examined. another perspective to explain the connection between listening and speaking is given by celce-murcia and olshtain (2000:104), as follows. top-down processing expectation based on discourse and sociocultural knowledge (formal schemata) expectation based on prior knowledge (content schemata) expectation based on the assessment of context/speaker’s intention pragmatics language knowledge (phonology, vocabulary, grammar) interpretation of spoken discourse (input) metacognition listening strategies bottom-up processing figure1 celce-murcia and olshtain’s connection between listening and speaking (p.104) thus, the receptive skills activities as well as the productive skills activities each as the connections between top-down and bottom-up processing could be seen. here, the global understanding of the topic in the written and spoken discourses and understanding of the details of the discourses help the users perform the language actively, in writing and speaking activities. there is also experimental evidence that listening practice is more important for oral skills development than speaking practice. anderson and lynch (1988:16) show that students who have had a substantial amount of task-based listening practice are better able to perform a similar oral tasks in the future, compared to other students who had been given only speaking practice. in this case, teaching listening only is more effective than teaching speaking only. celce-murcia and olshtain (2000:108) 87correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores ….. (almodad biduk asmani) aptly assume that “giving practice with both skills—first listening and then speaking—would be the best possible preparation, but if the teacher doesn’t have time to do both, then listening practice … should take precedence.” burns (1998) specifically mentions “sets of listening materials for developing language awareness” (p. 111). she also recommends that “learners can be engaged in listening prediction activities that require them to anticipate discourse structures, vocabulary, and functional forms and to draw on their knowledge of target socio-cultural practices in preparation for the production of spoken texts” (p. 113). thus, we can see here how she tries to put the link between listening and speaking. method based on the nature of this research methodology, this research project is more of the positivist/empiricist epistemology and an attempt at gathering “objective”, verifiable data in numerical form. this quantitative strand is more concerned with “generalization, prediction and control” (usher, 1996). based on the brief overview presented, research used descriptive statistics in which the use of statistical procedures to summarize, tabulate, depict and describe the properties of sets of data (including quantitative data) (see wiersma, 2000, chapter 13). research applied the approach of quantitative data gathering and analysis. by using a quantitative methodology in the project, research focuses on more context-free generalizations of the observed social phenomenon by examining the relationship of the variables, which are the toefl ibt listening scores and the business english speaking scores. statistical results are represented with numbers. the correlation research was used to indicate the relationship between paired scores, to know how strong the relationship is, and whether it of positive and negative. to do this, a correlation coefficient that represents the correlation was calculated. the research project divided the raw scores into two pair domains, which are the paired toefl ibt listening scores and business english speaking scores. the pair consists of two scores for the same individual. the scores are derived partly from the mid test and final test results for listening, and from the results of daily assessment for speaking. the listening test is based on toefl ibt format with the score range from 0 to 30 respectively. the test is computer-based and its scores are calculated and generated by the computer. the computerbased scores are provided by binus university slc (software laboratory center) unit and sent to our emails by the end of each test. the speaking tasks are based on general/business topics with the score range from 0 to 3.0 and converted to 0 to 23. the conversion of the speaking scores is meant to equal with the toefl ibt score calculation. the speaking tasks are scored by the teachers based on the standard score rubric and given to writer every quarter of the running semester. target population is all binus university sophomore students who take the english in focus subject in academic year 2012/2013. research took the sample of three class groups, each with the range of students from 50 to 70 participants. these students are chosen as the participants in the research project due to some reasons. first, students of second year study are expected to have developed some basic skills of toefl ibt listening and business english speaking that they had experienced before in english entrant subject. secondly, the sophomores are expected to reach the higher target score than the freshmen, which is toefl pbt 500 as the minimum pass score for the next level. this would contribute some degree of motivation for these students to perform higher and better in their study experiences. since there are only some class groups to be sampled from a number of other english in focus class groups running in academic year 2012/2013, research used the approach of simple random sampling, where “all members of the population have an equal and independent chance of being included in the random sample.” (ary, jacobs, razavieh, & sorensen, 2006) the mid test consists of two parts. the first part is the listening tests at laboratories based on toefl ibt format on the computers. the computer-based test material is taken from binus university ng-toefl version 3. the second part is the speaking tasks held by the teacher from the first meeting to around the seventh or eighth. the toefl ibt listening scores are compared with the business english speaking scores. the quantitative calculation is used in this research by using the correlation statistical analysis to test the hypotheses with .05 level of confidence. we use the table that lists critical values of r for different numbers of degrees of freedom (df). by comparing the obtained r with the critical values of r listed in the table, we can determine the statistical significance of a product moment correlation. if the obtained correlation exceeds the critical value listed in the table, we can report that the correlation is statistically significant. the null hypothesis would be rejected, and we would tentatively conclude that the two variables are related in the population. then, the writer tests the hypotheses as follows: (1) null hypothesis: the toefl ibt listening scores are not significantly related to the general speaking scores among binus university sophomores in mid test; (2) alternate hypothesis: the toefl ibt listening scores are significantly related to the general speaking scores among binus university sophomores in mid test. in the set of scores, the independent variable is the toefl ibt listening scores, and the dependent variable is the business english speaking scores. the correlation statistical analysis was used due to several reasons. first, we would “determine the extent of any relationship between these variables” (ary, jacobs, razavieh, & sorensen, 2006). in this case, is there a relationship between listening and speaking? secondly, in this research, we would measure the reliability (consistency) of the midterm test through correlating listening and speaking scores. thirdly, we would try to establish prediction on each of the two paired variables, if proven correlated. for example, we could use the listening scores to predict the speaking scores. the correlation statistical analysis best applies in prediction studies. the correlation coefficient derived from the calculation is to indicate both the direction and the strength of the relationship between two variables in the pair. the 88 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 coefficient can take any value from -1 to +1, with the following interpretations as shown in table 1. the best practical way to illustrate and understand the relationship is by examining a scatterplot of the data. so, in this research, a scatterplot diagram is made to know whether it is of: (1) a positive correlation (as independent variable goes up, dependent variable also goes up), or; (2) a negative correlation (as independent variable goes up, dependent variable goes down). a scatterplot is also provided to know the strength of the relationship between variables whether it is of: (1) strong linear relationship, when the dots in the scatterplot form a narrow band, and scatter near the straight line through the band; (2) weak linear relationship, when the dots in the scatterplot scatter widely from the line; (3) curvilinear relationship, when a curved line is needed to express the relationship. all of the findings of each of the paired variables are described and interpreted so as to find the third variable, if any, as the cause of the relationship. the final conclusion and suggestion is given in the end of the research. results and discussion the data presentation of the listening and speaking scores of the binus university sophomores taking english in focus subject during mid test of even semester in academic year 2012/2013 is provided in table 2 below. in table 2, column 1 shows the class codes, column 2 lists the students’ numbers, column 3 shows each student’s listening scaled score on toefl ibt (x), column 4 shows these scaled scores squared (x2), column 5 shows each student’s speaking scaled score on general english (y), column 6 shows these scaled scores squared (y2), and column 7 shows the product of each student’s x scaled score multiplied by his/her y scaled core (xy). table 1 the correlation coefficient of listening and speaking scores -1.00 perfect negative correlation if found, it would mean that the two sets of scores, listening and speaking, have the same rank order, only reversed. -0.80 strong negative correlation high scores on one measure (listening) usually mean low scores on the other (speaking) -0.30 weak negative correlation a slight tendency for those scoring highest on one measure (listening) to score lowest on the other (speaking) 0.00 no relationship at all those who score high/low on one measure (listening) are no more likely to score higher/lower on the other (speaking). +0.30 weak positive correlation a slight tendency for those scoring highest on one measure (listening) to score highest on the other (speaking). +0.80 strong positive correlation high scores on one measure (listening) usually mean high scores on the other (speaking). +1.00 perfect positive correlation if found, the two sets of scores (listening and speaking) would have identical rank orderings from lowest to highest. table 2 the listening and speaking scores of the binus university sophomores class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x2 y y2 xy 02pxj 1601219113 9 81 15 225 135 1601220033 15 225 17 289 255 1601221023 22 484 19 361 418 1601222581 19 361 19 361 361 1601223666 12 144 15 225 180 1601223893 6 36 14 196 84 1601225040 7 49 14 196 98 1601227052 23 529 19 361 437 1601228061 15 225 17 289 255 1601228332 4 16 15 225 60 1601231781 6 36 15 225 90 1601233276 20 400 19 361 380 1601233862 11 121 15 225 165 1601234000 17 289 17 289 289 1601234291 10 100 15 225 150 1601235565 17 289 17 289 289 1601235981 13 169 17 289 221 1601236100 18 324 19 361 342 89correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores ….. (almodad biduk asmani) table 2 the listening and speaking scores of the binus university sophomores (continued) class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x2 y y2 xy 1601237444 15 225 18 324 270 1601239651 12 144 15 225 180 1601242223 13 169 17 289 221 1601242671 15 225 19 361 285 1601252224 12 144 15 225 180 1601252363 14 196 15 225 210 1601258455 7 49 15 225 105 1601263745 11 121 15 225 165 1601266886 18 324 19 361 342 1601272825 12 144 17 289 204 1601273696 3 9 13 169 39 1601275360 8 64 13 169 104 1601276930 16 256 19 361 304 1601278955 15 225 18 324 270 1601283873 17 289 19 361 323 1601284876 7 49 17 289 119 02 pgt 1601232651 24 576 19 361 456 1601232701 20 400 19 361 380 1601233061 14 196 17 289 238 1601234732 13 169 17 289 221 1601234814 18 324 19 361 342 1601235104 15 225 17 289 255 1601235943 20 400 19 361 380 1601237570 15 225 20 400 300 1601237633 13 169 15 225 195 1601239916 19 361 19 361 361 1601239986 12 144 17 289 204 1601240722 8 64 15 225 120 1601242822 12 144 15 225 180 1601244121 11 121 15 225 165 1601245105 18 324 17 289 306 1601245225 13 169 15 225 195 1601247685 15 225 17 289 255 1601248284 9 81 15 225 135 1601251480 21 441 19 361 399 1601252621 22 484 17 289 374 1601252634 14 196 18 324 252 1601253385 13 169 15 225 195 1601254053 20 400 17 289 340 1601254532 11 121 17 289 187 1601254564 12 144 17 289 204 1601257351 16 256 15 225 240 1601258240 23 529 18 324 414 1601258266 28 784 19 361 532 1601258884 11 121 15 225 165 1601260176 8 64 15 225 120 1601264086 10 100 15 225 150 1601264722 9 81 15 225 135 1601266910 6 36 15 225 90 1601266936 14 196 15 225 210 1601267365 9 81 17 289 153 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 table 2 the listening and speaking scores of the binus university sophomores (continued) class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x2 y y2 xy 1601270315 17 289 17 289 289 1601272314 12 144 15 225 180 1601272485 9 81 17 289 153 1601272560 14 196 17 289 238 1601273235 10 100 15 225 150 1601273992 16 256 17 289 272 1601274635 17 289 19 361 323 1601278394 9 81 15 225 135 1601283652 13 169 15 225 195 1601284485 15 225 15 225 225 1601285052 10 100 18 324 180 1601286843 8 64 15 225 120 02pef 1601229455 7 49 15 225 105 1601230122 13 169 15 225 195 1601231604 14 196 15 225 210 1601232696 21 441 17 289 357 1601239065 24 576 20 400 480 1601239992 21 441 19 361 399 1601241624 9 81 17 289 153 1601243213 11 121 15 225 165 1601244834 19 361 19 361 361 1601244853 6 36 15 225 90 1601246240 9 81 17 289 153 1601248725 13 169 17 289 221 1601252041 10 100 17 289 170 1601252086 13 169 19 361 247 1601253460 12 144 15 225 180 1601254690 13 169 17 289 221 1601254854 17 289 17 289 289 1601254923 6 36 13 169 78 1601256052 15 225 15 225 225 1601256203 11 121 15 225 165 1601256613 13 169 15 225 195 1601260144 12 144 15 225 180 1601260850 14 196 17 289 238 1601263543 11 121 15 225 165 1601264685 11 121 15 225 165 1601265561 21 441 19 361 399 1601265832 19 361 19 361 361 1601265845 11 121 15 225 165 1601266343 18 324 17 289 306 1601266362 14 196 15 225 210 1601267094 16 256 17 289 272 1601267503 17 289 19 361 323 1601270183 13 169 15 225 195 1601271021 15 225 17 289 255 1601273254 9 81 15 225 135 1601275234 22 484 19 361 418 1601275373 11 121 15 225 165 1601276615 13 169 15 225 195 total ∑x=1629 ∑x2=24987 ∑y=1966 ∑y2=32834 ∑xy=27644 91correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores ….. (almodad biduk asmani) table 3 indicates that column 1 shows the class codes, column 2 lists the students’ numbers, column 3 shows each student’s listening scaled score on toefl ibt (x), column 4 shows the deviation of each score from the mean (x), column 5 shows the deviation of each score from the mean squared (x2), column 6 shows the z scores of the toefl ibt listening test (zx), column 7 shows each student’s speaking scaled score on business english task (y), column 8 shows the deviation of each score from the mean (y), column 9 shows the deviation of each score from the mean squared (y2), and column 10 shows the z scores of the business english speaking task (zy). table 3 variance of toefl ibt listeninvg scores and business english speaking scores class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x x2 zx y y y 2 zy 02pxj 1601219113 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601220033 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601221023 22 8.31092 69.07139 1.748834 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601222581 19 5.31092 28.20587 1.117556 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601223666 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601223893 6 -7.68908 59.12195 -1.61798 14 -2.52101 6.355491 -1.46229 1601225040 7 -6.68908 44.74379 -1.40756 14 -2.52101 6.355491 -1.46229 1601227052 23 9.31092 86.69323 1.95926 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601228061 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601228332 4 -9.68908 93.87827 -2.03884 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601231781 6 -7.68908 59.12195 -1.61798 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601233276 20 6.31092 39.82771 1.327982 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601233862 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601234000 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601234291 10 -3.68908 13.60931 -0.77628 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601235565 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601235981 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601236100 18 4.31092 18.58403 0.90713 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601237444 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 18 1.47899 2.187411 0.857872 1601239651 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601242223 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601242671 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601252224 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601252363 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601258455 7 -6.68908 44.74379 -1.40756 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601263745 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601266886 18 4.31092 18.58403 0.90713 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601272825 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601273696 3 -10.6891 114.2564 -2.24926 13 -3.52101 12.39751 -2.04232 1601275360 8 -5.68908 32.36563 -1.19713 13 -3.52101 12.39751 -2.04232 1601276930 16 2.31092 5.340351 0.486278 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601278955 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 18 1.47899 2.187411 0.857872 1601283873 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601284876 7 -6.68908 44.74379 -1.40756 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 02 pgt 1601232651 24 10.31092 106.3151 2.169686 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601232701 20 6.31092 39.82771 1.327982 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601233061 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601234732 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601234814 18 4.31092 18.58403 0.90713 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601235104 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601235943 20 6.31092 39.82771 1.327982 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601237570 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 20 3.47899 12.10337 2.017951 1601237633 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601239916 19 5.31092 28.20587 1.117556 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601239986 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 table 3 variance of toefl ibt listeninvg scores and business english speaking scores (continued) class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x x2 zx y y y 2 zy 02pxj 1601240722 8 -5.68908 32.36563 -1.19713 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601242822 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601244121 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601245105 18 4.31092 18.58403 0.90713 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601245225 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601247685 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601248284 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601251480 21 7.31092 53.44955 1.538408 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601252621 22 8.31092 69.07139 1.748834 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601252634 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 18 1.47899 2.187411 0.857872 1601253385 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601254053 20 6.31092 39.82771 1.327982 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601254532 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601254564 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601257351 16 2.31092 5.340351 0.486278 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601258240 23 9.31092 86.69323 1.95926 18 1.47899 2.187411 0.857872 1601258266 28 14.31092 204.8024 3.011391 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601258884 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601260176 8 -5.68908 32.36563 -1.19713 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601264086 10 -3.68908 13.60931 -0.77628 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601264722 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601266910 6 -7.68908 59.12195 -1.61798 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601266936 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601267365 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601270315 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601272314 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601272485 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601272560 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601273235 10 -3.68908 13.60931 -0.77628 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601273992 16 2.31092 5.340351 0.486278 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601274635 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601278394 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601283652 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601284485 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601285052 10 -3.68908 13.60931 -0.77628 18 1.47899 2.187411 0.857872 1601286843 8 -5.68908 32.36563 -1.19713 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 02 pef 1601229455 7 -6.68908 44.74379 -1.40756 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601230122 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601252086 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601253460 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601254690 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601254854 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601254923 6 -7.68908 59.12195 -1.61798 13 -3.52101 12.39751 -2.04232 1601256052 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601256203 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601256613 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601260144 12 -1.68908 2.852991 -0.35543 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601260850 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601263543 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601264685 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601265561 21 7.31092 53.44955 1.538408 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601265832 19 5.31092 28.20587 1.117556 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 93correlative analysis of toefl ibt scores ….. (almodad biduk asmani) table 3 variance of toefl ibt listeninvg scores and business english speaking scores (continued) class student no. listening scores speaking scores x x x2 zx y y y 2 zy 02pxj 1601265845 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601266343 18 4.31092 18.58403 0.90713 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601266362 14 0.31092 0.096671 0.065426 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601267094 16 2.31092 5.340351 0.486278 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601267503 17 3.31092 10.96219 0.696704 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601270183 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601271021 15 1.31092 1.718511 0.275852 17 0.47899 0.229431 0.277833 1601273254 9 -4.68908 21.98747 -0.9867 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601275234 22 8.31092 69.07139 1.748834 19 2.47899 6.145391 1.437912 1601275373 11 -2.68908 7.231151 -0.56585 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 1601276615 13 -0.68908 0.474831 -0.145 15 -1.52101 2.313471 -0.88225 total the data calculation of the listening and speaking scores of the binus university sophomores taking english in focus subject during mid test of even semester in academic year 2012/2013 is provided below. the calculation is based on the following formula: where r = pearson r ∑x = sum of scores in x distribution ∑y = sum of scores in y distribution ∑x2 = sum of the squared scores in x distribution ∑y2 = sum of the squared scores in y distribution ∑xy = sum of products of paired x and y scores n = number of paired x and y scores (subjects) using the formula, we get the first pearson r (r) to indicate the relationship between the paired scores of the toefl ibt listening results and the business english speaking performances of the students: based on the variance table of toefl ibt listening and business english speaking scores, we could make the scatterplot to represent each individual’s z scores on both dimensions, which are independent and dependent variables. the z scores on the horizontal axis are those of the toefl ibt listening scores (independent variable), with the lowest z scores on the left and the highest z scores on the right. the z scores on the vertical axis are those of the business english speaking scores (dependent variable), with the lowest z scores at the bottom and the highest z scores at the top. figure 2 the scatterplot of toefl ibt listening and business english speaking scores 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 the next step is to decide whether these observed correlation coefficients are statistically significant. with the pearson r, the degrees of freedom (df) are the number of paired observations (n) minus 2. a significant r is equal to or larger than the tabled value with n – 2 degrees of freedom. the df for these calculations is 119 – 2 = 117. with df = 117 when a two-tailed test is performed, an observed pearson r more than +.1946 or less than -.1946 is required to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level. with the same degrees of freedom, an observed pearson r more than +.2540 or less than -.2540 is required to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 level. the coefficient of correlation (r = .74) exceeds the values of both +.1946 and +.2540, and thus, is statistically significant at both .05 and .01 levels. as a result, the first null hypothesis would be rejected, and we conclude that the toefl ibt listening scores are significantly related to the business english speaking scores among binus university sophomores in english in focus mid test of even semester of academic year 2012/2013. since the obtained coefficient (r1 = .74) is between +.30 (weak positive correlation) and +.80 (strong positive correlation), we conclude that high scores on toefl ibt listening mid test generally mean high scores on the business english speaking performances of the binus university sophomores studying english in focus in the even semester of academic year 2012/2013. the scatterplot of the pearson r shows that the dots do not really form a narrow band near the line, so there are a moderate linear relationship and a moderate positive correlation between toefl ibt listening scores and business english speaking scores among binus university sophomores studying english in focus in the even semester of academic year 2012/2013. conclusion based on the significance of the pearson r (r1 = .74), toefl ibt listening scores are positively associated with the business english speaking scores among binus university sophomores studying english in focus in the even semester of academic year 2012/2013. the relationship between the paired scores is not strong, but not weak either. furthermore, based on the computation of the z scores of listening and speaking scores of the students, the scatterplot shows that there is a moderate degree of linear relationship between the paired z scores. thus, based on the statistical results, it could be concluded that the more binus university sophomores achieve high scores on toefl ibt listening test, the more likely (not most likely, not least likely) they tend to achieve high scores on their business english speaking performances as well. suggestions because there is evidence that the scores of the listening skills of binus university sophomores are significantly correlated in a moderate linear relationship with their scores of the speaking skills, research suggests the following things to be applied during the teaching and learning process of an english subject for undergraduate students at binus university. first, the more students listen to some language input in a certain topic, the more likely he or she is able to speak over the topic in his or her own way, and thus it encourages their natural and unique use of the spoken language. second, integrated tasks are strongly recommended to be delivered more than the independent tasks, as students can learn the language skills not separately, but as a whole package, and thus it establishes a more similar condition of authentic language use that students face in the real world. third, for integrated tasks of listening and speaking, it is highly recommended that fluency and clarity are given higher emphasis than accuracy, so that students are more encouraged to explore any possibility during their practice, and thus, can learn from their mistakes for better performances. references anderson, a., & lynch, t. (1988). listening. oxford: oxford university press. ary, d., jacobs, l. c., razavieh, a., & sorensen, c. (2006). introduction to research in education. usa: thomson wadsworth. burns, a. (1998). teaching speaking. annual review of applied linguistics, 18, 102–123. celce-murcia, m. & olshtain, e. (2000). discourse and context in language teaching. a guide for language teachers. cambridge: cambridge university press. harmer, j. (2007). the practice of english language teaching. essex: pearson education. hinkel, e. (2006). current perspectives in teaching the four skills. tesol quarterly, 40 (1). usher, r. (1996). a critique of neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research. in d. scott and r. usher (eds.), understanding educational research. london: routledge. wiersma, w. (2000). research methods in education: an introduction. boston: allyn & bacon. microsoft word 09_ig_agung pramujiono.docx 200  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 200-206  dari mianzi dan lian menuju face: dari kearifan lokal cina menuju teori kesantunan yang mendunia agung pramujiono jurusan pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, fkip, universitas pgri adi buana jl. ngagel dadi iii-b/37, surabaya 60245, indonesia pram4014@yahoo.com abstract the politeness theory of brown and levinson (1987) about face is regarded as one very influential. in fact, it was rooted from eastern local wisdom (ancient china), that is “mianzi” and “lian”. mianzi represents social perceptions of one’s self-esteem built through lian as one’s morality. politeness and limao have the same pragmatic basis but they can be perceived differently due to the varied cultural contexts underlying a speech community. in the intercultural pragmatics study, the differences should not form the sources of conflict but they should even be considered as varieties of pluralities about which the interactants should be understood in order that interpersonal communication activities can run harmoniously and can be avoided from all kinds of conflict and friction. keywords: politeness theory, face, brown and levinson theory, mianzi and lian, intercultural pragmatics abstrak teori kesantunan brown dan levinson (1987) tentang wajah dianggap sebagai salah satu yang sangat berpengaruh. namun kenyataannya, teori tersebut berakar dari kearifan lokal timur (cina kuno), yaitu "mianzi" dan "lian". mianzi merupakan persepsi sosial seseorang diri yang dibangun melalui lian sebagai moralitas seseorang. kesopanan dan limao memiliki dasar pragmatis yang sama tetapi dapat dirasakan berbeda karena konteks budaya yang bervariasi yang mendasari budaya bertutur suatu masyarakat. dalam studi antarbudaya pragmatik, perbedaan seharusnya tidak membentuk akar-akar konflik tetapi seharusnya dianggap sebagai varietas kemajemukan tentang interaksi yang harus dipahami agar kegiatan komunikasi interpersonal dapat berjalan harmonis dan dapat terhindar dari segala macam konflik dan gesekan. kata kunci: teori kesantunan, wajah, teori brown dan levinson, mianzi dan lian, pragmatik antarbudaya dari mianzi dan lian ….. (agung pramujiono) 201  pendahuluan kajian tentang kesantunan (politeness) selalu merujuk pada teori yang dikembangkan oleh pakar dari barat. beberapa contoh pakar di antaranya lakoff (1973) yang dianggap sebagai bapak teori kesantunan, leech (1993) dengan maksim-maksim kesantunannya, dan brownlevinson (1987) dengan teori fta (face threatening acts). telaah tentang kesantunan kemudian berkembang pada kajian-kajian ketidaksantunan (impoliteness) yang dimotori oleh cullpeper dan boushfield (2008) dengan asumsi bahwa tidak elok mengkaji kesantunan tanpa melihat sisi yang lain, yaitu ketidaksantunan. akar teori kesantunan tersebut sebenarnya berasal dari nilai kearifan lokal yang berasal dari cina, yaitu mianzi dan lian yang digali oleh hsien chin hu dari falsafah k’ung fu tzu (orang indonesia menyebutkan konghucu) yang kemudian dielaborasi oleh goffman (1959, 1967) menjadi konsep face (muka) dalam teori dramaturgi. pembicaraan kemudian berkembang dengan upaya pendikotomian konsep muka menjadi dua, versi timur dan versi barat. semula muka didefinisikan sebagai atribut pribadi yang ada dan ditemukan pada semua masyarakat dan ia bersifat universal. setiap orang dinisbatkan untuk memikul tanggung jawab dalam upaya memuliakan wajahnya sendiri dan wajah anggota masyarakat lainnya (aziz, 2007). kemudian konsep tersebut dibedakan bahwa konsep muka antara barat dan timur itu berbeda. konsep muka versi timur dianggap lebih bersifat sosial, sedangkan barat lebih bersifat individual, egalitarian, lebih menekankan pada pertimbangan kebebasan individu (leech, 2007). polemik timur-barat ini kemudian menggelitik leech untuk menulis artikel “politeness: is there an east-west divide?” yang dimuat dalam journal of politeness research language, behavior, culture edisi juli 2007. dalam makalah ini, penulis ingin menelaah bahwa teori-teori kesantunan yang mendunia yang dikemukakan oleh pakar barat sebenarnya berangkat dari nilai kearifan lokal timur (cina). masalah yang akan dipaparkan lebih lanjut dalam makalah ini yaitu: (1) kearifan lokal cina: mianzi dan lian, (2) konsep face dan teori kesantunan brown dan levinson, (3) model kesantunan timur yueguo gu, (4) teori kesantunan: perlukah pemisahan antara timur dan barat? pembahasan kearifan lokal cina: “mianzi” dan “lian” kata politeness dalam bahasa inggris mempunyai padanan limao dalam bahasa mandarin. kata limao secara historis berkaitan dengan kata li yang merujuk pada pemikiran seorang filosof cina klasik, k’ung fu tsu yang hidup 551-479 sm. filosof tersebut hidup pada era sistem perbudakan dan terjadi peperangan yang terus-menerus antarpenguasa yang feodal. untuk mengatasi kondisi yang demikian, filosof cina tersebut menawarkan perbaikan yang disebutnya li, yaitu sebuah model tatanan masyarakat ideal. dua ribu tahun setelah konghucu wafat, konsep li sebagai tatanan kehidupan tetap dipertahankan oleh para pengikutnya. kemudian pada era dinasti han ditemukan sebuah buku yang berjudul li ji yang ditulis oleh seorang laki-laki bernama dai sheng. dalam baris pembukanya ditemukan suatu ajaran. “bertuturlah yang santun, yang rendah hati, dan hormati orang lain.” (tian dan zhao, 2006:77). berkaitan dengan limao, ada dua hal yang patut diperhatikan yaitu mianzi dan lian. west dan turner (2008:161) menyebutnya dengan mien-tsu dan lien, yaitu konsep muka yang telah mengalami evolusi bertahun-tahun yang merujuk pada konsep identitas dan ego. konsep ini dikenalkan oleh hsien chin hu dalam artikelnya yang berjudul the chinese concept of face yang dimuat pada 202  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 200-206  american antrophologist (1944). dalam tulisannya hu mengatakan bahwa konsep muka dalam masyarakat cina modern sebenarnya berakar dari nilai-nilai budaya tradisional yang dikembangkan oleh k’ung fu tsu ketika memberikan wejangan tentang hakikat nilai-nilai manusia yang dikenal dengan ren. dikemukakan lebih lanjut bahwa muka yang dibedakan atas mianzi dan lian bagi masyarakat cina adalah harga diri yang diperoleh seseorang sebagai penghargaan dari masyarakat sekitarnya. sebagai atribut sosial, nilai-nilai sakral muka akan dipertahankan para pemiliknya. seseorang akan merasa malu dan kehilangan muka kalau berbuat salah apalagi berbuat nista (aziz, 2007: 48). dalam wikipedia, lian diartikan sebagai “the confidence of society in a person’s moral character”, sedangkan mianzi didefinisikan sebagai “represents social perceptions of a person’s prestige.” konsep muka yang ditawarkan oleh hu tersebut kemudian dielaborasi oleh goffman dan digunakan untuk mengkaji interaksi sosial. teori goffman yang terkenal adalah teori darmaturgi yang menganalogikan kehidupan nyata di masyarakat itu ibarat panggung pertunjukkan dan dalam panggung tersebut pelakon harus saling menjaga muka (goffman, 1959). model kesantunan timur yueguo gu di cina, studi tentang kesantunan mulai dilakukan dengan serius pada era 80-an. salah satu tokoh penggeraknya adalah prof. yueguo gu dari beijing foreign studies university (tian dan zhao, 2006: 76). dalam kajian-kajiannya tentang kesantunan masyarakat cina modern, gu menemukan model kesantunan yang relevan dengan budaya cina yang diformulasikan dalam maksim-maksim kesantunan yang dipandang cocok untuk lingkungan masyarakat cina. pada dasarnya teori kesantunan gu mengacu pada model kesantunan leech (1993) tentang prinsip kesantunan. prinsip kesantunan leech bersifat deskriptif, bukan preskriptif. sebaliknya, ketika mendeskripsikan konsep kesantunan (limao), gu menekankan kenyataan bahwa pada hakikatnya secara moral prinsip kesantunan bersifat preskriptif dan bahwa kaidah atau maksim-maksim yang dikandungnya merupakan aksioma-aksioma moral yang dapat diberi sanksi sosial. berkaitan dengan konsep muka, gu tidak memandang berkaitan dengan keinginan-keinginan psikologis individual, tetapi lebih memandangnya dalam kaitan dengan norma-norma kemasyarakatan. kesantunan tidak bersifat instrumental, tetapi lebih bersifat normatif. muka terancam bukan ketika keinginan-keinginan individu seseorang tidak terpenuhi, tetapi lebih ketika mereka gagal bertindak sesuai dengan standar-standar sosial, yaitu ketika mereka gagal memenuhi keinginan masyrakat (eelen, 2001: 11). lebih lanjut dikemukakan oleh gu (eelen, 2001: 11-12) bagi orang cina, prinsip kesantunan dianggap sebagai keyakinan yang disetujui bahwa perilaku seseorang perlu disesuaikan dengan harapan-harapan rasa hormat, kesederhanaan, kehangatan sikap, dan kehalusan budi bahasa. gu mengajukan empat maksim kesantunan, yaitu (1) sikap merendahkan diri sendiri, (2) sapaan, (3) kebijaksanaan, dan (4) kedermawanan. maksim merendahkan diri sendiri mengingatkan penutur untuk merendahkan diri sendiri dan meninggikan orang lain. maksim sapaan berbunyi, “sapalah lawan bicara anda dengan sapaan yang sesuai”. kesesuaian di sini merujuk pada status sosial, peran pendengar, dan hubungan antara penutur dan pendengar. maksim kebijaksanaan dan maksim kedermawanan yang diajukan oleh gu hampir sama dengan maksimnya leech. maksim kebijaksanaan leech (1993) berbunyi, “buatlah keuntungan diri sendiri sekecil mungkin, buatlah kerugian diri sendiri sebesar mungkin”, sementara maksim kedermawanan berbunyi “buatlah kerugian orang lain sekecil mungkin, dan buatlah keuntungan orang lain sebesar mungkin.” dari mianzi dan lian ….. (agung pramujiono) 203  konsep muka dan teori kesantunan brown dan levinson berbeda dengan hu yang melihat muka dari perspektif sosial, konsep muka brown dan levinson lebih mangacu pada kebebasan individual. dalam pandangan brown dan levinson (1987), muka sebagai citra diri seorang individu terdiri atas dua keinginan yang berlawanan, yaitu muka negatif dan muka positif. muka negatif adalah keinginan agar tindakan-tindakan seseorang tidak dihalangi oleh orang lain, sedangkan muka positif adalah keinginan agar seseorang disenangi oleh orang lain. kesantunan berbahasa merupakan suatu cara untuk memelihara dan menyelamatkan muka dari tindak pengancaman muka (face threatening acts). dan levinson (1987:65-68) membedakan kategori face threatening acts (fta) berdasarkan dua kriteria, yaitu jenis muka yang diancam dan muka siapa yang diancam. berdasarkan kriteria pertama, ada dua kategori fta, yaitu fta yang mengancam muka negatif mitra tutur (mt) dan fta yang mengancam muka positif penutur (pn). fta yang mengancam muka negatif pn antara lain: (1) tindak yang mengakibatkan mitra tutur menyetujui atau menolak melakukan sesuatu, seperti memerintah, meminta, memberi nasihat, memberi saran, mengingatkan, mengancam, dan menantang; (2) tindak yang mengungkapkan upaya pn melakukan sesuatu terhadap mitra tutur dan memaksa mitra tutur untuk menerima atau menolak tindakan tersebut, misalnya menawarkan dan berjanji; (3) tindak yang mengungkapkan keinginan penutur untuk melakukan sesuatu terhadap mitra tutur atau apa yang dimiliki oleh mitra tutur, misalnya memberi ucapan selamat, mengagumi, membenci, dan marah. fta yang mengancam muka positif mt menurut brown dan levinson (1987:66-67) antara lain meliputi: (1) tindak yang memperlihatkan bahwa pn memberi penilaian negatif terhadap mt seperti mengungkapkan sikap tidak setuju, mengkritik, menghina, dan menuduh dan (2) tindak yang memperlihatkan sikap tidak peduli pn terhadap muka positif mt seperti mengungkapkan emosi, membicarakan hal yang dianggap tabu, mengungkapkan berita buruk, memotong pembicaraan, menyapa dengan sapaan yang tidak patut. lebih lanjut, brown dan levinson (1987:69) menyatakan bahwa dalam melakukan fta seorang model person dapat menggunakan salah satu dari lima strategi yang ditawarkan, yaitu (1) melakukan tindak tutur secara langsung /apa adanya tanpa basa-basi (bald on record), (2) melakukan tindak tutur dengan menggunakan strategi kesantunan positif, (3) melakukan tindak tutur dengan menggunakan strategi kesantunan negatif, (4) melakukan tindak tutur secara tersamar/tidak langsung (off record), dan (5) bertutur dalam hati atau tidak melakukan tindak tutur. pilihan strategi kesantunan menurut pandangan brown dan levinson dapat digambarkan sebagai berikut (gambar 1). gambar 1. strategi kesantunan menurut pandangan brown dan levinson (pramujiono, 2012). 204  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 200-206  strategi kesantunan positif yang ditawarkan oleh brown dan levinson (1987) meliputi: (1) memperhatikan kesukaan, keinginan, dan kebutuhan pendengar, (2) membesar-besarkan perhatian, persetujuan, dan simpati kepada pendengar, (3) mengintensifkan perhatian pendengar dengan pendramatisiran peristiwa atau fakta, (4) menggunakan penanda identitas kelompok (bentuk sapaan, dialek, jargon atau slang), (5) mencari persetujuan dengan topik yang umum atau mengulang sebagian /seluruh ujaran, (6) menghindari ketidaksetujuan dengan pura-pura setuju, persetujuan yang semu (psedo-agreement), menipu untuk kebaikan (white-lies, pemagaran opini (hedging opinions), (7) menunjukkan hal-hal yang dianggap mempunyai kesamaan melalui basa-basi (small talk) dan presuposisi, (8) menggunakan lelucon, (9)menyatakan paham akan keinginan pendengar, (10) memberikan tawaran atau janji, (11) menunjukkan keoptimisan, (12) melibatkan penutur dan pendengar dalam aktivitas, (13) berikan pertanyaan atau meminta alasan, (14) menyatakan hubungan secara timbal balik (resiprokal), dan (15) memberikan hadiah (barang, simpati, perhatian, kerja sama) kepada pendengar (pramujiono, 2008). strategi kesantunan negatif yang ditawarkan brown dan levinson (1987) meliputi: (1) pakailah ujaran tidak langsung (yang secara konvensional memang dipakai oleh masyarakat bersangkutan), (2) pakailah pagar (hedge), (3) tunjukkan pesimisme, (4) minimalkan paksaan, (5) berikan penghormatan, (6) mintalah maaf, (7) pakailah bentuk impersonal, (8) ujarkan tindak tutur itu sebagai ketentuan yang bersifat umum. teori kesantunan: perlukah pemisahan antara timur dan barat? banyak kajian yang membandingkan persepsi kesantunan antara timur dan barat. misalnya kajian hiraga dan turner(1996) tentang perbedaan persepsi tentang muka masyarakat inggris dan jepang dengan latar akademik; tian dan zhao (2006) yang melakukan studi kontrastif antara konsep kesantunan barat dan cina. kajian lintas budaya semacam itu banyak berkembang setelah brown dan levinson memublikasikan pikirannya pada tahun 1978 (leech, 2007). kajian yang dilakukan oleh pakar dari timur seperti ide (1993), mastumoto (1989), gu (1990), dan mao (1994) menurut leech cenderung mengklaim bahwa konsep muka pada konteks kesantunan barat cenderung bersifat individualis dan bermotif egalitarian, sedangkan bagi orang timur muka berkaitan dengan tataran hierarki sosial dan norma-norma yang melingkupinya. guna membuktikan kebenaran pandangan tersebut, leech (2007) melakukan penelitian terhadap empat bahasa, yaitu cina, jepang, korea, dan inggris dengan menggunakan grand strategy of politeness (gsp) yang dikembangkan pada pola perilaku linguistik secara umum pada performansi tindak tutur yang santun seperti permintaan, penawaran, pujian, permintaan maaf, ucapan terima kasih dan respon terhadap tindak tutur tersebut. konteks tuturan dibedakan pada hubungan antarinteraktan yang menempatkan mitra tutur pada dua posisi: pertama, mitra tutur dipandang memiliki “nilai” yang lebih tinggi dan kedua, mitra tutur dipandang mempunyai “nilai” yang lebih rendah. berdasarkan penelitiannya tersebut, leech memberikan simpulan yang masih tentatif bahwa meskipun teori brown dan levinson dikritik tidak bersifat universal dan memiliki bias relativitas pada berbagai konteks masyarakat yang berbeda, leech berkeyakinan masih tetap ada hal-hal yang sama sebagai dasar perilaku dan kaidah pragmatik secara umum berkaitan dengan kesantunan. ketika limao dibedakan dengan politeness, pembedaan tersebut tidak dilakukan sebagai ketidakberhubungan secara total. ada fenomena-fenomena yang dapat digunakan untuk membuktikan keuniversalan kesantunan meskipun masih agak prematur. perbedaan interpretasi dari berbagai masyarakat tutur tersebut dapat dijadikan dasar dalam kajian pragmatik lintas budaya. leech (2007:201) lebih lanjut menegaskan pembedaan timur-barat tidak perlu dilakukan karena skala kesantunan dapat digunakan untuk mengekspresikan perbedaan-perbedaan nilai, baik secara kualitatif maupun kuantitatif. cina dan jepang memiliki perbedaan budaya, tetapi mereka dari mianzi dan lian ….. (agung pramujiono) 205  dipengaruhi oleh tradisi yang sama yaitu ajaran konfusius yang lebih mengutamakan harmoni masyarakat di atas kebebasan individu. perilaku seseorang akan bermakna dalam komunitasnya ketika ada partisipasi dari yang lain. di sinilah ego disingkirkan dan kebersama-an/kesatuan dalam sebuah harmoni dibangun. di sisi lain, perilaku individualis, egalitarian sebagai label barat diekspresikan dalam kesantunan dengan mempertimbangkan berbagai faktor misalnya pembobotan yang lebih tinggi terhadap perilaku bijak (tindakan menghargai mitra tutur) dan pembobotan yang lebih rendah terhadap kerendahan hati (pemaksaan kehendak lebih dianggap baik). namun yang perlu diketahui, bahwa orientasi egaliter itu tidak memberikan asumsi bahwa masyarakat barat lebih individualis dan egalitarian dibanding masyarakat yang lain. walaupun terkadang memang mereka lebih egaliter. dari pandangan leech di atas dapat ditarik simpulan bahwa secara mendasar dari aspek pragmatik tidak perlu pembedaan kesantunan timur dan barat. karena skala kesantunan dapat digunakan untuk mengekspresikan perbedaan-perbedaan nilai, tetapi persepsi terhadap ekspresi kesantunan dapat saja berbeda sesuai dengan konteks budaya masyarakatnya. di sinilah parameter r (ranking of impositions in the particular culture) yang diajukan oleh brown dan levinson (1987: 76) memiliki peran yang penting. simpulan sebagai orang timur kita boleh bangga, konsep muka dalam teori kesantunan brown dan levinson (1987) yang dianggap sebagai kesantunan yang paling berpengaruh dan mendunia, ternyata berakar dari kearifan lokal timur (cina klasik) yaitu mianzi dan lian. mianzi merepresentasikan persepsi sosial tentang harga diri seseorang yang dibangun melalui lian sebagai moralitas seseorang. politeness dan limao memiliki dasar pragmatik yang sama, tetapi dapat dipersepsi berbeda karena berbagai konteks budaya yang melatari suatu masyarakat tutur. perbedaan tersebut dalam konteks kajian pragmatik lintas budaya tidak seharusnya menjadi sumber perselisihan dan permusuhan, tetapi justru perlu disikapi sebagai keragaman yang antarinteraktan perlu saling memahami sehingga aktivitas komunikasi interpersonal dapat berlangsung secara harmonis terhindar dari berbagai friksi dan konflik. daftar pustaka brown, p. dan levinson, s.c. 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(maria natalia damayanti maer, terj.). jakarta: salemba humanika. 116 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 fenomena muenshakai sebagai akibat pola hidup individualisme serta dampaknya terhadap keadaan sosial dan ekonomi di jepang roberto masami prabowo; sheddy nagara tjandra japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah – kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 robertomasami@gmail.com abstract article described capitalist social life of modern japanesse that was having individualistic characteristic. this high indivialistic life affected the availability of disconnected family life called muenshakai (無縁社会). this phenomenon caused social and economic shifts in the japanese family. this research used qualitative approach elaborated in descriptive analysis. the object of research or data corpus was the problem of a decline in japan population in terms of the breakdown of the family. the research results indicated that muenshakai phenomenon has emerged in japan caused by some sequential events, those are: the 2nd world war “legacy”, the availability of baby boom, the abolition of shūshinkoyō (終身雇用), the decreasing of marital rate, the increasing of divorce rate, the decreasing of bith rate (少子 化), and the lost of family relationship. it can be concluded that the urban individualistic life style is able to change the traditional thinking pattern into oportunistic one that becomes one of the causal factors of muenshakai phenomenon. keywords: muenshakai, family, individualism abstrak artikel menggambarkan kehidupan masyarakat kapitalis jepang modern yang individualistis serta dampaknya terhadap putusnya hubungan antarkeluarga yang disebut muenshakai (無縁社会). fenomena ini membawa dampak pergeseran sosial dan ekonomi pada keluarga di jepang. penelitian menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dan analisis deskriptif. fokus penelitian adalah menurunnya populasi jepang karena faktor muenshakai. analisis mengenai fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) di jepang terbentuk dari serangkaian kejadian yakni ‘warisan’ perang dunia ii, baby boom, dihapusnya shūshinkoyō (終身雇用), berkurangnya angka pernikahan, bertambahnya angka perceraian, berkurangnya jumlah anak yang lahir (少子化), dan hilangnya hubungan kekeluargaan. simpulan penelitian adalah gaya hidup individualisme perkotaan menyebabkan pola pikir tradisional menjadi masyarakat oportunitis sebagai salah satu sebab timbulnya muenshakai. kata kunci: fenomena, individualisme, muenshakai 117fenomena muenshakai ….. (roberto masami prabowo; sheddy nagara tjandra) pendahuluan penduduk jepang berjumlah sekitar 128 juta orang. jumlah tersebut berada di peringkat ke-10 negara penduduk terbanyak di dunia. jepang terdiri dari 6.852 pulau yang merupakan suatu kepulauan. pulau utama dari utara ke selatan adalah hokkaido, honshu, shikoku, dan kyushu. kota tokyo adalah daerah metropolitan terluas di dunia dengan jumlah penduduk sekitar 30 juta orang. beberapa tahun ini, di jepang ada kasus yang tidak bisa dikategorikan dengan “bunuh diri yang tidak teridentifikasi”,「身元不明の自殺と見られる死者」 dan “mati dalam perjalanan”, 「行き倒れ死」, yakni dinamakan dengan “kematian yang baru”, 「新たな死」. kematian tersebut disebabkan oleh hilang atau terputusnya hubungan kekeluargaan dan sistem kerja seumur hidup ( 終身雇用). keadaan ini membentuk muenshakai (無縁 社会) yang menyebabkan hilangnya chien (地縁) dan ketsuen (血縁), yakni hubungan antardaerah dan keluarga atau orang tua. selain itu, ada pula fenomena yang terjadi beberapa waktu ini yakni hilangnya keterikatan sosial yang dinamakan dengan shaen (社縁). hilangnya keterikatan sosial termasuk hubungan antara tetangga, sesama manusia di tempat umum, dan sebagainya (nhk online, 2012-2013). fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) adalah masyarakat jepang yang hubungan relasinya terputus, selain itu bertambah banyaknya masyarakat yang hidup tinggal sendiri (primary individual). di tahun 2010, istilah muenshakai dibuat oleh pusat televisi nhk di jepang (nhk online, 2012-2013). survei badan pusat statistik jepang (ministry of internal affairs and communications) pada 2011 menunjukkan jumlah penduduk jepang sebesar 127.799.000 orang, dengan masyarakat yang tinggal sendiri sebanyak 15.885.000 orang (32.1%). sedangkan jumlah seluruh keluarga di jepang adalah 50.928.000 unit keluarga, dengan demikian perbandingan masyarakat yang hidup sendiri kurang lebih sebanyak 2.46 orang (ministry of internal affairs and communications, 2011). mereka yang tinggal sendiri ini bisa dikategorikan sebagai tanshinsetai (単身世帯), yakni orang yang tinggal sendiri, baik dia tidak menikah, cerai atau cerai mati, anaknya sudah ke luar dari rumah karena sudah hidup mandiri. istilah lain disebut dengan tandokusetai (単独世 帯) atau single setai (シングル世帯) (nhk online, 20122013). dahulu pernah ada beberapa fenomena yang mirip dengan muenshakai, seperti waktu jepang kalah perang dunia ii sekitar tahun 1945, dampak gempa bumi di hansin pada 17 januari 1995, dan gempa bumi di sendai pada 11 maret 2011. di negara lain pun ada kejadian yang serupa, seperti di rusia pada kejadian pasca bencana chernobyl pada 26 april 1986. istilah muenshakai yang dibuat oleh nhk ini menjadi bahasa umum yang sebenarnya belum ada di dalam kamus bahasa jepang, jika diterjemahkan ke bahasa inggris menjadi disconnected society (hane, 2001). pembahasan fenomena kematian yang tidak ditinggalkan oleh keluarganya ini awalnya dibahas di nhk (nippon housou kyoku), sebuah stasiun televisi negara jepang yang menayangkan pembahasan masalah masyarakat yang menjadi polemik sampai 2050. pada acara news watch 9 yang ditayangkan pada 10 februari 2011 ini merupakan kampanye terhadap muenshakai, dan topik tersebut dimuat pada situs nhk spesial dengan judul「無縁社会、新たなつながりを求めて」yang artinya mencari harapan baru sehubungan terputusnya hubungan sosial. isi berita adalah sekilas info mengenai muenshakai dan jadwal penayangan acara. pada malam harinya pukul 19:30-20:43, untuk pertama kalinya acara yang membahas fenomena muenshakai ini ditayangkan dan banyak pemirsa yang menanggapi. (nhk online, 2011) setelah perang dunia ii banyak orang jepang yang meninggal karena perang, terutama kaum lelaki. setelah itu, di tahun 1947-1949 terjadi ledakan kelahiran bayi pertama dan yang kedua sekitar tahun 1971-1974 (fukutake, 1989). pemerintah jepang mengumumkan sistem kerja jangka panjang yang bertujuan untuk membangun infrastruktur di segala bidang. masa ini dikenal dengan kōdokeizaiseichō (高度経済成長). sistem kerja jangka panjang atau yang dinamakan dengan shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) adalah sistem kerja hingga pensiun tanpa pemecatan dan sistem upah berdasarkan senioritas (naohiro, 2009). kesuksesan dalam mengembangkan infrastruktur perekonomian masyarakat dan tingginya peminatan di bidang industri memicu masyarakat berhenti bertani dan berpindah tempat jauh dari keluarga besar. masyarakat agraris yang beralih ke kota dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan ekonomi ini banyak yang tidak menyadari bahwa dirinya sudah masuk dalam ranah kehidupan kapitalis yang tentu sangat kompleks. para kaum urban mengganggap hidupnya dapat mengubah perekonomian dan mencapai tujuan tingkat kekayaan yang diinginkan, dengan demikian mereka memilih kerja di kota besar. setiap orang memiliki prioritas dalam hidup, seperti meningkatkan keuntungan, kemakmuran, kemewahan, kenikmatan, kenyamanan, keharmonisan sosial, dsb. (kottak, 2010). artikel membahas beberapa kejadian perpecahan kekeluargaan. hal ini diperkirakan dari gaya hidup individualisme yang mengarah ke indikasi muenshakai di jepang. gaya hidup individualisme perkotaan yang terjadi di jepang kurang lebih sama seperti di negaranegara maju, seperti keluar dari keluarga inti, sibuk dengan pekerjaan, dan seks bebas. meskipun demikian, jepang sampai sekarang ini belum bisa menyelesaikan permasalahan dibanding dengan negara maju lain metode penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif dan dijabarkan dengan deskriptif analitis melalui data kelompok manusia, situasi, kondisi, pemikiran maupun fenomena yang sedang berlangsung di jepang. objek penelitian atau korpus data yang diangkat adalah masalah penurunan jumlah penduduk di jepang ditinjau dari perpecahan keluarga. dalam pengumpulan data dan bahan yang berhubungan dengan topik penelitian, penulis melakukan studi pustaka untuk mencari pemecahan masalah sosial di jepang, khususnya kekeluargaan. hasil dan pembahasan fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会), yaitu mengenai hilangnya hubungan kekeluargaan sebenarnya sudah pernah terjadi pada zaman perang, terutama setelah 118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 perang dunia ii. muenshakai di jepang atau terputusnya hubungan sosial di jepang ini adalah ‘warisan’ perang dunia ii. setelah usai perang dunia ii, banyak masyarakat jepang yang kehilangan tempat tinggal, makanan, minum, dsb. yang akhirnya menimbulkan malnutrisi, wabah penyakit, cacat fisik, bahkan kematian. apabila ada keluarga yang tidak terkena masalah tersebut, kebanyakan mereka tidak mau menolong karena masalah ekonomi, jarak yang jauh, sindrom perang, dan sebagainya. (ukeru, 2012) beberapa negara mengalami hal yang sama. namun karena perbedaan perekonomian, letak geografis, budaya, dsb., dampaknya berbeda atau bahkan bertolak belakang. contohnya adalah amerika serikat dengan jumlah populasi sekitar 318,968,000 jiwa dengan gdp nominal $53,001. dalam kasus ini jumlah penduduknya tidak mengalami penurunan, tetapi beberapa peneliti mengasumsikan terjadi fenomena “loneliness” yang artinya kesepian atau kesendirian (perlman & peplau, 1984). beberapa jurnal dan peneliti di seluruh dunia melihat fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) terjadi karena perkembangan teknologi, contohnya pada abad xviii di amerika serikat. ketika itu industri otomotif berkembang pesat dan banyak masyarakat membeli kendaraan untuk keperluan dan kebutuhan sendiri. selain itu, televisi sudah memiliki banyak channel yang membuat masyarakat akhirnya memiliki banyak pilihan acara yang ingin ditonton sehingga mereka diam di rumah berjam-jam, berhari-hari, atau bahkan terus menerus. akhir-akhir ini masyarakat jepang mempunyai permasalahan sosial, seperti masyarakat lanjut usia (高齢 化社会) dan kemiskinan pada masyarakat lanjut usia (老 後破産). masalah ini masih sering dibicarakan di media massa maupun pemerintahan jepang. berikut ini adalah kejadian dan dampak muenshakai yang terjadi di jepang (miyamoto, 2012). perang dunia ii dan baby boom menyebabkan fenomena muenshakai. setelah perang dunia i, kondisi perekonomian seluruh dunia dan jepang mengalami kehancuran, ditambah pada 1 september 1923 terjadi gempa bumi dahsyat di sekitar daerah tokyo dan yokohama (関東大震災) yang mengakibatkan 109.713 jiwa mengalami luka dan kehilangan tempat tinggal, sedangkan kematian dan korban hilang sebanyak 105.385 jiwa. awal perang dunia ii adalah ketika tanggal 1 september 1939 tentara jerman menyerang ke negara polandia, inggris, dan perancis. di lain sisi, jepang mengalami perang dengan cina yang sudah berlangsung sejak 7 juli 1937 (barrett & shyu, 2000). jepang menyatakan menyerah pada tanggal 14 agustus 1945, setelah amerika menjatuhkan bom atom ke hiroshima (6 agustus 1945) dan nagasaki (9 agustus 1945). dengan berakhirnya perang dunia ii (termasuk perang pasifik) banyak para prajurit jepang yang kembali ke negaranya. mereka menikah dan mempunyai anak banyak. pada awalnya banyak rakyat yang kehilangan pekerjaan, orang tua, tempat tinggal, dsb. banyak wabah penyakit, malnutrisi, trauma, tbc, asma, kematian yang tidak teridentifikasi, kanker karena radiasi atom, dsb. (hane, 2001). dua tahun kemudian, angka kelahiran meningkat drastis, kejadian ini dikenal dengan baby boom atau dalam bahasa jepang adalah dankai no sedai (団塊 の世代). ledakan kelahiran bayi di jepang terjadi pada dua generasi, pertama terjadi sekitar tahun 1947 – 1949 dan kedua pada tahun 1971 – 1974 (fukutake, 1989). jika mereka lahir sekitar tahun 1947–1949, orang-orang ini sekarang berusia sekitar 65 – 67 tahun. mereka umumnya sudah tidak bekerja, ditinggal oleh pasangan hidup karena kematian atau perceraian, kondisi kesehatan menurun, dan tinggal sendiri. pada 1950 jumlah penduduk jepang sekitar 83.200.000 jiwa, terdiri dari laki-laki 40.812.000 jiwa dan perempuan 42.388.000 jiwa, sedangkan masyarakat lanjut usia pada waktu ini hanya sekitar 4.109.167 jiwa. pada tahun 2013 jumlah masyarakat generasi baby boom yang sekarang menjadi masyarakat lanjut usia (di atas 65 tahun) adalah sekitar 31.900.000 jiwa dari 127.300.000 jiwa (cabinet office, government of japan; 2014). jumlah masyarakat lanjut usia (di atas 65 tahun) sebanyak 31.900.000, kurang lebih 25.1% dari total penduduk jepang. jumlah laki-laki sebanyak 13.700.000 dan perempuan 18.200.000. masyarakat generasi baby boom pertama (団塊の世代) ini yang menjadi penelitian para analis. para analis memprediksikan gejala ini akan menurun sampai tahun 2060, tetapi angka kelahiran pun ikut berkurang dan akan dibahas pada shōshika (少子化). salah satu penyebab muenshakai adalah dihapusnya shūshinkoyō (終身雇用). di tahun 1900 pemerintah jepang menetapkan sistem kerja untuk meningkatkan dunia industri yang baru berkembang sejak masa restorasi meiji (明治一身). sistem kerja tersebut merupakan sistem kerja hingga pensiun tanpa ada pemecatan dan sistem upah berdasarkan senioritas. dalam sistem kerja ini dikenal adanya perbedaan hak dan kewajiban antara perempuan, dinas atau penempatan keluar kota maupun daerah, kerja jangka panjang, dsb. (naohiro, 2009). setelah perang dunia ii, pemerintah jepang mengumumkan sistem kerja jangka panjang yang bertujuan untuk membangun infrastruktur disegala bidang, masa ini dikenal dengan kōdokeizaiseichō (高 度経済成長). sistem kerja jangka panjang atau lifetime commitment disebut shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) (abegglen, 2004). akan tetapi, sejak tahun 1990 jepang mengalami kemunduran pada saham dunia dan nilai mata uang jepang mengalami kenaikan atau disebut dengan endaka (円高). banyak perusahaan mengalami kerugian karena harga produknya terpaksa dinaikkan, yang dampaknya produk tersebut akhirnya tidak terjual dengan baik. perusahaan menghadapi masalah seperti kenaikan suku bunga pinjaman jangka panjang dari bank negara (日本長期信用 銀行) dan ditambah pula dengan karyawan yang menuntut kenaikan upah. karyawan yang sudah terikat kontrak dengan perusahaan akan menuntut uang pesangon jika diberhentikan. akhirnya, pemerintah jepang menetapkan langkah singkat untuk menutupi penyalahgunaan hak pekerja dengan menghapus shūshinkoyō (sekiguchi, 1996). negara jepang mengalami inflasi besar yang dikenal dengan bubble economy (バブル崩壊). kejadian ini menyebabkan banyak perusahaan di jepang gulung tikar karena naiknya suku bunga peminjaman dari bank. dengan kejadian tersebut, pemerintah mengambil langkah dengan menghapuskan sistim kerja shūshinkoyō sebab 119fenomena muenshakai ….. (roberto masami prabowo; sheddy nagara tjandra) pemerintah maupun perusahaan tidak bisa menjamin kompensasi kerja seumur hidup dan dana pensiun para pekerja. beberapa perusahaan menengah – kecil mengalami kebangkrutan dan pemecatan sepihak tanpa pesangon. sedangkan perusahaan besar yang masih bisa bertahan mengambil tindakan dengan pengurangan pekerja atau merumahkan pekerja sambil menunggu perubahan perekonomian atau sampai perusahaannya mulai stabil. adapula pengurangan fasilitas karyawan, seperti tempat tinggal di apartemen, mobil operasional, pengurangan jumlah makan siang yang diberikan dari perusahaan, dsb. dengan demikian, pemerintah jepang melakukan penyesuaian perundang-undangan kerja terhadap karyawan tetap seperti upah lembur, relokasi, dinas luar kota, kerja paruh waktu, pemecatan karyawan baru, dan pensiun dini. beberapa karyawan menyadari ketatnya persaingan kerja dan terpaksa menerima perubahan ini karena tidak ada pilihan lain (sekiguchi, 1996). setelah negara jepang mengalami inflasi, banyak perusahaan gulung tikar dan pemerintah menghapus sistem kerja shūshinkoyō, sehingga banyak masyarakat jepang (terutama laki-laki) kehilangan semangat kerja karena kehilangan jaminan masa tua atau pensiun. setiap orang umumnya mengharapkan perkerjaan yang bisa menjamin kehidupan jangka pendek maupun panjang. sistem kerja yang kebanyakan menjadi karyawan kontrak atau dalam bahasa jepangnya keiyakushain (契約社員) menyebabkan kekhawatiran atau kecemasan pekerja. pemecatan sepihak bisa terjadi karena masa kontrak habis, perusahaan gulung tikar, dsb. (fukutake, 1989). karyawan kontrak terpaksa bekerja keras supaya mampu bertahan di perusahaannya, jika tidak mereka akan dipecat. kerasnya persaingan kerja membuat beberapa karyawan terpaksa lembur yang bisa mengakibatkan kematian karena kelelahan (過労死). ada pula karyawan yang sudah tahu kondisi fisiknya sudah tidak sehat atau tidak layak lagi untuk bekerja, tetapi mereka terus memaksakan diri untuk bekerja sampai meninggal kelelahan (過労自殺) (naohiro, 2009). sepuluh tahun lebih setelah berakhirnya perang dunia ii yang berkisar tahun 1960, negara jepang telah mengalami pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat, industrialisasi dan urbanisasi yang telah memengaruhi seluruh komunitas, status, dan kelas dalam masyarakat kota. pertumbuhan ekonomi ditandai dengan kebutuhan modal yang diutamakan dibandingkan dengan kesejahteraan sosial. dampak perkembangan pembangunan di jepang adalah beberapa keluarga tradisional di daerah atau yang umumnya memiliki pekerjaan di bidang agraris mengalami perubahan dan pergeseran. umumnya keluarga tradisional jepang atau kazoku, di dalam komunitas lokal dan kelompok keluarga kecil menjadi lemah yang diakibatkan oleh perpecahan anggota keluarga antar generasi, yakni antara generasi tua dengan generasi muda. banyak generasi muda lebih memilih pergi ke kota untuk meningkatkan kualitasnya dan generasi tua lebih memilih tinggal di desa. para generasi muda yang datang dari desa ke kota, setelah lama meninggalkan desa sering kali tidak memiliki keinginan untuk kembali lagi ke kampung halaman atau ke keluarga asal dengan beberapa alasan. misalnya, orangtua sudah meninggal, saudara laki-laki dan perempuan telah menikah, dan keponakan yang akan menyusul bekerja ke kota. persahabatan dan keanggotaan kelompok keluarga menjadi luntur dan komunikasi dengan teman dari kampung makin berkurang (fukutake, 1989). setelah mulai bekerja dan menjalani kesibukan di kota, generasi muda tersebut tinggal di daerah pinggiran kota dan hidup sendiri. keinginan untuk mencari teman sebanyak-banyaknya di kota timbul, di antara teman yang akrab mereka bisa dianggap sebagai keluarga sendiri. terkadang teman yang akrab ini bisa tinggal bersama dengan tujuan saling berbagi pembayaran sewa mansion atau apartment. kehidupan semacam ini dinamakan kyōdōseikatsutai (共同生活対) yang mempunyai tiga indikasi (fukutake, 1989), yaitu: (a) jika bertemu dengan sesama jenis, mereka akan hidup bersama dengan tujuan saling membantu perekonomian; (b) jika bertemu dengan lawan jenis dan menemukan kecocokan, mereka akan melanjutkan ke pernikahan; (c) jika bertemu dengan pasangan lain jenis, mereka akan hidup bersama layaknya suami istri namun tidak dilanjutkan sampai ke pernikahan. dengan demikian, jika generasi muda lepas dari aturan keluarga atau jauh dari keluarga maka akan sulit sekali anggota keluarga bisa memantau kehidupan mereka, apakah anak atau saudaranya menjalani kehidupan dengan baik atau tidak. terlebih lagi, apabila tetangga atau pemilik apartemen tidak peduli dengan perbuatan mereka yang sering berganti pasangan dan tinggal bersama. gaya hidup seks bebas memang di beberapa negara dianggap taboo atau amoral (不道), namun beberapa orang jepang menganggap sebahal hal yang biasa. beberapa orang lebih nyaman hidup dengan seks bebas dibandingkan menikah yang dipandang dapat merusak kebebasan hidup, karier, dan keuangan. apabila sudah menikah, tentunya waktu harus lebih banyak dengan keluarga. orang perkotaan lebih banyak menjalani hidup di luar rumah, baik itu untuk bekerja, bergaul, sekedar menyalurkan hobi, atau untuk hiburan. terutama orang kota yang sibuk dengan kerja maupun kegiatan lain, mereka membutuhkan waktu untuk rekreasi yang mudah didapat, dikonsumsi, dan murah. pola hidup yang mengacu pada “kemudahan” menjadi pemicu ke segala bidang kehidupan perkotaan, baik dari teknologi, makanan, minuman, pakaian, tempat tinggal, bahkan seks (cabinet office, government of japan; 2014). kasus perceraian di jepang merupakan salah satu dampak terbentuknya masyarakat muenshakai sebab dengan adanya percaraian maka kebanyakan hubungan kekeluargaan terputus. pasangan suami istri yang belum memiliki anak lebih berpotensi menyebabkan terputusnya hubungan kekeluargaan karena tidak ada orang yang mau mengurus kehidupan mereka di kelak kemudian nanti (miyamoto, 2012). seiring dengan berkurangnya angka pernikahan, angka perceraian di jepang meningkat secara perlahan-lahan dari tahun ke tahun. jumlah rumah tangga yang terdiri dari ibu dan anak pada tahun 1995 berjumlah 625.904 rumah tangga. kasus perceraian pada umumnya terjadi karena masalah ketidakcocokan dalam keluarga. faktor ketidakcocokan ini pada umumnya adalah karena kurang berkomunikasi, yang akhirnya berakibat pada ketidakcocokan sifat, menentukan prioritas, mengurus anak, membantu urusan rumah, jarang memberikan nafkah batin (セックスレス夫婦), hingga perselingkuhan. pasangan suami istri yang bercerai ada yang sudah 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 punya anak atau belum. pasangan yang sudah memiliki anak dan bercerai di tahun 1980 sekitar 96.000 pasang, di tahun 2000 sekitar 157.000 pasang, dan tahun 2011 sekitar 137.000 pasang. hampir 80% kasus perceraian hak asuh anak jatuh ke tangan ibu, hingga ada sebutan single mother (シングルマザー) yang pada 1983 berjumlah 353.000 orang; dan pada 2011 meningkat menjadi 1.332.000 orang (ministry of health, labour, and welfare, 2014). sesuai dengan penelitian sebelumnya, fenomena shōshika atau degradasi angka kelahiran ini berawal dari dankai no sedai (団塊の世代), atau the baby boom generation, yang pertama terjadi sekitar tahun 1947– 1949 dan kedua pada tahun 1971–1974. pada generasi baby boom kedua atau yang disebut dankai junior ( 団塊ジュニアー) sudah terlihat berkurangnya jumlah kelahiran yang disebabkan oleh (a) di keluarga pedesaan, yaitu perpecahan keluarga karena urbanisasi; (b) di keluarga perkotaan, yaitu kesibukan orang tua mencari nafkah hingga larut malam (fukutake, 1989). keluarga tradisional jepang atau dento kazoku (伝統家族) biasanya merupakan keluarga besar yang terdiri dari tiga generasi, yakni kakek-nenek, ayah-ibu, dan anak-anak. perpecahan bisa menimpa keluarga tradisional karena perbedaan pandangan antara generasi tua dan generasi muda. banyak generasi yang muda lebih memilih pergi ke kota untuk meningkatkan kualitas perekonomian dan keterampilan, sedangkan generasi tua lebih memilih untuk tinggal di desa (fukutake, 1989). para remaja yang telah lama berada di kota sering kali tidak ada keinginan untuk kembali lagi ke keluarga asal. beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan hal tersebut adalah mereka segan untuk pulang kampung karena belum sukses, orangtua sudah meninggal, saudara lakilaki atau perempuan telah menikah, keponakan menyusul melakukan hal yang sama sehingga dia harus mengurus untuk peluang kerja, dsb. dengan demikian, keanggotaan kelompok terputus dan karena perpisahan fisik ini menyebabkan hak dan kewajiban antara keluarga dan teman makin berkurang (nakane, 1981). negara jepang telah mengalami proses penurunan jumlah kelahiran selama 40 tahun. jumlah kelahiran yang ideal adalah apabila jumlah wanita di jepang seluruhnya mengandung anak dengan perbandingan rasionya 2.07. setelah tahun 1973 mulai mengalami penurunan kelahiran dengan rasio 2.14, tahun 2005 sebanyak 1.26, dan di tahun 2012 sudah menjadi 1.41. anzō (2013) mengatakan bahwa apabila jumlah penduduk ini dibiarkan berjalan begitu saja, diperkiraan di tahun 2300 jumlah penduduk jepang bisa sejumlah 3.600.000 jiwa. hal ini dapat memengaruhi sumber daya manusia, sistem kekeluargaan, pajak, tunjangan pensiun, dsb. yang juga akan memengaruhi jaminan sosial di masa depan (anzō, 2013). shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者) juga berakibat pada muenshakai. akhir-akhir ini di jepang makin bertambah banyak masyarakat yang tinggal sendiri atau dalam bahasa jepang disebut dokusinka (独身化). apabila mereka berusia 50 tahun dan belum menikah, mereka dinamakan shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者). dari hasil penelitian yang dilakukan sampai 2012, laki-laki yang termasuk shōgaimikonsha tercatat bertambah 20% atau bertambah 7 kali lipat dibanding tahun 1980. apabila laki-laki yang sekarang berusia 30 tahun, 20 tahun kemudian mereka akan berusia 50 tahun, perbandingannya menjadi 3 banding 1. dengan kata lain, di antara 3 orang yang menikah, 1 orang tidak menikah. mereka adalah kelompok yang tinggal menyendiri karena masalah inflasi dan kesulitan pemenuhan ekonomi. kehidupan sehari-hari para shōgaimikonsha bergantung pada nenkin (年金) dari pemerintah. jika perekonomian anaknya mencukupi, ada beberapa manula yang ditempatkan di panti jompo atau di jepang di sebut dengan roujin houmu (老人ホーム). hal yang terburuk terjadi apabila para manula tidak bisa membiayai apartemen atau ada yang sengaja menjadi gelandangan di tempat umum, di jepang disebut dengan furousha (浮 浪者). beberapa fenomena ini disebut dengan manusia lanjut usia yang miskin (老後破産) (anzō, 2013). manusia lanjut usia yang miskin ini bisa terjadi karena beberapa kasus, misalnya ditinggalkan pasangan, khususnya suami lanjut usia yang ditinggalkan istrinya yang lanjut usia juga. ketika menjelang pensiun, di antaranya ada yang jatuh sakit sehingga membutuhkan biaya banyak untuk penyembuhan. dengan keterbatasan dana hasil pensiun dan tabungan, biaya untuk penyembuhan penyakit bisa saja habis dengan sia-sia karena faktor usia yang sulit untuk penyembuhan dan penyakit yang belum ada obatnya. terutama suami yang ditinggalkan istri dan tidak terbiasa memasak, mereka akhirnya mengalami malnutrisi. jika sakit, biasanya mereka tidak mau berobat dan cenderung mengharapkan meninggal agar bisa bertemu dengan pasangannya (shūkan gendai, 2014). degradasi jumlah penduduk dan masa depan jepang di tahun 2050 merupakan faktor timbulnya muenshakai. beberapa instansi survei jepang mencoba memprediksi jumlah penduduk jepang. perkiraan ini dibuat berdasarkan jumlah penduduk yang dihitung sejak ledakan kelahiran bayi yang pertama (1947–1949) dan kedua (1971–1974). rangkaian kejadian hingga terbentuknya muenshakai ini tidak pendek, bahkan untuk ke luar dari masalah ini harus menunggu lewatnya generasi kedua baby boom, yaitu sekitar tahun 2050. dengan dihapusnya jaminan kerja, banyak masyarakat kehilangan kesejahteraan dan jaminan sosial, hal ini menyebabkan berkurangnya angka pernikahan (晩婚化) dan angka kelahiran (少子化). berkurangnya jumlah angka pernikahan dan bertambahnya perceraian menyebabkan muenshakai. dengan terputusnya hubungan dengan relasinya, banyak manusia lanjut usia yang meninggal tanpa ada penanganan, bahkan tidak ada yang tahu jika sudah meninggal. ada pula mereka yang putus asa karena masalah ekonomi maupun kejiwaan sehingga mereka bunuh diri di tempat tinggal atau di luar rumah. sekali pun orang tua atau kakek-neneknya sudah meninggal, keluarga tidak mau mengurus biaya atau upacara pemakaman. karena keluarga tidak memiliki biaya atau tidak mau menangani anggota keluarga yang meninggal, pemerintah terpaksa menindaklanjuti dengan memberi biaya minim untuk kremasi massal, dan jasad akan dimakamkan di pekuburan massal (japan eastday, 2012). beberapa peneliti dan sosiolog jepang mengatakan fenomena ini kemungkinan akan berakhir pada 2050 atau 2060, yakni ketika anak dari generasi dankai no sedai ( 団塊の世代) atau baby boomer pertama sudah meninggal namun cucu dari generasi tersebut mengalami degradasi 121fenomena muenshakai ….. (roberto masami prabowo; sheddy nagara tjandra) kelahiran. apabila hal ini dibiarkan tanpa campur tangan sejak dini seperti sekarang ini, terutama peran media massa yang selalu membahas dan memberi info bahaya muenshakai bagi masa depan jepang, jumlah penduduk jepang di tahun 2010 yang berjumlah 128.057.352 jiwa di tahun 2050 bisa turun menjadi 97.000.000 jiwa (the huffington post, 2014). simpulan fenomena muenshakai (無縁社会) di jepang terbentuk dari serangkaian kejadian yakni ‘warisan’ perang dunia ii, baby boom, dihapusnya shūshinkoyō (終 身雇用), berkurangnya angka pernikahan, bertambahnya angka perceraian, dan berkurangnya jumlah anak yang lahir (少子化). semua ini adalah serangkaian kejadian yang tidak bisa dihindari sejak perang dunia ii. dengan hilangnya hubungan kekeluargaan, kemudian terbentuklah tanshinsetai (単身世帯), yakni orang yang tinggal sendiri karena tidak menikah, cerai atau cerai mati, anak sudah ke luar dari rumah karena sudah hidup mandiri. para tanshinsetai ini ada yang sudah tua dan mereka dinamakan dengan shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者). masyarakat jepang yang pernah bekerja seumur hidup atau dengan sistem shūshinkoyō tidak takut berkeluarga, bahkan memiliki banyak anak karena sistem shūshinkoyō sebagai jaminan sosial. setelah sistem ini dihapus, banyak orang sulit dalam merancang perekonomian keluarga dan ada juga kemungkinan pemecatan sepihak (リストラ) bila perusahaan mengalami kerugian. gaya hidup modern atau perkotaan yang selalu sibuk bekerja karena takut dipecat, menghindar pernikahan dan punya anak demi karier dan uang, pola hidup dan kebutuhan (sandang, pangan, dan papan) yang serba ‘siap saji’ atau ‘instant’ ini menjadikan masyarakat berubah pola pikir tradisional menjadi pola pikir momentum dan oportunitis. beberapa media massa jepang berupaya menciptakan istilah tertentu untuk memberikan pandangan umum kepada masyarakat jepang yang sekarang mengalami berbagai masalah. pihak media massa memberikan tanda tertentu, informasi, dsb. kepada pemirsa agar dapat menyadari dan bertindak untuk memulihkan situasi di jepang. istilah muenshakai (無 縁社会), shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者), shōshika (少 子化), dan sebagainya bertujuan untuk menyadarkan masyarakat jepang yang jumlahnya kian berkurang, memberikan pandangan umum, dan bisa juga berarti sebuah sinyal kepada masyarakat jepang yang dapat mengancam perekonomian, pajak, sumber daya manusia, dll. di masa mendatang. berdasarkan waktu, urutan proses sejarah terbentuknya muenshakai adalah: (1) dibentuknya shūshinkoyō (終身雇用) di tahun 1900-1910; (2) kehancuran struktur keluarga (家庭崩壊) pertama; (3) perang dunia i dan ii, tahun 1914-1918 dan 1939-1945; (4) baby boom pertama tahun 1947–1949; (5) kehancuran struktur keluarga (家庭崩壊) kedua; (6) baby boom kedua tahun 1971–1974; (7) kehancuran struktur keluarga ( 家庭崩壊) ketiga; (8) krisis moneter tahun 1990-an, dihapusnya shūshinkoyō dan peralihan shūshinkoyō ke karyawan kontrak (正規社員・非正規社員), meliputi: degradasi angka pernikahan (未婚化) dan telat menikah (晩婚化), perceraian (離婚), shōshika (少子化), dan shōgaimikonsha (生涯未婚者) dan rōgohasan (老後破 産). daftar pustaka abegglen, j. c. (2004). shin-nihon no keiei (新・日 本の経営). yōichi yamaoka (山岡洋一) (trans.). japan: nipponkeizaishinbunsha (日 本経済新聞社). anzō, s. (september 2013). 「少子化問題を斬る―原 因は、未婚化・晩婚化・晩 産化にあり」. meiji.net – meiji university, japan. diakses dari http://www.meiji.net/publicitydata/ meijinet_images/2013/09/opinion09_birthrate.jpg barrett, d. p., & shyu, l. n. (eds.). (2000). china in the anti-japanese war, 1937-1945: politics, culture, and society. new york, ny: peter lang. fukutake, t. (1989). the japanese social structure: its evolution in the modern century. r. p. dore. (trans), 2nd ed. japan: university of tōkyō press. hane, m. (2001). modern japan: a historical survey. westview press. japan eastday – 日本語 (2012, 27 nov). 日本で深刻化 する「無縁社会」. diakses dari http://jp.eastday. com/node2/home/xw/gjpl/userobject1ai72338. html j-cast news. (2011). diakses dari http://www.j-cast. com/2011/06/30099968.html ministry of health, labour, and welfare (2014). 人口動 態統計特殊報告・離婚に関する統計. diakses dari http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/ hw/jinkou/tokusyu/rikon10/01.html ministry of internal affairs and communications (2011) (総務省) h t t p : / / w w w. s o u m u . g o . j p / j o h o t s u s i n t o k e i / whitepaper/ja/h23/html/nc222220.html miyamoto, m. (2012). wakamono ga muenkasuru (若者 が無縁化する-仕事・福祉・コミュニティで つなぐ). japan: chikuma shinsho (ちくま新書). nakane, c. (1981). masyarakat jepang. bambang kusriyanto (trans.). jakarta: sinar harapan. naohiro, y. (2009). rōdōsijyōkaikaku no keizaigaku (労働 市場改革の経済学). japan: tōyōkeizaisinpōsha ( 東洋経済新報社). nira – national institute for research advancement (2009, apr). diakses 5 januari 2014dari http://www.nira.or.jp/pdf/0901areport.pdf ntt com research (2014). 団塊の世代のセカンドライ フ http://research.nttcoms.com/database/data/000561/ nhk – japan broadcasting corporation online (日本放 送協会) (2012-2013) http://www.nhk.or.jp/special/onair/100131.html http://www.nhk.or.jp/special/onair/100905.html perlman, d., & peplau, l. a. (1984). loneliness research: a survey of empirical findings. in l.a. peplau & s. goldston (eds.), preventing the harmful consequences of severe and persistence loneliness (pp. 13–46). us goverment printing: ddh publication. 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 sekiguchi, i. (1997). shūshinkoyōsei (終身雇用制). japan: bunshindō (文眞堂). shukan gendai (2014). 「老後破産」200万人の衝撃 第1部 普通のサラリーマン」だった私は、 定年からたった10年で破産した 70過ぎて、 食うモノに困るとは. diakses dari http://gendai. ismedia.jp/articles/-/40603 the huffington post. (2014, 29 mar). 日本の6割の地域 が無人に? 2050年、日本の人口は9700万人国 交省試算. diakses dari http://www.huffingtonpost.jp/2014/03/29/population-ofjapan_n_5053891.html ukeru, m. (2012). sengōshi no shōtai (戦後史の正体). japan : sōgensha (創元社). copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 405 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 405-413 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4452 the effectiveness of scientific approach and contextual teaching and learning approach in teaching writing nidya indrilla english education department, graduate school, universitas negeri yogyakarta jl. colombo no. 1, yogyakarta 55281, indonesia nidyaindrilla19@gmail.com received: 01st march 2018 /revised: 14th may 2018 /accepted: 21st may 2018 how to cite: indrilla, n. (2018). the effectiveness of scientific approach and contextual teaching and learning approach in teaching writing. lingua cultura, 12(4), 405-413. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4452 abstract this research used a quasi-experimental design. the population was grade viii students of smp xx yogyakarta that consisted of four classes. the sample consisted of three classes, namely class 8a using ctl approach and class 8b using the scientific approach as the experimental groups, while class 8d used the conventional approach as the control group. the instruments used were tests in the form of writing composition. the hypotheses testing were analyzed using ancova test. the results are (1) there are significant differences in writing achievement among the students taught by using the scientific approach, ctl approach, and conventional approach. (2) the use of the scientific approach and the ctl approach are more effective than that of the conventional approach in teaching writing. (3) the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach in teaching writing. keywords: scientific approach, contextual teaching and learning (ctl) approach, teaching writing introduction writing is one of the four components in language skills; writing, reading, listening and speaking, that are grouped into two skills, namely receptive and productive skills. reading and listening are receptive skills since the learners are required to understand and obtain information, whereas writing and speaking are included in productive skills because the learners are required to be able to provide ideas, thoughts, and their own opinion with proper language. writing is also defined as a process of transferring thoughts, ideas, or even feelings of someone in order to be understood by others. in addition, harris, ansyar, and radjab (2014) have stated that writing activity constructs the symbols of language into written form, and it is also a means to convey ideas. therefore, through writing, people try to express their ideas in the form of sentences or even paragraphs into readable writing which have meaning. gelb, as cited in siddiq (2013) has defined that writing is how people communicate their thoughts and feelings through visible signs, understandable not only for themselves but also for all other people. it means that when people write, they can express their feelings and thoughts from words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs that have meaning. therefore, having a good writing skill can help people to express their idea, opinion, and feeling to other parties by means of written language, for example in the form of articles, novels, short stories, journals, and many others. furthermore, hosseini et al. (2013) have stated that by having a good writing ability, it will give good impact in life. through writing activity, people are required to read more from various sources and to think creatively in developing the insight of their knowledge widely. hence, writing skill is considered an important skill to be mastered, especially by the second language learners (javed, juan, & nazli, 2013). the effective learning of writing allows the students to learn easily in learning to reach the learning goals. in consequence, this needs the teacher’s roles to assist and guide the students in order to achieve the learning objectives. for instance, the teacher has the roles in choosing and in using an appropriate approach to the learning process of writing. as it is known that an approach is defined as someone’s perspective toward the learning process (rusman, 2014). therefore, the selection of the right approach is expected that it can affect the process of teaching and learning of writing. in practice, in indonesia, the learning of writing that often occurs in the classroom is dominated by teachers (antika, 2014). this viewpoint is usually called the learning using a teacher-centered approach or a conventional approach. according to rusman (2014), the teachercentered approach puts a student as an object of learning and a teacher as the only one source of learning whereby 406 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 405-413 it has classical learning activities. in consequence, learning activity in the classroom is spent by the teacher in explaining the lesson, whereas the learners take note and listen to the teacher (chang, 2011). this kind of learning generally uses a traditional approach that is based on the behaviorist theory. ortega (2013) claims that behaviorism concept that recommends stimulus-response becomes a prominent paradigm in the learning system in the last third of the 20th century. hence, ellis (2009) calls this approach as ‘focus on forms’ approach. in fact, in the use of the conventional approach, the teacher can manage the students’ activities in the classroom and recognize their characteristics (al-zu’be, 2013). thus, this approach still has the magnetism to be used by some teachers in the teaching and learning processes. however, this approach also has weaknesses. it tends to make the learners passively receive information only from the teacher (huba & freed in ahmed, 2013) and limits the students’ ability to think creatively (li, 2016). as a result, the students’ achievement yields an unsatisfactory result and becomes ineffective learning. hence, kompa (2012) states that the traditional approach is not effective to educational solutions that should refer to active learning. therefore, this perspective in the teaching and learning process should be changed from using a teacher-centered approach to a student-centered approach. the student-centered approach means that the teacher puts the students as the subjects of the learning. the teacher should focus on the students’ activities during the teaching and learning process and let them be active learners throughout the learning process, such as asking questions, building and exploring their knowledge, exchanging ideas, and having mutual interaction. two types of learning approaches based on the student-centered approach are the scientific approach and the contextual teaching and learning (ctl) approach. the scientific approach is recommended in the implementation of curriculum 2013. the scientific approach is an old and a new approach because it has been implemented in science, and it is newly used in all subjects including english. the scientific approach is based on the bruner’s theory which states that the learners study and construct the knowledge through the cognitive process (hosnan, 2014). furthermore, this approach emphasizes the students on the learning process to seek the knowledge rather than to transfer it. the learners are seen as the learning subjects who need to be involved actively in the learning process, and the teacher is as a facilitator who guides and coordinates the learning activities. saefuddin and berdiati (2014) add that in the scientific approach, the learning process aims to support and to assist the students’ learning process in finding and using their knowledge. therefore, komariah (2016) says that in implementing this approach, the students are expected to be able to think critically. the scientific approach can be applied in the teaching and learning process in the english language, especially in writing class. according to hosnan (2014), the scientific approach aims to train the students in communicating ideas, especially in writing. the scientific approach also develops the students’ attitudes, knowledge, and skills. it means that this approach can promote the students’ language skills, particularly in writing skill. however, as known, the process of teaching and learning writing is considered as a way of finishing the assignment and homework (lally in byrd, 2011). it means that the teaching of writing is only focused on the learning product. actually, the teaching of writing should be emphasized not only on the learning product but also on the learning process. by highlighting the process of teaching and learning writing, it will give a good impact on the students’ achievement in writing. through the learning process, the learners are active physically and mentally in generating and comprehending the knowledge (sarwanti, 2016). the steps of the scientific approach, such as observing, questioning, exploring, associating, and communicating can help the students in the learning process become active learners. moreover, the scientific approach is one of the effective approaches in the teaching, especially in the teaching of english language, so like suharyadi (2013), it is revealed that the use of the scientific approach is more effective than that of the traditional approach. therefore, the use of the scientific approach is expected to be able to affect she students’ ability in writing and to make the process of teaching and learning writing becomes the effective learning. the other approach oriented on the student-centered approach is the contextual teaching and learning (ctl) approach. the ctl approach has been offered in the school-based curriculum or ktsp curriculum. baker, hope, and karandjeff (2009) define the ctl approach as “a promising approach that actively engages students and promotes improved learning and skills development.” in its aim, the ctl approach can make the learning process more relevant and effective (baker, hope, & karandjeff, 2009). thus, this approach establishes the students’ learning through experience, not through verbalism manner. the ctl approach is supported by the theory of dewey (hosnan, 2014). dewey’s theory states that learners will learn better if what they learn related to what they know and events around them. therefore, the ctl approach is defined as a notion that focuses on the students’ experiences in building their new knowledge. the ctl approach can help teachers and students to link between the materials being learned and the real-life situations and to encourage students to make connections between their knowledge to be applied in their lives as members of family and society. satriani, emilia, and gunawan (2012) claim that the ctl approach encourages the students to have their learning and to connect their knowledge to their lives. in using this approach, the students are supposed to study the material through experiencing not by memorizing (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). there are seven components of the ctl approach that can be used as the guidance for the teacher in the implementation of it in the classroom; they are constructivism, inquiry, questioning, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic assessment (rusman, 2014; supinah, 2012; yulianti, warsiti, & chrysti, 2016). through constructivism, inquiry, and asking questions activity, the students will find the information about the material and develop their awareness. in the learning community, they learn together in the group and share their knowledge and ideas. then, the teacher gives a model as an example to the learners in order to make them able to create and produce something creatively. reflection and authentic assessment are very crucial to give feedback to the learners and to assess the students’ improvement and progress in learning. therefore, those components make the teaching and learning process successful and effective. the ctl approach is focused on the students’ experiences and interaction with others in building their knowledge. thus, the learners learn the material related to their real world through interaction and experience, not 407the effectiveness of scientific... (nidya indrilla) through drilling and memorizing. hence, the ctl approach is suitable to be used in the process of teaching and learning the english language, especially in the teaching of writing. in addition, the ctl approach is declared as an effective approach to promote students’ abilities in the english language, especially in writing skill (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). writing based on the relevant context will make the learners are easy to write paragraph or sentences. therefore, baker, hope, and karandjeff, (2009) call the ctl approach as ‘a trusted approach’ in which it involves students more active in developing the skills and the effectiveness of the learning process. in addition, satriani, emilia, and gunawan (2012) reveal that the ctl approach is convinced as the effective approach to associate new knowledge for the students’ lives. then, the learner’s role changes, not as a receiver of meaning, but as a constructor of meaning (baker, hope, & karandjeff, 2009). by relating the knowledge obtained from the inside and outside of the classroom, the learning becomes more relevant and meaningful for the learners to be used in their future lives (hosnan, 2014). therefore, the learning using the ctl approach is not only viewed from the product, but also from the process. although the effectiveness of the scientific approach and ctl approach has often been mentioned in literature, the comparison of their effectiveness specifically in the teaching and learning of writing is not explored fully yet. in the previous research, most of the researchers have not investigated the effectiveness of these two approaches in one research simultaneously, but these two approaches are usually examined in the separate/independent studies (e.g., astuti, 2015; ekowati et al., 2015; hestiningrum, 2013; kartikawati, 2015; rusman, 2014; muhlison, 2011; oktarina, kustianti, & resnani, 2014). hence, in this current research, the scientific approach and the ctl approach are investigated simultaneously to know their effectiveness in the teaching of writing. therefore, this research aims to find out the effectiveness of the scientific approach and the ctl approach in the teaching of writing recount text to the eighth-grade students of smp xx yogyakarta. this research contributes to theoretical and practical significances. for theoretical significance, this research might provide additional information on the literature on the effectiveness of the learning approaches in english language teaching and learning, especially in the indonesian context. it can also serve as a reference and contribute to developing knowledge in teaching writing by using the scientific approach and ctl approach. for practical significance, this research provides information and guidance for the teachers, especially english teachers who are interested in using the scientific approach and ctl approach in the teaching of writing. by using different learning approaches, teachers can help learners to enhance their learning ability. in this way, students can be more active in the classroom. for other researchers, this research may give and provide information for the next researchers who are interested in conducting research on a similar topic in a different context. methods this research uses a quasi-experimental design with a type of nonequivalent control group design with pretest and posttest. it can be seen in figure 1. the population is 121 grade viii students of smp xx yogyakarta (pseudonym). the sample is 91 students that are established using the cluster random sampling technique to take the sample not based on an individual but based on the existing/intact classes (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2012). it is divided into two experimental groups (class 8a and class 8b), and one control group (class 8d). they are illustrated in table 1. figure 1 research design framework table 1 sample of the research classes groups treatments 8a experiment ctl 8b experiment scientific 8d control conventional the data collection technique used is the tests in the form of writing composition that aims to measure the students’ ability in writing recount texts. the tests are given before (pretest) and after (posttest) treatments to each group. the research procedures consist of several stages. firstly, the preparation stages where the researcher determines population and sample creates the lesson plans and develops the pretest and the posttest. these have been consulted with the researcher’s supervisor and the teacher. in addition, the researcher also explains to the teacher who will teach concerning the learning approaches used in the class and train the teacher to apply the learning approaches. next, the pretest stage is conducting the pretest to determine the students’ prior knowledge, both of the control class and two experimental classes before the treatments start. then, the stage of the implementation of the learning approaches which is the use of the learning approaches in the learning activities, where the control group (class 8d) applies the conventional approach, and two experimental groups (class 8a and class 8b) use the ctl approach and the scientific approach. the learning approaches in each group are implemented for nine meetings by the teacher referring to the lesson plans. finally, the posttest stages are doing a final test to determine the students’ scores both in the control class and in the experimental classes and to find out the effectiveness of the treatments on the learners’ achievement. the instruments of the pretest and posttest are created differently but still on the same topic. the instruments made by the researcher have two tasks, namely writing a simple recount text based on the available pictures and writing a recount text based on the students’ experience. to obtain the scores of the students’ writing, two raters (the english teacher and researcher) use a writing rubric. the writing rubric included five aspects; they are content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. each rater assesses the students’ writing (pretest and posttest) with the rubric guidance. after each rater gets the scores, then the scores are summed and divided by two. thus, the final scores of the students are obtained. the validity of the instruments is obtained through content validity. content validity refers to the content and format of the instrument (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2012). it means that the content of the tests must contain the overall material to be tested. therefore, the researcher asks an 408 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 405-413 expert’s judgment to verify the validity of the instruments. for reliability, inter-rater reliability is selected to assess the learners’ writing. two raters chosen are the english teacher of smp xx yogyakarta and the researcher. after the raters give the scores, then the scores, both the pretest and posttest, are calculated by using intraclass correlation (icc) in spss 22 for windows. according to domholdt as cited in volistiana, widodo, and kurniawan (2014), icc is divided into 5 levels: small (0,00-0,25), low (0,26-0,49), moderate (0,50-0,69), good (0,70-0,89), and excellent (0,90-1,00). furthermore, the results of icc on the pretest and posttest can be seen in table 2. table 2 the results of icc icc pre single measures 0,941 average measures 0,969 post single measures 0,968 average measures 0,984 (source: spss for windows) the results of icc on the pretest and posttest get high values of icc (i.e., 0,941, 0,969, 0,968, 0,984) with the excellent correlation rate. azwar in sujarwanto and rusilowati (2015) state that the high-reliability coefficient of rating shows that the results of each rater are consistent or reliable in giving scores. therefore, based on the results, the raters give the consistent/reliable scores in assessing the students’ writing. results and discussions after the whole data are collected, the raters score the students’ writing to get the final scores. then, the data are analyzed statistically through descriptive statistic and inferential statistic to test the hypotheses. furthermore, they are explained in table 3. descriptive analysis of the pretest and posttest results have been shown in the statistical data in table 3. table 3 the description of pretest and posttest scores min max mean pre 8a 43,5 72,75 56,13 8b 40 68,75 51,22 8d 35 69,25 50,98 post 8a 82,50 95,75 88,55 8b 83 95,5 89,66 8d 65,25 83,25 74,94 (source: spss for windows) referring to table 3, it presents the differences between pretest and posttest scores of three classes. in the pretest, for the minimum scores, the students from class 8d get the lowest score of 35, followed by class 8b and 8a with the score of 40,00 and 43,5 respectively. for the maximum scores, it is yielded by class 8a of 72,75, followed by class 8d of 69,25 and class 8b of 68,75. for the mean scores, class 8a achieves 56,13, followed by class 8b of 51,22, while the lowest mean score is received by class 8d of 50,98. it means that the class 8a gets the highest score than the two other classes. after giving the treatments, the posttest scores yield different results. in the posttest, for the minimum scores, class 8b has the score of 83,00, followed by class 8a and class 8d with the score of 82,50 and 65,25 respectively. for the maximum scores, the top score is 95,75 obtained by class 8a, followed by class 8b of 95,5 and class 8d of 83,25. meanwhile, class 8b has the highest mean score of 89,66, followed by class 8a of 88,55 and class 8d of 74,94. it means that class 8b has the highest score than two others. in brief, there are different results between the pretest and posttest, especially for the experimental groups, class 8a and class 8b. it means that the teacher applies the procedures of the ctl approach and the scientific approach correctly thus it gives good achievement to the students’ ability in writing. for the inferential statistic, the data are analyzed through the statistical tests; they are normality distribution test, homogeneity of variance test, and analysis of covariance (ancova) to test the hypotheses. furthermore, they are explained in table 4. normality distribution test aims to determine whether the data are normally distributed or not. the conclusions are drawn at level 0,05. the results of table 4 show that the data distribution of the pretest and posttest of the control group and the experimental group are normal. this conclusion is drawn based on p-values that are greater than the sig. level (0,05) on the pretest and posttest scores of the control group and the experimental group. table 4 normality distribution kolmogorov-smirnova sig. results pre ctl 0,200* p>0,05 = normal sa 0,200* p>0,05 = normal conv 0,200* p>0,05 = normal post ctl 0,200* p>0,05 = normal sa 0,200* p>0,05 = normal conv 0,170 p>0,05 = normal (source: spss for windows) then, homogeneity of variance test purposes to determine whether the groups have a homogeneity variance or not. the conclusions are drawn at level 0,05. based on the result of table 5, the sig. value is greater than the sig. level (0,05). it can be concluded that the variances of the groups are homogeneous. table 5 homogeneity of variance levene statistic sig. result posttest 0,588 sig. > 0,05 = homogeneous (source: spss for windows) the results of two previous tests have been met, where the data are distributed normally, and the groups are homogeneous. thus, it can be continued to test the 409the effectiveness of scientific... (nidya indrilla) hypotheses through analysis of covariance (ancova) in spss 22 for windows with significant level 0,05. table 6 shows the output of ancova. from table 6, the sig. value(p-value) for ‘approach’ = 0,000 is less than sig. level(α)(0.05) or (0,000<0,05). in conclusion, there are significant differences in the students’ achievement in writing of recount text among the students taught by using the scientific approach and the ctl approach, and those taught by using the conventional approach to the eighthgrade students of smp xx yogyakarta. table 6 the result of ancova source sig. result approach 0,000 sig. < 0,05 = significant diference (source: spss for windows) to determine which groups have significant differences, it has proceeded to the post hoc test where the output is presented in table 7. from table 7, the column ‘mean difference’ shows the mean difference between groups. the negative mean differences show that the mean (i) is less than the mean (j). the asterisk sign (*) indicates that there is a significant mean difference between groups. the mean score of the ctl approach is significantly different from the mean score of the conventional approach with the mean difference by 13,61, and also the scientific approach has a significant difference to the conventional approach by 14,72 and vice versa. meanwhile, the mean difference between the ctl approach and scientific approach is 1,11. it is interpreted that there is no significant difference between the ctl approach and scientific approach and vice versa. table 7 the result of post hoc test groups (i) groups (j) mean difference (i-j) ctl sa -1,11102 conv 13,61667* sa ctl 1,11102 conv 14,72769* conv ctl -13,61667* sa -14,72769* referring to table 7, the scientific approach and the ctl approach has significant differences to the conventional approach, and vice versa, which are marked with an asterisk. thus, the use of the scientific approach and the ctl approach are more effective than that of the conventional approach in the teaching writing. however, since the mean difference between the scientific approach and the ctl approach is not significant, and vice versa, it can be concluded that the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach in the teaching writing. in this research, the researcher has investigated the effectiveness of the scientific approach and the ctl approach in teaching writing at the eighth-grade students of smp xx yogyakarta. these approaches theoretically are believed as the effective approaches. therefore, the next section discusses the findings to verify the theories of the effectiveness of the scientific approach and the ctl approach. based on the results of the pretest score of the students in table 3, it points out that the students’ learning is less effective. as stated by syahid and tuharto (2015), the learning is effective if 75% of students reach the score of predetermined minimum criteria of mastery learning or kkm. in this research predetermined kkm is 75. in the pretest, the scores of the students indicate that over 75% of students do not reach predetermined kkm value. this causes the students of three classes to have low mean scores, i.e., class 8a (51,23), class 8b (56,13), and class 8d (50,98). it means that less than 75% of the students do not reach the predetermined minimum criteria score; thus their learning is not effective fully yet. after giving the treatments, the results of the posttest score show that more than 75% of the students from the experimental groups, class 8a and class 8b, have reached minimum criteria score. the mean scores of class 8a are 88,56, and class 8b is 89,67. it means that the use of the ctl approach and the scientific approach affect the students’ achievement in learning writing. thus, the learning writing of class 8a and class 8b is effective. however, for the control group, class 8d, only half of the students reach minimum criteria score with the mean score of 74,94. it means that the learning writing of class 8d using the conventional approach is less effective. based on the data analysis result of ancova in table 6, the p-value is less than sig. level(α) (0,000<0,05), thus it confirms that the students’ achievement in writing of recount text taught by using the scientific approach, ctl approach, and those taught by using the conventional approach have the significant differences. therefore, the result of post hoc test in table 7 indicates that there is a significant difference in the students’ achievement in writing of recount text taught by using the scientific approach and the conventional approach, with the mean difference of 14,72. this is in line with the research result conducted by astuti (2015) who has stated that the scientific approach is significantly different from the conventional approach, with the mean difference of 11,97. therefore, the use of the scientific approach is more effective than that of the conventional approach in teaching writing of recount text. furthermore, based on table 7, the students’ achievement in writing of recount text taught by using the ctl approach and the conventional approach is significantly different with the mean difference of 13,61. that is similar to the research result of hestiningrum (2013) which has stated that the ctl approach and the conventional approach have a significant difference with the mean difference of 13,4. in addition, muhlison (2011) has found that the ctl is a good approach than non-ctl. hence, the use of the ctl approach is more effective than that of the conventional approach in teaching writing of recount text. meanwhile, table 7 also points out that there is not a significant difference in the students’ achievement in writing of recount text taught by using the scientific approach and the ctl approach with the mean differences of 1,11. thus, it confirms the research result of syahid and tuharto (2015) who have found out that there is no a significant difference of the effectiveness between the scientific approach and the ctl approach, with the mean differences of 1,16. it means that the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach in teaching writing of recount texts. briefly, the significant differences are only found on the students’ achievement in writing of recount text between 410 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 405-413 the students taught by using the scientific approach and the conventional approach, and between those taught by using the ctl approach and the conventional approach. whereas the students’ achievement in writing of recount text taught by using the scientific approach and the ctl approach have no significant difference. theoretically, the use of the scientific approach is expected to produce independently students who know and understand about the various lessons and also can find information from the various sources without depending on information from their teacher only (hosnan, 2014). hence, tang et al. (2009) have assumed that ‘doing science’ in the scientific approach becomes magnetism in learning as an easy innovation to do. in this research, the implementation of the scientific approach is done by the teacher who can involve the students in building good mutual interactions with other students. in addition, the implementation of the scientific approach also make changes to the students’ behavior where they become more active in the classroom and able to learn independently. the scientific approach avoids verbalism concept in the learning activity (hosnan, 2014) because this approach has a principle of the learning process for the students from ‘be informed’ to ‘actively find out’ (saefuddin & berdiati, 2014). it is in line with a learning theory underlying the scientific approach that is bruner’s theory. as stated by hosnan (2014), the theory of bruner deals with the cognitive development of learners or usually calls as ‘discovery learning theory’. based on buner’s theory, the learners study and construct their knowledge through the cognitive process. cognition is the way people acquire and process the knowledge from their thought (ortega, 2013). in learning writing, the scientific approach assists the students to participate more actively in the teaching and learning process which develops the students’ affection, skill, and knowledge. this is in line with oktarina’s research (2014) who say that the scientific approach can improve students’ learning activities and develop their characteristics of responsibility. this is reinforced by the statement of rusman (2014) who argues that the students have the opportunities to promote their potential and creativity. in this research, initially the class situation is very noisy, the students are passive learners, and the teacher cannot control them well. they even cannot create a recount text and do not understand what recount text is. however, after applying the scientific approach through some activities, they change to be active learners, have mutual interaction among them, and can produce a recount text with the higher scores. thus, the learners are participated physically and mentally in developing knowledge (sarwanti, 2016). hence, hosnan (2014) has claimed that the scientific approach can promote the learners’ traits, express their thoughts, acquire satisfactory achievements, and have the chance to train their writing ability. therefore, suharyadi (2013) and astuti (2015) say that this approach is more effective than the conventional approach or teacher-centered approach. moreover, the scientific approach has five steps; they are observing, questioning, exploring, associating, and communicating (saefuddin & berdiati, 2014). in this research, the steps of the scientific approach are listed in the lesson plans and are run well by the teacher and the students; thus the process of teaching and learning writing can be successful. through the steps of the scientific approach, the students can develop their knowledge during the learning through sharing opinion or idea. they are participated actively to find out their knowledge and to understand the lesson. in addition, in this research, in its implementation, the teacher has some obstacles at the beginning. although the researcher has trained the teacher, the teacher is still nervous. eventually, in the first meeting, the scientific approach is not fully implemented by the teacher, where the teacher still unconsciously mixes the steps of the scientific approach to the conventional approach. this is as revealed by the research results of kartikawati (2015) who states that it is difficult for the teacher in understanding every step in the procedures of the scientific approach. however, at subsequent meetings, the teacher begins to understand the stages of the scientific approach and fully apply it during the process of teaching and learning writing. therefore, the scientific approach can promote the teacher’s motivation. besides the effectiveness of using the scientific approach, the ctl approach is also effective in teaching writing. the ctl approach is based on the constructivist learning theory. this theory is supported by dewey’s theory (hosnan, 2014). dewey’s research concludes that if what the students learn connected with their knowledge and environment, they will learn better. in addition, the ctl approach is intended for learners to actively build their knowledge through interaction and experience with others. in this research, day by day the learners actively construct information and create their knowledge from their experiences. therefore, satriani, emilia, and gunawan (2012) say that the students learn through ‘experiencing’ not by ‘memorizing’. as stated by saefuddin and berdiati (2014), this approach has released students from boredom and produced learners who love the environment. hosnan (2014) has defined the ctl approach as a concept of learning that assists the teacher to relate the material to the students’ real situation. hence, the ctl approach is the approach used in the teaching and learning process to help the students connecting the material being learned to their real life by experiencing, thus they can apply their knowledge to the environment. based on this research, the students are able to learn and connect it to their life, like experiences or events. hence, the ctl approach is trusted that it can effectively associate new knowledge to the students’ lives (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). as in this current research, in using the ctl approach, at first the teacher occasionally still uses the conventional approach, and the teacher is still as the informer, and it causes the learning condition is a little bit stiff and tense. however, as time goes by, the teacher is getting used to apply the ctl approach in teaching writing, and it makes situation and condition are more fun and interesting. hence, the ctl approach changes the teacher’s role into a motivator and a facilitator. it conforms the research conducted by ekowati et al. (2015) who have found out that the use of the ctl causes the alternation of the teacher as an active and creative facilitator and mediator. by doing the steps of ctl approach correctly, it can develop communication skills and promote self-confidence and creative thinking of the students. for instance, in this research, at the beginning of the meeting, only a few of the learners are active, while the others look passive during the learning writing process. they still depend on the information from the teacher only. nevertheless, at the next meetings, the students start to be motivated and engaged actively in the writing activity, they try to create their writing. it corresponds to one of the advantages that is involving the learners in the learning writing activities (satriani, emilia, & gunawan, 2012). other than that, 411the effectiveness of scientific... (nidya indrilla) the students also have mutual interaction among teacherstudents, students-students, and students-material. it is in line with satriani, emilia, and gunawan (2012) who have found that the ctl approach makes the learners participate in writing class and help them to communicate with others. furthermore, hestiningrum (2013) has stated that the ctl approach constructs the students’ interest to learn and let the students have meaningful learning. the successful learning is perceived if the learners can apply and implement their knowledge in the reality of life. in this research, during its application, the students have the courage to start interacting with other students and tend to be more active compared to when the teacher uses the conventional approach before. hence, the use of the ctl approach is more effective than that of the conventional approach to teaching writing. it verifies the result of muhlison’s research (2011) who states that the ctl approach is better than non-ctl as the conventional approach. it also confirms the result research of ekowati et al. (2015) who conclude that the ctl approaches affect the students’ activities and improve motivation, and also the learners can master the material. in this research, the result of the use of the scientific approach and the ctl approach bring the insignificant difference that is 1,11 (see table 7). theoretically, the effectiveness of the scientific approach and ctl approach has been mentioned earlier, where they are indeed effective to apply in the teaching of writing. it is also proven that the use of the scientific approach and ctl approach gives good impacts to the teacher and the students in the process of teaching and learning of writing, and the use of them also yields satisfactory achievements of the students’ writing ability. in addition, it is also found the changes in the students’ affection during the teaching and learning processes, where they are involved together in learning and become more active students. hence, the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach in the teaching writing of recount texts. it is in line with the research finding of syahid and tuharto (2015) where the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach. therefore, the scientific approach and ctl approach are proven effectively applied in teaching writing. unlike the scientific approach and ctl approach, the conventional approach is based on the teacher-centered approach. in this research, the conventional approach is less effective to teach the writing of recount text. this approach does not have particular steps in its implementation. in practice, the teacher only uses the textbooks and note (li, 2016). it means that the traditional approach has minimal activity where the students only sit and listen to the teacher. for instance, in this research, the teacher comes to the class and explains the material, then the learners only listen, imitate, and rewrite into their notebooks what the teacher says and writes on the whiteboard, and also they do some assignments given to them. it causes one-way communication only from teacher to the students, and the students are not involved in the learning actively (passive learner), thus the learning of writing is less meaningful for them. thus, in this research only half of the students’ achievement in the control group (class 8d) taught by using the conventional approach is successful. therefore, the use of the conventional approach is less effective to teach the writing of recount text. moreover, schon in kompa (2012) has explained that the implementation of the conventional approach (e.g., drilled method and memorized the lesson) causes limited students’ knowledge. hence, the effect of its application certainly produces the students who become passive learners because it does not give the room for the students to share and exchange ideas and knowledge with other students. in reality, zohrabi, torabi, and baybourdiani (2012) add that the students need practice rather than sit and listen to the teacher. ahmed (2013) also adds that the students need rooms for their personal growth. on the other hand, the positive side of the conventional approach lies on the teacher who entirely controls the class and activities in an orderly fashion (alzu’be, 2013). this statement is in contrast with the reality of this research whereby during the process of teaching and learning writing, the students are very noisy, and the class situation is difficult to manage by the teacher. when the teacher explains the material, the students take note of what the teacher writes on the whiteboard. then, when the teacher instructs them to do the assignment, they disturb with each other. therefore, the result indicates that the use of the conventional approach is less effective to teach writing. it is in agreement with kompa (2012) who claims that the conventional approach is an inefficient approach to solve problems in education, and it is contrary to the active learning concept. it also is supported by zohrabi, torabi, and baybourdiani (2012) who have mentioned that the conventional approach which emphasizes on teachercentered approach is not efficient compared to the studentcentered approach. in a nutshell, teaching and learning writing need a creative teacher and active learners. a creative teacher surely chooses and uses a good approach to make students interest and want to learn writing. it requires special procedures in teaching writing to the eighth-grade students, like the implementation steps of the scientific approach and ctl approach. the selection of an appropriate approach in the process of teaching and learning writing affects the students’ achievement and behavior. by focusing on the students or commonly known as a student-centered principle, the students are able to develop their whole abilities and potential through meaningful and useful activities, such as building and exploring the knowledge and also giving ideas and opinion. thus their knowledge will be more worthwhile for their life. conclusions this research is only focused on the effectiveness of using scientific approach and ctl approach in the teaching of writing at grade viii students of smp xx yogyakarta. based on the results, it can be concluded that (1) there are significant differences in the students’ achievement in writing of recount text among the students taught by using the scientific approach and the ctl approach, and those taught by using the conventional approach to the eighth-grade students of smp xx yogyakarta. (2) the use of the scientific approach and ctl approach are more effective than that of the conventional approach in teaching and learning writing of recount texts. (3) the use of the scientific approach is not more effective than that of the ctl approach in teaching writing of recount texts. it means that the scientific approach and ctl approach are indeed proven effective in the teaching of writing. therefore, in this research, the scientific approach and ctl approach are the effective approaches in the writing classes at grade viii students of smp xx yogyakarta. for the future research, 412 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 405-413 the researcher is interested in investigating and developing different kind of studies with various contexts and topics. references ahmed, a. k. (2013). teacher-centered versus learnercentered teaching style. journal of global business management, 9(1), 22-34. al-zu’be, a. f. m. 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(2012). teacher-centered and/or student-centered learning: english language in iran. english language and literature studies, 2(3), 18-30. https://doi. org/10.5539/ells.v2n3p18. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 31 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 31-37 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5028 effects of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding on the quality of students’ writing wahyu kyestiati sumarno english education department, universitas islam darul ulum jl. airlangga no. 03, lamongan, jawa timur 62253, indonesia kyestiatisumarno@unisda.ac.id received: 13th november 2018/revised: 07th february 2019/accepted: 19th february 2019 how to cite: sumarno, w. k. (2019). effects of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding on the quality of students’ writing. lingua cultura, 13(1), 31-37. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5028 abstract this research explored the effects of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding on the quality of students’ writing. a quasi-experimental research with one-group pre-posttest was utilized as the research design. the respondents of this research were the second-semester students of the english department at the islamic university of darul ‘ulum, lamongan. there were 13 students in the class, and all of them took part in this research. in every seven meetings, they were receiving writing instruction using traditional and edmodo-assisted process writing with problematized scaffolding respectively. to collect the data, pre-and-posttest were conducted to both class conditions. an interview was also done in the experimental class to capture the students’ perception after the implementation of edmodo. dependent and independent t-tests were utilized to analyze the collected data. the interview was analyzed qualitatively to support the findings. results of the analysis indicate that the use of edmodo-assisted process writing with problematized scaffolding significantly improves the students’ writing skills and that the students’ score improvement is significantly higher than in the traditional class. therefore, the usage of this media is highly recommended. keywords: edmodo application, process writing, metacognition, problematized scaffolding, writing skills introduction many teachers and students may agree to regard english writing as one of the most challenging skills to be taught and mastered. based on the researchers’ observation, not many schools in indonesia succeed in producing competent writers (fatimah & masduqi, 2017). if any, it will be institutions which teachers are aware of and give special attention to this course output quality, e.g., by providing opportunities for students to do a sequence of writing practices. usually, teachers may only teach this course by directly instructing the students to produce a single-time piece of writing with very little feedback and progress. they have not enough time to give many exercises since mostly they teach large classes. as a consequence, the students’ writing skill is never well-trained. these issues of time and big class have actually been noted by ariyanti (2016) as two of the main problems faced by indonesian efl writing classrooms. to compose good writing, students need to follow complex steps of writing, but for the limitation of time, the students learning process may not be optimal. fatimah and masduqi (2017) have also observed and found that indonesian students’ writing is mainly assessed in product-based written form with no revision. thus indonesian graduates are reported to have low writing ability. there are two main approaches in the teaching of writing, namely the process approach and the product approach. the former emphasizes the writing process during the writing activities, while the latter focuses more on the writer’s written product. each of them has its own advantage and disadvantage. yet, in the case of facilitating the students with the experience of developing their writing skill step by step, the process approach is believed to be more suitable. the process approach focuses on how a text is written instead of the final outcome, while product approach is criticized undervalues the skills needed to produce a text, e.g., drafting, revising, editing, etc. brown (2001) has stated that writing is a thinking process. a writer produces a final product based on their thinking after he/she goes through a thinking process. thus, in the process writing class, teachers allow students to explore their thoughts and develop their 32 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 31-37 own writing by following the stages of the writing process. through these sequences of writing steps, students get adequate writing practices to train their writing skills. several pieces of research show the positive role of process writing strategy in the writing course. listyani (2018) has done research to examine whether the process writing strategy is effective to be used to teach academic writing. she finds that process writing is effective to teach academic writing. faraj (2015) has conducted research which aims at presenting the effect of teachers’ scaffolding and process writing on efl students’ writing ability. the research concludes that process writing and teachers’ scaffolding have met the students’ need thus significantly improve their writing skills. graham and sandmel (2011) have also conducted a meta-analysis to examine if process writing instruction improves the quality of the students’ writing and their motivation to write. they find that process writing instruction resulted in a statistically significant, but relatively modest improvement in overall students’ quality of writing. furthermore, bin abdul aziz and yusoff (2016) have also investigated how authentic assessment in process writing class improves the students’ quality of writing. the results show that using authentic assessment to assess writing skills is beneficial and effective to help students to write better. then, in providing a platform for process writing, remembering the allocation time to do face to face for english course (moreover writing) in the class is very limited; an online media is seen to be promising. online media is one product of technology development that allows conventional classroom-restricted learning process shifts into global learning which break through the thickness of classroom walls (cheng, 2005). the existence of online media may advantage process writing which requires extra time and place to accommodate the sequence of writing exercises, the edmodo, as one kind of online application, can be applied for this case. edmodo is an online application made specifically for teaching and learning purposes. it provides some features which are appropriate for learning processes, such as quiz, grade book/progress, assignment submission platform which contains a due date, library, and others. the utilization of this digital media into the learning process in general and language learning, in particular, have revealed a positive impact. durak et al. (2017) have noted that students who receive teaching using edmodo obtain higher academic achievement. al-kathiri (2015) and al-said (2015) have also found that students show high positive perceptions of edmodo, and thus improving their positive attitudes towards learning. in language learning, al-harbi and alshumaimeri (2016) have conducted research which aims to examine students’ performances, perceptions, and attitudes towards the implementation of the flipped classroom using edmodo on students’ learning of grammar. results indicate that adopting the flipped classroom strategy appears to play a role in enhancing the students’ grammar performances. questionnaire and semi-structured interviews also indicate that students’ attitudes towards the flipped classroom strategy are positive. furthermore, mokhtar (2016) has suggested edmodo implementation to help efl students in mastering grammar, vocabulary, and improving selfefficacy in language learning classes. in writing instruction, some researches also show the positive role of edmodo. al-naibi, al-jabri, and alkalbani (2018) have conducted action research to measure the effectiveness of integrating edmodo in students’ writing performance. along the writing process in the class, students are given some quizzes, discussions, and activities on edmodo. analysis of students’ final writing shows a statistically significant improvement in students’ writing. the questionnaire results also indicate that students have positive perceptions of the use of edmodo in language learning. besides, kayacan and razi (2017) have also done quasi-experimental research to investigate the impact of self and peer feedback on students’ writing in a digital environment using edmodo. findings reveal that both self and peer feedback contribute positively to the revision of students’ papers. the questionnaire also shows students’ positive attitude towards digital self and peer feedback. saine and west (2017) then have added that edmodo helps students’ confidence in improving their online multi-genre articles. various advantages of edmodo as mentioned make the researchers aware of investigating the effects of using edmodo assisted media in the writing course. furthermore, to improve the students’ writing quality, the researchers also propose the integration of metacognitive instruction, especially metacognitive problematized scaffolding in the current research. metacognition is usually interpreted as an activity of ‘thinking about what is thought’. it is a regulatory system that helps a person understand and control their cognitive activities (jaleel & premachandran, 2016). metacognition makes a person aware of and responsible for his own learning activities. ‘meta’ in metacognition can be intended as a process of reflecting on what is being done as if observing someone else’s work, or in other words being an audience of own-self intellectual appearance. the concept of metacognition arises since humans can reflect their cognitive experiences. cognition or cognitive experience is a mental process that includes attention, memory, logic, problem-solving, and decision making (chekwa et al., 2015). the famous greek philosopher, plato was alleged to be the first to mention the concept of ‘thinking about self-thinking’ in 400 bc. in 1690, john locke, an english philosopher, mentioned the concept of reflection on the process of self-thinking in children, which was the basis of metacognition. however, the word metacognition was popularized by an american psychologist named john h. flavell in the 1970s. according to flavell (1979), metacognition refers to knowledge about the regulation of self-cognition activities in the learning process. meanwhile, scaffolding is defined as providing assistance to a student when needed and decreasing the assistance as the competence of the student increases. metacognitive scaffolding aims to help students to control and monitor their learning (molenaar et al., 2011). among the two kinds of metacognitive scaffolding, namely structuring scaffolds and problematizing scaffolds, this research focuses only on the latter scaffolds. problematizing scaffolds is chosen because it invites students to construct their own metacognitive activities while structuring scaffolds only give extended suitable example of a particular case. metacognition is very important for learning success. several researches have shown an increase in student achievement when they activate metacognitive abilities. jaleel and premachandran (2016) have conducted research to find out if there are significant differences between gender, origin, and type of school management based on student metacognition awareness. the results show that there are no 33effects of edmodo-assisted .... (wahyu kyestiati sumarno) significant differences between the three variables and that metacognition improves student learning abilities, memory, and achievement. chekwa et al. (2015) have also told about the success of miles college to improve students’ learning outcomes through metacognition laboratories. in the field of writing instruction, many writing researchers state that activating metacognition is one of the key points to improve students’ writing skills (vankooten, 2016). nowacek (2011) have shown that metacognition is important for integration, where students reconstruct their understanding of writing in new writing situations. in further, stewart, seifert, and rolheiser (2015) have researched the relationship between the quality of students’ writing, worries in writing, and self-confidence in writing with metacognition writing strategies. they note that students’ concerns are reduced and self-confidence increased after applying metacognition writing strategies. with increased confidence, the quality of student writing is also increased. yeh (2015) has also tried to facilitate the metacognition process in academic writing courses through the online writing system. the results of his research show that the writing quality of students increases after learning with the metacognition process. in term of the metacognitive scaffolding usage, many researches have noted that metacognitive scaffolding can support students’ metacognitive activities and learning, including in the learning of writing. jafarigohar and mortazavi (2017) have investigated the influence of scaffolding strategy on writing classes. it is concluded that with the scaffolding (structured and problem-based), there is an increase in students’ writing performance. furthermore, yanyan’s (2010) research which aims to investigate the role of metacognitive knowledge in the english writing of chinese efl learners has found that a good instruction of metacognitive knowledge can empower efl learners in their english writing and stimulate their autonomy learning. molenaar et al. (2012) have also examined the effects of dynamically scaffolding social regulation of middle school students working in a computer-based learning environment. they find that scaffolding has a positive effect on the students’ learning performance. besides, molenaar et al. (2011) have also analyzed how metacognitive activities mediate the relationships between different avatar scaffolds on students’ learning. it is found that students receiving structuring or problematizing metacognitive scaffolds displayed more metacognitive knowledge than students in the control group. however, only problematizing scaffolds lead to more domain knowledge and metacognitive activities mediated the effects of the problematizing scaffolds. considering these research findings, it can be said that metacognitive scaffolding facilitates learning and that to teach metacognitively is one promising solution to the problems most of the english writing teachers. this research, therefore, intends to introduce some key points as an alternative solution to overcome the writing problems. there must be a shift in the way writing should be delivered to improve the students’ writing achievement. the previous method which does not give exposure for students to do adequate writing practices will never make students dig up their writing skills. in addition, making the students aware of their learning process is believed to be able to improve the students’ participation and achievement. giving them scaffolding to activate their awareness may become one solution. for these cases, this research is conducted with the goals to examine the effects of collaborating metacognitive problematized scaffolding, process writing approach, and edmodo as an online media to eliminate the students’ obstacles in learning writing. the main questions addressed in this research are; (1) does edmodo-assisted process writing with problematized scaffolding significantly help the students improve their writing quality? (2) is there any differences between the students’ improvement in the traditional writing and in the edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding writing class. methods this research is a quasi-experimental research with one-group pre-posttest as the research design. the respondents of this research are the second-semester students of the english department at the islamic university of darul ulum, lamongan. there are 13 students in the class, and all of them take part in the research. in the meantime, the students are taking the paragraph-based writing course, which aims to enable them to compose an exemplary english paragraph. the course is designed to have 14 meetings; six meetings before the midterm test, and then continued with six meetings after the midterm test. the students get a traditional way of writing instruction during meeting 1-6. in meeting 8-13, they receive writing instruction using edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding. meeting 7 and 14 are the evaluation for each method of teaching. to collect the data, in the control class, the researcher conducts a pre-test in the first meeting and posttest in the seventh meeting. similarly, pre and posttest are also done in the eighth and thirteen meetings to measure the students’ writing quality improvement after the implementation of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding. besides, an interview is also done in the experimental class to capture their perception after the implementation of edmodo in the writing course. in addition, a graph to show every student’s writing scores in each step of process writing is also presented and described. dependent and independent t-tests are utilized to analyze the results. the pre-posttest are in the form of writing task, which is evaluated by using an analytic scale for writing composition by brown and bailey (cited in brown, 2004). meanwhile, the interview and graphs are analyzed qualitatively to support the findings. the steps of process writing used in the experimental class are followed steps of process writing suggested by oshima and hogue (1994). it consists of pre-writing, planning (outlining), and writing and revising stages. results and discussions to answer research question number one, in which the author wants to know the improvement of students’ writing quality in the experimental class, the researcher does a pre-test in the eighth meeting of the course. in this case, the students are asked to write a paragraph of a particular topic. after the pre-test, for five meetings, the students get writing instruction by using edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding. during this process, the students are facilitated to produce a final product of writing through a sequence of the writing process including pre-writing, planning (outlining), and 34 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 31-37 writing and revising (oshima & hogue, 1994) both in the class and online by using edmodo. the teacher-researcher gives online and offline feedback for each step so that the students could improve the quality of their writing before going through to the next step of writing. a peer review is also conducted during the revising steps to provide student-student interaction. in addition, to stimulate the students’ metacognitive skills and to see the role of metacognitive thinking to the students’ writing, before each online submission of the product, the researcher provides some questions as a form of problematized scaffolding. this problematized scaffolding is made to activate students’ metacognitive process as well as remind the students about the things they need to do in each step of writing. table 1 presents the problematized scaffolding which is provided online via edmodo to support the students’ writing process. table 1 online problematized scaffolding steps of process writing problematized scaffolding 1. pre-writing a. when you are starting to write, what do you do to find and choose a topic/idea? do you narrow down a topic? b. to extend your idea, do you do brainstorming? make clustering? listing? freewriting? c. do you think that narrow down the topic and brainstorming stages are beneficial for your process of writing? why? a. b. choosing and narrowing a topic brainstorming (listing, free writing, clustering) 2. planning (outlining) a. after getting a topic, do you make an outline to help you develop your paragraph writing? b. do you decide your topic sentence afterward? a. b. c. making subsists writing the topic sentence outlining 3. writing and revising drafts a. when you are starting to write your first draft, do you consider the elements of a paragraph? how do you consider it? b. when writing your draft, do you make sure your draft has a good paragraph structure like we have discussed in the class? explain! c. do you make sure your second draft has a unite idea? how do you make sure? d. do you think that your second draft is coherent? why do you think so? a. b. writing the first rough draft revising content and organization table 1 online problematized scaffolding (continued) steps of process writing problematized scaffolding c. d. proofreading the second draft writing the final copy a. the organization: do you think the organization/structure of the writing has followed the model? explain! b. the content/idea: do you think the idea is original and interesting? do you think the content of the entire text goes smoothly and neatly elaborated? explain! c. vocabulary: what do you think about the vocabulary used in the text? d. grammar: do you give any correction to the grammar? what are they? e. mechanics: do you give any correction regarding the punctuation? what are they? a. do you consider the proofreader’s comment when writing your final copy? b. how do you finalize your writing? do you double check your organization, content, vocabulary you use, grammar and mechanics? a post-test is conducted to end the edmodo writing course. students’ writing products both in the pre-andposttest are evaluated by using an analytic scale for writing composition by brown and bailey (cited in brown, 2004). it assesses the students’ works in terms of its organization, content, grammar, choice of words, and punctuation. the posttest score of students is taken from the final product of students’ writing after going through all steps of process writing. a statistical analysis is conducted after getting the data. first of all, a normality and homogeneity tests are done to see if the data are normal and homogeny. table 2 and 3 show these results. table 2 tests of normality groups kolmogorov-smirnova statistic df sig. value pre-test 0,221 13 0,083 post-test 0,192 13 0,200* test of normality as shown in table 2 indicates that the data are normally distributed. it can be seen from the significant value of pre-test (0,083) and post-test (0,200) which are more than 0,05. test of variance homogeneity also notes that the significant value is 0,809, or more than 0,05. it means that the data are homogeneous or the distributions of scores (variance) of the two groups are considered equal. since the data are normal and homogeneous, a 35effects of edmodo-assisted .... (wahyu kyestiati sumarno) comparison test is done by using parametric dependent paired t-test. table 4 shows the result of this analysis. table 3 test of homogeneity of variance levene statistic sig. value based on mean 0,060 0,809 table 4 paired samples test t df sig. (2-tailed) pair 1 pretest-postest -9,691 12 0,000 the dependent paired t-test results indicate that there is a significant difference between the students’ writing quality before and after the implementation of edmodoassisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding. it can be seen from the significant value (0,000) which was below 0,05. furthermore, in line with the finding, figure 1 shows that the students’ writing scores in each step of process writing are always increasing. hence, it can be said that edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding helps the students improve their writing quality. figure 1 writing scores of each process writing step in addition, to know the students’ perception towards the application of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding in the writing course, an interview is conducted. the analysis of interview notes that; (1) the students are benefited by the use of process writing because as they go through the process of writing, they can write and revise their manuscripts based on the review from the teacher and friends. it gives them time to practice and improve the quality of their final writing. their works are also not merely a one-time product-oriented anymore, yet process-oriented writing. (2) online learning by using edmodo gives the students opportunities to continue, consult, and submit their works off the class. it resolves one of the disadvantages of classroom learning, in which the students have a limited time to do all the stages of process writing. (3) feedback from the teacher in each step of process writing helps them a lot to increase the quality of their writing. peer-editing is also helping, yet since not all students give comments to others’ writing seriously, thus they prefer teacher feedback to their friends’ comments. (4) the questions they have to answer initially to their online submission as a form of problematized scaffolding, make them remember things to do for each step of writing. it helps them activate their metacognitive thinking to recheck the component of their writing. question two of this research is made to see if the improvement happens in the experimental class significantly outperformed the improvement of students’ writing scores in the traditional class. to answer this question, statistical analysis is conducted. a normality and homogeneity test are first done to make sure the data are ready to be analyzed parametrically. table 5 tests of normality classes kolmogorov-smirnova statistic df sig. value control 0,176 13 0,200* experiment 0,160 13 0,200* table 5 indicates that the data are normal since the significance value of the control (0,200) and experiment (0,200) class are more than 0,05. table 6 test of homogeneity of variance levene statistic sig. value based on mean 2,591 0,121 the result of variance homogeneity test as shown in table 6 told that the data are homogeneous. it can be seen from the significance value (0,121) which is more than 0,05. after knowing that the data are normal and homogeneous, a parametric independent paired t-test is utilized. table 7 independent samples test t-test for equality of means sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% cid lower value equal variances assumed 0,002 -0,21141 0,06154 -0,33843 the independent paired t-test results indicate that there is a significant difference between the students’ writing quality improvement in the experimental and control class. 36 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 31-37 it can be seen from the significant value (0,002) which is below 0,05. it means that the students’ writing improves significantly in the edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding class rather than in the traditional class of writing. teaching a large class may become a burden for some teachers, moreover, if the course requires intensive practices and feedbacks. time allotments which have been set inside the classroom will never enough to produce the expected results but a few. however, the development of technology may help in solving this matter. cheng (2005) has said that the rapid advancement of technology has changed education paradigm, in which nowadays, learning may occur effectively outside of the classroom. this research’s results have shown the same point. the use of online media, namely edmodo, has significantly supported the process of writing and helped the students improve their achievements. this finding then strengthens the encouragement of utilizing edmodo into classroom setting for its tremendous advantage for students’ learning (durak et al., 2017). furthermore, the significant difference between the students’ improvement in traditional product-oriented writing and digital process-oriented writing indicates that students are benefited by the implementation of the process approach in their writing class. some of them even comment through the interview session that opportunities to revise and the feedback given by the teacher in each step of process writing helps them a lot in improving the quality of their final writing. this result is in line with the previous research which finds that process writing improve the quality of students’ writing (al-naibi, al-jabri, & alkalbani, 2018). besides, the higher improvement of students’ writing quality in the process writing class which integrated the problematized scaffolding also shows that with metacognitive scaffolding in each writing step, the students are reminded and stimulated to activate their metathinking to review their works again before submission. thus their works’ qualities are better. in other words, the problematized scaffolding can support students’ learning of writing (jafarigohar & mortazavi, 2016). conclusions based on the findings of this research, it can be concluded that the use of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding significantly improves the students’ writing skills and that the students’ score improvement is significantly higher than in the traditional class. therefore, the usage of this media is highly recommended. these findings may contribute to the field of efl writing instruction, especially on the use of processoriented teaching method and digital teaching media. the insertion of metacognitive scaffolding into a writing course also enriches the body of knowledge for efl writing instruction. in this case, teachers can modify their teaching and encourage students realizing each step of their learning process by giving metacognitive scaffolding. however, this research is limited for its number of participants. classes in the english department at darul ulum islamic university, lamongan are not big. one class commonly only consists of 13-25 students. this limitation yet does not cancel the researcher’s intention to conduct researches to improve the quality of teaching and learning process. furthermore, the author encourages future researches to examine the effects of other online media in the language classroom. besides, since this research only focuses on problematized scaffolding and metacognition in an individual setting, the future research investigates the other scaffolding and the role of metacognition in the social setting is seen to be worth to research. acknowledgments the author would like to say thank you to the directorate of research and community service, ministry of research, technology and higher education for funding this study with contract number 038/u/bu.2/a.4/iv/2018. references al-harbi, s. s., & alshumaimeri, y. a. 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(2015). facilitating metacognitive processes of academic genre-based writing using an online writing system. computer assisted language learning, 28(6), 479–498. https://doi.org/10.1080/0 9588221.2014.881384. microsoft word 02_chn_yi ying.doc a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 129 a comparation of chinese and indonesian time adverbs yi ying chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta 11480 yi_ying@binus.edu 前言 笔者是 2002 年在建国大学人文学院中文系任教。在已经过了 10 年的实践内,对建国大学 的中文系学生学习汉语语法尤其是时间副词有了深刻的理解。学生经常把汉语时间副词与印尼 语时间副词在句中的位置及用法混淆。本论文主要比较汉语印尼语时间副词。研究方法是比较 分析。希望通过对汉语印尼语时间副词比较,能使学生更容易掌握汉语的时间副词。 abstract chinese time adverbs describe status of behavior, modal frequency, or that the behavior has occurred, occurred in the past, present or future. when describe a time, it usually emphasizes the meaning. indonesian time adverbs describe an event or action occurred at a time. it indicates the status of behavior, modal or indicates whether the conduct has occurred, has not happened, will happen, repeat and describe the act or thing is not yet completed. this study attempts to shed light on why students incline to make mistake in using chinese time adverbs. furthermore, students face difficulty in differentiating between chinese and indonesian time adverbs. chinese indonesia have the similar meaning of time adverb, such as: gang, yijing, cengjing, zhengzai, jiang, hai, mashang but function in a sentence not exactly same. keywords: chinese adverb of times, indonesian adverb of times, behavior, modal 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 汉语、印尼语时间副词对比 汉语、印尼语时间副词的意义及其句中的位置 汉语时间副词的意义及其句中的位置 “汉语的时间副词表示行为发生的状况、情态、频率,或表示行为是否已经发生、进行,发 生在过去、现在还是将来”。 在确定时间副词时,主要以意义为标准,为了使得归类准确一些,也参照了功能。“什么时 候”询问的是时间,答案一般也包含时间成分。例如: (1) 我们什么时候出发?马上出发。 (2) 你姐姐什么时候毕业?她已经毕业了。 但是有些副词像“在、正、正在、曾经、就、将、忽然”等,它们表示的意义与时间副词非 常近,所以也归到了时间副词之中。 汉语时间副词在句中的位置一般在主语前、主语后、句末:出现在主语前的副词,如“已经”、 “刚刚”、 “有时”等。出现在主语后的副词一般有 “从来”、“曾”、“始终、即将、老是”等;置于 句末属于易位现象,副词易位是口语中特有的一种句法现象。例如: (1) 先别走,外面下雨呢,正。 (2) “老刘呢”?“下棋呢,在。” (3) 少先队员呢,还! (4) 他写了五页了,已经? (5) 我们不认识,一直! (6) 我们没有见过面,从来! 印尼语时间副词的意义及其句中的位置 印尼语时间副词是描述事件或动作发生的时间的副词。不同于用来表示时间名称(如星期 几、某年某夜某日等,即表示时间位置)的名词,(一)它表示行为发生的状况、情态或表示 行为是否已经发生、进行、还没发生、将发生、重复;(二)表示行为或事情还没有完成。例 如: (1) saya sudah mengerjakan perkerjaan rumah. 我 已经 做 作业 (2) mereka tengah menanti kedatangan presiden. 他们 正在 等 到来 总统 a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 131 汉语、印尼语相同的时间副词对比 “刚”与“baru” “刚”表示在过去某时间里发生的动作行为或状态,修饰动词和少数表示变化的形容词。例 如: (1) 刚进屋,就有人来找。 (2) 你的病刚好,还要多注意。 “刚”正好在那一点上(指时间、空间、数量等;有不早不晚、不前不后、不多不少、不… 不…的意思)。 1. 刚+动⁄形。例如: (3) 剩下的油刚装满一瓶。 (4) 这张桌子大小刚合适。 2. 刚+数量。例如: (5) 我的体重刚五十公斤,没有超过标准。 (6) 我们到电影院刚七点,正好。 “baru”用在动词前,表示发生在不久前。例如: (1) buku ini baru terbit. 印:书 这 刚 出版。 汉:这本书刚出版。 (2) kakak saya baru saja menikah. 印:姐姐 我 刚刚 只 结婚。 汉:我姐姐刚刚结婚。 “baru”用在名词后,具有“新”的意思。例如: (1) baju baru itu bagus sekali. 印:衣服新 那 漂亮 很。 汉:那件新衣服很漂亮。 (2) siapa nama guru baru itu? 印:谁 名字老师 新 那? 汉:那位新老师叫什么名字? “刚”修饰动词、形容词或数量词,直接用于动词、形容词或数量词之前。 “baru”只修饰动 词。“baru”可在名词后,具有新的意思,而“刚”没有这样的意思。“刚”与“baru”的语法功能不完 全相同。 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 “已经”与“sudah”、“telah” 汉语的“已经”表示动作、变化完成或达到某种程度。 1. “已经”+动 (1) 这部电影昨天晚上已经看过。 (2) 父母已经同意我去中国留学。 2. “已经”+形 (3) 我的心情已经平静下来。 (4) 饭已经熟了。 3. “已经”+数量 (5) 已经九点了,该走了。 (6) 今年父亲已经六十二岁了。 4. “已经”+动+数量 (1) 我已经跑了十公里。 (2) 温度已经下降了十度。 5. “已经”后面有‘快、要、差不多’等副词时,指即将完成而尚未完成。 (1) 天已经快黑了,我们回家吧! (2) 已经差不多一点了,怎么还没有吃饭呢? 表示否定时,“已经”不用别的词来代替。例如: (5) 天气已经不冷了。 (6) 我们已经不能改变机票了。 “sudah”与“telah”是同义词,主要表示时间,用来总括它前面提到的人或事物,其句法功能 是充当状语,修饰它后面的动其词或形容词。副词“sudah” 、“telah”常用在下面几种情况。 1. “sudah” 、“telah”修饰动词,表示在过去某时间里发生的动作行为或状态。例如: (1) mereka sudah pergi. 印:他们 已经 走。 汉:他们已经走了。 (2) kami sudah makan dua mangkok bakmi. 印:我们已经 吃 两 碗 面。 汉:我们已经吃了两碗面。 (3) saya telah menyelesaikan pekerjaan rumah. 印:我 已经 做完 作业。 汉:我已经做完作业了。 (4) adik telah membeli dua batang pensil. 印:妹妹已经 买 两 支 铅笔。 汉:妹妹已经买了两支铅笔。 2. “sudah” 、“telah”用在形容词前面,表示在说话前或某一特定的时间前,状态就发生了,到 说话时或某一特定的时间,其结果状态仍然存在。例如: (1) pukul tujuh lalu lintas sudah ramai. 印:点 七 交通 已经 热闹。 汉:早上七点交通已经很热闹了。 a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 133 (2) nenekku sudah sangat tua. 印:奶奶 我 已经 很 老。 汉:我奶奶已经很老了。 (3) hari ini saya sudah tiga kali pergi ke rumahnya. 印:天 这 我 已经 三 次 去 到 家 他。 汉:今天我已经去他家三次了。 (4) rumahnya telah gelap sekali. 印:家他的 已经 暗 非常。 汉:他的家已经很暗了。 (5) telah lima tahun saya tidak bertemu dengannya. 印:已经 五 年 我 不 见 跟 他。 汉:已经五年了,我没有见到他。 (6) hari telah terang sekali. 印:天 已经 亮 很。 汉:天已经很亮了。 表示否定时,一般用“belum” 来代替““sudah”、“telah”。例如: (5) saya belum makan siang. 印:我 还没 吃 午。 汉:我还没吃午饭。 (6) mereka belum menandatangani kontrak itu. 印:他们 还没 签 合同 那。 汉:他们还没签那个合同。 “已经”与“sudah”、“telah”完全相应,即它能置于动词、形容词、数量词之前。 “曾经”与“pernah” “曾经”表示在过去的某一段时间发生过某种行为或状态,并在说话之前已经结束。 1. 动词(短语)前用“曾经”时后面常用表示经验的动态词“过”。例如: (1) 我曾经跟他一起工作过五年。 (2) 他们曾经去过印尼。 2. “曾经”修饰的动词后可用动量补语或时量补语。例如: (3) 我曾经去过两次北京。 (4) 我们曾经开过五个小时会议。 3. “曾经”修饰“没(没有)”来表示否定。例如: (5) 你曾经去过欧洲吗?—我没有去过欧洲。 (6) 你曾经看过那本小说吗?—我没有看过那本小说。 4. “曾经”后面可用“没”。例如: (7) 小汪曾经半年没跟我打招呼。 (8) 舅舅曾经三年没回家。 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 5. 用“不曾”,书面语色彩更浓。例如: (9) 结果如何,我们不曾想过。 (10) 我不曾意料到他们会离婚。 “pernah” 表示从前有过某种行为或情况。多用在动词前面。例如: (11) saya pernah sekelas dengannya selama 3 tahun. 印: 我 曾经 一个半 同他 之久 三 年。 汉: 我曾经跟他同班三年。 (10) dia pernah berantem dengan abang saya. 印: 他 曾经 打架 跟 哥哥 我。 汉: 他曾经跟我哥哥打过架。 “pernah”表示从前有过某种状况。主要用在形容词前。一般情况下“pernah”前面加否定 词“tidak(不)”或“belum(没有)”。例如: (11) film yang diputar di sini tidak pernah bagus. 印: 电影 的 被播放 在这里 不 曾经 好看。 汉: 这里播放的电影从来不好看 (12) kami tidak pernah bosan makan bebek beijing. 印: 我们 不 曾经 厌烦 吃 鸭子 北京 汉: 我们从来没有吃腻过北京烤鸭。 (13) apakah kamu pernah ke laos? belum. saya belum pernah ke laos. 印: 吗 你 曾经 去 老挝?没有。我 没 曾经 去老挝。 汉: 你去过老挝吗?没有。我没去过老挝。 “曾经”与“pernah”相同点是可修饰动词,不同点是“曾 “不可修饰形容词。“曾经”否定式 用“没有”, “pernah” 否定式用“tidak(不)”或“belum”(没有)。 “正在”与“sedang”、“lagi”、“tengah” 1. “正在”表示动作在进行中或状态在持续中。“正在”可修饰动词、形容词。例如: (1) 他们正在看电影。 (2) 学生正在上课。 (3) 老师正在忙着。 2. “正在”后可以用单纯形式。例如: (4) 妹妹正在哭,姐姐进来安慰她。 (5) 同学们正在准备春节联欢晚会。 3. “正在”的否定式用“不是、还没有”,不能用“不、没有”。例如: (6) 他来的时候,你正在教书吧?—我不是正在教书,我已经教过书了。 (7) 父亲到的时候,妹妹正在唱歌吧?—妹妹还没有唱歌呢。 4. “正在”后可用介词“从”。例如: (8) 弟弟正在从花园跑过来。 (9) 太阳正在从地平线升起。 a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 135 “sedang” 与“tengah”(正在)表示动作在进行或状态在持续中的意义时,是同义词。 “sedang” 与“tengah”可修饰动词、形容词。例如: (1) kami sedang menunggu kedatangan beliau. 印:我们 正在 等 到来 他。 汉:我们正在等他的到来。 (2) mereka sedang makan malam. 印:他们 正在 吃 晚。 汉:他们正在吃晚饭。 (3) kakak sedang bersedih hati. 印:姐姐 正在 难过 心。 汉: 姐姐正在难过。 (4) mereka tengah menyelesaikan program pembangunan. 印:他们 正在 完成 计划 建设。 汉:他们正在完成建设计划。 (5) saya tengah tidur ketika dia datang. 印:我 正在 睡觉 当 他 来。 汉:他来的时候,我正在睡觉。 (6) ayah tengah tidak enak badan. 印:父亲 正在 不 舒服 身体。 汉:父亲不舒服。 “sedang”与“tengah”(正在)的否定式用“tidak”(不)。例如: (7) apakah kamu sedang menunggu dia? tidak, saya tidak menunggu dia. 印:吗 你 正在 等 他?不, 我 不 等 他。 汉:你正在等她吗?不是,我不是等她。。 “正在”与“sedang”、“tengah”的语法功能的共同点是可用来修饰动词与形容词。“sedang” 与“tengah”后不可用介词“dari(从)”,而“正在可以”。 “正在”的否定式不能用“不”,而 “sedang”与“tengah”的否定式用“tidak(不)”。 “将”与“akan” “将”表示动作或情况不久就要出现;将要,快要。用于书面语。 (1) 火车将进站了。 (2) 飞机将降落了。 用于书面语。表示接近某个时间。 (3) 来厦大留学不知不觉已将两年。 (4) 时间已将深夜,路上汽车稀少。 “将”表示对未来情况的判断。 (5) 随着经济的发展,老百姓的收入将不断增加。 (6) 他的恩德将永远铭刻在灾民的心中。 136 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 “将”表示勉强到达一定数量;刚刚。 (7) 这件房间将能容十个人。 (8) 做的饭将够六个人吃。 “akan”表示动作或事件不久就会发生。 1. “akan”在动词前面。例如: (1) paman akan datang hari ini. 印:舅舅 将 来 今天。 汉:舅舅今天要过来。 (2) mereka akan berkunjung ke kantor kami. 印:他们 将 拜访 到 公司 我们。 汉:他们将访问我们的公司。 2. “akan”在形容词前面表示情态。例如: (3) saya akan bosan jika duduk saja begini. 印:我 将 无聊 如果 坐 只 这样。 汉:我坐在这里会无聊的。 (4) kalau diancam dia akan takut kepadamu. 印:如果 被威胁 他 将 怕 对你。 汉:如果你威胁他,他会怕你。 3. “akan”表示情况不久就会发生,可用在形容词前面。例如: (5) sebentar lagi dia akan sembuh. 印:不久 再 他 将 康复。 汉:他很快就康复了。 (6) dia akan kurus jika tidak diberi makan. 印:她 将 瘦 如果没有 被给 吃。 汉:如果你不给她吃饭,她会变瘦。 “将”与“akan”相同点是可修饰动词,不同是“akan”也可以修饰形容词。“将”表示勉强到 达一定数量或刚刚,而“akan”没有含这个意思。 “还”与“masih” “还”表示行为动作继续进行或情况继续存在;仍旧、仍然。例如: (1) 夜深了,父亲还在工作。 (2) 已经十一月了,天还这么热。 “还”可用于尚未发生或将要发生的动作或状态,句中有能愿动词,如“会”、“想”、“要”等。 例如: (3) 你明天还想去图书馆吗? (4) 过了开斋节,生意还会这么好吗? “还”表示动作或状态不因为有某种情况而改变。 (5) 比赛虽然已经结束,观众还(还是)不愿意散去。 (6) 别看身体脆弱,做这个工作还行。 a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 137 “还”表示程度差别;更加。 (7) 他比我还小好几岁呢。 (8) 他的家比我的家还大一百平方米。 “还”表示项目、数量增加,范围扩大。 (9) 除了我们以外,获得奖学金的老师还有小林。 (10) 天气预报说明天风力还要增大,气温还要下降。 “还” 表示勉强过得去。 (11) 这幅画儿,画得还可以。 (12) 这件衣服还比较耐穿。 “还”表示数量小,时间不到。 (13) 那年哥哥还只有三岁。 (14) 现在还早,可以再聊聊。 “还”表示超出预料,有赞叹的语气。 (15) 天这么黑了,没想到您还过来给我看病。 (16) 下这么大的雨,没想到你还来上班。 “还” 表示不应该这样而这样。 (17) 亏你还读过博士呢,这个字也不认得。 (18) 亏你还是老师呢,这个脏话也从你的口说出来。 “还”用于反问。 (19) 还不快上车去! (20) 都一点了,你们还说早! “masih”表示动作或状态持续不变;仍然。例如: (1) kami masih berada di kelas ketika hujan turun. 印:我们 还 是 在 教室 当 雨 下。 汉:下雨时我们还在教室。 (2) sewaktu masih tinggal di rumah kami, nenek sering bercerita. 印:当 还 住 在 家 我们 奶奶 经常 讲故事。 汉:奶奶住在我们家时,经常给我们讲故事。 “masih”表示行为、动作或状态保持不变。例如: (3) anjing ini masih muda. 印:狗 这 还 年轻。 汉:这只狗还小。 (4) tanganmu masih kotor, cucilah! 印: 手 你 还 脏 洗吧。 汉:你的手还脏,去洗吧。 “masih” 表示数量小,时间不到。 (5) kamu masih kecil, tidak boleh nonton film itu. 印:你 还 小 不 可以 看 电影 那。 汉:你还小,不可以看这部电影。 (6) sewaktu nenek meninggal, saya masih kelas dua sd 印:当 奶奶 去世 我 还 班 二 小学。 汉:奶奶去世时我还在上小学二年级。 138 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 “还”与“masih”的相同点是可修饰动词与形容词。“还”除了表示动作或状态持续不变, 也可表示不应该这样而这样。 “马上”、“立刻”与“segera” “马上”、“立刻”都表示紧接着某个时候。用在动词、形容词前,后面常带副词“就”。例如: (1) 不自不觉期末考试快到了,马上就要放假了。 (2) 马上我们就去办。 (3) 请同学们马上/立刻到教室去。 “马上”用在否定句中,如: (4) 马上还动不了身。 (5) 马上还走不了。 例(2)的“马上”不能换用“立刻”因为“马上”所表示的紧迫性有时幅度较大;而“立刻” 没有这种情况,它表示的就是即要发生的。 “segera”表示即将发生或紧接着某个时候儿。 (1) mendengar jeritan itu, dia segera pergi ke sana. 印: 听到 叫声 那 他 马上 去 到 那。 汉:听到叫声,他马上(立刻)跑过去。 (2) kami bertiga akan segera menyepakati masalah itu. 印:我们 仨 将 马上 协议 事情 那。 汉:关于那件事,我们三个人马上会达成协议。 “马上”、“立刻”与“segera”能置于动词之前。当修饰的动词前有其他副词时,如“就要”,“马 上”、“立刻”置于其副词前面。而时间副词“segera”当修饰的动词前有其他副词时,“segera”置于 其副词后面。 汉语印尼语时间副词对比 汉语 印尼语 1. 刚 修饰动词、形容词、数量 (1) 父亲刚出发。 (2) 奶奶的病刚好。 (3) 时间还早呢,刚七点。 置于主语后 (4) 我们刚买新衣服。 1. baru 修饰动词 (1) dia baru pergi kuliah. (他刚去上课)。 置于主语后 (2) kamus itu baru terbit. (那本词典刚出版)。 “baru”用在名词后具有“新”的意思。 (3) baju baru itu cantik sekali. (那件新衣服很漂亮)。 a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 139 2. 已经 修饰动词、形容词、数量词 (1) 老师已经回家了。 (2) 那棵树的叶子已经枯了。 (3) 报名的已经五十个人了。 置于主语前后 (4) 已经一点了,怎么还没吃饭? (5) 他已经做完作业了。 “已经”的否定式不用别的词来代替:已经 不 (6) 天气已经不热了。 2. sudah;telah 修饰动词、形容词、数量词 (1) saya sudah(telah)makan. (我已经吃饭了)。 (2) alpukat sudah(telah) matang. (牛油果已经熟了)。 (3) paman sudah(telah)berumur 90 tahun. (伯伯已经九十岁了)。 置于主语后 (4) saya sudah ( telah ) lama tidak bertemu dengannya. (我已经很长时间没见她了)。 sudah;telah 否定式用 belum 来代替 (5) saya belum sarapan. (我还没吃早餐) 3. 曾经 修饰动词 (1) 我曾经去过他的家。 置于主语后 (2) 他们曾经参加过篮球比赛。 否定形式是“没(有)+动(过)” (3) 姐姐没吃过北京烤鸭。 “不曾”或“未曾”书面上有时还能见到。 (4) 我不曾想过跟他结婚。 (5) 我们(未曾)想过他会迟职。 3. pernah 修饰动词、形容词 (1) ibu pernah pergi ke sekolah adik. (妈妈曾经去过妹妹的学校)。 (2) saya pernah bosan makan nasi. (我曾经吃腻过米饭)。 置于主语后 (3) manager pernah mengkritik saya. (经理曾经批评过我)。 否定式:“tidak(不)+ pernah+动/形” 或“belum”(没有)+ pernah+动/形” (4) adik tidak pernah bosan makan paha ayam goreng. (弟弟从来没有吃腻过炸鸡腿)。 (5) saya belum pernah menonton konser musik. (我从来没有看过演唱会)。 4. 正在 修饰动词、形容词 (1) 你别惹她,她正在难过。 (2) 别打扰他,他正在忙着。 置于主语后 (3) 父亲正在看报纸。 正在后面可用介词“从” (4) 飞机正在从西部慢慢向东部着陆。 否定式用不是、还没有;不能用不、没有 4. sedang;lagi;tengah 修饰动词、形容词 (1) adik sedang merajuk. 妹妹正在撒娇。 (2) abang sedang sibuk. 哥哥正在忙着。 置于主语后 (3) kakak sedang merajut sweater. 姐姐正在织毛衣。 140 jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 129-142 (5) 妹妹不是正在唱歌,她正在念诗 歌。 弟弟正在演出吗?—他还没有演出呢。 否定式用“tidak(不)” (4) mereka tidak sedang belajar, mereka sedang menonton tv. (他们不是正在学习,他们正在看电视)。 5. 将 修饰时间名词、时间副词、动词、一定的 数量词 (1) 时间已将深夜,路上行人稀少。 (2) 你的温柔将永远铭刻在我心中。 (3) 谁的工作表现好,谁的工资就将上 涨。 (4) 弟弟的体重已将两百斤了。 置于主语后 (5) 太阳将下山了。 “将”也表示勉强到达一定数量;刚刚 (6) 这个礼堂将能容五千个人。 5. akan 修饰动词、形容词 (1) pesawat akan lepas landas. (飞机将起飞) (2) saya akan bosan jika setiap hari di rumah saja. (我每天都呆在家里会无聊的)。 一般在“将”与形容词之间也附上“menjadi (变成)”这个词 (3) dia akan menjadi malas jika terlalu dimanja. (如果太宠她,她会懒惰的)。 置于主语后 (4) besok tante akan datang pulang dari italia. (明天姑姑从意大利回来)。 6. 还 修饰动词、形容词 (1) 虽然遇到很多风雨,但我还不愿意 放弃这份感情。 (2) 我们今后的路还长着呢。 置于主语后 (3) 他还是不认错。 6. masih 修饰动词、形容词 (1) sudah larut malam, ayah masih bekerja. (已经半夜了,父亲还在工作)。 (2) kamu masih kecil, jangan ikut campur urusan orang dewasa. (你还小,别干涉成年人的事)。 置于主语后 (3) nenek masih tinggal di desa. (外婆还住在乡下)。 7. 马上、立刻 置于主语前、主语后 (1) 马上领导就去办。 (2) 听到老师住院了,同学们马上去医 院看他。 “马上、立刻”后面可用其他副词,如:就 要。 (3) 马上就要开斋节了,回民都忙着买 回家乡的火车票。 7. segera 置于主语后 (1) melihat orang tua itu tidak berani menyeberang jalan, saya segera memapahnya. (2) presiden akan segera meninjau lokasi bencana gempa. (总统马上审查地震灾害的地点)。 (看到那个老人家不敢过马路,我马上去 扶她。) “segera”前面可用其他副词,如“akan(将)” a comparation of chinese ….. (yi ying) 141 结论 从以上的汉印时间副词的比较表格,我们得到结论如下: 1. “刚”与“baru”都可以置于主语后。“刚”除了修饰动词外,也可修饰形容词与数量词。“baru” 只能用来修饰动词。 2. “已经”与“sudah”、“telah”都可置于动词、形容词及数量词之前。“已经”的否定式不用别的 词来代替, “sudah”、“telah”的否定式用“belum”来代替。 3. “曾经”与“pernah”都可置于主语后。“曾经”只能修饰动词,不能修饰形容词,而“pernah”可 以。“曾经”否定形式用“没”或“不曾”、“未曾”。 “不曾或未曾”书面语色彩更浓。“pernah” 否 定形式可用 “tidak”或“belum”来代替。 4. “正在”与“sedang”、“lagi”、“tengah”都可置于主语后。正在后面可用介词“从”;而“sedang”、 “lagi”、“tengah”不能。“正在”的否定形式不能用“不”,而“sedang”、“lagi”、“tengah”可用“不” 表示否定。 5. “将”与“akan”可都置于主语后。“将” 修饰时间名词、时间副词、动词、及一定的数量词, 而“akan”只能修饰动词或形容词。 6. 虽然“还” 与“masih”的用法不完全一样,但意思是完全一样的。“还”、与“masih”都可置于 主语后,也可用来修饰动词或形容词。 7. “马上”、“立刻”可以置于主语前后,而“segera”只置于主语后。“马上”、“立刻”的后面可用 其他副词,如:就要。“segera”的前面可用其他副词,如“akan(将)”。 参考文献 hasan, a., dardjowidjojo, s., lapoliwa, h., moeliono, anton m. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa. 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(2000). 现代汉语副词研究. 学林出版社. 张谊生. (2004). 现代汉语副词探索. 学林出版社. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 127 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 127-135 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5700 hybridity in action and crossing ethnic boundaries in the films ngenest and cek toko sebelah budi kurniawan program studi bahasa mandarin, fakultas bahasa dan sastra, universitas kristen petra jl. siwalankerto 121-131, surabaya, indonesia budi.kurniawan@petra.ac.id received: 06th february 2019/revised: 12th march 2019/accepted: 26th april 2019 how to cite: kurniawan, b. (2019). hybridity in action and crossing ethnic boundaries in the films ngenest and cek toko sebelah. lingua cultura, 13(2), 127-135. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5700 abstract this research observed and analyzed both films entitled; “ngenest” and “cek toko sebelah” to find the manifested hybrid chineseness related to inter-ethnic relationships by drawing on the concept of hybridity. “ngenest” and “cek toko sebelah” were two successful films that were both written and directed by ernest prakasa, a chinese indonesian, and also featured ernest prakasa in a leading role. close readings of both films were conducted to identify relevant and recurring themes related to the research questions. the theoretical frameworks of hybridity and essentialism/stereotyping were used to help in gaining a deeper understanding of the essence of the films. the results indicate that race still plays an important role in othering and building ethnic boundaries. many stereotypes and counter stereotypes against both the chinese and pribumi exist in the films. in terms of lessening ethnic boundaries, both films present hybridity in action in the form of inter-ethnic marriage and the everyday relationships of the chinese and other ethnic groups. although the essentialized chinese identities are present, they are constantly in negotiation with other identities, in forming a hybridized version of chineseness. keywords: chinese indonesians, hybridity, ethnic boundaries, chineseness introduction during the course of indonesia’s history, there is a long absence of ethnic chinese in the official corpus of indonesian national literature and film industry, especially before the fall of new order in 1998 (heryanto, 1997; sen, 2006). this curious absence gradually changes when indonesia enters the reform era, as the ethnic chinese regains the freedom to express their culture, which has previously been banned. some films about chinese indonesians after 1998, ca-bau-kan (2002) and gie (2005), among others, have been critically analyzed (heryanto, 2008). these films have been deemed only partially successful in challenging decades-old stereotyping of chinese indonesians and present an ‘atypical’ representation of a chinese indonesian (heryanto, 2008). heidhues (2017) has suggested that it probably needs new approaches in investigating chinese indonesian identity. in this regard, films can be useful to provide insights on the situational aspects of identity. setijadi (2013) has argued that recently, more films about chinese indonesians have shifted their focus from ethno-nationalist themes into more cosmopolitan ones. the three films that are examined by her are babi buta yang ingin terbang (2009), cin(t)a (2009), and cinta (2009). while this examination has shed light on contemporary lives of chinese indonesians, the three films studied are all indie films with limited audiences, hence presumably they have had less of an impact on how the public views ethnic chinese. until very recently, along with the optimistic growth of indonesia’s cinema industry in the last several years, two strongly ethnic chinese-themed movies, ngenest (2015) and cek toko sebelah (2016), are released. these two films not only tell the stories of chinese indonesians, but they are also written and directed by ernest prakasa, a chinese indonesian, and he features in a leading role. these films are successful in terms of the box office. in 2015, ngenest managed to assemble an audience of 785.786 during its circulation in the cinema, ranked sixth compared to other indonesian films released that year (fuilm indonesia, 2015). cek toko sebelah had been more phenomenal, raking in 2.642.957 audience members, and ranking fourth in that year (film indonesia, 2016). interestingly, the uniquely strong chinese-related theme and the chineseness of the director, scriptwriter, and actors in these films do not spark discussions in indonesian 128 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 127-135 media. this partly indicates that the development surrounding ethnic chinese issues in indonesia has been positive, as indonesian society is more and more welcoming toward ethnic chinese, including its language and culture. racism overtones have partly subsided nowadays, although racial tension still exists. it can be looked back in 20142015 when basuki tjahaja purnama, or better known as ahok, a man of chinese descent, is appointed as governor of dki jakarta, which is a milestone for the chinese in indonesia. the opposition is quite clear, as there are threats that anti-chinese violence similar to may 1998 would reoccur. nonetheless, the subsequent events up until the imprisonment of ahok are much more politically and religiously charged. alternatively, it can go further back during the presidential campaign of 2014, when joko widodo is the victim of black propaganda which accuses him of being chinese and communist. these cases suggest that whereas inter-ethnic tolerance is evolving, religion, not only ethnicities, has more and more become the source of conflicts, indonesian society maintains negative stereotypes toward ethnic chinese. these stereotypes about religions and ethnicities are also still threatening the inter-ethnic relationships in indonesian young people (parker, hoon, & raihani, 2014). although panggabean (2018) explains that inter-ethnic violence in indonesia happens mainly because of the influence of state actors, he does highlight the importance of inter-ethnic interaction as an adhesive power between ethnicities. it creates social peace (panggabean, 2018). hence, the healthy inter-ethnic relationships should be developed continually. hall (1992) has expounded on the question of identity, how it is being ‘de-centered’, following the fragmenting of cultural landscapes of class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, race, and nationality. even if there is such a thing that is believed to be able to identify indonesians, like ‘national culture’, it is already shown that national culture is not as unified as many thought. he even goes further to state that “modern nations are all cultural hybrids” (hall, 1992). the human subject is becoming fragmented and comprises several, sometimes contradictory or unresolved identities. hybridity, as hall (1992) has shown, may be formed when: “…people retain strong links with their places of origin and their traditions, but they are without the illusion of a return to the past. they are obliged to come to terms with the new cultures they inhabit, without simply assimilating to them and losing their identities completely. they bear upon them the traces of the particular cultures, traditions, languages and histories by which they were shaped. the difference is that they are not and will never be unified in the old sense, because they are irrevocably the product of several interlocking histories and cultures, belong at one and the same time to several ‘homes’ (and to no one particular ‘home’).” (hall, 1992) this hybridity that is using hall’s terms is a translation (hall, 1992). the diaspora is a product of this translation. “they must learn to inhabit at least two identities, to speak two cultural languages, to translate and negotiate between them” (hall, 1992). goebel (2008) has contributed further to validate hybrid identities by pointing out examples that appear to disembed language from ethnicity. chinese indonesians, in this sense, can be particularly said to having a kind of hybridity. the younger chinese generations, who are the products of new order assimilationist policy, and the peranakan chinese, who has bonded with the locals, are not fully assimilated, even though they do not speak chinese anymore (wolff, 1997). they still retain their sense of chineseness, or in other words, the boundaries between them and the ‘others’ are sustained and kept. therefore, they already live with a kind of hybridity. the remaining question is how this hybridity can be sustained and applied as a smooth and balanced negotiation to release inter-ethnic tensions. meanwhile, stereotyping is closely related to essentialism, or in this case, reification. although hall has stated that the essentialist notion of ethnicity is extremely damaging because it does not allow for hybridization (drew, 1998). werbner (2015) has pointed out that there are two meanings of essentializing. essentializing as an ‘objectification’ is a rightful performance or representation of multiple, valorized, and aestheticized identifications, while essentialist in its pernicious sense is ‘reification’, that is representation which distorts and silences (werbner, 2015). thus, essentialism as a collective identity or objectification cannot simply be erased; it is a part of identity. the sense of chineseness, referring to themselves as chinese indonesians, is a fact which concurs with this view. recent developments related to ethnic chinese in indonesia show that further studies on chinese indonesians, especially in terms of challenging the stereotypes and essentialist notions of ethnicity, are still relevant. hoon (2006) has proposed hybridity as an approach to accommodate chineseness in indonesia, in terms of dissolving the boundary between chinese and pribumi, and in transforming chinese ethnicity into a creative, adapted, hybridized chinese-indonesian identity (hoon, 2011). while stereotypes have strengthened the boundaries between ethnic groups, hybridity has the potential to counter stereotypes and cross boundaries. even though hybridity is touted as a way to break free from inter-ethnic tensions, relevant studies regarding how to put hybridity into practice are still lacking. because both ngenest and cek toko sebelah tell the story of relations between ethnic chinese as well as with the non-chinese, it is interesting to see whether these widely watched films do portray a concrete image of hybridity in their representation of chinese indonesians. previous studies on these films investigate the moral values have shown in the film (hartanti, 2018; nathania & sukendro, 2017), and the cultural description the film depicts (susanto, 2017). the research of yulianto (2016) has categorized the receptions of ngenest audiences on the discriminatory practices shown in the film; farady and suryani (2016) have asserted that ngenest has a significant impact on the social judgment of its audiences. there are still none that dissect the inter-ethnic relationships and hybridity portrayed in the film. hence, this research would like to investigate how ngenest and cek toko sebelah suggest and portray a hybrid version of chineseness, related to the interaction between ethnic chinese and indonesian natives. methods this research analyzes the two films, ngenest and cek toko sebelah. close readings of both films are conducted to identify relevant and recurring themes related to the research questions. the theoretical frameworks of 129hybridity in action and crossing.... (budi kurniawan) hybridity and essentialism/stereotyping are used to help in gaining a deeper understanding of the essence of the films. the trilogy of books titled ngenest, which are written by ernest prakasa, interviews and articles related to the films, and also commentary by ernest prakasa himself in his vlog are used as a secondary source of data. these secondary sources are hoped to be enriching both films as our main text and to shed light on the contexts of production and consumption of the films. results and discussions through close readings of both films, themes about inter-ethnic social interactions become known, as well as significant points about hybridity related to identity construction. while ngenest and cek toko sebelah are distinct and story wise unrelated films, the following discussions to answer our research questions are not separated per films, but instead, the researcher will go back and forth between both films, as there are intertextual relations between them. the first is racial looks for othering others. ngenest tells the story of ernest (played by ernest prakasa), a chinese indonesian who was frequently bullied by his pribumi schoolmates during his childhood. being part of a minority group in indonesia, this bullying of the chinese was prominent during indonesia’s new order era (roughly from 1966 until 1998). however, the history of scapegoating ethnic chinese in indonesia went as far back as the dutch occupation era before indonesia gained independence. the division of ethnic groups into social classes was enacted by the dutch colonial rule to create division among the indonesian (then east indies) society at that time. the special privilege was given to ethnic chinese, who identified as second class to the dutch and above the pribumi natives. this created tension between pribumi and the chinese, and some racial riots already occurred before indonesia as a nation was formed. the worst state of chinese indonesians was suffered by them during suharto’s new order reign, where all aspects of chinese language and culture were banned, and the chinese were forced to be assimilated into indonesian natives. in a way, this assimilationist policy is contradictory, because the chinese were still stereotyped negatively, and clearly indicated that they were chinese by the state, although they were forbidden from speaking chinese and expressing chinese culture openly (chua, 2004). hence, although the assimilationist policy was successful in erasing the capability of the chinese to speak the chinese language, it had failed to erase the sense of chinese identity. it is presumed that ngenest is set during this era at the earlier part of the film, where ernest is bullied relentlessly. the film portrays bullying humorously and comically. patrick (played by morgan oey), another individual of chinese descent, becomes ernest’s best friend and rescues him from the bullying schoolmates. how they avoided and escaped, the bullies are told in funny ways. in reality, the bullying of the chinese kids during this era is more grim and scary (anshori et al., 2018). the film does present a traumatizing consequence of bullying. as ernest concludes, in order to stop the chain of bullying of future generations of chinese, he makes a radical decision that is to marry an indonesian native, so that his child will be “un-chinese”. the discriminating and racist derogatory terms such as ‘cina’, ‘cong’ are used against ernest when he is bullied. the film shows that this bullying is done based on physical appearance, as people with slanted eyes and light skin tone are considered chinese, and therefore should be bullied. however, a scene shows that an obese non-chinese kid is also bullied. hence, physical appearance, which is considered not normal (different from the common perception of normal), is of significant importance in projecting others as people who must be discriminated. on the other hand, another sequence shows an ethnic chinese individual joins a group of bullying students (all are indonesian natives) and tries to rob ernest. this leads ernest to another conclusion that bullying is mainly based on ‘difference’. the ethnic chinese who can adapt and blend in with the natives are accepted as part of the group. it is not exactly explained why this ethnic chinese kid is accepted within the group and even join in the bullying of other chinese, but it is enough to consider that similarity and difference play important roles in the process of ‘othering’. physical appearance is only an example of otherness or differences. in the later sequence, ernest actually tries to make friends with the group who frequently bully him to eliminate the ‘difference’ between them. one day he even joins in on the bullying of other chinese, but this effort fails because the bullying ‘victim’ recognizes him and knows his family and because ernest lacks experience in bullying. these similarities and differences become the signifiers of group identity. the failure of ernest in becoming the part of his bullies’ group suggests that eliminating differences is useless. although already suggested by hall (1992) that similarities of race are not scientifically grounded, the outward appearance of a person is still the main and common basis of othering. indeed, in the case of chinese indonesians who are not able to speak chinese, their physicality is what left to signify them as chinese. in ngenest and cek toko sebelah, ethnic chinese are portrayed as having slanted eyes and light-colored skin and require real chinese descent actors to play them (in comparison with nicholas saputra who is not of chinese descent to play soe hok gie in gie). on this ground, the image of ethnic chinese in the films is similar to what people find in daily indonesian’s lives. the different physicality with the indonesian natives is the base layer of identity on which inter-ethnic interactions occurred. it is clear that through both films, the boundaries between ethnic groups are drawn based on these racial appearance traits. the outward appearance is the main difference and is used in othering others. this is emphasized in particular in ngenest, while cek toko sebelah more so concerns crossing this border. the marriage between ernest and meira highlights this othering line between chinese and pribumi. in hoping to have children with non-chinese looks, ernest decides to marry a pribumi. moreover, in the end, he gets what he wants, he meets a pribumi girl, meira, and they fall in love and get married. at this point, ernest just realized that there is a possibility that their child will look like him instead of meira. he hesitates to have children. hence, then the conflict in the narration occurs mainly around this problem. in the end, ernest manages to accept reality, and indeed, his newborn looks just like him. here the film shows that the boundary between chinese and pribumi, which is based on looks, cannot be erased. the films instead present the viewer with hybridity in action, to blur or to lessen this boundary. one example is already presented, when an ethnic chinese individual can be accepted into a bullying pribumi group, even though this does not always work, which highlights the 130 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 127-135 blurring of the ‘unerasable’ boundaries between the ethnic groups. the second is inter-ethnic relations: stereotypes and counter stereotypes. hall (1997) has posited that stereotypes reduce, essentialize, naturalize, and fix differences. as shown, the racial difference works as a basis for the boundary between ethnic chinese and the pribumi. on top of this basis, stereotypes are at play to make these boundaries everlasting. while stereotypes are needed to preserve the social and symbolic order, in terms of blurring and crossing these boundary lines, stereotypes often need to be challenged and countered. in both films, stereotypes and counter stereotypes are both present in both ethnic chinese and the pribumi. in his book, titled ngenest, which contains materials of his stand-up comedy performances, and also partly the story source of the film ngenest, ernest prakasa states three false stereotypes commonly attributed to ethnic chinese by the pribumi: (1) the chinese are rich; (2) the chinese are stingy; and (3) the chinese are adept at cooking (prakasa, 2013). although presented comically and humorously, these stereotypes (except the third one) indeed often exist in indonesian society (hoon, 2011). one prominent negative stereotype about ethnic chinese is that they are exclusive, not willing to blend in with the natives (hoon, 2011). in both films, this stereotype is not present at all. in terms of language spoken, the way they dress, and how they interact with the natives are all presented very naturally. again, both films present the chinese as common members of society with the difference being ‘racial’ appearance. the chinese in both films interact with the pribumi and have inter-ethnic relations without any sign of exclusivity or barriers. in cek toko sebelah, koh afuk (played by chew kin wah, a malaysian actor) is a chinese indonesian who owns and manages a shop that sells daily necessities. his neighboring shop (hence his competition) is owned by pak nandar (played by budi dalton), an indonesian native. the relationship between koh afuk and pak nandar displays stereotype and counterstereotype images. to analyze this relationship, the researcher will first examine a scene. it shows the dialog between amiauw, an employee of koh afuk, who is a distant relative of koh afuk, and this is described by prakasa himself in his vlog (prakasa, 2017), and kuncoro (koh afuk’s employee, an indonesian native), after pak nandar confronts kuncoro for flirting with tini, an employee of pak nandar. it can also be seen in figure 1. amiauw : please don’t think about it. kuncoro : what is my fault? amiauw : not you, he is just being sentimental against koh afuk. kuncoro : what exactly is the matter, mamen (indonesian slang for “my man”, meaning “my friend”)? amiauw : a long time ago, there was only pak nandar’s shop here. koh afuk’s shop wasn’t here. kuncoro : why did he come here then? amiauw : during the 1998 riots, koh afuk’s shop was looted by mobs. everything was gone. so, he started all over again, in this place. figure 1 shows two key things to note. first is the way the film portrays kuncoro as he lays his hand on top of amiauw’s shoulder, and amiauw seems content. this ‘brotherly’ act indicates a close relationship between the two. notice also how amiauw tries to comfort kuncoro by explaining the relation between koh afuk and pak nandar. although both of them are employees of koh afuk, amiauw is a relative of koh afuk and holds a relatively superior position than kuncoro. however, through this scene, it presents with a challenge to the stereotype that the chinese are always exclusive and reluctant to blend in with the pribumi. second, their dialog shows a common stereotyping misconception that is that ethnic chinese are better merchants in comparison with the natives; they often regarded as ‘natural’ in the commercial business field. figure 1 the dialog between amiauw and kuncoro a different version of the stereotypes that the chinese are more capable in business is presented during the dialog between yohan (koh afuk’s eldest son) and his friends while they are playing cards. vincent : what’s wrong with you? why the gloomy face? take it easy, winning or losing is not a big deal. relax. yohan : my father wants to retire. vincent : that’s good. it means you will get an inheritance. aloy : wait a second. please don’t say the one who will inherit the shop is … aming : erwin, han? vincent : well, i don’t agree with that. you are the oldest, you have more right. (aming and aloy tell vincent to shut up) vincent : it’s true, isn’t it? he is the oldest. aming : let it go, han. just let erwin handle the shop. what does he know about it? he will probably just mess it up. vincent : no matter what, even though you become poor chinese without any shops, we will still be your friends. here vincent’s remark implies that the chinese without a shop are stereotypically poor. it implicitly states that the chinese are only capable of becoming merchants. if they do not become merchants, they will be poor. of course, 131hybridity in action and crossing.... (budi kurniawan) cek toko sebelah is quick to counter this stereotype, as it is shown that both erwin (koh afuk’s second son) and yohan are capable in fields other than running shops. although the superiority of the chinese in business, it implies that they should be disliked by pribumi. later it is shown that the relationship of koh afuk and pak nandar is going well. koh afuk is later forced to sell his shop due to his health condition and because his son erwin (played by ernest prakasa) rejects to inherit the shop (he chooses to pursue his own dream of working overseas instead). the humorous dialog which occurs between koh afuk and his neighbor, pak nandar, after koh afuk decides to sell his shop indicates the friendship, a sense of respect and tolerance between these two persons of different ethnicities. pak nandar : koh afuk, we are the ones left who still haven’t sold our shops. if you do this, i will lose a friend. besides, doesn’t koh afuk feel sorry for those small stalls? our customers, they must go very far to the main market. koh afuk : i already signed the purchase contract. pak nandar : oh no. koh afuk : pak nandar, i entrust my customers to you, including bu wilda. pak nandar : oh no. please drink, koh afuk, and have the cakes. koh afuk : this is my house. pak nandar : oh no. (pak nandar feeds a piece of cake to koh afuk’s mouth.) this dialog also presents a counter-stereotype of pribumi. the indonesian natives are often stereotyped by the chinese as lazy (hoon, 2011). however, here, the picture is different. pak nandar has the chance to dominate business when koh afuk sells his shop. instead, he is sympathetic toward koh afuk and does not show any sign of happiness. this implies that pak nandar does not just merely welcome his ‘upper-handedness’ following the closure of koh afuk’s shop, i.e., being lazy, but he is still willing to compete with koh afuk to open their shops for business together. beyond this, it can be known that there actually exists a good relationship between the two different ethnicities, and also the two people who are supposed to be competing with each other. another counter-stereotype presented in the film ngenest is when meira’s father stereotypes the chinese as an ‘economic animal’ who preys on the pribumi because of his own experience being conned by the chinese in the past. meira’s father : please listen. it is enough for myself to be disappointed by them. don’t let them disappoint you. meira : dad, you cannot be like this. you cannot generalize. you were bankrupt because the chinese cheated you, but this doesn’t mean all chinese are swindlers. meira’s father : aaah you know nothing. ......... meira’s mother : (pointing at the newspaper meira’s father currently reading) dad, is this not your college friend, your senior? meira’s father : yes, arrested for corruption. humiliating for the sundanese. meira : dad, doesn’t it mean all of sundanese are corruptors? meira’s father : (retorts) eeeh, you can’t generalize it. meira : yes, it’s correct dad. it cannot be generalized. just can’t. does it, mom? meira’s mother : (nodding in agreement) this is a counter-stereotype directed that challenges the ethnic chinese materialistic and corrupt image, by pointing out that other ethnicities are also able to be corrupt and materialistic, not just the chinese. additional counter-stereotype, or probably more accurately defined as a ‘balancing remark’ on inter-ethnic tension, is presented in the dialog of ernest and patrick when ernest describes the father of his chinese girlfriend (who recently broke up with him) to patrick. ernest : actually, his car (his girlfriend’s father’s car) just hit a motorbike. her dad cursed his driver, you know. he said, tiko, cibai! (these are rude curse words toward the natives) patrick : luxurious house, garbage mouth. here the racist derogatory terms are aimed at the pribumi by the chinese. this reflects the reality, where in fact the racial insults do not only derive from the pribumi and are directed at the chinese, but also vice versa. this is one dynamic of inter-ethnic relations accentuated in the film. related to ethnicities and nation, it is worthy to note that both ngenest and cek toko sebelah do not articulate any notions about indonesia as a nation in general. maybe it is just because the filmmakers assume that the indonesian audiences will already be familiar with the historical context and settings of the films. perhaps, these discourses about nationals are not as urgent anymore. the absence of this national identity offers a fresh outlook for the lives of chinese indonesians nowadays. as setijadi (2013) has pointed, it is time to relieve people of the ethno-nationalist framework, which shadows the image of chinese indonesians in public media. in terms of developing peace in the nation, it may be ironically more useful to abandon the nationalist conception altogether and to analyze the banal relationship between chinese indonesians and their pribumi counterparts instead. in this regard, in terms of stereotyping, the ethnic chinese are often regarded as un-nationalistic and disloyal to the indonesian state. the missing discourse about the indonesian nation and state in both films suggests that these common stereotypes that understand ethnic chinese as outsiders or people belonging to a foreign country are no longer relevant. although these stereotypes are still prevalent in society (as shown by identity politics which sometimes target and question the loyalty of the chinese to the state), these things are barely pertinent in daily lives of indonesians. it should be highlighted that the omission 132 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 127-135 of the articulation of national identity is in contrast with the multiethnic relations that both films portray. both ngenest and cek toko sebelah present pretty diverse ethnicities, which can be noted from their dialects, for instance bataknese (bu hilda, a customer of koh afuk’s shop; and ernest’s boss), eastern indonesian (vincent, a friend of yohan; joni, a hotel room boy; an obstetricians in ngenest), madura (a shopkeeper in ngenest), and also betawi, sundanese, varied javanese, along with the chinese indonesians. ernest prakasa, the author of both films, may have represented the values or ideals of contemporary chinese indonesians younger generations that is to have multicultural, hybrid, and more cosmopolitan orientations. in reality, the younger indonesian people indeed are practicing interethnic socializing in their everyday lives (parker, hoon, & raihani, 2014). it also does not necessarily mean that the chinese are less nationalist because, in his book, prakasa emphasizes that as an indonesian citizen, his preference is to be more fluent in the indonesian language instead of mandarin (prakasa, 2015). furthermore, as crul and lelie (2019) have concluded in their research, occupational characteristics determine the perception towards cultural diversity. prakasa, who works in the creative industry as writer, director, and actor, fits the category of occupational characteristics that crul and lelie (2019) describe as perceiving cultural diversity as enriching. regarding notions of nation and history, it is interesting to analyze the scene when ernest’s bullying friends finally apologize to him (when he graduated from junior high school, and after the sequence when ernest tried to blend in with his friends by dressing as punk and attending a punk concert with them) that can be seen in figure 2. this apologizing scene during his graduation can be symbolically interpreted as the turning point in indonesia’s history during the demise of the new order and the beginning of the reform era in 1998. this also marks the turning point for chinese indonesians, who are able to express the chinese language and culture freely again. blending in as punk also signifies ernest’s efforts to socialize and to be accepted by his pribumi friends, which is rewarded with this reconciliation. figure 2 ernest’s bullying friends apologize to him on his junior high school graduation the bullying in the film does not stop from here, though, as later a dialog at the chinese new year celebration between ernest and his relative clearly shows evidence of bullying. ernest is also depicted as worried about his future children and decides to cut this bullying chain once and for all. this can also be symbolically interpreted that the tension between chinese indonesians and the pribumi still presents today, also as the worry of chinese indonesians that the antichinese riots may happen again. the reconciliation between ernest and his bullying friends is further emphasized when they all attend his wedding and congratulate him earnestly, like close friends (figure 3). these scenes may also be interpreted symbolically as a prelude into more ‘everyday’ inter-ethnic relationships that normally happen in cek toko sebelah. figure 3 ernest’s bullying friends congratulate him on his marriage the third is inter-ethnic marriage and crossing ethnic boundaries. both ngenest and cek toko sebelah present inter-ethnic husband and wife couples who are chinese indonesian and pribumi; the ernest-meira couple in ngenest, and yohan-ayu couple in cek toko sebelah. ernest and meira are clearly inspired by ernest prakasa and his wife, meira anastasia. meanwhile, yohan and ayu are also created by prakasa as a dashing version of him and meira in real life (prakasa, 2017). thus, both couples in the films are an expression of prakasa’s own inter-ethnic marriage. hoon (2011) has described that inter-ethnic romance “requires compromise on the difference in race, class, and religion–the three key markers of difference between chinese and pribumi”. however, in terms of hybridity, inter-ethnic marriage is indeed a site for development and articulation of hybrid identity and blurring of boundaries between ethnic groups (van kerckem, van de putte, & stevens, 2014; luke & luke, 1999). hoon (2011) has also suggested that religion is one of the biggest obstacles for intermarriage between non-muslim chinese and muslim pribumi. recent research by jian (2017) has also indicated that religion “may be an important factor affecting ethnic intermarriage” (jian, 2017). the research of indonesian young people conducted by parker, hoon, and raihani (2014) also concludes that most students disagree or disagree strongly with inter-religious marriage. prakasa and his wife are both non-muslim (christians) (prakasa, 2015), as are ernest and meira in ngenest. prakasa himself admits that he is unwilling to have a complicated relationship due to different religions (prakasa, 2015). in the film ngenest, ernest also states the same reason, albeit in a more concrete form, which is his fear that his family will not give their blessing. yohan and ayu in cek toko sebelah are also portrayed as non-muslims. although not explicitly stated, there is a scene when yohan is playing cards with his friends, a picture with a bible verse quoted is 133hybridity in action and crossing.... (budi kurniawan) seen hung on the wall, and they chat about how this picture conflicts with their gambling, and they all pray together afterward in a christian way. ayu can be seen wearing a crucifix on a necklace, which indicates she is not a muslim. the family still serves as an important factor in deciding whether a marriage will be conducted. it is shown in both films, the negotiations and tensions between the family, and the corresponding person backgrounds the marriage. in ngenest, ernest’s parents are shocked after hearing of his resolution to marry a pribumi. however, this reaction lasts a short time and there is no sign of disagreement portrayed later. a more elaborate description is of meira’s family, especially her father, which is already discussed. meira’s father strongly disagrees at first at her becoming ernest’s girlfriend. however, in the end, they get married, and both families show their approval. a different reception is given by koh afuk for his son, yohan, and his daughter-in-law, ayu. the film indicates that koh afuk does not approve of their marriage, as it is felt by yohan, partly because yohan has a terrible past for not being a ‘good son’ like erwin. the film does not elaborate more, though, on why exactly koh afuk disapproves of this marriage. at the same time, this disapproval is also not explicitly shown, as the relationship between yohan-ayu and koh afuk seems normal from the outside. however, as the film resolves into conclusion, in the end, koh afuk apologizes for his treatment toward yohan and ayu, and they reconcile. it is interesting to explore the wedding reception of ernest and meira portrayed in ngenest. while prakasa explains that in his real life there are three wedding receptions held to accommodate the needs of both families with different traditions and the need of himself (prakasa, 2015), in the film the audience is presented only with one reception, the chinese style one. this chinese style reception is admitted by prakasa himself as the one he most loathes because of its complexities (prakasa, 2015). comparing the reception as displayed in the film and the reality of it in the book, it can be seen a blend of cultural signifying practices that negotiates between essentialized chineseness and the cosmopolitan aspirations of the younger chinese indonesians. as described by prakasa in the book, his parents prefer to have a chinese wedding. first, he notes the venue of the reception, which is deemed very chinese by him, as it is very commonly used by ethnic chinese as a wedding reception venue (prakasa, 2015). in the film, however, there is no explanation of the venue, which does not exemplify a traditional chinese venue. prakasa in the book highlights the name of a bihun (vermicelli) factory written on a decoration flower board congratulating his wedding (prakasa, 2015). clearly inspired by this anecdote, in the film, he continues to comically laugh off the various text on the flower board congratulating his wedding, even adding a delivery phone number of a shop sending the board on one of them. this demonstrates the ability to laugh off the stereotypes about the chinese as business-oriented merchants. the book also shows a different decoration for the wedding venue in the film. the decoration in real life, as described in the book, is more natural and not essentially chinese. however, in the film, the audience is presented with a red background and more chinese elements in the decoration, as shown in figure 3. the rituals conducted at a chinese wedding ceremony (the te pai, as written in the book) are described in quite significant detail, with some pictures in the book, but these are missing from the film. another interesting point is the use of chinese songs during the reception. the film clearly displays the disapproval by ernest of his parents’ request of the master of ceremony performing chinese songs. though, in the book, there is a similar description of this master of ceremony singing chinese songs in ernest’s disgust. based on these observations, it can be said that there are negotiations going on between the spirit of essentialized chineseness and the more modern, universal cosmopolitan outlook of the chinese youth. this, in turn, elaborately describes the heterogeneous nature of chineseness, and also a hybridized version of articulation of chineseness, which takes the globalization and cosmopolitanism into account. in terms of the relationship between husband and wife, both ngenest and cek toko sebelah present a harmonious picture of an inter-ethnic family. this is more obviously felt in cek toko sebelah, where ayu seems to play a more important role as a supporter for yohan, calming him down every time he encounters conflicts. while in ngenest, the concern of the main storyline is about the hesitation of ernest in having a child, conflict occurs between him and meira, as meira is eager to have a child. however, this is resolved in the end. in this regard, ethnic boundaries seem to be dissolved in this inter-ethnic marriage, but it is not lost since the negotiations between articulations of identity are still ongoing. take for example, how yohan addresses ayu ‘mbak yu’, and ayu addresses yohan ‘ko han’. here the boundary clearly exists, as the way they address each other is ethnically bonded. as a factor in the transformative process of chinese ethnicity into a hybridized chinese-indonesian identity, race still plays an important role in determining others and shaping stereotypes. on the other hand, the dissolving of two races into a marriage will also play a crucial role in this ongoing negotiation between races and ethnicities in a new culture of chinese indonesians. the dynamics between the inter-ethnic couples in the film show this transformative process. quite different from ngenest, the cek toko sebelah film is not actually concerned with chineseness in general. the theme of the story is more universal. it only uses the common phenomenon that occurred in indonesia due to the discriminative policy of new order that is the tendency of the chinese to become merchants. as the reformed era progresses (although not explicitly stated in the film, but it can be inferred from the remark about 1998 by amiauw), more fields are open for the chinese to embark on their careers. this can be seen from the choice of career of erwin and yohan, who are not to be merchants like their fathers. because of the nature of the non-chinese-related theme presented, cek toko sebelah instead can explore more freely the inter-ethnic relationships that may or may not reflect indonesian society nowadays. nevertheless, the hybridity is put to practice by the crossing of ethnic boundaries during these relationships. it is resonantly felt that the world in cek toko sebelah is an ideal, utopic version of indonesian society where inter-ethnic relationships prosper, in contrast with ngenest, where inter-ethnic bullying often occurs, and the story focuses more on ernest and patrick relationship. the ‘ideal’ version of ethnic chinese with hybridity in action in terms of crossing ethnic boundaries is manifested in the character of koh afuk. aside from his mutual respect with pak nandar, his competitor, koh afuk builds many close inter-ethnic relationships. for example, he asks pak haji to go fishing together, he gives candies to pribumi kids, 134 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 127-135 he lets his customer pay later for goods, and he seems to have a harmonious relationship with his employees (figure 4). all of this is a huge counter-stereotype to the image of a stingy and exclusive chinese individual. in fact, koh afuk very rarely displays his chineseness or any aspects related to ethnicity, except for his name, which sounds chinese, and his occasional uses of the chinese language. this hybridized chineseness preserves a distinct element of chineseness (occasional use of mandarin), but it mainly expresses a native-oriented outlook in everyday relationships with the indonesian natives. this kind of hybrid identity makes the boundary crossing possible. although this version of chineseness seems like a utopic ideal, in reality, it does exist, such as written in anshori et al. (2018), where some pribumi describe these ‘ideal’ chinese which they have met during their lifetime. figure 4 interaction between koh afuk and pak haji as many people have witnessed lately that the ethnic tension surrounding the ethnic chinese has progressively subsided, as opposed to the rise of inter-religion tension and the use of religion as identity politics in indonesia, both films still shy away from touching these sensitive topics. the inter-ethnic marriage portrayed in both films is a clear indication, as they both present the same religion marriages. while it can be identified hybrid ethnicities in the films that there are no signs of any discourse on religion, let alone the hybrid version of it. hoon (2017) has shown that the concept of ‘religious pluralism’ has contested understandings, and proposes ‘religious multiculturalism’ instead (hoon, 2017). therefore more efforts are still needed to broaden the concept of multiculturalism into religion area. it seems that it will be a great challenge to be open and exemplify inter-religion interactions through films in future indonesian cinema. figure 5 ngenest ending scene figure 6 cek toko sebelah ending scene nevertheless, as both films similarly portray in their ending scenes, all the main characters with various ethnicities appear and interact closely in a warm atmosphere. it seems then; these endings are the notion of an ideal state of indonesia in terms of its rich ethnic groups present (figure 5 and figure 6). just as wei, pillai, and liu (2018) show in their research on the flourishing inter-ethnic dialogue and engagements portrayed in the ‘golden era’ of the malaysian film industry in the 1950s and 1960s. indonesian of course can also expect more indonesian films similarly celebrating multiethnic indonesia in the future. conclusions this research draws on the concept of hybridity as an approach to analyzing the films ngenest and cek toko sebelah, where both films show a hybrid version of chinese identity which makes the ethnic boundaries to be crossed and less rigid. in the meantime, although stereotypes cannot be evaded and erased, the films also present some counterstereotyping to promote a clearer understanding between ethnic groups. as the popularity of both films is confirmed in the positive reception of the indonesian public, this fresh outlook of chinese indonesians should have a useful influence in shaping the perception of the public towards them. for future research, it will be useful to compare the chinese themed films directed by chinese indonesians with the ones directed by indonesian natives. the different perspectives gained will provide broader insights and deeper understandings on chinese indonesians life and identity, and the dynamics of their relations with indonesian natives. references anshori, a., parengkuh, a., budiprabowo, k., widiadi, p., tan, p., & efferin, s. 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(2016). penerimaan penonton terhadap diskriminasi etnis tionghoa dalam film “ngenest”. e-komunikasi, 4(1), 1–12. 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 efektivitas pendekatan komunikatif pada mata kuliah menyimak dan berbicara ii timur sri astami; rosita ningrum; felicia budihardja japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan-palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 timur_astami@yahoo.com; ningrum@binus.edu; fbudihardja@binus.edu abstract the previous research on communicative approach in language learning stated that there was a correlation between speaking and writing abilities, in which both of them belong to productive skill. by presenting effective results, the students’ speaking skills could be developed. based on that previous result, this research was focused on between the receptive and productive knowledge, those were listening and speaking, especially on the respondents who were the beginners to know to what extent the level of their speaking competences. the research applied quasi experiment method without having control class to describe a learning process by applying communicative approach. respondents were the second semester of japanese department students, year 2012/2013. the research data was taken twice, in the pre-test and post-test time, as well as questionnaires to know the respondents’ results on the learning process. the results indicated that the average increase of class respondents’ achievement was 16.31 point, that was from 66.84 of pre-test score into 83.15 scores for the post-test. questionnaires were used to know the students’ comments on the speaking class using communicative approach. it can be concluded that the results of speaking class using communicative approach is proven to be effective to develop beginner respondents’ ability to speak. keywords: communicative approach, listening class, speaking class, japanese language abstrak hasil penelitian pendahuluan yang berkaitan dengan pendekatan komunikatif pada pembelajaran bahasa menunjukkan bahwa terdapat korelasi antara kemampuan berbicara dan menulis yang keduanya merupakan kemahiran bersifat produktif, dengan menunjukkan hasil efektif dapat meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam berbicara lebih produktif. sehubungan dengan hal tersebut, dalam penelitian ini difokuskan antara kemampuan yang bersifat reseptif dan produktif, yakni kemampuan menyimak dan berbicara khususnya pada responden tingkat dasar awal untuk mengetahui sejauh mana kompetensi responden secara lisan. adapun metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kuasi eksperimen tanpa adanya kelas kontrol. hal ini dimaksudkan untuk mendeskripsikan proses pembelajaran dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif. responden adalah mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang semester dua tahun ajaran 2013/2013. data diambil dengan menggunakan dua cara yakni pre-test dan post-test serta angket untuk mengetahui hasil responden terhadap pembelajaran tersebut. selanjutnya penelitian ini memperoleh bahwa responden mengalami kenaikan rata-rata kelas sebesar 16,31 point, dari nilai pre-test sebesar 66,84 menjadi 83,15 untuk nilai post-test. untuk menguatkan hasil tes digunakan angket yakni untuk mengetahui tanggapan responden terhadap pembelajaran percakapan yang menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif. hasil penelitian pembelajaran percakapan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif terbukti efektif meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara responden tingkat dasar awal. kata kunci: pendekatan komunikatif, menyimak, berbicara, bahasa jepang 103efektivitas pendekatan komunikatif ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) pendahuluan mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan terdiri dari dua keterampilan bahasa yang bersifat reseptif dan produktif. hasil penelitian terdahulu (supriatnoko, 1990) yang berkaitan dengan pendekatan komunikatif dalam pembelajaran bahasa menunjukkan bahwa terdapat korelasi antara kemampuan berbicara dan menulis yang keduanya merupakan kemahiran bersifat produktif. pada jurusan bahasa dan budaya jepang, kedua keterampilan berbahasa tersebut tergabung ke dalam satu mata kuliah yang tidak dipisahkan secara mandiri, namun dilaksanakan secara integratif. percakapan merupakan salah satu komponen keterampilan berbahasa yang bersifat produktif. keterampilan tersebut akan dapat berjalan dengan baik jika didukung dengan keterampilan yang bersifat reseptif seperti mendengar dan membaca. percakapan yang baik tentunya harus memenuhi kaidah kebahasaan, secara struktur maupun makna, serta situasi tutur seperti pembicara, lawan bicara, tujuan, dan lain-lain. berdasarkan hasil pengamatan peneliti yang pernah mengampu mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan ii, diperlukan penambahan materi yang berbasis pada kompetensi komunikatif. selain itu, dalam website jf nihongo kyouiku standaado disebutkan tingkatan kompetensi yang merujuk pada standar bahasa setingkat cefr yang digunakan di eropa. maka dari itu, salah satu indikator kompetensi lisan tingkat dasar adalah a1. komponen tersebut adalah mampu melakukan percakapan sederhana, perlahan dan diulang-ulang, mengganti ungkapan, memberi bantuan, mampu bertanya jawab mengenai hal penting, dan dengan menggunakan topik sehari-hari. dengan demikian, di dalam penelitian dibuat pengembangan materi dari renshuu c menjadi sebuah dialog kaiwa pada tiap pertemuan guna mendukung pencapaian target kompetensi komunikatif responden. selain itu, komponen pendukung lain diperlukan juga, seperti strategi yang berkaitan dalam proses pembelajaran yang mendukung pencapaian target pada mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan ii. tujuan penelitian ini adalah mendeskripsikan model pembelajaran yang menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif, khususnya pada mata kuliah percakapan. hal ini dilakukan karena tolok ukur kemahiran berbicara, yang merupakan kemampuan yang bersifat produktif, sulit diukur dengan nilai. selain itu, materi yang merujuk pada kemampuan untuk dapat berkomunikasi secara aktif dengan memberikan teknik pembelajaran dengan mengisi rumpang (prefabricated pattern) pada model percakapan. hal ini dimaksudkan agar pembelajar dapat melakukan tindakan nyata dan terbiasa untuk menggunakan imitasi dan menghafal sebagai strategi dalam berkomunikasi lebih aktif. metode penelitian metode penelitian ini adalah penggabungan pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif. secara kualitatif diambil untuk pendeskripsian yang penuh tentang pendekatan komunikatif. sedangkan secara kuantitatif, data yang diperoleh akan dihitung secara statistik guna mengukur keberhasilan pendekatan komunikatif secara objektif. jenis penelitian yang diambil adalah eksperimen, yang merupakan metode yang paling produktif untuk menjawab hipotesis dan membangun hubungan yang mengandung fenomena sebab akibat (causal-effect relationship) (sukardi dalam endraswara, 2009). model eksperimen yang dipilih adalah kuasi eksperimen dengan desain pre-test dan post-test. untuk memperkuat data, digunakan angket untuk melihat respons dan manfaat pendekatan komunikatif pada hasil belajar. hasil dan pembahasan tiap individu pembelajar adalah unik yang tidak sama satu dengan yang lain. oleh karena itu, di dalam proses belajar dalam kelas reguler diperlukan cara untuk mengembangkan strategi pembelajar, yaitu dengan menciptakan latihan tambahan. agar pembelajar lebih terampil dengan aspek yang diminati, maka perlu dilakukan dorongan agar mereka dapat menemukan cara terbaik dalam belajar. kegiatan ini dapat dimulai dengan menentukan jenis materi yang akan digunakan dan apa yang diharapkan untuk dapat dikuasai oleh pembelajar. pendekatan komunikatif dimensi pembelajaran bahasa asing sebagai bahasa kedua, khususnya bahasa jepang, tentunya tak lepas dari ketepatan dalam menggunakan kaidah bahasa sasaran bahasa kedua. oleh karena itu, diperlukan suatu strategi yang tepat agar proses pembelajaran dapat berjalan baik. salah satu metode pembelajaran yang membangun dan menggali kemampuan seseorang berbahasa asing setingkat dengan kemampuan penutur asli adalah pembelajaran dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif. strategi komunikatif menurut canale dan swain dalam sukamto dan dardjowidjoyo (2008:646) adalah penguasaan secara naluri yang dipunyai seorang penutur asli untuk menggunakan dan memahami bahasa secara wajar dalam proses berkomunikasi atau berinteraksi. sedangkan hymes menyebutkan penggunaan bahasa berhubungan dengan konteks sosial. membicarakan pembelajaran bahasa yang menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam berkomunikasi, menekankan pembinaan dan pengembangan kemampuan komunikatif mahasiswa dalam situasi keseharian. berdasarkan tujuan tersebut maka tujuan pembelajaran bahasa diarahkan untuk (1) mengembangkan kompetensi komunikatif sehingga dapat berkomunikasi dalam berbagai situasi dan konteks dan (2) mampu mendukung dan meningkatkan kemahiran bahasa yang lain seperti menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. selain itu ditinjau dari segi materi hendaknya materi ajar terdiri dari (a) empat keterampilan berbahasa, (b) penggunaan fungsi bahasa yang diperlukan seperti ungkapan meminta tolong, permohonan; menjelaskan tentang aktivitas, informasi, petunjuk atau cara, pendapat, bentuk larangan, dan pengandaian, (c) penggunaan variasi bahasa baik formal ataupun nonformal, dan (d) sistem bahasa yang berupa struktur, kosakata, ejaan, dsb. adapun penerapan pendekatan komunikatif sepenuhnya dilakukan oleh mahasiswa itu sendiri (student centered learning). sedangkan pengajar hanya berfungsi 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 sebagai fasilitator. dengan demikian, diharapkan siswa mampu berbicara dengan baik. indikator penelitian adalah siswa akan mampu bercerita, menanggapi masalah, dan mengungkapkan pendapat secara lisan dengan bahasa yang runtut dan mudah dipahami. jessup dalam wachidah (2004) mengungkapkan bahwa pembelajaran yang berlandaskan komunikatif mengacu pada dua prinsip. pertama, prinsip komunikasi, yaitu kegiatan yang melibatkan komunikasi nyata mampu mengembangkan proses pembelajaran; > kedua, prinsip tugas, yaitu kegiatan menggunakan bahasa untuk melaksanakan tugas yang mampu mengembangkan proses pembelajaran. berdasarkan prinsip tersebut, materi pembelajaran bahasa hendaknya dapat diterapkan melalui metode permainan, simulasi, bermain peran, dan komunikasi pasangan. mengajar menggunakan teknik bermain peran (role play) adalah teknik mengajar yang bertujuan untuk melatih mahasiswa dalam mengembangkan kemampuan dengan melihat suatu masalah dari pandangan orang lain. role play adalah permainan drama yang diperankan oleh dua orang atau lebih, berupa peran yang berbeda-beda, dalam suatu keadaan tertentu. pada pembelajaran bahasa yang terdiri dari kemampuan yang bersifat reseptif dan produktif—khususnya percakapan—merupakan salah satu bentuk kemahiran yang bersifat produktif. tolok ukur dalam menilai kemampuan lisan yakni dengan cara menggunakan role play atau biasa disebut dengan bermain peran. menurut hamalik (1998:20) role play bertujuan untuk (a) belajar berbuat, yakni pembelajar melakukan peran tertentu sesuai dengan kenyataan sesungguhnya berupa mengembankan keterampilan interaktif dan reaktif, (b) belajar melalui peniruan dengan menyamakan diri sebagai pelaku dan tingkah pemeran, (c) untuk belajar melalui balikan, (d) untuk belajar melalui pengkajian, penilaian dan pengulangan. analisis data dilakukan untuk (1) menggambarkan proses pembelajaran dengan mengggunakan pendekatan komunikatif pada mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan ii khususnya pada mata kuliah percakapan, (2) mengetahui tanggapan mahasiswa terhadap penggunaan pendekatan komunikatif pada mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan ii. analisis dilakukan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan pada kurun waktu periode satu semester terhadap mahasiswa ubinus pada mata kuliah percakapan dan menyimak ii tahun ajaran 2012/2013. materi ajar yang digunakan selama penelitian ini sesuai dengan silabus yang terdapat di binus maya yakni, mulai dari pelajaran 14 sampai 25, dari minggu 1 hingga minggu ke 12. tabel 1 merupakan rincian materi beserta target komunikasi yang diharapkan pada tiap pertemuan. tabel 1 rincian materi ajar dan target komunikasi bab tema percakapan target komunikasi 14 梅田まで行ってください dapat mengungkapkan bentuk minta tolong. 15 ご家族は? dapat mengungkapkan bentuk permohonan. 16 使い方を教えてください dapat mengungkapkan urutan kegiatan, cara, maupun petunjuk 17 どうしましたか dapat mengungkapkan bentuk larangan 18 趣味は何ですか dapat mengungkapkan kemampuan yang berkaitan dengan kondisi atau benda. 19 ダイエットはあしたからします dapat mengungkapkan pengalaman di masa lalu. 20 夏休みはどうするの dapat mengungkapkan bentuk kalimat ajakan. 21 私もそう思います dapat mengungkapkan pikiran maupun pendapat mengenai suatu hal. 22 どんなアパートがいいですか dapat mengungkapkan suatu informasi. 23 どうやって行きますか dapat mengungkapkan suatu aktivitas dan informasi. 24 手伝ってくれますか dapat mengungkapkan bentuk permohonan. 25 いろいろお世話になりました dapat mengungkapkan bentuk pengandaian. 105efektivitas pendekatan komunikatif ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan selama satu semester, maka diperoleh grafik nilai ke-25 responden berdasarkan nilai rata-rata tiap responden pada saat predan post-test, seperti pada gambar 1. gambar 1 nilai pre-test dan post-test responden jika dipersentasekan secara keseluruhan, nilai rata-rata ke-25 responden pada nilai pre-test dan post-test adalah seperti gambar 2. gambar 2 kenaikan rata-rata kelas pada pre-tes dan post-test gambar 2 menunjukkan kenaikan nilai rata-rata kelas sebesar 16,31 poin dari nilai pre-test sebesar 66,84 menjadi 83,15 untuk nilai post-test. metode belajar belajar mudah dilakukan apabila memiliki metode yang mampu mengorganisasi pikiran, sikap, dan perbuatan untuk mengarahkan dan menggiatkan tahapan proses belajar secara berstruktur dan sistematis. hal tersebut memberikan pengaruh positif bagi pembelajar itu sendiri. responden dapat dapat menggunakan ungkapan meminta tolong, permohonan, menjelaskan tentang aktivitas, informasi, petunjuk atau cara, pendapat, bentuk larangan, dan pengandaian. selain itu, penggunaan role play sebagai salah satu cara penilaian memiliki kelebihan dengan adanya komunikasi gap, bisa dengan formal, pemilihan ungkapan sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi. hasil angket jawaban responden mengenai metode yang digunakan pada kelas percakapan dan menyimak dan manfaat yang diperoleh responden selama mengikuti kelas adalah pada gambar 3. gambar 3 angket jawaban responden tentang metode yang digunakan berdasarkan hasil angket sebanyak 80% responden menyatakan metode dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif yang diterapkan cukup bagus. dengan perincian: 40% menjawab sangat bagus, 40% bagus, dan 20% menyatakan biasa saja dalam mengikuti perkuliahan percakapan ii. selanjutnya manfaat yang diperoleh responden terbagi ke dalam kategori secara verbal dan non-verbal dapat dilihat pada gambar 4 dan gambar 5. gambar 4 menunjukkan bahwa aspek verbal (bahasa) responden mengalami peningkatan mulai dari pelafalan hingga ketepatan sasaran pembicaraan sebagai berikut. sebanyak 50,1% responden sangat terbantu dalam hal pelafalan; 16,6% penggunaan tekanan; sebesar 16,6% terlatih dalam menggunakan nada yang sesuai; 8,3% dapat menggunakan pilihan kata yang sesuai; 8,3% sesuai dengan ketepatan sasaran pembicaraan. gambar 4 manfaat verbal bagi responden gambar 5 menunjukkan bahwa pada aspek nonverbal responden menjawab jika mereka mengalami peningkatan dalam hal penalaran hingga dapat bersuara jelas atau nyaring. peningkatan yang paling besar berupa: 43,4% mampu menalar dengan baik; 34,7% terbantu dalam menguasai topik; 4,38% mampu bersikap sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi; 4,38% dapat berinteraksi secara kontak mata dengan lawan bicara; 4,38% dapat menghargai pendapat orang lain; 4,38% mampu menempatkan gesture dengan tepat; 4,38% berani untuk bersuara jelas atau nyaring. gambar 5 manfaat dari aspek non-verbal hasil model percakapan yang telah dibuat responden selama kurun waktu satu semester yang terdiri dari hajimari, youken, dan owari dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif ditunjukkan dalam tabel 2. 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 tabel 2 model percakapan yang dibuat responden bab 始まり 用件 終わり その他 14 あのう~さん、 ~を貸してください ~を書いてください ~を手伝ってください お願いします ありがとう ございます meminta tolong untuk meminjamkan benda, menuliskan, membantu 15 あのう~さん、 ~をもらってもいいですか ~をみてもいいですか ~をもって行ってもいいですか ~をかりてもいいですか ~そうでうか meminta izin meminjam suatu benda 16 あのう~さん、 ~を見て、~押して、それから~出ます ~を煮て、~を入れて、それから出来上がります ~を決めて、~を書いて、それから~します ~をつけて、~を選んで、それから~します ~を洗って、~をだして、それから~します ~を押して、~をさして、それから~します ~を買って、~に乗って、それから~降ります ~を使って、~を確認してそれから~します ~を洗って、~を押して、それから~待ちます ~を入れて、~を混ぜて、  そうですね menjelaskan urutan mengoperasikan suatu alat, membuat masakan, naik kendaraan, 17 あのう~さん、 ~を使わないでください ~を見ないでください ~へ行かないでください ~をつけないでください はい、わかりました。ありがと うございました。 melarang tidak memakai alat, kondisi, mengoperasikan alat 18 あのう~さん、 ~を弾くことができます ~をすることができます ~をうたうことができます ~を撮ることができます ~踊ることができます ~を書くことができます ~を読むことができます ~を買うことができます ~を見ることができます ~インターネットができます ~を作ることができます ああ、すごい ですね menerangkan bisa atau tidaknya suatu alat, benda 19 あのう~さん、 ~を食べたことがあります ~したことがあります ~を見たことがあります ~に乗ったことがあります ~で泳いだことがあります ~やってみたことがあります ~行ったことがあります ~を作ったことがあります ~踊ったことがあります そうですか。 いいですね memperoleh pengalaman berkaitan dengan aktivitas, tempat 20 あのう~さん、 ~行かない ~食べたことある ~好き ~参加したい ~見ようか うん、またね じゃ、また menyatakan bentuk informal ajakan, menceritakan pengalaman/ kegemaran/ keinginan 21 あのう~さん、 ~けど、ちょっと高いと思う ~けど、安かったと思う ~けど、面白かったと思う ~けど、難しくなると思う ~けど、中国はちょっと… ~けど、暑いと思う ~けど、近いと思う そうか いいね menyatakan ungkapan berupa pikiran maupun pendapat mengenai suatu hal 22 あのう~さん、 ~ている人 ~するスポーツ ~買ったパソコン ~撮った写真 ~作ったセーター ~もらったかばん ~買った物 じゃね いいね どうも そうですか。 いいですね うん ありがとう ございます ありがとう ございます menyatakan ungkapan berupa suatu informasi 23 ~さん、こんにちは ~さん、おはようございます あのうすみません… ~歩くと、そこにネットカ フェがあります ~押すと、チャージができます ~回すと、大きくなります ~曲がると、公園があります ~引くと、動きますよ わかりました。ありがとう ございます menyatakan ungkapan berupa suatu aktivitas dan informasi 24 ~さん、こんにちは ~さん、おはようございます ~手伝ってくれますから ~作ってもらいました ~作ってあげます ~つれて行ってくれました ~買ってくれました ~貸してもらいました ~ガイドしてくれました ~送ってもらいました ありがとうございます そうですか。いいですねありが とうございますそうですか。い いですねありがとうございま すそうですか。いいですねそ うですか。 いいですね menyatakan ungkapan permohonan 107efektivitas pendekatan komunikatif ….. (timur sri astami; dkk) simpulan berdasarkan analisis maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa kelebihan dalam penelitian dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif adalah responden terbantu dalam menyelami suatu masalah; memperoleh pengalaman yang terdapat pada orang lain; bertambah rasa percaya diri sehingga dapat meningkatkan kemampuan baik secara verbal maupun non-verbal; dapat berbicara sesuai dengan target komunikasi pada tiap pertemuan yakni ungkapan meminta tolong, permohonan (menjelaskan tentang aktivitas, informasi,petunjuk atau cara,pendapat), bentuk larangan, dan pengandaian; dapat menerapkan penggunaan hajimari, youken dan owari (kalimat pembuka, isi dan kalimat penutup). hajimari berupa 挨拶、あのうすみません、youken yakni ungkapan meminta tolong, permohonan, (menjelaskan tentang aktivitas, informasi,petunjuk atau cara,pendapat), bentuk larangan, dan pengandaian dan owari yakni 分かりまし た、ありがとうございました、そうですか、いいで すね. sedangkan kekurangan pada penelitian ini adalah penelitian membutuhkan banyak waktu untuk mempersiapkan materi ajar pada tiap pertemuan; pengampu mata kuliah harus memiliki ide yang luas agar materi dapat tersampaikan dengan baik; kadangkala ada kecenderungan responden ketika diberi tugas membuat percakapan dengan menggunakan kartu role play, mereka tidak senang memerankan sesuatu atau kesulitan dalam memerankan. beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam penelitian adalah pertama, dengan menggunakan model percakapan pada renshuu c yang merupakan pola kalimat pendek, responden dapat mengembangkan menjadi model percakapan lengkap yang terdiri dari hajimari, youken, dan owari atau pembukaan, isi, dan penutup. kedua, target komunikasi yang diharapkan pada tiap pertemuan dapat tercapai dengan baik, yakni responden dapat menggunakan ungkapan meminta tolong, permohonan, menjelaskan tentang aktivitas, informasi, petunjuk atau cara, pendapat, bentuk larangan, dan pengandaian. ketiga, agar mendapatkan hasil maksimal, pembelajaran dengan menggunakan pendekatan komunikatif dapat diterapkan pada ketiga kemahiran bahasa yang lain, yakni mendengar, membaca, dan menulis. daftar pustaka akito, o. (2012). kaiwa kyouiku no shirabasu to gakushuukatsudou. prosiding seminar internasional pendidikan bahasa jepang, “improving the competence of conversation skill in learning japanese language in secondary and higher education in indonesia”. bali, 21–22 september 2012 endraswara, s. (2009). metodologi penelitian foklor. yogyakarta: medpress. hamalik, o. (1998). sumbangsih: jurnal penelitian uns, 4(2). japan foundation nihongo kyoujuhou shirizu 6. (2007). hanasu koto wo oshieru.tokyo. japan foundation nihongo kyoujuhou shirizu 5. (2008). kiku koto wo oshieru. tokyo. jf nihongo kyouiku standaado. (n.d.) kompetensi berbahasa jepang. diakses dari https://jfstandard. jp/cando/search/list/ja/render.do sukamto, k. e. dan dardjowidjoyo, s. (2008). kelana bahasa sang bahasawan. jakarta: atmajaya. supriatnoko. (1990). efektifitas pendekatan komunikatif pada pengajaran bahasa inggris terhadap kemampuan mahasiswa politeknik ui dalam berbahasa inggris produktif [abstrak]. laporan penelitian ui. diakses dari http://lontar.ui.ac.id/ opac/themes/libri2/abstrakpdf.jsp?id=77221 wachidah, s. (2004). pelbba 17: kurikulum berbasis kompetensi. jakarta: atmajaya. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 223 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 223-230 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5833 generic structure of tourism promotion website of madura natural wonders rosyida ekawati1; desi puspitasari2 english study program, university of trunojoyo madura jl. raya telang, bangkalan, jawa timur 69162, indonesia 1rosyida.ekawati@trunojoyo.ac.id; 2puspitasaridesi13@gmail.com received: 02nd august 2019/revised: 09th september 2019/accepted: 17th september 2019 how to cite: ekawati, r., & puspitasari, d. (2019). generic structure of tourism promotion website of madura natural wonders. lingua cultura, 13(3), 223-230. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5833 abstract the research examined a genre-based analysis of a tourism promotion website of natural wonders on the official website of sumenep regency. it used descriptive qualitative research. source of the data was the indonesian website of sumenep regency on five natural wonders: they were tourism destinations in gili iyang, gili labak, pantai badur, pantai lombang, and pantai slopeng. data collection was done by a classification of the move, step, and strategy that was proposed by huang on sentence-based using nvivo software. the findings yield from the proposed move and steps, and there are only four moves available compared to the proposed move and step. they comprise the move 1 headline, move 2 establishing credentials, move 3 directive information, move 4 soliciting response, and four steps in move 2 comprises step 1 introducing general situation, step 2 quoting literature, step 3 describing services or facilities, and step 4 describing critical attractions in the tourism promotion official website. the four moves found in official websites become obligatory because all moves are available in all contents of the tourism promotion website. the establishing credential move occupies the large portion of the website in giving information about the destination. move 2 steps 2 quoting literature and move four could be categorized into non-obligatory moves because of those moves only available in one of the tourism promotions in the official website of sumenep regency. keywords: tourism promotion, move analysis, promotion website, madura island, natural wonders introduction tourism is an essential part of the economic sectors in indonesia. according to the world travel & tourism council (wttc), in the past four years, this sector has experienced its rapid growth with an indicator of increasing tourist visits. this potential encourages each region to increase the promotion of tourism products and services in each region. there is also no exception to the promotion of tourism in madura island. madura island consists of four regencies, i.e., bangkalan, sampang, pamekasan, and sumenep. one of these four regencies, sumenep, could be categorized as the most famous tourist destination based on its number of domestic and international tourists who have visited it. concerning to the tourism promotion, there are various modes to promote any products and services for this industry. the use of promotion media nowadays could be billboards, books, magazines, leaflets, brochures, and the internet. these media offer promotional materials and activities with its goal to inform, persuade, convince, and stimulate various target audiences. conversely, in this global world, the internet becomes the most cost-effective and rapid way to promote tourism products and services all over the world (yaemwannang & pramoolsook, 2018). concerning the tourist attractions in each regency in madura, the government as the prominent stakeholder of tourism should actively inform, persuade, and remind the people to tourist destinations worth to visit through online media. tourism promotion is a prominent source of information for potential tourists (de los rios & hernandes, 2016). one of the primary promotional media for tourism is the use of government websites. they should be built effectively in order to foster the interest of tourists to visit tourist destinations. nowadays, websites of tourism destinations have been developed as an ideal communication medium for fast-delivering selected information; pervading tourism destination image; and promoting tourist destinations, attractions, products, and services. from that, it is important for the government to actively promote the intangible values and experiences to the target. besides the eye-catching and beautiful pictures, the contents posted on the websites need to include all information and features in an attractive and informative way. government of sumenep has its official website to inform any brief news, activities, and anything about 224 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 223-230 sumenep. one of the contents of the website is about tourism in sumenep. the official website is considered to provide accurate and brief information about tourism in sumenep regency. it is in line with fernandes-cavia & castro’s (2015) statement that of¬ficial websites are essential tools for image dissemination, brand promotion, and marketing of destinations. the structure and language used in tourism website can assist in constructing the destination’s image in the viewer or reader’s mind. to announce tourism destinations in sumenep to the public, the content of the tourism promotion website should have the right structural information in order to urge and convince readers to come to visit. according to bhatia (2005), a generic structure of advertisements usually consists of seven moves. they are: (1) establishing credentials, (2) introducing the offer with three steps i.e., offering the product or service, essential detailing of the offer, indicating value of the offer, (3) offering incentive, (4) enclosing documents, (5) soliciting response, (6) using pressure tactics, and (7) ending politely. in more specific, huang (2015) breakdowns and describes moves and steps of online tourism information texts in table 1. there are five moves with seven steps to move 3, and three steps in move 5. the moves are: (1) headline, (2) background information, (3) establishing credentials by introducing general situation, stating honors, quoting literary works, indicating value, describing activities or events, describing services or facilities, (4) directive information, (5) soliciting response by soliciting actions, delivering welcome/wish/thanks, and providing contact details. table 1 moves and steps of tourism information texts move and step description move 1 headline a title that serves the functional purpose of attracting readers’ attention and usually shows the name of the tourism destination. move 2 background information this move type offers information about how long the destination has come into being, what it is used for, how it is developed to what it is, etc. move 3 establishing credentials this move includes what the writer sees as an advantage for highlighting the uniqueness of the destination. step 1 introducing the general situation a sketchy description of the destination, mainly for such information as what the scenic beauty is like, what core attributes the place possesses, what the major attractions are, etc. step 2 stating honors a brief introduction of the honors or awards; the destination wins to convince readers of the worthiness of going to the place. step 3 quoting literary works a quotation of legends, anecdotes, and some other references related to the destination. table 1 moves and steps of tourism information texts (continued) move and step description step 4 indicating value an explicit presentation of archaeological, historical, artistic, or religious values of a place. step 5 describing activities or events information about activities or unusual happenings that are designed around various themes and that the tourists can participate to enhance interest of those potential active tourists. step 6 describing services or facilities information about the conveniences travelers can enjoy, including food and accommodation options, sports, and entertainment facilities, etc. step 7 describing key attractions detailed knowledge about the important attractions the destination boasts, such as natural scenery, animals, plants, or buildings, sculptures, etc., to produce a specific profile in the reader’s mind. move 4 directive information brief directions on how to reach the place and the factual information about opening time or special cautions move 5 soliciting response remarks that induce the reader to make a response or an action. step 1 soliciting actions persuasion to motivate the reader to go to the place. step 2 delivering welcome/ wish/ thanks welcome, appreciation, or good wish to the reader to establish a rapport with him/her. step 3 providing contact details the information includes address, telephone, or fax numbers or websites to encourage the reader to seek more about the place. from table 1, it can be deduced that in building content of a website of tourism promotion, the generic structure that is worth to follow includes all information refers to the holistic impression tourists have of a particular tourist destination. writing strategies of tourism promotion are different based on the move and step. it can use strategy to attract the readers’ attention by showing the name of the destination, offering information, describing the destination, giving brief direction, or inducing readers. from its purpose of each move and step, there will be a particular language choice used in the content of the website. a diversity of writing strategies in each move delivers a particular communicative purpose (yaemwannang & pramoolsook, 2018). researches on the genre of promotional texts or advertisements are various, including tourism promotions. few researchers have studied a generic structure of promotional discourse. bhatia (2005) has investigated the promotional generic structure; labrador et al. (2014) have studied on online advertisements; luo and huang (2015) 225generic structure of tourism .... (rosyida ekawati; desi puspitasari) have analyzed on american tourism brochure; huang (2015) has studied on brief tourism texts. while kristina, hashima, and hariharan (2017) have investigated promotional texts of indonesian batik; yaemwannang and pramoolsook (2018) have conducted a genre analysis of international hotel homepages in thailand; and janice (2008) has studied in hong kong travel brochures. this research is concerning with the generic structure of the tourism promotion of madura natural wonders, especially the content of the official website of sumenep regency. therefore, it is worth exploring the information and organization of the textual elements presented in the content of the website and the writing strategies used in the official website of sumenep regency. this research aims to analyze the moves and their structures of the textual elements in the tourism promotional content of the government website of sumenep regency. besides, it aims to examine the writing strategies used in each move and how each move is arranged to realize its communicative purposes. methods this research applies a descriptive qualitative research. source of the data is the indonesian website of sumenep regency on five natural wonders. they are tourism destinations in gili iyang, gili labak, pantai badur, pantai lombang, and pantai slopeng. it is available on the official website of sumenep regency, which can be reached on http:// sumenepkab.go.id/wisata/baca/alam. data are sentences in indonesian that refer to each move and step of the tourism promotion on the website. the english translation will be provided to ease non-indonesian readers. data collection is done by a classification of the move, step, and strategy on sentence-based using nvivo software with its predetermined tree-nodes. data of generic structure are obtained by identifying the structure of the promotion genre. then the data coding is used to facilitate the analysis. sources of data are coded by gi (gili iyang), gl (gili labak), pantai badur (pb), pantai lombang (pl), pantai slopeng (pl), m (move), s (step), ref.no (a reference number of each node), a cardinal number for the sequence number. for example is the use of code gi/m2/s1/ref.1 refers to gili iyang, move 2, step 1, reference number 1. the analysis begins with the structure of sumenep tourism promotion to find its generic structure. data from each classification is identified based on moves and steps and then will be displayed. furthermore, to understand the generic structure and the writing strategies used in the content of the website, genre theory proposed by huang (2015) is necessarily used to confirm the move, step, and writing strategies in tourism promotion. results and discussions there are five tourism destinations in sumenep regency categorized as natural wonders that are explained by the official website. this research is based on genre analysis and uses huang’s (2015) moves and steps for tourism promotion texts. there are five moves with seven steps in move 3, and three steps in move 5 for tourism promotion text. the finding of this research shows that all the contents of the website in five destinations of sumenep natural wonders have only four moves; from the headline, establishing credentials, directive information, and soliciting a response. move 2 background information proposed by huang is absent in this promotion website that usually provides information to let the reader knows the history of the destination. in move 3, there are none for step 2 stating honors, step 4 indicating value, step 5 describing activities table 2 a summary of moves and steps found in tourism website move and step examples frequency move 1 headline gili iyang (gi/m1/ref.1) 5 (100%) move 2 background information none move 3 establishing credentials kandungan oksigen jelas menjadi daya tarik utama dari pulau yang berjuluk pulau awet muda tersebut, namun bila wisatawan berkunjung ke pulau tesebut juga akan disajikan keindahan pulau yang khas seperti hamparan pantai yang masih alami, dan pesona bawah lautnya dengan berbagai biota laut yang sangat indah. (gi/m3/s1/ ref.3) (oxygen is clearly the main attraction of the island that is famous as the ageless island. if the tourists visit the island, it will also be presented with the beauty of a unique island such as a pristine stretch of beach, and dazzling underwater with a variety of very beautiful marine life.) 5 (100%) step 1 introducing general situation kandungan oksigen jelas menjadi daya tarik utama dari pulau yang berjuluk pulau awet muda tersebut, namun bila wisatawan berkunjung ke pulau tesebut juga akan disajikan keindahan pulau yang khas seperti hamparan pantai yang masih alami, pesona bawah lautnya dengan berbagai biota laut yang sangat indah.(gi/m3/s1/ref.3) (oxygen is clearly the main attraction of the island which is famous as the ageless island. if the tourists visit the island, it will also be presented with the beauty of a unique island such as a pristine stretch of beach, dazzling underwater with a variety of very beautiful marine life.) 5 (100%) step 2 stating honors none 226 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 223-230 or events, and in move 5, there are also none for step 2 delivering welcome/wish/thanks, and step 3 providing contact details. it can be seen in table 2. based on the examples in table 2, it can be further explained the moves, steps, and strategies used in each of the tourism promotion of sumenep natural wonders. meanwhile, table 3 shows the contrast between the proposed move and step and realization of move and step in the website. move 1 is the headline. all the contents in the headline in a simple way have functions to attract readers’ attention (sitthanakul & dhanesschaiyakupta, 2017). headlines of all the tourism promotions are the direct headline. they show only the names of the tourism destinations which are direct and go straight to the heart of the matter. there is one headline of the name of the place with a simple description of the place: pantai badur; alasan untuk mencari suasana tenang nan eksotis (badur beach; reasons to find exotic and calm atmosphere). it is reasonable to put the headline in the form of the name of the place in order the readers easily recognize the intended destination. one of the headlines with its specialty can provide unique properties and destination brands. move 2 is establishing credentials with step 1 is introducing the general situation. this move and step aim to urge potential tourists and provide them with some positive description and information regarding the credentials of the destination. it generally touches upon the location, scenic beauty, main attributes the place has, specialty, uniqueness, or major attractions. bhatia (2004) has explained that imagebuilding of promotion relies on establishing credentials as the primary source of persuasion. table 2 a summary of moves and steps found in tourism website (continued) move and step examples frequency step 3 quoting literary works hasil penelitian balai besar teknis kesehatan lingkungan dan pengendalian penyakit (bbtklpp) jawa timur pada 2001 menyebutkan, kadar oksigen di pulau gili labak 21,5 persen. (gi/m3/s3/ ref.1) (the results of research conducted by east java center for environmental health and disease control (bbtklpp) in 2001 stated that oxygen levels in gili labak island were 21,5 percent.) 1 (20%) step 4 indicating value none step 5 describing activities or events none step 6 describing services or facilities fasilitas: kamar bilas, kantin/resto/warung, gazebo/tempat peristirahatan, tempat ibadah (masjid/musholla). (gi/m3/s6/ref.1) facilities: bathroom, canteen/restaurant/mini shop, gazebo/rest area, place of worship (mosque/musholla). 5 (100%) step 7 describing key attractions pantai badur ini juga memiliki poin plus dimana terdapat sungai air tawar yang bermuara di pantai, sehingga kita akan menjumpai hal yang unik yaitu pertemuan air asin dan air tawar di pantai ini. selain itu terdapat spot menarik lainnya yang tidak ada di tempat lain adalah barisan batu karang dengan ornamen gua karst diselahselah hamparan pasir putih. (pb/m3/s7/ref.1) (badur beach also has an extra point where there are freshwater rivers that lead to the beach, so the tourists will find unique experience where there is a meeting point of salt water and fresh water on the beach. besides, another interesting spot that is not found elsewhere is a rock line with karst cave ornaments splitting into a stretch of white sand.) 2 (40%) move 4 directive information gili labak dapat di tempuh melalui tiga dermaga yaitu pelabuhan kalianget, tanjung di kecamatan saronggi, dan pelabuhan rakyat di desa kombang talango. (gl/m4/ref.1) (gili labak can be reached through three piers, namely kalianget port, tanjung port in saronggi district, and rakyat port in kombang village, talango.) 5 (100%) move 5 soliciting response 1 (20%) step 1 soliciting actions pengalaman berbeda yang ditawarkan oleh pantai ini akan benarbenar membuat anda melupakan rutinitas keseharian yang menjenuhkan, cocok bagi anda yang hendak mengisi mood dan semangat agar kembali siap beraktifirtas sehari-hari. (pb/m5/s1/ref.1) the beach offers different experiences that really make you feel free from the saturating daily routine. it is perfect for those who want to fill a good mood and get enthusiastic to be ready to go back to daily activities. 1 (20%) step 2 delivering welcome/ wish/thanks none step 3 providing contact details none 227generic structure of tourism .... (rosyida ekawati; desi puspitasari) in the website, it is also explained the description of each destination. what the place has can be the primary resourceful information to targeted readers. it can be seen in the example of step 1. data 1 pantai slopeng memiliki hamparan pasir yang membentang sepanjang 6 km dengan luas lahan 3 ha. (ps/m3/s1/ref. 1) (slopeng beach has a stretch of white sand, stretches for 6 km with an area of 3ha.) data 2 gili labak merupakan sebuah pulau kecil yang menyimpan sejuta pesona, hamparan pasir putih yang mengelilingi pulau dengan luas tidak lebih dari 5 ha. (gl/m3/s1/ref.1) (gili labak is a small island that holds a million wonders, white sand stretches along the island with an area of not more than 5 ha.) data 3 kandungan oksigen jelas menjadi daya tarik utama dari pulau yang berjuluk pulau awet muda tersebut, keindahan pulau yang khas seperti hamparan pantai yang masih alami, pesona bawah lautnya dengan berbagai biota laut yang sangat indah. (gi/m3/s1/ref.3) (oxygen is the main attraction of the island, which is famous as the ageless island, the beauty of a unique island such as a pristine stretch of beach, dazzling underwater with a variety of wonderful marine life.) data 4 pesona bawah lautnya yang masih cukup terjaga dengan baik, sehingga pengunjung dapat dengan mudah menikmati hamparan terumbu karang dengan hanya menggunakan alat snokeling yang dapat disewa disekitar pantai, tanpa harus membawa alat diving. (gl/m3/s1/ref.1) (the dazzling underwater is still quite well maintained, so the tourists can easily enjoy the expanse of coral reefs by just using snorkeling equipment that can be rented around the beach, without having to carry diving equipment.) from data 1 to data 4, all information in move 2 step 1 is similar. the strategy used in this step is by describing the uniqueness and the natural wonders of the destination using a particular vocabulary, which portrays positive images of destination. this step is accepted to ease the reader shapes an impression of its nature and unique characteristics of the factual content with flowering description. table 3 the contrast of move and step in website proposed move and step realization of move and step move 1 headline move 1 headline move 2 background information move 2 establishing credentials move 3 establishing credentials step 1 introducing the general situation step 1 introducing general situation step 2 quoting literature step 2 stating honors step 3 describing services or facilities table 3 the contrast of move and step in website (continued) proposed move and step realization of move and step step 3 quoting literary works step 4 describing key attractions step 4 indicating the value move 3 directive information step 5 describing activities or events move 4 soliciting response step 6 describing services or facilities step 7 describing key attractions move 4 directive information move 5 soliciting response step 1 soliciting actions step 2 delivering welcome/wish/ thanks step 3 providing contact details move 2 is establishing credentials with step 2 is quoting literary works. there is one data in this step. it cites the result of academic research to strengthen the description of the destination. data 5 hasil penelitian balai besar teknis kesehatan lingkungan dan pengendalian penyakit (bbtklpp) jawa timur pada 2001 menyebutkan, kadar oksigen di pulau gili labak 21,5 persen. (gl/m3/s3/ref.1) (the results of research conducted by east java center for environmental health and disease control (bbtklpp) in 2001 stated that oxygen levels in gili labak island were 21.5 percent). data 5 shows the citation of the results of research that is aimed at strengthening claims about the oxygen level in the tourist destination. result of research is generally trusted. the strategy used in this step is by bringing credible institutions related to research on environmental health and disease control. next is move 2; establishing credentials with step 3; describing services and facilities. move 2 step 3 refers to detailed information about any comfortable facilities tourists can enjoy, including food and accommodation choices, sports, and entertainment facilities. it can be seen in data 6. data 6 fasilitas: kamar bilas, kantin/resto/warung, gazebo/tempat peristirahatan, tempat ibadah (masjid/ musholla.) (gi/m3/ s6/ref.1) facilities: bathroom, canteen/restaurant/mini shop, gazebo/ rest area, place of worship (mosque/musholla). 228 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 223-230 from the tourism promotion of the official website of sumenep regency, another way to build the credential is providing resourceful information about facilities available in those places as in data 6 of move 2 step 3. it is available in all tourism promotions for natural wonders. public facilities that are available in those places mostly comprise simple descriptions, without any adjectival expressions of the image, for a bathroom, canteen/ restaurant, gazebo, and praying area such as a mosque. there is no further information about accommodation to stay overnight, sports, entertainment completed the facilities in the destination. the strategies used in the website are conducted by giving information about basic facilities that are usually needed by tourists. it is related to the basic need of human such as eating or drinking, worship, and also a toilet that all tourists needed. all related to tourist experiences, which can be significantly influenced by the type and quality of products and services available at the destination. next is move 2; establishing credentials with step 4; describing key attractions. this step gives a way to describe the detail and famous attractions the destinations boast, in this context about natural scenery to produce a unique feature in the reader’s mind. although it is considered to be essential to arouse the reader’s mind, there is only one tourism promotion that provides such descriptions. it can be seen in data 7 and 8. data 7 kecilnya pulau tersebut membuat (luasnya hanya tidak lebih 5 ha) pengunjung berasa berada di pulau pribadi. (gl/m3/s7/ref.1) (due to its size, which is not more than 5 ha, it makes the tourists feel like at a private island.) data 8 pantai badur ini juga memiliki poin plus dimana terdapat sungai air tawar yang bermuara di pantai, sehingga kita akan menjumpai hal yang unik yaitu pertemuan air asin dan air tawar di pantai ini. selain itu terdapat spot menarik lainnya yang tidak ada di tempat lain adalah barisan batu karang dengan ornamen gua karst diselah-selah hamparan pasir putih. (pb/m3/s7/ref.1) (badur beach also has an extra point where there are freshwater rivers that lead to the beach, so the tourists will find a unique experience where there is a meeting point of saltwater and freshwater on the beach. besides, other interesting spots that are not found elsewhere are rock lines with karst and cave ornaments splitting into a stretch of white sand.) from data 7 and data 8, the boast of the destination is described. the expressions, such as “pengunjung berasa di pulau pribadi” (it feels like in a private island), give a vibrant of how the readers imagine having their island without any disturbance. for this, it is the right place to have a vacation. this strategy uses the expressions of “menjumpai hal yang unik” (find unique experiences), “spot menarik lainnya” (other interesting spots), “tidak ada di tempat lain” (not found elsewhere) are examples how to boast the destination. those are presenting the beautiful and unique scenery before the readers visit the place and thus builds the evaluative image of the destination. in move 3 (directive information); this step is to give brief directions on how to reach the place, and factual information about opening times or special warnings is sometimes given. the direction as a guide for the potential tourist to reach the destination is essential. by providing a clear direction, it could provide a good visualization of how to arrive at. the direction could be the distance of the destination, how to go there, any alternatives, mustprepared things, seasons, what should do and do not, and any available schedule. from the five tourism destinations of natural wonders that are promoted on the official website, all have this kind of move, directive information. it can be seen in data 9 and data 10. data 9 gili labak dapat ditempuh melalui tiga dermaga yaitu pelabuhan kalianget, tanjung di kecamatan saronggi, dan pelabuhan rakyat di desa kombang talango. (gl/m4/ ref.1) (gili labak can be reached through three piers namely kalianget port, tanjung port in saronggi district, and rakyat port in kombang village, talango.) data 10 untuk pulau gili iyang, pengunjung dapat menggunakan ojek menuju pelabuhan dungkek yang berjalak 28 km dari pusat kota. bila dari terminal arya wiraraja, pengujung bisa memanfaatkan jasa ojek dengan tarif sekitar rp. 50.000. setelah sampai ke pelabuhan dungek, pengunjung bisa memanfaatkan transportasi perahu penyebrangan menuju pulau gili iyang dengan tarif rp. 10.000 rp 20.000 yang beroprasi mulai jam 10.00 wib hingga jam 14.00 wib saja. (gi/m4/ref.1) (to visit gili iyang, you can take a motorcycle ojek services to the port of dungkek, which runs 28 km from the city center. if you start from arya wiraraja bus terminal, you can use ojek services at a rate of around rp. 50,000. arrived at the port of dungek, visitors can take advantage of crossing boat transportation to gili iyang island for rp. 10,000 up to rp. 20,000 which operates from 10.00 am until 02.00pm.) those two examples provide the proposed tourists’ information to reach the destination and to consider the alternatives that are suitable and comfortable for them. this move seems to be an obligation for tourism promotion on the website as these directions and instructions will easily guide the tourists without them getting lost or experiencing unpleasant things. for the instruction and direction to reach the destination, it usually discusses information about transportation. this move-in sumenep official website of the tourism promotion is intended for tourists who will travel by public transportation. the information about the kind of transportation they can use completed with the cost of each transportation mode. only one destination that is better to be reached by private car due to the lack of available transportation. as the move suggested, the directions include the most proper time to visit, schedule of transportation, the warning, and various tips regarding the travel to the tourism destination. the next move is move 4; soliciting response. this move could be the last in the official website. it is the remarks that induce the readers to make a response or act. meanwhile, the step involves persuasion to motivate the reader to go to the place. from the promotion on the website, there is only one example in move 4 that can be seen in data 11. data 11 pengalaman berbeda yang ditawarkan oleh pantai ini akan benar-benar membuat anda melupakan rutinitas keseharian yang menjenuhkan, cocok bagi anda yang hendak mengisi 229generic structure of tourism .... (rosyida ekawati; desi puspitasari) mood dan semangat agar kembali siap beraktifitas seharihari. (pb/m5/s1/ref.1) (the beach offers different experiences that really make you feel free from the saturating daily routine. it is perfect for those who want to fill a good mood and get enthusiastic about being ready to go back to daily activities.) to achieve persuasiveness and entice the reader to go to the promoted tourism destination, the use of the specific expression is focused on generating evaluating an image that the destination is worth to visit. from the findings, it can be understood that the main focus of move 2; establishing credentials is on presenting positive images of the tourism destination by giving adequate information about what resources the destination has and evaluation for the available resources. the generic structure of tourism promotion involves four moves in the official website of sumenep regency in particular for its natural wonders. meanwhile, huang (2015) has proposed the generic structure of tourism information consists of five moves with various steps in move 3 and move 5. in the official website, move 1 headline consists of the name of the place. it is an obligatory move because all promotions of natural wonders in sumenep regency merely provide the name of the destination in short and brief. it can be one of the strategies to facilitate readers easily memorize the destination. the absence of move of background information that should contain the history of the destination and the duration of development can engage readers to attach to the destination. history can be a competitive boundary, characters, and culture of a destination because the history told gives a colorful past in which a sense of place can be sensed. as a tourism resource, history tends to be an attraction for some tourists. therefore, this move also shows a slightly attractive color for a tourism destination. a long history can be offered through the background information of destinations. as the information on the website is in indonesian, it is evident that the intended readers are also indonesian or whoever knows indonesian. it is a common assumption that indonesian people do not keen on visiting a historical destination so that the move on historical information does not require an obligation in tourism promotion website. due to the absence of information background, all promotions straight to establishing credential by its various forms of expressions such as introducing a general situation, quoting literature, describing facilities, and describing key attractions. the move becomes the most prominent component because it appears in all tourism promotions on the website. move to establish credential is the large portion of the promotion, which is presented by highlighting various positive features of the destination described and the services offered. the frequent uses of favorable adjectives are common in establishing credential (huang, 2015). another obligatory move is move 3 directive information. in all promotions, information about the direction to reach the place is clearly explained. it is also an essential part of the promotion to build readers’ imagination about the place. move 4 soliciting response is the last move where it is kind of remarks to convince readers to visit the destination. it is an optional move because only one promotion text has its move. from the move and step in the website, it can be understood that the positive images of the tourism destinations are built by establishing credential, directive information, and soliciting a response. conclusions sufficient and correct information needs to be offered about what the tourism destination is, where the location is, special features the destination has, and others. these elements are the primary knowledge of tourism destinations that are most of concern to potential tourists. the available information is to attract the reader’s consideration. being attractive depends on the way the message is conveyed and the elegance of the language. when potential tourists read tourism promotion on the official website, they are reading what they are interested in and generates their emotional appreciation of the destination. the establishing credentials move that acquire the most of the tourism promotion website has a significant role in promoting and establishing the intended tourism destinations and becomes the obligatory move in tourism promotion website. it means that giving information is the prominent function of tourism promotion website, although the information is sometimes considered as ‘one-sided’ with any positive evaluations. therefore, it is the establishing credentials move that mainly builds the imagination of the destination character in the readers’ mind. since this research is discussing on tourism promotions of natural wonders on the official website of sumenep regency which are available only in the indonesian language so that the promotions have only limited readers, who are familiar with the indonesian language. meanwhile, it is suggested that the future researches will be possibly conducted for other tourism promotions such as attractions, culture, culinary, and others which are available in sumenep. it is also possible to conduct promotions in the english language that reach international readers. the forms of travelogues, travel narratives, or travel guides written by tourists, travel agents, travel blogs, or others can be sources of data to find their generic structures. references bhatia, v. k. (2004). worlds of written discourse. london: continuum. bhatia, v. k. (2005). generic patterns in promotional discourse. in halmari & virtanen (eds), persuasion across genres: a linguistic approach (pp. 213225). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing. de los rios, m. e. c., & hernandez, a. c. (2016). the promotion of health and beauty tourism through websites: a linguistic analysis. revista de lengues para fines expecificos, 22(2), 62-83. fernandes-cavia, j., & castro, d. (2015). communication and branding on national tourism websites. cuadernos info, 37(2), 167-185. doi:10.7764/ cdi.37.682. huang, s. (2015). a genre-based analysis of brief tourist information texts. joint international social science, education, language, management and business conference. chongqing, china. pp. 191-202. janice, y. l. i. (2008). analyzing tourism discourse: a case study of a hong kong travel brochure. lcom papers, 1, 1-19. kristina, d., hashima, n., & hariharan. (2017). a genre analysis of promotional texts in an indonesian batik 230 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 223-230 industry. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(2), 425-435. labrador, b., noelia, r., moreton, h. a., & sanjurjogozalez, h. (2014). rhetorical structure and persuasive language in the subgenre of online advertisements. english for specific purposes, 34, 38-47. luo, j., & huang, t. (2015). genre-based analysis of american tourism brochure. open journal of social sciences, 3(9), 200-208. sitthanakul, k., & dhanesschaiyakupta, u. (2017). an analysis of move and linguistic characteristic of hotel homepages. people: international journal of social science, 3(2), 1057-1076. doi:https://dx.doi. org/10.20319/pijss.2017.32.10571076. yaemwannang, c., & pramoolsook, i. (2018). move and writing strategy analysis of international hotel homepages. the journal of teaching english for specific and academic purposes, 6(1), 83-95. https:// doi.org/10.22190/jtesap1801083y. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 313 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 313-319 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6105 the impact of higher order thinking skills (hots) instructions in teaching efl speaking skill from the perspective of students’ motivation yuniarta ita purnama1; fitri nurdianingsih2 1,2jurusan pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas pendidikan bahasa dan seni (fpbs), ikip pgri bojonegoro jl. panglima polim no. 46, bojonegoro, jawa timur 62114, indonesia 1yuniarta_ita@ikippgribojonegoro.ac.id; 2fitriafip12@gmail.com received: 12th november 2019/revised: 25th november 2019/accepted: 09th december 2019 how to cite: purnama, y. i., & nurdianingsih, f. (2019). the impact of higher order thinking skills (hots) instructions in teaching efl speaking skill from the perspective of students’ motivation. lingua cultura, 13(4), 313-319. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6105 abstract the purposes of the research were to examine (1) whether or not the hots instruction was more effective than the lots (lower order thinking skills) instruction in teaching speaking for daily context to the first semester students at english education department; (2) whether the students who had high self-motivation had better speaking ability than those who had low self-motivation; and (3) whether there was an interaction between teaching strategies and students’ self-motivation. by using a quantitative research with the quasi-experimental type, the data were derived from tests and questionnaires. the results show that (1) hots instruction is more effective than the lots instruction in teaching speaking for daily context to the first semester students at the english education department; (2) the students who have high motivation have better speaking skills than the students who have low motivation; (3) there is an interaction between teaching strategies and motivation in teaching speaking for daily context. it can be concluded that hots instruction is an effective strategy in teaching speaking viewed from students’ motivation. the effectiveness of the strategy is affected by students’ motivation. keywords: efl, hots, lots, speaking skills, student motivation introduction speaking is an english language skill needed for interaction and other global activities. furthermore, in this 4.0 industrial era, almost all technologies are operated with english instruction. the english teacher needs to engage students with good english speaking ability. speaking as one of the four skills in english is seen as the most crucial skill to be mastered by english learners. for most people, the successes in learning a language can be seen from how far the student can speak and communicate in language learning. in fact, speaking is often neglected in the classroom (arbain & nur, 2017). language students find difficulties to express themselves in spoken language. they are facing problems in using a foreign language to express their ideas. they stop talking because they face psychological obstacles or cannot find suitable words and expressions. speaking is the most important skill because it is one of the abilities that are needed to perform a conversation. english speaking is not an easy task because speakers should know many significant components like pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. learners should have enough english speaking ability to communicate easily and effectively with other people (leong & ahmadi, 2017). the transformation of education has changed. recently teaching of higher order thinking skills (hots) becomes attested due to its important role in education. students having hots claimed will be more successful than those having lower order thinking skills (lots). the students having a high level of hots are hoped to be a success in the next study program (tanujaya, mumu, & margono, 2017). hots is also claimed to correlate with the students’ work readiness (hasan & pardjono, 2019). the teaching of hots is a kind of student-centered learning activity. some practices that can be applied in teaching hots are constructivist learning, brainstorming, inquiry teaching, problem-based learning, and thinking map (chun & yen, 2019). the teaching of hots based on bloom’s revised taxonomy includes analyzing (c4), evaluating (c5), and creating (c6) (anderson and krathworl in baguma et al., 2019; fanani, 2018; julianingsih, rosidin, & wahyudi, 2017; tikhonova & kudinova, 2015). hots represents more sophisticated and context-rich thinking processes 314 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 313-319 that include critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive, and creative thinking (siti, 2015). teaching hots has a positive effect on students’ reading comprehension of adult efl learners. this research gives an excellent example for the teacher in emphasizing hots in syllabuses. it is indicated that the use of hots strategies is useful for students because the result gives positive effects on students’ reading skills. hots can improve students’ reading comprehension (nourdad, masoudi, & rahimali, 2018). in this research, the researchers want to substitute the effect of hots instruction in efl reading ability on the effect of hots instruction in efl speaking ability. so, it would give the novelty in education practice. research about hots have been conducted by researchers in developing textbooks or module based on hots (musfiqi & jailani, 2014; nur, 2017), in developing test instruments (budiman & jailani, 2014; hamdi, suganda, & hayati, 2018; julianingsih, rosidin, & wahyudi, 2017; noprinda & soleh, 2019; ahmad et al., 2017), in mathematics (nisa & retnawati, 2018; tanujaya, mumu, & margono, 2017), in analyzing students’ hot (shidiq, masykuri, & susanti, 2015), in teachers’ understanding and practices about hots (driana & ernawati, 2019; retnawati et al., 2018; siti, 2015), in the relationship between hots and japanese language classes (toyoda, 2016). some researchers have also researched improving and developing students’ hots (baguma et al., 2019; jerome, lee, & ting, 2017; mulyaningsih & itaristanti, 2018; arum, sudarmi, & pattiserlihun, 2019; suryamiati, pasah, & eka, 2019; wahid & karimah, 2018; widodo & kadarwati, 2013; zulfin et al., 2018). these researches mentioned focus on developing textbooks or module based on hots, developing test instruments, mathematics study, analyzing students’ hot, teachers’ understanding and practices about hots, the relationship between hots and japanese language classes, improving and developing students’ hots. these are not about teaching and learning the english language. in efl research, hots has been integrated into reading skills. some researchers implement hots to improve students reading skills (nourdad, masoudi, & rahimali, 2018) and to develop an english textbook for reading (anasy, 2016). hots also has been integrated into writing skills (shyamala, 2015; rosli & maarof, 2017). nguyễn and nguyễn (2017) have researched the influence of explicit higher-order thinking skills instruction on students’ learning of english linguistics. besides, they have said that these instructions of hots in the learning and assessment could positively influence students’ learning of english linguistics in terms of the learning process, performance in assessment, creativity, and motivation to learn. another english research about hots is about teachers’ perception of the integration of hots in language teaching. a research survey is conducted to 144 english teachers in hulu langat, selangor (siti, 2015). the efl research mentioned focuses on linguistics, reading, and writing skills. there is no research focus on speaking skills. therefore this research aims to evaluate the effect of hots instruction in speaking skills that will add literature of hots in efl learning. dealing with the innovation of english teaching speaking skills, this research uses the hots instructions to gain the effectiveness of speaking learning process viewed from students’ motivation. specifically, this research aims to know; (1) whether or not the hots instructions is more effective than the lots (lower order thinking skills) instructions in teaching speaking for daily context to the first semester students at english education department; (2) whether the students who have high self-motivation have better speaking ability than those who have low selfmotivation; and (3) whether there is an interaction between teaching strategies and students’ self-motivation. methods by using quantitative research with the quasiexperimental type, the data are derived from the motivation questionnaire and english speaking test. this research employs data from the questionnaire of students’ motivation consisting of 29 items after examined their validity and reliability using biserial point correlation and alpha cronbach. the result of the validity and reliability analysis shows that the data was valid and reliable. the indicators and aspects of motivation questionnaires used in this research are derived from baron and donn (2000). they are diligent, not easy to satisfy, active in learning, initiative, always trying to learn with the best result, punctual and disciplined, enthusiastic to try new things, having high curiosity, having great passion, be confident, having perseverance or persistent to practice and use the english language in speaking, feeling more independent, being able to overcome obstacles, and shows a better commitment. after delivering the motivation questionnaire, each class is divided into two groups; the students who have high motivation and those who have low motivation. it is a moderator variable of the research. a speaking test is conducted after treatments. the data were analyzed by using descriptive analysis includes mean, mode, median, and standard deviation, then followed by normality and homogeneity testing. the result of normality testing using the liliefors formula shows that all data are in the normal distribution (table 1). furthermore, the result of homogeneity testing also indicates the homogeneous data; χo 2 (4,792) < χt 2 (7,815). table 1 normality testing no group number of group lo lt (0.05) test result conclusion 1 (a1) 38 0,1004 0,1437 lo < lt normal 2 (a2) 38 0,1004 0,1437 lo < lt normal 3 (b1) 38 0,1326 0,1437 lo < lt normal 4 (b2) 38 0,0832 0,1437 lo < lt normal 5 (a1b1) 19 0,1197 0,1950 lo < lt normal 6 (a2b1) 19 0,1699 0,1950 lo < lt normal 7 (a1b2) 19 0,1070 0,1950 lo < lt normal 8 (a2b2) 19 0,1473 0,1950 lo < lt normal 315the impact of higher order.... (yuniarta ita purnama; fitri nurdianingsih) the speaking scores computation of the students taught by using hots instructions (a1) shows that lo (0,1004) is lower than lt (0,1437), it can be concluded that the first group is in the normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students taught by using lots instructions (a1) shows that lo (0,1004) is lower than lt (0,1437), it can be concluded that the second group is in the normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have high motivation (b1) shows that lo (0,1326) is lower than lt (0,1437), it can be concluded that the third group is in the normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have low motivation (b2) shows that lo (0,0832) is lower than lt (0,1437), it can be concluded that the fourth group is in normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have high motivation and taught by using hots instructions (a1b1) shows that lo (0,1197) is lower than lt (0,1950), it can be concluded that the fifth group is in normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have high motivation and taught by using lots instructions (a2b1) shows that lo (0,1699) is lower than lt (0,1950), it can be concluded that the sixth group is in the normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have low motivation and taught by using hots instructions (a1b2) shows that lo (0,1070) is lower than lt (0,1950), it can be concluded that the seventh group is in the normal distribution. the speaking scores computation of the students who have low motivation and taught by using lots instructions (a2b2) shows that lo (0,1473) is lower than lt (0,1950), it can be concluded that the eighth group is in the normal distribution. this research uses total sampling. the sample consists of two classes of the first semester students at the english education department of ikip pgri bojonegoro; each class consists of 38 students. the experimental class is taught by using hots instructions, and the control class is taught by using lots instructions. before speaking activity, the students are given instructions based on hots and lots instructions. for an example of learning steps in experiment class, students are instructed to create pairs scenarios of role play then perform it. while in the control class, students should perform teachers’ scenario by remembering or memorizing it. the descriptive analysis includes mean, mode, median, and standard deviation, and inferential analysis includes normality and homogeneity test that is used in analyzing the data. then it is followed by anova (2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance) and tukey test to know which group is better. results and discussions after testing the pre-requisite test, the researchers analyze the data by using anova (multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2) to identify the influence of motivation and the strategies in teaching speaking for daily context. it can be seen in table 2. based on tables 2 and 3, the interpretations can be described that source of variance between columns, fo is 10,44, while the value of ftable is 4,00. it means that ho is rejected. therefore, it can be concluded that hots instructions differ significantly from lots instructions in teaching speaking for daily context. based on the mean score, it is seen that the mean score of the students who are taught by using hots instructions (58,71) is higher than the mean score of the students who are taught by using lots instructions (48,66). it means that hots instructions are more effective than lots instructions in teaching speaking for daily context. students who are taught by using hots instructions have more fluent and structured speaking ability. table 2 the summary of 2 x 2 multifactor analysis of variance source of variance ss df ms fo ft (.05) conclusion between columns 1920 1 1920,05 10,44 4,00 ho is rejected between rows 1503 1 1503,21 8,17 4,00 ho is rejected columns by rows 862 1 862,32 4,69 4,00 ho is rejected between groups 4286 3 1428,53 w i t h i n groups 13246 72 183,97 total 17531 75 table 3 the mean score motivation teaching strategies total hots instructions lots instructions high 66,53 49,74 58,13 low 50,89 47,58 49,24 total 58,71 48,66 based on source of variance between rows, fo is 8,17, while the value of the ftable is 4,00. it means that ho is rejected. therefore, it can be concluded that the difference between students who have high motivation and those who have low motivation in speaking for daily context is significant. based on the mean score, it is seen that the mean score of the students who have high motivation (58,13) is higher than the mean score of the students who have low motivation (49,24). it means that the students having high motivation have better speaking mastery than those having low motivation. based on source of variance columns by rows, fo is 4,69, while the value of ftable is 4,00. it means that ho is rejected. therefore, it can be concluded that there is an interaction effect between teaching methods and students’ motivation in teaching speaking for daily context. thus, the influence of teaching strategies and speaking skills depends on the degree of motivation. then, the researchers need to do tukey testing to test the different mean of each group or to prove the interaction between groups. it can be seen in table 4. the interpretations can be described that the score between groups of a1 a2 (the students taught by using hots instructions and the students taught by using lots instructions) shows that qo (4,57) is higher than qt 2,86, hots instructions differ significantly from lots instructions on the students’ speaking ability. the mean score of the students who are taught by using hots instructions (58,71) 316 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 313-319 is higher than the mean score of the students who are taught by using lots instructions (48,66). therefore, it can be concluded that hots instructions are more effective than lots instructions on students’ speaking ability. table 4 the summary of tukey test between groups qo qt .05 qt. 01 meaning category a1 a2 4,57 2,86 3,82 qo > qt significant b1 b2 4,04 2,86 3,82 qo > qt significant a1b1 a2b1 13,68 2,96 4,05 qo > qt significant a1b2 a2b2 0,20 2,96 4,05 qo > qt not significant the score between groups of b1 b2 (the students who have high motivation and the students who have low motivation) shows that qo (4,04) is higher than qt (2,86), the students who have high motivation are different from those who have low motivation in the speaking skills. the mean score of the students having high motivation (58,13) is higher than the mean score of those having low motivation (49,24). therefore, it can be interpreted that the students having high motivation have better speaking skills than those having low motivation. the score between groups of a1b1 a2b1 (the students who have high motivation and taught by using hots instruction compared with the students who have high motivation and taught by using lots instruction) shows that qo (13,68) is higher than qt (2,96). it means that the students having high motivation and taught by using hots instructions are significantly different from those having high motivation and taught by using lots instructions in the speaking skills. the mean score of the students having high motivation and taught by using hots instructions (66,53) is higher than the mean score of those having high motivation and taught by using lots instructions (49,74). therefore, it can be interpreted that the students having high motivation and taught by using hots instructions have better speaking skills than those having high motivation and taught by using lots instructions. the score between groups of a1b2 a2b2 (the students who have low motivation and taught by using hots instructions compared with the students who have low motivation and taught by using lots instructions) shows that qo (0,20) is lower than qt (2,96). it means that the students who have low motivation and taught by using hots instructions are not significantly different from the students who have low motivation and taught by using lots instructions in the speaking ability. therefore, it can be concluded that the students’ speaking ability between the students who have low motivation and taught by using hots instructions and the students who have low motivation and taught by using lots instructions is not significantly different. it can be concluded that hots instruction effectively improves students speaking skills in efl learning. they can create the dialog then perform it fluently. they can also deliver their critical thinking after analyze and evaluate the authentic material from some source then perform it through debate. students having high motivation are not awkward to give their ideas and opinion eagerly. the speaking ability of efl learners improves significantly after taught by using hots instruction. it is in line with the last research of wahid and karimah (2018) that have stated that the integration of hots through creative problem-solving increases students learning motivation and interest. the process of teaching and learning become more fun and joyful. hots does not restrict students’ ability to give opinions, estimation, ideas, and conclusions. hots influences students’ academic achievement. students having high hots are supposed to succeed in their future study (tanujaya, mumu, & margono, 2017). in writing skill research, the students who are applying hots in their composition have more organized essays than those who do not apply it. the t-test in the oneway analysis shows that there is a significant difference in the grades of essays with hots and without hots. using hots is a good method to organize points to write up an essay. it enhances creativity, and students innovatively write their essays. apart from that, some teachers feel that hots allows students to train themselves to think in finding solutions and ideas when it comes to writing an essay. therefore, it should be implemented in the teaching process in the classroom. hots should be utilized in the process of teaching and learning among teachers and students (shyamala, 2015). in a rural government primary school at sarawak, most of the students able to create a longer composition, more critical, and more creative ideas after they have conducted treatment sessions. this research also elaborates on the influence of hots questions in providing guides to develop students’ cognitive ability in their writing (rosli & maarof, 2017). a research about the influence of explicit higher-order thinking skills instruction on students’ learning of english linguistics and these instructions of hots in the learning and assessment could positively influence students’ learning of english linguistics in terms of the learning process, performance in assessment, creativity, and motivation to learn (nguyễn & nguyễn, 2017). not only in efl learning, in the mathematics study and science study, but hots has also proved improving the students’ learning activity (tanujaya, mumu, & margono, 2017; widodo & kadarwati, 2013). meanwhile, the chinese students show better at answering lots questions than hots questions. they are able to answer lots instructions, but they struggle to answer hots instructions because they have filed to use the right strategies, limited vocabulary and lacked critical thinking (nair, wider, & yan, 2019). hots can be developed effectively if lots has been interiorized (tikhonova & kudinova, 2015). it is important for the students to master the lower order thinking skill before they achieve higher-order thinking (raquela & rini, 2016). the students who have high self-motivation have the better speaking ability. motivation makes students more enthusiastic to try new things. they have high curiosity and a great passion for mastering a speaking skill well. besides, the students who have high motivation always be confident while delivering their speech in front of others, even though they make mistakes in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and lack of content. students with high motivation tend to have perseverance or persistent in practicing and using the english language in speaking to maintain and improve their fluency. they feel more independent in expressing their idea and insight because they can manage their minds to have good concentration. 317the impact of higher order.... (yuniarta ita purnama; fitri nurdianingsih) students who have high motivation have high levels of performance and the ability to overcome obstacles (tohidi & jabbari, 2012). students who have high motivation show a better commitment to their work (buijs & admiraal, 2013; taurina, 2015). the characteristics/indicators of motivation are enthusiasm, curiosity, passion, perseverance, confidence, persistence, independence, concentration (astuti, suranto, & masykuri, 2019). students who have high motivation have better speaking ability than those having low self-motivation. students’ motivation for learning a language is important. because of motivation, students able to do some tasks and achieve the aim of learning. motivation adds the quality of work, makes the students more diligent, active, curious, and disciplined. it is indicated by some characters, such as diligent, not easy to satisfy, active in learning, initiative, always trying to learn with the best result, punctual, and disciplined (baroon and donn in bakar, 2014). conclusions the results of this research show that the use of hots instruction in teaching speaking skills viewed from students’ motivation will be advantageous and beneficial because the result of hots instructions give positive effects on students speaking skills significantly. hots instructions help the students improve their speaking ability. especially, this research can help other teachers to get a better understanding of using hots instructions in teaching speaking for daily context to the first semester students at the english education department. hots instructions help students to improve their speaking skills in which students face serious difficulties in learning speaking for daily context. this research can also improve english teachers’ professional development. it can be summarized that: (1) hots instruction is more effective than lots instruction in teaching speaking for daily context to the first semester students at english education department; (2) the students who have high selfmotivation have better speaking ability than those who have low self-motivation; and (3) there is an interaction between teaching strategies and students’ self-motivation. from the results, it is recommended that, first, hots instructions could be used as a teaching strategy to improve the students’ efl speaking skills. second, the students who have low motivation should force themselves to have high motivation because motivation is one of the factors, which influence the success of learning. third, there are some weaknesses, which should be reviewed by other researchers to implement better research about hots instructions. fourth, this research gives insights to the other researchers, lecturers, and teachers to implement the hots instruction in their teaching and learning process and to conduct another research related to hots. acknowledgment the author expresses gratitude to lppm of ikip pgri bojonegoro who funded the authors’ research in the scheme of science development research or penelitian pengembangan ilmu 2019 and ristekdikti who gave guidance in writing an article at national writing manuscript clinic or klinik penulisan artikel ilmiah nasional at surabaya 2019. references ahmad, s., prahmana, p. c., kenedi, a. k., helsa, y., arianil, y., & zainil, m. 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(2018). implementasi model pembelajaran sains teknologi masyarakat (stm) untuk mengembangkan high order thinking skills (hots) siswa kelas iv sd arrahman darul ilmi bandung. edutech, 17(3), 332– 350. doi: https://doi.org/10.17509/e.v17i3.14342. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 323 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 323-331 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4910 exploring the international students’ perceptions of the indonesian teaching materials to enhance their willingness to communicate lewinna christiani aguskin1; maryani2 1,2faculty of letters, maranatha christian university jl. prof. drg. surya sumantri, m.p.h. no. 65, bandung 40164, indonesia 1winna_ch@yahoo.com; 2marumaryani@gmail.com received: 20th august 2018 /revised: 06th september 2018 /accepted: 17th september 2018 how to cite: aguskin, l. c., & maryani. (2018). exploring the international students’ perceptions of the indonesian teaching materials to enhance their willingness to communicate. lingua cultura, 12(4), 323-331. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4910 abstract this research had been conducted to investigate indonesian teaching materials which corresponded with the willingness to communicate (wtc) in indonesian to facilitate students’ learning. therefore, this case study was conducted in indonesian language for foreigners (bipa) classes at a private university in bandung, indonesia. the objectives of the research were; to investigate bipa students’ perceptions of the current language learning materials used; to discover to what extent the international students’ wtc was influenced by the current language material; and to explore the bipa teachers’ strategies in developing language materials that facilitate the students’ wtc inside and outside the classroom. semi-structured-interviews with seven bipa students and four teachers and classroom recordings were used to collect data. thematic analysis and descriptive statistics were used in data analysis. the findings show that the listening activities and interview assignments implemented in the current language materials, also the teachers’ strategies in class, such as using authentic materials and social media have positively impacted the students’ wtc. the findings of this research contribute to the classroom practice and material development of indonesian to facilitate students’ learning and increase students’ wtc in indonesian. keywords: student perceptions, international students, teaching materials, willingness to communicate introduction nowadays, the opportunities for having study abroad experiences in indonesia for international students are increasing. many higher education institutions in indonesia have provided programs for international students to pursue their education in state or private universities. ristekdikti (2017) has reported that the number of international students in indonesia is 6.967 in 2016. in addition, ristekdikti (2017) has also stated that based on the home countries, most of the international students come from timor leste, malaysia, thailand, south korea, china, japan, germany, netherlands, france, and australia. it can be seen that more and more international students are coming to indonesia for having long-term or short-term education experience. along with the growing number of international students, the teaching of indonesian for foreigners is highly needed. it is indicated that the class of indonesian language for foreigners (bipa) has been one of the most popular programs for international students (ristekdikti, 2017). obviously, learning indonesian as a second language for international students is significant for academic and social purposes during their course of study. therefore, it is crucial to develop the quality of bipa class for international students in university particularly which supports communication skills. relevant teaching materials are needed to enhance them to learn indonesian as a second language. accordingly, it is significant for bipa teachers to develop teaching materials which accommodate the learners to be able to communicate with local people in the social and academic setting. material design plays an important role in any language learning including bipa materials. howard and major (2004) describe the advantages of teacher-designed materials namely; first, contextualization which is to fit a particular learning environment and to overcome the lack of ‘fit’ of the course book and to match with available resources. second, individual needs which are to consider the learners’ first language, cultures, learning needs, and learning experiences in the elements of the materials and activities (topics, situations, notions, functions, skills, etc.). third, personalization which includes a personal touch, consider the learning styles of the learners. fourth, timeless which means responding to local and international events 324 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 323-331 with relevant, up-to-date and interesting topics and tasks. related to material design for bipa materials, it is necessary to consider the communicative language teaching since the aim of learning indonesian for international students is also for social interactions during their study abroad experiences. richards (2006) has stated some principles of communicative language teaching. they are the focus of language learning are for real communication, learners need to experiment and try out what they know, learners need to practice various skills such as speaking, reading and listening to resemble the real world situation, learners need to be engaged in interaction and meaningful communication, and the role of the teacher is as a facilitator who provides opportunities to use and practice the language. despite the important role of communicative language teaching for language learning, there is another factor which is influential for effective l2 communication namely the willingness to communicate (wtc). macintyre (2007) has explained the concept of wtc as the probability of speaking when free to do so. the action of l2 learners to speak up or remain silent inside or outside the class is worth considering for the development of language learning. maclntyre et al. (2003) believe that promoting wtc for language education in immersion or intensive program is a crucial goal to enhance authentic communication for learners in second language learning (sll). related to wtc in the l2, macintyre (2007) explains that wtc can be seen as an influential factor which facilitates an individual to develop his/her l2 in communicating with others and the result of learning process effected by language anxiety and learning motivation. there are several research related to wtc. initially, mccroskey and baer (1985) regard wtc as a personality factor which influences the willingness of individuals to communicate under certain circumstances in the native language. they have tested wtc instrument among 428 college students which include four communication contexts and three types of receivers. next, the research of macintyre and charos (1996) have developed the wtc model in l2 communication which entailed language-related affective variables and personality traits. related to further concept of wtc as the situational model in an l2, macintyre et al. (1998) have explored the variables of linguistics, communicative, and social psychological which influence the wtc of l2 learners. they have proposed the influences of enduring variables (such as intergroup relations, learner personality, etc.) and situational variables (such as the desire to speak certain people, the familiarity of the topic, etc.) which support wtc as the ultimate goal of language learning. years later, based on the research of language anxiety and language learning motivation, macintyre (2007) has investigated that initiating wtc can be referred to as a volitional process. therefore, the increasing and decreasing degree of wtc is possibly influenced by the changes in the situation. one of the essential ways for increasing students’ wtc is to develop language material which can facilitate and motivate students to be willing to practice their indonesian inside and outside the classroom. referring to material development for indonesian as l2 for bipa students, there are several research related to indonesian material development. in his study of indonesian as a foreign language (ifl) related to developing indonesian learning materials, suyitno (2007) argues that need analysis of indonesian learners is important to develop indonesian teaching-learning materials because most of the indonesian learners are adults with various language, cultural background, and learning styles. therefore, it is important to consider the entry-level behavior of the learners, the teaching materials, the teaching-learning approach, and the evaluation process. nurlina and israhayu (2016) have investigated the difficulties on writing paper for thai learners who studied at a university in purwokerto and the efforts of developing bipa material to support the writing ability of the students. ulumuddin and wismanto, (2014) have underlined the needs of developing interactive bipa materials which accommodate the social and cultural spheres of indonesian culture. ramadhani, widodo, and harsiati (2016) have conducted research on bipa speaking skill materials for beginner level which are well-validated by ifl instructional experts. meanwhile, due to the limited number of qualified bipa teaching materials, fariqoh (2016) has developed the reading materials for bipa students of the basic level to facilitate the increasing number of bipa learners. related to indonesian for academic purposes, kusmiatun et al. (2017) have explained the importance and characteristics of some academic learning components for bipa development. bipa materials need to fulfill the academic needs of the learners that are supported by the use of media and authentic materials. on account of underlying the importance of pedagogical norms of bipa learning, research has investigated the teaching techniques and learning materials for bipa students to match the characteristics of bipa learners in indonesia. the research also highlights that outdoor activities can be effective for learning bipa (suyitno et al., 2017). there have been many research on wtc in english. first, in efl speaking class in thailand, pattapong (2010) has studied wtc among college students using qualitative method (interview, stimulated recall, and classroom observation) and contributed to a model of wtc in a second language and teaching application to promote wtc. second, the research of zarrinabadi and abdi (2011) have examined the relationship between wtc in english and language learning orientations of bilingual iranian college students by using questionnaires. third, in a new zealand university, the researcher involves three permanent migrants from iran for case studies to reveal six supporting factors of wtc in english (cameron, 2013). moreover, it is also discovered that their wtc outside of the class in new zealand is significantly higher than their wtc in iran. fourth, this research has investigated that the wtc in english of the first year pakistani college students is relatively high based on the self-completion questionnaire related to context-type and receiver type (bukhari, cheng, & khan, 2015). fifth, in indonesia, the scholar explores four major factors influencing the wtc of indonesian college students in efl speaking class using an open-ended questionnaire (wulandari, 2015). sixth, based on their research among efl learners at a private university in ankara, turkey, it is stated that the relations between ideal l2 self and wtc inside the classroom were positive and highly significant (bursali & oz, 2017). furthermore, more recently, action research is conducted in a basic german classroom among 15 undergraduate students at an american public university by wegner (2017). the findings of this research indicate that there are three crucial factors to enhance the learners’ wtc such as student preparedness, student motivation, and the utilization of various assessment types (wegner, 2017). in 325exploring the international... (lewinna aguskin; maryani) addition, the role of teachers is also significant to create a supportive classroom atmosphere and provide authentic speaking activities. despite many pieces of research of english language learners’ wtc or wtc in english-speaking countries, to our knowledge, only one research is conducted in regard to the indonesian language in indonesia. recently, siregar, maryani, and limuria (2016) have investigated asian foreign students in using the indonesian language inside and outside the classroom. they find that the students’ wtc inside the classroom is higher than their wtc outside the classroom and this wtc is influenced by the teachers’ strategies and enthusiasms. they also argue that teachers have to modify the learning opportunities including developing their teaching material to prevent the students’ wtc decreasing. the research has shown the importance of researching bipa students’ wtc as well as living a gap to fill. considering the previous research of bipa, none of the research is related to the evaluation of bipa learning materials which can enhance willingness to communicate (wtc) in the indonesian language for international university students. this is one of the research gaps which need further investigation. another research gap to fill is investigating the students’ perceptions and the teachers’ strategies in promoting wtc inside and outside the classroom. accordingly, this research is significant in giving insights into the quality of bipa learning materials and teaching strategies to promote students’ wtc in learning indonesian. therefore, it is required to conduct this case study to examine the influence of current indonesian materials on the learners’ wtc inside and outside the classroom. the research objectives of this research are to discover the bipa students’ perceptions of the current bipa learning materials, to figure out how much the students’ wtc is influenced by the current language materials and to present the strategies that the teachers used to facilitate students’ wtc inside and outside the class. this case study will provide insights to enrich the research of wtc in the indonesian language in study abroad contexts for international students. methods a qualitative method is used in this research in order to answer the research questions. the qualitative method is chosen to reveal the detailed phenomenon related to the research and achieve a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon (creswell, 2012) which is about bipa teachers and international students’ perceptions of the current language learning material, that influence the students’ willingness to communicate in indonesian. this research is conducted in a bipa class at a private university in bandung. the participants of this research are seven international exchange students from japan, south korea, and malaysia. they are taking bipa class at the university; five students at elementary bipa class and two students at intermediate bipa class. their age levels are 19-23 years. they are enrolled in some departments such as english, economics, and art and design. besides the students, there are two bipa teachers in elementary class and two bipa teachers at the intermediate class that participated in this research. their age levels are 29-40 years. there are some stages of data collection for this research. first, the researchers seek the official approval from a private university in bandung for the research to take place before conducting the data collection. after getting the approval, the researchers distribute the information sheets and consent forms to all participants, and give the students a chance to ask questions about anything that is unclear. moreover, all participants are asked to use pseudonyms in order to keep their anonymity in any publication and presentation of this research. all recorded data are only used for this research and not be made available to anyone else without the express permission from the participants. second, the data are collected through the means of semi-structured interviews with bipa (indonesian language for foreigners) students, teachers, and also classroom recordings. the interview with teachers and students are conducted to answer the first question of this research, that is, to discover the bipa teachers’ and international students’ perceptions of the current bipa handbook used in the class, while teaching, and learning process in class. the interview questions for students are adapted from the study of cao and philip (2006). some examples of the questions are; (1) how important is it for you to learn indonesian? (2) how motivated were you during this language course? (3) how much did you like learning together with your classmates in this course? (4) how would you describe your personality (quiet or talkative, relaxed or tense)? (5) did you feel confident when you were speaking indonesian in class? (6) in what situation did you feel most comfortable (most willing) to communicate; in pairs, in small groups, with the teacher in a whole class? why? besides, classroom recordings are useful to collect students’ actions in speaking situations to be used as evidence for determining conditions influencing students’ wtc related to the use of current language material in class. a classroom observation scheme is adapted from the research of cao and philip (2006) and the research of xie (2011) is used to code the recorded classroom data. both the elementary and intermediate bipa students are observed once in the middle of the semester. the scheme includes wtc behavior categories that can be seen in figure 1. in the presence of the teacher, does the student show the following actions? teacher-student 1. greetings 2. volunteer an answer 3. volunteer a comment to the teacher’s open question 4. give answer to teacher’s individual question 5. ask the teacher a question 6. ask the teacher for clarification 7. guess the meaning of unknown word 8. try out a difficult lexical form 9. try out a difficult morphological form 10 try out a difficult syntactical form student-student 1. talk to their classmates 2. present own opinion to their classmates 3. respond to an opinion of their classmates figure 1 the categories of wtc behavior the data taken from the semi-structured interview are transcribed verbatim to discover bipa students’ perceptions of the current language learning material; 326 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 323-331 and also to know how far the international students’ willingness to communicate is influenced by the current language material. the data taken from teachers’ interviews are used to know the strategies that the teachers used in developing language material which is expected to facilitate bipa students’ willingness to communicate inside and outside the classroom. the recorded data taken from classroom recording are used to evaluate the willingness to communicate in the classroom. thematic analysis is used in analyzing the interview result, whereas descriptive statistics is used in analyzing the data taken from classroom recording. results and discussions the first research question examines the bipa students’ perceptions of the current language learning materials used in class. these current materials include several tasks. first, the listening section is supplemented with the audio recording of the indonesian conversation in each unit of the bipa handout. second, the interview assignments are given by the lecturer based on the topic in each unit of the bipa handout. the interviews are done in indonesian and outside the class. the bipa students could choose their own interviewees as long as the interviews are done in indonesian. the data to answer the first research question is taken from the students’ interview. the findings show that the current language materials used in class have given several benefits for the bipa students. table 1 presents the data from the bipa students’ interview about the benefits that they have experienced from the listening section in bipa handout. table 1 bipa students’ perception of the listening section participant perception s1 i think it’s [listening section] suitable for us, it’s not too difficult, it’s not too easy, but i think we need more listening section because we have problems with communicating with taxi driver. s5 sometimes, it’s [communicating with taxi driver] difficult. i can’t understand indonesians speak. [need more exercise.. practice] yeah. s3, s2, s4 [need more exercise..practice] yeah. s3, s2, s4 it’s [more listening section] important. s3, s2, s4 [for daily life] yes. s7 sometime it’s [listening section] difficult because we need to fill in the blank with vocabulary which i’ve, we’ve never learn… sometimes too fast, but it’s ok to improve our listening skill… [it’s useful] yes…it’s [listening section] usual, like natural [conversation]. s6 it’s [listening section] good for me…i also like this kind of activity, but we don’t know how to spell…we have to write constant but sometimes we don’t know the spell… [it’s useful] yes. based on the bipa (indonesian language for foreigners) students’ perception of the listening section in table 1, it is clearly seen that all students find the listening materials to be useful and important to improve their listening skill. however, three students have stated that listening to indonesian recordings is difficult due to the new vocabularies and spelling of those words that they have never learned before. table 2 presents data from the bipa students’ interview about the benefits that they have experienced from the interview assignments in bipa handout. table 2 bipa students’ perception of the interview assignments participant perception s3 i think the assignment is helpful, because… in speaking bahasa we also can add other indonesian friends. so, every assignment i will make sure that the people that i interview is different person. s2 same with [s1]…i think it’s helpful. s4 usually i’m trying to different person, to interview. and then, it is helpful, to make friends. it makes more information about them. s5 i try to [interview] different person and this makes improves my bahasa indonesia. s1 help me to make more indonesian friends, and also i can improve my indonesian skill. s7 it’s [interview assignment] useful…i asked some questions like some topics about hobby…to indonesian. s6 it’s [interview assignment] really helpful… and when we talk to native speaker, they use many expression that we don’t know… so indonesian people talk like this, and i can get some like…how they speak. based on the bipa students’ perception of the interview assignments in table 2, it is clearly seen that all students benefited from the interviews that they have done. they admit that their indonesian improve significantly when they interview other indonesians outside the class. they could learn more indonesian vocabularies; moreover, they also know more indonesian people as they try to interview the different person for each assignment. interestingly, one student has mentioned that the interview assignments have helped him to recognize how the indonesian native speakers speak so he could imitate the way they speak. the findings are in line with kusmiatun et al. (2017)’s statement that support media usage and authentic materials related to bipa teaching materials. based on the interview results, it is found that the bipa students are benefited from the listening session, where they could listen to the native speakers’ utterances, although sometimes they find difficulties to spell the words needed in the listening exercise (fill in the blanks). moreover, the authenticity in the interview assignments has helped the bipa students in having more encounters with the native speakers so they could have more indonesian acquaintances and learn the way the native speakers’ speak. the second research question examines the extent to which the international students’ wtc in indonesian is 327exploring the international... (lewinna aguskin; maryani) influenced by the current language materials. the data is taken from students’ interview and also classroom recordings. the findings show that the students are influenced by several topics in the current language materials. table 3 presents data from students’ interview about their opinion on how the current language materials have influenced their wtc in indonesian in class. table 3 bipa students’ opinion on the influence of current language materials to their wtc participant perception s1-s5 speaking [make us want to talk bahasa more] s6 listening part [make us want to talk bahasa more]…it makes me know to use…to study vocabulary from conversation s1 [the topic of] food [make me want to talk bahasa more] because i often eat lunch or dinner with my indonesian friends. they ask me about my favorite food, or, “do you like it?”, so i have more vocabulary of food, how to describe taste, so that’s why it’s comfortable s5 [the topic of] food [make me want to talk bahasa more] s3 [the topic of] time and activities [make me want to talk bahasa more] s2 [the topic of] numbers [make me want to talk bahasa more] s4 [the topic of] useful numbers…useful sentence [make me want to talk bahasa more] table 3 bipa students’ opinion on the influence of current language materials to their wtc (continued) participant perception s6 [the topic of] color or weather [make me want to talk bahasa more] because it will be helpful for me to talk outside the class with everyone…when we with our friends… maybe with taxi driver or staff in the hotel or supermarket s7 [the topic of] places in indonesia [make me want to talk bahasa more]…i like to travel, so it’s good information for me to decide where to going. it’s very interesting for me to learn new culture and to learn about indonesia. based on the bipa students’ opinion on the influence of current language materials to their indonesian wtc in table 3, it is clearly seen that speaking and listening part which is included in the current language materials have motivated the students in their indonesian wtc. furthermore, several topics have influenced them to speak indonesian in class, such as food, number, time, activities, color, and weather. interestingly, these topics are the topics that the students find common to be used in daily life situation with the other indonesian they meet, either their own friends or acquaintances they encounter in the daily basis. moreover, one student has stated that the topic, which is places in indonesia, has made him eager to communicate in indonesian since it is related to his traveling hobby. based on the data in table 4, it can be seen that both bipa 1 students and bipa 2 students have shown their wtc inside the classroom. most of them volunteer a comment to their teacher’s open questions which are related to the table 4 the data from classroom recording about the bipa students’ wtc in indonesian in the classroom interlocutors wtc bipa 1 elementary (5 stds) bipa 2 intermediate (2 stds) s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 total s6 s7 total teacher student greetings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 volunteer an answer 3 1 5 2 4 15 0 0 0 volunteer a comment to the teacher’s open question 4 4 1 4 0 13 55 58 113 give answer to teacher’s individual question 45 12 22 3 13 95 36 13 49 ask the teacher a question 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 ask the teacher for clarification 0 2 1 0 1 4 5 0 5 guess the meaning of unknown word 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 try out a difficult lexical form 5 3 0 0 1 9 0 1 1 try out a difficult morphological form 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 try out a difficult syntactical form 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 4 studentstudent talk to their classmates 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 3 7 present own opinion to their classmates 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 14 39 respond to an opinion of their classmates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 total 58 23 29 9 19 138 129 93 222 328 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 323-331 topic of the meeting, which is the holiday. all students also answer the teacher’s individual questions in indonesian, which is the most frequent wtc occurrence compared to the other occurrence of wtc shown in table 5. moreover, some of them also ask the teacher for clarification regarding unfamiliar terms that they just know and try out difficult lexical terms, such as air mancur, prambanan, pemandangan, lesehan, and perak. few of them guess the meaning of unknown words, such as pesawat and kereta api. however, bipa 2 students show a higher frequency of wtc compared to bipa 1 students. this is due to bipa 2 students are intermediate indonesian learners, they have been in indonesia more than six months, and they have traveled to several cities in indonesia; therefore, they have more language knowledge and confidence in speaking indonesian. the findings are in line with wegner’s (2017) findings in which he has stated that the students’ wtc positive improvement is a result of topic interest. he further argues that students who are interested in the learning activities will feel positive that results in improved wtc. based on the present findings, the common topics used in the bipa class have made the students want to communicate more in indonesian, especially the topics that are easy to be talked to with other indonesian outside the class, for example, food, color, weather, and places in indonesia. the third research question analyzes the strategies that bipa teachers used in developing language material which is expected to facilitate bipa students’ willingness to communicate inside and outside the classroom. the data is based on the interview with two bipa teachers level 1 (elementary) and two bipa teachers of level 2 (intermediate). based on the interview with the first bipa teacher in elementary level, there are some strategies used in the classroom as listed in table 5. table 5 strategies used in bipa level 1 (t1) materials & teaching aids strategies to increase wtc coursebook: bipa 1 authentic materials: menu board game a. role-play (buyer and seller) b. outdoor activity: going to campus canteen c. going to a mini market to buy some items d. sharing experiences of going to the mini market e. playing monopoly it can be seen from table 5 that there are several strategies that the teacher used. first, in the class, the teacher encourages the students to use indonesian vocabulary that the students have learned related to numbers and prices by asking them to demonstrate a role play between a seller and a buyer by using money-like paper and restaurant menu with the price list. the students could practice to ask and answer questions related to food items and prices in daily life. second, the teacher takes the students to a small faculty canteen in the campus area and lets them communicate with the canteen owner to ask the names of indonesian menu and the prices to buy any light meal with rp10.000,00 and check the change. taking the students to meet indonesians outside the classroom is a valuable opportunity for them to experience an authentic conversation with indonesians. third, the students are given the assignment to visit a nearby mini market, take notes of some product prices, and make some transaction with their money then report the activity to the classmates in the next meeting. they might not use many indonesian words when going to mini market, but they could learn to write some information related to items and prices. then in the class, each student could share their notes and experiences to visit and buy some items in a mini market in indonesian and get some feedback from the teacher. fourth, the teacher already plans to use a monopoly board game to have some fun learning in the class, but due to the limited of time, the game is canceled. furthermore, in order to increase wtc, the teacher suggests that the students should have more learning activities outside the classroom because it is more challenging so that the students will practice speaking in indonesian with some indonesians who cannot speak english or their native language. if they only communicate with university students, they might switch to english or their native language. related to bipa level 1, there are some information related to strategies from the second bipa teacher as shown in table 6. table 6 strategies used in bipa level 1 (t2) materials & teaching aids strategies to increase wtc coursebook: bipa 1 authentic materials: product catalogue, supermarket brochure, fast food flyer, realias (birthday presents) a. introducing oneself: finding new indonesian friends b. fruits & food and beverages: mini market survey, food survey among indonesian friends (interviewing) c. time & holiday activities: sharing with indonesian conversation partners using photos, exchanging birthday wishes and present, singing a song, brainstorming & eliciting d. transportation: pair work: information-gap activities e. family: sharing family tree it can be noticed that there are some strategies employed in developing students’ wtc. first, in order to encourage the bipa students to practice some phrases of introducing themselves outside of the class with new indonesian friends, they are given a task to interview some indonesian friends from various faculties and take notes about the names, the major, and the residence in the worksheet. they have to record the interview with their mobile phone and send the files to the teacher. they do the assignment after doing some practice with some indonesian conversation partners in the class. second, the teacher goes to a nearby mini market with the students and some indonesian conversation partners; the task is finding some authentic indonesian snack/food and beverages as well as taking notes of the names of the items and the brands. they move around the mini market assisted by the indonesian friends. the indonesian friends 329exploring the international... (lewinna aguskin; maryani) will help them if they want to get information about the authentic indonesian products. after collecting the data, they buy some items and discuss the result of the survey in the class. for the assignment, the students are told to do a small survey among their indonesian friends to find out how many people like or dislike the food and beverage that they have in their worksheet and discover the reasons of their statement. in such a way, the students are encouraged to have social interaction outside the class with indonesian friends. third, the students learn indonesian song “names of days” to help them memorize the days in a fun way. the teacher shows some realism of birthday items and present such as a doll, a key chain, a purse, a watch, a necklace, a bracelet, an umbrella, a gift box, and candles so that they would have some ideas when they practice to say “happy birthday”, and give small cue cards of birthday present with their choice of gift to indonesian friends in the class. furthermore, the teacher also has some students work in a small group with indonesian friends to share their holiday experiences to yogyakarta using some printed pictures or photos after doing brainstorming about their holiday experiences with the teacher. eliciting some answers from the students about their holiday experiences is quite effective to encourage students to speak in indonesian actively. fourth, the students work in pairs with indonesian partners and do the information-gap activity about the schedule and destination of trains in some cities in indonesia. they practice asking and giving information in indonesian. fifth, the students make a simple family tree and share it with the teacher for the oral test. to sum up, the teacher underlines that involving university students as indonesian conversation partners is helpful to encourage bipa students to practice the indonesian language in a relaxed atmosphere. additionally, the teacher suggests using speech journal, journal writing, and taking city tour around bandung to enhance students’ wtc. in the next part, the result of interview with two bipa teachers of level 2 will be discussed. based on the interview with the teacher, there are some strategies listed that can be seen in table 7. table 7 strategies used in bipa level 2 (t3) materials & teaching aids strategies to increase wtc coursebook: bipa 2 with audio recording, reading passages, dialogues a. brainstorming and eliciting b. listening: fill in the dialogue and read the dialogue, discussion and personalization c. telling hobbies and retelling hobbies d. discussing reading text e. interviewing indonesians about hobbies f. asking for suggestions if going to japan it can be seen that there are some strategies employed in bipa class level 2. in this class, there are two male japanese students. first, she encourages the students to speak by brainstorming some ideas of their traveling experiences in indonesia and japan. the teacher also shares some tourist destinations in the bandung area. second, the students are listening to the recording to fill in the missing words in the dialogue; then the students practice reading the dialogue between two friends about hobbies. she is able to elicit some answers in indonesian by using personalization when discussing their hobbies such as cooking, reading, playing tennis, and watching movies. also, they discuss the new hobbies they have in indonesia and their traveling in indonesia. third, the teacher asks the students to tell their hobbies, listen to each other, and tell their partner’s hobbies. also, they are asked to tell about the hobbies of their sister or brothers. they are able to share short stories in indonesian about their siblings. fourth, the teacher discusses the reading text with the students and let the students answer and ask question-related to the text. fifth, the students are given the task to interview two indonesian friends about their hobbies, record the interview, and discuss the result of the interview to give feedback and learn new vocabulary. in order to develop wtc, she gives some suggestions such as asking the students to make the recording, listen to their own recording, make the transcription of the recording, and evaluate the recording for learning indonesian. incorporating technology to learn indonesian will be helpful for the students. besides, it is recommended that the students learn to text in indonesian to make an appointment for doing activities with their friends. furthermore, to evaluate the development of their language skills, the teacher can give pre-test at the beginning of the semester and the post-test at the end of the semester for describing the same pictures or sharing the same topic. based on the interview with another bipa teacher in level 2, there are some strategies listed in table 8. table 8 strategies used in bipa level 2 (t4) materials & teaching aids strategies to increase wtc coursebook indonesian movie a. telephoning the staff of korean language courses to get information b. watching indonesian movie c. writing a short film review and discussion d. writing holiday experience and sharing the story e. creating video using a mobile phone from the last interview, it is found some strategies to increase wtc. first, in order to practice telephoning in indonesian, each student is given a task to telephone the korean language center in campus and off campus to get some information about the schedule of the course, the levels, the price, and registration procedures. the teacher lets the student make a phone call by himself after learning some phrases and examples from the book. the teacher acts as the prompter and gives some advice or clues if the student needs assistance. the students learn to practice for the authentic conversation on the phone with its challenges and difficulties. the teacher has reported that it turns out some phrases or expressions they have learned are different from what they have to use when communicating with the indonesian at the language center. they hear some informal or conversational 330 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 323-331 indonesian words that they might not familiar with. thus, in such a way, they learn to handle the situation and increase their vocabulary and speaking skills. second, the students watch a full-version of indonesian movie cek toko sebelah in class so that they could practice listening to authentic formal and informal language. the teacher chooses the film due to the fact that it contains cultural aspects of sunda and betawi, and the dialogues are also mixed with some english words. it is not easy for the students to understand the film, yet at least they have the experience of learning new things and get some information about new vocabulary from the teacher. third, the teacher asks the students to write a short review of the film and share what they learn from the film by having the discussion in the class. fourth, related to holiday the students are asked to write their holiday story and share it in the class. fifth, for the test the students are creating a video about their learning experience in for one year in indonesia. the teacher explains some suggestions for developing bipa materials such as watching a short indonesian film or video clip (10-15 minutes) related to daily life, watching indonesian commercials from tv, learning to do informal text messages with some abbreviations, ordering online transportation (taxi or gojek), and ordering some food. in short, concerning the third research question about the strategies for developing language materials, this research has shown that bipa (indonesian language for foreigners) teachers have developed several practical and useful strategies to promote the learners’ wtc. in elementary and intermediate class, there have been some applicable strategies such as using authentic materials, creating more opportunities for real communication, and using social media and audiovisuals materials. providing learning opportunities for the learners to practice indonesian inside and outside the classroom is crucial. finding of this research is in line with the research of richards (2006) that related to the principles of communicative language teaching namely focusing language learning for real communication and providing opportunities to experiment and practice the language. the significance of teacher’s strategies and the development of listening and speaking activities are also consistent with the research of siregar, maryani, and limuria (2016) that teachers need to prevent students’ wtc decreasing by developing bipa teaching materials. similar to the research finding of suyitno et al. (2017) and wegner (2017), this research also highlights the importance of providing outdoor activities and speaking practice to increase wtc in a supportive classroom environment in which the teachers are taking the role as a participant. conclusions to sum up, this research has several findings. first, regarding the perceptions of bipa students, it is revealed that the students have positive responses towards the current language learning materials in bipa classes specifically on the use of the listening section and interview project. they find it important and helpful to listen to recorded indonesian conversation and communicate with indonesian native speakers to enhance their speaking and listening skills in the academic and social setting. second, the current language materials are influential in motivating the bipa students in their indonesian wtc inside and outside the class. they regard it useful to learn some relevant topics to have small talks with people in their social interaction. furthermore, based on the classroom recordings, it can be noticed that the students are active to participate in discussion with the teachers. third, bipa teachers have employed some strategies to develop the wtc of bipa students inside and outside the class with various listening and speaking activities and class projects. the strategies are in line with some principles of communicative language teaching such as practicing language skills for real communication and experimenting with what the students learn in the real-world situation. the research also shows that using authentic materials and integrating technology into teaching and learning is important to motivate the students practicing the language. considering the beneficial impacts of the current language materials, it is highly recommended that the teachers keep on developing bipa language materials by incorporating more cultural aspects, more technology and online resources for providing more opportunities and access to learn indonesian language and culture. as a result, the needs of bipa students to use indonesian in academic and social setting can be fulfilled by teacher-designed materials comprising contextualization and individual needs. despite its important findings, there are some limitations to this case study. first, it is the limited number of international students and the origins of home countries, namely seven international students from malaysia, south korea, and japan. having more participants with more various nationalities will enrich the depth of this case study. second, the current main focus of material development is on listening and speaking activities. integrating more language skills such as reading and writing will be more beneficial for promoting students’ wtc. for further research, it is worth analyzing to study various bipa textbooks and audiovisual materials which promote students’ wtc inside and outside the class. references bukhari, s. f., cheng, x., & khan, s. a. 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(2014). bahan ajar bahasa indonesia ranah sosial budaya bagi penutur asing (bipa). jurnal sasindo: pendidikan bahasa dan sastra, 2(1), 15-35. wegner, r. (2017). willingness to communicate (wtc) among beginning-level german learners: teaching german as a foreign language in a u.s. university classroom. international journal of foreign language teaching & research. 5(20), 11–25. wulandari, s. (2015). factors influencing students’ willingness to communicate in transactional speaking courses. salatiga: satya wacana christian university. xie, q. (2011). willingness to communicate in english among secondary school students in the rural chinese english as a foreign language (efl) classroom (master thesis). auckland: auckland university of technology. retrieved from http://aut.researchgateway. a c . n z / b i t s t r e a m / h a n d l e / 1 0 2 9 2 / 2 5 4 8 / x i e q . pdf?sequence=3&isallowed=y. zarrinabadi, n., & abdi, r. (2011). willingness to communicate and language learning orientations in iranian efl context. international education studies, 4(4), 204–216. 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia pada mahasiswa sastra jepang semester akhir di perguruan tinggi ratna handayani; elisa carolina marion; natsumi koda japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii, no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ratnahandayani2004@yahoo.com; emarion@binus.edu; nkoda@binus.edu abstract the term nenkoujoretsu as one characteristic of japanese culture gives much influence on management system for japanese companies operating in indonesia, including promotion system for employee career development. this system is very much different from the promotion system of western companies. current developments show promotion system in the company does not entirely focus on seniority and age, but focuses on educational background and individual achievement. thus the implementation of nenkoujoretsu on japanese companies has changed. further research related to the implementation of nenkoujoretsu on japanese companies in indonesia was conducted by examining working interest in japanese companies in indonesia of the japanese literature students at final semester. the scope of this study was students at final or seventh semester in stba jia-bekasi, universitas al azhar indonesia-jakarta, universitas darma persada, stba lia-jakarta, universitas bina nusantara, and universitas nasional-jakarta. this study used questionnaire and literature method. purpose of this research is readers can understand about student interest in japanese literature to work in japanese companies in indonesia. this study concludes most students of japanese literature at final or seventh semester are interested in working in japanese companies. a large part of the reasons for respondents who were interested in working in a foreign company is due to big salary. in addition, performance also plays an important role and determines the position and higher salary than the senior as well as the ability to apply skills in japanese language and knowledge about japanese. keywords: nenkoujoretsu, working interest, japanese management system, promotion system abstrak istilah nenkoujoretsu, sebagai salah salah satu budaya yang memberikan ciri khas tersendiri bagi jepang, memberikan banyak pengaruh terhadap sistem manajemen bagi perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia, termasuk sistem promosi bagi perkembangan karier karyawannya. sistem ini sangat jauh berbeda dengan sistem promosi yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan barat. perkembangan saat ini menunjukkan sistem promosi di perusahaan tersebut tidak seluruhnya dititikberatkan pada senioritas dan usia, tetapi lebih menitikberatkan pada latar belakang pendidikan dan prestasi individual. dengan demikian penerapan nenkoujoretsu pada perusahaan jepang telah mengalami perubahan. studi lanjutan berkaitan dengan penerapan nenkoujoretsu pada perusahaan jepang di indonesia dilakukan dengan meneliti minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia pada mahasiwa sastra jepang semester akhir. ruang lingkup penelitian adalah mahasiswa semester tujuh atau akhir di stba jia-bekasi, universitas al azhar indonesia-jakarta, universitas darma persada, stba lia-jakarta, universitas bina nusantara, dan universitas nasional-jakarta. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah metode angket dan kepustakaan. adapun tujuan penelitian ini agar pembaca dapat memahami lebih dalam mengenai minat mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir untuk bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia. simpulan dari penelitian ini adalah sebagian besar mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir berminat untuk bekerja di perusahaan jepang. sebagaian besar alasan dari responden yang berminat bekerja di perusahaan asing adalah karena gaji yang besar. selain itu kinerja juga berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior serta dapat mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an. kata kunci: nenkoujoretsu, minat bekerja, sistem manajemen jepang, sistem promosi 81minat bekerja ….. (ratna handayani; dkk) pendahuluan istilah nenkojoretsu—salah salah satu budaya yang memberikan ciri khas tersendiri bagi negara jepang memberikan banyak pengaruh terhadap sistem manajemen bagi perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia, termasuk dalam sistem promosi bagi perkembangan karier karyawan yang berada di dalamnya (marion, handayani, & koda, 2012). sistem ini sangat jauh berbeda dengan sistem promosi yang dilakukan oleh perusahaan barat. menurut klein (1992), sistem promosi pada perusahaan as menitikberatkan pada prestasi individual. karena karyawan direkrut berdasarkan keterampilan, kompetensi atau keahlian mereka sangat dihargai (culpan & kucukemiroglu, 1993); sedangkan pada perusahaan jepang ditentukan oleh senioritas, usia, jenis kelamin, dan status perkawinan (lihat chen, 1995; hasegawa, 1986; hideaki, 2013). seiring dengan perkembangan zaman, sistem promosi perkembangan karier di perusahaan jepang mengalami perubahan sejak tahun 1990 (firkola, 2006), namun senioritas, usia, jenis kelamin, dan status perkawinan tetap menjadi hal yang diperhitungkan di samping performa kerja (hiromi, 2006). dengan demikian, tetap terlihat adanya perbedaan dalam sistem promosi pada perusahaan as dengan perusahaan jepang. dalam perkembangan saat ini, hasil penelitian marion, handayani, dan koda (2012) di pt kds indonesia menunjukkan sistem promosi di perusahaan tersebut tidak seluruhnya dititikberatkan pada senioritas dan usia. sistem promosi di sana lebih menitikberatkan pada latar belakang pendidikan dan prestasi individual. dengan demikian, penerapan nenkoujoretsu di perusahaan jepang telah mengalami perubahan (nishioka, 2009). meningkatnya jumlah investasi perusahaan jepang di indonesia (halo jepang, 2013) menunjukkan meningkatnya juga peluang penduduk lokal untuk bisa bekerja dan mengembangkan karier di perusahaan jepang yang beroperasi di indonesia. hal tersebut menarik perhatian untuk melihat minat bekerja mahasiswa sastra jepang semester akhir di perusahaan jepang di indonesia. berdasarkan data 2009, lulusan sastra jepang universitas bina nusantara yang bekerja di perusahaan jepang ataupun yang bergerak di bidang ke-jepang-an, sebesar 55%, sisanya bekerja di bidang lain, dan sebagai entrepreneur. sebagai pengajar di jurusan sastra jepang s1, peneliti tertarik untuk mengkaji lebih lanjut sehubungan dengan penerapan nenkoujoretsu pada perusahaan jepang di indonesia. rumusan permasalahan dalam penelitian adalah minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia pada mahasiwa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di perguruan tinggi. ruang lingkup permasalahan penelitian ini adalah minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang pada mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas wilayah jakarta¬–bekasi, yaitu sekolah tinggi bahasa asing jia-bekasi, universitas al-azhar indonesia-jakarta, universitas darma persada, stba lia-jakarta, universitas bina nusantara, dan universitas nasional-jakarta. tujuan penelitian ini adalah mengetahui lebih dalam minat dan alasan bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia pada mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di enam buah perguruan tinggi wilayah jakarta dan bekasi, setelah mahasiswa tersebut mengetahui perkembangan penerapan nenkoujoretsu di perusahaan jepang saat ini. penelitian ini juga dapat membuka wawasan pengajar di jurusan sastra jepang yang ingin mengetahui lebih dalam mengenai minat dan alasan mahasiswa semester tujuh atau akhir untuk bekerja, setelah mereka lulus dari universitas. manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah agar pembaca dapat mengetahui minat dan alasan mahasiswa semeseter tujuh atau akhir untuk bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia, setelah mengetahui perkembangan penerapan nenkoujoretsu di perusahaan jepang saat ini. metode untuk memperoleh hasil yang diharapkan dalam penelitian masalah ini, penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan mendapatkan data melalui studi kepustakan dan kuesioner. pendekatan kualitatif adalah suatu proses penelitian dan pemahaman yang berdasarkan pada metodologi yang menyelidiki suatu fenomena sosial dan masalah manusia. pada pendekatan ini, peneliti membuat suatu gambaran kompleks, meneliti kata-kata, laporan terinci dari pandangan nara sumber dan melakukan studi pada situasi yang alami (creswell, 1998). bogdan dan taylor dalam moleong (2007) mengemukakan bahwa metodologi kualitatif merupakan prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis maupun lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang diamati. adapun langkah-langkah penelitian yang peneliti lakukan adalah peneliti memberikan penjelasan terlebih dulu kepada responden mengenai pengertian nenkoujoretsu dan penerapannya dalam perusahaan jepang sebelum tahun 1980-an. setelah itu peneliti menjelaskan perkembangan penerapan nenkoujoretsu di perusahaan jepang saat ini yang mengalami perubahan yang cukup besar dan memberi keuntungan bagi yang berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang. lalu peneliti menanyakan kepada responden mengenai minat bekerja setelah lulus, khususnya di perusahaan jepang, setelah mengetahui perkembangan penerapan nenkoujorestsu di perusahaan jepang saat ini. setelah itu, hasil kuesioner dikumpulkan dan kemudian dianalisis oleh peneliti. hasil dan pembahasan bagian ini menjelaskan hasil dari kuesioner yang disebarkan kepada responden di enam perguruan tinggi jurusan sastra jepang di jakarta dan bekasi, yaitu stba jia-bekasi, universitas al azhar indonesia, universitas darma persada, stba-lia, universitas bina nusantara, dan universitas nasional-jakarta. responden adalah mahasiswa semester tujuh atau akhir, jurusan sastra jepang di enam buah universitas dan sekolah tinggi, yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya. responden mengisi kuesioner setelah membaca penjelasan mengenai perkembangan penerapan nenkoujoretsu di perusahaan jepang saat ini. minat bekerja mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di stba jia-bekasi 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden dari 46 responden mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang semester tujuh di stba jiabekasi (gambar 1), 45% responden atau 21 orang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang setelah lulus kuliah. responden sebanyak 24%, yaitu 11 orang, memilih bekerja wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. sebanyak 22% responden, yakni 10 orang, memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta); dan sebanyak 9 % responden atau 4 orang memilih bekerja di mana saja, meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an, tidak apa. data hasil kuesioner menunjukkan sebagaian besar responden di stba jia-bekasi berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang di indonesia. gambar 1 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di stba jia-bekasi alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang data pada gambar 2 menunjukkan alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. dari 21 orang yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang, sebanyak 71% atau 15 orang memiliki alasan karena mendapatkan gaji besar, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior, dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an responden. sisanya, 29% responden dari 21 orang, yakni 6 responden, memiliki alasan karena mendapatkan gaji yang lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa dan atau pengetahuan ke-jepang-an, seperti etos kerja, masyarakat, dan budaya jepang. hasil kuesioner menunjukkan responden di stba jia-bekasi sebagaian besar memiliki minat untuk bekerja di perusahaan jepang. gambar 2 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang stba jia semester tujuh memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang minat bekerja mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas al azhar indonesia-jakarta tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden berdasarkan hasil kuesioner (gambar 3), dari 7 orang responden, sebanyak 72% responden atau 5 orang memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta). sebanyak 14%, yakni 1 orang responden, memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang dan 14% yang lain memilih wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. tidak ada yang memilih bekerja di mana saja. berdasarkan data diketahui bahwa sebagaian besar responden di universitas al azhar indonesia tidak berminat untuk bekerja di perusahaan jepang namun masih ingin bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. gambar 3 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas al azhar indonesia-jakarta alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang meskipun perusahaan jepang bukan pilihan terbanyak dari responden di universitas al azhar indonesia dalam memilih tempat bekerja, peneliti ingin mengetahui alasan responden yang jumlahnya tidak banyak ini memilih perusahaan jepang sebagai tempat bekerja. berdasarkan hasil kuesioner, sebanyak 14% responden, yakni 1 orang, memiliki alasan karena perusahaan jepang memberikan gaji besar, kinerja juga berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an. alasan ini menjadi daya tarik bagi minat responden di universitas al azhar untuk memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. gambar 4 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas al azhar indonesia memilih beker ja di perusahaan jepang 83minat bekerja ….. (ratna handayani; dkk) alasan responden memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta) data pada gambar 5, jika dikaitkan dengan nenkoujoretsu yang diterapkan di perusahaan jepang saat ini, menunjukkan alasan responden yang sebagian besar memilih tempat bekerja yang berhubungan dengan kejepang-an. para responden tidak mengutamakan kedudukan atau posisi yang lebih tinggi dari senior yang diiringi dengan gaji yang tinggi pula, tetapi lebih menginginkan gaji yang lumayan dan dapat mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan tentang ke-jepang-an. sebanyak 20%, yakni 1 orang, dari responden yang memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubangan dengan ke-jepang-an tidak memberikan alasan. gambar 5 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas al azhar indonesia memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta) minat bekerja pada mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas darma persada tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden gambar 6 menunjukkan sebagaian besar responden, yakni sebanyak 35% atau 16 orang dari seluruh responden yang berjumlah 46 orang, memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. selanjutnya 26% responden, yakni 12 orang memilih bekerja di mana saja meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an tidak apa. selanjutnya sebanyak 22%, yakni 10 orang, memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta) dan sisanya, 17% yakni 8 orang memilih wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan kejepang-an. berdasarkan data, sebagaian besar responden di universitas darma persada memiliki minat bekerja di perusahaan jepang. gambar 6 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas darma persada alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang gambar 7 menunjukkan alasan 25% responden, yakni 4 orang dari 35% atau 16 orang dari seluruh responden, memilih perusahaan jepang sebagai tempat bekerja yang diinginkan setelah lulus kuliah, karena mendapatkan gaji besar, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an. sebagaian besar alasan responden, yakni sebanyak 69% dari 16 orang, yakni 11 orang, memiliki alasan, karena di perusahaan jepang mendapatkan gaji lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa atau dan pengetahuan tentang ke jepangan (etos kerja, masyarakat dan budaya jepang). sisanya, 6% responden, yakni 1 orang memiliki alasan: “yang penting bisa bekerja dan mendapat penghasilan.” berdasarkan data, 6% responden tidak mengutamakan kedudukan dan gaji yang dapat naik lebih tinggi dari senior jika bisa menunjukkan kinerja dan ketercapaian yang baik. selain itu 69% responden yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang ini juga lebih mengutamakan mendapat gaji yang lumayan dan dapat mengaplikasikan kemapuan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan tentang ke-jepang-an. ini menunjukkan responden di universitas darma persada tersebut tidak mengutamakan kenaikan gaji dan jabatan yang dapat lebih tinggi dari senior jika responden dapat menunjukkan ketercapaian dan kinerja yang baik. gambar 7 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas darma persada memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang minat bekerja mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas bina nusantara tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden berdasarkan diagram pada gambar 8, 32% responden, yakni 17 orang dari seluruh responden yang berjumlah 53 orang, memilih ingin bekerja di perusahaan jepang. dengan jumlah responden yang sama, yakni 32% responden yang lain memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta). sebanyak 23% responden, atau 12 orang memilih bekerja di mana saja, meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an, tidak apa dan sisanya sebanyak 13% responden, yakni 7 orang memilih bekerja wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepangan. berdasarkan data terlihat bahwa jumlah responden di universitas bina nusantara yang berminat untuk bekerja di 84 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 perusahaan jepang sama banyak dengan jumlah responden di universitas bina nusantara yang berminat untuk bekerja di tempat yang berhubungn dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta). gambar 8 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepangsemester tujuh atau akhir di universitas bina nusantara alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang berdasarkan diagram pada gambar 9, sebagian besar alasan resoponden yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang, yakni 65% dari 32 responden (17 orang) yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang, 11 orang memiliki alasan karena mendapat gaji besar, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke jepangan. sisanya, 35%, yakni 6 orang responden memiliki alasan, karena gaji lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa atau dan pengetahuan tentang ke-jepang-an (etos kerja, masyarakat dan budaya jepang). gambar 9 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas bina nusantara memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang minat bekerja pada mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di sekolah tinggi bahasa asing lia-jakarta tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden berdasarkan diagram pada gambar 10, 29% responden, yakni 5 orang dari seluruh jumlah responden yang berjumlah 17 orang, memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. sementara 29% responden lainnya, yakni 5 orang responden, memlilih bekerja di mana saja meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. sebanyak 24% responden, yakni 4 orang, memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta). sisanya, 18% responden, atau 3 orang, memilih bekerja wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. gambar 10 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepangsemester tujuh atau akhir di sekolah tinggi bahasa asing liajakarta berdasarkan data terlihat bahwa jumlah responden di stba lia-jakarta yang berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang sama banyaknya dengan jumlah responden di stba lia-jakarta yang berminat bekerja di mana saja meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang ada dua buah. sebanyak 60%, atau 3 orang, dari jumlah responden yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang, 29% atau 5 orang, memiliki alasan karena di perusahaan jepang mendapatkan gaji besar, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an. sisanya, 40% responden, yakni 2, orang memiliki alasan karena gaji lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa atau dan pengetahuan tentang ke-jepang-an (etos kerja, masyarakat, dan budaya jepang). gambar 11 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas sekolah tinggi bahasa asing lia-jakarta memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang data menunjukkan sebagian besar alasan responden di stba lia-jakarta yang berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang adalah mendapatkan gaji yang besar. selain itu, responden juga ingin dapat menunjukkan kinerja dan 85minat bekerja ….. (ratna handayani; dkk) pencapaian yang lebih baik dari seniornya, sehingga bisa mendapatkan gaji dan jabatan yang lebih tinggi dari senior responden. minat bekerja pada mahasiswa jurusan sastra jepang, semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas nasional-jakarta tempat bekerja yang diinginkan responden gambar 12 menunjukkan 58% responden, yakni 7 orang, dari seluruh jumlah responden (12 orang) memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. selanjutnya 17% responden, yakni sebanyak 2 orang, memilih bekerja di tempat yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an (bukan di perusahaan jepang dan bukan wiraswasta); dan 17% responden lainnya, yakni 2 orang responden, memilih bekerja di mana saja meskipun tidak berhubungan dengan ke jepang-an, tidak apa. sisa responden, sebanyak 8%, yakni 1 orang, memilih bekerja wiraswasta yang berhubungan dengan ke-jepang-an. dengan demikian, berdasarkan data tersebut, terlihat sebagian besar responden di universitas nasional-jakarta berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang. gambar 12 diagram tempat bekerja yang diinginkan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh atau akhir di universitas nasional alasan responden memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang berdasarkan gambar 13, sebanyak 29% responden (2 orang) dari 58% jumlah responden (12 orang) yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang memiliki alasan memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang karena gaji besar, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior, serta dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan kejepang-an. sebanyak 71% responden lainnya (5 orang) memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang karena bisa mendapatkan gaji lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa dan/atau pengetahuan tentang kejepang-an (etos kerja, masyarakat, dan budaya jepang). berdasarkan diagram yang ada, maka dapat terlihat bahwa sebagian besar responden berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang. akan tetapi, alasan sebagian besar responden yang berminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang lebih mengutamakan pada gaji yang lumayan dan bisa mengaplikasikan kemampuan bahasa dan/atau pengetahuan tentang ke-jepang-an (etos kerja, masyarakat, dan budaya jepang). gambar 13 diagram alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester tujuh di universitas nasional memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang simpulan berdasarkan data yang sudah dianalisis, maka dapat ditarik simpulan yaitu sebagian besar mahasiswa semester 7 atau akhir jurusan sastra jepang di enam buah perguruan tinggi (stba jia-bekasi, universitas al azhar, universitas darma persada, universitas bina nusantara, stba lia-jakarta, dan universitas nasional) memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang. sebanyak 37% responden atau 67 orang dari 181 orang responden beminat bekerja di perusahaan jepang setelah lulus kuliah. dari data yang telah dianalisis, disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar alasan mahasiswa sastra jepang semester 7 atau akhir di enam perguruan tinggi yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang adalah karena gaji yang besar. selain itu, kinerja juga turut berperan dan menentukan jabatan dan gaji yang lebih tinggi dari senior dan dapat mengaplikasikan bahasa jepang dan pengetahuan ke-jepang-an. jumlah responden tersebut adalah 54% atau 36 orang dari 76 orang responden yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang setelah lulus kuliah. berdasarkan hal tersebut, terlihat sebagian besar responden yang memilih bekerja di perusahaan jepang, selain mengutamakan gaji yang besar, mereka juga mengutamakan peran kinerja dalam bekerja. saran tema mengenai budaya dalam masyarakat jepang yang diterapkan dalam etos kerja jepang masih banyak dan menarik untuk diteliti. untuk penelitian selanjutnya, dapat diteliti mengenai konsensus dalam bekerja di perusahaan jepang berkaitan dengan penerapan sushinkoyo dalam perusahaan jepang. daftar pustaka culpan, r. & kucukemiroglu, o. (1993). a comparison of u.s. and japanese management styles and unit effectiveness. management international review, 33(1), 27–42. chen, m. (1995). asian management system. london: thomson learning. creswell, j.w. (1994). research design qualitative and quantitative approaches. london: sage. firkola, p. (2006). japanese management practices past and present. economic journal of hokkaido university, 35, 115–130. 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 halo jepang. (2013). investasi jepang di indonesia tahun 2012 peringkat 2. diakses dari http://www. halojepang.com/kebijakan-kerjasama/6475-invjep hasegawa, k. (1986). japanese style management. japan: kodansha international. hideaki, t. (2013). from seniority to seika-shugi or how hr management is evolving in japan. egon zehnder international. diakses dari http://www. egonzehnder.com/global/thoughtleadership/ knowledge/humanresources/article/id/11900274 klein, e. (1992). the u.s./japanese hr culture clash. journal of workforce management, 71, 30–35. marion, e. c., handayani, r., & koda, n. (2012). pengaruh sistem senioritas atau nenkojoretsu terhadap perkembangan karier karyawan lokal berpendidikan s1 di perusahaan jepang di indonesia. lingua cultura, 6(2), 207–213. moleong, lexy j. 2007. metodologi penelitian kualitatif: bandung: rosdakarya. nishioka, t. (2009). changing japanese style management system from a viewpoint of business ethics. diakses 2 juli 2012 dari http://www.eben. gr/site/papers/takeo%20nishioka_changing%20 japanese-style%20management%20system%20 from%20a%20viewpoint%20of%20business%20 ethics.pdf 57mengungkap narasi ….. (shobichatul aminah) mengungkap narasi sejarah yang disangkal dalam m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari karya oe kenzaburo shobichatul aminah program pasca sarjana kajian wilayah jepang, universitas indonesia ikaluthfiz@yahoo.com abstract m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari, a novel by oe kenzaburo, offered a different history narration with legitimate history narration of japan. in oe’s perspective, the legitimate history of japan was central to the emperor. by the novel he attempted to narrate a history from another perspective that was from the perspective of a society of a hidden village in the basin of rural shikoku forest who were culturally marginalized. the narrator in this novel had a responsibility to continue the narrative tradition to construct village history. the narrator constructed it by taking up history sources from that represent various perspectives. a history constructed by the narrator tended to inverse japan’s official history, and narrated what is being disclaimed in japan’s official history. that village history also pointed out that there was not any single version in history narration. those various history versions coexist and are placed in equality in the novel. keywords: narration, history, oe kenzaburo abstrak m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari, novel karya oe kenzaburo menawarkan narasi sejarah yang berbeda dengan narasi sejarah jepang yang resmi. dalam perspektif oe, sejarah resmi jepang berpusat pada kaisar. berdasarkan novel ia berusaha untuk menceritakan sejarah dari perspektif lain, yaitu perspektif masyarakat desa tersembunyi di lembah hutan pedesaan shikoku yang secara kultural terpinggirkan. narator dalam novel ini memiliki tanggung jawab untuk melanjutkan tradisi narasi untuk membangun sejarah desa. narator membangun cerita dengan mengambil sumber sejarah yang mencerminkan berbagai pandangan. sejarah yang dibangun oleh narator cenderung terbalik dengan sejarah resmi jepang, dan meriwayatkan yang dinafikan dalam sejarah resmi jepang. riwayat desa tersebut juga menunjukkan tidak ada versi dalam sejarah. berbagai versi sejarah tersebut berdampingan dan ditempatkan setara dalam novel. kata kunci: narasi, sejarah, oe kenzaburo 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 pendahuluan sejarah selalu menjadi milik pemegang kekuasaan. kekuasaan yang dominan sering kali tidak mengenal versi dalam penceritaan sejarah. hanya ada satu versi sejarah, yaitu sejarah yang mengukuhkan kekuasaan mereka. sedangkan sejarah versi rakyat kebanyakan tidak diakui kebenarannya. dominasi penceritaan sejarah oleh pemegang kekuasaan sering kali menumbuhkan permasalahan dan juga perlawanan. seperti yang dialami oleh pemerintah jepang sekitar pertengahan tahun 2005 dan 2007, saat diguncang oleh isu tentang kontroversi penulisan sejarah. hal itu dipicu oleh usul pemerintah jepang agar narasi tentang perang dunia ii dihapus dari buku sejarah yang dipakai di sekolah-sekolah di jepang. kontroversi tersebut, di samping memicu ketegangan hubungan antara jepang dengan china dan korea, juga mendatangkan banyak protes di dalam negeri termasuk dari oe kenzaburo, sastrawan penerima hadiah nobel sastra pada 1994. protes tersebut selain diungkapkan dalam banyak pidatonya, juga telah muncul dalam beberapa karya oe kenzaburo jauh sebelum kasus itu menjadi kontroversi. salah satu novel karya oe kenzaburo yang mengangkat masalah versi penulisan sejarah adalah novel m/t to mori no fushigi no monogatari (1986). tulisan ini mengangkat masalah penceritaan sejarah dalam novel dengan pendekatan realisme grotesk. realisme grotesk muncul dari gagasan bakhtin tentang carnival atau carnivalesque. gagasan bakhtin tentang carnivalesque termuat dalam disertasinya yang meneliti tentang pantagruel dan gargantua karya françois rabelais. disertasi itu diajukan pada the gorky institute of world literature di moskwa pada 1940 namun baru dipertahankan pada 1947 karena pecah perang. pada saat itu adalah masa-masa ortodoksi ideologis dalam lingkaran kesastraan dan intelektual rusia yang mengutuk semua hal yang berhubungan dengan dekadensi barat. akibatnya bakhtin dihukum dengan diasingkan, sampai akhirnya disertasinya diterbitkan dengan judul françois rabelais and the folk culture of the middle ages and renaissance pada 1965. buku ini menurut michael holquist tidak saja bisa dilihat sebagai laporan ilmiah tentang tradisi dalam kebudayaan rakyat pada abad pertengahan saja tetapi juga sebagai serangan satiris yang subversif terhadap penindasan stalinis. pada cetakan selanjutnya buku tersebut diterbitkan dengan judul rabelais and his world (tvorchestvo fransua rable) (morris, 1994). carnival dalam gagasan bakhtin menggambarkan perlawanan kebudayaan rakyat terhadap kebudayaan resmi abad pertengahan. kebudayaan abad pertengahan mencoba menanamkan kepercayaan bahwa dunia adalah statis dan tidak berubah. di sini hanya ada satu kebenaran tunggal, yaitu kebenaran yang berpusat pada pemegang kekuasaan. sedangkan carnival menekankan perubahan dan aspek regeneratif dunia. carnival muncul pada kebudayaan rakyat dalam bentuk lelucon, olokolok, sindiran, dan logika terbalik yang menumbangkan hierarki. realisme grotesk yang muncul dari gagasan bakhtin tentang carnivalesque menawarkan cara pandang yang menganggap mungkin penyatuan antara hal-hal yang bertentangan; yang resmi dan yang tidak resmi, yang rasional dan yang tidak rasional, yang natural dan yang supranatural, yang biasa dan yang magis, yang faktual dan yang fiktif, serta yang diakui dan yang disangkal, melalui lelucon, olok-olok, logika yang terbalik, serta penumbangan hierarki. realisme grotesk menempatkan semua hal yang bertentangan tersebut dalam satu aras yang sama, sehingga sesuatu yang lazimnya dianggap tidak nyata atau disangkal keberadaannya, menjadi sama mungkinnya untuk diekspresikan. realisme grotesk yang menampilkan realitas, baik yang rasional maupun yang tidak rasional, yang diakui maupun yang disangkal tersebut pada akhirnya menghasilkan pandangan dunia yang ambivalen atau mendua. dualitas tersebut merupakan sebuah alternatif untuk melihat dunia dan kehidupan manusia tidak dengan sudut pandang tunggal atau hanya mengakui satu realitas dan kebenaran yang tunggal. novel m/t to morino fushigi no monogatari, selanjutnya disebut dengan m/t, adalah versi naratif dari karya oe sebelumnya yang berbentuk novel epistoler (karya fiksi dalam betuk surat), yaitu dōjidai gēmu (1979). berdasarkan pernyataan pengarang dalam asahi shimbun tanggal 15 agustus 1979, latar belakang penulisan dōjidai gēmu adalah pengarang ingin menulis sejarah yang tidak berpusat pada kaisar, yaitu sejarah yang berpusat pada dewa-dewa lokal yang terpinggirkan ketika dewa dari keluarga kekaisaran berkuasa. lebih lanjut, sejarah dari sudut pandang orang-orang yang terpinggirkan secara kultural (wilson, 1986). sejarah itu adalah sejarah yang dimiliki oleh orang-orang desa lembah di pedalaman hutan shikoku, daerah asal pengarang. di dalam novel m/t, sejarah desa lembah diceritakan melalui tradisi lisan atau legenda yang diteruskan secara turun temurun. salah satu yang mendapat tugas untuk meneruskan tradisi lisan tersebut adalah narator, yang notabene adalah pengarang sendiri. narator dalam hal ini menggunakan imaji realisme grotesk dalam penceritaan sejarah desa lembah. unsur-unsur realisme grotesk seperti lelucon, olok-olok, sindiran, logika terbalik dan penumbangan hierarki digunakan dalam penggambaran tokoh, peristiwa, serta latar ruang dan waktu. narator juga menggabungkan hal-hal yang saling bertentangan dalam penceritaan tradisi lisan desa. hal ini memungkinkan untuk melihat sejarah desa tidak hanya melalui satu sudut pandang saja. melalui penceritaan narator, sejarah orang-orang desa lembah yang berupa tradisi lisan tersebut disejajarkan dengan sejarah resmi jepang. dalam penceritaan sejarah desa pun narator tidak hanya memakai sumber resmi, yaitu dongeng yang diceritakan oleh neneknya dalam ritual mendongeng. melainkan juga, narator menggunakan sumber tak resmi, seperti lukisan di kuil desa, kisah dari orang-orang tua desa, atau bahkan desas-desus dan rumor yang beredar di kalangan penduduk desa. sejarah desa yang dinarasikan oleh narator tersebut mewakili sejarah dari sudut pandang orang-orang pinggiran. sejarah yang membalikkan sejarah ’resmi’ jepang. sejarah orang-orang pinggiran yang disangkal kebenarannya oleh kekuasaan pusat. cara penceritaan sejarah oleh narator tersebut membuat sejarah desa tidak hanya terdiri satu versi saja. narator membuat beragam versi sejarah desa tersebut semua coexist, tanpa ada versi sejarah yang disangkal. 59mengungkap narasi ….. (shobichatul aminah) konsep cultural negation: melihat sejarah ’resmi’ dari pinggir peristiwa-peristiwa sejarah yang diceritakan dalam sejarah ‘resmi’ desa hampir sama dengan peristiwa dalam sejarah ‘resmi’ jepang, kojiki. namun beberapa peristiwa sejarah penting dalam kojiki, seperti peristiwa pada masa transisi sesaat sebelum dan sesudah restorasi meiji serta kolonialisasi pada masa fasisme jepang diceritakan dalam sejarah desa dengan sudut pandang dan nada yang berbeda. oe (1990) menyebut hal itu sebagai konsep cultural negation, yaitu kondisi menjadi marjinal dan pinggiran yang memungkinkan untuk melihat sejarah dan kebudayaan ’resmi’ dari pinggir. dalam sejarah desa diceritakan bahwa desa lembah didirikan oleh sekelompok samurai muda pelanggar aturan. para samurai itu bersekongkol dengan perempuan bajak laut untuk melarikan diri dari kota benteng dan mencari tanah baru di hulu sungai di pedalaman hutan shikoku. di sana mereka mendirikan sebuah desa rahasia yang tertutup serta tidak masuk dalam struktur administrasi pemerintahan resmi. desa tersebut bertahan dalam ketertutupan dan kerahasiaan selama ratusan tahun serta menjadi desa yang mandiri dan merdeka. selama itu orang-orang desa hidup dalam tradisi mereka sendiri, yang berbeda dengan tradisi resmi bangsa jepang. mereka menciptakan legenda serta sejarah mereka sendiri. berbeda dengan kojiki yang menceritakan bahwa bangsa jepang adalah keturunan dewa matahari, amaterasu ōmikami, sejarah desa lembah menyebutkan bahwa orang-orang desa lembah di pedalaman hutan shikoku itu adalah keturunan dari dewa kegelapan. yaitu dewa yang diusir dari surga ketika amaterasu ōmikami berkuasa. sejarah ‘resmi’ desa tersebut berbentuk tradisi lisan seperti legenda yang diteruskan secara turun-temurun. tokoh-tokoh yang diberi tugas untuk meneruskan tradisi lisan tersebut adalah keturunan dari para pendiri desa. narator adalah salah seorang yang mendapatkan tugas untuk mengingat dan mencatat tradisi lisan desa. ia mendengarkan kisah tentang tradisi lisan desa dari neneknya melalui ritual mendongeng. sebagai penerus tradisi lisan desa, narator mempunyai kewajiban untuk menyusun sejarah desa lembah. mengenai hal ini narator menganggap dirinya sama dengan ōno yasumarō dan hiedano are yang diperintah oleh kaisar untuk mengingat dan mencatat kojiki. dalam hal ini bisa dikatakan bahwa narator menempatkan sejarah desa lembah pada posisi yang sejajar dengan sejarah resmi jepang. jika dilihat secara geografis, desa lembah tersebut terisolasi dari wilayah di sekitarnya. akan tetapi, terdapat sebuah celah, berupa jalan kecil yang menghubungkan desa dengan wilayah tosa sampai ke nagasaki, yang digunakan sebagai jalur perdagangan. dari latar ruang di atas, tidak sulit untuk menduga maksud pengarang, bahwa desa tersebut bisa dilihat sebagai miniatur jepang pada masa isolasi negara saat ke-shogun-an tokugawa berkuasa. selain itu, fase sejarah dalam sejarah desa lembah juga sejajar dengan fase sejarah resmi jepang. seperti yang telah disebutkan sebelumnya, masa isolasi desa lembah sejajar dengan penutupan negara (sakoku) pada masa tokugawa. penemuan desa oleh gerombolan petani sejajar dengan pembukaan negara pada masa meiji. masa pembangunan desa, sejajar dengan restorasi meiji. peristiwa perang 50 hari, perang antara penduduk desa dengan tentara kekaisaran jepang raya sejajar dengan perang dunia ii. dalam perang tersebut penduduk desa menderita kekalahan sehingga menyebabkan desa lembah tidak lagi merdeka. hal yang hampir serupa juga terjadi pada pihak jepang pada perang dunia ii. meskipun latar ruang, waktu dan proses penyusunan sejarah desa lembah disejajarkan dengan sejarah resmi jepang, sejarah desa disusun dari sudut pandang yang berbeda dengan sejarah resmi jepang. peristiwa sejarahnya pun diceritakan dengan nada yang berbeda, bahkan bertolak belakang, dengan sejarah resmi jepang. sejarah desa lembah seolah menjadi versi lain dari sejarah, yang melihat sejarah resmi jepang dari ’pinggir’. pembalikan sejarah kojiki sebagai sejarah remi jepang adalah sejarah yang berpusat pada kaisar. melalui penceritaan sejarah dalam kojiki, khususnya pada masa awal meiji dan masa-masa perang, ditanamkan ideologi yang menuntut kepercayaan bahwa seluruh rakyat jepang adalah anak kaisar. leluhur mereka adalah amaterasu ōmikami. kaisar sebagai keturunan langsung dari amaterasu ōmikami dianggap sebagai dewa yang wajib dihormati dan dipuja, serta mempunyai kuasaan mutlak atas politik dan kebudayaan. berbeda dengan kojiki, sejarah desa lembah tidak mengenal ideologi konsentrik yang menempatkan penguasa sebagai pusat semacam itu. penguasa desa lembah seperti kowasu hito dan oshikome, meskipun digambarkan sebagai penguasa agung, bukanlah merupakan tokoh yang benar-benar sempurna dan menjadi pusat kekuasaan. kowasu hito adalah figur sentral, tetapi kekuasaannya dibatasi oleh orang-orang. terbukti ketika kecenderungannya untuk menjadi abadi mulai dirasakan sebagai ancaman, ia dibunuh oleh penduduk desa. ketika berkuasa, oshikome juga tidak menempatkan dirinya sebagai pusat meskipun ia adalah penggerak utama program pembangunan. program pembangunan itu dicanangkannya bersama dengan wakaishi, yaitu sekelompok anak muda berusia belasan tahun. penguasa seperti kowasu hito atau oshikome juga tidak digambarkan sebagai dewa, yang setiap katakatanya bisa menjadi hukum. ia adalah penguasa yang sangat ‘manusiawi’ dengan kelebihan dan kelemahan yang dimilikinya. oshikome dikenal sebagai penguasa yang kejam, namun sering kali digambarkan dengan nada yang lucu. bahkan ia digambarkan sebagai pemimpin yang tak patuh, dan sekaligus penguasa yang tidak dipatuhi. dalam sejarah desa, tradisi harmoni yang menjadi esensi dalam kebudayaan jepang dibalikkan dengan penceritaan tentang sejarah desa yang penuh dengan tradisi perlawanan dan pelanggaran. tindakan para samurai yang melarikan diri dari kota benteng didasari oleh ketidakpuasan atas kehidupan di kota benteng. mereka pergi dari kota benteng ingin mencari tanah baru dan mendirikan desa yang merdeka. hal itu jelas merupakan sebuah perlawanan terhadap kekuasaan otoritatif pemerintah han. dalam kebudayaan jepang yang harmonis, ketidakpuasan terhadap penguasa lazimnya tidak diekspresikan secara terbuka. misalnya ketika kaisar, melalui kojiki, memaksakan bahwa leluhur 60 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 bangsa jepang adalah amaterasu ōmikami, rakyat jepang mau tidak mau harus memujanya. meskipun sebelumnya mereka punya dewa pelindung yang lain. tradisi harmoni yang tidak memberi tempat bagi adanya konflik membuat rakyat jepang hanya bisa menyimpan perlawanan tersebut di dalam batin. mereka secara lahiriah memang memuja amaterasu ōmikami, tetapi sebenarnya secara diam-diam mereka tetap memuja leluhur mereka sendiri. hal ini sangat berbeda dengan yang dilakukan oleh para pendiri dan penduduk desa lembah. penduduk desa lembah secara terang-terangan tidak mengakui bahwa leluhur mereka adalah amaterasu ōmikami. mereka percaya bahwa leluhur mereka adalah dewa kegelapan. jika sejarah resmi jepang berpusat pada kaisar (patriarch), sejarah desa lembah dinaungi seorang matriarch yang didampingi oleh seorang trickster. dalam pandangan oe kenzaburo, matriarch dan matriarchy adalah diksi yang tidak akrab bahkan hampir tidak dikenal dalam bahasa jepang sehari-hari pada masa sekarang (oe, 1990). hal itu mencerminkan bahwa sistem masyarakat jepang modern tidak mengakomodasi konsep atau sistem tersebut. jika melihat masa-masa awal dari sejarah resmi jepang, negara kekaisaran jepang pertama kali dipimpin oleh seorang perempuan, yaitu himiko. pada masa heian, sebelum shogun mengambil alih kekuasaan kaisar, sempat juga jepang dipimpin oleh seorang kaisar perempuan. namun sejak sistem feodalisme militer diterapkan di jepang pada masa ke-shogun-an kamakura, muromachi, dan tokugawa, serta kemudian kembali pada sistem kekaisaran pada masa meiji, masyarakat jepang mulai tidak mengenal konsep matriarch atau sistem matriarchy. hal itu menunjukkan bahwa matriarch dan matriarchy –yang dalam hal ini adalah sesuatu yang datang dari masa lalu– adalah sesuatu yang disangkal dalam sejarah resmi jepang modern sampai saat ini. sejarah orang-orang marjinal peristiwa dalam sejarah resmi jepang seperti pemberontakan menentang kebijakan wajib militer (ketsuzei ikki) yang terjadi pada tahun meiji 6 (1873) dalam sejarah desa lembah diceritakan dalam logika yang berbeda. dalam sejarah desa dikisahkan bahwa pemimpin pemberontakan adalah anak penjelmaan kamei meisuke (trickster) yang masih berusia 6 tahun. anak itu mengobarkan semangat pemberontakan di antara para pengikutnya dengan pemaknaan kata ketsuzei secara harfiah sesuai dengan kemampuan logikanya sebagai anak-anak. dalam pengertian pemerintah pada waktu itu, ketsuzei dimaknai sebagai ’wajib militer’. sedangkan secara harfiah, kata ketsuzei 「血税」 terdiri dari dua huruf kanji, yaitu 「血」 ketsu yang bermakna darah dan 「税」 zei yang bermakna pajak. jadi secara harfiah kata itu bermakna pajak darah. anak penjelmaan kamei meisuke yang memimpin sejumlah 20.000 pemberontak itu mengobarkan kemarahan orang-orang dengan mengatakan bahwa pejabat pemerintahan baru hanya meniru orang barat dengan meminum darah rakyat dari cawan sake yang terbuat dari kaca (oe, 1990). pemaknaan kata ketsuzei dengan logika yang berbeda dengan pihak penguasa tersebut sebenarnya merujuk pada logika yang digunakan oleh orang-orang jepang di wilayah selatan yang jauh dari pusat (tokyo) pada masa itu. kebijakan ketsuzei atau wajib militer ditetapkan oleh pemerintah meiji dengan alasan ingin memberikan kebebasan dan kesetaraan bagi semua orang. pada era sebelumnya, yaitu masa keshogunan tokugawa, masyarakat jepang terbagi atas kelas-kelas, sehingga rakyat tidak bebas menentukan pekerjaan mereka sendiri. artinya, mereka melakukan pekerjaan sesuai dengan kelas mereka. sejak restorasi meiji, sistem kelas dalam masyarakat jepang dihapus dan rakyat mendapat kebebasan untuk memilih pekerjaan. rakyat bebas memilih jenis pekerjaan yang mereka inginkan dengan syarat mereka harus ikut wajib militer sebelumnya. alihalih merasa terkesan karena diijinkan untuk melakukan peran yang dulunya merupakan hak istimewa kelas samurai, para petani merasa pemerintah menuntut ‘pajak darah’ dari mereka. pada akhir 1871, di sejumlah desa di pulau shikoku beredar sebuah surat edaran yang isinya: “pemerintah meiji telah mengusir junjungan kita dari wilayahnya, dan menempatkan pejabatpejabat yang jahat, yang disetujui oleh orang asing, di kantor prefektur. para pejabat yang jahat itu bermaksud untuk menjual kita pada orangorang luar itu, agar mereka dapat memeras lemak dari tubuh kita untuk makanan orang asing.......” (hane, 1982:18). bahkan di prefektur shizuoka beredar rumor bahwa para pejabat pemerintahan memanggil para pemuda untuk wajib militer dengan tujuan ingin menggantung mereka dengan terbalik dan memeras darah mereka sehingga orang-orang barat bisa meminumnya. apa yang diminum oleh orang barat di yokohama, yaitu sesuatu yang mereka sebut sebagai wine, itu sebenarnya adalah darah para pemuda tersebut. darah itu juga mereka gunakan untuk mencelup seragam, topi, dan selimut para tentara barat (hane, 1982). dalam sejarah resmi jepang dikisahkan bahwa dalam pemberontakan ketsuzei, para penduduk desa di pulau shikoku mengamuk. mereka menyerang rumah para pejabat prefektur, kantor polisi, sekolah dan fasilitas umum yang lain. akhirnya, 20.000 orang ditangkap dan dihukum dalam pemberontakan tersebut. namun dalam sejarah desa lembah dikisahkan bahwa 20.000 orang pemberontak yang dipimpin oleh anak penjelmaan kamei meisuke itu memperoleh kemenangan. mereka membakar kantor pemerintahan dan berhasil memusnahkan semua dokumen yang mencatat tentang cacah jiwa (oe, 1990). dengan lenyapnya buku cacah jiwa tersebut, pemerintah meiji tidak lagi mempunyai data tentang jumlah penduduk desa. pemerintah meiji menerapkan kebijakan reformasi pajak tanah (地租改正, chisokaisei) pada tahun meiji 6. reformasi pajak tanah adalah reformasi sistem pertanahan dan perpajakan yang dilakukan dengan melakukan penghapusan hak kepemilikan tanah oleh tuan tanah feodal dan mengakui hak milik tanah pribadi bagi petani. pemerintah mengeluarkan sertifikat yang mencantumkan nilai moneter tanah untuk setiap tanah yang dimiliki petani. nilai itu digunakan sebagai dasar untuk menetapkan jumlah pajak yang harus dibayarkan. pajak harus dibayarkan dalam bentuk uang tunai (yamamura, 1986). ketika reformasi pajak tanah hendak diberlakukan, pihak 61mengungkap narasi ….. (shobichatul aminah) pemerintah meiji memaksa desa lembah untuk mendata kembali jumlah penduduknya. saat itulah penduduk desa menggunakan trik registrasi rangkap, dengan cara mendaftarkan dua orang penduduk desa sebagai satu jiwa. hal itu menjadikan hanya separuh penduduk yang tercatat dalam buku cacah jiwa. dengan demikian hanya separuh penduduk desa yang wajib membayar pajak. trik registrasi rangkap ini juga berguna saat pecah perang antara jepang dengan china dan rusia. dengan trik itu hanya separuh penduduk desa yang dikirim menjadi tentara (oe, 1990). trik registrasi rangkap tersebut membuat desa di pedalaman hutan shikoku masih mempunyai ”separuh” dari kemerdekaannya karena separuh dari jumlah penduduknya tidak terdaftar dalam buku cacah jiwa. kisah tentang ”kemenangan” penduduk desa dalam pemberontakan, dan tentang trik registrasi rangkap yang membuat mereka masih memiliki separuh dari kemerdekaan mereka itu adalah sejarah milik orangorang desa lembah. yaitu, sejarah orang-orang yang jauh dari pusat kekuasaan, yang bersumber dari kisah orangorang yang terpinggirkan secara kultural. kisah itu tidak ditemukan dalam catatan sejarah resmi jepang karena hal itu dianggap tidak ada. narasi sejarah yang disangkal seperti sejarah resmi jepang yang menyangkal narasi tentang perang dunia ii, ada juga peristiwa perang yang tidak dikisahkan dalam sejarah resmi desa lembah, yaitu kisah tentang perang 50 hari. perang 50 hari adalah perang antara penduduk desa dan tentara kekaisaran jepang raya. tentara kekaisaran jepang raya menyerbu desa lembah dengan tujuan melakukan aksi ketertiban umum berkaitan dengan trik registrasi rangkap yang diterapkan di desa lembah (oe, 1990). hal itu memunculkan perlawanan rakyat desa, sehingga pecahlah perang 50 hari. perang itu berlangsung pada musim panas saat penduduk desa mengadakan perayaan bon, festival untuk merayakan arwah para leluhur yang pulang kembali ke desa. seperti telah disebutkan sebelumnya, penceritaan sejarah resmi desa lembah yang berupa tradisi lisan dilakukan melalui ritual mendongeng. kisah perang 50 hari tidak termasuk kisah yang diceritakan dalam tradisi lisan. kisah tentang perang tersebut bersumber pada desasdesus di antara penduduk desa. meski hanya desas-desus, namun bukti dan sisa reruntuhannya bisa ditemukan di hutan desa. peristiwa yang tidak dikisahkan melalui ritual mendongeng oleh para sesepuh desa itu dianggap tidak ada, meskipun secara fisik bukti-bukti yang mendukung peristiwa tersebut bisa ditemukan. perang 50 hari itu terjadi sekitar tahun 1930-an. masa itu merupakan masa puncak fasisme jepang. selama lima dekade (50 tahun) sejak 1894 sampai 1945, tidak ada satu dekade pun yang dilewatkan jepang tanpa berperang dengan negara lain. yaitu perang melawan china (18941895) dan rusia (1904-1905). kemudian perang di china yang berkaitan dengan perang di eropa melawan jerman (1914-1915), selanjutnya di siberia setelah revolusi bolshevik (1918-1922). puncaknya adalah ekspansi jepang di manchuria (1931) dan wilayah china yang lain (1937) yang menyeret jepang pada perang pasifik (19411945). pada masa ini jepang melakukan ekspansi besarbesaran ke seluruh asia timur dan sebagian asia tenggara (beasley, 2003). penyerbuan tentara kekaisaran jepang raya ke desa lembah pun dianggap sebagai sebuah bentuk ekspansi oleh penduduk desa. hal itu karena penduduk desa menganggap desa mereka, yang setengah dari jumlah penduduknya tidak tercatat dalam buku cacah jiwa, adalah wilayah yang merdeka. dalam perang tersebut penduduk desa membentuk tentara gerilya yang terdiri dari penduduk desa dan juga arwah leluhur yang kembali ke desa pada perayaan obon. tentara gerilya desa itu dipimpin oleh arwah kowasu hito. mereka melakukan perlawanan dengan cara mempermalukan tentara kekaisaran melalui olok-olok dan lelucon yang mereka buat. berbeda dengan tentara gerilya desa, tentara kekaisaran jepang raya menyerang tentara desa dengan tindakan yang sangat represif. mereka mengancam akan membakar hutan. perang itu berakhir pada 15 agustus dengan kekalahan berada di pihak penduduk desa (oe, 1990). hal itu disebabkan tentara gerilya desa tidak rela jika hutan harus dibakar. maka dari itu mereka menyerah kalah pada tentara kekaisaran. sejak saat itu, desa lembah yang merdeka tersebut menjadi desa biasa yang sepenuhnya masuk dalam struktur administrasi resmi pemerintahan kekaisaran jepang raya. sejarah tentang perang 50 hari yang merupakan sejarah kelam dan pahit tersebut disangkal oleh sejarah ”resmi” desa lembah. perang yang berakhir dengan kekalahan pihak desa lembah itu menyebabkan desa lembah kehilangan kemerdekaannya. meskipun demikian, narator, yang mendapat tugas meneruskan tradisi lisan desa, memutuskan untuk menceritakan sejarah yang disangkal tersebut dan menempatkannya dalam posisi yang sejajar dengan sejarah ”resmi” desa lembah. versi sejarah yang tidak tunggal pencerita sejarah desa lembah dalam novel m/t adalah narator, sang penerus tradisi lisan desa lembah, yang notabene adalah pengarang sendiri. sejarah yang diceritakan oleh narator dalam novel m/t tidak hanya diambil dari sumber resmi saja, yaitu tradisi lisan yang diceritakan secara turun temurun. sejarah tersebut juga diambil dari beberapa sumber sejarah yang lain, yaitu orang-orang tua di desa, pendeta, lukisan neraka di kuil, dan bahkan desas-desus yang beredar di kalangan orangorang dewasa di desa lembah. gambar 1 sumber-sumber sejarah desa lembah dalam novel m/t sumber–sumber sejarah tersebut merepresentasikan versi sejarah dari sudut pandang yang berbeda-beda. tradisi lisan desa adalah sumber resmi dari sejarah desa lembah. penceritaan sejarah dalam tradisi lisan desa dilakukan melalui ritual mendongeng. dalam tradisi lisan 62 jurnal lingua cultura vol.7 no.2 november 2013 desa, tokoh-tokoh sejarah yang dipercaya sebagai leluhur desa digambarkan sebagai tokoh mitis dengan karakter yang sering kali aneh atau tidak masuk akal. tokoh sentral dalam tradisi lisan desa adalah tokoh kolektif yang diwakili oleh sepasang tokoh matriarch dan trickster. matriarch dan tricster adalah tokoh impersonal. matriacrh merujuk pada tokoh-tokoh perempuan yang menjadi penguasa desa atau mempunyai peran penting dalam sejarah desa. tokoh-tokoh yang mempunyai kekuatan matriarch adalah tokoh yang bisa meramalkan masa depan atau bisa membaca pikiran orang. sedangkan trickster merujuk pada tokoh-tokoh lelaki yang merupakan tokoh manusia setengah dewa, tokoh yang cerdik sekaligus bodoh, yang berpasangan dengan tokoh matriarch dalam sejarah desa. peristiwa yang dikisahkan dalam tradisi lisan desa juga tidak selalu ‘nyata’ dan masuk akal. meskipun demikian, dalam ritual mendongeng nenek narator selalu meyakinkan bahwa cerita itu benar-benar ada. secara ideologis, tradisi lisan desa tersebut digunakan untuk mengkultuskan tokohtokoh pendiri desa lembah. berbeda dengan tradisi lisan sebagai sumber resmi sejarah desa lembah, kisah orang-orang tua di desa membongkar pengkultusan tokoh-tokoh tersebut dengan mengisahkan peristiwa aneh dalam sumber resmi sebagai sesuatu yang wajar dan bisa dijelaskan oleh akal. misalnya kisah tentang bunyi ’gaung’ yang dalam sumber resmi diceritakan sebagai pesan dari arwah kowasu hito yang harus dipatuhi (oe, 1990). menurut kisah tukang blek, salah satu dari orang tua di desa, hal itu hanyalah fenomena alam biasa yaitu pergerakan gelombang udara di lembah yang menimbulkan pusaran besar sumber bunyi. kisah pendeta dan lukisan ‘neraka’ di kuil mewakili sudut pandang yang lain tentang sejarah desa lembah. seperti diketahui kuil adalah representasi dari institusi agama resmi jepang, yaitu shinto, yang secara hierarkis berada di bawah kekuasaan kaisar. seperti kisah tentang kejatuhan oshikome. menurut versi pendeta, usul oshikome tentang penutupan desa lembah menjadi sebab kejatuhan oshikome dari kursi kekuasaannya (oe, 1990). padahal menurut sumber resmi sejarah desa, usul oshikome tentang penutupan hutan tersebut didasarkan pada ramalan oshikome bahwa kelak desa lembah akan kehilangan kemerdekaan karena keberadaannya diketahui oleh pihak luar (oe, 1990). jadi untuk menyelamatkan desa dari serbuan pihak luar, oshikome mengusulkan penutupan hutan. lukisan ’neraka’ di kuil juga menampilkan desa lembah dan legenda yang melingkupinya dari sudut pandang yang lain. dalam tradisi lisan desa, lembah dilukiskan sebagai tempat yang hijau dan subur, dan dianggap sebagai surga. namun dalam lukisan di kuil, desa lembah dilukiskan dengan warna merah dan disebut sebagai gambar neraka. demikian juga tokoh-tokoh dalam sejarah desa, yang dalam sumber resmi digambarkan sebagai figur yang dihormati atau bahkan dianggap sebagai dewa, dalam lukisan ’neraka’ figur-figur tersebut dilukiskan sebagai setan (oe, 1990). kisah yang bersumber dari desas-desus penduduk desa adalah kisah tentang ’perang 50 hari’. kisah tersebut dirangkai oleh narator berdasarkan serpihan-serpihan cerita yang diceritakan secara tersamar melalui sindiransindiran, isyarat-isyarat atau desas-desus yang beredar di kalangan penduduk desa. sejarah tentang perang tersebut dianggap sebagai sejarah bayangan dan tidak diceritakan dalam ritual mendongeng. meski kisah tentang perang tersebut merupakan kisah rahasia yang ditutup-tutupi dan disangkal kebenarannya, puing-puing peninggalan perang itu bisa ditemukan di hutan desa. sebagai penerus tradisi lisan desa, sebenarnya narator dilarang untuk menceritakan kisah perang yang disangkal atau dianggap tidak ada tersebut. namun narator lebih memilih untuk menceritakan kisah perang yang pahit tersebut dalam sejarah desa yang disusunnya. simpulan seperti telah disebutkan pada awal tulisan, pemerintah jepang beberapa kali menghadapi masalah kontroversi penulisan sejarah. hal semacam itu sebenarnya tidak hanya terjadi di jepang. intervensi pemerintah di sejumlah negara terhadap buku sejarah bukan merupakan hal yang baru. sejarah dijadikan sebagai alat untuk melanggengkan kekuasaan dan menindas kaum minoritas yang marjinal. sejarah versi orang-orang dianggap tidak ada. hanya sejarah ’resmi’ versi penguasalah yang dominan dan diakui kebenarannya. sejarah kelam yang berpotensi menggoyang atau mempermalukan kekuasaan sebisa mungkin disangkal. keputusan narator untuk menceritakan sejarah yang disangkal oleh sejarah ’resmi’ desa lembah dan menampilkan sejarah dari versi yang beragam tersebut dalam hal ini dapat dilihat sebagai sikap oe kenzaburo. oe menawarkan penceritaan sejarah yang lebih jujur, karena sejarah adalah sesuatu dari masa lalu yang harus diteruskan agar masa depan menjadi lebih baik. seberapapun kelamnya, bagaimanapun versinya, sejarah masa lalu adalah pelajaran berharga bagi generasi masa depan. penyangkalan terhadap sejarah masa lalu merupakan pengkhianatan terhadap masa depan. daftar pustaka bakhtin, mikhail m. (1984). rabelais and his world. translated by helene iswolsky (2nd ed.). bloomington: indiana university press. beasley, w. g. (2003). pengalaman jepang: sejarah singkat jepang. jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia. hane, mikiso. (1982). peasants, rebels, & outcastes: the underside of modern japan. new york: pantheon books. jansen, marius b. and gilbert rozman, ed. (1988). japan in transition: from tokugawa to meiji. new jersey: princeton up. jung, carl gustav. (2001). four archetypes: mother, rebirth, spirit, trickster. diterjemahkan oleh r.f.c. hull. london: roudledge. oe, kenzaburo. (1990). 『m/tと森のフシギの物語』. tokyo: 岩波書店. wilson, michiko n. (1986). the marginal world of oe kenzaburo: a study in theme and techniques. london, ny: m.e. sharpe. yamamura, kozo. (1986). “the meiji land tax reform and its effects”, dalam japan in transition: from tokugawa to meiji. p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 107 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 107-113 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6357 syllable structure and nasalization change in makassar language nurul khasanah1*; agus subiyanto2 1,2department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, universitas diponegoro jl. prof. sudarto no.13, tembalang, semarang, jawa tengah 50275, indonesia 1nurulrul1108@gmail.com; 2subaling@gmail.com received: 20th may 2020/revised: 19th june 2020/accepted: 30th june 2020 how to cite: khasanah, n., & subiyanto, a. (2020). syllable structure and nasalization change in makassar language. lingua cultura, 14(1), 107-113. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6357 abstract the research discussed two points of phonological process related to changes in the syllable structure and nasalization in makassar language. the data were analyzed by distributional and identity methods using a direct sorting technique. the affixes that form the verb of makassar language were sorted by the type of prefix. researchers also used the direct sorting form of phonetic articulation. the steps of analyzing data used sudaryanto’s theory. the affixes that discussed in the research were /ak-/ and /an-/. the phonological process was described by using the theory of generative phonology of schane. the result shows the types of sound and syllabic changing. they are; (a) sound changing of [ak-] becomes [ʔ] named glottalization; (b) sounds changing of [ak-] becomes nasalization; (c) gemination of [ak-] and [an-]; (d) sound changing of / an-/ becomes [aŋ-]; (e) sound release and insertion of prefix /an-/; (f) sound change and nasalization. the distinctive feature is used to explain the rules of the phonological process. keywords: syllabic structure change, nasalization change, makassar language introduction makassar language is the language spoken by the people of south sulawesi. makassar language itself has two language families, oceania and austronesian, but the more dominant one is the austronesian family anceaux (basang & arief, 1981). it is considered one of the unique archipelago languages because of its phonological, morphological, and syntactic structure. so, it can be said that makassar language has complete script data and is still being developed by language institutions. in makassar language, there are six dialects that are commonly used by local people; lakiung, turatea, bantaeng, konjo, selayar, and pangkajene. although it has different dialect variations, makassar language is generally used in various activities; social, educational, economic, etc. the existing spoken language generates several variations of sound changes. in phonology, it is defined as a phonological process that discusses sound release and addition, syllable structure change, strengthening, weakening, and so forth. itis caused by several things such as affixation, suffixes, inflicts, and conflicts. in makassar language, there are various *corresponding author affixations, which can change its form of sound. based on the amir (2012), there are sixteen prefixes in makassar language. the importance of affixes is also discussed by haslinda (2018), where she finds out that affixes determine the word classes in makassar language. the generative phonology proposed by schane (1973) becomes the theoretical basis used in this research to identify sound changes in the makassar language. he assumes that expressions come from a collection of different segments seen as the smallest units in a phonological process, so they are called phonemes. schane (1973) has explained that the distinctive feature is a differentiator of one phoneme with another. for example, vowel sound [i] has distinctive features + high, + front, + unrounded, + tense vowel. distinctive features also explain consonants’ sound in detail, for example, in the sound [p] that is + cons, -son, -cont, + ant, -cor, -voiced. so, in phonological processes, there are characteristics of sounds that emerge, and it can be identified. schane (1973) has determined the distinctive features into three; (1) the major class, (2) manner of articulation, and (3) place of articulation. first is 108 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 107-113 the major class feature in generative phonology used to differentiate consonants, vowels, and semivowels. they are three distinctive features; consonantal (+/kons), syllabic (+/-sil), and sonoran (+/-son). consonantal is a sound when it is pronounced occurs in the process of narrowing and closing the vocal cords. sounds included in the [+ cons] classification are fricative, nasal, liquids, and affricate sounds. while the sound [-ons] are all vocal, semivocal, and glottal sounds. syllabic is a sound called the core syllable. all vowels are included in the [+ sil] category. in addition, there are nasal and flow sounds, which function as the nucleus of the syllable [ņ]. [-sil] sounds are all consonant, nasal, and flow sounds that are not the core of a syllable. sonoran is a pairing sound identified by the opening of the vocal cords so that certain rhythms appear. [+ son] is a vocal, semivocal, nasal, and flow sound. [-son] sounds produced by vibration or obstruent. the second is the manner of articulation. schane (1973) has divided the sound based on the pronunciation into five; continuous, delayed-release, strident, nasal, and lateral. continuance is the sound that is uttered by flowing air into the oral cavity with obstructions. the sound included [+ kont] is fricative, and [-cont] is a plosive sound. delayed-release is a way to pronounce the sound that is in the oral cavity by popping it slowly. the sounds included in the [+delrel] category are affricative sounds, and [-delrel] obstruent or inhibitory sounds. strident sound is a sound that is pronounced by release (arifiani & subiyanto, 2019) sing sounds in high intensity, such as fricative and affricative sounds. [+ strid] is sibilant sound and [f], [v]. the [-strid] is the sound of [th], [ch], etc. nasal is a sound that is pronounced by pulling the velum down and touching the back of the tongue and flowing through the nose. the [+ nasal] that is nasal sounds are [n], [ƞ], [ƞ], [n], [m], [ɲ], [ɳ], [ɱ], while the [-nasal] are all vowels. lateral sound is a sound that distinguishes them from trill sounds. the [+ lat] is [l], and the [-lat] which is [r]. from the five ways of pronunciation described, distinctive features that often appear or familiar are continuance and nasal. the third is the place of articulation. there are two features of the place of articulation; anterior and coronal. the anterior sound with the sound source’s position is in front of the base of the gums, the position of [+ ant] is the alveolar fore, alveolar, dental, labiodental, and bilabial. the sound [-ant] starts from the back post-alveolar (post-alveolar, retroflex palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal). coronal sounds are marked by the position of the tongue raised until it automatically vibrates. it is included in [+ kor] are dental, alveolar, retroflex, post-alveolar, and palatal. while the sound [-cor] is bilabial, labiodental, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal. the phonological process caused by affixations in makassar language is discussed in this research. it is focused on the generative phonology studies about syllable structure change and nasalization caused by the affixations in the verbs of makassar language. it is expected that this research can contribute to the terms of language preservation, especially local languages in the archipelago. several previous studies on the phonological process of local languages have been carried out by other researchers. in sasak language, arifiani and subiyanto (2019) have researched syllable structure change and nasalization dialect bayan in sasak language. they examine the verb forming began with affix /bǝ/, and figure out that the syllable structure change of dialect bayan is caused by the insertion of [r] and [l] sound, and semivowel sound [w] and [y] when encounter suffix /-aŋ/. the neutralization occurred is when the vocal [ǝ] becomes [a] at the end of the word. in makassar language dialect cikoang, charmilasari (2016) has figured out the phonological process that the vowels in makassar language are dominant at the end of the word. only [ŋ] and [ʔ] sounds of the consonant are at the end of the word. however, the use of the structural theory of phonology, and the illustration of changes are not clear. while, in east nusa tenggara language of helong, tauk, pastika, and putra (2016) have carried out research using generative phonological theory related to lexical post conceived. they have found five phonological processes in helong language; vowel’s insertion, consonant’s release, dissimilation, metathesis, and gemination. however, this research only describes the change of words without illustrating all processes with distinctive features. also, banik (2017) has researched the phonological process of kolana kaumana language. the result shows that kaumana has six vowels and thirteen consonants. the phonological processes that happen in kolana language are the deletion process syllable structure and deletion process accompanied by changes in the structure of the syllable form that phonemes sound changes. again, this research uses the structural theory of phonology, and it is old. furthermore, in the bali language dialect jembrana, the phonological process’s change can be obstruent release, assimilation, raising vowel, and deleting and adding consonant and vowel. it is discussed by swadana (2018). he explains the changing using the structural theory of phonology, but he does not illustrate its changing pattern. research related to prefix discussed by gane, abdullah, and purnanto (2019) related to the ins and out of reciprocal prefix ki in the loloda language. the result shows that prefix /ki-/ is attached verb with first syllable vocal /i/. besides verb, another part of speech that can be attached is noun, pronoun, adjective, and interjection. in the loloda language itself, there is an exception for some words of noun ‘satan’, ‘bamboo’, and adjective of ‘afraid’ that not started by /i/ vocal, and it can be attached by prefix /ki-/ too. meanwhile, the research does not describe its change by generative phonology. furthermore, there are some researches in phonology using generative phonology. nafisah (2017) has explained the phonological process, and 109syllable structure and nasalization .... (nurul khasanah; agus subiyanto) its principle in generative study becomes a relevant approach for analyzing and explaining phonological processes in any language. the phonological processes include the addition of sound, deletion of sound, coalition, and assimilation. muslihah (2018) has conducted research about the analysis of english language loan words transformed into japanese using generative transformational phonological. she has found eight phonological process; (1) the process of adding segment /u/ at the end of the words; (2) segment addition /o/ at the end of the words; (3) segment addition /u/ in the middle of the words; (4) segment addition /o/ in the middle of the words; (5) substitution of phoneme /l/ to /r/; (6) substitution phoneme /v/ to /b/; (7) segment addition /i/; and (8) substitution of phoneme /t/ to /c/. anasti, ridanta, and ramadhan (2020) have researched the generative phonological process of the prokem language in indonesia. they have found that slang language has characteristics which used vowel /e/ and /o/, blasting sound, and presence of sound relaxation on vocal strengthening. sartini (2019) has researched the adolescents’ social language, which analyzed by using generative phonological theory. it is found that adolescent language tends to be shorter where there is a form of sound impairment. vowels that are often used are [e], [o], and [ǝ]. all research mentioned have discussed the phonological process and generative phonology. however, none of the researchers discuss syllable structure and nasalization of prefix /ak-/ and /an-/ in makassar language. the interesting point is sixteen prefix in sentence formation of makassar language can change word class form from noun to verb or verb to verb. furthermore, the research only discusses two kinds of prefixes that experienced the most change. for instance, the word [jǝʔnǝ] means ‘bath’ when adding prefix /ak-/; it becomes [aʔjǝʔnǝ] means ‘bathing’. the change is, namely, glottalization, which prefix / ak-/ changes into [ʔ]. besides nasalization, gemination also appears when adding this prefix. the research describes any changing of syllable and nasalization in makassar language using generative phonology and distinctive features. the researchers hope it can be a novelty in generative phonology of local languages in the archipelago. methods the research applies a descriptive qualitative method. the researchers describe the phonological process; syllable structure change and nasalization in the makassar language. the discussion points are in the form of verbs /ak-/ and /aŋ-/ myang, which are the basic verbs in the makassar language. the type of data examined is secondary data. the data reviewed are obtained from a book published by the language training and development center of education and culture department with the title struktur bahasa makassar in 1981. then the data are strengthened by an informant who is a native speaker of makassar language. analyzing data on the research use ‘agih’ and ‘padan’ method by sudaryanto (2015). the ‘padan’ method used here is by using “daya pilah fonetik artikulatoris”. the selection found by the researcher is an affixed element in the form of makassar /ak-/ and / aŋ-/ prefixes that form verbs. the first step in analyzing the data is by differentiating two things, prefix and verb root. the second is by identifying the data that have been differentiated by determining, which sounds experiencing the phonological process caused by affixes and prefixes. the researchers then continue it by using “hubung banding” technique to strengthen the data and identify the phonological process occurs. the data are emphasized with the informant, who is a native speaker of makassar language. furthermore, the data are categorized and equated with sound changes. the final process of analyzing makassar language data is describing it descriptively and using the theory of distinctive features (sudaryanto, 2015). results and discussions here, the researchers describe the phonological process; syllable structure change and nasalization in the makassar language. the verbs forming in makassar language begins with the prefix that can change the sound and release several segments, either consonants or vowels. there are several prefixes like / ak-/ and /an-/, and its changes analyzed in the research. prefix /ak-/ changes [k] sound into [ʔ] or called by glottalization. the first verbs affixation with prefix /ak-/ in makassar language is the intransitive verb. it is the verb that needs an additional object or argument, and transitive verb. in this process, there is a change of consonant sound [k] into glottal sound [ʔ]. the data explanation about prefix /ak-/ can be seen in table 1. table 1 verb root with prefix [ak-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [baluk] [aʔbaluk] selling 2. [daŋkak] [aʔdaŋkak] perching 3. [gǝak] [aʔgǝak] fighting 4. [rua] [aʔrua] both 5. [jǝʔnǝ] [aʔ jǝʔnǝ] bathing the data on the table 1 show that the basic verbs are initiated by consonants [b], [d], [g], [r], and [j]. the change occurred is the word initiated by prefix [ak-] into [aʔ-] when that sounds are bilabial plosive, alveolar plosive, velar plosive, palatal fricative, and trill sound. the [k] sound on prefix /ak-/ that is velar plosive voiceless sound changes into glottal when encountered. it can be stated with this following phonological rules below. 110 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 107-113 /k/ [ʔ] based on table 1, the verb root [baluk] means sell or ‘jual’ and add /ak-/ into the verb, it changes into [aʔ-] + [baluk] or [aʔbaluk] means selling or ‘menjual’. the next verb root is [daŋkak] means ‘perch’, and becomes [aʔdaŋkak] means ‘perching’, verb root [gǝak] becomes [aʔgǝak] when adding prefix /ak-/. all words in table 1 show the change of sound [k] into [ʔ], namely glottalization. it explains that the modified verb+ing shows action in progress. it can be seen that the change of /k/ sound into [ʔ] is because of the influence of phoneme that has a voiced sound. the distinctive feature of the sound can be stated in the following rule. based on the distinctive feature, [k] is changed into glottal when lined with voiced or voiceless consonants of bilabial, alveolar, velar, or trill. the most important thing is this only happens in makassar language. there is no guarantee that it happens in other languages. the next discussion is the change of [ak-] sound into [ak-] (nasalization). in makassar language, there is a nasal sound. it does not change the prefix that constructs the verbs. table 2 is about the phonological process where the prefix is on the nasal sound. table 2 verb root with prefix [ak-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [maik] [akmaik] breathing 2. [ɳaong] [akɳaong] sounding 3. [nana] [aknana] festering 4. [ŋaŋa] [akŋaŋa] gaping 5. [lolǝʔ] [allolǝʔ] being friend based on table 2, the word [maik] means ‘breath’ changes into [akmaik] ‘breathing’, [ɳaong] means ‘sound’ becomes [akɳaong] ‘sounding’, the verb root [nana] means ‘fester’ change into [aknana] means ‘festering’, and [lolǝʔ] means ‘friend’ becomes [alolǝʔ] means ‘being a friend’. nasal sound is a sound that is produced through the nasal cavity or slightly nasally. the sound change occurs from [k] sound on the prefix [ak-], which is a velar plosive voiceless sound that changes into voiced nasal sound. as in the verb that initiated by nasal [m] sound on the word [maik], experiences morphophonemic process and becomes [akmaik]. the way to pronounce [akmaik] tends to present nasal sound. so that, the sound [k] faintly disappears. its change aims to show the add +ing of an action in progress. the [k] sound release and sound insertion based on the initial phoneme is called by gemination. it can be seen in table 3. table 3 verb root with prefix [ak-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [lolǝʔ] [allolǝʔ] being friend 2. [tannuŋ] [attannuŋ] weaving 3. [kantorok] [akkantorok] doing 4. [soloŋ] [assoloŋ] flowing 5. [tayaŋ] [attaŋ] waiting 6. [piwali] [appiwali] answering based on table 3, the word [tannuŋ] means ‘weave’ changes after adding the prefix /ak-/. however, the change that occurs is [k] sound in the prefix /ak-/ following the first consonant sound and becomes [attannuŋ] means ‘weaving’. likewise, the word [kantorok] means ‘do’, the [k] sound in prefix / ak-/ does not change because the word begins with /k/ consonant and becomes [akkantorok] means ‘doing’. the change happens to all words in table 3. in generative phonological theory, prefix [ak-] changes into [a-] that experiences sound [k] release and insertion of the same consonant sound on the initial phoneme of every word. based on the change happens, the change of /a/ + /first consonant/ happens in verbs initiated by voiceless or voiced sound. based on table 3, the consonants experience an insertion are [t], [s], [l], [p], [k]. the sounds rule appeared is assumed that there are two rules, the first is the rule of [k] sound can be seen here. /k/  ø / -[voiceless consonant] the rule explains that the [k] sound experiences sound release when it is before voiceless consonant sound where the prefix [ak-] will be changed into [a-] sound. the distinctive features are; after getting releasement of [k] sound, there is a sound insertion process based on the initial phoneme 111syllable structure and nasalization .... (nurul khasanah; agus subiyanto) on the verbs in makassar language. for instance, the verb [tayaŋ] becomes [attaŋ]. the initial phoneme rule is as follows. ø → [first consonant] /-# the rule explains that [k] sound in makassar language experiences ø when initiated by voiceless sounds and initial consonant insertion based on the phoneme that comes first. as in the word initiated by alveolar plosive voiceless sound /t/ [tannuŋ], it changes into [attanuŋ] ‘weaving’. another example is in the word initiated by alveolar fricative voiceless sound /s/ that will experience the insertion of [s] sound, also the word that is initiated by bilabial plosive voiceless /p/ sound that gets the insertion of [p] sound. in makassar language, the sound with consonants gemination is pronounced with a bit long and stressed tone. that process is defined as the gemination process. based on the table 1, 2, and 3, prefix /ak-/ has three allomorph categories; [ak-], [a-], and [aʔ]. those generate different sounds when in morphophonemic verbs of makassar language. there is a sound change and remain consistent, so that can be inferred that the underlying form of prefix verbs above is [a-]. the underlying form is consistent and never experience a change when getting an insertion. the [a-] sound has a spread of all kinds of voiceless consonants. it is more numerous than [ak-], which only exists in nasal sounds, also [aʔ] in bilabial sounds, voiced velar, and trill like sounds [b], [d], [k], [j] and [r]. it can be inferred that in makassar language, prefix / ak-/ does not experience a change when getting initial nasal phoneme. prefix /ak-/ changes into [aʔ], when encounter voiced consonant and becomes /a-/ when encountering all voiceless consonants and experiences gemination or initial phoneme doubling. the next prefix is /an-/, the researchers explain the morphophonemic process of verbs in makassar language that experiences a change when pronounced. as explained in advanced that prefix in makassar language is varied, some of them are able to change the verb itself. in the process of sound release, sound insertion, and nasalization, the researchers explain how the prefix /an/ in a verb can attach to the transitive or intransitive verbs. the prefix also causes the change of syllable structure on the word. table 4 is the data about verbs in makassar language that begin with prefix /an-/. table 4 verb root with prefix [an-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [alle] [aŋalle] taking 2. [eraŋ] [aŋeraŋ] bringing 3. [inuŋ] [aŋinuŋ] drinking 4. [ulu] [aŋulu] heading table 4 explains that all sounds initiated by vowels experience a morphophonemic process that begins with /an-/ sound will change into /aŋ-/. for instance, the word [alle] changes into [aŋalle] ‘taking’. the [ŋ] sound appears to change [n] sound. it indicates that there is nasalization; the alveolar nasal-voiced sound that changes into velar nasal-voiced sound as the strengthening of the vowel [a]. schane (1973) has explained alveolar nasal is pronounced by the tongue’s tip touching the teeth or gums. at the same time, makassar speakers say it by touching the back of the tongue to the gum’s top so that the nasal sound becomes voiced velar. the rule and distinctive features appeared are as follows. /n/  [ŋ] / # [vokal] the distinctive features are as follows; based on the rule, it is assumed that alveolar nasal becomes velar nasal when started by the initial phoneme, which is in the form of the vowel. the [ŋ] nasal sound is used as vowel reinforcement. table 5 verb root with prefix [an-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [biŋkuŋ] [ammiŋkuŋ] hoeing 2. [paŋkuluʔ] [ammaŋkuluʔ] axing 3. [buʔbu] [ammuʔbu] revoking 4. [pǝlaʔ] [ammǝlaʔ] throwing based on table 5, affix /an-/ will become [m] when encounters voiced or voiceless bilabial plosive sound [p], and [b]. it releases the sound and changes it into nasal sound, and then experiences gemination. for instance, as in the data, the word [biŋkuŋ] becomes [ammiŋkuŋ] ‘hoeing’. it indicates that the word must be pronounced a bit long and stressed. the rule is as follows. /b/  [m] / vocal # based on the rule, the gemination process is on bilabial plosive sound voiced and voiceless. it happens because the sound appears after [b] and [p] is a vowel. the vowel sound itself causes gemination and nasalization. those verbs are pronounced by makassar people by stressing the tone a bit with nasal and long intonation. the distinctive features are: 112 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 107-113 the rule is also used for bilabial plosive voiceless sound [p], since the rule in makassar basically uses prefix /an-/ that is the pairing of voiced and voiceless sound. table 6 is about the sound change caused by a pair of sounds in the makassar language. here is the data about verbs in bm experiencing nasalization. table 6 verb root with prefix [an-] no verb root verb affixation glosa 1. [deddek] [andeddek] shivering 2. [tabbaŋ] [annabaŋ] cutting down 3. [jama] [anjama] working 4. [tunruŋ] [annuruŋ] hitting table 6 shows the sound of the alveolar plosive voice and voiceless, and also palatal fricative voice and voiceless. based on table 6, prefix /an-/ does not change when it encounters the sound of alveolar plosive voiced. palatal fricative voiced while voiceless sounds of them are [t] and [c] sound change into nasal sound. the rule of sound change and insertion appears as follows: /t/  [n] / # [a] the distinctive feature appears on the rule above is as follows: the rule also applies to the sound of palatal fricative voiceless [j], since the rule in makassar basically use a prefix /an-/ is voiced and voiceless sound. conclusions based on the data analysis results, the syllable structure change and nasalization are the underlying form of prefix /ak-/ is /a-/. in makassar language, the [k] sound will change into [ʔ] sound when preceded by bilabial plosive, alveolar plosive, velar plosive, palatal fricative, and trill sound. the [k] sound will change into [a-] sound when the consonant is voiceless, and there is a gemination process based on the initial phoneme of it. sound [k] remains as [k] sound when it is followed by nasal sound. the gemination in makassar language indicates the length of the sound. prefix /an-/ changes into [m] when it encounters bilabial plosive voiced or voiceless. the morphophonemic process of prefix / an-/ experiences gemination when encounters nasal sound [m] generates double nasal sound. it indicates the sound should be read long. this also influences the syllable structure of the word. when prefix /an-/, alveolar nasal [n-] encounter, all vowels will change into velar nasal [ŋ] as vowels’ reinforcement. the phonological process occurs on prefix /an-/ when encounters fricative, and plosive sound will experience gemination that changes syllable structure, and the pronunciation will be a bit longer. nasal sound in the last word before vowel changes into glottal sound. the research only describes the phonological process of prefix /ak-/ and /an-/ and its changing based on generative phonology. the research finding suggests that the implementation of syllable structure and nasalization change in makassar language can encourage new knowledge to the young generation related to phonological process and generative phonology. in addition, the research can be an important contribution to makassar’s local language as a way to maintain the language. it is highly recommended to the next research to discuss other kinds of the local language so that it cannot shift and extinct. references amir, j. 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(2016). sistem fonologis bahasa makassar dialek cikoang kabupaten takalar. jurnal onoma: pendidikan, bahasa, dan sastra, 3(1), 72-89. http:// dx.doi.org/10.30605/onoma.2017.912. dominikus., pastika, i. w., & putra, a. a. (2016). proses dan kaidah fonologis posleksikal bahasa helong kajian generatif. linguistika: buletin ilmiah program magister linguistik universitas udayana, 23, 148157. 113syllable structure and nasalization .... (nurul khasanah; agus subiyanto) haslinda. (2018). kemampuan menentukan affiks pada teks cerita bahasa makassar ”i jamila daeng kanang” siswa kelas ix smp islam darussalam pannyangkalang (thesis). makassar: universitas negeri makassar. gane, m., abdullah, w., purnanto, d. (2019). seluk beluk prefiks resiprokal kidalam bahasa loloda di halmahera utara provinsi maluku utara. mozaik humaniora, 19(1), 63-73. http://dx.doi. org/10.20473/mozaik.v19i1.11860. muslihah. (2018). the analysis of loan words of english language transformed into japanese language (study of generative transformational phonological). izumi: jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan budaya jepang, 7(2), 73-83. https://doi.org/10.14710/izumi.7.2.73-83. nafisah, s. (2017). proses fonologis dan pengkaidahannya dalam kajian fonologi generatif. deiksis, 9(1), 70-78. sartini, n. w. (2019). bahasa pergaulan remaja: analisis fonologi generatif. mozaik: jurnal ilmu humaniora, 12(2), 36-47. schane, s. a. (1973). generative phonology. new jersey: prentice-hall. sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. swadana, w. (2018) fonologi bahasa bali dialek jembrana. joish: jurnal ilmu sosial dan humaniora, 7(1), 77-86. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jish-undiksha. v7i1.13670. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 305 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 305-311 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6015 javanese perspective of nonverbal language: an ethnopragmatic study pranowo master program of indonesian language and literature, faculty of teacher training and education, sanata dharma university jl. affandi, mrican, caturtunggal, sleman, diy 55281, indonesia prof.pranowo2@gmail.com received: 17th october 2019/revised: 11th november 2019/accepted: 27th november 2019 how to cite: pranowo. (2019). javanese perspective of nonverbal language: an ethnopragmatic study. lingua cultura, 13(4), 305-311. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6015 abstract the research focused on nonverbal language (nvl) of javanese people in indonesia who spoke the first javanese language and the second language indonesian using an ethnopragmatic approach. the purpose of research was to describe the perception of the javanese community on the use of nvl, both dynamic and static nvl. this research used a descriptive qualitative method with data collection techniques through observation of people who were communicating, interviews with resource persons, and recording as supporting techniques for data collection. data were analyzed by steps; data identification, classification, and interpretation. the results of research have theoretical implications. if aspects of local wisdom such as those possessed by the javanese people are preserved, it will be able to provide benefits to the preservation of culture that has been passed down through generations in javanese society. such conditions will be able to illustrate that the community’s perspective on javanese culture is still well maintained from the past until now. keywords: nonverbal language, javanese language, javanese conversation introduction nonverbal language (nvl) is a form of wordless communication (patel, 2014; bonaccio et al., 2016), which includes body language. body language can convey a great deal of non-linguistic information. not all of the values, beliefs, thoughts, and intentions are verbally communicated. through conscious and unconscious movements and postures that are accompanied by gestures, facial expressions, eye contacts, and touch, one expresses his/her feelings and intentions. each of these physical movements of the body parts could be interpreted differently by other people within a given context of communication. in every spoken verbal communication, 93% of it is always supported by nvl (lapakko, 2007). this is natural because nvl had existed long before verbal language was used. despite the widespread use of verbal language, the habit of using nvl still continues. there are three types of nvl, namely (1) nvl that can stand on its own, (2) nvl that becomes the context of spoken verbal language, and (3) the metaphorical symbol of social status in the community. nvl can stand on its own when someone communicates without using words, but using gestures, sign language, signs, symbols, movement, gaze, head shakes, or nodding. in such communication, nvl becomes the main tool in communication, like a little child who cannot speak using verbal language. similarly, two people who do not know each other’s language tend to communicate using nvl. nvl, as a context for spoken verbal language, may be in the form of linguistic context (co-text), situational context, cultural context, and social context. nvl serving as various contexts can eliminate obscurity of the speaker’s message, clarify the hearer’s understanding of utterances containing implicature, and can be the references of utterances containing deixis. nvl symbolizing social rank happens in architectural designs, such as home décor, body odor (brown, 2011). javanese is rich in nonverbal language, symbolizing social rank, which accompanies their daily communication, such as expression of esem bupati (regent’s expression), semu mantra (mantra’s expression), dhupak bujang (a poor person’s kick) (pranowo, 2018). since interpretations of body language differ from people to people and cultures to countries, it is important to learn about them. so far, not many studies on javanese nvl have been done. thus, an interdisciplinary study of nvl must be conducted. the present tries to uncover those kinds of javanese nonverbal language. the ethnopragmatic theory combining with ethnography and pragmatics is utilized. 306 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 305-311 ethnography is a cultural study describing the life of a given community. the ethnographic study covers cultural knowledge, cultural behavior, and artifact. the purpose of the ethnographic study is to describe and analyze the culture of a certain society to understand its relationship with daily life (spradley, 1979). therefore, the use of verbal language is a cultural behavior, meaning that each nvl is a behavior of a certain culture. there are three major theories used as a reference to discuss the issues in this research, namely the ethnographic theory, the pragmatic theory, and the theory of context. each of which is elaborated in the subsequent subsections. harris and johnson (santschi et al., 2015) have stated that ethnography can be identified in a narrow and broad sense. in the narrow sense, ethnography means ‘a portrait of people’, while in the broad sense, ethnography is a written description of a particular culture-the customs, beliefs, and behavior-based on information collected through fieldwork. ethnography is derived from a latin word etnos meaning ‘people’ and grafein meaning ‘to describe or portray’. so, ethnography is a study of an object that describes the life of a community or people. ethnography is the work of anthropologists to describe and analyze cultures, whose main purpose is to understand knowledge and relationship to get the perspective of the ‘new world’ in the community being studied (aronson, 1995; spradley, 1998). for this purpose, ethnography is a characteristic of anthropological studies. one of the characteristics of anthropological studies is the process of change, slowly or quickly. this process of cultural change is determined by the intensity of cultural contact (e.g., communication of new ideas from other cultures about technology); the more cultural contact happens, the faster the process of cultural change takes place. advanced industrial countries as the center of science and technology development have made new continuous innovations. the new innovations, i.e., communication technology, transportation technology, and information technology, and non-science and technology institutions, occur simultaneously, resulting in major changes in cultural ideas and cultural behavioral patterns of the people in developing countries. these three types of technology lead to changes in all sectors of social life. with the advent of technological development and cultural behavioral change, the state boundary remains the administrative one. aspects of ideology, science, technology, and arts have spread their influence on the life of people without being limited to state borders. the ethnographic research emphasizes on the researcher’s sense of realities, a reflective thinking process, and the process of interpreting facts based on the concepts used, and developing an understanding, which prioritizes the values being studied. using inductive and deductive norms, a researcher constructs the concepts and propositions from the empirical observation based on the social behavior of the given community. geertz states that culture is a system of symbolic meanings (kapferer, 1988). as a language, culture is a semiotic system containing symbols that function to communicate and signify meanings from interpersonal thoughts. culture is a phenomenal object, action, or event in the society which can be observed, felt, and understood. the main difference between geertz’s and gooenough’s definition of culture is that geertz states that culture is a symbol and meaning that exists in the minds of individuals who act simultaneously as the social actors in public reality (geertz, 1973). in contrast, goodenough states that culture is a symbol and meaning which exists in the individuals’ minds as a personal reality. on the ethnographic concept, language is an aspect of cultural behaviors. therefore, the linguistic analysis of ethnographic aspects focuses more on the use of verbal and nvl, as an independent study (for stand-alone nvl), and the use of nvl as contexts of utterances to eliminate meaning obscurity, and to explain deixis (miller, 2011). the pragmatic study is a study of language use in context (brown & yule, 2013). crystal in deda (2013) defines pragmatics as a branch of linguistics, which studies languages from the point of view of its users. in line with crystal, kasper defines pragmatics as the study of understanding and producing language through actions in contexts. understanding and producing language is included as speech acts in contexts. based on experts’ opinion, it can be concluded that a pragmatic study is a study of language use both in terms of understanding and producing a language in real situations based on contexts (buck & vanlear, 2018). the analysis of language use from the speaker’s point of view (expression) takes in the forms of (a) the speaker’s diction when using the language in social interaction, (b) choices that consider the benefit of language use, and (c) ability to make the right choice from the pragmatic aspects. on the contrary, the hearer’s point of view (understanding) always considers (a) the communicative effect, (b) the structure of utterance, and (c) the speaker’s intent. nvl also functions as the context of spoken verbal language use. by understanding nvl in contexts, at least the use of nvl is able to; (a) eliminate the obscurity of the speaker’s meaning, (b) clarify understanding contained in the implicature, and (c) become the reference to interpret the utterances containing deixis (santschi et al., 2015). studies of language context are carried out through pragmatic studies. pragmatics is a discipline that studies the relationship between signs and interpreters (brown & yule, 2013). in addition, pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that studies languages from the user’s point of view, especially the choices they make, the obstacles they face in using language in social interaction, and the effect of using their language on other participants in communication actions (dijk, 2009). based on these theories, the pragmatic study can be defined as the study of language use in contexts. deda (2013) has stated that in communicating, the expressed meaning includes verbal and nonverbal meaning in contexts (patel, 2014). several experts define contexts from many different views, depending on the issues they face in the field. widdowson in zhou (2009) has defined context as aspects of the use of actual language that is considered relevant to meaning. in other words, context is a schematic construction to arrive at pragmatic meanings that have a matching code of linguistic elements with the schematic element. cook, who studies the relations between discourse and literature, states that a context is only a form of knowledge of the world (patel, 2014). the term ‘context’ can be understood in a narrow sense and a broad sense (miller, 2011). the context in the narrow sense refers to another part of the text preceding and following the speaker’s utterances. the definition of context in the narrow sense is called co-text (barry, 2011). the context, in the broadest sense, refers to all factors outside the text that are needed in communication. basically, the context has important similarities; namely, one main focus of the context is the environment in which the discourse 307javanese perspective of.... (pranowo) occurs (botting, 2005). it is not enough to use the pragmatic approach to study nvl because nvl is a product of people’s cultural behavior. hence, the study of nvl should also use an ethnographic approach. methods this research is a descriptive qualitative in nature, focusing on the javanese non-verbal language. the research data are in the forms of spoken verbal utterances accompanied by nvl, which are video recorded. interviews with the communicators and communicants as well to the informants are conducted to confirm the messages delivered using nvl. the collected data are then analyzed in the following steps: (1) identifying data, (2) classifying data, and (3) interpreting messages contained in the research data. the dynamic and static nvl of javanese is then classified in terms of their metaphorical functions in contexts. results and discussions nvl consists of all the body parts and movements, objects that are attached to the body, things that a person has, and someone’s profession. based on these classifications, there are two types of nvl, namely, dynamic and static nvl (lapakko, 2007; zhou, 2009). dynamic nvl includes body movements, such as body language, parts, and movements; head gestures, such as movement and its parts; and hand gestures, such as parts of hands and hand movements. the use of nvl is always associated with the context of spoken language use or the context of one’s life. context is a variety of situations inside or outside the text (such as co-text, social background, cultural background) that can support the delivery of the speaker’s message to be understood by the hearer (wang, 2014). the forms of nvl depend on the context that surrounds it. therefore, sometimes, the intent of nvl depends very much on the interlocutors’ ability to interpret the context. from the javanese cultural perspective, every part of the body can produce nvl. however, the most dominant parts of the body producing dynamic nvl are (1) the movement of the head and its parts (such as nodding of the head, shaking of the head, squinting the eye, winking of the eye, facial expressions, lip movements), and (2) movements of the hand and its parts (elbow movement, finger movements, palm movements, such as, handshake), shoulder movements. head nodding is an approval expression. for example, to accept the offer of jackfruit, “do you want to eat jackfruit?” the hearer just nods his head without saying ‘yes’. to refuse an offer by the speaker, the hearer just shakes his head without saying ‘no’. for example, jarwo asks someone if he went to jakarta a few days ago. the hearer may just shake his/her head. it means that he did not go to jakarta. swiveling one’s head is a sign of inattention. the gesture is made when the speaker is standing face-to-face with the hearer, while he/she must pay attention to another object at the same time. for example, the speaker is talking to the hearer when suddenly someone passes by. without ignoring the hearer, the speaker takes a look at the other person passing by. in the meantime, the speaker’s eye signals the hearer that the speaker still pays attention to the hearer and agrees with what the hearer says. facial movements express the speaker’s feelings to the hearer. if the facial expression seems cheerful, it means that the speaker signals that he/she is pleased. for example, the speaker has just bought a new car, received a gift, heard that her child has just passed an exam, or just got a job, etc. conversely, if the speaker’s facial expression is sullen, it means that the speaker is angry with the hearer, or disappointed with an unexpected situation. for example, the speaker is disappointed because the hearer cannot complete a task assigned to him/her, or the speaker hopes that the hearer does not repeat the same mistakes. with such expression, the speaker’s facial expression shows a disappointing feeling. lip movements for men are sometimes different from those of women. when a man protrudes his lower lip while drawing the upper lip backward, it indicates that he is disappointed with what the hearer means. meanwhile, if a woman protrudes her lower lip, she intends to sneer at the hearer. however, people’s perspectives are sometimes different. lip movements can signal interest in the opposite sex, a disappointment to the hearer, and cynicism towards the hearer. another dynamic nvl is the movements of a hand and its parts. there are various hand movements. extending a hand toward the hearer with the palm down and gesturing the hearer to move towards the speaker’s body signals the hearer to approach. extending a hand with a palm down and making a shooing movement vigorously away from the speaker means telling the hearer to go away from the speaker. the gesture of embracing the hearer tightly shows that the speaker has a close relationship with the hearer. when the right elbow is folded to the left, and the palm is pressed to the left, it indicates that the speaker is asking that the hearer moves to the left of the speaker. conversely, if the elbow of the left hand is folded to the right and the palms of the hand are clasped, it signals the hearer to move to the left. finger movements can also vary in meaning. when the right or left index finger is raised and pressed to the lips, the speaker signals that the hearer to be silent and stop talking. if the little finger is straightened down while the other fingers are folded, it signals that something does not really matter. if the index finger is pointed forward in an upright position while being waved left and right, it means that the hearer must not do what he/she is doing at the moment. when javanese people meet other people, they usually shake hands to indicate a close relationship with each other. the manner of shaking hands starts with extending both hands to shake the palm of the hearer’s hand and then release it, and the palms are cupped and then pressed to the lips or the chest as an expression of friendship. body movements, though not really frequent, are commonly used by javanese when communicating with others. shrugging shoulders and opening the palms upward indicates that the speaker shows his/her disagreement with the hearer. if the speaker sways his/her buttocks to the left and right when dancing, it means that the speaker is cheerfully following the dance movement. static nvl is related to the body and its parts, and the objects attached to the body, objects owned by the person, social status in the society. static nvl can also convey certain messages to the other person. static nvl is an immobile nvl that is signaled by the speaker but can be understood by the hearer based on his perspective. static nvl in the form of the body parts and body movements 308 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 305-311 includes body posture, nose shape, cheek shape, lip shape, tooth shape, skin color, hair color, and others. the body posture for the javanese people gives a special message to the other person. for ethnic javanese, body posture usually has a height of about 160 cm. people whose body posture is more than 160 cm will be classified as tall, dark, and handsome (for men). on the contrary, women with a tall body posture are considered authoritative. and then, the bridge of the nose for the ethnic javanese is usually large or ‘pug’. thus, the javanese people who have a sharp-pointed nose are considered beautiful and graceful, especially for women. while the shape of the cheek for the ethnic javanese is typically round. however, for the ethnic javanese women, having dimples is considered graceful and beautiful. the shape of the lips of women leaves a special impression for the javanese men. women who have thin lips are considered as beautiful and charming, whereas women with thick and full lips are charming. the shape of the teeth is not always visible all the time. however, the shape of the teeth gives a special message to the hearer. the row of white upper and lower teeth is the javanese men’s ideal shape of women’s teeth. in the javanese, the ideal shape is metaphorized as ‘untune miji timun’ or literally means ‘the teeth are like the seeds of a cucumber’. in addition, ideally, the women and men’s teeth must be white. yellowish and scaly teeth leave an impression of dirty teeth. the most favorable skin complexion for the ethnic javanese is flawless bright skin or metaphorized as ‘kuning nemu giring’ or ‘yellow like temu giring tuber’. the skin tone ‘kuning nemu giring’ leaves an impression of flawless skin. on the contrary, pale white skin is not favorable among the javanese; it leaves an impression of pallor. likewise, a dark skin tone is not favorable because it leaves a dirty impression. a javanese person who has natural reddish hair is considered unhealthy. people with gray hair are considered old. young people with gray hair are called ‘galak uwan’ or ‘gray hair tendency’. however, in this modern era, young and older people dye their hair in many different colors. these people, young and old alike, are considered as being fashionable. the javanese people’s skin color tends to be brownish or ‘sawo matang’ (ripe sapodilla) or yellowish or ‘kuning nemu giring’ (yellow like temu giring tuber). however, the javanese people with flawless bright skin are more favorable. in contrast, the javanese people who have pale white or black skin are generally disliked. the objects that are attached to the body are classified as static nvl. first is clothes and their functions. when going to work, a man always wears neat clothes to impress dignity and honor through his physical appearance, and that other people have to respect him. during a traditional ceremony (i.e., wedding), a javanese man who is part of the bride’s and groom’s relatives will wear traditional clothes in cultural events to that he is a person who appreciates his cultural values. during a cultural event, a javanese man always wears traditional clothes and accessories (kris, belt, and headgear or blangkon) to show that he still preserves the local culture. a woman always wears beautiful clothes for different occasions, and events show the impression of a beautiful and elegant woman. at home, both men and women of the javanese ethnicity wear home clothes (housedress for women and undershort for men) to indicate that they want to relax. the second is makeup. a woman always wears powder, lipstick, and red blush-on to beautify herself. a man and a woman always spray perfume before going out to leave an impression of a good smell of body odor to other people. a woman always wears accessories to show her beautiful and wealthy appearance. in contrast, excessive accessories (bracelets, large eardrops, anklets, too showy necklaces) give to show off the impression. the nvl is also seen in social status in the society. javanese people classify the rank of priyayi or aristocrats into two, namely ‘priyayi cilik’ (small aristocrats) and ‘priyayi luhur’ (noble aristocrats). priyayi cilik consists of mostly people who get the honorific titles because they get promoted in their jobs, or due to higher education degrees. the title of priyayi cilik is given to those who have an important position in society, such as ulema, kyai, catholic priests, and protestant ministers. meanwhile, priyayi luhur or noble aristocrats are those who obtain their titles because they are descendants of the royal family or commoners who show great service to the palace, such as kgph (kanjeng gusti pangeran hariya), kgt (kanjeng gusti tumenggung) (pranowo, 2016). those who are descendants of the royal family are dubbed as having ‘blue blood’ or royal blood. nvl seen in the social status is symbolized in three terms, each consisting of three things (telu-teluning atunggal – triune). those belongings to ‘telu-teluning atunggal’ include priyayi cilik and priyayi luhur. the three aspects symbolize the level of aristocracy in the javanese ethnicity. first, nonverbal communication seen in the social status of the javanese aristocracy is pangkat or title, in which someone’s status is measured by the title in the job. each person who achieves a high position in a work environment (i.e., regent, governor, members of the house of representatives) is classified as a priyayi. next, rank or derajat is a status of priyayi obtained by individuals who are considered to have a high position in the office. lastly, semat is the wealth by which a person is deemed to earn a title as a priyayi in the javanese society. normally, a person who has a position (pangkat) and rank (derajat) will automatically have wealth (semat). second, nonverbal communication seen in the status of priyayi among the javanese people is symbolized metaphorically as ‘telu-teluning atunggal’ such as kukila, turangga, and wanodya. middle-class people with decent life usually keep a singing bird as a pet. having a bird (kukila) as a pet symbolizes that he is a priyayi. however, in the modern times, the types of pets vary and get more expensive by keeping rare types of birds, such as peacock, cassowary, bantam cock, yellow-crowned bulbul (cocak rawa), the white-rumped shama (murai batu) from medan, and others. the middle or upper social status symbol is turangga (horse) that refers to vehicles. indeed, even though they no longer live in java, the javanese society today still preserves the high-class social status in the past by maintaining horses that cost hundreds of millions of rupiah. however, turangga in modern times is interpreted as a vehicle, such as cars with certain brands that cost billions, private jet, cruise ships, and others. another symbol of high social status is women or wanodya. the javanese social status symbol requires a man to live with a woman. a man of high stature and wealth is not considered adequate until he takes a wife (wanodya). wives or spouses are partners to procreate the next generation. there are five aspects to consider in the human’s uncertain journey of life. they are siji pesthi (the first is predestination), loro jodho (the second is soulmate), telu wahyu (the third is blessings), papat kodrat (the fourth is destiny/fate), and lima bandha (and the fifth is wealth). 309javanese perspective of.... (pranowo) to choose a suitable life partner, a javanese must consider the quality of the prospective candidates using the criteria of bobot, bibit, and bèbèt. it is not enough for the javanese to have wealth and throne (status) without having a woman to complete their life. the javanese culture in the past was patriarchal and biased against women as if men ruled the world. in javanese, a wife is therefore considered ‘kanca wingking’ or a domestic partner to complete domestic tasks such as macak (being beautiful), manak (delivering babies), and masak (cooking). bobot is the criterion to determine a prospective wife based on personal quality, both physically and mentally, such as piety, education, occupation, ability, and behavior. bibit is a criterion based on the lineage or hereditary. the prospective candidates must have a clear familial background and educational background. this is important to consider because their traits will be passed on to the next generation. bèbèt is a social status related to titles, ranks, and prestige. although obsession with this is not recommended, it is considered safer to take one’s social status into account to determine life partners. it is undeniable that social status is one of the basic human needs. third, when communicating with others, the javanese people are symbolized metaphorically as esem bupati, semu mantri, and dhupak bujang. esem bupati (the regent’s smile) symbolizes that someone has a noble title; he does not use verbal language to express himself but smile. people with high intelligence usually express their message using ‘smile’, instead of using verbal language to express anger or joy. the expression esem bupati is usually stigmatized to someone who had great power in the past and was respected highly by his subordinates. for example, a ruler or employer got a report from his subordinate that his project was protested by a non-government organization. the ruler only smiled. he said that whoever dared to obstruct the national project, he would be sent to sukabumi or ‘suka bumi’ that refers to the grave or to be sent to balikpapan or ‘behind the board’ that refers to a coffin. it means that whoever dared to obstruct the national project would be eliminated or killed. next, the semu mantri is a communication model when nvl is used more often than the verbal language. the verbal language is expressed indirectly, for example, a speaker communicates to others by saying, “wah durianmu bagus-bagus, itu jenis musang king dari malaysia ya, pak tirta?” (wow, your durians look good. is that musang king from malaysia, pak tirta?”). such a question is posed by a regent who visited the durian orchard of one of the farmers in the agrotourism. pak tirta, the owner of the farm, does not answer ‘yes’ to the regent, but he understands without being told or tanggap sasmita. he understands the underlying meaning of the regent’s statement. he does not only want to praise his durians, but he also wants to taste the durian. pak tirta orders his employees to prepare several good quality durians to be served to the regent. pak tirta is pleased with the regent’s praise and as a token of gratitude; he gives his durian as a reward. the regent is also responsive or tanggap sasmita that as a businessman, pak tirta wants to make a profit. so, the regent has said, “durian pak tirta akan saya ikut sertakan dalam pameran agro wisata sebagai buah andalan yang akan diadakan di german minggu depan!” (i will invite pak tirta to participate in the agrotourism festival as the mainstay fruit to be exhibited in germany next week!). the regent’s statement is communicative feedback to respond to the semu mantri communication pattern that is shown by the farmer. in addition, another communication pattern called ‘dhupak bujang’ refers to a social status given to low-class people with low educational and economic status. the lowclass society communicates using direct verbal language to ensure that the hearer understands, for example, “kamu baru datang mesti lapar, sana ke dapur minta makan sama tantemu sana. kalau makan yang kenyang ya?”(you just came, and you must be hungry. go straight to the kitchen and ask for food from your aunt. dig in, will you?). body movements, as dynamic nvl, include movements of buttocks, breasts/chest, and belly. the movement of buttocks functions to express different intentions depending on the contexts. if a singer moves her buttocks while saying, “let’s shake your body, fellows!” (it is usually said by a dangdut singer, both men and women), it can be interpreted that he/she intends to invite the audience to have fun even though the movement is rather erotic. if a man shakes his buttocks (as a context), he is expressing sexual moves. this is used to symbolize his sexual prowess. the swaying of the buttocks by women also shows the same erotic intention, namely sexually arousing the opposite sex. in contrast, if someone moves her buttocks while doing exercise in the gym to dance to the music and shouts, “move it, move it”, it can be interpreted as an invitation to make the hip muscles more flexible. for a man, pushing one’s chest forward may express power, manliness, or courage. in the puppet show, a puppeteer is playing a puppet character by pushing forward the chest and saying, “this is my chest. where is yours?” to show courage to the opponents during a fight. belly may also convey comic intention by moving the belly up and down or moving it around. the movement of the belly is usually shown with clothes off to cause comic relief. the most frequent part of the body to convey messages is the hand. hands are able to convey various nonverbal messages. when someone’s hand is extended forward with the palm down and moved up and down with a stronger stroke down, it means that someone is asking the hearer to move closer to the speaker. likewise, when the hand is extended forward with the palm up and the elbow is moved toward the body, it means that the speaker wants the hearer to approach the speaker. when the hand is stretched forward, the palm is open, and the fingers are closed and vertically moved to the left, the hand movement functions to convey the speaker’s message that he/she wants the hearer to move to the left. in contrast, when the left hand is stretched forward, the left palm is open, and the fingers are closed and vertically moved to the right side, it indicates that the hearer is requested to move to the right according to the hand signal. when the right or left hand is clasped on the chest, and the palms are cupped and then moved aways from the body, it conveys a message that the hearer moves away from the speaker. in addition, when the right or left elbow is folded and raised, and the fingers clench into a fist that is raised and pulled downward strongly, it conveys the message that the speaker is satisfied with something or gets what he/she wants. when the right hand is folded halfway, and the palm is open to the hearer and move to the left and the right, it functions to convey a message of rejection. in contrast, when the right or left elbow is crooked sideways, and the open palm is waved at the hearer, it functions to say goodbye to the hearer. in addition, when the right elbow is crooked sideways, the fingers form a thumbs-up sign and extend forward, the gesture functions to invite the hearer to come in. the function of head gestures (parts and movements) varies. nodding while talking to others functions to convey 310 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 305-311 the message to the hearer that the speaker agrees with what the hearer says. the nodding of the head represents ‘yes’ in verbal language. meanwhile, the head-shaking to the left and the right while talking to the hearer functions to express disagreement with the hearer or rejection of the hearer’s request. for example, when a speaker asks, “do you want to eat sate kambing (lamb skewer)?”, and the hearer replies by shaking his head. it means that he rejects the offer because his mouth is full. the function of the eye in non-verbal communication is to convey a great of wordless messages to the hearer. the various messages mostly deal with feelings. thus, for the hearer to understand the speaker’s message takes sensitivity. when the speaker talks to the hearer while looking at the hearer’s eyes dolefully, it functions to convey the message that the speaker is pleased with the hearer’s intent. in contrast, when the speaker and the hearer look at each other menacingly with bulging eyes, it means that the speaker is boiling mad at the hearer because of inconvenient expression. when communicating with the hearer, the speaker casts his glance in the other direction; it may mean that the speaker is not pleased with the hearer’s statement. when the speaker winks at the hearer, it means that the speaker is interested in the hearer. likewise, when the speaker is winking at the hearer, the speaker wants to attract the hearer’s attention, especially when the hearer is the opposite sex. while the lips produce a lot of nvl in communication. while lips can be both dynamic and static nvl. like the eyes, lips can convey messages which only be understood by the feelings. thus, there should be a strong connection between the speaker and the hearer. a smile on the lips to the hearer functions to convey the message that the speaker is pleased with the hearer. in contrast, a pouting lip indicates that the speaker is disappointed or disagrees with what the hearer says. the nvl found in the priyayi social status of the javanese people is symbolized in three unities (tri teluning atunggal or triune). the three aspects symbolize the level of javanese aristocracy. first, it symbolizes a position or pangkat (position in the job), derajat or rank (position in the society), and semat (wealth). pangkat refers to the position in the government. thus, they also have derajat or rank in society. normally, those who have pangkat and derajat will automatically have semat (wealth). second, the position is symbolled by turangga, kukila, and wanodya. furthermore, the third, social position is symbolled by esem bupati, semu mantra, and dhupak bujang. the visualization of the javanese aristocratic social status is manifested symbolically and metaphorically in several objects, namely kukila, turangga, and wanodya. people with middle social status and decent livelihood are characterized with kukila (birds as pets). in the past, pets were usually perkutut or turtledoves (because they were expensive) and singing birds (because they could sing beautifully). however, in modern times, the types of birds as pets vary. some even keep rare animals that require the government’s permit to keep them, for example, tiger, peacock, cassowary, and others. another marker for the social status of the middle and upper-class society is turangga (horses) that refers to vehicles. even though they do not live on java island, javanese people still preserve this high-class social status. some of them even keep horses, which cost millions of rupiahs. however, in modern times, turangga refers to the vehicles one owns, such as cars with certain brands that cost billions, private jet, yacht. in addition, javanese people also view that human beings must find partners. a man of high stature and abundant wealth is considered inadequate without a wife (wanodya). a wife is a life partner to procreate the next generation. it is not enough for a man to have wealth and status without a woman or wife to complete his life. javanese culture in the past was patriarchal and bias against women as if men ruled the world. thus, a wife was considered as ‘kanca wingking’ or a domestic partner to complete domestic tasks such as macak (being beautiful), manak (delivering babies), and masak (cooking). the ethnopragmatic analysis is used to elaborate on the dynamic and static nvl in terms of the forms and functions of the nvl. static nvl includes body posture, nose shape, cheek shape, lip shape, teeth shape, skin tone, and hair color. without the movement, static nvl sends a powerful communicative effect (patel, 2014). the static nvl, as in body posture (being tall), sends a communicative effect. it leaves an impression of power and bravery from the hearer’s point of view. the sharp-pointed nose represents good appearance from the hearer’s perspective; round cheeks (shaped like a bakpau or bun) leave an impression of sweetness; thick lips represent sensuality; regular rows of white teeth represent beauty for those who see; and bright skin tone leaves an impression of being flawless. black is the normal hair color for people in asia, including the javanese people. people with black hair are considered good-looking by those who see them (pranowo, 2018). other static nvl, as in social status in the society, is revealed through “telu-teluning atunggal” or triune, namely pangkat, derajat, and semat; kukila, turangga, and wanudya; esem bupati, semu mantri, and dhupak bujang. they are symbols and metaphors for the speaker and hearer. symbols cannot be easily understood metaphorically by the hearer if he/she does not comprehend the metaphorical idioms. in contrast, if the hearer understands all the idioms, communication will be smooth and polite. even though the statement is hard to understand by the speaker and hearer, if the hearer understands the meaning, he/she can capture the underlying message that the javanese people like to show off, have a high ambition to pursue pangkat, derajat, and semat as high as possible. on the contrary, dynamic nvl starts from the head, the body, the hand, and the feet to provide strong pragmatic meanings to the hearer. this corroborates bonaccio et al. (2016) views that nvl is capable of sending out strong effects on the hearer. besides, contexts can reveal utterances containing implicature. implicature in utterances is used by grice to explain what is implied or inferred by the speaker because sometimes, in a conversation, what is said is not always literary the same as what is meant. however, contexts in grice’s maxims (maxim of quality, the maxim of quantity, the maxim of manner, the maxim of relevance) allow utterances to be understood easily without any obscure meaning. for example, someone asks his wife, “what time is it, honey?” since the husband and the wife are from yogyakarta, his wife answers, “the train has not passed, honey,” to which her husband replies, “there is still time, then.” given different contexts of the utterance, how would a balinese husband or any husband from the eastern parts of indonesia ask the same question to his wife? the probable answer would be, “the sun has set to the west, honey.” the answer is asymmetric because the situational context of the utterance is different. 311javanese perspective of.... (pranowo) conclusions based on these elaborations, some conclusions can be drawn. first, there are three types of nvl; the one that can stand on its own, the one that becomes the context of spoken verbal language, and the one whose metaphorical form represents one’s social status in the community. second, nvl that can stand on its own is used when someone communicates without using words, but using gestures, sign language, sings, symbols, movements, eye gaze, handshake, and nodding. in such forms, nvl is the basic means of communication among children who cannot speak the verbal language or for two people who cannot speak each other’s verbal languages. third, the forms of dynamic nvl are; (1) movement of the head and its parts (such as lip movement, eye movement); (2) movement of the hand and its parts; (3) movement of the body and its parts (such as belly movement, movement of body parts, movement of chest, and movement of the buttocks). the forms of static nvl are body posture, facial features, hair color, skin tone, and cheek shape. fourth, the functions of dynamic and static nvl are; (1) to eliminate meaning obscurity in the speaker’s intent, (2) to clarify understanding of the speaker’s utterance containing implicature, (3) to become the reference of utterances containing deixis, and (4) to clarify social status, level of intellectual ability, and one’s social ranks. the results of this research have theoretical implications. if aspects of local wisdom such as those possessed by the javanese people are preserved, it will be able to provide benefits to the preservation of culture that has been passed down through generations in javanese society. such conditions will be able to illustrate that the community’s perspective on javanese culture is still well maintained from the past until now. nevertheless, this research has limitations. the data presented is still limited to verbal descriptions and cannot include photographs as illustrations to clarify data descriptions. the next article presentation is expected; researchers can include photographs that clarify the data analysis. references aronson, j. 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(2009). body language in business negotiation. international journal of business and management, 3(2), 90–96. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v3n2p90. p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 57 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 57-67 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6232 reflection of undergraduate students on translation process: an outlook of translation teaching in university roswani siregar1*; risnawaty2; yulia arfanti3; milisi sembiring4 1department of management, faculty of economics, universitas al-azhar jl. pintu air iv no. 214, kwala bekala, medan, sumatera utara 20143, indonesia 2,3faculty of english literature, teaching and education of universitas muslim nusantara al-washliyah jl. garu ii a, harjosari i, medan, sumatera utara, 20147, indonesia 4english and literature, fakultas sastra, universitas methodist indonesia jl. hang tuah no 8, madras hulu medan polonia, medan 20151, indonesia. 1roses_air@yahoo.com; 2risnawaty@umnaw.ac.id; 3yuliaarfanti@gmail.com; 4milisi_sembiring@yahoo.com received: 09th march 2020/revised: 16th april 2020/accepted: 27th april 2020 how to cite: siregar, r., risnawaty., arfanti, y., & sembiring, m. (2020). reflection of undergraduate students on translation process: an outlook of translation teaching in university. lingua cultura, 14(1), 57-67. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6232 abstract the research attempted to recognize students’ comprehension in adopting a set of procedures in the translation process compared to the translation-professional choices in real-situation. thus, two sets of questionnaires were provided for students and professional translators. the qualitative method was employed in conducting the research. the first questionnaire enabled students to express their feelings, thoughts, and ideas concerning the translation course and process. this reflection revealed the students’ strategies, interests, and motivation in attending the course. it also allowed the student to see the importance and benefit of the course. on the other hand, the second questionnaire drew some insight into professional translators’ choice in doing a translation, particularly on strategy in dealing with texts. those finding provides an opportunity for teachers to identify the students’ needs in learning and practicing the translation as close as the professional does and finally to find the best approach in teaching translation. keywords: translation process, translation teaching, undergraduate students introduction the translation is an activity that involves intellectual, processes, and products. it also requires various competencies, ranging from linguistic, cultural, subject, and transfer competencies. like the product, many textbooks, scientific research journals, manuals, reports, news, and others are available in another language because of the translation activities. translation product has enriched life that allows people to communicate and share information between different cultures and backgrounds, known as knowledge transfer. the rapid growth of communication technology, such as the internet, requires the users competent in using various kinds of software or application. students, as professional candidates in any industry in the future, should have the communicative and social competencies to negotiate with clients as the ability to cope with *corresponding author the demanding working environment (krüger & piqueras, 2015). this communicative ability is related to translation competency in using two or more languages, particularly english, as one of the most spoken languages. translation teaching or pedagogy has been drawing a great concern for decades. the efforts to find the effective method of learning and teaching are obvious from the publication in translation teaching research. those researches are done both for undergraduate students and translators as the subject of study. one of the researches’ content is investigating the effectiveness, perception and translation process, and difficulties of translation teaching through questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observation (li, 2018). from the perspective of pedagogy, translation teaching is not merely a process involving the students’ cognitive but also collaborates the great concern and 58 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 57-67 interest both by teachers and students. concerning its difficultness, mubarak (2017); zhou and zou (2017) have argued that translation teaching is still a hard job, and has a long way to get an established foundation in the aspect of curriculum setting and tests adjustment. it is as well as training teachers for specialized translation strategies and skills. on the other hand, translators as the persons who practice translation in the real world are averse to teach translation for others. many believe that translation is learned through experience and personal intuition and can be taught in the classroom by no means. besides, many of them also believe that translation theories are not significant in helping people to develop that skill. however, a short translation course that collaborates the translation theories and specific text in practices have conducted for non-translation class students. this specific purpose translation course raises the students’ awareness of the benefit of theory, such as a translation strategy in dealing with legal and technical texts. it also raises the students’ awareness of the benefit of translation as a soft skill (siregar, 2017a). concerning the benefit of translation teaching, the previous researches by mubarak (2017); kusçu and ünlü (2015); petrocchi (2014) have noted that the ability to translate is an important soft skill owned by the academic communities. it will increase the transfer of knowledge. it is also important to be adjusted with the development of information technology that has changed the workings and work processes of translation. in addition to translation teaching, melnichuk and osipova, (2017); ivanova (2016); odacıoglu and kokturk (2015) put forward the importance of technology collaboration in the class. thus, before arriving on the purpose of the research, a brief review of factors that should be prepared in the translation are teaching that is ranging from teacher competence, learning style, course requirements, design, objective from the literature. many studies on learning styles, personality types, and teaching styles show that not everyone likes to learn in the same way. students who are taught in different styles might be uncomfortable at first, which can lead to a lack of cooperation. therefore, teachers should create a situation that succeeding the learning, for example, to encourage the students to be actively constructing the experience in their own minds (tarasova, kradetskaya, & kudlay, 2015). furthermore, the proper amount of educational material will allow the students to cope with the difficulty with joy while studying. related to material, teachers should be an intercultural competence in using various genre and communicative context, as well as capable instructors. this proficiency will enable the teachers to pointedout the students of the importance of ‘see behind the words’ in the translation process (tomozeiu, koskinen, & d’arcangelo, 2016). moreover, additional concerns should be given in translation class for students who are learning the target language simultaneously. the first consideration is coping with a translation-related problem that is not encountered in language. furthermore, the second is choosing the suitable teaching translation method to be used along with the method adopted for translation (larsen-freeman & anderson, 2011). to achieve this ability, a teacher should have formal training in a language and translation teaching and certification or accreditation attesting to their ability to translate. the more competence the teacher, the more appreciate the students on teacher’s professional competence and pedagogic skills in teaching (hubackova, 2015). thus, the requirements needed from the teacher to achieve the best results of the course are: (1) sound knowledge of the source language and the target language, translation theory, transfer procedures, cognition, and methodology; (2) comprehension on what translation is and how it occurs; (3) permanent interest in reading various kinds of texts; (4) ability to communicate ideas clearly; (5) capacity to create, foster, and maintain a warm work environment, i.e., an atmosphere of sympathetic encouragement; and (6) capacity to foster search and research. in addition to translation competence, behr (2018) has represented the ability to produce a translation in compliance with the purpose of a translation and any given project requirements. a teacher should be concerned with materials prepared for translation courses. it requires the bilingual and bicultural competencies, subject competency, translation strategies, teamwork, communication and research skills, exposure to real-life situations, and knowledge of the history of translation. as far as designing a translation course is concerned, there must be a sort of balance between theory and practice. teaching theories mean to offer ready-made solutions to deal with problems. on the other hand, the limited theory will engage the students in a challenging interrogation and discovery of the problem-solving of translation (kadiu, 2017). generally, students prefer less theory and more practice. in fact, more practices produce better translators. concerning the theory as the foundation of translation teaching, newmark (1988) has proposed that it helps the students to identify and define a translation problem, indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem, list all the possible translation procedures, and recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation. one of the translation problems is the untranslatable of culture-bound text (sembiring & panggabean, 2018). another problem in translation teaching is material and teaching methods. ho (2016) has stated that students are not satisfied because of out-of-date information and monotonous teaching methods. thus, in succeeding the translation activity in the classroom, students can be shown what is important to be transferred in translation is the content of the text, not the form. it is important for students to keep in mind the steps in the translation process, as figured out in figure 1. based on figure 1, students are given strategies 59reflection of undergraduate .... (roswani siregar, et al.) in the analysis and restructuring of a text, as well as examples of evaluating their own translation. all of these examples are given when assignments are discussed in class discussion. the emphasis in this course is that translation is for communication. it is not supposed to hinder or destroy communication. therefore, students are allowed to use dictionaries to consult if they have difficult words with two monolingual dictionaries (english-english and indonesian) and one bilingual (english-indonesian). figure 1 translation process and teaching (suryawinata & hariyanto, 2003) the students are given readings on the theory of translation or can choose the readings by themselves and consult it first to the teacher. they can present in front of the class. in addition, they can choose whether they want a final project, which is translating a chapter of a book or just a final test by translating two paragraphs of a text. if they choose the final project, then there will be no final test, and the translation will be discussed in class. if they choose the latter, the final test will not be discussed in class because it is not too different from the weekly assignment. the first point to consider when choosing the assignment is the students’ background, expectation, experience, knowledge about translation, and their interest in it. all of these can be asked through a simple questionnaire distributed at the beginning of the course or training. if the teacher knows about students’ knowledge and experience in translation, he/she should consider the level of difficulty of the text assignments. if they do not have any experience in translation, probably the first text chosen is not as difficult as when they already have some experience. in addition, concerning the students’ enthusiasm, liu and yu (2019) have found that adequate disciplinary knowledge may contribute to learners’ motivation and positive behavior toward the course. it is also influenced by self-awareness, of course, it benefits from the practical skill acquired from the course (xu & cao, 2017). in addition to exercise and material of translation, the pair languages should be one of the considerations. as gorozhanov, kosichenko, and guseynova (2018) have suggested, the pairs of language in giving translation texts practice is better from the foreign language into the native language. after the students have adequate experiences, they should practice in vice-versa. it will result in the well-trained students in both ways and to do the consecutive translation. a translation course may include literary (prose, poetry, theatre), journalistic (economics, politics, current news), technical, legal, and scientific texts. hence, students are able to manage different kinds of texts both into and out of their native language. it is useful to translate, in the beginning, short sentences in order to be able to build a longer paragraph and deepen the structure of the single phrase later on. in succeeding this, teachers should be able to merge the teaching techniques they may deem best for their students with those of teaching translation. the techniques adopted for teaching translation should be chosen with attention to both sides of the nature of translation. first is objective and theoretical principles, and second is the subjective part, which is mainly related to the student’s intuition and creativity. by keeping in mind, the objectives and benefits of the research are enriching the students’ ability to deal with text in english. siregar (2017a) aware of the importance of translation teaching for non-translation class. this idea is implemented in one year of research by arranging a longer program for students. for this purpose, the curriculum, teaching an instrument, and the classroom is set. the learning style, material, duration, aid tools, and expectation from that program is also reported. from the point of view of these literatures, the purpose of translation course is to develop the student’s insight into the nature and significance of translation as well as stimulate an intellectual and linguistic challenge in the student and to form a forum for dialogue and exchange of ideas and experiences. thus, this present research attempts to answer two questions: (1) what are the efforts the students made in dealing with translation practice? furthermore, (2) how the student compares to professional translators’ habit in doing translation work? hopefully, those findings will suggest a suitable strategy to teach translation in nontranslation class and how to succeed it. methods the research is conducted in the department of economics and engineering, universitas sumatera utara, indonesia. a survey is conducted to explore the students’ reflection outcome on current english subject learning, motivation, and interest in translation learning. the participants are 62 undergraduate students. thirty-two are economic faculty students, and 30 are engineering) who attend the english subject in the first and third semesters. by the year of formal education, they have an average english learning experience at least 14 years in formal education. thus, their english proficiency levels are considered suitable to attend the course. all of the participating students agree to fill out the questionnaire and attend the preliminary translation test that takes two sessions with a total time of four hours. the research is conducted from march to september 2019. 60 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 57-67 twelve translators are selected as participants of the research. they are all professional translators who are doing translation work for four to eleven years of experience. two of them are freelance translators and also the english teachers at a university. four translators are live in north sumatera, and five of them live in jakarta, one in padang, and the rest untold their location. seven of the participants are males, and the rest are females. the survey of student perception is administered by online-questionnaire (google form). the questionnaire consists of ten semi-structured questions with a mixture of closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires that allow for in-depth information from the students. the survey of translator perception is administered both by online-questionnaire (google form). the questionnaire consisted of five semistructured questions with a mixture of closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires that allow for in-depth information from the students. the data collection is divided into three sections that will draw the students’ perception of their experience in translation activities, such as strategy in doing translation work, text genre, and benefit of translation course. the questionnaire for the translator is divided into four sections: translator working experience, training, suggestion in doing a translation, and opinion about the importance of teaching translation in the classroom. results and discussions the summary of findings on the questionnaire items is grouped into two purposes. the first reveals the students’ choices in dealing with translation practices that consist of translation text and process, text genres, and benefit and acceptance of the course. translation practice strategy helps the students improve their foundational ability, such as increasing practice time, reading background information, and practicing pre-translation exercise. the strategy is also what the learners intend to use in the future to resolve the problem encountered during the translation process. the items of text genres identify the preferred, difficulties, and usefulness of text genres. the practical tools are helping students in the translation process. at the same time, the items of benefit and acceptance identify the benefit and acceptance of translation courses for students. the second questionnaire collects the professional translators’ choices in dealing with translation text. for the purpose of the research, a set of the questionnaire is administered with part-time and full-time translators to recognize their way and decision in doing translation works. the most responses of items resulted from the first questionnaire are listed in table 1, while the professional translators’ strategies are listed in table 2 in the appendix section. the results description of students’ reflection on each questionnaire item is initialized by presenting each question as provided. there are five questions to know the students respond in dealing with text in the translation process. the first question (1a) is, “what did you do before translating the text?” in dealing with text, the students’ choices have revealed that half of the students (51%) read the full text to recognize the main idea before translating into the target language. however, in the research, 43% of students read the title and text slightly to recognize the difficult term. in comparison, the rest (6%) only read the title before doing the translation. reading the text is the first stage of the translation process. reading is a way of understanding and capturing the main idea of the source text. it is also a cognitive process to form the idea of mind before communicating it into the target language. in the first reading, the students familiarize themselves with the context, while in re-reading or intense reading, the students consider the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic features that influence their choice in applying the translation strategy. the second question (1b) is, “what did you do when encountering difficult terms or phrases?” not every text is translatable. the difficult term is a problem of the time-consuming process in translation in the class. to solve this problem, 64% of students search for a related topic on the internet. others 26% prefer to ask their classroom-mates or trainer, while the rest (10%) leave it as the original. students exercise is given in the workgroup. they may ask the classroom mates or trainers. this is the way to encourage students to find the best verse of their translation. however, the student who leaves the text as original is the last decision. according to these students, the difficult text is left as original because of the texts are untranslatable. some students leave it in italic, and some are with additional description. the third question (1c) is, “in translating a paragraph, what effort you have made?” another difficult task in translation practice is translating a paragraph into the target language (l2). this part provides two choices to respond. mostly (74%) of students confirm to read the text firstly in order to grasp the meaning before translating the paragraph into l2. however, the rest are immediately translated the sentence structure from l1 to l2. this implies that those students do a literal translation. some sentences may contain complex structure and lexical ambiguity. it makes the confusion for students during the translation. students who encountered this difficulty comment on the duration of practice, and they take a long time to do the task. in fact, the students who take a long time in the reading phase tend to take less time in dealing with translating paragraphs. the fourth question (1d) is, “after translating the text into the target language, what you should be aware of?” as translation involves the cognition process, thus, the thoroughness is part of this activity. although the students are frequently reminded to do this step, the result shows that 48% of students read the translation version only to ensure the whole text is 61reflection of undergraduate .... (roswani siregar, et al.) completed. thirty-seven percent of students read their translation version to ensure accuracy and readability, while the rest 15% effortlessly revise to ensure the terms uniformity. some students lack time to reread the version, check the typo, terms consistency, coherence, and clearness of ideas across the text. the main reason is due to the limitation of exercise time. the fifth question (1e) is about the importance of using tools or technology in the translation process. ninety-three percent or 58 of 62 students admit the importance of tools or technology in doing the translation. in the first place of application use is google translate, in the second is an online dictionary such as dictionary (https://www.dictionary.com), and merriam websters (https://merriam-webster.com), and the rest is other web pages. figure 1 depicts most of the students’ responses in dealing with text in the translation process. there are three questions about students’ responses to the text genre. the first question is, “which one of these text-materials you preferred most in translation practice, and why?” when it comes to text genres, it is related to the translation-material in a classroom exercise. genres of writing may be very heterogeneous in their linguistic features and have their own sense of communicative events. because of genres involve different areas of knowledge or skill and develops a set of peculiarities characteristic, the students from the different faculties have various interest in text genres. the result of the questionnaire items reveals that 37% of students prefer specific text, such as contracts, legal, and scientific material. while 29% are found in the literature, and the rest, 34% prefer to translate the general text. the second question is, “which one of these text-materials you found most difficult in translation practice, and why?” when it comes to difficulties, the result shows that 47% of students admit that literary text is most difficult, while the specific text, 32%, is in second place in translation practice. however, 19% of students confirm that general text is less difficult, although it is not as useful as the specific. the specific response shows that literary text, a kind of text-genre riches of cultures, is the reason for this genre in the first place. the students must be familiar with the specific term of specific text in both the source and target languages. for example, when dealing with engineering terms, the students should study the reference literature in a similar field. students should pay special attention to adapt terminology and symbol, abbreviations, and acronyms. thus, this type of text needs a longer time than the general one. the third question is, “which one of the text-materials (genres) you found most useful in translation practice, and why?” they are compared to the previous questions about the preferred text genres, the usefulness of those texts for students, and also important to recognize. the specific text has a high level of complexity than general ones. it also requires the level of competency and specialization in a certain field. however, 71% of students confirm that specific text such as contracts, legal, and scientific material is most useful. the general text 15% comes in the second rank, and the least is literary text 14%. students also write their thought concerning the practical benefit of translation courses. some students admit that this course helps them gain knowledge from a particular subject, such as in dealing with business contracts and engineering text. figure 2 depicts most of the students’ responses to text genres. there are four questions to know the students’ responses on benefit and acceptance of the course. the first question is, “did you enjoy the translation course?” students’ interests and expectations may vary from one another. it also influences their expectations and level of motivation to attend the course. most of the students (79%) enjoy the translation class. this is related to the benefit they own from this activity. the rest (21%) affirms that translation is though activities. they find themselves hard to relax in attending this activity. the second question is, “did you ever learn figure 1 students reflection in dealing with text in translation process 62 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 57-67 the translation theories and or practices before?” not surprisingly, 94% of students confirm that they have had learned the translation. most students attend a short translation course as part of english subjects in 2017 (siregar, 2017b). the third question is, “does the translation course contribute to your ability to apprehend the english text?” this question reveals that translation courses and activities have a contribution to the english acquirement of 89% of students. in comparison, the rest (11%) conclude not. the last question is, “do you aware now that translation ability is a kind of skill?” when it comes to ability, 95% of students affirm that translation is an important skill. one of the advantages of learning the translation theories, particularly to students who are new to translation, is to provide them the history of translation from the first day up today. the translation is one of the oldest professions in history. by knowing this, as the members of the academic society, the students should respect the role of translators who are work on the backstage of education. figure 3 sums up most of the students’ responses concerning the benefit and acceptance of the course. the students’ responses to the three main questionnaire items have been provided. the following section will provide the professional translators’ choice in doing the translation. those choices are followed by the description of teacher instruction based on teaching materials in the classroom. before translating text, professional translators read and review the text, find the core points of the text, identify the specific terms, and search for relevant references. compared to the result of the point 1a questionnaire item, students’ responses reflect the importance of the teacher’s following suggested steps. students are advised to read the whole text thoroughly before embarking on a translation. however, they should not just read a text passively; they should be active and critical readers. in administer the assignments, students are given short texts to translate. their translations are evaluated, and finally, then it is discussed in great depth and detail among all the students in the class and the teacher. when encounter difficult terms or phrases, the professional translators use the reference materials, glossaries, terminology database, and style guides. this choice is related to 1b in students’ questionnaire item. students argue that the reason for the use of google translate is its practical use to translate sentences or phrases into the target language. concerning the finding of word equivalence, students prefer dictionary and merriam-webster to find the definitions. however, some students also open about the importance of thesaurus for synonyms. the teacher urges the student to research the terms and concepts appearing in the text. this is where language tools can also help to end up with a term list containing the unknown terms (remembering figure 2 students reflection on preferred, usefulness, and difficulies of text genres figure 3 students reflection on benefit and acceptance of translation course 63reflection of undergraduate .... (roswani siregar, et al.) that terms can have completely different meanings/ equivalents depending on the context). they are avoided to start translating before established all the missing equivalents in the target language. in dealing with paragraphs, the professional translator suggests grasping the meaning of the paragraph, compare it to the topic of the text as a whole, avoid the literal translation except for some technical terms, and keep research on the internet to find the proper equivalence. compared to the students’ response in point 1c, the students’ choice reflects that translation is not about simply transposing items from one language to another at the level of lexis and syntax, but that it is about conveying meaning. this is also emphasized in the classroom. this means that they should be asking questions such as, why does any sentence or paragraph come first? is there any reason for having this long sentence in the first paragraph, or is there any chance to keep it brief and informative? does it matter if i merge sentences in my translation? does it matter if i split a long sentence into sentences in the target language? is this a text i’m actually competent to translate? if not, doing more research on the text genre may consume more time. however, it is possible to do under the supervision of the teacher and work together in a group. concerning the readability of text, the selfquestions may arise, for example, does the text complete? or is there anything missing? this is to ensure the coherence of ideas in translation. teacher accents the perspective of the translator as a mediator between cultural worlds. the teacher helps those unfamiliar with a particular culture to understand and appreciate all the cultural nuances of the original text. after translating the text into the target language, professional translators suggest to use a spellchecker and correct any misspelling and typos. another translator argues that this activity is similar to an editor’s role. these choices are related to point 1d of students’ responses that reflect what the teacher suggests in the classroom. the teacher asks the students to correct an inaccurate translation, which is depending on their proficiency. it can be at a simple factual level or may include idiom, collocation, metaphor, etc. any translation should be re-read or revised before made a final version. revising the text means reading it through and examining it firstly for formal errors such as a sentence or word missed out, superfluous words, spelling mistakes, and so on. this is then followed by a second check for content errors; has everything been understood and translated correctly? has the terminology been correctly applied? does the naturalness of translation is achieved overall? these self-questions will check the acceptable translation (siregar, 2016). students are also reminded that they are responsible for their own works, such as ensuring that the text has been translated adequately and honestly. this can be an excellent source of discussion. the task can be varied by using an incorrect translation alongside a correct one, but not telling students which one is best before made the final version. after making a final version, students ask to keep a glossary of term, which they continuously update. they also write down the terms and phrases in a notebook to allow them to retrieve the words in the next project. concerning the text genres and benefits and acceptance of the course as listed in points 2 and 3 of students’ questionnaire, these topics are prepared for students only. thus, it will be discussed from the part of students’ responses and their relevance with the translation teaching in the classroom. the preferences of students toward the textmaterial genres reflect balance values. the result shows that although the specific text (such as contracts, legal, and scientific text) is valued as a less preferred genre, this is found to be most useful in translation practice. on the other hand, the literary text (such as novel, drama, and poetry) is valued as the most difficult genre. from the teacher’s point of view, it is very important to prepare the students with various genres in english and indonesian. it helps them to be familiar with the terminology and various kinds of source material. moreover, text genres have various levels of difficulties. thus, the teacher should take consideration for the period of its assignment. firstly, the teacher gives the students plenty of time to do short translation assignments, then analyzes them in detail, and ultimately discusses the nature of their work, pays attention to student errors, and fails in comprehending the text idea. secondly, in the next assignment, the teacher is giving the students the long sentences with many coordinate clauses. students are asked to start with the main verb of the sentence and its subject and leave the coordinates later. this procedure teaches them to avoid literacy by paying greater importance to their understanding and translating according to the structure of the target language. it is important to direct students’ attention away from grammar and lexis towards whole-text and translation-task issues. the students are urged to provide a summary of a source text before translating it into the target language. after all, the result of assignments should be discussed in class. firstly, it is reviewed and commented on by the teacher. the rest will be presented by the students in front of the class or done in a group. the teacher will explain important issues not covered by the students, especially the ones concerning theory or guidelines. another point that significant to the research is the preference of students toward the benefit and acceptance of the translation course. the students’ responses to the items of this point result are the higher ranks of all. almost all participants enjoy the translation course and admit the benefit of the course in apprehending the english text. it also raises the awareness of the importance of this kind of soft skill to prepare them for future work fields. as setiadi and piyakun (2018) have found that the ability to read and write text in english is needed to improve, especially for indonesian students who want to facilitate their learning process for academic and professional purposes. it will enhance their english language 64 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 57-67 competence that will help them to gather more valid and accurate data from various resources. finally, the choices of the text genres and the awareness of students on course benefits are interrelated. the students who preferred the specific text, such as contracts, legal, and scientific material, award the benefit of translation courses for their academics, particularly in english text source subjects. conclusions the result of the research reflects the students’ comprehension in dealing with the translation process. their steps in dealing with text, the strategies in solving the difficult terms or phrases, in grasping the main idea of paragraph and text as a whole in the target language are the key issue that should be determined by the teacher in translation teaching. as far as now, there is no fixed standard as a guideline in ensuring a particular level of quality of translation pedagogy. however, the researcher thanks for the growing efforts of scholars world-wide in finding the best approach in teaching translation for efl students. based on the result, the students’ reflection on the translation process can be a part of assessments to evaluate the achievement of translation teaching in the classroom. as translation is also defined as a process, it follows general rules that provide a reliable starting point for students to follow consistently. thus, the research also investigates the choice of professional translation in doing translation in the real world. by reviewed these two of the translation process, the teachers may improve their approach in the way of finding a reliable teaching method. furthermore, the present research has found that the translation course has to be designed in such a way that students who take this course should practice translating as much as possible. the students should be aware of the importance of following the procedures, the cultures-different contained in languages, the use of translation tools in finding the best equivalence, preparing the best version by act as self-editor, and benefit of this activity in enhancing the students’ ability in english. finally, the student’s reflection on the research primarily suggests the process-orientation before the product-orientation in translation teaching for non-translation students as beginners. thus, further investigation should be made in the future that reflects the students’ translation competence, particularly on the product as the ultimate purpose of translation activity. 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(respondent 8) • i identify relevant reference sources on the internet for the subject i am going to translate. when it comes to translating technical documentation, for example, for financial report or audit, i read the similar documentation available on the internet. (respondent 1) 2 when encountering the complicated terms or phrases, what do you do? • use all reference materials, style guides, glossaries, and terminology databases. it is important for consistency in style and terminology. (respondent 11) 3 in translating a paragraph, what do you prefer? • first, catch the meaning of the paragraph. compare it to the topic of text as a whole. translate the meaning, not the word per word. (respondent 7) • oh, do not be literal, because it is like a work of the machine. (respondent 2) • got meaning. we may find the expressions and idioms within the paragraph. never translate literally. unless we work on technical material, such as medical translations, engineering, translations for the automotive sector, agricultural, patents, etc. (respondent 6) 4 after translating the text into the target language, what should you do? • i run your spellchecker and correct any misspellings and typos. (respondent 4) • a translator should become a self-editor and read over the document, comparing it to the original before deliver it to the client. (respondent 3) 67reflection of undergraduate .... (roswani siregar, et al.) table 2 professional translators’ choices in dealing with translation text (continued) no questions and response 5 what your opinion about machine translation? do you use it? • some translators or clients think machine translation such as google translate etc. is bad. i, i was in this job for 11 years. i feel machine translation is a good coworker. it boosts my work. but i don’t rely on it for 100%. (respondent 9) • we don’t think machine translation good or bad. that was a tool. a helpful tool in a rush-day. (respondent12) • i almost sure every translator can’t live without it in this 21st age. who can resist it help? (respondent 10) copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 93 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 93-97 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5390 error analysis and teaching strategies of chinese time adverbs “zai” and “cai” for indonesian students laurencia noviana department of linguistics and applied linguistics, school of chinese language and literature, wuhan university wuhan, hubei province, p.r.china 430072 noviana.laurencia@yahoo.com received: 12th february 2019/revised: 21st february 2019/accepted: 15th march 2019 how to cite: noviana, l. (2019). error analysis and teaching strategies of chinese time adverbs “zai” and “cai” for indonesian students. lingua cultura, 13(2), 93-97. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5390 abstract this research aimed at investigating indonesian students’ mastery of chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). modern chinese adverbs were a difficult point in teaching chinese as a foreign language. the time adverb of modern chinese, zai (再) and cai (才), was an adverbial adverb easily misused by indonesian students because these two adverbs had the same counterpart in indonesian language. this research conducted a questionnaire survey among 83 indonesian students in china. the questionnaire was a test about the use of time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). the sentences that test 10 questions all came from the bcc corpus of beijing language and culture university. after investigation, it is found that indonesian students’ errors are more obvious. the researcher hopes that it can supplement the research achievements of indonesian students in learning chinese adverbs, and arouse more scholars to study the characteristics of learning chinese adverbs for indonesian students and promote the development of chinese language teaching in indonesia. keywords: error analysis, teaching strategies, chinese adverbs introduction the study of adverbs in modern chinese has always been a hot and important topic in grammar research (张 明辉 & 朱, 2019). adverbs are one of the most important and divergent parts of word class in chinese (王, 2017). adverbs in modern chinese are also one of difficult points in teaching chinese as a foreign language (周 & 薄, 2017). the chinese adverbs often have more than one meaning, and the usage of each meaning is quite complex, such as the time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) in modern chinese (宋, 2014). the adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) have five meanings in the eight hundred words of modern chinese (吕, 1980), even the two adverbs have some similar meanings, which leads to the chinese learners often mixing the chinese adverb zai (再) and cai (才), and indonesian students are no exception. time adverbs have always occupied an important position in modern chinese system, and they have always been the main content of research (郑, 2017). there are many studies on chinese time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才), but there has never been a comparative study of the two adverbs. and there has never been any study on the difficulties indonesian students encounter in learning chinese time adverbs or the mixed use of these two adverbs. the objective of this research is to analyze the missuses of the time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) among the indonesian students in mastering modern chinese and to find out the reasons for the errors, and propose some teaching strategies for these two adverbs. methods the data of this research are collected through the questionnaire. in order to understand the mastery of the time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) in modern chinese, the author designs a set of chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) questionnaire. the questionnaire is a test about the use of time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). the sentences that test 10 questions (6 zai (再) sentences, 4 cai (才) sentences) all sentences come from the bcc corpus of beijing language and culture university. test questions are multiple choice questions. indonesian students in china are asked to choose zai (再) or cai (才) to fill in the brackets of sentences. the author uses the online electronic questionnaire distributed to wechat groups of indonesian students in china with around 500 population; 104 respondents filled in the questionnaires, 94 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 93-97 and 83 of the valid questionnaires are analyzed. this research use qualitative descriptive analysis. classified the true and false answers of the data received, and find out the reasons. the results and analysis discuss below. results and discussions the first part of the questionnaire focuses on the background and chinese level of indonesian students. among 83 indonesian students whose mother tongue is indonesian; 83,13%, native language is indonesian dialect (java, sunda, and other dialects) 8,43%; native language is chinese dialect (cantonese, minnan dialect, chaozhou, etc.) 8,43%. their time length in learning chinese is divided into three categories, 1-2 years (45,78%), 3-5 years (40,96%), 6 years or more (13,25%). their chinese levels are respectively; beginner chinese level (12,05%), intermediate chinese level (50,60%), advanced chinese level (37,35%). the second part of the questionnaire is about 10 sentences contains time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). the right answer for sentences no. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 is zai (再). 进来聊下( )睡吧。 only 40,96% respondents answer correctly. 等你赚到一百万( )来找我吧。 there are 57,83% respondents answer correctly. 少开窗,等太阳出来( )开窗通风。 only 42,17% respondents answer correctly. 我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是遇见一些人,( ) 与他们告别。 there are 67,47% respondents answer correctly, and only 32,53% answered incorrectly. 饭后休息10-15分钟后……开始散步有保健作用。 there are 51,81% respondents answer correctly. 刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来……吃饭,于 是我就不开心地等着。 only 43,37% respondents answer correctly. as can be seen from figure 1 and 2, indonesian students are most likely to make the mistake of misusing the adverb of time zai (再) as the adverb of time cai (才). 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 1 2 3 5 6 9 missuse of cai zai cai (error) figure 1 misuse of cai the right answer for sentence no. 4, 7, 8 is cai (才). 午餐下午4点吃,晚餐忙到晚上11点( )吃。 only 28,92% respondents answer incorrectly. 有些事情,要等到你渐渐清醒了( )明白它是个错 误。 only 19,28% respondents answer incorrectly. 明明我四点下班,主任就借故开会,留我到现在( ) 走。 only 34,94% respondents answered incorrectly. 0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 4 7 8 missuse of zai zai (error) cai figure 2 misuse of zai those are the analysis finds out that the semantics of the sentence no.10 is vague. 早上不开会,下午不开会,偏偏选择晚上下班 后( )开会,我能没意见吗? 69,88% of respondents choose ‘cai (才 )’, and only 30,12% of respondents choose zai (再). the two adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) can be used, so it will be excluded them and discussed them separately. it is believed that indonesian students are often misuse the adverbs of time zai (再) and cai (才) mainly because this four reasons; first is because time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) use a corresponding word baru in the indonesian language, means after that. the adverb zai (再) has six meanings in the chinese indonesian dictionary (潘, 1995). they are; (1) sekali lagi, lagi, kembali (once more, again, once again), e.g: 再试一 次。(coba sekali lagi) (do it once again). (2) menyatakan lebih (express more), e.g: 还有再大一点儿的鞋子吗? adakah sepatu yang lebih besar? (do you have any bigger shoes?). (3) menyatakan bagaimana bila diteruskan (express what if you continue to do that), e.g: 再喝下去 他得醉倒。 dia akan mabuk kalau masih minum lagi (he will get drunk if he drinks anymore). (4) menyatakan suatu perbuatan terjadi sesudah perbuatan lain usai (indicates that the next action is taken after an action is completed), e.g: 你们一定得跟群众商量后再做决定。 kalian harus berunding dulu dengan massa, kemudian baru mengambil keputusan (you must consult with the masses before making a decision). (5) menyatakan ada tambahan (indicates there are other things), e.g: 再则 (lagi pula); selain itu (moreover, besides). (6) terulang; muncul/timbul kembali; muncul lagi (indicates repeatation, appear, reappear), e.g: 青春不 再。masa remaja tidak akan terulang (youth can’t come back). while according to chinese indonesian dictionary, there are four meanings of the adverb cai (才), the are; (1) menyatakan hal yang baru saja atau terlambat terjadi (indicating something just happened or happened late), e.g: 义务劳动才开始。kerja bakti baru dimulai. (compulsory labour just begins). (2) menyatakan sesuatu tergantung pada kondisi tertentu (means that something can happen under certain conditions), e.g: 我们只有依靠人民群众才 有力量。hanya dengan bersandar kepada massa barulah kita kuat. (we can only rely on the people for strength). (3) menyatakan jumlah atau frekuensinya (denotes quantity or frequency), e.g: 一共才10 个,不够分。seluruhnya baru 10, tak cukup untuk dibagi. (there are only 10, which is not enough). (4) untuk penekanan (express the emphasis), e.g: 我要是不知道才怪呢。kalau saya tidak tahu barulah aneh. (it’s weird if i don’t know). form these examples, it can be seen that the indonesian counterpart of the time adverb zai (再) is baru (just), while the indonesian counterpart of the time adverb cai (才) has two counterparts; baru and barulah (after 95error analysis and teaching strategies.... (laurencia noviana) that). the same corresponding word baru is likely to lead indonesian students to misuse the time adverb zai (再) and cai (才), like the following examples: 进来聊下再睡吧。 *进来聊下才睡吧。 masuk mengobrol sebentar baru tidur lah (come in and talk before you go to bed) 等你赚到一百万再来找我吧。 *等你赚到一百万才来找我吧。 tunggu kamu menghasilkan uang satu juta baru cari saya. (come back to me when you earn a million dollars) 少开窗,等太阳出来再开窗通风。 *少开窗,等太阳出来才开窗通风。 jangan sering-sering buka jendela, tunggu matahari muncul, baru buka jendelanya supaya ada sirkulasi udara. (do not open the window frequently; wait for the sun to come out before opening them for ventilation) 我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是遇见一些 人,再与他们告别。 *我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是遇见一些 人,才与他们告别。 akhirnya saya mengerti, bahwa arti dari perjalanan adalah bertemu dengan orang-orang, baru berpisah dengan mereka. (i finally understand that the original meaning of travel is to meet some people and say goodbye to them) 饭后休息10-15分钟后再开始散步有保健作 用。 *饭后休息10-15分钟后才开始散步有保健作用。 10-15 menit setelah makan baru berjalan santai berguna untuk memelihara kesehatan. (rest for 10-15 minutes after meals and then take a walk is good for health) 刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来再吃饭, 于是我就不开心地等着。 *刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来才吃饭, 于是我就不开心地等着。 tadi di dalam mimpi sudah kelaparan sekali, nenek menyuruh tunggu ayah pulang baru makan, karenanya aku menunggu dengan kesal. (just in my dream, i was very hungry, and grandma asked me to wait until dad came back for dinner, so i waited unhappily) second, the semantics of the time adverb zai (再) and cai (才) are similar, which lead to the relationship between the two adverbs as synonyms (吴, 1997). third, adverb zai (再) and cai (才) have a lot of meanings that can confuse chinese learners. in modern chinese 800 words, lyu shuxiang has listed five meanings for the adverb cai (才) and zai (再) (吕, 2015). for adverb cai (才); (1) just now or it is not long ago; (2) things happen or end late; (3) the quantity is small and the degree is low, only; (4) means what happens only under certain conditions, or for some reason or purpose; (5) emphasize definite tone. lyu shuxiang also gives a note to compare cai (才) and zai (再). for zai (再); (1) repeat or continue an action (or a state); (2) indicates that an action will occur in a certain situation; (3) before adjectives, the degree of expression increases; (4) zai (再) and negative words are used together; (5) in addition. on the adverbs cai (才) and zai (再), lyu shuxiang has also added a note that zai (再) means that the action has not yet been achieved, but will be achieved at some time. while cai (才) means that the action has been achieved, and emphasizes that the action has been realized late. this note also shows that lyu shuxiang has long noticed this linguistic phenomenon and that the second meaning of the adverb zai (再) is quite similar to that of cai (才). wu zhongwei has also discussed this issue in his paper on the procrastination meaning of adverb zai also on strengthening the pragmatic study of chinese adverbs 《论副词“再”的 拖延义——兼论加强对汉语副词的语用研究》. in his opinion, the generalization of the meaning of zai (再) and cai (才) in lyu shuxiang’s 800 words of modern chinese ( 吕, 1999) is basically correct, but it cannot explain all the problems, such as: [1] 我明天再去吧。 [2] 我明天才去呢,(你着什么急!) adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) can both appear in “t1_ vp”, which means that the action happens later. therefore, he thinks that zai (再) and cai (才) are synonyms, and they have differences. the differences are cai (才) can be used for what has already been, or for what has not been; zai (再) cannot be used for what has already been, but only for what has not been. beside that, “t1 cai (才) vp” expresses the subjective evaluation of the narrator, and holds that “t1vp” is too late, while “t1 cai (才) vp” reflects the willingness of the arranger to arrange vp at a later time (吴, 1997). sentence 9 should use the adverb zai (再) to indicate that vp2 (eating) will occur or end after vp1 (father’s return). 刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来再吃饭, 于是我就不开心地等着。 *刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来才吃饭, 于是我就不开心地等着。 most indonesian students (56,63%) chose adverb cai (才) to fill in the blanks, probably because they thought vp2 (eating) happens late, so the speaker (i) express dissatisfaction (unhappy). it is worth noting that the word cai (才) can be used as already, but the sentence containing the adverb cai (才) cannot add the auxiliary word le. some chinese sentences have vague semantics and non-native speakers sometimes find it difficult to distinguish between the adverbs zai (再) or cai (才), as in the following two sentences: 午餐下午4点吃,晚餐忙到晚上11点才吃。 in this sentence, the adverb cai (才) means vp happens late. *午餐下午4点吃,晚餐忙到晚上11点再吃.(才) some indonesian students (28,92%) chose zai (再) incorrectly. maybe they think that zai (再) should be used here to express action (eat) repetition. in fact, the sentence ‘eat’ is not the same ‘eat’. the first ‘eat’ is lunch, the second ‘eat’ is dinner, not action repetition. 早上不开会,下午不开会,偏偏选择晚上下班 后再开会,我能没意见吗? 96 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 93-97 早上不开会,下午不开会,偏偏选择晚上下班 后才开会,我能没意见吗? this sentence is one of the sentences with zai (再) vp in the bcc corpus. 69,88% of the respondents fill in ‘wrong’. the author observes this sentence carefully and finds out that it can use the adverb zai (再) and the adverb cai (才). by interviewing 20 native speakers of chinese, it is found that they all think the sentence could use both zai (再) or cai (才), but 18 people prefer to use the adverb cai (才) to indicate that vp2 (meeting) happens late, and the speaker is not satisfied (can i have any comments?). two people prefer to use the adverb zai (再) to indicate that vp2 (meeting) would occur after vp1 (off duty). thus, the chinese adverb zai (再) and cai (才) also have a ‘cross’ relationship. in some cases, both can be used and can be substituted for each other, but the meaning is different. fourth is there are only few comparative studies on chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才), so the explanations of these two adverbs in tcfl textbooks are not comprehensive enough. most of the vocabulary in the elementary textbooks of chinese as a foreign language is accompanied by a translation. there are some problems in the processing of translation (张喜芹, 2014). these problems will lead to negative language transfer, resulting in errors in word understanding, and then lead to errors in chinese vocabulary especially adverb learning of foreign students. many experts and scholars have discussed the problem of adverb zai (再) and you (又), or the problem of adverb jiu (就), cai (才), including comparison and error analysis, but there are only few comparisons between time adverb zai (再) and cai (才). in the researcher’s opinion, the adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) have never been mentioned and explained in the textbooks of teaching chinese as foreign language (tcfl), and the difference between the two adverbs has never been noticed by teachers of tcfl to make it easy for chinese learners to misuse the adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) (曾, 2014). in order to help indonesian students master the difference and usage of the adverb zai (再) and cai (才), the researcher puts forward some teaching strategies; the first is translation. the students are asked to translate chinese sentences into indonesian as far as possible. the standard indonesian language is different from the daily spoken indonesian language. one of the reasons why most indonesian students misuse adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) is that some of the indonesian counterparts of the two adverbs are the same (baru). in fact, if someone translates chinese sentences into standard indonesian, it may be able to solve this problem, for examples: 进来聊下再睡吧。 masuk mengobrol sebentar baru (kemudian) tidur lah. 等你赚到一百万再来找我吧。 tunggu kamu menghasilkan uang satu juta baru (kemudian) cari saya. 少开窗,等太阳出来再开窗通风。 jangan sering-sering buka jendela, tunggu matahari muncul, baru (kemudian) buka jendelanya supaya ada sirkulasi udara. 我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是遇见一些 人,再与他们告别。 akhirnya saya mengerti, bahwa arti dari perjalanan adalah bertemu dengan orang-orang, baru (kemudian) berpisah dengan mereka. 饭后休息10-15分钟后再开始散步有保健作 用。 10-15 menit setelah makan baru (kemudian) berjalan santai berguna untuk memelihara kesehatan. 刚刚梦里饿得不行,奶奶让等爹回来再吃饭, 于是我就不开心地等着。 tadi di dalam mimpi sudah kelaparan sekali, nenek menyuruh tunggu ayah pulang baru (kemudian) makan, karenanya aku menunggu dengan kesal. the standard indonesian equivalent of zai (再) in these five sentences should be ‘baru kemudian’, because indonesian students seldom use ‘kemudian’. it is normal for indonesian students to misuse zai (再) and cai (才). therefore, chinese teachers should pay special attention to this point in the process of teaching, and try to use the standard indonesian language to translate chinese sentences. the second is the comparison. special attention should be paid to the comparative teaching of chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) have several meanings. the most confusing one is the adverb zai (再) which means that the second action will take place after the first action occurs or ends. these two adverbs are similar in meaning, so they belong to the synonym relationship here and should be compared in the teaching process, such as: 早上不开会,下午不开会,偏偏选择晚上下班 后再开会,我能没意见吗? pagi tidak rapat, sore tidak rapat, malah memilih malam hari setelah jam pulang kantor baru kemudian rapat, bagaimana mungkin saya tidak protes? 早上不开会,下午不开会,偏偏选择晚上下班 后才开会,我能没意见吗? pagi tidak rapat, sore tidak rapat, malah memilih malam hari setelah jam pulang kantor baru rapat, bagaimana mungkin saya tidak protes? sentences use the adverb zai (再) to indicate that a meeting (vp2) is delayed until after work in the evening (vp1). in the process of sentence teaching, students should try their best to compare and analyze such sentences. students should remember the different usages of adverbs zai (再) and cai (才), so that they will not easily misuse the adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). the third is separation. the time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) should be supplemented and explained separately. adverb zai (再) in elementary chinese teaching means repetition of actions. most students may remember the meaning better. the time adverb zai (再) marked with procrastination is almost impressive, because the meaning appearing in the textbook is in the sentence pattern 先……再…… (first... then...), there is no separate supplementary explanation for the time adverb zai (再), such as: 等你赚到一百万再来找我吧。 come back to me when you earn a million dollars. which adverb zai (再) in the above sentence? does it mean repetition of action vp (来) or vp2 (来) occur after vp1 (earn up to 1 million)? this may be a problem that many chinese learners do not understand. the researcher thinks that because the sentence has the word ‘等wait’ at the beginning, zai (再) should be meant procrastination, vp2 (来) will occur after vp1 (earn up to one million). in order to 97error analysis and teaching strategies.... (laurencia noviana) make it easier for students to analyze sentences containing zai (再), the researcher thinks that sentences that can use the structure of ‘先……再……(first...then...)’ belong to the meaning of procrastination, such as: 进来聊下再睡吧。——先进来聊下再睡吧。 等你赚到一百万再来找我吧。——先等你赚到 一百万再来找我吧。 少开窗,等太阳出来再开窗通风。——少开 窗,先等太阳出来再开窗通风。 我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是遇见一些 人,再与他们告别。—— 我终于明白,原来旅行的意义,是先遇见一些 人,再与他们告别。 饭后休息10-15分钟后再开始散步有保健作 用。——饭后先休息10-15分钟后再开始散步有 保健作用。 刚刚梦里饿的不行,奶奶让等爹回来再吃饭, 于是我就不开心的等着。——刚刚梦里饿的不 行,奶奶让先等爹回来再吃饭,于是我就不开 心的等着。 conclusions the scope of this research is limited to part of indonesian students that studying in china, with 12,05% beginner chinese level, 50,60% intermediate chinese level, and 37,35% advanced chinese level. through research and analysis, it is found that most indonesian students do not understand well the use of chinese time adverbs zai (再) and cai (才). its main reason is that the adverb zai (再) and cai (才) have the same corresponding word ‘baru’ in indonesian, resulting in indonesian students who often misuse these two adverbs. besides, the textbook of teaching chinese as a foreign language mainly emphasizes the adverb zai (再) as repetition, such as再见, 再来, 再读一 遍, while the adverb zai (再), which denotes procrastination is less spoken. therefore, the researcher believes that it is necessary for teachers of chinese as a foreign language to compare the adverb zai (再) with cai (才) while teaching adverb cai (才), and to list some sentences of the adverb zai (再) with different meanings. as a preliminary study of the missuse chinese adverbs zai (再) and cai (才) by indonesian students, it still needs a more comprehensive research on this field. future research on this field, could be conducted on broader respondents with different levels of chinese language. references 曾俊一. (2014). 《跟副词“才”有关的偏误分析》. 甘肃高师学报, (6), 48–51. 吕叔湘. (2015). 《现代汉语八百词》. 北京: 商务印 书馆. 潘智启. (1995). 《汉语印度尼西亚大词典》. 北京: 商务印书馆. 宋琼瑶. (2014). 《副词“再”的义项研究》. 武陵学 刊, (3), 114–120. 王 坤 . ( 2 0 1 7 ) . 《 汉 语 副 词 研 究 综 述 》 . 西 华 大 学 学 报 ( 哲 学 社 会 科 学 版 ) , (04), 43–51. 吴中伟. (1997). 《论 副词“再”的拖延义 — — 兼论加强对汉语副词的语用研究》.世界汉语 教学, (3), 18–25. https://doi.org/10.13724/j.cnki. ctiw.1997.03.003 张明辉, & 朱红雨. (2019). 《21世纪现代汉语副词研 究综述简》.云南师范大学学报(对外汉语教学 与研究版), 17(1), 45–56. 张喜芹. (2014). 《对外汉语初级教材副词翻译及教学 对策研究》.文学教育(中), (03), 130–131. 郑尔君. (2017). 《现代汉语时间副词研究》. 湖北函 授大学学报, (10), 119–120. 周小兵, & 薄巍. (2017). 《时间副词“才”与句尾“ 了”共现偏误的跨语言分析》.华文教学与研 究, (01), 1–8. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 265 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 265-273 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.5889 incorporating youtube clips in the classroom to develop students’ cultural understanding of american culture maryani1; lewinna aguskin2 1, 2 faculty of language and culture, maranatha christian university jl. prof. drg. surya sumantri, m.p.h. no. 65, bandung 40164, indonesia 1marumaryani@gmail.com; 2winna_ch@yahoo.com received: 27th august 2019/revised: 17th september 2019/accepted: 01st october 2019 how to cite: maryani., & aguskin. l. (2019). incorporating youtube clips in the classroom to develop students’ cultural understanding of american culture. lingua cultura, 13(4), 265-273. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.5889 abstract this research investigated the use of youtube video clips to develop the understanding of culture for students in american culture class in a private university in bandung. it sought to answer two research problems; first, students’ perceptions towards the use of youtube video clips to develop their understanding of american culture; second, to what extent watching youtube video clips supported the students’ understanding of american culture. the participants of this research were 61 undergraduate students of the english department aged between 18-21 years. there were two types of data collection used in the research. first, data were taken from the weekly learning logs of the students containing three to five questions and one or two youtube video clips, which were related to the topics of the textbook in the classroom. second, the data from the open-ended questionnaire which were distributed to the students at the end of the semester. the qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis. the findings show that the students’ understanding of american culture has improved due to watching youtube video clips that contain authentic cultural information from american life events and news shown in the clips. this research also provides useful information for teachers in teaching culture for a better learning process, which focuses on the use of youtube video clips in the classroom. keywords: teaching culture, youtube video clips, student understanding, cultural understanding introduction teaching a target language usually means teaching its culture at the same time. solgi and tafazoli (2018) believe that teaching culture proves to be significant for developing language skills, promoting cultural awareness, and shifting attitudes towards native and target societies. in teaching culture, students need to have a cultural experience in order to fully understand the various elements of the culture itself so that they will have broad perspectives regarding culture. teaching culture can be challenging for language teachers. morain in dema and moeller (2012) has explained that the challenge for the teachers in teaching culture is introducing the intangible values, beliefs, and attitudes of the target culture to l2 learners. the learners might have difficulty to identify and understand the cultural perspectives in the textbook. similarly, learning american culture from textbooks for indonesian university students might not be easy as they could not experience the culture themselves. furthermore, knowing that experiencing the target language culture is not always in close distance with the students’ location, they might have difficulties in meeting real americans to discover more their culture. noticing the challenges in teaching culture, teachers are required to develop the various methods and teaching in culture class. several researchers have conducted research on different kinds of teaching methods and materials to improve cultural learning in the classroom, such as rodríguez (2014), truong and tran (2014), maryani (2016), and maryani and aguskin (2018). dai (2011) has argued that teaching culture knowledge is not easy; therefore, teachers need to employ some interesting techniques so that the teaching and learning process will be a meaningful experience for both teachers and students. in order to embrace various aspects of culture, it is crucial to employ various information sources, various activity types, and create positive classroom interactions. for example, students are encouraged to find online information such as videos, newspapers, films, and use interviews to get ‘a comprehensive picture of the target culture form many 266 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 265-273 angles’. for classroom activities, students are encouraged to take activity logs as the tool for reflection of cultural learning and to use authentic materials such as watching videos to increase the enjoyment, curiosity, and motivation of the students. besides, teachers can also include games, role play, field trips, reading activities, discussion activities, writing activities, and so on. as a result, it is expected that using various techniques in teaching culture will increase the student’s understanding and cultural awareness of the rich culture. the use of technology in teaching culture is crucial, especially for students in the present era who are highly exposed to technology. in the research related to teaching culture in the 21st century, dema and moeller (2012) have stated that incorporating authentic videos in the classroom will be helpful for the students to enhance their understanding of the products, practices, and perspectives of the target language and culture. moreover, the students will be motivated and engaged as they will not just depend on printed sources for learning, but they can explore the authentic cultural material from the digital media in a meaningful learning environment. they will be able to develop their analytical skills by making connections and comparisons by investigating and discovering their own culture and the target language culture. furthermore, terantino (2011) has claimed that youtube videos provide linguistic and cultural content and information and related to the target language. he has also added that youtube videos are used to provide insights to the target culture and give the opportunities for learners to experience portions of other cultures, including artifacts, history, and politics, without physically traveling to the target country (terantino, 2011). referring to the research of dema and moeller (2011); and terantino (2011), the researchers believe that youtube videos are necessary to be utilized in the teaching and learning process to widen the students’ knowledge of the culture and to develop their american cultural understanding. there are four pieces of research related to the use of youtube video clips for developing various english skills. first, in their action research for one semester, june, yaacob, and kheng (2014) have explored the use of youtube videos and interactive activities to develop critical thinking skills. the participants are 50 local and foreign university students in malaysia. for the data analysis, the researchers use a video recording of the lesson, the reflections of students and teachers, and role play. the result indicates that the use of youtube can stimulate the critical thinking skills of the students as well as developing their interest, participation, and engagement. second, in his research, almurashi (2016) has stated the importance of using youtube videos as additional material for teaching english to 53 university students. these students are asked to watch two youtube videos with subtitles related to buying things at a supermarket. afterward, these students are asked to answer several questions in the online survey regarding the use of the videos. almurashi (2016) has found that students with the opportunities to comprehend the english lesson successfully are improved due to watching youtube videos. besides, he has added that youtube videos provide a lively atmosphere. third, yükseli & kömür (2017) have found that youtube, voa, ted, and bbc online videos have improved efl students’ speaking ability, especially for female students. their research focuses on 20 low-level university students who are divided into two groups; a control and treatment group. based on the findings, they declare that videos promote students’ speaking skill due to videos help students express their ideas more easily. fourth, in their recent research, kabooha and elyas (2018) have investigated the use of youtube videos in reading classes to enhance the comprehension and retention of english vocabulary among saudi university students in saudi arabia. besides, this research also evaluates the perceptions of students and teachers on the use of the videos. the participants are 100 female students aged 1820 years old, who are assigned to one experimental or one control group. the first one watches the videos during reading activities, and the second one does not. the data is based on pre-tests and post-tests as well as a questionnaire. the finding of this research indicates that there is a major improvement on the vocabulary acquisition of the students as the impact of using youtube videos. in indonesia, there are at least four pieces of research related to the use of video for teaching. first, silviyanti (2014) has explored the university students’ perceptions of using videos on youtube for developing their listening competence. the data is collected from the open and closed questionnaire. the result shows that the students feel motivated and interested in using youtube because the materials are relevant and helpful as giving authentic inputs of native spoken language. the drawback is related to the unavailability of internet connection at home, lack of motivation for individual learning, and lack of homework assignment. second, styati (2016) has conducted research among english university students in madiun to discover the effects of youtube videos and pictures in students’ writing performance. one group of students is learning paragraph writing by watching youtube videos, and another group is using pictures to learn writing a paragraph. it turns out that the students who learn by using pictures have better writing performance than the ones who learn by watching youtube videos. her study shows that using pictures is more effective than using videos. third, nova (2017) has investigated the perceptions of 30 efl teachers on the usages and obstacles in using videos for the indonesian efl classroom. the findings indicate that using video is helpful in the teaching and learning process to deliver materials to provide authentic context and visual/audio input and to enhance the interest and motivation of students. some obstacles are related to the lack of school facilities and technical support, the difficulty of finding a suitable video, and lack of skill in video editing. fourth, research related to the mastery of english and technology is conducted by utami, tyas, and mustika (2019). it discusses that among the university students majoring in marketing management to investigate the use of commercial video advertisements for multimodal analysis. the results indicate that commercial video advertisements can be used for teaching english for specific purposes in indonesia. it is obvious that there are several studies related to the use of youtube videos for developing english skills such as vocabulary, reading, writing, speaking, listening, as well as critical thinking skills. nevertheless, to the best of the knowledge, there is little research on the use of youtube videos to teach american culture for indonesian university students. with this in mind, this research is conducted to fill the gap of using youtube video clips in american culture class for university students in a private university in bandung, west java. 267incorporating youtube clips.... (maryani; lewinna aguskin) in this american culture class, the students are learning six basic traditional values of american culture, namely; individual freedom, equality of opportunity, materials wealth, self-reliance, competition, and hard work. these values are rooted in religious heritage, frontier heritage, and the heritage of abundance. the values are evident in the aspects of business, education, ethnic diversity, leisure time, and family. these values are the major attractions for many people to reach ‘the american dream’. the cultural content of this class is truly related to cultural perspectives. moran (2001) has explained that perspective is a combination of perceptions, values, beliefs, and attitudes, as explicit and tacit, emic, and etic. moran (2001) further has stated that the perspective of the ‘american dream’ contains the belief which is based on several values that originated from a cultural perception and can be observed in the attitudes of being competitive, determined, ambitious, and selfcentered. thus, the use of youtube video clips is expected to be helpful for the students to discover the underlying values and beliefs of american culture. there are two objectives of this research. first, it aims at investigating the university students’ perceptions towards the use of youtube clips as authentic video materials. second, the purpose is to discover the influence of youtube videos to develop their understanding of american culture. the research will be related to the notions of teaching culture in the 21st century from dema and moeller (2012), the use of youtube for foreign language classrooms from terantino (2011), and the theories of cultural perspectives from moran (2001). through this research, it is expected that the students’ american cultural understanding will be developed as they have watched various youtube clips. therefore, this research will provide insightful information for teachers in teaching culture, which focuses on the use of youtube video clips in the classroom. the teachers will be able to know the types of youtube clips used and the effect of watching those clips for the participants of this research. methods this research belongs to qualitative a research in order to answer the research questions, which are more open-ended approaches in which the inquirer asks general questions of participants, and the participants shape the response possibilities (creswell, 2012). the research employs the open-ended questionnaire to collect various students’ perceptions regarding the use of youtube short clips to develop their cultural understanding. moreover, this research also uses data collected from the students’ answers in the weekly learning log. the participants of this research are 61 undergraduate students of a private university in indonesia. these students, male and female, come from two classes of american culture. class a consists of 32 students, whereas class b consists of 29 students. their age are between 18 and 21 years old. the research takes place over five months, starting from august until december 2017. there are two types of data collection employed. first is the students’ learning logs that are administered weekly after the class meeting. the learning logs are made by using google form. there are three to five questions for each learning log that are accompanied by one or two short clips taken from youtube, for example, us president’s daughter sasha obama has a summer job, obama at indonesian diaspora congress 2017, and others (the titles of the clips can be seen in table 2). each short clip lasts for five to eight minutes. the topics for these clips suit to the topics in the textbook used in the class. each student watches the short clips first before answering the questions provided in the learning logs in their available time outside of the class. they are given a maximum three days after the class meeting to finish each learning log. there are nine learning logs in total. second is the open-ended questionnaire that consists of 10 questions. it is distributed to the students online by using google form early december 2017 after the class meetings are over. the students are asked their perceptions on the use of short clips in their learning logs towards their cultural understanding. the data taken from the questionnaire are analyzed using descriptive statistics, whereas the data taken from learning logs are coded and analyzed by using a thematic analysis. in which as creswell (2012) has stated that themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a significant idea in the database; they form a core element in qualitative data analysis. results and discussions this part shows the findings from the research and the discussion of the findings to answer the two research questions. regarding the use of youtube video clips in the classroom, the students are asked to watch 1-2 videos in each learning log. the clips that they have watched come from various topics related to american cultures, such as pluralism, education, family, politics, etc. for the first research question, the students are asked whether watching the videos from the learning log helps them to learn and understand american culture. they state their opinions along with the reasons. table 1 provides the findings and followed by the discussion of each finding. the university students’ perceptions towards the use of youtube video clips can be seen in table 2. the 53 students agree that watching youtube video clips has helped them to understand american culture. however, four of them do not fully agree, and four students mention that watching videos sometimes can be useful and not. those who agreed, admit that watching the video clips are more interesting than reading from the textbook. they could listen and watch what exactly happens in the united states due to the time limitation of meeting the real americans. besides, the information presented in the video clips are well structured, so it makes them easier to understand the culture. most of them believe that by watching videos, they can learn new things and understand the materials related to american culture more clearly. moreover, they also feel motivated and interested to learn american culture by using audiovisuals. however, some students who disagreed, admit that watching the video clips do not help them to understand the culture due to the difficulty in grasping the information in the clips and the limited focus of the clips that usually present on the information of a certain group of american people. some of them do not state the reasons. regarding how far the students have learned from youtube video clips, they are asked to do weekly learning logs with several questions that they have to answer to check their understanding of the american culture shown in the video clips. the videos that they watched are related to the class discussion and book chapters. the students are able to explain what information they could learn from the videos related to american basic 268 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 265-273 values, business, family, education, leisure time, ethnic and racial diversity, religious heritage, and business. the examples of learning log results are presented in table 2 (see appendix). table 1 students’ perceptions of the use of youtube video clips to develop their understanding of american culture a b examples of the reasons yes 53 • yes, watching the videos from the learning log helps me to learn and understand american culture because those videos are sometimes interesting and catch my attention. • yes, i was looking forward to watching the videos, every time they were uploaded because those short video was structured well for us to understand easier. i felt like i learned a lot in short time. • yes, it also helps me because instead of reading the articles and textbook, i can just directly listen and watch the videos about the american culture. i can see the situation directly which is showing us the real image there. • yes. it’s an interesting way to learn. we can know the real life of americans by watching the video, so that we can learn more and understand more about the culture. • yes, because the video was taken from the reliable sources and from voa, they actually go to the united states to get more information. • yes. it gives more motivation to do some helps and learn something new. so we can learn directly through the video instead of a book’s information of the american culture. • because we have no time to meet the americans often, from the video i can learn any things that we never know before, some videos shows the similarities and some differences (of american culture). i understand why america has its own uniqueness no 4 • not really, because i think the videos are focused on the certain people. • not really • i don’t think so • not really, because it’s something i already do as a habit. yes and no 4 • sometimes. if the video is about an event or a group, then it really helps to understand the cultures. however, it doesn’t apply if the videos are only about a person, for example. • there is a problem with audio quality • some yes some no, sometimes we forget to fill it, and sometimes it is boring as well. • yes but not a lot because it’s quite hard to understand the video. sometimes native speakers talk too fast and i can’t hear it well. a: students’ answer b: number of students the students’ perceived knowledge related to american culture by watching youtube videos is depicted in table 2. from the videos, they could see the real examples or application of the theories in the textbook in real-life among americans in the united states. they could share the main ideas of the clips correctly and in detail regarding various topics, such as basic values of american culture, religious heritage, business, ethnic and racial diversity, leisure time, education, and family relations. for example, from the textbook, the students learn that there are basic values of american culture. by watching videos of sasha obama’s summer job and silicon valley school, the students could learn the values of hard work and self-reliance. as stated by the students: s1: “this video teaches me more about immigration in the usa and how it has affected their culture and their people.” s2: “there are two things that i learn from the video: to be independent and willingness to work hard.” from the video of volunteers plucking harvey victims from floodwaters, the students learn the examples of volunteerism and humanism as parts of religious heritage as they have said: s3: “lesson i learn in this video is the importance of basic values in american people life.” s4: “first of all, it is amazing for me to know that what is written in the book regarding volunteerism and humanism isn’t nonsense, but they really happen in america just like in the video.” moreover, from the video of silicon valley, sonia sotomayor, and friday prayer, they could also learn about business heroes, equality of opportunity to achieve american dreams, ethnic diversity, and pluralism. they mention that: s5: “what i learn from this video mostly is tolerance in diversity. even though america has many different people with different religions, they live with others in peace.” s6: “the videos remind me of the entrepreneur as business hero. at the silicon valley school, the founder of the school, who is an entrepreneur, taught students in an unusual ways.” s7: “from the videos, i learn that americans still hold on to the equality of opportunity, self-reliance, and hard work.” s8: “i learn from this video that it is possible for anyone, even the minority such as sonia sotomayor, to be successful in america. i learn that america truly is the land of opportunity which promotes freedom and equality, that the american dream is real.” regarding the american family values stated in the textbook, one of the values is being independent and individualistic. however, from the youtube video clips of sandwich generation and thanksgiving, the students could know that not all american families practice those values. there are several families who still value togetherness and care for the older generations as sandwich generations. s9: “i learn from the videos that american families value togetherness.” s10: “what i learn from this video is that the sandwich generation parents is not something bad but it’s increase the family values to the better ones.” 269incorporating youtube clips.... (maryani; lewinna aguskin) as seen in table 1 and 2, the findings regarding the students’ perception of the use of youtube video clips have shown positive results in developing their american cultural understanding. the students’ motivation is increased compared to reading the textbook only. the use of video clips helps depict the real fact of american culture in various aspects of life. the findings are in line with terantino’s (2011) theory related to the use of youtube clips for students’ cultural learning experiences to give insight linguistically and culturally of the target culture. furthermore, the results are consistent with the notions of teaching culture in the 21st century from dema and moller (2012) that the use of digital resources will make culture learning more dynamic and active. on top of that, the students will be able to explore and develop their cultural understanding. as stated by moran (2001), most cultural perspectives are implicit, and they can be made explicit. the findings of this research prove that the use of authentic youtube videos in the class is helpful for the students to discover implicit cultural perspectives by watching the real examples of american basic values in the lives of american people nowadays. the videos have depicted the concept of the american dream, the values of equality, hard work, diversity, competition, material wealth, and tolerance. besides, the findings of the previous researches by june, yaacob, and kheng (2014), silviyanti (2014), almurashi (2016), and nova (2017) have shown the similar result with the present findings, which shows youtube clips have significantly enhanced students’ motivation to learn the target culture. despite increasing the students’ motivation, youtube video clips have contributed to improving their knowledge of american culture. the findings presented in table 2 regarding the students’ perceived knowledge have resulted in detailed information about each culture presented in the clips. they could explain and reflect on the video clips that they have watched. the present result is connected with june, yaacob, and kheng (2014)’s findings in which their participants’ critical thinking skills are stimulated due to watching youtube clips. kabooha and elyas (2018) have stated that videos should be chosen based on the students’ proficiency to achieve the best result in learning. the findings also show that several students have found the youtube clips are difficult to understand due to the native speakers’ way of speaking, which is beyond their proficiency level. although silviyanti’s (2014) result has shown the usefulness of youtube clips in giving authentic inputs of native spoken language, in this research, it hinders several students from comprehending the main ideas of the clips fully. conclusions in conclusion, the finding indicates that the use of youtube videos enhances the students’ cultural understanding due to the authenticity of the videos that show the reality of american lives. most students admit that they have learned the american basic values more deeply, both from the textbook and the videos. the present findings at least have two pedagogical implications. first, youtube clips are important teaching materials that can be used to enhance students’ interest and motivation in learning a target culture. they are authentic and suit the students’ learning styles, which makes them easier to grasp the culture being introduced. second, notice that not all students have the same proficiency level; teachers need to choose the suitable clips that are in the same or slightly below the students’ proficiency level. in this case, the students hopefully have no difficulty in comprehending the main ideas of the clips. as the students in this research admit the positive effect of youtube clips in promoting their cultural understanding, it is suggested that teachers include youtube clips in teaching culture to their students related to the topics discussed in class. as culture has to be practiced to comprehend it fully; therefore, youtube clips have been one helpful material to demonstrate the authentic context of the target culture. despite its important findings, there are two limitations to this research. first, regarding the data, it will be better if the students are given more than three days to watch the youtube clips and do the learning logs. the more days allowed will help less proficient students to watch and re-watch the clips for a more in-depth understanding of the culture presented. second, the focus of the research will demonstrate richer findings if the scope of the research is related not only with the students’ american cultural understanding but also the comprehension of their own culture. for further research, it is worth analyzing the effect of youtube clips on the students’ own cultural understanding. references almurashi, w. 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(2017). using online videos to improve speaking abilities of efl learners. european journal of education studies, 3(5), 255266. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.495750. 271incorporating youtube clips.... (maryani; lewinna aguskin) appendix table 2 students’ perceived knowledge based on the youtube video clips in the learning logs chapter 1 understanding american culture titles of the videos: (1) kemerdekaan as ke-241 (2) voa dunia kita: merayakan 17 agustus 2016 di washington dc • this video teaches me more about immigration in the usa and how it has affected their culture and their people. for example, this video shows about houston, which used to be a conservative city but now it’s becoming more diverse and the people always welcome immigrants and refugees. but the effect of immigration isn’t always good, especially because there are still some small towns that are discriminative against other ethnic groups. another way to see how the american culture has changed through the food because nowadays there are more food that is combined from the asian culinary. in hawaii, food is also one of the ways for them to stay close to their traditions and their ancestors’ identity. • as we can see, in american culture, they are more into the ‘festive-atmosphere’ for the celebration; it can be clearly seen on how they use the firework show as the main event. the video also elaborated more regarding the issue of immigrants. america is one of the most opened countries where many different cultures from around the world can be found. one of the cities that was brought up in the video is houston that becomes more opened in the recent years; there are some who favour the fact while there are still some who do not support this. the immigrants also make a change for america, of course. one of the most noticeable difference is in the culinary field. as more asian immigrants enter america, the more they gain popularity over their cultures that include food. it is also explained that in the last 20 years, the asian culinary is more exposed to the american than ever. chapter 2 traditional american values and beliefs titles of the videos: (1) us president’s daughter sasha obama has a summer job! (2) obama at indonesian diaspora congress 2017 • i learn that america truly respects diversity and pluralism. i know it from some of his words that means like it’s ok to be different as your religion is strong you don’t care about the others. i learn also that president of us care about our unity, it makes me more think as indonesian people why ‘third-person’ is really care about our unity? • there are two things that i learn from the video: to be independent and willingness to work hard. being a daughter of the president, sasha obama gave a good example by trying to do a summer job at a seafood restaurant. she didn’t afraid to show up at a public place, and did her job like an ordinary people. although accompanied by six secret service agents, she managed to work hard during her summer break. • lesson i learn in this video is the importance of basic values in american people life. sasha obama is an example of how people there really put hard work into their life. and even though sasha is the youngest daughter of once the first man of america, she’d experience to have a part-time in her summer; it also sign of having self-reliance as well. • president obama of united states is supporting the history of united states and indonesia. he wants to keep the values of us and indonesia that is pluralism, tolerance, openness, and rule of law. he respected the human rights of all people, the differences that we have in indonesia which is hundreds of languages, scores of region, ethnic groups, and dialects. he cherish the respect of people differences. he believe that we have to fight against those the bad treatments of people who don’t look like us or practice the same faith as us, fight against the discrimination against people based on race or ethnicity or religion. • from this video i understand how indonesia and the us have a lot in common in terms of ethnical, racial, and religious diversity and we have to welcome the differences in our country. there’s an increase of resentment and discrimination toward minority groups just because they don’t look like us and they don’t believe in the same faith as we do, but we have to continue fight these discriminations and instead be tolerant and open towards the variety of races, ethnicities, and beliefs. we have to realize that the diversity in our country, indonesia, is something that has to be cherished. chapter 3 the american religious heritage titles of the videos: (1)volunteers plucking harvey victims from floodwaters (2) sholat jumat di gereja epiphany, wujud kerja sama antar umat beragama • first of all, it is amazing for me to know that what is written in the book regarding volunteerism and humanism isn’t nonsense, but they really happen in america just like in the video. the volunteers do the work wholeheartedly, and what intrigues me the most is they work for free! it is unbelievable that in nowadays world, there are still people who are willing to work for free. maybe, not all the volunteers in the video are rich that they did their actions because they have achieved the material wealth. i just saw pure empathy in them, not more, and not less. they do care about others, and try to help them the best they can. when humanism and care have almost drowned in this egotistical world, they dare to show the world what to be a human means. • what i learn from this video mostly is tolerance in diversity. even though america has many different people with different religion. they live with others in peace. in this video, epiphany church shows what is the tolerance between other religion because america has less of mosque so muslims difficult to find a place for praying. epiphany church give them place for worshiping every friday, those muslims feel like they are worship in their own mosque because the church people treat them well, sometimes non-muslim people attend the friday preaching, it means that they want to learn more about the other. • lessons learned from this video is that the united states is a religious nation. and americans highly respect different religions, as in the video, the church of the epiphany opens its doors for the muslim faithful who needs a place to worship with their blessings. 272 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 265-273 chapter 6 the world of american business titles of the videos: (1): silicon valley school uses unconventional methods to train entrepreneurs (2): technology tech company aims to make virtual reality accessible to all • after i watched the videos, i believe that there are many ways to train people to achieve success. in video 1, it is shown that there is unique way to train the entrepreneurs and this technique is very beneficial because the entrepreneurs can understand more and do the actual activity and training rather than only studying the theory. in the second video, it is shown that every person has big can-do spirit, because the video shows how the teenagers insist to make vr accessible to all and this is very brilliant. so not only rich people can enjoy the advance technology, but they also give a chance for all people to take and have their own experience of using vr. • the videos remind me of the entrepreneur as business hero. at the silicon valley school, the founder of the school, who is an entrepreneur, taught students in an unusual ways. they are taught to step out from their comfort zone to let them know how to be tough in business world. moreover, the tech company in silicon valley try to make vr accessible for everyone, by using their smartphone. for me, it’s amazing because people there still apply the values of freedom, self-reliance, and hard work in doing business that comes as benefit for everyone. chapter 7 government and politics titles of the videos: (1) dear president obama'we will give him a family' (2) 11-year-old gets to mow lawn at the white house • i think those two video is related to equality of opportunity in united states traditional basic values. the president respects idea of tiny kids, even kids who don’t have right to vote can tell their idea to government and be accepted that. it means anyone can join american politics. there is no restriction such as age, gender, and region. • from the videos, i learn that americans still hold on to the equality of opportunity, self-reliance, and hard work. in his letter to president obama, alex says that he wants to take care of a boy from syria, who was picked up by an ambulance. he knows that the war is bad in syria, so he wants to give the boy an opportunity to have a better life. as for frank, he wants to show president trump that young people could also work hard, and he also rely on himself to mow white house’s lawn. his spirit amazed president trump, because a good leader have to work hard to get what he wants and to be successful in life. • the first video teaches us about how to be a person who are reliable like alex. he is not only reliable for himself but also for others. he cares other people that proves he is self-reliant learn to rely on himself and risk losing freedom by his willing to help others. from the first video also we can learn the qualities of the leaders. we can see from obama that he cares and respect not only adults but also a child-like alex. he doesn’t underestimate alex. the second video teaches also about self-reliance and hard work. it is proved by the boy which works hard and be self-reliant at his young age by mowing lawn at the white house. as we can see, trump as the president has let us know the qualities of the leaders. the same as obama, he also cares and respect child. chapter 8 ethnic and racial diversity titles of the videos: (1) sonia sotomayor: mini biography (2) tri narmini muslimah indonesia supir uber • sonia sotomayor is a great figure. her background and her status as someone who is from the minority group do not affect sotomayor’s hard work and belief that she can achieve her dreams. her family’s financial problem has never broken her enthusiasm, and she always sets her dream high. i can also see that in this case, the us gives an equal opportunity for minorities such as sotomayor to develop their talents. this shows that the us gives a great opportunity for the immigrants or the non-apartheid. lastly, we see that sotomayor, given such chance, managed to prove that she is able to do it despite her limitations. as long as there is a will, there is a way. • i learn from this video that it is possible for anyone, even the minority such as sonia sotomayor, to be successful in america. i learn that america truly is the land of opportunity which promotes freedom and equality, that the american dream is real. not only sotomayor is a hispanic which is a minority in the us, she is also a female who used to struggle for equality. it is truly inspiring that there is a proof of america being the nation of equality because sotomayor, a hispanic female, can rise up to the top. • i think the state that americans believe in the ideal of equality of opportunity and to search for ways to give everyone an equal chance at success is really applied in america’s daily life. as we can see in the video, tri narmini represented immigrants with different background and skills. we can relate from the video, it is true that america is the land of opportunity because in america there are same equality both for immigrants and american people. • tri narmini is an indonesian diaspora who becomes a successful uber driver in annapolis. being a minority, she has her own tactic to get more passengers than other drivers. tri narmini’s life is similar with american’s view on giving equal opportunity for immigrants to be successful. they don’t see immigrants as competitors, but they let the immigrants find their own ways to be successful. this american dream is inspiring because it set asides discrimination to let everyone gets a better life. table 2 students’ perceived knowledge based on the youtube video clips in the learning logs (continued) 273incorporating youtube clips.... (maryani; lewinna aguskin) chapter 9 education in the us titles of the video: man vs. school system • i agree because we cannot assume that everyone learns the same way and is smart in one certain field. people are unique and have unique talents, interests, and preferences. by putting kids in a school system that forces them to be ace all the subjects that the school gives without paying attention to what the students really enjoy or why the students perform badly in some subjects will have a very negative impact on the kids and their views on school. from such a young age they have been told that if they’re not good in math or science then they’re just not as smart. it will definitely affect badly for their self-confidence. in indonesia, the education system still forces students to memorize instead of understanding. the system applies one learning style in a classroom full of different people and personalities. • america is trying to provide a flexible education to minimize the gap due to the racial and ethnical diversity. • in the us they still has some problems like: lack of parents’ respect for teachers, too much repetitive homework, and the lack of effective teaching methods. chapter 10 how americans spend their leisure time titles of the video: circus program teaches teens lessons in balance life • i learn that there are many ways to spend leisure time that don’t need to include video games or the internet, because computer or phone’s screen can damage our eyes if we look at it for too long. the two videos below are the good examples of the things that people could do: participate in circus program (in the us) or playing traditional games (in indonesia). besides getting new friends, the program enables people to know different type of people, and learn much from each other. • what i learned from this video is about a useful activity for each of us because circus programs in the united states greatly educate children or young people to exercise their balance through acrobatics and help them build friendly relationships with one another. america spend their time more in internet and games. • in us they wanted the children to have a good/strong relationship with their friend and become one family maybe relates again into the basic six values that american people is self-reliance and maybe people in us want to emphasize that we need good relationship with other people. chapter 11 the american family titles of the videos: (1)the sandwich generation (2) make a traditional thanksgiving meal • i learn from the videos that american families value togetherness. like what celeste fischer said, being together with her family decreases her stress because then she does not have to worry about so much. in the second video, it also talks about gathering together with one’s family (or friends and close ones) and thank them. i conclude that even though americans value individual freedom, it does not necessarily mean that it supports being selfish or individualistic. • sandwich generation parents are very inspiring because it’s not easy to take care of their aging parents and children at the same time. they have to have strong-willed to supply the financial support and needs of everyday life of their parents and children. it’s also a good thing to let their grandparents live together with them, because the connection between the three generation can be built, as nowadays it’s not an easy thing to do. furthermore, it’s important to be able to gather together with family, especially on special occasion like thanksgiving. on thanksgiving, each family members gather together to give thanks and be grateful for each other. thus, family have to support each other in difficult situation. by doing so, each family members could feel loved and cared. in a nutshell, family is valuable, and nothing in the world could replace them. table 2 students’ perceived knowledge based on the youtube video clips in the learning logs (continued) *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 43 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 43-50 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6278 errors analysis of directive speech act and politeness strategy in kaiwa chukyu learning lispridona diner* jurusan bahasa dan sastra asing, universitas negeri semarang jl. kampus sekaran gunungpati 50229, semarang slisjoost@yahoo.com received: 04th march 2020/revised: 16th march 2020/accepted: 24th march 2020 how to cite: diner, l. (2020). errors analysis of directive speech act and politeness strategy in kaiwa chukyu learning. lingua cultura, 14(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6278 abstract the research aimed to explain types of directive speech act encompassed meirei (order), irai (plea), kinshi (prohibition), kyoka (permit), and teian (suggestion) in the japanese language. directive speech acts were common for students in the kaiwa chukyu zenhan level (basic intermediate speaking lesson). the present research employed a listening method with the basic technique, i.e., tapping method. further, involved and uninvolved conversation observation techniques, note-taking, and recording were applied to collect the data. the data object was the documentation of student conversations in class. the data, consisting of the directive speech act of the politeness principles in the conversation during the japanese course kaiwa chukyu zenhan, were analyzed using an identity method. in conclusion, the research identifies several directive speech acts that are used during the class. those are zenhan (order, three data), requesting (two data), suggesting (one data), prohibiting (one data), and permitting (one data). moreover, the honorifics used include the teineigo and kenjogo. among the nine data, directive speech acts are identified in the class, and only one data indicates the indirect speech act. keywords: directive speech act, politeness strategy, japanese language introduction japanese language in the industrial revolution 4.0 is sought after by many students in indonesia. there is an increase in the interest to learn foreign languages, specifically japanese, due to the opportunities to study abroad and work in japan. for this reason, formal education, ranging from the secondary to higher education level in indonesia, has incorporated the japanese language learning to meet the demands for japanese language learning, universitas negeri semarang is among the higher education institutions that offer a japanese language program through the department of japanese language education. the students of this department are expected to master four language skills, i.e., receptive skills (reading comprehension and listening), writing, and speaking. significant differences between japanese and indonesian language, in general, determine the difficulty of japanese language learning. other than four alphabets that the japanese language has, such as kanji, hiragana, katakana, and romaji, the sentence pattern of this language is vibrantly unique (subject, object, predicate). vocabulary in the japanese language may have many synonyms. mastering four language skills, the alphabet, and the sentence patterns help the students overcome challenges in learning japanese. the classes of language skills in the japanese language consist of receptive skills (listening and reading), productive (speaking and writing), and interactive skills. these skills are interrelated with each other. listening skills and particular strategies are essential in speaking as this helps the listener to comprehend the message spoken by the speaking partner. speaking is not only about delivering ideas. it requires responses by the conversation partner and allows the people involved in the communication to comprehend the conversation (idrus, 2017). by understanding the intent speakers, it will avoid conflict, intertwine cooperation, establish mutual understanding, so communication between speakers 44 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 43-50 and the partners can continue (sumiatun, 2016). utterances that serve a function in speaking is called a speech act. speech acts can be seen when someone in the process of speaking. the process of speaking is the part of; (1) thinking about the content that wants to be revealed, (2) thinking about what someone wants to express, and (3) telling the truth (kou, 2018) (kou, 2018). smooth communication shows two things, namely kat 滑 に 意味 が 伝 る enkatsu ni imi ga tsutawaru (conveying meaning or content smoothly), 良好 な 人間 関係 を 構築 す る yo ryoukouna ningenkankei wo kouchiku suru (building relationship meaning or content smoothly), and 良好 な 人間 関係 を 構築 す る yo ryoukouna ningenkankei wo kouchiku suru (building relationship meaning or content smoothly) (satyanto, 2018). the language skills of a person to respond to a certain situation are central to speech acts. in the japanese language, the term speech act is well-known as gengokoui (言語行為); studies on speech acts are one of the focuses of pragmatic research. koizumi claims that 言語行為の研究は、語用論の領域の研 究として取り扱っている。gengokoui no kenkyuu ha, goyouron no ryouiki no kenkyuu to shite toriatsu katte iru, a study on speech act that is a branch of pragmatic research (andriyani & meidariani, 2016). austin, in tarigan (2015), mentions three types of speech acts in its practices. those are the locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. locutionary act refers to words, phrases, and sentences whose meanings are not implicitly stated (the surface meaning) (syah, 2017). this speech act can be regarded as the act of saying something. in the locutionary act, the intention and functions of the utterances are expressed by the speaker. as a result, the utterance “my hands are itchy” is expressed to inform the conversation’s partner that the speaker feels itchiness in his/her hand during the conversation. for example, in the research of speech act is the most notable difference between japanese and english, a chain of such multiple speech acts. moreover, there is a relationship between configuration and turn chain (ikuta, 2011). politeness is essential and must be considered in the communication process because the speaker and the hearer will feel mutual respect in this process. to anticipate face threatening or face threatening act (fta), it can be done with several strategies implemented in daily social interactions depending on the degree of threat. the strategy is to speak continuously (bald on record), act speech with positive politeness, act speech by using negative politeness, do speech acts indirectly (off the record), and do not act speech or remain silent (kartika, 2017). there are three positive politeness (keigo) that are used in the japanese language. first is teineigo (polite keigo) that expresses respect to the hearer with uses polite words. teineigo level is arguably the first level studied by japanese language learners. this level is the most basic polite form in japanese. second is sonkeigo (honorific keigo). it is a type of keigo that is used to elevate the feelings of subjects who take action along with its attributes when speaking with the speech partner by taking into account the distance and the social status of the partner said as well. it is a style used when the hearers who are in the position of power, e.g., the boss, elders, or customers. furthermore, the last is kenjougo (humble keigo). this is more used to humble oneself in front of the talk partner or to the subject (person) that is being discussed (low, 2018; astami, 2010). the majority of languages in the world have the concept of politeness. it means that politeness is a universal characteristic of language. nevertheless, what is considered as a form of politeness by the speaker language will vary that is influenced by the culture of the speakers of that language (idraswari, 2019). meanwhile, anshori (2017) has stated that the cultural characteristics of society will form a language pattern and communication patterns of the community. searle, in contrast to austin, categorizes speech acts into three, has mentioned four types of speech acts (tarigan, 2015). furthermore, searle has a differing opinion with austin, who classified three types of locutionary acts. searle divides the speech act into two; first is the utterance act. it is the act that is consisting of the verbal employment units of expression, such as word or sentence (morpheme, sentence). this type of speech act encompasses two locutionary acts proposed by austin. second is the prepositional act, i.e., referring and predicting. based on austin’s theory, this speech act is the third locutionary act. such a speech act is further expressed through the illocutionary and perlocutionary act (ariefandi, 2018; kentary, ngalim, & prayitno, 2015). illocutionary act refers to the use of a sentence to express an attitude with a specific function or force. this speech act can be regarded as the act of doing something (sarmis, tressyalina, & noveria, 2018). the utterance “my hands are itchy” does not signify that the person intends to inform his/her speaking partner that he/she feels itchy in his/her hands. in fact, the speaker expects that his/her conversation partner does something to relieve itchy feelings, such as bringing balm to the speaker (ekawati, 2017). the perlocutionary act is the act of affecting someone, or in this case, the speaking partner. the example “my hands are itchy” can scare the hearer. such a consequence is because the speaker is an executioner, and the example of utterance may imply that the speaker is itching to hit the hearer’s face (astawa, antartika, & sadyana, 2017). rahardi in febriasari and wijayanti (2018) has classified the illocutionary act into five types; each has its communicative functions. the first is assertive. this speech acts refer to the type of illocutionary act that commits a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. the examples are stating, suggesting, boasting, complaining, and claiming. second is directives. this is the speech acts that affect the hearer to perform something. several examples include ordering, commanding, requesting, advising, and 45errors analysis of directive.... (lispridona diner) recommending. the third is expressive. this type of speech act functions to state or express speakers’ attitudes towards a certain situation. the examples are thanking, congratulating, pardoning, blaming, praising, and condoling. fourth is commissives. this is the type of speech act that is used to show the commitment of a speaker to some future actions, such as promising, vowing, and offering. furthermore, the last is declarations. this speech act correlates the content of the utterance with the real situation. some of the examples are resigning, dismissing, baptism, naming, appointing, excommunicating, and sentencing (desy, 2018). directive speech act consists of two types, i.e., direct and indirect speech acts. several sentences can be categorized as direct speech acts; those are declaratives or informing something, interrogatives or asking for information, imperative or ordering, persuading, or requesting (prayitno, 2017). for example: 来 週 、 私 は バ リ へ 行 き ま す 。 r a i s h u u , watashi wa bari e ikimasu (i am going to bali next week). ordering or commanding can be categorized as indirect speech act since both types of expressions are conveyable by using declarative or interrogative. so the hearer does not consider that he/she is being commanded. indirect speech acts are formed once such a condition is met. in some cases, indirect speech acts are not followed by immediate responses unless the implied messages have been actualized (pietasari, 2017). for example: あついですね。atsui desu ne. (it is hot, isn’t it?) in a classroom situation, the sentence embeds an implied meaning that the teacher asks the students to turn on the air conditioner or to open a window. according to namatame, the types of directive speech act encompass meirei (order), irai (request), kinshi (prohibition), kyoka (permit), and teian (suggestion) (saputri, 2019). according to zhang (2016), directives are classified into five types of speech acts. first is meirei (order). it is used to state a situation where the speaker demands the interlocutor to do something he/she wants. speech forms included in directive sentences in the form of meirei or commander are ~e/~ro/~yo ,~ou/~you/~saseru/~seru, ~nasai, ~kudasai, ~naika, ~tamae, ~goran, ~youni, ~mashou, ~vru youni, ~vnai youni,~vru beshi. the second is irai (request). it is used to declare requests or requests to interlocutors to do as requested. speech forms included in directive sentences of irai or requests are ~ te kudasai, ~ sasete kudasai, ~ naide kudasai, ~ te kure, ~ naide kure, te kuretamae, ~ te kudasaru, ~ temoraeru ~te morau, ~te moraemasenka, ~te itadakenaideshouka, ~te itadakeru, ~te itadakitai, ~te hoshii, ~onegau, dan~choudai. the third is kinshi (prohibition). it is used to declare that the interlocutor does not take action as spoken by the speaker. speech forms included in the directive sentences of kinshi or prohibition are ~ v ru na, ~ nai, ~ te ha ikenai, ~ te ha naranai, ~ te ha dame, ~ naikoto, ~ bekarazu, ~ naide houshii, ~ naide kudasai, ~ naide itadakitai, and ~ naiyouni shimashou. the fourth is kyoka (permit). it is used to express permission when going to do something or giving permission by the speaker to the interlocutor. speech forms included in the directive sentence of the kyoka or permission form are ~ te mo ii, ~ te mo yoroshii, ~ te mo kamawanai, ~ sasemashou, and predicate sentences of yurusu and kyokasuru. the last is teian (suggestion). it is used to express suggestions, advice, and suggestions by speakers to the interlocutor. speech forms included in directive sentences of teian or suggestion are ~ ta houga ii, ~ vru houga ii, ~ tara houga ii, ~ to ii, ~ te goran, ~ kotoda, ~ ba ii, and ~ tara ii. some investigation methods used to assess the effect of conventionality on second language learners’ comprehension have been implausible. the follow-up has to do with social relations called sociolinguistic. sociolinguistic view of language as social conduct in communication (yulia, 2015). the research is a language study that can be used for two things, namely (1) to enrich science, and (2) to contribute to language teaching (sutedi, 2018). some previous researches are conducted to discuss this topic. first is by astami and hendrawan (2018). they have found that the situation of speech greatly influences the choice of spoken strategies. the second is by kusumaswarih (2018). it is found that the use of a language of civility strategy that is to follow the speech frankly (on record), doing speech (off the record), positive civility, and negative civility. the third is by biantara, pramesti, and adnyani (2016). the results of the research show that the type of follow-up command used in anime kuroko no basuke episodes 54 to 67 are six types. they are type ~ て ください (~ te kudasai), type ~ てくれ (~ te kure), the verb conjugation form command, type v ~ ん だ (v ~ nda), type v ~ なさい (v ~ nasai), and type v ~ る/v ~ ないことだ (v ~ ru/v ~ nai koto da). besides, the follow-up function found in the anime kuroko no basuke episodes 54 to 67 consists of application function, request function, command function, insistence function, messenger function, and prohibition function. moreover, the last is by monica, giri, & artana, 2017). in comics of shin tenisu no oujisama by takeshi konomi, 33 pieces of data produce the form and function of directive speech acts. it forms of indirect directive speech acts, while the directive speech acts function found in the data, are the functions of asking, inviting, coercing, coercing, suggesting, push, order, collect, order, beg, oppose, and give the signal. methods the research employs a descriptive qualitative method to investigate the strategies of directive speech 46 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 43-50 act used by the learners at the basic and intermediate level in speaking class. a descriptive approach to data collection is in the form of words, images, and not numbers. that is caused by the application of qualitative methods. the present research employs a listening method with the basic technique, i.e., tapping method. data analysis uses language error analysis. further, involved and uninvolved conversation observation techniques, note-taking, and recording are applied to collect the data. the data consist of the directive speech act of the politeness principles in the conversation during the japanese course kaiwa chukyu zenhan. it is analyzed using an identity method. the research is pure linguistics (phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics), which is limiting the study of the linguistic structure created, pragmatics, which is in it including speech act theory, studying the language by taking into account the situation nonlinguistic communication or so-called context (syaifudin, 2018). context is a background that given rise to a speech event. therefore context is needed in a speech event (arifiany, ratna, & trahutami, 2016). context can be divided into two, namely linguistic and nonlinguistic contexts. linguistic context is a reference obtained from the text or speech that has been said before (halibanon & safariyah, 2019). results and discussions table 1 presents the politeness principles of directive speech act that is used by the students. based on table 1, there are several directive speech acts used during the class. those are zenhan (order, three data), requesting (two data), suggesting (one data), prohibiting (one data), and permitting (one data). among the data, eight data represent the use of directive speech acts in the class, and only one data indicates the indirect speech act. the research finds five data indicating the teineigo expressions and four data indicating keijogo expressions. japanese speaking lesson is in the kaiwa chukyu zenhan course. politeness principles are used by the students in japanese class. the researcher will discuss it through the data examples. data 1 学生 先生、トイレへ1.1行ってもよろしいでし ょうか。 gakusei: sensei, toire e itte moiideshouka? student: ma’am, can i go to the toilet? 先生 どうぞ。 sensei: douzo teacher: please. the conversation in data 1 illustrates how the student uses the politeness principle, specifically the directive speech act (asking for permission) when he/ she wants to go to the toilet. this is represented by the excerpt 1.1 行ってもよろしいでしょうか。the excerpt’ iite moyoroshii deshouka’ consists of two words, i.e., itte (lit. go) and moyoroshii (lit. can i) with the addition of deshouka or the expression of asking for permission. in the conversation, the speaker uses the word yoroshii (a formal version of ii) to lower the speaker’s status below the hearer. the use of ‘temo yoroshii desu’ or ‘temo ii desu’ refers to the expression to ask for permission. the way of speaking in the conversation is teineigo or formal language. data 2 先生 インドネシアで好きな季節はいつ?。 sensei: indonesia de suki na kisetsu wa itsu? teacher: what is the favorite season in indonesia? 学生 七月の乾季です。 gakusei: sichigatsu no kanki desu. student: summer in july 先生 そうか。どうして?。 sensei: sooka. doshite? teacher: i see. can you tell me why? table 1 directive politeness speech act data politeness strategy type of directive speech acts directive indirect 1.1行ってもいいでしょうか。 teineigo permission (kyoka) v 2.1行ってください teineigo order (meirei) v 5.2スプーンで食べたほうがいいです teineigo suggesting (teian) v 8.1着なければいいと聞きました。 teineigo suggesting (teian) v 5.1手で食べないでください。 teineigo prohibiting (kinshi) v 3.1貸してくださいませんか。 kenjogo requesting (irai) v 4.1お待ちください。 kenjogo requesting (irai) v 6.1ロマジで書いていただけませんか kenjogo order (meirei) v 7.1おかけください。 kenjogo order (meirei) v 47errors analysis of directive.... (lispridona diner) 学生 休みだし、海岸へ遊びに行くことができ ますから。 gakusei: yasumida shi, kaigan e asobini iku koto ga dekimasu kara. student: it is our holiday, and we can go to the beach. 先生 いいね。中部ジャワで何か進めの海岸が ある? sensei: ii ne. chubu jawa de nanika susume kaigan ga aru? teacher: sounds great! is there any cool beach in central java? 学生 あります。カリムンジャワへ2.1行ってく ださい。 gakusei: arimasu. karimun jawa e itte kudasai. student: yes, there is. you can visit karimun jawa. the conversation in data 2 takes place in the classroom when the teacher and the students discuss the lesson tenki to kisetsu (weather and season). according to data 2, the speech acts used are directives, which indicate the expressions of requesting for something. the use of directives by the students are represented by the form of itte and kudasai. kudasai is a formal language (teineigo) to give a command to others politely. the student uses the formal expression (teineigo) to respond to the teacher, who uses the nonformal language (futsukei). in other words, the students low their status below the teacher. data 3 先生 ~さん、丸ごとの教科書を持ってきません か。 sensei ~ san, marugoto no kyoukasho o mottekimasenka. teacher: so, you do not bring the marugoto book? 学生 はいそうです。 gakusei: hai soudesu. student: yes, i do not bring that book. 先生 どうしてですか。 sensei: doushite desuka. teacher: can you tell me why? 学生 遅く起きましたから、忘れてしまいまし た。先生、ちょっと教科書を3.1貸してください ませんか。 gakusei: osoku okimashita kara, wasurete shimaimashita. sensei, chotto kyoukasho o kashite kudasaimasenka. student: i was overslept, and i forgot to bring the book. would you mind if i borrow your book, ma’am? 先生 ええ、どうぞ。来週忘れないでくださ い。 sensei: ee, douzo. raishuu wasurenaide kudasai. teacher: yes, please. do not forget to bring the book next week. 学生 はい、わかりました。 gakusei: hai, wakarimashita. student: will do. in this conversation, the teacher notices that one of the students forgets to bring the marugoto textbook. data 3 illustrates the use of the politeness principle, specifically apologizing (irai) in directive speech acts by the student when asking the teacher to borrow the book. the kenjogo style is used in this context. this is represented by the use of kashite (borrowing) and kudasaimasenka, the polite version of kudasai. it indicates that the speaker (the student) positioned him or herself below the hearer or the teacher. data 4 先生 おはようございます。ビデオの宿題をど うぞ出してください。 sensei: ohayou gozaimasu. bideo no shukudai o douzo dashite kudasai. teacher: good morning, class. i am going to collect your video project. 学生1 はい先生。 gakusei: hai sensei. student 1: yes, ma’am. 学生2 今から出しますか、授業の後出します か。 gakusei 2: imakara dashimasuka, jugyou no ato dashimasuka. student 2: are we going to collect the video now or after the class? 先生 これから出してください。 sensei: korekara dashite kudasai. teacher: i am going to collect it now. 学生2 先生、すみません、持っている学生は まだ来ないので、しばらく4.1お待ちください。 gakusei 2: sensei, sumimasen, motteiru gakusei wa mada konai node, shibaraku omachikudasai. student 2: i do apologize, ma’am. would you mind waiting for a moment, as our friend who is supposed to bring our project is yet to come. 先生 だれがまだ来ないですか。。。 sensei: dare ga mada konai desuka… teacher: who is that student? conversation in data 4 illustrates a situation when the teacher asks the students to submit their group projects. one of the students, i.e., the one who brings the project for the group, is yet to come. the other student in the same group asks the teacher to wait for a while. data 4 depicts the use of the politeness principle in the form of requesting (irai) in directive speech acts. the student employs the politeness strategy o ~ kudasai (a form of commanding in kenjougo) to lower the speaker’s status below the conversation partner. data 5 先生 ~さん、どこから来ましたか。 sensei ~ san, dokokara kimashitaka. teacher: where are you from? 学生 ソロから来ました。 48 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 43-50 gakusei: solo kara kimashita. student: i am from solo. 先生 ソロで有名な料理は何ですか。 sensei: soro de yuumeina ryouri wa nandesuka. teacher: what is the famous dish of solo? 学生 セラットソロです。美味しくて、安いで す。 gakusei: seratto soro desu. oishikute, yasuidesu. student: it’s selat solo; it’s delicious and cheap. 先生 どうやって食べますか。手で食べます か、スプーンで食べますか。 sensei: douyatte tabemasuka. te de tabemasuka, supu-n de tabemasuka. teacher: how to eat selat solo? do we need to use our hands or spoons? 学生 スープ料理ですから、5.1手で食べないで ください。5.2スプーンで食べたほうがいいで す。 gakusei: su-puryouri desukara, te de tabenai de kudasai. supu-n de tabeta houga iidesu. student: selat solo is a kind of soup, so we do not use our hands. it is better to use a spoon. 先生 ええ、分かりました。 sensei: ee, wakarimashita. teacher: i see. in data 5, the teacher asks the students about famous dishes in a particular city and how to eat food. this is when the class discusses the lesson mise de taberu. data 5 depicts the use of the politeness principle in the form of prohibiting (kinshi) and suggesting (teian) in directive speech acts, respectively. the teineigo style in this conversation involves the pattern ~ naide kudasai (prohibiting in a polite manner) and ~ta houga ii desu (suggesting). the student is lowering his or her position below the teacher and tells that the teacher should use a spoon to eat selat solo. further, the student explains that the teacher should not use his or her hands to enjoy the dish. data 6 先生 ~さん、この近く、銀行はどこですか。 (while writing the name of a bank on the whiteboard; the word “bank” is written in kanji) sensei ~ san, kono chikaku, ginkou wa doko desuka. teacher: where is the nearest bank? 学生 先生、すみません。漢字が読めませ ん。6.1ロマジで書いていただけませんか。 gakusei: sensei, sumimasen. kanji ga yomemasen. romaji de kaite itadakemasenka. student: i am sorry, ma’am. i cannot read that kanji. would you mind writing the letter in the latin alphabet? 先生 はーい。 sensei: ha-i teacher: alright. 学生 ありがとうございます。 gakusei: arigatou gozaimasu. student: thank you very much. the conversation in data 6 happens when the teacher writes the word ‘bank’ in kanji. one of the students is unable to read the character and asks the teacher to write it in the latin alphabet. data 6 depicts the use of the politeness principle in the form of requesting (irai) in directive speech acts that are represented by the use of ~te itadakemasenka, a form of the kenjogo style. the speaker also lowers the status below the hearer. the pattern ~te itadakemasenka (lit. may i) indicates that the speaker asks for the hearer’s help. data 7 学生 先生、こちらに7.1おかけください。 gakusei: sensei, kochira ni okake kudasai. student: please have a seat here, ma’am. 先生 ありがとうございます。 sensei: arigatou gozaimasu. teacher: thank you very much. data 7 is in a speaking practicum (role-playing). in this context, the teacher visits one of the student groups. one of the students notices that the teacher observes his or her group, and s/he invites the teacher to sit. data 7 depicts the use of the politeness principle in the form of ordering (meirei) in directive speech acts, represented by the use of o ~ kudasai (kenjogo style) pattern by the student. this pattern shows the polite version of giving an order, indicating that the student shows respect by lowering their position when talking to the teacher. data 8 先生 休みにどこへ行った? sensei: yasumi ni doko e itta? teacher: where do you go on holiday? 学生 ジョグジャへ行きました。 gakusei: joguja e ikimashita. student: we go to jogja. 先生 どんなところ? sensei: donna tokoro? teacher: how is the city? 学生 海岸もきれいだったし、歴史の建物も立 派だったし、それに、料理がおいしかったで す。 gakusei: kaigan mo kireida shi, rekishino tatemono mo rippa datta shi, sore ni, ryori ga oishikatta desu. student: there is a nice beach there. you can also find historical buildings and good food. 先生 海岸へ行った?何の海岸へ行った? sensei: kaigan e itta? nan no kaigan e itta? teacher: so, you go to a beach? what is the name of the beach? 学生 parang tritis へ行きました。そこでみどり の服を8.1着なければいいと聞きました。 gakusei: parang tritis e ikimashita. soko de midori no fuku o kina kereba ii desu. student: we went to parang tritis. it is better not to wear green attire if you visit that place. 49errors analysis of directive.... (lispridona diner) 先生 そうか。面白いね。 sensei: souka. omoshiroi ne. teacher: i see. sound’s interesting, isn’t it? the conversation in data 8 happens during the beginning of a class after a national holiday. in addition to asking the students about their impressions, the teacher asks the student where they spend their holiday. it indicates the use of suggesting (teian) speech acts by the pattern ~ ba ii with the additional pattern ~ kikimashita (indicating that the utterance is based on what the speaker is heard). the politeness principle in this conversation is shown by the use of teineigo or formal expressions by the students. the teacher, on the other hand, responds to the students by using a regular pattern (futsuu). conclusions in conclusion, the research identifies several directive speech acts used during the class. those are zenhan (order, three data), requesting (two data), suggesting (one data), prohibiting (one data), and permitting (one data). moreover, the honorifics used are teineigo and kenjogo. among the nine data, directive speech acts are identified in the class and only one data that are indicating the indirect speech act. references andriyani, a. a. a. d., & meidariani, n. w. 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(2015). fungsi dan peran tindak tutur imperatif tidak langsung dalam bahasa jepang. jurnal didaktika, 9(1), 46-52. https://doi.org/10.24036/ ld.v9i1.6260 zhang, l. (2016). achievements and limitations in second language learners’ indirect speech act comprehension: focusing on the possibility of using conventionality as an analysis framework. 中国四国教育学会 教育 学研究ジャーナル, 19. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 363 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 363-367 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4270 the character formation of children in japan: a study of japanese children textbook on moral education (doutoku) linda unsriana1; rosita ningrum2 1,2,japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1linda_unsriana@hotmail.com; 2shitapujianto@gmail.com received: 04th may 2018 /revised: 26th july 2018 /accepted: 10th august 2018 how to cite: unsriana, l., & ningrum, r. (2018). the character formation of children in japan: a study of japanese children textbook on moral education (doutoku). lingua cultura, 12(4), 363-367. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4270 abstract the purpose of this research was to explore any underlying messages or moral principle in japanese elementary school textbook titled “watashitachi no doutoku” and its correlation with the character formation of children in japan. the method used in this research was the literature review that was derived from corpus data in the form of an original japanese manuscript. the corpus data were derived from textbooks that were still being used in japan to date, in the form of original books in the japanese language from the first grade to sixth grade elementary school, whereas the research method used a descriptive analysis method. the problem analysis was divided into four sections, including intrapersonal morality, interpersonal moral value, morality toward nature, and morality toward society. the conclusion indicates that character installment through special school subjects, namely moral education (doutoku), using watashitachi no doutoku influences character formation of elementary school children in japan. keyword: character formation, children character, japanese children textbook, moral education introduction moral education is a process, the approach used in a comprehensive manner, this education should be carried out conducively both in the school, home and community, all partisans and communities are involved. socialization of moral education needs to be held for school principals, teachers, students, parents, and community leaders who are essential. it needs attention to the background of students involved in the life process of moral education. the attention of moral education must last for a long time (continuously), and moral learning must be integrated into the curriculum praxis in schools and society (raharjo, 2005). character education is initially introduced by a german pedagog f.w. foerster (1869-1966). the strength of one’s character is visible in four required basic traits; those are regularity, coherence, autonomy, tenacity, and fidelity (koesoema, 2015). ki hadjar dewantoro has long been striving to sustain the spirit of character education as the factor that shapes the personality and identity of a nation. raharjo (2007) also says that moral education must continuously give to children, and moral learning should be integrated in the curriculum in school and praxis community. despite the importance of moral and character education, the implementation is, however, still on and off in our national education curriculum. currently, its implementation is integrated into other school subjects, such as religious education, history, pancasila and citizenship education (ppkn), and civics which indicate that this nation has actually a deep concern about its character formation (koesoema, 2015). unlike the circumstance in indonesia, the focus of elementary education in japanese school is to emphasize the importance of moral education. morality has become the foundation that is instilled ‘intentionally’ into the children in japan. while there is one specific subject at school that teaches the children about morality; the moral value is integrated into all subjects and daily life. moral education has been instilled since the meiji restoration in 1868 up to now by including the specific school subject that teaches the children about morality. the subject is a moral study using the textbook titled watashitachi no doutoku. there are two problems in this research namely the importance of moral lessons for japanese studies and what the moral values in the relevant books. while the objective of this research is to find out any underlying moral principle in japanese elementary school textbook from first grade to sixth grade titled watashitachi no doutoku. this research will look for the significance of the moral behavior of children in japan with the teachings in the textbook. after find out what moral lesson in the textbook, the benefit that can be gained from this research is to obtain a comprehensive data and knowledge concerning the moral principles that are instilled into the children in japan using the school textbook named doutoku (moral) and the possibility of its application in indonesia. 364 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 363-367 methods the research of moral education in japan was previously carried out by poukka (2011) that is examining education value in japanese schools at the beginning of the millennium. poukka, in her research, it compares moral education in japan and poland. in her research, she questions the curriculum and moral education in japan in the comparative terminology with moral education in her country, poland. the corpus data used is a moral education textbook in japan entitled kokoro no noto, published by the japanese ministry of education. other research related to moral education in japan is conducted by nakayama (2017) that questions whether moral education in schools can effectively instill morale in children. conclusions from nakayama’s research that to get effective results in planting moral values needed some improvement, in terms of adding moral lessons and teaching methods, so that moral teaching in schools could be successful. the first difference of this research with poukka (2011) is the difference in corpus data. the data used by poukka is a textbook titled kokoro no to, and data in research is a textbook entitled watashi tachi no doutoku. in addition, poukka’s (2011) research covers a wide range, concerning the curricula of the two countries, japan and poland, while the focus of this research is only to limit moral themes or moral messages contained in the textbook watashitachi no doutoku. in addition, the results of nakayama’s research state that moral lessons in schools can help develop children’s character. the disadvantage in nakayama’s research is not discussing moral themes/ messages completely in his research. however, for readers in indonesia, the researchers think it would be more useful if the data related moral themes are fully explained. this will be very useful, as data material from the main sources of primary school textbooks. for education researchers, this data can be used for research with the theme of education, especially moral education in japan. the research method applies literature review and textual analysis derived from corpus data in the form of an original japanese manuscript. the corpus data is derived from the school textbooks that have been used up to now, in the form of original japanese textbook from first grade to sixth-grade elementary school. the result data is processed and triangulated to obtain valid data with a descriptive analytical method. results and discussions in summary, the book watashitachi no doutoku, which the corpus data is derived from, the theme covered are divided into four sections, comprising intrapersonal morality, interpersonal moral values, morality toward nature, and morality toward society. table 1 shows the moral value in that book. in watashitachi no doutoku textbook, the moral value is introduced in the section that discusses own self (intrapersonal). the focus of this first-section consists of maintaining rules and self-discipline in doing something. as poukka (2011) has said as an essential part of kokoro education is japanese moral education that focuses on polishing kokoro (heart). in this section, students are taught a few things such as taking care of their health, for example by having a healthy breakfast. they are also taught the proverb “hara hachibun ni isha irazu” (if you keep your diet healthy, you will not need anymore doctor). besides, students are taught how to tidy their stuff without the need of being ordered, to revise the lesson at home, and other interesting things such as being thrifty, for example, by using up pencil and eraser thoroughly. table 1 the moral values contained in textbook watashitachi no doutoku watasitachi no doutoku intra personal interpersonal nature society class 1-2 selfreflection make friends with others valuing life do good to others class 3-4 selfrespect together with everyone relishing life in contact with everyone in society class 5-6 selfreform connected with others cherishing life connected with everyone to give a clearer picture, the teachers show some short stories related to the moral theme to be conveyed, such as the story titled ruppe doushita no? (why, ruppe?) (monbukagakusho, 2014). this short story tells of a monkey child named ruppe, who must be woken up daily by his mother, should be reminded to put socks up properly. it is also told of ruppe’s behavior, that if he does not like a thing, he will frown and grab the sand and throw it at his friends so that his friends fear and dislike ruppe. from these short stories, students are invited to reflect on what ruppe does, what ruppe should and should not do. the moral value to be conveyed in this section is intended for students to think. if a person does not pass according to the habits and rules correctly, there are consequences caused, which will distress yourself and others. students are also suggested to take time (do not be late), keep things well (understand the value of things and money), live in an orderly, as well as neat and orderly manner. the second section of moral intrapersonal is doing a work in earnest. in this section, students are asked to give a helping hand to the housework in earnest. the moral value to be addressed in this sub-section is that someone must do his/her work in earnest so that he/she can be successful later in his/her life. if they decide to work in something, work it to the end. in this section, the focus of teaching is how the student must do seriously and until the completion of an activity or work. a very popular japanese word “ganbare” shows a never-ending surrender. the third section is to continue doing what is considered good. in this section, there are some emphases on the theme of moral value. those are things which are not morally allowed, for instance, telling a lie, hitting a friend, stealing things from others, playing a prank on friends, discrediting friends, and hiding others’ stuff. students are invited to think about how to have the courage to do something. sometimes, even though what a student will do is right, but in practice, it takes courage to that. if it is considered good, students must dare to continue it. the moral theme in this forth-section is about honesty. the moral value that wants to be conveyed is that 365the character formation... (linda unsriana; rosita ningrum) when someone does something that does not conform to the heart; the feeling will not be composed. it also illustrates the concept of “makoto” which means sincerity. the focus of the moral theme of this section is about honesty and how it affects the hearts. if someone is honest, the heart will feel calm, happy, and cheerful, while dishonesty makes the heart tormented and sad. discussion of this theme is poured in the form of stories. shown a short story about a brother who lies to his parents that his sister has torn the book when he does it. but in his heart, he is overwhelmed with guilt and shame because he feels the doll toys and robot toys in his room seem to laugh at him. finally, he apologizes, just after apologizing for his feelings becomes relieved. the moral value to be conveyed in this sub-chapter is that if someone does something that is not in accordance with the heart, his/ her feelings will not calm down. this chapter also describes the concept of makoto, which students are invited to train the heart to be honest and sincere, also not to lie, because lying can make the heart not calm. the fifth section is about seeking new things for improvement (creativity). the focus of the moral theme is about creativity. students are asked to think about how to make their dreams come true. lickona in narvaez (2002) has said that children need to hear moral stories in order to develop moral literacy and moral character. that is the reason why in watashitachi no doutoku gives examples of stories of people who make changes with their creativity. this is so that students can follow the example of a great person who is very inspiring. this book also discusses interpersonal moral. interpersonal intelligence or social intelligence is defined as the ability and skill to establish a relationship, to build the social link so that both parties are in a situation that can enjoy the mutual benefit. a figure in intelligence psychology explicitly has stated that interpersonal intelligence is a form of social intelligence (azwar, 2004). in this section, there are four themes become the main focus; a good behavior, empathy for others, say thank you, and moral value in respecting nature and life. first is a good behavior (manner/etiquette). japanese education teaches its students to build harmony. harmony can be built when a good behavior (manner) is practiced by every individual accommodated to his/her portion. in this interpersonal morality section, good behavior starts from how to teach his or her students to exchange greeting (aisatsu). exchanging greetings such as ohayou gozaimasu (good morning), konnichiwa (good afternoon), arigatou (thank you) is cultivated in japan since childhood. since they live together with different people, they must have courtesy in speaking and acting. in addition, students are expected to use good phrases when talking to friends, especially if talking to adults. it also teaches to be friendly to everyone. how do they behave towards the elderly, to the younger, and others. this sub-chapter emphasizes the behavior of doing good to others, for example in the student’s attitude book if there is old person pregnant women, and disabled in the train. what students will help them. in this section, students are invited to help others in need. second is empathy for others (omoiyari). the focus on this theme is how to develop empathy (omoiyari) for others who experience hardships. it is how to develop empathy in the students that are shown in everyday behavior especially with the emergence of bullying phenomenon (ijime). japan also experiences the phenomenon of bullying (ijime). therefore one of the efforts to handle it is the provision of materials to build an omoiyari to friends. beside that, in this sub-section also focuses on the development of student character with a focus on friendship. in this section, it is taught that playing and learning with friends is a happy thing. third is about to give thanks to people who have helped (gratitude). the focus of this section is how the students express a feeling of gratitude to those who have helped them in life. this section emphasizes how people show gratitude to those who have helped them in the daily life. besides that, it also highlights what friends (tomodachi) mean. friends do not just mean playmates, but in times of difficulty, friends have more meaning. although he/she has many friends, among friends, there must be different none of the same; both from the thoughts and feelings must have differences between one to other. therefore he/she must understand each other. to understand the differences among friends, it also teaches students to have a broad heart and avoiding prolonged debate with their peers. fourth is moral value to respect for nature and life, also an important point in japanese children’s moral education. japanese people are known for a society that cherishes nature. from way back, the close relationship between japanese people and nature is reflected in haiku (a typical japanese poem) that is always related to nature. this sub-section will show the moral value instilled to the students to respect for nature and life, such as to respect for life and living things, to live in harmony with nature/ animals/plants, make heart soft, and sensitivity to aesthetic beauty. children are taught to respect all that exists in life to emphasize how important it is, if look at the whole perspective of life, from the point of human, nature, social relations. human intellectuality reflects how he/she interprets the value of life, such as feel the heartbeat, sleep soundly until morning, go to school, learn, and feel pleasure with everyone. realizing the importance of life can make people find happiness, such as educate children to love nature, in this case, flora and fauna (plants and animals). japanese people are known to love nature and live in harmony with nature. flora and fauna are an important part of the environment. by loving the environment, the destruction of the global environment can be avoided. at this stage, playing in nature as in waterfalls, eating from grown produce, feeding animals, touching animals or plants, directly creates strong bonding with nature. the social moral value in society is also an important theme in this textbook. there are four themes become the main focus in this section, they are the commitment to live in the community, have a sense of justice, build awareness to play a role in society, longing for a happy family. first is the commitment to live in the community. the focus of this moral theme is to become an individual that keeps his/her promise and commitment on living in the community. in a social order of society, there is already a long-standing, inviolable, and mutually agreed on social tradition and norms, such as not engaged in violence act (bouryoku) in society, not bullying others (ijime), not stealing others’ belonging, not injuring others, and also not deceiving others. this chapter also teaches the importance of social, legal and regulatory matters, as well as fosters a sense of public morality in the process of performing obligations and respecting rights. children are expected to have an awareness of normative behavior, attach importance to commitment and regulation in everyday social life. it is also hoped that students can know how to behave in general and maintain or comply with the generally accepted 366 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 363-367 commitments. second is having a sense of justice. the constitution of japan has set the rights and duties of all of its citizens. consequently, as its citizen, it is obliged to understand his rights and duties. third is to build awareness to play a role in society. the moral theme taught is how to build awareness of the students so that they play a role in society. any role or the slightest thing must have meaning in the group. if someone can be compared in performance, there must be actors, musicians, directors, and others. if one of the roles is not executed as it functions, then the show does not work either. the fourth theme is longing for a happy family that emphasizes the importance of a family. students are expected to play a role in helping their family, however small. for example, by tidying up the house, helping mother with her shopping, and other types of assistance, and in addition, not to disobey parents. thus the happy family can be realized. at this stage, more actively involved in family life. that is, thinking what can they do for the happiness of the family, realizing their role for the family deepens trust in family ties. love for one’s country and one’s hometown is one of the themes that is discussed in this book. it aims to cultivate the children’s love of regional, local, and cultural tradition with the spirit of nationalism. one’s hometown plays a major role in self-establishment as well as lifelong spiritual support. it needs positive and proactive initiative/involvement and love of the origin/local/regional environment. the eyes of the children will be directed to see and observe the area around the house, the school, and the wider life by playing. growing a love of regional/regional nature must be conditioned to live with a culture that fits both hospitality and deepening contact with local people. this stage is expected to develop the attitude of love of the state, especially matters related to interest and engage in cultural activities, regional traditions or nations. this stage aims to prepare a generation who loves his/her country. the generations who know the efforts of their ancestors’ struggle and are responsible for preserving its history and generations that can bring the culture and traditions of the nation to the overseas/regional domain. then, open to foreign culture and way of thinking, befriend with people around the world is also the theme of this book. children are expected to have an international perspective and have a good intention always to understand and respect people from around the world. as a nation, it is mandatory to have pride in its people. they do not carry away the flow of foreign culture but still respect the nation itself and is responsible for introducing japan to the international world, such as exchange opportunities, promotion, and strengthening peace/humanity. the teachers encourage them about international understanding and friendship in mind. at this stage, students learn to develop social awareness with deepen the attitude of thinking and understand life with affection and pride in the traditions and cultures of each country, understand and appreciate people outside japan, also deepen understanding of the traditions and cultures of other countries. from these description, it is clear how the japanese government efforts to build students moral through a textbook. the researchers also link the theme of the moral theme in the textbook watashitachi no doutoku with data about the moral phenomenon in japanese elementary school student. the data from the mext (2016) explain that the purpose of teaching morality as one of the school subjects is to develop a moral character in a child’s characteristics. the japan ministry of education, culture, sports, science, and technology (mext) has decided to implement the discipline subject in education through doutoku in class 1-2 for 34-35 hours. according to the research by mext, in 2009 on the condition of student’s disciplinary level, japan has ranked first in terms of children’s discipline compared to south korea, united states, england, and germany. this is indicated in figure 1. figure 1 comparison of disciplinary level of elementary school student between japan and four other countries (source: kodomo no tokuiku ni kansuru kondanka, monbukagakusho, 2009) figure 2 moral intrapersonal of japan elementary studens (source: monbukagakushō, 2009) 367the character formation... (linda unsriana; rosita ningrum) in the left part of table 1 is the father’s percentage that disciplines his child directly, while the right part shows a mother that disciplines her child directly. according to kazuhiko (2016), the moral attribute that is inherent in the child is intended to make his/her existence and his/her way of life better. attributed to the result of diagram analysis in figure 1, it can be concluded that the moral values that are instilled into the children through teaching at school have been successfully formed into an acceptable character in society. the curriculum in developing human traits such as feeling, decision-making ability, motivation to practice, and attitude based on morality established by the japanese government has produced an excellent result. the following data reveals a connection between the content of moral values in the watashitachi no doutoku textbook and its correlation with the character of the elementary school student in japan. as in some sub-sections that have been explained, the values in intrapersonal morality such as the regularity in daily activities, honesty, and other values are sufficiently instilled into the elementary school students. figure 2 explains the questionnaire results on the 6th grade of elementary students on some questions. in the first part asks about whether the students have breakfast every day. from the data it is known that 88% of elementary school students eat breakfast every day, often breakfast but sometimes not, it is ranged in the number 7,6%, rarely breakfast 3,0% and students who do not breakfast 0,7%. likewise with the next question about the waking hours of students who become respondents. the most ranges are students who wake up between 6.00-6.30 (31,4%) of students who wake up between 6.30-7.00 (38,4%). the next question is about bedtime. respondents mostly answer sleeping at 8 to 10 pm by 40,4% and those who answer the hours of 10 to 11 pm in the night are 38,3%. the data show the majority of students who become respondents doing their daily activities regularly. living regularly is also one of the children’s character development goals in the watashitachi no doutoku textbook. conclusions based on the results of the analysis of watashitachi no doutoku textbook, the researchers discover the intrapersonal moral values that are associated with one’s self, interpersonal moral values namely social morality that is related to how people connect with others in the neighborhood, values related to relationship, nature-related moral values that is a moral value how we as a human being in touch with and live alongside nature. through this research, the researchers understand why the japanese government does not drop the special school subject doutoku. revisiting the case, it can be concluded from the high level of discipline of the students from the data. the proven data indicate that the character of the child has obtained the moral values through doutoku education taught at school. thus, the researchers can conclude that the moral instillment through special school subjects, doutoku using the book watashitachi no doutoku influences the character formation of elementary school children in japan. it has also displayed result those children who have the moral characteristic (doutoku) are accepted in society through the teaching of watashitachi no doutoku for elementary school students in japan. the next research that will be carried out is to continue the research on moral values contained in textbooks for junior high school students in japan. this is intended to make the data on teaching books on morals more comprehensive. references azwar, s. (2004). pengantar psikologi inteligensi. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. kazuhiko, n. (2016). tokubetsu no kyouiku wa jisou setou wo jinsei ni ikite hataraku doutokusei no ikusei wo kanoni suruka. journal of hakuoh university, 31(2), 107-130. koesoema, d. (2015). pendidikan karakter strategi mendidik anak di zaman global. jakarta: kompas gramedia. mext. (2016). moral education. retrieved from www. mext.go.jp: http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/ doutoku/index.htm. monbukagakusho. (2014). watashitachi no dotoku: shougakkou 1.2 nen. japan: tankobon. nakayama, k. (2017). the issues of a lesson of a moral education as a special subject. hakuoh daigaku ronshu; the hakuoh university journal, 31(2), 221248. narvaez, d. (2002). does reading moral stories build character? educational psychology review, 14(2), 155-171. poukka, p. (2011). moral education in the japanese primary school curricular revision at the turn of the twentyfirst century: aiming at a rich and beautiful kokoro. retrieved from http://www.researchgate.net/ publication/50369337_moral_education_in_the_ japanese_primary_school_curricular_revision_at_ the_turn_of_the_twenty-first_century_aiming_ at_a_rich_and_beautiful_kokoro. raharjo, s. (2007). pentingnya pendidikan moral bagi anak sekolah dasar: pendidikan multi kultural dinamika pendidikan. yogyakarta: uny. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 121 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 121-126 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5339 the effectiveness of student teams-achievement divisions in enhancing visual and auditory for english students’ writing skill baiatun nisa1; sulhizah wulan sari2 1,2program studi bahasa inggris, fakultas komunikasi dan bahasa, universitas bina sarana iinformatika jakarta jl. kamal raya no.18, cengkareng, jakarta 11730, indonesia 1baiatun_nisa@bsi.ac.id; 2sulhizah.szw@bsi.ac.id received: 22nd january 2019/revised: 27th february 2019/accepted: 12th march 2019 how to cite: nisa, b., & sari, s. w. (2019). the effectiveness of student teams-achievement divisions in enhancing visual and auditory for english students’ writing skill. lingua cultura, 13(2), 121-126. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5339 abstract this research discussed the effectiveness of learning english writing using the student teams-achievement divisions (stad) and lecture-based learning method. the two methods were applied in two classes of second-year students, and they were given a writing test over one semester. the first class was using stad and the second class with lecture-based learning. around 80 students were classified into visual and auditory learning styles based on the questionnaires filled in. the results in the statistical analysis provide important insights into the learning achievement of both visual and auditory learners modeled by stad. using the stad method, they have accomplished considerably higher scores on academic writing achievement than the students who are taught by lecture-based learning. therefore, it brings a positive effect and association with the students’ learning styles. keywords: student teams-achievement divisions, lecture-based learning, visual and auditory learners, english writing introduction in general, some lecturers still use the conventional learning method, such as lecture-based learning in conducting teaching in the classroom. they usually create a classroom environment in which the teacher-centered approach becomes the main method in giving instructions. in regards to this trend, higher education institutions deal with major challenges in establishing a good learning environment that is beneficial for all students. many efforts have been made in searching for better instructional methods to accommodate more conducive learning environments. therefore, many studies have been conducted in several academic settings. one of them is an innovative and cooperative learning model that is called student teamsachievement division (stad). it is a cooperative learning method which emphasizes the activities and interactions among students to help and motivate each other in mastering the lesson to achieve maximum performance (slavin, 1983). the main plan of the stad is to encourage learners to support and facilitate each other in mastering the lesson. if students want their team to attain cluster recognition award, they need to facilitate their members to master the lesson. they need to support their team members and do their best to point out that learning is very important, valuable, and exciting. they can begin operating along in their team when the teacher directly presents the materials. they will add pairs inside their team, compare every answer, discuss doable disagreements, and facilitate each other to master the materials. stad is one of the best effective techniques which can be implemented by language teachers (saniei & ghadikolaei, 2015). four to five students are appointed to different groups composing of specific levels of diversities: competence, genre, ethnic, and others. at this stage, teachers as facilitators will familiarize the students with concise and precise instructions. afterward, students will read the assigned materials in the expert groups before being divided into the stad groups to discuss their ideas. after the discussion in the expert groups is held, the learners will return to their stad groups to combine the diverse information into a coherent idea. they have to prove other opinions, evaluate each comprehension, and make a summary of the concepts given by every individual member of the group. an assessment will be given to judge their understanding of the key ideas using presentations, quizzes, and applications. the students’ advancement will be measured by accumulating the scores (chim, 2015). 122 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 121-126 the stad method is the most suitable for teaching clearly stated objectives with a single right answer. for example, it can be mathematical computations and applications, language usage and mechanics, geography and map skills, and science facts and concepts. nonetheless, it can also be used for less clearly stated objectives by combining more open-ended assessments, such as essays or performance (adesoji & ibraheem, 2009). the research on stad has been widely used in teaching different subject areas and settings. many researchers report that it has a significant influence on english motivation and achievement of efl (english as a foreign language) adult students (van wyk, 2015; hanafi & basuki, 2018). the results also prove that it is an effective instructional technique and has a positive effect on improving students’ english skills. comparing it with the traditional method of lecture-based learning in efl context, nikou, bonyadi, and ebrahimi (2014) have believed that it is a more effective method so that the students can feel more comfortable when they work together. furthermore, van wyk (2015) has asserted that stad is more superior than other models in the process of achieving english proficiency. gómez-lópez, martínez, and sanchez-ruiz (2018) have added in students’ perception of learning experience with stad that cooperative learning not only helps the students to develop their social skills easily by listening to others, recognizing the others’ success, apologizing to their peers when an error has been made, but it also makes an opportunity to know their classmates directly. although all results on stad is recognized as the best technique, it has no study relating to its effectiveness in students’ learning styles. to comprehend the students’ learning styles, teachers can improve their instructional experiences. in turn, teachers should modify their educational designs to be compatible with the given category of students’ learning style. since each student has a unique behavior in educational environments to acquire his/her knowledge and skills, it can bring up variant learning styles in some cases (ghadirli et al., 2016). the foremost vital in the utilization of learning designs is that it can make easy instruction for the teachers to combine the styles. learning styles shape the students’ distinctive learning preferences and help teachers in the planning of small-group and individualized instruction. as in the teaching writing skill, a teacher should take into account not only the instructional method but also students’ individual and emotional differences. furthermore, recognizing these characteristics will help teachers to foresee the factors that can affect the students’ achievement in developing their writing skill, such as emotional and logical factors. in addition to that, when the students recognize their learning style based on their preference and behavior, the teacher’s instruction and design are absorbed in the learning process. as a result, the process of learning will be fun, fast, and more effective (awla, 2014). deporter, reardon, and singer-nourie (1999) have presented three main categories of learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. in this case, the main focus of this study relies on visual and auditory style. visual learning style emphasizes the visual sense. the delivery of material through books and teacher in visual form or sensory vision is the main key in understanding the material. moreover, visual students have a specific attribute to comprehend the materials. firstly, they tend to be well-organized, listen to every detail, and carry on appearances. secondly, they must bear the image in their mind. thirdly, they recognize the image or material, but they have a problem in selecting the words. fourthly, they have difficulty in basic cognitive process verbal direction but not for the scripts or images. thus, they do not often hand over in reciting them. meanwhile, the auditory learning style leans on hearing ability in learning the material. the students pay attention to the material given from the lecture, radio, or recorder. despite that, they also want to listen and interact with people in learning the material. the oral direction is the best choice in comprehending the task, so reading activity is not useful or beneficial. it will put them in boreness. this style is a contradiction to the visual learning style in which diagrams and written explanation will make them confused and frustrated because the materials are not given in the spoken description. auditory learners have definite characteristics when they start to speak, they tend to use rhythmical patterns; when they learn the material, they focus on listening; and when they read the materials, they move their lips and make voices to articulate the words. those activities are only distracted by noises. from the studies that have been conducted by the experts, the case study of instructional and assessments model, and the different types of visual and auditory learners, the researchers noticed that many studies have reported the effectiveness of stad. however, the researchers do not associate it with students’ learning styles. therefore, this study is conducted to achieve the enhancement of efl students’ writing skill in indonesian higher education, particularly for visual and auditory learners. this research questions the significant positive effects on visual and auditory learners’ writing achievement. methods the steps to analyze the data start by selecting the participants, testing the validity and reliability for writing skill and learning styles, measuring the validity test for learning style instruments, and calculating the reliability coefficient of learning style instruments. the main procedure is collecting the participants. they are selected using multi-stage random sampling. around 80 students from the second semester majoring in english department at bina sarana informatika university jakarta are singled out of 300 population and divided into two classes. the first class is the experimental class taught using the stad, and the second class using lecture-based learning method. subsequently, each class is put into two groups. both are the students’ group with a visual learning style and with auditory learning style. this grouping is based on the survey results of learning style questionnaires developed by deporter, deporter, reardon, and singer-nourie (1999). they are taught by the same lecturer and used the same course book. meanwhile, the validity and reliability tests for writing skill are divided into two ways. first, the validity and reliability tests for writing skill are rationally conducted by the experts’ writing skills (the inter-raters). it consists of three panelists. then, the reliability test is carried out by calculating the assessment of the three experts. the result of the obtained reliability test calculation is rtest = 0,9731 that r is the correlation coefficient. therefore, it can be concluded that the writing skills inter-raters’ assessment results have an extremely high level of fitness. second, the validity test for learning styles is measured using pearson’s product moment formula. the 123the effectiveness of student.... (baiatun nisa; sulhizah wulan sari) test to assess the reliability of learning styles is carried out using the alpha cronbach formula. the criteria are used to determine the reliability of the instrument and shown by the alpha coefficient. the calculation result for visual learning style is rtest = 0,4347 > 0,389 (α = 5% 0 and 0,301 α = 1%). the calculation result for auditory learning style is rtest = 0,5379 > 0,389 (α = 5% 0 and 0,301 α = 1%). therefore, it can be said that the instruments for visual learning style and auditory learning styles are reliable and can be used for the research. to measure the validity test for learning style, the researchers use the instruments in questionnaires. it composes of 24 questions using pearson’s product moment. the questionnaires are distributed to 43 respondents. the calculation results show that out of 12 questions for measuring the visual learning style, 11 questionnaire items are valid, and 1 item is invalid (drop). similarly, out of 12 questions for the auditory learning style, the valid and invalid items are also determined. in addition to that, the calculation of the reliability coefficient of learning style instruments is measured using the alpha cronbach formula. based on the calculation results, reliability value for visual learning style is 0,4347, and the reliability value for auditory learning style is 0,5379. since rtest is greater than rtable for both error levels of 5% and 1%, the correlation coefficient value for visual learning style is rtest = 0,4347 > 0,389 (α = 5% 0 and 0,301 α = 1%), and for auditory learning style, it is rtest = 0,5379 > 0,389 ( α = 5% 0 and 0,301 α = 1%). therefore, it can be concluded that visual and auditory learning styles instruments are reliable and can be used for the study. then, the results of the population normal distribution test are described in table 1. table 1 the results of the population normal distribution test no writing skills value of l0 value of lt (0,05) value of lt (0,01) conclusion 1 a1b1 0,20 0,227 0,261 normal 2 a1b2 0,099 0,227 0,261 normal 3 a2b1 0,127 0,227 0,261 normal 4 a2b2 0,105 0,227 0,261 normal table 1 shows that all data groups are tested for their normal distribution using the liliefors test. it presents a smaller l0 value (liliefors value for observation result) than the lt value (critical l value in the liliefors test table at a significance level of 0,05 and 0,01 with n = 14). it can be concluded that all groups of data in this study come from normal distribution samples. thus, the normal data requirement is met. moreover, the population of homogeneity of variance is done using the barlett test formula. the calculation results are in table 2. table 2 statistic results of homogeneity test data groups x2test x 2 table conclusion a1b1 0,2167 7,81 homogenous a1b2 a2b1 a2b2 the test results show the value of x2test < x 2 table. therefore, it can be concluded that the four tested data groups are derived from samples in which its variance is homogeneous. results and discussions before discussing the statistical analysis of the effects on stad and lecture-based learning method through visual and auditory style, the researchers discuss the procedures on how to teach with stad and lecture-based learning by the theory and concepts that have been explained previously. these procedures are used as a guide for lecturers in teaching. the researchers carefully explain and give direction to the lecturer about the steps in using the two models. in turn, the researchers ensure that the lecturer understands and implements teaching concepts and procedures using stad and lecture-based learning. the learning steps in the stad can be conducted with six procedures. they are preparing, forming groups, discussing the problem, guiding the students to work and study in groups, making an individual and team scores, and giving recognition of team achievements. preparing the learning implementation plans must be in accordance with stad. lecturer divides students into groups of four to five people. these groups consist of heterogeneous students in terms of ability, gender, and culture. while working in a group, the lecturer shares assignments for each student as the learning material. each student thinks together, and the lecturer assures that each can do the task well. thus, guiding the students to work and study in groups can be carried out by the instructions such as giving assignments to the groups. if there are the students who cannot do the assignment because they still do not understand, the other teammates have to explain it. then, the lecture emphasizes that they will not end teaching and learning activities until they are sure that all members of their team can complete 100% of the tasks assigned. the lecture also provides opportunities for the students to evaluate each other writing like in the structure, language, and content. if the students have questions, the lecturer asks them to submit the question to their teammates before submitting to the lecturer. when the students are working in teams, the lecturer goes around in class and gives praise to the team that works well and alternately sits with the team to pay attention to the team members. in making the individual and team scores, the lecturer calculates the scores by summing up the increase points obtained by each team member and dividing that number by the number of team members working on the quiz. in the end, the lecture recognizes the team achievements. the lecturer praises the team that has the highest score to motivate students to be more active in completing tasks before the learning process begins. furthermore, there are steps for applying the lecturebased learning such as preparation, learning process, core activities, and evaluation. the lecturer prepares learning tools, including learning plans and materials. then, the lecture explains the learning objectives and motivates the students, gives material, demonstrates the material, checks the students’ understanding and feedback, and provides practice and applied concepts. at the end of learning, the lecturer closes the lesson by giving the assignments to the students and evaluating student learning. lecture-based learning and stad have a very striking difference. referring to the theoretical and 124 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 121-126 conceptual explanations, the differences between the two models are clearly stated. stad is student-centered learning in giving the material. so, it brings up a positive interdependency for heterogeneous students. it consists of group and individual accountability and creates cooperative learning skill. it stresses on cooperative task and relation. it also uses students’ supports and shows group evaluation. meanwhile, lecture-based learning focuses on teacher-centered learning instruction and brings up negative interdependency. it deals with homogeneous students consisting of individual accountability. it creates an assumption on social skills, emphasizes on tasks, uses teacher support, and shows individual group. both of the differences can be understood that stad and lecture-based learning have their characteristics, goal, and focus on the students’ achievements in english writing skill. in this case, the students of auditory and visual style take the writing test to enhance english skill. writing ability test is conducted in the form of writing a paragraph according to the topic given. the validity of the test is done rationally by the experts (inter-raters) consisting of three panelists. the aspects of writing skills are measured by the indicators based on esl (english as a second language) composition profile, including content, structure, vocabulary, language use, and mechanism. next, the researchers show that the statistical analysis of the effects on stad and lecture-based learning through visual and auditory style can be utilized by the two-way analysis of variance (anova). a further analysis using the tuckey test (t-test) will only be taken if there is an interaction effect found in the anova analysis results. the normality test (liliefors test) and homogeneity test (bartlett test) are carried out prior to analyze the data findings from testing the hypotheses. table 3 two-way anova summary sources of variance df ss ms ftest ftable 0,05 0,01 instructional model (a) 1 9* learning style (b) 1 1235,16 1235.16 21,85* interaction a x b 1 750,446 750,446 13,28* inter-group 3 1990,77 663,59 3,18 5,06 intra-group 52 2938,93 56,52 total 55 4929,7 description: degrees of freedom (df), sum of squares (ss), and mean square (ms). from the two-way anova summary in table 3, some conclusions are drawn. it is clear that there is a significant difference between rows that ftest (b) = 9 is bigger than the ftable (b) = 3,18 at level of the test α = 0,05 and 5,06 α = 0,01. there is also a significant difference between colums showing ftest (k) = 21,85> ftable (k) = 3,18 at level of the test α = 0,05 and 5,06 α = 0,01. furthermore, there is an interaction between the column factors and the row factors showing ftest (i) = 13,28> ftable (i) = 3,18 at level of the test α = 0,05 and 5,06 α = 0,01. consequently, since there are differences and interactions between the factors within the column and the row, a further analysis will be done using the tuckey test (t-test). the statistical calculation result shows that q-test = 4,98 and critical value q = 3,05 with the level of test α = 0,05. thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. it can be implied that there is a significant interactional effect between instructional models and learning styles towards students’ english writing skill. in other words, interactions happen between the english writing skill of the visual students who are taught using the stad and auditory students with lecture-based learning. the results of this analysis can be used as a benchmark to conduct further analysis of why the stad is better than the lecture-based learning in writing courses. a complete data summary of english writing skill scores for each group can be seen in table 4. table 4 data description learning style note student teamsachievement divisions lecturebased total (a1) (a2) visual (b1) n 20 20 40 ∑ x 938 844 1782 mean 67 60,29 127,29 sd 10,52 10,25 20,77 var 110,6 105,14 215,74 ∑ x2 64284 52248 116532 auditory (b2) n 20 20 40 ∑ x 967 1078 2045 mean 77 69,07 146,07 sd 8,66 6,36 15,02 var 74,99 40,46 115,45 ∑ x2 67767 83532 151299 total n 40 40 80 ∑ x 1905 1922 3827 mean 68,0357 68,6428 136,6786 sd 19,18 16,61 35,79 var. 185,59 145,6 331,19 ∑ x2 132051 135780 267831 description: n = the total number of samples, x = score of english writing skill, sd = standard deviation, and var = variance based on the results in table 4, it can be concluded that the anova shows the obtained calculated value of ftest for influence in the instructional model as 21,85 > ftable = 5,06 for the level of the test α = 0,01. this means that the null hypothesis (h0) is rejected, whereas the alternative hypothesis (h1) is accepted. this proves that there are differences between students with stad and those with lecture-based learning. furthermore, a comparative test is conducted between the two learning models using the tuckey test (t-test). the results of the comparison test inform that students’ english writing skills taught using stad are better than lecture-based learning. this evidence is from the results of the empirical analysis in the qtest = 4,73 > qtable = 3,53 at the level of the test α = 0,05. 125the effectiveness of student.... (baiatun nisa; sulhizah wulan sari) meanwhile, the average score for the english writing of students with a visual learning style using stad is 67. then, the average score for english writing of the same learning style with lecture-based learning is 60,29. the empirical analysis results in qtest = 3,34 > qtable = 3,03 at significant level α = 0,05. hence, it can be stated that the students with visual learning style using stad will have better english writing skills than those who use lecturebased learning. moreover, the average score for the students in english writing with auditory learning style using stad is 77. meanwhile, the average score of students with an auditory learning style using lecture-based learning is 69,07. the empirical analysis results in qtest = 3,34 > qtable = 3,03 at significant level α = 0,05. therefore, it means that the students with auditory learning style using stad have higher english writing skills than those who are taught using lecture-based learning. in addition, from the qtest = 4,98 > qtable = 3,05 at significant level α = 0,05, there is a significant interaction effect between learning models and learning styles towards the students’ english writing skills. the interaction between them can influence the results of english writing skills. the research findings taken from the analysis of the data prove that there are differences in learning achievements in english writing skill. it happens between the students who have studied stad and lecture-based learning. overall, the students’ english writing skills taught using stad are higher than lecture-based learning. from the results of data analysis, it is also found that the students’ english writing skills from both the visual and auditory learning style groups using stad are better than those who use lecture-based learning. the students with visual or auditory learning styles are more compatible with stad. moreover, the research also finds that there is an influence in the form of interaction between the learning models and learning styles in affecting english writing scores. this research is in line with the results of research on the positive effects of cooperative learning techniques towards students’ progress for students with visual and auditory learning style. stad is not only more successful in improving students’ understanding but also significantly increases the students’ motivation for achieving the target and having a good attitude in learning (ocampo & bascosocampo, 2015; adu & galloway, 2015; tran, 2014). in addition, students with high and low motivation have a benefit from this method. it gives a positive influence on the students’ learning style. it can assist the lecturers in making the blended-teaching design and having good strategies when they are teaching in the class and giving the material. it is also used to serve the students’ needs and help the students in becoming aware of their learning style based on their preferences (ojeh et al., 2017). therefore, lecturers need to accommodate these preferences as many as possible in their teaching by integrating these different learning styles into their instructional activities so that students can succeed in learning the material. moreover, stad method has its characteristics and advantages in enhancing english writing skills. they can make a possible different influence on the students’ english writing skills. the students can experience the advantages of using stad since they are in a condition and a situation which are different from their usual learning environment. the students’ learning environment in the class consists of several groups that have mix compositions of ability levels, gender, and ethnicity (heterogeneous). essentially, this instructional model explores and develops the students to be active and involved in the teaching and learning process through heterogeneous groups. moreover, the students still have equal opportunities to succeed with individual responsibilities. although they learn in groups, each within the group carries equal responsibility towards the completion of assignments. within the groups, students are always obliged to motivate and help each other in mastering the materials especially in putting their thoughts or ideas into words and being more creative in writing. eventually, when this learning model is conducted more frequently and become a routine in the learning process, the students will be skillful in writing in english appropriately. conclusions this research shows that stad has given a positive effect and association with the students’ learning styles. the results show that stad is better than lecture-based learning in enhancing students’ writing skill. this study also implicates one of the most important factors in enhancing english writing skill for the students learning. as the result of this study has proven that stad brings the positive effect and association with the students’ learning styles, it generally accepts that using an appropriate learning model can affect the student english writing skills especially for the student of the second semester majoring in english department at bina sarana informatika university jakarta. this model also brings up the achievement of learning objectives that depends on the accuracy of lecturers in deciding the learning model in the class. thus, lecturers should apply the stad and lecture-based learning interchangeably and continuously to recognize and overcome the differences in students’ learning styles when conducting the teaching in the class. in spite of the positive reports, the researchers realize that many limitations are needed to be put forward as the references for further research. the researchers admit that this study uses an experimental research design that requires control of all research variables outside the predetermined variables, so it does not interfere with the experiments. moreover, there are still other variables that cannot be controlled, so it affects the results of the study obtained in the form of attitudes of the students, interest in learning, motivation, and others. this study also does not carry out pre-test because the researchers assume that the initial knowledge of english students in english writing skills is homogeneous. then, other researchers can use an alternative design in enhancing the students’ learning achievements in the class with the new collaboration or exploration from other concepts of learning as the researchers have conducted. references adesoji, f. a., & ibraheem, t. l. 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(putri andam dewi) 173  komunitas fujoshi di kalangan perempuan indonesia putri andam dewi kajian wilayah jepang, fakultas ilmu pengetahuan budaya, universitas indonesia gedung pusat studi jepang lt. 1, kampus ui, depok, jawa barat 16424 aoi_iro@yahoo.com abstract this article discusses fan community of the boys love (bl) manga among young women in indonesia. bl manga tells a romance between fellow men. bl manga is a sub genre of shojo manga, the manga for girls and women readers in japan. bl manga belongs to the genre for female readers because the comic artist is a woman. both in japan and outside japan, the development of bl manga receives much attention from many researchers and observers of japanese study. using cultural-study perspective, they examine the phenomenon of bl manga and fujoshi community formed by bl fandom. this study discusses the formation of bl manga fandom community by linking the construction of gender identity using a cultural-study perspective and gender performativity concept by judith butler. by using judith butler's concept of gender performativity we can see why and how the indonesian female teens construct their gender identity through fandom of bl manga. keywords: fandom, community, boys love manga, fujoshi, gender identity, gender performativity abstrak artikel ini membahas komunitas penggemar manga boys love (bl) di kalangan remaja putri indonesia. manga bl merupakan manga yang menceritakan kisah romantis antara sesama laki-laki. manga bl merupakan sub genre shojo manga, yaitu manga untuk pembaca remaja putri dan perempuan di jepang. alasan manga bl termasuk ke dalam genre untuk pembaca perempuan karena manga-ka (komikus)nya perempuan dan untuk pembaca perempuan. baik di jepang maupun di luar jepang, perkembangan manga bl banyak mendapatkan perhatian dari berbagai peneliti dan pemerhati studi kejepangan. para peneliti dan akademisi dengan menggunakan sudut pandang cultural studies meneliti fenomena manga bl dan komunitas fujoshi yang terbentuk dari penggemar manga bl. artikel ini akan membahas terbentuknya komunitas fandom manga boys love dengan mengaitkan konstruksi identitas gender dengan menggunakan sudut pandang cultural studies dan menggunakan konsep gender performativity judith butler. dengan menggunakan konsep gender performativity judith butler kita dapat melihat mengapa dan bagaimana para remaja putri indonesia mengkonstruksi identitas gender mereka melalui fandom manga boys love. keywords: fandom, komunitas, manga boys love, fujoshi, identitas gender, gender performativity 174  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 173-182  pendahuluan manga boys love (seterusnya ditulis bl) adalah narasi homoerotis bertemakan hubungan percintaan antara sesama laki-laki bishounen (istilah untuk laki-laki ‘cantik’ di jepang). pada awal kemunculannya, manga bl adalah sub-genre shoujo manga (manga remaja perempuan), akan tetapi, semakin banyak penggemarnya sehingga menjadi satu genre sendiri dalam pasaran manga di jepang. sebagaimana disebutkan oleh thorn (2004), manga bl awalnya di bawah kategori shoujo manga karena baik manga-ka (komikus) dan konsumennya adalah perempuan. seperti halnya manga untuk pembaca perempuan lainnya, manga bl mengangkat tema percintaan, persahabatan, interaksi sosial, dan tema-tema lain pada lazimnya, hanya saja protagonisnya adalah laki-laki. selain itu, tema dominan manga bl adalah seks dan percintaan, maka muncul pendapat yang mengatakan bahwa manga bl adalah manga pornografi untuk pembaca perempuan (galbraith, 2009). di jepang sendiri, fenomena manga bl muncul sejak tahun 1970-an, ketika pelopor manga bl di jepang, takemiya keiko dan hagio moto, mulai menerbitkan manga berjudul ki no uta dan tomasu no heart. kemudian di tahun 1985, majalah manga june terbit untuk menampung ekspresi dan kreativitas para manga-ka dalam genre ini. takemiya keiko, sebagai pelopor manga bl di jepang, mengatakan alasan dia membuat manga dengan tema bl ini karena menurutnya di dalam diri manusia, terdapat dua identitas gender yaitu feminin dan maskulin, dan dengan menggunakan manga bl takemiya bisa menggambarkan dualisme gender yang ada dalam diri setiap manusia (thorn, 2004; wood, 2006). manga boys love muncul di jepang sejak tahun 1970-an ketika takemiya keiko dan hagio moto, dua pelopor manga boys love, menerbitkan manga mereka. diterbitkannya kedua manga tersebut disambut baik oleh para pembaca perempuan di jepang, hingga memunculkan sebuah fenomena lainnya di dalam genre manga boys love, yaitu doujinshi boys love. doujinshi adalah manga yang dibuat oleh para fans atau otaku yang sangat menggemari medium manga. doujinshi ini dijual di comic market (comikke) yaitu sebuah ajang tahunan yang diadakan di tokyo dua kali dalam setahun, yaitu pada musim panas dan dingin. di jepang, ada sebutan untuk para perempuan penggemar manga bl yang serupa dengan kriteria ini, yaitu fujoshi. arti kata fujoshi adalah rotten lady atau perempuan busuk. tidak begitu jelas alasannya mengapa para perempuan penggemar manga bl ini disebut fujoshi, tapi kondisinya adalah awalnya fujoshi memiliki konotasi negatif yaitu perempuan busuk yang menyukai sesuatu yang di luar kebiasaan normal seperti percintaan antara dua lelaki cantik. dan label fujoshi juga untuk memisahkan antara otaku dan josei otaku (otaku perempuan). tapi, semakin dikenalnya genre boys love di jepang dan di luar jepang, istilah fujoshi digeralisasikan untuk menyebutkan para perempuan yang menyukai manga boys love. maka, tulisan ini mempergunakan istilah fujoshi untuk menyebut para perempuann indonesia yang menyukai manga bl. di arena doujinshi dan comikke ini manga bl menemukan ladang subur untuk perkembangannya di kalangan fujoshi. para fujoshi ini bisa sebagai produsen (pembuat doujinshi) dan konsumen (pembeli). dengan kata lain, arena comikke ini adalah ruang dan waktu bagi para fujoshi untuk mengekspresikan kreativitas dan seksualitas mereka. selain itu, di comikke ini juga ada kebiasaan dari para otaku dan fans untuk melakukan cosplay atau costum playing di mana para otaku akan menggunakan kostum dari karakter manga, anime, games, idol yang mereka sukai. komunitas fujoshi di kalangan ….. (putri andam dewi) 175  perkembangan manga bl di jepang sendiri cukup menarik perhatian para peneliti dalam bidang gender, feminisme, dan antropologi budaya. misalnya penelitian dari mark j mclelland (2000) dalam artikelnya yang berjudul “the love between ‘beautiful boys’ in japanese women’s comics”, yang diterbitkan dalam jounal of gender studies, volume 9 nomor 1. artikel ini membahas mengenai representasi gairah seksualitas perempuan jepang yang diartikulasikan dalam manga erotis khusus laki-laki (heteroseksual), gay manga (khusus laki-laki gay), yaoi/boys love/shōnen-ai (khusus perempuan). artikel ini mengangkat isu mengenai stigma perempuan dalam masyarakat jepang yang tertekan oleh sistem patriaki yang dominan di dalam masyarakat. menurut mclelland, konteks seksualitas perempuan di jepang terbagi ke dalam dua kategori, yaitu perempuan sebagai istri yang melahirkan keturunan dan perempuan sebagai komoditas industri seks di jepang. maka, dengan adanya stigma ini, mclelland berargumen bahwa kegemaran perempuan jepang terhadap manga boys love adalah bentuk resistensi mereka terhadap stigma tersebut. lebih lanjut mclelland menjelaskan bahwa para perempuan ini bisa mengidentifikasikan diri mereka sebagai karakter dalam manga boys love sebagai figur ideal dalam mengekspresikan seksualitas mereka. apa yang tercantum dalam artikel ini relevan dengan penelitian saya mengenai komunitas penggemar manga bl di indonesia, jika dilihat dari bagaimana cara mark j. mclelland mengaitkan antara media budaya populer (baca: manga boys love) dengan representasi seksualitas dan bentuk resistensi perempuan jepang terhadap sistem patriaki yang sangat dominan di masyarakat jepang. senada dengan mark j. mclelland, james walker (2006) juga meneliti fandom manga bl dari perspektif feminisme. dalam artikelnya yang berjudul “beautiful, borrowed, and bent: “boy’s love” as girl’s love in shōjo manga”, yang diterbitkan dalam jurnal signs, vol.31, new feminist theories of visual culture (2006, 841-870), james walker membahas kemunculan manga boys love di tahun 1970-an sebagai media yang membebaskan penulis dan pembaca untuk berekspresi di dalam dan di luar paradigma normatif heteroseksual dalam konstruksi identitas diri dan sub-aktivitas seksualitas perempuan. artikel ini ditulis berdasarkan perspektif queer theory dalam membahas proses identifikasi dan subjektivitas pembacanya (baca: perempuan) terhadap karakter “laki-laki cantik” dalam manga bl. dengan kata lain, manga bl dapat dipandang sebagai media yang membebaskan penulis dan pembacanya terhadap paradigma patriaki, dualisme gender, dan normatif heteroseksual. artikel ini menganalisis dua judul manga bl yang muncul di tahun 1970-an, yaitu the heart of thomas (tōma no shinzō, 1974) karya hagio moto dan the song of the wind and the tress (1976 – 1984) karya takemiya keiko. metode analisis data yang digunakan adalah pendekatan semiotika. analisa pembacaan kedua manga ini juga menerapkan teori kritis lesbian, teori visual, dan menggunakan respon pembaca terhadap kedua manga ini untuk menunjukkan bahwa manga boys love di tahun 1970-an ini telah membuka ruang cakrawala bagi pembacanya untuk bereksperimen dalam isu gender dan praktek-praktek seksualitas yang termajinalisasi dan juga berperan dalam proses pembentukan identitas. artikel ini relevan dengan penelitian saya untuk mengeksplorasi bagaimana para penggemar manga bl di indonesia mengidentitaskan diri mereka sebagai perempuan yang menyukai naratif homoerotis. penelitian lainnya yang membahas fandom manga bl adalah penelitian oleh matthew thorn tentang fandom manga bl yang tumbuh melalui pembentukan komunitas di kalangan remaja putri jepang, terjadi dalam comic market, salah satu pusat perkembangan berbagai genre manga di jepang, tak terkecuali manga bl. dalam bahasannya tentang comic market thorn menjelaskan pula tentang dōjinshi, istilah yang mengacu pada manga amatir dan cosplay (costume play) yang mengangkat tema dan karakter dari bl. artikel matthew thorn yang berjudul “girls and women getting out of hand: the pleasure and politics of japan’s amateur comics community” (dalam william, 2004:169-187) menjelaskan tentang keberadaan fandom manga amatir di jepang yang dikenal dengan istilah doujinshi. genre doujinshi yang menjadi fokus pembahasan artikel ini adalah yaoi dōjinshi atau boyslove. yaoi doujinshi yang tergolong fenomenal menurut sudut pandang umum ini disukai di kalangan penggemar perempuan genre bl di jepang dan terkait juga dengan isu-isu feminisme, gender, 176  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 173-182  seksualitas, dan homoseksualitas yang berkembang di kalangan penggemar doujinshi dan doujinshi bl jepang. pendekatan yang digunakan dalam artikel tersebut adalah cultural studies, dalam rangka mengeksplorasi representasi tentang gender dan seksualitas di kalangan fandom dōjinshi bl. selain itu, dalam artikel ini juga dipaparkan adanya fenomena yang serupa dengan bl terjadi di amerika, yaitu yang dikenal dengan istilah slash dengan melihat persamaan-persamaan yang ada antara konsep yaoi dengan slash, dalam artikel ini matthew thorn memaparkan keterkaitan kegemaran terhadap manga atau fiksi bertemakan homoerotika ini dengan latar belakang sosial, budaya, dan ekonomi baik dalam masyarakat jepang maupun amerika. khususnya adanya pandangan terhadap posisi perempuan dalam masyarakat golongan mainstream beserta isu pergerakan feminisme, dilihat dari berkembangnya manga amatir dan fiksi yaoi dan slash yang notabene dibuat oleh perempuan untuk konsumsi perempuan juga. lebih lanjut, dinamisme interaksi, jalannya hubungan timbal balik antar gender serta kecairan identitas, batas antara perempuan dan laki-laki yang dipaparkan dalam artikel ini menjadi relevan dalam penelitian saya untuk menjelaskan keadaan komunitas perempuan penggemar manga bl di indonesia, dan perlu diperhatikan pada khususnya bahwa dalam pembentukan identitas baik diri maupun kelompok, banyak aspek yang harus dieksplorasi secara mendalam agar dapat menunjukkan gambaran yang valid dan empiris mengenai representasi identitas budaya dalam konteks fandom. berbeda dengan ketiga artikel di atas yang fokus fandom bl dalam konteks perempuan jepang, dalam artikelnya yang berjudul “straight women, queer texts: boy-love manga and the rise of a global counterpublic”, yang diterbitkan dalam women’s studies quaterly, vol. 34, no. 1/2, the global & the intimate (2006,hal. 394-414), andrea wood (2006) membahas fandom manga bl dalam konteks lebih universal dan tidak hanya dalam konteks perempuan jepang. andrea wood dalam artikel ini membahas bagaimana sebuah teks narasi yang bernuasa queer dibaca, diinterpretasikan, atau diidentifikasikan oleh penggemar dan pembacanya yang diasumsikan memiliki orientasi heteroseksual. teks narasi visual yang dianalisis dalam artikel ini adalah manga bl yang merupakan manga yang menceritakan hubungan romantis antara sesama laki-laki. istilah boys love dalam artikel ini digunakan sebagai istilah umum, sedangkan dalam penjelasannya istilah boys love dibagi lagi menjadi dua sub-kategori yaitu shōnen-ai dan yaoi. andrea wood dalam artikel ini menggunakan teori queer, seperti teori performative gendernya judith butler untuk menganalisis kecairan identitas dalah tokoh-tokoh manga boys love. teori yang sama juga digunakan oleh andrea wood untuk menganalisis dinamisme subjektivasi dan seksualitas penggemar dan pembaca manga boys love. metodologi pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam artikel ini adalah pendekatan semiotika, yaitu menganalisis narasi visual dalam manga bl dan shōujo manga (manga khusus untuk pembaca perempuan) guna menjelaskan perbedaan proses subjektivasi perempuan dalam membaca manga heteroseksual dan manga bl. andrea wood juga menjelaskan bahwa selama ini pendekatan atau kesimpulan mengenai proses identifikasi pembaca manga bl sebagian besar hanya terfokus dalam konteks hal-hal yang terjadi pada bangsa jepang. maka, dalam artikel ini andrea wood ingin menunjukkan bahwa terdapat keterkaitan yang erat antara semakin meningkatnya jumlah pembaca manga bl secara global dengan proses identifikasi yang lebih universal, di mana secara khusus aspek queer dari manga bl berakibat timbulnya variasi interpretasi manga bl, pemahaman yang amat beragam tergantung dari subjektivikasi pembacanya yang berbeda secara sosial dan budaya terhadap konteks jepang. andrea wood juga menggunakan konsep global counterpublic untuk menganalisis para perempuan penggemar narasi bernuansa queer. menurut wood, para perempuan penggemar narasi bernuasa queer adalah bagian dari sebuah counterpublic, yaitu semacam resistensi terhadap status quo gender dalam membaca narasi roman yang bernuasa heteroseksual (hal. 404). selanjutnya, wood juga menekankan bahwa konsep publik yang digunakan dalam artikel ini adalah individu yang komunitas fujoshi di kalangan ….. (putri andam dewi) 177  tergabung dalam sirkulasi text dan narasi manga boys love yang menggunakan media internet sebagai penghubung antar sesama penggemar dan pembaca manga boys love (hal.405). artikel andrea wood ini menurut saya relevan dengan penelitian saya tentang para perempuan pembaca dan penggemar manga bl indonesia, khususnya dilihat dari konteks proses identifikasi dan subjektivikasi seksualitas perempuan indonesia yang menyukai manga bl. fandom manga bl selain di jepang dan indonesia juga terjadi di kalangan pembaca perempuan korea. fandom pembaca manga bl korea ini diteliti oleh sueen noh (2001) dalam artikel berjudul “reading yaoi comics: an analysis of korean girls fandom”, yang diterbitkan dalam korean society for journalism and communication studies (2001). sueen noh dalam artikel ini berbicara mengenai fandom manga bl di kalangan pembaca perempuan di korea. sueen menggunakan pendekatan cultural studies untuk mengeksplorasi makna konotatif dari aktivitas perempuan korea yang membaca manga yaoi sebagai sebuah aspek unik dari fandom manga perempuan. artikel ini secara khusus fokus pada konsep textual productivity, maksudnya para penggemar manga yaoi ini tidak hanya senang membaca akan tetapi juga mengkonstruksi ulang teks manga yang sudah ada dengan memasukkan dialog-dialog baru yang berbeda dengan teks originalnya. metodologi pengumpulan data dalam artikel ini adalah etnografi dan wawancara secara online dengan para penggemar manga yaoi (istilah ‘yaoi’ dalam artikel noh adalah istilah yang muncul di arena doujinshi bl, dengan kata lain bl adalah sebutan untuk genre mainstream, sedangkan yaoi untuk dikalangan fujoshi) melalui forum online khusus manga yaoi. isu yang diangkat di dalam artikel ini antara lain; konsep homoseksual dan homoseksualitas dari sudut pandang perempuan korea, konsep male gaze dan female gaze dalam produk-produk budaya populer, dan konsep pleasure of voyeurism and subversion. isu-isu diangkat dengan keterkaitannya dengan kegemaran para perempuan korea dalam membaca manga yang bertemakan homoseksual dengan posisi mereka di dalam masyarakat yang didominasi oleh para laki-laki. menurut saya, artikel ini sangat relevan dengan penelitian saya sebagai perbandingan mengenai bagaimana aktivitas dan produktivitas fans dan fandom di korea diartikulasikan melalui sudut pandang mereka terhadap budaya populer jepang. penelitian yang dilakukan oleh sueen ini dapat menjadi salah satu wacana bagaimana fans mengartikulasikan kegemaran mereka dengan memproduksi manga bl versi mereka sendiri. berdasarkan penelitian-penelitian di atas, fandom manga bl di kalangan perempuan asia, mempunyai signifikansi yang tinggi, amatlah penting untuk dieksplorasi lebih lanjut, dengan alasan bahwa sama halnya fujoshi di jepang dan korea atau fandom bl di negara lainnya termasuk indonesia, orientasi seks para fujoshi tersebut tetap heteroseksual, akan tetapi mereka menyukai hubungan percintaan alternatif seperti yang direpresentasikan oleh genre bl. aspek lainnya yang dapat berguna dalam penelitian mengenai komunitas fujoshi indonesia adalah mereka itu dapat dikategorikan sebagai seorang penggemar tingkat tinggi, level ketertarikan dan komitmen terhadap objek kegemarannya, dalam hal ini manga bl melebihi penggemar kebanyakan. kegemaran mereka tidak hanya sekedar membeli dan membaca manga bl, tapi beberapa di antara mereka juga membuat manga bl sendiri untuk dibagikan kepada para fujoshi lainnya, membentuk suatu komunitas bl, melakukan cosplay juga, dan kegiatan lainnya yang masih bertemakan bl. dengan kata lain, mereka adalah penggemar aktif yang memiliki antusiasme besar terhadap manga bl. maka dari itu mereka termasuk dalam kategori yang lebih luas pengertiannya, mereka tergolong otaku atau seseorang yang sangat menggemari budaya pop jepang (jika mengacu pada makna otaku di luar jepang). 178  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 173-182  metode penelitian ini akan dilakukan dengan menggunakan pendekatan cultural studies, yaitu melihat terbentuknya komunitas manga bl di kalangan perempuan indonesia. kemudian, konsep gender performativity judith butler digunakan untuk menjelaskan proses konstruksi identitas fujoshi di kalangan perempuan indonesia. pendekatan dan konsep ini digunakan untuk mengetahui lebih mendalam tentang proses konstruksi identitas para fujoshi, diasumsikan berorientasi heteroseksual dan menggemari narasi homoerotis. selain itu, apakah dengan terbentuknya identitas fujoshi di kalangan perempuan indonesia sebagai salah satu kontestasi subjektivitas feminisme dan seksualitas normatif yang berkembang di indonesia. hasil dan pembahasan penggemar manga bl di indonesia pada umumnya adalah perempuan berusia 19 tahun hingga 30 tahun, berkisar pada level pendidikan perguruan tinggi. mereka rata-rata berprofesi sebagai mahasiswi dan karyawati. berdasarkan wawancara awal dengan beberapa fujoshi indonesia, persepsi mereka terhadap manga bl secara garis besar serupa jika dicocokkan, yaitu merepresentasikan pria, khususnya pria asia yang hangat, romantis, dan sensitif. selain itu aspek konten seksual dalam manga bl juga merupakan salah satu faktor yang mendorong para fujoshi indonesia untuk menyukai manga bl. dengan kata lain, fujoshi indonesia ini mencari sosok pria ideal seperti yang direpresentasikan tokohtokoh dalam manga narasi homoerotis tersebut. manga bl tidak mudah untuk ditemui di pasar media indonesia. hal ini dikarenakan tema dan konten manga boys love yang mengangkat tema percintaan sesama jenis atau homoseksualitas yang masih dianggap hal tabu dalam stereotip masyarakat indonesia. karenanya, sumber utama untuk mendapatkan manga bl adalah dari internet, saling meminjam antar sesama fujoshi, pemesanan secara on-line, dan dengan membeli di toko buku khusus yang menyediakan manga bl. maka meskipun sulit diperoleh di toko-toko buku biasa yang menjual manga jepang seperti gramedia, gunung agung, kharisma, dan sebagainya, manga bl dikatakan tetap bisa memasuki kehidupan perempuan indonesia, melalui sumber-sumber yang telah dijelaskan di atas. sebagaimana telah dijelaskan di paragraf sebelumnya, bahwa manga bl berisi konten percintaan sesama jenis dan banyak adegan seksual yang diperlihatkan secara eksplisit; maka kemudian timbul pro dan kontra atas penerimaan manga bl di kalangan anak muda indonesia. sebagian besar dari mereka rata-rata akan terkejut atau merasa aneh ketika mengetahui ada perempuan yang menyukai manga tentang percintaan antara dua pria. hanya perempuan-perempuan tertentu, dalam hal ini perempuan yang memiliki kriteria fujoshi yang dapat meyukai dan memahami manga bl, dan biasanya para perempuan ini adalah para otaku sebagai penggemar berat berbagai jenis budaya populer, dalam hal ini khususnya budaya populer jepang. maka dari itu, penggemar manga bl masih sangat terbatas dan tertutup di kalangan fujoshi saja. karena penyebaran manga bl di indonesia masih sangat terbatas, biasanya seorang calon penggemar mulai berkenalan dengan manga bl melalui temannya yang sudah menjadi fujoshi terlebih dahulu. ada yang pada awalnya menolak mentah-mentah setelah mengetahui konten dari manga bl, tapi ada juga yang menolak kemudian merasa penasaran dan akhirnya mulai mencari tahu lebih banyak lagi tentang manga bl. berdasarkan penelitian awal yang dilakukan mengenai komunitas manga bl yang berkembang di indonesia melalui wawancara dengan salah satu otaku dan juga komunitas fujoshi di kalangan ….. (putri andam dewi) 179  mengaku sebagai fujoshi (hasil wawancara, 8 oktober 2011), komunitas ini relatif tertutup dan tidak diketahui secara meluas. penggemar manga bl indonesia masih tersebar di kalangan otaku indonesia dan hanya sebagian kecil saja yang mengaku sebagai penggemar manga bl. kondisi serupa juga terjadi dalam komunitas manga bl di kalangan perempuan korea, yang menggunakan media internet sebagai sarana untuk menikmati manga bl. sedangkan para fujoshi di jepang, bisa dengan mudah ditemukan di otome road, ikebukoro, yaitu sebuah nama jalan yang terkenal karena di jalan itu berjejer toko-toko yang menjual segala pernak-pernik boys love. mulai dari manga, anime, drama cd, cosplay, doujinshi, dan juga terdapat kafe khusus yang menjual suasana boys love dalam kafe mereka. sebagaimana disebutkan di metode penelitian, konstruksi identitas gender para fujoshi di indonesia akan dianalisis menggunakan pendekatan social constructionism yaitu the view that people personality and behaviour are not pre-determined by biology, but are shaped by society and culture. people are not fixed from birth, and can adopt and change (gauntlett, 2008:18 ). jika dilihat dari pendekatan ini, kepribadian dan perilaku para fujoshi yang menyukai manga bl seharusnya dilihat dari konteks sosial dan budaya dalam lingkungan anak muda indonesia. dan, teori yang akan digunakan adalah teori gender as performance dari judith butler. judith butler dalam bukunya yang berjudul gender trouble: feminism adn the subversion of identity (1990) menyebutkan bahwa bagaimana kita berpikir dan berbicara tentang gender dan jenis kelamin, selalu berdasarkan konfigurasi secara sosial dan budaya (butler, dalam gauntlett, 2008:150). menurut butler, dalam pandangan heteronormatif, kita terikat oleh wacana maskulin dan feminin yang sudah terbentuk sebelumnya. misalnya, perempuan harus berperilaku secara feminin, lalu laki-laki haru berperilaku secara maskulin, perempuan harus menyukai laki-laki (dan sebaliknya), maka dari itu, seyogyanya perempuan akan menyukai kisah percintaan antara perempuan dan laki-laki. asumsi-asumsi heteronormatif seperti disebutkan di atas, sudah tertanam kuat dalam pandangan kita (yang terkonstruksi secara sosial dan budaya) terhadap identitas, gender, dan jenis kelamin. sehingga, ketika muncul fenomena perempuan heteroseksual menyukai narasi homoerotis (manga bl), dari sudut pandang heteronormatif, hal tersebut dianggap suatu ‘ketidaknormalan’. masalah “ketidaknormalan” ini dapat lebih jelas dilihat apabila kita menggunakan salah satu kritikan judith butler tentang hubungan antara jenis kelamin dan gender yang disebut butler sebagai heterosexual matrix. menurut butler, heterosexual matrix adalah sex is seen as a binary biological given—you are born female or male and then ‘gender’ is the cultural component which is socialised into the person on that basis (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:148). menurut butler, dalam kerangka heterosexual matrix, jenis kelamin kita sudah ditentukan secara biologis. dengan kata lain, jenis kelamin kita baik perempuan atau laki-laki berdasarkan konvensi budaya dan bahasa yaitu feminin dan maskulin. jadi, yang menentukan apakah seseorang itu feminin atau maskulin adalah konstruksi sosial dan budaya berdasarkan jenis kelamin kita pada saat kita dilahirkan. diagram dari heterosexual matrix adalah sebagai berikut (gambar 1): gambar 1. heterosexual matrix. 180  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 173-182  jadi, menurut diagram di atas, ketika kita lahir berjenis kelamin perempuan, secara sosial dan budaya kita diberikan label feminin yang akan menentukan rasa ketertarikan terhadap lawan jenis kita, yaitu laki-laki yang maskulin. jadi, dapat ditarik kesimpulan jika para fujoshi yang berjenis kelamin perempuan dan heteroseksual seharusnya akan menyukai narasi yang ‘normal’ yaitu kisah percintaan antara perempuan dan laki-laki. tapi, pada kenyataannya, para fujoshi heteroseksual ini menyukai narasi homoseksual yang diartikulasikan di dalam manga bl. hal ini tentunya tidak bisa dijelaskan melalui heterosexual matrix di atas. maka dari itu, menurut saya, akan lebih cocok untuk menganalisis perilaku para fujoshi indonesia ini dari argumen butler (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:149) yang menyebutkan bahwa gender adalah sebuah pertunjukan atau gender performativity: gambar 2. gender performativity diagram. identitas gender seseorang dalam diagram ini terlihat memiliki kebebasan untuk memilih identitas gendernya. kita bisa menjadi feminin atau maskulin yang memiliki rasa ketertarikan secara seksual tanpa terbebani oleh konvensi sosial dan budaya kita. dengan kata lain, individu dalam diagram ini sedang melakukan pertunjukan gender. misalnya, seorang laki-laki yang secara budaya diberi label maskulin sah-sah saja memakai baju berwarna pink yang secara konvensi budaya dan sosial adalah warna feminin. atau jika kita kaitkan dengan fujoshi indonesia, bisa saja seorang perempuan yang mempunyai orientasi heteroseksual menyukai narasi homoseksual karena pada dasarnya kita sedang berperan dalam identitas gender kita. dengan kata lain, diagram di atas mengimplikasikan bahwa jenis kelamin kita tidak menentukan identitas gender kita. jadi, identitas gender bukanlah suatu hal yang pasti. identitas gender seseorang terkonstruksi melalui repitisi-repitisi kita dalam lingkungan sosial dan budaya. pembahasan judith butler mengenai gender as performance menjelaskan antara lain: the ways that we think and talk about gender and sex,..., tends to ‘presuppose and preempt the possibilities of imaginable and realizable gender configurations within culture...we are constrained by existing discourses (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:150). selanjutnya, butler juga menyebutkan bahwa most humanist views of the person see gender as an attribute – which – once installed by culture, at least— becomes fixed, a permanent part of the person’s self (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:150). jadi, menurut butler sebagian besar para pemikir humanis memandang gender seseorang sebagai sebuah atribut yang dibentuk oleh budaya, dan kemudian menjadi identitas tetap seseorang atau identitas permanen dari seseorang. misalnya, perempuan yang menjadi fujoshi yang memiliki atribut feminin seharusnya berperilaku dan menyukai hal-hal terkait dengan femininitas, seperti kisah percintaan antara perempuan dan laki-laki, bukannya pencintaan antara dua laki-laki dalam manga bl. butler yang tidak menyetujui pandangan dari para pemikir humanis tersebut dan lebih memilih melihat identitas gender seseorang seperti “those historical and anthropological positions that understand gender as a relation among socially constitued subjects in speciable context. in other words, rather than being a fixed attribute in a person, gender should seen as a fluid variable which can shift and change in different contexts and different times (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:150). komunitas fujoshi di kalangan ….. (putri andam dewi) 181  jadi, berdasarkan pendapat butler di atas, para fujoshi sedang melakukan permainan gender, yaitu ketika mereka membaca atau membuat manga bl versi mereka. dan, pada saat melakukan permainan gender ini, identitas gender dan jenis kelamin para fujoshi dapat bergeser, yaitu dari seorang perempuan heteroseksual menjadi perempuan heteroseksual yang menyukai narasi homoseksual. selain itu menurut saya, manga bl adalah representasi pergeseran atau kecairan identitas gender perempuan heteroseksual yang menyukai manga bl. maka dari itu, butler menyebut gender is performance – and nothing more...there is no gender identity behind the expression of gender;...identity is perfomativelyconstitued by the very “expressions” that are said to be the results (butler dalam gauntlett, 2008:150). selanjutnya butler juga menyebutkan ...we do not have a gender identity which informs our behaviour; on the contrary, that behaviour is all that our gender is (ibid:150). jadi, menurut butler, identitas gender kita tidak mengatur perilaku kita, malah sebaliknya, perilaku kita yang menjadi identitas gender kita. maka dari itu, berdasarkan pandangan butler, bukan suatu ketidaknormalan ketika seorang perempuan heteroseksual menyukai narasi homoseksual karena pada saat itu mereka sedang melakukan permainan gender. sebagaimana disebutkan butler ...gender, then, is what you do at particular times, rather than a universal of who you are (ibid:151). dengan kata lain, manga bl memberikan ruang bagi para fujoshi untuk memiliki identitas gender yang bersifat cair dan dapat di re-invented dalam konteks dan waktu yang berbeda. penutup berdasarkan penuturan di atas, budaya populer jepang sudah masuk ke dalam budaya indonesia melalui konsumsi anak-anak muda indonesia. dan juga, bukan hanya produknya yang diadopsi, bahkan perilakunya diadaptasi, yaitu budaya otaku , khusus dalam artikel ini adalah komunitas fujoshi. menurut saya penting untuk mengetahui lebih mendalam mengapa seorang perempuan heteroseksual menyukai cerita-cerita yang bertemakan homoseksual. mengapa mereka memilih untuk menyukai manga boys love sebagai identifikasi komunitas mereka? apa komunitas manga bl di indonesia sama dengan fandom manga bl di jepang, yaitu sebagai resistensi pasif terhadap posisi mereka dalam masyarakat jepang yang memposisikan perempuan jepang melalui sistem reproduksi dan sistem sosial patriakat yang dominan? atau fandom manga boys love di korea, yang menggunakan manga bl sebagai ruang untuk mengeksplorasi seksualitas mereka sebagai perempuan yang terikat ideologi “kesucian” dan “keperawanan” dari tradisi kong hu cu dalam masyarakat patriarki korea, sehingga, para perempuan korea merasa takut untuk mengeksplorasi seksualitas mereka secara lebih terbuka? artikel ini merupakan hanya sebagian kecil dari fenomena perkembangan budaya populer jepang dewasa ini. dengan berjalannya waktu diiringi dengan kemajuan teknologi, komunikasi, ekonomi, dan sebagainya, tidak tertutup kemungkinan akan muncul fenomena-fenomena baru budaya populer yang dapat menjadi salah satu teropong untuk memahami budaya dan masyarakat jepang di kemudian hari. 182  jurnal lingua cultura vol.6 no.2 november 2012: 173-182  daftar pustaka galbraith, patrick w. (2009). the otaku encyclopedia: an insider’s guide to the subculture of cool japan. new york: kodansha usa. gauntlett, david. (2008). media, gender and identity: an introduction. london: routledge. mclelland, mark. j. (2000). the love between ‘beautiful boys’ in japanese women’s comics. jounal of gender studies,9 (1). noh, sueen. (2001). reading yaoi comics: an analysis of korean girl fandom. korean society for journalism and communication studies. thorn, matthew. (2000). girls and women getting out of hand: the pleasure and politics of japan’s amateur comics community. fanning the flames: fans and consumer culture in contemporary japan, 169 – 187. albany: state university of new york. walker, james. (2006). beautiful, borrowed, and bent: “boy’s love” as girl’s love in shōjo manga. signs, 31, 841 – 870. wood, andrea. (2006). straight women, queer texts: boy-love manga and the rise of a global counterpublic. women’s studies quaterly, 34 (1), 394 – 414. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 145 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 145-150 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5613 the implementation of discovery learning models in enhancing speech script writing skills for students eri sarimanah1; figiati indra dewi2; roy efendi3; suhendra4; muhamad nurul5; soeharto6 1,2,3,4 faculty of teacher training and education, universitas pakuan jl. pakuan po box 452, bogor 16143, indonesia 5sma insan cendekia alkausar jl. habib, babakanjaya, sukabumi 43358, indonesia 6doctoral school of education, university of szeged szeged, aradi vértanúk tere 1, 6720, hungary 1sarimanah.herty@gmail.com; 6soeharto.soeharto@edu.u-szeged.hu received: 24th april 2019/revised: 10th june 2019/accepted: 25th june 2019 how to cite: sarimanah, e., dewi, f. i., efendi, r., suhendra., nurul, m., & soeharto. (2019). the implementation of discovery learning models in enhancing speech script writing skills for students. lingua cultura, 13(2), 145-150. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5613 abstract this research investigated the use of discovery learning models to enhance students’ speech script writing skills. this research aimed to focus on the study of the effectiveness and difficulties of discovery learning models to improve students’ speech script writing skills. the research applied an experimental method by using test, observation, and questionnaires for collecting data techniques. the population of this research was students of mts syarikal islam 2 kalapanunggal. the class of ix-b was the experimental class, and a class of ix-a was control class. the use of the discovery learning model is proven to enhance students’ speech script writing skills. the effectiveness of this experimental model is shown that the average score of the pretest of the experimental class is 53,5, and the post-test score is 84,3. by comparing the control class without treatment, it indicates the effectiveness of the intervention in the experimental class. the research shows a meaningful comparison of the experimental class and control class, which gain 2,56 by using the t-test. the data obtains that t-count is higher than t-table or significant is the value of t-table 2,42. therefore, it can be concluded that the discovery learning model has shown the improvement for students’ speech script writing skills effectively. keywords: learning modul, writing skilss, speech script writing introduction language skills are the ability to master the elements of language, both orally and in writing that consist of listening skills, speaking skills, reading skills, and writing skills (aydoğan & akbarov, 2014). these four language skills provide benefits, and there is a relationship between one and another (hulme & snowling, 2014; zhao & hirvela, 2015). this relationship is characterized by the continuity of the stages of these four language skills. these stages begin from the stage of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. writing skill becomes one of the essential skills for students. it is an important part of the ability to daily use. good writing skills allow students to improve speaking skills that are useful for clarifying and facilitating communication. there needs to be an effort for students to improve their writing skills in writing a text. students must be able to find information and ideas to be able to write texts, especially speech texts. therefore, the researchers intend to use the discovery learning model to improve students’ ability to write a text with a learning model. the learning model is a plan or pattern that is used as a guide in planning classroom learning or tutorial learning. separately, the word learning comes from the term instructions, which means conveying thoughts. instructions or instructional is the delivery of thoughts or ideas that have been processed meaningfully through learning. instructions are a learning term that places students as a source of activity. this term seeks to encourage a change in the role of educators in managing the learning process (karjalaınen et al., 2017). learning is also defined as information processing. this process can be analogous to the thinking process or human’s brain that acts like a computer with the input and storage of information in it. the thing that is done by the brain is how to regain the information material in the form of pictures and writing. thus, in learning, someone needs to 146 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 145-150 be involved in reflection and use of memory to track what must be absorbed, stored in memory, and how to assess information (browne, glass, & holyoak, 2016). based on the description, the learning model can be defined as a concept that contains a process of how to give a thought or idea to students. the process of transferring thoughts and ideas has a particular reference according to the learning model used. educators can choose the learning model that will be applied. however, the learning model used must be appropriate to apply. the role of educators in the application of learning models should not dominate. educators must be facilitators, and students are given the widest opportunity in learning activities. the learning model is also a process of information processing. this information is in the form of knowledge learned that must be absorbed and stored in memory by students. various information stored then must be analyzed to an understanding of information. abrahamson and kapur (2018) have stated that discovery learning is a learning theory that is defined as a learning process that occurs when students are not presented with final lessons but are expected to organize themselves. the presentation of lessons emphasizes the discovery of unknown concepts or principles. a concept is a form of time that is faced by students with expert educators. wenning (2010) has stated that cisco learning model is a learning model that helps studen1ts develop a concept based on the first experience given by educators. the goal is that students can think actively and discover new knowledge independently. discovery learning is a teaching model that regulates teaching in such a way that the child acquires knowledge that he does not yet know or not pass through notification, partially or entirely found on his/her own. based on the explanation, it is a discovery-based model. the discovery in question is a process to obtain learning outcomes. therefore, educators must encourage students to think critically about unknown concepts. students must be able to organize a variety of new knowledge learned. furthermore, students can draw final conclusions from the concepts that have been found. the role of educators in discovery learning model is a guide. they must be good learning facilitators with a new concept to students in unfinished form. educators intentionally manipulate this in order to direct students to think independently. however, educators must still provide direction when students organize the new concept. this is to remain in accordance with the learning objectives. van merriënboer & kirschner (2017) have stated that discovery learning includes stages of stimulation; students are faced with something that raises questions and the desire to investigate themselves. the problem statement of this research is educator gives an opportunity to students to identify as many problems as possible that are relevant to the subject matter, then one of them is chosen and formulated in the form of a hypothesis (temporary answer to the problem question). in the data collection stage, students perform experiments or explorations. students gather relevant information to prove the correctness of the hypothesis. data can be obtained through reading literature, observing objects, interviews, and own trials. the data obtained is then taken to the data processing stage, where students’ processing data to be interpreted. then the verification becomes a follow up of data that has been processed. at this stage, students examine the results of data processing to prove the correctness or failure of a predetermined hypothesis, linked to the results of data processing. finally, students should carry out generalization (drawing conclusions/generalizations). at this stage, students draw conclusions that can be used as general principles and apply to all events or problems with regard to the results of verification. language skills are important because, in daily activities, it requires interaction between one another. establishing good communication means having to be skilled in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. with regard to education, one of the language skills that must be mastered by students is writing (javid & umer, 2014). writing can be defined as the language output and aims to share ideas, thoughts, opinions, attitudes, feelings, persuades, and convince others (alfaki, 2015; klein & boscolo, 2016). this is in accordance with the contents of the 2013 curriculum on indonesian language subjects, especially junior high school level. twenty-two texts will be studied by students (kemdikbud, 2016). students will experience a variety of text writing to be a good writer (mukminin et al., 2015). different texts will also have different ideas that must be written. disclosure of this idea is a transformation from the abstract form into real form, namely writing. writing can be considered good if it has a concept of a whole idea. in addition to ideas, the level of difficulty in writing text also varies depending on the type of text. in addition, linguistic accuracy, linguistic fluency, and lexical compatibility are also very important components in writing skills (engin, 2014). therefore, writing activities must be trained continuously. writing skills also train students to be able to choose words that must be used. words in the text must be in accordance with good and correct spelling. knowledge of students about the words that must be used in writing is an indicator of a broader set of language skills that individuals have increased and ingredient in composing ideas (paola et al., 2015). the written ideas will be meaningful and easy to understand when using the word correctly. one type of text that must be mastered by students in junior high school is writing a speech text. speech text is a text that contains ideas or thoughts that will be conveyed in front of many people. writing speech texts will provide opportunities for students to pour out all forms of ideas that are known both from books, experiences, and observations that later can be known by others. the submission of this idea is not arbitrary, and students must also determine who the recipient of the idea is used in learning. based on the process and benefits in writing, the students will be productive in learning (alharbi, 2015). various knowledge can be explored by giving birth to written ideas. however, the condition of students in each school, especially indonesian language learning, has not even been able to master writing skills, such as writing speech texts. the researchers get information about this condition from one of the educators at citra nusa bogor middle school. the constraint in writing learning is caused by the difficulty of the participants in making a text because of the lack of reading that has an impact on the amount of information and vocabulary that is known. in addition, it makes students cannot develop independent writings. this condition is also caused by a learning strategy that is not appropriate to apply, less guided training, and low writing motivation. therefore, to improve language skills such as writing skill, teachers have to use a certain learning model in the learning process, such as discovery learning model. discovery learning model is a teaching method that regulates teaching in such a way that the child acquires 147the implementation of discovery .... (eri sarimanah, et al.) knowledge that he/she does not know yet and it is not through notification, partially or entirely found on his/her own. discovery learning activities are designed so that students can find concepts and principles through their own mental processes. in finding concepts, students make observations, classify, make guesses, explain, draw conclusions, and so on to find some concepts or principles. discovery learning model has several advantages namely; (1) supporting learners’ active participation in the learning process; (2) fostering learner’s curiosity; (3) enabling the development of lifelong learning skills from learners; (4) making the learning experience more personal; (5) making learners highly motivated because it gives them the opportunity to experiment and find something for themselves; (6) building knowledge based on the initial knowledge that the learner already has so that they can have a deeper understanding; (7) developing self-reliance and autonomy in learners; (8) making learners accountable for mistakes and the results they make during the learning process. overall learning using discovery learning models improve student reasoning and the ability to think freely. specifically learning discovery trains students’ cognitive skills to find and solve problems without the help of others so that this model is very suitable to be used to improve students’ writing skills independently. there needs to be an effort for students to write a text. students must be able to find information and ideas in order to be able to write texts, especially speech texts. based on the research conducted by sofeny (2016), it shows that there is a relationship between the implementation of the discovery learning model on students’ writing skills. therefore, researchers intend to solve this problem through research by conducting discovery learning in improving speech text writing skills in class ix students of islamic secondary school 2 kalapanunggal sukabumi regency. research focuses on the effectiveness of the discovery learning model and the obstacles experienced by students in writing speech texts. methods the research is conducted using the experimental method. this is a research method that is used to find the effect of certain treatments on others in controlled conditions. the procedure referred to in this research is the application of discovery learning model by druckman and ebner (2018). the treatment model for improving speech text writing skills is the students of class ix at kalapanunggal islamic boarding school 2. the population of this research is the class ix students of islamic boarding school 2 of kalapanunggal, sukabumi regency, with 40 people spread in class ix a (20 people) and ix b (20 people). the population is a generalization area consisting of objects/subjects that have certain qualities and characteristics determined by researchers to be studied, and the conclusions are drawn (sugiyono, 2015). the population is not only people but also objects and other natural objects in order to describe the subject matter. samples are part of the number and characteristics of the population. based on this amount, the researchers conduct a purposive sampling technique because of the limitation of participants. the relatively small number of population in this research makes the researchers have decided that the whole students in class become the overall research sample. the data collection techniques used are; (1) using the pre-test and post-test forms. the post-test is conducted to measure students’ ability to write speech texts. when conducting research, researchers take improved data on writing speech text skills through two tests, namely pre-test, and post-test. this step is done as comparison material. (2) using the questionnaire; questionnaires in this research to assess the extent of students’ responses in learning to write speech text with discovery learning models. (3) using observation. the purpose of the observation in this research is to measure the process and results of the teaching and learning of students in the classroom (hidayat, sapani, & abidin, 1994). results and discussions figure 1 shows the pre-test data analysis in the experimental class. the average score of pre-test (knowledge and skills) has amounted to 53,5, which still refers to the low level; the highest is 68, and the lowest is 44. that results are caused by students not being able to explain the meaning of speech texts. they are combining the terms of the opening greeting and closing in general with the contents and closing parts; the linguistic characteristics of students who do not understand the learning. figure 1 pre-test results in experimental class when compiling speech texts, students do not have information that is directly related to the theme of the speech. the message conveyed in the content of the speech text is only the fundamental one. it also has an impact on the use of limited vocabulary, inappropriate or incorrect writing of vocabulary, and spelling that does not match the placement and also the differences in nouns, verbs, adjectives, assignments, word fields, synonyms, antonyms. this finding is positively related to the results of research conducted by solano et al. (2014) that have shown that writing is one of the problematic language skills and it is often found some errors that are experienced by students in writing. figure 2 gives information post-test data analysis in the experimental class. the post-test average score is 84,3 with the level of affordability; the highest is 92, and the lowest is 74. 0% 0% 0% 50% 50% 0% 20% 40% 60% not good (0-39) poor (40-59) fair (60-74) good (75-84) very good (85-100) figure 2 post-test result in experimental class 148 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 145-150 the increased post-test score is influenced by learning that has been done using discovery learning models. the researchers provide illustrated images to strengthen students’ understanding so that they can explain the concept of understanding speech texts. the structure of the speech text is analyzed according to the characteristics of each part, which consists of opening, content, and closing through the example of speech text. the linguistic characteristics of speech texts are discussed by distinguishing vocabulary based on word class (nouns, verbs, adjectives, assignments), word fields, equations (synonyms), and differences in the meaning of words (antonyms). the score of post-test writing skills in experimental class speech texts has increased. based on the conducted research, it is found that discovery learning can improve students’ writing skills (cahyani & yulindaria, 2018; sobari & husnussalam, 2019). when compiling a speech text, students have begun to pay attention to things that must be raised in the introduction, contents, and closing sections. students process the results of the information to be explicitly written in the contents of the speech text from the article. besides that, students still lack in the use of effective sentences, vocabulary, and spelling that are still incorrectly written. figure 3 gives information on the pre-test data analysis in the control class. the average score of pre-test (knowledge and skills) is 51,4 at a low level; the highest is 64, and the lowest is 42. the low pre-test results are caused by students not being able to explain the meaning of speech texts following the concept of speech from experience in daily life both in school and in the community. it means that the ability of the student in control and experimental class before given intervention is equal. 0% 85% 15% 0% 0% 0% 50% 100% not good (0-39) poor (40-59) fair (60-74) good (75-84) very good (85-100) figure 3 pre-test results in control class the term opening and closing greetings are called the same as the opening and closing parts. as for the linguistic characteristics of the speech text, there is still a lack of understanding of students in distinguishing several vocabulary words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, assignments), word fields, synonyms, and antonyms. when compiling speech texts, students do not have information that is directly related to the theme of the speech. the message conveyed in the content of the speech text is only a fundamental one. it also has an impact on the use of limited vocabulary, inappropriate or incorrect writing of vocabulary, and the appropriate spelling of the placement. figure 4 shows the post-test data analysis in the control class. the average score of pre-test (knowledge and skills) is 75,2 with a level of ability; the highest is 86, and the lowest is 56. there are several indicators that cause post-test scores to increase. the definition of speech text can be explained precisely based on examples in school activities such as flag ceremonies and independence days. the opening greeting section is the opening/preliminary part, while the closing greeting becomes part of the conclusion and closing. as for the linguistic characteristics of speech texts, students can be able to distinguish several vocabularies with word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, assignments), word fields, equations (synonyms), and differences in the meaning of words (antonym). however, when compiling speech texts, it is still difficult to process information to be developed into a whole idea. even though there is already information read and discussed. the written vocabulary is in accordance with the theme discussed. however, there are some writing errors. this is consistent with finding that explains some of the problems experienced by students in writing, such as errors in the use of grammar and vocabulary and difficulties in transferring ideas into writing (huy, 2015). according to the calculation of the mean coupled with the t-test formula of the experimental class and control class, it is known that t-count is higher than t table or t-count significant because the score of t table 2,42. it means that discovery learning models have proven to be effective in improving speech text writing skills. figure 4 post-test results in control class there are several indicators that cause post-test scores to increase. the definition of speech text can be explained precisely based on examples in school activities such as flag ceremonies and independence days. the opening greeting section is the opening/preliminary part, while the closing greeting becomes part of the conclusion and closing. as for the linguistic characteristics of speech texts, students can be able to distinguish several vocabularies with word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, assignments), word fields, equations (synonyms), and differences in the meaning of words (antonym). however, when compiling speech texts, it is still difficult to process information to be developed into a whole idea. even though there is already information read and discussed. the written vocabulary is in accordance with the theme discussed. however, there are some writing errors. this is consistent with finding that explains some of the problems experienced by students in writing, such as errors in the use of grammar and vocabulary and difficulties in transferring ideas into writing (huy, 2015). according to the calculation of the mean coupled with the t-test formula of the experimental class and control class, it is known that t-count is higher than t table or t-count significant because the score of t table 2,42. it means that discovery learning models have proven to be effective in improving speech text writing skills. attitude assessment is carried out during learning based on indicators of spiritual and social attitudes with explanation of (a) praying before and after learning; (b) answer greetings when learning begins and ends; (c) discipline (using school uniforms neatly, being on time, following learning in an orderly manner); (d) responsible (completing tasks given during learning); (e) polite (asking permission when leaving class when learning takes place, respecting teachers and friends, respecting each other); (f) mutual cooperation (active when discussing and helping friends if they need help). attitude data are divided into 149the implementation of discovery .... (eri sarimanah, et al.) experimental and control classes. the attitude of the experimental class is in the good category with an average score of 3,27. as for the control class, the average attitudes of 3,23 are good. the results of the overall questionnaire analysis have concluded that there are two most dominant obstacles experienced by students in writing speech texts. first is the constraints of finding and gathering information with a percentage of ‘yes’ answers of 50%. second is the percentage of ‘yes’ answers of 55% experienced problems determining the vocabulary according to the content of the speech text discussed. previous researches have also found some difficulties experienced by students such as finding appropriate vocabularies, using appropriate grammar, and searching words or phrases that could describe their ideas in writing (sobari & husnussalam, 2019; ritchey& coker, 2014). the researchers argue that in the previous learning, students do not have reading material as a source of ideas in accordance with the theme/topic of the speech text discussed. therefore, when learning with the discovery learning model, students are given the experience to use the article as an exercise in collecting and processing data. based on the results of these data, two hypotheses are proposed to prove the truth. the result is the application of discovery learning models effectively improve speech text writing skills. besides that, there are obstacles in writing speech texts through the application of discovery learning models. conclusions based on the results of research and data analysis from the application of discovery learning models, it improves speech text writing skills researchers. it can be concluded on three main points; first is the application of learning models can improve the speechwriting skills marked by changes in students’ scores. the experimental class pre-test score is 53,5, with the highest score is 68, and the lowest score is 44, while the post-test average score is 84,3. the highest post-test experimental class is 90 and the lowest score is 74. as for the control class, the average score of the pre-test is 51,4 with the lowest score is 42 and the highest score 60 while the average score of the post is 75,2 with 56 as the lowest score and 86 as the highest score. the results of the pre-test to post-test experience an increase in the experimental class and the control class. however, the experimental class experiences a higher increase in score than the control class. it is influenced by the stages of discovery learning models, which include stimulation, problem identification, data collection and processing, verification, and conclusions in learning. the second is based on the results of the calculation of mean coupled with the t-test formula of the experimental class and control class. it is known that t-count is greater than t table or t-count significant because the score of t table 2,42. therefore, the application of discovery learning models has proven to be effective in improving speech text writing skills in class ix students of mts syarikat islam 2 kalapanunggal, sukabumi regency. the third is that students still experience problems writing text speech through the application of discovery learning models. the most dominant obstacle is when determining vocabulary according to the content/topic of discussion in the speech text. the percentage of these students is as much as 55% or eleven people. besides, ten students with a percentage of 50% also still have problems finding and collecting information as material in compiling speech texts. references abrahamson, d., & kapur, m. 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(mariana; xuc lin) analisis penggunaan film dalam peningkatan pemahaman bahasa china mahasiswa mariana; xuc lin chinese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah – kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 mar14na@binus.ac.id, basenji88@yahoo.com abstract article explored to what extent students from the chinese department, bina nusantara university, were able to comprehend mandarin language through “home wih kids” film. qualitative method was applied by doing observation in class using prepared learning materials got from the film. there were 27 respondents coming from two classes. they were students from semester 1 who took listening class. the writter also applied observation approach by distributing questionaires to students to know their comprehension of the film content. it can be concluded that students tend to be more enthusiastic in learning chinese language by using film, and they are able to do the questions and retelling the plot of the film. this evidences prove that the influence of film gives more advantages to develop chinese language proficiency of the chinese department students, bina nusantara university. keywords: language comprehension, chinese language, film abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk mengetahui seberapa jauh mahasiswa jurusan sastra china, universitas bina nusantara, memahami bahasa mandarin melalui film “home with kids”. metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah kualitatif berupa observasi pengajaran kosakata dengan materi yang disiapkan berdasarkan film tersebut. responden adalah 27 mahasiswa semester satu dari dua kelas yang mengambil mata kuliah listening. selain itu, observasi dilakukan dengan memberikan kuesioner terkait pemahaman film tersebut kepada responden. disimpulkan, mahasiswa cenderung lebih antusias dalam mempelajari bahasa china menggunakan film dan mereka mampu untuk mengerjakan latihan dan menguraikan isi cerita sesuai dengan isi film. hal ini membuktikan bahwa pengaruh film sangat bermanfaat untuk peningkatan bahasa china pada mahasiswa jurusan sastra china, universitas bina nusantara. kata kunci: pemahaman bahasa, bahasa mandarin, film 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 pendahuluan tobias (2009:7) mengatakan: “setiap manusia memiliki cara berbeda untuk memahami ataupun menguasai sesuatu, yang disebut gaya belajar.” bermacam gaya belajar yang dikenal, yaitu gaya belajar visual. gaya ini menitikberatkan pada ketajaman penglihatan. ada orang tertentu yang lebih bisa mengingat sesuatu apabila dia melihat langsung bagaimana proses kejadian itu berlangsung. biasanya, orang semacam ini cenderung mampu menggambarkan informasi dalam bentuk gambar, diagram, grafik, flow chart dan simbol visual seperti panah, lingkaran, hierarki, dan materi lain yang digunakan instruktur untuk mempresentasikan hal-hal yang dapat disampaikan dalam kata. hal ini mencakup juga desain, pola, bentuk, dan format lain yang digunakan untuk menandai dan menyampaikan informasi. manusia yang belajar secara visual umumnya menyukai intruksi berupa tulisan dan foto. selain dari itu, mereka juga suka menggunakan gerakan tubuh untuk mengekspresikan atau mengganti sebuah kata saat mengungkapkan sesuatu. mereka juga cenderung dapat mengingat informasi yang diberikan secara lisan ataupun gambaran yang nyata. metode pengajaran yang cocok untuk diterapkan bagi manusia yang belajar secara visual ialah gambar atau video. berikutnya adalah manusia yang belajar menggunakan metode cara auditory. manusia yang seperti ini umumnya mengandalkan pendengaran dalam menguasai atau mempelajari sesuatu. manusia yang seperti ini umumnya mampu menyerap informasi dan pengetahuan melalui ceramah, pidato, tutorial, diskusi kelompok, ataupun membicarakan materi secara langsung. keunggulan manusia yang menguasai teknik belajar dengan auditori ialah kemampuan untuk mengingat setiap kata meskipun kata tersebut bukan keluar dari mulut mereka sendiri. selain dari pada itu, orang seperti ini cenderung menyukai acara diskusi kelompok atau seminar. metode pengajaran yang cocok untuk diterapkan kepada manusia yang belajar secara auditori adalah hadir di dalam kelas, mendengarkan penjelasan guru, selain dari itu mendiskusikan ide atau pemikiran yang terlintas dalam pikiran mereka. yang terakhir adalah manusia yang belajar dengan menggunakan metode kinestetik. manusia seperti umumnya mampu menguasai suatu bidang atau pengetahuan dengan mempraktikkan bidang tersebut. umumnya, manusia seperti ini cenderung tidak menyukai hal yang bersifat teoretis. dia lebih menyukai latihan dan praktik lapangan langsung untuk memahami dan menguasai sesuatu. manusia yang seperti ini cenderung menggunakan seluruh indera untuk memahami teori atau ilmu bidang yang sedang dipelajari. mcdonald (2005:33) menjelaskan, “film merupakan sarana multimedia yang sudah ada dari zaman dahulu. film selain digunakan sebagai sarana hiburan ternyata juga memiliki peran penting dalam mengajarkan seseorang untuk memahami sesuatu.” manusia umumnya lebih cenderung memahami sesuatu dengan cara melihat dan mendengar langsung. menurut liu dan deng (2009:10), film “home with kids” menceritakan kehidupan keluarga china dan bagaimana cara orang tua mendidik anak mereka dalam kehidupan seharihari. selain menceritakan kehidupan sehari-hari, film ini juga menonjolkan budaya china yang telah mengalami perubahan akibat perkembangan zaman. banyak istilah atau kata baru dalam film ini yang bagus untuk diketahui. selain itu, dalam film ini juga terdapat konflik rumah tangga dan cara mereka menyelesaikan. itulah sebabnya film ini menjadi sangat menarik dan dijadikan salah satu materi pembelajaran di china pada zaman sekarang. home with kids merupakan film bergenre keluarga yang menceritakan cara orang tua mendidik anak mereka. home with kids episode 1 menceritakan suatu rumah tangga yang baru saja dibangun kembali melalui sebuah pernikahan kedua antara tokoh utama pria xia donghai dan tokoh utama wanita liu mei. keduanya samasama menjalani pernikahan mereka yang kedua dengan membawa anak mereka masing-masing. episode 1 menceritakan anak pertama xia donghai, yaitu xia xue yang baru masuk ke dalam rumah tangga baru mereka. dia memiliki persepsi negatif terhadap ibu tirinya karena sang ayah tidak memberitahukan terlebih dahulu perihal pernikahan kedua tersebut. hal ini menyebabkan xia xue mengalami pergolakan dalam menerima kehadiran liu mei. berbagai cara dilakukan xia xue untuk menguji ketulusan liu mei dalam menerima kehadirannya. selain perseteruan dan konflik antara liu mei dan xia xue, cerita juga diwarnai kejenakaan yang dilakukan oleh liu xing dan xia yu, anak kedua liu mei dan anak kedua xia donghai sehingga film ini menjadi lebih berwarna dan menarik untuk ditonton oleh mahasiswa. penelitian mengkaji secara khusus kemampuan mahasiswa jurusan sastra china dalam memahami makna home with kids serta bagaimana cara mahasiswa mempelajari budaya china dan menerapkan penggunaan bahasa dalam film ke dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. cakupan penelitian adalah film home with kids dan penggunaan materi buku home with kids. selain itu, penulis hanya meneliti mahasiswa tahun pertama jurusan sastra china binus university. pada tahun pertama mahasiswa sedang fokus untuk memperdalam kemampuan berbicara dan mendengar bahasa mandarin. penelitian difokuskan pada film home with kids dengan 27 responden, yaitu mahasiswa jurusan sastra china binus university sebagai objek penelitian. masa penelitian ialah 1 semester yaitu semester ganjil 2014/2015 hingga pertengahan menjelang uts semester ganjil 2014/2015 metode penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif. studi pustaka dilakukan dengan mencari informasi dari buku teks, artikel, dan laporan penelitian yang berkaitan dengan metode pengajaran bahasa china. pengumpulan data film home with kids dilakukan dengan menyaring kosakata dan tata bahasa yang terdapat dalam film. selanjutnya, latihan yang sesuai dengan isi film dibuat. setelah semua materi tersusun rapi, rencana pengajaran dibuat yang berfungsi untuk mengatur jalannya proses penelitian. setelah mendalami isi film, observasi dilakukan dengan memberikan bahan dan rencana pengajaran di kelas kepada mahasiswa semester 1 dengan langkah berikut. pertama-tama kosakata yang terdapat dalam film 125analisis penggunaan film ….. (mariana; xuc lin) dijelaskan terlebih dahulu, setelah itu film home with kids episode 1 ditayangkan. setelah selesai menyaksikan film mahasiswa diminta mengerjakan latihan yang telah disiapkan. setelah berkas latihan dikumpulkan, isi dari cerita film dijelaskan kembali sehingga mahasiswa dapat memahami isi dan jalan cerita home with kids episode 1. hasil dan nilai latihan diolah sebagai dasar analisis penelitian. metode kuantitatif dilakukan dengan membagi kuesioner kepada mahasiswa untuk mengetahui manfaat dari menonton film terhadap perkembangan bahasa china. responden penelitian adalah mahasiswa jurusan sastra china, universitas bina nusantara sebanyak 2 kelas yaitu kelas lc63 yang berjumlah 17 anak dan kelas ld63 yang berjumlah 10 anak. waktu penelitian adalah satu semester, yaitu semester ganjil 2014/2015 hingga pertengahan menjelang uts semester ganjil 2014/2015 hasil dan pembahasan in the study, materi yang digunakan ialah film home with kids yang menggunakan bahasa sehari-hari dengan logat beijing, penampilan pemain yang alami dan lancar, serta penggunaan bahasa sehari-hari yang sering ditemui dalam masyarakat china. menurut stempleski dan tomalin (2001) ada tiga cara untuk menjalankan kelas film sehingga bisa berlangsung dengan sukses, yaitu seleksi film, pilihan aktivitas atau latihan, dan implementasi ke mahasiswa. dalam film home with kids, penuturan kalimat yang disampaikan tokoh juga jelas dan mereka banyak menggunakan istilah keseharian yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan zaman sekarang pada masyarakat china. itulah sebabnya penulis memilih film home with kids sebagai materi yang akan diberikan kepada mahasiswa. selain film yang jelas dan menarik, home with kids dipilih sebagai materi ajar karena sudah memiliki buku panduan pengajaran di china. film tersebut juga digunakan oleh beijing university dan beijing language and culture university sebagai materi untuk mengajar mahasiswa asing. tambahan pula, film ini juga memaparkan budaya china yang dengan mudah dapat dipahami oleh mahasiswa. sasaran pengajaran adalah mahasiswa semester 1 jurusan sastra china kelas lc63 dan ld63 dalam mata kuliah chin6088 listening 1. mahasiswa semester 1 dipilih karena mereka dalam mata kuliah listening 1 memiliki bobot sks 4, sehingga dimungkinkan untuk melakukan penelitian di sela-sela materi perkuliahan yang sedang berjalan. selain itu, mahasiswa semester 1 adalah mahasiswa yang baru pertama kali masuk, sehingga dimungkinkan dapat memperoleh hasil maksimal akan proses pengajaran yang akan diterapkan karena mereka masih bersemangat tinggi. proses pengajaran dilakukan di bridging campus, alam sutra, ruang asb29 dan kampus anggrek ruang 614 karena di dalam ruangan tersebut terdapat perangkat audio visual yang mendukung pengajaran bahasa, seperti komputer dengan program sodic, speaker, dan headset yang membuat mahasiswa tidak mengalami kendala selama proses pemutaran film berlangsung. isi materi yang diambil dari home with kids episode 1 世界图书 adalah kosakata 瞧 qiáo (v); look 亲 qīn (adj); related by blood 兄弟 xiōngdì (n) brother 似的 shìde (part); like 干脆 gāncuì (adv); simply 赶 găn (v); drive away 轰 hōng (v); drive off 闺女 guīnǚ (n); daughter 至于 zhìyú (adv) go so far as to 正式 zhèngshì (adj); formal 自打 zìdá (prep); since 品味 pĭnwèi (n); quality 帅 shuài (adj); handsome 重症病房 zhòngzhéngbìngfáng; icu 光辉 guānghuī (adj); glory menurut liu dan deng (2009:13) 跟……似的 像……一样。“似的”是助词,用在名词、代词 或动词后,表示跟某种事物或情况类似。 跟……似的 sama artinya dengan像……一样dan 似的. mereka merupakan kata bantu. biasanya mereka terletak dibelakang kata benda, kata ganti ataua kata kerja. mengandung makna bahwa objek yang ditunjuk menyerupai benda atau kondisi tertentu. contoh kalimat: • 你瞧,咱俩结婚刚两个月,这俩孩子就好得跟 亲兄弟似的,多好啊! • 他们俩长得跟亲姐妹似的。 多……啊 “多”用于感叹句,表示程度高。一般句式是“ 多 + 形容词 + (啊)”。在口语中,“啊”常常前边 的词语尾音发生音变,变成“哪”、“呀”、“哇”等。书 写时可以不变。 “多”biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat seru, mengandung makna tingkatan yang sangat tinggi. biasanya dalam kalimat, pola penyusunanya terdiri dari “多”+ kata sifat + “啊”, “啊” dalam percakapan sering terjadi perubahan bunyi menjadi “哪”、“呀”、“ 哇”dsb. namun dalam kalimat baku atau tulisan huruf “ 啊”tidak mengalami perubahan. contoh kalimat: • 你瞧,咱俩结婚刚两个月,这俩孩子就好得跟 秦兄弟似的,多好啊! • 这里的空气多新鲜啊。 干脆 副词,索性。由于前边所说的情况或者双方都 知道的情况比较麻烦,所以采取一个比较简单的方法 或者作出一个容易操作的决定。 “干脆”merupakan adverb (kata keterangan). biasanya, kalimat awal di kondisi atau kejadian lebih rumit, sehingga menyebabkan di kalimat kedua pihak yang berbicara mengambil keputusan untuk mempermudah kondisi atau keadaan dengan mengambil tindakan yang lebih ringkas. 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 contoh kalimat: • 我是说啊,干脆把夏雪从她爷爷家也结果来一 快儿住。 • 冰箱里没有东西了?干脆去饭馆吃吧。 不就……嘛,至于……吗? 只是一个简单的事情,到不了那么严重的程 度。对所说的人、事往小里说或者表示轻视。 “不 就 … …嘛 , 至 于 … …吗 ? ” d i g u n a k a n untuk menunjukkan bahwa kondisi atau orang yang sedang ditunjuk tidak terlalu sulit dihadapi atau tinggi tingkatannya. pembicara dalam hal ini memperkecil objek orang atau masalah yang dibicarakan atau bisa dikatakan meremehkan objek tersebut. contoh kalimat: • 不就是借个闺女嘛,至于这么正式吗? • 不就是一支蜘蛛嘛,至于这么怕吗? • 不就是一词考试嘛,至于这么紧张吗? a对b有信心 相信某人能做好某事,或相信某事能取得好结 果。 “a对b有信心” mengandung makna, percaya akan seseorang dapat mengerjakan dengan baik suatu masalah, atau percaya bahwa suatu kejadian akan memperoleh hasil yang memuaskan. contoh kalimat: • 我对你有信心。 • 我对这次比赛很有信心。 • 我对自己没信心。 a被b(给) 被动句。“被”引进动作的施事,a是动作的受 动者;“给”在这里是助词,直接用在动词前,也可以 省略。 “a被b(给)”merupakan struktur kalimat pasif. “被”menjelaskan bahwa a merupakan pelaku yang menyebabkan b terkena dampak atau akibat. kata “给”di sini hanya sebagai pelengkap yang boleh ada atau dihilangkan. di belakang kalimat biasanya diakhiri dengan kata kerja. contoh kalimat: • 妈,我的手被虫子给咬了。 • 我的衣服被雨(给)淋湿了。 • 我的车被朋友(给)接走了。 melalui pengajaran ini diharapkan mahasiswa dapat menganalisis isi cerita, menjelaskan isi cerita, menjawab pertanyaan yang diberikan, serta menceritakan ulang isi cerita dengan menggunakan bahasa china. strategi pengajaran menjelaskan langkah yang akan diambil dalam pengajaran di dalam kelas. pengajaran akan berlangsung selama 100 menit, dengan urutan berikut. bagian pertama menjelaskan kosakata (10 menit). sebelum mulai menjelaskan kosakata, terlebih dahulu akan dipaparkan topik dengan memaparkan isi film sesuai kondisi nyata. setelah itu, mahasiswa secara acak diminta untuk membuat kalimat dengan menggunakan kosakata baru yang diberikan. bagian kedua menjelaskan tata bahasa (20 menit). tahap berikutnya adalah menjelaskan tata bahasa yang akan digunakan dalam film. jika mahasiswa tidak ada pertanyaan dan sudah memahami kosakata dan tata bahasa yang ada, pemutaran film dimulai. bagian ketiga, mahasiswa menyaksikan film (26 menit). mahasiswa menyaksikan film berdurasi 25,08 menit sebanyak satu kali. bagian keempat, mahasiswa mengerjakan latihan (10 menit). mahasiswa mulai mengerjakan latihan secara mandiri dan mengumpulkan soal latihan begitu sudah selesai dijawab semua. dalam kasus ini dipilih dua model latihan, yang pertama adalah menarik garis dan yang kedua adalah pilihan ganda. bagian kelima, mahasiswa memaparkan isi cerita dalam bentuk lisan (15 menit). mahasiswa yang dipilih secara acak memaparkan ulang isi cerita dalam bentuk lisan. tujuan bahasan adalah agar mahasiswa yang kurang mengerti dapat lebih mengerti isi cerita yang dipaparkan. bagian keenam, penjelasan isi cerita (15 menit). bersamaan dengan uraian yang diberikan mahasiswa secara lisan, pengajar yang juga peneliti akan memperbaiki bagian yang salah dijelaskan oleh mahasiswa, selain peneliti juga menjelaskan secara terperinci seluruh uraian cerita yang sebenarnya. respons mahasiswa dapat dilihat dari dua hal, yaitu hasil latihan yang dikerjakan mahasiswa dan cara mahasiswa memaparkan isi cerita. dari kedua hal tersebut bisa diambil respons mahasiswa terhadap pengajaran bahasa menggunakan media film tersebut. hasil latihan mahasiswa dinilai berdasarkan new grading system for binusian 2018 dengan hasil yang ditunjukkan pada tabel 1 dan 2. tabel 1 menunjukkan bahwa dari 17 mahasiswa terdapat 10 mahasiswa memperoleh nilai good dan 5 mahasiswa memperoleh nilai excellent dalam latihan tes tertulis. ini membuktikan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa lebih mudah menyerap materi pelajaran dengan menggunakan multimedia film. hasil ini menguatkan bahwa latihan menggunakan multimedia film sangat bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam mempelajari bahasa china. sedangkan tabel 2 menunjukan bahwa dari 10 mahasiswa kelas ld63, terdapat 5 orang mahasiswa yang memperoleh nilai excellent dan 3 orang mahasiswa memperoleh nilai good. ini membuktikan bahwa sebagian besar mahasiswa dapat mengerti isi cerita film, terlebih lagi penulis menyadari bahwa mahasiswa terlihat antusias pada saat menceritakan ulang isi film. hal ini membuktikan bahwa penggunaan multimedia film di dalam kelas sebagai sarana untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam meningkatkan bahasa china cukup efektif. selain menggunakan sesi soal ujian, penulis juga menggunakan sesi tanya jawab dan diskusi. hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan 85% dari 27 orang mahasiswa memahami keseluruhan isi cerita dan dapat menceritakan ulang isi cerita. mahasiswa-mahasiswa tersebut mendapat nilai good dan excellent untuk sesi tanya jawab. sedangkan 15% dari 27 orang mahasiswa merasa bahwa dialog dalam film cenderung cepat dan sulit dimengerti, sehingga mereka memperoleh nilai fair. bahkan, mereka tidak dapat menceritakan ulang keseluruhan isi film. (gambar 1) 127analisis penggunaan film ….. (mariana; xuc lin) tabel 1 hasil tes mahasiswa kelas lc63 no nama nim nilai letter gradet5 deskripsi 1 feny kartika sari 1801398460 100 a excellent 2 erika juliati 1801401155 77 b good 3 indriani gazela 1801403974 77 b good 4 devi siswani 1801405014 77 b good 5 adila atika rahman 1801408104 77 b good 6 raga randiza anugrah 1801418925 85 aexcellent 7 jeanette 1801419165 85 aexcellent 8 thalia pangesti n 1801420122 65 c fair 9 angeline calista 1801420665 76 b good 10 lucia anggriana 1801425773 92 a excellent 11 astrid prakasa 1801432601 73 bgood 12 tiara cornelia w 1801432614 81 b+ excellent 13 agatha virgilia nogo 1801432620 75 b good 14 feny feronica 1801432910 76 b good 15 zefanya priscilla 1801433056 70 bgood 16 devina diamanta s w 1801434336 65 c fair 17 regent 1801444772 73 bgood tabel 2 hasil tes mahasiswa kelas ld63 no nama nim nilai letter gradet5 deskripsi 1 raisa goldatama 1701361705 68 c fair 2 risa goretty 1701361964 68 c fair 3 tiana gracia 1801383146 86 aexcellent 4 hendro trijaya 1801383272 75 b good 5 jessica 1801398091 70 bgood 6 ratu hana taruna 1801407966 85 aexcellent 7 novita winda 1801417784 85 aexcellent 8 william nodas 1801423710 88 aexcellent 9 irene laurina jermias 1801426643 85 aexcellent 10 patricia suryadiky 1801428705 77 b good gambar 1 hasil tes keseluruhan mahasiswa berdasarkan analisis data, mahasiswa dapat dengan mudah memahami isi film. selain itu, bantuan penjelasan kosakata dan tata bahasa di awal pertemuan menyebabkan mahasiswa mudah mempraktikkan tata bahasa dan kosakata untuk menjelaskan isi film. hal ini membuktikan bahwa film dapat merangsang kemampuan mahasiswa dalam berbicara bahasa china. simpulan penelitian membuktikan bahwa respons mahasiswa menunjukkan bahwa mereka lebih efektif mempelajari bahasa china dengan bantuan film. hal ini ditunjukkan dengan nilai good yang diperoleh sebagian besar mahasiswa yang juga membuktikan bahwa mahasiswa memahami isi film dan dapat mengerjakan latihan yang diberikan. sedangkan melalui respons mahasiswa yang berbentuk penjelasan, juga dapat diketahui bahwa mahasiswa mampu menjelaskan isi film, baik itu menggunakan bahasa china ataupun bahasa indonesia. selain itu, mahasiswa juga mampu langsung mempraktikkan tata bahasa yang berkaitan dengan isi film, terutama tata bahasa yang telah dijelaskan di awal pertemuan. hal ini membuktikan bahwa penggunaan multimedia film bermanfaat untuk meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa china mahasiswa. daftar pustaka jiang, m.(2010). duiwai hanyu tingli jiaoxue de jidian sikao. journal of yanbian university. liu, l., & deng, f. (2009). home with kids(家有儿女)1. beijing: shijie tushu press. mcdonald, k.(2005). film and television textual analysis: classroom resources. bedfordshire: auteur. shu, j. (2003). yingshi xinshang zai duiwai hanyu jiaoxuezhong de zuoyong. journal of anhui chinese culture university. stempleski,s., &tomalin, b. (2001). film. new york: oxford university press. tobias, c.u. (2009).the way they learn. indonesia: pionir jaya press wang, x. (2005). kandianying xuehanyu. xi’an: shaanxi shifan daxue press 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 diskriminasi gender dalam novel ginko karya junichi watanabe linda unsriana japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university, jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 linda_unsriana@hotmail.com abstract discrimination is an attitude and behavior that violates human rights. discrimination can also be interpreted as a treatment for individuals differently based on race, religion, or gender. any harassment, restriction, or exclusion to race, religion, or gender includes discriminatory actions. the theme of discrimination experienced by many women made the writer want to examine it from literature point of view, especially japanese literature. the problem in this paper is gender discrimination experienced by the main character in novel ginko. in ginko novel written by junichi watanabe, the theme of discrimination against women is very strong, as experienced by the main character named gin ogino. this study used feminist standpoint research with the assumption that gender discrimination in society in the novel cannot be separated from women’s real experiences perceived by the author. in addition to stand on or derived from real experiences from the first woman doctor in japan, which with all her efforts to break away from discrimination against women endured throughout her life: before marriage, divorce, attending medical school to become a doctor, even after she was graduated from medical school, she still experienced gender discrimination. this study found that gender discrimination experienced by ginko because she is a woman, in which at that time (the meiji era) there were clear boundaries between men and women. difficulty and discrimination experienced are because ginko’s ideals were considered impossible, because she wanted to become a doctor. her ability and cleverness were obstructed just because she is a woman. it can be concluded in the meiji era, there was discrimination against women reflected in the novel ginko. keywords: gender, gender discrimination, novel ginko abstrak diskriminasi adalah suatu bentuk sikap dan perilaku yang melanggar hak asasi manusia. diskriminasi juga dapat diartikan sebagai perlakuan berbeda terhadap individu dengan didasari faktor ras, agama, atau gender. setiap pelecehan, pembatasan, atau pengucilan terhadap ras, agama, ataupun gender termasuk tindakan diskriminatif. menariknya tema tentang diskriminasi yang dialami banyak perempuan membuat penulis menelitinya dari sudut pandang sastra, khususnya sastra jepang. permasalahan yang diteliti adalah diskriminasi gender yang dialami tokoh utama dalam novel ginko. dalam novel ginko yang ditulis oleh junichi watanabe, tema diskriminasi terhadap perempuan sangat kuat, seperti yang dialami oleh tokoh utama yang bernama gin ogino. penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian sudut pandang feminis dengan asumsi bahwa gambaran tentang diskriminasi gender dalam masyarakat yang terdapat dalam novel yang dikaji tidak dapat dilepaskan dari pengalaman nyata kaum perempuan yang dipersepsi oleh pengarang. selain berpijak pada atau bersumber dari pengalaman nyata dokter wanita pertama di jepang yang dengan segala upayanya melepaskan diri dari diskriminasi terhadap perempuan yang dialaminya sepanjang hidupnya, yaitu sejak sebelum menikah, bercerai, masuk sekolah kedokteran, bahkan setelah menjadi dokter, ia pun masih tetap mengalami diskriminasai yang berkaitan dengan jenis kelamin. penelitian ini menemukan diskriminasi gender yang dialami ginko disebabkan jenis kelaminnya yang adalah perempuan. pada saat itu (zaman meiji) ada batas yang jelas antara laki-laki dan wanita. kesulitan dan diskriminiasi dialami ginko karena cita-citanya dianggap mustahil, yaitu menjadi seorang dokter. kemampuan dan kepandaiannya terbentur hanya karena dia adalah seorang wanita. melihat uraian yang dialami tokoh ginko, dapat disimpulkan pada zaman meiji terdapat diskriminasi terhadap kaum perempuan, yang tercermin pada novel ginko. kata kunci: gender, diskriminasi gender, novel ginko 41diskriminasi gender ….. (linda unsriana) pendahuluan diskriminasi adalah suatu bentuk sikap dan perilaku yang melanggar hak asasi manusia (ihromi, 2007:7). diskriminasi juga dapat diartikan sebagai perlakuan terhadap individu secara berbeda dengan didasari faktor ras, agama, gender. setiap pelecehan, pembatasan, atau pengucilan terhadap ras, agama, ataupun gender termasuk tindakan yang diskriminatif. diskriminasi terhadap perempuan adalah melanggar hak asasi perempuan. rekomendasi no.19 sidang ke 11 komite 1992, tentang kekerasan terhadap wanita yang terdapat pada undangundang menyatakan bahwa diskriminasi meliputi kekerasan berdasarkan jenis kelamin yaitu kekerasan yang ditujukan kepada wanita karena dia adalah seorang wanita atau mempunyai pengaruh secara tidak sepadan pada wanita (ihromi, 2007:54). adapun diskriminasi gender adalah sebuah ketidakadilan dengan pembedaan sikap dan perlakuan terhadap sesama manusia berdasarkan jenis kelamin. pasal 1 dari convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against woman (cedaw) menyatakan bahwa diskriminasi terhadap perempuan berarti setiap pembedaan, pengucilan atau pembatasan yang dibuat atas dasar jenis kelamin, yang mempunyai pengaruh atau tujuan untuk mengurangi atau menghapuskan pengakuan, penikmatan atau pengurangan hak-hak asasi manusia dan kebebasan-kebebasan pokok di bidang politik, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, sipil atau apapun lainnya oleh kaum wanita terlepas dari status perkawinan mereka, atas dasar persamaan antara laki-laki dan perempuan. penjelasan tambahan definisi diskriminasi terhadap perempuan ini termasuk juga kekerasan berbasis gender, yaitu kekerasan yang langsung ditujukan terhadap sosok perempuan, karena dia adalah perempuan secara proporsional. hal tersebut termasuk tindakan-tindakan yang mengakibatkan kerugian fisik, mental dan seksual atau penderitaan, atau ancaman atas tindakan tersebut atau kekerasan/paksaan dan perampasan kebebasan. (kalibonso, 2006:20) pada berita yang dilansir vivanews (suprapto & adiati, 2009), sebuah panel perserikatan bangsa-bangsa mendesak jepang untuk mengambil langkah lebih tegas dalam mengeliminasi ketidaksetaraan gender. komite penghapusan diskriminasi perempuan menilai tindakan pemerintah jepang dalam menghapus diskriminasi terhadap perempuan belum cukup. seperti dikutip dari laman stasiun televisi bbc, jumat 21 agustus 2009, negara ekonomi terkuat kedua di dunia tersebut berada di peringkat 54 dalam hal kesetaraan gender. panel mengkhawatirkan rendahnya penalti hukum untuk tindak kejahatan pemerkosaan dan ketersediaan materi pornografi di jepang. menurut komite, jepang sebaiknya menetapkan tujuan untuk meningkatkan jumlah perempuan untuk posisi pengambil keputusan di dunia kerja dan politik. panel menyarankan, usia perempuan agar bisa menikah sebaiknya ditingkatkan dari 16 menjadi 18 tahun, sama dengan kaum pria. selain itu, menurut panel, masa tenggang selama enam bulan pasca perceraian untuk bisa menikah lagi yang hanya diterapkan bagi perempuan, sebaiknya dihilangkan. komite meminta jepang untuk segera bertindak, tetapi mencatat bahwa jepang sudah memberlakukan sejumlah peraturan untuk meningkatkan kesetaraan gender. (suprapto & adiati, 2009) novel ginko merupakan novel biografi tentang ginko ogino, dokter wanita pertama jepang. ogino lahir dari keluarga petani kaya pada 1851, saat masyarakat jepang masih sangat didominasi laki-laki. dia menikah dalam keluarga yang sama kaya namun bercerai ketika terkena penyakit gonorhoe—penyakit kelamin yang pada masa itu sulit untuk disembuhkan. penyakit itu dia dapatkan dari suaminya. gin yang tinggal di daerah pedesaan tidak mendapatkan perawatan medis yang selayaknya. barulah ketika ia pergi ke tokyo dia diperiksa oleh dokter kebidanan. rasa malunya diperiksa oleh dokter kebidanan yang berjenis kelamin laki-laki membuat ia bertekad untuk menjadi dokter kebidanan juga, agar perasaan malu yang dideritanya karena diperiksa dokter laki-laki tidak dialami oleh wanita lainnya. pada masa itu, perbedaan antara pria dan wanita sangat tajam, dimana wanita hanya dituntut untuk melayani keluarga terutama laki-laki. melayani ayah sebelum menikah, atau melayani suami ketika sudah menikah. peran wanita seperti menjadi dokter belum ada, sehingga sangat sulit bagi ginko untuk mewujudkan cita-citanya menjadi dokter wanita. tak gentar dengan berbagai kendala, misalnya ketika ia ditempatkan di sekolah kedokteran yang semua siswanya adalah laki-laki yang pada saat itu belum bisa menerima bahwa ada seorang perempuan yang bercita-cita menjadi dokter. ogino belajar keras, membayar uang kuliah dengan bekerja sebagai tutor pribadi. dia lulus dengan nilai fenomenal, tetapi ia juga harus menghadapi rintangan baru: sebagai seorang wanita, ia dilarang mengambil ujian kualifikasi yang akan memungkinkan dia untuk praktik kedokteran. dia harus mengikuti ujian kualifikasi, tetapi aplikasinya secara konsisten ditolak. akhirnya pada 1885 berkat jasa baik dari prof. ishiguro, dokter tentara kenalan, ginko diberi izin untuk ikut ujian, dan berhasil menjadi dokter wanita pertama jepang . setelah itu, ia memulai praktik di tokyo. pada masa awal pemerintahan meiji, ketika meraih profesi dokter sangatlah sulit bahkan bagi lakilaki, cita-cita ginko terbilang mustahil. kenyataan itu tidak membuat ginko gentar. diawali dengan mengubah namanya menjadi ginko sebagai simbol perlawanannya terhadap ketidakadilan yang mendera perempuan, dia memulai perjuangan untuk menjadi dokter perempuan pertama di jepang. sementara, pertemuannya dengan seorang lelaki yang mengaguminya membuat hidupnya kian penuh warna. buku yang menarik ini mengeksplorasi kehidupan ogino serta menjelaskan sistem pendidikan bagi perempuan dan calon dokter pada abad ke-19 di jepang. diskriminasi yang dialami banyak perempuan membuat penulis tertarik untuk menelitinya dari sudut pandang sastra, khususnya sastra jepang. dengan korpus data novel ginko, penulis meneliti diskriminasi yang terjadi pada tokoh ginko. dalam novel ginko, tema diskriminasi terhadap perempuan sangat kuat, seperti yang dialami tokoh utama yang bernama gin ogino. novel ini ditulis oleh watanabe (2013), sastrawan jepang kenamaan yang telah mendapat berbagai penghargaan di bidang sastra antara lain naoki prize. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memberikan pengetahuan kepada pembaca 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 bagaimana diskriminasi gender yang terjadi di awal era meiji di jepang. metode data dianalisis dengan menggunakan metode kualitatif. metode kualitatif dianggap sebagai multimetode sebab penelitian pada gilirannya melibatkan sejumlah besar gejala sosial yang relevan (ratna, 2009:47). penelitian ini menggunakan sudut pandang feminis dengan asumsi bahwa gambaran tentang diskriminasi gender dalam masyarakat yang terdapat dalam novel yang dikaji tidak dapat dilepaskan dari pengalaman nyata kaum perempuan yang dipersepsi oleh pengarangnya. selain berpijak pada atau bersumber dari pengalaman nyata dokter wanita pertama di jepang yang dengan segala upaya melepaskan diri dari diskriminasi terhadap perempuan yang dialami sepanjang hidup, yaitu sebelum ia menikah, bercerai, masuk sekolah kedokteran. bahkan setelah menjadi dokter pun ia masih tetap mengalami diskriminasai yang berkaitan dengan jenis kelaminnya. korpus data utama berupa novel dibaca dengan saksama untuk menemukan rangkaian diskriminasi yang dialami tokoh utama. analisis tindakan diskriminasi yang dialami tokoh utama dibagi menjadi beberapa tahapan, yaitu diskriminasi yang terjadi sebelum ginko masuk sekolah kedokteran, diskriminasi selama belajar di sekolah kedokteran, dan diskriminasi setelah selesai sekolah kedokteran. data dianalisis secara deskriptif analisis untuk mendapatkan simpulan. hasil dan pembahasan muchdi (2001) menyatakan diskriminasi gender termanifestasikan dalam berbagai bentuk ketidakadilan, terutama pada perempuan. manifestasi diskriminasi gender tersebut masing masing tidak bisa dipisahkan, saling terkait, dan berpengaruh (muchdi, 2001:33). bentukbentuk ketidakadilan akibat diskriminasi gender, misalnya: marginalisasi (peminggiran/pemiskinan), subordinasi, dan stereotip/pelabelan negatif sekaligus perlakuan diskriminatif. contoh marginalisasi (peminggiran/ pemiskinan) yaitu banyak pekerja perempuan tersingkir dan menjadi miskin akibat program pembangunan seperti intensifikasi pertanian yang hanya memfokuskan pada petani laki-laki. kemudian, subordinasi adalah keyakinan bahwa salah satu jenis kelamin lebih penting atau lebih utama dibanding jenis kelamin lainnya. sudah sejak dahulu ada pandangan yang menempatkan kedudukan dan peran perempuan lebih rendah daripada laki-laki. banyak kasus dalam tradisi, tafsiran ajaran agama maupun dalam aturan birokrasi yang meletakkan kaum perempuan sebagai subordinasi dari kaum lak-laki. kenyataan memperlihatkan masih ada nilai-nilai masyarakat yang membatasi ruang gerak perempuan dalam kehidupan. sebagai contoh, seorang istri yang hendak mengikuti tugas belajar ke luar negeri harus mendapat izin suami, tetapi jika suami yang akan pergi tidak perlu izin dari istri. lebih lanjut, stereotip mempunyai arti pemberian citra baku atau label/cap kepada seseorang atau kelompok yang didasarkan pada suatu anggapan yang salah atau sesat. stereotip umumnya dilakukan dalam dua hubungan atau lebih dan sering kali digunakan sebagai alasan untuk membenarkan suatu tindakan kelompok atas kelompok lainnya. stereotip juga menunjukkan adanya hubungan kekuasaan yang timpang atau tidak seimbang yang bertujuan untuk menaklukkan atau menguasai pihak lain. beberapa stereotip yang berkembang, seperti: perempuan itu cengeng; perempuan tidak rasional tetapi emosional; perempuan tidak bisa mengambil keputusan penting; perempuan sebagai ibu rumah tangga dan pencari nafkah tambahan sedangkan laki-laki sebagai pencari nafkah utama. hal ini tidak hanya terjadi dalam lingkup rumah tangga tetapi juga terjadi di tempat kerja dan dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat. diskriminasi pada tokoh ginko sebelum masuk sekolah kedokteran tokoh ginko mengalami diskriminasi dalam bentuk subordinasi, yaitu suatu keyakinan bahwa kedudukan wanita lebih rendah dibanding kedudukan laki-laki (muchdi:2001). bentuk subordinasi terlihat pada pernikahan ginko. tak satu kali pun dia ditanya tentang pernikahannya; dia dipaksa menikah begitu saja dengan calon suami yang dipilihkan keluarga. masalah timbul ketika ginko tertular penyakit kelamin (gonorhoea) dari suaminya, dan akhirnya pulang ke rumah orangtua kandungnya dengan membawa penyakitnya. kepulangannya membawa kegemparan tersendiri buat warga di desa kecil tawarase, seperti tampak dalam kutipan berikut: ketika pertamakali dibujuk untuk segera menikahkan putri bungsunya itu, kayo langsung setuju. tak satu kali pun gin ditanyai. gin pun melakukan apa yang diperintahkan dan seluruh prosesnya dijalankan sesuai adat istiadat yang berlaku. (watanabe, 2013:14) tiga tahun yang lalu, putri kelima mereka yang bernama gin, menikah dengan kanichiro, putra tertua keluarga petani kaya raya inamura dari desa kawakami yang dekat dari tawarase. orangorang mengatakan bahwa gin sekarang sudah kembali ke tawarase. namun kepulangan itu bukan untuk melahirkan atau melakukan kunjungan menghormati orang tua. dia pulang sendirian tanpa membawa apa-apa selain sebuah buntelan. (watanabe, 2013:7) di sebuah desa tradisional dan konservatif pada masa-masa awal pemerintahan meiji belum pernah ada seorang istri yang masih muda kabur dari suaminya dan pulang ke rumah orang tua. kasak-kusuk menyebar begitu cepat dan tentu saja banyak spekulasi beredar mengenai perkara itu. kepulangan seorang wanita kepada keluarga kandungnya merupakan aib, tidak hanya untuk perempuan itu saja tapi juga untuk keluarganya. bahkan kakak kandungnya sendiri yang bernama tomoko, merasakan aib akibat kepulangan adik perempuannya: tomoko tak bisa membayangkan pergi meninggalkan rumah suaminya tanpa memberitahu 43diskriminasi gender ….. (linda unsriana) siapapun, apalagi gin menikah dengan salah satu keluarga terkaya di saitama utara. “astaga, tega benar dia melakukannya pada kita.” seorang saudara perempuan yang lari dari suaminya bisa menimbulkan masalah bagi seluruh keluarga, termasuk dirinya sendiri. (watanabe, 2013:13) “kau meninggalkan rumah suamimu tanpa izin, langsung pulang begitu saja ke rumah orang tuamu, lalu menetap di sini seolah-olah kau berhak melakukannya! itu bukanlah sikap terhormat seorang perempuan yang sudah bersuami.” tomoko sudah tak dapat membendung kemarahannya. (watanabe, 2013:18–19) karena kepulangan seorang perempuan pada keluarga kandung merupakan suatu aib, ayah ginko bermaksud mengirimkan kembali ginko ke keluarga suaminya. hal ini memperlihatkan bentuk diskriminasi yang luar biasa terhadap kaum perempuan. meskipun penyakit gonorhoe didapat dari suaminya, tetap saja perempuan yang harus menanggung penderitaan. “tak peduli betapapun kecilnya kesalahan suamiku atau meskipun hanya dilakukan sekali seumur hidup, yang jelas dia telah memberiku penyakit ini.” “tidak pantas perempuan bicara seperti itu!” “lalu, kalau seorang perempuan mendapatkan penyakit dari seorang laki-laki dan tak bisa memiliki anak, dia harus menerimanya begitu saja? meskipun aku menderita demam, aku harus tetap bangun dari tempat tidur, mematuhi segala perintah ibu mertua kepadaku, dan melakukan segalanya semampuku untuk membuat suamiku tetap senang?” (watanabe, 2013:19) kutipan memperlihatkan bagaimana keluarga ginko sendiri yaitu kakak perempuan, bahkan ayah kandung melakukan diskriminasi gender dalam bentuk subordinasi pada tokoh utama. meskipun kesalahan itu ada pada pihak laki-laki, ginko tetap disalahkan dengan alasan sebagai wanita, dia tidak pantas keluar dari rumah suaminya begitu saja. dari sudut pandang feminis hal ini merupakan bentuk diskriminasi terhadap kaum perempuan dalam bentuk marginalisasi terhadap kaum perempuan. seperti yang dinyatakan oleh muchdi (2001), bahwa diskriminasi gender termanifestasikan dalam berbagai bentuk ketidakadilan, dan salah satunya adalah stereotip pada perempuan. perempuan dilabeli sebagai makhluk lemah, dan hanya mengerjakan tugas-tugas rumah tangga. hal ini juga ditegaskan oleh hanford: indeed if the new wife survived all the tests of her inlaws for the first few years, she became mistress of her own family and her position improved greatly. her daily duties subsequently included feeding and clothing the family, maintenance of the house, cleaning, cooking and control of the household finances. the wife was also expected to care for the elderly and educate the young. (handford, 1994:28) sejalan dengan penelitian hanford mengenai wanita zaman meiji, novel ini juga memperlihatkan kesesuaian terhadap penelitian tersebut. ginko yang menolak peran sebagai ibu rumah tangga dianggap keluar dari kebiasaan umum wanita yang telah menikah. kiguchi (n.d.) menuliskan: the principle of “good wife and wise mother” had been the essence of japanese women education until the end of world war ii in 1945. this education for “good wife and wise mother” aimed to train girls to have the thoughts that they regard nation state as family and to do her best for the family members. the premise was no an equal couple but a patriarchal family that a wife was more low position than a husband. (kiguchi, n.d.:137) dengan konsep pemikiran seperti yang diutarakan handford dan kiguchi, sikap ginko dianggap bukanlah sikap seorang istri yang baik karena dia tidak suka mengurus rumah tangga dan suka membaca buku. kegiatan tersebut tidaklah pantas dilakukan seorang perempuan pada masa itu. pandangan dalam bentuk stereotip—bahwa tugas wanita adalah mengurus rumah tangga—terlihat jelas sebagai salah satu bentuk diskriminasi gender. pada novel terlihat pada kutipan berikut: tomoko bicara lagi, “memang seperti itulah tugas istri-istri yang masih muda.” “aku tidak mau.” gin berbalik menghadap kakaknya. “menyalakan tungku, membersihkan rumah, menanak nasi…sama sekali tak ada waktu untuk membaca.” “maksudmu kau ingin mengatakan kepadaku bahwa selama ini kau masih membaca buku?” “di mana-mana tak ada istri petani yang membaca buku!” memangnya apa yang ada di kepalamu?” (watanabe, 2013:21) kutipan tersebut memperlihatkan bahwa ada kesenjangan besar antara laki-laki dan perempuan, pada masa itu, bahkan seorang wanita dianggap tidak pantas membaca buku. konsep patriakal yang dianut kuat pada masa itu juga memberi andil pada diskriminasi gender pada zaman meiji. pandangan stereotip adalah citra baku tentang individu atau kelompok yang tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan empiris yang ada. pelabelan negatif secara umum selalu melahirkan ketidakadilan. salah satu stereotip yang berkembang berdasarkan pengertian gender terjadi terhadap satu jenis kelamin yakni perempuan. hal ini menyebabkan terjadinya diskriminasi dan ketidakadilan yang merugikan kaum perempuan. misalnya pandangan terhadap perempuan yang tugas dan fungsinya hanya melaksanakan pekerjaan yang berkaitan dengan pekerjaan domestik atau kerumahtanggaan, seperti terlihat pada kutipan di atas. penyakit ginko yang pada masa itu sulit disembuhkan, telah membawanya ke ibu kota, tokyo, yang di sana pengobatan ala barat sudah lebih maju dibanding di desanya yang hanya mengandalkan pengobatan tradisional. akan tetapi pada masa itu dokter kebidanan yang memeriksanya adalah dokter laki-laki. ketidaknyamanan 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 atas pemeriksaan yang dilakukan, membuat ginko bercitacita menjadi dokter wanita, spesialis kandungan. era meiji telah membuka diri terhadap pendidikan bagi kaum perempuan, hanya saja, pendidikan kaum perempuan adalah untuk menunjang perannya sebagai ibu yang baik dan istri yang bijaksana. seperti yang diungkapkan oleh kiguchi (n.d.:137): “an educational policy of those girl’s schools was the principle of ryōsai kenbo “good wife and wise mother,” bukan untuk menjadi dokter. kutipan berikut ini akan menjelaskan fakta bahwa orang-orang di sekeliling ginko menganggap keinginannya menjadi dokter adalah mustahil: mendengar keinginan anaknya untuk sekolah kedokteran kayo, ibu gin terperanjat dan berkata: “apa kau sudah gila?” di dunia tempat kita hidup sekarang, ada beberapa hal yang mungkin, ada pula yang tidak mungkin. bercerminlah pada kenyataan. bahkan untuk membuka buku pun, perempuan itu tidak pantas. “dimana letak memalukannya niat seorang yang ingin membantu orang lain yang menderita?” gin tetap bersikeras. “itu tugas dokter laki-laki. memotong bagianbagian tubuh dan melihat darah bukanlah pekerjaan perempuan. ada banyak hal lain yang hanya bisa dilakukan oleh perempuan. “seperti mengurus rumah tangga dan merawat keluarga bukan?” “ya, itu salah satunya.” (watanabe, 2013:81) tidak ada hukum yang mengatakan bahwa perempuan tidak boleh belajar! “ya, dan semakin banyak kau belajar kau semakin kehilangan sopan santun keperempuanmu dalam mengungkapkan pendapat.” mungkin memang tidak ada hukum yang melarangmu melakukan apa yang kau suka, tapi ada adat istiadat. pikirkan bagaimana seluruh penduduk desa yang bakal menertawakanmu karena tahu kau hendak pergi ke tokyo untuk belajar dan menjadi dokter. mereka akan menunjuk-nunjukan jarinya ke arahmu sambil berkata kau perempuan gila.” (watanabe, 2013:82) diskriminasi dalam bentuk stereotip dinyatakan pada bagian perempuan mempunyai kerjaan mengurus rumah tangga dan merawat rumah. tidak mungkin perempuan menjadi dokter karena keinginan itu mustahil bahkan dianggap gila jika perempuan punya cita-cita menjadi dokter. hal ini tidak berlaku bagi laki-laki, bahwa laki-laki dapat menjadi dokter sesuai keinginannya. pada masa itu di seluruh jepang hanya ada tiga lembaga yang dapat memberi gelar kedokteran, masing masing ada di tokyo, nagasaki, dan chiba. di chiba ada sakura juntendo, sekolah kedokteran swasta yang terkenal sebagai yang terbaik di bidang pembedahan. untuk dapat masuk ke sekolah itu sangatlah susah, untuk setiap angkatan hanya menerima 20-30 siswa saja dan semuanya laki laki. dalam kasus gin, masih ada hambatan yang lebih besar, yaitu baik sekolah negeri maupun swasta tidak menerima mahasiswi, dan tak seorang pun bisa mengikuti lisensi kalau bukan lulusan dari salah satu satu sekolah itu. semua jalan untuk bisa menjadi dokter sepenuhnya dan untuk selamanya bakal tertutup bagi perempuan. “tidak pernah ada perempuan yang menjadi dokter sebelumnya. karena tidak boleh. mengejar citacitamu ini sama saja dengan melanggar hukum. aku tidak kaget kalau ibumu menolak memberimu izin. kalau kau pergi ke tokyo sekarang dan mengatakan kau ingin menjadi dokter, kau tetap tidak bisa melakukannya. kau tidak punya koneksi dan jalan bagi perempuan untuk menempuh pendidikan dokter tidak ada. gin sadar ini adalah nasehat bijak, ingin menjadi seorang mahasiswi saja sudah cukup aneh dan sama sekali belum bisa ditoleransi oleh masyarakat.” (watanabe, 2013:86) “gin berangkat pukul delapan pagi. dia berpamitan pada kakaknya di dalam rumah, tetapi hanya menerima anggukan singkat tanpa bicara sebagai jawabannya. tak satu pun orang di rumah itu yang mendukung gin, termasuk kane, pembantunya yang sangat menyayanginya.” (watanabe, 2013:90) “sayang sekali, bakat sebesar itu dimiliki seorang gadis.” (watanabe, 2013:97) kutipan-kutipan tersebut menggambarkan bagaimana tokoh ginko ogino mendapatkan perlakuan diskriminatif. keluarga dan orang-orang di sekitarnya mengakui kemampuan ginko, tetapi sayangnya dia adalah perempuan, dan sesuai ideologi konfusianisme yang menyatakan bahwa tugas perempuan adalah menjadi istri yang baik dan ibu bijaksana. pengaruh ajaran konfusianisme menempatkankan wanita pada kedudukan yang rendah, membenarkan adanya diskriminasi antara pria dan wanita, ternyata telah berakar kuat dan berlangsung lama di lingkungan kehidupan masyarakat jepang. pengaruh ini dirasakan sangat kuat pada zaman feodal atau sebelum restorasi meiji. (wagiyah, 2012) lembaga pemerintah yang mengatur pendidikan menyatakan bahwa “kecuali di sekolah dasar, laki-laki dan perempuan harus dididik secara terpisah”. hal ini mengingatkan pada zaman tokugawa bahwa “anak laki laki dan perempuan, tidak boleh tinggal bersamasama setelah usia tujuh tahun, suatu kebijakan agar para perempuan tetap tunduk pada laki-laki yang ditulis dalam kebijakan pemerintah meiji yang baru, dengan sedikit perubahan. kebijakan ini tetap dijalankan sampai undangundang dasar jepang yang berlaku saat ini diresmikan setelah perang dunia ii. dalam suasana yag begitu memusuhi pendidikan perempuan muda yang mendaftar pada tahun-tahun awal, termasuk gin, mendapat tentangan dari keluarga mereka. (watanabe, 2013:127) pemikiran pemikiran yang bersifat diskriminatif tercermin pada ucapan-ucapan seperti “melahirkan anak perempuan yang suka belajar membawa aib pada seluruh keluarga,” utamakanlah pelayanan daripada pelajaran, dan “perempuan seharusnya diam di rumah”. karena alasanalasan semacam itulah, gadis-gadis itu melawan keinginan 45diskriminasi gender ….. (linda unsriana) orangtua mereka dan akibatnya beberapa bahkan tidak lagi diakui oleh keluarga mereka. (watanabe, 2013:127) pada masa itu universitas-universitas umum yang pertama sedang didirikan dan ada beberapa perguruan tinggin kedokteran swasta juga, tapi semua itu tertutup bagi perempuan. ungkapan seorang profesor yang sangat mengagumi ginko juga memperlihatkan bentuk diskriminasi gender pada yang masih terjadi di zaman meiji, seperti kutipan berikut: “dengan kecerdasanmu, kau mungkin bisa mejadi dokter. sayang sekali kau kebetulan terlahir sebagai perempuan.” profesor nagai menatap wajah cerdas ginko dan menghela nafas. (watanabe, 2013:146) kutipan-kutipan tersebut memperlihatkan bahwa kendala utama tokoh ginko adalah semata-mata karena dia berjenis kelamin perempuan. diskrimiasi pada tokoh ginko selama sekolah kedokteran pada tahapan sebelumnya telah digambarkan diskriminasi yang dialami ginko sebelum ia masuk sekolah kedokteran: keinginan yang mustahil dari seorang perempuan. pada tahapan ini akan diuraikan diskriminasi yang dialami tokoh ginko selama ia bersekolah di sekolah kedokteran. seorang profesor bernama ishiguro adalah orang yang menyadari bahwa dokter kebidanan yang berjenis kelamin perempuan sangat dibutuhkan. pengalamannya selama menjadi dokter kandungan memberikan gambaran bahwa perempuan malu jika kondisi keperempuannya diperiksa dokter kebidanan yang berjenis kelamin lakilaki: “aku setuju denganmu. secara umum perempuan itu pemalu dan terutama tidak suka jika diperiksa kondisi keperempuannya. aku sendiri bingung tentang bagaimana menangani masalah tersebut. akan sangat bermanfaat jika ada dokter perempuan untuk mengatasai masalah semacam itu. tidak ada mata kuliah di fakultas kedokteran yang tidak dapat dipelajari perempuan sehingga tidak ada alasan bagi perempuan untuk tidak d i p e r b o l e h k a n menjadi dokter.” (watanabe, 2013:147) kondisi seperti yang diutarakan profesor ishiguro ternyata tidak dibarengi dengan perubahan sistem atau penambahan fasilitas bagi kaum perempuan yang bersekolah di sekolah kedokteran. kasus ginko, misalnya, meskipun rektor universitas memang bersedia menerima ginko, ia tidak memberikan akomodasi khusus bagi seorang mahasiswi, tidak dalam hal fasilitas, peralatan, atau penyesuaian dengan aturan. jika ginko ingin masuk, kehadirannya akan dimaklumi, tetapi hanya itu saja. sejak hari pertama, tidak mendapat apa-apa, kecuali perlakuan kasar. (watanabe, 2013:150) hari pertama, setelah menyelesaikan berkas-berkas pendaftarannya, ginko melihat sekeliling bertanya-tanya apa yang harus dilakukannya namun tak seorangpun menawarkan bimbingan atau arahan. ketika dia bertanya pada staf kantor ke mana dia harus pergi, jawabannya hanya “hmm”, tidak tahu yang dingin. terlihat jelas dari ekspresi mereka bahwa bagi mereka, kehadirannya menodai reputasi sekolah itu. (watanabe, 2013:151) dari sisi perlakuan mahasiswa kedokteran yang berjenis laki-laki, ginko mendapat perlakuan yang tidak semestinya, dapat dilihat dari kutipan berikut: “hari ini kita dihadapkan dengan seorang mahasiswi. kita harus belajar kedokteran bersama perempuan, mendengarkan ceramah dan melakukan percobaan bersama perempuan. dengan kata lain, derajat kita telah diturunkan sampai pada tingkat perempuan. siapa yang harus disalahkan?” (watanabe, 2013:153) tidak seperti para mahasiswa, para professor tidak secara terbuka memusuhi kehadirannya sebagai mahasiswi, tapi mereka juga tidak memiliki pandangan yang positif tentang seorang perempuan “tiba-tiba seseorang berteriak,” ada boneka! seisi ruangan itu berdiri, bertepuk tangan dan mengenta-entakkan sandal geta kayu mereka di lantai. ginko mendapati dirinya dikelilingi oleh sepuluh atau lima belas laki-laki jorok dengan jenggot yang tebal. mereka terlihat seperti penjahat. ginko buru-buru lari keluar ruangan , tapi mahasiswa itu membuntutinya sambil bersiulsiul. anak laki-laki dan perempuan dididik scara terpisah sejak usia tujuh tahun sehingga bahkan laki-laki dewasa pun tidak mampu menguasai diri dngan hadirnya seorang perempuan. (watanabe, 2013:152) “saudara-saudara sekalian, ini benar-benar tak tertahankan…benar-benar buruk….universitas kedokteran kita yang mulia, yang dikelola oleh dokter kekaisaran yang ditunjuk, hari ini menerima seorang mahasiswi kedokteran. mengapa? profesi terhormat kita telah turun martabat menjadi pekerjaan perempuan dan anak-anak. rupanya belum cukup bahwa perempuan berpendidikan merusak rumah tangga, sekarang mereka melanjutkan untuk menghancurkan profesi medis. ini keterlaluan.” (watanabe, 2013:153) para laki-laki itu memang memiliki pandangan progresif, tetapi pandangan mereka belum sejauh menerima seorang perempuan di dalam pofesi medis yang secara eksklusif merupakan profesi laki laki. di pinggiran ruang kuliah ginko menanggung semuanya sendirian, dan satu-satunya alasan yang membuatnya diasingkan itu adalah karena dia perempuan. ginko belum pernah merasa sepahit ini tentang nasibnya. zaman itu, jika hendak makan perempuan harus menunggu sampai para laki-laki selesai, berjalan beberapa langkah di belakang para laki-laki, dan selalu berbicara dengan hormat ketika menghadapi mereka. kalau seorang laki-laki mengatakan sesuatu, jawaban yang diharapkan dari perempuan adalah, “ya, saya mengerti”. persoalan perempuan diharuskan terbatas pada pekerjaan rumah tangga dan mengasuh anak saja. (watanabe, 2013:155) dalam konteks inilah ginko, seorang perempuan tiba-tiba datang di ruang kelas yang penuh dengan laki46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 laki. tidak hanya itu, ruang kelas itu adalah kelas di bidang kedokteran, di ruang yang hanya para laki-laki yang diperbolehkan hadir. sebagian besar orang akan berpihak pada mahasiswa laki-laki yang terkejut dan marah itu, yang selalu diajarkan bahwa posisi perempuan berada jauh di bawah mereka. setelah menjadi calon dokter pun ginko masih mengalami bentuk diskriminasi. ketika ia akan mengobati seorang mantan samurai yang terinfeksi karena luka bekas peluru yang telah lama di bagian lengannya. laki-laki itu menolak diperiksa oleh calon dokter wanita, seperti tampak pada kutipan berikut: “aku tidak butuh perempuan” “ya, saya memang perempuan, tapi saya sudah dididik dengan benar, mempelajari bahan yang sama dengan mahasiswa lain. hal ini tidak relevan untuk pemeriksaan anda.” “aku berasal dari keluarga samurai. jika tersebar berita aku diperiksa oleh dokter perempuan, aku tidak akan pernah bisa menunjukkan mukaku kepada nenek moyangku. jika kau memaksaku, aku akan merobek perutku sebagai gantinya.” (watanabe, 2013:169-170) kesulitan utama ginko berasal dari jenis kelaminnya. dia menjadi satu-satunya perempuan di sekolah khusus laki-laki. walaupun pengaruh eropa telah memengaruhi kelas masyarakat tertentu, budaya eropa tersebut tidak menyentuh kehidupan rakyat jelata. butuh waktu bertahun-tahun untuk mengubah pemikiran konservatif yang dibudidayakan selama tiga ratus taun zaman tokugawa. kesulitan yang dialami ginko sama dengan yang dihadapi semua perempuan perintis modernisasi lainnya meskipun dalam kasusnya diskriminasi dapat dikategorikan sebagai penganiayaan secara aktif. kutipan dan uraian tersebut memperlihatkan diskriminasi yang dialami tokoh ginko selama ia bersekolah di sekolah kedokteran. diskriminasi tersebut berbentuk subordinasi dengan adanya pandangan yang menempatkan kedudukan dan peran perempuan lebih rendah dari laki-laki. pada kasus ketika ginko menangani seorang samurai sangat jelas terlihat, betapa seorang laki-laki yang diobanti oleh dokter wanita merasa bahwa itu adalah aib baginya. banyak kasus dalam tradisi, tafsiran ajaran agama maupun dalam aturan birokrasi yang meletakkan kaum perempuan sebagai subordinasi dari kaum lak-laki. kenyataan memperlihatkan masih ada nilai-nilai masyarakat yang membatasi ruang gerak perempuan dalam kehidupan (muchdi, 2001:33) diskriminasi pada tokoh ginko setelah selesai sekolah kedokteran ginko lulus dari sekolah kedokteran tepat saat peraturan perizinan yang pertama diberlakukan. setiap dokter sebelum melakukan praktik harus mendapatkan lisensi, dengan melalui ujian yang sulit. ginko mendaftar untuk ujian lisensi tetapi ditolak. “tanpa ragu ginko mengirimkan surat permohonanya. seperti yang diduganya permohonan itu ditolak dengan ketus bersama sebuah pesan”belum ada preseden seorang perempuan menerima lisensi kedokteran.” tahun berikutnya ginko kembali mendaftar. lagi-lagi ditolak. (watanabe, 2013:199) namun, hasil dari seruan ginko kepada kementrian tersebut sama saja, pemberitahuan yang dicap dengan satu kata”ditolak”. bagi ginko hal ini seperti hukuman mati. segala gembar gembor tentang rasa haus para perempuan akan pengetahuan dan manfaat pendidikan yang potensial bagi perempuan hanyalah omong kosong. tidak ada yang berubah. (watanabe, 2013:200) restorasi meiji memberi harapan yang besar pada kaum perempuan untuk dapat mengecap pendidikan. akan tetapi, di awal pemerintahan meiji hal itu belum terlalu berpengaruh, seperti yang dialami ginko yang tetap mendapatkan diskriminasi gender. segala upayanya untuk dapat mengikuti ujian lisensi dokter ditolak. pengorbanannya selama sekolah kedokteran akan sia-sia belaka jika ia tidak mendapatkan lisensi praktik dokter. usahanya terbentur karena jenis kelamin. dalam kutipan berikut dapat dilihat betapa diskriminasi gender yang dialami ginko ketika berusaha mengurus izin untuk ikut ujian : “jika kau ingin bertemu dengan kepala biro, kau harus datang setelah membuat janji terlebih dahulu dengan benar. namun, beliau sangat sibuk dan tidak punya waktu untuk menemui sorang perempuan dan membicarakan hal-hal yang tidak penting.” (watanabe, 2013:202) “tidakkah hal ini lucu bagimu?” aku belum pernah mendengar sesuatu seperti itu. seorang perempuan menjadi dokter? itu cukup untuk membuat siapa saja tertawa.” (watanabe, 2013:204) kata-kata bahwa “tidak punya waktu untuk menemui seorang perempuan, dan tertawa ketika mendengar seorang perempuan menjadi dokter adalah bentuk ucapan verbal yang sangat diskriminatif. tidak layak perempuan menjadi seorang dokter karena perempuan memiliki tugas untuk mengandung. stereotip perempuan yang yang lemah, yang bertugas mengandung anak, dan tidak kompeten untuk menjalankan tugas sebagai dokter seperti yang diungkapkan muchdi (2001:33) terlihat pada uraian tersebut. penghinaan yang didapatkan ginko karena dia perempuan belum berakhir setelah dia selesai menjadi dokter saja, melainkan setelahnya pun diskriminasi terhadap dirinya masih berlanjut. dengan berbagai upaya yang berat dan dibantu profesor yang mendukung ginko menjadi seorang dokter, akhirnya diterbitkan peraturan resmi yang menyebutkan bahwa perempuan diizinkan mengikuti ujian untuk mendapatkan lisensi kedokteran. ginko mengikuti ujian bagian pertama untuk mendapatkan lisensi kedokteran tersebut pada 3 september 1884. hasil ujian dipajang di dinding luar gerbang kementerian dalam negeri pada akhir bulan itu juga. ginko lulus terbaik dan hanya dia satu-satunya perempuan yang berhasil lulus. (watanabe, 2013:238). pengalaman mendapatkan perlakuan 47diskriminasi gender ….. (linda unsriana) diskriminatif menjadikan ginko seorang wanita yang berusaha membantu kesetaraan gender dengan menjadi anggota gerakan feminis di jepang . simpulan masalah diskriminasi dan kesetaraan gender dan pendidikan bagi perempuan tidak hanya menjadi masalah dalam realitas kehidupan, tetapi juga menjadi isu yang tergambarkan dalam karya sastra (novel-novel) sampai saat ini. hal ini karena karya sastra merupakan sebuah fenomena sosial budaya. dalam sebuah karya sastra dunia nyata dan dunia rekaan saling berjalinan; yang satu tidak bermakna tanpa yang lain. keberadaan karya sastra berdampingan dengan dunia realitas; apa yang terjadi dalam kenyataan sering kali memberi inspirasi pada pengarang untuk menggambarkannya kembali dalam karya sastra yang diciptakannya. novel ginko ditulis berdasarkan kisah dokter wanita pertama yang dengan segala rintangan di hadapannya dapat menjadi dokter wanita pertama di jepang. penelitian ini menemukan diskriminasi gender yang dialami ginko, karena jenis kelaminnya seorang perempuan, yang pada saat itu (zaman meiji) ada batas yang jelas antara laki-laki dan wanita. kesulitan dan diskriminiasi yang dialami karena cita-cita ginko yang dianggap mustahil, yaitu menjadi seorang dokter. kemampuan dan kepandaiannya terbentur hanya karena dia adalah seorang wanita. ideologi konfusianisme yang mengajarakan bahwa perempuan harus tunduk kepada laki laki dan sistem patriarkat juga menjadi penyebab terjadinya diskriminasi di zaman meiji. melihat uraian yang dialami tokoh ginko, dapat disimpulakan pada zaman meiji terdapat diskriminasi terhadap kaum perempuan, yang tercermin pada novel ginko. daftar pustaka handford, n. (1994). the role of woman in japan the meiji era. cabbages and kings: selected essays in history and australian studies, 22, 26–39. ihromi, t. o (ed). (2007). penghapusan diskriminasi terhadap wanita. bandung: alumni. kalibonso, r. s. (2006). diskriminasi itu bernama kekerasan terhadap perempuan. jurnal perempuan, 45, 19–29. kiguchi, j. (n.d.). japanese women’s rights at the meiji era. diakses 27 maret 2013 dari http://daigakuin.soka.ac.jp/assets/files/pdf/major/ kiyou/17_syakai2.pdf muchdi, a. (2001). bias gender dalam pendidikan. surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. ratna, n. k. (2009). teori, metode, dan teknik penelitian sastra. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. suprapto, h. & adiati, h. f. (2009, 21 agustus). pbb desak jepang akhiri diskriminasi gender. diakses 14 maret 2013 dari http://dunia.news.viva.co.id/ news/read/84493pbb_desak_jepang_akhiri_ diskriminasi_gender wagiyah, e. (2012). mengenal wanita jepang (suatu tinjauan historis). akademika: jurnal ilmiah kependidikan, 11(2). watanabe, j. (2013). ginko. jakarta: serambi ilmu semesta. vol. 13 no. 4 november 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia supria bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index, microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents nurrahma restia fatkhiyati rhetorical strategy and linguistics features in e-petition through change.org ........................................... 239-245 sulhizah wulan sari; sukmono bayu adhi the taste of peranakans tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music and their relation to cultural identity............................................................................................ 247-255 nana sofiani; sabarti akhadiah; emzir the influence of social contexts towards the identity development of the main character in the bluest eye by toni morrison................................................................................................. 257-263 maryani; lewinna aguskin incorporating youtube clips in the classroom to develop students’ cultural understanding of american culture ... 265-273 anton sutandio cinematic representation of chinese-indonesians’ trauma in jason iskandar the day the sky roared................ 275-281 hodairiyah; wakit abdullah rais; dwi purnanto the cultural meaning in verbal and non-verbal expression represented in nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep............................................................................................ 283-287 clara herlina karjo; ecclesia metta the translation of lexical collocations in undergraduate students’ theses’ abstract: students versus google translate................................................................................................... 289-296 heri kuswoyo; rani andini siregar interpersonal metadiscourse markers as persuasive strategies in oral business presentation............................ 297-304 pranowo javanese perspective of nonverbal language: an ethnopragmatic study ................................................... 305-311 yuniarta ita purnama; fitri nurdianingsih the impact of higher order thinking skills (hots) instructions in teaching efl speaking skill from the perspective of students’ motivation.................................................................................... 313-319 index.................................................................................................................................... 321-327 vol. 13 no. 4 november 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 1-9 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5253 “check your face(book) on page…”: unpacking the pedagogical potentialities of english teachers’ wall posts al ryanne gabonada gatcho1; bonjovi hassan hajan2 1assistant professor, college of graduate studies and teacher education research, philippine normal university 2graduate student, college of graduate studies and teacher education research, philippine normal university rm 205 pedro orata hall, philippine normal university, taff avenue, manila 1ryangatcho@yahoo.com; 2bonjovihajan36@gmail.com received: 14th january 2019/revised: 01st february 2019/accepted: 13th february 2019 how to cite: gatcho, a. r. g., & hajan, b. h. (2019). “check your face(book) on page…”: unpacking the pedagogical potentialities of english teachers’ wall posts. lingua cultura, 13(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5253 abstract in an increasingly digitized world where technology continued to revolutionize how human interactions were enacted, the teachers must transcend educational boundaries to provide quality education that was responsive to the needs of the 21stcentury society. this research examined the facebook wall postings of selected english senior high school teachers in metro manila, philippines. using thematic analysis, the research investigated and analyzes these facebook posts (wall posts) to identify whether teachers; (1) could potentially initiate communication (student-teacher interaction, in particular online/via facebook) and (2) used such social network site for academic/instructional purposes. main themes identify in the studentteacher interaction are gratitude and appreciation, longing, interest, and status, while those that are recorded in the teachers’ wall posts are announcements, student activity documentation, and extra-curricular activities. the findings of this research help establish the importance of technology integration in the field of teaching and learning english as a second language. moreover, the research is pivotal in the resurfacing of constructivism in education and the emergence of new communication norms brought about by technological innovations. keywords: facebook, interactions, english teachers, pedagogy, constructivism introduction it is undeniably true that the youngsters of today consider technological innovations as a means to satisfy various needs, wants, and expectations in every aspect of their lives. one may not necessarily need a mobile phone to talk with a friend; or a game box to play a favorite adventure game; or a book (a printed one in particular) to research on a certain topic; or a magazine (print) to know the latest fashion trend, and for all of these are present in a single gadget, in the computer via one instrument of medium, that is the internet. it is worthy to note that communication technology has the potentials to be a transformative agent in the society in a sense that it alters the very nature of social interaction from time to time (blattner & fiori, 2009). fascinatingly, the role of communication technology promotes an effervescent research trend on how it cultivates productive and successful pedagogical practices and experiences (blattner & fiori, 2009; tyler, smith, & benscote, 1999). chawinga (2017) has pointed out that if twitter and blogs – which are apparently examples of the social networking sites and are like facebook – are appropriately deployed could be catalysts for the muchhyped learner-centered approach to teaching. using the technologies, the students can now share, discuss course materials, post their course reflections, and interact among themselves and with their lecturer 24 hours. in his research, it unveils that students are ready and enthusiastic in using social media in the accomplishments of their educational activities. greenhow and gleason (2012) have also suggested that the use of twitter (social media) as a new literacy practice may lead to increase engagement and better interaction between students and teachers. although specific technological tools are becoming more and more popular in the field of education and research, technological applications are still regarded as either ‘high tech’ or ‘low tech’ with the latter being utilized in the classrooms most of the time (blattner & fiori, 2009). to differentiate the two, low-level technology comprises old-time applications such as word, excel, and powerpoint while synchronous chats, social network sites, and the like are classified as high-level technological applications. high 2 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 1-9 tech tools, specifically social network sites, have caught the attention of education experts as they advance constructivist practices and promote cooperation and discourse among students. communication, as pointed out by thurlow, lengel, and tomic (2004), is transactional, dynamic, multimodal, and multifunctional. all have three similarities – they are essential “to understanding how communication works and how it is used to express our identities, to establish and maintain relationships, and eventually to build communities” all of which are central to the study of computer-mediated communication (cmc). social network sites (sns) have affected various aspects of human lives. as one of the many facets of computermediated communication, sns has been acknowledged as potential tools in every classroom. social network site can be defined as a web-based service that allows individuals to; construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. facebook has revolutionized the world ever since it was introduced to the public in 2004. it started as a harvard-only sns which could only be accessed by those people with harvard.edu email address. after one year, a high school version of facebook was launched. as it gains prominence among ‘netizens’, this sns takes pride in its more than 300 million active users just after four years of its first launched (mccorkindale, 2010). it can be assumed that the majority of its users are young learners. hence, socializing on facebook becomes part of their daily activity. many pieces of research have investigated the benefits that this sns brings to people. blattner and fiori (2009) have noted that facebook can improve the physical dynamics of the classroom as it boosts both studentstudent relationship and the student-teacher relationship. students and teachers’ common interests are reflected on the site which could create a more accommodating atmosphere for communication potentially. it is supported the findings of chun (1994) that have said computermediated communication emboldens and motivates aloof and unconfident students to cooperate and contribute in the online discussion actively. lastly, positive effects are reported not only in this emerging communication norm but also toward the teacher and the course (blattner & fiori, 2009). although the aforementioned researches confirm facebook as a tool that strengthens the feeling of belongingness and improves the attitude towards the teachers and the pedagogical practices, there is nevertheless cynicism as to the incorporation of high tech tools to instruction. as an example, the us congress prohibits youngsters from using snss in schools (blattner & fiori, 2009). in the philippines, some teachers, administrators, and parents do not want their students and children to open their facebook most of the time because they believe that it takes away their time and devotion in studying. greenhow and gleason (2012) have said that most adults are panicking. they do not understand the shifts that are taking place and, regardless, they do not like what they are seeing. in its truest sense, the positive potentials of snss in improving the studentstudent relationship and teacher-student relationship, and the pedagogical practices of the teachers cannot be ignored. these research findings present positive student perceptions of teachers on facebook and self-disclosure (grosseck, bran, & tiru, 2011). another important debate to consider is despite its pedagogical potentialities, the use of facebook in elementary and secondary educations remains vague since much work in this area has been conducted in college or university context (wan, wang, & haggerty, 2008; oldmeadow, quinn, & kowert, 2012; alagoz, 2013). there is clearly a need to look at this technological innovation in the context of teaching and learning english in secondary education particularly senior high school in order to concretize how this applies to various educational settings. it is through this contention that this research has been conceptualized and is pursued to understand how facebook can aid in extending teaching and learning beyond the conventional english language classrooms. this research examines and analyzes english teachers’ facebook posts (wall posts). specifically, the objectives of this research are; (1) to determine whether teachers initiate communication (student-teacher discourse in particular) online/via facebook, and (2) ascertain if they utilize sns for academic or instructional purposes. studying student samples have been the research trend because students are said to be pioneers of the internet (jones, 2017). thus it is more fitting and captivating to underscore on the teachers themselves since they are the ones who facilitate the learning of the students and guide the youths to use high tech tools for academic reasons and extended classroom discussion. methods even though there are numerous qualitative analytic methods (discourse analysis, interpretative phenomenological analysis, discourse analysis, narrative analysis, content analysis), the researchers has utilized thematic analysis disclosure (owen, 1984, as cited in, zorn, 2001) due to its flexibility in providing a considerable account of data (chawinga, 2017). the data corpus of this research comprises all the teachers’ wall posts from june 26 – july 20, 2017. there are 5 english senior high school teachers from different schools of metro manila, whose wall posts are examined. the process of selecting the subjects is based on criterion sampling where cases which meet the criteria of importance are chosen (patton, 2002). as such, two criteria are set; one is the teacher should be teaching any englishrelated subjects in senior high school during the conduct of the research, and the other is, he or she should have been using facebook as an online platform for teaching and learning for at least three years to capture the multifaceted interactions with students. these criteria are set forth by the researchers to understand how using facebook can potentially aid in the teaching and learning of the english language. two sets of data are analyzed in this research: (1) wall posts that have paved the way for student-teacher interaction, and (2) wall posts that have relevance to either academic or extra-curricular activities. according to the facebook website, the visibility of posts you make on your wall depends on the audience you choose for each post using the audience selector. for example, a friend will see posts you have set to friends and public, while a non-friend will only see posts you have set to public. if you do not have any public posts, then a nonfriend will see a blank wall tab. even if a facebook user will not access the profile page of a person, a post may be available in the news feed or the center column of one’s own page because it continuously updates posts or statuses from 3“check your face(book) on page…” .... (al ryanne gabonada gatcho; bonjovi hassan hajan) friends or those he/she follows. as applied in this research, the profile pages of the teachers are visited to check their wall posts for almost a month. the profile pages are saved as complete web pages to preserve its authenticity. the data corpus is of substantial amount since not all the wall posts have to be analyzed and chosen for the two data sets. the gathered wall posts are read and analyzed as to whether they belong to data set 1 (student-teacher interaction-initiating posts) or data 2 (academic and extra-curricular-related posts). then, the wall posts are subjected to qualitative inspection through thematic analysis. this analysis unveils the themes that are fleshed out from the data. owen (1984, as cited in, zorn, 2001) has claimed that a theme came about if the three criteria are present; recurrence, repetition, and forcefulness. recurrence as the first criterion entails that there should be at least two parts of the discourse or text that share the same thread of meaning without essentially reiterating certain words, phrases, and sentences. a theme is also considered one through repetition of key terms/textual units. this criterion is more explicit which makes the theme more observable, recognizable, and distinguished. lastly, forcefulness refers to emphasis attached to the message or text. it comprises not only the physical feature of the text but also the way it has been presented (i.e., with the picture; text is italicized, etc.). a theme captures something essential about the data in relation to the research question and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set (braun & clarke, 2016). equally, the being of a theme does not necessarily rest on its countable frequency. tantamount to this, the prevalence of a theme, though it is investigated, was not quantified unlike content analysis (braun & clarke, 2016). certain descriptors are utilized instead because they already suggest the existence of a theme in data (braun & clarke, 2016). lastly, every theme that has been identified and described is analyzed as to how it fits into the overall essence of the data set in relation to each research question. results and discussions table 1 presents the themes and examples (extracts) that are evident in data set 1. data set 1 satisfies the first research concern, that is, to identify whether teachers can initiate student-teacher interaction via their facebook wall posts and if they do what they talk. the main themes identified are gratitude and appreciation, longing, interest, and status. interest has a subtheme such as poetry, whereas status yields to a subtheme of experience. mazer, murphy, and simonds (2007) have shown that when students access sns, they may discover common attributes they share with their peers or teachers and this then can lead to comfortable communication and opportunities for learning. the interaction between students and the teacher through sns such as facebook increases students’ motivation and affective learning which are central to building a community of learners (o’sullivan, hunt, & lippert, 2004). table 1 themes of student-teacher interaction via teacher’s wall postings themes sample wall posts gratitude and appreciation t: “ang pag-ibig ay salitang kilos, hindi lang ito basta salita na hinahabi ng iyong dila at lumalabas sa bibig ng sinoman. may kasama itong gawa.” (love equates action, not only words crafted by your tongue and uttered by someone’s mouth, it is accompanied by action) s: “happy sunday binibini <3 ahahaha mahal ka namin <3.” (happy sunday miss <3 ahahaha we love you <3) t: “happy sunday… happy everyday! mahal ko rin kayo (i love you too) <3 god bless!  longing (1)s: sir, pwede ikaw na lang teacher naming sa 21st century literature? (sir, will you be our teacher in 21st century literature) t: hehe kung pang morning lang ang grade 12 pwedeng pwede sana renz hehe (hehe it will be fine if only grade 12’s schedule is in the morning renz hehe) s: cge na po sir, wala pa kaming teacher dun since first day. (please sir, we don’t have a teacher there since first day.) (2)t: salamat, yugs! miss ko na kayo! kelan mo ibubulong ang bulong? hahahahaha (thanks yugs! i miss you! when will you whisper what you supposed to whisper? hahahahaha) s: bisitahin nyo naman kami sa room (5501) building 5, 5th floor… wooohhh!… wag na po pala baka mapagod po kayo sa pag panik… ibubulong ko po ang bulong kapag nakita ko po kayo na hindi humahangos… parang lagi po kasi kayong nagmamadali pag nakikita ko kayo (visit us at room (5501) building 5, 5th floor… wooohhh!... no need because you might feel tired of climbing… i’ll whisper what i am supposed to whisper when you are not in a hurry… you’re always in a hurry whenever i see you.) t: hahahahaha kaya nga e. feeling ko hinahabol ako ng oras ngayon. wala kasi akong break tas mula sa baba papuntang 5th floor. lipat-lipat hahaha. (hahahahaha that’s right. i feel that time is always chasing me. i don’t have any break then my classes are from the ground floor to the 5th floor. i always move into rooms hahaha) 4 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 1-9 thankfulness or acknowledgment of someone’s deed or behavior is manifested in a number of student-teacher interaction based on the student’s comments and teachers’ responses. the recurrence of meaning and the repetition of key expressions such as “thanks ur wc,” and “i love you-i love you too” have amalgamated the theme. it can be noted here that, the interaction has been limited to these exchanges – a “thank you” and “i love you” from a student a “welcome” and “i love you too” from the teacher (see figure 1). interestingly, a case of the teacher appreciating her student is recorded (see figure 2). although the student does not respond to the gratitude of the teacher via comments, it can be noted that based on the post of the teacher, they surely have an exchange of gratitude and appreciation with one another. these simple exchanges may not entirely be underestimated considering their authenticity that expressing gratitude along with acknowledging or accepting that does not require a verbal or an elaborate conversation. this finding may be relevant to that of blattner and fiori (2009) that tackles the student-teacher relationship that is further strengthened via sns and is fostered even outside the classroom setting considering motivation towards learning as the effective factor that is heightened even online. this is also consistent with what mahadi and ubaidullah (2010) that have claimed sns enables language teachers to foster english language learning (ell), while simultaneously promoting positive relationships with students outside the classrooms. figure 3 shows longing in a teacher’s post. this theme buttresses the finding of mazer, murphy, and simonds table 1 themes of student-teacher interaction via teacher’s wall postings (continued) themes sample wall posts interest t: “tonight i can write the saddest lines.. write for example “the night is shattered and the blue stars shiver in the distance..” “i no longer love her, that’s certain, but maybe i love her.. love is so short, forgetting is so long..” --pablo neruda -tonight i can write the saddest lines …    s: “i no longer love her, true, but perhaps i love her. love is so short and oblivion so long.” grabeeee yan sirrrr! (that’s too much sir!) t: sad nu? (it’s saddening, right?)  status (1)t: wala akong maipagmamalaki kundi yung faith ko kay lord!  (the only thing i can be proud of is my faith to my lord! ) s: amen <3 s: meron (can be omitted when translated to english) ma’am, you are educated and beautiful  t: naks. pasado ka na. ayy di na pala kita student. haha (nice. you’re a sure passed in the class. oh, you’re are not my student anymore. haha) s: ahahaha xd saying (what a shame) huhu (2)t: 6:00 am to 9:30 pm class. whooo! kaya pa! (i can handle this!) s: kaya yan madam. para sa ekonomiya (you can do it madam. do it for the economy.) t: pak! (yes!) s: ako na lang po turuan nio mam! (please teach me ma’am!)    hihihi <3 (about <3 life whahahaha char!) t: enebeyern claire. hahaha hanggang ngayon ba naman yan pa din. hahahah!  (oh claire. hahaha. you’re still saying that even until now. hahahah! ) (2007) in which student-teacher relationship is maintained online. figure 1 theme of appreciation and gratitude in a teacher’s post 5“check your face(book) on page…” .... (al ryanne gabonada gatcho; bonjovi hassan hajan) figure 2 theme of appreciation and gratitude in a teacher’s post figure 3 theme of longing in a teacher’s post recurring and repetitive implicit expressions such as ‘miss you’ and ‘miss you too’ have been apparent in plenty of wall posts or comments. the way of expressing appreciation and gratitude by students to their teacher as revealed in this research may have an advantage of showing how informal conversation can serve as a podium for students to establish a positive relationship with their teacher which later may translate into opportunities for learning. greenhow, robelia, and hughes (2009) have affirmed this finding that student learning can happen either in a formal or informal setting. the nature of ‘casual’ longing for each other needs no further elaboration or justification from the speakers especially since the relationship involved (teacher-student) may be between professional and personal. however, there are some instances where the relationship of the teacher and student can be regarded as intimate because there are exchanges that are presented with a very ‘casual’ tone between the teacher and the students. nonetheless, there are positive student perceptions that are directed towards teachers on facebook (ellison, steinfield, & lampe, 2007). moreover, facebook helps users maintain relationships (ellison, steinfield, & lampe, 2007; mccorkindale, 2010), appears to be significant in realizing the essence of the current research findings. literature particularly poetry has been talked about by a teacher and his students on a particular post-comments in a single thread. although the interest shared by the teacher and students may be regarded as non-academic in nature, the conversation seems to be promising and remarkable since blattner and fiori (2009) have mentioned that interests shared by the students and teachers may create a more comfortable interactive atmosphere. of all the teachers who have utilized facebook to generate a student-teacher interaction, there is only one teacher who makes a status about him feeling broken. he does this by sharing a few lines from a poem that he finds reflective of his feeling the moment he makes the status. that student-teacher interaction began when the teacher posts extracted lines from pablo neruda’s tonight i can write the saddest lines (figure 4) is equally significant. though this account may not be a surprise anymore since snss are peppered with shared quotes and literary pieces from various people which frequently initiate conversations and gain attention, comments, and recognition, language can, therefore, be presumed as just a part of the semiotic process along with photos/pictures, videos, gestures, etc. instead of the caption which contains words and therefore ‘language’ thus being the text, the extracted lines from a poem appears to be one as it has attracted comments thereby having student-teacher communication. one status of a teacher pertaining to her strong relationship with god and her work schedule generates an immense deal of comments emphasizing on either the subject of the post or the experience rendered by it (figure 5 and 6). the meaning as created by those who commented refers to their affirmation to what the teacher has stated by saying ‘amen’ and words of encouragement for her tiring workload. this experience, direct participation (of the teacher) or observation (of students), still has facilitated interaction which may help strengthen the student-teacher rapport. owing to the observation that the students are the ones ‘consoling’ the teacher, then high motivation and low affective filter may be upheld (blattner & fiori, 2009). 6 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 1-9 figure 4 theme of interest in a teacher’s post figure 5 theme of status in a teacher’s post figure 6 theme of status in a teacher’s post the second research objective is to ascertain whether teachers can initiate academic/instructional purposes through the use of facebook. to provide clarity on this, the researchers summarize recurring themes and patterns in table 2. themes that are recorded are announcements, student activity documentation, and extra-curricular activities. table 2 themes of teachers’ school-related wall postings themes sample wall postings announcements (1) 1st pta meeting: grade 7 – mahinahon june 24, 2017/saturday/8:00-9:30am/ rm.305 mhs annex 1 – poblacion agenda: election of homeroom pta officers and other important matters. attendees: 33 parents out of 48 (2) tip-manila shs recognition day  congratulations to our worthy honor students  ipagpatuloy ang nasimulan. pagyamanin ang sintang paaralan  (continue what you had started. contribute to the enrichment of your beloved school ) student activity documentation (1) activity intercultural communication (2) if oscars were given for a job well done, i’d nominate you all! congratulations for the fantastic performances stem in today’s activity! (3) july 07, 2017 basics of career guidance humss b and arts & design (4) reading comprehension exam: mccall – crabbs standard test lessons. grade 7 – maaasahan, magalang, mahinahon and maagap. venue: mhs-annex. 6:40 am12:00 noon. 06.15.2017 #fordocumentation #schoolyear20172018 extra-curricular activities (1) we’ve been through difficult times… we’ve overcome every challenge.. we’ve shared laughters and tears.. and we will transcend diversities.. because we are a family  #tipmanilashs #studentcouncilduties #executiveboard #proudadviser (2) proud adviser  announcements on the pta meeting, departmental activities, and moments are captured during the awarding ceremony. also, congratulations to students who receive awards (figures 7 and 8) have met all the three criteria of a theme such as recurrent, repetitive, and forceful. 7“check your face(book) on page…” .... (al ryanne gabonada gatcho; bonjovi hassan hajan) figure 7 teacher’s post utilized for school announcement figure 8 a teacher’s post utilized for school announcement facebook is utilized as a tool for extending not only the boundaries of traditional journalism but also of traditional communication avenue between students and teachers. facebook has served the purpose of a bulletin board that can be accessed or viewed at a distance without thinking about geography and time as barriers. photos of students-in-action (doing classroom or school activities) are posted by a certain teacher (figure 9). the availability of a camera in the classroom/school set up for the documentation is good to note. so far, this theme reveals the most relevant academic-related wall post of a teacher. remarkably, the album has generated ‘likes’ from students involved and some comments from them as well. the interest and motivation of the students toward their tasks may not be underestimated because of the ‘likes’ and ‘comments’ that have been noted which could mean that they really like not just the photos but their project itself. this activity documentation has been more promising in terms of its pedagogical implication because the teachers put captions that have elaborated the project being undertaken by the students in the photos. the captions that are actually put justified since the motives appear to be more of maintaining or strengthening student-teacher rapport by use of humor and not of stressing the academic value of the task. figure 9 a teacher’s post showing student activity there is a teacher who posts pictures of extracurricular activities to show that he is a proud adviser of two school organizations, the student council and the art club. it can be seen in figure 10. figure 10 a teacher’s post depicting extra-curricular activity the post suggests that the teacher is very supportive of the extra-curricular activities of his students and that he utilized facebook as a tool to voice what he feels. this is similar to what blattner and fiori (2009) and tyler, smith, and benscote (1999) have pointed out that teachers need to adapt to the emerging communication norms online and that they should be the ones guiding their students in using certain e-tools for academic purposes, or any school-related activities, for that matter. the student-teacher interaction inside and outside the english language classrooms as an apparent phenomenon 8 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 1-9 in facebook may be viewed as an initial step if teachers are to embrace the unavoidable communication norms put forward by technological innovations. the presence of teachers on facebook complements the dominance of students in this online community. this is of remarkable importance in order to, if not avoid, lessen the skepticism and criticism that youth as ‘netizens’ receive. if teachers become resident ‘netizens’ too, then they could guide these young learners instead of just being reactive to this exponential technological change. similarly, the teachers’ presence on snss may help create and maintain a space not only conducive to comfortable learning but also authentic for socio-pragmatic realizations. the latter, as what bardovi-harlig and mahantaylor (2003) have claimed that cannot be attained via the use of traditional reference materials, for example, textbooks, as they provide only linguistic input not pragmatic input. how important pragmatic is resides on the notion that a “pragmatic error may hinder good communication between speakers, may make the speaker appear abrupt or brusque in social interactions, or may make the speaker appear rude or uncaring” (bardovi-harlig and mahan-taylor, 2003). likewise, since constructivism has reemerged in the field of education (matulac, 2012), facebook and even other snss can facilitate the process of social interaction, a key concept in constructivism as it is important for internalizing higher mental functions such as reasoning, comprehension, and critical thinking. this research reveals that the teachers’ use of facebook for academe/school-related purposes still appears to be limited. this may imply that these teachers on facebook still suffer from narcissistic mentality and personality, thus focusing on themselves alone because the results yield to only a small number of themes related to second research concern. for students to be involved in meaningful educational experiences online, teachers themselves should not be self-promoting but educationdriven when online. this further suggests that the teachers may experiment on and try innovative ways to maximize the students’ learning even when they are online. as what matulac (2012) has stressed, “a teacher must look beyond the walls of the school. there are many classrooms we can connect with. there are many teachers who face the same situation. however, most of all there is an available technology to bring them together, working hand-in-hand, striving and succeeding.” conclusions this research concludes that snss such as facebook open up several opportunities for teaching and learning in the realm of the english language. its pedagogical use is paramount that both teacher and students can benefit in constructing 21st education. the various activities teachers and students are engaged in using facebook foster positive interactions that may be useful in increasing student motivation and affective learning for acquiring the target language. the findings of this research help establish the importance of technology integration in the field of teaching and learning english as a second language. moreover, this research is pivotal in the resurfacing of constructivism in education and the emergence of new communication norms brought about by technological innovations. in light of the findings and conclusions of this research, the following are highly recommended. the use of sns in the context of english language teaching and learning should be explored and monitored for various reasons, more significantly for school-related purposes. the constant availability of the gadgets and data or internet connection should also be present to determine that all students have a dependable open-access for interaction or exchange of ideas. through this, an evaluation of real-time use of sns of both teachers and students should also be performed if the goal is to support its practical, efficient, and effective use. the assessment familiarity of the teachers to the respondents and the reliability of no face-to-face communication in the thematic analysis is also suggested for a more encompassing result. also, similar research that incorporates the number of participants from diverse contexts using different means of investigation will be beneficial in advancing the current findings. nonetheless, the research is limited to the discussion of the practical use of technological innovations (snss) as well as the promotion of positive interaction and good rapport between teacher and students in the senior high school setting. this means that research has excluded consideration on the possible effect of familiarity between the teacher-student before the period of investigation and also the interaction between teacher and students of different grade levels. a teacher who has become a teacher in the past or an acquaintance is more likely to become active and participative in the exchange of messages and information, compared with those unfamiliar and less-active and not so sociable ones. the time frame is considered short and partially reliable due to the unexpected situations or events happening at the time, which could give an impact to the themes being observed. references alagoz, e. 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(2008). why people benefit from e-learning differently: the effects of psychological processes on e-learning outcomes. information & management, 45(8), 513–521. doi:10.1016/j.im.2008.08.003. zorn, t. (2001). conducting thematic analysis of interviews and field notes. retrieved from http://wmssoros.mngt.waikato.ac.nz/nr/rdonlyres/ etsc5ddpg2b7xavrx3gixcuv7n42pqe5chy3jkkawogk34elw wf2icqdzwhywyd6cd2ipvjdtwm/thematicanalysistips.pdf 1kajian kesantunan ….. (hani wahyuningtias) kajian kesantunan dalam e-mail permohonan yang ditulis oleh penutur jepang dan pembelajar indonesia hani wahyuningtias jurusan sastra jepang, fakultas sastra, darma persada university jln. radin inten ii (terusan casablanca), pondok kelapa, jakarta 13450 h_ayunin77@yahoo.com abstract nowadays electronic mail (e-mail) is a communication tool that is often used in everyday life. one of the utilizations of e-mail is used in practical purposes such as making a request. this paper provided views on linguistic politeness in submitting an e-mail containing the request based on e-mail data written by native speakers of japanese (j) and the indonesian japanese language learners (ijl). the data was analyzed using the theory of politeness expressed by brown and levinson. this paper focused on the strategy that what more likely was to be used by j and ijl in the expression of request. in the final part, it concluded the view about what should be considered in connection with the linguistic politeness in japanese e-mail containing request. it was intended for learners of foreign language, especially indonesian people, to know the limitation of politeness, so that ijl will not repeat the same mistakes in the future. keywords: e-mail, politeness strategy, positive face, negative face abstrak dewasa ini electronic mail (e-mail) merupakan alat komunikasi yang sering digunakan dalam kehidupan seharihari. salah satu pemanfaatan di antaranya, e-mail digunakan dalam keperluan praktis seperti melakukan permohonan. tulisan ini memberikan pandangan mengenai kesantunan berbahasa dalam mengajukan e-mail yang berisi permohonan berdasarkan data e-mail yang ditulis oleh penutur asli bahasa jepang (j) dan orang indonesia pembelajar bahasa jepang (ijl). data dikaji dengan menggunakan teori kesantunan yang diungkapkan oleh brown dan levinson yang difokuskan atas strategi apa yang lebih cenderung digunakan oleh j dan ijl dalam ungkapan permohonan. pada bagian akhir disimpulkan pandangan mengenai hal yang harus diperhatikan sehubungan dengan kesantunan berbahasa dalam pengajuan e-mail bahasa jepang yang berisi permohonan. hal ini ditujukan agar pembelajar bahasa asing, khususnya orang indonesia, mengetahui batasan kesantunan, sehingga kelak ijl tidak akan mengulangi kesalahan yang sama pada masa yang akan datang. kata kunci: email, strategi kesantunan, wajah dan keinginan positif, wajah dan keinginan negatif 2 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 pendahuluan dalam proses komunikasi terdapat dua gejala yang terdapat dalam satu proses, yaitu tindak tutur dan peristiwa tutur. peristiwa tutur (speech event) pada dasarnya merupakan rangkaian dari sejumlah tindak tutur (speech act) yang terorganisasikan untuk mencapai suatu tujuan. dalam peristiwa tutur berlangsung interaksi linguistik berupa ujaran yang melibatkan dua belah pihak, yaitu penutur dan mitra tutur, dengan satu pokok tuturan di suatu waktu, tempat, dan situasi tertentu. sedangkan yang dimaksud tindak tutur adalah gejala individual, bersifat psikologis dan keberlangsungannya ditentukan oleh kemampuan bahasa si penutur dalam menghadapi situasi tertentu. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pada peristiwa tutur lebih ditekankan pada tujuan peristiwanya, tetapi dalam tindak tutur lebih dilihat pada makna atau arti tindakan dalam tuturannya. berkaitan dengan tindak tutur dan peristiwa tutur, dalam penulisan ini akan dibahas tentang permohonan yang dilakukan melalui e-mail. dewasa ini e-mail merupakan alat komunikasi yang sering digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. khususnya, banyak pemakaian e-mail yang ditujukan untuk melakukan permohonan. dalam melakukan permohonan, tentunya sedikit banyak itu akan bersinggungan dengan wilayah mitra tutur. dalam bahasa jepang persinggungan dengan wilayah mitra tutur tidak bisa dihindari. meskipun demikian, persinggungan tersebut sebaiknya tidak melanggar batasan yang berkaitan dengan privasi supaya hubungan antara petutur dan mitra tutur bisa tetap terjaga dengan baik. hal yang berkaitan dengan privasi mitra tutur di antaranya adalah kemampuan, kualitas, kepemilikan, dan lain-lain. email permohonan ini akan dikaji nilai kesantunannya berdasarkan isi dan ungkapan yang digunakan. situasi (bamen) yang ditetapkan terdiri atas 6 buah yang didasarkan atas hubungan antara petutur dan mitra tutur serta ringan atau beratnya beban permohonan yang terkandung di dalamnya. tulisan ini memberikan pandangan tentang kesantunan berbahasa dalam mengajukan e-mail yang berisi permohonan. tulisan ini merupakan refleksi untuk melihat nilai kesantunan dalam penggunaan bahasa untuk kebutuhan seharihari. terutama, saat melakukan permohonan terbilang penting karena bahasa bukan hanya sebagai instrumen komunikasi, melainkan juga ajang realisasi diri yang santun dan beretika. konsep kesantunan tindak tutur seperti kegiatan melakukan permohonan ini sangat terkait erat dengan konsep kesantunan. kesantunan dalam berbahasa masih merupakan horizon baru dalam berbahasa, dan sampai saat ini belum dikaji dalam konstelasi linguistik, terkecuali dalam telaah pragmatik. kesantunan dalam berbahasa meskipun disebut sebagai horizon baru, sudah mendapatkan perhatian oleh banyak linguis dan pragmatisis. melakukan permohonan dengan menggunakan e-mail sangat memerlukan ungkapan yang mengandung nilai-nilai kesantunan. hal ini sekaligus menunjukkan bahwa dalam berkomunikasi baik lisan maupun tulisan, bukan hanya dilihat dari aspek tata bahasa maupun aspek psikososial, melainkan juga dari aspek etika. sebagai bidang baru dalam kajian kebahasaan, khususnya bahasa dalam penggunaan (language in use), kesantunan (politeness) dalam berbahasa sudah seharusnya mendapatkan perhatian baik dari pakar atau linguis maupun dari para pembelajar bahasa. selain itu, penting juga bagi setiap orang untuk memahami kesantunan berbahasa ini karena manusia yang kodratnya adalah “makhluk berbahasa” senantiasa melakukan komunikasi lisan maupun tulisan sudah sepatutnya beretika. kesantunan berbahasa secara tradisional diatur oleh norma-norma dan moralitas masyarakat, yang diinternalisasikan dalam konteks budaya dan kearifan lokal. bersikap atau berbahasa santun dalam penulisan e-mail bersifat relatif, tergantung pada jarak sosial penutur dan mitra tutur. selain itu, makna kesantunan dan kesopanan juga dipahami sama secara umum. kedua hal tersebut sebenarnya mengandung makna yang berbeda. istilah ‘sopan’ merujuk pada susunan gramatikal tuturan berbasis kesadaran bahwa setiap orang berhak untuk dilayani dengan hormat, sementara santun itu berarti kesadaran mengenai jarak sosial (thomas, 1995). berikut ini diuraikan teori kesantunan berbahasa yang diadopsi dari tradisi moral cina yang dikembangkan oleh konfusius dan diteorisasikan oleh goffman (1967), brown dan levinson (1987). teori yang diulas singkat ini, serta contoh-contoh dari data e-mail yang ditulis orang indonesia pembelajar bahasa jepang dan penutur asli bahasa jepang, diharapkan dapat membuka cakrawala berpikir mengenai kesantunan berbahasa. menurut brown dan levinson (1987), bersikap santun itu adalah bersikap peduli pada “wajah” atau “muka,” baik milik penutur maupun milik mitra tutur. konsep wajah dalam hal ini bukan dalam arti rupa fisik, namun “wajah” dalam artian public image atau padanan kata yang tepat yaitu ‘harga diri’. konsep wajah brown dan levinson (1987) terilhami oleh konsep wajah goffman (1967). menurut goffman (1967), wajah adalah atribut sosial; sedangkan menurut brown dan levinson (1987) wajah merupakan atribut pribadi yang dimiliki oleh setiap insan dan bersifat universal. dalam teori ini wajah kemudian dipilah menjadi dua jenis: wajah dengan keinginan positif (positive face) dan wajah dengan keinginan negatif (negative face). wajah positif terkait dengan nilai solidaritas, ketidakformalan, pengakuan, dan kesekoncoan. sementara itu, wajah negatif bermuara pada keinginan seseorang untuk tetap mandiri, bebas dari gangguan pihak luar, dan adanya penghormatan pihak luar terhadap kemandiriannya itu (aziz, 2008). melihat bahwa wajah memiliki nilai seperti yang telah disebutkan, maka nilai-nilai itu patut untuk dijaga dan salah satu caranya adalah melalui penggunaan pola berbahasa yang santun, yang tidak merusak nilai-nilai wajah itu sendiri. dalam melakukan permohonan, penutur cenderung untuk merepotkan mitra tutur. dalam bahasa jepang, saat penutur terpaksa melakukan perbuatan yang seolah-olah mengganggu ‘face’ mitra tutur, setidaknya diperlukan upaya mengurangi beban lawan bicara seperti pemakaian ungkapan tidak langsung. metode tulisan ini mengkaji data e-mail yang digunakan ketika melakukan permohonan berdasarkan situasi 3kajian kesantunan ….. (hani wahyuningtias) yang dihadapi. data dikaji dengan menggunakan teori kesantunan yang diungkapkan oleh brown dan levinson (1987) yang difokuskan pada strategi apa yang lebih cenderung digunakan oleh j (penutur asli bahasa jepang) dan ijl (orang indonesia pembelajar bahasa jepang) dalam ungkapan permohonan. setelah data dianalisis, kemudian disimpulkan strategi apa yang lebih cenderung digunakan oleh ijl dan j dalam ungkapan permohonan. situasi permohonan dalam penelitian ini ijl dan j, masing-masing 15 orang, diminta menulis e-mail permohonan yang berisikan enam situasi berikut: i. meminta dipinjamkan dvd / cd selama 2 hari ii. meminta diajarkan selama 2~3 jam dalam rangka mempersiapkan ujian iii. minta tolong supaya buku yang batas waktu pengembaliannya sudah lewat, dikembalikan iv. minta dipinjamkan karya ilmiah (ronbun) yang ada di lab (kenkyūshitsu) v. minta dituliskan surat rekomendasi (suisenjō) untuk melamar beasiswa vi. minta tolong lagi dibawakan inkan (cap nama) profesor (sensei) untuk pengisian krs karena dalam kuliah hari ini tidak bisa mendapatkannya mitra tutur yang dihadapi pada situasi i~iii adalah teman, sedangkan pada situasi iv~vi adalah profesor. beban permohonan pada situasi i dan iv sifatnya ringan, sedangkan situasi ii dan v berat. situasi iii dan vi adalah permohonan yang bersifat mengingatkan mitra tutur atas kelalaiannya memenuhi suatu janji atau kewajiban (tokusoku irai). hasil dan pembahasan wajah dan keinginan positif (positive face) dan wajah dan keinginan negatif (negative face) kesantunan memiliki makna yang berbeda dengan kesopanan. kata sopan memiliki arti menunjukkan rasa hormat pada mitra tutur, sedangkan kata santun memiliki arti berbahasa (atau berprilaku) dengan berdasarkan pada jarak sosial antara penutur dan mitra tutur. konsep wajah berkaitan dengan persoalan kesantunan dan bukan kesopanan. rasa hormat yang ditunjukkan melalui berbahasa dapat dianggap berakibat santun. artinya, sopan berbahasa akan memelihara wajah jika penutur dan mitra tutur memiliki jarak sosial yang jauh (misalnya antara profesor dan mahasiswa, atau anak dan ayah). meskipun demikian, bersikap santun dalam berbahasa sering kali tidak berakibat sopan, terlebih lagi jika penutur dan mitra tutur tidak memiliki jarak sosial yang jauh seperti: teman sekerja dan pacar. untuk lebih memahami konsep wajah, berikut ini diangkat contoh-contoh ungkapan yang mengandung wajah positif dan negatif. pemakaian “nps” dan “pps” dalam email permohonan, terangkum sebagai berikut. pertama, strategi yang sama-sama digunakan oleh j dan ijl adalah nps6 dan pps15. pada contoh yang terdapat di tabel 1 tampak ungkapan yang menunjukkan adanya “kyōshuku no hyōmei (permohonan maaf)” dan “sharei (ungkapan terima kasih)”. permohonan maaf dikategorikan sebagai nps6, sedangkan penggunaan ungkapan yang mengandung arti terima kasih dianggap setara dengan pps15. kategori penganalisisan data e-mail didasarkan atas konsep fungsi komunikasi yang disampaikan oleh kumagai dan shinozaki (2006). tabel 1 contoh analisis e-mail permohonan yang ditulis oleh j14 件名 kenmei (perihal) 予告 yokoku (dugaan) 試験勉強 shiken benkyo belajar persiapan ujian 切り出し kiridashi (pembuka) 呼びかけ yobikake (panggilan/ sebutan) ○○へ xx san he (nama mitra tutur) 対人配慮 taijin hairyo (perhatian pada lawan bicara) 恐縮の表明 kyoshuku no hyomei (permohonan maaf) 忙しいところ悪いんだけど、 isogashii tokoro waruin da kedo maaf mengganggu di waktu anda sedang sibuk nps6 状況説明 jokyo setsumei (penjelasan kondisi penutur) 事情 jijou (situasi) 来週の試験が難しそうで困ってるんだ。 raishuu no shiken ga muzukashii sou de komatte iru karena sepertinya ujian minggu depan sulit, saya jadi kebingungan 対人配慮 taijin hairyo (perhatian pada lawan bicara) 条件 joken (syarat) 今度の日曜あたり、余裕があったら kondo no nichiyou atari, yoyuu ga attara jika pada hari minggu ini, anda ada waktu luang 効果的補強 kouka teki hokyou (tambahan efektif) 新提案 shinteian (usul/ saran 2、3時間でいいから ni, san jikan de ii kara 2 atau 3 jam juga boleh 行動の促し koudou no unagashi (ungkapan yang bersifat menegaskan /memperkuat) 直接依頼 chokusetsu irai (permohonan langsung) 少し教えてくれない? sukoshi oshiete kurenai? maukah mengajarkan saya sebentar saja? 対人配慮 taijin hairyo (perhatian pada lawan bicara) 謝礼 sharei (ungkapan terima kasih) 晩飯おごるから。 banmeshi ogoru kara akan saya traktir makan malam pps15 締めくくり shimekukuri (penutup) 署名 shomei (nama petutur) ○○ .....( nama orang yang menulis email) 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 kedua, strategi yang lebih banyak digunakan oleh j daripada ijl adalah meringankan beban mitra tutur (nps4) dan mengajukan saran atau janji (pps10). di antara j, ada juga yang menggunakan isi ungkapan yang mengandung rasa pesismis dari penutur (nps3). dalam bahasa jepang pesimisme disebut dengan hikanshi. ditinjau dari segi isi dan maknanya ternyata dalam pesimisme yang digunakan oleh j terkandung juga nilai yang isinya tidak memberatkan beban lawan bicara. contoh pemakaian nps4: (1) a. 一週間程で返せると思います。(j2) isshuukan hodo de kaeseru to omoimasu. saya rasa bisa mengembalikannya dalam waktu kira-kira satu minggu. b. 無理だったらいいので。(j5) muri dattara ii node. kalau kondisinya tidak memungkinkan, ya tidak apa-apa. c. 2日後には返すので(j9) futsuka ato ni wa kaesu node dalam waktu dua hari akan saya kembalikan contoh (1a-c) menunjukkan isi yang bersifat saran (shinteian) agar mitra tutur mau meluluskan permohonan penutur. isi dari shinteian tersebut adalah meringankan beban mitra tutur. hal tersebut sesuai dengan nps4 yang dikemukakan oleh brown dan levinson (1987). selanjutnya pada contoh (1b) “muri dattara ii node” adalah ungkapan yang tidak menginginkan adanya pemaksaan terhadap lawan bicara. ungkapan yang ada pada (1b), karena dianggap dapat mengurangi beban lawan bicara, dikategorikan sebagai shinteian. meskipun demikian, (1b) tidak hanya merupakan shinteian tetapi juga merupakan bentuk pesimisme (hikanshi). ungkapan “muri dattara ii node” menunjukkan arti mitra tutur bisa menolak permohonan penutur, jika memang kondisinya tidak memungkinkan. ungkapan semacam ini tidak terlihat pada ijl. pada situasi iii, j lebih banyak menggunakan shinteian daripada ijl. berikut adalah contoh shinteian yang digunakan oleh j. (2) もしまだ読み終わってなかったら、レポートを 書いてからまた貸すね。(j8) moshi mada yomiowattenakattara, repooto wo kaite kara mata kasu ne. jika seandainya belum selesai membaca, nanti saya pinjamkan buku itu lagi setelah saya menulis laporan. j pada mitra tutur yang lalai akan kewajibannya untuk tetap menjaga hubungan baik dengan temannya melancarkan permintaan dengan menggunakan shinteian. shinteian ini setara dengan pps10 (mengajukan saran/ janji) yang dikemukakan oleh brown dan levinson (1987). ungkapan pada situasi ii ”ni-san jikan kurai, kantan ni de ii kara (kira-kira dua, tiga jam mengajarkan pada saya secara sederhana” dan situasi iii “moshi mada yomiowattenakattara, repooto wo kaite kara mata kasu ne (jika seandainya belum selesai membaca, nanti saya pinjamkan buku itu lagi setelah saya menulis laporan)”, kedua-duanya dikategorikan sebagai shinteian. akan tetapi, shinteian yang ada pada situasi ii adalah “nps4 (meringankan beban)”, sedangkan shinteian pada situasi iii bisa bermakna sebagai adalah “pps10 (saran)”. dengan “mengajukan saran atau janji” kepada mitra tutur, penutur melancarkan negosiasi permintaan pengembalian buku sambil menjaga perasaan mitra tuturnya. pada kebanyakan situasi, j menggunakan nps4, tetapi karena situasi iii ini bersifat khusus, dalam rangka menjaga perasaan lawan bicara, j bukan hanya menggunakan nps4 melainkan juga pps10. ketiga, strategi yang lebih banyak digunakan oleh ijl daripada j adalah pps1 dan pps2. selain itu ada juga di antara ijl yang menggunakan pps11 (bersikap optimis) dan pps12 (menyatakan seolah-olah melakukan tindakan/kegiatan bersama). pada situasi i, ada ijl yang menggunakan alasan subjektif yang berhubungan dengan pembaca (yomite ni kansuru shūkantekina riyū), yaitu mengatakan keunggulan/pujian terhadap lawan bicara seperti contoh (3). ungkapan seperti ini tidak tampak pada j. (3) ○○ちゃんかわいいからきっと貸してくれる (ijl12) ... chan kawaii kara kitto kashite kureru karena ...(nama mitra tutur) imut, pasti mau pinjamin saya j tidak menggunakan ungkapan yang bersifat memuji lawan bicaranya. hal itu disebabkan ada anggapan bahwa apabila j menggunakan ungkapan yang menunjukkan keunggulan/pujian terhadap lawan bicara bisa menimbulkan kesan yang tidak sopan terhadap mitra tutur. berikut ini adalah contoh yang berhubungan dengan alasan subjektif yang berhubungan dengan pembaca “yomite ni kansuru shūkantekina riyū” yang ada pada situasi ii. (4) a. あなたはいつもクラスでいい成績を取ってい るので、 問題ないと思いますので、(ijl2) anata wa itsumo kurasu de ii seiseki wo totte iru node, mondai nai to omoimasu node karena kamu selalu mendapat nilai yang bagus di kelas, saya rasa kamu tidak ada masalah b. ○○ちゃんは読解が得意だからね。(ijl3) ... chan wa dokkai ga tokui dakara ne. ...(nama mitra tutur), kan bagus dalam hal membaca. c. ○○さんはxxxxxのことがよく分かると思 いますので、(ijl5) ... san wa xxxxx no koto ga yoku wakaru to omoimasu node, ...(nama mitra tutur), saya rasa mengerti sekali dalam bidang xxxxx… d. ○○さんが頭いいので、(ijl7) ... san ga atama ga ii node karena ...(nama mitra tutur) pintar, e. ○○さんの成績がいつもよくて、問題ないと 思うので、(ijl8) ... san no seiseki ga itsumo yokute, mondai nai to omou node, karena nilai ...(nama mitra tutur) selalu bagus, saya rasa tidak ada masalah 5kajian kesantunan ….. (hani wahyuningtias) f. ○ ○ さ ん は 頭 い い か ら 全 然 平 気 だ よ ね。(ijl9) ... san wa atama ii kara zenzen heiki da yo ne. ...(nama mitra tutur) san karena pintar, xx san karena pintar, benar-benar tidak ada masalah ya. g. ○○さんは授業に○○先生の質問にいつも正し く答えたので、よく先生の授業の内容 を理 解できると思うのですが・・・(ijl13) ... san wa jugyou ni xx sensei no shitsumon ni itsumo tadashiku kotaeta node, yoku sensei no jugyou no naiyou wo rikai dekiru to omou no desu ga… karena (nama mitra tutur) selalu menjawab pertanyaan guru dengan benar, saya rasa dapat memahami isi perkuliahan guru dengan baik. h. で、○○よく勉強してたから、(j1) de, ... yoku benkyou shiteta kara, karena ...(nama mitra tutur) rajin belajar, ungkapan pujian terhadap lawan bicara ini banyak digunakan oleh ijl pada saat beban permohonannya berat. sementara itu pada j hanya satu orang yang menggunakannya. dengan demikian dapat dikatakan bahwa j terhadap teman umumnya tidak menggunakan strategi seperti mengungkapkan keunggulan/pujian terhadap lawan bicara. ini menunjukkan bahwa di jepang pemakaian ungkapan yang seperti itu sebaiknya dihindari pada bagian terakhir e-mail (saigo no aisatsu) yang terdapat dalam penutup (shimekukuri) terdapat contoh seperti: (5) それじゃ、一緒に頑張りましょう。(ijl15) soreja, isshoni ganbarimashou mari sama-sama berusaha contoh (5) setara dengan “pps12” yang disampaikan oleh brown dan levinson (1987). isi dari pps12 adalah diri sendiri melibatkan diri dalam tindakan/ kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh lawan bicara. contoh (5) ini sama halnya dengan contoh (4e) “~mondai nai to omou node” dan (4f) “….zenzen heiki da yo ne” karena mengesampingkan perasaan dan keinginan dari mitra tutur. dapat diartikan bahwa penutur memutuskan sesuatu hal tanpa adanya persetujuan dari mitra tutur. dengan demikian, contoh (5) di atas bukan hanya pps12, melainkan juga dianggap sebagai bentuk optimisme dari si pembicara yaitu: “pps11 (rakkanshi)”. ungkapan seperti ini tidak tampak pada j. hal ini diduga karena ungkapan semacam itu bisa menimbulkan kesan yang tidak sopan terhadap mitra tutur. di antara j dan ijl ada perbedaan besar dalam pemakaian ungkapan. j tanpa menghiraukan mitra tutur dan situasi yang dihadapi ada kecenderungan untuk menghindari ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan privasi wilayah mitra tutur. sementara itu, ijl khususnya jika yang menjadi mitra tuturnya adalah teman, banyak yang menggunakan ungkapan yang termasuk dalam privasi wilayah mitra tutur. contoh ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan mitra tutur yang digunakan oleh ijl adalah seperti: (6) a. あなたは日本のビデオdvd収集者なので、 私は借りてもいいですか。(ijl4) anata wa nihon no bideo dvd shuushuusha nanode, watashi wa karitemo ii desuka? karena kamu orang mengoleksi dvd jepang, apakah saya boleh meminjamnya? b. ○○ちゃんかわいいからきっと貸してくれると 信じてる。。。^_^;(ijl12) ... chan kawaii kara kitto kashite kureru to shinjiteru… karena...(nama mitra tutur) imut, saya percaya pasti mau pinjamin saya… pada ucapan ijl4 (6a), “anata wa nihon no bideo dvd shuushuusha nanode”, sekilas bisa dianggap sebagai kenyataan objektif yang berkaitan dengan mitra tutur, sehingga bisa digolongkan sebagai ungkapan netral yang berkaitan dengan mitra tutur. pada contoh “anata wa daigakusei nanode” jelas merupakan kenyataan yang bersifat objektif tentang mitra tutur. akan tetapi, ucapan “anata wa nihon no bideo dvd shuushuusha nanode,” dianggap terdapat penilaian subjektif dari penutur. oleh karena itu ungkapan tersebut dikelompokkan dalam ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan privasi wilayah mitra tutur. ungkapan seperti ini tidak digunakan oleh j sama sekali. ada anggapan bagi j, ungkapan seperti itu bisa dianggap mengurangi kesopanan. hal ini disebabkan “dvd shuushuusha” adalah isi yang berkaitan dengan kekayaan mitra tutur dan ada kemungkinan dianggap melanggar privasi mitra tutur. menurut suzuki (1997), untuk menjaga kesantunan sebaiknya dihindari isi pembicaraan yang berkaitan dengan wilayah pribadi mitra tutur yang dalam bahasa jepang disebut dengan ‘kikite no shiteki ryouiki’. pada ucapan ijl12 (6b) “... chan kawaii kara: ○○ ちゃんかわいいから” sama halnya dengan ucapan ijl4 (6a), mungkin ada yang beranggapan bahwa itu adalah isi objektif yang berkaitan dengan mitra tutur. akan tetapi, apakah “...(nama mitra tutur) itu imut (kawaii) : ○○ちゃ んがかわいい” atau tidak, itu adalah hal yang tidak dapat diputuskan secara objektif. di sini sudah pasti terdapat penilaian subjektif dari penutur. selain itu, ungkapan seperti “dvd shuushuusha: dvd収集者: pengoleksi dvd”, yang berkaitan dengan harta mitra tutur, ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan sifat/ karakteristik mitra tutur seperti “... chan kawaii: ○○ちゃんかわいい” dianggap lebih menyinggung privasi mitra tutur. dalam data e-mail yang terkumpul, tidak ada seorangpun dari j yang menggunakan ucapan seperti ini. ini menunjukkan bahwa penilaian subjektif atas sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan sifat/karakteristik mitra tutur merupakan hal yang kurang sopan. contoh (7) adalah contoh ungkapan yang termasuk dalam menyinggung privasi mitra tutur yang digunakan oleh j dan ijl. (7) a. あなたはいつもクラスでいい成績を取って いるので、問題ないと思いますので、(ijl2) anata wa itsumo kurasu de ii seiseki wo totte iru node, mondai nai to omoimasu node karena kamu selalu mendapat nilai yang bagus di kelas, saya rasa kamu tidak ada masalah b. ○○ちゃんは読解が得意だからね。(ijl3) ...chan wa dokkai ga tokui dakara ne 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.1 may 2014 ... (nama mitra tutur), kan hebat dalam hal membaca c. ○○さんはxxxxxのことがよく分かると思 いますので、(ijl5) ... san wa xxxxx no koto ga yoku wakaru to omoimasu node, ... (nama mitra tutur), saya rasa mengerti sekali dalam bidang xxxxx, d. ○○さんが頭いいので、(ijl7) ... san ga atama ga ii node, karena .....(nama mitra tutur) pintar, e. ○○さんの成績がいつもよくて、問題ないと 思うので、(ijl8) ... san no seiseki ga itsumo yokute, mondai nai to omou node, karena...(nama mitra tutur) nilainya selalu bagus, saya rasa tidak ada masalah f. ○ ○ さ ん は 頭 い い か ら 全 然 平 気 だ よ ね。(ijl9) ... san wa atama ii kara zenzen heiki da yo ne. ... (nama mitra tutur) karena pintar, benar-benar tidak ada masalah ya. g. ○○さんは授業に○○先生の質問にいつも正し く答えたので、よく先生の授業の内容 を理 解できると思うのですが・・・(ijl13) ... san wa jugyou ni xx sensei no shitsumon ni itsumo tadashiku kotaeta node, yoku sensei no jugyou no naiyou wo rikai dekiru to omou no desu ga… karena ...(nama mitra tutur) selalu menjawab pertanyaan guru dengan benar, saya rasa dapat memahami isi perkuliahan guru dengan baik h. で、○○よく勉強してたから、(j1) de, ..yoku benkyou shiteta kara, karena ...(nama mitra tutur) rajin belajar, pada situasi ii (7a-g), ucapan yang disampaikan oleh ijl isinya berkaitan dengan prestasi dan kemampuan dari mita tutur. ini semua berkaitan dengan kemampuan akademik dari mitra tutur. hampir setengah ijl menggunakan ungkapan seperti ini, sedangkan j hanya satu orang saja seperti yang terdapat pada (7h). menyebutkan secara langsung keunggulan kemampuan akademik mitra tutur dianggap melanggar privasi mitra tutur dan sebaiknya harus dihindari. ungkapan pada contoh (7h) “de, x yoku benkyou shiteta kara: で、○○よく勉強してたから” serupa dengan contoh ijl(7a-g). namun demikian (7h) bukanlah murni ungkapan yang menunjukkan kemampuan dari mitra tutur semata, melainkan juga dianggap sebagai suatu kenyataan objektif yang berkaitan dengan tindakan dari mitra tutur. dengan demikian, (7h) walaupun dikelompokkan sebagai ungkapan yang menyangkut privasi mitra tutur, jika isinya dibandingkan dengan (7a-g), dianggap tidak terlalu menyinggung privasi mitra tutur. perbedaan j dan ijl dalam pemakaian ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan privasi mitra tutur disebabkan ijl menganggap bahwa e-mail sama halnya dengan bentuk kasual yang digunakan dalam percakapan. sementara itu, j sekalipun mitra tuturnya itu adalah teman, memiliki anggapan bahwa email erat kaitannya dengan bentuk formal. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa ijl mempunyai anggapan bahwa e-mail dan percakapan adalah sama, sehingga dengan menggunakan ungkapan yang menunjukkan keakraban dan keramahan dapat mempermudah terealisasinya suatu permohonan. sementara itu, j beranggapan bahwa e-mail tidaklah sama dengan bentuk kasual yang digunakan dalam percakapan, sehingga j tidak menggunakan strategi seperti yang digunakan oleh ijl. tanpa bersinggungan dengan wilayah pribadi mitra tutur, j seperti pada contoh (8) dalam permohonan banyak menggunakan ungkapan yang bersifat netral dan tidak menyinggung wilayah privasi mitra tutur. selain itu j pada saat harus terpaksa menggunakan ungkapan yang menyangkut privasi mitra tutur, dia berusaha untuk menghaluskan akhir kalimat atau menggunakan ungkapan sopan (keigo) seperti contoh pada (9) dan (10). (8) 先生の研究室にある論文“xxxxx”を読みた いのですが、貸していただけないでしょう か。(j2) sensei no kenkyuushitsu ni aru ronbun “xxxxx”wo yomitai no desu ga, kashite itadakenaideshouka? saya ingin membaca tesis yang ada di lab profesor, bolehkan saya meminjamnya? (9) 本日ご印鑑をお忘れとのことでしたが、用紙の 提出締切日が明日までとなっておりますため、 大 変恐縮ですが、よろしくお願い申し上げま す。(j 4) honjitsu go inkan wo owasure to no koto deshita ga, youshi no teishutsu shimekiribi ga ashita made to natte orimasu tame, taihen kyoushuku desu ga, yoroshiku onegaimoushiagemasu. hari ini saya lupa meminta cap persetujuan (inkan) dari profesor. karena batas akhir pengumpulan formulir besok, saya mohon profesor bersedia membawakan inkan besok. (10) この間私はもう言いましたが、おそらく先生が 忙しいので、印鑑を持ってくるのは忘れたと思 います。(ijl7) kono aida watashi wa mou iimashitaga, osoraku sensei ga isogashii node, inkan wo mottekuru no wa wasureta to omoimasu. sebelumnya saya sudah mengatakan, tetapi mungkin karena profesor sibuk maka jadi lupa membawa inkan. pada contoh (9) dan (10) ada dugaan bahwa alasan profesor tidak membawa inkan adalah ‘lupa’. hal ini dianggap sebagai penilaian penutur terhadap mitra tutur yang bersifat subjektif, sehingga dikelompokkan dalam ungkapan yang berkaitan dengan mitra tutur. contohcontoh tersebut, karena memaparkan kelalaian mitra tutur yang lupa membawa inkan, ada kemungkinan menimbulkan perasaan tidak senang kepada mitra tutur. akan tetapi, (9) jika dibandingkan dengan (10), tidak terlalu menimbulkan perasaan tidak sopan. hal ini disebabkan (9) itu secara harfiah mungkin dirasa kurang begitu tepat, tetapi dengan adanya ungkapan yang bersifat mengabarkan seperti “to no koto deshita: ~と のことでした”, dapat memperlunak dan mengurangi tingkat ketidaksopanan tersebut. dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pada saat harus menyebutkan sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan kelalaian dan karakteristik dari 7kajian kesantunan ….. (hani wahyuningtias) mitra tutur, janganlah memaparkannya secara langsung seperti halnya ijl7 (10), tetapi perlu mempertimbangkan perasaan mitra tutur dengan cara memperhalus akhir kalimat seperti halnya j4 (9). selain itu, j dengan menggunakan strategi mengungkapkan ‘kesalahan’ mitra tutur sebagai kesalahan dirinya sendiri, berusaha untuk menghindari menyebutkan kenyataan yang dianggapnya tidak begitu ingin didengar oleh mitra tutur. sementara itu, ijl tidak menggunakan strategi seperti itu. contoh dari strategi menghindari menyebutkan kesalahan mitra tutur adalah (11) berikut ini. (11) 実は今日の授業で先生から申請許可の印をい ただく予定でしたが、私の連絡ミスもあり、 いただけませんでした。(j12) jitsu wa kyou no jugyou de sensei kara shinsei kyouka no shirushi wo itadaku yotei deshita ga, watashi no renraku misu mo ari, itadakemasendeshita. sebenarnya hari ini rencananya saya ingin mohon inkan profesor, tetapi karena saya ada kesalahan dalam menginformasikan hal permohonan inkan, saya tidak bisa mendapatkan tanda persetujuan profesor. pada contoh (11), sebagai ganti mengungkapkan ‘kelalaian profesor (sensei)‘ yang tidak membawa inkan, penutur melancarkan permintaannya dengan menyebutkan penyebab alasan kegagalan tersebut adalah ‘kelalaian dirinya’ sendiri. walaupun sebenarnya, itu adalah kesalahan profesor yang lalai untuk membawa inkan. strategi yang digunakan oleh j12 dianggap dapat menjaga perasaan mitra tutur. simpulan dalam penelitian ini telah dianalisis ungkapan permohonan yang dihubungkan dengan strategi nps dan pps yang dikemukakan oleh brown dan levinson (1987). sebagai hasilnya, j tanpa membedakan mitra tutur dan situasi, memiliki kecenderungan tinggi menggunakan nps, yang ditunjukkan dengan adanya ungkapan yang mengedepankan mitra tutur. sementara itu, ijl memiliki kecenderungan menggunakan pps untuk mempererat keakraban dengan mitra tutur. ijl sama halnya dengan j tehadap atasan—dalam hal ini profesor—berupaya untuk ‘meringankan beban’ mitra tutur, yang terlihat pada pemakaian nps. cara pemakaian nps dan pps ini tercermin dalam ungkapan yang terdapat pada e-mail. j baik pada sesama teman maupun kepada profesor tidak menggunakan ungkapan yang menyinggung wilayah privasi mitra tutur. j tanpa membedakan mitra tutur dan situasi tidak menggunakan ‘pujian’ terhadap mitra tutur namun menggunakan ungkapan yang lebih mengedepankan mitra tutur serta ungkapan yang bisa melembutkan arti dalam rangka meluluskan permohonannya. sementara itu, ijl terhadap sesama teman menunjukkan keakrabannya dengan cara seperti memberikan ‘pujian’, untuk meluluskan permohonannya. perbedaan strategi j dan ijl tercermin dalam ungkapan yang digunakan pada e-mail permohonan. kekeliruan yang dilakukan oleh ijl tanpa disadari bisa menyebabkan penyebab terjadinya konflik/ kesalahpahaman. selain itu, dalam penulisan e-mail kepada sensei, ijl karena kurang menguasai bagaimana caranya ‘melembutkan’ suatu ungkapan, banyak menggunakan ungkapan langsung yang cenderung menyinggung privasi mitra tutur. oleh karena itu, supaya bisa melakukan komunikasi dengan baik melalui e-mail dan tetap menjaga hubungan baik dengan mitra tutur, ijl bukan hanya perlu menguasai kemampuan bahasa jepang semata, melainkan perlu memiliki pengetahuan tentang strategi yang berkaitan dengan nilai kesantunan bahasa jepang. dalam rangka pengembangan pendidikan bahasa jepang di indonesia, dengan menggunakan contoh dari ungkapan-ungkapan yang kurang tepat dalam penelitian ini, perlu diupayakan bermacam-macam cara baik melalui bahan ajar, metode pengajaran dan lain-lain supaya tidak terulang kesalahan yang sama di masa yang akan datang. daftar pustaka aziz, e. a. (2008). horison baru teori kesantunan berbahasa: membingkai yang terserak, menggugat yang semu, menuju universalisme yang hakiki. pidato pengukuhan guru besar, indonesia: universitas pendidikan indonesia. brown, p & levinson, s. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage. new york: cambridge. goffman, e. (1967). interaction ritual: essays on face– to–face behavior. garden city, ny: doubleday. kumagai, t. & shinozaki, k. (2006). irai bamen de no hatarakikakekata ni okeru sedaisa/chiikisa. dalam gengo kōdō ni okeru hairyō no syoshō. kokuritsu kokugo kenkyūjo hōkoku 123. kuroshio shuppan. suzuki, m. (1997). nihongo kyōiku ni okeru teineitai sekai to futsūtai sekai. dalam y. takubo (ed.). shiten to gengo kōdō (pp. 45–76). tokyo: kuroshio shuppan. thomas, j. (1995). meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london: longman. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 171 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 171-178 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6604 the japanese understanding on new words with suffix -teki across generations teresa angelina kaluge* department of japanese studies, airlangga university jl. airlangga no. 4 6, surabaya, jawa timur 60115, indonesia teresa.angelina.k@fib.unair.ac.id received: 01st august 2020/revised: 24th august 2020/accepted: 14th september 2020 how to cite: kaluge, t. a. (2020). the japanese understanding on new words with suffix -teki across generations. lingua cultura, 14(2), 171-178. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6604 abstract the research attempted to portray the language dynamic on using the suffix -teki among japanese based on old and young generations as reflected by age. data were collected by using questionnaires distributed to the japanese native speakers. new words were responded to as understandable, doubtful, and difficult. descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used in order to find out the results. for both the young and old generations, the stem words from kango were the easiest to understand, yet, the most difficult words were groups of gairaigo, wago, and konshugo. a significant difference was found between the age groups. the old generation expressed more doubt on new foreign words than the young one only in using -teki for gairaigo word group. it is concluded that some meanings of words with suffixes are understood across young and old generations. however, the development of technology and globalization may impact some doubtful responses that differentiate between these two generations. keywords: new word understanding, japanese suffix -teki, japanese generations introduction language and culture have various relations of meaning and interpretation according to the content of its discussion (sutjiati & rasiban, 2018). some people view both as being subordinate, where the language is part of the culture. however, others see it as having a coordinative relation, considering language and culture as equal and equivalent. another opinion places the two as important components that interact in society. the research considers all three types of relationships by raising the case of a suffix in japanese from the lens of native speakers of different generations, i.e., young and old. a word is a part of language as well as a small unit of a sentence. through a word, communication between certain language users can be established. there are several ways of forming a word, and one of them is through giving suffixes. suffix gives a certain meaning to the created word. the suffix is one of the main components in almost all languages. for japanese itself, there are various prefixes and suffixes with diverse functions. one example is the suffix -teki that has a variety of definitions (otsuka, 2019). a suffix -teki could define ‘like’, ‘has the characteristics of’, or ‘related to’ the stem word (mochizuki, 2010; takahashi, 2005). the newly created words from -teki itself would always be classified as an adjective-noun (jin, 2012; yashima, 2019). the suffix -teki is unique in many ways with unusual characteristics compared to other suffixes in general. a suffix usually has a restriction for the stem words, only permit an adjective, for example, but for -teki, various kinds of nouns, from kango, wago, gairaigo, to sentences are possible (endō, 1984; takahashi, 2005). thus, this suffix has been widely known to easily create new words (mochizuki, 2010; yashima, 2019). young japanese started this trend by the year 2000, when they combined a noun watashi ‘i’ with -teki to create a totally new japanese word watashi -teki ‘related to me/me-like’, often in expressing self-opinion without considering the correctness of japanese grammar (harada, 2017; mochizuki, 2010). however, it is sometimes redundant for an adjective to be a stem word for -teki because the result would be another adjective-noun unless the adjective stem word 172 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 171-178 itself has another characteristic of a noun (takahashi, 2005). japanese vocabulary classification based on its origin is called goshu. it consists of four types, namely, kango, wago, gairaigo, and konshugo (harada, 2016; kaji, 2018; kenki, 2018; kondō, 2017; ogura, 2017). kango is a japanese vocabulary derived from chinese and is generally written using japanese kanji. wago is an authentic japanese vocabulary created without the influence of a foreign language. gairaigo is a vocabulary formed from foreign languages, except chinese. gairaigo can be formed from the uptake of english or other foreign languages. konshugo is a vocabulary formed from the combination of the other three goshu, such as the merger of wago and kango, kango and gairaigo, or wago and gairaigo. these four kinds of goshu are all acceptable as the stem word for -teki (jin, 2012; takahashi, 2005). studies on -teki, have been done in japan for a long time ago. the first was done by endō in 1984, who looked for examples of new words suffixed -teki in various written media, such as newspapers, magazines, and essays. his findings were then matched with three japanese dictionaries, and among the words, only the vocabulary found in all three dictionaries was examined. the aim was to find vocabulary acknowledged in the dictionary and lessen the number of japanese language learners’ errors from chinese language background. for suffix -teki is not used only in japanese, but also in chinese, yet with a different pronunciation. it is revealed that some vocabularies are not found suffixed -teki, and those are semantically classified as words with the meaning of social statuses, such as family relations, and young and old (endō, 1984). even though he did not examine goshu as the stem words, endō (1984) found in newspapers, magazines, and essays that kango, gairaigo, phrases, sentences, and even proverbs could have suffixed -teki. endō (1984) is not the only researcher compared -teki in written media. jin (2012) has also conducted a study on -teki but by using the internet as the data source. he has searched for examples of sentences suffixed -teki, then compared it with vocabularies suffixed -teki na (the latter is commonly used by the young japanese). similar to endō (1984), jin (2012) does not specifically examine goshu suffixed -teki, but he has found various types of vocabulary as stem words for -teki, ranging from goshu (kango, wago, gairago, and konshugo) to words, phrases, and even sentences. in the last five years, there has been an increasing number of studies examining the suffix -teki (harada, 2015, 2016, 2017; kaji, 2018; kenki, 2018; otsuka, 2019; wang, 2016; yashima, 2019). some of them specifically analyzed -teki and -teki na, which have different nuance. although both used -teki, the usage of -teki na softens the impression of the words spoken (jin, 2012). also, -teki na is followed by more variety of goshu, in comparison to -teki (harada, 2015). kenki (2018) has analyzed goshu as the stem words for -teki, together with other eight suffixes. for -teki, the dominant stem words are kango. on the other hand, there is only one or no wago, gairaigo, and konshugo has a suffix -teki (kenki, 2018). kagoshima in otsuka (2019) has discussed the vocabulary suffixed -teki and compared its acceptance between the japanese junior and senior high school students. comparisons are per some words, so it is not a representative result for all words suffixed -teki. interestingly, although -teki is known to easily create new vocabularies, not all the newly created words are equally accepted by all japanese native speakers. some words like ippanteki are accepted by the majority, but most of them view mokuhyōteki as unacceptable, despite both ippan and mokuhyō are kango. new words created by -teki have been shown to have increased both in daily usage and in official written media like japanese dictionaries (wang, 2016). however, it is important to note some differences between what is expressed by native speakers with foreigners learning the japanese language (mochizuki, 2010). despite the various perspectives used in studying this suffix have been done, so far, no one has examined how native speakers perceive the new vocabulary created by this suffix with all goshu as the stem words. the suffix -teki is popularized by japanese young people (harada, 2017; mochizuki, 2010). however, the way older japanese perceive new words created by this suffix, whether they have the same understanding with the young people, has not been studied yet. following the recent development, the research would like to find out whether japanese understanding of the stem words combined with -teki also varied or not. the difference between this research and previous research is that first, the internet is used to find initial data sources. second, the research focuses on an understanding based on goshu suffixed -teki, which are not much focused in previous studies. the research uses age as an independent variable, considering that this has not been found in previous studies. therefore, the research tries to answer two main research questions, namely (1) what is the description of the understanding of suffix -teki based on goshu as the stem words, and (2) are there any differences in understanding words suffixed -teki by the japanese people based on their age? in relation to the proposed research questions, the research contains two objectives. the first is to know the description of the suffix -teki based on the stem words. the second is to find out the similarities and differences in understanding suffixes -teki between the young and the old generation. the research’s expected benefits are to help japanese learners in learning and understanding the suffix -teki deeper, viewed from the stem words. thus, the reader can use this suffix directly in conversation and writing, both when communicating directly with japanese people or vice versa. it is also enabling the japanese culture and language observers to choose certain words to be compared with indonesian. 173the japanese understanding .... (teresa angelina kaluge) methods the research is designed through the following steps. first, new words suffixed -teki are collected from the internet using the google search engine. at this stage, the stem words are classified too based on goshu. at first, there are 1.121 words collected. these words are reduced by re-checking the stem words and those new words suffixed -teki in the three japanese dictionaries, namely the gyakubikijiten dictionary, the gyakubikijiten electric dictionary, and the 7th edition of the shinmeikai kokugo daijiten dictionary (yamada et al., 2012) based on two principles. first, if the new word suffixed -teki has already appeared on the dictionary, then it would be excluded from the research. second, whether the stem words are listed in the dictionary. if only one of the principles above applied to the vocabulary, it would be excluded from the research. from the selection of the initial research, 502 words are used in the research. those are new vocabularies not available yet in the three japanesejapanese vocabularies. based on the goshu, the entire vocabularies consist of 300 kango, 67 wago, 122 gairaigo, and 13 konshugo. all these vocabularies are used in the questionnaire as the research instruments. the 502 words are divided into eight questionnaire files; each consisted of 61-63 words. although divided into eight parts, each respondent has to answer all the 502 words. using a questionnaire is not a new thing for analyzing -teki, as harada (2016) has also used one, except the questions focused more on comparing -teki and -teki na. the elements in the research questionnaire are basic information about gender, age, vocabulary items (with and without -teki) accompanied by three choices for each of the vocabulary (understandable, doubtful, and difficult to understand). the questionnaires are distributed within the area of hiroshima university campus in the suburb of saijō, together with nishitakaya, and hiroshima city. some of the participants answer the 502 words immediately, while some others take it home and return the answers several days later. all participants are given time between two to three weeks to finish their answers. time is given due to the enormous number of words that have to be answered. all respondents are randomly selected for filling out the instruments. from a total of 60 people, 34 provides the full answers. thus, only data received from those 34 participants are analyzed. in terms of age, 17 respondents aged 19-30 years (young group) consist of 8 men and 9 women. the remaining 17 respondents are aged 40-80 years, consisting of 7 men and 10 women, and are considered old. data collected from the questionnaires are then processed statistically to answer the research questions. the analysis utilized is descriptive and inferential statistics (field, 2017; aldrich, 2019). descriptive analysis is used to describe the understanding of the new vocabularies in this research. at the same time, the inferential statistics of the t-test is used to examine whether there is a difference in understanding between the young and old groups. results and discussions the findings are presented in two age groups, namely young (19-30 years old) and old (40-80 years old). description of kango, gairaigo, wago, and konshugo are presented by looking at each age group in all three categories of understanding. first, the description of understanding kango with the suffix is shown in figure 1. overall, the highest average is in kango-understandable answer. both age groups have an average of 50% and above. the young group has a slightly higher average of 53%, with a 3% average difference from the old group. next is the kangodoubtful answer. both groups’ ratings are equally below 20%. the old group has a higher average of 17%, while the young group with an average of 13%. the percentages indicate that the two groups do not have sufficiently high doubts when they find the kango suffixed -teki. figure 1 understanding of kango suffixed -teki in kango-difficult, the average of the two groups is 33% and 34%, and the young group has an average of 34%. the average kango-difficult is still below the average kango-understandable, but slightly higher than kango-doubtful. there is a tendency of having difficulty understanding kango with -teki, but the possibility is still below 50%. sometimes kango with -teki could cause a sense of difficulty for any age group. in contrast to kango, the understanding of the gairaigo word group that has -teki is shown in figure 2. overall, the highest average is in the gairaigodifficult answer. both the young and old groups have experienced difficulties when dealing with the gairaigo suffixed -teki, where the young group appears to have more difficulties (average 58%) than the elderly. in terms of gairago-understandable answer, the old group has a higher average of 33%, only 1% difference from the young group. gairaigo originates 174 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 171-178 from foreign languages, and the number continues to grow as more foreign words enter japan. in general, the young generation is the one who accepts changes easily, including new foreign vocabularies. however, this data contradicted that general opinion. figure 2 understanding of gairaigo suffixed -teki regarding gairaigo-doubtful, the old group has a higher level of doubt than the young group, as evidenced by an average of 21%. the young group, however, has 10%, and the difference is 11%. doubts could arise for middle and upper age groups when they encounter new words considered less prevalent in their generation. this is possible because gairaigo is a foreign vocabulary absorbed into japanese. the understanding of the wago word group with -teki is illustrated in figure 3. figure 3 understanding of wago with -teki like gairaigo, wago’s highest average also demonstrates in wago-difficult answers. both groups have experienced similar difficulties, with an average above 50%. only the young group has a slightly higher average of 68%, and the average difference is only 2%. regarding wago-understandable, the results show that the understanding level of the two groups is at approximately the same degree, around 20%, the difference is only 1%. meanwhile, the young group has a higher average of 21%. for the wago-doubtful answer, the average of the two groups is below 20%. it could be concluded that the tendency of doubtful answers is not too high. the old group has a higher average of 14%, followed by the young group, with an average of 11%. figure 4 presents an understanding of konshugo suffixed -teki based on the age group. similar to gairaigo and wago, the highest average is in konshugo-difficult answers with a mean above 50%. the young group seems to have more difficulty with an average of 68%. for konshugo-understandable answer, the old group has a higher average of 26%, only 2% higher than the young group. figure 4 understanding of konshugo suffixed -teki next is konshugo-doubtful. the old group has a higher average of 15% compares to the young group. the average difference is 7%. of all the goshu word classes, only kango has the highest average of ‘understandable’ answers. other word classes, such as wago, gairaigo, and konshugo, actually have the highest average on ‘difficult’ answers. the results of inferential data analysis that examined differences between the young and the old generations are summarized and sorted according to the four classes of goshu words. the results of the t-test are summarized in table 1, which detailed the kango, gairaigo, wago, and konshugo. the t-value proves that the mean data between the two generations do not differ significantly (p> 0,05). the same thing happens to the new words of the wago, and konshugo with new words that are easily understood, doubted, or considered difficult to express by the two generations without significant differences. however, the data in gairaigo show differently. there are a number of words stated to be easily understood accurately by young and old respondents. likewise, a number of new words are still said to be difficult to understand by both generations. however, in expressing doubts about a number of vocabulary words, statistics reveal significant differences between generations. the t-value of the data also prove that 175the japanese understanding .... (teresa angelina kaluge) there is a significant difference (p = 0,042<0,05) between young and old generation when doubting a number of new vocabulary words. the old group has a higher level of doubt than the young one. this finding might express how dynamic the doubt among both groups of participants. table 1 a summary of t-test results variable t-test t sig kango-understandable 0,51 0,615 kango-doubtful -1,0 0,281 kango-difficult 0,12 0,904 garaigo-understandable -0,20 0,841 garaigo-doubtful -2,16* 0,042 garaigo-difficult 1,16 0,254 wago-understandable 0,23 0,821 wago-doubtful 1,07 0,293 wago-difficult 0,31 0,761 konshugo-understandable -0,35 0,728 konshugo-doubtful -1,90 0,067 konshugo-difficult 1,23 0,229 notes: * significant difference between generations the old group ages are ranged between 4080 years. that said, the suffix -teki used today is not based on the correct use of grammar. initially, it is younger japanese people who popularized the usage of -teki (harada, 2017; mochizuki, 2010). due to the increasing number of users, -teki begins to be recognized and used widely. nonetheless, -teki is not a suffix used in the generation of middle to upper age groups. this might be the reason behind the hesitation of the 40-80-years age group in answering. they may have understood the stem word meaning, but because they feel that the new word suffixed -teki is not used by people their age, they become doubtful. in addition, it should be noted once again that gairaigo is an uptake of a foreign language. certainly, the number continues to grow over time. those who do not master the new vocabulary might find it difficult to understand. this could be why the middle and upper age groups’ doubts when facing gairaigo with -teki. for example, a word サポーター的 sapōtāteki has mean ratings from the young group as 75% difficult, and 12,5% doubtful. however, the old group means ratings for this word are 47,1% doubtful, 29,4% difficult, and 23,5% understandable. sapōtā is a gairaigo word derived from the english vocabulary ‘supporter’, although it is not clear the possible meaning of this new word suffixed -teki. in this case, although the combination of sapōtā and -teki might seem confusing and difficult to understand, the old group prefers to answer ‘doubtful’ (47,1%) over ‘difficult’ (29,4%). the research is begins with the discovery of several japanese vocabularies that are not well known at the time of collecting data. they appear on the internet but are not necessarily understood in the wider community. it is found no less than 1000 new vocabulary suffixed -teki. although -teki is already known for creating new words easily (yashima, 2019), these results reflect how rapidly new words appear from time to time. the development of any new words could emerge gradually, like -teki that created 13 new vocabularies in 1898 to new 450 new words in 2008. all are officially recognized in the japanese dictionary (wang, 2016). this number certainly does not include new words developed among daily conversation or written media such as magazines, newspapers, and internet websites. similar to japan, indonesia also has and is experiencing a similar development. in the ongoing third millennium period, with the breakthrough of globalization across the globe, language life can develop even more dynamically and bring several inevitable consequences. the results of descriptive statistics reveal that related to the inclusion of suffix -teki in japanese. the easily understood vocabularies are created from kango as the stem word, which is an uptake of chinese. although this does not seem a novel finding, as kaji (2018) has already noted, comparing all the goshu, -teki is suitable for having kango as stem word, except that the research does not consider age as the variable. thus, in the research, a similar result is demonstrated by both generations, young and old. given the historical point of view, some japanese vocabularies are originated from the influence of its neighbors’ cultural environment (chinese and korean). thus, this finding is very reasonable if japanese speakers maintain and still understand that aspect well. although some kango is considered difficult to understand when suffixed -teki, it might be due to these new words’ unfamiliarity. for example, in the research, 100% of the young group regards 紹 介的 shōkaiteki as ‘difficult’, while on the other hand, answers in the old group is varied (82,4% ‘difficult’ and 17,6% ‘doubtful’). nevertheless, both groups view 基礎的’ kisoteki’ as ‘understandable’ (mean above 85%), despite both shōkai and kiso are both kango. shōkai means ‘introduction’, and kiso means ‘foundation’/’basis’. thus, kisoteki is regarded as more familiar than shōkaiteki for both groups. kango itself undergoes changes through some japanese era, in which some become more familiar in the japanese conversation and some still used in written japanese (konno, 2017). similar to the experience of indonesia, although it is influenced by various foreign languages, the malay language (aziz et al., 2017; niess, 2016), which is the forerunner of the unifying language, is still used and understood well. the new words suffixed -teki that considered difficult for most native speakers in japan, both young 176 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 171-178 and old, mostly have stem words from gairaigo, wago, and konshugo. for example, in wago, there is 全く的 mattakuteki that perceived 100% difficult by both the young and old group. mattaku is an adverb that defines ‘completely’, ‘truly’. in konshugo, there is エネル ギー面的 enerugiimenteki that perceived as difficult by both the young (81,3%) and old group (70,6%) as well. enerugiimen is a combination of gairaigo (enerugii means ‘energy’) and kango (men means ‘face’/‘surface’). these results are in line with kenki (2018). these three groups of goshu words reflect absorption words from western languages, current japanese, and a combination of both. this difficulty may reflect that if something new is not necessarily understood on its own, it still needs to be adjusted and understood gradually. although young people tend to be divergent or get out of the establishment by using new vocabulary, it is not necessarily immediately well understood by their fellow colleagues. another possible reason is some words could naturally be accepted as having other suffixes like -sa, -sei, for example, rather than -teki (kaji, 2018). thus, the next question is, if previous research (kenki, 2018) has already found only kango are mostly suffixed -teki, then where from and for what purpose the other goshu has suffixed -teki and why those were available on the internet? like the trend of watashi-teki that happened in 2000 (harada, 2017; mochizuki, 2010), the young japanese could have been made, although no evidence has directly stated it. the significant finding of the research is the doubt in understanding new words absorbed from western languages, especially english. this finding seems to prove language as a mirror of a generation (severin, 2017). older users are more hesitant to understand the meaning of new vocabulary than the younger generation. the younger generation’s presence in this research expected to be born in the 1980s-1990s is bringing social change due to the influence of technology access (computers, cell phones, and other similar gadgets) in their lives. their presence, along with the explosion of digital technology, has been able to make collaboration to care about problems in society. this phenomenon has an impact on how to communicate and speak globally. this finding suggests the same symptoms so that the differences between generation y (young) and generation x (old) begin to appear. for the next decade, it is estimated that this difference can be increasingly clear and striking. language always grows and develops according to the times. it grows and develops if there is a dynamic in its vocabulary and becomes stunned if there is no movement in its vocabulary. language is like a tree, and leaves are the vocabulary. if the tree grows, of course, there will always be new leaves that grow, and inevitably, there are also yellow leaves that wither and fall. everything turns, likewise, vocabulary in developing languages. there will always be new vocabulary; there may also be old vocabulary forgotten and not used by the user. that is the life of language. suffix, too, could undergo changes. an example is -hashi, a suffix frequently used in the old japanese, but then declined as lesser people used it (murayama, 2019). another example is how handbook changes its content does impact a generation’s understanding of vocabularies (narikawa, 2017). some words could be familiar to the older generation, but not for the young group and vice versa. in this case, the suffix -teki gets popularized by the younger japanese generation, is still developing now. however, not all of the new words might be necessarily understood by the older japanese. for example, findings from otsuka (2019) that varieties might persist in native japanese elementary school children’s understanding of vocabularies suffixed -teki. the reason is partially that the definition of the suffix -teki in their dictionary varies. some have a full explanation, others only have a simple definition, yet the suffix -teki is available in their workbook that sometimes differed from their dictionary (otsuka, 2019). age does play a role in language usage, especially acquiring the native language (inaba, 2018). in japanese itself, when teenagers start to become in the twenties to thirties, they start to neglect some of their young people’s language (bankawa, 2020; haristiani & putri, 2018). although, as they age, the japanese still consider themselves learning their native language (kawasaki, 2017). thus, it is not surprising to find different answers between participants from the same or different age group. it is important to preserve the usage of goshu. kango is important to know the root of some japanese words, and wago is essential to know the richness of original japanese words (kawauchi, 2016). although in written media, like magazines, kango becomes lesser found, and wago emerges significantly or vice versa (kondō, 2019; 2017). both younger and older generations need to preserve the words by using them in daily conversation or as the written language. the dynamics of language occur everywhere without distinguishing the origin of culture, geographical location, or ethnicity of the speakers (tajeddin & ghaffaryan, 2020). in general, the findings of the research reflect the life of a language in one of the east asian countries that are capable of producing new vocabulary through absorption from outside and within its environment. that indicates that the language is developing and very dynamic. at present, most languages experience dynamics in the midst of globalization that has plagued various aspects of life (valdez & flores, 2019). the dominance of developed industrial countries is enormous in the process of globalization. people can watch entertainment (films, music, and cultural activities) originating from western cultures that are different from eastern cultures, access films or news about world figures, and so on through the media. from these media, foreign lifestyles and cultural values are absorbed into consciousness. in the context of language dynamics, the phenomenon of globalization leads people to various possibilities, extremely positive or extreme negative, or various 177the japanese understanding .... (teresa angelina kaluge) variations in their midst. such contemporary meaning has not yet been the focus of the research. the globalization era is full of charm and offers a lot of convenience to life, both through mass media such as television, magazines, and online media. in japanese, too, the increased use of gairaigo cannot be separated from the role of globalization (raversa & haristiani, 2020). in addition, gairaigo is often associated with a modern, sophisticated image, so it is not surprising that young people also start using it. when compared with indonesia in the last decade, regional languages are threatened with extinction (nurrochsyam, 2015; sitokdana, tanone, & tanaem, 2019). many factors cause language to become extinct (sitokdana, tanone, & tanaem, 2019), including the factors of globalization and nationalism. the globalization factor is in the form of the threat of displacing the national language by english. preservation of language and culture is absolutely necessary because the community has the right to preserve and maintain their language and culture. the same symptoms are also present in japanese culture and language but have not been supported by valid evidence in the research. the younger generation has a duty to preserve and maintain the use of their language by using it in daily conversation so that the language would not become extinct (ortega, 2020). however, besides using the correct language, the younger generation tends to act and do something divergent or deviates from publicity and make new breakthroughs. japan, as one of the developed countries where quite a number of young generation globalized globally, the idea of preserving its own language becomes a unique challenge. the use of suffixes is also appropriate to be taught to japanese language learners (harada, 2017). because these suffixes easily produce new vocabulary, the vocabulary that has been officially recognized should be introduced first to students. the suffix -teki can be followed by various modifiers, producing only -teki, -teki na, -teki da, and others (harada, 2017). this is not easy, but it does not mean impossible because, in reality, the traditional language and culture in japan are still preserved until today. conclusions the conclusions are drawn based on three choices, namely understandable, doubtful, and difficult. there are two conclusions drawn from the findings of the research. first, the understanding of both the young and the old generations are high for the kango with -teki. the word classes gairaigo, wago, and konshugo that have -teki are generally classified as difficult to understand by the native speakers. second, doubts in understanding the words of gairaigo that generally come from the west show a significant difference between the old and the young people. the young group seems more permissive than old participants. the findings and discussions of the research imply four suggestions for the future. first, to consider carefully the formalization of vocabulary that has sprung up from time to time. if it meets the rules of the language, it is time to edit and record it into a dictionary that has been circulating in the form of the latest edition. second, young people who tend to be more progressive and crash into established language structures are commonplace and should be given a place to express and innovate in various forms. third, for japanese language learners to be aware of and recognize the dynamics of everyday language that develops and has the opportunity to give a unique nuance in society. fourth, for future research, the format of it could be replicated for variations in new vocabulary opportunities that are developing with larger samples to reflect more reasonable population parameters with smaller error opportunities. in addition, variations in the meaning of words in terms of expansion vs. narrowing and adaptation vs. amelioration, the effects of globalization, and various effects of the media today might be examined through research as well. acknowledgement i would like to thank associate professor kanetaka fukami from morito institute of global higher education, hiroshima university for the suggestions in conducting this study. also, all the participants for the cooperation. references aldrich, j. o. 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(yani susanti) the role of imprisonment and censorship in the international success of pramoedya ananta toer’s buru quartet novels yani susanti graduate student of creative writing, faculty of social sciences and humanities, london metropolitan university 166-220 holloway road, london n7 8db yani.susanti@gmail.com abstract imprisonment and censorship that is meant to silence pramoedya ananta toer and his books did not succeed. on the contrary, they only help popularize pramoedya ananta toer’s buru quartet novels in the international market. through some library researches, this article analyzed the purpose of imprisonment, the impacts it has on pramoedya ananta toer’s career in the literary world and related them to pierre bourdieu’s concept of capital. it is concluded that this triumph over imprisonment and censorship owes its success to pramoedya ananta toer’s strong connections with the people that matter in his lifetime. keywords: imprisonment, censorship, pramoedya ananta toer, capital, pierre bourdieu abstrak pemenjaraan dan pembredelan yang bertujuan untuk membungkam pramoedya ananta toer dan bukunya tidak berhasil. sebaliknya, hal ini membantu memopulerkan keempat novel tetralogi berjudul buru di pasar internasional. melalui kajian pustaka, artikel menganalisis tujuan pemenjaraan, dampak pemenjaraan terhadap karier pramoedya ananta toer dalam dunia kesusastraan dan menghubungkannya dengan konsep kapital pierre bourdieu. disimpulkan bahwa kemenangan atas usaha pemenjaraan dan pembredelan ini berhasil berkat hubungan kuat pramoedya ananta toer dengan orang-orang yang berpengaruh besar semasa hidupnya. kata kunci: pemenjaraan, pembredelan, pramoedya ananta toer, kapital, pierre bourdieu 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 introduction throughout history, writers who are critical, influential and vocal in opposing authority may be found suffering from imprisonment and exile. in many cases, their works are banned or even burned. these vile actions are mostly meant to silence these writers, to ensure that their words never get to see the light of day. yet, these muffling efforts have not always been successful. in some cases, they even help popularize these writers’ works. using pierre bourdieu’s concept of capital to support the analysis, this paper intends to prove that acts of silencing writers, such as imprisonment and censorship can be used to boost the success of pramoedya ananta toer’s buru quartet novels to penetrate the international market. method this article presented library research that found out the theories of pierre bourdieue’s capital and richard jenkins to explore the purpose of pram’s imprisonment, the significances of his books, and to prove the triumph of pram’s capital over imprisonment and censorship. discussion according to encyclopaedia britannica (coyle, n.d.), there are several purposes of imprisonment: to discourage people from committing crimes–including those who have been released from the prison, to serve as punishment for or to obtain retaliation from people who have done serious crimes, to promote personal reformation of people who are imprisoned, and to protect the society from people who are committing crimes. in short, imprisonment aims to prevent, reduce and – ideally, abolish crimes, while at the same time functions to protect the public from ‘criminals’. michel foucault, a french philosopher, psychiatrist and historian, however, has an interesting opinion about prisons. in his interview with the new york times (droit, 1975), he stated that prison was the ultimate embodiment of discipline; it exercised an entire technique of surveillance, in which individuals were controlled and identified while their movements, activities, and effectiveness were regulated. based on these concepts, it can be concluded that the imprisonment, which befall most writers, is meant to take them away from the society and then keep them under surveillance. imprisonment aims to eradicate crimes and the only crime committed by these writers is writing. so, in this case, the writers are the criminals and their books are the crimes. the writers are imprisoned so that they can be controlled and their books can be eradicated. pramoedya ananta toer—often regarded as the greatest indonesian writer—was born on 6 february 1925 in a small town called blora, central java, as the eldest of nine siblings (perlez, 2006). his father was a headmaster in a local nationalist school and his mother helped the family economy by selling rice (perlez, 2006). after he finished his primary education, he continued to study at the radio vocational school in surabaya, a much bigger city than blora (aglionby, 2006). during the japanese occupation (1942-1945), he worked as stenographer in domei, a japanese news agency where he developed his writing skills (aglionby, 2006). after indonesia declared its independence in 1945, he joined a youth militia to support the new nation’s struggle against the dutch colonial army, who still did not want to let the nation go. he resigned from the army once the war against the dutch was over and became more absorbed in the world of literature (lane, 2006). even though he wrote more than 30 novels, he is mostly known by his masterpiece, buru quartet novels: bumi manusia (this earth of mankind), anak semua bangsa (child of all nations), jejak langkah (footsteps), and rumah kaca (house of glass). he based the novels on the “life and imagined experiences of raden mas tirto adhisuryo, a pioneer in indonesian journalism, literature and national awakening at the beginning of the twentieth century” (lane, 2006). he passed away in his family home in jakarta on 30 april 2006 at the age of 81 after a long struggle against the complication of diabetes and heart disease (perlez, 2006). pram—the name which he preferred to be addressed with—had been imprisoned for three times in his life. the first imprisonment, lasted for 3 years, was administered by the dutch colonial government due to his involvement in the resistance army (perlez, 2006). about 10 years later, in 1960, he was imprisoned for the second time by indonesia’s first government after its independence because he wrote articles, that were later published into a book entitled hoakiau, to oppose the new government regulation that discriminated the chinese minority in indonesia (kurniawan, 2009). he was released after 1 year, only to be imprisoned for the third time 5 years later. this longest one, taking 14 years of his life, came from indonesia’s new order regime (kurniawan, 2009). after indonesia’s first president, who always tended to be more socialist than democratic, was overthrown during the coup d’état, the new regime tried to clean the nation from anyone or anything socialist-related. pram and his involvement with lembaga kebudayaan rakyat (people’s cultural institution)—usually abbreviated to lekra, founded on 17 august 1950 by some artists and members of indonesian communist party (tim tempo, 2013)—surely did not miss the cleansing. pram started writing professionally in 1947 (vltchek & indira, 2006) at first, in order to survive, as he needed the money to support his younger brothers and sisters. clearly, people enjoyed his writing considering that he could earn some money from it. though he had written a good amount of stories, the only book that survived before his first imprisonment was only kranjibekasi jatuh, containing only half of the short stories that he wrote because half of them were confiscated by netherlands indies field security (kurniawan, 2009). there was no official record found regarding its exact sale numbers, so it is rather impossible to compare its success to his other books, produced while he was imprisoned, from the selling aspect. yet, considering that the sale number is not the only thing that could determine the success of a book, we can take a look at other aspects. during his first imprisonment, he managed to smuggle his works out with the help of a dutch professor, g.j. resink (kurniawan, 2009). these two manuscripts were perburuan (the fugitive) and keluarga gerilya 97the role of imprisonment ….. (yani susanti) (freely translated as “guerilla family” as there is no record of its english translation). perburuan won the first prize of the 1950 writing competition held by balai pustaka (toer, 1963), a highly respected literary publishing house in indonesia at that time. meanwhile, keluarga gerilya made its way to the compulsory reading list of middle schools in malaysia since 1970 though the malaysian publisher failed to pay the royalty (razif, 2006). from these facts, it was clear that compared to kranji-bekasi jatuh, perburuan was more successful in terms of winning a prestigious writing award and keluarga gerilya was more successful in terms of cross-nation readership. however, a more distinct comparison can be seen on the success of bumi manusia (this earth of mankind), the first book in buru quartet series, which was written during his third imprisonment. it has been translated into 36 different languages up to year 2006 since it was first published in 1980 (vltchek & indira, 2006). clearly, it is not difficult to see which book turned out to be much more successful in the international world. the comparison above is not meant to compare the quality or content of pram’s works, as every piece has its own uniqueness and strong points. it is simply to show that even though pram’s works had been widely acclaimed and published before he was thrown into jail, he got more attentions – international ones, even – when and after he got imprisoned and banned. after closely examining the purpose of imprisonment and also pram’s success with bumi manusia, it is evident that the authority failed to achieve their objective, which was to discourage pram from committing his ‘crimes’ so that his ‘crimes’ would disappear. despite the fact that he was imprisoned, he was still writing and his books did not wither and die. on the contrary, they flourished. so now, we are left with the question, ‘why?’ or ‘how?’ this is when the paper brings pierre bourdieu into the analysis. a renowned french sociologist, pierre bourdieu, believes that one’s success—in this case, in producing great literary works—is not detached from the capital one has. the capital here has a broader meaning than just the capital in economic sense, the capital can also take noneconomic forms. bourdieu extends the concept of capital as stated by blunden (2004) in his review of bourdieu’s book distinctions, “capital is the resource, command of which, enables one to exercise and resist domination in social relations, or putting it another way, to maintain a position in the status hierarchy of society, or putting it objectively, an ‘organizing principle’” (para. 8). before this paper analyze further the capital that pram had, it is better to understand what capital is about. jenkins (1992:85) explained that the capital could be categorized into four forms: economic capital, social capital, cultural capital, and symbolic capital. economic capital is referring to one’s financial power, like how much money or valuables one possesses. cultural capital (blunden, 2004, para. 15) is “all those manners which infallibly identify you to others as a person of a culture, popular, avant garde, or legitimate, with a likely trajectory in life (declining or rising), likely to have access to certain circles or not, and with more or less right to have an opinion on political matters or whatever.” thus, one’s social origin is highly influencing one’s cultural capital (blunden, 2004). education may offer a ladder for social climbers to gain this culture capital though bourdieu’s research (blunden, 2004, para. 18) finds that “‘scholastic’ culture can never quite duplicate the ease and depth of the cultural capital acquired by constant exposure at home”. social capital “are ‘connections’ needed, in particular, to make use of one’s cultural or scholastic capital (certificates)” (blunden, 2004, para. 23). in short, social capital is referring to the people one knows, people that matter. symbolic capital, according to jenkins (1992:85), refers to prestige and social honor. bourdieu (1986, para. 27) also said, “the different types of capital can be derived from economic capital, but only at the cost of a more or less great effort of transformation, which is needed to produce the type of power effective in the field in question.” this means that the capital, though it could be categorized into four different types, is transformable. for example, a man who has a lot of money (economic capital) could afford to have the membership of a prestigious golf-club, which could lead him to get acquainted with high-class figures (social capital). in this case, his economic capital is transformed into social capital. it is important to be aware of the capital’s convertibility as most of pram’s capital is transformable. based on the definition of economic capital, it might seem that pram did not have it, considering that he was not born into a wealthy family. all his life, he was practically earning money from his writing, so he did not get his works published due to his ownership of some financial power. he often said that he did not know how to do any other work and that was why he just wrote (vltchek & indira, 2006:113). however, a year after his release in 1979, he joined force with joesoef isak, a former journalist for merdeka newspaper who had been imprisoned for over a decade before being released, and hasjim rachman, who was detained in buru island together with him, to form a publishing company named hasta mitra (razif, 2006). at first, joesoef admitted that the main funding came from hasjim’s own pocket, but then some sympathizing colleagues and friends donated some money to add to the funding they had so that the publishing company could start running (razif, 2006). repeating what bourdieu said about capital that was convertible, here pram managed to obtain the economic capital due to his social capital, which was his relationship with hasjim rachman, joesoef isak and those sympathizing people. in term of culture, pram clearly possessed a very good capital. as mentioned before, his father was a headmaster of a nationalist school. without doubt, his father was a highly educated man to be able to hold such position. moreover, it was really rare to have an indonesian who had the consciousness for nationalism, especially at that time. even sumpah pemuda (the youth pledge), that has always been addressed as the first nationalist movement in indonesia did not happen until 1928, three years after pram was born. pram even said in the beginning of his interview, “i was raised in a left-wing nationalist family that opposed the colonial system,” (vltchek & indira, 2006:51). his mother, who seemed to be less educated than his father, turned out to be a woman with a sophisticated mind. a woman, during the colonization period in particular, would not have said to her son that he was “a person with 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 ‘all-round’ talents… not someone’s slave, but not a slave driver, either” (gogwilt, 2006, para. 9). it is obvious that his parents were no ordinary people, they were two of the very few indonesians who were totally aware of human rights and that colonization violated those rights. pram might not have been born into monetary wealth, but he was definitely born into intellectual wealth. pram’s strong cultural capital even seemed to outshine his education, which was not as impressive as his works. although he was fortunate enough to have been schooled at all, he was never educated in prestigious schools. that was why, in a later stage of his life, when a professor from leiden university invited him to lecture at res publica university, netherlands, pram responded, “how can i teach at university if i never finished junior high school,” (vltchek & indira, 2006:111–112). this shows that his achievement as a writer, shaped by his cultural capital, enabled him to permeate the world of academia, which would then further support his writing reputation. in addition to such privilege, he was also exposed to the world of literature from a rather young age because his father was apparently a writer (toer, 1981:18). this early exposure was most probably what drove him to work in journalism at the first place during the japanese occupation. yet, being raised in a nationalist family, he could not resist joining the resistance army when his nation was fighting for its independence. his nationalistic action, though bringing forth his first imprisonment by the dutch colonial government, had won him the attention of the nation’s leaders, including indonesia’s first president, soekarno. again, thanks to his cultural capital, he could get acquainted to the people in ‘high places’, to the people that mattered. it is not illogical to say that his nationalism, obtained from his cultural capital, had caused his first imprisonment to develop his social capital for it was in prison did he get to be visited by sympathizing intellectuals. one prominent visitor was g.j. resink, a dutch professor, writer and historian, who was teaching in the law school of university of indonesia (reksodiputro, n.d.). he played a big role in pram’s early literary life by smuggling perburuan and keluarga gerilya out of the prison. he also forwarded perburuan to h.b. jassin, a famous indonesian literary writer and critic who worked at balai pustaka (tempo, 2013), to be included in its prestigious writing competition. perburuan, as mentioned earlier in this paper, won the first prize and was published in 1950 (toer, 1963). this achievement made himself a reputable name in indonesia’s literary world. once more, his social capital developed as his fame as a writer escalated after his second imprisonment. his commitment in defending human rights led him to write articles on berita minggu (sunday news) to oppose the president’s regulation pp 10/60, a racist regulation that dispelled the chinese minority from their economic ventures in indonesia (kurniawan, 2009). upon his arrest, hoakiau, as the compilation of these articles was entitled, then drew the attentions from the neighboring countries. the book was translated and published in cambodian, burmese and chinese (abidien & prabandari, 1998, para. 8). pram’s reputation as a writer became stronger, not just nationally, but also internationally. ultimately, his third imprisonment boosted his social capital that he was forged into an international literary legend. in 1965, indonesia experienced a big political change. soekarno was toppled by the rightwing military that put soeharto on the presidential seat. despite the fact that pram was imprisoned by soekarno for hoakiau, he was still considered soekarno’s supporter due to his left-wing ideology. afraid that pram could indoctrinate the public through his writing, the soeharto regime arrested him without any trials, seized his property, banned his books and put him into exile for 14 years in buru island, where the prisoners were tortured and forced to hard labor (vltchek & indira, 2006:72– 77). by the time he was arrested, pram had already had a strong network within the international literary world, so this imprisonment only strengthened and widened that network for most writers support the right to write, the right pram was denied from. in the first half period of his imprisonment, pram was not given any access to paper or pen, let alone a typewriter. yet, he was not only a writer, he was also a storyteller. at night, he would orally tell his fellow inmates the story about a young javanese journalist named minke, his fateful meeting with the charismatic nyai ontosoroh, his romance with her daughter, annelies and all of his revolutionary life struggles set during the turning of 20th century indonesia. his tales, which later on were published and known as buru quartet novels, had firstly become the inmates’ hopes and moral support (ali, 2006, para. 5). even in prison, he seemed to hold some social importance, some social honor, that could link back to bourdieu’s symbolic capital. the prisoners would not have listened to his stories, or even “shoulder[ed] up his labor duties so he can put his words onto paper” (culture shock, pbs online, n.d., para. 2) when he was finally allowed to write in the later years of his imprisonment, if he was not seen prestigious. during his buru imprisonment, pram was visited by international visitors and also some prominent national figures, one of which was general soemitro. he came in 1973, bearing order from president soeharto to officially inform pram that starting from that moment on, he was allowed to write (vltchek & indira, 2006:80). this lift of writing restriction was the result of the international pressure that was constantly demanding indonesian government to let him write, as what pram (vltchek & indira, 2006:80) admitted in his interview, “i was allowed to write because of the pressure from outside.” he always believed that it was the monitor from the international world that saved him during his time in buru (vltchek & indira, 2006:117). he said in his interview, “i wasn’t tortured, probably because my whereabouts were monitored by the outside world,” (vltchek & indira, 2006:78). to sum up, it was his international network that enabled him to continue writing from his exile. however, the journey of buru quartet novels was not that smooth. as predicted, the authorities confiscated all of his works. fortunately, he had foreseen this and made several copies of his manuscripts and got them smuggled out of buru island, with the help of some boatmen and priests that forwarded them to europe, united states or 99the role of imprisonment ….. (yani susanti) australia (culture shock, pbs online, n.d., para. 2). only after his release was pram able to compile his manuscripts and prepare his first book of the buru quartet, bumi manusia, to be published in 1980. according to hasta mitra’s main editor, isak (1999, para 13), in fordham university symposium, “over night pramoedya became a popular sensation. his books were sought after by all sections of society: ordinary people, students, journalists, housewives and even officials, although the latter often searched for his books secretly.” bumi manusia was reprinted six times and it was during the last printing that the attorney general put a ban on it together with its sequel, anak semua bangsa, the second book of buru quartet (isak, 1999, para. 15). again, the censorship failed to silence pram’s works. the ban, of course, simply created a huge black market for both books, just like what isak (1999, para. 15) confirmed. in the same symposium, isak (1999, para 3) also admitted that the press coverage, either domestic or foreign, about the bannings, interrogations and other intimidation suffered by pram and hasta mitra became excellent advertisements, “very effective free publicity which has helped greatly the sale and distribution of pramoedya’s books.” from what the publisher said about the good effect that pram’s first two books of buru quartet received from the censorship, it is clear that the authority’s effort to silence him totally failed. disregarding that pram’s works were of great literary quality, this free publicity was received mainly to the connections that he had. the strong network that showered him with international attention, one that had helped him survive the persecution in buru island, was still as strong. the world was watching him, people wanted to know what happened to him after he was released and the readers were waiting to read his works. this made any news about him to be sought after by the press. if he had not been well-respected in the literary world and the international world had not cared about him, the press would not have bothered to report the bannings and the intimidations that pram and hasta mitra suffered from. thus, his social capital proved itself to be stronger than imprisonment and censorship time after time. not too long before the ban was issued, however, max lane, a staff of the australian embassy in jakarta, had offered to translate bumi manusia into english (fawzi & bahrawi, n.d., para. 6–7). when he was found translating this book, he was dismissed from the consulate and deported home (aglionby, 2006). he continued the translation in his home country and managed to get it published by one of the biggest publishing houses, penguin books (lane, 2005). again and again, the authority’s effort to destroy pram’s books did not succeed. on the contrary, it only ‘promoted’ them to be widely published throughout the world. conclusion based on the discussions, this paper concluded that pram’s triumph over imprisonment and censorship cannot be separated from the capital that he obviously possessed, just like what bourdieu believes. the international success of buru quartet novels is not only the result of their great literary quality, but also the result of their writer’s cultural and symbolic privilege as well as his strong connections with the people that matter. pram’s capital has proven its superiority by transforming imprisonment and censorship into a boosting power in publishing his books worldwide. this eminent success is reflected on the 36 languages that the books have been translated into. it was a much higher number than the one he had ever achieved before he was persecuted. does it not make us wonder—disregarding the great quality of his works—if his buru quartet novels would have achieved the same fame and number had pram not been imprisoned and banned? to end this paper, allow the writer to quote mr. pram’s favorite saying (vltchek & indira, 2006:109), “my writing was my answer to them: by continuing, i showed that my culture was superior.” pram has repeatedly proven that his culture, embodied in his books, superior as it does not only survive, but also thrives under persecution. references abidien, z. & prabandari, p.d. (1998). pram dan larangan buku-bukunya. tempo 6 oct, 1998. retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/pramoedyasite/ home/berita-dalam-bahasa-indonesia/pram-danlarangan-buku-bukunya aglionby, j. (2006, may 3). pramoedya ananta toer: indonesia’s best known novelist, he survived persecution, imprisonment and censorship. the guardian. retrieved from http://www.theguardian. com/news/2006/may/03/guardianobituaries. indonesia ali, t. (2006, may 2). on the death of pramoedya ananta toer. retrieved from http://www.counterpunch. org/2006/05/02/on-the-death-of-pramoedyaananta-toer/ blunden, a. (2004). bourdieu on status, class, and culture. andy blunden’s homepage. retrieved from http://home.mira.net/~andy/works/bourdieureview.htm bourdieu, p. (1986). the forms of capital. (r. nice, trans.). marxists internet archive. retrieved from http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ philosophy/works/fr/bourdieu.htm (original work published 1979) coyle, a.g. (n.d.). prison. encyclopædia britannica online. retrieved from http://www.britannica. com/ebchecked/topic/477205/prison culture shock, pbs online. (n.d.). pramoedya ananta toer’s buru quartet 1979. retrieved from http:// www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/flashpoints/ literature/pramoedya.html droit, r. (1975, august 5). michel foucault, on the role of prisons. the new york times on the web. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/12/17/ specials/foucault-prisons.html fawzi, f. & bahrawi, n. (n.d). an interview with max lane: on the politics of translation. asymptote journal. retrieved from http://www.asymptotejournal. com/article.php?cat=interview&id=9&curr_ index=12&curpage=interview gogwilt, c. (2006). writing to the world. inside indonesia, 88. retrieved from http://www.insideindonesia. 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.8 no.2 november 2014 org/feature-editions/writing-to-the-world isak, j. (1999, april 24). the shaping of the mute’s soliloquy: part 1. prampage. retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/pramoedyasite/home/ concerning-pram/the-shaping-of-the-mute-ssoliloquy-part-1 jenkins, r. (1992). pierre bourdieu. revised ed. new york: routledge. kurniawan, e. (2009, april 20). buku, perang, dan penjara. blog indonesia buku. retrieved from http://suplemenibuku.blogspot.co.uk/2009/04/ buku-perang-dan-penjara.html lane, m. (2005, april 20). joesoef isak wins pen australia award. green left weekly. retrieved from https:// www.greenleft.org.au/node/32709 lane, m. (2006). pramoedya ananta toer. links international journal of socialist renewal, 29. retrieved from http://links.org.au/node/223 perlez, j. (2006, may 1). pramoedya ananta toer, 81, indonesian novelist, dies. the new york times on the web. retrieved from http://www.nytimes. com/2006/05/01/books/01prem.html?_r=1&ei=50 70&en=d4a8b0b47a30189e&ex=1147200&emc= eta1&pagewanted=print& razif. (2006). hasta mitra bertarung melawan pembodohan. media kerja budaya, 6, 19–22. reksodiputro, m. (n.d.). prof. g.j. resink. liber amicorum prof mr djokosetono. retrieved from http://www. amicorumdjokosoetono.com/index.php/artikeltentang-rekan-sejawat-prof-djokosoetono/19-profg-j-resink tempo. (2013, march 30). mengenang balai pustaka. retrieved from http://www.tempo.co/read/ kolom/2013/03/30/682/mengenang-balai-pustaka tim tempo. (2013, september 30). bila lekra memaknai rakyat. retrieved from http://www.tempo.co/ read/news/2013/09/30/173517705/bila-lekramemaknai-rakyat toer, p.a. (1963, november 10). pramoedya ananta toer menjawab (i). lembaran kebudayaan “lentera”, bintang timur. toer, p. a. (1981, july 24). saya menarik diri. optimis, 18–20. vltchek, a. & indira, r. (2006). exile: pramoedya ananta toer in conversation with andre vltchek and rossie indira. chicago: haymarket books. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 415 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 415-421 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4608 translation analysis of circumstances in the gospel of matthew chapter 12 through 14 from english into indonesian burwan tilusubya1; mangatur nababan2; riyadi santosa3 1,2,3department of linguistics, graduate studies, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1btilusubya@gmail.com; 2amantaradja@yahoo.com; 3riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id received: 13th april 2018 /revised: 12th september 2018 /accepted: 25th september 2018 how to cite: tilusubya, b., nababan, m., & santosa, r. (2018). translation analysis of circumstances in the gospel of matthew chapter 12 through 14 from english into indonesian. lingua cultura, 12(4), 415-421. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4608 abstract this research deployed translation of circumstances, viewed from transitivity with the descriptive qualitative method. its objectives were to describe the translation technique of the circumstances and to evaluate the quality of the translation based on accuracy and acceptability. it utilized document analysis and focus group discussion for data collection. the data were analyzed through the domain, taxonomy, componential analysis, and finding cultural value. meanwhile, the research indicates the application of established equivalent, combination, modulation, transposition, paraphrasing, deletion, explicitation, discursive creation, and implicitation techniques are influenced by the form of a circumstance or an adverb. furthermore, the application of established equivalent, combination, and implicitation produces a good translation based on accuracy compared to modulation, transposition, explicitation, and paraphrasing. the research concludes that the deployment of appropriate translation techniques produces a good translation. keywords: circumstance, translation quality, translation technique introduction in today’s globalized world, people keep searching for information because they believe information is power. people want to know what is happening in the neighborhood either politically, economically, socially, and/or religiously. unfortunately, differences in languages and culture from one social community to another have created a gap in which the sharing of information in a smooth way that has become a problem. this problem has created the need for scholars in the linguistic field of translation to translate different materials into different accessible languages of the world, so as to bridge the gap that is caused by these language and cultural differences. linguists claim that the sole purpose of any translation work is the transfer of the message from the source text (st) into the target text (tt) in a simple manner that the reader of the tt will experience the same experience as the reader of the st that have experienced at reading the st (house, 2015; supatmiwati, 2013). in so doing, examining the meaning of a literary text (st) by applying an appropriate theoretical tool before translating it can be a means to full understanding. this is because what may be thought difficult to understand is put open (leech & short, 2007). to achieve this purpose scholars in the field of translation have carried out a number of researches utilizing transitivity analysis which is part of the ideational metafunction of language (experiential meaning) as a tool to unfold the meaning of each clause within the text. as a tool, transitivity unlocks the text by describing the experience as a kind of process that is associated with the participants and circumstances at a clause level (halliday, 2014). for instance in the clause, “at that time, herod the tetrarch heard about the fame of jesus” (bible society of south africa, 1971). at that time [cir: loc. time] herod the tetrarch [part: senser] heard [pro: mental] about the fame of jesus [phenomenon]. previous research on translation studies that have utilized transitivity has paid much focus on processes while doing little on circumstances within the clause. one of these concludes that mental processes are used to portray the character as a thoughtful being before taking any action to avoid making avoidable mistakes. this finding agrees together with another research that compares the processes used in malaysian and singaporean language. in this research, researchers want to find out how different processes in the two language community studied are used to unlock the experiences in its social context. it is found out that verbal processes are used to show power in malaysian 416 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 415-421 while existential processes are used to show agency in singaporean. they further add that behavioral processes in both languages are given less emphasis (idrus, nor, & ismail, 2014; zahoor & janjua, 2016). other research concludes that material process dominated in both the source text and target text, while relational processes rank the second (behnam & zamanian, 2015; beji, 2016; manggala, 2017; nguyen, 2012; wang, 2010). deploying descriptive qualitative method, they add that diligence is fully supported by the material process, obedience by material, verbal, mental, relational, and behavioral are used to show kindness. apart from that, the research on the two language culture between english and chinese concludes that the six processes within transitivity are semantically the same in both languages (sun & zhao, 2012). this corresponds to another research on relational attributive clauses in narrative texts between english and persian through transitivity, which indicates that different attributive processes in the attributive relational clauses are used in both the source text and the target text (kaffashi et al., 2015). furthermore, the research by chen (2014); sabbachat, mahdi, and sumantri (2014) conclude that the circumstantial part of a clause is not the focus of their research, but processes to reveal that some characters are portrayed involving in some processes and not the others. therefore, the circumstantial part of transitivity based on translation studies is the gap and the focus of this research specifically from the gospel according to matthew chapters 12, 13, and 14 as the source text and its indonesian version as the target text. basically, the purpose of this research is to describe and explain the translation techniques of the circumstances found in the target text in relation to the source text and to evaluate the quality of the translation based on the aspects of accuracy and acceptability (molina & albir, 2002; nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). the research also intends to answer the questions what type of translation techniques are deployed by the translator and the reason why its deployment in the target text. in so doing, the research provides complete information about the type of translation techniques used in the target text to those who find interests in the field of translation. it is practically expected to trigger debates and discussion amongst scholars in the field of linguistic translation either by critically supporting or criticizing the results and the suggestions that are arrived at regarding the translation of circumstances. the linguist, halliday (2014), claims that circumstances are names of those elements within the clause which carry semantic role but are neither processes or participants. it is one of the three elements of transitivity which is said to occur freely within the clause and more peripheral than the participant. these describe how the process is carried out and are dominated by adjuncts or prepositional phrases. halliday (2014) categorizes these elements into nine types in accordance to their functions, namely: (1) location, (2) extent, (3) manner, (4) cause, (5) accompaniment, (6) angle, (7) contingency, (8) role, and (9) matter. for example, in the clause “but the pharisees went out…”, the word ‘out’ functions as a circumstance of location showing where the destination of the movement is being directed. on the contrary to circumstances, as pioneered by halliday, translation techniques are said to be procedures deployed by the translator to analyse and classify the equivalence or closeness of the translation in relation to the source text. linguists, molina and albir (2002), provide detailed clarification on the revised 18 translation techniques. some of those techniques are established equivalence, reduction, linguistic amplification, transposition, borrowing, and discursive creation. for example, in chapter 12 verse 28 the author writes: st: “but it is by the spirit of god that i cast out demons…” tt: “tetapi aku mengusir roh jahat dengan kuasa roh allah…” from the example in chapter 12 verse 28, established equivalent in combination with explicitation techniques are applied by the translator on the st phrase, “…by the spirit of god…” to have the tt phrase “…dengan kuasa roh allah…”. explicitation comes into target text because of the word “…kuasa…” which means that the translator clarifies to the reader that the power referred to is that which comes from god. the final purpose of any translation process is to obtain the text that precisely renders the message as close as in the source text. in this case, equivalence becomes the fundamental criterion of translation quality because the target text has a function that is equivalent to that of the source text. for any translation to be valued quality (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012), it has to conform to three aspects that are used as tools of assessment, namely: (1) accuracy is checking whether the source text message that is precisely rendered in the target text. (2) acceptability is conforming the naturality of the target text in terms of grammar, rules, and the cultural aspects of that language structure. (3) readability is checking and ensuring whether the meaning of the target text can be understood (house, 2015; nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). this research utilizes only the two aspects of accuracy and acceptability as it is dealing with just some elements within the text and not text as a whole. methods the research employs a descriptive qualitative method because it is driven by the desire of the researcher to describe the behaviour or the phenomenon and its occurrence based on the objectives of the research (santosa, 2017). it utilizes transitivity analysis as a tool to unlock the circumstantial elements within the selected text. in halliday’s transitivity, the clause is classified into three categories of process, participant, and circumstance (halliday, 2014). thus, transitivity is applied to determine whether a certain structure within the text studied is a circumstance or not. the problems investigated are the translation techniques and its translation quality of the identified circumstantial elements from the text. the research utilizes both primary and secondary data. primary data includes linguistic and its translational data in forms of a word or phrase structures standing for circumstantial elements within the clauses that are extracted from chapters 12, 13, and 14 of the text of matthew, and its translational data in forms of translation techniques in relation to its translation quality. on the contrary, secondary data are all related information (additional) and previous research that supports this research. the data are purposely sampled and then collected through document analysis and focus group discussion techniques. the sampled data are only 417translation analysis of circumstances... (burwan tilusubya et al.) those clauses that contain circumstantial elements within the text. the data are extracted from the rest of the text after a thorough and intensive reading and then recorded on the separate sheet. on the other hand, the focus group discussion involves three professionals in the field of translation and the researcher himself. this activity is done in february 2018. the gathered data are then analyzed through the domain, taxonomy, componential analysis, and then the researcher determines its cultural value to arrive at a conclusion (spradley in santosa, 2017). results and discussions based on the analysis of the studied texts, there are a total number of 144 data as circumstances. these are the circumstances of location that consist of circumstances of location 97 data, manner 25 data, cause 8 data, accompaniment 9 data, and circumstances of extent 5 data. however, there are observable changes that appear in the target text as can be seen in table 1. table 1 distribution of circumstances no circumstances frequency st tt 1 location 97 83 2 manner 25 13 3 cause 8 7 4 accompaniment 9 6 5 extent 5 2 total 144 111 table 1 indicates that in the target text (tt), circumstances of location are reduced to 83 data, manner 13 data, cause 7 data, accompaniment 6 data, and circumstance of extent reduced to 2 data. the changes that appear in the table 1 might have been caused by a number of possible causes including structural shift due to differences in the form of the two languages (shahrokhi & lotfi, 2012). because the specific objectives of this research are not to examine those changes, some few examples are provided for clarity. for instance in the two examples extracted from the bible society of south africa (1971) chapter 12 verse 19 and 41: st: “he will not wrangle or cry aloud,” tt: “ia tidak akan bertengkar atau berteriak,” in the st in chapter 12 verse 19, the bolded part of a clause is a circumstance of manner – the quality explaining how the process (cry) will be actualized. however, in the tt, the circumstances of manner that describes the quality of the process, change into the verbal, behavioral process to accommodate the meaning and the form of the target language. st: “the men of nineveh will arise at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented at the preaching of jonah, and behold, something greater than jonah is here.” tt: “pada hari kiamat, penduduk niniwe akan bangkit bersama orang-orang zaman ini dan menuduh mereka. sebab orang-orang niniwe itu bertobat dari dosa-dosa mereka, ketika yunus berkhotbah kepada mereka. tetapi di sini sekarang ada yang lebih besar daripada yunus!” from the example in chapter 12 verse 41, the bolded phrase in the source text (st) shows the circumstance of location – time, but the translator in the target text (tt) changes it to a clause. although the concept remains the same, the form of the st changes from a phrase to a clause in the tt. the translation techniques are analyzed from the target text as proposed by molina and albir (2002). from the componential analysis, the research indicates that the translator applies established equivalent, a combination of techniques (couplet) for example using established equivalent together with reduction techniques to translate a phrase structure, modulation, transposition, deletion, discursive creation, paraphrasing, implication, and explicitation with difference frequencies respectively. in the case of the combination of techniques, the translator applies two different techniques together to translate a certain structure that is in the form of a phrase in the source text. for instance, the combination of established equivalent together with generalization technique is applied in the following data bible society of south africa (1971: 793). st: “for as jonah was three days and three nights in the bell of the whale, so will the son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth.” tt: “yunus tinggal tiga hari tiga malam di dalam perut ikan besar. begitu juga anak manusia akan tinggal tiga hari tiga malam di dalam perut bumi.” in the example in bible society of south africa (1971: 793), the phrase in the tt “…ikan besar” is considered as the generalization of the source text phrase “...of the whale...” because a whale in its general sense is considered to be a big fish in the sea. moreover, the research indicates that the use of the translation techniques is influenced by the form of the circumstance and not the type of the circumstance that is shown in table 2. table 2 distribution of translation techniques f or m translation technique f re qu en cy e e m d c m tr d l e p ip d c p r p hr as e 54 23 27 7 4 1 2 3 121 w or d 15 2 2 2 1 1 23 to ta l 69 25 27 7 6 2 2 3 3 144 from table 2 of ee – established equivalence, md – modulation, cm – combination of techniques, tr – transposition, dl – deletion, ep – explicitation, ip – 418 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 415-421 implicitation, dc – discursive creation, pr – paraphrasing. 144 – indicate the total number of data studied. it has been explained in the results in table 2 that the application of the translation techniques is influenced by the form of the circumstances and not the type of the circumstances. thus the discussion herein focuses on the pattern of the relationship between the translation technique in relation to its form and the quality of the translation. molina and albir (2002) suggest that translation techniques are procedures used by the translator to analyze and classify the equivalence or the closeness of the translation in relation to the source text. it, therefore, means that the aspect of translation quality intends to determine whether the target text accurately rendered the same message as that which is found in the source text, and to determine whether the target text conforms naturally to its cultural context in the aspect of acceptability (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). the research reveals that the patterns of relationship are as seen in table 3. table 3 translation techniques on translation quality f or m t. t ec f re qu en cy tq accuracy acceptable 3 2 1 3 2 1 w or d ee 15 15 15 md 2 2 2 dl 2 2 2 ep 2 2 2 imp 1 1 1 dc 1 1 1 p hr as e ee 54 53 1 54 md 23 5 18 23 cm 27 22 5 27 tr 7 1 6 7 dl 4 4 4 ip 1 1 1 dc 2 2 1 1 pr 3 1 2 3 total 144 101 34 9 137 1 6 from table 3 ee – established equivalence, md – modulation, cm – combination of techniques, tr – transposition, dl – deletion, ip – implicitation, ep – explicitation, dc – discursive creation, and pr – paraphrasing. t. tec – translation techniques, and tq – translation quality. 3 – accuracy, 2 – less accurate, and 1 – not accurate 3 – acceptable, 2 – less acceptable, and 1 – not acceptable. table 2 and table 3 indicate that the most applicable translation technique that the translator utilizes the most, in both word and phrase forms of the circumstantial elements is established equivalent. table 2 indicates that a total of 69 data are translated using this technique (54 data in the form of phrases and 15 in the form of words). during the componential analysis, as the table 3 indicates, the application of this technique resulted into a product which is accurate and acceptable in both forms – word and phrases, except in one case in which the product is rated less accurate, but acceptable. this claim is supported by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012), who claim that a translation is considered accurate when the meaning of words, technical terms, or phrases of the source language are accurately transferred into a target text. the analysis as indicated by table 3 shows that the meaning of words and phrases translated by the use of established equivalent technique are closely transferred into the target language. established equivalent technique refers to the use of a term or an expression that is recognized as an equivalent of the source text in the target text (molina & albir, 2002). in this context, an equivalent word or a phrase is used as long as it renders the same meaning as that which is found in the source text. for example in chapter 12 verse 2 and 40. st: “look, your disciples are doing what is not lawful to do on the sabbath.” tt: “lihat! pengikut-pengikut-mu melanggar hukum agama kita dengan melakukan yang dilarang pada hari sabat.” st: “for as jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the whale, so will the son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth.” tt: “yunus tinggal tiga hari tiga malam di dalam perut ikan besar. begitu juga anak manusia akan tinggal tiga hari tiga malam di dalam perut bumi.” the example in chapter 12 verse 40 reveals that the bolded phrase in the former tt is the equivalence of the phrase in the st. however, the phrase in latter tt “… di dalam perut bumi.”, if literary translated will be meant “...in the stomach of the earth.” but because the language at use recognizes it as the equivalent of the phrase “… in the heart of the earth” from the st, it is accurate and hence acceptable. unlike the research by manggala (2017) that claims that material processes are used to show the obedience of the character in the malaysian language, in this case, the circumstance of location-time is used to show that the event of doing unfolded on the sabbath day, the day that israelites are not allowed to do hard works but worship their god. and the latter shows where the character jesus will be staying (the heart of the earth) for three days and three nights in comparison to jonah, the prophet. another translation technique that is highly deployed by the translator is the combination technique. in this context, it is revealed that a combination of two translation techniques such as established equivalent combined with explicitation (ee & ep) are used only to translate phrase structures. in most cases, this technique produces the translation that is accurate and acceptable except in five cases where the translation in the aspect of accuracy are less accurate but acceptable. in another word, the message in the target text in those five cases are less conforming to the source text message. for example, in chapter 12 verse 5 the author writes: st: “or have you not read in the law how on the sabbath the priests in the tample profane the sabbath, and are guiltless?” tt: “atau belum pernahkah kalian membaca di dalam hukum musa bahwa tiap hari sabat imamimam yang bertugas di rumah tuhan, melanggar peraturan hari sabat, tetapi tidak disalahkan?” 419translation analysis of circumstances... (burwan tilusubya et al.) in chapter 12 verse 5, the bolded phrase in the tt “…di dalam hukum musa…” is a translation of the st “… in the law...” which uses the combination of established equivalent and explicitation (reflected in “musa”) which is not formulated in the st. in this context, the translator is clear to a reader that the law meant by the speaker is that which is written by moses. this is because the mental behavioural process of reading is unfolded by the author taking place in the book of the law written by moses. the translator provides clear information to the reader of the target text. furthermore, the modulation technique is another technique that the translator utilizes more. unlike established equivalent, when modulation technique is deployed, tends to change the point of views, or focus of a cognitive category in relation to source text (molina & albir, 2002). this means that in most cases where the technique is applied, the product in the aspect of accuracy is less accurate although acceptable. table 3 reveals that in the form of words, the technique produces the translation which is accurate and acceptable except in the form of a phrase whereby only five data amongst 23 are accurate whilst 18 data are less accurate. however, all 23 data in the aspect of the acceptability are acceptable because the data naturally conform to the target language culture. for example, in chapter 13 verse 15 the author writes: st: “for this people’s heart has grown dull, and their ears are heavy of hearing, and their eyes they have closed, lest they should perceive with their eyes,…” tt: “sebab pikiran orang-orang ini sudah menjadi tumpul, telinga mereka sudah menjadi tuli dan mata mereka jangan melihat,…” from the example in chapter 13 verse 15, in the st clause, the phrase “…with their eyes,…” which is a circumstance of manner as a means of perceiving, is changed into a senser (participant) of the mental process in the tt phrase “…mata mereka…” which reduces the quality of message intended in the st by changing the means of actualizing a mental process into a participant of the process. darani (2014) has claimed that mental processes are used to install the thoughts of leadership in the character’s mind during the napoleon era. this research reveals that the author applies the circumstance of means to unlock perception through the use of eyes, and when the translator deploys modulation technique changed the point of views of the source text structure as to conform to the target language structure. this concurs with molina and albir (2002) who claim that the technique when deployed tends to change the point of views or focus of a cognitive category of the source text. however, the correct translation is supposed to be “…sehingga mereka tidak melihat dengan mata mereka,…” the research also reveals that transposition is deployed in the context where the circumstance is only in the form of phrases as table 3 indicates. in the most context where this technique is deployed, the product is less accurate when seen from the aspect of accuracy, but all seven data are acceptable in the aspect of acceptability. the research further shows that there is only one instance in which the product is accurate. again molina and albir (2002) claim that when this technique is applied tends to change a grammatical category of one language into another category of another language. this means that if for instance, a category in the source text is a circumstance, in the target text may either become a verb or adjective or undergo structural shift either from the initial position to any other location within the clause. this is the reason why some of the circumstances that are translated using this technique transposition in terms of the class shift. hence rated less accurate since the meaning in the target text when compared to that of the source text does not exactly conform to the source text’s meaning. there is some distortion of the source text’s meaning in the target text (nababa, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). for example, in chapter 13 verse 30 the author writes: st: “let both gow together until the harvest: and at harvest time i will tell the reapers, gather the weeds first and bind them in bundles to be burned, but gather the wheat into my barn.” tt: “biarkanlah alang-alang itu tumbuh bersamasama sampai waktu menuai. nanti saya akan berkata kepada orang-orang yang menuai: kumpulkan duluh alang-alangnya, ikat, lalu bakar. sesudah itu kumpulkan gandummya, lalu simpan di dalam lumbung.” from the example in chapter 13 verse 30, the st phrase “…in bundles…” is the circumstance of manner (quality) describing the way in which the weeds will be tied. however, in the tt changes into a material process “…ikat…”. now, what is once a circumstance of manner describing the quality of how the process – material will be actualized in the st becomes a process – material “…ikat…” in the tt which is acceptable in the tt because the target language lacks another structure that accommodates the phrase structure of the circumstance of quality formulated in the source language. apart from that, the research reveals more that the translator utilizes deletion technique in four instances where the circumstances are in the form of phrases and two instances in the form of words as table 3 indicates. molina and albir (2002) refer to this technique as a reduction. the application of this technique suppresses the source text information or details in the target text resulting into inaccurate and unacceptable translation because the information in the source text is omitted or left out. as a result, the target text is reduced in meaning as it lacks some details or information that are formulated in the source text. for examples, at the beginning of chapter 12 verse 1, the author begins the story by saying: st: “at that time jesus went through the grainfields on the sabbath; his disciples were hungry, and they began to pluck heads of grain and to eat.” tt: “pada suatu hari sabat, ketika yesus lewat sebuah ladang gandum, pengikut-pengikut-nya mulai memetik gandum, lalu memakananya karena lapar.” the example in chapter 12 verse 1, the phrase “at that time…” which is formulated in the st, is deleted or omitted in the tt. it is not reflected anywhere in the tt clause which makes it inaccurate and unacceptable. in this context, the translator is supposed to open the story with the phrase “pada waktu itu,…” to accommodate the st phrase “at that time…”. again in the same chapter verse 37, the author writes: 420 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 415-421 st: “…for by your words you will be justified, and by your words you will be condemned.” tt: “sebab kata-katamu sendirilah yang akan dipakai untuk memutuskan apakah engakau bersalah atau tidak.” from the example in chapter 12 verse 37, the circumstance of manner – means “…by your words…” which is found in the st, is deleted in the tt. what the translator does in the tt is to use the circumstance of cause – reason in the tt to reduce the information formulated in the st. the translator is supposed to use the phrase “… dengan kata-katamu…” to accommodate the st. furthermore, the research reveals that the translator deploys discursive creation technique. in the first instance, as table 3 indicates, the translator applies the technique in the context where the circumstance is in the form of a word. in this context, the product in both aspects of the accuracy and acceptability of the translation quality is good. however, when the same technique is applied in the context where the circumstances (2 data) are in the form of phrases, the quality of the translation in the aspect of accuracy is inaccuracy, and in the aspect of acceptability, one data is acceptable and the second data is less acceptable. this is because the translator establishes a temporary equivalence which is completely unpredictable out of context (molina & albir, 2002). for example, in chapter 13 verse 17 the author writes: st: “truly, i say to you,…” tt: “ingatlah,…” the example in chapter 13 verse 17, the st circumstance of manner – quality reflected in the structure “truly” which describes the quality of what is going to be spoken, is translated into “ingatlah” in the tt structure, which reflects the mental process of thinking. this translation is inaccuracy as it does not reflect on the quality of what is going to be spoken or told. the translator is supposed to translate it into “benar-benar,…” to suit the st meaning. in addition, the research reveals that the translator also uses paraphrasing technique just in the context where the circumstances are in the form of phrases as table 3 indicates. this is done by introducing or formulating new details that are not formulated in the source text (molina & albir, 2002). by introducing new details in the translation, the translator aims at being clear to the reader of the target text. however, by doing so, the translation in two data amongst the three becomes less accurate, and only one data is accurate. in the case of the acceptability of the translation, all three data are acceptable. for instance, in chapter 12 verse 25 the author writes: st: “every kingdom divided against itself is laid waste,…” tt: “kalau suatu negara terpecah dalam golongangolongan yang saling bermusuhan, negara itu tidak akan bertahan,…” from the example in chapter 12 verse 25, the bolded phrase “…against itself…” in the st is the circumstance of cause describing the reason for the collapse of every kingdom. however, in the tt phrase, it is paraphrased into “…dalam golongan-golongan yang saling bermusuhan,…” by introducing a qualifier “…yang saling bermusuhan,…”. in fact, the tt bolded phrase itself is a circumstance of location describing a place and not a reason for an event to occur. this technique reduces the intended message in the st clause. this distorts the accuracy of the meaning found in the source text (nababan, nuraen, & sumardiono, 2012). the correct translation of that phrase will have been “… melawan dirinya sendiri…” to accommodate the message intended in the source text. lastly, the research reveals again that the translator uses the explicitation technique twice in the context where the circumstances are in the form of a word. the application of this technique resulted into a translation that is less accurate in both instances, but acceptable in the aspect of acceptability. explicitation technique is used when a translator makes an item that may have been implicitly used in the source text clear in the target text by either using a common term or explicating by adding some details in the tt. contrary to the explicitation technique, the translator uses implicitation technique which is the opposite of explicitation in the sense that the directly expressed item in the source text is condensed in the target text. this technique is applied once in each form of the circumstances and resulted into the translation which is accurate and acceptable. the two examples extracted from chapter 12 verse 19 and chapter 13 verse 45 illustrate: st: “he will no wrangle or cry aloud, nor will any one hear his voice in the streets;…” tt: “ia tidak akan bertengkar atau berteriak, atau berpidato di jalan-jalan raya.” in the st example in chapter 12 verse 19, the word “…aloud,…” which indicates the quality in which the verbal behavioural process of crying will not be manipulated is implicitly translated as “…berteriak,…” (verbal behavioural process) in the tt. this translation renders the same message that is rendered in the source text because the process itself, in its tt culture, carries the quality of a shout or loudness. hence the translation is accurate and acceptable. nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) support this argument when they claim that a translation is accurate and acceptable when the meaning of words and phrases are transferred accurately in the target language, and the translation sounds natural. this is what the researcher finds out. the meaning is transferred accurately, and the translation is natural in the target language. st: “again,…” tt: “apabila allah memerintah,…” the st in chapter 13 verse 45, the word “again,…” which refers to the circumstance of extent describing frequency or repetition, is explicated in the tt by the phrase structure “apabila allah memerintah,…”. although the translator explicates it by paraphrasing the source text word ‘again’, this lowers the message intended in the source text because the precise translation that the translator will have used is supposed to be “sekali lagi…” or “lagi,…” to conform to the source text message. in this context, the meaning of a source text word is distorted in the target text (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). conclusions from the translation analysis of circumstances discussed, it can be concluded that the deployment of translation techniques found in the target text is not 421translation analysis of circumstances... (burwan tilusubya et al.) influenced by the type of circumstances found in the source text, but is largely influenced by the form of the circumstances. driven by the form, the translator has to determine the application of an appropriate technique that will result in a product that is accurate and acceptable. that is why in the context where the translator can hardly figure out the appropriate technique to be applied, ended up with a translation which is less accurate, and inaccurate in the aspect of accuracy. however, most of which are acceptable in the aspect of acceptability. there are few instances in which the translation is less and unacceptable. the researchers suggest that since this research limits itself to the translation of circumstantial elements extracted from the gospel according to matthew chapter 12, 13 and 14, in the new testament (nt), further research can be conducted on the other chapters. it is not covered from the books of the synoptic gospels in the holy bible (revised standard version) to find out more on what happens to the translation of circumstances within the source text, and that, this research be used as a motivating tool towards furthering the interpretation of the holy bible. references behnam, b., & zamanian, j. (2015). genre analysis of oxford and tabriz applied linguistics research article abstracts: from move structure to transitivity analysis. the journal of applied linguistics, 6(12), 41-59. beji, y. (2016). transitivity and context in critical discourse analysis case study: tap headlines on regions in tunisia. international journal of humanities and cultural studies, 2(4), 326-342. retrieved from http://www.ijhcs.com/index.php/ijhcs/index. bible society of south africa. (1971). the holy bible: new testament (2nd ed.). south africa: bible society of south africa. chen, l. (2014). experiential metafunctional analysis of winston s. churchill’s speech on hitler’s invasion of the u.s.s.r. english language teaching, 7(9), 132-136. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n9p132. darani, l. h. (2014). persuasive style and its realization through transitivity analysis: a sfl perspective. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 158, 179186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.066. halliday, m. a. k. (2014). halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203431269. house, j. (2015). translation quality assessment: past and present. london: routledge. idrus, m. m., nor, n. f. m., & ismail, i. s. (2014). representing action: transitivity and verb processes in malaysian and singaporean oral proceedings over batu puteh island issue. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 118(2), 180-183. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.024. kaffashi, m., gowhary, h., jamalinesari, a., & azizifar, a. (2015). a contrastive study of relational attributive clauses in narrative texts in english and persian based on halliday (2004). procedia social and behavioral sciences, 192, 156-165. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.023. leech, g. n., & short, m. h. (2007). style in fiction: a linguistic introduction to english fictional prose (2nd ed.). london: routledge. manggala, s. a. (2017). the transitivity process patterns and styles in the characterization of the protagonist character in phuoc’s “ the story of tam and cam.” journal of language and literature, 17(1), 65-73. molina, l., & albir, a. h. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta: translators’ journal, 47(4), 498-512. retrieved from http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/008033ar. nababan, m., nuraeni, a., & sumardiono. (2012). pengembangan model penilaian kualitas terjemahan. kajian linguistik dan sastra, 24(1), 39-57. nguyen, h. t. (2012). transitivity analysis of “heroic mother” by hoa pham. international journal of english and linguistics, 2(4), 85-100. https://doi. org/10.5539/ijel.v2n4p85. sabbachat, a., mahdi, s., & sumantri, y. s. (2014). material process in transitivity of the english clauses: a functional grammar approach. international journal of language learning and applied linguistics world (ijllalw), 5(2), 70-79. retrieved from ww.ijllalw. org. santosa, r. (2017). metode penelitian kualitatif kebahasan. surakarta: uns press. shahrokhi, m., & lotfi, r. a. (2012). manifestation of transitivity parameters in persian conversations: a comparative study. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 635-642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2012.05.176. sun, y., & zhao, y. (2012). a comparison of transitivity system in english and chinese. cross-cultural communication, 8(4), 75-80. https://doi. org/10.3968/j.ccc.1923670020120804.2411. supatmiwati, d. (2013). characters of william shakespeare in translation on shakespeare in love subtitling: a systemic functional linguistic approach. international conference on education and language, bandar lampung, 2013. bandar lampung, indonesia. pp. 143-156. wang, j. (2010). a critical discourse analysis of barack obama’s speeches. journal of language teaching and research, 1(3), 254-261. https://doi.org/10.4304/ jltr.1.3.254-261. zahoor, m., & janjua, f. (2016). character construction in tributive songs: transitivity analysis of the song “i am malala”. trames: a journal of the humanities and social sciences, 20(2), 201. https://doi. org/10.3176/tr.2016.2.05. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 21 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 21-27 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.6897 the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language: its comparable process to english language suffix -self/-selves eusabinus bunau* department of languages and arts education, faculty of teacher training and education, tanjungpura university jl. prof. dr. h. hadari nawawi, bansir laut, kota pontianak, kalimantan barat 78124, indonesia eusabinus.bunau@fkip.untan.ac.id received: 07th january 2021/revised: 23rd march 2021/accepted: 30th march 2021 how to cite: bunau, e. (2021). the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language: its comparable process to english language suffix -self/-selves. lingua cultura, 15(1), 21-27. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.6897 abstract the research aimed to describe the reflexive pronoun of the language of the bidayuh-somu and english in terms of its formation process. the research data were reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language taken from the dissertation and the english language reflexive pronoun taken from the website. the method of research was comparative, and the technique of data analysis was descriptive. it is found that morphologically, the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language is formed by attaching the prefix gonithat is derivational to free morpheme. in the english language, the reflexive pronoun is formed by affixing the suffix -self/-selves that is inflectional to free morpheme. the free morpheme, in the case of these two languages, is a personal pronoun. in terms of function, the two morphemes are both class-maintaining. furthermore, in terms of word meaning, they are unchanged. the complex word the prefix goniforms is prefixal, while the complex word the suffix -self/-selves forms are suffixal. the importance of comparing the prefix goniwith the suffix -self/-selves is to linguistically provide a description of similarities in terms of the morphological process for reflexive pronoun formation. although the process of affixation is different, one employs derivational, and the other one applies inflectional. however, the description indicates that the two affixes are similar in terms of duty to reflexive pronoun formation. in the syntactic model of morphology, the use of the two reflexive pronouns is to intensify or emphasize the personal pronoun. they reflect upon the sentences’ subjects or as antecedents of the subjects in sentences. keywords: reflexive pronoun, derivational prefix, inflectional suffix introduction the bidayuh-somu language is spoken by indigenous people situated in the boundary of indonesian west kalimantan and bornean sarawak malaysia. bidayuh means people of the land, while somu refers to upstream or uphill, thus translating it ‘the land people of the uphill’ (bunau & yusof, 2018). this language is still vital to speak by the people of the bidayuh-somu as a means of communication. its vitality is in line with the definition stating that language vitality is the power of a language to live or grow among members of the group who speak it (hassan, ghazali, & omar, 2015). this language, like any other language, also has its morphology to word-formation. the wordformation process is common, no matter the language is indigenous or international. the process is to develop a word by assigning morpheme to its base form. the base form and the morpheme are the word structure. so, this is a study of reflexive pronoun structure that is of the personal pronoun and bound morpheme element. it is the study of word structure and the wordformation process (booij, 2019). in terms of word structure, this reflexive pronoun consists of free and bound morphemes of the two languages. the free morpheme is a personal pronoun, and the bound morpheme is an affix. as an affix, the bound morpheme of the bidayuh-somu language is suffix goni-, while in the english language, the bound morpheme is prefix -self/-selves. the bound morpheme in affixation consists of derivational and inflectional (rugaiyah, 2018), and this research involves derivational prefixes and inflectional suffixes. 22 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 21-27 furthermore, in terms of the word-formation process, this research describes affixation that employs prefix and suffix to form reflexive pronouns. word is of function and content. function word is the word used to create a grammatical or structural relationship for the context of the content word. it is a necessary word for grammar. content word is a word that has meaning, and its class is open as part of speech that is of verb, noun, adjective, and adverb. it is an information and meaning word (khamis & musa, 2020). in morphology, the word is generally of the two classes or categories that are verbal and nominal (ershova, 2020). for the research, the word described is the content word of the nominal class that is the noun class. it is nominalization (larson & samiian, 2020) of the personal pronoun and reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language and the english language. moreover, the function of morpheme in affixation is to maintain or change word class (arista, 2019). the comparative research is intended to describe an affix that is class-maintaining. it is rare to find that an indigenous language like the bidayuh-somu happened to have a similar process of reflexive pronoun formation to the english language. it involves affixation, that is prefixation to derive reflexive pronoun from personal pronoun. in this language, the reflexive pronoun formation is established by attaching the prefix gonito a personal pronoun word. in terms of word structure, the personal pronoun is the free morpheme, while the prefix is the bound morpheme. in other languages, the reflexive pronoun is two free morphemes formed through compounding or other processes that are not affixation. the problem of research is that the language of bidayuh-somu reflexive pronoun formation has not morphologically been described yet by comparing its formation process to the english language reflexive pronoun. it is observable that its formation process is similar to english language reflexive pronoun that involves affix to its personal pronoun. the two morphological processes of reflexive pronoun formation are affixation, in which the bidayuh-somu language assigns prefix, and the english language assigns suffix. therefore, the research aims to describe the comparison process of reflexive pronoun formation of the language of the bidayuh-somu and the english language. the model of morphology is lexical and syntactic (momma et al., 2020). in terms of its formation process, it deals with the lexical model of morphology. it is the process that attaches affix to personal pronoun to form reflexive pronoun. in this case, it is the prefix for the bidayuh-somu language and suffix for the english language. nevertheless, the research also includes a syntactic model of morphology for its discussion since the reflexive pronoun is applied to sentences. in a sentence, it is recognized that the object of the sentence is one who realizes the action or verb in the sentence. in other words, one who is the object is also the subject of the sentence. it is to reflect upon a sentence’s subject. it is the research of content word-formation. since the word is of simplex and complex (bernstein et al., 2020), the word is of one or more than one element called a morpheme. the morpheme is divided into free and bound. in the affixation process, the free morpheme is root or base, and the bound morpheme is an affix consisting of prefix, suffix, and circumfix that cannot stand alone as a word (bauer & lieber, 2014). in brief, the research concerns with the process of morphology to attach affix as bound morpheme to pronoun as root or base to form reflexive pronoun. a reflexive pronoun is a type of pronoun preceded by the noun or pronoun to which it refers. it occurs when singular and plural forms of morphology fit the communicative context. it is not grammatically constrained, and it is the choice of expression (stern, 2019). moreover, the reflexive pronoun is a reference to the previously mentioned noun, that is, personal pronoun. it is an intensive pronoun or intensified noun. its use is to singularize plural pronoun ‘they’ (van gelderen, 2019). in the english language, the reflexive pronoun ends with the suffix -self/-selves and indicates that the person who realizes the action of the verb is also the recipient of the action (antón-méndez, 2020). if it is in the clause, the reflexive pronoun is an anaphoric pronoun that must be coreferential with another nominal within the same clause (hayriyan, 2020). moreover, the reflexive pronouns are the direct and indirect object of a sentence to function as intensive pronouns, as the subject emphasis of the sentence, and as singular for ‘they’ (traffis, 2020). on the contrary, with the english language that assigns suffix -self/-selves to form reflexive pronoun, in the bidayuh-somu language, the reflexive pronouns are formed by attaching prefix gonito personal pronouns. the process of reflexive pronoun formation in the bidayuh-somu language, as in bunau (2019), is described in this example. from the morphological process and gloss example above, it is obvious that the reflexive pronouns formation in the bidayuh-somu language employs the prefix gonibefore its personal pronoun . it is comparable that the reflexive pronouns formation process of the bidayuh-somu language is prefixation, while in the english language is suffixation. structurally, the personal pronoun is a free morpheme that is base, and the prefix goniis the bound morpheme. the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language and its comparable process with english language suffix -self/-selves is the comparison for the two languages description. it is the structural uniqueness and the value of the comparison for languages description (haspelmath, 2020). the structural uniqueness, in this case, refers to derivational 23the reflexive pronoun of the .... (eusabinus bunau) morpheme assignment to form reflexive pronoun in the bidayuh-somu language and inflectional morpheme attachment to form the reflexive pronoun in the english language. therefore, the research is the typological linguistics (round & corbett, 2020), in which the aim is to compare the process of morphology in terms of reflexive pronouns formation. it is a linguistic typology (bossuyt, 2020) of two languages, the bidayuh-somu and the english, in terms of affixation, one of the morphological processes to word-formation. although the two processes of reflexive pronouns formation are different in terms of morpheme types in which one is derivational and the other one is inflectional, but they both cover the same process, that is affixation. it is clear to recognize that the english suffix -self/-selves is inflectional since it has its plural form, and in terms of position in word, it is final. since the function of morpheme is class-maintaining and class-changing (manggala, 2018), thus the suffix is a class-maintaining morpheme. it maintains reflexive pronouns as a nominal word class. it is also clear that the bidayuh-somu language prefix goniis the derivational prefix for its position in the word is initial. it is unlike the english language suffix -self that has its plural form -selves that making it inflectional. its function is also to maintain the bidayuh-somu language reflexive pronoun as the nominal word class. it can be inferred that the two affixes are of the same function. they do not change word class after their affixation to personal pronoun. methods the research applies a comparative method (round & corbett, 2020). it compares two complex word-formation processes of two languages. the type of research is descriptive comparison. it describes the comparison of morphological process in nominal word formation category, that is a reflexive pronoun. the comparison is on the process of reflexive pronoun formation in the bidayuh-somu language and the english language covering the difference and similarity of the reflexive pronoun formation. the difference and similarity of the languages are called linguistic typology (song, 2018). hence, the research method is a descriptive comparison of linguistic typology of the languages of the bidayuh-somu and the english in terms of a process of morphology. the difference is in terms of prefix and suffix involved, and the similarity is in terms of process, that is, affixation. the affixation is derivational and inflectional. the derivational prefix of the bidayuhsomu language assigned to form reflexive pronoun is goni-, and the inflectional suffix of the english language assigned to form reflexive pronoun is -self/selves. data used for the research is secondary data. secondary data is data that is already collected, not from first-hand sources (glen, 2018). the secondary data is taken from the reflexive pronoun list of the bidayuh-somu and the english language. the data is documentary data that is publicly available to access online and is obtainable from the dissertation. in brief, the source of data for the research is a document of reflexive pronoun list taken from website and dissertation. since the research compares a morphological process of two languages, the research data is secondary; hence, the data is from two different genres of the reflexive pronoun. they are from the bidayuhsomu reflexive pronoun and the english language reflexive pronoun. the bidayuh-somu reflexive pronoun is taken from a dissertation entitled morfologi bahasa bidayuh-somu kabupaten sanggau, kalimantan barat, and the english language reflexive pronoun is gathered from an online source, that is a website namely https://www.grammarly.com/blog/ reflexive-pronouns. data of the research is analyzed descriptively in accordance with the morphological process through affixation for forming reflexive pronouns. results and discussions the results of research include two language reflexive pronouns that are of the bidayuh-somu and the english. both of the reflexive pronouns are gathered as secondary data. based on the collected data, the bidayuh-somu language has a list of nine reflexive pronouns. the reflexive pronoun of this language does not have its english equivalence form of for pronoun nor for the reflexive pronoun. yet, the gloss is , formed from the process of affixation, that is: moreover, the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuhsomu language can be seen in table 1. table 1 reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language no personal pronoun reflexive pronoun gloss 1. dat , 3pl. refl* 2. doduah , couple, 3pl.refl 3. nat , 2pl. refl 4. adeap , , 3sg.refl** 5. okap , polite, to elder, 2sg.refl 6. omu , 2sg. refl 24 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 21-27 no personal pronoun reflexive pronoun gloss 7. ome , 2pl. refl 8. mana , singular, polite, 1pl.refl 9. rina , plural, polite, 1pl.refl * pl.refl = plural reflexive **sg.refl = singular reflexive (source: morfologi bahasa bidayuh-somu kabupaten sanggau, kalimantan barat, 2019) data in table 1 signify that the reflexive pronoun in the bidayuh-somu language is formed by prefixing the prefix gonito the base form, personal pronoun. its affixation forms a reflexive pronoun of the language. its process to reflexive pronoun formation maintains the word class, that is, the nominal class. the data also show that the type of affix is derivational since it is prefixal, and it does not have a grammatical category to indicate plurality. the prefix goniapplies for all personal pronouns (per.pro), whether it is singular or plural, first, second, or third personal pronoun without any marker placement like /-es/ in the english language that signifies plurality. the morphological process of reflexive pronoun (ref.pro) formation of the bidayuhsomu language is as follows: meanwhile, the reflexive pronoun of the english language can be seen in table 2. table 2 reflexive pronoun of the english language no personal pronoun reflexive pronoun 1. i , 1sg.refl 2. you , 2sg.refl 3. he , 3sg.refl 4. she , 3sg.refl 5. one , 3sg.refl 6. it , 3sg.refl 7. we , 1pl.refl 8. you , 2pl.refl 9. they , 3pl.refl (source: https://www.grammarly.com/blog/reflexivepronouns) from table 2, it is identifiable that the reflexive pronouns formation of the english language is established by attaching suffix -self/-selves to the base form, personal pronouns. its morphological process is suffixation. the bound morpheme is suffixal. its function is similar to the bidayuh-somu language prefix goni-, to maintain a nominal word class. it is also observable that the english language suffix -selves is inflectional since its ‘-es’ placement to the suffix -self inflects grammatical category to indicate plurality. the suffix -self applies for personal pronouns that are singular, while its plurality -selves form applies for personal pronouns that are plural. the morphological process of reflexive pronoun (ref.pro) formation of the english language is as follows: based on these two affixation processes, the base form or free morpheme of personal pronoun (per. pro) in which the bound morpheme of the bidayuhsomu language goniis prefixed, both subject and object pronoun. in the english language, the personal pronoun (per.pro) as the structural element of the free morpheme in which the suffix -self/-selves is suffixed that is an object and possessive pronoun. in the syntactic model of morphology, the use of reflexive pronouns in the bidayuh-somu sentence, as in bunau (2019), is: (1) ma kay dat-ngeh suo, ay maihngeh. if not they-them follow, so only-him ‘if they do not go (to accompany), he will go himself.’ the example in determiner phrase of the sentence in number (1) shows that the reflexive pronoun is the antecedent of the subject or the reflection of the subject . since the subject and verb are implied or not explicit, the context of the sentence is like in example number (2): (2) ay adeap maih-ngeh di oji. so he only-him will go ‘so, he himself will go.’ moreover, the word in the sentence is not always in regular order, and it does not change the meaning of the sentence. it keeps the reflexive pronoun as the antecedent of the subject. the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language can be initial before the subject as in example number (3) of the following imperative sentence. table 1 reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language (continued) 25the reflexive pronoun of the .... (eusabinus bunau) (3) nat oji nyobu, ome bayu bupanta! yourselves you go weeding we still prohibited! ‘you go yourselves weeding the grass (in cultivation). we cannot go for we still commit the prohibition (of customary law) for not going!’ it is found out that the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language is functioned to singularize plural subject ‘we’, and it intends to reflect the previous mentioned subject. look at example (4) of the sentence. (4) mana si dagut oji sumu we then always go only ourselves ‘we have been always going to work by ourselves (not in group).’ furthermore, the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language is a direct reflection of the subject of the sentence. it is to intensify the subject. its order is exactly after the subject as read in the following usage example of an interrogative sentence. (5) okap di monik? you yourself that come? ‘only you yourself who comes (visiting us)?’ from the four examples discussed, it is noticeable that the word order in a sentence is not always regular, and neither is the order of the reflexive pronoun. it is shown in the examples that the personal pronouns and their reflexive pronouns act like the double subject in a sentence. in fact, it intends to emphasize the personal pronouns as the antecedent of the subject in the sentence. in addition, it is apparent that the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu is to intensify the personal pronoun. it is an intensive pronoun, or the intensified pronoun which does the action, or the doer of the verb in the sentence. the reflexive pronoun gonireflects upon the sentence’s subject or antecedent of the subject. from the description of the sentences, it is implied that the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuhsomu language also means ‘collective’ or ‘singular’ of the plural personal pronoun. in terms of meaning, it singularizes the plural of the reflexive pronoun 2pl.refl from 2sg.refl. meanwhile, the use of reflexive pronouns of the english language in the syntactic model of morphology (traffis, 2020) is in sentence number (6). (6) jack decided to reward with a dinner out. the subject is one and the same with reflexive pronoun as the object of the sentence. the reflexive pronoun is to reflect to as the personal pronoun, or the subject of the sentence. it can be illustrated in the schema as follows: the reflexive pronoun is the direct object in the sentence when the subject and the direct objects are one and the same. look at the following three examples: (7) we were forced to pilot the boat to safety. (8) cynthia pours a cup of tea for every morning. (9) every parent needs to take a break for now and again. furthermore, the reflexive pronoun of the english language is a direct reflection of the subject, as seen in sentence number (7). its order in a sentence is straight after the subject or personal pronoun . moreover, the reflexive pronoun is to intensify the sentence’s subject or emphasize the action of the verb that is not someone else, as found in sentence number (8). in addition, a similar emphasis of reflexive pronoun for the subject is in the english language sentence number (9). the reflexive pronoun reflects upon the sentence’s subject . the examples in numbers (7) to (9) indicate that the reflexive pronouns of the english language -self/selves are intensive or emphasized personal pronouns. like its comparative counterpart prefix goni-, the english language suffix -self/-selves also reflect upon the sentence’s subject or antecedent of the subject. its order in the sentence can be directly after the subject or as object after verbs. the two descriptions of the reflexive pronouns explicitly show that its usage in the syntactic model of morphology applied in the sentence is functioned as the intensive pronoun to reflect upon the sentence’s subject or as the antecedent of the subject in the sentence. it is to emphasize that the doer of the action or the verb is the sentence’s subject. the action of the verb is done by the subject of the sentence, not someone else. in the lexical model of morphology, the two reflexive pronouns are formed through the affixation process. the process of reflexive pronoun formation in the bidayuh-somu is derivational prefixation, while in the english language is inflectional prefixation. it can be said that the reflexive pronoun morpheme in the bidayuh-somu language is prefixal, and the english language reflexive pronoun morpheme is suffixal. the bound morpheme goniis prefixed to base a personal pronoun of the bidayuh-somu, while the bound morpheme -self/-selves is suffixed to base that is english language personal pronouns. their similar affixation, with prefixation and suffixation process, have the same duty to form the reflexive pronouns. since the morpheme is functioned to maintain or 26 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 21-27 to change the word class or word category, it is obvious that the prefix morpheme of the bidayuhsomu reflexive pronoun and the suffix morpheme of the english language reflexive pronoun is classmaintaining. they both maintain the reflexive pronoun into the nominal word class or noun class. conclusions based on the data and analysis of the comparison description, it is concluded that the two bound morphemes, prefix goniof the bidayuhsomu language, and the suffix -self/-selves of the english language, have the same duty or assignment to reflexive pronoun formation. the two reflexive pronoun formation processes are prefixation and suffixation. the bound morpheme attached to form reflexive pronoun in the bidayuh-somu language is the derivational prefix. it is a prefixal reflexive pronoun. on the contrary, the bound morpheme added to form reflexive pronoun in the english language is an inflectional suffix. it is a suffixal reflexive pronoun. it can be concluded that the bidayuh-somu language morphological process to complex word formation is similar to the english language process. although the order or position of morphemes are not in the same direction in which the bidayuh-somu prefix goniis initial, and the english language suffix -self/-selves is final, but they both form reflexive pronoun. in the context of a syntactic model of morphology, the two reflexive pronouns are used to intensify or emphasize the subject or antecedent of the sentence or to reflect upon sentences’ subjects. in addition, in the bidayuh-somu language, the reflexive pronoun also means ‘collective’, that is to singularize the plural forms of personal pronouns. finally, in terms of function, the prefix goniand the suffix -self/-selves are both class-maintaining. they maintain the nominal word class the same as the nominal word class. finally, there will still be some more possibilities to conduct further studies based on different languages by implementing comparative research method as put forwarded by round & corbett (2020) by the discipline of linguistic typology as featured by song (2018). the possibilities are on the structural uniqueness of language description proposed by haspelmath (2020), especially on morphology, the branch of linguistics that studies word structure and word-formation process. the possibility for future studies to conduct, for instance, includes compounding and blending that involving free and bound morpheme for their formation. references antón-méndez, i. 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(2019). reflexive pronouns in the lindisfarne glosses. nowele: north-western european language evolution, 72(2), 220-244. https://doi.org/10.1075/nowele.00028.gel p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 97 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 97-105 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6418 reviews of teachers’ characters in students’ autobiography atiqa sabardila1*; markhamah2; dini restiyanti pratiwi3 1,2,3graduate program of indonesian education, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta jl. a. yani, mendungan, sukoharjo, jawa tengah 57162, indonesia 1as193@ums.ac.id; 2mar274@ums.ac.i; 3drp122@ums.ac.id received: 19th may 2020/revised: 03rd june 2020/accepted: 12th june 2020 how to cite: sabardila, a., markhamah., & pratiwi, d. r. (2020). reviews of teachers’ characters in students’ autobiography. lingua cultura, 14(1), 97-105. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6418 abstract the research aimed to describe reviews of teachers’ characters found in students’ autobiography. it belonged in the field of indonesian language education, and the data were in the form of students’ autobiography, written in indonesian. a descriptive-qualitative approach was utilized to observe the attitude, behavior, or perception of autobiographers about their teachers’ characters in the past. the source triangulation was used to verify the validity of the data. the data were analyzed through a comparative method using referential and marker reading techniques, in addition to the focused-group discussion. the results of the research show that the teachers’ characters portrayed in students’ autobiography includes: (1) positive characters: responsible, patient, caring, easy to understand, fair, making students smart, inspiring creativity; and (2) negative characters: fierce/yelling, scary in anger, hard to understand, flirty. from the results, it can be concluded that students’ autobiography evidently helps measure the quality of teachers’ characters, and negative characters reduce the learning process’s effectiveness. keywords: teacher character, teacher review, student autobiography introduction as a country that has just climbed out of developing country status, indonesia’s education is not yet flawless. many problems and challenges are still haunting. one of the challenges comes from the side of educators, teachers. cases of misconduct still appear on the news regularly, which calls for a systematic effort to improve teachers’ quality. students’ autobiography records many aspects, including stories of their past or memories, opinions, views, etc. students’ autobiography can also picture the quality of their past education, including teachers’ quality, the characters they memorize. the great dictionary of the indonesian language (kbbi) defines autobiografi (a utobiography) as riwayat hidup pribadi yang ditulis sendiri (self-written personal life history). autobiographies, on the market, are fewer in number compared to biographies. a person’s biography is written by someone else, while an autobiography is written by the person himself. maryadi et al. (2009) have noted that the important information that appears in autobiography includes *corresponding author affection, people’s judgment, activity, pathological behavior, hobbies, self-recognition, parental profession description, home situation, school description and environment, school experience, potential and talent, and the role of parents. negative behavior is also a finding there, namely pathological behavior. it refers to the habit such as sleeping in a class, being punished by standing in front of the class, being difficult to socialize with, hanging out, skipping/truancy, being noisy in a class, and being scolded by teacher for making trouble (maryadi et al., 2009). those findings are in synergy with sabardila and prihartini’s (2011) research, which focuses on autobiographical writing on problematic students written by smp muhammadiyah surakarta students. it provides information about honesty, potential, hobbies, children’s talents, habits, courage, independence, likes, children’s craft, obedience, experience, delinquency, changes of behavior, ideal, and emotions (positive: happy, proud; and negative: difficult/unhappy, feeling scared). the students tend to tell their life around the school and their families. friendship, disputes or misunderstandings, negligence, lack of discipline, and 98 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 97-105 lack of compliance lead to small conflicts with people they know. studies on characters from an educational perspective are previously carried out by several researchers, such as rahman, waluyo, and suyitno (2016); bakar, noor, and widodo (2019); mustadi et al. (2017); and turan, & ulutas (2016). other studies related to characters are carried out from a literary perspective related to characters in literary works. research on the characters in literature is conducted by angelis, miranti, and dwiastuty (2019); nurfatin and triadi (2018); azizah and setiana (2016); juliantini and sudarsana (2018); and niani (2017). the research is important to conduct because the methods for evaluating teachers’ performance must keep improving in order to produce a better educational outcome and overcome challenges. the results are expected to prove that students’ autobiography is a viable and useful medium to measure teachers’ characters and their effects on students’ learning and development. methods as research in the field of indonesian language education, the research uses a qualitative approach that produces descriptive data research. the data are in the form of written words in the autobiography that are written by students in the indonesian language. the content is regarding the behavior or attitude of teachers who have taught them in the past. the data are obtained from a collection of autobiographies written by students who enrolled in the writing class (2008) of the indonesian language and literature education study program, faculty of teaching and education, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. the data collection is accomplished by library techniques. data analysis is carried out by referential techniques, which are similar to content analysis. in addition, marker reading techniques are employed as well as observing the appearance of adjectives that refer to the attitude or nature of a person, especially a teacher or a lecturer. the data triangulation is performed by triangulation of researchers, interresearchers, and data sources. results and discussions the research has found thirteen reviews of teachers’ characters within the students’ autobiography. the following section provides the original quotes (in indonesian) and discuss them one by one. the first is a fierce teacher being disliked by students. fierce teachers are generally referred to as scary, easy to anger, or abusive teachers whom the students are not eager to meet in class. the following quote portrays a fierce teacher that is disliked by the autobiographer. (1) “akhir-akhir kelas satu, rasanya aku sangat gembira karena aku tidak bertemu lagi sama guru yang galak itu.” (ur/a.310080241) (“at the end of grade one, i felt very happy because i do not have to see that fierce teacher again.”) in quote (1), the use of the adjective phrase ‘very happy’ is found. the next statement has stated the reason: ‘tidak mau bertemu lagi sama guru galak’. it means that the teacher who is referred to as fierce is disliked by the student very much. quote (1) portrays a teacher who has not succeeded in conducting classroom management. by getting the title ‘fierce’, the teacher can be stated as having an uninviting personality. teachers with such personality are the principal’s responsibility to guide. the quote portrays a teacher who lacks social competence in managing a classroom in a healthy atmosphere. it contrasts with several principles in the teacher’s social competence, namely respect, empathy, audible, clarity, and humble communication (ahmad, 2019). teachers who embody empathic behavior will show various positive qualities as examples for students (jasimah, awaludin, & ruslan, 2018). for students’ study success, the school counselor needs to consider increasing interaction and collaboration with students’ parents and trying to develop positive perceptions about students in terms of students’ successful studies. the collaboration referred to is the collaborative activity between the school counselor and related parties, including parents, to achieve the objectives of the guidance and counseling service program (nugraha & rahman, 2017). violence in the classroom that is not immediately handled will likely make the students fail in continuing to the next grade level. a teacher’s professionalism is manifested in the form of acting praiseworthy, which includes carrying out his/her professional duties and being able to control the attitudes to fit principles of religion and morale (darmadi, 2015). teachers have responsibilities in the fields of professionalism, social, intellectual, moral, and spiritual (yusutria, 2017). if teachers do not respect the diversity of students’ characters in schools, especially towards students who are not achieving, then the role of the teacher as a motivator is increasingly difficult to realize. students’ motivation can be built through appreciation from parents and teachers (pratama, ratnamulyani, & fitriah 2015). teachers should also function as a motivator, especially in learning. motivation itself is one of the things influencing students’ achievement (santoso, 2015). students from a broken home who end up violating the rules at school can cause teacher disruptions and complaints (aziz, 2015), so they really need teachers’ attention. students being not disciplined in learning might make them lazy to learn due to the presence of information technology, such as gadgets (hudaya, 2018). in quote (1), students’ laziness is 99reviews of teachers’ characters .... (atiqa sabardila, et al.) caused by teacher behavior. it is the teachers’ responsibility to find deviant behavior in the classroom, and it is the responsibility of parents when the behavior is found at home. one of them is bullying. ignoring this behavior will impact their learning achievement (sani, riyadi, & saefudin, 2019). what if the behavior is found among the teachers? there might be a function that is not performed by teachers that they should guide students to produce learning outcomes (adinda, gaos, & fatimah, 2020). the second is a fierce teacher leading to a strained atmosphere that makes students feel scared and tremble. it is what student with initials ur has been experienced. ur describes that the classroom atmosphere is like a prison. (2) “waktu kelas satu aku tidak memperhatikan apa yang dijelaskan ibu guru. aku malah sibuk mencocokkan pr-ku sendiri. padahal guru ini terkenal galak apabila ada siswa tidak memperhatikan ke depan jika sedang dijelaskan. kemudian dengan perasaan takut dan badan gemetar aku disuruh maju terus dimarahi. kenapa tidak memperhatikan beliau saat ngejelasin? sejak saat itu atau masa kelas satu nilai matematikaku tidak pernah mendapat nilai di atas lima. sebab di dalam kelas serasa di penjara. maka, dari proses belajar tidak sepenuhnya bisa masuk, tetapi rasa teganglah yang ada.” (ur/a.310080241) (“during first grade, i did not pay attention to what the teacher explained. i’m instead busy matching my own homework. this teacher is fierce when there are students who do not pay attention when he/she explains the lesson. then with a feeling of fear and trembling, i was told to go ahead and get scolded. why not pay attention when she explains? since then or during the first grade, my mathematics score had never been in the top five. because the classroom felt like a prison. so, the learning process could not be fully understood, and only tension was there.”) in quote (2), the teacher scolds ur. ur does not specify how the teacher scolded him because the words spoken by the teacher are not found in his writing. however, the impact of this scolding causes his learning in mathematics to be often unsatisfactory. that is due to the learning process that could not be followed well. by raising the learning outcome of bad test scores, it can be concluded that the fierce teacher has an effect on the psychology of the students, particularly ur. anti-violence education has been offered in the implementation of islamic education (pai), as stated by jauhari (2016). it places teachers as models and central education figures so that they always strive to build good relationships with students in a dialogical manner in guiding and improving the intellectual, spiritual, and moral intelligence of students. this can be done with compassion without elements of violence or coercion. the third review from the students is the teacher being hard to understand that leading to truancy. in quote (3), ur expresses his difficulty in understanding his english teacher’s explanation and how it makes him skip class once. (3) “saat kelas xii ini aku pernah membolos jam bahasa inggris karena gurunya jika menjelaskan tidak mudah dipahami dan sebenarnya aku juga tidak suka pelajaran bahasa inggris.” (ur/a.310080241). (“during this grade xii, i once skipped an english class because the teacher’s explanation was not easy to understand. also, i was not too fond of english lessons.”) in quote (3), ur also admits that he does not like the subject. is his dislike of english caused by his difficulty in understanding the lesson? in that quote, there is no information about how his classmates fare. it can be assumed that the truant behavior is done alone because there is no indication that it is done with friends. besides, quote (3) shows that teachers who do not master the material enough to explain it well/ easily can push students to skip classes. therefore, ur’s teacher, in this case, can be classified as an unprofessional teacher. indeed, not all teachers have ideal competence. this is demonstrated by setiawan and sitorus (2017), whose results of the research show that teachers’ competence in the areas studied is still low. teachers should try their best to explain the material presented so that students understand the lesson easily. ease of understanding will help maintain the flow of teaching activity, reduce truancy, and problematic behavior such as students talking among themselves, which is considered impolite behavior. when the learning process occurs, a student is not allowed to interrupt the teacher’s speech, even required to behave politely to get the teacher’s blessings (nasir, 2018). the school often considers that truant behavior is caused by the students themselves, not because of other causes. the teachers might never be in the spotlight before in this aspect. however, it is now evident that teacher’s performance might have a role in students’ truancy, which should be paid attention by policymakers. tutiona, munir, and ratu (2016) have stated that the utility of individual counseling with the behavior contract technique can reduce truancy in students of junior high school 6 palu. they mention that teacher who is problematic should be guided because the cause of truancy is due to boredom in the classroom and the lack of understanding of the teacher’s explanation in delivering lessons. the research places their statements, which are packaged in autobiography form as a piece of important information. it offers another perspective 100 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 97-105 from adolescents in seeing problems around life in school, home, and their friendship. there are honest judgments about people related to autobiographers, where their statements can improve themselves. the fourth of the students’ review is a responsible teacher reducing student’s truancy. in quote (4), ur describes his classmate who likes to play truant but then rarely does it because of the homeroom teacher is so responsible. (4) “… stefana merupakan wali kelas yang paling bertanggung jawab atas anak didiknya. dengan kejadian itu mata hati kami menjadi terbuka yang dahulunya temanku yang suka membolos menjadi jarang membolos.” (ur/a.310080241). (“… stefana was the homeroom teacher who was most responsible for her students. with that incident, our eyes and heart opened. my friends who used to play truant became rarely playing truant again.”) ur has a homeroom teacher who manages to change the negative behavior of this formerly truant student. to describe the teacher, ur uses the superlative form, the most responsible. although the narrative does not appear, ur has compared the teacher’s attitudes. to the homeroom teacher, ur gives the most responsible assessment. with quote (4), it is evident that students can feel the teacher’s responsibility and minimize their truant behavior. as explained by ur, the teacher fulfills two indicators of teacher success; the ability to manage learning and commitment in carrying out tasks. the fifth is a patient and caring teacher, but scary in anger. in quote (5), m gives an assessment of his kindergarten teacher. (5) “guru yang mengajar waktu tk adalah ibu sunarti, biasa dipanggil bu narti. bu narti sangat sabar dalam mengajar. beliau selalu mengajari dan membimbing kami dengan lemah-lembut dan penuh kasih sayang. kami sudah dianggap seperti anaknya sendiri. “ ... beliau itu sangat menyeramkan kalau sudah marah, wajahnya seperti monster di film ultraman. kalau beliau sudah marah, pasti anak menangis, termasuk aku juga.” (m/a.31008042) (“the teacher who taught in kindergarten was mrs. sunarti, usually called mrs. narti. mrs. narti is very patient in teaching. he always taught and guided us gently and lovingly. we are considered as her own children. she was very scary when she was angry; her face was like a monster in the ultraman film. if she were angry, the child would cry, including me too.”) quote (5) portrays the kindergarten teacher’s positive character, which is very patient in teaching, and guiding in a gentle and caring manner. m also feels affection as if he is her child. however, the disliked characters are also reflected in his autobiography. the teacher, who is gentle and loving, turns out to be very scary when angry. m describes the face of the teacher is like a monster who makes students cry with her anger. the student’s perception in quote (5), which praises the third teacher in kindergarten, is relevant to the statement of turan & ulutas (2016). it states that character education is important for teachers. kindergarten teachers are required to choose methods and media that are fun for students and can develop students’ characters. the sixth review from students is an excellent homeroom teacher being indiscriminate. in quote (6), m provides a transparent assessment of a homeroom teacher. m gives a superlative assessment, which is very good. the teacher shows his indiscrimination to his students. he never discriminates his students, whether smart, stupid, naughty, or students who like to sleep in the class. (6) ”waktu kelas 3 wali kelas aku adalah bapak triyono, s.pd. beliau ini adalah wali kelas yang sangat baik,. pelajaran ppkn adalah pelajaran yang diajarkannya. beliau tidak pernah pandang bulu kepada murid-muridnya, entah itu pintar, bodoh, nakal, atau suka tidur di kelas. beliau sangat adil kepada semua muridmurid.” (m/a.310080242). (“during grade 3, my homeroom teacher was mr. triyono, s.pd. he was an outstanding homeroom teacher. ppkn lesson was the lessons he taught. he never discriminates his students, whether smart, stupid, naughty or likes to sleep in class. he was very fair to all students.”) each student has the same desire for their teachers. every student wants to be treated equally. the criteria for good, even very good, will depend on the students to feel satisfied with their teachers. teachers who cannot be indiscriminative will reduce the enthusiasm of students to take part in the lesson. the seventh is a fierce and loud teacher, but indiscriminating. the teacher told in quotation (7) bears a resemblance to quote (1), (2), and (6). his fierce character is similar to quotes (1) and (2), while his fair character is similar to quote (6). in the following quote, nm’s teacher is portrayed as fierce and loud. she is firm to naughty students. however, nm never gets punished; he feels loved by the teacher because he is not naughty and stubborn. nm gives a testimony that he can easily understand her lesson, which makes the teacher happy and proud of nm. the eighth review is a very fierce teacher, but leading to obedience, discipline, and intelligence. in quote (8), okr shows a balanced assessment of his teacher, his homeroom teacher. okr states that her teacher’s fierce attitude is related to her origin, batak, medan. okr gives an assessment of the effective phrase that shows superlatives, which is very fierce. the phrase is 101reviews of teachers’ characters .... (atiqa sabardila, et al.) added ‘well-known’. it means that other students, okr’s friends, can also feel the character. however, the teacher from medan has a number of eminent characters. as narrated by okr, all children must be obedient and discipline in the teacher’s class. students respond to the teacher’s attitude by being quiet. her voice is very loud, like the sound of lightning strikes. okr uses the hyperbole and the exaggerated style by explaining that mrs. ani’s very loud voice is heard to the entire school. besides being obedient and discipline, mrs. ani has another superior character, indiscriminating to her students. a foolish and naughty child will not pass her class. another advantage that is noted by okr is that she wants her students to look clean and neat, and all students respect her. teachers in indonesia can be assigned outside of their local residency, as in the mentioned case. therefore, they need to equip themselves with multicultural competence (solehuddin & budiman, 2019). the ninth is a patient-first teacher. in quote (9), jts portrays his first teacher in grade 1 of elementary school, mr. pergiono, a quite patient teacher. (7) ”ibu guru yang mengajar kami tidak membedabedakan antara kami. bagi beliau kami adalah putra-putrinya yang akan ia beri ilmu. nurhayati adalah nama guruku itu. orangnya galak dan suaranya sangat keras. apabila ada muridnya yang nakal, pasti ia akan jewer telinganya. akan tetapi, sejak aku belajar dengannya tidak pernah sekalipun aku mendapat jeweran dari tangan kasarnya. justru aku termasuk murid yang disayang. selain tidak nakal dan bandel, aku cukup mudah menyerap pelajaran yang diberikan. hal itu membuat beliau merasa senang dan bangga.” (nm/a.310080246). (“the teacher who taught us did not discriminate against us. for her, we are sons and daughters whom she would give knowledge. nurhayati was the name of that teacher of mine. the person was fierce, and her voice was very loud. if there are naughty students, she would definitely pinch their ears. however, ever since i studied with her, i had never once gotten a pinching from her rough hands. instead, i was among the beloved students. besides not being naughty and stubborn, i quite easily absorbed the lessons given. it made her feel happy and proud.”) (8) ”aku masuk di kelas 2b. di kelas ini yang menjadi wali kelas adalah seorang guru batak, namanya ibu ani. dia terkenal sangat galak, apalagi dia berasal dari medan. ...”semua anak pasti akan patuh dan disiplin jika sedang diajar oleh ibu ani. jika ibu ani sedang menerangkan, suasana kelas menjadi hening. suaranya juga sangat lantang, seperti suara petir menyambar. satu sekolah pun akan mendengarnya. dia tidak membeda-bedakan murid-muridnya. jika muridnya bodoh dan nakal, pasti tidak akan dinaikkan kelas olehnya. dia juga sangat tidak suka dengan murid yang jorok dan tidak rapi. semua orang sangat segan kepadanya. usahanya selalu membuahkan hasil. semua murid yang diampu olehnya akan pandai (okr/a.310080256). (“i entered the class 2b. in this class, the homeroom teacher was a batak teacher, whose name was mrs. ani. she was known as very fierce, especially since she was from medan. ... all children will undoubtedly be obedient and disciplined if being taught by mrs. ani. if ms. ani was explaining, the atmosphere in the class was quiet. her voice was also very loud, like the sound of lightning striking. the whole school would hear it. she does not discriminate against her students. if the student were stupid and naughty, she would surely not let him advance to the next grade. she also really did not like students who are dirty and untidy. everyone regarded her. her efforts always bear fruit. all students who were supervised by her would be smart.”) (9) ”saat hari pertama saya masuk ke sd, saya tidak mau berangkat, tetapi saya dipaksa untuk masuk oleh ibu saya, dan akhirnya saya diantar oleh bapak saya. guru saya pada saat kelas 1 adalah bapak pergiono. pak pergiono seorang yang lumayan sabar. dia tidak pernah marah saat kami ramai sendiri saat pelajaran.” (jts/a.310080260) (“when i first entered elementary school, i did not want to go, but i was forced to go by my mother, and finally, i was escorted by my father. my teacher, during grade 1, was mr. pergiono. mr. pergiono was a rather patient person. he was never angry when we were noisy during class.”) jts initially feels reluctant to go to school, but his mother makes him go nevertheless. furthermore, the first teacher happens to be quite a patient character. the teacher ignores noisy students even when he is delivering the lesson. unfortunately, jts does not mention the final results of learning in regards to the teacher in question. the tenth review of their teachers is a fierce but caring teacher. in quote (10), jts gives a transparent assessment of his teacher, who is his homeroom teacher. the teacher is considered as quite fierce but also has a good heart. (10) ”guru sekaligus wali kelas 2 bernama ibu suwarni. dia berasal dari prambanan. ibu suwarni dalam mengajar lumayan galak. kami sering dibentak-bentak bila ramai sendiri dan tidak memperhatikan pelajaran, tapi beliau sebenarnya juga baik. ketika teman saya sakit di kelas, ibu suwarni yang menolong teman saya, dan akhirnya diantarnya pulang ke rumah. ” (jts/a.310080260). 102 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 97-105 (”the teacher and homeroom teacher of grade 2 was named mrs. suwarni. she was from prambanan. in teaching, she was quite fierce. we were often yelled at when we were noisy and did not pay attention to lessons, but she was actually also kind. when my friend was sick in class, she helped my friend and took him home.”) there is a reason for this fierce attitude to appear in front of students, i.e., when they are busy with themselves and do not pay attention to the lesson. the teacher, as well as guardian, wants her students to master the material she teaches. as a student, jts can see her good side; when a student is hurt, she helps him and takes him home herself. quote (10) also depicts the example of a teacher whose emotions might be less stable. when the teacher is under a noisy class, does jts’ teacher immediately yell at students who do not pay attention to their lessons or previously reminded him not to be noisy in the class? the quote does not answer that. as a writer, jts is partial in telling his teacher, disclosing bad and good sides. the eleventh review is a very fierce teacher, but easy to understand. in quote (11), jts provides a realistic assessment of her teacher’s attitudes, which are not ideal. there are negative characters that the teacher has, such as very fierce and often yells. however, as a teacher, he can carry out his functions. he can provide assistance and encouragement so that the students meet the learning outcome. they easily understand the conveyed lessons. (11) ”kemudian saya naik di kelas 5 yang diajar oleh bapak sudarno. dia seorang guru yang sangat galak dengan badan tinggi gemuk dan kepala botak. tapi saat mengajar pak darno mudah dipahami oleh murid-muridnya, meskipun kami sering dibentak-bentak.” (jts/a310080260) (“then, i went up to grade 5, taught by mr. sudarno. he was a very fierce teacher with a tall, fat body, and bald head. but when teaching, mr. darno was easily understood by his students, even though we were often yelled at.”) the twelfth is patience led to student’s affection. through quote (12), it is observed that patience will lead students to enjoy their teacher and homeroom teacher. the teacher is a 6th-grade teacher who is also jts’ homeroom teacher. jts gives his teacher a superlative assessment to the teacher, very favored. the reason is stated as due to the patient characteristics of the teacher. furthermore, the last review is a flirtatious teacher towards female students but has inspiring creativity. jts’s observation in quote (13) portrays an electronics teacher who is young, naughty, and flirtatious towards female students but encourages creativity. (12) ”saat kelas 6 guru sekaligus wali saya adalah bapak munirudin. dia seorang yang sangat disenangi karena orangnya sabar.” (jts/a.310080260). (”during grade 6, my teacher and guardian were mr. munirudin. he was a man who was very liked because he was patient.”) (13) ”pelajaran ketiga yang saya sukai adalah pelajaran elektronika. di saat itu kami diajar oleh bapak gunawan. dia seorang guru yang masih muda, nakal, dan genit kepada cewekcewek. di saat itu kami diajari membuat bel, lampu plip top, dan radio. saya membuat bel dengan suara yang sangat merdu dan akhirnya saya pasang di pintu rumah. kemudian kami diajari membuat lampu plip top yang kreasinya adalah dengan menambahkan jam, yang saya pasang menjadi jam dinding. kemudian yang terakhir adalah diajari membuat radio. dan saya membuat radio tersebut dengan suara yang sangat merdu dan bening.” (jts/a.310080260). (“the third lesson that i liked was the electronics. at that time, we were taught by mr. gunawan. he was a teacher who was young, naughty, and flirty with girls. at that time, we were taught to make bells, plip lamps, and radios. i made a bell with a very melodious sound, and finally, i put it on the door of the house. then we were taught to make a top plip lamp whose creation was to add a clock, which i put into a wall clock. then the last one is taught to make radio. and i made the radio with a very melodious and clear voice.”) jts also mentions that he becomes skilled in electronics, such as making bells, top plip lights, radios, and wall clocks because of the teacher’s guidance. jts is proud of his work. the bell he makes sounds very sweet, which he finally put on the door of his house. a top plip lamp with an additional clock is installed in his house too. based on his teacher’s guidance, jts also makes radio in which sound is melodious and clear. in jts’s point of view, the electronic teacher encourages his creativity. through the electronics subject, proud creative products are produced, such as the bell, top plip lamp, and radio. through a number of creative works that students can practice, the fondness about the subject will grow. from the 13 quotes provided, positive and negative characters can be observed and grouped. the presence of negative characters here proves that more work is needed to improve teachers’ characters systematically. the characters found are displayed in table 1. fierce character is the most commonly found character here, often comes with yelling actions. parents should not speak verbal violence in the form of being yelled at, scolded, and called by inappropriate words because it will impact the psychological 103reviews of teachers’ characters .... (atiqa sabardila, et al.) development of children (armiyanti, aini, & apriana, 2017). logically, the same principle applies to teachers who teach students in classes. however, fierce teachers are generally known as prone to conducting those. table 1 teachers’ characters found in students’ autobiography positive characters negative characters responsible fierce/yelling patient hard to understand caring scary in anger easy to understand fair / indiscriminate making students smart inspiring creativity flirty a teacher is like a parent who takes care of his/her students. kurniasari (2015) has stated that parenting with violence would not overcome bad behavior among children and would not guarantee the child’s discipline when they grow up. maya (2017) has researched teachers’ procedure (adab) from the perspective of ibn jamâ’ah al-syâfi’î, which results include principles of loving students like loving oneself, not being discriminatory by giving special treatment to some students, and being humble and gentle. teachers, as the main actor in implementing educational programs in schools, play a number of important roles in achieving educational goals. the teacher’s role includes educating, mentoring, training, advising, reforming, being a role model, having a personality, researcher, encouraging creativity, generating views, doing routine works, becoming an actor, emancipator, culprit, and evaluating (juhji, 2016). furthermore, he/she has explained the role of teachers in the development of education, namely instilling values, building character, central learning, providing assistance and encouragement, supervising and fostering, disciplining children, and role models for the environment. school is like a peaceful home that everyone should develop mutual respect, and no one is allowed to violate. susila (2019) has stated that violence in education can never be justified whatever its form, whomever the perpetrator is. the impact of the acts of violence is actually wide on both victims and perpetrators. autobiography forms can record the attitudes and behavior of teachers in the classroom from the students’ perspective. various forms of violence are experienced by students that are done by teachers, such as hitting, twisting, insulting, and ignoring. the underlying factors include seeking attention, seizing friends’ toys, and lacking patience (agustin, saripah, & gustiana, 2018). the granting of physical sanctions by teachers to students in the perspective of criminal law is not a criminal offense and cannot be held criminally accountable. the physical sanctions are a means of increasing student education and discipline (hardiansyah, khisni, & hafidz, 2018). for children to be protected and prevented from acts of violence, teachers are guided by child protection modules that have been validated by experts (ilyas, 2019). synergy in the relationship between teachers and parents is needed to foster students, promote peace, and use family ways to overcome any problems that occur. if it is not done, violence cases will continue to foster hatred, revenge, distrust, and suspicion of parents and the community towards the school (fauzi, 2017). the research is in line with mustadi et al. (2017), which states that media development and media skills, can improve students’ competence. the difference with the research, in wijayanti’s findings, the improved skills are social skills, namely the skills to interact with other people. teachers’ behavior that is not sympathetic in their students’ eyes shows that their personality traits are not yet strong. therefore, they need to continue to improve themselves. not only telling their students to do learning tasks such as reading, but the teachers themselves should do it themselves as well as an example of positive learning habits. many readings should not be missed, and the reading should become a choice, such as through wisdom in various media (santoso, 2015). conclusions the students’ autobiography evidently portrays the importance of eminent character for teachers to be able to perform their duty well. it also proves that students make intensive observations of their teachers. they are capable of assessing positive and negative aspects according to their judgment. there are similarities in the assessment of the character of the teacher they like. many teachers are portrayed to have both good and bad characters. it is time for students’ autobiography to be utilized to investigate further information regarding the character of teachers. it can serve as a feedback to improve teachers’ characters systematically. it can be seen that negative characters do not help with the learning process. for example, teachers with fierce character are generally uninviting for students to take part in lessons. the principal should address it to disciplinary actions, i.e., they are suspended for one week to be able to learn. the free time can be used to participate in a workshop to improve their ability to manage classes. alternatively, the headmaster can ask the considered-best teacher in the school to guide the problematic teacher. the final step is done in a friendly manner so that the problematic teacher is more able to accept his advice. in terms of the research contribution, the research is beneficial for teachers who want to perform 104 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 97-105 introspection to improve themselves. teachers’ behavior and conduct are proven to be very memorable to students. in conducting teacher recruitment, policymakers in the education sector should consider and make personality tests a key requirement in recruiting prospective teachers. while in terms of research implication, the research implies that teachers need to equip themselves with good academic, social, and personality competencies. they are to be applied in teaching so that it will lead to positive and good perceptions among students. the data of the research are limited to an autobiography written by students. what they write is a recording of their past, a memory. in actuality, the characters of teachers in student perception might be different from the real characters of the teachers. therefore, future researches can investigate this matter from a different perspective, such as from teachers’. references adinda, a. p., gaos, a. n. f., & fatimah, r. s. n. 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(2016). upaya mengurangi perilaku membolos melalui konseling individual dengan teknik behavior contract pada siswa smp negeri 6 palu. jurnal konseling & psikoedukasi, 1(1), 70-76. yusutria. (2017). profesionalisme guru dalam meningkatkan kualitas sumber daya manusia. curricula, 2(1), 3846. https://doi.org/10.22216/jcc.2017.v2i1.1472. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 225 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 225-231 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6763 production of vowel /ə/ in sundanese by japanese native speakers in first exposure rike febriyanti1*; lailatul husna2 1,2faculty of cultural studies, japanese language education, brawijaya university jl. veteran, ketawanggede, malang, jawa timur 65145, indonesia 1febriyanti_rike@ub.ac.id; 2husnalaila238@ub.ac.id received: 26th october 2020/revised: 15th december 2020/accepted: 17th december 2020 how to cite: febriyanti, r. & husna, l. (2020). production of vowel /ə/ in sundanese by japanese native speakers in first exposure. lingua cultura, 14(2), 225-231. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6763 abstract the research described native japanese speakers’ perception of sundanese vowel /ə/ after the first exposure to a controlled naturalistic input of conversation. the research worked in respect of brown’s model of l2 speech perception and l1 feature geometry, which sought to relate theories of segmental phonology to l2 speech perception and the first exposure treatment. some sundanese native speakers conducted a conversation that contained the /ə/ vowel in front of five japanese native speakers with no prior exposure to sundanese. therefore, the researchers had collected speech data from five l1 japanese native speakers (three males, two females, mage = 22, sd = 2,1). the japanese were asked to listen to the short conversation and imitate vowel /ə/, which did not exist in the japanese language vowel inventory. the observation confirmed brown’s hypothesis that l2 perception of /ə/ vowel was constrained by the l1 feature geometry. l1 japanese language phonological properties worked as a perceptual filter to sundanese l2 input, causing the japanese l2 learners to perceive only the vowel discriminated by phonological features presented in sundanese. the data show that the japanese native speakers are able to overcome the perceptual filters so they can produce various frequencies of vowel /ə/, which are statistically similar to the frequency produced by sundanese native speakers. the research implies that the possibility of learning new sounds from an entirely new language is wide open when the learner is able to pass through the l1 perceptual filter. keywords: sundanese, japanese language, native speaker, first exposure, second language acquistion introduction in the field of second language acquisition (sla), second language (l2) adult learners face many difficulties when working very hard to learn l2 non-native sounds (steele, 2009; pfenninger & singleton, 2019). this challenge is noticeable in the adult l2 learners’ language creation of what is known as accented speech (alwohaibi, 2019). older children and adults show language-specific patterns, as noted by curtin and werker (2018). moreover, adult l2 learners work very hard to achieve an l2 native-like performance and usually speak with a foreign-accented l2 even when they live for years in an l2 environment (alwohaibi, 2019). steele (2009) has stated that the infant and the adult could comprehend the same speech in the almost similar way, nor could the l2 learner or bilingual comprehend l2 or l1 speech in accurately the same path as native monolinguals of both languages. therefore, adults’ l1 language-specific experience hinders the observation of l2 speech contrasts that are phonologically dissimilar from those of the listener’s native language. this imprecise perception of l2 nonnative sounds can cause adult l2 learners to struggle with specific l2 sound contrasts (melnik, 2019). the experience of foreign speech (l2) sounds by l2 learners is highly influenced by the following elements: the starting age of l2 acquisition (alwohaibi, 2019), the total of meaningful exposure to the l2 (de leeuw, 2019), and the l1 vowel and consonant system (elvin, escudero, & vasiliev, 2014). preceding research has shown that l2 learners who have a lesser number of l1 vowels suffer many problems in perceiving an l2 with a larger number of vowels (elvin, escudero, & vasiliev, 2014). this phenomenon is proved when l2 learners who do not possess the sound contrasts in their first language. souza et al. (2017) have analyzed l1 and l2 vowel systems of native german, spanish, 226 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 225-231 mandarin, and korean speakers. the result shows that the form of the l1 vowel system and its perceived relation to vowels influence the l2 vowel production and perception. the result confirms that, regardless of the differences in their vowel systems, learners’ perceptions are precisely calculated by specified acoustic comparison between l1 and l2 sounds. an example of l2 sound perception is the speech learning model (slm). models of l2 sound perception, such as the speech learning model (slm) and the second language linguistic perception (l2lp) (alwohaibi, 2019) and the second language linguistic perception (l2lp) model (van leussen & escudero, 2015), have suggested that acoustic matches between l1 and l2 sounds is important in cross-language speech perception. however, the exact predictions for l2 perception between the two previous models are different. generally, the slm tries to describe that second language learning’s success is mostly affected by the perceived phonetic similarities between the l1 and l2 sounds. inside the slm, the noticed phonetic similarities are divided into identical, similar, and new sounds, as noted by (carlet & souza, 2018). an identical sound is distinguished by similar international phonetic alphabet (ipa) symbols. it has no essential acoustic dissimilarities between the l1 and l2 sounds. an l2 sound is defined as a similar sound if characterized by the same ipa symbol as a sound in the l1 and if the difference is in the diacritics only. a new sound is defined as an l2 sound, which is not used in the l1 differs auditory from the closest l1 sound, and for which the ipa origin symbol is different (alwohaibi, 2019). the slm shows that l2 learners will have no important problem making and perceiving a similar sound when they cannot notice the l1 and l2 sound differences. however, l2 learners will be less successful in receiving similar sounds since the similarity between l1 and l2 sounds will block the phonetic category’s formation. they will be successful in perceiving new vowels as it motivates them to produce new uncategorizable speech sounds. unlike the slm, the l2lp states a prediction that the l2 learners will confront different kinds of a perceptual struggle depending on how the perception language rules in the l1, which matches the ideal l2 perception. in the l2lp, the awareness of an l1 contrast is divided into three situations: new, subset, and similar. a new situation occurs when the l1 perception grammar results in less perceptual classifications than the necessary perception of the l2. as a result, the l2 setting creates phonological variances that do not exist in the l1 (nimz & khattab, 2019). for example, spanish learners of english consider the two english sounds /i/-/ɪ/ onto a specific native sound set /i/. the perception of new sounds is believed to be the most problematic situation. it includes not only the production of new classifications and perceptual mappings but also the combination of the newly classified dimensions into the already classified dimensions (nimz & khattab, 2019). the sub-set scenario occurs if the l1 perception language rule produces more categories than the necessary perception of the l2. therefore, the l2 categories make a sub-set of l1 categories. for example, dutch english learners consider the spanish /i/ into two native classifications /i/ and /ɪ/. in the comparable situation, the l1 perception grammar makes the same quantity of classification as the target of l2 grammar since the l1 and l2 categories are phonologically equivalent. for instance, l1 canadian english speakers map the canadian french sounds /ɛ/ and /æ/ onto /ɛ/ and /æ/ in the native categories. perwitasari (2018) has noted that sundanese is used daily by about 34 million individuals in indonesia, the second most commonly spoken language in indonesia after javanese. sundanese is spoken in the western part of the island of java (figure 1). in sundanese, it can be found at least four main dialects: banten, bogor/karawang, priangan, and cirebon (muslim et al., 2010). the banten dialect is spoken in several cities around banten; the bogor/ karawang dialect is uttered in several big cities such as tangerang, bogor, purwakarta, krawang, and subang; the priangan dialect is spoken in priangan; and the cirebon dialect is spoken in cirebon, brebes, and cilacap. sundanese is distinguished into four speech levels: high basa lemes, neutral basa sedeng, everyday basa kasar, and low basa tjohag (perwitasari, klamer, & schiller, 2016). the students who participate in the current research speak the bogor/karawang dialect of sundanese. figure 1 map of dialects of sundanese language in west java (muslim et al., 2010) sundanese sound inventory has seven vowels. perwitasari (2018) has mentioned that sundanese vowels are classified as high front /i/, high central /ɨ/, high back /u/, mid front /e//ε/, mid central /ə/, mid back /o/-/ɔ/, and central low /a/. sundanese vowel inventory is illustrated in figure 2. meanwhile, the japanese vowel system comprises five distinguishable form /i, e, a, o, u/, which form five short (1-mora) and long (2-mora) pairs (yazawa & kondo, 2019). japanese has only five vowels in its vowel inventory; a system is quite common among many natural languages in the world (sanjaya, 2018). figure 3 shows the japanese vowel 227production of vowel.... (rike febriyanti; lailatul husna) inventory. figure 2 traditional view of sundanese vowel inventory (perwitasari, 2018) figure 3 japanese vowel inventory (yazawa & kondo, 2019) the researcher works as a japanese language lecturer at brawijaya university and is currently working with native japanese speakers. there are two kinds of japanese native speakers at the university. the first is those who are working as japanese language lecturers, and the second is the japanese native speakers who are joining the apprenticeship program at brawijaya. in daily interaction among the native speakers, lecturers, and students, the researcher finds that the japanese native speakers often casually learn several local languages brought by the students of japanese language education study program such as javanese, sundanese, or madurese. the japanese native speakers learn to produce unique vowels and consonants from the local language. the researcher has observed that they struggle to imitate some vowels and consonants that they do not possess in their mother tongue. one incident that sparks the researcher’s interest happens when the japanese native speakers struggle to imitate vowel /ə/ from various sundanese words. that moment has inspired the researcher to examine how japanese native speaker’s perception of vowel /ə/ of sundanese in first exposure. the research is the beginning of a series of studies to investigate japanese native speakers’ perception of vowels and consonants in local indonesian languages. the researcher hopes that the research and her forthcoming studies will help mutual understanding between japanese native speakers who learn local languages and the students who learn japanese. currently, in the field of second language acquisition, studies of first exposure to l2 contribute to bridging gaps in the literature about the crucial first minutes/hours of naturalistic l2 contact. so, the studies contribute the knowledge of the adults’ early stages of l2 perception, perceiving, and understanding. in turn, they offer ideas for comparison in the middle of l1 child acquisition and l2 adult acquisition. the research aims to investigate adult l2 learners’ perceptual abilities of non-native l2 sounds after first exposure under the feature geometry model of alwohaibi (2019). therefore, the literature in the research on first exposure studies will present a general view of the major empirical studies of first exposure studies conducted so far, such as carroll (2007, 2012, 2014), gullberg et al. (2010), han and liu (2013), rast (2008, 2010) and park & han (2008) alwohaibi (2019). sla researchers in the middle of many other scholars have organized l2 research examining the effect of an organized artificial and/or naturalistic input with adult l2 learners to analyze adult l2 learners’ input processing abilities. many studies have also studied first exposure through implicit learning, such as gullberg, roberts, and dimroth (2012), and cox (2019). they have examined l1 dutch learners’ first exposure to l2 mandarin with a realistic input of a 14 minutes mandarin weather report as the treatment. cox’s (2019) data have shown a positive correlation between the frequency of input and results’ accuracy. such data show that adult l2 potential acquisition skills are far higher than might be expected at first exposure. han and liu’s findings in 2013 contradict gullberg’s findings (haghani & maftoon, 2016) in exposed english and japanese l1 learners to l2 mandarin through the use of ten video episodes with varied themes such as ordering food in a restaurant and bargaining in a shop. each episode lasts for three minutes. han and liu (2013) have concluded that these english and japanese l1 learners of mandarin struggle through all of the input processing tasks, including free recall, comprehension, note-taking, elicited imitation, and a working memory test. carroll’s research in 2012 and 2014 in wen, biedroń, and skehan (2017) is performed by exposing native speakers of english to l2 german to evaluate for their segmentation abilities after first exposure. the treatment contains audio-visual stimuli showed as a name-learning task. the data indicate that learners could segment the l2 speech stream with around 90% accuracy rate and also map sound tokens to referents, even with low contact frequency. it advises that segmentation abilities are evident in l2 learners even after limited numbers of minor exposure. other scholars have also analyzed segmentation after first exposure, such as rast in berthelsen et al. (2020). they also claim that the l2 learner’s ability to segment linguistic components from the l2 speech stream is evident and discussed the linguistic variables of input that may affect the l2 learner’s segmentation ability, such as frequency of input and gestures (archibald, 2017). onishi (2016) has tested l2 learners’ linguistic knowledge of phonotactic constraints after listening to a short auditory record in three treatments and 228 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 225-231 tests. the purpose of that research is to test whether adult english speakers could obtain phonotactic regularities that do not exist in english. onishi (2016) has claimed that their findings demonstrate the phonotactic constraints that are rapidly learned from brief auditory experience and that some constraints are more easily learned than others. the other research is by altenberg in alwohaibi (2019), who creates three experiments to examine the acquisition of english word-initial consonant clusters by native speakers of spanish. these experiments consist of a metalinguistic judgment task, a perception task, and a production task. it suggests that beginning, as well as advanced l2 learners, show an accurate knowledge of english phonotactics and that l1 transfer does not play a role in the learners’ perception. it should be noted that first exposure studies do contribute to elucidating adult l2 learners’ linguistic abilities when faced with an unknown language for the first time. as mentioned earlier, there are a limited number of studies addressing this issue in sla. therefore, future research needs to be addressed this matter. methods the research is based on the hypothesis that l1 japanese feature geometry will mediate between the incoming acoustic stimuli of the speech stream of sundanese l2, sorting the stimuli into phonemic perceptual categories (alwohaibi, 2019). therefore, the researchers have collected speech data from five l1 japanese native speakers (three males, two females, mage = 22, sd = 2,1), although the gender and age of the participants are not variables. the participants speak the japanese language as their first language. all the participants demonstrate normal speech and hearing abilities. auditory stimuli have comprised of one vowel /ə/ in two words, ‘hareudang’ and ‘heureuy’ of sundanese. each stimulus is recorded using praat at 44,1 khz. participants are tested individually in a sound-attenuated room. before the experiment, the participants have filled in a demographic questionnaire and signed a consent form. the treatment includes an audiovisual input of an original short conversation in sundanese. the short conversation is completely in sundanese and lasted for approximately two minutes. the research participants are told to ensure that their speakers are working appropriately. they sit in a quiet place before watching the short conversation and before proceeding to listen to the test items. the short conversation is delivered by two male native sundanese. in order to be as realistic as possible, each test word containing the vowel /ə/ under examination is inserted in the following short conversation. if the japanese native speakers do not differentiate between two sounds, the assumption is that the phonological representations of this learner’s l1 lack the necessary existing structure to facilitate differentiating between the two sounds. the japanese native speakers, then, are asked to listen to the short conversation several times. when the japanese native speakers confirm that they could listen and grasp the vowel /ə/, then the researchers stop the record. the japanese native speakers are asked to imitate the vowel /ə/ in one shot. using praat, the researchers isolate vowel /ə/ produced by both sundanese and japanese native speakers. after isolating the vowel, the researchers analyze the nature of vowel /ə/ produced by both groups. results and discussions first, since vowel /ə/ is a sound that does not exist in the phonemic inventory of the japanese language, so participants are not expected to distinguish these sounds accurately. statistical analysis is implemented using the statistical software package spss v.20 for windows. first, the data are described using descriptive statistics (mean, median, and standard deviation), which are analyzed to describe the numerical quantitative variables. in general, there are apparent differences between the japanese native speaker’s vowel /ə/ production and the sundanese speaker’s vowel /ə/ production. table 1 shows the statistical data of the vowel /ə/ length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers. table 1 the vowel /ə/ length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers no. sundanese native speaker no. japanese native speaker s1 0,192404 j1 0,218811 s2 0,182454 j2 0,207269 s3 0,193345 j3 0,258146 s4 0,179921 j4 0,325848 s5 0,18549 j5 0,279503 table 2 the statistical analysis of vowel /ə/ length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers t-test: paired two sample for means 0,192404 0,218811 mean 0,1853025 0,2676915 variance 3,39305e-05 0,002421228 observations 4 4 pearson correlation -0,250514683 hypothesized mean difference 0 df 3 t stat -3,232329591 p(t<=t) one-tail 0,024065261 229production of vowel.... (rike febriyanti; lailatul husna) t critical one-tail 2,353363435 p(t<=t) two-tail 0,048130521 t critical two-tail 3,182446305 from table 2, it could be understood that the average length of vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese native speakers is 0,1853025 seconds. on the other hand, the japanese native speakers take 0,2676915 seconds to produce vowel /ə/ in speaking hareudang. the data variances between the two groups are different. the data variance in sundanese native speakers is very high at 3,39305, while in japanese native speakers is at 0,002421228 in both four observations with the degree of freedom (df) of 4-1 is 3. in addition, there is a descriptive pearson correlation, namely -0,250514683, so it can be said that the relationship is not negative and far. based on these results, it is known that the t stat is -3,232329591. the value obtained is the same as in the paired t-test material. the hypothesis used is the two-way hypothesis, so that it uses two tails. the result t table is 2,093024 with a p-value of 0,048130521. because the p-value is smaller than alpha 5% or by looking at | t count | > t table, then the decision is reject h0. because ho is rejected, so it is concluded that there is a significant difference between the vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese and japanese native speakers. after observing the two groups in speaking hareudang, table 3 and 4 present their performance in another word heureuy. table 3 the vowel /ə/ length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers vowel length /ə/ in heureuy no. sundanese native speaker no. japanese native speaker s1 0,098211 j1 0,08474 s2 0,1082 j2 0,246178 s3 0,858211 j3 0,087964 s4 0,08256 j4 0,2637231 s5 0,818293 j5 0,0240437 table 4 the statistical analysis of vowel /ə length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers t-test: paired two sample for means 0,192404 0,218811 mean 0,185303 0,267692 variance 3,39e-05 0,002421 observations 4 4 pearson correlation -0,25051 hypothesized mean difference 0 df 3 t stat -3,23233 p(t<=t) one-tail 0,024065 t critical one-tail 2,353363 p(t<=t) two-tail 0,048131 t critical two-tail 3,182446 from table 3 and 4, it could be understood that the average length of vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese native speakers is 0,185303 seconds. on the other hand, the japanese native speakers take 0,267692 seconds to produce vowel /ə/ in speaking hareudang. the data variances between the two groups are different. the data variance in sundanese native speakers is very high at 3,39e-05, while in japanese native speakers is at 0,002421 in both four observations with the degree of freedom (df) of 4-1 is 3. in addition, there is a descriptive pearson correlation, namely -0,25051, so it can be said that the relationship is not negative and far. based on these results, it is known that the t stat is -3,23233. the value obtained is quite similar to the paired t-test material. the hypothesis used is the two-way hypothesis, so that it uses two tails. the result t-table is 3,182446 with a p-value of 0,048131. because the p-value is smaller than alpha 5% or by looking at | t count | > t-table, then the decision is reject h0. because ho is rejected, so it is concluded that there is a significant difference between the vowel length /ə/ produced by sundanese and japanese native speakers. tables 5 and 6 will describe the data of the frequency of vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese and japanese native speakers. table 5 the frequency of vowel /ə/ production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers frequency of vowel /ə/ in hereuy (hz) no. sundanese native speaker no. japanese native speaker s1 141 j1 146 s2 139 j2 210,8 s3 144 j3 141,8 s4 142 j4 96 s5 144 j5 124 table 2 the statistical analysis of vowel /ə/ length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers (continued) table 4 the statistical analysis of vowel /ə length production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers (continued) 230 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 225-231 table 6 the statistical analysis of the frequency of vowel /ə/ production by japanese native speakers and the sundanese speakers t-test: paired two sample for means 141 146 mean 142,25 142,75 variance 5,583333 2354,25 observations 4 4 pearson correlation -0,70577 hypothesized mean difference 0 df 3 t stat -0,01991 p(t<=t) one-tail 0,492681 t critical one-tail 2,353363 p(t<=t) two-tail 0,985362 t critical two-tail -0,01991 from table 5 and 6, it could be understood that the average frequency of vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese native speakers is 142,25 hz. on the other hand, the japanese native speakers have reached 142,75 hz in producing vowel /ə/ in speaking hareudang. the data variances between the two groups are different. the data variance in sundanese native speakers is very high at 5,583333, while in japanese native speakers is at 2389,397 in both four observations with the degree of freedom (df) of 4-1 is 3. in addition, there is a descriptive pearson correlation, namely -0,70577, so it can be said that the relationship is negative and far. based on these results, it is known that the t stat is -0,01991. the value obtained is quite similar to the paired t-test material. the hypothesis used is the twoway hypothesis, so that it uses two tails. the result t-table is -0,01991with, a p-value of 0,985362. because the p-value is larger than alpha 5% or by looking at | t count | > t-table, then the decision is accept h0. because ho is accepted, so it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the frequency of vowel /ə/ produced by sundanese and japanese native speakers. conclusions in summary, the data show two different facts. first, the present results reveal significant differences between the performances of the japanese native speakers and the sundanese native speakers in producing the length of vowel /ə/. the japanese native speakers produce significantly longer vowel /ə/ than the sundanese native speakers. in this first exposure study, the researchers predict that this longer time taken by the japanese native speaker is a compensation for the absence of vowel /ə/ in the japanese language. therefore, the japanese native speakers need more time to perceive, think, and produce vowel /ə/. although statistically different, the longer period of time used by japanese native speakers to produce vowel /ə/ shows the group’s potential to produce a new vowel in the first exposure. on the other hand, the data presented that the frequency production of vowel /ə/ by both groups is statistically similar. the japanese native speakers could position their tongue is halfway between a close vowel (a high vowel) and a midvowel, between a front vowel and a back vowel, and their lips are unrounded. they produce the vowel /ə/ in such a way, although they do not have any experience producing the vowel /ə/ before in their daily life. thus, the research hypothesis that l1 feature geometry changes l2 perception accuracy of nonnative vowel /ə/ directing to imprecise l2 perception of the non-native vowel contrasts is partially supported. the research shows that japanese native speakers could not produce vowel length /ə/, which is absent in the japanese feature geometry. it proves brown’s hypothesis that speakers of a given l1 can only perceive those non-native contrasts distinguished by a feature present in their l1 grammar. however, this data display that the japanese native speakers have the potential to produce a set of new vowel frequency reach statistically similar frequency to the frequency of vowel /ə/ produced by the sundanese native speakers. this aspect confirms gullberg’s data, which describes a positive correlation between the input frequency and results’ accuracy. the data found by gullberg indicate that adult l2 potential acquisition skills are far higher than might be expected at first exposure. based on the current results, l1 japanese language phonological properties work as a perceptual filter that filters the sundanese l2 input. it causes the japanese l2 learners to perceive only the vowel that is discriminated by phonological features in sundanese. this perceptual filter works prominently at first exposure to l2 sundanese, which is obvious in the results of the japanese native speakers with no prior exposure to sundanese. the data gathered by this research show that the japanese native speakers are able to overcome the perceptual filters so they can produce various frequencies of vowel /ə/, which are statistically similar to the frequency produced by sundanese native speakers. one source of weakness of the research that might have influenced the outcome is the small number of research participants. therefore, more research participants, either from japanese language native speakers or sundanese native speakers, will produce a different and more statistically credible outcome. so it is recommended that upcoming research should take into account including larger sample size. another weakness of the research is the setting which does not allow the participants’ voices to be recorded in a quiet environment. because of the quiet environment, the researchers could not identify all aspects of the sounds accurately. furthermore, it is suggested that all recordings be conducted at least in a quiet room 231production of vowel.... (rike febriyanti; lailatul husna) or in a laboratory environment to reduce any factors that might influence the participants’ performance. in addition, future researches are suggested to plan experiments, which combine speech production tasks. the research opens a pathway for future research about foreign language learners’ potential capacity in learning other vowels or consonants in other ethnic languages in indonesia. references alwohaibi, h. (2019). investigating native english speakers’ perception of novel arabic phonemes after first exposure. (master thesis). newcastle: newcastel university. archibald, j. (2017). second language processing and linguistic theory. oxford: oxford research encyclopedia in linguistics. berthelsen, s. g., horne, m., shtyrov, y., & roll, m. 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(2019). acoustic characteristics of japanese short and long vowels: formant displacement effect revisited. proceedings of the 19th international congress of phonetic sciences. melbourne, australia. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 151 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 151-159 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6566 sky castle: consuming education from the cases of two tiger parents yuliyanto chandra* program magister sastra, fakultas sastra dan bahasa, universitas kristen petra jl. siwalankerto no. 121-131 wonocolo, surabaya, jawa timur 60236, indonesia yuliantoc1996@gmail.com received: 10th july 2020/revised: 27th july 2020/accepted: 24th august 2020 how to cite: chandra, y. (2020). sky castle: consuming education from the cases of two tiger parents. lingua cultura, 14(2), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6566 abstract the research aimed to analyze how the korean series, sky castle, successfully captured the idea that education could be commoditized in consumer culture for ensuring class mobility, which was majorly done by two exemplary tiger parents in korea. methodologically, the research applied a qualitative approach and employed a detailed analysis of the main character and one supporting character, han suhjin and cha minhyuk, respectively. both characters’ actions and utterances would be selectively used to support the arguments of the research. their relationship with other characters would also be used as further explanations. the research sheds light on how the two aforementioned characters fervently pursue and spend millions on education as it is perceived to strengthen their position in the social totem pole. the underlying theories to support the discussion are those of cultural and economic capital, consumption, commodification, and tiger parents. these are interconnected in the korean context, especially due to the shifting value of education in the contemporary era. keywords: education consumption, consumer culture, cultural capital, tiger parent153, koing style, sky castle introduction education has been seen of magnitude for centuries. its pivot is evident in how it is treated as a vehicle to reach success. the absence of it creates considerable difficulties to obtain a position in the professional realm proffering promising income. whence great thinkers put it at the apex of the hierarchy of important components someone must undergo. man who has founded common school opines that social polyphony and political stability rely heavily on education. similarly, jefferson warns the uneducated to become parts of the educated citizenry. religious artifacts such as those of confucianism also heeds learning, interchangeable with virtues and education, as important. korea is one of the countries accenting the importance of education, especially because it is a country integrated with confucian values. historicity even encloses the influence of confucianism in the massive favorable perception towards education (levent & pehlivan, 2017). the arrival of confucianism during the era of the three kingdoms of korea has shaped the fabric of society. serving as a national ideology, confucianism is seen as of magnitude in retaining power and privilege and crucial to establishing state regulation. its adherents perceive education as remarkably significant for social sustainability. moreover, the significance of education can also be traced back through socio-political circumstances dating back to the 1970s. during this epoch, korea restored its economic downturn, the aftermath of the korean division, in a rapid manner. this restoration went down in history as the ‘han river miracle’ (howe, 2020). however, it must be noted that this miraculous transformation has a causal relationship with education (levent & pehlivan, 2017). contemporarily, the ‘education fever’ is a terminology used to address koreans’ obsession over education (kim & bang, 2017) that still lingers, not residually but strongly and statically across time. oh (2010) and woo and hodges (2015) have argued that the obsession over education in contemporary society is partially credited to the belief that social success is obtainable through education. oh (2010) has also attributed such a phenomenon to parents’ psychological states who usually take charge of their children’s 152 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 151-159 education and enforce the idea that education is an indispensable asset to ‘mingle’ with the society and a vehicle to reach betterment. for such a reason, korean mothers divide their focus between formal education and private education. the latter is predominantly used to ascertain academic success (shin, jahng, & kim, 2019). therefore, education is analogous to the idea of investment, meaning that the parents who are obsessed over their children’s education see the utilitarian facet of education. investing in children’s education is not only to vouchsafe ‘bright future’ for their children but also to benefit themselves from it. although education is important and its position in korean society nowadays is not arguable, the debate can be directed to its exploitation. the word exploitation is indeed strong in the sense that it somehow carries negative weight to it. this exploitation of education is embodied in the way it is commoditized by people to fit into a certain imagined community; that is, to gain cosmopolitan membership. this embodiment further supports the notion of identity propounded by burke (in harsono, 2017), who says it is understood as ‘what it means to be one is’. inferred from burke’s phrase, the commodification of education to gain cosmopolitan membership is, therefore, an invitation for social acceptance and approval that is deemed to be pivotal. as harsono (2017) has claimed for people who share this assertion, “to be in-between or average is a condition they would avoid at all cost.” hence, for such an acceptance to ensue, cultural capital is at play. the extensive usage of cultural capital, the notion propounded by pierre bourdieu, has shed some light on understanding experiential aspects of an individual’s life progress (akua-sakyiwah, 2016). cultural capital manifests itself in three forms; embodied state, objectified state, and institutionalized state (tan, peng, & lyu, 2019). all states are treated as the primary tools to understand how education is converted into cultural capital to ensure the owner’s participation in the targeted community and social mobility. these states constitute all the cultural goods that transmit prestige and status, both of which are translated into their capital to partake in social events. interestingly, cultural capital is converted into economic capital – defined as any assets convertible into money – due to its closeness to education consumption. bourdieu explains that cultural capital can be converted into economic capital (as elaborated in li & thorson, 2018). however, the transformation between the two capitals is complicated as cultural capital is manifested in three states. the embodied state transforms the external wealth into an integral part of a person (li & thorson, 2018). transforming this particular state into economic capital implies that a person’s learning experience, including organizational involvement and internship – which is also related to time investment – is important in obtaining a job that proffers a higher salary. the objectified state is the materialization of the embodied state. here, the visible test scores and transcript may serve as the determiner of the kind of job a person may obtain, resulting in the amount of money he/she earns. the last state is the institutionalized state, which can be in the form of academic credentials such as an academic degree. when converted into economic capital, the academic degree decides the degree of professionalism of a person. it hence determines how much money he/she can make out of the profession. how education is remolded into economic capital to participate in a certain community must be framed in the concept of consumption. the value of education is dependent upon its consumption. since consumption involves the actual use and enjoyment of goods and services (rössel, 2011), it depends on how it is used and enjoyed. its value can go beyond ‘granting knowledge’ to ‘granting social status’ for its consumers. as lin (2019) has elucidated, the aspect of education consumption is not merely lucrative in the sense that it is for family investment in their own children, but it also socially mobilizes them in the social totem pole. hence, the idea of consumption in relation to education is rudimentarily multidimensional. consumer culture in korea is seen in the extra effort that parents have to put forth in education. one example is private tutoring outside the class (ha & park, 2017). in the korean context, however, the notion of education consumption is heavily interconnected with the idea of the tiger parenting style. the practice of excessive obsession over education is generally done by parents who adopt the parenting as mentioned earlier style. according to chua (in irawan, 2018), it is a rapacious style of parenting and generally rooted in the teaching of confucianism. this parenting style is interchangeable with other parenting styles such as helicopter parenting style (cui et al., 2019; kwon, yoo, & bingham, 2016; kwon, yoo, & de gagne, 2017), overparenting (fletcher et al., 2020; segrin et al., 2015), and parental overprotection (kim, 2019). parents adopting this parenting style prioritize academic excellence over others on the rationale that the pursuit of academic excellence may pave the way to success. hence, failure in obtaining the expected result is intolerable in the eyes of this type of parent. placing such a great value on grades at the expense of other necessary traits for a successful career and imposing excessive expectations on the children regarding their academic quest dismiss the psychological and emotional state of the children. tiger parenting style, which is synonymous with an authoritarian style based on baumrind’s taxonomy (irawan, 2018), finds relevance in the korean societal situation. pressures from parents and demand to exert more efforts in their studies by taking additional after-school courses known as private tutoring, which negatively affects social life, have taken an emotional, social, and psychological toll (kowen, jang, & lee, 2019). in addition, studies also show how such overinvestment in education has resulted in more than just the children’s suffering from the issues as mentioned earlier. it has also affected the family’s income and resulted in disharmony among 153sky castle: consuming education .... (yuliyanto chandra) families and a high divorce rate (hultberg, calonge, & kim, 2017). hence, korea has recorded a high suicidal rate in asia not only due to harshness from parents but also from the cutthroat competition to enroll in the university. it gives the rising standards in acceptance rate as the korean government tries to compete with overseas educational institutions (hultberg, calonge, & kim, 2017). explication of the parents’ adopted parenting style is not exclusively isolated in the korean context. in fact, the condition where parents strive to provide the best possible education and benefit from their children’s intensified schooling resonates with similar conditions in japan and china, and other parts of the world. parents’ forced helmsmanship and participatory manner in the children’s education reflects the so-called hierarchy that perpetually exists within east asian family discourse that children must obey their parents. parents must gain control over the children’s life for they are partially indebted to them, and that parents have to be the absolute beings worth of obedience and respect. however, what lies beyond this parental attitude tends to be overlooked. this overlooked aspect relates to a great extent to societal constructs. as a reflector of society, sky castle, a korean tv drama, provides a source of understanding solidifying how education is involved in the process of commodification and consumption to disperse economic capital to the consumers who symbolically attempt to ascertain class mobility. several studies have briefly mentioned sky castle regarding the documentation of korea’s prevalent parenting style (yee, 2020) and parents’ excessive desire for top-tier education (kim et al., 2020; kumar, 2020). however, none of the studies explores the consumption of education that is contextualized in korea. in the drama, such an excessive consumption of education is particularly embodied in han suhjin and cha minhyuk, two parents who dictate their children’s education. therefore, it behooves this research to posit the following questions; how are han suh-jin and cha min-hyuk exemplary of tiger parents who excessively consume education as a participatory means into a certain imagined community? the answer to this one question may provide insights into how consumption of education is first operated within the micro-level (family) and is further projected to reflect the macrolevel (societal practice). methods methodologically, the research employs a detailed analysis of the main character and one supporting character, han suh-jin and cha min-hyuk, respectively. both characters’ actions and utterances will be selectively used to support the arguments of the research. their relationship with other characters will also be used as further explanations. the discussion of the characters is informed by several relevant theories such as cultural and economic capital, commodification, consumption, and tiger parenting style. results and discussions towards the end of 2018 and nearly two months into 2019, the television industry in korea was devoured by the immense popularity of sky castle, a serial television drama airing on jtbc. the drama won numerous awards in korea and other countries and recorded the highest viewership rating among cable tv dramas; 23%, after recording merely 1% on the first episode (yee, 2020). the success of the drama comes as a surprise as the roster of senior actors and actresses is not commercially known among mainstream and international audience that is dominated by the younger generation. however, domestically, they are mostly known for acting credibility and talent due to years of experience and accolades. the success of this drama is not solely achieved through the quality of the acting of the prolific actors and actresses but also the intriguing theme of the drama. the satirical drama narrates the luxurious life of korean elites who live in a fictionalized regency called sky. sky is an abbreviation for the top universities in korea; seoul national university (snu), korea university, and yonsei university, which all are associated with wealth, prestige, and class. additionally, these three universities are also attended by wealthy ‘0,1%’ of the korean population. the series’ subject matter is not only about wealth but also extended, if not the primary, to the regency’s inhabitants’ struggle for social acceptance and to elevate themselves in social hierarchy through education. this drama successfully captures the social condition exposing parental obsession over children’s education and its impact. four families, namely kang, cha, woo, and hwang family, are presented in the drama. the first three are willing to do anything to occupy a place in the top universities for their children. in the kang family, the struggle for education is depicted by the mother (han suhjin) and daughter (kang yesuh), who fervently show efforts to get into the medical school of snu. contrastingly, in the cha family, the father (cha minhyuk) is the only one concerned with his children’s education. initially, his wife (noh seunghye) has a similar attitude to that of her husband, but after meeting lee sooim from the hwang family, her perception towards the necessity of education changes. among the two families, the responses of children towards the parents’ dictatorship appear to be different. in the kang family, the effort to reach the top is intergenerational. the daughter shows strong aspiration to become socially acknowledged through education that the driving force of her succumbing to her parents’ inhumane option under the pretext of embodying their life-long wish of having a child that 154 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 151-159 can enroll to medical school of snu, a wish shared by the grandparents too. they believe that entering that to snu ensures social acceptance. in the cha family, the children are different as they tend to be indifferent towards their study outcomes and supported by the mother. she does not force them to obtain something beyond their capability but has to be subjected to their father’s ambition. under the authoritarian pressure, one term of parenting style typologies is used by baumrind (in irawan, 2018) to refer to parents who exercise excessive control over their children’s activities. because of their tyrannical father, they have to study beyond their limit. sky castle is one of the very few korean dramas that criticizes society’s repugnant treatment of education as the determiner of success. peppered throughout the entire course of the drama are the families’ countless inhumane, evil, and immoral attempts to penetrate the wall of competition in the education field. for them, even ‘shameful’ deeds are morally acceptable if they haul good results concerning the education each of these families envisages. some instances can be seen, such as hiring a university enrollment coordinator or private tutoring, stealing exam papers, and covering crimes. these extreme instances are carried out to ensure a 100% acceptance rate for the child. this is ergo correspondent to mcvey’s (2018) statement that parents in korea willingly spend more money to afford private tutoring only to improve grades. hence, ascertaining the opportunity to enroll in a prestigious and good university in the context of sky castle can be read as an act of commoditizing education as means to gain cosmopolitan membership. the two cases of han suhjin and cha minhyuk show that the tiger parents’ consumption of education as a commodity. first, the research will explain the han suhjin case. the series starts with han suhjin’s endeavor to gain information from lee myungjoo, who successfully sends her son into the snu’s medical school, unaware of what lies beneath the success. to achieve her goal, she does a series of actions to amuse lee myungjoo, such as throwing a fancy party and gluing to her, all of which are mere pretexts to gain portfolio and information about private tutoring. although her efforts are initially fruitless, her ambition does not immediately dissipate. from when she earns the clue about the private tutor, countless mysteries, criminal acts, and immoral deeds unfold to show how she serves as an epitome of a tiger mother. it also shows how she consumes education by commoditizing it, which gives her the cultural capital to participate in a certain community, where spoon class occupies a significant position as a determiner of someone’s social locus. the process of consuming education aligns with her primary goal of making her daughter successful. witnessing lee myungjoo’s disconsolate decision to commit suicide due to severe family ties with her son does not falter her tenacity and resoluteness in intensively meddling with her daughter’s education. her attitude here is a wager in that she is aware of the danger that may come with her decision, but she still manages her daughter’s education with an unsavory scheme. her negligence towards what happens to lee myungjoo declares her persistence, which further communicates the idea of will-power (szutta, 2020). her humble-beginning stimulates her persistence as she has to camouflage as a rich and educated woman in her married life. ashamed of her upbringing with a violent father selling ox-blood, her clandestine actions paint her as a rich and educated woman. additionally, her greed is begotten by pressure from her mother-inlaw, who demands she reproduce a third-generation doctor for the sake of lineage. what her mother-in-law intentionally does can be understood as an attempt to transmit cultural capital to prolong and pass on the social status to the generations that come after her (bourdieu in spiegler, 2018). furthermore, it is also related to the idea of intergenerational social mobility, which, according to many sociologists, is correlated with education (chung & park, 2019). her past and mother-in-law’s pressure give rise to her obsession with high-class education and agency to perpetuate her current situation. it means that, if not eclipsing it, she is in a quest for betterment after suffering from the harsh ‘reality’ of her past and mother-in-law’s pestering. to elevate her status and image in front of the residents, she strives to make her daughter a successful student. she believes it reflects class and increases the possibility of becoming a doctor, a profession worshipped by the residents. in addition, it is the dogma that a doctor coming from a prestigious university like snu is more respectable and secures higher income. hence, she is willing to spend millions on private tutoring and education for her daughter. the bodily practice of consumption by paterson (2006) can best describe her actions. paterson (2006) has explained that the conceptual body does not solely consume tangible items but also consumes the intangible ones such as education. this bodily consumption is propelled by the complex notion of body, which is lived in or the embodiment experience whereby the body is an integrated aspect of the true inner self (featherstone as stated in tyner, 2015). in his work, paterson (2006) quotes bourdieu’s statement that taste, a class structure turned into nature, that is, embodied, helps to shape the class body, which implies that consumption of commodities, like education, evinces social position and identity. these finds are supported by slater (1997), who claims everything that has an exchange value can be treated as a commodity, including all social relations, activities, and objects, which can in principle be exchanged as commodities. ergo, in this sense, education consumption is not solely related to the function of education, but the cultural values imputed to it. with all of the cultural values that education carries, it endows the consumers’ ability to become what they want. it means that they construct their identity with the education they aim for. this resonates with williams’ (in tsang, 2014) idea of the shifting values of education. 155sky castle: consuming education .... (yuliyanto chandra) education serves as the nucleus of the drama, and its exploitation as a commodity for consumption communicates the hegemonic power that education has. it segregates those who have the means to participate in the community and those who do not. precisely, this notion does not apply in all discourses, but it conforms to certain constructions in the society, and the thriving of education within the korean peninsula bolsters this particular notion. in the korean context, middle-class and upper-class families see education as a means of maintaining their current social class. in some other cases, education can be deemed as an exodus. these families try to ensure upward mobility. hence, what she does for her daughter and herself, is not a mere obsession over education fueled by the sociopolitical situations. it demonstrates her constructed identity and compensates for her humble past. by utilizing her daughter and feeding her’ body’, she displays herself the way she wants by consuming education which amply possesses assigned cultural values (slater, 1997). the discourse of korea’s education is informed by ascribed cultural values, such as education substitutes class and education substitutes success. this is correspondent to the beliefs articulated among the sky castle residents, including han suhjin. they share similar values that with top-tier education, their children will be able to succeed in society, which in turn elevate their class. owning this commodity therefore grants her the power to participate in a certain imagined community. it means that by commoditizing education, she communicates more than who she is but also a social membership. it is a bestowment for her to participate in the community of affluent people in sky castle. in the context of the series, it is unpenetrable by those who do not possess the means which is promising education and have an elite background. this is evident by the unwelcoming reactions shown by the residents of sky castle after they figure out that she has been telling lies about her educational background. hence, han suhjin’s class, desire for success, and social membership are closely related to power, which is constructed in the story. han suhjin’s steadfastness in securing a seat for her daughter in snu by exhausting every possible means must not be misconstrued as a paltry wish to enroll in a reputable university. taking into account the vast array of accolades snu has, the university proffers prestige to whoever can afford its tuition and successfully enroll in its department amidst tough competition. this prestige is not a single entity, nor is it an adjunct entity; it conjoins itself with power. in this respect, ergo, through her daughter, exchanges this education with value-laden honor to be seen and respected in the community she participates in. furthermore, in a society where education performs as or constitutes the determiner of success, people with lower educational profiles have to toil to survive, and establishing the connection is rather onerous. materially advantaged families opt for better education based on dispositions that could lead to the maintenance of their position in the social totem pole or engender their upward mobility in society’s hierarchical structure. events dealing with her journey for betterment are informed by the notion, once again, of commodification. this socially and culturally situated commoditizing education process for personal use and pragmatic gains could serve as a site of struggle of ideologies. it implies that the contestation of multiple ideologies is made possible in this process. in han suhjin’s case, the ideologies of education constituting success and elitism are at play. the former is embodied in how she keeps instilling the idea that her daughter will not be able to succeed as a doctor if she does not become a student at snu. only by becoming a doctor at snu she will become a successful doctor like her predecessors. the ideology of elitism is also at work in how she believes that not being able to enroll into snu and becoming a doctor like her husband and father-in-law will put her daughter in disdain and does not describe the family lineage and her family’s economic background. to establish an image of an educated woman that fits into the high-class society, she also upskills herself with reading books written by great thinkers such as plato and nietzsche, as well as disguising herself as a graduate of a reputable overseas university. hence, the residents come to the full knowledge that she possesses academic excellence, so it is natural for her daughter to follow the same path. this impersonation is effectuated to render the aforementioned image. here, she exhibits her ‘performing self’. implied from the term is the idea that she wants to appeal to the residents by exposing her educational background and aspirations for making her daughter the same as her father and mother. ironically, the residents swallow this impersonation as truth, given her marriage with an acclaimed doctor from a wealthy family. what she publicly endorses becomes her credentials, and the residents do not question it until the truth comes across in a so-called wicked ‘symposium’ orchestrated under the pretext of discussing the residents’ disagreement on lee sueim’s wish to broadcast the death of lee myungjoo, which was caused by education obsession through literary means. worried that the world outside, sky castle might criticize the residents for their irrational obsession with education. she exploits this sentiment to choreograph a situation to humiliate lee sueim, whom she detests for not taking an extra mile for her son’s education. unfortunately, cornered by oppositions from the residents, lee sueim, who happens to be han suhjin’s childhood acquaintance, unconsciously reveals han suhjin’s background as a poor and not quite educated person. surprised by her husband’s indifference and unwillingness to defend her, she recites her origin loudly. upon hearing this sudden revelation, the residents show polarizing reactions, and han suhjin’s close friend, jin jinhee, starts questioning her for clarification. starting from this point, han suhjin’s image as an educated woman seems to have worn out. however, her aspiration to make her daughter succeed academically persists. here, a functionalist perspective that heeds the 156 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 151-159 pragmatic aspect of education, such as goldthorpe (2016), can best elaborate the situation. han suhjin’s situation is informed by his origin-educationdestination (oed) model, which consists of social origin, education, and social destination. in this view, education serves as a mediator between her origin as a low-class person and her destination of becoming a person with a desired constructed image within her current milieu. hence, education that mediates han suh-jin’s o and d endorses a meritocratic viewpoint, which particularly heeds the importance of self-driven purpose to succeed (shin, jahng, & kim, 2019). han suhjin is not the only character-focused in the series to portray a mother adopting the tiger parenting style. cha minhyuk is also another character worth examining. his intransigence about the kind of education his sons need to undergo and achieve is highlighted in the seventh episode of the series. he replies to his wife, who tries to negotiate with him about his sadistic approach to educating their children. he says that “even if my kids hate me and become revengeful, once they get into snu, i’m sure they will end up thanking me later in their lives.” his reply implies his greed for the intensive education that he requires from his sons, who are academically underperformers. his primary goal is to make sure that his sons’ grades would increase because he equates increasing grades with his families’ social position. that is why he would resort to explosive exasperation whenever he is informed about his son’s failure to achieve the targeted grades. for instance, unable to accept his oldest son’s failure in obtaining better grade, while pointing to a miniature of a pyramid, cha minhyuk scolds his oldest son, saying, “your grandfather who used to wash other people’s clothes all his life belonged … to the very bottom part of this pyramid. but i managed to pass the bar exam with the highest score and became a prosecutor. that’s how i climbed the social ladder up to this point (pointing at the middle part of the pyramid). i want to keep climbing the ladder to the very top, but my dream got ruined while helping my father-in-law. and that’s why i changed my goal. it doesn’t have to be me. my son will have to get to the top. i’ll make sure my son gets to the top.” (ep. 4) the excerpt shows how his desire to provide the best education for his sons and force them to be smart up despite their known academic shortfall is propelled by his personal failure. failing to achieve the best he thinks he is capable of, he keeps boosting his success academically and offers it as reasoning with his children. he believes that if he can succeed, his children could too. his egotism in being a prosecutor and professor in a university blinds him from comprehensively seeing the sons’ academic deficit and their real aspirations as adults. he does not realize that he has made his children subject to scorn and put them in disdain. besides, he also holds a sense of competition with han suhjin and her daughter, kang yesuh, who is academically excellent. whenever he finds out that kang yesuh surpasses his children at school, he would agonize and exercise his authoritarian parenting style towards his sons. he would bring them to a room where he can utilize total control and psychologically infuse them with the idea that ‘failure is not acceptable’ and ‘academic success equals to reaching the top’. these two salient ideas of his actions reside in his failure to become the best himself. unlike han suhjin who crafts her identity as an educated elite in front of the residents of sky castle and goes the whole nine yards with hiring a personal coach who does not only academically train her daughter but also kills kang yesuh’s competitor (ep. 15-16) and frames it on another innocent boy, and steals confidential exam papers as the coach has connections with the insiders. it proves han suhjin’s diffidence in her academic skills that she admits only in front of her daughter. cha minhyuk shows different qualities. he believes his academic background as a successful student and professor suffices in helping his sons advance towards acquiring academic mastery. he even says, “i’m sure i can do better than her [at teaching my sons] (referring to an examination coordinator)”. his decision can be read as his attempt to be the paragon for his children to gain inspiration. however, he fails to capture the essence of being academically supportive. the learning environment needs to be comfortable and supportive in order to create opportunities for better learning. if a learning environment appears to be intimidating and uncomfortable, the chance of bettering academically is low. it gives the sons’ attitude and personality that are poles apart from kang yesuh, han suhjin’s daughter. whenever he teaches his sons in the learning room, what the sons really feel is confinement and suffocation. hence, what remains from his cruel approach is resentment of his sons, wife, and daughter. in the middle of the series, his sons could hardly consider him a father. in the fourth episode, cha minhyuk is under the suggestion and proposal of his wife, noh seughye, to hire an examination coach for his sons. when the coach examines the learning environment in his house and evaluates him by saying, “you even soundproofed this room (referring to the learning room that is similar to a confinement)… mr. cha. this isn’t education. you’ve been rearing them like animals. haven’t you thought that this room could make your sons feel intimidated? feeling intimidated can significantly dampen brain cell activity. one’s ability to reason, understand, and think creatively can be used most effectively in an environment one can feel free. do you expect your sons to get good grades in this environment?” her evaluation of cha minhyuk’s provision for his sons’ education is critical because it highlights 157sky castle: consuming education .... (yuliyanto chandra) the degree of his approach’s cruelty. however, he refuses to subscribe to her evaluation, and instead, he eschews it. he would then maintain the room and keep intimidating his sons because of his fixation to create smart students who could reach the top of the contemporary korean social pyramid. however, his urge to have that kind of son is not for his sons’ prosperity, but he needs something to flaunt to the residents, something that people can admire him about. his desire to gain respect and admiration from others is also proven through his ‘gasconade’ about her daughter, who claims to be a harvard student. however, her daughter has been lying to him and her entire family about going to harvard because she wants to avoid her father’s dictatorship. not knowing anything about this, he keeps bragging about having a daughter studying at harvard university. his boasting is even made more possible whenever he meets the residents, mostly from educated and socially higher families. hence, his obsession over education here is not a mere obsession, but he considers by having children who excel in their studies like him, he has access to the community. he has the means to participate in social practices that are only made possible with education, which also defines his social position and identity. the cases of han suhjin and cha minhyuk as exemplary of tiger parents present more than an excessive obsession over education. it carries hedonistic essence if seen from the point of view of consumption. like previously nuanced, education in these two families can be understood as a commodity consumed for its performativity and pragmatic gains. contradictory to the marxist stance on consumption, which is heavily related to production, paterson (2006) focuses more on the ‘cultural forms and symbolic acts’. it is more suitable for analyzing this series that focuses on education as a cultural capital, which is translated into economic capital for its shifted value. as paterson (2006) highlights in his work, the processes and acts of consumption reveal the complexity of their engagement with ‘identity, status, aspirations, cultural capital, and position within a social group’. both han suhjin’s and cha minhyuk’s endeavors to educate and smarten their children, and their selfpresentation and projection as educated individuals are not separated from the identity they intend to project. for them, education is a means to sustain their identity as educated people and the elite. through education, people perceive this identity projection as it is. the interrelation between education and identity is complex in that both han suhjin and cha minhyuk project a certain kind of identity through consuming education based on their personal self-reflection. it makes them have to pay as a part of a wealthy family living in an extremely affluent resident and owning a membership to a coterie. han suhjin’s poverty-stricken background and cha minhyuk’s failure to reach the top trigger this behavior. hence, to assume an identity based on what an individual consumes is not a simple matter to deal with. at times, identity-based on consumptive behavior is not a matter of personal choice that could result in euphoric ambiance or exultation but a matter of choice precipitated by suppression or unfortunate causes. their situations also highlight what slater (1997) opines as a dependency of constructed identity on success and social survival. what can infer from slater’s argument is that the consumption of education for both han suhjin and cha minhyuk primarily denotes their attempt to become engaged with the social environment and obtain success and promising careers, as the education that they pursue their children provides them with cultural capital to reproduce class. hence, the idea of true identity can be concluded as a fallacy for it is socially constructed. their educationoriented behavior and consumption also bespeak their social group and their possession of cultural capital. with this possession of bourdieu’s notion of cultural capital, han suhjin and cha minhyuk are given the capacity to participate in a certain community. in this sense, their social mobility is ascertained. therefore, it corresponds to gabay-egozi & yaish’s (2019) research, which elaborates how social mobility is primarily linked to education. in her excellent work on examining the consumption of higher education, despite focusing on the discourse of higher education in the uk and us, williams’ (2012, in tsang, 2014) elaboration retains resonation with the underlying messages of this series. according to her, the shifting towards the instrumentalization of higher education has diverted the traditional value of education from ‘intellectualizing individual’ to ‘focusing on the instrumental outcomes’. the manifestation of such a phenomenon can be unearthed through the educational policies of universities and the promotion of academic courses as a vehicle to obtain jobs. this neoliberal approach has been institutionalized by many higher education institutions not only in the context of williams’ study but also across the globe, including those in korea. in that sense, it is safe to say that the unrestrained consumption of education of these two individuals seeking their children for pragmatic gains correspondent to the shifted value of education in the present epoch. the actions of these two characters analyzed above explicate how the instrumental aspects of education have become the major foci and nucleus of this series. equipping themselves is no longer for the sake of rudimentary inculcation of knowledge. instead, it has become a means of achieving a respected career similar to doctor and prosecutor prestige-wise. therefore, the function of education as a cultural capital has been transformed into economic capital. this transformation ensues due to the idea that the pursuit of top-tier education does not only guarantee cosmopolitan membership but also monetary benefits that come along with such pursuit. however, the researcher must argue that the series also imparts the integrative aspect of education. for han suhjin and cha minhyuk, being educated is not merely for the purpose of getting a job that people 158 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 151-159 look up to. it is also to integrate themselves into a community that shares similar values. in this circle, they become introjected, and they subscribe to the values shared. that is why han suhjin, for example, is willing to forfeit her morality by turning a blind eye on the examination coordinator that she hires and who kills another kid, who discovers the stolen exam paper in han suhjin’s house, and steals test paper. she is willing to do so because she needs a daughter who can excel academically, a daughter that can help her grasp the sense of belongingness to the sky castle, and gain respect from her respected mother-in-law. conclusions in korea, education has been perceived as a definite contributor to an individual’s success. the people’s zeal for obtaining the best education possible is primarily propelled by an ancient view derived from confucious. however, in contemporary korean society, the ardor towards education is rooted in the instrumentality of education. this finds support joanna williams’s explication that foregrounds the revolutionary social metamorphosis of education. unlike the traditional view that treats it as a means to gain knowledge, it has shifted towards a broader concept grounded in the sociopolitical slant. it is interesting that a satirical korean drama, sky castle, documents this phenomenon through the experiences of two parents. contextualized in korean society, the salient thematic aspect of this series resonates with the condition of china, and probably other parts of the world that have not been comprehensively explored, where tiger parents would struggle to foster their children with education and when the children do not fulfill the expectations, they are coerced to succeed. through the depiction of han suhjin and cha minhyuk, education can be rendered as a site of struggle between ideologies. first, it carries the ideology of education as a constitution of success, and second, it promotes the ideology of elitism. superficially, these two ideologies can be thought of as a dichotomy, but they bring a similar result that is consumption through commoditizing education. however, contestation of these two ideologies still ensues in the series. it is often on the blurred lines, whether their obsessive behavior towards exploiting education is merely for success or for gaining cosmopolitan membership. just like any other commodities, the value of education is an entity that is basically shaped by culture. it offers prestige for the pursuers to mingle with the coterie they aspire to be members of. in sky castle, the two characters above also experience mishaps, which lead them to become extra obsessive about education and value it more than other entities. they even disregard the psychological aspects of their children, a profound example of tiger parents, who shatter their morality only to gain access to top-tier education. as a commodity, the value of education is hardly decoded without personal experience. hence, it is crucial to scrutinize the inseparability of education as a commodity and personal experience. education’s value only becomes apparent when it is experienced, how this experiential aspect is embodied through a personal portfolio or declaration. it is an exciting inquiry when the extent to which education performs in societal practices is questioned. at times, education as a cultural goods is rarely questioned from the perspective of consumption. however, a more in-depth understanding of its values and functions for some circles of people in the society could shed light on the position of education in the consumer culture. references 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(2019). willingness to communicate in english of non-english major university students in indonesia. lingua cultura, 13(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5155 abstract this research was conducted to investigate the willingness to communicate (wtc) of indonesian learners of english as a second language (l2) at the university level. it was conducted based on several rationales. wtc in l2 was often regarded as the primary goal of language instructions, and there might be various factors influencing wtc in l2 and the two so-called strongest factors, namely learners’ perceived communication competence and communication apprehension, need to be investigated further to find out the degree to which they affected learners’ wtc. besides, indonesian learners’ low frequency of english use outside classroom contexts might lead them to be unwilling to make actual communication in english. through probability random sampling, a total of 276 non-english major university students participated in the study, the data of which were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, correlation and regression, in spss 21. this research finds that learners have reported a high level of wtc, their perceived communication competence is found to be a strong predictor of learners’ wtc, communication apprehension is found to be correlated with wtc in just a moderate level, and despite experts’ supports on the importance of wtc in l2 learning, it surprisingly cannot predict learners’ l2 achievement. keywords: willingness to communicate (wtc), perceived communication competence, communication apprehension, language achievement introduction the roles of learners’ individual differences (ids) in the second language (l2) learning has been acknowledged by many researchers, such as aydin (2009); baghaei and dourakhshan (2012); matsuoka et al. (2014); and ortega (2009). ids are individual learner’s characteristics which distinguish learners from one another and are believed to influence l2 learning (dornyei, 2005). these characteristics further explain why learners acquire an l2, in a broad sense, differently from one another (dornyei, 2005). ids influence the way learners learn and succeed in their l2 learning (alemi, tajeddin, & mesbah, 2013; dornyei, 2005) and they include a wide range of learners’ characteristics, including learning styles, language aptitude, anxiety, motivation, learning strategies, and willingness to communicate (wtc) (dornyei, 2005; ymeri, 2016). in relation to wtc, some experts have believed that learners’ wtc in l2 is mainly predicted by l2 communicative confidence (fadilah, 2018a; fallah, 2014). besides that, it is influenced by learners’ communication apprehension or anxiety and self-perceived communication competence, and to a lesser extent, by learners’ attitudes (baker & macintyre, 2000; ortega, 2009; yashima, 2002). ortega (2009), for example, they has mentioned that several pieces of research found the correlation between wtc in l2 and communicative confidence being in the range of 0,60 to 0,80 indicating a high positive association between the two variables. with regard to that, clement, baker, and macintyre (2003) have found that communicative confidence is closely related to anxiety that is an affective variable and self-perceived competence that is a cognitive self-evaluation variable. these aforementioned variables are related to frequency as well as the perceived quality of previous l2 contact in which both influence each other (clement, baker, macintyre, 2003). thus, it can be stated that both learners’ communication apprehension and self-perceived communication competence contributing to communicative confidence are greatly influenced by learners’ past experience, either positive or negative in using l2 (ortega, 2009). 56 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 furthermore, even though both self-perceived competence and communication apprehension are often considered the major antecedents of learners’ wtc in l2, these two a take different weight from each other in explanation (ortega, 2009). communication apprehension can better predict l2 confidence in contexts where l2 is used extensively (ortega, 2009), for example in a community where a language is used as a second language. the use of english in the indian context can be an example. self-perceived competence, in comparison, will be more predictive of l2 confidence than anxiety in contexts where l2 use is low such as in foreign language (fl) contexts (ortega, 2009; yashima, 2002). this idea is supported by the results of some empirical researches such as baker and macintyre (2000); yashima (2002). explaining the results of their empirical research in canada where french as l2 is used very extensively. baker and macintyre (2000) have stated that self-perceived competence has little effect on learners’ confidence as in general they have attained higher communicative competence and have been accustomed to successful previous experiences in l2 use. however, this context does demand learners to communicate much more complex ideas and entail higher stakes than in a context where l2 use is low. this situation can, in turn, instill anxiety (baker & macintyre, 2000). in comparison, in a context where l2 use is low, like the typical indonesian context, most learners are still developing their communicative competence and have little contact with l2 speakers or situations which compel them to use an l2. hence, the demand for communication is much less complex. in such a situation, learners in this context are likely to be concerned more about how well they believe they can communicate with their fairly limited abilities (baker & macintyre, 2000). this phenomenon may also extend to fl classroom settings because class activities often demand interactive communication, thus testing fl learners’ perceived communication competence (yashima, 2002). furthermore, many experts have asserted that wtc in l2 plays such a vital role in l2 learning. it has been mentioned as the most immediate determinant of l2 use (clement, baker, & macintyre, 2003) as well as the major cause of l2 learning (macintyre & doucette, 2010). wtc influences the success in l2 learning (baghaei & dourakhshan, 2012) and becomes the key component of l2 acquisition (kang, 2005). even macintyre et al. (1998) have firmly emphasized that it becomes the primary goal of language instruction. however, it is interesting that, “it is not uncommon to find people who tend to avoid entering l2 communication situations even if they possess a high level of communicative competence” (dornyei, 2005). in other words, learners with a high level of communicative competence do not always exhibit high wtc (peng, 2016). alemi, tajeddin, and mesbah (2013) have stated that this intricacy may contribute to wtc being one of the ids’ variables which have become the subject of thorough l2 research in the last two decades in various learning contexts. for examples are in canada (donovan & macintyre, 2009), in sweden (cao & philp, 2006), in kosovo (ymeri, 2016), in poland (baran-lucarz, 2014; mystkowska-wiertelak & pawlak, 2016), in turkey (oz, 2014, 2016; oz, demirezen, & pourfeiz, 2015), in iran (barjesteh, vaseghi, & neissi, 2012; gol, zand-moghadam, & karrabi, 2014; rastegar & karami, 2015; rostami, kashanian, & gholami, 2016; zarrinabadi & abdi, 2011), in korea (kang, 2005), and in japan (matsuka, 2004; osterman, 2014; watanabe, 2013). recent empirical researches in the field of wtc across various learning contexts yield various, and rich findings. in kosovo, for example, ymeri (2016) has found that learners’ proficiency has a notable effect on wtc in which proficient learners have a higher wtc than the less proficient counterparts. baran-lucarz’s (2014) research in poland has suggested that wtc is highly correlated with learners’ language anxiety. he has found that the more his student participants feel anxious about their pronunciation, the less wtc they have. barjesteh, vaseghi, and neissi’s (2012) research in iran, furthermore, have found that learners have a higher wtc in group discussion and meeting situations and among people they are already familiar with. this is in line with the results of cao and philp‘s (2006) research in the swedish context that learners tend to have more wtc with people they have known well. then, gol, zand-moghadam, and karrabi’s (2014) research in another iranian context has found that learners tend to have a higher wtc when their teachers demonstrate immediacy behaviors such as being friendly and creating the less-stressful learning environment. in the japanese context, matsuka (2004) has found that learners’ wtc could significantly predict their language achievement. next, through longitudinal research over a period of three years, watanabe (2013) has found that high school students seem to have the stagnant level of wtc with friends, acquaintances, and stagnantly low level of wtc with strangers. he concludes that the result may be attributed to wtc questionnaires he used, which may be more appropriate for english learners with much exposure to the language, unlike typical japanese learners who have limited contact with english. at the japanese university context, in comparison, osterman (2014) has found that even though positive previous experiences with english learning positively affected learners’ wtc, english grammar-based learning in japan is not really helping them in developing oral communication competency. he has also found that classroom environment greatly affects learners’ wtc and their interaction with other students. matsuoka et al. (2014) may offer an explanation of japanese students’ low wtc. they have found that japanese sociocultural norms impede spontaneous communication, which in turn, lower learners’ wtc in english. in the korean context, kang (2005) has mentioned that learners sharing the same first language (l1) with fellow classmates could at times be attributed to their reluctance in using english. furthermore, the recent empirical researches on wtc in english of the indonesian context have investigated both secondary school student participants (ningsih, narahara, & mulyono, 2018; sa’adah, nurkamto, & suparno, 2018) and university student participants (fadilah, 2018a; 2018b). ningsih, narahara, and mulyono (2018) have found that secondary school learners are more willing to communicate if they feel need to do so. participants in sa’adah, nurkamto, and suparno’s (2018) research hold the opinion that their teachers’ oral corrective feedback does not make them reluctant to speak. fadilah’s (2018a) research then has found that learners’ self-confidence affects university students’ wtc in the facebook communication context. despite the possibly useful results of these empirical researches in the indonesian context, there are still some aspects of wtc that need to be investigated further. for example, ningsih, narahara, and mulyono (2018) and 57willingness to communicate.... (adaninggar septi subekti) sa’adah, nurkamto, & suparno’s (2018) researches on indonesian secondary school learners’ wtc in english may not be indicative to the wtc of indonesian learners at university level despite their high reticence and hesitance in speaking (shao, yu, & ji, 2013; subekti, 2018b). fadilah’s (2018a) quantitative research on university student participants, whilst the results could possibly be generalized, investigated learners’ wtc by using facebook which mainly deal with written communication rather than wtc in a speaking environment and as such the results may not reflect their wtc in spoken english. in fact, in the indonesian context in which english is learned largely as an fl, the use of english is largely confined to english classes. outside classroom contexts, it is highly unlikely for these efl learners to communicate in english as the society largely use both indonesian language, which is the national language, and possibly region languages depending on the geographical areas (kirkpatrick, 2012). hence, kirkpatrick (2012) has argued that these learners may not see any necessity to communicate in english. the low frequency of english use in daily life might lead them to be hesitant to make actual communication in english even in english classes despite the importance of wtc in l2 learning. besides, today’s communicative teaching approaches which emphasize on meaningful communication, it might also give some kind of support to the idea that learners’ wtc and actual use of l2 should be the goal of l2 learning (alemi, tajeddin, & mesbah 2013), amplifying the importance of wtc even more. despite this importance, however, there may be many factors influencing learners’ wtc in l2, either positively or negatively. moreover, some of these factors need to be investigated further to find out the degree to which they actually affect learners’ wtc (baghaei & dourakhshan, 2012; cao, 2013). the results of the present research can benefit teachers, students, and researchers. the results can inform teachers on learners’ wtc level, factors being at play in learners’ wtc, and the effect of wtc on learners’ achievements, based on which they could modify and improve their teaching practices for better learning instructions. besides, considering that wtc researches in the indonesian context are still in need of research findings that can be generalized, for researchers in this field, the present research’s results can pave the way for further researches in the field of wtc in l2 in this context. with regard to the rationales, the present research seeks to answer four research questions. first, how is the english 2’s students’ level of wtc in l2? second, what are the relationship between their wtc in l2 and their perceived communication competence? third, what are the relationship between their wtc in l2 and their communication apprehension? also, fourth, to what extent does their wtc in l2 predict their l2 achievement? methods the present research employs a quantitative research design, conducting descriptive, correlation, and regression analyses using spss 21. with regard to the fact that empirical studies on wtc in l2 in the indonesian context are generally still very rare, the results of the quantitative analysis will provide insight and generalizable findings that can further pave the way for further research in the field in the context (basit, 2010). the use of quantitative method, furthermore, is also attributed to the popularity of this method in the field of wtc in which there have been numerous researches conducted in various contexts using this method (alemi, tajeddin, & mesbah, 2013; baghaei & dourakhshan, 2012; baran-lucarz, 2014; donovan & macintyre, 2009; gol, zand-moghadam, & karrabi, 2014; oz, 2016; rastegar & karami, 2015; yashima, 2002). in comparison, relatively few numbers of researches in wtc have been conducted using qualitative designs (cao & philp, 2006; macintyre, burns, & jessome, 2011; osterman, 2014), indicating that quantitative method is by far more popular than qualitative one in this field of research. the instruments of the research are the indonesian translation of the original english questionnaires which are the compilation of questionnaire items which have been used in numerous previous researches. one set of questionnaires, more precisely, consists of 15 items on wtc in l2, 15 items on self-perceived communication competence, and 15 items on communication apprehension. the 15 items on wtc in l2 are adapted from peng and woodrow’s (2010) research in the chinese context, and baghaei (2011)’s research in the iranian context. the 15 items on self-perceived communication competence are adapted from the works of peng and woodrow (2010) and matsuoka et al. (2014) in the japanese context. finally, the 15 items on communication apprehension are adapted from matsuoka et al.’s (2014) work and that of horwitz, horwitz, and cope (1986). that the questionnaire items are compiled from a number of items used in several previous researches that are based on the rationale of combining applicable and highly relevant questionnaire items into one set to best achieve the goals of the present research. to maintain the validity of the questionnaires, before the questionnaires are distributed to the participants, they are piloted by two non-english major students to ensure the accuracy, unambiguity, and simplicity of each of the item in relation with the purpose of the research (gray, 2014). based on their feedback, necessary revisions are made. furthermore, to respond to the questionnaire items on wtc in l2 and perceived communication competence, the participants are required to give the following possible answers: ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘disagree’, and ‘strongly disagree’. the option ‘neither agree nor disagree’ or ‘neutral’ that typically appears in the middle of those possible answers is purposely omitted because of, to the best of my knowledge, the tendency of many indonesian participants to give such response when feeling unsure. items associated with wtc in l2 and self-perceived communication competence are numerically scored: ‘strongly agree’ equal to 4, ‘agree’ equal to 3, ‘disagree’ equal to 2, and ‘strongly disagree’ equal to 1. as for the other items associated with communication apprehension, the responses are scored: 1 for ‘strongly agree’, 2 for ‘agree’, 3 for ‘disagree’, and 4 for ‘strongly disagree’. the scoring is based on the assumption that selfperceived communication competence would be in line with wtc in l2. thus the corresponding scoring and that communication apprehension may hinder wtc in l2 and increase un-wtc, thus the reverse scoring. the learner participants’ responses to the questionnaire items as well as the composite final grades that they obtained in the english 2 course are then recorded in spss 21. in order to answer the first research question on the level of wtc in l2, the researcher uses descriptive statistics, and the data are presented in the form of 58 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 percentages. to investigate the relationships between wtc in l2 and self-perceived communication competence, and between wtc in l2 and communication apprehension, bivariate correlation formula is conducted. then, the researcher conducts linear regression formula to find out the extent to which learners’ perceived communication competence and their communication apprehension could predict their wtc in l2, and the extent to which their wtc in l2 could predict their l2 achievement as measured by their final grades. the use of the students’ final grades as the measurement of l2 achievement is based on a sound reason. yashima (2012) has reminded that to achieve communicative functions should be the ultimate goal of l2 learning. this is in line with fallah’s (2014) idea that in today’s l2 education programs, learners’ achievement is assessed based on their ability to effectively communicate in l2. this goal, as far as english as foreign language (efl) learning contexts are concerned, can be measured with speaking performances in english classes. this is attributed to the fact that in such contexts as the typical indonesian context, it is highly unlikely for learners to have extensive actual l2 use outside english classes. hence, the use of the students’ final grades is based on the idea that english speaking grades in english classes can be treated as the closest resemblance to actual l2 use. in this context because, in speaking assessments, learners are normally required to demonstrate their competence in real-life tasks such as presentations, group discussions, and role-plays of daily activities. the research used probability random sampling relies on “taking a completely random sample of the population” (gray, 2014). this sampling method is used because it is believed that the population of this research is relatively homogenous in relation with the research questions (gray, 2014; walliman, 2011). as a result, a total of 276 students from the total number of 402 registered students of english 2 course at a university in yogyakarta, indonesia, participate in the present research. the other 126 students who do not participate in the research either dropped the class with their names still in the class’ database or they are absent when the questionnaires are distributed. all the class lecturers who administered the questionnaires are reported all attending students participated in the research. english 2 is a non-credited general english course that is taken by all non-english major students at the university. these students have to pass three levels of general english courses, namely english 1, english 2, and english 3, to be able to take credited courses on english for specific purposes in their respective faculties. of these three levels, english 2 course is selected because this course heavily focuses on speaking. it is in line with the aim of the present research in investigating learners’ wtc in l2, in comparison with english 1 that focuses on grammar and basic writing, and english 3 that focuses on reading. the access to the research, furthermore, is obtained from the director of the language centre of the university. the questionnaires are distributed during the period of two weeks (7 may 2018 – 18 may 2018) before the participants completed the english 2 course in the even semester of 2017. before completing the questionnaires and participating in the research, the participants are given time to read and understand the informed consent form on the first page of the questionnaires detailing the purpose of the research, their rights of voluntary participation, and confidentiality of the data (creswell, 2014; walliman, 2011). the class lecturers who distribute the questionnaires to the participants on my behalf are provided with written guidelines on no intervention, no coercion, as well as confidentiality. it is done in order to maintain both of the data’s reliability (bryman, 2012) and research ethics (creswell, 2014). all data reported are made anonymous (gray, 2014). results and discussions from the total of 276 university student participants, 113 participants are males (40,9%) and 163 are females (51,9%). the minimum age of the participants is 17, while the maximum is 24 (sd = 1,09). one hundred seventy-one participants (62%) indicate their willingness to participate in possible further research through interviews, which means a large number of participants show their enthusiasm in the present research. the other 105 participants (38%) have exercised their rights of voluntary participation, including the right not to participate (gray, 2014) by stating their refusal to be invited for possible follow-up research. the 15 questionnaire items on wtc in l2 have 0,85 cronbach’s alpha coefficient. that the cronbach’s alpha coefficient is close to one (1) indicated that the questionnaire items have high internal reliability. in relation with the first research question on the english 2’s students’ level of wtc in l2, the mean score of the 15 item questionnaire on wtc in l2 is 44,68 (sd = 4,69). the complete results of the participants’ responses could be observed in appendix 1. as could be seen in appendix 1, the participants’ responses, in general, tended to be in either ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ alternative, which indicates that the participants generally have the high level of wtc in l2. however, as could be observed in table 1, some items, item number 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15, yield mean scores lower than 3,0, which indicate that the participants tend to have less wtc in the respective items. table 1 the means of participants’ responses on questionnaire items on wtc in l2 item number means 1 3,15 2 3,16 3 3,13 4 3,04 5 3,24 6 3,12 7 2,84 8 3,10 9 3,02 10 2,55 11 3,09 12 2,36 13 2,68 14 2,86 15 2,58 first, item number 7, “i am willing to talk and express my opinions in english in the class when all my classmates are listening to me” yields a mean score of 2,84 in which 27,9% participants indicate their un-wtc. 59willingness to communicate.... (adaninggar septi subekti) it may indicate that learners are more self-conscious and thus have a lower wtc when they know that they are in the spotlight when speaking in class. subekti (2018a; 2018b) has also found that learners’ being self-conscious when speaking is attributed to their hesitation in speaking in class. subekti (2018a) has further stated that this might happen due to learners’ perceived insufficient ability to express their ideas in l2, english in this context. besides, such a public speaking situation in which learners are placed in a spotlight has been acknowledged as one major source of speaking anxiety hindering learners from communicating in l2 (subekti, 2018b). second, item number 10, “in group work activities in the class when the group is not composed of my friends i am willing to speak in english” produces the mean score of 2,55. 46,4% of the participants either disagree or strongly disagree with the statement. this indicates that learners tend to be more willing to communicate in groups when they are familiar with the group mates and vice versa if the groups are composed of students who are not familiar with each other, they tend to have less wtc. this result exactly matches with the result of barjesteh, vaseghi, and neissi’s (2012) research in the iranian context and cao and philp’s (2006) research in the swedish context which may be quite different from the indonesian context. these two pieces of research have found that familiarity with the interlocutors or addressees influenced learners’ wtc in l2. the student participants in their researches have reported that they prefer interacting with their friends compare to classmates they are not close to (barjesteh, vaseghi, and neissi’s 2012; cao & philp, 2006). based on this same result of three pieces of research conducted in three different contexts, it could be stated that many learners have the tendency to have a greater wtc in l2 when they are communicating with people they already know. third, the mean score of item number 12, “i am willing to speak without preparation in class” is the lowest mean score across all items on the wtc questionnaire at 2,36, in which 60,9% of the participants indicate their disagreement to the statement. the result could be indicative of learners’ apprehension in communicating in l2 without prior preparation. in regard to this specific finding, learners’ perceived communication competence may play a role. learners may feel unsure whether or not they are capable of speaking in l2 spontaneously. this result is in line with kang’s (2005) research which also reports that the participants need to feel secure, including feeling secured with their own perceived competence, in order to have a high wtc in l2. the next is item number 13, “i am willing to tell my group mates in english about things i do in my free time,” which has the mean score of 2,68. 34,8% of the participants indicate their un-wtc through their disagreement with the statement. interestingly, this result could be interpreted in some different ways. first, this result could indicate that learners may feel they could not sufficiently explain their free time which may include doing various activities hard to explain in l2. second, this result could also indicate that learners may not be so willing to talk about their free time in l2. it is because they simply feel more comfortable talking about such topics in a language with whom they feel more proficient their l1, with their fellow l1 speakers or their classmates. this result also resembles a result of kang’s (2005) research in the korean context in which some participants report their reluctance to speak in l2 in groups consisting of fellow speakers of korean language, their l1. one participant in the research has even stated, “i feel like i’m wearing a mask” (kang, 2005), indicating that this participant thinks it is unnatural to speak in l2 with friends who share the same l1. furthermore, item number 14, “i am willing to give a short impromptu speech to my class” also produces a low mean score of 2,86, in which 22,1% of the participants indicate their disagreement to the statement. this result may resemble that of item number 12 as both deals with learners’ preparation. this is indicative of learners’ tendency to be more willing to communicate when they are given some preparation time and their tendency to be unwilling to communicate when they are asked to speak without any preparation. finally, 44,6% participants disagree to item number 15, “i am willing to lead the discussion,” which then produce a low mean score of 2,58. this result may parallel to that of item number 7 in which in both cases, learners tend to be less willing to communicate when they are in the center of attention. leading discussions in item number 15, for instance, would likely put learners into the spotlight within their groups in which everybody would likely pay attention to their speaking. even though speaking in small groups is thought to be less anxiety-provoking and thus be able to increase learners’ wtc in l2 (cao & philp, 2006; subekti, 2018a). matsuoka et al. (2014) have mentioned that sometimes even diligent students who are excessively conscious of errors tend to become less willing to communicate in english and thus keep silent because they want to avoid embarrassment if they make errors when communicating. furthermore, with regard to the second research question on the relationship between learners’ wtc in l2 and their perceived communication competence, the results of the correlation formula between learners’ wtc and their perceived communication competence could be observed in table 2. additionally, the mean score of 15 items questionnaire on learners’ perceived communication competence in l2 is 41,34 (sd = 5,46). these items have 0,87 cronbach’s alpha coefficient indicating high internal reliability. the detailed results of the participants’ responses to these questionnaire items would not be commented further as this research merely focuses on the components of wtc in l2. however, the complete results could be observed in appendix 2. table 2 correlation between learners’ wtc in l2 and their perceived communication competence learners’ perceived communication competence learners’ wtc in l2 pearson correlation 0,645** sig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 276 **. correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed). in regard to the results shown in table 2, some points could be commented on. firstly, the research has found a significant positive relationship between the participants’ wtc and their perceived communication competence. the correlation was strong, r (274) = 0,65, p < 0,01. this indicates that the higher the learners’ perceived communication competence, the higher their wtc in l2 tends to be. in other words, if learners consider themselves 60 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 capable of communicating in l2, they would likely be more willing to communicate in l2. the same result is also obtained by yashima (2002) and ymeri (2016) who have found that a higher level of the japanese learners’ selfperceived competence is associated with a higher level of their wtc in l2. this result also becomes the confirmation that wtc in l2 is enhanced as learners see themselves as able communicators (modirkhameneh & firouzmand, 2014; ymeri, 2016). moreover, the perceived competence becomes a key variable which affects wtc in l2 (matsuoka et al., 2014; rostami kashanian, & gholami, 2016). furthermore, to see the predictive strength of learners’ perceived communication competence towards their wtc in l2, the regression formula is conducted, and the result could be observed in table 3. table 3 regression results with learners perceived communication competence as the independent variable r r square adjusted r square 0,645a 0,416 0,414 a. predictors: (constant), learners’ perceived communication competence as could be seen in table 3, learners’ perceived communication competence could predict 41,6% of the variance of their wtc in l2, which suggests that this factor could strongly predict learners’ wtc in l2. this result is consistent with macintyre et al.’s (1998); baker and macintyre’s (2000) idea that perceived communication competence is a strong predictor of learners’ wtc in l2. besides, in an fl context like the indonesian context in which many learners relatively have limited l2 communicative competence and are still developing it in such limited exposure to l2. learners’ belief about their capability of communicating in l2 plays a larger role in influencing learners’ confidence to communicate in l2 (baker & macintyre, 2000; ortega, 2009; yashima, 2002). related to the third research question on the relationship between learners’ wtc in l2 and their communication apprehension, the result can be observed in table 4. the mean score of the 15 items questionnaire on learners’ communication apprehension was 33,72 (sd = 7,27). these items have 0,92 cronbach’s alpha coefficient indicating high internal reliability. the detailed results in each of the item could be observed in appendix 3. table 4 correlation between learners’ wtc in l2 and their communication apprehension learners’ communication apprehension learners’ wtc in l2 pearson correlation -0,374** sig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 276 **. correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed). as observed in table 4, learners’ wtc in l2 significantly correlates with their communication apprehension negatively, r (274) = -0,37, p < 0,01. the strength of the correlation is at a moderate level. this result is consistent with the idea of modirkhameneh and firouzmand (2014) who held that as learners’ communication apprehension is lowered, their wtc will increase. furthermore, the predictive strength of learners’ communication apprehension towards their wtc in l2 can be seen in table 5. table 5 regression results with learners’ communication apprehension as the independent variable r r square adjusted r square -0,374a 0,140 0,137 a. predictors: (constant), learners’ communication apprehension the result of the regression formula shown in table 5 in which learners’ communication apprehension could only predict 14% of the variance of un-wtc in l2 is rather surprising as it is contradictory to the idea of some authorities in wtc research. this result is slightly denied, even though not being totally contradictory to matsuoka et al. (2014), and oz, demirezen, and pourfeiz (2015). they have asserted that communication apprehension is one of the strongest and most reliable causes of un-wtc in l2 and the idea of baker and macintyre (2000) that communication apprehension is one key antecedent and one of the best predictors of wtc in a negative way (un-wtc). the result further has also contradicted the results of some previous researches which have found that learners’ communication apprehension becomes one of the strongest factors in reducing learners’ wtc in l2 (matsuoka et al., 2014; oz, demirezen, & pourfeiz, 2015). with regard to this, there may be some explanations why this rather surprising finding emerged. first, in an fl context, like in the present research, communication apprehension cannot predict learners’ wtc in l2 as strongly as learners’ perceived communication competence because learners’ belief of their capability in communicating in l2 will likely improve their l2 confidence more than their apprehension will likely decrease it (ortega, 2009; yashima, 2002). besides, in this context, many other factors, such as learners’ personality, cultural diversity (fadilah, 2018b; oz, demirezen, & pourfeiz, 2015), classroom environment (fadilah, 2018b; peng & woodrow, 2010), age and gender (donovan & macintyre, 2009) may have played in predicting the participants’ wtc in l2. furthermore, the linear regression formula in spss 21 is performed to answer the fourth research question on the extent to which learners’ wtc in l2 could predict their l2 achievement as measured with their composite final grades. with learners’ grades as the dependent variable, in which the minimum is 36,75, while the maximum is 90 (m = 74,22, sd = 8,95), and learners’ wtc in l2 as the independent variable, the regression result could be seen in table 6. as seen in table 6, the formula produced r2 of 0,005, which indicates that learners’ wtc in l2 could predict only 0,5% of their l2 achievement as measured with their grades. simply put, other variables make up the other 99,5%, which are not included in the regression formula. considering this very small percentage of predictive strength of learners’ wtc in l2, it is perhaps very safe to state that in the present research, the learner participants’ wtc in l2 does not affect 61willingness to communicate.... (adaninggar septi subekti) their grades. interestingly, this result has contradicted the result of matsuka’s (2004) research in a nursing college in japan. it is found that the participants’ wtc in l2 significantly predicts their language achievement. table 6 regression results with learners’ wtc in l2 as the independent variable r r square adjusted r square 0,070a 0,005 0,001 a. predictors: (constant), learners’ wtc in l2 concerning this another surprising result; some points could be pointed out. first, the self-report questionnaire inherently carries the consequence that the participants’ responses are based on what they do or what they believe rather than what they actually do. hence, it is possible that the participants, despite reporting a relatively high wtc in l2, may not actually have this high level of wtc in l2 at the class. secondly, as pictured in macintyre et al.’s (1998) pyramid model of wtc in l2, it could not be treated as the actual use of l2 as it is merely the antecedent of it (macintyre et al., 1998). the actual use of l2 is placed at the top of the pyramid while wtc in l2 is situated as its immediate antecedent. hence, it is persuasive to state that this antecedent, despite being very potential to be translated into actual l2 use (oz, 2016), is not always translated into actual use of l2. to put it in another way, learners’ wtc in l2 is perhaps only indirectly related to their l2 achievement measured with grades, which may be more closely related to several more immediate factors such as their preparation before the speaking assessments and test anxiety (aydin, 2009). finally, to summarise, the present research has found several important findings. first, in general, learners report a high wtc in l2 in english 2 class. in more detailed, however, learners report that they are less willing to communicate some typical situations that are replicating the findings of several previous pieces of research. these are when they have more addressees or interlocutors (kang, 2005), when they are not familiar with the interlocutors (barjesteh, vaseghi, & neissi, 2012; cao & philp, 2006), and when they are asked to speak without any preparation (kang, 2005). secondly, this research confirms many experts’ idea that learners’ perceived communication competence is strongly related to their wtc (baker & macintyre, 2000; clement, baker & macintyre, 2003; ortega, 2009; yashima, 2002). it could be seen from the statistically significant, strong correlation between the two components and from the finding that their perceived communication competence could predict 41,6% of the variance in their wtc. third, this research also confirms that learners’ communication apprehension is related to their wtc. however, it slightly diverges from many experts’ statement that communication apprehension is a strong predictor of wtc in a negative way (matsuoka et al., 2014; modirkhameneh & firouzmand, 2014; oz, demirezen, & pourfeiz, 2015). this research has found that it is negatively correlated with learners’ wtc only at a moderate level, with very weak prediction strength of 14%. finally, despite many experts’ support on wtc in l2 as an indicator of successful l2 learning, this research has found that learners’ wtc in l2 could only predict 0,5% of the variance in learners’ achievement. this seemingly surprising result may be attributed to the possibility that despite the importance of wtc for successful l2 learning, it is only indirectly related to l2 achievement measured with their grades in the class. conclusions the results of this research have several implications in regard to english as l2 learning. first, english teachers should provide more situations or factors facilitating learners as much as possible to increase their wtc, for examples, by asking learners to have small group discussions rather than a whole class discussion and by giving them preparation time before they speak. furthermore, considering that learners’ perceived communication competence becomes a strong predictor of learners’ wtc, it is suggested that teachers design activities in such a way that they can build a sense of achievement among learners, and thus increase their perceived competence. as they have been capable of envisioning themselves as capable l2 communicators, they will likely be more willing to communicate, leading to actual l2 use and improved proficiency. the present research, despite revealing several useful findings, also has several limitations. firstly, questionnaires distributed to participants at one particular point may not be able to capture learners’ dynamic wtc throughout the semester. also, self-reported questionnaires inherently bring a consequence that the data obtained depend on the participants’ reports despite the possible inaccuracies. for example, they may have reported their wtc in the questionnaire, but in the real classroom situations, this willingness is not manifested in actual l2 use. the next is related to the extent to which grades really reflect learners’ actual ability to communicate. the use of learners’ grades to represent their l2 achievement, despite logical and understandable, may inherently be responsible for the result suggesting the minimal effect of learners’ wtc in l2 towards their l2 achievement. l2 achievement in this research is ‘confined’ to academic achievement in the form of grades, which may not really reflect their actual proficiency in communicating in l2. finally, even though the findings of this research could be generalized, they should be seen within the context of participants of this research, indonesian undergraduate university students taking general english classes. this research’s results, for example, may not be generalized to the population of indonesian students from english departments or indonesian students from lower educational levels. the results of the present research may suggest the pattern and, at the same time, the complexity and dynamicity of wtc construct. interplays of psychological, linguistic, educational, and communicative dimensions of language may affect a person’s wtc. as might be intuitively expected, learners’ perceived communication competence could strongly predict their wtc and their communication apprehension is found to be moderately correlated with their wtc. however, despite many experts’ reiterated idea on the importance of wtc in l2 learning, this research has surprisingly found that wtc could not predict learners’ l2 achievement. while this result clearly suggested wtc is not predictive to learners’ grades, at least as the results of this research are concerned, it may also suggest that learning environment, not captured in the statistical formula, plays an important part in affecting wtc – learners’ grades relationship. teachers’ possible differing 62 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 standards in grading learners’ speaking performances, for example, can affect the validity of learners’ grades in reflecting learners’ real ability to communicate. that is to say, researchers intending to investigate wtc – l2 proficiency may need to focus their attention to investigate the extent to which learners’ wtc can predict their actual observable proficiency rather than their readily used grades in english class. finally, several directions for future researches can be suggested. the first is to investigate factors contributing to wtc in l2 using qualitative methods like interviews, focus groups, and observations. the use of the qualitative method is intended to investigate the wtc phenomenon indepth with a small number of selected participants in which ‘truths’ about wtc from the participants’ perspectives can be obtained. the use of qualitative methods is an acknowledgment that wtc in l2 is such a complex and dynamic construct that can change and fluctuate across time depending on learners’ increased proficiency and wider communication experiences in l2. even though unlike quantitative methods, qualitative methods are rarely used in the field of wtc researches, they may offer a new insight from the participants’ experiences in regard to the wtc phenomenon. for example, instead of treating learners’ grades as l2 achievement and conducting statistical formula, future research can use the combination of the participants’ journals, interviews, and observation to investigate the dynamics of wtc and how it fluctuates across time. references alemi, m., tajeddin, z., & mesbah, z. 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(2011). willingness to communicate and language learning orientations in iranian efl context. international education studies, 4(4), 206–214. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies. v4n4p206. 64 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 appendx appendix 1 questionnaire items on wtc in l2 with percentages of participants selecting each alternative strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree 1. i am willing to present arguments to the rest of my class. 18,8* 77,2 4 0 2. i am willing to give a presentation in front of the class. 21,4 73,6 5,1 0 3. i am willing to do a role-play in a small group. 19,9 73,6 6,5 0 4. i am willing to do a role-play in a pair. 17,8 68,5 13,8 0 5. i am willing to take part in a discussion in a small group. 28,3 67 4,7 0 6. i am willing to take part in a discussion in a pair. 20,7 71 8 0,4 7. i am willing to talk and express my opinions in english in the class when all my classmates are listening to me. 12,3 59,8 27,2 0,7 8. i am willing to have pair and group activities in the class so that i can talk in english with my classmates. 20,3 69,9 9,1 0,7 9. in group work activities in the class when the group is composed of my friends i am willing to speak in english. 17,4 68,1 13,8 0,7 10. in group work activities in the class when the group is not composed of my friends i am willing to speak in english. 4 49,6 43,5 2,9 11. i am willing to respond when the teacher asks me a question in english. 18,9 72,4 8 0,7 12. i am willing to speak without preparation in class. 5,1 34,1 52,2 8,7 13. i am willing to tell my group mates in english about things i do in my free time. 5,1 60,1 33 1,8 14. i am willing to give a short impromptu speech to my class. 9,4 68,5 21 1,1 15. i am willing to lead the discussion. 6,2 49,3 41,3 3,3 * percentages may not add to 100 due to their being rounded up to the nearest whole number. 65willingness to communicate.... (adaninggar septi subekti) appendix 2 questionnaire items on learners’ perceived l2 competence with percentages of participants selecting each alternative strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree 1. i am able to give my peer sitting next to me directions to my favourite restaurant in english. 7,2* 71 21 0,7 2. i am able to translate a spoken utterance from indonesian into english in my group. 4,3 54,7 39,9 1,1 3. i am able to do a role-play standing in front of the class in english (e.g., ordering food in a restaurant). 4,7 55,1 39,1 1,1 4. i am able to give a short self-introduction without notes in english. 24,6 68,1 6,9 0,4 5. i feel i can speak english less painfully. 6,9 44,6 44,2 4,3 6. i am sure i can manage to make myself understood in english. 4,3 51,4 42 2,2 7. i know i can manage to speak english using words i know even if it is not correct. 17,8 71 10,1 1,1 8. i am able to speak without being nervous. 4,3 33 55,8 6,9 9. i am alright in speaking english in the class of this size. 5,4 56,5 37 1,1 10. i could speak english in public. i can do it 8 40,2 47,8 4 11. i feel more comfortable in speaking english in public. 5,4 21,7 67,4 5,4 12. i can speak english more fluently than before. 9,1 62,3 26,4 2,2 13. i feel i am a sort of good at english 10,1 64,1 24,6 1,1 14. i know i can speak english if i prepare for speech well. 38,4 57,6 3,3 0,7 15. i can manage to make a speech if i prepare the draft. 25,7 60,9 12,3 1,1 * percentages may not add to 100 due to their being rounded up to the nearest whole number. 66 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 55-66 appendix 3 questionnaire items on learners’ communication apprehension with percentages of participants selecting each alternative strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree 1. i felt tense in presentation. 22,5* 60,9 15,6 1,1 2. even now i feel traumatic about my failure in presentation. 6,5 26,1 54,7 12,7 3. i feel worried that i might use strange english. 17,4 58,3 22,8 1,4 4. realizing my english is poor, it became hard to speak it and i lost my confidence. 15,9 47,1 33,7 3,3 5. i feel embarrassed in speaking in public. 10,5 52,2 33,7 3,6 6. i feel a little nervous if my english is wrong when speaking in public. 18,5 67,4 13 1,1 7. no matter how many times i may make a speech, i feel tense. 17 53,6 26,1 3,3 8. i never feel quite sure of myself when i am speaking in my english class. 10,1 56,2 33 0,7 9. it frightens me when i don’t understand what the teacher is saying in english. 16,3 55,1 26,1 2,5 10. i start to panic when i have to speak without preparation in english class. 20,7 46 30,1 3,3 11. i feel very self-conscious about speaking english in front of other students. 14,5 57,2 26,4 1,8 12. i get nervous and confused when i am speaking in my english class. 8 51,4 38,4 2,2 13. i get nervous when i don’t understand every word the language teacher says. 10,9 50 36,6 2,5 14. i feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak english. 11,6 37,7 46 4,7 15. i tremble when i know that i’m going to be called on in english class. 10,9 36,2 47,1 5,8 * percentages may not add to 100 due to their being rounded up to the nearest whole number. vol. 12 no.4 november 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been acredited by dikti under the decree number 51/e/kpt/2017 and indexed in crossref, microsoft academic search, google scholar, indonesian publication index (ipi), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index (sinta), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents indrya mulyaningsih; sarwiji suwandi; budhi setiawan; mohammad rohmadi parmi (production, attention, retention, motivation, and innovation): an alternative to improving scientific writing skills ............................................................................ 317-321 lewinna christiani aguskin; maryani exploring the international students’ perceptions of the indonesian teaching materials to enhance their willingness to communicate .................................................................................. 323-331 sri wuli fitriati; yuni awalaturrohmah solihah; tusino expressions of attitudes in students’ narrative writing: an appraisal analysis ............................................ 333-338 riza weganofa; rizky lutviana the correlation between internet literacy and passive vocabulary size ................................................... 339-343 citra suryanovika; novita julhijah directive speech acts and hedges presented by female main characters of jane austen’s novels ..................... 345-350 abdullah syarofi; deny kuswahono; hendi rizky implementing process writing strategy using weblogs to improve students’ ability in writing descriptive text ..... 351-355 reni kusumaningputri; tri ayu ningsih; wisasongko second language writing anxiety of indonesian efl students ................................................................ 357-362 linda unsriana; rosita ningrum the character formation of children in japan: a study of japanese children textbook on moral education (doutoku) ...................................................... 363-367 udiana puspa dewi; criscentia jessica setiadi language attitude and language choice in bilingual academic learning environment ................................... 369-373 arifah tenny romdhati; mangatur nababan; riyadi santosa translation techniques and their impacts to the modality orientation’s shift in the jungle book movie subtitle ................................................................................................. 375-381 fallianda; rani yuni astiti; zulvy alivia hanim analyzing humor in newspaper comic strips using verbal-visual analysis .................................................. 383-388 hestiyani parai; endry boeriswati; miftahulkhaira anwar the form of arguments using argument reconstruction in online media articles ......................................... 389-394 muhammad ali ghufron; fathia rosyida the role of grammarly in assessing english as a foreign language (efl) writing ......................................... 395-403 nidya indrilla the effectiveness of scientific approach and contextual teaching and learning approach in teaching writing ..... 405-413 burwan tilusubya; mangatur nababan; riyadi santosa translation analysis of circumstances in the gospel of matthew chapter 12 through 14 from english into indonesian........................................................................................................ 415-421 index ................................................................................................................................... 423-430 vol. 12 no.4 november 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 217 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 217-221 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5840 students’ errors in using the simple present tense at polytechnic ati padang silvia indriani english education section, language education program, faculty of language and art, padang state university jl. prof. dr. hamka, padang, sumatera barat 25171, indonesia silviaindriani2404@gmail.com received: 30th july 2019/revised: 21st august 2019/accepted: 26th august 2019 how to cite: indriani, s. (2019). students’ errors in using the simple present tense at polytechnic ati padang. lingua cultura, 13(3), 217-221. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5840 abstract the research aimed at analyzing the errors in using simple present tense at logistics management of agro-industry of polytechnic ati padang. a qualitative method with descriptive approach was applied. the samples were 15% of 153 total students or 23 students. data were collected through the writing test; namely, descriptive essay. the results show that many students commit errors in using the simple present tense. the errors are classified into four types: omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. there are 107 errors with the highest number that is omission (61 errors or 57%). misinformation is in second place with 29 errors (27,1%). the error of addition gains 11,2 % with 12 errors. the lowest error is misordering, which gains 4,7% with only five errors. in conclusion, the most dominant error made by the students is omission with 57% and misordering is the lowest one with 4,7%. therefore, the lecturers are expected to improve the teaching strategies in teaching simple present tense to reduce the numbers of students’ errors. keywords: error analysis, students` error, simple present tense introduction as one of the international languages, english has very important roles. it is used as a tool of communication among people all over the world. it is also widely studied and becomes one of the important subjects taught at school. in indonesia, english is considered as one of the foreign languages and becomes a compulsory subject which is learned by the students from junior high school level up to college level. the government realizes that english is very important to support the development of competencies of students in this globalization era. polytechnic ati padang as a vocational college focusing on the industry also provides english subjects to their students. english subject is taught to the first-year students at logistics management of agroindustry (mlia) department of polytechnic ati padang and is given in the form of theory and practice. the students have been studying english since junior high school level, and some have even studying it since kindergarten. based on this fact, it is shown that students had studied english before they entered college. they have learned english for six years on average. the length of a person learning english does not guarantee he/she can use english correctly. even though they have studied english for a long time, they still have difficulties with grammar. the grammar that takes a significant role in english skills provides information beneficial to the learner’s comprehension (zuhriyah, 2017). however, most students, especially at logistics management of agro-industry (mlia) department of polytechnic ati padang, still have difficulties in understanding grammar. this will result in students experiencing difficulties in understanding other scientific books or references written in english. one of the difficulties experienced by the students is in understanding and using tenses. tenses are one of many aspects discussed in english grammar. they play a crucial role in the english language. by understanding tenses, students can find out when the time of an event occurred, whether in the past (past tense), ongoing (continuous), or in the future (future tense). learning english is started with learning tenses. one of the basic tenses that are learned by the students is simple present tense. the simple present tense is used to express activities carried out routinely, state general facts, and state daily habits (azar & hagen, 2017). the examples of using the simple present tense in a sentence are “i get up at seven every morning” and “the world is round”. as a person who comes from a country that does not speak english, it is natural for a student to make mistakes in tenses, especially simple present tense. based on the researcher’s experience, there are many students who committed errors in using the simple present tense. this error is often found in their tasks. the example is “i am go to school”. there is an error in that sentence; the correct one is “i go to school”. another example is “she 218 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 217-221 take a bus to school every day”. the correct sentence is “she takes a bus to school every day”. one of the reasons for this error is because in the indonesian language the verb does not change even though the subject and adverb are changed, nevertheless, in english, the verb will change based on the changing of subject and adverb especially in the simple present tense. thus, those examples are evidence that the students do not understand the rules and the usage of the simple present tense. english teachers must be aware of this and take steps to avoid these errors. one strategy that can be used is by analyzing errors in using the tenses made by students. several researchers have conducted research dealing with errors in using tenses. first, abdullah (2013) has conducted research seeking errors committed by tesl college students in using the simple present tense and simple past tense in writing essays. the findings indicate that many students commit errors involving grammatical items, such as subject-verb agreement, tenses, parts of speech, and vocabularies. types of errors committed by the students with regard to error analysis method are due to omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. next, silalahi (2014) has conducted research seeking error on sentence writing assignments by first-year students in an it university. it reveals that the errors found are classified into 24 types, and the top ten most common errors committed by the students are article, preposition, spelling, word choice, subject-verb agreement, auxiliary verb, plural form, verb form, capital letter, and meaningless sentences. then, kusumawardhani (2016) has studied the errors which have been made by the learners in their english narrative composition. the errors that have been found in the compositions are 30 items or 15% for errors of selection, 25 items or 12,5% for errors of ordering, 115 items or 57,5% for errors of omission, and 30 items or 15% for errors of addition. finally, kalee, rasyid, and muliastuti (2018) have conducted research seeking students’ error on the use of letters in indonesian papers written by thai students. it reveals that the highest frequency of errors is capital letters with 48%. although there are several pieces of research, have been reported on the students’ error in using tenses, but there is a few information about the error committed by vocational college students. therefore, this research attempts to investigate the students’ error in using simple present tense at logistics management of agro-industry (mlia) department of polytechnic ati padang. besides that, this research is expected to provide information to english teachers about the types of errors made by the students so that it can be used to improve material and give feedback to the teachers in teaching simple present tense in the future. in learning a language, it is common for students to make a mistake and error because learning a foreign language is considered different from learning the first language. error making is a natural phenomenon in learning, and it has pedagogical implication (robinson in katiya, mtonjeni, & sefalane-nkohla, 2015). thus, the error is proof that the student is learning, and committing error is a common thing in the learning process. the research of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. error analysis (ea) is an important topic in the second language (l2) acquisition and a hot research issue in recent years (wedell & liu in cheng, 2015). there are some definitions of error analysis. first, james (2013) has described that error analysis is the process of determining the incidence, nature, causes, and consequences of unsuccessful language. such analysis informs learners’ errors, and thereby, notifies the competence learners attained (sinha in karim et al., 2018). in addition, richards and schmidt in napitupulu (2017) have defined error analysis as a technique for identifying, classifying, systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms of a language in the production data of someone learning either a second or foreign language. this analysis is absolutely needed to be the basis for providing feedback to the students. al-haysoni in mohammed and abdalhussein (2015) has argued that researchers in the area of ea are making advantages with their studies’ outcome toward learners and teachers at the same time. it is because their studies provide vital information to the teachers on their students’ error so they could correct these errors and improve their teaching methods by focusing on these areas of deficiency among students. moreover, hasyim in al-ghabra and najim (2019) has explained the importance of error analysis to both learners and teachers. he has said that with error analysis, learners could know the difficulty that they face in grammar, and teachers could know if they are successful in teaching the material in question. in sum, error analysis is a process based on the analysis of learner’s errors in their process of language learning. according to james (2013), there are six steps in doing error analysis. the first is error detection. in error detection, no more than a reasonably firm yes/no decision is called for. it is using the sentence as the unit of analysis and asking the informants to report their intuition. the second is locating errors. error location is not always so straightforward, and not all errors are easily localizable in this way. some are diffused throughout the sentence or larger unit of text that contain global errors. the third is describing errors. the system used for a description of learner’s errors must be one having two essential characteristics. at first, the system must be well-developed and highly elaborated because many errors made by beginners are remarkably complex. the fourth is error classification that not only entries on the grammatical categories but also a lexical category. the fifth is error taxonomies or collections error taxonomies. taxonomy must be organized according to certain constitutive criteria. dulay, burt, and krashen in james (2013) have suggested the surface structure taxonomy. the surface strategy elements of a language are altered in specific and systematic ways. among the common errors are omission errors, addition errors, misformation error, and misordering errors. omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance. language learners omit grammatical morphemes much more frequently than content words, e.g. “english use many countries”. it must be “english is used by many countries”. then, addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item that must not appear in a well-formed utterance. three types of addition errors are; (1) double marking is an error in which the learners fail to delete certain required components and give more than one marking in constructing sentences, for example, “she didn’t went back”. (2) regularization, the example is “eated for ate”, “childs for children”. (3) simple additions, the example is “the fishes doesn’t live in the water”. next is misformation errors that are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morphemes or structure. the types of errors are; regularization errors (the dog eated the chicken); archi-forms (i see her yesterday; her dance with my brother); alternating forms (i seen her yesterday). while misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect 219students’ errors in using .... (silvia indriani) placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance. e.g., “i don’t know what is that”. moreover, the last step in doing error analysis is by counting errors. a further reason why errors are classified is to allow the researcher to count tokens of each type. based on these explanations, the researcher follows the steps that are proposed by james (2013) in analyzing the errors; error detection, locating errors, describing errors, error classification, error taxonomies, and counting errors. tense is key in foreign language acquisition, which helps learners construct meaningful words or sentences (tomakin, 2014). the english language has three kinds of tenses that are different from one another. the differences happen in the forms of the used verbs and the time of verbs action takes place. the simple present tense is one of several forms of the present tense in english. in a particular time, the simple present tense shows clearly that the english tense is different in time. according to murphy (2015), the simple present tense is used to talk about things in general, say something happens all the time, or something is true in general. in addition, the simple present tense says that something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future (general statement of fact) (azar & hagen, 2017). it is also used to express habitual or everyday activity. the simple present is used with a non-action verb to indicate something that is happening right now. the simple present tense is used to show some actions, such as habitual action, custom, fact, and future action. the sentence that shows actual habit can be seen from this example; “she works in the hotel.” for the custom, it can be seen in this example; “most indonesian eats rendang on ied day.” the next is the example sentence that shows the fact; “the earth revolves around the sun.” if a time reference is included, the simple present can also be used to indicate future time. future action can be seen in this example; “the movie starts in ten minutes.” based on these explanations, it can be concluded that the simple present tense is used to describe a routine activity, general facts, and future time. methods this research applies qualitative method with descriptive approach because its purpose is to describe things like the way and analyze the interrelationship of the data. it is conducted at logistics management of agro-industry (mlia) department of polytechnic ati padang in april 2019. polytechnic ati padang is located at jalan bungo pasang tabing, padang, west sumatra. the participants of this research are the students of logistics management of agro-industry (mlia) department. based on the syllabus, the students have learned the simple present tense in the first semester. there are four classes that consist of 153 students. these four classes are class mlia 1a, mlia 1b, mlia 1c, and mlia 1d. they are taught by the same lecturer. in writing descriptive research, the sample of 10% is considered the minimum (gay, mills, & airasian, 2012). the researcher takes 23 students from total students as the participant of the research (15% of the population= 23 students) because the researcher has limited ability in analyzing the data. since the population is homogeneous, the sample is taken by using a simple random sampling technique where the students are selected randomly. data are collected from the logistics management of agro-industry (mlia) department students based on their written essay. the instrument of the research is a descriptive writing test given to the students. each student is required to write a descriptive essay with 300-350 words. in this test, the emphasis is given on the use of the simple present tense. the formula is: p = f/n x 100% p = percentage f = frequency of error n = number of the sample which is observed. results and discussions the results of this research provide information about errors committed by the students at logistics management of agro-industry department of polytechnic ati padang in using the simple present tense. the results are based on the students’ writing test, which shows that 96% of the students or 22 students commit the error of omission. by comparison, 30% of the students or seven students commit the error of addition. then, 19 students or up 82,6% committed the error of misinformation. finally, 21,7% or five students commit the error of misordering. the summary of the result is presented in table 1. table 1 errors committed in the simple present tense no types of errors numbers of students committed errors % 1. omission 22 96% 2. addition double marking 4 17,4% regularizations 1 4,3% simple addition 2 8,7% 3. misinformation regularizations 13 56,5% archi-forms 4 17,4% alternating forms 2 8,7% 4. misordering 5 21,7% based on table 1, it is seen that most of the students or 22 out of 23 students commit the error of omission, and only five students commit the error of misordering. after analyzing the data, the total of errors committed by the students at logistics management of agro-industry department is 107 errors. the recapitulation of the errors is presented in table 2. the result in table 2 confirms that the most errors in using simple present tense committed by the students are omission with 61 errors, and the percentage is 57%. this finding confirms the result of kusumawardhani (2016). in her research, kusumawardhani (2016) has noticed that omission is the most dominant error. next, the number of misinformation error is 29 errors, and the percentage is 27,1%. then, the number of addition error is 12 errors, and the percentage is 11,2%. the smallest errors committed by the students are misordering with five errors, and the percentage is 4,7%. this finding is generally in agreements 220 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 217-221 with the results of abdullah (2013). he confirms that misordering gains the lowest percentage. the frequency distribution of students’ errors can be seen in figure 1. table 2 the recapitulation of errors in simple present tense no types of errors numbers of students committed errors % 1. omission 61 57% 2. addition double marking 9 8,4% regularizations 1 0,9% simple addition 2 1,9% 3. misinformation regularizations 23 21,5% archi-forms 4 3,7% alternating forms 2 1,9% 4. misordering 5 4.7% total 107 100% figure 1 frequency distribution of students’ errors as it can be seen from figure 1, the omission is the most dominant error, and the smallest amount error committed by the students at logistics management of agro-industry of polytechnic ati padang is the error of misordering. based on the error analysis, there are four types of errors in using simple present tense found in the students’ essays; they are the omission, addition error, misinformation, misordering. the summary of errors committed by the students is shown in these examples. for the omission errors, it can be seen in this example; “my village ___ in matur.” that sentence is an example of the omission of auxiliary verbs. it is the kind of omission error that is mostly made by the students. the subject in the sentence is in the singular form, and it is a nominal sentence; thus, the auxiliary verb ‘is’ has to be added next to the subject. the revised sentence should be: “my village is in matur.” another example is “my mother work_ in the hospital.” that sentence is the example of the omission of verbs inflection (marker -s/-es). it can be seen from the example that there is a lack of suffix -s after the main verb ‘work’. thus, the marker –s is added after the verb ‘work’. another reason is that the subject is the third person singular. the revised should be “my mother works in the hospital.” alternatively, others example is “she ____ not have a boyfriend.” the subject in that sentence is the third person singular, and it is in negative form; therefore, auxiliary verb ‘does’ is added after the subject ‘she’. the revised should be “she does not have a boyfriend.” in addition error, there are double marking, regularizations, and simple addition. the example of double marking is “they are gather at jalan kampung jawa dalam. in this sentence, it has two verbs. the auxiliary verb ‘are’ is not needed in that sentence because the sentence ‘gather’ is the main verb. the revised should be: “they gather at jalan kampung jawa dalam.” another example is “i’m always do the best for my family.” like the error in the first example, the sentence also has double verbs. it has ‘do’ as the main verb. therefore the auxiliary verb ‘am’ is not needed in that sentence. the revised should be: “i always do the best for my family.” while the example of regularizations is “my parents have three childs.” this sentence proves that the error happens when the students confuse about the use of regular and irregular forms. the plural of child is irregular form; children. the noun child does not have the addition –s form. the revised should be: “my parents have three children.” next is a simple addition, for example, “i have a friends. her name is lisa.” the error in the sentence is the addition of the suffix –s. since the object in the sentence is ‘a friend’, the ending ‘–s’ is not needed after the object. the revised should be: “i have a friend. her name is lisa.” in misinformation errors, there are regularizations, archi-forms, and alternating forms. first is regularizations, for example: “she don’t like rain.” in this example, the subject in the sentence is the third person singular. it appears that the form of the auxiliary verb ‘do’ does not work with the subject ‘she’ in this sentence. the correct auxiliary verb for the subject is ‘does’ not ‘do’. the revised should be: “she doesn’t like rain.” another example is, “everyone have a family.” it appears that the verb ‘have’ is incorrectly used with the subject. for the subject everyone, the correct main verb is ‘has’ not ‘have’. the revised should be: “everyone has a family.” for the example of the archi-forms can be seen in “my second and three brothers work at the bank.” the word ‘three’ in the sentence is actually in the form of the ordinal number. therefore, the correct one is ‘third’, not ‘three’. the revised should be: “my second and third brother work at the bank.” the example for alternating forms is “…. dan i study at polytechnic ati padang.” the error in this sentence occurs because the student uses his native language in the sentence. the word ‘dan’ means ‘and’ in english. the revised should be: “…. and i study at polytechnic ati padang.” another example is, “my mother works in the home.” the error that is found in this sentence is in the use of preposition ‘in’ and the article ‘the’. they are not suitable to use in the sentence. the correct preposition for the word ‘home’ in that sentence is ‘at’. the revised should be: “my mother works at home.” the last type of error is misordering, for example: “hobby yovita’s is dancing.” the error happens because the word ‘hobby’ is in the wrong position in the sentence. the revised should be: yovita’s hobby is dancing. conclusions the result of this research reveals that the students at logistics management of agro-industry department of polytechnic ati padang make many errors in using the simple present tense. there are four types of errors in using simple present tense committed by the students. they are omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. the 221students’ errors in using .... (silvia indriani) data shows that 22 out of 23 students or 96% of the students commit the error of omission. 30% of the students or seven students commit the error of addition. then, 19 students or up 82,6% commit the error of misinformation. meanwhile, only five students or 21,7% of the students make the error of misordering. the findings of this research also show that the most dominant error made by the students is omission with 61 numbers of errors, and the percentage is 57%. the second place is the error of misinformation that gains 27,1%. the third place is the error of addition with a percentage of 11,2%. the error of misordering is the smallest amount of error committed by the students, with a percentage of 4,7%. this research is significant because it provides information to english teachers about the types of errors made by the students so that they can be used to improve material and give feedback to the teachers in teaching simple present tense in the future. it tells to the lecturers something about the effectiveness of their teaching materials and their teaching techniques. in order to reduce the numbers of errors, the lecturers have to make the teaching-learning process more interesting and fun for the students. it can be done by using various strategies in teaching simple present tense. they also have to give more exercises for the students to reduce the errors. references abdullah, a. t. h. (2013). error analysis on the use of the simple tense and the simple past tense in writing essays among tesl college students. international journal of education and research, 1(12), 1–12. al-ghabra, i. m. m. m., & najim, a. s. (2019). analyzing errors committed in paragraph writing by undergraduates. journal of language teaching and research, 10(2), 264-270. https://doi.org/10.17507/ jltr.1002.07. azar, b. s., & hagen, s. a. (2017). understanding and using english grammar (5th ed.). london: pearson education esl. retrieved from http://weekly. cnbnews.com/news/article.html?no=124000. cheng, x. (2015). interlanguage-based error analysis in higher vocational and technological college efl education in china. journal of language teaching and research, 6(3), 639-646. https://doi. org/10.17507/jltr.0603.22. gay, l. r., mills, g. e., & airasian, p. (2012). educational research competencies for analysis and applications (10th ed.). boston: pearson education. james, c. (2013). errors in language learning and use exploring error analysis. retrieved from http:// weekly.cnbnews.com/news/article.html?no=124000. kalee, s., rasyid, y., & muliastuti, l. (2018). error analysis on the use of affixation in indonesian paper written by thai student. lingua cultura, 12(3), 289-293. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4307. karim, a., mohamed, a. r., ismail, s. a. m. m., shahed, f. h., rahman, m. m., & haque, m. h. (2018). error analysis in efl writing classroom. international journal of english linguistics, 8(4), 122-138. https:// doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n4p122. katiya, m., mtonjeni, t., & sefalane-nkohla, p. (2015). making sense of errors made by analytical chemistry students in their writing. journal of language teaching and research, 6(3), 490-503. https://doi. org/10.17507/jltr.0603.04. kusumawardhani, p. (2016). error analysis in writing an english narrative composition. lingua cultura, 9(2), 132-136. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v9i2.824. mohammed, m. s., & abdalhussein, h. f. (2015). grammatical error analysis of iraqi postgraduate students’ academic writing: the case of iraqi students in ukm. international journal of education and research, 3(6), 283–294. retrieved from www.ijern. com. murphy, r. (2015). english grammar in use (4th ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. napitupulu, s. (2017). analyzing linguistic errors in writing an english letter: a case study of indonesian undergraduate students. international journal of language and linguistics, 5(3), 71-77. https://doi. org/10.11648/j.ijll.20170503.12. silalahi, r. m. (2014). error analysis on information and technology students’ sentence writing assignments. international of education and research, 1(2), 151166. tomakin, e. (2014). teaching english tenses (grammar) in the turkish texts; a case of simple present tense: isıl maketi iter. international journal of learning and development, 4(1), 115-131. https://doi.org/10.5296/ ijld.v4i1.5154. zuhriyah, m. (2017). problem-based learning to improve students’ grammar competence. register journal; language & language teaching journals, 10(1), 48-61. https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v10i1.875. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 191 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 191-199 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5769 metaphor analysis on color lexicon with plant attributes in madurese language nurul fadhilah1; wakit abdullah rais2; dwi purnanto3 1,2,3linguistic department, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1nurulfadhilah21@gmail.com; 2abdullahwakit@yahoo.com; 3dwi.purnanto@yahoo.com received: 15th july 2019/revised: 05th august 2019/accepted: 12th august 2019 how to cite: fadhilah, n., rais, w. a., & purnanto, d. (2019). metaphor analysis on color lexicon with plant attributes in madurese language. lingua cultura, 13(3), 191-199. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5769 abstract the research aimed to describe the madurese color lexicons with plant attributes and to analyze those lexicons metaphorically. this research engaged 18 informants to denote madurese color lexicons by showing 139 color cards. the referential comparison method was followed by sorting the decisive element technique through referential competence-in-dividing, and connect compare equate as the advanced technique was used as the data analysis method. the research finds that 53 color lexicons with plant attributes in 8 madurese color lexicons, namely potѐ ‘white’, celleng ‘black’, mѐra ‘red’, bhiru ‘green’, konѐng ‘yellow’, cokklat ‘brown’, bhiru ‘blue’, and bungo ‘purple’. furthermore, these plant attributes can be classified into fruits, flowers, vegetables, seeds, spices, leaves, trees, part of the tree, and part of the fruit. the domination of plant attributes in madurese color lexicons emerges due to the sociocultural factors embodied in madurese ethnic group itself, those are (1) farming is madurese main way of living, (2) madurese ethnic group respect the nature as the place where they can pray and thank god, and (3) some objects associated with color lexicons are abundantly available at their surroundings, thus they frequently use it in their daily life. keywords: metaphor analysis, color lexicon, plant attributes, madurese language introduction local languages are influenced by its environment and used by societies living in certain areas. the existence of local languages has created a cultural diversity and exceptional identity in a society. the madurese language appears as one of those many local languages spoken in indonesia. the language is diverse in term of dialects and it appeals to be studied. the madurese language is one of the local languages spoken by madurese people in order to strengthen their identity and existence as one of many ethnic groups in this archipelago. madura island itself has its own distinctive local language that in 1984 wurn and shiro hattori even ranked madurese language at the third place following sundanese and javanese languages as the most widely spoken language in indonesia (raihany, 2015). according to the 2000 census, there are approximately 6,8 million madurese, compared to 83,8 million javanese, and nearly 31 million sundanese (davies, 2010). given that, it is more evident that the madurese language is a regional language, which has long been recognized and functioned. of all local languages, indeed, madurese is separated into some dialects. yet, only four dialects are widely acceptable, namely bangkalan dialect, pamekasan dialect, sumenep dialect, and kangean dialect (dewi, widayati, & sucipto, 2017). among those four dialects, sumenep dialect is acknowledged as the standard dialect and in turn, used as the standardization guidelines in the madurese language. a large number of dialects in the madurese language, produce numerous lexicons in it. it is worth to note that each local language has its distinctive lexicon. in general, such lexicon is innately used as its existence in one local language that is evolving from the consensus of the speakers living in a specific area. however, the use of lexicon in one local language must remain to observe each linguistic rule, either it is seen from its grammatical or semantic aspect. in the madurese language, the color lexicons are appealing to be reviewed. this is driven by the fact that only a few who know that color naming is a form of language metaphor. metaphor shows a comparison among two items, such as a and b, the similarity of a and b, and linguistic forms used in such comparison (putri, 2017). in addition, the similarity and resemblance are only in a few parts, for example, the physical and character forms. apart from that, metaphor is the construction of language that is 192 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 191-199 much influenced by local culture (kuswarini, masdiana, & hantik, 2018). metaphor is distinguished into two categories, namely living metaphor and dead metaphor. kowles and moon in idrus (2015) have described the dead metaphor as a metaphor that has lost their characteristics as a metaphor because this type of metaphor is often used in everyday vocabulary. contrarily, living metaphor is a metaphor used by writers or speakers to express their ideas or feelings within a certain context so that it can be understood by readers or speakers. this type of metaphor is often associated with literature. in this case, the color lexicon is classified into the dead metaphor. nevertheless, it will never be dull to study the expressiveness of color naming. indeed, color naming in the madurese language has become more appealing to study as the existing color naming system is influenced by a particular shade or attributes. the attributes correlated to the basic color indicate that as the speaker can explain one certain color with other things having the ability to clarify the color spectrum in concern. moreover, the attributes expressed by the color name vary from the adjective, noun, and verb. in madurese language, plant attributes are widely used. this research aims to describe the color lexicons with plant attributes in the madurese language metaphorically. accordingly, the collected data would be analyzed by using the metaphor theory proposed by palmer. palmer (in putri, 2017) has classified the metaphor into three elements, inter alia; (1) tenor or the subject that is reimagined; (2) vehicle or the concept that is used to reimagine the tenor; and (3) ground is the equation that emerges from the relationship between the tenor and vehicle. the example is within the color lexicon of konѐng matta ‘raw yellow’. konѐng (yellow) is the tenor of such phrase, in which konѐng indicates the object to be reimagined. matta (raw) is the vehicle, as it acts as the comparative element, while the ground element is resulted from the equation interaction between those two elements, which is the color yellow is coupled with the adjective raw. the term konѐng matta is used to denote the shade of yellow with white pigment. this color can be found on raw fruit flesh. thus, by using that metaphorical theory, researchers can find the equation or ground of the basic colors and plant attributes that are used by madurese language speakers. research on color has been done several times. wijana (2015) has investigated the relationship of color naming systems in indonesian with their socio-cultural factors. the color lexicon used metaphorically is collected and classified into two groups, namely achromatic and chromatic colors and compares to the english color metaphor. as a result, none of the significant differences can be found out between the use of metaphor in both languages. in addition, there are also typical metaphors in the indonesian language which its existence is determined by various external factors, such as environment, education, politics, and history. diputra (2017) has analyzed the meaning of color connotations used by balinese societies, such as black, white, yellow, green, red, orange, and purple. the results of the analysis conclude that red color is associated with dysphemism, white is associated with dysphemism, euphemism, and there are even examples at the formal level and orthophemism. in addition, the balinese color naming system is influenced by experience in seeing an object; accordingly, the color seen on the object is used to describe or reimagine such color based on the object in concern. indra (2017) has examined the existence of colors and meanings expressed in minangkabau language metaphors that are spoken by native speakers and are written in several books in the library. the results show that there are six colors found in the metaphorical expression of minangkabau language, namely itam (black), putiah (white”), kulabu (gray), sirah (red), kunyiang (yellow), and ijau (green). metaphorical expressions that use black, white, red, and yellow colors have positive and negative connotations. however, the metaphor expression that uses gray and green only has a negative connotation. the last research, sekarsari and haristiani (2016) have analyzed kanyoku or japanese idioms related to color. the results conclude that first is the lexical meaning of color in the kanyouku is interpreted according to the original meaning of color based on dictionary references, while the idiomatic meaning of color is a special meaning and different from lexical meaning. second, there is a relationship between lexical meaning and idiomatic meaning. also, third, there are distinctive characteristics of color. this research is in line with the previous studies as it also reviews the color lexicons based on a particular language. yet, to dates, it can hardly find research on color lexicons in the madurese language. second, the research conducted by wijana (2015) and indra (2017) focus more on the color connotation that appears in an idiom, instead of the naming system of color lexicon itself. furthermore, the research conducted by sekarsari and haristiani (2016) also only focuses on the meaning of japanese idioms related to color names. the naming system of the color lexicon can be found in the diputra’s (2017) research, but the research only explains six basic colors in the balinese language, namely red, white, green, yellow, orange, and purple. besides, the attributes found in the color lexicon tend to be found in the adjective, while this research would focus on attributes found in noun, namely plants. in the end, to date, there is no any research can be found regarding the naming system of color lexicons metaphorically in indonesian and local languages. it opens a gate and opportunity for the researchers to study the color lexicon in the madurese language metaphorically. furthermore, this research is expected to contribute to the quantity of color vocabulary in the madurese language that can be used in everyday utterances and teaching materials in the realm of education, especially the subjects of local content in the madurese language. in addition, this research is expected to provide beneficial contributions in maintaining the local language spreading over the archipelago, namely the language of madura. methods this research is a qualitative descriptive study that functions to describe color lexicons with plant attributes in the madurese language by using the semantic approaches to metaphor. the data is in the form of madurese color lexicons collected by the informants by showing 139 color cards. in the digital world, color names already have the same standard throughout the web world, so that these names can be a tool in making the color cards. for the purpose of completeness and in-depth data, the researchers employ the purposive sampling technique. furthermore, the data source is taken from madurese language speakers in the sumenep dialect. the sumenep dialect is chosen because it is a standard dialect in the 193metaphor analysis on color .... (nurul fadhilah, et al.) madurese language. in addition, other informant criteria are not color blind and having daily routines related to color or understanding of color vocabulary in the madurese language. the researchers also use informants who understand about madurese culture, especially in sumenep regency to validate data and provide information about socio-cultural factors that influence the color name pattern in the madurese language. the 18 selected informants are; (1) mr. taufiq (59 years old, a cultural observer); (2) mr. rahmad (39 years old, a fisherman and the owner of colorful boat); (3) mr. juma’en (66 years old, a farmer); (4) mr. salamet (54 years old, a wood carver); (5) mr. imam (50 years old, a wood carver); (6) mr. taufan (33 years old, a batik artist); (7) mr. erfandi (54 years old, a head of sumenep palace museum); (8) mr. zainal (67 years old, a cultural observer); (9) mr. darus (63 years old, a cultural observer); (10) mrs. hamidah (63 years old, a housewife); (11) mr. mathor (76 years old, a caretaker of the ritual ceremony); (12) mr. amiluddin (51 years old, a salt farmer); (13) mrs. kisrawiyatun (58 years old, a traditional cake maker); (14) mr. abdullah (65 years old, a cultural observer); (15) mr. nono (61 years old, a head of madurese language book drafting team); (16) mrs. meinarny (27 years old, a tour guide of sumenep palace museum); (17) mr. edhie (73 years old, a cultural observer); and (18) mr. amin (64 years old, make up artist). concerning the determination of these informants, the researchers use the snowball sampling technique because the researchers are not yet familiar with all of the informants. in addition to using triangulation of the data sources to validate data, the researchers also use triangulation of methods. in collecting data, the researchers use two methods, namely the referential method and the proficiency method. the referential method aims to observe any events that occurred in the field. the referential method is carried out using basic techniques, namely tapping techniques and advanced techniques in the form of skillful listening techniques. furthermore, the proficiency method or interview is done with the basic provoking technique because the researchers must use a provocation in the form of a list of questions to obtain data. furthermore, the basic technique is also coupled with advanced techniques in the form of skillful techniques as the researchers conducted interviews or direct conversations, verbally, and face to face with the informants. the interviews conducted in this research are classified as in-depth interviewing. in other words, the informants would be given an instrument in the form of color cards, and then they mention the color vocabulary of the cards. besides, the researchers could also directly ask the color vocabulary they know to further deepen the data by asking several supporting questions. the data are analyzed by using the referential comparison method, followed by sorting the decisive element technique through referential competence-in-dividing. this basic technique has functioned to determine the reference to be used in color naming, namely noun, adjective, and verb. moreover, this basic technique is equipped with connect compare equate method as the advanced technique. the advanced technique serves to compare and then look for the equation from the two terms forming the color metaphor. in other words, the connect compare equate method is used as a way to find out the relationship of the language being studied with things beyond the language in question. results and discussions the research has found nine colors used by the speakers of madurese language in sumenep regency, they are potѐ (white), celleng (black), mѐra (red), bhiru (green), konѐng (yellow), cokklat (brown), bhiru (blue), bungo (purple), and bu-abu (gray). each color has derivative colors with various attributes in adjectives, verbs, and nouns. the derivative color with noun attributes can be classified into several parts, such as humans, animals, plants, natural objects, professions, food and beverages, home goods, and the name of the month. however, among the eight groups, there is one most dominant noun group, namely nouns in the plant class. from the nine colors used by speakers, there are eight colors that have derivative colors with plant attributes, namely potѐ (white), celleng (black), mѐra (red), bhiru (green), konѐng (yellow), cokklat (brown), bhiru (blue), and bungo (purple). besides, from 18 informants who are interviewed, 16 informants are able to name the color in the madurese language which has plant attributes, while the other two informants do not mention the color name with plant attributes. each color that has plant attributes is mapped into a table that consists of color names in madurese language, color names translation in indonesian (gloss), and the classification of plants attached to the color lexicon. furthermore, each color lexicon is analyzed metaphorically. table 1 shows the list of white derivative colors. table 1 list of white derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. potѐ koddhu’ noni white fruits 2. potѐ nonit noni white fruits 3. potѐ kalak kalak white fruits 4. potѐ bhâkoh tobacco white leaves total 4 potѐ koddhu’ (noni white) and potѐ nonit (noni white) are two derivative colors that have the same meaning and attribute of nouns in fruit class, namely noni fruit. metaphorically, the tenor of potѐ koddhu’ and potѐ nonit phrases are potѐ (white) color, while the vehicle is koddhu’ (noni) fruit. the ground or similarity formed from these two phrases is white color equated to noni fruit, that is the white color of ripe noni rind. potѐ koddhu’ (noni white) means dull white. while potѐ kalak (kalak white) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely kalak fruit. metaphorically, the tenor of potѐ kalak is potѐ (white) color, while the vehicle is kalak fruit. the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is white color equated to the part of kalak fruit that is the white color of kalak fruit flesh. potѐ bhâkoh (tobacco white) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in leaf class, namely tobacco. metaphorically, the tenor of potѐ bhâkoh is potѐ (white) color, while the vehicle is bhâkoh (tobacco). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is white color equated to the tobacco that has been dried, having super quality, and it goes into the factory to be used as cigarette ingredients. potѐ bhâkoh is a phrase used to refer to a very light brown color which is resembling white or brownish white. the madurese speakers in sumenep regency use the phrase because there 194 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 191-199 are two types of tobacco which are known in the society, namely black tobacco celleng bhâkoh (black tobacco) and potѐ bhâkoh (white tobacco). table 2 list of black derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. celleng pacѐh noni black fruits 2. celleng nonit noni black fruits 3. celleng maghi’ tamarind seed black fruit parts 4. celleng bhâkoh tobacco black leaves total 4 table 2 shows the list of black derivative colors. celleng pacѐh (noni black) and celleng nonit (noni black) are two derivative colors that have the same meaning and attribute of nouns in fruit class, namely noni fruit. metaphorically, the tenor of celleng pacѐh and celleng nonit phrases are celleng (black) color, while the vehicle is pacѐh ‘noni’ and nonit ‘noni’ fruits. the ground or similarity formed from these two phrases is black color equated to noni fruit that is the black color of ripe noni rind. besides that, the term of celleng pacѐh (noni black) is usually used to refer to the black situation of the cloud when it will rain that is whitish black or gray. celleng maghi’ (tamarind seed black) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit parts, namely tamarind seed black. metaphorically, the tenor of celleng maghi’ is celleng ‘hitam’ color, while the vehicle is maghi’ (tamarind seed). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is black color equated to the part of tamarind fruit that is the black color of tamarind seed black. celleng maghi’ (tamarind seed black) means brownish-black. celleng bhâkoh (tobacco black) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in leaf class, namely tobacco. metaphorically, the tenor of celleng bhâkoh is celleng (black) color, while the vehicle is bhâkoh (tobacco). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is black color equated to the completely dry tobacco. celleng bhâkoh (tobacco black) means brownish-black. table 3 list of red derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. mѐra jhambu water apple red fruits 2. mѐra manggis mangosteen red fruits 3. mѐra delimah pome granate red fruits 4. mѐra kalompang kelumpang red fruits 5. mѐra pѐnang areca nut red fruits 6. mѐra mawar rose red flowers 7. mѐra mabâr rose red flowers 8. mѐra nojeh four o’clock flower red flowers 9. mѐra cabbi chili red vegetables 10. mѐra jhâgung corn red seeds table 3 list of red derivative colors (continued) no color name gloss classification 11. mѐra saccang secang red spices 12. mѐra sѐrѐ betel red leaves total 12 in table 3, it shows the list of red derivative colors. mѐra jhambu (water apple red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely water apple. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra jhambu is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is jhambu (water apple). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the water apple fruit parts that are the red color of the water apple rind. it is because in madura island, guava with red flesh is rare compares to white flesh guava and water apple. mѐra manggis (mangosteen red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely mangosteen. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra manggis is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is manggis (mangosteen). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the mangosteen fruit parts that are the red color of the inside of mangosteen rind. in addition, mѐra manggis (mangosteen red) means purplish red. mѐra delimah (pomegranate red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely pomegranate. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra delimah is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is manggis (mangosteen). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the pomegranate fruit parts that are the red color of the inside of fruit flesh attached to pomegranate seeds. in addition, mѐra delimah (pomegranate red) means dark red. mѐra kalompang (kelumpang red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely kelumpang in indonesian. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra kalompang is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is kalompang (kelumpang). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the kelumpang fruit parts that are the red color of ripe kelumpang rind. mѐra pѐnang (areca nut red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely areca nut. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra pѐnang is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is pѐnang (areca nut). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to areca nut that is the red color produced from areca nut concoction with calcium which is usually consumed by old mothers in madura. the concoction usually produces red color in their mouths. thus, mѐra pѐnang means yellowish or orange. mѐra mawar (rose red) and mѐra mabâr (rose red) are two derivative colors that have noun attributes in flower class, namely rose. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra mawar and mѐra mabâr are mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is mawar (rose) and mabâr (rose). the ground or similarity formed from these phrases is red color equated to rose flower part that is the red color of rose petals. mѐra mawar (rose red) and mѐra mabâr (rose red) mean dark red. mѐra nojeh (four o’clock flower red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in flower class, namely four o’clock flower. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra nojeh is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is nojeh (four o’clock flower). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to four o’clock flower that is the red color 195metaphor analysis on color .... (nurul fadhilah, et al.) of its petal. mѐra nojeh means purplish red. the madurese speakers usually use this phrase to describe the darker pink color. mѐra cabbi (chili red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in vegetable class namely chili. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra cabbi is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is cabbi (chili). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the chili part that is the red color of cayenne pepper skin. mѐra cabbi (chili red) means bright red. mѐra jhâgung (corn red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in seeds class, namely corn. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra jhâgung is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is jhâgung (corn). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to the corn part that is the seeds of old corn. the old corn seeds do not have a yellow color, but the orange color or yellowish red. mѐra saccang (secang red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in spices class, namely secang. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra saccang is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is saccang (secang). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to one of the spices that are red from secang cooking water. mѐra saccang (secang red) means brownish-red. mѐra sѐrѐ (betel red) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in leaf class namely betel. metaphorically, the tenor of mѐra sѐrѐ is mѐra (red) color, while the vehicle is sѐrѐ (betel). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is red color equated to red betel so that mѐra sѐrѐ (betel red) means dark red. table 4 list of green derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. bhiru rantѐh tomato green fruits 2. bhiru dâun leaf green tree parts 3. bhiru ompos faded leaves green tree parts 4. bhiru popos faded leaves green tree parts 5. bhiru sѐnnam faded tamarind leaves green tree parts 6. bhiru arta’ green beans green seeds 7. bhiru pandan pandanus green spices 8. bhiru lomot moss green leaves total 8 table 4 shows the list of green derivative colors. bhiru rantѐh (tomato green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely tomato. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru rantѐh is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is rantѐh (tomato). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to tomato green rind. bhiru rantѐh means light green. next, bhiru dâun (leaf green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in the class of tree part, namely leaf. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru dâun is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is dâun (leaf). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to leaves. bhiru ompos (faded leaves green) and bhiru popos (faded leaves green) are two derivative colors that have noun attributes in the class of tree part namely faded leaves. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru ompos and bhiru popos are bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is ompos (faded leaves) and popos (faded leaves). the ground or similarity formed from these phrases is green color equated to new leaves. these phrases mean light green. bhiru sѐnnam (faded tamarind leaves green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in the class of tamarind tree part namely faded tamarind leaves. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru sѐnnam is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is sѐnnam (faded tamarind leaves). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to new leaves of tamarind tree so that bhiru sѐnnam means light green. then, bhiru arta’ (green beans green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in seeds class, namely green beans. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru arta’ is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is arta’ (green beans). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to green beans so that bhiru arta’ means dark green. bhiru pandan (pandanus green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in spices class, namely pandanus. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru pandan is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is pandan (pandanus). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to one of the spices that are pandanus leaf. the last, bhiru lomot (moss green) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in plants class, namely moss. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru lomot is bhiru (green) color, while the vehicle is lomot (moss). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is green color equated to one of the plants that are moss. table 5 list of yellow derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. konѐng keddeng banana yellow fruits 2. konѐng kalak kalak yellow fruits 3. konѐng langsat lansium yellow fruits 4. konѐng kraѐ cantaloupe yellow fruits 5. konѐng nanas pineaple yellow fruits 6. konѐng mondhu mundu yellow fruits 7. konѐng jherruk orange yellow fruits 8. konѐng nangka jackfruit yellow fruits 9. konѐng manjhilân jackfruit seed yellow fruit parts 10. konѐng billeh matta raw marmalade yellow fruits 11. konѐng kananga cananga yellow flowers 12. konѐng dâun leaf yellow tree parts 13. konѐng jhâgung corn yellow seeds 14. konѐng wortel carrot yellow vegetables 15. konѐng konyѐ’ turmeric yellow spices 16. konѐng temolabâk curcuma yellow spices total 16 196 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 191-199 table 5 shows 16 of yellow derivative colors. konѐng keddeng (banana yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely banana. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng keddeng is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is keddeng (banana). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the banana part, that is banana rind. konѐng keddeng means bright yellow. after that, konѐng kalak (kalak yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely kalak in indonesian. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng kalak is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is kalak (kalak). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the kalak part that is yellow color on the upper part of the kalak rind. konѐng kalak means whitish-yellow. konѐng langsat (lansium yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely lansium. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng langsat is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is langsat (lansium). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the lansium part that is the yellow color of lansium rind. konѐng langsat means light brownish yellow. konѐng kraѐ (cantaloupe yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely cantaloupe. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng kraѐ is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is kraѐ (cantaloupe). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the cantaloupe flesh. konѐng kraѐ means reddish yellow or orange color. konѐng nanas (pineapple yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class, namely pineapple. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng nanas is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is nanas (pineapple). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the pineapple flesh. konѐng nanas means bright yellow. konѐng mondhu (mundu yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit part class, namely mundu in indonesian. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng mondhu is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is mondhu (mundu). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the ripe mundu rind. konѐng mondhu can be meant dark yellow. konѐng jherruk (orange-yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit, class namely orange. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng jherruk is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is jherruk (orange). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the orange rind. konѐng jherruk means reddish yellow or orange color. konѐng nangka (jackfruit yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely jackfruit. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng nangka is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is nangka (jackfruit). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the jackfruit flesh. konѐng manjhilân (jackfruit seed yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit part class, namely jackfruit seed. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng manjhilân is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is manjhilân (jackfruit seed). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the jackfruit part that is jackfruit seed. however, according to the madurese speakers, the jackfruit seed means jackfruit flesh. thus, jackfruit seed yellow means jackfruit flesh yellow. while, konѐng billeh matta (raw marmalade yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit part class, namely marmalade. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng billeh matta is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is billeh matta (raw marmalade). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the raw marmalade flesh. so it can be said that konѐng billeh matta is whitish yellow. konѐng kananga (cananga yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in flower class, namely cananga. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng kananga is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is kananga (cananga). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the old cananga petals. konѐng dâun (leaf yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in tree part class namely leaf. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng dâun is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is dâun (leaf). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the old leaves of the tree. thus, konѐng dâun means brownish-yellow. konѐng jhâgung (corn yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in seeds class, namely corn. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng jhâgung is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is jhâgung (corn). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the corn seed. thus, konѐng jhâgung means reddish yellow or orange color. konѐng wortel (carrot yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in vegetable class, namely carrot. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng wortel is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is wortel (carrot). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the carrot rind and flesh. thus, konѐng wortel means reddish yellow or orange color. konѐng konyѐ’ (turmeric yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in spices class, namely turmeric. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng konyѐ’ is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is konyѐ’ (turmeric). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the turmeric flesh. thus, konѐng konyѐ’ means bright yellow. konѐng temolabâk (curcuma yellow) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in spices class, namely curcuma. metaphorically, the tenor of konѐng temolabâk is konѐng (yellow) color, while the vehicle is temolabâk (curcuma). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is yellow color equated to the curcuma flesh. thus, konѐng temolabâk means bright yellow. table 6 list of brown derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. sokklat camplong nyamplung brown fruits 2. sokklat salak thorny palm brown fruits 3. sokklat accem tamarind brown fruits 4. sokklat sabu massa’ ripe sapodilla brown fruits 5. sokklat kajhuh wood brown tree parts 6. cokklat jhâteh teak brown trees 7. cokklat mahonѐ mahogany brown trees total 7 sokklat camplong (nyamplung brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely nyamplung. metaphorically, the tenor of sokklat camplong 197metaphor analysis on color .... (nurul fadhilah, et al.) is sokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is camplong (nyamplung). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to dried nyamplung or nyamplung which has fallen from the tree. sokklat salak (thorny palm brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely thorny palm. metaphorically, the tenor of sokklat salak is sokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is salak (thorny palm). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the thorny palm fruit part, that is thorny palm rid which has blackishbrown or dark brown. sokklat accem (tamarind brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely tamarind. metaphorically, the tenor of sokklat accem is sokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is accem (tamarind). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the tamarind fruit part, that is the tamarind flesh. sokklat accem means dark brown. sokklat sabu massa’ (ripe sapodilla brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in fruit class namely ripe sapodilla. metaphorically, the tenor of sokklat sabu massa’ is sokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is sabu massa’ (ripe sapodilla). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the ripe sapodilla. the ripe sapodilla usually has a perfect brown color. sokklat kajhuh (wood brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in tree parts class namely wood (bole). metaphorically, the tenor of sokklat kajhuh is sokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is kajhuh (wood). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the tree part that is bole. cokklat jhâteh (teak brown) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in tree class, namely teak. metaphorically, the tenor of cokklat jhâteh is cokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is jhâteh (teak). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the wood of teak, that is yellowish-brown or pale brown. also, the last is cokklat mahonѐ (mahogany brown). it is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in tree class, namely teak. metaphorically, the tenor of cokklat mahonѐ is cokklat (brown) color, while the vehicle is mahonѐ (mahogany). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is brown color equated to the mahogany tree seed that is dark brown. table 7 list of blue derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. bhiru terong eggplant blue vegetables total 1 table 7 shows the list of blue derivative color. bhiru terong (eggplant blue) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in vegetable class, namely eggplant. metaphorically, the tenor of bhiru terong is bhiru (blue) color, while the vehicle is terong (eggplant). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is blue color equated to one of the vegetables that are the skin of the eggplant. the eggplant has purple and blue colors. however, most of madurese pronounce purple as blue or in contrast. in other words, the madurese consider that blue and purple are in the same spectrum circle. thus, the attribute of eggplant used to describe that in this case, bhiru means purple. in table 8, it shows the purple derivative color. bungo terong (eggplant purple) is a derivative color that has a noun attribute in vegetable class namely eggplant. metaphorically, the tenor of bungo terong is bungo (purple) color, while the vehicle is terong (eggplant). the ground or similarity formed from this phrase is purple color equated to one of the vegetables that are the skin of the eggplant. table 8 list of purple derivative colors no color name gloss classification 1. bungo terong eggplant purple vegetables total 1 from the data analysis, it can be found that the color lexicons with plant attributes can be divided into several associations, namely the names of fruits, flowers, vegetables, seeds, spices, leaves, trees, tree parts, and fruit parts. then, each color has a different number of derivative colors, such as white has four lexicons, black has four lexicons, red has twelve lexicons, green has eight lexicons, yellow has sixteen lexicons, brown has seven lexicons, blue has one lexicon, and purple has one lexicon. overall, there are 53 color lexicons with plant attributes that are used by madurese speakers in sumenep regency. among the nine color names used by madurese speakers in sumenep regency, there is one color that has no derivative color with plant attributes, namely bu-abu (gray). this can be caused there are no plants either in the fruit, flower, and vegetable groups, which are physically gray in its appearance. in contrast, konѐng (yellow) has the most derivative colors with plant attributes in madurese because there are so many species of plants found in yellow such as fruits, flowers, and vegetables so that the madurese feel it is easier to associate them in the intended of the color spectrum. furthermore, among the nine color names in the madurese language, there are three colors that are quite confusing for people outside madura. these colors are bhiru (green), bhiru (blue), and bungo (purple). first, the addressing of green and blue uses the same lexeme, namely bhiru. it motivates the emergence of stereotypes from other societies that the madurese is color blind ethnic because they cannot differentiate between green and blue. whereas, the addressing of these two colors in madura is indeed bhiru, but to differentiate the two colors is by putting an attribute behind the basic color name, such as bhiru dâun (leaf green) to find out that the intended lexeme of bhiru is green. thus, one of the functions from the use of attributes in the concept of color naming in the madurese language is to differentiate color lexemes that have the same form of pronunciation. for madurese people, bungo has a double meaning, namely purple and blue. therefore, in the data of color lexicons above, the term of bhiru terong (eggplant blue) appears. this is because the madurese consider that blue and purple can replace each other, and these colors are in the same color spectrum. the dominance of the color lexicons with plant attributes of madurese language certainly does not just happen. especially, considering that language as a cultural identity marker can be seen by the use of vocabulary in the language itself. also, the use of metaphors in daily life can reflect the culture of the concerned society. this is because metaphor is one of the language parts. furthermore, language is a cultural product, and at the same time, it is also a cultural conveying forum of the language community 198 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 191-199 concerned (devianty, 2017). thus, the use of plant attributes found in the color lexicons of madurese language can also represent the social and cultural life of the speakers, namely madurese. in madura island, the majority of the society’s livelihood is farmer. in other words, most madurese depend their lives on nature by farming. in the dry season, the madurese will plant tobacco on a large scale. as a result, madura island becomes one of the best and largest tobacco suppliers for the clove cigarette industry in indonesia. furthermore, during the rainy season, the madurese will plant rice, corn, sweet potatoes, and secondary crops. besides being sold, these agricultural products are also consumed for daily needs. in addition, the majority of madurese residences must have a front or back yard. they always use the yard to plant fruits such as mangoes, bananas, guava, custard apple, jackfruit, and others. in fact, for the kitchen spices, they also often plant it by themselves. according to azhar (2017), madurese people go through their world by what is around them. one of them is through plants that live around them. furthermore, one of the informants who is a cultural observer named mr. taufiq has said that the madurese are close to nature because they think that farming is not only about planting, but also returning to the almighty. in other words, the farming philosophy is to be grateful for what god has given by utilizing and safeguarding it. from these explanations, it can be seen if the life of madurese people is very close to nature and depend on nature. therefore, the dominance of plant attributes in color lexicons shows that the associated objects are often encountered and people often interact with those objects, for example in making herbs and cooking; they tend to use traditional ingredients from spices. thus, it can be said if a language (in this case is the use of metaphor) is capable of describing the social and cultural life of a society. conclusions the color keeps certain intentions that the users want to convey. every ethnic or region in indonesia has its way of making color naming concepts through language. as previously stated that madurese language, especially in sumenep dialect, has nine colors, namely potѐ (white), celleng (black), mѐra (red), bhiru (green), konѐng (yellow), cokklat (coklat), bhiru (blue), bungo (purple), and bu-abu (gray). however the lexicons with plant attributes are spread in eight colors, and the total is 53 lexicons. there is one color that does not have the derivative color with plant attributes, namely bu-abu (gray) because in reality there are no plants that have physical similarity to that color. metaphorically, the use of plant attributes by madurese language speakers refers to the similarity of the physical appearance of the plant, such as the color that resembles leaves, fruit skins, flower petals, the inside of spices, and wood. the dominance of plant attributes in color naming of madurese language is due to the sociocultural factors found in the madurese itself, such as (1) farming is madurese main way of living, (2) madurese ethnic group respect the nature as the place where they can pray and thank god, and (3) some objects associated with color lexicons are abundantly available at their surroundings, thus they frequently used it in their daily life. furthermore, the attributes attached to the color name in the madurese language have a function to differentiate the intended color because there are color lexemes that have the same form of pronunciation. second, the use of attributes overcomes the lexicon limitation in describing the right color spectrum and in accordance with what is intended by speakers. this research is very important because besides it has never been done in the madurese language, the results of this research can be used as teaching material in madurese language subject from kindergarten to high school level for the introduction of color names in the madurese language. that way, this can be a movement to maintain the madurese language, especially among young people as the next generation. the researchers limit this research to the domain of color names with noun attributes in the plant class and analyze them metaphorically. in the end, the researchers realize that this research can still be developed. there are many opportunities to research color lexicons using regional languages except the madurese language because indonesia is rich in its regional languages. however, for the future researchers who are also interested in the madurese language, it can be recommended to analyze the color lexicons except to the noun attributes of the plant class, such as nouns in the class of human and animal body parts. also, further researchers can also expand the attributes except for noun, such as adjectives. the next researchers can also examine color names with different studies outside the metaphorical semantics, for example, syntactically to analyze the structure of color naming patterns. references azhar, i. n. (2017). prinsip-prinsip hidup masyarakat madura seperti terkisah dalam cerita rakyatnya. atavisme, 20(2), 224–236. https://doi.org/10.24257/ atavisme.v20i2.372.224-236. davies, w. (2010). a grammar of madurese. new york: de gruyter mouton. devianty, r. (2017). bahasa sebagai cermin kebudayaan. jurnal tarbiyah, 24(2), 226–245. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.30829/tar.v24i2.167. dewi, f., widayati, w., & sucipto, s. (2017). kajian dialektologi bahasa madura dialek bangkalan. fonema, 4(2), 60–77. https://doi.org/10.25139/ fonema.v4i2.759. diputra, g. d. r. (2017). konotasi warna pada masyarakat bali. linguistika, 24(47), 142–149. idrus. (2015). metafora deskripsi fisik tokoh wanita dalam novel. jurnal puitika, 11(1), 74–81. indra, y. (2017). analisis semantik metafora warna bahasa minangkabau. metalingua, 15(1), 117–128. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.26499/metalingua.v15i1.159. kuswarini, p., masdiana., & hantik, z. (2018). penerjemahan metafora dalam saman ke dalam bahasa prancis. jurnal ilmu budaya, 6(1), 177–185. putri, n. a., (2017). metafora pengungkap kecantikan dalam masyarakat madura. etnolingual, 1(2), 73-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/etno.v1i2.7395. raihany, a. (2015). pergeseran penggunaan bahasa madura di kalangan anak-anak sekolah dasar negeri di desa pangarangan kecamatan kota sumenep. nuansa, 12(1), 47–74. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.19105/ nuansa.v12i1.697. sekarsari, w., & haristiani, n. (2016). analisis makna “kanyoku” yang berkaitan dengan warna: kajian linguistik kognitif. jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan 199metaphor analysis on color .... (nurul fadhilah, et al.) sastra, 16(1), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.17509/bs_ jpbsp.v16i1.3066. wijana, i. d. p. (2015). metaphor of colors in indonesian. humaniora, 27(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.22146/ jh.v27i1.6397. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 45 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 45-53 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5058 measuring peer feedback on writing class: a study on third-semester pre-service english teachers didik rinan sumekto1; heny setyawati2 1english education department, widya dharma university, klaten jl. ki hajar dewantara, klaten utara, klaten 57438, indonesia 2physical education departement, sports science faculty, semarang state university gedung f3, lantai 1, kampus sekaran gunungpati, semarang 50229, indonesia 1didikrinan@unwidha.ac.id; 2henysetyawati@mail.unnes.ac.id received: 12th december 2018/revised: 19th february 2019/accepted: 26th february 2019 how to cite: sumekto, d. r., & setyawati, h. (2019). measuring peer feedback on writing class: a study on third-semester pre-service english teachers. lingua cultura, 13(1), 45-53. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5058 abstract this research aimed to measure the contributions of students’ peer feedback set in the collaborative writing class. of 144 population, 55 undergraduate english education students were involved as the participants in a quasi-experimental research design which was conducted through a non-randomized five experimental and five control groups. there were 25 experimental participants attended in the regular classes with the collaborative writing class syntax, namely; genres selection, problembased learning, genres, and peer feedback practices, while other 30 control participants naturally attended in the same activity. data were collected through the collaborative writing’s preand post-test, and peer feedback instruments within four weeks of the lectures. data analysis used the mann-whitney u, and wilcoxon signed rank tests. the findings show that the collaborative writing’s peer feedback positively contributes to students’ writing skills and learning awareness resulted in the post-tests. peer feedback may correct students’ writing mistakes and contribute a significant difference between the experimental and control groups (z=-2,471; p≤0,05). peer feedback socially tightens students’ collaborative writing and promotes a mutual relationship among group members, and reduces lecturer’s feedback. keywords: peer feedback, collaborative writing, problem-solving competence introduction a paradigm shift has changed in the second language (l2) learning where the focus is absolutely no longer on a lecture-based interaction, but rather than students’ interaction with peers. the interaction addresses students’ opportunities for conducive l2 writing practice, the feedback exchange to facilitate the peer assistance (yu, 2015), and to require an appropriate understanding of how the collaborative communication provides the l2 students with group works’ opportunity (ciftci & kocoglu, 2012) through the peer feedback. this feedback produces an active-constructive-interactive process and vygotsky’s zone of proximal development concept (lin & yang, 2011) that have been critical to the enhanced learning, deep conceptual understanding (comer, clark, & canelas, 2014), stimulated broad-mindedness, and cognitive maturity among students. further, peer feedback substantially helps the writers to identify and avoid errors (lei, 2017). the feedback can be contextually exemplified towards the genre-based paragraphs for its genuine interaction availability and function like providing more practices that stimulated the peer feedback of the collaborative writing. sumekto (2017) have pointed out that collaborative writing accommodates any procedural problem-solving, enhances, and improves language use. it is expected that the number of poor writings is reduced and the flow of improved paragraphs increase (chen, chung, & wu, 2013) after having collaboration. this confers linguistic acquisition abilities, including grammatical accuracy, lexicon, syntax, organization, style, and rhetoric strategies (ahangari & babapour, 2015). it is as well as the punctuation errors reduction and the identifiable thesis statements increases between a draft to a final submission (leydon, wilson, & boyd, 2014). these linguistic acquisition abilities are potentially stimulated through promoted collaboration. unfortunately, the higher education students seldom gain an opportunity to write better since their large classes make the lecturer difficult to provide adequate peer feedback’s writing assessment (arum & roksa, 2011; patchan et al., 2013). on a firm situation, peers are sometimes unwilling to be critical and unable to point out all errors found in writings (liu & chai, 2009). however, in this respect, the peer feedback has attempted to put in the l2 writing from the effectiveness 46 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 45-53 perspectives and has exerted an increasing influence on the writing instruction (lai, 2010), as the activity promises to encourage negotiation and construction as well as to help students develop new perspectives on the writing paragraphs (lin & yang, 2011). in particular, sumekto and setyawati (2018) have empirically portrayed that well-formatted writing widely starts from the title which is displayed at the beginning of the writing part. the title shall be centered and commonly typed with a capital letter for the first letter. when writing a new paragraph, the first sentence is intended with three to five characters before writing the second paragraph with the double-space. the constructive support for the use of peer feedback has transcended from relevant theories and experiences in collaborative writing. the peer feedback effectively allows students to construct knowledge (taylor, 2014), to give students the sense of holding audiences, to encourage a collaborative dialog, and to be less formal and more accessible (nguyen, 2012). it can be done by providing comments on others’ writing and catalyzing a social space for communication and discussion (lin & yang, 2011), clear guidelines, modeling, and frequent opportunities to engage in guided practice (lenters & grant, 2016), as well as creating a facilitation upon the interactive environment (hu & lam, 2010). another support leads to creating a friendly and relaxed atmosphere in the collaborative writing classes that engage the language acquisition techniques (ahangari & babapour, 2015). peer feedback has been recognized as the basic element to support students’ interaction processes and involves a reciprocal communication process related to the performance and standards (gan & hattie, 2014). the peer feedback is welcomed by students (nguyen, 2012) to develop the critical reflection (ekşĭ, 2012), show sense of accountability, motivation, and responsibility (bloxham & boyd, 2007), promote learners’ writing accuracy, offer the opportunities to share ideas, give comments, and suggestions and maximizes motivation (ahangari & babapour, 2015). this feedback can be a substitute for lecturer’s feedback (gielen et al., 2010; hu & lam, 2010; gardner, 2006) to enhance students’ independent problem-solving capacity. peers are convinced to yield improvements in the collaborative writing that are significantly higher than improvements for those who receive assessment from the lecturer (kaufman & schunn, 2011). this feedback can also reduce errors and it has positive effects on increasing students’ writing skills when received thoughtfully and positively, as well as being essential to the development and execution of self-regulatory skills (topping, 2009). alternatively, students have opportunities to involve themselves in the direct assessment activity and be more active participants (philpott, 2009). on the other hand, the theoretical gap on the peer feedback potentially leads to the over-emphasis on the added value for either the receivers or the providers since it might result in a limited understanding as a two-way process (van popta et al., 2017). shortly, wakabayashi (2013) has concluded that the peer negotiation as a part the peer feedback’s typical component may not be included in the procedure. so, the deviation between reviewing-peertexts and reviewing one’s own texts are differently rated. for example, the number of marks gained on drafts is 0,812, the comments and marks accuracy are 0,720, and the proportion of groups’ specific comments are 0,173. all these aspects are not significantly different at the level of 0,05 (ruegg, 2014). further, peer feedback is not always being encouraged in the best interest of reflecting the intellectual capacity or seeking the truth to some minor peers (roberts & shambrook, 2012). altstaedter and doolittle (2014) have pointed out that students’ perception qualitatively has reported a more general aspect of feedback on the organization and idea development, rather than a particular aspect of feedback on grammar and mechanics. this performance, according to (mcgrath, taylor, and pychyl (2011), empirically contributes that the writing feedback has significantly affected students’ perceptions that relate to the higher ratings of fairness and helpfulness, but it does not have a significant effect on their writing performance. some researches on writing’s peer feedback empirically have been carried out in the classroom. it measures students’ academic performance which accordingly resulted in preand post-test aspects, namely content, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics (arslan, 2014). however, the suggestive feedback is closely correlated to the collaborative learning engagement, where f(3,197) = 15,714; p<0,001 (guasch et al., 2013). the feedback is effective and playing a positive role and attitude in stimulating and improving students’ academic achievement. students who have low writing proficiency could enhance while collaboratively working with a peer and comment on the drafts through the discussion (ghani & asgher, 2012). a majority of students appreciate some comments regarding peer feedback (chen, chung, & wu, 2013). meanwhile, chen et al. (2011) have reported that 53% of writing’s feedback activity enables students to drive the appropriate responses. peer-to-peer writing interactions through the forums and peer feedback enhance to understand, link to the learning objectives, and positively contribute to the learning environment (comer, clark, & canelas, 2014). peer feedback contributes to students’ autonomy in which they might write their final drafts relying on one another and without seeking for lecturer’s assistance at each stage (ekşĭ, 2012). the feedback elements might be an instructional strategy to promote active critical engagement with the scientific text and issues. the extensions of peer feedback have significant longer-term learning effects, in which the raters provide more useful feedback when informed to the test-takers’ questions and doubts beforehand (gan & hattie, 2014). shortly, in a certain position of peer feedback groups, approximately 37 to 38% of the participants receive this feedback as assistance (gielen et al., 2010). hu and lam (2010) have pointed out that after the drafts are revised on the basis of the peer feedback, the writing quality might improve significantly either in terms of overall quality or in terms of the language, content, and organization. further, yu, lee, and mak (2016) have recorded the diversity and individual differences in students’ beliefs and practices in peer feedback for l2 writing. students share similar linguistic and cultural backgrounds and are situated in a similar learning context of classroom and group. these differences guide students to reflect on their participation in peer feedback. some of the peer’s expertise is not in language background. their advice might be fully correct or incorrect and sometimes even misleading. peers are not regarded as being knowledge authorities; consequently, they are reluctant to accept peers’ advice or vice versa (strijbos, narciss, & dünnebier, 2010; jiang & yu, 2014). for instance, the 47measuring peer feedback.... (didik rinan sumekto ; heny setyawati) scoring rubric that is used in the writing-based assessments might constitute the organization, mechanics, evidence, and sentence structure (prastika, setiawati, & sumekto, 2018). however, the ratio of peers’ correction acceptance is still very low because peers take part in non-correctionoriented practices, such as casual social communication with others, usually expressed the appreciative words rather than put the correction-oriented notes like critical comments, clarifications, and constructive feedback (liou & peng, 2009; jiang & yu, 2014). thus, peer feedback does not always lead students to rightly revise their writing because of the useful and effective feedback is not generally revealed (tsui & ng, 2000; jiang & yu, 2014). some weaknesses of the peer feedback also rely on both the processes and outcomes that might not be immediately manifested but rather than emerged and intensified with experience as students’ fears of others’ selfenhancing biases (bamberger et al., 2005) and even have not enough trust to the peer’s accurateness, honesty, and explicitness (ferris, 1997). further, ferris and hedgcock (2005) have believed that peer feedback’s problems appear among students since they only specifically concern with the surface editing while ignoring the substantial revisions. some possibly provide vaguely, complicate comments, besides being negative, sarcastic, overly critical, or unkind in the criticisms of their peer’s writing. lack of l2 formal schemata also address the inappropriate expectations regarding the content and structure of peers’ texts. this situation potentially leads to counter-productive feedback. referring to this situation, as if students spend many times, energies, and efforts working with the peer feedback in order to gain their qualifications as better writers, whereas the satisfactory results have not been confidently progressed (mooney, 2004). however, the gap of the peer feedback activity leads to some benefits and weaknesses when being implemented in collaborative writing in the classroom. both benefits and weaknesses potentially contribute to undergraduate students’ academic and non-academic skills to support their peer feedback necessities. being conscious of the facts, this research objective aims to measure the contributions of students’ peer feedback that is designed in the collaborative writing class. this learning design mobilizes five members in a group of undergraduate students through the peer feedback practices that engage students’ academic and non-academic contexts. by measuring students’ preand post-tests of the collaborative writing, hence, this research puts the insightful peer feedback impacts and the collaborative writing lectures that facilitate how the undergraduate students in the small groups interact within the natural collaborative writing class. thus, peer feedback is analyzed in terms of the following research questions (rqs): rq1 do preand post-tests influence the collaborative writing’s peer feedback significantly? rq2 do the experimental and control group members perceive that peer feedback is helpful to bridge the learning awareness and encourage students’ collaborative writing skills? methods this research applies for a quasi-experimental design (creswell, 2005) that conducted students’ preand post-test through the collaborative writing class. this design purposefully uses non-randomized experimental and control groups. of 144 undergraduate english education students of sarjanawiyata tamansiswa university, yogyakarta, indonesia, 55 third-semesters of the students are engaged to be the research participants. the participants are classified into five groups, and each group consists of five members. in this research design, 25 participants included in the experimental group by attending the collaborative writing class syntax, such as understanding genres selection, prioritizing problem-based learning, and practicing with genres and peer feedback. meanwhile, the other 30 participants participate as the control group. the peer feedback procedure is started with the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs which are connected with the problem-based learning. it approximately undertakes 20 minutes before ending the collaborative writing session. participants are set in a permanent groupin-stage of their learning circumstances to obtain the collaborative writing’s peer feedback preferences. the first stage involves students to work with the individual writing trials as a draft and then is followed by the reciprocal peer feedback and revisions. the second stage is begun with students’ revised writing (first and second draft), prior to implementing experiments, collecting and analyzing sentences into paragraphs, and finally writing complete paragraphs (e.g., recount, narrative, and descriptive). these activities are then continued with the additional turn and cross of the peer feedback exchanges and revisions before the submission stage of individuals’ final best paragraphs are undertaken. the rubric was modified from pappamihiel, nishimata, and mihai (2008). after receiving revisions and brief comments, each peer is rated a set of revisions and comments on other writings. data collection uses the collaborative writing’s pre and post-tests, and the peer feedback instruments to match with the assessment practice engaged in collaborative writing. data analysis uses non-parametric statistics that focuses on the mann-whitney u and wilcoxon signed rank tests using the ibm spss 20 software. results and discussions the 25 participants in the experimental group undertake the preand post-tests that corresponded with the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs. as shown in table 1, the paired-samples of these paragraphs show an improvement, where the mean increases from 70,51 to 73,26 for the recount (m = 2,744; sd = 1,347; t = 1,347; p = 0,000), 71,58 to 74,35 for the narrative (m = 2,767; sd = 1,771; t = 10,249; p = 0,000), and 71,07 to 74,56 for the descriptive paragraphs (m = 3,488; sd = 1,594; t = 14,349; p = 0,000) with the correlation coefficients, r = 0,30; p<0,05. the statistical results analyze that the peer feedback conveys a broader facet after addressing a determination in the peer interaction by the raters. the reasons reflect the problem-solving among the participants and consider the creativity factors on learning behavior and difficulty level, and organization during the collaborative writing classes. the peer feedback is conditionally adaptive, effective, and suitable to improve the collaborative writing skills with the instructional evaluation consequences. these consequences are filed in the mann-whitney u tests. the results show an improvement in both groups. statistically, the experimental groups increase the recount (z = -5,230; p<0,01), the narrative (z = -5,232; p<0,01), and the 48 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 45-53 descriptive paragraphs (z = -5,230; p<0,01), whereas the control groups show that the recount (z = -5,531; p<0,05), the narrative (z = -5,433; p<0,05), and the descriptive paragraphs (z = -5,631; p<0,05). the z value does not show a different significantly between the experimental and control group when determining the peer feedback practices. this deals with the learning behavior, in which the collaborative writing and the social interaction affairs are referred to the constructive learning mechanism among the group members. further, the wilcoxon signed rank tests summarize the learning objectives of the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs (table 2). the results indicate a significant correlation (p<0,01), which increase the writing skills after implementing the collaborative writing’s peer feedback. on the other hand, the mann-whitney u tests correspond with the collaborative writing’s peer feedback setting. as shown in table 3, both the experimental and control groups regard their feedback involvement and have an influence on the writing class environments. the peer feedback constitutes 11 items to be designed as the variables. of 11 items, merely one variable determines that the peer feedback criticized the works and corrected mistakes (z = -2,471; p≤0,05). it has a significant difference both the experimental and control groups when the peer feedback is implemented. other 10 variables are: the peer feedback is fair enough (z = -0,843; p>0,05), the students understand the learning measurement (z = -0,519; p>0,05), the peer feedback motivates and creates esprit de corps (z = -1,649; p>0,05), the peer feedback reduces lecturer’s subjectivity (z = -0,054; p>0,05), the peer feedback accommodates self-responsibilitys (z = -1,257; p>0,05), the peer feedback is more desirable than lecturer’s feedback (z = -1,930; p>0,05), the peer feedback assists individual learner’s competence (z = -1,009; p>0,05), the peer feedback is enjoyable, flexible, and relaxed to conduct (z = -0,088; p>0,05), the peer feedback assists other peers in problemsolving (z = -0,516; p>0,05), and practice availability is short (z = -1,247; p>0,05). all of them are not significantly different from both experimental and control groups in feedback’s involvement. being examined through the collaborative writing’s peer feedback accordingly, the experimental group’s recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs indicate its improvement through the preand post-test shown in table 4. the recount’s pre-test is 37,51 (z = -1,077), post-test is 4,19 (z = -2,779), and its gain is 55,18 (-5,338). then, narrative’s pre-test is 36,47 (z = 1,455), post-test is 50,86 (z = -3,741), and its gain is 53,73 (4,782). meanwhile, the descriptive pretest is 36,16 (z = -1,565), post-test is 47,03 (z = -2,353), and its gain is 52,89 (-4,483). conversely, the mann-whitney u tests indicate the experimental groups’ collaborative writing table 1 experimental students’ preand post-tests paired-samples peer feedback t-tests mean n sd pearson correlation (r) mean sd t sig. recount pre-test 70,51 25 2,711 2,744 1,347 13,361 0,000 post-test 73.26 2,441 narrative pre-test 71,58 25 2,322 r= 0,30; p<0,05 2,767 1,771 10,249 0,000 post-test 74,35 2,126 descriptive pre-test 71,07 25 2,685 3,488 1,594 14,349 0,000 post-test 74,56 2,423 table 2 wilcoxon tests upon three different paragraphs genre group rank statistics n mean rank sum of ranks wilcoxon w z recount experiment 25 18,00 602,00 1187,500 -5,230 control 30 21,00 835,00 -5,531 total 55 narrative experiment 25 18,00 612,00 1142,000 -5,232 control 30 21,00 715,00 -5,433 total 55 descriptive experiment 25 18,00 603,00 1372,000 -5,230 control 30 21,00 846,00 -5,631 total 55 note: significance level at p<0,01; p<0,05 49measuring peer feedback.... (didik rinan sumekto ; heny setyawati) achievement through the content, organization, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanic components. the discussion on the peer feedback is practiced to fulfill alternative feedback accountability associated with the problem-based solution. the experimental group of peer feedback is delivered in the regular classes. the learning management scenario is collaboratively designed. each group consists of five members who conditionally work with this feedback. the group members individually assess and are assessed with oral and written peer feedback relating to the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs as the substance of the problem-solving activities. this feedback relies on the assessment form which accomplishes the students’ equal performance, even it does not contribute to the rater’s final grade and has a qualitative output (gielen et al., 2010). in further, the peer feedback engages the reflective criticism of other students’ products and provides feedback, commonly using previously defined criteria through the rubric (guasch et al., 2013). the contributing results table 3 mann-whitney u tests’ peer feedback involvement variable group rank statistics n mean rank sum of ranks mannwhitneyu wilcoxonw z peer feedback was fair enough experiment 25 36,67 990,00 522,000 1425,000 -0,843** control 30 33,93 1425,00 total 55 students understood the learning measurement experiment 25 36,28 979,50 532,500 1435,500 -0,519** control 30 34,18 1435,50 total 55 peer feedback criticized the works and corrected mistakes experiment 25 29,44 795,00 417,500 795,000 -2,471*** control 30 38,57 1620,00 total 55 peer feedback motivated and created esprit de corps experiment 25 38,78 1047,00 465,000 1368,000 -1,649** control 30 32,57 1368,00 total 55 peer feedback reduced lecturer’s subjectivity experiment 25 34,89 942,00 564,000 942,000 -0,054** control 30 35,07 1473,00 total 55 peer feedback accommodated selfresponsibility experiment 25 38,06 1027,50 484,500 1387.500 -1,257** control 30 33,04 1387,50 total 55 peer feedback was more desirable than lecturer’s feedback experiment 25 37,61 1015,50 496,500 1399,500 -1,930** control 30 33,32 1399,50 total 55 peer feedback assisted individual learner’s competence experiment 25 37,22 1005,00 507,000 1410,000 -1,009** control 30 33,57 1410,00 total 55 peer feedback was enjoyable, flexible, and relaxed to conduct experiment 25 34,78 939,00 561,000 939,000 -0,088** control 30 35,14 1476,00 total 55 peer feedback assisted other peers in problem-solving experiment 25 33,89 915,00 537,000 915,000 -0,516** control 30 35,71 1500,00 total 55 practice availability was short experiment 25 35,78 966,00 546,000 1449,000 -1,247** control 30 34,50 1449,00 total 55 note: significance level at **p>0,05; ***p≤0,05 50 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 45-53 address to students’ peer feedback involvements during collaborative writing. these involvements summarize the reflection upon the collaborative classes which describe the learning circumstance, such as comforts and openness, suitable writing skill tasks, and lecturer’s collaboration with students’ learning activities. this means that the feedback provides an accomplished condition to the students, as it might improve students’ posture toward writing and raise their writing confidence, as well as be an appropriate circumstance for independent learning (ghani & asgher, 2012). the collaborative writing, however, conveys an opportunity towards students’ assessment involvement that accordingly supports the learning behavior and paradigm. students are participated in conducting this assessment; they are attractive and willing to do the real works in the group especially when revising others’ works which indicate some errors. the peer starts with a quick response, soon after the feedback tasks become peer ratings’ responsibility. the learning circumstance is not rigid, but more democratic. the group members work with the increased problemsolving constructively. this situation corresponds with mcconlogue (2012) idea, in which he believes that students have divergent or open responses. tasks necessitate reasoning and problem-solving that could be approached in a variety of students’ perspectives and understanding about the writing assignments. the collaborative writing’s peer feedback increases students’ problem-based learning and writing’s preand post-test, which impacts to students’ writing skills and social relationships, since this feedback ascertains the use of the logical framework. in this position, gielen et al. (2010); ciftci and kocoglu (2012); khorasani and sadzadeh (2015) have agreed that the peer feedback has impacted the positive influences in the l2 writing class. this feedback puts more control and autonomy to the english education students to be actively involved during the process. the interaction gains a sense of meaningfulness, although the practices are not easily parted from the previous weaknesses. to eliminate these weaknesses, the peer feedback might be regularly table 4 mann-whitney u tests’ collaborative writing genre group rank statistics n mean rank sum of ranks mannwhitneyu wilcoxonw z recount (pre-test) experiment 25 37,51 1388,00 685,00 1457,000 -1,077*** control 30 43,07 1852,00 total 55 recount (post-test) experiment 25 48,19 1783,00 511,000 1457,000 -2,779** control 30 33,88 1457,00 total 55 recount (gain) experiment 25 55,18 2041,50 252,500 1198,500 -5,338** control 30 27,87 1198,50 total 55 narrative (pre-test) experiment 25 36,47 1349,50 646,500 1349,500 -1,455*** control 30 43,97 1890,50 total 55 narrative (post-test) experiment 25 50,86 1882,00 412,000 1358,000 -3,741** control 30 31,58 1358,00 total 55 narrative (gain) experiment 25 53,73 1988,00 306,000 1252,000 -4,782** control 30 29,12 1252,00 total 55 descriptive (pre-test) experiment 25 36,16 1338,00 635,000 1338,000 -1,565*** control 30 44,24 1902,00 total 55 descriptive (post-test) experiment 25 47,03 1740,00 554,000 1500,000 -2,353** control 30 34,88 1500,00 total 55 descriptive (gain) experiment 25 52,89 1957,00 337,000 1283,000 -4,483** control 30 29,84 1283,00 total 55 note: significance level at **p≤0,05; ***p>0,05 51measuring peer feedback.... (didik rinan sumekto ; heny setyawati) well-practiced and increasingly used it in instructional settings, beyond the specific focus on the collaborative writing’s feedback (nelson & schunn, 2009). thus, the greatest advantage of receiving peer feedback, according to kim (2015), is that students continually increase their understanding of how their written works are readable and acceptable from the reader’s viewpoint. in the meantime, the peer feedback emphasizes along with the inter-raters’ preference through its rubric criteria, which needed more detailed scrutiny, conciseness, and comprehension on the rubric measurements, such as analytic rubric and checklist instruments. this emphasis, according to lin and chien (2009); ciftci and kocoglu (2012), has improved students’ analysis skills, assisted them to raise confidence and language skills, and encouraged them to focus on ideas development. so far, this research contributes to meaningfulness as alternative feedback for either assessment for learning or assessment of learning. the supervision responsibly needs some criteria of the participation, punctuation, honesty, ideas, creativity, commitment, and maturation as shown by members in each group. this research shows the empirical evidence in which peer feedback reflects students’ collaborative writing skills. the considerable reason supports an exchange of conventional learning into the constructivist learning model. conclusions this collaborative writing’s peer feedback corresponds with the preand post tests increase of the recount, narrative, and descriptive paragraphs. the results show improvement through each mean of these genre paragraphs. the leverage of the recount increases up to 2,75 points, 2,77 points for the narrative, and 3,49 points for the descriptive paragraphs. this means that preand post-tests achievements definitely influence collaborative writing practices. based on the classroom experience, both experimental and control groups perceive that this peer feedback practice aims at assisting them to address collaborative writing skills. the feedback directly contributes the individual students’ writing skills in content, coherence, cohesion, punctuation, and grammar, whereas non-cognitive achievement constructs the social skills, such as involving negotiation and verbal communication skills, giving, and accepting criticism skills naturally. these lead to problem-solving competence, as well as being aware of more sustainable alignment, elaboration, and development procedure increase during the collaborative writing activity. in further, the peer feedback foremost emphasizes on the formative assessment patterns to evaluate the processes and outputs of students’ collaborative writing skills, to assess the collaborative writing’s preand post-tests, and to understand and use the problem-solving procedure through the interand/or intra-group. the group members participate in the peer feedback practice since this feedback variously conducts students’ learning behavior in the classroom. students’ writing skills can be supervised by the learning coaching mechanism. the peer feedback conditionally becomes the substitute for the conventional assessment practices, in which it has feasibility, adaptability, and availability contribution. however, the research implication upon this peer feedback conditionally takes a longer preparation and reflection to gain better practice and output through the collaborative writing’s assessment for the learning process. due to its limitation, this research is also aware of being constant when the effectiveness of both practice and output become the target since the third-semester students’ familiarity, and knowledge on using the writing rubric have not been appropriate yet. last but not least, the readability of the modified and applicable rubric demonstrated in the collaborative writing’s feedback instruments can be continually developed in accordance with the need analysis of the formative assessment in both guided and academic writing in the future research. references ahangari, s., & babapour, m. 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(2016). revisiting chinese cultural issues in peer feedback in efl writing: insights from a multiple case study. asia-pacific educational research, 25(2), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40299-015-0262-1. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 167 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 167-173 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7004 the reflection of wabi sabi in the novel joseito by dazai osamu rima devi1*; aminah hasibuan2; ferdinal3 1-3program studi ilmu sastra, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas andalas limau manis, kec. pauh, kota padang, sumatera barat 25163, indonesia 1rima_devi2004@yahoo.com; 1rimadevi@hum.unand.ac.id; 2amijingga01@gmail.com; 3ferdinal09@gmail.com received: 02nd february 2021/revised: 25th august 2021/accepted: 25th august 2021 how to cite: devi, r., hasibuan, a., & ferdinal. (2021). the reflection of wabi sabi in the novel joseito by dazai osamu. lingua cultura, 15(2), 167-173. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7004 abstract the research examined the life’s perspective of the author that was reflected in wabi sabi in the novel ‘joseito’ by dazai osamu. the life of the joseito character described by dazai osamu in the joseito novel had individual values (honne), and joseito desired to equate it with collective values (tatemae). however, joseito could not unite the two contradictory values and accepted the contradiction. the method used was descriptive qualitative, with the sociology of literature approach and focused on the sociology of the author using the concept of wabi sabi. data on wabi sabi were collected from reading joseito’s novels. the research results find that dazai osamu sincerely accepts the contradictions in japanese society because dazai can place himself where he is. dazai is willing to accept contradictions in japanese society by understanding the meaning of wabi sabi. he learns to appreciate, accept what it is, and be grateful for the contradictions in society because these contradictions can establish harmony in a beautifully ordered life through wabi sabi. keywords: collective values, honne, tatemae, japanese culture introduction tatemae and honne are the japanese cultures that show different attitudes and behaviors to look perfect. tatemae and honne have been around for a long time in japan and have become a culture until now. based on the results of huriyah, febrianty, and kurniawan’s research (2020), it is known that this tatemae and honne culture will create harmony between humans, especially in japanese society. japanese society is accustomed to placing someone where he/she is, at home and outside. when they are outside, such as in the school environment, work, or society, their behavior and words become different to be guarded and polite to people. however, when they are at home, they are free to show their attitudes and words as they are (nilamsari & nugroho, 2020). this is what is called tatemae and honne. zorana and jim (2020) have explained that tatemae is behavior that is displayed in public, while honne is a genuine feeling of oneself. therefore, tatemae and honne are related to each other; if someone is at home, they can freely use honne, but if outside, they have to use tatemae that is made by a group of japanese people. it becomes norms and rules to create harmony for them (iqbal, 2018). even though the rules are not made by themselves, they have to be humble in front of others or lie with small talk that must be followed even if it does not fit their life’s principles. it can be said that japanese people follow the rules not based on their awareness but are forced to follow the rules or applicable laws (sudarsih, 2018). however, these rules have been made for the common interest to achieve an orderly society. on the other hand, honne is the voice of conscience felt by someone (prativi, budiarsa, & erawati, 2019). this honne can be done at home or alone because a person can express his/her feelings and thoughts without caring about hurting others at home or alone. therefore, japanese people always bury their feelings outside the house by being someone else to look perfect. they try to keep their feelings and hide so that others cannot see them in order to create harmony in japanese society (senen & piri, 2019). however, there is self-principle resistance from the tatemae and honne culture, especially when someone uses tatemae outside (ristiawati, 2019). there is a contradiction in the cultural use of 168 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 167-173 tatemae and honne, which is reflected in dazai osamu’s joseito novel. the main character is a 14-year-old girl and hereinafter referred to as joseito. joseito is a self-depiction of the author, namely dazai osamu. joseito has personal values in her life so that there are contradictions in collective values, one of which is the tatemae and honne culture. joseito disapproves of this culture because she has to pretend to be someone else by telling lies that do not suit her life principles. in the novel, the main character says that joseito likes the value of life that exists in joseito’s and wants to equate it with collective values when dealing with other people (osamu, 1997). from the previous statement, it can be seen that dazai has a contradiction between personal values and collective values. he instead follows the collective values, even though he hates his actions. increasingly, dazai realizes that by carrying out collective values that are acceptable to society, he would accept them sincerely. dazai realizes that he could not change this world himself at will and has to follow the culture in which he is. therefore, dazai understands that living in society is more about respecting and not worrying about living life because simply and slowly, it will get the true value of life (cooper, 2018). by the concept of wabi sabi. dazai himself clearly does not explain the application of wabi sabi in his life due to the contradictions in tatamae and honne. however, the depiction of joseito’s character, who tries to make peace and seeks harmony in interacting with the environment, shows that other values are reflected in dazai life, namely wabi sabi. wabi sabi is a zen buddhism teaching, which is the concept of a perspective on life believed by japanese people that this life full of imperfections that have something of beauty (orgad, 2017). according to cahyaningati (2018), wabi sabi is an imperfection or incompleteness by looking simply and inferiorly to create beauty in it. thus, the concept of wabi sabi can answer the question why is dazai osamu, through his character joseito, willing to accept the contradiction between personal values and collective values in japanese culture. dazai, who originally wants to equalize these two values, is unable to accept these two values in his life. besides, dazai also always sees things as bad and not by the value of his life, but he increasingly realizes that bad is not always bad because there is also beauty in it. the research reveals the application of wabi sabi by dazai osamu through the character of joseito, how dazai is dealing with the contradiction of tatemae and honne, and finds the meaning of wabi sabi in the novel joseito. the novel joseito (female student), published in 1939, has brought the name of its author, dazai osamu, to prominence in japanese literature at that time. besides, many of his literary works have been translated into foreign languages outside japanese and filmed (odagiri, 2020). dazai, in writing his works, mostly tells stories in an autobiographical style (mulyaningrum, dian, & haryono 2020) or is referred to as the author of the i-novel (watakushishosetsu) (gantar, 2017). that way, it is by the research to see the world view of the author about wabi sabi in the case of joseito in the novel joseito by dazai osamu. the research aims to reveal dazai osamu’s views on life, which are willing to accept the contradictions in japanese culture, namely tatemae and honne, because dazai understands wabi sabi. therefore, to answer, it uses the concept of wabi sabi to be able to see the view of life from this wisdom. methods the research applies a sociological literature approach. there are three problems in the sociology of literature, namely the sociology of the author, literary works whose content is social, and the impact of literature that occurs in the community (safari, 2018). the research focuses on the sociology of the author to see his ideology related to society, namely the tatemae and honne culture, and to link with the concept of wabi sabi. therefore, the research uses the concept of wabi sabi to see the author’s views on the joseito case in the novel. wabi sabi comes from two separate words, namely wabi and sabi, both of which are related to each other that originated from the zen teachings of buddhism. terao (1971) defines wabi as a world full of squalor, sadness, poverty, disappointment, loneliness, and winter scenery that is received with serenity, simplicity, and poverty that flows wealth that the world has many colors. furthermore, the first sabi is faded, cold, lonely (unpleasant), the second sabi is an old inn, and the third sabi finally has the meaning of sabi itself. besides, there is a culture of tatemae and honne, which causes contradictions in dazai and wants to equate them with personal values, but he cannot. according to doi (2005), tatemae is a certain formal principle that applies to all the people concerned so that the harmony of a group is guaranteed, while honne is the feeling or opinion they hold privately regarding any matter. thus, the method used is descriptive qualitative. the qualitative descriptive method (ratna, 2012) is a method that uses the object as the center of research by analyzing and describing it. the object used in this research is the novel joseito by dazai osamu. furthermore, the researchers read all of joseito’s novels, collect data related to the concept of wabi sabi, and then classify them. after that, the data are analyzed to answer the problems in this research. results and discussions this section describes the wabi and sabi accepted and approved by dazai osamu, thereby leading to accepting the contradiction between personal and collective values. dazai has a personal 169the reflection of wabi sabi .... (rima devi, et al.) value to life that he thinks the values he understands are correct, and the people around him are wrong, so he wants to equalize personal values to collective values. the collective value is the tatemae and honne culture practiced by japanese society at home and outside, such as at school, office, or in society. japanese society uses tatemae when meeting strangers. as in the joseito novel, when meeting other people, namely workers, mother’s guests, and kinko, her best friend, the main character always applies the ojigi culture to greet them and omotenashi in serving guests. the culture of greeting japanese people has become a tradition, one of which is ojigi. it is a gesture of bowing as a sign of respect for other known or unknown people (harun & biduri, 2019). however, because joseito has individual values, people who behave inappropriately by harassing him do not deserve to be greeted and respected. this is evidenced in this quote. そ の 労 働 者 た ち は 、 い つ も の 例 で 、 言 え な い よ う な 厭 な 言 葉 を 私 に 向 か っ て 吐 き か け る。 私 は, ど う し た ら よ い か と 迷 っ て し ま っ た. そ の 労 働 者 た ち を 追 い 抜 い て, ど ん ど ん さ き に 行 っ て し ま い た い の だ が, そ う す る に は, 労 働 者 た ち の 間 を 縫 っ て く ぐ り 抜 け, す り 抜 け し な け れ ば な ら な い. お っ か な い. そ れ と 言 っ て, 黙 っ て 立 ち ん ぼ し て, 労 働 者 た ち を さ き に 行 か せ て, う ん と 距離 の で き る ま で 待 っ て い る の は, も っ と も っ と 胆 力 の 要 る こ と だ. そ れ は 失礼 な こ と な のだ か ら, 労 働 者 た ち は 怒 る か も 知 れ な い. か ら だ は, カ ッ カ し て 来 る し, 泣 き そ う に な っ て し ま っ た. 私 は, そ の 泣 き そ う に な る の が 恥 ず か し く て, そ 者 達 に 向 か っ て 笑 っ て や った. そ し て, ゆ っ く り と, そ の 者 達 の あ と に つ い て 歩 い て い っ た. そ の と き は, そ れ 限 り に な っ て し ま っ た け れ ど, そ の 口 惜 し さ は, 電車 に 乗 っ て か ら も 消 え な か っ た (osamu, 1997). (“the workers, as usual, had unspeakable words to me. i wonder what should i do. i wanted to overtake the workers and leave indifferently, but to do so, i had to sneak past the workers. horrible. therefore, it was even worse to stand still, and send the workers forward, then wait until they were far away. the workers may be angry because it is rude. my body hurts and i almost cry. i was embarrassed and cried then smiled at them. and slowly, i walked after them. at that time, that was the limit, but the regret did not go away even after i got on the train.”) whenever joseito meets the workers, they always say inappropriate things to joseito, so she tries not to bump into them and tries hard to smile if it cannot be avoided. joseito thinks workers who always badmouthed themselves do not deserve to be respected, let alone greet them. however, because of the tatemae, joseito has to follow a culture that has been created by smiling and forgetting his values. likewise, when joseito meets kinko, her best friend at school. joseito hates kinko, who wants to be controlled by her parents. however, joseito cannot tell kinko her values, as it could damage their friendly relationship. joseito continues to practice tatemae culture to maintain harmony for their friendship. joseito does the same with the mother’s guest, who is two-faced. the mother’s guest says that the dishes cooked by joseito are the best even though it is joseito’s worst dish. joseito hates the deeds that are good at saying sweet things, but because there is a culture of omotenashi, which considers guests as kings who must be served well (palandi, 2020). joseito hates pretense so that she thinks that mother’s guests are not worthy of being served and doing good to them, but the omotenashi keeps joseito serving them. this is evidenced in this quote. よ し, も う 嘘 は, つ く ま い と 屹 っ と な っ て, 「こ ん な お 料理, ち っ と も お い し く ご ざ い ま せ ん. な ん に も な い の で, 私 の 窮 余 の 一 策 な ん で す よ」 と, 私 は, あ り の ま ま 事 実 を, 言 っ たつ も り な の に, 今井 田 さ ん 御 夫婦 は, 窮 余 の 一 策 と は, う ま い こ と を お っ し ゃ る, と 手 を 拍 た ん ば か り に 笑 い 興 じ る の で あ る. 私 は, 口 惜 し く て, お 箸 と お 茶碗 ほ お り 出 し て, 大声 あ げて 泣 こ う か し ら と 思 っ た. じ っ と こ ら え て, 無理 に, に や に や 笑 っ て 見 せ た ら, お 母 さ ん ま で が, 「こ の 子 も, だ ん だ ん 役 に 立 つ よ う に な り ま し た よ」 と, お 母 さ ん, 私 の か な し い 気 持, ち ゃ ん と わ か っ てい ら っ し ゃ る 癖 に 、 今井 田 さ ん の 気 持 を 迎 え る た め に 、 そ ん な く だ ら な い こ と を 言 っ て 、 ほ ほ と 笑 っ た (osamu, 1997). (“well, lies are no longer lies, and i said, ‘this dish is not at all good. that’s my lowest measure because it’s nothing,’ i put the facts straight. however, mr. and mrs. imaida laughed as if they were clapping their hands, saying that one of the lowest measures is good. i’m sorry to say that and i feel like throwing the chopsticks and bowl and crying out loud. when i wanted to do it, i forcefully smiled and showed it, even my mother said, ‘this child is becoming more and more useful,’ he said. instead, i said silly things and smiled with a smile.”) 170 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 167-173 from the data, it shows that joseito, who represents dazai, uses tatemae in the surrounding community, but when talking to himself, dazai uses honne. when using honne, dazai has a personal value that people who demonize themselves do not deserve to be greeted. likewise, people who are very evident in their speech do not deserve to be treated well. dazai also thinks that women must have a principle in life, namely that women should not be matched. even so, dazai keeps on doing his tatemae, meaning that dazai wants to follow the collective values, namely the ojigi and omotenashi culture. thus, dazai could not equate personal values with collective values, so he accepts the contradiction. however, when he talks to himself, he maintains his values that he considers people who pretend to have hurt themselves to be like himself. dazai does it because he understands wabi; he accepts the contradiction that where it is bad, there must be good. dazai feels wabi, so he accepts contradictions, which initially he hates rude people, double-faced people, and people who have no principles. however, he increasingly realizes that he accepts them all as they are and continues to carry out the tatemae culture. it is because dazai thinks that humans must feel disappointment that someday will be replaced by accepting it with simplicity, like the concept of wabi, namely accepting differences. apart from using tatemae with other people, joseito also uses honne, namely when looking in the mirror, being a model for mr. ito, and seeing women. when looking in the mirror, he sees his ugly and blurry eyes that he is wearing glasses, as seen in the following quote. 眼鏡 を か け な い で 、 鏡 を 覗 く と 、 顔 が 、 少 し ぼ や け て 、 し っ と り 見 え る (osamu, 1997). (“without glasses and looking in the mirror, my face is slightly blurry and looks moist.”) however, she prefers not to wear glasses because she cannot see ugly people, and there is no need to speak ill of them. this is evidenced in the following quote. そ れ に 、 眼鏡 を は ず し て い る 時 は 、 決 し て 人 と 喧嘩 を し よ う な ん て 思 わ な い し 、 悪 口 も 言 い た く な よ う な ん て 思 わ な い し 、 悪 口 も 言 い た く な い。 た 、 、(osamu, 1997). (“moreover, when i took off my glasses, i had never had to argue with anyone, nor did i feel the need to make snide comments...”) likewise, when she becomes mr. ito’s model, she does not fight back when mr. ito, the teacher, always teases him with words that are difficult to answer. it can be seen from this quote. 返 事 す る の も 面 倒 く さ く 、 わ ず ら わ し い。 ハ ッ キ リ し な い 人 で あ る (osamu, 1997). (“i feel bothered and annoyed to reply. someone who is unclear.”) from the quote, mr. ito does not stop teasing her, so she could only listen and not fight back. because in japan, teachers are a highly respected profession so that no one will go against the teacher’s orders or what is called sensei (fatonah, 2017). joseito also hates fakes and prefers simplicity, such as women full of falsehoods, wearing clothes full of accessories, and using thick powder. it is like a geisha who works to serve men by using thick makeup, beautiful faces, smooth skin, graceful speech, and gentle behavior (puspitasari, 2018). it is all done because of work demands to get lots of guests. however, joseito does not like women like that. when she sees a woman who is full of thick makeup in the novel, she mutters to herself by saying that the woman is disgusting, along with the quote. け さ 、 電車 で 隣 り 合 せ た 厚 化粧 の お ば さ ん を も 思 い 出 す。 あ あ 、 汚 い 、 汚 い。 女 は 、 い や だ (osamu, 1997). (“earlier, on the train, i remembered the aunt beside me who was wearing thick makeup. ooh dirty, dirty. i don’t like girls.”) joseito represents dazai’s personal values towards others, such as someone who behaved not according to his job and a woman who is too much in wearing makeup, but dazai just mutters in his heart. he is still using collective values, namely tatemae, by not disclosing it to others about their values. therefore, dazai understands wabi that every human being is not lonely. it means that humans have a bad side in themselves and accept a world with various colors. apart from herself, joseito does honne to her dog, kaa, mother, and the man with glasses. to kaa, she does not hesitate to do and say inappropriate things to kaa along with the data. カ ア 、 早 く 、 山 の 中 に で も 行 き な さ い。 お ま え は 誰 に も 可愛 が ら れ な い の だ か ら 、 早 く 死 ね ば い い (osamu, 1997). (“kaa, hurry up, please go into the forest. nobody loves you, so you have to die quickly.”) kaa is a crippled dog with one leg and is dirty, so no one loves it. people tell kaa to go to the forest and can soon die peacefully in the forest itself. apart from that, to mother, joseito also says what has been stored in her mind that she has something more than her mother thought. she is now a grown child and can 171the reflection of wabi sabi .... (rima devi, et al.) exchange ideas if her mother wishes. likewise, for the bespectacled man she meets on the train, she also uses honne because she is angry that her seat has been taken. this is evidenced in the following quote. そうして坐ろうとしたら、眼鏡の男の人 が、ちゃんと私のお道具をどけて席に腰か けてしまった。「あの、そこは私、見つけ た席ですの」と言ったら、男は苦笑して平 気で新聞を読み出した(osamu, 1997). (“and when i tried to sit down, the bespectacled man moved my things and sat on the chair. when i said ‘oh, that’s the chair i found’, the man smiled and read the newspaper quietly.”) even though joseito uses honne on kaa, mother, and bespectacled, she is still an obedient and polite child. joseito feels guilty for saying inappropriate things to kaa and promises to love kaa, as seen in the following quote. カ ア は 、 可 哀 想。 け さ は 、 意 地 悪 し て や っ た け れ ど 、 あ す は 、 か わ い が っ て あ げ ま す (osamu, 1997). (“kaa, i’m sorry. earlier i was cruel to you, but tomorrow i am sorry. i was going to be cruel to you, but tomorrow i am sorry.”) likewise, joseito’s mother says that she is not a child anymore. it seems joseito does not like that her mother still sees her as a child, but she realizes that she only has a mother. because of that, she gives up if her mother still considers her a child. she also says her heart to the bespectacled man on the train. she just lets it go and do not get angry or take her chair back forcibly. she treats both with not much different. it can be seen in this data. お 母 さ ん た ら 、 ち っ と も 私 を 信 頼 し な い で 、 ま だ ま だ 、 子 供 あ つ か い に し て い る (osamu, 1997). (“but still mother always treats me like a child, without even believing in me.”) in the end, joseito, who represented dazai, realizes that collective values are still done to loving pets, obeying parents, and being polite to elders. because in japan, the children have been taught to respect and manner others, especially the elders (sudarsih, 2019). therefore, dazai accepts this collective value, even though he has expressed his heart because of his understanding of wabi. in dazai’s perspective, wabi is the feeling that sometimes to be yourself and accept the shortcomings because the world has many colors, some are good and some are evil. at first, dazai feels that he is doing something bad by saying what is in his heart and realizes he is wrong to do that. however, nothing is perfect; people must have made mistakes. by looking at these data, dazai accepts the contradiction in values in his life because he feels and understands wabi. that way, wabi can be taken as a lesson that the world is full of complexity where humans live with falsehoods and must accept it with a relaxed life. next, it examines the sabi in the novel joseito by dazai osamu. sabi explains that everything created in this world is beautiful even though it is ugly and worn out. however, behind that ugliness, there are interesting stories without human intervention. likewise, joseito always sees the ugliness of others, and joseito does not like those who are two-faced, have no decency, and are harassing. subconsciously, joseito did the same thing, like when with mother, she can pretend to be the child her mother wants. apart from that, joseito also pretends to be someone else in society. she is always nice to those she does not like. in this respect, joseito also has the same ugliness as anyone else that she does not like. therefore, joseito realizes more because she is used to be pretending so that she accepts the collective value because she understands the meaning of sabi. everything is created because it has become a habit over time, and one understands that there is no perfection because there are stories or beautiful memories that can be told into a lesson. like when she sees the furoshiki and umbrella that her mother gives her, joseito proudly brings a worn furoshiki to carry her things to school and a tattered umbrella. all these things have been stored in the cupboard so that they have faded, both in color and shape. however, she likes the furoshiki and the umbrella and takes them to school, as in the following quote. 綺麗 な 女 ら し い 風 呂 敷。 綺麗 だ か ら 、 結 ぶ の が 惜 し い (osamu, 1997). (“pretty and feminine furoshiki. because it’s so beautiful, it’s a shame to tie it up.”) 面 白 い 傘 を 見 つ け て 、 私 は 、 少 し 得意 (osamu, 1997). (“i’m proud to have found such an attractive umbrella.”) according to joseito, the furoshiki and the umbrella makes her remember her mother while using them. she uses these things often because memories can be told in these two objects. that way, joseito, who represents dazai, understands sabi, which is accepting the ugliness of others and himself because, in this world, nothing is perfect. these differences make it more beautiful. besides, for ugly things, dazai appreciates them and is proud to carry them anywhere 172 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 167-173 because even though they are ugly and worn out, there are memories of using them in the past so that they learn to be grateful. wabi sabi explains that happiness is created by accepting everything that happens in life even though it is not as wished because there is always beauty behind all of them. joseito, who represented dazai osamu, accepts the contradiction between personal values and collective values created by japanese society, the tatemae and honne cultures. dazai always applies his arrangement when with other people. however, dazai disliked them, which is incompatible with his values. even so, dazai does not oppose and follow this collective value, which is to remain polite, obedient, and respectful to them. as for the honne, dazai uses it on those closest to him and when he can no longer hold back his heart. even though dazai uses honne on them, dazai feels guilty. dazai does and accepts all the contradictions in him for understanding wabi sabi. dazai understands that the world is complicated and that the human being is a fake. he cannot change it, so he follows it or accepts it sincerely. humans are like that; there are good and bad. therefore, by understanding the teachings of wabi sabi, one can accept it with a calm heart to live life in a relaxed manner and enjoy the beauty in this complicated world. conclusions dazai osamu, the author of the novel joseito indirectly describes himself in the novel. dazai rejects the contradiction in the values of his life that are contrary to collective values and wants to equate them. however, more and more, dazai realizes and indirectly applies collective values to him, even though he still uses his values when others do not know them. that way, dazai accepts the contradictions in japanese society, one of which is the tatemae and honne culture. dazai continues to use the tatemae when out with other people and uses honne when at home. therefore, dazai sincerely accepts the collective values created by the community. dazai does it because he understands the meaning of wabi sabi, that there are aesthetics or life lessons that teach about a world that is mortal and imperfect, full of falsehoods and complexity. with this concept, there is a balance in it, and he can enjoy it in a relaxed way without rushing. at last, dazai can see the complexities of this world with beauty by reconciling the contradictions of tatemae and honne through wabi sabi and reflecting the wabi sabi through the novel joseito. references cahyaningati, d. t. 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(1971). bi no ronri kyo to mi no aida. tokyo: sogensha. zorana, v., & jim, g. (2020). conceptualization of anger in english and japanese.「文学部紀要」文教大学文 学部 , 34(1), 1-46. http://doi.org/10.15034/00007629. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 137 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 137-143 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5704 the discrimination against women reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa by okky madasari sumarah suryaningrum1; sarwiji suwandi2; herman joseph waluyo3 1,2,3post graduate of indonesian education and literature department, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1sumarahsuryaningrum@student.uns.ac.id; 2sarwijiswan@yahoo.com; 3herman.jwaluyo@yahoo.co.id received: 08th march 2019/revised: 15th april 2019/accepted: 20th may 2019 how to cite: suryaningrum, s., suwandi, s., & waluyo, h. j. (2019). the discrimination against women reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa by okky madasari. lingua cultura, 13(2), 137-143. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5704 abstract this research aimed to find out the discrimination against women in indonesia, especially reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa written by okky madasari. over centuries, women in indonesia had faced various forms of discrimination that happened because of the strong influence of patriarchal culture, norms, customs, and even religion. that viewpoint then caused men and women to have different roles, both biologically and socially. women had roles to keep house, family, and children, meanwhile, men had roles to provide for living and protection to the family. the discrimination problem, especially for women, was still the most discussed topic due to the lack of public awareness about women’s roles in community life. this research was a descriptive qualitative research using feminism approach. the data in this research were in the forms of sentences, paragraphs, dialogues, and discourses that reflect discrimination against women. the data analysis technique used in this research was content analysis. the research result shows that there is discrimination towards women in the sectors of economic and social based on the utterances from these three novels by okky madasari. keywords: women, discrimination, novel, feminism introduction literature works are not just writing reflecting the social, cultural, and historical life of society, but it also reflects the values of life. in this context, literature works not only to entertain the readers but also have the meaning which can influence the readers’ viewpoint or perception towards life. this means that a text is said to have value because it gives meaning to its readers (o’hara, 2006). literature works such as novels also have value as a medium of communication with messages delivery even though not as direct disclosure (gora, 2015). this is also reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa by okky madasari. in these novels, the author raises the social conditions of the community at that time when inequality between women and men was an issue. the discussion about women sometimes makes women as image objects, have two sides of perception, both positive and negative. it happens because women have two sides that one of which is women is a form of beauty. when talking about women, it seems unfair not to mention feminism. literature plays an important role in feminism. studies about women or feminism in novels generally try to bring women to the surface, so that justice and gender equality can be realized. moore (1988) has stated that the social construction, which formed men domination role in culture and society in general or in patriarchal, legitimizes the gender relations between men and women in the form of masculinity and femininity. the feminism movements affect many aspects of women’s lives, starting with the development of social, economic, politics, and culture. feminism is a women’s movement that appeared due to the awareness that women have the same position as men. as stated by webster and geofe (1993) that feminism is an organized activity fighting for women’s rights and interests. this means that if women have the same position as men, therefore women have the same rights as men to divine their own fate. feminism aims to end the domination of men over women by disrupting cultural structures, all laws and rules that are placing women as weak and helpless victims. this was accepted by women as marginalization, subordination, stereotyping, and violence (rokhmansyah, 2014). furthermore, djajanegara (2000) has said that the main 138 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 137-143 purpose of feminism is to increase the women’s position and the degree to be the same as men’s. heroepoetri and valentina (2004) have added that feminism intends to fight for humanity for women as independent human (women demanding their full rights as human beings). in indonesian culture, there is still inequality of position between women and men. this seems to be a habit and grown in society. talking about women related to gender cannot be separated from the social construction regulating and placing women in different positions with men (derana, 2016). the stereotype found in indonesian society has resulted in women’s losses and injustices. this stereotype then leads to widespread discrimination against women, such as government regulations, religious rules, culture, and community habits. discrimination or common term referring to differences in treatments is something familiar. according to theodorson and theodorson in fulthoni (2009), discrimination is an unfair and unbalanced treatment carried out to distinguish individuals or groups based on something that is usually categorical, distinctive attributes such as race, nationality, religion, or membership. discrimination is one of trending issues and the most discussed topic among indonesian society, happened not only in the past but also until this day, especially relating to the gender issue. gender itself refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that are considered suitable for men and women by certain communities (shastri, 2014). the indonesian people believe both women and men have different roles and some main responsibilities that they must do and fulfill. physically, women’s role is only related to housekeeping, kitchen, and bed. meanwhile, men’s role is as a wage earner and a family protector. all of these ideas make women have a lower position than men do and often considered weak until they lose their equal rights over men. the discrimination experienced by women in society is generally caused by the influence of a strong patriarchal culture in indonesia, norms, customs, and people’s behavior and thoughts, which finally create an atmosphere of discrimination. commonly, discrimination is more for women because they are considered as a lower and weaker part of men. in our society, women’s lives are truly shaped by a patriarchal culture that has been inherent for centuries, making it difficult to eliminate. since childhood, women must comply with their father, and when married, they must comply with their husband. in the field of economy or work, women only have a slight opportunity. women’s potential is often ignored. this has made it difficult for women to have an equal position with men. women are often considered too emotional and often make decisions based on their conscience, so they are not qualified to play the role of leaders. this assumption has resulted in women occupying a less important position in the field of economics or work by only being laborers in small industries or traders in traditional markets. in the social sector, the problem faced by women is the assumption that women will end up only in the kitchen, so they do not need to go to higher education. besides, education is a tool not only to get proper jobs but also to change one’s mindset in social life. this is in line with the research of atmawati (2018) that has said the way of social thinking is determined by the differences of language choice, in which it develops in accordance with the education level pursued. if women do not get an education, it will not only make it difficult for them to find jobs and to improve their living standard but also inhibit their social life because they are considered not able to put themselves on the same level as educated men. in addition to lower education, the idea of women should be able to cook, maintain cleanliness, and serve their husbands and children, worsen the discrimination against women since it restrained women not to do other activities except domestic sector only. discrimination in the social sector also occurs when there is something or problem that needs solution together both in family or community, women’s voice seems to be not heard nor needed or being the last to be asked for an opinion. this causes a large gap between the position of men and women. though as fellow human beings, both women and men have the same rights. men and women are like two sides of the inseparable coin; they should support each other and work together to achieve goals. the discussion about discrimination is often heard, and moreover, many literature works give their voice to lift the stories about the real fights in resolving discrimination against women. some of the literary works, describing the efforts to fight for women’s rights in facing discrimination, is the novel by okky madasari; entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa. those novels are interesting to study because they can give a clear illustration of the discrimination against women at that time. as humans, men or women have the same position. how good they are to get the same portion in performing a role. for example, a man can do housework, such as cooking. this also applies to women who can also play roles as office workers who are usually male-dominated. discrimination regarding the position and role of women can be avoided if men and women try to respect and help each other’s roles. the involvement of both parties will certainly be able to reduce the existence of discrimination against women and minimize their impact. some relevant researches about discrimination against women have also been done. first is ariesta and muliastuti (2017) who have discussed black women fighting for freedom from suppression. second is setyowati (2018) who has described margaret mitchell’s struggle to break the rules in her community, especially those dealing with women and economic life. this controversial action is considered as a constructive change because it leads to women’s empowerment and equality. the third is khotimah (2009) who has talked about discrimination against women in the jobs sector. fourth is lin (2016) who has explained how chinese women survive in a patrilineal society. the fifth is handayani and salim (2007) who have discussed the positive impacts that occurred due to the increasing level of women’s education. also, the sixth is ariyanto (2017) who has described gender equality through labeling maung geulis as a female supporter and how the manifestation of female supporters in football can get moral motivation for football players in the field. in line with those researches, the researcher would also explain the forms of discrimination against women in indonesia especially in economic and social sectors which are reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa by okky madasari using feminist theory. with this research, it can increasingly open the horizons of all people about the impact of discrimination on the role and position of women in the internal (family) or external (social environment). not only that, but this research will also raise awareness of both men and women that both can work together and share the same role without dropping each other. 139the discrimination against women.... (sumarah suryaningrum, et al.) methods this research is a descriptive qualitative research using feminism approach. feminism is a theory of equality between men and women in the political, economic, and social fields, or organized activities that fight for women’s rights and interests. the fact that there are multiple definitions of feminism means that there are multiple feminist perspectives on social research methods. one shared radical tenet underlying feminist research is that women’s lives are important. feminist researchers do not cynically ‘put’ women into their scholarship so as to avoid appearing sexist. rather, for feminist researchers, females are worth examining as individuals and as people whose experience is interwoven with other women. in other words, feminists are interested in women as individuals and as a social category (reinharz in arrandell, 1995). this is in line with qualitative research, which is an approach accepted in social science. qualitative research, characterized by substantially inductive and open-ended methods, is an important and accepted approach in the social sciences. four specific features of a qualitative research are understanding research participants’ meanings, investigating the influence of the specific contexts in which the individuals and activities studied are situated, elucidating the processes by which these meanings and contexts lead to particular features or outcomes, and explicitly incorporating the subjectivity of the researcher are central to qualitative research (maxwell & reybold, 2015). this research is conducted using the data collection technique carried out by content analysis. content analysis is a research method which allows the qualitative data collected in research to be analyzed systematically and reliably so that generalizations can be made from them in relation to the categories of interest to the researcher (haggarty, 1996). the data validation tests use data triangulation, theory, and methods. the data resources are primary data and secondary data. the primary data are in the form of excerpts from the novels by okky madasari; entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa while the secondary data are cited from books, journals, and the internet as the theoretical frameworks to do analysis. the things described in this research are the description of discrimination against women, especially in the economic and social fields found in the three novels of okky madasari; entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa. these novels express determination, attitude, and how to have a clear position in various community issues that are clearly expressed so as to make a big impact on readers in making decisions. the three novels are able to open the eyes of the readers who want to accep differences and see how women have a big role in social life. the data collection technique used is literary review by obtaining theories about the discrimination and gender inequality that is required to solve the problems related to research activities, reading the entire text of the novels by okky madasari; entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa. then, a note-taking technique is used to record the data found related to sub focus and finally to analyze. results and discussions the three novels by okky madasari (entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa) share similarities; discrimination in the economic and social fields. the first discussion is discrimination in the economic field. entrok is the first novel by okky madasari published in 2010. through the characters of mother and daughter named marni and rahayu, okky expresses her anxiety about the hidden and forgotten history about women’s lives, thoughts, and struggles at that time. although they are born in a different generation, they both show the different sides of women who are often considered weak and helpless. marni has to fight against poverty, time after time she lives with sweat and without complaining. having a husband who is a drunkard, a beggar, and a lazy worker, marni patiently goes through. teja comes as a complement for marni. teja is a stepping stone for marni to be a brave woman and a defender. she does not want to surrender to men who know only about food and beds. compared to her mother, rahayu manages herself to get a higher education and fights for her true identity. the male character is often considered important in a family as life support and leader. when there is no male figure in the family, they would not be able to live well because no one could work for money. it can be seen from this utterance: “ya, makanya itu. kalau sudah tahu bapak saja tidak punya, ya sudah. nggak usah neko-neko. bisa makan tiap hari saja sudah syukur.” (madasari, 2010: 19) “indeed. you already know that you don’t have a father, just accept it. don’t screw yourself. you must thank to god that you can still eat everyday.” javanese society at that time also had a stereotype that ones who could work and deserve to get paid were only men. if there were women who work, then they would get paid with food or groceries. “simbok berkata, aku tidak akan mendapat uang. kebiasaan di pasar, buruh-buruh perempuan diupahi dengan bahan makanan. beda dengan kuli laki-laki yang diupahi dengan uang.” (madasari, 2010: 22) “simbok said, i’ll get no money. usually in the market, women laborers get paid with food or groceries. it’s different from men laborers, they’ll get paid with money.” that kind of stereotype makes women find difficulties for wanting something without men’s help. this condition is experienced by marni, especially when she really wants an entrok. entrok is a javanese language referring to breasts cover or better known as a bra or bh (madasari, 2010). the desire to have entrok is not agreed by the mother and paklik (uncle). her desire to have entrok leads marni to meet teja, one of the porters in the market. she wants to get paid with money, but teja just makes fun of her. he thinks that women are not strong enough to nguli (lift things); women are only allowed to do easy jobs. “ni, kamu ada-ada saja. nggak ada perempuan nguli. nggak akan kuat. sudah, perempuan itu kerja yang ringan-ringan aja. ngupas singkong.” (madasari, 2010: 34) “ni, don’t be unresoanable. no women lift things. you can’t do that. women like you are only allowed to do easy jobs. go pell off those cassavas.” the utterance above seems to reinforce the stereotype toward women who are weak creatures and whose position will not be equal to men. teja’s point of view does not scare marni. she even wants to prove that she could do the job as a porter as any other men could. 140 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 137-143 “aku kuat, kang. biasanya aku juga nggendong tenggok, nggendong goni. bakul-bakul itu juga banyak yang mengangkat sendiri barang dagangannya dari rumah ke pasar. hanya priyayipriyayi saja yang nggak kuat ngangkat gono.” (madasari, 2010: 34) “i am strong, kang. i usually carry tenggok and goni. many of those bakul also lift up their own things from their home to the market. it’s only priyayi who are not strong enough to lift up things.” after those arguments, finally teja allows marni to do the job as a porter. however, marni’s mother does not allow her just because that job is only for men. “nduk, semua itu sudah ada jatahnya. orang kayak kita bagiannya ngoncek telo. nguli itu berat, sudah jatah orang lain.” (madasari, 2010: 34) “nduk, everything has its own place. people like us only deserve to peel off cassavas. nguli is a heavy job. let someone else do it.” “ini masalah ilok ora ilok-pantas-nggak pantas. nggak ada perempuan nguli” (madasari, 2010: 35) “the problem is not about ilok ora ilok (good or no good). no woman does nguli.” the first statement from marni’s mother seems to emphasize that stereotype toward women are considered normal in society. that women and men have their own portion, especially in the field of work. marni’s mother also argues that a woman does not deserve to do work that is usually done by men. the second novel in this discussion is maryam. this novel tells a story of maryam hayati who is born and raised by an ahmadiyah family in lombok. the novel tells the sufferings of an ahmadi who is often banished and got problems in this country just because of faith. there is a marginalization (economic impoverishment) of women experienced by a female character named nur. nur gets that experience from her own husband. this is found in the following quote. sebelumnya, suaminya sudah membuat rekening di bri kecamatan. suaminya yang setiap bulan mengambil uang kirimannya. dengan uang itu seluruh keperluan keluarganya dibiayai. makan dan sekolah anak-anaknya. dengan uang itu rumah ibu nur bisa sedikit diperbaiki. punya penghasilan tetap tiap bulan dari pekerjaan istrinya membuat suami nur yang memang tak akrab dengan laut semakin malas untuk melaut. (madasari, 2012:201) previously, her husband had made an account at bri sub-district. her husband took her shipment every month. with that money, all of her family’s needs were fulfilled. her children’s food and school. with that money, nur mother’s house could be fixed a bit. having a regular income every month from his wife’s job, made nur’s husband be lazy to go sailing to sea. nur reveals in the quote that for the sake of meeting the needs of the family, she is willing to work far to saudi arabia. meanwhile, at home, her husband, who usually works at the sea, becomes lazy because he has been receiving money from his wife every month. nur’s expression gives the awareness that there is impoverishment for nur’s husband. the last novel in this discussion is pasung jiwa (madasari, 2013). this novel tells about a story of sasana and friends who are facing endless problems; violence, oppression, and various incarcerations against souls. sasana, who is born as a man, loves dangdut and wants to become a singer. it is his desire, which leads him to become a shemale. he is not ashamed of his appearance, and in fact, he makes his look like a real woman that it is also the beginning of his experience. living with many different people has taught him that his decision being shemale might be considered as a bad, improper, and crazy behavior, but he enjoys it. he then finds his friends who also have the same problem, and finally, they fight together to make their own dreams come true. in novel pasung jiwa (madasasari, 2013), the workers get an unfair treatment by the power of the capital owner. the workers are used as a means to fulfill the needs of factory production. as human resources, the workers do not get an opportunity to develop their potentials. they are required to productively work every day, which caused them to lose their own human rights. “setiap hari dari jam delapan pagi sampai jam empat sore, aku berdiri di hadapan meja besar ini, mengusap dan memasang ratusan bahkan bisa sampai ribuan kaca setiap hari. pikiranku sudah mati. aku bekerja sudah tidak pakai otak lagi. yang penting tanganku ini terus bergerak, mengulang hal yang sama persis setiap menitnya. aku sekarang adalah mesin. bergerak sesuai apa yang sudah diperintahkan, mengulang saja apa yang sudah dilakukan kemarin dan kemarinnya lagi.” (madasari, 2013: 159-160). “every day from eight in the morning until four in the afternoon, i stand up in front of this big table, wipe and put hundreds or even thousands of glass every day. i am losing my mind. i work without brain anymore. the important thing is that my hands keep moving, repeating the exact same thing every single minute. i am now a machine. move only whenever asked to, only repeat what was done yesterday and the day before yesterday. not only economic discrimination, but there is also discrimination in the social sector in the three novels. in entrok, it explains that there is discrimination against women in java. the javanese society generally has stereotypes that javanese women are constructed to masak (cook), macak (wear makeup), and manak (have children) (umam, 2015). the stereotype toward javanese women is reinforced by the customs or culture that seems to accustom women to their position below men. “samar-samar dalam ingatanku, terbayang bapak memukul simbok yang sedang sakit panas dan tidak bisa ke pasar.” (madasari, 2010: 18) “vaguely in my memory, imagining bapak hit simbok who was sick and could not go to the market.” “dan laki-laki itu dengan seenaknya hanya menunggu makanan.” (madasari, 2017: 18) “and that guy just conveniently waited for the food to come.” these utterances show that the men’s position is 141the discrimination against women.... (sumarah suryaningrum, et al.) above women so that men feel like have the power to do anything, including harm against women. women do not have the rights to fight back because only men are considered having an important role in a family. the figure of men is important in the family as living support and leader. those efforts are done by marni to make a better living actually still get mockeries. she often still gets negative stereotypes. people think that women who could work and get success must use negative things to achieve it. orang-orang bilang ibu memelihara tuyul. makhluk halus berkepala gundul yang bisa membuat orang yang memeliharanya kaya. kata mereka, “bagaimana mungkin marni kere bisa jadi sekaya ini kalau tidak punya tuyul?” (madasari, 2010: 54) people said that mother raised tuyul. a little baldheaded ghost who can make people who raising it become rich. they said, “how does poor marni become this rich if she doesn’t raise a tuyul?” not only being accused to have tuyul, marni is also accused that she is a cruel and an evil loan sharks. “yu marni, kang teja, kami mendengar dari banyak orang, katanya sampeyan ngrenteni duit. itu dilarang agama. kalian bikin sengsara banyak orang.” (madasari, 2010: 75) “yu marni, kang teja, we heard from many people that you are a loan shark. it’s not allowed in our religion. you’ve made people suffer.” not only that, marni is also accused of being the person behind the single accident that has killed bejo, her driver. they assume that bejo was a tumbal (victim) of marni’s wealth. “bejo jadi sajen. sajen pesugihan” (madasari, 2010: 121). “bejo becomes sajen (something in return). sajen pesugihan (mystical activity to get rich).” sajen, pesugihan, tuyul, gumung kawi, selama bertahun-tahun orang-orang singget telah menjadikan itu semua sebagai cerita yang disebarkan dari mulut ke mulut. menjadi hiburan dan kesenangan di antara berbagai kesulitan (madasari, 2010: 121). sajen, pesugihan, tuyul, mount kawi, over years that singget people have made it all as a story spread by words of mouth. entertaining and becoming pleasure among various difficulties. in maryam, it is explained that discrimination against women is caused by one of them due to patriarchal culture. the patriarchal culture, which still exists in indonesian society causes women not so much to have room to move, even to have feelings. parents would require their daughters to look for a life partner whom the parents thought is worth it and usually for this matter, parents already have someone they think would fit their daughter. if a woman has her own choice for marriage, then the parents would ask some questions to the man about his background and decided if it is acceptable or not. if the woman’s parents disagree, they would ask her to stay away from the man for the sake of her own good without considering their daughter’s feelings. it can be seen in the following quote. “lebih baik tidak usah pacaran dengan orang luar. daripada nanti sama-sama kecewa. samasama terluka. lebih baik diakhiri sekarang saja.” (madasari, 2012: 17) “it’s better not to go on a date with outsiders. you’ll be disappointed. you both get hurt. it’s better to end now.” bapaknya bicara dengan nada lebih tinggi. ia meminta maryam pulang. “banyak laki-laki baik di kampung!” katanya. “mereka yang dididik dan dibesarkan dengan cara yang sama akan menghargai dan mencintai dengan lebih baik dibanding orangorang luar yang selalu merasa paling benar.” (madasari, 2012: 17) her father spoke louder. he asked maryam to go home. “many good men in the village!” he said. “those who are educated and raised in the same way will appreciate and love better than those outsiders who always feel right.” in the novel maryam, there is a subordination (an unimportant presumption or marginalization for women in household or politics) faced by the female character named maryam. maryam receives subordination from her own parents in law. this could be seen in the following quote. .....penghulu mengarahkan alam dan maryam untuk bersalaman kepada orangtua. memohon restu agar pernikahan yang baru dimulai ini abadi dan selalu penuh berkah. ada rasa gentar saat maryam bersimpuh di pangkuan ibu alam. ada rasa ragu ketika ia mencium tangan mertuanya itu. ketika ibu alam merunduk mendekat ke telinga maryam, jantung maryam berdebar cepat. perempuan itu membisikkan wejangan-wejangan. meminta maryam senantiasa patuh dan menuruti kata suami. menjadikan suami satu-satunya panutan. menjauh diri dari segala yang tidak benar. (madasari, 2012:111) .....the headman directs alam and maryam to shake hands with parents. to ask for blessing so that the new marriage life begins will be forever and always be blessed. there is a slight fear when maryam kneels to the ground in front of alam’s mother. there is a doubt when she kisses her mother in law on the hand. when alam’s mother looks down to get closer to maryam’s ears, maryam’s heart beats fast. that woman whispers many advices. asking maryam to always comply and obey whatever her husband says. making her husband to be the one and only role model. staying herself away from everything that is not true. this quote shows the existence of women marginalization or insignificant assumptions about women. this problem occurs when maryam kneels to the ground in front of alam’s mother. there is a feeling of doubt when she has to kiss her mother in law. when alam’s mother looks down, she whispers something to maryam, asks her not only to comply with her husband and make him as the one and only role model but also to stay herself away from any bad things and everything that is not true. this is what how women marginalization and not-so-important perception towards women in making a decision. as for the pasung jiwa novel, it is explained that 142 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 137-143 there is no freedom for a child to argue and act according to his own will, everything is arranged by parents. parents have the freedom to organize their education and future for their children. children’s future and education cannot be separated from parents’ interference. a child’s freedom actually gets pressure from the family. in educating their children, sasana’s conservative parents still believe in the tradition applied in their neighborhood. it is different from sasana as a representative of a liberal group that requires freedom in making their own choices without getting interfered by their parents. saat itu aku sadar, selama ini aku salah. memainkan piano tak sekedar memainkan alat yang bisa dilakukan siapa saja. selama ini aku memang tak suka. tapi aku bisa melakukannya karena aku ingin menunjukkan aku bisa. karena aku ingin membuat ayah dan ibu bahagia. (madasari, 2013:23) at that time i realized, for all this time i was wrong. playing a piano was not just playing a tool that anyone could do. for all this time, i didn’t like it. but i can do it because i want to show that i can make it. because i want to make my father and mother happy. the fate of the liberal group must lose with the tradition domination. the attitude of the conservative group enforcing others has led to a form of human rights violations. the liberal group who feels their rights have been seized are not just keeping silence. they fight for freedom by suing what they should get as an individual. this proves through the human rights opposition with the law in the following quote. jadi siapakah yang memimpin sidang? hakim atau orang-orang itu? hakim terlihat tak punya nyali. diteriaki sedikit saja ia langsung mengubah cara bertanya. hakim itu hanya mau cari aman sendiri. kebenaran ada ketika banyak orang yang mengatakannya. keadilan diukur dari jumlah orang yang mendukung. aku hanya seorang diri. tanpa dukungan, tanpa ada orang-orang di belakangku. apalah artinya membela orang sepertiku, ketika segala sesuatu di negeri ini ditentukan dengan jumlah? setan-setan berjubah putih itu dianggap suara banyak orang. lebih baik mendengarkan mereka, bergabung dengan kekuatan yang berkuasa. itulah mental picik orang-orang di sekitarku. termasuk mereka yang seharusnya memutuskan secara adil. (madasari, 2013:306-307) so who is leading the court? the judge or those people? the judge seems not to have the guts. being shouted a little, he immediately changed his way of asking. the judge just wanted to play safe himself. the truth exists only when many people talk about it. fairness is measured by the number of people who give supports. i am all alone. without support, there are no people behind me. why should bother theirselves to support someone like me, when everything in this country is determined only by numbers? those white robed demons are the voice of many people. it is better to listen to them, to join the power in charge. that is how illiberal mental of people around me work. including those who should decide fairly. conclusions the conclusion obtained from the analysis is that there is a description of discrimination against women in the economic and social fields. the community basically cannot accept the presence of women’s roles in several aspects of life, considering there are still unclear roles and responsibilities among them. specific naming and labeling for women in several aspects of people’s lives basically place women in positions that are excluded from the male domain because they are considered weak and unable. entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa novels put forward various things about struggle, injustice, and violence experienced by women and marginalized people, both those carried out by the community, the state apparatus, and the white-robed warriors on behalf of religion and god. this work alone is able to expand and provide insight for readers’ critical thinking by making them aware of the potential of a woman to fight for equality, both in domestic life, economics, and social life. there is also an effort by women to fight for their rights so they can have an equal position with men. the struggle is described in the form of verbal and attitudes. the discrimination against women has a negative impact, both for economic growth and social interaction. it would be better if women are given the same opportunities as men to show their potentials and abilities so that both women and men could work together to create a better life. references ariesta, f., & muliastuti, l. 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(1993). webster’s third new international dictionary of the english language (11th ed.). sprinfield massachussetts: merriam webster inc. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 383 lingua cultura, 12(4), november 2018, 383-388 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i4.4911 analyzing humor in newspaper comic strips using verbal-visual analysis fallianda1; rani yuni astiti2; zulvy alivia hanim3 1,2,3magister ilmu linguistik, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas airlangga jl. dharmawangsa dalam, airlangga, surabaya 60286, indonesia 1fallianda.yand@gmail.com; 2rani.yuni.astiti@fib.unair.ac.id; 3zulvy.alivia.hanim-2016@fib.unair.ac.id received: 20th august 2018 /revised: 06th september 2018 /accepted: 17th september 2018 how to cite: fallianda., astiti. r. y., & hanim, z. a. (2018). analyzing humor in newspaper comic strips using verbal-visual analysis. lingua cultura, 12(4), 383-388. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4911 abstract the researchers aimed at analyzing the meaning of humor in newspaper comic strips within a variety of incongruous combinations of multimodal rhetoric. the current research focused on how humor was produced via verbal medium only, via both verbal and visual media, as well as via visual only. the source of data was 74 political comic strips featured in kompas newspaper. the general theory of verbal humor (gtvh) was adapted as a framework of analysis. the analysis of the data confirms the following categorization: 49 humors appear only in text, 22 humor result from the interaction of text and image, and three humor come from images. in addition, humor which appears in text only and cases of the interaction between the two semiotic modes (either complementary or contradictory) is based on puns, exaggerations, contradictions, analogies, parallelisms, or verbal metaphors. special attention is given to humor produced by the interaction of both text and image and by the images only which cause the hyperdetermination of humor, which can produce two or more humorous utterances. meanwhile, the humor appeared in visual comic strips is produced exclusively by the visual language of knowledge resources. keywords: humor, comic strips, verbal analysis, visual analysis introduction comics is a medium to represent a person, place, thing, or idea through images that are often combined with words or other visual information (mccloud & martin, 1993). according to the definition of the comic in the oxford english dictionary (mitchell, 2014), comics lie in the frame of comedy interpretation rather than tragedy.thus, comics convey the communicative goal presenting humor. in addition, comic strip conveys a sequence of illustrations arranged either in single or multiple panels with text in balloons or captions (cohn, 2013). the popularization of comic strips has been distinctively recognized in certain communication contexts, such as newspapers and magazines. while comic can have different genres which may not have a humorous tone (e.g., adventures, relationship, etc.), political comic strips appear in newspaper pages need elements of humor to pass the ethical or moral judgment on individuals, institutions, or groups (eko, 2007). in short, the pages are expected to be the funniest, and indeed a reader can expect the context to be humorous, let alone the original intention of the content it has in the strips. tsakona (2009) has analyzed the humorous effects via visual and verbal modes of 561 political cartoons of the most popular weekly and daily greek newspaper. a general theory of verbal humor (gtvh) framework of analysis is used and based its assumption that image and language may or may not collaborate for the creation of humor. the research has found that humor mostly results from the interaction of verbal and visual elements in the political cartoons (66,84%), and followed by humor produced via verbal elements only (31,01%). meanwhile, humor produced via the visual elements only are found with the lowest percentage (2,13%). in special cases, the interaction of the two semiotic codes might result in both textual and punctual hyperdetermination of humor, which might result in multiple active opposed scripts. textual hyperdetermination contains only one context which causes multiple script oppositions, for example in a comic duet figure of political opponents. meanwhile, punctual hyperdetermination produces multiple humor in different levels and contexts of text and image interaction, for example, changing a page is viewed differently with turning a page into a folder and can be considered as a failure in political views (bounegru & forceville, 2011). finally, tsakona (2009) has suggested that the gtvh framework is a potential linguistic device to transmit humorous political, social, or other messages. another research conducted by fägersten (2017) 384 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 383-388 who has investigated the humor of english-language swearwords in swedish-language comic strips. the research thus represents interdiscourse humor based on incongruity via the intercultural clashes. it employs the encryption theory of humor. this fact is encrypted in the comic strips which show incongruity of two discourse systems under different norms of appropriateness. the analysis of the selection of examples of swedish comic strips featuring english swearing switches has suggested that humor created via english swearwords is a function of shared background knowledge. in spite of considering the comic strip frame as playful, the inappropriateness is resolved by the swedes speakers’ common knowledge in that they are inactively concerned with the native (english speakers) norms of swearword usage. to conclude, certain communities like the swedes unlikely experience offense or impropriety by using english swearwords. abdel-raheem (2018) has examined multimodal humor in editorial/political cartoons by combining the incongruity-resolution theory in humor studies, as well as blending and relevance theory. the researchers aim to analyze humorous components in political cartoons. a corpus of 45 west political cartoons in egypt’s two influential state newspapers covers political dissatisfaction over the us decision to cut aid to egypt. the results have claimed incongruities in multimodal humor (e.g., rambo-obama) are resolved by the blending theory which based its interpretation on the input mental spaces and its antonym (e.g., fighting versus sponsoring; hand versus barrel). concerning how relevance theory work, it is when readers pragmatically infer explicatures via visual codes and implicatures via individual’s background knowledge, cultural values, psychological traits, and the broader social context. finally, the analysis in the research emphasizes in that the theories are fundamental in the interaction of readers’ linguistic and cognitive system for cartoons. there are two significant differences between the current research and the three related researches that are explained above. first, the difference is the source of data which will explain different graphic styles in which sequential patterns of images are created. for example, tsakona (2009) has analyzed greek political cartoon; fägersten (2017) has conducted humor research on swedish comic strips; abdel-raheem (2018) has analyzed political cartoons on the west by egypt’s newspapers. meanwhile, the current research particularly analyzes indonesian political comic strips which may result in more exclusive verbal or visual sources. second, the difference is the theories applied. the current research uses the general theory of verbal humor (gtvh) (attardo, 2017) which has been developed from focusing on semantic scripts to pragmatic model. the interaction between the pictorial and textual components is particularly important since humor can appear in either one of the modes or both of them. in addition, humorous components can appear in different levels and contexts due to the language and image interaction, which means humor can appear in the middle (jab line) or at the end of the text (punch line) or sequences of images (tsakona, 2009). reflecting the background of the research, the current research aims to analyze multimodal humor of comic strips in one of indonesian influential state newspaper. the researchers expect that the research can contribute to humor study found in comic strips. the theories employed are the script-based semantic theory of humor (ssth) and the general theory of verbal humor (gtvh). since a comic has its language grammar, the way a comic artist creates sequences of illustrations in one or more panels, the multimodal analysis is especially important. known as humorous picture-stories, the comic has the different graphics style that distinguishes it from gag or editorial cartoon. there are panel arrangements, gutter or panel frames, body types and sizes, postures, facial expressions, speech or thought balloons, onomatopoeia and written words in the story (e.g., ), pictograms (e.g., ) and pictorial runes (e.g., spikes ) (forceville, refaie, & meesters, 2014). in addition, comics are often accompanied by textual devices, such as caption or dialogues. raskin (2017) further develops the ssth theory that has been commonly associated with the opposition of two distinct scripts. raskin (1987) postulates the possibilities of script oppositions, yet not limited to; normal/abnormal, actual/non-actual, possible/impossible, good/bad, life/ death, non-sex/sex, money/non-money, high stature/low stature. in other words, a story is found to be funny or not when readers can find violations of expectation of the other opposed script, for instance, if people see or do things that hardly happen in real or normal life. incongruity occurred in the opposed scripts also demonstrates a fully-cognitive linguistic, vis-à-vis semantic, and pragmatic theories (yus, 2003). in this case, readers’ knowledge of the most relevant information is inadequate to resolve the humor effect; therefore the information has to be replaced with a more unlikely but eventually turns out to be the correct interpretation (refaie, 2011; yus, 2017). in short, readers can find unpredictable situations while they expect a more likely situation. the unpredictability has been set up into six knowledge resources (kr) in the gtvh theory. moreover, the resources can be described as follows; (1) script opposition (so) is the opposed scripts that are explicitly stated and inferentially understood by readers. (2) the logical mechanism (lm) accounts for the playful and non-serious logic to resolve the incongruities from the opposed scripts. (3) situation describes the background of events, such as participants, objects, activities, or places. (4) target (ta) talks about human and their activities, such as practices or beliefs. (5) narrative strategy (ns) refers to text organization, such as narratives, dialogues, riddles, or puns, and presents a jab line or a punch line in the text. (6) language (la) contains linguistic resources, for example phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical description. methods the data collection is done by gathering comic strips in one of indonesian state newspaper, kompas (2017), from february to november 2017. the newspaper is chosen because the comic strips can represent the nation in general. for instance, there are panji & koming in which the setting takes place in the old javanese times featuring javanese aristocrats and peasants’ family, timun which has its special characteristics of body figures, sukribo which features an ordinary boy who pays attention to indonesian social and political conditions, konpopilan which only relies on visual communication instead of words. those strips have one similarity in that they appear as political commentary. the methods of data analysis consist of three steps. first, the researchers classify the comic strips based on a variety of incongruous combinations of multimodal humor 385analyzing humor in newspaper... (fallianda et al.) (samson & huber, 2007). there can be opposition in text only, between text and image, or in images only. second, the researchers identify two opposed scripts with the ssth theory. third, the researchers observe the resolution (namely as logical mechanism in knowledge resources) of the two opposed scripts, hence produce humor, based on readers’ kr in gtvh theory. consider the following kr analysis for the example of the joke or verbal humor: a skeleton walks into a bar and says, “i’ll have a beer and a mop.” (attardo, 2017). the situation portrays ‘patronizing a bar’ script. however, incongruities are found in the real/unreal script of ‘walk into’, ‘talk’, and ‘drink’ that are done by a skeleton as an agent. needless to say, the script opposition breaks the expectation of normal activity in a bar (e.g., drinking) by setting up a new yet abnormal action (e.g., mopping). the humor is based on the analogy of the opposed scripts, in which one can hardly imagine a skeleton, via metonymy replaces a human, walks into a bar and, asks for a beer and a mop. the analysis of the data confirms that comic strips can be categorized based on the assumption that language and image may or may not collaborate for the creation of humor (samson & huber, 2007). more specifically, in 49 out of total 74 (66,2%) humor appears only in the text; in 22% out of total (29,7) humor results from the interaction of text and image; and in 3 from total (4,05%) comic strips the image is the only source of humor. in the following section, each category will be analyzed separately, in order to identify the creation of humor within the gtvh framework. results and discussions in the first category, the verbal language is responsible for the production of humor in the comic strips. the script oppositions are conveyed in the text. sequences of images in this particular case support the production of humor by providing the background of the event; hence those elements reflect readers’ knowledge of the situation. figure 1 a comic strip by rachmat riyadi (libra), published in kompas (08 january 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) the strip in figure 1 contains only one panel which portrays situations and events that happen at the beginning of the new year. there are three timun characters that are famously recognized portraying a wide range of personalities, such as a citizen, government official, a man spreading hoax and hatred, as well as skulls as the metaphor of death. the first man figure, as the main character in the strip, is cautiously watching several people shouting over the new year’s resolution by saying, ‘they’re still partying in the new year...’ the ‘partying’ script is incongruously associated with the other attributes of things the other characters refer to (e.g., corruption, tragedy, drugs, or hoax). the normal script of partying is to have new resolutions for a better future, while the strip presents misfortunes and troubles. the humor is thus resolved by using the exaggerating expression. this strip thus criticizes certain responsible parties that cause disorders for the country. finally, the humorous effects are created via text only in which pictorial elements supports the humor with its exaggerated expressions and human-like figure. figure 2 a comic strip by faisal ismail, published in kompas (11 june 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) in figure 2, sukribo tells his friend that he will wear formal shoes with heels for eid mubarak. to his friend’s surprise, sukribo is expected to present a plausible reason for his decision. sukribo’s last utterance then becomes the punch line of the strip as he incongruously refers ‘hak’ (heels) to two opposed scripts, which can have two different meanings both of ‘heels’ and ‘rights’. the humor here is produced based on one of the language components that is a pun (homonymy) which refers to the same words but with different meanings. readers, therefore, can understand the humor meaning if they can find the analogy or contrast meaning of ‘hak’ script. indeed, the strip captures the situation where the indonesian house of representatives tries to weaken the corruption eradication commission (komisi pemberantasan korupsi; henceforth kpk). figure 3 a comic strip by rachmat riyadi (libra), published in kompas (09 april 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) in figure 3, a boy character named terong is indignantly telling his parents that he is accused of stealing. the boy reacts, hence is equivalent to that of setya novanto, when he is accused of the e-id graft case. the mother’s response, “our child is consumed with news about 386 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 383-388 the e-id graft case” becomes the punch line of the strip as the utterance concludes the incongruous actions of her son. in the actual politic practice, the obsession with stage play becomes the aesthetic side of political behavior. as a result, such play in the strip is presented in an exaggerated manner. from the three comic strips presented in figure 1, 2, and 3, humor exclusively appears within the text, while the images support the language expressions between the comic characters. the humorous effects identified in the data are the same as the ones found in other humorous genres (e.g., in narrative jokes or political cartoons), namely as puns, exaggerations, contradictions, analogies, parallelisms, or verbal metaphors. finally, the analytical tools of the gtvh can account for the creation of humor in comic strips. in the second category, the examination of humor production in comic strips is more complex since the interaction of text and images is not so straightforwardly addressed or appears within the sequences of panels. the humor in this category is created by either producing or enhancing humorous effects. in other words, there are two kinds of interaction which either be a contradictory or complementary one. in addition, humor can also create hyperdetermined humor, since there can be more than one humorous utterances in different panels (evoking a different but thematically script oppositions). figure 4 a comic strip by dwi koendoro, published in kompas (12 march 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) in the background of figure 4, an administrator announces an official decision made by javanese authorities. the official decision is about the suspension of one of the javanese authorities (portrayed as the character of denmas aryo kendor) who is responsible for the graft case of identity card. the script opposition is caused by the incongruity between the administrator’s words and results of one’s words in images. the image in panel 4 (the first panel appears in the left top, continuing from the left bottom as well) shows the contrast between the authority’s and common people’s intention. the contrast script indicates the normal versus abnormal scripts of the kr analysis. the punch line is concluded by the last utterance of the two peasants witnessing the contradiction of the antagonist characters. in cases such as contradiction depicted in figure 4, humor can be produced via the interaction of verbal and visual elements. the examination of data in figure 4 indicates that there is a kind of humorous production that is counterpointing or contradictory one. depending on the degree and distribution of different information presented, a counterpointing dynamic develops words and images collaborating to communicate meaning. figure 5 represents indonesian government officials or house of representatives to comic characters of javanese authorities, which can reflect that particular events take place between the two periods. the characters are very popular with their incongruous actions, dialogues, and personalities in general. the incongruity of this strip emerges from the overlap and contrast between the normal script which involving the government officials concern for the country’s problems (see panels 1-4), and the abnormal one involving the authorities’ indifference for the country’s problems. the opposed scripts show that such actions are rarely exposed to the present time. the punch line comes from the peasants’ exaggerated reactions over the authorities’ exaggerated actions. finally, the interactions of the image and text are complementary since the real-like portrayals of characters are explicitly inferred via the pictorial components (e.g., pictorial runes indicating movement) and implicitly understood by readers with similar common knowledge of certain behaviors. figure 5 a comic strip by dwi koendoro, published in kompas (17 september 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) in figure 6, the figure of kpk’s top investigators novel baswedan is represented like timun character. the character is famously recognized to create laughter with their odd actions, dialogues, and personalities. in this strip, the artist creates a visual metaphor which combines the physical traits of novel, for example, his half-baldness, with that of timun. in addition, though the visual metaphors of a crocodile figure the cartoonist aim to criticize the nation’s criminals. the first opposed script appeared here is resolved by the analogy that contributes to the creation of the same visual metaphor. furthermore, the metaphor is verbally realized through a pun of the monologue. the second humor emerges from the incongruity between the actual script involving the seriousness of some unfortunate event, and the nonactual one suggesting the comicality inherent with timun hyperbolic actions and words. moreover, it can be claimed that, in the former cases of figure 4 and 5, the combinations of pictures and words may complement or contradict to each other to create the humorous meaning, while in the latter case (figure 387analyzing humor in newspaper... (fallianda et al.) 6) a kind of hyperdeterminated humor may occur. more specifically, the analysis of figure 6 proposes that textual hyperdetermination which can occur where the script opposition and the logical mechanism coming from the verbal means differ from the ones coming from the visual ones, hence there may be two (or more) script oppositions. in other words, the above cases reflect the examination of data where verbal humor (usually a pun or a fixed expression) co-occur with visual metaphors. figure 6 a comic strip by rachmat riyadi (libra), published in kompas (07 may 2017). (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) in the third category, there are comic strips which solely based on its humorous effect on their pictorial elements. the strip in figure 7 is one of the visual communications depicted via the interaction of human and animal characters. there are certain kinds of animals which symbolize certain parties in indonesian politics. in this case, one can assume from the first panel and the first animal cartoon character (e.g., a lion) that the situation happens in a circus show. although a bear does not normally jump over a hula hoop (see panel 2), a bear is still a part of trained animals which usually performs a show in a circus (which refers to the ‘normal’ script of the so in kr analysis). from all information presented in panels 1-2, a rat can expect the same treatment, even though the animal is not normally part of the trained animals in a circus show. the first opposition is thus resolved by metaphors of the rat as corruptors figure. figure 7 a comic strip by ade r, published in kompas (19 march 2017) (source: https://kompas.id/baca/hiburan/) just like humor examined in a multimodal strip (text only or text and image), the punch line in visual humor is based on information presented in the set-up which is not identical. it reveals no information that will ruin the final surprise of a new and unexpected event. in addition, the new script opposition (refers to the possible and impossible scripts in script opposition below) can be illustrated as follows; although a rat is illustrated as a trained animal and will get the same opportunity as the others, the same opportunity does not come for the rat. the possibility of escaping the obstacle is compared – in an exaggerated manner – to which readers can infer that the hole is intentionally set up to fit the rat’s body or the rat is expecting the similar size of a hula hoop that has been given to the other animals. finally, the cartoonist intends to represent the nation’s view on political stands. the results of the current research may contradict with the previous research, for example in terms of theories applied and sources of data. first of all, the examination of the data in this current research is based on the general theory of verbal humor (gtvh). the theory systematically explains how readers can identify incongruous inputs of both textual and pictorial elements, then implicitly infer humor based on their common knowledge. this view is also supported by sosa-abella and reyes (2015) in which they explain that humor represented not only the mental process of audiences but also a fairly complex view of social interaction. the theory is different from that of fägersten (2017) and abdel-raheem (2018). even though they emphasize multimodal issues in their research, they do not present distinctive importance of the interaction of the two semiotic modes, whether humor appears on text only, text and image, or image only. particular attention should have been given to humor found in text and image in which many kinds of interaction, whether it will be complementary rather than contradictory interaction or result in hyperdetermined humor that can be made. moreover, different sources of data may create different results. since the current source of data in the current research is different from tsakona (2009). the current researchers can expect different results. while tsakona has found that the production of humor in the editorial cartoon is primarily as a result of the interaction of image and text, the current research confirms that humor in comic strips is mostly produced by the textual features only. in this case, shifman (2007) agrees that humor is a statistic and moving image, as well as written language and oral communication. conclusions the current analysis reveals three significant results. first, in 49 out of 74 comic strips (66,2%), humor is based solely on their texts, while images support humor by providing the background or situation of the humorous utterance or text. in such cases, humor is based on puns, exaggerations, contradictions, analogies, parallelisms, or verbal metaphors. second, in 22 out of the total 74 comic strips (29,7%), humor results from the interaction of text and image which is either contradictory or complementary to each other. in this case, linguistics combines with multimodal analysis to be able to explain the process of communication in humor (brock, 2017). the interaction of the two semiotic modes also makes the analysis becomes more complex and not so straightforward. an interesting result emerges from the knowledge resources where the interaction of text and image creates a textual hyperdetermination of humor occurs. the hyperdeterminated humor particularly present multiple 388 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 4, november 2018, 383-388 analysis of the script opposition and logical mechanism, and language resources of the comic strips, hence there may be two (or more) jab lines present. such humorous effects can also result where verbal humor (usually a pun or a fixed expression) co-occur with a visual metaphor. finally, there are 3 out of 74 comic strips (4,05%) which are based solely on pictorial elements. the humor appeared in visual comic strips is produced exclusively by the visual language of knowledge resources. the current research covers only a particular range of time, which is from february to november 2017. further research on multimodal humor studies, more specifically the diachronic one will be interesting to discuss. it may assist the researchers to gain a better understanding of which type of multimodal rhetoric used to retell important political events. besides, further research can also focus on thematic-based studies of multimodal humor. in this case, there will be more themes, other than political strips, for example themes of social and culture, corruptions, law, economy, pers, and many others. further research can find that humor produced via text and image may be more appropriate than humor created via text only within a particular time or theme. references abdel-raheem, a. 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(1987). linguistic heuristics of humor: a scriptbased semantic approach. international journal of the sociology of language, 1987(65), 11-26. https:// doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-1987-6503. raskin, v. (2017). script-based semantics and ontological semantic theories of humor. in attardo, s. (ed.), the routledge handbook of language and humor (pp. 109-125). new york: routledge. refaie, e. e. (2011). the pragmatics of humor reception: young people’s responses to a newspaper cartoon. humor, 24(1), 87-108. https://doi.org/10.1515/ humr.2011.005. samson, a. c., & huber, o. (2007). the interaction of cartoonist’s gender and formal features of cartoons. humor, 20(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1515/ humor.2007.001. shifman, l. (2007). humor in the age of digital reproduction: continuity and change in internet-based comic. international journal of communication, 1(1), 187209. sosa-abella, m., & reyes, r. m. (2015). political humor in comic strips: a comparative analysis between oriental and occidental approaches. international journal of cultural studies, 18(2), 243-259. tsakona, v. (2009). language and image interaction in cartoons: towards a multimodal theory of humor. journal of pragmatics, 41(6), 1171-1188. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.12.003. yus, f. (2003). humor and the search for relevance. journal of pragmatics, 35(9), 1295-1331. https://doi. org/10.1016/s0378-2166(02)00179-0. yus, f. (2017). relevance-theoretic treatments of humor. in attardo, s. (ed.), the routledge handbook of language and humor (pp. 189-203). new york: routledge. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 115 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 115-120 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6385 product islamization as a marketing strategy in the resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement in 2012 kolik koirudin1*; sri kusuma habsari2; deny tri ardianto3 1,2,3kajian budaya pascasarjana, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami 36 a, surakarta (solo) 57126, indonesia 1kolik.tb@gmail.com; 2skhabsari@staff.uns.ac.id; 3denytherockies@gmail.com received: 21st april 2020/revised: 04th may 2020/accepted: 11th may 2020 how to cite: koirudin, k., habsari, s. k., & ardianto, d. t. (2020). product islamization as a marketing strategy in the resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement in 2012. lingua cultura, 14(1), 115-120. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6385 abstract the research aimed to know why did resik v transform its product advertisement by islamization? how did the advertisement put and negotiate the islamic symbols and codes on women’s feminine area cleansing products? the research would carry out textual data analysis for the 2012 version of resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement using roland barthes’s semiotics theory. the results show that the advertisement utilizes the symbols of the hijab and the indonesian ulema council’s label as commodities to put the resik v product closer to islam, as islamic values attracted great attention from the society at that time that leaded to consumption activity. however, the islamization in the resik v product has ruled out the context of the hijab and halal concepts themselves, namely faith. keywords: product islamization, product advertisement, marketing strategy, semiotics introduction in 2012, resik v transformed its marketing strategy to advertise its product. resik v chooses total islamization through narratives and various codes displayed in its advertisement. some of those narratives are “sekarang berhijab” (now in hijab), “semua meski halal, termasuk daerah kewanitaanku” (everything needs to be halal, including my feminine area), and “halal itu wajib” (halal is a must). the advertisement shows a woman dressed in a fashionable hijab and hangs out in a cafe full of modernity. in addition, the advertisement also displays the advertisement model’s change of look where she does not wear a hijab at first but eventually wears a hijab at the end of the advertisement. in the beginning, resik v advertisement does not carry islamic symbols and codes such as the concept of halal and hijab in promoting its product. the examples can be seen in the 2007 resik v advertisement starred by a celebrity couple, alexandre and pipit. in the 2010 advertisement, julia perez starred. the concept promoted in both advertisements is a woman’s body. it is how a woman’s body, in this case, is a feminine organ, can be used to strengthen marriage and to get an ideal partner (koirudin, habsari, & ardianto, 2020). in this case, the woman’s body is sold as a commodity to enhance the advertisement. after 2010 or in 2012, to be exact, there was one significant change made by resik v to advertise its product. the brand started to bring the islamic concept to the screen as a product enhancer. the concepts of halal and hijab become very prominent in the narratives built in the advertisement. the brand puts aside the concept of a woman’s body, which is used in their previous advertisement. according to habsari (2019), media products, including advertisements, will always change to keep up with any popularity that becomes a trend among society. from this point, it can be seen that populist islamic groups (middle class) have indeed begun to show their identity after the revolution in indonesia (jati, 2015). such a phenomenon got even stronger in 2010. it triggers the emergence of popular islamic products such as religious movies, islamic novels, religious music, islamic fashion trends, and halal food (malefyt & mccabe, 2016). the data collected by the researchers show how popular products from the islamic middle class that influence the behavior patterns of most muslims in indonesia. for example, the hijab is only used by a handful of muslim women before the 2000s (rahayu, 2016). after a decade, the hijab becomes so popular that many 116 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 115-120 people use it regardless of their social, education, and economic status (indarti & peng, 2016). hijab then comes in various models and is very dynamic in its use. this phenomenon makes the hijab very popular among muslim women. the hijab trend does not come in an instance. there have been several preceding causes. for example, is the existence of celebrity ustadz (muslim religious teacher) in the 2000s era. they have conducted da’wah in trendy and humorist style. most of them deliver islamic teachings that are easily accepted by the general public. for example, it is the command to cover aurat (body parts required by islam to be covered) and prevent staring at people of the opposite sex. according to syahputra (2016), the teachings that the ustadz delivered only reveal the surface of islam because they only use one or two hadiths and do not analyze the problem thoroughly by using a holistic view. it is probably the factors of duration and public that trigger the phenomenon mentioned by syahputra (2016). in terms of the movie industry, it can be seen that the islamic trend was started by ayat-ayat cinta movie in 2008. it manages to gain 3.6 million viewers (this later inspires the production of many religious movies). ayat-ayat cinta narrates fahri and aisyah as the ideal characters of muslim youth. for hoesterey & clark (2012), the discourse within fahri-aisyah can eliminate young muslim girls’ potential to develop and grow. however, it is needless to say that fahri and aisyah depict the figure of good moslems. resik v manages to see the trend shift of islamic popularity among the society and then makes that trend part of its product. the fundamental question from the researchers is; why does resik v transform its product advertisement by islamization? how does the advertisement put and negotiate the islamic symbols and codes on women’s feminine area cleansing products? methods the researchers conducts a textual data analysis by using roland barthes’s semiotics theory towards the first resik v advertisement, which promotes branding by adopting islamic concepts and values. it was the 2012 resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement. this semiotic theory captures the true meaning through the reading level of markers or expressions (level i), and markers or content (level ii) of the signs in advertisements. semiotic is a method used to analyze signs in the form of language and images. it provides a methodological tool to observe an object of observation critically that is not taken for granted by the subject (ida, 2016). barthes sees that a sign, both in form of language or picture, has a value that takes over a dominant value within a society. all of this aims for nothing but to bring the sign closer to the recipient, in this case, the society. barthes creates a formula to dissect a sign that the subject received. he increases the level of saussure’s scheme (signifier/signified) to the second signification level (hayat & hasrullah, 2016). the first level is called the primary signification, consisting of signifier i, signified i, and sign i. in the first level, the researchers will get the denotative meaning of a sign. meanwhile, the second level is called the secondary signification, consisting of signifier ii, signified ii, and sign ii. in the second level, the researchers will get the connotative meaning of a sign. the denotative meaning is defined as it is that people catch from the sign, or commonly called the common sense sign. the connotative meaning is the meaning associated with socio-culture, class, gender, age, the ethnicity of the recipient of the sign, or personal (pasangio, 2020). thus, for barthes, there is an existing meaning in a sign that is captured by people’s senses, and there is a meaning that is related to themselves or outside of themselves. barthes’s semiotics try to uncover things contained in a sign to be explored and defined. results and discussions in this semiotics analysis, the researchers observe the advertisement as it is. the duration of the advertisement is 30 seconds. there are three mains focuses on this analysis: narratives, outfits, and setting of the place. the analysis only uses two meaning levels, namely the denoted and connotative meanings. the first discussed focus is narrative in the advertisement. figure 1 resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement denotatively, the narrative in figure 1 begins with the meeting of two friends; one of them wonders about the new look of her best friend who wears a hijab. her friend who wears hijab answers, “semua mesti halal, begitu juga dengan daerah kewanitaanku, biar gak bau.” (everything needs to be halal, so as my femininity, so it does not smell bad). the narrative is then followed with a back sound explaining the new product of resik v spa. it presents a spa sensation from its natural betel leaves ingredient that overcomes the female area’s unpleasant odor and provides comfort every day. the narrative ends by showing how one of the models in the advertisement eventually wears a hijab, but she has never done that before. it is then followed with a tagline “halal itu wajib” (halal is a must/compulsory). in addition, the advertisement also 117product islamization as a marketing .... (kolik koirudin, et al.) displays code in the form of a halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council from the beginning to the end of the advertisement. connotatively, the narrative of resik v product conveys that the brand wants to show that they have turned into a halal product/brand. it is proven by the indonesian ulema council’s halal stamp code and the hijab symbol displayed in the advertisement. the advertisement becomes even more assertive when the two advertisement models have mentioned that “halal is a must, it is something that should be done”. the changes in this product show that, previously, resik v does not put forward the concept of halal in their product. this change is due to the rising social awareness of halal stuff, so resik v brings the hijab and halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council as their symbol and code. in addition to changing the paradigm of halal products, the resik v product also retains the concept of local wisdom with its betel leaf ingredients, which is beneficial to prevent unpleasant odor in the feminine area and provides comfort. thus, the concepts of halal and local wisdom are the strategy used by resik v to gain sympathy from consumers. even though natural ingredients have been widely used since the 1980s and lost their popularity in the early 2000s, those ingredients still have their market share managed by other industrial products. resik v is one of indonesia’s feminine cleansing products that consistently uses natural ingredients in their products. the change into the halal product made by resik v indicates how the brand wants to be close to society. it brings popular symbols and codes into the product advertisement. first, the hijrah code is shown through the dress transformation of one of the models in the advertisement, which eventually wears a hijab. this is in line with the rise of hijrah discourse that gets even more popular and adopted by many groups like celebrities, politicians, and young people. according to fajriani and sugandi (2019), the hijrah phenomenon is widely adopted by indonesian youths, especially those who live in urban areas and come from middle-class society, as an effort to become a better person in terms of islamic religious practices. in islam, prophet muhammad himself had done hijrah when he moved from mecca to medina, as an effort to build a more islamic socio-culture in order to practice god’s command better and more effectively. however, in today’s context, there is a change of meaning in hijrah. it conveys cultural-consumption, considering that it only has the role of changing one’s lifestyle to be more islamic by starting from his/her clothing style and daily behavior. it becomes very strikingly popular, especially in media networks or social media and mass production, for example, the hijrah fest (amna, 2019). in this context, hijrah becomes an arena to show one’s piety and obedience in terms of religious life. it is so different from that of the prophet muhammad’s era. next, the halal code is shown by the halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council from the beginning to the end of the advertisement. the indonesian ulema council (mui) is a non-governmental organization that houses islamic scholars in indonesia to guide, foster, and protect muslims all over indonesia. the institution itself was established on july 26th, 1975, in jakarta. it has such strong legitimacy in the religious life (islam) in indonesia, and has been trusted by the government, religious organizations, and society in general. from the mentioned background, various industrial products compete to find halal certificates for their products from mui. the product packaging, which has a halal label printed on it indirectly, offers halal certainty, and provides the comfort of consumption to customers (alim, mawardi, & bafadhal, 2018). all of these are emphasized by law no. 33 of 2014 concerning halal product guarantee. the indonesian government regulates that any product that enters, circulates, and being traded in the indonesian market needs to have a halal certificate. although by october 17th, 2019, the authority to issue a halal certificate was taken by the indonesian ministry of religion, and the indonesian ulema council no longer has that authority. the halal certificate still bears the same story in which it is treated like a commodity that can be used to win consumers’ trust over a product. eventually, all industrial products compete to get halal certificates to guarantee that their products are safe for consumption, and have met the halal standards for muslim consumption. in islam, halal is an awareness of faith that develops within human beings and guides them always to do good deeds and in a proportional manner (koirudin, habsari, & ardianto, 2020). therefore, the halal label from the indonesian ulema council is just a ‘stamp’, not a major guarantee. bear in mind that the halal parameter is the awareness of faith, doing good deeds, proportional, and not excessive. the halal stamp on a product is not the sole standard of consumption made by muslims; instead, it is the consumption awareness based on the muslims’ faith. the aim is for their own good, for example, to maintain body health instead of showing their obedience as muslims in front of the public. in addition, people should also consider their condition and capability when consuming something. the second focus in the research is the outfit of the advertisement’s models shown in figure 2. the outfits used by the advertisement models are variations of fashionable and modern hijab. it is emphasized after one of the advertisement models eventually wears a hijab, in which she has never done that before. meanwhile, almost all supporting talents in the advertisement do not wear a hijab, but they still display a nice and fashionable look. connotatively, the hijab is the main code in this resik v advertisement. hijab is a symbol of honor for muslim women, both physically and mentally. it is their faith that makes them wear the hijab voluntarily (wijayanti, 2017). this faith is the main basis for obedience in carrying out islamic teachings. faith is not only spoken but also carried out and believed. it 118 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 115-120 also applies to muslim women who wear hijab; they do not only wear hijab as a symbol of honor, but they also need to implement that symbol in their daily life. figure 2 resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement in the resik v advertisement, the hijab is juxtaposed with the feminine area cleansing product. the advertisement indirectly conveys that a muslim woman’s honor lies in her feminine area, in addition to the hijab that she wears. therefore, the honor is only recognized physically in the advertisement. it puts aside a muslim woman’s inner honor because the advertisement only sees this matter from a woman’s feminine area’s cleanliness. in this case, the hijab is only put as the complementary accessory for a muslim woman to be considered obedient. the hijab’s codification as an accessory gets even more protrude when seen from the type of hijab used by the models in the advertisement, namely the ‘necktie hijab’. this hijab type gets more and more popular since it was first popularized by the ex-indonesian ‘hot movie’ star, inneke koesherawati. thus, the advertising plays its role in lowering a universal and sacred value to become code and symbol that is easy to accept by the public in general. the hijab’s use as an identity of a muslim woman gets its popularity for the last 20-30 years. the interesting thing is that the economic status, education, and political views will greatly influence the style and model of the hijab worn. hijab transforms into social relations; it no longer covers the theological relation. this happens because of its massive use and later becomes popular. muslim women wear hijab as an expression to show their identity (fakhruroji & rojiati, 2017), whereas, at the same time, it fades away the true purpose of hijab to enhance their faith. the same thing can be seen in the resik v advertisement, which illustrates the honor of a muslim woman is considered from her feminine area, not from the hijab she wears. the advertisement does not cover the hijab content through a muslim woman’s deeds; it only aims to gain product consumption by the public. the third focus is the advertisement’s setting of place that can be seen in figure 3. the setting of place in this advertisement is a cafe where many youngsters hangout. that place gives a modern, comfortable, and hygienic atmosphere. it is a good place to gather with family and friends. figure 3 resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement a cafe is a place where individuals or groups usually go to hang out and relax. it first appeared in france in the 17th century and was popular in the 19th century in england and european countries. in general, the cafe is built as an entertainment venue, which guarantees visitors’ comfort by serving a variety of drinks and food menus, often accompanied by relaxing music. historically, the word cafe comes from the word coffee. the history began when the ottoman emissary come to paris in 1669, bringing sacks of coffee beans. from that moment, the coffee became very popular among french aristocrats. they enjoyed coffee in a place later called the cafe. the interesting fact is that at that time, women were prohibited from visiting the cafe and gathered with the men, even though those women were also aristocrats. in indonesia, the cafe is popular among indonesian youngsters to hang out with their family and friends. cafe has unique values among indonesian urban societies. those who come and gather at the cafe will easily get the stereotype of ‘cool’ and sociable in a positive context. this happens because nowadays, the cafe is the favorite spot for youngsters to gather because it offers a comfortable atmosphere. from the mentioned background, resik v advertisement wants to place its product among young people, making it familiar and easy to be accepted. it wants to put forward the discourse about the hijab, halal, hijrah, and cleanliness of the feminine area to the public. the advertisement also wants to turn the serious and sacred stigma on those topics into something more relax and less tense. it is emphasized by the happy expression of the two advertisement models. the resik v product advertisement wants to convey the message that there is no boundary between the concept of modernity (cafe), islam (hijab, halal, hijrah), and local wisdom (cleansing the feminine area with bettel leave concoction). this advertisement shows how the concept of hijab, halal, hijrah, and the cleanliness of the feminine area can become a topic of discussion in a modern cafe. in this case, a woman’s feminine area turns the stigma of something considered taboo into something more familiar. however, resik v eventually wants to grab the market filled by open-minded youngsters. the brand utilizes the ideology or word view of those youngsters to gain sympathy because the manufacturer of resik v 119product islamization as a marketing .... (kolik koirudin, et al.) does not necessarily think as what is shown in the advertisement. the manufacturer tends to observe the phenomena among society and ignore their own word view to gain popularity, considering the profit as their ultimate goal. eventually, everything exists by the name of production, consumption, and profit. the discourse in this advertisement, hijab and halal label from the indonesian ulema council, is the commodities. baudrillard has explained that a consumptive behavior is not only a matter of economy or rational choice. it also happens because of a cultural system that gives meaning to something that able to direct the individual’s choice of a commodity (putra & jusnita, 2018). this is what resik v brand does with its “sekarang berhijab” advertisement. they transform their product into the halal concept by using symbols like the hijab and halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council in their advertisement. this halal concept is a mark value of resik v that has the role of being a commodity in society. halal and hijab become the commodity attached to the product. they do not only define the product but also build social relations between subjects so that consumption can take place. it tends towards the abridging of relations in the formation of self-identity in public. islamization to resik v product is displayed to get closer this product to society. this closeness then allows the consumption of it. hijab and halal label from the indonesian ulema council are the two commodities used by resik v to build close relationships with the community. these two commodities are used for marketing the product without considering the religious value because the brand’s real aim is profit. in the end, accepting the symbol and value of the hijab and halal stamp on the resik v product is also very profane. it is a mere consumption to build identity. the consumption activity is only based on the symbols and codes displayed by a product, which offers something to people, especially the customer, and without seeing its usefulness. nevertheless, in islam, the issue of hijab and halal in a consumption activity is a matter of someone’s faith. as mentioned before, faith is something that should emerge from a muslim’s self-awareness. faith is the underlying factor of a muslim’s activities, such as wearing hijab or consuming something. the use of advertising media by making hijab and halal stamp as a commodity in an effort to build relations with the muslims in enhancing product consumption has turned a muslim’s faith into a product market. the resik v product has negotiated faith through product islamization. a faith is eventually measured by the symbols and codes obtained through consumption activities, not from the daily behavior. conclusions resik v product manufacturer wants to make their product close to the public by providing islamic symbols and codes in their 2012 “sekarang berhijab” advertisement. the brand uses a hijab and halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council to form the image as well as the identity of the product, in addition to putting forward the natural ingredients (betel leaves) and the impression of modernity on the product. putting islam as the identity of this product cannot be separated from the various social phenomena that occur, where islam is so populist and close to people’s lives. the resik v advertisement sees such a phenomenon and then builds a product image that is close to islam with various symbols and codes displayed. it aims to facilitate consumption activities. in this context, the hijab and halal stamp from the indonesian ulema council become a commodity to make the resik v product closer to the public by bringing forward the islamic impression. whereas the concept of hijab and halal is not only a matter of the expression that exists but also a matter of faith. so, the islamization of resik v product has indirectly made a measure of moslems’ faith from mere symbolization and through consumption activities, not from their daily behavior. last, resik v product transformation by islamization in 2012 was just the beginning because that brand continues to do the islamization up until now. as the consumer of the sign in the advertisement, it is needed to build critical awareness in order not to be affected by the hegemony and accept the sign in the advertisement as it is. by using roland barthes’s semiotics analysis, it can be built such awareness. the analysis helps people to see a sign not just by observing the expression (signifier), but also the content (signified) within the advertisement. references alim, s. a., mawardi, m. k., & bafadhal, a. s. 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(2017). jilbab sebagai etika busana muslimah dalam perspektif al-qur’an. cakrawala: jurnal studi islam, 12(2), 151-170. https://doi.org/10.31603/ cakrawala.v12i2.1842. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 51 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 51-55 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6339 the influence of video direct instruction model to folklore listening skills in elementary school tahmid sabri1*; soeharto2; afrizan3 1 primary school teacher education, tanjungpura university jl. prof. dr. h. hadari nawawi, pontianak, kalimantan barat 78124, indonesia 2,3 doctoral school of education, university of szeged szeged, dugonics tér 13, 6720 hungary 1tahmid.sabri@fkip.untan.ac.id; 2soeharto.soeharto@edu.u-szeged.hu; 3saya.afrizan@gmail.com received: 22nd april 2020/revised: 04th may 2020/accepted: 11th may 2020 how to cite: sabri, t., soeharto, & afrizan. (2020). the influence of video direct instruction model to folklore listening skills in elementary school. lingua cultura, 14(1), 51-55. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6339 abstract the research aimed to analyze the effect of the direct instruction model assisted by audio media on listening skills. the experimental method was used using a quasi-experimental design. participants were a fifth-grade students in the elementary school at pontianak. data collected used paper-based tests in the form of multiple-choice tests. the results show that the average posttest for the experimental group is 77,08. the average posttest for the control group is 70,96. t-test results are 2,217 and t-table α = 5% (with dk = 24 + 26 2 = 48) of 1,678, so t-count (2,217)> t-table (1,678). therefore, it can be concluded that there is an influence of the audio learning model-assisted directly by audio media on listening skills on folklore. besides that, the direct instruction model assisted by audio media has a good influence on listening skills, especially for fifth-grade students. keywords: listening skill, direct instruction, audio media introduction humans are social beings who have needs, abilities, and habits for communicating with others (miller et al., 2016). the primary communication tool for humans is language. human language can convey ideas, thoughts, and messages to others so that communication occurs (sirbu, 2015). for connection to work well, language skills are needed. considering the function of language is very important in human life, the learning of indonesian in schools should be carried out correctly. language skills (language arts, language skills) in the curriculum at school usually includes four aspects, namely: listening skills, speaking skills, reading skills, and writing skills. from the four skills, listening is an early language skill that is mastered by humans. before children can talk, read, and write, listening is the first activity done. listening is the ability to fully understand a message that a speaker or a loud reader would like to give. listening is an integral aspect of the cycle of engagement and schooling (gulec & durmus, 2015; zuhairi & hidayanti, 2016). listening is the activity most often done in learning. listening to learning in primary schools is directed to develop language skills, understanding of what is to listen to learning material, and to improve oral and written communication skills (ahmed, yaqoob, & yaqoob, 2015; bozorgian & alamdari, 2018; listiyaningsih, 2017). it is also found that in learning language, the proportions of people using communication time are 45% for listening, 30% for speaking, 16% for reading, and 9% for writing. the results of the research prove that in life, people are never free from listening activities. starting from listening to lessons, listening to the news, listening to the conversation of others, and others that are usually used as reference material (gulec & durmus, 2015). the initial study with interviews is conducted with guardians of fifth-grade students in elementary school at 12 state elementary school in pontianak. it is revealed that indonesian language learning, especially the listening skills of the elements of the story, is not optimal. teachers have to be extra in teaching because students are not yet skilled in listening. there are still many students who have not to understand the elements of the story (characters, themes, settings, and mandate) in a story. in the learning process, the teacher only 52 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 51-55 explains and then gives the questions, and the students’ answers are not discussed in depth so that students do not understand the elements of the story (characters, themes, settings, mandate). in a story making the student’s scoreless optimal so that it makes the scores low and below the maximum completeness limit of learning that has been set. based on this problem, it can be explained that the results of listening to the elements of the story by students are still not optimal. this is because students lack an understanding of the aspects of the characters, themes, settings, and mandate of the story. therefore researchers believe in using the direct learning model assisted by audio media in overcoming the shortcomings when the learning process is listening. this learning model requires teachers to be able to provide knowledge and procedures. the teacher must apply the experience or skills that will be trained to students step by step (fuad et al., 2017; glogger-frey et al., 2015). with the direct learning model assisted by audio media, it is expected that it can help teachers deliver learning materials that are more effective, efficient, enjoyable. it can motivate students to learn more seriously, and increase student concentration and focus on what is conveyed that can influence the learning outcomes of participants students to become better (firdaus, wahyudin, & herman, 2017; stockard et al., 2018; zhang et al., 2016). the direct instruction model is a learning model specifically designed to develop student learning activities related to aspects of procedural knowledge (knowledge of how to do something) and declarative knowledge (knowledge of something that can be facts, concepts, principles or generalizations) that are well structured and can be learned step by step (majid, 2016). some research related to the effect of direct learning models assisted by audio media on folklore writing skills is also carried out in different contexts, such as the application of direct learning models to students’ cognitive learning outcomes in science subjects. based on the results of the research, the posttest average value is higher than the pre-test with the direct learning model. there is an influence of the direct instruction model on the cognitive learning outcomes of students in science subjects (erina & kuswanto, 2015). shillingsburg et al. (2015) have also found that the effectiveness of the direct instruction assisted by instructional media can improve students’ language learning among children. the improvement in writing skills is related to listening to learning. this finding is in line with the results of puspitasari and damayanti’s research (2014), which applies a direct learning model to improve personal letter writing skills in bubutan state elementary school’s students, in surabaya. the results of the research, the second cycle of the second meeting, is 65% increased by 15%. in comparison, the second cycle of the first meeting is 80% of the second cycle of the second meeting, and 85% increased by 5%. the results also show that the student’s formal letter writing skills initial data average value of 50,36 skilled at nine (30%) and 21 unskilled people (70%). the initial data increase towards the first cycle of the daily cycle 17,55 and the growth of the first cycle of the daily cycle to the second cycle of the cycle is 15,19. the result has proven that direct instruction is effective in improving writing skills. previous research studies have similarities and differences with the research conducted. the difference are the location, and grade levels. the similarities lay in the direct model and the media used. however, there is no research direct learning model or direct instruction model using audio media to improve listening skills. therefore, the research is directed to determine the effect of direct learning models assisted by audio media on the skills of listening to the folklore of fifth-grade students of 12 elementary schools in pontianak. the use of audio media-assisted direct learning models is expected to make students more interested and more focused. because of that, listening to the story elements does not become a tedious activity. based on the explanation of the problem in the introduction, the general issue in the research is to find out how the audio media-assisted direct learning model influences listening skills to the folklore of fifth-grade elementary school students. the research aims to prove that there is an influence of the audio media-assisted direct learning model on listening skills to the folklore of fifth-grade elementary school students. from these general objectives, they are focused on specific goals that can be described; (1) to analyze whether there is an influence of the direct learning model assisted by audio media on listening skills to folklore, and (2) to analyze how high the influence of direct learning models assisted by audio media on listening skills to folklore. methods the research uses an experimental research method with a scientific way to get data with a specific purpose (alase, 2017; sugiyono, 2015). the research method is also interpreted as a method used by researchers in gathering research data (kaltakcigurel, eryilmaz, & mcdermott, 2017; queirós, faria, & almeida, 2017). with the experimental method, it can be found the presence or absence of the effect of direct learning models assisted by audio media on listening skills to folklore in fifth-grade elementary school students. the experimental design used in the research is the quasi-experimental design. a quasi-experimental design is chosen because not all object conditions can be controlled. there may be external aspects that can influence the implementation of experiments. the form of design used is a nonequivalent control group design. the design is chosen because the researchers use two classes, namely classes taught using direct learning models assisted by audio media, and classes that do not teach using direct learning models assisted with audio media. 53the influence of video direct .... (tahmid sabri, et al.) the population in the research are all fifth-grade students at 12 state elementary schools in pontianak, with a total of 50 students that consist of two classes. in determining the sample, a sampling method or technique is needed. sampling techniques can be grouped into two forms, namely probability sampling and non-probability sampling. the research uses a more appropriate probability sampling technique using a simple random sampling technique. there are two classes, namely the va and vb, so that the selection between the experimental class and the control class remains objective and impartial. one of them is chosen by simple random sampling technique. the reason for choosing the simple random sampling technique is that after knowing the abilities of the two classes are homogeneous, giving students the initial ability test, the results are the same. the samples in the research are va class students (24 students) and vb (26 students). the measurement technique is a way to collect quantitative data to determine the level or degree of certain aspects compared to certain norms and a relevant unit of measurement (orcher, 2016). the measurement is data collection using tests related to folklore material conducted before (pretest) and after (posttest). it conducts learning by using direct learning models assisted by audio media. results and discussions the research aims to analyze the effect of direct learning models assisted by audio media on listening skills to the folklore of fifth-grade students at the elementary school level. the results, according to analysis, are presented in table 1. table 1 differences in learning outcomes of posttest students in experiment and control classes calculation experiment class control class post-test post-test mean (x) 77,17 71,27 standar deviation 12,81 13,52 normality test (x2) 2,991 4,958 post-test f-count f-table homogenity test (f) 1,114 1,996 t-count t-table hypotesis test (t) 2,193 1,679 the pre-test for the experiment and control group obtains normality test data from pre-test scores in the experimental class. it obtains x2 count of 2,458 with x2 table (α = 5% and dk = 6 3 = 3) of 7,815 while pretest score normality test in control class obtains x2 count of 1,732 with x2 table (α = 5% and dk = 6 3 = 3) of 7,815 while pretest score normality test in control class obtains x2 count of 1,732 with x2 table (α = 5% % and dk = 6 3 = 3) of 7,815. because of the x2 count (pre-test score of experimental class and control class) < x2 table, the pre-test acquisition data from the two classes are normally distributed, then proceed with determining the homogeneity of student pre-test data. it is obtained from the homogeneity test of pre-test data for experimental class and control class that f-count is 1,27 and f-table α = 5% (with the numerator, dk = 23, and the denominator = 25) of 1,97. in order to obtain fcount (1,27 < f table (1,97), then the pre-test data is declared homogeneous (not significantly different). because the pre-test data is homogeneous, then it is continued with hypothesis testing (t-test). the post-test results for experiment and control groups obtain normality test data from the post-test score in the experimental class. it obtains x2 count of 2,991 with x2 table (α = 5% and dk = 6 3 = 3) of 7,815 while the normality test of the post-test score in the control class obtained x2 count of 4,985 with x2 table (α = 5% and dk = 6 3 = 3) of 7,815. the posttest acquisition data are normally distributed because x2 calculated (post-test scores of the experimental class and control class) < x2 table. because the acquisition of post-test data from the two classes is normally distributed, it is continued by determining the homogeneity of students’ post-test data. from the homogeneity test, the post-test data for the experimental class and the control class obtains f-count of 1,114 and f-table α = 5% (with the numerator dk = 23 and the denominator = 25) of 1,996. in order to obtain f-count (1,114) < f-table (1,996), the post-test data are declared homogeneous (not significantly different). because the post-test data are homogeneous, then it is continued with hypothesis testing (t-test). the t-test calculation of the post-test data for the experimental class and the control class using the polled variance formula obtained a t-count of 2,217 and t-table (α = 5%) and to find dk using the formula n1 + n2-2. the research shows two members the same number of samples and homogeneous variance, so dk = 24 + 26 -2 = 48) of 1,678. because t-count (2,217 ) > t-table (1,678), thus hypothesis alternative is accepted. so, it can be concluded that the students’ post-test results influence the experimental class by applying the direct learning model assisted by audio media and in control class who do not apply it in fifth-grade students of the elementary school. there are effects of the audio media direct assisted learning model on folk story listening skills. the research obtains the average value of the post-test experimental class is 77,17, and the standard deviation is 12,81 with the highest value of 95 and the lowest value of 50 while the average post-test control class is 71,27 and the standard deviation is 13,52 with the highest value of 90 and the lowest value of 45. from this information, it can be seen that the experimental class’ post-test results are higher than the control class. this is because the experimental class uses a direct learning model assisted by audio media. students are guided by the five stages of the direct learning 54 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 51-55 model assisted with audio media. using this direct learning model can be seen from the increasing results of students’ listening skills at each meeting. every meeting uses a direct learning model that is assisted with audio media. the direct instruction model can help students understand the material presented through explanations of content from researchers. it also provides examples directly from researchers. the direct instruction model in its implementation is through a direct demonstration from researchers. each student is heard folklore through audio media and then looks for elements in folklore, which are later discussed together. it makes students better understand the material and stimulates students’ thoughts, attention, and listening abilities. in addition, this can be proven by analyzing direct learning models assisted by audio media on the ability to listen to folklore. from the calculation results of the hypothesis test (t-test), the post-test value using the polled variance formula obtains t-count of 2,217 and t-table (α = 5%, dk n1 = 24 and dk n2 = 26) amounts to 1,678. the calculation results show that t-count 2,217> t-table 1,678. because t-count 2,217> t-table 1,678, ha is accepted and ho is rejected. so, it can be concluded that there is an influence of the students’ post-test results in the experimental class with the direct learning model assisted by audio media on listening skills to the folklore of fifth-grade students in elementary school. lai, shum, and tian (2016) have also found that listening skills enhance learners in language learning after being given direct assignments using an online training platform. this finding is also in line with the study of acat, demiral, and kaya (2016), who measure the listening ability of students in fifth grade by using an online system. the effect of the direct instruction model assisted by audio media on learning in the experimental class can be viewed from the average value of preand post-tests in figure 1. figure 1 recapitulation of the pre-test and post-test average value of the control group and experiment group to analyze the significant influence of the direct learning model assisted by audio media on the ability to listen to the folklore of the fifth-grade students is described in the effect size calculation (es). based on the calculation results, an effect size is 0,44, which criteria for the size of the effect size is in the medium category, namely in the range of 0,3> es <0,7. this result shows that the direct learning model assisted by audio media has a good influence on the ability to listen to the folklore of fifth-grade students of elementary school level. the influence of the research occurs because when listening to folklore, the learning implementation of students is less focused and orderly. there are also disturbances from outside the classroom, such as noisy classrooms, which makes students less focused and concentrated. from the results of this analysis, it can be stated that there is an influence of the direct learning model assisted by audio media on listening skills to folklore at the elementary school level. conclusions based on the results of data analysis that have been done to answer the goals and hypotheses, few results can be concluded. first, there is an influence of the direct learning model assisted by audio media on listening to the folklore of fifth-grade students on elementary school level in pontianak. based on the results of hypothesis testing (t-test) using the t-test polled variance, it obtains t-count of 2,217 and t-table (α = 5%, and dk 26 + 24 2 = 48) of 1,678. calculation results show that t-count 2,217> t-table 1,678. because t-count 2,217> t-table 1,678, hypothesis alternative is accepted, and hypothesis null is rejected. the great influence of the direct learning model assisted by audio media on the listening skills of the folklore of fifth-grade students at pontianak is 0,44 for effect size with the medium category. there are some suggestions that researchers can convey based on research that has been conducted. first, the application of the direct learning model assisted by audio media influences the listening skills of folklore. for this reason, it is suggested that indonesian language teachers apply the direct learning model assisted by audio media as an alternative model in teaching indonesian subjects. however, the teacher must master the class and concentrate on teaching and guiding students. second, in learning practice, many learning models can be used in teaching and learning activities. hence, as a principal, it is better to socialize various models, strategies, and techniques as well as how to apply them. one of them is with a direct learning model to create more creative and exciting learning to increase student and school learning achievement. third, for writers who want to conduct further research by applying direct learning models assisted by audio media to get more convincing conclusions, it is recommended to create more enjoyable learning conditions and adapt to students’ characteristics and levels of ability in elementary school. the research still has some limitations, such as in the sample. the sample is perhaps too small 55the influence of video direct .... 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(2016). the strategies of indonesian junior high school students in learning listening skill. journal of chemical information and modeling, 53(9), 1689-1699. https://doi.org/10.1017/ cbo9781107415324.004. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 67 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 67-72 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7077 culture-shaped language of male and female writers: a comparative study of english and bahasa indonesia irmala sukendra* english language education department, faculty of teacher training and education, syekh yusuf islamic university tangerang jl. syekh yusuf no.10, babakan, tangerang, banten 15118, indonesia isukendra@unis.ac.id received: 22nd february 2021/revised: 20th may 2021/accepted: 31st may 2021 how to cite: sukendra, i. (2021). culture-shaped language of male and female writers: a comparative study of english and bahasa indonesia. lingua cultura, 15(1), 67-72. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7077 abstract the research investigated how the writers of different genders from different cultures (western or american and asian) reflected the differences in the language they used in their novels. although gender differences were known to result from cultural differences, less research had been done in terms of contrasting the gender of different cultures, yet to discuss them in terms of gender roles as writers. the research aimed to explore the role of gender in constructing language to examine gender stereotypes from a linguistic perspective and describe gender differences in language use. it applied a qualitative method with library research style, which included several steps of reading the material, collecting and listing the swear words and adjectives used, categorizing the choice of words, and analyzing the choices. the research concludes that culture does contribute to the differences in how swear words are expressed, in which indonesian writers use fewer swear words and avoid using vulgar words and profanity. in other words, gender differences do not affect adjectives used in bahasa indonesia. keywords: culture-shaped language, male writer, female writer, swear words introduction language as an aspect of culture shapes human beings as part of the society that builds the culture itself. language and culture are two inseparable things that influence one another. the difference in culture is also a factor in the differences in language used by the people of that community. language as the reflection of culture is shaped by culture; thus, differences in culture can be seen in the use of language. differences in language also determine how a person sees the world differently, and as no person is alike, then the way everyone perceives the world will also be varied. people then are differentiated by many variables. bonvillain (2019) has asserted that people are differentiated based on gender, age, and status in all societies (including class, race, and ethnicity), contributing to diversity in communication behavior. there is a methodical bond between a person’s language and how he/she comprehends the world. hence, a person’s use of language determines all aspects which are attributed to that person. language difference is also shown by the differences in gender. wardhaugh and fuller (2014) have stated that women and men may have different paralinguistic systems and move and gesture differently. this may prompt them to use a different way to communicate, and eventually, they may have different speech styles. the use of language then is also shaped and differentiated by gender, which means that men and women use language differently. based on gender, men and women are said to use the language differently (opina, 2017; vogel, lopes, & esposito, 2017; zhu & ruan, 2019; coats, 2019; wightman, 2020). the sexes often speak virtually different languages, which tannen (in mamona, rubab, akbar, 2020) has addressed as report talk versus rapport talk. men often seek straightforward solutions to problems and useful advice, whereas women tend to try and establish intimacy by discussing problems and showing concern and empathy in order to reinforce relationships. it is common, then, for the conversations between the two sexes to end up to lack of agreement on meaning. therefore, gendered use of language is 68 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 67-72 worthy of exploration because it brings into sharper focus real-world imbalances and inequalities. male and female differences in language use are caused by psychology, social factor, cultural background (opina, 2017), and education (stoet & geary, 2020; akabayashi et al., 2020), in which females are more expressive. the differences in conversational styles, way of speaking, topics, talkativeness, and the intention of the conversation are believed because male and female are biologically different from each other and play different social roles as they are bound by social and gender norms (cislaghi & heise, 2019). studies in the use of the language of different gender indicate that the differences cover aspects such as verbal (pronunciation, intonation, vocabulary, syntax) and non-verbal (attitudes toward language, manners, and choosing topic) (opina, 2017), emotion state words included pleasure (e.g., chuffed), affection (e.g., love), surprise (e.g., surprised), fear (e.g., scared), distress (e.g., gutted), concern (e.g., worry), indifference (e.g., do not care), anger (e.g., cross), and dislike (e.g., hate) (finn, 2017). wardhaugh and fuller (2014) have claimed that language sets a frame to the actuality so it could govern the way a speaker comprehends and establishes the world surrounding them. thus, the language one uses aids to form and view the world. however, gender differences also facilitate how a person is perceived through a different culture. in the same way, uchida in bonvillain (2019) has argued that gender is not immutable or static but a holistic and dynamic concept that affects language use. bonvillain (2019) has added by asserting that women and men are socialized to express themselves in different ways in accordance with cultural norms that teach and reinforce differentiated gender roles. it is considered normal that cultural differences, such as the pressure (intentional or not) on girls to ‘be nice’ and polite and on boys to be strong and competitive, are likely to lead to the learning of different interaction styles and the adoption of different linguistic choices by girls and by boys. some of these choices and the related broader gender ideologies often disadvantage girls and women. women’s language is portrayed to be excessive in the use of expressive forms, less direct, and more polite. women avoid offending verbally and are more careful in choosing words to express themselves. correspondingly, bonvillain (2019) has claimed that men use curse words with greater frequency and greater profane force than do women, while women tend to employ milder expletives. swearing, a linguistic universal, is used to express intense emotions (fear, joy, anger, excitement). swearing is acknowledged as one of many devices that languages offer speakers as a way to give additional emphasis to their speech, often in combination with other emphasizing techniques like stress, intonation, and tone of voice, not to mention non-linguistic phenomena like gestures and facial expression. the contribution of swearing in such situations is the added strength supplied by the taboo words necessary for swearing to take place. women also have a tendency to use specifiers and meaningless adjectives to express subjective affective judgments, which are supported by the society that allows them to display emotion. this is similar to jespersen’s idea in bonvillain (2019), which states that women are apt to use intensifiers such as ‘very’, ‘so’, or ‘extremely’, and what some have called ‘empty’ adjectives, as ‘wonderful’ and ‘lovely’. therefore, it is expected for women to use more adjectives to describe and denote more than men do. profanity or swear words use between males and females has been in the spotlight for years. these studies show different results in which some may favor that males have a tendency to swear more than women (muhanovic, babic, & latic, 2018; zhu & ruan, 2019; and coats, 2021). in terms of adjective use, some works also claim that there are differences between males and females (barczewska & andreasen, 2018; gygax et al., 2019). works on gender differences in written discourse have also been an interesting topic. previous research in l1 writing has provided confirmations that females perform better than males in many aspects of writing (limpo & alves, 2017; castro & limpo, 2018; de smedt et al., 2018; adams & simmons, 2019; zhang et al., 2019; reilly, neumann, & andrews, 2019; al-saadi, 2020; li, chen, & banerjee, 2020). as the realization of language use, fiction has also taken part in reflecting and shaping the cultural identity of communities, as well as the identity of individuals. therefore, the research would like to investigate how the writers of different genders from different cultures (western or american and asian) reflect the differences in the language they use in their novels. although gender differences are known to be a result of cultural differences, fewer studies have been done in terms of contrasting the gender of different cultures, yet to discuss them in terms of gender roles as writers. the research aims to explore the role of gender in constructing language to examine gender stereotypes from a linguistic perspective and describe gender differences in language use. the novels used in the research are under a similar genre that is teenage literature. teen literature or young adult books with the target readers are teenagers or young adults in their teens or early twenties. fictional works can be defined as a piece of literature about untrue events and people. in other words, fictionality, not factuality, is the key element of literature. the languages in question are english and bahasa indonesia, as seen in fangirl by rainbow rowell (2018) and an abundance of katherines by john green (2019) for english, pacar ketiga by andhika rahmadian (2015), and friendklops by sara tee (2015) for bahasa indonesia. methods the research applied a qualitative method with library research style, which includes several steps of reading the material: an abundance of katherines 69culture-shaped language of male .... (irmala sukendra) written by john green (2019) published by penguin group, fangirl written by rainbow rowell (2018) published by saint martin press, friendklops by sara tee (2015) and pacar ketiga by andhika rahmadian (2015), both are published by pt gramedia pustaka utama. the researcher collects and lists the swear words and adjectives used, categorizes the choice of words, and analyzes the choices. the qualitative method applied in the research is known to investigate the reasons and modes of decisionmaking while the data obtained describe certain types of information. aspers and corte (2019) have stated that qualitative research is about questioning the pre-given (taken for granted) variables, but it is thus also about making new distinctions of any type of phenomenon. the qualitative descriptive method is used to focus on discovering the use of swear words and adjectives by male and female english and indonesian writers. results and discussions cultures define ‘swearing’ as a barometer for social norms. as humans are part of their society, society’s culture determines how males and females are allowed to curse or how to society may view and accept them when they curse. swearing can act as a form of linguistic creativity in utilizing offensive language to express feelings or attitudes (finn, 2017). in an abundance of katherines, the swear words said by colin (the main character) and hassan (the side character) is in the form of ‘fug’; it is an alteration of ‘fuck’, which is explained in the novel. therefore, the word ‘fug’ and all the words formed are considered similar to ‘fuck’. “hey, why the fuck do you and hassan say fug all the time?” colin exhaled slowly, his cheeks puffing out. “have you ever read the naked and the dead by norman mailer?” “i don’t even know who that is.” “american novelist. born in 1923. i was reading him when i first met hassan. and then later hassan ended up reading it because it’s all about war, and hassan likes actiony books. anyway, it’s 872 pages, and it uses the word fug or fugging or fugguer or whatever about thirty-seven thousand times. every other word is a fug, pretty much. so anyway, after i read a novel, i like to read some literary criticism of it.” “color me surprised,” she said. “right. well, when mailer wrote the book, he didn’t use ‘fug.’ but then he sent it to the publisher and they were like, ‘this is a really excellent book you’ve written, mr. mailer. but no one here in 1948 is going to buy it, because it contains even more f-bombs than it does regular bombs.’ so, norman mailer, as a kind of fug-you to the publisher, went through his 872-page book and changed every last f-word to ‘fug.’ so, i told hassan the story while he was reading the book and then he decided to start saying fug as an homage to mailer—and because you can say it in class without getting in trouble.” (green, 2019, p.120) table 1 swear words used by male and female writers in english swear words number of swear word occurrence from male writer number of swear word occurrence from female writer fuck 75 42 ass 23 6 shit 57 18 screw 4 dick 3 bitch 2 pussy 4 eff 2 the swear words found in the two novels are listed in table 1 with some variations of words formed from the mentioned words, e.g., motherfucker, which is categorized under the same category, that is under the word ‘fuck’. in terms of swear words, male writers tend to use more swear words than female writers. the kinds of words are also more varied from male writers. in english, the male writer uses 186 swear words, whereas the female writer uses 68 swear words. the male writer uses the word ‘fuck’ and words formed from it mostly. the male writer also uses ‘shit’ most of the time. knirnschild (2019) has found that speakers using female-descriptive derogatory terms to be much more obscene than instances of speakers using male-descriptive derogatory terms in her study of 409 u.s. university students. similarly, defrank and kahlbaugh’s research (2019) that speakers swearing in mixed-gender dyads are considered less sociable, and males swearing in mixed-gender dyads are perceived as more offensive. however, culture seems to influence the vulgarity and number of swear words used in the literature work as indonesian writers use fewer swear words. it can be seen in table 2. table 2 swear words used by male and female writers in bahasa indonesia swear words number of swear word occurrence from male writer number of swear word occurrence from female writer sinting 1 berengsek 1 sialan 2 mampus 1 kampret 2 in bahasa indonesia, the male writer also uses more swear words than the female writer. it is also 70 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 67-72 more varied and harsher. the female writer seems to avoid using swear words in which the words she uses are considered mild and not offensive. this is ascertained by the understanding that informal usage of bahasa indonesia merges into street slang or youth slang, sarcastic or humorous abbreviations, deliberate ‘misunderstandings’ of words, and components borrowed from local languages. indonesian culture and norms do not allow people to curse or swear freely, and that cursing or swearing can be taken as a sign of being uneducated and impolite. moreover, the novels are intended for young readers, making the use of swear words carefully selected. to conclude, the use of swear words corresponds to gender differences. males are proven to curse more than females. the frequency of utilizing profanities in the novels is dominantly displayed by male authors, either in english or indonesian. differences in the use of swear words are also influenced by the culture. english writers use the swear words more than indonesian writers. similarly, male writers also outnumber female writers in the use of swear words. language choices, in terms of swear words, are determined by gender and cultural differences. in the use of adjectives in english, the female writer tends to describe nouns by using more than two adjectives, and sometimes accompanied by complementizer as the example. cath looked up at the guy, a dangerously hiplooking character with shaggy hair and oversized glasses (rowell, 2018, p. 38 line 31). whereas the male writer enjoys using excessive dashes to attribute the noun as seen in the following excerption: she was incredibly hot—in that popular-girl-withbleached-teeth-and-anorexia kind of way, which was colin’s least favorite way of being hot (green, 2019, p.52). table 3 adjectives used by male and female writer in english types of adjectives number of adjective occurrences from male writer number of adjective occurrences from female writer adjp, n 43 65 advp, adjp, n 10 7 adjp, np 3 13 adjp, n, pp 11 11 adj, n 9 16 dashes 24 35 total 100 147 note (for the research, the adjectives in english are classified by the distribution with nouns): adjp, n = more than one adjective is used to specify a noun, advp, adjp, n = adverb phrase, adjective phrase, nou adjp, np = one (or more than one adjective) to specify noun + noun adjp, n, pp = adjective phrase, noun followed by preposition phrase adj, n = one adjective to specify noun. dashes = adjectives used to specify noun are separated by dashes the female writer also uses dashes but in shorter forms and prefers to use multiple adjectives in denoting nouns. adjectives used by the female writer highlight the nouns they specify, for example, on page 15, line 2, a boy with slick, black hair, and cold, grey eyes; page 24, line 2, a tiny little rectangle, just wide enough on each side of the door for their beds. the male writer, conversely, uses adjectives to denote the noun plainly. for example, on page 3, line 5, a curiously blank look; page 31, line 29, a clipped metallic pink. thus, the adjectives used by the male writer do not double the meaning. in terms of number, the female writer uses 65 times of adjectives phrases to specify nouns, whereas the male writer uses the adjective phrases plus noun 43 times and the numbers differ significantly in other variants of the adjectives used. nevertheless, for indonesian, as exemplified by two teenage literature writers, the number of adjectives does not reflect the gender differences. the male writer uses more adjectives than the female writer, as can be seen in table 4. table 4 adjectives used by male and female writer in bahasa indonesia types of adjectives number of adjective occurrences from male writer number of adjective occurrences from female writer color 4 6 condition 28 19 characteristics 16 4 shape/size 4 2 modifying adverb, adj 6 1 total 58 32 (for the resesarch, the adjectives in bahasa indonesia are categorized based on the types) the male writer uses adjectives 58 times, whereas the female writer uses adjectives 32 times. in all types of adjectives, the male writer outnumbers the female writer; except for adjectives denoting color, the female writer uses it more than the male writer. the female writer does not use a modifying adverb to specify the adjective as much as the male writer. the distributions of adjectives in denoting nouns have similar patterns for both male and female writers in 71culture-shaped language of male .... (irmala sukendra) that in most of the sentences. an adjective is used to specify a noun, and in some sentences, the writers use more than one adjective. the male writer shows a preference for using physical attributes in describing things, for example: luki, cowok jangkung berkulit sawo matang, sahabat tania sejak kecil. (rahmadian, 2015, p.15) whereas the female writer prefers to describe it characteristically as exemplified in tee (2015, p. 7): vena gadis yang sempurna (vena is a perfect girl). bahasa indonesia shares a quite similar pattern of adjectives and adjectives phrases as english. adjectives in bahasa indonesia are words that describe nouns for their shape or size, color, condition, etc. nevertheless, in the bahasa indonesia context, it is not proven that women use more adjectives than men that can be seen in these two teenage literature novels, where the male writer outnumbers the female writer in using adjectives. this is perhaps related to the writer’s writing style, which is personal preference and not associated with gender and cultural influence. thus, it can be said that in using adjectives, gender differences do not affect the differences in the language use of bahasa indonesia. conclusions gender differences are proposed to affect how a person uses language, and considering language is part of a culture, it is also supposed to shape language use. based on the four teenage literature books, it can be concluded that men are more likely to curse or use swear words more than women despite the cultural differences as claimed by bonvillain, and wardhaugh and fuller. culture does contribute to the differences in how swear words are expressed, in which indonesian writers use fewer swear words and avoid using vulgar words and profanity. interestingly, though the english still follows the basic assumption of women’s tendency to use more adjectives to denote nouns, the male writer uses less descriptive adjectives than the female writer; indonesian writers show different results. the male writer uses more adjectives than the female writer. the male writer tends to describe nouns based on physical attributes, whereas the female writer uses character attributes to describe nouns. although the preference may be caused by personal preference, it can be concluded that gender differences do not affect adjectives used in bahasa indonesia. references adams, a. m., & simmons, f. r. 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(2018). fangirl. new york: saint martin’s press. stoet, g., & geary, d. c. (2020). gender differences in the pathways to higher education. pnas (proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america), 117(25), 14073-14076. https:// doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002861117. tee, s. (2015). friendklops. jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. vogel, c., lopes, m. r., & esposito, a. (2017). gender differences in the language of the map task dialogues. 8th ieee international conference on cognitive infocommunications (coginfocom). pp 151-156. https://doi.org/10.1109/coginfocom.2017.8268233. wardhaugh, r., & fuller, j. m. (2014). an introduction to sociolinguistics (7th ed.). massachusetts: blackwell publishers inc. wightman, m. (2020). gender differences in second language learning: why they exist and what we can do about it. tennessee: university of tennessee, knoxville. zhang, m., bennett, r. e., deane, p., & rijn, p. w. (2019). are there gender differences in how students write their essays? an analysis of writing processes. educational measurement issues and practice, 38(2), 1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/emip.12249. zhu, y., & ruan, h. (2019). on convergence in gender languages: an empirical study. international journal of arts and commerce, 8(2), 1-13. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 59 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 59-66 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7165 the english language teachers’ perspective of using the first language (l1) in teaching a foreign language (tefl) class yella dezas perdani* language center, computer science department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kebon jati no. 218, kb. jeruk, kec. andir, kota bandung, jawa barat 40181, indonesia yella.dezas@binus.ac.id received: 17th march 2021/revised: 01st may 2021/accepted: 04th may 2021 how to cite: perdani, y. d. (2021). the english language teachers’ perspective of using the first language (l1) in teaching a foregin language (tefl) class. lingua cultura, 15(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7165 abstract the research discussed the using of the first language in teaching a foreign language that had been a debate for language teaching practitioners for decades in language acquisition. the debate was about whether it was all right to use it in a foreign language class or not and how it affected the students’ learning process and result. because of the pro and cons of using the first language (l1) in teaching a foreign language, the research was conducted to find out the use of the first language in teaching english as a foreign language. the research aimed to discover to what extent and in which instances l1 was used by the teachers in their english teaching class in terms of the teaching stages, including pre-teaching, whilst-teaching, and postteaching in the classroom. the research also searched teachers’ perspectives and reasons for using l1 in their english class. moreover, the research applied a qualitative method to gather information from the participants. the participants were four english teachers who taught english at senior high school in bandung-west java province, majalengka-west java province, pangkal pinang-bangka province, and kuok-riau province. data collkection was done by distributing questionnaires and doing interviews. the findings show that most teachers use indonesian as l1 in the whilst-teaching stage when they deliver the materials. they use l1 to clarify the students’ understanding of the materials given and explain english language concepts, grammatical concepts, and difficult words. they argue that using l1 helps both teachers and students in teaching and learning english as a foreign language. keywords: first language, teachers perspective, foreign language teaching introduction the use of l1 in teaching foreign languages has become a discussion among education experts, practitioners, and teachers. some of them argue that it becomes a controversy as mentioned by rahmawati (2015), al-hariri (2015), hanakova and metruk (2017), zulfikar (2018), clancy (2018), erk (2019), and awad, mubarak, and saleh (2020), whether it is all right to use the first language in teaching foreign language, and how it affects students’ learning process and their ability to acquire the materials taught. from the previous research, it is found that some of the teachers believe that the best way to help students to be able to learn a foreign language is by providing an environment that uses foreign language itself, so the students can exposure their foreign language. however, some argue that the use of l1 (first language) in foreign language teaching can help the teacher explain the materials (tajgozari, 2017; erk, 2019; marsella, 2020). moreover, the teacher should also consider students’ l1 in teaching a foreign language (aguskin & maryani, 2018; marsella, 2020) to help students to understand the materials well. there are several roles of using l1 in teaching english based on some experts. first, both the students and teachers feel helpful when the teachers use l1, especially for the low level of students (galali & cinkara, 2017; hanáková & metruk, 2017; almoayidi, 2018; and erk, 2019). it is more useful in the condition that the students have limited ability in their target language, especially in grammatical concepts. second, the use of l1 in a foreign language class setting can increase students’ understanding when the teacher teaches the language concept of the lesson in l1, as mentioned by erk (2019) and inal and turhanli (2019). the teacher can teach the different concepts of grammar from both languages so that the students have 60 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 59-66 a better understanding of the grammar concept and can eliminate mistakes in formulating them (budiman & krisfani, 2020). in addition, l1 can also use to explain grammar material. galali and cinkara (2017); kocaman and aslan (2018); and navidinia, khoshhal, and mobaraki (2020) have found that the use of l1 is very helpful in teaching grammar concepts. their findings show that their participants are very confident when they understand the materials given by the teacher. when the students have background knowledge in the learning process, they will be confident to share their ideas rather than just accept new information from the teacher. this is very important that the teacher must be able to communicate well with the students by using understandable language. then, shabir (2017); inal and turhanli (2019); marsella (2020); and navidinia, khoshhal, and mobaraki (2020) have also highlighted that l1 can be used to explain the difficulty of the grammar concept, to re-emphasize important points, and to give feedback. third, using the foreign language (l2) has effectiveness in time-consuming. according to zulfikar (2018); surjowati and siswahjudioko (2020), time availability also influences the use of l1 in teaching foreign language classrooms. fewer the time available, the teacher must be hurried in explaining the materials. it means using l1 is more efficient in time rather than by using a foreign language in terms of giving materials (setyaningrum, sabgini, & setiawan, 2020). the students can catch and understand the material quicker by using l1 rather than by using english. in addition, l1 is also used for comparison and clarification (orland-barak & yinon, 2005). the comparison here is used to compare the grammar in l1 and foreign language to provide a clear distinction between these two languages, and in clarification, the teacher gives instructions and frames, and then organizes the activities in l1. then, the use of l1 is for promoting communication and students’ participation. it is useful for low-level students to understand what the teacher says and communicate freely as they participate in the learning process. moreover, other sources about using l1 in the foreign language classroom are the personal beliefs from the practitioners from different institutions around the world. first, shabir (2017); aguskin and maryani (2018); hasrina, aziz, and fitriani (2018); inal and turhanli (2019); and budiman and krisfani (2020) have argued that l1 is useful in introducing new vocabularies that the meaning can be expressed by drawing, noises, and pantomimes. they also think that balancing proposing the use of l1 and foreign language can be very helpful for the students in giving new vocabularies. it is also in line with kocaman and aslan (2018); tasçi and ataç (2020); and navidinia, khoshhal, and mobaraki (2020), who discover in their research that the students acquire the new words with translation method. the teacher needs to find out the same meaning of a new vocabulary given in their l1. it can also become a good strategy in teaching a foreign language, as found by karimah (2020). after that, the use of l1 in teaching foreign language happens in many classrooms all over the world because the students do not have background knowledge yet to communicate in a foreign language. they are also not convenient yet in using full foreign language because they are afraid to make mistakes, and some others even feel pressure because of the same reason. because of that reason, using l1 in a foreign language class can also avoid students feeling afraid of making mistakes (wong, 2020). furthermore, there are three stages of the teaching process in general. they are pre-teaching, while teaching and post-teaching that in every stage, the teacher provides several activities. first is the pre-teaching stage that has several activities. inal and turhanli (2019) have found that their research participants use l1 in the early learning stage to facilitate the function of the foreign language taught. after that, the activities are intended to construct background knowledge. the teacher becomes a bridge-builder between what students already know about language concepts what they need to know to understand materials, that is, the interaction between those materials and the input coming from the text. this stage aims to prepare the students for the first steps of the teaching and learning process to develop skills in anticipation and prediction for the materials given. second, the whilst-teaching stage is to help students understand the specific content and perceive the materials’ rhetorical structure. teachers take the students through the skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing, with these activities. finally, the post-teaching stage is intended to verify and expand the knowledge acquired in the material given. these last tasks also lead the students to discuss and analyze issues presented in the materials given. postactivities are tasks in which students, after interacting with the materials, reflect, argue, and give their points of view that they can do both in the classroom at the end of the class and outside the class. because of the fierce and complex differences of opinion among experts regarding whether the use of the first language in foreign language learning is permissible, there is a need to find out the teachers’ perspective regarding the use of the first language in their foreign language classroom. the purpose of the research is to find out the teachers’ perspective in using the first language in teaching the foreign language. in addition, it also reveals in which stage of teaching the teachers use the first language in their classroom and how the use of the first language affects the students’ acquisition in understanding materials taught. regarding the background of the research, the following research question can be drawn as (1) in which stage of teaching do the teachers often use the first language in the class, whether it is in the preteaching, whilst-teaching, or post-teaching stages; (2) what the perspective of the foreign language teachers regarding the use of the first language in the teachinglearning process in the classroom is, and its effect to the students’ leaning process. 61the english language teachers’ .... (yella dezas perdani) moreover, the l1 in the research is indonesian, and the foreign language is english. the significance of the research is to provide the information for the english language teacher in the incorporate use of l1 in the foreign language classroom. furthermore, it can be used as a consideration for other foreign language teachers when deciding to use the first language in their foreign language class. besides, the findings are expected to give empirical evidence of the condition of teaching english in indonesian regarding l1 usage and give an insight for the teachers to be more fully aware in incorporating l1 in their classrooms, adjusting the function of l1, and assisting students to improve their learning of the foreign language. methods the design of the research is a descriptive qualitative method. the research is theory-driven in that it concludes the theories of using l1 in teaching foreign language naturally (holliday 2005; creswell & creswell, 2018) and figures out the teacher’s opinion of using l1 in their class. moreover, qualitative research studies are the experience of the teachers who use l1 in their english class deeply. it explores the teachers’ experience using l1 in teaching english that includes their personal opinions about when they use l1 the most. the participants in the research are four teachers who teach in senior high school. there are two reasons for choosing the participants. first, they teach in senior high school that the students are in pre-intermediate level. the students at the pre-intermediate level have already had background knowledge in english, and they are hoped to be able to communicate in english. so, the research reveals whether the teachers still need to use l1 to communicate in the classroom or not. the second reason is that they are accessible. all the participants teach in different areas, so they are not from the same school or institution. each of them is teaching in bandung city (west java province, indonesia), majelengka (west java province, indonesia), pangkal pinang (bangka province, indonesia), and kuok district (riau province, indonesia). furthermore, there are two data collection techniques used in the research. the first form of data collection is a questionnaire in the form of the systematic format of questions and often answers by reading the question and choosing the best answer or writing a short answer (wallace, 1998). the questionnaire is adopted and elaborated from orlandbarak and yinon (2005). there are three contexts in the questionnaire: pre-teaching activity, whilstteaching activity, and post-teaching activity with 17 questions. first, the participants are asked to choose one answer from four choices. then, in the second part of the questionnaire, the participants answer five questions based on their opinion (see appendix 1). the second technique of data collection is an interview. the interview is between the researcher and the participant, and it is a semi-structured interview. in this kind of interview, the questions are open, that the researcher has the guide question. then the followup question is intended to allow the participants to interpret the question and encourage them to give detailed responses (wallace, 1998). furthermore, the research data analysis uses the grounded theory method that the research departs from the debates from experts regarding the use of the first language in foreign language classes. there are five steps in analyzing the data found that are adopted from creswell and creswell (2018), as shown in figure 1. the steps are organizing and preparing the data, looking at the data, coding, generating a description and themes, and representing the description and themes. figure 1 steps in data analyzing results and discussions the discussion of the finding is based on the data found. the first part of the discussion is about which stage of teaching the teachers often use the first language in the class, whether it is in the preteaching, whilst-teaching, or post-teaching stages. the second part of the discussion is about the perspective of the foreign language teachers regarding the use of the first language in the teaching-learning process in the classroom and its effect on the students’ learning process. the first clarification is based on the questionnaire data divided into three contexts: preteaching activity, whilst teaching activity, and postteaching activity. it is because the use of l1 in english class depends on the material, activity, task, and needs of the students and the goal of the class (karatas, 2016; al-amir, 2017; shabir, 2017). moreover, the discussion continues with the teachers’ perspectives 62 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 59-66 about their reason for using l1 in their english class. the pre-teaching stage is the first activity in every meeting, and using l1 is very useful at the beginning of the lesson (ostovar-namaghi & norouzi, 2015). there are two points for the pre-teaching stage context. first, it is about using l1 to greet the students (see figure 2). two teachers never greet the students by using l1, one of them rarely uses it, and the rest is usually using it. the greeting is the first activity in the teaching-learning process that the teacher and the students start the meeting. it is a simple communication that according to the two participants, the teachers can use english as a foreign language in greeting because the students understand it easily, especially for senior high school students who are in the pre-intermediate and intermediate level. figure 2 the use of l1 in teaching stages the second point is about the use of l1 in review the last lesson learned (see figure 2). reviewing is important to recall the previous material as background knowledge to the students. three of four teachers rarely use l1 in reviewing the lesson. it is because the lesson has already been explained before so that the students have already had background knowledge about it. so, it is okay to use english in reviewing because they understand it well (sukarni, setianingsih, and terasne, 2020). it is only one of them who usually uses l1 in reviewing the lesson. therefore, in this first stage of teaching, the first language is used to greet and review the previous lesson. based on the data found, using the first language in the pre-teaching stage is not used very often. the second context is the whilst-teaching activity. there are nine points in this context. the questions are about the main activity of the teachinglearning process when the teacher explains and interacts most in the learning process (ostovarnamaghi & norouzi, 2015). the first point is about using l1 to explain how to pronounce words correctly (see figure 2). there is one teacher who never uses l1 because the pronunciation of english does not need l1 to be explained. however, two teachers rarely use l1, and one of them usually uses it to explain how to pronounce the words. second, the point is about using l1 to explain difficult words/ phrases (see figure 2). difficult words are the basic knowledge for the students to learn the main materials. three teachers usually describe it by using l1, and one of them even always explains it in l1. it is because the difficult words are important to be known by the students as they input knowledge. in this context, it is explicit knowledge for them. it is in line with what hasrina, aziz, and fitriani (2018) have found that l1 is used to introduce new and difficult vocabularies. besides, balabakgil and mede (2016), and wong (2020) have also found that using l1 in foreign language classes advantages students to comprehend ambiguous or even difficult vocabulary. moreover, the third point is about explaining difficult sentences of english in l1 (see figure 2). two teachers always use l1 in explaining difficult sentences in teaching-learning activities in the classroom. the fourth point is about explaining the tense and grammatical concept by using l1 (see figure 2). it is in line with ostovar-namaghi and norouzi’s (2015) research. teachers can use the first language in explaining the tense to help students comprehend it. two teachers usually use l1, and two of them do the opposite. to a certain extent, the explanation about tense is difficult because it is the concept of language. the explanation depends on the students’ level of ability that it will be better if it is possible to use english. then, regarding the explanation of the grammatical concept, there is one teacher who always uses l1 in explaining the grammatical concepts; two of them usually use it, and one of them rarely uses it. according to orland-barak and yinon (2005), using l1 can help to compare the grammar in l1 and foreign languages to provide a clear distinction between the languages. furthermore, sa’d and qadermazi (2015), karatas (2016), and sukarni, setianingsih, and terasne (2020) have mentioned and found in their research 63the english language teachers’ .... (yella dezas perdani) that the use of li is to deliver the teaching instructions and grammatical items to help students to acquire it. moreover, the use of l1 is very helpful in teaching grammar concepts because the students will be very confident when they understand the concept. moreover, when the students have background knowledge in the learning process, they will be confident to share their ideas rather than just accept new information from the teacher. the fifth point in this second context is about explaining the concept of english (see figure 2). all the teachers agree to use l1 in explaining the concept of the materials. the concept is essential to the students as the input language to them, so it is crucial to make the students understand the concept that the entire teachers think in the same way. it is also in line with rosyada, widyastuti, and ramadhianti (2018) that most of their participants think it is the most effective teaching factor. the sixth point is about using l1 to give instruction and command to the students (see figure 2). shabir (2017) and tasçi and ataç (2020) have also found that their research participants use l1 in instructing the class. instructions here can be asking them to do some works or to command them to do something. all the teachers agree to use l1 rarely at this point. it is because using english can be understood by the students because it uses the simple word only such as ‘open your book page’. for senior high school students, this kind of instruction is quite easy. moreover, setyaningrum, sabgini, and setiawan (2020) have also found that l1 is used to clarify the instruction given in a foreign language and can be used when the students do not understand the command in a foreign language. the seventh point is about giving an example in the teaching process using l1 (see figure 2). all the teachers agree not to use l1 often in giving examples. they rarely use l1 because they want to provide an english environment to their students. it is also challenging to provide the example in l1; that is why they provide english examples for their lesson. the eighth point is about using l1 in correcting students’ mistakes (see figure 2). correcting here is the correction of understanding materials and gives feedback. three of the teachers agree to rarely use l1 in correcting the students’ mistakes. furthermore, one of the teachers usually uses l1. it is also in line with marsella’s (2020) and sukarni, setianingsih, and terasne’s (2020) finding that l1 can be applied in giving response to their students, especially in evaluating students’ work. it is done to make sure the students realize their mistakes and errors. the last one is the point about using l1 to clarify students’ understanding (see figure 2). all the teachers confess that they usually use l1 in this case that they do this when they are explaining the materials in the class. it is also found by tasçi and ataç (2020) that l1 can effectively use to check students’ understanding and explain the error they make. thus, in the second context of teaching, the teachers use l1 for some proposes. the purposes are to explain how to pronounce words correctly, to explain difficult word/phrases, to explain difficult sentences, to explain the tenses and the grammatical concept, to explain a concept of english language, to give instruction, to give an example, to correct students’ mistakes, to clarify students’ understanding. furthermore, the last context in the research is the post-teaching activity. there are three points in the questionnaire. the first point is about the use of l1 by the teachers in terms of giving instruction to do the homework that should be done at home by the students (see figure 2). two teachers have stated that they never use l1 in instructing their homework is the right thing to do. one teacher rarely uses it, and another teacher usually uses it. as shabir (2017) and sukarni, setianingsih, and terasne (2020) have found in their research, the teacher uses the first language in giving homework to the class because of the low proficiency students taught. the second point is about using l1 to sum up the lesson (see figure 2). this activity is done at the end of the meeting. there is one teacher who never uses l1 in this case; two of them rarely use l1, and only one of them usually uses it. according to nilubol (2020), the participants have suggested using l1 in concluding the lesson to make sure the students have a clear comprehension of the lesson given. the last point is about the use of l1 to close the meeting (see figure 2). it also includes a farewell expression. three teachers never use l1 in this case; meanwhile, only one of them does not do so. it can be concluded that the teachers use l1 in the post-teaching stage to give homework, sum up the lesson and close the lesson. some of the teachers usually use l1 in their post-teaching, and the rest of them consider that in the post-teaching stage, the students have the background knowledge of the materials so that english can be used in this stage. the second part of the discussion continues with the teachers’ perspective on using indonesian as the l1. there are two perspectives found regarding the data. first, according to the data found, using l1 helps teachers in delivering materials. some participants argue that using english in teaching can train the students’ listening ability that is in line with what ostovar-namaghi and norouzi (2015) have discovered in their research. then, some participants think that using l1 can make the interaction between the teachers and the students easier because the students also feel comfortable that they can understand their teacher’s explanation (ostovar-namaghi & norouzi, 2015). it is also in line with zulfikar (2018) and erk (2019) that they find the use of l1 in the classroom makes the students more comfortable and can encourage them to take risks (budiman & krisfani, 2020) by trying to answer the questions both direct questions from the teacher and questions in their exercises and encourage them to use english more (almoayidi, 2018). using full english in the classroom can make the students frustrated that ong and tajuddin (2020) have argued that l1 should be used to assist the students in learning a foreign language. 64 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 59-66 also, in the classroom, l1 mostly use when the participants explain difficult terms and grammatical concepts that become the teacher’s strategy in teaching. it is in line with balabakgil and mede (2016), who discovers that the use of l1 is one of the teaching strategies which support the teachinglearning process in the classroom. the use of l1 also helps the teacher deliver the materials because it can strengthen the teachers’ explanation and helps the students understand the material better (marsella, 2020; budiman & krisfani, 2020), making them more confident (cambridge papers in elt, 2019). however, for some teachers, the use of l1 cannot be too often because the students are not stimulated to use english that is also in line with tajgozari (2017), who finds that most of his participants also have the same thought. second, according to the data found, using l1 helps the students in acquiring the materials taught. it is taken from the data of questionnaire and interview that are the teachers’ arguments about the advantages of using l1 for the students. it is found from the data that using l1 helps students understanding the material. it is in line with debreli and oyman (2016), tajgozari (2017), and inal and turhanli (2019), surjowati and siswahjudioko (2020), who find in their research that the application of the first language in the classroom has helped the lower level of l2 proficiency students to be able to understand the material taught (tasçi & ataç, 2020). then, the data also show that the use of l1 in english class helps the students understand the material better. according to the interview data, it is also found that the students also feel more convenient to ask about the materials taught by using l1. it happens because they are afraid to make mistakes in asking and explaining the question in the wrong way (galali & cinkara, 2017; tajgozari, 2017; hasrina, aziz, & fitriani, 2018; zulfikar, 2018). furthermore, a participant thinks that the use of l1 in teaching english is allowed in teaching english when it is needed (almoayidi, 2018) to give a comfortable atmosphere to the students (kocaman & aslan, 2018). it is because students learn english in the classroom only that they do not have any exposure outside the class (dewi & setiadi, 2018). to sum up, from the data found, l1 is used by the teachers in all stages of teaching, but the most frequent use is in the whilst-teaching stage. moreover, using the first language in teaching a foreign language does help both teachers and students in the teachinglearning process. conclusions using the first language in a foreign language has become a debate among education experts and practitioners. the questions about their perspective on using l1 in the foreign language class, its effect on students’ learning process, and in which stage of teaching they use l1 the most are the focus of the research. moreover, the opinion and viewpoints of the teachers as doers in the class, who meet and teach the students, should also be asked and discovered. according to the findings of the research, some conclusions can be taken. first, the teachers do use l1 in teaching english in foreign language classes. second, from the data found, they use l1 because it makes some of them easy to interact with the students. it also makes the students comfortable in learning the foreign language since the communication uses the language they have already known. the teachers get easier to explain the lesson when they use l1. third, from the data obtained, the participants use l1 in teaching english subjects in the three stages that then be said as contexts of teaching; pre-teaching, whilst teaching, and post-teaching. each of them has a different frequency in using it. in every stage of teaching, there are several activities. they use l1 to explain the lesson and communicate with the students comfortably, and they use l1 in the whilst-teaching stage the most. moreover, the research contributes to discovering the teachers’ perspective on using l1 in their foreign language class, how it affects the students’ learning process and the whilst-teaching stage as the most stage that the teacher uses l1 in their class. this is important because teachers are the ones who face the students directly in the classroom and once that teach and deliver the materials. moreover, because of the research contributions, the findings can be used by other teachers who teach foreign languages and consider using the first language in their classes. those other teachers can also consider when they need to use l1 in their foreign language class the most. however, there are two limitations of the research. first, the research only provides information from the teacher’s point of view about the use of l1 in english class. it would be better to add the data and information from the student’s point of view also. furthermore, the second limitation is from the data collection techniques, which are questionnaires and interviews only. it would be better to do observation in the class in the teaching-learning process to see what happens in the classroom. it can also reveal the interaction of the teacher and the students when they use l1 while learning english. because of the research limitation, further research is needed to cover the limitation of the research. references aguskin, l. c., & maryani, m. 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(2018). rethinking the use of l1 in l2 classroom. englisia journal, 6(1), 42-51. https://doi. org/10.22373/ej.v6i1.2514. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 115 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 115-119 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5513 enjoying learning writing through facebook group zulfadli abdul aziz1; husnul khatimah2 1 pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas syiah kuala jl. tgk. hasan krueng kalee, kopelma darussalam, syiah kuala, aceh 23111, indonesia 2pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas tarbiyah dan ilmu keguruan, institut agama islam negeri (iain) zawiyah cot kala, langsa jl. meurandeh, kota langsa, aceh 24411, indonesia 1zulfadli.aziz@unsyiah.ac.id; 2husnulkhatimah.adnan@gmail.com received: 15th march 2019/revised: 09th april 2019/accepted: 23rd april 2019 how to cite: aziz, z. a., & khatimah, h. (2019). enjoying learning writing through facebook group. lingua cultura, 13(2), 115-119. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5513 abstract this research showed the english as a foreign language (efl) students in aceh who struggle in learning english writing as they had a lack of interest in it. this descriptive qualitative study aimed to find out in what ways facebook group facilitate the enjoyment of the students in learning this skill. data were collected using interviews and analyzed through thematic analysis. ten students from uin ar-raniry were purposely chosen for the interviews that was done one by one at a time. the research findings show that there are four themes causing participants enjoyment of the learning writing in the group: (1) it provides unlimited timing; (2) it facilitates the participants’ freedom and creativity; (3) it provides the interactive feedback; and (4) it helps them in brainstorming the ideas. these four themes directly enhance the students’ situational interest in learning writing related to an environmental factor, but it results in the development of their individual interest. this research suggests that the teacher should combine the learning process in the classroom with the facebook group media to fasten the enhancement of the learners’ writing skills. for the learners, it is suggested that they should utilize their social media such as facebook group not only as their communication media but also for developing their learning in writing. keywords: learning enjoyment, learning writing, facebook group introduction teaching english writing skills to the university students in indonesia, especially in aceh, has always been a challenge. the lack of a proper medium may have driven them to have less interest in learning writing. online learning can facilitate students and teachers to have active written communication at any time and places. by using technology as such online learning facilities, it will require ‘a degree of autonomy’ and the awareness towards the roles of learners and teachers in the process (reinders & white, 2016). many researches have considered that this written communication plays a significant role in promoting students’ autonomy in learning writing (misir, koç, & koç, 2018). indeed, social media such as facebook is one of the options suggested by many researchers for this reason, and li (2017) has said that the use of social media in teaching english has developed quite progressively. facebook as a network that initially targeted high school and college students goes globally and starts to dominate the social media sphere. in january 2018, it was reported that active facebook users make up two-thirds of the market with more than 2,17 billion users (global digital report, 2018). the jakarta post, an indonesian’s english newspaper, has reported in march 2018 that indonesia has been the fourth highest number of facebook users in the world. up to january 2018, there are 130 million accounts on the social network or 6 percent of the total global users. this makes indonesia, the southeast asian country with the most facebook users. facebook group allows students to manage communication as privately as they want. they can share only with whom they are allowed to join the group. it creates the environment such as a classroom because they will communicate with certain people in the group, but luckily it is more flexible. the effectiveness of using facebook for students in teaching english as a foreign language (elf) has been found by researchers, for example, khan et al. (2016); sulisworo, rahayu, and akhsan (2016). yu (2014) has also conducted research on facebook usage for efl writing class which is found positive results for learning writing. ramadhani (2018) has also found a similar result that the comments post on facebook have enhanced and improved 116 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 115-119 students’ writing skills. bani-hani, al-sobh, and abumelhim (2014) have specifically studied about utilizing facebook group in teaching and improving students’ writing. this research has focused only on how facebook develops students’ preparation process in writing, which is brainstorming before they are doing the real writing. the lack of interest and motivation to learn writing as well as lack of media that facilitate their learning has been blamed for students not being motivated. it is, however, important to notice that the majority of students are nowadays active facebookers who write at the minimum of one ‘status’ every day. most of the time they write it in english, but it is simply for having fun. they are not aware of the usage of fun written communication on facebook (especially facebook group) for their writing learning process. undeniably, those students spend more time online on facebook, than for learning. therefore, it is really urgent to look at how fun activities such as facebook is connected to learners’ learning writing. zheng, yim, and warschauer (2018) have argued that social media (e.g., facebook) has a contribution to give opportunities and motivations to practice writing skills for english learners to communicate in the written language with the native speakers. in this research, therefore, it focuses on the use of facebook group toward students’ learning of english writing. it is expected to discover how facebook develops university students’ interest and joy in the actual process of learning english writing. writing has been regarded as one of the most difficult skills that learners need to master (sabouri, zohrabi, & vafa, 2014). it requires learner’s competency to receive the information, processes it, and at last, produces it. it is inadequate to learn writing if a learner only relies on the ‘two or four hours a week’ learning in the classroom. writing is about long processes, which requires more time, effort, as well as guidance. learners need to learn more outside of the classroom in order to be a good writer, especially an english writer. it is undeniable that the demand for autonomous learning in writing is such a crucial issue to be focused on. therefore, in this research, the researchers would like to explore how autonomous learning of writing can be developed by using facebook group media. the facebook group provides more spaces for the learning process outside of the classroom, but with the consideration that the learners are still in touch with their social environment, as well as friends, teachers, or even english native speakers or writers. learners should develop their interest and passion in writing so that they will be able to deal with the difficulties in learning writing. many researchers believe that interest holds greater power on learners’ engagement and learning. interest has been found to play a key role in influencing student learning behavior and intention to participate in the future (harackiewicz, smith, & priniski, 2016). interest is a powerful motivational process that energizes learning and guides academic and career trajectories. to be understood easily, mccarthy (2014) simply defines interest as ‘what learners care about and like to do.’ in other words, learners’ interest is something that learners found enjoyment in. there are two types of interest; individual interest and situational interest (subramaniam, 2009). individual interest refers to individual psychological preference to re-engage in particular classes of objects, events, or ideas over time and is content specific (hidi & renninger, 2006). situational interest, on the other hand, refers to “the affective reaction triggered at the moment by stimuli in the environment which may have a short-term effect, and may marginally influence an individual’s knowledge and values” (subramaniam, 2009). in addition, they point out that both types of interest tend to interact and influence each other’s development. it means that situational interest which influences by environment also contribute to the development of long-lasting individual interest. fortunately, situational interest can be enhanced through the modification of certain aspects of the learning environment and contextual factors such as teaching strategies, task presentation, and structuring of the learning experience (harackiewicz, smith, & priniski, 2016). scott and glaze (2017) have also suggested that giving a choice to students in their learning process will make them feel a greater sense of competence and intrinsic motivation, and they perform better on related tests which mean that it develops the students’ situational interest. giving the opportunity for the learners to work with others would also positively develop their situational interest. mccarthy (2014) has emphasized that the higher level of activating interest is to have students propose their own choice and ideas for products and activities. therefore, subramaniam (2009) has suggested that teachers provide ample exploration opportunities during student-task interaction that ultimately results in instant enjoyment for learning. in line with learners’ interest, the problems faced by learners during the learning process also influence their success and failure in learning. according to noriah, hussin, and darus (2012), the problems that are faced by esl learners in learning writing are the lack of practice time being allocated in class, dull writing activities, and the lack of emphasis towards critical thinking in their writing course. fareed, ashraf, and bilal (2016) reveal that one of the writing problems affecting students’ success in college compositions besides language areas difficulties is the students’ writing anxiety. noriah, hussin, and darus (2012) have suggested that the online writing course can be one of the solutions. methods this research applies a descriptive qualitative research. in qualitative research, the focus is usually given on the, “way people interpret and make sense of their experiences to understand the social reality of individuals” (mohajan, 2018). this research is therefore in the form of an explanatory rather than statistical analysis. in order to conduct this research, a facebook group named ‘we are popular writer’ is created. then the research participants’ facebook accounts are added into the group. to begin the conversation flow, a simple topic, asking them to do free writing about themselves, such as self-introduction is initiated. they are free to write anything they want to about themselves, activities, and so on. the learning process in the facebook group is activated through ‘posting’ as the instructional learning and ‘comment’ as the learning response to one another. the participants have to follow the instructional processes in the facebook group based on the notion of scaffolding (gonulal & loewen, 2018), which is started from the lower level to the next. it means that the researchers’ roles are as researchers, administrators, and lecturers. the subjects of this research are all students in the english department who are taking writing ii class in uin ar-raniry. there are 18 units or about 495 students who 117enjoying learning writing.... (zulfadli abdul aziz; husnul khatimah) are taking writing ii class, but this research is conducted to 10 students from unit vii who are chosen on purpose with the criteria that they have actively been using facebook and they are willing to participate in this project. data for this research are obtained through the interview with the students who have participated in putting postings in the facebook group that are created especially for this research. results and discussions during 40 days of learning, the 10 participants are asked to practice their writing as often and as much as they could. none of the participants has hesitancy unless agree on the idea that the use of facebook group assisted them to practice their writing more than the classroom. after this learning process, they are asked their responses on the use of such type of media in studying. in presenting the data, the students are coded with p1 up to p10 indicating participant 1 or participant 10 in order to hide their privacy. the interview results reveal that all of the participants enjoy the learning writing process on the facebook group. there are four aspects found that cause the participants’ enjoyment of the learning writing in the group as well as developing their interest in writing. they are; (1) it provides unlimited timing, (2) it facilitates the participants’ freedom and creativity, (3) it provides the interactive feedback, and (4) it helps them in brainstorming the ideas. the first and foremost benefits that learners may get from using facebook group is that it could facilitate the learners to obtain enjoyment in learning writing because it provides unlimited timing for their learning process. albeit the deadline given is inevitable, the fact that the participants have the whole authority to select and set their own learning time, are enhancing their interest in learning writing by the use of the facebook group. this is unlike the classroom learning in which is limited only to the two credits given. p1, p2, p3, p5, and p7 aver that the unlimited length of time given is the source of their enjoyment in the facebook group learning. p2 comments that: “for example, we have deadline three days after today, during three days i can figure it out, not like in the class, understand or not understand we have to write in on that day.” having her own opinion, p6 has stated that the use of the facebook group is saving her time from being wasted, as she says: “our time is becoming shorter than if we have to go to campus for learning. so, we have more time for composing our writing.” additionally, p4, p8, and p9 perceive the facebook group learning timing from the other perspective. they enjoy group learning because they have the entire authority to select their own learning time and place, as p9 puts it: “i prefer learning on facebook than in the class because i can set my time, for example, after i am back from my work in the coffee shop.” besides the unlimited timing that the learners get from this learning strategy, most of the participants also apprehend that in the group, they have the freedom to control their learning because it is free from other peer’s disturbances. p3 has said that he is often distracted by his friends in the middle of writing tasks in the class because some friends disturb him asking about ideas, etc. p1, p2, p3, p4, and p8 have experienced the same circumstances and elaborate further about the use of facebook group which could assist their creativity and selfactualization by bestowing the opportunity to share their writing with others without meeting in person. p2 feels that it is so much fun because she could complete the tasks without the hassle and share what she had written online, so it is not worthless since everyone could read her writing. as mentioned, after posting their writing in the group timeline, the participants reciprocally comment to give revision or appraisement toward each other writing. the interactive feedbacks that the learners get from their peers have stimulated their motivation to improve their writing even more. astonishingly, this chance is professed as the cause of their enjoyment to learn writing in the facebook group media, and none of the participants feel down because most of the comments are constructively criticizing their writings. it has motivated them to write better, as p1 comments: “i feel motivated from the comments as feedback of my writing, i never feel down because of it. i feel proud of my writing when they comment; it means my writing is read by them.” indeed, the positive feedback given by lecturers and friends obviously motivate them to develop their writing, as stated by p5: “group members reciprocally comment on my writing to give feedback, i like it, especially when the lecturers give us such words, “chayo, keep it dear!” and it undoubtfully motivate me!” helping the learners in brainstorming the ideas that they want to develop in writings is other advantages in using the facebook group as the media. initially, most of the participants admit that the lack of ideas is one of the reasons why they feel bored to practice writing. nonetheless, after this approach is used, they affirm that the facebook group supports them in brainstorming the ideas, and therefore it gets much easier for them to begin writing. distinctively, each of the participants has their own estimation on how it assists them. p1, p2, and p6 claim that the clear instruction and topics given by the lecturers support them to find their own ideas. in a statement of p6 as saying that: “the lecturers give us many topics, so those topics help us to find the idea. most of the time, i chose the topics from something that i have researched. somehow it helps me to take conclusion.” p5 finds the suggestions from friends who help her generate good ideas, as she mentions: “by receiving suggestions from other friends, it helps me to generate a good idea.” in addition, p4, p7, and p8 experience that it assists them to find ideas by browsing or searching the materials from the internet. different from the other learners, p3 deems the unlimited timing provided by the group as the help in finding her ideas, as she avers: “i have time to think about the idea, preparing for the 118 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 115-119 material; i have enough time to read many sources to develop my knowledge.” surprisingly, p9 has stated that his responsibility to post on facebook is the reason for him to easily find the ideas. this could be studied in his statement: “it is my responsibility to post on facebook, so later on the idea will come up little by little.” this research shows that interest has been found to play a key role in influencing students’ learning participation. yu (2014) has also suggested that by using facebook in efl language learning settings learners would have more opportunity to practice their language skills beyond the classroom sessions. based on the research findings, one of the reasons shared by the participants as the cause for their enjoyment in group learning is that it provides them the unlimited timing for their learning. besides unlimited timing, the choice is given for them to set and select their own learning time also enhanced their situational interest (scott & glaze, 2017). bani-hani, al-sobh, and abumelhim (2014) have also found that the benefit of using facebook group because students have enough time to brainstorm during group discussions, and it is different from traditional classrooms where time is limited and the interference of teachers. creating a learning environment that evokes the situational interest could play an important role in the development of individual interest. situational interest can be enhanced through the modification of certain aspects of the learning environment and contextual factors such as teaching strategies, task presentation, and structuring of the learning experience (harackiewicz, smith, & priniski, 2016). scott and glaze (2017) have suggested that giving students choices seems to improve situational interest. furthermore, mccarthy (2014) emphasizes that the higher level of activating interest is to have students propose their own choice and ideas for products and activities. in other words, the learning process must facilitate the learners’ freedom and creativity to control and manage their own learning. indeed, all of the participants reveal their own unique experience on how facebook group facilitated their freedom and creativity. therefore, it is obvious that the use of facebook group fosters the learners’ interest and enhances their enjoyment to learn writing by facilitating the participants’ freedom and creativity. actually, boosting the learners’ situational interest would develop the learners’ long-term individual interest. one of the ways is by structuring the learning experiences (harackiewicz, smith, & priniski, 2016), specifically by giving the opportunity for the learners to work with others. it positively would develop their situational interest. as the interactive feedbacks are the result of their cooperation in the group, the feedbacks given by friends have triggered the participants’ enjoyment in learning writing by using the facebook group. therefore, it infers that one of the ways the use of facebook group helps the learners to enjoy their learning writing is by providing the interactive feedback to be shared interchangeably. indeed, this situational interest is not innate in the learners, but it is “triggered by the stimuli in the environment” (subramaniam, 2009). the findings elaborate that most of the participants feel bored to practice writing because they have a lack of ideas to be written. however, after the learning process is completely done in the facebook group, all of the participants reveal that they enjoy practicing writing in that social media because it supports them in brainstorming their ideas for their writing. there are six reasons in which the group usage assisted the participants to brainstorm their ideas:(1) the clear instruction given by the lecturer makes the participant easily understands how to write; (2) the optional topics that are given by lecturers; (3) the suggestions from friends; (4) the unlimited timing given; (5) the fact that the facebook group is a social media connected to the internet; (6) the responsibility they have to the group helps them to strive in finding ideas. the change of participants’ attitude from not loving to loving learning writing by the help of facebook group usage is because they find the instant enjoyment in the group. this instant enjoyment is essential as it will assist the learners in developing their individual interest which is stronger and long-lasting to influence the success and the failure of their learning process. since the development of instant enjoyment for learning positively contributes to develop the learners’ situational and individual interest, subramaniam (2009) has suggested that teachers should afford “ample exploration opportunities during student-task interaction that ultimately results in instant enjoyment for learning.” conclusions facebook group helps learners to enjoy the interactive learning writing atmosphere. it can also foster their interest in learning writing because the facebook group provides unlimited timing for their learning so that it facilitates the participants’ freedom and creativity. learning writing through this medium provides interactive feedback and facilitates the learners to brainstorm their ideas. it is suggested that the teacher should combine the learning process in the classroom with the facebook group media to fasten the enhancement of the learners’ writing skills. for the learners, it is suggested that they should utilize their social media such as facebook group not only as their communication media but also for developing their learning in writing. further research on experimental research comparing between ‘the combination of classroom and the facebook group’ and ‘the only facebook group’ may be conducted. references bani-hani, n. a., al-sobh, m. a., & abu-melhim, a. r. h. 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(2018). qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. journal of economic development, environment and people, 7(1), 23-48. noriah, i., hussin, s., & darus, s. (2012). esl students’ attitude, learning problems, and needs for online writing. gema onlinetm journal of language studies, 12(4), 1089-1106. ramadhani, p. (2018). using facebook comments in teaching writing skill. proceedings of the icecrs, 1(3) 253-264. reinders, h., & white, c. (2016). 20 years of autonomy and technology: how far have we come and where to next? language learning & technology, 20(2), 143–154. sabouri, h., zohrabi, m., & vafa, a. (2014). genre-based approach to teaching writing in efl context. international journal of applied linguistic studies, 3(1), 1-7. scott, c. m., & glaze, n. (2017). homework policy and students choice: finding from a montessori charter school. journal of montessori research, 3(2), 1-18. subramaniam, p. r. (2009). motivational effects of interest on student engagement and learning in physical education: a review. international journal of physical education, 46(2), 11-19. sulisworo, d., rahayu, t., & akhsan, r. n. (2016). the students’ academic writing skill after implementing blended learning using facebook. information technologies and learning tools, 56(6), 176-191. the jakarta post (2018). indonesia, fourth highest number of facebook users in the world. retrieved from https:// www.thejakartapost.com/life/2018/03/04/indonesiafourth-highest-number-of-facebook-users-in-theworld.html. on 08 march 2019. yu, l. (2014). a case study of using facebook in an efl english writing class: the perspective of a writing teacher. jalt call journal, 10(3), 189–202. zheng, b., yim, s., & warschauer, m. (2018). social media in the writing classroom and beyond. in the tesol encyclopedia of english language teaching, 1st edition, liontas, j. i. (ed.). hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 283 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 283-287 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.5933 the cultural meaning in verbal and non-verbal expression represented in nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep hodairiyah1; wakit abdullah rais2; dwi purnanto3 1,2,3linguistik deskriptif pascasarjana, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1arifakaffah14@gmail.com; 2abdullahwakit@yahoo.com; 3dwi.purnanto@yahoo.com received: 10th september 2019/revised: 22nd october 2019/accepted: 30th october 2019 how to cite: hodairiyah., rais, w. a., & purnanto, d. (2019). the cultural meaning in verbal and non-verbal expression represented in nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep. lingua cultura, 13(4), 283-287. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.5933 abstract this research aimed to find out the cultural meaning of verbal and non-verbal expression represented in the nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep. this research was a qualitative descriptive using an ethnographic method with ethnoscience analysis. data were obtained from the interview result with two informants of verbal and non-verbal expression. it finds that this tradition in the form of almsgiving whereby the charity is devoted to the deceased in the hope that it can alleviate and erase the sins of the deceased, in addition to which it can increase unity, harmony, family, harmony between people and others. this research can provide the benefits of knowledge about the meaning contained in the tradition of nyaébuh, and it can give the sumenep community’s insights about the meaning of tradition through verbal and non-verbal language expressions. besides that, it can share knowledge about the culture and traditions of madura for each different region. keywords: cultural meaning, verbal expression, non-verbal expression, nyaébuh tradition, ethnolinguistics introduction indonesia is a nation that has many islands and various cultures as well as languages in each region. thus, each region has a different way of life in the culture, including madura. madurese (people of madura) has its own way of culture, which is part of indonesia. madura is also one of the cultural assets owned by this country. in culture, madurese have a high tolerance, mutual cooperation, and the spirit of harmony for upholding the sense of unity and unity in brotherhood towards different things in carrying out each tradition. according to suwito, hidayat, and agus (2015), the tradition in the interpretation of society in seeing reality to be addressed with confidence and trust. as with the nyaébuh tradition, it has been a hereditary tradition and is still developing today. the nyaébuh tradition is a salvation tradition practiced by the madurese community after there are some people who had died. the tradition is carried out until now by the community because it is driven by a firm belief towards the system of values and customs that have been running for generations. nyaébuh is derived from the word ébuh; the change in the word ébuh means thousand to nyaébuh with the prefix affix, which is a form of the verb. it shows the meaning of the activities in commemorating the day of the funeral of the deceased person. this tradition usually takes place in wisdom with the reading of tahlil sarwah, as well as joint prayers that are led by the chaplain with the invitees present at the event. one of the things that is very interesting in the nyaébuh program is not only the procession of a series of events but in terms of serving food that is unique and has its own meaning. this tradition is not only intended to hold a prayer together but also as a benchmark to show the status of belief in culture and traditions that are still strong and thick in society. in carrying out the tradition of nyaébuh, the madurese determine the date by releasing someone’s day of death until it reaches a thousand days. at that time, a series of activities are carried out, starting from preparing for the salvation/ceremonial event, such as jhangonjangan, bherkat, tambul, biddang, dha’eran, nase ‘rasol, pan-sampanan which will be given to the invitees after conducting the tahlil sarwah. this tradition has been still conducted by madurese. this is a forum for conveying ideas and life views of the madurese society. the culture possessed by the madurese community reflects the values, ideas, and forms of 284 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 283-287 knowledge to be conveyed by other communities hereditary from one generation to another. therefore, those legacy ideas will be sought because the culture is a legacy that holds meaning to be conveyed to the public. thus, the culture must be understood by the meaning contained in the ideas and patterns of thought and objects. so, through the tradition of nyaébuh in the aeng community, the tongs of saronggi sumenep sub-district can be seen how the madurese people understand, appreciate, and look at things related to salvation in human death. nyaébuh is a salvation tradition to commemorate the thousandth day of the dead because the spirit will go away forever. as revealed by nyai haiseh (april 26, 2019), “nyaébuh reah salamettan ka angguy greetagi se mate e baktoh saebuh arenah, sabab spirit abeliah ka aballah place, spirit la jau. salamettan areah ka angguy sanguh dibudinah.” nyaébuh tradition has an important meaning in human life. however, over time, the understanding of the tradition of nyaébuh began to be less understood by the madurese community even though the tradition is still implemented. the implementation of this tradition in the madura region is assisted by elders and chaplains because only a few people can understand this. therefore, the only reason people continue to use the tradition because it becomes a habit or just a tradition passed down for generations. this can show that the knowledge of the madurese community about cultural meaning through the view of the community in the tradition of its shining is clearly reduced. thus, the researchers decide to use cultural meaning theory to solve the research problem. cultural meaning is the meaning of language in accordance with the cultural context of its speaker (subroto in rais, 2017). this is intended to translate the meaning in the form of verbal and non-verbal expressions in the context of the local wisdom of the community in the nyaébuh tradition related to the knowledge system reflected in the people’s mindset or outlook on life. therefore, the aim of this research is to reveal cultural meaning and how is the public’s view of the nyaébuh tradition in the aeng tong tong, saronggi, sumenep community, which will be viewed from an ethnolinguistic perspective. ethnolinguistics is a study of the relationship between language and culture. conceptually, ethnolinguistics (anthropological linguistics) is a type of linguistics that pays attention to the position of language in a broader social-cultural context to advance and maintain cultural practices and social structures (foley in rais, 2017). in similar research, sari (2017) has focused on the existence of the tradition of the salvation of death that still survives to this day that has positive values for the local community from different perspectives. the research is seen as a positive reality, such as for friendship or connecting bonds of brotherhood and community relations. besides, mulyadi (2018) has revealed that tradition meaning in the sumenep madura muslim ritual, which is understood as a local or popular ritual. it is related to the determination of the calendar in islam. this ritual, when expressed and understood in practice, is always based on popularizing the names of local islamic calendar with certain insights and meanings. with a deductive-inductive-explorative approach, this research reveals three popular ritual practices of the sumenep madura community, namely death, peret kandung, and sonnat rituals. in addition, karim (2017) has also conducted similar research that focuses on the meaning contained in the ritual of the death of the javanese islamic community in the village of bakalan kalinyamatan jepara. moreover, samingin (2007) has focused on the form of the death salvation, the symbolic meaning of each ubarampe used in the salvation to commemorate the death, as well as the outlook on life and the mindset of javanese people related to death. furthermore, hodairiyah (2019) has also conducted similar research that focuses on the lexical meaning and cultural significance of the majana sortana tradition in death. then, pangaribuan (2017) has researched the implementation of the ceremonies of death in the batak toba customs, especially in pontianak. if the group of batak toba people in pontianak do not conduct salvation, they will get a negative assumption from other people. they believe that those people will obtain trouble continuously. customary leaders (raja adat) make efforts to preserve the traditional ceremony of the death of the batak toba society in pontianak by continuing to carry out the customary death ceremony/ salvation, providing guidance to the community who will carry out the traditional ceremony of death and introducing it to the younger generation. besides, wahyuningsih (2018) has also conducted research to describe and analyze the meaning of denotation, connotation, and myth in the representation of the ritual ceremony of the death of the toraja tribe in the indonesian documentary program bagus net tv toraja episode. this research is seen from the perspective of roland barthes’s semiotics. ayu (2014) has studied traditional ceremonies that are routinely carried out in religion every year, called the khaul buyut tambi. she explains the cultural classification, description, and reflection of the concepts of life and death in the buyut tambi khaul lexicon. embon and saputra (2018) have also conducted similar research that aims to describe and reveal the symbols in the toraja traditional signs of the solo ceremony. it is a tradition to perform the last ceremony for people who had died. based on these descriptions, the researchers are very interested in research and study more about the meaning of nyaébuh tradition in cultural meaning through the views of the people and the mindset that still runs as an inheritance from the ancestors. it is because this research has never been conducted in the madura region, especially in the ethnolinguistic realm. so, it aims to describe the cultural meaning in verbal and non-verbal expression represented in the nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep. methods this research is about cultural meaning in the nyaébuh tradition that is an only one-time event to hold the day death of someone that is represented in the verbal and non-verbal language of people in aeng tong tong, saringgi, sumenep, madura. this type of research is a descriptive qualitative using ethnographic methods with ethnographic analysis models or the new ethnography or cognitive anthropology that are relevant to the analysis based on cultural themes (spradley in rais, 2017). data used in this research are verbal and nonverbal data by doing the interview. the verbal data are in the form of informants’ speeches in the form of lexical units of words, phrases, clauses, sentences contained in the tradition. in contrast, nonverbal data are in the form of symbols in the form of objects or tools contained in the tradition. the source of primary data are utterances from selected informants who become the leader in the 285the cultural meaning.... (hodairiyah, et al.) tradition of nyaébuh. the secondary data sources are such as documents and informants. the document data source in the form of photos and informant data sources are a leader (kiyai) named (1) nyai haiseh (80 years), who works as an elder in saronggi sub-district, sumenep district; and (2) ustadz jibrawi (55 years), who works as a teacher from the village of aeng tong-tong, sumenep district. this research also uses a purposive sampling technique to obtain the completeness and depth of data in dealing with the reality that is not single and directed at data sources that had important data. the data are related to the problem to be studied (rais, 2017) and snowball sampling techniques for assigning informants (sibrani in hodairiyah, 2019). the steps to analyze data are by transcribing the results of interviews with resource persons in an orthographic manner. translate data are verbally and nonverbally in terms of words and other lingual units. then it interprets and analyzes the context in terms of cultural meaning and community views. in other words, culture and all activities of community life can be used as a reference for writers to interpret their worldview and mindset in order to uncover the culture they belong to, assisted by theory such as cultural meaning theory related to data analysis needs. results and discussions after conducting an interview with two informants, people of aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep, madura have nyaébuh tradition in death where there are forms of language expression in both verbal and non-verbal languages. these languages have cultural significance in the lives of people themselves, both those who have died and those who have been left behind and are basic obligations that have been carried out. thus, the tradition of nyaébuh has still lived and occupied as the legacy of the ancestors to this day. nyaébuh is a tradition to commemorate the thousandth day of the deceased. on that day, it is believed that the spirit would go far away so that it would not return. therefore, the family holds salvation in the form of a ritual performed to accompany the departure of the spirit. the thousandth-day commemoration carries out in the afternoon by the family that is a form of existence of trust held strongly from generation to generation, as if people are reluctant to commemorate salvation at night. the activities of nyaébuh that is event or ceremony to hold the thousandth day of someone’s death could be expressed in the form of lingual unit form of language in the form of terms, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in madurese about the tradition and expressed in symbolic form. thus, the forms of language in ethnolinguistic studies are classified into two parts, namely verbal language, and non-verbal language, which are encapsulated in the tradition of nyaébuh. there are five expressions of verbal language in nyaébuh tradition. first is, “ding la nyaébuh kluarganah ta’ tedhung gan peddhuk polanah roh reah bhakal nyimpangah. ronah roah la sossa can.” (when a thousand days, his family did not sleep until noon because the spirit was going to leave, the spirit was hard to go). this express reveals that if someone died and has reached the thousandth day, then the family does not sleep until noon because the spirit will go and experience the hardship. therefore, on the thousandth day, the family holds salvation to commemorate it by conducting joint prayers and reciting tahlil and yasin, which are devoted to the deceased family in the daytime. it aims that the deceased will be given a calm, facilitated all his/her affairs with the most power. it is because the spirit would go before noon. therefore, the commemoration of the thousandth day is held to accompany the departures of the spirits as sangu or their provisions in passing away. a belief about the sayings of society to the verbal expression on the day of nyaébuh basically is the placement of spirits. the spirit is divided into five parts; (1) the spirits of the prophets come out of the body like oil and straight to heaven. (2) the spirits of martyrs come out from the body; allah creates a blue (green) bird and entrusts the spirit in the bird. it means that the spirit is inserted into the bird, and the bird is in heaven eating fruits in heaven. (3) the spirit of a devout person goes straight to the garden of heaven, but they do not eat, and they are not happy in heaven but only see heaven. (4) the spirit of immoral muslims who does not have time to repent will haunt, including heaven and earth. (5) the spirits of infidels are directly entered into a blackbird and put into a hell of a sijjin, which is under the earth number 7. its spirit is tortured while its body in the tomb feels the torture. supposedly against the sun in the fourth sky while the light reaches the earth (ianatut tholibin, juz 2, page 107, in the interview of ust. jibrawi, 30th december 2018). the understanding of the spirit and the spirit that will not come back is the form of public confidence without a basis of thinking. however, it is better because with such an existence, it is indirectly motivated by a sense of sharing among people, and there is still respect for the deceased. thus, the family does salvation in a thousand days with the intention of alms in the form of food, cakes, and equipped with clothes. it is intended that the charity is specifically for the deceased. the second is, “sandhakkaen mi’ dhateng ka dhalem mimpenah oreng, mi’ ngaton.” (afraid to come into his/her dreams, afraid of being present). logically, clothes donated would not arrive at the deceased person in the form of clothes. the deceased person would not wear the clothes, but his deeds would be delivered to the deceased. this charity would ease the burden on people who died. however, in fact, it is ok if it is not conducted because to remember parents who had died do not have to give. it is enough to pray for him/ her every day without stopping. it depends on the standard of his/her children and grandchildren, remembering his/her parents. when the deceased person comes, it is a cause for his child or family who do not remember him/her to just pray for him. the third is, “duh, jha’ reng ta’ e berri’ lemas jeryah lamba’, ye adha’ jeryah pas daddih.” (duh, she didn’t give lemas in the past, so, she becomes ghost). this expression culturally gives a negative impact if it is not provided lemas, which caused people who died wandering. it is only a belief of some people. lemas is a good donated to other people because the oldest people find it very difficult to do alms because of the difficulty of the economy and to support themselves. as the words of nyai haiseh’s advice (26 april 2019), “mak tak daddiyah, daddih mun lamba. jhak benni keng korang abajang, keng korang amalah, mun oreng lamba’ se ekakanah beih malarat, mak entara ebagi ka oreng, jhak se anuh areah sadakah koduh mabanyak amal. mun tak asadaka daddih onggu mun lamba’. mun sateyah reng la soki, adha’ caretana din dhadin.” (if it used to be. it is not because of lack of worship, just lacking in charity, if people do not want to be eaten first, let alone give it to people, the important thing is to give alms to charity. if not 286 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 283-287 giving alms, so it really happened before. now people are rich; there’s no ghost story). from this expression, lemas indirectly encourages someone to donate. charity is a good thing that has to be spread by everyone to add to the deeds of worship. the fourth is jhâng-onjhângan (invited guests). jhâng-onjhângan is a term in the nyaébuh tradition that has the meaning of invited guests. culturally, jhâng-onjhângan is the invited guests who come to pray together and recite tahlil together to pray for the dead to be forgiven of their sins and make things easier. jhâng-onjhângan, who come to attend the salvation, would be given a kind of bharkat as a form of almsgiving for those who died because they come to pray for the deceased person. attending an invitation is a must to honor those who have invited. logically, people who come to attend invitations with respect to people’s invitations are counted as a form of kindness. the virtue of praying for someone who has died is a form of reward that is earned by both those who are prayed for and those who pray. the fifth is tahlil sarwah (reading tahlil). it is a ritual tradition in death by reading it 7000 times. recitation of tahlil sarwah held at the funeral home is not only in the tradition of nyaébuh. however, the previous days in the tradition of death such as the tradition of pamaté (day of death), wa-duwa’ (second day), lo’-tello’ (third day), pa’empa’ (fourth day), ma’-lema’ (fifth day), nem-enem (the sixth day), to-petto’ (the seventh day), pa’polo (the fortieth day), nyatos (the hundredth day), nyataon (the annual day), and nyaébuh (the thousandth day). this tradition is an attempt to pray for the dead to be calm in the barzah. in the tradition of tahlil sarwah, people present with reading yasin, and tahlil of 7000 times, in which the reward is set aside for the person who has died. besides, the family also provides shodaqoh in the form of food treats for mourners who pray with the hope that the reward of shodaqoh is also conveyed to the person who has died. the implementation included prays which aimed sins of the deceased people had been forgiven and tortured were relieved by allah swt. as for the determination of tahlilan from the tradition of pamaté, wa’-duwa’, lo’-tello’, pa’empa’, ma’-lema’, nem-enem, to’-petto’, pa’-polo, nyatos, nyataon, and nyaébuh. from some of these traditions, there was no different thing in every reading and ritual. it is because the event was filled with tahlil sarwah, yasin, as well as recitation of prayer specifically for people who died. however, for the tradition of pamaté, wa’-duwa’, lo’-tello’, pa’-empa’, ma’-lema’, nem-enem, and to’-petto’, the family did not invite others to pray, but people who mourn who came alone to participate in praying for the dead. besides, for pa’-polo, nyatos, nyataon, nyaébuh, it was the family who invited people to pray for the deceased. this tradition has critics from other people. some people accuse that this tradition is a heresy as well as a tradition of ancestors that have no sharia basis. regardless of the debate, the scholars still agree to maintain the implementation of the tahlil sarwah based on the strength of the arguments of the hadith, al-qur’an, and classic books that strengthen it. thus, many benefits are felt from the implementation of the tradition of tahlil sarwah; one of them is repentance efforts for oneself and relatives who have died. it could increase the kinship between the living and the deceased, remind that afterlife, there must be death, strengthen harmony among people, and establish harmony and cohesiveness between people. the sixth is sandekka (alms/donation). sandekka is a term in nyaébuh in the tradition of the madurese when there is death, which means alms/donation. culturally, a sandekka is giving or changing the clothes of the deceased by distributing or giving them to others with the aim of charity for the deceased. sandekka tradition in madurese is identical to clothing (as a substitute for clothes), umbrellas (so that it does not overheat on its journey), pillows (to be comfortable in resting), mats (as a base for resting). this is a belief for some people. logically, people who have died do not need this; they only need prayer. however, this could encourage children and grandchildren to keep remembering their parents with sandekka. with the sandekka activity, people would set aside their wealth to give alms that are a form of kindness for everyone because this is believed to be a provision of charity in his/her life in the afterlife. besides these non-verbal expressions, there are six expressions of non-verbal language in nyaébuh tradition. first is tambul biddhang (cake and coffee). tambul biddhang is two words becoming one with a different meaning in the form of a phrase that is a noun form. tambul is a cake served as a drinking partner to be served to the invitees. in contrast, biddhang is a form of the word noun, which means a drink in the form of coffee with a mixture of hot water and sugar. culturally, the given of tambul biddhang is a must in the nyaébuh event. it is because giving bambhang tambul to the invited guests is a form of respect and gratitude for being willing to attend the invitation for the ceremony and prayers addressed to the family of the deceased. tambul biddhang is also a form of almsgiving where charity is devoted to the deceased. the second is dha’eran (food). dha’eran is one of the language expressions, which the term is found in nyaébuh. dha’eran is a noun form of the word dha’er verb that are two relations between the units of the lexeme dha’er and suffix –an. it means rice and soup and side dishes while dha’er means ‘eating’. culturally, dha’eran is a form of donation/alm of rise and meal. this alms is carried out by family members who have died with the aim of charity from alms intended for the deceased. this is done only to ease the burden borne by the deceased because alms could erase existing sins. therefore, giving dha’eran to invited guests who have prayed together to forgive all the sins of the deceased are also assisted by giving dha’eran as a form of help to erase their sins as well. the third is nase’ rasol (rice of rasul). nase’ rasol is combining two words in forming a phrase. the word nase’ means rice, and rasol means apostle. nase’ rasol is prophet rice, which means that the rice is offered a prayer to the apostle. this rice is in salvation to glorify apostles because the prayers and the blessings are offered first to rasullullah as a messenger of god. this rice is given or included in the salvation to be prayed for, and it is different from the others because it is equipped with side dishes in the form of noodles or serundeng and meat terms with tompang. the value of nase’ rasol has more reward because of more alms. it is a form of almsgiving, which is given to people who come to attend the invitation to be married. giving alms is expected that the charity is devoted or conveyed to people who have died. the fourth is bharkat (gift). bhakat is a madurese term from barokah, which means blessing. in the madura, bharkat is a gift in the form of a variety of cakes, rice, and soup in one container. this is usually given to invitees or people who take part in the tahlilan of death. this bharkat is a form of almsgiving whose charity is reserved for people who have died in the hope that almsgiving becomes 287the cultural meaning.... (hodairiyah, et al.) a blessing or brings blessing to both the deceased and the family. the fifth is pan-sampanan (boat). pan sampanan is the form of offerings available on the day of nyaébuh. it has the meaning the spirit would sail and will go somewhere crossing the ocean. it is a boat made of paper which contains various kinds of offerings such as satay and complete side dishes. inside the boat, there is a symbol made of three colors from a basic material called tettel. the colors are black, yellow, and white that symbolize sangu or provision of people who would depart. this understanding is an understanding of ancient culture. in fact, the spirit is divided into five parts, as explained. such rituals in the pamate tradition should be kept away because they are the heresy of madzmumah. however, this ritual still survives until now due to ignorance and the lack of public understanding of this tradition. when the tradition is not able to be changed as the proposition that reads “man raaa minkum munkaran fal yuwayyir biyadih,” (if one of you sees evil, then it should be changed by hand), “fa illam yastatit fahuwa bilisanihi” (enough to say). however, if this does not work, it would cause hostility, then it was enough to deny in the heart. in this tradition, pan-sampanan is a form of offerings offered to people who are specific to the deceased. the charity is expected to erase and forgive all of his/her sins. the sixth is lémas aghung (offerings/sesaji). lémas aghung is a combination of two words lemas and aghung. lémas is a noun form, which means a pyramid, while aghung is an adjective, which means great. lémas aghung is the last offer of the greatest to accompany the departure of a spirit who would go far without anyone knowing where he is going. in the tradition of nyaebuh, lemas is a form of the boat made from young coconut leaf assemblages containing ‘juko’ nase, snacks in the form of song lessongan, prayer beads, reng-orengan, and panyakseh. nase juko is rice and side dishes, snack/jajan is a cake formed similar to a mortar, prayer beads, scarecrow, and panyakseh in the form of money as provisions in his journey. the offerings/sesaji is given or donated to people and specifically to those who have died so that the deeds are felt by those who have died. conclusions the salvation activity about the thousandth day of someone’s death can be expressed in verbal language and non-verbal language. the verbal language can be seen from the utterances in the form of terms, phrases, clauses, sentences, such as; (1) ding la nyaébuh kluarganah ta’ tedhung gan peddhuk polanah roh reah bhakal nyimpangah. ronah roah la sossa can; (2) sandhakkaen mi’ dhateng ka dhalem mimpenah oreng, mi’ ngaton, (3) duh, jha’ reng ta’ e berri’ lemas jeryah lamba’, ye adha’ jeryah pas daddih, (4) jhâng-onjhângan, (5) tahlil sarwah, (6) sandekka. while in the non-verbal of nyaébuh tradition are; (1) tambul biddhang, (2) dha’eran, (3) nase’ rasol, (4) bharkat, (5) pan-sampanan, (6) lemas aghung. the meaning of salvation consists of some offerings that aim at providing supplies of the deceased to go far. this offered charity is reserved for the deceased. alms are expected to remove and forgive the sins of people who have died. besides, the implementation of the tradition of nyaébuh can also strengthen the ties of friendship with others, a sense of unity, and brotherhood. this research can provide the benefits of knowledge about the meaning contained in the tradition of nyaébuh, and it can give the sumenep community’s insights about the meaning of tradition through verbal and non-verbal language expressions. besides that, it can share knowledge about the culture and traditions of madura for each different region. the research about verbal and non-verbal expressions reflect in the nyaébuh tradition in this death ceremony is still very limited, only in one tradition that is revealed with cultural significance. research on language and culture related to death, in addition to the tradition of being used, is still very potential to be used as further research material such as a hundredth day, a year day of someone’s death, or it can be accorded by each culture in some places. the research uses to describe a meaning for societies and some generation as the form of local cultural maintenance. references ayu, n. p. 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(2017). implementation of the toba batak community death salvation in pontianak city. prodi hukum untan, 3(5), 1–56. rais, w. (2017). kearifan lokal dalam bahasa dan budaya jawa: studi kasus masyarakat nelayan di pesisir selatan kebumen, jawa tengah (kajian etnolinguistik). surakarta: uns press. samingin, f. x. (2007). perilaku verbal dan non-verbal pada upacara kematian dalam tradisi jawa: kajian etnolinguistik. magelang: universitas tidar magelang. sari, d. (2017). selametan kematian di desa jaweng, kabupaten boyolali. haluan sastra budaya, 2(1), 147–161. suwito., hidayat, a., & agus, s. (2015). tradisi dan ritual kematian wong islam jawa. ibda’ jurnal kebudayaan islam, 13(2), 1693– 6736. doi 10.24090/ibda. v13i2.659. wahyuningsih, d. (2018). the representation of the toraja tribal death ritual ceremony in the indonesia net tv episode toraja documentary program. e-journal ilmu komunikasi, 6(1), 68–82. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 1-13 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6130 the effectiveness of blended learning in improving students’ workplace communication skills: a case study on olive website test result agnes siwi purwaning tyas1*; ahmad muam2; yohana ika harnita sari3; cisya dewantara4 1,2,3,4sekolah vokasi, universitas gadjah mada gedung sv ugm, sekip unit 1, blimbing sari, sleman, di yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1agnesiwi@ugm.ac.id; 2ahmadmuam@ugm.ac.id; 3yohanaikahs@ugm.ac.id; 4cisya.d.nugraha@ugm.ac.id received: 21st november 2019/revised: 05th december 2019/accepted: 17th december 2019 how to cite: tyas, a. s. p., muam, a., sari, y. i. h & dewantara, c. (2020). the effectiveness of blended learning in improving students’ workplace communication skills: a case study on olive website test result. lingua cultura, 14(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6130 abstract the research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of using blended-learning instruction in improving students’ communication skills at sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada. they were required to take the test of english for vocational students (tevocs) and it indicated that there was a gap between listening and speaking ability as presented in the test scores. to support the improvement of both skills, blended-learning instruction was designed and carried out in the forms of online listening activities via online listening for individual practice (olive) website and offline meeting for speaking activities. the research used experimental research, which referred to the results of pre-test and post-test scores of the group. the participants of the research were 275 students from three departments of sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada; language, arts, and cultural management department; engineering department; as well as economic and business department academic year 2019/2020. the pre-test and post-test scores show improvement in students’ performance in both skills. the result of the t-test also shows that there is significant improvement after the application of blended-learning instruction. keywords: blended-learning, business communication skills, student skill introduction to improve the quality of human resources, enhance employability, and increase community welfare, the government of indonesia has committed to strengthen skills development through vocational education. such effort has been formulated in the roadmap on development of education and vocational training 2017-2025 that emphasizes graduates’ readiness to enter the workforce and increase their employment rate. to achieve those goals, the government prioritizes revitalization of vocational education to address skills mismatch and unemployment, improve and strengthen skills of indonesian workers, and to increase the readiness of workers in the global employment (international labour organization, 2019). by providing the students with a variety of hands-on practices and practical experiences, it can improve their ‘ready-to-work’ quality and employability, so they can immediately be absorbed by the industry. employability means the combination of an individual’s knowledge, competences, and personal attributes that make graduates more likely to gain employment and progress in their careers (blackmore et al., 2016). the era of the asean economic community challenges vocational students to hone their potentials and equip themselves with the necessary skills for working and for taking part in the global industry. today’s working force demands these students to develop complex skills from general to specific jobrelated skills. this may include life and career skills, communication skills, learning and innovation skills, information literacy, media literacy, and technology 2 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 1-13 skills. it is also stated in the indonesian national qualifications framework attitudes that graduates should develop knowledge, general skills, and special skills (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia, 2017). therefore, students should be given the opportunity and exposure to develop their expertise related to their profession and other necessary skills to carry out their tasks in the workplace like communication and computer skills. research in northern philippines shows that not understanding and learning 21st-century skills find difficulties in finding, cope with, and compete in the globalized world (tindowen, bassig, & cagurangan, 2017). the shift to demand-driven objectives also affects the vocational education curriculum. effective workplace learning curriculum should be able to connect students with workplace learning through various activities, such as working on authentic tasks that mirror the tasks at the workplace, undertaking work-based learning that brings students to workplace setting, learning the knowledge content and skills relating to their disciplines, and learning about the workplace and future employment opportunities (fung, 2018). therefore, vocational education in indonesia involves industries in developing the curriculum and providing workplace learning through job-training, internship, or apprenticeship programs that enable students to learn and acquire necessary and relevant skills to be applied in their future careers. one of the vital skills that the students must have in command is communication skills. therefore, sekolah vokasi gadjah mada provides the students with programs or courses that aim to improve students’ communicative competence and language proficiency. the courses are set for at least three semesters and designed as english for business communication training that put greater attention on communication in workplace settings. therefore to measure students’ communicative competence in their final year, sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada has designed a specific test to measure their listening and speaking ability before entering the workplace. it can predict students’ competence in using english for communication in their future careers. this test is called the test of english for vocational students (tevocs), which is administered at the end of their study before completing the diploma program. although departments in the college have developed a specific curriculum that equips the students with necessary listening and speaking skills for workplace communication, due to limited study hours, not all skills can be accommodated, especially for listening skills. this situation creates a gap between listening and speaking ability, as illustrated in the test scores. therefore, to improve the quality of the learning process and students’ listening skills, a blended learning instruction is designed, and this research aims to investigate the effectiveness of the instruction in improving students’ passive and active communication skills in the workplace setting. the students’ scores in the preliminary research have suggested that they have to improve communicative competence. several students fail to pass the test while the rest have passed the test with minimum scores. the result of the preliminary research confirms that the students still lack communicative competence because they are still unable to comprehend spoken texts in english and to produce accurate and intelligible language. in terms of oral language output, the students still make grammatical errors, use word chunks, make frequent pauses, and mispronounce words or phrases in english. in order to help the students improve their communicative competence, blended learning activities, which combined learning inside and outside the classroom, are designed and implemented in sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada. the online meeting is mediated by an online listening application named online listening for individual practice (olive). the listening materials are accessed online via a web-based application and consist of four types of listening tasks to simulate tevocs, including short dialogue, question and response, longer conversation, and a short talk. the lecturer and students have scheduled the online meetings once every two weeks and put the online meetings in the course outline. after the online meeting, the lecturer encourages the discussion about the listening activities in the classroom on the following offline meeting. the offline meeting is especially designed for productive activities like role play, presentation, and discussion. the use of blended learning for business english is aimed to provide balance instructions for both skills. as the preliminary test results show that the students fail because they lack practice for listening skills. equal time-on-tasks could help students develop their skills in understanding spoken texts as well as communicating their thoughts or ideas. methods the research uses experimental research, which refers to the results of pre-test and post-test scores of the group. the participants of the research are 275 students from three departments of sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada; language, arts, and cultural management department; engineering department; as well as economic and business department academic year 2019/2020. these students are taking english i course in their first semester. the evaluation process is conducted in three sections; preliminary study, pre-test in the mid-term examination, and post-test at the end of the semester. the scores are analyzed using pairedsamples t-test to identify the improvement of business communication skills in english before and after the implementation of blended learning activities. the total of students’ listening and speaking scores will be counted and compared from pre-test and post-test. at the end of the research, 20 students are interviewed to gather information about their perceptions, attitudes, and experiences after joining blended learning. 3the effectiveness of blended learning.... (agnes siwi purwaning tyas, et al.) results and discussions the development of a global industry that is marked by international trade and global migration of workers causes a shift in the purpose of communication in english. this calls educational institutions for providing technical and professional communication students with valuable work experience (kramersimpson, 2018). they should be prepared with specific technical skills as well as language for communication in the workplace. therefore, the pedagogical activities in higher institutions like vocational education include learning occupational skills in workplaces through work simulation, internship, and job training that replicate written and oral communication tasks that they will encounter in the office. such simulations will bring benefits to the students, such as open access to occupation for individuals as they graduate, develop new skills and productivity, and increase efficiency in skills development (oecd, 2019). encouraging the students to master the necessary skills for the industry will help to reduce the gap between the expectations of the stakeholders or the needs of the industry and the qualifications of the graduates. as indonesia has participated in the global trade whose one of which includes the asean economic community, it can be predicted that the largest employment contributors would be manufacturing, service, production, and export sectors. the migration of goods and labors inside and outside a country can be made possible if the human resources are able to communicate in business english. business english can be defined as language shared by members of the international business community in order to conduct business and work in multinational companies (kankaanranta & lu, 2013; kankaanranta & planken, 2010). practical definition by hellekjær and fairway (2015) have specified business english as the international language used in a variety of work-related situations, from reading work-related texts, simple communication like telephoning, conversations, e-mails, letters, and memos to demanding communication like presentations, negotiations, press conferences, reports, white papers, and articles. to summarize, business english is the specific language used by all members of global industries to communicate information and conduct works in international business situations. increasingly globalized business and trade bring an impact on the use of english. in multinational companies, english becomes ‘lingua franca’ that dominates the communication in the business, so employees are encouraged to effectively communicate in english even in more simplified language to ‘get the work done’ in the global business (kroon, cornelissen, & vaara, 2015; takino, 2017). according to xu (2018), in this modern society, the reasons to learn english as international language are varied. still, practically, students learn english to use it in global contexts, to work in a multinational workplace, obtain better jobs, to work as a translator/ interpreter, and to become a functional member of the global community. being able to enter global employment becomes the main motive to improve english skills because they are highly required for communication in international business. another research also shows that global employment nowadays needs a diversity of skills that combine specific skills of expertise and task-based skills to finish business tasks at work (oecd, 2017). workers who have specialized skills in one area of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics still need to have complementary skills that include literacy and communication. therefore, countries must equip their populations with mixed skills that include technical skills, it skills, and business communication skills to perform well in the workplace. it is also interesting that employees with various areas of expertise ranging from engineering, communications, computing, social sciences to natural sciences mention the needs of english skills to carry out tasks at work. english proficiency is even needed since the application for the employment process before starting the jobs. it is used as a measurement to determine if a person is well-qualified for a particular job in international business. in the recruitment process, applied communication skills and knowledge in the field rank 79-84% as main factors when hiring. it can help to explain that employers seek graduates who can connect across audiences and have a broad range for delivering communication in various capacities (ortiz, region-sebest, & macdermott, 2016), especially business communication in english (tran, 2015). that research result answers why employers prioritize new hires who have business etiquette, interpersonal skills, and oral communication competencies that can be put into practice in the workplace. while at work, non-native speakers who cannot meet expectations in terms of workplace communication are considered less competent (kim et al., 2019) and will not succeed in the professional world (pandey, 2014). as a result, they are less likely to be hired or are assigned to lower positions. in canada, australia, and new zealand, wellqualified immigrants often cannot find employment that builds on their skills, education, and experience even in times of high employment and skills shortages if they are lack of english language proficiency (hunter & cooke, 2014). only a limited number of workers are able to use english for work purposes, and people with higher english competence are able to access better and more various types of employment. as soon as entering the workforce, language knowledge and skills will be directly applied to serve particular and specific communicative tasks in the company. oral communication skills that are mostly utilized by new hires at the workplace include using proper grammar, team communication, participating in meetings, telephoning, informing customers about products, presenting to the large group, and communicating persuasive messages (ortiz, regionsebest, & macdermott, 2016). there are various 4 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 1-13 written and oral communicative tasks in which the employees should be able to demonstrate their literacy and language competence. for example, professionals in the local hong kong workplace should be able to read and write emails, reports, websites, letters, promotional materials, notices, minutes, memos, newspapers, legal documents, and faxes (chan, 2014). communicative needs are non-exclusive to telephoning, meetings and discussions, presentations, conferences, training, interviews, and seminars. students also need to develop their communication skills through text messages. kiddie (2014) has mentioned that an ability to communicate in written forms using various channels is highly required as business and professional communication becomes digitalized. most tasks in the company involve texting for communicating intentions using email and message services. other than oral and communication skills, employers also demand the ability to make use of visual and electronic communication as part of business communication skills (coffelt, baker, & corey, 2016). employees need to be able to communicate visual elements such as display boards, photos, and graphics, in addition to communicate via electronic media like telephone, email, and message service. referring to the aforementioned skills, tenedero and vizconde (2015) have summarized business communication skills into five communicative abilities. they are convince (satisfy the company’s requirement and standards for employment), compose (produce effective technical written outputs), concentrate (be properly attentive and responsive to oral stimuli at work), comprehend (read and analyze copious amount of information effectively), and click (utilize communication tools in the business workplace). in australasia and europe, english for specific purpose (esp) program is given to help students develop workplace language and literacy to enable them to access workplace opportunities (basturkmen, 2012). this can be supplementary to specialized training or specific majors that students take in the university. in china, as they entered the world trade organization, workers should understand technical communication techniques in english and be able to use them as the method of communication in the workplace and international business to carry out their jobs effectively. it affects the efl curriculum in higher education where the materials and activities are substantially designed to enhance students’ english business writing performance (lin et al., 2018; yu & wang, 2016). therefore, the materials simulate its appropriate use as a medium for business. the same program is also developed in norway, where nordic universities systematically address students’ needs for advanced occupational english skills in combination with professional skills (hellekjær & fairway, 2015). based on an economic report, indonesia’s competitiveness is low compared to other asian countries (aswicahyono & rafitrandi, 2018). even a report by international labor organization (ilo) says that although indonesia has been destination country for skilled and professional workers from asia, it still transfers many unskilled and contract labors who engage in poor working conditions (aswicahyono, brooks, & manning, 2011). addressing this problem, indonesia should increase the quality of its human resources. the government of indonesia needs to insert in human capital through necessary training and education (nomaan & nayantara, 2018). the indonesian ministry of education and culture has set three sustainable goals that include human resource development, knowledge and technology development, and economic development (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia, 2017). report by ilo (2019) also indicates the urgency for the indonesian government to create or promote employment wellmatched to its labor force, invest in human capital, and cooperate with the industry. therefore, it is considered necessary to enrich students’ learning with activities that relate to workplace communication. in 2009, all countries in asean had agreed to promote the use of english as an international business language at the workplace and then involve the industries to improve education and economy. therefore, indonesia also actively improves english education. in addition, indonesian services trade contributes to employment, especially because global trade among asia pacific countries will benefit indonesia in creating more employment opportunities. however, it should become the concern of the government to support language education to create skilled workers who are capable to communicate successfully in the international business setting. today, global employment demands betterqualified workers with a diversity of skills such as literacy, numeracy, and business communication, other than specialized skills to seize the benefits in global value chains (oecd, 2017). the most effective method to strengthen students’ business communication skills is by adding learning activities that represent workplace communication tasks. this kind of workplace learning engages learning and work that match someone’s occupation (billett, 2014). it can include role play, project-based activities, internship, and job training. the objective is to help learners know how to communicate effectively in business situations. to optimize the learning process, teachers can integrate various media into the curriculum. teachers may combine online activities and online resources with offline instruction. it can be seen in figure 1. as universities have different situations and resources, each requires different curriculum designs (zhu & liu, 2014). the result of the preliminary study has suggested that the students need learning media and personalized-learning instruction to facilitate business communication practice. learning facilitation could be conducted by integrating information technology in the learning environment. this method is called blended learning that combines face-to-face interaction and computer-supported collaborative learning (graham, 2014). in practice, blended learning does 5the effectiveness of blended learning.... (agnes siwi purwaning tyas, et al.) not only blend classroom instruction and web-based technologies but also combine varieties of resources and activities (breen, 2018). other than onlinelistening activities, the students are given samples of various business documents and communicative tasks that require the use of business communication skills in the interaction. the implementation of blended learning itself is divided into four stages. figure 1 the design of blended learning instruction in stage 1, pre-activity, the lecturer leads the learning process. new learning materials are presented, and new strategies are practiced in this stage. the learning process takes place in the classroom. most of the materials are intended for knowledge building. in this stage, the students should also be encouraged to access authentic or real texts to capture clear pictures of the texts that they are going to produce in their future careers (ruiz-garrido & palmer-silveira, 2015). for example, the students can be given samples of office communication, such as recorded phone calls, video conferences, or meetings. presenting various types of business communication samples will enable learners to identify the purposes, structures, characteristics, and language features. teachers also need to adjust the materials from textbooks that correspond to the english business skills that need to be developed. stage 2 is practice. to create workplace simulation, teachers can provide various activities that include the kind of company communication that employees might encounter in the real workplace such as attending meetings/workshops, giving peer feedback, conducting group projects, and collaborating on a company project (ismail & sabapathy, 2016). after observing the samples of texts, the students are given a chance to make use of their knowledge in real communication practice. these activities have focused on productive skills. some best practices of business english learning include role-play and simulation that elicit interaction or communication and build up business knowledge. those activities allow the students to use practical content relevant to their jobs and business needs through role play, simulation, and business writing practice that will be used during the training or internship (xie & chen, 2019). stage 3 is aural drills. the meeting in this stage is conducted online. in this stage, the interaction is conducted between student and online listening media. the students have to sign in to their accounts in olive and have worked on the listening tasks. the meeting schedule has been distributed before. during the scheduled time, the students could set their own time to access the online listening materials and replay the audio as many times as needed to find the answers to the questions. after the practice, the students earn the score immediately, and they could monitor their progress in every meeting. as teachers have little control over listening experiences outside the classroom, the students can be encouraged to keep listening journals (siegel, 2015). the students would report the time when they access the materials, how many times they play the audios, difficulties in understanding oral communication, and progress or improvement they have made. in stage 4, post-activity, it could be conducted in online and offline settings using the messenger menu in the web-application or the classroom. it is to give a chance for students to receive feedback about their performance in both skills. the feedbacks are obtained from their lecturer and friends. in the online activity, the students could immediately see the score as feedback that would show in what items or tasks they still lacked competence. providing simpler and more immediate feedback for this listening activity is considered more effective as the students spend significantly more time checking immediate feedback instead of ignoring it (van der kleij, feskens, & eggen, 2015) because it can inform current performance, future action, and demand to become more capable learners (henderson et al., 2019). if necessary, the lecturers could review the feedback in the classroom. to support the effect of feedback, the students also make their reflections or learning journals throughout the learning process. in the first meeting, the students are given tevocs simulation. the result indicates that the students lack the ability to listen to the spoken language. according to mahboob (2018), accessing such texts can be difficult due to specific registers or dialects, so the students should receive appropriate training and support to improve their competence in understanding the spoken text. in the first simulation, almost all students obtain very low scores in the listening test. although they do not find any problems in the speaking section, their scores in the listening section make them fail in the first test simulation. listening skills are essential factors for communication and cannot be separated from speaking. the students consider listening comprehension as challenging language tasks because they lack knowledge about the content and vocabulary related to business communication settings, and are not able to discriminate sounds in english and listen to the target language in normal speed. the situation could be changed if the students have willingness, persistence, and motivation to put more efforts on listening and accessing listening materials. mckay (2018) has suggested teachers to encourage learners to develop expertise on standard language that has the most global 6 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 1-13 currency and power. in this context is business english. learning a language should be no longer considered as separated from real future use and should be no longer given as non-interactive activity. after practicing business communication skills, the students will be assessed for their competence to function in-office communication. connecting academic and workplace learning can be done through an assessment that mirrors the tasks needed in the workplace (fung, 2018). the test tasks elicit students’ performance in using the language to successfully maintain communication for business purposes, such as client communication, transaction, and negotiation. learners can apply and be assessed for competencies in knowing what for, what to, and how to perform (trede & mcewen, 2015). the results of this test will not only measure students’ knowledge about language use but also exemplify learners’ readiness to communicate using the language in the workplace, whether they can really apply the language to accomplish office tasks. one of the most potential assessment methods is the internship. the internship can provide technical and professional communication students with valuable work experience, helping students find a job once they graduate (kramer-simpson, 2018). workplace learning like internship program shapes and facilitates learning opportunities, but further research should be considered to explore the student preparation for workplace learning to reduce barriers (o’donovan, 2018). lack of language preparation before the internship inhibits the students from using the language to conduct business successfully. the implementation of blended learning activities is expected to help the students improve their business english skills. considering the nature of tevocs as a high stake test, the students of sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada have to accomplish all types of tasks in listening and speaking sections. before the implementation, almost all students are not able to pass the test. in order to solve the problem, the students are given the opportunity to access the supplementary listening materials on the olive website and practice their communication skills in the classroom. the activities help the students to improve their communication skills, and the result of the test helps to describe students’ current communicative competence level that can predict their abilities to use the language in the workplace. one factor that also hindered the students from understanding the spoken text is the lack of familiarization. limited time and interaction reduce time to interact using the language. to accommodate access to communication, teachers are suggested to combine offline and online learning that enables collaboration, intensive interaction, and exposure to language cues (graham, 2014). in blended learning, teachers should balance instruction with offline learning that focuses on communication or speaking. before the class, the students individually access online listening materials about the types of spoken text or topics they would practice and discuss in the classroom, and they are allowed to replay the audio as many times as needed to grasp the content and information. developing listening skills is considered necessary for working because individuals need to understand messages and instructions or communication in english at work (tran, 2015). table 1 shows students’ scores before and after implementation. table 1 students’ scores before and after implementation scores n min max mean pretest 275 37,50 92,00 70,5509 posttest 275 60,00 92,00 81,1564 the results of the statistical analysis in table 1 illustrate the improvement of students’ business communication skills. the students make significant progress in listening. before the blended-learning activity, 40 among 275 students do not pass the test due to their low listening scores. after the simulation, all students pass the test. the result of the listening test helps to describe students’ listening ability, which includes the ability to comprehend the intended meaning of the language expressions, identify the main ideas and details, and respond to spoken language that commonly appears in the workplace. as albino (2017) mentions in his study, preparing the students to access explicit types of texts for the workplace will help them to increase understanding. this means that exposures given in the online activities help to familiarize them with structures, functions, and features of the texts as well as skills needed to understand the texts. in addition to listening ability, the students also make improvements in speaking. as another important communication skill, speaking ability gives information about students’ competence in producing language accurately, fluently, and meaningfully. based on the evaluation that included mechanics, content, pronunciation, fluency, and vocabulary, the scores on speaking show that the students successfully maintain communication in english. it can be identified that integrating online learning in business english class provides support for communication and engagement in learning. based on research, using blended learning brings ease of communication (khan, bibi, & hasan, 2016), which means it can give samples of interaction and exposures to communication anywhere and anytime. almost all students have mentioned that the implementation of blended learning instruction improves their communicative competence. the students believe that they have the ability to communicate using the target language in the real setting. it can be seen from these interviews. “yes, i think that my listening and speaking ability improve because many practice that given. speaking and learning can helpful for me.” (interview: p.3) 7the effectiveness of blended learning.... (agnes siwi purwaning tyas, et al.) “yes, because the test online (olive) speakers sounded clearer so it was easier to understand.” (interview: p. 10) these students’ responses confirm that blended learning instruction brings benefits to them in developing their workplace communication skills. the answers illustrate how the online and offline meeting raised students’ confidence in communicating. in the early stage of implementation, the students have found difficulty to understand spoken language. as parts of communicative competence and language elements, the discourse and sociolinguistic factors of the language can be a challenge for language learners. listening to the target language is considered difficult because the students fail to understand the meaning and the social function of the language expressions. failures to comprehend meanings in conditional clauses, negations, and inferential statements often lead to misinterpretation of the messages. when the students work on short dialogues, longer conversations, and questions/responses parts, most of the time, they are unable to identify the contexts of the interactional and transactional speech because of their erroneous interpretation of specific registers. other than language and discourse elements, pronunciation and normal speed of speaking also become a challenge for listening tasks. the presence of similar-sounding words might confuse the students and make them mistake the meanings. another problem that is usually encountered by language learners is the speed of communication. in the recording, the native speakers usually speak within the normal speech. if the learners are still struggling in the level of words, chunks of words, or phrases, this task can be difficult because they should listen for general ideas, main ideas, or details in more rapid speech and at the same time, grasp the meaning of the language expressions. the same problem is also experienced by the students of sekolah vokasi when taking tevocs. before implementing blended learning instruction, the students are unwilling and reluctant to speak. unplanned speech and limited preparation time are responsible for causing difficulties in speaking. the students are only given 60 seconds to prepare and 60 seconds to speak about the topic. most of them feel that they are not ready to give the expected response, so frequent pauses and repetitions are found at some or most parts of the speech. they feel uncomfortable and worried to speak because they are afraid of making mistakes. as a result, they prefer to speak less. being not familiar with the test types is also mentioned as one factor that lower the quality of their listening and speaking skills. the repetitive and more intensive tasks provide more opportunities for them to aim the targeted skills of listening and speaking. the students find it easier to locate the main ideas or details in the spoken text. when speaking, they feel more confident and eager to share ideas or speak in front of others. although grammatical errors and mispronunciation are still unavoidable, they do not interfere with the message. the students could produce more complete sentences instead of word chunks. the number of errors in grammar and pronunciation is also more limited. being confident about their ability makes them feel more ready and eager to speak. similar research also shows how combining online and offline learning can effectively improve students’ communication performance because it improves their motivation, engagement, and positive attitudes toward learning (yu & wang, 2016). students’ positive behavior is also identified from their willingness and motivation to engage in learning. in addition to in-class meetings, the students voluntarily manage their time for personal learning through online learning activities. in this blendedlearning instruction, other than motivation, learning success also depends heavily on students’ selfdirection to practice and access the online materials independently (kebritchi, lipschuetz, & santiague, 2017). having high motivation and control over learning, these students regularly work on the listening tasks to improve their listening skills and enjoy the online learning activities because they could freely access the learning materials and set their own personal learning time. the online listening application also keeps the record of their scores and activities so that they could monitor their progress. this result answers why students are most interested in educational experiences that put them into a professional setting that can help to grow their self-confidence and ability to make well-informed plans in the future (washor, 2018). during the implementation of blended learning, the students perform positive learning behavior. the integration of online and offline meetings gives more spaces for language exposure. participating in the classroom activities provide students with activities to apply what they have learned in the class and obtain support (lin et al., 2018). the students have mentioned that accessing olive improves the mobility of learning. they could access online listening materials anywhere and anytime. the use of online learning extends the time to access learning, so the process of learning does not end in the classroom. the students are helped by the online listening application. it serves as language drills and helps them improve their listening skills. they could also set the learning process at their own learning pace. they have mentioned that they access the online listening materials when they are free and played the recordings as many times as they need. by doing so, they are able to find the strategies to tackle the tasks and apply the same strategy in similar task types. students’ following responses show how they gained benefits from the activities, especially to improve their listening and speaking skills. “it was very effective for me, because it can help me in practice my listening skill so hopefully that my ability will improve after practicing in olive. maybe in my opinion, olive really help 8 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 1-13 me because it’s easy to access the sites. in every condition we can practice our listening skill in olive site, it’s caused, we can use our mobile for practice.” (interview: p.7) “in my opinion presentation and discussion is important because it helps me in improving my knowledge and my skill. if i was lazy to practice in home, so only in the class i can practice and it’s the way to improve my skill. and i learn about how to be a good speaker in public discussion.” (interview: p. 11) the implementation of blended learning provides more time and more various activities for speaking, which builds students’ learning behavior. in the activities of speaking, the students employ various learning strategies to achieve the learning goals. they are self-motivated themselves to communicate in the target language. when delivering a presentation and conducting group discussion, the students practice to share opinions, ask for opinions, negotiate, ask for and give information, and use daily expressions as the targeted speaking skills in tevocs. the activities invite more immediate feedbacks or comments from friends. if the students make a mistake, other friends will help to locate and correct the mistake. correcting others’ mistakes or being corrected by others helps the students to be aware of their language. the situations mentioned before illustrate how the students used time on task more effectively. after the students finish working on the online listening activities, they could immediately check their scores, compare their answers, and locate the mistakes. they could identify what they still lack and look for strategies to improve it. similar research also shows that providing feedback is useful because most learners have different characteristics, such as prior knowledge, learning pace, and learning preference (bimba et al., 2017). by accessing the online-based listening materials, the students are given more chance to self-evaluate their communicative competence, improve their skills, and be responsible for learning. although some students still experience the same difficulties in the listening tasks, their self-motivation helps them to persist in learning and gradually improve their ability. “i feel many benefit for me from speaking to improve. and i feel learning method in this one semester is very fun.” (interview: p.8) clear learning goals direct students towards learning. the students are fully aware of the expected learning outcomes. thus, they put efforts on learning and participated in all learning activities. in the interview, the students have mentioned that the integration between online and offline learning activities builds a different learning atmosphere. learning becomes more enjoyable, challenging, yet feasible. nevertheless, the activities provide balance exposures for listening and speaking as they are interconnected skills that build communicative competence. the learning goals also motivate the students to challenge themselves to learn, even when the materials become more difficult. the situations confirm that students’ perceptions also contribute to learning performance. from learning the language, the students also learn the values that shape their personal agency in terms of confidence and skills (kersh, 2015). conclusions the findings of the research suggest that the implementation of blended learning conducted in sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada can help to improve students’ business communication skills in english. in addition to the improvement of business communication skills, the implementation of blended learning also makes a significant contribution in building students’ positive judgment about language competence, positive affective factors, good learning behaviors, and positive perceptions on language 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(agnes siwi purwaning tyas, et al.) appendix 1 sample of olive page 12 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 1-13 appendix 2 sample of students’ tevocs pre-test score st number listening speaking total 1 30 72 51 2 52 78 65 3 32 92 62 4 42 82 62 5 35 75 55 6 58 80 69 7 40 80 60 9 42 82 62 10 68 80 74 11 32 78 55 12 45 75 60 13 42 82 62 14 45 82 64 15 40 78 59 16 62 80 71 17 50 82 66 18 45 85 65 19 52 78 65 20 42 82 62 21 40 75 58 22 38 82 60 23 35 85 60 24 20 80 50 25 45 82 64 13the effectiveness of blended learning.... (agnes siwi purwaning tyas, et al.) appendix 3 sample of students’ mid test and final test score st number mid test final test list speak total list speak total 1 62 70 66 80 75 78 2 68 82 75 85 88 86 3 68 88 78 82 88 85 4 72 75 74 80 85 82 5 65 80 72 88 88 88 6 72 72 72 85 75 80 7 68 85 77 85 85 85 9 75 85 80 85 92 88 10 68 80 74 88 82 85 11 68 82 75 85 90 88 12 80 82 81 85 80 82 13 75 82 78 90 90 90 14 62 82 72 85 85 85 15 75 82 78 85 88 86 16 70 85 78 80 92 86 17 80 82 81 90 88 89 18 75 82 78 88 88 88 19 75 82 78 85 88 86 20 68 80 74 82 95 88 21 72 82 77 88 90 89 22 78 85 82 88 85 86 23 85 82 84 90 88 89 24 60 80 70 88 85 86 25 80 80 80 82 90 86 *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 241 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 241-253 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6834 questioning strategies in english literature lectures in an indonesian university akhyar rido1; heri kuswoyo2*; sandi nuansa3 1,2.3english department, faculty of arts and education, universitas teknokrat indonesia jl. zainal abidin pagar alam no. 9-11, bandarlampung 35132, indonesia 1akhyar_rido@teknokrat.ac.id; 2hery@teknokrat.ac.id; 3sandinuansa41@gmail.com received: 30th november 2020/revised: 18th january 2021/accepted: 21st january 2021 how to cite: rido, a., kuswoyo, h., & nuansa, s. (2020). questioning strategies in english literature lectures in an indonesian university. lingua cultura, 14(2), 241-253. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6834 abstract the research aimed to investigate the questioning strategies used by lecturers in english literature lectures in indonesian university and how they were manifested. applying a qualitative approach and rido, ibrahim, and nambiar’s conceptual framework in 2015, the research analyzed three lectures of english literature consisting of prose, literary criticism, and drama. data were collected through 300 minutes of video-recordings. the findings reveal that the lecturers employ various types of questions such as display, referential, follow-up, and rhetorical questions. the lecturers manifest the questions by rephrasing questions first, then nominating students, asking questions to the entire class, encouraging students to initiate questions, and moving closer to students when asking questions. the questioning strategies help the lecturers to lead the discussion, check students’ understanding, offer the students to share ideas, and improve students’ participation. as a result, the students become active in expressing thoughts, sharing ideas, and even initiating questions. the research can be a guideline for lecturers to create meaningful and interactive lectures to produce competent and critical students. keywords: questioning strategies, literature lectures, university introduction university students are demanded to have good communication skills, especially in english, to promote their career employment in the future (afrianto & gulö, 2019; rana, bashir, & abbas, 2020; rido, 2020a). not only communication skills but the students must also be equipped with critical thinking skills because those are the top skills to enter the job market in the 21st century (nace, 2020; rido, 2019; shcheglova, 2019). university students can acquire communication and critical thinking skills from university lectures through interaction (saleh, 2019; ranta & harmawati, 2017). interaction is salient for successful university lectures, especially when a twoway communication occurs between the lecturer and students (almohizea, 2018; liu, 2019; sari, 2019). however, there is still growing concerned in university lectures, especially in english literature lectures in an indonesian university. students find that literature lectures are challenging for non-native speakers (nns) of english. they have to complete tasks given successfully and communicate with each other, besides receiving and sending comprehensible literature content knowledge from and to their lecturers (rido, 2017). as these students are prepared to be competent english communicators and critical thinkers; therefore, lecturers must be aware of students’ language competence and performance as well as enable them to improve their literary knowledge (rido, kuswoyo, ayu, 2020; shi, 2013). mackey (1999) has suggested lecturers systematically plan and manage their questioning strategies not only to make students participate but also to lead them to think critically. thus, the lecturers must be able to create relevant questions and use them to draw students’ attention, lead students to a certain point, exert disciplinary control, get feedback, foster communication, increase participation, and stimulate the students’ critical thinking skills (cahyono & pribady, 2020; johnson & picciuolo, 2020; kiramba & smith, 2019; rido, 2020b; tan, 2007; zhang et al., 2018). rido, ibrahim, and nambiar (2015) have classified questioning strategies that can be employed by lecturers during university lectures 242 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 into two categories: question-planning and questioncontrolling strategies. question-planning strategies deal with types of questions used by the lecturer, such as open-referential, close-display, rhetorical, and follow-up questions. the main functions are to check the students’ understanding of the materials at hand, give students opportunities to respond to questions, invite further discussion, and know the students’ interest. meanwhile, question-controlling strategies are related to the procedure or manifestation in asking the questions. it consists of phrasing questions then calling the student, nominating a specific student to answer questions, asking questions to the entire class, encouraging students to consult with their friends before answering the question, encouraging the students to initiate question, moving closer when asking the question, repeating the question when there is no response, and modify the question when it is difficult to understand. the primary functions are to get the students’ attention to ensure that the students can cope with the lectures, to give the opportunity for good students to share with the entire class, to give equal opportunity for students to respond to questions, and to minimize the gap between the lecturer and the students (meguid & collins, 2017; rido, ibrahim, & nambiar, 2015). works of literature have shown that questioning plays an important role in university lectures (mackey, 1999; milawati & suryati, 2019; rido, 2019; yang, 2017; & ziyaeemehr, 2016). it is used as a tool to encourage students to actively participate, create an interactive learning atmosphere, and develop communication and critical thinking skills, especially in the university where they must understand, explain, implement, and analyze theories and practices based on their background of expertise. besides, studies also show that students who actively participate in lectures demonstrate clearer and higher linguistic as well as knowledge improvements (dewaelsche, 2015; fard, 2016; kiramba & smith, 2019; liu, 2019; mahmud, 2017; rido, 2017, 2019; shi, 2013; wangru, 2016). several studies have been conducted in the university context discussing questioning strategies (rido, 2019; shi, 2013; tan, 2007; wangru, 2016). rido (2019) recently has investigated the use of questions in science lectures in malaysia and reveals that the lecturer employs many display and referential questions to guide the students to understand the material and stimulate their critical thinking. he has suggested that lecturers should use various types of questions and ways to promote learning. shi (2013) has researched literature classrooms in hong kong tertiary institutions. he has found the diversity of open-ended questions posed by the lecturers, which require a lengthy response, not simply by right or wrong. most of the questions demand the students show their standpoint with specific and detailed statements. other questions are posed to check the students’ understanding of literary technical terms. the research also indicates that the students experience linguistic improvements, mainly enlargement of vocabulary and enhancement of the command of literary technical terms. meanwhile, tan (2007) has looked at how questioning strategies are used in a chinese university lecture. the research has found that traditional culture and the lecturer’s inability to employ questioning strategies negatively impact the students. it suggests that the lecturer must be willing to accept any answers from the students, even it is a strange answer, so the students will not feel embarrassed to respond. wangru (2016) has examined questioning strategies used in the henan polytechnic university lecture. he has revealed that questioning strategies have positive impacts on students’ learning. however, sometimes the lecturer does not employ the questioning strategies in an ideal way. the class activity is dominated by display questions and becomes less interactive. he has suggested that the lecturer should increase the number of referential question to have more interactive learning. however, research on questioning strategies in an indonesian university literature lecture context are still limited. therefore, it is important to investigate how the lecturer’s questioning strategies in literature lectures fill the gap in knowledge of the existing topic and be a guideline for lecturers to improve their pedagogical practices. thus, the research aims at revealing questioning strategies used in literature lectures, focusing on the types of questions and how they are manifested. methods the research applies a qualitative approach. it investigates a phenomenon in a natural setting, questioning strategies used in literature lectures, and how they are manifested (creswell & creswell, 2018; leavy, 2017). the participants of the research, mr. daniel (lecturing prose le 1), mr. smith (lecturing literary criticism le 2), and miss dolly (lecturing drama le 3) pseudonyms, are purposively selected based on a set of criteria such as at least having a masters degree in literature and more than five-year experience in teaching literature courses in english. besides, they must be recommended by the head of the department and their colleagues as well as willing to be the participants of the research. information given to all participants includes what the research is all about, what would be done during the research, how results would be reported, what the participants gained from the study, and what this research would contribute to relevant stakeholders. once the participants agree to participate in the research, the data are collected by video recording their lectures. video recording is the best instrument to know the complete interaction between the lecturer and the students during the lectures. it enables the researchers to have more detailed information because every word is recorded. it provides more contextual data, including the participants’ facial expressions and body movements (blikstad-balas, 2017; ranta & harmawati, 2017). video recording also gives a 243questioning strategies in english.... (akhyar rido, et al.) permanence, which allows the researchers to replay the event (reid et al., 2015; merriam & tisdell, 2016; rido, 2019; rido et al., 2015) so the researchers can have more time to contemplate, consider, and ponder the data before drawing conclusions in order to avoid premature interpretation of the data. the video recording process is conducted in prose, literary criticism, and drama lectures attended by 40-50 students. a video camera on a tripod is placed in the back corner of the classroom to capture the dominant view during the lecture. each video recording lasts 100 minutes. in total, there are three videos successfully recorded with 300 minutes duration. the videos are then transcribed orthographically using transcription conventions by jefferson (2004), hauser (2006), and simpson, lee, and leicher (2002), which are revised to suit the objective of this research in a ms. word program in the form of a table. line numbering indicating turn-taking is given on the left of the page to ease reference and facilitate analysis. peer debriefing is used to ensure the validity of the gathered data. a linguistic expert helps the researchers in examining the accuracy of the results of transcriptions. member checking is also carried out as an identification process to get confirmation from the participants. after the transcriptions are neatly written, all participants verify if the transcriptions have been correctly noted. this is done to establish the credibility of the data obtained. after that, the data are analyzed using five steps. the first step is building a database. all data gathered from video recordings are organized and labeled in separate files in one folder or database. second, opencoding is done. here, the data are studied carefully, and the researchers open to any possible categories. third, after open-coding the data, similar questioning strategies might be developed, and the emergent themes are obtained. fourth, after having the emerging themes, focused-coding is conducted to classify them into sub-categories. fifth, the final emerging themes are presented. results and discussions the research aims at investigating the use of questioning strategies in english literature lectures in an indonesian university. the results indicate that all lectures are dominated by a huge exchange of question and answer activity. all lectures use various types of questions and are manifested in many ways. based on data analysis, four uses of question-planning strategies are found: close-display question, open referential questions, follow-up questions, and rhetorical questions. first, all lecturers employ display questions using modal ‘can’, auxiliary ‘do’ and ‘have’, and the linking verb ‘is’ and ‘are’. in the following extract, mr. smith utilizes display question ‘can’ in his lecture. extract 1: le (2) 327 l ok, so your argument will be ok, 328 because you learn and you study 329 that scholarly, ok thank you, 330 anyone ask questions? (.) to share 331 idea? (.) no (/) can we proceed? 332 ss yes in extract 1, mr. smith summarizes and thanks to his students for their response (lines 327-329). after that, in line 330, he offers the student an opportunity to ask the question and share more ideas. because there is no response from the students, in line 331, he confirms the floor using display question ‘can’ so they could move to the next discussion. in line 332, the floor gave a choral response, ‘yes’, indicating an agreement. in her drama lecture, miss dolly also uses display question with ‘can’. extract 2: le (3) 164 l can we become the character in 165 the book? 166 ss yes (.) can (.) could be in extract 2, miss dolly is discussing characters with the students. she poses a display question using modal ‘can’ to know the students’ understanding of the materials at hand, characters in reality, and the book (lines 164-165). in line 166, the entire class said ‘yes (.) can (.) could be’, indicating a possibility that real characters like them could be characters in the book. furthermore, display questions combining auxiliary ‘do’ and the linking verb ‘is’ are also found. it can be seen in extract 3. 796 l mm, uning said that he is fast 797 thinker (.) fast thinking or fast 798 thinker. and after that, he is also 799 smart and liar. another one for 800 the boy (.) do you want to add 801 some more? speech, ok, from 802 action and thought. is that all? is 803 that all? yustian, you want to add 804 something? no (/) now, we move 805 to the lady. in extract 3, mr. daniel is discussing the characteristic of a character in a story. in lines 796799, he just resumes a student’s idea (uning). in lines 800-802, he asks another display questions using ‘do’ and the linking verb ‘is’ to confirm the student’s final answer and offer another chance to speak more. after learning that no one is going to talk, he decides to move to the next discussion (lines 804 805). extract 4 reveals that mr. smith poses a yes/no question using the auxiliary ‘do’. 244 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 extract 4: le (2) 245 l how to put yourself in certain 246 context nobody can make it, ok, 247 but through literary work, you 248 understand, why this person is 249 suffering, ok because he is the 250 one typically behaving in this 251 way within the society. do you 252 get what i mean? 253 ss yes mr. smith is explaining the context of literary work to the students (lines 245-250). after that, in lines 251-252, he asks a display question using ‘do’, which is posed in order to check the student’s understanding towards the point of explanation. the students then answer in chorus, stating that they understand the explanation (line 253). meanwhile, miss dolly poses question with ‘do’ as confirmation check. extract 5: le (3) 61 l do you still remember him? 62 ((point the screen)) 63 ss oh yeah william shakespeare in extract 5, miss dolly displays a picture on the screen and asks display questions to the entire class using ‘do’ to check and recall the students’ memory about the literature figure (line 61). in line 63, the students confirm that the picture is william shakespeare. meanwhile, in extract 6, mr. smith employs display questions using linking verb ‘is’ and ‘are’. extract 6: le (2) 224 l all experiences, as long as human 225 sense something, see something, 226 listen something, so we can get 227 the experiences of what is being 228 listened, what is ee watched, 229 what is heard, ok? is that 230 answering? 231 s ok mr. smith tries to answer a female student’s question (lines 224-228). in the end part, he confirms the student whether he answers her question (lines 229-230). in line 231, the student confirmed by saying ‘ok’, indicating that she gets the point. here, in extract 7, miss dolly utilizes display questions with linking verb ‘are’. extract 7: le (3) 156 l in your life (.) are we character? 157 ss yeah yeah in the lecture, miss dolly discusses character and characterization with the students. then, she starts asking a display question, ‘are we characters?’ (line 156) which is actually done in order to stimulate discussion. in line 157, all students respond with ‘yeah’, showing their agreement. next, the research has found display questions using auxiliary ‘have’ during mr. smith’s lecture (extract 8). extract 8: le (2) 689 l so, this is the things we advice 690 you to find the current one, and 691 today we have many accesses, 692 right? you can find the pdf 693 version for free, ok, if you want 694 to go to perpusnas, perpustakaan 695 nasional , 696 have you registered yourself? 697 ss not yet in the middle of his lecture, mr. smith suggests his students access free reading materials from the national library (lines 689-695). after that, in line 695, using display question with auxiliary ‘have’, he confirms whether the students have already registered themselves or not. the students give their choir response ‘not yet’, indicating that they have not registered as a member (line 697). in the same vein, miss dolly uses display questions with ‘have’ in her lecture. it can be seen in extract 9. extract 9: le (3) 72 l ok. have you read hamlet? 73 ss no at the beginning of the lecture, miss dolly checks the students’ reading. in line 72, she asks a display question using auxiliary ‘have’ to know whether the students have already read hamlet or not. in line 73, the students state that they have not read hamlet. here, she wants to measure the students’ knowledge before explaining the materials. second, all lecturers employ referential questions in various forms. the questions are employed using wh-question such as ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘where’, and ‘why’. extract 10 reveals that mr. daniel utilizes referential questions using ‘what’ in his lecture. 245questioning strategies in english.... (akhyar rido, et al.) extract 10: le (1) 573 l there are five different methods 574 of direct characterization. five 575 methods, five, five., five, five. 576 number one is, you remember 577 about steal? ok, steal578 speech, thoughts, effect on others 579 towards the characters, action, and 580 looks. speech, what is the 581 meaning, keanu? 582 s mm it’s about the way we talk 583 l yeah, the way theee we talk to 584 others. ok, putri, what about 585 thought? 586 s the way we think about 587 something. in the lecture, mr. daniel reviews the five methods in analyzing characterization, steal (lines 573-579). using referential question ‘what’, he checks some students’ understanding towards the materials at hand, the concept of steal. first, he nominates a male student named keanu to explain speech (lines 580-581). after that, he selects a female student named putri to respond to question about thought (lines 584585). the students give their response in lines 582 and 586-587. in the same vein, miss dolly also uses referential questions with ‘what’ in her lecture. it can be seen in extract 11. extract 11: le (3) 245 l what do you know about him 246 when you watch the movie (.) 247 what do you get from the 248 conversation? 249 s oo, he is an anger man (.) and 250 he (...) even when he angry. he 251 always he always says to his 252 enemy (.) what is that? aaa to his 253 enemy he says to him as a dog (.) 254 that dog (.) kill them all. in extract 11, miss dolly discusses character and characterization in a movie. in lines 245-248, she asks a student about the characterization of a character in the movie, particularly from the conversation. the student gives his response about the characterization (lines 249-250), followed by evidence from the conversation (lines 251-254). it indicates that he could follow the lecture. the research also reveals that the lecturers employ referential questions using ‘how’. in extract 12, mr. daniel uses the question in his lecture. extract 12: le (1) 563 l directly write downthe author. 564 next, indirect characterization, ok. 565 do you believe me when i say 566 ‘hey, i am very dilligent.’ do you 567 believe me? 568 s not really. 569 l not really. how can you believe 570 me? 571 s i have to see the proof, the action. in extract 12, mr. daniel discusses indirect characterization with the students (lines 563-564). in lines 565-567, he checks the students’ understanding of the materials at hand by posing whether they believe if he says he is a diligent person. in line 568, the students answer that they do not believe the statement. in lines 569-570, he then asks a referential question to the entire class to make them believe him. in line 570, a student responds by saying that he needs to see his action as evidence that he is a diligent person, indicating that the student understands the concept of indirect characterization. in the same vein, miss dolly uses referential questions combining ‘where’ and ‘how’. extract 13: le (3) 286 l ok. where can you get the idea that 287 he is smart? brave? (.) how you can 288 tell me the conversation from the 289 movie guys? 290 s aaa he is brave (0.2) he is brave 291 because he fights the snow witch 292 l the snow witch 293 s yes the snow witch (.) and then 294 a (...) (0.3) he always he helps the 295 (0.4) the resident of narnia. in extract 13, miss dolly discusses character and characterization in her drama class. in lines 288289, using questions with ‘where’ and ‘how’, she wants the students to explain with evidence that the character that they are discussing is smart and brave by looking at the conversation in the movie. in lines 290-291, a student explains that the character is brave because he fights the snow witch and helps the people of narnia, showing that he is able to explain and give the evidence. furthermore, the referential question with why was also used by mr. daniel in extract 14. 246 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 extract 14: le (1) 973 l have no fear. ok. why? why he 974 has no fear? 975 because he just like relax to what 976 s happen (.) enjoy about what 977 happen to him even dangerous 978 him 979 l ya, just do it. ok. thank you (.) 980 argument is always found you 981 know if ee as far as you can show 982 the proof... in extract 14, mr. daniel discusses character and characterization in his lecture. they identify that there is a character with no fear (line 973). next, he demands evidence from the students why the character has no fear (lines 973-974). a student then responds by explaining that the character always stays calm even though he is in danger (lines 975-978). in lines 979982, the lecturer thanks the student and tells him that he could accept the argument and evidence. similarly, mr. smith also posed the ‘why’ question, and it can be seen in extract 15. extract 15: le (2) 90 l why literature does matter? (.) 91 last time some of you responded 92 literature does matter because a, 93 b, c. i want you to refresh what 94 we have discussed last time, 95 anybody can share, ok what about 96 you ((point a female student))? in extract 15, mr. smith revisits the previous material in his literary criticism class; therefore, he poses the question ‘why literature does matter?’ which is a topic from the previous lecture (lines 90-94). here, he wants the students to share their ideas and use their reasoning skills (line 95). in the end, a female student is nominated to share her ideas (line 96). in extract 16, miss dolly utilizes referential questions using ‘why’ as well. extract 16: le (3) 773 l why katniss everdeen in the 774 hunger games try to kill the 775 president snow? 776 s because she wants aaa to save her 777 sister (.)her sister her sister being 778 secretive for to be a volunteer in extract 16, miss dolly discusses hunger games movie in her drama class. she poses a question as she wants to hear the students’ response to why katniss everdeen attempted to kill president snow (lines 773-775). in lines 776-778, a student volunteers to give her response, explaining that katniss’s motive is to save her sister. third, all lecturers employ follow up question. the follow-up questions used are the combination of display and referential questions using wh-question such as ‘what’, ‘how’, modal ‘can’, auxiliary ‘have’ and ‘do’, and raising intonation. extract 17 shows how to follow up questions are used by mr. daniel. extract 17: le (1) 822 l what she gives? she gives (/) 823 s she gives the ball back to the boy. 824 so, i think she is kind. 825 l she is kind. ok. 826 s kind and bad temper 827 l kind and good temtemper. 828 s bad temper based on the speech. 829 ball to the girl. so, bad temper 830 and kind. 831 l and (/) 832 s and by the thought, she is stupid. 833 l by thought, she is stupid. why? 834 s because she is easy to fool. 835 l ok mr. daniel’s lecture in extract 17 is dominated by a long chunk of question-answer activity. first, in line 822, he poses a ‘what’ question to the students. in line 823, a female student initiates to give a response. she adds more answers in lines 826 and 828-830. unsatisfied with the response, a follow-up question using ‘and (/)’ is indicated by the rising intonation posed in line 831. again, the student gives her response in line 323. further, he asks another follow up open referential question with ‘why’. he wants the student to give evidence to strengthen her previous answer and invite for more discussion. in line 834, the student gives her response, which is accepted by the lecturer (line 835). the use of more follow up question can be seen from mr. smith’s lecture in extract 18. extract 18: le (2) 108 l why literature does matter? ee 109 ratna? yes please 110 s ee literature does matter because 111 em in literature cover the large 112 idea in society and also 113 e..literature e.. can create the way 247questioning strategies in english.... (akhyar rido, et al.) 114 for people to record their thought 115 and also can give their experience 116 to others. 117 l ok, so you have experienced, and 118 d shared to them, to everybody, 119 like. ok sometimes we need to 120 take decision, we need to have 121 certain choice in life, ok by 122 looking at other person experience 123 through literary work, it can teach 124 us which one is the best based in 125 our situation and condition, thank 126 you (.) ratna, any more to say (/) 127 s literature also can build e.. our 128 experience and we can 129 empathiz..empathize with the 130 others, and literature also ee like 131 the e.. previous already said that 132 literature can develop critical 133 thinking skills in extract 18, mr. smith explains the previous topic, ‘why does literature matter?’ in lines 108-109, he poses the same question and offers a chance for a student to share her ideas. in lines 110-116, she gives a lengthy response that literature could be a learning source for others and a platform for sharing experience. in lines 117-125, mr. smith agrees with the student’s response and emphasizes the importance of learning from somebody else’s experience; how to contextualize it in a personal situation. this is followed by another follow-up question with a rising intonation (line 126), indicating that he allows her to speak more. in lines 127-133, the student elaborates more by telling everyone that literature could build empathy and critical thinking skills. extract 19 also indicates that miss dolly asks a follow-up question to her student. extract 19: le (3) 275 l the chronicle of narnia (.) have 276 you read book from the chronicle 277 of narnia? 278 ss yes. 279 l how many book series of narnia? 280 s five 281 l seven 282 s oh seven ya. 283 l seven books (.) ok, guys listen (.) 284 ok. what are the characters? 285 s aaa king peter. according to extract 19, miss dolly wants to discuss the chronicle of narnia with the students. first, using a display question ‘have’, she checks whether the students have read the book or not (lines 275-277). in line 278, the students give a choir response ‘yes’, showing that they have read it. after getting such a response, the lecturer poses a follow-up question to check the students’ knowledge about the total series of narnia (line 279). in line 280, a male student gives a response by saying ‘five’, but directly corrected by the lecturer by mentioning ‘seven’, indicating that the correct answer is seven series (line 281). the student repairs his answer by saying ‘oh seven ya’, indicating he realizes his mistake and agrees with the lecturer’s correction. after giving his confirmation of the student response (line 283), miss dolly continues asking follow-up questions using ‘what’ to know the characters in narnia story (line 284). in line 285, the student mentions one name, king peter, as one of the characters. fourth, all lecturers employ rhetorical questions. the questions are employed using wh-question such as ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘how’, and raising intonations. in extract 20, mr. daniel uses rhetorical questions during his lecture. extract 20: le (1) 614 l now about speech, what does 615 the character say? so, from 616 what character say, we can know 617 his characterization, ok. how 618 does the characters speak? 619 when you speak, for example, 620 his speak very structure, his 621 speak very polite, his speak 622 veryok, you say ‘wow, he is 623 polite, why? because when he 624 speaks, he really really ee 625 maintain the volume, the way the 626 diction he choose, ok. next, 627 that’s from the speech. how 628 about the characteristics? how 629 about the characteristics? 630 next, we talk about indirect 631 characterization, we can see 632 from thoughts. in extract 20, mr. daniel explains character and characterization to the students. in lines 614-615, he asks a rhetorical question, ‘what does the character say?’, then explains by himself that characterization could be identified from what the character said. in lines 617-618, he uses another rhetorical question, ‘how does the character speak?’, and again, continues explaining that it could be seen from the structure of the sentence as well as the use of politeness strategy. in line 622, he continues and this time employs a rhetorical question with ‘why’ to explain the evidence of a polite character that could be seen from his speech volume and word choice. more question is posed ‘how 248 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 about the characteristics?’ (lines 627-629), followed by a discourse marker ‘next’, signaling a transition that they would move to the next discussion, analyzing characterization from thoughts (lines 630-631). similarly, mr. smith also employed rhetorical questions that can be found in extract 21. extract 21: le (2) 770 l we have also called hypothesis, t 771 he hand which on, ok, to prove 772 our hypothesis, it become a 773 thesis, and the thesis is also 774 challenged by antithesis, and we 775 produce something, new thesis, 776 antithesis, like what is proposed 777 by hagel, the hagelian theory, 778 thesis, antithesis, you synthesis 779 and challenged by their 780 antithesis, it become something 781 new in that way, ok, developing, 782 developing, why? because human 783 needs, human problem, human 784 condition, human context, 785 various and developing, alright, in extract 21, mr. smith explains the hypothesis and how it is challenged, then he quotes hegelian theory (lines 770-780). in the middle of his explanation, he uses a question with ‘why’ (line 782). he answers his own question that hypothesis is always developing because of several factors such as human needs, condition, and context (lines 783-785). while in extract 22, miss dolly also uses rhetorical questions. extract 22: le (3) 530 l so, there is also realistic character 531 and nonrealistic characters. 532 realistic character is pure 533 initiation of the characters we need 534 that in every day. but not realistic 535 character is the opposite. have 536 you read the lord of the rings? 537 what about oregon? there is 538 the character of oregon right (/) 539 oregon is non-realistic because of 540 what? he actually he is actually 541 500 years old something (.) so he 542 is not realistic during the lecture, miss dolly explains realistic and non-realistic characters (lines 530-535). after that, he poses four consecutive rhetorical questions to the students. first is confirming whether they have read lord of the rings or not (lines 535-537), second is asking a character named oregon (line 537), third is emphasizing the existence of oregon character (line 358), and fourth is asking the reasons why oregon is not a realistic character (lines 539-540). finally, in lines 541-542, he explains that oregon is not a realistic character as he is actually 500 years old. the findings also reveal that all lecturers use various ways in manifesting the questions, such as through (1) rephrasing question first then nominate students, (2) asking questions to the entire class, (3) encouraging student to initiate question, and (4) moving closer to the student when asking the question. first, all lecturers rephrase the question then nominate a student to give the response. extract 23 shows how mr. daniel manifests this strategy. extract 23: le (1) 330 l next, based on character’s 331 characterization, flat and round. 332 what is flat, yasrin? (.) and what 333 is round, billy? (0.5) yasrin (/) 334 flat (/) 335 s flat character, character who has 336 one single character. mr. daniel discusses flat and round character with the students (lines 330-331). to check the student’s understanding, he first phrases the questions and then nominates two students named yasrin and billy to respond to the questions (lines 332-334). in lines 335-336, yasrin gives his response that flat character only has one single character. in extract 24, mr. smith also uses the same strategy, rephrasing the question then nominating the student. extract 24: le (2) 559 l we’ll make it deeper yaa, thank 560 you, any more response before we 561 go to the next, yes, can we use 562 more than one theory to analyze 563 a story, beaty? 565 s yes sir mr. smith discusses the use of theory for literary criticism and just thanked a student who gives a response (lines 559-559). after that, in lines 560-563, he rephrases a question then selects a female student to respond to the question about using more than one theory to analyze a literary work. in line 565, she gives her short response, ‘yes sir’, indicating his agreement. meanwhile, in extract 25, miss dolly also uses the same strategy in her lecture. 249questioning strategies in english.... (akhyar rido, et al.) extract 25: le (3) 292 l ...you can see the movie and also 293 from the literature about 294 characters. who else? what 295 would you like to say about 296 character, keanu? ((raise right 297 hand)) miss dolly discusses character and characterization with movies and novels the students (lines 292-294). next, in lines 294-296, she poses a question and invites a student named keanu to share his idea about the character. second, all lecturers ask the question to the entire class. extract 26 shows that mr. daniel employs the strategy in his lecture. extract 26: le (1) 276 l what about based on 277 character’s functionbased on the character’s function. 278 function of the character 579 inside of the story, there are 280 two, ok? 281 ss antagonist and protagonist. mr. daniel explains character and characterization, and he asks the class about characters based on function (lines 276-280). in line 281, the students give their answer in chorus ‘antagonist and protagonist’, which indicates that they understand the materials at hand. in different lecture, mr. smith employs similar strategy, asking question to the entire class. extract 27: le (2) 680 l i mean the theory is developed 681 based on the context based on 682 certain instrument that developed 683 at that time (.) so when you refer 684 to this reference, not valid 685 anymore because the situation is 686 different, do you understand? 687 ss yes in extract 27, mr. smith explains the theory development based on the context or the current situation (lines 680-685). in line 686, he asks a display question, ‘do you understand?’ to the entire class to check their understanding of the explanation. in line 687, the students confirm that they understand the point by saying ‘yes’. like mr. daniel and mr. smith, miss dolly frequently poses questions to the entire class, which can be seen in extract 28. extract 28: le (3) 428 l ok. so that’s minor character. 429 they are less important than 430 major characters but they are still 431 important. because they still 432 influence the development of the 433 plot. can you give me example 434 of minor character?(.) ((raise 435 right hand)) ok in a movie (.) 436 hhm like ok.. hunger game 437 movie who is the minor 438 character in the movie? 440 ss peeta 441 l peeta mellark (/) minor or 442 major (/) 443 ss major in her lecture, miss dolly explains the importance of minor characters for plot development (lines 418-433). in lines 433-438, she asks the students to give an example of a hunger game movie’s minor character. in line 440, the entire class mentions the minor character named peeta. then, in lines 441442, she confirms the students’ answer by raising her intonation, indicating a confirming question. in line 443, the students correct their answer that peeta is a major character in the movie. third, all lecturers always offer and encourage their students to initiate questions. in extract 29, mr. daniel encourages his students to ask the question. extract 29: le (1) 367 l but later, you got to change your 368 mindi have to be brave, brave 369 and brave then you become a 370 brave, brave girl, brave boy, so 371 you can change, your experience 372 changing, ok, that is in reality, 373 but actually our focus is in 374 literary works (.) question 375 please (/) 376 s sir (/) ((raise hand) what is the 377 difference between static and 378 flat character? in the middle of his lecture, mr. daniel gives an example of character development in real life and literary work by showing self-motivation to be brave so the students’ minds and experience could be transformed (lines 367-373). in line 375, he offers the students to ask a question by raising his intonation. this is directly responded by a student who raises his hand and asks about the difference between static and flat characters (lines 376-378). 250 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 in extract 30, mr. smith motivates his students to ask the question as well. extract 30: le (2) 207 l yeah, to develop our critical 208 thinking, you see and you can 209 decide, even though you 210 understand, ok you recognize, ok, 211 the characters, the setting, ok, 212 when it is design in this way the 213 plot will be.. ok.. when you do, 214 when you make critical analysis, 215 yes (.) question (/) hari (/) 216 s i have a question, why we, e, 217 they, they are talking about the 218 literature is like we can 219 experience from the literature, so 220 ee what kind of experience of our 221 life we can put into literature? at the beginning of his lecture, mr. smith explains and emphasizes critical thinking skills in literary criticism by analyzing characters, setting, and plot (lines 207-214). at the end of his explanation, he encourages a male student to ask a question (line 215). after getting the opportunity, the student asks what kind of life experience could be part of literary work (lines 216-221). miss dolly also encourages her students to ask a question that can be seen in extract 31. extract 31: le (3) 441 l he is less important than major 442 characters like katniss and vita, 443 but he still gives contribution to 444 the plot of story. ok. so that’s for 445 minor character (.) yes, 446 questions (/) 447 s miss? (raise hand)) 448 l yes. 449 s can we call the antagonist 450 major minor? because they also 451 involve and give contribution in 452 story. in extract 31, miss dolly explains the contribution of a minor character to a story’s plot (lines 441-445). at the end of her explanation, she encourages her students to ask the question (line 446). in line 447, one raises his hand, indicating that he wants to ask the question. in line 448, the lecturer allows him to pose his question. after that, the student asks the possibility for an antagonist character to be a major-minor character. fourth, all lecturers move closer when they are asking questions. extract 32 shows how this strategy is manifested by mr. daniel. extract 32: le (1) 153 l now, we talk about physical 154 appearance. what do you think 155 about his physical appearance? 156 ((approach a student)) 157 s ee has light skin. 158 l what? 159 s light skin. 160 l light skin. next (/) ((move to 161 another student)) 162 s handsome mr. daniel’s lecture is dominated by an exchange of question and answer activity. while discussing a character’s physical appearance (lines 153-154), he asks a question and approaches a female student (lines 155-156), indicating that he wants the student to respond to his question. after getting an answer from the student (lines 157 and 159), he then poses a similar question and moves closer to another female student (lines 160-161). this female student is aware of the situation and directly gives her response (line 162). along the same vein, mr. smith also moves closer to his students while asking questions. extract 33: le (2) 352 l ... what do you know about 353 approach, theory? any more 354 ideas to share? yes (/) 355 ((approach and point one 356 student)) 357 s based on that i know from some 358 articles theory is a set of 359 statement e.. to explain a group 360 of phenomena in literary work, 361 and approach is a perspective or 362 believe e.. to interpret the literary 363 work. mr. smith discusses theory and approach in his literary criticism lecture, and he wants to check the students’ understanding. in lines 352-356, while asking the concept of approach and theory, he moves closer and points a male student, showing that he wants him to talk. in line 356-363, the student explains what he knows about theory and approach. 251questioning strategies in english.... (akhyar rido, et al.) in extract 34, a similar strategy is manifested by miss dolly in her lecture as well. extract 34: le (3) 52 l ... yes sir (/) what is character? 53 (.) do you want to say something 54 (/) ((approach one student)) 55 s no 56 l no (.) how about you? ((step to 57 the right direction and approach 58 another student)) miss dolly just starts her lecture and introduces the topic, character and characterization. in lines 52-53, she wants to check the students’ understanding of the materials at hand by asking a question about character. while asking the question, she also approaches the student (line 55). getting no response from the first student, she poses the same question (line 56). she changes direction, moving closer to another student (lines 57-58). based on the results, the lecturers employ question-planning and question-controlling strategies. they pose close-display and open-referential questions to both individual students and the entire class. in the particular research, close display questions are mostly started with the auxiliary ‘do’, linking verb ‘is’ and ‘are’, modal ‘can’. meanwhile, the most common types of open referential questions are started with wh-questions such as ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘where’, ‘who’, and ‘how’. not only that, the lecturers also raise their intonation to indicate they are asking a question. dewaelsche (2015) has argued that experienced lecturers pose a large number and variety types of questions. besides obtaining answers, posing questions in various ways and manners increases opportunities for meaningful participation and encourages interactive learning. besides, the nature of question is to initiate a response, and questioning is found to be effective in getting students to speak out and promote oral fluency. after getting questions, students may directly reply, ask for help, or ask for more time. this is able to facilitate involvement, which fosters learning (johnson & picciuolo, 2020). more specifically, according to kiramba and smith (2019), display questions are posed to check students’ understanding of the materials at hand and to give opportunities for students to use the target language in the form of response. meguid and collins (2017) have added that the use of display questions encourage learners, especially less proficient students to get interested. meanwhile, referential questions are posed to get longer responses; therefore, they are more suitable for proficient learners. follow-up questions are to invite for further discussion and extent student’s contribution. however, in his study, rido (2019) finds that an increase in the use of referential questions does not necessarily result in longer and better learner responses, which do not happen in this current research. the results of the research, to some extent, are in line with rido (2017, 2019), shi (2013), and wangru (2016). the results also reveal that the lecturers manifest the questions in some ways. first, the lecturers rephrase the question then nominate the students. phrasing question first helps the students to have more time to think about the answer before giving their response. meanwhile, nominating students helps the lecturers manage the distribution of questions and gives all students equal opportunities to be involved in the learning activity. these results, somehow, are contrasted with tan (2007), who has revealed that most lecturers nominate active and good students only in order to lead the successive questions and make them a good example to motivate other students. second, the lecturers ask the question to the entire class. this strategy is used in order to ensure students follow the lecture, get feedback as an indicator to repeat, or continue the lecture. according to rido (2017), this strategy is able to encourage shy and passive students to participate because there is support from the friends through choir response. third, the lecturer encourages the students to initiate questions, and forth, the lecturers move closer to the students while asking the question. rido (2019) believes that besides obtaining answers, posing questions in these manners is able to increase opportunities for meaningful participation and encourage interactive learning. besides, as the nature of question is to initiate a response, questioning is found to be effective in getting students to speak out and promote oral fluency. after getting questions, students may directly reply, ask for help, or ask for more time. this is able to facilitate involvement, which fosters learning (milawati & suryati, 2019). conclusions to conclude, the lecturers pose variety types of questions in their university english literature lectures, which are manifested in various ways. principally, the questions are used as the tools to help the lecturers lead the students to think critically, increase their engagement during the lectures, and help the lectures to be more interactive. the findings offer implications and suggestions for pedagogical considerations within english literature lectures in the indonesian university setting. the use of questioning strategies in the lectures makes the lecturers control the lessons, guides the students towards a particular response, and promotes interactions. in other words, the use of appropriate questioning strategies opens up space for the students to express their thoughts, which facilitates learning. lecturers should plan their questions before asking to ensure that questions match the pedagogical goals. they should also ask questions, which requires students to engage in various kinds of verbal responses, which demonstrate a higher level of engagement. the research findings are expected to fill the void 252 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 241-253 in current english literature lecture pedagogy, mainly in the indonesian context. despite the increasing numbers of studies on questioning strategies in university lectures, there are still gaps; therefore, future research is necessary. first, it will be more interesting to involve various lecturers from different universities in future studies to get a broader and better picture of questioning strategies in university setting. second, it will be richer to combine qualitative and quantitative methods in future studies. the use of questionnaires, for instance, strengthens the validity of the research findings. acknowledgements the researchers are grateful to universitas teknokrat indonesia for granting the research fund. references afrianto, & gulö, i. 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(agustinus sufianto; dkk) akulturasi unsur kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi agustinus sufianto1; sugiato lim2; andyni khosasih3 1, 2, 3chinese department, faculty of humaniora, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 1asufianto@binus.edu; 2slim@binus.edu abstract this study aimed to examine the influence of acculturation of chinese kungfu elements on pencak silat betawi. the study used qualitative method and observation with interview and literature study by looking up betawi and pencak silat on batavia literature. research finds out that the origins and influence of acculturation of chinese kungfu in pencak silat betawi can be seen from a reciprocal relationship between the chinese community and betawi through the exchange of knowledge between chinese martial arts champion and betawi champion, or brought directly by chinese muslims as master ong and kwee tang kiam. in addition, there are elements of acculturation both in naming or some movements adopted from chinese kungfu as chinese way in maen pukul sabeni that uses two fingers (index and middle), the use of symbols that are closely related to chinese culture symbols in the logo of pencak silat sabeni, respect technique with baoquan li shape as in mustika kwitang, and so on. keywords: pencak silat betawi, chinese kungfu, acculturation abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk mengetahui sejauh mana akulturasi unsur kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi. penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif dan observasi dengan wawancara ke tokoh pencak silat betawi serta studi pustaka terhadap pencak silat betawi. berdasarkan penelitian diperoleh bahwa dari asal dan pengaruh akulturasi kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi terdapat hubungan timbal balik antara masyarakat tionghoa dengan betawi melalui pertukaran ilmu antara jagoan kungfu tiongkok dan jawara betawi atau dibawa langsung oleh muslim tionghoa seperti guru ong dan kwee tang kiam. selain itu, terdapat unsur akulturasi baik dalam penamaan maupun beberapa gerakan yang mengadopsi kungfu tiongkok, seperti cara tiongkok dalam maen pukul sabeni yang menggunakan dua jari (telunjuk dan jari tengah), penggunaan simbol yang erat kaitannya dengan simbol budaya tiongkok dalam logo pencak silat sabeni, teknik hormat dengan bentuk baoquan li seperti pada aliran mustika kwitang, dan lain-lain. kata kunci: akulturasi, kungfu tiongkok, pencak silat betawi 2 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pendahuluan etnis tionghoa telah ada di nusantara sejak ribuan tahun lalu. awal-awal kedatangan etnis tionghoa adalah untuk berniaga serta mengadu nasib untuk mendapat kehidupan yang lebih baik atau sebagai buruh tambang yang terampil tapi murah. ada juga sebagai utusan langsung dari dinasti yang berkuasa di tiongkok untuk membina persahabatan dengan negara-negara sekitarnya, seperti laksamana cheng ho. menurut suhandinata (2009), penduduk tionghoa dari provinsi tiongkok bagian tenggara telah beremigrasi ke kepulauan di indonesia sejak masa kolonialisasi belanda. imigrasi massal pertama (1860-1890) terdapat sekitar 318.000 pendatang baru; 40% jumlah itu (128.000) bermukim di jawa, sedangkan 60% (190.000) menambah populasi tionghoa di pulau-pulau lain—terutama pesisir timur sumatra, bangka dan belitung. meskipun ada gelombang pendatang baru dalam jumlah besar dalam periode ini, komunitas didominasi oleh keturunan tionghoa kelahiran lokal, yang umum dikenal dengan sebutan peranakan (suhandinata, 2009:31). bersamaan dengan kedatangan massal penduduk tiongkok ke indonesia baik sebagai pedagang, buruh, penambang, dll., terdapat pula para ahli bela diri kungfu tiongkok yang ikut dalam gelombang massal pendatang baru. biasanya, keahlian mereka merupakan keahlian yang diwariskan secara turun-temurun dari keluarga. keahlian tersebut bersifat tersembunyi dan digunakan hanya dalam keadaan yang diperlukan. menurut kiong (1960), yang merupakan salah satu ahli dalam seni bela diri tiongkok, pedagang tiongkok sering diserang oleh bajak laut dalam perjalanan atau perdagangan mereka ke nusantara. oleh karena itu, untuk mempertahankan diri serta barang dagangan atau harta berharga yang dibawa, mereka turut membawa serta para ahli bela diri tiongkok. selain itu, pada zaman dinasti qing beberapa pemberontak dari perkumpulan atau sekte yang melawan pemerintah mempunyai kemampuan bela diri. di antara mereka ada juga yang melarikan diri ke asia tenggara dan membawa serta ilmu mereka. karena ingin membantu mengembangkan kungfu tiongkok di luar negeri sebagai salah satu muatan budaya tiongkok, ada juga yang datang ke asia tenggara. salah satu contohnya adalah huo dongge yang berlayar ke surabaya dan mendirikan perkumpulan olahraga jingwu di surabaya, jakarta, solo, bandung, dan beberapa kota lainnya. huo dongge dan perkumpulannya mempertunjukkan keahlian bermain salah satu aliran kungfu yang dikenal dengan nama mi zong. (li xiang, 2013) kedatangan etnis tionghoa dalam periode waktu yang berbeda membawa unsur-unsur budaya tionghoa ke nusantara. akulturasi dengan budaya setempat perlahan-lahan diterima dan mengakar dalam budaya lokal nusantara. kata-kata serapan bahasa mandarin atau bahasa daerah di tiongkok, seperti: lobak, becak, cincau, lonceng, mangkok, lihai, jamu, pisau, dll; atau dalam masakan di nusantara yang sering ditemukan, seperti: mie, bakso, pangsit, singkong, soto, dll merupakan contoh akulturasi. selain itu, terdapat juga akulturasi seni bela diri tiongkok yang dikenal juga dengan kata kungfu atau kundao (sebutan kungfu yang merakyat di nusantara) dalam kesenian bela diri lokal nusantara, yaitu pencak silat. menurut kamus besar bahasa indonesia, pengertian pencak adalah permainan (keahlian) untuk mempertahankan diri dengan kepandaian menangkis, mengelak, dsb. sementara silat adalah cabang olahraga yang menonjolkan pada kepandaian berkelahi; seni bela diri khas indonesia dengan ketangkasan membela diri dan menyerang untuk pertandingan atau perkelahian (pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional, 2008). berdasarkan arti dari kamus besar bahasa indonesia, pencak silat merupakan olahraga yang mengutamakan kepandaian berkelahi, menangkis, mengelak yang dibutuhkan dalam pertandingan atau perkelahian. terlebih lagi, yang perlu digarisbawahi, silat merupakan seni bela diri khas indonesia. terdapat beberapa definisi pencak silat dari para guru pencak silat. menurut guru pencak bawean, bapak abdus sjukur, pencak silat juga mengandung unsur komedi. pencak dapat dinikmati sebagai hiburan dan silat mengandung teknik bela diri untuk membela diri, menyerang, dan mengunci lawan yang tidak dipertunjukkan di depan publik. guru perguruan pamur, yaitu bapak hasan habudin di madura, memberikan definisi yang sejenis dengan bapak abdus sjukur (maryono, 2002:4). akan tetapi, kombinasi kedua kata tersebut pada umumnya menghasilkan arti unsurunsur gerakan bela diri yang dapat dipakai baik untuk pertunjukan keindahan dalam hiburan saja maupun gerakan yang dipakai pertandingan atau gerakan-gerakan yang khusus hanya untuk perkelahian serta merupakan salah satu seni bela diri khas indonesia. jika ditelusuri dalam sejarah kerajaan-kerajaan di nusantara, pencak silat memainkan peranan penting. pencak silat dalam sejarah kerajaan tersebut digunakan untuk menjaga, mempertahankan, bahkan untuk berperang. selain itu, pencak silat berkembang luas dengan berbagai macam aliran dan bentuk. dengan kata lain, pencak silat merupakan salah satu bentuk kekayaan budaya suku bangsa di indonesia. kendati demikian, pada masa orde baru, karena latar belakang politik saat itu sangat antitesis bahkan sampai tahap antipati terhadap semua yang bernapaskan tionghoa, bentuk-bentuk budaya tiongkok pun menghadapi banyak tekanan. tekanan tersebut termasuk seni bela diri tiongkok yang saat itu mulai tersebar luas di kalangan masyarakat etnis tionghoa maupun etnis non-tionghoa. selain keharusan bagi nama perguruan kungfu untuk diterjemahkan ke bahasa indonesia, seperti siao chong san di papua menjadi naga mas, penggunaan baju kungfu pun dilarang. beberapa gerakan terkenal dalam kungfu, seperti jurus dewa mabuk dan bangau dilarang dan digantikan dengan gerakan pencak silat. bahkan, pemaksaan dari pemerintah terjadi pada kalangan ipsi (ikatan pencak silat indonesia) untuk menerima masuknya atau meleburnya perguruan kungfu ke organisasi ipsi. meskipun dalam perkembangannya, beberapa aliran pencak silat memang terdapat akulturasi seni budaya bela diri luar nusantara, termasuk seni budaya bela diri tiongkok. (maryono, 2002) berdasarkan latar belakang yang dikemukakan, penelitian tentang akulturasi kungfu tiongkok dalam 3akulturasi unsur kungfu... (agustinus sufianto; dkk) pencak silat dilakukan. penelitian bertujuan untuk mencari bagaimana terjadinya akulturasi kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi. penelitian juga mencari pengaruh akulturasi tersebut serta peranannya dalam pencak silat betawi. metode penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif. observasi dilakukan dengan kunjungan langsung kepada beberapa tokoh pencak silat betawi. teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui wawancara dengan tokoh pencak silat betawi tersebut dan studi pustaka. hasil wawancara direkam dan dianalisis serta diperkaya dengan sumbersumber tulisan tentang pencak silat betawi. untuk memperkuat analisis data, studi pustaka lebih lanjut dilakukan untuk mengetahui proses akulturasi unsur kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi, sejauh mana pengaruh akulturasi tersebut dalam pencak silat betawi serta peranannya dalam pencak silat betawi. hasil dan pembahasan sejarah dan asal-usul pencak silat betawi menurut bunyamin ramto (dalam betawi, suku, n.d.), masyarakat betawi secara geografis, dibagi menjadi betawi tengah dan betawi pinggiran. masyarakat betawi tengah meliputi wilayah yang dahulu menjadi gemente batavia minus tanjung priok dan sekitarnya atau meliputi radius kurang lebih 7 km dari monas. masyarakat betawi tengah dipengaruhi kuat oleh budaya melayu dan agama islam, seperti dalam kesenian samrah, zapin, dan berbagai macam rebana. sementara itu, masyarakat betawi pinggiran– atau sering disebut sebagai betawi ora dikelompokkan menjadi dua bagian, yaitu utara dan selatan. kaum betawi ora di beberapa desa sekitar jakarta berasal dari orang-orang jawa yang bercampur dengan suku-suku lain. sebagian besar betawi ora merupakan petani. bagian utara meliputi jakarta utara, jakarta barat, tangerang yang dipengaruhi kebudayaan tiongkok, misalnya musik gambang kromong, tari cokek, dan teater lenong. bagian selatan meliputi jakarta timur, selatan, bogor, dan bekasi yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh kebudayaan jawa dan sunda. (betawi, suku, n.d.) kebudayaan betawi sendiri merupakan sebuah kebudayaan yang dihasilkan melalui percampuran antaretnis dan suku bangsa, seperti portugis, arab, tiongkok, belanda, dan bangsa-bangsa lainnya. kebudayaan betawi terbentuk dari benturan kepentingan yang dilatarbelakangi oleh berbagai budaya. kebudayaan betawi mulai terbentuk pada abad ke-17 dan abad ke18 sebagai hasil proses asimilasi penduduk jakarta yang majemuk. menurut umar kayam, kebudayaan betawi ini sosoknya mulai jelas pada abad ke-19. walaupun demikian, betawi sebagai identitas suku bangsa telah dipergunakan jauh sebelum tahun 1644 berdasarkan dokumen tertulis (testamen nyai inqua) (giyanto, 2014). karena kebudayaan betawi merupakan kebudayaan yang dihasilkan melalui percampuran antaretnis dan suku bangsa, maka terdapat banyak sekali ragam kesenian betawi yang mendapat pengaruh budaya dari berbagai suku bangsa. termasuk di antaranya adalah pencak silat betawi atau lazim disebut maen pukulan betawi. terdapat banyak variasi maen pukulan betawi yang tersebar di kalangan orang-orang betawi, di antaranya yaitu pencak silat langkah empat kelima pancer, terazam, sabeni, beksi, kwitang, cingkrik, dll. maen pukulan betawi sebagai salah satu budaya masyarakat betawi juga mendapat pengaruh akulturasi yang sangat kental, salah satunya dari permainan kungfu tiongkok. di wilayah jakarta pusat sampai jakarta barat hingga tangerang sangat dipengaruhi oleh permainan kungfu tiongkok. karena wilayah-wilayah tersebut sangat kental dengan budaya tionghoa dan akulturasi berjalan sangat baik antara masyarakat betawi dengan masyarakat tionghoa pada masa dahulu, dikenal ungkapan bahwa hubungan antara masyarakat tiongkok dan betawi seperti mulut dan gigi yang berdekatan erat satu sama lain. di antara maen pukulan betawi, yang mendapat akulturasi kungfu tiongkok antara lain adalah aliran beksi, mustika kwitang, sabeni, langkah empat kelima pancer, terazam. aliran beksi aslinya berasal dari kampung dadap, tangerang. aliran ini disebarluaskan oleh lie ceng ok/lie tjeng hok dan ternyata beliau belajar kepada ki jidan yang merupakan penduduk asal kampung dadap. asal muasal aliran ini pun mempunyai beberapa versi. penulis memaparkan salah satu versi dari sumber referensi. versi ini mengatakan bahwa ki jidan mendapatkan ilmu dari seorang pemuda misterius yang diduga adalah ki belang (siluman macan putih). ada delapan jurus maen pukulan yang langsung diajarkan oleh pemuda tersebut; selebihnya diajarkan oleh orang lain. pada suatu hari ki jidan, karena kekesalan yang memuncak, menendang salah satu keranjang dagangannya. hari itu dagangannya tak laris dan bahkan diambil begitu saja oleh beberapa penonton muda yang sok jago. tendangannya mampu membuat keranjang tersebut melayang dan jatuh di tengah-tengah arena para jagoan yang sedang bertanding. hal tersebut mengakibatkan beberapa jagoan dan penonton terkena keranjang yang ditendang. para jagoan itu dengan geram bertanya-tanya siapakah pemilik keranjang tersebut dan orang-orang menunjuk pada ki jidan. tuan tanah gow hok boen—yang pada saat kejadian juga berada di sana—terheran-heran dan kagum melihat keranjang dagangan yang berat itu melayang. dengan segera ia menyuruh tiga anak buahnya untuk membawa orang yang menendang keranjang tersebut ke hadapannya. setelah ki jidan dibawa ke hadapan tuan gow hok boen, ki jidan segera meminta maaf dan menjelaskan bahwa karena kekesalannya pada para penonton yang mengambil dagangannya sehingga keranjang itu ditendangnya. tuan tanah gow hok boen yang penasaran dengan ilmu ki jidan bersikeras bahwa ki jidan harus berhadapan dengan mandornya yaitu ki kenong. ki jidan pun tak menyangka bahwa ia harus berhadapan dengan tukang pukul bayaran. akhirnya, ia menyanggupi permintaan tuan tanah gow hok boen dan berhadapan dengan ki kenong. sebelum bertarung, ki jidan meminta izin ke belakang. ketika di tempat sunyi ia merapal mantra 4 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 untuk memanggil ki belang. ki belang menyanggupi permohonannya untuk menghadapi ki kenong. singkat cerita, ki jidan berhadapan dengan ki kenong; dan dengan bantuan ki belang, ki jidan mengalahkan ki kenong dengan jurus baroneng yang merupakan metamorfosis ki belang. ketika pertarungan selesai, tuan tanah gow hok boen terkagum-kagum. seketika itu, ia mengangkat ki jidan menjadi kepala mandor dan bertanya kepada ki jidan nama aliran atau jurus yang digunakan. ki jidan pun menjawab bahwa ia sendiri belum tahu nama jurus tersebut dan berkata bahwa orang yang mengajarinya tidak memberi tahu namanya. maka, tuan tanah gow hoek boen pun memberi nama beksi berdasarkan gerakan yang dilihatnya. bek artinya pertahanan dan si artinya empat arah mata angin: depan, belakang, samping kanan, dan samping kiri; atau juga berarti orang atau jurus yang bisa diandalkan untuk menjaga keamanan kampung. (saputra, 2002:20–29) aliran mustika kwitang berasal dari daerah kwitang-senen, jakarta pusat. aliran ini mengakui akulturasi maenan pukulannya yang dimulai dari seorang sinshe (tabib) yang bernama kwee tang kiam. kwee tang kiam tiba pertama kalinya di batavia pada abad ke-17 masehi dan memilih sebuah tempat di kawasan pasar senen sebagai tempat tinggalnya. ilmu silat yang dimiliki oleh kwee tang kiam mirip aliran shaolin yang mengombinasikan unsur tenaga, fisik, dan kecepatan. kehebatan ilmunya diakui masyarakat dan jawara betawi pada waktu itu dan ia sendiri menurunkan ilmunya kepada orang-orang betawi yang tinggal di sekitarnya. dalam hidupnya, kwee tang kiam pernah berduel dengan salah satu jawara betawi yang bernama bil ali dan dikalahkan. walaupun kalah, antusiasme warga setempat untuk belajar dari kwee tang kiam tidak pernah surut dan makin bertambah dari hari ke hari. kwee tang kiam kemudian hari memeluk agama islam dan menetap di kampungnya sampai meninggal dunia. salah satu muridnya terus menurunkan ilmunya kepada anak cucunya. pada 27 september 1952, salah seorang keturunan dari murid kwee tang kiam yang bernama h. moch zaelani melestarikan ilmu silat kwee tang kiam dengan mendirikan perguruan pencak silat yang dinamakan “mustika kwitang”. aliran sabeni berasal dari tenabang yang sekarang dikenal sebagai daerah tanah abang di jakarta. aliran ini pertama kali dikembangkan oleh sabeni yang merupakan pendekar legendaris dari tanah abang yang lahir pada 1860. ayahnya yang bernama canam adalah seorang bandar kulit (penjual kulit). jurus-jurus aliran sabeni terkenal karena kecepatan dan permainan rapatnya terutama permainan kakinya yang hidup. awal mulanya, sabeni mempelajari ilmu maen pukulan dari bapak mail dan h. suhud. menurut bang zul bachtiar sabeni, tidak menutup kemungkinan guru dari bapak mail dan h.suhud adalah orang tiongkok karena gambar dan filosofi pukulan mirip dengan kungfu tiongkok. hanya saja, tidak bisa lagi ditelusuri karena tidak adanya catatan tertulis mengenai hal tersebut. setelah sabeni mempelajari ilmu maen pukulan selama 10 tahun, akhirnya ia dinyatakan menguasai ilmu tersebut dan diizinkan untuk mengajari masyarakat dengan kepentingan melawan penjajah. sabeni mulai dikenal namanya setelah mengalahkan seorang jagoan dari kemayoran yang dikenal dengan julukan macan kemayoran. tujuan sabeni menaklukkan macan kemayoran adalah untuk melamar putrinya. pada kebiasaan di masyarakat betawi di masa lampau, ketika seorang pemuda hendak melamar putri seseorang, maka ia harus mengalahkan ayahnya terlebih dahulu dengan ilmu silat yang dimilikinya. jika sang pemuda dapat mengalahkan ayah dari perempuan tersebut, barulah ayah perempuan tersebut setuju menikahkan anaknya. selain peristiwa mengalahkan macan kemayoran, sabeni juga mengalahkan seorang jawara yang berkuasa di daerah bukit duri sampai pasar ikan yang bernama sa’eran, mendamaikan dua orang yang mempunyai ilmu kebal yang bersenjatakan golok dengan merampas golok kedua orang tersebut, mengalahkan seorang jago kuntao atau kungfu tiongkok di atas ring di prinsen park. adu tanding itu diadakan atas prakarsa tuan danu yang merupakan seorang kapten kompeni belanda dan lainnya. sabeni meninggal di usia 85 tahun pada 1945. ilmunya sekarang ini diteruskan oleh generasi ketiga, yaitu anak dari m. ali sabeni yang bernama zul bachtiar sabeni yang merupakan pewaris utama ilmu silat sabeni. aliran langkah empat kelima pancer merupakan aliran yang dapat ditelusuri sampai seorang yang bernama guru ong yang merupakan seorang tionghoa muslim yang bermukim di daerah kalibata, jakarta selatan. guru ong merupakan seorang pengrajin batu bata. marga ong sendiri berasal dari dialek hokkian dan dalam bahasa mandarin dikenal dengan dengan marga wang. selain berprofesi sebagai pengrajin batu bata, guru ong juga merupakan seorang yang pandai ilmu silat atau dikenal sebagai maen pukulan oleh masyarakat betawi. ilmunya diturunkan kepada anaknya dan anak kepada cucunya sampai generasi keempat. pencak silat aliran ini pada awalnya merupakan tradisi warisan keluarga saja dan hanya boleh diturunkan dari garis hubungan darah dari guru ong. barulah pada generasi kelima di bawah pimpinan joesack kurniawan, pencak silat aliran ini diajarkan secara terbuka dengan tujuan supaya dapat dilestarikan dan tidak punah. aliran terazam jika ditelusuri, bermuara dari haji darip. haji darip merupakan pendekar yang mempunyai bermacam-macam ilmu maen pukulan. ia lahir di klender pada 1886, ayahnya haji kurdin bin run dan ibunya mai. haji darip merupakan seorang pahlawan yang melegenda dari kelurahan klender, jakarta timur. ia pernah bersamasama dengan kyai haji noer ali berjuang melawan penjajah belanda dan sekutu di front timur jakarta dan mendapat julukan panglima perang dari klender. aliran terazam ini mempunyai konsep seperti ayam jago yang sedang beradu. jika diserang cenderung mundur supaya dikejar lawannya; dan jika lawannya terpancing mendekat, maka diserang kembali dengan kedua kak. aliran ini banyak menggunakan tendangan samping tinggi ke arah dada. pengaruh akulturasi kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi sebelumnya telah dijelaskan asal-usul maaen pukul betawi aliran beksi, mustika kwitang, sabeni, langkah 5akulturasi unsur kungfu... (agustinus sufianto; dkk) empat kelima pancer, dan terazam. dapat diamati bahwa ada beberapa aliran yang pendiri dan penyebarnya merupakan muslim tionghoa yang mempunyai keahlian bermain silat. pada aliran beksi, akulturasi terlihat dari penamaan aliran ini yang kemungkinan diambil dari salah satu dialek tiongkok. bek artinya pertahanan dan si berarti empat. empat di sini maksudnya adalah empat arah mata angin. penyebar luas yang terkemuka dari ilmu ini merupakan seorang tionghoa muslim yang dikenal dengan nama lie ceng ok atau akrab disebut dengan sebutan ki ceng ok. ki ceng ok merupakan salah satu murid utama ki jidan dari empat murid utama. ki ceng ok memiliki paling banyak murid dan di antaranya banyak pemuda betawi yang datang dari berbagai daerah lainnya seperti kebayoran, pasar minggu, depok, parung, kranggan, cibarusah, muara gembong, pondok benda, cabang bungin, dan lain-lain. dari sini dapat dilihat bahwa peranan ki ceng ok untuk penyebarluasan ilmu ini sangatlah besar. sedangkan untuk jurus-jurus beksi sendiri kemungkinan besar tidak terdapat akulturasi jurus kungfu tiongkok. menurut penuturan cucu lie ceng ok, yaitu lie dji tong bahwa beksi sendiri asli dari kampong dadap, cengkareng dan bukan dari tiongkok. pada aliran sabeni, terdapat kemungkinan bahwa guru dari bapak mail dan h. suhud adalah orang tiongkok. karena menurut penuturan bang zul bachtiar sabeni, jika ditilik dari lambang yang ada, yaitu kelabang, naga, merak, dan bola dunia sangat kental akan filosofi tiongkok. sedangkan dari segi pukulan, menurut temannya yang merupakan pelatih wingchun, mempunyai kemiripan dengan kungfu tiongkok selatan karena tidak ada permainan tendangan. kendati demikian, tidak ada catatan pendukung tertulis yang lebih kuat untuk mendukung kemungkinan tersebut karena di masyarakat betawi, cerita asal-muasal aliran maen pukulan ini biasanya hanya diteruskan secara lisan dan turun-temurun dari para pendahulu sehingga susah ditemukan bukti pendukung tertulis yang dapat merujuk pada asal-muasal beberapa aliran maen pukulan betawi. dari segi pukulan, selain terdapat satu jurus yang dinamakan cara tiongkok yang konon dipelajari dari seorang jagoan kungfu tiongkok yang dikalahkan oleh sabeni juga terdapat beberapa jurus yang namanya berkaitan erat dengan simbol-simbol budaya tiongkok seperti naga ngeram, kelabang menyeberang, dan merak ngigel. naga dalam kebudayaan tiongkok merupakan salah satu binatang pembawa keberuntungan dan dipercaya mempunyai kekuatan gaib untuk menampakkan atau menyembunyikan diri, mengubah panjang dan ukuran tubuhnya, serta menggerakkan kekuatan alam (fu chunjiang, 2012:2–3). dalam simbol seni maen pukulan sabeni, tenabang, naga yang digambarkan merupakan wujud naga tiongkok yang mempunyai empat kaki, bukan naga dalam mitologi jawa yang tidak memiliki kaki. kelabang dalam budaya tionghoa merupakan salah satu hewan beracun dari lima hewan beracun yang terkenal. pada bulan kelima penanggalan tiongkok, hewan-hewan beracun tersebut berkembang biak dan orang-orang tiongkok sering menempel lima gambar hewan beracun tersebut di pintu atau jendela dan terkadang juga menyulam gambar tersebut di pakaian karena dipercaya dapat menghapus pengaruh jahat racun tersebut. (fu chunjiang, 2012:52). dalam sabeni, jurus kelabang mempunyai keluwesan dan kecepatan tinggi dengan perpaduan tangan dan sapuan kaki kanan dan kiri secara bergantian sehingga dapat memecah konsentrasi lawan dan berbahaya bagi lawan. sementara merak dalam budaya tiongkok merupakan salah satu dari burung pembawa keberuntungan dan melambangkan sembilan karakter yang baik, karena itu juga dijuluki wenniao (wenming zhi niao) yang berarti burung yang mempunyai adab yang tinggi. dalam sabeni, jurus merak ngigel meniru gerakan burung merak yang sedang menari kasmaran. aplikasi pada jurus ini terletak pada tangan yang membentak pendek di depan tangan sebagai analogi bulu ekor merak dan dapat menarik tangan lawan ke dekat dada dan diteruskan dengan pukulan siku serta serangan bagian bawah yang menggunakan pinggul seperti merak yang menggoyangkan pantatnya (ngigel) ke kanan atau ke kiri. pada aliran mustika kwitang, pendirinya sendiri adalah seorang tabib atau dikenal sebagai sinshe dan berasal dari daratan tiongkok yang bernama kwee tang kiam. dalam aliran ini terdapat akulturasi dengan gerakan kungfu shaolin dari kwee tang kiam. dalam jurusnya ada sikap salam hormat yang mirip dengan baoquan li atau salam hormat khas kungfu tiongkok. pada aliran langkah empat kelima pancer, selain dapat ditelusuri muasalnya pada satu sosok tiongkok muslim yang bernama guru ong. jurus-jurusnya memiliki kemiripan dengan kungfu tiongkok utara yang mempunyai banyak perpindahan langkah. hanya saja, tidak lagi ada nama-nama tiongkok dalam jurusnya karena pemberian nama dalam bahasa indonesia hanya berdasarkan fungsinya, seperti: salam, pukulan, tangkis luar, dan lain-lain. pada aliran terazam haji darip sebagai sosok pendiri aliran ini, yang pada waktu sedang berada di bangka—kota dengan banyak komunitas tionghoa, sempat bertemu dan bertarung dengan seorang perempuan. setelah kalah, perempuan itu mengajarinya jurus tiga manis. jurus ini mempunyai konsep seperti ayam yang bertarung. sedangkan untuk olah napas pada pencak terazam yang diturunkan dari alm. aba sahlan ini memang dipelajari langsung oleh beliau dari seorang jagoan kungfu tiongkok. simpulan sebagaimana telah dijelaskan, bahwa menurut a. l. kroeber, akulturasi adalah salah satu bentuk perubahan kebudayaan yang disebabkan pengaruh dari luar. pengaruh itu bisa berjalan secara timbal balik atau hanya satu pihak saja. suatu akulturasi dapat terjadi apabila di antara keduanya memiliki hubungan yang sangat erat serta menunjukkan adanya saling membutuhkan untuk kemudian dijadikan bagian dari kebudayaan masingmasing. dalam penjelasan asal muasal dan pengaruh akulturasi kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi dapat terlihat bahwa dahulunya ada hubungan timbal balik antara masyarakat tionghoa dengan betawi melalui saling bertukar ilmu antara jagoan kungfu tiongkok dan jawara 6 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 betawi maupun dibawa langsung oleh muslim tionghoa, seperti guru ong dan kwee tang kiam. selain itu terdapat unsur-unsur akulturasi baik dalam penamaan maupun beberapa gerakan yang mengadopsi kungfu tiongkok. penamaan dan adopsi gerakan kungfu tiongkok, antara lain sebagai berikut. cara tiongkok dalam maen pukul sabeni menggunakan 2 batang jari (telunjuk dan jari tengah); penggunaan simbol-simbol yang erat kaitannya dengan simbol budaya tiongkok dalam logo pencak silat sabeni; teknik hormat dengan bentuk baoquan li seperti pada aliran mustika kwitang; penamaan aliran beksi yang mengambil logat dari dialek tiongkok dan penyebar luas utamanya adalah seorang keturunan tionghoa yaitu lie ceng ok yang sekarang ini selain turun ke cucu murid-muridnya dari garis muridnya yang bernama kong h. godjalih dan ki marhadi, juga turun ke cucunya sendiri yang bernama lie dji tong; olah napas di aliran pencak silat terazam. semua hal tersebut menunjukkan hubungan sangat erat antara masyarakat betawi dan masyarakat tionghoa sehingga terjadi akulturasi budaya tiongkok dan kungfu tiongkok dalam pencak silat betawi. meskipun begitu, akulturasi budaya tiongkok dan kungfu tiongkok tidak merujuk pada dominasi unsur pengaruh budaya tiongkok atau kungfu tiongkok ke dalam pencak silat betawi. melainkan, budaya tiongkok memperkaya dan menciptakan kekhasan khusus dalam pencak silat betawi. ciri khas akulturasi yang terjadi ini juga membedakan pencak silat betawi dengan pencak silat lainnya di indonesia dan demikian juga dengan kungfu tiongkok. daftar pustaka betawi, suku. (n.d.). in jakarta.go.id. retrieved from http://www.jakarta.go.id/web/encyclopedia/ detail/3842/betawi-suku fuchunjiang. (2012). asal mula simbol-simbol keberuntungan china. jakarta: elex media komputindo. giyanto. (2014, september 5). etnis betawi. retrieved from http://jakartapedia.bpadjakarta.net/index. php/etnis_betawi kiong, l. y. (1960). ilmu silat, sedjarah, theorie dan practijk. malang: penjedar. lixiang. (2013). 东南亚华侨华人对中华武术 的传播. 广东侨网电子刊物, 1-2. retrieved from http:// gocn.southcn.com/dzkw2010/hqyhr/4344/201307/ t20130717_401748.htm maryono, o. (2002). pencak silat in the indonesian archipelago (english). yogyakarta: galang. pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional. (2008). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: departemen pendidikan nasional. saputra, y. a. (2002). beksi, maen pukulan khas betawi. jakarta: gunung jati. suhandinata, j. (2009). wni keturunan tionghoa dalam stabilitas ekonomi dan politik indonesia. jakarta: gramedia. 21kesalahan struktur ….. (aprilia ruby wikarti) kesalahan struktur frasa subordinatif bahasa mandarin aprilia ruby wikarti pendidikan bahasa mandarin, fakultas bahasa dan seni, universitas negeri jakarta jln. rawamangun muka kampus a gedung e, jakarta timur 13220 apriliarubyw.s@gmail.com abstract this research aimed to determine the misuse of subordinate phrase on the chinese language learners. the samples of this study were texts written by fifteen 3rd grade students of chinese literature, faculty of humanities, university of indonesia. this research applied qualitative approach with the method of error analysis. result shows that five types of errors are found out; they are addition, omission, misordering, misselection, and blends. omission is the most frequent error that comes up. lack of understanding about subordinate phrase of the chinese language is the most common reason of the error. to decrease the errors, students must improve their knowledge and competence about subordinate phrase of the chinese language. they must increase the exercises and applications of the phrase as well. keywords: error analysis, subordinate phrase, chinese language abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk menemukan kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat (pewatas-inti) pada pembelajar bahasa mandarin. sumber data penelitian ini adalah karya tulis 15 mahasiswa tingkat tiga, sastra cina, fakultas ilmu pengetahuan budaya, universitas indonesia. penelitian ini menggunakan metode analisis kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat dalam kalimat dengan pendekatan kualitatif. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa terdapat 5 jenis kesalahan penggunaan, yaitu kesalahan penambahan, pengurangan, urutan, substitusi, dan gabungan. jenis kesalahan yang paling sering muncul adalah pengurangan. sementara alasan terjadinya kesalahan penggunaan yang paling umum adalah tingkat penguasaan yang kurang tentang frasa subordinat (pewatas-inti) bahasa mandarin. untuk mengurangi kesalahan, mahasiswa harus meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kemampuan pemahaman mereka, juga memperbanyak latihan dan penggunaan frasa tersebut. kata kunci: analisis kesalahan, struktur frasa, frasa subordinat, bahasa mandarin 22 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pendahuluan pada proses pembelajaran bahasa mandarin, pembelajaran tata bahasa mendapatkan perhatian yang cukup besar. jianming (2005) menyatakan pada saat tahap pembelajaran tahun pertama dan kedua, pembelajaran tata bahasa tidak mendapatkan penekanan, bahkan tidak boleh langsung menjelaskan secara rinci teori tata bahasa. pada tahap awal pembelajaran, jika terlalu menekankan penjelasan teori-teori, dikhawatirkan justru akan menyulitkan pembelajar memahami teori tersebut (jinzhang, 2004). pengetahuan tata bahasa paling baik dipaparkan melalui teks, latihan, penjelasan latihan, atau tugas. bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia memiliki struktur frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. persentase penggunaannya dalam kalimat pun cukup tinggi. pengajar menggunakan bahan ajar dan latihan yang sesuai untuk menyampaikan materi tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. kemudian melalui teks dan latihan tersebut dipaparkan keistimewaan dan ketentuan-ketentuan tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. dengan demikian, pembelajar dapat secara efektif memahami dasar-dasar teori frasa subordinat pewatas-inti tersebut. kendati demikian, pembahasan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti pada bahasa mandarin masih belum mendapatkan pembahasan secara lebih dalam dan khusus. hal ini dapat menyebabkan terjadinya kesalahpamahaman pembelajar terhadap frasa subordinat pewatas-inti (xiangchen, 2010) . penelitian ini menggunakan karangan mahasiswa untuk dijadikan data penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatasinti. kesalahan-kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat tersebut kemudian diklasifikasikan berdasarkan jenis, bentuk, dan penyebab kesalahannya. hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat digunakan sebagai bahan pertimbangan untuk menyusun pola pembelajaran tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti yang lebih sesuai dan efektif. pola pembelajaran tersebut, selain memerhatikan sisi kebahasaan, juga harus mempertimbangkan latar belakang serta keadaan pembelajar. penelitian ini berfokus pada analisis kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinatif (struktur pewatas-inti) dalam kalimat pada karangan mahasiswa. berdasarkan fokus tersebut, subfokus penelitian ini adalah jenis-jenis, struktur frasa subordinatif (pewatas-inti). masalah yang dibahas pada penelitian ini adalah bagaimana penggunaan frasa subordinatif bahasa mandarin dalam kalimat. berdasarkan hal tersebut, masalah penelitian ini dapat dirumuskan sebagai berikut. pertama, bagaimana penggunaan frasa subordinatif (struktur pewatas-inti) bahasa mandarin dalam kalimat? kedua, faktor apa yang memengaruhi kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinatif (struktur pewatas-inti) dalam bahasa mandarin? penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menemukan dan mendeskripsikan kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinatif bahasa mandarin dalam kalimat serta penyebabnya. selanjutnya, hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat menjadi salah satu bahan pertimbangan untuk menyusun pola pembelajaran yang lebih sesuai dan efektif. selain itu, penelitian ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat bagi pengajar, pembelajar, peneliti bahasa mandarin sebagai bahan ajar, sumber ajar, dan bahan referensi dalam pembelajaran maupun penelitian bahasa mandarin. analisis kesalahan kesalahan berbahasa adalah pelanggaran terhadap kesalahan terhadap kode berbahasa. pelanggaran tersebut bukan hanya bersifat fisik, melainkan juga merupakan kurang sempurnanya pengetahuan dan penguasaan terhadap kode (corder, 1973). pada proses pembelajaran bahasa asing, kesalahankesalahan berbahasa disebabkan berbagai faktor. di antaranya adalah pengaruh bahasa ibu, kesalahan atau ketidaksempurnaan penguasaan bahasa tujuan, kesalahpahaman pembelajar tentang teori-teori bahasa tujuan (ellis, 1994). lebih lanjut, james (1998) membagi kesalahan menjadi: omission, addition, misselection, misordering, blends. berdasarkan pembagian jenis kesalahan tersebut, penulis mengklasifikasikan kesalahan-kesalahan yang terjadi pada penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatasinti sebagai berikut. kesalahan penambahan adalah penambahan kata atau frasa yang tidak diperlukan. kesalahan pengurangan adalah kekurangan kata atau frasa yang seharusnya muncul. kesalahan urutan adalah kesalahan posisi atau urutan kata atau frasa. kesalahan substitusi adalah kesalahan penggunaan kata atau frasa. kesalahan gabungan adalah terdapat dua atau lebih kesalahan penggunaan. kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut menimbulkan ketidaktepatan struktur serta makna frasa. frasa subordinatif sistem tata bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia memiliki kemiripan dan perbedaan. oleh karena itu, pembelajar berbahasa indonesia dalam pembelajaran bahasa mandarin dapat membuat kesalahan. pada bahasa mandarin, frasa subordinatif terbentuk atas dua unsur, yaitu inti ‘被修饰语’ dan yang menerangkan ‘修饰语’ (bin, 2000). posisi yang menerangkan sebagian besar berada di bagian depan, sedangkan posisi inti berada di bagian belakang. berdasarkan jenisnya, frasa subordinatif terdiri atas dua, yaitu frasa pewatas inti dan frasa pewatas atribut. penelitian ini hanya akan membahas frasa subordinatif struktur pewatas-inti. contoh: (新)(书) xin shu (好)(孩子) hao haizi (三本)(书) san ben shu (五条)(鱼) wu tiao yu (小王)的(书) xiao wang de shu (爸爸)的(车) baba de che 23kesalahan struktur ….. (aprilia ruby wikarti) frasa subordinat struktur pewatas-inti memiliki beberapa persyaratan, yaitu: inti adalah nomina atau kata predikatif; pewatas adalah nomina atau kata predikatif; jika digunakan di belakang subjek, objek, atau preposisi, menggunakan partikel “的” (fuyi, 2000). jika salah satu dari ketiga syarat ini terpenuhi, sudah dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai frasa subordinatif pewatas-inti. sementara frasa subordinat bahasa indonesia adalah frasa yang terbentuk atas inti dan yang menerangkan. berdasarkan posisi inti dan yang menerangkan, frasa subordinatif bahasa indonesia dibedakan atas 3 jenis, yaitu: xa, ax, axa (keraf, 1991). a menerangkan, x adalah inti. frasa subordinat nomina bahasa indonesia sebagian besar memiliki pola xa dan ax. contoh: 1. xa (中心语 + 修饰语) petani muda (年轻)的(农民) air panas (热)(水) dari contoh di atas terlihat perbedaan posisi inti dan yang menerangkan dalam frasa subordinatif struktur pewatas-inti pada bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia. 2. ax (修饰语+中心语) tiga potong baju (三)(件)衣服 sepuluh ekor kucing (十)(只)猫 frasa subordinat kata bantu bilangan, sebagian besar memiliki pola ax. jika dilihat dari urutan unsur pembentuk frasa subordinat kata bantu bilangan, bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia memiliki persamaan. 3. axa (修饰语+中心语+修饰语) (sebuah)(mobil)(baru) (一辆) (车子)(新)* 一辆新车子 (lima pasang)(sepatu)(ayah) (五双)(鞋子)(爸爸)* 爸爸的五双鞋子 kedua contoh di atas termasuk frasa subordinat yang memiliki banyak pewatas. pada bahasa indonesia, posisi pewatas-pewatas tersebut tidak selalu berada di depan inti. berikut bagan penjelasannya: gambar 1 frasa berpola axa bahasa indonesia gambar 2 frasa bepola axa bahasa indonesia pada frasa “sebuah mobil baru”, kata “mobil” sebagai inti, sedangkan frasa numeralia “sebuah” dan kata “baru” menjadi pewatas. kata “baru” menjadi modifier di belakang inti,membentuk frasa “mobil baru”. frasa numeralia “sebuah” menjadi pewatas di depan frasa “mobil baru” membentuk frasa “sebuah mobil baru”. sedangkan pada frasa “lima pasang sepatu ayah”, kata “sepatu” sebagai inti, sedangkan frasa numeralia “lima pasang” dan kata “ayah” menjadi pewatas. kata “ayah” menjadi pewatas di belakang inti membentuk frasa “sepatu ayah”. frasa numeralia “lima pasang” menjadi pewatas di depan frasa “sepatu ayah” membentuk frasa “lima pasang sepatu ayah”. kemudian bagan pembentukan frasa bahasa mandarin berikut. gambar 3 perbandingan frasa berpola axa dalam bahasa mandarin gambar 4 perbandingan frasa berpola axa dalam bahasa mandarin pada frasa “一辆新车子”, kata “车子” sebagai inti, sedangkan frasa numeralia “一辆” dan kata “新” menjadi modifier. kata “新” menjadi modifier di depan inti, membentuk frasa “新车子”. frasa numeralia “一辆” menjadi pewatas di depan frasa “新车子”, membentuk frasa “一辆新车子”. sedangkan pada frasa “爸爸的五双鞋子”, kata “ 鞋子” sebagai inti, sedangkan frasa numeralia “五双” dan kata “爸爸” menjadi pewatas. frasa numeralia “五双” menjadi pewatas di depan inti, membentuk frasa “五双 鞋子”. kata “爸爸” menjadi pewatas di depan frasa “五 双鞋子” dengan menambahkan kata bantu “的” sehingga membentuk frasa “爸爸的五双鞋子”. 24 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 jika membandingkan keempat frasa tersebut, terlihat letak pewatas frasa subordinat bahasa indonesia dapat berada di depan maupun di belakang inti. sedangkan letak pewatas frasa subordinat bahasa mandarin berada di depan inti (xiaobin & hai’ou, 2004). dalam bahasa mandarin, komponen inti pada frasa subordinat pewatas-inti dapat berupa nomina atau frasa nomina maupun kata yang bersifat predikatif (borong & xudong, 2006; xiaozhong, 2004). akan tetapi, meskipun kata yang bersifat predikatif dapat menjadi inti frasa, kata tersebut telah kehilangan sifat atau karakter predikatifnya. kata yang bersifat predikatif yang menjadi inti frasa subordinatif tidak dapat penambahan pelengkap keadaan, derajat, ataupun waktu, contoh: (1)自然的美丽 (2)车子的偷窃 inti frasa (1) adalah adjektiva “美丽” bermakna indah, sedangkan frasa (2) adalah verba “偷窃” bermakna curi. sedangkan kedua frasa tersebut, jika dalam bahasa indonesia tidak terterima. baru setelah menerima afiksasi, frasa tersebut menjadi berterima, contoh: (3)keindahan alam (4)pencuri mobil kelas kata inti frasa (3) dan (4) setelah menerima afiksasi berubah menjadi nomina. seperti yang sudah disebutkan, pada frasa subordinat pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia, terdapat beberapa satuan yang dapat mengisi posisi pewatas dan inti. tidak hanya kata atau frasa nomina, kata atau frasa yang bersifat predikatif namun telah kehilangan sifat atau karakter predikatifnya, contoh: nomina : 邮局职员、pegawai kantor pos verba : 买的词典、kamus yang dibeli adjektiva : 新车、mobil baru pronomina : 他爸爸、ayahnya frasa numeralia : 七瓶牛奶、tujuh botol susu frasa adjektiva : 聪明勇敢的英雄、pahlawan yang cerdik dan berani frasa verba : 拉车的方法、cara menarik mobil metode penelitian dilakukan untuk mencari jenis, bentuk, dan penyebab kesalahan penggunaan struktur frasa subordinatif pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin pada kalimat pembelajar yang berbahasa indonesia. metode yang digunakan adalah analisis kesalahan. hasil temuan penelitian mendeskripsikan jenis, bentuk, dan penyebab kesalahan penggunaan. desain penelitian ini berbentuk tabel analisis yang terbagi kolom mendatar untuk pewatas dan kolom menurun untuk inti (lihat tabel 1). subjek penelitian ini adalah hasil karangan 15 orang mahasiswa tingkat tiga sastra cina, fakultas ilmu pengetahuan budaya, universitas indonesia. data penulisan ini adalah jenis, bentuk, dan penyebab kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinatif pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin. sumber data penelitian berjumlah 111 karangan mahasiswa. pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan kalimat-kalimat karangan mahasiswa yang menggunakan frasa subordinatif pewatas-inti. penulis mencatat dan mengelompokkan seluruh kalimat yang mengunakan frasa subordinat. seluruh data tersebut dimasukkan ke dalam tabel kalimat dan dikelompokkan sesuai dengan jenis frasa subordinat. analisis data dilakukan dengan mengelompokkan penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti, dengan ditekankan satuan yang mengisi posisi pewatas dan inti. setelah data diperoleh, kemudian dipilah berdasarkan jenis dan bentuk kesalahan penggunaan. kesalahan-kesalahan penggunaan yang berhasil ditemukan dikelompokkan kembali berdasarkan kemungkinan penyebab terjadinya kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut. tabel 1 tabel analisis struktur frasa subordinat pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin 号 短语 成分 名 词 动 词 形 容 词 量 词 并 列 短 语 定 中 短 语 量 词 短 语 方 位 短 语 述 宾 短 语 1 名词 2 动词 3 形容 词 4 代词 5 并列 短语 6 主谓 短语 7 定中 短语 8 量词 短语 9 介词 短语 10 方位 短语 11 述宾 短语 hasil dan pembahasan jumlah kalimat yang terkumpul sebanyak 617 kalimat. sejumlah 461 kalimat di antaranya terdapat penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. berikut ini dipaparkan tabel kalimat yang menggunakan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti (tabel 2). tabel dibuat berdasarkan unsur pengisi posisi pewatas dan inti. yang dapat menjadi unsur pengisi posisi-posisi tersebut adalah kata dan frasa. keterangan tabel bagian horizontal adalah unsur pengisi posisi pewatas, sedangkan bagian vertikal adalah unsur pengisi posisi inti. penelitian ini membagi kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti menjadi 5 jenis, yaitu: addition (kesalahan penambahan), omission (kesalahan pengurangan), misordering (kesalahan urutan), 25kesalahan struktur ….. (aprilia ruby wikarti) misselection error (kesalahan substitusi), blends error (kesalahan gabungan). berdasarkan pembagian jenisjenis kesalahan tersebut, ditemukan beberapa kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti, sebagai berikut. tabel 2 tabel hasil analisis struktur frasa subordinat pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin 号 短语 成分 名 词 动 词 形 容 词 量 词 并 列 短 语 定 中 短 语 量 词 短 语 方 位 短 语 述 宾 短 语 1 名词 91 4 1 18 2 动词 9 3 形容 词 16 1 4 代词 19 2 1 9 1 5 并列 短语 18 1 8 6 主谓 短语 26 1 9 7 定中 短语 256 2 2 8 量词 短语 58 1 9 介词 短语 3 1 10 方位 短语 11 5 11 述宾 短语 12 2 addition error (kesalahan penambahan) (1) 明年是中国跟印尼的第六十个的周年。1 mingnian shi zhongguo gen yinni de di liu shi gede zhounian. tahun depan adalah peringatan ke 60 hubungan tiongkok dengan indonesia. pada kalimat di atas terdapat frasa subordinat “ 中国跟印尼的第六十个的周年” sebagai objek kalimat. pada frasa tersebut terdapat penambahan kata “de” kedua yang tidak perlu muncul.seharusnya inti dari frasa tersebut adalah “第六十个的周年”. pada susunan frasa numeralia ini, tidak diperlukan penggunaan kata bantu “de”.however, the result of the quiz does not always prove exactly the same. table 3 shows the comparison between the result of the reading journal and quiz score in the information system department. omission error (kesalahan pengurangan) (1) 我家地区也不例外。2 wo jia diqu ye bu liwai. pada kalimat di atas terdapat frasa subordinat “ 我家地区” sebagai subjek kalimat. frasa subordinat ini kekurangan kata “de”. jika sebuah frasa subordinat menempati posisi inti frasa, harus menambahkan kata bantu “de”, sehingga frasa tersebut menjadi “我家的地 区”. jika tidak ada penambahan kata bantu “de”, maka akan terjadi perubahan struktur frasa. (2) 学生的课程有语文、数学、物理、化学、生物、 历史、地理、和实验。3 xuesheng de kecheng you yuwen, shuxue, wuli, huaxue, shengwu, lishi, dili, he shiyan. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “学 生的课程” sebagai subjek.pada frasa ini kekurangan verba “学” sebagai pewatas untuk nomina “学生”. jika ditambahkan verba “学”, maka makna frasa menjadi lebih tepat. (3) 参观以后,山本觉得更了解中国学的情况。4 canguan yihou, shanben juede geng liaojie zhongguoxue de qingkuang. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “中国学 的情况” sebagai objek. seharusnya frasa ini ditambahkan kata “中” menjadi “中国中学的情况”. setelah ditambahkan kata “中”, maka makna frasa menjadi lebih tepat. (4) 世界上的天主教都庆祝圣诞节。 5 shijie shang de tianzhujiao dou qingzhu shengdanjie. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “世界上 的天主教” sebagai subjek. inti pada frasa ini seharusnya adalah “天主教徒”. setelah ditambahkan kata “徒” maka makna kalimatnya menjadi lebih tepat. (5) 大小礼堂和宴会的用处很多。6 da xiao litang he yanhui de yongchu hen duo. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “大小礼 堂和宴会” sebagai subjek. inti pada frasa ini seharusnya adalah “大小礼堂和宴会厅”. setelah ditambahkan kata “ 厅” maka makna kalimatnya menjadi lebih tepat. (6) 那工艺美术品商店也卖瓷器。7 na gongyi meishupin shangdian ye mai ciqi. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “那工 艺美术品商店” sebagai subjek. namun pewatas frasa ini kekurangan kata bantu bilangan “个”. pewatas pada frasa ini seharusnya adalah “那个工艺美术品”. kata bantu bilangan dalam bahasa mandarin harus digunakan. jika tidak, kalimat tersebut tidak terterima. (7) 工作的候,什么任务完成得很好。8 gongzuo de hou, shenme renwu wancheng de hen hao. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “工作 的候” sebagai keterangan.inti frasa ini seharusnya adalah “时候”. setelah ditambahkan kata “时” maka makna kalimatnya menjadi lebih tepat. misordering error (kesalahan urutan) (1) 比尔说景泰蓝是最好礼物的。9 bi’er shuo jingtailan shi zui hao liwu de. 26 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “最好 礼物的” sebagai objek. pada frasa ini terdapat kesalahan peletakkan kata bantu “的”, sehingga makna frasa menjadi tidak tepat. susunan frasa ini seharusnya adalah “最好的 礼物”. misselection error (kesalahan substitusi) (1) 他们名字都是中国省,市或者自治区的名字。10 tamen mingzi dou shi zhongguo sheng, shi huozhe zizhiqu de mingzi. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “中国 省,市或者自治区的名字” sebagai objek. pada frasa tersebut terdapat kesalahan penggunaan tanda baca “,”. dalam bahasa mandarin terdapat dua macam tanda baca koma, yaitu “,dan 、”. pada frasa tersebut tanda baca koma yang seharusnya digunakan adalah “、”. (2) 他的工厂经历很满意。11 ta de gongchang jingli hen manyi. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “他的 工厂经历” sebagai subjek. pada frasa tersebut terdapat kesalahan penggunaan karakter han“历”, sehingga makna frasa menjadi tidak tepat. seharusnya, karakter yang digunakan adalah “理”. (3) 安娜看一种绣花衬衫。12 anna kan yi zhong xiuhua chenshan. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “一种 绣花衬衫” sebagai objek. pada frasa tersebut terdapat kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan. kata bantu bilangan dalam bahasa mandarin memang sangat beragam. pada frasa tersebut, kata bantu bilangan yang seharusnya digunakan adalah “件”. blends error (kesalahan gabungan) (1) 这是好机会增进两国人民的友谊和他们的关 系。13 zhe shi hao jihui zengjin liang guo renmin de youyi he tamen de guanxi. pada kalimat ini terdapat frasa subordinat “两国 人民的友谊和他们的关系”. pada frasa tersebut terdapat beberapa kesalahan, yaitu kesalahan penambahan kata “ 的dan友谊”, kesalahan penggunaan kata “他们” dan kesalahan urutan kata. susunan frasa tersebut seharusnya adalah “两国人民和政府的关系”. kesalahan-kesalahan di atas terjadi karena berbagai alasan. kesalahan tidak hanya disebabkan pemahaman teori yang belum tepat, tetapi juga faktor lain. beberapa penyebab kesalahan berbahasa, yaitu pengaruh bahasa ibu, karakteristik bahasa tujuan, kesalahan pembelajaran, penerapan strategi dalam berkomunikasi, dan keuniversalan bahasa (xiaobin et al., 2007). berdasarkan hal tersebut, penyebab kesalahan penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti diklasifikasikan menjadi: pengaruh bahasa ibu pembelajar karena pemahaman dan penguasaan pembelajar terhadap teori ataupun ketentuan bahasa tujuan belum baik, teori atau ketentuan bahasa ibu sering digunakan untuk memahami dan menguasai bahasa tujuan, contoh: kalimat (7), (9), (11). kesalahan pada kalimat (7), (11) terjadi karena pengaruh teori bahasa indonesia mengenai penggunaan kata bantu bilangan. pembelajar pada saat menggunakan frasa subordinat tidak menambahkan kata bantu bilangan, sehingga strukturnya menjadi tidak tepat. jika dibandingkan dengan bahasa indonesia, kata bantu bilangan dalam bahasa mandarin lebih beragam. pada bahasa mandarin penggunaan kata bantu bilangan dalam frasa numeralia adalah keharusan. jika tidak, struktur frasa tersebut menjadi tidak tepat. sedangkan dalam bahasa indonesia kata bantu bilangan dapat digunakan namun dapat juga tidak digunakan. kesalahan pada kalimat (9) terjadi karena pengaruh teori bahasa indonesia mengenai penggunaan tanda baca koma. bahasa mandarin memiliki dua macam tanda koma yang memiliki makna dan fungsi yang berbeda, yaitu “ , dan 、”. perbedaan ini tidak ada di bahasa indonesia, sehingga dapat menyebabkan pembelajar kurang memerhatikan perbedaan penggunaan kedua tanda baca tersebut. perluasan ketentuan bahasa tujuan pemahaman dan penguasaan pembelajar terhadap bahasa tujuan lebih terbatas dan kurang mencukupi, sehingga pada saat memahami dan menerapkan teori bahasa tujuan masih kurang tepat dan tidak menyeluruh. hal tersebut menyebabkan kesalahan penggunaan, contoh: kalimat (1), (2), (8), (10), (12), (13). kalimat (1), (2), (12), (13) adalah kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu “的”. urutan pewatas dan inti pada frasa subordinat bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia berbeda. inti frasa subordinat pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin berada di belakang, sedangkan pada bahasan indonesia dapat berada di depan maupun di tengah. pada frasa subordinat pewatas-inti bahasa mandarin, kata bantu “的” sering digunakan sebagai penghubung pewatas dan inti. penggunaan kata bantu “的” ini memiliki ketentuanketentuan tertentu. jika pembelajar kurang memahami ketentuan tersebut, tentu akan terjadi kesalahan penggunaan. kesalahan pada kalimat (8) terjadi karena pemahaman tentang ketentuan penyingkatan dalam bahasa mandarin. pembelajar menyingkat kata “的时候” menjadi “的候”, sedangkan penyingkatan untuk kata “的 时候” adalah “时”. karakter han sangat banyak jumlahnya. hal ini menyebabkan sering terjadinya kesalahan penulisan karakter, baik pada kata tunggal maupun kata majemuk. kalimat (10) adalah contoh kesalahan penulisan kata majemuk. pembelajar menuliskan karakter “经理” menjadi “经历”. jika digunakan pada kalimat (10), kata “ 经历” tidak tepat. keterbatasan penguasaan pemelajar terhadap karakter han yang menyebabkan kesalahan penulisan ini. 27kesalahan struktur ….. (aprilia ruby wikarti) simpulan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti pada bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia memiliki berbagai perbedaan. jika pembelajar sudah memahami dan menguasai dasar pengetahuan tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti pada bahasa mandarin dan bahasa indonesia, hal tersebut tentu dapat mengurangi kesulitan pembelajar menguasai bahasa mandarin. peran pengajar saat memandu pembelajar pada proses belajar memahami dan menguasai dasar-dasar tersebut juga sangatlah penting. pengajar diharapkan mempertimbangkan latar belakang dan kemampuan pembelajar saat mencari dan menerapkan pola pembelajaran yang sesuai dan efektif. pada tahap awal pembelajaran dilakukan dengan memperbanyak contoh, sementara penjelasan tentang ketentuan dan teori bisa dipersingkat. pengajar dapat menggunakan lebih banyak teks dan latihan saat memaparkan teori tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. pada tahap menengah dan mahir, pengajar dapat lebih menekankan dan menjelaskan dengan rinci konsep teori frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. saran pengajar dan pembelajar dapat menggunakan berbagai macam strategi pembelajaran frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. hal ini bertujuan untuk dapat secara efektif dan tepat dalam memahami dan menguasai teori serta penggunaan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. dalam hal ini penulis mencoba menyarankan untuk menggunakan startegi kognitif untuk memahami frasa subordinat pewatas-inti. berikut adalah strategi-strategi pembelajaran kognitif, yaitu: mengingat, memahami, mengaplikasikan, menganalisis, mengevaluasi, dan memproduksi. pembelajar terlebih dahulu memahami dan menguasai teori-teori dasar tentang frasa subordinat pewatas-inti, baru mengaplikasikannya secara berkesinambungan pada saat di kelas ataupun berkomunikasi dengan orang lain di luar kelas. latihan-latihan ini dapat dilakukan secara lisan maupun tulisan. untuk mempermudah penguasaan teoriteori tersebut, pembelajar dapat membuat catatan-catatan sendiri saat proses pembelajaran, contoh: posisi pewatas dan inti frasa, satuan pengisi posisi pewatas dan inti, penggunaan kata bantu “的”, dan lain-lain. diharapkan, pembelajar terbiasa menggunakan frasa subordinat pewatas-inti ini dan dapat secara alami menggunakan frasa tersebut dalam berkomunikasi. daftar pustaka bin, z. (2000). xiandai hanyu duanyu. shanghai: huadong shifan daxue chubanshe. borong, h., & xudong, l. (2006). xiandai hanyu (xia ce). beijing: gaodeng jaioyu chubanshe. corder, s. p. (1973). introducing applied linguistics. new york: pelican books. ellis, r. (1994). the study of second language acquisition. oxford: oxford university press. fuyi, x. (2000). xiandai yufaxue. changchun: dongbei shifan daxue chubanshe. james, c. (1998). errors in language learning and use: exploring error analysis. london & new york: longman. jianming, l. (2005). xiandai hanyu yufa yanjiu jiaocheng. beijing: beijing daxue chubanshe. jinzhang, h. (2004). duiwai hanyu jiaoxue zhong de lilun he fangfa. beijing: beijing daxue chubanshe. keraf, g. (1991). tata bahasa rujukan bahasa indonesia. jakarta: grasindo. xiangchen, l. (2010). xiandai hanyu dingzhong duanyu de jiaoxue sikao. xueshu pingtai, 132– 134. retrieved from http://wenku.baidu.com/ view/70e5b6685acfa1c7aa00ccc6.html xiaobin, z., & hai’ou, l. (2004). duiwai hanyu jiaoxue rumen. guangzhou: zhongshan daxue chubanshe. xiaobin, z., qizhi, z., & xiaoning, d. (2007). waiguoren xue hanyu yufa pianwu yanjiu. beijing: beijing yuyan daxue chubanshe. xiaozhong, f. (2004). dingzhong jiegou yanjiu zongshu. anqing shifan xueyuan xuebao (shehui kexueban), 23(4), 97–100. retrieved from http://wenku.baidu. com/view/6e6a4dac102de2bd9605889a.html copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 173 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 173-180 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5620 translating proverbs in the mate ras mate film texts from karonese language into english milisi sembiring1; vivi novalia sitinjak2 1,2english and literature, fakultas sastra, universitas methodist indonesia jl. hang tuah no 8, madras hulu medan polonia, medan 20151, indonesia 1milisi_sembiring@yahoo.com; 2vivi.novalia@p3mi.or.id received: 07th may 2019/revised: 11th june 2019/accepted: 02nd july 2019 how to cite: sembiring, m., & sitinjak, v. n. (2019). translating proverbs in the mate ras mate film texts from karonese language into english. lingua cultura, 13(3), 173-180. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5620 abstract the research aimed to explore the problems and the solutions in translating proverbs in the source language (sl) into the target language (tl). this research applied a qualitative research and supported by cultural and translation analyses. the data were collected from the dialogues of ngapul and yerti in the film of “mate ras mate”. the karonese proverbs in the mrm film texts were the sl. the researchers translated the sl and found out their equivalents in the tl in english. the data for this research were gathered from its film text. after collecting the proverbs in film, the researchers identified and translated them into english. the researchers applied the translation procedures of cultural equivalent, paraphrase, descriptive equivalent, and literal translation method to translate the proverbs in the sl into the tl. the result shows that many karonese proverbs and cultural terms in the sl have no equivalent in the tl. keywords: english, equivalent, karonese, proverbs, translation introduction translators can produce a rich explanation of the unknown concept of the source language (sl) text in the target language (tl) text by focusing on the creativity. furthermore, translation ultimately has the purpose of making the translation results have similar meanings to the source text (tilusubaya & nababan, & santosa, 2018). an important criterion for the quality of the translation is how the translation can be equivalent to the source text. translation function to help people in other countries who do not understand the language of other countries but want to access information from it (aloojaha, nababan, & djatmika, 2018). translating a cultural term using one technique of translation is not good (putrawan, 2018). from his point of view, there is no restriction on the technique of translation, such as the combination of sl-oriented techniques of translation and that of tl-oriented. translating a film text from sl into tl might be acceptable if the messages of an sl have their equivalences in a tl. cross-linguistic component and cross-cultural practice are crucial in translation since the earliest times. people can regard translation as ideas and expression that have existed in a sl and later will be shown as if it is something that preexisted in a tl (house, 2015). the messages of the sl consists of cultural terms, and it cannot be translated into the tl, because their equivalences are not found in the tl. they are untranslatable, and the translation procedures are needed to move the messages of a sl into a tl. the role of authors and translators are needed in such a situation. to know more about translating cultural terms of karonese society into english can be seen in sembiring (2015) and sembiring and panggabean (2018). the researchers translate proverbs in mate ras mate film texts into english. there are 26 proverbs in the film texts in karonese society. mate ras mate is translated live and die together, live uses as an additional word of the verb to make the title clear. the cultural equivalent of the mate ras mate is a sincere love in the tl. the cultural equivalent is used to get the sense of mate ras mate in the tl. the film mate ras mate told about a pretty girl whose name is yerti. she had fallen in love with a young man from her village named ngapul since she was in high school. yerti had been dropped out from her school, but ngapul continued his study to the college. this is not an obstacle for both of them to be in love together. ngapul was a child who was born and raised by a wealthy authoritative and arrogant family. ngapul was working in the company when he pleaded for his parents to propose yerti. however, ngapul’s wish was refused by his parents arrogantly and brutally. the refusal of ngapul’s parents to marry yerti did not make him disappointed or surrender, ngapul was aware 174 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 173-180 like the english proverb, saying ‘many roads lead to rome’ to get married with yerti. unfortunately, when ngapul was looking for the solution to keep ‘till death do us apart’ with yerti, he got an accident on his way home and cause his left leg amputated. since ngapul got the accident, his parents changed their arrogance and vanity. yerti’s mother refused ngapul’s wishes to marry yerti. the causes of her refusal were ngapul’s tragedy which his left leg was amputated and ndihawa’s proposal to marry yerti. ndihawa was yerti’s ‘impal’ or cousin. in karonese culture, marrying ‘impal’ is a dream of karonese society. yerti’s mother approaches ndihawa, who was yerti’s impal, and she persuaded him to marry yerti. her desire was related to the dream of karonese society in which their daughter will marry her impal, and so would their son. a man’s impal is his mother’s brother’s daughter, and a woman’s impal is her father’s sister’s son. ndihawa’s proposal to marry yerti was accepted. while yerti and ndihawa are having the wedding ceremony, ngapul arrived and told that he already had a wife and two children. the wedding ceremony was stopped, and yerti refused to marry him. the objectives of this research are to find out and to explore the translation procedures and methods of translating proverbs in the sl into the tl. translating proverbs in certain languages into english can be as additional materials in the process of learning english. lecture material is prepared based on such wisdom. then it will be linked to students’ need and stakeholders. in this way, the local wisdom baduy tribe can be excavated and preserved. besides, local wisdom can be internalized into the character of students majoring in english education (hamer et al., 2017). methods this research applies a qualitative research, and the data are analyzed by translation analysis. the data are taken from the dialogues of mate ras mate film by hendry bangun which is shown in 2001, 2002, and 2003. the dialogues among ngapul, yerti, and yerti’s mother in this film are the data of this research. in analyzing the data, the researchers should consider the context of a culture which relates to the concept of genre. it describes how people within a culture use language to achieve a certain purpose (saldanha & o’brien, 2014). the dialogues consist of proverbs as the data in this research. the researchers watch the film of mate ras mate and copy all the dialogues in sl. the data are translated into tl, and the proverbs are analyzed from the linguistic and cultural perspectives. results and discussions the researchers do not distinguish the types of proverbs in translating the sl into the tl. one day, yerti gets surprised because she does not expect that ngapul is back to the village, and he directly meets her in the rice field when she is chasing away birds. ngapul shows her the photos of his graduation ceremony. he goes back home earlier because the graduation ceremony has to be quickened and his longingness to meet yerti. yerti appreciates ngapul’s success, and she hopes that it would please his parents. yerti enjoys ngapul’s ability in reading a poem and appreciates his willingness to keep their promise of mate ras mate. in waiting for ngapul’s presence in their village, yerti feels her heartless peaceful. it is like cengkeru irambasken (data 1). data 1 sl: ‘pas bagi cengkeru irambasken’ tl: it is like ‘a cloud of the wind slammed moving without direction’. what can be clearly seen in data 1 is the equivalent of the proverb in the sl is found in the tl. it does not have the same structure rules and culture. in the process of translation, the authors apply both newmark’s translation methods and translation procedures. in translation methods, the focus on the texts, they are source-oriented translation methods and target text-oriented translation methods (newmark, 1988). translating a text related to culture is something questioning and difficult, which requires great effort and determination for a translator (hilman, 2015). expertise in the knowledge of the culture of a sl and a tl is needed to transport a message from a sl to a tl accepted. this aims to avoid confusion of a tl readers where they do not know the culture of what they read. the translation is an interdisciplinary, interlingua, and intercultural activity (dewi, 2018). next is ngapul convinces yerti that what he is doing is to make them happy. he tells her that nothing to be done for his love. the extolment of yerti to ngapul can be too great felt and worried that unexpected this will happen in their relationship and make their heart, such as in data 2. data 2 sl: getem bagi abu tl: be shattered like dust. as data 2 shows, there is a significant difference between the sl and tl. the proverb in sl is active and it is translated, and changed to be passive in tl. the proverb getem bagi abu in sl is translated literally to be shattered like dust in tl. yerti tells what is in her heart. the translation does not become clear in tl. it is difficult to understand for an english speaking people who does not sense with the comparison of heart to dust (data 3). the proverb pas bagi si ngkarat tebu does not have a cultural equivalent in the tl. the literal translation is applied in translating the sl into the tl. the literal translation of pas bagi si ngakarat tebu is ‘like biting sugar cane’. furthermore, the authors use introductory and explain its proverb in the tl. so the authors translate to be ‘it is like biting sugar can’. the literal translation does not reveal the complete meanings of the proverb in the tl. the words that he said are true. data 3 sl: pas bagi si ngkarat tebu tl: it is like biting sugar cane. it is sweet in the lips and it is sweeter in his heart. on the next evening, ngapul invites his friend along, teras, to meet yerti that she is pounding rice with her friends. ngapul wishes to know his friend’s success, who lives in the village. in data 4, teras tells ngapul something, and the authors use the method of a literal translation. 175translating proverbs in the .... (milisi sembiring; vivi novalia sitinjak) data 4 sl: pas bagi sinadingken page buron, ngayaki page redangen tl: that means like leaving the harvested rice field to look for the planting rice, that nothing is harvested. the messages of an sl is translated literally in a tl. in data 5, yerti asks for ngapul’s integrity. the authors use the translation procedure of descriptive equivalent to get the explanation of the sl in the tl. the proverb in sl has no equivalent in tl; therefore, the authors use the translation procedure of descriptive equivalent. data 5 sl: pas bagi nutu page lapong-lapong tl: it is like pounding empty rice. it sounds just aloud to make other people know that someone is pondering, but the pondering of the rice got nothing. if this happens in her life, it is like a mess. while in data 6, the authors translate proverb in the sl by using the translation method of literal translation method in the tl. data 6 sl: pas bagi kerbo gondok tertatap lau meciho terinem lau megembur tl: like buffalo which horns fall down, it sees clean water, but it should drink dirty water. it happens because of its horns. it also happens when a buffalo wants to eat green grass, but it eats dry grass. next, in data 7, ngapul wants to prove his love for yerti. on the next day, they go to yerti’s father’s grave, and bring some flowers and put them on the grave to prove ngapul’s integrity. they take oaths yerti’s father’s grave. in data 7, the authors use literal translation. data 7 sl: mate ras mate kita duana janahna namaken isap ibabo kuburen bp yerti tl: till death us apart while ngapul was putting the cigarette on a fern. in data 8, ngapul promises if he rejects yerti’s love, his life will be in deep pain. descriptive equivalent is used in which the authors describe pas bagi batang in relevant explanations to clarify the meaning in the tl. data 8 sl: pas bagi batang ersam tl: that means the fern that will never change its color, and cannot bear fruits. then in data 9, yerti asks ngapul not to keep crying. she has said, “i have known how you love me, and we hope that we are one heart, we are always together in this life.” the authors use cultural equivalent which involves moving the sl cultural word into its equivalent in the tl. data 9 sl: mate ras mate kita duana’ tl: this proverb is translated into ‘true love’ since then they are always like ‘till death do us apart’. on the next evening when there is dinner time, yerti’s mother asks her about ndihawa’s proposal. he is her father’s sister’s son; he is her brother in law. however, yerti still does not accept his proposal because they have both said their oaths (ngapul and yerti) and said to her mother, why has not he proposed her before. yerti adds that she and ngapul are like vegetable and salt that cannot be separated. it means that they need one another. the translation of proverb in the sl is done by descriptive equivalent with their love cannot be separated. it does not have a cultural equivalent in the tl. data 10 sl: pas bagi gulen ras sira. tl: vegatable and salt cannot be separated. it means that they need one another. hearing the explanation, yerti’s mother is furious. she has said, “how can you be with ngapul? he is a rich man; you do not deserve to be his girlfriend,” and “siksik lebe maka tindes” (data 11). it uses the translation procedure of cultural equivalent because both in sl and tl, they have proverbs. data 11 sl: siksik lebe maka tindes tl: look before you leap (this proverb has cultural equivalent in the tl). it means that someone must think before doing something. the translation of data 12 also uses cultural equivalent translation procedure. it is applied because both sl and tl have proverbs. data 12 sl: anak silenga tubuh ise pe labo beloh erban gelarna tl: don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched, he probably does not love you. next is teras goes to yerti’s house to bring ngapul’s letter. ngapul tells her in his letter that he wants to propose her next week. he goes to his village to tell his parents about what he wants to do, but his parents are furious because, in their mind, yerti does not deserve to be his son’s wife. it can be seen in data 13. data 13 is the adverb in the sl, but it is explained to get the close meaning in the tl. it is because of the difficulties to translate, and there is no equivalent in the tl. data 13 sl: pala bengket pagi gajah ku lubang jarum, maka tampil yerti jadi parmaenku tl: it is like an elephant enters a pinhole. it means something is impossible. his father’s statement does not make ngapul surrender. he goes to meet his uncle to get permission, but his uncle has been told by his father not to make yerti as her daughter in law. ngapul keeps searching the solution, 176 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 173-180 he goes to medan, but on his way to the bus station in kabanjahe, he gets an accident and it makes his left foot has to be amputated. yerti’s mother tells her not to meet ngapul anymore because he is a physical defect. this makes her mother very arrogant and proud. in data 14, yerti’s mother tells her that if ngapul’s parents have not come and see yerti’s mother, she does not agree yerti marries ngapul. in this data, the authors use descriptive equivalent translation procedure. data 14 sl: adi lenga pagi nembah tempulak nangdangi kuliki, aku lenga senang engko man bana tl: if the weasel has not turned an eagle i do not agree that yerti will marry ngapul. on the next day, a friend of ngapul, numpak, goes to meet yerti and asks her to meet ngapul on a hill because he is very desperate and sad. however, this plan is known by tala, a friend of ndihawa, and tala tells it to yerti’s mother. she is very disappointed and has said that ngapul’s father does not expect to have a poor daughter in law (data 15). this data uses descriptive equivalent translation procedure. data 15 sl: labo man ayaken batu megulang tl: that means you cannot get the rolling stone because ngapul’s farther is very rich. he does not expect to have a poor daughter in law. yerti’s mother statement makes ngapul to be more desperate. he tells numpak that he does not want ndihawa to get married to yerti and he does not want ndihawa to get married to her (data 16). this data uses descriptive equivalent translation procedure. data 16 sl: pala retap pagi kesahku simolun olun enda, maka yerti erdemu ras ndihawa tl: ngapul does not want ndihawa to get married to her whatever cost it is. it also means as far as he is still alive, he does not want ndihawa to get married to her. in data 17, ngapul is very desperate and has said, “lasam bagi singkanting jambe”. it is translated by using a paraphrase. the authors, as translators produce it with the useless effort by explaining the meaning without changing the original one. data 17 sl: lasam bagi singkanting jambe tl: it is useless to get something from the bad thing. in data 18, numpak has said the proverb of labo tertaka lau. in sl, it has an equivalent of ‘the camera cannot lie’ in tl. it uses cultural equivalent in translating that proverb. it is same with data 18; data 19 also uses cultural equivalent in translating the proverb ‘labo terukuri embang merurus’. data 18 sl: labo tertaka lau tl: a good beginning makes a good ending. it means nothing is to be prevented if the love comes. data 19 sl: labo terukuri embang merurus tl: we will be together soon. on the other side, ngapul’s father is very disappointed and hopeless. ngapul’s parents feel that it is their mistake not to take yerti to be their daughter in law. he thinks what happens in his family because of the wrath of god. it is very difficult for ngapul’s father to decide which one to take. it can be seen in data 20. this data uses descriptive equivalent in translate the proverb. data 20 sl: pas bagi sinangkih pinang surega, adi ku das mbiar kena suapna, adi ku teroh mbiar kena rogana tl: that means something like there is no way to make the decision because if yerti and ngapul get married, ngapul’s father would said that it made him to put in to the jail then ngapul’s parents agreed to take them both to be husband and wife or to get married. in data 21, ndihawa asks yerti to discuss his wishes to marry her. ndihawa has said the proverb ‘kam jadi bintang pemerdangen ibas jabu’, that means yerti will be the blessing in his family. in data 21, the authors use descriptive equivalent to translate it. data 21 sl: kam jadi bintang pemerdangen ibas jabu tl: you will be the blessing in my family. in data 22, yerti tells him frankly that it is seen that her heart is with ngapul. it is very difficult for yerti and ndihawa to be together and to get married, and ndihawa says, “bagi pepulung binurung seh bengket ku bubu kel ngenca.” the authors use literal translation. data 22 sl: bagi pepulung binurung seh bengket ku bubu kel ngenca tl: the fish that is not found if it is in the net. data 23 sl: pas bagi tape la erbungkus tl: that means something that is not taken. it seems to be sweet or unsweet. ndihawa has said to ngapul that he is like. data 24 sl: pas bagi sinek-sinek lau bengap tl: silence is not golden. it means man of his word is dangerous. data 23 and data 24 in sl has equivalent in tl. it is translated by the cultural equivalent. both sl and tl do not have the same cultures, but they have the same meaning. sl in data 24 talks about the silence of the river named lau bengap, but it can sink the swimmers. when yerti arrives at home, her mother wants to know about her plan with ndihawa. yerti tells her frankly 177translating proverbs in the .... (milisi sembiring; vivi novalia sitinjak) that her body is with ndihawa, but her love is with ngapul. yerti’s mother is outraged. she accuses ngapul as the source of the yerti’s unconsciousness. however, yerti says to her mother that she is insane, but she loves ngapul so much, and they cannot be separated from one another. yerti says, “ if you ask me to leave him, i will die.” hearing yerti’s statement, it makes her mother wants to commit suicide if yerti still does not want to take ndihawa to be her husband. finally, yerti agrees to get married to ndihawa. the plan of their engagement has been made. ndihawa explains it to his parents that their engagement is much better canceled because yerti actually does not love him. however, ndihawa’s mother twists on it, and his father says like in data 25. this doubtness does not make ndihawa and his father cancel their engagement. this proverb cannot be translated literally and it has no natural cultural equivalent in tl. data 25 sl: ula kari bagi kudin taneh, dosa irempu maka pecah tl: the unbond cannot be bonded. in data 26, yerti’s mother got a dream that her ex-husband comes in her dream and tells her something. this proverb has no proverb in tl; therefore, the literal translation is applied. data 26 sl: engkai maka kucing nangko beltu-beltu kambing ipekpekki tl: that means the weak man is always punished. yerti’s mother asks what it means that “why you allow ngapul to cry because you do not hate him, but his parents do. i do not want ngapul to cry all the time.” the engagement does not happen because yerti runs away and it makes ngapul and friend of ndihawa fight. ngapul shows that ndihawa has already got married and has one child in java. this reality makes ndihawa’s parents get ashamed, and they ask their son to fetch their granddaughter. the engagement is done but between ngapul and yerti. ngapul and yerti finally get married because of their true love even they have many bad experiences, but they cannot be separated till the death apart them. the authors face a cultural obstacle in translating the sl into the tl. one of the problems is cultural equivalent from the sl to the tl. the translator should have the skills to know the cultures of both languages. it is not reasonable to translate a proverb while just searching at the google translation. karonese proverbs in mate ras mate film convey specific meaning in a specific context of the situation. it expresses the culture, economic, social, knowledge, advice, morality, truth, virtue, irony, and love. moreover, these are still applied in daily conversations. a translation procedure is potentially working for the solution of a cultural problem from an sl into tl. such proverbs have problems in translating to tl because they do not have the same cultural context. karonese and english proverbs as sometimes show the different meaning as they are analyzed in the previous data. besides, they also differ in many characteristics, such as morality, metaphor, love, and ethnic characteristics. the results of the proverb translation can be seen in table 1 (see appendix). conclusions after translating the 26 proverbs from karonese language into english, the authors find out some problems, such as some of the cultural terms in the sl are difficult to find out their cultural equivalent in the tl. most of the proverbs in the sl cannot be translated literally only because the proverbs of the sl and the tl are different culturally. many of proverbs in the sl have no equivalent in the tl. therefore, the authors apply newmark’s translation procedures of cultural equivalent, paraphrasing, and borrowing. paraphrasing is applied because tl proverbs do not match the sl ones. the authors also use newmark’s literal translation method. the authors mostly use the translation procedures of cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, and paraphrase to overcome the problems of translating metaphors in sl into tl. the authors’ suggestion for further authors is to investigate mother tongue proverbs and to translate them into english proverbs before they are lost. acknowledgments the authors thank to the ministry of research, technology, and higher education of the republic of indonesia for supporting this work with research funding for 2018. references aloojaha, a., nababan, m. r., & djatmika, d. (2018). the impact of translation techniques on shifting meaning of ordering speech act. lingua cultura, 12(3), 279– 287. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4301. dewi, n. (2018). transnational translation of taiwanese and indonesian traditional stories for global citizenship. international journal of humanity studies (ijhs), 1(2), 237–242. hamer, w., evenddy, s. s., prabowo, j., rima, r., & utomo, d. w. (2017). involving local wisdom as values to develop english for tourism course material: a case of baduy tribe in lebak banten. journal of english language studies, 2(1), 92-107. https://doi. org/10.30870/jels.v2i1.1597. hilman, e. h. (2015). the translation of indonesian cultural lexicons in the novel ”saman”. lingua cultura, 9(1), 67–74. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v9i1.763. house, j. (2015). translation as communication across languages and cultures. london: routledge. https:// doi.org/10.4324/9781315668956. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. new york and london: prentice-hall international. putrawan, g. e. (2018). foreignization and domestication of indonesian cultural terms in the novel ”gadis pantai” translated into english. lingua cultura, 12(3), 309-315. doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4233. saldanha, g., & o’brien, s. (2014). research methodologies in translation studies. new york: routledge. sembiring, m. (2015). translating daliken si telu texts in karonese society into english. international journal of language studies, 9(3), 131-146. 178 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 173-180 sembiring, m., & panggabean, h. (2018). translating culture-bound terms in wedding speech texts of karonese society into english. skase journal of translation and interpretation, 11(1), 69-91. tilusubaya, b., nababan, m., santosa, r. (2018). translation analysis of circumstances in the gospel of matthew chapter 12 through 14 from english into indonesian. lingua cultura, 12(4), 415-421. doi: 10.21512/ lc.v12i4.4608. 179translating proverbs in the .... (milisi sembiring; vivi novalia sitinjak) appendix no proverbs translation procedure translation method 1. sl: ‘geluhku pas bagi cengkeru irambasken’ tl: her life is like ‘cloud of the wind slammed moving without direction’. cultural equivalent 2. sl: getem bagi abu tl: be shattered like dust. literal translation 3. sl: pas bagi si ngkarat tebu tl: it is like biting sugar cane. literal translation 4. sl: pas bagi sinadingken page buron, ngayaki page redangen tl: it is like leaving the harvested rice field to look for the planting rice, that nothing is harvested. literal translation 5. sl: pas bagi nutu page lapong-lapong tl: it is like pounding empty rice. it sounds just aloud to make other people know that someone is poudering but the poundering of the rice got nothing. descriptive equivalent 6. sl: pas bagi kerbo gondok tertatap lau meciho terinem lau megembur tl: like buffalo which horns fall down, it sees clean water but it should drink dirty water. literal translation 7. sl: mate ras mate kita duana janahna namaken isap ibabo kuburen bp yerti tl: till death us apart while ngapul was putting the cigarette on a fern literal translation 8. sl: pas bagi batang ersam tl: it is like fern. it never changes its color, and it can not bear fruits. descriptive equivalent 9. sl. ‘mate ras mate kita duana’ tl. that shows that they have ‘true love’ since then they are always like ‘till death do us apart’. descriptive equivalent 10. sl: pas bagi gulen ras sira. tl: something that cannot be separated, they need one another. descriptive equivalent 11. sl: siksik lebe maka tindes tl: think before acting cultural equivalent 12. sl: anak silenga tubuh ise pe labo beloh erban gelarna tl: don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched cultural eqivalent 13. sl: pala bengket pagi gajah ku lubang jarum, maka tampil yerti jadi permenku tl: it is like an elephant enters a pinhole, it means something is impossible. descriptive equivalent 14. sl: adi lenga pagi nembah tempulak nangdangi kuliki, aku lenga senang engko man bana tl: if the weasel has not turned an eagle i do not agree that yerti will marry ngapul. it means if ngapul’s parent haven’t come and seen yerti’s mother, she does not agree yerty marries ngapul. descriptive equivalent 15. sl: labo man ayaken batu megulang tl: that means you can’t get the rolling stone because ngapul’s farther’s to get the rich daughter in law. descriptive equivalent 16. sl: pala retap pagi kesahku simolun olun enda, maka yerti erdemu ras ndihawa tl: that means, i do not want you to get married with her whatever cost it is, it also means as far as i am still alive, i don’t want you to get married with her. descriptive equivalent 17. sl: lasam bagi singkanting jambe tl: that means it is impossible to get something from the bad thing. paraphrase 18. sl: labo tertaka lau tl: a good beginning makes a good ending. that means nothing is to be prevented if the love comes. cultural equivalent 180 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 173-180 appendix (continued) no proverbs translation procedure translation method 19. sl: labo terukuri embang merurus tl: all good things must come to an end cultural equivalent 20. sl: pas bagi sinangkih pinang surega, adi ku das mbiar kena suapna, adi ku teroh mbiar kena rogana tl:each of the alternative choices has problems. descriptive equivalent 21. sl: kam jadi bintang pemerdangen ibas jabu tl: you will be the blessing in our family. descriptive equivalent 22. sl: bagi pepulung binurung seh bengket ku bubu kel ngenca tl: that means the fish that is not found if it is in the net. literal translation 23. sl: pas bagi tape la erbungkus tl: that means something that is not taken. it seems to be sweet or unsweet. descriptive equivalent 24. sl: pas bagi sinek-sinek lau bengap tl: silence is not golden descriptive equivalent 25. sl: ula kari bagi kudin taneh, dosa irempu maka pecah tl: the unbond can’t be bonded. literal translation 26. sl: engkai maka kucing nangko beltubeltu kambing ipekpekki. tl: that means the weak man is always punished. literal translation vol. 13 no. 1 february 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been acreditied by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index, microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents al ryanne gabonada gatcho; bonjovi hassan hajan “check your face(book) on page…”: unpacking the pedagogical potentialities of english teachers’ wall posts ...... 1-9 citra suryanovika; irma manda negara the identification of slurs and swear words in the bronte sisters’ novels .................................................. 11-20 veni roza translingual negotiation strategies used by english students to build classroom interaction in a translation class 21-29 wahyu kyestiati sumarno effects of edmodo-assisted process writing with the problematized scaffolding on the quality of students’ writing ............................................................................................... 31-37 syifa’ khuriyatuz zahro native and non-native listeners perceptual judgement of english accentedness, intelligibility, and acceptability of indonesian speakers ........................................... 39-44 didik rinan sumekto; heny setyawati measuring peer feedback on writing class: a study on third-semester pre-service english teachers ................. 45-53 adaninggar septi subekti willingness to communicate in english of non-english major university students in indonesia.......................... 55-66 delvi wahyuni; witri oktavia; leni marlina writing anxiety among indonesian efl college students: levels, causes, and coping strategies ....................... 67-74 budi setiawan the optimal age of the second-first language acquisition: the relationship of language and physical-motor development .............................................................. 75-79 pauw budianto a comparative study of source language texts used in the indonesian translations of tao te ching ......... ......... 81-86 vol. 13 no. 1 february 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 289 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 289-296 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6067 the translation of lexical collocations in undergraduate students’ theses’ abstract: students versus google translate clara herlina karjo1; ecclesia metta2 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1claraherlina@yahoo.com; 2mettaokey@gmail.com received: 28th october 2019/revised: 11th november 2019/accepted: 18th november 2019 how to cite: karjo, c. h., & metta, e. (2019). the translation of lexical collocations in undergraduate students’ theses’ abstract: students versus google translate. lingua cultura, 13(4), 289-296. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6067 abstract this research intended to compare the translations of lexical collocations found in the abstract section of students’ theses. the purposes were to find out the errors in translating lexical collocation either by google translate or student translator. the data were taken from twenty working papers of english literature students at binus university. the abstracts of these theses (in english and indonesian) were then processed with google translate. thus, there were four sets of data to analyze: (1) students’ text in indonesian (sti), (2) google translate of sti in english (gte), (3) students’ text in english (ste), and (4) google translate of ste in indonesian (gti). from the data, samples of collocations were taken and categorized based on hill’s classification of lexical collocations. the lexical collocations found in the four sets of data were scrutinized, compared, and analyzed to find the errors in forms and meaning as well as in the translation. the results reveal that errors in translating collocations are mostly made by google translate rather than the students. this research implies that google translate still needs improvement in translating collocations, but it is also possible that translation errors occur because of students’ misuse of collocation. keywords: google translate, lexical collocations, translation error, students’ translation introduction recently, more and more people resort to machine translation for translating text from one language to many other languages since the translation can be done within minutes. besides the speed, machine translation is chosen because this system also pays attention to the grammatical rules in each respective language to ensure that the results will not produce an ambiguous translation or mistranslation from the original. machine translation keeps improving its system to preserve the originality of the source language. one of the underlying principles of machine translation is the ability to identify statistically significant patterns. so if one translation has been discovered, this method can be applied to similar texts in the future (medvedev, 2016). there are many kinds of machine translation tools that can be found at present, such as babble, bing, microsoft translate, systran, and google translate, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. however, among all the available machine translation tools, it seems that google translate (hereinafter is also abbreviated as gt) is the one that is frequently used by people, especially in indonesia. google translate is a free translation machine that supports 103 languages in the world, and the most requested translations are from english to arabic, russian, portuguese, and indonesian (aiken, 2019). google translate was launched in april 2006 as a statistical translation service. in november 2016, google announced that google translate would become google neural machine translation (gnmt), which means whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. in other words, google will produce more relevant translation (turovsky, 2016). as a free translation machine, google translate has become a necessity for people who need to read and write in english in their work or education. the users include office workers who have to write business letters, university lecturers who have to write research papers or college students who have to write academic papers or thesis in english. if they are not confident with their english, then google translate can be a very valuable resource. even though google translate does not always give good translation results (ambawani, 2014), some people still use 290 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 289-296 it as long as the sentences still make sense and deliver the same meaning as the original ones. from the researchers’ observation, college students, especially those majoring in english language or literature, are the prolific users of google translate. they use it to find difficult words until writing the whole essay. the researchers suspect that they write their essay in the source language (indonesian) first, and then translate it using google translate into english, or vice versa. this suspicion is more or less attested when the students have to write an essay in two languages, english and indonesian. for example, when they write abstracts for their theses. in binus university, the english department students have to write their theses in english, but the abstracts should be written in both indonesian and english. the researchers’ indication is confirmed by napitupulu’s (2017) research, which has found that many students often use google translate to make abstracts because it can translate within a second without taking too much time and effort. the researchers assume that the translation of abstracts is made using google translate because many translation errors occurred in their abstracts, particularly in translating lexical collocations. collocation is the way two words are connected in order to create the natural meaning of the words. collocation has been found to cause problems for efl students all over the world, especially when they have to translate english collocations into their native language collocations, or from their native language collocations into english. in research for arabic students, jabak, abdullah, and mustapha (2016) have found that 71,86 % of the students could not translate arabic collocations into equivalent collocations in english. similarly, rumanian students are also not able to translate english collocations into rumanian and vice versa (pârlog & punga, 2017). iranian efl students are also found to have difficulty in translating english collocations (ghasemi & hashemian, 2016). translating collocations is difficult because it involves assessing the suitability of word collocates. thus, inappropriate translation of collocations will produce unnatural words and meanings, for example, the phrase ‘dark blue’ should not be translated into biru gelap, but biru tua. indonesian students also face similar problems in translating collocations, in particular when the collocations occur in academic papers. they often resort to google translate, which might not be producing good results either. therefore, the present research is done to identify the areas of difficulty in translating lexical collocations and being able to find the solution to this problem. thus, this research aims to analyze the possibility of translation errors made either by the students (st) or google translate in translating lexical collocations. to that end, the researchers propose two research questions: (1) who (st or google translate) can provide a better translation of lexical collocations? moreover, (2) what kinds of translation errors are made by st or google translate regarding lexical collocations? house (2014) has explained that translation is a linguistic-textual system that changes certain sentences or words from one language into another language. besides, translation also means delivering in the target language with the same meaning and context as the original language, which the author wants it to be (newmark, 1988). similarly, baker (2018) has also stated that translation is a replacement of the text into something equivalent to the original language. the main point in these definitions is that the translation result should maintain the original message. thus, if the translation result has a different message from the original one, then it fails to be called translation. translation can be done manually by a human translator, using printed or offline dictionaries, or it can be done automatically using machine translation. according to dhakar, sinha, and pandey (2013), machine translation is a technology-based system that is able to translate from one language into another. in doing the translation, dhakar, sinha, and pandey (2013) have explained that machine translation follows several steps. the first is ‘analyze’, which means the machine translation will analyze the grammar and vocabulary of the source text. second is ‘conversion’, which is the process of converting the source text language to the chosen language. the third is ‘synthesis’, which means creating the chosen text language based on its syntactical and morphological rules. because of these automated systems, machine translation can provide more accuracy compared to human translation, as it also makes sure to pay attention to punctuation and spelling accurately. as one of the most widely used machine translation tools, google translate has been the subject of research for many years since its appearance in 2006. aiken and balan (2011) first have conducted their research to assess the translation quality of google translate for 50 different languages, not just a pair of languages. they have found out that google translate translates a european language into another european language much better than those pairs of language involving the asian language. however, karami (2014) has claimed that google translate could translate either by words, phrases, certain parts of the text, or even a webpage better for the pair of languages. meanwhile, karjo (2016) and karjo (2015) have found that google translate can produce better translation for phrases rather than full sentences since it requires less editing time. meanwhile, after 10 years of research, aiken (2019) has found that google translate accuracy has increased about 34% for 51 languages since his research in 2011. despite being the preferable machine translator, many researchers have still found many translation problems with google translate, and thus it needs to be improved. ismail and hartono (2016) have found that despite being able to translate from many languages, google translate still has a problem when translating a complex structure of the sentence, which leads to mistranslation errors. in her research of english into spanish translation, allue (2017) has found that google translate still makes errors in lexicon grammar, syntax, pragmatic, and punctuation. similarly, ambawani (2014) has also discovered that google tranlate seems unable to differentiate between the grammatical structure of indonesian and english, which leads to an inaccurate grammatical structure. moreover, medvedev (2016) has also proved in his research that google translate tends to ignore the grammatical structure and the text’s context, which leads to ambiguity. as for translation, google translate can be allowed for students for quick and easy translation tool. however, lecturers or instructors should exercise caution and guidance on its appropriate use to avoid students’ addiction to this tool (raza & nor, 2018). researches regarding the quality of google translate are usually done by doing the error analysis (hereinafter ea) on the results of translation (koponen & salmi, 2015). ea is first conducted for teaching and learning a foreign language. ea in language learning is a technique for identifying, classifying, and systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms that are produced by learners in learning a foreign language by using any of the principles and procedures provided by linguistics. ea is a set of procedures 291the translation of lexical.... (clara herlina karjo; ecclesia metta) for identifying, describing, and explaining learners’ errors, which are not only about identifying and detecting errors but also trying to explain why they are made. according to longman dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics (2010), ea exists for several reasons. the first is to teach english learners easier based on the type of errors they make. the second is to determine the causes of error. furthermore, the last is to help the beginner to learn english by classifying the common errors in the text. thus, the method for conducting ea typically follows gass and selinker’s method (as cited in al-khresheh, 2016), which consists of collecting data, identifying errors, classifying errors, quantifying errors, analyzing sources of error, and remediating for errors. similar methods of ea are also done in translation studies. setiawan (2014), in his research on english translation errors in abstracts of educational administration students of the post-graduate school of state university of medan, has classified errors made in the translations into two types, which are grammatical and context errors. moreover, utami (2017), in her study of uin sultan syarif kasim’s students’ translation, has found that there are three types of grammatical errors made by the students, i.e., global errors, local errors, and other errors. the source of errors, according to utami (2017), is because most of the students have difficulties in translating the sentences from indonesian into english due to their insufficient structural knowledge in the target language. as a result, the students tend to translate the sentences literally, which leads them to make some errors. one of the most frequent errors made in the translation is the translation of collocations. according to the online oxford collocation dictionary, collocation is the way that two words are meant to be with each other in order to make the words sound more natural and appropriate to be delivered. baker (2018) has stated that words rarely occur on their own; they almost always occur in the company of other words. there are many words in english that cannot be separated from each other as they produce a natural and correct meaning of the context. basically, collocation does not only apply for a certain language or culture, but the fixated words apply to all languages in the world. however, words are not strung together in random order. there are certain rules of lexical patterning or the ‘likelihood’ of certain words occurring with other words and the typicality of the likely combination of its component. based on the possible combination of the words, hill (2000) has divided collocations into four groups. first is unique collocation, in which a particular word can only be collocated with one word. it cannot have paired with another word, for example ‘to shrug your shoulder’. the verb ‘shrug’ cannot be used other than with ‘shoulder’. second is strong collocation, which is the word combination that commonly used with each other, for example, ‘dogs bark’. the word ‘bark’ usually comes with ‘dogs’. the third is medium-strength collocation, which is a combination that is neither strong nor weak, for example, to ‘hold a meeting’. the word ‘hold’ is commonly used with ‘meeting’, but it also can be used with a limited number of other words such as ‘hand’ or ‘performance’. fourth is weak collocation, in which the word can be used with many other words, for example, ‘beautiful girl’. the word ‘beautiful’ can also collocate with many other words such as ‘hair’, ‘scenery’, or ‘cake’. meanwhile, based on the word class of its components, hill (2000) has classified lexical collocations into eight categories. the first is the adjective + noun. it is a combination of adjective and noun, for example, ‘tall building’. the word ‘building’ is more appropriate to collocate with ‘tall’ rather than ‘high’. the word ‘tall’ can be considered as a medium-strength collocation because it can also combine with other words such as ‘man’ or ‘people’. second is noun + noun. it is a combination of noun and noun, for example, ‘driving license’. this collocation is considered as a medium-strength collocation as ‘driving’ can collocate with other words such as ‘range’ and ‘school’, while ‘license’ can collocate with ‘marriage’ or ‘pilot’. third is verb + (adjective) + noun. it is a combination between a verb, adjective, and noun, for example, ‘making a good paper’. however, using adjective is optional, which means it can also be considered as a verb + noun, for example, ‘compose music’. the example can be considered as weak collocation as ‘compose’ can collocate with ‘poem’ or ‘paper’. fourth is verb + adverb. it is a combination of verb and adverb, for example, ‘sing happily’. the example can be considered as weak collocation as ‘sing’ can collocate with ‘loudly’ or ‘cheerfully’. on the other hand, the word ‘happily’ can also collocate with ‘smile’ or ‘laugh’. fifth is adverb + verb. it is a combination of adverb and verb, for example, ‘half understand’. the word ‘half’ can collocate with ‘awake’ or ‘asleep’; thus, it can be considered as weak collocation. sixth is adverb + adjective. it is a combination of adjective and adverb, for example, ‘completely tired’. it can be considered as weak collocation as ‘completely’ can also collocate with ‘full’ or ‘baked’. seventh is noun + verb. it is a combination of noun and verb, for example, ‘lions roar’. it can be considered as strong collocation as ‘lions’ naturally collocate with ‘roar’ not ‘shout’. eighth is verb + expression of the preposition. it is a combination of verb and preposition, for example, ‘escape from’. it can be considered as a unique collocation as ‘escape’ can only collocate with ‘from’. collocation has become a problem for non-english speakers such as indonesian because they do not have any guide on which words are meant to each other. for example, some indonesian people tend to say ‘make a conclusion’, which is literally translated from indonesian ‘membuat kesimpulan’. however, in english, the correct collocation is ‘draw a conclusion’. the word ‘draw’, according to kbbi, means ‘menggambar’ instead of ‘menarik’. thus, indonesian speaker rarely uses ‘draw a conclusion’ because of the assumption that it means ‘menggambar kesimpulan’, which is sound illogical. researches in the translation of collocation have revealed that the translators will be confronted by numerous problems of various sorts in rendering collocations. the problems can be classified into two broad types; intralingual and interlingual problems (agah & soori, 2015). intralingual problems relate to the problems of identifying collocations and establishing collocability within a language. meanwhile, interlingual problems revolve around questions of collocability across languages, which constitute the translator’s concern to find the ‘acceptable’ collocations in the target language. methods the data for this research are the abstracts from twenty (20) theses of english department students of bina nusantara university from 2013 to 2016 batch. each 292 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 289-296 thesis contains one abstract in english and one abstract in indonesian. all the abstracts are then processed using google translate, which generates translations of the students’ abstracts. therefore, there are four data sets obtained for this research; the first set consists of 20 students’ original abstracts in english, abbreviated as ste. the second set consists of 20 google translation of ste in indonesian, abbreviated as gti. the third set comprises of students’ original abstracts in indonesian, abbreviated as sti. the last set comprises of google translation of sti in english, abbreviated as gte. from those data, samples of lexical collocations are taken to be analyzed. the samples are chosen based on hill’s (2000) taxonomy of collocation, consisting of eight categories. the collocations in the students’ texts and their translations are compared and scrutinized. the comparison will show how students and google form the collocations and what kind of errors they have made in the process of translating the collocations. errors in translation will be measured based on the formation and meaning equivalence between the source and target language. results and discussions hill (2000) has outlined eight categories of collocation, as stated in the literature review section. however, from the data, the researchers only find five categories, which contain translation errors. it means that there are no errors in the other three categories. they are (1) category 1: adjective + noun, (2) category 2: noun + noun, (3) category 3: verb + (adjective) + noun, (4) category 7: noun + verb and (5) category 8: verb + expression of preposition. hence, we did not find translation errors in category 4: verb + adverb, category 5: adverb + verb, and category 6: adverb + adjective. the researchers will explain the description of findings for the translation of collocations of categories 1, 2, 3, 7, and 8. for easier reference, the errors will be marked differently. the underlined words mean that the colocations are not found either in english or in indonesia. on the other hand, the bolded words mean that the collocations contain translation errors either in structure or meaning. the first category of the lexical collocation that will be analyzed is adj. + noun. there are 20 samples taken from the abstracts, which belong to the first category. however, after being analyzed, only 14 samples of the collocations contain errors. of those 14 samples, five samples are taken and analyzed regarding their mistakes and the possible corrections. table 1 shows the four versions of abstracts, consisting of the students’ original works (both in english and indonesian) and the google translate works (both also in english and indonesian). table 1 translations of the first category collocations no ste gti sti gte 7. the extrinsic approach pendekat-an ekstrinsik pendekatan unsur ekstrinsik the extracurricu-lar element 10 the first method metode pertama cara pertama the first way 12 high class kelas tinggi orang kaya the rich table 1 translations of the first category collocations (continued) no ste gti sti gte 14 natural identity identitas alami identitas asli original identity 18 infelicitous utterances ucapan yang tidak benar ucapanucapan yang infelicitous infelicitous sayings the words ‘the extrinsic approach’ is translated into ‘pendekatan unsur ekstrinsik’ by st in abstract 7; thus, there is an addition of the word ‘unsur’ to clarify the meaning of ‘ekstrinsik’. however, this addition causes google translate to render this phrase into ‘extracurricular element’. in this case, google translate makes two errors. first, it omits the word ‘approach’, and secondly, it translated ‘extrinsic’ into ‘extracurricular’, which has a totally different meaning with ‘extrinsic’. moreover, the word ‘element’ does not collocate with ‘extracurricular’; thus, it cannot form a collocation. yet, the word ‘element’ can collocate with other adjectives such as ‘basic’, ‘critical’, ‘essential’, ‘dominant’, etc., so it can form weak collocations. in abstract 10, ‘the first method’ is translated by st into ‘cara pertama’. in general, ‘method’ has the same sense as ‘cara’, but the usage is different. ‘method’ means ‘a systematic procedure for accomplishing something’, and it is usually used in an academic setting. meanwhile, ‘cara’ or ‘way’ means ‘a style of doing something’, which is used in a broader sense. therefore, the rendering of ‘first method’ into ‘cara pertama’ is not appropriate. in indonesian, the word ‘method’ is borrowed into ‘metode’. at abstract 12, the google translate has translated ‘high class’ into ‘kelas tinggi’, which does not collocate to each other as ‘kelas’ does not match with ‘tinggi’. it should be ‘kelas atas’. in english, ‘high’ can be used to signify height or level, such as in ‘high mountain’ or ‘high degree’, but in indonesian, it should be differentiated into ‘tinggi’ or ‘atas’. in addition, this is considered as weak collocation because ‘kelas’ can collocate with many words such as, ‘menengah’, ‘bawah’, or ‘sosial’. while google translate makes a collocational error that st renders ‘high class’ into ‘orang kaya’. in some sense, people who belong to the high class are rich people, but translating ‘high class’ into ‘orang kaya’ is unacceptable because it has a different meaning. next, at the abstract 14, st makes the terms ‘natural identity’, which does not collocate to each other. the words that collocate with ‘identity’ include ‘true’, ‘false’, ‘common’, ‘cultural’, and ‘national’. thus, it leads into collocation error made by google translate, which renders this phrase as ‘identitas alami’. in this context, ‘true identity’ might be a better choice for the author. at abstract number 18, the student does not translate the word ‘infelicitous’, so her translation still contains the original word. in indonesian, this word can be translated as ‘tidak pantas’, or ‘tidak benar’, but this translation does not correct either. the phrase ‘infelicitous utterances’ is a fixed terminology in pragmatics referring to certain conditions that are not fulfilled before saying the utterances. meanwhile, gte translates ‘ucapan-ucapan’ into ‘sayings’, which is more related to the proverb, maxim, or expression. thus, both st and google translate make an error in translating and forming the collocation. according to these results, this analysis might agree 293the translation of lexical.... (clara herlina karjo; ecclesia metta) with ambawani (2014) regarding collocation problems for indonesian people. apparently, indonesian people tend to ignore collocation; for example, the author uses ‘natural identity’ rather than ‘true identity’ just because ‘natural’ in kbbi means ‘alami’. the second category of the lexical collocation analyzed is noun + noun. out of the 20 abstracts that are analyzed, there are eight samples of errors relating to the second category. out of those eight samples, five samples are taken to analyze in detail that can be seen in table 2. table 2 translation of the second category collocation no ste gti sti gte 3 the students’ performan ce kinerja siswa hasil muridmurid the results of students 8 the image of a labor citra persalin an citra buruh the image of workers 9 memory disorder gangguan memori gangguan memori memory impairment 11 autistic savant sarjana autistik autis terpelajar learned autistic 11 library research kajian pustaka penelitian kepustaka an literature review noun + noun collocations in this category have three formats: [noun + noun], [possessive noun + noun], and [noun + of + noun]. in abstract 3, ‘student’s performance’ is rendered as ‘kinerja siswa’ by google translate, which is applicable. however, st renders it as ‘hasil murid-murid’, which does not have the same sense as ‘the students’ performance’ in english. in this case, google translate gives a better translation. on the contrary, in abstract 8, google translate makes a serious misinterpretation of the phrase ‘the image of labor’. the word ‘labor’ has two meanings; (1) physical workers, or (2) the process of childbirth. the author uses the first sense for ‘labor’, while google translate takes the second sense, so it translates the phrase into ‘citra persalinan’. however, google translate is correct in rendering ‘citra buruh’ as ‘the image of workers’, since ‘labor’ (buruh) is usually referred to manual workers in collective, so it cannot be written as ‘a labor’. in abstract 9, the phrase ‘memory disorder’ is translated as ‘gangguan memori’ by both st and google translate. however, in back translation, google translate renders it as ‘memory impairment’, which has a slight meaning difference with ‘memory disorder’. a disorder is an illness that disrupts normal physical or mental functions, while impairment is a state where a function is weakening or damaging. thus, ‘disorder’ can best be translated into ‘gangguan’, while ‘impairment’ maybe for ‘pelemahan’. in terms of collocational pair, both words ‘memory’ and ‘disorder’ can collocate with many other words, mostly adjectives. however, ‘memory disorder’ forms a strong collocation, because it is commonly used with each other. ‘autistic savant’ in abstract 11 is translated as ‘sarjana autis’ by google translate and ‘autis terpelajar’ by st. it is then back-translated into ‘learned autistic’ by google translate. the problem here lies in the word ‘savant’, which means ‘a learned person, especially a distinguished scientist’. thus, the use of ‘sarjana’ or ‘terpelajar’ is not appropriate because they are not the right equivalence for ‘savant’. in the context of the abstract, this ‘savant’ refers to one character of the movie rain man, which is not a scientist. the more appropriate collocation is ‘idiot savant’. an ‘autistic savant’ can be considered as a unique colocation. the last sample for this category is found in abstract 11, in which ‘library research’ is translated into ‘kajian pustaka’ by google translate, but ‘penelitian kepustakaan’ by st, and then it is rendered into ‘literature review’ by google translate. in this case, the translation chosen by the author (st) is more appropriate than google translate. ‘literature review’ only refers to a specific chapter of a research report, while ‘library research’ refers to the method used for doing the research. the analysis of collocation errors for the second category might support karjo’s (2015) works regarding google translate quality. it appears that google translate indeed has a problem in choosing the equivalent words when the target language has more than one meaning for the same word. for example, in the third abstract, ‘the image of labor’ becomes ‘citra persalinan’, which shows that google translate makes a wrong choice of meaning. the third category of the lexical collocation that is analyzed is verb + (adjective) + noun. out of the 20 abstracts being analyzed, there are five samples of errors relating to the third category. all of those five samples are analyzed in table 3. table 3 translations of the third category collocation no ste gti sti gte 1 acquire english slang mengakui sisi bahasa inggris slang mempero leh kata gaul get english slang 2 compo sing the written text. menyusun teks tertulis mengarang sebuah text tertulis com posing a written text. 7 compos ing music menulis musik menggu bah musik com pose music 13 compose the problems menyusun permasala han menyusun permasala han arrange the problems 14 adopt foreign lifestyle mengadopsi gaya hidup asing mempela jari gaya hidup inggris study ing british lifestyle in the first abstract, ‘mengakuisisi bahasa inggris slang’ in indonesian does not collocate with each other. the word ‘acquires’ means ‘to obtain (an object, or property) for oneself’ and ‘to learn or develop’ (a habit, skill, or quality), which in indonesian it is borrowed into ‘akuisisi’. however, for english slang, the more appropriate word is ‘to obtain’, thus the translation should be ‘mendapatkan/memperoleh bahasa inggris slang’. this combination can be considered as weak collocation as ‘memperoleh’ can collocate with many words such as ‘hasil’, ‘alat’, or ‘pendidikan’. the problem with the word ‘compose’ occurs in abstract 2, 7, and 13. the word ‘compose’ means ‘write or create’, and it usually collocates with music or poetry. it also has another meaning of ‘forming and arranging the parts in an artistic way’. in the seventh abstract, the author writes ‘composing music’, but google translate translates it 294 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 289-296 into ‘menulis musik’, which does not form a collocation. in indonesian, there is a specific word for ‘composing music’, i.e., ‘menggubah musik’. in abstract 2, the author translates the word ‘compose’ into ‘mengarang’, which is acceptable in terms of meaning. however, it does not collocate with the word ‘suatu teks’. in the last abstract 13, the word ‘problem’ does not collocate with ‘compose’. the word ‘problem’ can form weak collocate, such as ‘create’, ‘pose’, ‘solve’, ‘present’, etc. so, both google translate and st makes a mistake in forming the collocation. in abstract 14, the phrase ‘adopt foreign style’ is translated into ‘mempelajari gaya hidup inggris’ by google translate. the word ‘adopt’ can mean ‘choose to take up or follow’ (an idea, method, or course of action), or ‘legally take (another’s child) and bring it up as one’s own’. this word is borrowed into indonesian into ‘mengadopsi’, but the common meaning used is the second one (mengadopsi anak – to adopt a child). thus, rendering ‘adopt’ into ‘mempelajari’ (studying) is incorrect in terms of meaning. it is better translated as ‘menerapkan gaya hidup asing’. based on the result, the analysis might disagree with aiken and balan’s (2011) research as they have said that google translate did a better job only when translating from european to another european language rather than to asian languages. this analysis shows that google translate still does a good job when translating to indonesian, an asian country, as there are only a few mistakes in translation. overall, google translate uses the borrowed words if it could not find the indonesian word equivalence. the seventh category of the lexical collocation that will be analyzed is noun + verb. the seventh category is chosen because there is no mistake found in the abstracts relating to the fourth, fifth, and sixth category. out of the 20 abstracts scrutinized, there are seventeen samples, which contain errors regarding the seventh category. five out of those 17 samples will be taken to be analyzed in detail. the focus on this category is the noun and what verb is suitable or collocates with that noun. it can be seen in table 4. table 4 translations of the seventh category collocation no ste gti sti gte 2 the writer held (qualitative method) penulis melaku kan penulis mengguna kan the writer uses 2 this thesis concerns with thesis ini berkaitan dengan skripsi ini berpusat pada this thesis focuses on 6 sexist language exist bahasa seksis memang ada bahasa seksis terbukti benar sexist language is proven to be true 9 this research examines penelitian ini meneliti penelitian ini membahas this research discusses 13 this thesis focuses on tesis ini berfokus pada skripsi ini berpusat pada this thesis centered on in abstract 2, the mistake is initiated by the author when she writes, ‘the writer held a qualitative method’. relating to the object of the verb, ‘qualitative method’, the verb ‘held’ does not fit in this context since ‘held’ in indonesian is not ‘menggunakan’, but ‘memegang’ or ‘mengadakan’. that is why google translate renders it as ‘penulis melakukan metode’, which produces the awkward translation. however, this mistake is generated from the author herself. in abstract 2 and 13, the problem lies in the word ‘focus on’. the translation for ‘focus on’ is ‘berpusat pada’ or ‘berfokus pada’, which is a borrowed word from english. however, google translate translates it into ‘centered on’ in abstract 13. the word ‘centered’ has more spatial sense, which puts something in the center. thus, the phrase ‘this thesis centered on’ does not form a correct collocation. meanwhile, in abstract 2, the writer uses the words ‘this thesis concerns with’, which is translated into ‘thesis ini berpusat pada’. though both phrases form collocations, ‘concerns with’ are not equivalent to ‘berpusat pada’. in abstract 6, the author makes the wrong translation of the word ‘exist’, which she translates into ‘terbukti benar’. ‘exist’ means ‘have objective reality or being’, which is ‘ada’, ‘mewujud’ in indonesian. ‘being exist’ does not mean ‘proven to be true’ or ‘terbukti benar’. in this case, google translate correctly translates the phrase. in abstract 9, google translate uses redundant words to translate ‘this research examines’. it creates the translation ‘penelitian ini meneliti’, which sounds awkward and does not form a collocation. the collocated words for the research include ‘demonstrate’, ‘indicate’, ‘prove’, ‘reveal’, ‘shows’, etc. thus, ‘research’ can form weak collocation because it can collocate with many other words. the collocation errors presented in this section shows that students have little knowledge of collocations, so they choose the words that do not collocate with each other. this result is similar to the results of arabic students’ translation in jabak, abdullah, & mustapha (2016). for example, in the second abstract, the author uses the word ‘held’, which does not collocate with the word ‘method’. it is more natural if she uses ‘apply’ instead of ‘held’. this phrase indicates students’ lack of knowledge of english collocations. the eighth category of the lexical collocation that will be analyzed is verb + expression of preposition. this is the last category of the lexical collocation category, and out of the 20 abstracts that are analyzed, there are only four samples of errors regarding the eighth category. all of those four samples will be taken to be analyzed in detail. it can be seen in table 5. table 5 translations of eighth category translation no ste gti sti gte 8 analyzed with dianalisa dengan dianalisa dengan analyzed by 8 (conclusions) are drawn to answer (kesimpulan) ditarik untuk (kesimpulan) disimpulkan untuk (conclusions) are summary zed to 12 measured by several variables diukur dengan beberapa variabel diukur melalui beberapa variable measured by several variables 12 struggle for principal berjuang untuk prinsipal berjuang memperta hankan prinsip hidup strive to maintain the principle of life 295the translation of lexical.... (clara herlina karjo; ecclesia metta) the discussion of the suitable preposition for some words relates to the expressions before or after the collocation in question. the expression after the words ‘analyzed with’ in the first sample is speech act theory. so, the speech act theory functions as the instrument for analysis. the problem here is that the author makes wrong collocation by using ‘with’. it should be ‘analyzed by (using)’, which can be translated into ‘dianalisa dengan (menggunakan)’. in the second sample of abstract 8, the complete phrase is ‘conclusions are drawn to answer problem formulation’. thus, the word ‘drawn to’ forms a strong collocation with ‘conclusion’, become ‘to draw a conclusion’. similarly, in indonesian, this phrase can be translated into ‘menarik kesimpulan’, which also makes a strong collocation, because literally ‘to draw’ means ‘menggambar’ not ‘menarik’. thus, the first google translate’s translation ‘kesimpulan ditarik untuk’ is suitable. meanwhile, st translates it into ‘kesimpulan disimpulkan’, which is redundant and does not form a collocation. a similar problem occurs in abstract 12, where st uses ‘diukur melalui’, which is a wrong translation of ‘measured by (several variables)’. google translate renders it as ‘diukur dengan’. ‘melalui’ is not translated into ‘by’ in english, but ‘through’. however, ‘measured through’ also does not form a collocation. thus, in this case, google translate makes better translation for this phrase. still at the twelfth abstract, ‘struggle for’ is not translated as a verb + preposition in indonesian; the author translates it into ‘berjuang mempertahankan’. it seems that the author eliminates the preposition but added a verb ‘mempertahankan’ to replace the preposition ‘for’. the problem here occurs because the author makes an unintelligible phrase ‘struggle for principal’, which is then translated by google translate into ‘berjuang untuk principal’, which also does not make sense. st might want to write ‘struggle for life principle’. the results in this category might support (haghighi, 2018) an indication that some collocations are languagespecific. for example, western people often say ‘catch a cold’, but in indonesian, it is said ‘masuk angin’ (literally ‘enter a wind’). similarly, in english, people say ‘draw a conclusion’, but in indonesian, it is ‘menarik kesimpulan’ (literally ‘to pull a conclusion’). conclusions the findings of this research show that there are quite many errors in terms of lexical collocation, which are made by students or google translate. out of 20 abstracts of the students’ working papers, there are only five categories of lexical collocation errors found in the abstracts and their translations. these categories are adj. + noun, noun + noun, verb + (adj.) + noun, noun + verb, and verb + expression of preposition. thus, there are three categories of lexical collocation that do not incite errors, mostly involving the use of adverbs. overall, google translate makes five wrong translation errors, while the students make 14 errors. google translate makes more errors in forming the lexical collocations. on the other hand, students make more errors in translating the collocations, i.e., finding the equivalence for the collocations. because of these, google translate makes errors in back translation as it tends to translate exactly based on the source texts. it seems that if students do not make wrong translation errors, google translate might be able to avoid collocation errors. in conclusion, google translate still needs improvement regarding the translation of lexical collocations. however, some of the errors in translation happen because of the inaccuracy of the source text. in this case, if the students know how to form collocation in indonesian or in english, the translation error by google translate can be minimized. errors in google translate might occur because people do not write accurately in the source language. as a result, google translate will not give a good translation. thus, when the source language text is more correctly structured, it is more likely that google translate will provide better translation in the target language. the results of this research imply that students, especially those who need to write their final papers, should be given more knowledge about the collocations in english so that they can write in better english. as for translation, google translate can be allowed for students for quick and easy translation tool. however, lecturers or instructors should exercise caution and guidance on its appropriate use to avoid students’ addiction to this tool. for further research, the researchers might compare the results of google translate for two types of text, one being the original students’ writing, and the other one is the edited version of the students’ writing. this can be done to prove that wellwritten source text will produce a better translation in gt. references agah, m., & soori, a. (2015). comparative study of collocation among the languages. language in india, 15(1), 527–537. aiken, m. (2019). an updated evaluation of google translate accuracy. studies in linguistics and literature, 3(3), 253–260. http://doi.org/10.22158/sll.v3n3p253. aiken, m., & balan, s. (2011). an analysis of google translate accuracy. translation journal, 16(2), 25– 32. al-khresheh, m. h. (2016). a review study of contrastive analysis theory. journal of advances in humanities and social sciences, 2(6), 49–59. http://doi. org/10.20474/jahss-2.6.5. allue, b. r. (2017). the reliability and limitations of google translate: a bilingual, bidirectional, and genre-based evaluation. entreculturas, 9, 67–80. ambawani, s. (2014). grammatical errors on indonesianenglish translation by google translate. in prosiding seminar nasional aplikasi sains & teknologi. yogyakarta, indonesia. pp. 333–338. baker, m. (2018). in other words: a coursebook on translatoin (third edition). london: routledge. dhakar, b. s., sinha, s. k., & pandey, k. k. (2013). a survey of translation quality of english to hindi online translation systems (google and bing). international journal of scientific and research publications, 3(1), 2250–3153. ghasemi, h., & hashemian, m. (2016). a comparative study of google translate translations: an error analysis of english-to-persian and persian-toenglish translations. english language teaching, 9(3), 13–17. http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n3p13. haghighi, h. (2018). a multifaceted approach to the translation of collocations from english to persian. 296 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 289-296 applied linguistics research journal, 2(2), 8–25. http://doi.org/10.14744/alrj.2018.03511. hill, j. 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(2015). toward a better use of google translate. jakarta: atma jaya university. karjo, c. h. (2016). it-based translation: how accurate are they? in kimli. denpasar: mli. pp. 128–131. koponen, m., & salmi, l. (2015). on the correctness of machine translation: a machine translation postediting task. the journal of specialised translation, 23(23), 118–136. medvedev, g. (2016). google translate in teaching english. the journal of teaching english for specific and academic purposes, 4(1), 181–193. napitupulu, s. (2017). analysing indonesian-english abstract translation errors by google translate. international journal of english language and linguistics research, 5(2), 15–23. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. new york: prentice hall. pârlog, h., & punga, l. (2017). difficulties of translating english collocations into romanian. b.a.s. british and american studies, 23, 255–274. raza, m. a., & nor, f. m. (2018). google translate in efl classroom. international journal of translation, 30(1), 7–21. setiawan, y. (2014). english translation errors in abstract of educational administration student of post graduate school of state university in medan. journal of education, 7(1), 67–71. turovsky, b. (2016). found in translation: more accurate, fluent sentences in google translate. retrieved october 23, 2019 from https://blog.google/products/ translate/found-translation-more-accurate-fluentsentences-google-translate/. utami, s. (2017). the source of errors in indonesian-english translation. jurnal kata, 1(2), 192–202. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 23 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 23-29 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6234 feminism values in the posters of yogyakarta’s students demonstration: the #gejayanmemanggil nurul huda gustema1*; wening sahayu2 1,2applied linguistics department, yogyakarta state university jl. colombo no. 1, sleman, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1nurulhuda.2018@student.uny.ac.id; 2hayyusahayu@gmail.com received: 27th january 2020/revised: 18th february 2020/accepted: 02nd march 2020 how to cite: gustema, n. h., & sahayu, w. (2020). feminism values in the posters of yogyakarta’s students demonstration: the #gejayanmemanggil. lingua cultura, 14(1), 23-29. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6234 abstract the research aimed to examine feminism values on the posters of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration the #gejayanmemanggil. data collection technique was conducted by reading and note-taking techniques. from social media (instagram), read the posters for several times, made a reduction for the data, and analyzed the feminism values which were reflected in the data based on the discourse or textual aspects. in the findings, the use of feminist languages, which contained the feminism values was revealed, in order to correlate it with the previous studies and theories. it was affected by the positive and negative meanings of the words and their impact on the audience. discourse analysis was the proper way to examine the hidden ideologies of discourse. it revealed the discursive structures and manipulative language of the speakers or writers. the results reveal that the posters on the demonstration #gejayanmemanggil contain feminism values as reflected in the feminist languages which support the ideology. therefore, based on the findings of the research which conducts a discourse analysis in examining mass communication, language has enormous powers in appealing to emotions, manipulating someone’s thoughts and behavior, as well as misrepresenting the realities. keywords: feminism values, student posters, students demonstration, discourse analysis introduction there are several previous studies which aim to define and interpret feminism differently. feminism is commonly correlated with historical political movements in europe and the usa. meanwhile, nienaber and moraka (2016) have stated that feminism concerns the identity of women, both philosophically and socially, and with equal rights politically, legally, and economically. in addition, another research by bakar, yusof, and vengadasamy (2016), has revealed that feminism is an effort that aims to reclaim the voice and history of previously muted women by allowing them to express their voices and acknowledging them for their opinions since the separation between men and women is challenging in the general discourses (udasmoro, 2017). it is in line with shamsuddin and hamid (2017), who have stated that there should be a long study of gender roles that conform to social and cultural expectations. hence, suryaningrum, suwandi, and waluyo (2019) have stated that feminism is a women’s movement that is formed due to the awareness that women have the same position as men. the purpose of feminism is to increase the women’s position and the degree to be the same as men’s. feminism intends to fight for humanity for women as independent human (women demanding their full rights as human beings). even in indonesian culture, this kind of discrimination still happens. in other words, feminism can be defined as an ideology that aims to make women’s rights equal to other people without considering gender. a person who supports feminism is called as feminist. feminism is influential in the early foundations of language, gender, and sexuality research, as an impact that continues until today. current theories in critical thinking and feminist perspectives have informed recent studies on language and gender, shifting from an essentialist perspective to a nonessentialist perspective. it enables critical feminist 24 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 23-29 linguistics to include heterogeneity, non-fixity, specificity, and reflexivity in its perspectives. there is persistent linguistic sexism in the anthems of some countries, which diametrically negates the principle of gender equality and the global condemnation of gender-biased language use, especially in public communication (oluga, seng, & rajoo, 2016). it is considered that gender cognition is viewed as a construct of thought and social practice (anshori, 2016). previous researches on language and gender are conducted by jespersen (1921), the most frequently quoted and anthologized article. jespersen (1921) has revealed that men and women use language differently, for example, in terms of phonetics, grammar, diction, vocabulary, and adverbs. meanwhile, another previous research by lakoff (2009) has shown a similar result to jespersen’s conclusion that women’s language is inferior or deficient. if it is compared to men’s language, they have different interpretations of their similar findings. if jespersen sees the difference esessentially sprung from biological determinant, on the other hand, lakoff sees women’s linguistic deficiency as the result of the power-gender relation assigned to men and women in society in which men frequently dominate and are more privileged. lakoff has an explicitly positive and sympathetic attitude toward women. it is showed by the use of gendered agent nouns, as well as status asymmetries in the semantics of gendered pairs like master or mistress and major or majorette (lakoff, 2009). thus, lakoff’s research plays a crucial role in establishing the study of language, gender, and sexuality as a linguistic subfield. lakoff is not endorsing but simply describing a culture-wide ideology that scorns and trivializes both women and their ways of speaking, while scholars continue to debate the concept of women’s language. as continuing until now, another study from yusuf, natsir, and yusra (2016) have revealed that women’s language is seen as inferior and something that stands out from the norm. hence, there is a term called the feminist language, which refers to the effort, often of political and grassroots movements, to change how language is used to gender people, activities, and ideas on an individual and societal level. however, several ways can be conducted to examine the existence of feminist language, such as by conducting discourse analysis, specifically in women’s writing. in 1984, the linguist suzette haden elgin wrote a science fiction novel to test her feminist language. in addition, an american woman poet named elizabeth akers allen (kurnia, 2015) and charlotte perkins gilman, who is one of the first english language utopian writers, put of gender and women’s rights at their writings (abbasi & moslehi, 2016). besides that, eithne strong is also a writer whose main concerns are the role of women, of domestic matters, and of women’s confrontation with love, death, and sexuality (chang, 2017). meanwhile, in indonesia, there are several writers whose works refer to the feminist, one of them is okky madasari, as reflected in her novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa (suryaningrum, suwandi, and waluyo, 2019). hence, it gradually shows that the emergence of women authors whose literary works have a different style than men’s writings (zeiny, 2019). meanwhile, the feminist language not only can be found in novels or books but also in mass communication. mass communication has an important role in the development of language which can be found easily in the society, how power is being reproduced by discourse in society (marandi, ramin, & shabanirad, 2017). nowadays, there are ‘new media’, such as blogs, online news, and online forums which can also affect the public’s perceptions (al fajri, 2017). the discrimination between men and women in social practice, especially in the media and also the literature, people start to show the diversity of gender claimed as a social reality. this heterosexual gender is repeatedly performed in daily life, along with the history of human beings. in reality, men do not always bring the values of masculine, and women do not always be feminine (suryaningrum, suwandi, & waluyo, 2019). this understanding can be seen in many societies; one of them is in indonesia. that phenomenon which is spread in an online forum as mass communication in order to affect public perceptions happen in yogyakarta, indonesia. when the students from several regencies gather in an online forum and finally conduct a massive demonstration which is named #gejayanmemanggil. in this demonstration, the participants consist of men and women. the participants meet in jalan colombo, a three-way intersection on jalan gejayan, yogyakarta, indonesia, on monday, september 24th, 2019. regarding the previous research and literature related to feminism and the feminist language, the researchers aim to examine the feminism values in mass communication, specifically in the posters of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil by finding the feminist languages. eventhough manggarrani, nababan, & santosa (2019) have stated that indonesian is a neutral language in true sense. thus, in the research, discourse analysis is implemented in order to examine those debates around the theories. the social theory of discourse is linguistically-oriented as it aims to analyze the social and political events in society (ramanathan & tan, 2015). it focuses on how power is being reproduced by discourse in society. besides that, discourse helps in constructing the function and meaning of a sentence (dumlao & wilang, 2019). it includes principles of hierarchy, representation, and accountability. thus, discourse analysis is appropriate to be implemented in the research. therefore, the research problem is, what are the feminist values contained in the posters of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil? methods in the research, the social function of language as a powerful social practice in a specific discourse, 25feminism values in the posters.... (nurul huda gustema; wening sahayu) such as mass communication is examined. data collection technique is conducted by reading and notetaking technique, as proposed by sudaryanto (2015). therefore, by analyzing the posters in demonstration #gejayanmemanggil, the researchers try to examine the feminism values contained in the posters by identifying the discourse or textual aspects and doing the note-taking. there are several steps conducted in analyzing the data. the stages of discourse analysis are establish the context, explore the production process, prepare the material for analysis, examine the structure of the text, and collect and examine discursive statements. hence, in the research, the researchers collect the data from social media (instagram), read the posters for several times, do a reduction for the data, and analyze the feminism values, which are reflected in the data, based on the discourse or textual aspects. hence, the note-taking technique is also conducted in these steps. the last step is making a conclusion based on the analysis. results and discussions the results are arranged based on several points which are starting from the identification of the demonstration #gejayanmemanggil. thousands of university students demand the government and the house of representatives to hold off the passage of a number of controversial bills, including a revision to the criminal code. they argue that the bills threaten democracy and civil liberties. the participants of the demonstration are mostly women. those women demand the government to ratify the criminal code related to the deletion of sexual abuse, especially for women. those woman urges the criminal code on the elimination of sexual violence to be ratified immediately and demanded that the arrest of activists should be stopped. they assess the contents of the criminal code since it silences democracy and women’s rights. furthermore, the second point is by using discourse analysis. since the content and the material which is aimed to be examined have been collected, then the researchers aim to examine the discursive statements in the posters of the demonstration #gejayanmemanggil, as the stages of conducting a discourse analysis. hence, the researches examine the posters as related to feminism values and try to interpret the sentences. for the third point, it reveals that the reasons for women who joined the demonstration are dominated by their desires to preserve their rights, and they ask for equal opportunities to tell their ideas and hope that their voices can be heard by the government. in this case, it emphasizes that women can also be equal to men, and people cannot underestimate women’s power. they demand their rights as strong as they can. hence, these women try to use the power of feminism. since the women demand their rights as the aspects of feminism, they are able to be respected by people as their courage to tell their ideas. it is proved by many mass media that mostly informs about women’s aspirations in the demonstration, and they emphasize that in this demonstration, the women are awesome. hence, the participants and audiences of this demonstration accept feminism. several feminist languages have been found, as uttered by the women in the demonstration. from 29 posters, there are fourteen (14) data, containing feminist languages that are found by the researchers when making a reduction for the data. figure 1 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 1 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 1, it can be seen that there are two women, while each of them was holding a poster. it can be seen that the second poster mentioned that “perempuan lebih menawan jika turun ke jalan.” it can be defined that in her statement, there is a feminist language that aims to explain even women can be more beautiful or glamorous if they come to the street, follow the demonstration in order to defend their rights. in this context, it can also be implied that she states that women and men have equality and the same rights. women can also express their ideas through such kind of demonstration. figure 2 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 2 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 2, the girl emphasizes “perempuan bukan objek seksualitas kaum patriarki.” in other words, she states that women cannot be underestimated, they cannot be the victims of sexual harassment by men, and women should be protected. her statement 26 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 23-29 implies the feminist language which aims to defend the appropriate decision concerning women as an important aspect, as well as men. figure 3 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 3 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 3, the gilr’s statement refers to the government who bothers the women’s privacy by concerning virginity and making the criminal code which limits women’s freedom. in this case, she tries to emphasize that woman should be treated well and cannot be discriminated. her statement implies a feminist language and feminism value. figure 4 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 4 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 4, this woman aims to emphasize that women should not be discriminated against by what they wear. it implies that sexual abuse does not occur because of women’s appearance itself, and tries to imply that women should be protected, instead of discriminating and blaming them. figure 5 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration: #gejayanmemanggil 5 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 5, this woman states that “walaupun skincareku luntur, tapi kami tidak mundur.” in other words, the woman aims to imply that even though women wear make-up, they cannot be considered weak or do not have the same rights as men. women’s makeup is not a parameter to decide how women behave. figure 6 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 6 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 6, bidan (midwife)’s statement relates to criminal code which aims to inhibit women from going outside at 10 pm or above it. meanwhile, in this case, midwives mostly consist of women, and they cannot do their responsibility if the criminal code is being legalized. in other words, it implies that their rights and dedications have been restricted. it relates to feminism, which aims to defend womans’ rights in order to be able to work like men without any discrimination. figure 7 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration: #gejayanmemanggil 7 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) woman in figure 7 briefly states that “perempuan harus berani melawan” or women should be brave to fight the rules. women should not always be controlled with many rules, which tends to discriminate against women and men. her statement briefly implies a feminist value. in figure 8, it emphasizes the first point that the country is possessed by men, while the women are not treated like men as well. in other words, she implies that men are not the only ones who have the whole power since women also have similar power and rights. it influences their capabilities to speak up and express their idea. her statement reveals that make-up 27feminism values in the posters.... (nurul huda gustema; wening sahayu) is not a parameter to decide how women behave since women are equal to men. figure 8 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 8 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) figure 9 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 9 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) figure 10 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 10 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 9, the women also briefly state a feminism aspect, which explains that women’s movements should not be prevented and restricted. these women highly defend their rights, as well as men. while in figure 10, the woman states that women should be free and protected from any sexual abuse. she has stated that freedom can be indicated by the deletion of sexual harassment. in this case, she asks for the right to be protected, and she would like to show that women cannot be underestimated. figure 11 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 11 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) in figure 11, the woman aims to emphasize that women should not be discriminated against by what they wear. it implies that sexual abuse does not occur because of women’s appearance. she tries to imply that women should be protected, instead of discriminating and blaming them. figure 12 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 12 (source: instagram @ lawanpatriarki) figure 13 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration: #gejayanmemanggil 13 (source: instagram @ lawanpatriarki) in figure 12, her statement refers that the government bothers the women by concerning virginity and make the criminal code, which limits women’s freedom. in this case, she tries to emphasize that a woman should be treated well and cannot be discriminated. her statement implies a feminist language and feminism value. in figure 13, the woman has briefly stated a feminism aspect. it is stated a justice should be received by women, and women’s movements should not be blamed since sexual harassment does not only occur because of the woman herself. she rejects the criminal code, which tends to blame women as the only one factor. in figure 14, the woman aims to emphasize 28 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 23-29 that women should not be discriminated against by what they wear. it implies that sexual abuse does not occur because of women’s appearance, and she tries to imply that women should be protected, instead of distinguishing and blaming them. this woman also tries to emphasize that even a woman who wears a hijab like her still can get cat-calling. her statement implies a feminist aspect that defends women’s rights in order to be equal to men. figure 14 the poster of yogyakarta’s students’ demonstration #gejayanmemanggil 14 (source: instagram @lawanpatriarki) hence, based on the previous researches and theories conducted by jespersen (1922), lakoff (2009), nienaber and moraka (2016), bakar, yusof, and vengadasamy (2016), which have examined feminism and feminist language. it is proved that the researches’ impacts have been continuing until today. by conducting the research, it has been proved that this phenomenon still occurs, which concerned with the feminist language. one of the most important criticisms of the feminist theory of language is the criticism to the basis of it, while language tends to be not neutral. feminist issues in the field of nature of language and literary criticism are still originated. feminists differentiate between sex (physiological and biological aspects) and gender (social and cultural aspects), and they believe that what caused the discrimination in language refers to the cultural and social aspects (gender). discourse analysis is implemented since it is aimed at analyzing social and political events in society since language becomes the central importance of understanding discourse and how to examine feminism aspects contain in someone’s thoughts, which are expressed through his/her language. it can be conducted since discourse helps to analyze the construction of the function and meaning of a sentence, as stated by dumlao and wilang (2019). how the language represents someone’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors are found in the posters of the demonstration. based on 14 (fourteen) data obtained from social media (instagram @lawan patriarki), it can be seen that the researchers have found the feminism in them since the participants refuse the patriarchy culture. they refuse to go home before 10 p.m.; they ask for freedom to express their thought in either social media or mass media, and so does in a demonstration; and also they ask the government to not supervising and giving punishment for them since it will violate their privacy. the women state that they are strong, and women and men have no differences. the researchers could analyze their languages since they are expressed through the posters. certainly, discourse helps to establish frames of meaning by interpreting events and situations. it includes principles of hierarchy, representation, and accountability. it deals with the narrative interpretation of events and ideas in order to evaluate the data. based on the findings, it is in line with lakoff (2009), which has stated that feminist language can be found wherever and whatever the situation. it is also like in the research, which can be found in mass communication. in the posters of demonstration #gejayanmemanggil, the women participants write many posters in order to be equalized with men, defended their rights, and proved that women and men should not be discriminated, especially with the criminal code. the relations between text and context are, of course, crucial, and no fledged theory of the media that is adequate without such explicit inferences. analysis of the relations between media texts and contexts requires a more systematic approach to discourse. para verbal and non-verbal features in spoken media discourse. on the one hand, through an analysis of syntactic structures, lexical style or rhetorical devices, to the underlying meanings, connotations or associations, or the pragmatics of speech acts performed. such systematic analyses should be made for a large variety of discourse types in the media, not only of news but also of advertising, film, tv-programs (talk shows,etc.), mass communication and so on. a comparison between different media genres may then yield specific properties for different genres but also commonalities. besides that, it also cannot be separated from the language and linguistics functions from a text. discourse has enormous powers in appealing to emotions, manipulating someone’s thoughts and behavior, and misrepresenting the realities. in conclusion, the research in examining the feminism and feminist language can be conducted by using discourse analysis. conclusions the results reveal that the posters on the demonstration #gejayanmemanggil contain feminism values as reflected in the 14 data which support the ideology. it can also be concluded that the use of feminist languages still exists, especially in mass communication. in the posters of demonstration #gejayanmemanggil, the women participants write many posters in order to be equalized with men, defended their rights, and proved that women and men should not be discriminated, especially with the 29feminism values in the posters.... (nurul huda gustema; wening sahayu) criminal code. discourse analysis is the proper way to examine the hidden ideologies of discourse, and it reveals the discursive structures and manipulative language of the speakers or writers. therefore, based on the findings of the research which conduct a discourse analysis in examining mass communication, language has enormous powers in appealing to emotions, manipulating someone’s thought and behavior, and misrepresenting in the discourse analysis. hopefully, other researchers can conduct more inquiry studies that are related to discourse analysis which focuses on issues in mass media. references abbasi, p., & moslehi, m. (2016). ecofeminism and gilman’s herland: a gaardian approach. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 22(2), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.17576/3l-2016-2202-02. al fajri, m. s. (2017). hegemonic and minority discourses around immigrants: a corpus-based critical discourse analysis. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(2), 381-390. https://doi.org/10.17509/ ijal.v7i2.8349. anshori, d. s. (2016). gender cognition in religious discourse: a study of framing in thematic holy koran interpretation. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 6(1), 88-98. https://doi.org/10.17509/ ijal.v6i1.2741. bakar, e. w., yusof, n. m., & vengadasamy, r. (2016). reclaiming voices and disputing authority: a feminist dialogics approach in reading kee thuan chye’s plays. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 22(1), 97-109. https://doi.org/10.17576/3l-2016-2201-08. chang, h. (2017). the body and female identity in eithne strong’s flesh: the greatest sin. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 23(4), 157-169. https://doi. org/10.17576/3l-2017-2304-12. dumlao, r. p., & wilang, j. d. (2019). variations in the use of discourse markers by l1 and l2 english users. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 9(1), 202-209. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i1.15206. jespersen, o., & thomsen, v. (eds). (1921). language: its nature development and origin. (third edition). new york: henry holt & company. kurnia, n. i. (2015). motherhood in the american woman poet’s perspective: a short glance at allen’s ”rock me to sleep”. lingua cultura, 9(2), 113-118. https:// doi.org/10.21512/lc.v9i2.829. lakoff, r. (2009). language and woman’s place. language in society, 2(1), 45-80. manggarrani, m. d., nababan, m. r., & santosa, r. (2019). analisis perbandingan terjemahan ungkapan yang mengandung sikap seksis antara tokoh laki-laki dan perempuan dalam novel ronggeng dukuh paruk. linguistik indonesia: jurnal ilmiah masyarakat linguistik indonesia, 37(2), 145-158. https://doi. org/10.26499/li.v37i2.105 marandi, s. m., ramin, z., & shabanirad, e. (2017). discourse, power, and resistance in nadine gordimer’s occasion for loving: a foucaultian reading. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 23(3), 37-49. https://doi.org/10.17576/3l-2017-2303-03. nienaber, h., & moraka, n. v. (2016). feminism in management research: a route to justly optimise talent. acta commercii: independent research journal in the management sciences, 16(2), 139254. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v16i2.417. oluga, s. o., seng, t. c., & rajoo, g. s. r. (2016). replication, evocation and revocation of linguistic sexism in translated national anthems. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 22(2), 209-226. https://doi. org/10.17576/3l-2016-2202-15. ramanathan, r., & tan, b. h. (2015). application of critical discourse analysis in media discourse studies. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 21(3), 57-68. shamsuddin, c. m., & hamid, b. a. (2017). representational meanings of gender stereotyped professional occupation images in selected malaysian english language textbooks. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 23(4), 128-142. https://doi. org/10.17576/3l-2017-2304-10. sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa (first edition). yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. suryaningrum, s., suwandi, s., & waluyo, h. j. (2019). the discrimination against women reflected in novels ”entrok”, ”maryam”, and ”pasung jiwa” by okky madasari. lingua cultura, 13(2), 137-143. https:// doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5704. udasmoro, w. (2017). destabilizing gender norm in contemporary indonesian discourses (destabilisasi norma gender dalam wacana indonesia kontemporer). mozaik humaniora, 17(2), 291-303. http://dx.doi. org/10.20473/mozaik.v17i2.6072. yusuf, y. q., natsir, y., & yusra, s. r. (2016). dont 4get 2 txt me plz! linguistic and discoursal features of short message service by female texters. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 22(1), 81-96. https://doi. org/10.17576/3l-2016-2201-07. zeiny, e. (2019). ecriture feminine: feminism and nationalism in seyyedeh zahra hosseini’s ”one woman’s war: da”. 3l: language, linguistics, literature, 25(3), 115-125. https://doi. org/10.17576/3l-2019-2503-09. vol. 12 no.1 february 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawaty language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura is accredited by the ministry of research, technology and higher education under the decree number 51/e/kpt/2017 and indexed in crossref, microsoft academic search, directory of open access journal (doaj), science and technology index (sinta), academic research index (research bib), bielefeld academic search engine (base), scientific indexing service (sis), world catalogue (worldcat), indonesia publication index (ipi), and google scholar. research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents sony sukmawan environmental wisdom in oral literature of arjuna slopes people .......................................................... 1-7 fauzy rahman kosasih a genre analysis of thesis abstracts at a state university in banten ........................................................ 9-14 hanna sundari; rina husnaini febriyanti; gustaman saragih a proposed syllabus for english as a foreign language writing class at university ........................................ 15-23 i wayan budiarta; i gusti ngurah adi rajistha politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” animation ................................................................................. 25-30 dadang s. anshori the construction of sundanese culture in the news discourse published by local mass media of west java ........ 31-38 muhammad al hafizh resistance toward domination of racial difference ideology in jacqueline woodson’s novels .......................... 39-44 mohammad arsyad arrafii; baiq sumarni teachers’ understanding of formative assessment ............................................................................. 45-52 wening udasmoro when the teens narrate the selves in indonesian literature: gender, subject, and power .............................. 53-60 michał kozdra the boundaries of russian identity: analysis of the russkiy mir concept in contemporary russian online media ........................................................................................... 61-66 pranowo developing students’ reading culture for academic reading level through metacognitive strategies ................ 67-75 gusti ayu praminatih; homsatun nafiah [woman]’s world portrayed in literary works of jane austen ................................................................ 77-82 islamiah bastiar; sri marmanto; sumarlam code-switching in selling and buying at segiri market samarinda, east kalimantan ...................................... 83-88 giyati retnowati; rose mini agoes salim; airin yustikarini saleh effectiveness of picture story books reading to increase kindness in children aged 5-6 years .......................... 89-95 agus wijayanto; mauly halwat hikmat; aryati prasetyarini impoliteness in english as a foreign language complaints: exploring its intentions and motivating factors .......... 97-104 titik sudartinah; emi nursanti turn-holding cues in multi-participant conversations in downton abbey television series .............................. 105-109 vol. 12 no.1 february 2018cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 175 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 175-181 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7339 learning l2 by utilizing dictionary strategies: learner autonomy and learning strategies yurieke nadiya rahmat1; andri saputra2; m. arif rahman hakim3*; eko saputra4; reko serasi5 1victoria university of wellington kellburn, wellington 6012, new zealand 2,3,5department of english language education, uin fatmawati sukarno bengkulu jl. raden fatah kota bengkulu, indonesia 4universitas bengkulu jl. w. r. supratman, kandang limun, bengkulu 38371a, indonesia 1yuriekenadiya@gmail.com; 3arifelsiradj90@gmail.com received: 18th may 2021/revised: 13th september 2021/accepted: 15th september 2021 how to cite: rahmat, y. n., saputra, a., hakim, m. a. r., saputra, e., & serasi, r. (2021). learning l2 by utilizing dictionary strategies: learner autonomy and learning strategies. lingua cultura, 15(2), 175-181. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7339 abstract the research aimed to discover what strategies learners employed in using dictionaries and examine the efl learners’ perspectives in using dictionaries to learn english. dictionaries were considered meaningful by efl learners as they were central devices that assisted learning second-language vocabulary. however, not many researchers have investigated the use of these three dictionary strategies in the english for foreign language (efl) context, especially in indonesia. the data were collected using dictionary strategy questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. one hundred forty-eight students from an indonesian higher education institution completed a questionnaire survey voluntarily, and then they were selected as samples regarding purposive sampling that typically represented the population. the questionnaire was divided into two parts. the first asked for participants’ personal information and provided several statements from gu and johnson about dictionary strategies. the second solicited their opinion about using a dictionary, translated in the indonesian language. the results show that indonesian students are aware of how to use dictionaries for comprehension, extended, looking-up strategies, and exploring their beliefs about applying dictionary strategies. these results can help language teachers have a deeper perspective on students’ dictionary strategies in learning so that educators can use those three main dictionary strategies. one such strategy is that teachers can introduce the approaches to their students either implicitly or explicitly by designing meaningful assignments and providing relevant activities and tasks for the students. therefore, deciding to use a dictionary to overcome the issue is one of the best ways to deal with vocabulary acquisition as it offers more benefits. keywords: dictionary strategy, learner autonomy, learning strategy, efl learner introduction english has been growing as a widely-spoken language in the world, especially among non-native english speakers. to have better competence, these particular people are encouraged to learn english so that they can function in this era of globalization. they typically not only receive knowledge from formal schools but are also required to activate selfregulated learning (hamouda, 2013). nonetheless, the unavailability of english teachers outside of schools requires learners to identify what kinds of information are trustworthy, which they could use whenever having difficulties. therefore, the use of english dictionaries could fulfill the students’ learning needs. abood (2020) has pointed out that dictionaries contribute to a breadth of helpful linguistic and cultural knowledge. similarly, walz in spracklin (2019) has mentioned that using a dictionary is one of the impactful learning strategies that can be crucial and effective learning resources in providing lexical information in second language learning. thus, it is commonly agreed that dictionaries 176 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 175-181 are considered excellent companions for language learners since they give immediate opportunities and access to the meaning of unfamiliar words. however, based on the researchers’ understanding, only a few studies have contributed to investigating the dictionaries’ strategies used in the indonesian context. the research then fulfills this gap. dictionaries are deemed helpful by efl learners as they are crucial tools to develop language acquisition (yan, 2019). indeed, they are fundamental contributors to the learning resources dealing with vocabulary knowledge (hamouda, 2013). at present, the use of dictionaries has become one of the appealing strategies in second language acquisition (sla) as it has considerable advantages in improving vocabulary growth and understanding. for example, the students’ vocabulary ability in form-meaning relation can be enhanced as they immediately expose the meaning of the target words in the dictionary. it creates the possibility for the students to directly notice the meaning of the words in the dictionaries. this could be a good starting point to learn words in english. therefore, it is an excellent indication to figure out what strategies the students mostly use and apply when using dictionaries to approach unknown words and their perspectives regarding the use of a dictionary. from all the definitions, it can be summarized that vocabulary is the core component of language proficiency that consists of a set of lexemes that provides much of the basis for how well learners read, write, listen, and speak (hakim, abidin, & bahari, 2018). furthermore, it can be summed up that vocabulary is all the words known and used by a person in a language, complete with their meanings, and the meanings are used depending on the context. furthermore, those definitions clearly show that vocabulary, besides the other english components and skills, is the first and fundamental element that should be learned by english learners to master english well. thus, learning vocabulary is crucial in developing learners’ english (hakim et al., 2020). the application of dictionary strategy seems to have several focused dimensions. according to gu and johnson’s (1996) questionnaire on vocabulary learning strategies, dictionary strategies consist of three components: dictionary strategies for comprehension, extended dictionary strategies, and looking-up strategies (gu & johnson, 1996). however, not many studies have investigated the use of these three dictionary strategies in the english for foreign language (efl) context, especially in indonesia. due to this current issue, the present research is interested in examining what dictionary strategies are commonly used by indonesian efl learners and their perspectives regarding the use of dictionary strategies in vocabulary learning. a strategy is needed in the process of reaching learning goals. hardan (2013) has mentioned that learners need to know what learning strategies to apply and how to use them effectively. the term learning strategies (ls) has been defined by many researchers since the 1980s. brown (2002) has defined it as a series of actions leading to learning improvement. similarly, wenden in ghalebi, sadighi, and bagheri (2021) has stated that learning strategies are a wide range of actions used by learners to succeed in learning. in terms of language learning, characterized language-learning strategies (lls) as thoughtful self-regulation approaches applied by learners to have more comfortable and faster learning (griffiths, 2018). o’malley and chamot in hashim, yunus, and hashim (2018) have gone further to describe this term as techniques and devices used by second language learners to remember and organize samples of the second language to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. therefore, the critical concept of language learning strategies (lls) by hardan (2013) is the process of technique usage by learners in language practices. considerably more research has been conducted to define language learning strategies (lls). for example, as seen in his explanatory model (figure 1), gu and jhonson in ng, azizie, and chew (2021) have gone deeper into a task’s perspective in defining lls. to complete a language task, a person needs to use strategies so that the learning can be much easier. also, it could be seen that strategies used by a learner could be determined by the context, which means that different learning contexts may result in different strategies being used to complete the same task. for example, beginner and advanced students may use different approaches in knowing and remembering the words to understand collocations in vocabulary. hence, no matter the task, it is acceptable for the learners to use whatever types of language strategies they find most interesting and useful. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 person-task-context-strategies (gu & johnson, 1996) vocabulary is one of the main aspects of second language acquisition (lekawael, 2017) because it has a fundamental role in supporting learners’ success in learning english. the learners need as much vocabulary knowledge as possible because there are various lexical classifications, which have to be known by language learners (nation, 2013; huang & elsami, 2013). therefore, language learners need to incorporate effective and appropriate vocabulary learning strategies (vls). baskin et al. (2017) have 177learning l2 by utilizing.... (yurieke nadiya rahmat, et al.) defined this term as having two fundamental strategies. firstly, the discovery strategy is employed to discover and explore words; secondly, the consolidation strategy aims to consolidate words once they have been encountered. similarly, asgari and mustapha (2011) have defined vls as the process of acquiring new lexical resources. gu (2020) has added that vls is also a tool in empowering learners to make wise decisions in terms of what to learn and how to learn. therefore, the core definition of vls relates to the process of using a tool or strategy in developing vocabulary knowledge. indeed, second language learners need to use relevant and useful vocabulary strategies in language learning, as there is a wide variety of approaches to developing vocabulary knowledge. gu and johnson in ng, azizie, and chew (2021), and asgari and mustapha (2011) have reported that the participants in their research used a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies. one of the strategies relates to the use of the dictionary. this strategy provides learners with detailed information and guidance on linguistic aspects (grammatical functions, pronunciation, wordmeaning, and usage) together with written elaborations in a clear and structured vocabulary (asgari & mustapha, 2011). additionally, mohammadi and eshagi (2018) may show examples of lexical dimensions applied in different contexts. thus, it is essential to note that access to a dictionary contributes to the learners’ vocabulary development, as supported by several studies from kim (2019); zaytseva, miralpeix, and pérez-vidal (2021); farrokhi, zohrabi, and bolandnazar (2021); afshar (2021); aravind and rajasekaran (2020); and hakim, abidin, and bahari (2018). efl learners seem to rely heavily on dictionaries (makoko & otlogeswe, 2020; thi, 2021; ariffin, 2021). hence, they may apply some dictionary strategies whenever they use one, as stated in gu and johnson’s study (ng, azizie & chew, 2021). some students may focus on dictionary use for comprehension, but some may employ extended and looking-up strategies. therefore, it is necessary to discover more about the strategies used in the dictionary, along with the students’ opinions on these. methods the research employs a total of 148 students from an indonesian higher education institution who voluntarily completed a questionnaire survey on the use of dictionary strategies. they are selected as samples in regard to purposive sampling that typically represents the population (fraenkel & wallen, 2003). firstly, a dictionary strategies questionnaire is employed. this seventeen-item questionnaire is adapted from gu and johnson (1996) to elicit participants’ dictionary-strategy use. it is conducted using an online google form, which allows the researchers to gather data quickly, as it supports cost-efficiency and is time-saving (wright, 2005; lehdonvirta et al., 2021). the questionnaire is divided into two parts. the first asks for participants’ personal information and provides several statements from gu and johnson about dictionary strategies. the second is soliciting their opinion about using a dictionary, translated into indonesian. the data is then analyzed, converted into percentages, and finally represented in figure 2. figure 2 participant demographic information semi-structured interviews are used to elicit deeper and broader information from participants’ perspectives regarding their responses to the questionnaire. whereas the latter provides quantitative data, the interview gathers qualitative information. four students from indonesian higher institutions who completed the questionnaire and met the criteria (for example, the students who answered all the questionnaires and learned english by using dictionaries) are voluntarily interviewed. the interview is conducted via whatsapp as it is an online platform that has many advantages, such as being a free and quick way to gather data from different geographical locations. the main questions are, for example, “do you think using dictionary strategies is useful to learn words and improve your vocabulary knowledge, and why?” then, the qualitative data from students’ opinions are analyzed and reported into the findings section. results and discussions table 1 shows the results from questionnaire adapted from gu and johnson (1996) based on each item in percentage terms. figure 3 provides information regarding the use of three key dictionary strategies by indonesian students. in general, the most commonly used approach is comprehension strategy with a mean percentage of 65,8%, followed by looking-up, and extended strategy with 55,7 % and 43,4%, respectively. by looking in more detail into each group of items in figure 2, it can be noticed that each item in comprehension strategies ranges from 50% to 88%, in which s1 with 88% (132 respondents) gains the highest rate not only among its group items but also amongst all strategies in the other categories. the remaining items, like s2, s3, and s4 with 60,7 %, 64,7%, and 50%, respectively, have also been chosen 178 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 175-181 by the participants. this means that the students tend to use a dictionary whenever they encounter new words (shadmanova & raximova, 2019; nation, 2013; chen 2017) to confirm their guess (wang & qi, 2018; huang & eslami, 2013; nation, 2013), and to attempt to understand keywords, which play significant roles in comprehending the texts (nation, 2013). however, if the students have a lack of understanding about these common comprehension strategies, understanding a text would be a challenging job for them. that is why this category of strategies comprises the most crucial part of vocabulary learning. table 1 the results from questionnaire adapted from gu and johnson based on each item in percentage terms dictionary strategies statements code results % mean r % comprehension strategies when i see an unfamiliar word again and again, i look it up. s1 132 88 65,8 when i want to confirm my guess about a word, i look it up. s2 91 60,7 when not knowing a word prevents me from understanding a whole sentence or even a whole paragraph, i look it up. s3 97 64,7 i look up words that are crucial to the understanding of the sentence or paragraph in which it appears. s4 75 50 extendeddictionary strategies i pay attention to the examples of use when i look up a word in a dictionary. s5 52 34,7 43,4 i look for phrases or sent expressions that go with the word i look up. s6 69 46 i consult a dictionary to find out about the subtle differences in the meaning of english words. s7 66 44 when i want to know more about a word that i already have some knowledge of, i look it up. s8 45 30 when i don’t know the usage of the word i already have some knowledge of, i look it up. s9 33 22 i make a note when i want to help myself distinguish between the meanings of two or more words. s10 90 60 when looking up a word in the dictionary, i read sample sentences illustrating various meanings of the word. s11 74 49,3 when i get interested in another new word in the definitions of the word i look up, i look up this word as well. s12 92 61,3 looking-up strategies if the new word is inflected, i remove the inflections to recover the form to look up. s13 89 59,3 55,7 if the new word i try to look up seems to have a prefix or suffix, i will try the entry for the stem. s14 63 42 if the unknown appears to be an irregularly inflected form or a spelling variant, i will scan nearby entries. s15 83 55,3 if there are multiple sense or homographic entries, i use various information to reduce them by elimination s16 83 55,3 i try to integrate dictionary definitions into the context where the unknown was met and arrive at a contextual meaning by adjusting for complementation and collocation, part of speech, and breadth of meaning. s17 100 66,7 figure 3 the percentages of dictionary strategies 179learning l2 by utilizing.... (yurieke nadiya rahmat, et al.) then, looking-up strategies gain the second priority (mean = 55,7%) among the students when using dictionaries, with each item ranging from 42% to 66,7%. however, these rates do not seem considerably too high, which means that in most cases, only around half of the total participants employed these strategies. it is assumed that the students may encounter words with suffixes and prefixes, spelling variants, multiple senses/ homographic entries, contextual meaning, collocation, etc. of course, those components of words could pose misleading effects for the learners if they do not become familiar with them (nation, 2013). therefore, the result could imply that still, not many students know how to apply the looking-up strategies, or they may rather apply other strategies. lastly, the extended strategies range from 22% to 61,3%, making this strategy the least chosen one. it can be inferred that the students may not be familiar with these strategies, so their level of understanding of words may be lacking. this is because they do not attempt to gain more knowledge about concepts such as the examples of words used in sentences, words’ other meanings, etc. perhaps the students do not knows how to apply these strategies, even by their teachers. that could be the reason why the strategy remains unexplored by many students. overall, this finding confirms other research on dictionary use, in which the students mostly consult their dictionaries for word comprehension (battenburg, 2017; hamouda, 2013). however, the other strategies, such as looking-up and extended strategies, are not frequently used by the students. further research is suggested to look for the reasons why students occasionally apply the two strategies. the participants are asked about their beliefs in using dictionary strategies in the questionnaire. in terms of the usefulness of understanding english words, it is found that 147 students (98%) answer with “yes” and only three students (2%) claim that they only feel “so-so”, while none of them chose “no”. also, 85% of the students confirm that dictionary strategies could develop vocabulary understanding, and 15% remain “so-so”. however, none of them chose “no” in those two items. therefore, this result provides a piece of additional evidence that the participants mostly feel that dictionary strategies are helpful for them in learning english and could enhance vocabulary learning. it can be seen in table 2. table 2 learners’ opinions about dictionary strategies items answers yes so-so no do you believe that using dictionary strategies are useful in understanding english words? 98% 2% 0% do you believe that using dictionary strategies could improve your vocabulary understanding? 85% 15% 0% when being interviewed, some participants have the same arguments and confirm that, “i use dictionaries every day because i think it is useful for an english learner like me. every time i read english texts and i find new words, i will immediately open my dictionary. it provides me with quick access to know the meaning. and, i feel like my vocabulary develops after several times. and, that’s what i am always looking for.” previous studies like alahmadi and foltz (2020), pikhart and klimova (2020), and deecharoen (2020), support these findings by saying that dictionaries indeed contribute to the process of language acquisition. on the other hand, one person mentioned that, “in terms of its usefulness, i think using a dictionary is just so-so. i mean, i do not really feel it helps me understand unfamiliar words because i always have difficulties using the dictionary. you know, i am so bad at spelling because whenever i want to find a word, i need to know its correct spelling in the dictionary. i just sometimes give up when i couldn’t find the entry words.” he justifies his reasons that the use of dictionary strategies does not considerably pose any concerns for him due to the challenges he faces every time he deals with vocabulary. another respondent reports that, “well, sometimes i do not know how i should approach new words when using a dictionary, meaning? grammar? synonyms? so many things. i just do not know what to do. no one ever tells me about things in detail. i just figure it out by myself.” the interviews show that there are still a few students who do not really take all dictionary approaches into account because they lack guidance and information about using the strategies appropriately. overall, the researchers would consider the dictionary strategies are helpful for students to develop their vocabulary understanding. unfortunately, regarding interviews, a few students believe that the approach does not considerably affect their learning because they face several issues when dealing with vocabulary. consequently, they could not appreciate the advantages of applying the strategies. what these students indicated, however, could be overcome by providing training for the students in using dictionary strategies so that, with time, they no longer encounter significant difficulties. research from hashimoto (2021) has suggested that dictionary training is essential to allow students to become skilled users of dictionary strategies. then, it is the role of language teachers and course planners to incorporate a greater focus on making sure that the learners initially become 180 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 175-181 much more capable of applying dictionary strategies. as a result, students could solve related issues and be aware of what approaches or procedures they need to employ when dealing with different lexical knowledge. therefore, deciding to use a dictionary to overcome the issue is one of the best ways to deal with vocabulary acquisition (lefkos & maria, 2021), as it offers more benefits (nation, 2013). conclusions the research has two main concerns: firstly, it aims to investigate which aspects of dictionary strategies (comprehension, extended, and looking-up strategies) that the indonesian students have acknowledged the most; secondly, it also looks for students’ beliefs regarding the use of dictionary strategies. on account of the concerns, the results of the research could assist language teachers in having in-depth perspectives about students’ dictionary strategies in learning so that the teachers could make use of those three primary dictionary strategies. one of the ways they could do so is to introduce an approach to their students either implicitly or explicitly by designing meaningful tasks and giving relevant activities and assignments to the students. thus, as soon as the students gain a more indepth understanding of the dictionary strategies, they will use them to help fulfill the tasks. however, the result of the research cannot be generalized because the number of participants in the interview is limited. more participants are needed, and direct classroom observation is also required to figure out and confirm the participants’ answers. as a result, the research cannot be generalized. more contexts should be done in the future to see whether the result of the research would be the same or contradict other contexts, for example, students from other efl (english as a foreign language) contexts (cambodia, vietnam, thailand, and others). references abood, s. f. 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(2021). because words matter: investigating vocabulary development across contexts and modalities. language teaching research, 25(2), 162-184. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1362168819852976. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 151 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 151-159 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5297 the use of commercial advertisement to teach university students in english for specific purpose context fajar dwi utami1; mei ardaning tyas2; nurika mustika3 1,2,3english education graduate program, faculty of teacher and training, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1fajarutami08@gmail.com; 2meiardaningtyas@gmail.com; 3nurikamustika11@gmail.com received: 04th april 2019/revised: 20th may 2019/accepted: 18th june 2019 how to cite: utami, f. d., tyas, m. a., & mustika, n. (2019). the use of commercial advertisement to teach university students in english for specific purpose context. lingua cultura, 13(2), 151-159. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5297 abstract this research aimed to propose multimodal-based english teaching through video for university students majoring in marketing management through project-based learning. teaching english for university students are belonging to the field of english for specific purposes (esp). it needs special treatments due to the fact that esp students have different needs for english use for their future jobs, since the industrial revolution 4.0 typically affected the economic area. for presenting the research, the qualitative research design was employed. this research used interpretive analysis in the context of discourse analysis. the commercial advertisement video was analyzed in terms of systemic functional linguistics (sfl) and semiotic features of multimodal discourse analysis. the analysis results of the video show that semiotic features are more powerful than linguistics aspects in promoting goods well. the video is expectedly used to teach language for promotion to the university students, particularly in marketing management majors. the teaching-learning process would be guided by the use of project-based learning method so that the outcomes would be in the form of the promotional video which employs both linguistics and semiotic features. keywords: commercial advertisement, multimodal based teaching, english for specific purposes (esp), project-based learning introduction the prompt industrial revolution effects mostly all human basic needs, including the need for education. education becomes the central attention in this era since it directly contributes to foster people’s readiness in facing industrial revolution challenges. preparing people’s readiness in conquering the global challenges is straightly related to the success of a nation. thus, it is generally believed that education is one of the indicators of a nation’s success. countries are attempting to get the fruitful outcomes of the industrial revolution through education, unexceptionally developing countries such as indonesia. the national ministries of research, technology, and higher education of indonesia respond to the industrial revolution 4.0 by making some breakthroughs and adjustments for preparing the national human resources with qualified competencies in the near future (gamar, al faruq, & lina, 2018). it aims to bridge the gap of industrial revolution 4.0 requirements and university graduates readiness. the higher education needs to make the adjustment on all aspects, mainly the adjustments of method aspects and the learning material aspects that are organized by lecturers. in the level of higher education, university levels have to get more attention regarding the graduates’ readiness since they are expected to work in certain industries after graduated (razali, 1992). it means that university graduates need to be equipped with the basic skills required in the industrial revolution 4.0. it becomes the responsibility of the government and the education stakeholders to equip students with sufficient skills that they will employ in their future. unfortunately, the fact shows that the stakeholders seem to fail in fulfilling the prerequisite of the higher education basic aim. the industrial revolution 4.0 requires students to master at least two basic skills namely english and technology. in fact, at the university level other than english departments, english is treated the same with no specification to the students’ majors and needs. realizing the gap between industrial revolution 4.0 requirements and the recent condition of english subject at the university level, the methods and the learning materials that fit the students’ necessities are required to bridge the gap. english at the university level has to be taught with specific purposes due to the requirement of the graduates’ 152 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 151-159 future job. english for specific purposes differs from the general english on its specialty of particular fields. for example, in business english, geng (2017) has argued that it is not a simple addition of business and english but an organic integration of business and english. the competency in business english lays not only on the skills in english major but also on the good knowledge of business activities. furthermore, ahmed (2014) has claimed that english for specific purposes (esp) should be based on principles of effective and efficient learning. he, further, has stated that esp teachers are expected to be experts in teaching english for any profession and experts in the subject, in this case, is able to develop teaching materials based on the content materials. as a consequence, esp teachers’ role is more complex than general english teachers’ role. hoa and mai (2016) have argued that it is not a simple addition of business and english but an organic integration of business and english. the competency in business english lays not only on the skills in english major but also on the good knowledge of business activities. besides, students have to be able to engage with technology in the teaching-learning process. regarding this fact, there are several researches related to the teaching and learning process of english for specific purposes in relation to the use of technology. ilin, kutlu, and kutluay (2013) have conducted research about using video for teaching grammar in an esp class. the result shows that video proves effective in terms of saving time and triggering willingness of esp students to learn grammar. dashtestani and stojković (2015) have studied the use of technology to promote esp students’ english skills. it is reported to increase the quality of esp instruction and promote students’ listening comprehension. it is also in line with the research conducted by tao, luo, and zhao (2017) which aims to look into the effect of multimodality on esp listening comprehension by examining the students’ english summaries of the audiovisual recording materials. the result shows that proper use of multimodality can significantly improve students’ listening comprehension. jurkovic and mertelj (2015) have conducted research about the use of authentic video in the esp classroom for developing language skills and enriching vocabulary. the result shows that video gives benefit to develop productive skills, including writing, speaking, and vocabulary awareness. furthermore, alpala and garcía (2018) have conducted research about the use of real-life video in an esp classroom, and the result shows that video can improve students’ oral presentation skills. from the researches conducted before, video is believed to be a meaningful tool to develop esp students’ english skills. in addition, camiciottoli and bonsignori (2015) have analyzed video clips using a multimodal perspective to determine how various semiotic resources work together to construct meaning, and the analysis is utilized in the esp classroom to increase learners’ awareness of the key contribution of different modes in specialized communication. furthermore, bonsignori (2018) has purposely selected some clips cut of films and tv series with different genres which are characterized by the use of english in the specialized domain such as law, politics, economics, tourism, and medicine. then, those videos are used to show how various semiotic resources work together to construct meaning in esp and how they can provide useful tools for research and teaching in esp contexts. the use of video in teaching esp is closely related to the multimodality. multimodality believes that meaningmaking is not only dependent on the verbal system but relies on all the interactions established between the whole range of semiotic modes represented and on the arrangements made by potential carriers of meaning, such as spatiality and visuality (kress & van leeuwen, 1996). in addition, o’halloran and smith (2016) in camiciottoli and campaycubilo (2018) have argued that the multimodal approach can help students learn to exploit semiotic modes beyond verbal language such as visual, gestural, and spatial. chen (2016) has argued that nowadays, traditional language teaching methods become unsuitable for developing students’ communicative competence of esp. in contrast, the theory of multimodal discourse and language input is in association with esp teaching so that various modes have cooperated, multidimensional contexts of esp learning are set up, the comprehensive input of esp learning is ensured, and students’ needs are met. coccetta (2018) has reported on how research into multimodality, through halliday’s systemic functional framework, has been integrated into a university syllabus for text studies in english through a specific course design to achieve some goals. moreover, multimodal environments allow esp learners to construct and interact with specific contexts of language use. in so doing, learners gain awareness of the linguistic elements they need in order to create appropriate contexts of language use and to complement these with their specialized content. plastina (2013) has used multimodal as an approach to esp learning, acknowledge the interplay of multimodality in learning processes and meaning-making. in recent years, the use of video and multimodality in teaching esp becomes very well known. it is due to the benefit gotten from both of them in enhancing students’ english skills. english in esp focuses on the reason for the learners’ need to learn english. the main element of learning english is the purpose of why the learner is learning the language. esp is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners’ reasons for learning (paltridge, 2012). in the indonesian context, universities have some majors whose english learning needs are different. therefore, english teaching-learning materials should be specific and appropriate for students’ needs. regarding the demand of english in esp and industrial revolution 4.0, this research aims to bridge the gap between industrial revolution 4.0 and university students’ english competencies, especially students in management major, with multimodal analysis of a commercial video. shi (2017) has mentioned that multimodal features of discourse can attract the growing number of attention. hence, it is beneficial in catching consumers’ attention. moreover, kristina (2016) has believed that the consumer’s choice to purchase is strongly influenced by emotional rather than logical consideration. they, further, claim with the use of technology, products and services are related to customers on the emotional foundation in which the most convincing aspect of human characters namely, the desire to transcend material satisfaction and experience emotional fulfillment is highly considered. it is also in line with soodan and pandey (2016) who have stated that emotions are one of the leading drivers of purchases; it associates with the increasing number of manifold purchasing. it can be said that an interesting advertisement can increase the number of purchasing by affecting consumers’ feelings. this research differs from the previous researches in term of the use of multimodal analysis and project-based approach. the previous research conducted by plastina 153the use of commercial.... (fajar dwi utami, et al.) (2013) uses multimodal as an approach to esp learning, while this research uses multimodal as an approach to analysis. the video which tells about the commercial advertisement is analyzed using multimodal discourse analysis (mda) approach emerged by kress and van leeuwen in 1996. then, the video is used to teach english students of marketing management major in universities through the implementation of project-based approach. the teaching-learning process focuses on the integrated english skill since in the 21st century, the english teaching for specific purposes is believed to be more effective to be taught in integration than in discrete one. fauziati (2014) has stated that project-based learning is a systematic method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions, and carefully design product and tasks. kimsesiz, dolgunsöz, & konca (2017) have stated that project-based learning is both process and product-oriented pedagogical methodology which basically blends learning with concrete output designed by learners themselves so that project-based learning can offer varieties of the efficient pedagogical solution as it provides an easy link between linguistics input and its real-world equivalent. aslanides et al. (2016) have believed that project-based learning helps students to understand the information they get better. students can combine all the knowledge they have obtained from different courses they have attended in one project. it provides them with the incentive to seek information themselves and not to passively expect from the teachers. sultana and zaki (2015) have claimed that projectbased learning as a replacement of the prevailing outof-date traditional english language pedagogy with a motivating, innovative, and learner-centered instruction. moreover, beckett and slater (2018) have said that several studies on project-based learning for language learning have shown that engaging learners in projects can challenge learners’ creativity, enhance problem-solving skills, shape decision-making skills, encourage creative thinking skills, raise independence, and develop cooperative work skills. the statement is in line with lyons and bandura (2018), who believe that project-based learning represents social facilitation that can support the development of cooperative work skills. in addition, kim (2015) has argued that the process of accomplishing the project in project-based learning facilitates learners to elaborate four english skills of learners of the second language as well as a foreign language. hence, project-based learning could be beneficial for both teachers and students in english language teaching (petersen & nassaji, 2016). there are three research questions in this research; (1) how is the commercial video advertisement viewed from the textual analysis? (2) how is the commercial video advertisement viewed from the semiotic analysis? (3) how will the commercial video advertisement be implemented to teach english for specific purposes? based on the research questions mentioned, the research objectives are to describe commercial video advertisement viewed from critical multimodal discourse analysis to explain the implementation of the commercial video advertisement to teach english for specific purposes. therefore, this research is expected to contribute to the teaching of english as specific purposes in university students in indonesia, especially in the marketing management department. as stated before that the english teaching in university-level other than english department is the same including the materials so that the research tries to present an english material in the form of a video which is appropriate with the needs of students in marketing management major. by having suitable english materials, students are expected to gain more english competencies, which will be used directly after they graduate and enter the workplace. in addition, by implementing the project-based learning, students will be able to be autonomous learners so that they will be ready for the industrial revolution challenges. methods for presenting the research, the qualitative research design is employed. silverman (2016) has claimed that qualitative research encompasses an interpretive and naturalistic approach that studies things in natural settings, attempting to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. there are two big approaches in qualitative design, namely content-based analysis in the form of thematic analysis and interpretive analysis in the form of discourse analysis. this research uses interpretive analysis in the context of discourse analysis. sgier (2012) has stated that discourse analysis as the part of the interpretive analysis looks less for what is said than for how it is said; in other words, for assemblies of meaning and how they figure and force people perception of the world. in this kind of analysis, wilmot (2017) has believed that language is viewed as a strategic site of power struggles, and how it is used to privilege hegemony or to impose a particular worldview. in conducting the research, a commercial advertisement video from one of the most famous brand in the world, nike, is analyzed and then the result of the analyses are designed to be implemented to teach english for the university students of marketing management major. the steps of analyzing the video in the term of language and semiotic features are called as interpretive analysis in the context of discourse analysis. the first step is analyzing the language used in the video. the next step employed is examining the semiotic features used in the video. the results of both analyses then are combined to design teaching materials to be implemented in the english for specific purpose classrooms. the video used in this research is released at the beginning of 2017; it raises the issue of equality as the major theme. the video is analyzed through a discourse analysis approach. the linguistics aspects are interpreted using the theory of systemic functional linguistic (sfl), which is proposed by halliday. the analysis covers the field, tenor, and mode of the linguistic aspects. halliday (1994) has stated that the field describes activities and processes that are happening at the time of speech; it focusses on the entire situation. tenor describes the people that take part in an event as well as their relationship and statuses. the mode determines the role and function of language in a particular situation. while the multimodality aspects of the video are analyzed using multimodal discourse analysis from kress and van leeuwen (1996). the analyses focus on the semiotic features, especially in the use of color and visual pictures. the video, as well as the analysis result, are proposed to be used as the english teaching materials to teach english for the specific purpose for the university students in the marketing management major. the teaching procedures are 154 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 151-159 in line with the teaching procedures of project-based learning (pbl). it is so since the video is suitable with the needs of the university students of english to face the industrial revolution 4.0. then, the proposal from the use of this video and its analysis in learning are explained descriptively. results and discussions table 1 describes the field, tenor, and mode in the nike commercial. table 1 transcription of the commercial narration line 1 is this the land history promised? line 2 here, within these lines, on this concrete court, this patch of turf line 3 here, you’re defined by actions, not your looks and beliefs. line 4 equality should have no boundaries line 5 the bonds we find here should one pass these lines line 6 opportunity should not discriminate line 7 the ball should bounce the same for everyone line 8 worth should outshine color. line 9 if we can be equals here, we can be equals everywhere in line 1, the narrator begins by asking, “is this the land history promised?” which is naturally in the form of a question. this question is actually not intended to question the viewers; instead, it is used as an attention gather that invites viewers to agree with what the speaker says. when asking the question, the commercial video shows a black and white setting showing some people playing basketball. here, the relationship that occurs between the narrator and viewers is hierarchical since the position of the narrator is as the one who provides information towards the viewers. on the other hand, the viewers here are the passive hearers that only can receive the information. in addition, the question, “is this the land history promised?” is an implicit persuasive line spoken in monologue followed by a shot on an actor making eye contact to the viewers. in line 2, “here, within these lines, on this concrete court, this patch of turf”, the sentence is said by the narrator accompanied by the appearance of some courts in sports; court of football and court of tennis. then, some sports players are shown; lebron james and kevin durant, who are basketball players, serena williams, who is a tennis player. through line 2, the narrator tries to convey that the lines, the court, and the patch of turf are the fields where players compete on sports. being linked with line 1, line 2 is the answer of line 1, which raises the issues of ‘a land history promised’, as it is generally believed that in history the issues of inequality is widely spread. here, the narrator tries to build a belief towards the viewers that ‘a land history promised’ refers to the sports which uphold fairness and equality within the courts. moreover, the viewers are mind blown by all the information given that glorifies equality. the position of the narrator in term of speaker-hearer relationship is higher since the narrator is the one who gives the information in one way communication. line 2 leads the viewers from the equality issues into sports. in line 3, “here, you’re defined by actions, not your looks and beliefs”, the narrator said it together with the presence of some visualization support. the first, there are some football players compete in a football court which represent the ‘actions’ which will define someone in sports. the second, there is a black-skinned and curly-haired boy who is zoomed in as the representation of ‘looks’. then, there are some children playing basketballs in front of a church which support the meaning of ‘belief’ in the sentence. the overall sentence and its supporting setting details on the video emphasize a meaning which is wanted to be delivered that equality happens in sports since ones are defined by their ability, performance, and achievement rather than defined by the ‘looks’ and the ‘beliefs’ the players possess. here, in the speaker-hearer relationship, the viewers have lower positions than the narrator since they are persuaded by the rich information and ideology about equality implicitly. if take a look at the sentence, “here, you’re defined by actions, not your looks and beliefs”, the form is a statement, in fact, it is more powerful than just a statement. the meaning wants to be conveyed is a persuasion which demands the agreement from the viewers. line 4, “equality should have no boundaries” is the main theme of this promotional video. the setting which is provided while the sentence is uttered by the narrator is some people who make an extension white line from the area of sport courts into the area out of the sports courts. what the narrator attempts to tell to the viewers is that the equality and fairness in sports; which does not look at appearance and beliefs, should be extended into the real world and that it should not have boundaries. here, the speaker, which is the narrator, invites the viewers to uphold that belief. since the viewers are the ones who are influenced, they are lower; in the hierarchical speaker-hearer relationship, than the narrator who does the persuasion. the occurrence of line 5, “the bonds we find here should one pass these lines” is together with some visualization of bonds happens in the sports. there are some baseball players and american football players who hug each other as a team and share some laughs. what the narrator tries to bring to the viewer is that in sport, there is a strong bond among the players. regardless of how they look and what the beliefs they hold, they are still a team who work together in sports courts. the persuasion done by the narrator is that those bonds which do not discriminate occurs in sports should be carried into the real-life world. in addition, the visualization of some people keeping drawing the extension of white lines from the sports courts also supports the setting while the sentence is uttered. the speaker-hearer relationship occurred is the hierarchical relationship, which brings the narrator as the one dominated and as the persuasion supplier. line 6, “opportunity should not discriminate” is spoken out accompanied by certain settings. the first is the visualization of some white-painted cars moving forward and drawing some white lines, followed by some women runners behind them. the women runners are distinct in their looks, some are those who wear ordinary clothes worn by the runners; which are short pants and sports bras, and some are those who wear veils, and long outfit covered their body. the message wants to be delivered by the sentence, and the setting is that no matter who you are and what belief you hold, you have the same opportunities in sports and that there is no discrimination in getting those opportunities; 155the use of commercial.... (fajar dwi utami, et al.) which also have to be extended in the real world life. the viewers here are invited to set their mind into the nondiscriminating ideology. the heavy and rich persuasion occurs here where the narrator positioned himself higher than the viewers in term of speaker-hearer relationship. in line 7, the sentence “the ball should bounce the same for everyone” is conveyed together with some visualization. it begins with the visualization of a basketball player who bounces a ball and a woman who stands near a piano in front of the wall with a white text written on; ‘equals everywhere’. in addition, there is a black-skinned boy who looks at the wall. this setting supports the meaning wanted to be delivered by the narrator; chances should be given equally to everyone, everywhere. by delivering this message, the narrator who positions himself as the one who has the power of persuasion, which makes the relationship between the narrator and the viewers hierarchical. the viewers here are the passive ones who receive the information. thus, they are in a lower position in term of speaker-hearer status or relationship. in line 8, the utterance “worth should outshine color” is shown in the video together with the visualization of some black-skinned people in front of a law court building. in the top of the building, there is a written text ‘equal.justice. under.law’. together they stand up, and a black-skinned woman who wears a black outfit looks bravely at the camera. this setting supports the meaning which is intended by the narrator to be conveyed that they are all worthy, and it should outshine the color. no matter what skin color they have, it does not matter since they actually are born naturally equal in this world. here, the narrator invites the viewers to believe that ideology and uphold justice on the equality issue, which is happening. the hierarchical relationship between the narrator and the viewers here are very contrast since the domination is on the narrator side. it means that the narrator is higher than the viewer in terms of speakerhearer status. line 9, “if we can be equals here, we can be equals everywhere”, is said in the end of the video scene. first, there is the appearance of some boys who are playing basketball at the center of the crowd. second, a professional basketball player; lebron james is zoomed. while the narrator said, “if we can be equals here”, he continues it by saying, “we can be equals everywhere”. the sentence here is the main theme of the video; it is not only emphasized by the narrator but also by lebron james. what they want to convey is if they can be equal in sports, people can see actually extent that equality in sports in the real-life world. in addition, the power of the narrator and lebron james persuade and invite the viewers to believe in what they said. this power of the persuasion positions them in the higher status in the hierarchical speaker-hearer relationship. in summary, the overall sentences in the video are uttered to persuade and invite the viewers to believe in the ideology of equality. in fact, they are not only about equality but also the implicit promotion of sports products from nike. by raising the ideology of equality, nike tries to persuade that equality is the basic right of everyone. whether it is in football, tennis, basketball, and everywhere; everyone should be equal. in addition, by bringing equality in all aspects, nike implicitly states that all products of nike are for everyone regardless of their age, gender, beliefs, and looks. the semiotic features of the video are analyzed using the approach of multimodal discourse analysis from kress and van leeuwen (1996). it is focused on the visual picture and color aspects used in the video. the semiotic features have a very strong power to convey meaning through video; so that every part of them has massages that the discourse makers want to deliver to the viewers of the video. these features in the commercial advertisement video of nike are employed by the advertisements in order to promote their products. it is due to the fact that the advertisement makers do not explicitly promote their products in the language used so that they emphasized their intention on the use of semiotic aspects. in conveying their intention, which is to promote its products, the company brings up the emblem of the product more than 15 times in the video whose duration is one and a half minutes. it means that the emblem appears in every six seconds on average. the company wants to influence viewers’ perceptions. by showing the logo continuously, it affects people’s psychology to remember the brand easily, and then they are provoked to buy their product. the first emblem appears in the seventeenth second of the video while the last emblem appears in the first minute and twenty-ninth second. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 scene 9 the scene in the seventeenth second shows a model who is wearing a t-shirt in which the emblem of nike appeared on it (figure 1). the position of the model is right in the center of the video in order to catch the viewers’ attention easily. the layout of the video is also very crucial in conveying the discourse makers’ meaning. figure 2 shows seven models who are wearing apparels in which nike’s emblem appears there. again, the advertisement maker employs the layout of the video to strengthen his/her intention. here, the model wearing a white t-shirt in which nike’s emblem is clearly seen positioned in the center of the formation in this scene. furthermore, the models in this scene are portrayed to have different backgrounds by emphasizing the use of different apparels. by having two models who are wearing veils, the advertisement maker wants to convince that nike is made to be worn by people from different backgrounds, including the different religion backgrounds. this scene supports the theme which is raised about equality. scene 47 in figure 3 shows a model who is wearing a shirt with nike’s emblem on it. in order to catch the viewers’ attention on the point, the model position is set to be in the center. besides emphasizing on nike’s emblem in this scene, the advertisement maker also wants to persuade people with the issue of equality by showing a model who has black complexion. most of the models in this advertisement video have black complexion in order to show that the black156 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 151-159 people are equals to white ones. the implicit purpose of this action is to promote that nike can be used by people who come from different background, including the black people. the black complexion models are almost shown in every scene in the video, and they begin appearing from scene 5, which happens in the second 9 (figure 4). figure 2 scene 36 figure 3 scene 47 figure 4 scene 5 figure 5 scene 55 the last nike’s emblem appears in the last scene of the video, which happens in the duration between one minute and twenty-nine seconds and one minutes and thirty seconds (figure 5). in this last scene, nike’s emblem is shown directly in the video. it is different from other scenes which show the emblem on the apparels worn by the models. as the closing of the video, the advertisement maker shows the bigger size of nike’s emblem than in other scenes. in this scene, the video shows a child as the model in order to persuade people’s mindset that nike is for everyone from different ages. another scene that is scene 45 (figure 6) shows a visual picture which supports the narration in the video. it is generally believed that the language will be more powerful when it is visualized. the advertisement maker wants to make the power of the message more powerful by showing this scene. as stated before that the major theme of the video is the issue of equality, so the language of promotion used is mainly talked about equality and scene 45 is used to visualize it. besides scene 45, the video also visualizes the message of equality in scene 54 (figure 7). the other semiotic aspect that will be the central thing in the video is the use of color. the colors used in the video are only black and white. as the equality issue raised in the video, the two colors represent inequality. those two colors are extremely in contrast, which is usually used to differ or limit something. in the american context, white is better than black. in social status, black people tend to have lower social status than white people do. thus, black and white are the symbols of inequality which believe that a thing is better than the other. however, these two colors are used in the video to encompass the issue of equality. the advertisement maker wants to persuade people’s mindset that white and black are the same, as well as the black people have the same right as the white people. the semiotic aspects of the video clearly illustrate the messages that want to be delivered by the advertisement makers. while in the textual analysis, the video does not explicitly convey the meaning of the discourse makers that is to promote products of nike, the semiotic analysis shows that the discourse makers propose their intention to promote the product explicitly by the use of visual aspect including nike’s emblem. in addition, the semiotic analysis of the video presents that the discourse makers also convey their intention to promote equality issue through the use of colors and visual pictures. in using the analyzed video as a model to teach language for promotion to the marketing management major students in the university, it is merged with the model of the project-based learning model. according to lee et al. (2014), project-based learning is a pedagogical methodology which is oriented on both process and product. basically, project-based learning blends learning with concrete outputs designed by learners themselves. in this research, the university students are taught to promote things implicitly then made a video as a project. projectbased learning comes from john dewey’s idea of learning by doing which views education as ways for students to construct knowledge during the active learning process while the teacher acts as a facilitator. it can be said that project-based learning requires students to be involved in authentic activities in which they can experience learning by doing. 157the use of commercial.... (fajar dwi utami, et al.) figure 6 scene 45 figure 7 scene 54 the challenges arise from constructivist learning is the difficulty in transferring the theory into a practice of teaching and learning. the students find it difficult to produce sentences or texts which are suitable with promotional context. in this research, the students are triggered to be active learners by giving the challenge to create a promotional video. hence, this situation makes them become an autonomous learner since they need to know what aspects should be appeared in the video and how to present a promotional video in a great way. it is in line with the constructivism theory, the basic principle of project-based learning. additionally, it is believed that project-based learning is able to eliminate the struggles of learners with the assistance of teachers and knowledgeable others. therefore, during the process of creating the video, the students get many suggestions both from their friends and from the teacher. coming to the implementation of project-based learning in the teaching and learning process, there are several steps that should be fulfilled in applying it, which is presented in figure 8. jalinus, nabawi, and mardin (2017) have stated that the project-based learning model consists of three main stages (primary), then they are divided into seven stages (secondary). the primary stages consist of three steps, namely, skill competencies debriefing, project work, and evaluation. the promotional video analyzed will be used as the model in teaching the students in promoting things implicitly through english. the video is used as the standard in making project. in this case, the project instructed is creating a great promotional video which offers thing implicitly. here are the proposed steps of multimodal-based english teaching for university students through the frame of seven steps project-based learning model. in the very first stage of teaching, the lecturer needs to deliver the objectives of the teaching-learning to the students to engage them in the learning process well. then, the lecturer shows the analyzed video from nike to the students. the students are then asked to analyze the video based on their perceptions in relation to the materials that will be learned, that is the language of promotion. after analyzing the content of the video, the students will be trained by the lecturer about the use of the language of promotion to promote things in a certain way. the next stage is designing the project theme. here, the students are asked to work in-group and make an outline/proposal about the project that is making video promotion consisting of linguistic and semiotic features. the students consult their project proposal to the lecturer. then, the lecturer will decide whether it is met the criteria of a good promotional strategy or not. after getting a suggestion from the lecturer, the students execute the task of the project that is making a complete video promotion. the students present their project and the philosophy behind their promotion videos, as what they do in the analysis of the video model. the other students, along with the lecture, give feedback towards the video from linguistic and semiotic features. figure 8 project-based learning model conclusions the emergence of industrial revolution influences education field; sharp spotlight leads to education since education is considered as a vital aspect of making changes. the industrial revolution 4.0 that requires students to master at least two basic skills, namely english and technology, challenges the teachers and stakeholders to make some 158 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 151-159 adjustments through curricula and learning method. the findings of the research suggest that commercial advertisement analysis can be used as teaching materials in english for specific context classrooms. in addition, project-based learning is believed as a learning method that can support the learning goal, which meets the requirement of industrial revolution 4.0. the students are asked to create promotional videos which meet the standards of great promotional videos. during the process of creating the video as a final project, teachers facilitate the process of learning by showing a promotional video as a model and guiding the students to understand the important aspects that should be included in the video. since the video is a commercial advertisement, it is more familiar to the students whose major are related to promotion, such as business and marketing majors, but not limited to those mentioned before regarding the materials taught by teachers or lecturers. meanwhile, it is suggested that the future researches will be possibly conducted are in the area of implementation and evaluation of the use of video analysis in the term of language and semiotic features usage to teach english for specific purpose (esp) students. references ahmed, m. k. 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(rudi hartono manurung) gaya bahasa enkyokuhou dalam novel nihon kogyou ginkou karya ryo takasugi rudi hartono manurung japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 rmanurung@binus.edu abstract research aimed to present conversations that were used mostly by subordinates (buka) to their superiors (joshi). the research applied qualitative method with interview and novel nihon kogyou ginkou by ryo takasugi to understand the jougekankei concept in enkyokuhou figure of speech. analysis used interpretative and descriptive method. it can be concluded that enkyokuhou has five functions. they are to emphasize claims, emphasize on demands, state indirect thought or passive request, state satire, and replace words or objects or events with another words. keywords: enkyokuhou, jougekankei, figure of speech, novel nihon kogyou ginkou abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk memaparkan percakapan yang menggunakan gaya bahasa enkyokuhou oleh bawahan (buka) kepada atasan (joshi). penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan wawancara dan novel nihon kogyou ginkou karya ryo takasugi untuk memahami konsep jougekankei gaya bahasa enkyokuhou. analisis penelitian menggunakan metode interpretatif dan metode deskriptif. berdasarkan analisis data, disimpulkan bahwa enkyokuhou terbagi dalam lima fungsi, yaitu untuk menekankan klaim atau tuntutan, menekankan permintaan, menyatakan pikiran secara tidak langsung atau permintaan pasif, menyatakan secara tidak langsung suatu sindiran, dan mengganti perkataan atau pernyataan dengan kata yang lain (benda maupun peristiwa). kata kunci: enkyokuhou, jougekankei, gaya bahasa, novel nihon kogyou ginkou 56 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pendahuluan setelah perang dunia kedua perekonomian jepang mulai tumbuh secara pesat, terutama di tahun 1980-an hingga 1990-an, ekonomi jepang terus tumbuh dan berkembang hingga manca negara. bahkan negara jepang kini telah berhasil mencatatkan nama dengan kokoh sebagai salah satu pemimpin ekonomi asia dan dunia. dalam tiga dekade jepang telah sukses mengubah ekonomi yang hancur akibat perang dan menjadi negara dengan perekonomian terkuat kedua di dunia (chen, 1995). bukti nyata tampak terutama dalam investasi, perusahaan-perusahaan jepang hampir dapat ditemukan di seluruh dunia dalam jumlah yang tidak sedikit di manca negara. kemajuan ekonomi jepang ini pun menjadi perhatian dunia. penelitian, buku dan artikel mengenai manajemen jepang mulai dikenal dan manajemen jepang mulai diterapkan di banyak negara. selain hal-hal di atas, penyebaran perusahaan jepang di berbagai belahan dunia pun turut menjadikan filosofi dan konsep manajemen jepang ikut terbawa ke negara-negara lain di mana perusahaan tersebut berdiri. hal ini membuat manajemen jepang semakin dikenal di berbagai belahan negara, terutama dengan keunikan sistem manajemen. terkait dengan keberhasilan ekonomi jepang yang signifikan, praktek manajemen jepang tak dapat terlepas dari nilai-nilai kebudayaan jepang yang telah diilhami oleh masyarakat jepang (saronto, 2005). menurut (nakane (1970), tipe hubungan antar manusia dapat dibagi menjadi dua kategori yaitu vertikal dan horizontal. salah satu tatanan dalam masyarakat yang vertikal adalah hubungan jougekankei. hubungan seperti ini tidak hanya dalam sebuah perusahaan tetapi dapat dilihat dalam perkumpulan olah raga, hobi, kesenian dan kalangan mahasiswa atau anak sekolah. jougekankei dalam bahasa indonesia sering diterjemahkan dengan istilah atasan dan bawahan, tetapi kata ini tidak menangkap semua nuansa atau makna dari kata jougekankei dalam bahasa jepang. dalam konsep jougekankei, pada umumnya seorang atasan jauh lebih tua, lebih bijaksana. perbedaan yang paling terlihat adalah kesenioritasan atau pengalaman. dalam keseharian, atasan dan bawahan tidak pernah lepas dari aktivitas berbicara yang menandai adanya interaksi antar mereka. ada beberapa cara yang dapat digunakan dalam melakukan interaksi tersebut, salah satunya ialah melalui bahasa. bahasa jepang memiliki kosakata yang banyak dan ragam ekspresi yang kaya sehingga membuat para pembelajar asing harus lebih memperhatikan penggunaaan ekspresi dengan lebih baik, sehingga dapat tercapai kesepakatan dalam sebuah komunikasi. dalam komunikasi dikenal berbagai macam hal yang berkaitan dengan bahasa. salah satu yang pernah kita kenal ialah majas. menurut zaimar (2002), majas sering dianggap sebagai sinonim dari gaya bahasa, akan tetapi sebenarnya majas termasuk gaya bahasa. menurut harimurti dalam zaimar (2002) gaya bahasa memiliki tiga pengertian dan salah satunya adalah pemakaian ragam untuk efek tertentu. dari pernyataan tersebut berarti majas dapat memberikan warna tersendiri dalam bahasa yaitu berfungsi sebagai pelembut sebuah kalimat yang memiliki makna tidak menyenangkan melalui kata-kata yang baik tanpa harus menyinggung perasaan orang lain. berdasarkan latar belakang ini, penelitian tentang majas eufemisme atau dalam bahasa jepang disebut enkyokuhou (婉曲法) dilakukan melalui media novel. adapun tujuan yang ingin dicapai melalui penelitian ini adalah memaparkan percakapan yang menggunakan gaya bahasa enkyokuhou yang kebanyakan dilakukan oleh bawahan (buka) kepada atasan (joshi). penelitian ini juga diharapkan dapat memperkaya pengetahuan dalam memahami gaya bahasa enkyokuhou untuk memperlembut suatu pernyataan. metode penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kulitatif dengan menggunakan novel nihon kogyou ginkou karya ryo takasugi untuk memahami dan mendiskripsikan gaya bahasa enkyokuhou. metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah metode kepustakaan. melalui metode kepustakaan ini data dikumpulkan berupa kata, frase, klausa, kalimat dan percakapan yang mengandung gaya bahasa enkyokuhou yang terdapat dalam novel tersebut. metode kepustakaan adalah teknik pengumpulan data dengan menggunakan studi penelaahan terhadap buku-buku, literatur-literatur, catatan dan laporan yang berhubungan dengan masalah yang akan dipecahkan (nazir, 1988). tahap berikutnya adalah menganalisis data. untuk menganalisis digunakan dua metode yaitu metode interpretatif dan metode deskriptif. metode interpretatif digunakan untuk memahami semua isi dari korpus data yang terkumpul. metode interpretatif membahas permasalahan dengan uraian-uraian yang jelas berdasarkan kemampuan pemahaman untuk mengungkapkan maksud yang terdapat di dalam objek penelitian. jadi metode interpretatif adalah suatu metode yang mencoba mendeskripsikan atau menceritakan pendapat atau pandangan tentang sesuatu yang ada dalam objek penelitian. sedangkan metode deskriptif adalah metode yang digunakan dalam bentuk pendeskripsian tentang suatu gejala, peristiwa, kejadian yang ada dalam hasil analisis data. metode analisis deskriptif adalah penelitian yang dilakukan untuk menggambarkan, menjabarkan, suatu fenomena yang terjadi saat ini, dengan menggunakan prosedur ilmiah untuk menjawab permasalahan secara aktual (sutedi, 2009). metode yang ketiga adalah metode wawancara. wawancara dilakukan kepada orang jepang yang merupakan ahli di bidang bahasa atau dianggap memahami bidang bahasa. informan pada tahap ini adalah orang jepang yang tinggal di daerah jakarta barat dan berprofesi sebagai dosen native di sebuah universitas swasta di wilayah jakarta barat. kajian teori engkyokuhou dalam pemakaian bahasa sehari-hari di masyarakat jepang, salah satu gaya bahasa yang sering digunakan adalah engkyokuho. menurut kuwabata (1976) yang dimaksud dengan enkyokuhou adalah: 婉曲表現 ものごとを間接的に表現する 言い方。日本語では昔から敬語的表現の 手段として多く用いられてきた。これ 57analisis gaya bahasa... (rudi hartono manurung) は、敬意を表わすべき人物そのもの、あ るいはその動作、状態を直接的に表現す ることをはばかったことによると思われ る。(kuwabata, 1976) “enkyokuhou adalah cara penyampaian yang disampaikan secara tidak langsung terhadap suatu hal. di jepang engkyokuhou telah lama digunakan sebagai sarana ekspresi kehormatan. hal ini terjadi disebabkan keseganan yang ditunjukkan oleh si pembicara itu sendiri atau si pembicara segan ketika ingin langsung memberi komentar terhadap suatu kegiatan atau sebuah situasi” (kuwabata, 1976) sedangkan menurut ueno (1990) yang dimaksud dengan engkyokuhou adalah: euphemismは ギリシャ語の eu(よ く)+ phem(言うこと)からで 遠回 しに言うことが 良い言い方だと考えら れたものである。直接言わないで間接的 にものを言うのは何も日本語だけの特徴 ではない。たとえば英語にはトイレに相 当する表現が数限りなくあるが、日本語 でも古くは「蛍を見に」、「御不浄」「 お手洗い」などは元来婉曲話法であっ た。(ueno, 1990) “(eufimisme berasal dari bahasa yunani, eu (baik) + phem (dikatakan), yaitu sebuah gaya bahasa yang berasal dari pemikiran bahwa sesuatu yang dikatakan secara tidak langsung adalah cara penyampaian yang baik. penyampaian secara tidak langsung atau penyampaian halus bukanlah karakteristik khusus yang hanya dimiliki oleh bahasa jepang. contohnya, dalam bahasa inggris terdapat cukup banyak kata pengganti toilet yang memiliki makna setara, sedangkan dalam bahasa jepang, enkyokuhou yang sejak dulu digunakan sebagai kata pengganti toilet adalah hotaru wo mi ni, gofujyou, otearai, dan lain lain” (ueno, 1990). enkyokuhou juga digunakan untuk menghindari penyampaian langsung kata-kata yang memiliki unsur negatif, misalnya kata-kata yang berhubungan dengan kematian, seks, kotoran, uang dan lain lain. dalam bahasa jepang, enkyokuhou tampak seperti cara penyampaian tidak langsung yang halus dan sopan, tapi sebenarnya tidak hanya itu. contohnya, saat meminta tolong seseorang untuk membukakan jendela, dengan berkata,”di sini panas ya”. ini juga merupakan salah satu bentuk dari enkyokuhou. dalam bahasa jepang, enkyokuhou digunakan untuk menghindari penyampaian secara langsung sehingga bahasa yang digunakan menjadi lebih halus dan sopan. gaya bahasa seperti ini lebih sering disebut polite speech daripada indirect. yasui dalam ueno (1990) mengatakan ketika menggunakan kalimat tanya atau kalimat pengandaian saat menyampaikan sebuah permintaan, maka kalimat tersebut akan terdengar lebih sopan, ini juga berlaku untuk bahasa inggris. simpulannya, dibanding “___shite kudasai”, akan lebih sopan apabila menggunakan “___shite kudasaimasenka” atau “___shite itadakeru to tasukaruno desuga”. dalam bahasa jepang, bentuk kalimat (modality) lebih sulit dipahami dibandingkan pokok kalimat (proposition) contohnya, bentuk kalimat seperti “___toiu koto ga ieruno dewanaika toiu youna ki ga itashimasu toki mo nai koto wa gozaimasen ga” akan terdengar seperti cara berbicara yang berputar-putar dan memberi kesan lari dari tanggung jawab. selain itu, ketika menghindari bentuk tegas pesan disampaikan dalam bentuk pertanyaan atau ironi (retoris, rhetoric), maka kalimat tersebut akan terdengar berkualitas. dalam ragam penggunaan, engkyokuhou juga memiliki bentuk yang dapat digunakan seperti “___ nanodewa arumai ka”, “___dewanai darou ka”, “___dewa nakarou ka”, dan bentuk lisan seperti “___jyanai deshou ka”, “___nan jyanai”. bila pokok dari kalimat negatif menggunakan bentuk (sonna koto nain jyanai), untuk memahami makna tersirat dari bentuk seperti “ano, sore ga___”(dame dattan desu), “chotto sore wa___”(mondai dato omoimasu)(dekimasen ne), bagian akhir yang disingkat dari kalimat-kalimat ini dapat diketahui melalui konteks kalimat, raut wajah dan sikap pembicara, serta kondisi saat kalimat ini diucapkan. dalam mengikat kontrak, pengecekan bentuk kalimat kontrak sangatlah penting. hasil dan pembahasan berdasarkan analisis yang telah dilakukan terhadap kalimat-kalimat yang mengandung gaya bahasa enkyoukuhou yang terdapat di dalam novel nihon kogoyu ginkou dengan menggunakan teori ueno dan teori-teori pendukung lainnya, ditemukan fungsi-fungsi sebagai berikut: analisis enkyokuhou yang menekankan pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「klaim/ tuntutan」 (文の形を変える「主張」) data 1 河上「戦争完遂(せんそうかんすい)のためにまっしぐ らに進むことが当時のすべての方針(ほうしん) だった。そして敗戦(はいせん)という予想どお りの結果になったが、こうなったからには興銀 といえども気分を入れ替えて出直すべきだと思 う。きみがいうように第二興銀になるかどうか もわからないが、仮に興銀は潰れても興銀的な 機構はなんとしても残さなければならない。そ のためにも責任者の僕は辞める必要があるんだ よ。新しき酒は新しき革袋に盛れというが、旧 経営者は退却(たいきゃく)しなければいかんの だ」 中山「そういうことでしたら、総裁一人だけお辞めに なるというのはおかしくありませんか。理事と 秘書役、人事部長は総裁に殉じるべきです。そ れでこそ気分を一新して出直すことになるんじ ゃないですか」 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1990, hal.96) terjemahan : kawakami : semua kebijakan pada saat itu adalah untuk melanjutkan kelangsungan perang. 58 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 kemudian sesuai dengan hasil kekalahan perang, saya berpikir karena sudah seperti ini, kita, bank kogin, harus memperbaiki dengan cara mengganti suasana perasaan kita. saya tidak tahu apakah akan ada bank kogin seri kedua seperti yang kamu katakan , tetapi jika bank kogin juga harus hancur, kita harus tetap mewariskan mekanisme ciri khas bank kogin. oleh karena itu saya harus berhenti sebagai bentuk tanggung jawab saya. ada pepatah mengatakan “sake yang baru dimasukkan ke kantong kulit yang baru” maka manajemen lama bank kogin harus mundur (diganti dengan yang baru). nakayama : jika begitu itu, apakah tidak aneh hanya presiden direktur saja yang berhenti? sudah seharusnya direktur, sekretaris dan kepala bagian personalia mengikuti langkah presiden direktur. dengan begitu bukankah suasana hati akan kembali ceria? situasi : kawakami yang merupakan presiden direktur (総裁)sedang berdiskusi dengan nakagawa yang merupakan seorang kepala bagian personalia(人事部 長)di ruangannya. sambil minum teh mereka berdua terus berdiskusi. dalam percakapan tersebut kawakami berencana untuk berhenti dari pekerjaannya sekarang. melihat hal ini, nakayama pun bermaksud untuk berhenti dari pekerjaannya. tetapi kawakami berpendapat bahwa tidak perlu nakayama ikut berhenti dari pekerjaannya. analisis: sebagai bentuk penghormatan bawahan terhadap atasan, dan kesungkanan nakayama terhadap kawakami, nakayama menggunakan percakapan bahasa sopan dan hormat atau disebut dengan honorifiks, dalam bahasa jepang disebut keigo 敬語, mengandung arti bahasa sopan. dalam percakapan yang dilakukan nakayama terhadap kawakami「総裁一人だけお辞めになると いうのはおかしくありませんか。」adalah perubahan dari bentuk「おかしいです。」. perubahan ini, pertama secara stilistika adalah perubahan bentuk biasa joutai常 体 yang semula(です) menjadi bentuk honorifiks keitai 敬体 berupa (くありませんか). kedua secara sintaksis (gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan(で す)bermakna kalimat pernyataan tegas, menyatakan pernyataan dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas, ini disebut dengan modus . perubahan(です)menjadi(くあり ませんか), menjadikan ku arimasenka sebagai kalimat tuntutan sopan, menyatakan pernyataan yang bersifat menuntut secara sopan dan ini masuk kategori honorifiks. pengunaan honorifiks digunakan dengan maksud untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan kesopanan yang hendak disampaikan oleh nakayama mengenai kawakami karena menurut nakayama sangat aneh jika hanya kawakami saja yang mengundurkan diri. jika nakayama menggunakan「おかしいです。」ini berarti bahwa tuntutan akan terasa tegas, padahal nakayama sangat menghormati kawakami. seperti yang sudah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan kawakami, nakayama merubah pembicaraan tuntutan tegasnya dengan menggunakan tuntutan bentuk sopan. ini dilakukan untuk menghindari ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung karena untuk hal hal seperti itu sebaiknya digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung di ungkapkan atau ungkapan yang di buat berputar putar. seperti --shinaika, --shite kurenaika dan lain lain. dengan melihat perubahan 「おかしいです。」menjadi 「お かしくありませんか。」mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan「おかしいです。」menjadi「お かしくありませんか。」yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuhou dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk sochou yaitu tuntutan bentuk sopan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuhou pada 総裁一人だけお辞めになるというのは おかしくあ りませんか。dapat dilihat seperti berikut: gambar 1 bagan pembuktian pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「klaim/ tuntutan」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou 59analisis gaya bahasa... (rudi hartono manurung) analisis enkyokuhou yang menekankan pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「permintaan 」 (文の形を変える「依頼」). data 2 中山が石井と二人で、川北に話したのは十一 月下旬のことだ。もっとも石井はほとんど口 をきかなかったが、川北に輪をかけたように 慎重居士(しんちょうこじ)で 聞こえる石井 が協調融資(きょうちょうゆうし)に賛成して いることの重みは小さくない。その石井が黙 って座っているだけでも、川北への圧力(あつ りょく)になるはずだ、と中山は計算したので ある。 中山「常務会で、アラビア石油に対する協調融資( きょうちょうゆうし)を決めていただきたいん です。石井常務とも話したんですが、増資(ぞ うし)までのつなぎ融資(ゆうし)ですから問題 はないと思います」 川北「増資(ぞうし)はできるのかい。しも、ほかの 銀行が承知(しょうち)しないだろう。」 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1991, hal.290) terjemahan : nakayama berdua dengan ishii berbicara dengan kawakita mengenai penghujung bulan november. sebenarnya dahulu ishii tidak mau mendengarkan tetapi ishii yang terdengar bijaksana, berhati-hati seperti shinchou koji supaya dapat masuk ke lingkaran kawakita, tidaklah kecil keberatan ishii terhadap persetujuan kerja sama dana pinjaman. nakayama sedang berhitung, meskipun ishi hanya duduk terdiam, sebenarnya itu menjadi tekanan bagi kawakita. nakayama : saya berharap kerjasama dana pinjaman untuk minyak bumi dari arab saudi akan diputuskan dalam pertemuan managing director. saya sudah berbicara dengan ishii managing director, menurut saya tidak ada masalah karena pinjaman sudah terkoneksi ke peningkatan modal. kitakawa : apakah peningkatan modal bisa berjalan? dan bank lain tidak mengetahui hal ini kan? situasi : saat ini, kogin ginkou sedang bekerjasama dalam projek pembelian minyak bumi dari arab saudi. karena bank kogin tidak memiliki uang untuk membeli minyak dari arab saudi, bank kogin berencana meningkatkan modal melalui tambahan modal dari berbagai bank. nakayama sangat setuju akan hal ini. nakayama berencana untuk meminta kawakita untuk menyetujui rencana kerjasama peminjaman modal pada saat rapat managing direktur. analisis: dalam lingkungan kerja, atasan kerap dijadikan role model oleh bawahan terutama dalam meneruskan nilai-nilai kerja dan pandangan hidup sehingga bawahan sangat menghormati atasan. sebagai bentuk penghormatan bawahan terhadap atasan dan kesungkanan nakayama terhadap kawakita, nakayama menggunakan percakapan bahasa sopan dan hormat atau disebut dengan honorifiks, dalam bahasa jepang disebut keigo 敬語, mengandung arti bahasa sopan. dalam percakapan yang dilakukan nakayama terhadap kawakita「アラビア石油に対す る協調融資を決めていただきたいんです。」adalah perubahan dari bentuk「アラビア石油に対する協調 融資を決めてください。」. perubahan ini, pertama secara stilistika adalah perubahan bentuk biasa joutai常 体 yang semula(ください) menjadi bentuk honorifiks keitai 敬体 berupa (いただきたいんです). kedua secara sintaksis (gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan (ください)bermakna kalimat permintaan tegas, menyatakan permintaan dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas, disebut dengan modus. perubahan(ください) menjadi (決めていただきたいんです), menjadikan kimete itadakitaindesu sebagai kalimat permintaan sopan, menyatakan permintaan yang bersifat meminta secara sopan dan ini masuk kedalam kategori honorifiks. pengunaan honorifiks digunakan dengan maksud untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan kesopanan yang hendak disampaikan oleh nakayama mengenai kawakita karena nakayama meminta kawakita untuk memutuskan menyetujui peningkatan modal. jika nakayama menggunakan 「決めてください。」ini berarti bahwa permintaan akan terasa tegas, padahal nakayama sangat menghormati kawakita sebagai atasannya. seperti yang sudah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan kawakita, nakayama mengubah permintaan tegasnya dengan menggunakan permintaan bentuk sopan. ini dilakukan untuk menghindari ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung karena untuk halhal seperti itu sebaiknya digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung di ungkapkan atau ungkapan yang dibuat berputar-putar, seperti --shinaika, --shite kurenaika dan lain lain. dengan melihat perubahan 「アラビア石油に 対する協調融資を決めてください。」 menjadi 「ア ラビア石油に対する協調融資を決めていただきた いんです。」 mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan 「決めてください。」 menjadi 「アラビ ア石油に対する協調融資を決めていただきたいんで す。」 yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuho, dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk irai yaitu permintaan bentuk sopan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuho pada アラビア石油に対する協調融資を決めていただきた いんです。 dapat dilihat seperti berikut: 60 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 analisis enkyokuhou yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan「permintaan yang pasif」(思っていることを直接言わない「消極的( しょうきょくてき)な依頼」) data 3 kutipan 3 中山「二宮さんに復金から戻ってもらったらどうか と考えてる連中が多いみたいですよ」 岸「わたしも大賛成だ」 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1991, hal.280) terjemahan : nakayama : sepertinya banyak kelompok yang berpikir bagaimana jika kita meminta ninomiya untuk kembali dari lembaga rekontruksi keuangan. kishi : saya sangat setuju. situasi : bertempat di kantor wakil presiden direktur, nakayama dan kishi sedang berdiskusi mengenai suntikan dana. nakayama saat ini memegang posisi direktur sedangkan kishi adalah wakil president direktur. dahulu ninomiya bekerja pada bank ini juga, tetapi saat ini bekerja pada lembaga rekonstruksi keuangan. karena saat ini presiden direktur menyatakan berhenti dari pekerjaannya, maka kishi yang merupakan wakil presiden direktur akan menjadi presiden direktur yang baru. untuk posisi wakil presiden direktur berikutnya, banyak pegawai yang berpikir bahwa orang yang tepat adalah ninomiya. pada saat itulah nakayama bercerita mengenai ninomiya kepada kishi. analisis: berdasarkan informasi dari informan yang penulis wawancara, dalam percakapan yang dilakukan nakayama terhadap kishi「二宮さんに復金から戻ってもらった らどうかと考えてる連中が多いみたいですよ。」 adalah bentuk penghalusan dari kalimat「二宮に戻っ てもらいたいと思っている人が多い。」. perubahan ini, pertama secara leksikal adalah perubahan bentuk percakapan biasa yang semula (二宮に戻ってもらい たいと思っている人が多い。)menjadi bentuk sopan berupa(二宮さんに復金から戻ってもらったらどう かと考えてる連中が多いみたいですよ。). kedua secara sintaksis ( gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan (二宮に戻ってもらいたいと思っている人が多 い。)bermakna kalimat permintaan tegas, menyatakan permintaan dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas. perubahan (二宮に戻ってもらいたいと思っている人が多 い。)menjadi(二宮さんに復金から戻ってもら ったらどうかと考えてる連中が多いみたいです よ), menjadikan ninomiya sanni fukkin kara modotte morattaradoukatokangaeteru renchu ga ooimitaidesuyo menjadi kalimat permintaan pasif sopan, menyatakan sebuah permintaan sopan yang bersifat secara pasif . pengunaannya dimaksud untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan kesopanan yang hendak disampaikan oleh nakayama mengenai kishi karena nakayama meminta kishi untuk menarik kembali ninomiya. jika nakayama menggunakan 「二宮に戻ってもらいた いと思っている人が多い。」ini berarti permintaan akan terasa tegas, padahal nakayama adalah bawahan kishi. seperti yang telah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan kishi, apalagi menarik orang untuk kembali ke kogin bukanlah hal mudah, nakayama merubah permintaan tegasnya dengan menggunakan permintaan pasif bentuk sopan. dengan demikian untuk menghindari gambar 2 bagan pembuktian pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「permintaan」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou 61analisis gaya bahasa... (rudi hartono manurung) ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung diungkapkan atau ungkapan yang dibuat berputar. maka nakayama menggunakan perminataan pasif bentuk sopan. dengan melihat perubahan 「二宮に戻ってもらいた いと思っている人が多い。」menjadi「二宮さんに 復金から戻ってもらったらどうかと考えてる連中 が多いみたいですよ。」mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan「二宮に戻ってもらいたいと 思っている人が多い。」menjadi「二宮さんに復金 から戻ってもらったらどうかと考えてる連中が多 いみたいですよ。」yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuhou, dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk shoukyokutekina irai yaitu permintaan pasif bentuk sopan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuho pada 「二宮さんに復金から戻ってもらったらどうかと 考えてる連中が多いみたいですよ。」 dapat dilihat seperti berikut: gambar 3 bagan pembuktian yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan「permintaan yang pasif」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou data 4 川北「日本冶金に限らず興銀は問題会社をたくさ ん抱えているが、個別案件はどうも苦手でね え。わたしの手に余る。すべて副頭取にまか せますよ」 中山「及ばずながら頑張ります。できるだけ頭取 をわずらわせないようにするつもりですが、 最後の判断はやはり頭取にお願いしなけれ ば……」 川北「いやいや、きみなら安心してまかせられる。 わたしの出る幕(まく)なんてないよ」 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1991, hal.159) terjemahan : kawakita : bank kogin banyak menanggung masalah perusahaan nihonyakin secara tak berbatas dan entah bagaimana saya lemah terhadap masalah yang perlu dipersoalkan secara tersendiri. ini terlalu banyak bagi saya. semuanya akan saya percayakan kepada wakil presiden direktur. nakayama : saya akan berusaha walaupun nanti tidak akan sampai akhir. sedapat mungkin saya akan berusaha untuk tidak menggangu presiden direktur tapi untuk keputusan terakhir, bagaimanapun saya akan meminta putusan kepada presiden direktur… kawakita : tidak, tidak, saya merasa aman kalau menyerahkannya kepada anda. bukan pekerjaan saya loh… situasi : setelah rapat dewan direksi, kawakita memanggil nakayama. saat itu nakayama baru saja kembali bekerja di bank kogin setelah sempat bekerja di bank lain. pada saat rapat dewan direksi diumumkan bahwa nakayama diangkat menjadi wakil presiden direktur. setelah penetapan tersebut kawakita berencana untuk menyerahkan berbagai masalah yang ada di perusahan perusahan kepada nakayama. tetapi nakayama berpikiran bahwa segala keputusan terakhir harus dari presiden direktur. 62 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 analisis: kesungkanan nakayama terhadap kawakita menyebabkan nakayama menggunakan percakapan bahasa sopan dan hormat atau disebut dengan honorifiks, dalam bahasa jepang disebut keigo 敬語, mengandung arti bahasa sopan. berdasarkan informasi dari informan yang diwawancarai, dalam percakapan yang dilakukan nakayama terhadap kawakita「できるだけ頭取をわ ずらわせないようにするつもりですが、最後の判断 はやはり頭取にお願いしなければ…」adalah bentuk penghalusan dari kalimat「最後の判断は頭取にしても らいたい」と思っている。」. perubahan ini, pertama secara leksikal adalah perubahan bentuk percakapan biasa yang semula (最後の判断は頭取にしてもらいたい」 と思っている。)menjadi bentuk sopan berupa (でき るだけ頭取をわずらわせないようにするつもりです が、最後の判断はやはり頭取にお願いしなければ… 。). kedua secara sintaksis ( gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan (最後の判断は頭取にしてもらいたい」 と思っている。)bermakna kalimat permintaan tegas, menyatakan permintaan dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas. perubahan( 最後の判断は頭取にしてもらいた い」と思っている。) menjadi (できるだけ頭取を わずらわせないようにするつもりですが、最後の判 断はやはり頭取にお願いしなければ…), menjadikan saigono handanwa yahari toudorini onegaishinakereba… menjadi kalimat permintaan sopan, menyatakan sebuah permintaan sopan yang bersifat secara pasif. pengunaannya untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan kesopanan yang hendak disampaikan oleh nakayama terhadap kawakita karena nakayama meminta kawakita untuk memutuskan semua hal yang akan diselesaikan atau dikerjakan oleh nakayama. jika nakayama menggunakan 「最後の判断は頭取にしてもらいたい」と思って いる。」ini berarti bahwa permintaan akan terasa tegas padahal nakayama adalah bawahan kawakita. seperti yang telah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan kawakita, nakayama memutuskan suatu perkara yang amat berat dan harus bertanggung jawab atas keputusan yang diambilnya. melihat hal-hal tersebut, nakayama mengubah permintaan tegasnya dengan menggunakan permintaan pasif bentuk sopan agar kawakita mau mengabulkan permintaannya. dengan demikian untuk menghindari ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung lebih baik digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung diungkapkan atau ungkapan yang dibuat berputar. maka nakayama menggunakan permintaan pasif bentuk sopan. dengan melihat perubahan 「できるだけ頭取をわずら わせないようにするつもりですが、最後の判断は頭 取にしてもらいたい」と思っている。」menjadi「 できるだけ頭取をわずらわせないようにするつも りですが、「最後の判断はやはり頭取にお願い しなければ…。」mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan「最後の判断は頭取にしてもらい たい」と思っている。」menjadi「最後の判断は やはり頭取にお願いしなければ…。」yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuhou, dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk shoukyokutekina irai yaitu permintaan pasif bentuk sopan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuhou pada 最後の判断はやはり頭取にお願いしなければ…。 dapat dilihat seperti berikut: gambar 4 bagan pembuktian yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan「permintaan yang pasif」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou 63analisis gaya bahasa... (rudi hartono manurung) analisis enkyokuhou yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan「sindiran」 (思っていることを直接言わない「皮肉」) data 5 河上「えらいことになったようだね」 末広「はあ?」 河上「三ツ本君の電話で、およそのことは聞いた よ」 末広「本日、総司令部(そうしれいぶ)はess(経済科 学局)の会議で興銀を閉鎖機関に指定する方 針を決めたそうです。一週間以内に命令が出 るんじゃないでしょうか。先刻、一万田さん が総裁に 総司令部は 態度を決めかねてい るようだと 言ったそうですが、松田君の  情報は それどころではありません。復興金 融(ふっこうきんゆう)との関係はいったいど う調整するんですかねえ」 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1991, hal.201) terjemahan : kawakami : jadi hal yang luar biasa ya… suehiro : kenapa pak? kawakami : saya dengar tentang hal itu melalui telepon mitsumoto. suehiro : hari ini, dalam rapat ess (kantor studi ekonomi) sepertinya markas besar umum sudah memutuskan membuat kebijakan untuk menutup bank kogin. kurang dari satu minggu surat perintah akan dikeluarkan. tadi ichimanda berbicara kepada presiden direktur, sepertinya kantor umum sudah mengambil sikap dan informasi dari matsuda juga tidak jauh berbeda. hubungan dengan fukkokinyu (lembaga rekontruksi keuangan) kira kira akan disesuaikan seperti apa ya? situasi : di ruang tamu di rumah kawakami, suehiro yang menjabat wakil presiden direktur duduk bersama dengan ito di kursi panjang berbicara dengan kawakami yang merupakan mantan presiden direktur. sementara kawakami duduk sambil melipat kakinya dalam kursi. wajah suehiro tampak seperti ragu-ragu. mereka membicarakan kondisi kogyou ginkou. sesuai dengan perintah markas besar kogyou ginkou mendirikan kantor rekontruksi keuangan. tetapi markas besar juga telah memutuskan untuk menutup kogyou ginkou. mendengar hal ini suehiro sangat terkejut dan marah. analisis: sebagai bentuk penghormatan bawahan terhadap atasan, karena kesungkanan suehiro terhadap kawakami, suehiro menggunakan percakapan bahasa sopan dan hormat atau disebut dengan honorifiks, dalam bahasa jepang disebut keigo 敬語, mengandung arti bahasa sopan. berdasarkan informasi dari informan yang diwawancarai, dalam percakapan yang dilakukan suehiro terhadap ito kawakami 「復興金融との関係はいっ たいどう調整するんですかねえ。」 adalah bentuk penghalusan dari kalimat「復興金融との関係はおか しい!!」 atau 「復興金融との関係はむかつく なことだ。」. perubahan ini, pertama secara leksikal adalah gaya perubahan pengungkapan atau pengutaraan dari kalimat yang sesungguhnya, yang semula (信じ られない、おかしい、むかつく) menjadi bentuk sopan berupa (復興金融との関係はいったいどう 調整するんですかねえ。). kedua secara sintaksis ( gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan (信じられない、 おかしい、むかつく。)bermakna kalimat sindiran tegas, menyatakan sindiran dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas. perubahan (信じられない、おかしい、むか つく) menjadi (復興金融との関係はいったいどう 調整するんですかねえ。), menjadikan fukkokinyu tono kankeiwa ittaidou chousei surundesukanee kalimat sindiran sopan, menyatakan pernyataan yang bersifat menyindir secara sopan. pengunaannya dimaksud untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan sopan nakayama kepada kawakami karena nakayama sedang menyindir rencana pembentukan lembaga rekontroksi keuangan yang akan menggantikan kogin. jika nakayama menggunakan 「信じられない、おかしい、むかつく iniberarti bahwa sindiran akan terasa tegas padahal suehiro sangat menghormati kawakami. seperti yang telah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan kawakami, apalagi ketika itu suehiro berbicara dengan mimik muka tegang maka suehiro mengubah sindiran tegasnya dengan menggunakan sindiran bentuk sopan. dengan demikian untuk menghindari ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung, sebaiknya digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung di ungkapkan atau ungkapan yang di buat berputar putar. dengan melihat perubahan 「信じられない、おかしい、むかつく」menjadi 「復興金融との関係はいったいどう調整するんで すかねえ。mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan「信じられない、おかしい、むかつく」 menjadi 「復興金融との関係はいったいどう調整す るんですかねえ。」yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuhou, dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk hiniku yaitu sindiran bentuk sopan. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuhou pada「復興金融との関係はいったいどう調整するん ですかねえ。」dapat dilihat seperti berikut: 64 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 analisis enkyokuhou yang mengganti perkataan 「mengganti dengan kata kata yang lain (benda maupun peristiwa)」 (ことばの言い換え「あるものやことを、別のこと ばで表現しています」) data 6 通用口で江頭と別れ、伊藤と三ツ本が三階の 秘書室に戻ったのは七時十分前だが、末広副 総裁と松田総務部次長が秘書室のソファで伊 藤の帰りを待っていた。二人の表情は緊張の あまりひきつっているように見える。 末広「いよいよあかんらしいです」 ソファから経ちあがった末広が伊藤に近づい て耳うちした。伊藤の顔色が変わった。 (nihon kougyou ginkou, 1991, hal.196) terjemahan : setelah berpisah dengan egashira di pintu samping, ito dan mitsumoto kembali ke lantai tiga ruang sekretaris pada jam tujuh lewat sepuluh menit. suehiro yang merupakan wakil presiden direktur dan matsuda yang juga deputi presiden direktur urusan umum menunggu kepulangan ito sambil duduk di sofa ruangan sekretaris. ekspresi dari kedua orang ini terlihat sangat menegang karena grogi. suehiro : sesaat lagi, sepertinya semuanya akan sia-sia. suehiro bangkit dari sofa dan mendekat dan membisik ke telinga ito. raut wajah ito langsung berubah. situasi : beranjak dari sofa, suehiro beribisik kepada ito. di ruang sekretaris suehiro yang merupakan wakil presiden direktur dan matsuda menunggu kedatangan ito gambar 5 bagan pembuktian yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan 「sindiran」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou yang saat ini menjabat presiden direktur. mereka ingin mengabarkan kondisi terkini terkait keputusan markas besar mengenai kogyou ginkou. analisis: sebagai bentuk penghormatan bawahan terhadap atasan, seperti kesungkanan suehiro terhadap ito, suehiro menggunakan percakapan bahasa sopan dan hormat atau disebut dengan honorifiks, dalam bahasa jepang disebut keigo 敬語, mengandung arti bahasa sopan. berdasarkan informasi dari informan yang diwawancarai, dalam percakapan yang dilakukan suehiro terhadap ito「いよ いよあかんらしいです。」adalah bentuk penghalusan dari kalimat「だめ!!」. perubahan ini, pertama secara leksikal adalah gaya perubahan pengungkapan atau pernyataan dari kalimat yang sesungguhnya, semula(だ め) menjadi bentuk sopan berupa (いよいよあかん らしいです。). kedua secara sintaksis ( gramatikal) semantik, penggunaan (だめ。)bermakna kalimat pernyataan/ kalimat berita tegas, menyatakan berita dengan keyakinan tinggi dan tegas. perubahan (だ め) menjadi(いよいよあかんらしいです。) , menjadikan iyo iyo akanrashiidesu kalimat berita sopan, menyatakan pernyataan yang bersifat sopan. pengunaannya ditujukan untuk menunjukkan perasaan hormat dan kesopanan yang hendak disampaikan oleh suehiro kepada ito karena suehiro sedang menyampaikan sebuah berita yang sangat penting yaitu bank kogin sepertinya akan ditutup. karena ini adalah hal yang sangat sensitif maka suehiro mengungkapkan dengan kalimat yang sopan. jika suehiro menggunakan 「だめ」ini berarti bahwa kalimat berita akan terasa tegas dan sangat mengagetkan. agar ito tidak terlalu kaget, suehiro mengganti pembicaraannya karena suehiro sangat menghormati ito. seperti yang telah diuraikan di atas, untuk menjaga perasaan ito, suehiro berbicara dengan suara berbisik meski dengan mimik muka tegang. 65analisis gaya bahasa... (rudi hartono manurung) ini dilakukan untuk menghindari ungkapan perintah, permohonan dan ajakan secara langsung. oleh karena itu sebaiknya digunakan ungkapan yang tidak secara langsung di ungkapkan atau ungkapan yang di buat berputar putar. dengan melihat perubahan 「だめ」menjadi 「いよい よあかんらしいです。」mengedepankan rasa hormat dan sopan. perubahan「だめ」menjadi 「いよいよ あかんらしいです。」yang bersifat eksplisit itulah yang termasuk dalam gaya enkyokuhou dan enkyokuhou yang muncul disini dalam bentuk kotobano iikae yaitu mengganti penggunaan kata atau kalimat. bagan pembuktian penggunaan enkyokuhou pada 「いよいよあかんらしいです。」dapat dilihat seperti berikut: gambar 6 bagan pembuktian yang mengganti perkataan 「mengganti dengan kata kata yang lain ( benda maupun peristiwa)」 keterangan : ini adalah unsur unsur yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou ini adalah keterangan teoritis yang terlibat didalam proses terjadinya enkyokuhou simpulan pada penelitian ini ditemukan enam penggunaan enkyokuhou. enkyokuhou menekankan pada perubahan kata dari bentuk biasa joutai 常体 menjadi bentuk honorifiks keitai 敬体 sehingga peryataan, permintaan dan penolakan dan lain lainya menjadi lebih lembut dan sopan. berbeda dengan engkyokuhou yang menekankan pada perubahan bentuk, ada enkyokuhou yang perubahannya bukan pada bentuk kata tetapi pada kalimatnya benar benar menggantikan kalimat bentuk biasa menjadi bentuk sopan seperti pada contoh berikut ini 総裁一人だけお 辞めになるというのはおかしい。 menjadi 総裁一 人だけお辞めになるというのはおかしくありませ んか。. perubahan kalimat yang sebelumnya berbentuk biasa menjadi bentuk sopan ini terjadi karena adanya kesungkanan, rasa hormat dari bawahan terhadap atasan. perubahan kata atau kalimat yang sebelumnya berbentuk biasa menjadi bentuk sopan yang terjadi karena adanya kesungkanan, rasa hormat inilah yang memunculkan gaya bahasa enkyokuhou. adapun pengelompokannya sebagai berikut: (1) enkyokuhou perubahan bentuk yaitu pertama enkyokuhou yang menekankan pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「klaim/ tuntutan」(文の形を変え る「主張」), kedua enkyokuhou yang menekankan pada perubahan bentuk kalimat 「permintaan」(文の 形を変える「依頼」). (2) enkyokuhou perubahan kalimat yaitu pertama, enkyokuhou yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan「permintaan yang pasif」(思っていることを直接言わない「消極 的(しょうきょくてき)な依頼(いらい)」)kedua, enkyokuhou yang tidak langsung mengatakan apa yang dipikirkan 「sindiran」(思っていることを直接言 わない「皮肉」), ketiga enkyokuhou yang mengganti perkataan「mengganti dengan kata kata yang lain ( benda maupun peristiwa)」(ことばの言い換え「あるもの やことを、別のことばで表現しています」). daftar pustaka chen. (1995). asian management systems: chinese, japanese and korean styles of business. routledge: thomson learning. kuwabata. (1976). gendai nihongo. tokyo: asahi shinbunsha. nakane. (1970). japanese society. california: university of california press. nazir. (1988). metode penelitian. jakarta: ghalia 66 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 indonesia. saronto. (2005). gaya manajemen jepang berdasarkan asas kebersamaan dan keakraban. jakarta: hecca publising. sutedi. (2009). penelitian pendidikan bahasa jepang. bandung: humaniora utama press. ueno, t. (1990). nihongo kyoiku handobukku. tokyo: taishukan shoten. zaimar. (2002). makara. sosial humaniora, 6(2). *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 121 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 121-133 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7319 cultural representation in efl textbooks for the seventh graders: a multimodal analysis fransiska prihatiningsih1; ismail petrus2*; sary silvhiany3 1,2,3master of language education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, sriwijaya university jl. raya palembang-prabumulih, indralaya ogan ilir 30662, sumatera selatan, indonesia 1fikacempaka80@gmail.com; 2ismailpetrus@yahoo.com; 3ssilvhiany@unsri.ac.id received: 05th may 2021/revised: 28th june 2021/accepted: 01st july 2021 how to cite: prihatiningsih, f., petrus, i., & silvhiany, s. (2021). cultural representation in efl textbooks for the seventh graders: a multimodal analysis. lingua cultura, 15(1), 121-133. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7319 abstract the research aimed to investigate a types of cultures represented in the efl textbooks for the seventh graders. two efl textbooks were analyzed: ‘when english rings a bell’ and ‘english on sky 1’. the research applied a qualitative content analysis as method and kress and van leeuwen’s multimodal social semiotic approach as the technique of analyzing data. the result reveals that imbalances in the representation of cultural types exist. source culture is represented more dominantly compared to target and international culture. it implies that both the authors and the publishers of the textbooks prioritize the learners’ identities construction and characters education rather than focus on the use of language as the lingua franca. consequently, it could constrain the opportunities for learners to acquire international cultural knowledge and become successful intercultural communicators. therefore, english teachers need to take an active role in selecting appropriate textbooks and adding supplementary materials or activities to patch up the shortcomings of the textbooks. keywords: culture representation, efl textbook, multimodal analysis introduction it is an absolute fact that language and culture are inseparable parts. their relationship is so close so that they are defined as synonyms. on the one hand, language is used to convey ones’ cultural feelings, values and interact with others; on the other hand, culture is rooted in the language. brown (2000) has summarized the interconnected interaction between language and culture by saying that a language is a component of culture, and culture is a component of language. these two are so intimately associated that they cannot be separated without losing either language or cultural meaning. the language-cultural relationship implicitly affects language learning that means learning of both language and culture, and a language cannot be learned without its culture since it is the essential context for language usage (ayu, 2020; husain, zuhri, & musfirah, 2021; rahmah, kasim, & fitriani, 2018; wahyuni et al., 2019). therefore, the acquisition of cultural awareness is necessary for success in language learning (lee & li, 2020). an individual who learns a language before learning culture can breach cultural norms, leading to misunderstanding (sulistiyo et al., 2021). inserting cultural aspects of language teaching and learning offers resources for students to experience the world from another’s viewpoint. it can prepare students for better and well-informed national and international life. it can thus enhance their acceptance and understanding between cultures, minimize their prejudice, enhance their awareness of other cultures, and allow them to interact properly and efficiently in different communicative situations (ghafor, 2020; sulistiyo et al., 2021). however, to understand and respect other cultures and reflect learners’ own cultures with other cultures, learners need first to understand and respect their own cultures. understanding own culture is important to build learners’ identity. according to woodward (as cited in amalia, 2014), identity gives someone a place in the world and functions as a bond between someone and the community in which he/she resides, as well as providing insight into who they are and how they contribute to others and the world in which they live. in other words, learners can know who they are and act as whom they are when communicating with other 122 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 121-133 people, especially with other cultures. thereby, it allows people to interact appropriately and effectively in a variety of communicative ways. the ability to communicate in various contexts will lead them to acquire the global competence required to live in the 21st century. meanwhile, the relationship between language and culture becomes more important in efl (english as first language) teaching, and learning as the phenomenon in english language teaching (elt) is transitioning from communicative competence to intercultural communicative competence. because of the effects of globalization, elt can transcend national and ethnic borders and be seen in a globalized and broader context (risanger, 2018). the position of english as an international language (eil) necessitates reforms in the elt culture dimension. it is supposed to teach students how to use english as a lingua franca while also developing their intercultural sensitivity and understanding (stevanović, 2018). the intercultural communicative approach enables english users to make sense of culture. english educators must also reconsider the cultural dimension of elt, whose culture and what culture should be included in the efl curriculum, what priorities should be set for culture instruction, and how should culture-related resources be designed and selected. it is proposed that more cultural diversity and non-mainstream communities be included in elt teaching as part of the phenomenon of english as a global language. responding to this trend development of elt, in the indonesian context, the design of the 2013 curriculum is a result of the fact that indonesia faces the respective years of the global society and their contentious challenges. for this reason, as the curriculum’s main objective is to empower indonesian learners to be able to behave as individuals and citizens who are committed, productive, imaginative, innovative, responsive, and able to contribute to the life of the community, country, state, and global civilization (setyono & widodo, 2019; widodo, 2016), the english part must support the major goal of the curriculum. after learning english, the learners are expected to be able to interact with others in various contexts of communication (putra, rochsantiningsih, & supriyadi, 2020). it can be inferred that to reach this goal; the learners must be empowered with intercultural communicative competence. the ability to share insights effectively with different communities in an accessible, relevant, and productive cross-cultural interaction will finally lead to the acquisition of global competence (oecd, 2018). due to that, students should be exposed to various cultures (mckay, 2002; prihatiningsih, 2020; uzum et al., 2021), which according to (cortazzi & jin, 1999), can be classified into source culture, target culture, and international culture. source culture is a culture drawn from the learners’ own culture, which intends to allow learners to preserve their own identity even while communicating with other people in the same language as they do in their mother tongue. the target culture is the culture of englishspeaking countries where english is spoken as the first language. mckay (2002) has specifically described the implications of target culture materials for esl/ efl learners by demonstrating how content relevant to the target culture can be understood differently by learners who are not used to the culture. nonetheless, target culture provides contexts for all of the sociocultural settings in which a learner would be required to use the target language. it facilitates the processes of communicating in a foreign language, learning new vocabulary in a foreign language, and producing it. while, international culture is a culture that reflects a wide range of cultures from both english-speaking and non-english-speaking countries. the presumption of the modern status of english as international language (eil), a means of communication used by many people around the world with various mother tongues that has an effect on international culture materials. consequently, international culture materials that reflect a variety of contexts through the usage of eil can assist learners in identifying the various ways in which english can be used globally, as well as examples of cross-cultural pragmatism in which billing consumers of english rely on their own rules of acceptability (ariawan, 2020). in light of the necessity to equip efl learners with communicative competence to cope with the variety and complex social contexts, teaching materials must be designed to include cultural and intercultural elements as well as relevant pedagogical strategies. among several teaching resources, a textbook is the most favorite use, especially in indonesia, regarding their practicality and effectiveness in serving as the basis for language input in the classroom. the textbook can function as a resource. it provides a classroom with texts, explanations, activities, or tasks (ayu, 2020; sulistiyo et al., 2021; teo & kaewsakul, 2016), which can be adopted and adjusted based on the needs. a textbook can also perform as a map. this offers an outline of a standardized curriculum of linguistic and cultural elements, showing the field to be undertaken by teachers and learners, and synthesizing previous lessons’ behavior so that it assists teachers and learners in understanding the objectives of the course and all classroom activities (cortazzi & jin, 1999; nordlund, 2016). more specifically, in the context of the current research, textbooks depict cultural information through the use of visual, text, and task styles that tend to be possible to transmit cultural awareness to students either consciously or unconsciously so that students might possibly grow into international or global citizen (huang, 2019; qodriani & kardiansyah, 2018). studies on english as a foreign language (efl) textbooks have concentrated on how cultural content is portrayed in the textbooks over the last five years (arslan, 2016; hodkinson, ghajarieh, & salami, 2018; kiss, 2017; li, dong, & duan, 2019; sahraee, 2018; su, 2016; teo & kaewsakul, 2016). the research body is primarily situated in asia (e.g., china, iran, taiwan, cambodia, thailand) and europe (e.g., turkey). in 123cultural representation in efl .... (fransiska prihatiningsih, et al.) these previous studies, cultural representations in terms of types of cultures, identity representation, cultural elements, cultural representation of disability, gender, and intercultural communicative competence are analyzed. what can be drawn from these previous studies is that english textbooks have a strong tendency to favor certain cultures, ethnicities, cultural elements, or religions. from these previous studies, it is also known that textbooks can be media to promote certain agendas such as transmitting ideologies, facilitating disability students into the mainstream school, or attaching intercultural communicative competence into the elt. meanwhile, in the indonesian context, studies focusing on cultural representations in english textbooks are also growing in numbers (gunantar, 2017; mayangsari, nurkamto, & supriyadi, 2018; putra, rochsantiningsih, & supriyadi, 2020; setyono & widodo, 2019). most of these previous studies have shown a tendency to represent the learners’ culture in the textbooks published by local publishers. gunantar (2017) has revealed that the material contained in the english textbooks included the subject of indonesian culture when investigating the cultural aspects and depicting the cultural value in english language textbooks for junior high school in indonesia. the majority of the topic focuses on indonesian history, and it is regarded as an important method of teaching english to indonesian learners. correspondingly, mayangsari, nurkamto, and supriyadi (2018) have analyzed how culture is used in english textbooks for eighth-grade students in indonesia by examining the cultural aspects in the textbook. using the content analysis method, the research reveals that this textbook has already discussed the cultural dimensions and analyzed them in different facets of culture well, even though it has paid little attention to exploring the target culture. the dominant representation of indonesia and english-speaking countries in senior high school english textbooks is also reported in putra, rochsantiningsih, and supriyadi (2020), who scrutinized the manifestation of cultures and intercultural interactions in textbooks for twelfthgrade by employing cultural content and intercultural interaction analysis. it is reported that the textbooks mostly demonstrate intercultural interactions in fragmented, limited, and superficial ways. in the same vein, setyono and widodo (2019) have analyzed multiculturalism in an english textbook for indonesian secondary school students and how these concepts could affect the students’ intercultural competence. the findings reveal four values contained in the investigated textbook, namely respecting diversity (pluralism), respecting the indigenous people’s rights, experiencing peace with nature, and increasing the value of cultural products. despite having sufficient multicultural topics, the textbook still underrepresented cultural materials from asian and african countries. according to these studies, analyzing culture in efl textbooks is a highly contentious topic. however, only a few focused on how culture is portrayed in indonesian english textbooks, especially for seventh graders. selecting textbooks for grade seven, which is the first level for indonesian students to learn efl at school officially, is also worth considering compared to other levels. it is a critical age when students start to build their identity. at the same time, it is necessary to start preparing them for cross-cultural communication in the future. furthermore, these previous studies define culture by adopting a simplistic approach of documenting by categorizing the nation-specific cultural referents without describing how to uncover the cultural manifestation. they take cultural content as fixed in textbooks. on the other hand, cultural meaning is socially produced in different social contexts and interactions, and a sign, as the fundamental unit of semiotics, appears in all modes as a combination of form and meaning. furthermore, while most textbooks use multimodal texts, none of the previous studies use multimodal analysis to yield data by emphasizing various channels of modes such as visual, verbal, and activities. considering the benefits of cultural manifestation in efl textbook and the gaps in the technique of analyzing data and expanding empirical study focusing on the cultural representation on english textbooks, multimodal analysis of cultural representation in efl textbooks, which are in the national scope and published by the trusted publishers especially for the seventh graders need to be undertaken. hence, two research questions guiding the research are (1) what types of cultures are represented in the efl textbooks for the seventh graders? and (2) how are the cultural meanings represented in visual and verbal modes of textbooks? it is expected that the result of the research will give a contribution to the pedagogical aspect as it can give input for the efl teachers in selecting textbooks based on cultural content consideration. methods a qualitative content analysis is applied as a research design as it requires a subjective analysis of text data content through a sequential classification system of coding and defining regularities. the types of culture presented in the textbooks are classified based on cortazzi and jin’s framework; source culture, target culture, and international target culture. in the research, two efl textbooks are the source of the data. the first is when english rings a bell revised edition 2017 for grade seven. this book is written by siti wachidah, asep gunawan, diyantara, and yuli khatimah that is published by kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. the second one is english on sky 1 for smp/mts vii, written by mukarto, widya kiswara, sujatmiko, and josephine, and published by erlangga publisher. both books are identified because they are in the national scope and published by reputable publishers and employ the 2013 curriculum that emerged due to globalization and accelerated technological transition. 124 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 121-133 furthermore, as textbooks can be classified into multimodal texts, the authors present the meanings through verbal and visual modes. due to that, uncovering the meaning of multimodal analysis is the most effective to get a more profound understanding. regarding the research, the multimodal social semiotic approach is applied as the technique for analyzing data. in social-semiotic theory, meaning is generated in various contexts and interactions, while a symbol, as the significant resource of semiotics, appears in all modes as a combination of form and meaning (bezemer & kress, 2008). kress and van leeuwen’s (2006) five presentation theoretical perspectives are used to analyze what verbal and visual texts reflect. focalization, affect, pathos, ambiance, and graduation are the elements. focalization refers to the viewpoint through which the story is presented. when examining the model through the lenses of affect and pathos, they focus on the emotional effects that the visual or verbal attempt to elicit in the reader. the use of colors in the visual text, as well as the ambiance, are examined. according to kress and van leeuwen (2002), color is a semiotic model that can represent three metafunctions: ideational (appearance of things), textual (showing contrasts), and interpersonal (indicating an emotional effect on viewers). when it comes to textual analysis from the graduation standpoint, the purpose is to assess the analytic value (adverb-based evaluation) of the texts and images, as well as their explanations. in addition to multimodal analysis, frequency analysis is also used to see the percentages of types of cultures presented in textbooks. results and discussions figure 1 shows the results of types of cultural analysis in both the textbook when english rings a bell (werb) and english on sky 1 (eos 1). figure 1 types of cultural distribution figure 1 clearly shows that source culture (indonesian culture) is usually presented throughout the textbook when english rings a bell revised edition 2017 for grade seven. it takes 88% of the whole proportion. despite the fact that source culture predominates in terms of cultural forms, target culture is given a fair share of attention in this textbook. as many as 12% of target cultures are represented in this textbook. unfortunately, international culture is not represented in this textbook. there is not any evidence on how international culture is portrayed in this textbook. unlike when english rings a bell revised edition 2017 for grade seven, the textbook english on sky 1 for smp/mts vii demonstrates a distinct pattern of cultural representation. figure 1 clearly shows that source, target, and international target cultures are all portrayed in eos 1. source culture is represented as many as 73% of the whole. while target and international target cultures take respectively 20% and 7% of the whole types of culture. meanwhile, cultural meaning represents in both visual and verbal modes of the textbooks. in textbook werb, source culture is presented by textbook characters portraying female and male students with different physical characteristics. six characters (figure 2) in the textbook are wearing white shirts, blue shorts for male students, blue skirts for female students, and blue ties. in the indonesian school context, a student wearing a white and blue uniform semiotically refers to the junior high school level. the characters in the textbook represent native indonesians as characterized by their skin tone, hairstyles, names, religion, and geographical location. edo, for instance, is a representative of papuan boys, where the vast majority of people have a darker complexion, curly hair, and are christian. udin, having fair skin and straight hair, depicts muslim boys from the western part of indonesia, where the majority of the population is muslim. while beni, who has straight hair and light skin, represents christian boys from eastern parts of indonesia or tionghoa descendants. female characters also represent in this textbook. siti, dayu, and lina are three female student characters. siti is a muslim girl from indonesia who dresses in an islamic style. dayu is a balinese hindu girl who wears a headband. lina illustrated as having brighter skin represents the tionghoa descendant with a ribbon in her hair. besides those six main characters, the other characters also appear to represent some geographical areas and ethnic groups in the source culture. figure 2 textbook characters in werb english rings a bell the names in figure 3 have nuances indicating particular areas and ethnic groups in indonesia. a 125cultural representation in efl .... (fransiska prihatiningsih, et al.) female character with long straight black hair named hasnida contains malay nuance. a malay ethnic group is one of the tribes that inhabit sumatera island. due to that, the name hasnida represents padang, one of the cities in sumatera. a male character with a family name pesolima is created to represent seram island. pesolima is one of the moluccan family names, which is used after the first name of the ambon or maluku people and is identical with the eastern part of indonesia. a female character with sundanese named dedeh fatima represents bandung, a city in west java. sundanese is a tribe that inhabits west java. then, a male character named max bae is created to represent east nusa tenggara, and a male character named azwar represents makassar, a city in south sulawesi. the way the address of these characters is written also reflected the indonesian culture. the use of rt and rw or neighborhood in the indonesian address writing system might not be recognized in the target or international culture. figure 3 characters representing indonesian geographical areas in werb source culture is represented almost in every chapter of this book and in line with every chapter’s topic or basic competence. in chapter 3, examples of source culture are found to convey content material about telling the time, date, day, and month. as seen in figure 4, national holidays and remembrance days commonly commemorated in indonesian society signify the source culture. as seen in figure 5, the indonesian class schedule is also included concerning content material about telling the time, date, day, and month. the english and religious subjects appearing twice a week or indonesian subjects that emerge three times a week in the schedule might talk more about the time allocation in the indonesian class schedule arrangement. it also indicates the 2013 curriculum. figure 4 indonesian national holidays in werb in chapter 4, to present content material about describing things, animals, and public places, three illustrations give a clue about indonesian culture. the first is figure 6, which illustrates the indonesian classroom condition. it is noticeable in an indonesian classroom from the wooden tables and chairs, seating arrangement, two pictures hung above the board, which are usually the pictures of the indonesian president and vice president. the second is figure 7. it is about figure 5 indonesian class schedule in werb figure 6 things in the classroom in werb 126 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 121-133 things found in a dining room, eating utensils and the food. plates of rice, spoons, and forks in figure 7 reveal the staple foods of indonesians and their eating habits. the third is figure 8, illustrating the things that can be found in a bathroom. though a shower and a sink are seen as parts of western-style bathing practice, the presence of a tub, a bucket, and a scoop in this illustration talk more about the indonesian bathing custom, which is different from the western one. indonesian cultural product is represented in speech bubbles on page 158. in these speech bubbles, dayu is having a talk with lina about mrs. herlina. dayu notices mrs. herlina dressed in batik and black pants, but lina comments that all the women in that place are dressed in batik and black pants. dayu provides lina with additional details of mrs. herlina, enabling lina to determine which one is mrs. herlina (p. 158). this discussion is about describing people by considering batik as traditional clothes worn by indonesians. although no cultural meanings are summed up in dayu and lina’s conversation, it indicates that the potential customers are supposed to identify batik as an indonesian cultural artifact. the source culture is also represented in the following images, which reflect indonesian society’s customs and viewpoint. the source culture is also represented in the following images reflecting indonesian society’s customs and viewpoint. the value of indonesian cultures permeates the text and pictures in textbooks, reflecting cultural behaviors such as politeness and discipline. first, when communicating with older people, students are required to demonstrate good behavior and gratitude. when shaking hands, students are required to lower their heads or kiss their parents’ or teachers’ hands (see pictures 3 and 4 in figure 9). this handshake routine is commonly done when a child leaves the house, comes home, or welcomes the teacher. this cultural practice is depicted in the discourse of the scenes of leaving for and returning from school. handshakes are used to show gratitude to parents or teachers. handshaking is interpersonal relationships between students and teachers and between children and their parents while lowering the head. it is normal and necessary in indonesia, regardless of geographic area, religion, or socioeconomic class. figure 9 source culture practices and perspectives in werb from a conventional perspective, attitudes toward gender roles in the light of cultural traditions are also seen. this point of view portrays women as caregivers who are concerned for the well-being and cleanliness of the house. picture 1 (figure 9) portrays siti and her mother in the kitchen cooking. in terms of gender stereotypes, it might be that positioning female characters in the kitchen is a common practice. indonesian males, on the other hand, have commonly been seen as breadwinners and family leaders. the primary responsibility of adult males in the family is to provide for the family’s needs. boys, in particular, figure 7 things in the dining room in werb figure 8 things in the bathroom in werb 127cultural representation in efl .... (fransiska prihatiningsih, et al.) are sometimes regarded as the heirs to their fathers. boys are typically assigned more physical house duties, such as repairing the family car, as illustrated in picture 2 (figure 9). despite the fact that source culture predominates in terms of cultural forms, target culture is given a fair share of attention in this textbook. the verbal analysis found that the two songs attached in this textbook represent the target culture. song lyrics may express history, judgments, and even conflicts about lifestyles, values, and appearances. the song is sometimes considered a more or less straightforward reflection of the society and culture in which it is produced. what a wonderful world is the first song attached in the last part of chapter 4 (p.96). louis armstrong sang this song, which was composed by bob thiele and george david weiss. as a singer can be categorized as a famous person, the figure can describe a particular culture where he belongs. armstrong was one of the first well-known african-american musicians to ‘cross over’ to widespread fame with white and global audiences. the songwriters expected that armstrong’s image would effectively express the song’s political message. this song was created as an antidote to restore hope for a better, harmonious, peaceful, and beautiful life in a multicultural country like america. listening to the lyrics carefully, verse by verse, the singer is delusional about a perfect fantasy world where there is only love among people in the world. “the colors of the rainbow, so pretty in the sky. are also on the faces, of people going by, i see friends shaking hands. saying, `how do you do?’ they’re really saying, i love you,” this stanza shows harmony regardless of skin color or political background. the second song is attached to chapter 8 (p.179), whose objective is to guide the learners to get the song’s message. the title is count on me, sung by bruno mars, an american singer, and songwriter. friendship is the topic of this song. it aims, more precisely, to relate to what true friends can do with their friends. furthermore, since this song includes prosocial lyrics, it may increase empathy and selflessness while decreasing hostile feelings. although this song has a universal theme, bruno mars, as the singer, may represent the target culture due to his identity. target culture is also represented in figure 10. it is about a dialogue between two married couples: a couple with black hair and a couple with blonde hair. a couple with black hair greets a couple with blonde hair. from the visual and verbal analysis, it is found out that a couple with black hair named mr. and mrs. adnan refers to an indonesian couple. meanwhile, one with blonde hair named smith indicates a target culture. smith is a surname that emerges from england. it is the most familiar last name in the united states, new zealand, the united kingdom, australia, and canada. the name refers to a smith, an old english word for anyone who works with metal. although the surname is derived from a particular profession, many later smiths have no relation to that occupation but are given or adopted the surname simply because of its pervasiveness. unfortunately, international culture is not represented in this textbook. there is not any evidence on how international culture is represented in this textbook. figure 10 target culture representation in werb the source culture in the textbook eos 1 is distinguished by the appearance of distinctive indonesian characters, as in the textbook werb. figure 11 shows that four characters are presented throughout the textbook. the first one is a girl wearing a long uniform with a hijab named atiqah. then, there is a slightly thin male character with black hair and wearing glasses named johan. binsar is illustrated as a fat boy with curly hair. the last one is a female character with black and long hair named thinneke. these names are common in an indonesian context. as a platform for social semiotics, character depictions, such as wearing a school uniform, as well as the characteristics of possessing straight or curly hair, wearing hijab or not, must be perceived socioculturally regarding real-life conditions of school populations in indonesia, which are constructed on the diversity in the community. school admission in indonesia is eligible to every indonesian resident who is able to fulfill the minimum qualifications, regardless of cultural background, religion, or gender. every indonesian citizen has equal legal rights and privileges. as a result, as demonstrated by the textbook characters, students in public and private schools come from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. figure 11 textbook characters in eos 1 some names characterizing certain regions in 128 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 121-133 indonesia are also presented in this textbook (pp.4445). for example, the name ‘ni luh’ is associated with bali. ‘ni’ is an article for the female gender and best suited for first names. it also means a female from a common family and casteless. while, the name ‘binsar’ is associated with medan, a city in north sumatera. batak is an ethnic group that inhabits north sumatera. another name is ‘cut yanti’, which refers to aceh, a province in sumatera island. ‘cut’ is an aristocratic title pinned to women of ‘ulebalang’ descent in aceh. it can only be pinned to girls whose father is a ‘teuku’ (aristocratic title for men) even though the mother is not of royal descent. the title ‘cut’ may not be used by women born to mothers whose title is cut but whose father does not have the title ‘teuku’. this naming system implies that acehnese society holds patriarchal culture. in short, the naming system like ‘ni luh’ and ‘cut’ is a semiotic source that represents the cultural system in certain regions in indonesia. indonesian figures are also portrayed by famous indonesian people in this textbook. they appear both in visual form and verbal descriptions presenting the source culture. names like raisa, evan dimas, and lesti andriyani are presented in chapter 7 to give examples to the learners on how to describe people. it can be seen from the bubble speech in figure 12 that the textbook characters are describing their idols. the physical appearance characteristics are described in verbal form and strengthened by the visual image shows that these public figures are indonesian natives and are well-known among indonesian society. ways of dressing up and religious perceptions also emerge as markers of the source culture. dressing formally for teachers and putting on the school uniform for students, as can be seen in figure 13, show a custom in the indonesian educational context. furthermore, in current indonesia, wearing a hijab contextually as an institutional dress code or as halal style is popular among muslim females. female muslim students in indonesian public and private schools can wear a hijab as an individual choice of attire and religious identity. this religious styling custom is legally protected. in indonesia, having a diverse faith view is also covered by the law. as shown in figure 14, atiqah, depicted as a muslim girl in this textbook, does not touch her male friend’s hands while greeting and shaking hands. in contrast, she does it while greeting and shaking hands with her female friend. touching while shaking hands with the same gender or not touching with the opposite one semiotically is a law in islam, a religion with the largest number of adherents in indonesia. the discussion on the law of shaking hands with the opposite gender results in different perspectives and practices among the adherents. having a diverse view and religious practices enriches indonesia’s plurality and are protected by statute. figure 12 indonesian famous people in eos 129cultural representation in efl .... (fransiska prihatiningsih, et al.) figure 13 ways of dressing up in eos 1 figure 14 religious perspective in eos 1 meanwhile, target culture is also represented in this textbook. the first representation is in the form of famous figures. from a bubble speech in figure 15, it is known that johan, a textbook character, is describing j.k. rowling, his idol. j.k. rowling is a famous british author. the visual image strengthens the verbal description of rowling’s physical appearance. the other famous figure is katy perry, an american singer. although there is a verbal description of her in the textbook, the learning task guides the learners to find out more about her. both rowling and perry signify the representation of the target culture due to their nationality. figure 15 famous figures in target culture in eos 1 the second representation is in the form of animal sound. a learning task in chapter 7 (p.179) assigns the learners to match the animal pictures with the sound. six animals: cow, dog, bird, cock, cat, and duck must be matched with six animal sounds: meow.. meow, woof..woof, quack..quack, tweet...tweet, cocka-doodle-do or moo..moo. the words for the sounds that animals make are onomatopoeias. the diversity of words used for animal sounds reflects a country or culture. if an animal is not typical or relevant in a certain country, the terminology used to define it reflects this. these sounds represent the target culture. the second representation is in the form of animal sound. a learning task in chapter 7 (p.179) assigns the learners to match the animal pictures with the sound. six animals: cow, dog, bird, cock, cat, and duck must be matched with six animal sounds: meow.. meow, woof..woof, quack..quack, tweet...tweet, cocka-doodle-do or moo..moo. the words for the sounds that animals make are onomatopoeias. the diversity of words used for animal sounds reflects a country or culture. if an animal is not typical or relevant in a certain country, the terminology used to define it reflects this. these sounds represent the target culture. the third representation is related to the attitude of the people in the target country towards their pets. from the verbal analysis of two descriptive texts on page 170, it is found out that people in the target countries treat their pets as their family members. they name their pets like they name people. because of that, the pronoun for a pet is not ‘‘it’’ but ‘‘she’’ or ‘‘he’’. this fact is also stated in an informative text on page 173. target culture is also reflected in the proverb “honesty is the best policy” (p.88). this proverb ensures that truthfulness is preferable to telling a lie, regardless of the consequences. honesty is valued in many ethnic and religious cultures, but its emergence will talk more about the history and represent the culture of its origin. sir edwin sandys, an english legislator who served in the house of commons between 1589 and 1626 and established the first american colony in jamestown, virginia, coined the term “honesty is the best policy.” international cultures appear only in chapter 1 of the textbook english on sky 1. the representations of international cultures are in the form of expressions, building, clothes and animals. from the verbal analysis of the three expressions: ohayo gozaimasu, guten morgen, and buenos dias representing respectively japan, germany, and spain (p.5), it is found out that these three expressions are used to greet in the morning. from the verbal analysis of three expressions (kamsahamnida, merci, syukron) in figure 16, it is found that the three expressions have the same meaning used to show gratitude. from the visual analysis, it is known that landmarks in the three images aim to provide clues about the languages the expressions are in. moreover, the appearance of these landmarks in this textbook gives knowledge for the learners about the countries where the landmarks are located and their culture as well. a landmark in image a is gyeongbokgung palace, located in south korea. a landmark in image b is the eiffel tower 130 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 121-133 which becomes a global cultural icon of france. while camels and desert as what can be seen in image c, are associated with arab countries. the existence of camels in arab countries represents the identity and retains essential to the country’s customs and cultural traditions. in the same vein, as shown in figure 17, instead of giving a hint of the languages used in the expressions, the four images represent cultures of the international target countries. four traditional clothes from four different countries are depicted in these images: kimono, from japan (image a), sari or saree from india (image b), flamenco dress from spain (image c), and cheongsam, traditional chinese clothes (image d). figure 16 landmarks represent international cultures in eos 1 figure 17 clothes from international culture in eos 1 the described findings indicate that the cultures of indonesia (source culture) and cultures of englishspeaking countries (target culture) are portrayed in the textbook werb. meanwhile, in the textbook of eos 1, source culture, target culture, and international target culture are represented. however, the proportion between the three types of cultures is not presented in balance. in both werb and eos 1, the source culture predominantly covers the types of culture in textbooks. these findings confirm the results of the previous studies conducted by gunantar (2017), mayangsari, nurkamto, and supriyadi (2018), setyono and widodo (2019), and putra, rochsantiningsih, and supriyadi (2020) revealed that textbooks released by local publishers are unbalanced in terms of supporting source, target, and international cultural materials. the source culture is overrepresented in cultural representation, while the target and international cultures are underrepresented. the tendency to load certain cultural contents, particularly in efl textbooks, is determined by several factors, including the authors, the policymaker (in this case, the government), who sets the curriculum, and the objective of language learning. writers are then responsible for interpreting what is aimed in the curriculum by the depictions of material in the textbooks they publish. due to that, representing source culture more dominantly than other cultures might be caused by possible reasons. the first reason is regarding the national character building. these textbooks are published in the spirit of the 2013 curriculum in which strengthening character education is the main feature. to some point, the government’s intention to integrate character development into the 2013 curriculum parallels the goal of studying root culture materials suggested by cortazzi and jin (1999) and mckay (2002). character education in elt can be greatly enhanced by using source culture materials. according to mckay (2002), as advocated by the government, this form of culture contains character education representations such as morals, discipline, nationalism, and tolerance. it is crucial for learners to learn their own culture. these character values embedded in the textbooks can help the learners to learn more about themselves as indonesians. on the other hand, integrating foreign cultures is assumed to inhibit the instilling of character values. the values that the indonesian government promoted may not be represented, such as religious and social care, in foreign cultures. furthermore, because language and culture are intertwined, it is assumed that alien concepts that do not match indonesian characteristics would be reflected in the language and may have a detrimental impact on the learners (sulistiyo et al., 2020). the second possible reason is related to the goal of learning a foreign language. as stated in the preface page of both textbooks, the final goal of learning a language is communication. therefore, the authors commit to facilitate the learners by providing various materials to help the learners develop their language skills. to do so, it is necessary to make an appropriation of material presented in the book to meet the learners’ contexts. the integration of learners’ cultural identities focuses on making english acquisition more accessible and inclusive for junior high school students in the early stages of foreign language acquisition. this is in line with what had been revealed by ariawan (2020) and mahmud (2019) in their studies. they have stated that presenting source culture will make the learners learn easier because they are familiar with it. it means that engaging learners with source culture knowledge are critical as a motivator for them to understand both the language and the culture. it intends to keep away from an excessive amount of international cultural 131cultural representation in efl .... (fransiska prihatiningsih, et al.) elements. as learners are familiar with the contents, they have a great chance to get more comprehensible input, which will enrich them with useful topics and vocabularies when introducing their own cultures to people from different cultures (mahmud, 2019; mckay, 2002). the results indicate that the textbooks have successfully implemented and developed the fundamental theory of curriculum 2013. according to the conceptual foundation, every curriculum development should take into account national culture, the current, and the future of the country. it means that this is the process of developing student potency. as a consequence, the learners can be culturally heredity. on the other side, as the target culture is underrepresented, it will lead to a cultural gap. focusing only on source culture and underrepresenting target or international culture can impede the learners in a situation where understanding others’ cultures are also demanded. target and international culture are expected to improve learners’ knowledge of the world and of foreign cultures, to introduce them to the most prevalent behavior patterns of the target populations, to encourage respect, acceptance, consciousness on one’s own culture, and to establish intercultural communication in a globalized world. since the learners learn english, it is a must for them to understand the target language’s culture. unfortunately, both of the textbooks published by the government and non-government publishers lack target cultural information. international target culture is only represented in a small portion of the textbook english on sky 1. it must be explained for the students to know that the objective of english learning is not only to communicate with english speakers but also to speak english with nonlingual speakers. by having all those various kinds of cultures, it is expected that the learners will be aware of the cultural knowledge of the language they use. sulistiyo et al. (2021) have mentioned that a person can become a successful intercultural communicator if they can build their ability to compare their home culture with other cultures around the world, analyze critically, and decode the result in verbal or non-verbal communication. in short, both the authors and the publishers of the two textbooks prioritize the learners’ identities construction and characters education rather than focus on the use of language as the lingua franca. conclusions as evidenced by the findings, imbalances in the representation of the types of cultures exist in the two textbooks. source culture is represented more dominantly compared to target and international culture. the fact that the textbooks are written, produced locally, and execute certain curriculum and hidden agendas might be the probable reasons behind this finding. the discussion in which source culture is more dominant implies that both the authors and the publishers of the two textbooks prioritize the learners’ identities construction and characters education rather than focus on the use of language as the lingua franca. in this respect, the dominance of source culture in the textbooks could constrain the opportunities for learners to acquire international cultural knowledge and become successful intercultural communicators. therefore, english teachers need to take an active role in selecting appropriate textbooks and addressing the imbalances in the representation of cultural materials. teachers should be creative in adding supplementary materials or activities to patch up the shortcomings of the textbooks. future researchers could be conducted to examine the teachers’ perception and strategies in dealing with the cultural representation and intercultural communicative competence in efl textbooks. it is also recommended that future researchers discover the learners’ beliefs and preferences regarding the cultural representation in the textbooks as well as the impact on their learning motivation. references amalia, s. 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(2016). language policy in practice: reframing the english language curriculum in indonesia secondary sector. in r. kirkpatrick (ed.), english education policy in asia (pp. 127-151). new york: springer. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 199 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 199-206 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7613 linguistic creativity of the indonesian for foreign speakers (bipa) students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels rahmi yulia ningsih1*; zainal rafli2; endry boeriswati3 1language center, primary teacher education department, faculty of humanity, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir iii, no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 2,3 applied linguistics, postgraduate program, universitas negeri jakarta jl. r.mangun muka raya no. 11, rawamangun, jakarta timur 13220, indonesia 1rahmi.ningsih@binus.edu; 2zainal.rafli@unj.ac.id; 3endry.boeriswati@unj.ac.id received: 18th august 2021/revised: 13th october 2021/accepted: 13th october 2021 how to cite: ningsih, r. y., rafli, z., & boeriswati, e. (2021). linguistic creativity of the indonesian for foreign speakers (bipa) students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. lingua cultura, 15(2), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7613 abstract the research aimed to describe the forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. the research method used was descriptive qualitative with content analysis techniques. the research data were 78 sentences written by bipa students at bina nusantara university academic year 2020/2021. the results show that bipa students’ sentences have linguistic creativity in the form of the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels sentences. at the morphological level, the process of linguistic creativity in words is carried out by (1) inserting foreign terms into sentences, (2) using non-standard words, and (3) abbreviating words. while in phrases, linguistic creativity is done by (1) reversing the structure of the phrase, (2) forming nominal phrases with less common word pairs, and (3) forming nominal phrases by incorporating elements of student culture. at the syntactic level, linguistic creativity is carried out in the form of compiling compound sentences with the expansion of descriptions, expansion of objects, expansion of subjects, and expansion of predicates. at the semantic level, linguistic creativity is manifested in the form of the figure of speech: personification, simile, hyperbole, repetition, and metaphor. keywords: linguistic creativity, bipa, indonesian language, foreign speakers introduction the relationship between creativity and language learning is potentially two ways; creative people make language learning better, and language learning can foster creativity in people. in foreign language teaching, learning a new language fosters creativity in individuals because it leads them to restructure their world (ellis, 2016). a foreign language classroom is a great place for creative activities and expressing creativity. this is due to the three things; first, language is creative. second, students themselves bring a level of creativity as a character trait into the classroom, and so does the teacher. third, teaching materials and activities that may be designed around them have the potential to create creativity (pawlak, mystkowska, & wiertelak, 2018). several studies have discussed a lot about creativity in foreign-language speakers, especially related to applying creative teaching methods in foreign language learning (jones, 2020; chen, 2018). creative teaching methods in foreign language teaching are important factors in increasing students’ motivation. teachers need to choose teaching strategies, teaching materials, and creative teaching techniques to improve second language learning outcomes (rus, 2020). novikova et al. (2020) have examined the influence of creativity and personality on the success of learning a foreign language. the research shows that creativity indicators have a stronger but contradictory impact on 200 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 199-206 the level of foreign language proficiency compared to personality traits. the research suggests that teachers, most likely, lack knowledge on the manifestations of student creativity in the process of foreign learning (novikova et al., 2020). linguistic creativity is natural creativity bestowed on living things. linguistic creativity is the innate ability of the human person to produce an unlimited number of sentences from the storage of that person’s linguistic structure. rooted in the language environment of society, a person acquires the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of their language in building linguistic competence (mukalel, 2003). linguistic creativity in foreign language learning is evident in two different ways. first, students use the linguistic resources at their disposal to encode utterances in communication. because their linguistic resources are often limited, the resulting language learners tend to be ‘creative’. second, linguistic creativity is motivated by the human need to manipulate the environment and form and maintain social relationships (ellis, 2016). this linguistic creativity can occur in the indonesian for foreign speakers (bipa)'s students. bipa is an abbreviation of indonesian for foreign speakers, meaning indonesian language learning whose subjects are foreign students. indonesian is a foreign language for students, whether as a second language, third language, fourth language, and others. as a second language, things that need to be considered are the role of l1 individual linguistic knowledge in processing indonesian (b2), l2 student profiles such as age, length of stay in the l2 area, and l2 language ability (jiang, 2018). as with foreign language learning, bipa students can come from a first language background (l1) and different cultural backgrounds (ningrum, waluyo, & winari, 2017). bipa students are multicultural, heterogeneous, and different in terms of age, level of linguistics, religion, country of origin, learning objectives, and learning motivation (lopez, 2019; kusmiatun et al., 2017). bipa students are foreign students who already have sufficient knowledge and insight so that their needs are like those of adults, no longer the needs of children (rahmawati et al., 2019). for this reason, bipa learning is certainly different from learning indonesian for native speakers (ningrum, waluyo, & winari, 2017). based on the characteristics of bipa students, it can be assumed that linguistic creativity will often appear in bipa learning because they will use an intermediate language (the first language and the foreign language that they are learning). bipa students will try to transfer their knowledge in the first language into the second language quickly so that communication can be right on target, and that is when creativity happens. for this reason, this research will explain the forms of linguistic creativity in bipa students. the form of linguistic creativity is seen from the level of morphology, syntax, and semantics. linguistic creativity is the innate ability of the human person to produce an unlimited number of sentences from the storage of that person’s linguistic structure. rooted in the linguistic atmosphere of society, a person acquires the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of their language and builds linguistic competence. linguistic competence is the underlying linguistic structure that consists of language’s phonological, grammatical, and semantic rules (at the grammatical and usage level). herein lies the uniqueness of creatively produced sentences, and herein lies the speaker’s creative capacity (mukalel, 2003). linguistic creativity involves activities not only reproducing language but recreating, overhauling, and re-contextualizing linguistic and cultural resources (jones, 2020). g. durrell manifests several values of linguistic creativity in word formation (occasional joining), lexical use (use of professional language, figurative lexical, figurative names, higher register styles), and syntactic use (use of parallel structures and syntactic reinforcement) (kiose, 2021). shogy and ghonsooly’s (2018) research shows that learning a foreign language involves a variety of cognitive practices, such as operating two language systems or suppressing one system when the other system is active. in addition, foreign language learning also involves other cultures, beliefs, traditions, and value systems, thereby making students understand their own culture and other cultures from a different point of view. through this, divergent thinking and cognitive flexibility are strengthened. the pleasant atmosphere in foreign language institutions can also foster creativity (pawlak, mystkowska, & wiertelak, 2018). from a psycholinguistic point of view, second language acquisition (sla) research has developed a large number of theories to explain the l2 acquisition process. these can be broadly classified into three broad groups: (1) theories that view the acquisition as determined by the linguistic environment; (2) nativist theories that view the acquisition as an innate trait of the human mind; and (3) theories that explain acquisition as a complex interaction between environmental and cognitive factors. the behavioristic theory views learning as formed from habits. students are exposed to linguistic stimuli that elicit a response, which is then positively reinforced if true or corrected if false. behavioristic theory in language teaching emphasizes error avoidance and does not allow creativity in the learning process (ellis, 2016). mentalist theories draw heavily on chomsky’s notion of linguistic creativity. learning is essentially an internal, cognitive affair, with the linguistic environment playing only a very limited role. learners are naturally creative because they need access to comprehensible input. however, the problem is that l2 learners are too creative, so they tend to impose the rules of the target language and create their own unique rules making it difficult to back away from the rules they created themselves. if a behavioristic theory fails to take into account the creative instinct of learners, the mentalist theory allows too much room for creativity (ellis, 2016). 201linguistic creativity of the.... (rahmi yulia ningsih, et al.) emergentist theory of l2 acquisition offers a neutral position to explain the role that creativity plays in language learning. emergentist theory emphasizes that the linguistic system built by the learner is dynamic and self-regulating in a way that allows creative processes in the learner’s language (ellis, 2016). in the research, linguistic creativity will be seen from the uniqueness of the sentences produced creatively, starting from the level of morphology, syntax, and semantics. at the morphological level, the analysis process involves basic components or basic forms, forming tools (affixes, duplications, compositions), and grammatical meanings (gani & arsyad, 2018). at the syntactic level, the analysis process involves syntactic functions in indonesian such as subject, predicate, object, adverb, and complement (s-p-o-ket-pel). these syntactic tools include word order, attachment of elements to form construction, intonation, and function (inderasari & agustina, 2017). the structure of syntactic functions in clause sentences is considered complex, so errors are easy to find in foreigners or bipa students (naufalia, 2019). at the semantic level, the analysis process involves meaning relations, especially connotative meanings. by referring to linguistic and psycholinguistic theory, it will explain the forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students and how linguistic creativity processes. methods the research aims to describe the forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. the research method applied is a qualitative descriptive method with analytical techniques, namely a research methodology that utilizes a set of procedures to draw valid conclusions from a book or document (moleong, 2004). the documents used as objects of the research are 19 essays by bipa students at bina nusantara university 2020/2021. from 19 essays by bipa students, the research sample is taken in the form of 78 sentences written directly by students. table 1 analysis of the forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels data linguistics creativity for bipa students at the morphological level word phrase no creativity data forms of linguistics creativity for bipa students at the syntax level sub ject expansion predicate expansion ob ject expansion ad verb expansion complementary expansion no creativity data forms of linguistics creativity for bipa students at the semantic level personification simile hyperbole repetition metaphor no creativity the procedure for data collection and analysis includes: (1) the lecturer displays four pictures, and each picture contains one word, then students are asked to write each word into several indonesian sentences (one sentence is written directly within 10 minutes); (2) the data are sorted by serial number by omitting the respondent’s name; (3) data based on the analysis can be seen in table 1; (4) interpretation of data and interpretation with psycholinguistic theory; (5) data into research findings. results and discussions to know the linguistic creativity of bipa students, bipa teachers first carry out creative learning activities. the activity starts from listening to the teacher read a short story directly with expressions and pictures. the teacher explains the difference between fictional and nonfiction language. the teacher narrates pictures in fiction and nonfiction. as a repetition, the teacher uses a mentimeter application. when given a blank sentence, many students cannot answer. however, when students are given a picture and asked to write about the image, almost all students give long answers on the mentimeter application. the results of this observation indicate that students’ creativity emerges when they have the opportunity to communicate more freely than they should be limited by directed exercises (ellis, 2016). then, to see the form of linguistic creativity of bipa students, the teacher gives four pictures with writing: (1) the word kampung halaman/hometown (picture 1 is the picture of china); (2) the word ‘indonesia’ (picture 2 is the pictures of indonesia’s natural beauty – belitung islands and mount bromo – tours that have been visited by bipa students); (3) the word ‘binus’ (picture 3 is a photo of cooking and studying together at binus); (4) the word teman/ friend (picture 4 is photos of bipa students together with indonesian students). of the four words (kampung halaman, indonesia, binus, and teman), students are asked to write down what is on their minds regarding the four words. students are given 40 minutes to write about the word into several sentences. this kind of activity was once carried out by choi (2016), an exchange of students from japan and china, who studied language and culture at the university of sydney. this activity also gives students the freedom to write sentences in a second language (choi, 2016). table 1 analysis of the forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels (continued) 202 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 199-206 this activity is then adapted and modified in bipa learning. of the 19 bipa students who take part in this activity, 78 sentences are obtained with the following findings that can be seen in figure 1. the results show that sentences written by bipa students show linguistic creativity in the form of linguistic creativity at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. the research (figure 1) also tries to compare the findings of this research with the results of the bipa proficiency test held at bina nusantara university, as shown in figure 2. figure 1 percentage of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels figure 2 percentage of bipa proficiency test results based on the percentage of bipa proficiency test results, it is known that the indonesian language skills of binus year 2020/2021 students are at the basic level (a1–a2) with 47%, and another 53% are at the intermediate level (b1–b2). the percentage level of indonesian language proficiency of bipa binus students is not much different from the percentage of linguistic creativity of bipa students. the findings of the research assume that linguistic creativity may occur in intermediate-level bipa students. however, this certainly requires further research regarding the relationship between the level of indonesian language skills of bipa students and the linguistic creativity of bipa students. for more detailed data on the linguistic creativity of bipa students can be seen in table 2. the subject of the research is bipa students who have lived for one year to study in indonesia. of the 78 sentences written by bipa students, it is found that the sentences written by bipa students are themed on love (25 sentences), longing (17 sentences), friendship (18 sentences), and memories (18 sentences). this shows that when the word kampung halaman is mentioned, psychologically, bipa students immediately associate it with longing. when the word ‘indonesia’ is mentioned, psychologically, bipa students immediately associate it with love and affection for indonesia. when the word ‘binus’ is mentioned, a place where bipa students study, psychologically, bipa students immediately associate it with memories. when the word sahabat/ best friend is mentioned, psychologically, bipa students immediately associate it with the meaning of friendship. the findings of the research indicate the function of language as a means of self-expression. longing for hometown, love for indonesia, memories, and friendships that exist in indonesia are things stored in the hearts and minds of bipa students. first is linguistic creativity at the morphological level. morphology is a part of linguistics that studies the intricacies of words, including their formation or changes, such as words and parts of words or morphemes. the object of morphological study is morphological units, morphological processes, and tools in the morphological process. the units of morphology are morphemes (roots or affixes) and words. the morphological process involves components, including basic components or basic forms, forming table 2 forms of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphology, syntax, and semantic levels 78 data linguistics creativity for bipa students at the morphological level word phrase no creativity 11 25 42 forms of linguistics creativity for bipa students at the syntax level subject expansion predicate expansion object expansion adverb expansion complementary expansion no creativity 3 2 7 27 39 forms of linguistics creativity for bipa students at the semantic level personification simile hyperbole repetition metaphor no creativity 11 21 4 2 5 35 203linguistic creativity of the.... (rahmi yulia ningsih, et al.) tools (affixes, duplications, compositions), and grammatical meanings (gani & arsyad, 2018). at the morphological level, the research results can be seen in figure 3. figure 3 percentage of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the morphological level based on figure 3, it is known that 32% of bipa students’ linguistic creativity occurs when composing phrases, and 14% occurs when composing words in indonesian. forms of linguistic creativity at the level of phrases such as: di mata depanku, tumpang tindih, biji dandelion, cita rasa, mengaburkan neon, kayaknya, dada yang murah hati, samudera biru, sekuat emas, serpihan surga, orang-orang yang hangat, sepotong gula, budaya yang misterius, orang-orang intim, menawan, budaya yang kuno, pelipis putih, anggur kuno, after taste, hujan musim semi, betapa bagus, capai yang pedas, kopi yang bagus, orang yang manis, air laut yang biru, pulau-pulau seribu, sungai air, dan tanah airku. creativity in the learner’s language can occur when students use the linguistic resources, they have to encode the utterances in communication. because their linguistic resources are often limited, the resulting learner’s language tends to be ‘creative’ in the sense that it often does not conform to the patterns and rules of the target language. however, when this happens, learners are not intentionally trying to be creative (ellis, 2016). this theory can be seen from the linguistic creativity process carried out by bipa students. the process of linguistic creativity at the word level is carried out by (1) inserting foreign terms into sentences such as ‘after taste’; (2) using non-standard words such as tak and kayaknya – may occur due to environmental factors; and (3) abbreviating words such as slg, no, byk – may occur due to environmental factors. while at the phrase level, linguistic creativity is carried out by (1) reversing the structure of phrases like di mata depanku, pulau-pulau seribu, sungai air; (2) forming nominal phrases with less common word pairs such as dada yang murah hati, sepotong gula, budaya yang misterius, orang-orang intim, kopi yang bagus, orang yang manis; (3) forming nominal phrases by incorporating elements of student culture such as anggur kuno, budaya kuno, dan hujan musim semi. from the findings, it is known that the forms of words and phrases produced by bipa students come from the environment where students study and the environment in which they live or their culture of origin. the use of non-standard languages such as tidak and kayaknya, and abbreviated language such as slg, no, and byk are often heard and listened to in spoken and written indonesian conversations. meanwhile, cultural words that are included in indonesian sentences are words that are often listened to in chinese culture. the findings of the research support the concept of behavioristic learning theory. mcdonough in purba (2013) has suggested that the theories of behaviorism are used to acquire language that emphasizes the role of the environment in providing imitation and reinforcement stimuli and whether the reactions are positive or negative. dulay in purba (2013) has argued that the quality of the language environment is very important for a language learner to be successful in learning a new language. language environment can be divided into two categories; formal setting, which is formed by planning, and informal setting, which is formed naturally. the formal setting has an important role in the second language acquisition process, especially in the sequence of second language acquisition and the successful acceleration of second language acquisition. furthermore, the informal setting has an important role in the second language acquisition process, especially in the learner’s peer environment, parents, family, and foreign speaker environment (purba, 2013). the second is linguistic creativity at the syntactic level. chaer (2015) has stated that syntax describes or analyzes a language unit considered the ‘biggest’, i.e., sentence, which is elaborated on the clauses that make up the sentence. then the clause is elaborated on the phrases that make up the clause, and the phrase is broken down on the words that make up the phrase. the syntactic function will link words or phrases in the sentence, meaning that the function is related to the order of words or phrases in the sentence. the main syntactic functions in indonesian are subject, predicate, object, adverb and complement (s-p-oket-pel) (tarmini & sulistiawati, 2019). the form of linguistic creativity at the syntactic level can be seen in figure 4. figure 4 percentage of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the syntax level 204 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 199-206 the findings of the research indicate that 50% of bipa students are creative in composing compound sentences with the expansion of adverbs (35%), expansion of objects (9%), expansion of subjects (4%), and expansion of predicates (2%), as shown in figure 4. while the other 50% are single sentences. the following is an example of the linguistic creativity of bipa students at the syntactic level. (9) kampung halamanku seperti secangkir teh hijau, semakin lama saya menyeduh dalam hati saya, semakin kuat rasanya, semakin saya merindukan cita rasa kampung halamanku (compound sentences with adverb expansion). (25) aku merindukan kampung halamanku yang awan putihnya melayang dan udaranya menyebar harum sawah itu (compound sentences with object expansion). (72) cabai yang pedas, kopi yang bagus, orang yang manis adalah indonesia memiliki banyak kenangan bagiku (compound sentences with subject expansion). (78) persahabatan itu sangat indah dan luar biasa (compound sentences with predicate expansion). these findings prove chomsky’s theory that the grammatical rules of human language allow speakers to produce an unlimited number of sentences, even sentences that have never been heard before (jones, 2020). the ability of bipa students to compose sentences with clause expansion is a form of linguistic creativity possessed by foreign language students. the third is linguistic creativity at the semantic level. semantics is a discipline that studies meaning. various names of types of meaning have been put forward by linguists in various linguistic or semantic books: lexical, grammatical, contextual meanings (referential and non-referential meanings), connotative meaning, denotative meaning, conceptual meaning, and association meaning; the meaning of the word and the meaning of the term; and the meaning of idioms and proverbs (kusmana, 2014). the interesting thing from the findings of the research is that bipa students have started to write sentences with connotative meanings. bipa students inadvertently begin to use figurative language (as a form of meaning relation) in constructing sentences. this is where their linguistic creativity lies at the semantic level. in general, research findings on linguistic creativity at the semantic level can be seen in figure 5. based on figure 5, it is known that linguistic creativity at the semantic level produced by bipa students is carried out through figurative language: 14% of personification, 27% of simile, 5% of hyperbole, 3% of repetition, and 6% of metaphor. a simile figure of speech is a style of language that expresses explicit comparisons expressed by connecting prepositions such as ibarat, umpama, bak, laksana, etc. metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things directly, while hyperbole is a style of language that gives an exaggerated impression of reality to make it seem more. repetition figure of speech is a style of repeating the same words, phrases, and clauses so that in one sentence or article, it can be considered important to give emphasis. personification figure of speech is a style of language that describes an inanimate object with living human traits and character (yono & mulyani, 2017). the following is examples of the linguistic creativity of bipa students at the semantic level. (73) air laut yang biru menglindungi pulau-pulau seribu,orang-orang dari berbagai suku menglingdungi saya dengan niat baik, bagaimana mungkin aku tidak jatuh cinta pada indonesia? (the example of using personification figure of speech). (68) kenangan yang dibawa ke indonesia oleh saya seperti saus cokelat di dalam roti. ketika saya memikirkannya, saya pikir kita tidak dapat berpisah. (the example of using simile figure of speech). (34) sebagai negeri serpihan surga, indonesia berikanku berbagai kenikmatan dan memiliki banyak kenangan bagiku, aku tidak akan melupakan negara yang indah ini. (the example of using hyperbole figure of speech). (61) aku jatuh cinta pada indonesia, cinta pemandangan alamnya yang unik, cinta adat istiadatnya yang unik, cinta kehidupan yang tenang di sana, cinta semua hal di sana, seperti teh yang harum after taste tanpa akhir. (the example of using repetition figure of speech). (59) kampung halaman adalah anggur kuno, semakin lama tersimpan di hati saya, semakin lembut rasanya. (the example of using metaphor figure of speech). figure 5 percentage of linguistic creativity of bipa students at the semantic level from the 43 data containing figurative language, it is known that the form of figurative language in the sentences of bipa students is conveyed by parables of natural objects around them (such as bulan, bintang, sawah, langit biru, bintang, samudra dan langit malam); food and beverages (such as teh hijau, kopi, roti coklat); familiar objects in their country (such as biji dandelion, bunga matahari, lampu neon, anggur kuno); and the places they have visited in indonesia (gunung, laut, dan pulau seribu). this finding shows the role of behavioristic learning theory, which states that language acquisition emphasizes the role of the 205linguistic creativity of the.... (rahmi yulia ningsih, et al.) environment in providing imitation and reinforcement stimuli and whether the reactions are positive or negative (purba, 2013). conclusions the form of language assignments that can improve the linguistic creativity of bipa students is the form of open writing assignments, not in gaps, because when students have more unrestrained opportunities to communicate, it is more important than their linguistic behavior to be limited by controlled practice. from 78 sentences written by bipa students, it is found that sentences written by bipa students showed linguistic creativity in the form of linguistic creativity at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. these 78 sentences also show the function of language as a means of self-expression because the sentences written by bipa students are themed on love in indonesia (25 sentences), homesickness (17 sentences), friendship in indonesia (18 sentences), and memories in indonesia, and indonesian (18 sentences). at the morphological level, the process of linguistic creativity at the word level is carried out by (1) inserting foreign terms into sentences, (2) using non-standard words, and (3) using abbreviate words. meanwhile, at the phrase level, linguistic creativity is carried out by (1) reversing the phrase structure, (2) forming nominal phrases with less common word pairs, and (3) forming nominal phrases by incorporating elements of student culture. at the syntactic level, linguistic creativity is carried out in the form of compiling compound sentences with the expansion of adverbs, expansion of objects, expansion of subjects, and expansion of predicates. at the semantic level, linguistic creativity is manifested in the form of the figure of speech: personification, simile, hyperbole, repetition, and metaphor. the form of figurative language in the sentences of bipa students is conveyed by parables of natural objects around them. in addition, the research recommends further research that can be done, namely, about the relationship between the level of indonesian language skills of bipa students and the linguistic creativity of bipa students. references chaer, a. 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(2019). construction of test instrument to assess foreign student’s competence of indonesian language through objective test. international journal of instruction, 12(4), 35-48. https://doi.org/10.29333/ iji.2019.1243a. rus, d. (2020). creative methodologies in teaching english for engineering students. procedia manufacturing, 46, 337-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. promfg.2020.03.049. shoghi, s., & ghonsooly, b. (2018). learning a foreign language: a new path to enhancement of cognitive functions. journal of psycholinguistic research, 47(1), 125-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-0179518-7. tarmini, w., & sulistyawati, r. (2019). sintaksis bahasa indonesia. jakarta: uhamka press. yono, r. r. y., & mulyani, m. (2017). majas dan citraan dalam novel ’kerling si janda’ karya taufiqurrahman al-azizy. seloka: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 6(2), 200-207. https://doi. org/10.15294/seloka.v6i2.17286. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 143 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 143-149 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6465 indonesian eap students’ vocabulary level and size: an empirical investigation fenty lidya siregar* english department, faculty of language and cultures, maranatha christian university jl. surya sumantri no. 65, sukawarna, bandung, jawa barat 40164, indonesia fenty.siregar@outlook.com received: 21st may 2020/revised: 05th june 2020/accepted: 27th july 2020 how to cite: siregar, f. l. (2020). indonesian eap students’ vocabulary level and size: an empirical investigation. lingua cultura, 14(2), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6465 abstract the research aimed to know to what extent indonesian english for academic purposes (eap) students master high and midfrequency words (4.000-5.000). besides, it aimed to know the vocabulary size of indonesian eap students. to fill the gap, the research examined 128 indonesian eap students from two private universities in indonesia. to gather its data, the research employed the vocabulary level test of webb, sasao, & ballance, and the vocabulary size test of nation and beglar. the research findings indicate that the participants have not yet mastered the high-frequency words and the mid-frequency words from 4.000-5.000 word-families. the finding also reveals that the mean scores of the students’ vocabulary range between 6.000 and 10.000. it implies that the previous learning of the participants has not yet facilitated them to learn important vocabulary from 1.000 to 5.000 word-families. thus, although they have a big vocabulary size, they might face problems when trying to understand some texts. the research findings are expected to increase english teachers’ awareness in general and eap teachers’ awareness specifically of the importance of facilitating their students to learn high-frequency words. keywords: vocabulary level, vocabulary size, english for academic purposes (eap), indonesian eap students introduction english for academic purposes (eap) programs in indonesia are context-dependent. for example, the learning aim of english for economics might be students’ mastery of english grammar; however, the english for chemistry program’s goal might be students’ high toefl score (kusni, 2013). in the research of poedjiastutie and oliver (2017), some employers and teachers believe that reading is an important skill to develop because there is a need for students to be able to read english journals and books to support them in their studies and when they write their thesis at the end of their studies. although these eap programs’ objectives and the beliefs of the stakeholders are different, increasing students’ vocabulary knowledge seems to be the answer to make sure the different goals to be attained. as previous studies have found that vocabulary knowledge correlates with reading comprehension; therefore, it is a significant predictor of reading comprehension (laufer & aviad–levitzky, 2017; li & kirby, 2015; schmitt et al., 2017) and a good predicator for l2 proficiency (miralpeix & muñoz, 2018). vocabulary knowledge can also be used to predict students’ performance in productive language skills (kilic, 2019). although it is useful to know the students’ vocabulary knowledge to predict their language ability, the limited research on eap students’ vocabulary size and vocabulary level that focuses on high-frequency words is noticeable. regarding the vocabulary size of eap learners, an example is the research of khodabakhshi, daroonshad, and moini (2014) that investigates the vocabulary size of iranian eap students from three faculties (engineering, sciences, and humanities) at the university of kashan. it is found that the students of the engineering faculty obtain the mean score, which was 4.593,75 or the highest mean score. the mean scores of the students from the sciences faculty and the humanities faculty respectively are 3.188 and 3.432. in addition to that, the findings of the previous studies indicate that the high-frequency word knowledge of eap students is inadequate. for example, akbarian (2010) has investigated 112 iranian eap learner by measuring their receptive vocabulary knowledge. he has found 144 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 143-149 that only 24% of the participants have acquired the first 2.000 word-families. in other words, more than three-quarter of the students fail to master the words. in a similar vein, the research of cheng and matthews (2018) that examines 167 chinese eap students. it is found that they only know about 77% of the most frequent 2.000 word-families. recently, dang (2020) has investigated the rates of high-frequency words that present in academic spoken and written english as well as exploring 66 vietnamese eap students’ vocabulary knowledge of the words. the findings show that despite the fact that a significant role of high-frequency words presents in academic spoken english, most participants in the research have not yet mastered the words. in the indonesian context, studies on eap students’ vocabulary knowledge seem to be limited. only several previous research projects examine the vocabulary knowledge of indonesian english as a foreign language (efl) learners who major in english. also, most of them investigate either students’ highfrequency word knowledge or vocabulary size and do not examine both of them in a single research. the researches that examined efl students’ knowledge of high-frequency words reveal that most participants have not mastered high-frequency words. for example, kurniawan’s (2017) research has examined 290 efl undergraduates at uin raden intan. it reveals that 11 students of the participants have not yet mastered 1.000 word-level. sudarman and chinokul (2018) have examined efl students at kutai kartanegara university that also find that the participants have not yet mastered both 2.000 and 3.000 word-levels. thus, these studies’ findings are similar to the findings of other studies with eap students outside indonesia. regarding previous researches that examined indonesian efl students’ vocabulary size, the findings of these researches show that averagely the students’ mean scores are between 5.000 and 8.700. for example, the average vocabulary size of the efl students in the research of umam (2016) is 5.873 word-families. the highest and the lowest scores of the research participants, respectively, are 8.800 and 2.800 word-families. another research of kusumarasdyati and ramadhani (2018), which examines 216 efl students from the first to the fourth years, have found that the mean scores of vocabulary size of the first to the fourth-year participants respectively are 5.425, 5.641,8, 5.987,8, and 6.141,3 word-families. research by romadloni (2019) that researches the vocabulary size of 242 efl students have found that the average vocabulary size for the 2015-2018 batch respectively were 6.519,78, 7.028,13, 7.040,91, and 8.202,33 wordfamilies. in other words, the previous researches have found that averagely the students have a quite high vocabulary size. although having a big vocabulary size is important, clark and ishida (2005) have argued that it is important to pay attention to high-frequency words, and the students cannot learn ‘any random 5.000 words’. some previous researches have found that highfrequency words are important. recent research of noreillie et al. (2018) has revealed that knowing the first 1.000 and the second 1.000 most frequent word-family is crucial for l2 learners because they equal 91% and 97% coverage of a text. peters and webb (2018) have stated that when someone wants to understand 90% of the running words in the documentary, he/she needs to have 90% coverage of the most frequent 2.000 words. the research of dang, coxhead, and webb (2017) has found that 70% of the most frequent words in academic spoken english are from high-frequency words. the finding of the research of nurmukhamedov (2017) also corroborates the research of dang, coxhead, and webb (2017). nurmukhamedov (2017) has explained that before teachers use ted talks presentations, they need to ensure that their students have mastered the first 2.000 word-families because these words together with plus proper nouns and marginal words account for 92,17% coverage of the ted corpus that he examines. moreover, in masrai’s (2019) research, high and mid-frequency words are also found as important elements for l2 reading comprehension. liu and chen’s (2019) research has also found that students need to master 3.000-word families to reach 95% coverage of ted talks and know 6.000-word families to reach their 98% coverage. their findings indicate that to understand ted talks well, learners need to know high and mid-frequency vocabulary words. taken together, the findings of the previous researches that have been reviewed suggest that to be able to comprehend texts well, not only do eap students need to have a big vocabulary size, but they must have a good knowledge of high and midfrequency words. thus, having a big vocabulary size but not yet mastering high-frequency words will be ineffective. also, no researches have attempted to measure indonesian eap students’ vocabulary level and size in the same research, as mentioned earlier. therefore, the present research project aims to fill this gap. the research investigates the students’ vocabulary level as well as their vocabulary size. while the former is to know which frequency bands are required the most attention in the students’ learning later on, the latter is to identify learners’ lexical readiness. specifically, the research examines the vocabulary level and size of indonesian learners who enrolled in eap programs at two private universities in indonesia. the research questions are (1) to what extent do indonesian eap students master high and mid-frequency words (4.0005.000)? (2) what is the vocabulary size of indonesian eap students? methods in total, there are 128 students who participated in the research. they are second-semester students at two private universities in indonesia. there are 54 students that are from a university (pseudonym) majoring in management. furthermore, there are 74 students that are from b university (pseudonym) 145indonesian eap students’ vocabulary .... (fenty lidya siregar) majoring in business administration. in the research project, two vocabulary tests are employed as instruments for collecting data. the first instrument is the vocabulary level test (vlt) of webb, sasao, & ballance (2017). nation and waring (2019) has suggested that the test is an appropriate test for assessing students’ vocabulary level. this test is employed to get information about students’ vocabulary level (1.000-5.000). when creating vlt, webb, sasao, & ballance (2017) have used the british national corpus and corpus (bnc) of contemporary american english (coca). in the test, each level (1.000-5.000) has ten clusters. the students have to match the given definitions with three correct words (see table 1). the tests can be accessed at the following link https://vuw.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/ sv_6wrb5auvxjias6h?q_jfe=qdg. the test result is measured using the cutting points that webb, sasao, & ballance (2017) recommend. thus, the cutting point for mastering 1.000 to 3.000 word-level is set at 97%, or it is similar to 27 correct answers out of 30 questions. furthermore, mastering 4.000 and 5.000 word-levels is set at 80%, or it is similar to 24 correct answers out of 30 questions. the second test is the vocabulary size test (vst) of nation and beglar (2007). this test is widely used with many bilingual versions. however, there is no bilingual version in indonesian. thus, the research uses its english monolingual version. the test has two versions: 14.000 (a) or 20.000 (b). unlike the vlt contains words from coca and bnc, the vst only consists of word lists from bnc. the vst format is a four-option multiple-choice with an additional “i don’t know” choice that can be chosen if the test takers have never seen the word before. the question example is, “write: please write it here. then, it has to be matched with one of these choices: make words on paper; cut into pieces; make something better; move to a new place; and i don’t know.” the a and b tests respectively contain 140 and 100 questions. the tests can be accessed at the following link https://my.vocabularysize.com/. the correct answers in the former are multiplied by 100, and the correct answers in the latter are multiplied by 200 when counting the results of the tests. thus, 50 correct answers in the a test equal 6.000 words, but the b test equals 12.000 words. the research is assisted by the teacher of the courses to administer the vlt and the vst to the students, respectively. when doing the vst, the students are asked to count how many “i don’t know” option they made and how many guesses they made. after doing the tests, the students have to insert the information into a short demographic questionnaire. the information is valuable for interpreting the data. results and discussions in the research project, 128 eap students from two private universities in indonesia have completed two vocabulary tests: vocabulary level test (vlt) and vocabulary size test (vst). table 2 and 3 respectively present the results of the vocabulary level test at a university (au) and b university (bu). they answer the first research question about eap learners’ receptive vocabulary knowledge. overall, the findings from both universities show that the students’ mean scores of 1.000-5.000 word-levels have not reached the cutting points (97%-100% for the first 3.000 wordlevel, and 80%-100% for the next 2.000 word-levels). it can also be noticed that the higher the word level is, the bigger the standard deviation of the students’ mean scores of au and bu is. in other words, the higher the word level is, the wider the students’ vocabulary knowledge range is. also, it can be seen that only one of bu’s students has mastered 1.000-5.000 word-levels, and none of au’s students has mastered all the levels. there are more students who have mastered each level (1.000-5.000 word-levels) in bu than in au. regarding the high-frequency words in 1.000-2.000 word-levels, the cutting points for passing the 1.000 to 2.000 word-level only are from 97% to 100%. the findings show that about 16% of au’s students have mastered the first 1.000 word-level, and less than 2% of au’s students have acquired the second 1.000 word-level. the results of bu’s students are better. almost 60% of bu’s students have mastered the first 1.000 word-families, and about 16% of their students have mastered the second 1.000 word-families. none of au’s students has mastered 3.000 word-families, and only about 4% of bu’s students have mastered the level. it means that most of the students of both universities failed to master this level. the higher the word-level is, the lower the mean score of the students’ vlt scores of au is. however, it is different from the mean score of the students of bu. at bu, the lowest mean score is in 3.000 word-families. table 2 and 3 respectively also show the results of mid-frequency words that au and bu students have and have not mastered. the cutting points for the 4th table 1 the sample question from vlt game island mouth movie song yard land with water all around it x part of your body for eating and talking x piece of music x 146 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 143-149 1.000 word-families and the 5th 1.000 word-families are from 80% to 100%. as shown at au, more students have mastered the 5th 1.000 word-families (about 14%) than the 4th 1.000-word-families (about 9%). while at bu, the percentage of students who have mastered both levels is the same (50%). table 4 presents the vocabulary size of au’s and bu’s students. overall, the students’ mean score is above 6.000. the highest mean score is 10.707,3. although the mean score is high, the standard deviation (sd) is also high. it means that the range of students’ vocabulary knowledge is high. the big vocabulary size difference can be seen clearly in the highest score and the lowest score in each group. the highest and the lowest scores in au’s groups correspondingly are 12.400 and 1.000 (for students who answer 100 questions), and 9.400 and 1.600 (for students who answer 100 questions). the highest and the lowest scores in bu’s groups correspondingly are 16.400 and 2.297 for students who answer 100 questions, and 12.400 and 4.700 for students who answer 100 questions. the percentages of students’ guesses and their “i don’t know” answers are relatively high. the highest guesses percentage is 36,83%, and the highest “i don’t know” answer percentage is 23,75%. regarding the vocabulary level, the findings of the research clearly indicate that only one of bu’s students has mastered 1.000-5.000 word-levels, and none of au’s students has mastered all the levels. most of the participants fail to master the highfrequency words (the 1st 1.000 word-families and the 2nd 1.000 word-families). these findings are similar to the findings of the previous studies (akbarian, 2010; cheng & matthews, 2018; dang, 2020) with eap students from other countries as well as with the efl students in indonesia in the studies of kurniawan (2017), and sudarman and chinokul (2018). also, the fact that none of au’s students has mastered 3.000 word-families, and only about 4% of bu’s students have mastered the level is alarming. knowing limited words from most frequent the first 1.000 word-families to the third 1.000 word-families will cause the students table 2 vocabulary level of students at a university a university (au) vocabulary level (n: 54) cutting point level 1.000 level 2.000 level 3.000 level 4.000 level 5.000 f % f % f % f % f % 100% 3 5,56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 97% 6 11,11 1 1,85 0 0 0 0 0 0 >80 <97% 28 51,86 10 18,52 4 7,4 4 7,4 7 12,96 80% 4 7,4 3 5,56 1 1,85 1 1,85 1 1,85 < 80 % 13 24,07 40 74,07 49 90,75 49 90,75 46 85,19 total 54 100 54 100 54 100 54 100 54 100 mean 84,52 65,05 50,28 49,7 45,7 sd 11,77 19,72 19,92 24,78 24,78 pass all levels/ cutting points: 0 table 3 vocabulary level of students at b university b university (bu) vocabulary level (n: 74) cutting point level 1.000 level 2.000 level 3.000 level 4.000 level 5.000 f % f % f % f % f % 100% 20 27 5 6,76 1 1,35 1 1,35 5 6,76 97% 24 32,5 7 9,46 2 2,71 5 6,75 5 6,76 >80 <97% 28 37,8 39 52,7 17 22,97 25 33,79 22 29,72 80% 0 0 9 12,16 17 22,97 6 8,11 5 6,76 < 80 % 2 2,7 14 18,92 37 50 37 50 37 50 total 74 100 74 100 74 100 74 100 74 100 mean 94,75 83,64 72,54 75,23 76,69 sd 5,40 12,75 16,99 19,16 20,24 pass all levels/ cutting points: 1 person 147indonesian eap students’ vocabulary .... (fenty lidya siregar) to have a comprehension problem. as noreillie et al. (2018) have found, knowing the 1st 1.000 and the 2nd 1.000 most frequent word-family is crucial for l2 learners because they equal 91% and 97% coverage of a text. in the same line, nation (2006) has stated that 86 % of the running words in the texts are from the 1st 1.000 word-families and the 2nd 1.000 word-families, and the students need a 98% threshold to be able to read a wide range of texts. the findings of the research corroborate the argument of akbarian (2010). it has been said that the low vocabulary proficiency level of all of the esp/eap learners raises great concern for their academic future and a formidable challenge for the language instructors. with respect to the second research question about the vocabulary size of the indonesian eap students in this research, averagely the students have above 6.000 vocabulary size, and the biggest mean score is about 10.000. the former is almost similar to the mean score of the third-year students in kusumarasdyati and ramadhani (2018) research. the latter is higher than the mean score found in these previous studies (kusumarasdyati & ramadhani, 2018; romadloni, 2019; umam, 2016). based on the two vocabulary tests results, it is noticeable that despite the high mean score of the students’ vocabulary size, only one student has mastered the first 2.000 high-frequency words and the first 3.000 mid-frequency words. it suggests that although the students have a big vocabulary size, they might still have a problem in comprehending texts. thus, it is important to make sure that students will be able to learn frequent vocabulary in their learning. as argued by sun and dang (2020), if learners have excellent coverage of high-frequency words, it would recognize a considerable percentage of words in various kinds of discourses (e.g., movies, television programs, newspapers, and general conversation) and improve their comprehension quickly. also, clark and ishida (2005) have argued that it is important to pay attention to high-frequency words, and people cannot learn any random 5.000 words. in other words, it is crucial to sequentially learn words from the most frequent word list to the least frequent one. also, dang (2020) has observed that a number of eap courses tend to neglect the learning words of high-frequency word lists but focus more on vocabulary for academic word lists. it should not be the case, as revealed in the research of dang (2020). it is said that high-frequency words are essential for comprehending academic spoken english. students who have not yet mastered the most frequent 3.000 can learn the words from graded readers. after they have mastered the words, they can take advantage of english language television programs for their vocabulary input (sun & dang, 2020). feng and webb’s (2020) research has revealed that extensive viewing might positively result in vocabulary growth. also, using graded readers with an audio-assisted material can also relatively enlarge table 4 vocabulary size of students university au (n: 54) bu (n: 74) number of questions 100 questions 140 questions 100 questions 140 questions vocabulary size f % f % f % f % ≥10.000 3 12,5 0 0 17 62,96 13 27,66 9.000-9.999 5 20,84 4 13,33 1 3,7 10 21,28 8.000-8.999 3 12,5 5 16,67 4 14,82 7 14,9 7.000-7.999 3 12,5 2 6,67 1 3,7 8 17,02 6.000-6.999 1 4,16 6 20 3 11,12 5 10,63 5.000-5.999 0 0 4 13,33 0 0 3 6,39 4.000-4.999 5 20,84 3 10 0 0 1 2,12 3.000-3.999 2 8,34 3 10 0 0 0 0 2.000-2.999 1 4,16 2 6,67 1 3,7 0 0 1.000-1.999 1 4,16 1 3,33 0 0 0 0 total 24 100 30 100 27 100 47 100 mean 7.066,66 6.150 10.707,3 8.651,06 sd 3.051,96 2.277,89 3.229,60 1.893,56 highest score 12.400 9.400 16.400 12.200 lowest score 1.000 1.600 2.297 4.700 mean of guessing answers 36,83 36,83% 40,07 28,62% 16,89 16,89% 23,87 17,05% mean of “i don’t know” 23,75 23,75% 24,27 17,14% 14,26 14,26% 14,53 10,37% 148 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 143-149 vocabulary learning gains (webb & chang, 2015). previous studies in japan (hagley, 2017) and in america (ro, 2016) have shown that eap students can benefit from reading graded readers. the finding of recent research in indonesia has shown that graded readers are beneficial to increasing indonesian students’ vocabulary (hadiyanto, 2019). besides that, the research of dang, webb, and coxhead (2020) have suggested that it will be useful to learn words from the british national corpus or corpus of contemporary american english 2.000 than other high-frequency word lists for the second language (l2) learners. except for the one student who has mastered all the words from the 1st until the 5th 1.000 wordlevels, the rest of the participants are not yet ready to learn english from ted talks. as nurmukhamedov (2017) explains, students have to master the first 2.000 word-families plus proper nouns and marginal words before learning from ted talks presentations. in the same vein, liu and chen (2019) have also argued that students need to master 3.000-word families to reach 95% coverage of ted talks. in addition, the participants of the current research have made many guesses when completing the vst. thus, their high vocabulary size mean score seems to suggest their partial knowledge of low-frequency words, as explained by nguyen and nation (2011) that learners might be able to correctly guess the meaning of the less frequent-used words in vst when they have obtained partial knowledge of words. conclusions to conclude, the present findings of the current research show that most of the eap students have not yet mastered the high-frequency words and the midfrequency words from 4.000 to 5.000 word-families in the vocabulary level test. the mean score of the students’ vocabulary size is big; however, they also inform that they make many guesses when completing the test. taken together, the findings indicate that the students’ previous learning has not yet facilitated them to learn important vocabulary from 1.000 to 5.000 word-families. the students’ high vocabulary sizes might be due to their vocabulary learning that focuses on low-frequency word lists and their impartial vocabulary knowledge of the low-frequency words. the impartial knowledge enables them to make correct guesses in the vst. consequently, despite the big vocabulary size, the students might have difficulties in understanding texts. the current research has some limitations. although the research involves participants from two universities, both universities are private universities, and the students belong to a similar field, which is economics. as mentioned previously in the research, that eap programs in indonesian universities are context-dependent. thus, future studies should involve participants from different faculties at private and public universities to yield rich information for eap stakeholders. also, this research only tests the students’ receptive vocabulary knowledge. future research projects can include both receptive and productive vocabulary tests to get a complete picture of the students’ vocabulary knowledge. future research can also use interviews to get more information regarding students’ decision-making process when answering the vocabulary test items. as argued by michel and plumb (2019), vocabulary assessment is complex; 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(2017). the updated vocabulary levels test: developing and validating two new forms of the vlt. itl international journal of applied linguistics, 168(1), 33-xx69. https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.168.1.02web. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 255 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 255-260 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6772 animals as symbols of human positive and negative traits on javanese expressions tri wahyu setiawan prasetyoningsih1*; dyah raina purwaningsih2; nadia gitya yulianita3 1,2.3jurusan bahasa dan sastra inggris, fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas jenderal soedirman jl. dr. soeparno utara no. 1, grendeng, purwokerto 53122, indonesia 1tri.wahyu@unsoed.ac.id; 2dyah.purwaningsih@unsoed.ac.id; 3nadiagityay@unsoed.ac.id received: 30th october 2020/revised: 17th january 2021/accepted: 18th january 2021 how to cite: prasetyoningsih, t. w. s., purwaningsih, d. r., & yulianita, n. g. (2020). animals as symbols of human positive and negative traits on javanese expressions. lingua cultura, 14(2), 255-260. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6772 abstract the research aimed to analyze the metaphor of animals’ names in javanese expressions as representing power and authority in its positive and negative sides. the ancient land of java was ruled by kings. this situation indicated that ancient javanese were closely related to kingdoms and regulations that were strict rules of politeness rules or authoritarian. it created a situation where direct criticisms, suggestions, and warnings were conveyed to those who had power, which might cause the problem to the conveyor. thus, people preferred to express their opinion in the metaphorical form to preserve the javanese manners. since javanese people also lived as farmers and hunters, they could identify the nature of various animals’ characters. they began to compare some animals’ nature characters to describe human characters or behaviors in the forms of metaphor known as javanese expressions. the methods applied were a descriptive qualitative by choosing the data that contained animal names, classifying them, analyzing the meanings of the expressions, and providing results of the analysis. these metaphorical forms are hitherto known as proverbs and are make used them as philosophy of life. they also used proverbs. the data were taken from “seri kajian sastra klasik 100 paribasan jawa simpul-simpul kearifan lokal budaya jawa” by bambang husen al marie in 2018. there are 26 expressions using animal names found in this dictionary. macan, gajah, and asu are the three animals that are mostly used as a metaphor to describe human characters within a sovereignty. heuristic and hermeneutic approaches are applied to analyze the data and to find out the real meaning of the classified data. keywords: animal symbols, human traits, javanese expressions, javanese proverbs introduction indonesia consists of various tribes and languages that have many proverbs spreading in areas of this country. according to the great dictionary of the indonesian language (kbbi), the proverb is a short and concise expression containing comparisons, parables, advice, and life rules. thus, proverbs are rich in the philosophy of life, such as spirit, wisdom, as well as warning to be self-aware and careful at all times in living this life. furthermore, it is believed that proverbs are orally transferred by the ancestors as a reminder to be vigilant so that nothing terrible happens. as one of the tribes in indonesia, the javanese holds many proverbs used as the foundation of their way of life. this makes javanese life is reflected in their richness of proverbs as local wisdom. the proverb also becomes a way for javanese people to express their perspective about a case opinion. the understanding of these expressions indirectly shapes them to strive in order to always be in harmony with the norms and values of the society that have become an agreement. moreover, the lands of java were ruled by kings of both large and small kingdoms. it required the javanese to respect their authority by highly upholding manners and politeness and beware more aware of delivering an opinion known as unggah ungguh. when they wanted to convey admiration or even criticized the kings, they chose to deliver it through proverbs not to be considered impolite people. javanese value system did not provide many opportunities for open individual expression. however, the use of idioms or javanesse expressions as a way of expressing an 256 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 255-260 opinion is applied nowadays by javanese women on to political conversation (lestari et al., 2019). even though proverbs can be considered an effective method to reveal a broad meaning, this pragmatic way sometimes makes it difficult to grasp a proverb’s true meaning. it happens because javanese expressions have many figurative meanings. most of them are in the form of comparison, analogy, and certain vocabularies selected as symbols of the human traits and behavior things they want to express. therefore, in-depth and comprehensive analysis is needed to gain the actual hidden meaning of a proverb. the proverbs observed in the research are those which contain animals’ names elements. most of the ancient javanese worked as farmers and hunters. it indicates that javanese were also close to the life of animals. this condition caused them to figure out nature, animals’ activities, human activities, and their characteristics result in javanese proverbs recognized today. the javanese then compared the animals’ nature characters and human traits to relate them to their context. if they wanted to describe human characters, behavior, or condition, they would use animals with similar characteristics to these things as symbols. the way of delivering these proverbs belongs to metaphor. this indirect way to express ideas and thoughts is done by comparing two things or more without using comparison expressions, such as ‘like’, ‘as if’, ‘as’, and so on. metaphors can be understood by comparing two domains, namely target domain and source domain. the first refers to a concept described through metaphor, while the second refers to a concept used to construct a metaphor. people associate a concept with other concepts using language by applying associate strategies. the associate strategies mean human uses his semantic memories by associating characteristics of one entity with another entity. rahardian and nirmala (2018) have claimed that psycholinguistics’ theory in understanding metaphor means that meaning behind a metaphor can be understood by showing analogy, comparing, and transferring the perceived characters. data in the research are the proverbs listed in seri kajian sastra klasik 100 paribasan jawa simpul-simpul kearifan lokal budaya jawa by bambang husen al marie in 2018. there are 100 javanese proverbs in this series, and 26 of them use animal names as the entities, such as nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe. the word macan or (tiger) symbolizes power, greatness, and leadership. nguthik-uthik describes an activity carried out intending to disturb a peaceful situation. nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe can be inferred as an action of disturbing people who have more power (al marie, 2018). besides macan that symbolizes supremacy, there is an animal that ancient javanese considered as a dirty and greedy animal, namely asu (dog). asu will be raised only if it is used as a hunting animal because of its nature. nevertheless, asu in javanese proverbs is used to describe negative characters or things. asu arebut balung is an example of a proverb that implies negative meaning. balung is a bone with no more flesh attached to it. the use of the word balung denotes an unimportant thing. hence, this proverb describes people who are fighting over trifles (al marie, 2018). the research aims to analyze the metaphor of the animals’ names in javanese expressions that symbolizes good and bad matters within leadership and authority. the consequences of leadership, such as criticisms, advice as well as warning, are reflected in javanese expression in the form of metaphor. the studies on metaphors have been conducted by several researchers, such as diputra (2017), who discusses the meaning of color connotations around balinese, such as white, black, green, orange, yellow, purple, and red. the data sources are speeches that contain colors, both the use of color connotation and the use of special names of colors applied by balinese speakers. the research in of metaphor of in color is also conducted by fadhilah, rais, and purnanto (2019). they describe the madurese color lexicon with plant attributes. in contrast, umam and nirmala (2020) have focused their research on color metaphors in english and indonesian song lyrics. another research on metaphor can be found in rahardian and nirmala’s (2018) research that explores the metaphor on javanese emotion on the force. also, hartanto (2018) has observed the cognitive metaphor in speech acts of islamic teachings in surakarta. similar studies on javanese expression have been performed by other researchers. abdullah (2016) has examined the background of javanese proverbs used in the javanese community in the ex-residency of surakarta and explained the cultural meaning of these proverbs. in addition, the research on the lexicon classification of animals by using a cognitive semantic approach is conducted by nugraha (2019), and the criticism in javanese expression has been analyzed by wahyuni (2020). she presents her research results through cognitive semantic research, which aims to describe these expressions and their philosophical meaning of these expressions. she states that there are 24 javanese expressions, which contain critical meaning. this expression indicates personification figures, which are the conceptualizations of human characters. in the same year, the translation of javanese culture expression in a novel is conducted by nugrahani et al. (2019). mansyur and suherman (2020) have explored information about the function of proverbs used as educational media. meanwhile, this research is arranged to discuss javanese proverbs and expressions, yet the focus is on analyzing the metaphor of the animals’ names, which become the symbol of human positive and negative behaviors. methods the method applied in the research is descriptive qualitative since it discusses the animals’ name, which is used as a symbol of power and authority in javanese proverbs. the research data are the proverbs taken from seri kajian sastra klasik 100 paribasan 257 animals as symbols of human.... (tri wahyu setiawan prasetyoningsih, et al.) jawa simpul-simpul kearifan lokal budaya jawa by bambang husen al marie in 2018. furthermore, the object is the process of how the animals’ names could be interpreted as a representation of two opposite sides as the consequence of power. since both positive and negative sides of power in these proverbs are expressed through metaphors, library research is also done to observe and analyze the data. only the proverbs containing animals’ names representing human characters within supremacy become the main data in the research. they were are macan (tiger), gajah (elephant), and asu (dog). after exploring some literature, it can be concluded that these three animals represent circumstances that existed in leadership. the categorized data are then analyzed by using two-step of semiotics analysis. these two steps are heuristic and hermeneutic. in the heuristic reading step, the data would be translated literally to obtain an exact actual meaning of a word using kamus bausastra jawa by purwadarminta and javanese and english dictionary horne. these two dictionaries are used as the main sources to elaborate the literal meanings of each word. the data in the form of derivative verbs are also analyzed morphologically to get the literal meaning and function in the proverbs. meanwhile, in the hermeneutic reading step, the data are considered symbols that must be interpreted to find their real hidden meaning (muganga, 2016). this stage is done after the heuristic reading stage (inayati & nuryatin, 2016). in the research, the hermeneutics reading approach should be applied since javanese proverbs contain many figurative meanings. besides, careful and in-depth reading must also be carried out in analyzing these javanese proverbs. exploring and comprehending the meaning contained could be explored and understood comprehensively and precisely. results and discussions the result of the research contains the outcome. in contrast, the discussion contains the analysis process of the objects to arrive at a conclusion. based on the analysis, there are 26 javanese proverbs that contain animal’s names elements as its the entities in “seri kajian sastra klasik 100 paribasan jawa simpulsimpul kearifan lokal budaya jawa”. they are classified into livestock, pet, prey, and the wild. the proverbs classification used 16 animals, namely welut (eel), iwak (fish), bebek (duck), manuk (bird), emprit (a kind of bird), udhet (eel child), kebo (buffalo), asu (dog), gudel (bull), kucing (cat), gajah (elephant), kidang (deer), cindhil (baby rat), ula (snake), beruk (ape), and macan (lion). table 1 describes the findings of this research. after observing the data comprehensively, macan, gajah, and asu are the most common animals that appeared in these proverbs dictionary. macan is mentioned four times, gajah is mentioned three times, and asu is mentioned five times. javanese associates gajah and macan as symbols of leadership, strength, power, and authority. meanwhile, asu is recognized as a symbol for a negative thing or person. this symbolization emerges from its physical appearances and characters’ natures. the data are analyzed heuristically and hermeneutically. heuristic reading means that the data will be analyzed literally based on how the word is built and the actual meaning of its base form. by applying hermeneutic reading, the meaning of a proverb based on heuristics reading can be interpreted and analyzed. this interpretation is made by relating the symbols with their contexts. the first stage of interpreting these javanese expressions is heuristic reading. the structure of the expressions is discussed by sipahutar and arianto (2019). herawati, rustono, and poedjosoedarmo table 1 research findings animals symbolization expressions macan (tiger) leadership, strength, power and authority 1. nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe 2. macan guguh 3. kekudhung walulang macan 4. singidan nemu macan gajah (elephant) leadership, strength, power and authority 1. cindhil ngadu gajah 2. anggajah êlar 3. gajah ngidak rapah asu (dog) negative thing or person 1. rindhik asu ginitik 2. asu gedhe menang 3. asu arebut balung 4. asu belang kalung wang 258 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 255-260 (2016) have stated that this heuristic reading consists of two kinds of derivation: transposition and nontransposition. transposition derivation means that affixes change the word class. in contrast, nontransposition derivation means that the affixes added do not change the word class. she also describes the verb formation found in the javanese language, which is used to analyze the heuristic reading in the research. based on the heuristic analysis, there are six active verbs derived from three kinds of prefixes. these three prefixes are a nasal sound {n-} that meets allomorph –ang, a nasal sound {n-} that meets base form initiated with a consonant, prefix –a, and a suffix –an. the first is found in the verbs nguthik-uthik, ngadu, anggajah, and ngidak. the second is found in the verb nemu, the third is found in the word arebut, and the last one is found in the word singidan. besides, there is a passive verb that is derived from the prefix kethat is kekudhung. the animals’ elements names found in seri kajian sastra klasik 100 paribasan jawa simpulsimpul kearifan lokal budaya jawa denote the symbols related to the power of authority. macan, gajah, and asu are the animal’s recognized elements as the symbols that represent a power, of which its good sides and bad sides are described metaphorically. people, in this case, javanese, considered macan or tiger as a strong and fierce animal. these strong characters’ natures of a tiger become the reasons why a tiger is used as a symbol of greatness. when a person is compared to this entity, it means that he/ she is someone who is dominant and has strong power and or authority. macan can also be a personification of a leader. the word ‘macan’ are found four times in this research. they are nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe, macan guguh, kekudhung walulang macan, and singidan nemu macan. the first proverb about macan is nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe. this proverb contains three words that are nguthik-uthik, macan, and dhedhe. nguthik-uthik consists of a nasal sound {n-} and an allomorph –ang. this formation becomes the prefix of uthik-uthik. uthik-uthik is a verb that means a repeatedly touch upon something with fingers. it implies an annoying or a bothering behavior or to interfere purposely. while dhedhe is also a verb that is relevant to sunbathing. it is a relaxing activity. literally, macan dhedhe means a lazy tiger that does not want to be disturbed. as macan is a metaphor of a leader, the implication of nguthik-uthik macan dhedhe is disturbing the one who is currently in power, and he/she is in the state of no noise. someone who, intentionally or not, disturbed a leader can put himself in big trouble or at least unpleasant circumstances. literally, macan guguh means an old tiger that does not have teeth anymore. the word guguh means toothless. as a matter of fact, teeth are the symbol of youth and strength. macan, even though it has been old, is still a feared animal. thus, macan guguh can be interpreted as someone who is no longer in power, but he is still respected and influential. many people still believe in his/her words, so his/her opinion is of a case is still a matter (al marie, 2018). kekudhung consists of prefix -ke and verb kudhung. prefix -ke forms a derivative verb or passive verb, which implies doing something accidentally. kudhung means something that is used to cover the head. poerwadarminto provides cloth and caping (hat of farmers made from woven bamboo of broad conical shape) as examples. in addition, the word walulang or lulang means leather. thus, considering that macan indicates a wild animal that symbolizes control, hermeneutically, it can be concluded that the proverb ‘kekudhung walulang macan’, which means someone who takes advantage behind the power of others. he/ she uses people in power for his/her personal interests. another proverb that contains macan as its element is singidan nemu macan. singidan is formed from the verb singid, and it gets suffix -an. the word singid means to hide or to conceal something. the suffix -an forms a derivative, which means doing a thing with a certain purpose. the word nemu comes from nasal {n-} and a base form verb, temu. literally, the word temu in javanese could mean find or see. in this proverb, macan is not a symbol of power, but it is a symbol of danger. hence, the meaning of the proverb singidan nemu macan can be interpreted as someone who tries to avoid the bad thing; instead, he/she meets dangerous thing. there are three proverbs contained gajah as the entity compares to human. they are cindhil ngadu gajah, anggajah êlar, and gajah ngidak rapah. the main object in these proverbs is gajah (elephant). this entity is a big and strong animal, and it represents power and greatness. hence, human compared to gajah is the one who is in power and is considered as a leader. this proverb is made up of three words that are cindhil, ngadu, and gajah. cindhil is a child or baby rat. it is small and red. thus, cindhil is a symbol of weakness and helplessness. the morphological process of ngadu can be described as a nasal sound {n-} which meets allomorph –ang and form an implication of doing something in purpose. this prefix then forms an active verb adu. adu means to bring an entity into a confrontation. it can be inferred that the word ngadu means to confront intentionally. therefore, the proverb cindhil ngadu gajah embraces a meaning of a weak person who is able to bring strong or powerful people into a conflict. he/she can use this conflicted situation for his/her personal intention. the word anggajah is also structured morphologically from a nasal sound {n-} and an allomorph –ang that meets the noun gajah or elephant. this process changes the noun (gajah) into an active verb (anggajah). anggajah implies resembling an elephant, which are is big and powerful. the word êlar means part of the body used to fly, and it symbolizes wish and desire. by combining these two entities, anggajah elar describes a person who is in a high position, rich, and all his/her desires are fulfilled or even excessive. he/she is considered as someone who is very lucky in his/her life. 259 animals as symbols of human.... (tri wahyu setiawan prasetyoningsih, et al.) like the two previous morphological formations of active verbs on proverbs, ngidak is also structured by the combination of nasal sound {n-} and allomorph –ang. this prefix then assimilates with the verb idak and form an active verb, ngidak. the basic verb idak means to step on a thing. besides, literally, rapah means leaves and twigs scattered on the ground. rapah in this proverb represents regulation or rules. there is a folklore that makes the word rapah. a long time ago, hunters used various methods to catch their prey, such as tiger, wild boar, and other animals. one of the methods used was setting up a trap by digging large holes and covering them with dry twigs and leaves known as rapah. the targeted animals are expected to step on the leaves and finally become trapped. supposedly, if a royal joined in a hunt, he would involve many soldiers on horses or elephants. one day, an elephant that was being ridden fell into a trap that had been set. this event was later referred to as gajah ngidak rapah. since many traps had been set, thean elephant rider should have known that he could not step on the trap because he set the trap. if an elephant rider and his mounts fell into one of the set traps, it is described as gajah midak rapah. in this proverb, gajah, as a large animal, is a symbol of a leader. a leader, as the one who makes regulations and understands the contents, should never violate them. hence, the proverb gajah ngidak rapah is a satire to someone (it usually refers to a leader) who broke the rules that he/she has been made. most javanese proverbs that use the word asu as one of its entities contain negative connotations. it happens because many asu of dogs do not possess positive characters as pets or bloodhounds. there are dogs that bite and eat dirty food. these lead to the word asu as representing negative characters, such as greedy, aggressive, stubborn, and hostile. besides, the word asu is also widely used as a swear word. javanese proverbs, which contain asu are describing humans who have these negative characters. some of the javanese proverbs are rindhik asu ginitik, asu gedhe menang kerahe, asu arebut balung, and asu belang kalung wang. this proverb has a base form of a verb and a derivational verb. the word rindhik, as a base form of the verb, implies slow moves or cowish. meanwhile, the derivational verb ginitik is structured from a noun gitik, which means small stick or small rattan, and an infix –in, which forms a passive verb. thus, the word ginitik means being beaten with a small stick or small rattan. hence, the proverb rindhik asu ginitik describes a person who has a quick response to a command from a leader, even faster than a dog being hit. this proverb sometimes becomes a satire for people who have this kind of response. however, the intention is apple polishing so that his personal interests are fulfilled. literally, gedhe means big, menang means winning a fight, and kerah means to fight between animals, likes biting or chewing each other. the word kerah is a verb added by the suffix –e, which changes this verb class into a noun. it can be concluded that asu gedhe menang kerahe describes people who have a high position in society will always be the winner in every conflict, both in serious and trivial matters. he/ she is able to make use of his/her power to justify all means to be dominant. even he/she does the wrong thing; he could get away with it. the word arebut is structured from a prefix –a, and a verb rebut. prefix –a forms of a derivative verb or active verb. meanwhile, the verb rebut describes a situation of doing something in one-self-interest without regard for others. the noun balung means bone. since bone is a part of the body with no flesh anymore, balung is usually used to describe something that is no longer useful. hence, asu arebut balung describes a situation where two people are fighting over insignificant matters. belang is the scars found in the outermost part of a body, both on humans and animals. it is usually found on the skin. belang is also intended to describe negative sights. kalung means a necklace or something that is used around the neck, and wang means money. asu belang is usually considered a disgusting and unwelcome animal. here, asu belang describes an uneducated and despicable person. at the same time, kalung wang symbolizes abundant wealth. literally, this proverb describes a disgusting dog with money wrapped in its neck. it means that asu belang kalung wang represents a person with a low social status that embraces much wealth and possession. it is a peculiarity for few people with such status (al marie, 2018). hence, some people use this expression as satire. they think that it is impossible for a person of low social status to be rich. the wealth will fall under suspicion as wealth is obtained by stealing or other improper ways. conclusions a metaphorical analysis of these javanese expressions enables people to have a better understanding of their hidden meaning. these expressions are used to describe human behaviors and situations where one party is more dominant than the other. there are 26 javanese expressions that contain animal elements as entities that are used to describe human characters. macan, gajah, and asu are the three animals that are mostly used in the expression. macan and gajah are the symbols of greatness and strength. most of the expressions using these two animals describe positive things. meanwhile, asu is used as a symbol of bad human characters. its bad characters are considered suitable to represent the bad and greedy human. references abdullah, w. 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(2018). metafora kognitif tuturan penceramah dalam pengajian di wilayah surakarta. kandai, 14(2), 181-196. https://doi.org/10.26499/jk.v14i2.643. herawati, n., rustono, m. h., & poedjosoedarmo, s. (2016). prefixes of denominal verb formation in javanese language. journal of education and social sciences, 5(2), 151-156. inayati, t., & nuryatin, a. (2016). simbol dan makna pada puisi menolak korupsi karya penyair indonesia. seloka: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 5(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.15294/ seloka.v5i2.13078. lestari, p., djatmika., sumarlam, s., & purnanto, d. (2019). javanese women’s political discourse in response to the 2019 indonesian general election. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 193-201. mansyur, f. a., & suherman, l. a. (2020). the function of proverbs as educational media: anthropological linguistics on wolio proverbs. els journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities, 3(2), 271286. https://doi.org/10.34050/els-jish.v3i2.10505. muganga, l. (2016). the importance of hermeneutic theory in understanding and appreciating interpretive inquiry as a methodology. journal of social research and policy, 6(1), 65-88. nugraha, d. (2019). the lexicon of animal classification in javanese: a cognitive semantic approach. international journal of humanity studies, 2(2), 186-195. https://doi.org/10.24071/ijhs.2019.020208. nugrahani, d., nababan, m., santosa, r., & djatmika, d. (2019). translating javanese culture expressions in a novel: techniques and quality. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 323-343. rahardian, e., & nirmala, d. (2018). the force scheme in javanese emotion metaphors. parole: journal of linguistics and education, 8(1), 12-18. https://doi. org/10.14710/parole.v8i1.12-18. sipahutar, r., & arianto, t. (2019). an analysis of semiotic riffaterre in walt whitman selected poem. journal basis, 6(2), 237-248. https://doi.org/10.33884/ basisupb.v6i2.1428. umam, k., & nirmala, d. (2020). color metaphor in english and indonesian song lyrics. retorika: jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 13(1), 66-72. https://doi.org/10.26858/retorika.v13i1.11504. wahyuni, t. (2020). kritik dalam ungkapan bahasa jawa: kajian semantik kognitif (criticism in javanese idioms: cognitive semantic analysis). jalabahasa, 16(1), 97-113. https://doi.org/10.36567/jalabahasa. v16i1.453. copyright©2018 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 259 lingua cultura, 12(3), august 2018, 259-266 doi: 10.21512/lc.v12i3.4633 translating attitudes toward sexism in gone girl novel: an appraisal theory approach siti nuraisiah1; mangatur rudolf nababan2; riyadi santosa3 1,graduate student of department of linguistics, universitas sebelas maret 2,3department of linguistics, universitas sebelas maret jl. ir. sutami no. 36a, jebres, kota surakarta, jawa tengah 57126, indonesia 1nuraisiah_siti@student.uns.ac.id; 2amantradja@yahoo.com; 3riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id received: 19th april 2018 /revised: 25th april 2018 /accepted: 24th may 2018 how to cite: nuraisiah, s., nababan, m. r., & santosa, r. (2018). translating attitudes toward sexism in gone girl novel: an appraisal theory approach. lingua cultura, 12(3), 259-266. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i3.4633 abstract the research dealt with attitudes toward sexism. it aimed to know the translation technique and quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability. it deployed a descriptive qualitative method. the data were obtained from a novel titled gone girl and the copy of the novel in indonesian translation through content analysis and focus group discussion. the data were analyzed through domain, taxonomy, and componential analysis to reveal cultural value. the research indicates that translation techniques determine its qualities. it reveals that established equivalence results in the good quality of translation while the generalization, discursive creation, explicitation, modulation, literal translation, particularization, and description reflect quite good and bad quality of the translation. moreover, the application of generalization and explicitation results in non-sexist translation. consequently, the translator becomes less sexist than writer and gives readers different effect with the original one. however, this is affected by some factors; the translator’s subjectivity, translator’s competence, linguistic characteristic differences, and social-cultural differences. keywords: sexism, attitude, appraisal theory, translation technique, translation quality introduction sexism deals with unequal treatment over gender. this situation is labeled sexist when it is not relevant (mills, 2005). sexism is socially constructed in society, especially patriarchy one. recent research indicates that the origin of sexism relates to social, economic causes and socialization (he, 2010). men have responsibilities of funding family economically, so women become dependent on men, lost their social, economic and family status and stereotypically have responsibility for domestic trifles. besides, socialization shapes children’s behavior based on their sexes which require boys to be strong and girls to be gentle. hence, this situation purposely constructs sexism. many pieces of research have been interested in investigating sexism (animasahun, 2015; dai & xu, 2014; fi’aunillah, 2015; he, 2010; laine & watson, 2014). they explore how sexist language is utilized in portraying sexism. however, the sexist attitude still is not paid attention. attitude is the subdivision of the appraisal system. it aims to negotiate the social relationship between speaker/ writer and hearer/reader that represent consciously/ unconsciously and positively/ negatively. it is socially constructed as speaker/writer constructs his/her relationship with hearer/reader. this has been subjected by some researchers (amalia & hakim, 2017; hidayati, 2017; nazhira, sinar, & suriyadi, 2016; nugraheni, 2011; page, 2003; rohmawati, 2016; xiaoping, 2013) who reveal that the distribution of attitudinal resource is the way of speaker/writer in negotiating his/her social relationship. this attitudinal resource has to do with evaluating things, people’s character, and his/her feelings (martin & rose, 2007). when speaker/writer simultaneously evaluates between two things/people/groups differently in which one of them is portrayed negatively, he/she deals with discrimination. discrimination refers to the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex (department of the university of oxford, 2018). however, gender discrimination indicates sexism (mills, 2008) has been investigated by behnam and bahar (2013), which reveal that the imbalance of applying attitude toward male and female portrays writer’s sexist point of view. since sexism and attitude are socially constructed, they relate each other. on the one hand, sexism treats gender 260 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 259-266 unequally in terms of evaluation, treatment, thought, feeling, intention, etc. on the other hand, attitude evaluates things, people, and feeling. henceforth, unequal evaluation over gender is investigated by analyzing attitude toward sexism. with applying attitude toward sexism, the research reveals how speaker/writer negotiates his/her social relationship in sexism. previous appraisal theory on translation has contributed to assessing translation quality in terms of accuracy (thahara & firdaus, 2014). they clarify that the same appraisal category in source and target text produces an accurate translation and vice versa. an investigation on character constructed has revealed how characterization is reflected by the use of appraisal resource and how it is transferred into target text (alsina, espunya, & naro, 2017; khrisna et al., 2016; sutrisno, 2017; zhaoying, 2017). another investigation on attitudinal positioning has indicated that there are different readership between source text (st) and target text (tt), translator’s stance, and positioning between st and tt (xiaoping, 2013). last investigations on translation technique and quality have reflected that the use of certain technique results into good, good enough, and bad quality of translations (hendrastuti, nababan, & wiratno, 2013; sutrisno, 2017; umam, 2014; zhaoying, 2017). however, there is no attention paid on attitude toward sexism related to translation study. translation deals with meaning in both st and tt. it refers to reproducing meaning from st into tt (nida & taber, 1982). the meaning reproduced in tt contains culture, value, norm, the ideology of st. thus, attitude toward sexism in st has to reproduce with both socially constructed and negotiated in the target text. henceforth, this research gives an insight on dealing with translation technique and quality of attitude toward sexism. with translation technique and quality theory, the research describes how translator socially negotiates her social relationship on evaluating feeling, people, and things with target readers and its impact on translation quality. methods the research employs a descriptive qualitative method. it utilizes sexism (archer & lloyd, 2002; litosseliti, 2013; mills, 2005; 2008) and appraisal theories (martin & rose, 2007) to deal with attitude toward sexism in gone girl novel (flynn, 2012; 2014). the data are obtained through content analysis and focus group discussion. content analysis deals with determining between data and non-data, analyzing attitude toward sexism, analyzing translation technique (molina & albir, 2002), and processing the information from the informant (rater) in relation to translation quality. besides, the focus group discussion is utilized to find out translation quality with reference to translation quality assessment instrument (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012). after gathering the data, they are analyzed through the domain, taxonomy, and componential analysis to reveal the cultural value (santosa, 2017). results and discussions based on the analysis of attitudes toward sexism in gone girl novel, the research reveals that the writer and translator distribute different attitudes toward sexism. it is shown in table 1. table 1 attitudes toward sexism no. sex. at. st tt 1 sa a 14 16 j 30 31 ap. 3 4 2 sl ss a 1 j 2 lg a 1 1 sd a 29 26 j 77 62 ap. 3 1 agli a 1 1 j 27 17 ap. 31 20 cli a 3 j 10 3 ap. 3 total 235 182 table 1 explanation: sex. = sexism, at. = attitude, sa = sexist attitude, sl = sexist language, ss = sex specification, lg = lexical gap, agli = asymmetrically gendered language items, sd = semantic derogation, cli = connotation of language items, a = affect, j = judgment, and ap. = appreciation. table 1 shows different frequency between st and tt. in st version, the writer applies sexism to evaluate people’s feeling by 49 data, people’s behavior by 146 data, and things by 40 data. in tt version, translator negotiates her social relationship on sexism through 46 data of exploiting people’s feeling, 113 and 25 data of evaluating people’s behavior and things. these differences deal with changes in sexism and attitudes categories due to translation technique used. for example, generalization is often utilized to change sexist entities into non-sexist one. it can be seen in data 062/b.1.14/gg.134/yh.152. st he sounds springy, boyish, the way he always does when he talks to her. tt nick terdengar ringan, kekanak-kanakan, caranya bicara dengan go. the bolded word in st indicates connotation of language items which represents judgment (social esteem; negative normality). however, the translator uses a ‘neutral term’ (molina & albir, 2002) to represent ‘gender-free language’ (mills, 2005; 2008) in transferring meaning from st to tt. the research indicates that the absence of sexism in tt causes its absence of attitude. hence, it negatively affects its accuracy. while sexist meaning is deleted and its translation still reflects meaning from st that indicates less accurate translation (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012; nurochman et al., 2017; rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016). moreover, its translation will reflect the accurate translation if the bolded word in st is borrowed into tt. however, the borrowed term often give negative 261translating attitudes toward... (siti nuraisiah et al.) table 2 translation technique and quality of attitudes toward sexism sex. at. tr. t translation quality accuracy acceptability a la ia a la ia sa a ee 12 12 dc 1 1 m 1 1 j ee 25 25 c 2 1 1 dc 1 1 l 1 1 m 1 1 ap. ee 2 2 l 1 1 sl ss a ee 1 1 g 2 2 lg a l 1 1 sd a ee 27 27 g 2 2 j ee 48 48 g 11 11 l 4 2 4 2 dc 1 3 3 1 e 4 4 c 1 2 3 m 1 1 ap. g 1 1 ee 1 1 dc 1 1 agli a e 1 1 j ee 10 10 g 8 8 c 3 1 1 2 1 e 1 1 l 1 1 dc 1 1 m 1 1 p 1 1 ap. ee 17 17 g 5 5 l 3 2 1 dc 2 1 2 1 m 2 2 d 1 1 cli a e g m j g ee dc ap. p g total 151 70 14 217 13 5 table 2 explanations: tr. t = translation technique, a = accurate/acceptable, la = less accurate/acceptable, ia = inaccurate/ inacceptable, ee = established equivalence, l = literal, dc = discursive creation, c = couplet, m = modulation e = explicitation, g = generalization, d = description and p = particularization. 262 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 259-266 effect to its acceptability because it represents ‘unnatural or unfamiliar’ (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012) term to readers. as suggested, translation techniques are revealed as both source and target text are compared (molina & albir, 2002). these techniques are not good or bad in themselves since they are used appropriately. hence, translation quality is assessed to know if the translation is good or bad in relation to translation technique applied (nababan, nuraeni, sumardiono, 2012). the result is distributed in table 2. the research indicates that translator mostly utilizes established equivalence. it transfers meaning in st by using term or expression recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the tt (molina & albir, 2002). the application of established equivalence reflects accurate and acceptable translation. for example: data 074/b.1.17/gg.170/yh.192 st he was a nice-looking kid, very solicitous of amy – treated her like a princess. tt dia anak berpenampilan baik, sangat perhatian kepada amy – memperlakukannya seperti seorang putri. the bolded words in st and tt indicate the same sexism and attitude. they use sex specification since language use specifies certain gender. it is showed by the use of ‘princess’ derived from the ‘prince’, then added by suffix –ess to indicate women. besides, the use of putri also specifically refers to women derived from putra, then replacing the last letter by -i. other examples are mahasiswa → mahasiswi, saudara → saudari, etc. these word-formations seem to tell that women are derived from men and attached the men, indicating a meaning of triviality, of lesser status or dependence to the term (he, 2010). additionally, the bolded expressions show desi’s (he/dia) manner in relation to his love. desi shows his affection (affect: realis: happiness: affection) to amy by treating her like a princess. moreover, the same sexism and attitude in st and tt reflect the same meaning. princess is arguably an equivalent term for putri. it indicates ‘no distortion meaning’ and it is ‘structurally and grammatically natural and familiar’ (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012) in tt context. this finding reconfirms some previous research aji, nababan, and santosa (2017); hendrastuti, nababan, and wiratno (2013); and sutrisno (2017), which are carried out translation analysis of attitudes. they claim that the application of established equivalence results in accurate and acceptable translation. another translation technique which is highly used is generalization. it refers to use a more general or neutral term (molina & albir, 2002). the application of generalization results in less accurate but acceptable translation. for example: data 104.p/b.1.24/gg.250/yh.280 st his mother had always mothered him – she insisted on coming by once a week and ironing for us, and when she was done ironing, she’d say, ‘i’ll just help tidy,’ and after she’d left, i’d look in the fridge and find she’d peeled and sliced his grapefruit for him, put the pieces in a snap-top container, and then i’d open the bread and discover all the crusts had been cut away, each slice returned half naked. tt ibunya selalu mengasuhnya – mo berkeras datang sekali seminggu dan menyetrika untuk kami, dan ketika sudah selesei, dia akan berkata, “aku akan bantu beres-beres,” dan sesudah itu dia pergi, aku akan melihat ke kulkas dan menemukan mo sudah mengupas dan memotong jeruk grapefruit untuk nick, menaruh potongannya di wadah kedap udara, kemudian aku akan membuka wadah roti dan menemukan semua pinggirannya sudah dipotong, setiap lembar roti setengah telanjang. the bolded words indicate connotation of language items. while st version reflects sexism, the tt version is not. ‘mothering’ has connotation related to nurturing compared to ‘fathering’. the recent study shows that ‘mother’ plays a stronger role for shaping overall safety and emotional health while ‘father’ has a stronger influence in shaping child’s sense of industry and competence for handling and adapting new challenges as well as managing emotions and adapting to stressful situations (mallers et al., 2010). although both mother and father play their roles separately, the role of mama go of mothering nick gives him negative effect. it indicates that mothering gradually changes to shape children’s feminine behavior. however, in tt context mengasuh reflects two meanings. in binary opposition, mengasuh does not reflect any gender. it generally represents some characteristics of both mothered and fathered in terms of nurturing without demeaning women. in another context, mengasuh is stereotypically related to women. while st version shows sexist language, tt version is the sexist attitude. nevertheless, both mothered and mengasuh show the same attitude. they express mama go’s (his mother/ibunya) affection (affect: realis: happiness: affection) toward nick. mama go’s affection is expressed by the surge of behavior as she mothers her son. moreover, the general representation of mothered in tt negatively affects translation accuracy. translator ‘deletes some meaning’ (nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono, 2012) of mothered related to sexism. this has been accounted by some researcher (nurochman et al., 2017; rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016) which conclude that the application of generalization resulted in less accurate translation. conversly, this generalization does not give negative effect to translation acceptability. mengasuh is structurally and grammatically natural and familiar for readers. in addition, the research also reveals that the application of discursive creation reflects inaccurate and acceptable translation. it establishes a temporary equivalence that is totally unpredictable out of context (molina & albir, 2002). for example: data 011/b.1.4/gg.39/yh.49 st no relationship is perfect, they say – they, who make do with dutiful sex and gassy bedtime rituals, who settle for tv as conversation, who believe that husbandly capitulation – yes, honey, okay, honey – is the same as concord. tt tidak ada hubungan yang sempurna, mereka bilanng – mereka yang bertahan dengan seks wajib dan ritual waktu tidur penuh dengan gas, yang menetapkan tv sebagai percakapan, yang yakin bahwa penyerahan si suami – ya, sayang, oke, sayang – itu sama dengan kerukunan. 263translating attitudes toward... (siti nuraisiah et al.) the bolded words indicate asymmetrically gendered language items. ‘husbandly’ uses to describe men, and it is ‘no equivalent’ for women (litosseliti, 2013). although there is the specific term for women, ‘wifely’, the characteristics of both of them are different. like ‘husbandly’, ‘si suami’ also has no equivalent term for women. however, both ‘husbandly’ and ‘si suami’ show different meaning. husbandly means characteristic or relating to the role of husband (department of the university of oxford, 2018) while si suami deals with husband, a patriarchy order. both of them completely give different intention to readers. in st version, the writer tries to devalue capitulation done by the husband. unfortunately, in the tt version, the translator does not show any evaluation because it changes into experiential one. in consequence, its attitude is deleted. however, the structure is natural and common for tt readers (nababan, nuraeni, & sumandiono, 2012). this is similar to previous study related to appraisal zhaoying (2017) which claims that the application of discursive creation results in inaccurate and acceptable translation. moreover, the study is also reflected in the use of the couplet technique. this refers to using two translation techniques. it indicates different translation quality due to which techniques are combined. for example: data 154/b.2.8/gg.359/yh.397 st “very godfather of you,” go said. tt “godfather sekali dirimu,” kata go similar to data 011, the example is asymmetrically gendered language items. godfather refers to the person who has much influence or authority in some area (yourdictionary, n.d.). this is completely asymmetry and has no equivalent term for women. this good characterization of nick (you) is related to his capability (judgment: social esteem: positive capacity) on dealing with amy’s treasure hunt. it is expressed by using disposition. while this example shows the same sexism and attitude, the meaning is transferred without any distortion due to the application of established equivalent and pure borrowing. this is supported the claim of previous research by nurochman et al. (2017) which deals with sexist language. the research suggested that the application of established equivalence and pure borrowing result in the accurate translation. although the research concludes the application of each technique separately, the combination of two of them simultaneously indicates the same result. however, the structure is unacceptable due to its unfamiliarity. furthermore, the research also indicates the use of explicitation. explicitation is the subdivision of amplification which introduces information from the st that is implicit from the context or the situation (molina & albir, 2002). the application of this technique gives the same result as generalization, less accurate and acceptable translation. for example: data 083/b.1.17/gg.184/yh.205 st no matter how many clues i solved, i’d be faced with some amy trivia to unman me. tt tidak peduli berapa banyak petunjuk yang aku pecahkan, aku akan dihadapkan dengan teka-teki amy untuk mematahkan semangatku. similar to two previous examples, this example deals with asymmetrically gendered language items. ‘to unman’ refers to depriving of qualities traditionally associated with men, such as self-control or courage (department of the university of oxford, 2018). it is used to exploit amy’s feeling toward nick. it expresses amy’s antipathy (affect: unhappiness: antipathy). surprisingly, translator explicitly transfers ‘to unman’ into mematahkan semangat. while amy’s antipathy becomes clearer and its structure becomes natural, the meaning is distorted and results in non-sexist translation. this supports the previous finding by rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016) which reveal that the use of amplification explicated the meaning in tt and simultaneously deleted its sexist meaning. the further finding shows that the application of modulation results in both accurate and less accurate translation but structurally acceptable. it refers to changing the point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation to the st (molina & albir, 2002). for example: data 049/b.1.11/gg.102/yh.118 st he used the eraser end of a pencil to pick up a pair of women’s underwear (technically, they were panties – stringy, lacy, red – but i know women get creeped out by that word – just google hate the word panties). tt dia menggunakan ujung penghapus dari sebatang pensil untuk mengangkat pakaian dalam wanita (sebenarnya, itu celana dalam – minim, berenda, merah – tetapi aku tahu para wanita tidak menyukai kata itu – cari di google benci kata celana dalam). the bolded words show the same sexism and attitude. they are sexist attitude since it encompasses feelings and intentions to act, as well as beliefs and thoughts (archer & lloyd, 2002) over gender. it indicates that both st and tt negatively portray and demean women. it is an unfair evaluation because of irrelevance (mills, 2005). women are negatively portrayed in terms of their antipathy toward certain word, whereas the particular woman does. this feeling is expressed by using disposition in process form. although the meaning of both st and tt version is similar, it structurally changes. it is modulated from the positive phrase into the negative one. however, the research indicates accurate and acceptable translation. besides, the research also shows that the application of modulation results in less accurate one in which its finding reclaims previous research (zhaoying, 2017). another translation technique in which its application does not consider the context is the literal translation. it refers to translate a word or an expression word for word (molina & albir, 2002). the research indicates that the application of this technique results in less accurate and less acceptable translation. for example: data 149/b.2.7/gg.356/yh.394 st she just sounds like a rich, bored bitch. like those rich bitches who use their husbands’ money to start, like, cupcake companies and card shops and shit. boutiques.’ tt “dia kedengaran seperti jalang kaya yang bosan. semacam jalang-jalang kaya yang memakai uang suami mereka untuk memulai, seperti, perusahaan cupcake dan toko kartu dan omong kosong macam itu. butik.” the bolded words in st and tt show the same sexism and attitude. they are semantic derogation. the word 264 lingua cultura, vol. 12 no. 3, august 2018, 259-266 ‘bitch’ neutrally means a female dog. however, ‘bitch’ in the example is derogated and used to offend women sexually (department of the university of oxford, 2018). the word ‘jalang’ is neutrally used to attribute the wildness of animal, but the meaning contextually changes into naughty in term of breaching social norms (pusat bahasa, 2016). this word ‘jalang’ is stereotypically related to women and demeans women sexually. both bitch and jalang evaluate amy’s (she/dia) character (judgment: social sanction: negative propriety) if she is beyond reproach (martin & rose, 2007). she is condemned without any proof that she has been breached social norms. however, the translator transfers the meaning of ‘bored’ literally. consequently, it affects its quality negatively. there is the distortion of meaning in tt resulted in less accurate translation. besides, tt version structurally indicates less familiar translation and is resulted in less acceptable translation. nevertheless, this result proposes different claim of previous research by sutrisno (2017) which concludes that the application of literal translation results in accurate and acceptable translation. additionally, the research indicates translation technique which changes the attitude category, namely particularization. it refers to using a more precise or concrete term (molina & albir, 2002). the application of this technique results in less accurate and acceptable translation. for example: data 043/b.1.9/gg.84/yh.97 st rand elliott held me in his blue stare for a few more seconds, then broke up again – three girlish gasps burst from him like hiccups – and marybeth moved into the huddle, buried her face in her husband’s armpit. tt rand elliott memaku diriku dalam tatapan mata birunya selama beberapa detik, kemudian luluh kembali – sentakan nafas tiga kali seperti anak perempuan yang terlontar bagai cegukan – dan marybeth bergerak mendekat, menyusupkan wajahnya ke ketiak suamnya. the example reflects the same sexism but different attitude. they are the connotation of language items; ‘girlish’ and ‘seperti gadis perempuan’ represent unmanliness of rand. in st version, rand’s gasps attract nick’s attention. in tt version, rand is condemned for not being manly. st version indicates appreciation: reaction: negative impact while tt version refers to judgment: social sanction: negative propriety/. this situation is reflected by the use of the more precise term in tt. consequently, its accuracy gets the negative impact. while its structure in tt is natural, translation is acceptable. this seems to restate another finding (irlinda, santosa, & kristina, 2016) which suggest that the use of particularization in appraisal reflected less accurate but acceptable translation. last, the very infrequent technique is the description. it refers to replacing a term or expression with a description of its form or/and function (molina & albir, 2002). the application of this technique results in less accurate but acceptable translation. for example: data 008/b.1.3/gg.28/yh.37 st it was the kind of raunchy, unsisterly joke that go enjoyed tossing at me like a grenade. tt ini lelucon cabul, tidak cocok datang dari seorang perempuan, yang dengan senang hati go lemparkan padaku seperti melempar granat. the bolded words in st and tt show different sexism and attitude. in st version, ‘unsisterly’ is specified for women and cannot be substituted to men’s specific term, ‘brotherly’. in tt version, translator discriminates women on certain joke. while ‘unsisterly’ evaluates the negative quality of joke (appreciation: reaction: negative quality) that is expressed by go. the translation of ‘tidak cocok datang dari seorang perempuan’ evaluates women’s behavior (judgment: social sanction: negative normality). ‘tidak cocok datang dari seorang perempuan’ suggests that women normally do not express that kind of joke. these differences are affected by the use of translation technique, description, by replacing the term with a description of its function. besides, its translation quality is also negatively affected. this suggests different remark with the previous research (hendrastuti, nababan, wiratno, 2013), which suggest that the application of description indicates the accurate translation. however, another claim about its acceptability is similar. this research and previous one reveal that utilizing description results in acceptable translation due to familiarity. translation refers to transferring meaning from st to tt. the notion of transferring reflects the reproduction of meaning by using the nearest and most natural equivalence and the reproduction of language use (nida & taber, 1982). additionally, sexism is language use indicating inequality. this is socially constructed and affects people’s behavior, feeling, thought, intention and language (archer & lloyd, 2002; he, 2010; mills, 2005; 2008). hence, translating sexism deals with reproducing unequal expression by using the nearest and most natural equivalence socially. since the translator is a communicator (hatim & mason, 1997), he/she has to do with the same intention as the writer. however, this research indicates that writer and translator exploit different sexism in evaluating things, people’s characters, and feeling. consequently, they reflect different intention, sexism, and attitude, and translator tends to be less sexist than the writer. the differences of sexism between st and tt cannot be separated from the use of the translation technique. it refers to the result of choice made by a translator in transferring meaning from st to tt. there are many translation techniques proposed by many experts. as molina & albir (2002) have suggested, there is 18 translation technique, in which, each of them does not reflect good or bad technique. what makes translation good or bad is the translator’s choice. when the translator chooses the certain technique for the right situation and condition took place, it will result in a good translation, and vice versa. translator’s choice on dealing with translation is affected by the translator’s subjectivity (irlinda, santosa, & kristina, 2016; zhaoying, 2017), translator’s competency (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012), language characteristic differences (rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016; zhaoying, 2017) and social cultural differences. translator’s subjectivity is taken place when translator intentionally uses the particular technique with having insight about its impact to translation quality. translator’s competency shows if the application of a particular technique is appropriate or not. while applying an appropriate technique reflects good competency of the 265translating attitudes toward... (siti nuraisiah et al.) translator, an inappropriate one shows less competency. additionally, the translator faces two languages with different characteristic, social and culture, and determines translator in applying the certain technique. for example, english and indonesian basically differ in terms of tenses, so transferring meaning from english to indonesia might confuse translator in transferring the meaning of tenses. besides, the idea expressed in st is both socially and culturally constructed and probably cannot be reflected in the tt context. transferring social and cultural value from st to tt renders the great pitfall to the translator. furthermore, these differences give both positive and negative impacts. on the one hand, being non-sexist is good in relation to the effort of reducing gender inequality. this has been proposed by mills (2005) who argues the need of gender-free language. besides, non-sexist translation can be affected by the context in the target text. for example, indonesian tends to be more neutral than english in terms of sexism (rahmawati, nababan, & santosa, 2016). consequently, the use of the non-sexist term in tt is suggested to be more natural. on the other hand, translation is the product from the process of reproducing meaning in which its meaning has to be the equivalence. henceforth, sexist terms have to be transferred as sexist terms unless the quality will be affected negatively. conclusions based on the analysis conducted, the research indicates that there are differences between writer and translator in using attitude toward sexism. these differences show that the writer and translator have different perspectives on sexism and in this research, the translator is less sexist than the writer. these are reflected by the application of translation technique which simultaneously determines its quality. this claims that the translator’s choice in applying certain technique determines the quality. if the certain technique is applied in the wrong situation and condition, it will affect its quality negatively, and vice versa. however, translation qualities assessed are limited to accuracy and acceptability. consequently, there is a need a further study to reveal how translator’s choice in applying translation technique affects translation quality in terms of readability. references aji, w., nababan, m. r., & santosa, r. 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(2017). analisis terjemahan subtitle bahasa indonesia mengenai tokoh utama dalam film ”the monkey king” (2014) dari perspektif appraisal. surakarta: universitas sebelas maret. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 179 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 179-186 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6623 character education in an acehnese cultural saga: hikayat prang sabi rn herman1; mukhlis2; firman parlindungan3*; lia lisyati4; rahmad nuthihar5 1,2department of bahasa indonesia education, universitas syiah kuala jl. teuku nyak arief no. 441, kopelma darussalam, kota banda aceh, aceh 23111, indonesia 3, 4center for curriculum and language development, universitas teuku umar jl. alue peunyareng, ujong tanoh darat, meureubo, aceh 23681, indonesia 5department of electrical construction and maintenance, akademi komunitas negeri aceh barat, meulaboh, indonesia komplek sttu, jl. alue peunyareng, ujong tanoh darat, meureubo, aceh 23681, indonesia 1herman_rn@unsyiah.ac.id; 2mukhlishamid@gmail.com; 3firman@utu.ac.id; 4lialisyati@gmail.com; 5rahmad.nuthihar@aknacehbarat.ac.id received: 13th august 2020/revised: 24th august 2020/accepted: 22nd september 2020 how to cite: herman, rn., mukhlis., parlindungan, f., lisyati, l., & nuthihar, r. (2020). character education in an acehnese cultural saga: hikayat prang sabi. lingua cultura, 14(2), 179-186. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6623 abstract the research sought to understand the value of patriotism in the hikayat prang sabi by using a qualitative approach. hikayat was referred to narratives (saga) of war rooted in acehnese cultural tradition, and prang sabi in acehnese language meant ‘holy war’. as a literary work, hikayat prang sabi embodied the concept of jihad, which was usually sung during the time of war in the acehnese history: portuguese in 1511, dutch in 1873, japan in 1942, and the republic of indonesia in 1976. the source of the data was verses or stanzas of hikayat prang sabi that contained patriotic values. these verses were then treated as the unit of analysis. a hermeneutic approach was employed to analyze the data. the findings show that hikayat prang sabi contains two types of patriotic values: national and religious. national value refers to the sense of nationalism, ethnicity, and humanity. religious value, on the other hand, displays the value of spirituality, prophecy, and peace. these values indicate the foundation of thinking and doing of the acehnese people manifested in a literary work, which then can be transferred into the notion of character education. keywords: character education, acehnese culture, war saga introduction aceh has a long history of wars and armed conflicts. in 1511, aceh was in a war against portuguese colonialism which wanted to control trade in aceh. in 1873, the dutch helped the acehnese to take control over the portuguese but ended up declaring war against the acehnese (muhammad, sukiman, & irwansyah, 2019). this war was more heroic than the war against the portuguese in which the people of aceh were still able to maintain the ethnic groups and regions of aceh. when the netherlands had not completely departed from aceh, japan invaded in 1942. however, the people of aceh remained resistant. there was no word of surrender. those people volunteered to die on the battlefield. therefore, the dutch war journalist, zentgraaff noted that, “even if a bomb is planted in every strand of grass that grows on the land of aceh, aceh would never be destroyed” (as cited in yuliati et al., 2020). the long war of aceh continued to the armed conflict period where aceh was in the social revolution in late 1945 to early 1946 (known as cumbok war). later in 1953, daud beureueh, an acehnese figure, established a rebellion called darul islam against the republic of indonesia to found the islamic state in aceh. however, he capitulated in 1962. in 1976, a new rebellion movement called gerakan aceh merdeka (gam, free aceh movement) was founded by muhammad hasan tiro, fighting for islamic ideology and socioeconomic equality against the republic of indonesia. since then, aceh was in armed conflict with 180 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 179-186 the indonesian military until the helsinki agreement in 2005. both parties agreed to live in peace, and aceh is part of the republic of indonesia (dhuhri, 2016). the persistence of the acehnese people to survive in the burdens of war is inseparable from the values embedded in every acehnese person (mursyidin et al., 2020). many studies have stated that that acehnese people hold values that are in line with islamic teaching originated from the sacred texts; the quran dan the hadith (abubakar, srimulyani, & anwar, 2019; rizki, 2019). additionally, the cultural values of the acehnese people are also reflected in their literary works, such as hikayat (saga), which contains the narrative of patriotism and bravery of the people during the time of war (aristora, 2017; baihaqi, imran, & yakob, 2017). those studies have shed light on the importance of hikayat in the life of acehnese people, particularly hikayat prang sabi, which is mainly discussed from the perspective of jihad. in the research, jihad is defined in islamic concepts as warfare from the arabic word, which means ‘to endeavor’, ‘to strive’ (parrot, 2020). hikayat prang sabi is defined as ‘holy war’, a war in the path of jihad. instilling the value of patriotism to the youth is necessarily important. in this regard, the government plays a major role in fostering the acquisition process, which can be implemented in an educational context. in aceh, where the majority of its people are muslim, the teaching of patriotism and islamic values are commonly intertwined in school. according to strunkina et al. (2016), religious-based education is likely to be a solution dealing with problems triggered by developing concepts of national and patriotic upbringing. besides, because aceh is an area that has a history of conflict between the government of the republic of indonesia and the aceh separative movement (gam), reframing the teaching of patriotic values in school is very urgent in order to reinforce social harmony and conflict resolution to the youth (anwar, 2019). this practice is also important to minimize any possible conflict in the future within society (sanusi et al., 2018). as a case in point, saritoprak, exline, and stauner (2018) have studied how hikayat prang sabi becomes the center of gravity of jihad in aceh history. they point out that since jihad is equal to obligatory worship in islamic teaching, its universal values are infused within hikayat prang sabi, which is introduced in the acehnese cultural practice since a young age. hikayat prang sabi is more than ordinary poetry because it generally contains religious values extracted from the qur’an and the hadith to spur acehnese spirit in defending their religion, nation, and state. however, little is known about the values of hikayat prang sabi from the perspective of patriotism, which might be relevant to the notion of character education. the research is interested in discovering what patriotic values are embedded in the hikayat prang sabi, which might be transferred into character education, especially the one related to islamic scholarship. nuthihar and luthfi (2019) have pointed out that hikayat prang sabi is heavily influenced by islamic sufism (philosophy), which is closely related to the sociocultural practice where the society resides. additionally, widyahening and wardhani (2016) have also mentioned that literary works might contain values that might be applicable to character education. this statement is in line with hasjmy’s (1977) groundbreaking research on hikayat prang sabi, which mentioned that as a literary text, hikayat prang sabi has the power to encourage the people of aceh in three social domains; education, religion, and literature. this literary text is considered a narrative (saga) of a holy war, which contains inspirational and heroic values. acehnese has long been inspired by this saga to increase their collective spirit of patriotism. historically, it was sung by acehnese poets during the time of war. for example, during the dutch war, whoever listens to hikayat prang sabi, his enthusiasm immediately surged, his soul of jihad appeared immediately. therefore, the netherlands strongly prohibited the circulation of this saga in the acehnese community at that time. any acehnese who was found singing or saving the text of this saga would be captured. therefore, after 1924, it was difficult to find the text of the hikayat prang sabi. this saga is then more often heard verbally by word of mouth (zahrul, 2016). in line with the discussion, there is a growing notion of character education which is mainly oriented as a framework to strengthen human personality in the form of attitude, mentality, and mindset (allen & bull, 2018; baehr, 2017; jeynes, 2017). this notion reinforces the position of hikayat prang sabi as a pivotal literary work that might be used as the foundation for character education. this text contains various values in the form of character and moral education, which is conveyed through stories of the past and islamic perspectives. from the islamic perspective, the foundation of character education refers to the four characteristics of the prophet muhammad peace be upon him; (1) siddiq, which means trustworthy, (2) amanah, which means honesty, (3) tabliq, which means conveying, and (4) fatanah which means intelligent (herman et al., 2018). these four characteristics of the prophet appear in the text of hikayat prang sabi, complementing patriotic values. it can be said that being trustworthy, honest, conveying, and intelligent are values that every human should have. this is what makes hikayat prang sabi as a relevant text within the character education framework. judging from its usefulness, hodairiyah, rais, and purnanto (2019) have argued that the use of literary text in character education is relevant since it provides a mediation to describe a meaning for societies and to maintain local values for the next generation. it can be concluded that hikayat prang sabi has enriched current knowledge on literature and character education. this saga plays an essential role 181character education in an .... (rn herman, et al.) for the people of aceh. however, limited studies have found that focus on the value of patriotism as a concept of character education in the hikayat prang sabi. thus, the research fills the gap by discussing the patriotic values of hikayat prang sabi and its association with character education. pedagogically speaking, the research provides theoretical grounds for teachers to incorporate cultural values in designing learning materials, including cultural sensitivity and appropriation, which are relevant to the student’s cultural backgrounds (parlindungan, rifai, & safriani, 2018). methods the research provides a descriptive and systematic description of the values of patriotism embedded in hikayat prang sabi. a qualitative approach (creswell, 2016) is employed to explore what patriotic values that are embedded in hikayat prang sabi. the source of the data is each verse or stanza that contains patriotic values. the collected verses treated as units of analysis are then analyzed by using hermeneutic approach to literature. gius and jacke (2017) have mentioned that the hermeneutic approach is suitable to be used in analyzing literary texts because this approach: (1) relates to the interpretation of the scriptures, (2) is as a method of philology, (3) is as a science of linguistic understanding, (4) is as a geisteswissenschafi methodology or the universal interpretation of human life, (5) is as a phenomenology of understanding, and (6) is as a system of interpretation. on this basis, hermeneutics is considered as having a significant role in interpreting texts (hughes, shaw, & greenhalgh, 2020). results and discussions patriotic values in hikayat prang sabi have become a fundamental factor in developing the sense of acehnese patriotism as well as national patriotism. the author of hikayat prang sabi points out that patriotic characters embedded in the concept of jihad have become the foundation of the acehnese muslim jihad. in general, patriotic values contained in hikayat prang sabi can be divided into two aspects; religious patriotism and national patriotism. the first value constituted with patriotism in hikayat prang sabi is a religious value. religious value is understood as a patriot attitude that relies on the commands of allah, god. this concept of religious patriotism cannot be separated from the quran and the hadith. kollner (2016) has emphasized that patriotism and religion have a strong relationship that makes them fit into each other. on the one hand, religion is used to build a nation and institution, as well as to strengthen patriotism. on the other hand, patriotic value is used in religious education to strengthen the culture and identity of the society. religious value relates to possessing a will to sacrifice for the sake of religion, for the sake of carrying out the commands of allah, the almighty. this is why hikayat prang sabi always mentions that those who are willing to die on the path of god are shaheed, the martyrs. god promises that the reward for those who die within this situation is heaven, the highest sacred position where believers are rewarded hereafter. god’s promise to this in hikayat prang sabi can be seen in the following stanza. table 1 is the examples of data on religious patriotism value. table 1 religious patriotism aceh english he teungku tjut adoe sahbat o my dear my brothers peureuman hadarat tuhanku rabbi obey your god the almighty sigala njang na dum ibadat all worships bound to you njang leubeh that djakprang sabi most of which is a holy war hadih nabi tjit that saheh hadith of the prophet is indeed truthful hana ret weh bak prang sabi do not abandon the holy war neubri bulueng han peudaleh give an effort not an excuse tjit ka teupreh suruga tinggi the best paradise awaits you soe njang na djok nyawong hareuta whoever contributes his soul and wealth geu peulandja bak prang sabi spend everything for the holy war neu bloe le po meuhai hareuga although it indeed is expensive deungon suruga neu tuka geubri the paradise awaits in return table 1 shows the stanzas about the religious concept that fosters an attitude of patriotism for everyone who hears or reads hikayat prang sabi. the first stanza says that going to holy war is god’s command. this is reinforced in the next stanza, which mentions that there is a valid hadith about prang sabi or holy war. the stanzas attempt to emphasize that those who are willing to sacrifice their wealth and live in prang sabi will be guaranteed the highest paradise level as their reward. motivated by this promise, people’s attitudes and spirit of jihad are expected to lift. this is in line with what is expressed by saritoprak, exline, and stauner (2018) that spiritual jihad cannot be performed alone. it must be supported by the sacrifice of wealth. 182 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 179-186 in this sense, jihad is conceived as a much broader concept in islam, which includes difficult acts of charity and spiritual struggle against satan and the lower self (parrot, 2020). this sacrifice is considered as part of patriot characteristics, an attitude that is not concerned with wealth. it is because, in the islamic principle, loving wealth means ignoring allah’s commands. based on the story passed down from generation to generation, it is believed that the concept of jihad had boosted up the patriotism of acehnese when they heard hikayat prang sabi. this statement has been depicted many times in the text. for example, in the last stanza (table 2), it describes that a strong will to sacrifice for the sake of religion will make a person never die. even if he dies, he will die with high dignity and forever live within the spirit of the still alive people. table 2 the value of religious patriotism aceh english gopnyanudép bak poteu allah they live by the side of allah dalam kubah syurugamanyang in the dome of the heaven boh lam rumba meuhpuwo laju just take home the body beuthattaeukaseulintang although it seems in misery beuthatthan le taue rupa although we do not see each other anymore bek tasangkagopnyan mate do not think they are death peureuman tuhan tjitdeuh rupa the work of allah is visible bek jok sangka he bohhate do not make assumption o my dear maté syahid hana sakét dead by martyr is in no pain duemgeucutietgukèekeuranjang it is like being pricked by a thorn ureueng syahid bèktakheunmaté a martyr is not dead beutatthanléie rupa tapandang although we no longer see each other table 2 shows that the stanzas try to foster the spirit of jihad for all acehnese muslims, so they will not be afraid to die on the holy battlefield. the poet of this saga wants to convey that people who die, shaheed, are role models for everyone. spiritually, they never die, although their bodies no longer exist in the real world. with this message, the author shapes the patriotism character of the acehnese people so that they are never afraid of facing the holy battlefield. today, this patriotic attitude might be transformed into character education for all acehnese and every muslim in general (jamil, 2019). this view is strengthened by gusacov (2018) saying that character education that focuses on patriotic values may improve shared meaning within the society in constructing social solidarity. people may learn the history of their society in the past and improve their sense of social solidarity today through character education. hikayat prang sabi describes the attitude of the acehnese people in dealing with death that is never fearing death. this value presents the philosophical character of the acehnese people. table 3 shows the data from hikayat prang sabi that encourages acehnese not to fear death. table 3 hikayat prang sabi on religious value aceh english he syedara bek taduek le o brothers do not just sit there jak prang kaphe wahe abang let us fight the infidels, o brothers ikot suroh rabboljale obey your god han sabe pahla muprang the reward of war is not the same sigala dum na nyang taibadat all of forms of worship that we do nyang leubeh that jak muprang the best one is going to holy war bek tasangka wahe sahbat do not assume o brothers bak prang meuhat mate rijang that in the holy war death is near the two stanzas in table 3 are written in the form of questions and answers. the first stanza is a question of the invitation to fight, not afraid of death for the sake of carrying out god’s commands. the second stanza is the answer from the previous stanza, which states that no matter how much the reward is obtained from various worship services in general, the rewards of holy war are still greater than all the existing rewards. again, the spirit of jihad is also salient in these stanzas. god’s favor of jihad motivates many muslims in the world to choose to fight. jihad in islam has some conditions, such as not leaving the main obligation (e.g., wife, parents). however, it should be noted that hikayat prang sabi was written in the past when aceh was in the context of war. its use to spur the spirit of jihad for a holy war might not be relevant today, but its spirit to build social harmony is still urgent. as a case in point, indonesia today is not in the state of war, so hikayat prang sabi today may not be used for the purpose of war. instead, it is applicable to improve social harmony through character education, which is in line with the spirit of pancasila. thus, the hikayat prang sabi not only attempts to raise a patriotic 183character education in an .... (rn herman, et al.) attitude of fighting in a holy war but also maintains to prioritize social matters. the second patriotic value entailed in hikayat prang sabi is related to nationalism. national value in hikayat prang sabi also lies in the islamic perspective. there is a hadith mentioning that love of the motherland is a part of having faith. in this sense, nationalism has used an approach to enter modernity through the lens of religion and become the community of faith (biard, 2017). this community of faith then participates in the integration of nation-state and religion. love of the motherland means possessing a will to sacrifice for the motherland. a will to die defending the motherland is certainly an attitude of patriotism that should be developed by everyone. the author of hikayat prang sabi conveys the message that loving homeland means being willing to die as a shaheed (martyr) for the homeland, ethnicity, and race, as pictured in table 3. hikayat prang sabi manifests patriotic values of nationalism because it is necessary to encourage people to love their motherland in the context of war. in today’s context, embedding such values to the youth generation is undoubtedly important to prevent sentiments and conflicts within society. schlosser (2017) has mentioned that conflict may take place when national unity is destroyed and patriotism is undermined. to strengthen the idea, westheimer (2019) has suggested that teachers, researchers, and policymakers should expand the list of words used to describe patriotism manifested in different forms of attitudes, beliefs, and actions, including national patriotism. to this end, national patriotism is conceived as not only about serving for the motherland but also about pride in the nation, state, ethnicity, and race (omelchenko et al., 2015). table 4 shows the reference of the data on national patriotism in hikayat prang sabi. table 4 the value of national patriotism aceh english po geutanyoe kuasa that our lord is indeed the greatest geuyubeurangkat lawan belanda ordered us to fight against the dutch yohgohgeuyu le hadarat before being asked by the people djinoetakarat he syedara go immediately o my brother he ureueng mukmin tapohmusoh o believer let us slay the enemy muprangbeusunggohngonbeulanda fight firmly with the dutch hate bak teutapwaherakan strengthen your heart o my brother tulong tuhan troh bak gata the help of your god is with you aceh english geubriseksanjangthatpeudeh the torment is indeed painful soe njang han patehprangbeulanda for whoever do not fight against the dutch wateemeuseukiradjakureh if you go fight against the dutch beuthatwarehsaidil anbiya you will be together with the leader of the prophet table 4 shows that the author of hikayat prang sabi illustrates a character of acehnese patriotism. it is exemplified by the invitation to fight the dutch because, at that time, they colonized aceh. the author of hikayat prang sabi also intends to bring up the spirit of jihad of acehnese people by participating in the war against the dutch as an effort to defend their homeland (aceh), ethnicity, and race. regardless of the power that the dutch had during colonialism, according to the author of the saga, the acehnese people considered it as a call for patriotism as well as the fulfillment of god’s command. they are, therefore, able to gain spiritual strength to join in the battlefield. the patriot value displayed in the stanzas is a manifestation of acehnese characters who are tough, persistent, and enthusiastic. for the people of aceh, defending the nation, homeland, and ethnicity is a philosophy of life. this is stated in a hadih maja (acehnese proverb); “pantang peudeueng mubalek sarong, pantang reuncong mubalek mata; pantang ureueng diteu’oh kawom, pantang hukom dipeujeut peukara” (a sword sheath must not be put inside out, a rencong acehnese dagger must not be held mistakenly, people must not live in the clan, the law must not be questioned). this proverb adds to the patriotism of the acehnese that following the formal regulation of the state (law) is obligatory in which all people should defend it in all circumstances. acehnese people must not stand silenced when their nation and descendants are challenged and questioned. this is the value that ignited the fighting spirit of the acehnese so that they were able to survive in each period of war, including the period of war against the portuguese, the dutch, and the republic of indonesia. developing national patriotism is necessary to be implemented widely to sustain national unity as arnot, casely-hayford, and yeboah (2018) have recommended that the awareness of national unity and harmony can be promoted through respecting its constitutions, laws, and symbols. the persistence of the acehnese people in fighting and never giving up is an attitude of patriotism that has long been narrated in literature. not only drafted in a written version, but the sense of patriotism of acehnese people has also been reflected in their real-life interaction. the finding in the research is in line with unsriana and ningrum’s research (2018). table 4 the value of national patriotism (continued) 184 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 179-186 they have examined the moral principle in a japanese elementary school textbook entitled “watashitachi no doutoku” and its correlation with the character formation of children in japan. the textbook encourages the students to instill the value of a high level of discipline. not only that this value is used in the educational setting, but it also is accepted by the japanese society at large. the educational setting is indeed the best setting to formally build the character of the people (permana & suhaili, 2019). a similar argument is also found in sofiani, akhadiah, and emzir’s research (2019), who argue that character and identity are closely related to the social context of society. as part of society, students create a certain identity, which is a socio-emotional process that involves a change in their emotions, personality, and relationship with others where they live. that being said, character education considers the relationship between the individual citizen and the social community, which might include recognizing and challenging social injustices and deliberative engagement with the difference among the society (peterson, 2019). conclusions the research focuses on the patriotic values embedded in an acehnese cultural saga called hikayat prang sabi or literally translated into english as a holy war narrative. in particular, the research seeks to discover what patriotic values (i.e., national and religious) are embedded in the hikayat prang sabi, which might be transferred into character education, especially the one related to islamic principles. character education is the manifestation of character derived from any other sources (e.g., literature, philosophy) to strengthen moral and civic virtues like generosity, tolerance, kindness, and others. the findings show that patriotic values in hikayat prang sabi entail two distinct values; religion and nationalism. religious values are related to attitudes based on religion, while nationalism values are related to attitudes to sacrifice for the motherland. patriotism is an attitude that shapes a person’s character to be willing to sacrifice, both for the sake of religion and for the sake of the nation and state. that is, willingness to sacrifice is a character that is supposed to be possessed by people. in the hikayat prang sabi, patriotism is a value that lives in acehnese society. the value has become the foundation of thinking and doing, including determining attitudes in defense of religion, nation, and state (cojocariu, 2013). the author of hikayat prang sabi indicates that the patriotic attitude of the acehnese is strongly influenced by the stories of the prophet muhammad. these inspirational stories are found in the hikayat prang sabi as a concept of jihad as well as character education. these patriotic values written in the saga are manifested by the acehnese in their daily social interaction. this research has some limitations. first, it only focuses on the content of hikayat prang sabi that entails character education. the units of analysis are verses or stanzas of the saga and their interpretations of a character’s values. this research does not focus further on the linguistic aspects of the saga, such as how the language is structured, how meanings are constructed, and how people use and perceive the language. second, this research specifically focuses on the patriotic values of hikayat prang sabi. since the saga embedded the acehnese cultures and norms at large, it may contain other values and philosophical ways of thinking and doing, which may not necessarily be related to just patriotic values. thus, further research is needed to investigate hikayat prang sabi in more varied scopes and contexts. for example, further studies might focus on the linguistic aspects of the saga or how it is being used in the school context in association with the implementation of character education. further studies that employ a different method of inquiry are also needed. future researchers might be interested in studying the effectiveness of hikayat prang sabi in improving students’ characters using experimental studies. its relation to other outcome constructs, such as literacy, creativity, critical thinking, and language mastery, is also worth studying. references abubakar, a., srimulyani, e., & anwar, a. 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(2016). literary works and character education. international journal of language and litearature, 4(1), 176-180. https:// doi.org/10.15640/ijll.v4n1a20. yuliati., khakim, m. n., furzaen, a. r., & suwarno, e. i. (2020). aceh women’s contribution of military affairs during western colonialism in indonesia. proceedings of the international conference on social studies, globalisation and technology (icssgt 2019). https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200803.028. zahrul, f. (2016). politik islam di aceh dalam hikayat prang sabi karya tengku chik pante kulu: kajian estetika resepsi hans robert jausz zahrul fadhi. yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 81 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 81-86 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5361 a comparative study of source language texts used in the indonesian translations of tao te ching pauw budianto department of linguistics and applied linguistics, school of chinese language and literature, wuhan university wuhan, hubei province, p.r.china 430072 pauwbudianto@foxmail.com received: 28th january 2019/revised: 04th april 2019/accepted: 08th april 2019 how to cite: budianto, p. (2019). a comparative study of source language texts used in the indonesian translations of tao te ching. lingua cultura, 13(1), 81-86. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5361 abstract this research aimed to show the indonesian translation of tao te ching that commonly did not state clearly the source text used as translation base, although some translations put chinese source text in its translation book. this research tried to use a comparative method to analyze the differences of source texts used in two versions of indonesian translations of tao te ching, i.e., lika and wang, and its impact to translation products, then compared those source texts used with five original versions of tao te ching as base texts references. the results show that (1) the differences between the two source texts occur mainly in four aspects: punctuation marks, pauses, characters, text redundant, and loss. (2) source texts used by these two indonesian versions are very close to the most widespread original versions; he shanggong and wangbi commentary versions, with some changes in some places. lika source text is quite close to heshanggong version, wang source text is quite close to the wang bi version. some intentional changes in source text occur in lika. keywords: comparative translation, source text, tao te ching, indonesian translation introduction tao te ching was written by lao zi at about 2500 years ago. through this long history, it has been rewritten for many times. in this process of rewriting, there could be many changes inside the text itself, either with intention or not. after over two thousand years of history, no one knows the first original text anymore. at present the only people know is that the texts have been rewritten by many experts while transliterating its language and explaining its philosophy has been done time by time in history. through this long history of treatment and retreatment, with or no intention, there have been many changes especially in grammar, words, paragraph and chapter sequence, so now-existed tao te ching should have had many differences from the first original one that we did not know anymore (李, 2018). it makes tao te ching written in the chinese language has many original versions. until now, there could be hundreds such kind of book published, so there are many versions of tao te ching texts exist. among many versions of tao te ching existed in history, there are five versions that nowadays researchers recognized as five important versions, i.e., he shanggong, wang bi, zhujian, boshu, and fuyi (刘笑敢, 2014). he shanggong (马, 2016) and wang bi (王, 2017) commentary versions are the most popular and widely spread versions. besides, there are also tao te ching old versions, i.e., zhujian (bamboo slips) (孙, 2017) and boshu (silk manuscripts) (赵, 2018). silk manuscripts (boshu) of tao te ching texts were discovered in 1972-1974 by archaeological research in three han dynasty tombs in mawangdui, hubei province china. this han tomb was predicted 168 years bc, so these manuscripts should be written earlier. boshu version has different chapter sequence with other versions, te ching in the front and tao ching after it. it is an important old version that most complete (丁, 2014). while bamboo slips (zhujian) of tao te ching texts were discovered in 1993 by archaeological research in hubei province, jingmen guodian, china. experts have predicted that the writing of these slips was about 300 years bc, and becomes the oldest version of tao te ching discovered until now. however, it is so regretful that the writings are incomplete. last but not least, fuyi version is also one of the old versions that reorganized by fuyi (555639 ad) from tang dynasty (赵, 2018). the phenomena of different versions are very important in translating tao te ching. the different source of text version will result in different translation product (梁, 2018). experts in modern time china have paid attention to these phenomena while translating it to modern 82 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 81-86 chinese language (郑, 2018). sometimes they refer to the most recent research on tao te ching text versions and make a little change to the base text for their purpose of translation and explanation. another important thing to note is about how to make pauses in reading unpunctuated ancient writings. tao te ching as a classic text also has this problem. experts in the past sometimes also had some debates in making pauses to some parts of the texts. for examples in chapter 1 of tao te ching, experts have made two kinds of sentence pauses (刘固盛, 2015): (1) “故常无欲, 以观其妙;常有欲, 以观其徼” (gu chang wu yu, yi guan qi miao; chang you yu, yi guan qi jiao) (2) “故常无, 欲以观其妙;常有, 欲以观其徼” (gu chang wu, yu yi guan qi miao; chang you, yu yi guan qi jiao) these two pauses actually are just about two pairs of words 无欲 (wu yu) and 有欲(you yu) or 无 (wu) and 有 (you). it has made a long debate in interpreting lao zi philosophy. the oldest english translation of tao te ching was found at yale university library that was written in 1859. however, john chalmer’s translation in 1868 was commonly be seen as the oldest one (姚, 2016). while the complete translation of tao te ching has been published in indonesian since 1937 until now there are at least nine versions of the translated book ever existed. the researcher chooses two versions as the object of analysis in this research, i.e., lika (2012) and wang (2014) versions. lika (2012) version complete book title is “道 德经 daodejing: kitab suci agama tao” (daodejing: tao religion classic), that was written by dr. i. d. lika, m.sc., published by pt elexmedia komputindo jakarta in 2012, 276 pages. this book is divided into 81 chapters, according to the original version of tao te ching. its written structure in each chapter includes the number of chapters; the title of the chapter in chinese characters with pinyin and indonesian; source language text in chinese characters and pinyin; indonesian translation text; an explanation. in the beginning, there is a short introduction from the writer, and at the end of the book attached table of references. wang (2014) version complete book title is “老子 daodejing: the wisdom of lao zi”, that was written by andri wang, published by pt gramedia pustaka utama jakarta in 2014, the 6th printing (since 2009), 307 pages. this book is also divided into 81 chapters, according to the original version of tao te ching. its written structure in each chapter includes source language text in chinese characters; the number of chapters; the title of the chapter in indonesian; indonesian translation text; an explanation. at the beginning of the book, there is a quite long introduction and explanation of some philosophical terms of lao zi. while at the end of the book, there is a short end note from the writer, table of references, and writer’s short curriculum vitae. methods this research mainly uses a comparative method to clarify the differences between source language texts used in the two indonesian translation of tao te ching and its impact to its translation product, then compare those two texts with five original versions of tao te ching as base text references. this research chooses two newest indonesian translation texts, i.e., lika (2012) and wang (2014) as research objects. while the five original versions of the tao te ching as comparison references refer to he shanggong, wang bi, boshu, zhujian, and fuyi texts that had been studied comprehensively by liu xiaogan in his book《老子 古今》(“lao zi: old and new versions”) (刘笑敢, 2006). all texts of five original versions tao te ching are adapted from this book in this research, there will be no specific annotations. english translation of tao te ching used in this research refers to d.c lau lao tzu translation (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012), there will be no specific annotations anymore. results and discussions the differences between two source texts of lika (2012) and wang (2014) mainly occurred in four aspects. they are different punctuation marks, different pauses, different characters, text loss and text redundant. the first differences is different punctuation marks. two versions’ source texts are used different punctuation marks. lika (2012) has used modern style of punctuation marks, while wang (2014) has used chinese style full stop in every pause between sentences. the example can be seen in tao te ching chapter 10. (1) 天门开阖,能无雌乎?(2012) tian men kai he, neng wu ci hu? (2) 天门开阖。能无雌乎。(2014) tian men kai he. neng wu ci hu. (in english: when the gates of heaven open and shut, are you capable of keeping to the role of the female?) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012) the difference in punctuation marks used actually do not impact the understanding of the text itself. the difference in translation text is caused more by the understanding of the translator to the content of the text, not by the punctuation marks used. chinese characters texts in ancient time do not use punctuation marks at all. all the punctuation marks used in chinese ancient texts nowadays are to make it easier to read by modern people. from the reading point of view, lika (2012) source text is easier to read by modern people in general, while wang (2014) will be useful for them who has knowledge in ancient chinese language deeper. the second differences is different pauses. punctuation marks are used in modern time, and have no real impact to understanding the ancient text itself. in ancient text, there are only pauses that mark with small circle as modern chinese full stop. the different pauses between sentences often cause different meaning of the sentence. the example can be seen in tao te ching chapter 1. ( 1 )故 常 无 , 欲 以 观 其 妙 。 常 有 , 欲 以 观 其 徼。(2012) gu chang wu, yu yi guan qi miao. chang you, yu yi guan qi jiao. ( 2 )故 常 无 欲 。 以 观 其 妙 。 常 有 欲 。 以 观 其 徼。(2014) gu chang wu yu. yi guan qi miao. chang you yu. yi guan qi jiao. (english: hence always rid yourself of desires in order 83a comparative study of source.... (pauw budianto) to observe its secrets; but always allow yourself to have desires in order to observe its manifestations.) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this translation conforms with wang (2014) source text. sentence pauses is one of the typical problems in ancient chinese texts. in the example, the problem is lika (2012) source text puts punctuation mark after the character “无wu”, while wang (2014) source text puts punctuation mark after the characters “无欲wuyu”. this problem could happen because of ancient chinese language nearly one word one character, so every character frequently could be seen as a word. in this case, the central problem is between two different words “无wu” (nothing) and “无欲wu yu” (no desire), and this pauses cause two totally different interpretations of this text. lika (2012) and wang (2014) translation of this sentence are under the influence of these two different pauses. (1) oleh karena itu, seharusnya dengan konsep “tiada”/ tanpa batas/ tanpa embel-embel/ tanpa tendensius/ tanpa beban kita bisa mengamati keagungan dan kemuliaan dao (diistilahkan sebagai sifat 妙 miao dari dao); sebaliknya harus dengan konsep “ada”/ adanya batasan-batasan/ adanya peraturan/ adanya hukum/adanya bentuk/ adanya tujuan untuk mempelajari semua yang berwujud secara objektif dan realistis (diistilahkan dengan 徼 jiao--batasan-batasan nyata dari wujud benda di dunia ini) (lika, 2012). (therefore, it is agreed with the concept of “no” (nothingness)/ no borders/ no frills/ without tendencies/ without burdens that can regulate the glory of the dao (termed the character of miao 妙 of dao); otherwise it must be with the concept of “there”/ presence of boundaries/ presence of regulations/ presence of law/ presence of forms/ presence of all purposes which are objective and realistic (termed – jiao 徼 real boundaries of things in this world) (lika, 2012)) (2) bila orang “terbebas dari nafsu keinginan” (wu) baru mampu memahami misteri dan keajaibannya dao; jika pikirannya “dipenuhi nafsu keinginan”, dao hanya bisa dipahami terbatas pada kulitnya saja.(wang, 2014) (if people are free from craving (wu), they are only able to understand the mysteries and wonders of the dao; if their mind is filled with craving, dao could only be understood to be limited to its skin (wang, 2014)) from these two translations, it can be seen that lika (2012) has translated “无wu” with “konsep tiada” (nothingness), has translated “有you” with “konsep ada” (being). while wang (2014) has translated “无欲wu yu” with “terbebas dari nafsu keinginan/wu” (having no desires), has translated “有欲you yu” with “dipenuhi dengan nafsu keinginan” (full of desires). wang (2014) translation actually is not as simple as this, because translator also uses the concept of “无wu” in his translation text beside “无欲 wu yu”. the text before this sentence is in chapter one of tao te ching, as follows: (1) 无,名天地之始。有,名万物之母。(2012) wu, ming tian di zhi shi. you, ming wan wu zhi mu. (2) 无。名天地之始。有。名万物之母。(2014) wu, ming tian di zhi shi. you, ming wan wu zhi mu. (english: the nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth; the named was the mother of the myriad creatures.) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation is not according to above pauses, it is according to “无名wu ming,天地之始 tian di zhi shi;有名you ming,万物之母 wan wu zhi mu.” it can be seen that the pauses of this sentence are exactly the same for those two versions. it seems that wang (2014) also realize the problem of pauses in chapter 1 of tao te ching that has made a long debate among researchers on lao zi, so he chooses the middle way to combine those two arguments. this opinion although seems to be not consistent, but it could be alternatives for interpreting tao te ching. the third differences are different characters. it is used in different versions of ancient chinese classics that is also one of the important problems beside sentence pauses. in the process of frequent rewriting, differences in characters used in ancient texts become a normal case (杜, 2018). there are many different characters used between source texts of the two versions. the differences exist in chapter 2, 22, 27, 29, 34, 36, 53, 55, 65, and 67. these differences in characters used are closely related to the characters in different original versions of tao te ching. the researcher analyzes some sentences in some chapters to explain this problem. first, it can be seen in chapter 2 of tao te ching. (1) 故有无相生。难易相成。长短相形。高下相 倾。音声相和。前后相随---恒也。(2012) gu you wu xiang sheng. nan yi xiang cheng. chang duan xiang xing. gao xia xiang qing. yin sheng xiang he. qian hou xiang sui---heng ye. (2) 故有无相生。难易相成。长短相较。高下相 倾。音声相和。前后相随。(2014) gu you wu xiang sheng. nan yi xiang cheng. chang duan xiang jiao. gao xia xiang qing. yin sheng xiang he. qian hou xiang sui. (english translation: thus something and nothing produce each other; the difficult and the easy complement each other; the long and the short offset each other; the high and the low incline towards each other; note and sounds harmonize with each other; before and after follow each other) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation conforms with the source text in wang (2014). lika (2012) source text uses “长短相形” chang duan xiang xing, while wang (2014) source text version uses “长短相较” chang duan xiang jiao, it has differed one character “形xing” and “较jiao”. among the five original versions, he shanggong, zhujian, boshu, and fuyi versions all use “形xing” in this sentence, but these original versions have more complex structures (see results and discussions point 4: example of tao te ching chapter 2). only wang bi version uses “较jiao”. experts have predicted the first original version of tao te ching should use “形xing” because it rhymes with 生sheng, 成cheng, and 倾qing (党 & 陈, 2018). 84 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 81-86 the fourth differences is text loss and text redundant phenomena that exists in the source text used in lika (2012). it starts from text redundant phenomena in last sentence in chapter 19. ( 1 ) . . .见 素 抱 朴 , 少 私 寡 欲 , 绝 学 无 忧 *。 (2012) jian su bao pu, shao si gua yu, jue xue wu you. (2) ...见素抱朴。少私寡欲。(2014) jian su bao pu, shao si gua yu. (english: have little thought of self and as few desires as possible) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation conforms with the source text in wang (2014). lika (2012) translation; ...mempertahankan sikap mental yang sederhana dalam kehidupan, mengurangi egoisme/nafsu kepentingan pribadi, mengurangi nafsu keserakahan, dan mengurangi nafsu menggunakan sisi negatif ilmu pengetahuan. bila bisa melakukan semua itu, tidak akan ada lagi rasa cemas/kemasygulan di hati manusia (lika, 2012). “绝学无忧 jue xue wu you” exists in lika (2012) translation in chapter 19 as “mengurangi nafsu menggunakan sisi negatif ilmu pengetahuan” (reduce the desires to use bad side of knowledge and science). it seems that translator puts this sentence here intentionally. this sentence in wang (2014) is at the beginning sentence of chapter 20. (1) (text loss) 唯之与阿,相去几何?... (2012) wei zhi yu e, xiang qu ji he. (2) 绝学无忧。唯之与阿。相去几何。... (2014) jue xue wu you. wei zhi yu e, xiang qu ji he. (english: exterminate learning and there will no longer be worries. between yea and nay. how much difference is there?) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation conforms with the source text in wang (2014). lika (2012) translation of the beginning sentence in chapter 20: “setuju dan menolak, apakah ada jarak perbedaan yang sesungguhnya di antara keduanya itu?” (lika, 2012). this translation refers to the sentence “唯之 与阿,相去几何?wei zhi yu e, xiang qu ji he”. there is no word “绝学无忧 jue xue wu you”. compare to wang (2014), lika (2012) in chapter 20 misses one sentence that has been existed as the last sentence in the previous chapter. the same phenomena also happens in chapter 22 and 23. tao te ching chapter 22 (1) ...古之所谓 “曲则全“者,岂虚言哉,诚全而 归之,希言自然 *。(2012) gu zhi suo wei “qu ze quan” zhe, qi xu yan zai, cheng quan er gui zhi, xi yan zi ran. (2) ...古之所谓曲则全者。岂虚言哉。诚全而归 之。(2014) gu zhi suo wei qu ze quan zhe. qi xu yan zai. cheng quan er gui zhi. (english: the way the ancients had it, “bowed down then preserved, is no empty saying. truly it enables one to be preserved to the end) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation of the last sentence of chapter 22 conforms with the source text in wang (2014). lika (2012) translation: “...pepatah kuno yang berbunyi “siapa yang berani mengalah dialah yang selamat!” bukanlah pepatah kosong belaka. hanya orang yang dengan jujur, tulus, dan teliti dalam memahami kaidah dao yang bisa memahami semua itu. inilah salah satu maksud hukum alam semesta yang sesungguhnya, yang disebut alamiah” (ziran/自然) (lika, 2012). in this translation, the sentence “希言自然 xi yan zi ran” has translated into “inilah salah satu maksud hukum alam semesta yang sesungguhnya, yang disebut alamiah (ziran/自然)” (this is one of what natural law means by “natural/ziran 自然”). it seems that the translator arranges this change with intention. tao te ching chapter 23 (1) (text loss),飘风不终朝,暴雨不终日。... (2012) piao feng bu zhong zhao, bao yu bu zhong ri (2) 希言自然。故飘风不终朝。骤雨不终日。... (2014) xi yan zi ran. gu piao feng bu zhong zhao. zhou yu bu zhong ri. (english: to use words but rarely, is to be natural. hence a gusty wind cannot last all morning, and a sudden downpour cannot last all day) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation of beginning sentence in chapter 23 is the same meaning with the source text in wang (2014). lika (2012) translation: “... angin yang kencang tidak akan bertiup sepanjang pagi. hujan yang lebat tidak akan turun sepanjang hari.” (lika, 2012). or in english, “a strong wind will not blow all morning. heavy rain will not go down all day.” this translation does not include the sentence “希言自然 xi yan zi ran”. it seems that the translator arranges it intentionally. these texts are redundant, and text loss phenomena in the source text of lika (2012) is a special case. the five original versions also do not have these texts redundant and loss phenomena as in lika (2012) chapter 19, 20, 22, 23. by comparing with his own translation, it can be seen that every translation conforms to its source text. it means these phenomena are not by chance or a human mistake, but it can be predicted that the translator does it on purpose. besides this, there are another text redundant phenomena that exist in the source text of lika (2012) in chapter 2, compared with the source text in wang (2014). there is one redundant sentence presented; 恒也 heng ye. this redundant text conforms with the original text of the boshu version, but there are differences in whole sentence structures. tao te ching chapter 2: (1) 故有无相生。难易相成。长短相形。高下相 倾。音声相和。前后相随---恒也*。(2012) (gu you wu xiang sheng. nan yi xiang cheng. chang duan xiang xing. gao xia xiang qing. yin sheng xiang he. qian hou xiang sui---heng ye.) (2) 故有无相生。难易相成。长短相较。高下相 倾。音声相和。前后相随。(2014) (gu you wu xiang sheng. nan yi xiang cheng. chang 85a comparative study of source.... (pauw budianto) duan xiang jiao. gao xia xiang qing. yin sheng xiang he. qian hou xiang sui.) english translation: thus something and nothing produce each other; the difficult and the easy complement each other; the long and the short offset each other; the high and the low incline towards each other; note and sounds harmonize with each other; before and after follow each other (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation conforms with the source text in wang (2014). the zhujian version: 有无之相生也,难易之相成也,长短之相形 也,高下之相盈也,音声之相和也,先后之相 随也。 (you wu zhi xiang sheng ye, nan yi zhi xiang cheng ye, chang duan zhi xiang xing ye, gao xia zhi xiang ying ye,yin sheng zhi xiang he ye, xian hou zhi xiang sui ye.) the boshu version: 有无之相生也,难易之相成也,长短之相形 也,高下之相盈也,音声之相和也,先后之相 随,恒也。 (you wu zhi xiang sheng ye, nan yi zhi xiang cheng ye, chang duan zhi xiang xing ye, gao xia zhi xiang ying ye, yin sheng zhi xiang he ye, xian hou zhi xiang sui, heng ye.) the fuyi version: 有无之相生,难易之相成,长短之相形,高下 之相盈,音声之相和,前后之相随。 (you wu zhi xiang sheng, nan yi zhi xiang cheng, chang duan zhi xiang xing, gao xia zhi xiang ying, yin sheng zhi xiang he, qian hou zhi xiang sui.) from these versions, it can be seen that the sentence structures of the texts in zhujian and boshu versions, there is “之zhi” in the middle of sentences and “也ye” at the end of each sentence. “之zhi” structure here is used as a mark to change “sp (subject-predicate)” structure to be “phrase” structure (吴 & 吴, 2018). it is one of the ancient chinese language unique structure. while “也ye” at the end of the sentence is a pause mark in each clause in ancient chinese language (白, 2017). while if comparing them with fuyi version, it will be found that each sentence of fuyi version basically similar to zhujian and boshu versions in structures, but it does not have pauses mark “也ye” anymore. it seems to be a little bit shorter and simpler. it also reflects the evolution of chinese language grammar (刘利 & 李, 2013). zhujian, boshu, and fuyi versions sentence structures do not exist in nowadays most-spread versions; he shanggong and wang bi commentary versions. the language structures in these two versions sentences seem to be simpler and shorter (刘笑敢, 2006). wang (2014) and lika (2012) without the last sentence “恒也 heng ye” source text sentences structures both conform to he shanggong and wang bi commentary versions. in characters using, wang (2014) and lika (2012) are not exactly the same. tao te ching chapter 46 *罪莫大于可欲。祸莫大于不知足。咎莫大于欲 得。故知足之足常足矣。(2012) (zui mo da yu ke yu. huo mo da yu bu zhi zu. jiu mo da yu yu de. gu zhi zu zhi zu chang zu yi.) 祸莫大于不知足。咎莫大于欲得。故知足之 足。常足矣。(2014) (huo mo da yu bu zhi zu. jiu mo da yu yu de. gu zhi zu zhi zu. chang zu yi.) (english: there is no crime greater than having to many desires; there is no disaster greater than not being content; there is no misfortune greater than being covetous. hence, in being content, one will always have enough) (刘殿爵 & 章, 2012). this english translation is the same meaning with the source text in lika (2012). compared to the source text in wang (2014), the source text of lika (2012) also presents the redundant sentence “罪莫大于可欲 zui mo da yu ke yu”. after comparing it with the five original of tao te ching, it is found that this sentence of source text used by lika (2012) conforms with he shanggong version, while the sentence of source text used by wang (2014) conforms with wang bi version. conclusions this research limited its scope on two indonesian translations of tao te ching by lika and wang, as the newest and complete versions of 81 chapters tao te ching translations, that can still be found in book stores today. through a comprehensive comparative study between source language texts used in lika and wang, the researcher finds out four conclusions. the first is the source texts used in both indonesian translation versions of tao te ching have differences in four aspects: sentence punctuation marks, pauses, characters, and text redundancy or text loss. text redundancy and text loss especially occur in lika chapter 2, 19, 20, 22, and 23. moreover, these redundancy or losses seem to be on purpose. the translator has re-arranged the tao te ching source text according to his purpose (chapter 19, 20, 22, and 23). no original versions conform with these phenomena. the second is the source text used by lika are close to he shanggong version, with some changes in several chapters, especially chapter 2, 19, 20, 22, and 23. chapter 2 changes refer to boshu version, and changes in other chapters do not conform to any five original versions. it seems to be the translator’s own idea. while source text used by wang conforms with wang bi version. the third is a comparative study on tao te ching’s original versions needs to be conducted first before making the decision of which version to be used as the source text. moreover, the last is because of the complexity of tao te ching original versions, indonesian translation of tao te ching needs to give more concern to the source text to be used, and state clearly in translation book, include the changes that have made with a special purpose. future research needs to be conducted to investigate the source texts used in all indonesian translations of tao te ching from the past to present, to get a comprehensive understanding of base text versions used in translations. references 白水. 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(2014). daodejing: the wisdom of lao zi. jakarta: p.t. gramedia pustaka utama. vol. 13 no. 3 august 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index, microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents hariyanto; soetarno joyoatmojo; joko nurkamto; gunarhadi correlation of learning motivation based on arcs model with english achievement of midwifery students .......... 161-166 dyani masita dewi the representation of patriarchy in indonesian children folk tales from sumatra island................................ 167-172 milisi sembiring; vivi novalia sitinjak translating proverbs in the mate ras mate film texts from karonese language into english............................. 173-180 rike febriyanti japanese language rhetoric of the japanese education students’ at the speech contest .............................. 181-189 nurul fadhilah; wakit abdullah rais; dwi purnanto metaphor analysis on color lexicon with plant attributes in madurese language.......................................... 191-199 diah kristina; melsiana shera rita ramadona the representation of women’s ceo image in online media.................................................................. 201-207 winny nur ardy sudrajat; pupung purnawarman students’ perceptions on the use of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class................ 209-216 silvia indriani students’ errors in using the simple present tense at polytechnic ati padang ............................................. 217-221 rosyida ekawati; desi puspitasari generic structure of tourism promotion website of madura natural wonders ............................................. 223-230 qoniatul mubarokah; djatmika; sumarlam cucuk lampah: cooperative principle violations to create laughter at wedding ceremony in magetan............... 231-237 vol. 13 no. 3 august 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 79 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 79-84 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7167 strategies applied in translating information technology terms in manual books: iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe eksanti dwi pratiwi1*; ahmad juma’ khatib2 1,2english literature program, faculty of letters and cultures, universitas gunadarma jl. margonda raya no.100. pondok cina, depok 16424, indonesia 1eksantidpratiwi@gmail.com; 2aj_khatib@staff.gunadarma.ac.id received: 17th march 2021/revised: 12th june 2021/accepted: 14th june 2021 how to cite: pratiwi, e. d. & khatib, a. j. (2021). strategies applied in translating information technology terms in manual books: iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe. lingua cultura, 15(1), 79-84. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7167 abstract the research focused on the translation of technological terms in iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe manual books from english into indonesian. the research applied a descriptive qualitative approach. the chesterman’s translation strategies were used to find out how information technology (it) terms were translated from english into indonesian. the research finds that four translation strategies are used to translate the manual book of the iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe from english into indonesian. from the total of 60 data, the four strategies are loan (35 data), calque (11 data), unit shift (13 data), and the least used strategies are information change (1 data). it can be concluded that the most frequently used strategies are loan (35 data), while the least used strategies are information change (1 data). keywords: translation strategy, it terminologies, manual books introduction era of the 21st century is often regarded as an era of technology (raja & nagasubramani, 2018). information technology (it) plays a vital role in many aspects of people’s life. it changes and eases people’s life today and is the thing cannot survive without. the impact of technology can be felt in every possible field, from education, economy, to communication. people use many it products in doing day-to-day tasks. technology from its various products changes how people communicate, work, eat, learn, entertain, and many more. nowadays, someone can text from cell phones, connect on social media, take a picture easily with a digital camera, print a document in just one click, or turn on or turn off our bedroom lamp with a remote. technology products let people find more efficient, faster, and more convenient ways of doing the same thing. many technological products are being created day by day. in order to be able to use the new technological products, people need to read manual books. a manual book is a document which is containing information or instructions about a product. kustanti and agoes (2017) have stated that people usually read and try to understand the manual book first before using the new object so that they know the steps for using it correctly. to be concluded, reading a manual book is considered necessary. additionally, kustanti and agoes (2017) have also stated that the manual book is an important part of every product. it provides instructions and safety information about the products for the users’ convenience. however, since technological products come and are produced from other countries, the manual books are not written in indonesian. it is commonly written in english. the difficulty occurs because it is a new field that brings its own terminologies. according to multazim and nurdin (2019), the emergence of technological innovation influences linguistic occurrence in making new terminologies as needed to form words. it can also be difficult for the translator to find the equivalence word, as ardhinie (2017) has stated that in translating, the translator will find difficulties in looking for the equivalents in the target language. the problem of developing and 80 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 79-84 defining it terminologies is still an issue yet to be solved. the english origin of the terms effects how indonesian’s it terms are established. therefore, the researcher is eager to find out how it terms are translated from english into indonesian. translation strategies coined by chesterman as cited in gitawati and said (2014) are used in the research. he has classified translation strategies into three main groups, namely syntactic strategies, semantic strategies, and pragmatic strategies. relevant research has been conducted by saptaningsih (2018). this research aims to discuss the pattern of technical terms translation, focusing on translation technique and translation quality in sunda strait daily news by kompas.com. the translation techniques are analyzed based on molina and albir’s theory, and the translation quality is analyzed by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono’s theory. the examination reveals three patterns used by eight translators in conveying the meaning of technical terms in disaster management. it also pinpoints the ways technical terms in disaster management translated from indonesian to english. the second relevant research is conducted by kustanti and agoes (2017). this research aims to find out the translation result of similar words and phrases used in source language among android, ios, and windows mobile phones’ manual books, and to find out the translation technique mostly used in translating the similar words and phrases of android, ios, and windows mobile phones’ manual books. the methods of this research are, first step, collecting the data. the next step is analyzing those data. the step in analyzing the data as to be seen as electing the data, reading the manual books, identifying the similar words and phrases at each part of the manual book, identifying the translation technique used in translating mobile phones’ manual books, recording the similar words and phrases, and translating technique found into table form, and the last is the conclusion. the results show that there are 100 similar words and phrases found, and there are eight translation techniques used. they are adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, establish equivalent, discursive creation, generalization, and particularization. furthermore, the most used is calque with the percentage 35% in android, 41% in ios, and 39% in windows mobile phone’s manual books. the thrid relevant research is conducted by noftariani (2019). this research aims to identify the cultural categories and the translation techniques in the novel entitled origin by dan brown (indonesian version). this research uses a descriptive qualitative method. noftariani (2019) has used some theories by newmark; molina and albir; and nida and taber to analyze the data related to cultural terms and translation techniques. the results show that there are five kinds of cultural strategies, namely: (1) ecology, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4) organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts, and (5) gestures and habits. while there are 16 types of translation techniques, namely: addition, adaptation, amplification, borrowing, compensation, description, deletion, discursive creation, established equivalence, generalization, literal, modulation, particularization, reduction, transposition, and variation. the similarity from the three of previous research is that all researchers analyze the object, which has special terminology: (1) technical terminologies, (2) information technology (it) terminologies, and (3) cultural terminologies. whereas the differences among the three previous research are the research’s objects: (1) saptaningsih (2018) uses daily news as the research object, (2) kustanti and agoes (2017) use a manual book in their research, and (3) noftariani (2019) uses english and its translation novel as the research object. other differences among the three previous pieces of research are their objective’s research: (1) saptaningsih (2018) aims to discuss the pattern of technical terms translation with the focus on translation technique and translation quality, (2) kustanti and agoes (2017)’s aim is to find out the translation result of similar words and phrases used in source language among android, ios, and windows mobile phones’ manual books, and to find out the translation technique mostly used in translating the similar words and phrases of android, ios, and windows mobile phones’ manual books, and (3) noftariani (2019) in her research aims to identify the cultural categories and the translation techniques. related to the theory of translation strategies, chesterman has classified translation strategies into three main groups, namely syntactic strategies, semantic strategies, and pragmatic strategies (gitawati & said, 2014). syntactic strategies are primarily the manipulate form. syntactic strategies are (1) literal translation, which is a translation strategy that is maximally close to the sl form, but grammatical, (2) loan or calque, is the borrowing of individual items and the borrowing of syntagma in the tl translation, (3) transposition is a translation strategy which includes a change of word-class, e.g., from noun to verb, adjective to an adverb, (4) unit shift, is a shift that occurs when a source language unit is translated as a different unit in the target language, (5) phrase structure change which occurs when a source language (sl) phrase structure is translated as a different phrase structure in the target language (tl) without altering the meaning of the source text, (6) clause structure change is a change of clause into another form in the target text translation, (7) sentence structure change’s definition is a change of sentence structure in the source text to target text translation. the included changes are changes of main-clause and sub-clause status, changes of sub-clause types, etc., (8) cohesion change is something that affects intra-textual reference, ellipsis, substitution, pronominalization, and repetition, or the use of connectors of various kinds, (9) level shift is a shifted from one level to another, and (10) scheme change which the kinds of changes that translators incorporate in the translation of rhetorical schemes, such as parallelism, repetition, alliteration, metrical rhythm, etc. there are four types of scheme changes that the translator can use: (1) st scheme x → tt 81strategies applied in translating .... (eksanti dwi pratiwi; ahmad juma’ khatib) scheme x, (2) st scheme x → tt scheme y, (3) st scheme x → tt scheme ø, and (4) st scheme ø → tt scheme x. semantic strategies manipulate nuances of meaning, including synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, converse, abstraction change, distribution change, emphasis change, paraphrase, and trope change. here are the description of semantic strategies: (1) synonymy, which selects not the ‘obvious’ equivalent but a synonym or near-synonym for it, e.g., to avoid repetition, (2) antonymy, in this strategy, the translator selects an antonym of the equivalent and combines it with a negation element, (3) hyponymy, which refers to the generalization using subordinators or the specification using hyponyms of the sl text in tt, (4) converses is defines as pairs of (usually) verbal structures, which express the same state of affairs from opposing viewpoints, (5) abstraction change which refers to abstraction change as a different selection of abstraction level may either move from abstract to more concrete or from concrete to more abstract, (6) distribution change means the distribution of the ‘same’ semantic components over more items (expansion) or fewer items (compression), (7) emphasis change, which refers to the strategy which adds to, reduces, or alters the emphasis or thematic focus, for one reason or another, (8) paraphrase, which described as loose, free, in some contexts even under-translated, (9) trope change which refers as a set of strategies that apply to the translation of rhetorical tropes such as figurative expressions. pragmatic strategies are the last translation strategies. it manipulates the message of the text. this group includes cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, interpersonal change, illocutionary change, coherence change, partial translation, visibility change, trans-editing, and other pragmatic changes. (1) cultural filtering, the translation of culturally specific terms into another cultural and or functional equivalents in the target text, (2) explicitness change, (3) information change means either the addition or omission of information that is regarded to be irrelevant, (4) interpersonal change strategy is a strategy which changes the level of the whole style of the text, for example, the formality level, (5) illocutionary change is the changes in the speech act, for example when the translator changes the mood of the verb from indicative to imperative, (6) partial translation, is the translation which covers any partial translation such as summary translation and transcription, (7) visibility change, is the translation strategy which is including the presence of the translator for example by adding footnotes or bracketed comments (to explain puns, for example), and (9) trans-editing is a strategy which is applied when the translator has to deal with poorly written original texts. the researchers expect the research would give some benefits for the readers. it is expected that this research could give the knowledge how it terms are translated from english into indonesian. furthermore, the other benefits, the researcher also hopes it can be used as a reference for other researchers in conducting research relating to the translation of it terms. methods the research is conducted in a descriptive qualitative approach. it is used because the research does not include any calculation or numeration. the data are produced in the form of words. further, according to semiawan, as cited in alyfia and setiarini (2020), qualitative is usually in the form of words or text. the research is intended to find out the translation strategies of it terms in the manual book. the data sources that have been chosen by the researcher are (1) manual books of iphone 12 pro (apple inc., 2020) and (2) manual books of samsung s20fe (samsung electronics co. ltd., 2020). those objects are chosen because samsung and apple are the top two mobile phone manufacturers in the world. additionally, iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe are chosen because it is the lastest product of the phone cells of apple and samsung in 2020. in selecting the data to be analyzed, the researchers use the purposive sampling technique. this technique is used to select which data are in accordance with the research objectives so that it can be selected and sampled. the researchers are leaving the data that are not in accordance with the purpose of the research. in analyzing the data, it is chosen randomly as each of them has an equal chance to be analyzed. the data are collected from the text in the user manual book of iphone 12 pro (apple inc., 2020) and samsung s20 fe (samsung electronics co. ltd., 2020). the researchers read all the manual books and their translations thoroughly, then collect words, phrases, and clauses related to it terms. in the next step, the researchers classify and identify the data referring to chesterman’s translation strategy cited in gitawati and said (2014). it classifies translation strategy into three main groups: syntactic strategies, semantic strategies, and pragmatic strategies (gitawati & said, 2014). results and discussions chesterman has classified translation strategies into three main groups, namely syntactic strategies (literal, loan, calque, transposition, unit shift, phrase structure change, clause structure change, sentence structure change, cohesion change, level shift, scheme change), semantic strategies (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, converses, abstraction change, emphasis change, paraphrase, trope change), and pragmatic strategies (cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, interpersonal change, illocutionary change). the research findings from the total 60 data show only four translation strategies in the manual book of iphone 12 pro (apple inc., 2020) 82 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 79-84 and samsung s20 fe (samsung electronics co. ltd., 2020); they are loan, calque, unit shift, and information change. the frequencies of the translation strategies are shown in table 1. table 1 translation strategies frequency no. translation strategies amount 1. loan 35 2. calque 11 3. unit shift 13 4. information change 1 total 60 there are 60 total data found in the manual book of iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe. the manual book of the iphone 12 pro contains 10 data, and the manual book of samsung s20 fe contains 50 data. from table 1, it can be seen that from 60 data found, there are 35 occurrences of translation strategy loan, 11 data for strategy calque, 13 data for strategy unit shift, and one data belongs to information change. some of the discussion analysis are shown in table 2. table 2 datum 1 source text target text: loan selfie colour tone: set a tone to apply when you take selfies. rona warna selfie: mengatur gaya yang akan digunakan saat mengambil foto selfie. in table 2, the word ‘selfie’ in english is translated into ‘selfie’ in indonesia. according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, ‘selfie’ means a photo of yourself that you take, typically with a smartphone or webcam, and usually put in your social media. the word ‘selfie’ is a loan word in the indonesian target text. the equivalent word of ‘selfie’ in indonesian is ‘swafoto’. according to kamus besar bahasa indonesia online, ‘swafoto’ is potret diri yang diambil sendiri dengan menggunakan kamera ponsel atau kamera digital, biasanya untuk diunggah ke media sosial. the definition of ‘selfie’ in oxford learner’s dictionaries online and in kamus besar bahasa indonesia online is similar. table 3 datum 2 source text target text: loan the device contains a built-in nfc antenna. perangkat mengandung antenna nfc internal in table 3, the english source text ‘nfc’, according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, is an abbreviation that stands for near field communication (nfc). it is a type of technology that allows communication over short distances between mobile phones and other electronic devices in order to make payments. in table 3, the word ‘nfc’ in the indonesian target text is a loan words, which delivers from english ‘nfc’. table 4 datum 3 source text target text: loan if the lower part of the device overheats, it could be because the connected usb cable is damaged. jika bagian bawah perangkat terlalu panas, hal ini dapat terjadi karena kabel usb yang terhubung rusak. in table 4, the oxford learner’s dictionaries online defines usb as an abbreviation for universal serial bus. it is the system for connecting other pieces of equipment to a computer. it is translated into ‘usb’ in indonesian target text and kind of loan words derived from english ‘usb’. table 5 datum 4 source text target text: calque don’t attempt to replace the iphone battery yourself— you may damage the battery, which could cause overheating, fire and injury. jangan mencoba mengganti baterai iphone sendiri—anda dapat merusak baterai, yang dapat menyebabkan baterai menjadi terlalu panas, terbakar dan mencederai anda. in table 5, the english word ‘battery’ is translated into ‘baterai’ in the indonesian target text. according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, ‘battery’ is a device that is placed inside of electrical things that produce electricity, which makes the things work. while kamus besar bahasa indonesia online defines baterai as alat untuk menghitung dan membangkitkan aliran listrik. baterai is an indonesian calque word since its part of the word is from another language (english). table 6 datum 5 source text target text: calque the device may require a connection to a wi-fi or mobile network when using some application or features. perangkat mungkin memerlukan koneksi ke wi-fi atau jaringan seluler saat menggunakan beberapa aplikasi atau fitur. in table 6, the english word ‘application’ is translated into indonesian ‘aplikasi’. according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, ‘application’ can be abbreviated as the app designed to do a particular job, a piece of software. it is translated into ‘aplikasi’ 83strategies applied in translating .... (eksanti dwi pratiwi; ahmad juma’ khatib) in indonesia by conforming to its pronunciation and grammatical norms. table 7 datum 6 source text target text: unit shift during wireless charging or fast charging, the device may feel hotter to the touch. selama pengisian daya tanpa kabel atau pengisian cepat, perangkat mungkin terasa panas saat disentuh. in table 7, the english source text ‘wireless’ is translated into ‘tanpa kabel’ in the indonesian target text. according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, wireless is any system of sending electronic information, such as internet, phone, signals without using wires for the receiving equipment. it is translated correctly into ‘tanpa kabel’ in indonesian. hence, there is a change of unit form of word ‘wireless’ into the phrase ‘tanpa kabel’. this translation is called unit shift. table 8 datum 7 source text target text: information change when you are roaming ketika anda dalam mode jelajah (roaming) in table 8, according to the oxford learner’s dictionaries online, ‘roaming’ uses a mobile phone by connecting to a different company’s network, for example, when you are in a different country. the word ‘roaming’ is translated into ‘mode jelajah (roaming)’ in the indonesian target text. there is additional information in the indonesian target text ‘mode jelajah’; thus, this translation is called information change. hence, based on the previous researches, it is proved that borrowing (loan and calque) is mainly used in translating particular terminologies. it occurs because terminologies have their own vocabulary. furthermore, noftariani (2019) has also stated that the translator often borrows the words from the source text to the target text to make the translation more acceptable and easy to understand. in her research, she also states that borrowing (loan and calque) is the easiest translation technique. the translator does not need to find deep equivalence meaning using other words in the target text. conclusions based on the data analysis, the research shows that from 30, all strategies proposed by chesterman cited in gitawati and said (2014). from the loan as syntactic strategies to other pragmatic strategies, four strategies are used in the translation of it terms on iphone 12 pro’s manual book and samsung s20 fe’s manual book. the four strategies are 35 data of loan, 11 data of calque, 13 data of unit shift, and 1 data belongs to information change. the most frequently used strategy is a loan, and the least used strategy is information change. it terms found in the iphone 12 pro’s manual book and samsung s20 fe’s manual book are translated by manipulating the form with syntactic strategies. syntactic strategies are functional in bringing changes in the target language structure of the target language. based on the current result, the research gives contribution and implications to the existing translation field. it gives the understanding of how to translate particular terminologies, especially it terms. although, there still is a need for a more comprehensive study about this topic. the research is relatively small and limited to the translation of it terms in the phone’s manual book. it would be desirable to conduct further research on translation of it terms in different literary works, fiction novels, or it textbooks. references alyfia, h., & setiarini, n. l. p. (2020). the interpersonal meaning analysis of michelle obama’s speech. jurnal kata, 5(1), 21-26. https://doi.org/10.22216/ kata.v4i2.4504. apple inc. (2020). iphone user guide. retrieved from https://manuals.info.apple.com/manuals/1000/ ma1958/en_us/iphone-12-pro-ios14-info.pdf. ardhinie, e. (2017). an annotated translation of daughter. journal of language and literature, 3(2), 102-108. gitawati, n. d., & said, m. (2014). strategies in translating metonymy: a case study in the translations of the novels exclusive by sandra brown and a pocket full of rye by agatha christie into indonesian. journal of language and literature, 1(1), 39-53. kustanti, w. t., & agoes, f. (2017). an analysis of the translation of procedure text in android, ios, windows operating systems mobile phones manual books. journal on aplied english language, 3(1), 60-69. https://doi.org/10.35313/inggris.v3i1.1279. multazim, a., & nurdin, e. s. (2019). word formation of photography terminologies. journal of language and literature, 19(1), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.24071/ joll.2019.1901004. noftariani, s. (2019). an analysis of translation techniques used in translating cultural categories in brown’s origin into indonesian. jellt (journal of english language and language teaching), 3(2), 95-113. https://doi.org/10.36597/jellt.v3i2.5998. oxford learner’s dictionaries. (2021). oxford learner’s dictionaries online. retrieved from https://www. oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ raja, r., & nagasubramani, p. c. (2018). impact of modern technology in education. journal of applied and advanced research, 3(1), 33-35. https://doi. 84 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 79-84 org/10.21839/jaar.2018.v3is1.165. samsung electronics co. ltd. (2020). samsung user guide. retrieved from https://www.samsung.com/us/ support/downloads/. saptaningsih, n. (2018). analysis on the translation of technical terms in disaster management: a case study in news translation by novice translators. surakarta english and literature journal, 1(1), 4049. http://ejournal.unsa.ac.id/index.php/selju/editor/ viewmetadata/206. p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 79 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 79-85 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6387 the impact of translation method and shift on translation quality at bilingual textbooks of physics, mathematics, and history kammer tuahman sipayung* english language education department, university of hkbp nommensen jl. sutomo no. 4a, perintis, medan, sumatera utara 20235, indonesia kammertuahmansipayung@gmail.com received: 15th april 2020/revised: 19th may 2020/accepted: 29th may 2020 how to cite: sipayung, k. t. (2020). the impact of translation method and shift on translation quality at bilingual textbooks of physics, mathematics, and history. lingua cultura, 14(1), 79-85. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6387 abstract the first goal of the research was to figure out translation methods and shifts applied in translating bilingual textbooks of history, mathematics, and physics, those bilingual textbooks were published by quadra, yramawidia, and yudhisthira, used for grade seven in medan. the second was to figure out the impact of translation methods and shifts which dominant on translation quality. the third was to recommend better bilingual textbooks to use based on the translation quality point of view. the research used a descriptive qualitative research method with a questionnaire, depth-interview, and observation on a pair of translation to collect the data. the data were analyzed with interactively and non-interactively. based on the data analysis, the research finds that (1) the dominant shift on history textbook is unit shift while the dominant method is a free translation, the dominant shift on physics is a unit shift and dominant method is a communicative translation, the dominant shift on mathematics is structure shift and dominant method is communicative translation. the second finding is that the impact of the dominant translation shift and method on the history textbook is negative. at the same time, in mathematics and physics are positive. third, the research; the researcher recommends bilingual textbooks of mathematics and physics to use based on translation quality point of view. the well bilingual textbooks can improve students’ language skills, while low translation quality influences bad development to students on learning the language. keywords: translation method, translation shift, translation quality, bilingual textbooks introduction international schools use bilingual textbooks like indonesia-english. most international schools in indonesia make bilingual textbooks as the main source in the teaching and learning process. big cities in indonesia, including medan, exploit bilingual textbooks as a compulsory textbook to the students. some years ago, the constitution assembly had stopped this program, such as international school and the usage of the bilingual textbook. however, several school policies consider to apply for such a program and to use a bilingual textbook for a certain reason. the school management perceives that reading bilingual textbooks can improve students’ skills in an international language. school management forgets that translators play a crucial role in translating bilingual textbooks, and also there is no quality control from the *corresponding author government. hoed in hidayat and harmoko (2018) has stated that the translators have a responsibility for the written bilingual and international communication between the author and the readers. the responsibility can be realized by resulting in well-translated text. it means that the truth of original meaning needs to hold in the translation process. furthermore, suryawinata and hariyanto in mafulah et al. (2018) have said that translator should master the tl (target language) and sl (source language) language, sl and tl culture, a topic that should be translated, having competence in comprehending written language, having competence in writing (receptive skill), pour though and idea in the written form (productive skill), and having competence in using dictionary and references. the translation method’s impact and shift on translation quality at bilingual textbooks of physics, mathematics, and history are conducted since the 80 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 79-85 researcher’s previous study (sipayung, 2018). it is found that unit shift and free translation method influence the lack accuracy of translation level: 2,38, and there are 60% from the bilingual history textbook is lacks the accuracy of the translation (sipayung, 2018). in this chance, the researcher investigates more translation quality aspects and more bilingual textbooks, such as physics, mathematics, and history, and applied inter-raters-reliability. based on these previous findings, the researcher conducts further indepth research to measure the impact of translation shift and method on bilingual textbooks of physics, mathematics, and history with inter-raters. these bilingual textbooks are used in grade seven. the quality of translation is something important that has to be investigated in the research. in this case, the quality of translation refers to three aspects: accuracy, acceptability, and readability. to measure each aspect, the researcher has modified indicators based on the recommendation of nababan, nuraeni, sumardiono (2012). in addition to that, nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) have also formulated each aspect into a formula with the distinction of weight, like the accuracy aspect is three, acceptability is two, and readability is one. the next previous research is conducted by ardi (2017), who investigates the impact of translation technique on the quality of translation on the social text. he finds that the translation quality is categorized well as the accuracy score is 3,33, acceptability 3,53, and readability 3,55 in the range of 1-4. besides, muchtar and kembaren (2018) have also investigated translation technique and quality on nganting manuk text. they have stated that the translation quality is good enough; accuracy (70,4%), acceptability (63,4%), and readability (66,1%). ayyad and mahadi (2019) have stated that translators need to be bicultural in translating bilingual text. the next relevant research is done by wang (2017) that has stated that translation quality assessment is categorized as ‘one size fits all’. he has also stated that gaps between theory and practice in translating could be narrowed down by increasing communication and cooperation between theorists and practitioners, who are advised to turn their focus to the translator’s competence and evaluation process. hidayat and harmoko (2018) have conducted similar research that focuses on translation method and procedure, while translation quality is not investigated. the importance of the research is a recommendation on better bilingual textbooks should be used and stopped based on the translation quality point of view. among data sources (bilingual textbooks) are translated by the team include the authors. however, one source data (history bilingual textbook) is translated individually by the author only. in this case, the researcher predicts he/she lacks competence in translation and economic reasons. however, translation is an easy and cheap way to transfer knowledge. based on the fact and gap of research, the problems of the research arises on the quality of translation. it is found in bilingual textbooks that are used by junior high school. bilingual textbooks on the research as source data are history, mathematics, and physics published by quadra, yramawhidia, and yudhishthira. it used by the seventh grade students in medan. similar research is also conducted by yulianta, nababan, & djatmika (2018). their focus is on translation acceptability and techniques. nababan, nababan, and santosa (2019) have also conducted similar research with the same formula. however, their focus is on the impact of translation technique and their impact on bible stories’ translation readability for children. the research does not only focus on translation acceptability and readability but also on translation accuracy. romdhati, nababan, and santosa (2018) have examined translation techniques and translation shifts toward modality orientation, while the research focuses on translation level shift. based on various previous research, as stated, it indicates that translation as a market of research. nurlaila et al. (2018) have stated that there are 24.000 titles about translation, and it is important as a way to contribute theories and solutions, which make translators job easier. in indonesia’s history, ir. soekarno has stated that “bangsa yang besar adalah bangsa yang menghargai jasa-jasa para pahlawan”, and one more expression is “jas merah, yang artinya – jangan sekali-kali melupakan sejarah”. these statements are the great reasons for the researcher to choose history as a source data, while mathematics and physics as a subject involve in the national examination. history, mathematics, and physics are the compulsory subject for grade seven of junior high school. quadra, yramawhidia, and yudisthira are the publishers that provide bilingual textbooks on history, mathematics, and physics. the following st and tt are observed from history bilingual published by yramawidia that is used by the seventh-grade students. st: dikeluarkannya resolusi-resolusi dewan keamanan pbb tt: issuance of some resolutions by the un security council from the translation text above, the translators use the communicative translation method with some shift such as intra-system shift (resolusi-resolusi resolutions), level shift (dikeluarkannya issuance), and structure shift (dewan keamanan pbb un security council). based on the translation method and shift influence on the translations’ quality, the informants’ role helps the writers rate the translation scale (in range 1-3) through questionnaires and indepth interviews. by that issue, the researcher has a desire to research bilingual textbooks, namely mathematics, physics, and history published by quadra, yramawhidia, and yudisthira, which are used by 81the impact of translation method .... (kammer tuahman sipayung) seventh-grade students in medan. by investigating these books from the translation method, shift, and impact on the quality of translation, the findings of the research have found certain bilingual textbooks (history, mathematics, and physic) that qualified on grade seven in medan from a translation point of view. by conducting the research, the students will have a good understanding of knowledge and language skills. there are three research problems and research objectives, which are formulated by the researcher. first is what the translation shift and method that translators use in translating these bilingual textbooks. second is how the impact of translation shift and method on translation quality in terms of accuracy, acceptability, and readability. the last is what bilingual textbook is better based on the translation’s quality point of view. to answer the first problem, the researcher uses newmark’s theory, which is familiar with the ‘v diagram’ to figure out the translation method and catford’s theory about the shift (level shift and category shift). the second is used inter-raters-reliability about translation quality on bilingual textbooks based on the theory of nababan. nababan concept gives translation quality information on three aspects, such as the accuracy of the translation, acceptability of translation, and readability of translation. based on the calculation about the impact of translation shift and method on translation quality, the researcher recommends the better bilingual textbooks to use based on translation quality (the accuracy, acceptability, and readability) point of view. the translation is to transfer the meaning from the source text to the target text. there is a change of form from source to target text. to translate a text, a change of form is acceptable, but the meaning must be held in the target text. the translation is an investigation of the lexical, structural, grammatical, situation, the context of the culture in the original text, then analyzing them to get the meaning, finally reconstruct them in the same meaning in the target text. siregar et al. (2018) have concluded that translation is an activity and study on transferring a formal and informal passage of text from the source language to the target language. newmark (1988) has stated that there are some translation methods, such as word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. these methods can be divided into two groups. the first group is emphasized in the source text. when the translation is emphasized to the source or sourceoriented, it is called the ideology of foreignization. in addition to that, al farisi (2018) has stated that the trend of foreignization is characterized by the use of sl oriented, and the trend of domestication is characterized by the use of tl oriented translation. in this case, the first group is a word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, and semantic translation. the second group is an adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. this group is more emphasized to the target or target-oriented. when a translation is close to the target, it is called the ideology of domestication. the focus of the research is on the newmark theory on the translation method. newmark (1988) has stated that word-for-word translation is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the tl immediately below the sl words. the sl word-order is preserved, and the words are translated. the literal translation is converted to their nearest tl equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly out of context. as a pretranslation process, this indicates the problems to be solved. literal translation or form-based translation attempts to follow the form of the source language. a faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original text within the tl grammatical structures’ constraints. it transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’ (deviation from sl norms) in the translation. it attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the sl writer. semantic translation differs from faithful translation only since it must take more account of the aesthetic value, that is, the beautiful and natural sounds of the sl text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play, or repetition jars in the finished version. adaptation is the freest form of translation. it is used mainly for plays, comedies, and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved. the sl culture is converted to the tl culture, and the text rewritten. the deplorable practice of having a play or poem translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations. free translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the content without the form of the original. usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called ‘intra-lingual’ translation, often prolix and pretentious. idiomatic translation reproduces the message of the original text. however, it tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. catford (1978) has stated that there are two kinds of shifts; shift of level and shift of category. the shift of level would be expressed by grammar in one language and lexis in another. for example: st: jhon has stopped smoking. tt: jhon sudah berhenti merokok. ‘has stopped’ in english’s grammar is a perfect tense, but in the translating process, it becomes a lexis ‘sudah’ in the indonesian language. to support the catford statement about translation shift, rini (2015) has concluded that the translation shift is used to describe the changes that occurred between the source 82 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 79-85 text and target text. in addition to that, wahyuni, gurning, and sinar (2015) have stated that shift should be redefined positively as the consequence of the translator’s effort to establish translation equivalence between two different language systems. a category shift is given more. these are subdivided into four kinds. the first is the structural shift. these are said by catford (1978) to be the most common form of the shift and to involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. second is the class shift. these comprise shift from one part of speech to another. third, is a unit shift or rank shift. these are shifts where the translation equivalent in the tl is at a different rank to the sl. rank here refers to the hierarchical linguistic units of a sentence, clause group, word, and morpheme. furthermore, the last is the intra-system shift. this shift when the source language and the target language process approximately corresponding systems, but the translation involves selecting a noncorresponding term in the target language systems. translation’s quality is the outcome of a translation project. good translation on the bilingual textbook can improve the knowledge of students on language through reading. however, bad translation influence the worst understanding of the target reader. in the research, the researcher uses the theory and the assessment of translation quality by nababan nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). a good or bad translation is measured by inter-raters-reliability. some criteria of inter-rater which are recommended by them are considered in the research. nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) have described three translations of the quality rubric, such as accuracy, acceptability, and readability. sofyan and tarigan (2019) have stated that accuracy focuses on meaning transfer, which determines 50% of translation quality. acceptability focuses on lexicogrammatical, which determining 33% of translation quality. the last aspect is readability, which focuses on language, determining 17% of translation quality. it is to indicate the major problem faced by translators in translating source text into the target. methods the research uses a qualitative descriptive method with an interactive and non-interactive technique to collect the data. the non-interactive technique involves a focus group of discussion or depth-interview and distributing the open and close questionnaire. the interactive technique includes observation on pairs of a translation text, which experience translation method and shift. in other words, it is called document analysis or noting document (read and write) on translation shift and method. after collecting the translation method and shift, the researcher condenses and displays data to conclude. this process is repeatedly conducted up to get enough data. this process is called an interactive analysis process. based on miles, huberman, and saldana (2014), it can be observed in figure 1. figure 1 interactive analysis process there are three particular ways that are the researcher uses as a method to collect the data. they are analysis the data, questionnaire, and fgd of an indepth interview. in the research, there are two kinds of data. first is objective data like document (bilingual textbook on history, physics, and mathematics) and affective data such as the score of translation’s quality from the questionnaire. the scores are received from inter-raters-reliability. the criteria of inter-ratersreliability are based on the recommendation of nababan, nuraeni, sumardiono (2012). the updated formula (nababan, nuraeni, & sumardiono, 2012) is used to measure translation quality. the document is the bilingual textbook on history, mathematics, and physics, published by three publishers such as quadra, yramawhidia, and yudisthira that are used by grade seven in medan. inter-raters-reliability of accuracy consists of three raters. they are a professional translation from himpunan penerjemah indonesia (hpi), professional translation from flitto, and the researcher himself. three raters of physics are linguists, indonesian lecturer who teach error analysis of indonesia, and teacher of physics. three raters of mathematics are linguists, indonesian lecture who teach error analysis of indonesia, and teacher of mathematics. while three raters of history are linguists, indonesian lecture who teach error analysis of indonesia, and teacher of history. these raters (physics, mathematics, and history) are measured the acceptability of translation. to measure the readability aspect, three students of grade seven are asked to measure the target’s readability. these students are chosen since they are the user of the bilingual textbooks. the researcher uses a purposive sampling technique to analyze bilingual textbooks. in the research, the raters become a member of fgd. results and discussions the research finding on the translation method can be described in table 1. based on the finding in tabel 1, it can be seen that translators of history bilingual textbooks use free translation methods, 83the impact of translation method .... (kammer tuahman sipayung) communicative translation, and semantic translation. translators of history do not prefer to use the literal translation, adaptation, faithful translation, idiomatic translation, and word to word translation. the free translation method is the dominant method, 66,66%, that the translator uses. it is to indicate that translators tend to apply domestication ideology or emphasize the target text. the translators of physics use the free translation, adaptation, communicative translation, and faithful translation. translators lack to apply literal translation, semantic translation, idiomatic translation, and word to word translation. in this chance, translators use the communicative translation method as a dominant method, 48,27% in translating physics textbooks. it is to indicate translators emphasize on the target text. the translators of mathematics prefer to apply free translation methods, literal translation, adaptation, communicative translation, semantic translation, and faithful translation. idiomatic translation and word to word translation do not apply by the translator. the dominant translation method that the translator applied is the communicative translation method, 53,44%. it is to indicate that the translator of mathematics bilingual textbooks emphasizes target text. the research findings on the translation shift can be seen in table 2. it shows which translation shift is dominant and weak in each bilingual textbook. table 2 shows the translation shift found in history, physics, and mathematics. all of the translators use applied whole translation category shift to solve the non-equivalence on the target text. the translators of history and physics apply translation unit shift as the dominant shift: 58,33% for history, 66,66% for physics. in comparison, translators of mathematics applies structure shift as the dominant shift: 35,52%. the translation quality of the textbook can be seen in table 3. based on the calculation in table 3, the researcher has found that the history textbook is translated with a lack of accuracy. most of the source meanings are translated accurately but can be found distortion of meaning, lack acceptable since translators’ mistaken in translating the technical term, incorrect grammar, and a moderate level of readability (clarity). the moderate level can occur because the rater does not have access to the source text. it means that the target reader needs to read more than once to get the meaning. the translation of the physics bilingual textbook is categorized accurately since no distortion of meaning based on the inter-raters. the translation is categorized as acceptable (natural) because the meaning of physics terms is translated based on the target norm. the translation has a high level of readability (clarity) since the target reader easy to get the meaning. while the translators of mathematics are categorized as success in doing their activities, it can be seen from the target text’s inter-rater in table 3. it has high accuracy, acceptability, and readability. translators of physics and mathematics in the research have better competence then translators of history. most of the meaning is deleting by the translator of the history textbook. deleting meaning in translation is a reflection of the inability of translators. table 1 frequency of translation method on bilingual textbook textbook ft lt a ct st fh.t it ww.t hs 38 0 0 13 6 0 0 0 ph 15 0 4 28 0 11 0 0 mt 16 3 4 31 3 1 0 0 hs : history ph : physics mt : mathematics ft : free translation lt : literal translation a : adaptation ct : communicative translation st : semantic translation fh.t : faithful translation it : idiom translation ww.t: word for word translation table 2 frequency of translation shift on bilingual textbook textbook ss cs us is.s history 54 14 105 7 physics 17 9 78 13 mathematic 27 9 24 16 ss : structure shift cs : class shift us : unit shift is.s : intra system shift 84 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 79-85 conclusions based on the research findings and the analysis, the research concludes that the faithful translation method and unit shift produce a negative impact on translation quality. however, the communicative translation method and class shift produce a positive impact on translation quality. the dominant translation method and shift, applied by the translators, have a significant role in translation quality. as a contribution, translators need to be aware to choose the appropriate translation method and shift as a strategy to achieve the equivalence between st and tt. as the implication of the research, the researcher offers physics and mathematics bilingual text as a welltranslated textbook to read by the students to enrich their cognitive and psychomotor aspects. however, the investigation in the research is limited to the bilingual textbook (physics, mathematics, and history). the researcher is recommended to investigate factors that influence the negative and positive translation quality based on casual-comparative research. acknowledgements the researcher’s gratitude is delivered to ristekdikti, who gives funds to complete the research. the next gratitude is delivered to all inter-raters of translation quality, which gave the contribution at fgd to complete the research. the last thanks are delivered to dr. tagor pangaribuan m.pd as the outside reviewers on this manuscript. references al farisi (2018). the impact of techniques and translation ideology on the clarity of pragmatic meanings translation of the quranic imperative verses. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(3), 676-686. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i3.9818. ardi, h. 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(2018). need analysis for developing translation’s textbook table 3 the impact of translation shift and method on translation quality on bilingual textbook tb accuracy acceptability readability r1 r2 r3 r1 r2 r3 r1 r2 r3 hs 2,38 2,4 2,36 2,34 2,4 2,34 2,48 2,6 2,64 ph 2,62 2,68 2,76 2,6 2,66 2,66 2,74 2,8 2,72 mt 2,62 2,68 2,74 2,6 2,56 2,48 2,78 2,62 2,84 r1 : rater 1 r2 : rater 2 r3 : rater 3 85the impact of translation method .... (kammer tuahman sipayung) base on tefl pedagogical purpose in indonesia: english teachers perspectives. advances in language and literary studies, 9(3), 81-86. https:// doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.9n.3p.81. sofyan, r., & tarigan, b. (2019). developing a holistic model of translation quality assessment. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 254, 266-271. https://doi.org/10.2991/ conaplin-18.2019.267. yulianta, n. g., nababan, m., & djatmika. (2018). the acceptability of religious terms translation in the complete idiot’s guide to understanding islam. lingua cultura, 12(2), 111-115. https://doi. org/10.21512/lc.v12i2.3999. wahyuni, r., gurning, b., & sinar, t. s. (2015). coherence and cohesion shift in the students’ translated text. jurnal linguistik terapan pascasarjana unimed, 12(2), 138-145. https://doi.org/10.24114/ lt.v12i2.2921. wang, j. s. (2017). translation quality assessment: bridge the gap between theory and practice. journal of literature and art studies, 7(10), 1701-1706. https:// doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836/2017.10.023. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 201 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 201-207 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5785 the representation of women’s ceo image in online media diah kristina1; melsiana shera rita ramadona2 1, 2,english department, sebelas maret university jl. ir. sutami no. 36-a, kentingan, surakarta 57126, indonesia 1diahkristina@staff.uns.ac.id; 2melsianashera@gmail.com received: 25th july 2019/revised: 02nd august 2019/accepted: 14th august 2019 how to cite: kristina, d., & ramadona, m. s. r. (2019). the representation of women’s ceo image in online media. lingua cultura, 13(3), 201-207. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5785 abstract the research focused on the representation of women in the news about the absence of women in uber’s ceo candidates from the perspective of feminist stylistics by sara mills. five news texts from five different websites published during august 2017 were analyzed; they were washington post, daily mail, inverse, gizmodo, and fortune. the method used was a qualitative research method with the approach of critical discourse analysis of sara mills. by applying three levels of analysis which was analysis at the level of the word, phrase/sentence, and discourse, this research aimed to analyze how women were represented linguistically in the online news of uber’s ceo candidates and to discover the reason why women were represented in the way they were. the findings reveal that women remain underrepresented in news media. it is proved by the dominance of women as the object in the stories. moreover, women are represented as ‘glass cliff position’, minority, and a way to recreate the good image in the company. the gender stereotypes, the background story of uber, the male-dominated industries, and the prevalent condition become the reasons why women represented that way. keywords: women representation, women image, online media, critical discourse analysis introduction the representation of women in news discourse has been a discussion over the last two decades. however, the researchers have found that women remain underrepresented in news media (york in geertsema-sligh, 2019). according to mills (1988), women are often referred to in a different way from men in newspaper reports. men are usually referred by their occupations or appearance, while women are often referred by their relationship with others, such as ‘mother of two’ and ‘wife’. above all, mills has found that woman is socially constructed as a marginal position in the text always in the wrong position (kristina, 2019). in conclusion, those researches show that in the news discourse, the social roles still belong to the male domain. the language of news media has been explored by linguists in different approaches; one of them is the critical discourse analysis (henceforth cda) approach. according to van dijk (2015), cda is discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social-power abuse and inequality are enacted, reproduced, legitimated, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. furthermore, cda is critical research that concerns with social problems and the understanding of human rights, social inequality, power abuse in domains such as racism, sexism, classism, et cetera (van dijk, wodak, and meyer, 2009 in ramanathan, 2015). research on media representation of women in newspapers has been carried out by many researchers. several studies have found that women remain significantly underrepresented in written news media (aznar, rodríguezwangüemert, & espinosa, 2017; shor et al., 2015). the research from aznar, rodríguez-wangüemert, and espinosa (2017) has also suggested that the representation of women and men is informed by gender stereotypes that attribute the power and authority to men. besides, len-rios et al. (2005) have found that the newspapers sustain gender stereotypes by showing women in more ‘feminine’ news sections and men in more ‘masculine’ sections. similarly, jia et al. (2016) have suggested that the news media are still very much male-dominated. the media still portrays women in the roles of fashion and entertainer, despite their advances in professional occupations and political offices, while men are more associated with business and politics. the recent research by ryan (2013) has found that media bias may increase as women move up to more executive offices, but only slightly. the mention of appearance and marital status or family decrease as the women move to more executive positions. however, most of these researches only reach the level of word and phrases without the consideration of the discourse analysis. besides, they still use the gender difference without the consideration of feminist perspective. there is one research from suryaningrum, 202 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 201-207 suwandi, & waluyo (2019), which analyzes about women discrimination using feminism approach, but they analyzed different media, which are novels. research from darta & kristina (2018) is also using the feminist approach to analyze women representation, but they analyze women in the movie. therefore, based on those research gap, this research will analyze the women representation in the newspapers from the perspective of feminist stylistics by sara mills. the feminist stylistics is the type of analysis that puts women as the focus of the analysis. the stylistics feminist, which is proposed by mills (1998) combines literary and linguistics theories by drawing on the theory of feminist stylistics to interpret and to analyze its textual language to answer the questions related to the representation of women and feminism. mills (1988) has divided her feminist stylistics analysis into three levels. the three levels of analysis are the level of the word, level of phrase/sentence, and level of discourse. level of word focuses on general and theoretical aspects of sexism. this stage examines the usage of such as the sex-specific pronoun use, the generic terms, address terms, and the negative descriptions of females in a variety of texts. while the level of phrase/sentence focuses on the way that phrases and sentences make sense in their relation to the context and background knowledge. this stage examines the usage of such as presupposition and inference, metaphor, and transitivity choices. lastly, the level of discourse relates to the micro context of the effect of words across sentences and the macro context of larger social patterns. this stage focuses on the larger-scale structure at the level of discourse, such as character/roles, fragmentation, focalization, and schemata. by adopting the feminist stylistics analysis, this research will examine the representation of women in the uber’s ceo candidates-related news. uber is a transportation network company, which allows the passengers to order a taxi by using the smartphone application. the company has a bad reputation for toxic masculinity within the workplace since former uber engineer, susan fowler, wrote on her blog on february 2017 that the company failed to act on sexual harassment and gender discrimination complaints. for this reason, chief executive officer (ceo), travis kalanick has resigned back in june. regarding this matter, the media writes that uber will pick a female ceo as the new ceo to change its image and build a new and improved brand. several female executives have been approached to the job, but no one interested in taking the offer. the objectives of this research are to see how women are represented linguistically in newspapers, especially female workers, and to analyze the reason why women are represented in the way they are. this research will analyze five websites which publish news related to the absence of women in the uber’s ceo candidates; they are washington post, daily mail, inverse, gizmodo, and fortune. by analyzing women representation in media, especially news, it will show how the language used in represent man and women in media from the point of view of feminist stylistics. afterward, the result of this research may inform the readers to be aware of reading news text related to the stereotypes of women in newspapers. representation in media is selected because media is one of the most powerful tools to communicate. it has the power to influence people on how to perceive women and men. moreover, many people use media platforms to get the latest information. research from newman et al. (2017) has found that more than half of americans (51%) now say they use social media for news. besides, the content of media is important for women because “the content of the media distorts women’s status in the social world” (tuchman in ali & batool, 2015). providing the importance and effect that media has, this research tries to analyze how women are represented linguistically in news media. methods this research uses the descriptive and qualitative method by describing the characteristics of the phenomenon being discussed and constructs it holistically to find the representation of women in the news. the data are taken from five different news texts in five different websites; they are washington post, daily mail, inverse, gizmodo, and fortune. the words and sentences are those related to represent women. the previous research relating to women representation is used to deepen the discussion as well. the news texts are analyzed using the feminist stylistics approach by sara mills that is one of cda approaches. the analysis is started from the classifying each data based on the three levels analysis, which are the level of the word, phrase/sentence, and discourse. the next step is analyzing and interpreting the data to answer the problem statements. the data are given the code to make the analysis easier. the data coding is based on the name of the websites, the level of analysis, the classification of each analysis, the category of gender, and the number of data, for example (wp/low/ld/f/1). the coding means that the first data is on the washington post website. it includes the analysis at the level of the word, and it is classified as linguistic determination. moreover, the data referring to female and belongs to data number 1. results and discussions the results and discussion of this research will be presented according to the three levels analysis category; they are analysis at the level of the word, level of phrase/ sentence, and level of discourse. table 1 shows the analysis results at the level of the word. table 1 the analysis results at the level of word types of analysis word frequency % ld (refers to women) chair 1 3 chief 2 6 executive 1 3 ld (refers to men) chairman 6 17 gfl female 20 57 male 5 14 total 35 100 based on the analysis at the level of the word in table 1, two types of the analysis found in the news texts are the linguistic determinism and the gender-free language. the linguistic determinism deals with how the writers use the labels and terms in representing women and men. it is 203the representation of women’s.... (diah kristina; melsiana shera rita ramadona) important to analyze the labels and terms that are used by the writers because some terms have sexist meanings existing in this society. in the news, the writers use the gender-neutral term when reporting a female; ‘chair’. on the other hand, they use ‘chairman’ when reporting about a male. according to cameron (in darweesh & abdullah, 2016), “sexism does not reside in certain words and phrases, but it resides in the beliefs that see women as being inferior to men.” therefore, the use of ‘chairman’ is considered has a sexist meaning since it can be interpreted as the higher status of the male speaker. furthermore, there is no equal term that is used to refer a female, in this case, the pair of word ‘chairman’, which is ‘chairwoman’. this discovery is consistent with the finding from previous research by mills (1988) that has discussed the use of masculine language by the writers. the use of ‘chairman’ for men and ‘chair’ for women dominates the news text. this usage implies the higher status of male speakers. however, in the news, the writers do not mention the marital status of the women at all. therefore, it is different from what mills (1988) has found that women are often referred to in terms of their sexuality and relationships with others. it is because women have different occupations. in mills’s analysis, the women are mainly working as housewives, while in this research, the women are work as executives. as ryan (2013) has found that the mention of marital status and or family decreases as the women move to more executive positions. in this research, the mention of marital status and or family is zero because the women are in executive positions. the next is gender-free language, where the address terms that are used is genuinely generic unless a genderspecific term is necessary (mills, 1988). these can be taken that the usage of ‘female’ and ‘male’ in this datum is done equally because the ‘male’ that is used to have an equal measure with ‘female’. consequently, in this stage, the writers do not use a sexist language when describing women. as the ‘female’ that is used here really meant a woman, there is no presupposition behind it. furthermore, it is used to mark the gender of executives. eventually, from the analysis at the level of the phrase, four types of the analysis found in the news texts are linguistic determinism, presupposition and inference, metaphor, and transitivity choices. table 2 shows the analysis results on linguistic determinism. table 2 the analysis results on linguistic determinism no phrase (refers to women) frequency % 1. chief executive 4 20 2. chief executive officer 10 50 3. chief operating officer 4 20 4. senior vice president 2 10 total 20 100 the examples of linguistic determinism are also found in the level of phrase. as shown in table 2, the writers use gender-neutral phrases ‘chief executive’, ‘chief executive officer’, ‘chief operating officer’, and ‘senior vice president’ to report a female. as described previously in the level of word, the use of gender-neutral terms when describing woman and the label ‘chairman’ when describing men show how the writer perceives the idea of men and women in the workplace, where men have a higher-status position, even when they have the same position as a chair in the company. subsequently, presuppositions are often found in sentences that can lead the readers to have certain assumptions, while inferences are implied through words that lead the readers to make assumptions (mills, 1988). table 3 shows the analysis results on presupposition and inference. table 3 the analysis results on presupposition and inference no presupposition and inference frequency % 1. related to the headline 5 25 2. related to women as ceo candidates 7 35 3. related to women get cleanup jobs 3 15 3. related to women face serious challenges 1 5 4. related to uber’s toxic work culture for women 3 15 5. related to gender imbalance 1 5 total 20 100 as can be seen in table 3, the presuppositions and inferences in the news texts are divided into six categories. the first one is the presuppositions related to the headline. all the news texts have headlines that presuppose that uber’s new ceo is going to be a male, not female. the examples of the headline are: “uber’s search for a female ceo has been narrowed down to three men” “uber’s hunt for a female ceo has been narrowed down to a list of three men in the wake of the company’s sexual harassment allegations” “uber can’t find a female ceo, so the top contenders are three men” “uber can’t find a woman to be a ceo, so has bravely narrowed their search down to three dudes” “uber has three ceo candidates left—and they’re all men” these headlines imply that uber’s new ceos are supposed to be female, but uber cannot find one. there will be many reasons why uber cannot find a woman to be a ceo, whether because there is no woman that is capable of leading uber or anything else. those presuppositions could lead to negative assumptions towards women. when actually, it is because the female candidates turn down the offer, as the writer explains in the body. the next presuppositions are related to women as ceo candidates. the examples of the presuppositions are: “a company trying to recover from allegations of rampant sexism might reasonably think that hiring 204 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 201-207 a female chief executive would help it restore credibility with customers and — perhaps more importantly — with potential employees in a tight marketplace for talent.” “uber’s plan to replace ceo travis kalanick with a woman in an attempt to combat claims of a toxic and misogynistic office culture have hit a wall.” “as uber tries to change its image and build a new and improved brand, a natural move is to include women in executive roles within the company. there’s just one problem: apparently none of them want the gig.” those presuppositions make earlier suggest very strongly the impression that the company only needs a female ceo to help to restore their declining credibility. furthermore, the company has many controversies about their toxic workplace, where a former engineer, susan fowler, has said that she was sexually harassed by her supervisor and the human resources department ignored the claims. besides that, uber also has 47 cases related to sexual harassment. as mills (1988) has stated that presupposition helps to know the intended meaning of the speaker, the sentences imply that uber purposely searches for a female ceo to help them restore their bad credibility, not because of the capability of the female ceo candidates. the next presupposition is about women gets cleanup jobs. the examples of the presupposition are: “as much as i would love to see more women chief executives, too often women get the cleanup jobs, and i’d prefer to not always see women get the cleanup jobs.” “but there are even more reasons for a woman to shy away from uber’s top spot. there’s no telling just how deep misogyny runs at the company, potentially weakening her authority. and as the post points out, women are often elevated to top jobs in times of crisis, only to be castigated when they fail to fix problems caused by their predecessors.” “a woman at the helm could deflect such criticisms of the company for a time, but she would eventually have to shoulder responsibility for its problems.” the next presupposition is about women who face serious challenges. the sentence, “she added that women in ceo and coo positions face ‘serious challenges’ that men in those roles do not,” makes the assumption that women go through a difficult task when being a ceo and coo. conversely, men do not have it as hard as women. this because there are so few women in the workplace; therefore, they need to prove that they are as good as men. the next presuppositions are about uber’s toxic work culture for women, the examples are: “uber’s toxic work culture came under fire in february, following engineer susan fowler’s blog post about her time at the company. in the post, she details sexual harassment, discrimination, and a very apathetic hr department.” “uber, the ride-hailing giant which became mired in internal fighting and leadership intrigue after the resignation of its former ceo travis kalanick, appears to have scared off every female candidate willing to entertain the notion of replacing him.” “but there are even more reasons for a woman to shy away from uber’s top spot. there’s no telling just how deep misogyny runs at the company, potentially weakening her authority. and as the post points out, women are often elevated to top jobs in times of crisis, only to be castigated when they fail to fix problems caused by their predecessors.” those sentences imply that uber work culture is unacceptable, especially for women. susan fowler makes the blog post because the hr department ignores her report about sexism and sexual harassment that she has experienced in the company. it shows that the uber company does not give fair treatment to their female workers. moreover, the word ‘misogyny’ used by the writer shows strong prejudice against women that the uber company has with women. considering those, the work culture at uber is certainly toxic and unpleasant for women. the last examples of presuppositions are related to gender imbalance. the sentence, “trying to hire a female ceo could even be interpreted as a cynical bit of highlevel tokenism from a company now nearly synonymous with the worst of silicon valley ‘tech bro’ culture,” implies uber is as worst as silicon valley when it comes to the way of treating women. the words, “silicon valley ‘tech bro’ culture” refer to the gender imbalance and the predominance of the technology industry, especially computing. they are infamous with sexism and sexual harassment in the office. afterward, there are examples of metaphor found in the news texts. metaphor is a word or phrase which uses an analogy to suggest similarity in one respect between two things (mills, 1988). in some cases, the metaphor may influence the readers to think about certain scenarios in, particularly stereotyped ways. there are two metaphors found in the texts, ‘glass cliff’ and ‘adult in the room’. the first one is ‘glass cliff’ that refers to the tendency of a company to put women in the leadership position during times of crisis when the chance of failure is highest (ryan & haslam in bruckmuller et al., 2014). ryan and haslam (in bruckmuller et al., 2014) have stated that when an organization is in crisis, this is likely to be seen as an indication that the current approach is not working and that a change from the current (most likely male) model of leadership is needed. this condition happens in the uber company; they are in crisis and need a new ceo. it is mainly because they have several issues on women in the company to cope with, namely sexism and sexual assault. therefore, by changing their ceo with a woman, they hope it can fix the issues and change their bad image. the next metaphor ‘adult in the room’, is used to describe sandberg, the cfo of facebook, in a positive way. the writers use him as an example of a successful executive who can do his job very well. however, the writers also give an example of a contrasting case when marissa meyer fails to do her job to turn a company (in this case, yahoo) around and she gets negative attention because of that. therefore, the phrase ‘adult in the room’ has a sexist message underlined it because it is used to express a man who makes rational decisions for his company. on the other hand, the woman is represented as a bad example of a person who fails at saving the company. these can be seen that the writers imply the message that men are more capable than women in doing a job. this shows the stereotype that leadership role has 205the representation of women’s.... (diah kristina; melsiana shera rita ramadona) always been predominantly male. in contrast, women have stereotypes that they do not fit the leadership roles, unless for glass cliff positions. the last category from the level of phrase/sentence is transitivity choices. transitivity is concerned with how the actions are represented, who is acting as the subject and who is acting as the object. in order to analyze the transitivity choices in the news texts, the actor in each process is extracted, with the lexical realization of each process associated with them (mills, 1988). the results of the transitivity analysis are shown in table 4. table 4 the analysis results on transitivity analysis character position transitivity process frequency % material action intention mental internalized process relational process women subject 10 9 9 28 37,33 object 8 19 20 47 62,67 total 18 28 29 75 100 the result shows that across all websites, expect washington post, the portrayal of women as object dominated in the news. from the transitivity analysis at the level of phrase/sentence, it shows that writers are dominated in making women as the object of the stories. for examples: “a company trying to recover from allegations of rampant sexism might reasonably think that hiring a female chief executive would help it restore credibility with customers and — perhaps more importantly — with potential employees in a tight marketplace for talent.” = mental internalized process “as uber tries to change its image and build a new and improved brand, a natural move is to include women in executive roles within the company.” = material action intention “former yahoo ceo marissa meyer, whose failure to turn around the struggling portal has made her a target of harsh criticism, is a sterling example.” = relational process those are the processes that have women as the object in the news. the position of the object means the object is a matter or a person who act as a receiver. besides, the object is to whom its existence is described through the subject’s perspective (mills, 1988). in this present research, the writers mainly act as the subject of the story. it is because although the news is talking about the absence of women from uber’s ceo candidates, women are not the one who describe their own side. the stories are described through the writers’ point of view. this discovery is relevant with research from jia et al. (2016) that has said women are more likely to be represented visually than they are mentioned as a news actor or source. on the other hand, the analysis of characters in the level of discourse shows the characters of women described based on a phenomenon that happened in the workplace. the first one is the ‘glass cliff’ phenomenon that already discussed in metaphor. it has been seen here that it becomes a stereotype that woman can be exploited if something wrong happens in the company. even the writers think it is common and they give a reference from experts about the phenomenon. moreover, the phrase ‘cleanup jobs’ also has the same messages with ‘glass cliff’ that women are often exploited to solve the problem of a company in times of crisis. furthermore, this sentence comes from a woman, elizabeth ames, a senior vice president at the anita borg institute for women and technology. this shows that in western countries, the gender stereotypes in the workplace still exist. the next is about women as a minority in the workplace. as already discussed, women tend to be judged harsher than men if they are failed at their jobs. this implies that in the workplace, women still get unfair treatment and discrimination. the writers also give the example of the women ceos that get negative attention when they are failed at their jobs, such as marissa meyer, ellen pao, sheri mccoy, and irene rosenfeld. this discovery is relevant to len-rios et al. (2005) that have found newspapers studied here reflect the masculine cultural hegemony that prevails in u.s. culture. the next is that women are described as a way to recreate a good image in the company. as has been discussed in presupposition and inference, uber only wants a female ceo to build a new and improved brand, since they have many controversies regarding how bad their workplace culture for women. above all, the sentences are cited from experts, which shows that it is a common way in u.s. businesses to approach women for a leadership position to regain a good image when controversies about sexual harassment and toxic macho culture in the offices take place. lastly, there is a new finding used by washington post and daily mail which shows that the writers use sources from studies and experts. for examples: “workplace experts pointed to a phenomenon known to researchers as ‘the glass cliff’, in which women are more often called into corporate leadership roles in times of crisis, and are therefore subject to more criticism if companies don’t perform well.” “while uber’s decision to approach women for the role was seen as an attempt to claw back some respect after high-profile accusations of a toxic macho culture in its offices, it plays into a pattern seen across us businesses, experts say.” “women also get blamed harder than men if they have trouble, analysts claim.” as can be seen from these examples, the writers add citation which reinforces the previous discussion that women are characterized as glass cliff and subject to more criticism. according to dor and ferree (in baden & tenenboim-weinblatt, 2016), the use of sources in the news is to elucidate in what (additional) ways the presented views matter to the readers. news is also constructing the input to connect the statements given by other newsworthy sources and enriching with specific claims to authority and relevance (esser & strömbäck in baden & tenenboimweinblatt, 2016). therefore, the writers add sources from studies and experts to support their statements. based on the 206 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 201-207 analyze at the level of discourse, it can be concluded that the way the writers use sources in the news is based on the phenomenon that happens in the workplace. they describe women by their role in the company. the examples reinforce the previous discussion that the glass cliff phenomenon and the discrimination of women have been prevalent in the workplace industry. the existing stereotypes of women and their abilities influence how women are represented in the news texts. women at the level of executives are indeed discriminated in the industry, and they are still struggling for gender equality. conclusions consequently, the findings in the present research are consistent with the previous researches on women in the news, that women remain underrepresented in news media. beside underrepresented, women are also represented based on the stereotypes that exist in the united states culture. the first representation of women’s ceo in this research is as an object in the stories and representing them as the solution of uber’s sexism issues. as the background of the story mentioned, uber has sexual harassment scandals; therefore, it is needed a female ceo to recreate a good image in the company. furthermore, the news portrays women as a minority which only considered as ceo when the company facing a crisis, or as known as ‘the glass cliff’. above all, they also have a high chance to be judged harsher than if they fail at their job to recreate a good image in the company. there are several reasons why women’s ceo are represented that way. as has been discussed, gender stereotypes are still existing in the united states. the ‘glass cliff position’ makes women in male-dominated industries get stereotypes which block women’s way of stepping into leadership roles. besides that, the background story of uber, which has terrible images because of the sexual harassment and discrimination problems in the company also become the reason why women are represented as ‘glass cliff position’. moreover, uber is a male-dominated industry which leads to a toxic work culture which makes the female workers get unfair treatment and discrimination. more importantly, the researches cited by the writers also confirm that the glass cliff phenomenon and the discrimination of women have been prevalent in the workplace industry. despite the coverage of the absence of women from the ceo candidates, most of the writers position women as the object of telling. the writers also use different terms and metaphor in describing women and men. moreover, the writers as the narrators of the story tend to describe women as the object by giving references from experts and studies on the women reputation in the job and leadership roles. these show how the writers frame women in the news. the writers perceive uber’s idea to approach women as the new ceo as a way to restore the bad credibility that’s why there is none of female ceo want to accept the offer. however, the writers represent women by the reasons why women are more likely to be in the glass cliff position and only added sources which support their narrative. the implication of future research is that further studies are badly needed in terms of analyzing news from a feminist communication style. according to many researchers, women and men differ in the way they communicate. therefore, communication styles can be analyzed from the perspective of feminist. references ali, r., & batool, s. 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(2015). critical discourse analysis. in d. tannen, h. e. hamilton, & d. schiffrin (eds.), the handbook of critical discourse analysis (second edition, pp. 466–485). new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118584194. ch22. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 1-7 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7671 the stereotyping representation of kensi blye’s character in television crime drama series ncis: los angeles nobella indradjaja1*; chamdani2; syafi'i3 1-3legal studies, faculty of law, wijaya putra university jl. raya benowo 1-3 surabaya, jawa timur 60197, indonesia 1miavitabelle@gmail.com; 2chamdani@uwp.ac.id; 3syafiialmaliny@gmail.com received: 25th august 2021/revised: 03rd december 2021/accepted: 06th december 2021 how to cite: indradjaja, n., chamdani, & syafi`i. (2022). the stereotyping representation of kensi blye’s character in television crime drama series ncis: los angeles. lingua cultura, 16(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7671 abstract the research discussed a stereotyping representation of special agent kensi blye, one of the female characters in the crime drama series ‘ncis: los angeles series’. in the crime drama genre, a very masculine genre, the notion of a female character having masculine traits was common. another issue was how the other male characters in the television show saw kensi blye. their willingness to openly accept that kensi blye had more masculine traits than her feminine traits would be discussed. to analyze the representation of kensi blye, the three-dimensional framework was used as the approach. the research data were gathered from the utterances expressed by kensi blye’s co-workers about kensi. the textual analysis would be the analysis of obtained data using a social actor network. then, the resulting data would be analyzed using the feminine and masculine traits to find out how the other co-workers represent kensi blye’s character. the finding suggests that as the only female field agent, kensi blye seems to have a strong character, but in certain situations, her male co-workers still question her femaleness. the stereotyping of femaleness in female characters is inevitable even in the masculine genre of television cinema. keywords: crime drama, feminism, gender stereotype, representation introduction the gender issue is very common in everyday life. almost every day, people are forced to deal with gender issues, whether it is a stereotyping of female or male counterparts. the problem with gender issues especially stereotyping, is commonly constructed by the society where they live in. in the education field, previous research has found that stereotyping can lead members of stereotyped groups to disidentify from some domains or schools altogether and to perform worse during learning and test-taking (appel & weber, 2017). the issue related to gender is also linked to ethnicity, poverty, and sociocultural practices that sometimes slow the advancement of women (low & binns, 2016). gender stereotyping issues can be found in everyday lives. not only in real life, through the media use on a day-to-day basis, the discussion of gender stereotypes also lead to building a certain frame in the society (zenquis & mwaniki, 2019). stereotyping often happens to females and is done by a male of the opposite sex or other females who have a different point of view. the feminine and male marking is always based on gender (caldarone, 2017). previous researchers have used to look into the gender issue, the relation between the female traits and the masculine traits that can sometimes be embodied in a female character which become ‘problem’ for the opposite gender. the type of stereotyping is circulated in fundamental media aesthetics: modes of perception, the production of affect, and strategies of storytelling and genre (coulthard et al., 2018). stereotypes are consensual beliefs about the attributes of people belonging to a social category, and the content of such beliefs is consequential in daily life 2 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 1-7 (koenig & eagly, 2019). a stereotype is usually used in categorizing groups of people in order to understand the type of person the society classified them. nelson (2009) has argued that this kind of classification is primarily divided into three primary dimensions: age, race, and gender. gender stereotype categorizes men and women based on their character traits, the masculine and the feminine. gender stereotypes are preserved through many ways such as media (advertising, film, cinema, etc.), general repetition and sanctions for those who do not follow. an example of gender stereotypes is the common statement that differs men and women like men are messy; women are neat. in media, gender stereotype plays a significant role in drawing attention. the focus on masculinity in news coverage, for instance, signals to female candidates that masculine messages will grab the media’s attention, while messages reinforcing feminine qualities may not receive much media attention (bauer & santia, 2021). in line with the effects that women’s descriptive or substantive representation in parliament have on citizens’ political engagement and their attitudes towards political institutions (verge, 2021). meanwhile, the attention drawn from shaping a female character in a crime drama is typically another issue. thus, it will be discussed further in the research. there are many types of genres in television shows such as drama, news, reality show, talk shows, situational comedy, and music programs. the drama genre has sub-genres such as police procedural drama, crime drama, and psychological drama. the crime drama is a popular and favourite genre since it is enduring cinematic entertainment. watching crime dramas can give the experience of the feeling of ‘first-hand’ encounter with crime (or criminality). because crime dramas seek to attract large audiences and followers, programming tends to reflect cultural beliefs, societal sentiments, and circulate cultural images of gender (cavender & deutsch, 2007). it is likely that crime drama also gives exposure to the participants with an anchor to talk about identities and subjectivities (wimshurst, 2018). thus, it will give a new perspective for people about crime and criminality along with the identities and subjectivities. the growth of crime drama is started from the introduction of crime fiction, a genre in a novel, with a detective storyline written by edgar allan poe. it is a first-time crime narrated and re-told as it is. the ideological concept of punishment also gives an attitude toward the crime (scaggs, 2005). based on this ‘detective story’, television crime drama’s basic storyline is produced. the ideal concept of crime drama is about how the crime happens and how it is solved. this basic concept is still being used now, but it is given another genre twist so it will not bore the audience (scaggs, 2005). the television crime drama is usually presented as a fictional of real-life crime that happens in society. there is a thin-blurred line between the fictional recreation and the one that happens in real-life. for some audiences, the crime in television crime dramas seem so real, and they often refuse to watch it because it looks gory. barthe, leone, and lateano (2012) have also claimed that television crime series are responsible for misinforming undergraduates about aspects of the criminal justice system. however, not every crime drama in television explicitly presents crime; other crime drama genres focus on solving a crime by the crime solver and the crime solver’s personal life. recently, tv crime dramas also selfconsciously created engagement to the audiences with the issue of gender studies and feminism, such as the agency, female complexity, and expertise; trauma culture and rape; gender justice and violence against women (coulthard et al., 2018). with the feminist movement, the television industry starts to give the spotlight to the female character in film and cinema. in crime drama, females are allowed to have the character as a crime solver (indradjaja, 2016). at the beginning of the female emergence in the masculine genre, female characters are not entirely accepted. the female characters are often introduced as the sidekick and as a prop since the common representation of crime solvers in crime drama are usually male, white, and very masculine. detardo-bora (2009) has found that most women in crime tv dramas are depicted as white, younger, single, and appeared in their early 30s (in garland et al., 2018). with this kind of findings, it can be concluded that although the portrayals of female law enforcement officers have improved, female characters continue to face issues of discrimination and victimization (garland et al., 2018). it is true that as television crime drama continues to develop, the way crime drama genres represent female crime solver also evolve. the sidekick and prop type is changed into the pure partner and crime solver. both male and female crime solvers have an equal portion on how they solve the crime. although, at the same time, they are still often accepted as ‘one of the boys’ (wilson & blackburn, 2014). they are also still portrayed in a stereotypical manner even when they become the heroine (garland et al., 2018). moreover, gill (2016) has also stated that although feminism has attained new visibility and popularity, alongside all these different iterations of contemporary feminism is equally popular misogyny. there are several studies on crime drama series and the issue of gender and stereotyping in television drama. the female character in television drama often represents differently from the male character. the case can be seen in the character of clarice starling (a female fbi agent) in the movie entitled silence of the lambs (1991). compared to her male counterparts, she saves the day, defeats the perpetrator, and protects the intended victim before backup arrives. her heroic efforts make her promoted to the rank of special agent starling, cementing her place in the fbi. however, the positive depiction does not stand alone as she also is depicted as naive and ill-equipped for a maledominated career (garland et al., 2018). 3the stereotyping representation.... (nobella indradjaja, et al.) even though gender inequality remains an important challenge across societies, many believe it to be long gone. in fact, there are still major gaps as women are underrepresented in leadership positions, earn less money, and hold fewer seats in parliaments than men. thus, the gender inequality issue still needs to be raised in public as the gender system is still in power. this also becomes the main focus in observing how media, especially in the crime drama, is still in a long way to depict the female character as a ‘capable’ heroine despite the gender (anisman-razin, kark, & saguy, 2018). the feminine desire sometimes transforms or ‘becoming’ and experiences self-transformation. female characters ‘become’ similar to the male character (burns, 2016). the female character in the male world as a female detective in crime drama television shows how female characters can compete in the male world. other research about crime drama is the studies on television crime drama castle. the leading detective in this crime drama series is a female character named kate beckett; she is the lead detective. the development of female characters in popular culture is somehow represented through kate beckett, who is very positive for women. she is represented as a strong female character, the perfect type of ‘having it all’ woman. the crime drama series ncis: los angeles is one of the crime drama series that does not only focus on how the crime happens but also how to solve it. the show also has a silver lining in each of the characters’ personal lives and values, giving the show a genre twist. ncis: los angeles, shortened from naval criminal investigative service in los angeles branch, is a crime drama series about a team of intelligence agents that serve to solve crime happening to or done by the united state navy. the team members are special agent g. callen, special agent sam hanna, special agent kensi blye, and lapd detective liaison marty deeks. the team also has two-computer analysts, eric beale and nell jones, who are in charge of the computer analysis and technological support. the los angeles branch is under the operational manager henrietta lange and is often visited by the deputy director owen granger from washington dc. the character kensi blye in ncis: los angeles crime drama series is the only female in the field team. this situation does not affect her capability as a crime solver and her partner; she is determined to solve the crime daily. gender stereotypes can be found through media such as advertorial campaigns, movies, and cinema. gender stereotypes consist of beliefs about psychological traits and characteristics of men and women that define the attitudes on masculinity and femininity (brannon, 2017). the conceptualization of gender roles and stereotypes tend to relate to each other, especially when people associate behaviour of men and women, which inevitably is associated with one gender. women were stereotyping dates back to the beliefs that appeared during the industrial revolution that separated men and women based on their working area. men work outside their homes while women work at home managing the household (brannon, 2017). the concept of stereotype is introduced with the idea to provide an explanation of how people are actually influenced by and considered making sense of the messages. the stereotype is a system of classification in this modern definition focused on the inherent portrays by using certain traits (kidd, 2016). an approach proposed by norman fairclough, critical discourse analysis (cda), is used to analyze the representation of kensi blye as a female crimesolver in the crime drama series ncis: los angeles. in this research, the three-dimensional framework is suitable for research related to social and cultural changes. the three-dimensional framework involves three layers of discussion, which are the textual layer, the discourse layer, and the sociocultural layer (fairclough, 1995). methods representation is the production of meaning through language to ‘make sense’ of the world, people, object, or event (hall, evans, & nixon, 2013). representation could be found anywhere in media, namely television, print media, and online media. for example, in the discussion about gender representation in media coverage about a natural disaster, female performs as nurturers whereas male performs as protectors (ali, 2014). media representation also has significant power to shape opinions and influence public response to communities or groups around the world (li & zhang, 2021). to observe the portrayal of kensi blye in the television crime drama series ncis: los angeles, the concept of critical discourse analysis (cda) is used. the three-dimensional framework is used since the concept has three levels, the textual level, the discourse level, and the sociocultural level (fairclough, 1995). in analyzing the representation of kensi blye in the television series ncis: los angeles, the data would be the written transcript of the selected episodes in seasons three and four. at the textual level, the transcript of these selected episodes would be classified based on the speakers the other characters in the series – that said some utterances about kensi blye’s character traits. the categorized utterances are then classified based on the stereotypical words said by the speakers for further analysis. then the categorized utterances are analyzed using the social actors’ network (van leeuwen, 2008). social actors can be represented based on their quality, called impersonalization. there are two types of impersonalization which are abstraction and objectivation. objectivation happens when social actors are represented by reference to a certain place or a thing that is closely associated with their person or with the action they are represented (van leeuwen, 2008). while abstraction happens when social actors are represented by the quality 4 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 1-7 assigned to them in their representation (harris, 2006). however, this research will analyze the textual data using abstraction representation of social actors rather than using objectivation representation. the next level is the discourse level, where the result of the analysis on social actors’ networks in the previous level is now again analyzed using some feminine concepts. cda is a framework employed in discourse studies to analyze social issues with explanatory power (li & zhang, 2021) and is a powerful tool to question the construction of power between ruling (stereotype in power) and subaltern (donoghue, 2018). in response to the feminist demand, the cinema industry begins to give females the roles of less stereotypical and much-developed characters. this less stereotypical characterization shows females in cinema as not non-dependent but more independent, highly active and powerful. garland et al. (2018) have shown that a female heroine-more recently, as it is discussed, is portrayed as sav(ing) the day, eliminate(ing) the perpetrator, and rescue(ing) the intended victim before backup arrives. the last level of the three-dimensional framework is the sociocultural level analysis. in this level, the coded utterances are analyzed for their parts in constructing the representation of kensi blye. the stereotypes representation of females can sometimes be influenced by an explicit assessment of gender stereotypes, that is, the examination and expectations about personality traits such as compassion and warmth (bauer & santia, 2021). the idea of women (female) is not entirely having masculine traits but also has to balance between the masculine and the feminine traits. the representation of kensi blye is produced by people around and surrounding her; her partner and co-workers are analyzed whether they see kensi blye as only a strong female character or does she also need to be seen as having feminine traits. results and discussions kensi blye’s fellow agents see her as a powerful female agent with very distinct and notable masculine traits; they often question kensi blye’s femaleness. as an ncis field agent and being the only female agent in the field, kensi blye needs to perform equal to the other agents, all of whom are male. she continues to perform her strong physical ability in the matter of criminal cases they are working on, such as when she needs to chase down the criminal. sometimes, she needs to physically have one-on-one combat with the criminals, who are mostly male. gender inequality towards female and male characters can be found in everyday lives, such as in female leaders’ lives. these female leaders have been experiencing gender inequality unconsciously, similar to the female character in the television crime drama, which portrays female characters as distinct with masculine and feminine traits (mclaren, star, & widianingsih, 2019). kensi blye is known for her stand-out ability and attitude, with many masculine traits for a female. being the only female field agent among other male agents does not discourage her. however, the other male agents sometimes question her femaleness. how kensi blye is ‘becoming’ like the other male detectives, in her physical ability and endurance, shows that females can have masculine traits (burns, 2016). public debate on how the role of a female in the media, such as television, is almost similar to the public opinion about the female role in the game industry. the female characterization is not always female as a character with full-loaded feminine traits, but as a character with more masculine traits with a sprinkle of feminine traits (biscop, malliet, & dhoest, 2019). on one impromptu undercover duty for a case, agent g. callen asks marty deeks about kensi blye’s old fashion habit. to callen’s knowledge, kensi blye has a ‘bad habit’ with her gym bag in the back of her car. kensi is said to have a ‘messy’ gym bag, an unorganized gym bag. callen wants to use kensi’s ‘messy’ gym bag as a decoy for a bag of money for drugs trade with the criminal. the term ‘messy’ used by callen to describe kensi blye’s gym bag is the type of impersonalization. this type of impersonalization is the abstraction meaning the social actor is represented by the quality assigned to her in the representation (van leeuwen, 2008). for agent callen, it is considered an abnormality for kensi blye to own a ‘messy’ gym bag. for callen, who is male, the fact that kensi blye is female should be very neat and in order when it comes to organizing her bag. it should be something unconsciously done by females to be in a very neat and organized way. whereas for kensi blye, being female does not have anything to do with how she organizes her things. by implying to callen, “why? what’s wrong with my gym bag?” (season 4, episode 21, scene 5), kensi shows how she is confused with callen’s association of her gym bag with a bag of money. the gender implication is inevitable for a television character with both female and male characters as lead on the show. both characters have their own signature opposing character traits (byrne, 2015). kensi blye often says to her partner, detective marty deeks, about how she wants to have her own “homegrown” herbs. as for marty deeks, what kensi blye wish about “homegrown” herbs is something impossible which he refers to on several occasions when kensi blye comes to the office, acting strange, and annoyed. as a good and caring partner, marty deeks tells the other guys to stay cool and not question kensi about why she feels annoyed. when kensi comes to her senses, she implies to her co-workers that she once again killed another houseplant and that this time it was a cactus. then, marty deeks has said to kensi blye that she is a ‘notable plant killer’. the term used by marty deeks to represent kensi blye, ‘notable plant killer’ is an abstraction type of impersonalization (van leeuwen, 2008). it highlights the changes in genderbased norms that females should be impersonalized of having a nurturing sense of female behaviour 5the stereotyping representation.... (nobella indradjaja, et al.) (harack, 2016). for both marty deeks and callen as male agents, they have the common knowledge that kensi blye as a female, must have nurturing traits. supposedly, kensi blye should not be a plant killer, but she should be able to take care of the plants. in some moments, marty deeks sometimes visits kensi’s house and vice versa. instead of coming to a very clean and neat house, marty deeks comes to a very unorganized house. marty deeks seems amazed at the situation and often repeatedly says that kensi blye is a ‘hoarder’. the term ‘hoarders’ expressed by marty deeks is an abstraction of impersonalization in social actor networks (van leeuwen, 2008). it is unlikely for a female to be called as a hoarder. most females should have a very clean and organized house, unlike kensi blye. it should be in female character traits that females should maintain their cleanliness and organized house. kensi blye is known to have some kind of casual respect for vehicles, especially her agencies’ vehicles. she always insists on driving her agencies’ car and would almost never ask marty deeks to drive the car. even when kensi is scheduled to switch partners with callen, kensi insists on driving them to a crime scene. callen comments about kensi’s driving that her driving is ‘one hell of a driving skill’ to sam hanna, looking dizzy and nauseous. callen describes that kensi is driving high speed and switching lanes at a swift pace. even though kensi herself is not a very skilled driver, she refuses to hand over her car keys to her partner at any circumstances. callen’s impression ‘one hell of a driving skill’ is not a complementary statement but rather a statement that shows how bad kensi’s driving skill is. the term used by callen to describe kensi’s driving ability is the type of abstraction of impersonalization (van leeuwen, 2008). for callen, kensi’s driving should be more responsible and not switch lanes at a fast pace as most females do. this scene indirectly shows how kensi is portrayed “as highly incapable, unsuited to be heroes because they are helpless in emergencies” (inness, 1999). the expectation of kensi blye’s co-workers about her in certain situations sometimes tends to question her femaleness. the fact that kensi is a very dedicated field agent, having equal capability as the other male agents would not be enough. kensi’s coworkers are mostly male, and they often see kensi as female with masculine traits. her masculine traits are associated with her duty as a federal field agent by her co-workers, and she must have feminine traits in her personal life. the associated communal traits with women are organized, nurturing, and neat. these traits are some of the basic traits that most females have. for kensi’s co-workers’ knowledge, she should also have those traits. it seems that kensi blye’s co-workers, especially the male ones, cannot detach themselves from the typical gender stereotypes about females. even though they admit that kensi is an impeccable and dedicated agent who has the equal ability as they are, they feel that something is missing from kensi. there are expectations and assumptions that feminine traits of nurturing, well-organized, and neat should be carried on by those whose gender identity is female (brannon, 2017). thus, this is in line with the idea that kensi blye becomes ‘one of the boys’ as she fails to fulfil her co-workers’ ideas of being a good female (garland et al., 2018). conclusions based on the cda approach, the textual data analysis of the utterances spoken by kensi blye’s co-workers has implicit intention as the product of the speakers’ social cognition. the three-dimensional framework by norman fairclough used to analyze the utterances shows the correlation between the sociocultural level and the textual level. seen from the utterances spoken by kensi blye’s co-workers show the implicit intention of the speaker. the analysis of the utterances in the discourse level indicates bridging between the cognitive knowledge of the society influenced the speaker social cognition. whereas in the sociocultural level, the society’s conceptual mind influences society’s perception. from the findings and discussion, the representations of kensi blye produced by her coworkers are not as what kensi projected herself. kensi blye may be a courageous agent when it comes to solving criminal cases, she considers herself as a strong female character, yet her co-workers see her as a typical female. even though kensi blye wants to be seen as physically strong, brave, and independent, the way her partner and other male co-workers seem to keep seeing her as ‘female’. for kensi’s male co-workers on their social cognition, kensi should have feminine traits behind her masculine traits. it is obvious for the other male agents to see kensi doing something physical and masculine in the line of duty but other than that. kensi is still seen as a female who is supposedly nurturing, neat, and preserves any kinds of feminine traits. this is due to the conceptual mind in the society that eventually influences the social cognition of kensi blye’s co-workers. however, in the crime drama ncis: los angeles, kensi blye is not represented as a powerful female character, but in some cases, her male co-workers still demand her feminine side, not only feminine as kensi needs to look beautiful but the kind of feminine as her being female. the question about her femaleness arises when she is confronted with a situation that is common to most female, and her co-workers obviously think that as a female, kensi would definitely do like what most female does. in the masculine genre, such as crime drama, the essence of being female is still questioned. the opinion of being female in the masculine area would not stop the questions of how ‘female’ the female is. it seems that the men in the masculine genre accept female masculinity but are still questioning about the femaleness in her. the stereotyping of femaleness 6 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 1-7 will not easily go unquestioned even in the masculine genre. thus, to be accepted as capable, kensi faces the pressure to show she has feminine and masculine qualities at the same time. references ali, z. s. 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(2019). the intersection of race, gender, and nationality in sport: media representation of the ogwumike sisters. journal of sport and social issues, 43(1), 23-43. https://doi. org/10.1177/0193723518823338. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 203 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 203-210 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6588 linguistic signs in slang language used in drug trading transactions in padang city amelia yuli astuti1*; bram denafri2 1english department, faculty of literature, ekasakti university jl. veteran dalam no. 26b, padang pasir, sumatera barat 25113, indonesia 2indonesian department, faculty of letter, pamulang university kampus unpam 2, building b, floor 5th. jl. raya puspitek, serpong, banten 15310, indonesia 1ameliayuli127@gmail.com; 2bram@unpam.ac.id received: 22nd july 2020/revised: 10th august 2020/accepted: 09th september 2020 how to cite: astuti, a. y. & denafri, b. (2020). linguistic signs in slang language used in drug trading transactions in padang city. lingua cultura, 14(2), 203-210. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6588 abstract the research discussed the linguistic sign in slang language used in drug transactions. slang language was found based on interviews conducted with drug dealers and drug users in ranah parak rumbio, south padang subdistrict, padang city. the aim of the research was to determine the signifier and signified found in drug slang language. furthermore, the research determined the order of signification by analyzing the meaning of slang language based on its context. the data were obtained using the direct observation method. this was achieved by using interview techniques. the interviews were conducted with three informants. there were two men who used to be drug dealers and former drug users, and a woman who was an observer and anti-drug activist. furthermore, the data were analyzed by using equalizing and differentiation techniques. data analysis was carried out using semiotic by referring to the linguistic signs theory proposed by saussure and the theory of order of signification by barthes. in conclusion, it is found that slang is formed in word categories, abbreviations, and phrases. then, the factors of language are also considered, such as time and place of the background, the number of participants in the interaction, talking topic, and interaction function. these factors then determine the use of slang terms between drug users and dealers. keywords: linguistic signs, language used, drug trading language introduction language has its own uniqueness which can be found in various types of community groups. a community agrees on a certain language understood by them. understanding a language that can only be interpreted by a certain community group is called slang. slang is said to be a social variation that is used in special ways and also confidential. it refers to a language that is only used by a limited group of people and is unknown to other communities. the community believes that the slang language would create security and confidentiality. language is a tool by humans to represent something. without language being present, we as humans cannot communicate. language has been formed since humans existed. indonesians presumably perceive bahasa indonesia as the mother tongue. mother tongue is the language that is first used by our parents today, which is used as an everyday language. this mother-tongue then becomes the means of communication. indonesians also speak formal and foreign languages. in addition to this, it is also known indonesian as the nation’s unifying language. on the other hand, indonesians also speak foreign languages when communicating with the outside world. by learning foreign languages, people are able to participate in the trends of the times and experience the latest technology. besides, people also use foreign languages to interpret something that is called a discourse. discourse is a communication process that uses symbols related to interpretations and events in the community (sari, 2018). according to devianty (2017), language is a gift given by god. the use of language also 204 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 203-210 distinguishes between humans and animals. the language used by humans can be explained morphologically, phonologically, and meaningfully. on the other hand, the language used by animals is only consisted of sounds and is the instinct of these animals to communicate. hence, it cannot be studied in morphological, phonological, and meaning forms. it can only be understood by logic and perceive the sound using letters. language is a brain process with human speech devices. the brain process also affects the vocabulary that will expose (anisah, 2019). language is also formed due to habits in everyday life. since childhood, people imitate what is done and said by their parents and the people around them. therefore, language formation is primarily affected by the people closest to it (noermanzah, 2019). the research discusses how language use is influencing the people in a drugs-particular group. drug users and dealers create secret groups or communities in a large number, and they have a web of networks throughout the country. to not disclose their identity, they use special codes while naming the types of drugs, dealing with transactions, and getting people involved in the distribution. this is considering the distribution of drugs, which has spread all over the country (hariyanto, 2018). it is happening not only in the capital cities but also in remote villages. this explains why the government still is unable to control the use of narcotics as it is effortless to conduct drug transactions in the villages. drug eradication is indeed not easy. despite the efforts made by the police and the government to eradicate illegal drug use, however, it still is a work in progress. the threat of drugs does not only come at the national level but also from other countries. in overseas, there are many types of drugs that existed, but the news that is heard is only about circulation in indonesia. the drug network has impacted the younger generation (setyawan & sulistyawati, 2019). according to setyawan and sulistyawati (2019), the east coast of sumatra is the most vulnerable area for drug trafficking as there are many ports of entry for drugs coming from abroad. such similar cases need to be resolved through the root. besides, drug abuse is considered a national and international problem (suyatna, 2018). however, indonesia has faced problems related to drug addiction. it is not only opium for drugs but also opium for adhesive. the strong smell in some adhesive brands, such as fox, makes people abuse it. they smell it for a long time, opium with the adhesive smell (fadli & suwandewi, 2019). fadli and suwandewi explain that young people who are addicted to opium abuse the adhesive smell that is considered a trend. this could pose a threat to today’s young generation. in the research, the focus of the community groups using slang language is the drug dealers. the slang language is used as a communication means that consisted of a set of codes in drug dealing transactions. as a result, the case of drug spread is quite alarming. the research aims to determine linguistic signs found in the language and codes the drug dealers and drug users use while performing transactions. the code and language used are not common to the general public. therefore, the research aims to seek the relationship between linguistic signs, the process of language formation, as well as its context. understanding the slang language spoken in drug trafficking organizations will enable them to identify drug abuse signs that can threaten people. this understanding can also provide treatment or assistance for those in need of help. the research questions the process of forming slang language in the informants’ speech. it also observes the lingual signs in slang language and the factors influencing the drug users to use slang language. the research’s objective is to determine the language formation process in slang language used in drug trafficking organizations. the data were collected from the informants’ utterances, a description of the lingual signs in the slang language, and the factors influencing the drug users’ actions and communications. the research discusses the linguistic sign in the slang language used in drug trafficking organizations by using the linguistic sign theory proposed by saussure in chandler (2017). the data will provide results in the concept of signs, connotation, and denotation meanings. according to saussure (in chandler, 2017), the linguistic sign is not a relationship between a thing and a name, but preferably between the concept and the sound patterns. the signified are concepts, while the sound patterns are signifiers. the intended sign pattern is not delivering its actual meaning, but one that has a physical form. therefore, a thought pattern is formed in the brain, resulting in the creation of an image or object. the object description language is called a linguistic sign which is associated with a concept. there are several slang languages found in many drug trafficking organizations in this research, with many opportunities while examining linguistic signs in various slang languages. the problem posed in this research is to determine linguistic signs found in various slang languages used by the drug dealers. furthermore, this research aims to discuss the concept of signs as proposed by saussure in chandler (2017) and discover its connotation and denotation meanings. signs can be formed from words, images, sounds, tastes, or objects, but it does not have intrinsic meaning. these concepts will only become signs if it is embedded with meaning. previous research on linguistic signs has certainly been carried out. the research tries to seek a different angle by taking the data which is based on language phenomenon. in particular, it discusses the slang language variety that is associated with drug trading transactions. also, the research analyzes the connotation and denotation meanings. the previous research about signs examines the meaning of honda advertisement (ad) through linguistic and visual signs (kinanthi & nugroho, 2017). the honda ad examined is a car ad with the free sub-brand in the form of images and footage in the ad. the research discusses 205linguistic signs in slang language .... (amelia yuli astuti; bram denafri) the meaning of the visual and linguistic signs in the honda ad using the semiotics theory. result obtained from the research is the overall meaning of visual and linguistic signs in 2017 honda free ads. research on linguistic signs is always related to the research of meaning. this is based on interpretation in which it has its parameters, so the linguistic signs create a new meaning. the next research examines barthes’ semiotic text in rahmawati (2017) which argues that the meaning of denotation and connotation cannot be separated from one another. the meaning of denotation is derived from the true meaning. in bahasa indonesia, the meaning of a word is able to be defined within its formal level. after analyzing the meaning of denotation, the next step is understanding the context while determining the meaning of connotation. barthes in rahmawati (2017) explains that the new meanings of denotation or connotation could be produced if they are related to context and interpretation. therefore, the research of meaning is still carried out until now because humans are inseparable from language and interpretation. the next research is about linguistic devices in the orientation of body parts in sundanese metaphors (lyra, 2016). this research describes the metaphor produced by the body part in sundanese. by using cognitive semantic metaphor and morphological theories, a linguistic device is produced. this device constructs a body part metaphor in the form of mono-morphemic (basic words) and polymorphisms (invented words, phrases, compound words, idioms, and clauses). metaphors in the form of phrases, compound words, and idioms are built accordingly. this is formed by the construction of body part elements and other elements. another interesting research that focused on slang-related languages is in social media, in which a variety of languages existed (akyuwen, sasabone, & tabelessy, 2020). this research examines the slang language on facebook used by teenagers in ambon city. the research results found are in the form of jargon, prokem, and colloquial. in the research, the slang language used within the drug traffickers’ organization will be explained. also, a description of the determinants of slang selection will be provided to analyze the slang language in the group’s communication. in sociolinguistics, the term language selection is known. to understand a language, the process of forming words and morphemes as the smallest parts of the language itself must be understood (simpen, 2017). in addition, language selection is also used in social interactions with various language codes (rokhman, 2013). society will choose the available codes according to the factors that influence the codes. the choice of language in social interactions is influenced by various social factors. evin-tripp in rokhman (2013) identifies four main factors as markers of a speaker’s language choice in social interactions, which are (1) setting (time and place) and situation; (2) participants in the interaction; (3) conversation topics, and (4) interaction functions. the first factor can be found, for example, the setting in family breakfasts, meetings at the office, wedding parties, bargaining at the market, or school. the second factor includes age, gender, occupation, socioeconomic status, and role in speech partners. the third factor can be the topic of interaction, such as work, children’s success stories, actual events, or the topic of the price of goods in the market. the fourth factor is the interaction while offering information, requests, routine habits (greeting, apologizing, or saying thank you). according to grosjean in rokhman (2013), there are four factors that influence language choice in social interactions, namely participants, situations, discourse content, and interaction functions. the situation factor refers to the location or setting, the presence of the monolingual speaker, the level of formality, and the level of familiarity. the discourse content refers to the topic of conversation and the type of vocabulary. the interaction function refers to the aspects of raising status, creating social distance, removing someone from the conversation, or ordering or asking. based on the explanation of the factors that influence language choice in society, the research will discusses the reasons why drug users or dealers choose and use slang language in their communication and interactions. according to saussure (chandler, 2017), linguistic signs such as words are referred to as a ‘signifier’ and a ‘signified’. the signifier is the form of the sign itself, while the signified is the concept of what it points to. saussure in chandler (2017) has stated that the signifier is the sound pattern, and the signified is a physical concept. signifiers are interpreted as a material or physical form of a sign. it means something that can be seen, heard, touched, smelled, and felt. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 signified and signifier image in saussurean model (chandler, 2017) in the saussurean model, signs are based on the overall association results between the signifier and signified. the saussure diagram in figure 1 represents the relation between signifier and signified. the broken lines signify two elements of a sign. a linguistic example is a word ‘open’, which is a sign consisting of a signifier; the word open, and a signified concept; that the store is open for business (buying and selling) (chandler, 2017). a sign should identify the signifier and signified. the signifier is the same, for instance, the word ‘on’ may show a different signified or sign if it is placed on the button of a computer (as in ‘press to turn on the computer’). many signifiers can also be interpreted as 206 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 203-210 another ‘on’ depending on its concept. the concept of ‘on’, for instance, at the top of the box and a box line with a lid for ‘open in this section’ with each unique pair may refer to different signs. figure 2 the order of signification (chandler, 2017) the ‘value’ of a sign depends on its relationship with other signs, as pictured in figure 2. a sign is not absolutely based on contextual usage. saussure in chandler (2017) has analyzed the sign in a puzzle game. the value of each piece depends on its position on the board. it means the meaning indicated on the signified depends on the relationship between the two parts of the sign. the ‘value’ of the sign is determined based on the relationship between the sign and other signs in the whole system. types of meaning are divided into seven forms according to umagandhi and vinothini (2017), first is conceptual meaning or sense. this meaning comes from logic, which is a form of cognitive assessment. the meaning emerges from the parameters of true meaning that is known as the denotative meaning. denotative meaning is understood by everyone and is believed to be form and meaning. context is not needed because it is based on conceptual meaning, which can be referred to as the formal dictionary of each region or country. the second is connotative meaning. the meaning is formed based on the context, and it does not come from a formal dictionary. when communicating, language users sometimes want to hide the true meaning of the words or sentences that they want to convey. the meaning will be understood by the listener if both the speaker and the listener understand the meaning of the word conveyed. it can be inferred that to understand the connotative meaning; one requires context for getting the expected meaning. the third is social meaning. community and social life patterns greatly affect the language being used. the meaning of a language is also influenced by social meaning. society creates a habit or even a language tradition that can only be understood by the people of the same identity. in indonesia, there are many local languages. each region has a distinct language and culture that distinguish how they communicate with each other. fourth is affective meaning. it is a picture or a gesture performed by a speaker or writer. in writing form, the writer will successfully touch the reader’s feelings if the story uses the affective meaning. it means the feelings and attitudes of the writer are being conveyed to the reader. the language used often influences the listener’s psychology. the speaker expects a reaction in the form of feelings and attitudes as an intent. the fifth is reflected meaning, which is communicated through feelings, similar to the expression. reflective meaning is used to reflect something. the meaning achieved is being represented by a sign or symbol. to understand this meaning, people must understand the true meaning of a particular sign or symbol. all people who can understand this meaning will have the same feelings and thoughts. sixth is collocative meaning, which is influenced by the environment. this type of meaning can mostly be found in the research, which is being described by the language used by the drug trafficking organization. this is part of the environment. a particular unhealthy environment may have a lot of secret codes used to communicate. hence, this particular environment creates a new language or slang language that can only be understood by people in the group. the general public will not understand the purposes and objectives of the language being spoken. therefore, the environment determines the formation of collocative meaning. seventh is the thematic meaning, which is formed due to the message to be conveyed in communication has been arranged, and there is the emphasis from the speaker. in this case, the speaker has understood and arranged the words or sentences he/she wants to convey. the speaker will have the feedback based on the reaction and action of the listener so that this language often hypnotizes the listener. this language is often repeated by speakers of different listeners. the language patterns used are the same and cause the same reactions to other listeners. methods based on the mapping of the west sumatra provincial national narcotics agency (badan nasional narkotika provinsi/bnnp), padang city is the research site. this is a descriptive research with a qualitative approach. the research seeks to understand and explain the slang language used by drug dealers in trading transactions in padang. the research produces descriptive data of slang language in the form of sentences, words, or phrases in padang. the method used is an observation in which researchers are directly involved in obtaining data by oral interviews. the interview is conducted with a drug dealer who agrees to participate. this dealer carries out distributions and has connections with other associates. there are three informants who are providing the data sources in the research. they are two ex-drug users and dealers in ranah parak rumbio, which is one of the red drug zones in the south padang subdistrict, and an anti-drug activist in padang city. they are reliable as informants because they have had experience in drug trafficking for about twenty years. data collection is carried out using an oral interview and note-taking technique. in this way, the researchers are able to document all utterances expressed by the former drug users. usage of any new terms used in the drug trafficking community is recorded by the researcher in the slang language column. the data are analyzed by using the identity method. there are several stages of data analysis in the research. the first is grouping utterances expressed by drug dealers based on words, phrases, or sentences 207linguistic signs in slang language .... (amelia yuli astuti; bram denafri) following the kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi), the great dictionary of the indonesian language. next, the data are analyzed using equalizing and differentiating techniques, which are applied by replacing the word usage with ones suitable in kbbi. after getting the data in the form of slang language, the data are analyzed using saussure’s theory in chandler (2017) about linguistic signs, consisting of signifier and signified. finally, it is analyzed using connotation and denotation theory to determine new meanings according to the context. the research results are presented using both informal and formal methods. results presentation with informal data analysis is performed using commonly known words which can be easily understood by the general public. formal presentation of data analysis is applied by using signs, symbols, and terms (sudaryanto, 2015). results and discussions the analysis is presented using tables to see the data in detailed descriptions. the data analyzed are the slang language used by a drug trafficking organization group of drug dealers and users in conducting drug trading transactions. the slang language is to be analyzed using saussure’s theory, which is the linguistic sign; the signifier and signified. determining the signs requires a kbbi which is used to find the literal meaning of the words. subsequently, to determine the signification of the sign, the context of the situation is needed. the context is the situation faced by the informants when this data is collected. two informants share their experiences as a former drug user and drug dealer, also an informant who shares his/her activities as an anti-drug activist. slang language formation involves a shaping process. warren divides it into three forms of formal innovation, which are word-formation, phoneme modification, and borrowing words. the wordformation process can be done through compounding, which is combining two words that have a more subtle meaning. this compounding word is to replace a less acceptable term or derivation, which is a wordformation process that produces new lexemes and produces different words from different paradigms or acronyms. a new formation is a short form of letters or syllables that are written and pronounced as acceptable words and has onomatopoeia, which is word forms that mimic a natural sound or its surroundings. then, the process of modifying phonemes through back slang, which is replacing word forms by reversing the word order or rhythmic words. this includes the repetition of intermittent sounds. it is usually found at the end of adjacent rhyme lines, as well as phonemic replacement, which is the replacement of an impolite word sound form into a better sound and abbreviation. it is a shortened form of a word or sentence consisting of one or more letters and loan words, such as borrowing words from other foreign languages. table 1 is the form of slang language that is divided by the process of its formation. table 1 slang form no slang form category n slang 1 word 8 sprem, jokal, jokul, bokul, kompor, alamat, kuda, buka 2 affix 6 setengki, jokulan, ngunci, ngelacak, penyakit, peluncur 3 abbreviation 2 mambo, pahe 4 phrase 2 dua meter, tekapan sabu 5 back slang 2 igab, wakas the first slang in form 1 is sprem. the signifier is sprem. the signified of sprem is quarter gram, the mass and dose amount of an object. the order of signification of the sign sprem based on context is the dose to buy powdery drug measured by a quarter gram based on the drug’s weight being sold or bought. the slang sprem has been chosen and used by speakers due to the situation and interaction factors. the occurring situation is the process of buying drugs with one of the dealers. speakers use sprem because there is an interaction between the user and the dealer. the speaker wants to ask or to buy the drug with the amount or amount of drug he/she wants to use. slang form 2 is jokal. the signifier is jokal. the signified of jokal is roads or activities to rob, steal, or steal money to buy drugs. the order of signification of the sign jokal is based on the drugs context that is unusual action by a drug user to get money in order to fulfill the desire to buy drugs. slang jokal is used to describe actions taken by drug users, which is to steal money. the factor of choosing that slang is based on the interaction function factor. it means drug users who want to steal money from the people or there is an opportunity to do so. slang form 3 is setengki. the signifier is setengki. the signified of setengki is a half of a gram, which is a mass or dose amount of an object. the order of signification of the sign setengki is based on the drugs context that is the dose to buy powdery drugs measured by half a gram based on the object’s weight to be bought and sold. the use of slang setengki is due to situation and interaction factors. a situation is considered when a buyer wants to buy drugs from a dealer. they carry out the interactions, and the buyer states the amount or level of drugs based on needs. because of these factors, the buyer uses slang setengki to determine the amount of drugs they want to buy. slang form 4 is jokul. the signifier is jokul. the signified of jokul is selling, the activity of offering something by expecting money in return. the order of signification of the sign jokul, based on the drugs 208 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 203-210 context, is action taken by the dealer by offering drugs to be sold to the buyers. slang jokul is used by drug dealers when selling their drugs. the selection of this slang is based on the participant’s work and interaction function. the work of selling and distributing drugs to users is carried out by dealers. the slang jokul is the verb for selling. in this case, jokul is used because its function is to explain the interaction of selling drugs. slang form 5 is jokulan. the signifier is jokulan. the signified of jokulan is sales, objects offered for sale. the order of signification of the sign jokulan, based on the drugs context, is drugs (the goods) that are being sold and distributed by dealers to users. slang jokulan is used because of the discourse’s content. this vocabulary is used to describe the goods or drugs being sold. the slang jokulan is used in the sale and purchase of drugs. slang form 6 is mambo. the signifier is mambo. the signified of mambo is makan-bobok (eat and sleep), which is the activities that are carried out repeatedly, but it has a bad effect on the body. the order of signification of the sign mambo, based on the drug’s context, is a term for poorly made crystal quality meth with side effects of eating and sleeping for a long time; therefore, it negatively impacts the body. situation factors are applied to the use of slang mambo. the situation exists to disclose a drug overdose to the user. this situation occurs to the users who could not control themselves and used drugs excessively. slang mambo is used to describe the habits of users who only eat and sleep after using drugs. slang form 7 is ngunci. the signifier is ngunci. the signified of ngunci is store, put in a safe place; therefore, it is not damaged or lost. the order of signification of the sign ngunci, based on the drugs context, is a term used by users to ask the availability of goods (the drugs) to other users. slang ngunci is used by distributors and users because of the interaction function. the interactions occur when exchanging information about places or people who store and own drugs for sale. this information is usually asked by dealers to ensure the safety and secrecy of drug’ storage. slang form 8 is bokul. the signifier is bokul. the signified of bokul is buy, get something through the exchange (payment) with money. the order of signification of the sign bokul, based on the drugs context, is actions taken by drug users to obtain goods (drugs) by buying it from the dealer. the factor of using slang bokul is caused by situation factors. a situation when a user buys drugs from a drug-dealer. to express their transaction, they use slang bokul. slang form 9 is ngelacak. the signifier is ngelacak. the signified of ngelacak is looking for or trying to get something. the order of signification of the sign ngelacak, based on the drugs context, is an action to find goods (the drugs). slang ngelacak is used because of the interaction factor. an action is taken by users to find and dig up information on the whereabouts of drug dealers. the goal is to get and buy drugs. slang form 10 is penyakit. the signifier is penyakit. the signified of penyakit is security forces, individuals or legal institutions. the order of signification of the sign penyakit, based on the drugs context, is police, intelligence, the national narcotics agency (bnn), or citizens who are at war with drugs. slang penyakit is caused by the content of the discourse. this means that drug users and dealers talk about the police, bnn, or people who are against drugs. slang penyakit is often used when the police carry out the arrest and raid places where drugs are bought and sold. the users shout penyakit at other users to avoid the people if they do not want to deal with law enforcement. slang form 11 is kompor. the signifier is kompor. the signified of kompor is a tool that can produce heat. the order of signification of the sign kompor, based on the drugs context, is referring to a match or a drug burner. for the slang kompor, the selection factor is caused by the setting. the situation is applied when users need to use incendiaries to consume drugs. this is because there are types of drugs that first need to be burned. therefore, the consumer needs advice called a drug burner. slang form 12 is igab. the signifier is igab. the signified of igab is asking, speaking so it can be given or get something. the order of signification of the sign igab, based on the drugs context, is ways used by drug users to request drugs from other users. the factor of using slang igab is due to the interaction function. the interaction occurs when a user asks another user for drugs or a user asks a dealer for drugs to be purchased. slang form 13 is alamat. the signifier is alamat. the signified of alamat is a person’s name and place of residence. the order of signification of the sign alamat, based on the drugs context, is a term used to hide drugs. slang alamat is used by the user or dealer due to the factor of place background. they use slang alamat to indicate the presence of drugs to store. the place where the drugs are stored does not only indicate a place but also describe the person who keeps them. slang form 14 is kuda. the signifier is kuda. the signified of kuda is mammals, single hooves, commonly treated by people as vehicles (mounts, transportation) or vehicles puller. the order of signification of the sign kuda, based on the drugs context, is courier, delivery person of drugs. the slang kuda selection factor is caused by the participant factor in the interaction. the participant in question is someone who works as a delivery person or intermediary between drug buyers and dealers. slang kuda also means courier. slang form 15 is peluncur. the signifier is peluncur. the signified of peluncur is to glide, to move quickly. the order of signification of the sign peluncur, based on the drugs context, is designation for couriers, delivery goods (the drugs). the slang peluncur selection factor is caused by the participant in the interaction. the participant in question is someone who works as a delivery person or intermediary between drug buyers and dealers. peluncur is also the slang used to dub jobs as a courier. 209linguistic signs in slang language .... (amelia yuli astuti; bram denafri) slang form 16 is buka. the signifier is buka. the signified of buka is selling, working. the order of signification of the sign buka, based on the drugs context, is sales, the term used whether the dealer sells goods (the drugs). the use of slang buka is caused by the interaction function factor. the interaction occurs when the user asks the dealer if he/she is selling or has stocks of drugs. this is known as asking the dealer for drug availability. slang form 17 is pahe. the signifier is pahe. the signified of pahe is saving package. pahe is the abbreviation for paket hemat. the order of signification of the sign pahe, based on the drugs context, is an abbreviation used to indicate the price of drugs with the price of around two hundred thousand. the use of slang pahe is caused by the topic of conversation. the slang pahe is used to talk about the types of drugs that can be bought cheaply. the low price in question is below or around two hundred thousand rupiahs. slang form 18 is wakas. the signifier is wakas. the signified of wakas is sakaw. the order of signification of the sign wakas, based on the drugs context, is the term used to describe the state of the user which is in need of drugs accompanied by psychological and physical disorders. the use of slang wakas is caused by participant factors in the interaction, which is when the drug user has overdosed. this can cause mental and physical problems to drug users who abuse drugs beyond their capacity. the adverse effect caused by an overdose is known as wakas. slang form 19 is dua meter. the signifier is dua meter. the signified of dua meter is basic unit of length measurement. the order of signification of the sign dua meter, based on the drugs context, is a term signifying two hundred thousand rupiahs or the amount of money offered by the buyer. the use of slang dua meter is caused by the conversation topic factor, a conversation when a drug buyer offers money to the dealer for two hundred thousand rupiahs. this means that a two-meter hose is used for the topic of drug prices and as an indication of the amount of money in the transaction. slang form 20 is tekapan sabu. the signifier is tekapan sabu. the signified of tekapan sabu is crystal meth package. the order of signification of the sign tekapan sabu, based on the drugs context, is good (meth) packages that are delivered to be sent or sold. the use of slang tekapan sabu is caused by the conversational topic factor. drug traffickers use slang tekapan sabu to describe the type of drug, such as sabu that has been stored in boxes and neatly wrapped. the wrapped crystal methamphetamine is known as a package that is ready to be delivered to the buyers. after analyzing the process of forming slang words, finding out the linguistic signs from slang language, and determining the factors of language use, this research is expected to contribute to linguistic research, especially those that discuss slang, linguistic signs, and sociolinguistics. the results of the data analysis have explained that the process of forming slang words includes words (consists of 8 slangs), affixes (6 slangs), abbreviations (2 slangs), phrases (2 slangs), and back slang (2 slangs). then, it also describes the factors of the language used, which are time and place background, a participant in interaction, conversation topic, and interaction function. these factors determine whether drug users and dealers choose to use slang to communicate. conclusions based on the data analysis described, it can be concluded that the slang language used by drug dealers and drug users has a different meaning. this difference indicates that utterances by these dealers cannot be understood by the general public; therefore, suspicions are not raised in regards to their activities. to understand the contextual meaning of words in slang language, a similar meaning is needed using kbbi. after finding the meaning of a particular word in kbbi, the context is also needed, which is represented by the drug trading transactions among drug dealers and users. this context is needed to get contextual meaning and understanding of the slang language used in carrying out transactions. the result of the research indicates that slangs from the category of words, such as sprem, jokal, jokul, bokul, kompor, alamat, kuda, buka; slangs form category of affix, which are setengki, jokulan, ngunci, ngelacak, penyakit, peluncur; next, slangs form category of abbreviations are mambo, pahe; then, slangs form category of phrases are dua meter, tekapan sabu; and slangs form category of back slang are igab, wakas. the factors of language use are also considered, such as time and place of the background, a participant in the interaction, talking topic, and interaction function factors. these factors determine whether communication among drug users and dealers used slang language. after the research is completed, the future research planned is about the development of new vocabularies used in social media users, such as instagram during the covid-19 pandemic. the future research will focus on the forms of vocabularies that appeared during the covid-19 pandemic on instagram, the process of forming the vocabularies, and defining the meaning of those vocabularies, as well as its effect on society. this research is expected to be carried out in the future. acknowledgements the authors want to express gratitude to the ministry of research and technology/national innovation research agency for funding this research. the funds provided to the author are used responsibly in completing this research. furthermore, the authors also want to express gratitude to ekasakti university and all the people who gave their directions, suggestions, and support so that the research was able to be conducted, and which has facilitated the continuity of this research. 210 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 203-210 references akyuwen, i., sasabone, c., & tabelessy, n. 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(2017). leech’s seven types of meaning in semantics. international journal of multidisciplinary research and development, 4(3), 71-72. 28 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 representasi budaya kawaii dalam chara-bentou hendy reginald cuaca dharma japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan–palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 hdharma@binus.edu abstract this research aimed to find the inter-correlation between the factors of chara-bentou trend and the impression of kawaii culture on chara-bentou. by applying descriptive qualitative method, this study explained the factors of chara-bentou trend and the representation of kawaii in chara-bentou. data were gathered from magazines, books, and questionnaire (field survey). descriptive analysis was conducted to make interpretation based on the questionnaire given. as a conclusion, the children who have known chara-bentou since their childhood will know the art of food, like the japanese said, “eat with your eyes.” keywords: chara-bentou, kyaraben, bentou, kawaii culture abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk mencari kaitan antara faktor yang menyebabkan tren chara-bentou dan kesan kawaii yang tercipta jika seseorang melihat chara-bentou. metode penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif untuk menjelaskan faktor penyebab terjadinya tren chara-bentou dan representasi yang timbul dari kesan kawaii yang terdapat dalam chara-bentou. sumber data berupa majalah, buku teori, dan angket (survei lapangan). analisis deskriptif dilakukan untuk mengintepretasikan hasil angket. simpulan penelitian menunjukkan bahwa karya seni chara bentou yang ditanamkan sejak kecil pada diri anak bermanfaat untuk memupuk cinta terhadap seni keindahan makanan. hal ini sesuai dengan slogan umum orang jepang yang mengatakan: “makan dengan menggunakan mata.” kata kunci: chara-bentou, kyaraben, bentou, budaya kawaii 29representasi budaya kawaii….. (hendy reginald cuaca dharma) pendahuluan pada umumnya, makanan yang berasal dari jepang dikenal dengan sebutan washoku. wa secara tradisional merujuk pada arti negara jepang dan shoku berarti makanan atau masakan. washoku ini tidak murni berasal dari jepang, melainkan makanan yang telah mengalami perpaduan dan akulturasi budaya dari negara lain, baik dari tiongkok (chuuka) maupun barat seperti dari negara prancis, italia, dan amerika yang disebut dengan youshoku. contohnya adalah curry rice atau kare raisu yang bukan berasal dari negara india, melainkan diperkenalkan orang inggris kepada bangsa jepang. contoh lainnya, tempura yang diperkenalkan bangsa portugis di wilayah kyuushuu, pan atau roti dari portugis, dan sebagainya. (rutledge, 2009) hal ini tentu berkaitan erat dengan perpaduan sejarah bangsa jepang. masuknya pengaruh bangsa asing memperkenalkan budaya makanan jepang sejak pembukaan jepang oleh komodor matthew perry pada 1853-1854. saat itu jepang mendapat pengaruh asing pada beberapa aspek kehidupan, salah satunya pada makanan. pada zaman meiji (1868-1912) banyak produk asing yang diimpor masuk ke jepang. beberapa orang dari kalangan menengah ke atas mulai merasakan rasa baru dan menu baru yang saat itu bisa dinikmati di rumah maupun di restoran. (bestor, 2011) pada akhir abad ke-19 dan pada awal abad ke-20 inovasi makanan seperti yang sudah disebutkan di atas perlahan-lahan mulai berkembang dan masuk ke sejumlah kalangan konsumen jepang. beberapa produk harian seperti yang terdapat dalam buku harian (diari) seorang ibu rumah tangga di kyoto pada 1910 menyebutkan bahwa mereka saat itu sudah bisa merasakan masakan dan makanan yang sama sekali baru bagi mereka seperti cokelat, pisang, bir, dan buah kalengan. hal ini perlahan mulai berkembang meski yang dapat menikmati varian masakan dan makanan baru saat itu hanya kaum masyarakat kelas menengah perkotaan. kemudian pada awal abad ke-20 mulai berkembang dan muncul budaya penting yang seperti dapat dinikmati saat ini, seperti kissaten (warung kopi), kafe, dan restoran. lalu, pada abad ke-21, dengan adanya teknologi yang canggih di industri makanan, banyak perkembangan yang terjadi, seperti zat perasa makanan, pembekuan, mesin otomatis untuk membeli makanan, pelabelan makanan, dan beberapa teknologi canggih lainnya yang melahirkan budaya baru dalam industri makanan di jepang. berbicara tentang budaya baru makanan jepang, saat ini muncul tren baru pada bentou (bekal makanan) yang disebut dengan kyaraben (character bentou). penulis tertarik untuk membahas kyaraben ini karena apabila masyarakat jepang, yang pada umumnya anakanak dan remaja puteri, melihat kyaraben, kesan yang muncul adalah kawaii. dengan adanya hal ini, penulis ingin mengetahui secara mendalam tentang faktor apa saja yang menyebabkan terjadinya tren kyaraben. kemudian hal tersebut dikaitkan dengan kesan kawaii yang tercipta jika seseorang melihat kyaraben, sehingga menghasilkan sebuah representasi tertentu di mata konsumen. metode metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah kualitatif yang sifatnya deskriptif. penelitian menjelaskan faktor-faktor penyebab terjadinya tren kyaraben dan representasi yang ditimbulkan dari kesan kawaii yang terdapat dalam kyaraben. penelitian ini menggunakan sumber data berupa data kepustakaan dari majalah, buku teori, dan angket (survei lapangan). data survei lapangan diambil dari mash, sebuah lembaga survei di jepang yang berlisensi resmi pada 29 oktober 2013. analisis data dilakukan dengan menggunakan analisis deskriptif dari hasil angket. responden yang mengisi data adalah 400 orang jepang yang disebar secara random sampling. hasil dan pembahasan kawaii kata kawaii sering diartikan sebagai cute dalam bahasa inggris yang berarti lucu yang cenderung manis dalam bahasa indonesia. menurut kamus bahasa jepang, pada zaman taishou sampai tahun 1945 kata kawaii ditulis kawayushi yang kemudian berubah bentuk menjadi kawayui setelah tahun 1945 sampai pada 1970. meski demikian, arti dari kawayushi dan kawayui sendiri masih sama, yakni kawaii. kawaii adalah penyingkatan dari suatu arti kata yang bermakna shy atau embarrassed (malu, tersipu-sipu) dan makna arti kata kedua dari kata kawaii adalah pathetic, vulnerable, darling, loveable, dan small (menyedihkan, mudah diserang, yang menawan hati, yang bisa disayang, dan mungil). pada kenyataannya, kata kawaii pada masa modern ini masih memiliki nuansa “menyedihkan”. kata kawaisou (menyedihkan) merupakan akar kata dari kata kawaii (yomota, 2006). budaya kawaii ini bermula sejak 1970-an dan bermula dari tulisan jepang yang dibuat cenderung bulat dan kekanak-kanakan. tulisan seperti ini dimulai dari remaja putri di sekolah. budaya ini mendapat kecaman dari pihak sekolah karena tulisan kawaii ini sulit untuk dibaca dan melenceng dari tulisan jepang yang dibakukan. istilah tulisan ini kemudian disebut dengan maru-ji (tulisan bundar), koneko-ji (tulisan anak kucing), manga-ji (tulisan komik), dan burikko-ji (tulisan kekanak-kanakan). budaya kawaii ini makin populer dan merambah ke berbagai bidang, seperti industri pakaian, makanan, bahasa jepang, pernak-pernik, sampai artis idola, dan budaya kawaii ini mencapai puncaknya pada 1980-an. kawaii pada industri makanan budaya kawaii yang merambah pada industri makanan kerap dikonotasikan dengan sesuatu yang manis, khususnya seperti kue, es krim, susu, dan makanan pencuci mulut yang lembut. makanan sejenis ini meraih popularitas pada 1980-an karena dikemas dengan kemasan menarik dan dijual di tempat seperti kafe dan toko kue yang menarik sehingga banyak orang yang tertarik untuk membelinya. menurut catatan yang ada, puncak ice cream boom ini terjadi pada 1980-an. konsumennya tidak hanya anak-anak, tetapi juga merambah sampai ke konsumen dewasa. sebagai catatan, waktu itu, es krim sering dikonotasikan hanya untuk anak-anak saja. 「昔から日本人は食べ物の見た目を他の民族 より大事だと思っていた。日本人は「目で食べる」 とよく言われている。したがってかわいいスタイル 30 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 が食べ物にまで影響しているのは驚くにはあたらな い。かわいいフードの代表はかわいい弁当とお子様 ランチだと思う。かわいいフードの主な特徴は、材 料は星、ハート、花の形などに切られ、または全体 的な様子は動物(犬、熊、猫の形をしている.)」 (l.d., n.d.) terjemahan: dari dulu orang jepang sudah sangat menghargai bentuk makanan dibandingkan bangsa lain. orang jepang pada umumnya mengatakan bahwa kita ini makan dengan mata. dengan demikian, tentu kita tidak usah terkejut jika budaya kawaii ini pun juga masuk dan memengaruhi bentuk makanan orang jepang. jika berbicara kawaii pada makanan, yang bisa diambil contohnya adalah okosama lunch (bekal anak-anak) dan kawaii bentouu (bekal makanan yang berbentuk imut) (l.d., n.d.). sejarah bentou menurut ngoc (n.d.), sekitar abad ke-5 (pada masa asuka), ketika orang jepang berpergian meninggalkan rumahnya untuk pergi ke ladang, berburu, memancing ikan, dan bahkan berperang, mereka sering membawa bekal makanan yang sudah dibungkus dan bahan pokok sebagai isinya biasa berupa nasi putih, nasi yang dicampur dengan sejenis millet (sejenis padi-padian), atau kentang. pada masa kamakura (1185-1333) makanan yang dikeringkan mulai dikembangkan, disebut dengan hoshi-ii. hoshi-ii ini berupa nasi yang sudah dimasak dan dikeringkan lalu dimasukkan ke kantung dan bisa dimakan dengan menggunakan air panas atau dingin. pada masa azuchi momoyama (1568-1600), mulai diperkenalkan bentou dengan menggunakan kotak kayu. pada masa edo (1603-1868), bentou menjadi sesuatu yang umum dan mulai periode ini dan seterusnya bentou berevolusi menjadi suatu benda yang memiliki nilai seni tinggi dan sering digunakan untuk acara-acara tertentu, seperti mengunjungi teater pertunjukkan seni, acara perayaan di dalam rumah, kebaktian umat buddha di hari-hari sakral, untuk menjamu tamu, dan upacara lainnya. memasuki zaman meiji (1868-1912), ketika banyak stasiun yang berdiri di jepang, mulai berkembang eki-bentou (bentou yang dijual di stasiun kereta api), pada awalnya dijual di stasiun utsunomiya, perfektur tochigi. eki-bentou tersebut berisi nasi dan umeboshi (asinan plum) serta takuan (sejenis acar) yang dibungkus dengan daun bambu. pada masa ini juga mulai masuk jenis bentou eropa seperti sandwich. pada masa taishou (1912-1926) mulai masuk bentou yang dikemas dalam kotak aluminium yang dirasa sebagai suatu bahan yang berkelas dan lebih bersih. pada zaman ini muncul perbedaan kelas sosial karena adanya perang dunia i. bentou yang dibawa anak-anak ke sekolah dianggap sebagai anak-anak yang berkecukupan atau bisa dibilang anak orang berada. akan tetapi, karena adanya gerakan antiperbedaan kelas sosial dan adanya perang dunia ii membuat hal ini kian berkurang, sehingga bekal yang tadinya dibawa dari rumah digantikan dengan bentou yang sudah disediakan oleh sekolah. ditambah lagi, jenis makanan tersebut sama antara anak yang satu dengan anak lainnya. pada 1980-an (zaman showa) ketika microwave sudah ada dan menjadi barang umum di jepang, minimarket (convenience store), dan karena harga bentou makin terjangkau, budaya bentou ini kian marak dan menjamur di jepang hingga sekarang. bentou masa kini (zaman heisei) seiring berkembangnya budaya bentou, ditambah dengan adanya bentou yang dijual di berbagai tempat seperti restoran, department store, supermarket, minimarket, harga bentou pun makin bervariasi dan tentunya hal ini membuat pengusaha memutar otak untuk membuat bentou makin unik. bukan serta merta bentou pada masa heisei atau masa kini mencuat sebagai bentou yang sangat unik. hal ini disebabkan adanya pengaruh sejarah (pengaruh diakronik). tentunya bentou pada masa sebelum zaman heisei sudah ada beberapa yang unik. akan tetapi, karena pada masa kini media masa seperti koran, majalah, televisi, dan bahkan media sosialita yang makin marak seperti twitter, facebook, mixi, instagram, dan sebagainya membuat budaya bentou yang unik dan lucu (kawaii) makin digemari dan menarik perhatian. bentou masa kini sudah dikemas dengan berbagai bahan material kotak yang bervarian seperti dari plastik, aluminium, dan ada juga yang membuat dari bahan kayu tradisional dengan bentuk bentou mulai dari yang kotak, bundar, sampai oval. para desainer bentou pun mulai mengkreasikan ide-ide mereka seperti bentou hello kitty yang sangat populer dan ditujukan untuk berbagai kalangan, baik pelajar maupun pekerja, baik untuk lakilaki maupun perempuan. bentuk bentou yang unik dan lucu serta mengusung tema karakter kartun dan semacam ini yang akhirnya melahirkan kyaraben (chara-bentou). kyaraben (character bentou) gambar 1 chara-bentou (sumber: ogawa, n.d.) dalam seni kuliner, selain persiapan memasak suatu masakan atau makanan, penampilan juga dianggap sebagai hal yang penting. di jepang ada karakter tokoh anime dan manga yang disajikan dalam bentuk bentou yang disebut dengan character bentou atau disingkat menjadi kyaraben. penampilan kyaraben atau kyaraben ini sangat menarik dan imut. kebanyakan kyaraben dibuat oleh ibu rumah tangga untuk mengakali agar anaknya mau menghabiskan makan siang atau bekalnya meski ada makanan yang tidak disukai oleh si anak. selain bekal makan siang bagi anak-anak yang bersekolah, kyaraben ini juga terkadang disajikan pada saat piknik bersama keluarga, yang terkadang bisa menampilkan tema kendaraan seperti mobil, kereta api, dan sebagainya. dengan demikian, tema kyaraben ini tidak harus bertema karakter manga atau anime saja, bisa berupa gambar orang, binatang, atau tanaman. keunikan inilah yang menjadikan kyaraben menjadi menarik dan imut sehingga memberi kesan seni tersendiri pada bentou. 31representasi budaya kawaii….. (hendy reginald cuaca dharma) 子供向けの弁当を作る際に、子供を喜ばせた り、嫌いなものも自主的に食べるようにするため に、おかずなどのデザインを工夫することは、従来 から行われてきた。昭和7年に発行された『児童の 飲み物とお弁当』には、子供の好き嫌いを直す最善 の方法として「材料の全く判別できない形に処理」 し、「料理の観覚に美しさを与えること」が提唱さ れていることから、遅くとも昭和の初期からは、弁 当に子供が喜ぶ外観上の工夫をすることはある程度 の広がりを持って行われていたことが推察できる。 terjemahan bebas: bentou yang ditujukan untuk anak-anak ini berguna untuk membuat anak senang terhadap makanannya dan ibu (orangtua) berusaha mencari akal untuk membuat anak memakan makanan yang tidak disukainya dengan membuat tampilan yang unik. pada 1932 (showa tahun ke-7) pemerintah mencanangkan untuk membuat tampilan yang unik terhadap makanan dan minuman anak dengan tampilan yang menarik. hal ini dikenal dengan jidou no nomimono to tabemono (makanan dan minuman anakanak) dan kemudian hal ini menjadi berkembang dan populer hingga sekarang. mitos sign (tanda) dan code (kode) adalah hasil generasi yang dihasilkan oleh mitos. mitos adalah perkembangan dari metaphors (metafora) itu sendiri. seperti metafora, mitos membantu untuk berpikir nalar akan pengalaman yang sudah dirasakan di dalam sebuah kebudayaan. mitos berfungsi untuk membuat sebuah kebudayaan yang sudah dialami manusia menjadi sesuatu yang alamiah, “normal”, tak lekang oleh waktu, nyata dirasakan oleh akal sehat, dan merefleksikan sesuatu kebenaran selayaknya kebenaran itu apa adanya. para ahli sosiolog masa modern berpendapat bahwa beberapa kelompok sosial berusaha untuk meng“alami”-kan suatu kebudayaan demi kepentingan “mereka”. barthes melihat “mereka” di sini adalah para kaum borjuis. barthes mengatakan bahwa dengan adanya ideologi burjois, “mereka” mengubah suatu kebiasaan/ kebudayaan menjadi sesuatu yang bersifat alami, tidak aneh, atau bisa dikatakan lumrah (chandler, 2014). representasi representasi memaknai bagaimana sebuah dunia dikonstruksikan secara sosial, disajikan oleh kita, dan untuk kita di dalam pemaknaan tertentu (barker, 2004). representasi merujuk kepada suatu kenyataan yang berupa masyarakat, objek dan peristiwa, serta peristiwa budaya yang bisa berupa kata-kata ataupun gambar bergerak (film). sebuah representasi dalam sebuah film tidak selamanya bersifat alami, bisa bersifat manipulatif karena diperankan dan dikarang sedemikian rupa, yang mitos juga ikut berperan di dalamnya (setianto, 2009). hasil survei terhadap chara-bentou hasil survei internet yang diadakan pada 29 oktober 2013 untuk 400 orang responden adalah sebagai berikut. tabel 1 responden chara-bentou membuat kyaraben berniat membuat tidak berniat membuat pernah membuat 100 100 belum pernah membuat 100 100 (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 2 diagram jumlah pria dan wanita yang membuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 3 diagram usia pembuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 4 diagram jenis pekerjaan pembuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) 32 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 gambar 5 diagram frekuensi membuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) dari data tersebut, hasil survei untuk yang membuat chara-bentou ditemukan hasil bahwa sebanyak 400 responden adalah perempuan, dengan rentang umur 20 tahun (6,9%), 30 tahun (41,9%), dan 40 tahun (51,6%). adapun dari sisi pekerjaan didapat informasi bahwa pekerja penuh waktu (6,3%), paruh waktu (18,8%), dan ibu rumah tangga (74,3%), lain-lain (0,8%), dengan frekuensi membuat chara-bentou: seminggu 1-2 kali (50,3%), seminggu lebih dari 5 kali (21,3%), dan seminggu 3–4 kali (28,5%). berdasarkan informasi dari gambar 6, pembuat kyaraben yang memasukkan makanan favorit anak berada pada urutan pertama. kemudian dilanjutkan dengan hasil responden mengenai pertimbangan nilai gizi yang terkandung sebelum membuat kyaraben berada di urutan ke-2. dekorasi dan penampilan bentou berada pada urutan ke-3. sementara pada gambar 7, jika diminta memilih antara memikirkan menu dan penampilan sebelum membuat chara-bentou, penampilan berada di urutan pertama. menu makanan berada pada urutan ke-2. untuk bagian memublikasikan foto chara-bentou yang sudah selesai dibuat, survei memberikan hasil bahwa responden yang memublikasikan hasilnya sebanyak 38,2% dan yang tidak memublikasikan sebanyak 61,8% (gambar 8). gambar 6 grafik prioritas dalam nilai gizi, makanan favorit, dan penampilan dalam membuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 7 grafik prioritas antara menu dan penampilan chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) lebih lanjut, pada gambar 9 dan gambar 10, hal yang menjadi kendala untuk membuat chara-bentou yaitu sebagai berikut. merepotkan berada pada urutan pertama, susah di urutan kedua, dan tidak ada waktu di urutan ketiga. dalam membuat chara-bentou, apakah diperlukan usaha keras atau tidak, yang menjawab lumayan membutuhkan usaha ekstra berada di urutan pertama dan dibutuhkan usaha ekstra keras berada di urutan kedua. 33representasi budaya kawaii….. (hendy reginald cuaca dharma) gambar 8 grafik memublikasikan chara-bentou ke media sosial (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 9 grafik kendala membuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) gambar 10 grafik tingkat kesulitan yang dirasakan ketika membuat chara-bentou (sumber: marsh, 2011) bentou yang dikreasikan sedemikian rupa tidak serta merta bisa dikatakan kawaii jika tidak mengandung minimal 2 unsur berwarna-warni; menampilkan tokoh atau benda tertentu seperti hewan, tanaman, dan karakter tokoh pada anime atau manga; dirasa sayang untuk dimakan karena bentuknya yang unik, mungil, dan imut; serta biasanya dikreasikan secara unik dan tidak biasa. terlihat pada gambar kyaraben di atas (gambar 1), bentuk hewan dan warna warni lembut pada bentou di gambar memperlihatkan kesan menawan, sayang untuk dimakan, dan karakter mungil. hal ini sesuai seperti yang dipaparkan oleh kinsella, bahwa kawaii adalah penyingkatan dari suatu arti kata yang bermakna “shy” atau “embarrassed” (malu, tersipu-sipu) dan makna arti kata kedua dari kata kawaii adalah “pathetic”, “vulnerable”, “darling”, “loveable”, dan “small” (menyedihkan, mudah diserang, yang menawan hati, yang bisa disayang, dan mungil) (read, 2005). 34 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 bentuk yang unik dan sayang untuk dimakan karena ke-kawaii-an seperti ini lama-kelamaan makin dipopulerkan, sehingga orang menjadi terbiasa untuk membuat dan memakannya.cara memopulerkan kyaraben masa sekarang ini, seperti yang terlihat pada survei, adalah lewat media sosial (sebanyak 38,2%) pada gambar 8. seperti yang dipaparkan pada konsep mitos, bahwa dengan adanya ideologi burjois, “mereka” mengubah suatu kebiasaan/kebudayaan menjadi sesuatu yang bersifat alami, tidak aneh, atau bisa dikatakan lumrah (chandler, 2014). kesan kawaii ini diciptakan untuk membuat penikmat kuliner menjadi tertarik akan makanan yang sudah dibuat dan dikreasikan sedemikian rupa. apabila ada makanan yang sama-sama nasi dan telur serta sayuran yang diaduk-aduk tidak beraturan, mungkin orang yang melihatnya belum tentu tertarik untuk mencobanya. mungkin makanan yang berbentuk tidak beraturan tersebut sama enaknya dengan chara-bentou, atau bahkan lebih enak. akan tetapi, apabila dari bentuknya tidak menarik, orang akan tidak berselera untuk mencicipi makanan tersebut. dengan demikian, faktor kawaii berguna untuk menciptakan kesan menarik perhatian bagi penikmat kuliner dan berguna untuk menampilkan suatu hasil karya seni penciptanya. simpulan budaya kawaii pada kyaraben (chara-bentou) memperlihatkan bahwa bekal makanan yang berbentuk khas, mungil, cerah, dan berwarna-warni membuat orang merasa sayang untuk memakannya. hal ini menjadikan kyaraben suatu karya seni yang unik serta tidak sembarang orang senang membuatnya karena berbagai kendala yang ada. karena merasa sayang untuk memakannya, kesan kawaii yang berasal dari kata kawaisou, yaitu kasihan, muncul. dengan demikian, budaya kawaii pada kyaraben tidak hanya merepresentasikan sesuatu yang manis dan imut, melainkan suatu karya seni yang tampil pada zaman modern. karya seni tersebut berguna untuk membuat anakanak tetap menyukai makanan yang tidak disukai mereka dan mengapresiasi jerih payah orang yang membuatnya. karya seni seperti yang terdapat dalam chara bentou sudah ditanamkan sejak kecil pada diri anak bermanfaat untuk memupuk cinta terhadap sebuah keindahan seni makanan. hal ini sesuai dengan slogan umum orang jepang yang mengatakan: “makan dengan menggunakan mata.” daftar pustaka barker, c. (2004). cultural studies theory and practice. new delhi: sage. bestor, t. c. (2011). cuisine and identity in contemporary japan. in v. bestor, t. c. bestor, & a. yamagata (eds.), routledge handbook of japanese culture and society (pp. 273–285). canada: routledge. chandler, d. (2014). semiotics for beginners. retrieved from http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/ documents/s4b/sem06.html l.d. (n.d.). かわいい. tokyo. retrieved from http://www. qmss.jp/i-student/i-student/u-tokyo/work3/3-09. pdf marsh. (2011). 自主調査 お子様のお弁当に関するアンケ ート. retrieved from http://www.marsh-research. co.jp/examine/ex2511.html ngoc. (n.d.). history of bento. retrieved from http:// www.cookingcute.com/history_of_bento.htm ogawa, m. (n.d.). cute bento. retrieved from http:// www.cuteobento.com/ read, j. (2005). kawaii: culture of cuteness. retrieved from http://www.jref.com/culture-society/kawaiicuteness/ rutledge, b. (2009). japanese cuisine 101: two master chefs wield their culinary magic in the northwest. ibuki: japanese inspired food and lifestyle magazine, 2, 4–10. setianto, y. p. (2009). film dan representasi budaya. retrieved from https://yearrypanji.wordpress. com/2009/01/03/film-dan-representasi-budaya/ yomota, i. (2006). “kawaii” ron (theory of “kawaii”). tokyo: chikuma shinsho. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 145 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 145-153 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.6925 japanese netizens’ expressive speech acts’ expression realm towards prime minister shinzo abe’s resignation timur astami* japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, indonesia timursriastami@binus.ac.id received: 13th january 2021/revised: 10th august 2021/accepted: 11th august 2021 how to cite: astami, t. (2021). japanese netizens’ expressive speech acts’ expression realm towards prime minister shinzo abe’s resignation. lingua cultura, 15(2), 145-153. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.6925 abstract the aim of the research was to find out the respondent’s form, approach, and purpose in expressing speech acts in online media. as a public space, the media is a place where its readers are allowed to freely express their expression, and the comment section is one of the public spaces of the media. the research applied a library research method of collecting data from several online media sources. there were 10 data collected to know the netizen’s opinion about prime minister abe’s resignation. with the sblc technique, where the research observed without engaging in the conversations, the data would be collected, categorized, and chosen based on the purpose of the expressive speech. the data result in the respondents’ negative and positive expressive speeches on prime minister abe’s resignation. meanwhile, the respondents take direct approaches to express thanks, satire, suspicion, criticism, insult, disappointment, and censure. keywords: speech act, japanese netizen, netizen expression introduction a language is a communication tool between one person to another. communication tool in the form of language used by people and their connections to their neighborhood is a form of speech. expressive speech can be in the form of oral or written. oral can happen when there is a speech partner, be it directly or indirectly. however, written expression can come in the form of a short message on a device such as whatsapp or platforms such as instagram, facebook, line or print media, and online media. in this modern era, humans and media have a close relationship. media has a massive role in every aspect of life, starting from the social, economic, and political aspects. now, the media aims for the interactive aspect, which lets individuals speak out their opinions on trending topics of a certain time (littlejohn & foss, 2011). media is a tool to express oneself as a public space such as the comment section and readers. a public space within a media is connected to utilization methods, social interaction, and the expression of the citizen in it, be it verbal or visual. this research is going to observe how japanese citizens responded to the resignation of prime minister (pm) shinzo abe in terms of expressive speech act on opinion poll in the form of written comments of the netizen (citizen of the net) about the resignation. how would the netizen’s expressive speech form and function on the opinion poll? in relation to the research, preliminary research related to expressive speech acts is carried out. firstly, guiraud et al. (2011) have researched merge speech act theory, emotion theory, and logic. the result is the speech acts that are aimed at expressing a given emotion (e.g., to apologize, to thank, to reproach, etc.). also, yoon (2018) colors such as ‘black’ express expressive systematicity as part of grammar. secondly, expressive speech in pragmatics uses an educational environment (borer, 2018; derakhshan, 2018; febriyani, mulyono, & waluyo, 2017). besides that, the use of expressive speech acts by second learners appears in the context of cross-culture communication using indirect strategy by lenchuk and ahmed (2019) and pragmatics awareness in the apology letter written by pourmousavi and zenouzagh (2020). the next expressive speech acts that are often used during online tasks by three groups of english students are thanks, apologies, and greetings and compliments (maíz-arévalo, 2017) to explore the language politeness between students and lecturers 146 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 145-153 mediated the javanese cultural background. the communication is considered polite where the amount of politeness maxims application is much higher when compared to the violation of the maxims (susanti et al., 2020). then expressive speech act research related to human behavior such as angry expression (astuti, 2018; ekawati, 2017), machine expression (kim, bailly, & davis, 2018), and place (kusmanto, 2019), including in terms of politeness factors in japanese language (kartika, 2018). the research result is as such (1) domo arigatogozaimashita; (2) arigato; (3) otsukaresama; (4) arigatogozaimasu; and (5) doitashimashite. in addition, expressive speech acts can be used as learning media (sina & bram, 2020), such as listening (xoshimova, 2019), or translation methods (wahana & santosa, 2019). thirdly, expressive speech acts are spoken by the speaker to express something. speakers who convey messages through social media on certain topics such as floods (rahmatika & wahyudi, 2020) have researched the form of expressive speech act on the flood incident in jakarta with the result of a variety of expressive speeches of the netizen. furthermore, tragic events claimed lives, such as in new zealand (tamam, setiawan, & anam, 2020), have compared anies rasyid baswedan and resep tayyip erdogan in their speech act as a reaction towards the attack on christchurch, new zealand. the result of the research shows that the speaker uses three types of expressive speech act: deepest condolences, sorry, and mourning. next, the covid 19 outbreak (supriyono, zulaeha, & yuniawan, 2020) makes a variety of expressive speech by male (tauchid & rukmini, 2016) and female speakers (ambarwati, nurkamto, & santosa, 2018). expressive speech acts in various events such as the covid 19 pandemic (sarif & darmayanti, 2020), religion (anshori, 2018), consumer sharing (ordenes et al., 2019), memes (grundlingh, 2018), and facebook are used as political communication (yu & oh, 2018). fourthly, expressive speech acts are used by speakers in the film with various genres, and various kinds of expressive speech acts are found (achsani, 2019; astawa, antartika, & sadyana, 2017; murti, muslihah, & sari, 2018). the research findings show the expression of apology, thanks, sympathy, attitudes, greeting, wishes, joy, pain, likes, and dislikes (mustofa, nababan, & djatmika, 2019; pambudi, 2021; saputri, 2017; sirwan & yulia, 2017). also, in literary works, there are various kinds of expressive speech acts (anggraeni, tajuddin, & nuruddin, 2018). furthermore, andriyani (2018) has shown that when providing services to japanese tourists in formal and non-formal situations, the tourism actors use expressive functions in psychological expressions such as apologizing, sympathizing, and greeting. media as an organization serves as a messenger that can affect and reflect a society’s social culture and provide information simultaneously to a large audience, minority audience, and even individuals. that is why media is regarded as a part of the power of social institutions (littlejohn & foss, 2011). in other words, a media’s role covers the entire society that has social, economic, and political effects. the current media development focuses on the network, in other words emphasizing interactive aspects. the first era comes in the form of product centralization, unidirectional communication, control of most situations, reproduction of social stratification, division of media segments, and the formation of social awareness. the second era is marked by decentralization, two-way communication, out-of-hand social situations, democratization, the focus of self-awareness, and individual media orientation. therefore, the second era is more open, flexible, and dynamic (littlejohn & foss, 2011). in other words, the revolution in communication covers information gathering, information storage, information processing, information dissemination, and return information (hamid & budianto, 2011). the dynamic and democratic community life has made media develop well. now the function of media in the democratic community is to create creative visions from dynamic community culture and provide independent information to the community (croteau & hoynes, 1995). everyone in this world has a different style of communication. so, it is for the japanese. the japanese communication style viewed from the interpersonal aspect of communication (midooka, 1990) emphasizes more on harmonization (wa) and avoids the feeling of uncomforted (amae). meanwhile, in public areas, the japanese (yoneyama, 1997; midooka, 1990) have mentioned to become public (oo yake) or to become personal, informal, and non-ceremonial (watakushi). the difference between public obligation and personal needs has to be clear. it is an important assumption on the japanese social relation, just like honne (true feelings or intention) and tatemae (standard principle), nemawashi (work is put quietly in front of or behind the scenes of negotiations with the aim of reaching consensus), and nijikai (continuing a meeting elsewhere). aside from those communicating styles, situations can affect the changes of communicating styles, such as in intimate situations, ritual situations, and unorganized situations (lebra, 1986). the speech act is a result of a sentence in certain conditions and is the smallest unit of language communication. according to searle (wijana, 2009), pragmatically, speech acts can be classified into three types: locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. locutionary act is a speech act to state something. this is referred to as the act of saying something (wijana, 2009). locutionary act is a speech act that consists of a word, phrase, or even sentence in accordance with the meaning contained in the word, phrase, or even the sentence itself. the illocutionary speech act is a speech act that can also be used to do something besides having the function to say something. this is also referred to as the act of doing something (wijana, 2009). this speech act is a speech act which intent of delivery depends on who, when, and where the speech act happened, which is why this 147japanese netizens’ expressive .... (timur astami) speech is not as easy to identify as the locutionary speech act. according to searle (rahardi, 2003), this locutionary speech act can be classified on the speech activity into five types of speech, each with its own communicative functions. the five types are assertive, directive, declaration, commissive, and expressive. expressive speech is a part of the illocutionary speech act. expressive speech is a speech act where the speaker means for his/her speech to be interpreted as an evaluation of what is mentioned within the speech itself and its several functions. the several functions within the expressive speech consist of criticize/insinuate, complain, blame, congratulate, thank, flatter, and apologize. according to searle (rahardi, 2003), expressive speech is intended to state or indicate the speaker’s psychological attitude to a situation. in relation to the previous research, here, the researcher wishes to understand the expressive speech of the japanese on the online media regarding the resignation of pm abe. following the understanding of the form, approach, and purpose of the expressive speech, the researcher wishes that in the near future, while communicating with the japanese written or orally, people are able to place and use good and polite speech in accordance with the applicable general conventions. methods the research applies a library research method of collecting and analyzing data from the library sources taken from several online media sources. using the sblc technique, where the research observes without engaging in the conversation, the data were collected, categorized, and chosen based on the purpose of the expressive speech. data are then analyzed one by one according to its purpose and approach used by the respondents when using expressive speech. before getting to the discussion, the research start with the result of the japanese citizen online opinion poll concerning the resignation of pm abe shinzo. results and discussions figure 1 shows the polling results concerning pm shinzo abe’s resignation. based on the data collected, almost 81,7% of japanese consider the resignation of pm shinzo abe as reasonable, 9,9% consider it as unreasonable, and 8,5% do not give their reason. concerning it, almost 81,7% of the reasonable, the researcher will observe the netizen’s comments reaction specifically concerning the expressive speech act. for the confidentiality of the netizen, the researcher will disguise their names by using initials. data 1 it’s comment: 安倍さんの引き際は妥当だと思 う。早めの辞任は良かった。体調を戻して早く 回復されることをお願ってやすみません。 abe-san no hikigiwa wa datōda to omou. hayame no jinin wa yokatta. taichō o modoshite hayaku kaifuku sa reru koto o negatte yasumimasen. translation: i think that it is reasonable for mr. abe to resign. early resignation is good. i hope he can become fit and recover quickly. the speech ‘hayame no jinin wa yokatta’ has a meaning of ‘early resignment is good’. due to health reasons, abe resigns before his term of office is over. the speech hayame no jinin wa yokatta shows the expression of the netizen and belongs to the expressive speech act of compliment. compliment speech acts consist of the efforts to show admiration and appreciation to certain things one considers good, lovely, and brave (wijana, 2009; rahardi, 2003). netizens are admired by abe for being truthful about his condition being unwell, that he needs to resign from the seat of prime minister. netizen hopes that with the early resignation, abe will be able to focus on getting better. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the first respondent’s speech approach is the direct approach, with the first evidence being his comment stating a direct compliment. secondly, after complimenting abe, the respondent continues his written speech with the sentence “taichō o modoshite hayaku kaifuku sa reru koto o negatte yasumimasen” hoping that abe will recover after resigning. it is valid to say the form and purpose of ‘hayame no jinin wa yokatta’ is to give a compliment and falls under the expressive speech act of compliment category. the expressive speech act of compliment is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which pm abe’s resignation delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. figure 1 polling results concerning pm shinzo abe’s resignation (source: yahoo!japan, 2020) data 2 yi’s comment: 今までご苦労さまでした。今後は お体を療養しながら無理しない様頑張ってくだ さい。 ima made gokurōsamadeshita kongo wa o karada o ryōyō shinagara muri wa shinai yō ganbattekudasai. 148 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 145-153 translation: thank you for the hard work you’ve done until now. please do your best not to overdo it while recuperating your body in the future. the speech ‘ima made gokurosama deshita’ means ‘thank you for the hard work you have done until now’. due to health reasons, abe resigns before his term of office is over. this shows that the speech’ ima made gokurosama deshita’ used by the netizen belongs to the expressive speech act of gratitudes. the word kuro in the japanese language first means having done the best physically or mentally at a difficult time. second, it means having taken care of others to the point of getting into trouble or suffering (trans.biz, 2021). the netizen hopes that with the resignation, abe will focus on fighting for the recovery of his health. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the second respondent utters his thanks directly through the sentence ‘ima gokuro sama deshita’. after thanking abe, the respondent continues with ‘kongo wa o karada o ryouyou shinagara muri wa shinai yo ganbattekudasai’, hoping that abe will focus on recuperating himself. the expressive speech act of thanks is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which pm abe’s resignation delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 3 hn’s comment:こ本人の判断で辞任ですから妥当 としますが、首相辞任が悲しかったことは初め てです。今までお疲れ様でした。そしてありが とうございました。療養、治療されからの今後 のご活躍に期待しております。しかし一部の溺 れる犬を叩く様な方々、だからいつまでも支持 が得られないですよ。情けない… go hon’nin no handan de no jinindesukara datō to shimasuga, shushō jinin ga kanashikatta koto wa hajimetedesu. ima made otsukaresama deshita. soshite arigatōgozaimashita. ryōyō, chiryō sarete kara no, kongo no go katsuyaku ni kitai shite orimasu. shikashi ichibu no oboreru inu o tataku yōna katagata. dakara itsu made mo shiji ga e rarenaidesu yo. nasakenai… translation: this makes sense because this is a resignation upon the person’s policy, but this is the first time that a prime minister’s resignation is so sad. thank you for the hard work. thank you. we look forward to your successful future after getting treated. however, people who hit some drowning dogs can’t get support forever. pitiful… the speech ‘ima made otsukaresama deshita’ means ‘thank you for your hard work’ and ‘arigatou gozaimashita’ ‘thank you’. due to health reasons, abe resigns before his term of office is over. this shows the netizens’ expression on the speech otsukaresama deshita and arigatou gozaimashita belong to the expressive speech act of thank you. the word otsukaresama deshita is a word that puts the efforts of other first. generally, it is also used when colleagues leave their office ahead of others, and they will say “thank you for your hard work” every day. the word otsukaresama deshita and gokuro sama deshita has the same meaning of ‘thank you for your hard work’ that comes from the feeling of working hard, and is often used as a daily greeting. the word otsukaresama deshita is often also used as an opening on internal emails and internal phone calls (trans.biz, 2021). the netizen hopes that with the resignation, abe will focus on the recovery of his health. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. first, the third respondent utters ‘ima made otsukare sama deshita’ which means ‘thank you for the hard work’. second, the respondent continued with soshite arigatou gozaimashita, which is ‘thanks’. it is valid to say that the form and purpose of ‘ima made otsukaresama deshita’ and ‘soshite arigatou gozaimashita’ is to express thanks and fall under the expressive speech acts of thanks category. the expressive speech act of thanks is a form of selfexpression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 4 my’s comment: 安倍ちゃんは「病気で辞めた」 んじゃなく、「病気を理由にして辞めた」んだ よね。似ているけど、意味の違いは大きいヨ。 abe-chan wa `byōki de yameta’ n janaku,`byōki o riyū ni shite yameta’ nda yo ne. nite irukeredo, imi no chigai wa ōkī yo. translation: abe-chan didn’t “resign due to illness”, but “resign using the excuse of being ill”. it is similar but the difference in meaning is big. the speech ‘byoki de yameta’ means ‘resign due to illness’, and ‘byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta’ means ‘resign with the excuse of being ill’. these two speeches belong to the expressive speech act of satire. the netizens write the two sentences to emphasize the second sentence, which resigns with the excuse of being ill. the sentence’ byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta’ indirectly states something like a critic, reproach, and mockery (kbbi, 2016). the netizens give an indirect satire by pairing the word byoki de yameta with byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta. the two sentences have a big difference, especially the word byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta, which points that there is an urge that caused abe to back off. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. first, 149japanese netizens’ expressive .... (timur astami) the fourth respondent directly emphasizes the speech ‘byoki de yameta’ in his comment with parenthesis, which means resigning due to illness. second, the respondent continues with another emphasized speech, ‘byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta’, which means to resign using the excuse of being ill. from this, it is safe to say that the form and purpose of the speech ‘byoki de yameta’, and followed by the emphasized speech ‘byoki wo riyuu ni shite yameta’ are to satirize and fall under the expressive speech act of satire category. the expressive speech act of compliment is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which pm abe’s resignation delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 5 am’s comment : もう少し早く辞めるべきだった のでは?あとは治療にに専念しその後に疑惑の 説明を! mōsukoshi hayaku yamerubekidatta node wa? ato wa chiryō ni sen’nen shi sonogo ni giwaku no setsumei o! translation: shouldn’t you have quit earlier? next, concentrate on medication, after that explain our suspicion! the speech ‘mou sukoshi hayaku ya’ means ‘shouldn’t you have quit earlier’. the speech ‘mou sukoshi hayaku yameru beki data nowa?’ belongs to the expressive speech act of suspicion. this is emphasized by the speech ‘sonogo ni giwaku no setsumei o!’, which means ‘next explain our suspicions’. the word suspicious refers to (the feeling of) disbelief or doubt upon someone’s truth or honesty. this is why the netizens demand that abe, after his recovery, would explain the truth about his condition so that his current reason would not be considered as a far-fetched reason. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. first, the fifth respondent states in his comment ‘mo sukoshi hayaku yameru beki data node wa?’, which can be interpreted as ‘shouldn’t you have quit earlier’. followed by the second statement, ‘sonogo ni giwaku no setsumei o!’ without using the word shite kudasai at the end of the statement. its meaning becomes a demand of explanation to the netizens’ suspicion ended with the exclamation mark. it is valid to say that the form and purpose of ‘sukoshi hayaku yameru beki datta node wa?’ emphasized by ‘sonogo ni giwaku no setsumei o!’ are to satirize and fall under the expressive speech act of satire category. the expressive speech act of satire is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 6 st’s comment: abe no chaban matohazurena aho seisaku bakari yatte zeikin no muda tsukai kokumin kara shibori ageta zeikin o nanida to omotteru no ka to omoeba, rekidai sōri daijin de ichiban nagaku tsutometa kiroku o tsukutta to dōjini neratte jinin saigomade kusona munō sōri yamerunara motto hayaku yamete hoshikatta ikura zeikin o dobu ni suteta nda yo abe seiken. translation: abe’s farce wasting the people’s tax doing irrelevant stupid policy. while pondering about my opinion on the tax extorted from the people, i also resign at the same time, i even set a record for the longest serving prime minister. an incompetent prime minister until the end. i wish you would have quite earlier. how much tax is wasted in abe’s government. the speech ‘matohazurena aho seisaku bakari yatte zeikin no muda’ means ‘to waste the tax on the irrelevant stupid policy’. furthermore, the speech ‘saigo made kuson a munou souri’ means ‘an incompetent prime minister to the end’. both of these speeches belong to the expressive speech act of criticism. the word criticism or censure tends to be related to responses that are sometimes accompanied by descriptions of good and bad considerations of work, opinion, and others (kbbi, 2016). the first critic of the netizen is related to the incorrect policy, and the second is him being a leader who is unable to manage his country. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the sixth respondent has stated first, ‘matohazurena aho seisaku bakari yatte zeikin no muda’, emphasizing the word aho, which means stupid that leads to direct criticism. second, the respondent gives another emphasis on the statement ‘saigo made kuson muno souri’, which is translated to ‘an incompetent prime minister until the end’. from this, it is valid to say that the form and purpose of these two speeches are to criticize and fall under the expressive speech act of criticism category. the expressive speech act of criticism is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 7 ai’s comment: are dake teika shita shiji-ritsu ga, jinin hyōmei-go, jōshō. an’na jinin hyōmei ni kokumin wa damasarerunda nā. translation: the approval rating that had fallen so 150 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 145-153 much rose after the announcement of his resignation. people understood such resignation statements. the speech ‘an’na jinin hyōmei ni kokumin wa damasarerunda nā’, which means that people are deceived by such resignation statements, belongs to the expressive speech act of insult. the word derogatory is related to bad deeds or behavior. netizens feel that the resignation of abe is a deception. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the seventh respondent has stated first, ‘an’na jinin hyomei ni kokumin wa damasarerunda na’, emphasizing the word an’na’, which means that people understand abe’s resignation topic. second, between the first and second statement of the comment contradicts each other, which is why it is safe to say that the form and purpose of these sentences are to satirize and fall under the expressive speech act of satire category. the expressive speech act of satire is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 8 ty’s comment: 辞任は、当たり前やけど、色々 な問題の案件は、どうなるのか?地検は何をし ているのか、体調不良で、逃げ回る。 jinin wa, atarimaeyakedo, iroirona mondai no anken wa, dō naru no ka? chiken wa nani o shite iru no ka, taichō furyō de, nigemawaru. translation: it’s natural to resign, but what happens to various problems? what is the district public prosecutor’s office doing? he’s able to run away because he’s unwell. the speech’ iroirona mondai no anken wa, dō naru no ka’, which means ‘but what happens to various problems?’ belongs to the expressive speech act of disappointment. the netizen has been disappointed in abe’s policy up to this time. the sentence’ taichō furyō de, nigemawaru’ means that he is able to run away because he is unwell, even though as a leader, even in sickness, one should not just quit without solving the problems that are supposed to solve. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the eighth respondent has stated first, started with an inquiry ’iroirona mondai no anken wa, dou naru no ka’. followed by the second, ‘taichō furyō de, nigemawaru’, between the first and the second sentence is inquiry, followed by another inquiry, emphasized through the word ‘nigemawaru’, which can be translated to ‘running away from something’. it is safe to say that the form and purpose of the speech is to express disappointment and falls under the expressive speech act of disappointment category. the expressive speech act of disappointment is a form of self-expression, which conveys the speaker’s feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 9 my’s comment :コロナでその無能が広く国民の 知るところとなった。どうやら来年の五輪も 危うい。となると、失地回復の機会もない。そ もそも世のため、人のために政治やる人じゃな い。子供じみた売名欲だけで父親の跡を襲い、 総理になった人。「この先、総理大臣やってて も面白くなさそう」と考えて、投げ出しただけ の話。子供が興味の無くなったおもちゃを捨て るのと同じ。それにしても、ここ数か月の病院 通いを含めての大芝居は、ペテン師の腕の見せ 所だったね。 korona de sono munō ga hiroku kokumin no shiru tokoro to natta. dōyara rainen no gorin mo ayaui. to naru to, shitchi kaifuku no kikai mo nai. somosomo yo no tame, hito no tame ni seiji yaru hito janai. kodomojimita baimei yoku dake de chichioya no ato o osoi, sōri ni natta hito. `konosaki, sōri daijin yattete mo omoshirokuna-sa-sō’ to kangaete, nagedashita dake no hanashi. kodomo ga kyōmi no nakunatta omocha o suteru no to onaji. sorenishitemo, koko sūkagetsu no byōin-gayoi o fukumete no dai shibai wa, petenshi no udenomisedokorodatta ne. translation: his incapability to overcome the corona problem is known widely. it seems that the next olympic is also threatened. in such case, there is no recovering the lost land. firstly, he’s not someone who does politics for the sake of someone else. he’s just following his dad’s footstep in becoming the prime minister, a childish desire to show himself equal to his dad. thinking “from now on it’s no longer going to be fun to be the prime minister”, the story was thrown out as is. like a kid throwing his toy away when he’s no longer interested. even so, the big play is the visitation to the hospital for the past few months; such is the skill of a scammer. the speech ‘korona de sono munō ga hiroku kokumin’ means that abe does not overcome the corona problem, and ‘dōyara rainen no gorin mo ayaui’ means that the next year olympic is threatened. the criticism ‘hito no tame ni seiji yaru hito janai’ means being a politician not to serve the people, and ‘chichioya no ato o osoi, sōri ni natta hito’ means that him becoming the prime minister is only to follow his father’s footsteps, a former prime minister. all of these speeches belong to the expressive speech act of criticism or censure. the netizen has concluded thoroughly all kinds of information he collected regarding abe. his critics start with abe’s incapability in overcoming corona and next about the olympic’s postponement. he then continues with personal critics 151japanese netizens’ expressive .... (timur astami) saying that he, as a politician, does not devote himself to the citizen and that he rises as the prime minister due to his dad being the former prime minister. the word criticism or censure tends to be related to responses that are sometimes accompanied by descriptions of good and bad considerations of work, opinion, and so on (kbbi, 2016). aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the ninth respondent has stated first the opening statement of the corona pandemic through ‘korona de sono muno ga hiroku kokumin’. followed by the second statement, ’doyara rainen no gorin mo ayaui’, a topic about the olympics in japan. the topic these two sentences mentioned is of heavy subjects of the world’s ongoing pandemic and japan as the host of the 2020 olympic. he/she is continued by the statement ‘hito no tame ni seiji yaru hito janai’, which translates to ‘not a politician who does politics for the sake of others’. it is safe to say that the form and purpose of the speech is to attack or criticize and falls under the expressive speech act of censure or criticism category. the expressive speech act of censure or criticism is a form of self-expression, which conveys the feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. data 10 kk’s comment: 病気は単なる言い訳だ。数々の疑 惑を闇に葬る為に、投げ出した。完全な逃げに 走っただけ。 byōki wa tan’naru iiwakeda. kazukazu no giwaku o yaminihōmuru tame ni, nagedashita. kanzen’na nigeni hashitta dake. translation: illness is only an excuse. he discards and buries allegations in the dark. and run for a complete escape. the speech ‘byouki de tannaru ii wake da’ means ‘illness is only an excuse’ and ‘kazukazuno giwaku yaminihomaru’ means ‘to discard and bury all allegations’. the two speech acts belong to the speech act of suspicion. the word suspicion means (the feeling of) disbelief or doubts against someone’s truth and honesty. the netizen mentioned that his being ill is only an excuse to divert from all the other problems. aside from the form of the speech, to understand what the speaker means, the understanding of what approach the speaker used is also needed. the tenth respondent has stated; first, the sentence ‘byouki wa tannaru ii wake da’, followed by the second, ‘giwaku o yaminihomuru tame ni’. the second sentence is an emphasis on the word iiwake of the first sentence, which translates to all talk and no action. it is safe to say that the form and purpose of the speech is to express suspicions and falls under the expressive speech act of suspicions. the expressive speech act of suspicion is a form of self-expression, which conveys the feeling on the particular top news at that time, which is the resignation of pm abe delivered in media. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings and desires. conclusions based on the data analysis result of the randomly chosen comments of the netizen, on the comment section of the opinion poll on abe’s resignation from his prime minister position, the netizen’s expressive speech act comes in various speech forms from thank you, criticizes, insinuates, censures even suspicious. the respondents take a direct approach so that the form and purpose of several of the speeches tend to have positive meanings while the rest are negative. the form of the expression used here falls under the category of honne, a form of communication that expresses a person’s true feelings on the particular top news at that time. the kind netizen appear and respond with thanks, while the unkind netizen respond with satire, critics, blame, and disappointment. there are kind expressions because the netizen feels thankful for abe’s performance throughout his tenure as the prime minister that the kind netizen keeps supporting abe in his health recovery. in the future, the research will examine a broader area of how the forms and purposes of expressive speech relate to the intercultural language discourse between japan and indonesia concerning issues that are on the rise. references achsani, f. 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(2018). social media and expressive citizenship: understanding the relationships between social and entertainment expression on facebook and political participation. telematics and informatics, 35(8), 2299-2311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tele.2018.09.010. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 101 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 101-108 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7100 cultural intelligence of foreign language lecturers: a measurement towards global competence devina* language center, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia devina005@binus.ac.id received: 03rd march 2021/revised: 20th june 2021/accepted: 22nd june 2021 how to cite: devina. (2021). cultural intelligence of foreign language lecturers: a measurement towards global competence. lingua cultura, 15(1), 101-108. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7100 abstract the research measured the cultural quotient (cq) of foreign language lecturers at bina nusantara university. two major research strategies were applied: (1) a qualitative approach through the interview, and (2) a quantitative approach through cq scale measurement. firstly, the cq scale developed by ang et al. was tested on ten lecturers. modifications were made to some test items to suit the context of foreign language teaching. through the questionnaire, the analysis shows the mean and standard deviation of the overall test at m = 5,19 and sd = 1,7. for each domain of the scale, the analysis indicates that m = 5,16 and sd = 1,75 occurs for metacognitive domain, m = 4,4 and sd = 1,57 occurs for cognitive domain; m = 5,4 and sd = 1,6 occurs for motivational domain; and m = 5,5 and sd = 1,8 occurs for behavioral domain. among ten lecturers, eight lecturers are considered to have high cq, one lecturer to be medium cq, and one lecturer to be low cq. a further bivariate correlation analysis is then conducted to see the relationship between cq lecturer’s background. the statistical data indicates no significant correlation found between cq results and lecturer’s age (r = -0,575), time spent living abroad (r = -0,862), and time spent for teaching foreign language (r = -0,644). however, the further interview reveals that the experience of having relatives in a foreign country and living in a diverse cultural group shape lecturers’ paradigm in language teaching. keywords: cultural intelligence scale, cultural quotient, foreign language teaching introduction the concept of cultural quotient (cq) is introduced by earley and ang (2003) to the social science and management field of study. the term serves to define the human ability to retrieve, comprehend, and respond appropriately in any given cross-cultural situation. it is worth noted that by the time the term comes up to air, the world is facing conflict and clashes in the context of culture. hence, intelligence arises to bridge the effectiveness of interacting among cultures. seen as important as emotional intelligence (eq) and cognitive intelligence (iq), cq is defined as one of the key components’ humans need to possess in response to globalization. ang et al. (2007) have addressed cq as the intelligence to come as ‘effective’ in vibrant cross-cultural occasions. the term is rather seen differently with the general eq and iq, as cq deals with the practicality to perform a successful interaction. starting from its first development, research has indicated two focuses of cq; social science (ang et al., 2007) and international business management (thomas et al., 2008). the two fields put different approaches in terms of measuring, evaluating, and discussing cq. further, both streams applied different testing scales to measure an individual’s cq. however, the cq scale developed by ang et al. (2007) gets more popularity for its application flexibility to be applied to various fields of study, such as the empathy dimension (social and emotional) (mavrou & dewaele, 2020; pawlicka, kazmierczak, & jagiello‐rusilowski, 2019), in which social and emotional closeness (being friendly) is greatly influenced by a high cq. recent research on cq draws on the exploration and application of cq in several dimensions such as sales education (delpechitre & baker, 2017), entrepreneurial and international performance (şahin & gürbüz, 2017), cultural transmission (whiten, 2017), transnational aging culture (sampaio, 2020), social and asocial 102 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 101-108 learning mechanism (miu & morgan, 2020), organizational health (velarde et al., 2020), business opportunity, relativism, and customer relationship performance (lorenz et al., 2020), and expatriate career performance (ren, chadee, & presbitero, 2020). considering what varieties cq brings about, this present research focuses on the stake of cq in foreign language learning. during the first decade since its inception, research topics in cq mostly explore concepts and practices in work experience and the cross-cultural context in management. it is not until 10-year after the first development that cq research starts to evoke the depth of this intelligence related to language competence, other intelligence (emotional and social), and education (rachmawaty et al., 2018; hong et al., 2019; wu and ng, 2020; senel, 2020; and jurásek and potocký, 2020). such topics bring to discussions are exploring the association between cq and cross-cultural situations. rachmawaty et al. (2018) have looked at the correlation between language proficiency (efl) and strategy for learning in a crosscultural context in indonesia. the instrument used is toefl-like (prediction) test for testing materials. correlation identifies between strategies for learning (i.e., metacognitive domain m 3,080); however, the research claims no further and significant relationship occurs between learning strategy, proficiency level, and cultural intelligence. from the four cq scale domains by ang et al. (2003), the research has further noted that advanced learners take cultural metacognition (understanding of culture) and cognitive knowledge, while novice learners take mostly motivational and behavioral domains for learning contributions. while mainly the research on cq development that ang et al. (2007) or thomas et al. (2008)’s frameworks, and hong et al. (2019) explore a new perspective into cq by david livermore. the model of cq focuses on motivation, cognition, metacognition, and behavior domain. the research aims to measure and analyze the freshmen student’s cultural intelligence. the score would be used to decide and develop cross-cultural skills in the curriculum. data are gathered through 123 freshmen students, analyzed, and measured through the cq scale focusing on drive, knowledge, strategy, and action. the data are treated through correlation analysis. it is found out that the result of cq is considered to be low. the research tries to find a correlation between male and female students, which shows that female students’ cq is higher than males. the research further confirms that more complex programs are needed for cq development, and crosscultural intelligence does not merely develop through constant cross-cultural contexts. wu and ng (2020) have investigated not only the cq scale but also the behavior of avoidance, voice behavior, task performance, and the correlation between cq and language competency in the multicultural group of 81 business students in singapore. students are divided into 14 groups to create a film of cross-cultural conflict in an organization. the whole interaction takes 12 weeks to complete. during the group project, three questionnaires are given: cq scale, avoidance measurement, and task performance measurement. the measurements that no major influence occurs for cq and language competence, yet those with higher cq and foreign language competency tend to maintain continuous contact with a diverse cultural group compared to those with low cq. further, the study revealed that behavior of avoidance influenced task performance and voice behavior negatively. in accordance with foreign language learning and bilingualism, jurásek and potocký (2020) have looked at the relationship between students’ bilingualism, foreign language competence, and cultural intelligence. they investigate such a relationship from 243 undergraduate students in the czech republic. through smartpls-sem 3, it is proved that there has been a positive correlation between cultural intelligence and foreign language competency, yet no positive correlation refers to students’ bilingualism. data show that being either monolingual or bilingual does not relate to cultural intelligence. senel (2020) has explored the notion of cq from students of french, english, and german department. the research has tried to look at the connection among students’ age, department, gender, and cq. the research involves 200 high school students (166 females and 34 males) in turkey. cultural intelligence raises significantly as students participate in intercultural program participation, exchange programs, and interact with people from different cultures. regarding the role of gender and age to cq, this research confirms that there is no correlation found, yet those who are 20-22 years perform more intelligence than their younger peers. regarding teacher education, porto (2019) has come up with research on teachers’ cross-cultural citizenship and learners’ engagement. this research examines 120 students of english teacher education and 30 students of foreign language in argentina. data are gathered through classroom activities such as posters, videos, and interviews. this research also takes the data from students’ conversations through skype recorded dialogue, chats, emails conversation, and facebook posts. this data contributes to a great number of the corpus of words likely to be used in an intercultural context. it is concluded that student teachers are having difficulty understanding intercultural knowledge while developing and teaching intercultural knowledge takes much time. in the place where argentina has developed its national curriculum, embedding intercultural values inside the learning seems to be not in line with democratic citizenship. these researches present how cq is assessed and how far it could reveal the domain inside the scale and its relationship to other factors. such research proves that there is no correlation between cq and foreign language competence (rachmawaty et al., 2018). however, other researches indicate that correlation occurs for not merely the mastery of 103cultural intelligence of foreign .... (devina) other foreign languages, but also gender, motivation, behavior avoidance, and task performance (hong et al., 2019; wu and ng, 2020; senel, 2020; and jurásek and potocký, 2020). the negative correlation may be caused by the less-ideal situation between cqs and the research instrument viewed from either the students who have limited experience in the cross-cultural situation or generalization in language learning (i.e., standardized test as the objectives for learning). after all, the notion of culture always goes together with language learning in various situations (kramsch, 2013); hence, research on the complexity of culture, cultural intelligence, and the way teaching language has always been a discipline to look at in foreign language learning. kramsch (2013) has highlighted those issues in the classroom arise as institutions rely on native speaker (ns) lecturers. while depending on the authenticity that the ns lecturer brings. often, ns lecturers are not equipped with adequate knowledge of the local cultures or practices of the students. in contrast, non-ns lecturers know the appropriate techniques and strategies for learning yet lack cultural knowledge. however, this research does not compare non-ns and ns lecturers but rather emphasizes the important role of ns lecturers in foreign language teaching – for their direct relationship with the target language. kramsch (2013) has addressed that the most common situation in any institution is that ns lecturers are significantly special for providing the ‘authentic’ target language but lack local cultural wisdom. thus, when ns lecturers are equipped with adequate culture or are ‘intelligent’ for their cultural perspective, ideally, adequate learning will be presented. drawn from the idea of culture in language learning and cq in foreign language teaching, there are two research questions to be unraveled; how the cq measurement scale portrays the binus foreign language lecturers’ cq capability; and to what extent lecturer’s prior knowledge and background influence cq results. ang et al. (2007) have considered the cultural approach and hence developed the scale of four domains: metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral domains. the domains are originally referred to stenberg’s intelligence framework. it is further explained that metacognitive intelligence aims to understand the way humans structure and retrieve knowledge. in cognitive intelligence, the scale focuses on how humans maintain and defend perceived knowledge. this is the phase where questions for a person’s intellectual capabilities usually arise. motivational intelligence aims for the cerebral ability to maintain desire in a given cultural situation. it is the ability to stand for practicality. the behavioral intelligence scale measures the actions that a person does from the situation. looking at the way the scale is developed, it is worth noted to highlight that the scale is built from the way a person be in the situation (metacognitive), try to understand the knowledge (cognitive), maintain the comprehension (motivational), and react to a specific cultural situation (behavioral). all of them are considered as what ang et al. (2007) have called as being ‘multidimensional’. then, it could be concluded that the scale tries to measure the thinking process, the depth of one’s thoughts, and how the reaction is carried out. on the one hand, thomas et al. (2008) developed the cqs into three domains. first is cultural knowledge, where the general and procedural knowledge on cross-cultural interaction. cultural knowledge aims to measure the general understanding of a certain culture (i.e., traditions) and procedural understanding (i.e., problem-solving) in a specific culture. the second is skills; it is the ability to react learn continuously from cross-cultural interaction. thomas et al. (2008) have divided the skills into three sub-domains; perceptual skills having the critical perspective on cultural differences; relational skills – having the ability to perform applicable attitudes (e.g., empathy, reliability); adaptive skills – having the ability to not only solely take the idea of the other culture but create such bridge (adjust) between one and others. the third is cultural metacognition – a goal for being conscious aiming for effective self-regulation and monitoring. both scales by ang et al. (2007) and thomas et al. (2008) have tried to define and measure cq by setting several domains. ang et al. (2008) have set the domains for metacognitive, cognitive, behavioral, and motivational, while thomas et al. (200) have set the domains for cultural knowledge, skills, and metacognition. table 1 and 2 display some sample items taken from both sources. table 1 cqs by thomas et al. (2008) domain questionnaire sample items cultural knowledge • content • process i know that in general, americans enjoy and chinese dislike adversarial debate. i know that my attitudes and those of others toward specific behavior influenced by cultural norms and values cultural skills (perceptual, relational, adaptive) i can adapt my behavior (suppress my tendency, as an american to debate when in a culture that considers it to be negative) cultural metacognition (monitoring, regulation) i actively reflect on available knowledge and skills regarding debate, how these relate to desired outcomes, in a cross-cultural setting to formulate alternative courses of action. 104 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 101-108 table 2 qs by ang et al. (2007) domain questionnaire sample items metacognitive i am conscious of the cultural knowledge i use when interacting with people with different cultural backgrounds. cognitive i know the legal and economic systems of other cultures. motivational i enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. behavioral i change my verbal behavior (e.g., accent, tone) when a cross-cultural interaction requires it. the discussion of the cq scale digs deeper into revealing some other domains for the scale (bücker, furrer, & lin, 2015). the research argues that although the recent scale is considered to have multidimensional while measuring cq, it does not truly assess the validity of discrimination and the background of the test-taker. there is no indication of test items questioning the test taker’s experience. it is common for the cq test to be given to inexperienced test-takers who have not experienced cross-cultural interaction beforehand or had limited cross-cultural encounters. some tests are for the ‘culturally experienced’ users as well; however, the number is limited. while most cq tests are given to the inexperienced test-taker, the notion of being ‘experienced’ from the validity scale of 1 to 7 has been considered unclear. this finding contradicts ang et al. (2007), who develop the cq scale as they suggest that the test be robust and clear. bucker, furrer, and lin (2015) have added ‘psychometric properties’ to the scale so that it may reveal the depth of previous cultural and cross-cultural experiences. the newly suggested question items are age, gender, education background, time abroad, and contact frequency. research on testing cq validity is conducted by wilson et al. (2017) by looking at the newly resided immigrants in new zealand. the research involves the adaptation of a sociocultural measurement model, known as the sociocultural adaptation scale (scas-r). unlike the original cq test, the adaptation scale treasures engagement in community and ecological adaptability of the migrants. further aspects of being considered are cultural engagement and intelligence, social skills, cross-cultural adjustment, and mental adaptation. the research has suggested that the scas-r scale developed is valid while adding other domains (proficiency in a language, mental adaptation, and social cognition). while most cq scale test measures people within an organization, this research presents how it may be applied for migrants and measures migrants’ well-being. in line with wilson et al. (2017), rana, bhasin, and mushtaq (2020) have explored cultural intelligence in indian universities. the research draws back on the fact that the country has been hosting many international students, and cultural intelligence is needed by international personnel to survive in a foreign country. conducted to the international students taking study in india, the research has suggested that behavioral cq indicates a positive influence on student’s adaptation psychologically. in the research, the researcher specifically refers to the cq indicator set by common purpose, accessible from https://commonpurpose.org. the website page provides unlimited access for testing cq, mainly intended for individuals undertaking study or work in a foreign country. while the research does not adapt the parameter for measuring, it takes the indicators for labeling and/or interpreting the cq results, i.e., low, medium, and high. methods this research involves ten language lecturers of ifl. seven lecturers are teaching other languages as well, such as english, spanish, and japanese. the age ranges from 27 to 43 years of age, while the length of teaching varies from three months to 22 years. the first step of the research design applies a qualitative approach. in this step, the cq scale is distributed through closed questionnaires in which all test items are inverted to the likert scale (1 – 7). the cq scale template took into the research is the test developed by ang et al. (2007). adjustments are made to most of the question items so that it is suitable for the context of teaching a foreign language. the example can be seen in table 3. table 3 original vs. adjusted cq test items original question item adjusted question item i know the cultural value and religious belief of other culture. i know the cultural value and religious belief of my students. while the original test item asks the knowledge on ‘other cultures’, this specific test asks the same degree of understanding on the students. hence, this is to say that the test aims to see lecturer’s prior knowledge of their foreign students as they are teaching. no changes are made to the likert scale, as the original test applies scale 1 to 7. in total, there are 20 test items in which each five of them represents metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral cq. while the original test item does not ask about the lecturer’s background, this research collects lecturers’ background data, i.e., age, length of teaching, types of the institution for teaching, and gender. by doing so, this research would like to see whether those backgrounds influence the way cq is acquired. after all, questionnaires have been collected; it is soon calculated. a further qualitative data is gathered through interviews conducted with two lecturers. 105cultural intelligence of foreign .... (devina) this aims at exploring the experience, adjustment, and story of cultural adaptation made throughout their teaching journey. the combinations from both quantitative results (questionnaire) and qualitative data (interview) are then used as the resources for this research. figure 1 depicts the research road map. a further spss analysis is conducted to identify the mean (m), standard deviation (sd), and bivariate correlation among variables. here, the bivariate correlation fundamentals to know whether there is any significant correlation from age, prior duration spent living abroad, and length of time teaching a foreign language to the cq result. figure 1 research roadmap results and discussions having tested the scale to lecturers of foreign languages, the data shows the following findings. the overall cq scale test shows m = 5,19 and sd = 1,7. for each domain, the ms and sds are (1) metacognitive domain m = 5,16, sd = 1,75; (2) cognitive domain m = 4,4 and sd = 1,57; (3) motivational domain m = 5,4, sd = 1,6; and (4) behavioral domain m = 5,5, sd = 1,8. for each lecturer, m are found to be 2,1; 4,4; 5,3; 5,5; 5,4; 5,9; 6,2; 5,5; 5,2; and 5,8. these number are then referred to the indicators of cq scale by common purposes – a source for testing cq. three labels are given to the scale; 0 – 2,3 = low; 2,4 – 4,6 = medium; and 4,7 – 7 = high. data in table 4 shows that one lecturer has low cq, one lecturer has medium cq, while the rest eight lecturers have high cq. more into this, bivariate correlation analysis is conducted to know whether the variables of age, time spent living abroad, and time spent prior to teaching foreign language relate to the cq result. on the variable of age, there is no significant correlation indicated for the cq result, as the data shows that r = -0,575 (figure 2). figure 3 shows there is no significant correlation indicated for cq results, r = -0,862 for the variable of prior time spent for living abroad. table 4 cq result lecturer time spent living abroad *months age time spent prior to teaching foreign language *months mean std. deviation cq result l1 120 43 264 2,150 0,671 low l2 0 28 36 4,400 1,273 medium l3 24 27 48 5,350 2,360 high l4 0 34 84 5,550 1,820 high l5 0 29 4 5,450 0,686 high l6 0 36 132 5,950 0,224 high l7 14 29 72 6,200 1,281 high l8 4 38 15 5,500 1,877 high l9 0 31 6 5,200 0,834 high l10 9 27 96 5,850 1,348 high figure 2 correlation analysis on lecturers’ age 106 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 101-108 regarding the variable of length of foreign language teaching experience, there is no significant correlation occur for cq results, r = -0,644 (figure 4). figure 4 correlation analysis on time spent for teaching foreign language further research is conducted through interviews with two lecturers (as a sample) with the intention to reveal stories, practices, and beliefs throughout their teaching journey. the interviews are conducted for test-taker 5 and test-taker 3, in which both of them are regarded to have high cq. lecturer 5 believes in the idea of bringing intelligence of culture into the classroom. while teaching indonesian as a foreign language (ifl) for business communication to the dutch students, it is noted that she perceives and acknowledges some jokes, jargon, and general culture in the netherlands. to this sense, lecturer 5 draws on this knowledge and uses it as a bridge or way of building interaction inside the classroom. mainly, it is said that when students get bored or seem to be a little unenthusiastic, this knowledge of the jokes helps the lecturer to bring back the environment for learning. it is admitted that students are surprised knowing their lecturer jokes about the same thing with students’ background. while lecturer 5 receives knowledge from having relatives in the netherlands, lecturer 5 has never lived there. it is also worth to note that lecturer 5 has never lived abroad. on the discussion to be intelligent culturally, lecturer 5 believes that general knowledge on students’ background helps to understand characteristics of the students, as well as a means of appreciating students for who they are. while students are learning indonesian, this does not necessarily mean that they have to take off their own culture. by noting such differences and similarities in practices and beliefs, students’ language acquisition tends to be easier to achieve since students rely on their individual experience. for lecturer 3, being culturally intelligent means to note the global culture. that is to say that students need to know their own, the target language, and global culture. the courses that lecturer 3 teaches are introductory indonesian, indonesian newspaper reading, and indonesian for business communication, which is taught for foreigners. questions as ‘how about your culture?’ or ‘what happens in your country?’ are often shared by lecturer 3 in the classroom. the idea is to note differences, and no single culture is greater than the others. together, they will draw on the global culture to notice what happens outside students’ culture and target language. lecturer 3 believes that by learning other languages, students can also draw on the world’s knowledge. hence, lecturers need to get exposed to other cultures so that it is easier for them to share stories throughout the learning. regarding the research questions, this part will answer the questions. first, how does the cq measurement scale portray the lecturers of a foreign language? among ten foreign language lecturers from bina nusantara, eight lecturers are regarded to have high cq, one lecturer is regarded as having medium, and one lecturer is indicated to have low cq. second, to what extent do lecturers’ prior knowledge and background influence their cq results? while the second research questions aim at revealing the relationship of lecturer’s background with their cq result, statistical data through bivariate correlation does not portray any relationship (variable age r = -0,575; variable time spent living abroad r = -0,862; variable prior experience teaching foreign language r = -0,644). however, the interview reveals more insights into several factors. while lecturer 5 has never been abroad, he/she receives foreign (dutch) knowledge from the relative, in which it is used the classroom. lecturer 3 lived in the us for almost two years, in which she adapts to a diverse culture, causing lecturer 3 to continuously looks for global mindset objectives in learning. although statistically reported that there is no significant correlation between lecturers’ prior background to their cq result, the relationship happens figure 3 correlation analysis on lecturers’ time spent living abroad 107cultural intelligence of foreign .... (devina) for other factors. hence, it will be best to evaluate cq through a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. the questionnaire result also reveals that higher cq scores go for lecturers who possess no experience of living abroad. more measurements need to be done on lecturers with more than 10-year of experience living abroad. a low cq score is being displayed by lecturer 1, who has spent ten years living abroad. compared to the other lecturers who have not spent that much time living abroad. previously, it is assumed that lecturer 1 receives a higher cq score as lecturer 1 has the experience of being opened up to other cultures for a decade. on the other hand, four lecturers who have not been living abroad show higher cq results. it is apparent that the result is not in accordance with the prior prejudice. all in all, being culturally intelligent is fundamental for the global citizen. from the point of view of foreign language learners, this would support the way of teaching and materials shared with the students. lectures shape the students through the teaching materials and their attitudes. culturally intelligent lecturers are somehow more detached from their own culture and can bring more values and insights from other perspectives. the goal is to make learning-rich. having the result that eight lecturers in bina nusantara have high cq results means lecturers are mostly adaptive to the world’s perspective. conclusions the research addresses being culturally intelligent for foreign language lecturers (indonesian and spanish) at bina nusantara university, indonesia. in the context of foreign language teaching, culture is always embedded in learning; thus, the lecturers who are open to many cultural practices are more adaptive and may take this into learning. the research is conducted on ten lecturers of foreign language. the cq test is given through a closed questionnaire. the questionnaire also asks about lecturers’ backgrounds such as age, teaching experience, and experience of living abroad. results of the cq test are labeled as having low, medium, or high cq. among ten lecturers, eight lecturers are regarded as high, one lecturer as a medium, and one lecturer as low cq. data on age, the experience of teaching, and living abroad are then analyzed through bivariate correlation. it is further found that no significant statistical correlation is made from the three variables to cq results. however, further interviews with lecturer 5 and 3 reveal their adaptation and cq’s meaning in the foreign language classroom. as lecturer 5 notes that jokes support the classroom, lecturer 3 identifies global mindset objectives as the learning outcomes. the research comes without its limitation. conducted in indonesia, it tries to see how cq of foreign language lecturers. although adjustments are made to the scale, the notion of testing is still referred to the management studies. thus, further research might develop test questions items intended for foreign language study. references ang, s., van dyne, l., koh, c., ng, k. y., templer, k. j., tay, c., & chandrasekar, n. a. 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(2020). cultural intelligence and language competence: synergistic effects on avoidance, task performance, and voice behaviors in multicultural teams. applied psychology. https://doi. org/10.1111/apps.12287. vol. 14 no. 1 july 2020cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nico surantha bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richer monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents agnes siwi purwaning tyas; ahmad muam; yohana ika harnita sari; cisya dewantara the effectiveness of blended learning in improving students’ workplace communication skills: a case study on olive website test result ....................................................................................... 1-13 sultan; hasnawi haris; anshari functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbook discourse for elementary school students......................................................................................................... 15-21 nurul huda gustema; wening sahayu feminism values in the posters of yogyakarta’s students demonstration: the #gejayanmemanggil..................... 23-29 putu ayu asty senja pratiwi the relation of balinese efl learners’ prior learning experience and present proficiency .............................. 31-41 lispridona diner errors analysis of directive speech act and politeness strategy in kaiwa chukyu learning.............................. 43-50 tahmid sabri; soeharto; afrizan the influence of video direct instruction model to folklore listening skills in elementary school..................... 51-55 roswani siregar; risnawaty; yulia arfanti; milisi sembiring reflection of undergraduate students on translation process: an outlook of translation teaching in university..... 57-67 putu nur ayomi; shoshana dreyfus; syamsul hadi; adi sutrisno ‘the research is conducted…’: an exploration of a grammatical metaphor syndrome in indonesian research articles..................................................................................................... 69-78 kammer tuahman sipayung the impact of translation method and shift on translation quality at bilingual textbooks of physics, mathematics, and history ........................................................................................................... 79-85 ni gusti ayu roselani i am falling in love, ouch!: ontological metaphors at work................................................................... 87-96 atiqa sabardila; markhamah; dini restiyanti pratiwi reviews of teachers’ characters in students’ autobiography.................................................................. 97-105 nurul khasanah; agus subiyanto syllable structure and nasalization change in makassar language........................................................... 107-113 kolik koirudin; sri kusuma habsari; deny tri ardianto product islamization as a marketing strategy in the resik v “sekarang berhijab” advertisement in 2012............. 115-120 ayu marsela erda the relationship between metacognitive awareness and receptive skills of university students...................... 121-127 melyann melani the effect of google classroom assisted extensive listening on listening comprehension accross learning autonomy....................................................................... 129-142 vol. 14 no. 1 july 2020cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 261 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 261-266 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6837 virtual sphere: a site to negotiate the image of lengger banyumas lynda susana widya ayu fatmawaty1; condro nur alim2 1english department, humanities faculty, univeritas jenderal soedirman jl. dr. soeparno utara no. 1, grendeng, purwokerto 53122, indonesia 2faculty of letters, universitas muhammadiyah purwokerto jl. kh. ahmad dahlan, dusun iii, dukuhwaluh, banyumas, jawa tengah 53182, indonesia 1lyndafatmawaty@gmail.com; 2condronuralim@ump.ac.id received: 01st december 2020/revised: 24th january 2021/accepted: 25th january 2021 how to cite: fatmawaty, l. s. w. a. & alim, c. n. (2020). virtual sphere: a site to negotiate the image of lengger banyumas. lingua cultura, 14(2), 261-266. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6837 abstract the research aimed at investigating how lengger used the virtual sphere to negotiate their image to society. lengger banyumas was always stereotyped with the discourse of queer, gay, bisexual, and transgender (qgbt). therefore, it led to gender discrimination, not only on the stage but also in their daily life. consequently, in this 4.0 era, lengger needed to use social media in order to create a different image as an alternative way to negotiate the dancer’s gender identity. the method applied was hine’s virtual ethnography method by applying habermas theory. respondents were interviewed virtually through video conference. meanwhile, the data were collected through their instagram. the results show that lengger constructs their image on social media to produce an image by performing double-identity; they are feminine on the stage and masculine in real life. the first identity is a feminine dancer to reveal the image of a professional drag dancer from banyumas. however, lengger elaborates the masculine identity in their dance performance by wearing the attribute of female dancers. meanwhile, lengger also reveals masculine identity in their real life. as identity is fluid, it indicates that the image will also never be fixed. thus, this image is reproduced constantly in the virtual sphere as a negotiation towards society’s stereotyping. keywords: virtual sphere, binary gender stereotype, image negotiation, lengger banyumas introduction in the 4.0 era, the development of social media has become an unavoidable phenomenon. besides its function to show a self-existence, it is also powerful to construct identity. thus, this shifting trend might create a new identity through the representation of the image. social media creates a sphere as space for their users to create freedom in order to express their identity accessibly. mazali (2011) has stated that individuals or groups ‘perform’ using the network as a space where identity is created and where they perform or act. therefore, this site is regarded as a public sphere. formerly, habermas (in kruse, norris, & flinchum, 2018) has stated that the term ‘public sphere’ is initially constructed through the freedom of individuals to speak publicly, where the public is firstly interpreted as in public space or public place. however, as time goes by, the terms public and space have a broader meaning. it is not seen on the physical aspect anymore but on the construction of the realm entity. thus, the sphere is possibly constructed by the society as a means of resistance. one of the iconic performers from banyumas regency called lengger, also uses social media to reproduce its image. lengger, known as banyumas traditional dance, uses instagram as a media to negotiate their image on this online platform. this phenomenon is relevant to pepe’s (2020) statement that digital media such as youtube, facebook, instagram, and twitter have become important spaces for queer people and other minorities to negotiate their identities in recent years. moreover, the pandemic situation of covid-19 leads them to even be more creative in 262 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 261-266 using social media as a platform of communication. social media is the site where users construct their image. further, mazali (2011) has stated that a person or group may ‘perform’ their identity while using social media. as identity is constructed by social conditions, social media plays an important role in constructing and representing their identity. in the research, social media is seen as media that can be used in depicting the issues on how lengger represented their image through this platform. the use of social media enables the subject (lengger) to construct the new culture actively. henry jenkins (in mazali, 2011) has explained there are four kinds of participatory culture; they are affiliation (friendster, facebook, metagaming, game clans, or myspace), expressions (digital sampling, fan video-making, fan-fiction writing), collaborative problem-solving (wikipedia, alternative reality gaming, spoiling), and circulation (podcasting and blogging). this participatory culture will also be used to identify lengger, who has managed to use social media to negotiate their identity. based on its history, lengger is a performance of grateful expressions for the harvest, or it is usually called a baritan ceremony. lengger is derived from the word leng and ngger that is presumed as leng (hole), a symbol of a woman, but it turns out to be jengger (cock’s head) symbolizes a man. thus, lengger is defined as a traditional dance performed by a male in female attributes. as pigeud (in fatmawaty et al., 2018) has stated that there is lengger in banyumas, a traditional dance that is performed in the form of transvestite. however, societies usually associate lengger with a woman. in fact, there are two different terminologies used to define lengger. lengger, which is performed by men, is called lengger, while lengger, which is performed by a woman, is called ronggeng. unfortunately, both lengger and ronggeng are stereotyped negatively by society. ronggeng is presumed to be sexually associated with a prostitute, while lengger is typically associated with sexual perversion due to gender bias. therefore, lengger has been marginalized by the society’s view that leads to ‘othering’ since they are considered deviant. in some cases, it triggers some lengger dancers to stop being a dancer because they cannot bear the society’s stigma. the complexity of lengger intertwines with the emergence of a complicated problem which goes along with its existence nowadays. the main problem faced by lengger is related to society’s negative stigma because of their gender bias in their dancing performance. further, claire (2017) has argued that gender bias in dance becomes the main problem that leads to society’s stigma. thus, gender bias in traditional art was identified a long time ago in indonesia and other parts of the world. in nordic, for example, men dancers have to wear a woman costume and play a role as a woman in their folk dance, philocoros (hoppu, 2014). in indonesia, this kind of art also exists in most regions such as gandrung banyuwangi, tledhek from east java, and lengger from banyumas. there have been some researches about drag dancers or men dancers who perform themselves as women. levitt et al. (2018) have investigated how drag performers negotiate with society’s stigma about qgbt (queer, gay, bisexual, and transgender). levitt et al. (2018) show how those performers are then categorized into high or low status in their research. although levitt’s research also addresses the issue of ‘othering’, but this research does not explore the way how the drag dancers cope with that problem. meanwhile, the research focuses on how lengger deals with the negative stigma from society. therefore, it is aimed at probing the way lengger banyumas negotiate their identity. methods the research uses lengger banyumas’ instagram as the object of analysis by applying the virtual ethnography method. virtual ethnography becomes a new method that elaborates the ethnographic tradition as an embodied research instrument to the internet’s social spaces (hine in carter, 2018). this method opens the elaboration of the online and offline model widely. as coined by hallet and barber (2014) and hine (in airoldi, 2018), digital ethnographers have constructed and explored multi-sited fields by investigating both online and offline sites. further, hine (in nasrullah, 2018) has stated that there are two approaches in seeing the phenomenon in cyberspace called ‘culture’ and as ‘cultural artefact’. if this space is considered a culture, then cyberspace will only be used to transfer the message or text. however, cyberspace can change into a cultural artifact in its development, which involved social phenomenon and is produced by the users’ social interaction. virtual ethnography is used to describe the image of lengger banyumas through virtual space. virtual ethnography is applied in exploring the internet and observing the users, in this case, is instagram. the aim of elaborating ethnography and the internet is to investigate how the status of the internet is negotiated with the local context of its user (hine in zhongxuan, 2018). this shows the communication which is seen through the internet. this method is used to reveal the reality or apparent social phenomenon as well as to reveal what is not related to the users of cyberspace (nasrullah, 2018). further, an interview with lengger banyumas dancers is conducted in order to provide data. this is in line with what hine and corell (in nasrullah, 2018) have explained that in conducting virtual research, the research can use immediate contact with the research subject or by email, instagram, whatsapp, or skype in order to get the authentic data. results and discussions some scholars may identify lengger as a traditional drag dance. the existence of lengger is identified as plausibly paradoxical because in one hand 263virtual sphere: a site.... (lynda susana widya ayu fatmawaty; condro nur alim) they are reified as an artist who preserves the traditional culture, but on the other hand, they are queering. lengger, a female dance from banyumas performed by male dancers, perceived society’s negative stigma, which is fundamentally constructed by the binary gender attributes. thus, this binary gender ideology divides the system into femininity and masculinity. this division pertains to the normative gender role in the life of the dancers. further, the stigma is continuously raised as they are also associated with sexuality. some dancers probably face similar problems of the negative stereotyping that deals with the issue of gender, class, and sexuality. this is in line with tobin (in morad, 2016), who has stated that “in this tango world, gender, sexuality, class, and nationality intersect to produce a masculinity that many observers find troublesome”. accordingly, dancers believe that they need to counter all of the negative stigma. they need media to express their struggle and challenge as well as the exercise of power towards them. social media then plays its role in democratic freedom by allowing the creation of a sphere for the community. social media is identified as an alternative way to articulate the image of lengger. realizing the power of social media in exposing the image, the dancers also use social media platforms in dealing with the negative stigma from society. lengger tries to explore their dance through instagram to produce their image. instagram then becomes the media to present their identity and to produce their narratives. in this case, identity is constructed as a set of narratives about lengger’s life. this presentation and labeling deal with the origin and destiny associated with strategies and identification (anthias in kassaye, ashur, & van heelsum, 2016). moreover, during the pandemic of covid-19, there has been a great impact for lengger as they cannot perform in public spaces. thus, it triggers them to be more active in using social media. so far, social media has attracted the public not only as an arena to reveal their existence but also as an alternative media of resistance. instagram features enable displaying a video up to 60 seconds, some characters of text, and lots of space for displaying photos or videos. these instagram features attract lengger to use this platform because of some practical benefits the lengger may receive. in relation to participatory culture, instagram as one of the social media platforms can be categorized as an affiliation associated with friendster or facebook. this eases the users to deliberately use it for certain reasons. the societies’ negative stigma towards lengger dancers is a challenge for lengger to deal it through smart negotiations. lengger is widely spread in banyumas region, including in some neighboring cities such as banjarnegara, cilacap, kebumen, and purbalingga. these regions also have lengger communities; one of them is langgeng sari, located in baturraden. this community is managed by tora dinata. another lengger community in banyumas is rumah lengger, located in banyumas and is led by rianto. however, not all lengger dancers join such communities since some of them choose to perform individually. some lengger have chosen an individual career, among others are agnes (whose real name is agus widodo) and aan. these lengger produce their self-image through instagram by showing both their feminine and masculine sides. some of them purposely negotiate the stigma through their dance creation by elaborating on male and female attributes. indeed, it is aimed at emphasizing the existence of lengger as a professional dancer. lengger dancers also represent their daily lives as husbands and other masculine values which ratify their existence as males. dealing with the negative image of lengger, some of them realize that being a part of a lengger community is much easier for them to negotiate with the negative stigma from society. in a virtual interview with anggun, one of langgeng sari lengger community members, it is found that lengger has a big burden because of society’s stigma that the dancers have a non-normative sexual orientation. the stigma is constructed by society as they questioned lengger’s identity. indeed, this phenomenon is also highlighted by butler (in murtagh, 2017) that the in-betweenness leads to the questioning of gender identity. therefore, this condition threatens their life as well as the existence of lengger. consequently, they are being marginalized not only by society but also by their family and friends. jost and banji (in khalil, 2019) have argued that stereotypes are used to justify social and power relations in society, in which it also attempts negative self-stereotyping. thus, tora, lengger‘s manager, admits that they must choose a media to negotiate the stereotyping by using instagram. lengger‘s awareness towards this condition is stated as ‘situated knowers‘ that some theories coined in term of marginalized groups, who understand the social positions in power relation experienced by them (collins in de vries, 2015). however, instagram is chosen by this group as a site to articulate their self-image as well as to promote lengger. as professional dancers, lengger try to elaborate the story in their dance movement that reveals their femininity and masculinity in one body as well as their negotiation as a cross-dresser. furthermore, they also reveal their daily life to affirm that lengger has a normal life under heteronormativity to emphasize that they do not belong to homosexuality. the strategy of resistance by modifying dance and festival has been globally used. celeste (2017) have stated that manobo communities have used their performance due to their experience of being exiled from their traditional land. indeed, it leads them to recreate new meaning in which they construct their existence, adapting into the world as well as celebrating the heritage. therefore, festivals and performance are used as the opportunity to construct the image in a way that they manage the resistance. in the context of cultural production, lengger uses their agency power to create a new culture in a particular discourse. lliane loots has stated in titley (2012) that cultural production allows social subjects agency a chance to speak and create a new discourse. 264 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 261-266 this means that the main reason for using social media is to create a sphere that reveals the resistance, as it is expected to produce new discourse both virtually and in reality. tora and rianto smartly manage the caption of their posting image on instagram to ensure their position as the cultural preservation. the hashtags that they frequently used are, among others, #lengger, #lenggerbanyumasan, #budaya, #budayaindonesia, and #indonesia. this is intentionally created to let the followers easily recognize that they are a professional dancer. lengger dancers are transforming themselves as celebrities. whannel (in turner, 2014) has stated that celebrities are now increasingly exploring ways to control self-representation. this is in line with the media production industry that enables people to find new strategies to control the image they produce. it cannot be denied that lengger dancers have become celebrities. thus, during the pandemic of covid-19, rianto, a professional lengger dancer who lives in japan, even creates lengger’s challenge by inviting all of his followers to practice by performing a lengger dance. rianto, in this case, takes some different modes of negotiation. he combines instagram and youtube as a site to renegotiate his existence. while he gets some benefits from being the artist of garin’s kucumbu tubuh indahku (2018), which won some medals, rianto successively negotiates lengger’s existence. by broadcasting lengger’s activities on instagram and youtube, he deliberately lets his followers join a challenge. in one of his videos, he performs the dance by wearing a casual outfit as a male; further, he posts his dance by wearing lengger custom. rianto, who has more than thirteen thousand followers, leads these challenges to shape a new culture in this pandemic situation. this phenomenon is in line with habermas’ idea (jin, 2017) that the public sphere’s logic is independent of economic and political power. thus, he continuously advises people to stay at home but to be productive, with the hashtag #challengeriantolengger, #bahagiadirumah, #lenggerbanyumas, #covid19. these hashtags are the creation of lengger to establish their existence in the virtual sphere. one of the most notable results of a virtual interview with lengger langgengsari communities is that the fact that they elaborate characters of masculine and feminine in their dance creation. in terms of costumes, it is clear that the attributes used by the lengger are the same as the attributes used by the female lengger, such as jarit, kebaya, beautiful makeup, sampur, bun, and other women’s accessories. the dancer’s body shape is also equipped with foam to replace the chest and hips to make it fuller and resembles the real woman. this is done to bear the nuances of women who support their appearance on the stage. fortunately, this embodied feminity is not only manifested in the range of movements created in their dancing but also through gestures and other feminine attributes. they usually start with the plot of a male dancer who got indang (the spirit of lengger). this indang then turns the male dancers into women dancers, with beautiful makeup and costume. at the end of this dance, the dancers open the bun to symbolize a solid relationship between the dancer and the image they want to create. in line with gabler’s theory, the process of removing the bun is part of the affirmation of gender. this is one of the negotiations made by the langgengsari community group. in terms of transgenderism, there is a concept of ‘unveiling ‘or ‘dewigging’. this concept is stated by gabler (murtagh, 2013) in the situation that the wig is the main marker of the impersonation of a woman. in the case of the wig, it is an attempt to show the actual gender of the binary opposition between men and women. in indonesian society, this wig concept can also be replaced with a bun as javanese women’s accessories that show the characteristics of a woman. in the concept of art produced by lengger langgengsari, dance creations bring the concept of men who become women dancers. besides its function as a platform to express resistance, social media also becomes a site to produce the identity to be performed. indeed, lengger dancers use social media not only to create their sphere but also to negotiate with the stigma. a lengger dancer from binangun, a district in banyumas regency, agus widodo or known as agnes, admits that through instagram, he experiences much progress in his career as a lengger dancer. furthermore, agnes states that he also often receives gender discrimination. his existence as a man who performs a woman‘s dance with all his attributes causes him to be the target of ‘bullying’. thus, social media also has become one of his alternatives to create his identity. whannel (in turner, 2014) argues while celebrities themselves are increasingly exploring ways of controlling their own representations. some of the media production industries have found new and effective strategies for controlling the images they produce. the identity, therefore, is constructed continuously. this identity construction has turned agnes to be recognized widely by society. he gets the status of a celebrity as the result of the identity construction through social media. the discourse of the new order era that represses the society to live under heteronormativity prevents the freedom of expression. unfortunately, the marginalization towards lengger lasts up to this reformation era. another surprising fact is that in this reformation era, agnes is required to appear as a male when performing on tvri, a stateowned tv station, as the tv rules that agnes must appear without a gender bias. he has to present his self-identity in a heteronomative patron. he is not allowed to wear a woman costume because it leads to the judgment closely associated with lgbt (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender). thus, agnes also decides to use social media as a platform that enables him to show more democratic acceptance towards his profession. further, agnes has great achievements in his career. agnes expertise as a lengger dancer, sinden, drummer, and wedding mua enables him to challenge the community’s discrimination. the way of challenging society’s negative stigma 265virtual sphere: a site.... (lynda susana widya ayu fatmawaty; condro nur alim) is also done by the dancers by publicly showing their family life on social media. rianto proudly depicts his happy marriage with a japanese woman by showing some beautiful scenes of japan and some activities with his wife. further, in a youtube channel, tora also reveals his life with his family and his daughter. at the same time, agnes and other lengger reveal their male identity before wearing the female costume. indeed, it is assumed that this is done as other modes of resistance by reinforcing their normal life under the heteronormative norms. conclusions the research investigates both lengger as a culture and a reconstruction process of identity experienced by the lengger. this process is a mode of negotiation towards the negative stigma of the society towards them. the research shows that lengger banyumas has used social media such as instagram as a sphere to negotiate their identity. the identity is revealed under the construction of a binary gender system. the construction of performative identity gives a clear depiction of how lengger’s identity is constructed through their performance. lengger uses social media as a new sphere to strengthen their existence to deal with gender discrimination as well as to express their identity. lengger’s identity is expressed through the demonstration of lengger’s masculinity in their daily life. on instagram and youtube channels, some of the lengger dancers present their family, children, and wives to reveal their identity. it is expected that by demonstrating themselves as a father or a husband, it would give them a chance to produce the masculine identity. they are living in the relationship under the heteronormativity rules. thus, lengger negotiates identity through the sphere to express their identity. this identity negotiation informs society that lengger dancers are not cross-gender, but they are crossdressers. lengger vigorously produces their image within the virtual sphere such as instagram and youtube, as well as boosting themselves as a celebrity. references airoldi, m. 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(2018). paradoxical empowerment and exploitation: virtual ethnography on internet immaterial labour in macao. journal of creative communications, 13(1), 1-16. https://doi. org/10.1177/0973258617743618. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 85 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 85-92 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7040 ana dhei dhato: a traditional wedding tradition at rajawawo village of ende regency wendelinus janggo* english education study program, faculty of teacher training and education, nusa nipa university jl. kesehatan no. 3, maumere 86111east nusa tenggara, indonesia oscarjanggo@gmail.com received: 09th february 2021/revised: 17th may 2021/accepted: 17th may 2021 how to cite: janggo, w. (2021). ana dhei dhato: a traditional wedding tradition at rajawawo village of ende regency. lingua cultura, 15(1), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7040 abstract the research aimed to describe each process of ‘ana dhei dhato’ and revealed its cultural meanings based on the perspective of people in rajawawo village of ende regency. the research applied a descriptive qualitative. in collecting data, interviews, note-taking, and recording were conducted. the data were analyzed through transcribing and translating. the analysis results show that ‘ana dhei dhato’ is considered the most valuable type of wedding because of its complexity and peculiar characteristics. it can be seen from the way they run this kind of wedding ritual. some cultural meanings are found in these wedding rituals and language spoken, such as religious meaning, social meaning, historical meaning, juridical meaning, and didactic meaning. therefore, it is expected that people in rajawawo village must consider ‘ana dhei dhato’ as one of the most valuable cultural heritages and should also maintain its existence. keywords: traditional wedding, wedding tradition, ana dhei dhato introduction language and culture are closely bound because it is considered one of the most vital elements in any culture. language is a part of the culture, and language itself is the mirror of culture. al-mansoob, alrefaee, and patil (2019) have stated that a language is considered a means of communication that has its own specific cultural and linguistic features. it is such an identity to its speakers. meanwhile, according to kami et al. (2020), language is always a vital means of communicating. language is also one of the human characteristics that distinguish them from other creatures. in addition, a language in societies that lives side by side has a social function, both as a means of communication and as a way to identify social groups. the question is how culture is related to language. language and culture themselves are tied very much since the beginning of human civilization. culture is learned through relationships with other people. therefore, culture is not natural, inborn, and will-less; it is a social product. some factors are considerable and momentous in this transmission, such as information and knowledge in a society, social changes, social relations, and mass media. thus, culture transmits generation by generation. meanwhile, aso and sujito (2016) have defined culture as a system of human patterns behavior which generated from social life, and it correlates all of the human communities with their environment ecology. the variety of culture in a certain region is quite unique and highly varied. different groups do not only have a different language, but they also have different world views, which are reflected in their languages. this proves how complex their relation is. it is in line with what is stated by jiang in mehmet (2017), who says language and culture make a living organism; language is flesh, and culture is blood. without culture, the language would be dead; without language, culture would have no shape. additionally, nengsih and syafwandi (2020) have argued that every human is governed by the customs and rules that apply in society. the customs that govern people’s attitudes and life patterns have been passed down from the previous generation (ancestors) to the next generation. since the relationship between language and culture is very complex in nature, hymes in kupper and jessica (2000) has proposed an approach to treat such a relationship in the view of three related perspectives. the first is that language as the element 86 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 85-92 of culture in which the use of language can be seen in rituals, folklores, folk songs, prayers, or ritual speech. the second is that language as the index of culture in which the use of language can be seen in the way of expressing the speakers’ insight and experiences in perceiving the world. third, language is the symbol of culture in which language has the function to characterize the existence of an ethnic group or tribe as an ethnolinguistic group as well as a speech community or language society. the power of the culture can be seen in human beings’ traditions. hidayati (2018) has stated that tradition, often referred to as custom, is an activity carried out by a group of people from generation to generation with the aim to obtain harmony either between humans with humans, or harmony between humans with nature through values and norms contained in the tradition. if this harmony can be achieved and maintained, then welfare can be easily obtained. welfare is not only concerned with matters but also with spiritual relevance. this can be seen, for instance, in wedding rituals that are maintained and survived through language. in line with that statement, kartolo (2017) has defined marriage as one of the important human life cycle stages. through married, somebody will get a new status from single to be married; thus, the couple will be approved and needed as full members of society. additionally, panjaitan and manugeren (2019) have stated that a wedding is a ceremony in which two people are united in marriage or a similar institution. most wedding ceremonies involve exchanging wedding vows by the couple, a gift (offering, rings), symbolic item (flowers, money), and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure or leader. special wedding garments are often worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. music, poetry, prayers ritual speech are also optionally incorporated into the ceremony. in many societies of the world, marriage is seen as the fundamental unit of the society without which there could be no family (silalahi, 2019). moreover, passandaran (2019) has added that marriage ceremony in a cultural context is one of the traditions in the form of rituals with various functions. marriage is something sacred, great, and monumental for every life partner. therefore, marriage is not just following religion and continuing instinct to form a family; however, it has a profound and broad meaning for human life. wedding traditions and customs vary greatly among cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes. in running this kind of valuable inheritance, people should follow each step and fulfill all regulations needed. neglecting one of those will give destructive impacts on their future life since it stands as one of the guidelines for living. those are based on the convention and are maintained through generations. indonesia is a country widely known as one of the biggest archipelagic states with various cultures and traditions. rahman et al. (2020) have stated that indonesia is the largest archipelago stretching from sabang to merauke. more than 13.000 ethnic groups inhabit the territory of indonesia. one of the regions in indonesia which still maintain their past culture and tradition is the nangapanda subdistrict, especially in rajawawo village, which becomes the main focus of the research. rajawawo village is located about 38 kilometers from ende city, situated at the western area of nangapanda sub district of ende regency. they have three types of wedding rituals, namely ana dhei dhato, ana aze, and ana paru dheko. however, the research only focuses on ana dhei dhato in an attempt to investigate and reveal both its process, which also covers the analysis of its ritual speech in the form of sacred words and its cultural meanings. singh (2018) has stated that the sacredness of words has always been a vehicle to transfer values and moralities from one culture to another, from one faith to another, and so on. languages behave differently based on their internal composition when it comes to the analysis of words in the sacred context. meanwhile, abdullah in rudiyanto, rais, and purnanto (2020) have argued that cultural meanings can be defined as the meaning of language in accordance with the cultural context of its speaker along with their cognitive system, which can be seen from their mindset, way of life, and their world view. from the perspective of scientific research, many pieces of research focus on investigating indigenous rituals to reveal their cultural meanings. the first research is from langkameng and latupeirissa (2020). they have conducted research about the cultural values of oko mama, marriage proposal ritual speech in bokong community, indonesia. the results show that the cultural values implied in oko mama, namely: (a) social value, which consists of cooperative value and the appreciation to girl’s parents value, and (b) religious value. hodairiyah, rais, and purnanto (2020) have conducted ethnography research that aims to find out the cultural meaning of verbal and non-verbal expression represented in the nyaébuh tradition of people in aeng tong-tong, saronggi, sumenep. it is found that this tradition in the form of almsgiving whereby the charity is devoted to the deceased in the hope that it could alleviate and erase the sins of the deceased, in addition to which it could increase unity, harmony, family, harmony between people and others. meanwhile, silalahi (2019) has tried to unravel the semiotics of a marriage tradition in batak toba society based on the conception of signs proposed by charles sanders peirce in order to reveal the meaning of icons, indexes, and symbols in the marriage tradition. the fourth previous research is from rudiyanto, rais, and purnanto (2020). their research focuses on describing the cultural meaning of the sranan tradition found in wonokromo village, alian subdistrict, kebumen. the result of this research shows that the cultural meanings of this tradition include an offering to the ruler of a rice field (dewi sri) to avoid all kinds of pests that damage crops, as an intermediary to ask god for salvation, and as an application to be given a smooth provision and abundant crops. additionally, 87ana dhei dhato .... (wendelinus janggo) mubarokah, djatmika, and sumarlam (2019) have conducted research in order to describe the violations of cooperative principles and the factors that created the humor of cucuk lampah in the wedding ceremony in the magetan regency. the result shows that in creating humor, cucuk lampah mostly violates the quantity maxim. cucuk lampah is free to lie, using taboo, speaking indirectly with pambiwara, and singers. cucuk lampah also uses language play by mentioning the unexpected in the utterances to build up taboo words. the violations of the quality maxim, relevance maxim, and manner maxim are also done in less number compared to quantity maxim violations. the non-observance of the maxims mostly is violating a maxim, flouting a maxim, infringing a maxim, suspending a maxim, and the last is opting out of a maxim. meanwhile, akbar et al. (2020) have tried to reveal the sasak lexicon in traditional marriages from a linguistic anthropology perspective. the results show that sasak traditional marriages have three common systems. they are betrothed (tapedait), proposed (melakoa), and elopement (memulang). among the marriages, memulang system is carried out dominantly. moreover, it is found that there are two meanings, namely linguistic meaning, and cultural meaning. the next research is from hidayati (2018). she tries to reveal the local wisdom of kembar mayang in the wedding tradition of java ethnic. she finds out four points of local wisdom in kembar mayang; they are maintaining family honor, termed keris-kerisan in the form of dagger-shaped webbing; mutual protection, termed payung-payungan in the form of umbrella-shaped webbing; fidelity, termed manuk-manukan in the form of bird-shaped webbing; tenacity and sacrifice, termed walang-walangan, in the form of praying mantis-shaped webbing. kembar mayang as cultural heritage is to be preserved t as a guideline in social life. meanwhile, rahman et al. (2020) have carried out research in an attempt to analyze the symbolic meanings of palang pintu tradition of the betawi wedding ceremony. they have found that the palang pintu tradition has symbolic values such as leadership, the religiosity that can be used as an opportunity for children’s literacy appreciation learning. nengsih and syafwandi (2020) have undergone research in order to find out the symbolic meaning of the tradition hantaran jamba badagang in a wedding party ceremony at kambang lengayang sub-district, pesisir selatan. they have found out that this tradition contains the symbol of interaction, communication, and social value. it also contains the meaning of unity between communities and educational values. furthermore, the jamba badagang tradition continues to be preserved and developed into the cultural heritage of the kambang sub-district community. panjaitan and manugeren (2019) have analyzed the symbolic meanings of kembar mayang conducted at medan sinembah village, tanjung morawa, deli serdang that are predominantly by javanese ethnic. it is found that there are five forms of symbolic meanings in kembar mayang: manuk-manukan as a symbol of loyalty, uler-uleran of struggle, walangwalangan of persistence, pecut-pecutan of optimism, and keris-kerisan of wisdom. the five forms of rites are compulsory in the wedding ceremony with the main objective to achieve a happy, harmonious, and peaceful life for the bride and the bridegroom, and this is in line with the general concept of marriage. the next research is from kartolo (2017) that carries out an ethnography study about the use of language in malay deli, indonesia. it covers the grammatical, psychological aspects, and social structure of wedding ceremonies in malay deli tradition. the last previous research is done by jumino (2019). this research is about the symbolic meaning in marriage ceremony of javanese culture (semiotic analysis). the ceremony starts from wedding preparation, pemasangan dekorasi (decorating), siraman (bathe), potong rikmo (haircut), selling dawet, midodareni (visiting to the bride), ijab kabul (marriage vows), panggih (meeting), balang suruh (throwing suruh), wiji dadi (hoping fertile), dahar kembul (having meal together), sungkeman (prostating), sindur mayang (covering shawl), timbang (weighing), tukar cincin (exchanging ring), until wedding reception. each procession has both its own symbol and meaning. methods the research attempts to describe the wedding ritual based on its names and reveal their cultural meanings in the cultural context where they have taken place. the appropriate research design to answer the problems stated is a descriptive qualitative research design. in collecting the data, the researcher uses some techniques proposed by creswell (2009), such as observation, interview, recording, documentation study, and note-taking. septiana, santosa, and sumarlam (2019) have stated that the researcher gradually discerns recurring patterns from these notes and observations. these allow the researcher to generate hypotheses about what the various linguistic behaviors that have been observed mean. additionally, according to sudaryanto (2015), some techniques can be used to obtain the data. two of them are the observation method and interview. the observation method is done by listening and recording the information uttered by the informants, while the interview method is done by direct interview or face-to-face communication. the data obtained through field research are analyzed qualitatively. the data are analyzed through a systematic procedure such as transcribing, translating, and data analysis using contextual-based interpretation before finding the meaning. in transcribing, the recorded data are transcribed by the researcher in order to get a written datum enabling the researcher to analyze it in more detail. after transcribing, the data are translated from 88 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 85-92 the ende language to english. to get a good result of translation, the text is translated using both lexical and contextual translation. in lexical translation, the text is translated literally. conversely, the contextual translation should base on ende’s culture, especially in the rajawawo context. it is based on the perspective that each society has its own way of thinking and behaving. in conducting both lexical and contextual translation, the researcher has consulted the informants to get a good and accurate meaning. the researcher’s own interpretation is also added, especially to reveal its contextual meaning. all of the data, then, are analyzed in accordance with the problems, aims, and scope of the research, namely the analysis of the cultural meaning of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village based on its process, which could reveal their values, function, and meaning. the analysis of that traditional wedding ritual process aims to get a picture of the cultural meaning of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village. this analysis is held after the meaning of each name and value dealing with the rituals is obtained by the researcher. results and discussions the cultural meaning is known as a character of meaning or value that is intermediate to represent something in a particular context of culture. it deals with an object that represents or stands for an abstraction. the explanation of cultural meanings will be presented after translating each process into lexical meaning. the data of the traditional wedding ritual process of people in rajawawo village of ende regency are presented, followed by a brief explanation about its lexical meaning and contextual meaning of the ritual, which will lead to the cultural meanings of the ritual being investigated. the researcher has decided to delimit the research only to describe ana dhei dhato according to its process and then reveal the cultural meanings within this ritual. ana dhei dhato/nai lapu ja wedding ritual can be held if the couples have already gotten permission from their parents and entire clan. in other words, they should do this without any pressure. the following description is the explanation of the terms ana dhei dhato/nai lapu ja. the marriage can only be held if the couple (woman and man) love each other and get permission from their parents and clan. at the same time, nai lapu ja, which means the man with his own desire, goes to his woman’s house in order to get permission from her parents and clan. before that, he has already told his family about his girlfriend’s background (name, clan, hometown, and status). this is very important to his family because, by this information, they could prepare everything before entering the woman’s house. ana dhei dhato’s wedding ritual is carried out in a series of separate rituals that must be obeyed. the first ritual is called tei nia mbe’o ngara. in this phase, the woman’s parents and the whole clan have already obtained information about the man’s background. a woman from the perspective of the rajawawo people, is symbolized as muku and tewu (bananas and sugar cane), which means the woman does not live in isolation, but always lives under the protection of her whole clan and before the bananas ripe, anyone is not allowed to touch it. in this stage, the man’s clan (weta ane) should bring su’a eko (ivory and animals horse and buffalo). as a symbol of respect, the woman’s clan also gives are guni, wawi, zuka zawo, zambu kadho (food, animals pig, sarong, and also clothes). the second ritual is weta mai eja se’a. the whole members of man’s clan, including his eja (brotherin-law) and his sister, come to the woman’s house to meet the woman’s clan. in this stage, the exchange of valuable things will happen. the man’s clan gives toko and eko, and as a symbol of gratitude, the woman’s clan gives are guni, zuka zawo sa kadho, and tee zani (rice, sarong, and bedding). the third is mbeo sao nggeso tenda. in this process, all the information needed from the woman’s such as her house, her entire family (clan), and also the clan’s role, especially ka’e embu, to the woman herself, have already been obtained by the man’s clan (weta ane). in this stage, the dowry that has to be fulfilled by weta ane in the form of toko (ivory) and wea seziwu (gold) are discussed. the fourth stage is kiri pipi mbinge inga. contextually, it means using the cheek and ear to listen to something. contextually, puu kamu (the girl’s uncle) attends this stage with the purpose of listening to the ritual process of his sister’s daughter. in this part, puu kamu takes a role only as a quest. however, after making some agreements, the man’s family (weta ane) is demanded to give something, such as money and gold (wea), because puu kamu will play a significant role in the upcoming process of that ritual. the fifth stage is pete negi rike nggiki. the function of this process is to strengthen their (woman and man) bond or love, and also their whole families/ clans. in this stage, the man’s clan must fulfill some demands from the woman’s clan, such as ring(s) and necklace. people in rajawawo village believe that this kind of valuable thing (ring and necklace) can lead their love to stand forever and happily ever after. the sixth process is called kuni kudu. contextually, the woman is ordered to go to the man’s house to help the man’s family, especially his mother, with household chores, for example, cooking, washing, cleaning, and others. this is a very crucial point because by doing this, she will be able to run or do her job or duty as a wife. she should throw away her doubt and hesitation in finishing all the work given. it should be noticed that the woman’s duty here is merely helping the man’s family. therefore, she is not allowed to live together with her future husband in his house. the seventh is weka te’e soro zani. contextually, it means stretching the plaited mat and pillow. this stage is a formal ceremony of this wedding ritual. the woman’s uncle (puu kamu) has already prepared plaited 89ana dhei dhato .... (wendelinus janggo) mat and pillows in the woman’s bedroom as a symbol of readiness to be a married couple. symbolically, te’e (plaited mat) and zani (pillow) that are provided by the woman’s uncle (puu kamu) show the fact that the woman is born from her mother’s womb; therefore, the woman belongs to puu kamu (her uncle). the puu kamu (her mother’s brother) plays a very crucial role during this ritual. this ritual is the beginning of their life as a married couple. the dowries that must be fulfilled by the man’s clan are toko, wea, and money. the eighth stage is bhanda mere. bhanda mere is the final stage of this wedding ritual that they must bring many dowries. in this stage, the man, along with his family, must give a dowry to all members of the woman’s nuclear family in accordance with the conventions that have already been determined before by the woman’s parents. this stage is also called tu bhanda mere (give a dowry in a huge number). the last process is called tu dhu nawu jeka. contextually, it means to live together forever. in short, the woman’s family is ready to accompany their daughter to her husband’s house in order to live together with her husband for her entire life. this process is also called mbuku nai sao. nai means enter, and sao means house. contextually, it is a symbol that a girl has already merged into a man’s clan. the dowries that must be fulfilled by the man’s clan are toko, bride price, and eko (buffalo and cow). in accordance with the name, process, or ritual speech deals with the traditional wedding ritual. the researcher takes numerous cultural meanings that are interrelated to one another in order to cover a set of ideas and worldviews of people in rajawawo village of ende regency about their traditional wedding ritual. based on the conceptual frameset in the idea of the informants and the result of the research, the researcher has found a number of cultural meanings of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village of ende regency. the meanings include religious meaning, social meaning, historical meaning, juridical meaning, and didactic meaning. the set of these cultural meanings are not only symbolized by verbal expression (non-material symbols) in the form of language but also by non-verbal aspect (material symbol) in the form of any visible and touchable things. the first cultural meaning is religious meaning. it constitutes an expression of believing in a higher being since it is closely related to people in rajawawo village’s perception of the nature of their ancestors’ soul (embu kajo iro aro) as the mediator between them and their god (nggae raze dewa reta). ancestors’ souls as a human mediators should be magically invited to come in all ritual ceremonies. people in rajawawo village believe that the ancestors’ souls could become a bridge and also a mediator who delivers their praying and wishes to their highest entity. their perception of the existence of the ancestors’ soul is clear on the verbal level in the preface of all ritual speeches. in rajawawo village, people call it dhera dhao. lexically, dhera means open, dhao means call. contextually, dhera dhao means the ritual to feed the ancestor’s soul. it takes place one night before the wedding ritual happens, and the whole members from the woman’s side should take part or attend this ritual. this ritual always starts with the prayer to god or the highest entity, called soa soza. soa means speech, soza means called. table 1 is cited from the spoken discourse of the sesajen (the gift for souls) ritual. table 1 spoken discourse of soa soza term meaning embu kajo iro aro, nggae raze dewa reta all ancestors’ souls, god on earth and in heaven ndie wesia kami wi kema mbana tomorrow we’ll have a ceremony ana embu miu ata jodo sama your daughter wedding ceremony miu pera si rara ngaki siwesa please give them the right way ebe mbana ndeka raza mozo the way that will lead them together and don’t give them any disasters on their way ndia kami pati ka miu here we bring you a present ka are pesa uta manu the pure rice and a big chicken maisi ka pahara, minu peimu let us eat and drink together people in rajawawo village believe that a chicken, especially its blood, symbolizes purity and clarity. the food in this ritual is served without any flavor. praying for god or the highest entity through their ancestors is important since they believe in their ancestors’ inclusions by keeping them away from any bad spirit, disasters and gives them eternal protection. the second is social meaning. this traditional wedding ritual also contains social meaning. the social meaning covers a set of moral values functioning as ethical guidelines for all villagers of rajawawo village. these ethnical guidelines as the social norms lead people to improve and maintain their social relationships in society. the social value includes solidarity, democracy, and social reconciliation. solidarity value constitutes a significant social dimension established by the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village. it becomes the basic principle of social unity between a couple’s family and all villagers and other clans in rajawawo society. the important thing to improve solidarity values is regularity, balance, cooperativeness, and the availability of the same right, and status. the social value is seen in all parts of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village of ende regency from the beginning to the end. it creates an enormous social relationship because they believe that this wedding ritual is not only about the couple (woman and man) themselves, but it also involves the entire villagers to bond and unite the couple’s clan (weta ane and pu’u kamu). 90 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 85-92 the solidarity value can be seen in the principles of the collaboration of people on rajawawo village: kita ata mai pati nee ate masa mae e nee seso neno. lexically, kita means we/family, ata mai means come, pati means give, nee means with, ate means heart, masa means sincere, mae means not, e means remember/ think, seso neno means repayment. contextually, it means the couples’ family realizes that the villagers come to offer help with an open-hearted and without any repayment. lexically, poka means cut down, tiko means crowd, weza means defend, gizi means around. contextually, it is an activity that has to be done together in order to get the job done easily and quickly. togetherness becomes a key success of this ritual. lexically, tuke means support, nduku means knee, duke means hold on to, siku means elbow. tuke nduku duke siku means support with knee and hold on to elbow. contextually, it means a kind of support from many sides of the clan members through moral, material, and financial support has to be done seriously. social reconciliation defines the process of renewing and maintaining the friendly relationship between groups of clans. people in rajawawo village believe that a friendly relationship or kinship not only limits or relies on particular people or among people in society, but also among the living people and their ancestors, which are considered living invisibly in their society. the social reconciliation among people in the society can be viewed in all processes and the principles of the traditional wedding ritual, while the relationship between people and their ancestors can be viewed in the dhera dhao ritual. in this ritual, the woman’s whole clan, especially her parents, brothers, and sisters, have to take part, and the villagers should come as quests and witnesses. all related clans should join this ceremony as their presence becomes a form of social duty. meanwhile, their absence will reduce social reconciliation. by participating in all ceremonies, taking part in such roles, having dinner together, they all can increase and maintain their friendly relationship. as a sign of gratitude to their ancestors, one day before the ceremony takes place, the couples should come to tubu musu (their ancestors’ graves) to ‘fed’ their ancestors’ souls, because they believe that by doing this, they would be blessed by their ancestors and gods (embu kajo and nggae raze dewa reta) and will also lead or guide them to reach prosperity, harmony, and happiness. the term democracy refers to the similar views of people in deciding for unity. in the traditional wedding ritual context, it can be seen in ritual speeches (mbabho). mbabho is a ritual talk for the purpose of negotiating the dowry that has to be fulfilled by the man’s clan side. only certain or particular people are trusted to lead this ritual (mbabho) called mosazaki. he must be a man above sixty years old and has an ability to control the situation and arrange the sayings because of his tough job as a bridge to combine and unite two opinions from two different perspectives from both clan sides (puu kamu and weta ane). the example of mbabho can be seen in table 2. table 2 spoken discourse of mbabho term meaning ine baba ari kae mother, father, brothers and sisters kita ngambe ndie we are here together ngestei kema mbana ko ana embu kita to talk about our daughter’s relationship ebe weta ane muku tewu miu ripi peka she has become a beautiful woman ata wi keti, miu pate ate miu wish for your permission to be engaged with your daughter ebe weta ane miu pati si sua ne eko here they bring you a present the ritual speech in table 2 represents both togetherness and the solidarity of people in the community. after having a deal about a dowry that has to be fulfilled, both clans make an agreement to follow all the regulations in front of mozazaki and the villagers. the third is historical meaning. the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village of ende regency is closely related to the cultural values and events existing and relating to the past. the traditional wedding ritual in rajawawo village has gone through some changes. the wedding ritual in ende regency, especially in rajawawo village since the beginning, uses the dowry in the form of ivory. rajawawo village is in tana zozo region that covers east region called nanggeree (nangaba), and west region called paroree (nangamboa to maukaro). in the past time, people in rajawawo village used doka (white gold), but as time passed by, the head of the village changes it to wea (pure gold) because they think that the value of the white gold is not so high. people in rajawawo village, in their ritual or ceremony, always pair up all the things, even the dowry and the foods. sue (ivory) is always paired up with wea (pure gold). sue here is used to symbolize manhood, while wea is used to symbolize woman. when both clans gather to talk about something, the hosts always serve mengi-keu (betel vine and bitternut or sirih-pinang) and muku-vizu (bananas and cucur cake). it is a symbol of woman and man. people in rajawawo village believe that all that has been united cannot be separated because missing one of these important elements will negatively impact the entire clan or family. the last is juridical meaning. it can be viewed from two perspectives, including macro-perspective and micro-perspective. from a macro-perspective, the juridical meaning of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village is closely related to the conformity law, which is implemented in the harmonious relationship among alliance people in the society. it can be seen in the process of tu bhanda mere, called mbuku uta ae. it is a gratitude to the villagers that have given their support, time, and finance to help 91ana dhei dhato .... (wendelinus janggo) the couple’s families during their ceremony. the man’s clan serves kamba bhanda (cows) to the villagers who came to the ceremony, but it should be noticed that there are some rules which the villagers should follow. their duty here is only to help the couple’s clan and as a guest. they are not allowed to give opinions or suggestions during a dowry negotiation process because it only involves the couples’ family and the ceremony leader (mozazaki). from a micro-perspective, the juridical meaning of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village is closely related to the relationship among the woman, her family, and the man. a relationship that cannot be separated between the woman and her clan can be viewed in the principle of the family relationship of rajawawo village. people in rajawawo village believe that they should always live in a group. this group (ine baba, pu’u kamu, ari ka’e) always protects each other, especially their daughter and sister. moreover, juridical meaning can also be viewed in a relationship between the woman and the man, in pete negi rike nggiki. it takes a function as a tool to strengthen the couple’s (woman and man) love and their entire family/clan. in this stage, the man’s clan has to fulfill some demands from the woman’s clan, such as ring(s) and necklace, because these valuable things from their perspectives (ring and necklace) could make their love stands forever for the rest of their life. conclusions based on the findings and as the answers to the research problem, the research has revealed the names and oral literature dealing with the process and its cultural meanings. there are three types of traditional wedding rituals in rajawawo village of ende regency, such as ana dhei dhato, ana aze, and ana paru dheko. ana dhei dhato is a type of wedding ritual considered the most valuable wedding ritual among others. the process of ana dhei dhato wedding ritual include tei nia mbe’o ngara, weta mai eja se’a, mbeo sao nggeso tenda, kiri pipi mbinge inga, pete negi rike nggiki, kni kudu, weka te’e soro zani/ kembi kaja, bhanda mere. bhanda mere covers some details such as mbuku ine baba, mbuku pu’u kamu, mbuku ndoa baba, ndoa ine/ari ka’e, mbuku ta ae, mbuku juju kangge weri ine, mbuku nua oza/ tubu musu ora nata. the last process is tu dhu, nawu jeka. regarding the process and oral discourse of the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village, the finding of the research pinpoints four cultural meanings related to how people in rajawawo village view their life and the world where they live in. the four meanings are religious meaning, social meaning, historical meaning, and juridical meaning. therefore, it is expected that the research will give valuable information and insight about rajawawo’s tradition, especially on their wedding traditions for people in general, and is also a valuable written document of cultural heritage for the next generations. along with the conclusion provided, the research offers two suggestions: the stakeholders are advised to take part in maintaining ende’s cultures by issuing policies supporting the maintenance and cultivation of these highly valuable cultural values. further research on the cultural meanings, either the traditional wedding ritual of people in rajawawo village or other ende’s traditional wedding rituals, is highly recommended to probe more about ende’s culture. references akbar, m. a., laksana, k. d., artawa, k., & sukri, m. 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(2020). an analysis of symbolic meanings in palang pintu tradition of the betawi wedding ceremony. proceedings of the 4th international conference on language, literature, culture, amd education (icollite 2020). pp 599-604. https://doi. org/10.2991/assehr.k.201215.093. rudiyanto., rais, w. a., & purnanto, d. (2020). etnolinguistics study: cultural meaning of sranan tradition as a form local wisdom of mountain farmer society in kebumen. prosiding seminar nasional linguistik dan sastra, 1, 543-552. septiana, d., santosa, r., & sumarlam, s. (2019). riak in dayak maanyan ritual tradition (an ethnolinguistics study). langkawi: journal of the association for arabic and english, 5(2), 79-90. https://doi. org/10.31332/lkw.v5i2.1378. silalahi, p. v. (2019). the semiotics of batak toba society marriage tradition. parafrase: jurnal kajian kebahasaan & kesastraan, 19(2), 111-118. https:// doi.org/10.30996/parafrase.v19i2.2792. singh, r. (2018). a cognitive approach to the semantics in the sacred context: semantic and symbolic function of sacred words. english linguistics research, 7(3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.5430/elr.v7n3p1. sudaryanto. (2015). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa. yogyakarta: sanata dharma university press. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 11 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 11-20 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5190 the identification of slurs and swear words in the bronte sisters’ novels citra suryanovika1; irma manda negara2 sekolah tinggi bahasa asing pontianak jl. gajah mada no.38, pontianak selatan, kalimantan barat 78121, indonesia 1,2csuryanovika@yahoo.com; irmamanda87@hotmail.com received: 21st december 2018/revised: 01st february 2019/accepted: 13th february 2019 how to cite: suryanovika, c., & negara, i. m. (2019). the identification of slurs and swear words in the bronte sisters’ novels. lingua cultura, 13(1), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5190 abstract this research aimed at identifying the categories of slurs, presenting how swear words expressed in male or female characters of bronte sisters’ novels, and examining the social status scale in presenting slurs. the research was a qualitative content analysis of which process was categorizing, comparing, and concluding. the researchers employed maxqda 2018.1 (the data analysis tool) for analyzing the samples of five female and male main characters of the novel of emily bronte (wuthering heights), charlotte bronte (jane eyre), and anne bronte (the tenant of wildfell hall). the research has shown three out of nine thurlow’s pejorative items (social personality, phallocentric, and sexist), the possible formation of social personality slurs, the identification of swear words for showing speakers’ emotional states, and the influence of social status scale on the expression of slurs. it proves that slurs and swear words are used to deliver a derogatory attitude. the sexist slurs are not only delivered from male characters to female characters, but it is also found in catherine earnshaw targeting nelly although they have similar gender background (female). slurs are found in the characters from both high and low social rank since the plot develops the relationship amongst the characters. one unexpected finding is the different swear words between the characters. swear words found in the novel are not only dominated by the word devil, damn, or by hell, but also the word deuce and humbug. the varied swear words proves that the male characters do not dominantly produce swear words, but also euphemistic expression. keywords: slurs, swear words, gender, the bronte sisters’ novels. introduction investigating pejorative words in the bronte sisters’ characters is the researchers’ continuing concern within the study of language use in a novel. the researchers believe that a novelist shows the greatness of his/her characters through the narration talking about the plot, or utterances indicating the characters. some previous researches of charlotte bronte’s jane eyre, emily bronte’s wuthering heights, and anne bronte’s the tenant of wildfell hall have limited to the characterization as in shehzad (2013), muhaidat (2014), nejad and zohdi, (2014), or balola and ibrahim, (2017). shehzad (2013) has highlighted anne bronte’s style in presenting male characters, and he concludes that gilbert markham’s female features represented anne bronte’s subjectivity as a female author. differently, muhaidat (2014) has employed literary contrast to depict how the contrast in the story strongly conveys messages and values, while nejad and zohdi (2014) have the research of psychoanalysis to compare heathcliff’s characterization with shakespeare’s othello. balola and ibrahim (2017) have also accentuated heathcliff’s characteristics by using a descriptive analytical method. accordingly, it denotes a need to learn linguistic feature from bronte’s novels in order to identify the language style of the characters. the use of pejorative words, particularly, in a novel may indicate the highlight of characterization, and the status of the characters in the conversation. wuthering height novel is published in the victorian era, for instance, highlights heathcliff’s utterances with the use of some pejorative words (damn, slut, beast). this initial observation leads the writers to focus on the research of pejorative words on the utterances of bronte sisters’ characters (catherine earnshaw and heathcliff of wuthering heights, jane eyre and edward rochester of jane eyre, helen graham and gilbert markham of the tenant of wildfell hall). the research on pejorative words has been presented by some scholars. hedger (2012) has argued that analyzing slurs through semantic allows the interpretation of truth12 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 11-20 conditional content. however, croom (2014) has shown that hedger’s notion cannot accommodate thirteen modes, and he emphasizes that slurs should include a descriptive component. specifically, beller (2013) who has claimed that pejorative noun ‘jerk’ may come from subjective evaluation or one’s personal opinion. if beller (2013) has identified pejorative words using semantic analysis, bianchi (2014) has suggested three treatments to identify slurs; they are semantic, pragmatic, or deflationary perspective. he has said that the semantic perspective allows the interpretation of literal meaning, pragmatic perspective requires context, while deflationary treats derogatory items generated from a certain convention. meanwhile, panjeri and carrus (2016) have employed a content-based approach, engaging semantic, and pragmatic analysis in studying slurs. unlike other researchers, carnaghi and maass (2007) have investigated the impact of derogatory group labels (fag, fairy) and category labels (gay, homosexual) on the homosexual or heterosexual hearers. recently, miscevic (2017) has correlated pejorative expression with disparagement, and he proves that pejorative items in ‘bitch’ or ‘cunt’ are not only performative and expressive functions but also lexicalsemantic meaning. jikeli (2009), hom (2010), and hedger (2012) have proved how pejorative words functionally indicate disrespectful attitude. jikeli (2009) has concluded that the word ‘jew’ is the pejorative expression in german and french which is considered prejudiced against jews. according to hom (2010), pejorative words include swear words, insults, and slurs that aim at expressing an intense sentiment. he specifically explains that slurs expressing the speaker’s discourteous character. hom (2012) in his recent research has emphasized that slurs and swear words are pejorative expressions to convey one’s psychological state. furthermore, hedger (2012) has defined slurs as the opposite of polite form of address. rosette et al. (2013) have studied racial slurs in the workplace that stated the usage of racial slurs harms one’s psyche and prestige. meanwhile, allan and burridge (2006) have firstly argued that swear words are mostly found in male speakers, while euphemistic expression is found in the female. in other words, a speaker employing pejorative words tends to ignore the politeness scale between him/her and his/her addressee. it also indicates that the pejorative words are the opposite expression of euphemism prioritizing politeness scale. as shown in al-khasawneh (2018), euphemism is connected to politeness since it is a part of speech act expression which depends on cultural context. the euphemistic expression is different from the expression of pejorative words in the term of strategy. pragmatic study on the pejorative words is significant because of linguistic entities bound with the context. as suggested by allan and burridge (2006), certain parameters (age, gender, socio-cultural background, and power and relations) should be used to identify the social distance of the speaker-hearer relationship. in addition to social marker, they say that the swear words also reflected the speaker’s displeasure. furthermore, allan (2016) has suggested that a word is defined as slurs if the context supports the interpretation. he exemplifies the use ‘nigger’ as the solidarity if it is found amongst african-american, but it becomes a racial slur if it is used to underestimate the referent. meanwhile, oles (2016) has stated that ‘nigger’ is used in informal condition within a group to show solidarity. the identification of slurs according to some preceding researchers also shows that the slurs have some characteristics. to identify slurs, flores (2015) has stated that slurs as derogatory epithets refer to some groups (race, nationality, religion, gender, sexual orientation, social status or immigrant status, preferences or other salient features). initially, thurlow (2001) has defined nine categories of pejorative items in detail: “homophobic (e.g. queer, poof, ginger, lesbian), racist (e.g. nigger, paki, somalian); top-5 (i.e. cunt, wanker, motherfucker, bastard, and all fuck derivatives); sexist (e.g. slag, slut, whore, cow, bitch, slapper); phallocentric (e.g. dickhead, prick, sheepshagger); scatalogical (e.g. shit, arse-wipe, turd, scatty); others social personality (e.g. loner, sad, pompous, stupid); others physicality (e.g. fat, ugly, smelly); uncategorized (e.g. jackass, dustbin man/woman, pedophile, and other unknown, local items not found in the dictionaries).” meanwhile, popa-wyatt and wyatt (2018) have defined that slurring is a kind of hate speech that has special properties. there are thousands of terms that are identified as slurs, including those based on race (nigger, chink), gender (bitch), nationality (limey, boche), and sexuality (faggot, dyke). slurs can harm and degrade their targets, making them feel humiliated, dehumanized, disempowered, and silenced. slurs may also offend non-targets, often making them feel complicit while meeting with approval from bigots. the aforementioned items of thurlow (2001), flores (2015) or popa-wyatt and wyatt (2018) are quite similar to each other. the findings may show how slurs express disparagement. in other words, a researcher should define the objectives of the speaker, refer to context, and regarding the addressee’s identity in order to identify slurs. in addition to identify items of slurs and swear words, one should define the purpose of speaking as seen in the context. slurs and epithet seem alike, but croom (2013) has argued that the similarity of slurs and racial epithet lies on the derogatory purposes, while the difference of slurs and racial slurs is seen from the usage: the former tend to be explicit, while the latter is implicit. croom (2013) considers some experts in his article that emphasized how slurs are identifiable in context as they are offensively expressive terms to targets the addressee. he has categorized the words ‘chink’, ‘nigger’, and ‘gook’ belong to racial slurs, while sexual slurs are ‘bitch’, ‘slut’, and ‘whore’. to compare between slurs and swear words, jay and janschewitz (2008) have claimed that swearing is not always indicating impoliteness and derogatory, it is usually one’s unplanned expression responding to the surprising event. they indicate that the derogatory aim of swearing depends on hearers’ interpretation. in the meantime, bowers and pleydell-pearce (2011) have affirmed that swear words as a language form influence conception. in brief, the research of slurs and swear words to date is taken place on the social situation which participants (speaker or listener) involved, as found in janschewitz (2008) are involving 84 undergraduate male and female students. moreover, jay, caldwell-harris, and king (2008) have tested the recall of taboo words on 19 to 39-year-old students, while stephens and umland (2011) have analyzed swearing on 71 undergraduates, or nasution & rosa (2012) have focused on swearwords of indian users of yahoo messenger. therefore, the research of slurs and swear words 13the identification of slurs.... (citra suryanovika; irma manda negara) in the bronte sisters’ novels show novelty in the research. the researchers set out the combined taxonomy to the recent research. the researchers have employed thurlow (2001) and flores (2015) to identify slurs, while allan & burridge’s (2006) parameters to examine social status scale. the discussion of pejorative words in bronte sisters’ novels may advance the understanding of pejorative words as linguistic entities that show the fictional characters’ derogatory expression. the research is to identify the categories of slurs, to present how the swear words are expressed in male or female characters of bronte sisters’ novels, and to examine the social status scale in presenting slurs. methods the research is a qualitative content analysis, as suggested by sahragard and meihami (2016), content analysis is one of six qualitative research categories. thus, data for this research are extracted from the raw data of bronte sisters’ novels (specifically utterances of jane eyre and edward rochester from charlotte bronte’s jane eyre, helen graham and gilbert markham of anne bronte’s the tenant of wildfell hall, as well as catherine earnshaw and heathcliff from emily bronte’s wuthering heights). the data initially intended for speech act study as published in suryanovika and negara (2018). furthermore, elo et al., (2014) have suggested that content analysis requires the researcher to prepare the data collection, the selection of sampling, and unit of analysis. after that, they have stated that the researchers’ selection comprises of preparation (data collection, sampling method, and unit of analysis selection), categorizing, and reporting. likewise, haryono, lelono, and kholifah (2018) have stated that content analysis includes the process of describing, analyzing, and categorizing on the textual data. considering the content analysis process, the researchers at first employ purposive sampling and restricted the sample by considering the criteria: (1) utterances of male/female main characters; (2) utterances have potential derogatory words. one character (helen graham) is excluded from the research because helen’s utterances do not contain the second criteria. the categorizing process using coding, the researchers determine the codes by referring to thurlow (2001), flores (2015), and allan & burridge (2006). the codes are inputted in the code system of maxqda 2018.1 as seen in figure 1, while the utterances of five characters included in the document system. as the data analysis tool, maxqda 2018.1 is apt to do coding process which required in the content analysis approach. the researchers have categorized the utterances into the codes by considering the lexical categories, meanings, and conversational contexts. the researchers, after that, apply the compared group (qualitative and quantitative group) of maxqda 2018 to present and compare the analysis in text and figure. after that, the researchers conclude from the data analysis and present the findings descriptively. the use of maxqda 2018.1 is actually supported the validity and reliability of data analysis since it records, manages, and compiles the data objectively. as stated by yu, jannasch-pennell, and digangi (2011), maxqda is one of the compatible tools for text-based content analysis as it uses statistics to calculate the frequent words. figure 1 code system in maxqda 2018.1 figure 2 portray of maxqda 2018.1 results and discussions in this research, 63 coded segments from 5 documents (including jane eyre, edward rochester, catherine earnshaw, heathcliff, and gilbert markham) are generated from the coding process. the researchers summarize the identified codes of pejorative categories as seen in table 1. 14 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 11-20 table 1 summary of pejorative categories no pejorative categories identified codes percentage 1. thurlow’s taxonomy social personality, phallocentric, sexist. 51 2. slurs based on flores social status 8 3. swear words to the third person, to hearer, to him/ herself. 41 total 100 table 1 clearly shows that the majority of pejorative words categorized into thurlow’s taxonomy. only one category of flores (2015) has found in the utterances. table 2 presents the summary of findings; the researchers argue that the formation of social personality that has found in the utterances of five characters lexically are made from animal metaphors, stereotypes, and other metaphors. the animal metaphor is not a new term, wang and dowker (2008) have exemplified some animals which denote human traits in their research, while kilyeni & silaski (2014) have shown serbian and romanian metaphors representing female negative or positive qualities. in other words, the pejorative items containing animal metaphors may deliver sarcastic or complimentary expression to the addressees; however, the findings only show that animal metaphors are used as a sarcastic expression or speakers’ displeasure which addressed to the hearers who have low status. table 2 breakdown of slurs categories (slurs) items a. social personality animal metaphors : an impertinent little monkey; viper; a sucking leveret; this lamb of yours threatens like a bull; puling chicken; your beasts; a cobweb; idle dog; fellow—scoundrel—dog; your vixen face; toothless hound. b. social personality -stereotype : wretched idiot; idiot; the fool; you are small; a slave-driver—you are like the roman emperors!; little niggard. c. social personality -other metaphors : you elf; you little elfish d. phallocentric : dick e. sexist : you witch!; witch; damnable witch; accursed witch; a mere slut; a wicked slut; insolent slut!; damnable jade; woman. f. social status : my little friend the utterances consist of animal metaphors have found in the utterances of catherine earnshaw, heathcliff, and gilbert markham. these utterances have found in the conversation between catherine earnshaw and her sister in law. (1) “you are an impertinent little monkey! but i’ll not believe this idiocy! it is impossible that you can covet the admiration of heathcliff that you consider him an agreeable person! i hope i have misunderstood you, isabella?” (chapter 10, page 102) literally, the word ‘little monkey’ refers to a child (hornby, 2015). isabella linton is not a child, and catherine earnshaw’s utterance in (1) means to show her unfavorable opinion about isabella linton’s feeling toward heathcliff. it is supported by the adjective ‘impertinent’ strengthening connotative meaning of animal metaphor in the utterance. the heathcliff’s utterance has the animal metaphor showing sarcastic expression. (4) “cathy, this lamb of yours threatens like a bull! it is in danger of splitting its skull against my knuckles. by god! mr. linton, i’m mortally sorry that you are not worth knocking down!” (chapter 11, page 114) in the utterance (4), heathcliff mocks catherine earnshaw’s husband, edgar linton. he compares edgar linton to a lamb without bullhorn that indicates he underestimates edgar’s competence. besides sarcastic expression, the use of animal metaphors to show the intimacy amongst the interlocutors is found in gilbert markham’s utterances in (8). (8) “you’re wrong, my lad. now come here, you idle dog, and make yourself useful for once. pull off your coat, and take my place in the field till i come back.” (chapter 8, page 71) (9) “here, you fellow—scoundrel—dog—give me your hand, and i’ll help you to mount.” (chapter 14, page 118) in the story, fergus is gilbert markham’s youngest brother. in the utterance (8), gilbert markham switches the topic immediately when fergus asks about the present he has. the adjective ‘idle’ indicates that fergus does not work on something, while the slurs ‘dog’ implies an active non-human trait. meanwhile, the utterance (9) actually shows gilbert markham’s jealousy. gilbert markham misinterprets the relationship between lawrence and helen graham. when he runs into lawrence, he accidentally makes lawrence fall from his pony. the slur ‘dog’ in (9) referring to lawrence is only used once which indicates an unfriendly call, and the use of hyphens also implies that there are pauses/gilbert markham’s hesitancy in making a slur. besides animal metaphor, stereotypes also form social personality by emphasizing the negative feature of addresses. however, slurs in the utterances indicate that it comes from personal stereotype, not the natural traits of the addressees. the following dialogue between heathcliff (h) and nelly (n) shows the slur ‘wretched idiot’ refers to nelly. (12) n: “i beg your pardon, ‘but i loved catherine too; and her brother requires attendance, which, for her sake, i shall supply. now, that she’s dead, i see her in hindley: hindley has exactly her eyes, if you had not tried to gouge them out, and made them black and 15the identification of slurs.... (citra suryanovika; irma manda negara) red; and her—” h:”get up, wretched idiot, before i stamp you to death!” (volume ii, chapter 3, page 182) the word ‘idiot’ found in heathcliff’s utterances does not mean the literal meaning of low intelligence of the addressee. it indicates that the slur ‘idiot’ comes from heathcliff’s superior position toward the addressee and personal hatred. the latter argument is found in jane eyre’s utterance: (16) “wicked and cruel boy! you are like a murderer—you are like a slave-driver—you are like the roman emperors!” (chapter 1, page 13). the narration of jane eyre novel depicts the story of jane eyre as a poor child living with the reeds who mistreated her. jane eyre’s utterance expresses her anger at her cousin, john reed, who harshly treated her. the use of ‘like’ denotes the comparison between john reed and slave-driver/roman emperors. the formation of social personality slurs also comes from the addressee’s response as seen in the conversation between jane eyre and edward rochester in data (17). the slur ‘little niggard’ is found in edward rochester’s utterances after heathcliff heard jane eyre’s response depicting her traits. (17) je : “and so have i, sir, i could not spare the money on any account.” er : “little niggard! refusing me a pecuniary request! give me five pounds, jane.” (chapter 21 page 260) je : “not five shillings, sir; nor five pence.” the researchers categorize ‘you elf’ in (18) and ‘you little elfish’ in (19) into other metaphors because both words refer to fairytale creatures which have special traits. the highlighted words in (18) and (19) are the euphemistic expression, rather than dysphemistic/derogatory ones; however, the stress on ‘you’ after expressing his intention indicates that the words contain the derogatory expression. (18) er: “and tells me so when she meets me alone here in the gloaming! if i dared, i’d touch you, to see if you are substance or shadow, you elf!—but i’d as soon offer to take hold of a blue ignisfatuus light in a marsh. truant! truant!’ he added, when he had paused an instant. ‘absent from me a whole month, and forgetting me quite, i’ll be sworn!” (ch. 22 p. 282) (19) er: ”you were, you little elfish—“(chapter 24, page 301) phallocentric and sexist interestingly incline to male and female addressees. the findings show the intimacy among interlocutors enables the phallocentric expression. it is found only in edward rochester’s utterances when he talked to mr. mason (an old friend and brother in law of edward rochester). (20) “we shall get you off cannily, dick.” (chapter 20, page 247) (21) “leave the window open on his side, carter; there is no wind—goodbye, dick.” (chapter 20, page 248) (22) “cheer up, dick!— never fear me!—i’d almost as soon strike a woman as you.” the slur ‘dick’ literally is defined as a taboo word (hornby, 2015). meanwhile, sexist slurs (witch, slut, jade, and woman) referring to female addressees. the sexist slurs present the speakers’ anger or resentful. catherine earnshaw is angry at nelly (her maid) when she said, (23) “ah! nelly has played traitor,” she exclaimed, passionately. “nelly is my hidden enemy. you witch!” (chapter 12, page 128-129), although she knows nelly since she was a child, her anger becomes the priority than share history and similar gender background (both are female). in heathcliff’s utterances, negative adjectives enhance the purpose of using slurs. (25) “if hareton does not turn you out of the room, i’ll strike him to hell,’ damnable witch! dare you pretend to rouse him against me?” (volume ii, chapter 19, page 320) (28) “she degenerates into a mere slut!” (chapter 14, page 149) (29) “and your mother was a wicked slut to leave you in ignorance of the sort of father you possessed.” (volume ii, chapter 6, page 208) (31) “do you hear, damnable jade?” (chapter 3, page 30) the research shows that adjectives are also heightened. the utterance only has the slur ‘witch’ without adjective before utterance (25) delivered to catherine linton that is also found in (31). similarly, the utterances (28) and (29) are referring to isabella linton implies the intensification of slurs. the researchers include ‘woman’ into sexist slurs, not uncategorized items as suggested by thurlow (2001) because it clearly indicates heathcliff’s gender stereotyping. the utterance (32) “in that case, i’ll take measures to secure you, woman! you shall not leave wuthering heights till to-morrow morning.” (chapter 14, page 152), does not show the intimacy between heathcliff and nelly. heathcliff has been known nelly for his lifetime in wuthering heights; it actually explains that he knows nelly well. in other words, the use of ‘woman’ instead of addressee’s name indicates that heathcliff is seriously offended by nelly’s suggestion, and he prefers to overlook the relationship. these utterances exemplify how the sexist slurs basically show anger or shock. the former expression is found in catherine earnshaw and heathcliff, while the latter is found in edward rochester who wakes up in surprise because jane eyre waters him. the following dialogue explained how the slur ‘witch’ made. (27) je: “no, sir, but there has been a fire: get up, do; you are quenched now; i will fetch you a candle.” er : ‘in the name of all the elves in christendom, is that jane eyre? what have you done with me, witch, sorceress? who is in the room besides you? have you plotted to drown me?” (chapter 15, page 174) je : “i will fetch you a candle, sir; and, in heaven’s name, get up. somebody has plotted something: you cannot too soon find out who and what it is.” unlike another utterance, the slur ‘witch’ in (27) is initiated by the religious statement, and also expressed in the interrogative form asking jane eyre’s action. in addition to thurlow’s (2001) pejorative items which are used to identify slurs, the researchers find a unique item which based on social status scale amongst the interlocutors in edward rochester’s utterances. the unique items appear five times in his utterances; it implies that edward rochester considered the gap between himself and 16 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 11-20 jane eyre. the utterance, for example, in (36) “little friend, you have noticed my tender penchant for miss ingram: don’t you think if i married her she would regenerate me with a vengeance?” (chapter 20, page 253). the item ‘my little friend’ is categorized into social status slur because the speaker’s social status (edward rochester) is higher than the addressee (jane eyre). besides, edward rochester is older than jane eyre as described in the utterance of supporting character. “mr. rochester was about forty, and this governess not twenty; and you see, when gentlemen of his age fall in love with girls, they are often like as if they were bewitched. well, he would marry her.” (chapter 36, page 492) because of the age disparity and social status, the expression ‘my little friend’ is not to fit the characteristics of jane eyre but to highlight the status gap amongst both characters. besides the identification of slurs, the second major finding is the different use of swear words in the fictional characters heathcliff, gilbert markham, and edward rochester. the swear words ‘fool’, ‘humbug’, ‘deuce’, ‘devil’, ‘damn’, and ‘by hell’ are found in declarative or interrogative forms. the declarative form is likely used to express the speaker’s annoyance at the condition as seen in the following conversation between gilbert markham (gm) and lawrence (l). (38) gm : “where?” l : “at grassdale manor.” gm : ”how was it? who betrayed her?” l : ”she went of her own accord.” gm : ”impossible, lawrence! she could not be so frantic!” l : ”she did, and not without reason. mr. huntingdon is ill.” gm : ”and so she went to nurse him?” l : “yes.” gm : “fool! is he dying, then?’ (volume iii, chapter 47, page 422) l : “i think not, markham.” the word ‘fool!’ expresses gilbert markham’s annoyance at helen graham’s decision to nurse mr. huntingdon. the conversation continued to (39) where the swear word ‘humbug’ expresses gilbert markham’s doubt. (39) gm :”and how many more nurses has he? how many ladies are there besides to take care of him?” l :”none; he was alone, or she would not have gone.” gm :”oh, confound it! this is intolerable! what is? that he should be alone?” l :”nothing persuaded her but her own sense of duty.” gm :”humbug!” (volume iii, chapter 47, page 422) the word ‘humbug’ is also found in edward rochester’s utterance which contextually indicates an exclamation of sceptic. (40) je :”i am sure, sir, i should never mistake informality for insolence: one i rather like, the other nothing free-born would submit to, even for a salary.” er : ”humbug! most things free-born will submit to anything for a salary; therefore, keep to yourself, and don’t venture on generalities of which you are intensely ignorant.” (chapter 14, page 158) according to the context of the conversation, edward rochester’s utterance in (40) means to show his doubt about jane eyre’s justification. it implies that the word ‘humbug’ in gilbert markham or heathcliff is expressed in declarative form to doubt the addressees’ previous statements. differently, the words ‘deuce’ and ‘devil’ are conveyed declaratively and interrogatively. it is found that the interrogative forms include wh-question forms, especially ‘what’, ‘who’, and ‘how’. besides, the swearing in declarative form is expressing their disappointment as highlighted by the adjectives ‘cursed’, ‘envenomed’, or ‘vile’ which have negative meanings. (47) “well, then, i won’t go to-day, as it’s getting latish. but oh, deuce take their cursed, envenomed tongues!” (chapter 11, page 96) (48) “let them go to the deuce with their vile constructions and their lying inventions!” (chapter 12, page 102103) the utterances (47) and (48) of gilbert markham refers to eliza milward and the neighbors who gossiped about helen graham. the word ‘deuce’ is considered as a euphemistic expression for ‘devil’ is expressing surprise or annoyance by hornby (2015). the researchers aim at showing the different expression influenced by the social background represented by edward rochester and heathcliff. the obvious findings are the word ‘deuce’ is found in edward rochester’s and gilbert markham’s utterance, while the word ‘devil’ is mostly found in heathcliff’s utterance. surprisingly, the word ‘devil’ expresses in the imperative form of edward rochester’s utterance is different from heathcliff’s swearing in (54), “to the devil with your clamour! i don’t want you to speak.” (volume ii, chapter 13, page 274) heathcliff’s utterance aims to swear nelly who suggested him to accept his son, and the next imperative utterance signifies that he is angry. meanwhile, the imperative form of edward rochester’s utterance which consists of the word ‘devil’ is not aimed to express his anger, but to refer to his crazy wife. he suggests the audiences (mr. mason and lawyer) who counteract his wedding ceremony to see his wife’s condition. the swear words ‘damn’ and ‘by hell’ express similarly; the words are followed by the exclamation mark and further explanation as seen in the following utterances. (56) “damn the fool! there he is,” (volume ii, chapter 1, page 164) (57) “oh, damn my soul! but that’s worse than i expected and the devil knows i was not sanguine!” (volume ii, chapter 6, page 207) (58) “there damn it! if you have any kisses to spare, give them to linton: they are thrown away on me.” (volume ii, chapter 7, page 216) (59) “i’m getting angry and if you don’t command that paltry spirit of yours damn you! get up directly!” (volume ii, chapter 13, page 268) (60) “oh, damn it! it’s unutterably too much for flesh and 17the identification of slurs.... (citra suryanovika; irma manda negara) blood to bear even mine.” (volume ii, chapter 20, page 334) (61) “damn him! — (to me.), did you like him, jane?” (chapter 37, page 508) there is only one of edward rochester’s utterances having the word ‘damn’ as in (61), and the word is referred to jane eyre’s description about st. john. the words refer to the third person also found in heathcliff’s utterance (56). in the meantime, the words are also referred to the addressee directly as in (59), or the speaker himself as in (57), (58), or (60). the word ‘by hell’ is exclaimed when heathcliff shows his refusal of catherine earnshaw’s suggestion in (62); contextually, the word signifies his strong refusal. (62) “by hell, no! i’ll crush his ribs in like a rotten hazelnut before i cross the threshold! if i don’t floor him now, i shall murder him some time; so, as you value his existence, let me get at him!” (chapter 11, page 115) (63) “by hell! i hate them.” (volume ii, chapter 13, page 270) the narration seemingly indicates that heathcliff is angry before he utters the utterance in (63); he breathes, smacks the table, and talks to himself. the most obvious finding to emerge after studying slurs and swear words is the social status amongst interlocutors. using allan and burridge (2006), the researchers find that the social status scale is due to age disparity, gender difference, and social ranks which are found in the narration or dialogue in the novels. in this research, three aforesaid parameters (allan & burridge, 2006) put the characters as the speakers in the conversation. their social ranks are shown in the narration or supporting characters’ utterances. the description of the characters’ social ranks in society supports the analysis of social status. the discussion of the social status scale between characters in each novel is explained in the next paragraphs. edward rochester is depicted as the owner of thornfield hall, the property where jane eyre works as the governess of a young girl in thornfield hall (bronte, 2006). meanwhile, heathcliff is found by mr. earnshaw when he is fourteen years old; the story narrated by the nelly: “the former was a boy of fourteen, but when he drew out what had been a fiddle, crushed to morsels in the great-coat, he blubbered aloud.” (bronte, 1995) “this was heathcliff’s first introduction to the family. on coming back a few days afterwards (for i did not consider my banishment perpetual), i found they had christened him ‘heathcliff’: it was the name of a son who died in childhood, and it has served him ever since, both for christian and surname. miss cathy and he were now very thick; but hindley hated him: and to say the truth i did the same; and we plagued and went on with him shamefully: for i wasn’t reasonable enough to feel my injustice, and the mistress never put in a word on his behalf when she saw him wronged.” (bronte, 1995). nelly as the narrator of wuthering heights explains the history of heathcliff in the narration. her statement strengthens heathcliff’s social rank which described as a fourteen-year-old boy who is introduced to the earnshaw family, baptized heathcliff, and hated by hindley, nelly, and even mrs. eyre, as stated: “..but hindley hated him: and to say the truth i did the same; and we plagued and went on with him shamefully: for i wasn’t reasonable enough to feel my injustice, and the mistress never put in a word on his behalf when she saw him wronged”. differently, gilbert markham of the tenant of wildfell hall depicts himself in the first chapter of the novel: “my father, as you know, was a sort of gentleman farmer in —shire; and i, by his express desire, succeeded him in the same quiet occupation, not very willingly, for ambition urged me to higher aims, and selfconceit assured me that, in disregarding its voice, i was burying my talent in the earth, and hiding my light under a bushel” (bronte, 1996). according to the narration, a farmer in that era is considered important as stated by gilbert markham: “well!—an honest and industrious farmer is one of the most useful members of society” (bronte, 1996). the narration emphasizes the high social rank of markham in society. slurs which categorized into social personality (animal metaphor, stereotype, other metaphors), sexist, and social status are mostly found in the speakers who have high social status. their utterances are delivered to the hearers who have low social rank in the society; they worked as the maid or governess. uniquely, intimacy among edward rochester (er) and jane eyre (je) enables slurs ‘small’ in the following dialogue: (15) er : “well, i feigned courtship of miss ingram, because i wished to render you as madly in love with me as i was with you; and i knew jealousy would be the best ally i could call in for the furtherance of that end.” (16) je : “excellent! now you are small—not one whit bigger than the end of my little finger. it was a burning shame and a scandalous disgrace to act in that way. did you think nothing of miss ingram’s feelings, sir?” (chapter 24, page 303) the dialogue between edward rochester and jane eyre shows their intimacy as seen in edward rochester’s honesty about his strategical plot to bait jane eyre. his straight explanation indicates how edward rochester (the owner of thornfield hall who has high social rank) is open about himself to the low social rank or the governess (jane eyre). in the dialogue, furthermore, jane eyre criticizes edward rochester’s plot, the adjective ‘excellent’ and adverb of time ‘now’ precedes slurs ‘small’ indicates the sarcastic expression, are not a compliment. the expression, however, is only found in jane eyre’s expression after her relationship with edward rochester is not as formal as their first encounter. jane eyre’s question, however, in the utterance (16) still shows politeness due to age disparity and social rank as the term of address ‘sir’ is used. after discussing slurs, swear words and social 18 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 11-20 status scale, it indicates that the findings of this research agrees with hom (2010) about the way pejorative words, especially slurs and swear words, use to deliver derogatory attitude. the items of slurs in this present research also confirm hedger (2012) who stated that slurs are not polite expression. the current research proves that thurlow’s (2001) phallocentric and sexist slurs are directed to male and female hearers. it signifies that the phallocentric slurs are found amongst male interlocutors, while sexist slurs are varied. the latter is not only expressed by male speakers to female hearers, but it is also expressed by a female speaker to another female as in catherine earnshaw’s utterance (23). the finding of sexist slurs ‘witch’ from catherine earnshaw to nelly shows that similar gender background (female) does not prevent the use of slurs, and it enhances the idea that the social rank highly matters because in wuthering heights. catherine earnshaw is the only daughter of mr. earnshaw, and she is considered a woman who held a high social rank, while nelly is her housekeeper (low social rank). the identification of slur ‘witch’ is found in heathcliff’s, edward rochester’s, and catherine earnshaw’s utterances that are categorized into thurlow’s sexist slurs. it does not in line with anderlini-d’onofrio (2003) about the sexist slurs ‘slut’, ‘witch’, ‘bitch’ that are indicating female empowering quality in the third-wave feminism. the identification is determined on the basis of the contextual explanation; the sexist slurs indicates speakers’ hatred (heathcliff’s gender stereotyping), anger (catherine earnshaw’s emotional expression), or surprise (edward rochester’s automatic response). the finding of sexist slurs ‘damnable jade’ and ‘damnable witch’ emphasizes corver (2014) who states the cursing ‘damn’ may function as an adjective symbolizing individual’s emotion. although corver (2014) has categorized ‘damn’ as a cursing (swearing) expression, the word ‘damnable’ cannot be separated morphologically as it comes from the word ‘damn’. beside the slur ‘witch’, the word ‘woman’ is also categorized into slurs after referring to allan (2016) which explains that ‘nigger’ can be interpreted as the solidarity marker or slurs under certain circumstances; thus, the researchers also depended on the context in categorizing the word ‘woman’. this word literally refers to female human being, but the word ‘woman’ in heathcliff’s utterances (32) contains a derogatory expression because the context indicates heathcliff’s disparaging attitude. one unexpected finding is the different swear words between heathcliff, edward rochester, and gilbert markham. instead of using ‘devil’, ‘damn’ or ‘by hell’ dominantly are found in heathcliff, edward rochester, and gilbert markham, they have the expression ‘deuce’ and ‘humbug’. the different expression explains the influence of original societal background, especially the difference between childhood experience and treatment between these three male main characters. in other words, the different expression proves that the male characters do not dominantly produce swear words, but also euphemistic expression. in addition, the finding of sexist slurs from catherine earnshaw to nelly shows that the female character who has high social status could produce sexist slurs to another female character who has low social rank. the findings also show that the male characters mostly dominate the use of swear words; in other words, it acknowledges allan and burridge (2006). on the contrary, the findings of ‘deuce’ as a euphemistic expression for ‘devil’ in the male speakers who have high social rank (edward rochester and gilbert markham) counter allan and burridge (2006) who stated that female speakers dominantly produce euphemistic expression. the findings of ‘damn’, ‘devil’ and ‘hell’ are also not in line with the categorization of nasution and rosa (2012). they categorize the swearword ‘devil’ into names of supernatural or infernal powers, while ‘damn’ belongs to vulgar or obscene words, and ‘hell’ refers to swearwords relating to future life. nasution and rosa’s (2012) categorization is based on the outdated theory which terms are not relevant to recent research. besides, the utterances containing swear words ‘devil’, ‘damn’ and ‘by hell’ in the bronte sisters’ novels, it has to be interpreted contextually. the utterances do not only target the speakers, but also the direct and indirect hearers in expressing swear words. it is likely similar to johnson and lewis (2010), they find that the phrase ‘damn client’ targets the third party, and the force is not as surprising as the phrases ‘fuck off’ or ‘screw you’ which may target certain hearer. conclusions the research has shown three out of nine thurlow’s (2001) pejorative items (social personality, phallocentric, and sexist), the possible formation of social personality slurs, the identification of swear words for showing speakers’ emotional states, and the influence of social status scale on the expression of slurs. interestingly, the research has found how animal metaphor and stereotypes represented social personality slurs. the formation of this slurs enriches the research of slurs using thurlow’s taxonomy. on top of that, the recent research contributes to the research of slurs and swear words, and it enhances the opportunity of future researchers that may refer to the former identification in conducting further research on slurs and swear words. although the research has successfully identified slurs and swear words in the bronte sisters’ novels, it has a certain limitation in terms of the restricted unit of analysis. therefore, the reader should bear in mind that the research merely focused on the collected utterances of heathcliff, catherine earnshaw, jane eyre, edward rochester, and gilbert markham. further research regarding supporting characters of bronte sisters’ novels would be worthwhile to advance the knowledge of slurs and swear words in the victorian era. acknowledgements this article was one of research outcomes of pdp (penelitian dosen pemula) in 2018. the researchers thank drpm kementerian riset, teknologidan pendidikan tinggi republik indonesia for funding the research under pdp project in 2018, under sk no. 0045/e3/ll/2018 (duration: 22 february to 16 november 2018). references al-khasawneh, f. 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(2011). compatibility between text mining and qualitative research in the perspectives of grounded theory, content analysis, and reliability. the qualitative report, 16(3), 730–744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tpb.2014.02.003. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 209 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 209-216 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5969 students’ perceptions on the use of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class winny nur ardy sudrajat1; pupung purnawarman2 1, 2,english education department, universitas pendidikan indonesia jl. dr. setiabudi no. 229, isola, bandung 40154, indonesia 1winnynurardy@gmail.com; 2purnawarman@upi.edu received: 08th july 2019/revised: 18th july 2019/accepted: 25th july 2019 how to cite: sudrajat, w. n. a., & purnawarman, p. (2019). students’ perceptions on the use of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class. lingua cultura, 13(3), 209-216. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5969 abstract the research aimed at investigating students’ perceptions and experiences of using google docs in the translation class. google docs provided characteristics that can be used to promote peer interaction. however, the use of google docs as teaching and learning media was rarely conducted and still limited to teaching writing in indonesia. google docs was commonly used by the translator to translate collaboratively, so the students worked together in a small group to solve and discuss the translation assignment by using some features through google docs. these activities were expected to enhance collaboration among them. this research employed a qualitative descriptive study as the research design. the questionnaire was used as the instrument to collect the data that involved fifty students (n = 50) as the participant. the results of this research show that students have a positive response to the use of google docs in translation class. it indicates that google docs is a suitable tool that can be used for educational purposes. keywords: student perception, google docs, online collaborative, translation class introduction the traditional method of teaching refers to the ways of teaching which apply or use pencil-paper based system. teaching translation using a traditional method could make students bored (hartono, 2015). it seems that the monotonous system of a traditional method causes the students’ boredom. today, technology offers teachers to make teaching and learning activities in translation class more attractive. google docs is one of the media which can be used to make teaching and learning activities in translation class more interesting. it is created by google, which provides four main alternatives; google documents, google spreadsheets, google presentations, and google drawing; all of which share features comparable to those found in the microsoft office apps (jannah, 2017). one of the online translation tools commonly used in indonesia to assist students in learning translation is google translate. google translate can assist students in translating the text. most of the students are familiar with this tool. however, there are some positive and negative effects for the students regarding the use of google translate. according to kusmayadi (2014), the adverse result of using google translate is that learners depend too heavily on it. however, they do not learn much as google translate translation method is very instantaneous. features on google translate are also useful in assisting students to solve translation problems. recently, there is another online tool which also used in translation class, namely, google docs. however, it is still less familiar to apply google docs in translation class. for those reasons, this research will discuss the use of google docs in translation class. while google docs has no characteristics to translate a document as google translate can do, it is common for translators to use google docs to translate a document collaboratively. dekeyser and watson (2006) have suggested using google docs as a collaborative tool as it is a lightweight application, supports simultaneous editing job, and enables various editors. they use google docs to cooperate on the present paper, as well as on other papers, and slides. they state that google docs is an excellent platform for collaboration. since the research was conducted in 2006, they have mentioned several limitations of google docs, such as google docs do not support offline document editing, mathematical formulae, citations, figures, tables, and a bibliography; do not restrict access to files; do not build html. meanwhile, today, there are some improvements that have been made to the platform. it promotes offline document editing, mathematical formulas, quotations, numbers, tables, and bibliography, limits document access, and builds html. the use of google docs as teaching and learning media is rarely conducted and is still limited to teaching writing in indonesia. research by jannah (2017) is conducted 210 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 209-216 in padang, west sumatra, indonesia shows by integrating technology such as google docs into a learning process that can help improving students’ writing skills. however, to the best of the knowledge, there almost no single research has been reported on the implementation of google docs in translation class. for that reason, this research is going to discuss the use of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class. based on the previous explanation, this research attempts to find the responses of the students toward the use of google docs in the classroom. this research will be conducted to undergraduate students of an english literature department in one of the universities in bandung who take translating specific english texts. the lecturer has been using google docs in translation class since 2017. besides, as a lecturer, she is also a translator. she introduces the platform to the students since she has some experiences in working collaboratively with other translators using google docs. she realizes that introducing computer-assisted tool software will train the students to become professional translators. according to sofyan and tarigan (2016), today, professional translators should be able to understand and use technology to the maximum advantage. using the internet and computer are technical skills that are giving an introduction of google docs to the students is needed. so, they will know how to utilize it appropriately. google docs is another digital tool that includes blog and wiki functionality that also has the potential to promote collaboration. it is a free web-based application in the google docs suite that enables users to create, share, and edit online files, spreadsheets, presentations, and forms (chu & kennedy, 2011). google docs allows its users to work on collaborative projects by effectively and flexibly importing existing documents or creating new documents. the users can edit and view the changes made by others when they are online at the same time (yang, 2010). there are three kinds of participants in google docs, namely document owner, viewer, and collaborator (mansor, 2012). document owner is the one who creates a document. the owner can invite the viewers to view and collaborators to edit the documents. to get started with google docs, users must first create an account and then a document. they must first create an account and then a document to get started with google docs. they may invite others to work with, update, or edit the document. changes to a document are downloaded and saved to the server automatically. google’s server also maintains extensive revision history, and writers can view the article as it appeared in the past at any moment. the first step to begin using google docs is by creating the google docs account. in order to create google docs, the users need to have a gmail account first then can sign in to utilize all google tools. the way to sign in and sign up can be seen in figure 1. the second step is creating the document. to create a document, users can click the file menu and choose docs to begin the document. this step can be seen in figure 2. after that, the users need to click the blank document to start it that can be seen in figure 3. once the users have selected the blank document, an untitled document will appear that can be seen in figure 4. then, the untitled document can be renamed by just clicking it. it can be simply organized the document according to the users’ need. the example of the paper outline can be seen in figure 5. the document is ready to be used. figure 1 google docs sign in page figure 2 how to create a document figure 3 choose the blank document 211students’ perceptions on the .... (winny nur ardy sudrajat; pupung purnawarman) figure 4 the untitled google document figure 5 the paper outline the third step is share the access to collaborators. the users can share the document to others with three options such as can edit, comment, and view. ‘can edit’ means that the people who are invited will be able to write, edit, give comment, and reply on the document. if the option is ‘can comment’, they will not be able to edit or write, only give comments on the document. “can view’ means that they will be able to see all the activities happens on the document, but they will not be able to write, edit, give comment, or reply it. these three options can be seen in figure 6. figure 6 three options of sharing in the context of collaboration in translating, the document owner needs to add the editors by adding their e-mail addresses. by clicking send, the access to the document is granted to other editors. the way to invite the editors can be seen in figure 7. after these steps, these users are ready to collaborate. the collaborators can edit the document anytime and anywhere, as long as they have an internet connection. figure 7 inviting other editors the fourth step is to download options. the document can be downloaded into pdf, word, html, and other formats, as shown in figure 8. the users can download the document according to their needs. if the users are invited as the editor, all the activities shown in the google docs will be seen in the downloaded document. figure 8 download options google docs promotes features that can be used to collaborate with others. after creating the documents and inviting others to the document, it is ready to be utilized; the example of the document after inviting other editors as in figure 9. all the activities in the document are automatically saved in the drive, the document owner and other editors can track it easily. it is as in figure 10. 212 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 209-216 figure 9 example of document figure 10 all changes saved in drive ‘add comment’ is one of the features in the document that all the editors can utilize this feature. the comment will show up in the right bar of the document. it supports peer editing among the editors since all the comment will be seen by everyone. it can be seen in figure 11. figure 11 feature ‘add comment’ the editors also can use this feature to discuss with others in the document. they can ask questions or give feedback to other editors who are typing. they can use this feature by clicking ‘chat’ in the right column of the document. the ‘chat’ feature can be seen in figure 12. figure 12 ‘chat’ feature collaborative learning is a learning that resulted from the interaction of peers involved in a common task. the completion of a group project is one of the aims of collaborative learning. it is possible to form collaborative learning groups to engage students with the subject matter. in this research, collaborative learning groups help students to solve the translation problems in the classroom through the use of google docs as learning platforms. collaboration discussed in the research can also be considered as a collaborative translation which refers to the activity of producing a translation between students in the classroom. the term of collaborative translation can be defined as working together between students to solve translation problems. every student in the classroom has access to the same document posted in google docs by the lecturer. they need to translate a short story by working in a small group. the tasks from the lecturer for the students are translating the story and editing their peer’s translation work. computer use is commonly recognized as its elevated effect on teaching and learning activities. the computer also works as an instrument for supporting the learning process as well as a platform for providing instructional materials. the development of information communication technology (ict) gives an advantage to education, particularly in the implementation of computer-supported collaborative learning (cscl). collaborative learning is a learning process among students that has been confirmed to achieve particular instructional objectives. it is rooted in the constructivist concept of learning which is introduced by vygotsky in 1978. vygotsky (1978) has stated that when students enter the zone of proximal development (zpd), where they build understanding by exchanging data in a social context, they will maximize learning. cscl offers learners and educators with a flexible online collaborative teaching setting. according to liu and lan (2016), students will be more able to think critically when they are working collaboratively. so the usage of google docs has an important role in promoting collaborative learning, which in turn increases students’ motivation and engagement in learning. balakrishnan (2014) has stated that the growth of web 2.0 technologies locate the route for the use of this latest web technology in cscl. google docs enables its users to work on collaborative projects by efficiently and flexibly importing currents documents or producing new documents. because of its characteristics, this application promotes collaborative learning. 213students’ perceptions on the .... (winny nur ardy sudrajat; pupung purnawarman) according to larson (1984), translation is basically a change of form. the form of target language replaces the form of the source language. the translation is a process of changing language, both oral and written from a source language into the target language by keeping the original content. the translation is a process of delivering the meaning of a text from the source language into the target language (newmark, 1988). moreover, newmark (1988) has stated that the translator must study the text not for himself/herself, but as something that might have to be reconstituted for a distinct readership in a distinct culture. regarding the technology, newmark (1988) has mentioned that translation is co-extensive with the rise of technology. he names it as technical translation. technical translation is one part of specialized translation. it could be defined as the non-cultural translation because there will be no cultural differences on terms from the source language to the target language. the major obstacle in technical translation is that each field of technology has a particular technical term. technology is the field where students have to be most up to date. by implementing google docs in translation class, it could be very useful to assist students in getting closer to be a technical translator. an amount of research has been conducted by teachers and educational experts to see the use of google docs as blended learning platforms, the benefit, and the implementation of google docs. research by ebadi and rahimi (2017) have revealed the impact of online peerediting using google docs on efl learners’ academic writing skills. they assessed the learners’ academic writing skills and conducted a semi-structured interview to gain the learners’ perceptions toward the impact of online peerediting using google docs. the findings have stated that online peer-editing using google docs can improve the learners’ academic writing skills. from the interview, most of the learners have positive attitudes and perceptions towards using google docs. another research with similar results is also conducted by alsubaie and ashuraidah (2017) to explore the effectiveness of using google docs in students’ writing skills. they have stated that google docs enhanced the students’ writing ability. zhou, simpson, and domizi (2012) have evaluated the effectiveness of using google docs in an out-of-class collaborative writing activity for an introductory psychology course. they teach students to work collaboratively through writing. the results of the research have suggested that google docs is a promising tool for collaborative writing and influenced student learning. suwantarathip and wichadee (2014) have conducted research that compares the writing abilities of students who collaborate on writing assignments using google docs with those working in groups in a face to face classroom. the results indicate that students have a positive attitude toward collaborative writing activity using google docs. students in the google docs group gain a higher mean score than those working in groups in a face to face classroom. they perceive that google docs is easy to use in the learning activity. jannah (2017) has conducted research that aims to find out the process of collaborative writing using google docs and to analyze the development of students’ writing skills through it. this research is conducted in one of the state polytechnics in padang, west sumatra, indonesia. the participants of the research are one lecturer and six students. the result of the research shows that collaborative writing using google docs can be an alternative way to develop students’ writing skills, although there are several numbers of obstacles stumble upon a collaborative writing process using google docs. considering that google docs have some features which can support students to collaborate with others, it is assumed that the use of google docs is able to ease the students to do the translation assignments in the group. to investigate how the students perceived the use of google docs in translation class, this research aims to examine the students’ perception of google docs usage in translation class. methods the research uses a qualitative approach since this research is aimed to answer the proposed research question: what are students’ responses towards the use of google docs in the translation class. generally, the data will be taken from translating specific english texts classes in one of the universities in bandung. the data collected will be in the form of students’ responses related to students’ opinion about the use of google docs in translation class. the online questionnaire is used to collect data in this research. the questionnaire is adapted from similar previous researches by reyna (2013); and woodrich and fan (2017). the questionnaire consists of 15 closed-ended questions using a four-likert scale. the questionnaire is administered to find out students’ perceptions on the use of google docs in the classroom. data from students’ closed-ended online questionnaire are collected from google drive. the percentage of each statement is computed by google drive; then it is interpreted descriptively. the data from the questionnaire are used to provide a description of students’ perceptions on the use of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class. results and discussions the lecturer starts to applicate the google docs in the translating process in the last four meetings out of twelve meetings at the end of the semester. the lecturer introduces the students to use google docs in the classroom. the first session of the implementation of google docs is started by inviting the students via e-mail in order to have access to the document shared in google docs. then, the lecturer explains the use of google docs in the learning process. most of the students are familiar with the use of technology in the classroom since they have used google docs for certain subjects. google docs is simple to use that does not require knowledge of special commands (dekeyser & watson, 2006). in other words, the students involved in this research are accustomed to the technologybased learning environment. the learning process at that time focuses on the use of google docs, so the lecturer starts the class by posting the assignments to do for the following week. the students should do the assignments in the group. each member of the group is required to translate 3-4 paragraphs of the texts. in addition, the students have to give their opinion or reason for their own translation. if they have finished their individual tasks, they have to give their comment or edit in their peers’ translation works. thus, this section presents and discusses the findings related to the research question proposed in this research. 214 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 209-216 the results of the research are obtained from 50 participants of three classes of translating specific english texts. table 1 presents the results of questionnaire which are related to students’ perception of using google docs in general. table 1 students’ perceptions of using google docs no students perceptions of using google docs questions sa a d sd 1. google docs application is easy to use 26% 68% 6% 2. google docs interface is intuitive and easy to follow 18% 78% 4% 3. working with google docs makes my learning experience more engaging 14% 74% 10% 2% sa (strongly agree) a (agree) d (dissagree) sd(strongly dissagree) table 1 shows that most respondents are strongly agree (26%) and agree (68%) that google docs application is easy to use in their translation class. 6% of students vote to disagree with that statement. the students are strongly agree (18%) and agree (78%) that google docs interface is intuitive and easy to follow. only 4% of students think that google docs is not intuitive and easy to use. some students are disagree (10%) and strongly disagree (2%) with the questions number 3. it states that working with google docs make their learning experience more engaging, while 14% chose strongly agree, and 74% chose to agree. table 2 student experience of using google docs no students experience of using google docs questions sa a d sd 1. google docs makes me more productive 16% 48% 32% 4% 2. i do not have any issue using google docs 10% 66% 22% 2% 3. i would like to use google docs in future learning 32% 54% 12% 2% 4. overall my experience using google docs is good 26% 68% 6% table 2 shows the students’ response to their experience of using google docs. it shows that 16% of the students strongly agree, and 48% of them agree that google docs makes them more productive. while 32% disagree and 4% strongly disagree with the question that has stated in number 4. some of the students strongly agree (10%), and agree (66%) that they do not have any issue in using google docs. however, 22 % of students chose to disagree, and 2% of them strongly disagree. majority of the students strongly agree (32%) and agree (54%) that they would like to use google docs in future learning. moreover, there are students who strongly agree (26%), and agree (68%) that they have good experience using google docs. table 3 student attitude toward collaborative translation using google docs no questions sa a d sd 1. i like to see my peers interact with the content i have posted on google docs 10% 84% 6% 2. i feel comfortable to see other students edit the content i have posted 10% 70% 20% 3. my group is able to come to an agreement by using google docs 14% 70% 16% 4. the feedback and editing from peers are useful in improving my translation skill 14% 76% 8% 2% as could be seen from table 3, the majority of the students have a positive attitude toward collaborative translation using google docs. hence 94% of the students (the aggregated result of ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’) agree that they like to see their peers interact with the content they have posted on google docs, while 80% agree that they feel comfortable to see other students edit the content they have posted. moreover, 84% of the students believe that their group is able to come to an agreement by using google docs. also, 90% of the students agree that the feedback and editing from peers are useful in improving their translation skill. table 4 student attitude toward collaborative translation using google docs (continued) no questions sa a d sd 5. google docs help me share ideas with the other students 20% 70% 10% 6. the use of google docs promotes knowledge information 10% 72% 18% 7. the use of google docs increases interaction with other students 10% 68% 22% 8. the use of google docs promotes collaborative learning environment 16% 74% 10% the findings of the research, as presented in table 4, reveal that students have a positive attitude toward collaborative translation using google docs. 90% of the students have stated that google docs helps them share the ideas with other students, 82% agree that the use of google docs promote knowledge information, 78% believes that the use of google docs increases interaction with other students, while 90% of them considers that the use of google docs promotes collaborative learning environment. based on the results of the survey, the students believe that the use of google docs in translation class 215students’ perceptions on the .... (winny nur ardy sudrajat; pupung purnawarman) is useful to them. it can be seen from the high percentage of the students who choose ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ of each statement in the survey. the findings indicate that the implementation of google docs in translation class could bring benefits for students to work collaboratively in translating the texts given by the lecturer, and could increase the interaction between students like what kessler, bikowski, & boggs (2012) have said. the findings of this research are also in line with the results reported by the previous research by jannah (2017) in which the use of google docs is a useful tool for collaborative learning and influenced student learning. conclusions by implementing google docs in translation class, it could be a useful tool to promote collaboration between students. the results have been corroborated by other researches. they could utilize features in google docs to interact, edit, and have an agreement with other students. since the students have a positive response to the use of google docs in the classroom, this can be concluded that google docs is a potential tool to enhance students’ interest in learning. google docs could be implemented to make teaching and learning activities more attractive. moreover, google docs is a suitable tool for educational uses. hopefully, the implementation of google docs, especially in translation studies, will trigger students’ productivity and collaboration in order to enhance the quality of their translation work. all educators need to improve their teaching method by implementing suitable technology to create a positive atmosphere in the classroom. this research has several limitations when the results are interpreted. the first limitation is derived from the small number of students involved in this research. further research with a larger population probably contributes to obtaining more statistically significant results and analysis. another limitation is derived from the observation conducted in the classroom. the researcher is invited as a viewer in the google docs; therefore, not all the activities can be captured during the implementation of google docs in the classroom. the research shows the descriptions about the implementation of google docs as an online collaborative tool in translation class. based on the findings and conclusions, this research offers the suggestion that can be useful for further researchers who are interested in analyzing the use of google docs in translation study. future studies might explore and compare the learners’ attitudes and perception towards the use of google docs in the classroom in both google docs and traditional classroom. moreover, research on the effectiveness of using google docs in the classroom might also be explored to find out in what aspects google docs that improves students’ translation skills. references alsubaie, j., & ashuraidah, a. 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(2012). google docs in an out-of-class collaborative writing activity. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 24(3), 359–375. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 87 lingua cultura, 13(2), may 2019, 87-92 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i2.5287 considering all (non) living things: a biocentric orientation in blair richmond’s the lithia trilogy ida farida sachmadi1; yudi permadi2; trisha adelia3; nolly liviani4 1,2,3,4department of literature and cultural studies, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas padjadjaran jl. raya bandung sumedang km. 21, jawa barat 45363, indonesia 1i.farida@unpad.ac.id; 2yudi.permadi.08@gmail.com; 3trishasasing98@gmail.com; 4nollyliviani@gmail.com received: 12th march 2019/revised: 27th march 2019/accepted: 08th april 2019 how to cite: sachmadi, i. f., permadi, y., adelia, t., & liviani, n. (2019). considering all (non) living things: a biocentric orientation in blair richmond’s the lithia trilogy. lingua cultura, 13(2), 87-92. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i2.5287 abstract this research elucidated the perspective of the lithia trilogy (out of breath, the ghost runner, and the last mile), written by blair richmond, towards the environment. it was executed based on ecocriticism, a research method which focused on the exploration of environmental issues in literary works. the theory was taken from laurence buell on the meaning of ecocriticism. from the analysis of the structure of the novels, it was found that the trilogy presented the idea of biocentrism, an assumption that the earth and all of the living things on it had the right to fulfill their needs. biocentrism was the opposing concept of anthropocentrism, both of which were studied in environmental ethics. two issues of conflicts were presented in this trilogy: herbivores versus omnivores and environmentalists versus capitalists. the result of the research reveals that the novels suggest not to eat animals to save fauna and introduce the gaia hypothesis to save all living and non-living things on the earth. in other words, the novel tends to have a biocentric orientation. as one work of young adult literature, this trilogy explicitly teaches those suggestions to the readers, especially young readers. keywords: biocentric orientation, young adult literature, ecocriticism introduction in this research, the writers presents the results of a study of young adult literary works, entitled the lithia trilogy by blair richmond, based on ecocriticism. this research uncovers the perspective of the narrator in these young adult novels on environmental issues. these three novels are analyzed by applying the ecocritic approach. it is developed by laurence buell in the 1990s, who has stated that this approach is intended to explore the environmental dimensions in literature in order to care about environmental problems so that literary researchers could contribute to people’s understanding upon the healthy environment. laurence buell, a professor of english literature at harvard university, in buell, heise, & thornber (2011) has explained the definition of ecocriticism that literature and environment studies are commonly called ‘ecocriticism’ or ‘environmental criticism’ in analogy to the more general term literary criticism—comprise an eclectic, pluriform, and cross-disciplinary initiative. it aims to explore the environmental dimensions of literature and other creative media in a spirit of environmental concern not limited to any one method or commitment (buell, heise, & thornber, 2011). the purpose of this research approach, according to him, is to contribute significantly to the understanding of environmental problems (buell, haise, & thornber, 2011), hoping that people would be aware of the certain danger to their environment and consequently try to save it. glotfelty also defines the term ‘ecocriticism’. it is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment (noda, 2018). literary and environmental studies develop rapidly, which are then divided by critics into two waves. the first wave is in the 1990s, with the tendency of the ecocritical researchers to assume that the environment is nature. so their research is focused on; (1) the depiction of the natural world in literary works; (2) respect for nature conservation and human love for nature; and (3) biocentric ethical reinforcement. the second wave, which developed in the 2000s, has more attention in; (1) the metropolis and industrialization; (2) socio-ethics by emphasizing environmental justice; (3) a combination with postcolonial literary studies and ethnic minority literary studies (buell, haise, & thornber, 2011). however, it does not mean that those three topics are not studied today; they are still, despite the different trend. the first focus in the first wave is that ecocritical 88 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 87-92 research describes natural landscapes in a particular area over a period of time in a literary work. one example of these kinds of research is carried out by crane (2014) who has analyzed andrew mcgahan’s the white earth and j. m. coetzee’s life & times of michael k. she has studied the pastoral transposition on those two fictions and has shown how various interpretations of pastoral concepts are influenced by the politics of the novels. another researcher talks about naturalness in children’s literature is noda (2018) that has discussed the symbolism of wilderness in the best stories of severino reyes, which is connected with the intrinsic wildness in children. the second focus is that literary critics begin to explore natural conservation efforts, not just about the depiction of nature as a setting, but presented in literary works. contemporary teen novels address many problems of natural damage, for example, a study on the road (2006) by cormac mccharty which is executed by johns-putra (2016). she said that mccarthy is presenting people’s anxieties on the climate-change and the inhumanity of human beings on the earth and its future (johns-putra, 2016). in the third focus, several novels begin to raise the issue of biocentrism. this term is a kind of response from the existence of other terms that emerged earlier in the field of environmental science, especially those related to environmental ethics, namely anthropocentrism. this is an assumption that this world and its contents are intended for humans, both for economic interests or fulfillment of their culture. however, biocentrism opposes this assumption by saying that people have to view life, including nature and humans, in a more holistic conception (kopnina et al., 2018; waldmüller, 2015). waldmüller (2015) has said that, “[…] life itself – including interaction between humans and nature, metabolisms and ecosystems, and natural periods of arising and passing of all that is living – is put at the forefront of consideration.” the concept of biocentrism disagrees with the way capitalism view the world. capitalism is an economic model which is designed to make people change natural resources into commodities and monetary wealth so they can improve the quality of life (park, 2015). in other words, capitalists believe that all natural resources on the earth are only for human interests, so they exploit nature without considering that other living things also need the existence of nature, such as animals and plants. people have to change their focus on development planning, not only for the sake of human well-being but should be for human-nature well being (waldmüller, 2015). literary critics research the concerns of literary writers on living things in various topics of analysis. zhengwen (2018) has discussed the binary position of nature and capitalism in a poem entitled a monk walks along orchard road written by rodrigo v. dela peňa. he concludes that the poem shows that this famous street in singapore is a cosmopolitan landscape inherited from ‘the imagistic residues of its agrarian past’ (zhengwen, 2018). the theme of vegetarianism also appears in literary works, such research on fantasy stories by kérchy (2017). from these stories, she has revealed the idea to respect for all creatures, so that sometimes humans can maintain the lives of all beings on earth and save the world. kérchy (2017) has said, “the valuable lesson we can learn from these fantastical stories is that if humans finally become aware of the immense stakes and consequences of their automatized suppression of other species, the exploitation of their natural environment, and all the “biological annihilation” … we might eventually be capable of bringing about a change: to facilitate the peaceful cohabitation of all species and save life on earth.” adkins (2017) has studied how james joyce portraits livestock, meat, and vegetarianism in ulysses. joyce criticizes the politics of cattle raising and the industry of animal slaughter at the turn of the 20th century in ireland, besides demanding the ethics of meat eating in order to make humans being responsible for the lives of other creatures (adkins, 2017). an indonesian researcher, sukmawan (2018) has also revealed that oral literature of the inhabitants of the slopes of mount arjuna in east java shows appreciation for animals and plants because of their unique culture. he has found that they held personal dialogue with nature, listened to natural signs, and discussed ecological events. in ecocriticism, there is one hypothesis saying that the earth can regulate itself. this concept is called gaia, which is formulated by james lovelock in 1979. barry (2014) has explained, “the gaia hypothesis holds that the earth system is in some ways analogous to a living, self-regulating organism – with air, land, soil, and oceans as her organs; plants and animals as cells; and water as blood, cycling nutrients and energy to sustain life.“ this hypothesis states that the earth has a resemblance with the biological organism and she can regulate and sustain her own life (barry, 2014; monzavi et al., 2017). this hypothesis is then presented in fictions, for example in movies, erb (2014) has discussed the ecological dimension in avatar, and in literary texts, some problems appear in the lithia trilogy, written by blair richmond. from various topics of analysis on the natural environment, this research bases its research on the question of how the lithia trilogy views environment problems and how it delivers solutions to young readers. methods this research executes two literary approaches; ecocriticism theoretical orientation and intrinsic elements of the literary text. the ecocriticism is used to find the issues about the environment; meanwhile, by the intrinsic elements, the novels are analyzed from the perspective of the narrator towards the environment. ecocriticism approach used in this research is taken from the theory developed by laurence buell in 1990s. on unearthing the perspective of the novels, the intrinsic elements used are plot, characterization, setting, and perception of the narrator. besides those elements, there are metaphors leading to find the narrator’s perspective towards the environment. the data is taken from the lithia trilogy written by blair richmond, which consists of three titles; out of breath (2011), the ghost runner (2012), and the last mile (2014). 89considering all (non) living things.... (ida farida sachmadi, et al.) results and discussions this trilogy reveals the effort to save nature and all living things in it. referring to buell’s classification of researchers’ focus on studying ecology in literature, it is found that these novels show a biocentric orientation by strongly suggesting not to eat animals and opposing capitalists, who exploit nature for their own sake. therefore, the discussion of the novels covers two issues; that herbivores are better than omnivores and that capitalists through their industry could destroy the physical environment and all living things relying on it. in all three novels, richmond has told the readers very explicitly to change their life to be a vegan. he gives many explanations on the reasons and benefits, and opposes strongly against carnivores and omnivores. katherine, the main character, is a vegan. in the first novel, out of breath, she admits openly she is a vegan and says, “[…] like david said, i want to be with someone who loves animals the way i do, who cares about the planet, who doesn’t eat meat because he believes, like i do, that every meal really can make a difference.” (richmond, 2011: 75-76) it takes eight pages for the author to explain the reasons to be a vegan. it shows how important for him to give reasons to be one of them through the utterance of the narrator. in another part of the novel, katherine explains what difference she can make, “well, it’s made me a vegan, which means i save the lives of close to a hundred innocent animals a year. i sleep better every night knowing that.” (richmond, 2011: 112). biocentrists argue that vegans do not eat animals not because they think it is not healthy for their body but because they care for the life of other creatures, as katherine says, “[…] my diet saves lives. your diet takes lives.” (richmond, 2011: 112). she opposes against the animal slaughtering to feed humans. katherine does not eat meat and takes other food, which she calls ‘cruelty-free food’ (richmond, 2011: 111). for replacing protein from animals, she gives many examples of non-meat food like tempeh, tofu, nuts, bread, soy milk, and vegetables (richmond, 2011: 72). eating animals makes a vegan feels guilty, like katherine and alex, one of katherine’s vampire friends, think, “well,” he says, “ i used to be like roman. i used to think i was born to live a certain way, that my life, such as it was, depended on the death of the others. i accepted this life as fact, but i was miserable. the guilt, i can’t even describe it.” “i know what you mean. that’s why i don’t eat animals, either.” (richmond, 2011: 159). alex is a vampire in this novel, but he has changed his food from sucking human blood to drinking sap from trees. richmond tries to assure readers by presenting alex, a vegan vampire, to show that carnivores and omnivores could change to be vegans. biocentrists also try to save flora, and it will raise a question that these vegans indeed do not kill animals, but they kill plants. to answer such question, richmond has prepared a short explanation from alex, ”we have learned to take as little as necessary from a tree, and to drink from many trees […]” and “everything in nature takes what it needs and nothing more.” (richmond, 2011: 204, 205). they take food from trees but only as much as they need. the discussion of being a vegan continues in the second novel, the ghost runner. there are two main characters who are very strong in promoting the vegan lifestyle as an anti-violence lifestyle (not killing animals as living beings that deserve to live) in this novel; katherine and alex. the campaign of changing to be vegans goes on. despite being preoccupied with the problems of land ownership and the world of the theater, katherine is also still a teenager who is troubled by her love relationships. even though she has a romantic relationship with alex, she occasionally still remembers the shadow of roman, her exlover who refuses to become a vegan and to stop killing to meet his food needs, and it makes her sad. meanwhile, she has to face victor, an ancient vampire, who refuses to completely change his mind to follow the vegan lifestyle and is firm in its stance that he is born as he is: a human bloodsucker. alex is the first vampire to become a vegan who replaces his food source with a sap tree. he is once mocked by roman as a sapsucker. katherine decides to stop her relationship with roman because he, at first (in novel one), refuses to change her lifestyle at all. katherine thinks that roman does not consider his lifestyle as a crime, but only as a habit or tradition that seems completely irreversible. according to katherine, it is like what omnivorous people think; eating animals is a habit. therefore, she suggests to change it, that their food must be not from living beings because animals also deserve to live as humans have the right to live, as said “he (roman) has never been his victims as human beings; they were just food the way people don’t see cows and chickens and pigs as living, breathing creatures but only as food. but each life means something to someone else each life is important.” (richmond, 2012: 111). finally, roman decides to go back to katherine and proclaims the change of his lifestyle to become a vegan vampire who will not suck human and animal blood: “i’ve given up on killing any mammal.” (richmond, 2012: 190). the contraposition of herbivores and omnivores continues through katherine and alex against victor. it does not merely show a conflict between those two different ways of eating, but also a contradiction of the old lifestyle of the ancestors as meat eaters and continue until now as a tradition and the new lifestyle offered by these plant eaters. the narrative in this second novel challenges meat eaters or omnivores to requestion what people have received so far as a tradition. and this novel also tries to open our minds to solve our temporer problem, that is the destruction of nature and evil against all creatures on earth, which is the only place to live for all living things; humans, animals, and plants. the last novel, the last mile, still centers on changing the old tradition of humans eating habit to the new one. this novel presents the on-going war between vegetarians and carnivorous and omnivorous habits as the omnipresent conflict. the recurring theme of pro-vegetarianism is apparent in the novel. many times, the narrator puts carnivorous or omnivorous acts as an undesirable habit of the human race. she opposes the acts of killing animals for their meat, claiming it as a savage way to live, and implies 90 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 87-92 that it is better to eat just from plants. katherine explains how the carnivores look at their food, “to victor, people are nameless; […] the same way a human may look at a burger and have no concept that it was once a beautiful cow, a living being as sweet as a dog.” (richmond, 2014: 58). the narrator tries to give an analogy to human’s perception towards animals. for a vampire, people are food and not living things that have the right to live. it is analogous with people who see animals. they see cows, chickens, and fish as food, not as creatures that also have to live their life on the earth. in many parts of the novel, richmond expresses the idea of changing the eating habit and assures readers that they can change their lifestyle; “i suppose him giving up meat, going vegan like me, was an assign that anyone can change.” (richmond, 2014: 41). hurting or abandoning an injured animal is also shown as an inhumane action in this novel. as narrated by katherine in the scene where she and roman hit a deer with their car; “[…] drivers aren’t supposed to leave an animal they’ve hit […] even when people do the right thing, the animals are often put down.” (richmond, 2014: 182). besides saving animals from being killed, the novel also glorifies plants in general, applying positive and calmness-inducing words to the description of trees. this is how the narrator views plants. “they were just standing there, like they had for centuries, living their lives, not bothering a soul, cleaning our air, giving nests to birds, making the world a better place just by being alive.” (richmond, 2014: 43) the novel tells that a change—adaptation, evolution, revolution—is good while keeping the conventional ways— traditional, unadapting, refusing to change—is not always preferable; it may even lead to destruction. the novel argues that changing, in this case, is turning into a vegetarian, stop killing humans, animals, and trees are the best action a man can do for the world. a case of the unadaptable versus adaptable people is shown in the dialogue between katherine and victor at the beginning of the novel. in this scene, it is clear that katherine represents an adaptable person, while victor holds tight his tradition. [victor] “me? drink the blood of trees instead of people? oh, please.” […] “i am far too set in my ways to change now. besides, i have a tradition to uphold.” “calling it tradition doesn’t make it right.” “traditions are how we honor our ancestors. traditions bind us. traditions ennoble us.” “some traditions, sure. but what you’re doing is violence—plain and simple.” (richmond, 2014: 154). katherine explicitly states that everything and everyone has to change to survive, as cited: “that’s where you’re wrong. everything evolves, or at least has the potential. everything and everyone. it’s how we survive. and you and your kind will never survive unless you evolve. you’ll have to change.” (richmond, 2014: 9-10) these examples show that this novel presents the ideas of pro-vegetarianism—which includes reserving nature, animals, and plants. at the end of the novel, it is narrated that victor is dead, and it shows very clearly that his tradition as a carnivore has also passed away. the vegetarians survive. the author’s suggestion on this problem, as a matter of fact, does not consider how nature regulates herself. in ecology, it is known the term ‘food chain’: plants as the primary food source are consumed by plant-eating animals, which then eaten by flesh-eating animals; when they die they are food for microorganisms and the remnants could be nutrition for plants (sampaolo, 2018). nature has her own regulation. when humans cut off this chain, life on the earth might be disturbed. richmond collides the perspective of treating the earth from the environmentalist and capitalist. the main character, katherine, is the former, and ed jacobs the latter. in the first novel, out of breath, the main character and narrator, katherine narrates the natural conditions of a small town called lithia, in the state of oregon, united states. in certain parts of the novel, the narrator celebrates the nature, “i follow close behind, breathing deeply the whole time […] clean feel of the air, rich with oxygen.” (richmond, 2011: 192), and when she is walking in a forest nearby, she says “it’s so beautiful here i could walk forever. it’s like being in a cathedral of nature, ancient, and sacred.” (richmond, 2011: 193). the novel does not describe the town as a hot and arid region, or a destroyed area like in the road by mc charty; instead, the town has parks, housing, markets, just like common towns in the united states today. however, there is a narrative about a mine that has been closed, and only a few people dare to go through it, let alone enter it, which indicates a rejection of industry, in this case, mining. the description of people’s fear of approaching the mine implies the narrator’s opposition to the mining industry, as follows. “the lost mine trail is a trail that hosts up the side of siskiyou nationl forest and continues for hundreds of milets. [...] but even this part of the lost mine trail is also for dedicated (or crazy) runners, and it’s pretty desolate; we’ve seen no one else since leaving town.” (richmond, 2011: 30) the narrator even mentions that people who dare to do exercise, in this case running, towards the mine as crazy. the danger of the mine is evidenced by the disappearance of stacey, katherine’s friend when she broke his promise to his fiance not to run too close to the mine. with this story, the narrator expresses his view that industry (mining) is dangerous for the earth and humans as well. the industry is owned by a businessman who exploits the earth for the benefit of humans only, not considering the nature itself. when the earth is destroyed, human beings will consequently get the impacts. the opposition to the mining industry continues with a narration saying that those who dare to roam the mine area and who later turn out to kidnap katherine’s friend are vampires. it is commonly known that vampires are human blood-sucking creatures, or can be classified as carnivores. there are two meanings that emerge from the stories of vampires as characters in this novel. first, the meaning of having vampires as the important characters in the trilogy is related to the issue of vegetarianism, which has been discussed in the previous part. second, they are ‘eaters’ of other creatures, the same as capitalists, who do 91considering all (non) living things.... (ida farida sachmadi, et al.) their business for the sake of humans only and ignore the life of other living things. as mentioned in the introduction, biocentrism is against capitalism. biocentrists argue that all organisms should unite to make one identity as a ‘greater self’, which means they all must respect other’s life. the author does not take a side to capitalism by making the mining industry and the housing development opposed by the heroine, who is an environmentalist. in the years the trilogy published, there is a debate on the issue of whether capitalism has given bad effect on nature. in her article, bell (2015) has studied this problem by showing that capitalism has caused environmental crises because it proposes a concept that natural resources can be produced to be tradable commodities which then make them wealthy. this concept makes companies compete to make a lot of profits from their market and ignore the impacts on the environment. she has suggested that people have to minimize the negative effects of capitalism and even to stop it altogether (bell, 2015). another researcher, park (2015) has discussed the relationship between climate change and capitalism and said that by exploiting nature, it results in pollution and wastes which endangering climate. he concludes that to solve this environmental problem, people have to end capitalism, “the way to a brilliant, sustainable new future certainly exist, but it does not lie down the beaten path of capitalism that we currently tread” (park, 2015). however, other researchers have more positive thinking about capitalism. they try to create programs which can make capitalism deliver a healthy environment for all creatures. tienhaara (2014) has said that from 2008 to 2012, there are many proposals suggesting to create a ‘green capitalism’, which means a program for the state to regulate the market and financial sector without ignoring ecological impacts. richmond through his trilogy disagrees with capitalism and suggests to stop it without giving alternatives on how to replace commodities or products needed by people. the mining industry, for example, has to be closed but he does not give a solution to replace metals or fuels. the second novel from the lithia trilogy, the ghost runner, also shows opposition to industry, this time to the housing industry. katherine tries to protect her inheritance so that it is not annexed by ed jacobs’ company and converted into housing. katherine who is openly an environmental activist this time strongly opposed ed jacobs’ wishes. this novel campaigns the concept of saving the earth called the gaia hypothesis. richmond uses the hypothesis here in his trilogy by giving a long lecture with a bulk of explicit information. through a character named prof. lindquist, who teaches in the environmental studies class, katherine learns a lesson about how the earth has the ability to regulate the life in it and be able to defend itself, “the earth will defend itself,” (richmond, 2012: 20, 23). one example says that with natural disasters, the earth can flatten almost all life on its surface, as seen. “if humans hurt the planet, the planet will defend itself. let’s take global warming. heat up the planet’s humans, which in turn leads to more severe storms, which in turn kill humans.” (richmond, 2012: 24). this power is called the strength of gaia: “the gaia hypothesis says that the earth is self-regulating, very much like our bodies [...]” (richmond, 2012: 23). prof. lindquist has also explained the power of gaia which is not necessarily a natural disaster which is considered as the power of the earth to defend itself from the exploitation of humans on earth. “gaia isn’t just about natural disasters. it’s about you and me. it’s about people working to make the world a better place.” (richmond, 2012: 88). before, katherine herself admits that she is an environmentalist, “you know, i’m an environmentalist.” (richmond, 2012: 55). however, the earth needs humans as an extension of gaia’s strength. organizations and activists who care about the environment and want to dedicate their time to defend the survival of flora and fauna in it are also said in this second novel as one of gaia’s strengths. katherine, in this case, is extending the handling of gaia or the power of the earth to save her from the attack of the home construction company owning by ed jacobs. when katherine gets the chance to sell her late father’s land on the lithia hill filled with trees and living things, she shows her deep concern for the sustainability of the entire ecosystem there. she tries to do it although she has to struggle to divide her time for her lectures, theater, and the effort to save her land from ed jacobs’ captivity. this is indicated by katherine’s thought; “that i now have the power to prevent ed jacobs from building any more homes.” (richmond, 2012: 138), and “in an instant, my priorities have shifted from education and drama to saving thousands of trees, and animals and birds that rely on them, and the people who have grown accustomed to gazing up at them.” (richmond, 2012: 170). in fact, when she is fighting with her boyfriend alex, she mediates the fight by saying that anything happened to her relationship with him, her main concern still has to be focused on lithia’s land from the threat of ed jacobs’ company, “no matter what happened between us, the land still has to be protected. we have to do our part.” (richmond, 2012: 133). this second novel also talks about actions and reactions between humans and the earth in terms of natural management through the gaia hypothesis. if humans exploit nature, then the earth will do the regulation, as mentioned through the lecture from prof. lindquist. through the lecture of the professor and katherine’s struggle to prevent the conversion of land functions, the novel wants to relate the gaia hypothesis and real actions in saving the earth. this is conveyed by prof. lindquist to link his lecture material in class with katherine’s struggle which is considered as an extension of gaia’s handling of protecting the earth; “fortunately, we have people who like you who can have as much of an impact as earthquake.” (richmond, 2012: 88). the real action of this teenage girl turns out to have a big impact on forest conservation in lithia. thus, by this story, the author argues that people must not disturb the earth through any exploitation of natural resources, and let the earth find her own way to survive. in the third novel, the last mile, the conflict between the environmentalist, katherine in this case, and the capitalist, ed jacobs, continues. however, the novel ends the plot by making katherine win her land. this, of course, shows that this trilogy stands up with the environmentalist (richmond, 2014). conclusions this trilogy delivers two problems of the environment; killing animals for food and destroying nature for the industry. the solution for the first problem is given very explicitly, that young people must change their lifestyle to be vegetarians and leave the old tradition as 92 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 2, may 2019, 87-92 the meat-eaters behind. this suggestion does not consider that nature can adjust herself, especially in the system of the food chain. for the second problem, the trilogy gives a solution by demonstrating a certain way to view the earth through the explanation about the gaia hypothesis, that the earth can balance herself. the proposal from the author to believe in gaia hypothesis is in contradiction with the idea of being vegetarians. while allowing the earth to regulate herself, richmond does not let nature organize herself by disturbing the food chain. most of the arguments which support this main idea are expressed through many debates on changing the lifestyle of being omnivores to herbivores from the narrator’s perception. in addition, the trilogy also describes the opposition to capitalists who destroy the environment by developing an industry without considering other creatures. the characterization of the narrator/main character is very clear as an environmentalist who is fighting strongly against the omnivores and capitalists. meanwhile, the plot supports the narrator’s perspective on the environment. at the end of the story, the carnivores are dead, and the capitalists fail to build (mining and housing) industry. considering living and non-living things is the important idea offered by richmond in these three novels. the trilogy presents biocentric orientation on viewing the world, which means that it tends to put into consideration the needs of non-living and living things on the earth. as one of the young adult novels, this trilogy has taught its reader target, young people, to consider the environment and all creatures on the earth, in accordance with the purpose of ecocriticism that buell has stated; giving the contribution to make people understand that they can save the earth. however, the solution is problematic and debatable; being a vegan and opposing industry also could create negative impacts. this research is both limited in the research method and the topic. by using ecocriticism as the research method, this article discusses a specific topic in environment studies: biocentrism. for future researches, the same topic could be unearthed in other novels focusing on environment problems. besides discussing global warmings or other natural disasters in literary works, perhaps it can be found novels motivating young adults to find an integrative solution to save the earth. acknowledgement this research is funded by unpad internal grant (hibah internal unpad) from universitas padjadjaran, bandung, west java. references adkins, p. 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(2018). retailing and retelling: capitalism and nature in ‘a monk walks in orchard road’. the journal of ecocriticism, 8(1), 1-5. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 247 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 247-255 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.5859 the taste of peranakans tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music and their relation to cultural identity sulhizah wulan sari1; sukmono bayu adhi2 1, 2, bahasa inggris, fakultas komunikasi dan bahasa, universitas bina sarana informatika jl. rs. fatmawati blok raya no. 24, jakarta 12450, indonesia 1sulhizah.szw@bsi.ac.id; 2sukmono.sba@bsi.ac.id received: 07th august 2019/revised: 11th september 2019/accepted: 25th september 2019 how to cite: sari, s. w., & adhi, s. b. (2019). the taste of peranakans tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music and their relation to cultural identity. lingua cultura, 13(4), 247-255. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.5859 abstract this research discussed the taste of peranakans tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music and its relation to cultural identity. the history of the settlements in chinatown at glodok, jakarta, indonesia, brought ethnic and cultural issues. then, the assimilation was inadequate that caused the elimination of the original culture and finally form a new culture. this research questioned how the peranakans chinese cultural identity was formed and related to the taste of listening to chinese and indonesian music using hall’s perspective of cultural identity. a qualitative method was used to describe, explain, and analyze data. data in the research consisted of observation and interview of the 30 peranakans tionghoa at glodok, covering the area of mall, café, and restaurant. the collected data were classified into similarities and differences from each aspect. the classification was linked to the three groups who preferred to listen to music and find their cultural identity. the result shows that the taste of peranakan tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music depends on the elements and the function of music. those aspects emphasize the language to understand what the song tells about. further, the music could be an intermediary for cultural unification from both origins of (chinese and indonesia) who are fused to the relation of the cultural identity. related to identity, peranakans tionghoa is becoming an identity. keywords: taste of listening, peranakan tionghoa, listening to music, cultural identity introduction it is generally accepted that people in the world like music as it helps them to express their emotions, get motivation and inspiration, and bring enjoyment and calmness to their lives. further, people use music to communicate with the others as it has the message or meaning which lies behind. van puyvelde & franco (2015) have stated that there are two major communication systems in human, those are language, and music. it can be said that music is used by people as a mean to communicate their messages. communicating the message using music is the common function of it. music transfers the message in many ways, either with its lyrics, title, symbol, or signs; those are sung or listened by the people (syafruan, 2004). it also can be rated as an aesthetic experience that is not easy to compare to everyone as someone can say something in various ways (faradi, 2016). when listening to music, the taste of listening is the main point. then, selecting the song is very personal, based on their taste. the different taste in listening to music generally depends on the preferences of tone, rhythm, genre, instruments, and other elements in music. besides, gans in tokinoya (syafruan, 2004) states that in choosing music or the taste of listening to music is much common related to cultural taste that is based on individual choice and social class. rendering the taste in listening to music, the researchers are interested in observing peranakan tionghoa’s ethnic at glodok to be the object of the research. the researchers ask their selection in listening to indonesian and chinese music by interviewing 30 participants using an accidental meeting and based on their respective choices. since they have lived for a long time in indonesia and become part of the indonesian citizen, their culture also grows up and can assimilate to local culture. on the one hand, the interesting points from peranakans tionghoa’s ethnic to be the object of this research are based on long-standing issues in the past. it is mentioned in many literature studies that they are faced with many 248 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 247-255 problems, such as racial problems, economic pressures, and citizenship status (nugroho, 2016). citizenship status brings out the confusion for peranakans tionghoa as in the changing name of chinese to indonesian name, restrictions on the residence, and the chinese nationality act of 1909 (andriani, 2018). further, chinese in indonesia are considered not native and never seen as truly indonesians because of their origin from china (walujono, 2014). many conflicts between tribes have arisen in several areas in indonesia; particularly, it occurs to tionghoa’s ethnic minority (juditha, 2017). moreover, there is much violence involving ethnic chinese, assimilation policies, the struggle for having citizenship, the stereotype of the chinese people, and the influence of the regime’s power at that time. those forms of regulations affect uncertainty for tionghoa to be recognized as indonesian citizens (setijadi, 2017). as a result, many gaps and negative obstacles lead to peranakans tionghoa, such as discrimination, racism, and stereotype. referring to the fact that the problems can be traced at the history of indonesia in the beginning of social inequality and political segregation with the grouping formed by dutch colonialism using apartheid tactics (a system used by the dutch to divide groups based on ethnicity) and rule’s policy so that the dutch could control their trade, organization, school, and daily activities as a form of separation and control between chinese and indigenous population (chong, 2016). in the process of controlling chinese ethnic, colonial government places the chinese as an eastern foreign group (vreemde oosterlingen) after the first group, namely a group of europe and the third group (indigenous people or inlanders). those three groups have different rights, so the chinese act is under the dutch’s power (andriani, 2018). currently, those problems in the past still exist in the process of their assimilation to indonesia and to be integrated into indonesian citizens. many terms of tionghoa have been used to point out the immigrants who come from indonesia. one of them is based on presidential decree no. 12 in 2014 which contains the use of chinese terms changed to chinese (nugroho, 2016). other terms such as ‘chinese society’ or ‘tenglang’, ‘overseas chinese’ or ‘hoakiau’ as slamet martosudiro called it. it is also commonly referred to as ‘non-indigenous’ or ‘ethnic chinese’ or ‘chinese descent’, ‘indonesian citizens of chinese descent’ or even those who refer to the term ‘indonesian citizen’ and ‘derivative’, or ‘chinese’ only. the general concept of sociology is used by mely g. tan, such as the name ‘tionghoa’s ethnic group’ or ‘chinese descendants’ (marzali, 2011). hoon (2017) calls the newcomer as ‘the pure-blood, china-oriented, or totok’. based on those terms, the researchers use the term ‘tionghoa’s ethnic’ or ‘peranakans tionghoa’ following a sociology concept to indicate the chinese who stay for a long time and assimilate their culture to indonesia. in its history, tionghoa is divided into two categories; totok and peranakan tionghoa. peranakans tionghoa is ethnic people who have lived in batavia for a long time. peranakans tionghoa is easy identified with some characteristics of the cultures of their local regions, spoke in indonesia and other regional languages instead of chinese, and developed their own unique hybrid culture from a mixture of chinese and local cultural influences (setijadi, 2016). abdi, hafiar, and novianti (2016) have added that the term peranakans tionghoa arises because of marital status. they married an indigenous woman (pribumi), and when they have offspring, they will be called peranakans tionghoa. abdi, hafiar, and novianti (2016) have noted that most peranakans are from the descendants of hoklo (hokkien) people, although a considerable number of them are from the descendants of the tiociu or cantonese. peranakans themselves are mixed racial descent; some of them are originated from chinese, and some are called the indigenous archipelago (indonesian/malay). meanwhile, totok is a pure-blood who comes from china. they migrate to indonesia and married local women. they, with their children, often speak mandarin (chong, 2016). further, ferlando & agustono (2018) have stated that totok is the newcomer. they are generally only one to two generations who still speak in mandarin. later, due to the cessation of immigration from china’s mainland, totok’s number has dropped increasingly. therefore, the young chinese generation in indonesia has become peranakans tionghoa, especially in java. on the other hand, glodok or chinatown in west jakarta is selected to be the research site because of several reasons. it is known as an area that is inhabited by peranakans and totok chinese in the history of colonialism, where the immigrants of the chinese become the largest ethnic group (irawan, 2014). it is not also the lifeblood of the batavia economy well-known by the operational city trade in the northern coast of java (between the south china sea and the indian ocean) but also the historical site of the beginning of jakarta (coppel in irawan, 2014). it has four ethnic groups in several residential groups. they are tiu-chiu, kanton (goldsmith), hokkian (traders), and hakka/kheh (traders). the four major spoken languages are hakka, hokkien, cantonese, and teochew (purcell in nasrudin, 2018). it should be noted that glodok’s area has become the center of chinese and european settlements during the existence of many canals in the era of dutch colonialism (sulistyo, 2019). this area from the past until now is called by chinatown or pecinan (tjiook, 2017). referring to the core of writing, the researchers limit the scope of the research to indonesian and chinese music to know the correlation of cultural identity and the taste of peranakans tionghoa in listening to music. as the historical review of tionghoa’s settlement in indonesia, it brings their culture as the chinese who assimilate to indonesian culture then questioning their cultural identity. the assimilation of the two cultures will eliminate the characteristics of the original culture and form of a new culture; thus, this research aims at explaining how peranakans tionghoa’s cultural identity is formed according to hall’s theory. based on the assumption that someone is not only expressing and showing his feelings through listening to music but also can show social, group identity, nationality, ethnicity, religion, and culture that belong to each or group. the choice is, of course, based on musical tastes that will show the identity of the class, social or group they have. syafruan (2004) has stated that music functions as a tool for individuals to show the environment and know about his/her identity and which group he/she is as well as how he/ she views the environment. ibrahim and bambang (2015) have added that the members of each culture are unique, which is used as a social identity to state who and why they exist. in other words, culture can represent a person or group behavior, so that individual orientation tends to appear as a group identity. therefore, the influence of music and the taste of listening to music are closely related in the process of differentiating identity. bose (2019) has asserted that identity does not only come from what has been a stick in the people, but they 249the taste of peranakans.... (sulhizah wulan sari; sukmono bayu adhi) are also the ways of how the people recognize with their surroundings or environment and then come to step to the place of recognition which other people are sharing what they belong to. chanda (2019) has added that the term identity not only covers an individual but also recognizes all the aspects of the family, group, ethnicity, society, ecology, climate, class, race, religion, gender, location, nation, nationstate, culture, and other which belongs to the individual and relate to each other in mutual sharing in the past and present. identity is defined by hall (2014) as a ‘production’. it produces meanings in the relationship between the past and the present. the relation of the past and present is never complete. they are always in the process of developing and strengthening each other and constitute within the outside. identity brings out a representation of something. in turn, identity in its relation leads to the new term of ‘cultural identity’. cultural identity shares individual or group culture as a sort of collective, and it relates to others such as ethnicity, society, religion, class, location, movie, and music in their history and ancestry. their relation to each other is holding in common. hall (1989) has added that cultural identity relates to the idea of one. it can be a shared cultural sense of belonging, the same collective of the cultural artifact or other, the same history and experience, and the same bloodline or origin. hall (2014) has divided identity into two formations. the first formation defines that identity is built on the same culture. it is owned and shared by a group of people. they share their aspects of history, experience, descent, cultural artifact, and others that are stable and unchanging. this identity is called as ‘fixed identity or being’. meanwhile, the second identity formation is built on a culture that can place on its relevance to other aspects of religion, social, class, politics, power, history, culture, region, etc. this formation is called ‘a positioning or becoming’. this second identity provides opportunities to build a new culture, and it continues its meaning in historical, social, and cultural contexts. the process of giving meaning to each relation never ends. several pieces of research related to the issue of identity have been carried out by other researchers; one of them is by christian (2017). christian has stated that the change in indonesian ethnic chinese cultural identity is mostly influenced by politics or power and other cultures such as western and other asian cultures (christian, 2017). in this case, the researchers analyze different things from other researchers to find the construction of peranakan tionghoa’s taste in listening to indonesian and chinese with their cultural identity in the glodok area. based on the explanation of the taste of listening to music, the issues and problems of peranakans tionghoa’s ethic in the past, glodok area, indonesia and chinese music, and the concept of identity, those can be linked together in querying their cultural identity using hall’s concept. thus, this research aims at answering the question of what are the tastes of listening to indonesian and chinese music for peranakans tionghoa at glodok? furthermore, how is the relationship between the taste of listening to indonesian and chinese music to peranakans’ chinese ethnic identity at glodok? the long-term target of this research is to contribute to the results of research, which can be used for institutions and communities so that it is useful for scientists to develop further research relating to the influence of chinese and indonesian music’s taste and their cultural identity and cultural insight. methods the qualitative descriptive method is used to determine, describe, and explain the observation, symptoms, and cultural interactions between the taste of listening to indonesian and chinese music on the identity construction of peranakans tionghoa’s ethnic. the research is conducted at glodok, west jakarta, including the mall, shops, café, entertainment, or other hangout areas. those places are chosen incidentally when the researchers meet with the volunteer participants from peranakans tionghoa’s ethnic. the use of an accidental meeting in collecting data is very helpful. the researchers do not select the participants in detail but go directly to the participants who agree to be interviewed at the time of data collection. then, the researchers do not determine the number of females and males. in turn, the researchers’ position is the observers at the research site by observing the emerged symptoms and relate it to the views of respondents, value, and natural cultural interaction from the taste of listening to music to peranakans tionghoa’s ethnic identity. besides, the researchers see the reality of activities and evaluate the behavior of ethnic peranakans tionghoa in listening to music and their relationship to their cultural identity. in this case, two ways of collecting data are used by combining two forms of literature review and field studies, primary and secondary. the primary data consists of the results of short and written answers taken from questionnaires with 30 peranakans tionghoa. the questionnaires consist of two parts. the first tells about the name, age, and address of the participants as their short profile (see appendices). the second is the lists of questions in a multiple-choice and short essay (table 1). next, the researchers validate their answers by sorting the reasons or descriptions of their preference in listening to indonesian and chinese music. their answers (the finding data) show that they like listening to music based on the elements and functions in music. the finding data can be categorized as the aspects or taste in listening to music. meanwhile, the second aspect, which is stated in the questionnaires (a hobby of collecting indonesian and chinese vcd songs, going to china’s midland, playing musical instruments, and the ability to use mandarin and indonesian language), is provided to relate their taste with cultural identity. the second aspects can be categorized as cultural experience as hall in (frith, 1996) has said that when talking about identity, actually it is talking about a particular kind of experience or a way of dealing with a particular kind of experiences such as the elements in the music and their connection to cultural artifact (language, instruments of music and others). it means the cultural experience can explain the identity of each person and can connect to each group who has the same culture. then, the second aspect is tabulated into the classification of a group that relates to their preference in listening to chinese and indonesian music to see a different and sameness. then, both of the two aspects are combined to explain the relationship between the taste of listening to music and the construction of their cultural identity based on the cultural identity concept of stuart hall. the last step is by combining secondary data. secondary data consists of some articles taken from reputable journals and printed books or e-books as a literature study. this secondary data is used as a reference and writing 250 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 247-255 material that supports the problem to be discussed in the analysis. using those combinations, their cultural identity will be found. results and discussions the researchers conduct field research by interviewing 30 participants of peranakans tionghoa in several areas such as glodok market, ltc glodok, the mall of chinatown, kemenagan, and petak sembilan. those areas cover the three markets that are famous in the early time of colonialism in glodok, such as asem market, petak sembilan market, and chicken market. the researchers meet with the volunteer participants in an accidental meeting. spending 10 days looking for the participants and observing the area by foot are the ways of collecting data. in collecting the data, many peranakans tionghoa is available in doing a short interview. they seem afraid of something that makes them in trouble and disturbance from their trade activities, so the researchers often get a rejection from several people in different locations. despite the rush of their business, most of them are interested in the interview by providing the souvenirs which are given by the researchers as a form of appreciation that they have participated in the research. from several ethnic groups, as mentioned in the introduction (literature study), it can be assumed that the volunteer participants who have been met and interviewed by the researchers are mostly come from the hokkien communities seeing from their characteristics of working in the field of business or trade. it is stated by nasrudin (2018) that hokkien people are who like to do commercial transactions. they work in the commercial sector as entrepreneurs, such as the sale of goods, electronics, and vcd tapes of films and songs. in doing their business, they choose to trade in the stores, and these generations come from the descendants who no longer use mandarin as their mother tongue in daily activity. however, there are few older people still use mandarin because of their experience studying at school, and one of their family spoke mandarin. despite that, most of the volunteer participants have a mixed name. from 30 peranakans tionghoa, they are five people who use western names from different ages, 17 people use indonesian names, and five people use a mix of indonesian and western’s name. thinking through their name is far away from their original name (china), as shown in appendices. the researchers also meet with three peranakans tionghoa who still have the chinese name at the age of 42 (then jung kiong), 67 (golaymie), and 68 (liong). it can be assumed that the chinese name is no longer used by the younger or the next generation. in general, peranakans tionghoa has a large population. it has been mentioned in the calculation of chinese ethnic in 2000. based on the population census in jakarta is inhabited by 460.002 tionghoa (puspitasari, 2014). later, it grows with a higher population of tionghoa, about 2.832.510 in 2010 (suryani & azmy, 2016). in this case, the small numbers of 30 interviewees are taken by the researchers to consider that the object study is expected to represent the chinese peranakans tionghoa’s population and some areas in glodok. although its representative data do not fully cover the large number of peranakans tionghoa, the main point is to find the characteristics, patterns, and form as the classification of the sameness and differencing cultural identity based on the taste of listening to indonesia and chinese music at glodok. to get the taste of listening to indonesian and chinese music, the questions in the written interview (the questionnaires) are listed in table 1. table 1 summary of the question in the questionnaires 1. do you enjoy listening to indonesian or chinese songs? why? 2. what kind of music do you often hear and sing? 3. how many times do you tune or listen to indonesian or chinese songs? 4. do you collect vcd of indonesian or chinese song? 5. what songs do you like the most (indonesia and chinese music)? why? 6. what feelings that emerge when you listen to indonesian or chinese songs? 7. when have you been living in indonesia? 8. do you enjoy living in indonesia? why? 9. do you often travel to china? 10. does music inspire your life? 11. can you play chinese or indonesian musical instruments? mention, please! those questions can bring up different findings based on the results of their answers. the explanation or description of their reasons for choosing music represents the findings data. all of the short written answers cover the elements and function of music; then, those finding are drawn into the aspect of selecting music. then, the researchers formulate the aspects and the reason for their selection in choosing indonesian music, as it is shown in table 2. the tabulated data cover all components in the questionnaires. table 2 aspect of listening to indonesian music no aspects female male total 1. rhyme & rhyme 9 4 13 2. tone & lyrics 16 8 24 3. meaning 18 7 25 4. indonesian subtitle (indonesian language) 9 5 14 5. musical instruments 1 0 1 6. the function of music 14 7 21 from the answer in table 2, it can be concluded that the six elements of music, such as meaning, lyrics, and tone, the function of music, the language, rhythm and rhyme, and musical instruments, are categorized as the taste of selecting the music. those elements can make music in much pleasure and produce certain feelings when the music is heard by peranakans tionghoa. they feel enjoy, calm, sad, and happy when listening to indonesian music. those feelings emerge when they understand the meaning of the song. then the raise of emotional feeling in the song relates to the function of music. it is giving calmness, entertainment, and enjoyment to the listener. the next step is finding the taste in listening to chinese music. table 3 shows the process of classifying the selection based on the finding data. 251the taste of peranakans.... (sulhizah wulan sari; sukmono bayu adhi) table 3 aspect of listening to chinese music no aspects female male total 1. rhyme & rhyme 12 4 16 2. tone & lyrics 5 12 17 3. meaning 13 8 21 4. mandarin 7 3 10 5. musical instruments 1 0 1 6. the function of music 12 9 21 table 3 shows that peranakans tionghoa has different abilities to speak in chinese or mandarin as the common language, which is often used by totok tionghoa, so that the reason for choosing chinese music from the aspect of its language is different for each other. they are 10 peranakans tionghoa, who tend to choose chinese music based on the mandarin language. looking into all the answers in the questioners as in table 2 and 3, the taste of the 30 peranakans tionghoa in listening to indonesian and chinese music either females or males depends on the elements and the function of music. in addition to that matter, the pleasure of listening to either indonesian or chinese music relies on their ability in speaking and understanding the language, so that the meaning of the music can be cached and understood well by the 30 peranakans tionghoa joining with whole elements of music at the same time. in turn, to answer the relation of their taste in listening to indonesian and chinese music to their cultural identity can be combined from the analysis result from tables 2, 3, and the second aspects in the questionnaires. hall states in (frith, 1996) that to connect identity with its culture can be dealt with kinds of experience or a way of a particular experience that belongs to individual or group. the second aspect comprises the experiences of using the musical instrument, collecting the vcd of indonesian and chinese songs, the habit going for traveling to china and its intensity, the ability to speak in mandarin, and the most preferred between indonesian and chinese music. those components in questionnaires bring out three groups who tend to listen most to indonesian and chinese music. those groups are a group that prefers listening to indonesian music, chinese music, and both of the two. the aspects of the first group are arranged in table. table 4 shows that the total number of this group is 17 people, including 13 females and four males. this group tends to choose indonesian music rather than listening to chinese music as it is pointed out that the aspect of listening to chinese music gets a lower score than indonesian music. the aspect of chinese music gets 12 selections. their selection of listening to indonesian music is based on the elements and the function of music, as it has been shown in table 2. in this case, the kinds of the song are also taken part in their tastes or selection. most of this group listens to pop and dangdut. because of the renown and the existence of popular music in indonesia, it makes them much fun listening to dangdut and pop rather than other songs. adorno (in khadavi, 2015) has stated that pop has standard music and lyrics patterns, so it is easy to understand, and since music in indonesia has a variety of backgrounds and cultures, both give different tastes to each other and even create something new to cultural diversity. cultural diversity makes the indonesian music genre divided into several types of music, namely traditional, religious, pop, dangdut, jazz, and so on. in general, peranakans tionghoa in this group assumes that dangdut and indonesian pop songs can deliver a meaning which is easy to understand and elevates aspects of life, class, economic, and romance. it corresponds to turino’s opinion (in lidskog, 2017) that music can be called as the heart of cultures so that it can express social occasions and emotional experience. table 4 a group which is most listening to indonesian music and its aspects no aspects female male total 1. listening to indonesian music 13 4 17 2. listening to chinese music 8 4 12 3. collecting vcd of indonesian song 7 2 9 4. collecting vcd of mandarin song 5 3 8 5. the ability to speak mandarin 7 4 11 6. the ability to play musical instruments 2 1 3 7. traveling to china 4 1 5 moreover, their preference for indonesian songs also relates to their ability to speak in indonesia. using language, the meaning of the song can be understandable and giving rise to specific feelings. it arouses individual experience and evokes emotions. those are evidenced by their statements in the questionnaires about feeling happy, sad, excited, inspired, motivated, enthusiastic, and being nationalism when listening to indonesian music. they also state that with the meaning in the song, their memories of love, happiness, sadness, and life in the past are being played and represented in music. so to understand the meaning of the song, it can be done through the language. similar to the meaning, lyric and tone correspond to the language. both lyric and tone are the elements of music and at the same time, give an understanding of the song’s meaning. thus, it can be construed that their selections of listening music depend on the language to understand the meaning of song and lyric, as shown in table 3. in this case, boski, strus, and tlaga (in chanda, 2019) have asserted that language is an important factor in forming the cultural identity as it is the medium of sharing ideas, beliefs, and thoughts. moreover, hall (1989) has stated that language is a sign of cultural identity using a code of culture. it can reflect the common historical experience and shared a cultural code of individual or collective. the cultural experience of chinese ethnic is described in the aspects of music and language and represents their cultural identity. they use the indonesian language as a code of culture to understand the music that leads to certain feelings and experiences so that they can understand indonesian music through its language. thus, language becomes the main point of their taste, and their ability to speak in indonesia is based on their conviction that they have lived in indonesia for a long time since they were birth, from generation to generation, and the recognition and love to indonesia. even though they admit that their progenitor comes from china and their mother tongue is not mandarin anymore. from 17 252 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 247-255 members, they are 11 peranakans tionghoa, who can speak in mandarin. the number is almost close to the total number of members who are preferred to listen to indonesian music. in addition to the language, the aspects of collecting the vcd of indonesian and mandarin songs almost have the same scores. collecting the vcd of the indonesian song obtains nine scores. it is higher than the chinese one who gets eight scores. this aspect of collecting vcd’s song can be considered as the hobby of each individual, and it relates and supports their cultural identity taste in listening to music. meanwhile, the ability to use or play musical instruments only consists of three people that divides into two; peranakans tionghoa who can use or play indonesian musical instruments, such as guitar, and one person who can use or playing chinese musical instruments, such as gu drum, the chinese musical instruments. it comes from during the zhou dynasty with its several instruments. namely, bamboo instruments, such as xiao; wooden instruments, such as idiophone; silk instruments, such as string or string; eastern instruments, such as xun; mental or metal instruments, such as zhong; and bronze drums; stone instruments; leather instruments, such as gu drum; and pumpkin instruments. gu drum is played to increase the morale and energy of the military in ancient times (whitener & shu, 2018). currently, it is often played in ceremonial events. the last aspect is traveling to china. this aspect is used to see the cultural links that they have had in the past (china) and the present culture (indonesia) as part of their cultural experience. from the amount of the obtained data, five people who have gone to china. it denotes that chinese descendants still have a connection with the past culture, even though they have lived in indonesia for a long time. the reasons for traveling lay on their curiosity, visiting, or just traveling to the country of origin. those reasons denote their cultural identity as an immigrant from china. this habit of traveling to china is usually followed by the young or the next generation of peranakans tionghoa. the results of the analysis in this step conclude that the groups who most like to listen to indonesian music still have a sense of belonging to their culture as an immigrant or the next generation of their predecessors who come from china. the reasons for choosing indonesian songs do not eliminate the chinese culture that they already have. it is stated by hall (2014) that cultural identity not only relates to the past but also depends on something that already existed in the present, and both of them exceed the place, time, and history. so their cultural identity comes from the present (indonesian culture) and the past (chinese culture) and has a relationship with their experience in the present when listening to indonesian music. hall (1989) has added that the process of becoming can be attributed to the future, and it has many relations to the past. in this case, the past can be described by the history of chinese ethnics (their ancestors), who have been stayed in the time of colonialism, and having experiences of chinese culture. the past culture and experience have a relation to the present. in the present, they have the same culture (the indonesian language) and the same taste of listening to indonesian music, where those relations of the past and present can play together in defining their cultural identity. their cultural identity is constructed in china’s culture (the past) and indonesian culture (the present). those relations to each other are constructed through the cultural experience in the same language, history, and culture. as those stated reasons, the 17 peranakans tionghoa from this group and their cultural identity can be categorized as ‘becoming identity’. they still bring their ancestral culture, which is still inherited in generation to generation, keep by some of peranakans and totok, and preserved by some of them using the broadcasting in the radio or playing vcd in the tv are the most common habit found in some areas in mall, café, shops, and chinese restaurant. moreover, all chinese temples in the glodok broadcast mandarin songs; totok and peranakans tionghoa also use mandarin or chinese music in church events, and china’s music is often played by lion dancers as ritual dances with lion figures. those broadcastings make chinese culture having a sense of belonging for those peranakans tionghoa, who come just for seating, having a talk, eating, attending the ceremonial events, and doing trade transactions. even, some of them do not understand well about their language. this is happened and continued day by day as their daily activity and becomes a habit. in the researchers’ assumption regarding this habit is that they keep their original culture from generation to generation. so that chinese culture remains to be existed and reminisce with the past. moreover, the nostalgic memory of their culture plays on their minds when listening to chinese music, especially for totok ethnic who cannot speak indonesia as the researchers observe them in an intentional meeting in the field. as a result, the taste of listening to music is closely related to the process of differentiating cultural identity. this differentiation process occurs between totok and peranakans tionghoa in understanding the music seeing from the use of languages. in history mention that totok tionghoa cannot speak or understand the indonesian language. for that reason, they cannot understand indonesian music, and they are different from peranakans tionghoa. to see the relationship of this group with all of the 30 peranakans tionghoa and their cultural identity, it can use the collaboration with a group who tends most in listening to chinese music and both of the two in the last conclusion. the explanation of a group that tends most in listening to chinese music is depicted based on its aspect in table 5. table 5 a group which is most listening to chinese music and its aspects no aspects female male total 1. listening to indonesian music 3 1 4 2. listening to chinese music 3 2 5 3. collecting vcd of indonesian song 2 1 3 4. collecting vcd of chinese song 3 1 4 5. the ability to speak mandarin 2 2 4 6. the ability to play musical instruments 0 0 0 7. traveling to china 1 1 2 this group consists of 5 people consisting of three females and two males. this group has many variations in selecting chinese music as its core preference. although all the members love and prefer to listen to chinese songs, 253the taste of peranakans.... (sulhizah wulan sari; sukmono bayu adhi) there is one person who has no hobby of collecting vcd and one person who cannot speak in mandarin, as shown in each aspect. this case is also the same as in the column of the ability to play chinese musical instruments. no one of them can use or play it. furthermore, table 5 shows that only two people have the experience of going to china. considering the classification of this group, they tend to have a sense of belonging to chinese culture more than indonesia seeing from the level in the aspects of preference and the ability to speak in mandarin. so, this group is categorized as a group that closely relates to chinese culture. in another case, their love of chinese culture does not omit the existing and owned culture. this is indicated by the hobby, which attributes to the aspect of collecting indonesian songs in the form of vcds and still loving indonesian music. they like indonesian music, depending on the indonesian language, so that the meaning of songs can be easily understood. following the concept of hall (1989) about identity, he says that collective identity relates to history and culture, which are shared in common. it can be assumed that indonesian and chinese music are cultural artifacts that can uncover and open memories and history of peranakans tionghoa about something in the past and present. their present memories appear in the meaning of the song when listening to indonesian music. because it relies on the indonesian language to understand the meaning, the sameness of using the indonesian language is the process of to be or ‘becoming’. the present experience in using and understanding the indonesian language builds their new cultural identity. on another hand, peranakans tionghoa sees themselves as part of the chinese people (totok tionghoa) because they feel that they have a unique set of sociocultural characteristics in the past. these socio-cultural characteristics are shown in the same language, mandarin. seeing this reason, they actually relate with the past and their collective of chinese descendants. although their cultural origins are inherent in all chinese elements, their present cultural identity carries the indonesian language as a unifying culture in understanding music. the next discussion is about the group, which tends to both indonesian and chinese music. their reasons for selecting both because they prefer both indonesian and chinese cultures, respecting of their predecessors, who come from china, and music is an art. this categorization is analyzed with the aspects in table 6. table 6 a group which is most listening to indonesian and chinese music and its aspects no aspects female male total 1. listening to indonesian music 4 4 8 2. listening to chinese music 4 4 8 3. collecting vcd of indonesian song 2 3 5 4. collecting vcd of chinese song 3 3 6 5. the ability to speak mandarin 4 3 7 6. the ability to play musical instruments 1 0 1 7. traveling to china 1 1 2 from eight peranakans tionghoa, who prefers to listen to both of the two, indicates the same pattern with the preceded group. it can be seen in table 6 that all of the aspects have a high score except in the aspect of musical instruments and traveling to china. from the high score can be summed up that they have a sense of belonging to both indonesian and chinese culture. the researchers see that they are not only fluent in speaking in indonesian language but also in mandarin. moreover, their preference for listening to indonesian and chinese music is attributed to their hobby in collecting chinese and indonesian music, even though they are not many who capable of playing a musical instrument and have the experience of traveling to china. thus, based on hall’s definition of cultural identity that it is not only shown through what is or inherent in as being of fixed identity, but also in becoming. hall (1996) has added that to see identities is to question the resources of history, language, and culture of individual or group as the process of becoming rather than being identity. in this case, the becoming process is related to various factors of the peranakans chinese as an agent who uses indonesian and chinese culture. it is shown that they speak indonesia and chinese and like to listen to indonesian and chinese music. from those observations, it can be deduced that this group is categorized as ‘becoming identity’. the love of chinese is not a fixed culture because they also love indonesian cultures. they integrate their past to present culture, and they can be said as becoming an identity. the conclusions from the analysis of the three groups show the findings that their cultural identity is constructed by aspects contained in music both in terms of culture, language, and elements of chinese and indonesian music. cultural experiences (hobby playing music and speaking mandarin, collecting vcds, traveling to china as their past homeland, staying in indonesia for a long time ago or from generation to generation) and cultural aspects in the music (meaning, lyrics and tone, the function of music, the language, rhythm and rhyme, and musical instruments), both of the aspects of cultural experience and aspects that exist in music including what is owned by each group (three groups) show the history and culture of the past and present. their cultural identity is constructed by two cultural experiences and cultural aspects that are embedded and developing in 30 peranakans tionghoa. their cultural identity is continuous in the process of assimilation, and it will make the new meaning as the term is stated by (hall, 2014). hence, the three groups are called as ‘becoming identity’. these findings relate to the definition of cultural identity proposed by hall that becoming identity is a production of the past and present culture (hall, 2014). when the original culture (chinese) meets the existing culture (indonesia), there is always cultural exchange between two cultures, either it is combining to the existing culture or mixing to the new culture. that cultural exchange is a production in giving meaning to peranakans tionghoa’s cultural identity. their cultural identity mixes and combines with the existing culture, yet the tendency to keep the existence of authentic culture still be reminiscence and maintained by 30 peranakans tionghoa. in addition to that, not many peranakans tionghoa in three groups who can use or playing chinese and indonesian instruments. from the questioners, the researchers only get three selections from the aspect of musical instruments. even the ability to use chinese and indonesian instruments such as guitar and gu drum is found. it can be assumed that their taste in listening to indonesian and chinese music does 254 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 247-255 not have many ties with the aspect of musical instruments. in contrary to that case, the three groups emphasize language as the core to understand the musical elements. the level of understanding of the meaning of songs influences their cultural identity, so the taste in listening to music lies in the language. language is a means of connecting their identity and culture by sharing the same experience and ability. conclusions many aspects of musical taste and cultural experience are obtained from the taste analysis in listening to indonesian and chinese music and attributed them to peranakans tionghoa’s cultural identity. the aspects not only cover the elements and the function of music, but it is also the aspect of their ability to speak the indonesian language or mandarin. the six aspects in the music indicate as cultural aspects which belong to peranakans tionghoa. furthermore, a hobby in collecting vcd of chinese songs and going for traveling to china can be part of their taste in listening to both of the music. the second aspect can be called as a cultural experience. both cultural aspects in the music and cultural experience bring the relation to their cultural identity. those aspects have been inherited and can be sustainable and continuous in the process of meaning. using those aspects form a characteristic of similarity and difference in their tastes and relate to their cultural identity. the similarities can be seen from the same preference in listening to indonesian music, chinese, and both of the two, which depend on the language as it is found in the grouping. peranakans tionghoa, who prefers listening to chinese music and uses mandarin, represents cultural diversity, and it must be respected as their choice or taste. meanwhile, the sameness in understanding indonesian music using its language can strengthen peranakans tionghoa to be a part of indonesian culture and country. finally, all things related to the favorite aspects of listening to music, collecting vcd of song or tapes, the ability to speak indonesia and chinese, and traveling to china can be linked together in finding their cultural identity. furthermore, it can be said that the cultural identity of peranakans tionghoa is seen from the cultural aspect in the music as they have the same language (indonesian) and as they are part of the chinese ethnic who live for a long time in indonesia. their belongings show the existence of a process to be new, and they have become part of the nation and culture of indonesia. despite that, they have a connection with their history in the past, seeing from their experience and different language (mandarin). then, all of the three groups have the same cultural identities. their cultural identity is categorized as ‘becoming identity’. they still keep their native culture and integrate or assimilate into the new culture. due to the small scale of research, the researchers think about continuing this research to be a greater scale. the researchers also suggest to for the next researchers to establish the aspect and another component in the research such as seeing another concept or a scientific perspective in psychology, sociology or others, and in accordance with the components of age, class, and group (teenager, middle adult, adult, and oldster). it can be questioned on how the community of music lovers from peranakan chinese has a distinctive taste in listening to indonesian and chinese music based on the social class and status. it also can be investigated based on a class difference (the elite, uppermiddle-class, and middle class of peranakans tionghoa). the researchers also suggest considering their social status, chinese name, and gender. further, the research is suggested to take another method, such as the quantitative research method using three or more variables in analyzing sampling data and the use of another theory of identity or habitus proposed by manuel castells and jurgen habermas in ethnography study. in addition to that, to observe some local areas in indonesia where are inhabited by the artists, actors, and musicians, who have a generation of peranakans tionghoa. these findings highlight how important is the awareness to understand the diversity of relations between cultural aspects that come from the same culture of origin (china), and it is possessed by ethnic peranakans tionghoa must be respected as a form of admitting multiculturalism in indonesia. this diversity of collective identities in listening to indonesian and chinese music creates differences and similarities that strengthen each other and create a unique culture. the cultural equation of peranakans chinese ethnic with indonesia is the use of the indonesian language in understanding music as a taste or choice. thus, the strengthening of two cultures can be done with understanding and love of the indonesian language as a shared language. acknowledgment this research is funded by the ministry of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia as part of small scale research. this research is expected to be a reading 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(2018). sharing global musics: an introduction to the music of china. music educators journal, 105(2), 18–27. https://doi. org/10.1177/0027432118811587. p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 69 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 69-78 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6342 ‘the research is conducted…’: an exploration of a grammatical metaphor syndrome in indonesian research articles putu nur ayomi1*; shoshana dreyfus2; syamsul hadi3; adi sutrisno4 1linguistic department, faculty of cultural science, gadjah mada university jl. bulaksumur, caturtunggal, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1english language department, faculty of foreign languages, mahasaraswati university jl. kamboja no. 11a, denpasar bali, indonesia 2department of english language and linguistic, faculty of law, humanities and the arts, university of wallongong building 19, university of wallongong, nsw 2522, australia 3arabic language and linguistics, faculty of cultural sciences, gadjah mada university jl. bulaksumur, caturtunggal, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 4english department, faculty of cultural sciences, gadjah mada university jl. bulaksumur, caturtunggal, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1putu.nur.a@unmas.ac.id; 2shooshi@uow.edu.au; 3syamsulhadi@mail.ugm.ac.id; 4adisutrisno@ugm.ac.id received: 08th april 2020/revised: 22nd april 2020/accepted: 28th april 2020 how to cite: ayomi, p. n., dreyfus, s., hadi. s., & sutrisno, a. (2020). ‘the research is conducted…’: an exploration of a grammatical metaphor syndrome in indonesian research articles. lingua cultura, 14(1), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6342 abstract the research examined the use of one grammatical metaphor (hereafter gm) syndrome frequently found in indonesian language research articles (hereafter ras). this syndrome followed the lexicogrammatical structure of process+range or process+medium. an interesting feature of this gm syndrome, which, to date, had not been studied, was that while gm typically increased the lexical density of a clause by condensing meaning into nominal groups. this gm syndrome seemed to do the opposite. e.g., rather than writing ‘merubah’ (changed) as process, writers used ‘melakukan perubahan’ (do some changes), which had the structure of process+range. this had the effect of delexicalizing the verb as well as increasing the number of words in the clauses. instead of seeing this form as a mere ritual in academic writing, the research sought to understand the functional role in the ras. the data was taken from a small corpus of ras from two refereed indonesian humanities journals. the occurrences of this gm syndrome were identified. a systemic analysis was then conducted with a metafunctional lens, examining the ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions of this form of gm syndrome. the analysis reveals that ideationally, gm syndrome is a resource to manage technicality, abstraction, taxonomy, and activity sequence; textually, the syndrome is a resource organizing textual coherence through the management of hyperthemes; and interpersonally, the syndrome functions as a resource for graduation, which decreases the force of propositions. keywords: grammatical metaphor, grammatical metaphor syndrome, indonesian research articles introduction from the perspective of systematic-functional linguistics (sfl), language and knowledge are not seen as separate phenomena (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). developing knowledge simultaneously means developing knowledge of the language that constructs that knowledge (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). however, there is a great shift in the register of everyday spoken language that communicates common knowledge, characterized by congruent language forms. it compares to the formal written *corresponding author language used at the tertiary level to exchange and produce specialized knowledge. this written formal language makes the use of many incongruent forms (liardét, 2015; liardèt, 2016a; larsson, 2018). further, it is not an easy task for students to master such language patterns. it typically requires a conscious educational process and exposure to these incongruent forms. it is not only non-native users of english who have difficulty with these forms but also native users (devrim, 2015; ryshina-pankova, 2015). the phenomenon of the move from the concrete and congruent forms of language to the incongruent 70 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 69-78 forms happens through several processes, the chief one of which is gm. from a semogenic perspective, language first develops from congruent forms; for example, there is a linear or congruent ‘one to one’ relation between the constituents in the semantics and the lexicogrammatical stratum (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). as an example, a happening is construed as a clause involving both a participant and a process in which the participant is typically construed as a noun and the process as a verb. this is the form that comes first in language and provides the basis for further development. however, to expand the potential of language as a meaning-making resource, there is the possibility of realignment between strata (halliday & matthiessen, 1999), e.g., the meaning of a ‘process’ or ‘quality’ is construed as a noun instead of a verb or adjective respectively. this incongruent realization of meaning that occurs with gm creates a ‘stratal tension’ between the semantics and the lexicogrammar. halliday and matthiessen (1999) also model gm as a ‘semantic junction’ between semantic categories. for example, rather than seeing the noun ‘awareness’ only as a thing, it is a process-thing. in the research, the term ‘activity-entity’ (hao & humphrey, 2019) refers to this form of nominalized process to present the semantic compounding of process and thing in the discourse semantic stratum. halliday and mathiessen (2014) have recognized two types of gm; ideational gm, which comprises both experiential and logical gm, and interpersonal gm, which deals with metaphors of mood and modality. in scientific writing, ideational metaphor plays the most significant role in relation to the subject matter of the ra’s field (hao & humphrey, 2019). furthermore, halliday and matthiessen (1999) have listed 13 types of ideational gm. however, as can be seen in figure 1, they do not usually occur individually, but in the form of syndromes. figure 1 category and rank shifts in metaphoric reconstrual in figure 1, the central gm involves the shift from the process ‘was driving’, to the ‘ing’ form of a noun (while there is no morphological change here, the role and function have changed). thus, the other participants and circumstances in the congruent rank must act as the modifying constituents in the nominal group that has ‘driving’ as the head noun. the gm syndrome discussed here consists of two of the 13 ideational types of gm (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). the first is the nominalization of the process (gm type 2), and the second is the creation of a process with a verb with no congruent source of meaning (type 12). this means that the meaning typically contained within the process has been transformed into a nominalized form, such as from ‘present’ to ‘(give a) presentation’ or from ‘investigate’ to ‘(conduct an) investigation’. sfl is a multifaceted model of language, which understands the language system as being multidimensional. two of the key dimensions are stratification and metafunction (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). stratification refers to how language comprises several layers or planes; the context, content, and expression planes. the context plane consists of the register, which also has three dimensions; field (what the text is about), tenor (the relationship between participants), and mode (how the text is organized). martin and rose (2003) have expanded the context plane with a further subdivision of the genre above the register. the content plane of language is divided into two strata; semantics or discourse semantics and lexicogrammar. the strata have a relationship of realization, i.e., meaning in the semantic stratum is realized as wordings in the stratum of lexicogrammar. another key dimension is metafunction, which complements stratification, as all strata can be seen as having three broad functions (metafunctions). they are (1) the ideational metafunction, which construes our experience of life as entities, activities, qualities, and circumstances; (2) the interpersonal metafunction, regulating social relations between communicators; and (3) the textual metafunction, organizing the other two metafunctions as coherent text. the metafunctions work across the strata, the rank of the clause, and discourse. clause as the ideational meaning realization in the stratum of lexicogrammar can be seen from two perspectives; transitivity and ergativity. the transitive perspective sees a clause as a linear construct. it names participants according to the type of process in the clause, e.g., actor, senser, sayer, goal, etc. the ergative perspective, on the other hand, is more generalized. participants are categorized based on their nuclearity in relation to the process. the nucleus of a clause consists of the obligatory elements process and medium. medium is the participant that is going through the process. the participant that initiates an action is called the agent. the other participant that is not affected by the process and indicates the domain of the process is called the range, which shares a similar definition as the scope in the transitive perspective (halliday 71‘the research is conducted…’: .... (putu nur ayomi, et al.) & matthiessen, 2014). the ergative perspective is used to analyze the gm syndrome being discussed in the research. the differences between the agent and medium can be seen in the example of table 1. table 1 example of transitive and ergative perspective on clauses the government changed the regulation transitivity actor process: material goal ergativity agent process: material medium the regulation has changed transitivity actor process: material ergativity medium process: material students must enjoy the learning process transitivity senser process: mental phenomenon ergativity medium process: behaviour range as one of the important features for construing meaning in the discourses associated with academic and bureaucratic language, gm has been studied from different perspectives. derewianka (2003) has studied the emergence of gm in child language development and confirmed that gm’s use begins around early adolescence and typically increases as children mature into adulthood. that gm marks higher language development can also be seen in second or foreign language development (liardét, 2016a; to, 2018). researchers also have found that native speakers of english use more gm and with greater fluency than their non-native counterparts, especially in academic writing (he & yang, 2018; zhao, 2017). higher-level tertiary students learning english as a second language show more mastery in the use of gm than those in the lower levels (liardét, 2016b; ryshina-pankova, 2015; velázquez-mendoza, 2015). further, researchers also demonstrate that with knowledge of gm, students can improve their production of the more valued academic texts within their disciplines (devrim, 2015; ferreira, 2019), which also helps to increase their academic success (ezeifeka, 2015; walsh marr, 2019). as one form of gm, nominalization has also been studied as a resource for the construction of knowledge in various disciplinary discourses. for example, it is one resource to build technicality in scientific discourse and abstraction in humanities discourse (jalilifar, white, & malekizadeh, 2017; martin, 2004). gm is clearly one of the key features of academic writing. many researchers have studied gm in english or the use of gm in english as a second language. however, there is still a lack of research explaining the construction of gm in languages other than english, including in the indonesian language, specifically, in how gm is employed to construe meaning in indonesian scientific texts. the research does not focus on gm, generally. instead, its focus is on one type of gm syndrome that has not been analyzed comprehensively for the functional motivation of its use. this gm syndrome, which seems to occur quite frequently in indonesian academic writing, has the configuration of process + range or process + medium. in this type of gm, a process that is congruently realized as a verb is encoded nominally as an entity that can later serve as a range or medium in a clause. the process itself is replaced by a ‘lexically empty verb’ or a generic verb (derewianka, 2003). an example of this is, “mereka mengambil kesimpulan bahwa …”, in which the meaning of the mental process ‘menyimpulkan’ (conclude) is shifted into the noun form ‘kesimpulan’ (conclusion) (medium) in the clause structure, with the more generalized verb ‘mengambil’ (take) filling the process slot. many forms of this gm are considered ‘dead metaphors’ (halliday & matthiessen, 1999) or ‘faded metaphors’ (derewianka, 2003), which means they lose their semantic tension that understand as the congruent unmarked form. common examples of this type of gm in everyday spoken english are, ‘take a walk’, ‘have a bath’, or ‘make a call’, in which their congruent versions are the verbs ‘walk’, ‘bathe’, and ‘call’. phylogenetically, these expressions ‘have taken over’ their congruent forms and are used without any conscious effort (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). it is observed that in indonesian; however, this metaphor is not used in spoken language; instead, it seems that it is reserved for written or formal language. in contrast to other types of gm that move toward the compactness of information and increased lexical density, this type of gm both increases the number of words and length to the realization of meaning, and seems to make the meaning less straightforward. for instance, rather than using the verb form merubah (change) or menderita (suffer), people use melakukan perubahan (do some changes) or mengalami penderitaan (experience suffering). the research aims to investigate both the construction of this type of gm in indonesian research articles and how it functions ideationally, interpersonally, and textually. practically, the understanding of how this gm works in indonesian scientific writing could be very useful in improving the teaching of indonesian academic writing. methods the research is qualitative with the data consisting of four published ras written in indonesian. two are from the discipline of linguistics (l), and the other two are from anthropology (a). these disciplines are chosen because of their familiarity with 72 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 69-78 the researchers. the four articles are taken from two reputable indexed indonesian national journals and are chosen for their high citation index. these articles can be considered valued models of discipline-specific research writing that students or apprentices can learn from. the data are kept relatively small to enable close and detailed analysis of how these types of gm work as a meaning-making resource, including the meaning involved in the construction of discipline knowledge. all four articles consist of the general stages of scientific research articles, which are the introduction, method, result, and discussion. however, they are not always named with these exact headings. the length of each research article can be seen in table 2. table 2 data set data set data code number of sentences topic wijana (2014) l1 152 foreign language resistance in the naming of shops in yogyakarta hadi (2003) l2 191 sound change in the absorption of arabic words into indonesian permana (2009) a1 242 plant based traditional medication in baduy zahra (2017) a2 288 knowledge production and the social movement of the loji river community there are two steps involved in the data collection and analysis of the gm syndromes in the ras. the first step is identifying the occurrences of the gm syndromes of ‘process + range’ and ‘process + medium’ or the opposite configuration of ‘range + process’ and ‘range + medium’. these are then calculated and listed based on the characteristic of the generic process and the activity entities (see tables 3 and 4), and this provides the basis for further analysis. the second step is examining and interpreting systemically how the gm syndromes contribute to the discourse semantic meanings of the indonesian ras across the three metafunctions (ideational, interpersonal, and textual). it refers to martin and rose (2003) by looking at the gm syndromes’ position and how they interact with the other discourse features in clauses, paragraphs, and across the ras. results and discussions the first finding to be reported is the use of the generic processes that form part of the syndrome where the process occurs before the range or medium. this can be seen in table 3. table 3 generic process in the syndromes generic process used in gm l1 l2 a1 a2 process + (range) 11 8 13 19 memiliki 'has/have' 3 2 melakukan 'do' 4 2 6 14 menunjukkan 'show' 2 memainkan 'play' 1 1 mengalami 'experience' 1 6 2 1 menderita 'suffer' 1 mempunyai 'own' 1 1 menjalani 'undergo' 1 mengadakan 'conduct' 1 mengajukan 'propose' 1 process + (medium) 3 21 12 8 terjadi 'happen' 3 19 4 menjalankan 'run' 1 menggunakan 'use' 1 1 menimbulkan 'cause' 1 melangsungkan/ berlangsung 'take place' 3 1 memegang 'held' 1 adanya 'exist' 1 4 1 terdapat 'occur' 1 membangun 'build' 3 memberikan 'give' 1 mengambil ‘take’ 1 mendapat ‘pemahaman’ 1 as can be seen in table 3, all four academic articles use both the process + range and the process + medium type of gm. further, some processes occur more frequently than others. in the process + range type, the most frequently used are melakukan ‘do/conduct’, mengalami ‘experience’, and memiliki ‘has/own’. while in the process + medium, the most common one is terjadi ‘happen’. the indonesian language’s clause construction mostly conforms with the svo pattern, except for the relational clauses in which the process is often left implicit and realized by zero verb clause (ayomi, 2018). therefore, in indonesian, the clause construction is process followed by range or medium in active voice or process or range followed by process in the passive voice. the special case is for the verb terjadi ‘happen’, which can be preceded or followed by medium, depending on the writer’s choice of the circumstance position, i.e., if the circumstance is in the theme position, then medium comes after the process (as in example 2), or if the circumstance is placed in the rheme position, the medium comes before the process (for example 1). the circumstance is underlined, and gm is bolded). 73‘the research is conducted…’: .... (putu nur ayomi, et al.) 1. perubahan juga terjadi pada vokal tinggi /u/ menjadi vocal sedang /o/ contohnya adalah qurban menjadi korban/kurban (l2:24) ‘change also happens on high vowel /u/ into mid vowel /o/ for example is the word qurban into korban/kurban’ 2. pada kata fahm yang diserap menjadi paham terjadi penguatan bunyi/f/ menjadi /p/. (l2: 71) ‘on the word fahm, which is absorbed into paham, happen the sound strengthening of sound /f/ into /p/ it now turns into the types of activity entities occurring in the gm syndrome that function as range or medium in the clause (as in table 4). the activity entities, following hao and humphrey (2019), are classified into two; enacted activity (activity carried out by the scientist or the writer), and observational activity (activity being observed on the objects of study). looking at the types of activity entities involved in the construction enables us to map their use throughout the text. table 4 shows that most of the enacted activity entities in the ras, e.g., penelitian, pengamatan, ekspedisi, pembahasan, collocate with the general process melakukan ‘do’ or its synonym mengadakan ‘conduct’. these usually occur in the introduction or the research method section of the ras to introduce the time, place, or manner of the research (as per example 3). 3. penelitian ini dilakukan secara berkala sepanjang juni 2016 hingga mei 2017 (a2: 41) ‘this research is conducted periodically throughout june 2016 to may 2017 range process circumstance: manner and extent the other enacted activity entities are mental and verbal, such as penjelasan ‘explanation’ and pemahaman ‘understanding’. these occur with the general process memberikan ‘give’ or mengajukan ‘propose’ (as per example 4). by moving processual meanings of mental and verbal clauses into the range means the projections (both locutions and ideas) are now taken up in the qualifier of the nominal groups that make up those ranges. 4. avonina (2006) mengajukan suatu penjelasan tentang pengetahuan tradisional yang bersifat luas (a1:24) avonina (2006) proposes a broad explanation about traditional knowledge medium process range the observational entities, however, vary across fields depending on the topic being discussed. many table 4 types of activity entity in the data type of activity-entity l1 l2 a1 a2 enacted pengamatan observation’ pembahasan discussion, penelitian etimologi etymological research penelitian research, penjelasan explanation, ekspedisi expedition’, riset ‘research’ penelitian ‘research’, pemahaman understanding pengumpulan data data collection observational/ inferable resistansi resistance hubungan ‘relation’, dominasi suatu budaya dominance of a culture, perlawanan resistance cibiran mockery perubahan bunyi sound change, penghilangan bunyi sound elimination, pemenggalan bunyi sound elidation, penguatan bunyi sound strengthening, penambahan bunyi sound addition, perubahan konsonan consonant change, pelemahan bunyi sound weakening, pelesapan bunyi sound ellipsis pengobatan medication, interaksi interaction, perkembangan development, penemuan discovery, pengolahan processing, penggunaan use, petunjuk indication, peningkatan keperluan raise of need’ penetrasi pengetahuan ‘penetration of knowledge’, reproduksi‘ruang space ‘reproduction’, kepedulian ‘concern’, keterkaitan ‘relationship’, kesamaan ‘similarity’, penilaian kebutuhan ‘need assesment’, diskusi ‘discussion’, pemberian signifikansi ‘significance entitlement, transmisi pengetahuan ‘knowledge transmission’, produksi pengetahuan ‘knowledge production’, distribusi pengetahuan ‘knowledge distribution, audiensi ‘audience’ 74 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 69-78 of these nominalized processes are the keywords of the field of the ras. this can be seen in their high frequency and elaboration, as well as their position in the articles. these include the word perlawanan ‘resistance’ in l1 perubahan bunyi ‘sound change’ in l2, pengobatan ‘medication’ in a1, or produksi pengetahuan ‘knowledge construction’ in a2 that are going to be elaborated and discussed in the ras. there are several semantic’s ideational functions of the gm syndrome. the first is the inclination to abstraction and technicality. as the gm construes process as a thing, which then becomes the participant in the clause, the gm syndrome directly rearranges the mapping of ideational meaning both at the lexicogrammatical and the discourse semantic strata. the preference towards the use of the highly established technical words in nominal form is one of the reasons for the use of process-range or processmedium gm in the ras. this can especially be seen in the two linguistics ras. the first linguistic text (l1) is a sociolinguistic ra, which is about how the commercial shop names in the streets of yogyakarta resist the foreign language dominance in the business sector. a part of the l1 title, “bahasa, kekuasaan, dan resistansinya” (language, power, and resistance), clearly shows the abstract terms that construe the field of the text. these nouns function as the ‘macro-topic’, which frames the overall text, even though one of them has a congruent meaning as the process (resistance – to resist). they are expected to be unpacked, elaborated, and explained as the text unfolds. the words such as kekuasaan ‘power’ and resistansi ‘resistance’ (used consecutively with the indonesian term perlawanan) are repeatedly used. these highly conceptual and ideological terms are used frequently and assumed to be shared knowledge. in l1, these abstract terms are neither decoded nor contested. they provide definitions even at the beginning of the ra, as one may find in textbooks. instead, they are used throughout the text, outnumbering the use of their more congruent process form. the forms such as menunjukkan resistansinya dengan (show its resistance by..), or melakukan perlawanan dengan (do resistance by), or terjadi resistansi (resistance occurs) are chosen instead of meresistansi dengan, melawan dengan, or simply melawan (resists by) in l1. it is typical of highly written language, which tends to use nominalized forms. the ra from the micro linguistic field (l2), whose topic is the phonological changes of arabic loanwords into indonesian, starts with the nominal technical term perubahan bunyi (sound change), which is later sub-categorized into different types. the use of technical terms for the scientific phenomenon under discussion, which is in the form of nominalization results in the frequent use of generic process verbs such as terjadi (happen/occur) with the process entities such as pelesapan (elision), penambahan bunyi (sound addition) or kompresi (compression) acts as the medium. the clause construction of medium-processcircumstance, such as ‘pelemahan bunyi terjadi pada bunyi bersuara (..)’ ‘sound attenuation occurs in the voiced sound (..)’ can be found repeatedly in l2 as the writer explains the environments for certain types of phonological change that have been set out in the paper’s theoretical framework. from this point of view, the two linguistic ras are more similar to science discourse, which seeks to understand and describe the world through the lenses of the established theoretical framework construing these technical terms (devrim, 2015). as a social science discipline, this is not surprising. in contrast to this, however, they are the anthropology ras, where nominalizations are used mostly for abstractions, and these are packed and unpacked in the text through the use of incongruent and congruent forms. this is consistent with martin (2004), who has argued that abstraction is mostly used in humanities, e.g., in history, to package many dynamic events into static and stable concepts such as the dutch conquest (of indonesia). the dynamic experience that happens through time is construed as a static and stable concept that everyone already has knowledge of. the need to use an increased number of nominalizations to conform to the academic register can also be observed in the ras. nouns such as penelitian (research), pengobatan (medication), and other conventionalized words have become so familiar that the congruent verbal forms are of lesser use. the choice of using these more popular processual entities, therefore, requires other processes to fill the process role in the clause. generic vocabulary representing the basic classification of processes in the transitivity system, such as ‘do’, ‘happen’, ‘feel’, or ‘have’ fill this void, even though these may extend the length of the clause compares to the congruent forms. therefore, the effect of nominalizing the process is in one sense consistent with academic writing that makes the meanings more abstract, but in another sense, inconsistent that it lengthens the clauses and decreases their lexical density. the second of the ideational function of the gm syndrome is minimizing agency. nominalization has been known as a resource for minimizing agency in discourse as it enables either the removal or backgrounding of the agent (cigankova, 2016; zhu & zhang, 2016). the preference for nominalization to realize enacted activities is particularly noticeable in the research method section of the ras. in indonesian academic writing, the use of the first-person pronoun is typically avoided. many universities explicitly ban its use in students’ writing to achieve objectivity. in its stead, passive voice constructions similar to penelitian ini dilakukan….(this research is done/conducted) are used, in which the process ‘research’ is constructed as an entity. the process is realized by the process ‘do’. it is observed that this form frequently occurs in indonesian research articles. when the process as verb ‘research’ is used, immediately preceding this, in the role of range, what is researched, for example, pengobatan tradisional masyarakat baduy ini diteliti di baduy luar (the baduy traditional medication is 75‘the research is conducted…’: .... (putu nur ayomi, et al.) researched in outer baduy). however, when the process ‘research’ is reconstrued as range, there is no longer the necessity to specify what is done in the research, for example, penelitian ini dilakukan di baduy luar (this research is done/conducted in outer baduy). however, more specification sometimes occurs in the qualifier of the nominal group, e.g., penelitian tentang pengobatan masyarakat baduy (the research about the baduy traditional medication). the use of nominalization as medium with the addition of the dummy process e.g. terjadi ‘happen’ also creates an intransitive/middle clause construction, e.g. penemuan yang berharga dapat terjadi (a2) ‘a valuable discovery can happen’ as opposed to its transitive/effective clause construction, e.g. mereka menemukan sesuatu yang berharga ‘they discovered something valuable (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). in the middle voice construction, process is seen as self-generated, and there is no agency feature in the grammatical slot (dreyfus, 2017). this also occurs with the process + range structure; for example, in the clause, bahasa indonesia mengalami dominasi (the indonesian language experienced dominations), ‘dominations’ is put in range position. the effect of this that it appears as a stable and taken-for-granted phenomenon without any definite agent, range, nor medium. this gm syndrome can also increase the focus on the process instead of the agent. for example, it can be compared with ‘they described’ and ‘they give description’. in this example, the former foregrounds the agent, as in the active sentence, it is natural that the actor/agent is in theme position as the point of departure. in contrast to this, the latter shifts the focus to the range ‘description’, as it is a reconstrued participant, which is morphologically more marked and incongruent through the process of nominalization and metaphorisation. while ‘they give description’ is still in active voice with the agent/actor first, the process has been emptied out and the meaning has been transferred into the noun. here, by construing process as part of the nominal group, the process is highlighted over the agent, which can later be elaborated as the text is unfolding. the construal of process meaning as an entity makes the process to become materialized and therefore transferable that can be produced and exchanged. in the data that researchers have found, this form is also used to give more authority to the academics, researchers, or experts as the producers of knowledge. this can be seen in a2, where the writer lists the purposes of the activity conducted by the loji river community (kpkl). 5. memberikan gambaran konkret mengenai erubahan kondisi lingkungan sebagai dampak aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh kpkl dan; (a2:61) ‘to give a concrete description about the environmental changes as the result of the activity done by the kpkl and; in sentence (5), the process menggambarkan (describe) and the knowledge of what being described is seen as an entity and the property of kpkl that can be distributed to the public. 6. membangun kesadaran warga kota pekalongan –baik yang tergabung di laman penggemar kpkl di facebook dan pengguna facebook secara umumakan permasalahan lingkungan di kota pekalongan. (a2:62) ‘to build the awareness of the pekalongan city residents –both those who join kpkl facebook’s fanpage or the users of facebook in general about the environmental issues in pekalongan’ in sentence (6), the processes menyadari (realize), experienced by the pekalongan city residents, is seen as something that kpkl can build. the city residents are backgrounded as the classifier in the nominal group of kesadaran (realization/awareness), instead of being the obligatory medium that undergoes the process as in the clause of the congruent form, warga kota pekalongan menyadari permasalahan lingkungan di pekalongan (pekalongan city residents realize the environmental issues in pekalongan). the third ideational function of the gm syndrome is construing further taxonomy of activities. as discussed earlier, writers use many technical and abstract terms derived from knowledge in previous studies or from the field-specific register, which results in the more frequent use of nominalization. as the writer develops his/her argument, he/she can further develop the taxonomy in order to produce new knowledge. martin and rose (2003) have explained that field consists of sequences of activity which involve people, things, qualities, places, and others. by construing processes incongruently as nouns rather than congruently as verbs, activities can enter into ‘taxonomic relations’ as they are separated from their context in time and place (halliday & matthiessen, 1999). this can be observed from the example in l2, where the process-entity perubahan bunyi (sound change) enters the taxonomy and is further classified into several types, i.e., sound weakening, sound elidation, and sound addition. each type of class can then function in topic sentences or what martin & rose (2003) have call hypertheme. at the paragraph level, hyperthemes organize and predict what is coming. these hyperthemes provide a point of departure for further elaboration of each type of sound change and form the start to these new sections as in sentence (1) and (2). the occurrences of each type in the indonesian phonological system are later construed through the series of mediumprocess-circumstance construction or circumstanceprocess-medium to explain the environment where this phonological change occurs. this also occurs in l2, which employs the range-process or processrange, followed by an enhancing hypotactic clause. it explains the manner of the activity, for example, in the sentence (7). 76 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 69-78 7. resistansi terhadap bahasa jepang dilakukan dengan mengubah kata-kata bahasa jawa atau bahasa indonesia sedemikian rupa sehingga menyerupai sistem fonologis atau ortografis bahasa jepang. (l1:87) ‘the resistance to japanese language is done by changing the words in javanese or indonesian in such a way to resemble the japanese phonological or orthographical language system’ thus, it can be constructed the class membership taxonomy of process-entities in l2 that govern the flow of explanation in the discussion section of the ra as such in figure 2. figure 2 process-entities taxonomy in l2 besides the ideational function, there is a textual function of the gm syndrome, the rhetorical strategy to build text coherence. the gm syndrome can also be used as an effective rhetoric strategy to build textual coherence by managing the flow of information in the clause through the theme-rheme patterns, the given/ new patterns, and the rhetorical structure. similarly, the text as a whole usually has a macro theme that introduces what the text is going to be about (martin & rose, 2003). this can be best observed in the a2, which has the title “analisis produksi pengetahuan dan praktik politik gerakan sosial komunitas peduli kali loji” (the analysis of knowledge production and the political practices of the loji river community’s social movement), which also functions as the macro theme of the text. it means that it tells the readers that the topic of the ra is ‘knowledge production’ and ‘political practice’. these are abstracted activity entities that build readers’ expectancy that the ra will elaborately describe the community’s actions through the lens of an anthropologist. by employing the repeated structure of generic process ‘do’, which is followed by or preceded by (in the case of passive voice) range, the reader can easily follow the arguments in the ras and see the activities as the listed series of activities with the ‘how’ question being answered in the circumstance position. those repeated structures can be seen in these sentences (gm syndromes are bolded). 8. dalam aktivitasnya menggalakkan kepedulian warga kota kpkl melakukan penetrasi pengetahuan mengenai konsepsi ruang yang ideal atas wilayah aliran sungai di kota pekalongan secara umum. (a2: 25) ‘in its activities to promote the city residents’ concern, kpkl do penetration about the conception of ideal space for the watershed area in pekalongan city.’ 9. reproduksi ruang dilakukan berdasarkan perangkat pengetahuan dalam tubuh gerakan (..) (a2: 66) ‘space production is done based on the set of knowledge in the body of the movement.’ 10. distribusi pengetahuan ini mula-mula dilakukan oleh kpkl melalui penetrasi skemaskema pengetahuan yang dimiliki. (a2: 144) ‘the distribution of knowledge is first done by kpkl trough the penetration to the knowledge schemes they have’ in addition to providing the list of the series of abstracted key activities that the kpkl does, which have been described theoretically at the beginning of the ra, these clauses also function as hyper themes of the subsequent sentences and paragraphs because they explain more about the activity construed in the range position. this strategy of foregrounding the topic is also used in the l1, which has briefly described in the previous section. the next is the interpersonal function of the gm syndrome, managing graduation. although many indonesian academics are encouraged to avoid subjective positioning in their writing, every writer inevitably positions their reader to view phenomena in particular ways. various sfl research studies have discussed the language resources that express writers’ evaluation by deploying resources from the appraisal system, such as munday (2015) and white (2015). in relation to the gm syndromes under analysis, it is found that these also provide the writers with a tool to manage graduation. graduation is one part of the appraisal system used for grading force as well as focus. graduation resources enable writers to intensify or lessen the meaning of propositions. graduation is the force that is commonly instantiated by intensifier adverbs or adjectives such as ‘very’, ‘strong’, ‘solid’, ‘weak’, etc. what the researchers argue here, however, is that the nominalization of the process can lessen the intensity of meaning. this can be seen in examples from l1, which talks about language power and domination. 11. walaupun bahasa jawa masih jauh dari kategori bahasa yang akan mengalami kepunahan, dominasi yang terus mengancam eksistensi kebudayaan daerah dan nasional ini tidak boleh dibiarkan. (l1:97) ‘while javanese is still far from the category of languages that will experience extinction, domi77‘the research is conducted…’: .... (putu nur ayomi, et al.) nation that continues to threaten the existence of regional and national culture should not be allowed.’ 12. hanya ada satu contoh nama badan usaha yang menunjukkan perlawanan terhadap bahasa cina (..) (l1: 88) ‘there is only one example of a business entity’s name that shows resistance to chinese (...)’ the sentences of (13) and (14) can be compared to these more congruent forms. 13. ‘walaupun bahasa jawa masih jauh dari kategori bahasa yang akan punah (..). ‘even though javanese is still far from the category of a language that will become extinct (..) 14. ‘hanya ada satu contoh nama badan usaha yang melawan bahasa cina (..) ‘there is only one example of a business entity name that resists chinese language (..)’ nominalization of this kind has undergone a metaphoric process, which has resulted in abstraction. here, a specific concrete actual process or happening tied to the time and space is abstracted into a conceptual category and can be used as a generalization of any similar happening. the result is the meaning becomes less congruent, less tied to its material context, and therefore less forceful than the congruent form. in sentence (11), the noun kepunahan (extinction) has a broader spectrum than simply punah (extinct), which can include ‘almost extinct’ to ‘totally extinct’. this is also true with the sentence (12) in which the congruent melawan (resist) shows more intensive and motivated resistance than menunjukkan perlawanan (show resistance), a desired semantic consequence as there is only one case found by the researcher. it is argued here that by shifting the meaning from the process to the nominalized entity, not only does the congruence decrease, but the force of the evaluative meaning also decreases. conclusions the research has attempted to show how the gm syndrome; process+range and process+medium metaphor works in indonesian ras. it shows that these gms make meaning across all three metafunctions. ideationally, this gm functions to emphasize the characteristics of academic discourse through the use of abstraction and technicality, both of which are used in disciplines as a point of departure to indicate the progression of knowledge. the use of gm also enables writers to later develop classification and conceptual taxonomies in the ras, especially in the linguistics ones. textually, this gm syndrome can facilitate text coherence through hypertheme organization and highlight topical information through repetitive clause structure with repetitive use of generic verbs. interpersonally, the syndrome has the potential to weaken the intensity of meaning, as one resource of graduation in the appraisal system. the research has shown that the gm syndromes being analyzed are functional in developing academically valued writing. their use cannot be taken for granted as only a matter of following certain conventions but also has some unrealized potential as a resource to produce highly effective writing. this work, therefore, has some pedagogical implications, especially in academic writing. it is expected that with a targeted instruction toward the use and the effect of these gm syndromes textually, students can use this resource more successfully. however, it is also important to mention that people can overuse this language feature to no particular effect, even creating some wordy and ineffective language structures in the endeavor to become good academic writers. more examination of the effectivity of the syndromes’ use in a larger corpus with various types of texts is needed to be pursued in further research. this will give us a better outlook on how to determine which use of the gm syndromes can be considered productive and unproductive. acknowledgments this manuscript is a part of the first author`s doctoral dissertation, under the supervision of the third and the fourth author. some part of the manuscript is also the result of collaboration with the second author. references ayomi, p. n. 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(2016). dancing with ideology: grammatical metaphor and identity presentation in translation. meta, 60(3), 387-405. https://doi. org/10.7202/1036135ar. vol. 13 no. 2 may 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors arta moro sundjaja information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia noerlina information system department, bina nusantara university, indonesia international editor board ahmar mahboob department of linguistics, university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh english department, razi university, islamic republic of iran andrij rovenchak ivan franko national university of lviv, ukraine ariel heryanto school of culture, history and language, australian national university, australia arum perwitasari center for linguistics, leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands max m. richer socio-anthropology department, monash university, australia yousif a. elhindi literature and language department, college of arts & sciences east tennessee state university, usa akun english department, bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati language center, bina nusantara university, indonesia indiwan s. wahjuwibowo communication studies department, multimedia nusantara university, indonesia rosita ningrum japanese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying chinese department, bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat haryo sutanto bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a quadannual journal, published in february, may, august and november. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been acredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index, microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: asundjaja@binus.edu, hsutanto@binus.edu, linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua.binus, submission: http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents ida farida sachmadi; yudi permadi; trisha adelia; nolly liviani considering all (non) living things: a biocentric orientation in blair richmond’s the lithia trilogy .................. 87-92 laurencia noviana error analysis and teaching strategies of chinese time adverbs “zai” and “cai” for indonesian students............ 93-97 hanova rani eka retnaningtyas; mangatur rudolf nababan; dwi purnanto language code choice of male abdi dalem of karaton ngayogyakarta hadiningrat ...................................... 99-105 udi samanhudi; caroline linse critical thinking-related challenges to academic writing: a case of indonesian postgraduate students at a uk university .................................................................................................................... 107-114 zulfadli abdul aziz; husnul khatimah enjoying learning writing through facebook group............................................................................ 115-119 baiatun nisa; sulhizah wulan sari the effectiveness of student teams-achievement divisions in enhancing visual and auditory for english students’ writing skill ................................................................................................. 121-126 budi kurniawan hybridity in action and crossing ethnic boundaries in the films ngenest and cek toko sebelah........................ 127-135 sumarah suryaningrum; sarwiji suwandi; herman joseph waluyo the discrimination against women reflected in novels entrok, maryam, and pasung jiwa by okky madasari ....... 137-143 eri sarimanah; figiati indra dewi; roy efendi; suhendra; muhamad nurul; soeharto the implementation of discovery learning models in enhancing speech script writing skills for students ........... 145-150 fajar dwi utami; mei ardaning tyas; nurika mustika the use of commercial advertisement to teach university students in english for specific purpose context......... 115-119 vol. 13 no. 2 may 2019cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 257 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 257-263 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6138 the influence of social contexts towards the identity development of the main character in the bluest eye by toni morrison nana sofiani1; sabarti akhadiah2; emzir3 1, 2, 3 faculty of language education, universitas negeri jakarta jl. rawamangun muka, rt.11/rw.14, jakarta, 13220, indonesia 1nanasofiani_pb07s2@mahasiswa.unj.ac.id; 2sabartiakhadiah@yahoo.com; 3emzir.unj@unj.ac.id received: 28th june 2019/revised: 12th july 2019/accepted: 18th july 2019 how to cite: sofiani, n., akhadiah, s., & emzir. (2019). the influence of social contexts towards the identity development of the main character in the bluest eye by toni morrison. lingua cultura, 13(4), 257-263. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6138 abstract this research aimed to show how the social contexts influencing the main character of the bluest eye, pecols’s identity development, and the stage of her identity development with the help of erikson and marcia’s theories. the research used qualitative research through the literary psychology approach. the data collection had been taken from the novel entitled the bluest eye by toni morrison, selected and sorted to find out how many among them were supporting the research. the steps were data analysis and data validity. the results show that social contexts greatly affected pecola’s life, and therefore her identity cannot be developed.; racism, thus, has an influence on all aspects of the black people. pecola undergoes multiple oppression and abuse as a result of racism, which leads to her self-loathe. she, thus, believes that having blue eyes is the only hope to escape from the suffering she undergoes. it is a warning of identity confusion since she wants to change her identity and becomes white. it pushes her to insanity. racism and abuse ruin a person’s life by creating hatred and damaged to a person’s soul, and segregate society into groups. it results in the division of groups through the use of terms such as ‘them’ and ‘us’, implying that they are not equal. keywords: social context, identity confusion, identity development introduction identity formation is related to growth and development (panahi, 2015). the development in adolescence is more complicated as it consists of three changes. the first is the biological process that involves physical changes. the second is a cognitive process which involves changes in a person’s mind and intelligence. they will have a clearer picture of what is right and what is wrong or and critically examine their surroundings. furthermore, identity is a part of the cognitive mind. the last is the socio-emotional process which involves a change in their emotions, personality, relationship with others where they live (santrock, 2012). the identity development is a human lifespan process that begins since he/she was born until he/ she dies; thus, it does not begin or end at adolescence. adolescence is a turning-point of lifespan development, the transition time from a kid to adulthood. the range of adolescents’ age is various because it depends on culture and history, but it is generally around 10 to 13 years old (santrock, 2012). the adolescence is the development from the comfort zone as a kid to the world; they have to think like an adult. santrock (2012) has said that adolescence is a period full of problems in the life of human being like g. stanley hall, portrayed as a ‘storm-and-stress view’. facing the problems is not easy if they do not have self-confidence because they are easily influenced by the situation as they are not an unstable condition. self-confidence during adolescence is crucial as they like observing and exploring new things to search for their identities, which are suited for them. supporting and guidance from parents and teachers are a booster for adolescents to get self-confidence as well as their identities (beyers & çok, 2008). they prefer spending their time with friends to stay at home and more thinking about their appearance. the feeling of being liked and accepted by their friends is a salient point for adolescents. this research focuses on finding problems in the social contexts that influence the development of pecola’s identity, and on identifying the stage of her identity used erikson and marcia’s theories. identity is a predominant issue during adolescence because it is the perfect time to 258 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 257-263 ask their identity by asking ‘who i am’. it is a deep question relating to self because many pieces of research have shown that the formation of a carefully constructed identity is related to mental soundness and general well-being (wijaya, 2016). identity is not only what people know commonly like something attached to oneself, as seen in the id card. identity is an awareness of one’s own uniqueness that comes from selfassessment, and self-observation (dalami et al., 2009). awareness of oneself uniqueness makes him/her proud of himself/herself and realizes that everybody is unique and different from each other. the outcome of self-observation gives an idea of his/her strengths and weaknesses. identity cannot be interpreted in words; therefore, the researchers have to explore the identity by building its continuity in various contexts (erikson, 1968). one will have a feeling of being the same person in various places and situations; therefore, others realize the continuity of his/her character. the self-identity is about the belonging (wijaya, 2016), and reflecting one’s self-concept. a person who has a positive self-concept, he/she will have a positive identity and good self-perception as well as his/her emotions (haerunisa, taftazani, & apsari, 2015). identity versus role confusion is erikson’s fifth psychosocial stage in which addresses to adolescents who are searching the identity. it is an adaptive outcome and a symbol of maturity, but the maladaptive outcome presents identity confusion describing the adolescent, who deals with crisis identity. abusive experiences in childhood can contribute to identity crisis heavily because of feeling traumatic and stressful (james & rajan, 2015). this experience can curtail the development of self and contribute to the high maladaptive identity formation because of the prominent of confusion and mistrust (james & rajan, 2015). the main character of the bluest eye by toni morrison is a depiction of an adolescent who is struggling with a crisis identity of experiencing abuse and racism. marcia has developed erikson’s ideas about identity into four identity statuses based on the level of identity exploration (i.e., the degree to which one has looked at and tested alternative beliefs), and commitment (i.e., the degree to which one displays continuity in his or her values) that an individual participates in during the identity. the identity statuses that marcia has described as identity diffusion (low exploration/low commitment), foreclosure (low exploration/ high commitment), moratorium (high exploration/low commitment), and achievement (high exploration/high commitment) (selvam, 2018). the adolescents who suffer from identity diffusion will have a lack of self-esteem and anxiety. the contexts are the settings in which development occurs that are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors (santrock, 2012). to know how important the contexts of identity development is by looking at the adolescent’s surroundings. erikson has marked the role of the context and defined identity development during adolescence as a process of person-context interactions (beyers & çok, 2008). there are six factors of the contexts that affect adolescent life (santrock, 2012; ramdhanu, sunarya, & nurhudaya, 2019). the first part of the context is the family. parents play a vital role in the family because their parenting style is very influential to the development of their children’s identity. ratner (2014) has stated that there are four parenting styles; authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent/permissive parenting, and uninvolved/negligent parenting. the authoritative (high responsiveness/high demandingness) educates the children independently and supportively; the children are allowed to participate in the family decision. the adolescent who is raised in this parenting style will more quickly reach identity achievement. the authoritarian (low responsiveness/ high demandingness), tends to wield absolute power in the household and the restrictions that they set to be closely followed. it encourages the occurrence of identity foreclosure in adolescents. the indulgent/permissive parenting (high responsiveness/low demandingness) is encouraging the expression of the child’s autonomy but do not set boundaries. moreover, the uninvolved/negligent parenting (low responsiveness/low demandingness) is negligent parents that are likely to practice a hands-off approach to parenting. the second is peers. peers are children or adolescents who are about the same age or maturity level (selvam, 2018). wentzel and asher in selvam (2018) have discussed five types of peer statuses; they are popular children, average children, neglected children, rejected children, and controversial children. popular children are frequently designated as a best friend and liked by their peers. then, average children usually receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers. the neglected children are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not liked by their peers. rejected children are infrequently nominated as some one’s best friend and are actively disliked by their peers, and the last is controversial children, who are frequently chosen both as some one’s best friend as well as being dislike. adolescents who have a positive relationship with their peers often report a greater sense of well-being than those who have been neglected and rejected by peers (beyers & çok, 2008). the third is the school. school is also contributing to the student identity development by giving guidance, building discipline, and creating a positive school climate. this need for a school role is to create a positive school climate and learning environment since the background of students is different; ethnicity, social class, and intelligence. the teacher helps adolescents to develop positive selfimages by accepting them unconditionally, conveying their interest in, and sympathetic attentiveness (panahi, 2015). it will encourage the students to have a good performance at school and reduce aggressiveness. the fourth is social class. social class is also called social status; the economy refers to a group of people with similar employment, education, and economic characteristics (santrock, 2003). the social layer of society is divided into three parts, namely the upper, middle, and lower classes. the consequences of poverty are difficulties in social adaptation, depression, low self-esteem, and conflict with peers, and delinquency is common in poor adolescents compared to those who are more (santrock, 2003). the fifth is ethnicity. ethnicity is a cultural heritage, characteristics of citizenship, race, religion, and language (santrock, 2003). ethnicity is part of racial identification, so ethnic identity emerges. the history of african–american slavery has created on inferiority complex and negative perspective. they are described as dark, dirty, dumb, and nigger (erikson, 2010). the adolescent who has achieved ethnic identity will feel positive about his/her ethnic identity. however, the adolescent who perceives a negative stereotype about his/her ethnic-racial group is called identity self-denial in which there is an attempt to hide or minimize one’s ethnic-racial background, including being afraid to express feelings about the in-group (aldridge, ala’i, & fraser, 2016). 259the influence of social contexts.... (nana sofiani, et al.) the sixth is gender. gender refers to a person’s sociocultural dimensions as men and women and is an important context during adolescence. gender stereotypes reflect a broad category that reflects the attitudes and behavior of men and women (santrock, 2012). man is described as aggressive and strong, but the woman is depicted as weak and gentle. not surprising, there is violence in the household where the victims are mostly women and children, while the perpetrators are the husbands or the father. brajannoto, rasyid, and lustyantie (2018) have discussed the female main character in arrival movie by eric heisserer, dr. louise bank, by using the literary psychology approach. she is a linguist who works for the military to communicate with the alien. this research focuses on the form of personality, desire, the fulfillment of desires, and to find out psychic conflict that is experienced by her by using the theory of freud and lacan. besides, maleki and haj’jari have studied on the feeling of negrophobia and anti-negritude among the blacks on themselves and the whites. pecola obsesses with having light skin, and blue eyes symbolize crisis identity. while arora and parkash (2017) have studied about racism and beauty are the two dominant themes in the bluest eye. pecola, who is eleven years old, has to face the reality of racism and the beauty standard of whites. it causes psychological trauma to her. her wish of having blue eyes damages the mind. there are four types of abuse; physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. those abuses will influence a person’s mental and psychological mind. the effect of abuse forms a significant portion of the global burden of disease, including psychiatric disorders and suicidal behavior. next, the novel is one of the literature works talking about imaginary figures and plot. analyzing the extrinsic elements of the novel needs to cooperate with other fields such as psychology. literature and psychology are two branches of science that study the human soul (emir, 2016). literature is media and psychology is ‘a scalpel’ that both can be used to explore human behavior and their reactions, perceptions of the world, miseries, wishes, desires, fears, conflicts and reconciliations; individual and social concerns, by means of varied concepts, methods, and approaches (aras, 2015). this research is using the literary psychology approach and analyzing the contexts and the impact on identity development. the novel uses the second-person point of view or narrator. the problem of this research limits in finding the stage of the identity development female character since the story begins when pecola is eleven years old. so this research focuses on two stages, the first and the fifth stage. this research is divided into two sub focuses: (1) the influence of the context to the identity development of the main character; (2) the stage of her identity development. methods the research is a qualitative research which is based on library research and using content analysis techniques. the novel that will be analyzed is the bluest eye by toni morrison and will be focused on the identity development of an eleven-year-old girl, pecola. to get understanding and deep insight relate to the research, some steps will be taken, such as data collection and data analysis methods. the data collection technique contains words, phrases, clauses, paragraphs, or events from the bluest eye by toni morrison. after reading the novel carefully, the researchers mark and determine the collected data, then choose and sort the data out which of them to support the research. miles and huberman describe the process of analyzing data (rijali, 2018) that can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 the process analyzing data figure 1 shows the interactive nature of data collection with data analysis. the data collection is an integral part of data analysis activities. the data reduction is an attempt to deduce data, then sorting them in certain conceptual units, categories, and themes. the process, not once, but interacts back and forth. the last is an examination of data validity. this research applies a literary psychology approach to reveal how the contexts influence pecola’s identity and find out how much the effect on her identity development. if she has a positive self-reflexion or self-image, she will have self-confidence and self-worth and describe that she has already found her identity. to find out the status of her identity formation, it will be explained by using erikson’s theory and strengthened by marcia’s theory. the fifth stage of erikson’s psychosocial is identity and identity confusion. the identity is for the adolescent who successfully passes the crisis, and the opposite is identity confusion. the identity confusion refers to the adolescent who has not involved the crisis or commitment. results and discussions the purpose of this research is to compile the data, which are believed as the source of the contexts which influence the main character’s identity in the novel of the bluest eye. next is the sub-focus to identify the stage of her status identity by using erikson and marcia’s theories. the first part discusses the family. the breedlove family is african-american that consists of charles breedlove/cholly (father), pauline breedlove/polly (mother), sammy (older brother), and the youngest is pecola (the main character/protagonist ). they live in lorain, ohio. pauline is working as a maid in fisher’s house. she loves working there and admires the fisher so much because her condition is contrary to them. the fisher is rich, white, and an ideal family, but pauline herself is black, ugly, poor, and having a deformity on her foot. the conflict in the family is rising when pauline’s admiration of the white people make her forget her family. 260 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 257-263 realizing that her wish is impossible then she diverts it by giving her love for fisher. working with fisher gives her energy and fills a role all of her needs, and even she thinks that she is a part of fisher. it can be seen from the way she treats her daughter and the fisher’s. pecola calls her mother, mrs. breedlove is different from fisher’s, who calls her, polly. pauline is proud because of their giving her a nickname. it can be seen from this excerpt; “pecola, like sammy and cholly, always called her mother, mrs. breedlove.” when pecola comes to pauline’s work, her mother asks her to go to the kitchen, by chance, she drops the cobbler of pie on the floor. her mother is furious, then she slaps and asks her to get out. however, to fisher’s, she hugs and whispers very gentle and loving. it is a totally different treatment. her mother treats her daughter and the white girl of her employers as superior to her. she does not give unconditional love to pecola since she was born because she is ugly with black skin, as she has said, “she looked like a black ball of hair. but i knowed she was ugly. head full of pretty hair, but lord she was ugly.” she puts a dangerous concept of beauty to her daughter’s mind by blaming of having black skin. she wears a torn dress with a messy appearance. if her mother cared about her, she would pay attention to the dress she wears and her appearance. pauline buys dresses only for herself because she wants to show them off to her neighbors. it can be seen in this excerpt. saw the dirty torn dress, the plaits sticking out on her head, hair matted where the plaits had come undone, the muddy shoes with the wad of gum peeping out from between the cheap soles, the soiled socks, one of which had been walked down into the heel of the shoes. the family problem is increasing as cholly becomes a drunkard and likes beating her wife. she thinks that she is martyrdom in her marriage, and cholly is a sinner and a failure man. she hates what she has, such as her family, blackness, ugliness, and poverty. it makes her becoming more neglected to her family. she always sees her family lives from the negative side. the breedlove believes that their poverty comes from their blackness and ugliness. actually, their ugliness comes from their conviction that is the result of watching many movies starred by the beautiful white female actresses. then, they are comparing their appearance with them. cholly never shows his affection or loving to his children either to his wife because he does not know how to raise children and cannot even comprehend what such a relationship because of the impact of his dark life as an unwanted child. both of his parents reject him; he was raised by his auntie, jimmy. the way he shows his tenderness is fatal; it happens when he is drunk, he goes home and sees her daughter, whom he thinks that she is his wife. he rapes his daughter twice until she impregnated. he burns his house until his family does not have a place to live, so the local government decides to put pecola in her neighbor’s house. he has been in jail for what he did. cholly is a dysfunctional and evil father. family is the first school for children to learn many things. the role of parents is also needed to guide children to build their future. combining those reflects in the parenting style that will sharpen children’s characters. an adolescent, who has a good and safe relationship with parents, will be easy to socialize with peers, easy to control themselves, reducing anxiety and depression, and they will have better self-esteem (ratner, 2014; santrock, 2003). however, there is no love or attachment in the breedlove family between parents-children and brother-sister. from pecola and frieda conversation, she does not know what love is because she never receives it from her family, as she has said: then pecola asked a question that had never entered my mind. “how do you do that? i mean, how do you get somebody to love you?” but frieda was asleep. and i didn’t know. when her parents are fighting, she hides and prays to god to make her disappear. when she is raped by his father, her mother, who finds her unconscious does not believe what she tells instead of beating her. nobody trusts her, even her mother. both of her parents are culprits of the conflicts in her family. pauline and cholly do not care about their children, and they do not give parental love and care to their children. the breedlove raises their children in uninvolved/ negligent parenting. the conflict in the family is rising when pauline’s admiration of the white people make her forget her family. the family atmosphere affects to their married and their children, sammy and pecola. pecola becomes desperate, lack of self-confidence, and arousing a feeling of anxiety. she never goes anywhere in what condition the family is. she thinks that she belongs to her family because she is ugly by having darker skin than anybody else. she needs attention and love from her family. on the contrary, sammy becomes destructive and a rebel; he will do anything violently to get what he wants. he hates his family and likes running away from them. he cannot control himself. the relation between pecola and her friends is not good either. because of the impact of the adverse family atmosphere, it is difficult for her to make acquaintance with her peers and to handle this difficult situation. she does not know how to behave and face of rejecting of the environments. she gets bullied by her friends. both of neglected and rejected adolescent is frequently an easy target of bullying. bullying is any unwanted aggressive behavior by another youth or group (delara, 2018). no one wants to sit next to her in the classroom. they prefer sitting with others sitting with her. for her friends, she does not exist, and she is often a victim of group boys who mock her by saying, “black e mo. black e mo. yadaddsleepsnekked. black e mo black e mo ya dadd sleeps nekked. black e mo...” she is also teased and insulted by her friends by calling on her when they want to get an immediate angry response from one of the boys from the accused and getting peals of laughter of others, by saying, “bobby loves pecola breedlove! bobby loves pecola breedlove!” it is different from her classmate maureen peal, a half white and wealthy, popular girl. everybody wants to sit with maureen peal. she is fascinated and admired by boys and girls in school because of her beauty and the quality of the dress she wears. pecola’s friends neglect her and sometimes reject her to make her sad. it makes the experiences abuse not only from her family but also from her friends. she believes this happens because of her skin and ugliness. it is because her mother, her friends, and her surroundings say so. the impact of bullying can be seen in anxiety, depression, dropping out of school, psychotic symptomatology, suicidal ideation, homicidal ideation (delara, 2018). it makes pecola feel anxiety and self-worth by seeing her negative self-image. 261the influence of social contexts.... (nana sofiani, et al.) like her friends, she is also alienated and humiliated by her teachers. they take a glimpse at her and call on her when everyone is required to respond. they do not give protection when pecola is teased by boys or create a positive school climate or reduce her friends’ aggressiveness and seemingly let those happen to her because they think that pecola is ugly. not like maureen, who is a light-skinned and rich girl. when they call her, they will smile encouragingly. they treat their students differently by looking at the beauty or the color of the skin or wealthiness. the relation of teacher-students and peers-adolescents will impact mental condition and behavior (aldridge, ala’i, & fraser, 2016). neither her family, peers, nor teachers give pecola a secure condition that makes her depressed seeing this situation. the breedlove is from the lower class because both cholly and pauline are blue-collar workers. they are living on the first floor of a two-story-abandoned building, which used to the storefront. now, it is a partition into two rooms by beaverboard planks that do not reach to the ceiling with the aged furniture and no toilet. all the settings of pecola’s house describe that she is poor. the lower class commonly relates to poverty. it is negatively related to educational, career, and health service aspirations, so the adolescents living with this situation are hard to get opportunities in their lives and to explore their identities. at first, pauline and cholly decide to go to the north with the hope that their condition will be better. however, the fact pauline is working as a servant at white’s house and cholly is working as a blue-collar worker at mine coal so that money becomes the focus of their discussion and a trigger to begin a quarrel. their marriage is shredded with quarrels. facing financial difficulties make the breedlove run from reality. cholly runs to the drink while pauline runs off on her impossible dreams. as a result, she hates her black image and her own culture, and cholly becomes an alcoholic that is making their marriage gets worse. the sad thing is the effect on their children because they do not know what happiness, love, and attention since those never exist in the breedlove. the black ethnic in america africa is the largest ethnic minority in america (santrock, 2003). the dark history of slavery labels african-american with a negative identity and creates racial discrimination. pauline has told that she hates living in lorain because she is feeling lonely and racism. both of the whites and the colored are meanness to blacks, they despised blacks, as it is told: “northern colored folk was different too. dicty-like. no better than whites for meanness. they could make you feel just as no-count, ’cept i didn’t expect it from them.” racial discrimination leads to the conception of superiority and inferiority by calling black people niggers or negroes, not blacks. the superiority of whites influences all the aspects of blacks living, including beauty, morality, and intelligence. all the black people believe that white is beautiful, clean, light, but nigger is dirty, black, and dumb. pecola becomes a ‘scapegoat’. she experiences ‘internal racism’ from her mother and community, who are also black. there is another evidence of racism when pecola meets a colored boy, junior, whose mother, geraldine, does not allow him to play with niggers instead of using blacks. she thinks that blacks are dirty and loud, but people of color are neat and quiet. she becomes prejudice to her people and tries to hide some part of her blackness, but her son wishes to play with them. once, junior sees pecola walk in front of his house while his mother is not at home and asks her to get into his house, but by the time she is in his house, he locks her up in the room and throws his mother’s kitten to her face. however, suddenly, geraldine comes home; she is furious to see pecola is in her house. she speaks very rude and full of racist words, “get out,” she said, her voice quiet. “you nasty little black bitch. get out of my house.” she does not like seeing pecola because of reminding her of something that she hates most is blackness. pecola also gets ‘external racism’ when she wants to buy candy in mr. yacobowski’s store, a white man. he does not want to see and even to touch her hand to take the pennies because she is nothing for him. whites have succeeded to build a negative image of blacks and ethnocentrism. ethnocentrism is the tendency to privilege their groups compared to the others; by using the terms ‘us’ and ‘them’, ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’, ‘inclusion’ or ‘exclusion’. whites are not equal to blacks. blacks become marginalized so that they experience racism and prejudice; it can be seen in this excerpt. “...niggers were dirty and loud”; ’we reached lake shore park, a city park laid out with rosebuds, fountains, bowling greens, picnic tables. it was empty now, but sweetly expectant of clean, white, wellbehaved children and parents who would play there above the lake in summer before half-running, halfstumbling down the slope to the welcoming water. black people were not allowed in the park, and so it filled our dreams.” pecola is not only marginalized in the white community but also her own people. since her community has racial prejudice to blacks, it will be dehumanization the life of blacks. unluckily she believes what they say that she is black and ugly. she perceives a negative stereotype about her ethnic-racial group; in other words, she turns down her black identity that is called identity self-denial. pecola is described as a passive and weak girl as she accepts what people say and see. though the white community is meanness to blacks, pecola and her mother greatly admire white female movie stars. unlike claudia, who hates white people, her sister, frieda and pecola admire the beauty of shirley temple. being woman is also a problem for her. the racism causes abusive behavior to the black men because they only dare to black women. when cholly is trying to have intercourse with darlene, they are caught by two white men. there is no resistance to them because he thinks whites are strong and armed. cholly diverts his anger and resentful towards darlene. following the words of white people, he becomes aggressive to darlene as if he raped her. cholly becomes a sadist character who only loves to inflict pain on others because of his experiences of being abandoned by his parents, inability to fight back to whites, and the inability to show his love to his family. his feeling of frustrated becomes fatal for his family. as a father and husband, cholly should take care of and respect his daughter and wife, instead of beating his wife and impregnating his daughter. pecola’s weakness cannot fight back the aggressiveness of his father and the black boys at school. cholly only shows his superiority in front of black women because he sees they are inferior. the culmination of the story begins when pecola 262 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 257-263 prays for blue eyes every night by thinking if she has them, her parents would love her and never fight again. her friends and her teachers will love her, too. she has seen herself negatively that reflects her self-concept. she is delusional by having an imaginary friend and telling her that she is very happy to have them. eriksson is famous for his theory about the psychosocial theory of development, which consists of eight stages. those stages focus on life span, but the most popular one is the fifth stage; identity vs. identity confusion. he has written down that contexts influence one’s life. like those stages of life span, the contexts are also relating. the identity development needs the support of the significant others and surrounding. the contexts prove that they influence pecola’s life and her identity development. the first is the history of black people that attaches to their descendants, slavery. they have negative identities and a feeling of inferiority to face the superiority of the whites. the identity development begins since the baby was born. the first stage is about feeling security, whether her mother or caregiver fulfills all the baby needs, such as food and affection. it will arouse the feeling of trust. consistent care and nurture enable the baby to gain self-confidence in the future (erikson, 2010). the opposite outcome is mistrust. the process of pecola’s identity development begins since she was a baby. although this story focuses on her age of eleven and only one part tells about her past life, it may conclude that pauline neglected her since she was a baby until she is eleven. feeling abandoned and mistrust haunts her. she does not tell her mother of being raped by cholly for the second time. it can be seen that there is no feeling of trust between mother-daughter. if she has a bond and trusts her mother, she would tell her everything happens to her without a feeling of hesitation or afraid. the result of those feelings it also creates a feeling of unworthy and despise. the results of the research show that a person’s childhood experiences greatly affect the development of his/her personality (character and emotional intelligence) (afrilyanti, herlina, rahmalia, 2015). the formation of constructed identity is related to mental soundness and well-being (ratner, 2014). the fifth stage is identity vs. identity confusion. the negligent parenting used by her parents is the main problem. the misconception of the beauty that her mother puts is deadly wrong, and rejection from the significant others like peers and her teachers worsens her condition. the way how someone sees himself/herself will influence psychological health. pecola has the ideal self as having blue eyes that she thinks it is impossible to come true. she creates anxiety or neurosis for asking for the bluest eyes that are a sign of rejecting her identity. it can be concluded that the identity of pecola cannot develop; she is in the status of identity confusion since she has a negative self-image, lack of selfconfidence, and self-unworthy. marcia’s theory also reveals that during the identity formation, pecola does not make any exploration and commitment. the contexts show there are no positive signs of surroundings support or give affection. the impact of racism, abuse, and her desire to be loved by anybody lead her to madness. the experience that pecola gets from the contexts is very devastating. her identity development cannot develop properly. because of wanting their love and attention, she thinks to have blue eyes that drive her crazy. one of the keys to having a positive identity is that people have to accept what they have, but she does not. this concludes that the identity of pecola is diffusion. conclusions the bluest eye describes an african-american girl who struggles to find her identity. based on the findings and analysis, it is concluded that the contexts influence the identity development of the main character. the conflicts in the contexts that consist of family, peers, school, social class, ethnicity, and gender influence the pecola’s life. they do not support pecola to receive what she has. they force her to insanity. she becomes lost direction in her life that makes her thinks about changing her identity. living under the multiple oppressions of high perceived parental neglect, external locus control, and rejection of her surroundings, negative identity, greatly influence her life and cause her state of mind damaged. in other words, it is very difficult for pecola to develop her own identity because the influence of the contexts gives negative self-image, lack of self-esteem, anxiety, and trauma. the effects create of self-loathe. she does not do any exploration and commitment to finding her own identity. she wants to have blue eyes and white skin that drives her mad. so it is concluded that based on erikson and marcia’s theories that the identity of pecola cannot develop, and she experiences identity confusion. the limitation of this research is to find the influence of the contexts to pecola’s identity and the stage of her identity development. the bluest eye has been researched by many people; 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(2016). konstruksi identitas diri dalam organisasi etnis. lentera: jurnal ilmu dakwah dan komunikasi, 18(2), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.21093/ lj.v18i2.762. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 181 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 181-189 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5742 japanese language rhetoric of the japanese education students’ at the speech contest rike febriyanti japanese language education study program, faculty of cultural studies, brawijaya university jl. veteran malang 65145, indonesia febriyanti_rike@ub.ac.id received: 09th july 2019/revised: 18th july 2019/accepted: 01st august 2019 how to cite: febriyanti, r. (2019). japanese language rhetoric of the japanese education students’ at the speech contest. lingua cultura, 13(3), 181-189. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5742 abstract the research aimed to analyze the speech rhetoric quality of the students of japanese language education, brawijaya university using a descriptive qualitative design. the method applied a discourse analysis method written by krippendoff which included coding, classification, interpretation, and evaluation. the object of this research was students’ speech for japanese speech contest of ub 2018. the data were seven video recordings of seven speeches delivered by seven students who participated in this speech contest. it it concluded that the quality of the students’ speech is not satisfactory in the criteria of content and expression. the students also show weaknesses in pronunciation and grammar in their speech. this research indicates that when the students are allowed to be honest to express their mind freely in the japanese language, the speech will reflect each student’s actual language mastery, because language teaching inside the classroom is the most dominant language exposure for the students, any advancement in japanese language teaching will significantly uplift the quality of the speech. keywords: japanese language, japanese rhetoric, speech contest introduction annually, the students of japanese language in indonesia compete in the japanese speech contest held by the japan foundation. in the contest, students compose and deliver their own speeches because the japan foundation does not provide any specific themes as the mainframe of the speech. because of the condition, the students have total freedom to choose their own topics and ways to deliver their speech. as a result, the topics and the techniques that they present are various. in this contest, native speakers assess the students’ speech based on its content, language, and fluency aspects. the researcher who is at the moment recording and observing the students directly during the speech contest has found that in performing their speeches, most students chose to tell their life experience. that statement is in accordance with what is suggested by arsyad and mukti (2005) that speech is an activity to convey thoughts, ideas, or messages to other people or listeners. on the other hand, littlejohn and foss (2014) have suggested that the practice of language can be done through two-way items, oral and writing. both oral and written forms require language skills. in the speech contest, students can express their opinions to the audience about their feeling, desire, and thought through the draft of the speech and the performance. therefore, the language used when writing must be coherent in writing narrative essays, descriptions, and expositions in a speech text. all of that requires precision and accuracy in composing sentence by sentence so that the results of the writing that they want are arranged. before someone starts a speech, of course, the speech manuscript must be prepared first. to compile this speech, the students need skills in selecting words that are needed, composing sentences that must be proficient, the structures that are also cohesive as well as coherent, arguments and rhetoric in a text speech, so that the composition of the text of the speech is formed (wiyanto, 2001). in speech writing, art or rhetoric are needed. these are two aspects of language items, namely writing and speaking that are closely related to one another. the weight of the previously mentioned freedom during speech writing activity is noticeable, as mentioned by taufiqulloh, yuvita, & sulistianingsih (2018). they say that writing activities become not only standard parts of classroom life but also the opportunities for the 182 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 181-189 students to achieve success in improving their writing skill. furthermore, this total freedom is actually a massive opportunity for the students to write based on and beyond rules that they have learned in the classroom. as stated by syarofi, kuswahono, and rizky (2018) that nowadays it is more important to create an environment that encourages students to take risks in their writing which means less concentration on conventional rules of writing and more on the expression of ideas. so far, the japanese language education study program has never conducted research on the quality of the rhetoric of its students. the japanese language education study program has only concentrated on the implementation of contests and preparations for students before joining the contest. therefore the department does not have data about the rhetoric quality of its students’ speech. after spending some moments to find out previous studies in this, the researcher finds that this topic is not in the radar of any japanese language education department in indonesia. there is the fact that high school teachers and university students majoring in indonesian language education study program have donated a lot of research on the ability of rhetoric as practiced by widiantara, wendra, & sriasih (2014), which have examined the rhetoric of indonesian language speech delivered by high school students in bali. on the other hand, hendarto (2012) has examined the anatomy of rhetoric in parliamentary debate contest of high school student in yogyakarta. other researchers examine the rhetoric of political figures in indonesia such as joko widodo (noermanzah, emzir, & lustyantie, 2018) and a comparative analysis of the speech former president susilo bambang yudhoyono and barack hussein obama (livia & suenarto, 2015). the researcher, by means of this research, also wants to know the effect of the teaching program in sakubun, bunpo, hatsuon, and kaiwa subjects on students’ speech quality. in addition to academic purposes mentioned, this research will be beneficial to evaluate the success of the supporting program for students who want to follow the japanese speech contest in the upcoming years. to investigate and accommodate various ways of delivering the speech and the content of the speeches that, the researcher presents this research. methods this research utilizes a qualitative approach with the aims to obtain a picture or to describe in a systematic, current, and accurate of an object under research as indicated by sugiyono (2012) and syaifudin (2001). therefore, this research mainly focuses on analyzing the content and the delivery of speeches as defined by gall, gall, and borg in nassaji (2015). the results can then be used to determine the structure of the rhetoric, and to assess the depth of content of speech. the researcher does not give any treatment, preparation, or training to the students before the speech contest, so the researcher does not have any data about their initial ability. the location of this research is the japanese language education study program, brawijaya university. the object of this research is students’ speech of japanese language education study program, brawijaya university for japanese speech contest of ub 2018. data collection is performed using whole samples, and then the data are obtained without randomization. the data are directly taken as many as seven video recordings of seven speeches delivered by seven students who are participating in the japanese speech contest of brawijaya university. the researcher works as a non-participatory observer of the speech contest. the data analysis is based on the text of the speech so that the analysis is using discourse analysis method. doing analysis means conducting a study to identify the structure of the speech as a whole. this discourse analysis technique is focusing on analyzing the structure of speeches; rhetoric speeches by model bottom-up. the stage analysis by bermani, safnil, and arono (2019) is prior to the discourse analysis, discourse reading, and watching carefully to understand the ideas, then each speech is divided into units (t-units). according to krippendorff in bermani, safnil, arono (2019), the component of content analysis are coding, classification, and interpretation. by combining of these analyzes, the steps of data analysis are; first, the researcher give each source code on the data obtained for example text n-01, n-02, n-03, and so on. after coding the text, the researcher reads the text of the speech carefully and understand the entire speech and text content. the next step is that the researcher makes a tabulation of data by using tabulation format for each analysis. based on the previous step, the researcher enters text into a table by separating each unit of grammatical or t-unit. for example is a sentence or clause 1 is given a code number t-unit 1, t-unit 2, t-unit 3, and so on. after putting the text into the table, the researcher describes and discusses the results of the data analysis, then he/she concludes rhetoric of the speech and the speech of students. in order to achieve a comprehensive understanding, the researcher seeks to perform a quantitative assessment that is followed by a qualitative analysis. both methods are carried out each three times or when data has been showing redundancy. each score and qualitative analysis are then combined into a complete analysis. the researcher has divided the assessment into four areas; content or naiyou, expression or hyougen, pronunciation or hatsuon, and then the ability to answer questions or shitsumon. as for the qualitative analysis, the researcher makes several criteria using scaled questions which would be exposed in the attachment, which later can be found in appendices. results and discussions table 1 to table 3 show the data from seven speeches of seven students. table 1 presents the results of three stages of assessment for all students. in presenting the results of this research, p (presenter) and followed by a serial number 1-7 are used. after presenting the assessment data, the analysis is conducted descriptively. from table 2, p1 has obtained an average score of 67 for his speech which consists of average score of 18 of the contents of his speech (naiyou), the average score of 18 for expression (hyougen), the average score of 22,7 for pronunciation (hatsuon), and the average score of 13 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). from these scores, there are some very interesting notes. first, the scores of the content and expression are exceeding the scores of the pronunciation and the ability to answer questions. second, the score on pronunciation is the highest score obtained by p1. from further observation on the recorded speeches of presenter repeatedly, there are several facts from p1. 183japanese language rhetoric.... (rike febriyanti) table 1 results of three stages assessment of all students first stage no. aspects p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 1 naiyou 20 20 20 15 25 25 20 2 hyougen 30 20 25 20 20 25 20 3 hatsuon 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 4 shitsumon 15 15 15 15 15 15 10 total 80 70 75 65 75 80 65 second stage no. aspects p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 1 naiyou 15 18 28 10 20 23 12 2 hyougen 15 20 30 20 15 30 12 3 hatsuon 10 15 18 18 10 18 10 4 shitsumon 10 15 15 15 15 15 5 total 50 68 91 63 60 86 39 third stage no. aspects p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 1 naiyou 19 23 20 18 21 25 16 2 hyougen 23 25 18 18 19 25 15 3 hatsuon 14 15 15 16 13 19 13 4 shitsumon 15 15 10 15 10 15 5 total 71 78 63 67 63 84 49 first, the form of speech that p1 conveyed in the speech contest is descriptive. p1 describes his personal experience on kokusai kekkon (wedding of different nationalities). unfortunately, the topic is too personal, and it is not in accordance with the japanese culture. japanese people tend to be less personal and hiding the personal life of its people. from the opening of his speech to the closing, p1 delivers the speech that is quite interesting. although interesting, the speech is not directly leading the listeners into the core of the speech. besides all aspects as mentioned earlier, there are some interesting things that he expresses about his unique name. second, the opening part, main body, and closing speech delivered by p1 are not cohesive. in the opening section, p1 speaks about his unique name. however, right on the content, p1 is reciting marriage between two people of different nationalities. later at the end of his speech, p1 does not provide a closing statement at all. third, p1 uses the japanese language, which is appropriate to the audience of the speech contest. he used language that is concise, simple, polite, and not too formal. the language is actually in line with the vocabulary and sentence structure that he has learned during college in the first and second years. fourth, the message that p1 delivered is clear and simple. fifth, although the whole speech could be heard clearly, p1 uses loud and soft dynamics, which is correspond to the message he wants to convey. the dynamics he used are not in line with the rules of intonation in japanese (nihonjin rashii hatsuon). sixth, p1 is delivering his speech at normal speed (choudou ii). seventh, p1 uses table 2 the average scores of all students p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 1 as 67 72 76,3 65 66 83,3 51 2 an 18 20,3 22,7 14,3 22 24,3 16 3 ahy 22,7 21,7 24,3 19,3 18 26,7 15,7 4 aht 13 15 16 16,3 12,6 17,3 12,7 5 ash 13,3 15 13,3 15 13,3 15 6,7 note: as (average score), an (average of naiyou score), ahy (average of hyougen score), aht (average of hatsuon score), ash (average of shitsumon score). table 3 statistics of all students’ score p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 1 ds 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 mean 16,5 17,8 18,8 16 16,3 21 12,3 3 error 2,2 1,6 2,6 1,1 2,3 2,7 2,3 4 std 4,4 3,2 5,1 2,2 4,7 5,3 4,5 5 c.i (95%) 6,9 5,1 8,2 3,4 7,4 8,4 7,2 6 c.v. 26,4 18 27,3 13,5 28,5 25,9 36,7 7 g.m 16,1 17,5 18,2 15,9 15,8 19,9 11,4 8 skew 0,6 0,08 -0,2 1,19 0,05 0 -1,2 9 kurt -2,2 -5,5 -3,7 1,5 -2,4 -4,7 0,9 10 p. v 0,75 0,60 0,89 0,86 0,86 0,81 0,80 appropriate pauses to make the audience understands his speech and to evoke emotion from the audience (egao de hyoujou wo arawashimasu). eighth, p1 delivers a speech in a polite manner (jishin motteiru) because his body movement is natural, and he makes eye contact with the audience confidently. ninth, p1 is very enthusiastic to face the audience. moreover, the last, in his speech, p1 performs many grammatical errors. from table 2, p2 obtains an average score of 72 for his speech which consisted from average score of 20,3 for the content of his speech (naiyou), the average score of 21,7 for the expression (hyougen), the average score of 15 for the pronunciation (hatsuon), and average score an average of 15 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). from the results of the assessment in table 1, there are two very interesting notes. first, the scores on content and pronunciation are exceeding the score of the ability to answer questions. second, the score of the expression is exceeding the score obtained on the pronunciation and the ability to answer questions. from further observation, there are several notes could be made. first, the form of speech that p2 used in a speech contest is descriptive. p2 describes his impressive personal view of his cousin, who lives in the countryside. p2 maintains the audience’s enthusiasm about indonesia no kyouiku joutai wo setsumeisuru (explaining about the state of education in indonesia) and the story of the tribes living in remote areas. second, the opening part, core, and closing speech delivered by p2 are not cohesive. in the opening part, p2 speaks interesting sentences about the unique conditions 184 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 181-189 and problems that are faced by tribes in remote areas. the opening is interesting to move the audience on education issue faced by his cousin, who could not speak indonesian, because they live in the remote area of borneo. in the concluding section, p2 only provides closing salutation without conclusion. third, p2 is using polite, informal, and simple language using vocabulary and sentence structure that he has learned in his first and second years in college. fourth, the message he delivered is clear. fifth, p2 delivers his speech using loud and soft dynamics. however, the dynamics are not following the rules in the japanese language. sixth, p2 uses normal speed in his speech. seventh, p2 uses appropriate pauses. eighth, p2 is a little bit nervous, although he does not show unnecessary body movement. ninth, p2 is quite enthusiastic to face the audience to make interaction with the audience. from the observation in table 2, p3 obtains an average score of 76,3 for his speech. it consists of the average score of 22,7 for the content (naiyou), the average score of 24,3 for the expression (hyougen), the average score of 16 for the pronunciation (hatsugon), and the average score of 13,3 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). from the results of the assessment in table 1, there are two very interesting notes. the scores on the content of speech and pronunciation exceed the score of the ability to answer questions. second, the score of the expression exceeds the score on pronunciation and the ability to answer questions. from the further observation of the recorded speech of presenter repeatedly, there are several notes to be made. first, p3 uses the descriptive form to convey her mind. she describes her personal experience as a mentor. in the opening until the closing, p3 delivers a speech in a way that is not attractive to direct listeners to her speech. p3 is using javanese term gething nyanding (things we usually hate often be close to us). second, the opening part, core, and closing speech delivered by p3 are not cohesive. in the opening section, p3 speaks about the conditions and problems faced by tribes in remote areas. then p3 describes her reason to refuse to be a mentor. it is difficult to understand the core of her speech – muzukashii, saigo made kikanai to wakarimasen. third, p3 uses simple, polite, and not too formal language in accordance with the vocabulary and sentence structure that she has learned during college in the first and second years. fourth, her pronunciation is very clear. fifth, p3 delivers her speech using loud and soft dynamics, although her speech is not in accordance with the rules of intonation in japanese. sixth, p3 speaks at normal speed. seventh, p3 is using appropriate pauses. eighth, p3 is quite nervous in delivering her speech. ninth, p3 uses hand gestures too often that can be classified in japanese term as zutto te ga karada no mae ni aru (hand is always in front of the body) and te ga ugokisugi (hands move too much). tenth, p3 does not make too many grammatical errors during the speech. according to table 2, p4 obtains an average score of 65 for his speech which consists average score of 14,3 for the content of his speech (naiyou), the average score of 19,3 for the expression (hyougen), the average score of 16,3 for pronunciation (hatsuon), and the average score of 15 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). based on that score, there are several notes to be made. p4 is the only presenter who gains low scores for all aspects. based on further observation, there are several records to be mentioned. first, p4 speaks his mind in a descriptive way. he describes his personal experience jibun no keiken. he talks about his experience when he is being disciplined by his pesantren teacher if he does not wake up at 3 a.m. unfortunately, the interesting topic is delivered in a boring way. the topic is not being followed by interesting supporting sentences by p4 to maintain a sense of enthusiasm. second, the opening part, core, and closing speech are quite cohesive. in the opening section, p4 speaks an interesting sentence about his overweight body, but he is still able to get up in the morning. this exciting opening directs the audience to live at pesantren, where students must get up around 3 a.m. in the concluding section, p4 provides greeting and conclusions that, unfortunately, are difficult to understand or nanika itteruka wakarimasen. matomenai. third, p4 uses very simple, quite polite, and not too formal language that he has learned at university. fourth, p4 speaks in clear pronunciation. fifth, p4 delivers his speech almost without loud and soft dynamics. sixth, p4 speaks at normal speed. seventh, p4 is using appropriate pauses. eighth, p4 is confident. he does not make hand gestures, and his facial expression is flat. ninth, p4 delivers a speech in a way that is fairly quiet, not excessive, and in accordance with the audience. tenth, one of the strengths of the p4 that he is quite excited to face the audience. eleventh, p4 does not make a lot of grammatical errors because he uses very simple japanese. p5 gains an average score of 66 for his speech (table 2) that consists an average score of 22 to the contents of his speech (naiyou), the average score of 18 for expression (hyougen), the average score of 12,7 for pronunciation (hatsuon), and average score 13,3 average for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). it can be stated that p5 gains a very high score on the content of speech and expression fields but makes low scores in pronunciation and answering questions. from further observation, there are several points to be made. first, the form of speech p5 conveyed in a speech contest is descriptive. he describes his personal experience with his disabled friends -tomodachi no keiken no hanashi. from the opening until the closing, p5 speaks in an interesting way by demonstrating sign language. second, the opening part, core, and closing speech are cohesive. in the opening section, p5 speaks in simple and easy to understand language about tsuwa or sign language. in the concluding section, p5 draws very interesting conclusions about tomodachi wa mimi ga kikenaikedo, genki wo dashimashita (although his ear could not hear, finally he is in good condition) and an example of steven hawkins who is also suffering from a disability. third, p5 uses very simple, quite polite, and informal language. fourth, p5 speaks very clearly. fifth, p5 is making speeches without using loud and soft. sixth, p5 speaks at normal speed. seventh, p5 is using appropriate pauses. eighth, p5 is confident in delivering his speech, although his facial expression is flat. ninth, p5 delivers a speech calm gesture. moreover, last, p5 is not making a lot of grammatical errors because he uses very simple japanese. based on table 2, p6 obtains an average score of 83,3 for his speech. p6 is making the highest total score of all participants of the speech contest. furthermore, p6 obtains an average score of 24,3 for the content of his speech (naiyou), the average score of 26,7 for the expression (hyougen), the average score of 17,3 for pronunciation (hatsuon), and the average score of 15 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). the gap between p6 with other competitors is 185japanese language rhetoric.... (rike febriyanti) enormous, so it can be said that p6 is the best presenter in the speech contest. all the average scores obtained by p6 is always superior when compares to all other presenters. although the average gain score is very high, p6 excels in the field of content and expression. he is weak in the area of pronunciation and ability to answer questions. from further observation, there are some notes to be made. first, p6 speaks in descriptive about his touching personal experience or -jibun no keiken. he describes his mother’s homemade soup. in the opening until the closing, he delivers his speech in an interesting way. the speech opening is unique and interesting. second, the opening part, the core, and the closing are closely connected. in the opening section, p6 is displaying the touching sentences about his mother’s advice when he is bullied by his friends. third, p6 uses very simple, quite polite, and not too formal language. fourth, his pronunciation is very clear. fifth, p6 uses loud and soft dynamics. sixth, p6 uses normal speed when he speaks. seventh, p6 is using the appropriate pauses. eighth, p6 makes some hand gestures and small facial expression. ninth, p6 is very enthusiastic and confident to face the audience. tenth, p6 does not make many grammatical errors, although the grammar he used is quite difficult for a student of his level. according to table 2, p7 obtains an average score of 51 for his speech. the average score is the lowest score of all participants. the score consists of the average score of 16 to the contents (naiyou), the average score of 15,7 for the expression (hyougen), the average score of 12,7 for pronunciation (hatsuon), and score an average of 6,7 for the ability to answer questions (shitsumon). the average score of the contents of his speech is the second-lowest among all presenters of the speech contest. in terms of expression, p7 obtains the lowest score compares to all presenters of the speech contest. when p7 is pronouncing sentences in the japanese language, p7 and p5 obtain the lowest score compared to the other presenters. besides, p7 obtains the lowest score when answering questions. from further observation, it can make some notes. first, p7 speaks in a descriptive format where he describes his personal experience -jibun no keiken-. unfortunately, his speech is not interesting, so he cannot maintain the enthusiasm of the audience. second, the opening part, main body, and closing speech are not cohesive. third, p7’s language option is not appropriate for an audience of the speech contest because it is too formal. fourth, his pronunciation is quite clear. fifth, p7 delivers his speech without loud and soft dynamics. sixth, in terms of speed of delivery of a speech, the researcher has found that p7 is delivering his speech at normal speed. seventh, p7 uses inappropriate pauses. eighth, p7 is confident enough although he does not use hand gestures, make eye contact with the audience, and his expression is flat. ninth, p7 delivers a speech in a quiet manner. tenth, p7 does not make a lot of grammatical errors because p7 uses very simple japanese. from these data in table 1 to table 3, there are some insights that could be made. the students are using the descriptive format in preparing and delivering their speech material. the use of the descriptive form is because the students do not know about narrative, argumentation, and persuasion format in the japanese language. the students do not use details such as metaphors, symbols, data, and humor to support their rhetoric. it can be seen that they are still struggling in simple sentences. this weakness occurs due to lack of exposure to the japanese language outside the classroom. the students gain very high scores in the areas of content and expression, but they are getting very low scores in the areas of pronunciation and ability to answer questions. this finding is significant because it proves that student speech contest presenters actually possess a very strong motivation to follow the speech contest. in the field of high-score in expression, the researcher believes that the presenters are confident in delivering their speech. the researcher perceives that the probable reason for nervous students is because of a lack of preparation and lack of vocabulary to express their ideas. this finding is particularly in line with the notion stated by schmitt in alqahtani (2015) that lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and the acquisition of a second language. low scores in the field of pronunciation could possibly occur for several internal and external reasons. in terms of internal reason, the researcher is focusing on the influence of mother tongue (indonesian) on the presenters’ pronunciation in japanese. it happens mainly because the students are more exposed to their mother tongue, indonesian, rather than japanese that they learn only a few hours per week on campus. from the external side, the researcher has found that the learning portion in the field of pronunciation is still inadequate because the subject is sharing hours of lessons with other subjects. in the field of answering the question, the researcher notices that the inability of students occur because the vocabulary and sentence patterns that are owned by them are still very few. five of the seven students who participate in the contest are making numerous grammatical errors when giving a speech. the researcher believes that there should be further study to investigate the reason students still making grammatical mistakes while the grammar has been studied comprehensively. as a consequence, they communicate in low concentration mode, and they do not remember about other sides of their speech such grammar, word choice, and vocabulary (almuhimedi & alshumaimeri, 2015). lastly, the researcher has found that all students are able to make a speech with a very enthusiastic manner and by making eye contact to establish interaction with the audience. it suggests that presenters have a very high spirit to show interest in their ability to speak japanese. conclusions from the data and analysis from the previous section, all the presenters use only descriptive type of discourse in preparing and delivering a speech material. because of that, the researcher believes that students need to be trained in various type of discourse, such as descriptive, argumentation, narrative, and persuasion. it would be useful for any language teacher to provide various writing forms options for students while expressing their thoughts. the researcher does not see participants using details such as metaphors, symbols, data, and humor to support their speech, so it looks and sounds real and convincing because they are not exposed to various types language input either inside or outside of the classroom environment. it is believed that students need to be exposed in various media such as television, movies, songs, novels, short stories, and others so that students would possess larger vocabulary size, various sentence patterns, humor, and figurative language in japanese. the researcher perceives that the presenters gain very 186 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 181-189 high marks in the areas of content and expression, but they are getting very low scores in the areas of pronunciation and ability to answer questions. low scores in the field of pronunciation could happen because of some internal and external things; therefore, the researcher expects further studies on the influence of the mother tongue in japanese pronunciation in the rhetoric produced by students. there are five out of seven students who participate in the contest are doing numerous grammatical mistakes in giving a speech. the researcher argues that there should be a further study to investigate the reason students still performed grammatical mistakes in delivering a speech while the grammar they produced is completely familiar and has been studied in early years in japanese language education brawijaya university. the researcher needs to conduct further study to prove that the probable source of grammatical errors is that students frequently produce an effort to do communication (orally or in written form) faster so they can build language fluency. the researcher has found that all students are able to deliver the speech in a very enthusiastic manner, and they are able to make eye contact and establish interaction with the audience. this achievement suggests that all presenters have a very high spirit to show interest in their ability to speak japanese. therefore, this speech contest should be conducted more frequently and should involve the japanese education students of brawijaya university with a more elaborate, intensive, and extensive preparation. this research indicates that when the students are allowed to be honest to express their mind freely in the japanese language, the speech contest reflects the students’ actual language mastery. because language teaching inside the classroom is the most dominant language exposure for the students, any advancement in japanese language teaching will significantly uplift the quality of the speech. action research which investigates the effect of certain treatment during speech preparation phase will be constructive to improve the students’ speech quality. references almuhimedi, r. a., & alshumaimeri, y. a. 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(rike febriyanti) appendices table 1 questions of the researcher’s impression after viewing speech 1. how do you feel after seeing the presentation? • very happy • happy • ordinary • not happy • very unhappy 2. does the presentation make you feel confident? • very sure • sure • ordinary • not sure • very unsure 3. do you want to listen to this presenter again in the future? • really want to • want • ordinary • do not want • i really don’t want to 4. are there original ideas or techniques in the presentation? • there is • there is no • if there are, specify table 2 questions on types of presentation 1. what kind of presentation? argument? description? narration? persuasion? or you don’t know the type? • argumentation • description • narration • persuasion • do not know table 3 questions on speech opening 1. did the opening of his speech attract the attention of the audience to follow the next sentences? • very interesting • interesting • ordinary • not attractive • very uninteresting 2. does the opening of his speech use humor, statistical data, and stories to make the audiens follow the next sentences? 3. did the opening of his speech show the direction of the main contents of the speech? 4. is the opening of the speech easy to remember? • very memorable • memorable • ordinary • not memorable • so forgettable table 4 questions on speech content 1. does each part (opening, filling, closing) of the presentation connect into one whole unit? • yes • not • do not know 2. does the presenter use examples to clarify his presentation? • yes • not • do not know 3. does the presenter use symbols or parables / metaphors? • yes • not • do not know 4. is it easy for you to follow sentence after sentence from the beginning of the presentation to the end? • yes • not • do not know table 5 questions on speech closing 1. did the presenter make clear conclusions for his speech? • yes • not • do not know 2. is the closing statement delivered by the presenter interesting? • yes • not • do not know table 6 questions on language used 1. is the style of language used right for the audience? • very clear • clear • ordinary • not clear • very unclear 2. does the speaker express his ideas clearly? • very clear • clear • ordinary • not clear • very unclear 3. is the sentence length easy to understand? • very easy • easy • ordinary • difficult • very difficult 188 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 181-189 table 6 questions on language used (continued) 4. do participants use unnecessary technical jargon or complex language? • yes • not • if yes, specify 5. is the choice of words used right for the audience? • very precise • right • ordinary • not exactly • it’s not right • if it’s not right, mention it table 7 questions on vocal 1. is the speaker easy to hear? • very easy • easy • ordinary • difficult • very difficult 2. are hard and soft variations used correctly? • very precise • right • ordinary • not exactly • innaccurate 3. does the speed vary? is that slow / too fast to be understood as a whole? • too fast • fast • ordinary • slow • too slow 4. are pauses used correctly to help understanding, increase excitement, or provide emotions? • very precise • right • ordinary • not exactly • innaccurate 5. is the choice of words used right for the audience? • very precise • right • ordinary • not exactly • it’s not right • if it’s not right, mention it table 8 questions on gestures/physical expressions 1. does the speaker’s posture show confidence and calmness? • very calm • quiet • ordinary • nervous • very nervous table 8 questions on gestures/physical expressions (continued) 2. are gestures natural, timely and complementary? • very natural • natural • ordinary • unnatural • very unnatural 3. are signals easy to see? • very easy • easy • ordinary • not easy • it’s not easy 4. does the speaker have disturbing behavior? • yes • not • if yes, specify 5. is eye contact effective in connecting the speaker to the entire audience? • very effective • effective • ordinary • ineffective • very ineffective table 9 questions on humor 1. is humor used by presenters? • yes • not • if yes, specify 2. is the right humor given to the audience? • very precise • right • ordinary • not exactly • innaccurate 3. is humor relevant to speech? • very relevant • relevant • ordinary • irrelevant • very irrelevant table 10 questions on enthusiasm 1. are the speakers enthusiastic? how do you know? • very enthusiastic • enthusiastic • ordinary • not enthusiastic • very unenthusiastic 2. are there interactions between the presenter and the audience? is that effective? • there, it is very effective • there is. effective • ordinary • yes, it is not effective • there are no interactions 189japanese language rhetoric.... (rike febriyanti) table 11 questions on grammar 1. are there grammatical errors in the presentation? • very much • many • ordinary • not much • there is no • if there are many or very many, specify copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 167 lingua cultura, 13(3), august 2019, 167-172 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i3.5646 the representation of patriarchy in indonesian children folk tales from sumatra island dyani masita dewi magister of literature, gunadarma university jl. margonda raya 100, depok 16424, indonesia dyprincipia@gmail.com received: 14th june 2019/revised: 22nd july 2019/accepted: 07th august 2019 how to cite: dewi, d. m. (2019). the representation of patriarchy in indonesian children folk tales from sumatra island. lingua cultura, 13(3), 167-172. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i3.5646 abstract this research aimed to discuss the topic of patriarchal research because it still existed in several countries in the world, especially asia and more specifically, in indonesia. this research was conducted to reveal how patriarchal values were reflected in indonesian children’s folk tales from sumatra island. this research used a sociological approach to literature and used semiotic theory to analyze the data obtained. the researcher chose to use a qualitative descriptive method so that the analysis process could be described completely. the main data used in this research were several children’s folk tales originating from sumatra island, namely province of north sumatra (“di balik derita si boru tombaga”, “bohong merinang”, and “si kodok kata malem, baik budi penawan hati”), south sumatra (“langkuse dan putri rambut putih”), and jambi (“legenda bukit perak”). this research finds that patriarchal values are represented in how women are associated with domestic works, women are considered as the subordinates and inferiors, as well as showing their dependence on men. keywords: patriarchy representation, patriarchal values, children folk tales, semiotic introduction society sets rules, traditions, or habits that eventually become the culture. culture is one of the shreds of evidence of human existence, both socially and individually. benedict in bennet (2015) has said that culture is more than a collection of merely isolated bits of behavior, it is the integrated total of learned behavior traits which are manifest by the members of society. a group of people who live in the same area or surrounding shares the same norms, values, and traditions. the form of the culture can exist at one time but then can be invalid at another time in the future. culture and its values can change over time. in asia and especially in indonesian culture, men still hold the leading role. most indonesian families, man or father, is the person who is called the head of the family. the head of the family is the person who is responsible economically and for almost everything. this male-dominated social structure is called patriarchy. the term patriarchy originally comes from the patriarkhia that means ruling father in the mid-century. walby in suliman (2019) has said that patriarchy is commonly referred to as a structure or a system that governs social relations pertaining to binary genders within societies, which the main attribute of its social structures is the domination, oppression, and exploitation of women by men. the domination of men in indonesia is generally accepted by the community because the system and structure that have been existing for a long time. the society has accepted and becomes accustomed to this value from several generations to the present. this condition is in line with sharma in dutt (2018), who stated that, “deep-rooted ideas about male superiority enable men to freely exercise unlimited power over women’s lives and effectively legitimize it too.” the values of how the community accepts the fact that the role of men is more important than women are represented in several children folk tales. culturally and traditionally, women tend to accept that men are the ones who decide everything for the family because they are considered wiser and smarter. physically, their strength is above women. positionally, they are the breadwinners of the family. the role of women is nothing more than child caregivers, doing domestic chores and housework that do not need much thinking, and serving their husbands well when they come home and are tired after working outside. most of the cultural practices come from traditions that have been existed for a long time. as literary works are also part of the culture, some of the cultural values 168 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 167-172 and practices are reflected through them, as in folk tales. dundes in florence (2016) has said that in the education of the young, promoting a group’s feeling of solidarity and providing socially sanctioned ways for individuals to act superior to or to censure other individuals, serve as a vehicle for social protest, offering an enjoyable escape from reality, and converting full work into play. in line with these definitions, indonesian folk tale is also known through oral and has been said to children. it can then be read in the book with the advancement of technology in a few generations later. the values and practices of patriarchy are often reflected in them either explicitly or implicitly. every region in indonesia has its own folk tales. folk tales contain the customs, habits, and local values of an area. folk tales are related to children because parents tend to teach the children their values and traditions by telling stories so that children can understand better, and they can remember it forever. even nurhayati (2019) has said that folk tales are particularly beneficial for nurturing children about morals, like friendship, heroism, and obedience to parents. indonesia is rich in folklore that is from five main islands, 34 provinces, and more than 100.000 cities. sumatra island is the sixth-largest island in the world and the thirdlargest in indonesia after papua and kalimantan. melayu or malay is the native and populates most of the island. sumatra island consists of ten provinces, namely nangroe aceh darussalam, west sumatra, south sumatra, north sumatra, riau islands, jambi, riau, bengkulu, bangka belitung islands, and lampung. folklore from sumatra island comes from cities in several of these provinces. on this island, there are various cities, regions, and tribes so that their folk tales are diverse and can be an interesting object of research. therefore, the main data from this research are various folk tales from the island of sumatra. this research is conducted to find out how the values of patriarchy emerged in indonesian children folk tales originating from sumatra island. masykuroh (2016) is conducted research to find how physical and verbal violence is represented in indonesian folk tales. the result shows that physical violence is divided into two, using the weapon and using part of the body. the verbal violence is seen by labeling, threatening, humiliating, swearing, cursing, and others. those actions are portrayed in 115 indonesian traditional folk tales that have been analyzed as the source of data. another research is conducted by adipoetra (2016) about how patriarchy represented in the movie. using pierce’s semiotics method and bhasin’s theory, she has found that the movie conveys hopes for the people who live around the border, but it is limited for the men. inequality shows that women do not have the same chance as men. rawat (2014) in her research, has said that, “patriarchy imposes masculinity and femininity character stereotypes in the society which strengthen the iniquitous power relations between men and women.” the next research is conducted by sakinah and siti (2017) about some problems that emerge because of the patriarchy system in indonesia. law enforcement from cases involving violence towards women is not fair and shows gender inequality. the women’s portrait in indonesia is also represented in the more modern media such as movies. suhadi (2015) has researched the change in the interpretation against the patriarchy systems has produced a new phase in the movement against the patriarchy such as feminists industry, which survives from the law of social evolution. on the other hand, this research is conducted using the same data source as the first article but using the same topic as the other three pieces of research. each literary work is a reflection of the same social conditions in real life. it is in accordance with what is said by frye in fitri and suparti (2016) that the works in literature might reflect the nature of the society in real life. the researcher chooses to discuss the topic of patriarchy in the folk tales to reveal how the patriarchy is represented. there are ways of how patriarchal practices is reflected in the text. methods the focus of this research is how patriarchy is represented in indonesian children folk tales. the researcher uses a qualitative descriptive method to analyze the signs and values of patriarchy in folk tales from sumatra island. according to jones and bartlet in fitri and suparti (2016), a descriptive qualitative method is a research method that investigates the experience, social processes, and subculture of the research object. thus, the result of this research is presented in forms of words and sentences instead of numerical data. the researcher describes the facts about the signs of patriarchy, then analyzes them using the theory of semiotics. these facts include the social system, the role of men, and the traditions that exist in society. the main data from this research are some folk tales from sumatra island which have been published officially by the indonesian government through the ministry of education and culture as electronic books that can be free-downloaded to support the national literacy movement. the stories are di balik derita si boru tombaga, bohong merinang, and si kodok kata malem, baik budi penawan hati from north sumatra; langkuse dan putri rambut putih from south sumatra; and legenda bukit perak from jambi province. these stories are categorized as literature for elementary school students. the secondary data are taken from books, journals, and related websites to support primary data. representation is not separated from the sign and signifier, which is stated by saussure. in saussure’s semiotics, the main idea is the sign, which is defined as, “a two-fold entity consisting of the signifier and signified.” kurniawan in adipoetra (2016) has said that semiotics is a study or method to analyze signs in a context of scenarios, images, texts, and scenes in the film to be something that can be interpreted by a human being. in general, semiotics uses signs as a tool that is used by human to represent themselves in analyzing something in some specific context, for example, folk tales. in the story, there is a sign when the patriarchal value was still very strongly embedded in the past. zaimar (2017) has said that in a semiotic sense, signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures, and objects. the semiotic theory is used to analyze data that are found, as dialogs or narration. quoting from saussure in yakin and totua (2014), a sign consists of two focal components, namely signifier—the sound pattern (markersound image), and signified—the concept (the outcome/the interpretation/conception of the signifier). signifier appears as a form that can be known through the form of work, while signified are seen as meanings revealed through concepts. after that, the researcher links the signs of patriarchy with the data found and give some elaboration regarding those data. 169the representation of patriarchy .... (dyani masita dewi) results and discussions the researcher identifies the signs in the dialog and narration. after that, the researcher analyzes the data using the semiotic theory. the first folk tale, entitled di balik penderitaan si boru tombaga (behind the suffering of si boru tombaga) tells the story of the parents of the batak toba ethnic group who have no descendants of sons. at that time, having a son was very important because men were the successors of the family. in this research, the researcher divides the representation of patriarchy into three categories of representation; women as domestic workers, women’ subordination, and women’s dependence on men. the first sign of the patriarchy is women as domestic workers. in some parts of the story, there are houses and palaces as the setting. it can be seen in most stories that women tend to stay at home doing domestic chores or housework. they prepare food, clean the house, take care of children, and serve their husbands. stated by ruggles (2015) in his article that in the past, household heads owned and controlled the means of production, and their wives and children were obliged to provide the unpaid labor needed to sustain family enterprises. the representations of patriarchy are in several stories used as the source of data. the major things, like activities that are related to the finance of the family, relation with people in society are mostly done by men. in the story entitled di balik penderitaan si boru tombaga (behind the suffering of si boru tombaga) from north sumatra, examples of patriarchy’s representations are seen in the narrative below as the first signifier: seharian kami berbincang-bincang tentang berbagai hal. lalu, seorang wanita menyuguhkan minuman untuk kami. siapa wanita itu, aku tidak tahu. (we talk all day about various things. then, a woman served us drinks. who is that woman, i do not know.) in the quotation mentioned, the story appears to use the word ‘menyuguhkan’ (serve) to illustrate the role of women. the indonesian word ‘menyuguhkan’ comes from the root word ‘suguh’ which means ‘menjamu’ or ‘to serve the guest’ in english. this word semantically has a formal form. it implies that women are associated with having a domestic role that is serving as preparing drinks to guests and in this case, related to the patriarchal system and gender role; the wife is the servant to her husband, who holds the authority. it is signified that she should prepare drinks for the guest, yet the man does the talking. the concept of serving also appears in other folk tale excerpts entitled bohong merinang from north sumatra as the next signifier: kau sudah tidak melaksanakan kewajibanmu sebagai seorang istri; mengurus rumah dan suamimu. (you have not carried out your obligations as a wife; take care of your house and husband.) according to the quotation, the word ‘mengurus’ means ‘rawat, piara, pelihara’ according to kamus besar bahasa indonesia. the indonesian words mean ‘to take care or to look after’ and has a formal meaning semantically as well. this sentence also shows that the main task of the wife (woman) is to take care of her husband and the house (signified). in different conditions, even though women are not doing the domestic chores at home (they do the additional job outside), the work is still in touch with the domestic and secondary sectors, not the main sector. this condition is illustrated in another story from south sumatra entitled langkuse dan putri berambut putih (langkuse and the white-haired princess). in one of the narrative parts, it is told that: biasanya pembuatan periuk dilakukan oleh kaum perempuan; ibu-ibu dan anak gadis. (generally, pot-making is done by women; mothers and daughters.) in this narration, it is told that in the land of perigi, many women work as pot makers. periuk (pot), according to the kbbi, means a tool for cooking rice made from soil or metal. here, making pots means an industry that is still related to the domestic sector or household. as women are the ones who cook and take care of the house, it is natural for them to do works related to domestic chores. the sectors that support family’s life like farming and hunting are still done by men. these examples signify that women are functionally given a second role, which are managing houses and children while men have a primary role as breadwinners. sometimes it leads to gender discrimination as stated by rogers in rosida and rejeki (2017) that gender discrimination is the differential treatment based on the individual’s sex categories. the role of husbands who interact more with the outside world makes men are trusted more for being involved in important meeting related to social affairs. as can be seen in the dialogue of the story entitled si kodok kata malem from north sumatra: “ya, tentu. besoklah aku panggil pak penghulu,” sahut ibu si bungsu. (“yes, of course. tomorrow i will ask the headman,” said the mother of the youngest.) “kok, kamu. masa iya yang memanggil pak penghulu itu seorang perempuan?” kata paman si bungsu. (“why you? why must a woman that will ask the headman?” said the uncle.) (sulastri, 2016; 35) from the conversation, it is signified that the mother is not the right person to ask for a penghulu (headman) because she is a woman. this important task cannot be given to women because a penghulu is an honorable man, a leader of a group of people. fathoni (2017) has said that the word penghulu itself comes from the word hulu, which means head, or someone who leads or someone important. in some regions, the headman has the same function as kadi, which means a religious leader in a certain area. furthermore, because the penghulu has a high position in the community, then it is not proper if a woman is asking a penghulu that is implied by the uncle who is a man. this is proof that the man (of the family or a group) is the one who deals with social and important matters. that elaboration shows that in folk tales from sumatra island, especially north sumatra and south sumatra, women have a domestic role in the context of patriarchy. indonesia’s marriage law that is said in asri (2018)’s research has even stated that husband has a role as the head of a family, wife as a housewife, and the wife is responsible for managing the house chores. some of the examples have been illustrated in some of the mentioned 170 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 167-172 sumatran folk tales. women have been assumed to be responsible for domestic affairs, including serving guests, husbands, and children. even when women work outside the house to have additional income, it is still related to household things. as their duty is limited in domestic tasks, social affairs related to the community will be carried out by men. this division must be clear in order to have no conflict and tension between the structure of work and family. this statement implies that men are associated with work outside while women deal with domestic problems inside (the house). this condition sometimes does not benefit women. for example, if there is an internal problem, including those that are related to the children, men usually blame the women. the second sign is women’s subordination portrayed in the story. in the folk tales that are the writer’s source of data, the position of men is above women. from the aristotle through jung and freud, if it refers to the biological structure, women are incomplete men (sullivan, 1984). in another paragraph, it is mentioned that men are associated with work because they have more power than women. this places women in subordinate position and men in a superior position. this can be seen from the behavior of a husband or man who tends to rule his wife as the signifier: pada suatu hari si kodok memetik sebuah labu dan dibawanya pulang. ia menyerahkan buah labu itu kepada istrinya, seraya berkata, “sayurlah buah labu ini karena aku ingin sayur labu!”. setelah itu, ia duduk di balai. (one day, si kodok picks a pumpkin and brings it home. he hands the pumpkin to his wife, saying, “make it into soup because i want to eat pumpkin soup!” after that, he sits in the porch.) (sulastri, 2016; 38) it also can be seen in another part of the story: pada hari berikutnya si kodok membawa pulang sebuah labu ke pondoknya. setiba di pondok, ia menyuruh istrinya memberikan labu itu kepada ibunya. (the next day, si kodok brings home a pumpkin to his shack. when he arrives, he orders his wife to give the pumpkin to his mother.) (sulastri, 2016; 39) from these two signifiers, it feels natural for husbands or men to tell their wives to do something. this is inseparable from the general idea in indonesia that man is the leader in most of the life sector. this condition makes man as center culturally and socially. in the first quote, the sign of ruling and commanding is marked by the word “sayurlah...” continued by “...karena aku ingin sayur labu! (…because i want to eat pumpkin soup!)”. the particle lah in indonesian also signifies the word before is imperative. the use of exclamation also underlined the position of the speaker, who is higher than the receiver. in the second quotation, it is clear in the narration that the husband gives the command to his wife to do something. in part “… ia menyuruh istrinya memberikan labu itu kepada ibunya” means he orders his wife to give the pumpkin to his mother. after that, his wife does what he has ordered her to give the pumpkin to her mother-in-law. it is signified that a good wife must listen to what her husband asks her. regarding the inferior position of these women, the birth of sons is also more desirable than daughters. it is caused by the inheritance and patrilineal system. in the past, and in some region until now, inheritance could only be passed on to sons. that is the reason why daughters are hoping for a brother when they do not have one. this can be seen in the story behind the suffering of si boru tombaga: raja guasa berharap anak yang akan lahir itu seorang laki-laki agar dapat menjadi pewaris kerajaan kelak. (king guasa hopes that the child to be born is a son so he can become the heir of the kingdom later.) “siapa tahu dengan upacara ini, ada tandatanda ayah kami masih dapat berumah tangga sehingga kami mendapatkan saudara lakilaki. dengan kami memiliki saudara laki-laki, silsilah keluarga kami dapat diwariskan.” (“who knows with this ceremony, there are signs that our father can still be married so we can get a brother. if so, our family tree can be inherited.”) (aritonang, 2016; 29) the background of these two signifiers is that their mother had died with the baby she was carrying. after their mother left, the sisters still hope they can have a brother by suggesting their father remarried. they even asked the local shaman to see the probability of the remarriage. quoted from the research conducted by sianturi (2017), it is concluded that in the batak toba culture, sons are highly preferred than daughters. related to the things are already mentioned about the legacy, clan, and family tree are also inherited through sons. a family is less than perfect if they do not have any son. this reaction is also shown by si boru tombaga and his younger sister in the quotation: mereka hanya mengeluh karena mereka tidak mempunyai saudara laki-laki, apalagi mereka sering mendengar bahwa wanita yang tidak bersaudara laki-laki tidak begitu disayangi dalam keluarga batak toba. (they only complain because they do not have any brothers, moreover, they often hear that daughters who have no brothers are only half-loved in the toba batak family.) si boru tombaga dan adiknya masih sering iri melihat orang yang mempunyai saudara laki laki. (si boru tombaga and his sister are still often jealous of people who have brothers.) from these quotations, it can be signified that having sons is very important for batak toba family. as it culturally accepted, people tend to be quiet and try to have one son in the family at least. even daughters in their young age know that sons are more superior than them. the superiority of sons is closely related to their teachings since childhood, so the parents also pass on the same idea to their children. boys tend to be strong and active, while girls must be more passive and restrained. the third sign of the patriarchy in the folk tales is women’s dependence on men. the patriarchal system already exists and continues to take place at any social level 171the representation of patriarchy .... (dyani masita dewi) in indonesia. the consequence that arises, therefore, is the dependence of women on men, consciously or not. men as breadwinners make women (wives) who do not work, depends on the existence and income of their husbands. women often depend on men physically, yet men sometimes do not hesitate to take benefit of it. there are several narratives such as those found in the stories of legenda bukit perak (the legend of silver hill) from jambi with the signs of women’s dependence on men. the story tells about dato lamo and her son who want to destroy a village by marrying the leader of the village’s daughter. to carry out his plan, the son wants to marry the daughter to help them finding out about dato sengalo’s power. it can be seen in the dialog as the signifier: “kebaikanmu dan ketampananmu membuat aku tak mampu menolaknya, tuan, tetapi aku harus mengutarakan hal ini kepada ayahandaku,” ucap sang putri sambil tersipu. (“your kindness and good looks make me unable to refuse it, sir, but i have to ask my father first,” said the princess while blushing.” (manik, 2016; 30) these words are uttered by dato sengalo’s daughter (the princess) when dato lamo’s son proposed to him. dato lamo’s son uses his charm and good-looking face in persuading the princess to accept his proposal without asking her father’s blessing first. the phrase “kebaikanmu dan ketampananmu membuat aku tak mampu menolaknya” (your kindness and good looks make me unable to reject it) signifies that dato lamo’s son persuades her by using his good looks and kindness as he helps her before. he makes it, the princess is persuaded and has no choice but to accept his proposal although without her father’s blessing. later on, the son again persuades then forces her to tell his father’s secret as in the dialog: “jika kau tak mau menceritakannya, kembalilah kau kepada ayahmu dan jangan pernah kembali lagi kepadaku. buat apa kita menikah kalau kau masih belum memercayai suamimu.” “if you do not want to tell me, go back to your father and never return to me. why should we marry if you still don’t trust your husband.” (manik, 2016; 3) the dialogue takes place after the princess becomes his wife. dato lamo’s son who persuades him to tell him the secret of dato sengalo’s power. after his wife refuses to tell him, dato lamo’s son utters the words “...kembalilah kau kepada ayahmu dan jangan pernah kembali lagi kepadaku…” (come back to your father and never return to me) as a threat to his wife. the husband does it so that the princess has some dependency on him, because there is a threat to be abandoned by her husband. his wife replies to his words with persuasion so that the husband would not leave her because she loves her husband very much, as seen in the next signifier: “janganlah berkata demikian, wahai suamiku. tidakkah kau tahu betapa besarnya cintaku kepadamu selama ini? selama ini aku selalu menuruti permintaanmu,” sahut sang putri dengan wajah muram dan penuh kebimbangan. (don’t say that, o my husband. don’t you know how much i love you all this time? until now i do anything you have asked me,” said the princess with a gloomy face and full of hesitation.) (manik, 2016; 35) after the threat posed by her husband, the princess is feeling sad. she then convinces her husband that she loves him very much by saying “tidakkah kau tahu betapa besarnya cintaku kepadamu selama ini?” (don’t you know how much i love you all this time?). in this dialogue, dato sengalo’s daughter’s dependence is marked by the words “selama ini aku selalu menuruti permintaanmu” (until now i did anything you have asked me) because unconsciously or not, it signifies she becomes very bounded and dependent on her husband. the patriarchy system exists in indonesia culturally and religiously. these discussions show that in indonesia, patriarchy is generally accepted by most people. the idea of the husband is working, and the wife is cooking is common, and people think that it would be weird if it works the other way around. it is normal to see the wife in the kitchen, taking care of the children, staying at home, while the husband works and socializes. conclusions folk tales are literary works that represent the culture of a region in a certain time. in folk tales especially for children, there are values, traditions, and customs that are used for generations in the local area. folk tales often use to teach children the philosophy of life, whether the reward someone gets in doing a good deed, or the punishment someone gets in doing bad one. it is represented that patriarchy exists and influence values in society, including the children’s mindset. it is signified that as children, girls believe that boys are more superior than them, that having boys in the family will give them luck. as folk tales are read a lot by the children, the idea of patriarchy could be unconsciously rooted in their mind. it is then fair that girls think boys are more important, boys would be breadwinner, and boys are whom they depend on. the boys will also think that they are superior, responsible for important things only as they believe, the patriarchal practice has been existed from a long time ago, and there is nothing wrong with it. after the discussion and analysis in the previous part, it can be concluded that women are associated with domestic work. some parts as signifiers in the stories show that there are narrations and dialogs of women serving drinks, taking care of husband and children, and doing side jobs that are still related to the domestic sector. it signifies that women are familiar with the domestic role, while men are considered more capable of supporting the family financially. women are also portrayed as parties who do not deal with social business related to society. subsequently, the representation of women as subordinates of men is also revealed by the signifier of how the husband freely orders his wife to do something, and the wife is obliged to obey it. it is also illustrated by their high hopes of having sons or the disappointment of girls who do not have any brothers. patriarchal values are also signified from the woman’s dependence on men both consciously and unconsciously. it has been a stereotype in the society that men are more capable than women in making the social connection and making money, which means everything in 172 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 3, august 2019, 167-172 life stereotypically. these beliefs then make women more likely to have dependency socially and financially and automatically make them as men’s subordinate in society. this research only focuses on the signs and signifiers of how patriarchal system in indonesia that exists and continues is also reflected (or signified) in children folk tales. however, a more in-depth research is expected in the future about not only the representation of patriarchy towards women but also how women deal with it. it is important as well on how they either accept it without any opposition or fight against the oppression. references adipoetra, f. g. 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(2017). semiotic analysis of valak and lorraine in “the conjuring 2” film. scope: journal of english language teaching, 1(2), 219-229. https://doi.org/ http://dx.doi.org/10.30998/scope.v1i02.1112. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 75 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 75-79 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5324 the optimal age of the second-first language acquisition: the relationship of language and physical-motor development budi setiawan ilmu pemerintahan, stia & pemerintahan annisa dwi salfaritzi jl. bidar puncak sekuning, 26 ilir d. i, ilir barat i, sumatera selatan 30126, indonesia ilmu humaniora, fakultas ilmu budaya, unviersitas gadjah mada jl. bulaksumur, caturtunggal, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia budi_brotherhood@yahoo.com received: 24th january 2019/revised: 01st march 2019/accepted: 15th march 2019 how to cite: setiawan, b. (2019). the optimal age of the second-first language acquisition: the relationship of language and physical-motor development. lingua cultura, 13(1), 75-79. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5324 abstract this research highlighted the language and physical-motor relationship and aimed to find the optimal age for the beginning of the second-first language (2l1) acquisition. the respondents of this research were 50 millennial generations of chinese families whose children were 0-5 years old. some children could communicate in chinese and indonesian language. chineseindonesian families were chosen by considering their bilingual. this research employed qualitative data which were collected from observations and questionnaires given to parents. the collected data were analyzed by classifying the data into some specific intervals of age based on the language milestones. this research finds that the highest frequency of the beginning in the simultaneous second-first language education is at 13-15 months. this research also proves that the age between 13-15 months is an optimal age to begin educating the second language regarded as the first language for bilingual families. keywords: optimal children age, second-first language acquisition, physical-motor development introduction the millennial chinese-indonesian generations refer to them who born in the millennial era (1980-now) (ali & purwandi, 2017). most of them maintain their heritage language as their mother tongue. as a result, they have to master at least two languages; chinese and indonesian language. thus, the millennial generations of chinese are bilingual because they maintain their culture and language, and acculturate into the culture of indonesian-speaking indigenous local society. for this reason, the millennial generation of chinese parents should educate their children with two or more languages from an early age. an interesting aspect that needs to be highlighted is the way their children acquire both languages simultaneously because they never fail to raise their children to become a bilingual chinese-indonesian at an early age. in the acquisition process, mclaughin (1978) in nau (2014) has stated that there are two processes of language acquisition in bilingualism, namely simultaneous and successive (or consecutive) acquisition. the simultaneous process is a process when an infant learns two or more languages before three years old (nau, 2014). there is no first or second language in this process. both languages are regarded equally. the second language is acquired as the first language due to their universality. over time, children acquire the first and the second language as a native speaker. the researcher assumes that the parents educate their children who are still in the early age with chinese first as the first language (1l1) and indonesian language as the second language (2l1 – the second-first language acquisition) simultaneously. bilingual language acquisition is similar to the acquisition of one language only. the 2l1 acquisition adopts the 1l1 acquisition methods, like analyzing, comprehending, and others. however, the 2l1 acquisition process is started by acquiring words and word formation and moving to its meaning. as a result, children can develop their 2l1 by learning words from others. this simultaneous acquisition does not mean that the process of acquiring two languages exists since birth collectively. however, there is still one language which is acquired first than before. one will precisely become the 1l1, and the other is the 2l1. their 1l1 is acquired in the home environment, and 76 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 75-79 their 2l1 also begin to be acquired at home although it is more developed in other environments such as outside of home or school. their language experiences in different environments play a substantial role in 2l1 development (berman, 2017). a different language in different settings attracts them, and they can identify the different vocabulary in each language learning setting. adults in a society must engage the children in challenging and meaningful activities to foster their cognitive development intentionally and systematically. this situation is possible because children have the intellectual (cognition and language) capacity and competence to acquire two or more languages. since newborns, children will not fail to differentiate two languages although it proves an intermediate pattern of preference. it is because children can construct and develop their cognition as well as manifest behavior according to the first and second language. therefore, it implies that language development goes along with the dynamic interaction of cognitive development and the environment (blommaert, 2016). children begin to construct their language from 0 to 5 years old. the age between 0 to 5 years old (from baby to the beginning of childhood) is said as the critical period and the important period that the children’s physical-motor, cognition, and social develop quickly. many psychologists and linguists declare that the period of 0-5 is a critical time because it is the foundation of children’s growth and development. at this critical time, they begin to be responsive in facing any stimulus from the environment. over the age of 5, children’s cognition development starts to slow, and it affects language development as well. they do not have a chance, time, or freedom in muscle as well as the nerve to reach or achieve their second language at over 5 years. therefore, children who have been educated the second language since early age may become a bilingual like a native speaker. in the first year, children become a native language specialist as their ability to recognize and identify foreign language sounds does not develop yet (ramirez & kuhl, 2017). however, it increases the native language sounds. thus, the range of 12-24 months can be declared as the critical age of language acquisition because this period is the basic thinking period. in addition, children have already produced language (one to two words). it can be concluded that the period of 0-24 months is a pre-school time that becomes important and crucial. at this period, language develops very fast with no stop. after school time, children’s cognition has developed to be complex, and the experiences they face are more significant. then, their cognition will be separated that may cause any obstruction in comprehending a second language. from the beginning of language development, children start to show their development by acting and imitating. bandura (1989) in keenan, evans, and crowley (2016) has argued that children’s learning takes place primarily through observational learning or imitating. the child picks up words by overhearing other people and imitating their behavior. children utilize adults’ sentence as a guide in constructing their sentences (meniado, 2016). when they get a stimulus, they will repeat it although the results of their imitating are in the incorrect form. their incorrect form is a step of developing their language through their social interaction with parents (adults). the cognition development has an association with social environment or interaction because the cognition will not develop without having interaction in a social environment, and cognition also follows physical-motor development. therefore, thought (cognition), physicalmotor, and social environment have a significant correlation to language. there is a strong relation between physicalmotor and cognition development which is shown by most children in the world. piaget (1952) in libertus and violi (2016) has declared that there is a relation between the motor and cognitive development and noted that infants’ actions and resulting sensorimotor experiences are critical for their learning about the environment and the objects within it. the age of achieving motor milestones may be an important basis for various aspects of later child development (ghassabian et al., 2016). it explains that motor achievement provides language skills to develop. one of the emerging motor skills is sitting which has a significant effect on language. it is in receptive vocabulary around age 10 to 14 months (libertus & violi, 2016). libertus and violi (2016) have suggested that the onset of independent sitting may initiate language learning development. the onset of independent sitting and walking are also able to forecast infants’ words and meanings comprehension. the relation between the onset of walking is studied by walle and campos (2014). they have examined the relationship between language development and the acquisition of walking skills. then, they have declared that the increase of infant exploration (the onset of walking) influences language acquisition and language development. the social environment differentially predicts the language development of crawling and walking infants. they have argued that the acquisition of walking predicts both receptive and productive language developments in the children. associated with the onset of walking, productive language development has a greater relation than receptive language development. unfortunately, in their research, they do not explain when the onset of walking is acquired and when the cognition, language (productive and receptive), and the acquisition of walking contribute to each other. as independent walkers, infants interact more with their mothers and produce more social communication. most parents’ failure in raising their children to become a bilingual is caused by parents’ ignorance of the relation between language and physical-motor development in educating the second language simultaneously. recent research also demonstrates the relationship between motor skill and linguistic development (libertus & violi, 2016). several of those researches claim that motor and language are independent and do not determine each other (wang et al., 2014). those researches also never discuss the optimal age for language development. therefore, this research focuses on the optimal age in acquiring a second language simultaneously. it differs from the previous researches which discuss the relationship between language or cognitive and physical-motor development. the previous researches become a theoretical framework for this research. for all of the reasons, the purpose of this research is to investigate the optimal age for parents to begin educating 2l1 by considering physical-motor development role. the researcher may think it is the main factor of language development due to the chinese-indonesian parents using the chinese language as their first l1 and their home language. moreover, this research is important to support bilingual families in indonesia, indigenous, or immigrant like chinese families in educating a second language to children. 77the optimal age of the second.... (budi setiawan) methods chinese-indonesian becomes the sample of this research due to their success in raising their children to be bilingual. the sample is taken from all members of the chinese-indonesian community in palembang city, which is just aimed for chinese people. palembang city is chosen because it has a large chinese population in indonesia. all community members are interviewed according to the parents’ language repertoire, and their children’s language ability and development. afterward, fifty (50) millennial chinese-indonesian families are chosen. these fifty families are the parents who educate their chinese (heritage) language to their children as his/her first l1 and use the indonesian language as his/her second l1. the data are collected from questionnaires given to parents, and each parent is interviewed intensely according to their children language acquisition. the results of the collected data are qualitative data. then, the collected data are analyzed by descriptive analysis by classifying them into five intervals of age. those are 0−1 year, 1−1,5 years, 1,5−2 years, 2−3 years, and 4−5 years. the number of children per interval of age is not determined due to the main source of this research. the analysis applies the variable of the age of children and physical-motor development due to its significant relationship to language development. results and discussions from the questionnaires, both the father and mother or one of the parents state that they focus and frequently communicate by using the chinese since birth. their children are accustomed to hearing the chinese. moreover, it is supported by the other members of the family such as grandfather and grandmother or uncle and aunt who also communicate by using their ancestor language (chinese). besides that, all of the chinese parents believe that their children must also be accustomed to the indonesia language from an early age. when their children have social interaction in their environment with indigenous people, their children can communicate. chinese parents add that if they have not taught indonesia language or they have educated their children over 5 years, their children will experience hardship to communicate with local people around him/her because indigenous people always speak by their language in daily communication. many chinese parents state that after their children have been able to walk, they let them having interaction with others by themselves at home and at outside with peers or indigenous adults. the researcher assumes that from the chinese parents’ perspective, the education of the indonesian language for children over 5 years will be a late acquisition. the data indicate that most chinese parents begin to apply the indonesia language in communicating with their children at 1−1,5 years (44%, n=50, f=22, mean of 1,25). moreover, there are also chinese parents who start to educate indonesia language at the interval of 0−1 year (4%, n=50, f =2, mean of 0,5) and 1,5−2 years (32%, n= 50, f=16, mean of 1,75). the others start introducing indonesia language to their children at 2−3 years old (20%, n= 50, f=10, mean of 2,5). meanwhile, the interval age of 4−5 years has no frequency (0%, n= 25, f=0, mean of 4,5). the result shows that many chinese parents teach their children to become a bilingual from 1 to 3 years, but the highest frequency is at 1−1,5 years. the results can be seen in table 1 and figure 1. table 1 educating bilingualism frequency no interval frequency % 1. 0–1 2 4 2. 1–1,5 22 44 3. 1,5–2 16 32 4. 2–3 10 20 5. 4–5 0 0 total 50 100,00 figure 1 frequency differences the researcher finds that the reason to educate the 2l1 is not only depending on the social factors, but it is also affected by physical-motor and language development. thus, the researcher agrees that the interval age of 0−1 year is a basic development period so that chinese parents focus on developing their children’s physical-motor skills. chinese parents do not specifically educate language, but they reinforce the children’s babbling. the interval age of 1−1,5 years depicts the fundamental acquisition of language, especially for the 2l1. the children begin to comprehend words and start to produce language during this period. that is why most chinese parents begin to communicate using the indonesian language with their children at this interval age. some chinese parents start to teach indonesia language at interval age of 1,5−2 years. the others teach their children from the age of 2−3. the researcher finds this is an uncomplicated period because, at this age, the children use words in communicating. by producing words of the foreign language, the child will imitate them as well. the interval age of 4−5 years has no frequency because, for parents, it is the start of school. both children and parents do not typically have quality time to develop the second language. most chinese parents report that they have considered educating their children from an early age to become bilingual because their children need to communicate with indigenous by using the second language. the researcher confirms that they instinctively realize the supporting aspects in developing bilingualism: intellectual (cognition and language) and physical-motor development. so, it is important to narrow that highest frequency to figure out the optimal age in educating the 2l1 by considering the intellectual and physical-motor development. the development of two languages or more follows physical-motor development. there is a strong relationship between bilingualism and physical-motor development. bilinguals are superior in having interactions, imitating, responding, reaching, grasping, or pointing. the relation refers to the effects of physical-motor development for language. physical-motor ability like sitting skills has a 78 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 75-79 significant effect on language that is in receptive vocabulary around 10 to 14 months because the onset of independent sitting (libertus & violi, 2016) and walking can forecast infants’ productive vocabularies. both receptive and productive language developments are predicted by the acquisition of walking (walle & campos, 2014). the researcher notices that both theories are true because children are superior in having interactions, imitating, responding, reaching, grasping, or pointing. no one can force infants to develop their language or to make them produce some languages if their cognition and physical-motor abilities do not enable them or reach the linguistic phase. on the contrary, if infants can communicate biologically, they will be prevented to do it. thus, there is a strong relationship between 2l1 acquisition and physical-motor development. the relation refers to the effects of physical-motor development for language. it is important to identify the optimal age to educate the 2l1 because some families in indonesia, although they are exogamous marriage, fail to raise their child to master that 2l1. concisely, language development adapts to physicalmotor development. figure 2 shows the relationship between language development and physical development and indicates the optimal age for 2l1 acquisition. figure 2 the raise of language and physical-motor development children’s physical-motor development at the age of 0−6 focuses on the body and head development. meanwhile, the age of 6−12 months concentrates on hands and feet development such as crawling that is a combination of many skills. it proves that physical skills develop very fast from 0 to 12 months. the age of 12−18 months is the time to develop their hands and feet coordination, but it is not significant, or it can be said as a flat development. after 18 to 24 months, the development runs again but slowly. the physical development begins to slow after children can generally walk at the period of 13−15 months. the other gross motor skills like running will be acquired at 18 months. the period of 13−18 months is not the physical development period, but it is the time to focus on language. motor development over 18 months, in other words, radically alters the children’s experience with the world. this situation has significant implications for the development of communication in general and language in particular. in addition, language ability develops rapidly from birth to 12 months. the development at the age of 0−12 months is the beginning period of language development. infants’ language abilities are limited to sounds involved in cooing and babbling. this pre-linguistic period is the time when infants understand their language first as young as 5 months (berman, 2017). the first linguistic component is sound (phoneme), word, and their meaning. from the age of 12 to 13 months, children begin expressing more complex language, not only producing sound, but also beginning to comprehend words, and so forth. they can comprehend more or less than 50 words from 12 to 13 months. in the age of 13−15 months, the children have started to comprehend many words even though they cannot produce all of the words yet. at the age of 15 months, they begin to produce words (one-word phrase). then, it increases until 24 months (two words) up to 5 years in the development period. by this condition, children will comprehend words and their meaning, especially for the 2l1 because the acquisition of the 2l1 is from acquiring the word. thus, this period can be said as the optimal time to begin educating the second language because they have acquired the phonological system of 1l1, and the strategy in acquiring the 1l1 will be transferred to the 2l1. at 13 to 15 months, the children can walk independently. it can be said as the first walking period. the first walking period is the new motor skill development which opens a wider environment and a new habit of interactions. the children can attract more attention especially from their mother and people around them. it may facilitate their interaction and language to develop. this condition changes children’s cognition (sensorimotor) by experiencing exploration of the environment. their cognition may also notice that they can attract others by social means. by the ability to walk, they can interact with their environment as they wish and explore their surrounding environment. the children explore their environment if they can move easily or change positions. therefore, they will explore anything and anywhere, and their thought and language will develop quickly because of getting many stimuli from other environments or new situations from people and things around them. this motor ability causes their language to develop. moreover, the exploration enriches their vocabularies and the language system. it is really important for the 2l1 because they have no limitation in interacting. for instance, a child who has just been able to walk wants to go everywhere, reaches and takes something or greets people by their gestures. adults who have mastered that second language must assist them in developing by actively communicating. as a result, their 2l1 will develop rapidly at an early age if they interact with other people by walking especially with adults. after that period, the development in both languages increases rapidly up to 24 months. when children have walked, their environment becomes wider. although their main environment is at home, they can also socialize with people outside of the home. with the language used outside of the home (multilingual environment) in playing, it becomes the vehicle to develop bilingualism. the children learn and internalize social rules which develop self-regulation, and relationship to others (armstrong et al., 2014). conclusions physical-motor development becomes an important factor in the development of children bilingualism. it affects language developments by the capability of having interaction by themselves. this physical-motor development 79the optimal age of the second.... (budi setiawan) can figure out when children are ready cognitively and physically to get many stimuli from the wider environment. this research concludes that the period of 1315 months can be declared as the optimal age to acquire the 2l1 for infants since they already have acquired the minimum linguistic unit (phonetic). then, their minds also begin to comprehend words by their phonetic knowledge, and their cognition already focuses on acquiring language. the cognition becomes more mature to get any stimulus from the foreign language because they are already free of mastering the main physical-motor skills. thus, children can focus on learning two languages or even more. the early education at this period not only facilitates acquiring languages but also reduces the loss of native language. indonesian children have generally been starting to walk at 13-15 months, but this period is relative and not absolute. several children have walked independently before the age of 13 months. for a reason, bilingualism milestone can be mediated by motivation and learning. in addition to this limitation, language acquisition depends on the child’s interest, desire, and obsession toward those languages. therefore, the result of this research can lead parents to begin educating the second language simultaneous in an appropriate time to avoid failure of raising children to become bilingual. further research may describe the characteristic of 2l1 or other aspects that may affect 2l1. acknowledgment the author would like to show his gratitude to the research unit of faculty of cultural sciences of gadjah mada university for improving the manuscript and organizing a workshop. references ali, h., & purwandi, l. (2017). millennial nusantara: pahami karakternya, rebut simpatinya. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. armstrong, k. h., ogg, j. a., sundman-wheat, a. n., & walsh, a. s. j. (2014). evidence-based interventions for children with challenging behavior. us: springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7807-2. berman, r. a. (2017). language development and literacy. in r. j. r. levesque (ed.), encyclopedia of adolescence. springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-32132-5_19-2. blommaert, j. (2016). from mobility to complexity in sociolinguistic theory and method. in n. coupland (ed), sociolinguistics: theoretical debates. cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/ cbo9781107449787.012. ghassabian, a., sundaram, r., bell, e., bello, s. c., kus, c., & yeung, e. (2016). gross motor milestones and subsequent development. pediatrics, 138(1), 1−8. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4372. keenan, t., evans, s., & crowley, k. (2016). an introduction to child development. london, united kingdom: sage publications ltd. libertus, k., & violi, d. a. (2016). sit to talk: relation between motor skills and language development in infancy. frontiers in psychology, 7, 1−8. meniado, j. c. (2016). first language acquisition: a case study of a three-year old lebanese child. journal of child language acquisition and development, 4(3), 98−112. nau, n. (2015). first and second language acquisition: towards a reconcillation. lingua posnaniensis, 56(1), 125−140. https://doi.org/10.2478/linpo-2014-0008. ramirez, n. f., & kuhl, p. (2017). the brain science of bilingualism. yc young children, 72(2), 38−44. walle, e. a., & campos, j. j. (2014). infant language development is related to the acquisition of walking. developmental psychology, 50(2), 336–348. https:// doi.org/10.1037/a0033238. wang, m. v., lekhal, r., aaro, l. e., holte, a., schjolberg, s. (2014). the developmental relationship between language and motor performance from 3 to 5 years of age: a prospective longitudinal population study. bmc psychology, 2(34), 1-10. vol. 14 no. 2 december 2020cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nico surantha bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richer monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents fenty lidya siregar indonesian eap students’ vocabulary level and size: an empirical investigation.......................................... 143-149 yuliyanto chandra sky castle: consuming education from the cases of two tiger parents...................................................... 151-159 zulfadli abdul aziz; syamsul bahri yusuf; faisal mustafa; siti munawarah acehnese archaic words in hikayat: an early influential literary work....................................................... 161-169 teresa angelina kaluge the japanese understanding on new words with suffix -teki across generations ......................................... 171-178 rn herman; mukhlis; firman parlindungan; lia lisyati; rahmad nuthihar character education in an acehnese cultural saga: hikayat prang sabi....................................................... 179-186 ida purnama sari; wening udasmoro visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties........................................... 187-193 lily thamrin phonological description of teochew dialect in pontianak west kalimantan................................................ 195-201 amelia yuli astuti; bram denafri linguistic signs in slang language used in drug trading transactions in padang city...................................... 203-210 zukhairatunniswah prayati; haerazi; lalu ari irawan; rully may vikasari developing culture-based english instructional materials to improve students’ thinking, elt achievement, and classroom interaction........................................................................................................... 211-218 abid examining indonesian efl teacher educators’ views on utilising l1 in l2 classrooms.................................... 219-224 rike febriyanti; lailatul husna production of vowel /ə/ in sundanese by japanese native speakers in first exposure................................... 225-231 hery nuraini; yeni daniarti; rohmat taufiq the use of audiobooks in developing seveth-grade students’ reading skills: a case study for efl students.......... 233-240 akhyar rido; heri kuswoyo; sandi nuansa questioning strategies in english literature lectures in an indonesian university.......................................... 241-253 tri wahyu setiawan prasetyoningsih; dyah raina purwaningsih; nadia gitya yulianita animals as symbols of human positive and negative traits on javanese expressions...................................... 255-260 lynda susana widya ayu fatmawaty; condro nur alim virtual sphere: a site to negotiate the image of lengger banyumas......................................................... 261-266 index ................................................................................................................................... 267-270 vol. 14 no. 2 december 2020cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 263 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 263-271 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7551 representation of pakistani culture through code-mixing: a critical analysis of the novel holy woman by qaisra shahraz khan muhammad zawar1*; sardar sana2; nazir muhammad3 government post graduate college mardan nowshera mardan rd, muslimabad, mardan, khyber pakhtunkhwa 23200, pakistan 1m.zawarkhan1995@gmail.com; 2sanasardar925@gmail.com; 3nazirlec.gpgc@gmail.com received: 07th july 2021/revised: 13th september 2021/accepted: 15th september 2021 how to cite: zawar, k. m., sana, s., & muhammad, n. (2021). representation of pakistani culture through code-mixing: a critical analysis of the novel holy woman by qaisra shahraz. lingua cultura, 15(2), 263-271. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7551 abstract the research aimed to analyze the characteristics of code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz and the repetition of urdu words. code-mixing was an unconscious process that established communication in a multilingual community. it would describe research design, data collection, reasons for accumulating data from the novel, models of linguistic features, and the contextual areas of south asian english and data analysis. the research applied a qualitative method of analysis that probed the enormous data and detailed analysis of the novel to find out features of code-mixing, the native socio-cultural realities to show the lexical gap. the research depicted the ideologies related to a different culture in pakistan through code-mixing and language use in the novel. the data had been analyzed through baumgartner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) and kachru’s (1983) model of code-mixing. the research finds that the writer spots the light on the regional varieties that sound more familiar to the readers and pakistani english to fill the lexical gap because they sometimes do not find proper words in standard english. the writer has used the words frequently in the novel to actualize the inherent culture of society and describe socio-cultural realities. the research has found 400 words (english-urdu words) in the thirty-two semantic contexts. the writer has mixed urdu words with the english language where it is needed because of the contextual, cultural differences, social norms, values, beliefs, ideas, customs, and traditions of the society; and stress the importance of pakistani english with distinct linguistic features. keywords: pakistani culture, code-mixing, english language, urdu language introduction code mixing is not a unique term in a bilingual or multilingual community like pakistan. english is a co-official language in pakistan, and after colonization, the english language and literature flourish with the passage of time. pakistani english writers use english as a medium and vocabulary from national and regional languages. the research is mainly based on an analysis of code-mixing because, in this novel, the holy woman, by qaisra shahraz, where the pakistani culture is fully highlighted. according to yule (2010), language is important and different means of communication have the capacity of reflexivity. it is a property of language that can be used to talk and think about language itself. the five distinct and important properties of language are displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, and duality. colonization, power, status have a significant impact upon the language, and it causes changes in the native languages. myslín and levy (2015) have described language as crucial property of arbitrariness and displacement. people mix their languages because of the different meanings and knowledge they have in one culture or another. it is the property of the language that a word could be called through different cultural names and transmit this knowledge through code-mixing to other cultures. 264 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 263-271 there is a psychological effect through english lessons related to developing english culture in the cuban national education system. it reacts to the political, economic, social, and cultural significance of foreign languages nowadays; that is why people learn other languages. foreign language in any education system shows the importance of foreign culture and learning. instead of this fact, the country maintains relationships and exchanges dealings with other countries. the exchange of delegations and students rises daily with cuban citizens due to international actions growing. the means of information in the english language are also increased (guerra & batista, 2021). mujiono (2016) has explained the purpose of translanguaging to maximize the communicative potential of bilinguals as the access to different linguistic features of the sovereign language. english is one of the prestigious languages on the earth today, so power is associated with the english language. it has been the language of an upper class that has impacted or influenced pakistan since its independence. a variant pakistani variety of english is found (rahman, 2010). the holy woman by qaisra shahraz depicts the pakistani culture and the psychological effect of the english language. it analyzes the sociolinguistic culture characteristics of the culture and shows how a foreign language has influenced the cultural and traditional activities of the people living in the society. on the other hand, it shows the sociolinguistic capability of the people and the importance and amalgamation of different languages through code-mixing. meyerhoff (2006) has shown that code-mixing is an exchange between codes, dialects, or varieties in the clause. this exchange or alternations are restricted to word level. younas et al. (2020) have highlighted the significant use of code-mixing and the frequency of mixing words, phrases, and smallest units of one language into another language. the objective of the research is to highlight code-mixing as a prominent feature of the novel the holy woman to examine how the writer shows social norms and regional culture of pakistan through code-mixing and to highlight the reasons for code-mixing in the novel. krishnasamy (2015) has pointed out that the language behavior of bilingual children who use code-mixing as a communicative strategy is affected by mother language mixing habit and their bilingual environment. silaban and marpaung (2020) have explored kinds of code-mixing and code-switching, the dominant types, and the factors of code-mixing and code-switching used by the indonesia lawyers club program on tv one. the most kinds used are outer of code-mixing (31/42 data), and the lowest kinds are inner of code-mixing (2/42 data). syam et al. (2018) have viewed the factors that impact codemixing and code-switching usage as social factors, such as participant, situation, the topic of conversation, domain, and others. they suggest that the teacher must be used more english and emphasize using english than indonesian so that the students can casually use english in the classroom interaction. code-mixing is not a new phenomenon in pakistan. sufficient research about this topic has been done in pakistan; for example, jadoon (2017) has researched the pakistanization of english in kamila shamsie’s kartography and the techniques of hybrid innovations and lexical borrowing in order to pakistanize the english language in keratography. however, nothing has been reported so far about urduenglish code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz, leading to a gap. the writer uses many cultural, social, and other urdu words in this novel without knowing the reasons and advantages. this assumes the investigator to observe the phenomenon exactly in order to know the fact that how the writer uses words instead of proper words in english in the novel. the current research objectives are (1) to highlight code-mixing as a prominent feature of the novel the holy woman, (2) to examine how the writer shows social norms and regional culture through codemixing, (3) to highlight the reasons for code-mixing in the novel. code-mixing is a common phenomenon in a bilingual or multilingual country like pakistan in spoken as well as in written discourse. however, nothing has been reported so far concerning code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz. the present research will be important because it understands the concept of code-mixing that is the prominent feature of this novel. the writer depicts social values and local culture through code-mixing. using urdu or local words in the novel increases the readers’ familiarity and highlights lexical gaps. the research confines itself only to the novel the holy woman. this confinement throws light only on code-mixing and not on code-switching. another confinement is that the research examines codemixing between english and the urdu language and not the mixing with other regional or local languages of pakistan. the major newspaper in pakistan is published in the english language. sometimes the slang term ‘pinglish’ is used, and pakistani english shares the broad features of south asian english. the borrowed or loans from different local or indigenous languages of pakistan exist in the local forms of english (norquist, 2020). pakistani english fiction uses urduised words to give a linguistic and cultural identity. it is clear that using many loans or borrowing words from urdu and another regional language has made their way easier in pakistani english. pakistani writers have an important feature of this literature that encompasses the impact of words, structure, and expressions from the regional languages, especially the urdu language, which shows the independent variety of pakistani english (baumgardner, kennedy, shamim, 1993). parveen (2016) has investigated the impact of urdu, and other regional languages on pakistani english literature and language socializes people and raises the culture of any society. pakistani english 265representation of pakistani culture.... (khan muhammad zawar, et al.) literature has improved its roots and is acknowledged as a separate entity. the linguistic part shows cultural, religious, and ethnic grounds. the way of using urdu words, sentences, and speech acts in pakistani literature has been discussed. she has said that it is a dire need to adapt the languages to create unity, confederation, and confidence in the pakistani people. muyuku (2019) has explained code-mixing in the purposively selected print advertisements of three telecom companies and six commercial banks in kenya. it is noted that the compound lexical items, blend forms, whole new usage of free and bound morpheme combinations, and words are prominent forms of code-mixing of english and kiswahili to attract customers. hasan and akhand (2015) have investigated the issues related to code-mixing and code-switching in the esl context. they explore the relationship of language use to the socioeconomic class of the language user. they also suggest that users are concerned about language to highlight social, pragmatic, and metalinguistic functions during their speech. chughtai, khamn, and khan (2016) have highlighted reasons and contexts due to which young pakistani learners do mixing and switching of english in their urdu conversation. rasul (2013) has viewed that english words/phrases are heavy borrowing and mixing in other languages. english vocabulary is frequently borrowed and mixed in urdu as the national language of pakistan. it is found that this trend is exhibited in pakistani children’s magazines. taleem-o-tarbiat and hamdard naunehal are the two children’s monthly magazines taken as a sample for his research. practices of code-mixing and borrowing in these magazines are analyzed to show their nature, causes, frequency, and functions. code-mixing and code-switching are observable in the bilingual community. cakrawarti (2011) has researched that the protagonist uses distinct language, dialect, and varieties in interaction with the other characters because of other characters from different backgrounds. in such a situation, bilinguals or multilingual use code-mixing and code-switching in their conversation or utterance to clarify the listeners’ statement or idea. her study is based on hoffman’s theory that explains the types of code-switching and code-mixing through the characters in the teen lit and the reasons for code-mixing and code-switching in the teen lit canting cantiq by dyan nuranindya. mujiono, wilujeng, and suharto (2017) have explained the types and reasons of code mixing performed by outbound call (obc) center agents. the analytical approach is based on the process of (a) insertion into base language, (b) alternation between languages, (c) congruent lexicalization. apart from it, researchers also highlight that english codes occur in different situations like appreciating customers, avoiding the weakness of products, and so on. a similar type of research is proposed by ayoub et al. (2016) have discussed the scope, implication, nature, and reasons of code-mixing in pakistani english postcolonial novels. the researchers refer to frameworks developed by flower (1996), muthiah (2009), and also models given by kachru (1983), baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim (1993). for a research sample, the researchers are selected five novels, american brat by baspi sidhwa, burnt shadows by kamila shamsie, my feudal lord by tehmina durani, reluctant fundamentalist by mohsin hamid, and home boy by h. m naqvi. the researchers have said that code-mixing in the novels not only represents culture, values, customs but also the language, and sometimes the words do not have proper alternate words in the english language are also discussed. local words are used to show the significance of local languages and illuminate the prominence of pakistani english that sometimes english might fail to fulfill the communicative needs of local people. fischer in cardenas-claros and isharyanti (2009) has suggested that code choice in the communities where bilingualism or multilingualism terms should be studied in the context where the conversation is produced. the researchers take six participants that are from indonesian background, and six are from latin america, representing five countries: chile, colombia, uruguay, mexico, and argentina. this research data is collected from 84 transcripts, and typed conversations are accumulated through the msn messenger. they say that there are important differences between the number of code-mixing and code-switching in sociolinguistics background; 20 conversations are thoroughly studied for the spanishspeaking participants 119 alternations in which 81 accords to code-switching, 35 accords to code-mixing. indonesian-speaking participants show a large number of alternations, 174 changes in code 110 accord to code-switching and 64 to code-mixing. some words are borrowed from english by both languages, and their participants have different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, such as the most word for computerrelated terms like pc, email, and others. this research has analyzed the occurrence of code-mixing and codeswitching in a computer-mediated communication environment. ali, ranjha, and jillani (2010) have found the reasons and the effects of code-mixing in indian film songs on the youth. the researchers discuss the colonization of the british in the indo-pak subcontinent that has a strong impact on the regional languages, particularly on the urdu language. for data collection, the researchers use a questionnaire to analyze data and choose five heroes (amir khan, salman khan, shahrukh khan, ranbher kapur, akshay kumar), and a survey is conducted to collect information from the population and contained on 100 students of lahore. the researchers find certain reasons for code-mixing in indian film songs: (a) code mixing makes the songs catchy, (b) code-mixing of english and urdu songs produces a good rhyme scheme, (c) the audience prefers mixing of english words songs to monolingual songs because of the high-status symbol, (d) codemixing songs are easily learned by listeners, e) code266 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 263-271 mixing songs are the demands of the producers. codemixing or english words in indian film songs because english is a prestigious language on earth today. hence people use it for entertainment, motivation, attraction, popularity, etc. a similar type of research is proposed by riaz (2019) that analyzes the degree to which codemixing and code-switching are employed in television broadcasted on pakistani tv channels. the impacts of english on pakistani tv commercials cause variation to the urdu language. she takes data manually from three websites: yt pak, youtube, and daily motion, and the frequency of code-mixing and code-switching has been noted. the whole data contain 4.746 words and on different ads. the data are taken manually and observed qualitatively by checking the frequency, percentages, and expressions. the analyzed data that contain 4.746 words, in which 871 words are code mixed, and 121 words are code switched. the influence of the english language on the urdu language is due to new inventions, technological improvement, new trends, fashion, etc. the television aids and commercials have focused on english words in the urdu language to attract the audience and grasp their attention. code-mixing and code-switching in pakistani commercials do not only affect the audience but also represent their choice of linguistics. akhtar, khan, and fareed (2016) have explored how language represents society and change in the language and variation occurs code-mixing and code-switching in the bilingual or multilingual community. the first one, functional studies, prefers the sociolinguistic perspective and the context or background of code-mixing and code-switching. the second one, theoretical studies, prefers the structural aspects of code-mixing and code-switching and their types. the bilingual speakers are motivated to codemixing and code-switching due to many social and socio-psychological aspects important in efl/esl context, including pakistan. methods the research aims to analyze the characteristics of code-mixing in the novel the holy woman and analyze the repetition of urdu words in the novel. it describes research design, data collection, reasons for accumulating data from the novel, models of linguistic features, and the contextual areas of south asian english and data analysis. the research applies a qualitative method of analysis that probes the enormous data and with the detailed analysis of the novel to find out features of code-mixing, the native socio-cultural realities to show the lexical gap. the data have been collected in ‘table’ form. a single novel is chosen from pakistani english literature, but a detailed explanation or analysis has been done. in this novel, code-mixing (english and urdu) or the use of urdu words frequently occurs. there are many reasons for accumulating data for research from the novel the holy woman. the researchers favor novels more than other genres because novels are the rich medium of language. another reason is that an extensive amount of data is required to examine code-mixing, and in this novel, code-mixing is repeated frequently. the reason for this novel is that through code-mixing, the writer represents the traditions, customs, beliefs, and values of the society. baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) research of pakistani english has made more explanation in kachru’s (1983) list. at the structural level, kachru divides the lexical innovations in south asian english into two levels. the first one is single items innovation that contains the presentation of local or regional lexical items into the fabric of south asian english. the second one is hybridized items that contain the combination of two or more elements in which one item from the regional language of south asia like a long bamboo stick “lathi” and one from the english like to control the “charge/command” of the crowd. kachru has divided hybrid innovations further into four groups. first is hybrid collocations (khilafat, it means caliphate movement which is the movement in pakistan when turkey president mustafa kamal pasha ended the usmania hilafat, native language term in pakistan, so the religious sect in pakistan protested against the decision of mustafa kamal pasha, which is called hilafat movement. hybrid lexical sets (purdah/ veil) system, which is a religious act to cover the face according to the teaching of islam. the second is hybrid order series of words (angers-chair). the last is hybrid reduplications (white-bridge). kachru divides these four groups into twentysix semantic areas based on the functional contexts of these items. after kachru’s (1983) significant work on south asian english’s, baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim (1993) have explained the borrowed things from south asian regional languages focusing especially on urdu and examined their grammatical and semantics aspects, but they concentrate on the single item exchange from urdu to english. baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim (1993) have further distributed the list into fifty-four contextual areas. kachru (1983) and baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) work believe that borrowing from different contextual areas leads to two major factors. the first one is to fulfill the lexical gaps, and the second is to transfer various shades of meaning related to the local or regional social and cultural context. it is based on the current research on kachru (1983) and baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) models of linguistic features of south asian englishes. results and discussions the data are analyzed qualitatively. many pakistani lexical items depict through code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz to represent society, culture, traditions, norms, values, religion, and others to show with the qualitative analysis 267representation of pakistani culture.... (khan muhammad zawar, et al.) and data taken manually from the novel. code-mixing is used in the novel frequently as it has been written in the english medium, but due to close association with the urdu language, that leads to lexical gaps. the novel presents through code-mixing highlights various colors of meaning related to local sociocultural realities. table 1 (see appendix) shows the code-mixed words that depicts socio-cultural contexts in the novel the holy woman based on baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’ (1993) contextual areas. as given in the method section of the research, kachru (1983) and baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim (1993) studies are mainly because codemixing borrows from the different contextual aspects are the products of two main factors. one is to fulfill the lexical gaps, and the second is to carry the various colors of meaning that are typically related to local or regional socio-cultural realities and also depicts ideas of writer related to culture, religion, society, and so on. table 1 shows these two factors; most code-mixed words relate to the socio-cultural or ethnocultural contexts. the writer uses certain words in the novel to depict different communities like; karachi ties, arabics, zemindars of sindh, the khans to depict ethnic division in the society. apart from this, it reflects the various colors of meaning that refer to the regional socio-cultural realities. the striking features of the novel are its strong regionalist identity, which shows the socio-cultural lives of karachi. therefore, the novel mostly uses regionalized items related to different aspects of kinship terms, clothing, edibles, modes of address, occupations, dwelling, and others. the words like jan, jee, and sahib are repeatedly used by the writer throughout the novel as a model of reference, which is quite common in pakistani society. the data mentioned in table 1 are baba jee, baji jan, aba jan, sahib / sahiba jee. the novel has used further regional kinship terms, and these kinship terms have their feelings and emotional connotation. this category plays a vital role in a definite language because they are important to that language and society, where they are used and spoken. kinship terms are social markers here that are used in english is meaningful. they strengthen their specificity to the regional or local setting of the novel. they mainly affirm the socio-cultural identity of the writer. table 1 shows a great number of clothing items like shalwar kameze suits, studded kullah, holy burqa, blue shangai, no dupatta, black kashmeri chador, and so on. these items are mostly related to women and depict regional looks. mainly, burqa and dupatta are part of the clothing apart from them. their appropriate use shows the religiosity and modesty of the wearer, and the writer has used them in both senses. the novel has used the local concepts category, from the above code-mixed data, for example, good kismet, woman’s izzat, a handani, kala jadoo, a taweez, labeled basharm, that churail, etc. the writer frequently uses this category to depict pakistani society and the beliefs of the people. one of the reoccurring words, a shahzadi ibadat (a beautiful, educated young girl married with quran compelled by their father and grandfather to become a shahzadi ibadat or the holy woman), is repeatedly used in the novel to show some aspects of society. as the novel contains a socio-cultural realities of society, the regionalized salutations are also part of it. the salutations like salam, assalam-alikum, wa-alaikum alaikum-salam, mubarak, and so on express their regional and religious ritualistic sayings. similarly, the religious category in the data shows numerous code-mixed words like only ibadat, du’ah to allah, the jannat, further ajar, a gunaghar, haram for me, hajen now, bano’s mahram, holy zam-zam, a ghairmerd, and so on to signify religion and the religion play a significant role in the life of its people as shown in this novel by the writer. the writer, through code-mixing, represents the social norms of the society, which represents the socialcultural life of sindh, karachi, and other communities (tanda adam, chiragpur, hyderabad, cairo, city of aswan, miser, jeddah, minah, kaula lumper city). different categories mentioned in table 1 are social gatherings lexical and marriage/divorce that depicts the social and cultural norms which are: wonderful rishta, three talaqs, sister’s mehandi, salami presents, the mela, nikkah ceremony, a doli, the jahez, baraat party, sharbandani ceremony and so on. the home furnishing category also depicts the regional culture like the takkia, style palang, edge of charpoy; the writer frequently uses these words in the novel to show culture and society. similarly, in the novel, qaisra shahraz uses the slogan/ritualistic sayings are: ‘is it really sat samunder paar’, ‘welcome ehlan sehlan marhaba’, and ‘wa-wa!’ every quarter shows different attitudes or reactions of characters in the novel to a different lifestyle and different classes in the society. in one category, adjective/adverbials, the researcher discusses some words borrowed from one language. they try to set the words according to their languages, as the writer qaisra shahraz shows in the novel, for example, three talaqs, karachities, palangs, and so on. the pervasive and intensive use of the lexical items and categories of thirty-two at least 400 (the number in bracket means that code-mixed words are repeated in the novel) semantic contexts qaisra shahraz through code-mixing has indistinct the peripheries of english words phrases by adding words, expressions from the local languages with a unique facility of expression to depict the social, cultural setting of pakistani society, in an own proper language. echo-word formation is one of the typical regional characteristics of south asian languages (the urdu language is discussed in the research), in which the base form of a word is partially occurred from time to time. reduplication occurs a consonant or a syllable of the base form is being replaced by other phonemes. because of language contact through code-mixing and borrowing, these morphological features have glided into south asian english. table 2 (see appendix) 268 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 263-271 shows regionalized english characteristics in the holy woman by qaisra shahraz. the local greeting expressions (khuda hafiz, salam) are also found in the novel repeatedly. morphological innovation of native words is a striking feature of pakistani english in this novel, in which the main native words change on the patterns of english grammatical patterns (adjective/ plural/formation), for example, ghusty, palangs, talaqs, tolas, and others. the writer uses other characteristics of local features of the language are repetition, like ‘bibi bibi’, ‘no! no! no!’. the writer uses hyphenated words without following the conventional rules of punctuation marks like hyphens, such as every-waywell-educated, me-thick-skinned, him-almost-the. similarly, the writer uses telescoped words which seem quite meaningless but still, telescoped words are used frequently in the novel. the writer uses the capitalized words/expressions in the novel on a large scale to focus on various situations, beliefs, and thoughts of various characters based on local languages. therefore, it is assumed that qaisra shahraz follows the patterns of grammatical rules of regional languages or subcontinent languages. the researchers have found 400 code-mixed words (english-urdu words) in the thirty-two semantic contexts out of fifty-four semantic aspects by baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim (1993), which is an extension of kachru (1983) twenty-six semantic areas. the researchers also highlight that code-mixing is a prominent feature of this novel. from the data, the researchers mention that the local or regional sociocultural realities like religion, norms, values, beliefs, customs of the society have been shown. the reasons behind the lexical gaps the data show that some words (the charpoy, shahzadi ibadat, dupatta) are there which not part of english culture and language are but exist and have importance in our culture and language. conclusions the research has professed that every language is very significant amongst its users and shows that no language is submissive. the research has found code-mixing to a greater extent in the holy woman by qaisra shahraz. the writer uses urdu words from the native language as code-mixing in the novel. from the data, they are clear that the writer uses urdu words intentionally in the novel to highlight the cultures and society and depict native values, morality, and judgment of morality, culture, and tradition in the native terms. sometimes there is an equivalent or the proper word in the english language; despite that, the writer refers to the urdu words like good kismet, our chaprassi, with talaqs, etc. those words propagate the concept of pakistani and familiarize pakistani tradition and social ceremonies with the international world. apart from this, it is shown how the societal norms are strictly followed by people like our shahzadi ibadat, her izzat, etc. the social norms are even followed more than the religious norms. the research represents pakistani culture through code-mixing is mainly based on the model of linguistic features of contextual areas of baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim. the research finds out thirtytwo semantic areas and data collected in table 1. from the research, the researchers have found that codemixing is a significant feature of this novel because of the immense data collected from the novel. then, the writer, qaisra shahraz, depicts the religion, values, norms, beliefs, customs, traditions of the society through various contextual categories like edibles, clothing, marriage/divorce, religion, concepts, kinship terms, salutations, descriptive labels of people, names of places and so on to display a complete picture of the society. the regionalized english features are reflected from the novel, and a large-scale data mentioned in table 2 explores the regional characteristics of the english language. they are echo-word formation, greetings, interjections, vocatives, morphological innovation of native words, hyphenated words, repetition, telescoped words, and capitalized words. the data analysis chapter highlights regional characteristics of the english language. the writer also uses urdu words through code-mixing because the writer/reader is more familiar with them. the writer has not humiliated the significance of regional varieties but reveals the importance of pakistani english. it has been concluded that the analysis of code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz contains 400 code-mixing (english and urdu word in table 1), so it is one of the clear features of this novel. these thirty-two different categories as code-mixing depict religion, regional culture, ideals, cosines, values, customs, beliefs, and various norms. the research has applied a model for the analysis of code-mixing in the novel the holy woman by qaisra shahraz. it can be utilized and further improved by the forthcoming researchers who are formulating to organize their works on pakistani english novels. apart from the novel, further research can be organized on pakistani written discourse, such as short stories, newspapers, autobiographies, and can be pakistani spoken discourse different television programs and speeches by pertaining the model. references akhtar, h., khan, a., & fareed, m. 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(2010). the study of language (4th ed). cambridge: cambridge university. 270 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 263-271 appendix table 1 code-mixed words that depict socio-cultural contexts based on baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) contextual areas in the holy woman novel baumgardner, kennedy, and shamim’s (1993) contextual areas code-mixed words that depict socio-cultural contexts 1) celebration chaleesema (78), eid (90), bano’s veiling ceremony (138), nikka wedding ceremony (155), sehrabandi ceremony (465), baraat party (469), the doli (471). 2) concepts good kismet (25), (50), (60), (71), (100), (102), woman izzat (27), our izzat (37), (75), (134), a handani (40), our shahzadi ibadat (62),(67), (68), (85), (136), (137), (138), (172), (287), kala jadoo (73), a taweez (75), the izzat (112), the kismet (173), his izzat (416), (416), that chural (211), her taweez (218), (249), kismet (250), nobody’s izzat (416), a shahzadi ibadat (446), her izzat (473), pakeeza woman (349). 3) clothing chador firmly (33), silk chador (33), the chador (34), (144), her chador (37), chadors and shawls (14), kashmeri chador shalwar kameeze suits (140), night shirt kurta (160), my dupatta (182), kameze dress (187), her burqa (203), (240), (243), holy burqa (245), black burqa (289), (440), blue shangai (415), trousseau packed (430). 4) kinship terms baji jan (16), (142), baba jee (32), aba jan (33), (44), (320), (475), (196), jee (106), (114), (135), (161). 5) mode of reference habib shahib (19), sikander sahib (20), (39), (40), second chaudrani (25), sahiba jee (32), (315) (104), sahib jee (181), baba jee (209), (211), (429), kaniz shahiba (419), (420). 6) marriage/divorce the rishta (24), bano’s rishta (47), (47), (179), (290), suitable rishta (92), (104), (323), one rishta (104), the mehndi (243), her jahez (139), jahez marquee (140), sister’s mehndi (247), with talaqs (320), wonderful rishta (413), salami presents (431), daughter rishta (424), nikkah ceremony (463), a doli (461),(461), new doli (462), the jahez (403), two tolas (462), bridal palanquin (472), my rishta (479). 7) names of places tanda adam (14), karachi (39), (35),(49), (51), (59), (126), (132), (133), chiragpur (58), (89), (138), (347), (26), india (89), in hyderabad (121), (181), pakistan (132), (141), (353), karachi airport (177), miser in egypt (184), in jeddah (190), (295), the al-kaba (295), of muzdalifah (295), in cairo (292), over minah (304), the safa-marwa (305), to sindh (352), kaula lumper city (450), 8) occupations zeminder’s wife (25), the dhoban (183), gentle zemindars (185), a malika (260), zemindar (25), (25). 9) religion gosh mashallah (16), bismillah, bismillah (32), oh allah pak (53), (130), (238), (240) (289), (290), isha prayers (65), (388), only ibadat (169), muezzin’s call (70), du’ah allah (70), jennat (71), further ajar (81), the holy quran (88), (138), (156), a holy woman (85),(88), (120), white minaret (89), ibadat (154), imam (155), purdah (166), (166), our shariah (173), insha’allah (176), (429), (476), a (366), amin yes (388), tawez-amulets (402), married allhumdullah (429), in hijab (431), a ghairmerd (364), (364), (364), (366), (437), the imam (437), in mafi (468), amin (475), holy zam-zam (486). 10) salutations bade salaam (20), (211), assalam-o-alikum mother (29), (270), assalam-o-alikum (33), (182), (197), (203), (363), (418), wa-alikumsalam (33), (170), (418). 11) social gatherings mela mela (20), (40), (49), (132), in eid-uladha (297), the mela (440), (486), the baraat (469). 12) terms of gratification mubarak (155), (157), (300) (429) (474), allah hafiz (387), (404), (429) khuda hafiz (176), (293). 13) adjectives/ adverbials ghustys (27), palangs (33), karachities (50), with talaqs (360). 271representation of pakistani culture.... (khan muhammad zawar, et al.) table 2 regionalized english characteristics in the holy woman by qaisra shahraz linguistic features example 1) greetings salam (20, 121, 211); salaam (295); khuda hafiz or allah hafiz (176,293, 387, 404, 429). 2) vocatives shush (102); barra; oh allah pak (130, 136,248); gunahgar (178). 3) morphological innovation of native words (adjective/plural/ formation) ghusty (27), palangs (33); talaqs (47, 179, 290, 320); rishtas (92,104,111,323); karachites (50); chadors and shawls (56); parathas (72); merlas (104); paisas (115); zeminders (116,185); izzat’s (134); shahzadi ibadats (138); buzergs (153); drums (158); bibis (190); hajjis (295); tolas (462); madrassas (484). 4) telescoped words/sentences lahoriwoman (30); washerwoman’s (92); own madrassas (154); milkwoman’s (183); whatsoever (206). 5) capitalized words in the pronince of sindh (11); chaudrani kaniz (24); baba sirag din fatima hired tanga (253); during eid-ul-fitr (265); ruby, ruby (308,309); the doli (471); kawar and his baraat (478); zarri bano’s eyes (485). *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 75 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 75-81 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7761 form, function, and meaning of bebasan: the orality of the samin in bojonegoro ismatul khasanah1*; sri endah tabiati2; khilmi mauliddian3 1-3department of languages and literature, faculty of cultural studies, universitas brawijaya jl. veteran malang, jawa timur 65145, indonesia 1ismatulkh@ub.ac.id; 2tabiati@ub.ac.id; 3khilmi.mauliddian@ub.ac.id received: 05th october 2021/revised: 14th march 2022/accepted: 16th march 2022 how to cite: khasanah, i., tabiati, s. e., & mauliddian, k. (2022). form, function, and meaning of bebasan: the orality of the samin in bojonegoro. lingua cultura, 16(1), 75-81. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7761 abstract the research aimed to describe the form, function, and meaning of bebasan as a cultural orality spoken by the samin in bojonegoro. the samin community was a community group residing in bojonegoro, east java. aside from their distinguished language, the samin was also well-known for its unique orality called bebasan, representing its culture and society. it was deemed significant to document this national tradition as a form of expression spoken based on the habits and behaviours of the samin community. in a society that upheld the culture of oral traditions, the samin community had placed bebasan as one of the rules of life that they subconsciously needed to obey. the research employed folklore theory in order to explore and observe the meaning of bebasan as a part of traditional folklore. folkore was inseparable from the conditions of society and the culture that encompassed it, so it was necessary to comprehend and give meaning to the folklore. a descriptive qualitative method was applied in the research. data was obtained by recording and documenting the orality spoken within the samin community. the results reveal that there are six forms of bebasan which include directives and teachings on how to conduct oneself well in life. it is also observed that bebasan functions as a medium for advice, reminders, and teachings of life, all ingrained in the samin community. keywords: bebasan form, bebasan function, bebasan meaning, bebasan orality, samin community introduction folklore is always profoundly interconnected with the culture. it represents the entirety of the story that is a collective tradition of a society or a nation extensively, which has been extensively delivered using both oral and gesture forms, a continuous tradition from generation to generation. it is also generally believed that every oral tradition contains values of local cultures that need to be thoughtfully understood, studied, and utilized as a way of life (susena & budiyono, 2021). as one of the most widespread historical sources, oral traditions or oralities record the traditions and practices of the local community prior to their ability to write, which have been deeply ingrained with culture, customs, beliefs, values, and lifelong experiences. folklore itself is a local identity deep-rooted in the life of a traditional society. the sense of belonging to certain traditions which have been entrenched and become historical values induces the emotions of its members to be unified and integrated. the sense of shared fate and struggle are established prior to the local identity which has long been born. the samin community is a community group residing in two provinces of java, blora, central java, and bojonegoro, east java. like most javanese descendants, the samin people are also a part of the javanese community (hidayati, herman, & retno, 2018). this community has long existed since 1859, extensively spreading to the north coast of central java, but most of its members are now dominantly residing in blora and bojonegoro. the meaning of samin itself is sami-sami angin, or ‘together in doing good deeds, and are determined to expel invaders to establish peace’. even in the past, the colonizers labelled them as irreligious, old-fashioned, poor, and dissident figures, and these stereotypes have 76 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 75-81 remained up until now (wibawa & syafiq, 2021). in fact, samin actually also means that when someone is speaking, he/she must be as honest and genuine, and not do inappropriate things and must be in accordance with the actual circumstances (feriandi, malihah, & maftuh, 2020). the reason underlying it is that samin’s teachings believe in the law of karma; therefore, they are not encouraged to do disgraceful actions for the sake of their community (rosyid, 2020b). this social and spiritual movement is initiated by samin raden surowijoyo. their residence is in the depth of a forest, where they intentionally seclude themselves from the local governmental laws with a single goal to preserve their traditions and teachings of life, which are different from society in general. they preserve and maintain their traditions from generation to generation rigorously and strongly oppose the materialism and capitalism adopted by the government. because they are determined to maintain their values and traditions, it can be said that the samin community has been left behind by other javanese communities. however, they are actually able to preserve the noble tradition as a characteristic of indonesian culture and heritage despite their struggle to keep up pace with others (pinasti & lestari, 2018). for example, the characteristics of behavioral traditions maintained to this day in the samin community are sambatan (mutual cooperation) and being mutually helpful to each other (rosidin, 2016). other than that, when it comes to clothing, they often wear ‘iket’ or a piece of black cloth with a typical batik painting where they circle it around their forehead (prayudi, susilo, & prastiwi, 2016). saminism was initially brought up by samin soerosentiko and included sedulur sikep, popular teaching which encourages opposition against the dutch as their form of resistance outside the violent acts (setyaningrum, 2018). this form involves refusing to pay taxes, as well as rejecting all the regulations and laws made by the colonial government (nurdin & adzkiya’, 2021). then, over time, these teachings trigger an emotional attachment which eventually forms a particular social identity (rahmawati, 2018). ultimately, the beliefs held by the samin community make it part of the many religions on earth, which are born from the philosophy handed down by its leaders from generation to generation (nurmala & rusmawati, 2020). the samin has their own language, which is slightly different from the javanese language in general. more often than that, other communities are faced with obstacles when they want to interact with the samin, which emerges the differences in values with the surrounding communities (fauzia & kahija, 2019). one of the outcomes of this dissimilarity is the well-known oral tradition, or orality, which takes the form of tales representing their tradition and culture. samin’s folklores are culturally thought-provoking for sociolinguists to observe and learn, as this tradition becomes an inherent part of the community’s unique characteristic and has always been preserved from generation to generation (liani, fadilla, & danugroho, 2021). so far, pieces of research concerning samin’s orality only revolve around the cultural level. for this reason, the researcher is interested in observing this unique language phenomenon as an effort to document the distinguished orality of the archipelago, especially in the east java province. cultural identity, especially for the javanese descendants, is items of intelligence as well as genuine wisdom created and passed down by the javanese people across generations (mojo, hadi, & purnaweni, 2017). this makes the creation of folklores inseparable from the tradition and culture they represent, and it is significant to explore and define these folklores in question. especially if the culture is not adhered to, its authenticity will fade over time (nasution, 2017). one of the forms of the local cultures is an orality which develops amidst the community, namely bebasan. sawitri et al. (2019) have stated that bebasan is a collection of expressive utterances which have a high value containing good or bad messages to motivate people and are filled with wisdom in the form of beautiful parables. the samin’s bebasan also signals imagery. this tradition has long existed in the samin society and has taken the form of utterances representing the behaviors of the samin themselves. typically, bebasan is used as the samin’s life compass; thus, it concomitantly possesses a certain meaning for them to be passed down verbally (oral utterances, unwritten) to the next generation (rosyid, 2020a). therefore, to thoroughly examine this orality, the researcher would like to dig deeper into the function as well as the meaning of bebasan as an orality spoken by the samin. following the background of the research, the problem that arises can be formulated: how is the form, function, and meaning of bebasan spoken by the samin in bojonegoro? as for the purpose, the research intends to describe the form, function, and meaning of bebasan spoken by the samin in bojonegoro. it is hoped that the findings from this thought-provoking analysis will result in a novel phenomenon which has previously not been observed by other researchers before. jepang is one of the hamlets in margomulyo with an area of approximately 74.733 hectares where the samin resides. the daily life of a samin typically involves farming, and most of the villagers are farmers. in 2015, the institute of geography and statistics (bps) calculated that the population of jepang amounts to 787 people, consisting of 404 men and 383 women. in this particular hamlet, the well-known samin residents are led by mbah hardjo kardi, a faithful follower of saminism as well as the elder of the samin community in jepang. the samin community is currently divided into two groups, the inner and outer samin. those who belong to the outer group can be considered to have blended into ordinary society. meanwhile, its inner counterpart is a group of direct descendants of the samin community (danugroho, 2020). moreover, referring to rosyid and kushidayati’s (2020) research, 77form, function, and meaning .... (ismatul khasanah, et al.) it is revealed that the samin community is divided into two in their daily lives. one of them is accustomed to modernization, and the other is still firmly defending their old ways and authentic identity. in general, the livelihoods of the locals in jepang can be identified in several sectors, namely agriculture, services/trade, industry, and others. to support their daily lives, most jepang residents rely on raising livestock. this habit is supported by the abundance of grass fields as one of the natural resources. another large-scale resource is firewood, as the hamlet itself is surrounded by a sizeable forest. however, although the members of this village have slowly been transforming from traditional to modern life, they still uphold the teachings or traditions of saminism (hanifah, 2019). folklore includes various cultural products such as tales, stories, saga, legends, traditions, songs, rites, literature, arts, and traditional clothing (danandjaja, 1986). the development of folklore prioritizes the oral route. from time to time, folklores are either innovative or rarely changed. as folklore is anonymous, a person or individual is not entitled to monopolize ownership rights. generally speaking, folklore is a preserved tradition by the supporting locals voluntarily and enthusiastically without any necessary coercion to obtain a peaceful life. in its literal definition, folklore can be separated into two words, ‘folk’ means a group of people with the same ideology and culture that can be distinguished from other groups, and ‘lore’ means custom or culture (endraswara, 2013). in other words, folklore is a part of civilization that is traditionally inherited across generations and collectively with different means of oral, gestures, or aids as commemorations of previous traditions. therefore, folklore has a significant role in the life of a community and inattentively becomes the guiding principle passed down continuously across generations regardless of one’s social status. folklore can be divided into three types: oral folklore, partial oral folklore, and non-verbal folklore (danandjaja, 1986). oral folklore is a type of folklore which is purely oral. the forms include (a) folk speech such as accent, nicknames, traditional ranks, and titles of nobility; (b) traditional expressions, such as proverbs, adages, and bywords; (c) traditional riddles such as puzzles; (d) folk poetry such as pantun, gurindam, and poetry; (e) folk prose, such as myths, legends, and fairy tales; and (f) folk songs. partial oral folklore is a mixture of oral and non-verbal elements. it takes forms of beliefs, folk games, folk theatre, folk dance, customs, ceremonies, festivities, and others. non-verbal folklore is not orally delivered, but the process of making one is taught orally. there are two forms of this folklore, namely material and non-material. material non-verbal folklores include folk architecture, handicrafts, traditional food and beverages, as well as traditional medicines. on the other hand, the non-material ones include traditional gestures, sound signals for communication, and folk music. from this overview, the scope of folklore includes tales, stories, saga, legends, traditions, songs, rites, literature, arts, and traditional clothing. the development of folklore prioritizes the oral route. from time to time, folklores are either innovative or rarely changed. as folklore is anonymous, a person or individuals are not entitled to monopolize the ownership’s rights. generally speaking, folklore is a preserved tradition by supporting locals voluntarily and enthusiastically without any necessary coercion. many oralities are carried out initially from discussions on oral traditions using a historiographical point of view. orality is a tradition related to the habits or customs of using spoken language in conveying daily experiences from one person to another. it is also a message or testimony passed down orally across generations to come. oralities as parts of traditions are interconnected with a certain society’s habits and customs, using a distinguished oral language in communicating their daily experiences from one person to another. it can be concluded that the term oral tradition, or orality, is synonymous with oral folklore (endraswara, 2013). the samin can be considered as one of the ethnic groups in indonesia from their various traditions and cultures to their distinguishing characteristics, as previously described by barth. as a result, the central java provincial government has recognized the samin as one of the ethnic groups in central java out of the four existing groups residing in the same province. research on the samin community in bojonegoro has been carried out extensively by other researchers. the first research on the local cultures of the samin, mantra, is conducted by rizal (2015). the research itself is categorized as qualitative as it produces descriptive data in the form of written discourse. as the outcome, the religiosity value of the samin community in jepang within the mantra can be observed in the form of a request for help from the samin to god almighty to subdue the prohibition of cases in the life of the samin in jepang. javanese cultural values are employed in the research, as these values are the noble values of javanese culture or ethnicity. the values are divided into javanese religious values, philosophical values, ethical values, and aesthetic values. the second research is conducted by hidayati and shofwani (2019), which indicates that there is a form of defense through the socialization in the form of ngangsu kaweruh samin, or the kange yune samin festival, which is held annually in the sura month and the tradition of the sura ceremony in accordance with the islamic values. the third research is conducted by rusmawati, khasanah, and khilmi (2021). they conclude that there are three macapat songs about samin’s teachings. the songs are dandang gula, pangkur, and pucung. as for their respective values, it is described that dandang gula holds the rules for maintaining the behaviour of fellow humans and nature, pangkur is about marriage and family relationships, and pucung guides humans 78 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 75-81 on how to live properly on earth. the research uses the same research subjects as the preceding studies; however, the focus of the research is different, as this focuses on samin’s orality, bebasan. in other words, the research aims to investigate the form, function, and meaning of bebasan as an orality treasured by the samin community in bojonegoro. methods a descriptive qualitative method is applied in the research to comprehend what the research subject is experiencing holistically and is described in a specific natural context by utilizing various scientific methods (hartanto, 2019). the main objective of descriptive research is to solve the issue within the phenomenon systematically and factually based on the existing data (yanti, antosa, & adiputra, 2020). for this reason, the research presents data, analyzes, and lastly, interprets it. the method of data collection employed for the research is fieldwork to archive or document the phenomenon at hand. there are approximately three stages that an on-site researcher has to go through if he/ she wants to be successful in his/her endeavours. onsite pre-research stage, before starting the research, that is, going to a place or area where a researcher wants to conduct the research, he/she must first make a research design. the design should at least contain some basic information, including the form of the folklore and how to collect the information and the data. in the research, bebasan is the chosen form of folklore, or orality, while the data is collected through interviews. while the on-site research stage, upon arriving at the research site, a researcher must build a close relationship as soon as possible, as a harmonious relationship built based on mutual trust with the objects of research or the informants will help the research progress smoothly, especially when collecting the data. in the research, the researcher threads a close relationship with the members of the samin community in bojonegoro. lastly, in the interview and documentation stage, the form of the interview is either directed or indirect. indirect interviews are usually more relaxed and offer the informant the maximum opportunity to provide information regarding a phenomenon. the research gives their informants, the leaders and members of the samin community, chances to provide information as many as possible regarding bebasan whilst recording their responses. results and discussions the samin residing in bojonegoro as an ethnic community upholds the tradition of oralities and places it as one of their ideology and rules of life, which is subconsciously conformed to. this can be observed from the wise words and phrases uttered by the research objects, which contain many teachings related to everyday life. in conveying the main points of the teachings to the followers, the elder or the leader of the samin uses lectures (sesorah) at home or in the field. from these lectures, what have been conveyed becomes important teachings which are always repeated orally by the successors and followers to obey. these are what ultimately emerged as oralities in the form of bebasan ingrained in the life of the samin. more often than not, bebasan is always uttered by the elder, mbah harjo kardi. bebasan always comes directly from his utterances. it has to be noted that mbah harjo kardi is the current elder or leader of the samin in bojonegoro; thus, all the sources of bebasan in this research come directly from the person himself. as for the locals, when asked to be the reliable informants, they always refer to mbah harjo kardi. based on the recorded data, bebasan can be grouped into six forms (see tables 1 to 6). in analyzing bebasan, the process of translating the whole language is carried out first, then interpreting the meaning of bebasan, and last but not least, analyzing the form, function, and meaning of bebasan according to the sentence structure or the unity of the sentence. the analysis of the recorded bebasan as the research results and discussion is described in these explanations. table 1 form 1 (bebasan in the form of advices) a. urip kudu sabar lan trokal (patience and striving for the best are significant virtues of life) b. ampun ngantos iri, drengki, lan srei marang liyan (never be jealous, envious, and suspicious of others) c. urip ampun ngantos riyo sapada (never fulfill your life with arrogance towards others) d. ampun pek pinepek, kutil jumput, bedhog, nyolong (never take, steal/corrupt, rob, or run off with someone’s property) table 1 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 1 (advice). a complete translation of bebasan form 1, “patience and striving for the best are significant virtues of life. never be jealous, envious, and suspicious of others. never fulfil your life with arrogance towards others. never take, steal/corrupt, rob, or run off with someone’s property.” the form of this bebasan is oral utterances, and although separated, the original speech is unified on purpose. the complete paragraph is an expression of advice for the followers not to commit disgraceful acts that can harm others. the function of the previous bebasan is as a reminder and advice that in living their life with other people, one should not be arrogant and/or take others’ property which does not belong to him because it can be considered a detrimental act towards other people. considering its form, this bebasan can be evaluated 79form, function, and meaning .... (ismatul khasanah, et al.) as an oral principle which has to be adhered to in the samin community. this bebasan has a distinctive meaning, which warns its followers to not keep a sense of pride in themselves. moreover, they are reminded that taking others’ belongings can be regarded as stealing, even when scattered on the street. therefore, it is forbidden to take others’ things as it is not one’s right to possess them. table 2 form 2 (bebasan in the form of prohibitions) bebasan aja drengki, srei, tukar padu, dahpe kemeren, aja kuntil jumphut, bedhog nyolong (never bother others, never fight, be jealous, and steal other people’s belongings, for they are not your rights to take) table 2 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 2 (prohibitions). this form of bebasan is delivered orally and in the form of prohibitions by mentioning several examples of disgraceful behaviours that its followers are not allowed to carry out. the function of this bebasan can be regarded as declarative, which includes advice and rules for any social interaction in the samin community. this bebasan warns its followers that there are rules which must be adhered to and ones which must not be violated. the meaning of this bebasan is to encourage its followers not to disturb others’ peace, as it can also mean that he has done disgraceful acts which will eventually damage the relationships between the people. moreover, this bebasan also urges its followers not to run off with others’ property which does not belong to them, as it will also damage fellow human relationships. table 3 form 3 (bebasan in the form of meaning and purpose of life) bebasan wong urip kudu ngerti uripe, urip siji digowo selawase (one has to understand his life, for life equals to his soul and there is only one soul for everyone forever) table 3 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 3 (meaning and purpose of life). this bebasan takes form in oral utterances as an expression of the meaning and purpose of life. the function of this bebasan is as a direction or a reminder of the principles of life, as the content of this bebasan has a valuable advice about the purpose of life. upon receiving this bebasan, its followers are expected to know the purpose of their lives to lead them to a clear path. this bebasan is a part of noble teachings about human life. in living their life, humans must know the purpose of their life. as they only live once, it is important to know which direction they will walk to achieve their goals so that they will not be carried away by measly purposes and disgraceful acts. this bebasan has a similar context to living with good or bad deeds. if life is filled with good deeds, then the person’s path will be illuminated with the light emanating from his good deeds as the rewards. on the other hand, if life is filled with bad deeds, then the punishment or torment of hell will await him later on. table 4 form 4 (bebasan in the form of stories about death) bebasan a. wong enom mati uripe titip seng urip (for every young man who dies, his life will be carried out by those who live.) b. bayi uda nangis ‘nger..’ niku sukma ketemu raga. (the crying of a baby means that his soul just met his body.) c. mulane wong niku mboten mati, nek ninggal sandhangan. (at the end, a person is not dead, he just strips his clothes away.) d. kedah sabar lan trokol seng diarah turune. (one must fill himself with patience and attempts for good deeds for his generations to inherit.) e. ora mati nanging kumpul seng urip. (one is not dead but is gathering with those who live.) f. apik wong selawase sepisan, dadi wong selawase dadi wong. (a person’s good deed is once and forever, but he is forever a human.) table 4 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 4 (stories about death). a complete translation of the bebasan is, “for every young man who dies, his life will be carried out by those who live. the crying of a baby means that his soul just met his body. in the end, a person is not dead; he just strips his clothes away. one must fill himself with patience and attempt for good deeds for his generations to inherit. one is not dead but is gathering with those who live. once a person performs a good deed, he is forever a good person.” this bebasan takes the form of oral utterances in the expression of stories about death. each sentence unites as a single paragraph of a complete bebasan. the main functions of this bebasan are as advice and teachings on life. the advice refers to the infinite cycle of life and death and its meaning. at the core of this bebasan, a message is conveyed to every human that they, in essence, never die but only strip their bodies and their spirits are with those who are still alive. moreover, this bebasan also advises those alive to prioritize good acts and behaviours because if they are instilled deep in life, they can become an advantageous trait that can be looked upon across generations forever, for their children and grandchildren to come. this bebasan means that every living thing does not actually experience death since they only 80 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 75-81 leave their bodies away like one strips their clothes. the spirit of the dead is never lost or wanders away but lives with the living. if the person is known for their good deeds, they will forever be remembered as a good man. table 5 form 5 (bebasan in the form of parable of human’s characteristic) bebasan pangucap saka lima bundhelane ana pitu,lan pangucap saka sanga bundhelane ana pitu (an utterance begins with five ends with seven, and an utterance begins with nine ends with seven) table 5 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 5 (parable of human characteristics). the context translation of this bebasan is, “a man should be cautious with what they want to say because it may begin with a specific issue but ends with another issue, unrelated as it may.” this particular bebasan takes form as an oral utterance in the form of a parable of human characteristics. the function of this bebasan is to lead its followers to have a good speech, manners, and etiquette when interacting with others. essentially, a man must maintain their speech so that the words coming out of their mouth would not offend or hurt the feelings of others. the meaning of this bebasan lies in the advice that a man must prevent the words coming out of his mouth from hurting others as humans are naturally selfish creature and wants to win against others. the symbol of odd numbers five, seven, and nine means that humans want to be different from others. or generally speaking, they tend to dominate each other, which leads them to subconsciously hurt other people’s feelings with their utterances. table 6 form 6 (bebasan in the form of human’s speech acts) bebasan sukma ngawula raga, raga ngawula suara (a soul follows its body, and the body follows its voice) table 6 shows the form, function, and meaning of bebasan form 6 (human speech acts). context translation of this bebasan is, “the soul of a human belongs to its body, while the body follows his voices or utterances.” this particular bebasan takes form as an oral utterance in the form of human speech acts. the function of this bebasan is one of the principles in leading any social interactions. all utterances coming out of someone’s mouth surely have consequences if they are not maintained by the speaker. thus, to prevent harming others in the process, one must be careful with what they want to say, not to cause something unwanted in the end. the meaning of this bebasan is that the soul of a human can be nurtured since it belongs to a body. on the other hand, a human’s outer appearance, his body, can look good or bad depending on his utterances and voice. if the utterances are bound to be virtuous, both the soul and body will also be of high quality. however, if the utterances are disgraceful and bound to hurt others, then the soul and body will both be tainted. conclusions bebasan spoken by the samin residing in bojonegoro is an oral tradition or orality heavily ingrained with life’s principles and teachings. the research observes that there are six forms of bebasan which serve as teachings or guidelines of life for the samin, namely: form of (1) advice, (2) prohibitions, (3) meaning and purpose of life, (4) stories about death, (5) parable of human’s characteristic, and (6) human’s speech acts. these forms contain the how-to of life and guide its followers to adhere to the principles if they want to lead a high-quality life. bebasan also functions as advice, reminders, as well as guidelines to live a virtuous life which are voluntarily adhered to by its followers. regarding its contribution to the samin community, the research wants to eagerly introduce and serve as a reminder of the existence of samin’s teachings to the general community where they are already accustomed to forgetting the value of their heritage, which should be implemented and integrated with the foundation of indonesia’s existence as a community, a people, and a nation. the discussions reveal that bebasan contains many virtues of life. however, for future research, more efforts are necessary to dig deeper into what lies behind the existence of bebasan itself. in particular, future research must explore the historical background of the emergence of bebasan to examine the possible connection with the origin of bebasan in the form of orality. furthermore, the research of function and meaning must be supplemented with contexts to provide a clear and objective analysis of bebasan as a unique 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(evert h. hilman) the translation of indonesian cultural lexicons in the novel saman evert h. hilman english literature study program, faculty of letters, nasional university jln. sawo manila no. 61, pejaten, pasar minggu, jakarta selatan 12520 evhilman@yahoo.com abstract article was aimed to explore and identity the manners used by the translator in translating the indonesian cultural lexicon in the novel saman into english, and to find out which manners that contained the least semantic shifts concerning the problems of meaning related to cultural differences. method applied was descriptive qualitative research by collecting and analyzing both the indonesian and english versions of the novel. the samples were classified by newmark four categories: loan words, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, and addition. it can be concluded that there are only seven manners found from the collected data but only four manners used in the analysis, they are loan word, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, and addition. keywords: indonesian cultural lexicons, translation, cultural words abstrak artikel bertujuan mengamati dan mengidentifikasi cara yang digunakan penerjemah untuk menerjemahkan leksikon budaya indonesia yang terdapat dalam novel saman ke dalam bahasa inggris dan untuk mengetahui pergeseran semantik yang terjadi karena cara yang digunakan oleh penerjemah dalam menerjemahkan kata-kata budaya itu. penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dengan mengumpulkan dan menganalisis novel yang berbahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia. analisis dilakukan berdasarkan empat kategori newmark. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa hanya ada tujuh cara yang ditemukan dari data yang terkumpul namun hanya empat yang dipakai di dalam analisis, yaitu kata serapan, padanan budaya, padanan fungsional, dan tambahan. kata kunci: leksikon budaya indonesia, penerjemahan, kata-kata budaya 68 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 introduction language does contain all kinds of cultural deposits, in the grammar (genders of inanimate nouns), forms of address as well as the lexis (“the sun sets”) which are not taken into account of in universal either in consciousness or translation. further, the more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (flora and fauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, therefore it creates translation problems. language is an aspect that it cannot be separated from the culture. language reflects the culture in a place and form a pattern of thought and the way of life. (newmark, 1988) culture is a challenge for a translator in translating a text. a translator should have profound knowledge of cultures in both languages in order to convey the message from the source language (sl) and translate it to the target language (tl). moreover, a translator must also be able to find an appropriate equivalent to the message or information contained in the source language. in the translation process, translation fails or untranslatability may still occur. concerning untranslatability, catford in bassnett (2002) distinguishes two types of untranslatability, which he terms as linguistic and cultural. on the linguistic level, untranslatability occurs where there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the tl for an sl item, whereas cultural untranslatability occurs due to the absence in the tl culture of a relevant situational feature for the sl text. the translation of words is frequently closely related to cultural language context which is sometimes not easily transfered into a different language. most cultural words, however, are easy to detect since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated. however, many cultural customs are described in ordinary language where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent (newmark, 1988). nida in newmark (1988) categorised foreign cultural words in the narrow sense with the following typical examples: (1) ecology, such as: flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills: honeysuckle, downs, sirocco, rundra, pampas, tabuleiros (low plateau), plateau, selva (tropical rain forest), savanna, paddy field. (2) material culture (artefacts), such as: food: zabaglione, sake, kaiserschmarre; clothes: anorak, kanga (africa), sarong (south seas), dhoti (india); houses and towns: kampong, bourg, bourgade, chalet, low-rise, tower; transport: bike, rickshaw, moulton, cabriolett, tilbury, caliche. (3) social culture work and leisure, such as ajaki amah, condotttere, biwa, sithar, raga, reggae, rock. (4) organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts, such as: political and administrative; religious: dharma, karma, temple and artistic. (5) gestures and habits such as: cock a snook and spitting. even-zohar’s (1978) proposition that “cultures translate according to need seems self-evident today, but in its time it was an extremely important statement, for the implications of his theory of cultural change were enormous”. he suggested: “the historical situation would determine the quantity and type of translations that might be undertaken and the status of those translations would be greater or lesser according to the position of the receiving culture. so, a work could be fundamentally important in the source culture and it could be then translated and have no impact at all in the receiving culture or, vice versa, a translation could alter the shape of the receiving literary system.” in the 1970s, translation was seen as vital to the interaction between cultures. this statement means if translation is vital to the interaction between cultures, why not take the next step and study translation, not just to train translators, but precisely to study cultural interaction. (bassnett & lefevere, 1998) the apparent division between cultural and linguistic approaches to translation that characterized much translation research until the 1980s is disappearing. it is partly because of shifts in linguistics that have seen a discipline takes more overtly cultural turn since those who advocated an approach to translation rooted in cultural history have become less defensive about their position. nevertheless, despite the diversity of methods and approaches, one common feature of much of the research in translation studies is an emphasis on cultural aspects of translation, on the contexts within which translation occurs. (bassnett, 2002) every message is wrapped in a complex of implications, dispositions, and predispositions, all required for the sufficiency of the message; even such a simple translation from il neige to “it’s snowing” demands, minimally, the use of an encyclopedia of culture in lieu of a lexicon. (w. b. frawley, 1984) a natural translation involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon. the lexical structure of the source message is less readily adjusted to the semantic requirements of the receptor language. instead of obvious rules to be followed, there are numerous alternative possibilities. there are in general three lexical levels to be considered: (1) terms for which there are readily available parallels, e.g. river, tree, stone, knife, etc. (2) terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, e.g. book, which in english means an object with pages bound together into a unit, but which, in new testament times, meant a long parchment or papyrus rolled up in the form of a scroll; and (3) terms which identify cultural specialties, e.g.synagogue, homer, ephah, cherubim, and jubilee, to cite only a few from the bible. (nida & taber, 2003) looking into the above statements from different theorists, the study was meant to explore and identify the manners used by the translator in translating the indonesian cultural lexicons in the novel saman into english and to find out which manners that contain the least semantic shifts concerning the problems of meaning related to cultural differences. the cultural setting in saman, a fictional novel that presents and enlivens indonesian’s literature in the late 90’s, tells about the life of a young clergyman named saman who should disrob his ministry and became a fugitive activist to help the villagers oppressed by the state through its military apparatus. the setting took several places, such as new york where the story began when a girl named laila planned to meet a 69the translation of indonesian….. (evert h. hilman) man who had an affair with her. the setting moves to south china sea, the place where laila met her boyfriend sihar for the first time. it then moved to matak island, perabumulih, palembang, south sumatra, a moribund rubber plantation where saman’s figure is introduced as a rename from the previous one wisanggeni. matak island becomes a main place in the story and from those settings, a number of cultural lexicons was identified. it is not easy to translate a cultural term for it is related to an identity or a characteristic of a country. in translating a cultural term, the translator must really understand the cultures of both the sl and the tl. the translator will face some problems in translating cultural terms if he/she is not knowledgeable about the cultures of both languages. the translation of the indonesian cultural lexicons in the english version of the novel saman is limited to the following aspects: (1) ecology: flora and fauna, such as cucakrawa (fauna) and daun sirih (flora); (2) material culture (artefacts): food, houses, clothes, such as cangik (artefact), abon (food), rumah adat toba (houses), cawat (clothes); (3) organisations: political, religious and artistic, such as raden ayu (political), sembahyang (religious), barong-barong (artistic); (4) social culture: work and leisure, such as dukun (work) and adu biji karet (leisure). methods descriptive qualitative method was utilized in the research. according to sandelowski and barroso (2007), qualitative descriptive research should be seen as a categorical, as opposed to a non-categorical, alternative for inquiry, it is less interpretive than an interpretive description approach because it does not require the researcher to move as far from or into the data and does not require a conceptual or highly abstract rendering of the data, compared to other qualitative designs. regarding the use of sampling in a qualitative descriptive design, virtually any purposive sampling technique may be used. in order to apply the purposive sampling method, the data were collected and analyzed and both the indonesian and english versions of the novel were read. all cultural lexicons found were highlighted and noted then divided into four different aspects based on newmark (1988) as stated above before finally the translation of indonesian cultural lexicons was written. the samples were classified into four categories based on the manners used in translating them as stated by newmark: (1) loan word, (2) cultural equivalent, (3) functional equivalent, (4) addition. the component of meaning analysis technique was utilized to: (1) analyze the meaning of both lexicons – the sl and the tl lexicons; (2) determine and isolate the common component (cc) from the analysis of the sl and the tl lexicons meaning; (3) determine and isolate the diagnostic component (dc) from the analysis of the sl and the tl lexicons meaning; (4) arrange those components in parallel column under each meaning and mark the similiarities (+) and the differences (–); (5) determine the manners in which a translator could find an equivalent expression in the receptor language with the least semantic shift; and note the shifts between the meaning in sl and tl based on their semantic features. results and discussion there were seven manners used in translating the cultural lexicons in the novel saman and those are loan word, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, addition, synonymy, shift/transposition and modulation. however, among the seven manners, only first four manners were used in the data analysis. loan word transference/loan word is the proses of transferring an sl word to a tl text as a translation procedure. this translation technique is commonly called borrowing. newmark calls this technique as transference. this technique is usually applied if there is no equivalent of the certain word or it is applied to appreciate the sl word/ term. it is done simply by using a loan word from the sl and putting it into the tl. generally only cultural object or concept that should be transfered (newmark, 1988). the following are examples of the data related to this category: example 1 sl: “...juga merawat keris dan barang-barang kuno dengan khidmat.” tl: “...also revered the keris and other sacred heirlooms.” source language (sl) keris: n. senjata tajam bersarung, berujung tajam, dan bermata dua (bilahnya ada yang lurus,ada yang berkeluk-keluk). source language (sl) keris: a wavy-bladed ceremonial dagger (a weapon and a cult object said to have magic powers). semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a weapon diagnostic component (dc): sl: -magic powers tl: + magic powers table 1 referential meaning (rm)—loan word 1 70 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 from the analysis above the definition about cangik is listed clearly in the tl from the dictionary. however, it is better to replace the word “clown” with “puppet”. this statement is strengthened with the meaning of puppet: kb. 1. golek, wayang (shadily & echols, 2003). based on newmark (1988), the translation procedure above can be categorized into a transference or a loan word. translator only borrowed or used the same word in the tl. it was an inaccurate translation because it made the reader confused about the meaning. the translator should add note in the end of page to make the reader understand what it meant. based on the cultural categories proposed by newmark (1988), this is part of the material culture: artefact. the ideology used in this cultural term is a foreignization; it tends to retain the original form with the purpose of giving an extensive knowledge about foreign culture and considering it gives a benefit for the society the analysis of the component above, both the sl and the tl lexicons use common and diagnostic components. nevertheless, the meaning of the sl lexicon is translated correctly into the tl. based on newmark (1988), the translation procedure above can be categorized into a transference or a loan word. translator only borrowed or used the same word in the tl when there is no equivalent of the certain word or it is applied to appreciate the sl word/term. it is inaccurate translation because it makes the reader confused about the meaning. the translator should add note in the end of page to make the reader understand what it meant. based on the cultural categories proposed by newmark (1988), this is part of the material culture: artefact. the ideology used in this cultural term is a foreignization; it tends to retain the original form with the purpose of giving an extensive knowledge about foreign culture and considering it gives a benefit for the society (hoed, 2006). as a conclusion, there is no semantic shift in this translation. example 2 sl: “kali ini aku adalah cangik yang suaranya yang klemak-klemek seperti kulit ketiaknya yang lembek.” tl: “other times i’m cangik, whose slow, sluggish voice somehow seems to suit the flabby skin around her armpits.” table 2 referential meaning (rm)—loan word 2 source language (sl) target language (tl) cangik adalah tokoh dalam dunia perwayangan yang bertugas sebagai pengasuh putri kerajaan. cangik (jv) the name of a clown, the maidservant to a princess in the wayang. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + maidservant + figure of wayang diagnostic component (dc): sl: -a clown tl: + a clown (hoed, 2006). as a conclusion, there is no semantic shift in this translation except the difference in it spesification. cultural equivalent this is a translation technique applied to find the equivalence of the cultural terms. newmark (1988) states that this is an approximate translation where a sl cultural word is translated by a tl cultural word. the following are examples of the data related to this category: example 3 sl: “ketika bawahannya menawarkan diri mencarikan dukun, ia cuma berucap terima kasih.” tl: “when his employees offered to find a medicine man for him, he just politely declined.” table 3 referential meaning (rm)—cultural equivalent 1 source language (sl) dukun, n orang yang pekerjaannya mengobati; memberi jampi-jampi (mantra, guna-guna, dsb). dukun (jv) 1. traditional healer, medicine man; 2. spiritual counselor. target language (tl) medicine man: n, a person who is believed to have special magic powers of healing, especially among native american. medicine man: dukun. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a person with magic powers + healer diagnostic component (dc): 71the translation of indonesian….. (evert h. hilman) text as if it is not the translation but the original text. the right, acceptable, and good translation is the translation which is appropriate with the culture of the sl readers (hoed, 2006). as a conclusion, there is no semantic shift in this translation. example 4 sl: “keduanya mulai dengan menggali jugangan untuk kakus kira-kira sedalam satu setengah meter...” tl: “they began by digging a meter and a half deep trench for1 the toilet...” there is no diagnostic component found meaning that the tl lexicon correctly explained the meaning of the sl lexicon. the translation procedure above can be categorized into a cultural equivalent (newmark, 1988). this is an approximate translation where an sl cultural word is translated into a tl cultural word. the translator tried to find the equivalence of the cultural terms. based on the cultural categories proposed, this belongs to the social culture: work (newmark, 1988). the ideology used in this cultural term is domestication. it focuses on the target language. it occurs if the readers read the translation as their own language or they read the table 4 referential meaning (rm)—cultural equivalent 2 source language (sl) kakus, n. jamban; tempat buang air (besar). kakus, n. jamban, kamar kecil, toilet. target language (tl) toilet, n. a large bowl attached to a pipe that you sit on or stand over when you get rid of waste matter from your body. toilet, kb. kamar kecil, wc, kloset. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a place + to urinate + to defecate diagnostic component (dc): sl: + usually made of bamboo tl: usually made of bamboo the tl word “toilet” is not a good translation of the sl word kakus because it is different although they retain the same function. kakus is usually made of bamboo like a jamban in indonesia. however, this is acceptable to translate kakus into “toilet” because they have the same function, and the reader can imagine and understand what it is for. newmark (1988) categorized the translation procedure above into a cultural equivalent. this is an approximate translation where a sl cultural word is translated by a tl cultural word. the translator tried to find the equivalence of the cultural terms. based on the cultural categories proposed by newmark (1988), this is included in the material culture: houses. the ideology used in this cultural term is domestication. it focuses on the target language. it occurs if the readers read the translation as their own language or they read the text as if it is not the translation but the original text. the right, acceptable, and good translation is the translation which is appropriate with the culture of the sl readers (hoed, 2006). the conclusion is there is no semantic shift in this translation except the difference in it spesification. example 5 sl: “kami penuh dalam diri masing-masing, tidak mengisi satu sama lain, apalagi melengkapi upacara penyambutan tamu-tamu sultan atau turis keraton.” tl: “we’re quite self-sufficient, the music and i, we don’t feel the need to complement each other and we definitely don’t want to be called upon to perform for the sultan or the tourist visiting the palace.” table 5 referential meaning (rm)—cultural equivalent 3 source language (sl) keraton n rumah besar dan bagus tempat tinggal raja; istana raja. keraton (jv) royal palace; court; the sultan’s residence. target language (tl) palace: 1. the official home of a king, queen, president, etc. palace: istana. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a royal palace diagnostic component (dc): 72 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 there is no diagnostic component found meaning that the tl lexicon correctly explains the meaning of the sl lexicon. the translation procedure above can be categorized into a cultural equivalent (newmark, 1988). this is an approximate translation where an sl cultural word is translated into a tl cultural word. the translator tried to find the equivalence of the cultural terms. based on the cultural categories proposed, this is included in the material culture: houses (newmark, 1988). the ideology used in this cultural term is domestication. it focuses on the target language. it occurs if the readers read the translation as their own language or they read the text as if it is not the translation but the original text. the right, acceptable, and good translation is the translation which is appropriate with the culture of the sl readers (hoed, 2006). as a conclusion there is no semantic shift in this translation. functional equivalent this technique is used when the sl cultural word has no tl equivalent. this common procedure that applied to cultural words requires the use of a culture free word, sometimes with a new spesific term. therefore, it neutralises or generalises the sl word. this technique is the most accurate way of translating a cultural word (newmark, 1988). the following are examples of the data related to this category: example 6 sl: “ketika kecil sampai remaja ia biasa sembahyang dan pembagian lima waktu menetap dalam kesadarannya seperti jam matahari.” tl: “as a girl she used to perform the five daily prayers, a marking of time by attitude of the sun.” table 6 referential meaning (rm)—functional equivalent 1 source language (sl) sembahyang, n. ibadah, doa, ekaristi, kebaktian, misa, sakramen, salat. salat, n. isl 1. rukun islam kedua, berupa ibadah kepada allah swt; 2. doa kepada allah swt. sembahyang: a cannonical, ritual prayer. target language (tl) *mentioned in tl prayer, n. 1. words which you say to god giving thanks or asking for help; 2. a fixed form of words that you can say when you speak to god; 3. the act or habit of praying. prayer, kb. doa; sembahyang semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + ritual prayer + habit of praying diagnostic component (dc): both the sl and the tl lexicon own the same feature, the sl lexicon sembahyang is appropriately translated in the tl by the translator. based on newmark (1988), the translation procedure above can be categorized into a functional equivalent. the translator requires the use of a culture free word, sometimes with a new spesific term. therefore, it neutralises or generalises the sl word. based on the cultural categories proposed by newmark (1988), this belongs to the organisations aspect: religious. the conclusion is there is no semantic shift in this translation. example 7 sl: “mereka membawa seorang dokter muda dari puskesmas.” tl: “a young doctor from the local clinic accompanied them.” table 7 referential meaning (rm)—functional equivalent 2 source language (sl) puskesmas: akr, pusat kesehatan masyarakat; poliklinik di tingkat kecamatan tempat rakyat menerima pelayanan kesehatan dan penyuluhan mengenai kesehatan. puskesmas: (pusat kesehatan masyarakat) local government clinic. target language (tl) clinic: n, a building or part of a hospital where people can go for special medical treatment or advice. clinic: kb, balai pengobatan. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a place + to give medical treatment and advice diagnostic component (dc): sl: + local government tl: local government 73the translation of indonesian….. (evert h. hilman) the common components above are not clear enough to explain the meaning of puskesmas. the feature “local government” which is the main feature in the sl word puskesmas is not listed in the tl word. so, the tl word “clinic” cannot convey the meaning of the sl word puskesmas. the translation procedure above can be categorized into a functional equivalent (newmark, 1988). the translator requires the use of a culture free word, sometimes with a new spesific term. therefore, it neutralises or generalises the sl word. based on the cultural categories proposed by newmark (1988), this belongs to the organisations aspect: political. as a conclusion, there is no semantic shift in this translation except the difference in it spesification. additional information in several ways; within the text, notes at bottom of page, notes at end of chapter, notes or glossary at end of book. based on the cultural categories, this belongs to the aspect of ecology: fauna (newmark, 1988). the conclusion is there is no semantic shift in this translation except the difference in it spesification. example 9 sl: “tapi ia pucat bagai cicak, yang tak hidup di kota ini.” tl: “but, she’s also as pale as a cicak lizard. (we don’t have them here in newyork).” addition this technique is commonly used by using additional information. it is usually applied in culturalbased translation (newmark, 1988). additional information in translation may take various forms: (1) within the text, (2) notes at bottom of pages, (3) notes at end of chapter, (4) notes or glossary at end of book. the following are examples of the data related to this category: example 8 sl: “hiburan menegangkan lain adalah lutung atau siamang yang mendadak turundari pepohonan.” tl: “the other sources of entertainment were the lutung, the long-tailed monkeys, and the gibbons, that would suddenly leap from the trees.” table 8 referential meaning (rm)—addition 1 source language (sl) lutung, n. kera hitam berekor panjang. lutung: a black long-haired and longtailed monkey. target language (tl) *mentioned in tl semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + a long-tailed monkey diagnostic component (dc): sl: + black long-haired tl: black long-haired the common component “a long-tailed monkey” is not clear enough to explain the real meaning of the sl word lutung. it is because the tl word missed a feature “black long-haired” which actually appears as a diagnostic component. the lack of that feature can lead to confusion of the reader. the translator should give a complete explanation about lutung to make the reader understand the differences between lutung and other types of monkeys so that the reader can imagine what lutung looks like. newmark (1988) categorized the translation procedure above into an addition. the translator gives an table 9 referential meaning (rm)—addition 2 source language (sl) cecak/cicak, n. binatang merayap, biasa hidup di rumah (pada langitlangit dekat lampu), makanannya binatang-binatang kecil (seperti nyamuk, laron). target language (tl) *mentioned in tl lizard, n. a small reptile with a rough skin, four short legs and a long tail. semantic analysis (sa) common component (cc): + an animal + a reptile diagnostic component (dc): sl: + originally from indonesia tl: originally from indonesia 74 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 though the explanation in the tl is not spesific in describing what cicak is, the feature “animal” and “reptile” help to explain that cicak is a kind of reptile eventhough it is not clear enough to describe the real meaning of the sl word cicak because the tl word missed a feature from the sl word that is originally from indonesia. based on newmark (1988), the translation procedure above can categorized into an addition. the translator gives an additional information in several ways; within the text, notes at the bottom of page, notes at end of chapter, notes or glossary at end of book. based on the cultural categories proposed, this belongs to the aspect of ecology: fauna (newmark, 1988). as a conclusion, there is no semantic shift in this translation. conclusion the manners of translating cultural lexicons which included the least semantic shift were in the category of addition in which there was no semantic shift identified. the additional information that was provided by the translator helped the reader to understand the indonesian culture contained in the lexicons. it also gave foreign readers knowledge about some indonesian ethnics. in addition, the manners having the most semantic shift were in the category of functional equivalent comprising semantic shifts. these semantic shifts occured when the translator made an effort to give an incomplete definition and generalised the sl lexicons. these manners had the highest possibility to the semantic shift and led to the error translating if the translator were lacking in comprehensive knowledge and high imagination. translating cultural terms needs cultural lexicons understanding in order to transfer the meaning and the message from the sl into the tl, so that it would not lead to confusion. the manners above provided a good solution in translating cultural lexicons. translator, who rendered cultural terms, should carefully consider which manners that must be chosen in order to get the closest translation. having a good comprehension and broad knowledge in the sl and tl cultures is important before doing the task, besides the use of dictionaries, encyclopedia, and other references. references bassnett, s. (2002). translation studies (3rd ed.). london & new york: routledge. bassnett, s., & lefevere, a. (1998). constructing cultures: essays on literary translation. clevedon: multilingual matters. even-zohar, i. (1978). the function of the literary polysystem in the history of literature. in b. hrushovski & i. even-zohar (eds.), papers in historical poetics (pp. 11–13). tel aviv: the porter institute for poetics and semiotics. retrieved from http://www.tau.ac.il/~itamarez/works/books/evenzohar_1978--papers in historical poetics.pdf frawley, w. b. (1984). prolegomenon to a theory of translation. in w. frawley (ed.), translation: literary, linguistic and philosophical perspectives (pp. 159–175). london: associated university press. hoed, b. h. (2006). penerjemahan dan kebudayaan. jakarta: dunia pustaka jaya. newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. london: prentice hall. nida, e. a., & taber, c. r. (2003). the theory and practice of translation. leiden: brill. sandelowski, m., & barroso, j. (2007). handbook for synthesising qualitative research. new york: springer. shadily, h., & echols, j. m. (2003). kamus inggris indonesia. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 121 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 121-127 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6403 the relationship between metacognitive awareness and receptive skills of university students ayu marsela erda* applied linguistics department, state university of yogyakarta jl. colombo yogyakarta no.1, caturtunggal, sleman, d. i. yogyakarta 55281, indonesia ayumarsela23@gmail.com received: 23rd april 2020/revised: 26th june 2020/accepted: 03rd august 2020 how to cite: erda, a. m. (2020). the relationship between metacognitive awareness and receptive skills of university students. lingua cultura, 14(1), 121-127. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6403 abstract the research investigated the influence of metacognitive awareness on receptive skills in higher education students. moreover, participants’ level of metacognitive awareness was also taken into account. the research utilized a survey in the form of metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire (malq) and metacognitive awareness reading strategy inventory (marsi) and test of listening and reading comprehension to collect the data and multiple regression to analyze it. the participants were 59 english educational students in the first semester of a public university in yogyakarta. the finding shows there is a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on receptive skills. however, there is the only significant influence of metacognitive awareness on reading skills. in contrast, there is no significant influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. most of the students are categorized at a high level of metacognitive awareness in listening and reading. however, they have relatively poor scores in the d and e categories for both listening and reading comprehension tests. the only skill which has a significant influence on metacognitive awareness is reading skills. therefore, the findings show that there is no significant influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. however, there is a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on reading skills. further research needs to be conducted to reveal the different influences between reading and listening skills related to metacognitive awareness, as found in the research. keywords: metacognitive awareness, receptive skills, malq, marsi, higher education introduction english has a significant role as a global and international language, worldwide as well as in indonesia (nelson, proshina, & davis, 2020). it means that most indonesian depends on english as a language to run their business and develop themselves, such as academic and professional (renandya, hamied, & joko, 2018). there are numerous educational institutions and companies which require the students and employees to have a particular score or level of english proficiency skill. they need to fulfill the requirement related to english mastery to be accepted to the institution. this is a strong motive in learning english (jurado & garcia, 2018). moreover, indonesian’s social aspect is also influenced by the use of english, as could be seen on social media participation; therefore, the need to master english is inevitable. english proficiency skills consist of listening, reading, speaking, and writing. according to slabakova (2016), those skills are separated into two domains of receptive skill and productive skills. receptive skills are listening and reading, while productive skills are speaking and writing. both domains need to be mastered in the process of second language learning. however, receptive skills are highly used since they are widely administered in various language proficiency tests. learning english or any other language involves many factors, which could be simplified as factors of linguistics and non-linguistic, metalinguistic (roehrbrackin, 2018), and metacognitive awareness (kallio, virta, & kallio, 2018). however, the research is more focused on investigating the impact and role of metacognitive awareness in english mastery, particularly for listening and reading comprehension in higher education, which will be explained in section. the research aims to find out and describe the effect of metacognitive awareness in listening and reading comprehension in higher education. therefore, the present research aims to figure out the effect of metacognitive awareness on students’ english proficiency in listening and reading comprehension in higher education. it also aims to figure out the level 122 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 121-127 of english as a foreign language (efl) students’ metacognitive awareness in listening and reading skills. metalinguistic and metacognitive awareness are the essential aspect of second language acquisition, as well as overall mental processing. those awareness have an artificial role, particularly the process of completing the tasks and reflect the result for improvement. the term metacognition refers to people’s consciousness of how to react to events or situations, which involve their internal cognitive competence after periods of experience in the same situations (roehr-brackin, 2018). furthermore, metacognitive awareness is the capacity that allows people to decide, plan, organize, and monitor their learning in order to perform better either for their activities, tasks, or tests. in addition, slabakova (2016) has defined metacognitive awareness as the ability to view the entire experience in learning as a process. it involves the ability to determine the strengths and weaknesses during learning and how to face future learning activities and monitor the whole learning process. therefore, metacognitive awareness is the term to point out an individual’s perceived understanding or consciousness. as in the learning context, it is the understanding of the reason to learn the learning objective, the way to achieve the objective, and the suitable strategy after the reflection process for improvement in future tasks, courses, and any other performances. metacognitive awareness is an inevitable aspect in learning and improvement for a better learning result after the end of the learning process (alazzemy & al-jamal, 2019; azmuddin, mohdnor, & hamat, 2017; balıkcıoglu & efe, 2016; feiz, 2016; freeman, karayanidis, & chalmers, 2017; oz, 2016; zhussupova & kazbekova, 2016). this ability is compatible to support the learners in higher education since the need for independent learning, problemsolving, monitoring, and self-evaluating are important at that level (devika & singh, 2019). moreover, those mentioned capacities also significantly contribute to primary education (connor et al., 2019). moreover, metacognitive awareness is related to the capacity to correct the error and evaluate the learning process that has been done. this is outstanding, but not every learner owns it. besides, linguistic knowledge will be well-supported by knowledge and cognition regulation, which predict the self-evaluating ability as an autonomous strategy. it is a significant impact since the best learners could decide what the prospective and suitable strategies, and they could combine those strategies to achieve their goals (öztürk, 2019). in other words, metacognitive awareness will be beneficial for the learners’ learning achievement, and it applies to a higher educational level as well. there is the other benefit of metacognitive awareness related to writing ability. according to wang & han (2017), extensive reading contributes to enhancing writing ability; writers will get the benefit from dedicating time for reading. the better writers are, the more reading learners. the learners who have metacognitive awareness realize what should be done to perform well in their activities. therefore, they understand through the evaluation of their previous performances. the learners will be well-adapted to write if they read a large number of writing products. furthermore, the writers who have limited knowledge regarding language features and how to use it will be stuck during their writing process. it shows that the writing source could be provided by the writing, which they have to read in preparing writing the product. this is predictable since both skills are under the term of literacy skills as the ability to navigate semiotically through the world. it means that every encountered object is all read and understood (roehr-brackin, 2018; slabakova, 2016). besides, comprehension or competence provides knowledge and capacity for performance; in this case, receptive skills support productive skills. therefore, reading writing products promotes linguistic features on those pieces for comprehension. furthermore, it is also beneficial for producing writing. reading skills, as well as listening skills, are not only beneficial to enrich information through comprehending text but also support improvement in writing and speaking skills. however, the research trend is more focused on studying which methods, strategies, or even designs for improving learners’ abilities without considering their capacities to synchronize the entire words and the thinking quality. they have kept on their minds to make a product base on their understanding of language. it is an insufficient path to produce better language learners or even learners in any field since all expertise needs to enlarge the information to support their field of work through either listening or reading as receptive skills. it is well-said that the ability to make meaning and understand appropriately is a must for any study discipline so that the need to master it is an urgency. despite that, the ability to understand the strengths and weaknesses of learners is a crucial capability in order to determine suitable strategies in learning (öztürk, 2019) that is well-supported by metacognitive awareness (al-azzemy & aljamal, 2019; oz, 2016; zhussupova & kazbekova, 2016). moreover, metalinguistic awareness provides learners with how to objectify and reflect on language. knowledge accessing, parsing, decoding, and mental processing (cognitive) are included in the process of comprehension of listening and reading. as both skills determine and support the build of prior knowledge and understanding, those are positioned as prerequisites for productive skills. therefore, awareness in language learning facilitates learners to be more effective in processing input and enrich their knowledge to produce language. in reference to these statements, the researcher is interested in studying the contribution of metacognitive awareness on students’ english language proficiency in higher education, particularly for listening and reading skills. metacognitive awareness promotes 123the relationship between metacognitive .... (ayu marsela erda) the ability to reflect on the language and the learning process. those support the individuals’ independence in deciding the direction of learning to achieve the objective by releasing their own strengths and weaknesses to choose the suitable learning strategies. besides, the pre-toefl result of students shows low scores in receptive skills; on that matter, metacognitive awareness helps students expand their capacity in both factors of linguistics and non-linguistics. besides, receptive skills are considered as the highest priority activities in academic competence. in response to that, the researcher decides that english proficiency skills, which will be assessed in the research, are the receptive skills. the research’s novelty is related to the involvement of non-linguistic factors in english proficiency skills (receptive skills). therefore, the research will focus on the role and how metacognitive awareness influences the level of english receptive skills in higher education. higher education setting is involved with superior reading level and interpretation of spoken language (listening). superior reading level infers to the ability to comprehend the content and social relation in a text by involving the higher mental process to access existing knowledge (slabakova, 2016). moreover, critical reading or resisting is a term to explain the backlash or question on readers’ minds related to the text, which differs from people’s assumptions (roehr-brackin, 2018). in other words, the background assumptions are used to identify what assumptions that the speakers or writers tend to express in utterances or texts. it provides the reason to accept or reject those assumptions. the mental process is essential for higher education students if they are intended to have great literacy competence. kallio, virta, and kallio (2018) have defined mental processes as the activity of probing mental reactions from the text, such as thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, while the readers are less focused on the actions of the materials in the text. as for roehr-brackin (2018), it is in line with reading as a process of decision-making, problemsolving, analysis, and evaluating (cognition process), which involves the quality of thinking. the quality of thinking could be supported by metacognitive awareness. for further results, it will impact the learning autonomy since learners are comfortable to decide the suitable strategies for learning. in this case, learner autonomy creates autonomous individuals who can think independently and act responsibly. in a narrow view, autonomy enables learners to learn how they should learn by providing them with tools for better learning on their own and training them to use appropriate strategies for realizing their learning objectives. as for öztürk (2019), the most successful students are the one who learns through a greater variety of strategies and uses those appropriately for the language learning task. therefore, metacognitive use will create autonomous learners who could reflect upon their learning independently, which supports the improvement of thinking quality as the required capacity in higher education. thinking quality is not only beneficial for reading but also for listening as those are part of receptive skills. therefore, the best aim of higher education is to prepare the students to have their independent capacity to decide what a suitable way of learning and how they could handle any tasks given. if the students are well-prepared in these ways, they will have the ability to face society, and it will not be hard to filter information in this era of technology and out-spoken public. receptive skills are not only crucial in broadening students’ capacities for aptitude objective; beyond that, it is also a process of learning and education (slabakova, 2016). moreover, developing receptive skills is not easy since the process of thinking and prior knowledge is involved in it. it requires prior knowledge of vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic, pragmatic, and discourse structure (al-azzemy & al-jamal, 2019; zhussupova & kazbekova, 2016). it means that receptive skills involve a complex process involving mastery of grammar, rhetorical device, concept, and judgemental element. people must have a certain level of knowledge to be able to comprehend appropriately. therefore, it is no wonder if the english learners, english as a second language (esl) or efl students, find it hard to comprehend and achieve high scores in receptive skills. the explanation shows that higher education students require the ability to think independently about the learning process and reflect on the result. furthermore, every student of various fields in higher education also needs to pass the test of receptive skills (listening and reading) for the study’s entrance and completion. those could be achieved by having metalinguistic and metacognitive awareness that promotes thinking quality and reflects learning improvement. rabia (2019) has studied metacognitive in bilinguals that investigates differences between balanced, dominant, limited bilinguals, and monolinguals in metacognitive linguistic skills for english reading comprehension. it is found out how the degree or level of bilingual contributes to metacognitive linguistic skills. the research has studied three domains of planning, monitoring, and evaluating in four groups of participants (30 seventhgrade students in each group) complete a metacognitive reading strategies questionnaire. it aims at measuring their metacognitive awareness in each domain after fulfilling a reading comprehension task in english. data is analyzed using a multivariate analysis of variance (manova) to test the differences within and between groups. findings show that students’ level of metacognitive reading awareness is affected by the degree of bilingualism. in addition, the previous study by yeganeh (2013) has used the metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire (malq) to collect the data. the result indicates that the overall level of metacognitive 124 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 121-127 listening awareness among both monolingual and bilingual students is satisfactory. it is in line with the other studies showing that iranian students have high metacognitive awareness in general; in listening strategies, vocabulary, and reading skills. moreover, students are more aware of problem-solving strategies than other strategies types. furthermore, bilingual students show higher awareness in planning and evaluation and mental translation components, but higher planning and evaluation instead of personal knowledge. this also reveals that bilingual iranian students are more aware of strategies that should be avoided to become skilled listeners. besides, they know how to prepare themselves for listening and evaluating the results of their listening efforts. methods the participants of the research are approximately 59 university students of english education major in yogyakarta. surveys and tests are used to study the variables comprehensively. the survey is divided into the metacognitive awareness listening questionnaire (malq) and metacognitive awareness reading strategy inventory (marsi). meanwhile, the test is in the form of listening and reading comprehension. the research procedures are; first, the participants are asked to fill the questionnaire and inventory (survey). second, the participants are asked to complete the listening and reading comprehension tests. the instruments applied are surveys and tests (quantitative) in order to study the problem thoroughly. test in the form of listening and reading comprehension is applied to collect participants’ scores. moreover, malq and marsi are used to survey to determine participants’ level of metacognitive awareness both in each listening and reading skills. the research uses multiple regression as the technique of analyzing quantitative data. it is used to measure the differences between two or more independent variables and a dependent variable (creswell & creswell, 2017). those steps will be used to analyze the qualitative data collection. therefore, multiple regression is a technique to analyze quantitative data. results and discussions table 1 shows the significant effect of metacognitive awareness is only occurred on reading skills, as indicated by the significance value of 0,005, which is lower than 0,05. meanwhile, the significance value of metacognitive awareness in the listening level is 0,074, which is higher than 0,05, so that there is no significant effect of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. this indicates a strong correlation between learners’ metacognitive awareness level and their performances in academic activities. besides, as shown in table 2, most of the participants are categorized at a high level of metacognitive awareness in listening. however, it is not matched with their listening scores, as shown in table 1. nevertheless, their reading scores are in line with their level of metacognitive awareness, as shown in table 1 and table 2. therefore, it is found that there is no influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills; however, it shows a significant influence on reading skills. table 1 regression analysis result unstandardized coefficients t sig. b std. error constant 85,011 15,475 5,493 0,000 ma listening level -6,515 3,582 -1,819 0,074 constant 17,183 13,724 1,252 0,216 ma reading level 11,424 3,867 2,954 0,005 table 2 frequency of scores in listening and reading and levels of metacognitive awareness in listening and reading component frequency percentage (%) ma in listening high 42 71,2 middle 16 27,1 low 1 1,7 listening score a 4 6,8 a2 3,4 b+ 2 3,4 b 6 10,2 b10 16,9 c+ 5 8,5 c 8 13,6 d 11 18,6 e 11 18,6 ma in reading high 32 54,2 middle 23 39,0 low 4 6,8 reading score a 1 1,7 a3 5,1 b+ 5 8,5 b 4 6,8 b10 16,9 c+ 2 3,4 c 12 20,3 d 15 25,4 e 7 11,9 125the relationship between metacognitive .... (ayu marsela erda) in figure 1 and 2, most of the students are categorized in a high level of metacognitive awareness in listening (71%), and only 27% and 2% of the participants are in low and middle levels. however, it is not indicated by their listening scores, whereas categories d and e are both present at 19% as the highest percentage among other categories of scores in listening comprehension. despite that, as shown in figure 3 and 4, the metacognitive awareness level in the reading of the participants are in high level (54%), although its percentage was lower than ma level in listening (71%). moreover, although categories d and e as two higher score categories of reading have a higher percentage (25% and 12%) among other categories as the same as the listening score result, it is found that metacognitive awareness level in reading has a significant influence on reading scores. therefore, the findings show there is no significant influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. however, there is a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on reading skills. consequently, with the previous research related to the topic, metacognitive awareness holds an important contribution to learners’ performance. however, the current research only shows a significant influence on reading skills, as studied by zhussupova and kazbekova (2016); meanwhile, listening skills are not influenced by such a degree as studied by (al-azzemy & al-jamal, 2019), instead of linguistic aspect has more contribution on it. the explanation of that could be related to the position of english as a foreign language in indonesia, where its usage is limited. although some indonesians are aware of the importance of english as demand for them to apply for a job and continue their academic career as well as participate in social networking; unfortunately, some of them are only focused on passive skills such as reading but sidelined the requirement of mastering active skill as such listening. moreover, the participants’ lack of exposure to reading products and other forms of information could have been led to the incorrect assumption in the mind of the topics during the listening test. people who could not share the same idea as the others who have experienced events and situations cannot imagine and react correctly to those events and situations, as suggested by roehr-brackin (2018). although the information to support people’s knowledge is not complicated to find, either through products containing information or real life, the participants are still struggling to acquire it. the participants have the problem of performing well and hold a high score since they have limited exposure to the topics. it is fair to say that the participants’ mental processes are not run properly and efficiently due to the failure of thinking back to decide the sufficient reaction on the topics during listening. it is because they have no existing knowledge related to the topics, which is in line with kallio, virta, & kallio (2018). therefore, the result could be figured out by considering such conditions. figure 1 metacognitive awareness level in listening figure 2 listening score in categories figure 3 metacognitive awareness level in reading 126 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 121-127 figure 4 reading score in categories conclusions the research aims to investigate the influence of metacognitive awareness on receptive skills (listening and reading) of the efl freshman university students in yogyakarta. learner’s perceptions towards the use of meta-cognitive processes while listening to a spoken text in english and how these learners listen to english texts in the classroom and also their way of facing reading activities and tasks are all considered for the result as those were formulated in the survey (malq and marsi). the researcher also uses the test of listening and reading comprehension to collect the data in order to find the influence of metacognitive awareness on each of the skills. it is concluded that there is a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on receptive skills. however, there is only a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on reading skills. in contrast, there is no significant influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. most of the students are categorized at a high level of metacognitive awareness in listening and reading. furthermore, they have relatively poor scores in d and e categories for both listening and reading comprehension tests. however, the only skill which has a significant influence on metacognitive awareness is reading skills. therefore, the findings show that there is no significant influence of metacognitive awareness on listening skills. however, there is a significant influence of metacognitive awareness on reading skills. this difference could indicate that listening skill is more complex than reading skill since it needs the ability to concentrate and synchronize the senses to recognize elements such as stress, intonation, phone, accent, and vice versa. reading relies more on knowledge and mental interpretation, which highlight its simplicity in comparison to listening skills. although knowledge of topics and information is useful for listening and reading skills, listening is relatively more complex than reading. many indonesians are not accustomed to the audible exposure of english in their daily and academic life. however, only some people are interested in english who will pursue and give their effort to have more english exposure. references al-azzemy, a. f. t., & al-jamal, d. a. h. 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(2016). metacognitive strategies as points in teaching reading comprehension. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 228, 593-600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2016.07.091. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 31 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 31-41 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6272 the relation of balinese efl learners’ prior learning experience and present proficiency putu ayu asty senja pratiwi* the graduate school of east asian studies, yamaguchi university 1677-1 yoshida, yamaguchi, japan senja.dananjaya@yahoo.com received: 18th february 2020/revised: 25th february 2020/accepted: 02nd march 2020 how to cite: pratiwi, p. a. a. s. (2020). the relation of balinese efl learners’ prior learning experience and present proficiency. lingua cultura, 14(1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6272 abstract the research tried to shed light on the relation of prior learning experience and motivation in shaping the learners’ proficiency. it investigated the importance of prior learning experience and the role of motivation in learning development. this needed to investigate further to find out how positive and negative prior learning experience with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determined the way the students, value their phase of learning, and the relation with their present proficiency. from the empirical study of the balinese efl learners, there were three types of learners based on the prior learning experience and the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. the first type consisted of the learners who had positive prior learning experience, had high intrinsic motivation, and gained high proficiency in their present study; the second type was those who had low intrinsic motivation but changed into high intrinsic motivation due to the extrinsic motivation; the third type was the learners who had negative prior learning experience, low intrinsic motivation, and resulted in low proficiency. in total, 15 students ranging from 19–23 years old (4 males and 11 females) voluntarily participated in the test and interview. through the in-depth interview, it is found that the positive prior learning experience and high intrinsic motivation motivate the students and lead them to higher proficiency. however, demotivation and a low level of proficiency can occur from the negative prior learning experience and low intrinsic motivation. keywords: balinese learners, prior learning experience, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, english proficiency introduction several studies reveal that some language students are more successful than others (day et al., 2018). some individuals appear to be endowed with higher abilities to succeed, whereas others seem to lack those abilities. the individual differences in language learning are caused by various factors such as a talent or gift to learn foreign languages, cultural and educational background, strategies in learning, prior learning experience, and motivation (alizadeh, 2016; day et al., 2018; genç, kuluşakli, & aydin, 2016; guerrero, 2015; liu & yu, 2019; moskovsky et al., 2016). however, how prior learning experience gives rise to such differences are yet to be thoroughly investigated. jain (2014) has found that prior learning is the skill and knowledge acquired from previous formal and informal learning experiences. it is the background knowledge that students have based on their life experience in the process of learning and gaining their knowledge in the settings of formal or non-formal education, such as learning autodidact (self-learning/ self-taught person) or learning with others’ help. according to öztürk & gürbüz (2016), the learners get the idea on how to learn a language, how they create their learning habits and learning aptitude based on their prior learning experience. prior learning experience affects students’ preferences toward the subjects that they have learned in their childhood, and this phase has a big, albeit unconscious, and impact on the continuation of learning (jain, 2014). it is necessary to understand each individual’s prior knowledge to personalize his/her future learning. in the research, a prior learning experience is taken as the learners’ previous learning experience that relates to how they obtain their skills and knowledge, their experience during their learning process, both 32 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 31-41 within and beyond the classroom, in a formal and informal setting. the prior learning experience is shaped by the learners themselves and other external factors that could motivate or demotivate the learners. this reflects in learners’ present performance and proficiency. the previous learning experiences, prior knowledge, and motivation are significant factors in the various learners’ performance and successful learners (kennedy et al., 2015; martinović, 2018). the term motivation has been investigated by researchers from various perspectives in the fields of tesol and psychology (dörnyei, 2005; gardner, 2005). motivation is the combination of a positive attitude, the enjoyment of the task and putting forward effort toward learning, desire to learn, and the engine that drives the system (gardner, 2005). takač & medve (2015) have found three elements of motivation; they are effort, desire, and attitudes towards learning the language. it originates from the learner visualization of himself/herself as an effective l2 speaker, from the learner’s environment that could evoke the social pressure for the learner, and from learning experiences (including the prior and present learning experience). motivation can be measured by the degree to which a goal-relevant object is positively evaluated, using either explicit measures (e.g., willingness, liking) or implicit measures (e.g., the evaluative task or test), and in terms of the level of performance. performance measures include accuracy, amount (i.e., how much has been done), and the highest level of achievement/ proficiency (touré-tillery & fishbach, 2014). dornyei (1994) has stated that the exact nature of the social and pragmatic dimensions of second language motivation is always dependent on who learns what languages where. integrating the gardnerian construct, dornyei (1994) has outlined components for l2 motivation and has added intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, intellectual curiosity, the attribution of past successes/failures, the need for achievement, self-confidence, and classroom goal structures. he has also mentioned various motivations related to situation-specific learning variables such as classroom events and tasks, classroom climate and group cohesion, course content and teaching materials, teacher feedback, and grades and rewards. the classification of l2 motivation by various researchers has been presented. first is by noels, clément, and pelletier (2001). they have presented about travel, friendship, knowledge, and instrumental motivation. second is by gardner (2005) that discusses integrative motivation (openness, desire to have the feeling of being integrated, and a part of the l2 community), and instrumental motivation (practical desire for the future such as having a better job). the third is by ryan and deci (2000) that discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. the intrinsic motivation consists of the learners’ joy of learning, their natural curiosity, and interest in learning. in contrast, the extrinsic motivation consists of the external reward and support or avoidance of punishment. the classification of these components overlaps in some areas. although they use different names, labels, and generalize or adapt the classifications of motivation, the researchers discuss similar concepts. for example, noels, clément, and pelletier’s (2001) motivation component can be divided into two simple components of intrinsic (to get knowledge) and extrinsic (to travel, to get friends and instrumental). while gardner (2005) integrative components can also be inserted into the intrinsic motivation that comes internally, and it may include the instrumental in its extrinsic components. the research adopts and defines motivation as one crucial aspect that comes from the learners’ prior learning experience, both internally and externally, that relates to the learners’ attitude towards reaching his/her goal. it can drive the action/behavior that can be seen in the learners’ performance and results in the learners’ proficiency. the assessment of the motivation includes both the implicit measure (in-depth interviews with the learners to find out their willingness to learn and how much they like it) and explicit measure (test to assess the students’ performance). the motivation elements in this research are divided into two concepts. they are intrinsic, which relate to the internal factors of the learners such as passion or willingness to learn english, and extrinsic, which are the external factors that surround the learners, such as parents or family situation, the school, and other people who influence their phase of learning). as the terms in the research have now been defined, the previous empirical studies that have been conducted on the interrelation of the prior learning experience, motivation, and proficiency are presented. according to gravoso, pasa, and mori (2002), prior learning experience shapes learners’ conceptions. it considers a significant factor in choosing a learning approach and can result in different learning outcomes. the prior learning experience is a factor that affects students’ learning difficulty. the difficulty stems from the lack of conversational skills because of english teaching and learning in asian countries such as indonesia, japan, and china. it is because these asian countries focus on grammar and reading skills in teacher-centered classrooms (schmidt, 2019; tresnawati & musthafa, 2016; uleanya, uleanya, & olayemi, 2019; yang & quadir, 2018). the investigations on indonesian learners’ attitudes in speaking and writing have found out that the consequences of the prior learning experience, which only focuses on grammar and lacked opportunities to speak english. it results in indonesian learners’ general reluctance and shyness to express themselves in front of people (indrianty, 2016; manurung, 2015; tresnawati & musthafa, 2016). in line with this, the english teaching pedagogy in japan, whose purpose is only to increase the learners’ test scores, is the reason for which teachers focus on memorization of vocabulary, grammar, listening, writing, and reading skills, rather than focusing on speaking skills (igawa, 2015; macwhinnie & mitchell, 2017; mitchell, 2017). 33the relation of balinese.... (putu ayu asty senja pratiwi) baek et al. (2015) have stated that both prior knowledge and intrinsic motivation affect students’ achievements. they also have found there are two groups of learners; those with low intrinsic motivation and higher prior knowledge that will have higher proficiency, and those with high intrinsic motivation but low prior knowledge that will have lower proficiency. these results suggest that no matter the intrinsic motivation of the learners, as long as they have high prior knowledge, they will gain high proficiency. however, the findings of such research are not enough to clarify the different characteristics and conditions of efl learners with diverse prior learning experiences. the previous research does not have the same conditions, such as the students’ background and their exposure to and urgency for speaking english in their social life and surroundings. the previous research also gives us little information on the relation between the efl learners’ prior learning experience and their motivation in learning, which are essential factors in determining their current proficiency. the purpose of the research is to shed light on the interrelation between learners’ prior learning experience, their motivation, and their proficiency in the english language, through a case study of balinese learners of english as a foreign language. due to the island’s dependency on the tourism industry, balinese people are required to speak english, and the importance of english education is higher than for other indonesian people. as a consequence, unlike indonesian efl learners who generally have a little prior learning experience in english, balinese efl learners are rich in the prior learning experience. the researcher suggests that the differences between these two groups of indonesian efl learners have derived from their different prior learning experiences. the researcher also suggests that the influences of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation that come from the prior learning experience of balinese efl learners, result in differences in learners’ proficiency and produces three types of foreign language learners. in order to tackle the question of how prior learning experience, intrinsic, and extrinsic motivation shape students’ current proficiency in english, the researcher conducts empirical research on balinese efl learners. the research is expected to raise the parents’, teachers’, and learners’ awareness that the previous learning experience, as well as motivation, are essential factors in the learners’ development. by knowing the importance of prior learning experience and motivation, the parents, teachers, and students can create a supportive, conducive, and enjoyable teaching and learning situation. it also maintains positive motivation in learning to gain a better proficiency of the learners. methods the approval to conduct the empirical research is obtained from an english department in a university in bali (pseudonym). after the students are informed that their participation in the research is completely voluntary and would not affect their grade in the courses, they sign the voluntary consent form. in total, 15 students ranging from 19–23 years old (4 males and 11 females) voluntarily participate in the test and interview. the research uses in depth-interviews (about 20-25 minutes long) for each student in which they are encouraged to recall and describe their prior english learning experience. the interviews are audio-recorded and transcribed. for the assessment of the students’ present proficiency, common european framework of reference (cefr) guidelines on writing and speaking (alderson, 2017; won, 2016) are adopted after some adjustments that are made to suit the balinese situation. the data collected is organized and classified through patterns, relationships, characteristics, and differences. it is linked to the existing theory and previous empirical studies to find out what is missing that can be found in the case of balinese efl learners. in terms of the prior learning experience, 13 students have learned english since elementary school, 8 students have taken an english course at a private institution, 6 students have traveled or studied abroad in english-speaking countries, 12 students have used english in their part-time jobs, and 13 students have contact with native english speakers. the participants reveal that in their previous learning experience, many life events have motivated and demotivated them in their learning process, which effectively shapes their current proficiency. results and discussions in the interview, the learners explore their feelings and experiences toward their prior learning. they have mentioned many factors in their prior learning that affects their motivation to learn, both internally and externally, and shapes their current proficiency. table 1 describes the prior learning experience of balinese efl learners based on indepth interviews. while table 2 presents the learners’ proficiency in two components of english skill. based on the interview, the prior learning experience and the motivation are stated as essential factors that shape the students’ proficiency. from the interview and the test, three types of learners are identified based on their prior learning experience. in the present research, group 1 is the learners who have positive/high intrinsic motivation. the learners in the first group like and are interested in english since they were children and keep learning due to their high intrinsic motivation, even when they encounter negative extrinsic motivation. the positive extrinsic motivation they had encourages these learners to continue studying. because of their prior learning experience and their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the first group reaches high proficiency. the second group is made up of learners who, 34 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 31-41 at the beginning of the study, dislike english and have been encouraged by their parents to study english when they were children. as a result, they have a bad prior learning experience and low or negative intrinsic motivation. however, their motivation changes to high intrinsic motivation due to their perceived need for english in the future. besides that, they feel more motivated to learn english as a result of this positive external motivation. the last group is made up of learners who have bad prior learning experience because they are discouraged by their parents’ insistence on them learning english. the negative intrinsic motivation of the learners has remained the same regardless of the positive or negative external motivation later in their lives. based on the interviews on the learners’ prior learning experience, they mention that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation affect their attitudes and shape their current proficiency. although the students’ recognition of the significance of english, different intrinsic and extrinsic motivations result in variations in their current proficiency levels. several aspects of balinese efl learners’ prior learning experiences are discovered in this research. the interviewees have a diverse prior learning experience. they either like or dislike english at the beginning. however, they all agree that english is important for their future and that mastering english could help them get a better paid and more prestigious job because bali’s economy heavily relies on the tourism industry. fifteen students have stated they feel more motivated to learn english because of the table 1 prior learning experience of the balinese efl learners group characteristic prior learning experiences group 1 positive prior learning experience; remain positive in the present; obtain high present proficiency like/interested in english (since childhood); have positive parents’ encouragement; have high intrinsic motivation; experience positive and negative extrinsic motivation; highly motivated learners. group 2 at first have negative prior learning experience; then change due to the extrinsic motivation; obtain low up to high present proficiency at first dislike/uninterested in english then changed into like english; have positive parents’ encouragement (the parents pushed them to study); at first have low intrinsic motivation (then change into high); experience positive and negative extrinsic motivation; become more motivated for the sake of future job. group 3 negative prior learning experience; remain negative in the present; have low present proficiency dislike english at their prior learning experience (remain to the present); feel discourage to the positive parents’ encouragement (the parents pushed them to study); from the very beginning had low intrinsic motivation (and remain up to present); experience negative extrinsic motivation; remain to dislike english and unmotivated. table 2 students’ present proficiency group participant speaking writing group 1 1_a b1 b1 1_b b1-b2 b1 1_c b1 b1 1_d b2-c1 b2 1_e b1 b2 1_f b1-b2 b1 1_g c1-c2 c1 1_h b1 b1 1_i b2-c1 b2 group 2 2_a b1-b2 b2 2_b b1 b1 2_c a1 b1 group 3 3_a a2 a2 3_b a1 a1 3_c a1 a1 35the relation of balinese.... (putu ayu asty senja pratiwi) importance of learning english for their future. some of the statements are transcribed. 3_a: “there are many benefits to speaking english. most of the job vacancies in bali require an employee who is fluent in english and international companies offer high salaries.” 1_f: “in bali the chance of getting a job is bigger if we speak english.” 1_i: “i like to learn english. it is interesting and important for my future. because bali is a tourism island, i want to work in tourism industry. becoming fluent in english means it is easier to get job and gives me a higher chance of having better work in the future.” these transcriptions demonstrate the students’ motivation to learn english because they like, and it can help them get a better job in bali. bali provides the majority of foreign exchange in the indonesian economy. ministry of tourism has stated that bali tourism destinations contribute us$ 3,8 billion in foreign exchange (antara & sumarniasih, 2017). this makes people realize the importance of english for interacting with foreigners, including native english speakers. the importance of english for learners’ future encourages and motivates them to learn. motivation is one of the most important factors in students’ education, and it can come either intrinsically or extrinsically. motivation and prior learning experiences are related in the ways described. students’ comments indicate that motivation can come intrinsically from the learners because they are willing to learn english for themselves. while extrinsically because english is the most important foreign language in bali, and those who can master english are able to have a better job and life. family, especially parents, plays a significant role in children’s development when learning english (mahuro & hungi, 2016; lara & saracostti, 2019; lehmann, 2018). based on the interviews, all three groups have their parents’ encouragement within their prior learning experience. however, learners in every group see it differently depending on their intrinsic motivation. when the students have high intrinsic motivation and obtain support from their family (especially their parents’ encouragement) as extrinsic motivation, the learners are more motivated to learn, as demonstrated in the transcripts. 1_i: “my sister and i were trained to speak in english since we were children so english is a common language for us. most of my family work in the tourism sector and i was motivated to learn english so i can work with my family.” 1_c: “when i was a kid my father taught me english. he gave me bilingual books and took me to gatherings with his foreigner friends.” 1_g: “when i was in kindergarten, i already learned english. my parents bought many english books and my tv programs are all in english. because i grew up with english, i found it to be interesting.” these cases show that the learners have the full support of their parents since they were children. from their prior learning experience, their internal motivation increases because of their passion for learning, and they have external support and motivation from their family. when children are passionate about learning english and obtain the parents’ encouragement, they become more enthusiastic. their prior learning experience will make them perform better and have higher proficiency in the future. the role of the family is an extrinsic motivation that has two sides, both positive and negative, in children’s learning phase. the parents’ encouragement to learn english can be seen as a positive motivation for the children. however, it can also serve to discourage those who have low intrinsic motivation. in this research, not all respondents have positive prior learning experiences from their families. the students who are pushed by their parents to study english without their willingness feels depressed by the parents’ encouragement, and it becomes something of a burden. that attitude and behavior remain this way until they grow older, and they will continue to dislike english because it is difficult to learn without any motivation. the data provide evidence that the negative intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of the children’s prior learning experience cause rejection and an unwillingness to study. 3_b: “i never like english since i was a kid. when i was child my parents pushed me to learn english. i didn’t know why but every time i want to learn english, i never have a good teacher. i always hate the teachers. either it was because i didn’t like the teacher or the subject. in university, my parents told me to choose the english department. with no basic intention or passion, i feel it’s very hard and stressful to study.” 3_c: “i learnt english because my parents told me and it was a compulsory subject that i should learn at school whether i like it or not. i didn’t have much passion towards english so i didn’t pay attention in class. actually, the english department was not my first choice, it was the it department, so now i don’t have any motivation to study.” in their prior learning experience, the language learning problem 3_b and 3_c faced stems from their lack of intrinsic motivation. because of the encouragement and pressure from their parents and schools, they are poorly motivated and lacked enthusiasm. they feel discouraged, stressed, and burdened to learn english. the negative intrinsic and 36 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 31-41 extrinsic motivation causes them to reject the idea of learning english. as mentioned before, the research finds three types of students based on their prior learning experiences and the aspects of their learning motivation or demotivation. the following data suggest that negative intrinsic motivation and positive extrinsic motivation from the students’ prior learning experiences result in positive changes in the students’ attitude. 2_c: “actually i didn’t like english when i was child. but i often accompanied my father who works as a tour guide when he’s working. he always says english can make our economy better, it’ll be easier to communicate with foreign tourists, and we’ll have a better job. so i tried to learn english and day by day i like it more.” in contrast to 3_b and 3_c, the case shown in 2_c is an example of a learner who at first has no interest in english. however, as time goes by, the perceived importance of english changes his attitude, and he learns it for the sake of his future job and life. due to the motivation he has and the reality he learns from his father, he starts to learn english and comes to like english. in the case of 2_c, his rejection of english as a child turns into acceptance and motivation to learn for the sake of the economy and a better job in the future. 1_i’s, 1_c’s, 1_g’s, and 2_c’s cases show that supportive parents make their children feel more motivated to learn. this is an excellent example of positive intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation during learners’ prior learning experience. in this research, the families try to provide positive support and motivation for their children. however, not all parents’ encouragement is seen as positive support by the learners. children with low or negative intrinsic motivation are more likely to exhibit delays in language learning at schools, such as 3 _b and 3_c. they perceive their parents’ support as a force to learn english, which can cause them to feel burdened and stressed. in these cases, unless the children themselves understand the importance of english for their future, the intrinsic and extrinsic feeling of learning english being involuntary causes them to dislike it even more. in shaping the learners’ prior learning experience, the role of the language teacher is crucial. the success of students in higher education comes from the individual students themselves (østerlie, løhre, & haugan, 2019). however, in lower levels of education, such as primary and secondary school, the success of education comes from many factors, such as the student, the teacher, the material, and the school facilities. soomro and almalki (2017) have stated that teachers can apply more than one method or strategy to maximize students’ proficiency in learning english. some of the methods effectively provide the children with positive motivation, as shown in these data. 1_h: “i started to like english in elementary school. the teachers were fun, they taught us through games, discussion, and conversation. i remember the teachers told us never hesitate to speak. they said by speaking we are learning through the mistakes we make. they also said if we don’t speak we will never know the mistakes we make and will never dare to try. they helped me and motivated me a lot.” 2_c: “i start to learn english when i was in the 4th grade of elementary school. my teacher was very kind, humble, and had a good method of teaching. i’m a typical of student who needs attention from the teacher in order to be interested and motivated to learn.” 1_g: “my primary and secondary schools were focused more on english learning. i had an english teacher who taught us using different methods, and it made me really interested in learning english. since then i became more motivated to learn.” in these cases, the teachers implement good teaching methods in order to make the learners feel comfortable and to encourage them to speak, deliver their thoughts, and express their ideas. the teachers also do not mind when the learners make a mistake because it means that the learners dare to overcome their hesitations. realizing the importance of communication in learning foreign languages, the teachers in the cases of 1_h, 2_c, and 1_g, provide good examples of building learners’ self-confidence and encouraging students to enjoy the learning process. from the prior learning experience, motivation can also come from the high scores that the teacher gives to the students. when students receive a high score, they feel more motivated. 1_g: “i always get good mark in english and it motivates me to learn more.” 1_f: “when i was in elementary school, my english teacher selected me to join an english competition. i started to be confident and since that time i have felt motivated to learn english.” for a highly motivated student like 1_g, the high score can stimulate her to achieve a higher level of motivation. 1_f’s teacher also raises her confidence by selecting her to join a competition. competition has a positive and negative effect (dimenichi & tricomi, 2015). for the highly motivated students, they enjoy competition because by receiving a high score, their motivation and self-confidence become higher. conversely, other students who lack proficiency and confidence will feel ashamed of getting low scores or losing in a competition. it makes their motivation and interest in english will decrease. this condition may cause students to feel stressed about competitions, and 37the relation of balinese.... (putu ayu asty senja pratiwi) fear being less competent than others or negatively evaluated compare to others. in contrast to the previous example, the data below presents the students’ negative prior learning experience that is caused by teachers and schools. 2_b: “when i was a primary school student, i once forgot to bring my homework, but my teacher did not permit me to get it. instead, she told me to leave the class. i was embarrassed and it was a very bad experience. because of her i hate english lesson, i became less motivated and i was lazy to go to her class.” 1_i: “my formal english education started in elementary school, but it was different from what i had learned from my family. at school, the english class was boring, only memorized grammar and vocabulary, and never practiced speaking or writing. the test was only grammar and i always got poor marks. i hated english at school but i love english at home when i am talking with my family.” every experience will be remembered until learners become older, and it affects learners’ attitudes throughout their long-life learning experience. 2_b’s experience proves that prior learning experience can have positive and/or negative effects on learning. teachers’ role is crucial in the early phase of learning in terms of giving a positive or negative influence on the learners and the learning process (fenyvesi, 2018). in that case, the negative influence is so strong that 2_b becomes less motivated and refused to learn english when she was in primary school. this negativity will constrain the students from moving forward in their learning. in 1_i’s case, when he was an elementary school student, he hated the method that his teacher used. 1_i’s teacher believes that learning a foreign language primarily means learning new words. this boring way of teaching will not incentivize students to study. when the teacher is explaining without giving students to practice, they will feel stressed and lose interest in studying. however, for 1_i, learning does not only occur in the classroom, and he enjoys communicating in english at home with his family. 1_i’s negative prior learning experience in elementary school turned into a positive experience when he was in junior high school because of the teacher’s teaching method. thus, in junior high school, he regains his motivation. the data provided by 2_b, 2_c, 1_i, and 1_g prove that the prior learning experienced by the students is influenced by the teachers’ teaching method and has implications on the students’ motivation to learn. in the case of 1_h, 2_c, and 1_g, the teaching method adopted is communicative language teaching (clt). it emphasizes communication with others (ohashi, 2015). the more opportunities the children have to communicate and interact with other people, the more they will expand their self-motivation in language learning. comprehension strategies are significant in young learners’ learning process because they construct meaning in different ways compare to adults (mckee & carr, 2016). unlike adult learners, children only have partial linguistic and knowledge systems. the teacher must recognize that the children have good comprehension even if they have imperfect production. this suggests that the important thing in children’s development is their understanding of the situation, how to comprehend other people’s utterances, and how to respond. the practice is important for children to comprehend the language better, understand the meaning, and produce appropriate responses based on the context. during the interviews, there are many reactions to the question, “how can speaking with native speakers improve your english?” and “does talking to a native speaker improve your english?” twelve students have said that speaking with native speakers helps them improve their fluency and raise their confidence. however, they are not sure whether their accuracy in speaking english also improves. 1_a: “talking with native speakers can improve my speaking. i become more fluent, more confident but i may not be accurate. when i dare to talk with native speakers it means i can challenge myself and practice to raise my confidence. i have learned many things at school but when i faced native speakers for the first time, i felt very nervous and suddenly i forgot everything. i thought it was useless to know grammar and learn english but not be able to speak. however, when i practice it day by day, it gives me more confidence to face the native speaker.” 1_b: “by talking to native speakers, i can improve my fluency and confidence, but not my accuracy in speaking. although i often make grammatical mistake the native speakers understand, and they do not correct or revise me.” 2_b: “when i was in high school, i did volunteer with several foreigners (including native speakers). from that experience i learnt more english. although i had a very embarrassing moment when i did the translation and everyone laughed at me, it pushed me and motivated me to learn more and i think i became better.” 1_e: “i went to melbourne for a week of an exchange program. when i was there, my brain was spontaneously thinking in english. maybe it was because i exposed to english, and surrounded by native speakers. i also learned how to maintain the conversation with others, and i felt my english improved a lot.” as the most famous tourism destination, balinese efl learners have more exposure and benefit 38 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 31-41 from learning english from native speakers. the evidence can be seen from 1_a, 1 _b, and 2_b’s cases. 1_a has realized that the theoretical knowledge they obtain from school is useless without the practical use of the language itself. in 1_b’s case, the native speakers indicate ‘tolerance’ for her and respect the way she speaks the foreign language. the native speakers are likely to have understood what she has said, and so they do not correct 1_b’s english. in 2_b’s case, her bad prior learning experience in elementary school and high school changes her attitude, and she becomes more motivated to learn english. her self-confidence and motivation push her to learn more to become a better speaker. unlike 1_a, 1_b, and 2_b, who have a prior learning experience with native speakers in bali, 1_e has a chance to learn english with a native speaker in the native country, and she also improves a lot. self-confidence is crucial in foreign language learning (nazarova & umurova, 2016). when learners feel confident in their ability, they will enjoy their language learning. the learners who have low selfconfidence feel uncomfortable and will reject the further steps of their learning, which automatically inhibits their language development. all the data presented show the benefit of communicating with native speakers in terms of increasing the learners’ fluency and gaining selfconfidence and motivation, yet it does not affect their accuracy. when the learners are motivated to learn, they will push themselves to learn it better and will find many ways to reach their goal. the cases above are examples of motivated learners who have a high willingness to communicate no matter what challenges they face. on the other hand, if the learners do not have a passion for or interest in english due to bad prior learning experience, they will not have any motivation to learn, as shown in this example. 3_a: “i studied english at a prestigious english course in bali. from the beginning i felt that english was too hard; even at the elementary level, it was very difficult. moreover, the teachers were native speaker. grammar is difficult, even though it is taught in indonesian, i don’t understand and become more confused because the native speaker taught grammar in english. i gave up because the teachers always talked in english, their accent was difficult, and they didn’t understand my difficulty.” the example shows 3_a’s lack of passion in english due to her negative prior learning experience and negative intrinsic motivation that inhibited her progress in learning. a is not really interested in english because her passion is in japanese literature. she fails to be admitted to the japanese literature department, and her score only allows her to enter the english department. unlike other cases, 3_a has found that learning from native speakers is difficult because she could not understand them. learning with native speakers has both positive and negative effects on language learners, depending on their intrinsic motivation. while learners with intrinsic motivation become more fluent, braver, more motivated, and more confident in speaking, learners without intrinsic motivation suffer from the anxiety of speaking with native speakers. this can decrease their self-confidence and deplete the learners’ motivation. the case of 1_a shows prior learning experience of the learner who travels to other countries and interacting with foreigners, in a foreign country setting. 1_a: “when i went to india and singapore, i challenged myself to interact with the people. i have learned many things in my english course and school but i felt very nervous so i forgot everything when i talked. but i practiced every day and felt more confident. india and singapore are not native englishspeaking countries, and yet english is stated as the second language, and most people in those countries are fluent in english. in the beginning, 1_a feels nervous and tense, yet exposure to english helps him to become more confident. however, different situations bring different results, as 2_a reveals that traveling abroad does not improve her english. she goes to singapore for four days on a school vacation program. during those days, she only talks to her friends and teachers because the teachers arrange all programs, and her contact with english-speaking people is very limited. traveling to other countries where english is used as the language of communication provides opportunities to build confidence and improve english. however, a short time traveling does not significantly improve the learners’ levels of english. the data presented and in table 1 draw the learners’ prior learning experience and their motivation. table 2 is about the learners’ proficiency in two components of english skill. in group 1, the students like english (in their previous learning experiences and the present) have positive intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which results in the highest proficiency out of the learners. their prior learning experience consists of positive intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. this is also the case for the learners in this group that has experienced negative extrinsic motivation in their prior learning experiences, but a high intrinsic motivation encourages them to keep learning. the most proficient learner based on the speaking and writing test is 1_g, with a c1–c2 level in speaking, and a c1 level in writing. based on the interview, the researcher knows that she has been learning english since she was in kindergarten, and her parents support her. because of it, she has more access to learn english and has found it very interesting. at school, she always uses english both inside and outside the class, with her friends and her teachers. she is a fast and ambitious learner, spending most of her time reading books, listening to music, and watching movies in english. her self-motivation and prior learning experience shape her present proficiency. 39the relation of balinese.... (putu ayu asty senja pratiwi) table 2 reveals that the learners in the second group obtain low to high levels in their present proficiency. the learners for this group have negative prior learning experiences at first because they are forced to learn english by their families. nevertheless, for the sake of their future, they change their attitude and gain positive motivation to learn. with the motivation, they have in their prior learning, and group 2 learners have succeeded in getting low to high proficiency. the evidence is obtained from the in-depth interview conducted with 2_a, the learner who has the highest proficiency in the second group. when she was eight years old, her mother took her to an english course, although she was not interested in english. when she realizes english is a global language that can provide her a better job, she becomes more interested in learning english. she learns by herself, with the support of family, school teachers, and english course teachers. she pushes herself to learn, and when she gets first place in a competition, she feels more motivated and improved a lot. based on the interview and the proficiency test, as seen in table 2, the learners of the third group have the lowest proficiency because of the absence of motivation and their negative prior learning experiences. 3_a, who has an a1 level in speaking and writing, says that when he was in elementary school up to the present, he has no passion for learning english. he belongs to the english department because he could not pass the it department test, implying that his lack of motivation to learn english stems from his lack of intention to study it. conclusions the results of the research show that the prior learning experiences that motivate and demotivate the balinese efl learners come from the families and parents’ encouragement, the role of schools and teachers, the experience to learn english with native speakers, and the experience to travel to other countries. the positive and negative prior learning experiences with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine how the students value their phase of learning and help to shape their present proficiency. there are three groups of learners in the balinese case study based on prior learning experiences and proficiency tests. first is those who have positive and negative prior learning experience with the high intrinsic motivation that attains the highest proficiency amongst the three groups. second, those who have low intrinsic motivation then change into high when positive extrinsic motivation in their prior learning occurs that results in an average to high proficiency. third, those who have a negative prior learning experience and low intrinsic motivation that attains low proficiency. the present research is contributed to the existing literature on how the diverse prior learning experiences and the influences of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation result differently in the learners’ proficiency. the prior learning experienced by the students, both good and bad, will always be remembered, influence their motivation, and affect their feelings and thinking towards their learning process. the learners, parents, teachers, and schools must create a positive atmosphere to make the learning of the english language a better experience for language development to flourish. despite revealing the useful finding, thes research also has a limitation in terms of the number of participants involved. so it is suggested for further research to investigate in a broader efl context and more participants. it aims to find out other possibilities of the learners’ prior learning experiences and the motivation patterns included in the learning process. references alderson, j. c. 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(2018). effects of prior knowledge on learning performance and anxiety in an english learning online role-playing game. educational technology and society, 21(3), 174-185. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 61 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 61-66 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7730 a sociolinguistic analysis of addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan chusni hadiati1*; rosdiana puspita sari2; usep muttaqin3 1-3 english department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university jl. prof. dr. hr boenyamin no. 708, purwokerto 53122, indonesia 1chusni.hadiati@unsoed.ac.id; 2rosdiana.puspita.sari@unsoed.ac.id; 3usep.muttaqin@unsoed.ac.id received: 27th september 2021/revised: 11th march 2022/accepted: 16th march 2022 how to cite: hadiati, c., sari, r. p., & muttaqin, u. (2022). a sociolinguistic analysis of addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. lingua cultura, 16(1), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7730 abstract the research aimed to explain the addressee term found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan from a sociolinguistic point of view. this chronicle employed various kinds of addressee terms in banyumas society. the research applied a descriptive qualitative method as it analyzed the variety of addressee terms and the social context of their use in a chronicle. the research results show five classifications of addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. they are (1) addressee terms that are related to the dutch military, (2) addressee terms that are related to the position in the indonesian government, (3) addressee terms that are related to descendants, (4) addressee term that is related to an object or thing, and (5) addressee term that is related to religion. these addressee terms are influenced by social factors such as the position in government (superior or inferior) and the aristocratic descendant. keywords: sociolinguistics, addressee term, babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan introduction on a daily basis, people communicate referentially and affectively to convey the message as well as to build the social relationship. one way to maintain the social relationship is by properly utilising language, such as picking the correct addressee term. according to crystal in fauliyah (2012), the addressee term is used to refer to someone in direct linguistic interaction. it can be a polite device in daily conversation as people choose the appropriate addressee term to show respect to others. picking the inappropriate addressee term can cause fatality in social interaction. in addition, to show respect, addressee terms also display power, distance, and solidarity among speakers. a javanese addressee term ‘sing mbaurekso’ means the guardian of a certain thing. it is used to show power owned by a person or entity to a state that has higher power. socially when a person or entity has greater power, he/she will be more respected. how close a person is to others can be indicated by the use of addressee terms. the shorter the distance between speakers will be the more solidarity they have. addressing a person using his/her first name without giving the title or kinship term can indicate a short distance and high solidarity. addressee term can be broadly defined as a phrase or word to address someone or entity in relation to their social status. addressing term is a part of sociolinguistics studies as its analysis requires social factors consideration. babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan (bbw), a chronicle of banyumas regency, was written by raden wirjaatmadja and persisted by raden poerwasoepradja. as a chronicle of the banyumas regency, this book articulated the history of banyumas, a regency in the southern part of central java. it explains the emergence of the banyumas regency and its leaders, as well as their historical events. in addition to bbw, babad banjoemas mertadiredjan (bbm) also depicts the history of banyumas regency. the main difference between these two chronicles is that babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan is written in prose while the latter is inscribed in poetry; consequently, babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan has become more popular than babad banjoemas mertadiredjan. babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan portrays the history of banyumas from 62 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 61-66 1585 up to 1932, and therefore, a significant number of addressee terms are commonly found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. addressing terms used in movie have been sociolinguistically conducted so far by several researchers, such as rifai and prasetyaningrum (2016); syahidawati and parmawati (2020). both researches have found out that there are six types of addressing terms used in movies: addressing terms using a name, addressing terms using kinship, addressing terms using intimacy, addressing terms using respect, and addressing terms using mockery. a sociolinguistic approach has been applied to kinship terms in likpakpaln, a variety spoken chiefly in the northern part of ghana (bisilki, 2017). he has concluded that kinship terms in likpakpaln can be classified into three types such as agnatic, affinal, and matrilateral addressee terms. the use of addressee terms in a different social domain has been the focus of al-qudah’s research (2017). he has highlighted that addressee terms are affected by age, gender, social status, formality, intimacy, and familiarity. research conducted by pujiati (2017), tauchid (2018), and shalihah (2019) has completed the type of addressing terms used in a novel. tauchid (2018) has mentioned three types of address terms: first name, title plus last name, and kinship term. shalihah (2019) has added one type of addressing term, which has not been mentioned in the previous research; it is addressing term using occupational. a slight difference is shown by rahmadani and wahyuni (2018), who have investigated the type and functions of addressing terms used by students. they have found out that pet names can also be used by students to address their peer group. the research aims to explain the addressee term found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan from a sociolinguistic point of view. it explains the use of each addressee term by giving a fuller description as they are used in bbw. research on addressee terms found in a chronicle has not been investigated. thus, the sociolinguistic research on addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan, a chronicle of banyumas regency, can fill the research gap. methods the research on addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan belongs to descriptive qualitative. it analyzes the variety of addressee terms and the social context of their use in a chronicle. the data source is babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan which is a chronicle of banyumas regency. addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan would be the research data, and total sampling is applied in this research. the researchers have found 45 addressee terms in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. the data are collected using several steps, including observing, note-taking, and classifying. in observing the data, the researchers read babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan several times to find addressing terms. the social context is then used to elaborate the addressing terms in the note-taking step. researchers then identify the addressing terms based on the collected data. the collected data are then classified based on each type of addressee terms, and explanations are given based on the context. context plays an important role in the elaboration as it will give a fuller and clearer understanding of data (oki, 2018; saptanto & dewi, 2020). as a starting point, the understanding of the banyumas people is a good context. banyumas people have a unique character as it is reflected in their language (hadiati, 2019). digging documentation, government report, historical notes, books, manuscripts, and articles related to the history of banyumas from other sources or library research is also valuable. library research is an appropriate research method to get valuable information and clues. data of the research are all the addressing terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. each addressing term is then validated using social context to decide whether the term is reliable for the research. for instance, addressing the term kyai has two possible interpretations. it can refer to a pious person or an honored person in society. social context is required to determine whether it belongs to the pious or honored person in society. the clues, evidence, information, and context the researchers have found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan are then used to elaborate on each type of addressee term found in bbw. the social dimension and condition would be the most valuable context for each description. the final result is displayed based on the type of addressee terms and the explanation of their social dimension. results and discussions the addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan are classified into five types. they are (1) addressee terms that are related to the dutch military, (2) addressee terms that are related to the position in the indonesian government, (3) addressee terms that are related to descendants, (4) addressee terms that are related to an object or thing, and (5) addressee term that are related to religion. the first type found is addressee terms related to the dutch military. babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan shows the relationship between indonesian and dutch in government. the process and how they communicate also show some linguistic features that show the honorific system, especially in addressee terms. according to rusbiyantoro (2011), addressee terms are influenced by social factors and power relations between the speakers. the addressee terms that are chosen also can indicate the superior and inferior relationship. indonesians tend to use addressee terms that show honor when interacting with dutch. an example of addressee terms used is kandjeng toewan. babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan, written by raden wirjaatmadjan, the regent of banyumas, 63a sociolinguistic analysis of .... (chusni hadiati, et al.) mentions several addressee terms related to the dutch military, for example, kandjeng toewan. kandjeng toewan is used to address dutch resident assistant. this position is higher than the regent. therefore, the regent of banyumas uses kandjeng toewan that show honor to the dutch. this linguistic feature also indicates that dutch has superior power over the indonesians, so the indonesian tries to use the honorific addressee term when addressing dutch. according to zaman, nababan, and djatmika (2018) and halidi (2019), honorific addressee terms are used to make good relationships and social communication between the speakers. when the speakers use honorific diction, the listener will have a good impression. this addressee term is also used to speak to the person who has higher education, power, and social status. this linguistic feature is evidence that social factor influences the language chosen. people will choose different diction and different language levels; for example, high and low language depends on who the listener is. the addressee terms that show honorific systems are kandjeng toewan w.p.d.de wolff van westerode, kandjeng toewan hoogendorp, kandjeng toewan raples, kandjeng toewan besar, kangdjeng toewan djendral, kangdjeng toewan setirler, and kangdjeng toewan asisten residen. the example of this addressee terms in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan are in these sentences. “dene ingkang anggantjaraken raden wirjaatmadja, patih in poerwakerta awit saking dawoehipun kandjeng toewan w.p.d.de wolff van westerode rikala djumeneng assistant resident ing poerwakerta.” (purwokartun, 2020a) while the author of this book is raden wirjaatmadjan, the regent of poerwakerta. he is commanded by the honorable w.p.d.de wolff van westerode, resident assistant in poerwakerta. “wondening ingkang dados senapatinipoen wadiabala koempeni inggih punika kandjeng toewan hoogendorp sosoranipoen major sekeber.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “at that time, the leader of dutch soldier is the honorable hoogendorp and the vice leader is mayor sekeber.” “ingkang djoemeneng goepernoer djenderal adjoedjoeloek kandjeng toewan raples.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “someone who becomes the governor is called the honorable rafles.” another term found is litnan. litnan is one of the positions in the dutch military that is in charge of the mayor. this military system level is also adopted in the indonesian army. this is one of the influences of the dutch occupation in indonesia. the addressee term in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan that mention litnan is litnan hoeroen. the example of this addressee term in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan is in this sentence. “raden toemenggoeng dipajoeda lan ngabei kertapradja akanti litnan hoeroen sami djagi ing kilen karangbolong.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “raden toemenggoeng dipajoeda and ngabei kertapradja accompanied by litnan hoeroen maintain the west of karangbolong.” the term mayor is another term found related to dutch military. mayor is also the military position in the dutch government. the position of mayor is beneath the supervision of litnan. buliali, johan, and fetriah (2007) have said that if the soldiers desire to have a higher position, they have to be able to fulfil the requirement, or they also can wait for the periodic promotion. in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan, this addressee term is mentioned in major magilis, major biskoes. it can be seen in this example of the addressee term. “major biskoes akanthi bupati ing tegal ingkang sampoen kadjoendjoeng lenggah pangeran, saha bekta pradjurit djawi.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “mayor biskoes and the regent of tegal who has been promoted to be the prince, lead javanese soldier” the second type of addressee term found is a term related to the position in the indonesian government. according to darban (1998), there are two kinds of addressee terms in the old indonesian government. they are the position based on the aristocratic descendant and the position given to the lower-class citizen who has good achievements. in babad banyumas wirjaatmadjan, there are several addressee terms related to the position of the old indonesian government. one of them is kandjeng soeltan. in babad banyumas wirjaatmadjan, raden wirjaatmadjan addresses the king of pajang kingdom with the honorific addressee kandjeng. it means that raden wirjaatmadjan, who has the lower position, wants to show honor to the one who has a superior position. the example of this addressee term in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan is in this sentence. “kandjeng soeltan sareng mireng oenjoekipoen demang toyareka saanakipoen sanget ing doekanipoen, enggal oetoesan gandek mantri anem anoesoel lampahipoen ki dipati wirasaba.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “the king of pajang kingdom was very angry when he heard the news from toyareka and his son. then, the king commanded his soldier to catch ki adipati wirasaba.” the next example of the term related to the position in the indonesian government is boepati. 64 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 61-66 boepati is the leader of a regency. the position of boepati is under the resident assistant, who is usually led by the dutch. boepati or adipati is usually a position from aristocratic descendants, for example, raden wirjaatmadjan. the name raden indicates that he is an aristocratic descendant. the example of this addressee term in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan is in this sentence. “boepati oetoesan dateng wonten satjelakipoen pandelikan waoe, ananging dipoen waspaosaken boten wonten katingal.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “the regent comes to that place, but he does not appear” doesoen is another example of the term of this type. doesoen is the leader of a village. the position of doesoen is under the regent. the author of babad banjumas does not address the name of the doesoen. it indicates that the doesoen position is not from an aristocratic descendant. the example of this addressee term in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan is in this sentence. “wonteng ing ngrikoe kendel ing grijaning pangagengipoen doesoen kaleng.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “he (refers to raden baribin) lives in doesoen kaleng’s house.” babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan also shows the use of addressee terms related to descendants. there are several terms found, and these terms are related to descendants that come from bangsawan (nobleman or lord). these addressee terms are raden, praboe, ki, and njai. here are some examples of the data found. “katjarios raden baribin saderekipoen praboe brawidjaja ing madjapait, manggih doedoekanipoen ingkang raka.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “it is said that raden baribin who is the younger brother of prabu brawijaya, the king of majapahit, gets anger from his brother.” the term raden here is used to address raden baribin. he is the brother of prabu brawijaya, the king of majapahit. according to iriyansyah (2017), raden can be used to address someone from the noble line and those who are not. in this case, the term is used for someone who is a descendant of a noble line since he is the brother of the majapahit king. the data above also shows the use of the term praboe. this term is used to address the king of majapahit at the time. another term found as the addressee term related to descendants from bangsawan is the term ki. “ngampar, kawidjilanipoen poetra ing padjadjaran, oegi sampoen kasebut ing nginggil, poenika pepoetra kakalih sami kaseboet kjai kemawon, ingkang sepoeh katelah ki adeg tjisagoe ingkang anem ki adeg tjiloeboer.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “ngampar, a descendant of the king of pajajaran, as mentioned above, has two children, all boys, known as kyai. the old one is known as ki adeg tjisagoe, while the younger one is known as ki adeg tjiloeboer.” this term is actually a short form of kjai with the same meaning as stated in the data above, kaseboet kjai kemawon (known as kyai). the term is categorized into the group since it is used to address the son of ngampar, who is a descendant of the pajajaran king. the next term categorized as the term related to descendant is njai. this term is used to addressee a female descendant from ngabei wirapradja. “poenika apoetra titiga: ingkang sepoeh estri anama njai rangga wirapraja, paneggak djaler anama ngabei wiradika i, soendoelanipoen estri anama njai rangga wirasari.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “ngabei wirapradja has three children, the eldest is a woman named nyai rangga wirapradja, the second is a boy named ngabei wiradika i, while the youngest is a girl named nyai rangga wirasari.” from the context, it is known that ngabei wirapradja is a descendant of the pajajaran king. he is the son of ngabei reskapradja who is the son of ngabei reksagati. ngabei reksagati is the grandson of ki adeg tjiloehoer who is the son of gagak ngampar. as discussed in the previous data, gagak ngampar is a descendant of the pajajaran king. therefore, it can be traced that njai rangga wirapraja and njai rangga wirasari are female descendants of the pajajaran king and the term njai is used to address them. the last term categorized as the term related to descendant is djaka. the term is used to address a male descendant at his young age, as can be seen in this data. “soeraoetama apoepoetra adipati wargaoetama timoeripoen adjedjoeloek djaka warga (kala samanten djaman kraton in padjang).” (purwokartun, 2020a) after adipati of sura utama died, his son, jaka warga, continued with the title of adipati warga utama (at that time during the time of the palace in pajang). the term djaka is used to refer to the son of adipati sura utama. since the son is still at a young age, he is addressed with djaka. all in all, the use of these terms related to descendants is influenced by several social factors. first, it is influenced by the fact that the addressees are descendants of noble line or bangsawan. second, gender also influences the use 65a sociolinguistic analysis of .... (chusni hadiati, et al.) of the addressee term, such as njai, which refers to females. lastly, the age of the addressee also influences the use of the addressee term, like djaka, which refers to a young male. babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan also shows the use of the addressee term related to the name of an object. this term only occurs once in the text. the term is used in the chapter about the diponegoro war in banyumas. “para koempeni aitipun awitipoen miring soewantening sandjata kalantaka nalika wonten ing redi si gadog, saeleripoen doesoen kaliwedi, mila lampahipoen kagelak sadinten boten neda.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “the dutch soldiers began to hear the sound of kalantaka gun shots when they arrived at mount gadog, north of the village of kaliwedi, but were delayed for a day because they did not eat.” the term si in the data is used to address an object or thing, which is a mountain. the writer of the book uses the term si followed by the name of the mountain, gadog, which is located in karanglewas, banyumas. this example of the use of si to address a mountain shows that the addressee term used is related to an object or thing. in the latest development, the term si is no longer used for addressing mountains. it is now used to refer to inanimate things, such as referring to a pet (wibowo & retnaningsih, 2015). it is also found on babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan, a religion-related term. the term is pandita poetra. it is used to address raden baribin, the brother of the majapahit king who escaped to pasundan since he was outcast by his brother. “raden baribin karemanipoen tirakat: ngirangngirangi dahar oetawi sare. saha amlama, mila lagjeng katelah anama pandita poetra.” (purwokartun, 2020a) “raden baribin is known to like to fast, eat and sleep less, and likes to travel. so, he was known by the nickname pandita putra.” the term pandita poetra is used to address raden baribin since he likes to fast, eat, and sleepless. this term is also associated with raden baribin’s religion. people of pajajaran address him as pandita poeptra because he believes in the siwa budha religion (purwokartun, 2020b). furthermore, sidemen (2019) has added that pandita is a community teacher in the spiritual field. therefore, it can be concluded that the use of the term pandita poetra is influenced by the addressee’s religion. conclusions it can be concluded that there are five classifications of addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan. they are (1) addressee terms that are related to the dutch military, (2) addressee terms that are related to the position in the indonesian government, (3) addressee terms that are related to descendants, (4) addressee term that is related to an object or thing, and (5) addressee term that is related to religion. these addressee terms are influenced by social factors such as the position in government (superior or inferior) and the aristocratic descendant. for further research, it is suggested that the sociolinguistics research for addressee terms can be investigated more in terms of its use in nowadays context. it is found that the meaning of some addressee terms has shifted from its original use. for example, the addressee terms radja and praboe, which are originally used to address certain people with certain positions or political power, are now used for commoners. acknowledgement the authors would like to thank to lembaga penelitian dan pengabdian kepada masyarakat (lppm) universitas jenderal soedirman for the support and research grant that is given. references al-qudah, m. 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(2018). in search of address terms in novel. loquen: english studies journal, 11(2), 15-28. https://doi.org/132678/loquen.v11i02.1278. wibowo, r. m., & retnaningsih, a. (2015). dinamika bentuk-bentuk sapaan refleksi sikap berbahasa masyarakat indonesia. humaniora, 27(3), 269-282. https://doi.org/10.22146/jh.10587. zaman, m. n., nababan, m. r., & djatmika. (2018). the honorifics expressions in indigenous language of java island ethnics with relevance into english. lingua: jurnal ilmu bahasa dan sastra, 13(2), 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.18860/ling.v13i2.5258. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 215 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 215-221 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7328 social relation that triggers the use of codeswitching in the novel the architecture of love by ika natassa clara herlina karjo1*; fairuza alyarizky2 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1claraherlina@yahoo.com; 2fairuzaar@gmail.com received: 06th may 2021/revised: 13th october 2021/accepted: 13th october 2021 how to cite: karjo, c. h. & alyarizky, f. (2021). social relation that triggers the use of code-switching in the novel the architecture of love by ika natassa. lingua cultura, 15(2), 215-221. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7328 abstract the research aimed to find out the influencing factors that caused the characters and the narrator in the novel ‘the architecture of love’ to do code-switching and discover how the social relation between the characters and the narrator affected the use of code-switching. novels written by bilingual authors were frequently used as objects of analysis in code-switching research. however, most research only focused on the code-switching performed by the characters in the novels. rarely had the attention been given to the authors or the narrators of the story. a descriptive text analysis method and library research were used to analyze the dialogues and narratives found in this novel. results show that the reasons for most of the code switch used in the dialogues and narratives are the intentions of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutors and when talking about a particular topic. the social relation of the character shows that they treat each other as friends that have equal social status. a similar relation is also found between the writer and the readers. it can be implied that the social relation between the characters does affect the use of code-switching. keywords: social relation, code switching, novel characters, novel narrative introduction code-switching is a common phenomenon in bilingual or multilingual communities. in their interactions, bilingual people usually alternate between the languages effortlessly. poplack (1980) has defined code-switching as a change between two languages in a single conversation, sentence, or component. hartmann, choudhury, and bali (2018) have defined code-switching as using at least two languages by the same speaker who is fluent in these languages within a single conversation. code-switching is thought of as an interaction strategy adopted by a bilingual to negotiate his/her code choice with his/her addressees (al rousan & merghmi, 2019). currently, however, code-switching does not only occur in oral interaction, but it can also be found in other media such as literary works, songs, or movies. one particular form of literary works that use code-switching is novel. however, studies on codeswitching in literary works such as novels have been ignored by researchers because they lack spontaneity (weston & gardner-chloros, 2015). some indonesian novelists are found to apply code-switching in their works. one of indonesia’s bestselling authors who often use code-switching in their novels is ika natassa. some of her popular works include divortiare (2008), antologi rasa (2011), twivortiare 2 (2014), critical eleven (2015), and the architecture of love (2016). she is especially known for her unique writing skill by utilizing twitter to write her story. one of her latest works that involved polling features on twitter is the architecture of love. this novel is about a girl named raia who moved to new york hoping to overcome her writer’s block. in new york, raia meets a guy named river, who, in the 216 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 215-221 end, helps her overcome her writer’s block problem by taking her on adventures around the streets of new york. the setting of the story, i.e., new york, might be one of the reasons why the author used a lot of code-switching in her work. english and indonesian are used in the dialogues between the characters in the novel, who happened to be indonesian people living in america. yet, code-switching is not only applied in the dialogues between the characters. ika also uses codeswitching in the narratives, in which she tells the story to the readers. ika natassa’s novels have been the objects of code-switching studies for several years. some previous studies of code-switching in ika natassa’s novels can be found, among others, are critical eleven novel by adi (2018), antologi rasa by yusuf, fata, and chyntia (2018), and the architecture of love by febryanti, hadi, and hastuti (2019). besides ika natassa, novels by other indonesian writers are also found to be used in studies of code-switching; for example, meilisa (2013) has studied code-switching in supernova by dewi lestari. the novel entitled crash into you by alia zalea is also chosen as the object of the code-switching study by sari, malini, and putra (2017). a novel by alvi syahrin entitled jika kita tidak pernah jadi apa-apa is studied by juniari, ariyaningsih, and jendra (2021). however, most studies of code-switching in literature only focus on the types and reasons for codeswitching by the characters in the novels (hutami, 2017; sari, malini, & putra, 2017; yusuf, fata, & chyntia, 2018). some others are focused on the grammatical patterning of code-switching in the novel. this topic is shown in lyakhovich’s (2019) research, which employs the theory of matrix language frame by myers-scotton to analyze the code-switching between hausa and english in the novel kukan so (cry of love) by jamila danfajo. in novels, code-switching interactions are usually represented by the characters’ speech. the authors or the narrators of the novels generally project their ideas and ideologies through the characters’ voices they create. for example, in the research by akhtar et al. (2020), the author (mohammed hanif) of the novel our lady of alice bhatti portrays the social identities of the community through the use of urdu words in english novels. similarly, mukherjee and mohanty (2020) have also discovered the social relations and identities of the interlocutors (the characters) in the novel the god of small things by arundhati roy through the code-switching interactions between malayalam and english. similarly, husayn (2020) has discovered that the reason for the characters’ codeswitching is to express their linguistic identity. while logically, code-switching by the characters will portray the authors’ attitude towards the use of code-switching in their works, a separate analysis needs to be carried out to justify this claim. to the researchers’ knowledge, there has been little attention on the use of code-switching by the story’s authors (as the narrators). in addition, no research has been found to study the social relation between the characters as well as the narrators that trigger them to use code-switching. thus, the researchers would like to examine how the author makes use of code-switching by the characters and the narrator to portray the social relations that occur among the three parties involved, i.e., the narrator, the characters, and the readers. therefore, the researchers want to address three research questions in this research. the first is to find out the social relation between the characters in the dialogues, and between the author and the reader in the narratives. the second is to discover the functions of code-switching. lastly, it is to find out whether the social relation affects the use of code-switching in the dialogues or the narratives. to answer these questions, the researchers analyze the excerpts of code-switching found in the dialogues and narratives in the novel the architecture of love written by ika natassa. several researchers have shown that there are several factors as to why a speaker’s code switches to another language. hoffman, as cited in adi (2018), has mentioned that code-switching occurs when a speaker is talking about a particular code, quoting somebody, wanting to be emphatic about something, inserting sentence filler or interjection, doing a repetition for clarification, or expressing a group identity. moreover, saville-troike and barto (2016) have added some other reasons, such as softening or strengthening a request or a command, needing a lexical substitution, and excluding other people when a comment is intended for a limited audience. in addition to the reasons, the social relations between participants also affect how code-switching is used. social relation between the participants in the interactions is determined by four different social dimension scales (holmes & wilson, 2017). the first is the solidarity-social distance scale which explains how well a person knows someone is relevant in a person’s linguistic choice. the second one is the status scale which relates the relevance of social status in some linguistic choices. the third is the formality scale, which explains that the setting and type of interaction affect someone’s speech style. the last one is the referential and affective function related to the purpose or topic of interaction. the referential function conveys objective information, and the affective function expresses the speaker’s emotions more. how do social relations affect the use of codeswitching in a conversation? as holmes and wilson (2017) have mentioned, the way a person speaks depends on whom he/she is talking to. so, the social relations between the speaker and the interlocutor will also determine how they interact. in particular, the speaker will use code-switching in their speech if he/ she knows that their interlocutor will understand their speech. on the contrary, code-switching might not be used if the speaker and the interlocutor have not been socially related. the results of the research are expected to shed some light on the research of code-switching, especially 217social relation that.... (clara herlina karjo; fairuza alyarizky) in literary media such as in novels. moreover, the research views code-switching from the social relation factor, which is quite different from the mainstream of code-switching studies that mostly discuss the types and functions. methods the research uses the novel the architecture of love by ika natassa as the analysis media. this novel is chosen because it contains many code-switching either in the dialogues or in the narratives. the data collected are in the form of dialogues and narratives containing code-switching interactions. the dialogues here are the conversation between the characters in the novel. meanwhile, the narratives refer to storytelling by the author of the novel. the researchers have found a total of 63 data of dialogue excerpts and narrative excerpts. to analyze the data, the researchers use the theory of charlotte hoffmann on influencing factors of code-switching and social dimension theory by holmes and wilson (2017). first, for each excerpt, the researchers identify the social relation between the participants (the characters, the narrator, and the readers) based on holmes’ theory. then, the codeswitching spoken by characters and the narrator is identified, and the functions of each code-switching utterance are categorized based on hoffman’s classification. results and discussions from the 63 data, the researchers discuss several excerpts based on the factors influencing code-switching and the social relations that trigger code-switching. table 1 shows the summary of codeswitching usage in the architecture of love by ika natassa. table 1 summary of code-switching usage participants social relation function aga-raia close friends clarifying intention erin-raia close friends lack of lexicon raia-river new acquaintance talk about particular topic raia-river new acquaintance talk about particular topic raia-river new acquaintance give clarification erin-river new acquaintance talk about particular topic narrator friends clarify message narrator friends clarify message narrator friends quoting famous person narrator friends clarify message excerpt 1 (natassa, 2016: 16) aga : hei, raia right? aga. raia : oh ya, aga, sori dari tadi dikenalin ke banyak orang, i’m really bad at remembering names. aga : it’s okay. kata erin lo penulis ya? raia : iya. this dialogue occurs when raia is at a new year’s party with erin. raia has just been introduced to many people at that party, and one of the people that raia has just met, aga, comes up to her. in this dialogue, raia and aga use informal language, shown by the colloquial address terms lo and gue (you and i). the topic of their conversation indicates that they are just getting to know each other. judging from the content of the conversation, the use of informal address terms, and the setting of the conversation, it can be seen that the relationship between aga and raia are friends, but they are not intimate and close since it is the first time they meet each other. this excerpt shows that raia changes into english when she wants to clarify what she has said before. raia begins her sentence by apologizing for not remembering aga’s name since raia has met so many people that night. raia’s code switched into english is to clarify her intention or apology for not remembering names. she admits her forgetfulness by saying, “i’m really bad at remembering names.” at this stage, code-switching only fulfills the referential purpose, which gives information but lacks affective function. juniari, ariyaningsih, and jendra (2020) have mentioned that clarifying intention is also found in their research. excerpt 2 (natassa, 2016: 20) raia : ini yang mau kamu gambar? river : *river mengangguk* kita jalan keliling dulu ya, baru cari tempat. river : kamu tahu nggak, dulu waktu selesai dibangun tahun 1902, gedung ini merupakan salah satu bangunan tertinggi di new york, dua puluh lantai. beautiful and eccentric, but not really practical from an architectural point of view. river : ada banyak gedung sebenarnya yang bentuknya juga flatiron seperti ini, ya. brown palace hotel di denver, columbus tower di san fransisco, ringler annex di portland. di toronto juga ada gooderham. eh kamu kedinginan, ya? kita cari tempat duduk indoor aja. raia : tapi kamu nggak bisa melihat flatiron dari sini, riv river : gampang. yang penting kamu hangat dulu. 218 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 215-221 the dialogue takes place at the flatiron building, where raia and river walk around the building to find a good spot to sit. while walking around, raia asks if the flatiron building is something he wants to draw. he then says yes and starts telling stories about the history of the building and how beautiful it is, then tells about many other buildings that look like the flatiron beside the one in new york. from its content, the conversation between raia and river seems to have a high referential function and low affective function. river gives information about the flatiron building. they use a rather formal language style and address terms such as kamu, aku, dan kita. these kinds of language styles indicate that their relationship is close but not intimate. at this point, they are still being polite to each other. consequently, the code switch in river’s utterance only refers to the fact that the flatiron building is beautiful and eccentric yet unpractical. his sentence is a continuation of his previous story about the highest building in new york. river alternates to english when he is talking about a particular topic, in this case by emphasizing the architectural point of view, since he is an architect. he could have used indonesian to describe it, but he chooses to talk in english about a particular topic, i.e., architecture. talking about a particular topic in another language is also considered the most frequently found in other code-switching studies in novels (yusuf, fata, & chyntia, 2018; adi, 2018). excerpt 4 (natassa, 2016: 93) river : ya? raia : iya, aku masih dengar kok. river : saya cerita ini mau nunjukin ke kamu bahwa benda mati seperti gedung saja punya cerita, ya. and that’s the most fascinating thing about architecture for me. dan kalau buat saya ceritanya itu ya memang sudah ada sejarah nya, buat kamu yang penulis malah lebih enak lagi. imajinasi kamu pasti lebih cakep daripada saya yang cuma tukang gambar ini. you can see any buildings or simple things like a mailbox on the street, and you can find and make up stories from it, right? jadi jangan bilang kamu nggak bisa nulis, ya. the dialogue in excerpt 4 takes place at the whispering gallery. river notices that raia is having trouble writing, so he takes her there to get some fresh ideas. river then starts talking about how every inanimate object has a story. after that, he comforts raia by telling her that she can write again by making up stories from the simplest of things. the way they talk with each other also shows that they are still being polite. river uses the address term ‘saya’ while raia uses ‘aku’. though this is a person’s language preference, the choice of address terms indicates that their social relationships have become much closer as their interactions are more frequent. as a continuation of the previous excerpt about the flatiron building, river uses code-switching when he tells the story about how inanimate objects like buildings have stories. again, he wants to emphasize the architecture of the building when he turns to english. thus, this code-switching is done when he talks about a particular topic. he code-switches because architecture is a particular topic that he loves, and he finds it easier for him to talk about architecture in english. using an association that buildings had stories of their own, river wants to encourage raia as a writer she can make up stories using her imagination. those are what river says in his second code-switching in these excerpts. yet, the purpose of his utterance is to clarify his message, or else he wants to encourage raia to keep writing by making up stories about the small things around them, such as the mailbox on the street. excerpt 5 (natassa, 2016: 171) raia : thank you again for dinner. river : aku yang seharusnya berterima kasih, sudah ditemani. raia : good night, riv river : ya.. river : tentang malam itu.. di montauk. waktu aku mencium kamu.. aku.. raia : don’t riv.. you don’t have to say anything. kamu tidak perlu mengatakan apa-apa. the conversation in excerpt 5 takes place in front of raia’s apartment after they go out for dinner. after saying good night, river wants to explain about their kiss that happened in montauk. however, before he could finish, raia already says that river does not have to explain it. the content of the conversation shows a highly affective function and a low referential function. at this stage, river starts using the more informal address term ‘aku’ rather than ‘saya’. this language choice indicates that the relationship between river and raia has progressed in a more intimate direction. in excerpt 5, the code-switching is done mostly by raia. she begins by expressing her thankfulness for dinner and a farewell greeting. yet, when river mentions the night when he kisses raia, she says, “you don’t have to say anything.” with this statement, raia tells river that he does not need to explain to her about the kiss between them. raia says the same sentence both in english and indonesian to put an emphasis on her message. the repetition of the sentence indicates that the message is important, and she wants the listener to really understand it. thus, the function of this code-switching is to give clarification. this function is also found in febryanti, hadi, and 219social relation that.... (clara herlina karjo; fairuza alyarizky) hastuti’s research (2019). excerpt 6 (natassa, 2016: 190) erin : nice green socks, riv. *river menanggapi dengan tersenyum* erin : lo memang suka banget hijau, ya? raia cerita soalnya, tiap hari kaus kaki lo hijau, lucu banget.. aduh! erin merasakan tendangan di bawah meja dari raia river : biasa aja. cuma ini dulu yang beliin istri gue. erin : i’m sorry for what happened ya, riv. river : terima kasih, rin. erin : well, anyway, i’m sure you can’t wait to get back to designing stuff once you’re back in jakarta. gue sama aga kemarin ngobrolin caradas yang di ubud, itu ternyata yang desain lo, ya? restoran favorit gue banget itu. this conversation takes place at erin and raia’s apartment when river stops by after taking his daily walk with raia. as raia’s best friend, erin seems to know a lot about river and considers him as her friend too. this can be seen from their interaction which basically are small talks about river’s habit of using green shock. as erin has known river from raia’s story, she addresses him using the informal pronoun lu-gue. their relation could be considered close, and they have an equal status scale as friends. after making small talk, erin switches to english when she talks about river’s work. she says that river would be pretty excited when he returns to jakarta to design more stuff. the sentence could have been said in indonesian, but erin chooses to say it in english when talking about a particular topic, in this case about architecture, with river. excerpt 7 (natassa, 2016: 19) “raia mulai agak gelisah saat melirik jam dan tinggal lima menit lagi menjelang tengah malam. that damn nye midnight kiss. aga duduk di sebelahnya dan secakep apapun lelaki ini, raia sedang tidak ingin bersentuhan bibir dengan orang asing hanya karena ini malam tahun baru. a kiss should be personal, not a mandatory public event.” the narrative in excerpt 7 explains how raia dislikes the idea of the new year’s eve midnight kiss. in the narrative, the writer tells the reader about raia’s thought that a kiss should be something personal instead of some mandatory public event. the content of the narrative is more affective rather than referential. the writer also uses swear words like ‘damn’, which are usually used when around peers. from her language choice, the writer thinks of the reader as someone close to her. therefore, the social relation between the writer and the reader can be seen as close friends. there are two samples of code-switching in the narrative. the first one is the sentence “that damn nye midnight kiss.” raia is thinking about a tradition to kiss someone on new year’s eve at midnight, and she does not like the idea of kissing a stranger due to the tradition. her dislike is further stated in the next codeswitching “a kiss should be personal, not a mandatory public event.” the writer, as the person who voiced the character’s thoughts in the narration, chooses to write those thoughts in english, while the other narratives are written in indonesian. besides voicing the character’s thoughts, the writer uses code-switching to clarify the speech content to be more understood by the readers. excerpt 8 (natassa, 2016: 29) “raia memilih salah satu bangku duduk sambil menyilangkan kaki, mantelnya dirapatkan, ada segelas latte panas dari starbucks di tangan kanannya, yang ingin dia hirup pelan-pelan seraya menikmati sekeliling. writing is one of the loneliest professions in the world. ketika sedang menulis, hanya ada sang penulis dengan kertas atau mesin tik atau laptop di depannya, hubungan yang tidak pernah menerima orang ketiga. bahkan ketika sedang dalam proses mencari seperti sekarang, raia memang duduk di tengah keramaian, namun dia selalu memposisikan diri sebagai orang luar. just an observer who separates herself from the crowd by building an invisible bubble around her.” in this narrative, the writer talks about how writing is a lonely job. while she is telling the story about the main character, raia, she is actually telling her own feeling as a writer. thus, the content of the narrative can be categorized as having an affective function, in which the writer is trying to convey her feeling to the readers. an affective function usually occurs in an interaction between close friends. thus, it can be implied that the writer thinks of her readers as her close friends. in the first sentence, the writer used codeswitching to describe the disadvantage of being a writer, that is being lonely. this sentence is spoken in english to talk about a particular topic, i.e., the writer’s job. in the next sentences, the writer continues talking about this topic by describing some ‘reasons’ why writing is the loneliest profession in the world. another sentence, “just an observer…” explains further that a writer is just an observer who separates herself from the others. this sentence is used to reiterate what has been stated in the previous sentences in indonesian “….dia memposisikan diri sebagai orang luar.” so, the function of data 18 is the intention to clarify the message. this sentence could have been written in indonesian, but the english sentence could produce an effect of urgency to emphasize the writer’s feeling shown in the narrative. 220 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 215-221 excerpt 9 (natassa, 2016: 57) “robert de niro pernah bilang ‘i go to paris, i go to london, i go to rome, and i always say, ‘there’s no place like new york. it’s the most exciting city in the world now. that’s the way it is. that’s it.’ mungkin itu pulalah yang dirasakan oleh banyak orang sehingga new york menjadi salah satu kota tujuan jutaan imigran, belum lagi kurang-lebih delapan puluh ribu warga amerika yang juga merantau ke sana setiap tahunnya. bisa dikatakan new york mirip jakarta yang juga selalu jadi destinasi pendatang yang ingin mengadu nasib di ibu kota.” in this narrative, the writer quotes robert de niro, who says that new york is the most exciting city in the world even though he has visited other cities such as paris, london, and rome. when quoting a famous person, proverbs, or well-known sayings, people often resort to the original language so that the meaning is not lost. thus, the writer quotes de niro’s statements in english. this quotation is chosen to justify the writer’s opinion about new york that she states in the subsequent sentences in indonesian. quoting another person in the original language is chosen as the way to maintain the linguistic identity (hussein, 2020). excerpt 10 (natassa, 2016: 150) “but you know what’s funny? he has this big impact on me, yet i am still trying to figure him out. river, si laki-laki berkaos kaki hijau dengan senyum tipis tapi tawa yang selalu lepas seperti anak kecil itu, bagiku seperti puzzle, tapi jauh lebih sulit karena aku tidak punya sontekan gambar utuhnya dan aku juga tidak tahu berapa jumlah kepingannya dan dimana puluhan, ratusan, atau bahkan ribuan kepingan itu tersebar. and you know what else is funny? dulu puzzle yang belum selesai kukerjakan selalu membuatku geregetan. kesal, malah. tapi river tidak. he makes me happy when he is incomplete. semua rasa ingin tahuku tentang dia di awal-awal dulu, tidak ada artinya lagi. with the way he makes me feel, i don’t care about that shit anymore. i don’t need to know about his past anymore because his present— and presence—makes me happy. i make him laugh and he makes me laugh and it’s enough.” again, in this narrative, the writer is voicing the main character’s thoughts. this narrative shows what raia feels about river. the content of the narrative has a highly affective function, meaning that the topic of the narrative is personal. the language used by the writer is also informal, as can be seen from the use of the swear word ‘shit’. from this evidence, it can be assumed that the social relation between the writer and the reader is close, like they are friends or from the same group of peers. the first english sentence in this excerpt describes how raia feels about river, how she is trying to figure out what kind of person river is. raia compares river to an incomplete puzzle that makes her anxious, but at the same time, it makes her happy. thus, basically, the english sentences uttered by raia describe her feelings and emotions, and she feels more comfortable expressing all these in english rather than in indonesian. therefore, the functions of raia’s code switch are to talk about a particular topic, i.e., her feelings, and also to clarify the contents of her utterance so that the readers would fully understand it. conclusions the research has three research questions: the first is about the social relation between the characters and between the narrator and the readers; the second is the functions of code-switching by the characters and the narrator; the third is the relation between the social relation and the usage of code-switching. for the first question, the results reveal that the social relationships among the characters develop from distant to intimate along the course of the plot. as the interactions among the characters depend on their personal relationship with each other, their language styles also vary from time to time. however, since all the characters are friends, they mostly use informal language, their status scale is equal. meanwhile, the narrator/writer also considers the readers as one of her peers. in other words, the social relation between the writer and the readers is also close and equal. meanwhile, the function for most of the code switches used in the dialogues and narratives is the intention of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor and when talking about a particular topic. the findings reveal that social relation is closely related to the use of code-switching by the narrator and the characters. it should focus on the writer first. she is writing a novel intended for indonesian readers. as a bilingual speaker and educated abroad, she considers her readers as her peers who might have a good understanding of the code-switching (into english) that she uses in her novels. besides, the setting of the novel is in new york; thus, it would be natural for the characters to switch from indonesian to english and vice versa. all the characters in the novel are bilingual speakers, so code-switching between both languages will be understood by each participant. the codeswitching done by the characters also shows that they have a close relationship with each other. the findings of the research indicate that the use of code-switching in the novel the architecture of love is carefully planned to reflect the social relations between the characters, the narrator, and the readers. thus, it implies that a writer who wishes to apply code-switching in his/her work should also do the same. however, basic knowledge of code-switching should be understood before using them in the novel. the research only discusses one aspect of sociolinguistics, the social relation. for future research, further analysis of other sociolinguistic aspects of codeswitching in literary work can be appealing to carry 221social relation that.... (clara herlina karjo; fairuza alyarizky) out. many other novels also contain code-switching in several languages. thus, an investigation into the cultural aspect of code-switching is also interesting. references adi, w. t. (2018). code sswitching in critical eleven novel. metathesis: journal of english language, literature, and teaching, 2(1), 39-57. https://doi. org/10.31002/metathesis.v2i1.514. al rousan, r., & merghmi, k. (2019). a conversational analysis of arabic-french code switching in algerian tv talk shows. jordan journal of modern languages and literatures, 11(3), 247-271. akhtar, s., baig, f. z., aslam, m. z., khan, t., tayyaba, s., & iqbal, z. (2020). code-switching and identity: a sociolinguistic study of hanif’s novel our lady of alice bhatti. international journal of english linguistics, 10(1), 364-371. https://doi.org/10.5539/ ijel.v10n1p364. febryanti, n. k., hadi, m. z. p., & hastuti, h. 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(2018). types of indonesian-english code-switching employed in a novel. kasetsart journal of social sciences, 41(1), 208-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.004. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 135 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 135-143 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7340 strengthening student character with local cultural metaphors: messages exploration from the tiba meka dance sebastianus menggo1*; sabina ndiung2; pius pandor3 1english department, faculty of teacher training and educational sciences, universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus, ruteng 2elementary school study program, faculty of teacher training and educational sciences, universitas katolik indonesia santu paulus, ruteng jl. a. yani no. 10, ruteng, flores, nusa tenggara timur 86511, indonesia 3philosophy department, sekolah tinggi filsafat widya sasana jl. terusan rajabasa no. 2, pisang candi, malang, jawa timur 65146,indonesia 1sebastian.pradana@gmail.com; 2punyaku79@gmail.com; 32piuspandor@gmail.com received: 18th may 2021/revised: 02nd july 2021/accepted: 14th july 2021 how to cite: menggo, s., ndiung, s., & pandor, p. (2021). strengthening student character with local cultural metaphors: messages exploration from the tiba meka dance. lingua cultura, 15(2), 135-143. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7340 abstract the research aimed to analyze the metaphor constructions and pedagogic values in the tiba meka dance. students’ character building through metaphor construction in traditional dance had not been widely investigated; meanwhile, the metaphors used in this dance contain great values for encouraging students’ positive attitudes. metaphor construction had a fundamental role for the students to have creative thought and deepen their understanding of its nature and role as a real communication language. the proper metaphor’s construction encouraged a student to be a catalyst in cross-cultural communication and appreciated the values contained in the metaphor delivered. the research was carried out between february and december 2019 and involved 30 respondents. the instruments used in collecting data were a set of stationery, questionnaire, interview, documentation, field notes, and recordings. these data were analyzed qualitatively through the phenomenological method. the findings show that the tiba meka dance is inseparable from the use of metaphors, namely bird, vegetation, body, sun, and water metaphors that have great pedagogic values, such as honesty, responsibility, and disciplin that contribute to the character building for students. the ideologies that underline tiba meka dance are morals, identity, and economy. keywords: character building, metaphor construction, people ideology, pedagogic values, tiba meka dance introduction in everyday life, people do not only express their common sense literally but also by using metaphors. metaphor is an alternative way of articulating insights in achieving a new sense, including tiba meka dance in the culture of the manggarai ethnic in eastern indonesia. manggarai speech community has various traditional dances that offer fundamental cultural and philosophic values (jama et al., 2020). figurative expressions are encountered for several types of traditional dance in this region, namely tiba meka dance, roko molas poco, naka meka, sanda dance, gerep ruha ritual, the ritual of a newborn’s naming child, and many more dances. metaphor construction from a tiba meka dance viewpoint strongly indicates the philosophical value that flows from the daily life of the manggarai people. these metaphors have adhered to the tiba meka dance of the manggarai people. the tiba meka dance is preceded by the metaphor constructions uttered by the spokesman at the welcoming stage. the metaphor constructed affects the psychology of dancers and guests. the cultural values are in line with the metaphorical structure expressed and the dancers’ movements, costumes, accessories, and other equipment used in the dance (menggo, 2018; tay, 2017). the spoken metaphors play an essential role in conveying insights and values in a particular speech community (thibodeau, matlock, & flusberg, 2019; 136 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 135-143 tseng, 2017). the metaphors expressed and dance performed can arouse the guests’ emotions who come to a village or an institution. figurative expressions and the art of dance in tiba meka have tremendous power in stimulating guests’ psychology to unite with the native villagers or community members of a particular institution. the metaphors uttered uncountable display values, such as honesty, discipline, self-confidence, politeness, art, bravery, togetherness, religion, and familiarity. all these values ensure students have a strong personality, competent intercultural speakers, which can adapt quickly to society. the family, the traditional dance community, and the school have a vital role in encouraging students’ metaphor competence and positive attitudes in respecting diversity. the use of metaphor implies the language function in traditional dances. metaphor speakers are suggested to speak functionally. the forms of lingual units conveyed certainly contain specific purposes and objectives (menggo, 2017; pandor, 2018). functional communication affirms the inter-dependence of language function, traditional dance, and human life. it guides somebody to become a competent speaker (lee, choi, & marqués-pascual, 2016; menggo et al., 2019). therefore, the speakers are encouraged to perform their functional communication understanding so that they are able to adapt to the real interaction context. this idea strengthens the role of metaphor construction in tiba meka dance. the metaphors constructed in this dance give a sense of security, language function, comfort, and full of intimacy with the guests who come to a village or an institution. metaphor construction is an aesthetic manifestation in customary communication and a strategy to provide a sense of security and comfort (alhusban & alkhawaldah, 2018; hani’ah et al., 2019). they have claimed that metaphor construction is a suitable medium of cultural communication. it contains noble values, offers sound advice on good practice and potential pitfalls guidance, which can be used in cultural rituals and dances. the substance of metaphor construction is also a problem of ideology understanding (díaz-peralta, 2018). ideology is understood as a foundation in constructing metaphors in various traditional dances. the metaphors delivered in the tiba meka dance are based on local cultural values that have many meanings in everyday life. several studies confirm the construction of metaphors as a medium to speakers in delivering the cultural values knowledge and transferring humanistic values in a certain kind of speech community. it can also generate a new understanding for new meaning in human interaction (padillah, firmawan, & purwaningsih, 2016; surip & mulyadi, 2019; susamto, 2018). however, students’ character building through metaphor construction in a traditional dance has not been widely investigated. this void can be revealed in this analysis. a figurative expression is seen as an alternative way to transfer humanistic values and understand all intentions and ambiguous situations in traditional dance. it functions to encourage the speaker’s language intelligence to deliver great insights of cultural values toward interlocutors, a basis to stimulate the thoughts, feelings, personality traits, and recognize cultural knowledge. it is a bridge to unite and establish human brotherhood (brugman, burgers, & vis, 2019; ivanovic, 2017). the research is focused on metaphor construction in a traditional dance, cultural values that support inter-cultural communications, and its impact on students’ character building. some studies have shown that the construction of metaphors is a medium capable of providing three educational domains, namely cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. these three domains are inseparable aspects for assessing the quality of student achievement. metaphor construction plays a vital role in helping students to articulate excellent insights into humanity’s life (creed & mcilveen, 2018). students not only construct metaphors, but they also analyze, evaluate, and then produce appropriate metaphorical expressions. metaphor construction is also part of human belief. it is viewed as the basis for students to have new knowledge and generate a new understanding of particular cultures (negro, šorm, & steen, 2018). metaphor construction shapes people’s perceptions, assumptions, expectations, and actions. besides, metaphor construction provides an excellent linguistic framing, influences students’ thoughts, perceptions, advances students’ understanding of language knowledge, and generates mental images as visual associations on language and discourse (müller, 2018). furthermore, metaphor construction has a functionally complex role, such as cognitive linguistics, role, affective, and pragmatic role (ponterotto, 2007). ponterotto (2007) has further claimed that metaphor construction facilitates the relationship between universal human conceptualization, social experience, and discourse structure. ethnicity is a person’s personality entity, and every ethnicity has rites that have valuable values. it can create and re-create innumerable moral values and beliefs of a particular ethnic group (shuangyun & hongxia, 2020; swami, 2020). the manggarai ethnic group in eastern indonesia has a unique traditional dance, namely tiba meka. the word tiba meka comes from the term tiba, meaning ‘accept’ and meka meaning ‘receive’ or ‘welcome guest’. a newborn child is called meka weru, meaning newly born guests (ndiung & bayu, 2019). in the daily life of the manggarai people, there are several purposes for the arrival of guests in a village or an institution. first is meka lako léjong, meka lako liba (guest(s) who accidentally stopped at a village), such as meka pika barang (those who traversed a village to sell merchandises), meka ata kawé kaba, jarang agu meka masa waé (those who want to find a horse or buffalo, and just drink). second, meka ata poli rekéd be bolon (the guests who have promised to come to a village). the second type of guest is those who come to a village because of a need, such as a 137strengthening student character .... (sebastianus menggo, et al.) government guest, religious figure, or guest of the non-government organization (ngo). they come because there are matters related to family, village, institution, or society. third is meka léjong toé reké (guests who come without notice), such as those of adventures or just leisure. from the three types of guests stated, which are usually welcomed, customary dance is meka ata poli rekéd be bolon (the guests who have promised to come to a village or an institution). the guests included in this category are grouped into several types. first is meka ata undang lité (guests) in traditional ceremonies, such as meka penti (guest of thanksgiving for the harvest), meka randang tana (guest of opening new land), meka caci wagal (guest of thanksgiving for the marriage celebration), meka céar cumpé (guest of the naming of a newborn child celebration), meka congko lokap (guest of the inauguration of a traditional house), and many more. second is meka ata manga perlud agu ité (guests who need with of this villagers), for example, meka mai ba reweng porong ngo acara adatd (guests who came to invite the villagers to attend their celebration), anak rona mai sida (the wife’s family is asking for prayer and support), anak wina lamar anak dité (the man’s family who came to propose to our daughter), and many more. third is meka pemerinta, toko agama, agu meka toko masyarakat (government guest, religious figure, and public figure). they usually come to support material and spiritual for the advancement of a village or an institution. the research merely focuses on analyzing metaphors construction in the tiba meka dance of tiba meka ata poli rekéd be bolon (welcoming guests who have promised to come to a village or an institution). metaphors constructed in this dance provide philosophic values, anthropologic, sociological, psychological, and character values (ndiung, 2017). those values are needed to be activated and internalized in supporting students’ character and manggarai people to have a holistic personality. metaphor construction has been a matter of finding secondary meaning in daily communication, including intercultural communication. speakers are encouraged to interpret a meaning that differs from something abstract to concrete, from its primary to direct application (kendenan, 2017; lai, howerton, & desai, 2019). therefore, metaphor is viewed as a symbolic speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable (nurhaida & marlina, 2017; venkatesan & saji, 2020). moreover, metaphor is viewed as a space of expressions that analogizes particular objects into real everyday life. it acts as a catalyst for transforming a configuration of abstract structures into a specific version of reality (kitis & milapides, 1997; st. clair, 2004). metaphor is understood as a figure of speech in traditional linguistics in which people understand abstract target domains in terms of concrete sources (kelly, 2016). metaphor expressions are used in daily communication and contribute to all domains of human life, including building students’ character and intercultural communications. metaphor culture is used as a toolkit that offers much for social work theory building, practicing, and increasing the understanding of complex phenomena that occurred in society (ahmady et al., 2016; mason, 2018). they have further claimed that an analysis of cultural metaphors is a bridge to discover hidden cultural values. this notion is in line with otoo’s (2007) concept, who reported that metaphors as culturally loaded expressions whose meaning has to be inferred through reference to cultural knowledge. this idea means that there will be variations in the interpretation of metaphorical expressions in daily communication. metaphor use is a part of human life (tseng, 2017). according to tseng (2017), metaphor use has been manifested in everyday verbal expressions. tseng has provided an example of the metaphor ‘thought is food’ or ‘ideas are food’. these metaphors combine insights from cognitive linguistics with an intercultural performative view of food presentation and food metaphors. the metaphor is also a medium for sharing cultural values and beliefs of a particular ethnicity (lang, 2020; roselani, 2020). besides, metaphors could be found in all languages and cultural rituals, and those used refer to the universe (ivanovic, 2017; veliz, 2017). ideology is understood as a set of ideas through which people fashion themselves and others within specific socio-historical contexts and promote the prosperity of certain groups (cavalaro, 2001). ideology transforms the individual into a social being. in this context, ideology is a way of thinking in a particular speech community that leads students to generate a path of understanding cultural values. ideology is an absolute choice in constructing metaphors and an inextricable and irreducible part of shaping a discourse (kitis & milapides, 1997; sunil & verma, 2018). this claim is in line with kelly (2016), who reported that ideology is considered a critical discourse in which people are culturally motivated, reflect the cultural values, beliefs, and behave based on a particular discourse community. ideology is viewed as a belief in organizing moral behavior in a particular speech community (sukri, duile, & daud, 2020). they have affirmed that ideology is a great concept that leads someone to behave toward specific goals. ideology plays an essential role in building students’ character by constructing figurative languages in the learning process. it is a basis for students to present a proper attitude and produce metaphorical languages appropriately to achieve meaningful cultural and intercultural communications in their daily lives. the primary orientation of all educational processes is to guide students with academic excellence, qualified skills, and character and adapt the knowledge they have acquired to the broader community. this idea is aligned with the student evaluation orientation, which would cover three dimensions of the assessment: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (hoque, 2016; sönmez, 2017). character 138 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 135-143 education is absolutely necessary to address these three domains, especially in strengthening students’ affective and psychomotor aspects. it is understood as a conscious effort on interested stakeholders, such as teachers, parents, and community members, to support sensitivity, conscientiousness, and responsibility (amin, mansur, & sulistiono, 2020; haryanto & akhirin, 2018; herman et al., 2020). certain cultural rites’ performance is interpreted as a space for the transformation of values that can form the personality. tiba meka dance has a variety of values that can help the building of a student’s character, such as bravery, responsibility, discipline, empathy, willingness to work together, independence, tolerance of differences, and consistency in thought. these values strengthen the five core values of studentbuilding character, namely religious, nationalist, autonomous, mutual cooperation, and honesty (mansur, 2020; muassomah et al., 2020). figurative languages in local culture have functioned as a medium to help in building the students’ character. indeed, parents, cultural figures, and community members have the same responsibility as educators to teach cultural values through metaphorical construction. this process promotes students’ attitudes and language use in a particular culture. the more people of a certain ethnicity are involved in teaching the language and cultural values, the higher the attitudes and language use of the generation of that ethnicity (menggo & suastra, 2020; thamrin, 2018). methods the research applied a qualitative study with a phenomenological method. it was proposed due to determining natural phenomena and involving several methods to analyze them (bungin, 2005). besides, a phenomenological method was applied in the research, strictly interpreting individuals’ experiences in constructing metaphors and training the traditional dance of tiba meka. the research was done from february to december 2019. it involved 30 respondents who had been teachers that taught local culture subjects in several elementary and junior high schools in the districts of manggarai, east manggarai and west manggarai, east nusa tenggara province, eastern indonesia. the 30 respondents were chosen by using the purposive sampling technique. then, data were obtained through questionnaires, interviews, observation, documentation, and recordings. results and discussions the four results of the research are, first, metaphors used in tiba meka dance are metaphors in welcoming outsiders, government guests, religious leaders, and guests of a community leader. second, three ideologies are encountered in constructing the metaphors; economy, identity, and moral. third, tiba meka dance has uncountable pedagogic values in building students’ character, such as honesty, responsibility, independence, discipline, politeness, art, bravery, togetherness, religion, and familiarity. fourth, metaphor types in tiba meka dance are bird, vegetation, body, sun, and water metaphors. these are found in the six stages of welcoming guests of manggarai people. the first stage is reis tiba di’a (well welcoming). this part has three stages: opening greeting, core activities (excitement expressions), and closing. metaphor’s type obtained in opening greeting refers to body (physical) metaphors and plant metaphors. the physical metaphors found are, “yo, ema/ema pastor/ ema pemerinta, bengkes nai dami anak’m dom manga ranga dite. langkasn dami nawa cai itét ema pastor/ ema pemerinta cé béo dami” (yes sir, we are pleased about your arrival. our soul is happy for your coming to our village), “ema, langkas nawa, mésé békék ita ranga dité” (sir, we welcome you gracefully, and our hearts are happy). besides, the plant metaphor encountered is, “kapu lami ité ema ného wua pau, naka lami ité ného wua pandang” (we welcome you joyfully, like mango and pineapple fruits). these metaphors are constructed for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders. identity and morals are ideologies are found in this opening greeting stage. the metaphors type discovered in the core activities (excitement expressions) is the body (physical) and water and sun metaphors. the physical metaphor expressed is, “leles kébé ema, tadang salang landing kudut cumang ami anak’m cé béo dami” (you have crossed long trips, the hill, and the abyss just because you want to meet us in this village). while the water and sun metaphor is, “mori, éma inung waé tebur itét sengaji,one salang. mori..., neka na’a one nais oné waé’s koés laud, oné leso’s salé’d sangged situ” (sir, maybe you drank the turbid water; hopefully, it all faded with running water and sunset). these three types of metaphors are constructed for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders, and moral is an ideology given in this stage. then, in the closing stage, animal and plant metaphors are found (figure 1), ema, hoo kin manuk bakok agu tuak robo te kapu ité lami (this is a white rooster and palm wine as a sign of our acceptance). the white rooster used in this ritual symbolizes sincerity in welcoming outsiders, honesty, responsibility, and hard work in supporting the family in the daily life of the manggarai community. the palm wine is also utilized in the procession of welcoming guests (see figure 1). many metaphors used in the daily life of the manggarai people are always associated with the palm wine tree, such as totality, kindness, and the power of togetherness in mutual progress). these metaphors are uttered for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders, which is ideology taught in this closing stage. the use of the word ema (sir) can be replaced by ende (madam) or use both depending on male or female guests. ema and ende are used by the 139strengthening student character .... (sebastianus menggo, et al.) guests of the government and the public; then, the word of ema pastor (priest) is used for a religious leader. figure 1 palm wine and a white rooster the second stage is raés agu raos cama laing (various joys and togetherness). three stages are also done in this part, namely greeting, intimacy response, and closing. the physical metaphors are encountered in this greeting stage, “yo...ema, néka babang agu langat sanggéd kasi asi dami anak’m cé béo ho’o” (yes sir, do not be surprised and stunned by our limitation in this village). the metaphors are uttered for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders; then, the economy functions as the ideological aspect in this opening greeting stage. in the stage of intimacy response, the physical metaphors are expressed, “ongko weki dokm ce’e béo, tadangs sanggéd gori bana oné leso ho’o ai mésén nuk té kapu ité” (we gather and sit together because we are delighted and enthusiastic when you visit our village), “ema, toé ngancéng kapu langsung lami mendim anakm, ai mésén békék, langkasn nawa ditét mori” (sir, we want to hold on to our lap but our body is small, you are much bigger than us, and we are tiny for you). identity and morals are ideologies given in this stage. in the closing stage, animal and plant metaphors are found, “ema, ho’o kid tuak agu manuk kapu dami anak naka ité” (sir, take this palm wine and white rooster so that you can take a rest and relax). the moral is the ideology taught in this closing stage. the third and fourth stages are pandé cepa (physical and spiritual togetherness) celebration, and inung cama laing (drinking together as a sign of intimacy). the third stage highlights on giving betel nut without metaphor construction. betel nut is served by women. even without metaphor construction, pandé cepa is full of symbolic meaning, such as permanent brotherhood, fellowship, intimacy, and respect for diversity. in the culture of manggarai, betel nut is firstly served after greeting the guests, and it is used as a symbolic welcome. betel nut mixed with betel lime, which in use does not run out soon. this utterance symbolizes that brotherhood for the manggarai people is done permanently. moreover, betel nut also symbolizes fellowship and intimacy. enjoy betel nut means guests are part of the manggarai family and enjoy the atmosphere of fellowship. after giving betel nut, then serves waé kolang (drinking water) as an appetizer. welcoming guests with drinking water (coffee, tea, mineral water, or palm wine) is manggarai people’s culture. drinking water is usually served with snacks, such as cake, cassava, banana, yam, and other local foods. the fifth stage is tegi reweng (asking for edification or motivation). three stages are also done in this part, namely greeting, recognition, and closing. the physical metaphors are discovered in this greeting stage, “yo, ema, am babang ité ema landing ami anak toé baca ranga’m” (yes…, sir may be surprised seeing our face is not radiant). the metaphors are uttered for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders, then the economy as an ideology in this opening greeting stage. in the recognition stage, the physical metaphors are also found, “am ruak ité ema lélo ami mendi anak’m, toé ngancéng baca surak” (maybe sir is angry because we cannot read), “lélo lité ami anak’m am ngondé ba weki. somba ta, ema” (look at us as your children who might be lazy. forgive us, sir). the moral is an ideology given in this stage. in the closing stage, plant and physical metaphors are found, “ho’o kin tuak dami kudut tegi mu’u luju agu lema emas dité” (this our wine to ask for your valuable statement, sir). the moral is an ideology taught in this closing stage. the sixth stage is wali di’a (asking for safety for guests). four stages are done in this part, such as thankful greeting, expectation, apology, and closing. the physical metaphors are expressed in the thankful greeting stage, “yo, ema, delek kéta nai dami dengé reweng di’a dité. mai dité ema kudut pandé jari mosé dami” (yes, sir, our heart is happy to hear your advice. your arrival makes our life better and full of hope). the metaphors uttered for government guests, religious leaders, and community leaders are then moral as an ideology in this stage. in the expectation stage, the physical metaphors are also found, “tegi dami ema kamping mori agu ngaran porong téing koe ité jari di’a agu mosé lewe kudut ngancéng kin ité mai cé béo dami nggerolon” (our prayer to god, you are blessed a long life and success in business so that we can meet again in the future). moral and economy are ideologies delivered in this stage. moreover, in the apology stage, physical, water, and sun metaphors are obtained, “ema, am manga salan ba weki dami, yo… somba ta… ema, néka koé na’a lité oné nawa, agu néka kandi koe lité oné nai. porong oné waés laud, oné lesos saléd” (sir, if there are utterances and actions are displeased given by us to you, we are very sorry, sir. please, do not keep those things in your heart and soul. may all be thrown away with running river and sunset). in the closing stage, water metaphors are found, “ho’o kin tuak baro sala dami anak’m” (this is palm wine as a sign of our apologies). the moral is an ideology given in this closing stage. the metaphorical construction in these six stages clearly shows the values of character embedded inside, namely responsibility, independence, discipline, respect for diversity, and familiarity. these values are consistent with the questionnaire results and are validated by the data from interviews with 30 140 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 135-143 respondents. based on the respondents’ observations, it is noted that all the students who have been directly involved in this rite display a high level of encouragement of the values of a character. in welcoming the guest from every stage described has different metaphoric expressions and contains character values for students and the manggarai people, such as openness, intimacy, humility, politeness, honor, responsibility, and courtesy. in internalizing these values, the role of the spokesman, community members, and dance trainers (educators) are crucial in constructing the appropriate message. however, not all guests are welcomed customarily dance. the guests who are welcomed by the tiba meka dance (figure 2) are custom guests, government, religious leaders, and guests of community leaders (pandor, 2020). figure 2 tiba meka dance as carried out at the tiba meka dance, the dance of welcoming the guest contributes to the intercultural communications for the students and manggarai people. this dance encourages students’ character building (ndiung & bayu, 2019). they have further reported that there are six stages of welcoming the guest in the manggaraian tradition called tiba meka (welcoming guest) dance. the guests welcomed with this dance are commonly meka ata poli rekéd be bolon (the guests who have promised to come to a village), such as customary guests, government, religious leader, and community guest leader. several metaphor groups are constructed in each tiba meka dance. those metaphors consist of bird, vegetation, body, sun, and water metaphors. these metaphors are applied based on morals, identity, and economic ideologies—ideology as a rationale for tiba meka spokespersons in constructing metaphors. some philosophical values within tiba meka dance, such as anthropologic, sociological, and psychological values able to live in harmony in welcoming guests of this ethnic (ndiung, 2017; pandor, 2020). moral ideology is an instrument for the manggarai ethnic group. it is used to teach and advise the students or the younger generation to show their openness, humility, honor, honesty, and courtesy. moral ideology is used as a basis for shaping the speaker’s personality, who highly respect the values of diversity (ellemers et al., 2019). moral ideology stimulates students to be competent inter-cultural speakers and survives in the multi-backgrounds community (chowdhury, 2016; sua, anshari, & maman, 2017). they claim that moral value expressions could educate speakers to respect diversity, be gentle, honest, and polite toward each other in running everyday life. the next metaphor used in this dance is based on the ideology of identity. the metaphor of “yo... ema, ngalis kéta nai dami anak’m woko cai ité ema pemerinta/pastor. nggalas kéta dami nawa woko ita ranga’d ité ema adak cé béo dami” (yes sir, we are very happy for your arrival. our soul is happy for your coming in our village) shows the villagers’ dignity in welcoming guest. this expression makes the guest truly glorified, appreciate their cultural heritage, and understand the villagers’ economic limitations. metaphors are constructed to reflect the personality and socio-economic conditions of an ethnicity (vengadasamy, 2011). metaphor construction is also found, “yo, ema, néka babang agu langat sanggéd kasiasi dami anak’m cé’ béo ho’o” (yes sir, do not be surprised and stunned by our limitation). this metaphor construction indicates the economic limitation of the villagers. villagers show their transparency of economic limitation but still glorify toward guests who come to their village. economy ideology should be understood by the speakers in constructing metaphors that are relevant to the situation of all villagers (mckinnon, 2013). the metaphorical construction of each stage of the tiba meka dance has the values of life that can strengthen the students’ character. in fact, meka dance has tremendous value in developing students’ holistic personalities, i.e., individuals with academic excellence and universal human values. the research respondents have emphasized that the tiba meka dance could stimulate students’ thoughts in interpreting the various metaphorical utterances they hear in this dance. moreover, students are encouraged to be directly involved in this procession for forming a responsible and civilized personality. students’ direct involvement in the metaphor construction is the correct approach to internalizing the five key values of character education: religion, nationalism, independence, cooperation, and honesty. strengthening these values reduces intolerance and racism that can undermine the value of citizenship literacy. the sense of honesty, responsibility, sensitivity, and civic literacy is urgent and essential to students’ lives today (abdullah et al., 2019; istiqomah, 2019; sari, zainiyati, & hana, 2020). conclusions tiba meka dance in the manggarai ethnic group of east indonesia is thick with metaphors constructed based on ideological backgrounds. these metaphors consist of bird, vegetation, human body, sun, and water metaphors. they are used in six stages of tiba meka rite, 141strengthening student character .... (sebastianus menggo, et al.) namely (1) réis tiba di’a (well welcoming), (2) raés agu raos cama laing (various joys and togetherness), (3) pandé cepa (physical and spiritual togetherness), (4) inung waé kolang (drinking together as a sign of intimacy), (5) tegi reweng (asking for motivation), and (6) wali di’a (asking safety for guests). three ideologies as the basis for metaphorical construction in the tiba meka rite are moral, identity, and economy. these ideologies have been part of the life of the manggarai people. all people in this region, particularly the custom spokespeople, students, and dance trainers of tiba meka in this speech community, are recommended to use metaphoric expressions in welcoming guests, keep the cultural heritage, teach the students and the younger generation to be able to adopt the character values of tiba meka dance in their daily life, such as honesty, responsibility, independent, discipline, politeness, brave, togetherness, religion, and familiarity. references abdullah, i., hudayana, b., setiadi, s., kutanegara, p. m., & indiyanto, a. 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(2011). metaphors as ideological constructs for identity in malaysian short stories. the southeast asian journal of english language studies, 17(special issue), 99-107. venkatesan, s., & saji, s. (2020). reflections on the visceral: metaphors and illness experience. rupkatha journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities, 12(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v12n1.12. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 237 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 237-243 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7619 parents and teachers collaboration in home education: challenges, opportunities, and insights luisito m. nanquil* college of arts and letters, graduate school, bulacan state university, city of malolos malolos, bulacan, philippines luisitonanquil@gmail.com received: 04th august 2021/revised: 26th october 2021/accepted: 29th october 2021 how to cite: nanquil, l. m. (2021). parents and teachers collaboration in home education: challenges, opportunities, and insights. lingua cultura, 15(2), 237-243. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7619 abstract the research aimed to analyze how parents and children dealt with home education as well as its effectiveness. on the so-called new normal, many impediments and disruptions came to the lives of stakeholders. thousands of schools were forced to shut down due to financial constraints and/or issues. parents had thought of finding an alternative way to continue with the schooling of their children. in the philippines, a modular approach was introduced, representing the home education/schooling type of instruction. this was the purpose of the research. five parents served as the participants of the research in which ethnography was used as its qualitative approach. it is found that homeschooling and education are proved to be responsive and relevant to many people due to tangible benefits and perks enjoyed by the learners and parents. on the other hand, parents and children also see and experience some challenges in doing the modules’ requirements. it is advised that parents, children (learners), and teachers need to work in collaboration for the successful outcomes of homeschooling. another issue is how parents should perform an assessment with their children as learners. however, teachers should not only be there for online consultation. this method of teaching and learning is still in the process of adjustment, but soon people involved in this paradigm will realize its value and role in today’s global education and situation. keywords: homeschooling, home education, modular approach, flexible learning, parents teachers collaboration introduction parents are involved in their children as evidenced by the current situation in which children have no choice but to stay home, study, and answer learning modules. this mode of learning requires the partnership between subject teachers and parents. at first, hardship and some issues occur in the local setting, but gradually, both parents and children have started adjusting and adopting the process. when all families want their children to learn safely, homeschooling is one of the methods. in the philippines, this method faces many challenges for parents, teachers, and children because it is something new for them. the transition from the traditional classroom with teachers to home education with family is not an easy adjustment. the research examines how parents and children carry out homeschooling as an alternative method during uncertain times. it describes and discusses how parents and children process and carry out the modules under the homeschooling program. to give justice to the research, the researcher intentionally cites scholarly papers for serving as support. many teachers of various specialism are perplexed on how they can effectively and adequately address issues on assessment. they often exclaim that the situation is challenging due to connectivity issues. however, teachers and educators still need to find ways and means to gauge or measure the learning experiences and performances of the students either onsite or online. for more than a decade, educators have grasped the distinctions between evaluation and assessment. assessment may be given immediately after the lesson and is flexible; that is, many tasks and activities are helpful for this activity. the result of comprehension assessment in 238 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 237-243 southeast asia indicates that the philippines lags among its counterparts and neighbors in the region. after the airing of this issue, an ocean of reactions bombards social media platforms. netizens are blaming the education department and public-school teachers for the shocking outcome of that assessment. the researcher ponders the situation, as citizens of the philippines do not have to blame public school teachers but instead help them achieve professional development in many ways. from multiple perspectives, the research conducted in other countries can help people analyze the situation. it has started from the very core of the problem by identifying the needs and problems of the setting. educators have their strengths and weaknesses. from this view, somehow, it can be identified the point which needs to enhance or correct. if public teachers are provided with robust quality assurance and relevant training, they can be prepared for any circumstances and challenges that will confront the academic setting. however, this suggestion is up to now not working and remains a ‘plan’. what the government needs to do is do systemic change in terms of educational leadership and launch effective programs to upgrade and uplift the lives of teachers. if teachers are already prepared with all the tasks and challenges of teaching, they can practice and design lessons and activities that will help learners improve and achieve better results. on several readings, it is understood that assessment tools are only a component of curriculum design. if the curriculum is holistic and flexible, it can cater to the diversity and needs of the target learners; most likely, there is a chance to dramatically and drastically assist and guide learners toward better performance. done in many kinds of methods, experts and other members of the academe should evaluate resources and materials based on the learning styles and multiple intelligences. this evaluation form should emanate from the learning theories, and models are explored and tested through the years. more importantly, listed as one of the main concerns in the evaluation phase is applying and analyzing the tools, technology, and emerging practices that may be useful and functional in creating learning opportunities for the learners. another construct that needs attention is homeschooling and/or home education. since the pandemic hit the learning environment last year, parents chose to educate or homeschool their children. although, this is classified as modular (referring to deped’s modality). in select readings, it is discovered how homeschooling and education among other countries require much preparation by those involved in the tedious process. if it has its drawbacks, tangible benefits are also seen from the modality itself, the reason why many celebrities and wealthy families have chosen this type of learning and teaching approach. both parents and teachers are responsible for guiding children and teenagers to build esteem and confidence, handling stress and anxiety well, becoming more resilient, receptive, collaborating and communicating effectively, and listening more closely to each other. educators have to pay attention to sel (social emotional learning) and start developing the skills essential to teenagers and children. according to david spencer in macmillan education (2021), ‘feeling good’ matters so much in the classroom as learners try to process ideas in their minds and socialize with their classmates. macmillan education (2021) has explained that a person has to manage and understand his/her emotions and express his/her feelings and thoughts more effectively. through this, the student or person can manage and understand other people and their emotions. if they can understand other people’s feelings and behavior, they can interact more effectively. homeschooling in the philippines is offered due to the impact of the health crisis, although some welloff families have been with this method for a long. as said earlier, home education has its place when both teachers and parents try to avoid the spread of the virus; as such, the feasible way of educating children is homeschooling, where public schools provide modules to continue learning despite the global pandemic crisis. many universities around the globe are offering distance education courses and programs to meet the educational needs of students and stay attuned to technology. the research of fidalgo et al. (2020) has attempted to navigate the steps some higher learning institutions have to follow and meet to offer such courses and programs. moreover, the researchers explore the perceptions, attitudes, and willingness of the said institutions to provide guidance and recommendations for expanding the use of distance education formats. results of the research further state that participant-students are interested in taking distance education courses. parents and children need to develop resourcefulness, which is a great skill to have. resourcefulness is the ability to urgently and creatively face obstacles and find solutions and is a determining factor for success. home education requires parents and children to be resourceful and search for educational resources in the community and on the web. home education requires patience and dedication. technically, zero expenses have to be spent on home education, but providing educational experiences is priceless. in life, there are ups and downs same is true with homeschooling. there will always be problems, just like the thought that life has its imperfections. however, as parents and children deal with varied circumstances, they will be able to cope with the challenges and trials. homeschooling can also be an effective way of bonding with the family. while parents educate their children, they can share their thoughts, dreams, and other topics for building a social and emotional atmosphere. about five million children worldwide are homeschooled. this includes an estimated 50.000 to 100.000 in the uk. experts foresee a rise of 80% annually, implying that more parents are interested 239parents and teachers collaboration.... (luisito m. nanquil) in exercising their right to educate their children themselves. home education does not mean a single method of teaching the child, but rather, this approach employs a wide range of methods, strategies, and techniques to ensure the transfer of learning. parents have many choices when it comes to the materials and resources they will use for their children. they can check the community and websites for further information and research, which can help them a lot. home education is, also known as homeschooling, is a modality in which learners stay at home and use modules for learning aside from online consultations with their teachers. parents are given orientation and training by teachers. many families have long been into this kind of modality because of the wide range of benefits they could get, such as improving examinations, spending quality time with children, monitoring performance, safety, and security. through homeschooling, parents and children can easily find resources such as books, magazines, newspapers, and modules essential to the learning process. moreover, many people worldwide have seen a high quality of learning, so they have decided to switch to this type of learning modality and approach. according to futureschool (2021), homeschooling has been tested by time for effectiveness and relevance. parents have the option to select a properly wide range of courses fitted to the needs and interests of their children. this kind of instruction also offers flexibility in consultation, conversation, and feedback. when it comes to evaluation, experts have noticed that children have improved in performance in examinations. parents also claim that their children have shown understanding and mastery of concepts and skills, as indicated by tests and interpersonal interaction results. the website also proves how homeschooling could be very effective in honing the emotional and social domains of the child. teachers and parents notice how children develop values, confidence, and comprehension, as shown by children when they deal with parents and their neighbors. from the foregoing discussion and claims, it can be inferred that a home education program is one of the best options during times of disruption and uncertainty, just like what the world is experiencing at the very moment. it is advised that quality home education programs should possess an organized curriculum, syllabus, and modules. the content should be friendly and readable for children and students. in addition, supplementary materials must be offered by the school in anticipation of possible questions and confusion that both children and parents might experience. it is also clever if the subject teachers and mentors have clear and accessible communication lines on the time homeschooling has commenced already. through this, all imperative and thoughtful questions can be channeled to the teachers smoothly and conveniently. family engagement matters to the success of schools and students. family engagement is linked to better educational outcomes, as revealed by researchers dealing with educators, students, and families about promising practices in the field. mapp (2021) has explained how family engagement does at home and in the community to support the learning and development of children. it likewise encompasses the importance of a shared partnership between home and school for successful outcomes. such engagement is pivotal to school improvement. it also contributes to the improvement of instructional materials and proficiency of teachers because there are reflection and feedback. in the new normal, there is a need for parents and teachers to be reflective, patient, creative, and passionate in teaching students. teachers, as partners, can design the most attractive and eye-catching instructional materials for learners. they can also employ various learning assessment tools in gauging the learners. they have to be responsive and reflexive in doing these tasks. as regards possible difficulties and blunders, a well-prepared lesson plan and wellequipped language teacher can always endure the tests of time by being ready and spontaneous as he faces all the academic challenges around him. homeschooling can be an instrument for parents and teachers to engage in more profound reflections about the lessons they have taught and the strategies to make the children and students easily understand the modules and lessons. the principle of clarity of focus explains that all assessments must be linked closely to the long-term outcomes that learners should achieve and the short-term enabling outcomes that have been taken/connected from these longterm outcomes. it must be identified which outcomes each assessment item is testing. this is another way of elucidating/emphasizing one of the fundamental principles of assessment – all assessment items should be valid. that is, they must measure what they intend to measure so that outcomes are valid, reliable, and credible. results must be consistent and fair by linking learning outcomes and assessment items. bubb and jones (2020) have attempted to identify key areas and issues experienced by pupils in engaging in homeschooling. they point out important issues such as digital learning, creativity, class participation, progress and development, group tasks, parent and teacher relationship, and parents’ ability to respond to their children. the research also identifies the struggles of teachers in preparing their lesson plans. liberto and english (2016) have investigated practices employed by teachers in homeschooling. some elements being considered are the syllabus, timetable, and books. it is also discovered that eclectic home educators try to look into several educational options to help students and parents. some teachers fear that home education might compromise the quality learning process. cook (2020) has analyzed how home-based learning can promote self-directed learning. she explores the challenges that parents, teachers, and learners face in home-based learning. she also underlines the needed support of teachers and 240 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 237-243 parents for home education to become meaningful and successful. many children are not yet ready for independent learning, and several teachers lack support and resources to facilitate home-based learning properly. bartolome, mamat, and masnan (2017) have underlined the important role of parents’ involvement in the schooling and education of children. their literature review has found out that it is imperative that schools have to consider the cultural and social diversity of parents when it comes to school involvement. moreover, in this research, the researchers clearly distinguish and define differences between engagement and involvement of parents in school activities and tasks. wen, gwendoline, and lau (2021) have discussed how ict (information and communication technology) can help in the readiness and preparation of teachers and schools to offer home-based learning. they investigate the important role of the integration of technology in distance learning. they also consider the pedagogical design and learning effectiveness. miller and lin (2019) have explored how families extend their support to children in their early years through various ways. in their research, families use the digital camera to capture home-based tasks and activities necessary to support and guide children in their growing years and learning phases. this research describes socio-economic differences of families using digital cameras and documents gathered from the families. the research attempts to describe and analyze how teachers and parents experience homeschooling/ education as a modality during uncertain times. furthermore, it narrates the struggles and challenges encountered by teachers and parents in implementing this modality. educators are often influenced by perspectives and philosophies about instructional practices and strategies offered by leaders, presenters, and books. students and pupils should be the most active members of the classroom setting. some teachers claim that their first year of teaching was unsuccessful because they were still crawling on the system and facing a stage of adjustment. students have to be the most active in the classroom since the core of the learning process is the learners. learners tend to gain more and recall ideas effectively when engaging in hands-on and collaborative learning activities. as seen around the globe, organizations today seek applicants who are problem solvers, leaders, communicators, and policymakers who can work well in teams. those skills are better honed and upgraded in an active classroom (rollins, 2017). in a student-centered classroom, structure and predictability are required to achieve formulated goals. it has been proved that effective learning structures in place are even more important in the active classroom setting than in the teacher-centered delivery because learners are moving and collaborating. the lesson framework is likewise essential because it balances student autonomy and classroom setting. in some instances, rethinking lesson frameworks can ensure that each lesson component has a purposeful and distinct mission. in the lesson framework, variety encourages thinking and curiosity. teacher delivery is important for parts of the content. teachers provide directions and make decisions to achieve a higher quality of work. offering students choices about how they process and complete tasks enable them higher autonomy and increases engagement. it also provides them with varied routes into comprehension, maximizing the opportunity for successful learning. the inclusion of multiple approaches to learning is possible through the application of multimodality in classrooms. multimodality is the application of multiple communication channels such as sound, gesture, image, writing, and video within one medium, allowing students to gain meaning in various ways. by encouraging imagination and creativity, students are able to form and express their views to better understand the world around them. inclusive classrooms should promote critical thinking, communication, and collaboration (macmillan education, 2021). in a positive learning environment, learners are engaged, safe, connected, and supported. in this aspect, the role of collaboration plays a significant role. by incorporating collaborative and learnercentered strategies, teachers can make a difference in students’ lives, hence, preparing them for the real world and the workplace. when teachers use multimodality and progressive tasks in classrooms, they provide alternative routes for the learners and create opportunities for them to pick up gold along the way. as expedition leaders, teachers can observe which paths their adventurers (learners) choose and encourage them to reflect on useful ones. the activities, strategies, approaches that students identify as useful can be compared with gold nuggets picked up on their way. these gold nuggets help students for future learning and help teachers differentiate and cater to students’ attitudes, skills, and performances. another approach is to provide progressive tasks that slowly increase difficulty, allowing learners to work at their own pace and empowering them to work independently. some students work quickly through tasks. what matters most is students’ progress from their beginning points, not that they all work the same (tomlinson, 2017). some students need extra challenges, while others need extra assistance. shearer in armstrong (2018) has developed multiple intelligences diagnostic assessment scales, which is regarded as the single best tool for assessing students’ multiple intelligences and is related to simple observation, which is readily available to all. pricemitchell in armstrong (2018) holds that research in cognitive psychology applied to education supports the belief that children benefit from instructional approaches that help them ponder their learning processes. in connection with multiple intelligences, archer in armstrong (2018) has illustrated a student 241parents and teachers collaboration.... (luisito m. nanquil) diagnosed with adhd (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) who has a penchant and performs well in a highly stimulating environment matched in a job as a firefighter or an emergency room worker. meanwhile, a student diagnosed with asd (autism spectrum disorder) who has a number/logic smart knack for computers and coding may find jobs related to the information technology field. polya in armstrong (2018) has introduced heuristics as a loose collection of strategies, rules of thumb, guidelines, and suggestions for logical problem-solving. examples of heuristic strategies include finding analogies to problems people want to solve, breaking down various parts of the problem, and proposing possible solutions to the problem. polya has further added that heuristics provides students with informal logical maps to help them find their way around the unfamiliar academic field. methods the research centers on how parents and children view homeschooling based on their experiences. it also looks into the success of homeschooling through collaboration among teachers, parents, and children. to process textual data, the research employs ethnography, which is a form of qualitative method. ten participants in the research are compromised of parents and teachers. the researcher considers working parents and language teachers who have been in the field of teaching for more than a decade. further, this research seeks data using interview and messenger group chat as an alternative to focus-group discussion. all collected responses are converted into textual data, which are further examined using content analysis. it is also the endpoint or product of the research to provide a holistic conclusion about home education in the philippine educational setting. results and discussions participants express their views regarding homeschooling by sharing their experience on implementing the learning modules and how they are delivered and taught. the first participant has said that he is having difficulty discussing the module because he is unaware of the discipline. the second participant claims that the module contains many exercises and questions to be answered by the child. the third participant opines that each module is comprehensible and straightforward based on the child’s response. another participant observes that teaching the child is a bit challenging because closeness between family and the child gives the child a form of resistance to listening. still, another participant believes that the module is complete, although the difficulty is how parents will get training on how they can properly guide their children on the use of modules. the parents say that they get tired of getting an explanation on something unfamiliar. the easier way to know is by looking for it on the internet. the child gets more time to read and understand concepts when guided by parents. it is observed through social media chatting and/ or messaging that most participants are now enjoying the modular approach of home education, although there are challenges and predicaments, such as the first session being toxic, tiring, and weary. the parents have to get some clear directions on how the module must be taught among their children. connectivity is poor and unstable. as the months’ pass, parents and children start to get used to and exposed to the tasks. parents also request online coaching from subject teachers for topics beyond their understanding and knowledge. through this, questions from their children will be properly addressed even online. another question is how parents and children prepare for the assessment tools or questions without manipulating answers or avoiding coaching, which is biased. based on the textual data, most participants describe homeschooling/education as a timely alternative approach to educating children amidst an ongoing global crisis. from their views, there are advantages of being homeschooled, such as closer family ties, flexible schedule, the safety of children, and pace of instruction. however, there are also marked downsides such as lack of idea for instruction, too many tasks and questions to answer, and access to connectivity when desired to consult teachers for clarifications. the researcher and participants have a focusgroup discussion online using google meet. the points and reflections raised by participants are anchored on the question, “what problems have you encountered in language teaching in relation to homeschooling?” their honesty and sincerity are evident during the online discussion and conversation. from their responses, key ideas are formed and coded. the actual textual data that the researcher transcribed is carefully and promptly described and analyzed to form meaningful and relevant conclusions. the researcher ensures the trustworthiness of the data by checking and reviewing the problems and responses of participants before finalizing the synthesis. the participants are also consulted regarding the result of the analysis to build credibility and trustworthiness of the findings. the life experiences of the language teachers’ participants contribute a lot to the development of this research. these are some conversation between participants, the researcher, and teachers. “i think only 20% of parents support their children because they too have business or work to perform. their priority is earning a living for survival.” “communication with parents is badly needed in this home education program.” “parents have to cooperate with us teachers for the success of this modules.” “supportive parents have important role in motivating their children to participate in activities.” 242 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 237-243 “learners are not able to complete their modules on time.” “in the online class, students are not attending.” “there is connectivity problem always.” “some parents answer the modules instead of their children.” based on the conversation and discussion with teachers and parents, one of the concerns they have been encountering is the inability of the children to answer the modules because they are confused, unaware of the lessons, and lack support and motivation from their parents. on the other hand, parents do not have the time to monitor the modules of their children for homeschooling due to their busy schedule for work and other circumstances and tasks. some learners are not attending their online support/classes due to unstable or poor connectivity, which is a big factor when it comes to online learning and teaching. students are not able to complete and comply with the module requirements because they lack support and motivation from their parents. in some cases, the parents are answering the modules, and that case is not controlled by the teachers. from the discussion and conversation, this research proves that the success of homeschooling is based on collaboration, communication, and support between parents and teachers. conclusions the new normal has proven the resiliency of filipino teachers. despite difficulties in communication and connectivity, they (teachers) try their best to educate students in different modalities that can connect their ideas and lessons. one of these modalities is homeschooling which is similar to the modular approach. each week, teachers prepare, submit, and evaluate the learners’ course modules (taught and guided by parents). on its first pilot testing, which covered the academic year 2020-2021, people criticized how the teachers designed modules. there were lapses and blunders on grammar and directions. this event should not stop teachers from their objective of providing quality instruction to students. if the modality and mode of learning are evaluated, experts can create insights and suggestions that will improve the materials and motivate stakeholders to educate the filipino students regardless of the new set all of the people are in. learning assessments can be revised and improved based on human needs, diversity, and learning theories. assessment of learning at home received attention and controversy in the philippine setting because there are rumors and claims that it is the parents who are answering the course modules and children spend little time reading the materials. hence, the learning process is somehow obstructed, and homeschooling goals are evidently ruined. the research examines how parents and children carry out homeschooling as an alternative method during uncertain times. it describes and discusses how parents and children process and carry out the modules under the homeschooling program. based on the responses and observation of the researcher, it is found that parents and children are able to adjust to the process and requirements under homeschooling. they spend quality time with children through teaching and consultation. moreover, they can check the child’s progress every time they take new lessons from the modules. on the other hand, some disadvantages of home education are also seen in the study. children sometimes get bored when loads of information are given to them. some parents do not have an idea of the lesson found in the module. for some modules, errors are seen by parents and children. on the whole, parents and children view homeschooling as good alternative schooling because of affordability (it is free) and the quality time they spend with their children. not only do children learn from the experience, but they also absorb the values and skills shown by parents. the research results recommend that schools double-check the contents of the module for home education and schooling. they can form a pool of experts who will do the rigorous process of proofreading and revising course modules before distributing them to homes. teachers also need holistic training for the preparation and development of materials and modules, while teachers should train parents on how modules are to be taught with their children in a homeschooling way. anchored on the research findings, recommendations are being offered to readers. homeschooling requires a thorough study of the needs and context of a particular place or location. parents who will be active participants of the method should be trained and oriented with home education rules, approaches, and practices. they should be acquainted with the contents and competencies indicated in the specific learning modules. the function of having stable connectivity is a must in home education primarily because if there are qualms and doubts about the lessons, the parents and children can instantly search on the internet the possible answer to their questions. meanwhile, in the assessment phase, the modules already contain self-testing activities and summative tests that will measure how far the learners have gained ideas and knowledge. students show the macro-skills when they answer questions, talk or converse with family, and listen to directions read and given by their parents. finally, critical and reflective thinking skills must be present as well on top of all other skills when they are able to make sound decisions; that is a form of reflective thinking skill. teachers, parents, and children have to collaborate for the success of this homeschooling/education. in the absence of the teacher for many sessions, connectivity plays an imperative role where both parents and children can browse the internet for clarity and search for meaning and information. 243parents and teachers collaboration.... (luisito m. nanquil) references armstrong, t. (2018). multiple intelligences in the classroom (4th edition). minnesota: acsd. bartolome, m. t., mamat, n., & masnan, a. h. (2017). parental involvement in the philippines: a review of literatures. international journal of early childhood care, 6, 41-50. https://doi.org/10.37134/saecj. vol6.5.2017. bubb, s., & jones, m. (2020). learning from the covid-19 home schooling experience: listening to pupils, parents/carers and teachers. improving schools, 23(3), 209-222. https://doi. org/10.1177%2f1365480220958797. cook, m. (2020). the reality of home-based learning during covid-19: roles of parents, teachers, and school administration in promoting self-directed learning. journal of school administration research and development, 5(2), 86-92. https://doi.org/10.32674/ jsard.v5is2.284. fidalgo, p., thormann, j., kulyk, o., & lencastre, j. a. 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(2019). making home-based learning visual: family perspectives on early learning and development though photographs. school community journal, 29(2), 9-30. rollins, s. p. (2017). teaching in the fast lane: how to create active learning experiences. minnesota: ascd. shearer, b. (2018). multiple intelligences in teaching and education: lessons learned from neuroscience. journal of intelligence, 6(3), 38-45. http://dx.doi. org/10.3390/jintelligence6030038. tomlinson, c.a. (2017). how to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms. minnesota: association for supervision and curriculum development. wen, y., gwendoline, c. l. q., & lau, s. y. (2021). ictsupported home-based learning in k-12: a systematic review of research and implementation. techtrends 65, 371-378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-02000570-9. 35cina benteng: .... (billy nathan setiawan) cina benteng: the latest generations and acculturation billy nathan setiawan intercultural communication, school of arts, languages, and cultures, university of manchester oxford road, m13 9pl, manchester, united kingdom billy.setiawan@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk abstract the aim of this paper was to investigate the acculturation process encountered by the two latest generations of cina benteng. a skype interview was conducted with two young cina benteng descents. the analysis was also supported by insightful remark from the parents of the two interviewees. this study discovers that the two generations seem to respond to the acculturation process in different ways. however, although some traditions are no longer relevant to the later generation, their identity as a chinese descent cannot be easily removed. keywords: cina benteng, chinese indonesians, acculturation abstrak artikel menelaah sejauh mana dua generasi terakhir dari etnis cina benteng mengalami proses akulturasi. data diperoleh dari wawancara melalui skype dengan dua orang muda keturunan cina benteng. analisis diperkuat dengan opini dari orangtua kedua responden. studi menunjukkan bahwa kedua generasi memperlihatkan respons yang berbeda terhadap proses akulturasi. walaupun beberapa tradisi tidak lagi relevan di kalangan generasi terakhir, identitas mereka sebagai etnis keturunan tiongkok tidak bisa dihilangkan begitu saja. kata kunci: cina benteng, keturunan tiongkok, akulturasi 36 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 introduction the acculturation process varies through different generations. earlier migrants might have fond and deep nostalgia of their origins. over time, the nostalgia might be fading. the descendants, those who are born in the new place, might find itirrelevant to talk about the collective memory of their past origin. some are remembered; some are let forgotten. this paper intends to investigate to what extent thetwo latest generations of cina benteng (translated: ‘chinese of the fort’, one of the chinese indonesian ethnic groups) encounter acculturation process. some research has been conducted to examine the early generations of cina benteng, yet there has not been much study revealing the latest generations. the data were collected from a skype interview with two young cina benteng descents born and brought up in tangerang, the main base of cina benteng community. the history of ethnic cina benteng and a brief portrayal of the earlier generations will be provided, followed by the description of the informants’ experience and their parents’ life story. the experience and the life story will be linked to berry (1990). boski (2008) will then sharpen the analysis. in addition, the discussion in this paper will be supported by personal insight and points of view as a cina benteng descent. thus, the writer realises that the analysis might not represent the whole idea of cina benteng ethnic group. in the end, a brief summary and some in-depth questions of the future of ethnic cina benteng will conclude the study. theories in psychology of acculturation the way individuals deal with acculturation might differ than how the groups do in a bigger scale. there are two levels of this process that make a division between collective and individual acculturation (berry, 1990). the population level, which includes ecological, cultural, institutional and social factors, might stimulate a transformation in social, economic and political structure. the individual level, on the other hand, reflects changes in one’s behaviour, values, identity and attitudes. these changes might be influenced by interaction with another culture or individuals’ participation in collective transition. the changes that the individuals experience are then described as psychological acculturation. berry (1990) also noted that acculturation process includes several key elements. the contact or interaction between two cultures results in changes both in aspects of culture and psychology of the people involved. these changes tend to be passed down to the next generation. furthermore, dynamic activities are involved before and after the contact. individuals characterise certain aspects of life such as their preferred education, media, religion, education, politics, daily practices and social interactions. it then defines a relatively stable way of living in the acculturative place. furthermore, berry (1990) defined four varieties of acculturation based on the orientation to maintain cultural identity and characteristics and the importance of sustaining relationship with other groups. according to (berry, 1990), assimilation occurs when the acculturating group or person does not wish to uphold his/her identity. in contrast, when the original culture is cultivated and interaction with other groups is avoided, the idea of separation is defined. when maintaining original culture and interacting with other groups are seen as important, integration takes place. last, when there is not much interest in maintaining original culture and interaction with other groups, marginalization occurs. responding to berry’s, boski (2008) argued that integration is the most desirable option among the acculturating individuals. he defined five levels of integration. in level 1 (acculturation attitudes), individuals feel comfortable living in two cultural worlds. s/he acquires the needs of being fluent in the languages of both cultures and contact with both groups. level 2 (perception and evaluation) defines a merging point of the two cultures, in which ‘similarity’or ‘third value’ is viewed. in level 3 (functional specialisation), individuals (usually a family) are able to develop separation at home, while in public domains they manage to apply assimilation. when the individuals are able to become a bicultural person, level 4 is defined. finally in level 5, noted down from bennett (1993) and bennett and bennett (2004), integration is equalized with marginalisation, where individuals find themselves in a pluralistic world and do not belong to any cultures. this could relate to the idea of cosmopolitanism, in which everyone is a citizen of the world ethnic chinese in indonesia from time to time ethnic chinese has existed in indonesia for a very long time. during the dutch colonialism, as noted in coppel (1999; 2001), ethnic chinese was classified as “foreign oriental”. overtime, there has been a strong distinction between chinese indonesians and indigenous or local indonesians. budiman (2005) noted that during the soekarno (first president of republic of indonesia, 1945–1965) era, ethnic chinese in indonesiawere viewed in two different positions. on the one hand, consultative body for indonesian citizenship proposed that chinese must be allowed to maintain their culture and seen as a part of indonesia’s rich ethnic diversity. this (also known as the left) was led by soekarno and supported by the communist party. on the other hand, institute for development of national unity seemed to lean more to assimilation, emphasising that ethnic chinese had to give up their culture and fully adjust to indonesian culture, values and tradition. this was shared by the indonesian military and muslim groups. after the 1965 conflict against the communist party led by the indonesian military,the new regime (known as the new order) led by soeharto was forcing ethnic chinese in indonesia to completely assimilate. the term ‘cina’, which referred to chinese indonesians and sounded more insulting, became official to replace ‘tiongkok’ or ‘tionghoa’. chinese indonesians were obliged to have an indonesian name (ibid). chinese culture, including the use of chinese characters in public and chinese festivals, was banned. the separation between ‘cina’ and ‘pribumi’ (common term for local indonesians) was obvious. many chinese indonesians have been known wealthier and more 37cina benteng: .... (billy nathan setiawan) successful than locals. a lot of them own a business. it has created a big social gap. things had not really changed until 1998. when indonesia was facing a monetary crisis in 1998, a bigger conflict between ‘cina’ and ‘pribumi’ burst in some big cities. shops and houses owned by chinese indonesians were robbed and burnt. a great number of chinese indonesians (believed to be over a thousand) were killed; the womenwere raped. chinese indonesians were forced to hide their identity. the clash brought both positive and negative impacts. indonesians’ fourth president, the late kh abdurrahman wahid (well-known as gus dur) dismissed the law that discriminated chinese indonesians. in 2002, the next president, megawati sukarnoputri,declared chinese new year as a national holiday. chinese cultural symbols and traditions, such as ‘liong’ and ‘barongsai’ (dragon and lion dance) were showed in many public events. however, although chinese indonesians are becoming more accepted nowadays, many of them are still attempting to find what so-called ‘a place’ in indonesian society. history of cina benteng ethnic chinese are spread out in some cities in indonesia. the latest population census in 2010 notes that there are approximately 2.8 million chinese indonesians (franciska, 2014).the most well-known ones are cina medan (based in medan, north sumatera), cina bangka (in bangka), cina jawa (in semarang and surabaya) and cina singkawang (west kalimantan). there are also some smaller chinese groups such as cina benteng, based in tangerang (a greater area of jakarta), banten province. unlike other chinese indonesian ethnic groups, which are usually associated with great wealth and fortune, cina benteng tend to be looked down in terms of their social status. news on tv or newspaper articles often discus their low economic status and underprivilegedliving condition. their skin is not as light as other chinese indonesians. it is rather darker as ‘pribumi’ are. yet, their eyes are slanted, a typical characteristic of chinese. arif (2014) noted that it has been the sixth or seventh generation of cina benteng since they first arrived in indonesia. due to the dutch massacre of chinese population in batavia (now called jakarta) in 1740, chinese people escaped to tangerang and bekasi. they started to live in some outskirt areas of tangerang such as kedaung, kampung melayu, and teluk naga (arif, 2014). the word benteng (translated: fort) refers to the fortress along the cisadane river, tangerang, built by the dutch during colonialism. the chinese who moved from jakarta then lived in the area that used to be the fortress. from this occasion, the term cina benteng (chinese of the fort) was created. the chinese then started to assimilate with the local culture. they married to the local women. some of them even converted to moslem and refused to eat pork (sugianta et al., 2012; arif, 2014). in the 1900s, cina benteng gave significant contribution to the dutch colonialism in tangerang. it then created anger from the pribumi and an ethnic clash between the pribumi and cina benteng occurred in 1946 (arif, 2014). the houses of cina benteng people were looted. those who survived there or came back later no longer owned property. some of them lived in a brick or bamboo house along the cisadane river. it then defined their social status, the main thing that distinguishes them from the other ethnic chinese in indonesia. ethnic cina benteng has displayed two different characteristics of their own. on the one hand, they still hold their ‘circle of life’ tradition such as the wedding and funeral. they still celebrate the big days of chinese (imlek – chinese new year, cap go meh – the 15th day of the new year and peh cun – boat race festival). they also have a special part in their house dedicated to their ancestors (ibid). on the other hand, ethnic cina benteng has successfully assimilated with the pribumi, especially ethnic sunda (west java) and betawi (jakarta). it can be seen from the modification of their traditions. in their traditional wedding, the groom wear typical chinese clothes while the bride wear clothes from ethnic betawi. the music played at the wedding, called gambang kromong, is derived from coastal sundanese music. many cina benteng people do not speak chinese. they have their own dialect or vocabulary; some of them are combination of rough chinese, indonesian and sundanese or betawi (nurafni, 2012). elder generations of cina benteng may have firm knowledge of their traditions. over time, the young generations encounter a different way of acculturation. the data taken from the interviews in this study will investigate how individuals from two generations of cina benteng adjust their lives to local settings in indonesia. the variables mentioned in berry’s (1990) study such as education, media, political participation, religion, language, daily and social practices will be the foundation of the analysis. methods in order to get a better sense of the acculturation process of the current generations of cinabenteng, qualitative research was conducted in this study. lodico, spaulding, and voegtle (2006:264) explained that qualitative research is “the study of social phenomena and on giving voice to the feelings and perceptions of the participants under study”. qualitative research is best used in this study to gain information of how the latest generations of cina benteng have encountered a different notion of acculturation. furthermore, the phenomenology (qualitative research, n.d.) is used as an approach to gather sufficient data. this study aims to gain access to the life-world and experiences of the latest generations of cina benteng. i did a skype interview with two young cina benteng descents (a 19 year old female and 22 year old male). i have direct contact with these two informants. the interview was done in both english and indonesian language. i then requested them to interview their parents and record the conversation (in indonesian language). due to the distance and time difference between i, as the researcher, and the informants, a skype interviewed was conducted instead of face-to-face interview. one of the families lives in the area of cina benteng community in the city of tangerang, while the other one lives outside the cina benteng community. questions in the interview 38 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 are based on berry’s (1990) theory of psychological acculturation and five meanings of integration proposed by boski (2008).questions include the participants’ activities and hobbies, what they know about cina benteng and their ancestors, what they remember from their childhood, kind of school they have attended, language spoken at home and some daily practices such as food served at home. although the respondents did not mind their real names to be published, for the matter of confidentiality the respondents were renamed. results and discussion another dimension of acculturation attitude and the third value the first informant is tanti, a 19 year-old girl studying accounting. she is among other fortunate cina benteng descents in her generation, whose family is able to send them to one of the popular universities in jakarta. earlier generations, looking at my own family, tend to underestimate education. after high school, they mostly worked in the family business, or if less unfortunate, worked in the marketing (as a sales person). in the past, from my personal view and observation as a cina benteng descent, starting a new family seemed to be more important than pursuing higher education. men went to several houses of their relatives to find a woman to marry. nowadays, cina benteng descents can find their wife or husband from their work or education place. however, recently there is a tendency that cina benteng descents prefer to marry other chinese descents. in the skype interview, tanti noted that she does not mind making friends with people from other ethnic groups. yet, she explained that none of her siblings is married to non-chinese. referring to boski’s (2008) acculturation attitudes, tanti’s decision to make friends with any ethnic groups reflects the notion of integration, in which the acculturating individuals feel the need of interaction with both groups. in contrary, when it comes to a desirable marriage, they went back to separation level, where they prefer people from the same ethnic group. there seems to be a desire or need to maintain their cultural identity or characteristics as chinese descents. it is contradicting the history of cina benteng. ethnic cina benteng was established by assimilation of chinese migrants who married local indonesians. tanti and her family have lived in several places. until ten years old she lived in kapling, one of the important areas for cina benteng community. now they live in a costly housing area in tangerang. they practice buddhism. when talking about religion practices, she notices that some other cina benteng people now believe in other religions such as catholic and christianity. it should also be noted that she and her father went to a private catholic school when they were a child. here we can see another dimension of acculturating attitude. students of private/christian/catholic schools are mostly chinese descents, while of state schools are generally locals and moslem indonesians. although assimilation has long been applied in cina benteng community, some modern cina benteng families unconsciously or subconsciously seem to encourage their children to spend time with other chinese. in this case, ethnicity might matter more. tanti’s father, hendri (53 yo), highlighted some differences of the past and the recent cina benteng traditions. in nowadays wedding, the bride and the groom wear western wedding dress. wedding used to be held in the house of the couple; nowadays it is held in a wedding hall. during the interview, hendri was able to tell each rituals of the wedding, while tantifailed to name them. it is no longer about acculturation process of the local and acculturating group; global culture might intervene. furthermore, hendri noted that early generations of cina benteng have invented “their own cultures”. the third value or merging point has been established. it may show that the cinabenteng have a desire to acquire two identities, that they belong to both chinese and local (indonesian) culture. chinese language has long disappeared in cina benteng families. instead, cina benteng created specific vocabulary which is close yet not similar to regular indonesian language (‘ambek’ instead of ‘marah’ / upset, ‘beberes’ instead of ‘beres-beres’ / to tidy up, ‘aleman’ instead of ‘manja’ / spoiled, etc) (kamus bahasa orang cina benteng, 2010). the food served in cinabenteng families also reflects boski’s (2008) third value/merging point. kecap benteng sh (soy bean sauce sh) is one of the main ingredients of cina benteng homemade dishes. sh is the initial of the founder, siong hin, a cina benteng descent. beside the language, myth also seems to fade away in the last generation of cina benteng. at some point in the interview, tanti noted that her mother still reminds her not to cut her nails in the evening/night. it is believed to bring evil spirit. however, tanti does not practice such beliefs anymore. in the end, when asked how she feels towards her ethnic group, tanti comes to the idea of marginalisation. being with people from other ethnic chinese, she does not identify herself as one. she is completely aware that cina benteng is different from other ethnic chinese. she finds no problems making friends with local indonesians although being among other indonesians would sometimes make her also feel ‘different’. home, as she explains, is where she meets other cina benteng people in pasar lama (a market dominated by cina benteng) or her childhood memory where she played with her cina benteng neighbour friends. childhood memory as the foundation of ethnic identity for the second informant and his father, cisadane river and their childhood have greatly influenced their daily or social practices. anjas, 22 yo, spends most of his spare time with friends from his childhood at the ‘klenteng’. although he would not mind having other friends (as he does in his school and workplace), he feels more comfortable surrounded by people he has spent time with since they were a kid. he and his father, heri, were born and raised in kapling, near cisadane river. heri recalled his childhood memory when he swam in the river with friends. it again makes cina benteng different from other chinese groups. due to the higher social status owned by other ethnic chinese, the children might not be willing to play in places like a river. heri also mentioned some traditions which are usually held at cisadane river, such as boat races on day 15th of the new year. heri 39cina benteng: .... (billy nathan setiawan) and anjas still actively participate in such events every year. that contributes in shaping their identity as cina benteng. heri interacts with people of any kinds. with his indonesian (pribumi) friends he speaks sundanese, one of the local dialects. since he and his ancestors do not speak chinese, indonesian language is used when talking with other chinese-indonesians. heri owns a chinese name, while anjas does not. the latest generation of cina benteng does not have a chinese name anymore. like my father, his siblings and the earlier generations, heri serves different function in different settings. at home he and family call each other in chinese name, while with non-chinese friends outside he is known as heri. at home he is a cina benteng descent; outside he might fully mingle with indonesians. yet, those childhood memories at cisadane river are strongly attached to his identity. conclusion ethnic cina benteng has encountered several levels of acculturation process. from losing the original language to create a new one, different generations respond to the acculturation in different ways. although chinese names are no longer relevant in their latest generation, identity as chinese descents cannot easily be removed. the fact that ethnic cina benteng might have assimilated with local indonesians in the past and their low economic status also raise questions. if other chinese groups are unwilling to assimilate, yet they have a better life (than ethnic cina benteng which has higher degree of assimilation) in the acculturating place, is assimilation still important? into what extent should the acculturating individuals merge with the dominant group? if now some cina benteng descents prefer to marry other ethnic chinese (not local indonesians as their ancestors did), will it bring them back to the origins? for heri, my father and other cina benteng descents who were born and spent their childhood by the cisadane river, the memory of swimming and practicing the traditions at the riverside might help keeping their identity as cina benteng. acknowledgment the author acknowledges support from lembaga pengelola dana pendidikan (lpdp)/indonesian endowment fund for education, ministry of finance of indonesia. references arif, m. (2014). model kerukunan sosial pada masyarakat multikultural cina benteng (kajian historis dan sosiologis). sosio didaktika, 1(1), 52–63. retrieved from http://journal.uinjkt.ac.id/index. php/sosio-fitk/article/view/1212 bennett, j. m., & bennett, m. j. (2004). developing intercultural sensitivity: an ntegrative approach to global and domestic diversity. in d. landis, j. m. bennet, & m. j. bennet (eds.), handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 147–165). california: sage publications. bennett, m. j. (1993). towards ethnorelativism: a development model of intercultural sensitivity. in r. m. paige (ed.), education for intercultural experience (2nd ed., pp. 21–71). yarmouth: intercultural press. berry, j. w. (1990). psychology of acculturation: understanding individuals moving between cultures. in r. w. brislin (ed.), applied crosscultural psychology (pp. 232–253). newbury park: sage publications. boski, p. (2008). five meanings of integration in acculturation research. international journal of intercultural relations, 32(2), 142–153. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.01.005 budiman, a. (2005). portrait of the chinese in postsoeharto indonesia. in t. lindsey & h. pausacker (eds.), chinese indonesians: remembering, distorting, forgetting (pp. 95–104). singapore: iseas publications. coppel, c. a. (1999). the indonesian chinese as foreign orientals in the netherlands indies. in t. lindsey (ed.), indonesia: law and society (pp. 33–41). sydney: the federation press. coppel, c. a. (2001). chinese indonesians in crisis: 1960s and 1990s perspectives on the chinese indonesians. in m. r. godley & g. j. lloyd (eds.), perspectives on the chinese indonesians (pp. 20– 40). adelaide: crawford house. franciska, c. (2014, july 2). new voting power of chinese indonesians. bbc news. retrieved from http:// www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27991754 kamus bahasa orang cina benteng. (2010). retrieved from http://1214no.jigsy.com/entries/general/ kamus-bahasa-orang-cina-benteng lodico, m. g., spaulding, d. t., & voegtle, k. h. (2006). methods in education research: from theory to practice. new jersey: john wiley & sons. nurafni, t. (2012). history of china benteng indonesia. sd production. retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=3264nwvrzjm qualitative research. (n.d.). retrieved from http://www. southalabama.edu /coe/ bset /joh nson /lect u res/ lec12.htm sugianta, a., lisa, m., & linda. (2012). analisa perubahan sosial masyarakat sawan lebak wangi (perbandingan era reformasi dan orde baru). bina nusantara. retrieved from http:// eprints.binus.ac.id /23298/1/2011-2-00735-md abstrak001.pdf in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 25 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 25-32 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.7782 using addressing terms to promote world-englishes in indonesia nurvita wijayanti1*; trie arie bowo2; dini wulansari3 1,2,3english literature, faculty of social and political sciences, university of bangka belitung balunijuk, merawang, bangka, kepulauan bangka belitung 33172, indonesia 1wijayavita88@gmail.com; 2arie622@gmail.com; 3diniews@gmail.com received: 18th october 2022/revised: 21st february 2023/accepted: 23rd february 2023 how to cite: wijayanti, n., bowo, t. a., & wulansari, d. (2023). using addressing terms to promote world-englishes in indonesia. lingua cultura, 17(1), 25-32. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.7782 abstract the objectives of this research were to analyze the addressing terms used in indonesian society relating to the world-englishes movement and to analyze the process of the world-englishes movement through the use of the addressing terms. therefore, this research aimed to describe the movement process, especially in indonesian society, by looking at how the students addressed the lecturers. the descriptive qualitative approach was applied by having an interview with eight universities in indonesia and the chatting activities between the students and the lecturers. the post-colonial theory was used to show the ownership of english. this research concludes that some diction is only understood by indonesian people speaking english. therefore, those terms of addressing exclusively belong to the indonesian language. however, it can be an encouraging signal that english belongs to not only the inner circle but also the expanding circle. keywords: addressing terms, world-englishses, ownership of english introduction addressing terms are words or expressions used to designate the person being talked to while talk is in progress (brown & levinson, 1995). the addressing terms become the daily used in daily conversation. in indonesian society, addressing terms are compulsory. indonesian addressing terms that are common are bapak, ibu, nyonya, and tuan. meanwhile, the cultural addressing terms include mas, mbak, abang, kakak, and yuk. not to mention english addressing terms that become daily use as well in an institution such as between lecturers and students of english departments in indonesia. they are miss, mam, mrs, and mister. indonesian tends to translate english terms as what cultural background has led (martendi, setiwan, ashadi, 2022). the english addressing terms might be similar to the indonesian version, but somehow, they contain various cultural backgrounds. consequently, the translated diction, such as sir to pak, can be ambiguous. sir in english can be used to show two different situations. the former is to show the direct addressing term, such as in greeting so that it cannot be followed by the names. the latter shows the condition when somebody gets an honor from the monarch because of their contribution (especially in england). therefore, they get the honor of being called a sir. moreover, it can be followed by their complete names. in contrast, the indonesian addressing term, pak, shortened from bapak, can be followed by names without any honoring mark. this encounter results in ambiguity when translating sir to pak. the reason is that language brings social (sanchez-rada & iglesias, 2019) and cultural codes (radhakrishnan, 2017). in addition, the sociocultural context contributes to the use of english addressing terms in indonesian society. culture and language cannot be separated, as tariq et al. (2019) have stated, that they share values that can be preserved in the language. indonesian already needed to use english, although english does not have an official status (bonafix & manara, 2016). however, it does not mean indonesian should always follow the english standard when addressing terms. in pr es s 26 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 25-32 world-englishes has been introduced to encourage non-english speaking countries to use their own version of english based on their cultural background. cultural transmission brings people into a distinctive human capacity (gelman & roberts, 2017). labeling a certain word can have many different perspectives based on the people and their culture. for example, the words dog and woman when relating to the sentence “the dog bites and the woman nurturing the children” can have a discourse based on the cultural background, especially in indonesian discourse. indonesian can possibly think that being bitten by a dog is part of the dirty thing. meanwhile, the woman nurturing the children is part of the indonesian women’s duty; therefore, no big problem occurs. these examples definitely have a contradiction with the english culture. however, since indonesian people learn to speak english as their second language, the way of thinking should be bargained. it is supported by hamedani and marcus (2019), stating that there should be a more inclusive, equal, and effective varied society. the case of cultural transmission happens in south africa when the code transferred in the target language can be distinguished into context. an example is in africa, where people do not speak english as their mother tongue, they will conceptualize ‘robot’ as the symbol of a ‘traffic light’. besides the standard meaning, in south africa, ‘robot’ is also used for traffic lights. the word’s etymology derives from a description of early traffic lights as robot policemen, which then get truncated with time (hunter, 2017). this shows that english vocabulary can be changed based on geographical, social, and cultural context, just like what has been shown by the african environment. it becomes so-called fossilization and thus becomes the agreeable meaning in african society. the previous researches study the ican english language, which is considered as world-englishes in the inner, outer, and expanding circles. they classify african english as inner since there are similarities between european descent in south africa and australia, as an outer circle when it relates to black south african english, as expanding circle in terms of education when it is totally non-native english (botha, van rooy, & rooy, 2020). smith (2019) has also discussed the uniqueness of the black english version. he mentions that there is a legitimation toward the acceptance of african vernacular english. the glocalization in the linguistic landscape is implemented in pakistan when using english. pakistan uses hebrew alphabets to write the english word to promote their product, especially in the public logo (manan et al., 2017). the strategy is used not only to promote hebrew as their most important language but also to make english sound lower than their native language. the effort can be called the world-englishes movement. opposed to african society, afghanistan also has a special case as this country is former british colonization. however, it is not part of the commonwealth country. coleman, in his book titled the condition of english in multilingual afghanistan, has stated that english has developed in afghanistan with little progress. it means that the learners mostly have a low average of english language ability, both spoken and written. meanwhile, in some aspects, like in a public space, afghanistan sign boards have three languages to show, including english (dundon, 2021). it proves that afghanistan has its own version of english. this variety cannot be forced to change easily. most studies conduct research among elt students ranging in outer and expanding circles. thailand has different stories yet the same pattern of movement, making english as theirs. the journal finds that thai english is no longer a barrier and that the participants have increased their tolerance toward english varieties (boonsuk, ambele, & mckinley, 2021). it is supported by others that thailand english has gained some respect, especially for its local speaker, considering that thailand is part of expanding circle (rajprasit & marlina, 2019). another journal states that a pragmatic and humanistic approach should be conducted in order to make english sound kind and not be discriminated against (bhowmik, 2015). this phenomenon indicates that world-englishes are on their way to hybridize according to the context of society and culture. in the other englishes version, the word chinglish (china english) is used vernacular writing, and singlish (singaporean english) has become subversive writings, text-based artifacts, and government communication in singapore. not to mention konglish (hongkong english) functions to accentuate the social movement via social media (kirkpatrick, 2020). singlish is the pioneer. it is one of the world-englishes movements that has succeeded in making english their own by their own vernacular characteristics. some changes are in the element of phonology when dental fricatives, the monophthongal realization of the face and goat vowels, and syllable-based rhythm are absent (kirkpatrick, 2020). however, it does not disturb the way they communicate worldwide. another linguistic movement is by using the code-mixing strategy. myslin and levy (2015) have stated that the code-mixing between the czech and english is another level of movement since the mixed code is czech to gain superiority toward english (myslin & levy, 2015). the word that is more significant to come out will be spoken in the czech. nigerian english contributes to the movement by having a version of nigerian english in terms of code-switching in the area of native english speakers to show the distinctive phonological system between english and nigerian english (mair, 2020). the purpose of the world englishes movement is to recognize english as a colonial one. rubdy, tupas, and saraceni (2021) have explained that english is the language spoken over countries. therefore, it has unique properties in every area using in pr es s 27using addressing terms .... (nurvita wijayanti et al.) english as the language. whether the main or second language, english has evolved in every country which uses it (ilyosovna, 2020). it is supported by lange and leuckert (2020), saying that english is distributed worldwide not because it is better but because colonialism forces people to use it. the significant fact is that the british itself changes the salutation to adjust to the sociocultural context so that it can be expected by many (hassan, mitchell, & buriro, 2020). in other words, english no longer belongs to the native speakers or inner circle. according to scheineder (2018), english is now the default choice for transnational communication. thus, in contact with the indigenous language, english has grown in many countries (scheneider, 2018). based on the fact english can be said to belong to outer speakers as well as the speakers from the outer and expanding circle might bring their own culture and features of their languages to english. as a result, english in many outer and expanding circle countries can be varied. language variation today has revised the meaning into the broader one. the previous definition states that language variation is the variation of english in the internal british or american territories. recently, the definition has changed to the variation of english around the world territory (dewi, 2012). therefore, the variation can be from the expanding circle, such as the indonesian english version. other than sharing the different accents and dialects, this variation also promotes other linguistic elements such as semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and broader elements. the language used is the focus of this research, which belongs to sociolinguistic studies. wilson (2020) has added that the variable agreement happens in other englishes, such as trinidadian english. the variability is the effort of other englishes to gain acceptance in the global world. it is supported by westphal (2021) that the use of question tags in philipines and trinidadian english has violated standardized english, but they insist that this is part of the world-englishes movement. the indonesian tourist guide also has its own story related to the language variety. it is when noer, astri, and hairuddin (2021) have stated that there is a unique characteristic of the indonesian people when dealing with tourism vocabulary. endarto (2020) has highlighted that a new variety happens in indonesian english in terms of the lexical items using corpusbased analysis. in this post-colonial perspective, this issue has emerged and become a movement. many english speakers from outer and expanding circles demand equality in english-speaking countries worldwide. the case of english becoming the extended version is still debatable. therefore, this research would like to accentuate that english actually comes into the extended part too. since the subject of this research is college students, a journal of efl (english for foreign learners) has been discussed by lukitasari (2020), stating that world-englishes with different accents and dialects exist in an educational environment. she adds that the postcolonialism theory helps define the world englishes stronger. this research shows the fossilized language aspect from english to indonesian. it tries to conceptualize the aspects of addressing terms such as miss, mam, and sir from sociocultural perspectives, especially in an indonesian language use context. thus, there are two research questions the researchers would like to find out; (1) how are the english addressing terms used in indonesian society relating to the worldenglishes movement? (2) how are those english addressing terms part of the ownership of english in indonesia? methods the object of this research is the familiar english expression found in indonesian society that might have different discourses from the native doers. the objects can be found through daily conversation, slogans, and pictures from media. daily conversation is in the term of addressing like the use of ‘mam,’ ‘miss,’ and ‘sir’. furthermore, english comes from a mouth of its own in the post-colonial perspective (rubdy, tupas, & saraceni, 2021). thus, descriptive qualitative is beneficial in this research as it explores the sociocultural aspect relating to the study of addressing terms, as this method is a common strategy mainly in education, psychology, and social sciences (nassaji, 2015). the method is conducted based on the daily conversation between students and lecturers limited in an academic scope. the qualitative study requires the participants’ opinions, perspectives, and attitudes (nassaji, 2015). as this research aims to gain observation and information, the proper method is descriptive qualitative (ekawati, wageyono, & halim, 2019). opinions are gained from the lecturers being interviewed, and the perspectives are from the conversation that happened via whatsapp chatting. attitude is represented through the response both from the students and the lecturers after giving and getting addressed as miss, mam, and/or sir, followed by the first names. the data are the chat conversation between the female/male lecturers and the university students via whatsapp. the lecturers are from various universities all over indonesia, such as universitas bangka belitung, universitas artha wacana kupang, universitas mercubuana yogyakarta, universitas respati yogyakarta, universitas atmajaya jakarta, sekolah tinggi ilmu ekonomi gentiaras lampung, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan soe ntt, and universitas islam negeri fatmawati bengkulu. the lecturers are mostly from the english department since the english environment is highly required in this research context. a brief testimonial is done to ensure that the students mostly use the term of addressing mentioned in this research as their daily habit. the data are analyzed using the theory of in pr es s 28 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 25-32 kachru’s circle of world-englishes and the theory of post-colonialism. kachru promotes the division of english language speakers (islam & hashim, 2020). the former is used to show the english language context in indonesia, and the latter shows the significance of the social-cultural perspective in language and society. therefore, these theories help to unravel the potential of the indonesian-english language becoming part of the world-englishes movement. results and discussions the power of language can contribute to a certain language becoming a global language, and it happens with the english language. english was considered the language of power and opportunity when the british empire colonized asia and africa in the 18th century (miri, 2019). the consequence is that the former british colonies used english as their official language. while other countries, excluding british colonies, use english as their foreign language. lately, as english has become the international language, excluding countries depend on the use of the english language. kachru describes three main divisions of the english language spoken across cultures and languages: inner, outer, and expanding circle (ukessays, 2021). inner circle means the native speakers of the english language. this circle is where the original language comes from, the usa, the uk, canada, australia, and new zealand. thus circle has a prominent influence on the other circles as it is the standard rule of the english language. however, it argues that the standard has a stable formation as us english and uk english are obviously distinguished. as the outer circle, the differences are varied as india, malaysia, south africa, and any other countries which use english as a second language have their own national languages. moreover, the expanding circle is not surprisingly the most distinctive one. the term address is one of the language properties that impact the expanding circle. it is started with the sapir-whorf hypothesis that the perspectives are strongly influenced by the cultures (hussein, 2020). it is supported by wardhaugh, that says language and culture are always related (semiun, 2020). furthermore, culture has always become the preference for language interaction (surono, 2018). the term of address of the english language indeed influences the indonesian society to use it. the addressing terms such as miss, mam, and sir are familiar in the daily context of indonesian people. however, indonesian people barely use them properly as english does. in other words, the sapir-whorf hypothesis proves that language shapes people’s minds. however, non-native speaker tends to have lower language knowledge than native speakers (lev-ari, 2015). people speaking indonesian might adapt a new perspective when they speak english, yet it seems rigorous to most indonesian people to think just like english people. the consequence is just like what happened in africa when people call ‘robot’ referring to a ‘traffic light’ instead of a machine, although in some cases, they both refer to the same machine. robot in the english dictionary means a machine that looks like a human and can do a complicated series of tasks automatically (oxford learner’s dictionaries, 2021). meanwhile, for african people, ‘robot’ is still a machine, but it is in the shape of a traffic light. table 1 shows the finding data based on the data collection and analysis. it is found that the frequency of addressing terms followed by the first name is higher than other variables. table 1 the used frequency of addressing no terms of addressing used frequency/ data collection 1 sir/miss/mam/mrs + first name 10 2 sir/miss/mam/mrs + last name 3 3 pak/bu/nona 1 4 sir/miss/mam/mrs at the ending 1 5 mom 1 table 1 shows the frequency of addressing term uses. it states that the use of sir/miss/mam/mrs is mostly followed by the first names. it happens in most of the institutions the data takes place. the use of sir/miss/mam/mrs followed by the last names has the second place. it indicates that some university students consider english addressing terms should be used properly. the use of addressing terms in the indonesian version, sir/miss/mam/mrs, and mom, followed by the first at the ending, are in the third place. the term address, such as ‘miss’ is used differently by indonesian people. they use this addressing term to equal the addressing ‘mbak’, ‘kak’, ‘nona’, ‘ayuk’, and any other addressing referring to unmarried or older women. however, ‘miss’ is used before the nickname, not the last name, just like english does (tika et al., 2017). moreover, sir and mam are similarly used for addressing a person followed by their first name to simplify the word ‘pak’ in ‘bapak’ and ‘bu’ in ‘ibu’. meanwhile, the english version says that the words sir and mam are used without being followed by either first or second name. on the special occasion, sir is followed by the first and last names to show the member of knight or baronet (oxford learner’s dictionaries, 2021). the addressing terms sir/mr, madam, and miss mark the use of high degree level, especially in the academic surroundings; therefore, it enunciates the relationship between students and lecturers. in indonesia, the concept of addressing is quite similar to the english version as sir and mister are translated in pr es s 29using addressing terms .... (nurvita wijayanti et al.) as ‘pak’ and ‘bapak’. mam or madam is ‘ibu’ or ‘bu’; meanwhile, miss is ‘nona,’ ‘kak,’ or ‘mbak’ for unmarried women. figure 1 is a proof that a lecturer named heidy wulandari is called mrs. wulan instead of mrs. wulandari. the concept is the indonesian mindset saying that mrs is similar to ‘bu’ and can be followed by the first name or nickname (figure 1). students call their lecturers those terms of addressing to show politeness and respect. however, as opposite to the native english way, indonesian students would likely address their lecturers using the addressing terms followed by the surname, as in ‘pak kristiawan angie’ becoming sir angie (figure 2). moreover, the use of sir in indonesian can be as in figure 2; it is followed by the first name from the word ‘pak’. figure 1 the use of mrs figure 2 the use of sir sociocultural influences the way of thinking, as highlighted by the saphir-whorf concept. it is expected that when someone speaks a certain language, he/she likely follows the mindset that the people or society bring into the language. certain indonesian people can speak and behave just like natives when they speak english, while others can still speak english with an indonesian mindset. cultural transmission becomes significant in supporting the idea. yule (in zavitri, 2018) acknowledges that people have learned a certain language and a systemic order and add their own experience. the own experience mentioned in the statement is a cultural background itself. indonesian tends to match the english addressing term with the existing words in indonesian that are equal. this research proves that the indonesian language influences the use of english in terms of addressing based on cultural background. another research found that english has become the second language and the language of instruction (alrajafi, 2021). most data show that university students would likely use english terms of addressing by adjusting them to indonesian. the data varies from universities all over indonesia. the phenomenon indicates fossilization. fossilization has been defined as an improper inter-language for a long time; therefore, it is hard to alter (gao, 2020). the expanding circle speaking english as a foreign language rigorously adapts to english. as a result, they do improper interlanguage that ends in fossilization. this phenomenon happens in all aspects of language, such as in phonology, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, and even discourse analysis. this research accentuates the interlanguage seen from the pragmatics aspect when lecturers perfectly understand to be called miss/mr/ mam followed by the first name and/or nickname. according to the interviews, it shows that the lecturers do not feel outrageous about the phenomena as they also did the addressing to their former lecturers (participant d). it is concluded that the issue is not recent; instead, it has been understandable for quite a long time. according to gao (2020), there are internal reasons for fossilization, namely the influence of language acquisition mechanisms and mother tongue transfer. the students as the participants include indonesian freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors from various universities. they study in the english department, either the english education department or the english literature department. it indicates that indonesian students are forced to use english as a second language, at least in their department, to get an english environment. unfortunately, their brains are petrified to learn the english language because they mostly learn english when they were junior high which is above the age of 12 years old (gao, 2020). the mother tongue pattern cannot easily be erased from indonesian students. they use sir to shorten ‘pak’, although the meaning and context are different (see figure 3). in addition, indonesian people tend to translate english into indonesian or vice versa. the in pr es s 30 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 25-32 result can be guessed easily that habit, tradition, and culture are assimilated in the use of the language. it happens when addressing terms such as miss, mam, sir, and mister. although indonesian can understand the use of the addressing term in english, somehow, their cultural and contextual background does not allow the usage. figure 3 the use of miss meanwhile, the external factors are influenced by the input quality of vocabulary learning, the impact of feedback, and the intrinsic motivation for foreign language learning. according to krashen (in namaziandost, nasri, & ziafar, 2019), the standard input is i+1, meaning that students will have output slightly higher than the input. it indicates that the students will not be expected to understand the whole discourse of addressing terms. another external factor happens to be the influence of social behavior, culture, and human mental development (strongman, 2017). social behavior is when the indonesian people use the addressing terms with the following society. their interaction with the other indonesians tells how to make sense of the word ‘sir’ followed by the first or full name. furthermore, it is supported by indonesian culture to always use the addressing term to call somebody and directly followed by nicknames. the indonesian mind, therefore, hardly accepts the english language context toward the use of addressing terms. conclusions learning and speaking the english language for indonesian people are kind of challenging, for english is not spoken on formal occasions. indonesian students barely use english either in their classroom activity nor daily conversation. the reason is that indonesia is part of kachru’s expanding circle. however, the urgency of using english as an international language forces indonesian to use english rigorously in social and cultural contexts. this habit leads to fossilization. it influences the use of addressing terms mr, ms, sir, mam, and mrs. they tend to be followed by the first names. however, the fossilization seen through postcolonial studies is welcome since english has been owned by entire countries, whether as the second or the foreign language. this research has been limited to english, addressing terms used in universities around indonesia to show the frequency of fossilization. the higher the fossilization is applied, the higher the chance of the world-englishes movement is likely to happen. it is part of the ownership of english, according to the post-colonial study. research about world english in the area of expanding circle still needs to be done. many are about the outer circle area when the countries are directly colonized by the british empire. the ownerships of english in many expanding circles are open to study, especially the use of english addressing terms using the critical discourse analysis to see how the movement has progressed. acknowledgement the authors would like to share the gratitude toward the english literature department of universitas bangka belitung for the grant that they had shared to the sake of the article publication. references alrajafi, g. 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(2018). address terms in english and selayarese: a sociolinguistic perspective. tangerang: hasanuddin university. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 211 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 211-218 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6650 developing culture-based english instructional materials to improve students’ thinking, elt achievement, and classroom interaction zukhairatunniswah prayati1; haerazi2*; lalu ari irawan3; rully may vikasari4 1-4english language education, faculty of culture, management, and business, mandalika university of education jl. pemuda no. 59 a mataram, nusa tenggara barat 83125, indonesia 1anisprayati@gmail.com; 2haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id; 3laluariirawan@ikipmataram.ac.id; 4momvika@gmail.com received: 27th august 2020/revised: 23rd september 2020/accepted: 28th september 2020 how to cite: prayati, z., haerazi., irawan, l. a., & vikasari, r. m. (2020). developing culture-based english instructional materials to improve students’ thinking, elt achievement, and classroom interaction. lingua cultura, 14(2), 211-218. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6650 abstract the research aimed to provide students’ learning and target needs of incorporating culture-based english instructional materials in enhancing students’ critical thinking skills, elt achievement, and classroom interaction at the central lombok middle schools. the research was a quantitative study. the 350 students and 10 english teachers were involved in the research. the average of students’ age ranged from 12-13 years old, while the english teachers were certified english teachers at the middle schools. they had also been from five to seven years of teaching practice experience. the data were collected using a questionnaire to see the students’ and teachers’ needs that were focused on target needs and learning needs. the target needs comprised the learning goals, lacks, and wants, while the learning needs included learning inputs, students’ roles, and classroom management. the data were analyzed using some steps; computation, display, drawing conclusion, and verification processes. based on the data analysis, the target needs show that students are expected to get english proficiencies by providing them various cultural materials, namely local arts, traditional games, traditional rates, traditional technologies, and traditional pieces of literature. it can bring them to think critically to improve elt achievement and build classroom interaction. at the same time, the analysis of learning needs informs that students need an appropriate english learning approach. they show they have an intention to be autonomous learners. keywords: culture-based materials, students’ critical thinking, elt teaching-learning, classroom interaction introduction the need to insert cultures in instructional materials is essential nowadays because language and culture are inseparable (haerazi et al., 2018). it is in line with dinh and sharifian (2017), who state that culture has attracted attention from english teachers as a result of the intertwined relation between culture and language. some studies show that cultures are inserted in english language teaching (elt) materials to improve intercultural or cultural communicative competencies and language proficiencies (tamimy, 2019; haerazi & irawan, 2020a). these studies have applied different strategies and methods, such as document analysis and classroom action based on diverse cultural references. the context of the current research is indonesian, where english is employed as a foreign language. this research is oriented to investigate the incorporation of indonesia’s local cultures in the local elt textbooks. in inserting local or target culture onto english teaching materials, english teachers are necessary to conduct a need analysis of students’ target and learning needs. it is aimed at knowing a piece of cultures they recognize and internalize to learn in the english as a foreign language (efl) class. this consideration comes from the views of defining cultures in applied linguistics. according to alaei and parsazadeh (2020), english teachers need to delve into a number of main concepts and classification of cultures before they go to adapt or adopt cultures into teaching materials. in this context, teachers should pay attention to terms of world englishes and kachru’s concentric model (sridhar, 2019). kachru’s model in terms of english 212 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 211-218 language consists of the inner-circle (countries in which english is used as a first language), outer circle (countries in which english is the official or second language), and expanding circle (the countries in which english is taught as a foreign language) (kubota, 2018; joo, chik, & djonov, 2020). the inner-circle cultures seem to be appropriate to be inserted in textbooks for learners who learn english as a foreign language. english teaching materials or textbooks should incorporate students’ cultural background and provide them with various cultural comprehension and explanation as not to pawn misunderstanding (shin, eslami, & chen, 2011). the students’ cultural background is then called local culture, and the inner circle cultures are classified as the target cultures. the problem of students is in which they are demanded to comprehend their own cultures before they go to the target cultures (forman, 2014). to solve students’ problems, the teaching materials should be designed in line with their needs (target needs and learning needs). the target needs refer to what the students need to learn, while learning needs refer to what students need to learn (rachmawati, 2020; haerazi et al., 2018). before developing the teaching materials, teachers have to analyze the appropriate local cultures or target cultures to partake. since textbooks or teaching materials are developed to strengthen character education as the main picture of the indonesian curriculum (setyono & widodo, 2019). in the indonesian context of efl material development, english teaching is directed to improve students’ critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. it is in accordance with 21st-century learning skills (haerazi, vikasari, & prayati, 2019). in the research, the analysis is directed to teachers’ efforts of incorporating culturebased materials to enhance students’ critical thinking skills, achievement, and classroom interaction. a reflection of needs analysis of cultural depiction in terms of target needs and learning needs to develop culture-based english materials in indonesian contexts, such as central lombok, is significant to be conducted, to extend empirical studies on a need analysis incorporation of culture-based instructional materials or textbooks. the research’s contribution includes that research findings can be a catalyst for english materials developers to design and develop intercultural language learning materials to promote critical thinking skills, academic achievement, and autonomous learners (kusumaningputri & widodo, 2018; safitri & sugirin, 2019). the culture-based english language learningteaching nowadays attracts english textbook developers as the curriculum expert views a conception that language and culture are intertwined (baker, 2017). in this context, english language and cultural learning become the crucial issue in the efl curriculum development (su, 2016). english teachers from the countries in which english is taught as a foreign language encourage cultural instruction in efl classes (imig, 2016). the insertion of cultures in textbooks is not only in elt practices but also in the other discipline (niman et al., 2020). in the research, the researchers focus on the efl context, specifically west nusa tenggara province indonesia. the insertion of local and western cultures in efl textbooks is then called the intercultural language learning model (haerazi & irawan, 2020a). intercultural language learning is echoed because globalization has made intercultural encounters more recurrent than ever (raigón-rodríguez, 2018). it is aligned with arcagok and yilmaz (2020), who state the english learners need to acquire target knowledge of language communities to reflect later their own cultures and beliefs in the form of intercultural communication. the research is underpinned by the national educational system in terms of educational characters. the indonesian curriculum (k13) encourages english teachers to acquire cultural knowledge and awareness as national characters. it aims to prepare students for becoming citizens who are religious, innovative, productive, and passionate (kusumaningputri & widodo, 2018). it is in keeping with young (2019), who argues that the english teachers should be able to integrate the harmony between local and global cultures in the efl setting. in the context of middle schools (smp/mts), the teaching of english refers to the national curriculum (k13), where they are demanded to employ the local content curriculum in their teaching practice. the local content curriculum is oriented to attain national education qualities to equip students as an individual who has hard and soft skills (english proficiencies and values). in reaching this goal, english teaching materials (textbooks) can be designed and developed to bring students who have english skills and values (safitri & tyas, 2019; maryani & aguskin, 2019). given that guided teaching-materials can facilitate students to learn and internalize their competencies and their own cultures. the research aims to analyze target needs (what students need to learn) in developing culture-based instructional materials to enhance their critical thinking skills, elt achievement, and classroom interaction. based on this objective, the research questions proposed include; (1) what are the students’ necessities of culture-based instructional material? (2) what are the students’ lacks of culture-based instructional material? (3) furthermore, what are the students’ wants for culture-based instructional material? the results of the need analysis are used as a consideration of developing culture-based instructional materials. methods the current research belongs to a survey study that uses quantitative data. a survey is done to describe, compare, classify, evaluate, and interpret the research data (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2018). the research addresses students’ and teachers’ needs in efl teaching at middle schools. the survey activities are directed to know some cultural aspects 213developing culture-based .... (zukhairatunniswah prayati, et al.) and intercultural dimensions incorporated in their teaching materials. given the various data, the research plans research steps or procedures to get the proper data. some steps are initially conducted, such as the literature review to determine the validity and reliability of the used questionnaires. the blueprint of the questionnaire is developed in keeping with the literary study. after the questionnaire is classified as a valid and reliable one, researchers move to collect the data. the questionnaire is distributed to research subjects in some middle school students and teachers at central lombok. the 350 students and 10 english teachers have participated in the research. researchers emphasize the data collection on students’ target needs and learning needs. the attained data are coded, evaluated, analyzed, and interpreted in an in-depth narration. this survey employs a questionnaire to attain the data. the questionnaire is categorized as a valid and reliable instrument that is validated and developed by experts. after it is declared as a valid one, researchers distribute it to research respondents. the respondents are asked to fill in 28 question items. the question aspects comprise necessities, lacks, wants, learning goals, inputs, procedures, teachers’ roles, students’ roles, and settings. each item consists of 4-6 sub-questions. the researchers’ team escorts them to control the respondents’ feedback while filling the questionnaire in the class. it aims to lead them if they have difficulties in giving their answers to the questionnaire. for english teacher respondents, researchers provide them with a space column to write their opinions and experiences of incorporating cultures in their teaching materials. in doing so, the researchers’ team accompanies them during the activities of filling the questionnaire. it makes it easier to give responses to questions and comments on some items. the data attained from the questionnaire are analyzed quantitatively in the form of a percentage schema. to find this, the percentage formula is employed. thus, the researchers classify the percentage of each research issue and coded the data. the coded data are evaluated by making the rubric and numeric data to guide readers easy to understand. the data then is interpreted in the form of narration. the researchers gather the data at one point in time to explain and depict the existing condition. the respondents’ responses and feedback indicate their real condition in developing elt materials to enhance students’ critical thinking skills, academic achievement, and classroom interaction. at the same time, the researchers make a comparison between the data and the existed theories in line with the previous studies and research findings. results and discussions the research findings indicate that most students and english teachers incorporate cultural aspects, both local cultures, and inner circle cultures, in their teaching materials. it is also not different from countries in expanded circles in which english is taught as a foreign language. nevertheless, the middle schools’ cultural materials at west nusa tenggara are designed and developed to attain intercultural competencies. in doing so, the target needs and learning needs are investigated and analyzed in the current research in terms of incorporating culture-based english teaching materials to improve students’ critical thinking skills, english achievement, and classroom interaction. the data of learning needs are presented in table 1. the data of learning needs are collected table 1 the target needs of culture-based english teaching for students components of target needs assessed aspects rank percentage strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree necessities students’ needs of topic texts to learn in elt classroom giving familiar cultural topic texts 1 85,7% 7,1% 7,1% 0 providing with topic texts indicating daily activities 2 78,8% 8,5% 9,7% 2,8% giving texts relating to hobbies 3 78,5% 11,4% 8,5% 2,8% providing with texts associating with a social life. 4 77,1% 11,4% 8,5% 4,2% giving topic texts relating to religiosity 5 76% 12,5% 5,7% 5,7% students’ needs about local cultural topics to learn in elt classroom cultural topics relating to local arts 1 97% 1,4% 0,5% 0,8% cultural topics associating with local games 2 92,8% 4,2% 1,4% 1,4% 214 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 211-218 using a questionnaire. the items are addressed on students’ necessities, lacks, and wants. according to rachmawati (2020) and raigon-rodriguez (2018), english teachers need to conduct a need analysis on learning necessities, students’ lacks, and students’ wants before designing the teaching materials. it aims at preparing students’ appropriate materials in order to achieve learning goals in efl classes. the current research addresses the students’ lack in order to know their current english language skills before providing them with culture-based instruction. besides, the students’ desirability to learn in joining to culturebased instruction needs to be revealed. based on the necessary analysis, most students refer to the texts containing familiar topics. the teachers feel helpful to organize the classes if the students do the learning activities through texts that students understand. it is in line with cinganotto (2019), who conducts online efl learning to activate students’ learning interaction. the learning process is easy to manage as the learning materials guided students to carry out activities and exercises. the same tone is found by haerazi et al. (2020), who inform that the familiar topics for students encourage them to accomplish their assignments efficiently. as intercultural communication is increasing global interconnectedness, it happens more frequently, including high schools and higher education. given the importance of this issue, students have desirability and tendencies to learn their own cultures containing values before moving to the target cultures. it accords with nielsen et al. (2019), who report that english learners in intercultural instruction are making an intimate connection between cultural sensitivity, social structures, and social-emotional competencies. in this current research, students indicate that they have the desirability to master english language skills through culture-based instruction. in terms of english as an international language, students do not need to depend on the british and american cultural schema of native speakers to convey meaning and interact with other english users (shin, eslami, & chen, 2011). in this circumstance, english teachers just need to provide for students teaching materials that combine their local cultures and the target cultures. table 1 shows the students’ second choices to learn in culture-based efl learning, including texts indicating daily activities. the texts relating to cultural topics relating to local ritual performances 3 91,4% 4,2% 2,8% 1,4% cultural topics associating with local traditional technologies 4 90% 4,2% 2,8% 2,8% cultural topics relating to local literatures 5 85% 4,8% 4,2% 5,1% lacks students’ needs to improve through cultural topics speaking skills 1 99% 0,5% 0,2% 0 reading skills 2 97% 1,4% 0,8% 0,5% listening skills 3 90% 4,2% 2,8% 1,4% writing skills 4 82,8% 8,5% 4,2% 4,2% students’ current real ability of english achievement speaking skills 1 82,8% 8,5% 8,5% 0 listening skills 2 80% 10% 8,5% 1,4% reading skills 3 78,5% 10% 8,5% 2,8% writing skills 4 71,4% 11,4% 11,4% 5,7% wants students’ needs to learn and improve in elt classroom vocabulary mastery 1 99% 0 0,5% 0,2% grammatical competence 2 98,5% 0,5% 0,5% 0,2% communicative fluency 3 98% 0,8% 0,5% 0,5% comprehending english texts 4 95,1% 1,4% 1,4% 2% comprehending native speakers 5 94,8% 1,7% 1,4% 2% components of target needs assessed aspects rank percentage strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree table 1 the target needs of culture-based english teaching for students (continued) 215developing culture-based .... (zukhairatunniswah prayati, et al.) hobbies are in the third option of students, and the texts containing religiosity are the last option. based on the data analysis, most students do not perform texts containing information about daily activities, hobbies, and religiosities because these texts are not to encourage them to get scientific knowledge. further, the religiosity texts are uneasy to understand and are needed more knowledge to comprehend. that is why it is the last option for students to learn in efl classes. dealing with cultural topics, mostly, students chose the local cultural topics to facilitate them to learn english skills, critical thinking skills, and classroom interaction. the same results are shown by colaiacomo and puntil (2018). they state students can learn english skills through elt materials incorporating local cultural topics in textbooks. it is also for improving critical thinking (kusumoto, 2018). dealing with students’ lacks, the researchers address two points. the first one is about the students’ language skills to improve, and the second issue relates to the students’ current english ability. most students tend to improve speaking skills rather than the three skills (listening, reading, and writing) for the first issue. it is because students argue that speaking is an important skill to be acquired. speaking is also more promising because they are staying in tourism areas. because of this, speaking is more useful for them. compared to speaking, writing is assumed as the most difficult. it is in accordance with some studies that show students feel uneasy about acquiring writing skills because it requires many aspects such as linguistics competences, meta-cognition regulation, and socio-cultural competences (haerazi & irawan, 2020b; tafazoli, parra, & abril, 2018; garcía & da silva, 2018; and sato & loewen, 2018). the data of students’ lacks also indicate that students need to improve their speaking skills. the data illustrate that students feel curiosity and snooping over speaking competence because they stay in lombok, west nusa tenggara, where many foreigners come to this place for a holiday for a few days or weeks. as a tourism area, it is a big opportunity for students to learn english. also, they feel they have an excellent chance to explore their speaking ability to communicate with english native speakers or english users. from 320 students of junior high schools at central lombok, most students have high expectations of speaking skills in the culturebased instruction. the data are also supported by 10 teachers who are asked to fill the questionnaire. the teachers argue that the highest demand for students after they learn english in their school is to master speaking skills. it possibly influences them to acquire speaking skills, although some also need to acquire other language skills. this finding was in line with hsu (2019), who develop learning tasks repetition and post-task transcribing to acquire speaking skills because speaking skills are considered a vital issue in international communication. besides, the current research indicates that students in middle schools imply that they want to develop the four language skills, respectively. the language dimensions that they need to improve include vocabulary acquisition, grammatical competence, and communicative fluency. table 1 shows that vocabulary mastery is the main dimension that students necessitate to acquire. students realize that vocabulary is essential to communicate. some studies show that it can help students to send information and understand a message delivered by english speakers with having good vocabulary mastery (ajabshir & sadeghi, 2019; mustafa et al., 2019; & indrasari, novita, & megawati, 2018). in the model of culture-based language learning, students need to improve their vocabulary acquisition. after the vocabulary, students tend to have grammatical knowledge. the data indicate that students should have good grammatical competence to read and write english texts. it is in line with biber and gray in crosthwaite (2018), who state that the better students have grammatical competence, the better students have reading comprehension and writing skills. compared to vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, communicative fluency is not the main purpose for students who are willing to be involved in culture-based language learning. english fluency for students can be acquired after they attain the vocabulary and grammatical knowledge. the data inform that students’ problems are the students who have low speaking and reading skills because they do not have a good vocabulary and grammatical knowledge. moreover, students do not fully pay an intended english fluency, specifically in communicative fluency. part ’want’ in table 1 confirms that communicative fluency is uneasy to achieve because they do not have adequate linguistic knowledge such as grammar and vocabulary. it is reinforced by some studies that indicate the communicative fluency can be acquired by students since they are given much more a chance to use the target language inside and outside the class (agudo, 2020; vold, 2020; hsu, 2019; haerazi & irawan, 2020b). in developing the culture-based language learning materials, students are directed to strengthen their communicative competence. in doing so, the teaching materials are designed in line with the curriculum goals for the middle school students. the skills of comprehending texts and understanding native speakers’ utterances are considered in the research. conclusions the research focuses on analyzing students’ learning needs and the target needs of developing the culture-based english instructional materials to enhance students’ critical thinking skills, elt achievement, and classroom interaction at the middle schools. based on the analysis results, students’ learning needs refer to learning goals, inputs, learning activities, teachers’ roles, students’ roles, and classroom management. the learning goals are designed in line with the existing school curriculum. 216 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 211-218 the students’ inputs are developed to guide students to improve their language skills, critical thinking skills, efl achievement, and classroom interaction to achieve their goals. in doing so, the culture-based materials are designed in the form of appropriate learning activities in accordance with the students’ english proficiency. the roles of teachers and students are essential in this circumstance. besides, classroom management is arranged in line with the learning activities that lead students to attain the learning goals. dealing with the target needs, the data confirm that the target needs comprise the instructional goals, lacks, and wants. in terms of instructional goals, students expect that the culture-based language instructional model can increase their elt achievement and pass their school’s passing grade. their current english ability is still beneath standard. because of this, they necessitate various cultures as their teaching materials in elt classes. mostly, students intend to learn speaking, reading, listening, and writing skills, respectively. to attain the speaking skills, they are enthusiastic about learning linguistic elements such as vocabulary, grammar, fluency, accuracy, and pronunciation in the culture-based language learning contexts. the cultural topics that are mostly chosen include local cultures such as local arts, traditional games, traditional rates, traditional technologies, and traditional pieces of literature. the research limitation lies in the aspects of analyzing students’ target needs, which are issues of the necessary, lacks, and wants. it does not continue practicing the result of need analysis in the form of textbooks. drawing the limitation of the research in terms of continuous instruction, future instructors or researchers should analyze the issues in relation to students’ and teachers’ technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge in developing culture-based instructional materials. acknowledgment the research was financially supported by the directorate for higher education, the ministry of education and culture of indonesia republic, under postgraduate fund program (hibah tesis) 2020. references agudo, j. d. m. 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(2019). indonesia’s local content curriculum (lcc) initiative: decentralization and perspectives from high school classrooms in banten. indonesian research journal in education irje, 3(1), 141-167. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v3i1.6671. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 73 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 73-78 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7267 a depiction of raden joko kaiman as a superhero using barthes’ semiotics chusni hadiati1*; nadia gitya yulianita2 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university jl. dr. soeparno no. 60, karangwangkal, purwokerto, jawa tengah 53122, indonesia 1chusni.hadiati@unsoed.ac.id; 2nadiagityay@unsoed.ac.id received: 31st march 2021/revised: 24th may 2021/accepted: 31st may 2021 how to cite: hadiati, c., & yulianita, n. g. (2021). a depiction of raden joko kaiman as a superhero using barthes’ semiotics. lingua cultura, 15(1), 73-78. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7267 abstract the research tried to reveal the denotative and connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman in banyumas culture. historically, banyumas regency was founded by raden joko kaiman in 1582. as the founding father of banyumas regency, raden joko kaiman could be semiotically interpreted as a superhero in the context of banyumas. based on barthes, anything could be a sign. raden joko kaiman in barthes’ semiotic perspective could function as a sign since this figure could have both denotative and connotative meanings. barthes’ semiotic theory investigated the process of reading signs and their interpretation by different cultures or societies. barthes considered sign as both signifier the physical form of the sign as people perceived it through their sense and signified the interpreted meaning. the research applied a qualitative method since it collected reliable data and information through reading, comparing, and analyzing text by relating them to banyumas context. there are four denotative meanings carried by this sign, namely, the son of raden harya banyak sosro, the godson of kiai mranggi, the son-in-law of adipati wargautama, and being adipati mrapat. connotatively, raden joko kaiman is interpreted as courage, strong moral codes, tolerance towards pain, and a great sense of responsibility. keywords: raden joko kaiman, superhero, barthes’ semiotics, banyumas culture introduction banyumas is located in the southern part of central java. in the past, it was one out of seven javanese culture systems (koentjaraningrat, 1990). the remaining systems are nagari gung, pesisir wetan, pesisir kilen, manca nagari, and bagelen. banyumas area consists of four regencies, namely, banyumas regency, purbalingga regency, banjarnegara regency, and cilacap regency. banyumas has a unique position in the skeleton of javanese culture due to its anthropological and historical reason. anthropologically, banyumas lies between two immense cultures in java, namely javanese and sundanese. the center of javanese culture is in surakarta and jogjakarta, while sundanese culture is in the western part of java. banyumas was situated between two big kingdoms, majapahit and padjajaran. the eastern part of banyumas belonged to the westernmost region of the majapahit kingdom, and the western part of banyumas was in the easternmost region of the padjajaran kingdom. these conditions, both anthropologically and historically, make banyumas culture unique in javanese culture so that koentjaraningrat classified it as its own cultural area. banyumas regency was established by raden joko kaiman after he divided the wirasaba regency into four districts. raden joko kaiman was the descendant of raden baribin (sundanese culture), who eventually married one of adipati wargautama’s daughters (javanese culture) so that raden joko kaiman himself was a portrait of acculturation among sundanese and javanese culture. based on the historical notes, raden joko kaiman as the founder of banyumas regency, displayed the characteristics of a leader through what he had done in his life. he showed how to be a brave, responsible, tolerant, and moralistic leader. figure 1 and 2 show the gate of raden joko kaiman’s tomb in dawuhan village, banyumas regency, central java. the characteristics shown by raden joko kaiman are in line with the characteristics of superheroes proposed by descioli & kurzban (2008). according to bainbridge (2017), a superhero is a public figure with outstanding accomplishments. through his 74 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 73-78 lifespan, raden joko kaiman can be considered as a sign which will be meaningful when people give them meaning. since he is the founding father of banyumas regency, raden joko kaiman is the most central and essential sign in banyumas culture as he is the first leader of banyumas regency after it is parted from wirasaba regency. to get an insightful meaning of raden joko kaiman, semiotics, a study of sign can be applied as it has been widely used to depict the characteristics of a superhero, namely courage, strong moral codes, tolerance towards pain, and responsibility (bainbridge, 2017; hasanah & hidayat, 2020; muñozgonzález, 2017). figure 1 the gate of the raden joko kaiman’s tomb figure 2 the tomb of raden joko kaiman in dawuhan village, banyumas regency, central java semiotics is the study of signs in human life that is not questionable (balci & özgen, 2017; hadiati, 2020; pratiwi & amri, 2020). it indicates that anything that exists in human lives is seen as a sign, something that people have to give meaning or something that stands for something else. the notion of connotative, denotative, and myth to reveal the meaning of signs in human life has long been applied (sulhan, 2016; susanti & firdausi, 2019; xu, 2018). however, none of these researches investigate the denotative and connotative meaning of a founding father of a certain area as a depiction of a superhero. superhero’s good traits can be revealed to enhance cultural value, which can be passed down from generation to generation. thus, this research depicts the superhero characteristics of raden joko kaiman by using barthes’ semiotics notion of denotation and connotation. methods the research applies a qualitative method since it simply analyzes words or images rather than numbers. the research does not give detailed statistics or mathematical equations; instead, it gives insightful elaboration of a social phenomenon of raden joko kaiman. in brief, the research reveals the denotative and connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman as a superhero in banyumas context by using the semiotic approach proposed by barthes. banyumas is a region in central java with unique characteristics both in people and language (hadiati, 2019). library research is applied in the research, which means that researchers collect and gather the information related to the research subject through reading the related manuscripts. the researchers search articles, books, historical notes related to raden joko kaiman and the history of the banyumas regency. simanjuntak (2009) has stated that the library research method is an appropriate research method by digging documentation, publication, government report, both the previous and the latest ones. the previous documents are used as the reference, while the newer documentation is used to show the latest information relating to the topic of discussion. the gathered information is carefully arranged and connected to banyumas’ historical and cultural background to depict raden joko kaiman as a superhero in banyumas context by revealing the concept of denotation and connotation proposed by barthes. context becomes influential in the discussion as it gives related information regarding the meaning of a sign (oki, 2018). a superhero in one context may differ from other superheroes in other contexts (saptanto & dewi, 2020). results and discussions the result shows the denotation and connotation of raden joko kaiman in the context of banyumas culture. raden joko kaiman as a sign can be denotatively and connotatively perceived (table 1). table 1 raden kaiman as a sign denotatively and connotatively denotation 1 raden joko kaiman was the son of raden harya banyak sosro. 2 raden joko kaiman was the god-son of kiai mranggi. 3 raden joko kaiman was the son in-law of adipati wargautama. 4 raden joko kaiman was known as adipati mrapat. connotation 1 courage 2 strong moral code 3 tolerance towards pain 4 great sense of responsibility semiotics tries to reveal the meaning of a sign that abundantly scatter in the world. thus, those signs 75a depiction of raden joko kaiman .... (chusni hadiati; nadia gitya yulianita) are meaningless until people give them meaning. a name is a simple sign that may have or have no meaning to certain people or cultures. the name raden joko kaiman as the founding father of banyumas regency has a heart-warming feeling to banyumas culture (purwokartun, 2020). raden is an addressee term to salute a man with higher social status (herusatoto, 2008). his life gives good examples to the banyumas people. raden joko kaiman can be said as a superhero for the banyumas people. the following discussion focuses on the denotative meaning of raden joko kaiman. the first is that he is the son of raden harya banyak sosro. raden joko kaiman or raden semangun or bagus mangun is actually the son of raden banyak sosro (herusatoto, 2008). it is in line with the record in babad banyumas translated by purwokartun that states raden banyak sosro died and left two children, a daughter and a son, the son is bagus mangun (purwokartun, 2020). raden joko kaiman is the son of raden harya banyak sosro and the grandson of raden harya baribin. raden harya baribin is the son in-law of prabu linggawastu, the king of pakuan parahiyangan kingdom. prabu is an addressee term to salute a king in most of java. from his family tree, it can be seen that raden joko kaiman comes from a noble family. the second denotative meaning of raden joko kaiman is the fact that he is the god-son of kiai mranggi. when raden joko kaiman was just a little boy, he was adopted by kiai mranggi. when his father passed away, raden joko kaiman was appointed to be a shepherd. one day when he was herding the sheep, a spiritual ascetic approached him and led him to a strange and faraway place, near a river. when they arrived in that place, the spiritual ascetic disappeared after giving raden joko kaiman some message. raden joko kaiman ought to stay in that home and not to go anywhere until one day when he had to serve the wirasaba regency. when raden joko kaiman was alone at the bank of the river, nyai mranggi approached the river. she was delighted to find a boy and brought him home because she did not have one. she and her husband finally decided to adopt raden joko kaiman as their son. nyai mranggi is the wife of kiai mranggi (purwokartun, 2020). nyai is an addressee term to salute a woman in a village. kiai is an addressee term to salute a man with higher religious (islam) rank in society. it is mentioned in babad banyumas that is in line with herusatoto (2008), who explicitly stated that raden joko kaiman was adopted by kiai mranggi, raden ayu ngaisah’s husband. later on, they knew that raden joko kaiman was actually their own nephew because raden ayu ngaisah was, in fact, raden banyak sosro’s sister. raden ayu is an addressee term to salute a woman with higher social status in javanese culture. the fact that raden joko kaiman is the sonin-law of adipati wargautama turns into the third denotative meaning. raden joko kaiman becomes the son-in-law of adipati wargautama as he married the first daughter of adipati wargautama. when raden joko kaiman had grown up, he decided to serve the wirasaba regency, so he had to leave his adoptive parents, kiai and nyai mranggi. he then became a soldier in the wirasaba regency. one night, when all soldiers were asleep, adipati wirasaba saw a light stroke into one of his soldiers who were asleep since he could not recognize the soldier, adipati wargautama, the head of wirasaba regency, tore the soldier clothes. adipati is an addressee term to salute the head of a regency. in the morning, raden joko kaiman or bagus mangun was asked to face adipati wargautam. raden joko kaiman was ordered to bring his father to the regency. nyai mranggi was afraid when joko kaiman arrived home and was informed that he had to bring his father to the regency. she was afraid that their son had made a mistake and his husband ought to pay the mistake. after kiai mranggi arrived in the regency, adipati wargautama said that he wanted bagus mangun or raden joko kaiman to marry one of his daughters and finally raden joko kaiman became the son in law of adipati wargautama (purwokartun, 2020). adipati wargautama has five daughters, namely, raden ayu kartimah, ngabehi wargawijaya, ngabehi wirakusuma, ngabehi wirayuda, and raden rara sukartiyah. raden joko kaiman married raden ayu kartiman (herusatoto, 2008). by marrying raden ayu kartimah, raden joko kaiman became the son in-law of adipati wargautama. the fourth denotative meaning of raden joko kaiman is that he is known as adipati mrapat. he gets his alias after he divided the wirasaba regency into four areas. he is known as adipati mrapat for what he had done. mrapat in javanese means to divide into four parts. papat in javanese means four. because of his bravery, raden joko kaiman is then crowned as the head of the wirasaba regency. later on, he is known as adipati wargautama ii. he has divided wirasaba regency into four parts, namely, wirasaba, merden, banjar pertambakan, and kejawar (herusatoto, 2008; purwokartun, 2020). wirasaba is given to ngabehi wargawijaya which is then developed into purbalingga regency nowadays, merden area is given to ngabehi wirakusuma which is then developed into cilacap regency now, banjar pertambakan is given to ngabehi wirayuda which is developed into banjarnegara regency, and kejawar is owned by adipati wargautama ii which is developed into banyumas regency. the name of raden joko kaiman has also displayed connotative meaning, which is in line with the superhero traits proposed by descioli & kurzban (2008). connotation is resulted from the meaningmaking process of the sign and its historical context, cultural context, and belief. there are four connotative meanings of raden joko kaiman that cope with superhero traits, namely, courage, strong moral codes, tolerance to pain, and a great sense of responsibility. the second part sheds light on the connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman. the connotative meanings of raden joko kaiman also reflect his superhero traits. the first superhero trait depicted in the connotation meaning of raden joko kaiman is 76 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 73-78 courage. courage is one of the superhero traits that has been investigated thoroughly (armelia, 2019; poplin, 2016). raden joko kaiman is a courageous man who voluntarily faces sultan hadiwijaya in pajang (purwokartun, 2020). adipati wargautama is murdered by pajang’s soldiers based on sultan hadiwijaya’s command. later on, it is known that the command is mistaken and that sultan hadiwijaya feels sorry for his miss-command. he really wants to apologize, so that he asks one of adipati wargautama’s children to come to the palace, but no one is brave enough to do so. adipati wargautama is wrongly accused by sultan hadiwijaya as sultan thinks that adipati wargautama sends not-virgin offerings to him, and consequently, sultan thinks that adipati wargautama has lost his respect to him (herusatoto, 2008). sending virgin offerings to the sultan is a kind of showing respect and loyalty. by being wrongly accused of sending non-virgin offerings, adipati wargautama is wrongly accused of being a traitor. apparently, the leader of the toyareka regency has slandered adipati wargautama by reporting to sultan that adipati wargautama has sent a non-virgin offering to sultan. it drives the sultan mad, and he commands his soldiers to murder adipati wargautama. in the end, adipati wargautama is murdered for something he does not even realize. when sultan hadiwijaya realizes that he wrongly accuses and murders adipati wargautama, he wants to apologize. he invites adipati wargautama to come to the palace. no one, unfortunately, is brave enough to go to the palace except raden joko kaiman. before he leaves the wirasaba regency, he has said that whatever happens, whether the sultan would give him praise or punish him, no one in the family should not envy him (purwokartun, 2020). raden joko kaiman, who is willing to head off to the palace, has shown how brave he is. he does not have any idea what will happen to his life, moreover after what has happened to his father-inlaw. he decides to go to the palace, he may lose his head, but he is not afraid. what he has done shows his courage. courage is the ability to do something that may frighten or endanger one’s life. courage is one of the superhero characteristics proposed by descioli & kurzban (2008). they have noted that courage means that superheroes have a strong ability to face fears. courage is not a lack of fear. in general, it is the willingness to confront fear. even it takes courage to face injustice, many people fear for their lives. when raden joko kaiman finally decides to go to the palace, he may face injustice or dangerous situations that may harm his life, but he still does that. the courage shown by raden joko kaiman has made him a superhero in banyumas context since he is brave enough to go to the palace instead of the chaotic situation in wirasaba after the murder of adipati wargautama because of the wrong accusation. the courage of raden joko kaiman to head off to the palace despite the dangerous situation reflects a connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman himself. it highlights that at the connotative level, meaning is resulted from the relation between signifier and signified in wide scope that includes belief, habits, framework, and ideology of a social formation. strong moral code is the second superhero trait owned by raden joko kaiman. a strong moral code is one of the superhero traits that has been investigated so far by several scholars (comerford, 2016; picón del campo, 2018). as a leader and not the descendant of adipati wargautama, raden joko kaiman is willing to share his regency into four areas to be equally divided with his brothers and sisters-in-law. thus, the second superheroes trait depicted by raden joko kaiman is strong moral codes since he is willing to divide the wirasaba regency into wirasaba, merden, banjar pertambakan, and kejawar (herusatoto, 2008; purwokartun, 2020). having attended the invitation from sultan hadiwijaya, raden joko kaiman is finally granted as the head of wirasaba regency to replace his fatherin-law, adipati wargautama, who is murdered due to the wrong accusation. when raden joko kaiman crowned as the head of wirasaba, he is given the title as adipati wargautama ii (herusatoto, 2008). raden joko kaiman has realized that he is only a son-in-law of adipati wargautama and has three brother-in-laws. having been permitted by sultan hadiwijaya, raden joko kaiman or adipati wargautama ii has divided wirasaba regency into four parts, i.e., wirasaba, merden, banjar pertambakan, and kejawar. wirasaba is given to his first brother-in-law, ngabehi wargawijaya, merden is given to his second brother-in-law, ngabehi wirakusuma, banjar pertambakan is given to his youngest brother-in-law, ngabehi wirayuda, and kejawar for himself. wirasaba nowadays has developed into purbalingga regency, merden has settled as cilacap regency, banjar pertambakan has established into banjarnegara regency, and kejawar has urbanized into banyumas regency. the magnanimity of raden joko kaiman to divide wirasaba into four regencies has shown his strong moral code. he realizes that he is not a son by the blood of adipati wargautama i, but still, when he is crowned as adipati wargautama ii, he does not take all the glory for himself. if raden joko kaiman is not a man of strong moral code, he may be reluctant to share his brother-in-laws the same glory. his willingness not to be selfish shows how he is a moralistic man, one of the traits of a superhero. connotatively, the meaning of raden joko kaiman as a superhero with a strong moral code is a resultant from the amalgamation of history, experience, and culture of the society. a strong moral code displayed by a superhero is supposed to be copied by the surroundings (yogerst, 2017). raden joko kaiman displays a strong moral code in banyumas’ context by sharing the glory with his brothers-in-law. his strong moral code proves that raden joko kaiman is a superhero. a superhero should inspire others to do good deeds (cochran, 2017). the third superhero trait, which is also the third connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman, is tolerance to pain. tolerance to pain is a superhero trait that can be contextually applied (krypton, 2018; 77a depiction of raden joko kaiman .... (chusni hadiati; nadia gitya yulianita) wibawa, 2016). this trait has also been displayed by raden joko kaiman during his life. when he has decided to go to the wirasaba regency and applied as a guard, he has to keep the safety of the regency. he sometimes keeps up all night. one night, it was his turn to rest, but he replaced another guard who could not commit the duty. when he fell asleep, a light struck his body, causing him pain. adipati wargautama, by accident, saw that thing when he went patrol that night. since the night was too dark, adipati wargautama could not recognize his guard, so he tore the guard’s clothes. the next morning, adipati wargautama finally found the guard and asked the guard to explain where he came from and his background. adipati wargautama knew that when a light stroke into a man, that man would be a leader one day. after joko kaiman explained himself, adipati wargautama asked him to bring his god-father to the palace. when kiai mranggi arrived at wirasaba regency, adipati wargautama asked his permission to wed joko kaiman with his eldest daughter, rara kartimah (herusatoto, 2008). having been struck by a light may harm a man’s body; however, raden joko kaiman could tolerate the pain. this means that he is not an ordinary man or that god has given him the strength to tolerate pain. in javanese culture, when people are struck by lightning, and he or she still survived, he or she is believed to be special. having seen that joko kaiman is still survived after being struck by lightning, adipati wargautama believes that joko kaiman would be a leader someday. this belief has lived in javanese culture for ages. the ability to tolerance towards pain is one of the characteristics of a superhero. it is supported by the cultural belief that people who are struck by lightning would be a leader someday. it results in the connotation meaning of raden joko kaiman in banyumas context. the ability to survive after being struck by light is a non-humanistic trait, probably only owned by a superhero (cook & frey, 2017). in other words, this superhero characteristic is a manifestation of the connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman. the last characteristic of a superhero shown by raden joko kaiman is an excellent sense of responsibility. as one trait of the superhero, a great sense of responsibility has been explored so far by peña and chen (2017) and zarate (2019). raden joko kaiman has displayed a great sense of responsibility in his life. when adipati wargautama was murdered because of a wrong accusation, sultan hadiwijaya asked one of the descendants of adipati wargautama to head off to the palace. however, no one was brave enough to answer the invitation. when raden joko kaiman voluntarily answered the invitation, it shows that he had a great sense of responsibility. nobody knew what would happen to raden joko kaiman at that time when he headed off to the palace; they were terrified and thought that sultan still felt furious and wanted to murder raden joko kaiman as the sonin-law of adipati wargautama. raden joko kaiman also did not have any idea as to what would happen to his life. all he thought was that he had to take the responsibility to head off to the palace after the death of his father-in-law. before raden joko kaiman and his wife headed off to the palace, he said to his brother and sisters-in-law that whatever happened to him and his wife, whether they would be murdered or got any glory from the sultan, they ought to sincerely accept it. they all agreed upon it (herusatoto, 2008; purwokartun, 2020). raden joko kaiman, in fact, is given glory by the sultan, and he is crowned as the head of wirasaba regency, replacing his late father-in-law. sultan considers raden joko kaiman as a responsible son-inlaw who is brave enough to handle the consequence. his responsibility made sultan grants him the position of a leader. raden joko kaiman had done shows a great sense of responsibility which brought the connotative meaning of raden joko kaiman in banyumas context. a great sense of responsibility is one of the superhero traits because most superheroes are motivated by something extraordinary to ensure that other people around them are safe (descioli & kurzban, 2008). by taking the responsibility to head off to the palace replacing his late father-in-law, raden joko kaiman shows a great sense of responsibility. it reveals the connotation of raden joko kaiman as a sign in banyumas’ historical, cultural, and beliefs. conclusions raden joko kaiman as the founding father of banyumas regency, can be seen as a sign. the embellishment of raden joko kaiman as a sign in the semiotic approach has proven that the founders of the regency are meaningful as long as people give them meaning. the name raden joko kaiman may mean nobody in a different cultural context. the denotative meaning of raden joko kaiman has revealed his personal information; meanwhile, the connotative meaning has figured out his characteristics as a superhero in banyumas culture. the research has portrayed the denotative meaning of raden joko kaiman as well as his connotative meaning. the finding can be completed by other research so that further research is highly appreciated, particularly by utilizing different semiotics approaches to get a more comprehensive understanding of the depiction of raden joko kaiman in banyumas context. acknowledgements we would like to express our gratitude to jenderal soedirman research and community service institution for fully funded this research under the scheme riset institusi fiscal year 2020, grant no. kept. 119/un23.18/pt.01.05/2020 entitled simbolisme dalam kebudayaan banyumas: sebuah kajian semiotika budaya. 78 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 73-78 references armelia, l. 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(2018). barthes’s semiotic theory and the tcsl classroom. chinese semiotic studies, 14(2), 193227. https://doi.org/10.1515/css-2018-0013. yogerst, c. (2017). superhero films: a fascist national complex or exemplars of moral virtue? journal of religion and film, 21(1), 1-34. zarate, t. r. (2019). utilizing visual rhetoric: a new approach to comics, superheroes, and red suns. san bernardino: california state university. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 195 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 195-201 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6600 phonological description of teochew dialect in pontianak west kalimantan lily thamrin* fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas tanjungpura jl. jendral ahmad yani, pontianak, kalimantan barat 78124, indonesia lily.thamrin@fkip.untan.ac.id received: 29th july 2020/revised: 24th august 2020/accepted: 20th october 2020 how to cite: thamrin, l. (2020). phonological description of teochew dialect in pontianak west kalimantan. lingua cultura, 14(2), 195-201. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6600 abstract the research aimed to describe the phonological system of the pontianak teochew dialect spoken by the chinese community in west kalimantan, including vocals, consonants, and tones, using descriptive method. the phonological description in question included both phonetic and phonemic descriptions with the subject of language that objectively and accurately describes the current aspects of teochew’s phonology. the phonetic system of the pontianak teochew language would be articulately identified based on the way sounds are formed by human speech tools, namely through consonants, vocals and diphthong. the research data were obtained from three pontianak teochew informants who used the teochew dialect as their daily conversation language. the informants were around 70-75 years old. based on the research results, there are 18 consonant phonemes, 88 vocal phonemes, and eight tones. the research results show that the pontianak teochew dialect has its own characteristics that distinguish it from the other regional teochew dialects. keywords: phonological system, phonetics system, teochew dialect introduction on a daily basis, language is utterly needed to communicate among people. language is a tool to convey ideas, thoughts, and desires to others, and it plays a role in the development of various aspects of human life. thus, language has a function as a medium to deliver information. the function of language can be studied in two ways, both internally and externally. internal studies are studies that are only conducted on the internal structure of language, which includes phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic structures. this study is conducted in accordance with the procedures and provisions that already exist in linguistic disciplines. meanwhile, external studies are studies conducted on structures outside the language, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and so on (gani & arsyad, 2019). according to chelaeh et al. (2017), phonological aspects require a system of phoneme inventory and involve phonological processes. phonology is a part of language science that studies sound. the first object of phonological study is sound (fon), which is called (phonetics), and the second one explains phonemes, which is called phoneme system (phonemic) (gani & arsyad, 2019). it includes the sounds of language, those related to sound formation, sounds as air vibrations, and audible sounds (all are studied by phonetics) as well as those related to the function of sound in communication (nafisah, 2017). pontianak has three largest ethnic groups, namely the malays, the dayaks, and the chinese. the languages used by the chinese are teochew and hakka, which are still preserved by the pontianak chinese. however, the teochew or khek language used in pontianak is no longer the original language. however, it is a special language generally used by the chinese people in indonesia that has been assimilated into the local language. language development can be influenced by speakers who use the language itself. every language speaker has a different background. another factor that influences the development of a language is the geographical location of an area (afidah & mardikantoro, 2019). meanwhile, the phonological system is a language system used by the community to differentiate itself from other communities (sari & 196 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 195-201 syaputri, 2019). in this case, the regional language of each ethnic group affects phonological pronunciation (taembo, 2016). pontianak’s geographical location is precisely crossed by the equator. it is one of the tropical regions with quite high temperatures and high humidity. astronomically, pontianak is located between 0o 02′ 24″ north latitude and 0o 05′ 37″ south latitude, and between 109o 16′ 25″ east longitude and 109o 23′ 01″ east longitude. overall, pontianak is bordered by the areas of mempawah regency and kuburaya regency (pemerintah kota pontianak, 2019). pontianak teochew dialect is a dialect that has been assimilated into the local language, so it is slightly different from the original teochew dialect from guangdong china. this is because it is influenced by the process of language assimilation from the malay dialect of pontianak and bahasa indonesia. assimilation is a process of mutual influence between one sound with another that results in phonemes or sounds that are almost the same. they affect each other as a result of an almost identical environment (nafisah, 2017). during the development, social dialects in dialectology studies refer to dialects spoken by speakers of certain regions based on the speakers’ social variables (widyastuti, 2019). these changes can occur at the level of phonology, morphology, semantics, and lexical (suharyanto, 2015). in this case, neighboring isolates play a role in the process of the occurrence of a dialect. therefore, the research areas have special characteristics and potentially contribute to the characterization of the study area isolates, namely variations in language units, morpheme, sentences, and lexicon (reniwati et al., 2016). the teochew dialect is a hokkien sub dialect, which is translated in the min nan language (li & huang, 2017). tiosua dialect is also called a teochew dialect, spread in eastern guangdong province, the coastal chaoshan area (chaozhou city, jieyang city, shantou city, fengshun county), and the areas where chinese overseas are the oldest, so it becomes the most special dialect in the country. teochew dialect belongs to the min nan language, which is one of the eight major languages of chinese dialects with unique phonology, rich vocabulary, special grammatical structures, many ancient meanings, humorous, full of expressiveness, and other characteristics (陈泽如, 2016). speakers of the teochew dialect in china and indonesia are different in terms of phonology, morphology, and the choice of language use in daily life. different elements of language and culture influence the differences. the pontianak teochew dialect is more influenced by indonesian, pontianak malay, and pontianak khek. indonesian researchers rarely carry out research on the language or dialect spoken by the chinese. therefore, the researcher conducts research about the phonology of the pontianak teochew dialect. the researcher is also a speaker of the pontianak teochew dialect and masters both spoken and written mandarin. methods a descriptive method is used in the research. it aims to obtain a complete and valid description of the phonology of the pontianak teochew dialect. the phonological description includes phonetic and phonemic descriptions with language points which objectively and accurately describe the current phonological aspects of the pontianak teochew dialect. data collected using a descriptive method are in the form of words and images, not numbers, which contain data excerpts to provide an overview of the report’s presentation. thus, the researcher analyzes the rich data, which are as far as possible in its original form. validly in a language is determined by the data source of the concerned language. in the study of phonology, the priority is to use primary data so that secondary data should be avoided (erniati, 2020). data are collected through interviews and conversations with informants who use pontianak teochew dialect. the researcher uses《fang yan diaocha zi biao方言 调查字表》(she hui ke xue yuan yan jiu suo社会 科学院研究所, 2004),《dialect survey glossary》. dialect survey glossary is first used by zhao yuanren to conduct a field survey in order to complete his research report. after conducting the survey, the survey materials are sorted and made into survey reports or scientific research papers written into standard operating procedures. for the chinese dialect survey in the research of dialect phonetics, the vocabulary is 3.810 words commonly used in everyday life. the chosen words are arranged according to the initials, final, and guangyun tone. the dialect survey glossary is used to investigate the dialect of a language so that it can draw important points in the phonetic evolution of dialects in ancient and modern times (李蓝 li lan, 2018). during the analysis, the obtained data are analyzed on the basis of phonetic transcription analysis. in other words, the recording of sound in the form of written symbols or phonetic symbols that have been determined by the international phonetic associations (ipa) is used so that it can be easily understood by readers and does not cause misinterpretation. in order to map the consonant sounds, vowels, and tones, the recordings in the form of pontianak teochew dialect sound system are observed. the research emphasizes on the field of proving the status of phonemes and their realization, the structure of phonemes in the pontianak teochew dialect. this subject will be devoted to several aspects, including phonetics and phonemic teochew dialect. informants are native speakers of the teochew language. the informants are three people with age ranging from 70 to 75 years. informants are selected based on their level of mastery of teochew language and whether they can read simple han characters 197phonological description of teochew .... (lily thamrin) spoken in teochew. the three informants are fluent in teochew language and have a background in mandarin education at the junior high school level. the informants are descendants of the second generation. the mobility of the informants outside their place is very limited. informants can speak indonesian, khek, and a little bit mandarin. results and discussions chen (2008) has been researching the teochew dialect in laos, vientiane, specifically the phonology and phonetics of the language. based on the results of this research, it is known that the laos teochew vientiane dialect consonants have 19 consonants, 77 vocals, and 8 tones. according to the data received from informants, phonological variations found in pontianak teochew dialect include variations of consonant sounds, vowels, and tones. the phonology found in the pontianak teochew dialect has 18 consonant phonemes, 88 vowels, and 8 notes. based on data obtained by consonant sounds in pontianak teochew dialect in west kalimantan, 18 consonant sounds are found, they are [p], [pʰ], [b], [m], [t], [tʰ], [n], [l], [z], [ts], [tsʰ], [s], [k], [kʰ] [g], [ŋ], [h],[∅]. the consonant sound [p] is found in the vocabulary 补 [pou], 比 [pi], 排 [pai], 飞 [pue], 盘 [pua], 斧 [pou], 布 [pou], 方 [paŋ]. the consonant sound [pʰ] is found in the vocabulary 香 [pʰaŋ], 跑 [pʰau], 蜂 [pʰaŋ], 骗 [pʰien]. the consonant sound [b] is found in the vocabulary 梅 [bue], 卖 [boi], 米 [bi], 马 [be], 无 [bo]. the consonant sound [m] is found in the vocabulary 门 [meŋ], 毛 [mo], 名 [mia], 晚 [me]. the consonant sound [t] is found in the vocabulary 刀 [to], 袋 [to], 灯 [teŋ], [tiau], 中 [toŋ]. the consonant sound [tʰ] is found in the vocabulary 看 [tʰoi], 太 [tʰai], 谈 [tʰam]. the consonant sound [n] is found in the vocabulary 年 [ni], 努 [nou], 两 [no], 软 [neŋ]. the consonant sound [l] is found in the vocabulary 罗 [lo], 路 [lou], 漏 [lau], 里 [lai]. the consonant sound [z] is found in the vocabulary 入 [zip], 热 [zuak], 二 [zi], 日 [zit]. the consonant sounds [ts] is found in the vocabulary 走 [tsau], 知 [tsai], 钟 [tseŋ], 注 [tsu], 水 [tsui]. the consonant sounds [tsʰ] is found in the vocabulary 唱 [tsʰio], 青 [tsʰe], 秋 [tsʰiu], 抄 [tsʰau], 手 [tsʰiu], 抢 [tsʰio]. the sound of the consonant [s] is found in the vocabulary 三 [sa], 生 [se], 色 [sek], 疏 [su], 社 [sia]. the consonant sound [k] is found in the vocabulary 歌 [kua], 桥 [kio], 狗 [you], 旗 [ki]. the consonant sounds [kʰ] is found in the vocabulary 去 [kʰe], 哭 [kʰau], 可 [kʰo], 期 [kʰi], 吸 [kʰip], 苦 [kʰou]. the consonant sound [g] is found in the vocabulary 玉 [gek], 吴 [gou], 牙 [ge], 牛 [gu], 月 [gueʔ]. the consonant sound [ŋ] is found in the vocabulary 硬 [ŋe], 俄 [ŋo], 五 [ŋou]. the consonant sound [h] is found in the vocabulary 何 [ho], 府 [hu], 墟 [hu], 福 [hok]. the consonant zero sound [∅] is found in the vocabulary 我 [ua], 爷 [ia], 英 [iŋ], 幼 [iu]. based on the data, the consonant correspondence in teochew language spoken by three informants is the same, namely ancient turbid initials that sounded unvoiced, vowel plosive, and affricate. most consonants are read as aspirated sound. only a few are read as aspirated sound. based on data obtained by the vocal sounds found in the pontianak teochew dialect in west kalimantan, there are 88 vocal sounds. they are: [i], [u], [a], [ia], [ua], [e], [ue], [o], [io], [ɯ], [ai], [uai], [oi], [ui], [au], [iau], [ou], [iu], [ã], [ĩã ], [ũã], [ẽ], [ũẽ], [õ], [ĩõ], [ĩ], [ãĩ], [ũãĩ], [õĩ], [ãũ], [ĩãũ], [ũĩ], [õũ] [ĩũ], [am], [iam], [uam], [om], [im], [an], [ien], [uen], [ɯn], [in], [un] ], [uan], [aŋ], [iaŋ], [uaŋ], [eŋ], [ueŋ], [oŋ], [ioŋ], [ɯŋ], [uŋ], [ap], [iap], [steam], [op], [ip], [at], [strong], [it], [ut], [oit], [ak], [iak], [uak], [ek], [uek] ], [ok], [iok], [uk], [ik], [aʔ], [iaʔ], [uaʔ], [ueʔ], [oʔ], [ioʔ], [iʔ], [uʔ], [eʔ], [ẽʔ], [ũẽʔ], [õʔ], [m], [ŋ̍]. the vowel sound [i] is found in the vocabulary 地 [ti], li [li], 池 [ti], 齿 [kʰi]. the vowel sound [u] is found in the vocabulary 入 [zu], 有 [u], 区 [kʰu]. the vowel sound [a] is found in the vocabulary 巴 [pa], 早 [tsa]. the vowel sound [it] is found in the vocabulary 车 [tsʰia], 写 [sia], 谢 [tsia]. the vowel sound [ua] is found in the vocabulary 华 [hua], 拖 [tʰua], 娶 [tsʰua]. the vowel sound [e] is found in the vocabulary 爬 [pe], 加 [ke], 些 [se], 债 [tse]. the vowel sound [ue] is found in the vocabulary 杯 [pue], 花 [hue], [cake]. the vowel sound [o] is found in the vocabulary 保 [po], 多 [to], 哥 [ko], 初 [tsʰo]. the vowel sound [io] is found in the vocabulary 票 [pʰio], 姜 [kio]. the vowel sounds [ɯ] is found in the vocabulary 吕 [lɯ], 去 [kʰɯ], 鱼 [hɯ], 猪 [tɯ]. the vowel sounds [ai] is found in the vocabulary 排 [pai], 来 [lai], 介 [kai]. the vowel sound [uai] is found in the vocabulary 怪 [kuai], 淮 [huai]. the vowel sound [oi] is found in the vocabulary 批 [pʰoi], 题 [toi], 街 [koi], 矮 [oi]. the vowel sounds [ui] is found in the vocabulary 悲 [pui], 辉 [hui], 对 [tui], 开 [kʰui]. the vowel sound [au] is found in the vocabulary 老 [lau], 交 [you], 欧 [au]. the vowel sound [iau] is found in the vocabulary 焦 [tsiau], 绍 [siau]. the vowel sound [ou] is found in the vocabulary 198 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 195-201 布 [pou], 古 [kou], 都 [tou], 后 [hou]. the vowel sound [iu] is found in the vocabulary 丢 [tiu], 友 [iu], 手 [tsʰiu], 初 [tsʰiu] the vowel sound [ã] is found in the vocabulary 担 [tã], 三 [sã], 酵 [kã], 妈 [mã]. the vowel sound [iã] is found in the vocabulary 兵 [pĩã], 京 [kĩã], 正 [tsĩã], 雅 [ŋĩã]. the vowel sound [ũã] is found in the vocabulary of 半 [pũã]. the vowel sound [ẽ] is found in the vocabulary 病 [pẽ], 猛 [mẽ], 星 [tsʰẽ]. the vowel sound [ũẽ] is found in the vocabulary 横 [hũẽ], 关 [kũẽ], 妹 [mũẽ]. the vowel sound [õ] is found in the vocabulary 俄 [ŋõ], [mõ], 两 [nõ]. the vowel sound [ĩõ] is found in the vocabulary 娘 [nĩõ], 羊 [ĩõ]. the vowel sound [ĩ] is found in the vocabulary 钱 [tsĩ], 扇 [sĩ], 迷 [mĩ]. the vowel sound [ãĩ] is found in the vocabulary 卖 [mãĩ], 爱 [ãĩ], 还 [hãĩ]. the vowel sound [ũãĩ] is found in the vocabulary of 果 [kũãĩ]. the vowel sound [õĩ] is found in vocabulary 殿 [tõĩ], 闲 [õĩ], 蚕 [tsʰõĩ], 第 [tõĩ]. the vowel sound [ũĩ] is found in the vocabulary 县 [hũĩ], 危 [ŋũĩ]. the vowel sound [ãũ] is found in the vocabulary 好 [hãũ], 傲 [ãũ]. the vowel sound [ĩãũ] is found in the vocabulary of 苗 [mĩãũ]. the vowel sound [õũ] is found in the vocabulary 虎 [hõũ], 奴 [nõũ]. the vowel sound [ĩũ] is found in the vocabulary 休 [hĩũ], 扭 [nĩũ]. the vowel sound [am] is found in the vocabulary 含 [kam], 甘 [kam], 针 [tsam]. the vowel sound [iam] is found in the vocabulary 点 [tiam], 咸 [kiam], 占 [tsiam]. the vowel sound [iam] is found in the vocabulary 点 [tiam], 咸 [kiam], 占 [tsiam]. the vowel sound [om] is found in the vocabulary 口 用 头部 冲撞 [kom]. the vowel sound [im] is found in the vocabulary 林 [lim], 深 [sim], 寻 [tsim], 淹 [im]. the vowel sound [an] is found in the vocabulary 班 [pan], 牵 [kʰan]. the vowel sound [an] is found in the vocabulary 班 [pan], 牵 [kʰan]. the vowel sound [ien] is found in the vocabulary 珍 [tien], 煎 [tsien], 电 [tien]. the vowel sound [ien] is found in the vocabulary 珍 [tien], 煎 [tsien], 电 [tien]. the vowel sound [uan] is found in the vocabulary 愿 [ŋuan], 万 [buan], 銮 [luan]. the vowel sound [ɯn] is found in the vocabulary 银 [ŋɯn], 近 [kɯn]. the vowel sound [in] is found in the vocabulary 面 [min], 蝇 [sin], 藤 [tin]. the vowel sound [un] is found in the vocabulary 春 [tsun], 滚 [kun]. 寸 [tsun], [kun], 文 [bun]. the vowel sound [aŋ] is found in the vocabulary 红 [aŋ], 唐 [thaŋ], 东 [taŋ]. the vowel sound [iaŋ] is found in the vocabulary 凉 [liaŋ], 天 [thiaŋ], 香 [hiaŋ], 娟 [kiaŋ]. the vowel sound [uaŋ] is found in the vocabulary 装 [tsuaŋ], 光 [kuaŋ]. the vowel sound [en] is found in the vocabulary 宫 [keŋ], 民 [meŋ], 仁 [zeŋ], 轻 [kheŋ], 兴 [heŋ]. the vowel sound [ue] is found in the vocabulary 荣 [ueŋ], 永 [ueŋ]. the vowel sound [oŋ] is found in the vocabulary of 中 [toŋ], 充 [tshoŋ], 封 [hoŋ], 公 [koŋ]. the vowel sound [ɯŋ] is found in the vocabulary 郎 [lɯŋ], 仓 [khɯŋ], 段 [tɯŋ]. the vowel sound [ap] is found in the vocabulary 答 [tap], 杂 [tsap], 鸽 [hap]. the vowel sound [iap] is found in the vocabulary 夹 [kiap], 蝶 [tiap], 接 [tsiap], 涉 [siap]. the vowel sound [uap] is found in the vocabulary 法 [huap]. the vowel sound [op] is found in the 口口的插入 [tsop] vocabulary. the vowel sound [ip] is found in the vocabulary 立 [lip], 给 [kip], 执 [khip]. the vowel sound [at] is found in the vocabulary 力 [lat], 贼 [tshat]. the vowel sound [uat] is found in the vocabulary 发 [huat], 伐 [huat]. the vowel sound [it] is found in the vocabulary 橘 [kit], 蜜 [bit]. the vowel sound [oit] is found in the vocabulary 节 [tsoit], 八 [poit]. the vowel sound [ak] is found in the vocabulary pak [pak], 角 [ak], bak [bak], 乐 [lak]. the vowel sound [iak] is found in the vocabulary 略 [liak], 雀 [khiak], 弱 [niak], 跃 [iak]. the vowel sound [uak] is found in the vocabulary ku [kuak], 越 [uak]. the vowel sound [ek] is found in the vocabulary 碧 [pek], 式 [sek], 特 [thek], 陆 [lek]. the vowel sound [uek] is found in the vocabulary h [huek]. the vowel sound [ok] is found in the vocabulary 牧 [mok], 足 [tsok], 国 [kok] the vowel sound [iok] is found in the vocabulary 曲 [khiok], 蓄 [hiok], 国 [kok]. the vowel sound [uk] is found in the vocabulary of 不 [puk], 屈 [khuk]. the vowel sound [uk] is found in the vocabulary 乞 [khɛk]. the vowel sound [aokal] is found in the vocabulary 甲 [kaʔ], 搭 [taʔ], 插 [tshaʔ]. the vowel sound [iaʔ] is found in the vocabulary 壁 [piaʔ], 摘 [tiaʔ], 食 [tsiaʔ], 额 [hiaʔ]. the vowel sound [ua,] is found in the vocabulary 泼 [phuaʔ], 割 [kuaʔ], 活 [uaʔ]. the vowel sound [eʔ] is found in the vocabulary 百 [peʔ], 历 [leʔ], 册 [tsheʔ]. the vowel sound [ue,] is found in the vocabulary 月 [gueʔ], 刷 [sueʔ]. the vowel sound [oʔ] is found in the vocabulary 199phonological description of teochew .... (lily thamrin) 薄 [poʔ], 桌 [toʔ], 托 [thoʔ]. the vowel sound [ioʔ] is found in the vocabulary 惜 [sioʔ], 石 [tsioʔ], 页 [hioʔ]. the vowel sound [iʔ] is found in the vocabulary 铁 [thiʔ], 接 [tsiʔ], 舌 [tsiʔ]. the vowel sound [uʔ] is found in the vocabulary 窟 [khuʔ]. the vowel sound [ẽʔ] is found in the vocabulary 脉 [mẽʔ]. vocabulary sounds [ũẽʔ] is found in vocabulary 物 [mũẽʔ] the consonant sound [õʔ] is found in the vocabulary 膜 [mõʔ]. the consonant sound [m], found in the vocabulary 姆 [m]. the consonant sound [ŋ̍] is found in the vocabulary 远 [hŋ̍], 黄 [ŋ̍]. in pontianak’s teochew dialect, there is one vocabulary that is pronounced differently from the other. for instance, vocabulary groups included in the group “gu shanshe 古 山 摄” vowel suffixes are spelled [ŋ̍], another vowel. in addition, if the vowel [ɯ ], the vowel ending [-ŋ], [-k], the vowel pronounced by the informant will change to [ɤ]. suffixes in one category and one group are pronounced [un]. the pontianak teochew vocal has its own characteristics. it uses nasal terminal consisting of a front nasal and a back nasal, namely [-m], [n], [ŋ]. in addition, the entering tone words consists of four types of plosive terminals, namely [-p], [t], [k], and [ʔ]. it also has many nasal rhymes such as 钱 [tsĩ], 虎 [hõũ] and others. based on data obtained from the field, the pontianak teochew dialect is grouped into eight tones of voice that are further divided into “yin and yang”. the monosyllabic tone is divided into tone levels, rising tones, falling tones, and entering tones. each is consisting of devoiced and voiced, a total of eight tones. chongqi and ruiying, 2018) have written a comparative research on phonetic systems of five documents about teochew-swatow dialect during the period of qing dynasty and the early republic of china. the analysis of the tones of the late qing dynasty and the early republic of china shows that there are eight tones in five chinese and western teochew dictionaries. the tones of the western teochew dialect are even higher. for instance, fideer’s swatow dialect phonetic and meaningful characters dictionary uses western music staves to describe the tonal value specifically. the phonology of every language in the world has its own characteristics, especially in the use of vocals and consonants (sutarsih, 2017). meanwhile, (吴芳 wufang, 2018) states that the phonological system of the teochew dialect used in paris is slightly different from the original teochew language used in mainland china. the teochew chinese in paris migrated from southeast asia in the late 1970s. they generally live in districts 13 and 18. many secondgeneration teochew people who were born and raised in paris can speak teochew, but the language has changed. the language most fluently spoken is french, and there are teochew speakers in paris who can also speak cantonese, mandarin, and english. due to its history of immigration and its special linguistic environment, the paris teochew dialect presents a complex type of linguistic contact. the dialect has clear traces of southeast asian languages, and at the same time combines components of french and english. apart from that, there is also a mixture of other dialects, which is a distinctive feature of the paris teochew dialect. based on the research results, it is found that the phonology of the pontianak teochew dialect has changed. in other words, it is different from the phonology of the original teochew dialect in mainland china, particularly in jieyang city. this language change occurred because the pontianak teochew chinese had lived in pontianak for hundreds of years from the time when their ancestors started to immigrate to west kalimantan. also, there had been language assimilation and cultural acculturation in the chinese tribe, which resulted in the teochew dialect having its own phonetic characteristics. every speaker has a phonological awareness of the sounds in his/her language. meanwhile, each language has a different phonological system table 1 teochew dialect pontianak tones tone number tones name pitch contour description example 1 yin level (阴平) 33 mid 珠 [tsu], 知 [tsai] 2 yang level (阳平) 55 high 铜 [taŋ], 陈 [tan], 3 yin rising (阴上) 53 falling 感 [kam], 早 [tsa] 4 yang rising (阳上) 35 high rising 老 [lau], 坐 [tso] 5 yin departing (阴去) 213 low rising 吊 [tiau], 教 [ka] 6 yang derpating (阳去) 11 low 地 [ti], 谢 [sia] 7 yin entering (阴入) 21 low checked 竹笔 [pit], 急 [kip] 8 yang entering (阳入) 4 high checked 杂 [tsap], 合 [ap] 200 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 195-201 (suherman, 2012). it applies to pontianak teochew language and jieyang teochew language. this is due to the existence of several phonetic features of the pontianak teochew language that are not found in the phonetic features of the jieyang teochew language. therefore, there is a change in the pronunciation of several vocals (initial) of the pontianak teochew dialect. voicing or changing of one of the vocals into another vocal is influenced by the sound close to the consonant, or in the form of depalatalization, which is the change from one consonant to another because the adjacency of the place out letters. conclusions based on the analysis, it can be concluded that the pontianak teochew community still uses the teochew dialect although it has been hundreds years since the immigration of their ancestors from guangdong, china. based on the obtained data, pontianak teochew dialect in west kalimantan has 18 consonant sounds, and eight variations in the pitch of the tones, which are divided into “yin and yang”. based on the data, the consonant correspondence in teochew language, namely ancient turbid initials sounded as unvoiced sound, vowel plosive, and affricate. most consonants are read as aspirated sound. only a few are read as aspirated sound. the pontianak teochew vocal has its own characteristics. it has a nasal terminal consisting of a front nasal and a back nasal, namely [-m], [n], and [ŋ]. in addition, the entering tone words consists of four types of plosive terminals, namely [-p], [t], [k], amd [ʔ]. it also has many nasal rhymes such as 钱 [tsĩ], 虎 [hõũ] and others. the monosyllabic tones are divided into tone levels, rising tones, falling tones, and entering tones, that each consisting of devoiced and voiced, a total of eight tones. the research in the teochew dialect in west kalimantan can be further developed if the research is still around the dialectological studies. research on the teochew dialect in west kalimantan province, pontianak can also be studied using sociodialectological studies and at other levels, such as at the level of morphology, syntax, or semantics. references afidah, a. u., & mardikantoro, h. b. 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(2019). bahasa sunda dialek pangandaran di kecamatan sidamulih (kajian fonologis). lokabasa: jurnal kajian bahasa, sastra, dan budaya daerah serta pengajarannya, 8(1), 101-111. https://doi. org/10.17509/jlb.v8i1.15971. 吴芳 wufang. (2018). 巴黎潮州华人与潮州话概说. 贺州 学院学报, 4(8). 李蓝 li lan. (2018). 汉语方言调查技术取得历史性突破 201phonological description of teochew .... (lily thamrin) hanyu fangyan diaocha jishu qude lishi xing tupo. 中国社会科学报 zhongguo shehui kexue xuebao. 陈泽如. (2016). 潮汕方言研究综述. 现代语文:下旬. 语言研究, 8, 11-13. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 25 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 25-32 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7827 syntactic complexity of online opinion articles published in south east asian countries muarif1; dwi indarti2* 1applied linguistics, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia jl. jend sudirman no. 51, setiabudi, jakarta 12930, indonesia 2english department, bina sarana informatika university jl. kramat raya no. 98, senen, jakarta 10450, indonesia 1muarif24@gmail.com; 2dwi.diw@bsi.ac.id received: 09th december 2021/revised: 25th february 2022/accepted: 02nd march 2022 how to cite: muarif & indarti, d. (2022). syntactic complexity of online opinion articles published in south east asian countries. lingua cultura, 16(1), 25-32. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7827 abstract the research investigated the syntactic complexity of opinion articles published in online newspapers from english as a second language (esl) and english as a foreign language (efl) countries in south-east asia (sea). the aims of the research were, first, to analyze the types of syntactic complexity (sc) of opinion articles in online news media. the second was to seek the difference in syntactic complexity in online opinion articles between esl and efl countries. the third was to seek whether there was a significant difference in terms of types of syntactic measurements between esl and efl countries. to answer the questions, the research applied both quantitative and qualitative methods. twelve opinion articles from online news media in sea countries were derived from malaysia and singapore, which represented esl countries, and indonesia and thailand, which represented efl countries. the data were analyzed by using an l2 syntactic complexity analyzer. the second language syntactic complexity analyzer (l2sca) program displayed fourteen syntactic complexity measures divided into five types of measurements such as the length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and particular structures. from comparing overall esl and efl countries and each of the opinion articles topics, the research results reveal that opinion articles of esl countries show a higher score on the length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, and particular structures than efl countries. meanwhile, in coordination type, efl countries display a higher number of a score than esl ones. the research indicates there is no significant difference between esl and efl countries since the p-value of each type of syntactic complexity is higher than 0,05. keywords: syntactic complexity, online opinion articles, published articles, d-analyzer introduction opinion articles, as part of a newspaper’s section, are short argumentative essays written by the readers of the newspapers or by the public society who wants to express their opinion on specific issues in writing. since opinion articles are written in english by local writers, they contain various cultural background that affects the writer’s style. these articles are written by different writers and published in different countries, so that these articles could vary in many aspects, such as the dictions and sentence structures. english has a different status in different south-east asian (sea) countries. english is a foreign language in thailand, vietnam, laos, and indonesia, as these countries do not have a history of colonization from english native countries such as the usa, uk, and australia. while it is used as a second language in malaysia, singapore, and the philippines, where english has become part of a country’s main institutions and are former colonies of the usa and uk (rajadurai, 2005). some works have been conducted to investigate opinion articles. shen and tao (2021) have compared the use of stance markers between two different genres; medical research articles and newspaper opinion articles. the results show that the occurrences 26 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 25-32 of stance markers in newspaper opinion articles are higher than in medical research articles. dewi (2019) has taken ten opinion articles about climate change from online newspapers published in the united states and discovered the types of illocutionary acts and how the writers apply persuasive strategies in their writings. indarti (2018a) has examined the rhetorical moves of opinion articles published in the jakarta post and found a difference between native and nonnative writers in terms of thesis statement; while native writers tend to use two or more complex sentences, non-native writers mostly use a single sentence. the mentioned studies discuss opinion articles only from the point of view of sentential moves. al-rickaby (2020) has compared the engagement markers and the use of stance between english and arabic newspaper opinion articles and demonstrated that both english and arabic opinion articles employed stance and engagement markers, while english online newspaper opinion articles employed more stance markers. abuayyash (2020) has used opinion articles on the topic of the united kingdom independent party (ukip) leader’s call to ban the burqa in the uk published in the guardian newspaper. it explores the use and function of cohesive devices that link the text to the context (exophora) and those that relate the text to the culture (homophora). meanwhile, oktavianti and adnan (2020) have identified the verbs found in opinion articles published in the jakarta post and found that there are three most frequent verb types used; material, verbal, and feeling verb types. the quality of a text can be measured by syntactic complexity. syntactic complexity (sc) is a branch of syntax that examines writing skills in terms of the diversion of words in a text (lu, 2010). the measure of sc can be used to predict the quality of writings. the complexity of the learners’ language can be identified by analyzing the variety of structures through syntactic complexity measurement (lu, 2010). the second language syntactic complexity analyzer (l2sca) program can be used in some fields of discourse analysis to find out the relationship between words and sentences in a text. this program provides fourteen measures to gauge five types of syntactic complexity: length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and particular structures. despite differences in sc measurements, the development in syntactic complexity is an integral part of a second language learner’s overall development in the target language from time to time (lu, 2010). development means the process of sc to be more deliberated in measuring the complexity of words and sentences from fourteen types of sc measurements, as seen in table 1. some studies have been conducted in relation to syntactic complexity. kuiken and vedder (2019) have explored the syntactic complexity focused on the number of coordinate and subordinate structures of the argumentative essays of l2 learners and native writers of dutch, italian, and spanish. their research indicates the variation of syntactic complexity in different languages and proficiency levels. khusik and huhta (2020) have discussed the l2 syntactic complexity analyzer and coh-metrix to examine argumentative essays written by pakistan and finland students of different common european framework of reference (cefr) levels. they have found differences in the length of production units, subordination, and phrasal density. casal and lee (2019) have studied the connection between syntactic complexity and the writing quality of research papers written by first 280 first-year esl students. the research reveals minor diversity in clausal subordination and coordination and a major difference in complex nominal densities, mean length of clauses, and mean length of t-unit. they argue that syntactic complexity indicates the quality of esl composition writings. using traditional indices of syntactic complexity, fine-grained indices of casual complexity, and fine-grained indices of phrasal complexity to estimate writing complexity scores, the research conducted by kyle and crossley (2018), has indicated that writing quality could be predicted by fine-grained indices of phrasal complexity. saricaoglu, bilki, and plakans (2021) have explored the relationship between syntactic complexity and rhetorical functions and the level of move realization in 79 introduction sections of research articles written by undergraduate l2 students. they find a higher level of phrasal complexity in the introduction with a higher level of move realization. meanwhile, indarti (2018b) has investigated the syntactic complexity of online english newspaper editorials published in ten countries. it reveals that newspaper editorials from ns countries (usa and uk) indicate complexity at the beginning and intermediate levels of proficiency, while newspaper editorials published in nigeria show the most complex sentence structure, which can be seen from the length of production. taking account of the definitions of sc, how it is measured, and some previous studies, it can be seen that sc can be used as a medium to see the variation of words and sentences used, especially in the writing production such as opinion articles. the d-analyzer is a sophisticated and automated tool that can be used to measure syntactic complexity. therefore, the present research measures the syntactic complexity using the d-analyzer proposed by lu (2010) to see the complexity of words and sentences of opinion articles published in some online news media between malaysia and singapore (esl countries) and indonesia and thailand (efl countries). thus, the research seeks to find the answer: (1) what syntactic complexity types are found in online opinion articles published in some sea countries?; (2) are there any differences in sc types found in opinion articles published in esl and efl countries? the finding of the research is expected to contribute to the existing research on syntactic complexity in the professional genre area since lu and ai (2015) have said that the measure of syntactic complexity could be used to predict the quality of written production. the prediction of text 27syntactic complexity of online .... (muarif; dwi indarti) quality could be used by online newspaper opinion articles writers as the guidelines to produce acceptable writing products. table 1 syntactic complexity measurements by lu & ai (2015) measurements code length of production unit mean length of clause mlc mean length of sentence mls mean length of t-unit mlt amount of subordination clauses per t-unit c/t complex t-units per t-unit ct/t dependent clauses per clause dc/c dependent clauses per t-unit dc/t amount of coordination coordinate phrases per clause cp/c coordinate phrases per t-unit cp/t t-units per sentence t/s degree of phrasal sophistication complex nominal per clause cn/c complex nominal per t-unit cn/t verb phrases per t-unit vp/t overall sentence complexity clauses per sentence c/s methods to answer the questions, the research applies both quantitative and qualitative methods. quantitative data are the outcome result in numerical data form from the calculation, which then being analyzed using words and sentences, while qualitative data are used to explain and explore the new phenomenon found in the calculation result of syntactic complexity between esl and efl countries. data of the research are the selected opinion articles published in online newspapers in malaysia, singapore, indonesia, and thailand. the criteria for selecting the articles are; first, they are published between april to july 2018. second, the opinion articles selected for analysis are those whose topics are found in all online news media being studied. third, the length of the articles is between 800 to 1.300 words. twelve online opinion articles are taken from four countries with three different topics. each topic is written by different writers in different countries. table 2 shows the opinion articles in esl (malaysia and singapore) countries, while table 3 shows the opinion articles in efl (indonesia and thailand) countries. table 2 opinion articles of esl countries country title of opinion article malaysia www.thestar.com.my topic 1 new era under world’s oldest pm country title of opinion article topic 2 putting in place a new malaysian order topic 3 trade war – be ready to respond singapore www.straitimes.com topic 1 a new dawn in malaysia topic 2 how to start a revolution – a malaysian primer topic 3 china draws closer to its neighbors table 3 opinion articles of efl countries country title of opinion article indonesia www.thejakartapost.com topic 1 what indonesia can learn from malaysia’s election topic 2 what next after malaysia’s reversal of fortune topic 3 minimizing impacts of us-china trade war thailand www.bangkokpost.com topic 1 mahatir’s win shows voting works topic 2 ‘new malaysia’ can be a catalyst for region topic 3 casualties of the trade war the data are converted into txt files and saved into zip files before uploading them into d-analyzer online program via the link: http://www.personal. pspu.edu/xx113/downloads/l2sca/.html. the results are in numerical form and are analyzed and discussed using the theory of syntactic complexity proposed by lu and ai (2015). for the first research question, the researchers compare the results of each syntactic complexity type between esl and efl writers. meanwhile, to answer the second research question, the researchers seek the comparison of the higher and the lower score of both types of syntactic complexity and the opinion articles’ topics to reveal in what terms of syntactic complexity types that show the most significant difference of online newspaper editorials between esl and efl countries. pearson’s chi-square in statistical package for social science (spss) employs to investigate if the difference is statistically significant from statistical data of syntactic complexity between esl and efl countries. the hypothesis are: h0: the syntactic complexity used in esl countries is not significantly different from that in efl countries. h1: the syntactic complexity used in esl countries is significantly different from that in efl countries. if the p-value reported is equal to or less than 0,05 (at the 95% level of confidence), the null hypothesis (h0) is rejected. however, if the p-value reported is higher than 0,05 (at the 95% level of confidence), the null hypothesis (h0) is accepted. table 2 opinion articles of esl countries (continued) 28 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 25-32 results and discussions the syntactic complexity of the esl and efl are determined by using the syntactic complexity analyzer. this analyzer contains twenty-three types, which are divided into nine types of syntactic structural unit (ssu) and fourteen types of syntactic complexity. the first-nine types of ssu are a general overview of calculation based on the number of sentences and words structures units such as words (w) a unit of language, sentence (s) a set of words, verb phrases (vp) words tied to a verb, clauses (c) a group of words, t-units (t) a dominant clause, dependent clauses (dc) contain subject and verb but not express a complete idea, complex t-units (ct) a production unit with a sentence, coordinate phrases (cp) consists of two or more syntactically unit, and complex nominal (cn) consists of a determiner before a noun. the result of nine types of ssu can be seen in table 4. table 4 syntactic structural unit (ssu) of esl and efl of south-east asian countries no. ssu types esl efl score 1. w 7.711 5.682 13.393 58% 42% 100% 2. s 303 265 568 53% 47% 100% 3. vp 867 638 1.505 58% 42% 100% 4. c 630 482 1.112 57% 43% 100% 5. t 346 301 647 53% 47% 100% 6. dc 252 147 426 59% 41% 100% 7. ct 187 141 328 57% 43% 100% 8. cp 184 160 344 53% 47% 100% 9. cn 983 743 1.726 57% 43% 100% from table 4, in the first syntactic structural unit of the number of words can be seen the details of each term of words. the esl opinion articles contain more words (7.711 words or 58%) compared to efl opinion articles. from the total number of sentences produced, esl countries produce a higher number of sentences with 303 (53%) sentences than efl countries (265 or 47%). second, from the verb phrase production, esl countries produce a higher number with 867 (58%) than efl countries (638 or 42%). the same result is found in the production of clauses where esl countries produce a higher number of total 630 or 57% than efl countries (482 or 43%). next, from the calculation of t-units production, table 4 shows that esl countries display a higher number of t-units with 346 (53%) than efl countries (301 or 47%). then, the finding of dependent clauses (dc) is that esl countries have a higher number of dc with a total of 252 (59%) than efl countries (174 of 41%). moreover, from the total number of complex t-units (ct), esl countries have a higher number of total 187 (57%) than efl countries (141 or 43%). in the next result of total coordinate phrase (cp), esl countries have a higher number of cp with 184 (53%) than efl countries (160 or 47%). last, from the total number of complex nominal (cn), esl countries have a higher number of cn with a total of 983 (57%) than esl countries (743 or 43%). in short, esl countries get higher numbers of scores in all ssu units than esl countries. in the calculation percentage, esl countries have more than 50% of scores than efl countries in all units. therefore, it can be concluded that esl countries have a greater number and display more scores of total unit production than efl countries. after finding the result of each ssu unit, fourteen types of syntactic complexity are the next calculation result which can be found in the syntactic complexity analyzer. table 5 presents the result of the overall syntactic complexity of opinion articles between esl and efl countries. there are five types of syntactic complexity which are divided into (i) three sub-types of the length of production, (ii) one sub-type of sentence complexity, (iii) four sub-types of subordination, (iv) three sub-types of coordination, and (v) three sub-types of sentence structures. the overall result of fourteen sub-types of syntactic complexity is presented in table 5. table 5 the overall results of syntactic complexity of esl and efl of south-east asian countries sub types esl efl total length of production mls 151,25 130,32 281,58 54% 46% 100% mlt 131,97 114,54 246,51 54% 46% 100% mlc 72,52 71,12 143,64 53% 47% 100% total 355,75 315,97 671,72 53% 47% 100% sentence of complexity 12,63 11,07 23,70 53% 47% 100% subordination c/t 10,92 9,70 20,61 53% 47% 100% ct/t 3,23 2,87 6,10 53% 47% 100% 29syntactic complexity of online .... (muarif; dwi indarti) sub types esl efl total dc/c 2,37 2,18 4,55 52% 48% 100% dc/t 4,36 3,54 7,90 55% 45% 100% total 20,88 18,28 39,16 53% 47% coordination cp/t 3,16 3,21 6,37 50% 40% 100% cp/c 1,79 1,99 2,78 47% 53% 100% t/s 6,94 6,84 13,78 50% 50% 100% total 11,89 12,05 23,94 50% 50% particular structures vp/t 14,88 12,90 27,78 54% 46% 100% cn/t 16,80 15,09 31,89 53% 47% 100% cn/c 9,23 9,35 18,58 50% 50% 100% total 40,92 37,34 78,26 52% 48% l2 syntactic complexity analyzer provides fourteen measures gauge on one of the following five dimensions of syntactic complexity. the first type consists of three measures that gauge the length of production at the clausal, sentential, or t-unit level, namely, mean of clause (mlc), mean length of sentence (mls), and mean length of t-unit (mlt). the second type consists of a sentence complexity ratio (clauses per sentence or c/s). the third type comprises four ratios that reflect the amount of subordination, including a t-unit complexity ratio (clauses per t-unit, or c/t), a complex t-unit ratio (complex t-units per t-unit, or ct/t), a dependent clause ratio (dependent clauses per clause, or dc/c), and dependent clauses per t-unit (dc/t). the fourth type is made up of three ratios that measure the amount of coordination, namely, coordinate phrases per clause (cp/c), coordinate phrases per t-unit (cp/t), and a sentence coordination ratio (t-units per sentence, or t/s). the fifth and final type consists of three ratios that consider the relationship between particular syntactic structures and larger production units, i.e., complex nominals per clause (cn/c), complex nominals per t-unit (cn/t), and verb phrases per t-unit (vp/t). in the first type of length of the production unit, from the total score of 671,72, esl countries display a higher number with a total of 355,75 (53%) than efl countries (315,97 or 47%). as mentioned, length of production consists of length of sentence (mls), mean length of t-units (mlt), and mean length of clause (mlc). from these three categories, esl countries get higher numbers in all sub-types of syntactic complexity. in the first sub-type of mls, with a total score is 281,58, opinion articles of esl countries get a higher number with 151,26 (54%) than efl countries (130,32 or 46%). it means that the long sentences are displayed more in esl than in efl countries (hunt, 1970, in ai & lu, 2013). this shows that esl online opinion articles contain long sentences while efl online opinion articles contain rather short sentences. in the second type of mlt, from a total score of 246,50, the opinion articles of esl countries get a higher number of sub-types of syntactic complexity with 131,96 (54%) than efl countries with 114,54 (46%). it means that the main clause and any dependent clause of non-casual structures are displayed more in esl than in efl countries (hunt, 1970, in ai & lu, 2013). this shows that esl online opinion articles have more dependent clauses than efl online opinion articles. next, in the third type of mlc, from the total score of 143,63, the opinion articles of esl countries display a higher number with 72,52 (50%) than efl countries with 71,10 (50%). seeing from the percentage score of mlc, both esl and efl get the same percentages. it means that a subject or finite verb is displayed more in esl countries than in efl countries (hunt, 1970, as cited in ai & lu, 2013). from this first type of syntactic complexity, it can be concluded that esl countries dominate the overall length of production in syntactic complexity of opinion articles in sea countries. esl countries display a greater number of lengths of production than efl countries. it means that more variations of words and sentences can be found in esl countries than in efl countries. the second type of syntactic complexity is the amount of sentence complexity consisting of clauses per sentence (c/s). table 5 shows that the total score of c/s is 23,70. seeing from the english country’s status, opinion articles of esl countries have a higher number of types of syntactic complexity with 12,62 (53%) than efl countries (11,07 or 47%). it means that in the opinion articles of sea countries, esl countries produce a higher number of less complex sentences than efl countries. next, the third type of syntactic complexity is subordination, which consists of clauses per t-unit (c/t), complex t-units per t-unit (ct/t), dependent clauses per clause (dc/c), and dependent clauses per t-unit (dc/t). table 5 shows that the total score of subordination is 39,16. seeing the total number of scores, opinion articles of esl countries produce a higher number of subordinations with a total of 20,88 (53%) than efl countries (18,28 or 47%). seeing the details of each sub-type of subordination, in the first sub-type of c/t, from the total score of 20,61, the opinion articles of esl countries display a higher table 5 the overall results of syntactic complexity of esl and efl of south-east asian countries (continued) 30 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 25-32 score of 10,92 (53%) than efl countries (9,69 or 47%). it means that complex clauses are displayed more in esl countries than in efl countries (hunt, 1970, as cited from ai & lu, 2013). in the second type of ct/t, from a total score of 6,10, the opinion articles of esl countries also produce a higher number of t-units with a total of 3,23 (52%) than efl countries (2,86 or 48%). in the third subtype of dc/c, from a total score of 4,55, esl countries have a higher score of dc/c with 2,37 (52%) than efl countries (2,17 or 48%). it means that the number of dependent clauses is displayed more in the esl countries rather than in the efl countries (hunt as cited in ai & lu, 2013). the fourth type of dc/t that also appears in table 4, from the total score of 7,89, the opinion articles of esl countries have a higher number with 4,35 (55%) than efl countries (3,54 or 45%). the number of dependent clauses of the t-unit is displayed more in the esl countries rather than in the efl countries (hunt as cited in ai & lu, 2013). from this third type of subordination, esl countries dominate the greatest number of subordinations of syntactic complexity than esl countries. it means that the opinion articles of els countries produce a higher number of subordinations than efl countries. the fourth type of syntactic complexity is called coordination. as mentioned, this type consists of three sub-types such as coordinate phrases per clause (cp/c), coordinate phrases per t-unit (cp/t), and t-units per sentence (t/s). in the first cp/c type of coordination, table 5 shows that the total coordination number is 23,94. from the total english status countries score, both esl and efl opinion articles get the same percentage of coordination calculation at 50%. the total number that they got is not slightly different. esl countries get a lower score of 11,89 than efl countries (12,05). through each type of coordination, from the first type of cp/t in table 5, with a total score of 6,36, the opinion articles of esl countries display a lower number of the score with 3,16 (50%) than efl countries (6,36 or 50%). it means that esl countries contain the least number of coordinate phrases per t-unit thane efl countries. the second type of cp/c is also reflected in table 5 with a total score of 3,78; the opinion articles of esl countries produce a lower number of cp/t with a total of 1,78 (47%) than efl countries (1,99 or 53%). it means that esl countries produce a smaller number of clauses of t-unit than efl countries. the third sub-type of t/s in table 5 shows that from the total score of 13,78, the opinion articles of esl countries display a small higher number of t/s with 6,94 (50%) than efl countries with 6,84 (50%). it means that esl countries produce a greater number of coordinated sentences than efl countries. from the coordination type of syntactic complexity, it can be seen that both efl and esl countries get the same number percentages in the higher number of two types; cp/c and t/s with 50%, while in the cp/c, esl countries get a lower number of scores in t/s sub-type than efl countries. the last type of syntactic complexity is particular structures which consist of complex nominal per clause (cn/c), complex nominals per t-unit (cn/t), and verb phrase per t-unit (vp/t). table 5 shows that the total score of sentence structures is 78,26. from this total score, esl countries have a higher number of the score, with a total of 40,92 or 52%, than efl countries (37,34 or 48%). in the third sub-topic of cn/c, both esl and efl countries get the same percentage number of 50%. however, the score of cn/c is not slightly different from 9,23 for esl countries and 9,35 for efl countries. it means that esl countries display a smaller number of complex nominals per clause than efl countries. in the second sub-type of cn/t, the opinion articles of esl countries got a higher number with 16,80 (53%) than efl countries (15,08 or 47%). it means that esl countries display more complex nominal per clause than efl countries. in the last sub-type of vp/t of particular structures, table 5 shows that from the total score of 27,78, the opinion articles of esl countries display a higher number of particular structures with a total of 14,88 (54%) than efl countries (12,89 or 46%). it means that esl countries display a greater number of verb phrases per t-unit than efl countries. from this particular sentence type, it can be concluded that the score is not slightly different between esl and efl countries, but, in terms of the number of total calculations and percentage, esl countries have a higher score than efl countries. from the overall result, explanation and comparison of opinion articles displayed in table 5 show esl countries have a higher number of syntactic complexities in four syntactic complexity measurements of the length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, and particular structures. it means that esl countries display a greater number of length of production at the clausal, sentential, or t-unit level, sentence complexity ratio, amount of subordination, and particular structures in relation to larger production units (ai & lu, 2015). one interesting finding is that both esl and efl countries get the same percentages in the coordination type of measurement with a total of 50%. based on the calculation done by the l2sca program, the results of the scores show slight differences in the percentage (ranging between 45% to 55%). it can be generalized that esl is much better than efl professional writers. table 6 shows the quantitative calculation of differences between esl and efl countries. it can be seen that all chi-square scores are higher than the p-value of 0,05. first, the length of production has a 0,287 chi-score. second, sentence complexity displays a 0,157 chi-square score. in the third type of syntactic complexity, subordination has a 0,321 chisquare calculation result. next, in the coordination result, the score of chi-square is 0,287. last, in particular structures, the chi-square score of the last syntactic complexity type is 0,306. therefore, it can be concluded that there are just slight differences between esl and efl countries in terms of syntactic complexity. 31syntactic complexity of online .... (muarif; dwi indarti) table 6 the differences of esl and efl syntactical complexity using chi-square syntactical complexity chi-square type length of production 0,287 sentence complexity 0,157 subordination 0,321 coordination 0,287 particular structures 0,306 for the first type, length of the production unit, esl countries contain the number of length of the production of clausal, sentential, and t-unit than efl countries. lu and ai (2015) have stated that a longer length of production has been found to correlate with a higher level of proficiency. it can be inferred that the online opinion articles of esl countries in sea countries have a high level of syntactic complexity than in efl countries. it means that esl opinion articles display more variation of patterns compared to efl opinion articles because the length of the production unit described the clausal, sentential, and t-unit. in this case, esl countries display more complexity in the syntactic pattern. the second type of syntactic complexity measurement compromises a sentence’s phrasal and overall complexity ratio. the result of the research is in line with previous research conducted by lu and ai (2015) in correlation with the comparison of esl and efl countries, where efl produces a lower sentence complexity ratio than esl countries. the third type of syntactic complexity measurement counts the four ratios that reflect the amount of subordination such as clauses per t-unit, complex t-unit per t-unit, dependent clause per clause and dependent clauses per t-unit. esl countries gain a higher score of subordination than efl countries. the result of the research confirms previous research conducted by lu and ai (2015) in correlation with the comparison of esl and efl countries, where efl produces a lower sentence complexity ratio than esl countries. the fourth type of syntactic complexity is coordination which includes three ratios that measure the amount of coordination such as coordinate phrases per clause, coordinate phrases per t-unit, and a sentence coordination ratio. the low score of coordination is seen as a good point because the less use of coordination indicates an advanced level of proficiency, while the greater use of coordination reflects a basic level of english proficiency (bardoviharlig, 1992). the last type of syntactic complexity of particular structures consists of three ratios, i.e., complex nominal per clause, complex nominal per t-unit, and verb phrases per t-unit (lu, 2010). the result of the research confirms the previous research conducted by lu and ai (2015) in correlation with the comparison of esl and efl countries, where efl produces lower particular structures than esl countries. the results of the chi-square show that there is no significant difference between esl and efl countries with p > 0,05, which means the null hypothesis is accepted. there are some factors that made a significant difference that is accepted. one of the factors is that each of the texts in both esl and efl opinion articles contains around 800 to 1.200 the number of words. this means that both esl and efl countries are relatively close in terms of the number of words. another factor is that this research uses the same topic written by both esl and efl countries, so it influences the usage of the lexical, syntactical, and grammatical structure of the sentences in the opinion articles. the same topics written by different writers might have the same registers, terms, and vocabularies. the last factor that could be considered is that the research does not compare native and non-native writers, which might show a significant difference, as lu (2010) proved in her research. the research uses the data from non-native countries, divided into esl and efl countries, where english is not the main language, but english is considered either a second or foreign language. conclusions the research has revealed the syntactic complexity of twelve opinion articles published in south-east asia countries such as malaysia and singapore as esl countries and indonesia and thailand as efl countries. the findings indicate that the general score of the five types of syntactic complexity of length of production, sentence complexity, subordination, coordination, and particular structures of esl countries is higher than the efl countries. it can be concluded that opinion articles of online news media published in esl countries have a higher level of english proficiency, while opinion articles published in efl countries have a lower level of english proficiency. in general, opinion articles published in both esl and efl countries display an advanced level of english proficiency, but esl countries are more varied and more complex compared to efl countries. opinion articles of esl countries display more variation in the pattern of complexity compared to efl countries. the research has also found that there is no significant difference in terms of the chi-square score of the length production unit, sentence complexity, subordination, and particular structures based on the topics; it can be seen that the score of the p-value is higher than 0,05. research on online media offers enormous topics to be explored in the linguistic field because the language will always develop and be dynamic. further linguistics research could use other sections and genres of online media writing, such as the letter to the editor, editorial, features writings, and many more. besides the d-analyzer of syntactic complexity topic, the researcher could investigate the lexical richness, grammatical complexity or other interesting linguistics topics to explore the writing production of online news media. research 32 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 25-32 in syntactic complexity is recommended because it shows a variety of written production levels, especially from across countries. the research uses a small set of data. it leaves the gap to be filled in future research to use the bigger and wider scope of data from the number of articles or the countries as an object of the research, using another type of syntactic complexity measurements. it is of interest in future research to compare native and non-native countries since there is no research has been conducted in a professional genre of writing such as articles in online news media. references abu-ayyash, e. a. s. 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(2019). syntactic complexity and writing quality in assessed first-year l2 writing. journal of second language writing, 44, 51-62. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jslw.2019.03.005. dewi, d. (2019). the illocutionary acts of environmental persuation in u.s. online newspaper opinion articles. beyond words: a journal on applied linguistics and language education, 7(2), 101-121. https://doi. org/10.33508/bw.v7i2.2151. hunt, k. w. (1970). do sentences in the second language grow like those in the first? tesol quaterly, 4(1), 195-202. https://doi.org/10.2307/3585720. indarti, d. (2018a). pattern of rhetorical organization in the jakarta post opinion articles. studies in english language and education, 5(1), 69-84. https://doi. org/10.24815/siele.v5i1.8535. indarti, d. (2018b). syntactic complexity of online newspaper editorials across countries. studies in english language and education, 5(2), 294-307. https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v5i2.11320. khusik, g., & huhta, a. (2020). investigating syntactic complexity in efl learners’ writing across common european framework of reference levels a1, a2, and b1. applied linguistics, 41(4), 506-532. https://doi. org/10.1093/applin/amy064. kuiken, f., & vedder, i. (2019). syntactic complexity across proficiency and languages: l2 and l1 writing in dutch, italian and spanish. international journal of applied linguistics, 29(2), 192-210. https://doi. org/10.1111/ijal.12256. kyle, k., & crossley, s. (2018). measuring syntactic complexity in l2 writing using fine-grained clausal and phrasal indices. modern language journal, 102(2), 333-349. https://doi.org/10.1111/ modl.12468. lu, x. (2010). automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing. international journal of corpus linguistic, 15(1), 474-496. http://dx.doi. org/10.1075/ijcl.15.4.02lu. lu, x., & ai, h. (2015). syntactic complexity in collegelevel english writing: differences among writers with diverse l1 backgrounds. journal of second language writing, 29(1), 16-27. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jslw.2015.06.003. oktavianti, i. n., & adnan, a. (2020). a corpus study of verbs in opinion articles of the jakarta post and the relation with text characteristics. english language teaching educational journal, 3(2), 108-117. https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v3i2.2158. rajadurai, j. (2005). revisiting the concentric circles: conceptual and sociolinguistic consideration. the asian efl journal, 7(4), 111-130. saricaoglu, a., bilki, z., & plakans, l. (2021). syntactic complexity in learner-generated research paper introductions: rhetorical function and level of move/ step realization. journal of english for academic purposes, 53, 101037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jeap.2021.101037. shen, q., & tao, y. (2021). stance markers in english medical research articles and newspaper opinion columns: a comparative corpus-based study. plos one, 16(3), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0247981. copyright©2019 239 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x rhetorical strategy and linguistics features in e-petition through change.org nurrahma restia fatkhiyati department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, diponegoro university jl. prof. soedarto, sh tembalang, semarang 1269, indonesia rahma.restia@gmail.com received: 18th june 2019/ revised: 02nd july 2019/ accepted: 12th july 2019 how to cite: fatkhiyati, n. r. (2019). rhetorical strategy and linguistics features in e-petition through change.org. lingua cultura, 13(4), 239-245. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6104 abstract the research explored what types and how rhetorical strategy correlated with the linguistics features in e-petitions through change.org entitled “kpk dalam bahaya”. the data were e-petitions collected through change.org. the analysis was holistically descriptive and included in qualitative research. the approach used critical discourse analysis by fairclough that was using fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and the strategy of rhetoric by aristotle. those theories helped the researcher to find out how the rhetorical strategy and the linguistics features created persuasive meaning. the findings indicate that euphemism, metaphor, connectives, logical connectors, rhetorical questions, and modality support the rhetoric strategy constructing the meaning beyond the words. through one of the rhetoric strategies, pathos persuades the readers to agree to the argument and sign the e-petitions. due to the emotional appeals, all of these language instruments help the rhetoric to provoke the readers significantly. keywords: rhetorical strategy, linguistics feature, e-petition, cda introduction as the internet of things (iot) has been taken over the world through their apps and their sophisticated objects, one of the technology-based to create life easier is electronic petitions (e-petitions). it is divided into two types, formal, which is owned by institutions or government, and the informal one, which is owned by a non-governmental or private organization (lindner & riehm, 2009). e-petitions contain various information and communication technologies that can be public or private. the e-petitions platform coordinates the signers or users to express their breakthrough about the government or their environment to be changed in a better form (hagen et al., 2016). if the petitions are shared on the internet, it is public ones, such as change.org, one of the popular e-petitions platforms in indonesia. it is easily operated, accessible, and quick to be used by initiators or potential users. it is a new genre of technology-based that has the intention to collect petitions through online platforms and spread actions. the purpose is to create a platform that allows the members of the public to address government decision-makers or other concerns directly with their requests for action. it has a benefit to influence the formulation of policy (wright, 2015). it is initiated by the initiators, and they are able to collect the petitions easily from a suitable group of people, and the potential signers are free to do actions without big effort. about 21.000 or more campaigns had been successfully attracted the potential signers to help and won the case through the petition in change.org. in this research, the issue focuses on the e-petition of “kpk dalam bahaya” that is initiated by the indonesia corruption watch (icw). icw is a non-governmental organization that focuses on anti-corruption awareness since 1970. the goal of icw is to stop the legalization of ruu kuhp of kpk (komisi pemberantasan korupsi) before august 17, 2018, which in fact, has been started since 2010. icw needs the people’s power to support the cancelation of this legalization due to the threatening of the existence of kpk. the e-petitions are uploaded into change.org platform to collect supports. in that e-petitions, it consists of a set of verbal language in the form of written text, which uses spoken language form and has a goal to influence people so that they are willing to sign the e-petitions. furthermore, throwing back to the fact that the main purpose of the e-petitions is collecting signatures within the petitions, the text should be able to attract the potential signers to support the petition. due to this goal, this research aims to investigate the linguistics features and the rhetorical pattern using aristotle’s rhetorical strategies as lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 239-245 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6104 240 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4 november 2019, 239-245 the persuasive language in these e-petitions of change.org entitled “kpk dalam bahaya”. both previous researches, which are talking about persuasive language and rhetorical strategies, are focusing on the letter of complaints and political debate. none of them trying to figure out the types of language use in e-petitions in aristotle’s perspective (almomani, 2014; ko, 2015). however, there is research talking about linguistics features and semantics features in e-petition that is similar to the purpose of this research but has the different object of the research (hagen et al., 2016). it talks about e-petitions on twitter, while this research needs to discuss more from the perspective of the real e-petitions on the website (hagen et al., 2016). moreover, another researcher takes a persuasive study focusing on manipulation in the mode of persuasion by aristotle (smithson, 2013). in its finding, the linguistics features take part in the result and give benefits to the research on finding the pattern of the psychopaths. however, the research only uses two of three modes of persuasion; ethos and pathos. therefore, based on these gaps, the researcher wants to focus on three modes of persuasion or the rhetorical strategy that correlates with its linguistic feature to build the persuasive effect towards the signers of the e-petition. the aims of this research are; first is to find out types of linguistics features in the rhetoric strategy that construct persuasive language in the e-petitions of change.org. the second is to understand the pattern of how linguistics features in the rhetoric strategy construct persuasive language in the e-petitions of change.org. according to these research questions, the significance of this research, theoretically, can broaden the benefit of linguistics features in the rhetorical strategy based on aristotle’s theory and enactive the theory of aristotle are still compatible. moreover, the research can be beneficial; practically, if the pattern has been found, it can give benefits to the linguists, writers, journalists, e-petitioners, and parties that want to use the knowledge of rhetorical study and the persuasive language. methods the data are collected through e-petitions published in the change.org platform. the analysis method is holistically descriptive and included in qualitative research. qualitative research, based on denzin and lincoln, is the research method that uses their natural setting, being interpreted, and focusing through particular phenomena in terms of producing meaning (ospina, 2004). the data are collected through random sampling that the article is chosen randomly from the change.org platform. the data are analyzed using referential analysis by sudaryanto (1993) and content analysis by silverman (2014). the referential analysis is chosen because the data are gathered from words and phrases while the content analysis is chosen because it investigates within the textual context. the theory used in this research explains about three types of rhetorical strategy based on aristotle used in the recent e-petitions to be supported entitled “kpk dalam bahaya” in change.org. however, this research only puts the limit on the language used in pathos rhetorical strategy in the e-petitions to be discussed. aristotle has pointed out that rhetoric is a discipline of the art of using language and has functions to persuade others (ko, 2015). it also has its own major characteristics, such as perform its style of language to shape or induce attitudes and actions in others and a proper organization of the language to achieve the goal. the goal is around the circumstance or setting. the text producers can use “language, power relations, signs, and logic to selectively alter perspectives, preferences, and attitudes to the audience and the certain issue” (peng in ko, 2015). in short, rhetoric is defined as intentionally formed of persuasive communication (higgins & walker, 2012). according to aristotle (ko, 2015; smithson, 2013), to achieve effective persuasion, there are three essentials elements; they are ethos, pathos, and logos. first, ethos relates to the credibility of the writer or the speaker or the persuader. it is divided into two categories to grab the pattern; intrinsic, and extrinsic that build the trustworthiness of the rhetor. second, pathos is defined as an emotional appeal. it means that the pattern that is built by it has waking up the emotional side of the reader, the signers, or the persuadee. last, logos links to the logical side of the argumentation used in the speech or the written text. logos is also divided into some categories to understand the pattern. there are cause and consequences, analogy, syllogism, definition, testimony and authority, and examples used in supporting a generalization. through these elements, the arguments open up how the text producers are delivering persuasive communication or the discourse. therefore, this research will only focus on the pathos elements in e-petitions of change.org entitled “kpk dalam bahaya” to examine the rhetorical strategy and the language use. moreover, to find out the linguistics features in the e-petitions platform and correlates it with the rhetorical strategy, the researcher uses analysis from fairclough in the theory of language and power (fairclough, 2001). fairclough has divided the analysis into three; description, interpretation, and explanation. the description analysis is needed to find out the linguistics feature such as vocabulary, syntax, grammar, conjunction, and any other linguistics features. then, it can continue to interpretation and explanation part to discuss how it can relate to the rhetorical strategy and persuasive language. results and discussions the data of this research are the e-petitions from change.org that are initiated by indonesia corruption watch (icw) organizations to support kpk and to decline the ruu kuhp omitting the right of kpk. the e-petitions are delivered to the members of change.org through their newsletter and publish it online on the website on june, 4th 2018, as the follow-up action of the dpr decisions to accept the ruu on august, 17th 2018 to be one of gift in the independence day of indonesia. in the e-petitions, the initiators put the intended meaning beyond the words. through text analysis that has three stages, the relation between text and context can be found, there are descriptions, interpretations, and explanations (fairclough, 2001). in the description stages, there are three sets to do text analysis in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and textual related to its experiential, relational, and expressive values. as it has been explained in the previous parts of this research, aristotle has three rhetoric strategies starting from ethos, pathos, and logos. ethos deals with ethical appeals that build credibility and trustworthiness from the writer to convince the reader. pathos deals with emotional appeals that feeling affect-judgment and judgment-affect 241rhetorical strategy and linguistics..... (nurrahma restia fatkhiyati) way of thinking. it provokes the readers of e-petitions to be enthusiastic to support the petitions. logos deals with rational appeals that pointing out facts, data, and reasons (aristotle, 2007). moreover, within the mode of persuasion in the rhetorical strategy, there lies textual analysis (smithson, 2013). in textual analysis, the linguistics features are discussed clearly. these features are discussed in the level of vocabulary, syntax or grammar, and rhetorical devices. the interpretation in textual analysis functions to describe what it is about, how it is constructed, and what is it for in the text. the text is a sampling of reality. even though it is far from reality, the sampling can open the perspectives widely. in this phase, within the experiential value, the vocabulary leads the words revealing the meaning beyond the text. the initiators use some linguistics features to point the issue out. the trustworthiness of the e-petition is regarded with ethos. it helps the rhetor to convince the readers or the signers through extrinsic and intrinsic factors of ethos. extrinsic factors cover ‘the character, the expertise, the education, and the experience of the rhetor’ (aristotle, 2007), while the intrinsic factors refer to how the writer writes or speaks through the rhetorics. indonesian corruption watch (icw) is a nongovernmental organization (ngo) that focuses on anticorruption awareness. this kind of ngo has existed since 1970 (permata, 2017). icw has started to focus on the revision of uu kpk since the issue had been begun in 2010. then it continued to 2015 and finally declined in 2018 with support from the e-petition of change.org. icw helps the public to get justice through doing advocacy. icw has many experiences in doing this kind of activity. in 2018, before the revision of uu kpk finally stopped, icw has gathered the e-petitions result and send it immediately to the legislative or dpr. the e-petitions show the public protests throughout indonesia represented by icw. furthermore, the discussion in the regular meeting of dpr discussing the revision of uu kpk has been declined. therefore, the extrinsic of ethos rhetoric factor is well-considered in the requirements to be a trustworthy rethor. icw works based on data and research. moreover, icw also builds a relationship and doing lobbying with the government. not only lobbying, icw does more on framing and labelling and cooperate with media to create a supportive condition to achieve the goal of advocacy. all of those activities are the effort of icw to compile supports from every single area. in doing a public mobilization, icw uses the change.org e-petition for persuading society through rhetoric. beside extrinsic and intrinsic factors, ethos also correlates with the persuader branding of personality towards the persuadee. the persuader needs to connect with his or her persuadee to persuader the image or character that he or she builds in terms of receiving supports (smithson, 2013). the theory of ethos can be linked to textual function from halliday, especially in the theory of interpersonal function as the definition of the listener and speaker’s relationship. the realization of the textual function is focusing on the interpersonal system that can be analyzed through the linguistics techniques, such as lexical choice and repetition, modality, and question/rhetorical question (smithson, 2013). the examples of lexical choice can be seen in this example (1): (1) komisi pemberantasan korupsi (kpk) dalam bahaya. (2) di mana letak bahayanya? (3) presiden joko widodo dan ketua dpr serta ketua umum dari partai politik di dpr untuk segera menyelamatkan kpk dari bahaya dengan segera menarik seluruh aturan atau delik korupsi dalam r kuhp. the lexical choice appears in change.org’s article; there is also lexical repetition within. in the example (1) lines 1, 2, 3, all of the examples repeat the lexicon ‘bahaya’ (danger). the persuader or the writer focuses on the necessary point of the article that “kpk is in danger” because of the ruu kpk. the persuader needs to build the impression that there is something wrong with the ruu kpk, and it leads to the ending of kpk soon if the ruu kpk is legalized. the lexical choice of the writer reflects the representation of the personality of him or herself (smithson, 2013). moreover, the repetition of the lexical item cements the idea or the image of the failed project of ruu kpk towards kpk that sooner or later, it can stop the productivity of kpk. the writers choose the word ‘bahaya’ (danger) to point out that this issue is significant and urgent. the writer wants to make the readers feel for kpk. through this emotional manipulation, the text producer collects the supports from the members of change.org. in the transitivity process, ‘bahaya’ (danger) includes in the mental process as attributive. the mental process is a process of sensing. it is divided into three; a process of perception, affection, and cognition. in this rhetorical strategy, a sensing process is implied in the form of caution words ‘bahaya’ (danger). the rhetorical strategy used by the writer considers these aspects of the mental process. the writer considers the perception area about the topics. it shows that the issue is genuinely urgent. in the e-petitions, sometimes the writer exploits questions to construct the text so it can feel more personal. in line 2 example (1), the question engages the reader deeper through the rhetorical question. it is shown off in the text aiming to get something in return indirectly, such as an elicit answer. the rhetorical question has an apparent answer for both sides, addressee, or the addresser (špago, 2017). by using questions, the writer has a plan to create a closer relationship between the writer and the readers that shows the informality between them. it shortens the distance through language devices. such in špago (2017), a question is identified as a rhetorical form. it relates to the finding here is the rhetorical form sets the goal to persuade the readers indirectly. the example (2) shows the modality: (1) kondisi ini terjadi karena dpr dan pemerintah akan segera mengesahkan rancangan kitab undang-undang hukum pidana (rkuhp) pada 17 agustus 2018 mendatang dan terdapat subtansi di dalamnya yang dapat mengancam eksistensi kpk maupun upaya pemberantasan korupsi di indonesia. (2) pada akhirnya kpk hanya akan menjadi komisi pencegahan korupsi. (3) mengakomodir delik korupsi masuk ke dalam rkuhp hanya akan menimbulkan citra buruk bagi rezim pemerintah dan parlemen saat ini. 242 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4 november 2019, 239-245 (4) presiden juga dinilai ingkar janji dengan poin ke-4 “nawacita” yang menyatakan akan memperkuat penegakan hukum dan pemberantasan korupsi. (5) presiden joko widodo dan ketua dpr serta ketua umum dari partai politik di dpr untuk segera menyelamatkan kpk dari bahaya dengan segera menarik seluruh aturan atau delik korupsi dalam rkuhp. (6) pemerintah dan dpr agar lebih memprioritaskan pada pembahasan regulasi atau rancangan undang-undang yang mendukung upaya pemberantasan korupsi seperti revisi uu tipikor, ruu pembatasan transaksi tunai dan ruu perampasan aset hasil kejahatan. modal verbs in english or modal verbs are used to show probability, intention, or obligation (smithson, 2013). in this e-petition, the function of ‘will’ in the present tense is beneficially to communicate the probability of the event if the r-kuhp is legalized. most of the probability argues about the setbacks if the government agree to legalize rkuhp as it can be seen in the example (2) line 1 to 4. by using the setback’s argument, the persuader wants to attract the signers to see the negative sides of the rkuhp for kpk itself. then, the writer wants to persuade them to be one of the signers that help kpk away from the setbacks. in line 1, the modal verb ‘will’ is followed by the lexicon ‘threaten’ (mengancam). it means that the writer expresses the next negative events will threaten the kpk’s existence if the signers do not help icw to cancel rkuhp. in line 2, the writer predicts the ending of future events if rkuhp is accepted by using modal verb ‘will’. in line 3, the bad image of the legalization of rkuhp will take down the good reputation of the government. last, in line 4, it has similarity to the line 3 that the image of the government will be broken. moreover, the modality of ‘akan’ or ‘will’ shows relational or expressive value in the sentence. it depends on the purpose of the modality. because the modality has to do with the writer or the text producer, the purpose is significant to find out. by using ‘will’, the sentence is oriented in persuading the readers or members of change. org to sign the petition and support the text producer to decline the rkuhp. therefore, the meaning beyond the words, there is helped by the modality to show the expressive value or as if it is a representation of reality called it as ‘the evaluation of truth’ (fairclough, 2001). it comes from the data, and the argument ends the opinion based on the writer or text producer’s perspective. it relates to fairclough’s arguments that said: “it is precisely implicit authority claims and implicit power relations of the sort illustrated here that make relational modality a matter of ideological interest” (fairclough, 2001). the power of the writer within the words manipulates the readers to agree with the argument expressively and emotionally. it is one of the phatos characteristics. in line 5, the writer uses modality again in terms of suggestion. the writer uses ‘segera’ that means ‘ought’ or ‘must’ in english. this modality illustrates the language use here performing the writer as if he/she has more authority than the president of republik indonesia and dpr. it manipulates the readers to support the writer’s suggestion because the members think that the action is the right thing to do. in line 6, the word ‘agar’ or ‘should’ as modality used by the writer points out the obligation of the government is to prioritize and support the concern of the corruption. the writer needs to manipulate the readers understanding that outside the obligation is not that significant and urgent to prioritize. the emotional appeals are the writer concern to get the readers attention. phatos leads the rhetoric to ‘a pathetic appeal’ (william, 2019). it affects the emotional part and selfinterest of the readers or signers to be more convincing on the speech or writing. in this e-petitions article, icw tries to make the signers being aware and anger. the useful method that the persuader uses in the e-petition is a metaphor. metaphor affects the emotion of the signers through ‘linguistics emotivity’ (smithson, 2013). example (3) of metaphors can be seen here: (1) kondisi ini terjadi karena dpr dan pemerintah akan segera mengesahkan rancangan kitab undangundang hukum pidana (rkuhp) pada 17 agustus 2018 mendatang dan terdapat subtansi di dalamnya yang dapat mengancam eksistensi kpk maupun upaya pemberantasan korupsi di indonesia. (2) triliunan uang negara berhasil diselamatkan; puluhan koruptor telah dijaring dalam operasi tangkap tangan. line 1 example (3) shows that the word ‘mengancam’ on of metaphors is used by the writer to show the urgency of declining revision of uu kpk because it can threaten the impact of kpk in opposing corruption in indonesia. the writer used the word ‘mengancam’ as if rkuhp is animate. metaphors are, in example (3), to show the words coming to life. it reflects the reality so that the writer can point out that this issue is very dangerous for the rest of the corruption cases out there if the rkuhp is going to be legalized soon. this metaphor is representing an aspect of experience and stereotypically associated with the meaning beyond the words. at the beginning of the paragraph, this word is written by the writer to bold that this is a serious problem. society should concern about this issue and pay attention to the cause after the rkuhp being signed soon. by pointing this out, the writer expects to get more support on this e-petition. the metaphor is constructed to be a dominant interest in the e-petitions. the after-effect of the metaphors is needed to support the e-petitions. there is a difference in the language used in mentioned the text. the writer uses overwording and metaphor to describe ‘money’ as if it is valuable to be saved or ‘diselamatkan’ rather than ‘diamankan’ or being kept. while for defining corruptor, the writer chooses to use ‘dijaring’ or ‘being caught’ as if the corruptor is the fishes that have no value in life rather than using ‘ditangkap’ or being arrested. the language choice to define one object to another object has meaning beyond the words. the writer needs to explain that kpk saves a life by saving money and jailing corruptors. the euphemisms are combined with the metaphors to show how the word ’diselamatkan’ or ‘to be saved’ is mentioned. the writer seems like having the purpose of softening the urgency of the money. by keeping the money saved, the actor in the article is a hero afterward. therefore, the money should be in the first place compared to the corruptor that has no value. logos defines the ‘logical appeal’ (william, 2019). the persuader ought to build trustworthiness through the logical appeal of the writing content. it is needed to make the signers believe the claim and proof reasonably. these 243rhetorical strategy and linguistics..... (nurrahma restia fatkhiyati) argumentations have different forms, natural, and artificial proof. the natural forms are based on the given data, such as testimony, document, and others (aristotle, 2007). while artificial proof is based on the created data and its combination, such as the example for supporting data, hints, etc. moreover, the category of the argumentation of logos is divided into several parts; cause and consequences, analogy, testimony and authority, definition, syllogism, and support a generalization with example. example (4) is the example of cause and consequences in writing e-petitions: (1) pertama, jika rkuhp disahkan maka kpk tidak lagi memiliki kewenangan dalam melakukan penyelidikan, penyidikan dan penuntutan. (2) mengakomodir delik korupsi masuk ke dalam rkuhp hanya akan menimbulkan citra buruk bagi rezim pemerintah dan parlemen saat ini. (3) jika delik korupsi dimasukkan dalam kuhp, maka hanya kejaksaan dan kepolisian yang dapat menangani kasus korupsi. cause and consequences are defined by the claim about a thing that causing or being caused by other things. in this e-petition, the logic refers to the logical connectors used by the writer are shown in the example (4) in line 1 and 3. most of the logical connectors are used in this e-petition is a conditional connector. it shows two ideas being connected into one sentence. it leads to a particular condition about what condition will happen if that condition is met. these connectors try to predict or to create possibilities by showing off several ideas and persuading the signers. these ideas support the argument and persuade the signers to also agree to the arguments even though the ideas connected by the conditional connectors can be not-qualified enough. in these sentences, the writer uses a coordinating conjunction or connectives. it establishes the relationship between one clause to another clause. both clauses are dependent on each other for their meaning. the connectives help the writer to construct the intended meaning to this sentence. the coherence of the sentence depends on the assumption of the intended meaning built by the connectives. the writer exploits this assumption to bring the emotional up, and the readers want to sign the e-petitions or to click further information in it. the connective used by the writer is coordinating connectives or conjunction. while it connects two clauses or two ideas, it also suggests a contrast that is unexpected in the first clause. the implied meaning usually relies on the second part of the sentences or the negative part. the connectives of the sentence help the writer to construct the presupposition of the reader. it happens because one of the clauses is more prominent than the others. so the meaning is automatically presupposed. by presupposing the meaning, the emotional part of the people or society will lead in front of the other, and the writer can easily persuade the readers through this strategy. example (5) shows the example of analogy in writing e-petitions. (1) pemerintahan jokowi dan partai politik yang ada di dpr nantinya akan tercatat sebagai lembaga yang melemahkan kpk dan upaya pemberantasan korupsi. the analogy shows the comparison between one claim to another to build the trustworthiness of the issue. in the e-petition, to cement one another ideas, the writer use conjunction ‘as’ or ‘like’. the persuader needs to make sure the signers know both ideas that support the e-petition so that they, the signers, can make a decision whether they sign the e-petition or not. mostly, in this e-petition, the analogy used in the petition is negative. the negative analogy brings out the anger side of the signers or the emotional one. therefore, it is a good thing for the persuader to bring out the negative ideas out. example (6) shows the testimony and authority in writing e-petitions. (1) kewenangan kpk tercantum dalam uu kpk yang secara spesifik menyebutkan bahwa kpk berwenang menindak tindak pidana korupsi yang diatur dalam uu tipikor (dan bukan dalam kuhp). (2) sudah menjadi rahasia umum bahwa pada masa lalu pengadilan negeri kerap memberikan vonis ringan bahkan tidak jarang membebaskan pelaku korupsi. most of the arguments in this e-petition provide opinions from other sources besides the rhetor or the writer. in line 1, the writer has cited the power of kpk based on uu kpk. then, the writer has also cited past events on the e-petition to provoke the signers to support the e-petition. the sentence, “sudah menjadi rahasia umum,” in example (6) in line 2, means that “people already know” that in the past years, the district court gives a light sentenced to the corruptor. therefore, the district court is far from trusted. example (7) shows the definition in e-petitions. (1) kondisi ini terjadi karena dpr dan pemerintah akan segera mengesahkan rancangan kitab undang-undang hukum pidana (rkuhp) pada 17 agustus 2018 mendatang dan terdapat subtansi di dalamnya yang dapat mengancam eksistensi kpk maupun upaya pemberantasan korupsi di indonesia. (2) ancaman pidana penjara dan denda bagi koruptor dalam rkuhp lebih rendah dari ketentuan yang diatur dalam uu tipikor. (3) lebih ironis adalah koruptor yang diproses secara hukum dan dihukum bersalah tidak diwajibkan mengembalikan hasil korupsinya kepada negara karena rkuhp tidak mengatur hal ini. (4) selain itu pelaku korupsi cukup mengembalikan kerugian keuangan negara agar tidak diproses oleh penegak hukum. in the definition, it describes the issue or the nature of the problem. in the example (7) in line 1, the definition of rkuhp is later going to be a setback discussed further. so, the readers of the signers can understand deeply about it. through the understanding, the signers can make a decision to sign the e-petition. in line 2 and 3, the definition involves a comparison between the ideas using comparative verb ‘lebih’ or ‘more’. while in line 4, the definition gives more reasons after the comparison. these shreds of evidence, hopefully, can attract the signers to think clearly and support the e-petition to cancel the rkuhp. the example of syllogism in e-petitions can be seen in example (8). 244 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4 november 2019, 239-245 (1) tidak hanya kpk, akan tetapi pengadilan tipikor pun terancam keberadaannya. (2) selama ini pengadilan tipikor hanya memeriksa dan mengadili kejahatan yang diatur dalam uu tipikor 11. maka jika rkuhp ini disahkan kejahatan korupsi akan kembali diperiksa dan diadili pengadilan negeri. pada akhirnya kpk hanya akan menjadi komisi pencegahan korupsi. syllogism involves deductive logic using major, minor premise, and conclusion. the move from general to particularly specific creates syllogism in the text (william, 2019). the writer puts the reason before the conclusion to persuade the readers so they can sign the e-petition. the premise offers a logical perspective on the e-petition that can persuade the readers or the signers. the conclusion is ended with “pada akhirnya” in the example (8) in line 2. while in line 1, the writer focuses on the ending while in the previous sentences places the reasons. example of the support a generalization with example can be seen in example (9). (1) aturan ini sekaligus menjadi kontra produktif dengan kinerja kpk yang telah teruji selama ini. delapan triliunan uang negara berhasil diselematkan; puluhan koruptor telah dijaring dalam operasi tangkap tangan; seluruh terdakwa korupsi yang dijerat dan dibawa ke persidangan selalu dinyatakan terbukti bersalah oleh hakim (100 percent conviction rate). pelaku korupsi yang ditangkap adalah koruptor kelas kakap mulai dari ketua dpr, ketua dpd, sampai ketua mahkamah konstitusi. (2) presiden juga dinilai ingkar janji dengan poin ke-4 “nawacita” yang menyatakan akan memperkuat penegakan hukum dan pemberantasan korupsi. in this category, the involvement of the example makes the ideas stronger. the example can be the proof or evidence of the statement of the issue. the writer has an intention behind the example to build trustworthiness through logos. therefore, it seems logical and trusted to be followed or signed. in line 1, the writer tries to show that the rkuhp has an issue with the existence of kpk. for line 2, the writer puts an example regarding the public opinions about the president if the president agrees to sign the rkuhp. these examples help the writer to achieve the supports that are needed. according to these discussions, the mode of persuasion or the rhetorical strategy based on aristotle (2007) is constructed through three modes, ethos, pathos, and logos. then, each of them is built by the linguistics features that help the writer persuades the potential signers (smithson, 2013). according to smithson (2013), in her research about the manipulative purpose that correlates with the rhetorical strategy of aristotle, the finding has stated that the speaker mostly avoids negative emotion that has different results with the e-petition in change.org. in the e-petition, most of the ideas show the negative issue to attract and persuade the signers. even though the result is different, the category used by the writer or persuader is similar, from ethos to logos, from cause and consequences to example to support a generalization. conclusions in the e-petition, the purpose of a text is to persuade the members of change.org to support a particular campaign. based on the result, the rhetor uses the rhetorical strategy of aristotle to persuade the signers in some ways through ethos, pathos, and logos. in ethos, besides the writer uses extrinsic and intrinsic factors, some linguistics features affect how the writer brand his/her images by using lexical choice, modality, and rhetorical question. in the lexical choices happens the repetition of lexical choice: ‘bahaya’ or ‘in danger’. the rhetor wants to make this focus necessary and important so that the signers will pay attention more to the issue and sign the e-petition. in modality, most of the modal verb used by the rhetor is ‘will’ or the modal verb of probability. the rhetor has the goal to build the branding of the good image towards icw and kpk while it is different in the opposite way, like dpr, government, and rkuhp. then, the rhetorical question is also used in the e-petition to emphasize the issue that is still running at that time easily. in pathos, metaphors help the rhetor to achieve the goal. in other ways, metaphors that are combined with euphemism works well. while in the previous research, the content is showed off positively to make people believe, in this area, the content is more negative. in logos, conjunction, connectives, and comparative sentence are spread in the categories. these support the writer to provoke the signers in the matter of the logical appeal. practically, the practitioners in writing, journalist, and linguist can find out the pattern to build a new persuasive article to achieve a similar goal. theoretically, it broadens the knowledge about persuasive language on e-petitions. in future research, other researchers can make a further finding in the specific areas of aristotle’s mode of persuasion within different areas. references al-momani, k. r. (2014). strategies of persuasion in letters of complaint in academic context: the case of jordanian university students’ complaints. discourse studies, 16(6), 705–728. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461445614546257. aristotle. (2007). on rhetoric: a theory of civic discourse (second edition). oxford: oxford university press. fairclough, n. (2001). language and power (2nd edition). abingdon: routledge. hagen, l., harrison, t. m., uzuner, ö., may, w., fake, t., & katragadda, s. (2016). e-petition popularity: do linguistic and semantic factors matter? government information quarterly, 33(4), 783–795. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.giq.2016.07.006. higgins, c., & walker, r. (2012). ethos, logos, pathos: strategies of persuasion in social/environmental reports. accounting forum, 36(3), 194–208. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.accfor.2012.02.003. ko, h. (2015). political persuasion: adopting aristotelian rhetoric in public policy debate strategies. international journal of humanities and social science, 5(10), 114–123. 245rhetorical strategy and linguistics..... (nurrahma restia fatkhiyati) lindner, r., & riehm, u. (2009). electronic petitions and institutional modernization: international parliamentary e-petition systems in comparative perspective. jedem ejournal of edemocracy and open government, 1(1), 1–11. https://doi. org/10.29379/jedem.v1i1.3. ospina, s. (2004). encyclopedia of leadership. london: sage publication. permata, a. g. (2017). peran indonesia corruption watch (icw) dalam melakukan advokasi untuk mencegah revisi undang-undang nomor 30 tahun 2002 tentang komisi pemberantasan tindak pidanakorupsi tahun 2010 dan 2015. unpublished thesis. depok: universitas indonesia. silverman, d. (2014). interpreting qualitative data: methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction. london: sage publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/ b978-0-12-012755-9.50004-8. smithson, r. (2013). rhetoric and psychopathy : linguistic manipulation and deceit in the final interview of ted bundy. diffusion: the uclan journal of undergraduate research, 6(2), 1–13. špago, d. (2017). rhetorical questions or rhetorical uses of questions? exell, 4(2), 102–115. https://doi. org/10.1515/exell-2017-0009. sudaryanto. (1993). metode dan aneka teknik analisis bahasa: pengantar penelitian wahana kebudayaan secara linguistis. yogyakarta: duta wacana university press. william, g. h. (2019). ethos-pathos-logos: the 3 rhetorical appeals. retrieved from http://georgehwilliams. pbworks.com/w/page/14266873/ethos-pathoslogos-the-3-rhetorical-appeals. wright, s. (2015). e-petitions: the handbook of digital politics. usa: edward elgar. 132 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 error analysis in writing an english narrative composition paramita kusumawardhani english department, aba bsi cengkareng jakarta jl. kamal raya no.18, ringroad barat, cengkareng, jakarta barat paramita.pmi@bsi.ac.id abstract the purpose of the research is to know the errors which have been made by the learners in their english narrative composition and it is also to know why they made the errors, to identify the errors made by the learners, to correct the errors which have been made, to improve the teaching quality which is appropriate with the curriculum and the syllabus and to get the data and the explanation about the difficulties in studying english especially in writing the english narrative composition.writing is chosen because writing is the most difficult part in learning english as what it said is different with what it is written. the method used in this research is descriptive method. descriptive method means the method which tries to give the data and the explanation about the recent symptoms. the data was taken from 20 students and it was taken by asking the learners to make the english narrative composition, classifying then analyzing the errors found in their composition.the errors that have been found in the compositions are 30 items or 15% for errors of selection, 25 items or 12, 5% for errors of ordering, 115 items or 57, 5% for errors of omission and 30 items or 15% for errors of addition. some identifying, classifying, analyzing and correcting the errors have been done to correct the errors that have been found. it was done in order to minimize and avoid the same errors happen again in the learners’ english narrative composition. keywords: errors analysis, writing, english narrative composition abstrak tujuan dari penelitian ini yaitu untuk mengetahui kesilapan yang dibuat oleh pembelajar dalam karangan narasi bahasa inggris mereka, kenapa mereka membuat kesilapan, menidentifikasi kesilapan-kesilapan yang dibuat oleh pembelajar, mengoreksi kesilapan-kesilapan tersebut, meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan kurikulum dan silabus dan untuk mendapatkan data dan uraian tentang kesulitan-kesulitan dalam mempelajari bahasa inggris khususnya dalam menulis karangan narasi bahasa inggris. menulis adalah bagian tersulit dalam mempelajari bahasa inggris karena apa yang diucapkan tidak sama dengan apa yang ditulis. metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini yaitu metode deskriptif. metode deskriptif yaitu metode yang memberikan data dan uraian tentang gejala-gejala yang terjadi saat ini. data diambil dari 20 pembelajar dan dengan cara meminta pembelajar untuk membuat karangan narasi bahasa inggris, mengklasifikasi kesalahan lalu menganalisa kesalahan-kesalahan yang ditemukan. kesalahan-kesalahan yang ditemukan yaitu pemakaian kata yang tidak seharusnya (errors of selection) sebanyak 30 atau 15%, pemakaian elemen kata yang salah (errors of ordering) sebanyak 25 atau 12,5%, penghilangan elemen kata yang seharusnya ada (errors of omission) sebanyak 115 atau 57,5%dan penambahan elemen kata yang seharusnya tidak ada (errors of addition) sebanyak 30 atau 15%. kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut dianalisa dengan tujuan untuk meminimalisir dan menghindari kesalahan yang sama dalam karangan narasi bahasa inggris para pemelajar. kata kunci: analisa kesilapan, menulis, karangan narasi bahasa inggris 133error analysis .... (paramita kusumawardhani) introduction there are some kinds in learning english such as; listening, speaking,writing and reading. writing is the most difficult part in learning english as what we say is different with writing. heaton (1988) stated, “the writing skills are complex and certainly difficult to teach, requiring not only grammatical and theoretical devices but also conceptual and judgmental elements”. most learners are still confused when they are about to write as writing is the most difficult part in learning english. this can be happened because the learners are still lack of knowledge about writing. they often directly write what in their mind is. mother tongue is still influenced when they are writing. based on the problems, the research was conducted to solve them. knowledge related to writing was given to the learners in order to enrich their knowledge about writing. hope that after giving some knowledge about writing, the learners can write well, not only writing about english narrative composition but also writing for other aspects, such as report, writing assignment, etc. some factors made writing in english looks difficult, such as spelling, vocabulary and grammar. there are many aspects in grammar that should be mastered by the learners which can make some errors in learning english. writing is also concerned about the linguistics because “linguistics is the scientific study of language” according to todd (1987). in linguistics there are branches of the linguistics which one of them has the specific purpose that also help the learners in learning writing. “with writing, on the other hand, language competence involves the association of a meaning with a sign, a visual symbol”. errors found in the learner’s english narrative composition would also be discussed in this paper. sometimes learner makes errors in composition such as; error of omission (penghilangan kata), error of selection (pemakaian kata yang tidak seharusnya), error of addition (penambahan kata) and error of ordering (elemen yang sudah benar tetapi urutannya salah). the nature of errors everyone who studies english has exactly made some errors, especially the learners in junior high school (smp) or in senior high school (sma). it becomes common because english is not a mother tongue so the learners seldom use it in daily conversation.the government in curriculum 1994 for english subject stated, “pada akhir sekolah menengah umum siswa memiliki keterampilan membaca, menyimak, berbicara dan menulis dalam bahasa inggris melalui tema yang dipilih berdasarkan tingkat perkembangan dan minat mereka, tingkat penguasaan kosakata (lebih kurang 2500 kosakata untuk program ipa dan ips dan lebih kurang 3000 kosakata untuk program bahasa) dan tata bahasa yang sesuai.” (kurikulum depdikbud smu, 1994) kinds of errors based on the errors which happened commonly, richards (1974) explained that the errors are: (1) interlingua errors. interlingua errors are the errors happen in the learners’ grammar which reflects the learners’ mother tongue. these errors occur because there is interference from the learners’ mother tongue, e.g.: it is a book green, not what you, what number? (2) intralingua errors. intralingua errors is the errors happen in the learners’ mother tongue but they don’t reflect the learners’ mother tongue, but it looks like a language which is made by the learners studying the target language as their mother tongue or looks like the errors in the target language occur because the grammar, itself, effects one another in the target language, e.g.: she can dances. i opening my book. based on dulay (1982), he divided the errors into four types. first, linguistic category taxonomy is an error based on the language components or the linguistic main elements which affect the errors. the language components consist of phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantic and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary) and discourse (style). the linguistic main elements consist of the elements which compare each language component. second, surface strategy taxonomy is explained about the way to change the strategy taxonomy which occurs. third, comparative taxonomy is based on the comparative between the structures of the errors in the second language with the certain another type construction. comparative taxonomy consists of: (1) developmental errors (intralingua errors). this error happened because the learners’ study the target language as their first language, ex.: brother drink milk. mother eat apple. (2) interlingua errors. this error happened commonly in the structure of the language becoming the semantic which is same as phrase or in the learners’ native language, ex.: the woman beautiful. the sky cloudy. fourth, communicative effect taxonomy. surface strategy taxonomy and comparative taxonomy only focus on the errors happened in both of those taxonomies. communicative taxonomy influences the classification with the errors from the listeners’ or the readers’ view. based on hendrickson (1980), he grouped the errors into two types, they are: (1) global errors. global error is same as communicative errors. global errors are the errors happened in the structure language which cause the learners misinterpret the oral or written message or consider that the message couldn’t be understood in the whole contexts it. (2) local error. local error is also called as linguistics error. local error is the error happened in the structure language which seems strange or weird, but it didn’t make the learners felt difficult in understanding the meaning of the sentences. based on the theories, the linguistics experts classified the errors into four types, they are: (1) social error. the social errors, the errors commonly occurred in the structure element. the errors could be happened because of the failure in application the english patterns which was based on the language which referred to the social context. (2) register error. this error happened because the language used didn’t suitable for a certain occasion. register error has a strong relationship in the usage of a language based on the situation. usually the learners did the error because they haven’t mastered if one language doesn’t suitable to use in a certain situation. this happened because there is only limited material which discusses about the appropriateness in using a language for a certain occasion but this still considers as the learning process for the learners. (3) referential error. this error happened between the linguistics form with the objects or the situations happening outside the class. this error also happened because the learners haven’t known what they thought and felt exactly. (4) textual error. this error happened related with the learners’ knowledge based on the target language patterns. 134 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 corder (1971) explained, “the learner’s errors are classified as a textual error when he does not select the structurally correct form in his sentence of intended relation between two sentences”. textual errors are: (1) errors of omission. error of omission is the missing of some elements which should exist. e.g.: woman is very beautiful. (it should be: the woman is very beautiful). she eat apple. (it should be: she eats an apple). (2) errors of addition. error of addition is the adding of some elements which shouldn’t exist. e.g.: i ate with bread and egg this morning. (it should be i ate bread and egg this morning). it is a meat. (it should be it is meat). (3) errors of selection. error of selection is the use of words which shouldn’t be used. e.g.: do he go to school? (it should be does he go to school?). she is thinking about you. (it should be she is thinking of you). (4) errors of ordering. error of ordering is the elements which are not put in the proper place. e.g.: she doesn’t know what is my name. (it should be she doesn’t know what my name is). they know where do i live. (it should be they know where i live). the causes of errors the errors can be happened because of some factors, based on norrish (1983), there are some factors that can cause the errors, and they are: (1) the carelessness from the foreign learners. (2) the interferences from the learners’ mother tongue which was believed as one of the aspects that caused the errors. (3) the translation from their mother tongue to another language so it caused the difficulty where there aren’t any synonyms between those two languages. (4) the learners couldn’t translate the materials which were given to them based on what was expected by the native speaker. (5) the mistake analogy which was might be made to ignore the exact patterns. (6) the language couldn’t be predicted and the learners might be made the errors using the language that they have studied but they haven’t heard the certain words. corder (1971) divided the learners’ errors caused into: first, transfer: every learner has her/his own mother tongue and before they get used to use their mother tongue as their daily conversation. corder (1971) also explained, “the main cause why the learner made errors is called transfer. transfer shows that the learner of second language the habit of his mother tongue”. so based on corder, the learners tried to apply in the foreign language that they have learned, in other words, the learners used the mother tongue system into english as their target language. second, analogical or overgeneralization: analogical errors are the characteristics from each foreign learner. the analogical errors are commonly caused by the difference between the structure system from the mother tongue and the target language, the application of similarity of ‘tenses’ in english, the similarity in plural forms which don’t exist in the learners’ mother tongue. another cause is the learning process hasn’t finished so they applied their ability based on their experience or based on another structure language from the target language as corder (1975) said, “analogical errors occur when the learner has discovered a correct rule, he may still continue to make errors because he has not yet discovered the precise of categories to which the rule applies”. third, teaching-induced: as we know, all of the lesson in english must consist of selection, repetition, graduation and presentation. in teaching english as a foreign language, the teacher should be careful in making the lesson plan because if the program doesn’t suitable with the selection, repetition, graduation and presentation so the material itself can make the learners make the errors. fourth, the purpose of the error analysis: by analyzing the errors, the english teachers will know the errors causes which have been made by the learners when they are doing an english narrative composition and by knowing the errors causes, it hopes that the learners will not make any same errors. s.k. sharma (1981) stated, “an error analysis is a process based on analysis of learner’s error”. so, by analyzing the errors, the english teachers can figure out various errors which have been made by the learners so the english teacher can teach appropriately. dulay (1982), the errors analysis have two purposes, they are: (1) it provides data from which difference about nature of the language learning process can be made; (2) it indicates to teacher and curriculum developers which part of the target language students have most difficulty producing correctly and which error types distract most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively. fifth, the nature of narrative composition: writing is the most difficult part in english subject as what it is said to be different from what it is written. white and ardnt (1991) stated that, “writing is far from being a simple matter of transcribing language into written symbols; it is a thinking process in its right.” so, before the learners start to write an english composition, they should master the english pattern correctly. dougal (1988) said, “a composition is a group of closely related paragraph that develop a single idea.” crystal (1991) also said, “writing a composition with vocabulary and structure which the student has either learnt to use orally or written exercises for each lesson. these exercises may be of various types. the range from filling blanks to the composition and may be modification, sentences composition and paragraph writing.” so the theory of the composition based on mc. dougal is the activity of writing which is started by mastering words and the grammar itself. there are 4 kinds of compositions; they are argumentation, description, exposition and narration. wishon and burks (1980) stated: “argumentation is used in persuading and convincing; it is closely related to exposition and is often found combined with it. description is used to create a visual image of people, places and even of units of time-days, time of day or seasons, exposition is used in giving information, making explanation, and interpreting meanings and narration is the form of writing used to relate the story of acts or evens.” based on hornby (1974), “narration is telling of a story”, meanwhile based on john m. echols and hassan shadily (1986), “narration adalah (1) penceritaan, pengisahan; (2) cerita, kisah”. narratives are stories. narratives are plots. they are essays that tell a story, hopefully in an interesting way, that also convey themes. often, if you are asked to write a narrative essay, you will not be asked to research a theory or topic. rather, you will be asked to use your imagination instead of a bibliography. you may need to research for this narrative essay; nonetheless, the writing may come more easily to you for you do not need to quote specific words from primary sources. the nature of writing good writing provides information or messages clearly and creates effective verbal dialogue to readers. it aims to give point of view of the ideas in text where it organizes in different way of writing such as narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. when students 135error analysis .... (paramita kusumawardhani) write a paragraph, they try to explore what they are thinking in mind, and they also concern with the language, meaning, and the structural of context related to english language acquisition as a second or foreign language. as gould, diyanni, and smith state that “writing is an effort to create a dialogue with readers, and it involves exploring our relationships to our readers in much the same way that exploring our relationships to people we talk to.” thus, writing must be related to the content, the language and grammatical rules. in order to avoid misunderstood, the students have to use correct sentences by creating a well written text and giving attention to the arrangement of words into their composition to express their idea and to give the value of the writing to readers. developing writing is related to the writer’s knowledge of language and writing exposure. writing process is the way the writers give their ideas and messages to readers in the form of text. the writers present their ideas in various ways of writing such as narration, description, classification, comparison and contrast, argumentation and etc. first narration is a basic writing strategy for presenting past event or activities. it can be used for a variety of purposes such as to illustrate and support ideas with anecdotes, to entertain readers with revealing stories, to analyze causes and possible effects with scenarios, and to explain procedures with process narrative. second, description is a strategy used to create a dominant impression. for example, students describe a place in order to set a scene and make readers aware of its atmosphere and to describe people to show a kind of person’s performance. third, classification is aimed to classify number of items or ideas into a small number of classes. in a classification of paragraph, it is important to set up adequate categories and define what goes into categories. fourth, comparison and contrast are to compare similar aspects or to contrast different aspects of two subjects, people or things. at last, argumentation is to argue ideas or opinion by giving some argues to proof the concept or research. a good paragraph must give readers complete information and unified by a controlling idea. it is organized form and can be understood what the paragraph is going to be about. as boardman states: “a paragraph is a group of sentences that works together to develop a main idea. paragraphs are organized differently depending on their purposes. there are three main types of paragraphs in english: narrative, descriptive, and expository.” method descriptive method is used to do the research. there are 3 types of descriptive method, they are observational method, case study method and survey method. observational method, as a part of descriptive method, was used to take the data. the learners’ english narrative compositions were used as the research instrument. the data were taken from 20 learners and it was taken by asking the learners to make english narrative composition. after that, identifying, classifying, analyzing and correcting were done in order to minimize and avoid the same errors if they are asked to make another english narrative composition. results and discussion descriptive method is used to do the research. there are 3 types of descriptive method, they are observational method, case study method and survey method. observational method, as a part of descriptive method, was used to take the data. the learners’ english narrative compositions were used as the research instrument. the data were taken from 20 learners and it was taken by asking the learners to make english narrative composition. after that, identifying, classifying, analyzing and correcting were done in order to minimize and avoid the same errors if they are asked to make another english narrative composition. table 1 kind of errors no. sentence correction level 1. finally, there was a battle among tunggul ametung and prince sanjaya. finally, there was a battle between tunggul ametung and prince sanjaya. errors of selection 2. after getting the fish he would bring to his mother or selling the caught fish in town. after getting the fish he would bring to his mother or selling the caught fish to the town. errors of selection 3. he and rio’s mother just cried and prayed to god. rio’s mother and he just cried and prayed to god. errors of ordering 4. finally, i had the support of my parents. finally, i had my parents’ support. errors of ordering 5. the child youngest was very kind to the rabbit. the youngest child was very kind to the rabbit. errors of ordering 6. they started to walk across the street and their dog behind them. they started to walk across the street and their dog walked behind them. errors of omission 7. one by one they grew up, married and moved away from their parents. one by one they grew up, got married and moved away from their parents. errors of omission 8. prof. moriarty wanted to steal the diamond and wanted to kill someone. prof. moriarty wanted to steal the diamond and to kill someone. errors of addition 9. once upon a time, there was lived a little girl named snow white. once upon a time, there lived a little girl named snow white. errors of addition 10. her parents were had died. her parents had died. errors of addition 136 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 based on the above descriptions, there are some several types of errors. first, error sentences in error of selection. error of selection is about the use of words which shouldn’t be used. one example can be seen from this following sentence: finally, there was a battle among tunggul ametung and prince sanjaya. the sentence is wrong because “among” is used to explain about nouns in more than 2 things meanwhile in the sentence there are only two nouns, “tunggul ametung” and “prince sanjaya”. “between” is more appropriate to use in the sentence than “among”. the correct sentence is finally, there was a battle between tunggul ametung and prince sanjaya. another example can be seen from: after getting the fish he would bring to his mother or selling the caught fish in town. the sentence is wrong because “the meaning” of the sentence will be illogical if “in” is used in the sentence. “to” is more appropriate to use in the sentence so the correct sentence is after getting the fish he would bring to his mother or selling the caught fish to the town. the second type of error is error sentences in error of ordering. error of ordering is about the elements which are not put in the proper place. this type of error can be seen from this following sentence: he and rio’s mother just cried and prayed to god. the sentence is wrong because of the arrangement of the sentence. the arrangement of the sentence should be rio’s mother and he just cried and prayed to god. another example: finally, i had the support of my parents. the sentence is wrong and the explanation is the same with the first, second and the third sentence. the sentence should be finally, i had my parents’ support. the child youngest was very kind to the rabbit. the sentence is wrong and the explanation is the same as the first, second, third and the fourth sentence. the sentence should be the youngest child was very kind to the rabbit. the third type of errors is error sentences in error of omission. error of omission is about the missing elements which should exist. some examples of this error can be seen through this following sentences. they started to walk across the street and their dog behind them. the sentence is wrong because the sentence is ambiguous so the word “walked” is added to the sentence. the correct sentence is they started to walk across the street and their dog walked behind them. another example, one by one they grew up, married and moved away from their parents. the sentence is wrong and the explanation is the same as the previous sentences above. the sentence should be one by one they grew up, got married and moved away from their parents. the fourth type of error is error sentences in error of addition. error of addition is the adding some elements which shouldn’t exist. example: it is a meat. the article “a” shouldn’t be used before “meat” as “meat” is uncountable and article is used to show the amount of the things. except, there are additional word to show the exact amount of “meat”, example: there are two pieces of meat. (1) prof. moriarty wanted to steal the diamond and wanted to kill someone. the sentence is wrong because “wanted” is used two times in the sentence so it is called redundancy. the sentence should be prof. moriarty wanted to steal the diamond and to kill someone. (2) once upon a time, there was lived a little girl named snow white. the sentence is wrong because “the meaning” of the sentence will be in passive sentence. the sentence should be once upon a time, there lived a little girl named snow white. (3) her parents were had died. the sentence is wrong and the explanation is the same as the first sentence above, the sentence should be her parents had died. conclusion some analyses about the errors made by the learners are concluded by the writer, they are: (1) recognizing the characteristics of the learners’ errors. most of them haven’t mastered the target language well so they tend to make mistakes in their mother tongue; (2) most of the learners’ errors happened in the textual errors; (3) most of them were influenced by their mother tongue, in other hand; they transferred directly to their mother tongue even with grammatical wrong; (4) the errors done by the learners perhaps happened because of the teacher’s style in teaching; and (5) the learners weren’t used to write or make an english narrative composition by the english teachers so they got some difficulties when they were asked to make an english narrative composition. references corder, s.p. (1971). error analysis and interlanguage. hongkong: oxford university press. corder, s.p. (1975). error analysis technique in applied linguistics. london: oxford university press. crystal, d. (1971). linguistics. great britain: penguin books. dulay, h. (1982). language two. new york: oxford university press. dougal, mc. (1988). little english. usa: cambridge university press. echols, j.m., shadily, h. (1986). kamus inggris indonesia. jakarta: pt. gramedia. heaton, j.b. (1988). writing english language tests. new york: longman group. hendrickson, j.m. (1980). error correction in foreign language teaching: recent theory, research, and practice. modern language journal, 62,387-398. hornby, a.t. (1974). the advance learner’s dictionary of current english. oxford: oxford university press norrish, j. (1983). language learners and their errors. london: macmillan press. richards, j.c. (1974). error analysis: perspectives on second language acquisition. london: longman. todd, l. (1987). an introduction to linguistics. longman: york press. white, r., ardnt, v. (1991). process writing (longman handbooks for language teachers). longman pub group. wishon, g.e., burks, j.m. (1980). let’s write english. atlantis publishers. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 275 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 275-281 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.6000 cinematic representation of chinese-indonesians’ trauma in jason iskandar the day the sky roared anton sutandio bachelor program in english, faculty of letters, maranatha christian university jl. prof. drg. surya sumantri, m.p.h. no. 65, bandung 40164, indonesia anton.sutandio@gmail.com received: 16th september 2019/revised: 18th october 2019/accepted: 24th october 2019 how to cite: sutandio, a. (2019). cinematic representation of chinese-indonesians’ trauma in jason iskandar the day the sky roared. lingua cultura, 13(4), 275-281. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.6000 abstract this research analyzed a contemporary independent indonesian film entitled the day the sky roared (2015) that was directed by jason iskandar. this 10-minute silent film talked about the anxiety of chinese-indonesians through the eyes of a mother and her daughter regarding the historical trauma of the may 1998 tragedy. the fact that the film was produced about 17 years after the tragedy suggested the director’s awareness that the trauma remained due to the absence of reconciliation and closure. this research would show how the short film frames the incident and trauma of the chinese-indonesians. the research was a combination of trauma studies and film studies that focuses on the visual analysis of the film’s cinematography and mise-en-scene to show the cinematic representation of chinese-indonesians’ trauma. the findings show that the portrayal of chinese-indonesians still strongly suggests unrelieved psychological discomfort, albeit, at different levels, that is closely related to the traumatic past and the pervasive stereotyping of chinese-indonesians. keywords: chinese-indonesians trauma, cinematic representation, film studies introduction throughout the history of indonesia as far back as the 16th century, chinese-indonesians have gone through rough times living as a minority. often, they are double vilified both as chinese-ethnic and non-moslem. unlike other ethnics in indonesia, such as arab or indian, ethnic chinese is still seen as ‘non-pribumi’ or non-indigenous, although they have been living in indonesia for hundreds of years. during the post-reformation era, chinese-indonesians gain more access to politics, as setijadi (2016) has stated that politically, chinese-indonesians now have greater representation and participation than ever before. however, far from being unified, their political views and aspirations are incredibly diverse. this greater opportunity does not mean that the chinese-indonesians are free from ethnic discrimination. actually, they are under stricter scrutiny as a government official, and if they take a wrong move, they will be vilified. the well-known case is the case of indonesianchinese and christian jakarta governor, basuki tjahaja purnama (ahok), who has to spend two years in jail after the court decided that he is guilty in the case of blasphemy in 2017. despite claims that the case is purely a religiouscontext case, one can clearly see that the case is political and ethnic. the fact that the case happens only strengthens that violence and vilification of the minority still continue, although not to the extent as occurred in may 1998. in addition, as the may 1998 tragedy is never fully reconciled, the trauma for chinese-indonesians still remains and haunts them, fearing that similar incidents could happen again in the future. as the most visually dynamic product of culture, films have been used to talk about historical or psychological trauma and vice versa. films also often offer a unique perspective on the past, mixing collective and personal memories, expressions of the regime language, and images that can spark memories for the generations who directly experienced the past, but which also construct new symbols for the second or third generations (adam & mitroiu, 2016). thus, films have always been a strong medium to channel traumas in effective ways. the study of trauma, in general, is dominated by studies of the western historical trauma, namely the holocaust, vietnam war, or the 9/11 tragedy. historical trauma is defined as an unresolved trauma resulting in grief that continues to impact the lives of survivors and subsequent generations (grayshield et al., 2015). the discussion of historical trauma that occurred elsewhere is substantially less compared to that of the west. thus, it is important to 276 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 275-281 show how suffering resulted from political/cultural conflict is represented outside the west. the case of the historical trauma of may 1998 in indonesia is a fine example of how unreconciled trauma, coupled with ethnical sentiment leads to suffering and anxiety of the minority that is the chineseindonesians. the common racial trauma that is experienced by chinese-indonesians includes overt racial slurs and threats made in any environment by anyone, community violence, and workplace discrimination (williams, 2018). the theory used to dissect the trauma in the film is from cathy caruth, in which she argues that trauma is always received in delay, it keeps coming back to a person even after the traumatic event as such is finished (in sulaberidze, 2016). images in the film serve as the instrument that visually brings back the past trauma. she further argues that trauma is a socio-historical phenomenon, similar to the trauma experienced by chinese-indonesians. therefore she has said that the subject of trauma is relevant not only to psychological and psychic research but to artworks as well, especially visual art, because to be traumatized is precisely to be possessed by an image or event (sulaberidze, 2016). the day the sky roared that is directed by iskandar (2015), explicitly refers to the 1998 tragedy, which causes not only material loss due to the destruction of buildings, but more importantly, death of people and trauma to the surviving victims most of whom are chinese-indonesians. the tragedy is initially triggered by the asian financial crisis in 1998. indonesian people, in particular, the students, blame the indonesian crisis on the government under soeharto, which is known to be authoritative and corrupt. thus, massive demonstrations occurred in jakarta that is led by students, demand soeharto to step down after more than 30 years in power. during the chaotic situation, several students are shot to death by the military, and the incident leads to mass anarchism when people loot stores and target chinese-indonesians. it is reported that hundreds of chinese-indonesian women are sexually abused and harassed, even killed. to this day, the rape case of may 1998 is never revealed and reconciled. it is still unclear who provokes the mass movement as the situation at that time is chaotic. the tragedy happens between may 13-15, 1998, and to this day, chinese-indonesians never deserve justice or reconciliation regarding the tragedy. this unhealed wound will become a trauma that haunts the victim. in fact, the ethnical sentiment is pervasive, and it may occur again in the future, because historically chinese-indonesians have been subjected to the ‘othering’, first by the dutch colonials and then by the government, especially during the new order regime. the wound that the colonizers and the new order regime brought is still unhealed. the word trauma itself means ‘wound’ in greek, which underlines the importance of addressing any trauma as something that needs to be healed. chinese-indonesians still carry the psychological and physical wounds in their memory (kristiono, 2018). since the wound is not healed, it is passed down to the younger generations through the narration of memories of what happened in the past. memories play an important role in trauma studies; in fact, it is closely related to memory studies. in the context of this analysis, films serve as a visual memory of a certain traumatic event that can trigger the traumatic experience as well as bring about awareness from people who do not experience the trauma. trauma is seen as a cultural process that is closely connected with the formation of emergent collective memory and the collective identity of a group (ferron & massa, 2014). indeed, the cultural process of chinese-indonesian includes a traumatic experience that, in time, also shapes the collective identity of chineseindonesians. in the context of indonesian cinema, chinese descendants have been and are still an important part of the development of the national cinema. said in paramaditha (2017) has claimed that the commercialism of cinema is rooted in the origin of indonesian cinema as a commodity produced and consumed by chinese indonesians. so their roles are not only as producers, but also consumers, directors, and actors/actresses. however, during the 1950s to late 21st century, their role becomes merely a complement to other themes or making the chinese-ness theme as a propagandistic instrument towards certain interests, especially regarding the government’s interest (rokhani, 2017). not until the early 21st century that some films about and starred by chinese-indonesians are produced, albeit not many and not successful commercially. for example, ca bau kan (2002) which is adapted from remy silado’s novel and karma (2008), and a horror film with chinese-indonesians background, directed by allan lunardi. unfortunately, both films in many ways still portray the chinese-indonesians in an artificial and decorative manner, thus (unconsciously) perpetuate chinese-indonesians stereotypes. the fact that the films are distributed in major chain movie theaters may explain why the stereotyping presents, perhaps considering the commercial and audience aspects. however, there are also numbers of independent films production about chinese-indonesians which attempt to portray chineseness from a different perspective, such as babi buta ingin terbang (2008), 9809: antologi 10 tahun reformasi (2008). all of which are distributed independently outside the mainstream cinema chains. methods the method applied in this research is a qualitative method based on the film studies approach. the first step of performing film studies is to watch the film as the object for more than once. the first screening is meant to provide a general understanding of the film. the following screenings will focus on visual details of the film cinematography and mise-en-scene. cinematography refers to the film camerawork, how it frames scenes to provide certain meanings and atmosphere for the audience. mise-en-scene refers to all elements seen on the screen, for example, actors, costumes, sounds, setting, and props. the next step of the research is to interpret the visual data against the trauma theory, elaborate and conclude the findings, which are supported by relevant references. results and discussions this 10-minute film describes the mundane activity of a woman taking and picking up her daughter at school on a bicycle. the film opens with the daughter, in her house, looking at the sky and watching a rocket flies up, creating roaring sound. the scene is then transitioned to the woman taking her daughter to school on a bicycle. on a supposedly regular school day, the woman surprisingly finds that some gates at her housing complex are unusually closed, so she has to find another way out of the complex. when she picks 277cinematic representation.... (anton sutandio) her daughter up, she passes some houses on which a sign saying ‘owned by indigenous’ is hanged. from afar, she can also see smoke rising from burnt buildings. at home, she attempts making a call to some numbers without any result. then her daughter comes out to the front of their house, and from behind the closed gate of her house, she is watching the sky as a rocket passes by. the film ends with another child dressed in an astronaut suit walking around in an empty overgrown land surrounded by walls. the fact that the film is produced seventeen years after the may 1998 tragedy suggests that the trauma is not healed. for a fact, there is almost no arrest of culprits that looted chinese-indonesians’ stores during may 1998, as witnessed and experienced by some chinese-indonesians who suffered from looting. they even know some of the culprits as their own neighbors, yet to this day, they seem to have impunity and are never brought to justice. it is in line with what mcgregor has said (2017) that impunity at its crux means that perpetrators of past human rights violations remain ‘above the law’. the chinese-indonesians are reluctant to file a report for fearing repercussions. in the raping cases, some people still believe that the raping of chinese-indonesian women never happened due to a lack of report to the authority. this is contrary to the findings of the women’s rights commission that the raping indeed happens and the reason why the victims are not reporting because it is fear and trauma as the minority. besides, the tradition within the chinese-indonesians that a rape victim becomes a disgrace for the family. there are also cases of threats and even assassination of an activist just a week before she is scheduled to testify in the united nations. the film does not explicitly re-enact the exact trauma that happens, but the trauma is built around the expression of the confused and innocence mother and daughter in facing the unknown and unfamiliar. the absence of actors makes the film more dramatic and traumatic as it strongly brings back the traumatic memory and horrors that chineseindonesian women have to experience during that time, particularly related to the raping and killing incidents. two things that catch the audience’s attention right away are that the film is mostly shot in black and white, and there is no dialogue throughout the film. the silence can be interpreted as a metaphor to the inability of chineseindonesians to voice themselves as a minority, and the unspeakable and unsolved trauma they have experienced, in particular pertaining to the may 1998 tragedy. may 1998 is not the only time when chinese-indonesians become the victims of the national political unrest. chinese-indonesians have always been targeted as scapegoats during the indonesian political turmoil. throughout the film, it can be only seen the expression of the mother and the daughter when facing the unknown and fear that disrupt their daily life, especially when the gates of their housing complex are closed (figure 1), and when they see smoke billowing from some burnt buildings (figure 2). the absence of dialogue adds to the anxiety and fear that the film generates through the expression of the characters, as balazs in o’rawe (2006) has stated that a silent glance can speak volumes. its soundlessness makes it more expressive because the facial movements of a silent figure may explain the reason for the silence; make us feel its weight, its menace, its tension in the film, silence does not halt action even for an instant, and such silent action gives even silence a living face. through the expression of the mother’s anxiety and the daughter’s innocence, the film manages to bring back the historical trauma of how thousands of chinese-indonesian have experienced violent treatment, vilification, and the destruction of their business place. figure 1 a closed gate (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 2 burnt buildings (source: iskandar, 2015) besides being a mute film for the exception of sound effects, the film is mostly shot in black and white. braga and da costa (2011) have said that the use of color in cinema involves associations at different level; (1) the physical, in the way color can affect the viewer giving him/ her a more or less pleasing feeling; (2) the psychological, because color can stimulate psychological responses; and (3) the aesthetic, because color can be chosen selectively according to the effect they can produce, considering their balance, proportion, and composition within the film. based on the psychology of color, black is often associated with grief, darkness, mystery, death, and mourning, while white is associated with love, protection, innocence, and death (in the eastern/chinese culture). in the context of the film, the absence of other colors other than black and white may refer to the bleak situation for chinese-indonesians. thus, the monochromatic look of the film suggests anxiety that causes fear and unhappiness to the innocence (mother and daughter) as well as the audience, in which the loving mother tries to protect her daughter from the uncertainty of the upcoming event. this interpretation is supported by flückiger (2017), who has stated that aesthetic features of colors and their arrangement within a film’s style are powerful instruments for connecting characters’ moods and affective states to the audience’s bodily reception. it also efficiently supports the overall atmosphere that death and grief are lurking and targeting the ‘innocence’. in cinematography context, there is an attempt to reduce spatiality through the choice of setting to evoke 278 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 275-281 a feeling of alienation in addition to the absence of other characters in the film. the mother and daughter are living in a house located in a crowded small complex in which the houses are built close to each other that they share outer walls. the road is small and can only fit one car to pass. the small and contained space evokes a feeling of suffocation and restriction, in addition to the absence of people that emphasizes their alienation. the film only has three all-female characters, one of which appears in the last scene. there is another girl character who only appears briefly in the middle of the film, serves as a school friend of the major girl character. visually, the actresses show prominent signifiers of being chineseindonesians from their physical look (figure 3), which carries stereotypical aspects of a mongoloid race such as fair complexion, straight black hair, and slanted eyes. figure 3 chinese-indonesian girl (source: iskandar, 2015) the film opens with a shot of a mosque-motive carpet hanged upside down that is followed by an inter-title that says, “in may 1998, during two days of mass violence, rioters killed thousands of indonesian-chinese”. it is followed by another inter-title that says, “they also raped and murdered women and students” (figure 4). figure 4 the opening scene with an inter-title (source: iskandar, 2015) this camera stays in this position for about 26 seconds before it pans down right to capture a little girl who appears to be living in that house. in comparison to the short duration of the film, the 26 seconds of the static camera focusing on the same image can be considered long enough, which suggests an emphasis on the background event of the film. the audience is also given enough time to sit and remember about the incident while looking at the image. she stands behind bars of his house, looking upward (figure 5). figure 5 the girl looking up to the sky (source: iskandar, 2015) this shot carries a sense of restriction with the girl as a representation of chinese-indonesians who are long to be free from certain limitations due to their different beliefs and ethnicity. the carpet that hanged outside the girl’s house can also be interpreted as a symbol of difference and the limitation itself. in the context of chinese-ness, the two shots suggest that being a chinese means being restricted and limited. the juxtaposition of the first and second images also emphasizes the presence of a dichotomy view between ‘we/they’ or ‘we/other’, with ‘we being the majority’. the girl is watching a rocket soaring to the sky (figure 6), and the two shots generate a contrasting image, an image of restriction and limitation versus an image of vastness and un-limitedness. the girl’s action of always watching the sky strongly suggests the desire to be free from restriction and limitation that she has to face on a daily basis, especially during the may 1998 tragedy. indeed, may 1998 is conceived as a moment that happened to be an unremitting reminder of chinese-indonesians’ estrangedness (thaniago, 2017). they respond, for example, by installing shops and houses with iron gates and higher fences, some even double as high, and some with spikes added on their tops (thaniago, 2017) for their own protection, just like the film shows. figure 6 a rocket soaring to the sky (source: iskandar, 2015) to emphasize the restriction of movement, the film is deliberately shot in narrow alleys with houses stand close to each other that create a claustrophobic atmosphere (figure 7 and 8). besides, there are scenes when the mother on her bicycle has to find her way around to return to her house because the main gates are closed (figure 9). besides that, rows of the closed gate of the houses, as seen in figure 7-9, also add to the feeling of restriction, indicating a sense of unwelcomeness. to elevate the tension and eerie situation that reflects the may 1998 tragedy, the film intentionally provides visual 279cinematic representation.... (anton sutandio) clues that isolate the two main characters even more. the clues are explicit signs that hang outside some houses that the two characters pass. the signs say “pribumi pro reformasi” (pro reformation indigenous) and “milik pribumi” (belong to indigenous), as seen in figure 10 and 11. figure 7 narrow alleys and houses surround them (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 8 narrow alleys (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 9 another closed gate (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 10 a sign saying ‘pro reformation indigenous’ (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 11 a sign saying ‘belongs to indigenous’ (source: iskandar, 2015) the signs turn into an identity marker of the house owner that will prevent the house from being looted by the mobs who specifically target houses or business premises of chinese-indonesians. they also serve as a trauma reminder to chinese-indonesians that there is always a dichotomy of ‘us/them’ that alienates chinese-indonesians from the majority. there are actually other ethnicities living among indigenous people such as indian or arab descendants, but most of the time, the sentiment is aimed at the chinesedescendants mostly due to the legacy of the ‘divide and rule’ policy of the dutch that is still applied by the new order regime for more than 30 years. in fact, as purdey has argued as cited in thaniago (2017), that anti-chinese sentiment has been a social norm in indonesia. setijadi (2017) has further added that the dutch colonialists separate the chinese-indonesians as the ‘foreign orientals’ and place them as middlemen in trade dealings between the dutch and the indigenous. this situation causes envy and sentiment towards the chinese-indonesians that is perpetuated during the assimilation period of the new order regime. thus, chinese-descendants are singled out as ‘the other’, and thus never fully receive equal rights as indonesian citizens compare to the indigenous people or other people from different cultural/ethnical background. during the new order regime, chinese-indonesians are discouraged from entering politics; thus, they are confined in the economic sector. in fact, according to setijadi (2017), the stereotypes of chinese-indonesians are still prevalent to this day, such as ‘chinese-indonesians as exclusive’. the last-minute of the film is marked by a stark visual change when the film suddenly is shown in color. the jumpcut from the roaring rocket to a small creek flows between a wild grass field (figure 12) provides a hint that the new scene occurs at a different time. the absence of natural elements in the previous black and white screen also becomes a contrast with the colored scene in which the film shows some natural elements such as water and grass field. the sound of flowing water provides a calming effect to the audience after the tension that occurred in the previous scenes. at the same time, the absence of humans in the colored scene still suggests loneliness and alienation. the scene is followed by a wide shot of the same area that shows the vastness of the field (figure 13). the openness of the scene is in contrast with the constrained space of the housing complex of the previous scenes. then from the right side of the screen, enters a girl in a spacesuit (figure 14), who examines her surroundings and obviously feels alienated as she obviously looks out of place with her spacesuit. the camera then zooms to the girl and shows her profile from her left side (figure 15). the girl then takes off her helmet, looks around, smiles a bit, and the film ends. 280 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 275-281 figure12 a small creek (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 13 an open space (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 14 a young girl in a space suit (source: iskandar, 2015) figure 15 the young girl smiles (source: iskandar, 2015) the open space, as seen in figure 14, shows three different layers; the ground, the wall, and the sky. for the first time, the audience can see the open sky for a longer time, compares to the previous scenes when the sky is seen yet briefly. as the title suggests, the sky becomes an important part of the film. during the chaotic day when the sky ‘is roaring’, the girl in the first part of the film is imagining that she hears the rocket flying away to the sky. the sky clearly suggests freedom as the shot of the rocket is juxtaposed with the shot of the girl behind the fence of her house, clearly constraining her freedom. the second part of the film suggests the aftermath of the tragedy. the tone suggests calmness and serenity through the shots of natural elements and the sound of the flowing water. the series of shots in the open grass field with the girl in the spacesuit may point to the visualization of the imagination of the girl in the previous scene that looks at the roaring rocket. from behind the iron fence of her house, she wishes that she can be freed from the constraint of her house and fly away to the vastness of space. in other words, the film’s colored scenes become the analogy to the chinese-indonesians, who long for freedom from constraint and violence. however, those scenes can also be interpreted differently as the visualization of chinese-indonesians’ future life. the blue and clear sky symbolizes the hope for chinese-indonesians, yet the vast empty grass field may suggest challenges that they have to face in the future. they have to start rebuilding their lives in an unwelcome and barren place. besides, the tall wall may symbolize alienation and separation of the chinese-indonesians from the indigenous people. the wall represents the lives of many chinese-indonesians who live behind the tall wall of their houses. the young girl represents the future generation of chinese-indonesians, who may not personally experience such tragedy and who brings optimism for their future, as seen in her smile. conclusions although the film ends in a hopeful tone, the film cinematography and mise-en-scene suggest that the life and future of chinese-indonesians may still face challenges that are rooted in indonesian history. it is started with the divide and conquer policy of the dutch colonizers. the film successfully brings back the traumatic memory of the may 1998 tragedy through the camerawork and mise-enscene, as caruth argues that trauma is strongly related to how certain images possess the victims. by bringing back certain images, the unreconciled trauma returns and haunts the victims. the bleak, black and white scenes that dominate the film manage to bring back the horror and tension experienced by chinese-indonesians. the film’s strategy to use the characters of a mother and her daughter, who are trapped in the midst of chaos, brings up the tension even more. the absence of dialogue manages to help create a suspenseful atmosphere throughout the film. the confused, scared, and anxious mother fittingly pictures the overall emotion of chinese-indonesians who experienced the may 1998 tragedy. the unreconciled tragedy of may 1998 becomes the reminder to the chinese-indonesians that their struggle to be accepted in the society without discrimination is not over yet. in fact, history has recorded that chinese-indonesians still often become the scapegoat, especially during indonesian political dynamic when politicians use politics of identity to win people’s vote, as what happened in the case of basuki tjahaja purnama or ahok, who is slandered due to the fact 281cinematic representation.... (anton sutandio) that he is a chinese-indonesian. the immature and closeminded mindset of some indonesians is often exploited by politicians and radical religious groups to win people’s favor. the film delivers a strong message that the absence of reconciliation to the tragedies that the chinese-indonesians experienced will cause them to always live under constant fear of violence and discrimination. it takes openmindedness and the big-heartedness of the people as well as the government’s willingness and strictness to uphold the laws so that all citizens have equal rights regardless of their cultural, ethnical, or religious background. references adam, e., & mitroiu, s. (2016). remembering the past: representation of women’s trauma in post-1989 romanian cinema. cogent arts and humanities, 3(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2016. 1182718. braga, m. h., & da costa, v. (2011). color in films: a critical overview. crítica cultural (critic), 6(1), 333-346. ferron, m. & massa, p. (2014). beyond the encyclopedia: collective memories in wikipedia. memory studies, 7(1), 22-45. https://doi. org/10.1177/1750698013490590. flückiger, b. (2017). color and subjectivity in film. in m. s. reinerth & j. n. thon (eds.), subjectivity across media: interdisciplinary and transmedial perspectives (pp. 145-161). london: routledge. grayshield, l., rutherford, j. j., salazar, s. b., mihecoby, a. l., luna, l. l. (2015). understanding and healing historical trauma: the perspective of native american elders. journal of mental healing counseling, 37(4), 295-307. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.37.4.02. iskandar, j. (director), & tirta, t., & andre, i. (producers). (2015). the day the sky roared (motion picture). indonesia: buttonijo films. kristiono, m. (2018). dari tionghoa ke tjina: telaah sejarah terhadap demonisasi etnis tionghoa di indonesia (from tionghoa to china: a historical review of the demonization of chinese ethnicity in indonesia). verity: jurnal ilmiah hubungan internasional, 10(19), 34-48. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.19166/verity. v10i19.1309. mcgregor, k. (2017). exposing impunity: memory and human rights activism in indonesia and argentina. journal of genocide research, 19(4), 551-573. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2017.1393948. o’rawe, d. (2006). the great secret: silence, cinema, and modernism. screen, 47(4), 395-405. https://doi. org/10.1093/screen/hjl031. paramaditha, i. (2017). film studies in indonesia: an experiment of a new generation. journal of the humanities and social sciences of southeast asia, 173(2-3), 357-375. doi: 10.1163/2213437917302006. rokhani, u. (2017). produksi kultural film indie ke‘tionghoa’-an di indonesia. rekam: jurnal fotografi televisi animasi, 3(1), 1-12. doi: https:// doi.org/10.24821/rekam.v13i1.1705. setijadi, c. (2016). ethnic chinese in contemporary indonesia: changing identity politics and the paradox of signification. perspective, 12, 1-11. setijadi, c. (2017). chinese indonesians in the eyes of the ‘pribumi’ public. perspective, 73, 1-12. sulaberidze, s. (2016). the cinematic representation of the traumatic experience in youth (in contemporary documentary film). master’s thesis. retrieved from https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/ h a n d l e / 1 8 8 7 / 4 2 7 4 5 / t h e s i s % 2 0 % 2 8 3 % 2 9 . pdf?sequence=1. thaniago, r. (2017). disciplining tionghoa: critical discourse analysis of news media during indonesia’s new order. master’s thesis. retrieved from http:// lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/8916918/ file/8916922.pdf. williams, m.t. (2018). assessing ptsd in ethnic and racial minority: trauma and racial trauma. directions in psychiatry, 38(3), 179-192. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 191 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 191-198 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.6825 efl teacher’s beliefs about sociolinguistic competence: a qualitative case study in indonesian formal english pedagogy edi ramawijaya putra* department of buddhist education, sriwijaya state buddhist college of tangerang banten edu town bsd city, serpong tangerang, banten 15339, indonesia edi.ramawijayaputra@gmail.com received: 25th november 2020/revised: 29th september 2021/accepted: 29th september 2021 how to cite: putra, e. r. (2021). efl teacher’s beliefs about sociolinguistic competence: a qualitative case study in indonesian formal english pedagogy. lingua cultura, 15(2), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.6825 abstract the research aimed to explore beliefs of sociolinguistic competence from indonesian efl (english as a foreign language) teachers. two teachers were carefully chosen to participate in the research. data were collected through semi-structured interviews, analyzed, and interpreted using the critical descriptive method. the research finds that efl teachers express their beliefs in various terms, ideologies, and perspectives. the result indicates that the efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence are equivalent to the concepts of spatial repertoire, principled-polycentrism, resourceful speakers, and sociolinguistics as mobility. it also indicates that efl teachers’ pedagogical affordances in determining learning objectives, selecting materials and media for learning, implementing classroom strategies, and choosing appropriate evaluation for their teaching are influenced by their beliefs of sociolinguistic competence. the research suggests that indonesian efl teachers should be awarded the freedom to develop sociolinguistic competence based on their classroom context and learners’ heterogeneity. with the presence of a national curriculum (known as k13) that gives more spaces for sociolinguistic competence to take place, teachers should transform their paradigm of seeing classroom interaction in efl classroom to be more sociolinguistically-aware to transform the static, pre-determined, and motionless definition of sociolinguistic competence to a more dynamic, fluid, and varying. these transformations can be made by imparting sociolinguistic competence in teachers’ education and teachers’ professional development programs. keywords: teachers’ beliefs, sociolinguistic competence, efl pedagogy introduction despite its foremost prominence as a goal for learners studying a foreign language, the term sociolinguistic competence has never been clearly clarified in the elt (english language teaching) context. however, the notion of sociolinguistic competence has been intensely adopted in the curriculum of efl (english as a foreign language) in indonesia. the insertion of real-life communication practices, orientation to contextual interaction, emphasis on communicative-oriented tasks, and environmentally-used language skills set as teaching objectives in the efl curriculum related to the significance of sociolinguistic competence. thus, the efforts to fathom the operational and observable indicators for the purpose of teaching sociolinguistic competence as a learning output are inevitably urgent. although sociolinguistic competence has been largely discussed in the literature, language teachers must be able to interpret those conceptual definitions based on their own classroom context. more importantly, teachers need to raise their awareness of the paradigmatic shift of sociolinguistic competence, which has been no longer viewed as the immobile repertoire of language use, in which communication 192 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 191-198 is formed by linguistic resources and communicative opportunities affected by mobility (blommaert, 2014). this claim implies that the teaching of language should move forward to giving more spaces for multiple semiotics and multiliteracies to take place in the heart of efl pedagogy instruction. it subtly alters the classic views on sociolinguistic competence, which assumes that it simply deals with appropriateness and sociocultural context (canale & swain, 1980). as the teaching of efl shifts from merely targeting accuracy to promoting learners’ agency, the teacher should facilitate more activities that aim to invite interaction and provide more opportunities for learners to produce the language (li, 2020). pedagogical strategies, on the other hand, need to be improved, especially when linking between inside and outside classroom contexts, as a resourceful language-learning landscape. at the same time, efl teachers also need to recontextualize the principles of the communicative language teaching (clt) approach throughout the implementation as it has to be merged with the current trends of language development. to do this, efl teachers have been suggested to analyze learners’ daily communication and interaction styles. another contributing factor that may hinder today’s global speakers in communication practice using english is the appropriateness of utterances in social situations (xamidullaevna, 2020). hence, the aspects on the contemporary perspectives of language teaching such as linguistic diversity, recovery of local needs, learners’ experiences are vital to reconsider for creating a productive and effective class for efl learners (richards, 2006; savignon, 2006; pennycook, 2014). teachers’ predominant role in transforming language teaching is still the key issue due to the agenda to accommodate sociolinguistic competence. components such as culture, lifestyle, general norms, history, and social situations are essential to be covered for future english teachers’ education and professional development (sarimsakova, 2021). consequently, teachers’ beliefs of the notion become crucial to adhere to the implementation in formal efl context. teachers who have been equipped with sufficient beliefs of sociolinguistic competence will find it much easier to manage their classroom and students to attain the competence. current research by munandar and newton (2021) shows that efl teachers are vigilant to keep abreast of their pedagogic beliefs addressing culture and interculturality in teaching and learning. the possession of beliefs will help teachers conceptualize their work necessary to carry out duties, which must be operated based on understanding the principles and appropriate underlying concepts (richard, gallo, & renandya, 2002). therefore, teachers’ beliefs of sociolinguistic competence must not be put aside. it becomes an intellectual and pedagogical base for efl teachers to be able to interpret, integrate, and evaluate sociolinguistic competence in their classroom. moreover, having such beliefs will help teachers to improve their factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge, which are important for teachers’ professional cycles (putra, 2019). the connection between beliefs and practices can affect teachers’ creativities and affordances to cover sociolinguistic competence in implementing communicative language teaching (clt). strategies such as showing cultural differences between students’ daily spoken language and target language, translating polite expressions to the target language, roleplaying in an actual communication are examples of efl classrooms designed to acquire sociolinguistic competence. in relation to the strategies mentioned, littlewood (2013) has suggested developing contextsensitive communication-oriented language teaching. the clt approach should be seen as a paradigm that aims to develop communicative competence through meaningful learning experiences. thus, activities and drills must be developed based on the existing curriculum and should be viewed as an inseparable part of the teaching and learning process (littlewood, 2013). based on this view, efl teachers in indonesia need to include sociolinguistic competence in the lesson plan as well as the strategies, activities, tasks, and evaluation. for indonesian formal efl education, the emergence of curriculum 2013 (widely known as k-13) has provided a wide-open opportunity for sociolinguistic competence. previous studies have shown teachers’ interest in investigating sociolinguistic issues in their practice of efl teaching. see, for example, zaenul (2016) has listed four politeness strategies performed by his students in coping with polite expressions when interacting with older people or respected ones. the challenge remains if the teachers, as subjects of the curriculum, stay idle or reluctant to the changes. in fact, the transformation within efl pedagogy can only be done if the orientation to sociolinguistic competence is carried out throughout the teaching and learning processes. the intersection between sociolinguistic competence and english pedagogy has been acknowledged as one of further agenda that needs to be investigated for the sake of accomplishing the primacy of language learning output (zhang & wang, 2016). the research aims to answer the questions (1) what beliefs do efl teachers’ have about sociolinguistic competence? (2) what are the theories of sociolinguistics that best explain efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence? methods the research applies a qualitative approach with a case study design. two participants are carefully chosen as the respondent who represents two english teachers’ associations (mgmp) from the east and south jakarta regions. the participants are the efl teachers (pseudonyms as clara and alex), who are full-time english teachers at two junior high schools in jakarta. data are collected through semi-structured 193efl teacher’s beliefs about.... (edi ramawijaya putra) interviews. teachers’ responses obtained from the semi-structured interview are analyzed, interpreted, and discussed using the interpretive-descriptive method. the interpretation and discussion are compared against the theoretical framework in order to synthesize underlying theories with the existing data. in a semi-structured interview, the researcher intends to probe the interviewee elaborating the original response produced by the subjects that follow their line of inquiry (fraenkel & wallen, 2006). ten questions are used as a prompt to elicit efl teachers’ beliefs (table 1). it is expected that using this instrument; the teachers can freely express their understanding of sociolinguistic competence. the interview is conducted in english for both of the participants. the participants are familiar with english-medium interviews, well-experienced in attending english-medium conferences, workshops, teachers’ professional development programs. moreover, the selected participants are initially confirmed earlier to have the interview fully in english. this is the way to ensure no language barriers during the session. the interviews are scheduled based on efl teachers’ availability at school. this is very important to be arranged in advance due to research execution conducted during the regular school-year period. the researcher needs to ascertain the data collection that would not interrupt efl teachers’ everyday activities in each school. results and discussions table 1 shows the responses from the semistructured interviews of the two participants. each excerpt displays the actual responses from the two subjects when answering the direct prompt questions. the results indicate that there are similarities in conceptualizing sociolinguistic competence conveyed by the teachers. the response shows that the beliefs about sociolinguistic competence are kept long but expressed through different phrases and some technical terms. interestingly, the choice of words to represent their beliefs gives a sign that the efl teachers are trying to explain in a more working perspective based on their daily duties as educators. however, though efl teachers preserve their belief in a distinguished way, the essence of involving sociolinguistic competence in their teaching practice is still inevitably concrete as a learning output. belief number 1 constitutes a direct word to define sociolinguistic competence, which refers to social skills. numbers 2 and 3 show a mutual relationship between teachers and learners, which explains sociolinguistic competence that must be taught and learned in a formal instruction context. belief 4 explains the possibility of accommodating sociolinguistic competence in the efl pedagogy. belief number 5 shows that efl teachers are relatively confident to distinguish between sociolinguistic competence and grammatical competence. beliefs number 6 and 9 show the possible effects of whether the absence and the presence of sociolinguistic competence may cause several pragmatic problems in communication. beliefs number 7 and 8 show efl teachers’ belief about the method used to teach sociolinguistic competence and predict difficulties. lastly, belief number 10 elicits the personal testimonies about sociolinguistic competence. the results in table 1 indicate that efl teachers believe that sociolinguistic competence is a part of english oral production skills for social purposes. although the teachers described sociolinguistic table 1 semi-interview responses clara’s responses alex’s responses 1. sociolinguistic competence is a skill. 1. sociolinguistic competence is a social skill to use english. 2. sociolinguistic competence enables speakers to speak appropriately. 2. sociolinguistic competence makes the use of english rightfully. 3. as learners, sociolinguistic competence can be learned. 3. english learners can learn sociolinguistic competence. 4. as efl teachers, sociolinguistic competence can be taught. 4. sociolinguistic competence can be included in the teaching english. 5. sociolinguistic competence and grammatical competence are very different. 5. sociolinguistic competence is different with grammatical competence. 6. lack of sociolinguistic competence will cause disability to talk in good manner. 6. sociolinguistic competence can make someone lost in social interaction, perceived rude, and not-connected. 7. teaching sociolinguistic competence must be difficult. 7. to teach sociolinguistic competence in efl context will be so difficult. 8. practice to speak is the best way to train sociolinguistic competence. 8. speaking is the most effective way to teach sociolinguistic competence. 9. learners will be able to use english correctly if they have sociolinguistic competence. 9. learners will have many partners to talk with if they are capable in sociolinguistic competence. 10. sociolinguistic competence help learners to use english in social context appropriately. 10. sociolinguistic competence is useful to be socially accepted by the community. 194 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 191-198 competence in unpretentious words and phrases, it seems that they have tried to link between skills of using english to social purposes and situations. the importance of having sociolinguistic competence for english learners, both subjects expressed that sociolinguistic competence would be beneficial to create appropriate interaction of using english in a variety of social contexts. the current research in the efl pedagogy conducted by darmajanti (2018) has addressed this caveat. the teaching of speaking should involve learners’ strategic competence through interaction to cope with limited linguistic competence and cultural factors, which usually become a dilemmatic constraint in the efl setting. this finding also aligns with canagarajah’s (2017) claim, which states that communication activity requires not only verbal resources but also non-verbal, multisemiotic, and modality to mediate and shape language use. proficiency of language used does not refer to fluency and accuracy but also depends on diverse semiotic resources such as gestures, visuals, body language, and other media (canagarajah, 2017). furthermore, these responses also indicate that sociolinguistic competence plays a vital role in producing appropriate utterances. it proves by the appearance of the phrases “speak appropriately”, “not only smart in grammar and having a lot of words”, and “talk with different characteristics and time”. inasmuch, sociolinguistic competence is believed as one of the important skills to teach in efl pedagogy. therefore, every learner must learn sociolinguistic competence in the efl classroom. work from the romanian context, for instance, could be a good lesson to follow. they start to provide drills for children on sociolinguistic competence from preschool education. it is to be developed for the purpose of material design of the national curriculum (lesenciuc & lesenciuc, 2017). the data confidently show that efl teachers believe that sociolinguistic competence is possible to be achieved by every learner as long as the impacts of classroom interaction and driven-teaching are effective. learners’ attitude toward their predetermined objectives of studying english will have them be more aware and motivated to tackle communicative problems, skills, and functional activities that they may encounter in the future (anvarovna, 2017). the findings also prove that efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence are influenced by their views of sociolinguistic as mobile resources. this construct encompasses the concepts of what blommaert (2010) has described as the phenomenon of semiotic transformation, which involves scale, indexicality, and policentricity. another indication of sociolinguistic competence from the responses is teachers’ testimony of making an effort to integrate sociolinguistic competence into their pedagogic planning. when asked about their pedagogic plan to teach sociolinguistic competence, efl teachers have mentioned that they have been integrating sociolinguistic competence into their formal teaching procedures. as seen, clara believes that the teaching of sociolinguistic competence cannot be separated from formal and regular activities of english lessons. meanwhile, alex strengthens the possibilities of teaching sociolinguistic competence as an impact of the k-13 curriculum, requiring teachers to integrate more communicative features such as transactional and interpersonal communication indicators throughout lessons. interestingly, efl teachers are also able to distinguish between the notion of grammatical competence and sociolinguistic competence. teachers’ confidence in distinguishing the two terms in pedagogical perspectives are important, especially in doing self-transformation from conventional, topdown methods to more egalitarian and bottom-up approach in elt practices. this view is important to keep by efl teachers in order to avoid insufficiency of communicativeness within foreign language education. conversely, lacking sociolinguistic competence will affect the way speakers of english determine the most appropriate manner in conducting utterances during the speaking. the findings have shown that manner becomes the most prominent element to establish appropriate speech. meanwhile, raising more awareness of local contexts in using english is also needed. to avoid those constraints, the acquisition of sociolinguistic competence as a part of a foreign language learning objective should be a mustto-do list. understandably, despite the importance of sociolinguistic competence, efl teachers have also stated that the teaching of sociolinguistic competence is more difficult compared to the teaching of other aspects of english, such as grammatical or lexical competence. these caveats must be anticipated by efl teachers to make the teaching possible. nevertheless, efl teachers’ confidence and positive attitude towards sociolinguistic competence, as shown from the responses, will become helpful knowledge to create an active and engaging efl learning atmosphere. as identified in the research, activities such as understanding the contexts of speaking and roleplaying would effectively develop sociolinguistic competence. to make this possible, learners are expected to have more awareness and experience in evaluating circumstances when making utterances suitable for certain context communication. baralt and gomez (2017) have discussed how english pedagogy should be maintained in an online classroom context, utilizing images, videos, diagrams, and other semiotic resources to develop more sociolinguistic activities. in essence, both subjects could state their beliefs about sociolinguistic competence in various ways. the efl teachers highlight the outcomes of having sociolinguistic competence to understand the nature of communication. clara presents her definition by acknowledging social context as the keyword. meanwhile, alex gives more expansion on how sociolinguistic competence will be used for communication purposes. alex also mentions that 195efl teacher’s beliefs about.... (edi ramawijaya putra) the community where the target language is used will affect the way communication takes place through interactional and interpersonal communication. in order to identify what key concepts of efl teachers’ beliefs refer to, the answers from the two respondents are synthesized. each of the responses is merged into (1) sociolinguistic competence is a social skill to use english; (2) it is important for english learners to learn sociolinguistic competence in order to be able to speak appropriately and rightfully; (3) for english learners, sociolinguistic competence must be learned; (4) for english teachers, sociolinguistic competence must be taught; (5) sociolinguistic competence is different from grammatical competence; (6) if someone does not have sociolinguistic competence, he/she will not be able to talk in a good manner to avoid rudeness and lost in interaction; (7) as efl teacher, teaching sociolinguistic competence must be difficult; (8) the best way to teach sociolinguistic is the practice to speak; (9) if someone has sociolinguistic competence, he/she will be able to use english correctly to partners they talk to, and (10) efl teachers describe sociolinguistic competence as competence to use english in the social context in the community. within these beliefs, the tincture of the current trends that addressed sociolinguistic competence from contemporary scholars in sociolinguistics can now be explained. the efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence such as “a social skill to use english”, “it is important for learners to be able to speak appropriately and rightfully”, and “learners will be able to avoid bad manner, rudeness, and lost in interaction” are the grounded beliefs of what canagarajah (2017) has called as the moves from language to spatial repertoires. according to this principle, speakers’ ability to put words to use in a situated activity and specific locations is a key to implementing sociolinguistic competence in communication. the utterances are constructed based on the indexicality of the spatiotemporal process in which meaning always sediment over time to develop grammatical status and norms. however, canagarajah (2017) does not deny the possible changes of norms of which words may participate in semiotic assemblages to construct meaning. indeed, the data indicate that efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence align with the principle of resourceful speakers (pennycook, 2014). the beliefs about sociolinguistic competence such as “will be able to use english correctly to partners they talk to”, and “as a competence to use english in the social context of the community” are the evidence that efl teachers believe in the notion of resourcefulness. the wellspring of pennycook’s points is the possibilities of practices, registers, and discourses that can be generated from multimodal semiotics and principled polycentrism. proficiency is not based on a particular drop-off standard from a certain hegemony or nation-based vernacular, instead of bringing the variety of linguistic resources to the communicative field. from this base, sociolinguistic competence is believed as mutual intelligibility shared by speakers to complete their communicative intentions. in terms of beliefs about sociolinguistic competence and its relations with english pedagogy, pennycook (2008) has long been associated with the term translingual english. therefore, efl teachers’ beliefs such as “sociolinguistic can be learned”, and “sociolinguistic can be learned through speaking” can be addressed using this theory. this view insists that language relies much on social activity, whose outcomes may be generated from communication. consequently, individuals should incorporate themselves in communication and practices in order to build their communicative repertoires. based on the findings, efl teachers believe that the teaching of english in the efl context requires ‘transidiomatic’ practices rather than english as the norm/system. the researcher can assume that efl teachers would let their students converse with a wide range of fluidity using current english competence incorporated with the locality, non-verbal, and semiotic resources. although efl teachers do not deny the difficulty of teaching sociolinguistic competence as drawn in a belief “teaching sociolinguistic competence will be difficult”, it does not mean they cannot do it. in fact, the rest of the beliefs show efl teachers’ self-assurance as the high possibility to implement sociolinguistic competence for efl learners. the challenges lie in efl teachers’ willingness to transform their approach from traditional grammar-translation and clt to english as local practice. this is very crucial since the practices themselves are the processes in english pedagogy. in relation to this, canagarajah (2017) has pointed out the interrelationship between english as a lingua franca and locality as an embedded locality with constant changes by semiotic resource (pennycook, 2008). drawing on the beliefs clustered above, the beliefs look normative, general and indicate several commonalities derived from the lexical definition of the word ‘socio’. it can be understood that efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence are constructed from various sources. it probably comes from non-formal experiences, personal opinions, and other unassigned references such as exposure to the current classroom context. the efl teachers in the research define and believe sociolinguistic competence as a language skill. though there are differences of instances mentioned by the two participants, the essence is identical. clara and alex agree that the term ‘skill’ enables the speaker to engage in communication appropriately and sociallyaccepted way. two participants stress the long-term objectives of english learning, which aim to emerge at worldwide interaction among people. thus, having a global awareness is inevitably needed. this finding aligns with research conducted by estaji and rahimi (2018). they suggest that the intercultural competence for foreign language teachers needs to be imparted to increase teachers’ global perspectives about the culture and specific elements of intercultural competence. 196 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 191-198 the teachers’ beliefs about the importance of sociolinguistic competence are expressed in homogenous responses. however, all of the findings demonstrate that sociolinguistic competence is important to be able to speak rightfully and appropriately in the context. efl teachers also express the consequences of violating social norms and interaction when speaking. if speakers lack sociolinguistic competence, they will not be able to achieve communicative purposes. rudeness, badmannered speeches, impoliteness, and disrespect can be avoided by having sociolinguistic competence. based on these findings, efl teachers are aware of the importance of sociolinguistic competence and how it is helpful to develop learners’ proficiency in foreign language learning. furthermore, in evaluating learners’ accomplishments, teachers need to be more egalitarian to view english as a multilingual franca. english language assessment needs to focus more on the ability to negotiate diversity in contact (jenkins, 2015). essentially, the participants involved in the research seem to have a congruent voice about the effectiveness of developing speaking activities to implement sociolinguistic competence. this claim can be seen from teachers’ responses which repetitively mentioned the importance of the appropriateness and contexts. for indonesian language teachers like zaid (2014), the importance of covering sociolinguistic competence is highly recommended to determine the local discourse of english. the drills such as politeness, euphemism, taboo language, genderbiased discourse, terms of address, and privacy can be implemented through explicit speaking practice in the efl classroom. efl teachers’ interest in giving sociolinguistic competence is also noticed in the way efl teachers warn of several pragmatic problems caused by lacking sociolinguistic competence. for example, one may unintentionally make mistakes during a conversation due to cultural and social constraints. on the contrary, the one who can speak appropriately and rightfully to the contexts will have many friends and partners to talk with. the findings of the research reinforce the positioning state of sociolinguistic competence as one of fundamental competence in language learning. two major studies are currently conducted in this area by rahman, singh, and pandian (2018) and maestre and gindidis (2016). rahman, singh, and pandian (2018) have found that beliefs about sociolinguistic competence stated by efl teachers cover the issue of oral and written proficiency. they also mention that activities such as getting involved in meaningful interaction and collaborative work in the classroom are grouped into the environmental incubator to exercise sociolinguistic competence (rahman, singh, & pandian, 2018). meanwhile, maestre and gindidis’ (2016) findings on philippines efl teachers’ belief about sociolinguistic competence complement this data as a congruent identification. they identify that the teaching of communicative approach is meant to put more emphasis on interaction among pupils in the classroom where the teacher facilitates, and students do most of the talking. based on these vignettes, it can be claimed that efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence are deductively formulated from the views of english as negotiated performance and english as an activity indicated by the coverage of perspectives such as spatial repertoires, resourceful speakers, and a translingual practice. hence, the teachers’ role as the agent transformation of english as a tool to expand identity is crucial, especially when problematizing the presence of english against norms of the diverse local languages in multicultural indonesia (lie, 2017). tanasale (2017) has delivered an excellent example of designing a translingual practice for english writing activities of which sensitivity to local culture is submerged with the awareness of literacy in creative writing. efl teachers’ beliefs about sociolinguistic competence denote several grounded beliefs with emerging trends on sociolinguistics as remarked by sociolinguistic scholars (canagarajah, 2018; pennycook, 2014; pennycook, 2008). conclusions the research concludes that efl teachers’ affordances in integrating sociolinguistic competence in their teaching plan documents are greatly influenced by their beliefs about sociolinguistic competence. these beliefs become a foundation for efl teachers to establish learning procedures, methods, and evaluations for elt pedagogical purposes. this finding confirms the claim that teachers’ beliefs towards ells (english language learners) can influence students’ achievement (kim, 2021). the research also proves that efl teachers’ efforts teaching sociolinguistic competence are motivated by the belief that sociolinguistic is important for learners. it shows that the internal-driven beliefs help teachers transform themselves to the contemporary efl pedagogy paradigm, from traditional grammarbased to competency-based orientation prepared for contextual communicative purposes. gorter and arocena (2020) prove from their research that the change can be made to transform teachers’ beliefs and professional development to embrace the insights towards sociolinguistics issues such as multilingualism and translanguaging. they recommend further that sociolinguistics issues (e.g., translanguaging) need to be introduced and gradually adapted for professional purposes. therefore, efl teachers should be well-informed and well-educated about the notion of sociolinguistic competence and its relation to successful english learning. the research confirms that having beliefs and knowledge can help teachers to tackle problems in the classroom. as reflected through teachers’ performance during the teaching period, it shows that efl teachers are able to contextualize the beliefs 197efl teacher’s beliefs about.... (edi ramawijaya putra) about sociolinguistic competence in the real teaching processes. although previous research by tootkaboni (2019) has argued that the link between beliefs and practices is less important than teachers’ abilities to adjust the situation, inconsistent pedagogical processes and misinterpretation of the learning objectives will always be a caveat caused by the mismatch. hopefully, the research’s results would imply that the authorities and educational stakeholders should consider giving efl teachers sufficient training to upgrade their knowledge and performance, especially on the specific themes about sociolinguistic competence. efl teachers have to be more professional, absorbing current trends and issues, which are relevant for teaching. renandya, hamied, and nurkamto (2018) have suggested that language teachers should engage themselves in professional development activities. teachers must allocate time attending seminars, sharing-session, conferences, and workshops to keep updated and consistent messages and innovations in efl pedagogy. the research has several limitations. first, it reflects the variable of the research from two selected teachers to gauge beliefs. therefore, the findings restrict themselves from the subjective views of the participants. second, the interpretation of the notion’ sociolinguistic competence’ might be so diverse based on the practices, experiences, theoretical underpinnings, and linguistic approaches. it probably gives a bias for the readers to conceptualize the term and understand it from the key construct of the research. acknowledgements i would like to extend my gratitude to the english teachers who were involved in this research. i also thank the students who take part and participate in their classroom, so that the efl teachers could implement their teaching appropriately. for the schools’ board of management and the english teachers’ forum i also express my deep respect for letting me collaborate with the english teachers. references anvarovna, z. s. 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(2016). sociolinguistics and english teaching in china. theory and practice in language studies, 6(4), 830-834. https://doi.org/10.17507/ tpls.0604.21. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 141 lingua cultura, 16(2), december 2022, 141-146 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i2.8192 rpg (role playing game) video games and loneliness: an analysis of finding paradise narrative listya ayu saraswati1*, irfan rifai2, and muhamad farhan3 1, 2, 3 english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, west jakarta 11480, indonesia 1,3listya.saraswati@binus.ac.id; 2irifai@binus.edu received: 21st february 2022/revised: 25th august 2022/accepted: 05th september 2022 how to cite: saraswati, l. a., rifai, i., & farhan, m. (2022). rpg (role playing game) video games and loneliness: an analysis of finding paradise narrative. lingua cultura, 16(2), 141-146. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i2.8192 abstract the research argued that ‘finding paradise’, the third installment of adventure rpg video games developed and published by freebird games, embodied excellent storytelling techniques for illustrating loneliness and those who experienced it in society. the ‘finding paradise’ narrative used immersive technology to let players experience the subject at hand with their own senses. video game design aimed for relevancy to contemporary society’s realities as well as compelling storytelling. close reading was used to break down ‘finding paradise’ narratives into smaller aspects to strengthen and articulate a more connected relationship with the text; as a result, the researchers could draw interpretations within the text. by incorporating herman’s fundamental narrative components into the ‘finding paradise’ narrative and examining how stories and narratives can be used as a teaching tool using the reader-response approach, it can be concluded that the subcomponents of the game’s narrative, specifically the representation of situatedness, event sequencing, worldmaking, and reality representation, provide a good example of developing a well-crafted and non-judgmental representation of loneliness as a mental illness and individuals who suffer from it that can also be used in efl/esl classroom. keywords: video games, loneliness, narrative, efl/esl introduction in today’s artificially intelligent world, loneliness is a growing issue that is frequently stigmatized, minimized, or ignored. loneliness and social isolation are global public health concerns that impact people of all ages, from children to the elderly (fakoya, mccorry, & donnelly, 2020). according to perlman and peplau (as cited by sundqvist & hemberg, 2021), loneliness is defined as an uncomfortable feeling that happens when people suffer a quantitative or qualitative deficit in their social relationships. despite the fact that older adults have been related to loneliness in the past, new studies have indicated that children and adolescents experience loneliness more frequently and with greater intensity (danneel et al., 2018; kowal et al., 2021; lyyra, välimaa, & tynjälä, 2018; sundqvist & hemberg, 2021; van roekel et al., 2018). by fostering good attitudes regarding loneliness, those close to the lonely person can assist and help them. a better understanding of loneliness as a form of mental illness can encourage a more optimistic outlook on addressing the issue and supporting those who endure it (von soest, luhmann, & gerstorf, 2020). to date, however, there have not been many studies on how to encourage positive attitudes toward loneliness among people to raise awareness. one strategy to investigate the issue of loneliness is to immerse it in storytelling and representation. despite its rarity, loneliness has been adequately represented in a variety of popular culture, from movies like the box office joker in 2019 to novels like the acclaimed journal of a solitude by may sarton in 1973 to video games. among many others, finding paradise, an adventure rpg (roleplaying) video game written and made by canadian independent game designer kan gao, published for pc by freebird games, and released to the public on in pr es s 142 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 141-146 december 14th, 2017, fits into the category of a wellcrafted representation of loneliness in the modern media. the video game was re-released amid the covid-19 pandemic quarantine in june 2021 for nintendo switch. it is the third installment of the series of games made by the same game development company as the first and second installments, to the moon and a bird story. finding paradise is more of a narrative or storydriven game; most of the gameplay relies on finding the main character colin reed’s memories through puzzle solving. the player can learn the truth of his wish by analyzing information, experiencing his feelings, and discovering ways to go deeper into his memory. aside from being more participatory than books or movies, video games are one of the best ways to portray a given condition or illness through the perspective of those who are affected by it. furthermore, research conducted in the united states during the covid-19 pandemic has discovered that commercial video games, under professional supervision, could be effective and stigma-free resources for the mitigation of mental health issues when traditional therapeutic treatments are unavailable (kowal et al., 2021). the finding paradise narrative can be used in esl (english as a second language/efl (english as a foreign language) lessons to encourage students to produce discourse about mental health awareness in the target language by incorporating a readerresponse approach. the finding paradise engaging and imaginative narrative allows learners to divert their attention from the more mechanical aspects of learning english (davis, 1992). learners’ imaginative engagement could then be used to design instructional activities that require them to produce a discourse that involves the expression of learners’ responses to the texts or narratives as they describe their imaginative engagement (hirvela, 1996). considering the significance of loneliness representation in popular culture to raise awareness, this research would like to argue that finding paradise is a fit to explore loneliness better than any other media; hence, it later may raise awareness of this mental illness. therefore, the researchers include close reading to examine the narrative of finding paradise rpg (role playing game) video games in portraying loneliness and representing those who suffer from it. the secondary goal is to question the prevalent idea of gaming as merely enjoyable in order to raise awareness of the mental illness. methods various media, such as literary fiction, comic books, movies, television shows, or even video games, use narrative and storytelling techniques to deliver messages to their audiences. according to herman (2009), the narrative is (1) a form of representation of situatedness or a certain discourse environment for telling about some experience (situatedness); (2) the narrative and its representation should focus on a structured time course of particularized events (events sequencing); (3) and the narrative should also be introduced into a story world, with specific settings, characters, plot, and conflicts (world-making/world disruption); and lastly (4) the narrative should convey what it is like to live through the story world-in-flux and at the end highlight the pressure of events onto real-life consciousness and emotions (what it is like). in this analysis, the researchers utilize herman’s four basic narrative structures. close reading is used to break down finding paradise narratives into smaller aspects in order to strengthen and articulate a more connected relationship with the text (cobley & siebers, 2021). close reading allows the researchers to add more nuance to the text or more analytic rigor in reading it. as a result, the researchers would be able to draw interpretations within the text. to incorporate the close reading approach into the analysis, the researchres do the following: (1) going through the finding paradise game’s narrative from beginning to end, including every option available to the player (play by choice mode); (2) going through and identifying textual and semiotic clues in the elements of narrative (plot, characters, setting, theme, point of view, style, and conflict) that convey the emotions and reality of loneliness; (3) analyzing those clues of the elements and dividing them into herman’s four main narrative structures (representation of situatedness, event sequencing, world-making, and reality representation), those parts are later subdivided into smaller subcomponents; (4) analyzing the subcomponents of the narrative and how the subcomponents of the narrative represent loneliness; and finally (5) concluding the narratives of finding paradise that have every subcomponent that positively and perfectly represents loneliness, symptoms of loneliness, and people who suffer from loneliness, and that they could be used as learning material to raise awareness of the mental illness. results and discussions video games, perfecting multimodality with a high level of immersion and agency, are more appealing media (kowal et al., 2021; michailidis, balaguer-ballester, & he, 2018). during immersion, one’s consciousness is temporarily expanded into parts of the unconscious, similar to hypnosis, but with the ability to remain conscious, as in lucid dreaming states. game immersion is highly personal, but there are some indicators from the game itself that might help make the game experience more immersive. the game flow, realistic graphics, and story or narrative are some of the most important indications (writz, 2021). video game immersion enables the modification of the sensory, cognitive, and emotional products of an immersive gaming experience (michailidis, balaguerballester, & he, 2018). thus, experiencing video in pr es s 143rpg (role playing game) video games .... (listya ayu saraswati, et al.) games is more than just enjoying the flow of the game, such as task attention, goal achievement, and reward; it is also a psychological experience. figure 1 shows the finding paradise graphics. figure 1 finding paradise graphics (source: gao, 2017) rpg video games finding paradise features the same two main protagonists as its two predecessors, dr. neil watts and dr. eva rosalene from sigmund corp. however, the storyline and narrative are different, including their patient on his deathbed, colin reed. the story revolves around colin exploring his memories to identify significant objects and collect energy from them in order to strengthen the memory and connect to a more distant one from his childhood to the present day (valentine, 2017). during the thrilling scientific exploration, eva and neil discover that colin, despite having a relatively happy and fulfilling adult life with his wife and a son, has suffered from loneliness during his childhood as a result of abandonment and peer rejection which later he invents comfort in the shape of an imaginary companion named faye. on his deathbed, the distant memory of faye and his childhood causes him remorse and depression. his wish to reunite with faye helps him deal with loneliness and discontent. finding paradise, despite being constructed with 16-bit japanese-style graphics that feel rather old-fashioned in comparison to other high-definition graphics adventure games, creates an immersive gaming experience with choose-your-own-adventure narratives and point-and-click game mechanics in every plot point of the story that allows the player to choose and explore steps for neil and eva into colin’s deepest and most hidden memory. furthermore, some other essential components of the game, namely the written or spoken narration, dialogues between characters that are occasionally enigmatic, well-crafted 2d graphics and coloring, and melancholic background music, contribute to the immersion experience and convey the message of the game about loneliness and living with loneliness. the researchers use herman’s (2009) basic narrative elements to discuss the subcomponents in finding paradise narratives. each subcomponent of the narrative is treated under a separate category. the first subcomponent is the representation of situatedness. stories are the outcome of complicated transactions between the creators of the texts, discourses, or other semiotic artifacts, the texts themselves, and the consumers and interpreters of the stories. all of whom are influenced by their own cultural, institutional, genre, and text-specific protocols (herman, 2009). thus, stories are a narrative representation that includes (a) the textual or semiotic cues used in the medium and (b) the characters, settings, and plots of the story world that those cues represent. on the other hand, stories are also communicatively situated representations for the consumers and interpreters who interpret such cues to attend to certain communicative contexts and aims. finding paradise sets its narrative around the main characters: a mysterious and sad character, colin, and two cheerful and dynamic doctors, eva and neil, and other supporting characters. the way finding paradise contrasts colin, eva, and neil’s characterizations provides hints for how the graphic’s colors and background music alter between the characters. the game maker employs gloomy, frigid, and isolated graphic coloring in the early plot points when the bedridden colin invites and wishes the two doctors from sigmund corp to alter his life memories to become happier ones. many interactions occur during this early part of the game between the doctors and colin’s family, who refuse colin’s wishes to the doctors to fabricate memories with his family, which are eventually discovered to be pleasant ones. through these representation cues, the players are invited to grasp the issue and, sadly, the reality of loneliness and isolation from the perspectives of others, often close family or peers although whose intentions are well, to take agency in explaining the feeling of loneliness, resulting in a more isolated situation for the sufferers (sundqvist & hemberg, 2021). the second subcomponent in the analysis is event sequencing. whereas the focus on specific situations and events is the characteristic of narrative representations, the nature of how the world is going is also a concern in crafting the narrative. furthermore, as particularity distinguishes a story from generic explanations, a narrative’s temporal profile distinguishes stories from many examples of description (herman, 2009). the plot of finding paradise shifts back and forth between colin’s childhood and adolescence and his present. although the player can easily identify the issues of temporality and particularity of events in the past and present using representation cues such as lighter and warmer color grading for the past and more frigid for the present, the back-and-forth event sequencing reminds about how loneliness, particularly loneliness experienced as a child, has no temporal consequences (danneel et al., 2018). loneliness can be restored in one’s older years. figure 2 shows colin’s childhood memory. next, it examines the worldmaking or world disruption subcomponent of finding paradise. regardless of whether the representation cues and temporal sequences develop within a more or less fully in pr es s 144 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 141-146 story world, stories in a game require disruptive events or conflicts to build tensions and produce an immersion experience of the subject (herman, 2009). disruptive events as the narrative’s driving force define a new criterion for determining when an event sequence qualifies as a story. making sense of how narratives reflect disruption in story worlds requires making assumptions about the kinds of agency characters have in those worlds, as role-bearing or position-occupying individuals who occasionally act at odds with their own or other such individuals’ interests and ambitions (herman, 2009). figure 2 colin’s childhood memory (source: gao, 2017) conflicts in finding paradise occur when neil and eva learn the truth about colin’s past and faye, his imaginary companion. faye appears in colin’s memories and frequently plays the role of colin’s opposing intellect, telling him to do what he is frightened to do. faye is a portrayal of a happy young colin. when they last met, colin was going to register as a pilot, and faye made a promise to meet with him in his later years, which, if fulfilled, signifies colin has led a happy life. when colin becomes ill and bedridden, he is terrified by faye’s promise and begins to believe that he will never live a happy life. as a result, he requests that sigmund corp alter his memories, which are entirely false. colin does have a good family life with his wife and son. later, it is learned that colin’s melancholy and loneliness cause him to be deluded, longing for his time with faye to return. with the help of neil and eva, faye is reintroduced into colin’s memories, which brings an end to the conflict. colin’s memory of sigmund corp is erased by faye after the physicians leave. by not asking for help from them, colin’s life will remain as it is, free of any bitterness. as a child, colin used to gaze across the balcony and see faye. she asks colin whether he has any regrets, and colin admits he is happy with what his family and life have given him. faye, in the end, says goodbyes, and colin thanks her for always being his friend. in reality, colin gives his wife one last kiss before his last breath. after he dies, sigmund corp gives colin’s green book to his wife and reveals his writings to her. the reality of loneliness is rather complex. the conflicts in finding paradise describe situations and occurrences that depart from the realities and complexities within the case of loneliness. more than that, the narrative is a cognitive and communicative strategy for negotiating the gap between what was expected and what actually occurs in everyday life (herman, 2009). non-sufferers and ordinary people understand how thinking in the reality of loneliness that agency is never substituted, and aids supplied to help the individual recover do not overrule them (yanguas, pinazo-henandis, & tarazona-santabalbina, 2018). conflicts in the narrative also assist the game player in attributing motives or aims to others, evaluating the foundations of their own behavior, and making predictions about future reactions to situations. in this context, the narrative provides a kind of discourse framework for developing reasons for why individuals do what they do or fail to do what they are expected to do. the last subcomponent is ‘what it is like’ or how reality is represented in the narrative. the narrative is rooted in the lived, felt experience of human or human-like beings engaging with their surrounding environment on an ongoing basis (herman, 2009). on the other hand, the less a text or conversation encodes the pressure of events on an experienced human consciousness, the less susceptible text or discourse is to narrative interpretation. many reviewers on fan sites praise finding paradise for exploring the themes of regrets, loneliness, and moving on, such as a review by rebekah valentine in 2017 on fansided website, in which she fondly describes the characters as being ‘beautifully flawed and believably human’ (valentine, 2017). many other reviewers agree, as positive reviews flood metacritic’s page on the game. kan gao’s writing style has always been distinctive and unique, which is apparent in finding paradise. the distinctive writing is complemented by the game’s unique visual cues and immersive approach. the writing of the finding paradise narrative is also acclaimed for depicting an authentic outcome from one of the syndromes of loneliness in childhood that occurs when a child experiences negative friendship, that is, the creation of an imagined friend (schwartzmette, shankman, & dueweke, 2020). in their design, video games have come to depend not only on graphical complexity but also on the elements of fiction. nowadays, video games represent a relatively new territory in studying the nature and impact of narrative (batchelor et al., 2021; ostenson, 2013). ostenson (2013) has suggested that video games have a place in the english classroom. he has argued that video games, especially adventure video games, can help students learn problem-solving skills and teach them about social issues through the game’s narratives. as a medium of learning, video game narratives are participatory for understanding a specific subject or real-life problem from the first or third-person point of view (batchelor et al., 2021; in pr es s 145rpg (role playing game) video games .... (listya ayu saraswati, et al.) ostenson, 2013). students act as players, making decisions that drive the game’s plot. they can reach a meaningful conclusion about the game and experience the story from different perspectives at the end of the game. the researchers propose adapting the readerresponse method to implement video game narratives as a medium of learning. reader-response theory that emerges in the field of literary criticism challenges the supremacy of authorial intention in a text and assigns readers to text interpretation (hirvela, 1996). rosenblatt in hirvela (1996) has concluded that as active participants, readers create meaning while reading a text, resulting in an approximately equivalent role for the reader and the text. reader-response theory, as an instructional tool, has had a significant impact on both the teaching of literature and the teaching of composition within the l1 (first language) context (hirvela, 1996). louise rosenblatt later has contributed to the transactional theory of literature, which states that the text itself, particularly the literary text, is incomplete and requires the reader’s experience to be understood (davis, 1992). literature texts are an ‘evoked work’, meaning that they emerge from the reader’s experience of the original text as well as the meaning embedded within the text (hirvela, 1996). with its emphasis on viewing a real-life story from narrative reading, the reader-response approach as an instructional tool is better equipped to build upon a mental health discourse and loneliness in esl/ efl classes. because this approach is concerned with the student’s overall experience of the readertext transaction, as in the finding paradise video game is the experience of understanding the narrative of loneliness and playing the immersive game, any discourse produced is viewed as a basis for achieving toward additional, connected discourse, in this case, mental health awareness. discourse is thus produced and seen in the context of the full story of reading, and it serves as a starting point for further and related discourse production (hirvela, 1996). conclusions this research addresses the subject of loneliness and how little awareness there is in society. it aims to remedy the situation by employing the immersion experience from the rpg video game finding paradise. to summarize, finding paradise employs the basic elements of narrative to construct its gaming narrative around the theme of loneliness. in finding paradise, textual and semiotic cues, as well as characterization and settings, convey the emotions and reality of loneliness and represent those suffering from it. the back-and-forth flow of events between the past and present explains the realistic temporal narrative of loneliness, which is also supported by visual and semiotic cues. the worldmaking techniques also help the narrative to be credible and may assist the game player in attributing motives or goals to others, analyzing the foundations of their own conduct, and making predictions about future reactions to loneliness situations. finally, the game’s human-like atmosphere, characters, and story encode the game as believable. as a result, it is critical to initiate and continue the conversation of how new immersive media, such as video games, might depict and convey the human psyche in a more interesting way for people to absorb. due to the limited sample size employed and time allocated for this research, there may be discrepancies and/or differing viewpoints on the subject that are not accounted for. future studies could look at the issue from a different angle, such as psychology, and with more data. perhaps the perspectives used can provide a far larger perception of the media reviewed in the research and the subject matter under examination. references batchelor, k., bissinger, n., corcoran, c., & dorsey, m. 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(2017, december). finding paradise. canada: freebird games. herman, d. (2009). basic elements of narrative. new jersey: wiley-blackwell. hirvela, a. (1996). reader-response theory and elt. elt journal, 50(2), 127-134. https://doi.org/10.1093/ elt/50.2.127. kowal, m., conroy, e., ramsbottom, n., & smithies, t. (2021). gaming your mental health: a narrative review on mitigating symptoms of depression and anxiety using commercial video games. jmir serious games 2021, 9(2), e26575. https://doi. org/10.2196/26575. lyyra, n., välimaa, r., & tynjälä, j. (2018). loneliness and subjective health complaints among school-aged children. scandinavian journal of public health, 46(20), 87-93. https://doi. org/10.1177/1403494817743901. in pr es s 146 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 141-146 michailidis, l., balaguer-ballester, e., & he, x. 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(2017). finding paradise review: who lives, who dies, who tells the story. retrieved july 30, 2021 from https://apptrigger.com/2017/12/14/findingparadise-review/. van roekel, e., verhagen, m., engels, r. c. m. e., scholte, r. h. j., cacioppo, s., & cacioppo, j. t. (2018). trait and state levels of loneliness in early and late adolescents: examining the differential reactivity hypothesis. journal of clinical child & adolescent psychology, 47(6), 888-899. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15374416.2016.1146993. von soest, t., luhmann, m., & gerstorf, d (2020). the development of loneliness through adolescence and young adulthood: its nature, correlates, and midlife outcomes. developmental psychology, 56(10), 19191934. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001102. writz, b. (2021). the power of experience: the wonders of video game immersion. retrieved from h t t p s : / / w w w. g a m e d e s i g n i n g . o rg / l e a r n / g a m e immersion/#:~:text=immersion-,what%20is%20 'immersion'%20in%20psychology%3f,goes%20 into%20a%20different%20state. yanguas, j., pinazo-henandis, s., & tarazona-santabalbina, f. j. (2018). the complexity of loneliness. acta bio medica atenei parmensis, 89(2), 302-314. https:// doi.org/10.23750/abm.v89i2.7404. p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 129 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 129-142 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6493 the effect of google classroom assisted extensive listening on listening comprehension accross learning autonomy melyann melani* english education study program, faculty of teachers training, state islamic institute of bukittinggi jl. paninjauan garegeh, bukittingi, sumatera barat, indonesia melyannmelani@gmail.com received: 15th june 2020/revised: 30th june 2020/accepted: 07th july 2020 how to cite: melani, m. (2020). the effect of google classroom assisted extensive listening on listening comprehension accross learning autonomy. lingua cultura, 14(1), 129-142. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6493 abstract the research aimed at identifying the effect of google classroom assisted extensive listening (el) on english as a foreign language (efl) students’ listening comprehension across learning autonomy (i.e., high learning autonomy, and low learning autonomy). the research involved 78 students from two classes, which were divided into the experiment and control group. the experiment class was treated by practicing el with the support of google classroom, on the other hand, the control group was treated by practicing el by using the traditional platform (written listening journal). the students in each group were further grouped based on their autonomy level (high and low). the result of the research reveals that the mean score of the experiment group is much higher than the control class. it means that students who practiced el with the support of google classroom have better listening comprehension as compared to the students who practiced el by using the traditional platform. however, the research indicates no interaction from each learning autonomy level with the listening comprehension of both groups. keywords: google classroom assisted extensive listening, listening comprehension, learning autonomy introduction there has been a growing interest in research that is investigating the practice of extensive listening (el). several studies have already indicated that el improves language proficiency in general (renandya, & widodo, 2016; chang & millett, 2016; chang, millett, & renandya, 2019; pamuji, waring, & kurniawan, 2019; sofiana, 2015). el is also beneficial in enhancing listening fluency, as well as listening comprehension (renandya, hamied, & nurkamto, 2018). these studies mentioned examine the practice of el in the l2 context. there are only limited studies investigating the practice of el in the efl (english as a foreign language) context, especially those that use technology-supported learning platforms (google classroom) as a media. el is considered the sister of extensive reading (er); therefore, the aim, benefit, and principles of the er can also be applied to el (renandya & jacobs, 2016). some principles of el, such as, students select listening material that they want, listening is for *corresponding author pleasure, listening should be done autonomously, and the presence of teachers is to make sure that the students are on the right track when doing el, is closely related to autonomy in learning. however, most studies of er examine the practice of el without much regard for students with different learning autonomy (high and low learning autonomy). therefore, the research focuses on identifying el’s effect with the support of google classroom on listening comprehension of students with different learning autonomy levels. listening has been considered by most english learners, especially those with lower-level proficiency, as the most difficult skill to master (chen, 2019). most of the students majoring in english at the faculty of teacher training of state islamic institute of bukittinggi are also having difficulties in listening. difficulties in listening are related to the fast speech rate, failure in recognizing, and difficulties in segmenting words in connected speech. as a result, students are unable to comprehend the listening materials. the number of unfamiliar vocabularies, pronunciation, and sentence complexity has also been identified as what makes it 130 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 difficult. in the efl setting, the limited amount of time students spent on listening practice inside the classroom is considered not sufficient for providing exposure to students to be able to have excellent listening comprehension skills. just like reading skills, the best learned for listening skill is through frequent listening. the more students are exposed to a large number of spoken texts, the better their listening comprehension skill is (ivone & renandya, 2019). el, which means language learning approach, encourages language learners to be exposed to a large amount of comprehensible input over an extended period of time. it seems to be suitable to help efl students majoring in english. there are several advantages of el (chang & millett, 2016; chang, millett, & renandya, 2019; pamuji, waring, & kurniawan, 2019; sofiana, 2015). first, el is motivating. when practicing el, students have the opportunity to choose the spoken text within their proficiency level, and the topic of spoken text that they like. when students already feel that the spoken text is understandable and interesting, they will likely have an enjoyable listening experience. it is also possible for the students to be more focused on understanding and interacting with the spoken text. thus, students are going to be more involved and motivated. second, el helps students enhance listening fluency and automaticity in recognizing spoken texts. the possibility for students to practice listening to the spoken text within their proficiency level for a significant amount of time builds their confidence and helps them to be more familiar with the normal speech rate. it also will be easier for them to recognize spoken words, and to chunk for better comprehension. third, el enhances students’ listening comprehension. finally, el fosters autonomy. the practice of el provokes students to be more responsible in learning for choosing listening materials based on their personal needs, monitor, and evaluate their listening activities. el is defined as listening for pleasure. it is an activity of listening for a large number of spoken texts, and the focus of the activity is getting information, or general understanding described that el involves a wide range of listening activities which include listening to songs, radio, online stories, youtube, tv series, movies, tv news, documentary films, and so forth. several websites offer listening materials that are useful for el (ivone & renandya, 2019). one of el’s most important characteristics is the material for it should be within the students’ level of proficiency; therefore, materials must be selected appropriately. when principles of er are considered applicable for el, some consideration should be taken into account in the implementation of el (renandya & jacobs, 2016; renandya, hu, & xiang, 2015; jacobs & renandya, 2015). they are (1) the listening materials are easy for the students; (2) the listening materials and the topics should be varied; (3) the students are free to choose listening material that they like; (4) the students need to listen to a large number of spoken texts; (5) listening activity should be done for pleasure, and the aim is for obtaining information and general understanding; (6) listening activity is a personal process; (7) listening fluency is achieved by staying within the students’ linguistics ability; (8) students do the listening activity autonomously, and it is done based on the students’ preferences; (9) teachers are only responsible for making sure that the students are on the right track in doing el; (10) teachers should set an example for their students. one of the most commonly used assessment methods in el is listening log/diary/journal. students are basically recording their el activities as well as their reflections on their listening experience in the listening log. listening log consists of information about the students, the spoken text (title, duration or length, and sources), and post-listening activities like summary, opinion, or other kinds of reflection on the text (schmidt, 2016). using a listening log in el helps students plan, monitor, and evaluate el activity, which can also promote their listening autonomy (la) (chen, 2019). using google classroom is suitable with the merits of the 21st-century education where the concept of learning shifts from listening to teachers passively to actively applying and pursuing knowledge by integrating technological tools as teachers are now dealing with technology-literate students (richards, 2015). using technology in the classroom has been proven to be more effective as compared to traditional classroom teaching (hussin, 2018; smadi, mohammad, & rahman, 2020; vendityaningtyas & styati, 2018; tyas et al., 2020; chun, kern, & smith, 2016). to help the student be more engaged, motivated, and supported, the teacher can use google classroom as a learning platform. google classroom is a free web service that aims to simplify creating, distributing, and grading assignments in a paperless way. google classroom is equipped with google drive for creating and distributing the assignment; gmail for communication; google docs, sheet, and slide for writing; and google calendar for scheduling. mobile application for ios and android devices is also available, and it makes it easier for both students and teachers to carry out el activity since they have access through their mobile phones. to join a class, students can be invited through a private code. each class automatically creates a folder in the respective user’s drive where students can submit assignments in a paperless way. both students and teachers can attach files in the form of audio, video, and other files in a different format. it is also possible for the teacher to monitor each student’s progress, give grades, and private comments. google classroom provides support for both teachers and students in the implementation of el for several reasons. first, the ‘classwork’ feature in google classroom enables teachers to post weekly assignments by stating clear instructions of el activities. the teacher can share the file in a different format as well as a website or links where students 131the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) can access the listening materials. this feature also allows the teacher to monitor students’ work. once the assignment is posted, the students can directly submit their listening log through their own accounts in a paperless way. second, the ‘grading’ feature in this application permits the teacher to give grades or comment on students’ work. it is also possible for students to revise their work accordingly to the teachers’ feedback. giving grades (not encouraged in el) and private comments can be very useful for students since they are aware that their activities are being monitored. students feel motivated and encouraged when the teacher gives private comments on their work since it is a whole new learning experience for them. finally, the ‘stream’ feature in google classroom enables teachers to communicate online with all the students regarding their work or other topics. it functions as a media for teacher-students and students-students interaction on el activity, which is not possible when listening logs are done in written form. the teacher can post the announcement or other topic of discussion to the class, and it can be commented on by the students. this feature is very useful in el since the teacher can choose ‘listening log of the week’ as one of the week’s best logs, and the students can comment on the teacher’s choice. it is a piece of useful information for the students since it provides them with the knowledge on how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their next logs. thus, google classroom does not only provide support for students and teachers in el but also helps students to be more engaged and motivated. one of el’s characteristics is the students do the listening activity autonomously; meanwhile, not all of them are autonomous learners. some are autonomous, and some others are not. a questioner is used in the research on how to measure students’ autonomy and classify them into students with high and low autonomy. there has not been a lot of research investigating the effect of el on students with different autonomy levels. learning autonomy can be described as the ability to take charge of one’s own learning (everhard, & murphy, 2015; balçikanli, 2010). a well-known definition of autonomy is the ability to take charge of one’s own learning. later this concept is further elaborated, and autonomy is widely considered as something that cannot be described as a single behavior. thus it has a multidimensional construct (everhard & murphy, 2015). later it is described that autonomy consists of four main dimensions; technical, psychological, political-philosophical, and sociocultural autonomy. then it develops an instrument measuring autonomy called milla (measuring instrument for language learner autonomy). milla is used in the research to measure students’ autonomy and classify them into students with high and low autonomy. based on these explanations, the research aims at answering the three following questions; (1) do students who practiced el by using a technologysupported learning platform (google classroom) get better listening comprehension than those who practiced el by using traditionally supported learning platform (written listening journal)? (2) are there any differences in the listening comprehension of students with high autonomy and low autonomy? (3) are there any interactions in the listening comprehension and autonomy level of students practicing el by using a technology-supported learning platform (google classroom and by using traditionally supported learning platform (written listening journal)? methods the research employs a factorial design. a factorial design is a form of a true experiment where the researcher controls independent variables and allowed them to vary in forms of multiple factors. it allows the researcher to examine the effects of two or more individual independent variables simultaneously, as it also enables the researcher to investigate the interaction among variables (gay & mills, 2016). this design is intentionally chosen since it is possible to uncover not only which group (el with google classroom versus el with traditional platforms; written journal), and (high listening autonomy versus low listening autonomy) has better listening comprehension but also to identify the interaction between el and la. interaction between variables indicates that each method (el with google classroom and el with traditional platforms; written listening journal) is differentially effective depending upon students’ la level (high and low). table 1 describes the factorial design employed in the research. table 1 factorial design el (google classroom) el (traditional platform) la high group 1 group 2 low group 3 group 4 the research involves 78 english department students, faculty of teachers training, state islamic institute of bukittinggi. they are the second-semester students taking listening for general communication course. to determine which students belong to each group (high or low learning autonomy), the researcher uses milla results that can be seen in table 2. table 2 results of milla number of students in experiment group number of students in control group high la 9 8 low la 9 8 132 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 conducting el in the research is considered as part of the listening course. students practice el conducted with a technology-supported learning platform (google classroom) and traditionally supported learning platform for ten weeks. each week, they are asked to conduct el on four different topics of listening materials. el activities for each group are shown in table 3. table 3 el activities for the each groups no el (google classroom) el (traditional platform) 1 students listen to four different topics of listening material in a week for ten weeks students listen to four different topics of listening material in a week for ten week 2 students report their el activities by using google classroom students report their el activities by using listening logs (written form) a. teacher posts weekly el assignment in google classroom a. students’ submit their listening log (topic, comment, duration) in the form of a written report b. students submit their listening log (topic, comment, duration) and listening materials’ file via google classroom b. teacher gives feedback on students work the following week in written form c. teacher checks students’ el activity and gives feedback. students are allowed to revise their work based on teachers comment c. teacher chooses listening log of the week and post d. teacher chooses listening log of the week and post in google classroom e. other students are allowed to comment on the teacher’s choice of listening log of the week results and discussions two-way anova is employed to answer the three research questions. normality and homogeneity test are carried out prior to the analysis, and the results are shown in table 4. it indicates that the significance level is 0,327, which is higher than 0,05. it means that the data is normally distributed. table 4 result of normality test kolmogorovsmirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. standardized residual for listening achievement 0,165 34 0,020 0,965 34 0,327 a. lilliefors significance correction table 5 result of homogenity test levene’s test of equality of error variancesa dependent variable: listening_achievement f df1 df2 sig. 2,350 3 30 0,092 tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. a. design: intercept + extensive_listening + learning_ autonomy + extensive_listening * learning_autonomy table 5 describes that the significance level is 0,092, which is higher than 0,05. it means that the data is homogenous. after the normality and homogeneity test are carried out, two-way anova is conducted, and the result is described in table 6. the result of two-way anova in table 6 indicates three points. first, students who conducted el by using google classroom have better listening comprehension that those who conduct el by using the traditional platform. it can be seen from the result of two-way anova, where the significance level of the independent variable (extensive reading) is 0,000, which is smaller than 0,005. it is further elaborated in table 7. table 7 describes that the mean score of listening comprehension of el google classroom is 77,2. it is higher than the mean score of listening comprehension of el with a traditional platform, which is 65,6. thus, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in listening comprehension of students who conduct el with google classroom, as compared to those who conduct el with a traditional platform. using google classroom for el compared to traditional platforms is advantageous both for teachers and students for several reasons. for teachers, it can be very efficient. teachers can post weekly assignments by giving clear instructions on what students should do as well as share files, videos, or websites that are necessary. teachers can also monitor the students’ work easily. google classroom provides information on who has or has not submitted the assignment. assessing students’ work can also be done more simply since google classroom also provides teachers 133the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) access to grades or comments. teachers can do all those things simply by logging into their google classroom account. it is also more comfortable for the teacher to conduct el since it can be done using a cellular phone. it does not take time and can be done wherever the teacher is, and whenever teachers have time. in this case, technology assists teachers in such a way that it functions as an efficient complementary tool that provides ease in presenting, managing lessons, and monitoring students’ progress. moreover, it also creates a unique experience for both teachers and students. as for students, the use of google classroom that can be accessed by using their mobile phone is also considered fun and appealing. it is appealing because technology, mobile phones, and the internet is part of their everyday life. the college students who belong to the age category that use the internet the most, consider using technology more interesting for learning. it is also easy for the students to submit their el activities and to attach the file that they use for el activity by using this tool. students are notified on their google classroom account about new assignments, the deadline for the assignment, and the teacher’s comment. google classroom provides storage for users; thus, all students’ el activity will automatically be saved in their account in a paperless way. they can easily retrieve their work anytime they need it. when students consider that it is fun and easy for them to conduct el by using google classroom, it makes them becomes more motivated. as compared to a traditional platform, google classroom also seems to improve students’ engagements in conducting el. online communication provided by google classroom enables students and teachers to discuss their el activities in a more alluring way. it improves students-teacher interaction since students can directly get responses related to their work. the students can communicate with their teachers through private comments and then revise their work based on the teachers’ feedback. google classroom also improves students-students interaction since it is equipped with a feature that enables students to communicate online to discuss their assignments or other topics. thus, using technology makes students more motivated and engaged (vai & sosulski, 2020; hussin, 2018; smadi, mohammad, & rahman, 2020). the second point that can be concluded from the result of anova is that there is no significant difference in the listening comprehension of students with high la and low la. it is shown in table 6 that the significance level of the independent variable (learning autonomy) is 0,317, which is more significant than 0,05. it is further described in table 8. table 6 result of two-way anova tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: listening_comprehension source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 1345,507a 3 448,502 7,481 0,001 intercept 172845,139 1 172845,139 2882,977 0,000 extensive_listening 1139,257 1 1139,257 19,002 0,000 learning_autonomy 62,132 1 62,132 1,036 0,317 extensive_listening * learning_autonomy 132,721 1 132,721 2,214 0,147 error 1798,611 30 59,954 total 178250,000 34 corrected total 3144,118 33 a. r squared = 0,428 (adjusted r squared = 0,371) table 7 mean score in both group (el) extensive_listening dependent variable: listening_comprehension extensive_listening mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound el goggle classroom 77,222 1,825 73,495 80,949 el traditional 65,625 1,936 61,672 69,578 134 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 table 8 mean score in both group (la) learning_autonomy dependent variable: listening_comprehension learning_ autonomy mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound high la 72,778 1,881 68,936 76,620 low la 70,069 1,881 66,228 73,911 table 7 describes that the mean score of the listening comprehension of high la students is 72,77. it is only slightly higher than the mean score of the listening achievement of low la students, which is 70,06. thus, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference in the listening comprehension of high la students as compared to low la students. the finding indicates a slight difference in the listening comprehension of students with high and low la, but unfortunately, it is not significant. it is probably related to the fact that la is not the most important factor that influences listening comprehension. it is also probably related to the context of the research, where el is implemented in both class (experiment and control), and for both groups (high and low la). when el is implemented, it means students are doing the listening activity on their own. they are given the responsibility to do el outside of the class as much as possible. they are free to choose whatever listening materials they like. by doing these for a period of time, students’ listening comprehension improves regardless of their la level. finally, the last important point that can be indicated from the result of anova is that there is no interaction between el and la since the result of two-way anova shows that the significance level of the interaction is 0,147. it is bigger than 0,05. no interaction means that el with google classroom and el with the traditional platform is not differently effective depending upon the students’ la level. it can also be said that none of the el types is particularly effective in improving listening comprehension of students at each level of la. when el is practiced, there is a greater possibility that listening comprehension of those who practice it (high or low la) improves. conclusions there are several points that can be concluded in the research. first is the students have better listening comprehension when el is applied by using google classroom compared to when el is practiced by using the traditional platform. google classroom practically makes el easier to conduct by both students and teachers, and it is more motivating and engaging for the students. second, there is no significant difference in listening comprehension of high la students compared to low la students, which are related to the factors affecting listening comprehension and the nature of the research. finally, el with google classroom and el with the traditional platform is not differently effective depending upon the la level of the students, which is probably caused by the nature of el. the result of the research indicates that to help the students be more enthusiastic in conducting el and help teachers who have no idea how to implement el, it is possible to use technology, in this case, google classroom. however, the research is only limited to investigating the practice of el to second-semester students who are sophomore. it would be challenging also to investigate how senior students respond to el since they share different characteristics in terms of motivation, learning autonomy, and others. references balçikanli, c. (2010). learner autonomy in language learning: student teachers’ beliefs. australian journal of teacher education, 35(1), 90-103. https:// doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2010v35n1.8. chang, a. c. s., & millett, s. (2016). developing l2 listening fluency through extended listening-focused activities in an extensive listening programme. relc journal, 47(3), 349-362. https://doi. org/10.1177/0033688216631175. chang, a., millett, s., & renandya, w. a. (2019). developing listening fluency through supported extensive listening practice. relc journal, 50(3), 422-438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217751468. chen, c. w. (2019). guided listening with listening journals and curated materials: a metacognitive approach. innovation in language learning and teaching, 13(2), 133-146. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2 017.1381104. chun, d., kern, r., & smith, b. (2016). technology in language use, language teaching, and language learning. modern language journal, 100(s1), 6480. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12302. everhard, c. j., & murphy, l (eds). (2015). assessment and autonomy in language learning. london: palgrave macmillan. gay, l. r., mills, g. e. (2016). educational research: competencies for analysis and applications (11th ed.). london: pearson. hussin, a. a. (2018). education 4.0 made simple: ideas for teaching. international journal of education and literacy studies, 6(3), 92-98. http://dx.doi. org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.3p.92. ivone, f. m., & renandya, w. a. (2019). extensive listening and viewing in elt. teflin journal, 30(2), 237-256. https://doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v30i2/237256. jacobs, g. m., & renandya, w. a. (2015). making extensive reading even more student centered. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 4(2), 102-112. https:// doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v4i2.691. 135the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) pamuji, k. d., waring, r., & kurniawan, e. (2019). efl teachers’ experiences in developing l2 proficiency through extensive listening. teflin journal, 30(2), 257-273. https://doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal. v30i2/257-273. renandya, w. a., hu, g., & xiang, y. u. (2015). extensive reading coursebooks in china. relc journal, 46(3), 255-273. https://doi. org/10.1177/0033688215609216. renandya, w. a., & jacobs, g. m. (2016). extensive reading and listening in the l2 classroom. english language teaching today, 5, 97-110. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-38834-2_8. renandya, w. a., & widodo, h. p. (2016). english language teaching today. swiss: springer. renandya, w. a., hamied, f. a., & nurkamto, j. (2018). english language proficiency in indonesia: issues and prospects. journal of asia tefl, 15(3), 618-629. https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.3.4.618. richards, j. c. (2015). the changing face of language learning: learning beyond the classroom. relc journal, 46(1), 5-22. https://doi. org/10.1177/0033688214561621. schmidt, a. (2016). listening journals for extensive and intensive listening practice. english teaching forum, 54(2),2-11. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845 696313.1.222. smadi, m. a. l. m., mohammad, a. h., & rahman, f. a. (2020). barriers in instructional technology integration in teachers in social studies at jordan elementary school. pedagogia: jurnal pendidikan, 9(1), 35-44. https://doi.org/10.21070/pedagogia. v9i1.124. sofiana, n. (2015). implementasi blended learning pada mata kuliah extensive listening. jurnal tarbawi, 12(1), 59-69. https://doi.org/10.34001/tarbawi. v12i1.303. tyas, a. s. p., muam, a., sari, y. i. h., dewantara, c. (2020). the effectiveness of blended learning in improving students’ workplace communication. lingua cultura, 14(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6130. vai, m., & sosulski, k. (2020). essential of online course design. abingdon: taylor & francis. vendityaningtyas, v., & styati, e. w. (2018). effect of computer mediated communication and face-to-face communication on the students’ writing. lingua cultura, 12(3), 233-239. https://doi.org/10.21512/ lc.v12i3.4235. 136 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 1. i set long-term goals in learning english. 1. saya menentukan tujuan jangka panjang dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 2. i make long-term plans for studying english. 2. saya membuat rencana jangka panjang untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 3. i set goals for the day before i start studying english. 3. saya menentukan tujuan sehari sebelum saya mulai belajar bahasa inggris. 4. i make study plans for the day before i start studying english. 4. saya membuat rencana belajar sehari sebelum saya mulai belajar bahasa inggris. 5. i set achievable goals in learning english. 5. saya menentukan tujuan yang dapat dicapai dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 6. i make study plans that match my goals in learning english. 6. saya membuat rencana belajar yang sesuai dengan tujuan saya dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 7. i make realistic plans for studying english. 7. saya membuat rencana realistis untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 8. i revise my english study plans if they don’t work well. 8. saya merevisi rencana belajar bahasa inggris saya jika tidak berjalan dengan baik. 9. if i have a limited amount of time available for study, i decide in what order the things need to be done. 9. jika saya memiliki waktu terbatas untuk belajar, saya memutuskan secara berurutan apa saja hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan. 10. i reflect upon how i studied after i finish studying english for the day. 10. saya merenungkan bagaimana saya belajar setelah saya selesai belajar bahasa inggris untuk hari itu. 11. i try to create opportunities to use english outside the classroom. 11. saya mencoba menciptakan peluang untuk menggunakan bahasa inggris di luar kelas. 12. i try to create the conditions under which i can study english best. 12. saya mencoba menciptakan kondisi di mana saya bisa belajar bahasa inggris dengan baik. 13. i arrange my schedule so that i will have enough time to study english. 13. saya mengatur jadwal saya sehingga saya akan memiliki cukup waktu untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 14. i reflect upon what i learned after i finish studying english for the day. 14. saya merenungkan apa yang saya pelajari setelah saya selesai belajar bahasa inggris untuk hari itu. 15. i am aware of my mistakes when i am speaking or writing english. 15. saya menyadari kesalahan saya ketika saya berbicara atau menulis bahasa inggris. 16. i evaluate the improvement in my ability to use english effectively. 16. saya mengevaluasi peningkatan kemampuan saya untuk menggunakan bahasa inggris secara efektif. 17. i assess how much of my goal i have achieved. 17. saya menilai seberapa banyak tujuan yang telah saya capai. 137the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 18. i assess the effectiveness of my english study plans. 18. saya menilai efektivitas rencana belajar bahasa inggris saya. 19. if i worry about learning english, i try to cope with it by myself. 19. jika saya khawatir belajar bahasa inggris, saya mencoba mengatasinya sendiri. 20. if i don’t feel like studying english, i try to motivate myself. 20. jika saya tidak ingin belajar bahasa inggris, saya mencoba memotivasi diri sendiri. 21. i take notes about how much time i spend on my english study. 21. saya mencatat berapa banyak waktu yang saya habiskan untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 22. i keep records of what kinds of methods i used for my english study. 22. saya mencatat metode apa yang saya gunakan untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 23. i write down what kinds of materials i used for my english study. 23. saya menuliskan bahan apa yang saya gunakan untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 24. i keep records of what i learned from my english study. 24. saya mencatat apa yang telah dipelajari dari belajar bahasa inggris. 25. i take notes of my feelings while i am studying english. 25. saya memperhatikan perasaan saya saat belajar bahasa inggris. 26. i am able to study english without teachers. 26. saya bisa belajar bahasa inggris tanpa guru. 27. i will need to continue studying english after graduation. 27. saya harus terus belajar bahasa inggris setelah lulus. 28. the best way to learn english is study english in an english-speaking country. 28. cara terbaik untuk belajar bahasa inggris adalah belajar bahasa inggris di negara berbahasa inggris. 29. all students ought to set their own goals in learning english. 29. semua siswa harus menentukan tujuan mereka sendiri dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 30. every student ought to set long-term goals in learning english. 30. setiap siswa harus menentukan tujuan jangka panjang dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 31. all students ought to make long-term plans for studying english. 31. semua siswa harus membuat rencana jangka panjang untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 32. every student ought to set goals for the day before he/she starts studying english. 32. setiap siswa harus menentukan tujuan sehari sebelum dia mulai belajar bahasa inggris. 33. a good learner of english makes study plans for the day before he/she starts studying english. 33. pelajar bahasa inggris yang baik membuat rencana belajar sehari sebelum dia mulai belajar bahasa inggris. 34. every student ought to set achievable goals in learning english. 34. setiap siswa harus menentukan tujuan yang dapat dicapai dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 35. all students ought to choose the materials suitable for their goals in learning english. 35. semua siswa harus memilih bahan yang sesuai dengan tujuan mereka dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 138 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 36. every student ought to make study plans that match his/her goals in learning english. 36. setiap siswa harus membuat rencana belajar yang sesuai dengan tujuannya dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 37. all students ought to make realistic plans for studying english. 37. semua siswa harus membuat rencana realistis untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 38. every student ought to create the conditions under which he/she can study english best. 38. setiap siswa harus menciptakan kondisi terbaik di mana ia dapat belajar bahasa inggris. 39. a good learner of english sets priorities in the academic subjects he/she should study. 39. pelajar bahasa inggris yang baik menetapkan prioritas dalam mata pelajaran akademik yang harus dia pelajari. 40. every student ought to reflect upon how he/she studied after he/she finishes studying english for the day. 40. setiap siswa harus merenungkan bagaimana dia belajar setelah dia selesai belajar bahasa inggris untuk hari itu. 41. all students ought to reflect upon what they learned after they finish studying english for the day. 41. semua siswa harus merenungkan apa yang mereka pelajari setelah mereka selesai belajar bahasa inggris untuk hari itu. 42. every student ought to write down how he/she studied english. 42. setiap siswa harus menuliskan bagaimana ia belajar bahasa inggris. 43. a good learner of english keeps records of what he/she learned from his/ her english study. 43. seorang pelajar bahasa inggris yang baik mencatat tentang apa yang dia pelajari dari pelajaran bahasa inggrisnya. 44. all students ought to be aware of their mistakes when they are speaking or writing english. 44. semua siswa harus menyadari kesalahan mereka ketika mereka berbicara atau menulis bahasa inggris. 45. every student ought to evaluate the improvement in his/her ability to use english effectively. 45. setiap siswa harus mengevaluasi peningkatan kemampuannya untuk menggunakan bahasa inggris secara efektif. 46. every student ought to assess the effectiveness of his/her english study plans. 46. setiap siswa harus menilai keefektifan rencana belajar bahasa inggrisnya. 47. i know what i need to study to improve my english. 47. saya tahu apa yang perlu saya pelajari untuk meningkatkan bahasa inggris saya. 48. i know what i am good at in learning english. (e.g., i am good at memorizing vocabulary) 48. saya tahu apa yang saya kuasai dalam belajar bahasa inggris. (contoh; saya mudah menghafal kosa kata). 49. if i ask my teacher for help in learning english, i know how i want him/her to help me. 49. jika saya meminta bantuan guru saya dalam belajar bahasa inggris, saya tahu bagaimana saya ingin dibantu. 50. i know the conditions under which i can study english best. 50. saya tahu kondisi terbaik di mana saya bisa belajar bahasa inggris. 51. i have things which take priority over my studies. 51. saya memiliki hal-hal yang lebih diprioritaskan daripada belajar. 139the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 52. if i worry about learning english, i know how to cope with it. 52. jika saya khawatir belajar bahasa inggris, saya tahu cara mengatasinya. 53. i have confidence in learning english successfully. 53. saya memiliki kepercayaan bahwa pembelajaran bhasa inggris saya akan sukses. 54. if i don’t feel like studying english, i know the reason. 54. jika saya tidak ingin belajar bahasa inggris, saya tahu alasannya. 55. i don’t feel like studying english, i know how i can motivate myself. 55. saya tidak ingin belajar bahasa inggris, saya tahu bagaimana saya bisa memotivasi diri sendiri. 56. i am interested in the culture of english-speaking countries. 56. saya tertarik dengan budaya negaranegara berbahasa inggris. 57. i want to study overseas in the future. 57. saya ingin belajar di luar negeri di masa depan. 58. i want to work overseas in the future. 58. saya ingin bekerja di luar negeri di masa depan. 59. i want to get a job where i use english in the future. 59. saya ingin mendapatkan pekerjaan di mana saya menggunakan bahasa inggris di masa depan. 60. i like the english language. 60. saya suka bahasa inggris. 61. i like studying english. 61. saya suka belajar bahasa inggris. 62. i give a higher priority to studying english than studying other academic subject. 62. saya memberikan prioritas lebih tinggi untuk belajar bahasa inggris daripada belajar mata pelajaran lainnya. 63. the reason that i study english is to pass the exam foe english classes. 63. alasan saya belajar bahasa inggris adalah untuk lulus ujian kelas bahasa inggris. 64. it is because i want to be praise by the people around me that i study english. 64. saya belajar bahasa inggris,karena saya ingin dipuji oleh orang-orang di sekitar saya. 65. the reason why i study english is that it is an obligatory part of the course. 65. alasan mengapa saya belajar bahasa inggris adalah karena keperluan kursus. 66. the reason why i study english is to pass english qualifying exams (e.g., toeic, toefl) 66. alasan mengapa saya belajar bahasa inggris adalah untuk lulus ujian kualifikasi bahasa inggris (contoh: toeic, toefl). 67. it is because i think english skill will help me get a job that i study english. 67. saya belajar bahasa inggris karena saya pikir kemampuan bahasa inggris akan membantu saya mendapatkan pekerjaan. 68. the reason why i study english is that i need to use english in my everyday life. 68. alasan mengapa saya belajar bahasa inggris adalah karena saya perlu menggunakan bahasa inggris dalam kehidupan sehari-hari saya. 69. the law school should be obeyed at all times. 69. peraturan kampus harus dipatuhi setiap saat. 140 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 70. we should follow our parents’ wishes. 70. kita harus mengikuti keinginan orang tua kita. 71. all university regulations must be obeyed. 71. semua peraturan kampus harus dipatuhi. 72. we should fulfill the expectations of our society. 72. kita harus memenuhi harapan masyarakat kita. 73. i am aware of the indonesia government’s policy on english language. 73. saya mengetahui kebijakan pemerintah indonesia tentang bahasa inggris. 74. i am aware of the goals of the english classes i am taking. 74. saya menyadari tujuan dari kelas bahasa inggris yang saya ikuti. 75. i know what my teacher expects to me to do in the english class. 75. saya tahu apa yang guru harapkan untuk saya lakukan di kelas bahasa inggris. 76. students should always follow their teachers’ instructions. 76. siswa harus selalu mengikuti instruksi guru mereka. 77. what a teacher says is always correct. 77. apa yang dikatakan guru selalu benar. 78. a teacher should know everything about the subject he/she teaches. 78. seorang guru harus tahu segalanya tentang mata pelajaran yang diajarkannya. 79. a good student is the one who doesn’t questions what his/her teacher says. 79. siswa yang baik adalah siswa yang tidak mempertanyakan apa yang dikatakan gurunya. 80. the teacher job is to give all the knowledge of the subject to his/her students. 80. pekerjaan guru adalah memberikan semua pengetahuan kepada siswanya. 81. students should have right to freely tell the teacher what they leant to learn. 81. siswa harus memiliki hak untuk memberi tahu guru apa yang mereka inginkan untuk dipelajari. 82. students should have right to freely make decisions about their own learning. 82. siswa harus memiliki hak untuk membuat keputusan tentang pembelajaran mereka sendiri. 83. students should have right to freely decide the materials for studying english. 83. siswa harus memiliki hak untuk memutuskan materi untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 84. students should have right to freely decide their own goals in learning english. 84. siswa harus memiliki hak untuk menentukan tujuan mereka sendiri dalam belajar bahasa inggris. 85. i am able to decide the materials for studying english if given the freedom to do so. 85. saya mampu menentukan materi untuk belajar bahasa inggris jika diberi kebebasan untuk melakukannya. 86. i am able to decide my own goals in learning english if given the freedom to do so. 86. saya mampu menentukan tujuan saya sendiri dalam belajar bahasa inggris jika diberi kebebasan untuk melakukannya. 141the effect of google classroom .... (melyann melani) appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 87. the teacher and students should negotiate on the goals in learning english. 87. guru dan siswa harus menegosiasikan tujuan belajar bahasa inggris. 88. the teacher and students should negotiate on the plans for studying english. 88. guru dan siswa harus menegosiasikan rencana belajar bahasa inggris. 89. the teacher and students should negotiate on the materials for studying english. 89. guru dan siswa harus menegosiasikan materi belajar bahasa inggris. 90. the teacher and students should negotiate on the topics covered in the class. 90. guru dan siswa harus menegosiasikan topik yang dibahas di kelas. 91. the teacher and students should incorporate what his/her students want to learn in the lessons. 91. guru dan siswa harus menyesuaikan materi apa yang muridnya ingin pelajari dalam pelajaran. 92. i want my teacher to explain everything i don’t understand. 92. saya ingin guru saya menjelaskan semua yang tidak saya mengerti. 93. i want my teacher to tell me all i should do to learn english. 93. saya ingin guru saya memberi tahu semua yang harus saya lakukan untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 94. i want my teacher to tell me how i should study english. 94. saya ingin guru saya memberi tahu saya bagaimana saya harus belajar bahasa inggris. 95. i want my teacher to give me all the materials for studying english. 95. saya ingin guru saya memberi saya semua materi untuk belajar bahasa inggris. 96. it is the teacher’s job to motivate his/ her students. 96. tugas guru adalah untuk memotivasi murid-muridnya. 97. i want my teacher to give me assignment to push me to study english. 97. saya ingin guru saya memberi saya tugas untuk memotivasi saya belajar bahasa inggris. 98. i sometimes want to ask other students for advice about my english. 98. kadang-kadang saya ingin meminta saran kepada siswa lain tentang bahasa inggris. 99. i want to know how other students are learning english. 99. saya ingin tahu bagaimana siswa lain belajar bahasa inggris. 100. i sometimes compare myself with other students. 100. saya kadang membandingkan diri saya dengan siswa lain. 101. if i am doing something different form other students, i feel worried. 101. jika saya melakukan sesuatu yang berbeda dari siswa lain, saya merasa khawatir. 102. i sometimes adopt what other students are doing into my own learning. 102. terkadang saya mengadopsi apa yang dilakukan siswa lain ketika belajar. 103. students can help each other learn english. 103. siswa dapat saling membantu belajar bahasa inggris. 104. i find it useful to study english with other students. 104. saya merasa penting belajar bahasa inggris dengan siswa lain. 142 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 129-142 appendix questionnaire of students’ perception on language learning autonomy (continued) please rate how strongly you disagree or agree with each of the following statements by choosing the appropriate number. 1= strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral 4= agree 5= strongly agree sd d n a sa 105. if is study english with other students, i also learn from them. 105. jika belajar bahasa inggris dengan siswa lain, saya juga belajar dari mereka. 106. western students tend to take the initiative in their learning. 106. siswa barat cenderung mengambil inisiatif dalam pembelajaran mereka. 107. western students tend to speak out actively during class. 107. siswa barat cenderung berbicara aktif dikelas. 108. in western culture, students are expected to take the initiative in their learning. 108. dalam budaya barat, siswa diharapkan untuk mengambil inisiatif dalam pembelajaran mereka. 109. indonesian students are expected to take the initiative in their learning. 109. siswa indonesia diharapkan untuk mengambil inisiatif dalam pembelajaran mereka. 110. indonesian students tend to take the initiative in their learning. 110. siswa indonesia cenderung mengambil inisiatif dalam pembelajaran mereka. 111. indonesian students have the ability to learn autonomously. 111. siswa indonesia memiliki kemampuan untuk belajar secara mandiri. 112. indonesian students have the experience of learning autonomously. 112. siswa indonesia memiliki pengalaman belajar secara mandiri. 113. indonesian students feel comfortable with following their teachers’ directions. 113. siswa indonesia merasa nyaman mengikuti arahan guru mereka. 7kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu... (ayu trihardini) kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin pada siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula ayu trihardini pendidikan bahasa mandarin, fakultas bahasa dan seni, universitas negeri jakarta kampus a, gedung de lt.2, jln. rawamangun muka, jakarta timur 13220 ayu.trihardini@gmail.com abstract the purpose of this study was to analyze indonesian breakthrough level students’ errors in using mandarin measure words. the collected data were the errors made by students of prodi pendidikan bahasa mandarin unj who attend conversation ii course (cefr a1/breakthrough) on written and oral utterance. this study used zhou xiaobin’s research design in mandarin measure words error analysis, with the carl james model of identification errors. the result of this study shows indonesian students’ errors in using mandarin measure words can be determined as follows: omission, misselection, misordering, and blends. furthermore, this study proves that there are systematic errors made by students with different mother tongue and at the same level of learning mandarin. the research results can be used to develop mandarin measure words teaching techniques based on error analysis. keywords: error analysis, mandarin measure words, teaching techniques abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk menganalisis kesalahan siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. data berupa kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan pada ujaran tertulis dan lisan mahasiswa peserta mata kuliah percakapan ii (cefr a1/prapemula) pada prodi pendidikan bahasa mandarin unj. desain penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian analisis kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan oleh zhou xiaobin dengan identifikasi kesalahan model carl james. hasil penelitian menunjukkan kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh siswa indonesia yaitu omission, misselection, misordering, dan blends. selain itu, penelitian membuktikan adanya kesalahan sistematis yang dilakukan siswa dengan bahasa ibu yang berbeda dan berada pada level belajar mandarin yang sama. hasil penelitian dapat digunakan untuk mengembangkan teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan berbasis analisis kesalahan. kata kunci: analisis kesalahan, kata bantu bilangan, bahasa mandarin 8 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pendahuluan setiap bahasa selain bersifat universal, juga bersifat unik (alwi dkk., 2003). salah satu keunikan yang dimiliki bahasa mandarin yaitu mempunyai kata bantu bilangan yang beragam. kata bantu bilangan atau liangci adalah kata kelas kata yang menunjukkan satuan hitung benda (fuyi, 1991:272). berbeda dengan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa indonesia, kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin wajib ada di dalam ujaran. kekhasan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin berupa jumlahnya yang beragam dan penggunaannya perlu diketahui oleh siswa namun kekhasan tersebut belum dibahas secara khusus di dalam bahan ajar. dengan demikian, siswa sangat mungkin melakukan kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. studi mengenai analisis kesalahan siswa pada pembelajaran bahasa asing telah berkembang sejak 1970an. kesalahan adalah kesalahan sistematis siswa yang dapat merekonstruksi pengetahuannya atas suatu bahasa asing pada saat itu (corder, 1981:10). rekonstruksi pengetahuan sementara siswa disebut corder (1981) sebagai transitional competence. berdasarkan pengertian tersebut, kesalahan merupakan proses yang harus dilalui dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing dan oleh sebab itu siswa akan melakukan kesalahan sebaik apapun proses pembelajaran yang dilakukan pengajar. sebagai sebuah proses pembelajaran, kesalahan siswa mempunyai manfaat: (1) bagi pengajar, mengetahui pengetahuan apa saja yang perlu diajarkan kepada siswa; (2) bagi peneliti, menunjukkan bagaimana hasil pembelajaran di kelas atau level kebahasaan yang dimiliki siswa; (3) bagi siswa, kesalahan merupakan cara siswa untuk menguji hipotesis tentang bahasa asing yang dipelajarinya. analisis kesalahan adalah penelitian yang membandingkan antara interlanguage dengan bahasa asing yang dipelajari siswa. interlanguage merupakan bahasa yang digunakan siswa dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa asing. pada proses pembelajaran bahasa asing, siswa berada dalam kondisi antara, bahasa yang mereka gunakan bukan bahasa ibu juga bukan bahasa asing yang menjadi bahasa target, melainkan interlanguage (selinker, 1969). pemahaman tersebut terdapat pada gambar 1. target language interlanguage mother tongue: target language comparisons (contrastive analysis) interlanguage: target language comparisons (error analysis) mother tongue: interlanguage (transfer analysis) mother tongue gambar 1 perbandingan paradigma pengajaran bahasa asing (james, 1998) mengacu pada gambar 1, kesalahan ditentukan berdasarkan keberterimaan suatu ujaran dalam bahasa target. dengan demikian, kesalahan pada penelitian ini ditentukan berdasarkan keberterimaan ujaran yang mengandung kata bantu bilangan dalam bahasa mandarin. mengenai analisis kesalahan dalam pembelajaran bahasa terhadap siswa asing, dazhong (2007) menyimpulkan dua hal berikut. pertama, siswa yang mempunyai bahasa ibu yang sama namun berada pada level belajar bahasa mandarin yang berbeda umumnya melakukan kesalahan yang berbeda. kedua, siswa yang berada pada level belajar bahasa mandarin yang sama namun mempunyai bahasa ibu yang berbeda umumnya melakukan kesalahan yang sama. penelitian ini membatasi ruang lingkup dengan menganalisis kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang dilakukan oleh siswa yang mempunyai bahasa ibu yang sama yaitu bahasa indonesia dan berada pada level bahasa mandarin yang sama yaitu level prapemula. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kesalahan sistematis yang dilakukan siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin serta memberi masukan mengenai model teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan yang dapat dikembangkan. studi analisis kesalahan tidak bermuara pada koreksi kalimat namun berlanjut pada pengembangan teknik pengajaran untuk memperoleh peningkatan hasil pembelajaran. untuk itu, penelitian ini memberi ruang bagi penelitian selanjutnya mengenai pengembangan teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. penelitian terdahulu mengenai analisis kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin dilakukan xiaobin dkk. (2007). ia meneliti mahasiswa vietnam yang berada pada level bahasa mandarin tingkat pemula, menengah, dan mahir. hasil penelitian tersebut adalah siswa vietnam melakukan kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan berikut. pertama, omission, tidak menggunakan kata bantu bilangan ketika memerlukan kata bantu bilangan, seperti: 每人骑一车。 mei ren qi yi (*) che. setiap orang mengendarai satu (*) motor ‘setiap orang mengendarai satu (*) motor.’ 每人坐一椅子。 mei ren zuo yi (*) yizi. setiap orang duduk satu (*) kursi ‘setiap orang menduduki satu (*) kursi.’ 一国家的兴旺。 yi (*) guojia de xingwang. satu negara kejayaan ‘kejayaan sebuah negara.’ pada kalimat tersebut siswa vietnam tidak menggunakan kata bantu bilangan 辆 liang ‘roda’, 把 ba ‘gagang’, 个 ge ‘buah’. kedua, addition, menggunakan kata bantu bilangan ketika tidak memerlukan kata bantu bilangan, seperti: 9kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu... (ayu trihardini) 他来中国一个年了。 ta lai zhongguo yi ge nian le. dia datang cina satu buah tahun sudah ‘dia datang ke cina sudah satu tahun.’ pada kalimat tersebut siswa menambahkan kata bantu bilangan 个ge ‘buah’ di depan nomina temporal 年nian ‘tahun’. bahasa mandarin memiliki 2 jenis nomina temporal. yang pertama, nomina temporal yang menyatakan waktu yaitu 月yue ‘bulan’、星期xingqi ‘minggu’ dan lain-lain. nomina ini membutuhkan hadirnya kata bantu bilangan个ge. yang kedua, nomina temporal yang dapat menjadi kata bantu bilangan yaitu 年 nian ‘tahun’、天tian ‘hari’ dan lain-lain. nomina jenis ini tidak memerlukan hadirnya kata bantu bilangan 个ge. ketiga, misselection, menggunakan kata bantu bilangan yang kurang tepat, seperti: 一只蛇 yi zhi she satu ekor ular 一只鱼 yi zhi yu satu ekor ikan keberagaman kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin terlihat pada penggunaan kata bantu bilangan untuk hewan. setiap hewan dipasangkan dengan kata bantu bilangan yang tidak sama. pada 2 contoh kesalahan tersebut siswa menggunakan kata bantu bilangan 只 zhi ‘ekor’ saat menunjukkan satuan hitung hewan ular dan ikan. kata bantu bilangan 只 zhi ‘ekor’ digunakan untuk ayam, burung, harimau, anjing, kelinci, kodok, belalang, nyamuk, udang, kupu-kupu. kata bantu bilangan yang seharusnya digunakan untuk menunjukkan satuan hitung hewan berbentuk panjang pipih seperti ular, ikan, ulat, cacing yaitu 条 tiao ‘helai’. kata bantu ini juga digunakan untuk satuan hitung benda-benda seperti rok, celana, jalan raya, tali, kabel ikat pinggang, dan rambut. selain 只 zhi dan 条 tiao, kata bantu bilangan yang digunakan untuk hewan yaitu 头 tou ‘kepala’ (sapi, gajah, babi) dan 匹 pi ‘selak’ (kuda, unta). lebih lanjut, hewan-hewan tertentu dipasangkan dengan kata bantu yang berbeda, berdasarkan hewan yang diacu apakah tergolong hewan hewan konsumsi pangan atau hewan peliharaan, misalnya hewan babi dan sapi. babi sebagai hewan konsumsi pangan dipasangkan dengan kata bantu bilangan 头 tou ‘kepala’, sedangkan babi sebagai hewan peliharaan dipasangkan dengan 口 kou ‘mulut’. sapi sebagai hewan konsumsi pangan dipasangkan dengan kata bantu bilangan头tou ‘kepala’, sedangkan sapi sebagai hewan peliharaan dipasangkan dengan 条tiao‘helai’. kaya akan kata bantu bilangan merupakan karakteristik bahasa mandarin. xiaobin dkk. (2007) berpendapat bahwa kurangnya pengetahuan siswa terhadap karakteristik bahasa mandarin dan interferensi bahasa ibu mengakibatkan siswa melakukan kesalahan menggunakan kata bantu bilangan untuk hewan. pada bahasa ibu siswa yaitu bahasa vietnam, seluruh hewan dipasangkan dengan kata bantu bilangan con. kesalahan penggunaan ini khas dilakukan oleh siswa vietnam tingkat prapemula. metode data pada penelitian ini berupa frasa atau kalimat yang mengandung kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. sumber data penelitian adalah ujaran (tertulis dan lisan) mahasiswa semester 2 prodi pendidikan bahasa mandarin universitas negeri jakarta peserta mata kuliah percakapan ii, yang menurut cefr tergolong a1 atau prapemula. desain penelitian yang digunakan adalah penelitian analisis kesalahan penggunaan liangci yang diungkapkan xiaobin dkk. (2007). langkah penelitian terdiri dari tahapan-tahapan: (1) pengumpulan data, (2) pengklasifikasian kesalahan, (3) pengidentifikasian kesalahan khas siswa prapemula, (4) pengembangan teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan. identifikasi kesalahan menggunakan model james (1998), yang membagi kesalahan berdasarkan (1) omission, kesalahan tidak menggunakan suatu konstituen; (2) addition, kesalahan berlebihan menggunakan suatu konstituen; (3) misselection, kesalahan menggunakan suatu konstituen yang kurang tepat; (4) misordering, kesalahan urutan; (5) blends, kesalahan campuran. mengacu pada uraian, pertanyaan yang dapat diajukan dalam penelitian ini yaitu sebagai berikut. pertama, bagaimanakah bentuk kesalahan yang dilakukan siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin berdasarkan klasifikasi kesalahan? kedua, bagaimanakah bentuk kesalahan yang khas dilakukan siswa tingkat prapemula? ketiga, bagaimanakah bentuk teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang dapat dikembangkan berdasarkan kajian analisis kesalahan? hasil dan pembahasan berdasarkan klasifikasi kesalahan, siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula melakukan kesalahan sistematis dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin sebagai berikut. kesalahan pertama, omission, tidak menggunakan kata bantu bilangan ketika memerlukan kata bantu bilangan, seperti: 一笔 yi (*) bi satu (*) pen ‘satu (batang) pena’ 两咖啡 liang (*) kafei dua (*) kopi ‘dua (cangkir) kopi’ 三人 san (*) ren tiga (*) orang ‘satu (orang) orang’ 我喝一啤酒。 wo he yi (*) pijiu. saya minum satu (*) bir. ‘saya minum satu (botol) bir.’ 10 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 听说这协奏曲好得很。 tingshuo zhe (*) xiezouqu hao de hen. dengar-dengar ini (*) konser bagus sekali ‘dengar-dengar konser ini bagus sekali.’ beberapa contoh frasa dan kalimat di atas dikategorikan sebagai kesalahan sebab tidak terterima dalam bahasa target. dalam bahasa ibu siswa yaitu bahasa indonesia baik ujaran dengan kata bantu bilangan seperti satu buah pena, dua cangkir kopi, satu botol bir maupun tanpa kata bantu bilangan seperti satu pena, dua kopi, tiga orang, satu bir dapat terterima. sementara untuk ujaran dengan kata bantu bilangan ‘orang’ mempunyai perbedaan penggunaan. dalam bahasa mandarin keseluruhan frasa di atas memerlukan kata bantu bilangan agar dapat terterima, sehingga menjadi 一支笔 yi zhi bi ‘satu batang pena’, 两 杯咖啡 liang bei kafei ‘dua cangkir kopi’, 三个人san ge ren ‘tiga orang orang’ dan 一瓶啤酒 yi ping pijiu ‘satu botol bir’. frasa pada kalimat di bawahnya 这协奏曲 zhe xiezouqu ‘konser ini’ terterima dalam bahasa indonesia. siswa indonesia sangat mungkin mengggunakan kata bantu bilangan dengan kaidah bahasa ibu. agar terterima, frasa di atas memerlukan kata bantu bilangan, sehingga menjadi 这场协奏曲 zhe chang xiezouqu ‘satu pertunjukan konser ini’. lebih lanjut, omission merupakan kesalahan yang paling banyak dilakukan siswa. kesalahan ini juga ditemukan pada siswa prapemula vietnam yang mempunyai bahasa ibu yang berbeda. kesalahan kedua, misselection, menggunakan kata bantu bilangan yang kurang tepat, seperti: 一看那个小说,一定就喜欢。 yi kan na ge xiaoshuo, yiding jiu xihuan. begitu membaca itu (buah*) novel, pasti langsung suka ‘begitu membaca satu buah novel itu, pasti langsung suka.’ 我跟姐姐去一个市场买一个巧克力。 wo gen jiejie qu yi ge shichang mai yi ge qiaokeli. saya bersama kakak pergi satu buah pasar beli satu (*buah) cokelat ‘saya pergi bersama kakak ke sebuah pasar membeli satu buah cokelat.’ pada kedua kalimat di atas, siswa menggunakan kata bantu bilangan yang kurang tepat. kata bantu bilangan untuk menyatakan satuan hitung novel adalah 本 ben ‘jilid’ dan satuan hitung cokelat adalah 张 zhang ‘keping’. kata bantu bilangan 个 ge yang digunakan oleh siswa adalah kata bantu bilangan untuk menyatakan satuan hitung benda umum. pada bab-bab awal buku teks keterampilan bahasa mandarin, kata bantu bilangan 个 ge dipasangkan dengan berbagai nomina. di bab-bab selanjutnya nomina yang pada awal buku dipasangkan dengan 个 ge, dipasangkan dengan kata bantu bilangan lain (yang merupakan pasangan sesungguhnya). meskipun pemasangan 个 ge dengan nomina tertentu pada awal buku bertujuan memudahkan perkenalan siswa dengan kata bantu bilangan, penjelasan lebih lanjut perlu diberikan. misselection merupakan kesalahan yang tidak terlalu berpengaruh pada makna suatu frasa atau kalimat. makna kalimat-kalimat di atas masih bisa dipahami oleh penutur bahasa mandarin meskipun terasa janggal. kesalahan ketiga, misordering, kesalahan urutan, seperti: 这杯三咖啡 zhe bei san kafei ini cangkir tiga kopi ‘tiga cangkir kopi ini’ 一高大个人 yi gao da ge ren satu tinggi besar buah orang ‘seorang yang tinggi besar’ 两重新本词典 liang zhong xin ben cidian ‘dua jilid kamus berat yang baru’ 我请他再唱歌一次。 wo qing ta zai changge yi ci. ‘saya meminta dia bernyanyi sekali lagi’ kesalahan urutan sangat erat kaitannya dengan penguasaan siswa terhadap struktur frasa numeralia bahasa mandarin. kurangnya penguasaan siswa terhadap struktur dasar frasa dan kaidah perluasan frasa menjadikan siswa memunculkan struktur baru yang nampak tidak sistematis seperti frasa 这杯三咖啡 zhe bei san kafei. kurangnya penguasaan siswa terhadap kaidah perluasan frasa, yang di dalamnya numeralia tidak berpisah dengan kata bantu bilangan, berakibat siswa membuat frasa 一个人yi ge ren dan 两本词典 liang ben cidian, alih-alih 一个高大人 yi ge gao da ren dan 两本重新词典 liang ben zhong xin cidian. penggunaan kata bantu bilangan 次 ci ‘kali’ pada kalimat我请他再唱歌一次 wo qing ta zai changge yi ci dikategorikan sebagai kesalahan urutan. kata bantu bilangan 次 ci menduduki fungsi sintaksis sebagai pelengkap dari verba didepannya. menurut bin (2008), frasa yang mengandung kata bantu bilangan seperti di atas digunakan untuk menyatakan frekuensi terjadinya suatu perbuatan. secara struktur, pelengkap jenis ini dibentuk oleh numeralia dan kata bantu bilangan verba. apabila terdapat objek, posisi objek berada di antara verba dan objek. kalimat di atas akan terterima apabila mempunyai urutan sebagai berikut: 我请他再唱一次歌。 wo qing ta zai chang yi cige. verba objek kesalahan keempat, blends, kesalahan campuran, seperti: 我很喜欢一个人演员叫 kang min hyuk。 wo hen xihuan yi ge (*ren) yanyuan jiao kang min hyuk. ‘saya sangat suka satu orang (*orang) aktor bernama kang min hyuk.’ 11kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu... (ayu trihardini) 那个支笔 na ge zhi bi itu buah batang pen ‘(sebatang pen itu)’ 这个三杯咖啡 zhe ge san bei kafei ini buah tiga cangkir kopi ‘(tiga buah cangkir kopi ini)’ 那一个词典 na yi ge cidian itu satu buah kamus ‘(sebuah kamus itu)’ 这一个印尼人 zhe yi ge yinniren ini satu orang orang indonesia ‘(satu orang indonesia ini)’ 二位高人 er wei gaoren dua orang tinggi orang ‘(dua orang yang tinggi)’ kesalahan campuran yang paling banyak dilakukan siswa adalah penggunaan kata bantu bilangan 人 ren ‘manusia’. pada frasa 一个人演员 yi ge ren yanyuan siswa berupaya mengartikan ‘satu orang’ menjadi 一个 人 yi ge ren, lalu mengartikan ‘satu orang aktor’ menjadi 一个人演员 yi ge ren yanyuan. dalam bahasa mandarin ujaran ini dapat dinyatakan dengan 一个演员 yi ge yanyuan. kesalahan jenis ini merupakan kesalahan yang disebabkan interferensi bahasa indonesia. kesalahan campuran lainnya disebabkan oleh kurangnya pengetahuan mengenai bahasa mandarin. pada frasa 那个支笔 na ge zhi bi dan 这个三杯咖啡 zhe ge san bei kafei siswa mengartikan ‘itu’ dan ‘ini’ sebagai 那个 na ge dan 这个 zhe ge, sehingga siswa menambahkan kata bantu bilangan lain di belakangnya. kesalahan pada frasa 那一本词典 na yi ben cidian dan 这一个印尼人zhe yi ge yinniren adalah struktur. siswa tidak mengetahui bahwa pada saat menyatakan numeralia ‘satu’, maka numeralia tersebut dapat dilesapkan. kesalahan berikutnya yaitu penggunaan numeralia 二 er ‘dua’. pada frasa numeralia, saat menyatakan satuan hitung ‘dua’, numeralia yang digunakan adalah 两 liang ‘dua’, bukan 二 er ‘dua’. berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan hasil penelitian terdahulu, bentuk kesalahan yang khas dilakukan siswa tingkat prapemula siswa indonesia dan siswa vietnam tingkat prapemula adalah omission, tidak menggunakan kata bantu bilangan ketika memerlukan kata bantu bilangan dan misselection, menggunakan kata bantu bilangan yang kurang tepat. kesalahan jenis ini terutama pada penggunaan kata bantu bilangan untuk hewan. jenis kesalahan lainnya yang dilakukan oleh siswa indonesia seperti kesalahan urutan dan kesalahan campuran, masingmasing disebabkan kurangnya pengetahuan akan bahasa target dan interferensi bahasa ibu. berdasarkan kajian analisis kesalahan, peneliti memperoleh informasi mengenai pengetahuan yang perlu diajarkan kepada siswa, yaitu: (1) struktur frasa numeralia yang mengandung kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, (2) penggunaan numeralia ‘satu’ dan pengaruhnya terhadap struktur frasa numeralia, (3) penggunaan numeralia 两 liang ‘dua’, (4) urutan kata bantu bilangan di dalam frasa yang diperluas. keseluruhan informasi mengenai pengetahuan yang perlu diajarkan kepada siswa dapat menjadi acuan dalam mengembangkan teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin. teknik pengajaran bahasa mandarin sebagai bahasa kedua harus menekankan pada praktik, skill, dan bukan hanya terpaku pada teoriteori (hesheng, 2006). selain itu, mengajarkan tata bahasa tidak cukup hanya mengandalkan tata bahasa teoretis dan sistematis, tetapi juga pengajar harus mengikuti prinsip meringkaskan penjelasan, memperbanyak latihan (xiaobin, 2007). berdasarkan analisis kesalahan siswa serta prinsip penekanan praktik dan skill, teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan yang dapat dikembangkan siswa prapemula adalah sebagai berikut. pertama, pengenalan mengenai karakteristik kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin jenisnya beragam dan wajib ada dalam ujaran. kedua, meringkaskan penjelasan. pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bagi siswa prapemula terbatas pada satuan yang menyatakan individu, kelompok, dan satuan ukur. siswa prapemula tidak memerlukan penjelasan mendalam mengenai penelitian-penelitian kata bantu bilangan terkini seperti yang dikompilasikan oleh suying dkk (2004) seperti perbedaan mengenai kata bantu bilangan sebagai classifier dengan quantifier atau klasifikasi kata bantu bilangan. oleh karena itu, pengajar cukup memberikan penjelasan ringkas dalam lingkup pengetahuan prapemula. ketiga, memperbanyak latihan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan. latihan yang diberikan berdasarkan urutan dari yang paling sering digunakan, yang paling sederhana, dan yang paling mudah hingga yang paling jarang digunakan, yang paling rumit dan yang paling sulit. keempat, belajar melalui permainan. permainan yang dimainkan adalah permainan menggunakan struktur frasa numeralia, misalnya permainan tebak-tebakan. tujuan permainan adalah agar siswa terbiasa dengan struktur frasa numeralia bahasa mandarin. kelima, belajar melalui lagu. untuk membiasakan siswa menggunakan numeralia 两 liang ‘dua’, pengajaran kata bantu bilangan kepada siswa dapat melalui lagu anak-anak 两只老虎 liang zhi laohu ‘dua ekor harimau’ yang mempunyai kesamaan nada dengan lagu anak-anak berbahasa inggris are you sleeping? lirik lagu dapat diubah sesuai kata bantu bilangan yang akan dipelajari. teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin yang mengedepankan prinsip praktik dan skill dengan memperbanyak latihan bagi siswa diharapkan membuat siswa menguasai ketentuan tata bahasa yang berkaitan dengan kata bantu bilangan, tanpa terlalu banyak mengajarkan teori. siswa juga dapat menggunakan kata bantu bilangan dengan tepat. simpulan dewasa ini, buku ajar keterampilan bahasa mandarin yang dipakai di berbagai institusi di indonesia merupakan terbitan tiongkok. buku-buku terbitan tiongkok, meskipun memiliki banyak kelebihan, memiliki kekurangan yaitu kurangnya pembahasan mengenai 12 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 kekhasan bahasa mandarin yang tidak dimiliki bahasa lain. salah satu kekhasan bahasa mandarin adalah kata bantu bilangan yang beragam. pembahasan mengenai kekayaan kata bantu bilangan serta kaidah penggunaannya di dalam buku ajar keterampilan bahasa mandarin masih dirasakan kurang. minimnya pengetahuan mengenai keunikan bahasa mandarin ditengarai merupakan penyebab utama terjadinya kesalahan siswa dalam penggunaan kata bantu bilangan. berdasarkan data penelitian, kesalahan siswa indonesia tingkat prapemula dalam menggunakan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin tergolong menjadi 4 jenis, yaitu (1) tidak menggunakan kata bantu bilangan ketika memerlukan kata bantu bilangan, (2) menggunakan kata bantu bilangan yang kurang tepat, (3) kesalahan urutan, dan (4) kesalahan campuran. dua kesalahan pertama juga ditemukan pada penelitian terdahulu yang meneliti siswa vietnam di level bahasa mandarin yang sama. dengan demikian, sangat dimungkinkan kesalahan tersebut adalah kesalahan khas siswa prapemula. hal ini sejalan dengan dazhong (2007) bahwa siswa yang berada pada level belajar bahasa mandarin yang sama namun mempunyai bahasa ibu yang berbeda umumnya melakukan kesalahan yang sama. dua kesalahan berikutnya merupakan kesalahan sistematis yang sering dilakukan siswa indonesia. kesalahan urutan kemungkinan disebabkan kurangnya pengetahuan terhadap bahasa target. sedangkan kesalahan campuran disebabkan interferensi bahasa ibu, dalam hal ini bahasa indonesia. hasil penelitian analisis kesalahan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin ini berguna untuk menunjukkan hasil pembelajaran kata bantu bilangan di kelas serta memberikan informasi mengenai pengetahuan apa saja terkait kata bantu bilangan yang perlu diajarkan kepada siswa tingkat prapemula. berdasarkan jenis dan contoh kesalahan penggunaan yang dilakukan siswa, berikut ini adalah pengetahuan terkait kata bantu bilangan yang perlu diketahui siswa. pertama, penggunaan kata bantu bilangan umumnya wajib digunakan dalam ujaran bahasa mandarin. adapun ketiadaan penggunaan kata bantu bilangan, hanyalah pada nomina temporal yang dapat menjadi kata bantu bilangan, yang jumlahnya terbatas. kedua adalah penggunaan numeralia ‘satu’ dan pengaruhnya terhadap struktur frasa numeralia. pengetahuan ketiga, urutan kata bantu bilangan di dalam frasa yang diperluas. keseluruhan informasi mengenai pengetahuan yang perlu diajarkan kepada siswa dapat menjadi acuan dalam mengembangkan teknik pengajaran kata bantu bilangan bahasa mandarin, yang mengedepankan prinsip praktik dan skill. daftar pustaka alwi, h., lapoliwa, h., & darmowidjojo, s. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (3rd ed.). jakarta: balai pustaka. bin, l. (2008). tantan dongcihou shuliangci de jufa dingxing wenti. yuyan xuegan, 7, 130–131. corder, s. p. (1981). error analysis and interlanguage. great britain: oxford university press. dazhong, l. (2007). waiguoren xue hanyu yufa pianwu fenxi. beijing: beijing yuyan daxue chubanshe. fuyi, x. (1991). xiandai hanyu. beijing: gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe. hesheng, z. (2006). hanyu keyi zheyang jiao: yuyan yaosupian. beijing: shangwu yinshuguan. james, c. (1998). errors in language learning and use: exploring error analysis. london & new york: longman. selinker, l. (1969). language transfer. general linguistics, 9(2), 67–92. suying, y., yueyuan, h., & xiuling, c. (2004). xiandai hanyu shuliang biaoda wenti yanjiu. yuyan wenzi yingyong, 5(2), 82–88. xiaobin, z., qizhi, z., & xiaoning, d. (2007). waiguoren xue hanyu yufa pianwu yanjiu. beijing: beijing yuyan daxue chubanshe. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 21 lingua cultura, 13(1), february 2019, 21-29 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i1.5214 translingual negotiation strategies used by english students to build classroom interaction in a translation class veni roza program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas tarbiyah dan ilmu keguruan (ftik), institut agama islam negeri (iain) bukittinggi jl. raya gurun aur kubang putih, bukittinggi, sumatera barat, indonesia veniroz_501@yahoo.com received: 05th january 2019/revised: 07th february 2019/accepted: 13th february 2019 how to cite: roza, v. (2019). translingual negotiation strategies used by english students to build classroom interaction in a translation class. lingua cultura, 13(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i1.5214 abstract this research aimed at revealing what kind of translingual strategies that were practiced by the sixth-semester students to build interaction in the translation class. this qualitative research conducted through observing students’ interaction in translation class (using english, bahasa indonesia, and minangkabau languages). the researcher finds that four macro strategies proposed by canagarajah (2013): envoicing, recontextualization, interactional, and entextualization strategies are consciously used by students during communication. envoicing strategies are used by way of word coinage, foreignization, as well as code switching and code mixing dominantly by students while asking and clarifying information. recontextualization strategies are done through the use of the feature of linguistic form such formulaic islamic greeting in arabic preceding the talk. interactional strategies used are confirmation check, check, clarification request, and recast. interestingly more competent students use simplification in communication, and less competent speakers use leveling as entextualization strategies. the use of these strategies in speaking helps students (as speakers) to establish classroom interaction. keywords: translingual negotiation strategies, english students, classroom interaction introduction it is believed that using english within a global context and merging it with speakers’ own languages and values will open up various negotiation strategies. these strategies help speakers decode other unique varieties of english and construct new norms which mean that people can use various local languages in global context together with english. it is called by canagarajah (2013) with multilingual or translingual. translingual practice (tp) goes with poststructuralism perspectives which have been mentioned in several works of literature, such as canagarajah (2013), widiyanto (2016), de costa et al. (2017), chen (2017), and fang (2017). in this paradigm, merging one language into english is very acceptable. monolingual orientation in traditional classroom literacy at many social and educational institutions today, including in indonesia, is something to be altered. people can communicate across language boundaries about local content and others’ culture. however, people are caged in the belief that they should speak in standardized english like the native. as a result, the teachers and the students as non-native speakers avoid having language contact (afraid of making mistakes) due to the lack of english vocabulary and grammar. the anxiety in the efl context due to the lack of linguistic competence happens across ages, genders, and grades (aydin et al., 2017). in short, people will not speak or cannot deploy languages they cope with when they must produce a common language with shared norms. considering this fact, canagarajah (2013) and his proponents propose a tp approach in language learning with the emphasis on active interaction within social rather than cognitive process. the tp offers a way of thinking about letting people expressing their repertoires about something they want to share. the employment of the first language (language interference) in current communication media like social media, in one side, increases sustainable professional development (alberth et al., 2018) while eventually produce code meshing and other multilingual interaction. most importantly, the users can speak in languages in order to negotiate the meaning in appropriate ways (knowing 22 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 21-29 when and how to say what to whom) (larsen-freeman & anderson, 2013). canagarajah (2013) has really opened others’ minds that in the past they are shaped, educated under and embraced traditional paradigm in teaching english like grammar translation method, audio-lingual method, and so forth in monolingual approach and traditional multilingual one. in a structural point of view, english lecture as a teacher-centered approach and other product-oriented (cognitive domain) dominate the teaching practice in this research. however, translingual practice theories offer a new concept that it is a process-oriented that focuses on interaction and negotiation. it is also open to differences as a component of the ongoing process of meaning-making. in other words, there is no problem when students do communication breakdown like committing errors since every single feature appeared. it has the meaning which is contrary to the structural point of view with accuracy as the foci. some of researches have explored the notion of translingual practice coined by canagarajah with different dependent variables. widiyanto (2016) has investigated interconnection between translingual negotiation strategies and translingual identities. his research provides clear insight for authors in term of four domains of translingual: personal, social, contextual, and textual domains with the negotiation strategies of envoicing, interactional, recontextualization, and entextualization respectively. de costa et al. (2017) have investigated translinguaging of prospect and possibilities. he gains its application beyond the communicative product in wider pedagogical contexts. sugiharto (2015) has analyzed translingualism in action, rendering the impossible-possible. he has found that translanguaging occurs both at lexical and morphosyntactical levels connected to identities, cultures, and traditions. next, lamsal (2014) has analyzed tension between the monolingualist views toward their actual engagement in real literacy practices and zheng (2013) has studied the complexity of professional lives of international teaching assistants in american university. all of them have discussed the theories and practices of translingual practice by canagarajah (2013) in a different setting and dependent variables. furthermore, translingual practice in higher education seems to be a potential phenomenon to be researched. for this research, translingual practice is conducted at a translation class where students and lecturers use english, indonesian, and minangkabau languages during communication in the classroom. the interaction happens in the classroom among students and also between students and teacher since the researcher applied discussion technique in the subject of english-indonesian translation. during the classroom discussion, students present the theories of translation by giving examples, and then students interact in the session of question and answer. the problems appeared are that some good students tease presenters who delivered their paper in mixing of english, indonesian, and minangkabau languages. students perceive that performing in their mother tongue is inferior and that they must always practice their english in the classroom. as a result, students who get involved in the discussion are brave ones to speak. another problem is a direct error correction done by the teacher and or other students while presenters performed. this hinders communication fluency. the other is that students as a presenter have applied translingual negotiation strategies to build heat discussion during; however they deploy these less maximally. based on these phenomena, the researcher realizes that teachers do not need to interrupt students’ talking time. teachers need to clarify that merging students’ own languages in english in order to carry out the paper is not wrong. it is better for the teacher to give feedback after students have done it. theoretically, canagarajah (2013) has coined the translingual negotiation strategies which focus on the process of how these strategies create new values and meanings for existing words or the construction of new indexicals. the speakers negotiate meaning to co-construct situated new norms and achieve sharedness through their negotiation strategies. for instance, before the discussion, the presenters open it by using islamic greeting in arabic, assalamu’alaikum wa rahmatullahi wabarakaatuh, thanks to allah, peace be upon him to the prophet muhammad, and introduce themselves using indonesian english, “we are from group one” instead of “we are the first group”. it is a translingual practice that is deployed by interlocutors unconsciously in reality. canagarajah (2013) formulated the strategies that facilitate communicative success through the analysis of an interaction between multilingual students in english. it is proposed four macro translingual negotiation strategies. these strategies will be employed by translingual in a language contact zone, in this case, interaction during the translation subject discussion. the four macro strategies are envoicing, recontextualization, interaction, and entextualization. these address the central constructs in any act of communication that is personal, contextual, social, and textual dimension respectively (in teague, 2017). envoicing strategies shape the extent and nature of hybridity, as a consideration of voice plays a critical role in appropriating mobile semiotic resources in one’s text and talk. in other words, envoicing determines what voices are appropriate in the contact zone. the recontextualization strategies frame the text or talk to facilitate and alter the footing to prepare the ground for appropriate negotiation. in other words, reconceptualization helps students make meaning in spaces with diverse and often incongruent semiotic affordances. the interactional strategies are adopted to negotiate and manage meaning-making activity. these strategies govern how interlocutors communicate with one another and are characterized by reciprocality. moreover, the entextualization strategies configure codes in the temporal and spatial dimension of the text/talk to facilitate and respond to these negotiations. they ground communicative acts in particular spatiotemporal contexts. based on these fours, each strategy addresses a different aspect of the communication act, but they cannot be separated from each other. since canagarajah do not elaborate on these four macro strategies in detail so that the researcher adopts micro strategies by canagarajah (2013) and widiyanto (2016). these strategies are as shown in table 1. based on table 1, there are 26 micro negotiation strategies proposed by widiyanto (2016). these strategies are categorized into seven micro envoicing negotiation strategies, six micro recontextualization negotiation strategies, nine micro interactional strategies, and four micro entextualization negotiation strategies. moreover, moeller (2014) has added three more components which help students negotiate the diverse englishes in the global contact zone. they are language awareness, rhetorical sensitivity, and negotiation strategies. for the last part, he mentions strategies of confirmation check, repetition, and clarification requests to repair potential 23translingual negotiation strategies .... (veni roza) communicative breakdowns due to norm differences. there are also two unique strategies ‘let it pass’ and ‘make it normal’ (firth, 2009). ‘let it pass’ means interlocutors wait patiently for more clues for words or features they do not understand, thus temporarily ignoring the trouble source. ‘make it normal’ means the interlocutors may treat as shared a lexical or grammatical feature that may not be normative for native speakers. they will achieve communicative success through features that they thus make normal for their situated interaction. those strategies involve three key-words collaboration, patience, and solidarity. based on these theoretical reviews, the researcher goes with the combined concepts of canagarajah (2013) and widiyanto (2016) in analyzing translingual negotiation strategies used by students during classroom discussion. methods the method used in the research a descriptive qualitative. to collect the data, the researcher observes, records, and takes notes the translation class discussion for seven meetings in the class of the sixth semester translingual students (using english, indonesian, and minangkabau languages) and the other half by doing the exercise of translation. there are seven topics of translation discussed in the classroom which is held in group presentation and discussion. during this process, negotiation strategies appear when presenters try to explain translation theories and some examples related to them and in the session of question and answer. after doing a theoretical review for half of the semester, students practice of translation from english texts into indonesian. the data which become the focus of the research are oral interaction between presenters and audience during classroom discussion. meanwhile, the role of teacher or lecturer in the class is to monitor the process of delivering messages by each participant of the groups. furthermore, the data of the research are taken from the classroom interaction in english education department at higher education where english is used as media of communication. however, students are also let to use bahasa indonesia, minangkabau, and other local languages which are positively perceived in supporting teaching and learning process (alsied, 2018). there are three parallel classes taught by two non-native teachers. the class which provided data for this research is class 6c (33 students) that is taught by a non-native teacher (not author’s class). the non-native teacher according to costa et al. (2017) is considered a proficient teacher (not bad) as long as having teacher quality like the length of experience, teaching qualifications, personal traits, motivation, love of children, and so forth. moreover, that teacher fulfills these criteria. in the class, the students are divided into 13 groups by considering that the three meetings are for introduction, mid, and final tests. each group consists of three members (moderator, presenter, and secretary) of seven groups and two students from six groups. as mentioned before, the researcher collects the information from seven groups (for the half semester) that do the presentation in front of the class (speaking); the other half is doing exercises or practicing translation project (writing). thus, contact zone means in this research is oral interaction which occurs among interlocutors, student-student interaction during the discussion of translation class for a half semester. to analyze the data, the researcher refers to miles and huberman’s interactive model, namely data collection, data condensation or reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification (in ngulube, 2015). these activities are carried out interactively and endlessly until the researcher gets saturated data. during data collection of recording students’ presentation, the researcher has anticipated data condensation (useless ones) and data display. to reduce data, the researcher has interaction with data display and table 1 translingual negotiation strategies no envoicing strategies recontextualization strategies interactional strategies entextualization strategies 1. approximation, e.g. “plate” instead “bowl” managing topic, “asking age,...” confirmation check, e.g. “you said…” simplification, using lower speech rate. 2. word coinage, e.g. handicapped toilet contextualization cues, “saying greeting” clarification request, e.g. “what do you mean?” segmentation, shortening utterances into segment. 3. foreignization, e.g. “kans” for “chance” accommodation comprehension check, “do you know?” regularization, foregrounding explicit forms. 4. code switching/ code mixing, e.g. “summa cum laude” using safe talk, hiding the fact to preserve interlocutor dignity. recast, “she sick”  “oh she is sick” leveling, “he eat” instead “he eats”. 5. code meshing “it ain’t enough” crossing, using language variety that belongs to other group. self-reformulation/ correction, “i go ..i went..” 6. rhetorical tendency, e.g. using humor creating a third space, save talk with topic to agree” self-representation, “i don’t know the material…” 7. gendered expressions, e.g. high involvement for women appeal for assistance, “what is the name? made of meat…” 8. mime, using visual illustration 9. let it pass, “ignoring small mistake” 24 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 21-29 conclusion drawing and reciprocally. when displaying the data, she refers to data reduction again, and when drawing the conclusion, the researcher comes back to data display and data collection until she gets the flooded answers related to negotiation strategies used by translingual students. results and discussions based on the data analysis, the finding reveals that students deploy four macro negotiation strategies when explicating the concepts and examples in translation class. they keep using english as they can as a medium of communication and sometimes alter their languages with indonesian and local language as needed in order to deliver the message. the researcher finds the negotiation strategies applied by interlocutors during classroom interaction are through; (1) deploying envoicing strategies of word coinage, foreignization, code-switching, and code mixing.; (2) employing recontextualization strategies by the use of the feature of linguistic form like saying a formulaic islamic greeting in arabic before speaking; (3) using interactional strategies through confirmation check, clarification request, and recast; (4) applying entextualization strategies by using simplification in communication by more competent students and leveling by less competent speakers. the first is the envoicing strategy which is to voice one’s thoughts so that other people can listen and comprehend one’s idea. voice as self-representation of the speaker exhibits his personality. the researcher finds the students do envoicing negotiation strategies in these following utterances that stated in table 2. based on the interaction depicted in table 2, it exhibits negotiation envoicing strategies. students are table 2 finding of envoicing strategies no strategies speaker context finding 1. word coinage the first group (gusti, dila and rahmi) presenting the word equivalence when translating from english into indonesian. presenter gives example in english: “breadwinner” is for “pencari nafkah” in bahasa. “pencari nafkah“ ricewinner ”instead of “breadwinner” alfu: why do the western call breadwinner ya for pencari nafkah? gusti: may be, because they eat bread as their staple food. melanie: may we call “ricewinner” for bapak kita? 2. foreignization the second group (resi, gustina, zahra) discussing kinds of meaning; one of them is referential meaning. it refers to word or concept which one can perceive. presenter provides some indonesian fruits in english version: durian, rambutan, apple, avocado, cherry, melon, papaya, pear, and strawberry. using english words “durian, rambutan, apple, avocado, cherry, melon, papaya, pear and strawberry” instead of indonesian fruits “durian, rambutan, apel, pokat, ceri, melon, pepaya, pir dan stroberi” bestiara: are you sure? …eat durian, rambutan, apple, resi: yes, i ever…durian, rambutan, apple… lika: avocado, cherry, melon, papaya, pear, and strawberry. 3. code mixing/ code switching the second group (resi, gustina, zahra) talking about expressive meaning that it cannot be judged true or false because it reflects speaker feeling. presenter gives example about evolution of bamboo in indonesia which symbolizes human life. bamboo evolution reflects human life process toward flawless stage. start from rebung as baby bamboo (nice to eat). we grow in youth a kid like buluh, talang, and aur. finally we become strong bamboo that is batang or batuang in minangkabau language. the higher our position and status, the more challenging and the more virtuous. bamboo has many varieties “rebung (rabuang): baby bamboo, buluh (buluah), aur (aua),eru, talang: young bamboo batang (batuang”: bamboo in general which can be only translated into “bamboo”). emil: why bamboo so philosophical for minangkabaunese? ehm….why is it so? resi: it grows well in our mother land and gives economy value in all aspect of human life. right? melisa: yes, agree. even we live in gurun aur. we name it. we use it for food, for handicraft, even for housing. emil: so that is why just bamboo because only we have it here. not in england. 25translingual negotiation strategies .... (veni roza) enthusiastic in taking their part during the discussion. even though they interact in indonesian and minang-english, the class atmosphere is so lively and warm. everybody is brave to speak without thinking of mistake. they apply their own repertoires which maybe native speakers do not understand. ‘rice winner’ is coined from ‘breadwinner’ to indicate that his father works hard as a breadwinner. moreover, then, the use of english fruits for indonesian since they do not know the word equivalence in indonesian, namely foreignization as it is in line with putrawan’s (2018) research that cultural terms are partially foreignized and partially domesticated into the target language. they also deploy code-mixing and code-switching as well when telling a variation of bamboo in english. moreover, kirkpatrick in widiyanto (2016) has argued that three aspects of languages; communication, identity, and culture. applying envoicing strategies is a way of exposing the aspect of identity. the structuralist proponent is keen on finding out students’ errors and tries to reveal that the errors lead to misunderstanding among the interlocutors. the idea of this fossilized error has been influenced by the monolingual paradigm that argues that language norms are fixed so that students must accept the norms as they are. in contrast, the structuralist opponent, the post-structuralist like translingual practice (tp) has a completely different perspective that considers errors as a process of learning and symptom of development. it will not lead to fossilization because mistakes can be eliminated as students learn and practice by merging their own languages into english and constructing new norms (canagarajah, 2013). based on the finding, students are not influenced by the paradigm ‘must correct’ in speaking as suggested by a monolingual perspective. they encourage themselves employing translingual negotiation strategies to deliver their ideas even though repertoire they used do not meet the standard form of english. for instance, zahra uses the strategy of code switching when she is stuck because of not knowing the term in english. if it is viewed from the structuralist approach which applies ‘english only’, zahra action is discouraged and rejected. this principle will eventually make students less confident to speak, even just keep silent because of the lack of vocabulary and grammar. the monolingual perspective does not support envoicing negotiation strategies which violate the norms of standard english. in contrast, zahra’s deed is something common committed in building the conversation by mixing code about local wisdom (harjanti et al., 2018). the second is recontextualization strategies which deal with the social aspect that interlocutors are engaged in meaning negotiation so that they can understand each other. in other words, users can speak in languages in appropriate ways (knowing when and how to say what to whom) because knowing the context or framing the talk in order to create save atmosphere. the researcher finds two micro strategies in these recontextualization strategies that can be seen in table 3. based on table 3, the researcher finds that students deployed two micro strategies, namely managing the topic table 3 finding of recontextualization strategies no strategies speaker context finding 1. managing the topic the third group (ade, sari, popi) they discuss the topic of evoked meaning. it arises from register variation. register is a variety of language than users considers appropriate to a specific condition. register arises from filed of discourse, tenor and mode. after that, the presenter gives example. taking part in a football match, register used will be dealing with that. framing:thetalk about ‘football match’ and also talking about ‘wedding party’ in minangkabau culture. arif: sometimes talking about football makes rusuh. many people fight talking about club they support went home earlier. ade: yes, arif, you have given us the answer. club, lost, win are the register of football. it impossible for us to talk about wedding party when the field is discussing football. argentina, messy, portugal, ronaldo. siti: yes…you alrait. ade: arif maybe the way they support the team is lebay and make others offended. so people angry. melanie: what about changing topic. after playing football, the football player is having a wedding party. siti: (laughing) melanie: if talking about weeding party in minang culture, what register appear, ya? gusti: i have ever been in a traditional party. we sit on the floor and served some foods like rendang and gulai rebung. ade: food, bridegroom, bride, yeni: ms, i was asked by the host to eat parabuang after i ate. gusti: what is parabuang actually? sari: as far as i know, parabuang is dessert. ehm,… it is part of the roof. parabuang indicates “closing”. it is to complete the phase of eating so everybody is full. gusti: perfect! 26 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 21-29 by framing the talk/text and alter the footing to prepare the ground for appropriate negotiation and contextualization by saying islamic greeting to open discussion. as mentioned in theory, each strategy is related to each other. when talking about recontextualization strategies, other strategies adhere to them. for the first strategy, many students are participating in discussing a football match. they can speak smoothly about the topic they are familiar with and having background knowledge on it. names of club, famous football players, winner and loser are terms related to the frame. they also produce repertoires which some friends do not know about it like parabuang. sari as a less active student, when knowing what parabuang is, wants to express her idea. that parabuag is part of the roof to close the meets between two roofs to avoid water drop. why dessert is related to part of a house is to indicate a complete job, full if eating. that idea is in line with widiyanto’s (2016) research that why a non-native english speaker (nnes) mechanic with mediocre english competence can better understand a car manual written in english than a fluent english speaker who does not know about mechanics. that is because she/he knows the context of the manual based on his/her background knowledge. the manual is framed in a certain structure, such giving pictures to show where certain bolts are or pictorial steps of opening certain compartment so that anyone who is familiar with the car quickly understands how to do the thing. the same things happen in a conversation where interlocutors use their recontextualization strategies so that they can understand each other better because they have background knowledge. moreover, in the second micro strategy, almost all group presenters start their speaking by saying a formulaic islamic greeting in arabic like assalamu’alaikumwarah matullahiwabarakaatuh, thanks to allah, peace be upon him to prophet muhammad and so forth, and introduced themselves using indonesian english, such as, “we are from group one”, “we are the second group”, and so forth. since they study in an islamic institution, it is common for them to always start any event by greeting and using islamic preamble. the third is interactional strategies. they deal with social aspect that interlocutors are engaged in meaning negotiation so that they can understand each other. it can be categorized as reciprocal strategies (resist others’ coercion) and collaborative strategies (interested in agreement and table 3 finding of recontextualization strategies (continued) no strategies speaker context finding 2. contextualization group 1 (gusti, dila, rahmi), starting the discussion of each topic by greeting using feature of linguistic form of a formulaic islamic greeting in arabic. assalamu’alaikumwarahmatullahiwabarakaatuh, thanks to allah, peace be upon himto prophet muhammad and so forth) and introduced themselves using indonesian english “we are from group one” instead of “we are the first group”. saying a formulaic islamic greeting in arabic. assalamu’alai kumwarahmat ullahiwabarak aatuh, thanks to allah, peace be upon himto prophet muhammad and so forth) group 2 (resi, gustina, zahra), group 3 (ade, sari, popi), group 4 (novia, melisa, timang) group 5 (suci, lika, emil) group 6 (lisa, indri, melani), grup 7 (melisa, yeni, putri) harmony). the finding reveals three micro strategies used by students are confirmation check, clarification, and recast. it can be seen in table 4. based on table 4, ade confirms interlocutor’s idea about ‘dress the chicken’ and ‘dress the baby’. she feels strange with the expression and thinks how to dress a chicken. meanwhile, popi clarifies novia’s answer on meaning ‘dress the chicken’ versus ‘dress the baby’. another strategy applied is recast done by suci and alfu. she repeats indri’s statement by revising the errors, and alfu revises emil’s error. in general, students who do not understand, they push themselves to deploy their interactional strategies to engage in negotiating meaning together with other class members especially those who have better competence in english so that they get something from the lesson. that finding is in line with widiyanto (2016) that students deploy pragmatic strategies such as a confirmation check to allow meaning negotiation among them. the sentences of ‘do you know what i mean?’ or ‘do you get it?’ are used to make sure that interlocutors understand. the fourth is entextualization strategies that aim at revealing how speakers (writers) to manage their productive processes by exploiting the spatiotemporal dimensions of the text and orientating us to the trajectory of meaningencoding practices in contact zone encounters (canagarajah, 2013). the researcher finds two micro strategies enacted by the discusser, namely simplification, and leveling. it can be seen in table 5. based on table 5, alfu, as a good speaker, can present his idea smoothly. he simplifies his speech by lowering the speech rate to minimize pauses. he explains the use of address terms in different situations by choosing simple word slowly. in contrast, ade as less competent one speaks in fillers, ‘umm’ because of her limitation vocabulary and grammar. the second minor strategy is that errors of grammar committed by students during speaking as the application of negotiation strategies. these errors do not hinder students from interacting and communicating with their friends in the classroom. it makes them able to create solidarity and model intercultural sensitivity (kulavuz-onal & vasquezkula, 2018). different from the structuralist point of view, all errors are problems and should be eliminated. it makes students afraid of getting involved in the conversation and voicing their ideas. the way students negotiate the meaning and make the audience understand what they communicate is a 27translingual negotiation strategies .... (veni roza) table 4 finding of interactional strategies no strategies speaker context finding the fourth group (novia, melisa, timang) presenter presents the topic about collocation of lexical items. collocation is concerned with how words go together. knowing which words go together is important to understand meaning of a text and translate well. the presenter give example of english collocation: ‘dress the chicken’ vs ‘dress the baby’. “what do you mean” isused confirmation of interlocutor’s statement. clarification is used to clarify statements uttered by someone. e.g. “you said…” “you mention…” 1. confirmation check ade: what do you mean? novia: i give you examples of collocation. word dress can collocate with chicken, baby… 2. clarification popi: you said dress the chicken? chicken has a dress? novia: the meaning is contrast. dress the baby is putting the clothes on, memasang baju bayi but dress the chicken involves taking the feathers off, menguliti ayam. dila: ade has given us example of english collocation. i ever heard. fire. is it collocation too? timang: fire? you mention api? alfu: i know expression in the movie “you are fired!” i also have some. novia: the hunter fired his gun. the book fired my imagination. popi: the man fired his stove. yes, they are collocations. they have different meaning, depend on word which follow...membakar, bersemangat, terbakar, menembak, dipecat. ok. i get it. 3. recast the fifth group (suci, lika, emil) they discuss grammatical equivalence of source and target languages. there are five categories: number, person, gender, tense and aspect, and voice. english recognizes all these grammatical categories which should be considered when doing translation. the presenter gives example: telling past experience in the last long vocation. lika and i went to sirandah island. the trip took six hours. arrived there, we saw many people. the view was so beautiful. interlocutor does recast to correct error of her friend. e.g. i go you went i am forget  you forgot indri: i also go to island…i am forget. near sirandah. suci: oo good. you also went to island,….sirandah, indri? you forgot it? indri: are you sure going there? suci: yes, no.., eh yes i went to pasumpahan, another island. oh i see… emil: different from both of you, i didn’t go anywhere. i helped my brother make homework of handicraft. alfu: emil was excellent. he helped her brother do the homework. right? table 5 finding of entextualization strategies no strategies speaker context finding 1. s i m p l i f i c a tion group 7 (alfu, sesmita and fatimah) presenter presents about the lexical items and situational context. the situation in which words are used is crucial. particular word that is chosen will depend on situation. speaker-addressee relationship, age, sex, and educational level influence our lexical items in doing translation. presenter gives example ofusing address term. prof, sir, ,mr. address term in different setting, prof smith, mr. john, sir abroad. in indonesia bapak prof, prof, pak rahman, ustadz, even father ade: umm, in seminar like proposal and thesis seminar, we call umm…prof. ritonga, umm outside we call him..bapak..in market maybe… ummm…mr. rahman. alfu: the same person will be addressed differently. in formal situation, prof. dr. rahman ritonga. even added bapak prof. in less formal bapak, sir or maybe mr. ustadz…..bapak ustadz in masjid. melanie: well. she is my father. all students: shocked! 28 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 1, february 2019, 21-29 breakthrough grasped by the teacher during class discussion. as it is suggested by the coiner (canagarajah, 2013) that english proficiency should focus on language awareness rather than grammatical correctness in a single variety, strategies of negotiation rather than mastery of productoriented rules, and pragmatics rather than linguistics competence as cited in chen (2017). teacher as the facilitator in the classroom needs to encourage students and raise their awareness to use some various strategies to speak and learn a language (alfian, 2018). classroom discussion keeps running as long as students take parts and interact in their own repertoires to negotiate meaning by applying some strategies as expressed previously. conclusions students have participated actively during discussion even though they produce some semiotic resources which are not congruent with the norms of standard english. students have negotiated message they want to share by applying some strategies. in envoicing strategies, they express their ideas by coining new word form, using foreignization in the indonesian language, and altering their speech to mother tongue when they do not know the words equivalences in english. in recontextualization strategies, they manage their topic by choosing a topic which produces safe talk like a football match and a wedding party. students also give cues ranging from the prosodic, paralinguistic, lexical and larger discourse by saying a formulaic islamic greeting in arabic before opening the discussion. in interactional strategies, students use confirmation check, clarification and recast. in entextualization strategies, the good competence students in english speak in lower speech rate to avoid pauses using fillers. they simplify their speech. meanwhile, less competent students do some errors in using verbs and be. in short, it can be concluded that these four strategies actually cannot be separated from each other because one uses one micro strategy, another one follows. above all, the conclusion is letting students expressing in their own repertoires about something without judging the correctness. negotiating the meaning is more important than saying a single correct sentence. since this research conducted in the classroom only, the data gotten are limited to the semi-contextualized situation. furthermore, this table 5 finding of entextualization strategies (continued) no strategies speaker context finding 2. leveling taken from presentation previously: various topics: missing be in every nominal sentences. missing be in passive voice. we served with rendang, gulairebung. error in using verb suffix. e.g. we presentation. error in subject-verb agreement. e.g. word follow error in using plural marker. emil: why bamboo so philosophical for minangkabaunese? 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(2016). the interconnectedness between translingual negotiation strategies and translingual identities: a qualitative study of an intensive english program in gorontalo indonesia (dissertation). ohio: the ohio state university. zheng, x. (2013). translingual identity-as-pedagogy: the identity construction and practices of international teaching assistants (itas) of english in the college composition classroom. washington dc: university of washington. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 29 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 29-38 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.6969 symbols of heroes in the indonesian and chinese movies woro januarti* college of chinese language and literature, wuhan university no. 299 bayi road, wuchang district, wuhan city, hubei province, pr china, 430072 aq_woro@yahoo.com received: 21st january 2021/revised: 15th april 2021/accepted: 19th april 2021 how to cite: juanuarti, w. (2021). symbols of heroes in the indonesian and chinese movies. lingua cultura, 15(1), 29-38. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.6969 abstract the research aimed to compare a movie with the theme of heroes from indonesia and china concerning message related to heroes, hero images, ideology, and even heroic culture of the two countries. it explored 20 indonesian and chinese films with comparative literary perspectives related to the theme of heroism. the focuses of the research were (1) how could the image of the hero created by the film provide a view of each country’s people’s culture, (2) could the movies provided more detailed information on the policies of each country, and (3) how could films strengthen the relationship between indonesia and china. the research applied a qualitative methods with a comparative literature perspective. the data source were from the dialogues in the film “merah putih”, “gie”, “susi susanti”, “soekarno”, “tanah surga katanya”, “3 srikandi”, “laskar pemimpi”, “guru bangsa”, “soegija”, “jenderal soedirman”, 攀登者 (the climbers), 中国机长 (the captain), 红海行动 (operation red sea), 烈火英雄 (the bravest),战狼 1 (wolf warrior 1), 战狼 2 (wolf warrior 2), 建国大业 (the founding of a republic), 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival), 建军大业 (the founding of an army), and 叶问 (ip man). data analysis technique were conducted by (1) determining variables, (2) classification, (3) analysis, and (4) conclusions. the results show that the symbols of heroism in indonesian and chinese films have similarities to the fight against colonialism, injustice, and class. the theme of heroism in the two countries’ films has a striking differences, such as chinese films are more concerned with collective characters’ obligations and interests, the film does not have an element of humor, and the theme emphasizes conflicts with other countries. while indonesia films highlight individual characters’ views and movies still include comedy and emphasize domestic problems. keywords: indonesia movie, chinese movie, heroic symbol, comparative literature introduction the representation of heroes in literature is an age-long endeavor. since ancient times, indonesia and china have had a long history of seeing heroes. indonesian heroes come from thousands of famous islands in the archipelago, making the perspective of heroes diverse. the diversity of the image of a hero for the indonesian continues to change over time. as in the days of colonialism, heroes are considered figures who dare to fight the invaders, who dare to sacrifice themselves, warriors of religion, and freedom fighters. after the independence period, a hero’s image is a figure who can make indonesia proud in the international arena and carry out development. in china itself, heroism begins with a flood disaster that 大禹 (da yu) can drive away (da yu dispelling flood). therefore, initial heroism is originated from the war of resistance against foreign countries and nature (hui, 2018). the heroes who continue told verbally become one of the gods in chinese society (fan & yuanyuan, 2019), namely 黄 大仙 (god of religion dao), 关羽 (god of war), 秦 琼 (god of door), 包拯 (judge bao). in the struggle against foreign invaders, feudal landlords, and bourgeoisie, countless heroes sacrifice their lives to save the people and the country from danger. they integrate their personal beliefs into the national will and stand up for the people again and again in danger. this kind of loyal patriotism and indomitable perseverance becomes the heroic spirit’s strong connotation (jingwei & peiyu, 2020). after independence, when society has achieved prosperity, being a hero for the chinese community is becoming a figure who can make china proud abroad, creator of new technology, guardian of china’s dignity, and 30 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 29-38 even a savior in all disasters in china. countless heroes sacrifice their lives to save the people and the country from danger. heroic spirit for chinese people is people’s heroes and national heroes based on heroic values, spiritual system, and value system centered on heroic values. it is the total heroic concept, heroic behavior, heroic achievements, and heroic values (yong, 2019). therefore, the concept of heroism that continues to change from generation to generation, both in china and indonesia, is essentially no different in popular discourse and modern interpretations of heroes and celebrities. celebrities and sports stars are often considered media heroes. after a disaster, the people who save and rebuild communities are also considered heroes (azri & agung 2017). the concept of superhuman ideas originated from legends and myths has been transformed into a popular culture that develops in society (saptanto & dewi, 2020). from these stories of heroism (superhuman) since ancient times, the two countries’ performing arts have been adorned. for examples are puppet shows, wayang golek, shadow puppets, ronggeng dance performances, beijing opera, traveling storytellers, and in line with technological advances in 1895, performing arts in the form of hero-themed films have emerged to entertain people around the world. the film, apart from being a historical record, also a cultural product (bo & fei, 2019), and with visual power (movies), is capable of building one’s perception through design elements on visual character (pratama, wardani, & akbar, 2017). moreover, art’s ultimate goal is to express people’s feelings and thoughts, so is the film (chao, 2019). in indonesia itself, cultural records through movies first showed in 1900 with establishing the first cinema in indonesia in the tanah abang area, batavia (jakarta). in 1950, the indonesian film industry was held by natives usmar ismail produced the film darah dan doa. it is claimed to be the first milestone in establishing the indonesian film industry (putri, nuraeni, & syahriar, 2017). at the beginning of its appearance, indonesian films had the theme of local stories such as loetoeng kasarung, the development of the forced marriage of lily van java. in china, films first appeared in 1896. many traders from various countries came to shanghai, a merchant from america who brought films screened in shanghai. the first film, which was a local production, was《定军山》(dingjun mountain), a film adapted from the story《三国演义》(the three kingdoms), which often performed in the beijing opera stage play. the word ‘hero’ according to the kbbi is a person who stands out because of his/her courage and sacrifice in defending the truth; valiant warrior; hero, while the word ‘heroism’ is defined the character of a hero, such as courage, willingness to sacrifice, and chivalry (sunendar, 2016). in china, a hero is an ordinary person who has a tremendous patriotic heart and turns into firm patriotic action (bin, 2020). according to the chinese online dictionary per letter 汉语大辞典, the hero is an unusual character, a character whose idea, ability, exceeds the crowd or becomes a leader for many people 非凡出众的人物。指见解、才能超群 出众或领袖群众的人” (hydcd.com). according to the chinese online word dictionary《现代汉语大词 典》, the hero is a character whose ability and courage surpass the crowd 才能勇武过人的人. according to modern chinese dictionary 7th edition《现代汉语词 典》the meaning of heroes is (1) a chinese man of great ability and brave than common people 本领高 强、勇武国人的人, (2) not afraid of difficulties, not thinking of himself, fighting bravely for the sake of the people, a respected person 不怕困难,不顾自 己,为人民利益而英勇斗争,令人钦敬的人, (3) having the quality of being a hero 具有英雄的品质 的. according to the complete dictionary《辞海》, a hero is an active attitude to complete tasks and show courage, strength, and sacrifice 主动为完成具有重大 意义的任务而表现出来的英勇、顽强和自我牺牲 气概和行为 (yigu, 2016). in the final analysis, these are the manifestations of altruism and collectivism. inspired by this spirit, it is worth affirming that individual interests give way to social interests and national interests (jingjing & hua, 2018). from the two countries’ definitions can be seen the differences in seeing a hero’s image. for the people of indonesia, everyone can become a hero, both personally and as a representative of a community or group, as long as he/she can defend the truth, be brave, has a mighty nature, want to sacrifice, and is like a knight. for the chinese people, being a hero is not a personal matter but is a task of the group, accompanied by an attitude of completing tasks with courage, strength, and sacrifice. second, after understanding the meaning of the two countries’ heroes, comparative literary theory is used as a weapon to understand the similarities and differences’ theme, culture, genetic, and others. in fact, since the beginning, goethe has introduced comparative literature under the name ‘world literature’. goethe has said that one day, literature will unite and become a glorious union. it means every country’s literature, even arts, will be united as world literature or world art. according to qian zhongshu, comparative literature is one branch of science, which tries to compare literary works between countries and languages (longxi, 1981). however, comparative literary research is no longer comparing literary works in one place but across languages and countries. therefore, the comparative academic analysis is considered fascinating because it can explore the culture and way of thinking of other ethnic groups or other countries by comparing their art or literary works. such as research comparing indonesian and chinese literary works that have been done by several researchers, as “perbandingan gambaran tokoh wanita dalam cerpen kamar kecil di gang qingyuan dan cerpen bulan sabit” by aika ramayu and nurni wahyu wuryandari, “analisis perbandingan tema pada novel hong gaoliang jiazu karya mo yan dan putri melayu karya amiruddin noor” by iswandari, and tengku amira. therefore, the research continues 31symbols of heroes in the .... (woro januarti) to open knowledge about the comparison of the movie to further research on comparing indonesian and chinese films. the research also examines the history, geography, and politics so that there are differences and similarities between the two countries in viewing a hero’s image. according to ji xianlin (jiarong, 2004), comparative literature is comparing the two countries’ literature that can be called comparative literature in the narrow definition. in a broad definition, comparative literature compares literary works with other branches of science, including comparing the humanities with social sciences, even compared to natural sciences. therefore, it is clearer to understand the heroes’ image in the two countries by looking at the extrinsic factors. professor yue daiyun explains that comparative literature that emerged in the late 19th century is a branch of literary research in the early 20th century. comparative literature compares the historical process of two or more kinds of national literature, literature, and other art forms and relations between ideologies. comparative literature is not the same as national literature, nor is it the same as general literature. comparative literature does not examine a single type of national literature that continues to be related from generation to generation within its scope, nor does it discuss the same and general basic forms of world literature. comparative literature is also not the same way as comparing literature in general. the end is to recognize phenomena as a way, but previously having its object, purpose, research scope, a standalone history of progress, and an independent research method (jiarong, 2004). therefore, the hero films in the two countries can compare the historical processes of the two countries. besides, viewing movies from both countries has a clear goal, comparing thoughts and depictions of representation in films of the two countries. scholarly interest in representing culture in the literature between indonesia and china has come a long way. even more so, this effort to understand two countries’ politics and culture manifests in a colored relationship with ups and downs. one of the efforts to restore relations between indonesia and china is to conduct cultural research and intercultural communication. the cultural study is considered important because in facing the industrial era 5.0, the scope of intercultural interactions is increasingly unlimited. intercultural communication is also important because it refers to the behavior and process of communicating and disseminating information among members of different cultural backgrounds (lingling, 2020), like indonesia and china. moreover, with indonesia’s improvement and china’s relations, a more in-depth cultural study is urgently needed. studying a country’s culture through movies, apart from understanding different cultures, defines and determines the representations, meanings, places, and functions of being heroes in their society. it would eliminate the intercultural communication gap resulting between indonesia and china. film as a cultural carrier is also an important medium to realize intercultural communication. it can reflect the values, thinking, the aesthetic orientation of a country, and at the same time, it has the responsibility of introducing foreign culture and spreading its own culture (lingling, 2020). based on the current background, this research’s fundamental question is: what is a hero’s image for the indonesian and chinese people is? this question also contains a more detailed question: how can the hero’s image created by the film provide a view of each country’s culture? can the movies that appear provide more detailed information on the policies of each country? how can films strengthen the relationship between indonesia and china? therefore, the research examines films presented in the 2000s that feature stories of struggles and figures of work. the film is a concept of the director’s visual imagination, which actually attempts to legitimize the director’s ideology. besides, movies can also use social communication, advertisements, business transactions, political campaigns, academic seminars, art activities, and educational activities because films can effectively shape, direct, simultaneously contest, or destroy the image and understanding of reality (nugroho, adji, & wastiwi 2017). the research tries to put aside the reasons for making films with political interests, benefits, or other indoctrination elements. the primary purpose is to see the views of heroes from two countries. the films chosen are films that screened during the celebration of independence day and flicked with heroism. the research obtains further information about the similarities and differences between the two countries in viewing the image of heroes, ideology, and even the origin of the perspective on heroic culture. the films in the research are based on true stories, not a movie with the theme of a fantasy story. the character represents elements that make a story worth mentioning, read, listen to, watch, and invite people to respond emotionally to that story’s inner being (fiky & lakoro, 2016). therefore, real characters through the film can create a film with a message of heroism. ten indonesian films include merah putih, gie, susi susanti, soekarno, tanah surga katanya, 3 srikandi, laskar pemimpi, guru bangsa, soegija, and jenderal soedirman. ten china films include 攀登者 (the climbers), 中国机长 (the captain), 红海行动 (operation red sea), 烈火英雄 (the bravest), 战狼 1 (wolf warrior 1), 战狼 2 (wolf warrior 2), 建国大业 (the founding of a republic), 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival), 建军大 业 (the founding of an army), 叶问 (ip man). in this research, the story of the struggle of indonesia and china in gaining independence can be seen from the film merah putih, laskar pemimpi, 建国大业 (the founding of a republic), 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival), and 建军大业 (the founding of an army). the characters of freedom fighters recorded in visual media are seen in the film gie, soekarno, 叶问 (ip man). stories of struggles after the colonial period can see in movies susi susanti, 3 srikandi, 攀登者 (the climbers), 中国机长 (the captain), 红海行动 32 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 29-38 (operation red sea), 烈火英雄 (the bravest), 战狼1 (wolf warrior 1), 战狼2 (wolf warrior 2). methods the research applies a qualitative method using comparative literary theory to see the differences between the two countries in their overall view of the hero symbol. the data source used is the dialogue contained in ten indonesian films, including merah putih, gie, susi susanti, soekarno, tanah surga katanya, 3 srikandi, laskar pemimpi, guru bangsa, soegija, jenderal soedirman, and ten chinese films such as 攀登者 (the climbers), 中国机长 (the captain), 红海行动 (operation red sea), 烈火英雄 (the bravest), 战狼 1 (wolf warrior 1), 战狼 2 (wolf warrior 2), 建国大业 (the founding of a republic), 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival), 建军 大 业 (the founding of an army), 叶 问 (ip man). the film data used are ten films with indonesian subtitles and ten chinese subtitles. the data analysis techniques are conducted by (1) determining the variable of film text data related to the theme of heroism, (2) classifying the data of the subtitles, (3) analyzing the data of the subtitles, and (4) drawing conclusions on the data of the subtitles. results and discussions after observing 20 films of the indonesian and chinese struggles shown in the 2000s, the finding and discussion can be seen in table 1 and 2. table 1 name and theme of the movies no movies theme 1. merah putih dutch military aggression resistance in 1947 2. gie the story of soe hok gie, a bright student who was critical of soekarno’s government policies 3. susi susanti susi susanti’s struggle through sports on the world stage with domestic problems regarding the chinese ethnicity 4. soekarno the story of soekarno and his thoughts 5. tanah surga katanya the story on the border of kalimantan and malaysia, as well as conflicts of nationalism no movies theme 6. 3 srikandi the story of three dart athletes fighting for the glory of the country through sports 7. laskar pemimpi the second dutch military aggression resistance in 1948 8. guru bangsa: tjokroaminoto the story of tjokroaminoto and his thoughts 9. soegija the story of pastor soegija and his thoughts 10. jenderal soedirman the story of general soedirman and his thoughts 11. 攀登者 (the climbers) in 1960, china was facing a major disaster and facing border criticism about qololangma (everest) mountain. a team of climbers from neighbouring countries prepared to climb from the south side, china decided to create a climbing team, and this was the first time the ascent to mount qololangma began rising from the north side 12. 中国机长 (the captain) the story of the damage sichuan airlines 8633 aircraft, which almost killed all crew and passengers on the plane 13. 红海行动 (operation red sea) rescue chinese citizens in conflict countries 14. 烈火英雄 (the bravest) the story of the firefighters 15. 战狼 1 (wolf warrior 1) the wolf special team training story 16. 战狼 2 (wolf warrior 2) retired wolf special team named 冷锋 (leng feng) rescue chinese citizens in conflict countries 17. 建国大业 (the founding of a republic) the story of the independence of the people’s republic of china 18. 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival) the story of the founding of the chinese communist party 19. 建军大业 (the founding of an army) the story of the formation of the chinese liberation army 20. 叶问 (ip man) the story of ye wen, a kung fu teacher during the struggle for independence table 1 name and theme of the movies (continued) 33symbols of heroes in the .... (woro januarti) table 2 movie’s important dialogues no movies important dialogue 1. merah putih 16.31: when performing state duties, you are obliged to respect yourself. the task of this unit, apart from allah swt, you must obey me. you don’t act until you say you do. 2. gie 51.07: political parties and groups have entered the campus large student organizations such as gmni, hmi, pmkri move on behalf of groups. i do not sympathize. i want to see students who have political meaning, no matter how small, always based on mature principles. they must have the courage to state that right is truth, wrong is wrong, and do not apply the truth to any group, mass organization, or religion. 3. susi susanti 08.11: papi wants susi to be the first indonesian player to win a gold medal at the olympics. 100.01: i don’t feel like an indonesian, because i am an indonesian. 4. soekarno 16.01: a leader must be able to conquer the hearts of the people. people are as mysterious as nature. if you can tie their hearts, they will follow you. 120.01.34: a man who is close to the hearts of the people, whereas he is not. 5. tanah surga katanya 12.43: what do you expect from the government? do they never give anything to father who has fought on the border? 12.52: i serve not for the government, but this country, for my people. 6. 3 srikandi 1:58 am: i hate it when the sport is mixed up with politics, you should note it. 117.21: continuing my dream 17 years ago to get a medal. but you have to remember, this medal is not for you, but your country. 7. laskar pemimpi 1.21.46: we’re getting rid of knil! in that case, my friends and i will hinder their movement, sir! 8. guru bangsa: tjokroaminoto 22.51: look at these workers. they are like worker ants who have lost their way. since prince diponegoro, we have lost more than 70 years. we don’t have a leader. 48.45: that’s tjokroaminoto, the piningit knight. 55.24: long live mr. tjokro, long live haji aminoeddin! ~ live the main! 1.03.08: mr. haendlift, times have changed; for today, we need someone like tjokroaminoto to become a bridge for a future that is still unclear. 9. soegija 30.05: one hundred percent catholic, one hundred percent indonesian. 40.00: give this letter to prime minister syahrir, asking semarang to form a regional government, to overcome the disasters and chaos that occur the population. the situation cannot be allowed to drag on. i will try to make a truce as soon as possible. 10. jenderal soedirman 5.00: as long as i was in the army, let alone elected to be commander-in-chief, my loyalty as commander-in-chief and his troops was absolute loyalty to the soekarno-hatta government. suppose some soldiers try to overthrow the syahrir government. in that case, our soldiers are not yet united, even though some of them deviate, my troops and i will support the legitimate government. regarding the announcement to dissolve syahrir's cabinet, it is tantamount to abusing his authority as commander-in-chief. and it never crossed my head once, which threatens to endanger the legitimate government. 1.39.12: (during the syarikat islam meeting, which was chaired by agus salim because tjokroaminoto did not come) according to mr. tjokro, the most important thing is education. 11. 攀登者 (the climbers) 06.40: “our mountain, we must be able to climb it, so that the whole world knows the chinese people’s power.” 我们自己的山,自己要登上去,让全世界看到,中国人! 12. 中国机长 (the captain) 07.5: please trust us, we are trained professional 请相信我们,我们受过专业的培训 54.53: the crew can ensure everyone’s safety 34 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 29-38 no movies important dialogue 机组能保证大家的安全 13. 红海行动 (operation red sea) 45.40: “not a single chinese person should be hurt.” 一个中国人都不能伤害 76.30: “eight against one hundred and fifty, have you had experiences like this before?” 8对150,你们以前有过这样的经验吗? 76.35: “our task is not to finish eight against one hundred and fifty, but to save the chinese who must be saved.” 我们的任务不是要解决8比150,而是去营救那个必须救得中国人质 120.27: “captain, the task is over!” 队长,任务完成了 135.29: “attention, i am a chinese naval soldier, you have entered china’s territory, please leave as soon as possible!” 注意,我是中国海军你即将进入中国领海,请立即离开! 14. 烈火英雄 (the bravest) 56.24: we will succeed, sir! 保证完成任务! 81.53: get up! comrade zheng zhi has died, none of us wanted to see that happen, however, in our line of duty, sacrifices are inevitable! 站起来,郑志同志牺牲了,是我们不愿意看到的事情,但是消防战斗早晚会有牺 牲。 114.04: i volunteer to join china fire and rescue team, i pledge my loyalty to the party and to strictly observe discipline. serve the people against all the odds. 我宣誓,我志愿加入国家消防救援队伍,对党忠诚,纪律严明,扑荡蹈火,竭诚 为民。 15. 战狼 1 (wolf warrior 1) 5.19: “how does it feel to kill people? i don’t feel like i’ve killed people, i just feel like i’m saving my friend. saving a friend in times of struggle really feels extraordinary.” 杀人什么感觉?我没有杀人的感觉,只有救人的感觉。救出战友感觉很爽 10.54: “chinese? don’t underestimate the chinese, when you meet him, you will find out what you are dealing with ..... china, is a forbidden place for troops like you.” a chinese guy? 不要小看中国,当你遇到他的时候,你就知道你面对的是什 么......中国,那可是你们雇佣兵的禁地 19.54: “do you know why we are called the wolf fighting squad? a wolf, is a pack animal, one wolf will not win against a tiger or a lion, but if a group of wolves, in this world no one can defeat him, so you have to cooperate with the troops, not just want to be great yourself, puff out your own greatness.” 知道为什么我们叫战狼吗?狼,群体动物,一头狼打不过一头狮或一头老虎,可 是一群狼,可以天下无敌,要团队合作,而不是一个人去英雄,炫耀个人能力 83.09: “every place has its own story, but anyone who tries to destroy china, to any extent will be pursued.” 每个地方都有故事,犯我中华者,虽远必诛 table 2 movie’s important dialogues (continued) 35symbols of heroes in the .... (woro januarti) from the 20 films’ observations, the following data obtain five in the equation: patriotic spirit, nationalist spirit, brave and never give up, based on a true story theme, not fantasy, and character abilities that stand out because of experience and strong observation abilities. first, a patriotic attitude means love for the homeland. from patriotic spirit it will lead to patriotism in humans. patriotism is the attitude of someone willing to sacrifice everything for his/her homeland’s glory and prosperity (sunendar, 2016) also the spirit of striving for the masses (xiaoguang, 2018). the characters in these 20 films are ready to die and sacrifice for the country. for example, in the movie soekarno, who was imprisoned many times, exiled, and finally struggled to negotiate with the japanese, until he was considered a traitor and foreign stooge by other indonesians, threatened the safety of soekarno’s family from the rampage of the masses. in the film “攀登者” (the climbers), character 曲 松林qu songlin, for 13 years, with one of his legs disabled while climbing, continues to work as a trainer of climbers so that one day he can make amends for dropping the camera on the first climb. second, the meaning of nationalist spirit is a lover of his homeland and his nation, a person who fights for his country’s interests (sunendar, 2016). also, the appearance of figures depicts patriot images. in the main characters’ dialects, the models’ enthusiasm to achieve justice, the people’s welfare, and the state can see the models’ enthusiasm. as in the film soegija, he has said: “cut off my head first, then you can use it (church).” also, in the film’s 红海行动 (operation red sea) dialect between characters to save chinese citizens trapped in a conflicted country, “how can eight people face the coup army numbering one hundred and fifty,” was answered by another figure, “we are not assigned in order eight against one hundred and fifty, we assigned to rescue the chinese hostages.” third, the film heroes are bombarded continuously with suffering, hardship, and pain, but the characters never give up. the struggle for independence, saving someone’s life, and the harrowing journey does not make these figures give up. as in the movie 战 狼 2 (wolf warrior 2), although the character 冷锋 leng feng, in his rescue to a virusno movies important dialogue 16. 战狼 2 (wolf warrior 2) 35.32: “bring dr. chen and forty-seven chinese citizens go home!” 把陈博士和 47 中国同胞带回来 116.31: “to chinese citizens: in times of trouble abroad, don’t despair! remember, behind you, there is a strong country that will protect you!” 中华人民共和国公民:当你在海外遭遇危险,不要放弃!请记住,在你身后,有 一个强大的祖国! 17. 建国大业 (the founding of a republic) 21.50: “if you save the land, you will lose the people. if you save the people, the land will be safe too.” 存地失人,人地谐失。存人失地,人地谐存。 90.10: “the ccp follows the will of the people, then there will be results like this.” 中共顺应了民意,所以才有今天的成就. 100.05: “china live long, china live long!” 中国万岁,中国万岁! 18. 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival) 73.22: “we are screaming for our four billion brothers!” 我们是为了四万万同胞喊冤 19. 建军大业 (the founding of an army) 124.24: “if there were them together, zhu de, he long, ye ting, mao zedong, then the ccp will definitely have a future.” 有他们在一起(朱德、贺龙、叶挺、毛泽东)中共就有未来了 20. 叶问 3 (ip man 3) 76.17: now i announce that i will challenge ye man publicly. 我现在宣布,我要公开挑战叶问. 88.39: if i am not sick, would you go to the challenge? yes 如果我没有生病,你会不会去应战?会 table 2 movie’s important dialogues (continued) 36 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 29-38 prone and rebellious area, catches him with the virus and high fever, he still takes up arms to protect the population from rebel attacks. in the film susi susanti, although susi’s character lives under the pressure of a nationality conflict, being a nationalist or no, which is attractive because she is of chinese descent, does not make her resign to make the red-white flag fly at the world championships. fourth, these 20 films are based on true stories developed with fictional stories to add to the story’s liveliness, like soegija, the first indigenous pastor in the colonial era who carried out diplomacy vatican’s declaration of indonesian independence. soegija also sent writings abroad asking for support from indonesia in the international community for the dutch atrocities in 1947. the film 中国机长 (the captain), which tells about the damage to the sichuan airlines aircraft 8633 on may 14, 2018, was theatrical. however, because of the skill of the crew, all passengers and crew survived. lastly, soe hok gie was a young chinese figure, which was very bright in his time. his reading passion made him very observant at reading the political situation in indonesia at a young age. the same as the movie guru bangsa: tjokroaminoto, the warrior figure of tjokroaminoto is like a light in indonesian youth’s gloom during the colonial period. his critical character made him often punished from his childhood for his logic about the dutch colonialists who exploited indonesian resources. in the film 叶问 (ip man), ye wen uses kung fu to protect the chinese people’s colonial atrocities. meanwhile, in the movie 建党大业 (beginning of the great revival), the character 毛泽东 mao zedong、周恩来zhou enlai、 孙中山 sun yatsen, and other characters have vital observations, are critical, like to read, and are good at reading situations in their time. base on the research, it indicates indonesian and chinese films both looking at the image of a hero, theme, form of struggle, depicting characterization, the hero’s character, and the message written in the film have significant differences. first, the themes raised in indonesian and chinese films have striking differences. indonesian and chinese movies, although several films tell the history of the struggle for national independence, indonesian films emphasize more actual domestic problems. as in the movie soekarno, the theme of gender (oppression of women) shows how painful it is for a woman who is destined to have no children and then has to sacrifice to be ready to accept her husband’s marriage to another woman. also, the emergence of the hero soegija, who fought in the name of catholicism. another noticeable thing is the raising of tribal conflicts that have occurred in indonesia. how does a world hero susi susanti have to face the conflict over pp’s impact? pp no. 10 of 1959 is presidential decree number 240 of 1967 and all kinds of state regulations regarding their status as citizens of chinese descent. chinese films that tell heroism stories are not full of themes of ‘protest’ to domestic problems. the films that were born only tell stories about history, loyalty to the country, and the community’s courage in helping victims of natural disasters. china’s slogan literature and art serve the workers, serving the proletariat 文艺为工农兵服 务,为无产阶级服务 in film creation are closely combined with the social process (yumei, 2020) that becomes materialized. second, in 20 indonesian and chinese films, it can be seen clearly that the main characters (heroes) in the movie have different ways of struggling. ye wen struggles as the main character in the film ip man; although he works alone, he struggles to fight to protect his kung fu school’s dignity. in the movie soekarno, it is told about their struggle; soekarno and hatta struggle individually to cooperate with the japanese. soekarno was considered a traitor and foreign stooge by the community. after japan lost to the allies, the youths forced soekarno to declare indonesia’s independence immediately. he refused, so he was kidnapped by another young man to rangkas bitung. from the emergence of the conflicts that have emerged, it can be seen that the image of heroes in indonesian films is personal, while chinese films are collective. therefore, chinese films reflect the altruistic characteristic of chinese socialism (bo & fei, 2019). table 3 movie’s different points no movies indonesia china 1. main theme against colonialism, against gender injustice, class, ethnicity against colonial, feudal, disaster relief 2. idea/form of struggle personal group 3. hero’s standing/viewing overview emphasizes personal views, family (group) responsibilities shouldering the task of the state (group) in general 4. hero traits besides being serious, smart, intelligent, mature, but also sometimes humorous, dynamic serious, smart, mature 5. explicit message emphasizing domestic problems, border conflicts, and economic hardships made sense of patriotism and nationalism disappear. showing the greatness of the chinese country, the film gives a message to foreign audiences, in particular, to not disturb china’s territory. 37symbols of heroes in the .... (woro januarti) third, the characters in the film can easily see it from the dialogue that appears. like soe hok gie’s dialogue in the movie, “political parties and groups have entered the campus, large student organizations such as gmni, hmi, pmkri move on behalf of groups, i do not sympathize. i want to see students make decisions that contain political meaning, no matter how small, based on mature principles. they must have the courage to say that right is the truth, and wrong is wrong, and does not apply the truth to groups, mass organizations, or religion wherever.” the main character in the film guru bangsa: tjokroaminoto says, “i, oemar said tjokroaminoto, a native muslim fighter and chairman of the sarekat islam which has two million members of the largest association in east java, understand the law, i am the first member of the volksraad, my grandfather adipati tjokronegoro has served as ponorogo’s regent, my grandfather from the other side kyai kasan besari, is a famous kyai who taught me about the value of life as a javanese.” in the films 中国机长 (the captain), the cabin crews have said, “please trust us, we are trained professional.” 攀登者 (the climber), there is a dialogue, “our own mountain, we must be able to climb it so that the whole world knows, the power of the chinese people.” it can be seen; clearly, the characters soe hok gie and tjokroaminoto put forward thoughts and responsibilities as ‘i’, while the characters in 中 国机长 (the captain) and 攀登者 (the climber) put forward ‘us/our’ in carrying out their duties. fourth, indonesia and china are on the same continent, namely the asian continent. a long and dark historical story due to colonialism has provided an extraordinary story to the world. in terms of the hero and storytelling character, there is a marked difference in the heroes. in indonesian and chinese films, heroes are always depicted as having severe, intelligent, and mature traits. however, in indonesian cinema, heroes are shown as having dynamic characteristics, while the chinese are not. the film laskar pemimpi tells of a humorous hero, also in the movie, soegija and jenderal soedirman appear as innocent characters. these are to give the audience a sense of humor. fifth, in the film bumi surga katanya, the explicit message talks about indonesia’s complicated problems with malaysia’s border, such as many indonesian citizens who have moved malaysian citizenship due to economic pressure. the ringgit currency uses in indonesia and the lack of nationalism towards indonesia by not knowing it. people on the border are against the red and white flag. other implicit messages in the film are also present, such as reading poetry satiating the corruptors, grandfather salman’s loyalty to indonesia even though the government does not pay attention. if indonesian films contain ‘criticism’ of indonesia’s domestic problems, chinese films seem to provide ‘criticism’ to other countries not to disturb china’s territory. it is seen from the film 红 海行动 (operation red sea), which shows the strength of the chinese naval fleet, as well as 攀登者 (the climbers), which tries to tell the world the greatness of chinese climbing forces in terms of physical and technological terms in climbing the himalayas. this message is clear, providing information to viewers and other countries that china’s territorial territory should not be contested. it is a dead card. the researcher tries to dig deeper into several points of view about the differences in culture and how the image of heroes between indonesia and china has occurred. first, the research tries to conclude from historical and geographical factors points of view. indonesia is an archipelagic country so that each community has a very different character. therefore, it is not easy for a country with more than three hundred ethnic groups to have the same concept of leaders and heroes. then, indonesia is a divine and democratic country. therefore, people often obey religious leaders rather than the central government. the hero’s image in the film also puts forward thoughts of the character and the group. china, since the tang dynasty, was a country with a vast population. therefore, education since childhood has been instilled to live in groups and live for the kingdom (land). chinese society does not prioritize individual life but puts forward collective experience. chinese society’s traditions live under a central feudal system for five thousand years, making them passive people, not deserving of personal glory. according to chinese culture, praise and truth belong to the king. therefore, this characteristic brings chinese society to become a collective figure. everything is done based on orders from the higher-ups, not on their own accord. second, from the interpretation of the meaning of patriotism point of view. in the interpretation of the meaning, understanding patriotism for the people of indonesia and china is different. for the indonesian people, everyone can become a hero, personal characteristics or being a hero can be done to defend the group. for chinese people, the notion of a hero is a person who has completed tasks and fought for the country. third, from a cultural perspective, indonesian society’s culture has been promoting personal space since ancient times. the form of communication in indonesian society is also private so that everyone is given the freedom to express their opinions. at the same time, they do not conflict with religious and customary ethics. the communication culture of chinese society is like a ‘cobweb’, such as the education applied in china since thousands of years ago by confucius with his book zhongyong (中庸: “天下之达道五,所以行之者三,日君臣 也,父子也,夫妻也,昆第也,朋友之交也,五 者,天下之达道也,知,仁,勇,三者,天下之 达德也,所以行者一也。the duties of universal obligation are five, and virtues wherewith they are practiced are three). the zhongyong means the life of one person must be related to many people. therefore, any decision-making for the chinese people always puts the interests of many people first. confucianism has influenced chinese traditional culture for a long time. for confucianism, ethics as the center, social class as the basis, social governance based on ‘rule of rites’ and ‘power of virtue, supplemented by law rule, it advocates that sages decide on rites and laws 38 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 29-38 and believes that they are upright and do not obey orders (yuan, 2019). therefore, a character in the film dedicated to the country appears and does not leave a single chinese person in a state in conflict. fourth, from the political issues point of view, such as in tanah surga katanya, the hero figure is a veteran figure who is still faithfully living in indonesia. he could easily change nationalities to improve his life, but he refused in the name of nationalism. in the example of this film, it can be seen that indonesia is still experiencing complex economic problems, national defense, and state management in dealing with areas far from the capital. in chinese films, being a hero is a character who can protect all chinese society, even abroad, for example, in times of disaster. besides, for chinese people, a hero is a figure who can protect china’s borders from foreign attacks, as in the film《红海 行动》(operation red sea), which is a reflection of china’s maritime border conflicts with other countries. conclusions the hero’s image in indonesian and chinese films has different geographic, cultural, ideology, and political issues, giving rise to a unique heroic story in the two countries’ films. these films teach that there are still many unresolved tasks and homework, both domestic and foreign conflicts. therefore, it can open up new scientific horizons to know each other’s culture and political policies by comparing indonesian and chinese films. understanding the cultures of other nations through films can help strengthen relations between the two countries moreover, the problem 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(2016). 现代 汉语词典 modern chinese dictionary (7th ed.). beijing: the commercial press. 汉语大辞典 chinese dictionary online. http://www. hydcd.com. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 155 lingua cultura, 16(2), december 2022, 155-161 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i2.8315 grammarly as automated writing evaluation: its effectiveness from efl students’ perceptions utami dewi* department of english education, faculty of tarbiyah science and teacher training, universitas islam negeri sumatera utara jl. wiliem iskandar pasar v, medan estate, sumatera utara 20731, indonesia utamidewi@uinsu.ac.id received: 16th march 2022/revised: 21st october 2022/accepted: 21st october 2022 how to cite: dewi, u. (2022). grammarly as automated writing evaluation: its effectiveness from efl students’ perceptions. lingua cultura, 16(2), 155-161. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i2.8315 abstract the research aimed to describe efl students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of grammarly as an automated writing evaluation (awe). nowadays, the grammarly application is used to give awe in many efl writing classes. the subjects of this research were 75 students in an efl writing class. the questionnaires and interviews were used to explore the students’ perceptions of using grammarly in editing their drafts. the data from the questionnaires were calculated by percentages, and the data from the interview were analyzed by content analysis. the results show that the students have positive perceptions of using the grammarly application as awe. they state many advantages of grammarly, such as grammarly helps to identify errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and word choices in writing; helps to minimize errors in writing products; to enhance paraphrasing skills; to corrects the errors in writing anytime and anywhere; helps to improve students’ vocabulary; and grammarly is easier to find errors in writing. besides the advantages, the students state the drawback of grammarly as awe, such as grammarly for free version has limited features to check errors; grammarly for the premium version is expensive for students; and grammarly cannot be accessed offline. the results of the questionnaires and interview represent that the grammarly application has positive impacts on efl students as an automated writing evaluation. keywords: grammarly, automated writing evaluation, efl writing class introduction amidst the covid-19 era, the teaching-learning process cannot be organized face to face but through an online meeting. because of this, the utilization of technology is unavoidable and necessary for students of english language learning. it makes mobileassisted language learning (mall) used in the teaching-learning process. mall is a language learning through technology. the use of mall is also increasing as a consequence of online meetings. the students and teachers cannot meet face to face in the classroom, so they use some applications to improve their ability to learn english. mall is defined as an approach to increase language learning by handheld mobile devices (fithriani et al., 2019). technology developments make many computerized programs that support language learners to develop better. the development of awe (automated writing evaluation) software has enabled l2 (second language) learners to receive feedback on language and content in addition to automated scores (bailey & lee, 2020). the usage of many automatic writing assessments programs nowadays has emerged as a new trend in many efl (english as a foreign language) writing lessons. many researchers have stated that the software suggests a positive effect on the quality of students’ second drafts and subsequent submissions. post-treatment questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups show a positive effect on the student’s attitudes toward feedback (el-ebyary & windeatt, 2010). writing is a complex skill that involves in pr es s 156 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 155-161 expressing ideas in written language. in addition, writing is a group of letters or symbols written or marked on a surface to communicate an idea to others (collin in hakiki, 2021). writing is such a complex activity that requires a lot of cognitive and linguistic abilities; consequently, efl learners commit errors when completing a particular essay (faller, 2018). efl students have claimed that writing is difficult to learn because they lack vocabulary and grammar when writing a piece of writing (hakiki, 2021). the development of technologies proposes many applications which assist students in solving their problems in writing. many programs support or assist language learning. the use of mall is evolving nowadays. in this research, mall also is used in efl writing classes. in the writing process, efl students struggle to produce the written language. besides the students expressing their ideas in forms of written language, they also need to pay attention to vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, etc. grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling become vital elements in writing. good grammar in writing helps writers deliver the message to the readers (perdana & farida, 2019). most efl students have the problems in writing, such as a lack of grammar and limited vocabulary. undergraduate l2 students often struggle with paraphrasing, summarizing, synthesizing, appropriate attribution, and referencing, which may reduce motivation in the l2 writing class (lazic et al., 2020). one of the products is grammarly as an awe program, which evaluates writing automatically using an online system. grammarly has two types: a free version and a premium version. grammarly for free version has limited features which provide general aspects such as grammar, punctuation, and word spelling. grammarly for the premium version has more completed features, such as plagiarism detection, vocabulary suggestions, and contextual spelling. in addition, the grammarly premium version also gives more grammar errors and checks an additional 150 grammar points (pratama, 2020). figure 1 shows the differences between free and premium grammarly. grammarly helps students edit their writing by checking potential writing issues with grammar, spelling, punctuation, and vocabulary suggestions. grammarly is a simple tool that can help students and academies deal with their writing by checking spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. it also provides comprehensive and beneficial feedback, such as corrections and suggestions to make the writing clearer, more precise, more effective, more readable, mistake-free, and impactful, with a high rate of accuracy and evaluation speed (fahmi & cahyono, 2021). grammarly is one of the awe programs used as computer-generated feedback. amidst the covid-19 era, efl writing classes are not organized face to face; thus, the lecturer cannot give the students corrective feedback or evaluation directly in the process of revising and editing essays. in the editing process, the lecturer asks the students to use a tool to improve the quality of their writing. in the efl writing class, the lecturer encourages the students to use technology in editing their essays. technology development increases the uptake of software that can automatically analyze students’ writing (hockly, 2019). in this research, the mall assists students in improving their writing ability. it gives solutions for the students’ problems in writing, such as the grammarly application used for automated writing evaluation and feedback. figure 1 the features of grammarly in free and premium version in efl writing class, the students use the free version of the grammarly application autonomously to edit their essays. grammarly is used as automated writing evaluation because the function of grammarly is to give corrective feedback on students’ writing (bailey & lee, 2020). before the students submit the essays to the lectures, they can use the grammarly application to automatically check their corrective feedback from the tool. grammarly is an application that can help to learn english in particular writing, such as grammarly is a writing assistant, which means this application proofreads and edits documents for grammar and spelling (fahmi & rachmijati, 2021). the effectiveness of awe software is a topic of some controversy among both researchers and classroom practitioners, with advocates viewing awe as an excellent tool for improving students’ writing (hockly, 2019). some studies have investigated the implementation of grammarly and the benefit of grammarly in writing classes. grammarly is beneficial for efl students as the assistant helps the teachers to guide the students on writing activities (mubarok & syafi, 2020). the presence of grammarly is one of the online grammar checkers as the impact of technology development and the use of this software affects the in pr es s 157grammarly as automated writing .... (utami dewi) increase of students’ performance in writing (fitria, 2021). grammarly has various advantages, including grammar checker, proofreading, and plagiarism check. the grammarly application can provide input recommendations on correct spelling and correct errors in word usage (fahmi & rachmijati, 2021; hakiki, 2021). in addition, grammarly is one of the convenient tools that encourage students to edit their writing by checking its spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. other researchers have revealed the positive effects of grammarly on improving students’ writing, confirming the benefits of free automated writing evaluation tools (parra & calero, 2019). previous studies have stated the effectiveness of the grammarly application as awe improves the students’ writing products in the efl classroom. those studies do not explore the students’ perceptions of using grammarly in efl writing classrooms. in accordance with the research findings, this research explores further the efl students’ perceptions of using grammarly as awe in their writing classroom. firstly, this research describes whether the students have positive or negative perceptions of using grammarly. secondly, students’ perceptions of using grammarly and its effectiveness in editing their essays. thirdly, the advantages and drawbacks of grammarly are explored based on students’ experiences in using grammarly in efl writing classes. the findings of this research describe the students’ perceptions of using the grammarly application as awe in efl writing class. methods this qualitative research describes the students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the grammarly application as an automated writing evaluation (awe). the data are described qualitatively based on the students’ experience using the grammarly application. the students are given questionnaires and interviews. purposive sampling is used to choose the subjects of this research. the subjects are selected because the students use grammarly in their efl writing classroom in order to get data about their perceptions of its use. the subjects of this research are 75 students who studied efl writing classes. in efl writing class, the students are given the assignment to write some essays, and they follow the writing process. in the editing process, the students are suggested to use the grammarly application to edit their drafts. the students ask to use the free version of grammarly. they use the grammarly application six times in the process of editing their essay. the instruments of data collection are questionnaires with a likert scale and interviews. firstly, 75 students are given questionnaires with five scales to investigate their perceptions on the use of grammarly as awe in their efl writing class. the questionnaires consist of two sections and eleven statements that explore the intensity and effectiveness of grammarly usage. next, the interview explores the advantages and weaknesses of grammarly’s application as awe. from the 75 students, the researcher has selected 15 to be asked two questions confirming their answers in the questionnaires. the 15 students are selected randomly and consisted of the students with positive or negative perceptions; therefore, they share their perceptions on using the grammarly fee version in their writing class. the interview questions confirm the advantages and drawbacks of grammarly based on students’ experience in efl writing classes. the students with positive perceptions are asked about the advantages of grammarly; otherwise, the students with negative perceptions are asked about the drawbacks of grammarly. the research data are analyzed using percentages and content analysis. firstly, the data from questionnaires are analyzed by percentages. the analysis describes the percentages of the effectiveness of students’ perceptions of grammarly as awe in their efl writing class. secondly, the data from the interview are presented by theme categories. the results show some of the advantages and drawbacks of grammarly as awe in the efl writing class. results and discussions the findings are found by analyzing the questionnaires and interviews given to the students. firstly, the findings of this research represent the intensity of using the grammarly application in their writing class and the students’ intensity in reading the comments when they use the grammarly application. the questionnaires are about the student’s perceptions of using the grammarly application in their writing process. the data of the questionnaires are analyzed by calculating the percentages of the total number of students that answer of never, occasionally, sometimes, often, and always that can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 the use of grammarly q1: i used grammarly in editing essay. in pr es s 158 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 155-161 the results of the first questionnaires in the first section present that none of the students ever used grammarly in editing, 10,7% of the students occasionally use grammarly in editing, 53,3% sometimes use grammarly in editing, and 20% of the students often use grammarly in editing. based on the result, most of the students ever use grammarly to edit their essays. the percentages point out that all students have ever used the grammarly application to check their errors in writing. figure 3 is one example of using grammarly, where it is nk’s screenshot of using grammarly as awe. q2: when using grammarly, i read an extensive commentary. in addition, the results of the second questionnaire of the first section describe when using grammarly. 5,3 % of the students never read the extended explanation of errors, 4% of the students occasionally read the extensive commentary, 16% of the students sometimes read the extensive commentary, 38,7% of the students often read the extended explanation of errors, and 36% always read the extensive comment of mistakes. the results mean that most students read the comprehensive analysis of errors when editing their writing using the grammarly application. they learn how to edit their mistakes from the grammarly analysis. secondly, the findings of this research describe the students’ perceptions of using grammarly as mall and awe in editing their essays. table 1 describes the results of the questionnaires of the students’ perceptions of grammarly as mall and awe. the questionnaires are analyzed by calculating the total number of students who strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. after getting the total numbers, the results are calculated by percentages in each item of the questionnaires. in table 1, it is written the categories in numbers 1-5 that represented strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). those percentages reflect that most of the students have positive perceptions of the use of grammarly as mall. other research also describes that the students give positive responses to the use of grammarly (fahmi & cahyono, 2021). most of the students are ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ with the statements in the questionnaires. the questionnaires’ findings represent the students’ positive perceptions of grammarly as awe. they consider grammarly figure 3 the example of student’s screenshot in using grammarly table 2 students’ perceptions of grammarly as mall and awe no 1 2 3 4 5 1 grammarly is easy to use 0 % 1,3% 26,7% 50,7% 21,3% 2 grammarly is accessed. quickly 2,7% 6,7% 25,3% 45,3% 20% 3 grammarly helps check grammar errors. 0 % 0 % 10,7 % 64 % 25,3 % 4 grammarly identifies errors simpler and quicker. 2,7% 4 % 22,7% 48% 22,7% 5 grammarly is accurate, precise, and detail. 0 % 1,3% 34,7% 49,3% 14,7% 6 grammarly helps you to minimize errors in grammar, punctuation, and word choices. 0 % 1,3% 12% 54,7% 32% 7 grammarly is accessed anytime and anywhere. 0 % 4% 17,3% 56% 22,7% 8 grammarly helps you to enhance paraphrasing skills. 0 % 0 % 33,3% 58,7 % 8% 9 grammarly helps you to enhance your summarizing skills. 0 % 6,7% 28% 56 % 9,3% in pr es s 159grammarly as automated writing .... (utami dewi) is an effective tool for automated writing evaluation. grammarly helps students identify errors simpler and quicker; minimize mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and word choices; enhance paraphrasing skills; to improve summarizing skills. in other research, the students review grammarly as an effective tool because grammarly can be easy to use, accessed quickly, and helpful in checking grammar errors. grammarly is one of the online grammar checkers used in assessing efl writing classes and proofreading by checking mistakes such as grammar (fitria, 2021). grammarly is accurate, precise, detailed, and can be accessed anytime and anywhere. grammarly is one of the possible solutions that help students correct their language (mubarok & syafi, 2020). based on the finding, the students consider grammarly as one of the applications that assisted them in editing their draft. furthermore, this research also uses interviews to explore more students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of grammarly as awe. a structured interview is given to the students to explore the advantages and drawbacks of grammarly application as awe. the first interview is “what are the advantages of using grammarly?” the transcription of the interview is analyzed by content analysis in table 3. table 3 represents the transcription of the interview that analyzes by content analysis. the interview transcription is classified into six theme categories as the advantages of grammarly as awe. the six advantages of grammarly as an automated writing evaluation are that it helps to identify errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and word choices in writing; to minimize errors in writing products; to enhance paraphrasing skills; to correct errors in table 3 advantages of grammarly as awe no theme categories transcription of students’ interview 1. grammarly helps to identify the errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling and word choices in writing. i think the advantages of using grammarly is grammarly helps me to find the wrong word usage, wrong spelling, etc. (gp) we can know the errors of our writing. (ya) personally, i think, there are so many advantages of grammarly, grammarly was help me to fix the error sentence on my paper. (jh) the advantage of using grammarly is that i can know where it is wrong and how it should be written, and i also know the function or explanation of every wrong word from using grammarly. (ya) there are so many advantages when using grammarly, can check the grammar that we use at once with the correct answer and, etc. (sl) well, i think to make me easy for check if there's something mistakes in my text. (sk) it makes us easy to do our essay. (ap) grammarly is one of useful application for us, as tbi student to enhance our skill and checking error in our writing english. (ln) 2. grammarly helps to minimize errors in writing products. i think grammarly can help me to reduce errors in writing. (iw) the advantages are grammarly can fix our grammar when we want to read an essay. (mr) with the using grammarly then the essay we make is innocent and true. (wr) 3. grammarly helps to enhance paraphrasing skills. assisting in the rectifying of the wrong word, assist in paraphrasing. (lh) 4. grammarly helps to correct the errors in writing anytime and anywhere. in my opinion, the advantages of using grammarly is that it can help correct grammar, provide explanations about its structure, and can be used anytime and anywhere.(sn) 5 grammarly helps to improve students’ vocabulary. make the vocabulary better, easier to use. (hl) 6. grammarly is easier to find errors in writing. in my opinion, the advantage of grammarly is that it makes easier to find errors in an arrangement of words in a text or sentence. (lt) grammarly can be used online so i don’t have to download the app, so easy to used and the most important is it is free. (jh) in pr es s 160 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 155-161 writing anytime and anywhere; to improve students’ vocabulary; and to find errors in writing easier. based on the students’ experience in using grammarly as awe, they have stated that grammarly facilitates to perceive of mistakes in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and phrase alternatives in writing; grammarly enables to minimize errors in writing products; grammarly helps the students learn how to paraphrasing; grammarly can be accessed flexibly in time and place; grammarly helps to improve the students’ vocabulary; and grammarly identify the errors easier. these advantages of grammarly are described that the students consider grammarly as an online supplementary instructional tool to evaluate the student’s writing products. as in previous research, participants have positive perceptions of grammarly and found it helpful in addressing shortcomings in their grammar knowledge, word usage, style, and writing mechanics. other researchers have also stated the positive effect of grammarly. they describe the positive impact of grammarly software on efl writing products. grammarly software in efl writing makes a positive contribution to reducing errors made by the students in terms of vocabulary usage (diction), language use (grammar), and mechanics (spelling and punctuation) (ghufron & rosyida, 2018; hockly, 2019). in addition, grammarly gives feedback and a guide to find the correct one (fahmi & rachmijati, 2021). these findings highlight the potential of predictive text and real-time corrective feedback as a way to support l2 writing, particularly among novice writers who may struggle to write effectively in the l2 (dizon & gayed, 2021). besides the advantages of grammarly, this research also examines the drawbacks of grammarly as awe. the second question is used to ask about the drawbacks of the grammarly application for awe. the question is, “what is the drawback of grammarly?” the analysis of the students’ interviews shows that some students stated that grammarly has no weaknesses. otherwise, some students have stated the drawbacks of grammarly, such as grammarly for the free version having limited features to check errors, grammarly for the premium version being expensive for students, and grammarly cannot be accessed offline. grammarly-free user has limitation because grammarly is used effectively to cast off basic errors, grammar, punctuation, and conciseness, while grammarly premium includes a variety of extra features consisting of readability sentence rewrites, tone adjustments, plagiarism detection, word choice, formality stage, fluency, and extra superior pointers. though there are many strengths of grammarly software in the process of writing feedback, there are also some weaknesses of grammarly in giving automated feedback-based efl students’ experiences. other researchers have also found some weaknesses in grammarly. the students also admit that they face several weaknesses in utilizing grammarly in comparing their instructional writing, consisting of deceptive comments, over-checking on reference lists, and inability to check the context and writing content (nova, 2018). the findings show that grammarly free has many advantages and few drawbacks. grammarly suggests corrections, gives brief explanations about writing errors, helps them form sentences, and improves their overall writing performance. grammarly free version can be considered as awe for students in efl writing class. conclusions in this research, most of the students have positive perceptions of the use of grammarly in their efl writing classroom though they only use the free version of grammarly. they find many advantages, such as it helps them to check the errors in grammar, table 4 the drawback of grammarly as awe no theme categories transcription of students’ interview 1 grammarly does not have the weakness. nothing. (ap) so far, i can't find the weakness when i'm using grammarly. (sl) 2 grammarly for free version has limited features to check errors. when we want to try to fix our grammar in a sentence, there’s a level correctness and it’s not free. (jh) in my opinion, the drawback of grammarly is that the application cannot be used all the time, its use is limited. (mr) i think the weakness of grammarly is not being able to identify some errors words, if we are a free user. (gp) 3 grammarly for premium version is expensive for students. the price is so expensive. (sk) in my opinion, the weakness of using grammarly is that the application is not free and requires payment and must use the internet.(sn) 4 grammarly cannot be accessed offline the weakness is that it cannot be accessed offline and is not too fast in its application or in other words a little slow. (ya) in pr es s 161grammarly as automated writing .... (utami dewi) punctuation, spelling, and word choice, helps them to minimize their mistakes in writing, and helps them to improve their vocabulary and writing ability. in addition, students can access grammarly easily, anytime and everywhere. by those many advantages found by students, it means that grammarly is an effective application for automated writing evaluation (awe). otherwise, some students perceive that grammarly for the free version as awe has some drawbacks, such as limited features to check errors, so if the students want to get further features in evaluating their writing, they need to use grammarly for the premium version, which is expensive for students. another weakness is that grammarly should be used online. further research can show the effectiveness of grammarly compared with other applications such as awe or teachers’ feedback. based on the research finding, it is suggested that the grammarly for free version can be used as an online application that assists students in assessing their writing automatically and independently. in the limited time, the researcher does not compare the online feedback and direct feedback. furthermore, the other researchers can explore or compare the automated writing evaluation and peer feedback in the process of revising in efl writing classrooms. references bailey, d., & lee, a. r. (2020b). an exploratory study of grammarly in the language learning context: an analysis of test-based, textbook-based, and facebook corpora. tesol international journal, 15(2), 4-17. dizon, g., & gayed, j. m. (2021). examining the impact of grammarly on the quality of mobile l2 writing. jalt call journal, 17(2), 74-92. https://doi. org/10.29140/jaltcall.v17n2.336. el-ebyary, k., & windeatt, s. (2010). the impact of computer-based feedback on students’ written work. international journal english studies, 10(2), 121142. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/ijes.10.2.119231. fahmi, m. a., & cahyono, b. y. (2021). efl students’ perception on the use of grammarly and teacher feedback. jees (journal of english educators society), 6(1), 18-25. https://doi.org/10.21070/jees. v6i1.849. fahmi, s., & rachmijati, c. (2021). improving students’ writing skill using grammaly application for second grade in senior high school. project (professional journal of english education), 4(1), 69-74. http:// dx.doi.org/10.22460/project.v4i1.p69-74. faller, j. m. v. (2018). grammarly investigation into efl writing issues involving omani learners. international journal of language & linguistics, 5(3), 165-174. https://doi.org/10.30845/ijll. v5n3p16. fithriani, r., dewi, u., daulay, s. h., salmiah, m., & fransiska, w. (2019). using facebook in efl writing class: its effectiveness from students’ perspective. kne social sciences, 634-645. https:// doi.org/10.18502/kss.v3i19.4892. fitria, t. n. (2021). grammarly as ai-powered english writing assistant: students’ alternative for english writing. metathesis journal of english language literature and teaching, 5(1), 65-78. http://dx.doi. org/10.31002/metathesis.v5i1.3519. ghufron, m. a., & rosyida, f. (2018). the role of grammarly in assessing english as a foreign language (efl) writing. lingua cultura, 12(4), 395-403. https://doi. org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4582. hakiki, g. n. r. (2021). efl students’ perception of the use of grammarly application in writing class. eduvelop: journal of english education and development, 4(2), 99-106. hhttps://doi.org/10.31605/eduvelop. v4i2.891. hockly, n. (2019a). automated writing evaluation. elt journal, 73(1), 82-88. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ ccy044. lazic, d., thompson, a., pritchard, t., & tsuji, s. (2020). student preferences: using grammarly to help efl writers with paraphrasing, summarizing, and synthesizing. in f. karen-margrete, l. sanne; b. linda, t. sylvie (eds), call for widening participation: short papers from eurocall 2020 (pp. 183-189). https://doi.org/10.14705/ rpnet.2020.48.1186. mubarok, a., syafi, h. (2020). grammarly : an online efl writing companion. eltics (english language teaching and english linguistics) journal, 5(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.31316/eltics.v5i2.912. nova, m. (2018). utilizing grammarly in evaluating academic writing: a narrative research on efl students’ experience. premise: journal of english education and applied linguistics, 7(1), 80-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.24127/pj.v7i1.1332. parra, l. g., & calero, x. s. (2019). automated writing evaluation tools in the improvement of the writing skill. international journal instruction, 12(2), 209226. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12214a. perdana, i., & farida, m. (2019). online grammar checkers and their use for efl writing. journal of english teaching, applied linguistics and literature (jetall), 2(2), 67-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.20527/ jetall.v2i2.7332. pratama, y. d. (2020). the investigation of using grammarly as online. english ideas: journal of english language education, 1(1), 46-54. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 41 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 41-47 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.8444 jiro dreams of sushi: a circuit of shokunin anton sutandio* english department, faculty of languages and cultures, universitas kristen maranatha jl. suria sumantri no. 165, bandung, west java 40164, indonesia anton.sutandio@gmail.com received: 18th april 2022/revised: 11th february 2023/accepted: 16th february 2023 how to cite: sutandio, a. (2023). jiro dreams of sushi: a circuit of shokunin. lingua cultura, 17(1), 41-47. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.8444 abstract the research looked at david gelb’s 2011 documentary, jiro dreams of sushi, from the shokunin concept’s perspective. referring to hall’s circuit of culture, this research focused on two interrelated links within cultural studies: production and consumption. production and consumption referred to the sushi culture. shokunin was defined as mastery of one’s profession or artisans. the film reflected this concept through the character, jiro ono, who dedicated his life to excelling in making sushi. the method used in this research was qualitative. the data was drawn from the film’s cinematography which referred to the camerawork, and mise-en-scène, which referred to everything on the film frame, as part of the film studies method applied. the findings show that in terms of production and consumption of sushi within the circuit of culture, the film has shown the interrelated meaning of sushi culture: that in the context of jiro ono’s sushi, sushi becomes more than just food, but through its complex production and consumption process, sushi culture becomes a representation of ancient japanese concept, shokunin, which emphasizes on discipline, perfection, beauty and of course, hard work, and sacrifice. these findings are supported by visualizing the production and consumption through the film’s cinematography and mise-en-scène. keywords: shokunin, production, consumption, film studies, cultural studies introduction in the tradition of cultural studies research, the circuit of culture has become an inseparable part of the field. the circuit represents corresponding links among representation, production, consumption, distribution, and regulation which later produce shared meanings. cultural studies is an inter-discipline interested in cultural practices where contestation and negotiation over meaning are at stake (ang, 2020). this research focuses on applying cultural studies in film, particularly a 2011-american documentary about centuries-old japanese food, sushi, jiro dreams of sushi, directed by david gelb, who recently also conceptualized the netflix series, chef ’s table (leer, 2022). the research aims to understand how, as seen from the lens of hall’s circuit of culture, the culture shares its meanings through japanese shokunin. the research will focus on two interrelated links: production and consumption. the production here refers to ‘the production of meaning’ (arvind, 2019) in the context of sushi production, while consumption refers to how sushi is consumed. the production and consumption of meaning related to the shokunin concept are supported by film studies through the element of cinematography and mise-en-scène. cinematography is camerawork that includes camera choice, placement, and movement. while mise-enscène refers to everything the audience sees inside the frame, including color, props, costumes, sound, actors, acting, dialogue, etc. these two elements help support the revelation of meaning through visualization. shokunin is craftsmen who strive to perfect their craft and life, thereby creating art (dempsey, 2015). it is a mastery of one’s profession, and it is evident in the film that jiro embodies this concept. thus, although the film was produced in 2011, the concept of shokunin remains an essential aspect of the lives of japanese professionals. it also offers a valuable lesson about how and what it takes to excel in one’s work. this research will fill the gap in the interdisciplinary studies combining cultural and film studies on the in pr es s 42 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 41-47 chosen film. one research that discusses the element of sushi consumption is by nakayama and wan (2019), who conducted a cross-cultural analysis based on yelp reviews on sushi consumption. the discussion of the film from the perspective of film studies and the two elements of cultural studies has never been done before, thus making this research one of its kind. although it originally came from china, sushi, introduced to japan in the 7th century (kulawik & dordevic, 2020), is undoubtedly one of the most famous cuisines in the world that most people know come from japan. globally, sushi is considered a healthy meal because it has low calories and low amounts of fat and cholesterol (dordevic & buchtova, 2020). began as simple and quick-ready food, sushi has gained fame through technology that has accelerated the globalization process, bringing together customer tastes and turning local to universal flavors (andriyani & hidayat, 2021). the simplicity rests in the final product of traditional sushi, which contains two major elements: fish and rice. baumert and fukuda (2021) have stated that “it is customary in japan, among chefs and families alike, to say that fresh fish will be ‘first eaten raw, and then grilled, and finally stewed,’ in a slow transition that distances it from its original state because of the impossibility of conserving the flavor of raw fish products due to natural decomposition.” it means eating fish raw is the best way to fully absorb all its flavors. much research has been done showing recommendations and the advantage of consuming fish which is known for its nutritional values, “… being an important source of proteins, essential fatty acids, minerals, and micronutrients.” (neus et al., 2021). sushi remains popular, although there are risks of eating raw fish, especially for those who never have had one before, such as the disease called ‘tingling throat syndrome’ that causes by a moving worm inside one’s lungs after consuming raw fish (eskild & aarhus, 2019). jiro dreams of sushi depicts another perspective of the sushi world: the complexity and long tradition of sushi production and consumption. this research is expected to contribute to the variety of cultural studies analysis on film in general and the discussion of the film specifically as one of the best documentaries on food culture. methods the method used in this research is qualitative. firstly, the researcher watches the film multiple times to gain a deeper understanding. secondly, the researcher focuses on the film’s cinematography and mise-en-scène to find required data regarding the topic discussed, i.e., the shokunin concept as seen from the consumption and production of the circuit of culture. after the data is collected, it is then processed to produce findings regarding the topic. finally, a conclusion is drawn, and a future research suggestion is offered. an interdisciplinary article combining cultural and film studies requires a deep understanding of the two theories. the circuit of culture chosen is production and consumption. production and consumption in this context do not refer to the production and the consumption of the film but the production of sushi by the craftsman and how the consumers consume sushi, which is the object in the film. thus, the research looks at how the film helps produce the meaning of the production and consumption of sushi that pertains to the concept of shokunin. as for film studies, the aspect of cinematography refers to the camera movement, including where the camera is positioned and how it is moved. this camera placement and movement play an important role in providing meaning through visualization. for example, a close-up shot of sushi will offer a detailed texture of the food while giving a sense of closeness to the audience. mise-en-scène refers to everything the audience sees in the frame, including dialogue, actions, sound, color, etc. this research mainly looks at special effects such as slowmotion to emphasize certain scenes or fast-forward to show the passing of time. besides that, the dialogue and action of the characters are also significant in providing visualized meaning to the audience. the cultural studies and film studies theory are applied to understand how the film reflects the shokunin concept. results and discussions jiro dreams of sushi is a documentary film showcasing a japanese sushi maker family in tokyo. in particular, the film focuses on the patriarch of the family, an 85-year-old jiro, one of the best sushi chefs in the world. the film revolves around the everyday life of jiro and his son in excelling in the sushi world. even though the restaurant is small, located in a subway station in tokyo’s ginza section, and only sits ten people, it has been awarded a three-star michelin award, the highest accolade a restaurant can receive. the three-star michelin restaurant equals exceptional cuisine and premium price, which explains why the waiting period takes months as the restaurant is so popular. a michelin-star restaurant is assessed based on meal experience, brand credibility, trust, and service quality (kiatkawsin & sutherland, 2020). the latest news on the restaurant informs that in 2020, the restaurant lost its michelin star because they no longer accept public reservations. the pandemic is probably one of the factors in play. nevertheless, to be awarded such a prestigious cuisine award is proof of excellence in food production technique and taste. the path to greatness requires hard work, discipline, and repetition, and this is where the concept of shokunin comes in. shokunin is defined as ‘craftsmen’, but in the sushi world, sushi chefs are also called shokunin, which skill comes through the repetition of making and eating relatively standard forms of food using long-established techniques and ingredients (holt & yamauchi, 2019). in another definition, shokunin also refers to the professional in pr es s 43jiro dreams of sushi .... (anton sutandio) cook of japanese cuisine (maurice, 2018). dempsey (2015) has argued that the character jiro ono, a sushi chef, possesses traits that reflect the shokunin concept: passionate, persistent, disciplined, curious, imaginative, courageous, humble, and selfless. in other words, the sushi chef presents himself as a master, preserving the elite status of both the chef and the cuisine (clark, 2017). in the film opening, jiro ono (figure 1) expresses his life philosophy that accurately reflects a shokunin concept: “once you decide on your occupation, you must immerse yourself in your work. you have to fall in love with your work. never complain about your job. you must dedicate your life to mastering your skill. that is the secret of success and is the key to being regarded honorably” (gelb, 2011). ono’s dialogue as part of the mise-en-scène reflects the nature of a sushi chef, which includes being disciplined, passionate, and persistent. the film, through visualization, supports and emphasizes these traits to bring understanding to the audience about the concept of shokunin. figure 1 a close-up shot of jiro ono, the shokunin (gelb, 2011) to understand the shared meanings of the sushi culture through the concept of shokunin, it is imperative to look at the contribution of the film elements: cinematography and mise-en-scène. visually, the film frames the consumption and production of sushi efficiently and directly through the two film elements. the film opens in a series of slow-motion shots showing a hand wearing a glove opening a door, then the shot changes into a shot of the gloves being taken off and then shifts to a shot of a small sushi restaurant (figures 2 to 4). figure 2 a close-up shot of a hand opening a door (gelb, 2011) figure 3 a close-up shot of a hand taking off the gloves (gelb, 2011) figure 4 a shot of a small sushi restaurant (gelb, 2011) the first three shots (figures 2 to 4) provide an important clue to the audience: the significant role of hands in producing sushi. the art of sushi-making undoubtedly requires the finesse of the hands. the gloved hand symbolizes hard work as it refers to hands that work. figure 4 shows that the restaurant represents the ‘sushi world’ where sushi chefs produce and showcase their ‘art’ for the customers to appreciate and consume. from the element of cinematography, the film uses many close-up shots. close-up shots give more intimacy between the object and the audience because the expressions and emotions are visible when the object is people, and they give details in texture and often raise appetite when the object is a thing such as food (see figure 5). close-up shots also psychologically increase viewer cognitive empathy (lankhuizen et al., 2020). in this way, the film manages to draw the audience to feel involved in sushi production. figure 5 a close-up shot of a sushi (gelb, 2011) in pr es s 44 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 41-47 from the element of mise-en-scène, the film uses slow-motion and time-lapse shots to show sushi production. the slow-motion technique stretches the time to move slower, which can only happen in the movie. this technique aims to generate emotional feelings. this is what the film wants to achieve by shooting the two important objects, jiro ono and the sushi, in close-up shots to emphasize the details and their significance so the audience can see how they relate to the concept of shokunin. the second technique used is time-lapse shots that shorten the time and, at the same time, emphasize the long duration of sushi production from its preparation process to its serving on the table. the passing of time through the time-lapse shot technique gives the audience an understanding of the intricate and lengthy process of sushi production that may only take seconds to consume when the sushi is ready. on the other hand, the slow-motion technique combined with close-up shots provides the audience with a closer look at the detailed process of sushi production. in another scene, the film visualizes how ono’s apprentices must massage an octopus for almost one hour (figure 6) to ensure that it has a soft texture and to bring out the fragrance of the octopus. figure 6 a close-up shot of an apprentice’s hand massaging an octopus (gelb, 2011) like the octopus’ massage, the apprentices perform a similar thing when preparing the rice. they perform the same tasks over and over for weeks before moving to the next step of making sushi. before they reach the shokunin’s standard, they will keep doing the same duty. this master-apprentice hierarchy and repetitive procedure are something common in the tradition of shokunin. what is vital to the shokunin is the quality of food served, not the price; as ono explicitly mentions, “shokunin try to get the highest quality fish and apply their technique to it. we do not care about money” (gelb, 2011). these visualizations through mise-en-scène and cinematography emphasize the persistent and disciplined nature of the shokunin. in other scenes, the long-tiring process of sushi making is visually described in a normal tempo accompanied with detail elaboration from the interviewees, for example, in the scene when yoshikazu, jiro ono’s older son, has to prepare the seaweed wrappers for the sushi which informs the audience the meticulous process of smoking them sheet by sheet (see figure 7). figure 7 a shot of yoshikazu smoking the seaweeds (gelb, 2011) the interview of yoshikazu, while he is performing his duty, provides detailed information from his dialogue and visualization of what he is doing. the alternate shots of yoshikazu’s face and what he does emphasize the delicacy of sushi preparation that is part of the shokunin tradition. as a shokunin, jiro is often framed through a medium close-up with his hands folded while scrutinizing every detail of his interns’ and son’s performance. the film also visually shows the long chain of production that begins at sea when the seamen catch the fish to be delivered to the thenfamous tsukiji seafood market (as of 2018, the market is moved to toyosu and named toyosu market) and how difficult and sometimes frustrating it is to find good ingredients for the sushi. these visual examples are ways for the film to connect sushi production with the spirit of shokunin. shokunin emphasizes, among others, discipline and expertise through repetition. as evident in that example, the film shows these traits through its repetitive shots of similar actions and explicitly through the interview of some characters. for example, yoshikazu informs the audience that jiro never skips work unless he is sick, during a national holiday, or goes to a funeral. jiro clearly states that he never feels satisfied with his skills and is still looking for perfection even in his eighties. he is ninety-four today and is still active in the restaurant watching over his son, who will take over the business. from some of these examples, it is evident that making sushi is not merely a mechanical or technical process in the context of production. far from that, producing good sushi is a life mission, an ongoing and never-ending process of perfection. it requires sacrifice, good cooperation, and commitment. in other words, producing good sushi is a way of life. the concept of shokunin influences these processes deeply. indeed, not all sushi chef applies a similar concept in producing good sushi, but jiro, with his shokunin spirit, has set a very high standard for other sushi chefs to reach. however, his success is not without sacrifice. being a devoted shokunin, the film also tells about how jiro admits he is not a good father, to the point when his children do not recognize him as their in pr es s 45jiro dreams of sushi .... (anton sutandio) father. being a shokunin, jiro rarely has a ‘normal’ life, a life choice he takes to reach the highest standard as a sushi chef. thus, producing good sushi for him is not a job but a life, and his dedication has won him not only acknowledgment, awards, and prestige, but more importantly, he manages to influence others, especially his sons and interns, to commit to the life of a shokunin. the second aspect is the consumption of sushi. while the audience thinks that consuming sushi is just like consuming any other food, jiro, as a shokunin, delivers a different message on how eating sushi means more than just putting sushi in the mouth and swallowing it. in the spirit of shokunin, jiro explains that consuming sushi requires certain rules and rituals, including discipline and harmony. the customer is to eat the piece of sushi in one bite; biting it in half or leaving some is not acceptable, and it is to be eaten within seconds after the chef serves it in front of them (holt & yamauchi, 2019). even the process of reserving a table requires patience and a long wait; customers are required to reserve months before eating at jiro’s restaurant (sukiyabashi jiro) in ginza. the fact that the restaurant only seats ten people signifies that profit is not the main purpose of ono. figure 8 jiro ono “performs” in front of his customers (gelb, 2011) what is more important is the satisfaction of the customer and their experience of eating sushi in a shokunin’s way. the film visualizes this through closeup shots of jiro ono performing his ‘art’ (figure 8) in front of the customers and watching the customers enjoy the sushi he makes. although the restaurant has an exclusive atmosphere, yoshikazu claims, “we are not trying to be exclusive or elite. the techniques we use are no big secret. it is just about making an effort and repeating the same thing every day” (gelb, 2011). his comment confirms that profit is not the main thing, but customer satisfaction is, and the repetitive action is mentioned as a part of the shokunin concept. the small size of the restaurant supports the idea of shokunin because the space for eating sushi matters not simply for the preparation and eating of the food because it is where the customers and shokunin form a gathering (holt & yamauchi, 2019). it means that the smaller the space, the better it is to create intimacy between the sushi chef and the customers. for common customers, as the film tells, eating sushi at jiro’s place is tensing and almost intimidating, which is a clear sign of the aura of shokunin in the restaurant. being disciplined is not only from the shokunin’s side but also from the customers, who are demanded to follow the strict tradition of consuming sushi. one of the interviewees, a culinary expert, explains in detail how he never feels disappointed every time he eats at jiro’s place and often feels the tense atmosphere while eating. jiro’s younger son, who owns a sushi restaurant elsewhere, explicitly mentions that some customers choose to visit his restaurant because the atmosphere is more relaxed compared to that of jiro’s. as for the price, a minimum of around $300 price tag is worth the money and trip because the customers know that they are only served the best sushi by the best chef. another proof of shokunin’s concept of consumption is when the film visually describes the serving and consumption of sushi as an orchestra concert, as one of the interviewees says that the meal is divided into three movements: classic items such as tuna or kohada in the first movement; the second movement is the fresh catch of the day or the seasonal; and the last movement is the traditional such as sea eel, kanpyo, and egg. jiro meticulously keeps thinking about what sushi to be served and how and to whom they are served. for example, he usually measures up the customer’s physical body to calculate how much rice he should prepare, or when he notices that a customer is left-handed, he will serve the customer in a way that will comfort the customer. consequently, consumers are not supposed to eat as they like but must follow the procedure. jiro explains that a customer can pick the sushi with a chopstick or their hands and that sushi must be eaten whole, not cut. these details reflect the value of shokunin in which the customers need to appreciate the beauty, the balance, and the harmonious ways of consuming sushi. his fame as a shokunin sushi chef is internationally acknowledged, and many important figures have dined at jiro’s place; for example, previous u.s. president barrack obama has dined there with the japanese prime minister during one of his visits to japan. it is understandable why the japanese prime minister takes obama there, not only to introduce him to traditional japanese food and delicious sushi but more importantly to introduce obama to one important virtue of the japanese people: their perseverance and commitment to reach perfection, which is indeed something to be proud of. the film is closed with a close-up shot of jiro ono inside a fast-moving train (see figure 9). he is seen to be smiling, and then the film ends. the final scene inside a moving train suggests the fast-moving and advancing japan, while jiro ono symbolizes the old tradition. his sitting on the train at the end of the film means that he will keep on moving and not merely stay still in pursuing his dream: perfecting the sushi production as long as he can while at the same time preparing his son to continue the tradition. the findings show that production and consumption in the context of japanese sushi culture in pr es s 46 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 41-47 are closely intertwined and inseparable. moreover, the meticulous and disciplined process of production is passed down to the next generation, which will ensure the quality of the food and the satisfaction of the customers. regardless of the spreading of the sushi culture worldwide that may degrade the production quality, the strong-rooted concept of shokunin will prevail through people like jiro ono, who maintain the high quality of sushi production and preserve the japanese sushi culture. figure 9 jiro ono inside the moving train in the end of the film (gelb, 2011) conclusions in conclusion, in terms of production and consumption in the circuit of culture, it is clear that the film has shown the interrelated meaning of sushi culture. in the context of jiro’s sushi, it becomes more than just food through its complex production and consumption process. sushi culture becomes a representation of the ancient japanese concept of shokunin, which emphasizes discipline, perfection, beauty, and, of course, hard work and sacrifice. the concept of shokunin is visually supported by the film’s cinematography and mise-en-scène. from the cinematography, the film uses many close-up shots of the main characters, the production process, and the sushi. there are also many alternate shots between the characters and the activities they do to show the delicate process of producing sushi. the effect of close-up shots is a closer intimacy between the audience and the objects on film, which provides the audience with a deeper understanding of sushi culture and the shokunin concept. the close-up shots that are sometimes repetitive emphasize the nature of the shokunin concept: repetition for perfection and strict discipline. from the element of mise-en-scène, the film uses dialogue, slow-motion technique, and time-lapse shot technique to emphasize the concept of shokunin. the dialogue gives the audience firsthand information from the characters about the virtue of shokunin. the slow-motion technique is used to dramatize sushi production and immerse the audience into the world of sushi and the shokunin concept. the time-lapse shot technique is used to emphasize the long duration of sushi production, which makes the audience appreciate the production and consumption process. after watching the documentary, the audience is expected to have a completely different perspective on sushi production and consumption. sushi is not only food but a passion, a lifelong effort to perfection, hard work, and a way of life. for further research, a complete discussion of the circuit of culture in this film can be done, especially in the aspect of representation, regulation, and distribution, which will enrich and broaden the findings in this research. references andriyani, n., & hidayat, z. 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(2021). dietary exposure to potentially toxic elements through sushi consumption in catalonia, spain. food and chemical toxicology, 153, 112285. https://doi. org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2021.112285. maurice, g. s (2018). sensing bodies at the the center in today’s traditional japanese restaurant kitchens. japanese studies, 38(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/https:// doi.org/10.1080/10371397.2018.1465803 *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 15 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 15-21 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6219 functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbook discourse for elementary school students sultan1*; hasnawi haris2; anshari3 1,3department of indonesian language, faculty of languages and literature, universitas negeri makassar 2department of civic education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri makassar jl. ap. pettarani makassar, sulawesi selatan, 90221, indonesia 1sultan@unm.ac.id; 2hasnawi.haris@unm.ac.id; 3anshari@unm.ac.id received: 16th january 2020/revised: 28th january 2020/accepted: 03rd february 2020 how to cite: sultan., haris. h., & anshari. (2020). functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbook discourse for elementary school students. lingua cultura, 14(1), 15-21. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6219 abstract the research was designed to reveal two crucial issues in multicultural education, namely functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbook discourse. content analysis was employed to generate systematic and objective findings. data were collected from textbooks used by the fourth-grade students in indonesia and published by the ministry of education and culture, republic of indonesia. data collection was performed using the read-and-quote technique. data analysis consisted of identification, categorization, and interpretation. the results of the analysis reveal that (1) multicultural values represented in textbook discourse function to build students’ positive attitude towards individual, cultural, ethnic, and gender differences to instill an anti-discrimination attitude towards different ethnics, religions, races, and develop students’ pride in sociocultural diversity. (2) multicultural values are internalized through fiction, story characterization, cultural products, songs, and ethnic philosophies. sociocultural aspects, social problems, and characteristics of the students are identified as factors that may impact on the functions and strategies to the internalization of the multicultural values. keywords: integration values, multicultural values, textbook discurse, school student introduction social conflict has become one of the most complex issues faced by indonesian people lately. these conflicts, both vertical and horizontal, escalate within a variety of background causes, including political, religious, ethnic, economic, and agrarian issues (guinness, 2015; honna, 2012; maddison & diprose, 2017; robinson, 2016). the root problems are decreased tolerance and increased intolerance behaviors among indonesian citizens. in an attempt to anticipate these problems, multicultural education has been introduced as a solution to build civilization and harmony. the practice of multicultural education to foster tolerance and peace is an educational policy that has been included in the curriculum in several multicultural countries, such as malaysia, thailand, south korea, united kingdom, usa, and finland (fry, chun, & apahung, 2019; grant & ham, 2013; ibrahim, 2007; johnson & caraballo, 2019; vorapanya & dunlap, 2012; zilliacus, holm, & sahlström, 2017). textbooks are an instrument that can be used to integrate multicultural values in learning. textbooks have a broad reach and are also read repeatedly by students. therefore, they provide benefits for the inculcation of multicultural values in them. multicultural perspectives in textbooks are capable of helping teachers, students, and textbook authors understand diversity issues and the importance of cross-cultural understanding (xiang & yenikaagbaw, 2019). arphattananon (2018) findings show that textbook content could encourage students to live in harmony with people from different cultures. furthermore, research conducted by cobano-delgado & llorent-bedmar (2019) have found that textbook authors seek to represent cultures that are expected to 16 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 15-21 be unveiled in the textbook. these findings confirm that textbooks have served a mediation function of multicultural knowledge to teachers and students. compared to other textbooks, language textbooks that are characterized by the use of discourse are more potential to transmit multicultural values. huang (2019) has argued that language textbooks provide not only guidance in learning a language but also a platform to introduce cultural diversity and tolerance. he has identified three dimensions of textbooks that can facilitate the transformation of multicultural values; they are content dimension, incentive dimension, and interaction dimension. textbooks that are communicative and contextual contain materials that are important and useful for language learners (content dimension). they also contain materials that can awaken students’ interests and desire to learn languages (incentive dimension) and enable students to interact and communicate with others in the community (interaction dimension). these three dimensions of textbook content are relevant in instilling multicultural values. cho and park (2014) have found that elementary school textbooks in korea are dominated by group identity values, recognition of cultural diversity, interdependence, and respect for human rights. moreover, sakki (2014) has discovered that textbooks are used as a tool to determine the national identity and national struggle. based on these findings, it can be concluded that textbooks have been utilized as a means of transmitting multicultural values to students. generally, textbook researchers have attempted to uncover the form and diversity of multicultural values contained in textbook discourse (abdou & chan, 2017; lee & li, 2019; luwihta, 2018; muslim, 2016). in contrast to the research, the current research aims to reveal functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in the discourse found in language textbooks that are used by the elementary school students in indonesia. functions refer to goals to be achieved from the representation of multicultural values, while strategies include methods used by the textbooks’ authors to integrate multicultural values into the textbooks’ discourse. the study of functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values is the key to revealing the perspectives of textbook authors. the results of the current research can be used to evaluate and develop multicultural values in a variety of subjects. functions and strategies to internalizing multicultural values in textbook discourse can mediate the inculcation of multicultural education in the students. multicultural values that are represented in the textbook have specific goals and are internalized through specific ways. however, functions and strategies to internalizing multicultural values have not been revealed in the previous research. therefore, the main problem that is going to be unveiled in the research is the functions and methods of how multicultural values are conveyed through the discourse of textbooks used by elementary school students. the research of functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbooks is based on the assumption that the values are intentionally embedded by the authors for a particular purpose. thus, the researchers are encouraged to apply specific strategies to achieve the goal. awayed-bishara (2015) has found that values integrated into english textbooks in israel function to foster the western-oriented jewish-zionist ideology. the textbooks, thus, contain materials that aim to marginalize the palestinian arab minority. in germany, ide (2016) findings show that school textbooks in germany significantly reflect the relationship of environmental conflicts in political, media, and pop-culture discourse. findings from these studies suggest that textbooks contain values that have ideological purposes. in the context of learning in indonesia, studies related to the functions of multicultural values in textbook discourse have not been conducted. the strategies for integrating multicultural values into textbook discourse are associated with the choice of medium. moran (2001) has pointed out four strategies known as 4p by referring to products, practices, perspectives, and people. branch (2020) has found that multicultural values can be integrated through the exploration of ethnic identity. in addition, feng (2017) has suggested two strategies for representing social values, namely explicit representation, and implicit representation. the explicit representation strategy is literal and metaphorical, while the implicit strategy consists of the elicitation of the conditions and forms of action produced. these studies show a variety of strategies that the textbook writers have undertaken in integrating values. however, value integration strategies in textbooks produced by indonesian authors have not been studied. the differences in cultural backgrounds, multicultural education ecosystems, and student characteristics have the potential to trigger the use of different strategies among textbook writers in indonesia. therefore, the research can produce a distinctive strategy in integrating multicultural values in textbook discourse. methods content analysis is used to reveal functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in textbook discourse. content analysis is a qualitative approach which is commonly used to review problems that are rooted in a broad-scope document to generate a systematic and objective analysis (krippendorff, 2013). the source of data is two textbooks used in elementary schools in indonesia as primary resources for learning, entitled indahnya kebersamaan (beauty of togetherness) and berbagai pekerjaan (occupations). these textbooks are officially produced and distributed by the ministry of education and culture, republic of indonesia, as well as used by the teachers and students as the primary learning references. expanded distribution and status of the 17functions and strategies to the.... (sultan, et al.) textbooks as official textbooks are the reason why they are selected as the research objects. data collection is performed using the readand-quote technique. the analysis of functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values into textbook discourse consists of the following steps: identification, categorization, and interpretation. data identification is conducted by reading the textbooks’ discourse repeatedly. the data of the research are collected in the form of phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that reflect the functions and strategies of the multicultural value integration. the selected data are categorized based on the functions and strategies. a data coding instrument is used to assist data categorization. the third step in data analysis is interpretation. this activity is aimed to provide meaning to the functions and strategies of the multicultural value integration. data interpretation is conducted in three forms, which are textual, contextual, and sociological (gebregeorgis, 2016). the textual interpretation is made to describe the functions and strategies of multicultural value integration. at this stage, the data are interpreted at the linguistic level. the contextual interpretation is performed based on the contexts of the textbooks’ stories or events. the sociological interpretation is conducted by connecting multicultural values with the social context and the encompassing culture. the validity of the data is examined using the triangulation technique and negative case analysis. the selected data are analyzed inductively and compared to substantive theories. different findings with a common pattern are used as alternative hypotheses (moleong, 1990). results and discussions multicultural values in elementary school textbook discourse represent a variety of functions. based on data analysis, seven functions are found, namely (1) building students’ positive attitudes towards individual diversity, (2) building students’ positive attitudes towards cultural diversity, (3) building students’ positive attitudes towards ethnic diversity, (4) building students’ positive attitudes towards gender equality, (5) developing anti-discrimination attitudes towards different ethnic, religions, and races, (6) developing students’ anti-conflict attitudes, and (7) developing students’ pride in sociocultural diversity in indonesia. first, multicultural values function to build students’ positive attitudes towards individual differences. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ tolerance for diverse individual characteristics. each individual is described as unique and different from others. this value function is shown in datum (1). in datum (1), multicultural values represented by the textbook authors serve to build students’ tolerant attitudes by showing that each individual is unique. the author would like to highlight the fact that individual differences are a gift from god and build student awareness that differences can be potential if addressed wisely. (1) god bestows people with different gifts. the gifts can be in the form of talents, characters, and abilities. these differences allow humans to work together and complement each other. (fn/ msts-ki) second, multicultural values function to build students’ positive attitudes towards cultural diversity. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ tolerance for cultural diversity. this value function is shown in the following datum (2). in datum (2), multicultural values represented by the writer serves to build students’ tolerance towards indonesian culture. indonesian people are required to accept diversity because there are many different cultures and customs found in the country. diversity is a force that must be preserved. (2) our homeland, indonesia, is very diverse in traditional houses, traditional clothing, musical instruments, dances, and even food. we must be grateful for god’s gift by looking after it and preserving it. (fn/msts-kb) third, multicultural values function to build students’ positive attitudes towards ethnic diversity. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ tolerance for ethnic diversity. this value function is shown in datum (3). in datum (3), indonesia is portrayed as having ethnic diversity. such diversity can be either beneficial or even detrimental to intolerant communities. this value representation aims to build awareness among citizens to respect ethnic differences. the author emphasizes that diversity is not a human will, but god’s will. (3) indonesia consists of various ethnicities and cultures that are accommodated in one place, the republic of indonesia (nkri). diversity is a gift from god almighty, so we need to be grateful for it. (fn/msts-ke) fourth, multicultural values function to build students’ positive attitudes towards gender equality. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ tolerance for gender equality. this value function is shown in datum (4). in this datum, multicultural values represented serve to raise students’ awareness of god’s creation of sex dichotomy. the textbook writer invites the students to realize that men and women are equal so that they should be treated equally. therefore, the dichotomy does not need to be questioned. fifth, multicultural values function to build students’ anti-discrimination, anti-ethnic, anti-religion, and anti-race attitudes. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ anti18 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 15-21 discrimination attitudes towards different ethnicities/ religions/races. this value function is shown in datum (5). in this datum, multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse function to form antidiscrimination attitudes towards different ethnicities by giving equal treatment to other individuals/groups regardless of ethnicity. the author stresses that, in reality, most individuals/groups often react differently toward different ethnicity. such actions are contrary to multicultural values. (4) in essence, humans are created by god as male and female. men and women have their differences or uniqueness, but god creates both of them. men and women are created to complement each other. (fn/msts-kg02) (5) this story teaches us how to care and love others. it also teaches the value of selflessness. a caring attitude will also attract love and care from others. in general, people care more about the people they know or the people who share a common background with them, for example, ethnicity, race, religion, or origin. and people care less about strangers because they do not have the same background as them and they are considered useless for them. (fn/ms-ae) sixth, multicultural values function to build students’ anti-conflict attitudes. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse serve to shape students’ anti-conflict attitudes. this value function is shown in datum (6). this value representation aims to build the awareness that an atmosphere of peace can be created through the minimization of individual differences and the establishment of mutual respect. the author would like to encourage every student to avoid conflict that may be created due to the differences in social background. (6) each member of society respects each other and glorifies each other. in order to avoid divisions between members, each member must pay attention to each other. if the relationship built among the members is harmonious, then one’s pain will be everyone’s pain. all members must work together to build a better life. (fn/msak). seventh, multicultural values function to develop students’ pride towards indonesian sociocultural differences. multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse motivate the students to develop pride in national diversity. this value function is shown in datum (7). multicultural values represented in the textbook discourse aim to develop students’ pride in national diversity. the function of building this value is so important. each student needs to see the differences from positive aspects. thus, it is hoped that in social life, they can take positive action in dealing with diversity. (7) as an indonesian child, i feel proud of the diversity that exists in indonesia. (fn/ms-kpds) the internalization of multicultural values in textbook discourse is conducted through a variety of strategies. based on data analysis, five strategies are found to internalize multicultural values, namely (1) internalizing multicultural values through fictions, (2) internalizing multicultural values through story characterization, (3) internalizing multicultural values through the descriptions of cultural products, (4) internalizing multicultural values through songs, and (5) internalizing multicultural values through ethnic philosophies. first, the strategy used to internalize multicultural values is through fiction. multicultural values in the textbooks are internalized through fables. this internalization strategy is shown in datum (8). (8) winter was here at last. the diligent ant sat comfortably in his warm house while enjoying his abundant food, while the grasshopper was contemplating his sadness at home because he did not have any food at all. when the grasshopper was almost starving to death, the ant came and offered him food. since then, the grasshopper had become as diligent as the ant at collecting food. (si/inm-cf) in datum (8), the textbook’s author utilizes figures in fiction to demonstrate multicultural values to the students. the ant and the grasshopper are portrayed as two different characters that are willing to help each other. this strategy is used to ensure that multicultural messages could be delivered smoothly to the children. elementary schools are typically made up of young learners or children who favor stories. therefore, the author utilizes stories as a medium to convey multicultural values to the students. second, the strategy used to internalize multicultural values is through story characterization. multicultural values in the textbooks are internalized through different characters in a story. this internalization strategy is shown in datum (9). (9) humans are social creatures. they make friends with each other. humans cannot live alone as they need others to meet their needs. without farmers, fishermen cannot get rice, corn, etc. conversely, without fishermen, farmers cannot get fish, salt, and others. both have a vital role in building a healthier and stronger life. cooperation between humans is a necessity in life because each of us has uniqueness and different preferences of work. (si/inm-pt) in datum (9), the author internalizes multicultural values through the different roles of each character to create interdependence. through this strategy, different roles are described as equally important because they provide benefits to everyone. individuals need to play 19functions and strategies to the.... (sultan, et al.) different roles in order to meet human needs. the author would like to teach the students that different roles are needed in life. third, the strategy used to internalize multicultural values is through cultural product descriptions. multicultural values in the textbooks are internalized through the descriptions of cultural products. this internalization strategy is shown in data (10) and (11). (10) tari kipas pakarena is a dance art originating from gowa, south sulawesi. this dance has become a tradition among the people in gowa, who used to be the kingdom of gowa. (si/inmdpb02) (11) the diversity of indonesian culture is also seen in traditional fabric. the fabric is designed with different motifs and colors, so it looks beautiful and attractive. let us observe the following traditional/folk costume. (si/inm-dpb03) in data (10) and (11), the author internalizes multicultural values through the descriptions of diverse ethnic, cultural products, namely traditional houses, dances, and fabrics. the author would like to show to the students that indonesia has a variety of cultures that represent different ethnicities. such diversity should be accepted as national wealth. fourth, the strategy used to internalize multicultural values is through songs. multicultural values in the textbooks are internalized in messages delivered through songs. this internalization strategy is shown in datum (12). (12) i am an indonesian// an independent child// one country// one nation// indonesia. (si/inm-l) in datum (12), multicultural values are internalized through the moral message of the song that mentioned, even though indonesia has diverse cultures, it is united by a national bond. this strategy is chosen to promote the spirit of national unity in students. using songs to deliver messages is selected by the author as the strategy to inculcating multicultural values in elementary school students or children who love songs as a medium of learning. fifth, the strategy used to internalize multicultural values is through ethnic philosophies. multicultural values in the textbooks are internalized through ethnic philosophies that teach specific lessons to individuals or groups. this internalization strategy is shown in datum (13). in datum (13), the internalization of multicultural values is done by displaying minangkabau ethnic philosophy. every ethnic believes in a set of noble values that can teach a lesson for everyone. by introducing an ethnic philosophy, the textbook author has essentially introduced an ethnic culture to the students. thus, it is hoped that mutual understanding, tolerance, and respect for diversity can be built within the students. (13) minang people like to trade and migrate to other areas. they are always determined to achieve success in every area visited. quite often, they offer help to other people who need it. (si/inmfe) the results of the research show that discourse in language textbooks used by elementary school students in indonesia represent a variety of functions and strategies. the functions of these values include the development of positive characters and attitudes towards individual diversity, cultural diversity, ethnic diversity, gender equality, and conflict (anti-conflict attitudes). the results indicate that the textbooks’ authors focus mainly on building the students’ positive attitudes towards cultural diversity in indonesia. this is shown in a number of examples that originate from a high amount of cultural wealth. this finding is in line with noe et al. (2018), who have conducted research in the banuroja community. they have found that multicultural values in the community function to build social integrity and emphasized the identity of cultural diversity, respect for diversity, and the application of these principles in multicultural life. findings from the research that emphasize the function of ‘building students’ positive attitudes towards cultural diversity’ are based on sociocultural aspects and social problems faced by the indonesian people recently. indonesia is a nation with diverse cultures. therefore, the textbook authors adopt this value to shape students’ tolerance. the majority of social problems faced by the indonesian people stem from cultural, ethnic, and religious clashes. therefore, textbooks are positioned by the authors as media through which students’ social awareness and students’ tolerant character can be built. the multicultural values represented in the textbooks contain narratives and explorations of cultural diversity. it appears that the authors of the books are trying to make a connection between social practices and textbook discourse. this finding is corroborated with those by branch (2020), who suggests four forms of ethnic identity explorations in education; they include connection, discourse, exploration, and role models. the textbooks’ authors invite the students to explore ethnic traditions and cultures. they also introduce the traditions and cultures as a medium of multicultural education. based on the analysis conducted in the research, it can be concluded that the functions represented in the textbooks are diverse, relevant, and easily understood by the students. in general, multicultural values integrate into the textbooks that have the function to promote cross-cultural understanding, build pride in diversity, establish respect for individual and group differences, and instill anti-conflict attitudes in students. similarly, sleeter (2010) has proposed an ideal conception of multicultural education that values cultural differences, builds anti-discrimination 20 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 15-21 attitudes, and emphasizes social justice. another aspect that indicates the superiority of the function of multicultural values can be seen in the function of building students’ positive attitudes towards gender equality. multicultural values have found in the textbooks also aim to foster students’ antidiscrimination attitudes towards gender differences. on the contrary, adel and enayat (2016) have revealed that textbooks tend to institutionalize gender discrimination and disadvantage women. gender justice discourse has been developed massively, and the competence of writers related to gender justice is believed to be an influential factor. another factor that may impact on the distinguished results of the research is the social background of the community. the indonesian culture and arabic culture are different in terms of male and female social roles. the findings of the research also show that fiction, story characterization, cultural products, songs, and ethnic philosophies are used as media for the representation of multicultural values. the findings indicate that the textbook authors use a content integration approach to internalize multicultural values. this approach is basic by utilizing data and cultural diversity. if it is based on the opinion of banks (1993), the development model of multicultural values in indonesian primary school textbooks is categorized into the contribution approach. content integration and contribution approach are the most basic models in multicultural education. in the context of textbooks in indonesia, this is relevant because multicultural discourse is still relatively new so that its implementation starts from the most essential aspect. from the cultural value perspective, four categories are used by textbook writers as media representations, namely products, practices, perspectives, and people. among the four categories, the most dominant category is cultural products. this is consistent with the findings of moran (2001), who has revealed that cultural products are the media most often found in textbooks, while perspective is the most popular step found in textbooks. the characteristics of the elementary school students who learn through concrete things are relevant to this value representation strategy. cultural products that are used as examples will be easily understood by the students. on the other hand, abstract perspectives will create barriers to the multicultural value acquisition. conclusions the results of the research show that the textbook discourse in elementary schools represents a variety of multicultural value functions and strategies. multicultural values represented have a function to build positive attitudes of students towards the diversity of individual characteristics, cultures, ethnicities, gender; to instill anti-discrimination attitudes towards different ethnicities, religions, and racial; and develop students’ anti-conflict attitudes as well as students’ pride in socio-cultural diversity. the representation of the multicultural value functions in the textbook discourse indicates that the writers attempt to focus on building students’ positive attitudes towards aspects of cultural diversity. it can be concluded that the textbooks’ authors are motivated by the socio-cultural aspects and social problems faced by the indonesian people. multicultural values are integrated into the textbooks through a variety of strategies, namely value internalization through fictions, story characterization, cultural products, songs, and ethnic philosophies. this finding confirms that multicultural values can be represented in various ways. the choice of the value internalization strategy strongly depends on the multicultural education discourse in indonesia that is still relatively new. the implementation of the discourse should start from the basic aspects and characteristics of the students as beginner learners that are relevant to those strategies. the research is limited to only the functions and strategies of multicultural value internalization in textbook discourse. the effect of value internalization on students’ behaviors is important aspects that have not been revealed in the research. the other limitation of the research is the coverage as it only involved elementary textbooks as the research objects. further research is needed to uncover the functions and strategies to the integration of multicultural values in a more comprehensive context. researchers need to pay more attention to the analysis of textbooks for junior and senior high school students. training models for embedding multicultural values in textbooks also need to be explicitly examined. another area that needs to be investigated in the future is the level of teacher understanding of multicultural values in textbooks and learning strategies used by the teacher in an attempt to incorporate these values into the learning process. references abdou, e. d., & chan, w. y. a. 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(2017). taking steps towards institutionalising multicultural education: the national curriculum of finland. multicultural education review, 9(4), 231-248. https://doi. org/10.1080/2005615x.2017.1383810. copyright©2019 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 297 lingua cultura, 13(4), november 2019, 297-304 doi: 10.21512/lc.v13i4.5882 interpersonal metadiscourse markers as persuasive strategies in oral business presentation heri kuswoyo1; rani andini siregar2 1,2sastra inggris, sastra dan ilmu pendidikan, universitas teknokrat indonesia jl. zainal abidin, pagaralam no.9 -11, bandar lampung, lampung 35141, indonesia 1hery@teknokrat.ac.id; 2raniandinisiregar@gmail.com received: 17th october 2019/revised: 28th october 2019/accepted: 11th november 2019 how to cite: kuswoyo, h., & siregar, r. a. (2019). interpersonal metadiscourse markers as persuasive strategies in oral business presentation. lingua cultura, 13(4), 297-304. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v13i4.5882 abstract this research was conducted to examine the use of interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms) in steve jobs’ oral business presentation using hyland’s model. it further aimed to investigate the interpersonal metadiscourse categories and subcategories applied and most predominantly occurring in the type of oral business presentation. a descriptive qualitative method was employed in this research. one and a half-hour of steve jobs’ keynotes at annual macworld tradeshow on january 9th, 2007 were collected and analyzed. the results reveal that interactional subcategory; engagement markers are mostly used by steve jobs. meanwhile, in interactive subcategory transition markers are dominantly used. it indicates that by using interpersonal metadiscourse markers, steve jobs expresses his idea, supports his argument, and convinces the audiences by establishing a relationship with them. this research also argues that metadiscourse theory facilitates an involvement between the speaker and the listener and provides a way for mutual comprehension. thus, the findings have a pivotal implication on how imdms might improve the field related to communication skills in professional life or business. keywords: interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms), interactive metadiscourse, interactional metadiscourse, oral business presentation introduction in a business context, presentation skill is a crucial thing to be developed (coughter, 2012; patil, 2005; nikitina, 2011; jolles, 2017). however, most people nowadays start to neglect and overlook the importance of this kind of skill. in some cases, more people are good at managing the business, have years of experience, and have impressive business ideas, but they fail to communicate with the target audience (wagner, 2013). thus, it could block their effectiveness. presentation skill is not merely presenting idea with loud voice, proper body language, good eye contact to build interaction with audience, but also speaking performance that distributes across multiple modalities speech content, intonation, and wellstructure language in order to make audience understand easily the presentation (grez, valcke, & roozen, 2009). metadiscourse markers (mdms) is one of the manifest tools that can be applied in these skills. metadiscourse markers offer a way of understanding language in use, representing a writer’s or speaker’s attempts to guide a receiver’s perception of a text (halliday & matthiessen, 2014; alyousef, 2015; bal-gezegin, 2016; bu, 2014; zhang, 2016). they are grounded in halliday’s (1973) theory of macro-meta functions of language. aluthman (2018) has argued that writers and speakers refer to a variety of language resources used to organize the content of discourse in a coherence way that is acceptable by the readership. metadiscourse markers have further defined as the ways in which writers and speakers interact through their use of language with readers and listeners (hyland, 2005; jiang & hyland, 2016; hyland, 2017). metadiscourse markers are considered as forms that make textual and interpersonal relations. according to halliday in tajeddin and alemi (2012) that the interpersonal function concerns the relationship between addresser and addressee, that is, the role of the speaker and the role assigned to the hearer. interpersonal metadiscourse markers are classified by hyland (2005) into two types; interactive and interactional metadiscourse markers. the interactive metadiscourse markers concern the writer’s or speaker’s awareness of a participating audience and the ways he or she seeks to accommodate its probable knowledge, interests, rhetorical expectations, and processing abilities. further, qin & uccelli (2019) have added that those markers guide the readers or listeners through the discourse structure of the texts by explicitly signaling relationships between ideas, 298 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 297-304 clauses, and paragraphs. on the other hand, interactional metadiscourse concerns the ways writer’s or speaker’s conduct interaction by intruding and commenting on their message. the goal is to make his or her views explicit and to involve readers by allowing them to respond to the unfolding text. studying metadiscourse markers (mdms) is extended by several researchers. the studies focus on persuasive writings or speech produced in a number of different contexts such as academic research articles (ozdemir & longo, 2014; massaabi, 2014; kawase, 2015; haruna et al., 2018; davoodi, 2016; duruk, 2017; ahour & maleki, 2014; zareifard & alinezhad, 2014; jiang & hyland, 2016; mina & biria, 2017), speeches (wong & yap, 2015; malmström, 2016; esmer, 2017; gholami & ilghami, 2016; gordon & luke, 2016; mahmoodian & simin, 2017; sukma, 2017), media discourse (sukma & sujatna, 2014; dafouz-milne, 2008), business discourse (ho, 2018; fu, 2012), and translation (gholami, tajalli, & shokrpour, 2014). studies in academic research articles, ozdemir and longo (2014), have employed a corpus study that investigates cultural variation in the use of metadiscourse between turkish and usa postgraduate student’s abstract in ma thesis written in english. both qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data shows that there are some cultural differences in the amounts and types of metadiscourse. in line with kosasih (2018), the findings also indicate that abstract plays an important role in research articles. in the tunisian efl geography context, massaabi (2014) has found that fl university teachers of geography are aware of metadiscourse when reading fieldrelated research articles. the findings also reveal important implications on how metadiscourse might improve field related ra comprehension in english. in another research, kawase (2015) has examined how research writers construct metadiscourse in the introductions of their ph.d. thesis and subsequently published research articles. the findings of the analysis show that most writers make greater use of metadiscourse in their article introductions. in contrast, haruna et al. (2018), in their research, the findings show that many of the students are not exposed to the elements of metadiscourse markers; thus, they write academic essays the way they speak. duruk (2017) has an in-depth analysis that explores the use of interpersonal metadiscourse markers used by turkish writers in the written register and the way turkish writers use metadiscourse, namely in ma dissertations from one major academic field; english language teaching (elt). the results confirm that, to some degree, ‘hedges’, ‘emphatics’, and ‘attitude markers’ are all used by turkish writers, however, ‘attitude markers’ are found to be referred most frequently. on the other hand, with respect to the use of personal markers, differences are found among the writers. meanwhile, the analysis of the dissertation sections shows common results. ahour and maleki (2014) have attempted to unveil the effect of metadiscourse instruction on the improvement of the speaking ability of iranian efl learners. the findings indicate that the speaking ability of iranian efl students significantly improves after they are given metadiscourse instruction by the teacher. further research, zareifard and alinezhad (2014) have observed metadiscourse markers that are realized by male and female speakers in defense seminar. the findings report that the differences between male and female in using metadiscourse markers are explored. the results further show that female candidates use more self-mention than male candidates do. meanwhile, the subcategory is used by female candidates because it is more important to show the professional identity of being a researcher. in contrast, female candidates have used hedges more than male candidates. by using hedges (content motivated and speaker-motivated), they try to avoid bare assertion in academic discourse. based on the result, it does not affect the quality of the use of interactional metadiscourse markers. nevertheless, few studies have investigated mdms in speeches. yipei (2013) has investigated the interactional and interactive metadiscourse resources of hyland’s theory in steve jobs’ stanford speech. the results reveal that the interpersonal and textual meaning of the speech is clearly elaborated. the findings also indicate that steve jobs successfully puts his ideas to the audiences and supports his position by elaborating various metadiscourse resources. moreover, he could build a good relationship with the audience and achieve his mutual communication. having a descriptive survey design, esmer (2017) has analyzed the use of imdms in turkish election’s rally speeches that are delivered by two political leaders who pursue a different ideology of nationalism, and also the role of the metadiscourse markers in the reflection of the scope and nature of political parties’ nationalist ideologies. the results indicate that although both party leaders use similar interpersonal metadiscourse markers in their election rally speeches, the metadiscourse markers have different functions due to their ideological viewpoints. sukma (2017) has studied features of interpersonal metadiscourse in barack obama’s 2012 campaign speeches. the findings of this research reveal that all interpersonal metadiscourse markers are used by barack obama in his campaign speeches to build an emotional bond with his audiences as his persuasive strategy. mdms are also studied by researchers in media discourse. research by sukma and sujatna (2014) have examined imdms categories and subcategories applied and most predominantly occurring in the type of newspaper article. using 11 selected articles of an indonesian newspaper as the data, the results reveal that interpersonal metadiscourse categories (hedges, certainty markers, attributors, attitude markers, and commentaries), and subcategories (epistemic verbs, probability adverbs, deontic verbs, attitudinal adverbs, attitudinal adjectives, cognitive verbs, rhetorical questions, inclusive expressions, personalizations, and asides) are used in indonesian opinion articles. the results have also found that attitude markers and two subcategories, which are deontic and epistemic verbs, are most frequently present in the texts. by developing crismore, markkanen, and steffensen’s (1993) categorization, dafouz-milne (2008) has proposed a classification system of interpersonal metadiscourse for persuasive writings, especially journalistic texts. the findings suggest that both textual and interpersonal metadiscourse markers present in english and spanish newspaper columns, but that there are variations as to the distribution and composition of such markers, specifically in the case of certain textual categories (i.e., logical markers and code glosses). some studies have also discussed mdms in the business discourse; for example, ho (2018), and fu (2012). ho (2018) has investigated the way professionals use metadiscourse in an attempt to achieve persuasion through workplace emails. the results show that email offers professionals a convenient channel to persuade colleagues 299interpersonal metadiscourse.... (heri kuswoyo; rani andini siregar) to comply with the request by appealing to rationally, credibility, and emotions. the results also suggest that persuasive attempts made via email differ from those made via other channels in terms of the pattern of use of metadiscourse. there may be a preferred pattern of use of persuasive strategies in different moves of the workplace request email genre. similar to ho (2018), fu (2012) has investigated the ways in which the writer interacts with the reader via interactional metadiscourse in job postings. the results yield some points; the occurrences of stance markers and engagement markers are close in frequency. within the genre, two sub-corpora of job postings (one is oriented to college students, and the other is not) have demonstrated remarkable differences in terms of interactional metadiscourse use. moreover, a distinction is made between macro-interactional metadiscourse and micro-interactional metadiscourse, which is useful in evaluating the interactional of the text. another research by gholami, tajalli, and shokrpour (2014) has conducted to compare and contrast the metadiscourse markers in english medical texts and their persian. the results suggest that there is a significant difference in the amount and types of metadiscourse markers in english medical texts and their persian translation. what distinguishes this research from previous studies conducted on metadiscourse is the subject. whereas in research by sukma (2017), and esmer (2017), steve jobs’ speech and political speeches are examined. meanwhile, this research tries to investigate steve jobs’ business oral presentation. steve jobs’ keynote at the macworld expo in 2007 was his best presentation ever. everything that he has learned about connecting with audiences come together to create truly magnificent moments (gallo, 2017). besides, niebuhr, thumm, and michalsky (2018) have added that steve jobs is well known as a charismatic speaker. thus, the writers select him as the research object. meanwhile, other previous studies have discussed in this research are in different genres. as explained, various contexts, such as academic research articles, speeches, business discourse, are investigated. the contrasts in the findings related to metadiscourse practices in previous studies and the limited studies on business oral presentation motivate the writers in the present research to; (1) investigate the types of interpersonal metadiscourse markers used in steve job business presentation, employing the hyland’s (2005) theory; (2) examine the functions of interpersonal metadiscourse markers used in steve job business presentation, employing the hyland’s (2005) theory; (3) identify the most predominantly occurring in the type of steve jobs’ oral business presentation. methods this research adopts the interpersonal metadiscourse by hyland (2005) as the framework of theory to answer the research questions. in conducting the research, the present research uses a descriptive qualitative method to analyze the types and functions of interpersonal metadiscourse in steve jobs’ oral business presentation and supported the analysis by the technique of quantifying the findings. the descriptive qualitative produces some descriptive words, either written or spoken, about behavior and observable (saddhono & kasim, 2016). the method used is also to identify the most predominantly occurring in the type of steve jobs’ oral business presentation. this kind of approach expects to devote much interpretation to the context and situation, which is intended to investigate the types and functions of interpersonal metadiscourse in steve jobs’ oral business presentation (stake, 2010). the data source of this research is a manuscript of steve jobs’ business presentation and contains 29 pages taken from the official website all about steve job. it is accessed from https://allaboutstevejobs.com/. one and a half hour keynotes have been delivered by steve jobs in front of audiences such as investors, developers, and customers, who have successfully left his audience awed, inspire, and widely exciting. the data of this research forms in words, phrases, clauses, and sentences that can be categorized as interpersonal metadiscourse markers. to collect the data, this research conducts some steps, such as; (1) watching and identifying the video in order to understand the idea and context of the presentation. (2) identifying the potential data in the form of markers that are classified into types of metadiscourse. (3) identifying each data in the transcript in order to find markers that can be categorized as interactive and interactional metadiscourse in steve jobs’s keynotes using hyland’s (2005) theory. (4) classifying the data based on each type of interpersonal metadiscourse markers in the form of a table. it is presented in table 1. table 1 classifying data sample type of metadiscourse time utterances interactive resource 0:05:18 “the ipod, in addition to being the world’s best mp3 player, has become the world’s most popular video player, and by a large margin.” after the data are collected, this research does some steps for analyzing the data. they are, first is differentiating each type or each marker. second is interpreting based on the interactive and interactional function of each marker and explaining descriptively in the form of sentences. the third is specifying the collected data by dividing it into the subcategory of interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms). it is noted that the same markers with the same function are not considered as the data. therefore, in this step, several unqualified data are deleted. moreover, the last is evaluating and drawing the conclusion. results and discussions the findings address the types and functions of interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms) used in steve jobs’ oral presentation based on the metadiscourse theory proposed by hyland (2005). this research only focuses on interactive and interactional markers. the excerpts put in this section are only as of the sample of analysis. the findings are summarized in table 2 and table 3. the interactive resource reflects the textual function of metadiscourse. it is assumed that whether the presentation can raise interest or not, depends on the construction of the text that can guide the listener. the findings prove that steve jobs uses interactive resources to make the listeners interested and to make the text more coherent. 300 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 297-304 table 2 interactive metadiscourse markers in steve job business presentation category number of terms percentage of total interactive metadiscourse percentage of total interpersonal metadiscourse transition markers 11 45,8 14,1 frame markers 7 29,1 8,9 endhoporic markers 1 4,1 1,2 evidential 3 12,5 3,8 code glosses 1 4,1 1,2 total 24 100 29,2 transition marker, such as ‘in addition’, is categorized as a subcategory of interactive markers because its function is to indicate the relation of one sentence to another. transition markers have sufficient rule to create a clear transition into another idea because it links each sentence that make them as well organized structure language. the example of it can be seen in excerpt 1. excerpt 1 “the ipod, in addition to being the world’s best mp3 player, has become the world’s most popular video player, and by a large margin. the ipod nano is the world’s most popular mp3 player, by a wide margin.” [0:05:18] steve jobs uses the marker ‘in addition’ as a bridge of the previous sentence in introducing the new product of ipod. the marker also functions as the additional information on what tools does the ipod has in its new product. besides, he uses that marker as the additional information in which an mp3 player in the ipod is the best and popular video player with a very different margin that is wider than another product. the transition marker of ‘so’ is used by steve jobs to draw a conclusion. the data shows that the iphone has an important tool that makes it different from other products. based on the context, the product is completed by an ipod, phone, and internet devices. both previous studies do not find nor in michele obama speech or steve job speech. further, the finding shows that transition markers not only link ideas but also to conclude the argument that is encountered. it can be seen in excerpt 2. excerpt 2 “so, three things: a widescreen ipod with touch controls; a revolutionary mobile phone; and a breakthrough internet communications device. an ipod, a phone, and an internet communicator.” [0:29:01] excerpt 2 shows that the transition marker ‘so’ draws the conclusion regarding the three important features in the iphone. it also works as the reinforcement that ipod, a phone, and an internet communicator become reasons that make the audience interesting to use an iphone. this marker also helps the speaker to emphasize that iphone is the pioneering product that creates touchscreen phones with the internet communication device. therefore, the transition marker in excerpt 2 is to conclude the argument that has been encountered by the speaker about the new devices on the iphone. based on excerpt 3, transition marker ‘so’ also functions as a comparison. it can be seen in the excerpt 3, “so that’s dramatically better than any of these smartphones.” the excerpt 3 explains that the comparison between the iphone and other products are discussed. excerpt 3 “a lot of these smartphones have pretty low battery lives. we’ve managed to get five hours battery, and that’s for talk time, video or browsing, five hours of battery life and 16 hours of audio playback. so that’s dramatically better than any of these smartphones. there is a tremendous amount of high technology in the iphone.” frame marker is used as the sequence of the talk. in excerpt 4, ‘the first’ marker functions as a sequence part of the text that indicates text boundaries. by using frame markers, steve job could directly tell what topics are going to be explained by him. excerpt 4 “so, the first thing i’d like to do is give you an update about our music business. as you know, we’ve got the.. the ipod, the best music player in the world.” “we’ve got the ipod nanos, brand new models, colors are back. we’ve got the amazing new ipod shuffle. the ipod, in addition to being the world’s best mp3 player, has become the world’s most popular video players, and by large margin.” [0:05:01] at the beginning of the presentation, steve job uses frame markers ‘the first’ to sequence each part of the discussion. he clearly expresses the topic that will be explained by him. he is capable of making an outline of his talk and direct audiences to an understanding by using frame markers in his presentation. in the first discussion, he uses frame marker to inform the audience that ipod becomes the best music player in the world, and he has added that not only the best mp3 player but also the most popular ipod in the world. the use of ‘the first’ makes a good impression in the beginning. on making clear presentations to audiences, steve job uses frame markers to sequence each part of his presentation. the markers ‘so’ in this sentence aims to conclude the entire discussion. meanwhile, the marker ‘so’ in transition marker functions to draw a conclusion in one topic. therefore, in this research is found different functions and types from the same markers. it can be seen in excerpt 5. excerpt 5 “so, today, we’ve added to the mac and the ipod. we’ve added apple tv and now iphone. and you know the mac is the only one that you think as a computer.” [1:43:10] based on excerpt 5, steve job uses frame marker ‘so’ to remind the audiences to relate the previous achievements that apple had. steve jobs intentionally concludes this part 301interpersonal metadiscourse.... (heri kuswoyo; rani andini siregar) by showing products that have been launched by apple. frame markers could help him to emphasize his argument that apple has created the best product in which mac becomes the best computer in the whole industry. steve job uses endophoric markers ‘as i said’ to refer the information to other parts of the text that make the audience easily connect to other materials that have been discussed in the previous discussion. in excerpt 6, the endhoporic marker is used to retell the audiences about the previous discussion; about ipod, which is the best music player. on the other hand, ‘as i said’ refers to the other data in the text. so, this marker not only helps steve jobs to remind the audiences about the previous topic but also to help him developing and adding more explanation about music player on ipod. excerpt 6 “now, as i said, we had a very strong lineup of music players for this holiday season. we always have stiff competition. that’s just part of this business.” [00:09:21] next, steve jobs uses evidential markers, ‘this is our data’ to show proof about their achievement from itunes. these markers function as additional data and information that is taken from other sources. based on excerpt 7, steve jobs uses this marker to show his or their success in selling over 600 million song bases in 10 months. the evidential marker here also uses to rebut untrusted article that has said itunes sales had slowed dramatically. therefore, the evidential marker function is to support and to proof his statement by giving additional data from other text. excerpt 7 “i don’t know what data they’re looking at, but uh this is our data, and what we see is itunes sales were really up this past year. uh, it took us over three years to get to a billion songs.” [0:06:12] in excerpt 8, steve jobs uses code glosses ‘as an example’ as additional information about what is being explained. the marker ‘as an example’ gives the clarity that leads the audiences to an understanding. from excerpt 8, steve jobs tries to give an example of how to make double phone calls and to open an email at the same time. he uses the marker ‘as an example’ to assist the audience to catch the point. he intentionally gives a demo ‘as an example’ to clarify his previous explanation. this interactive way is done by the speaker to make a clearer point that can be understood well by audiences and to create interesting presentations. excerpt 8 “as an example here, i’ve got eddie q and i’ve been carrying on a conversation with eddie, and i just tap this, and here’s the conversation i’ve been carrying on right here, right. and if there’s a new message it will tell me.” [0:57:22] interactional metadiscourse involves the audience to the speaker’s discourse. it deals with interpersonal activity. whether the presentation’s success or not, it depends on how the speaker builds interaction between him and his audiences. the findings show that in delivering the presentation, steve jobs successfully raises the audience’s attention and builds interpersonal relations. it can be seen clearly in table 3. table 3 interactional metadiscourse markers in steve job business presentation category number of terms percentage of total interactive metadiscourse resources percentage of total interpersonal metadiscourse hedges 2 3,7 2,5 booster 7 12,9 8,9 attitude markers 6 11,1 7,6 self-mention 23 42,5 29,4 engagement markers 16 29,6 20.5 total 54 100 68,9 in this part, steve jobs uses hedges to give the only assumption that shows his lack of confidence. meanwhile, the markers indicate his viewpoints rather than fact in his presentation. from the usage of interactional markers in excerpt 9, ‘i think’ aims to show the speaker’s opinion. this marker functions as an escape way for him to avoid confessing the ongoing information. in the first four months, apple has success selling over 1,3 million movies. it is a great achievement, but certainly, their expectation will be more selling than it was. even though the markers ‘i think’ can show the speaker’s uncertainty, it could help to support the speaker’s arguments. excerpt 9 “and i am really pleased to announce that in the first four months of selling movies, we have sold 1.3 million movies on itunes, which i think has exceeded all of our expectations.” [0:08:11] in this part, the booster ‘it’s pretty cool’ emphasizes the speaker’s certainty of what they have said. it strengthens the speaker’s argument by directing the audience into the same conclusion as the speaker has. this marker plays an essential role in supporting the speaker’s argument in convincing the audience. it can be seen in excerpt 10. excerpt 10 “it’s pretty cool. show it to you in a minute. so three advance sensors built-in. this is the size of it. it fits beautifully in the palm of your hand.” [0:40:22] in this part of the presentation, steve jobs uses the phrase ‘it’s pretty cool’ to affirm his argumentation and to convince the listener that this device is truly awesome when the screen switch from the portrait to landscape. then, the markers ‘it fits beautifully in the palm of your hand’ functions as pragmatic utterances that could create an idea to the audience about how suitable the size of the iphone for people to carry on. by using interpersonal markers, steve jobs can express his certainty of goodness from his new product. in this part, the attitude marker ‘thank you very much’ is used as showing gratitude feeling of steve job who 302 lingua cultura, vol. 13 no. 4, november 2019, 297-304 has been helped by his fellows in creating such an incredible device. the marker indicates speaker’s attitude and value of honoring people who have given contribution to iphone. it can be seen in excerpt 11. excerpt 11 “but we didn’t do this alone. we did this with the help of a lotta folks. our new colleagues at intel really helped us. thank you very much.” [0:01:57] the phrase ‘thank you very much’ shows that his value as a modest speaker. he does not forget to involve and to thankful to every people who have to help him for the achievement of his company has got. from the previous statement, he has said that he plans to make an iphone in 12 months, but with help from his colleges at intel, they make it only in 7 months. so, with these markers, steve job could show his respect to people who have contributed to creating the iphone by thanking them and involve them in the presentation. in welcoming the audiences, steve job uses interpersonal metadiscourse markers, which is a subcategory of interactional markers self-mention ‘we’ to show that he and his audiences are in the same position. for the very first time, steve jobs opens his presentation by thanking the audiences for their coming to his keynote. then, steve jobs uses marker ‘we’ to mention that he and his audiences together make a new history. by stating ‘we’ in his presentation, he could easily gain the audience’s attention as if the audiences also have a contribution to making pioneering products and create a history with steve jobs. it can be seen in excerpt 12. excerpt 12 “thank you for coming. we’re gonna make some history today. so, welcome to macworld.” [0:00:50] selfmention ‘i’ is used by steve jobs to add new information and to prove the originality of it. selfmention also provides an overt structure for their discourse. this marker helps to promote both speaker stance and his stance. by using selfmention ‘i’ in this part, steve jobs wants to reflect his waiting about two a half years for launching the pioneering product. a revolutionary product, the iphone, has changed everything, changes not only apple but also changes the whole computer industry. so, selfmention ‘i’ refer to steve jobs, who has waited to launch the revolutionary product. it can be seen in excerpt 13. excerpt 13 “this is a day i’ve been looking forward to for twoand-a-half years.” [0:26:28] the using of self-mention ‘we’ in this part is to explicitly refer to the author and his team. he uses different self-mention with the previous excerpt because, in this part, ‘we’ refers to steve jobs and his team in intel. meanwhile, ‘we’ in the previous excerpt refers to steve jobs and his audiences. the marker ‘we’ in excerpt 14 shows that steve jobs and his team have succeeded in creating the best product unceasingly. from 1984, 2001, until 2007, steve jobs and his team have successfully change the whole computer industry and as the best revolutionary product in the world. steve job mentions ‘we’ to show the presence of people behind the scene on creating an iphone. excerpt 14 “in 1984, we introduced the macintosh. it didn’t just change apple, it changed the whole computer industry. in 2001, we introduced the first ipod, and it didn’t just change the way we all listen to music, it changed the entire music industry. well, today, we’re introducing three revolutionary products of this class.” [0:27:12] in this part, steve jobs has engaged the audience’s attention by inviting them to see the next thing he is going to present. engagement marker ‘let’s take a look’ aims to engage the audience by using direct engagement. excerpt 15 “let’s take a look at the side. it’s really thin. it’s thinner than any smartphone out there, at 11,6 millimeters. thinner than the q, thinner than the blackjack, thinner than all of them. it’s really nice.” it is obvious that the marker ‘let’s’ in excerpt 15 refers to audiences and the speaker himself. this engagement is a proper way to involve audiences attractively because it is intentionally to attract audiences. steve jobs invites the audience to see the smartphone closely together with him. by doing this, steve jobs can attract the audience’s attention and engagement marker as the conveyor, which leads to the speaker’s arguments. in this part, steve jobs uses an engagement marker, “look what happens!” to invite participation from the audiences. he invites the audience to give their focus on what steve jobs is going to show. excerpt 16 “now, let me show you something else.i just take my unit here, and i turn it landscape mode, oh, look what happens! i’m in cover flow.” [0:43:16] excerpt 16 is quite different from excerpt 15. steve jobs uses interjection in excerpt 16, “look what happens!” to invite the audience to see a magic tool from iphone. the pioneering phone with a landscape screen can easily grasp audience intention to his presentation. the marker “look what happens!” reflects his enthusiasm for showing other apps on the iphone. the markers indirectly help steve jobs to influence the listener to be enthusiast as well to his presentation. the results show that steve jobs uses some interpersonal metadiscourse markers in order to make a good presentation. besides, the findings have also found that interactional markers such as transitional and engagement markers are dominantly used by him. conclusions in conclusion, this research reveals how steve jobs uses interpersonal metadiscourse markers as the persuasive strategies in his oral business presentation. thus, this section contains a general view of current research. it covers the conclusion derived from the result of the analysis. the conclusion figures out how the writers answer the research questions and give an explanation in a general way. the research shows how interpersonal metadiscourse markers help steve jobs to build interpersonal relationships 303interpersonal metadiscourse.... (heri kuswoyo; rani andini siregar) with his audiences. after analyzing the whole data, the present researchers conclude that there are 78 interpersonal metadiscourse markers used by steve jobs that consist of interactive and interactional metadiscourses. transition markers become the highest percentage of 29,1%, among other markers in interactional metadiscourse. steve jobs has successfully created a well-organized presentation using transition markers to make a clear transition in every single part of his presentation. moreover, the use of frame markers, endophoric markers, evidential, and code glosses are to make a coherent presentation. table 2 shows that self-mention is dominantly used by steve jobs. this marker becomes the highest percentage among interactive and interactional markers because selfmention helps the speaker to prove the originality of his arguments and showing his presence in the presentation. he frequently mentions ‘we’ that refers to him and his team to show their identity that have created an incredible product. then, in other parts, steve jobs mentions ‘we’ that refers to him and his audiences as the way to explicitly involve the audiences into the presentation. furthermore, the engagement marker is also frequently used by steve jobs in order to attract the audience’s attention to his presentation. while booster, hedges, and attitude markers are used to support his statements or idea. in conclusion, the use of interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms) has several functions, such as to strengthen, affirm, clarify, build interaction, and make the speaker’s arguments clearer. the inappropriate use of interpersonal metadiscourse markers (imdms) could affect the ambiguity of propositional content. thus, this shows that interpersonal metadiscourse affects the quality of the speaker in presenting their idea. the results of this research can be used in professional life or in business to improve the field related to communication skills. besides, the present researchers suggest that future studies explore the use of interpersonal metadiscourse markers by selecting other topics of speeches or by conducting contrastive studies to compare indonesian speakers’ markers choice with other different cultural groups of speakers. however, due to the limitation of the data size used in this research, future research may also expand the corpus size. acknowledgements this study was supported by the faculty of arts & education grant at universitas teknokrat indonesia, lampung. we express our gratitude to akhyar rido, ph.d. for his valuable insights and support in this work. special thanks are given to the anonymous reviewers who reviewed this article, thus, this article could be published in this reputable journal. references ahour, t., & maleki, s. e. 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(2016). a multidimensional analysis of metadiscourse markers across written registers. discourse studies, 18(2), 204–222. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461445615623907. vol. 15 no. 1 july 2021cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nico surantha bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richer monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 30/e/kpt/2018 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents dewi puspitasari the interplay of meaning between verbal and visual texts in a japanese children’s book............................... 1-9 eisha jamila qomariyah ikhwan; erna andriyanti students’ motivation to acquire english through virtual learning in the midst of covid-19 pandemic.................. 11-20 eusabinus bunau the reflexive pronoun of the bidayuh-somu language: its comparable process to english language suffix -self/-selves.............................................................. 21-27 woro januarti symbols of heroes in the indonesian and chinese movies ..................................................................... 29-38 yune andryani pinem corpus-based analysis of online hoax discourse on transportation subject picturing indonesian issue.................. 39-50 dwi atmawati language politeness in the javanese verb speech level....................................................................... 51-57 yella dezas perdani the english language teachers’ perspective of using the first language (l1) in teaching a foreign language (tefl) class..................................................................................... 59-66 irmala sukendra culture-shaped language of male and female writers: a comparative study of english and bahasa indonesia....... 67-72 chusni hadiati; nadia gitya yulianita a depiction of raden joko kaiman as a superhero using barthes’ semiotics................................................ 73-78 eksanti dwi pratiwi; ahmad juma’ khatib strategies applied in translating informationtechnology terms in manual books: iphone 12 pro and samsung s20 fe................................................................................................. 79-84 wendelinus janggo ana dhei dhato: a traditional wedding tradition at rajawawo village of ende regency................................... 85-92 lispridona diner; zukhaira; sherly f. lensun a meta-analysis of the influence of instructional media on speaking learning.............................................. 93-99 devina cultural intelligence of foreign language lecturers: a measurement towards global competence...................... 101-108 desi indrawati critical discourse analysis on representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets................................ 109-119 fransiska prihatiningsih; ismail petrus; sary silvhiany cultural representation in efl textbooks for the seventh graders: a multimodal analysis............................... 121-133 vol. 15 no. 1 july 2021cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 11 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 11-20 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.6839 students’ motivation to acquire english through virtual learning in the midst of covid-19 pandemic eisha jamila qomariyah ikhwan1*; erna andriyanti2 1master of applied linguistics, yogyakarta state university 2english education department, yogyakarta state university jl. colombo yogyakarta no. 1, karang malang, sleman, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1eishajamila@gmail.com; 2erna.andriyanti@uny.ac.id received: 03rd december 2020/revised: 28th february 2021/accepted: 08th march 2021 how to cite: ikhwan, e. j. q., & andriyanti, e. (2021). students’ motivation to acquire english through virtual learning in the midst of covid-19 pandemic. lingua cultura, 15(1), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.6839 abstract the research aimed to find out students’ motivation to acquire english as a foreign language through virtual learning in the midst of covid-19 pandemic. it involved 202 students spread throughout indonesia. data were collected by means of motivation questionnaires adopted from the situational motivation scale (sims) of students’ motivation, i.e., instrumental motivation and integral motivation. the data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and pearson’s correlation on spss 22. the result shows that the students have a low level of motivation both for integrative and instrumental motivation to acquire english. the statistical calculation reveals that there is a correlation between the students’ motivation and virtual learning activity as shown by the level of significance 0,000<0,05 with the coefficient pearson’s correlation of 0,282. there is no correlation between the students’ motivation and the covid-19 pandemic as depicted by pearson’s correlation of 0,062 with the significant level of 0,382>0,05. the research implies a need for a more innovative instructional design for virtual language learning to better improve students’ motivation to learn english during the covid-19 pandemic. keywords: students’ motivation, virtual learning, covid-19 pandemic introduction motivation is an influential factor in learning a second or foreign language. it is confirmed as the key to success or failure in second language learning (moroz et al., 2018; hong & ganapathy, 2017; smith & loewen, 2018). motivation serves as the support system for shaping learning persistence to achieve learning goals. in the learning process, students’ motivation has different types based on their personal goals. two types of motivation, called integrative and instrumental motivation, play an important role in language learning (carriopastor & mestre, 2014; gardner, 2010; rahardjo & pertiwi, 2020; rozmatovna, 2020; smith, briggs, pothier, 2018; yu, 2019; zanghar, 2012). the research focuses on investigating students’ instrumental and integrative motivation. it aims to identify and investigate students’ motivation in learning english through virtual learning midst covid-19 pandemic. these findings of the investigation are expected to inform and motivate teachers or practitioners to make the interactive instructional design by taking into account students’ instrumental and integrative motivation. in this pandemic situation, students’ motivation can be lifted by choosing the appropriate virtual learning. the teachers are supposed to define uncommonly virtual learning as the lessons with visual aids and engage learning facilities (marutschke et al., 2019; tomas et al., 2019). the quality of virtual learning can be enhanced by strengthening the organization support (chiang, boakye, tang, 2019), designing relevant course content and organization (makokha & mutisya, 2020), employing suitable teacher pedagogy and affordable technological support (abad-segura et al., 2020; graham et al., 2016; queiros & de villiers, 2016). in addition, students’ motivation is an essential account of rewarding virtual learning since positive students’ motivation, whether instrumental or integrative, improves the level of enjoyment in the second language (l2) learning (dewaele, magdalena, & saito, 2019; zhang, dai, & wang, 2020). hudson (2000) has defined instrumental 12 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 11-20 motivation as the direction to get practical benefits to gain language proficiency. he has stated that instrumental motivation reflects learners’ recognition of interest to perceive the actual benefits of learning the language. such recognition has efforts to understand benefits of language learning such as having a better job or a good salary as a consequence of mastering l2 (you & dornyei, 2016; tileston, 2010). instrumental motivation indicates desire to study a foreign language in order to achieve a practical reason and to gain language mastery for a utilitarian objective such as reaching future employment opportunities (rahardjo & pertiwi, 2020). on the other hand, integral motivation is learners’ desire to integrate the second language culture into part of society and to participate in the target language group (saville-troike, 2006). integrative motivation is characterized by learners’ attitudes towards their desire to interact with the target language communities (qashoa, 2006). integrative motivation is the desire to interact with native speakers as well as that to develop a positive attitude towards the factors underlying interests and intake for second language acquisition. motivational intensity, attitude towards learning english, and student’s perception of the quality of the english course are found to be the predictors of achievement (cocca & cocca, 2019; hoey, 2017). recently, education systems around the world are placed in chaotic situations due to coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic. the data reports that over 60 million students have temporarily out of school during the covid-19 infection in indonesia (unesco, 2020). they have conducted a survey which shows the most significant trouble for students who study at home is the lack of internet access and electronic devices. in cases of study at home, the influential factor for students to acquire a second language learning english is internal motivation. li (2020) has indicated that the learner’s success in second language learning is formed from the ability to act on their own motivation through actively utilizing the resource and affordance in the education environment. the situation of the education system was changing in the second half semester of 2020 when the first medical patient of coronavirus covid-19, was infected. this virus has infected 61.963.422 people worldwide, the last report on november 2020. for the year 2020, 68 million students in over 530.000 schools from pre-primary through tertiary level have decided to have closed. in this situation, some universities and schools are remained not allowed teaching-learning process at schools (murphy, 2020). the school lockdown has challenged teachers, students, and parents to confront new conditions (huber & helm, 2020). alqahtani and rajkhan (2020) have said that educational institutions are shut down all over the world, which impacts over 60% of students and causes massive disruption of the educational systems since the covid-19 pandemic. the government gives an alternative solution to move traditional learning becomes virtual learning. they call it kelas daring or study at home, which developed in learning platform namely rumah belajar. abidah et al. (2020) have stated that the traditional learning that emphasizes the interaction of student-teachers inside the classroom should shift to distance learning because of the significant impact of covid-19. virtual platform has changed the traditional learning to the modern like artificial intelligence (di vaio et al., 2020). a virtual learning platform provides a sustainable, high-quality educational infrastructure that fosters participation and collaboration (almarzooq, lopes, & kochar, 2020; hussain et al., 2018). however, selwyn et al. (2018) have found that english teaching practices still rely much on offline classroom activities or use old-fashioned and predigital teaching methods. based on the research by yanti, kuntarto, and kurniawan (2020), the teachers expect that the learning process is varied, contextual, attractive, fun, and efficient although done in e-learning. e-learning is a learning process supported by electronic technology to access courses outside the classroom (ngampornchai & adams, 2016). beluce and oliveira (2015) have mentioned the kinds of e-learning, e.g., virtual learning environment (vles), such as online learning; and virtual learning model as one solution to motivate students in order to keep their learning process. the characteristics of e-learning are the geographical distance between students and teachers, the need to involve students’ skills for using the internet access, and the flexibility in study timetable (filcher & miller, 2000; quevedo, 2011; testa & luciano, 2010). the purpose of distance learning is to encourage communication review through online resources available for students’ needs (leszczyński et al., 2018; schneider & laurin, 2020). kareal and klema (2006) have compared the particular feature of some open-source virtual learning systems and effective education. it is implied that the biggest obstacle of virtual learning is adaptability and motivation. in accordance with virtual learning to motivate students, the research by kim & frick (2011) has shown that virtual learning is a great positive factor to change students’ motivation in language learning proved on students’ achievement. related research has found that the students in georgia confirm that the fast transition from the traditional to the virtual education form and the gain experience can be used in the next educational system after pandemic occurrence (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020). differently, adnan and anwar (2020) have argued that the perspective of students in pakistan who learn through the virtual platform cannot afford to create successful learning. the students have difficulty to access the internet due to financial issues and lack of motivation to learn since face-to-face interaction stopped. based on these explanations and research, it can be concluded that the motivation of students can be affected by some factors, such as virtual learning and the students’ condition during the covid-19 13students’ motivation to acquire .... (eisha jamila qomariyah ikhwan; erna andriyanti) pandemic in indonesia. the research aims to (1) find the level of students’ motivation on l2 acquisition, (2) analyze the correlation between students’ motivation to learn english and virtual learning, and (3) analyze the correlation between students’ motivation to learn english and the urgent situation of covid-19 pandemic. methods the research applies a the quantitative research method. the participants are 202 students from junior high school, senior high school, undergraduate, and post-graduate students’ levels. they participate in the course using virtual learning. the classes take place in various districts in indonesia which are affected by covid-19 in 2020. the research is evaluated by the situational motivation scale (sims), developed by guay, vallerand, and blachard (2000), and degang’s (2020) likert scale. the data analysis uses the likert scale of agreement or disagreement to interpret the types of learning english motivation (table 1). table 1 interpretation of question’ category and students’ motivation level scale category motivation levels score 1 strongly disagree lowest 1,00–1,49 2 disagree low 1,50–2,49 3 neutral moderate 2,50–3,49 4 agree high 3,50–4,49 5 strongly agree highest 4,50–5,00 data are collected from the student participants through an online survey for five months, from july to november 2020. the first stage is undertaken from the participation of university students in a public higher education institution. in the second stage is students from senior and junior high school who assign the questioner. they fill in the educational background level based on their circumstances. the participants receive a link sent using the link system of google form provided by the researcher. in this way, the participants are able to access the instrument by clicking on a link provided on the first page of students’ motivation types adopted from hong and ganapathy (2017), i.e., instrumental motivation and integral motivation. this instrument is also ever adopted by rozmatovna (2020). the indicators of the questioners, together with the research results, are shown in table 3. the data analysis aims to answer the research objective to identify the students’ motivation on the virtual education platform or learning model during the covid-19 pandemic. the data collected are organized in spreadsheets in spss statistic 22 and are subjects to descriptive statistical analysis. the data rate has required detail to the frequency, mean, maximum, minimum score, and standard deviation of the variable investigated. pearson’s correlation is applied to meet the data. then, the level of significance can be seen in table 2. table 2 level of significance (r table) n level of significance 0,05 (5%) 0,01 (1%) 197 0,1169 0,1648 198 0,1166 0,1644 199 0,1164 0,1640 200 0,1161 0,1636 results and discussions the results of data analysis are processed through ibm spss statistics 22. the research involves 20 question items with a twelve-point indicated students’ motivation, a four-point indicated virtual learning model, and a four-point has shown pandemic situation. the research results are shown in table 3. table 3 question indicators and research results no research dimension indicator question number sum of items average resultpositive negative 1. instrumental motivation √ acquire english on virtual learning need to have a respectable achievement 3 3,79 √ learning english on virtual learning need to have a supporting system 8 4,16 √ doing virtual instruction is more important than learning english language 20 4,36 √ acquire english on virtual learning is primarily used for students’ assignment 7 6 3,69 √ students’ assignment finish easily using a virtual learning 9 3,57 √ i am not really productive in english learning during virtual learning process 15 2,61 14 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 11-20 the highest score of 4,39 is shown in question item number 13, implying that the students prefer doing traditional learning models to virtual learning models. this probably relates to the opportunity for accessing e-learning, which is still difficult based on students’ perceptions (hong & kim, 2018; mamattah, 2016; victoria, mislinawati, & nurmasyitah, 2018). related to gender, the male participants consist of 27,7% (n = 56), and female 72,3% (n = 146). the students’ junior high school level is 34,2% (n = 69), senior high school level 21,3% (n = 43), undergraduate degree 30,7% (n = 62), and postgraduate degree 13,9% (n = 28). the total respondent number by gender is shown in table 4, while figure 1 illustrates the percentage by level of studies. table 4 number of respondents by gender frequency percent valid percent valid male 56 27,7 27,7 female 146 72,3 72,3 total 202 100,0 100,0 figure 1 diagram of the respondents’ levels of study (percentage) no research dimension indicator question number sum of items average resultpositive negative integral motivation √ acquire english allows me to attend greater aptitude in virtual instruction during covid-19 pandemic 17 3,20 √ studying english does not allows me to take part in social participation of virtual learning midst covid-19 pandemic 11 2,74 √ acquire english on virtual learning supports me to have knowledge for foreign friend interaction 18 2,09 √ studying english on virtual learning needs to understand english reading materials 2 6 3,27 √ studying english on virtual learning needs to understand english teachers material 5 3,46 √ acquire english helps me to recognize the value of english news about covid-19 pandemic worldwide 19 2,06 2. virtual learning model √ i often use the virtual learning platform provided by the government because this program was meet amidst covid-19 pandemic 4 3,37 √ the government support many usable virtual platform for students 10 3,33 √ i feel educational system virtual learning in the midst of covid-19 pandemic needs more improvement 12 4 4,43 √ i prefer to use a traditional learning model than virtual learning model in the midst of covid-19 pandemic 13 4,39 3. covid-19 pandemic situation √ i honestly enjoy participating in virtual learning because it makes me enthusiastic to learn in the midst of covid-19 pandemic 1 3,10 √ covid-19 pandemic makes me interest to study english using virtual learning 10 3,20 √ i feel accomplish a good result in virtual learning and i really appreciate the government to present the educational system in the midst of covid-19 pandemic 14 4 3,24 √ i am satisfied to learn english in the midst of covid-19 pandemic by using virtual education system 16 3,63 total 20 table 3 question indicators and research results (continued) 15students’ motivation to acquire .... (eisha jamila qomariyah ikhwan; erna andriyanti) the questioners that describe instrumental motivation in the research are built with four indicators. in comparison, integral motivation with five indicators can be seen in table 3. the data obtained related to the student’s motivation are in table 5. table 5 descriptive statistics of students’ motivational instrumental integral n valid 202 202 missing 0 0 mean 22,19 16,83 median 22,00 17,00 mode 23 15 std. deviation 3,144 3,916 minimum 14 6 maximum 30 29 sum 4482 3399 the rates of instrumental motivation indicate a minimum score of 14; a maximum score of 30; a median of 6 question items on numbers 3,7,8,9,15, and 20 is 22,00 with the rank of standard deviation in table 5 is 3,144. on the other hand, the rates of the median score on an integral motivation are 17,00; a maximum score of 29; a minimum score of 6; and the rank of standard deviation is 3,916. the overall mean score and average mean scores for instrumental motivation (22,19) and integrative motivation (16,83) fall in the low motivational level (see table 1). the superiority of instrumental motivation over integratively motivation has also been found in some previous research done by al-ta’ani (2018); galea and muftah (2013); hong and ganapathy (2017); masum (2016); and rozmatovna (2020). students instrumentally motivate to acquire english for a practical reason to pass the english subject school exam on virtual learning midst covid-19 pandemic. participants who are highly motivated to acquire english show there have difficulties and complex problems with virtual learning. the closure of e-learning during a pandemic may result in students spending less time learning, stress symptoms, a change in the way they interact, and a lack of learning motivation (pietro et al., 2020). although, catálan, catalán, and vázquez (2018) have found that the platform of e-learning or virtual learning increases students’ confidence, reduces stress, and enhances empathy, but it is not proven by the research. it is completed by arkorful and abaidoo’s (2015) research that there are advantages and disadvantages of implementing e-learning in higher education. the students’ motivation is accompanied by effort, activity, persistence, and material attention (bzuneck, 2010; patrick, skinner, & connell, 1993; quevedo, 2011; xie, durrington, & yen, 2011). the instrumental motivation in determining language learning success is constructed through four factors such as learners’ self-ratings and ability confidence (paap et al., 2019; schafer et al., 2018), identity (background), metacognition, and motivation (desire and aspiration) as a major impact of acquiring english (larsen-freeman, 2019; fincham & li, 2019; vandergriff, 2016). based on responses to question number 20, the participants consider that doing virtual instruction is more important than learning english. as seen in table 3, the score of 4,36 means the participants show a strong agreement with the question item. it coincides with sujarwo et al.’s (2020) research that shows the students’ participation in online learning positively impacts the midst of the covid-19 pandemic. it is because students are interested in accessible and flexible classes. however, their motivations to acquire a second language during covid-19 need more improvement. verawardina et al.’s (2020) research proves that innovation in language learning is fully needed to support the development of the educational system. although the fact shows that the students do not have a better experience and master competencies during the online learning midst pandemic covid-19, the research indicates that teachers are not in line with students’ need to learn a second language. similar to results from other studies, they reinforce the students but not their proficiency (luong-phan & effeney, 2015; syauqi, munadi, & triyono, 2020). the investigation constructs that the teacher’s role can perform as a factor for student satisfaction activity undertaken on e-learning (al-rahmi et al., 2019; cidral et al., 2018; quevedo, 2011; sankar, 2018; selvaraj, 2019; xie, durrington, & yen, 2011; & yulia, 2020). diagnosing students’ needs and aptitude is necessary to make virtual learning successful. the decision to fulfill the students’ needs is important to prevent social inequality among students (eickelmann & gerick, 2020). the data relevant to the second research question indicate the correlation between the students’ motivation and virtual learning. table 6 lists the correlation value found between students’ motivation and the virtual learning model. tabel 6 correlations between students’ motivation and virtual learning sm_y vlm_x1 sm_y pearson correlation 1 0,282** sig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 202 202 vlm_x1 pearson correlation 0,282** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,000 n 202 202 sign** means that it is on spss calculation means that it is significant at the 0,01 (1%) level, which implies the confidence level is 99% 16 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 11-20 the correlations imply the ability to predict the value of students’ motivational value based on another. the significance value (p-value) is the probability of error in the correlation. at most, the 5% probability of error is accepted to consider a correlation significant. referring to table 6, the researcher can find a significant correlation at 0,01 (1%) and 0,05 (5%) of the significant level. the df value is obtained from the following formula; df= n – k (n-3). n represents the number of samples, while k represents the number of independent variables. with n sample amount 202, and three independent variables are used in the research, the df equals 199. so, based on the table 3 r-table is 0,1164 (5%), and 0,164 (1%). if the r-correlation higher than r-table (r-correlation > r-table), it means the correlation is significant, however, if the r-correlation less than r-table (r-correlation 0,164 (r correlation > r table) at the 1% level of significant. the result shows that the correlation between students’ motivation and virtual learning is significant. in line with pearson’s correlation formula on the correlation between students’ motivation and covid-19 pandemic, covid-19 pandemic shows the level of significant 0,05 (5%). sign* on table 7 calculation means that is significant at 0,05 (5%) level, which shows the confidence level of 95%. the result of statistical analysis on this dimension indicates the data (p-value) ≤ 0,05 (0,382 ≥ 0,05) and the pearson’s correlation of r correlation and r table shows 0,062 < 0,116 (r-correlation > r-table) at the 5% level of significant. it can be concluded that the dimension of student motivation and covid-19 pandemic has no significant correlation. thus, only the correlation between students’ motivation and the virtual learning model has a significant correlation. it is supported by harandi’s (2015) research that says there is a relationship between students’ motivation and virtual learning in higher-level education. regarding the previous finding that investigates students’ motivation when they participate in the virtual learning model during the covid-19 pandemic, the result also presents an insignificant correlation between them. it is worth discussing that the value is achieved through the data analysis that there is a significant correlation found between students’ motivation and virtual learning, but students’ motivation and the situation of the covid-19 pandemic has no correlation. these levels of pearson’s correlation are shown to be appropriate, especially in the extent of the online class. it is given that the characteristics of these virtual learning inside the educational environment require higher involvement and autonomy of students’ motivation in their learning (beluce & oliveira, 2015; filcher & miller, 2000; strike, 2018). it is direct evidence that the outcome of the education system is the crucial factor that discovers the quality of end-users from the educational product or called the platform of virtual learning (elumalai et al., 2020). tabel 7 correlations between students’ motivation and covid-19 pandemic sm_y vlm_x1 sm_y pearson correlation 1 0,062 sig. (2-tailed) 0,382 n 202 202 vlm_x1 pearson correlation 0,062 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,382 n 202 202 virtual learning, or in indonesia called the online class (kelas daring), has an extensive correlation with building students’ motivation for acquiring english through the instructional process. based on previous research, adnan and anwar (2020) have stated that online classes cannot produce the desired result in undeveloped countries, where a vast majority of students have difficulties in accessing the internet. this case has indirectly occurred in indonesia. not a few students have difficulties accessing virtual learning models using internet access due to social-economic power. the problems of virtual learning in the midst of the covid-19 pandemic have spotted the teachers’ inability to access technology, definite school facilities, the difficulties in explaining the material virtually, the limitation of internet access for students, students’ economic background, and the patented support system. it is proven on several research by allo (2020) and lestiyanawati and widyantoro (2020). the scholars who understand virtual learning know it has significant challenges for support teamwork, i.e., the students, teachers, and parents (bond et al., 2018; jones & sharma, 2020; liao, chen, & shih, 2019). furthermore, the stronger need for an education system midst the covid-19 pandemic is the fastest adaptation of new instructional models and strategies in the teaching-learning process (toquero, 2020). therefore, it may be expected that the government is more concerned with technical problems experienced by the students during the covid-19 pandemic. 17students’ motivation to acquire .... (eisha jamila qomariyah ikhwan; erna andriyanti) conclusions regarding the result that is investigated, the student’s motivation to learn english, the virtual learning model, and the urgent situation of the covid-19 pandemic are presented on the data finding and discussion. it can be concluded that from 202 participants consisting of 146 female students and 56 male students, the age group with the highest degree of interest in the government’s virtual learning platform is the junior high school group. the research has reported some important findings of students’ motivation types with percentage and required detail to the frequency, mean, maximum, minimum score, and standard deviation of dimension investigated. the data readily process from the result of respondents’ g-form survey around five months in 2020. the suitable indicators to emphasize the results found from the analysis which ascertain a low category of students’ motivation are instrumental motivation and integral motivation. the result also proves with some previous research that the superiority of instrumental motivation over integral motivation. the students require to acquire english on virtual learning is primarily used to attain students’ assignment and accomplish the optimal score in english subject. the second research question statistical calculation reveals that there is a correlation between the students’ motivation and virtual learning activity as shown by the level of significance 0,000 < 0,05 with pearson’s correlation of r-correlation and r-table (0,282 > 0,164) at the level sig. 1%. it is noteworthy that such a result is predicted the quality of the virtual learning model that can improve students’ motivation to acquire english, especially in the covid-19 pandemic. however, there is no correlation between the students’ motivation and the urgent issue of the covid-19 pandemic as depicted by pearson’s correlation of 0,062 with the significant level of 0,382 > 0,05. the previous explanation shows that the results imply identifying the motivational contribution of students’ motivation to acquire english midst covid-19 pandemic. the researcher suggests that teachers and parents may have intensive attention to educational systems during covid-19 included making up suitable virtual learning for students to acquire english appropriate for their real condition. the government also should to take more concern in technical problems experienced by the students during covid-19 pandemic. in this perspective, the students still have difficulties with virtual learning, such as trouble accessing the online class and the level of students’ motivation implied in a low level. the researcher considers the investigation of instrumental motivation and integral motivation that future studies should seek more qualitatively and give more contribution to the educational development system in an urgent situation. references abad-segura, e., gonzález-zamar, m. d., infante-moro, j. c., & garcía, g. r. 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(soraya) the subaltern voice in a thousand splendid suns soraya english department, sekolah tinggi bahasa asing lia jakarta jln. pengadegan timur raya no. 3, pancoran, jakarta selatan 12770 dear_soraya@yahoo.com abstract life in afghanistan puts female as the second sex and the victims in the culture of patriarchy. in the eye of orientalism, women are the east. thus, they can be colonized and suppressed (the subaltern). this study was designed to answer the question how the voice of the subaltern represented by the characters in the novel a thousand splendid suns by khaled khosseini. library research was applied in this study. data were analyzed using postcolonial theory, specifically from gayatri spivak. the conclusion presents that both characters, mariam and laila, are the representations of the subaltern who created voice to fight against the oppression. between mariam, the symbol of traditional woman, and laila, the symbol of modern woman, only laila survives. however, it is impossible for laila to achieve it without the courage and sacrifice of mariam. keywords: postcolonial, subaltern, a thousands splendid suns, patria abstrak wacana kehidupan di afghanistan menempatkan perempuan sebagai “jenis kelamin kedua”dan cenderung menjadikan mereka sebagai korban budaya patriarkat. hal ini dapat diidentikkan dengan orientalisme yang memandang timur (perempuan) sebagai “yang lain” yang boleh dijajah dan ditindas. kajian ini menjawab pertanyaan bagaimana suara dari kelompok subaltern direpresentasikan para tokoh utama di novel a thousand splendid suns karya khaled khosseini. data dikaji dengan teori poskolonial dari gayatri spivak. simpulan menyatakan bahwa tokoh mariam dan laila merupakan representasi subaltern di afghanistan yang berjuang melawan penindasan. antara mariam yang merupakan simbol perempuan tradisional dan laila yang merupakan simbol perempuan modern. hanya laila yang akhirnya berhasil bebas dari penindasan. kendati demikian, kebebasan laila sebagai subaltern dicapai dengan keberanian sekaligus pengorbanan mariam. kata kunci: poskolonial, subaltern, a thousands splendid suns 82 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 introduction community system puts the relationship of women and men manifested in various forms and patterns of behavior that reflects the acceptance of the women and men in the position of each gender. some people recognize equal rights for women and men but more people put the position of men higher than women. this can be seen by the socio-cultural realities in many places dominated by the ideology of patriarchy. hearty (2011) explains that this ideological idea believes that men are superior beings who master and define the social structure, economy, culture and politics in the male perspective. women are placed in domestic areas in a form of restriction, exclusion and excision of women. in other words, the position of men is structurally higher than women. furthermore, referring to sugihastuti (2007) the cultural construction in community also contributes in promoting it. men’s status that is considered to be higher makes them have the power to control women in various ways, such as reproduction, sexuality, division of labor system, etc. in the community that still holds the traditional understanding (patriarchy), women are on the weaker side. they always accept injustice and oppression. women do not acquire their rights, both in community and in the family. the opposite is earned by men. in other words, women in many cultural groups are placed as inferior. for example, only men can be leaders or only men can have high education. basically, interpretation highly depends on the will of the interpreter (male). if the interpreter (in government or religion) is a group that puts women in a noble position, behavioral culture of the community will reflect the nobelty. however, if the interpreter considers women as inferior, then the discourse can be used as a foundation for them to put women in opression. in such setting, women are often positioned as members of oppressed group and women do not have right to speak significantly. women are placed in a weak position resulting in a sense that women should meet the needs of men. in a country where a community is dominated by a religion, religious ritual discourse is also derived from the process of interpretation by a group that dominates. it happens in countries like afghanistan who embrace hard-line islam. in such places, the religious discourse is interpreted blindly that makes the position and the choice of woman limited. thus, men have more power and more access than women. spivak (1988) said that women are often positioned as the lower – and in fact this lies in a religious discourse, especially in the countries/groups that apply strong religious ideology. with an open and contextual interpretation of what is contained in the teachings of religion, religion actually has a great passion and sensitivity in gender equity. the interpretation will be the basis of the establishment and understanding of an ideology. ideology is a human conception and it becomes a kind of principle to practical action. in fact, qualitatively, ideology provides a unique identity within a social group. ideology is the logic of ideas that indicates a group, which holds the ideology, perceives and understands the world in a certain way that is consistent (thwaites & mules, 2002). in other words, the ideology becomes a kind of basic element to live a life consistent with the principle since ideology affects one’s worldview or group to create their world. this relationship leads to domination and subordination. thus, it causes unpleasant picture about the oppressed. in postcollonial theory, it’s called the”east” or the other. the oppressed group is called subaltern which do not have a voice. subaltern literally is interpreted as lower ranking (oppressed). this group is described as weak, ignorant, barbaric, uncivilized, strange, mystical, different and irrational. domination and subordination is a relationship that does not only occur between countries or ethnic but also within a country or within a particular ethnicity. emphasis on ethnicity in the literature of postcolonial theory can cover a wide range of gender power relations, for example, the image of women as bearers of significant tasks to maintain the sanctity and reproduction. furthermore, women bear a double burden due to being oppressed by authority powers and subordinated by men. this portrait is seen on the novel of khaled khosseini, a unhcr doctor who was born and raised in afghanistan before becoming a us citizen. the setting is in afghanistan, which is one of the third world countries which upholds patriarchal values in islam extremists. for thirty years, successive colonial powers controlled afghanistan. starting from the invasion of the soviet union and then proceed with the seizure of power by civil war between ethnic groups, such as najibullah, mujahideen, taliban, and the last is the control of the united states who wants to capture osama bin laden. in a situation as a colonized country, women in afghanistan are also affected, either directly or indirectly. this situation becomes background in the novel a thousand splendid suns. this novel tells the story of two women from different generations, mariam and laila. mariam lives with her mother, nana, in a hut away from the city. mariam is a girl who always receives different versions of history about herself and her origins. nana (mariam’s mother) is a housekeeper in the house of jalil khan’s family. she is impregnated by jalil. although customs in afghanistan allow men to marry multiple wives under the same roof, jalil chooses not to formalize his relationship with nana. this makes nana always talk about jalil in a negative tone to mariam. nana also repeatedly gives the idea that women are only objects of power for men and the only thing that should always be owned by women is tahamul or survival. however, jalil always comes to visit mariam. even though nana tells all that is bad about jalil to mariam, she still adores her father who always visits her every thursday. mariam always wants to visit jalil’s house and meets with other families in herat. the desire grows bigger when she celebrates fifteenth birthday. she is even willing to ignore the ban that is put on her. she takes a long journey to herat alone. however, the bitterness received from jalil’s family in herat makes her understand the words of her mother. mariam’s visit to the residence of jalil makes nana devastated. nana feels that everyone has ignored her. when mariam returns to her cabin, she finds 83the subaltern voice .... (soraya) her mother’s lifeless body. nana chooses to hang herself since her daughter would prefer to see jalil. mariam’s suffer continues. without the presence of her mother, she is taken and raised by jalil. however jalil’s family dislike her presence. she is forced to marry an old widower who is always rough. after marriage, mariam is taken to kabul. mariam’s husband, rasheed, treats her as a wife in a sense of a lust satisfaction, housekeeper, and an object of domestic violence. rasheed only wants to have a son. therefore, he is only kind when mariam is pregnant. when mariam miscarriages, his attitude then turns back into temperamental. laila is described as a young woman, smart, modern and well educated. laila’s family is a forwardthinking family. laila’s father, hakim, is a teacher with a broaden mind. laila also has a limp male friend named tariq. laila and tariq have intimate romance. the transition from the reign of the soviet union into a civil war between the mujahideen and najibullah in afghanistan raises many families to flee. laila’s family is killed by a rocket that destroys her house. fortunately, laila is only wounded. later, laila hear that tariq dies. at the age of fifteen, laila loses those she loves. laila’s feeling is crushed. laila’s and rasheed’s family lives as neighbors even though they do not have a good relationship. seeing the suffering of the young laila, rasheed looks at other opportunity. rasheed pretends to be sympathetic to bring laila to be treated at home and trick her so she is willing to get marry with him. when laila knows she is pregnant, laila has to accept rasheed’s proposal. after married to rasheed, laila and mariam live in the same house. at the beginning, mariam hates laila since she thinks that laila is ungrateful because laila takes rasheed from her. mariam is not willing to share rasheed with another woman. she feels that she has done everything for rasheed. at the beginning, rasheed treats laila like a queen because laila is young and being pregnant. rasheed is expecting a boy. but when the baby daughter is born (aziza), rasheed turns into rough, especially when he suspects that aziza is not his daughter. laila always has courage to argue with rasheed. however, when laila argues, rasheed then vent his anger on mariam, this makes laila decide not to fight rasheed anymore because of her sympathy to mariam. the civil war makes their economic life difficult. as the economy worsens, rasheed’s attitude becomes increasingly temperamental. on the other hand, it turns out that tariq is still alive. tariq returns to kabul and seeks laila. rasheed is so furious to know about it and he tortures laila to near death. mariam who could not stand anymore to rasheed’s attitude finally determines to kill him. mariam finally is sentenced to death for the sake of laila’s and her family’s freedom. this story of the afghanistan women struggling for their voice is written by a man whose root is also afghani who has the experience of witnessing the life there. thus, it’s interesting to analyze a struggle story of women’s oppression from the point of view of a man and how he created a voice for the women as the subalthern. this analysis will show a method to identify the subaltern voice so that it can be applied for any research postcollonial approach. therefore, this study will attempt to answer the question how the voice of the subaltern groups is represented by the main character in the novel a thousand splendid suns by khaled khosseini. method this research was done by focusing the literary text and it’s relationship with the reality because what is expressed in the novel is a reflection of women’s life in a colonized country. the method of the research is content analysis. content analysis method has functions to identify the content (of the novel) and characteristics of the writer. with the setting of the story which is full of oppression. the discourse of oppressor and oppressed group seemed very clear in the analysis using postcolonial approach. according to endraswara (2008), the construction of the oppressor and the oppressed is always about subordination. oppressor is always depicted in the subject position, arrogant, superior, winner, and dominated. the relationship between the oppresor-oppressed or “east”-“west”/ the self -the other is a hegemonic relationship. oppressor/”west”/the self is always positioned as superior, while the oppressed/”east”/ the other is always positioned as inferior (gandhi, 2001). the analysis of research was conducted using the postcolinialism theory of gayatri spivak. postcolonial theory and feminism reject the binary opposition against the patriarchal/colonialism authority constructs. the postcolonial feminism theorists have provided a strong reason that the central issue of racial politics has sunk double colonization of women under imperialist rule. the theory formulates that the third world women are victims of par exellence or forgotten victims of two ideologies: imperialism and patriarchy. spivak as cited in gandhi (2001) states: “between patriarchy and imperialism, constitutional subject and formation object, the image of women disappears not into a pure nonexistance but into a coil that describes the third world women who are in between of tradition and modernization.” referring to spivak, literary studies of colonialism relate to the issue of subaltern studies or studies of encouraging oppressed people to talk and stage over their silence. the term of “subaltern” is derived from the latin. the prefix submeans “under” and alter or alternus means “the other”. subalternus refers to the lower class individuals (inferior) (silima, 2013). subaltern itself is a term originally used by antonio gramsci in the year 1929–1935. in gramsci’s view, subaltern group refers to a person or group of lower class in certain societies. the person or group is suffering under the domination of hegemony run by an elite group. this makes this group do not get the same rights as other citizens to participate in the historical and cultural participation (louai, 2012). spivak (1988) says the concept of subaltern becomes more complex in her writings of postcolonial feminist critique of american indians. what is meant by spivak is subaltern women in various colonial context has 84 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 no conceptual language to talk because there is no ears of men to listen. this does not mean that women cannot communicate literally, but there is no subject position in the colonial discourse that allows women to articulate themselves as a person. according to spivak, the subaltern women are more susceptible to pressure than subaltern men (silima, 2013) because as the second sex (second group of men), women are destined to be silent. one of common terms that refer to subaltern in this literature for colonialism is “the other” and the opposition of this term is “the self”. another common term is “west” and “east”. “west” is for a group of superior and “east” is for a group of inferior. as a superior group, the “west” or the oppressors will dominate and suppress the “east” or subaltern groups. in facing the pressure from the “west”, subaltern groups or the “east” can keep voiceless or express their voice (choudury, 2013).. results and discussion this novel depicts two female figures of different generations: mariam and laila. mariam is described as a figure representing traditional generation. she is uneducated and always dominated. she is dominated by the male figures in her life, from her father to her husband. mariam’s mother taught her to always survive (tahamul) in receiving such dominance. laila, on the other hand, is an image of a young woman who is smart and modern. as the daughter of a teacher who has a modern thought, laila has a happy childhood, a life of freedom and modern education. mariam and laila are brought together by fate as the wives of a cruel man named rasheed. rasheed is a figure of a man who regards women as inferior. oppression to mariam and laila in domestic areas still has to be coupled with the condition of afghanistan that experiences a variety of power transition. as women who experience multiple oppressions from the authority and their husband, these women decide to voice their opposition. in this novel, the women are the ones who are oppressed. in the domestic life of mariam, laila and rasheed, rasheed is the superior or the “west”. as inferior in life along with rasheed for years, mariam’s and laila’s voice are silenced. this does not mean that they do not attempt to escape and voice their desire. various things have been done by mariam and laila in an attempt to escape from the pressures. mariam and laila are sufferred by oppression inside and outside their house because of the interpretation of the socio-cultural ideology dominated by men in afghanistan. based on the analysis of the content using postcolonial approach by gayatri spivak, mariam and laila are women who in the novel are positioned as the “east”. “east” is inferior, weak, stupid, and irrational. as wives, they are a marginalized group. their husbands, rasheed, is positioned as “west” or oppressor of their lives. mariam and laila are subalterns who could not talk. they want to express their desires, hopes, as well as protests. however, they do not have courage because there is no ear of men who are willing to hear. it’s the result of the ideology of patriarchy, feudalism, and authoritarianism. “east” is a weak creature. she could not fight against the strong “west”. similarly, mariam and laila are representations of the “east”. rasheed is a representation of the “west” that can suppress and oppress “east”. after knowing that mariam is deliberately removed by the family of his father and laila loses all beloved ones because of war, rasheed acts arbitrarily in mariam and laila on behalf of the husband’s role in the household. laila’s and mariam’s position as a subaltern deals with rasheed’s arrogance. below is the depiction of two female figures in the novel. mariam mariam is a witness of the rigid of afghani patriarchy system. she is the witness of a child born outside marriage (harami) simply because her father cannot marry her mother who is a housekeeper. in islamic rule that is adopted by most afghans, a man is allowed to have polygamy. however, in this case, her father chooses not to marry her mother on the reason that nana is the one who (mother mary) approaches and teases him. men have more right to choose who would become his wife, but women cannot demand their rights. as a child, mariam just wants to get together with jalil’s family, but jalil lets her down just because of fear of embarrassment. this is also makes mariam aware of her mother’s warning about men, like the phrase, “remember this now and keep remember, my daughter: like a compass needle that points north, the index finger of man is also always stretched to accuse women. always. remember this, mariam.” [20], “men’s heart is very different from mother’s womb, mariam. womb will not bleed or stretched because they have to take you in. “she also reminds mariam that,” women like us suffer ... how can we bear all our burdens in silence.” [118] after the death of her mother, mariam feels the bitterness of her life as a woman who is alone living her life. as a girl, she is forced to marry rasheed in order not to become a burden of her father. mariam feels that she is a shame for the father. then, as a wife, she is just a housekeeper and sexual object to her husband and his intention for having a baby son. when she knows that she is pregnant, mariam feels like having the most beautiful grace. however, when the baby miscarriages, she feels that it is a punishment to her for having left her mother and chosen to live with her father who does not want her. deep in her heart, mariam blames rasheed, herself, even god as he makes fun of her. however, as a woman who grows up traditionally with islamic teachings, mariam also asks forgiveness to god. with painful feelings, mariam buries the fetus of her own baby since rasheed prefers to listen to the radio instead. mariam also accepts the harsh reality of not being able to give a child. she has always been the target of rasheed’s anger either verbally or physically, ranging from large to small things. in fact, mariam has to lose her teeth simply because rasheed do not like rice she cooked. rasheed takes the gravel and forces mariam to eat the gravel. mariam realizes that she lives in fear with rasheed “it is not easy for mariam to tolerate rasheed’s attitude, from his screaming voice, mockery.... mariam sees clearly 85the subaltern voice .... (soraya) how much tolerance of a woman who is frightened. and mariam is indeed frightened.” [126–127] however, as a subaltern, mariam can only accept her husband’s oppression alone without being able to speak or even protest. mariam knows that she is a burden to rasheed. her mother’s warnings about the suffering of women’s over men seemed to have made mariam ready to accept it as natural situation. however, mariam’s silence changes since rasheed expresses a desire to marry again. rasheed argues that he wants to protect laila, who is all alone. rasheed says he could have let laila away but it will only make laila become the targets of a brothel or bandit. seeing that, mariam protests to rasheed. although polygamy is a common practice in afghanistan, mariam who is usually silent cannot accept it. “i ... do not want it” ... “you have many years makes me as a first wife (ambagh)” ... “i do not allow it.” [262–263] this illustrates that mariam would like to express desires, hopes, as well as a protest. however, she does not have the courage for it, because there is no ear of men, in this case rasheed, who is willing to listen. this makes mariam as subaltern that is only able to silence the dissent. after so many years living in the household oppression, mariam, as subaltern begins to speak when her family (which, though not a perfect one) is disturbed by others. mariam is not willing to become the first wife because she feels that laila comes to steal her husband as the only family she has. mariam has lost a mother, been discarded by her father, and lost prospective baby. she does not want to lose her husband too. mariam tells laila that although rasheed treats laila like a queen (malika) and her as a village woman (dehati), she is not willing to let her husband stolen and she will not let laila cast her out of her house and make her the housekeeper in her own house. later, she chooses to accept the situation since she would not be able to let another woman (laila) become the target of oppression. the relationship between mariam and laila, which is at the beginning filled with suspicion, is growing well after seeing how laila takes care the new-born baby shortly after laila and rasheed married. mariam feels being loved unconditionally by laila and her daughter. it moves her, “no one ever wants mariam in such a way before. love never approaches her unconditionally, unreservedly. “[308]. mariam and laila mutually protect and defend one to another, especially from rasheed’s oppression. there is a relationship of sisterhood that is created between them since they are both oppressed by rasheed and equally sufferred from taliban. to deal with rasheed, mariam learns a lot from laila. when rasheed gets angry about tariq and laila’s meeting, rasheed tortures and strangles laila to the point of death. seeing this, mariam’s courage emerges. mariam regrets and feels stupid to marry rasheed. she feels all of her effort is not worth it to get rasheed as a husband. at that moment, mariam swings a shovel that is taken from the warehouse and rasheed is silenced forever. “rasheed will kill her (laila) ... she thought. mariam could not let that happen. rasheed has taken so many things from mariam’s lives in twenty-seven years of their marriage. mariam never wants to watch rasheed claims the life of laila ... mariam swings the shovel in her hand ... mariam swings it high ... high until it touches the tip of his back ... while doing so, mariam thinks that this is the first time she decides her own destiny” [428–430] subaltern, who has long been unable to speak, finally takes the extreme attitude that destroys oppression and sets the liberation of herself and of her families (laila and her children) forever. finally, the subaltern speaks loudly and firmly. after the killing, mariam arranges laila and her family to leave afghanistan. she is the one who would face sentence for taking the life of rasheed’s. in prison, mariam is admired by other woman inmates since only mariam is sentenced to jail for killing her husband. the other inmates are women who leave their husbands or fathers. this illustrates that women in afghanistan in general are subaltern with a very weak position because they are oppressed and unable to express their wishes. they prefer to live within the confines of the prison. at least, a prison with bars provides a better life than a prison without bars in their homes. mariam, for her inmates, is the picture of courage that they deserve to be able to remove the oppression and suppression on their fate as a woman. in the end, mariam does have to pay for her freedom from rasheed with the death penalty. mariam does not regret it because she knows that she is not happy of being born into her subaltern world but she is happy to know that her life will end up as someone who is loved by many people. “she leaves this world as a friend, as a sister, a protector, a mother. someone that is meaningful. no. it is not a bad thing. this is a legitimate end of a life that began with contempt.” [456] mariam is a woman who has the patience and strength in dealing with something that happens to her. when an expression of love received, she even dares to take extraordinary action. all of her life, she just expects to be loved and to live in a family. for the sake of her family and her loved ones, she dares to fight for freedom. indeed, the subaltern is a marginalized group but love gives them the strength to finally able to speak. laila originating from different generations with mariam, laila is a symbol of female figure with a background of modern education since her father is a former teacher. laila is a beautiful and smart woman. she has a friend who later becomes her lover, tariq. laila uses to express what she feels to her father and tariq. laila is caught in a situation that her family is killed, tariq reportedly dies and she is having tariq’s baby in her pregnancy. therefore, laila reluctantly accepts rasheed’s marriage proposal. in fact, laila asks rasheed to have their wedding held as soon as possible. although laila realizes that she would hurt mariam by doing this. this is done to trick rasheed so that he does not suspect that laila is already pregnant before their marriage. in their wedding night, laila fools rasheed by wounding her finger and shedding a little blood so that rasheed would assume she is a virgin. “rasheed looks awkward. her fingers struggles endlessly to open his own 86 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 shirt .... through chattering teeth, laila asks rasheed to turn off the lights. in silence, after feeling rasheed is asleep, laila reaches under the bed and pulls out a knife .. with the knife, she cuts the tip of her finger and let her blood drips on the sheets where they sleep together.” [269] it shows that laila is an astute depiction of women in overcoming a problem. at this point, laila has not become a subaltern yet. laila is still ruled over rasheed and his male lust that is swelled at the sight of a young and beautiful woman. laila is the queen for rasheed. rasheed tries to make laila impressed with his good attitude. under the influence of his male lust, rasheed does not realize that she has been oppressed by laila’s untruth. on the other hand, laila does not feel comfortable with the marriage because she feels guilty to mariam. she rejects the wedding ring that is given by rasheed since it is purchased by mortgaging mariam’s wedding ring. laila repeatedly apologizes to mariam. however, it is impossible for her to tell mariam the truth. when laila gives birth to a daughter (aziza), rasheed’s attitude changes drastically. laila’s position turns into “east”, which is oppressed by rasheed’s roughness. however, laila grows up in the family of freeminded and modern, so that laila has the courage to fight rasheed back. laila is a subaltern who dares to speak. resistance that is performed by laila makes rasheed always impose his frustration at mariam because mariam is a traditional figure who is always silent in receiving rasheed’s abusive attitude. “usually their fight (laila and rasheed) will stop by itself after a few minutes, but half an hour passed ... the fight is even more heated.” mariam could hear the loud noise of rasheed’s. her tone (laila), no less loud than him, it sounds firm and not wants to be outdone. the next day ... rasheed bursts into mariam’s room ‘she defies me. surely it is you who teach her ‘.” [293–294]. lalila knows that rasheed makes mariam as a target of his anger and this is what makes laila reduces her resistance. “i give up ... i gave up. do not do this anymore. please, rasheed. do not beat her!” [294]. laila does not bear to see mariam become a victim for her sisterhood solidarity. laila sees that they both face the same oppressor, namely rasheed. for the sake of mariam, laila restraints and starts to become a subaltern group who is not able to speak. laila does not like violence since she is not familiar with it. although her parents are obviously more fond of her brothers, laila still gets outpouring of affection from her parents, “i cannot leave just like that .. i grow up in a house that no one has ever done something (violence) like that.” [305]. the frontal resistance of laila’s on rasheed is making mariam at risk of being tortured. therefore, laila intends to escape from rasheed for her freedom. every day, little by little, laila steals money from rasheed for funding her refuge with mariam and aziza. this plan fails because of the customs and ruling power of aghanistan. in afghanistan women are not allowed to go outside without the company of her husband and women also have to wear a burka. this makes laila have to ask for help to a man to accompany them and recognize them as relatives. unfortunately, the man does not keep his promise and prefers to report laila, mariam, and aziza to the taliban (taliban police). subsequently they are arrested, returned to the house, and they become the subject of rasheed’s anger. later, rasheed also deliberately does not want to accompany laila to visit aziza who is put in the orphanage. rasheed deliberately does this so that laila would be arrested and sentenced by the taliban for going outside the house unaccompanied by her husband. although laila is in the position of being oppressed, laila always loves her children without fear of being arrested, sentenced, or tortured by rasheed or the taliban. the torture is not as heavy as laila’s dilemma when she finds out that she is pregnant rasheed’s child, a child of the man who oppresses her life. laila ever thinks to have an abortion. however, her maternal instincts and hatred of war makes her discouraged. “clutched in the hands of laila’s is the blade spokes of a bicycle, which she cuts with pliers from a scrap tires... laila has been so long lying on the floor, breathing air between her teeth, her legs spread... a very bad thing, thought laila, now, a mother experiences fear of not to be able to bring love to their own children. it is strange... laila wonders whether she would be able to love a rasheed’s child just as she loves tariq’s child. in the end, laila could not do it... laila discouraged because she could not accept the opinion of the mujahideen: that sometimes, in times of war, it is allowed if the lives of innocent people have to die. laila was fighting against rasheed. babies in the womb are innocent... laila has watched enough of an innocent man killed in a crossfire.” [348] although her life is oppressed and her hatred at rasheed grows bigger, she would not have a heart to kill rasheed’s child. a mother’s love is more important than hatred and violence. after zalmai (rasheed’s son) is born, the situation is not getting better. rasheed spoils the boy. it makes their economic situation worse. besides, the economic condition makes the women in the house turn into a target of rasheed’s anger. not only violence, mariam’s and laila’s treasure in the house are also sold by rasheed. laila and mariam are facing double oppression, directly from their husbands rasheed and indirectly from economic conditions caused by the conditions of war. the condition of being oppressed is finally ended when tariq comes for laila. by killing rasheed, mariam has freed laila and her family from the cruelty of rasheed’s. together with tariq, laila and her family then flee to pakistan and live happily until the war is over. however, happiness is not obtained easily and freely. there are love and sacrifice made by laila and mariam who are not able to accept the cruelty that always threatens to kill them. in pakistan laila and aziza often dream and recall memories in afghanistan. laila often feels uneasy. laila often remembers the time when she is still together with mariam and remembers her father’s words that no matter how bad afghanistan is, it is her country. “you can be anything you want laila... when this war is finished, afghanistan needs you” [475]. however, the fond memories left behind in afghanistan and love for the homeland make laila and tariq take their family back to afghanistan and make a campaign for the education there. 87the subaltern voice .... (soraya) mariam as a symbol of the traditional woman and laila as a symbol of the modern woman are the subaltern or “east” of men in afghanistan. their oppressed experience is still complicated by economic pressures and customs applied in afghanistan. mariam and laila are just silent and they accept oppression because of the love they have on their lives and families. however, for the sake of the beloved people, they are willing to fight and even destroy oppression. in general, subaltern groups could not speak their voices, but there will always be forces that would make them able to speak loudly and firmly, namely: the power of love. conclusion the conclusions that can be drawn from this novel study are as follows. first, women are positioned as weak, ignorant, and irrational. men and culture have put them into a subaltern with their voice silenced. no subject positions allow women to articulate themselves personally and no ears of men that would listen to them. however, if there is a strong force arises within them, they are able to articulate and even destroy the oppressor. second, the story in this novel also implies that modernity could not be achieved without compromising traditional values. mariam is a symbol of women with traditional values, while laila is a symbol of women with modern values. mariam sacrifices herself for the sake of laila’s freedom. third, men do not always become the dominant group. if men have been overpowered by his lust, male would be controled by women. actually, it is not the strength of women that control men but the lust of men imprisons their minds, so that they do not realize when they are being fooled. fourth, women should seek their own efforts to improve their lives, which was oppressed by the hegemony of the male and rulers. regardless of who the rulers in afghanistan are, women are part of the people who get the double impact of colonization, that is, from the men and the rulers who are always getting more special rights than women. oppression that is felt by women under the regime or closed society is also a crime against humanity. fifth, the main characters in this novel are described as characters who struggle to achieve freedom and find love. mariam who is long-suffering, loneliness, alone, and depressed becomes bolder after knowing laila. mariam becomes stronger as she gets the love of laila which she considers as her own child. this research may be just identify the representation of the women as subaltern voice from a novel written by a man. to have a thorough picture of a man depicting the subaltern voice of women, further research on other novels with the same background of writer can be applied. references choudury, a. (2013). from margins to the centre: a study of subaltern in khaled khosseini’s a thoudands splendid suns. research journal of english language and literature, 1(4), 212–216. endraswara, s. (2008). metodologi penelitian sastra. yogyakarta: medpress. gandhi, l. (2001). teori poskolonial: upaya meruntuhkan hegemoni barat. yogyakarta: qalam. hearty, f. (2011). keadilan jender. jakarta: aksara. louai, e. h. (2012). retracing the concept of the subaltern from gramsci to spivak: historical developments and new applications. african journal of history and culture, 4(1), 4–8. silima, n. (2013). subjugation: a study of the woman characters in khalid hosseini’s and arundhati roy’s novels. international journal of english and literature, 4, 456–461. spivak, g. c. (1988). can the subaltern speak? in c. nelson & l. grossberg (eds.), marxism and the interpretation of culture. basingstronke: macmillan education. sugihastuti. (2007). gender dan inferioritas. yogyakarta: nuansa. thwaites, t., & mules, w. (2002). ideology. in t. thwaites, l. davis, & w. mules (eds.), introducing cultural and media studies: a semiotic approach. houndmills, basingstoke, u.k: palgrave. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 257 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 257-262 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7645 thematic progression in efl learners’ writing: a literature review sri wuli fitriati1*; nurjannah mutiara gayatri2 1,2english language and literature department, faculty of languages and arts, universitas negeri semarang (unnes) sekaran, gunungpati, sekaran, semarang, jawa tengah 50229, indonesia 1sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id; 2nurjannahmutiara31@gmail.com received: 19th august 2021/revised: 28th november 2021/accepted: 30th november 2021 how to cite: fitriati, s. w. & gayatri, n. m. (2021). thematic progression in efl learners’ writing: a literature review. lingua cultura, 15(2), 257-262. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7645 abstract by examining relevant research articles published in reputable journals or conference proceedings in 2013-2020, the literature review article attempted to shed light on the areas: (1) contributions of thematic progression to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl (english as a foreign language) learners’ writing, (2) efl learners’ problems regarding thematic progression in their writing, and (3) research on pedagogical implications of thematic progression on teaching writing. while there have been extensive studies on thematic progression, it remained intriguing to investigate the extent to which this topic had been explored by scholars, particularly in the context of english as a foreign language. the previous studies had consistently confirmed the following results: (1) thematic progression contributes to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl learners’ writing, (2) problematic thematic progression in efl learners’ writing included the emergence of the brand new theme, double rheme, empty rheme, empty theme, overuse of constant theme pattern, overwhelming selection of textual theme, and (3) some studies evidenced good results of integrating thematic progression in teaching writing. the research suggests that further research develops a more detailed and systematic procedure of teaching thematic progression in a specific efl teaching-learning context by integrating thematic progression theory with english language teaching materials. furthermore, the research calls for more experimental research on teaching thematic progression to determine the significance of this method in enhancing students’ writing quality. keywords: thematic progression, efl learners’ writing, text coherence, text cohesion introduction evaluating the coherence and cohesion of an english text means discussing the structure of its clauses. this structure refers to the theory of textual meaning. it assigns the first element of a clause as theme, which gives the clause its character as a message, and the second element as rheme, which provides additional information related to the message (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the term textual meaning is introduced in systemic functional linguistics (sfl) theory by halliday and matthiessen (2014). this theory views language as a resource for making meaning, focusing on the use as well as the purpose of using language in communication. in sfl theory, a clause simultaneously comprises three lines of meaning or metafunctions; ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning. textual meaning not only identifies the elements of theme and rheme but also accentuates how thematic elements succeed each other through certain patterns. these patterns of theme-rheme organization belong to a system called thematic progression. thematic progression offers some ideal ways to organize the flow of ideas or information from the writer. that is to say, they enable the writer to develop a theme by picking up or repeating a meaning from a preceding theme or rheme (eggins, 2004). the organization of theme-rheme in the text is supposed to follow certain patterns as proposed by some experts, such as eggins (2004). she has mentioned three patterns of thematic progression (1) linear theme/zigzag when a theme 258 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 257-262 of a clause is derived from the previous rheme, (2) constant theme/theme reiteration, when a theme of a clause is derived from the previous theme, and (3) multiple theme/split rheme when a rheme of a clause is developed into several following themes. thematic progression is essential in writing due to its role in maintaining the continuity and information flow of the text. in other words, thematic progression highly contributes to the cohesion and coherence of a text. thematic progression has recently become the central issue in evaluating the quality of students’ writing and gained researchers’ attention. while there have been extensive studies on thematic progression, it remains intriguing to investigate the extent to which this topic has been explored, particularly in the context of english as a foreign language. the research will support the development of second/ foreign language acquisition theory in terms of how efl (english as a foreign language) learners as nonnative speakers of english can better develop their academic writing skills. the research can also help efl learners, particularly novice writers, in grasping the importance of thematic progression to enhance the quality of academic writing, as evidenced in the previous studies. moreover, it provides efl teachers and lecturers with a succinct description of teaching thematic progression, which can be implemented in their writing classes. by examining the relevant research articles published in reputable journals and international conference proceedings in 2013-2020, the research is an attempt to shed light on the main issues of thematic progression in the teaching of english as a foreign language. it reports the results of the literature review in regard to answering the following questions: (1) how does thematic progression contribute to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl learners’ writing? (2) what are efl learners’ problems regarding thematic progression in their writing? (3) what are the pedagogical implications of thematic progression on teaching writing? methods the literature-review research examines relevant research articles on thematic progression published in reputable journals or conference proceedings in 2013-2020. the word ‘reputable’ refers to journals or conference proceedings that are nationally or internationally accredited. the research analyzes 31 research articles using thematic analysis. the articles are then identified and grouped into three categories based on the following theme; (1) contributions of thematic progression to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl learners’ writing, (2) efl learners’ problems regarding thematic progression in their writing, and (3) research on pedagogical implications of thematic progression on teaching writing. results and discussions as a response to the primary issue of thematic progression, the research departs from a general claim that thematic progression contributes to the coherence and cohesion quality of english learners’ writing (al-bazzaz & al-shajlawi, 2018; dewi, hernawan, & apsari, 2019; emilia, habibi, & bangga, 2018; gunawan & aziza, 2017; hawes, 2015; khany & nejad, 2018; lestari, mujiyanto, & saleh, 2019; pangestu, harvian, & suprijadi, 2019; pasaribu, pasaribu, & panggabean, 2019; rahmawati & kurniawan, 2015; yunita, 2018). thematic progression is one of the indicators to evaluate the coherence and cohesion of a text and the use of appropriate cohesive devices. emilia, habibi, and bangga (2018) have investigated thematic progression in exposition texts written by indonesian-year-eleven students. findings of emilia, habibi, and bangga’s (2018) research are similar to those of sujatna, pamungkas, and heriyanto (2018). both pieces of research identify the dominant use of zigzag patterns, followed by theme reiteration in efl learners’ writing. moreover, the employment of multiple themes in the text reflects students’ emerging capacity to build a sense of cumulative development of information. it appears that students are mostly able to introduce new information from the previous information found in the preceding clauses. thematic progression in the writing of indonesian eleventh graders also becomes the major concern in the research by yunita (2018), pangestu, harvian, and suprijadi (2019), and dewi, hernawan, and apsari (2019). in her research, yunita (2018) has employed a descriptive qualitative research design scrutinizing students’ recount texts in a state vocational high school in bandung. this research concludes that the theme and thematic progression used by the students are able to support the development of their recount text. for example, the dominant use of the theme reiteration pattern helps build the text focus; the zigzag pattern indicates students’ ability to manage the given-new information and create links between clauses. the findings suggest that teachers introduce theme management to students through modeling and construction activities. dewi, hernawan, and apsari (2019), and pangestu, harvian, and suprijadi (2019) have shared things in common in their research. both endeavors to identify thematic progression patterns and evaluate the quality of coherence in descriptive texts written by eleventh graders of a senior high school in indonesia, and they confirm three models of thematic progression. while dewi, hernawan, and apsari (2019) have found the prominence of the constant theme; pangestu, harvian, and suprijadi (2019) have yielded the domination of the zigzag model. the findings also identify the emergence of a new theme in the middle of a sentence, resulting in less coherent descriptive texts. shifting the research subject into students at higher education level, the research by pasaribu, pasaribu, and panggabean (2019), and anwar and 259thematic progression in efl.... (sri wuli fitriati; nurjannah mutiara gayatri) amri (2019) have focused on exploring theme systems in the short functional texts written by third-semester students of the english department in an indonesian university. while pasaribu, pasaribu, and panggabean (2019) have examined students’ narrative texts; anwar and amri (2019) have investigated students’ discussion texts. the findings of pasaribu, pasaribu, and panggabean (2019) have revealed an overuse of the zigzag non-linear patterns in students’ narrative texts. however, this research has found out that the development of students’ writing is not well-organized and not consistent. students still need more guidance in writing narrative text, particularly regarding thematic progression. furthermore, chang, tsai, and chen (2020) have sought to analyze thematic progression in efl learners’ essays in order to achieve coherence in their writing. the essays are evident to mostly demonstrate linear thematic progression, especially after the students are given intervention about thematic progression. this research has proclaimed that it is important for efl students to understand the concept of thematic progression to obtain a better score for their writing. suwandi (2016), as well as rahmawati and kurniawan (2015), have attempted to describe and analyze thematic progression in abstracts written by undergraduate students in indonesian universities. these pieces of research reveal that the constant theme pattern outnumbers other patterns of thematic progression. this leads to the conclusion that the students’ abstracts are not quite well-arranged. another cause that exacerbated this problem is the limited words in abstracts, which are more or less 200 words. this may result in students’ confusion on how to create concise information in composing an abstract. al-bazzaz and al-shajlawi (2018) have focused on two different disciplines (medicine and engineering) written by iraqi efl learners. using the descriptive design, this research has revealed the dominant use of simple linear patterns (zigzag) in both kinds of research articles. the suggestion of this research calls for a need to provide a specific course in college to accentuate thematic progression to achieve cohesion and coherence. this becomes an urgent issue, especially for writers who have a deficient level of english. similar to al-bazzaz and al-shajlawi (2018), lestari, mujiyanto, and saleh (2019) have evaluated the use of thematic progression in research articles written by undergraduate students. the finding of this research interestingly identifies numerous empty patterns of thematic progression, which results in less coherence of their article. besides the empty pattern, the zigzag pattern is frequently employed by students in their writing, followed by a reiteration pattern and multiple theme pattern. several students have already demonstrated consistent writing, while others do not. considering the role of culture, gunawan and aziza (2017) have addressed this matter by analyzing theme and thematic progression in an undergraduate thesis written by an indonesian university student. in the analysis, this research places culture as the factor that shapes the making meaning process. it implies that an excellent academic text shares its characteristics across cultures. this research identifies the use of three thematic progression patterns in the thesis, dominated by theme reiteration patterns. this commonality of thematic progression patterns is deemed essential to intrigue a sense of cohesiveness in the text. the issue of thematic progression involving efl writers other than students has also been studied, for example, by babaii, atai, shoja (2016), and leong, toh, and chin (2018). babaii, atai, and shoja (2016) have compared thematic choices and progression patterns in research articles of international discipline and national discipline by using halliday’s framework of the theme-rheme structure of thematic progression. employing a quantitative approach, statistical analysis results show significant differences in the pattern of thematic progression between the two categories. however, both categories use the simple linear and constant theme patterns more frequently and avoid writers’ personal judgment by the minor use of interpersonal themes. similar to babaii, atai, and shoja (2016), leong, toh, and chin (2018) have identified thematic progression in 30 scientific research articles, from the introduction to the subsequent sections. introduction sections are mostly composed using a progressive thematic pattern, while the subsequent sections are constructed by an anchored development. moreover, this research confirms similarities across the research articles in terms of the thematic structure. meanwhile, research by kuswoyo et al. (2020) in the netherlands has revealed the dominant use of combining constant and zigzag theme patterns to maintain efl learners’ focus and introduce some new concepts. this research believes that effective selection of thematic progression can help the audience identify the primary issue of discourse. the previous studies analyzing thematic progression in efl learners’ writing consistently accentuate the importance of thematic progression in building the coherence of cohesion of the text. the studies have also revealed that efl learners prominently use either zigzag or theme reiteration patterns in their writing and less use multiple theme/ rheme. both zigzag and theme reiteration patterns serve particular functions to support the flow of information or ideas in the writing. the zigzag pattern indicates writers’ ability to develop given information into new information, and theme reiteration is deemed effective to maintain the text focus. besides analyzing thematic progression patterns, some scholars attempt to identify thematic progression problems that frequently appear in efl learners’ writing. studies on the problems regarding thematic progression in english learners’ writing have been carried out by arunsirot (2013), kuswoyo and susardi (2017), and hawes (2015). arunsirot (2013) has taken as the point of departure thai efl students’ difficulty in composing a good english text. thus, it is no surprise that there are several problems identified 260 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 257-262 in students’ writing in terms of the theme selections and thematic progression. the problems are the empty theme, the brand new theme, the overuse of constant progression, the empty rheme, and the confusing selection of textual themes. these results can be effectively used by english teachers as guidance to help students’ writing process. following arunsirot’s (2013) framework, kuswoyo and susardi (2017), in their research, have attempted to identify the problems regarding thematic progression in students’ academic writing, encompassing 20 texts written by fifth-semester students in indonesia. this research confirms six prominent problems regarding thematic progression as identified in the previous studies. they are the emergence of the brand new theme, double rheme, empty rheme, empty theme, overuse of constant theme pattern, and an overwhelming selection of textual theme. moreover, four new problems are identified, including incomplete clauses, errors in selecting the topical theme, unnecessary textual theme, and double textual theme. both arunsirot (2013) and kuswoyo and susardi (2017) have urged on the importance of raising students’ awareness of thematic progression in their writing in order to produce a well-organized text in compliance with the concept of cohesion and coherence. to grasp a detailed description of how efl learners’ writing deviates from english native speakers’ writing, hawes (2015) has compared essays written by international students to the editorials in british newspapers. students’ writing indicates abrupt introduction in theme, inappropriate assignment to theme/rheme, linear rheme progression, derived linear progression, and poor coherence in spite of constant progression sequences. the research has highly suggested that students be exposed to the theory of thematic progression, so they have a good understanding of progression patterns that can make more or less explicit arguments, more or less forceful arguments. the studies by arunsirot (2013), kuswoyo and susardi (2017), and hawes (2015) have depicted efl learners’ failure to recognize thematic progression when developing their writing. although some learners’ failure is similar across these studies, each of them somehow revealed newly identified problematic patterns in students’ writing. thus, it allows further research to confirm even explore more problematic patterns in efl learners’ writing. follow-up studies concerning pedagogical implications of thematic progression on teaching writing have been conducted by stoian (2017), nurdianingsih and purnama (2017), linda, maisa, and mulatsih (2017). particularly in teaching translation, stoian (2017) has offered a conceptual idea for classroom practices consisting of eight main activities. the activity begins with providing students with a model text, asking students to identify the themerheme and the thematic progression patterns, giving examples of how students can change the text focus by interchanging the theme with the rheme, explaining how the shift in the text focus creates different perspectives, inviting students to practice focusshifting, and asking students to modify the thematic progression pattern. the findings of this research have proclaimed that the information placed in the theme affects the focus and coherence of the message, as well as the tone, the level of objectivity-subjectivity, and generality-particularity. thus, by using this sequence of activities, students are hopefully able to reflect on their first language and perform a contrastive analysis. they could also translate texts, maintain, or change the thematic structure. while stoian (2017) has explored conceptual ideas to enrich the body of knowledge, nurdianingsih and purnama (2017) have conducted experimental research by teaching thematic progression to indonesian students of the english education department in a university. this research has claimed that the thematic progression pattern is an effective technique in teaching writing skills to students. to support this claim, nurdianingsih and purnama (2017) have compared students’ writing in two classes with different treatments. one class is taught using direct instruction, serving as the control class, and the other is through thematic progression patterns, as the experimental class. the learning result has found out that thematic progression pattern is more effective than direct instruction in teaching writing. moreover, linda, maisa, and mulatsih (2017) have conducted quasi-experimental research for eleventh-grade students in indonesia. the research is accomplished through the procedures of planning, drafting, editing, and final writing, each of which involves several learning activities. their research has summarized that the use of thematic progression patterns in teaching writing hortatory exposition text is effective. it indicates the higher score of students’ writing in the posttest than the pretest in the experimental class. in addition, the urge to provide efl learners with the concept of thematic progression has been proclaimed by xiao (2017) that has intended to explore thematic progression patterns in 50 research article abstracts. na-on and jaturapitakkul (2017) have investigated thematic and rhetorical patterns in the research project abstracts of thai efl engineering undergraduate students. studies on pedagogical implications of thematic progression in teaching writing have been conducted as a response toward the importance of raising students’ awareness of thematic progression for the sake of betterment in their writing. some studies offer conceptual ideas of integrating thematic progression in writing, such as the one conducted by stoian (2017). the research encourages further researchers, english language lecturers, as well as teachers to practically implement these conceptual ideas in their writing class. by doing this integration under experimental research design, some other studies confirm that students mastering thematic progression obtained a higher score in writing tasks than those who experienced 261thematic progression in efl.... (sri wuli fitriati; nurjannah mutiara gayatri) conventional writing class. revisiting a considerable number of previous studies on thematic progression, the research groups these previous studies into four main areas. in the first area, the previous studies have consistently confirmed that thematic progression contributes to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl learners’ writing, involving students in the junior high school, senior high school, and university level. this is due to the consideration that each pattern of thematic progression serves particular functions to manage the text flow. while the first area depicted efl learners’ success in employing thematic progression patterns, the second area of studies provides readers with efl learners’ failure to compose coherent and cohesive writing because of the problematic thematic progression. the previous studies group this failure into several categories. however, each of them somehow reveal newly identified problematic patterns in the students’ writing. thus, it allows further research to confirm even explore more problematic patterns in efl learners’ writing. the third area of study offers conceptual ideas of teaching thematic progression in the efl classroom. moreover, some studies evidence good results of integrating thematic progression in teaching writing. these studies aim to raise students’ awareness of thematic progression for the sake of betterment in their writing. conclusions the research presents and evaluates a wide range of studies on thematic progression in efl learners’ writing. previous studies have widely investigated how thematic progression contributes to the coherence and cohesion quality of efl learners’ writing. by analyzing efl learners’ writing, some scholars attempt to identify problems or problematic thematic progression emerging in writing. they also touch upon the quality of translation produced by efl learners after understanding the distinctive features of thematic progression in both languages. in addition, previous studies have offered conceptual ideas of teaching thematic progression in the efl classroom as well as the results of their implementation. the research results contribute to the body of knowledge on textual meaning and thematic progression. these can be useful for efl writers to raise awareness of thematic progression, which eventually affects the coherence of their writing. furthermore, the research can support the enhancement of teaching english writing. when teaching writing, the english language teachers can relate the materials to thematic progression. however, the research is limited only to research articles published in 2013-2020. the research suggests that further research develops a more detailed and systematic procedure of teaching thematic progression in a specific efl teaching-learning context by integrating thematic progression theory with english materials. furthermore, the research calls for more experimental research on teaching thematic progression in order to find out the significance of this method to enhance students’ writing quality. references al-bazzaz, m. a., & al-shajlawi, a. n. (2018). thematic progression in iraqi scientific articles. international journal of language and linguistics, 5(12), 126131. http://dx.doi.org/10.30845/ijll.v5n2a15. anwar, i., & amri, z. (2019). thematic patterns in discussion texts written by the third-year students of english department of universitas negeri padang. proceeding of the 7th international conference on english language and teaching (icoelt). padang, indonesia. https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/ assehr.k.200306.005. arunsirot, s. (2013). an analysis of textual metafunction in thai efl students’ writing. novitas-royal (research on youth and language), 7(2), 160-174. babaii, e., atai m. r., & shoja l. (2016). a comparison of thematic choices and thematic progression patterns in the research articles of international and national disciplines. iranian journal of applied linguistics, 19(2), 33-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.29252/ijal.19.2.33. chang, p., tsai c. c., & chen p. j. (2020). organization strategies in efl expository essays in a contentbased language learning course. asia-pacific education researcher, 29(2), 183-197. http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s40299-019-00464-2. dewi, m. w., hernawan, k. f., & apsari, y. (2019). thematic progression in students’ descriptive texts. professional journal of english education, 2(2), 126-132. eggins, s. (2004). an introduction to systemic functional linguistics (2nd ed.). new york: continuum. emilia, e., habibi, n., & bangga, l. a. (2018). an analysis of cohesion of exposition texts: an indonesian context. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(3), 515-523. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal. v7i3.9791. gunawan, w., & aziza, f. (2017). theme and thematic progression of undergraduate thesis: investigating meaning making in academic writing. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(2), 413-424. http:// dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i2.8350. halliday, m. a. k., & matthiessen, c. m. i. m. (2014). halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). new york: routledge. hawes, t. (2015). thematic progression in the writing of students and professionals. ampersand, 2, 93-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2015.06.002. khany, r., & nejad, a. m. (2018). the interaction between rhetorical structure and thematisation in academic research articles. iranian journal of applied linguistics, 13(1), 47-72. kuswoyo, h., sujatna, e. t. s., indrayani, l., & rido, a. (2020). theme choice and thematic progression of discussion section in engineering english 262 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 257-262 lectures. icliqe 2020: proceeding of the 4th international conference on learning innovation and quality education. pp. 1-10. https://doi. org/10.1145/3452144.3452194. kuswoyo, h., & susardi. (2017). problems on sfg thematic progression in esl academic writing. leksema: jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 2(1), 1-13. https://dx.doi. org/10.22515/ljbs.v2i1.655. leong, a. p., toh, a. l. l., & chin, s. f. (2018). examining structure in scientific research articles: a study of thematic progression and thematic density. written communication, 35(3), 286-314. https://doi. org/10.1177%2f0741088318767378. lestari, s. h. p., mujiyanto, j., & saleh, m. (2019). the use of thematic progression in the journal artcile of u-jet. english education journal, 9(4), 554-558. linda., maisa., & mulatsih, d. (2017). the use of thematic progression in writing hortatory exposition text. academic journal perspective: language, education, and literature, 5(2), 125-136. http:// dx.doi.org/10.33603/perspective.v5i2.679. na-on, r., & jaturapitakkul, n. (2017). identifying thematic and rhetorical patterns in research project abstracts of thai efl engineering undergraduates. learn journal, 10(2), 71-89. nurdianingsih, f., & purnama, y. i. (2017). the effect of thematic progression pattern toward students’ writing expository paragraph. advances in social science, education and humanities research (assehr), 158, 288-294. https://doi.org/10.2991/ ictte-17.2017.52. pangestu, g., harvian, e. d., & suprijadi, d. (2019). thematic progression in students’ descriptive text. professional journal of english education, 2(4), 575-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.22460/project.v2i4. p575-580. pasaribu, a. n., pasaribu, t. k., & panggabean, s. (2019). thematic progression of students’ narrative writing. jurnal ilmiah simantek, 3(2), 155-163. rahmawati, r. v., & kurniawan, e. (2015). thematic progression analysis in indonesian efl students’ thesis abstracts. indonesian efl journal, 1(1), 8996. https://doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v1i1.617. stoian, c. e. (2017). the importance of thematic structure in teaching translation. scientific bulletin of the politehnica university of timişoara transactions on modern languages, 16(1), 35-44. sujatna, e. t. s., pamungkas, k., & heriyanto. (2018). thematic progression of higher education advertorials: a case study in english and bahasa indonesia. advances in social sciences research journal 5(8), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.14738/ assrj.58.4655. suwandi. (2016). coherence and cohesion: an analysis of the final project abstracts of the undergraduate students of pgri semarang. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 5(2), 253-261. https://doi. org/10.17509/ijal.v5i2.1349. xiao, x. m. (2017). thematic progression theory and its application in eap writing. the 2nd international conference on education and development (iced). https://doi.org/10.12783/ dtssehs%2ficed2017%2f15119. yunita, s. (2018). theme and thematic progression in students’ recount text. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(3), 524-530. https://doi.org/10.17509/ ijal.v7i3.9797. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 43 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 43-49 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7806 subtitling and dubbing of idiomatic expressions in the american tv series wandavision i gusti ayu mahatma agung* english department, faculty of foreign languages, mahasaraswati denpasar university jl. kamboja no.11a, denpasar 80233, indonesia ayu.mahatma@unmas.ac.id received: 06th december 2021/revised: 02nd march 2022/accepted: 09th march 2022 how to cite: agung, i. g. a. m. (2022). subtitling and dubbing of idiomatic expressions in the american tv series wandavision. lingua cultura, 16(1), 43-49. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7806 abstract the research aimed to find out the translation strategies applied in the subtitling and the dubbing of idiomatic expressions in the television series wandavision (2021). moreover, the research also aimed to reveal whether the subtitling and the dubbing of the idiomatic expressions are source language-oriented or target languageoriented. the descriptive qualitative approach was applied in the research. the data were analyzed using the taxonomy for rendering extralinguistic cultural references in subtitling proposed by pedersen. the taxonomy was used to analyze the data since it was specifically designed for subtitling and audiovisual translation. the results show that there are various strategies applied in subtitling and dubbing. in subtitling, the translation strategies applied are substitution, direct translation, generalization, and the combination of substitution and omission. the translation strategies applied in the subtitling are related to spatial and temporal constraints. as a comparison, the translation strategies applied in dubbing are substitution, direct translation, generalization, and the combination of substitution and specification. the strategies are applied based on the consideration that spoken language features should be included in the dubbing. based on the translation strategies applied, it can be concluded that both the subtitling and the dubbing are target language-oriented. keywords: subtitling, dubbing, idiomatic expression, audiovisual translation introduction subtitling and dubbing are the two most popular options for translating audiovisual content, such as movies, television series, and videos (forutan & modarresi, 2018). the decisions to apply these techniques are based on cultural, socio-economic, political, and geographical factors (perego, del missier, & stragà, 2018). furthermore, the constraints in subtitling and dubbing can be another reason to consider. even though both techniques represent spoken language, the translation output is presented in different forms: subtitling in written form while dubbing is spoken (hammou, 2020). due to the distinction of linguistic features, subtitling and dubbing pose different challenges for translators (božović, 2019). in the subtitling process, there are spatial and temporal considerations. subtitles are generally limited to two lines and placed at the bottom of the screen to avoid causing visual disruption for the viewers. the number of characters in the subtitle is also limited to 35 characters (abdelaal, 2019). moreover, the translator also needs to take the subtitle display rate into consideration. the duration for the subtitle to show on the screen should match the speaking time of the people appearing in the audiovisual product. another factor that should be taken into account is the viewer’s reading speed (puspitasari, tabiati, & junining, 2020). the subtitle should not disappear too fast because the viewers will not have enough time to read them. the process of dubbing also possesses its own constraints. there are several priorities that should be considered in typical dubbing, namely synchronization, natural and realistic dialogue, speech tempo, and the voice quality of the dubbers (miggiani, 44 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 43-49 2021). since dubbing is conveyed through the spoken medium, it is necessary for the translator to create a dialogue that sounds credible and natural to the target audience. another challenge in dubbing is the character synchrony between the voice of the original character and the voice of the dubber (baños, 2021). the audiovisual translation process will become even more complicated when the translator has to deal with idiomatic expressions. the translator needs to be aware of idiomatic expressions as they are not always obvious (brezolin & medeiros, 2021). the failure to recognize the idiomatic expressions will result in unnatural or awkward translations. moreover, finding the equivalents of idiomatic expressions is also challenging (putri & wijaya, 2021). the translator must apply the right strategies to translate the idiomatic expressions. in the case of subtitling and dubbing, the translator must consider the technical constraints as well. several studies have investigated the subtitling of idiomatic expressions. the research conducted by manipuspika and winzami (2021) aims to analyze the types of idioms and the translation strategies applied in the subtitle of the movie murder on the orient express. the types of idioms are analyzed using the theory proposed by seidl and mcmordie, and the translation strategies are analyzed using baker’s theory. the findings show that phrasal verbs are the most common type of idiomatic expression found in the movie. moreover, translation by paraphrase is the dominant translation strategy applied to translate the idioms. according to the researchers, the translation by paraphrase strategy is often used since the equivalent of the source language idioms cannot be found in the target language. therefore, the translators opt for a translation strategy that enables them to convey the meaning of the idioms by paraphrasing. another research related to subtitling idiomatic expression is conducted by tyasrinestu and ardi (2020). the research focuses on the analysis of the types of idiomatic expressions and the translation strategies used in the good doctor tv series. the results reveal five types of idiomatic expressions based on hockett’s theory found in the tv series. they are substitutes, proper names, slang words, the figure of speech, and english phrasal compounds. the researchers also find six translation strategies proposed by vinay and darbelnet applied in the translation. equivalence is the most frequently used translation strategy in translating idiomatic expressions. several idiomatic expressions are omitted in the translation. the research conducted by kusuma and rini (2020) also discusses the translation of idiomatic expressions in the subtitle of the movie inside out. the researchers apply the theoretical framework by newmark to analyze the translation procedures and to evaluate the translation appropriateness. based on the findings, the functional equivalent is the most frequently applied translation procedure in translating the idioms found in the movie. the procedure also produces the highest number of appropriate translations. finally, the researchers conclude that functional equivalent is the most recommended translation procedure in translating idiomatic expressions since it results in natural, semantically adequate, and pragmatically accurate translations. the three previous research are relevant to the research since they discuss the translation of idiomatic expressions found in the subtitle. however, the research offers a new perspective as it compares the translation of idiomatic expressions in subtitling and dubbing. the previous research analyzes the translation strategies using the theories proposed by baker, vinay & darbenet, and newmark. the theoretical frameworks proposed by those prominent scholars have been used frequently in translation research. therefore, the researcher would like to apply a different theory proposed by pedersen (2011). the framework is chosen to analyze the translation strategies since it is created primarily for rendering extralinguistic cultural references (ecr) in subtitling. however, pedersen (2011) has pointed out that the theoretical framework could also be used to analyze other translation phenomena. pedersen (2011) has proposed a taxonomy of translation strategies specifically designed for audiovisual translation and subtitling. the taxonomy presents seven main strategies with several subcategories. three strategies are source languageoriented, while the other three are target languageoriented. the official equivalent is not categorized under these two orientations. figure 1 (see appendix) illustrates the taxonomy of ecr transfer strategies. figure 1 (see appendix) shows seven main translation strategies: retention, specification, and direct translation are source-oriented, while generalization, substitution, and omission are targetoriented. the official equivalent is considered as an equivalent with a special status. therefore, it is placed outside of the orientation category. for research purposes, it is necessary to provide a description of the main translation strategies: (1) retention is a translation strategy that retains the source text (st) in the subtitle unchanged or slightly adapted according to the target language (tl) requirements, (2) specification makes the subtitle more specific than the st by adding more information, (3) direct translation only changes the language without making semantic alteration, (4) generalization makes the translation less specific than the st, (5) substitution replaces the st ecr using another ecr, either from the source culture or the target culture, (6) omission removes the st ecr in the tl, and it is perhaps used more frequently in subtitling due to spatial constraints, (7) official equivalent means that equivalence of the st ecr has been established in the tl. pedersen (2011) has stated that it is possible to combine these translation strategies to solve a problem in translation. based on the background, the research aims to determine the strategies used to translate the idiomatic expressions in the subtitle and the dubbed version of the television series wandavision. furthermore, the 45subtitling and dubbing of .... (i gusti ayu mahatma agung) research also aims to investigate whether the subtitle and the dubbed version are source-oriented or targetoriented. the research may serve as a reference for future research in subtitling and dubbing. as pointed out by bosseaux (2019), the research on dubbing has been conducted dominantly by european scholars. therefore, more dubbing research from the perspective of non-western countries is required. hopefully, the research will encourage further studies on dubbing in the indonesian context. it will also provide some suggestions for subtitling and dubbing practitioners, especially in dealing with idiomatic expressions. methods this is a descriptive qualitative research. the research data are idiomatic expressions in the first episode of the television series wandavision. the television mini-series is created by jac schaeffer, and it was released in january 2021 by the streaming service disney+. the story relates to the marvel cinematic universe, and it focuses on the life of wanda maximoff, one of the characters in avengers. the series has gained positive reception from the viewers. it has won several awards as well. the researcher chose the television series as the data source since it contains several idiomatic expressions and has two translation versions in the form of subtitling and dubbing. the data are collected in two steps. the first step is watching the first episode of wandavision to identify the idiomatic expressions. the second step is transcribing the idiomatic expressions in the source language, the indonesian subtitle, and the dubbed version. after that, the researcher analyzes the data using the taxonomy proposed by pedersen (2011). based on the analysis of the translation strategies, it can be concluded whether the subtitling and the dubbing are source-oriented or target-oriented. results and discussions subtitling and dubbing have their own challenges and constraints that should be considered in the process of audiovisual translation. the translator has to opt for the most suitable translation strategy to produce subtitling and dubbing with good quality. there are different strategies applied in the subtitling and the dubbing of idiomatic expressions in the television series wandavision. in subtitling, the strategies applied are substitution, direct translation, generalization, and the combination of substitution and omission. while in the dubbed version, substitution, direct translation, generalization, and the combination of substitution and specification strategies are applied. a detailed analysis is presented in datum 1. datum 1 sl : hey! what’s got your feathers all ruffled? subtitle : hey! apa yang sebenarnya menganggumu? dubbing : hei! apa yang membuatmu kesal, sobat? in datum 1, the idiomatic expression ‘what’s got your feathers all ruffled?’ is translated into ‘apa yang sebenarnya mengganggumu?’ in the subtitle, and ‘apa yang membuatmu kesal, sobat?’ in the dubbed version. according to merriam-webster’s dictionary, the idiom ‘ruffle someone’s feathers’ means ‘to upset or offend someone’. based on the definition, it can be concluded that both the subtitle and the dubbed versions have conveyed the meaning of the idiomatic expression. however, the translation strategies applied are slightly different. the substitution strategy is applied in the subtitle since the idiomatic expression is altered into a non-idiomatic translation. the same strategy is used in the dubbed version, even though the lexical choice is different. the substitution strategy is combined with the specification strategy by adding the word ‘sobat’ at the end of the dubbed version. the decision to add more information in the dubbing could be made based on several factors. first, it is conducted to make the utterance sound more natural in the tl. it is necessary to include the spoken language features in the dubbed version. therefore, the dubber should create a dialogue which sounds like a real-life conversation. second, the extra word is added to match the indonesian dubbing with the character’s speaking time and lip movement. in other words, there is a consideration of visual and verbal synchrony. datum 2 sl : have you got a screw loose? subtitle : ada bautmu yang longgar? dubbing : apa ada masalah? the idiom ‘have a screw loose’ in datum 2 is defined as ‘to be crazy’ in merriam-webster’s dictionary. the translator applies a direct translation strategy in the subtitle since the idiomatic expression ‘have you got a screw loose?’ is translated literally into ‘ada bautmu yang longgar?’. the idiom’s meaning is not conveyed well in the subtitle, which may cause confusion to the viewers. in contrast, the dubber renders the idiom into ‘apa ada masalah?’ which is semantically more appropriate than the subtitle. a substitution strategy is applied in the dubbing since the sl idiom was not translated into another idiom in the tl. however, the meaning is transferred well in the dubbed version. datum 3 sl : no skeletons in your closet, eh, vision? subtitle : tak ada tengkorak dalam lemari mu, benar, vision? dubbing : tidak ada kerangka di lemarimu, 46 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 43-49 ‘kan, vision? according to merriam-webster’s dictionary, the expression ‘skeletons in the closet’ shown in datum 3 means ‘something bad or embarrassing that is kept secret’. it is translated into ‘tengkorak dalam lemari’ in the subtitle and ‘kerangka dalam lemari’ in the dubbing. both versions are translated using a direct translation strategy, which does not convey the meaning well into the tl. the translator might not recognize the idiomatic expression, hence the decision to translate it literally. the suggested translation is ‘kau tidak menyimpan rahasia, ‘kan, vision?’ which can be used in subtitle and dubbed versions. datum 4 sl : i still get a little tongue-tied. subtitle : lidahku masih suka kaku. dubbing : aku masih sedikit malu. the idiomatic expression ‘tongue-tied’ in datum 4 is defined as ‘unable to speak due to nervousness or shyness’ in merriam-webster’s dictionary. the subtitler merely translates the linguistic element of the idiom ‘tongue-tied’ into ‘lidahku kaku.’ however, the semantic element ‘due to nervousness or shyness’ in the idiom is not transferred into the tl. thus, it can be concluded that the subtitler applies a direct translation strategy in this context. a different translation is found in dubbing. the dubber translates ‘tongue-tied’ into ‘malu’, which transfers the idiom’s meaning. in this case, the dubber applies the substitution strategy since there is an alteration in the linguistic category from an idiomatic expression to a non-idiomatic one. datum 5 sl : glad to know we’re both on the same page. subtitle : aku senang kita sepaham. dubbing : senang kita punya pemikiran yang sama. in datum 5, the idiomatic expression ‘on the same page’ means ‘agree about something’. it is translated into ‘sepaham’ in the subtitling, and ‘punya pemikiran yang sama’ in the dubbing. even though the lexical choice is different, both the dubber and the subtitler apply a generalization strategy by paraphrasing the idiomatic expression. as a result, the idiom’s meaning can be transferred well into the tl. it produces translations that the viewers can easily comprehend. the subtitle is shorter than the dubbed version since the subtitler needs to consider the spatial and temporal constraints in the subtitling. the subtitle has to be concise, so the viewers have enough time to read it. datum 6 sl : i think i’ve got it covered from here. subtitle : aku bisa tangani sisanya. dubbing : aku rasa aku bisa sendiri. the idiom ‘have got it covered’ in datum 6 means ‘to take control of the situation’. in the subtitle, the idiom is translated into ‘bisa tangani sisanya’, and in the dubbing, it is translated into ‘bisa sendiri.’ the difference in lexical choice is affected by the characteristics of written and spoken language. the dubbed version sounds more natural in spoken language. regarding the translation strategy, the subtitler uses a direct translation strategy to translate the idiom, while the dubber applies a generalization strategy by paraphrasing. despite the differences, both translation versions can be well-comprehended. datum 7 sl : i know you’re in a pinch. subtitle : kau dalam keadaan darurat. dubbing : aku tahu kau sedang kesulitan. in datum 7, the idiomatic expression ‘in a pinch’ means ‘in a bad situation when help is needed’ according to merriam-webster’s dictionary. the subtitler translates the idiom into ‘dalam keadaan darurat’, which is different from the dubbed version ‘sedang kesulitan’. another case of well-conveyed meaning with different lexical choices is shown in datum 7. both the dubber and the subtitler apply the substitution strategy by replacing the idiomatic expression using a non-idiomatic translation. however, there is an omission in the subtitle as the sl clause ‘i know’ is not transferred into the tl. the omission strategy is applied to create a brief subtitle. it is necessary to be conducted due to the space limitation. datum 8 sl : this menu can be done in a snap. subtitle : menunya mudah disiapkan. dubbing : menu ini bisa dilakukan dalam sekejap. the idiom ‘in a snap’, as shown in datum 8, has the meaning of ‘very quickly’ or ‘almost immediately’. the idiom is translated into ‘mudah disiapkan’ in the subtitle, which does not transfer the semantic element ‘quick’ or ‘immediate’ of the idiom. however, the subtitle can still be considered acceptable since the translation implies that a menu that is easy to cook usually takes little time to prepare. in this context, the subtitler makes an alteration in the semantic element by applying a substitution strategy. this decision could be made based on the consideration of the character limit in subtitling. the dubbed version is translated in accordance with the grammatical structure and the semantic element of the sl idiom. the sl noun phrase ‘this menu’ is dubbed into an indonesian noun phrase ‘menu ini’. then, the passive form ‘can be done’ is translated into ‘bisa dilakukan’, which is also a passive 47subtitling and dubbing of .... (i gusti ayu mahatma agung) form in the indonesian language. finally, the idiom ‘in a snap’, which can be classified as a prepositional phrase, is translated into an indonesian prepositional phrase ‘dalam sekejap’. the meaning of the idiom is also conveyed in the dubbed version. the analysis of the dubbing leads to the conclusion that the translator applies a direct translation strategy. datum 9 sl : i think tonight’s going swimmingly. subtitle : malam ini berjalan lancar. dubbing : kupikir malam ini akan menyenangkan. based on the definition in merriam-webster’s dictionary, the idiom ‘going swimmingly’ means ‘going very well’. in the dubbed version, the idiom is translated into ‘akan menyenangkan’, which is not suitable with the sl tense. the word ‘akan’ refers to the future, while the sl tense ‘is going’ means that the action or the situation is still ongoing, which can be seen in the scene as well. therefore, it is more appropriate to omit the word ‘akan’ in the dubbing. in this case, the strategy applied is substitution since the translator alters the tense in the tl. in the subtitle, the idiom is translated into ‘berjalan lancar’, which transfers the meaning well into the tl. the translation strategy applied in the subtitle is substitution since there is a change in the form of expression in the tl. another important thing to notice is the length of the subtitle and the dubbed version. the subtitle is shorter than the dubbed version since the sl clause ‘i think’ is omitted in the subtitling. the subtitle has to limit the number of characters due to the constraints of the medium. thus, the combination of substitution and omission is applied to translate the idiom in datum 9. datum 10 sl : oh, just leave the poor kids alone. subtitle : jangan ganggu mereka. dubbing : oh, abaikan saja anak-anak malang ini the idiomatic expression ‘leave someone alone’ shown in datum 10 means ‘not to disturb someone’. the subtitle version has conveyed the meaning well by the translation ‘jangan ganggu mereka’. in this case, the substitution strategy is applied in the subtitling by changing the form in the tl. however, the interjection ‘oh’ is not reproduced in the subtitle. it is considered unnecessary to include the interjection in the subtitle since it is a feature of spoken language. however, the dubbed version retains the interjection to create a natural and credible dubbing that sounds like a daily conversation. the idiomatic expression is dubbed into ‘abaikan saja anak-anak malang ini’, which means ‘to ignore the poor kids’. in this case, the translator applied a substitution strategy since the meaning is slightly altered. conclusions based on the analysis, there are differences in the strategies applied and the lexical choice between the subtitling and the dubbed version. the differences are due to different considerations in subtitling and dubbing. due to the spatial and temporal constraints in subtitling, including only the important message from the source dialogue is necessary. in subtitling, the strategies of substitution, direct translation, and generalization are applied. in addition, the combination of substitution and omission is frequently used in the subtitle. based on the strategies applied, it can be inferred that the subtitling is more target-oriented. in comparison, the strategies applied in the dubbed version are substitution, direct translation, generalization, and the combination of substitution and specification. the strategies applied and the lexical choice in the dubbing are chosen based on the consideration that the dubbing should feature the characteristics of spoken language. based on the translation strategies used, it can be concluded that dubbing is also target-oriented. the results of the research may serve as a reference for future research in the field of audiovisual translation, specifically dubbing and subtitling. it may also provide guidance for subtitlers and dubbers in dealing with idiomatic expressions. however, this research is limited to the subtitling and dubbing of idiomatic expressions in a television series. further studies related to the subtitling and dubbing of specialized terms, such as medical terms or legal terms, are suggested. references abdelaal, n. m. (2019). subtitling of culture-bound terms: strategies and quality assessment. heliyon, 5(4), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01411. baños, r. (2021). creating credible and natural-sounding dialogs in dubbing: can it be taught? interpreter and translator trainer, 15(1), 13-33. https://doi. org/10.1080/1750399x.2021.1880262. bosseaux, c. (2019). investigating dubbing: learning from the past, looking to the future. in l. pérez-gonzález (ed.), the routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 48-63). new york: routledge. božović, p. (2019). how should culture be rendered in subtitling and dubbing? babel, international journal of translation, 65(1), 81-95. https://doi.org/10.1075/ babel.00082.boz. brezolin, a., & medeiros, f. d. (2021). bad words in the good place: analyzing the euphemistic function of wordplays in subtitling and dubbing – a case of english and portuguese language pair. european journal of literature, language and linguistics studies, 5(1), 14-31. https://doi.org/10.46827/ejlll. v5i1.250. forutan, m. k., & modarresi, g. (2018). translation of cultural taboos in hollywood movies in professional 48 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 43-49 dubbing and non-professional subtitling. journal of intercultural communication research, 47(6), 454473. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2018.14805 16. hammou, s. b. (2020). shift of oral and written language features in audio-visual translation : a case study of subtitling and dubbing of the american tv show “prison break”. international journal of english language studies (ijels), 2(2), 30-45. kusuma, j. j., & rini, j. e. (2020). translation procedures of the indonesian subtitles of english idiomatic expressions found in inside out. kata kita: journal of language, literature, and teaching, 8(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.9744/katakita.8.1.1-8. manipuspika, y. s., & winzami, d. r. j. (2021). translation of idioms: how they are reflected in movie subtitling. arab world english journal for translation and literary studies, 5(1), 113-125. http://dx.doi. org/10.24093/awejtls/vol5no1.8. miggiani, g. s. (2021). exploring applied strategies for english-language dubbing. journal of audiovisual translation, 4(1), 137-156. https://doi.org/10.47476/ jat.v4i1.2021. 166. pedersen, j. (2011). subtitling norms for translation. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. perego, e., del missier, f., & stragà, m. (2018). dubbing vs. subtitling. target: international journal of translation studies, 30(1), 137-157. https://doi. org/10.1075/target.16083.per. puspitasari, m. s., tabiati, s. e., & junining, e. (2020). translation in movie subtitles: foreignization and domestication. lensa: kajian kebahasaan, kesusastraan, dan budaya, 10(1), 1-15. https://doi. org/10.26714/lensa.10.1.2020.1-15. putri, f., & wijaya, a. (2021). the comparison of strategies used in translating idiomatic expressions in a fansub and the official subtitle of game night movie (2018). international review of humanities studies, 6(2), 708-725. https://doi.org/10.7454/irhs.v6i2.348. tyasrinestu, p., & ardi, p. (2020). idiomatic expressions and their indonesian subtitles in the good doctor tv series. llt journal: a journal on language and language teaching, 23(1), 37-57. https://doi. org/10.24071/llt.v23i1.2360. 49subtitling and dubbing of .... (i gusti ayu mahatma agung) appendix figure 1 taxonomy of ecr transfer strategies p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 87 lingua cultura, 14(1), july 2020, 87-96 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i1.6343 i am falling in love, ouch!: ontological metaphors at work ni gusti ayu roselani* english department, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada jl. bulaksumur, caturtunggal, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55281, indonesia roselani@ugm.ac.id received: 20th april 2020/revised: 23rd may 2020/accepted: 05th june 2020 how to cite: roselani, n. g. a. (2020). i am falling in love, ouch!: ontological metaphors at work. lingua cultura, 14(1), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6343 abstract the research aimed to track the distribution of in metaphors and explore their ontological function in the abstracts of english research articles in the sub-disciplines of theoretical linguistics and pragmatics. the lack of empirical evidence on the subject had become the inspiration to base the research on a corpus. the corpus consisted of 40 research article abstracts; 20 from journal of linguistics and another 20 from journal of pragmatics. by using a quantitative method, the results show that theoretical linguistics abstracts are more densely populated with ‘in’ metaphors. however, in terms of in-preposition phrase topic complement variations, they are less varied. qualitatively, the results confirm a notion proposed by conceptual metaphor theory (cmt) that ‘in’ metaphors function cognitively by providing ontological status to abstract objects. their existence proves to play an important role in academic texts. keywords: inpreposition, conceptual metaphor, ontological function, spatial preposition introduction why do we say fall ‘in love’ instead of ‘on love’? lakoff and johnson (2003) have stated that their early experiences with physical objects, especially with their own bodies, have conditioned how they conceptualize many of the natural phenomena that occur in lives. lakoff and johnson (2003) further explain that only a small number of concepts can be directly comprehended without the help of a metaphor. they are the simple spatial concepts like the concepts of ‘in-out’, ‘up-down’, ‘center-peripheral’, ‘frontback’, and ‘near-far’. these concepts are learned through the positions, orientations, and movements of our bodies. however, the physiology is not the only factor that influences the emergence of the concepts, nor is it the most basic. lakoff and johnson (2003) have further stated that all their experiences are cultural through and through that people experience the world so that the culture is already present in the very experience itself. thus, there is also the domain of social experience. another similar basic concept is the emotional concept believed to emerge as early as the physical and cultural ones. these are the examples modified from lakoff and johnson (2003) for each *corresponding author concept of the three different experiences; physical, social, and emotional. (1) rose is in her room. (2) rose is in the school board meeting. (3) rose is falling in love. in (1), the use of the preposition ‘in’ is stimulated by the spatial concept derived purely from physical experience and is more clearly delineated (lakoff & johnson, 2003). it is, therefore, obvious that it is not metaphorically used. on the other hand, ‘meeting’ and ‘love’ are abstract concepts that need to be given some sort of form to make handling possible. they tend to associate those not-clearly-delineated, vague, or abstract entities with physical entities like an object, a substance, or a container (kövecses, 2010). in lakoff and johnson’s term, this way of coping with vague concepts via ontological metaphors helps in assigning basic status to those concepts. as soon as an experience or abstract entity is rendered some new definable ontological status, it can easily be referred to, categorized, and quantified that in the end, we can reason about it (lakoff & johnson, 2003). therefore, the use of the preposition ‘in’ is a 88 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 87-96 sign of the tactical maneuver performed by humans. the metaphor found in (2) may be categorized into ‘social gatherings are containers’ metaphor, while in (3), it may be interpreted as being ‘in love’. although it is generally observed as a container metaphor, this metaphor can be more precisely interpreted as ‘emotion is fluidly grounded on the human body as the container’. this is because being ‘in love’ is perceived as ‘being inside of something’ (a container or a fluid in a container), meaning that humans are aware when they are under a lot of pressure. in regard to ‘love’, people’s experience of being trapped in a container prompts their imagination to reincarnate the experience to become some sort of generic structure in mind (wintzer, 2019). this is evinced in the use of the collocated preposition ‘in’, thus, ‘in love’. starting from this very moment, the abstract entity ‘love’ enjoys a status as a physical object, and so it may be treated as one. cmt believes that the human body is an ideal source domain since, for humans, it is clearly delineated, and they believe they know it well (kövecses, 2010). besides container metaphor, the ontological metaphor can also be revealed via the concepts of substance and physical objects in general. for example, the collocated word ‘fall’ completes the schematic image by emphasizing that being in love is somewhat accidental and physical, in a sense. people do not normally intend to either fall or fall in love. in terms of cmt, ‘fall in love’ emphasizing the action ‘fall’, maybe put under the metaphor ‘falling in love is physical falling.’ these discussions may partly explain the complexity of metaphorical prepositions in general (kumar, rajendran, & soman, 2015; lee, yoo, & shin, 2020). the strong attraction appeals to researchers to research prepositions. however, it is the dilemmatic nature of prepositions in terms of semantics. there are always arguments about whether prepositions should be approached as lexical elements that have their own meanings or grammatical elements that practically have no meanings. there is even an approach to prepositions that considers them a non-uniform hybrid (chanturidze, carroll, & ruigendijk, 2019). this dilemmatic view is shared by saint-dizier (2006), who believes that they are used metonymically and metaphorically. however, a few of the prepositions are used quite restrictedly. tyler and evans (2003); and hoang and boers (2018), with a similar notion, offer an approach called the principled polysemy. this approach, they claim, may supply a framework that is more distinctly expressed on which a systematic and accessible account of english spatial particles is built. principally, their research explains the wide array of non-spatial meanings originated by way of the extension of spatial concepts (tyler & evans, 2003; zane & shafer, 2018). well-explained as it is, the research is acknowledged as having a weakness in that it is not corpus-based. they obtained the data mainly from numerous dictionaries, grammars, and histories of english and their intuitions as native speakers (tyler & evans, 2003). they suggest that to inspect corpus-based data is crucial because its investigation also reveals additional uses and even seemingly anomalous uses, which would challenge our model in various ways (tyler & evans, 2003). corpus-based research is definitely needed to examine prepositions and scrutinize many other aspects of a language and from many different perspectives (cameron, 2003; herrmann, 2013). moreover, chen and xu (2019) agree that using quantitative linguistic methods will better display both universality and peculiarities of human language. this present discussion about the ‘in’ metaphorical preposition is motivated by lakoff and johnson’s seminal work published in 1980/2003 as well as by the many publications written by other scholars who are also inspired by it. investigations on metaphors have been conducted in many different fields of research, such as in behavioral science (pendrous et al., 2020), artificial intelligence (carbonell, sánchezesguevillas, & carro, 2016), general science (beger, 2016; roberts et al., 2019; roldán-riejos & cuadrado, 2015), psychotherapy (killick, curry, & myles, 2016), psychology (bultmann et al., 2019; raja, 2019), biology (castellane & paternotte, 2018; kashkan et al., 2015), news discourse (mujagić, 2018), politics (alousque, 2015; chan & yap, 2015; filipczukrosińska, 2016; yi, koenig, & roland, 2019), demographics (catalano & musolff, 2019), translation studies (egan, 2015), comics (domínguez, 2015; forceville & paling, 2018; szawerna, 2018; tasić & stamenković, 2015), television series (izgarjan & djurić, 2016; terry, 2019), computer programming (pérez-marín et al., 2020), and music (mishankina & zheleznyakova, 2015; pannese, rappaz, & grandjean, 2016). some accounts of the preposition ‘in’ have also been offered mostly in terms of its functions in english grammar by huddleston and pullum (2006) and biber et al. (1999). discussions about preposition ‘in’ from conceptual metaphor theory are conducted, for example, by cameron (2003) and herrmann (2013). it is quite fair to say that the research on conceptual metaphors in linguistics is in the minority as metaphor scholars seem to be more attracted to explore metaphors in science and other fields that do not make language their focal point. the lack of empirical evidence of the existence of ‘in’ metaphors has also motivated this current research to perform a corpus-based investigation. abstracts of research articles published in journals on linguistics are naturally occurred and most likely deal with abstract objects. the abstract of a research article has become an inseparable part of the research article since it is crucially important in the advancement of scientific knowledge (hardjanto, 2017). it aims to show the researcher’s perspective on the article (omidian, shahriari, & siyanova-chanturia, 2018). jointly, the title of the article and its abstract are the first to allure its reader to continue reading it. in conclusion, abstracts deserve to be treated as 89i am falling in love, ouch!: .... (ni gusti ayu roselani) an independent class of discourse (hardjanto, 2017). the research aims at attaining some information about the characteristics of ‘in’ metaphors. it includes their distribution across the two sub-disciplines of theoretical linguistics and pragmatics, and to learn whether their use shows any significant difference. previous research about metaphors in linguistics is limited, including in its sub-disciplines. another objective is to describe the capacity of ‘in’ prepositions in manifesting the ontological concept by transforming the abstract into physical entities. methods the research’s corpus consists of 40 research article abstracts: 20 from journal of linguistics, and 20 from journal of pragmatics. the articles to which the abstracts are attached are all primary research articles published between 2015 and 2019. both the journals and the articles are selected using the opportunity or convenience sampling procedure to carry out the selection based on some criteria such as availability and easy accessibility, among others. both journals can be accessed via the internet freely, and are indexed in the web of science arts and humanities citation index (http://ip-science.thomsonreuters.com/ mjl/publist_sciex.pdf), and web of science citation index (http://ip-science.thomsonreuters.com/mjl/ publist_ssci.pdf). the data gathered are phrases containing the prepositions ‘in’, ‘inside’, and ‘within’, and whenever necessary, the rest of the co-text will be retrieved to help with the discussion. ‘within’ and ‘inside’ are included because their basic meanings are quite similar, if not the same with that of ‘in’. ‘within’ is described in the dictionary as “if something is within a place, area, or object, it is inside it or surrounded by it” (within, n.d.). next, the description given by the dictionary for ‘inside’ is “something or someone that is inside a place, container, or object is in it or is surrounded by it” (inside, n.d.). meanwhile, for the preposition ‘in’, it says, “someone or something that is in something else is enclosed by it or surrounded by it. if you put something in a container, you move it so that it is enclosed by the container” (in, n.d.). even though, at a glance, the meanings of ‘in’, ‘within’, and ‘inside’ are quite similar. the three of them are not always interchangeable when used in sentences. it can be seen in these examples. (4) guests are entertained within private dining rooms. (5) guests are entertained in private dining rooms. (6) guests are entertained inside private dining rooms. (7) in ruins (8) *within ruins (9) *inside ruins the replacement of ‘within’ by ‘in’ or ‘inside’ in (4) is acceptable to some extent as shown in (5) and (6). on the contrary, the replacement of the preposition ‘in’ with ‘within’ or ‘inside’ in (7) will result in expressions foreign to the speakers of english like those in (8) and (9). the expression ‘in ruins’ is defined in the dictionary as “completely spoiled” or in terms of building, “destroyed” (ruins, n.d.). this twowords expression is labeled polywords by herrmann (2013) or multi-word lexical unit (biber et al., 1999). these polywords will be treated as exceptions because they generate a single meaning. expressions like ‘in that’ or ‘in which case’, or ‘in terms of’ are more examples of polywords, which are treated as single lexical units and therefore will not be discussed in the present report (herrmann, 2013). the more detailed account of the corpus is presented in table 1. table 1 sub-disciplines and total number of words sub-disciplines total no. of words theoretical linguistics 3284 pragmatics 3104 total 6388 a normalization process is needed to achieve conformity between the two sub-fields because of the difference between the numbers of words in the two sub-disciplines. this process makes a comparison possible and the numbers meaningful. the data are retrieved from the data source with the assistance of a computer program wordsmith tools version 7 (scott, 2016). it helps produce concordances based on the data source and eases the process of identification of the ‘in’ metaphors. examples of the concordance are provided in figure 1. figure 1 concordance samples each thread of words in the concordances was checked to see if any of the ‘in’ prepositions is used metaphorically. further analysis is done on the data qualitatively to investigate what kinds of experience motivate ‘in’ metaphors in both sub disciplines. to measure whether the ‘in’ metaphors retrieved from the data source are in fact not a matter of accident, chisquared test will be operated. 90 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 87-96 results and discussions ‘in’ metaphors distribution is across the subdisciplines of theoretical linguistics and pragmatics. the data analysis results show that all together, there is a difference of 180 words between the two sub-fields. although the difference is relatively small, in fact, any degree of difference is valid to call for a normalization process since no comparison is possible without it. the constant that is chosen to operate in the research is 1.000 on the basis that the size of each group of the data source is in thousands. it is considered the most sensible seeing that is using a more significant constant, say 10.000, or smaller, 100 for example, will not result in proportional numbers, and may lead to a biased perception. the details of the data, including the normalized computational frequencies, are presented in table 2. table 2 frequency of ‘in’ preposition preposition ‘in’ raw normalized non metaphorical ‘in’ prepositions 18 6 metaphorical ‘in’ prepositions 181 56 table 2 reveals the dominance of metaphorical ‘in’ prepositions in the corpus. there is a substantial discrepancy between the numbers of non-metaphorical and their metaphorical ‘in’ prepositions counterparts. however, the approximately nine-fold difference between the two categories of prepositions does not guarantee the significance of the existence of the ‘in’ metaphors in the corpus. to make sure whether they are indeed significant, the chi-squared test are administered. the result of the test shows a tremendously significant difference between the occurrences of non-metaphorical and metaphorical ‘in’ prepositions in the corpus (x2(1) = 40,3226, p = 0,000). the statistics has provided the needed evidence to support ‘in’ metaphors to be regarded as one important characteristic of the academic texts under research. this has taken the discussion to the next level as to discuss whether the distribution of ‘in’ metaphors across the two sub-disciplines also signifies some meaningful peculiarity. table 3 displays the distribution of ‘in’ metaphors across theoretical linguistics and pragmatics, both raw and normalized frequencies. table 3 ‘in’ metaphors distribution sub-disciplines ‘in’ metaphors raw normalized theoretical linguistics 106 32 pragmatics 75 24 the number of ‘in’ metaphors occurring in the two sub-disciplines does not show a striking difference although the computation seems to provide the support that theoretical linguistics is slightly more densely populated with ‘in’ metaphors. nevertheless, to ascertain whether this difference means anything, another chi-squared test is carried out. the result confirms that there is no significant difference in the use of ‘in’ metaphors in the abstracts of the articles of the two sub-disciplines (x2(1) = 1,14286, p = 0,285). in other words, the difference of ‘in’ metaphor distribution across the two sub-disciplines is merely accidental in the present research. the fact that ‘in’ metaphors are found to be significant with regard to the whole corpus is not really surprising. both sub disciplines deal with relatively abstract concepts of language and language use. via the usage of ‘in’, one big problem of handling abstract entities seems to have been solved. it is surprising, however, that in the abstracts of the pragmatics articles, all the ‘in’ prepositions are used metaphorically. moreover pragmatics, that is judged to deal with more concrete objects in comparison with the objects dealt with by theoretical linguistics, shows a similar symptom. only a single ‘in’ preposition that is found in theoretical linguistics is not metaphorically used. to observe the abstractness difference between the two sub disciplines, some of the topics are found in both of them that are given in table 4. table 4 the topics of article abstracts in the corpus topics of discussions theoretical linguistics pragmatics fricative patterning twitter rape threats and group identity usage probability and subject-object asymmetries diachronic changes in news narratives middle-passive voice power distance and persuasion negation through reduplication and tone the vocabulary of manga the 'believe' construction co-construction of metaphors exponents and morphosyntactically triggered phonologically process emotional affects polar answers definition and application of discourse prominence processing unambiguous verbal passives enrichment, coherence, and quantifier properties looking at the list in table 4, people might argue that both sub-fields handle similarly abstract entities. that opinion has some truth in it. nevertheless, the small degree difference of concreteness has roughly 91i am falling in love, ouch!: .... (ni gusti ayu roselani) influenced the density of the sub-disciplines in the present research in terms of ‘in’ metaphors’ existence. pragmatics has topics that are comparatively more concrete so that its topics are relatively easier to imagine in the mind than those of theoretical linguistics because they are more clearly delineated. the main result of the chi-squared test presented has also proven that ‘in’ metaphors are prepositions that are indispensably important for the two subdisciplines. with regard to what has been stated by tyler and evans (2003) about the extension of the spatial meanings of prepositions into different supply of non-spatial meanings, this finding strongly supports their claim. most of the prepositions ‘in’ are not used spatially for concrete objects. from an entirely different view, the specific test result is also parallel with cmt’s basic concept because most of our concepts in looking into the outside world are indeed metaphorical. the concept of a container that we have learned via our understanding of our body is so strongly established that it is effortlessly retrieved and comfortably manifested in language. the present test result also conforms to the outcome of corpus-based research conducted by cameron (2003), revealing a quite intense activity of metaphor-related prepositions with an emphasis on ‘in’ prepositions. herrmann’s (2013) finding is quite similar to that of cameron as among words in the whole corpus of academic english that she investigated, 18,5% are metaphorically related, and of that amount, 42,5% is metaphor-related prepositions, way surpassing other word classes. she does not, however, focus on a certain type of preposition. returning to cameron’s research concerning the dominant ‘in’ prepositional metaphors over other prepositions such as ‘for’, ‘on’, ‘of’, ‘between’, ‘into’, ‘off’, and ‘under’, she did not give any suggestion as to what the reason behind the phenomenon. it is possible, nevertheless, to speculate on the reasons underlying the dominance of ‘in’. ‘in’ is a simple (consisting only a word) spatial preposition, monosyllabic (consisting of only a syllable) that shows most topic variation, in contrast with complex ones like ‘instead of’, ‘in behalf of’, ‘with reference to’ (cameron, 2003). there is another characteristic that can be attached to it. this preposition also seems to carry the most general meaning compared with the other two, ‘within’ and ‘inside’, and so is more widely applicable to different words and contexts. ‘within’ is considered for formal usage, at least by collins english dictionary, a feature that definitely limits its usage. furthermore, among the 106 prepositional metaphors in theoretical linguistics, six of them are ‘within’ metaphors, and among the 75 found in the subfield of pragmatics there are four ‘within’ metaphors. not a single ‘inside’ is found in the corpus. these facts provide even more support for the dominance of ‘in’ metaphors in the discipline of linguistics. in terms of metaphorical intensity, ‘in’ and other prepositions are generally deemed less recognizable as metaphors and less forceful than verbal and adjectival v-terms (goatly, 2005). similar to goatly, cameron (2003) and obert, gierski, and caillies (2018) also suggest that nominal linguistic metaphors are found to be the most powerful. however, prepositions’ contributions to the sentence structure have earned them the nickname ‘the biggest small words’, implying their crucial role in the english language. they may not be as intense as some other metaphorical word classes, but because of its widespread occurrences, their usefulness has caused them impossible to be overlooked. since herrmann’s research covers a lot wider range of lexical items than those of cameron or this present research, her research can also reveal that metaphor-related verbs that come second after prepositions with a total of 27,7% or around half the frequency of metaphorical prepositions. this information is important because it can support prepositional metaphors to claim their place to be a feature of academic texts with a possibility that ‘in’ metaphors lead. this may affect an english learners’ strategy in dealing with prepositions since more attention has to be drawn to studying metaphorical prepositions. the quantitative analysis concerning ‘in’ metaphors confirms the lack of attention paid to them in general and confirms their essential role in the corpus. more attention is paid to metaphors belonging to other word classes. indeed, as discussed before, prepositions are not as intensively loaded with metaphoricity as the rest of them. however, the results of the investigations on those other metaphor-related word classes have somehow eased the efforts to inquire about prepositional metaphors. for example, another interesting result by herrmann (2013) shows that metaphor-related nouns come fourth after adjectives. this does not synchronize with earlier corpus-based research on academic prose, showing that nouns (nonmetaphorical) are in the lead followed by prepositions and adjectives, and then by the rest of the word-classes (biber et al., 1999). the deviation is most likely caused by the different focuses of the researches. biber et al. (1999) target is to expose the features of academic prose in terms of word-classes in general, disregarding their relations to linguistic metaphors. what biber et al. (1999) have found out about nouns discussed earlier may relate indirectly to what goatly (2005); and sato, schafer, and bergen (2015) say concerning prepositions that they represent the relationships between things. in turn, this relates to the statement put forward by goatly (2005) and cameron (2003) that metaphor-related nouns’ robustness exceeds that of the rest of the word classes, and this stimulates language to use to make demands on nouns. the most probable reason is that nouns represent things. hyland (2006), vo (2019), and wu, mauranen, and lei (2020) assert that characteristics peculiar to academic texts involve high lexical density. hyland means by lexical density is the high proportion of content words related to grammar words such as prepositions, articles, and pronouns, which makes academic writing more tightly 92 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 87-96 packed with information (hyland, 2006). this fits extremely well because prepositions connect things (referred to by nominals), as described previously by goatly (2005). communication is about things, both physical and non-physical. when the things being talked about are non-physical, which tend to be less delineated, the mind will first turn to what is available; the basic bodily experience that dominantly influences the way we conceptualize things. cmt proposes that the concepts retrieved, mainly from language, can be mapped into conceptual metaphors to investigate further. some mnemonics to help remembering the conceptual metaphors that are related to the bodily experience taken from kövecses (2010) are as follows. the structure of an abstract complex system is the physical structure of the human body human properties are the properties of inanimate things an abstract complex system is the human body falling in love is physical falling emotion is a fluid in a container happiness is physical force involvement is closeness these mnemonics show the importance of experience with the body to conceptualize the experience that people undergo later in their lives. to put it simply, the high frequency of prepositional metaphors under research is caused by the enormous number of nouns that refer to abstract entities existing in the english academic texts. these texts tend to focus on nonphysical objects. one way of how nouns can function perfectly in “representing things” as goatly (2005) suggests there is the deployment of ‘in’ preposition that helps to give ontological physical status to nonphysical entities. furthermore, the roles of ‘in’ metaphors to connect a noun with another noun have been demonstrated in the introduction. in sentence sample (1), the ‘in’ preposition is used non-metaphorically, while in (2) and (3), the ‘in’ prepositions are used metaphorically, involving the domains of social and emotional experience. it is important to note that all the occurrences of the preposition in (1), (2), and (3), according to cmt, are of the same concept and word. with that being said, (1), (2) and (3) show that it may have the same basic spatial experience, but the way people conceptualize their experience is not always equal the same (lakoff & johnson, 2003). these three domains are not the only available domains as any different experience may be conceptualized into different ones. the data retrieved from the corpus in the present research prove the points mentioned. firstly, all the ‘in’ prepositions express the same concept of being in an area or container; an area is considered two dimensional and a container a three dimensional. in this respect, the different dimensions indicate the diversity of the experience that is conceptualized in various ways. the ‘in’ metaphor in in vernaculars, for example, maybe conceptualized within the ‘language is a container’ metaphor. the knowledge about the concept of language in general is gained from the interaction with others through social contact. another example, in conversation, maybe stimulated by another conceptual metaphor related to social experience, ‘being in a conversation is being in a container’. in paradigm structure also shows a concept of being in a container, ‘being in an abstract structure is being in a physical building’. experiencing an action is also conceptualized as a container, like in the ordering, in shaping, in encoding, and in constructing. they may be placed under ‘actions are objects’ conceptual metaphor. the most obvious and ample evidence to prove that the way humans think and act are, for the most part, metaphorical is in the language. this has been the theme of this piece of writing. therefore, it is obligatory to discuss the conceptual and linguistic side of the matter. the most important thing is to talk about the complements of the ‘in’ metaphorical prepositions of the data. a noun phrase is deemed the most archetypal complement in a preposition phrase (biber et al., 1999). however, other types of complements are possible (huddleston & pullum, 2006). in the research, only one noun clause and three verb phrases are found to be prepositional complements. the rest are all fulfilled by noun phrases. examples from (10) to (13) are the exceptional four preposition phrases under discussion. the italicized parts are the preposition phrases. (10) …metaphorical creativity manifests itself in how metaphors are used… (11) the goal of this paper is to verify whether causalness is a factor in the encoding and whether the two languages differ … (12) passivization played a central role in shaping both linguistic theory and psycholinguistic approaches … (13) … both superlative maximum and minimum constructions similarly serve speakers in constructing non-optimal arguments in their favor. in connection with cameron’s (2003) finding that preposition ‘in’ is proved to have considerable potential in conveying different varieties of topics, the data seem to show the same tendency. cameron (2003) mentions time, feelings, writing and math as the topics that are taken by the complements of ‘in’ metaphors in her research. a table presenting the types of topics of the complements of ‘in’ prepositions found in the present research is presented in table 5. 93i am falling in love, ouch!: .... (ni gusti ayu roselani) table 5 topic classification of the complements of ‘in’ metaphors topics theoretical linguistics pragmatics language 63 22 general 28 39 academic 15 9 the arts 0 4 social networking 0 1 total 106 75 for the sake of space efficiency, the topic variation is presented in five umbrella terms in table 5. it can be learned from the table that the topics of the prepositional complements in theoretical linguistics are dominated by those under the category of language such as in russian, in morphology, in clauses, in postsyntax, and in syllables that are very much relevant to the concentrated object of research of the sub field. in pragmatics, the topic includes in the same type comes second. none of them is as technical as the ones that are found in theoretical linguistics. they are for example in conversation, in dialogues, in discourse, and in narratives. the category general is for the complements that are quite neutral in terms of their relatedness to linguistics or language as a whole, but at the same time are also more topic-bound (with regard to the articles’ topics) like in comics, in generations, in situation, in calls, in interaction, and in percentage. as for the academic category, the in metaphors in both sub-disciplines take words with meanings that can be associated with academic sphere like in paper, in paradigm structure, in analysis, and in research. the ‘in’ metaphors in the sub-field of theoretical linguistics do not contain anyone that can be included in the categories of the arts and the social networking. the occurrence of these two categories in the sub-field of pragmatics is caused by the related topics of the articles where the abstracts are affixed to, i.e., japanese manga (in manga, in genres) and twitter (in hashtag). these metaphors help “give a new ontological status to general categories of abstract target concepts and to bring about new abstract entities” (kövecses, 2010). on the contrary, originally used as a spatial preposition, ‘in’ indicating such function is found only one time in the research. it is detected from the complement following the preposition as found in this example “in guébie, a kru language spoken in côte d’ivoire…”. côte d’ivoire is a name of a country (a piece of land, an area, a physical entity) also called ivory coast in english. it is acceptable to view it as a physical entity because proper names are labeled as ‘mere identification marks’ (o’rourke & de diego balaguer, 2020; sulpizio & job, 2018) or things or beings that are unique (killick, curry, & myles, 2016). a country has boundaries that separate it from other countries, so it can be considered a two-dimensional object in which other objects can reside. in the context given previously, the people who speak guébie language are the residents who live in a country named côte d’ivoire. most of the ‘in’ metaphors are motivated by our experience in connection with spatial entity, especially three-dimensional containers. it tends to consider language and its smaller parts as containers. it can be noticed from the domination of languages in the data that are preceded by the preposition ‘in’ such as (in) old occitan, albanian, korean, greek, eleme, standard arabic, french, spanish, and german. by tagging those languages as containers, all the noun phrases before the preposition phrases are treated as if they are concrete and relatively smaller objects that can be placed inside the containers. see the list of phrases as examples. small physical objects in containers (14) the analysis of fricatives in russian (15) case ellipsis for subjects and objects in korean (16) auxilliary jam 'be' in albanian (17) other facts in tamil in cases (14) to (17), the parts before and after ‘in’ prepositions are all abstract entities. they are given a general physical status via ontological metaphor. that way, the ideas about these abstract objects can be imagined and be talked about a lot more easily. the following list shows a similar phenomenon, but with the prepositional complements having a competing more basic meaning of physical entities. small physical objects in containers (18) one topic chain in the local domain (19) vowel alternation in the roots (of russian verbs) (20) alternative paths in (a dynamic paradigm) structures (21) the hidden nuances in (their discursive) devices domain, roots, structures, and devices have their own basic meanings of physical entities and can be treated as concrete objects. however, in the contexts given, they do not bear the basic meanings that are supposed to be attached to them as physical entities. they are used in the contexts to help those abstract entities have forms or status of physical objects, so they are more easily handled. the parts presented before the ‘in’ prepositions are for the readers to be alert that the words under discussion (domain) are used metaphorically. in addition, the abstract entities of domain, roots, structures, and devices are understood partially through the concrete objects of domain, roots, structures, and devices since not all aspects of the concrete entity are transferred and applicable to the abstract entity. 94 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 1, july 2020, 87-96 from (18) – (21), some other information about the concepts underlying the deployment of certain terms can be acquired. for example, in (19) the word ‘roots’ that is related to the word ‘verbs’ may suggest the existence of the conceptual metaphor ‘complex abstract systems are plants’ (kövecses, 2010). next, a conceptual metaphor ‘theories are buildings’ (kövecses, 2010) can be retrieved from (20). these so-called structural metaphors may provide a lot more detailed information about the abstract and physical domains, but the one that can make the abstract domains manageable is the ontological metaphor (kövecses, 2010; moore et al., 2015). there is one ‘in’ preposition phrase that can be described as spatiotemporal metaphor instead of merely spatial. (22) the present analysis draws on claims about the left periphery in medieval romance … the ‘in’ preposition in (22) shows a sign of the spatial experience that helps giving the abstract entity romance, or medieval romance to be precise, a status of a container. this is parallel to when talking about time, for example, “in the days ahead of us …”, “she hasn’t sung in years”, and “they are getting married in 2020”. to sum up, the spatial prepositions in found in the contexts above are used to refer to time instead of places/areas. the same is true with in the pre-history of yaghnobi that also combines a spatial preposition with an experience of time. in terms of conceptual metaphor, the concept of spatiotemporal maybe mapped onto ‘time is a container’ metaphor. unlike romance, a complication arises when deciding on the status of comics in “the visual representations of non-iconic elements in comics of the world often take diverse and interesting forms”. comics here can be defined as a magazine that contains stories told in pictures, while magazine is a periodical paperback publication containing articles, fiction, photographs, etc. the head of the noun phrase that comes before the preposition phrase, representations, is described as a picture, model, or statue of a person or thing as a representation of them. it is preceded by visual, which makes representations a semi-physical entity. this label is given to it because even though the drawing/picture can be sensed through our sight, what we can touch is only the media where the picture is projected i.e. the paper. nevertheless, the word ‘representations’ is then completely shifted to abstract entity category because the objects that it represents definitely denotes abstract entities. i.e., non-iconic elements. the concept expressed in representations of non-iconic elements is very hard to imagine. the in preposition ‘reshapes’ them into physical entities so that it can be easily comprehended. what comes after the preposition ‘in’ is comics. the word ‘comics’ also is of a similar case with the word representations in that a dilemma lies between considering comics as a physical (a comic book) or abstract entity (a genre). here, the preposition in forms comics into some kind of containers for the representations to settle. conclusions the inquiry into the ‘in’ metaphors in the corpus of research articles’ abstracts of theoretical linguistics and pragmatics has resulted in their invaluable existence as proven by the chi-squared test result. therefore, it strengthens the claim that language is the right place to prove that the conceptual system is indeed metaphorically structured and defined. although as ontological metaphors, the ‘in’ metaphors’ main task merely provide the ontological status for the abstract entities, they are invaluable since ontological status is basic, without which, talking about abstract objects would have been almost impossible. in the research, the sub-discipline of theoretical linguistics is slightly more densely populated with the ‘in’ metaphors than the pragmatics sub-field. this may occur due to the comparatively more abstract object of research of theoretical linguistics. the number of words denoting abstract objects is supposedly parallel to the number of demands for devices to handle them. however, the theoretical linguistics’ dominance over pragmatics in terms of ‘in’ metaphors density has been deemed insignificant after being tested using the chi-squared test. the subtle difference between the two sub-disciplines is suspected as the cause of the insignificance. this situation implies the need for further research. similar research using a larger corpus is suggested to provide evidence to support or reject the significant difference between theoretical linguistics and pragmatics about ‘in’ metaphors density. almost all of the ‘in’ metaphors in the data exhibit strong hints of physical experience based on their metaphorical uses. this phenomenon emphasizes the suggestion that bodily experience from our early time indeed cling onto our mind firmly that it is ready to be retrieved and manipulated every time needed. the ‘in’ preposition will surely be combined with unlimited other abstract objects as it has proven itself to be extremely handy. however, it is worth noted that ‘in’ is not the only preposition that can show the indelible trace of our early physical experience. other prepositions like ‘on’ and ‘at’ that are metaphorically used can be seen as the closest competitors for ‘in’ metaphors in some situations. comparative research of different kinds of prepositional metaphors will bring great benefits to broaden our knowledge of prepositional metaphors’ behavior. studying their existence in linguistics, especially, would greatly benefit this field of rare interest. even though the present research does not make any attempt to compare ‘in’ with other prepositions nor the two sub-disciplines of linguistics with others, at the very least, the result supports the previous research conducted that ‘in’ metaphors have proven to be indispensable in academic texts. it may be true that nominal linguistic metaphors are considered the most powerful about frequency, prepositions lead. 95i am falling in love, ouch!: .... 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(2018). mixed metaphors: electrophysiological brain responses to (un)expected concrete and abstract prepositional phrases. brain research, 1680, 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. brainres.2017.12.008. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 109 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 109-119 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7108 critical discourse analysis on representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets desi indrawati* language center, computer science department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university bandung campus, jl. kebon jati no. 218, bandung, jawa barat, 40181, indonesia desi.indrawati@binus.ac.id received: 04th march 2021/revised: 13th june 2021/accepted: 14th june 2021 how to cite: indrawati, d. (2021). critical discourse analysis on representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets. lingua cultura, 15(1), 109-119. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7108 abstract the research aimed to analyze how adidas uses twitter to convey messages about racism and solidarity in its tweets. methodologically, the research applied a descriptive qualitative study on the representation of racism in adidas’s tweets involving (1) what are the themes of discourses that represent racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets? (2) what is the representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets? and (3) what are the meanings of adidas’s tweets? twelve tweets from adidas were collected, coded, analyzed, and described using critical discourse analysis (cda). it was an effective method for deconstructing the identity of twitter users to make arguments on the themes exposed during coding. the research findings reveal that the declarative statement and humanitarian as the most themes in adidas’s tweets are the ones that give straightforward and positive messages to twitter users and followers. the findings also indicate firm and meaningful tweets for adidas to speak out against racism and spread solidarity through twitter. however, those tweets also give the messages about their commitment to always supporting the black community, their black employees, the asian community, and the black lives matter event to embody valuable and eternal change through solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. keywords: critical discourse analysis, racism representation, solidarity representation, adidas, twitter introduction twitter is a powerful communication platform that allows users to create and share information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. it has allowed brands to build strong relationships with consumers through gradually powerful communication strategies by aiming at consumers’ individual and emotional needs, allowing brands to strengthen their connection with their audience. it is also a social networking service that has emerged as a new platform through up-to-date happenings. the public profile includes the full name, the location, a web page, a short biography, and the number of user tweets (kwak et al., 2010). the users can participate in the content by liking, commenting, or retweeting the tweets. additionally, likes permit users to display their positive attitude toward someone’s post (swani et al., 2013). therewith, twitter serves as a platform for the media, political actors, and the public to communicate and also serves other users for their communication (mcgregor et al., 2017). it is also a crucial platform since leaders use its analytics to get information (joseph et al., 2017). twitter is a prominent source of information and data analysis for various stance analysis practices using machine learning techniques (khan et al., 2017). however, the significant factor in the application of twitter is the language that is applied (michael, 2020). people might be mindful that they should dodge writing tweets that convey stereotype emotionality (reece et al., 2017). majumdar and bose (2019) have investigated the relationship between twitter usage and firm value. they find that applying twitter can have positive leverage on companies’ market value. its importance on social media keeps on to be roamed (gordon et al., 2019), and social media allow people to share everything (jackson, 2016). according to thomas et al. (2018), social media leads an essential role in promoting solidarity. kim and kim (2017) have stated that social media use is certainly connected with youths’ communication network diversity that is positively 110 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 109-119 connected with social fundamental and subjective prosperity. according to petray and collin (2017), social media gives opportunities for discourse about grand issues on a global scale. by contrast, social media usage diminishes real-life social interactions (berryman, ferguson, & negy, 2018; hall, kearney, xing, 2018). however, alhabash and ma (2017) have stated that past research prompted that the competencies and utility of every platform produce specific motivations and gratifications through its use. additionally, social interactions rely strongly on the social network framework and allow concerns with ponderable content (muller & peres, 2019). carlson et al. (2018) have stated that companies get many benefits from social media data to recognize innovation chances and simplify the innovation. they represent the establishment of recent strategic sources that sharpen commerce outputs (gnizy, 2019). according to grieco (2017), most users believe social media is a platform to share and accumulate information. social media also boosts the continuous transformation of the prevalent mobile screen, specifically among youngsters (cunningham & craig, 2017). while primack et al. (2017) have found that individuals who use 0 to 2 social media platforms, and individuals who use 7 to 11 social media platforms, have significantly greater chances of having escalated levels of depression signs. however, social media platforms have come to control socio-political sights in almost every space of the world. additionally, racist speech progresses on social media, including through political strategies for implementing organizational change (lamerichs et al., 2018). there have been adequate studies that have proved the existence of racial attacks and hatred towards different races, ethnicities, and religions on the internet (dubey, 2020). however, this research portrays how a sportswear manufacturing company ‘adidas’ voices their veracity against racism that often occurs. some studies are pertinent to this research. they are related to the representation of the black community in tweets. firstly, research about the use of twitter by black athletes that present their online identities as related to black hypermasculinity (rinkus, 2012). this research discusses the mainstream media stereotypes black professional athletes as overly aggressive and more masculine than athletes of other ethnicities. tweets are selected and coded using critical discourse analysis. finally, the results reveal that those black professional athletes represent more individualized identities. secondly, payne (2007) has found that many blacks seem to evolve their stereotypes. benner et al. (2018) have stated that the effects of apprehended discrimination might be different based on the time. blacks in the united states are more solid supporters of affirmative pace and government implementation to look up the status of blacks (laniyonu, 2018). the importance of this research is to convey the meaning and values of adidas’s tweets as a sportswear manufacturing company. tweets can be understood as direct ways for groups of people to talk about various topics, and this research requires a cda approach to analyze the identity of twitter users. cda is most accurately linked with language and the written or oral text, and it challenges the main concept of language (fiske, 1994). it also allows identification of how power is indicated in the language used and the processes of language reproduces social customs (mulderrig, montesano, & farrelly, 2019). moreover, it is a research of how social power misuse, dominance, and inequality are assigned by text and talk in the social context. some of the principles can be found in critical theory (van dijk, 1993). according to fairclough (1993), cda concerns how linguistic forms are used in expressions and power steps. therefore, it aims to reveal the meaning in the text. the texts from all genres are gained through references from texts, genres, discourses, and individuals (yunus, mohamad, & waelateh, 2016). cda also attempts to reveal the sake of the elites and the powerful (khafaga 2017a, 2017b). besides, it tries to release light on the manipulative dimension of language that imprescriptible the rhetorical dimension of its power (khafaga, 2019). ali, christopher, and nordin (2017) have classified the ideological values of cda. cda is a form of discourse analytical research that originally studies the way social power misuse, dominance, and inequality are assigned, reproduced, and refused by text and talk in social and political contexts (sriwimon & zilli, 2017; gunawan & sumarlam, 2018). yarlott et al. (2018) have said that cda is a key form of text, giving precious information about the content of a particular gap of the text. according to drid (2019), van dijk’s structure for critical discourse analysis depends on two stages of systematic structure. by conducting a cda approach towards tweets, themes of discourses are determined by finding out the most frequently discussed topics in everyday life (eriksson & kovalainen, 2008). furthermore, themes are then set in a distinct script and guidance for identification. they are (a) active lifestyle: any tweet indicating or referencing exercise, (b) declarative statement: any tweet with an ‘i’ statement or statement professing a point or idea, (c) event attendance: any time people attends or references attending a specific happening, (d) expressing excitement: any tweet featuring multiple exclamation points, or words commonly used to express excitement, (e) family and friends: any reference to family or friends. this includes pets when referenced by name, (f) humanitarian: any tweet related to the interests of humankind, (g) introspection: any tweet related to the peoples’ emotion, or selfexamination, (h) music: any tweet referencing music or musical artists of any kind, (i) photoshare: any time people tweets a photo, (j) promotion: any tweet referencing a specific brand or product, (k) question: any tweet using a question mark, a rhetorical question, or asking followers for a response, (l) request: any time people asks his followers to ‘do’ something, including 111critical discourse analysis .... (desi indrawati) ‘retweet’, (m) salutation: any tweet using a greeting, or a valediction (closing), (n) spirituality: any tweet referencing ‘god’ or ‘prayer’, or anything related to religion or spirituality, (o) sports: any tweet related to ‘sport’ of any kind, (p) travel: any tweet where people indicates he is in transit, outside of everyday routine, and (q) world news: any time people tweets about something newsworthy happening inside and outside the us (eriksson and kovalainen, 2008). additionally, some previous studies have appointed a theme or one of the enticing social media, or a different view (lee & watkins, 2016; safira, putri, & wattimena, 2019; upadhyay, 2018). cda points to the representations of social interactions between the actors. they can be also used for the objectives of being an instigator of action (van leeuwen, 2008). related to the representation of racism in adidas’s tweets is against racism and inequality and for maintaining the existing groups and protecting black people from positions of power and stature in society (van dijk, 1998), and a power connection that gets along between individuals in different circumstances (david, 2017). one of the most recognizing characteristics of cda as a model of analyzing text and talk is its connection to represent, express, and interpret how discourses develop and approve social inequalities in life (mullet, 2018). cda is also an interdisciplinary approach with logical relations between the text and outside the text (abed, 2018). additionally, media sources form a typical and main role in communicating the discourse to the readers (hidayatullah, 2017) and mostly take part to impress and probably change the readers’ point of view (mazumder, 2018). in comparison, zarrinjooei (2016) has stated that regularly analyzing the texts for investigating the social events and relations on cda brings the social and linguistic analysis of discourse (su, 2016). the power of cda in establishing the reallife overview of minority groups in society cannot be disregarded. it is a crucial part of human viability, and it has cues and embodiments in social life (rachman, yunianti, & ratnadewi, 2017). while the topics about black people face racism in their lives can be found in texts (van dijk, 1998). meanwhile, the connections between power and domination have always already been identified as a matter (nonhoff, 2017). cda is mainly taken to imply studying and taking issue or matter with how power and inequality are augmented through language use (hussain, jote, & sajid, 2017). cda is also a social constructivist approach that relies on the representation of the world as linguistic, meanings, and knowledge produced through social interaction (persada & syahrudin, 2018). the research is associated with adidas’s tweets. adidas uses twitter as the platform to promote and update its products and activities. almost 88% of companies like adidas use twitter for marketing aims (lister, 2017). they are chosen and perceived to represent racism and solidarity. however, adidas is founded in 1949 by a german man by the name of adi dassler, in the small german town of herzogenaurach, germany, where the company is still headquartered now (adidas, 2019). furthermore, the company had begun as a joint venture in 1924 between adi dassler and his brother rudolf. he started his own business that would become the company puma (smit, 2006). since the split, dassler officially registered the “adi dassler adidas sportschuhfabrik” in 1949 (adidas, 2019). in the research, adidas’s tweets convey thoughts and messages to speak out against racism and spread solidarity. most of its tweets are addressed to the black community and their black employees, and it also appears for the asian community. however, the literature on the value costs of encountering racism proves that black individuals experience evaluative responses when they face racism or talk about that issue (czopp & monteith, 2003). after all, the racial prejudice and discrimination go through personally and by the black community in general (anderson & hitlin, 2016). racism emerges through an inequity intolerance between the majority against a minority. in the united states of america, social discrimination and classification lead to a profound gap between blacks and whites. according to bowser (2017), racism now portrays factually anything related to racial conflict, for instance, the rejection of the black community in schools as an unprofessional action (ridgeway & yerrick, 2018). meanwhile, the discourse on inequality is a framing of inequality in terms of both groups taking more advantaged positions (ray, 2019). a negative stereotype is being constructed and strengthened to stigmatize people (lewis, 2020). while, neo-racism is established in white supremacy (stein & de andreotti, 2016; suspitsyna & shalka, 2019). kwate (2017) has said that concentrating on the health care system disputes that racial differences in life hope are fragmentarily produced. meanwhile, the current research records that young children between 0 to 8 years old and youth of color in the u.s. deal with negative racial stereotyping from adults (priest et al., 2018). also, united states children undergo the negative effects of living in a racialized world (marcelo & yates, 2019). according to smedley (2017), racism is any behavior, custom, or belief representing the racial worldview that there is a modest relation between inherited physical characters and characters of identity. by the profound splitting of emerging groups (ferguson & koning, 2018) to the immortal whiteness, race forms officiary achievement in the united states (gagliardi et al., 2017). the race is not strategically able to refuse of recent circumstances regarding racial inequalities (mueller, 2017). according to mapping police violence (2015), african americans who are armed but do not show an immediate threat towards the police are more potential to be killed than whites, hispanics, and asians. therefore, the black community is possible to undergo more police brutality than whites. these 112 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 109-119 experiences are linked to negative health impacts (alang et al., 2017), and anxiety which negatively sways their mental health (bor et al., 2018). they are also connected with poverty rates, restricted health care access, and increasingly people with jobs in service industries (laurencin & mcclinton, 2020; scott, 2020). prejudice and discrimination are negatively connected with the adaptive individuals from non-dominant racial groups (bailey et al., 2017; samari, 2016). they also stay connected in the lives of individuals from non-majority racial (bucchianeri et al., 2016; mccord et al., 2018). most people progressively notice the format of position hooked to matters of injustice, including current attention to the development and deployment of racism (lavalley & johnson, 2020). while the need of setting the flow of refugees and emphasize that immigrants need to rally wholly into society (van sterkenburg, peeters, & van amsterdam, 2019). additionally, the anti-social inclination is in which groups of people form a threat to the presence or viability of others (fafiyebi, 2020). according to mohanty (2003), solidarity is also one of the significant parts to end racism. while the conditions, needs, and notions of exemption remain dissimilar (mayorga & picower, 2018). li (2020) has stated that the more potential the members of nonblack racial and ethnic groups to engage in prevails of cooperation with black activism, the more potential they will strengthen. nevertheless, the serious matter of african americans, slavery is displaced with recent types of racial dominance (bobo, 2017), and it is significant to put on black for its political efficacy (saeed et al., 2019). while asante, sekimoto, & brown (2016) have said that race, especially blackness, is more than the outside emergence. besides, they assert that racial identity is developed through symbols, language, culture, and group expertise. meanwhile, the collections of social, cultural, and moral norms will be adjusted to the instructions that will rely on widely diverse norms (blommaert, 2019). the research attempts to counter the following questions, which are (1) what are themes of discourses that represent racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets? (2) what is the representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets? and (3) what are the meanings of adidas’s tweets. furthermore, the research aims to analyze the themes of discourses that represent racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets and then describe the representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets and the meaning of its tweets. this research also examines how the twitter account of the sportswear manufacturing company, adidas, conveys messages about racism and solidarity to the users. the research opens the door for further investigation into how adidas, as the sportswear manufacturing company, shows its integrity against racism through its tweets. through the use of social media for delivering the messages, the research will focus on the representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets as they pertained to the black community and humanity in the social dimension of the text, most particularly the messages that are conveyed in its tweets. critical discourse analysis (cda) plays an important role in the research to deconstruct the identity of adidas’s tweets by identifying their themes during coding. it is also the tool to reveal the meanings and messages in adidas’s tweets regarding the black community, their black employees, the asian community, and the black lives matter event in terms of solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. therewith, the research uses cda that is an analytic method chosen to discover the social processes that reproduce and depict knowledge and power intercourses using discourses (fairclough, 2003) since it also has obtained popularity in related studies that have been conducted formerly (al ghazali, 2017). some studies have been taken in several regions based on the fairclough cda model (herdiana et al., 2020). however, cda is mainly pointed that social representativeness is assigned by discourse (tampubolon et al., 2017). it also requires critical questions about the part of knowledge in human development and the merger of practical experimentation with theoretical knowledge (cummings et al., 2018). methods the research focuses specifically on how adidas uses twitter to convey the public’s messages and thoughts. taking cda was undertaken on postings from adidas as a sportswear manufacturing company that supports black community and other ethnicities. therewith, data is collected from a particular starting date, with twelve tweets in concern for the research. cda is a tool used to disclose implicit meaning, not explicit; “a critical discourse analysis consists of groups of related statements that cohere to produce meanings and effects…a critical discourse produces the ‘truth’ about objects” that are conversed of (eriksson & kovalainen, 2008). it is also a notion in which the language is identified as a representation that plays a role in forming subjects, themes of certain discourse, and strategies (ilham & darlan, 2017). furthermore, the data insert twelve tweets from adidas’s tweets as listed in the sampling. nevertheless, adidas has been purposively selected specifically for this research. the research applies a qualitative research with a descriptive method; as berg (2001) has mentioned that the qualitative research seeks the answer to questions by examining various social and the individuals who inhabit these settings. each tweet in the data is read thoroughly. then, they are analyzed, and then the themes of the tweets are coded and identified. finally, they are presented in the table. by applying a cda on the data, the themes of tweets are specified by delving into what adidas talks about based on the topics they enter into cda. 113critical discourse analysis .... (desi indrawati) those themes of tweets are arranged in a separate document and given instructions for identification. figure 1 shows the framework of the research. figure 1 research framework results and discussions the research findings indicate the representation of racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets in conveying messages about racism and solidarity to the users and public in general. undertaking a critical approach, cda is implemented in adidas’s tweets, with more than one million followers. data is conducted from a certain date with only twelve tweets from adidas in deliberation for the research because, during the analysis of adidas’s tweets, only twelve tweets appeared. those tweets represent solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. besides, a cda is a tool and means used to render implicit and deep meaning not explicit in the discourse. since the research uses cda as its method, a profound analysis is demanded from a contextual viewpoint. after defining the forms of adidas’s tweets based on themes, they are coded to stand cognition of the time-splitting sequent tweets that point to a group. therefore, there is no limit on the item of themes feasibly present in any given tweet. for each tweet, it is the specified context through citation. this context is to convey a more informed aspect choice when it is not explicitly distinct what adidas is referencing. adidas’ tweets depict online texts. they are partial, conclusive, and bringing solid images of public assumption through which readers and researchers are lured (chen et al., 2018). additionally, adidas’s tweets are analyzed precisely, and they are also presented as factual. the following are coded tweets to identify the themes of discourse that represent racism and solidarity in adidas’ tweets. first is the tweet on june 11, 2020; “first, we need to give credit where it’s long overdue: the success of adidas would be nothing without black athletes, black artists, black employees, and black consumers. period.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, event attendance, humanitarian, and world news. adidas expresses gratitude to black athletes, black artists, black employees, and black consumers who have become part of the company’s success. they point out solidarity, support, and humanity towards black people regarding the black lives matter event. also, this tweet represents solidarity. second is the tweet on june 11, 2020; “remaining silent is not a neutral position when the people we should be standing with live in fear of police brutality due to systemic racism. with that in mind, it’s our people who we owe this to the most.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, event attendance, request, humanitarian, and world news. adidas speaks out about the truth against racism. adidas has said that do not just be quiet to show neutrality but must speak out for justice. this tweet is also related to the black lives matter event. additionally, this tweet represents racism and solidarity. third is a tweet on june 11, 2020; “our black co-workers have shown us through their words and actions what leadership looks like, and the changes adidas can make. they’ve led the response that we will continue to implement together. this isn’t the final step; this is just the first.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, event attendance, family and friends, humanitarian, and world news. adidas supports their black co-workers’ action against racism. they will always work together to speak out about humanity and make the change. the tweet is also related to the black lives matter event. besides, it represents racism and solidarity. fourth is a tweet on june 11, 2020; “this is our commitment to the black community and the world. we can change, and we will. this is just the start.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, event attendance, humanitarian, and world news. adidas expresses its commitment to support the black community and the world against racism. they also hope to make a change from now and the future. this tweet represents racism and solidarity. fifth is the tweet on january 18, 2021; “at adidas, we are committed to change. on this day of celebration and reflection, we honor the standards set, the legacy that lives on, and the challenge that remains. read our commitments to creating change at http://adidas.com/lasting_change.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, request, salutation, humanitarian, and world news. adidas states its commitment to change. as a reminder, in june 2020, they share their pledge to give their best in supporting their black employees and black communities by creating meaningful and eternal change first and premier within their brand and further across sport 114 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 109-119 culture. they request twitter users and their followers to read their commitment to creating change at their website. this tweet represents solidarity. sixth is the tweet on january 18, 2021; “today we honor the legacies of those who inspire us to keep dreaming and provide hope for equality.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, humanitarian, and photoshare. adidas appreciates the people who always support them dreaming about now and the future and trust them for solidarity and equality and against discrimination and racism. this tweet is in a media or image form. additionally, it represents racism and solidarity. seventh is the tweet on january 18, 2021; “we are committed to supporting the black community and our employees to create meaningful and lasting change through our united against racism commitments.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, family and friends, humanitarian, and photoshare. adidas states its commitment to always supporting the black community and the employees to embody valuable and eternal change through solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. this tweet is in a media or image form (figure 2). additionally, it represents racism and solidarity. eighth is the tweet on january 18, 2021; “adidas is committed to celebrating and honoring black excellence all year round.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, expressing excitement, humanitarian, and photoshare. adidas states their commitment to glorify and honor black excellence throughout the year as their support for black people. this tweet is in a media or image form and represents solidarity (figure 2). figure 2 adidas’s tweets in image form ninth is the tweet on february 23, 2021; “we stand against racism as one team. you can play your part by sharing helpful resources and info so we can all support each other. stopasianhate.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, request, humanitarian, and world news. adidas invites the twitter users together against racism and asks them to share anything to support each other. there is a hashtag #stopasianhate in its tweet that indicates a defense towards the asian community. this tweet represents racism and solidarity. the tenth is the tweet on february 24, 2021; “building a bridge from the past to the future is the marker of black excellence. here and now, we champion black resilience, grace, power, and vision for today and tomorrow.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, family and friends, humanitarian, salutation, sports, and world news. adidas provides this tweet as a thread as an honor for black excellent. it states how people get inspired by black community leaders (basketball coach, female athlete, baseball community leaders, adidas originals and bronx native assistant designer, assistant product manager, and north carolina native) forging a path for the next generation. they greet the twitter users and convey the message about solidarity and humanity. this tweet represents solidarity. the eleventh is the tweet on february 24, 2021; “honoring black excellence is our initiative, that celebrates the achievements of black individuals, and black culture as a whole. throughout the year, we’ll spotlight honorees by sharing their stories on the platform you’ve given us.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, humanitarian, photoshare, and world news. adidas states the twitter users and its followers that honoring black excellence is their initiative for black individuals and black culture as a whole. they also share the names of the recipients of the achievements along with their pictures in their tweets. additionally, these tweets represent solidarity. the twelfth is the tweet on february 24, 2021; “this is just the start of celebrating our black community. learn more about honoring black excellence at http://adidas.com/hbe or http://news. adidas.com.” the themes of the tweet are the declarative statement, request, salutation, humanitarian, sports, and world news. adidas closes its thread by stating the beginning of its action to celebrate and support the black community and shares the honoring black excellent site to get the information and news. this tweet represents solidarity. table 1 shows the themes that appear on those twelve tweets. table 1 the themes in adidas’s tweets themes totals active lifestyle declarative statement 12 event attendance 4 expressing excitement 1 family and friends 3 humanitarian 12 introspection music photoshare 4 promotion 115critical discourse analysis .... (desi indrawati) themes totals question request 4 salutation 3 spirituality sports 2 travel world news 9 the most common themes that represent adidas’s tweets are the declarative statement and humanitarian. twitter is also established on the principle of sharing thoughts and including them in the conversation (mcmillan, 2011). there are twentyfour declarative statements and humanitarian themes in adidas’s tweets after they are classified and coded. the second most frequent theme is the world news theme, and there are nine themes for it. while event attendance, photoshare, and request, there are totals twelve themes in the tweets. besides, there are six themes for family and friends and salutation, and two themes appear in the tweets for sports. lastly, one expressing excitement theme also emerges in the tweet. additionally, these themes represent racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets. adidas applies twitter as a front stage for providing the online identity (rinkus, 2012). here, adidas performs its thoughts and messages by showing declarative statements, humanitarian, world news, event attendance, photoshare, request, family and friends, salutation, sports, and expressing excitement. as a sportswear manufacturing company, adidas tweets mostly about them to convey the messages and positive thoughts against racism spread the leadership view, solidarity, and humanity to twitter users and followers, especially to the world. they speak out about how they stand against racism and share helpful resources and info to support each other as solidarity and humanity. besides, they honor the black community and their black employees. they promise to do better in supporting them by establishing meaningful and eternal change first and principle in their brand and fort over sport culture. adidas state all of them in its tweets. furthermore, a cda is an effective method to detect themes in adidas’s tweets. as a result of the study for the first research, the question shows that adidas uses the declarative statement and humanitarian as the most themes. its tweets give messages about racism and solidarity, as shown in all twelve tweets. those tweets give straightforward and positive messages to twitter users and their followers. adidas’s tweets indicate firm and meaningful tweets for adidas to speak out against racism and spread solidarity through twitter. those tweets also convey the messages about adidas’s commitment to always supporting the black community, their black employees, the asian community, and the black lives matter event to embody valuable and eternal change through solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. it is supported by rinkus’s research (2012) that defines the message about racism in tweets always presents the declarative statement. besides, this research has also analyzed that humanitarian in tweets is also the most common theme, which gives messages about solidarity to end racism. van dijk (1998) has also stated that declarative statements and humanitarian have the concept of power to resist the negative stereotypes of white people, and these themes can represent racism, solidarity, humanity, equality, ethnicity, and many others in texts. while the emersion of cda is an approach to analyze the themes. therefore, it creates intent meanings for the interaction with text (yunira et al., 2019). furthermore, the discourse of ‘given’ and ‘new’ information widens well-formed structures to give information about the topics of interest in linguistics (kashiwadate et al., 2020). the research questions demand themes of discourse that represent racism and solidarity in adidas’s tweets, the representation of adidas’s tweets, and the meaning of those tweets. as a result, they communicate racism and solidarity to twitter users and followers, especially the world. through their tweets, they also show their support and honor for the black community and their black employees, the asian community, and the black lives matter event. besides, a cda is applied to discover themes that are presented in adidas’s tweets. in conclusion, adidas’s tweets indicate firm and meaningful tweets for adidas to speak out against racism and spread solidarity through twitter. conclusions the findings indicate firm and meaningful tweets of adidas to speak out against racism and spread solidarity through twitter. however, those tweets also give the messages about their commitment to always supporting the black community, their black employees, the asian community, and the black lives matter event to embody valuable and eternal change through solidarity, unity, and commitment against racism. additionally, a profound analysis is established on the twelve tweets to answer research questions regarding racism and solidarity. the most common themes are the declarative statement and humanitarian, which give straightforward and positive messages to twitter users and followers. cda is a fulfilled and effective approach for deconstructing the specialty and identity of twitter users as long as the researcher is prepared to make arguments on the themes disclosed during coding. twitter is one of the proper platforms to speak out and convey messages to the world. at last, the research is table 1 the themes in adidas’s tweets (continued) 116 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 109-119 dedicated to future researchers a chance to view what has and has not been performed concerning the online identity display related to cda through social media. references abed, m. m. 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(nana yuliana; dkk) code-mixing and code-switching of indonesian celebrities: a comparative study nana yuliana1; amelia rosa luziana2; pininto sarwendah3 1, 2, 3english literature, faculty of letters, nasional university jln. sawo manila no. 61, pejaten, pasar minggu, jakarta selatan 12520 sylvie_surya@yahoo.com abstract foreign language skill presents a language variety called code-mixing and code-switching. the purpose of this study was to get some information to identify the types of code mixing and code switching frequently used by indonesian celebrities. the study was divided into two groups. group i was inclusive of the celebrities with native speakers parents and group ii comprised celebrities capable of speaking two or more languages. the qualitative and quantitative methods were used to analyze the code mixing and code switching with different frequency. it can be concluded that group ii use code-mixing and code-switching with a different frequency and speak foreign language more active. keywords: code-mixing, code-switching, indonesian celebrities abstrak kemampuan berbahasa asing menimbulkan variasi bahasa yang disebut dengan campur-kode dan alih-kode. penelitian bertujuan untuk mendapatkan informasi guna mengetahui jenis campur-kode dan alih-kode yang dipakai oleh para selebriti indonesia. penelitian dibagi menjadi dua kelompok. grup i adalah selebriti dengan orangtua penutur asli dan grup ii selebriti yang mampu berbicara dua bahasa atau lebih. metode kualitatif dan kuantitatif digunakan untuk menganalisis campur kode dan alih kode dengan frekuensi yang berbeda. disimpulkan, grup ii menggunakan campurkode dan alih-kode dengan frekuensi berbeda dan lebih aktif berbicara bahasa asing. kata kunci: campur-kode, alih-kode, selebriti indonesia 48 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 introduction language is closely related to how people communicate with one another. thus, in learning a language, we are also bound to people or society. in linguistics, it is known as sociolinguistics. sociolinguistics is the study learning about human and society. according to trudgill (1974), sociolinguistic is part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon. it investigates the field of language and society that have close connections with the social sciences, especially social psychology, anthropology, human geography and sociology. sociolinguistics examines the interplay of language and society, with language as the starting point. variation is the key concept, applied to language itself and to its use. the basic premise of sociolinguistics is that language is variable and changing. as a result, language is not homogeneous – not for the individual user and not within or among groups of speakers who use the same language. the sociolinguists or people studying a language must be familiar with a code. a code is a symbol of nationalism that is used by people to speak or communicate in a particular language – a dialect, a register, an accent or a style on different occasions and for different purposes. a code is divided into code-mixing and code-switching (stockwell, 2002). code-mixing occurs when people mix two languages between mother tongue and english. nababan (1993) said that code-mixing is found mainly in informal interactions. there are some reasons why people make code-mixing. firstly, in code-mixing, bilingual speakers seem to apply some words or phrases from foreign language (pieces of one language smaller than clause), while the other language (code) functions as the base language. secondly, bilingual speakers mix codes when there is no topic that changes, nor does the situation (gumperz, 1982). one of the perennial questions in bilingual research is why bilingual speakers switch from one language to another in conversational interaction. with few exception, sociolinguists who had studied code switching before the 1980s directed our attention to extra-linguistic factors such as topic, setting, relationship between participants, community norms and values, and societal, political and ideological developments. all of them were thought to influence speaker’s choice of language in conversation. haugen (1953) stated that when the speaker of one language can produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language, it is a kind of bilingualism. however, diebold (1964) said that a person may have no productive control over a language but be able to understand utterances in it. in such instances, linguist generally speak of “passive” or “receptive” bilingualism. the use of code-switching and code-mixing frequently occur in conversations of bilingual speakers and they may arise at the same time but they are often used in a different context. the term code-switching is used interchangeably with code-mixing, with both terms referring to both types of language mixing. recently, a few researchers have made finer distinctions between using code-mixing and code-switching that is to distinguish the use of two or more languages at the discourse level from switches within clauses/words (mahootian, 2006). the practice of alternately using two languages is called as code-switching. code-switching is a linguistic phenomenon commonly occurring in biand multilingual speech communities (mahootian, 2006). people who switch the language should have purposes, such as to quote someone, qualify message, amplify or emphasize, convey confidentiality, anger and annoyance, mark and emphasize group identity (solidarity), exclude someone from conversation, change role of speaker, rise status, add authority, show expertise and continue the last language used. (grosjean, 1982). while code-mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral or written text (nababan, 1993). the use of code-mixing reflects the idea that the alternation of the languages is not yet constrained (azuma, 1998). (muysken, 2000) also described that code-mixing is typically divided into three main types – insertion (word or phrase), alternation (clause) and congruent lexicalization (dialect) – and the most common occurrence of codemixing variants in society is insertional code-mixing. what the writer means about insertion is insertion of material (lexical items or entire constituents) from one language into a structure of the other language. alternation means the alternation between structures from languages. the last is congruent lexicalization of material from different lexical inventories into a shared grammatical structure: (1) insertion: insertion is the process of code-mixing which is conceived as something akin to borrowing: the insertion of an alien lexical or phrasal category into a given structure. (2) alternation: it occurs between clauses meaning that alternation is used when speaker mixes his or her language with a phrase. (3) congruent lexicalization is the influence of dialect within language use. meanwhile, code-switching is a phenomenon when there are two or more languages exist in a community and it makes speakers frequently switch from one language to another language (hornberger & mckay, 2010). according to poplack (1980), there are three types of code-switching: (1) intrasentential code switching; (2) intersentential code switching; and (3) extrasentential code switching. intrasentential code switching occurs when the alternation of language used is below sentential boundaries. appel and muysken (1987) stated that intrasentential code-switching is the alternation in a single discourse between two languages, where the switching occurs within a sentence. according to bokamba (1988) intrasentential code-switching coincides with codemixing. intersentential code-switching happens whereas people switching the language, indonesian and english, between sentences or two clauses. hughes et al., 2006 also stated that intersentential is inserting an entire phrase from the secondary language into a conversation using the other language. meanwhile extra sentential code-switching is a level which involves a situation in which a bilingual attaches a tag from one language to an utterance in another language such as “darn!”, “hey!”, “well!”, “look!”, etc. all types of code-switching refer to switching back and forth from one language to another to communicate to others based on the situation. so, the existence of code49code-mixing and code-switching.... (nana yuliana; dkk) mixing and code-switching depends on other factors that influence them to do it, for example in one situation or in different communities. bilinguals or multilinguals have some certain reasons to mix or switch their language. generally, the reasons include: (1) our lizard brains take over. (2) we want to fit in. (3) we want to get something. (4) we want to say something in secret. (5) it helps us convey a thought. hoffmann (1991) explains several reasons why bilinguals and multilinguals switch or mix their language, it is ranging from talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, interjection (inserting sentence connectors), repetition used for clarification, intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor and expressing group entity. saville-troike (1986) also gives some addition to hoffman’s reasons and they are to soften and strengthen request or command, because of real lexical need and to exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience. the aim of the research was to find out the interaction of indonesian celebrities in using code-mixing and code-switching. this research is also expected to provide information needed by everyone studying codemixing and code-switching so they would get more understanding about types of code-mixing and codeswitching. methods qualitative and quantitative methods were used in conducting the study by taking into account an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts. quantitative method was used to explain the phenomena by collecting numerical data that were analysed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistic). on the other hand, qualitative approach in this analysis meant the empirical research where the data were not in numbers. there were several steps in analyzing the data. first, the data were divided into two different groups; group i consisted of celebrities whose parents were native speakers and group ii was made up of celebrities who were bilingual and multilingual. second, the conversations were recorded and transcribed. third, the types of code-mixing and code-switching that mostly occured in the conversations were classified. fourth, all of the conversations using switching or mixing both in bahasa indonesia and english were described. finally, each of the sentences were put into a table and the types of code-mixing and code-switching were classified and analyzed referring to muysken (2000) and poplack (1980) and counted them by using the theory of butler (1985). results and discussion group i (celebrities with native speakers parents) table 1 code-mixing and code switching group i no. utterances code-mixing code-switching 1 ngedance deh jangan break dance. insertion intrasentential 2 kebetulan juga lagi shooting padet dan butuh refreshing juga tapi yang produktif. insertion intrasentential 3 lagi kolaborasi sama denim potmixpop jadi ada denim buat kolaborasi di jakarta fashion week. emang lagi iseng serius merambah ke fashion. insertion intrasentential 4 kalo diliat ada details-nya, tulisannya “hope love faith”. insertion intrasentential 5 iya have positive energy, positive feelings dan … alternation intrasentential 6 …dan juga hope-nya harapannya selalu ada selalu dipenuhi dengan cinta. insertion intrasentential 7 i wish i was born in the flower generation. intrasentential 8 i have no idea. intrasentential 9 mudah-mudahan juga kalo dibilang cantik ngga cuma physically semoga hatinya juga. insertion intrasentential here the celebrity mixed the language seven times and switched it nine times. insertion was the type of code mixing mostly used. meanwhile the type of codeswitching was intrasentential. and only one alternation in which the celebrity mixed the language with a phrase. (see table 1) table 2 code-mixing and code switching group i no. utterances code-mixing code-switching 1 i am great, thank you. intersentential 2 jadi waktu aku kecil, sekitar umur 8, mama sempet jadi host impesarial 008 dan you were also there where you do your magic. insertion intrasentential 3 jadi waktu aku kecil, sekitar umur 8, mama sempet jadi host impesarial 008 dan you were also there where you do your magic. alternation intrasentential 4 iya pindah ke la waktu aku umur 16. di sana aku high school, sempet kuliah music juga and then balik lagi kesini. insertion intrasentential 5 it is ok. intersentential 50 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 6 sebenernya waktu aku di la, mau mulai semester baru, aku dapet tawaran untuk maen java jazz dan aku merasa moment-nya lagi pas banget.... insertion intrasentential 7 ... i don’t know kenapa saat itu aku ngerasa it was the right thing to do dan puji tuhan... arternation intrasentential 8 pas aku balik kesini semuanya lancar dan dengan support ayah dan mama yang never ending aku jadi ya semangat berkarir di indonesia. insertion intrasentential 9 ngga sih. emang pas aku di sana fokus aku belajar. emang aku ngga ada pikiran untuk i am gonna try out here and indonesia is my asset and the end of the day. alternation intrasentential 10 iya sampai akhirnya waktu pindah ke jakarta, mama approach aku bilang, kamu mau ngga main film? of course. apalagi setelah dikasih skenarionya, ceritanya aku tertarik. insertion intrasentential 11 it is a help of course. intrasentential 12 it is an advantage, pasti lah. maksudnya, aku ngga mungkin ada di sini sekarang tanpa ayah atau mama. alternation intrasentential 13 bukan compare ya, kaya ngasih ekspektasi aja. insertion intrasentential 14 pasti ada yang ga suka. haters pasti ada cuma aku fokus ke berkaryanya aja sih. insertion intrasentential 15 ayah dan mama selalu ngingetin sih focus make art, go do art. alternation intrasentential 16 ngga jadi ceritanya tadi kan aku bilang mama mau bikin film terus mama bilang please help me nih yang jadi cowonya siapa ya and then i was looking three on personate work whatever eh ….. trus ada namanya, kenapa ga ini ja adipati dolken? alternation intrasentential 17 karena kebetulan di depan mata. terus mama bilang tolong dong contact adipati. insertion intrasentential 18 deket. kita sering banget manggung bareng semenjak aku balik ke jakarta. nih besok mau manggung lagi di-launchnya dia. sering bikin lagu bareng. insertion intrasentential 19 i don’t know. intersentential 20 i can get kinda emotional kalo ngomongin soal ayah. cuman he is such a great dad. alternation intrasentential 21 ini kok musiknya jadi kayak gini si? apa ya, ayah tuh orangnya asik, santai, lucu, disiplin. inilah both of my parent ya, very inspiration all. alternation intrasentential 22 ngga cuma ayah, mama juga selalu dukung, support. mungkin juga karena kita share interest yang sama film dan music jadi makin akur lagi kaya ya. insertion intrasentential 23 iya. jadi waktu itu saking udah kangennya ayah bikin album judulnya eleven eleven yang dia rilis dalam bentuk application dan waktu itu pas proses bikin albumnya ayah nanya mau duet ga? iya mau dong. insertion intrasentential 24 okay, give me a week nanti ayah kirimin lagunya. trus aku denger lagunya, aku kayak wah keren banget, mau yah. ngga sampe 4 hari dikirim and basicly about my relationship with him being far away dan… alternation intrasentential 25 … dan ayah bikin musiknya di jakarta, aku take vocal-nya di lemari baju aku di la. insertion intrasentential 26 i love you ayah. alternation intrasentential 27 you are the best. intrasentential 28 it is still a drama intrasentential 29 …cuma ada inside-inside yang bikin kita ini lebih rich. insertion intrasentential 30 i think i can, karena setiap aku nyanyi penonton kayaknya enjoy. alternation intrasentential 31 i think i can, karena setiap aku nyanyi penonton kayaknya enjoy. insertion intrasentential the celebrity used code-mixing twenty-five times and code-switching thirty one times but she almost used all those kinds of code-mixing and code-switching. (table 2) 51code-mixing and code-switching.... (nana yuliana; dkk) group ii (bilingual and multilingual celebrities) table 3 code-mixing and code switching group ii no. utterances code-mixing code-switching 1 sebenernya memang album ini seperti warming up untuk para fans, genre apa yang akan aku bawa pada saat di international album dan liriknya seperti apa, cara aku deliver the song seperti apa. dan buat aku, walaupun banyak orang yang berfikir wah berani banget ya agnez ngeluarin album yang full english and… insertion intrasentential 2 dan buat aku, walaupun banyak orang yang berfikir wah berani banget ya agnez ngeluarin album yang full english and then i know i gonna to enjoy singing those songs on stage. so, you know, there you go. alternation intrasentential 3 dan buat aku, walaupun banyak orang yang berpikir wah berani banget ya agnez ngeluarin album yang full english... alternation extrasentential 4 ... and then i know i gonna to enjoy singing those songs on stage. so, you know, there you go. intrasentential 5 it’s so funny cause i am always been asked the same question like what next, what do you want in your life? intrasentential 6 to be honest, aku sendiri pengin jadi a better person everyday baik secara individual dan juga secara musikalitas aku. alternation intrasentential 7 sampai sekarang pun aku terus ngambil kelas-kelas itu. dari kelas dance, basical training, still, until right now. karena buat aku, mau sebagus apapun kita, itu seperti skill, seperti otot yang harus terus dilatih. dan memang project yang kita kerjakan akan segera keluar makanya sepuluh hari lagi aku balik lagi ke amerika. insertion intrasentential 8 actually my destination is worldwide. extrasentential 9 like i really want to share my passion not only to indonesian, not only to asian, but basicly people around the world. dan sekarang orangorang juga tau kalo usa itu seperti… insertion intrasentential 10 exactly, like the centre of attention baik itu dari europe, asia dan yang lain-lain. extrasentential 11 exactly, like the centre of attention baik itu dari europe, asia dan yang lain-lain. insertion intrasentential 12 both places i would call home karena aku betah di indonesia, aku betah di la. alternation intrasentential 13 ya tergantung prioritasnya aja. karena sekarang prioritasnya sekarang lagi ada project yang mau aku luncurin, mau ngga mau aku lebih lama di sana. insertion intrasentential 14 sebenernya bukan masalah ngajak tapi pada saat dengan timbaland, timbaland yang ngomong dia yang mau executive produserin album aku. kita liat nanti aja gimana opportunity yang datang to our table. insertion intrasentential 15 oke. aku selalu bilang dream, belive and make it happen. alternation intrasentential 16 the reason why i say dream, belive, and make it happen beacause i prove it by myself. when you have a dream, and you belive in your dream, you can actually make it happen. intersentential 17 gak ada yang bilang kalo perjalanannya itu bakal gampang tapi kamu ngga akan bisa berjalan kalau kamu ngga ada dream. insertion intrasentential 18 kamu juga ngga akan berjalan kalau kamu ngga believe… insertion intrasentential 19 dan kamu ngga akan berjalan kalau kamu ngga try to make it happen… insertion intrasentential 20 jadi pada akhirnya kalau you don’t have these three you just gonna be stuck in your life, you know, forever dan ngga akan bisa maju-maju. alternation intrasentential 21 at least, the least that you can do for yourself adalah itu have a dream, believe it and try to make it happen. extrasentential the celebrity mixed the language sixteen times and switched it for twenty-one times and also used codemixing and code-switching. (table 3) 52 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 table 4 code-mixing and code switching group ii no. utterances code-mixing code-switching 1 saya akan mengundang seorang bintang tamu, ini masih muda. kita akan membahas the power of woman. alternation intrasentential 2 langsung saja, karena banyak yang saya mau tanya sama anak muda ini. ini dia eva celia. eva, how are you? intersentential 3 nah ini ada videonya pas eva nyanyi sama indra lesmana lewat skype. right? here it is intersentential 4 aduh saya ketemu eva ini, saya merasa tua sekali karena ngga tau ya. tadi di belakang saya nanya do you remember me? gitu ya? alternation intrasentential 5 ayo come come, duduk sini. saya mau nanya kamu inget saya ga? insertion extrasentential 6 iya jadi dia tuh sering dibawa ibunya which is 13 tahun yang lalu mungkin ya? insertion intrasentential 7 kalo ibunya nge-host kan dia ga ada yang nemenin ya, muter-muter kemanmana tuh pernah saya pangku, masih kecil segini. insertion intrasentential 8 iya. jadi tadi pas saya ngeliat fotonya, i know this girl. alternation intrasentential 9 wow 21 tahun. itu 13 tahun yang lalu you were seven or eight years old ya? alternation intrasentential 10 apa yang saya lewatkan di hidup kamu? karena waktu itu kamu and your mom pindah ke luar negeri kan? insertion intrasentential 11 jadi kamu masuk ke dunia entertaint. kamu kuliahnya apa? insertion intrasentential 12 ada yang compare ngga tapi kamu? insertion intrasentential 13 udah twenty one udah punya pacar belom? insertion intrasentential 14 sorry saya potong. kalo eva bilang sayang papa, ngga kangen tuh jauh? insertion intrasentential 15 oooh. your dad pasti watching this right? alternation intrasentential 16 oke tell me about your dad. intrasentential 17 how much you love him? intrasentential 18 you love him, tell him. intrasentential 19 oke, itu hubungan anak dengan ayahnya ya. ini menarik sekali karena sebenernya orangtua eva itu divorce ya? sama. insertion intrasentential 20 i was divorce with my wife tapi kasih sayang ke anaknya ngga akan pernah bilang ya. alternation intrasentential 21 now, it is time for you to explain me what kind of movie? intrasentential 22 why we watch the movie? intrasentential 23 eva tadi saya nanya sama kamu kan, kalau kamu suruh pilih nyanyi or main film gimana? insertion intrasentential 24 you should think right? karir nyanyi kamu gimana? intersentential 25 are you a good singer? intersentential 26 penonton kayaknya enjoy, jadi bisa menghibur orang lah ya? insertion intrasentential 27 untuk adipati dan kevin, saya ngga tau nih di usia kalian yang masih muda kalian berencana untuk selamanya di entertainment atau yang lainnya maybe business? insertion intrasentential 28 sekarang lagi break? insertion intrasentential 29 oke. terima kasih buat semuanya yang hadir disini. mudah-mudahan filmnya sukses dan eva welcome back. insertion intrasentential 30 oke. terima kasih buat semuanya yang hadir disini. mudah-mudahan filmnya sukses dan eva welcome back. how are you? intrasentential the celebrity showed that the result of mixing was twenty times and switching was thirty times. (table 4) the following chart (figure 1) showed that group ii used 62% of code-switching and 38% of code-mixing. although most of them spoke bahasa indonesia and english fluently, the frequency of switching the language was more than mixing. surprisingly, the percentage of code-switching of group i was lower than group ii, as in 53% to 62%, but the percentage of code-mixing of group i was higher than group ii, as in 47% to 38%. figure 1 code mixing and code switching charts 53code-mixing and code-switching.... (nana yuliana; dkk) the following calculation (see figure 2 and figure 3) showed how much alternation and insertion in codemixing and intersentential, intrasentential as well as extrasentential in switching was used: group i: code mixing: insertion : 6+14+6+22+7+21=76 alternation : 1+11+1+ 3 +10+0=26 congruent : 0 insertion : alternation : congruent : 0 figure 2 code-mixing code switching: intersentential : 2+ 6 + 7+ 0 +8 +0 = 23 intrasentential : 25+7+25+14+21 = 99 extrasentential : 0+ 0 +0 + 0 +4 +0 = 4 intersentential : intrasentential : extrasentential : figure 3 code-switching conclusion the celebrities with native speaker parents or those who were capable of speaking more than one language fluently used code-mixing and code-switching but in different frequency. it was also proven that celebrities who were bilingual and multilingual were more active than those whose parents were from english speaking countries. most types of code-mixing and code-switching used in group i were insertions. on the other hand, group ii insertions were mostly used and alternations were rarely used. however, there is not any congruent lexicalization was used either in group i or group ii. they totally did not change their accent. code-switching that was mostly used was intrasentential and fewer extrasentential. the choice of code-mixing and code-switching of those two groups was the same but the frequency showed the difference. both prefered using insertions in code-mixing and intrasententials in code-switching. references appel., r., & muysken, p. 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(1986). the ethnography of communication: an introduction. oxford: basil blackwell. stockwell, p. (2002). sociolinguistics: a resource book for students. london: routledge. trudgill, p. (1974). sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society (fourth). england: penguin books. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 93 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 93-99 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7298 a meta-analysis of the influence of instructional media on speaking learning lispridona diner1*; zukhaira2; sherly f. lensun3 1japanese language education study program, faculty language and art, semarang state university 2arabic language education study program, faculty language and art, semarang state university jl. sekaran, gunungpati, kota semarang, jawa tengah 50229, indonesia 3japanese language education study program, faculty language and art, manado state university jl. raya tondano, koya, tondano sel., kabupaten minahasa, sulawesi utara 95618, indonesia 1lisjoost@yahoo.com; 2zukhaira@gmail.com; 3sherly_lensun@gmail.com received: 20th april 2021/revised: 11th june 2021/accepted: 14th june 2021 how to cite: diner, l., zukhaira., & lensun, s. f. (2021). a meta-analysis of the influence of instructional media on speaking learning. lingua cultura, 15(1), 93-99. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7298 abstract the research analyzed several related studies focusing on instructional media or learning materials and speaking learning that emphasized the development of media for learning activity. employing a meta-analysis method, the research explored several national journal articles. meta-analysis was a quantitative study, given its characteristics utilize statistical calculation for a practical purpose, i.e., arranging and extracting information from many data where the process could not be performed using other methods. this meta-analysis research was aimed at identifying the validity level of each data collection. based on the results, the research concludes that instructional media development for learning speaking activities will be effective if the media are applied in universities. from the perspective of learning materials, the media will be helpful if all of the contents are applied in a book used for the learning process. this is because the teacher’s book summarized everything that a teacher needed for the class, thus allowing successful and directed learning stages and more accurate accomplishment of learning objectives. from the aspect of learning, the speaking skills should focus on the types of conversation, concerning the basic level of speaking proficiency in a foreign language learning is more efficacious than the skills needed in a conversation. keywords: meta-analysis, instructional media, speaking learning introduction education is central to many aspects of the life of people and nations. education refers to conscious efforts to aim for better development. in learning, education is a term describing an attempt to actualize an active learning atmosphere and develop students’ self-potential in order to broaden the students’ insight. according to law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003, education intends to enhance the intellectual life of the whole nation, thus strengthening the people’s faith and piety to god the almighty and their moral character and producing competent, healthy, and independent individuals with a high sense of responsibility for others and the nation. the government has continuously endeavored to improve the quality of the education system by providing textbooks or developing curriculum (asrizal et al., 2018). one example of the conceptualization of the law is the 2013 curriculum. this curriculum follows a tenet stating that knowledge is not something an educator can transfer to his/her students. the objective of the 2013 curriculum is to produce active, creative, and independent students. students have the ability to actively discover, process, construct and utilize their knowledge. a learning system based on the 2013 curriculum refers to one that can promote students’ knowledge, skills, and attitude (siregar, mawardi & elfrida, 2019). language skills are a universal science that underlies the development of modern communication and has an essential role in various disciplines and in advancing human thinking. therefore, language learning should focus not only on the attainment of knowledge but also on increasing language skills achievement. one of the factors that can improve language skills, then in learning, the teacher’s role in using learning media is needed. giving students an 94 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 93-99 opportunity to construct knowledge in their cognitive process is a must in education. this enables them to grasp and apply their knowledge. by that, it is necessary to encourage the students to be able to solve a problem, discover something for their personal needs, and work thoroughly to actualize their ideas (regulation of the ministry of education no. 81a, 2013). over the years, the world is shocked by the emergence of the industrial revolution 4.0, an era when substantial changes occur in the industrial sector. this era marks a situation in which technology and information are used in every aspect of life. the revolution considerably impacts education since the condition urges many in the educational sector to equip the students with skills that meet the demand of the industrial revolution 4.0. among the approaches to cope with the situation is by designing appropriate instructional media. instructional media or learning materials are designed to help educators and learners result in more effective learning (fitriani & azis, 2019). one aspect that can be used in improving speaking skills is learning (instructional) media (fitri, 2016). learning practices with media change the direction of teacher-centered learning interactions to learning that allows students to be actively involved in learning activities in class (syuja’ie, hartini, & agustini, 2020). using instructional media can make time, space, and messages more efficient so that students can be invited to communicate the learning material that is delivered quickly (khairani, sutisna, & suyanto, 2019). in addition, learning media has a role in the learning process, namely as a learning aid, communication tool, and a tool for creating new things (emda, 2011). given the importance of instructional media in teaching and learning activities, choosing the suitable instructional media will be the first choice for researchers before conducting research and also for teachers before delivering material, so that literacy about these aspects will be needed (hastings & tracey, 2005). the use of media in learning can also affect learning speaking skills. one media, namely the animation media in learning japanese vocabulary, can help teachers improve the japanese speaking skills of class xi bilingual students, especially beginner japanese learners (lapasau, hardi, & amiruddin, 2015). according to parmawati and inayah (2019), speaking skills are the ability to express soundarticulations or words to express thoughts in the form of ideas, opinions, desires, or feelings to speaker partners. speaking can be interpreted as conveying one’s intentions (ideas, thoughts, heart’s contents) to another by using spoken language so that the meaning can be understood by others. the purpose of speaking, in general, is the urge to convey thoughts or ideas to others (who are spoken to). meanwhile, the specific goal is to encourage people to be more enthusiastic, influence others to follow or accept opinions (ideas), convey information to the interlocutor, please others, allow the interlocutor to think and assess their ideas. therefore, oral language skills are the main basis of language teaching because oral language skills are (1) a mode of expression that is often used, (2) it is the first form of ability that is usually learned by children, (3) it is the type of language ability most commonly used. several factors can be used to measure a person’s speaking ability which consists of linguistic and nonlinguistic aspects. the linguistic aspects include (1) accuracy of speech; (2) appropriate placement of pressure, tone, joint, and duration; (3) choice of words; table 1 list of journal and article titles no article’s title author(s) journal 1 students’ attributions on their english speaking enhancement (mali, 2015) yustinus mali international journal of applied language vol 4, no 2 (2015) 2 peningkatan kemampuan bahasa inggris mahasiswa melalui pengembangan bahan ajar berbasis toefl itp pada mata kuliah bahasa inggris geografi [improving english skills of university students through developing a toefl itp-based instructional media in english for geography] (sugiharto et al., 2018) sugiharto, fitra delita, muhammad arif, rohani jurnal geografi vol 10, no 1 (2018) 3 development of web-based learning application for generation z (hariadi et al., 2016). bambang hariadi, m.j. dewiyani sunarto, pantjawati sudarmaningtyas international journal of education research review vol.5 no.1 (2016) 4 developing speaking materials based on the common european framework of reference (cefr) for increasing the students’ speaking skill (yuniarti, 2019) yuniarti journal pedagogy vol 7 no 2 (2019) 5 development a constructivist module and web on circle and sphere material with wingeom software (hamdunah et al., 2016) hamdunah, alfi yunita, zulkardi, and muhafzan journal on mathematics education vol.7 no.2 (2016) 95a meta-analysis of the influence .... (lispridona diner, et al.) (4) accuracy of target conversation. non-linguistic aspects include (1) proper posture, outlook, body language, and expression; (2) willingness to respect the conversations and ideas of others; (3) loudness of voice and fluency in speaking; (4) relevance, reasoning, and mastery of certain topics. meta-analysis itself is research that uses existing research results to conduct quantitative and systematic research to obtain accurate conclusions (retnawati et al., 2018). meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines two or more similar studies to obtain a quantitative combination of data. judging from the process, meta-analysis is a retrospective observational study in the sense that the researcher recapitulates the data without doing experimental manipulation. this is the same as stated by lee (2019) that meta-analysis is a statistical method that combines and synthesizes multiple studies and integrates their results. research that has been done on meta-analysis with the following research results. the results of the meta-analysis that have been carried out from 31 theses show es = 0,95, so it is concluded that the effect of using learning media affects learning outcomes with a contribution of 32,89% and shows a moderate effect (tumangkeng, yusmin, & hartoyo, 2018). the research is intended to explore several related studies on instructional media and speaking learning. it focuses on the development of the instructional media for learning speaking. the subject of the study (i.e., several research articles) is examined based on the content in general. provided in table 1 is the list of the articles. based on some of these research results in table 1, the author’s goal of conducting the meta-analysis is the inconsistent findings in research on the influence of instructional media on speaking learning to improve speaking skills. methods relying on a meta-analysis method, the research explores several national journal articles. meta-analysis is a quantitative study, given its characteristics, utilize statistical calculation for a practical purpose, i.e., arranging and extracting information from many data where the process cannot be performed using other methods. this meta-analysis research aims to identify the validity level of each collected data (dhamayanti & yudiarso, 2020). meta-analysis does not focus on the conclusions obtained in various studies but rather on data, such as performing operations on variables, size of effect sizes, and sample sizes (forero et al., 2019). the meta-analysis states the results of the study findings with the effect size (shin, 2017). the variables of the research are instructional media and speaking skills. the reasons for choosing these ten articles are because they have indicators of variable similarity, similarity in data collection techniques, and have similar data analysis. the aims of the meta-analysis are generally no different from other types of clinical research, they are (1) to obtain an estimate of the effect size, namely the strength of the relationship or the magnitude of the no article’s title author(s) journal 6 development of teaching materials based interactive scientific approach towards the concept of social arithmetic for junior high school student (abadi, pujiastuti, & assaat, 2016) m k abadi, h pujiastuti and l d assaat journal of physics conference series vol.812 no. 2 (2016) 7 pengembangan bahan ajar keterampilan berbicara interaktif bagi mahasiswa [development of interactive speaking instructional media for university students] (eriyanti, 2017) ribut wahyu eriyanti jurnal keilmuan bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya vol 3, no 1 (2017) 8 pengembangan bahan ajar mata kuliah berbicara dengan metode student facilitator and explaining di universitas peradaban [development of instructional media for speaking course using student facilitator and explaining model in universitas peradaban] (irma & setyorini, 2018) cintya nurika irma, ririn setyorini jurnal kredo vol. 2 no. 1 (2018) 9 developing efl learner’s speaking ability, accuracy and fluency(derakhshan, khalili, & beheshti, 2016) ali derakhsan, atefeh khalili, and fatima behesti eduhumaniora jurnal pendidikan dasar vol 5, no. 1 (2016) 10 若手教員における「教材研究」のあり方―「 教材との対話」から深い学びへ― wakate kyōin ni okeru `kyōzai kenkyū' no arikata ―`kyōzai to no taiwa' kara fukai manabi e ―" [study of teaching materials" for young teachers-from "dialogue with teaching materials" to deep learning](okazaki & fukazawa, 2019) okazaki yutaka, fukazawa hideo graduate school of teacher education wakayama university bulletin of course specializing in professional development in education vol. 3 no. 2 (2019) table 1 list of journal and article titles (continued) 96 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 93-99 difference between variables, (2) inference from the data in the sample to the population, either by testing the hypothesis (p-value) or estimating (confidence interval), (3) control potential variables as confounding so as not to interfere with the statistical significance of the relationship or difference. the present research employs a descriptive survey method that examines several articles published in both national and international journals. the survey is descriptive in nature. research-based journals focusing on instructional media development are the population of the present research. among the population, eight journals are selected as the sample using purposive sampling. the criteria of sampling are provided (pigott & polanin, 2019); (1) the selected topic is instructional media or learning materials for enhancing speaking skills; (2) the articles are published in national and international journals; (3) calculating the effect size of each research article, including the combined effect size; (4) examining the extent to which the moderator variable contributes to the effect size; and (5) summarizing. the observation method (using data collection tools) is used to collect the data. the results of the research are further analyzed using the effect size equation. this process is carried out by retrieving the effect size data of each article and then measuring the average to identify the categorization of each article (i.e., low, moderate, and high). this is the cohen’s effect size equation adopted by glass (leo, hery, & kartono, 2007). = (1) where: : effect size ye : average score of the treatment group yc : average score of the control group sc : standard deviation of the control group the criteria of the effect size are effect size ≤ 0,15, the effect can be ignored, 0,15 < effect size ≤ 0,40, low category effect, 0,40 < effect size ≤ 0,75, moderate category effect, 0,75< size ≤ 1,10 high category effect, 1,10 < effect size ≤ 1,45, very high category effect, and 1,45 < effect size with significant contribution. results and discussions the significance of speaking activities in language learning is based on the article. from the research, the total number of articles for learning media in accordance with the research objectives is ten articles. the details are as in table 2. based on table 2, it is known that there are five studies with high effect size prices, three studies with medium effect size prices, and one study with low effect size prices. from the calculation, the total value is 0,97 (sd=0,69). table 2 the significance of speaking activities in a language learning based on the articles no article code es category 1 oy 0,94 high 2 es 0,92 high 3 yi 0,83 high 4 ha 0,80 high 6 ap 0,71 high 7 yn 0,62 medium 8 bd 0,54 medium 9 rw 0,50 medium 10 cn 0,49 low table 3 presents information regarding the significance of speaking activities in language learning based on the education level. table 3 the significance of speaking activities in a language learning based on the education level no education level es 1 junior high 0,41 2 senior high 0,93 3 university 1,12 according to the analysis results, the speaking activities in junior high schools have a moderate significance on language learning. this differs from the one at the senior high level as the activities have a higher contribution to the language class. the speaking activities at the university level are significantly impactful on the language class. this means that the use of learning media that has the greatest influence on students’ speaking skills is applied in university. table 4 the significance of a language learning based on the instructional media no instructional media/materials es 1 web 0,61 2 module 0,98 3 student worksheet 1,09 4 books 1,20 5 visual media 1,25 table 4 displays information regarding the significance of language learning based on the 97a meta-analysis of the influence .... (lispridona diner, et al.) instructional media or learning materials. based on table 4, visual media are the learning materials with the highest significance to language learning. the second highest significance is student books, and it is followed by modules and web. the effect size is comparable to one another because it is applied the same as the z-value (patel et al., 2021). several things can be the reasons why visual media is able to make a significant contribution to improving student learning speaking activities among them. it can improve vocabulary mastery, and understanding the context of speaking (pragmatics) increases interaction between student and teacher or student and student in the class. the calculation of the effect size price in each learning media varies; some have a negligible effect, such as web-based media es=0,61, and learning media with a high influence, namely visual media with es=1,25. from these results, it can be taken an average of es=1,04 so that the ten articles have a high effect on speaking skills activities. based on table 4, it can be seen that visual media has a high es value. this is relevant to eriyanti’s (2017) explanation that visual media relies on vision because it is in accordance with language learning activities that often carry out speaking practice activities (oradee, 2012). the function of visual media attention is the core, which directs and brings students’ attention to concentrate on lessons related to the visual meaning that accompanies or displays the text of the subject matter. appropriate learning media is also a teacher’s strategy in giving learning to students; media is related to learning resources in a broad sense. learning resources can be in the form of messages, tools (media), techniques, and the environment. it can be interpreted that instructional media can make it easier as a tool used by teachers in the learning process, media in doing something such as providing learning to students. instructional media will help the student learning process in teaching, which can be considered to be helpful for student motivation and improve learning outcomes to be achieved. the benefits of using visual learning media in the teaching and learning process include teaching methods will be more varied, not only using lecture methods which can make students bored. in the teaching and learning process, the presence of the media has significant meaning because it can represent what the teacher is unable to say through certain words or sentences. even the abstractness of the material can be concrete with the presence of the media. table 5 shows the information regarding the significance of learning speaking according to the types of speaking activities. based on table 5, lecturing is the type of speaking activity with the highest significance to language learning. the second highest significance is a conversation and followed by speech and discussion. the reason is because a conversation is a dialogue between two or more people. an example of establishing communication through spoken language is by telephone and in writing (in chat rooms). this conversation is interactive in nature, namely communication spontaneously between two or more people. the conversation is a natural and informal form of verbal expression. students are given the opportunity to chat in small groups. they learn about the role of speaking in developing knowledge. table 5 the results of the types of speaking activities no type of speaking activities es 1 discussion 0,31 2 speech 0,39 3 conservation 1,60 4 lecturing 0,71 the effect size, which shows the magnitude of the effect of a treatment or the strength of the relationship between two variables, is an essential component in the meta-analysis because it provides information from the summary results (denson & seltzer, 2011). by determining the effect sizes of each research, the average overall effect sizes can be determined (oktradiksa & fitriansyah, 2017). the research indicates that the effect size of the two variables is high, namely instructional media dan speaking activities. the effect size of instructional media of student visual media is 0,98, and the effect size of learning speaking based on the types of speaking activities is 1,60. conclusions the research summarizes that instructional media development for learning speaking will be effective if the media are implemented in universities. with the existence of learning media, oral and written traditions in the learning process, it can be enriched with various learning media. with the availability of instructional media, teachers can create various classroom situations, determine various teaching methods, and create a healthy emotional climate among students. instructional media can also build interactive and effective communication between lecturers and students. they are applied in college because the learning process leads to particular skills, such as language learning and speaking skills. from the perspective of learning materials, the media would be helpful if all of the contents are integrated into a book. this is because the teacher’s book summarizes everything a teacher needs for the class, thus allowing successful and directed learning stages and more accurate accomplishment of learning objectives. from the aspect of learning, the speaking skills should focus on the types of conversation. concerning the basic level of speaking skills in a foreign language, learning is more efficacious 98 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 93-99 compared to the skills needed in a conversation. from the results of the meta-analysis in the research, it is concluded that the use of instructional media is very influential in the learning process of speaking skills. meanwhile, the use of instructional media can be carried out at the university level. acknowledgements the researchers wish to express their deepest gratitude to the semarang state university and manado state university for allowing them to conduct the research. references abadi, m. k., pujiastuti, h., & assaat, l. d. 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(2018). meta-analisis pengaruh media pembelajaran terhadap hasil belajar matematika siswa. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran khatulistiwa, 7(6), 1-11. yuniarti. (2019). developing speaking materials based on the common european framework of reference (cefr) for increasing the students’ speaking skill. journal pedagogy, 7(2), 143-156. https://doi. org/10.32332/pedagogy.v4i2.384. a comparative study on the structures of chinese and korean compound words zhai xun1; yoo eun hee2 1college of foreign students education, wuhan university wuhan 430072, hubei, china, 2college of chinese language and literature, wuhan university wuhan 430072, hubei, china, 13607119136@163.com; 550859074@qq.com received: 3th march 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 16th april 2016 how to cite: xun, z., yoo, e. h. (2016). a comparative study on the structures of chinese and korean compond words. lingua cultura, 10(1), 7-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.884 abstract the goal of the research was to compare the compound words in chinese, an isolated language, and korean, an agglutinative language. this research used library research. the researchers found that the main characteristics of the formation of korean compound words were that the latter element was the central word. the method of word formation decided its lexical category. moreover, most of the internal relationships of the compound words were connection and modification. while in chinese, the endocentric compound noun decided the part of speech of the compound word, and could be the proceeding element or the latter element. furthermore, chinese contained no complicated morphological changes. it is concluded that korean is a subject–object–verb (sov) language, where verb elements demonstrate a central feature of the compound verb are always a trailing part. thus, there is no exocentric compound verb in korean. by contrast, chinese is a typical svo language. when constituting the compound verbs, nouns or adjectives can function as the structural elements. therefore, there is no permanent position for head words. keywords: language structure, chinese language, korean language, compound words introduction chinese characters are regarded as an ideogram. in general, an individual chinese character can independently convey a meaning or meanings and consequently can serve as a morpheme. morphemes in mandarin are mostly monosyllabic since the majority of the chinese characters are monosyllable. single morpheme words are words consisting of one morpheme. naturally monosyllabic morpheme words play a dominant role in mandarin with some rare exceptions such as 巧克力 (qiǎokèlì, chocolate) which comprise of three syllables. widely different from chinese, korean is considered as a phonogram, and to communicate an independent meaning. two or more syllables are occasionally necessary, which causes the pervasiveness of disyllabic or multisyllabic morpheme words in korean. morphemes in korean can be divided into two sorts: dependent morphemes and independent morphemes regarding the grammar function. related to independent morphemes, dependent morphemes, such as roots suffix, prepositions, and connectives, cannot serve as a word on its own. independent morphemes, such as 밥 (bap, boiled rice), 국 (guk, soup), and 김치 (gimchi, kimchi) are able to fill in a syntactical slot all by themselves. from the perspective of meaning, morphemes inhabit two types: the substantial morpheme and the formal morpheme. the substantial which is necessary to a word, also referred to as the root, represents a particular object, status, or action. the formal morpheme, adhering to the root, conveys additional meaning or grammatical meaning. to be more specific, the formal morpheme can be a prefix or a suffix that helps form a word, and it can also be an auxiliary word or a word appendix that assists the word form. a korean compound word is a word that is composed of two bases such as 집안 (jip-an, household), 돌다리 (dolda-ri, stone bridge), 작은오빠 (ja-geun-o-ppa, second elder brother) and 봄나물 (bom-namul, spring greens). while, a korean derivative word is a word that is made up of a base and an affix such as 부채질 (bu-chae-jil, fanning), 덧버선 (deot-beo-seon, outer socks), and 덮개 (deop-gae, cover).a chinese compound word is a word consisting of two roots. their internal construction can be mainly sorted into five types: subject-predicate structure, verbobject structure, structure of modification, complementary structure, and combined structure. compounds like 存款 lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 7-12 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.884 7 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 8 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 7-12 (cún kuǎn, deposit), 马车 (mǎ chē, gharry) and 斗争 (dòu zhēng, fight) are typical for chinese word combinations. moreover, a derivative word is a composition of a root and an affix. they can be classified into “prefix+root” and “root+suffix” such as 老虎 (lǎo hǔ, tiger), and 兔子 (tù zǐ, rabbit). it is thereby evident that the compound words are opposite to the derivatives in korean, and chinese compounds include derivatives. there are some related theories regarding compound word. according to zhu (1984), lexicons in chinese can be categorized into compound words and single morpheme words. compound words can be divided into compound words, derived words and overlapping words. the inner structures of the compound word are largely similar to the syntactical structures, namely “subject + predicate”, “predicate + object”,“attribute/adverbial + head”, “head + complement”, and “head + head”. by this token, the head is fundamental to the formation of a word. the head can be defined both morphologically. it means the morpheme determines the part of speech, and semantic, where the morpheme indicates the principle meaning of the whole word. in the 1980s, a sense of relationship in the compound word aroused great interest in the chinese scholarship. new types, based on traditional subjectpredicate and juxtaposition, have been reported, such as the serial-verb structure as stated by qin (1993), and peng (1995). syntactical analysis of the compound word is the mainstream. ge (1988), to some degree following zhu (1984), has claimed that the connection of heads in the word is consistent with the syntactical structure whose classifications are juxtaposition, “attribute + head”, “head + complement ”, “predicate + object”, “subject +predicate”, and overlapping structures. bloomfield (1933) makes a distinction between the endocentric and exocentric structure. in the endocentric structure, the part of speech of the compound is uniformed to its immediate constituents. while in the exocentric structure, the pos is different to its immediate constituents. in addition, aronoff and fudeman (2010) believes that the immediate constituents can determine the syntactical category and semantic contents of the compound word. then the compound can be defined as an endocentric compound word. otherwise, the compound will be defined as an exocentric compound word. even exocentric compounds have heads from the perspective of syntax, take the word “figurehead” for instance. its syntactical head is “head”, while the semantic head is “figure” instead of “head”. therefore, the word “figurehead” is called an exocentric compound. the term “head” is discussed more often from the levels of syntax and sometimes from morphology, can date back to sweet (2014). sweet (2014) refers it as “head word” rather than “head”, claiming that if a belongs to b, then b is the head word. compounds in chinese and korean predominate the lexical system. from the view of syntax, both of the constituents in a juxtaposition can be regarded as head; the modified element in the “attributive/adverbial + head” structure can be interpreted as a head word: and the verb in the “verb + object” structure can be explained as the head. the scarceness of morphemic changes in chinese contributes to the difficulty in word class partition based on the morphological transformation. therefore, when identifying the word class, three criterions – morphology, syntactical position, and semantic content – should be taken into consideration. for example, the word 存款 ( cún kuǎn, deposit), its internal syntactic structure can be identified as “verb + object” or “attribute + head”. in this sense, it can be sorted as the verb or noun. this character can be as “the same in forms but different in structures”. when it comes to the compound words in korean, it is less complicated to determine which word class that a word belongs to. for example, it will have less difficulty in judging the word “ 작은아버지 (jak-eun-a-beo-ji, father’s younger brother)”. it is constituted by two immediate elements – the attributive element “작은 (jak-eun, younger )” and the head “아버지 (a-beo-ji, father)” the relationship between elements in endocentric compounds can be classified into three types: juxtaposition, subordination, and combination from the number of the heads. as been discussed above, two constituents in a juxtaposition can be considered as heads. compound words have both syntactic and lexical attributes, so investigating the semantic variation is an essential dimension when researching the meaning structure. the analysis of the semantic structure in compounds can be benefited from the comparison between the meaning of the constituents and the meaning of the entire compound word. furthermore, how the meaning of the constituents converts into the meaning of the entire compound word is an urgent but difficult issue, especially for the exocentric compounds. to address the issue, it is necessary to look into the semantic structure and how the semantic variation can be influenced by the semantic structure. the researchers will analyze the nominal compounds, verb compounds, and adjective compounds respectively. methods this research uses library research by comparing compound nouns in chinese and korean. the analysis will be divided into two parts. the first one will be regarding the compound nouns. moreover, the second one is the reason why chinese and korean compounds are different. results and discussions analysis of the constitution of compound words in chinese and korean consists of the nominal compound, verb compound, and adjective compound. nominal compounds consist of several types. they are “noun + noun”, “verb + noun”, and “adjective + noun”. the constitution of “noun+noun” in korean can be divided into two modes. the first one is “common noun + common noun” such as “이튿날 ‎ (i-teun-nal, next day), 가시덤불 (gasi-deombul, thornbush), 소나무 (so-namu, pine tree) 안팎 (an-pak, inside and outside)” and “ 까막까치(kka-mak-kka-chi, crow and magpie)”, etc. the second noun in the model is the head and determines the word class. also, the syntactic attributes of the compounds. the relation of the two common nouns is commonly connection and modification relationship. the other mode is “common noun + potential noun” or “the potential noun + common noun” such as “갈림길 (gal-lim-gil, forked road)” and “줄넘기‎ (julleomgi, rope jumping)”, etc. as in the word “갈림길(gal-lim-gi, forked road)”, “갈림 (gal-lim, forked)” is the potential noun and the “ㅁ(mieum)” is the nominal suffix (hwang, 2001). it combines with the “길(gil, road)” as the modification to become a compound noun. in contrast, a morpheme in chinese unites with 9a comparative study on the structures .... (zhai xun; yoo eun hee) another into a compound directly without any complicated morphological transformation, which facilitates the formation of the compound word. if a morpheme itself can act as a word, then it will be called an independent morpheme. if it is not, it will be a dependent morpheme. a pure dependent morpheme can combine to generate a compound, such as “植物 (zhí wù, plant)”, “驱逐 (qū zhú, expel)”. the most frequently used formation in chinese, which resembles that in korean is also “common noun + common noun”. less constraint in the combination of the nouns enables new compounds to be boosted at present. next, it is about “verb + noun”. it is possible in korean for a verb morpheme to connect with nominal morpheme to form a nominal compound noun. the verb morpheme can be a root or work as an article. article roots such as “-ㄴ(-nieun) , -는(neun) and -ㄹ(-rieul)” function syntactically and semantically. however, the relation between the nominal compound word and the verb elements in chinese distinguish from that in korean. for example: 1. 날숨 (nal-sum, exhalation), 볼일 (bol-il, business), 뜬눈 (ddeun –nun, a sleepless night), 빨판 (bbalpan, sucking disc) 2. 접칼 (jeob-kal, jackknife), 덮밥 (deop-bap, bowl of rice served with toppings) 3. 跑车 (pǎo chē, race car), 流水 (liú shuǐ, flowing water) example (1) contains verb article root and nominal morpheme. compounds in example (2) consist of verb root and nominal morpheme. those in example (3) are made up of the verb morphemes 跑 (pǎo, race, and 流(liú, flow) that modify the nominal morphemes 车(chē, car) and 水 (shuǐ, water). the nominal morphemes in all these cases are the head words and determine the word class and semantic content of the compound nouns. then in “adjective + noun”, there are also two kinds of these nominal compounds. there is the articlelike adjective morpheme + nominal morpheme, which is consistent with the korean grammatical rule. then there is the adjective suffix + nominal morpheme, which is against the typical korean grammatical rule. only -으 (eu), and -ㄴ (nieun) can be employed to signify the word class of the adjective and collocate with the nouns. in this case, the nominal morphemes play the role of the head and determine the word class and meaning of the compound, since the adjective morphemes are qualifiers. that is the same case with most chinese compounds of this construction. for example: 4. 싼값 (ssan-gab, cheap price), 짠물 (jjan-mul, salt water), 큰딸 (keun-ddal, eldest daughter), 큰소리 (keunso-ri, a large voice) 5. 동글붓 (dong-geul-but, a dull-tipped brush), 늦봄 (neut-bom, late spring), 늦더위 (neut-deo-wi, late summer heat) 6. 黑板 (hēi bǎn, blackboard), 长笛 (cháng dí, flute), 繁 星 (fán xīng, myriads of stars) case (4) sees the article-like adjective morpheme “ 싼 (cheap, ssan)” + nominal morpheme “값 (gab, price)”. while, examples in case (5) consist of the adjective root “동글 (dong-geul, dull-tipped)” + nominal morpheme “붓 (but, brush)”. those in case (6) comprise of adjective “黑 (hēi, black), 长 (cháng), 繁 (fán)” + noun “板 (bǎn, board), 笛 (dí), 星 (xīng)”. to sum up, the nominal morphemes modified by the adjective morphemes are the central/head morpheme and the part of speech of the compound nouns keeping correspondent with the nominal morpheme. in “adverb + noun”, both in korean and chinese can an adverb combining with a noun to form a compound. the difference lies in the fact that it is less frequent in chinese. the adverbs that apply to this type of compounds in the korean maintain two styles: common adverbs and symbolic adverbs, in which the latter adverbs cannot be found in chinese. therefore, there are two structures: “common adverb + noun” and “symbolic adverb + noun”. what should be paid attention to is that the adverb does not modify the noun directly but modifies a deeply hidden verb. for example: 7. 지레김치 (ji-le-gim-chi, kimchi), 막일 (mak-li, physical labor), 살짝곰보 (sal-jjak-gombo, a slightly pockmarked), 척척박사 (cheok-cheok-baksa, a knowledgeable person) 8. 悄悄话 (qiāo qiāohuà, whisper), 不轨 (bù guǐ, against the law) as in case (7), “지레 (ji-le)” is an adverbial morpheme. it means “in advance”. it indirectly modifies the noun “김치 (gim-chi)”. so the compound noun “ 지레김치 (ji-le -gim-chi)” is interpreted as “kimchi made before winter”. “悄悄话 (qiāo qiāohuà)” or “words spoken secretly” in case (8) is the contraction of the phrase “悄 悄说的话 (strictly speaking)”. what “悄悄 (qiāo qiāo, secretly)” modifies is the omitted verb “说 (shuō, said)”, even though roughly speaking, it seems that the adverb (secretly) modifies the noun (words). verb compounds will be analyzed too. there are two approaches to fabricating verb compounds, namely, “verb + verb” and “adjective + verb” when investigating the structure of the verb compound words in korean. specific examples will be provided in the following passage to give an insight into its morphological features. on the syntactic level, when two verbs (verb morpheme + verb morpheme) are juxtaposed, the prior verb will be deprived of the suffix and added “고”, “-아 (a)/ 어(eo)”. “고” designates that the action of the first verb happens before the action of the second one. “-아(a)/ 어” shows clearly the first verb is subject to the second one. however, on the lexical level, the rule is infringed. when two verb morphemes are joined to a compound, suffixes such as “고” and “-아(a)/ 어(eo)” is imitable. what should be pointed out is that even the suffixes are omitted that the relation between the two verb morphemes is not obliterated. accompanying the omission of the suffix, it is the omission of the syllable. for instance: 9. 듣보다 (deut-bo-da, look for), 싸매다 (ssa-mae-da, bind up), 붙잡다 (but-jab-da, grasp ), 보살피다 (bosal-pi-da, take care of) 10. 꿰매다 (kkwe-mae-da, stitch), 따먹다(tta.meok. da,pick), 뛰놀다 (ttwi-nol-da, to romp, to frisk), 매달다 (mae-dal-da, suspend) in cases (9), what word is omitted is 고 (go). “ 듣보다 (deut-bo-da, look for)” or returning to its original 10 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 7-12 form is “듣고보다 (deut-kko-bo-da, hear and see)”. both two verb morphemes can be seen as heads due to their juxtaposition. as in case (10), -어 (eo) is an ellipsis. the second verb which is modified by the first verb determinates factor when understanding the meaning of the compound. as in “꿰매다 (kkwe-mae-da, stitch)”, 매다 (mae-da, fasten) is the focus and 꿰다 (kkwe-da, thread) gives some additional information to limit the extension of “매다 (maeda, fasten)”. given the discrimination of their contribution to the meaning of the compound, they cannot be inverted to produce such a compound word as “매꿰다 (mae-kkweda)”. in chinese, verb compounds consisting of two verb morphemes are the most common. their relationship can be juxtaposition or subordination. however, it is hard to identify the morphological central/head word in korean. next, it is adjective morpheme + verb morpheme. in the situation, the verb morpheme is modified by the adjective morpheme which acts as an adverb. thus, there is no doubt that the verb morpheme is the head in the whole compound. for example: 11. 무르익다 (mu-reu-ik-da, ripen), 같지다 (kat-ji-da, wrestling a draw), 잗다듬다 (jat -da-deum-da, nip off neatly), 설익다 (seol-ik-da, half-cooked) 12. 哀求 (āi qiú, implore), 残留 (cán líu, residue), 轻视 (qīng shì, despise), 满载 (mǎn zài, carry a full load) as in example (11), 무르익다 (mu-reu-ik-da, ripen), when coming back to its original pattern, is the 무르 (mureu) (adjective root) + 게 (-ge) (connective suffix) + 익다 (ik-da) (verb). the connective suffix “게 (-ge)” is left out to form a compound. so, it seems that the verb is directly modified by the adjective. as in the case 12, “哀求 (āi qiú, implore)”, the verb “求 (qiú)” acts as the head and the adjective “哀 (āi)” acts as the adverb. in korean adjective compound adj, there are three major composition methods: “noun + adjective”, “adjective + adjective” and “adverb + adjective” to form an adjective compound word. the adjective in the three methods is without any doubt the central word and determines the part of speech of the compound. there are two types of “adjective + noun” compounds. the first one is the former noun functions as subject, forming verb-object structure with latter adjective serving as an object. the second one is the former noun functions as an adverb, modifying latter adjective (ham, 2007). in chinese, these two types of compound words also exist. 13. 맛없다 (mat-eop-da, not tasty), 버릇 없다 (beoreut-eop-da, misbehaved), 철없다 cheor-eop-da, immature), 힘세다 (him-se-da, strong) 14. 남부끄럽다 (nam-bu-ke-reb-da, shabby), 손 쉽다 (son-ship-da, flexible), 남다르다 (nam-da-reu-da, unique) 15. 面熟 (face/look familiar), 年轻 (age, young), 耳熟 (ear/sound familiar), 心酸 (heart sad/broken) 16. 雪白 (snow, white), 草绿 (grass, green), 笔直 (pen, straight), 冰冷 (ice, cold) in case (13), the central word of “not tasty” is the latter adjective, it is part of speech determining the compound. case (14) sees former noun functioning as a verb and modifying the latter adjective which is the central word. so, these phrases are adjective compound words. as in case (15), “face familiar” belongs to subject-predicate (s-v) structure, and the latter word is part of speech determining this compound. as to “snow white” in case (16), the former noun functions as modifiers for the latter adjectives. in korean, “adjective + adjective” compound words omit the connective suffix “-고 (-go)”, combining it to develop non-syntactic compound words. in chinese, most compound adjectives belong to the “adjective + adjective” type. the relationship between the structural elements of compound adjectives includes two types: one is the connection, the other is the modification. connection means all the structural elements of compound adjectives are considered as central words. modification means only the latter adjectives are considered as central words, which have great influence on compound words in part of speech. that applies to chinese as well as to korean. here are some examples: 17. 굳세다 (gut-se-da, strong) 18. 짙푸르다 (jit-pu-reu-dadark, blue) 19. 干净 (gān jìng, clean clear), 轻松 (qīng song, light easy), 快乐 (kuài lè, joyous happy), 艰难 (tough hard) 20. 狂热 (kuáng rè, crazy enthusiastic), 早熟 (zǎo shú, early mature), 鲜红 (xiān hóng, bright red) the “strong” in case (17) can be extended to “hard and powerful”, which is called a connective relationship. this structure is also applied to compound nouns and compound verbs. the latter words are adjectives, which determine the compound words in the part of speech. in case (18), “dark blue” can be interpreted as “dark blue color”. the former adjectives function as the adverb by modifying the latter adjective. as to “joyous happy” in case (19), the latter adjective can be considered as the central word, and the relationship between the two structural words is a connection. as in the last examples, “bright red” can be interpreted as “bright red color”, with the former adjective functions as adverb, modifying the latter adjective which is the central word of this compound word. the relationship between the two structural words is the modification. in this type of compound adjectives, former adjectives function as the adverb by modifying latter adjectives (adverb + adjective). the relationship between the two structural words is the modification. just like compound verbs, verbs will be modified by adverbs when a word is formed. there are fewer compound words like this in chinese. 21. 다시 없다 (da-shieop-da, no more) 22. 不安 (bù ān, not calm) in the case of “no more”, it is not yet conclusive whether the latter word “없다 (eop-da more)” is an adverb or adjective. here the researchers consider “다시 (없다)” da-shi (eop-da) as an adjective, modified by the former adverb “no”. the latter adjective is the central word, which determines the compound word in the part of speech. that is the same with the chinese example “不安”, where the adverb “不 (bù, not)” modifies the adjective “安 (ān, calm)”. the reason of differences between chinese and korean compounds is as follows most of “noun-noun”, “verb-verb”, “adjective-adjective” compound words are 11a comparative study on the structures .... (zhai xun; yoo eun hee) combined by words of the same class. they exist both in chinese and korean. from the perspective of word formation, it is the easiest approach for words of classes to be integrated. however, the compound words which reflect the word order difference between english and chinese also exist. korean is a subject–object–verb (sov) language, where verb elements demonstrate a central feature of the compound verb are always a trailing part. for that reason, there is no exocentric compound verb in korean. by contrast, chinese is a typical svo language. when constituting the compound verbs, nouns or adjectives can function as the structural elements, whether they are preceding elements or proceeding elements. so, there is no permanent position for head words. especially in chinese, lots of compound verbs and compound adjectives are formed as “verb-object”. in this case, most central (head) words are verbs and adjectives, so the researchers can conclude that these compounds share the left-head-word structure. recently, there are some theories proposed on compounds words. however, how to apply these theories to the analysis of chinese and korean compound words is more important. the researchers can make use of the theory of central words to test the endocentric structure and exocentric structure of compound words (shi, 2007). it applies to the morphology and semantics of both korean and chinese compound words. for morphology, featurepercolation convention will be useful. for semantics, researchers should also take into consideration regarding the semantic relationship between structural elements and the patterns of semantic variation. by analyzing the compound words, it finally figured out the characteristics of korean and chinese compound words. firstly, in korean, head words will be put on the end. that is because the right-head-word rule can be applied to all the korean endocentric compound words. however, things are different in chinese. the position of the chinese central word is not fixed, and sometimes central words should be checked whether the former words are central words or not. this is true for endocentric compound nouns, endocentric compound verbs, and endocentric compound adjectives. secondly, korean endocentric compound words can be analyzed morphologically. there is a one-to-one correspondence between structural elements. as to chinese, the morphological structure of chinese compound words can be known by analyzing the central word of the endocentric word structure, but the compound words will be altered into another part of speech, such as 回信 (huíxìn, return letter). if the relationship between the structural words is verb-object, this compound word will be an endocentric compound verb. on the other hand, if the relationship between the structural words is a modification, this compound word will be an endocentric compound noun. as a result, the formations of isomers do exist in chinese compound words, so there is a one-to-many relationship between structural elements in chinese compounds. through the analysis of the meaning of endocentric compound words, it is known that most of the compound words in korean and chinese have meaningful right-centerwords. nonetheless, the meaningful left-center-words also exist. in chinese, there are all kinds of endocentric compound nouns, endocentric compound verbs, and endocentric compound adjectives. however, in korean, there is no endocentric compound noun, and there are some restrictions on the formation of endocentric compound verbs like “break up”, and endocentric compound adjectives like “very clever”. these compound verbs or compound adjectives are made up of basic verbs and auxiliaries. according to the analysis of the meaning of endocentric compound words, the relationship between all the structural elements can be identified. it can be applied to both korean and chinese. but it cannot be defied that a certain type of compound words just exist in one language but not in another language. for example, korean is a kind of adherent language, and in korean, there are meaningful endocentric compound words but no exocentric compound words. conclusions the conclusion indicates the similarities and differences between korean and chinese compound words. first, in the endocentric compound nouns in korean, the whole category of parts of speech are usually decided by the latter noun in the structural elements. also, the former element is related to the latter noun showing the various parts of speech of the compound. in contrast, the endocentric compounds in chinese compound nouns are the main elements that decide the category of parts of speech, not subjective to the proceeding elements. second, korean is the language whose objects go first, and the proceeding nouns modify the preceding verbs. in korean, verbs should be used to modify nouns, and the verb stems should be followed by an article-like suffix such as -ㄴ (nieun) -는 (neun), and -ㄹ (rieul), etc. in addition, this verb form is set and fixed as a compound word with the “verb + noun” structure. the article form has its own grammatical function or helps to form a compound word while conveying the meaning. compared with korean, chinese contains no morphological changes between components of the compound words, so the compound nouns like “verb + noun” structure have little to do with the verbs themselves. third, most of the compound words in korean are “ordinary adverb + noun” and “symbolic adverb + noun”. chinese, however, generally has no such symbolic adverb, and very few compounds are “adverb + noun”. fourth, the difference of the word order in korean and chinese is also analyzed. because korean is an sov language with verb elements which perform the function of central words, always appear as the last elements. thus, in korean, there is no exocentric compound verb in any form. by contrast, chinese is an svo language that verbs, nouns and adjectives can also be used to form compound verbs, whether they serve as the preceding or proceeding elements. in other words, there is no fixed position for the central word in a chinese compound. the study is still not enough to compare only the lexical structure in korean and chinese from the perspective of compound words. to compare lexical structure in korean and chinese in further details, it should also include other types of words, namely the derivatives in chinese, due to the vast difference between chinese and korean vocabulary classification systems. the relationship between compound words and single-morpheme words, and also between the derivatives and complex compounds should be explored. references aronoff, m., & fudeman, k. 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(1993). 从句法结构看复合词中的一种 新的构词方式——连动式构词 [an analysis of a new word-formation of the compound words in view of syntactical structure -serial verb construction]. chinese language learning, 15-16. shi, ding xu. (石定栩) (2007). 向心结构与离心结构 新探 [endocentric construction and exocentric construction]. 外语教学与研究 [foreign language teaching and research], 276-284. sweet, h. (2014). a new english grammar, logical and historical. united kingdom: cambridge university press zhu, de xi. (朱德熙). (1984). 关于向心结构的定义 [on definitions of endocentric structure]. 中国语文 [studies of the chinese language](6), 401. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 49 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 49-57 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.8574 gender stereotypes in boyd smith’s the story of pocahontas and captain john smith: greimas’ actantial model supiastutik1*; dyah purwita wardani sri wahyu warjati2; olivia putri citra ramadani3 1-3english department, faculty of humanities, universitas jember jl. kalimantan no. 37, tegalboto campus, jember, jawa timur 68121, indonesia 1supiastutik.sastra@unej.ac.id; 2dyahpw.sastra@unej.ac.id; 3olivia.putricr@gmail.com received: 13th june 2022/revised: 02nd april 2023/accepted: 10th april 2023 how to cite: supiastutik., warjadi, d. p. w. s. w., & ramadani, o. p. c. (2023). gender stereotypes in boyd smith’s the story of pocahontas and captain john smith: greimas’ actantial model. lingua cultura, 17(1), 49-57. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.8574 abstract the research attempted to examine the contribution and relevance of structuralism as a theory, method, and paradigm, especially in the study of feminist literary criticism in the story of pocahontas and captain john smith’s novel. many researchers had scrutinized the story of pocahontas and captain john smith from various approaches, such as socio-cultural, historical political, and post-colonial studies. however, analysis using actantial models had not been conducted and reported in scholarly journals. this qualitative research utilized textual analysis that practiced a narrative semiotic approach proposed by greimas. this research used the actantial model proposed by greimas to evaluate the narrative’s deep structure so as to reveal gender stereotypes of male and female characters in smith’s the story of pocahontas and captain smith, written in 1906. although the female character appeared as the main character, she was portrayed as sentimental, emotional, weak, and dependent on the male characters’ help. in contrast, the male characters were shown as dominant figures. they were portrayed as physically strong, rational, thoughtful, and able to prioritize the interests of the wider community and independently achieve the goals they wanted. it is found that the discussion about gender stereotypes in literary works is still relevant to be carried out, especially in literary works, because several kinds of research showcase that the portrayal of stereotyped characters has an unfavorable impact on children’s cognitive and affective development. keywords: actantial model, children’s cognitive and affective development, feminist perspective, gender stereotypes introduction the story of pocahontas has always received significant attention from people who are emotionally concerned with multiculturalism (wood, 2017). using a cinematographic approach in qualitative research, aryangga and nurmaily (2017) have interested in analyzing the animated film pocahontas produced by disney. the researchers reveal that pocahontas is considered a character who opposes female gender stereotypes because the film portrays pocahontas as having masculine traits. another researcher, gorsevski (2018), has reported that president trump frequently mentioned pocahontas in his presidential speeches. through a visual analysis of rhetoric with a political perspective, gorsevski has asserted that the rhetorical slur against pocahontas is not propagating multicultural nuances but instead affirming the supremacy of white men, which further limits the power and voice of indigenous women. the aforementioned researchers have focused their analysis on the story of pocahontas, adapted into a film by disney corporation, while the latter has concentrated the political study on president trump’s speeches, recurrently mentioning pocahontas as a local native woman figure. in this research, the researchers try to operate the actantial model of narrative structure in pr es s 50 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 49-57 proposed by greimas (1987) to reveal the deep structure of the story retold by boyd smith in 1906. by analyzing the actantial functions at the narrative level, the researchers can interpret how the female and male characters in the story are depicted. the actantial model proposed by greimas (1987) is a device that can theoretically be utilized to scrutinize any real or thematized action, particularly those available in literary texts or images. applying the actantial model allows people to break down an action into six actants. greimas defines actant as the one who accomplishes or undergoes an act, independently of all other determinations. actants are human beings or things that participate in any action. in literary semiotics, the concept of actant is similar to the terms of character that propp also called ‘dramatic personae’ because it applies not only to human beings but also animals, objects, or concepts. in other words, actants can be human beings, animals, ghosts, ideas, desires, and so forth. the actantial model allows breaking an action into six narrative functions called actants. the six actants are divided into three opposite categories: (1) subject versus object; (2) sender versus receiver; (3) helper versus opponent. the visual representation of the six categories of actants shows in figure 1. figure 1 visual representation of actants summarized from greimas (1987) as it progresses through its narrative trajectory, an actant can be united with a certain number of narrative states, which are called actantial roles or actantial functions. the roles of subject-actants will be continuously endowed with modalities such as those of wanting, knowing how to do, or being able to do (greimas & courtes, 1982). thus, a subject occupies a principal role in the narration. an example of a subject—actant is a prince who wants to marry a princess. conversely, an object-actant is something or someone the subject seeks to achieve (rescued princess, for example). the sender (for example, the king wants a grandson) is what or who initiates the action, while the receiver is what benefits from it. lastly, a helper is someone or something (like a sword or horse) that helps to accomplish the action, while an opponent (the witch, the dragon, the prince’s fatigue, or suspicion of terror) hinders it. the actantial roles of subject, object, sender, receiver, helper, and opponent are constantly changing in a narrative. a hero can be a subject in a particular part of the narrative, but he/she may change their role as an object or a helper in other parts of a text. greimas and courtés (1982) have elaborated, “as the narrative discourse progresses, the actant may assume a certain number of actantial roles, defined both by the position of the actant in the logical sequence of the narration (its definition) and by its modal investment (its morphological definition). thus the hero will be the hero only in certain parts of the narrative—he/she is not the hero before, and he /she may well not be the hero afterward.” some researchers have utilized actantial models to understand the narrative structure and the relationships between the actant components in various fields. fowler (2020), for example, has used this actantial model to dissect the system of notation in music. in literary studies, other researchers have applied the actant model to analyze the journalistic identity in digital mega stories (eldridge, 2017) to scrutinize the deep structure of a literary narrative’s stories in the hunger games trilogy (dzikriya, 2019). interestingly, webb (2019) has successfully operated an actuarial work system to understand performance in sport management. for the current research, the researchers utilize this actantial model to examine the surface structure of the narrative and to understand the gender portrayal in this indian-american story entitled the story of pocahontas and captain smith. this research attempts to examine the contribution and relevance of structuralism, either as a theory, method, or paradigm, especially in the study of feminist literary criticism. methods this qualitative research utilizes textual analysis that practices a narrative semiotic approach proposed by greimas. the object material for the present research is the story of pocahontas and captain smith, written by elmer boyd smith in 1906 and published by houghton mifflin company in boston and new york. greimas (1987) is inspired by vladimir propp, a russian structuralist who provides the syntactic component for the deep structure of semi-narrative grammar. propp (in greimas, 1987) has proposed thirty-one functions designating syntagmatic units that remain constant despite the variety of narratives and that the structured sequence makes up the structure of folktales. greimas (1987) has redefined the functions into a limited number of actants. the examination of the actantial role in the narrative then becomes possible to conceive of the principle of organization underlying whole classes of narrative. the researchers have garnered the data at the textual level by closely reading the text to identify the actantial roles that build the narrative structure. as it is clarified by greimas and courtés (1982), the actant roles of subject, object, sender, receiver, helper, and opponent may change in the progress of the plot, so the authors must break down the narrative into several narrative segments. in pr es s 51gender stereotypes in boyd smith’s .... (supiastutik et al.) greimas (1987) has distinguished the concept of actor and actant in his actant theory. the actor or character in the story may be present and function as a different actant or vice versa. for example, a prince who wants to marry a beautiful princess can act as a subject and receiver. the following excerpt shows the concept. “we have learned that if an actant (a1) can be manifested in discourse by several actors (a1, a2, a3), the converse is equally possible, just one actor (a1) being able to constitute a syncretism of several actants (a1, a2, a3).” (greimas, 1987: 107) the next unit in greimas’ system is function (f), that “involves at least two actants engaged in the action of a verb. functions then serve as the foundation of a narrative program (np), which involves all six actants in which the subject either fails or succeeds in achieving the object. a narrative sequence (ns) may contain one or two narrative programs. an entire narrative may consist of one or several narrative sequences. to further examine the gender portrayal in the narrative, this research will focus on human actants. greimas (1987) has proposed a “semiotic square” that allows exploring the symbolic position of actants within the narratives through mapping their relationship with other actants along oppositional, contradictory, and complementary axes. the researchers argue that semiotic mapping allows us to position the symbolic identity of a human actant and other human actants (including subjects and objects of narratives and sources) concerning one another. to further analyze the gender stereotypes in the narrative, this research will focus on human actants, predominantly female and male actant relations. in principle, greimas’ actantial model attempts to describe the narrative structure in terms of an established linguistic model derived from saussure’s concept of an underlying langue or competence that generates specific parole or performance and saussure’s and jakobson’s notion of the fundamental signifying role of binary opposition. binary opposition defines ‘sad’ as the opposition of ‘happy’ and ‘up’ by the sense of opposition to ‘down.’ to further analyze the story of pocahontas and captain john smith, the researchers will focus on the binary of ‘female’ as the opposition of ‘male’, and the ‘majority’ as the opposition of ‘minority’. the narrative structure analysis technique based on greimas’ perspective is relevant for analyzing feminist literary studies because the emphasis of the analysis lies in the relations between actants, especially the actant subject and actant object relationships, which are linear with the male-female relationship in the narrative structure. as explained by greimas, the actant subject has the modalities of wanting, knowing what to do, and the ability to do, which means that as an actant subject, he has more power than other actants. conversely, if the actant occupies a position as an actant object in the narrative structure, assumptions lead to a condition of less power. thus, the researchers argue that an in-depth study of the function of the actant in this structural study can be applied in feminist literary studies to compare the actant function of female and male characters in the story’s narrative structure. the patriarchal society stereotypically places men in the position of subject and women in the part of the object. that is why, for the feminist study of a literary work, the focus will be on the actants subject-object for male and female characters in the narrative. the profound analysis will be directed at the development of events surrounding the functions of gender-based actants. results and discussions to start an actantial analysis, the researchers determine narrative segments that build a narrative story where the roles of the actants appear and change in the structured configuration of the whole narrative. in the chronology of events, the narrative divides into nine segments: the first focuses on john smith’s dreams of adventure; the second examines gosnold’s ambition to search gold mines; the third scrutinizes john smith’s ambition to lead the colony; the fourth concentrates on pocahontas as the protector of captain john smith; the fifth shows powhatan’s effort to plot an attack; the sixth depicts pocahontas as argall’s hostage; the seventh illustrates pocahontas’ marriage; the eighth reveals john rolfe’s decision to leave for england with the family; the nine segment explicates pocahontas’ missing home. as greimas and courtés (1982) proposed, as the narrative discourses move, each actant serves a different function along with the narrative. in one actantial scheme, an actant may serve as a subject, but in other actantial schemes, he/she may perform as an object, a receiver, a helper, a sender, or an opponent. the following discussion delineates the progress of narrative discourses of the story of pocahontas and captain john smith. the actantial scheme of segment 1 (figure 3) shows captain john smith as the male subject who always dreams of adventure and battlefields to prove his glory. glory serves as an object. he has encountered misfortunes several times, such as being robbed and driven out by pilgrims. the robbers and pilgrims function as opponents. however, when he is driven from a ship and has to swim, a breton ship rescues him. the breton ship serves as a helper in the narrative. this visual representation obviously shows that there are no female actants showing up. the actantial scheme of segment 1 (figure 2) shows captain john smith as a subject who attempts to achieve the glory of battle to reach his dream. captain smith, as a male human actant, is stereotypically portrayed as a strong, brave, and independent individual because he can handle all the opponents and overcome all the obstacles along his journey to in pr es s 52 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 49-57 achieve victory. figure 2 actantial scheme of segment 1 the second actantial scheme of the second segment (figure 3) focuses on captain gosnold, who serves as the male actant subject in the narrative. gosnold, who is described as the leader of english colonists, has the courage and hopes to find a gold mine in virginia and conquer the native indians. gosnold, in this narrative structure, serves as the subject. gosnold’s arrival to virginia is by the order of king james. king james, in this narrative, acts as the sender. the gold mine in this narrative functions as an actant object. the following display chart does not show any female actant involved in the action. figure 3 actantial sheme of segment 2 as a male actant subject, gosnold is portrayed as a brave character with a male stereotype who has the hope and courage to explore the world and finds sources of wealth in the form of gold mines. he is the leader of the troops discovering a new world for the glory of the king. no different from the characterization of captain smith, gosnold is a depiction of a character in the folktale that shows male stereotypes, a leader who has sailed the world and conquered the land. the following excerpt showcases the male stereotype. “that night the ships dropped anchor in the bay. on the morrow the colonists disembarked, and captain gosnold, their leader, claimed the land in the king’s name.” (smith, 1906: unit 6) the actantial scheme of segment 3 (figure 4) identifies the ambitious person captain john smith, who serves as a male actantial subject. captain john smith, who has a hobby of adventure and is involved in various wars, in this segment is described as having the ambition to win land belonging to native indians. the land, in this segment, becomes the actant object that the subject wants to achieve. the native indians are resistant, and they play the role of opponents. captain john smith’s courage and hope serve as a helper in the narrative because it helps the subject achieve the object. figure 4 actantial scheme of segment 3 the actantial scheme of segment 4 (figure 5) shows the story of the main female character pocahontas, who is described as a lively little girl who likes to roam through the forest and chat with animals. pocahontas carries out her duties as a female actant subject in this narrative. in this segment, pocahontas presents to insist on protecting captain john smith from the death sentence imposed on him for killing a member of the tribe. in this scheme, captain john smith acts as an object. pocahontas’ love for captain smith is the sender for the subject to achieve the object. king powhatan, the decision-maker on punishment, has granted pocahontas’s request to free captain smith from punishment. in this segment, king powhatan serves as a helper. the native american indians who want to kill captain smith are called opponents. figure 5 actantial scheme of segment 4 this segment is exciting in the story of pocahontas, which shows the female character’s bravery in expressing what she wants. as a female actant in the narrative program, pocahontas is endowed with abilities to save captain john smith from the death sentence, nearly executed by the indian tribe. the word ‘shielded’ in the sentence shows pocahontas’ ability to protect captain smith from the death punishment. the following excerpt showcases pocahontas’ bravery. “with her own body she shielded the captain from harm, for her heart was moved to pity for the stranger, and she could not bear that in pr es s 53gender stereotypes in boyd smith’s .... (supiastutik et al.) he should die. and now aroused, with flashing eyes she waved the executioner back. then she pleaded with her father that the captives life be spared.” (smith, 1906: unit 11-12). this fifth segment (figure 6) reveals powhatan as a male subject who wants to protect the virginia mainland from the new colonies. powhatan plans a guerrilla attack against the settlement, but once again, pocahontas gets in the way of the king’s plans. secretly, pocahontas sneaks in and tells captain smith in case of a sudden attack from king powhatan, pocahontas’ father. in this segment, pocahontas acts as an opponent, not a subject, because pocahontas is an actant opposing the attack plot. the attack plan is a significant segment of the narrative program (np). when reading at a glance, pocahontas seems to have the power to protect john smith. however, when analyzing more deeply, powhatan does the more ‘heroic’ dimension because powhatan intends to protect broader and more rational interests, namely protecting his tribe from colonialism. meanwhile, pocahontas’ protection of john smith is an individual desire that prioritizes her sentimental love for a man. the love of powhatan is rational, while pocahontas’ love is emotional. figure 6 actantial scheme of segment 5 segment 6 (figure 7) delineates argall, who captures pocahontas as a prisoner of war. pocahontas’ imprisonment is intended to ensure that the war between the indians and white settlers does not continue. as a hostage, pocahontas never returns to see her father again until she grows into a woman. this segment is essential in the narrative story of pocahontas because this segment determines the storyline to flow into the next narrative program. this segment tells of pocahontas experiencing deep sorrow because of the rumors about her beloved captain john smith. pocahontas decides to marry john rolf in this state of grief. the actantial scheme of segment 7 (figure 8) describes john rolf as the male actant subject because he acts as an entity with a great desire to win the object, namely pocahontas. john rolf is stunned by pocahontas’ beauty when he sees pocahontas in the settlers’ camp. because pocahontas has given up on her love for captain john smith, pocahontas finally agrees to marry john rolfe. they married in church without any significant obstacles. pocahontas, in this segment, acts as a female object, which will be achieved by the male subject, john rolfe. jamestown church is an institution that has blessed their marriage, so this church is a helper in this narrative. figure 7 actantial scheme of segment 6 figure 8 actantial scheme of segment 7 in this segment, there are two problematic issues. first, pocahontas married with consent yet under compulsory conditions due to her position as a hostage. a woman is often portrayed stereotypically as having to accept marriage proposals because of her weak bargaining position. she has no other choice. the following excerpt shows the case. “she was never allowed to go back to her people, though nantaquaus came often to see her at jamestown. and here, she grew to be a woman, and learned the ways of the english women, and dressed as they did.” (smith, 1906: unit 19) the second issue is the stereotype of women, which is valued based on beauty. patriarchal society places men as subjects who have the privilege to see and put women’s beauty standards based on men’s standards. in line with the spirit of feminist studies, kim and lee (2018) have revealed that social pressure insists women look beautiful to be respected. these researchers suggest that women’s beauty standards are not only based on beauty, which is more inclusive and diverse, such as promoting the value of kindness, intelligence, compassion, and authenticity. the internalization of the concept of beauty can be carried out in various ways, including through non-stereotypes literary works. in pr es s 54 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 49-57 “at last, a young englishman, john rolfe, captivated by her dark beauty and gentle ways, wooed the indian maid…” (smith, 1906: unit 19) the actantial scheme of segment 7 (figure 9) delineates the story of john rolfe, who wants to bring his family to england to introduce pocahontas to british society. in this segment, john rolf is a male actant-subject because he is the one who causes the narrative to move into the next narrative program. he is the decision maker. pocahontas, in this case, is a helper because she supports john rolfe’s decision, and england is the object that the subject will achieve. this segment has no opponents because john rolfe does not have any challenges when he decides to sail for england. figure 9 actantial scheme of segment 7 the actantial scheme of segment 8 (figure 10) demonstrates pocahontas as a female actant subject in the narrative project. as a subject, pocahontas describes her longing for her former homeland in virginia. the land serves as an object that pocahontas wants to achieve. pocahontas is an actant subject because she is the one who is endowed by the modalities of wanting, and her husband, john rolfe, is the helper because he supports what the subject wants to do. pocahontas also serves as a receiver in this segment. figure 10 actantial scheme of segment 8 “when captain john had gone, the thoughts of pocahontas more than ever turned toward home, and she wearied of the crowded english land, and longed for her native forests again. daily she gazed from her window toward the west, where lay virginia, and her early life. and she pined, and thought much of the old days in her native wilds, when into her sunny life came the golden-haired stranger, with his people, and of the great changes that had befallen her and her race through that coming.” (smith, 1906: unit 25) as an enthusiastic native american indian woman who could find a lot of freedom in her native land, pocahontas’ living in england separated her from the outside world. after her marriage, pocahontas is treated like a lady because she is a noblewoman from an indian tribe who contributes a lot to helping the colonies and marries an englishman. in the new land, england, wherever pocahontas goes, there are always bodyguards, and there is no longer the freedom she experienced when she was in her home country. in the new country, pocahontas experiences domestication. pocahontas conveys her feeling of being free from the constraint to captain john smith, but the captain cannot help much because the king’s order requires everyone to treat pocahontas as a lady, “but captain john excused himself, saying, ‘i durst not now allow of that title, since the king commands that you be treated as a princess.’” at the end of the narrative, after undergoing an elongated lonesomeness, pocahontas falls ill and dies in a foreign land. pocahontas’ death in this segment becomes problematic because it shows a woman’s powerlessness in accepting their fate portrayed in texts on which feminists are always concerned (delap, 2018). the present study of pocahontas narrative shows the outnumbered female actants presenting as subjects. the surface structure refers to the outward appearance. in the surface structure, the dualism springing from the deep structure is presented in an integrated way. integrated way means when discussing the surface structure, it will be simultaneously followed by the discussion of the deep structure analysis. in this way, the readers perceive an image of the simple yet closet complex way in which the relationships between the characters are manifested at this level of analysis. table 1 displays the summary of actantial schemes involving all actantial functions of human and non-human actants. the human actants playing roles in the narrative are the english king, pocahontas, captain john smith, john rolfe, and king powhatan. the non-human actants are gold mines, feelings of love, england, dreams of battle and adventure, homeland, and the feeling of missing home. table 1 human actants based on gender actant’s gender actant’s names total s1 o1 s2 r h o2 female 2 1 0 2 1 1 7 male 7 2 1 6 2 0 17 unidentified 0 5 7 0 0 4 16 in pr es s 55gender stereotypes in boyd smith’s .... (supiastutik et al.) notes: s1 = subject o1 = object s2 = sender r = receiver h = helper o2 = opponent the surface structure shows the actants taking roles in the narrative: nine human actants represent subjects, three human actant objects, and five nonhuman actant objects. eight human actants serve as receivers. the composition of actants in table 1 showcases a hierarchical power structure. male actants dominate the function of the subject, which means that in terms of quantity, the narrative portrays the male characters as more important. meanwhile, pocahontas, a female actant, presents only twice as the subject actant in the narration. as mentioned in greimas’ notion, the actant subject always plays the most pivotal role in a narrative because he/she is the one who makes a story develop. he/she is characterized by modalities of wanting to do, knowing to do, and being able to do. a more profound observation of gender-based actants shows that the number of female actants is far behind the male actants, both as subjects and objects. the male actant representing subjects compared to the female actants functioning as subjects indicate 7:2. table 1 highlights the fact that the total number of human actants emphasizes males as the majority (more than 75%) in the narrative and minor female actants (less than 25%) as the subject. even though the title implies the pivotal role of pocahontas as a human actant, the numerical imbalance in favor of male actants showcases gender bias. as the story flows, the male actants appear more frequently and dominate the narrative program. the smaller number of female actants suggests the less importance of female characters in the narrative program. this finding aligns with what filipović (2018) found from the research results: the underrepresentation of female characters is nearly twice as many males as female title and main characters. another researcher also reveals gender biases and the underrepresentation of female characters in children’s books under the study (senjuti, 2022). the current research showcases stereotypical female actant subjects versus heroic male actant subjects in the narrative. as can be seen in table 1, pocahontas serves as an actant subject twice. the first role of the subject is in segment 4 when pocahontas moves to rescue the life of captain john smith from the death penalty of an indian tribe. at first glance, pocahontas’ courage and persistence seem like a hero to john smith. however, when examining more closely, pocahontas’ courage to protect is astoundingly sentimental and self-centered because she protects captain smith to satisfy her personal love above the immense interest of saving her tribe from colonialists. powhatan’s role as a male subject has a broader concern to protect his homeland. the explication of the female actant subject as a sentimental character and the portrayal of powhatan as a heroic male actant in the narrative are stereotypical. the second role of the female actant subject is available in segment 9. pocahontas, as a subject, is endowed with modalities of wanting to return to the homeland. pocahontas’ desire to return to her hometown has built a story movement in the narrative program. her husband, john rolfe, helps pocahontas’ dream of returning to her home country of america come true. although pocahontas can be categorized as an actant subject endowed with the modality of desire, she is stereotypically portrayed as less capable of doing outdoor activities. in other words, pocahontas undergoes domestication. she needs someone else to help her achieve her goal. this stereotypical portrayal of male and female characters aligns with what braden and rodriguez (2016) have found in gender stereotypes in the research. using a content analysis approach and critical race theory, they research 15 latinx children’s picture books. in conclusion, they argue that there is a prevalence of traditional female-centered roles in the 15 illustrated story books for children. braden and rodriguez (2016) have used these findings to contend the importance of making curricular decisions with critical attention to text selections and young children’s engagement in critical literacy in early childhood and elementary classrooms. feminists believe in the cognitive theory that children’s prevalent exposure to gender stereotypes, especially for reading materials under children’s grasp while forming their gender identity, will influence their perception of gender roles. genderspecific information influences a child’s interest and willingness to participate in these activities or interact with these objects associated with their gender (seitz, lenhart, & rübsam, 2020). however, in fact, the most recent research conducted by casey, novick, and lourenco (2021) on children’s books published between 1960-2020 shows that the male protagonist is twice as prominent as the female protagonist, with a ratio of 2:1. they also find that children’s story books written by men mostly feature male protagonists. gender stereotypes in the current research are in line with the results of previous research that stereotypical depictions of characters are still prevalent in literary works, especially those created for children (fitriani & muassomah, 2021; martin, 2017; rubegni et al., 2019). the stereotypic images continuously expose to children through literary works and textbooks have an unfavorable impact on the cognitive and affective development of children who are searching for identity (kneeskern & reeder, 2020; rahmadewi & supriyadi, 2021). conclusions in the configuration of actantial schemes, which build a whole narrative, the researchers find a relation between actants that oppose each other to form a binary opposition. greimas argues that this binary opposition is the basic foundation for determining the deep-lying in pr es s 56 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 49-57 ‘actantial model’ male ↔ female subject ↔ object majority ↔ minority heroic ↔ sentimental at the close of the research, the researchers may sum up the situation in the following terms. throughout the analysis process utilizing greimas’ actantial model, the researchers showcase the stereotyped portrayal of gender where the female characters are insufficiently present as subjects in the narrative sequence. once the female characters appear as subjects, they remain stereotypically characterized as sentimental figures. this research indicates that the theoretical contribution of greimas’ structuralism theory is still relevant to be used as a tool in literary analysis. the story of pocahontas and captain smith, written by e. boyd smith in 1906, can be said as an attempt to situate the female character as an important character because the female character pocahontas appears as the title of the story. however, the structural semiotic analysis proposed by greimas can dissect the deep structure of the narrative. the female character that functions as an actant subject in the narrative is statistically underrepresented. moreover, it turns out that some of the female and male characters in the narrative are still portrayed in a stereotyped manner. gender stereotypes in the current research align with previous research results that stereotypical depictions of characters are still prevalent in literary works, especially those created for children. practically speaking, this research on gender stereotypes provides new insight for writers to be more careful in presenting characters in their narratives and for publishers to be more discerning in publishing a selection. the stereotypic images continuously exposed to children through literary works and textbooks have an unfavorable impact on the cognitive and affective development of children searching for identity. methodologically, this research provides an alternative tool for analyzing data from a feminist perspective. acknowledgments we would like to sincerely express our gratitude to university of jember institute of research and community engagement for providing us the research grant that makes this research possible. references aryangga, a., & nurmaily, e. 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(2017). “pocahontas: propaganda, legend, hope”, and “noble avatars: the outlaw meets the savage”. quest, 189, 25-34. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 67 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 67-73 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7731 characterizing the ideal audio-visual learning content of writing course learned in distance patahuddin1*; syawal2; chester b. esnara3; muhaimin abdullah4 1,2english education department, faculty of teachers training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare jl. jend. ahmad yani km 6, parepare, south sulawesi 91112, indonesia 3benguet state university/university of the cordilleras governor pack road, baguio city 2600, philippines 4english education department, post-graduate program, universitas negeri makassar jl. a. p. pettarani, makassar, sulawesi selatan 90221, indonesia 1elbazthakim@gmail.com; 2awal.umpar@gmail.com; 3c.esnara@bsu.edu.ph; 4muhaiminabdullah24@gmail.com received: 13th december 2021/revised: 17th march 2022/accepted: 23rd march 2022 how to cite: patahuddin., syawal., esnara, c. b., & abdullah, m. (2022). characterizing the ideal audio-visual learning content of writing course learned in distance. lingua cultura, 16(1), 67-73. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7731 abstract the research aimed to discuss the need for a learning tool that was capable of presenting audio and visual aids to accommodate students in learning writing. it was urgently needed as a logical consequence of the covid-19 pandemic, which disallowed face-to-face learning to be conducted. the research was conducted at the department of english education, faculty of teachers training and education, universitas muhammadiyah parepare, by utilizing a questionnaire to explore the characteristics of ideal writing material restricted to visual aids. the research was participated by the second and fourth-semester learners as the population and recruited the samples based on simple random sampling. every individual in the population had an equal chance to be chosen as a sample. there were 30 undergraduate students who enrolled in basic writing and advanced writing courses who became the subject of the research. based on the research findings, eight characteristics of good audio visuals are recommended by the students. those characteristics include the visual and audio elements/items, creative and innovative content, language and expression, operations and mechanisms (various learning opportunities and preferences), and eye-catching form/shape/design, which deliver brief and clear learning material under several considerations. furthermore, following the findings, it also indicates that the effectiveness of delivering audiovisual aids materials in the learning process depends on how clear the audiovisual item (i.e. the text and audio, how efficient the material and audiovisual durations provided, how interesting and well-organized the design to attract students’ learning intention, how good the visual quality and how the audiovisual) can be produced into a small size to minimize the use of internet data. the research concludes that audiovisual learning materials need to be selectively chosen and periodically and systematically evaluated to best facilitate students in dealing with writing. keywords: audiovisual aids, learning content, writing course, covid-19 pandemics introduction the main goal of english instruction is that students could master language skills involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing at the end of the study. concerning writing competence, the goal is to enable the students to express the meanings in written interpersonal and transactional discourses formally and informally in the forms of recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, and report in the context of daily lives. due to the changing learning system during the pandemic, today’s teachers need to adapt to the various media in supporting the learning process, especially the technology-based media 68 69lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 67-73 characterizing the ideal audio-visual .... (patahuddin, et al.) (mashudi, komariah, & irvan, 2021). to achieve this goal, many innovations have been applied. according to indahri (2020), many educators have developed creative teaching models such as allowing students to learn from workshops around their house or school, optimizing whatsapp application for online classes, developing project-based learning through educational applications, and utilizing audiovisual to explain material and uploading it to youtube in order to be accessed by every student. the innovations made by the teachers, as mentioned, should synergize with the demands of the time and also should be easy to be accessed by every student in order to minimize the learning facilities gap between one and another who lives in a different region. one of the characteristics of learning in the globalization era is the use of textbooks in teaching integrated with the use of audiovisuals (holleran, 2021; nicolaou & kalliris, 2020). the use of audiovisual aids is believed reliable in assisting both teachers and students in teaching and learning english skills (aini et al., 2020; arif, 2020; salazar & larenas, 2018). visual aids could be in the form of designated materials provided by the teachers or commercial products which are provided by the publisher or any company. visual aids can be in the form of pictures, films, charts, animation films, and many others. according to elbechir (2018), in promoting english language teaching, the use of information and communication technologies (icts) is the best choice. again, he promotes that using audiovisual aids in teaching will result in a more creative and interesting teaching process. the use of audiovisual aids has been already proven effective by many researchers. one of them is ammade and ziska (2021), who have found that if animation film is used consistently, it can promote the learner’s positive energy in writing. moreover, short animated brain health films effectively affect people’s attitudes and effectively educate them (brennan, geary, & gallagher, 2021). due to the massive amount of information provided on the internet, visual content can change the massive information into brief information that requires minimum time to understand the material. in accordance with this, moltaji (2018) has also found that the information provided in social media, especially in the form of visual and audiovisual information, gives greater influence to the international students in determining their choice and strengthens their decision which helps them to choose their study destination. teaching in general or english teaching, in particular, combines various pedagogical components to achieve a certain goal. it means that teaching success is not merely determined by a single component but by the roles of all components involved. a teacher needs to bring and apply all components into the classroom, especially during the pandemic, which disallows regular face-to-face meetings that prevent the psychological relationship between teacher and students. unfortunately, the current situation produces many challenges for the teachers. according to aini et al. (2020), there are several challenges faced by some points of view; they are the lecturers, the students, and the academic institutions. the challenges not only come from the lack of motivation and ict knowledge but also from the internet connectivity and e-learning issues, including how the teacher manages the materials and maintains students’ engagement (aini et al., 2020). therefore, in the teaching-learning process, teachers need to choose the proper learning media that could help minimize the learning challenges faced by the students during learning from home and learning with limited supported facilities. some researchers have conducted studies on audiovisual aids in the learning of english. audiovisual aids applied in english as a second language (esl) countries with a low speaking level positively impact them. the audiovisual material can produce interactive learning, fun, and effective education for the students during the covid-19 outbreak. as a result, audiovisual materials help the malaysian education system to teach the students from home and make them understand the courses better (kathirvel & hashim, 2020). visual aids can also be used to attract students’ attention in writing class, making lessons more fun. it can also be used to create classes more clearly that the students have big enthusiasm in the teaching-learning process in writing class (fauzi, 2019; irmawati, ihsan, & rasmi, 2020). the trend of research on audiovisual learning can be seen in figure 1. from figure 1, information is obtained that the trend of research on the use of audiovisuals in the learning process is very high. however, based on vosviewer overlay data – a software applied in this research to describe the relationship between research variables, research on ideal audiovisual characteristics during the covid-19 pandemic is very low or even nil. figure 1 describes the most significant variables discussed in literature published during the covid-19 pandemic. figure 1 research of audiovisual during covid-19 thus, the problems faced by the teachers during a pandemic, such as limited time for live courses, overwork due to the student’s homework and administrative stuff, limited access to the registered courses, and lower interaction for students, produce an ineffective learning process. the students’ difficulty in conducting the online learning makes it difficult to utilize the online system because of the technical problem in accessing the live session (özüdoğru, 2021). therefore, researchers are challenged to revisit the audiovisual characteristics that are attractive to students that can be easily opened anytime, especially during the covid-19 pandemic. learning writing is not only putting a letter together into a word, clause, sentence, or paragraph, but it refers to creating a meaningful arrangement of the letter into a word, clause, sentence, or paragraph. therefore, some experts claim that writing is one of the most difficult skills for students (al zahrani & ismaiel, 2017; mamad, 2020; stapleton, zhang, & berman, 2021; tanjung, 2019; tanyer & susoy, 2019). there are several crucial issues concerning the teaching of writing. one of them is that writing is neglected in school (abas & aziz, 2018; cheong et al., 2019; wright et al., 2020). another issue is that it seems very difficult to produce good writing at the first touch (heard, 2019; labaree, 2020; rogers, 2017) since several stages should be applied to achieve good writing. in general, those stages include pre-writing, writing, and re-writing, which are interrelated. on the other hand, many students find difficulties when they are asked to write because they do not know how to start (ernawati, budiman, & latifa, 2020; popović & novović, 2016; syafii, 2019; puspitasari & herawati, 2019), and what topic they should choose (maolida & mustika, 2018; misra, 2021; winarto, 2018). another issue related to writing courses is unsuitable teaching techniques (allo, wahibah, & thayyib, 2020; ingale, 2017; isni, 2018; pertiwi & kareviati, 2021), which can influence students’ interest in writing in english. the various obstacles mentioned are becoming increasingly difficult as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. learning from home demands creativity and innovation for the sake of continuing fun writing and having an impact on student achievement. therefore, the selection of learning media is mandatory and very urgent. one learning media recommended by previous researchers is the video (faridha, 2019; farida & novita, 2020; hashim, yunus, & hashim, 2019; sianna, 2018). however, being selective in choosing learning media is an absolute requirement. the media selected must meet the needs of the user. therefore, this research aims to explore the requirements of audiovisual aids desired by learners. methods the research applies a survey research with questionnaires as an instrument. survey research is a kind of research that considers samples from a population and applies questionnaires as the primary instruments. therefore, the research applies a questionnaire as the primary instrument. the items on the questionnaire are specially addressed to second and fourth-semester students of the english department students at universitas muhammadiyah parepare. the subjects of the research are 30 undergraduate students majoring in teacher education enrolled in basic writing and advanced writing courses. the descriptive information generated from the survey is analyzed and presented in tabular form. results and discussions the result of the research shows that researchers should show their sensitivity to audiovisual applications in learning. based on data generated through the questionnaire, 11 crucial components are revealed, which aim to know the preferred audiovisual characteristic content that suits the learning process and meets the students’ needs, especially during the pandemic. figure 2 illustrates the students’ response toward the implementation of audiovisual in teaching writing. to investigate the students’ responses, the researcher provides 11 questions in the form of yes or no questions. the items existed to know whether (1) the size of the audiovisual content affects the effectiveness of language learning; (2) the audiovisual content should be provided in short content with a short duration; (3) the content should produce a colourful and eye-catching design; (4) the content accommodates various learning preferences; (5) the content applies interactive voice and intonation in expressing the material; (6) the content leads to creative and innovative visualization and voice-over; (7) the students experience difficulties during the use of audiovisual content as the source of learning; (8) the content affects the students’ writing skills; and (9) the respondents utilize audiovisual material during learning english. the questionnaire results reveal that the application of audiovisual aids in learning helps the participants learn and improve their writing skills. in another line, they never find any difficulties learning english through audiovisual. however, the bar chart in figure 2 also summarizes the students’ needs related to the implementation of audiovisual. they agree that some aspects must be considered in using audiovisual aids in the learning process. the aspects are the visual and audio elements/ items, creative and innovative content, language and expression, operations and mechanisms (various learning opportunities and preferences), and eyecatching form/shape/design. these aspects will affect the effectiveness of delivering materials through audiovisual. additionally, most of the students agree that audiovisual aids should provide colourful content, and the material should provide short content. lastly, 70 71lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 67-73 characterizing the ideal audio-visual .... (patahuddin, et al.) they also vote that the large size (1 gb, 500 mb, 250 mb) of audiovisual is one factor that also affects the effectiveness of content delivery and learning. in conclusion, they are the dominant choice ‘yes’, while just a few of them voiced ‘no’, where some think that the content can exist for a long duration according to the kinds of the material provided. in addition, a large content size with a less-coloured design is not a big deal. to examine and strengthen students’ opinions related to the yes-no questions, the researcher provides 11 open-ended questions. it focuses on some points; students’ obstacles, students’ expectations, students’ suggestions, and the benefit of audiovisual for students. there are some obstacles illustrated by the student related to the learning through audiovisual; they are difficult to understand, large size videos, and consuming many internet data. to solve the obstacles, they claim some expectations should be considered in providing audiovisual aids in learning. they expect the visual item/element of audiovisual aids to provide clear video, clear sound, creative, and short in terms of duration. these items are the main factors to support students’ understanding of the materials. if one of the items/elements does not work optimally, then the student will not get an accurate understanding of what they learn. all items/ elements should support each other to ensure that the students can get the most benefit from learning through audiovisual aids. it will be useless if the video is clear but the sound is not clear or if the audio and sound are clear but do not engaging and are not sufficiently long in terms of duration because the factors potentially make the students bored and, in turn, decrease the students’ participation in learning. besides the focus on items/elements of audiovisual, it is also essential to create innovative, funny, and educational content that is supported by good language and expression with good intonation and clear pronunciation. each student has a different motivational state and level of focus in the classroom. therefore, innovative content is extremely needed. this is to avoid boring classes that cause the level of students’ motivation and focus on decreasing. one of the innovations that can be chosen in creating content is to include funny elements in the video to create an enjoyable class for students. the enjoyable class will affect the students’ performance in class. the students will easily understand the lesson and actively participate. furthermore, apart from providing innovative and funny content, the videos will continue to focus on matters related to education. after creating innovative, funny, and educational content, another support comes from good intonation and clear pronunciation. to avoid misunderstanding, good intonation and clear pronunciation must be achieved. intonation is the high and low tone that puts pressure on a sentence to properly convey the meaning of the sentence. intonation errors in sentences will lead to misunderstandings that cause learning objectives to be difficult to achieve. in essence, different intonations lead to a different meaning. therefore, intonation is one of the most important things to be noticed. in the same line, pronunciation is also a factor that determines whether or not audiovisual content is good or not. in english, there are several words with similar pronunciations (homophones). if there is any inaccurate pronunciation in producing a word, the person receiving the information will find it difficult to know the speaker’s meaning. in other words, the information received will potentially miss-interpret information. on the same page, the students suggest to create appropriate and eye-catching content. the students perceive eye-catching content as good contrast. furthermore, the students suggest that the color combination applied should match to make the content comfortable to watch. to maximize the degree of comfortability in watching the content, it is also momentous to create content that is easy to access and understand and exists in good quality, interactive, simple and well-organized. in addition, the content is suggested to be playable for around 5 to 10 minutes with approximately 250-500 mb in size. the findings related to the long size audiovisual duration of around 5 to 10 minutes are also supported by research conducted by chauvet et al. (2020). he has suggested short-run video to be applied in lectures because it brings more advantages and has a higher possibility of being viewed completely rather than the long duration. followed by the assessment conducted by slemmons et al. (2018), she has tried to compare 20 minutes video with 10 minutes video. the result shows that most students prefer the short video duration rather than the long video. the reason is simply that the short video can help students to recall the information contained in the video. supporting the results in the research, rationally, short video durations could minimize the internet quota consumption that is expected by students, depending on the size quality of the audiovisual presented. interestingly, related to this, the content that is lifted into audiovisual needs to be considered to strike a balance between the duration of the video and the ensuing quality. research directed by van der keylen et al. (2020) displays that the nature of the content can affect the quality of the resulting video over time. nevertheless, this can happen when the audiovisual material contains visual content that comprises many details, such as in an action movie that presents fast-motion. furthermore, to produce efficient audiovisual learning materials, teachers should consider several aspects, not only selecting the right content but also paying attention to how the video is displayed, having clear explanation and voice over, good intonation, and eye-catching design. all aspects are determining indicators of whether the learning process through audiovisual will run well or not. therefore, it is necessary to ensure all aspects are represented properly because each aspect has its strength to support the audiovisual as media in the learning process. furthermore, it should be in accordance with the student’s voice as collected through the questionnaire. based on the students’ expectations and suggestions, proper audiovisual aids are provided to increase and strengthen the benefits of audiovisual aids previously experienced. it is intended to increase their learning intention and vocabulary mastery to facilitate comprehension of the material by repeating the material independently. the audiovisual content could also help students with different learning problems during the pandemic, such as having difficulties accessing internet connection or having limited internet data and phone storage to accommodate the audiovisual material. in addition, by providing audiovisual aids according to the student’s needs, students can maximize their opportunities to learn through audiovisual aids. conclusions it is observed that many audiovisual aids are difficult to correspond with the students learning desires. therefore, the role of teachers in teaching and learning english in this pandemic era should go along with the desired ideal audiovisual aids demanded by the students. evaluation of the use of audiovisual aids in learning is very urgent to be carried out periodically to avoid student saturation in learning. in addition, the ability and foresight of a teacher in choosing audiovisual aids for learning purposes also greatly determines the results of the learning process. the teachers also need support, training, and technical direction to help them conduct online learning, especially in producing effective audiovisual material for their students. having limited skills and avoiding the change will hamper the educators from producing better materials, being facilitators for their students, and contributing to society. therefore, there must be a real effort to encourage the audiovisual literacy skills of educators. the lack of audiovisual literacy of educators will have an impact on the audiovisual quality used in learning. based on the results of a survey conducted in the research, it is highly recommended for educators to select audiovisual aids content which offers (1) creative and innovative learning content; (2) emphasis on language and expression; (3) appropriate operations and mechanisms (various learning opportunities and learning preferences); and (4) eye-catching form/ shape/design. furthermore, besides preparing the educators to be qualified in mastering the making of audiovisual material, further research on the audiovisual assessment rubric is also expected. the audiovisual assessment rubric for the purposes of the teaching and learning process prior to the covid-19 pandemic needs to be reviewed in response to several findings in the research. acknowledgement the authors (ptn, syl, cbe, and ma) would like to express their heartfelt gratitude to universitas muhammadiyah parepare (umpar) and the english education department, faculty of teachers training and education (pbi fkip) for giving opportunities and providing research facilities for this study to be conducted. universitas muhammadiyah parepare funded the study through the fundamental research grant aids (apbu 2020). the authors would like to appreciate all individuals at the teacher education department of the benguet state university, the philippines for the mutual partnership of both institutions. the authors also express their gratitude to zulwahyuni namrullah and irma yuliana saputri (kui umpar) for their excellence in drafting the survey instrument, distributing and collecting the students' responses. references abas, i. h., & aziz, n. h. a. 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(2020). writing motivation and middle school: an examination of changes in students’ motivation for writing. literacy research and instruction, 59(2), 148-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2020.17 20048. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 33 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 33-41 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7764 pedagogic interaction in an online efl class at a junior high school in depok fitria azifah dewi1; sisilia setiawati halimi2* 1,2department of linguistics, faculty of humanities, university of indonesia jl. prof. dr. selo soemardjan, kampus ui, pondok cina, kota depok, jawa barat 16424, indonesia 1fazifah.dewi@gmail.com; 2sshalimi@gmail.com received: 12th october 2021/revised: 14th february 2022/accepted: 16th february 2022 how to cite: dewi, f. a. & halimi, s. s. (2022). pedagogic interaction in an online efl class at a junior high school in depok. lingua cultura, 16(1), 33-41. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7764 abstract the research was conducted to investigate how the teacher built pedagogic interactions with the students in an online efl class in depok, including how the teacher used speech structures, language shifts, and how the students perceived the interactions. the shift to online learning in the pandemic era had affected the quality of learning. due to the complexity of online learning, interpersonal interactions between teachers and students were frequently overlooked in an online class. applying exploratory sequential mixed methods, the research was meant to provide findings that could be used to improve the quality of online learning. it began with a qualitative research phase, and then the results of the qualitative phase were used to build into the quantitative phase. classroom observations, stimulated recalls, and a questionnaire were used to collect the data. the results indicate that the efl teacher builds his/her interactions by prioritizing pedagogical functions and targeting the students' cognitive domains. the dominant learning cycle is the focus phase with a pedagogical role as an information provider. intramove is identified as the most frequently occurring code-switching type used for pedagogical, managerial, and technical functions. translanguaging is also identified which gives rise to productive bilingualism. overall, the pedagogic interactions that are established by the efl teacher are well perceived by the students, and they give some suggestions for the quality improvement of efl online learning so that future classes will be more interactive. more research on the aspects of class interactions during online learning should be carried out to help teachers improve the quality of their online teaching. keywords: pedagogic interactions, online class, efl class, code-switching introduction the covid-19 pandemic has caused all offline learning activities to be shifted to distance online learning. zoom is one of the various online learning media used by most teachers (atmojo & nugroho, 2020) because it is able to facilitate face-to-face online learning and is real-time (synchronous). online learning with video-teleconferencing (synchronous) requires students to activate their cognitive aspects more than online learning that is not real-time (asynchronous), such as online assignments with a certain response time limit (payne, 2020). teachers need to be able to continue to interact directly with students even though they are in a pandemic situation that requires learning to be carried out remotely. moreover, in distance learning, there is a tendency to lack interaction, which causes students not to participate actively because they merely listen to explanations from teachers (gillies, 2008 in wu, hsieh, & yang, 2017). teachers’ role in synchronous online learning is divided into four: pedagogical, social, managerial, and technical functions (berge, 1995). in the pedagogical function, the teacher acts as a facilitator and moderator who provides explanations and asks questions to students to encourage them to discuss and develop their thinking skills. in the social function, the teacher plays a role in building pleasant and conducive interactions 34 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 33-41 and interpersonal relationships with students during the learning process. in the managerial function, the teacher plays a role in regulating the progress of class discussion and interaction. in the technical function, the teacher’s role is to ensure that students are comfortable with the online system and their devices. basically, the concept of online learning in the pandemic era needs to be examined because it has some fundamental differences from the concept of regular or general online learning. first, online learning is usually done willingly, while it is done out of necessity in the pandemic era. second, regular online learning is well-planned that can take months, while in the pandemic era, it is sudden and thus tends to be unprepared (bozkurt & sharma, 2020; hodges et al., 2020). those two different online learning contexts give rise to a concept called emergency remote teaching (ert), which is considered suitable for the pandemic era (bozkurt & sharma, 2020; hodges et al., 2020; jiang & yu, 2021). in the researchers’ opinion, the usage of the term ert to refer to online learning is important to examine because this term has a similar meaning to that of online learning in general, but various aspects cannot be ruled out. hodges et al. (2020) have stated that online learning in the pandemic era should focus more on the context, input, and process than the results. in other words, paying attention to students’ affective aspects in an online class in the pandemic era is something that cannot be ignored by teachers because the ‘suddenness’ brought about by the pandemic certainly affects students’ psychology in that they have to quickly adapt to the current situation. in addition, regular online learning success criteria tend to focus on students’ achievements or outcomes and are student-centred (garrison & cleveland-innes, 2005). meanwhile, online learning in the pandemic era, which is characterized by suddenness and limited preparation, cannot be expected to produce the same result as regular online learning. although some of these characteristics do exist and are inevitable, it does not mean that efforts to make pandemic-era online learning successful are unnecessary. the basic principles of online learning can still be used as a reference for evaluating learning in this pandemic era. an online efl class is a social context that has its own discourse. the various modalities used in teaching and learning activities, the large number of students in one classroom (rose, 2014), and the target of learning a foreign language often hinder the teacher from building good interactions in an efl class. therefore, taking a closer look at the interactions that occur in an efl classroom is an excellent initial step toward improving the quality of learning. in the research, the term teacher-student interaction is called pedagogic interaction (rose, 2014; 2018), which is elaborated with a pedagogic register system to see the dominance of teacherstudent interaction, particularly in relation to comprehensive pedagogic relations. the pedagogic register is a system for analyzing classroom discourse. classroom discourse is a genre (rose, 2014), and like other social genres such as the workplace, a classroom has its own social context. the pedagogic register is a systemic functional linguistic (sfl) system that includes fields, tenors, and modes. the field is in the form of pedagogic activities that are negotiated in the pedagogic relations between the teacher and students (tenors) and delivered through a variety of different pedagogic modalities such as oral speech, writing, gestures, and other somatic activities (modes) (rose, 2018). rose has added that the entire system is a forum for exchanging knowledge and values between the teacher and students. figure 1 is a curriculum genre chart that describes the pedagogic register system (rose, 2018). figure 1 classroom discourse in a pedagogic register system the pedagogic register theory can help comprehensively describe teachers’ and students’ interaction patterns and their meanings in terms of pedagogical activity cycles, interpersonal relationships between teachers and students, and the modality used during face-to-face or online learning. a comprehensive description of the interaction patterns of teachers and students and their meanings is believed can help teachers improve the quality of learning in their class. in the research, considering the background and objectives, the researchers only examine aspects of pedagogic relations developed in various learning cycles or phases that are part of pedagogic activities. previous studies related to this topic are conducted by mariadi, erwani, and putri (2021) and sepulvedaescobar and morrison (2020). mariadi, erwani, and putri (2021) have found that online learning promotes good and effective classroom interaction if some factors, such as instruction, learners, and physical factors, are settled. the other research by sepulvedaescobar and morrison (2020) has found that the lack of direct interaction with learners and the sudden change of setting strongly affected the participants’ own learning process. both studies have revealed the need for further research to examine the interpersonal relationship between teachers and students in an online classroom often neglected. in response to this, 35pedagogic interaction in an online .... (fitria azifah dewi; sisilia setiawati halimi) both researchers are motivated to further examine the realm of pedagogic relations as a representation of interpersonal metafunction in systemic functional linguistics. pedagogic relations in classroom discourse are realized through interaction in the form of exchanges between a teacher and students when they negotiate meaning (rose, 2018). the exchange of speech is divided into two aspects: knowledge (symbolized by k) and action (symbolized by a). meanwhile, the teacher or student can serve the role of a primary speaker/actor or a secondary speaker/actor for each speech exchange. the purpose of knowledge utterances is to convey learning content and provide feedback so that these utterances are primarily dominated by the teacher. however, the learner can also play the role of a secondary speaker in using this type of utterance when answering questions from the teacher. the purpose of the action utterance is to effect action, so the main actor will usually ask permission to do something, and the secondary actor has the role of approving the action. in building this interpersonal relationship, further exchanges of speech can occur, such as delaying (symbolized by d), following up speech (symbolized by f), giving challenges (symbolized by ch), or clarifying (symbolized by cl). in every utterance generated by the teacher and students, there is also an interact and act system (rose, 2018). the interact and act systems are inseparable in speech analysis. interact is the intention of the speaker’s/doer’s utterance, such as directing or qualifying. meanwhile, an act is an action that is expected to follow up on interactions, such as directing attention, qualifying knowledge, and so on. in addition to the pedagogic relations, the researchers also look at the learning cycle built by the efl teacher in the online class. the learning cycle is one part of the pedagogic activities, which refers to the various phases of learning activities. in one learning cycle, there are five phases (rose, 2014, 2018): the preparation phase, the focus phase (question and answer), the assignment phase, the evaluation phase, and the elaboration phase. the five phases do not only occur in one learning cycle because there can be more than one learning cycle containing a repetition of phases in one meeting. in an efl class, classroom discourse cannot be separated from the phenomenon of language switching from l1 to l2 or vice versa. the phenomenon of switching between two or more languages in a multilingual and multicultural community as a communication strategy is called code-switching (doqaruni, 2017). the complexity of the interaction of pedagogic discourse in a bilingual efl class calls for efforts to see the causes of such code-switching and not merely look at the code-switching types. the research uses two types of code-switching, which are predicted to be able to describe the pattern of interaction in a multilingual efl class (kartika-ningsih & rose, 2018) by connecting them to the analysis of the pedagogic register. those two code-switching types are interrole (switching between roles) and intrarole (switching between utterances in one role). interrole is a type of code-switching that occurs between roles in one speech exchange. for example, when the teacher starts the speech using l1 (native language), the student responds using l2 (foreign language), and the teacher closes the speech exchange by giving an evaluation using l2. the intrarole type is further divided into intermove and intramove. in the intermove type, the teacher uses l1 and l2 when starting and/or closing the speech exchange. the third type of code-switching is the most common in bilingual classes, which is intramove. in the intramove type, the teacher uses l1 and l2 in one utterance or one sentence at a time. research on code-switching in an online efl context is still infrequent since most research related to online efl class has only focused on multimodality aspects (adinolfi & astruc, 2017) or bilingual class in general (cahyani, de courcy, & barnett, 2018). research related to code-switching needs to be conducted to help efl teachers get references for effective translation practices, considering that there is still a tendency in foreign language classes that teachers should maximize their use of l2 (liu et al., 2004). the research focuses on classroom discourse with an emphasis on teacher-student interactions that are built from a comprehensive pedagogical aspect in an online efl class in a junior high school. in addition, the researchers also look at the students’ perceptions of how the teacher built pedagogic interactions with them in an online efl class. thus, the research seeks to answer three questions: (1) how does the teacher use speech structures when building interactions with students in an online efl class? (2) how does the teacher use code/language switching in an online efl class? (3) what is the students’ perception of the interactions built by the teacher in the online efl class? the researchers focus on teacher and student interaction in an online class by looking at class discourse analysis built between the two. the researchers believe that this is the most important part of online learning that has not been researched thoroughly. by examining the classroom discourse, investigating how the teacher used code-switching in online and distributing a questionnaire, the pattern of pedagogical interactions can be identified. the researchers could offer good recommendations for teachers and further research. the findings of the research are expected to be able to help direct the practice of teaching efl in online classes, especially how teachers deliver effective instruction or speech to students and build interpersonal relationships with students so that teacher professional development programs can be well designed. it is also expected that the findings can provide future directions for further research in english online learning. 36 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 33-41 methods the case study research applies mixed methods with an exploratory sequential design that starts with collecting qualitative data, followed by quantitative data, and ends by integrating the two to answer research questions. the research is conducted online by joining an online efl class in grade 8 using the zoom learning application at a private junior high school x in depok city. it is claimed that the class is the top english class in that school. online class observations are carried out for six meetings. the duration of each meeting is 80 minutes. the research participants in this online efl class are an efl teacher aged 37, and 25 students aged 13–14. two units of learning material are delivered by the efl teacher in this research. each unit has a different theme and focuses on four language skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking) and grammatical contents. however, during six observations in the online efl class, the researchers observe that the teacher only focuses on the listening and grammar contents. the teacher confirms that this is done for the sake of efficiency due to limited learning time in the online class. the researchers use three research instruments: class observation, stimulated recall, and questionnaire. the class observation is carried out to answer the first research question about how the teacher uses speech structures when building interactions with students in an online efl class. the stimulated recall is used to answer the second research question about how the teacher uses code-switching in an online efl class. the last instrument which is utilized to obtain quantitative data is a questionnaire. the questionnaire consists of three parts. the first part consists of three questions asking for participants’ information, including name, age, and experience of learning english online. the second part consists of 16 closed-ended questions with five likert scale answer options. the questions aim to find out how the teacher establishes interactions with the students in online english class. the third part of the questionnaire contains four openended questions, which ask for the students’ reflections and suggestions regarding the interactions built by the teacher in the online english class. the total number of questions in the questionnaire is 23 questions. the writing of the questionnaire questions is based on the pedagogic interaction theory (rose, 2014; 2018). before distributing the questionnaires, the researchers conduct a pilot study involving several respondents to test the questionnaire’s reliability. after that, the researchers check the pilot study results using the cronbach's alpha formula. the result of the pilot study is quite high at 0,606 points, which shows that the questionnaire is well-written and is ready to be used. after collecting the data, the researchers analyze them by classifying the teacher’s utterances into categories consisting of the function or role of the teacher, the pedagogic role, the learning phase, the interact and act system, and code-switching types. after the data have been analyzed according to the categories, the researchers conduct an inter-rater test to ensure that the data analysis is sufficiently reliable. an assessor classifies the resulting speech data based on pedagogic roles, pedagogy phases, and pedagogic relations that include interact and act systems. the pedagogic roles generate an agreement value of 0,95, which means it belongs to the category of almost perfect agreement. the pedagogic phases generate an agreement value of 0,89, putting it in the category of almost perfect agreement. pedagogic relations generate an agreement value of 0,78, putting it in the category of substantial agreement. these explanations clearly illustrate how the researchers carry out the research. it has also clearly described the research design, the replicable research procedures, and the way to summarize and analyze the data. results and discussions the following is information about the accumulation of speech function data in an online efl class. figure 2 speech functions in online efl class figure 2 shows that in all utterances collected from the six online class meetings, 57,71% are classified as pedagogical function, 28,45% are classified as managerial function, 11,07% are classified as a technical function, and 2,77% are classified as social function. the pedagogical function utterances that mostly occurred in the online efl class aim to trigger opinions from students, ask questions by the teacher, repeat the material that has been taught by the teacher, and explain concepts contained in the material by the teacher. the managerial function utterances in the online efl class are mostly used by the teacher to ensure that students are ready to learn, regulate students’ behavior during the learning process, arrange students’ turns to answer questions, and inform students how to carry out online assignments. technical function utterances in the online efl class cover various purposes, which are to check the synchronicity of the screen display, check students’ engagement, and check connection 37pedagogic interaction in an online .... (fitria azifah dewi; sisilia setiawati halimi) stability. the social function utterances in the online efl class generally aim to reprimand a student for the behavior and examine the condition of the student’s learning environment. even though social functions are at the lowest frequency of all roles, the teacher still tries to maximize her role as an online class facilitator by paying attention to the students’ affective aspects. overall, the utterances generated from teacherstudent interactions in the online efl class still focus on the pedagogical function or teaching content but lacked in building deeper interpersonal relationships such as maximizing social or affective functions. although the four speech functions in online classes are not possible to be used with exactly the same frequency (berge, 1995), an online teacher is expected to pay attention to at least the aspects of content and interaction with students as much as possible. the teacher’s concern is about core and basic competencies set by the government and have to be mastered by the students. this can be one of the factors which lead them to focus more on the contents of the material. it seems that the primary objective is to convey all materials in their entirety. this finding, however, should be seriously addressed during the pandemic because, in online learning, social and affective interactions cannot happen outside class sessions. awareness about this should be raised among teachers. next, table 1 shows the data analysis of pedagogic relations, including interact and act systems. the results of the interact data analysis in table 1 show that the teacher builds interactions more by teaching than by soliciting at 69,71% and 30,29%, respectively. meanwhile, the results of the act system analysis show that the teacher builds more interactions by prioritizing thought or cognitive process at 45,47%, followed by student behaviors at 22,23%, perceptive aspects at 13,04%, affective aspects at 11,86%, joint activities at 6,40%, and finally teacher evaluation at 1,01%. table 1 shows that interact teaching dominates the teacher’s speech in the online efl class at 69,71%. the details of the teaching system data analysis are shown in figure 3. figure 3 interact teaching system figure 3 shows that the interact system in teaching is divided into three activities, namely evaluating, presenting, and directing. of the three interact systems, evaluating has the highest frequency at 57%, followed by presenting at 24,05%, and directing at 18,73%. these findings indicate that teachers build interactions more by providing feedback or evaluations than by delivering materials and directing students. efl teaching in an online class that focuses on grammar results in a teaching system is dominated by the activity of giving feedback. the dominance of the teaching system in an online efl class also indicates a teacher-centred learning model. this is in line with the researchers’ finding that the online class applies an act system that prioritizes the thinking process or targets students’ cognitive domain. the impact of this is that the teacher focuses on delivering materials and providing feedback to students but pays little attention to the students’ affective side and provides few discussion activities. during the online learning process, there are phases that keep repeating themselves and form a learning cycle: preparation, specification or focus, task, evaluation, elaboration, and direction. figure 4 shows the results of the researchers’ data analysis on six online efl class meetings in terms of those phases. figure 4 pedagogic phases in an online efl class figure 4 shows that teacher establishes interaction with the students mostly in the focus phase at 37,07%, followed by the evaluation phase at 22,05%, the assignment phase at 21,57%, the preparation phase at 7,29%, the elaboration phase at 6,44%, and the direction phase at 5,59%. the interactions built by the teacher in each phase can be categorized into different roles. figure 5 shows the results of the data analysis of the pedagogic roles in the online efl class. figure 5 shows that the teacher’s most dominant table 1 pedagogic relations efl teacher’s interact system efl teacher’s act system soliciting teaching behaviours teacher evaluation joint activity perceptive cognitive affective 30,29% 69,71 % 22,23 % 1,01 % 6,40 % 13,04 % 45,47 % 11,86 % 38 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 33-41 role when building interaction with the students is k1 (delivering and evaluating), at 26,86%. the researchers have also found that k1 is the most common role in all phases of learning at each meeting. this is in line with havwini’s (2019) finding that the most dominant initiation act of an efl teacher’s utterance in adult class is asking questions or giving prompt questions. the teacher’s second and third most dominant role is k2 and dk1. in dk1 utterances, the teacher asks students questions in order to check or test their understanding. the pattern that most often emerged in relation to this is the teacher’s dk1 utterance which is usually followed by a student’s direct answer (k2) or by the teacher’s challenge (ch), which is usually triggered by the absence of any response from the students. this pattern makes the ch and rch (response to challenge) roles rank the next highest at 8,21% and 7,47%, respectively. ch and rch utterances not only are scattered and emerged after dk1 utterances but also followed other roles and usually arose when no student responded to the teacher’s prompts. when producing responding-to-challenges (rch) utterances in the online class, the teacher does several activities, including calling a student’s name again, moving to another student, asking students to repeat their statements, and providing feedback to students. figure 5 pedagogic roles note: a1 : primary actor a2 : secondary actor a2f : secondary actor-follow up k1 : primary knower k2 : secondary knower k2f : secondary knower-follow up dk1 : delayed primary knower k1f : primary knower-follow up ch : challenge rch : response to challenge da1 : delayed primary actor tr : tracking rtr : response to tracking cl : clarification rcl : response to clarification in relation to the learning cycle, rose (2018) has described the tendency of the role relations in speech utterance with learning phases, as seen in figure 6. figure 6 shows that the role tendency in the preparation phase is k1, in the focus phase is dk1, in the assignment phase is k2, in the evaluation phase is k1, and in the elaboration phase is k1. even though not entirely the same as rose’s theory (2018), the dominance of these roles is quite consistent throughout the researchers’ observation of the six online efl class meetings, as shown in figure 7. figure 6 role tendency in learning phase (rose, 2018) figure 7 role tendency during learning phases in an online efl class figure 7 shows the role tendency that is most in line with rose’s (2018) pedagogic activity theory that can be found in the evaluation and elaboration phases, which is at 100%. in both phases, most of the activities done by the teacher can be categorized as delivering knowledge (k1). in the preparation phase, the k1 role is also quite dominant at 66%. likewise, the k2 role is very dominant in the assignment phase at 83%. this naturally happens because, in the assignment phase, the students are more active in answering questions. however, in the focus phase, the researchers have also noticed that the dk1 role only emerges as much as 33%. other roles identified in the focus phase are k2 by the students at 80% and by the teacher at 20%, and the teacher plays the k1 role by providing feedback and delivering information. this shows that when the efl teacher asks the students questions related to the materials taught, the students are found to reply directly. however, the reply does not answer the questions; instead, they ask similar questions (k2), and the teacher has to re-explain the materials (k1). 39pedagogic interaction in an online .... (fitria azifah dewi; sisilia setiawati halimi) there are several factors that may have caused this to happen. first, the researchers have found that the elaboration phase only happens 7,29% throughout the six online efl class meetings. lack of elaboration and examples when explaining the concepts contained in the materials, particularly those about grammar, could have reduced students’ understanding of the topic, so re-asking questions are the most effective solution that they can adopt. second, the lack of a good internet connection during listening activities carried out by playing videos may have caused students to miss several pieces of information. third, problems related to the affective aspect of the students, such as boredom when participating in online lessons, may have also interfered with their focus when listening to the teacher’s questions and explanations. in order to build productive interaction with students in an online efl class, the use of codeswitching by the teacher becomes an unavoidable phenomenon. to answer the second research question, the results of the researchers’ analysis of the teacher’s code-switching in the online efl class are presented in figure 8. figure 8 teacher’s code-switching in an online efl class figure 8 shows that to build interactions with the students, the teacher mostly uses the intramove type of code-switching at 88,22%, followed by the interrole code-switching type at 8,27%, and by the intermove type at 3,51%. this fact is in line with the statement by kartika-ningsih and rose (2018) that intramove is the most common type of code-switching that occurs in daily bilingual conversations and multilingual language classes, including the online efl class in this research. the learning content, mostly about grammar, is one factor that leads the teacher to switch from l2 to l1 or vice versa in a single exchange. teachers’ tendency to use l1 while explaining language structures aims to ease students’ understanding of the grammar lesson. mujiono (2016) has reported that the most dominant factor causing teachers to switch language is the students’ use of l1 when interacting with the teacher. it is also stated that the use of code-switching can help learners acquire english better (puspawati, 2018; rido & sari, 2018; zainil, 2019). the practice of translanguaging is also identified in the efl class. translanguaging departs from a heteroglossic perspective which sees two or more languages as an integrated linguistic system (garcia, lin, & may, 2016; vogel & garcia, 2017). both the teacher and the students in the research use two languages during class without hesitation, and this shows that translanguaging is also encountered in this online efl grammar class. this is encountered when the participants are talking about matters related to technical functions, such as when the internet connection is disrupted or when the teacher and students wish to build more rapport. the occurrence of translanguaging indicates that the teacher no longer limited themselves to using only one language and is aware of the benefits of using two languages interchangeably. in other words, the teacher maximizes his/her two linguistic resources in both l1 and l2 and spontaneously offers the students the freedom to do the same, albeit indirectly. this gives rise to the phenomenon of productive bilingualism. in this paradigm, code-switching is a communication strategy. it is carried out in a planned manner to help a bilingual convey his/her message, but in the context of translanguaging, the flexibility aspect becomes stronger. in other words, a communication strategy that a teacher uses in an online efl classroom can change depending on the context he/she is dealing with. in this online class, the type of intramove codeswitching, namely the mixing of two languages in one exchange, is dominant. in the online efl class, codeswitching becomes an inevitable practice because of the importance of making the best use of the limited teaching time. as the answer to the third research question, the researchers’ analysis shows that students’ perceptions of interactions built by the efl teacher during online class meetings are quite positive at 79%. however, the interaction built by the teacher is only able to actively involve 44% of students. students hope that the teacher can be more interactive in building interactions in online efl classes, such as giving games, increasing discussion and group work, not being too fixated on powerpoint presentation (ppt) explanations, maximizing the use of two languages in an online class, being more tolerant of connection problems in an online class, and improving teacher’s internet connections so that online learning process could run more effectively. according to irawan & salija (2017), giving appreciation can encourage student motivation and make students feel valued. the findings of this research demonstrate the students’ high need for the efl teacher’s attention to their affective aspects. this stems from the high psychological pressure of participating in ert online learning that students may experience. this should be informed to not only the teacher in this research but also to other teachers because, as confirmed in previous research by nasir, yusuf, and wardana (2019), the less attention a teacher pays to the affective side of learners, the greater the tendency of the teacher to dominate speech in class. if 40 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 33-41 this happens, a teacher-centred model will dominate online learning, and it will not be able to fulfil students’ expectations of more-interactive learning. conclusions pedagogic interactions, which include the functions of the teacher’s speech, interact systems, and dominating teaching content, cannot be separated from the practice of code-switching and raises students’ perceptions of the overall interaction built by the teacher. it can be concluded that the interaction built by the teacher in the online efl class is more focused on serving pedagogical functions than paying attention to target students’ cognitive domains. the code-switching practice performed by the teacher gives rise to the practice of productive bilingualism and indicates that the use of code-switching can be integrated with the translanguaging phenomenon in an online efl class. overall, students consider that the pedagogic interactions built by the efl teacher in their online class have been carried out well. students’ recommendations for the teacher to improve his/her online efl teaching methods seem to be in line with the literature regarding one aspect of ert online learning, which emphasizes the need for more attention to the learners’ affective aspects than merely to their pedagogical aspects. ert online learning and regular online learning are slightly different concepts that require all educational practitioners to determine the portion of classroom discourse for pedagogical, managerial, technical, and social or affective functions and adjust it to the learners’ needs and age. the social or affective functions need special attention from all teachers who teach english online because the absence of this can demotivate students in learning english. regarding the contribution to the bilingual aspect and the efl classroom, this research indicates the importance of further socializing the practice of translanguaging to efl education practitioners and efl teachers. this is important because the separation of two languages and two linguistic resources of a bilingual is one of the main concerns in indonesian efl teaching. a bilingual who maximizes the use of two languages for the purpose of understanding lessons is often considered less skilled in english. it is time that efl teaching in indonesia may adopt a translanguaging perspective and makes it a factor in strengthening the linguistic resources of indonesian students, most of whom are bilingual and even multilingual. the limitation of the research is the fact that it does not discuss all aspects of rose’s pedagogic interaction in 2014 and 2018 since it only focuses on the pedagogic relation aspects and the learning cycle. future research can address the pedagogic modalities aspects, which also need to be investigated because they are related to the use of learning resources used by teachers in an online class. in addition, future researchers can add the number of classes and research participants to obtain more generalized results. advanced researchers may also consider carrying out research on online efl classes for young learners or adult learners. the theoretical implication of the research is that the pedagogic register theory by rose (2014, 2018), which actually departs from and for offline classes for general literacy-based subjects, has been proven to be able to be used to analyze data obtained from an online efl class that focuses on listening and grammar skills. this can be considered as the most important contribution and the new finding of the research. by using this theory, more aspects of class interactions during online learning can be analyzed and explained clearly so that researchers can inform teachers on how to improve the quality of their online teaching. future researchers may also consider applying the pedagogic register theory to investigate online efl classes, focusing on reading, writing, or speaking skills. references adinolfi, l., & astruc, l. 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(2017). creating an online learning community in a flipped classroom to enhance efl learners’ oral proficiency. international forum of educational technology & society, 20(2), 142-157. zainil, y. (2019). pedagogical practices of code-switching in efl classrooms in padang, indonesia. in the first elehic social sciences on sustainable development for world challenge: the first economics, law, education and humanities international conference (pp. 634-643). copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 63 lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 63-67 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.898 the effectiveness of collaborative writing strategy (cws) in writing lesson regarded to the students’ creativity kiky soraya language center, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45. kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat, 11480 kikysoraya@binus.ac.id received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 9th september 2016/ accepted: 28th september 2016 how to cite: soraya, k. (2016). the effectiveness of collaborative writing strategy (cws) in writing lesson regarded to the students’ creativity. lingua cultura, 10(2). 63-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.898 abstract this study was aimed at finding out what appropriate methods to be used in writing lesson seen from the students’ creativity especially for students who have high creativity and low creativity. this study used quasi experimental research. the population of the research was the eighth grade of a junior high school in wonosari in the academic year of 2013/2014. the sampling technique used was cluster random sampling. the sample in this study was 64 students covering 32 students of e as experimental class and 32 students of c as control class. the data or the students’ writing scores were analyzed in terms of their frequency distribution, normality, homogeneity, then anova and tuckey tests to test the research hypotheses. based on the result, the research findings are cws is more effective than mws in writing lesson; the high creativity students produced better writing rather than the low creativity student; and the interaction of teaching methods and the students’ creativity is existing in this writing lesson. in short, collaborative writing strategy (cws) is effective to teach writing for the eighth grade of a junior high school in wonosari, gunungkidul. then, the research result implies that it is better for the teachers to apply cws in teaching and learning process of writing, to improve the students’ writing achievement, cws needs to be used in the classroom activities, then future research can conduct the similar research with different sample and different students’ condition. keywords: collaborative writing strategy, metacognitive writing strategy, creativity, narrative essay introduction writing is one of the important skills that students need to develop. in the academic context, this ability is used to measure the students’ writing proficiency such as composing academic essays or writing some texts which are included in the curriculum. in the business context, the ability to write is important for those who make business relation with others across the nations by sending email or composing business report. writing a letter or message is also a means of communication which can connect the relationship between people indirectly. there are numerous methods used in writing lesson. the lesson can emphasize on groups, pairs, or individual. when the teachers have a tendency to provide chances in working together, collaborative writing strategy (cws) can be used during lessons. on the other hand, when the teaching is more individual, metacognitive writing strategy (mws) can be implemented inside the classes. collaborative writing strategy (cws) is the mixture of cooperative learning and writing strategies. diaz et al. (2010) argued that collaborative learning is set of methods that group the students together in the same main goal or task. dulger (2011) stated that many teachers still use metacognitive strategies in teaching writing. metacognitive writing strategy (mws) is a part of indirect strategies which means beyond, beside or with cognitive. therefore, here the students are more individual. besides the teaching method, psychological aspects or factors such as creativity, self-esteem, iq, etc. can influence the students’ writing skills. as stated before, when the teachers have a tendency to provide chances in working together or individually by using collaborative or metacognitive writing strategy (cws/mws), then creativity development becomes the psychological factor or aspect that will nearly accompany these two methods. according to kaufman et al. (2008), creativity is activity to convey something new. it involves the way of thinking that is aimed at producing ideas or products that are relatively novel. in writing, students with high creativity will be easy to have a good idea in composing the text and it will make them construct a good composition. 64 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 63-67 based on the importance of writing and the problems found in the real situation, the researcher intends to conduct a research on “the effectiveness of cws (compared with metacognitive writing strategy (mws)) in writing lesson regarded to the students’ creativity. the objectives of the research are: whether collaborative writing strategy (cws) is better than metacognitive writing strategy (mws) in writing lesson seen from the students’ creativity: those high creativity students have better writing skill than the low creativity students; and there is an interaction between the teaching methods and the creativity in writing lesson. in writing theory, dvorak (2009) stated that writing is a medium of communication that represents language through the inscription of signs and symbols. in writing, people use graphic symbol such as letter or the combination of letter and sounds that people produce in speaking. macarthur et al. (2016) stated that writing is a tool of enlightenment which applies the distance between message and author/ reader and the reliance on objectified knowledge. however, writing is not only the medium or tool to communicating meaning by using symbols but it is also an active skill and creative process. ferris (2007), writing is an active skill of language that involves creative organic process. furthermore, langan (2010) builds on the idea that writing is a skill and process of discovery. writing is a skill like driving, typing, or cooking, and like any skill. it means that writing is a skill which can be learned. fulcher and davidson (2007) also state that writing is an ability to accomplish intended purposes, to express meaning, ideas, and to communicate with the reader with clear, logical, and well developed organization of text. then, becky et al. (2006) state that writing is the motion and ability of designing and creating words into a comprehensive text. according to o’neill (2011), writing is a complex, multidimensional, contextually situated activity. moreover, coulmas (2007) defines at least six meanings of writing, those meanings of writing are (1) a way of language recording by using noticeable symbol, (2) the action of setting a system to use, (3) a text, (4) form of letter (5) creative composition, and (6) a skilled ability. based on the definitions above, writing is a skill to compose or communicate intended implication, idea, and purposes to the reader by using a clear, coherent, and well organized paper through the process of thinking, studying, developing organizing, producing, revising, and editing the product. brown (2003) discussed the aspects of writing vocabulary, organization, content, syntax, and mechanics are five indicators of the writing assessment. in conclusion, writing is an ability to convey meanings to the reader by using clear text that comes from some activity of letters forming by preparing, producing and editing the text which covers: vocabulary, grammar, content, organization, and mechanics. the author conclude that writing is a process of discovery is the involvements of a series of steps, and those steps are very often a zigzag journey. the important thing in writing is that the students are ready to learn how to become a competent writer. it means that students can master writing skills with hard work and process of discovering the way to write. related to the assessment of writing, assessment is measurement done by the teacher to know how far the students have already understood about the materials that have been discussed. in teaching writing, assessment is aimed to know how far the students can produce a good composition of text. the teacher usually gives a test to assess the students’ ability. in this research, essay writing was used to measure the students’ writing ability. related to the writing process, the writing process is the stage that the writer goes through in order to produce something in the final written form (harmer, 2004). here, the students asked to plan, draft, edit, and write the final draft. srinivas (2011) states that collaborative learning is an educational method to teaching and learning that involve groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. furthermore, lee (2011) stated that collaborative writing is a set of writing strategies covered in a system for the english language learners with different levels of capacities including those who have learning disabilities. it offers an authentic learning environment where students not only develop their writing skills but also critical thinking and decision making skills. from those definitions, it can be concluded that cws is a writing method in which students should be teamed together on an assignment to complete a task. the procedures that were used in this research are prewriting, drafting, revising, and appreciating. mws is related to the metacognition process. perfect & schwartz (2004) state that metacognition is the thinking processes. then, zohar and dori (2012) state that metacognition is the reflective thinking and track lining to achieve the goal. in short, metacognitive writing strategy is an activity under the thinking process that helps the students to connect their own learning process. related to this research, mws procedures that will be used are focusing the goal, prewriting, arranging, planning, creating, and evaluating the learning. grainger (2005) defines creativity as a complex capacity of human intelligence to bring something new, which is relevant to everyone and covers both individual and collaborative activities. it highlights five key concepts which we need to understand: using imagination, the creative process, originality, the pursuit of purpose and judging value. furthermore, creativity refers to mental processes that lead to solutions, ideas, concepts, artistic expression, theories or products that are unique and novel (carter & russell, 2003). munandar (2012) defines verbal creativity as an ability to think creatively and to measure one’s fluency, flexibility, and originality of a verbal form which deals with words and sentences. from the explanation, it can be concluded that creativity is a mental process and an ability to produce new ideas that covers the fluency, flexibility, elaboration, and originality of thinking and solving problems. through the definition, it can be seen that there are four indicators of creativity such as: fluency, flexibility, elaboration, and originality. based on the previous research, cws gives a good impact for the students in writing. however, the researcher has not found a study that is finding the effectiveness of collaborative writing strategy compared with metacognitive writing strategy viewed from the students’ creativity. that is why, by finding the effectiveness of cws, it can show the best teaching methods in writing especially for high creativity or low creativity students. the hypotheses are: cws is more effective that mws to teach writing of the eighth grade of a junior high 65the effectiveness of collaborative .... (kiky soraya) school in wonosari, gunungkidul in the academic year of 2013/ 2014; students with high creativity have better writing skills; there is interaction between teaching methods and creativity in teaching writing. this research was conducted in the eighth grade of a junior high school in wonosari, gunungkidul in the academic year of 2013/ 2014. a junior high school in wonosari, gunungkidul. it was conducted for six months in the second semester of 2013/ 2014 academic year from january to june 2014. methods the research method used in the research is experimental study. the purpose of an experimental study is to investigate cause and effect by giving certain treatment to the experimental class and to control class as the comparison. since the experimental study was conducted without randomization, the experiment is not categorized as true experiment. in other words, the experimental research that is used in this research is quasi experiment in which the research is conducted through cluster random sampling. the research design is factorial design 2x2 by using multifactor analysis of variance (anova) technique. the research population is the students at the eighth grade of smp muhammadiyah 2 wonosari, gunungkidul in the academic year of 2013/ 2014 which consists of six classes. the total number of the population is 192 students. in each class there are 32 students. the research samples are two classes of a junior high school in wonosari in the academic year of 2013/ 2014. the number of the sample is 64 students. there are some ways of sampling. however, related to the feasibility of the study, cluster random sampling is the appropriate sampling to use. the writer chooses cluster random sampling because it is impossible to make a real randomization in the schools. commonly, students in a school have been clustered based on the schools’ authority. this quantitative data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analyzed. it can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables, and charts. to collect the research data, the appropriate instrument in this research is test. a test is used to collect data of students’ writing skill and another test is used to collect the data of students’ creativity. to know the students’ writing skill, the students are given writing test which is in the form of narrative essay test. furthermore, in order to know the level of students’ creativity, the students are given creativity test. a verbal creativity test was used in this research. descriptive and inferential analysis is used in this research. the descriptive analysis covers the mean median, mode, and standard deviation of the writing test. in conducting anova, the pre activity related to the normality and homogeneity test has been taken. results and discussions the test can be conducted after the result of normality and homogeneity tests are calculated and fulfilled. the data analysis is conducted by using multifactor analysis of variance (anova) 2x2. the 2 x 2 anova and tukey test are listed in table 1. table 1 summary of 2x2 multifactor analysis of variance source of variance ss df ms f0 ft (.05) between columns (technique) 105,1 1 105,1 5,30 4,00 between rows (creativity) 232,6 1 232,6 11,73 columns by rows (interacion) 1225 1 1225 61,80 between groups 1563 3 520,9 within groups 1189 60 19,82 total 2752 63 while the result of mean scores can be seen in table 2. table 2 mean scores a1 a2 b1 b2 79,06 66,50 72,78 67,75 72,69 70,22 73,41 69,59 because f0 (5,30) is higher than ft (4,00) at the level of significance α=0,05, h0 is rejected and the difference between columns is significant. it can be concluded that collaborative writing strategy to teach writing at the eighth grade of a junior high school in wonosari, gunungkidul differs significantly from metacognitive writing strategy. moreover, the collaborative writing strategy students’ mean score (72,78) is higher than that of the metacognitive writing strategy (70,22). it can be concluded that teaching writing using collaborative writing strategy is more effective than metacognitive writing strategy. because f0 (11,73) is higher than ft at the level of significance α=0,05 (4,00), h0 is rejected and the difference between rows is significant. it can be concluded that students having high creativity differ significantly in writing skill from those having low creativity. it means the mean score of students having high creativity (73,41) is higher than that of those having low creativity (69,59). it can be concluded that the students having creativity have better writing skill than those having low creativity. because f0 interaction (61,80) is higher than ft at the level of significance α=0,05 (4,00), h0 is rejected and there is interaction between the two variables, the teaching techniques and the creativity of the students’ in writing lesson at the eighth grade of smp negeri 3 wonosari, gunungkidul. next, the researcher continued analyzing the data using tukey test. the result of analyzing of the data using tukey test can be seen in table 3. table 3 the result of tukey test no data sample q0 qt α status 1 a1 and a2 32 3,26 2,89 0,05 sig 2 b1and b2 32 4,84 2,89 0,05 sig 3 a1b1 and a2b1 16 10,16 3,00 0,05 sig 4 a1b2 and a2b2 16 5,56 3,00 0,05 sig* *sig= significant 66 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 63-67 because q0 between columns (3,26) is higher than q t at the level of significance α= 0,05 (2,89), applying collaborative writing strategy differs significantly from metacognitive writing strategy to teach writing. because the mean of a 1 (72,78) is higher than a2 (70,22), it means cws is more effective than mws to teach writing. because q 0 between rows (4,84) is higher than qt at the level of significance α=0,05 (2,89), it can be concluded that high creativity students and those low creativity students are significantly different in their writing skill. because the mean of b 1 (73,41) is higher than b2 (69,59), it means that the high creativity students have better writing skill than those low creativity students. as can be seen that q 0 between cells a1b1 and a2b1 (10,16) is higher than qt at the level of significance α=0,05 (3,00), applying collaborative writing strategy differs significantly from metacognitive writing strategy in writing lesson to the high creativity students. then, the mean high creativity students taught by collaborative writing strategy or a 1 b 1 (79,06) is higher than the mean of high creativity students taught by metacognitive writing strategy or a 2 b 1 (67,75). it can be concluded that cws work effectively than mws in writing lesson at high creativity students. since q 0 between cells a1b2 and a2b2 (4.09) is higher than qt at the level of significance α=0,05 (2,97), applying metacognitive writing strategy differs significantly from collaborative writing strategy in writing lesson to the low creativity students. because a 1 b 2 m e a n (66,50) is lower than a 2 b 2 (72,69), shows that metacognitive writing strategy works effectively than collaborative writing strategy for writing lesson at the low creativity students. from the result of tukey test number 3 and 4 above, it is known that collaborative writing strategy works more effectively than metacognitive writing strategy in writing lesson to the students having high creativity and metacognitive writing strategy works effectively than collaborative writing strategy in writing lesson to the low creativity students. it means there is an interaction between teaching techniques and students’ creativity in teaching writing. the effectiveness of teaching techniques depends on the degree of students’ creativity. conclusions based on the hypothesis testing and research findings, it implies that collaborative writing strategy (cws) is an effective teaching for teaching writing especially narrative essay to the eighth grade of a junior high school in wonosari. it is proved from the research findings that the students who are taught by using collaborative writing strategy (cws) students can have better writing skill than using metacognitive writing strategy (mws). collaborative writing strategy (cws) can encourage the students to write actively in writing process because of the peer review benefits. the set of the methods are: giving the writing assignment, sharing learning goals, drafting, writing and revising, evaluating, and appreciating. in applying cws the teachers give a clear writing task, share the learning goals to the students, give an opportunity to the students in a group to help each other during the process of drafting the writing, give opportunity to the students to translate and review the work together, give opportunity to the students to monitor and evaluate their writing together, and give an opportunity to the students to gain appreciation for their group. in order to achieve the most optimum writing achievement by using cws, the students have to ask and discuss what they did not know to the peers and the teachers so that they can be easier when solving the problems and writing. based on the research findings there are some suggestion for some parties like teachers, students, and also researchers. firstly, for teachers: (a) in order to improve the students’ writing skills in smp, english teachers are suggested to apply cws in writing activities. (b) teachers are suggested to be creatively and innovatively used various kinds of teaching methods which accompany the appropriate materials in order to encourage the students in learning. secondly, for students: (a) students are suggested to ask and discuss what they do not know to the peers and the teachers so that it is easy for them to solve the problem. (b) students are suggested to write more and in academic writing, they have to find a pairs in order to help them in correcting their writing. thirdly, other researchers: (a) other researchers can do further research in the field by applying some other variables involving self-esteem, self-confidence, linguistics intelligence, and many others. (b) the results of this research can be used as an additional reference for a similar research with different variable. the result of this research is expected to give some contributions to the teaching and learning english. theoretically, this research will support the theories on language teaching and learning especially those related to teaching writing in senior high school. this research can support on teaching english writing as foreign language. this will give contributions as it hopefully can add the knowledge about cws the implementation, strengths, weaknesses, and other. furthermore, analyzing the results of this research and identifying research can be used as a resource or guidance for conducting better research in the future. for instance, it is beneficial for other researchers who want to conduct similar research viewed from any different psychological aspects besides creativity that may have a correlation with writing such as intelligence, personality, self-esteem, etc.. references becky & spuvey. (2006). innovative teaching. usa: gorsuch. brown, h. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classrom practice. new york: pearson education. carter, p., & russell, k. (2003). more psychometric testing: 1000 new ways to assess your personality, creativity, intelligence and lateral thinking (the iq workout series). mankato: capstone. coulmas, f. (2008). english monolingualism in scientific communication and progress in science, good or bad?. aila review, 20, 5-13. diaz, v., golas, j. m., & gautsch, s. (2010). privacy considerations in cloud-based teaching and learning environments. educause learning initiative paper, 1(3), 210. dulger, o. (2011). meta-cognitive strategies in developing 67the effectiveness of collaborative .... (kiky soraya) efl writing skills. contemporary online language education journal, 1(2). 82-100. dvorak, k. (2009). writing activities for esl writers. esl writers: a guide for writing center tutor, 127-132. ferris, d. (2007). preparing teachers to respond to student writing. journal of second language writing, 16(3), 165–193. fulcher, g., & davidson, f. (2007). language testing and assessment: an advanced resource book. oxfordshire: taylor & francis group. grainger, t. (2005). teachers as writers: learning together. english in education. 39(1) 75-87. doi: 10.1111/ j.1754-8845.2005.tb00611.x harmer, j. (2004). how to teach writing. harlow: longman. kaufman, j. c., plucker, j. a., & baer, j. (2008). essential of creativity assessment. new jersey: wiley. langan, j. (2010). exploring writing: sentences and paragraph. new york: mcgraw-hill. lee, m. (2011). decision-making in a collaborative writing task. global perspectives, local initiatives, 159-168. macarthur, c. a., graham, s., & fitzgerald, j. (2016). handbook of writing research. new york: guilfold press. munandar, u. (2012). mengembangkan bakat dan kreativitas anak sekolah. jakarta: pt gramedia widiasarana indonesia. o’neill, p. (2011). reframing reliability for writing assessment. the journal of writing assessment, 4(1). 1-5. perfect, t. j., & schwartz, b. l. (2004). applied metacognition. cambridge: cambridge university press. srinivas, h. (2011). what is collaborative learning? the global development research center, 2(12), 491495. zohar, a., & dori, y. j. (2012). metacognition in science education: trends in current research (contemporary trends and issues in science education). new york: pearson. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 219 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 219-224 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6703 examining indonesian efl teacher educators’ views on utilising l1 in l2 classrooms abid* english department, gorontalo state university jl. jend. sudirman no. 6, dulalowo tim, gorontalo 96128, indonesia abid@ung.ac.id received: 11th september 2020/revised: 20th october 2020/accepted: 21st october 2020 how to cite: abid. (2020). examining indonesian efl teacher educators’ views on utilising l1 in l2 classrooms. lingua cultura, 14(2), 219-224. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6703 abstract the research observed the role of the first language (l1) use in the second language (l2) classrooms in various english language teaching (elt) contexts. among the many roles that l1 use played in l2 classrooms, which had been recognized, some drawbacks interfered due to unbalanced uses of both l1 and l2. to complement insightful findings presented in the existing literature on this l1 use topic, the research aims to explore l1 uses in english as a foreign language (efl) l2 classrooms in a teacher training program in indonesia. applying a qualitative research approach, the research collected data from three english as a foreign language (efl) teacher educators teaching an english speaking subject in an indonesian university using a semi-structured interview protocol and a classroom observation fieldnote. results show that all the participants share the same views on l1 in their l2 classrooms that its use is tolerated and mainly related to cognitive and pedagogical aspects. the research suggests that formal training seeking to arouse awareness on the role that l1 can play in l2 classroom is of necessity in the context of the efl teacher training program in order to foster learners’ optimal l2 output. keywords: first language use, second language classroom, efl teacher educator introduction using learners’ first language (l1) in the second language (l2) classroom has been an ongoing debate among researchers in l2 teaching. while several researchers acknowledge that the use of l1 within l2 classroom has a limited role on l2 learning progress (almohaimeed & almurshed, 2018; ghobadi & ghasemi, 2015; çelik & aydın, 2018), others believe that its uses support learners in making the most of their l2 learning. debreli (2016), for instance, contends that the use of l1 in l2 classroom helps learners, in particular, to understand better teachers’ explanation on specific difficult topics and new lexical items, while dewi and setiadi (2018), as well as tsagari and giannikas (2018), believe that use it in a principled way help teachers and learners to foster l2 teaching and learning. to complement the existing research on this issue by presenting the views of language teachers in an english as a foreign language (efl) classroom setting, the study reported in this research, therefore, seeks to explore teacher educators’ (tes) views on the use of l1 in their l2 classrooms in the context of teacher training institution in indonesia. there has been a shift in how l1 use in l2 classroom is manifested. research into this area has been extensively done in recent years. for the proponent of maximum l2 use in the l2 classroom, krashen’s (1981) language acquisition theories seem to be the influential concept. krashen’s natural hypothesis, for example, suggests that because people learn another language in the same way as they acquire their first language or mother tongue, they should not be exposed to the dominant use of their l1 for effective l2 results to take place. the input hypothesis, furthermore, states that to learn an l2 thoroughly and optimal use of l2 among teachers and learners should be facilitated (krashen, 1981), which means that the use of l1 needs to be reduced. brown (1994) has argued that the target language system is learned through the process of struggling to communicate. it is on this ground that most opinion on limiting the use of l1 in l2 classroom has been based and suggesting that l2 learners should have meaningful exposure to the l2 to obtain the most 220 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 219-224 benefit (almohaimeed & almurshed, 2018; ghobadi & ghasemi, 2015; karimian & mohammadi, 2015). however, there has been a widely accepted consensus to date, which elucidated the use of l1 in l2 classrooms. on the other hand, it serves as a potential tool that helps increase the chances of success in teaching and learning an l2. in other words, the inclusion of l1 as a working language along with l2 in l2 classrooms can benefit both teachers and learners, provided that it is carefully planned and organized, particularly in the context of efl. first, köylü (2018) has examined to what extent efl lecturers switch to their l1 in their l2 classroom. data are collected from 155 efl lecturers who are working in six state universities in turkey using an online questionnaire. findings show what caused the participating lecturers to utilize their l1 is the difference in turkish and english linguistic aspects. the lecturer has reported that they view the use of l1 as useful for providing detailed clarification on a particular target language structure. they also say that referring to l1 is intended to build rapport with their students and cope with their lack of confidence in english proficiency. second, tsagari and giannikas (2018) have researched the use of l1 and l2 by teachers and advanced learners in the context of efl situated in the republic of cyprus. informed by a mixed-method approach, this research has revealed a need for a balanced use of l1 and l2. while the teachers view the use of l1 plays an essential role in teaching english, they report that the l1 use symbolizes a pedagogical and linguistic-related flaw. on the other hand, despite feeling linguistically comfortable in an l2 classroom with permission for referring to l1 in particular communication situations, the learners realize that they also need sufficient exposure to english. given this, the research suggests that the use of l1 should be welldefined and carefully enacted within the l2 classroom in order to facilitate the learners’ l2 development. third, turnbull (2018) has investigated the views of a pre-service esl teacher about using l1 in l2 learning in a new zealand university. this research uses questionnaires and interviews with 30 participants who are a group of native and nonnative speakers of english. the results show that the participating teachers have mixed opinions on the topic being investigated. while some have negative views of l1 use in l2 classrooms, others show a positive attitude towards its uses. however, the findings also reveal a gap in the teachers’ knowledge about how to deal with l1 as a potential learning tool for their esl students. thus, the research has suggested esl teacher education program needs to accommodate the use of l1 in its curriculum with a specific focus on the indirect, underlying beneficial, and facilitating roles of the l1 for both the teacher and students in the classroom (turnbull, 2018). this will ensure that the teacher candidates will be aware of the need to incorporate l1 use in l2 classroom and how this should be enacted for effective l2 teaching. all these studies suggest that there are some good reasons for using l1 in l2 classrooms across english language teaching contexts, such as promoting good rapport between teachers and students and facilitating a better understanding of particular target language aspects. in fact, as there has been an increasing number in efl classrooms across the world, it is reasonable to re-examine the traditional view of limiting the use of l1 in l2 classrooms as this is no longer relevant to the dynamic of today’s efl teaching praxis. saruwatashi (2020) has argued that it can be very challenging to promote, actualize, and maintain constant use of the tl (target language) by both teachers and learners in an efl classroom with the same l1. this is particularly the case with low proficient learners who are often challenged to use classroom l2 interaction as useful and meaningful input to learn and who find limited opportunity to expose themselves to l2 interaction beyond the classroom (macpherson, 2019; saruwatashi, 2020). that is why, within such an efl situation, l2 may not always serve as the predominant language of instruction (mayo & hidalgo, 2017; shin, dixon, & choi, 2020; tian & hennebry, 2016), as misunderstanding can interfere because of difficulties in understanding l2 expressions among teachers and learners. to what extent this dynamic view on l1 use within l2 classrooms presents within the context of efl teacher training program in indonesia, the research asks a key research question; what are teacher educators’ views on the use of l1 in their english-speaking classes? by asking such question, the research aims to inform the current efl teacher training program about how the role of l1 within l2 classroom has been taken into account and put into practice, which is essential in examining the efficacy of l2 proficiency improvement plans stipulated in the curriculum of the teacher training program. methods a qualitative research approach is applied as a framework for conducting the research. three teacher educators (tes) working in an english teacher training program of an indonesian university agree to participate voluntarily. this program is the institution that has a mandate from the indonesian government to educate candidates for english language teachers at the school level. the duration for completing the course is within four years, along with a compulsory undergraduate thesis writing requirement. in this program, the english majors (ems) learn a range of language knowledge, such as linguistics, research, and english for your learners; language skills, such as listening, reading, speaking, and writing for academic purposes; as well as teaching practices and community service program. all the participating tes in the present research hold a postgraduate degree in english education, graduating from indonesia and overseas universities, and reported to be advanced english language users. 221examining indonesian efl teacher .... (abid) they are speakers of bahasa indonesia as their first language, which is also shared by all their ems. these tes are teaching the speaking class, which suits the research objective. a semi-structured interview method is employed to collect data from these tes, with each interview session lasting between 30-45 minutes. all participants are asked several prompted questions during the interviews: (1) what language do you use the most in your speaking class? (2) why do you use particular language during a particular session of your class? (3) how do you see the use of languages other than english in your class? (4) to what extent do you encourage the use of english in your class? in addition to the interviews, classroom observations on the tes classes are also done to crosscheck the tes responses found in the interview transcripts. therefore, a reflective observation fieldnote is developed to capture certain events during the participants’ classes that are relevant to the research question of the research and the participants’ interview responses. upon completing data collection, interview transcripts are returned to all participants for a member checking purpose for establishing the research’s trustworthiness. following this step, it is translating the data into english, which is done individually to remain closer to the data being analyzed. for the analysis, a thematic analysis method is used. this is begun by initially reading through the transcripts several times to be familiar with data before starting coding. then, all coded data are analyzed and grouped in order to generate themes that addressed the research question. results and discussions results show one major theme which addressed the research question. it is tolerating the use of l1 in l2 classroom, with three identified sub-themes: l1 use helps in understanding concepts or instructions, l1 use helps in coping with particular l2 linguistic breakdowns, and l1 use helps in creating an enjoyable and stimulating l2 classroom. these are further explained in the following section, which begins with presenting data from the interviews, followed by the classroom observation field-notes. afterward, the discussion session follows. table 1 summarises the sub-themes identified and their sources. table 1 sub-themes and data sources data source sub-themes te1 l1 use helps in understanding concepts or instructions te2 l1 use helps in coping with particular l2 linguistic breakdowns te3 l1 use helps in creating an enjoyable and stimulating l2 classroom all the tes’ interview excerpts are presented in the following section. there are a number of underlined phrases or sentences. these are the evidence used in classifying codes and generating the main theme. first, it shows data generated from the interviews about sub-theme 1: l1 use helps in understanding concepts or instructions. te1 has suggested that because the majority of ems have grown up speaking bahasa indonesia as their everyday language of communication, the use of this language in english classrooms shall be tolerated. this does not mean that l1 use would outweigh the use of english as the primary language of instruction in the english classroom. however, it functions as a complementary language to english for specific reasons, such as to accommodate a mixed proficiency level of ems to understand task instructions or explanations of a concept by the tes. “well, to me, it is okay if they mix it with bahasa indonesia because they are not born with english. they are here to learn english, right? if you force them to speak english all the time, they won’t speak because may be they are afraid. so the first thing that you have to do is just let them speak.” (te1: 56) for te1, teacher educators shall always bear in mind that one of their responsibility is to ensure that they could facilitate ems to learn english. ems shall be guided to find ways to learn the language and to make progress in this language learning. as te1 implied, learning english can also be carried out by using l1, for example, when ems try to ask for clarification while listening to tes’ talk. if l2 class means prohibiting the use of l1, this te perceives that it might be hard for ems to make progress in l2 learning. ems would probably feel reluctant to continue speaking english at times of linguistic communication breakdown as they know about the rule of l1 use in the l2 classroom. for low proficient ems, this means experiencing anxiety. the worst-case resulting from this is that ems would become demotivated to showcase their ability to speak english as a learning path to polishing their l2 speaking skills. therefore, te1 has suggested what tes could do to anticipate this proficiency issue or acceptability of l1 use in l2 classes to foster l2 learners learning progress is to ‘let them speak’. this means allowing the use of l1 to help ems stay involved in l2 interaction at times of linguistic-related communication breakdowns, where they can find ways to continue expressing themselves in english while monitoring the progress of their english proficiency level. in sub-theme 2, l1 use helps in coping with particular l2 linguistic breakdowns. te2 has a slightly different view on the use of l1 in the l2 classroom. for this te, what matters the most is how classes the use of l1 shall be tolerated. this te perceives that if it is a speaking class, all ems should be encouraged to speak english as much as they can, which may mean 222 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 219-224 limiting the opportunity to refer to bahasa indonesia. “i think, it depends on the class. if it is speaking class, i will encourage them to speak english as much as they can. if it is writing or reading, i think they can also use bahasa indonesia, if they get stuck, you know. but, the most important thing for me is they feel dare to communicate in english.” (te2: 25) however, te2 maintains that if it is a class other than speaking, such as writing or reading, ems may speak in bahasa indonesia to cope with particular linguistic breakdowns. this te implies that tes need to consider the main purpose of a class again in order to make the right decision as to taking bahasa indonesia as part of the classroom working language along with english. despite this, te2 perceives that it remains useful for the ems’ english proficiency level improvement if all tes encourage them to use english as much as they could when in the classroom. as te2 puts it: “we need to encourage them to use english orally as well, for their improvement, because they will teach english in the future. so, when my students asked, “what language to use, ma’am? english or indonesian?” i said, “try to use english”, even though many of them still feel difficult to speak the language, to express themselves. but, that’s okay.” (te2: 14) in sub-theme 3, l1 use helps in creating an enjoyable and stimulating l2 classroom. te3 has also supported the use of l1 in the english classroom. nevertheless, this te suggests that, to some extent, she would only allow those low proficient ems to refer to using bahasa indonesia to stay involved when communicating in english orally. in other words, for more proficient ems, the use of bahasa indonesia shall be kept at the lowest level. “for me, it depends on their ability. not all of them can speak the language fluently. when they have to speak english, i don’t want them to feel stressed, to do all given speaking tasks. so, i approach them persuasively. i give them an opportunity to speak english. but i have to make sure that they won’t feel much pressure if they have to speak english.” (te3: 5) te3 implies that the main reason for tolerating the use of l1 is to create an enjoyable yet stimulating atmosphere for english use to be initiated and where all ems could participate. a key aspect to be taken into account for this te when teaching english speaking skills is to help ems feel comfortable exploring and accomplishing every given classroom task that demands them to speak in english. the pressure often arises from fear of being judged due to english low proficiency level or a lack of confidence in using the language for oral communication. for te3, it needs to be carefully addressed within the classroom. it is important for all tes to think about finding the most appropriate way to encourage all ems to use english for communication purposes in the classroom. data generated from the classroom observation field-notes, using bahasa indonesia during a particular situation in the classroom between tes-ems and ems-ems is noticeable. it is predominantly heard as the tes (e.g., te2 & te3), for instance, attempt to re-explain a particular concept/definition and to re-emphasize specific instruction for ems to engage in task-based classroom activities. as a result, the dialog in english, despite being marked by language combination (bahasa indonesia and english language) at some points, occurs. “the lecturer started the class by doing an ice breaker. she then introduced the topic for today’s lecture. in a few minutes later, the lecturer checked the student’s answers on a given exercise in the previous meeting. following this, she asked the students to share any challenges they faced while working on the exercise. the lecturer used both english and bahasa indonesia while speaking at this stage. this led to dialogs with the students with some of them ending up responding in bahasa indonesia.” (te2’s class, 1st year ems) “the te opened the class by asking if the students had done their homework. apparently, as the students reported, many of them had not done it yet because they did not get the worksheet for some reason. the lecturer continued to ask the students to listen to a short talk recording and to work on some exercises. after that, she checked the students’ answers by engaging them in conversation. later on, as the lecturer also switched to ask questions in bahasa indonesia, some students responded in that language as well when they had difficulties to continue speaking in english.” (te3’s class, 1st year ems) all these interview responses, along with the observation field notes, show several reasons for using l1 in the participating tes l2 classes, in this case, speaking subject classes. first, the tes use l1 and allow ems to speak in the language as well in order to accelerate in ems l2 learning and to yield positive results. such acceleration is also highlighted in sali’s (2014) research. this research examines one efl turkish classroom and reveals that the use of l1, particularly by the teachers, helps the students cope with their anxiety during learning english and to continuously engage in the classroom communicative activities, such as rehearsing dialogs and answering teacher’s questions. for less proficient english learners, teachers’ use of l1, a shared language in the classroom, may help the learners gain emotional 223examining indonesian efl teacher .... (abid) support and motivation, which further strengthens the classroom rapport and trust (köylü, 2018). given this, classroom dynamic l2 oral interaction involving teachers and learners can be facilitated as long as there are clear guidelines on how this l1 shall be used by teachers and learners during l2 classes to accommodate l2 output (turnbull, 2018). however, it also makes sense to say that using l1 in l2 classes is not well defined and accommodating l2 output. it may hamper l2 learners’ progress in comprehending l2 outputs. this disadvantage stems from the fact that the learners may not feel challenged to understand the english utterances they hear when communicating orally in english because they can simply find all the utterances’ translations. as köylü (2018) has reported in his research, some of his participating efl teachers also believe that the use of l1 might hinder turkish english learners from gauging useful input, which helps them produce meaningful l2 output. therefore, for l1 use to take place effectively in l2 classrooms, language teachers may need to attend training courses that help them decide on when and how l1 shall be used within the classrooms (abid, 2020; shin, dixon, & choi, 2020; tian & hennebry, 2016; turnbull, 2018). subsequently, learners may benefit from their teachers’ pedagogical training on using l1 to compensate for their lack of l2 linguistic competency when interacting orally in an l2 (saruwatashi, 2020; shin, dixon, & choi, 2020; tian & hennebry, 2016). for instance, they would become aware of the l1 role in the l2 classroom and balance their uses to facilitate maximum output in l2 during various forms of collaborative engagement (abid, 2020; zulfikar, 2018). furthermore, when it is done properly, using l1 in l2 classes could also help language learners find ways to improve their oral proficiency level. when teachers use l1 to facilitate l2 output, learners may become aware of what target language structures they need to memorize and apply to support them when interacting using the target language (du, 2016; saruwatashi, 2020). as such, according to zulfikar (2018), a language teacher should make a wellgrounded decision as to when and why it (l1) can be used in l2 classrooms. they need to be fully aware that the use of l1 in their l2 classroom shall be only used to assist in building l2 knowledge, fostering personal interaction among teachers and learners, as well as improving teaching efficacy (shin, dixon, & choi, 2020; tsagari & giannikas, 2018). according to dewi and setiadi (2018), this will help learners make the right decision as to when to refer back to their l1 at times of l2 linguistic difficult situation in an l2 classroom. these researchers have reported that their participating english majors claim to refer back to the indonesian language in an english classroom situation where their lecturers decided on using the language because it is much simpler than in english to make a particular complex explanation understandable. conclusions the research has shown that the three participating tes share the same views on the use of l1 in their l2 classroom. the tes have reported that the reasons why l1 use shall be tolerated in their l2 classrooms are related to cognitive and pedagogical aspects. as with the first aspect, the use of l1 helps ems understand concepts or task instructions, which can be more demanding when done in the target language. as tes’ l2 classrooms involve ems with a mixed l2 proficiency level, it makes sense that drawing on maximum use of l2 when in the classroom is challenging. on the other hand, the latter aspect assists tes in coping with l2 linguistic breakdowns and creating an enjoyable and stimulating l2 classroom, where less proficient ems feel secured and less anxious compared to l2 classrooms where there is a total abandonment of l1 uses. however, little can be elicited from the tes about whether or not l1 use has been addressed in their teaching syllabus or their teacher training program’s curriculum. the research suggests that there should be a balanced use between l1 and l2 in l2 classrooms for an optimal l2 output to occur. given this, it is relevant for the teacher training program to take into account l1 use in l2 teaching so that not only an awareness of the l1 role that increases but also the ability to implement l1 uses in l2 classrooms that improve. future research that specifically examines this topic from the perspective of ems or in-service english school teachers may aid insightful knowledge to current literature on an l1 role in l2 classrooms situated in the efl context. references abid. (2020). promoting english speaking skills: lessons learnt from the efl classrooms context. european journal of foreign language teaching, 4(4), 183192. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.371052. almohaimeed, m. s., & almurshed, h. m. (2018). foreign language learners’ attitudes and perceptions of l1 use in l2 classroom. arab world english journal, 9(4), 433-446. http://doi: 10.24093/awej/vol9no4.32. brown, h. d. (1994). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. englewood cliffs: prentice hall regents. çelik, ş. s., & aydın, s. (2018). a review of research on the use of native language in efl classes. the literacy trek, 4(2), 1-14. debreli, e. (2016). perceptions of non-native efl teachers’ on l1 use in l2 classrooms: implications for language program development. english language teaching, 9(3), 24-32. http://doi: 10.5539/elt.v9n3p24. dewi, u. p., & setiadi, c. j. (2018). language attitude and language choice in bilingual academic learning environment. lingua cultura, 12(4), 369-373. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i4.4288. du, y. (2016). the use of first and second language in 224 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 219-224 chinese university efl classrooms. singapore: springer. ghobadi, m., & ghasemi, h. (2015). promises and obstacles of l1 use in language classrooms: a state-of-the-art review. english language teaching, 8(11), 245-254. http://doi:10.5539/elt.v8n11p245. karimian, z., & mohammadi, s. (2015). teacher’s use of first language in efl classrooms. journal of applied linguistics and language research, 2(3), 61-71. köylü, z. (2018). the use of l1 in the tertiary l2 classroom: code-switching factor, functions, and attitude in turkey. electronic journal of foreign language teaching, 15(2), 271-289. krashen, s. d. (1981). second language acquisition and second language learning. oxford: pergamon. macpherson, j. (2019). assessing learner needs for general english course design. junshin journal of studies in humanities, 25, 141-155. mayo, m. p. g., & hidalgo, m. a. (2017). l1 use among efl mainstream and clil learners in tasksupported interaction. system, 67, 132-145. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.05.004. sali, p. (2014). an analysis of the teachers’ use of l1 in turkish efl classrooms. system, 42, 308-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.12.021. saruwatashi, s. l. (2020). principal reasons for using l1 in the l2 classroom. junshin journal of studies in humanities, 26, 77-87. shin, j. y., dixon, l. q., & choi, y. (2020). an updated review on use of l1 in foreign language classrooms. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 41(5), 406-419. https://doi.org/10.108 0/01434632.2019.1684928. tian, l., & hennebry, m. (2016). chinese learners’ perceptions towards teachers’ language use in lexical explanations: a comparison between chinese-only and english-only instructions. system, 63, 77-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2016.08.005. tsagari, d., & giannikas, c. n. (2018). re-evaluating the use of the l1 in the l2 classroom: students vs. teachers. applied linguistics review, 11(1), 151181. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2017-0104. turnbull, b. (2018). examining pre-service esl teacher beliefs: perspectives on first language use in the second language classroom. journal of second language teaching & research, 6(1), 50-76. zulfikar, z. (2018). rethinking the use of l1 in l2 classroom. englisia: journal of language, education, and humanities, 6(1), 42-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/ ej.v6i1.2514. 40 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 the use of code-mixing among pamonanese in parata ndaya closed-group facebook joice yulinda luke english laboratory unit, faculty of economic and business, perbanas institute jln. perbanas, karet kuningan–setiabudi, jakarta selatan 12940 joiceyulinda@gmail.com abstract research intended to figure out why pamonanes did code-mixing in parata ndaya, a facebook closed-group site. the research applied qualitative method to get the types of code-mixing and reasons for doing code-mixing, while the analysis used hoffman’s theory. data were taken from comments of three active members of parata ndaya. comments selected were mainly focused on political issues that happened during regional house representative election in 2014. data analysis reveals that code-mixing is mostly found in jokes and some comments about political leaders. thus, the results can provide insights for parata ndaya members to build awareness on preserving their local language (i.e. pamona language) as well as to enhance solidarity among members of the group site. keywords: code-mixing, facebook, parata ndaya abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk mencari tahu alasan orang pamona melakukan campur-kode di grup tertutup facebook, parata ndaya. penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk mencari tipe serta alasan dalam melakukan campur-kode; sementara analisis data menggunakan teori hoffman. data penelitian diambil dari komentar tiga anggota aktif parata ndaya. komentar yang dipilih terutama difokuskan pada isu politik yang terjadi selama pemilu dprd pada 2014. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa campur-kode kebanyakan ditemukan dalam lelucon dan beberapa komentar tentang pemimpin politik. penelitian diharapkan dapat memberikan wawasan bagi anggota parata ndaya untuk membangun kesadaran melestarikan bahasa lokal mereka (yaitu bahasa pamona) serta meningkatkan solidaritas antara anggota kelompok. kata kunci: campur-kode, facebook, parata ndaya 41the use of code-mixing .... (joice yulinda luke) introduction language is a tool of communication. it affects people’s lives in different sectors. people use a language when they want to share ideas and thoughts. because of that, a language becomes an essential tool in human’s life. without a language, a human may face difficulties when he or she has to make contact with others. clark (1997:70) states: “language is a tool, an invention like the slide rule or the sextant, which allows us to both accomplish tasks more efficiently and to achieve them, otherwise unattainable goals.” in short, language is a medium to accomplish activities in life. in face to face or online interactions, people are required to select a code for communicating their messages with others. sometimes people need to switch the code into other code in order to communicate with others. that’s why in every communication setting, people will employ a code. wardaugh (1986:101) defines that “a code is a system used for communicating between two or more parties used on any occasions.” generally, a code can be considered as a language. supporting wardaugh (1986), stockwell (2002:8–9) adds: “a code is a symbol of nationalism that is used by people to speak or communicate in a particular language or a dialect, or register or accent or style on different occasions and for different purposes.” it means people may vary in using a code or a language because of different purposes and occasions to communicate. similarly, online communication via facebook requires facebookers to select a certain code for communication. this code is usually similar to the code used by other people in the same speech community—like facebookers of parata ndaya, an ethnic closed group site dedicated for people who are still living and ever lived in tentena or pamona (one of district towns in poso, central sulawesi). the site allows its members to use a certain local language called pamona language when they are commenting on the site’s walls. however, this code or language is sometimes switched or mixed according to the addressee, the topic of discussion, and the purpose of communicating. yet, switching the code or language depends much on the context or situations and the participants of communications. as gumperz (1982:115) denotes, “the language of speech community can be analyzed both within the context of the language itself and also within the broader context of social behaviors”. take for example the case when two members of parata ndaya mixed two languages for sharing their ideas as follows: a: sensasi saja yang dicari. b: ‘monco! dorang cuma cari sensasi…hehehe’ (that’s right! they just look for sensation… (laughing) the above illustration shows how the b participant, who replied the a participant, suddenly mixed his statements using a local language, that is pamona language—a language that both participants are familiar with. of course, the b participant has his own reason for doing code-mixing from indonesian to pamona. to mix the code, the ‘b’ participant must be aware whether his interlocutor, i.e. the ‘a’ participant, can understand the second code or pamona language he used. if not, communication failures would be occurred. meanwhile, the ‘a’ participant needs to make sure the reason why the ‘b’ participant did code-mixing. by knowing the reason of mixing the language, both interlocutors may achieve mutual understanding. in parata ndaya a closed-group site for pamonanese or people who ever lived in pamona-poso, code-mixing (cm) is considered as an important communication strategy via online media. code-mixing is a helpful communication strategy for some parata ndaya members, who lack of vocabularies in pamona language, to help them communicate with other pamonanese in the site’s wall. based on the language phenomenon found in parata ndaya closed group site, this study has two aims such as: 1) discusses types of code-mixing done by pamonanese in that closed group site; 2) investigates pamonanese reasons of doing sorts of code-mixing in parata ndaya, a facebook closed group site. code-mixing: types and reasons code-mixing is a term used in bilingualism area. code-mixing refers to “linguistic behavior of a bilingual speaker who imports words or phrases from one of his/ her languages into the other one” (bauer, 2010:4). hamers and blanc (1989) in bi (2011:60) add that “the majority of mixings are lexical in nature and nouns are most often substituted words.” shortly, cm can be defined as the code-alternation of words or phrases from language a into language b. considering that code-mixing (cm) allows the change of code, it is important to know factors that can cause cm. according to chaer and agustina (2010), code-mixing (cm) is caused by several factors such as: the speaker, the addressee, the setting, the change of situation from formal to informal, and the topic. li (1996) quoted by bi (2011:61) mentions that “topic like family, school, workplace, pop music, fashions, and politics are most often talked about in a code-mixing way”. thus, when a bilingual person mixes up a code, he or she probably does code-mixing because of factors such as addressee(s), topic discussions, and contexts. in parata ndaya, a facebook closed-group site, code-mixing occurs in some interesting topics of discussion, such as politics, religions, and celebrities. members show enthusiasm to talk about sub topics like legislature candidates, political parties, pro and cons of miss world 2013 events, and the concept of think globally-act locally. the comments on paratandaya walls usually were triggered by uploaded videos or online news from tempo, detik.com, rakyat merdeka online, and other online media. overall, the facts are in line with bhatia and ritchie (2004) who claim “code-mixing can also be done because of the topic discussion.” types of code-mixing based on the scopes of switching or junctures, hoffman (1991) categorizes code-mixing (cm) into three types: intra-sentential, intra-lexical, and involving a change of pronunciation. 42 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 intra-sentential. in this type, code-mixing occurs within a phrase, a clause, or a sentence boundary. example 1: anggota legislatif da ewa “nyara”, simbol kebebasan, kecerdasan, dan kekuatan serta punya sifat dinamis. (anggota legislatif ini seperti kuda: simbol kebebasan, kecerdasan, dan kekuatan serta memiliki sifat dinamis) (the legislators like a horse: a symbol of freedom, intelligence, strength, and has dynamic personality). intra-lexical. this category occurs within a word boundary. example 2: saudara-saudara kita to dayak jauh lebih hebat daripada kita di poso (saudara-saudara kita orang dayak jauh lebih hebat daripada kita di poso) (our brothers, dayaknese are superior than us in poso) involving a change of pronunciation. it occurs in phonological level. the changes can be found in phonological structure. example 3: io, saking saya smangat, baru sadar, te ada bank di sini (iya, saking saya semangat, baru sadar, tidak ada bank di sini) (yes, because i have new spirit, i’ve just realized that there’s no bank here) reasons for doing code-mixing according to hoffman (1991), there are seven reasons of code-mixing: talking about a particular topic people often prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language than in another. they do this because they feel free to convey their thoughts and emotions by using one language that the addressee is also familiar with it. in parata ndaya, since not all members are familiar with pamona language, so they sometimes mixed pamona language with indonesian, especially when talking about politics and religious issues. they mixed the code in order to avoid misunderstanding and conflicts. example 4: beda re’e mampokarau!…hahaha (tidak ada yang akan tersinggung!, hahaha) (no one will be offended! (laughing) quoting somebody else code-mixing for this reason happens when the interlocutor quotes famous expressions or utterances. the quotations are usually from the public figure or famous people. the interlocutor quotes someone’s words to prove that the interlocutor is a modern person, who always update himself or herself with new information. example 5: harus itu! target harus doktor! seperti orang pandiri bilang “ane banya sise’i, da pia wo’u. ane banya koromu, da nce’ma wo’u”, sekali lagi ku bilang. kamu harus! (harus itu! target harus doktor! seperti orang pandiri bilang “kalau bukan saat ini mau kapan lagi, kalaupun kamu mau siapa lagi”. sekali lagi saya bilang: kamu harus!) (you should be! your target should be a doctor! as someone in pandiri said “if not now then when? if not you then who?” so once again i said: ”you should be (a doctor)!” be emphatic about something if someone wants to be emphatic about something when communicate using a language which is not his or her native, he or she will switch his or her second language to the first language or vice-versa, either intentionally or not. the same as in paratandaya site, when the member wants to express his emphatic feeling to other members, the person will switch the language from indonesian to pamona language. example 6: iyo om robby, turut berduka ungkari kami ri bali… (iya om robby, turut berduka cita dari kami di bali) (yes, uncle robby. our deepest condolences to you from us in bali) interjections here the interlocutor uses a short exclamation that has no grammatical value. hoffman (1991) stated that “language switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual people can sometimes mark by an interjection or sentence connector.” example 7: iyo to pak pendeta. (iya kan pak pendeta) (yes, father). repetition used for clarification for this reason, hoffman (1991) declared that “when a bilingual wants to clarify his/her speech so that it will be understood more by the listener, he or she can sometimes use both of the languages that he or she mastered by saying the same utterance (the utterance is said repeatedly). the repetition is not only to clarify the message, but also to emphasize the message. example 8: contoh om tiku di pandiri, tiap hari dari sawah, pasti dia bau tanah, pece. (contoh om tiku di pandiri, tiap hari dari sawah, dia pasti bau tanah, tanah). (an example is uncle tiku in pandiri, he comes from field every day, so he must be smelt earthy) pece means ‘tanah’ or land (eng). so, the bolded word ‘pece’ repeats the word ‘tanah’ or land. 43the use of code-mixing .... (joice yulinda luke) intentions of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor hoffman (1991) said that “when a bilingual person talks to another bilingual, there will be lots of codeswitching and code-mixing occurs.” in other words, the interlocutor will repeat a message in one language with the purpose of making the speech run smoothly or clarifying the ideas, so it can be understood by other interlocutors. example 9: kase kesempatan bagi kami untuk menikmati hidup di hari tua sambil bercanda dengan cucu-cucu dan urus saki asam urat, kolesterol, kekule, mata mulai buloru, mangewa, dan penyakit orang tua lainnya. (beri kesempatan bagi kami untuk menikmati hidup di hari tua sambil bercanda dengan cucu-cucu dan mengurus penyakit seperti asam urat, kolesterol, rematik, rabun, pikun, dan penyakit orang tua lainnya ) (give a chance for us to enjoy life in the old days while joking with our grandchildren and taking care of diseases such as uric acid, cholesterol, rheumatism, myopic, dementia, and other diseases of old people) expressing group identity code-switching and code-mixing are strategies to express group identity because the way people communicate with their group are obviously different from the way they communicate with other people from other groups (hoffman, 1991). example 10: iyo om kuncanimo..tabea mami… (iya om. saya paham. salam hormat) (yes, uncle. i understand. yours sincerely) moreover, saville-troike (1986) adds three reasons for doing code-mixing when having interaction with other people. the three reasons are as follows. to strengthen or soften request or command about this reason, code-mixing functions to soften a command or strengthen the request in order to sound more polite and shows the power on someone else. real of lexical need another reason an interlocutor conducts codemixing is because of the lack of equivalent lexicons in the interlocutor’s language. to convey clear messages and avoid vague meaning, interlocutors may switch his or her language into the target language (either first or second). to exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience it is a fact that sometimes an interlocutor only wants to communicate with certain people. the interlocutor excludes other people by using an unknown language that nobody knows at all. by doing code-mixing, interferences in communication will be solved. methods the present study uses the qualitative method that attempts to generate detailed and valid data to figure out types and reasons for doing code-mixing in parata ndaya closed-group site. the respondents of this study are three active members who genuinely are pamonese. the data were taken from parata ndaya walls where the three respondents were actively adding their comments on the site walls. to clarify the reasons of code-mixing, the open-ended interviews were implemented to support the data. the procedures of collecting data are as follows. data were collected from respondents’ comments on parata ndaya site’s wall in 15-17 september 2013. the dates were selected because it was the last period for legislature candidates to register themselves to kpud poso. all data between the ranges of time were recorded in the form of transcriptions. data were analyzed and classified into categories of code-mixing and non codemixing. any non code-mixing data were taken out. the code-mixing data then were tabulated and categorized based on hoffman’s (1991) classification. the number of occurrences of each category would show the most frequent reasons as well as the least reason for undertaking code-mixing. then all data were analyzed and quantified in percentages using the formula: p = f/n x 100% p = percentage, f = frequency of words, n = total of words. results and discussion types of comment exchanges this session discusses the frequency of types of comment exchanges in parata ndaya walls. the data were taken from table transcriptions of three active pamonanese members of parata ndaya, who commented about political issues on the close-group site’s wall. the table shows that code-mixing would be most frequently occurred in parata ndaya site’s wall. the results of data can be found in the following table: table 1 frequency of comment-type exchanges no types of comments frequency percentages 1 code-mixing (cm) 47 72% 2 non code-mixing (ncm) 18 28% as can be seen in table 1, the comment exchanges in parata ndaya, a facebook closed-group site, resulted in 65 comments. of 65 comments, 47 comments (72%) were marked as code-mixing (cm) and 18 comments (28%) were non code-mixing (ncm). surprisingly, code-mixing facts were found higher on parata ndaya site compared to non code-mixing. it shows that members of parata ndaya likes to change the code from pamona language to indonesian because of the lack of pamonese vocabularies that finally triggered the members to alter 44 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 the words into indonesian words, phrases, and sentences. of course, this fact violates the rules of parata ndaya members to use pamona language while commenting on the site wall. types of code-mixing this part deals with types of code-mixing occurrences conveyed by pamonanese in parata ndaya. the data of this result were derived from respondents’ corpus transcribed data. during the last period of the district legislature election, there were 7 members actively engaged on parata ndaya site. however, this study only counted comments from 3 members of parata ndaya to be observed and analyzed because of two main reasons as follows: (1) the three active members came from pamonanese families, so they can speak and write well using pamona language; (2) the respondents were very active in updating status as well as putting comments on parata ndaya walls. then the results of the code-mixing types instances are as follows. the intra-lexical mixing is dominant in amount compared to other two types: change of pronunciation and intra-sentential. there were 45% instances of code-mixing take places in the parata ndaya site. in the second rank is the change of pronunciation with 32% code-mixing comments. the last is intra-sentential with a total 23% out of 72% code-mixing comments. this result proved that most members of parata ndaya applied code-mixing higher than others. the production of intralexical code-mixing can facilitate members to sustain their communication due to the limitation of vocabularies in pamona language or indonesian language. furthermore, doing code-mixing by changing pronunciation were executed in a quite high amount can signalize that several pamona language words have similar grammatical feature and can be filled in two languages. the main differences rely on the way interlocutor say the words. on the other hand, intra-sentential is only executed in a small number, 23% out of 72% of code-mixing occurrences. members were not executed intra-sentential as much as intra-lexical because they were not competent enough in using pamona language. these have resulted from the fact that most of them are not pamonanese, so they minimize error in pamona language by choosing a safe language, i.e. indonesian, to express their ideas. reasons for code-mixing in parata ndaya site to answer a big question that asks reasons for employing code-mixing when giving comments on the site walls, the study uses seven reasons of code-mixing by hoffman (1991:116). according to hoffman (1991), there were seven reasons people employ code-mixing in their interaction—they are: talking about a particular topic, quoting somebody else, being emphatic about something, because of lexical words, repetition used for clarification, clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor, and expressing group identity. the categories of reasons people do code-mixing were applied to three respondents. three respondents of this study were chosen due to their active participations to comment on parata ndaya site. the detailed descriptions of the data can be found from table 2. table 2 code-mixing reasons in parata ndaya walls reasons for codemixing od lm sm total t o t a l %f % f % f % talking particular topic 1 2 0 0 4 9 5 11 quoting somebody else 2 4 0 0 5 11 7 15 emphatic about something 3 6 2 4 3 6 8 16 interjection 4 9 3 6 1 2 8 17 repetition for clarification 4 9 1 2 1 2 6 13 intention of clarifying the speech content 2 4 0 0 0 0 2 4 expressing group identity 4 9 1 2 6 13 11 24 total 20 43 7 15 20 43 47 10 table 2 describes reasons why members of parata ndaya performed code-mixing when commenting on parata ndaya facebook walls. members of parata ndaya did code-mixing for seven reasons as hoffman (1991) proposed. of 7 reasons, expressing group identity was found as the most frequent reason for doing code-mixing in parata ndaya closed-group site. there were 24% occurrences of code-mixing utterances. in the second place was interjections, which occurred 17% out of the total code-mixing comments. the third and the fourth place were emphatic about something (17%) and quoting somebody else (15%). other reasons such as repetition for clarification and talking particular topic are in the fifth and sixth places, with 11% and 13%. the least frequent reason of code-mixing found in parata ndaya close-group site was the intention of clarifying the speech content (4%). overall, all members of parata ndaya have their own reasons for implementing code-mixing while writing their comments on parata ndaya walls. the higher frequency of expressing group identity such as: terima kase (thank you), bale (buddy), and tabea mami (our regards) in parata ndaya walls demonstrated that all facebook users, who joined parata ndaya close-group, respected others very much. they cooperated with others and believed parata ndaya close-group site as a proper medium for bonding, mutual relationship, maintaining ethnic-group identity (pamonanese), and preserving the regional language, pamona language. on the other hand, the least frequent reason or intention of clarifying the speech content was only executed in small percentages (4%) because the members had already familiar with the topic discussed in the walls. also, the members did not have any problems with the language used; either pamona language or indonesian. they acquired pamona language since they were in elementary school. judging from individual reasons for code-mixing in parata ndaya walls, it is clear that all three members of parata ndaya site did code-mixing for different 45the use of code-mixing .... (joice yulinda luke) functions. the first parata ndaya member did cm for being emphatic about something, conveying strong points through interjections, expressing group identity, and clarifying messages. table 4.2 above indicates that this member conveyed interjections 9%, repetitions for clarifications 9%, expressing group identity 9%, and being emphatic about something 6%. below is the illustration of facebook users (od) commented on the picture of legislators posted on parata ndaya wall: example 11: dp: manoto ketua dewan se’i ja buta maka benakita wa’a anggotanya pode tekayore tempo posidang (memang benar! ketua dewan ini buta, makanya dia tidak melihat kalau anggotanya tertidur pada waktu sidang) (it is true! chairman of the board is blind, so he does not see that members asleep at the time of trial) od: yang penting nyara wawasei da ewa nyora tempo doeloe perannya (yang penting seorang pemimpin saat ini berperan seperti guru waktu dulu) (the important thing is a leader today must play a role as a teacher in the past) unfortunately, the second face-book user (lm) used code-mixing for the sake of expressing strong feelings and gaining attention from other facebook users. from the table 4.2, the highest percentages of reasons doing code-mixing found in lm’s data is interjections such as inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors, 6%. the lowest percentage in reasons to do code-mixing is repetition for clarification (2%). these results were caused by several factors, such as: to strengthen request or gain attention from other facebook users (i.e. by using ‘jo’ as sentence fillers (interjection)) and to clarify the previous point said by other facebook users (i.e. repetition for clarification). excerpt 2 below shows how lm responded to a previous comment on the video file about think globally but act locally posted on the parata ndaya wall. example 12: od: pak aphinus kambodji, mungkin bisa di posting sedikit-sedikit (berseri) soalnya tidak semua warga parata ndaya bisa mengunduh pdf. file itu berat, ok? (pak aphinus kambodji, it’s better to post the file in serial because not all parata ndaya members can download this pdf file. that’s heavy file, ok? lm: om dimba, benar om, torang te’bisa baca, soalnya cuma pake hp…maklum di rimba belantara… hehehe (om dimba, benar om, kami tidak bisa baca, soalnya cuma pake hp…maklum di rimba belantara… hehehe) (uncle dimba, it’s true uncle. we can’t read it because we only use cellular phone… and you know, we live in the jungle …(laughing). finally is the third facebook user (sm), who performed code-mixing for three main reasons. the first was to express group identity (13%). the second was to quote something else (11%), and the third was to talk about a particular topic (9%). of the 7 reasons, interjections and repetition for clarification were found to be the least reasons of the respondents to do code-mixing. the occurrences of these two reasons are equal in frequency (1 or 2%) out of total code-mixing occurrences. the results determine that the facebook user were very careful with her comments on the parata ndaya walls. the person preferred to sound polite when addressing comments on the facebook walls. however, when the comments relate to discredit others, she chose to express them in her ethnic language (i.e. pamona language). moreover, she used many quotations like proverbs and metaphors to sound indirect. for example: example 13: bn: monco kojo kak, tapi kenapa kak sesi te ba caleg dang? siapkan diri jo buat poso 2015 (benar kak sesi, tapi kenapa kak sesi tidak menjadi caleg? siapkan diri saja buat poso 2015) (that’s right sister, but why kak sesi did not run for district legislature candidate election? then, prepare yourself for poso in 2015! sm: bernard ndawu, so te’ba caleg kasiang… kase kesempatan jo yang lain! masih banyak yang lebih berkualitas dari ngana pe kaka ini, torang tut wuri handayani jo! (bernard ndawu, saya sudah tidak mencalonkan diri lagi, beri kesempatan yang lain saja! masih banyak yang lebih berkualitas dari kakakmu ini, mari kita tut wuri handayani (jadi pengikut) saja!) (bernard ndawu, i have not run for that election again. let others do it! there are still many qualified people than me, your sister. let us just be a follower! to sum up, some members of parata ndaya do code-mixing for several reasons. these members did code-mixing for preserving the regional language and to maintain bonds among themselves. in addition to that, the three active members out of 7 members, who were participating actively commenting on parata ndaya site during the last round of district legislators’ campaign, designated their code-mixing into three types: intra-sentential, intra-lexical, and involve a change of pronunciations. all in all, members of parata ndaya site always concerned with topic discussion when addressing code-mixing. conclusion code-mixing is a good strategy for communication in a bilingual community. by mixing the code, interlocutors will solve communication barriers, such as misunderstanding or misinterpretation. furthermore, code-mixing can help interlocutors who have lack of vocabularies in their first and second language. by doing code-mixing between the two languages as pamona language to indonesian language or vice versa, language users are able to acquire more exposures in both languages. as a result, language death can be avoided and mutual collaboration between interlocutors can be achieved. 46 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 based on the results of this research, the writer has the recommendations as follows. the research findings could give inputs for bilingualism and sociolinguistics further studies that deal with code-mixing or any language alteration phenomena found in different context or situations. it is suggested that further studies can extend the focus of research in literary written works, such as: letters, drama scripts, or movie scripts. furthermore, it also suggested that further researches have to consider topic discussions and other social factors such as: power, age, gender, and distance that could affect or influence code-mixing facts. it is also recommended for facebook users, either in open or close-group site, to pay more attention to what people talk about in order to avoid misunderstanding with other facebook users who probably are not familiar with certain vocabularies of a particular language. the study also suggests that all members of parata ndaya closed-group site to accustom to pamona language when sharing ideas in the walls. those members who like to use pamona language should be concise when writing the language words on the wall. avoid abbreviating words when writing comments on the wall. references bauer, r. s. (2010). code-switching and code-mixing. ling6014: history and structure of cantonese. retrieved from http://www.linguistics.hku.hk/ cou/adv/ling6014/2010/ling6014 lecture 8 code switching mixing for students 13112010.pdf bhatia, t. k., & ritchie, w. c. (2004). social and psychological factors in language mixing. in w. c. ritchie & t. k. bhatia (eds.), handbook of bilingualism (pp. 336–352). blackwell publishing. bi, n. z. (2011). an investigation into english mixing in chinese internet language. world journal of english language, 1(2), 60–67. http://doi. org/10.5430/wjel.v1n2p60 chaer, a., & agustina, l. (2010). sosiolinguistik: perkenalan awal (revisi). jakarta: rineka cipta. clark, a. (1997). being there: putting brain body and world together again. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. http://doi.org/10.2307/2998391 gumperz, j. j. (ed.). (1982). language and social identity. cambridge: cambridge university press. hamers, j. f., & blanc, m. h. a. (1989). bilinguality and bilingualism. cambridge: cambridge university press. hoffman, c. (1991). an introduction to bilingualism. new york: longman. li, d. c. s. (1996). issues in bilingualism and biculturalism: a hongkong case study. new york: peter lang publishing. saville-troike, m. (1986). the ethnography of communication: language in society. oxford: blackwell. stockwell, p. (2002). sociolinguistics: a resource book for students. london: routledge. wardaugh, r. (1986). an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: basil blackwell. appendix open-ended interview questions: 1. which language do you often use for writing comments on parata ndaya wall? a. indonesian b. pamona language 2. referring to your answer in no.1, why! 3. for what reasons do you mix your languages (indonesian and pamona) when writing comments on parata ndaya wall? 4. when did you learn pamona language? 5. does code-mixing help you to express your ideas? 6. are there any negative sides of doing codemixing in parata ndaya wall? additional questions for administrator parata ndaya: 7. do you think other members of parata ndaya do code-mixing because of lack of vocabularies in one of language they use (i.e.pamona language or indonesian)? 8. what is the reaction of parata ndaya members if its member made errors in a language they used (i.e. grammatical errors, spelling errors, etc) 108 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 improving english pronunciation of adult esl learners through reading aloud assessments siti nurani1; amrina rosyada2 1,2 english education department, faculty of language and art, indraprasta pgri university jl. nangka no. 58c tanjung barat (tb simatupang), jagakarsa, jakarta selatan 12530 1nurani_city@yahoo.com; 24mrin4@gmail.com abstract communication skill nowadays becomes a must that everyone should master. the agreement of such conceptual meaning in communication should meet the same perception among speakers. one of the tools to improve one’s communication skill is by learning pronunciation through reading aloud for misperception emerged from mispronunciation can be avoided. this research aims at improving english pronunciation through reading aloud in the form of short texts. the research was carried out in statistics data center (bps) by employing an action research with two cycles of assessments. there were 20 it engineers of networking operation center with various background of knowledge as an object of the research. the data was collected by observation, note taking, and test which are designed and administered to identify the participants’ core and frequency of english tasks and also to investigate participants’ previous experiences with english. findings show that there is an improvement on participants’ pronunciation skill through reading aloud as it can be seen from the increase of a mean score on the second cycle with 77.75 that is considered as good predicate. keywords: english pronunciation, reading aloud technique, pronunciation skill abstrak kemampuan berkomunikasi saat ini menjadi suatu keharusan yang harus dikuasai oleh setiap orang. persamaan persepsi diantara sesama penutur terhadap makna konseptual sangat diperlukan dalam berkomunikasi. salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berkomunikasi adalah melalui pembelajaran pelafalan (pronunciation) dengan teknik membaca nyaring (reading aloud) agar kesalahpahaman makna yang ditimbulkan dari kesalahan pelafalan dapat terhindarkan. tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan pelafalan bahasa inggris dalam bentuk teks pendek. penelitian ini adalah penelitian tindakan kelas dengan dua siklus yang dilakukan di badan pusat statistik. sebanyak 20 karyawan subdit jkd yang berprofesi sebagai insinyur it dengan berbagai latar belakang pengetahuan sebagai objek penelitian. data dikumpulkan melalui observasi, catatan lapangan, dan tes yang dirancang dan diberikan untuk mengetahui kemampuan dasar dan frekuensi penggunaan bahasa inggris partisipan serta untuk mengetahui pengalaman partisipan terhadap penggunaan bahasa inggris sebelumnya. hasil penelitian menunjukkan adanya peningkatan kemampuan partisipan dalam pembelajaran pelafalan melalui teknik membaca nyaring yang terlihat dari peningkatan nilai rata-rata pada siklus kedua yaitu sebesar 77.75 dengan predikat kategori bagus. kata kunci: pelafalan bahasa inggris, teknik membaca nyaring, kemampuan pelafalan 109improving english pronunciation .... (siti nurani; amrina rosyada) introduction as an integrated information center corporation in indonesia, statistics data center (bps) is expected to be able to offer clients a full range of services, particularly of networking operation center to each unit of data center. in doing such services, the employees (i.e., it engineers of networking operation center) are required to use english as the medium of communication for communicating with their clients both from local and across cultures. along with the fast development of technology and science, cultural and social life, the communication competence becomes one of the primary factors in achieving the perfection of language comprehension. therefore, the target of communication among people could be reached without any obstacles. with the continuing demand of using english in surroundings, people’s communication skill must be developed to ease them to communicate with each other. one of the learning aspects that is significant to learn for increasing communication skill is pronunciation. clear pronunciation gives speakers the power to be confident when expressing and indicating themselves in communicating with others (zaigham, 2011), whereas mispronunciation will lead misperception among them. hence, pronunciation is what speakers concern with as it comprises rules to utter words accurately (harmer, 2001). the success of communication really depends on the speakers’ fluency in pronouncing the words. in this case, the speakers must adhere to some standard of pronunciation in order to be understood by others. learning pronunciation of a second language possesses a problem that is different to a problem that speakers face when they learn their first language. there appears to be multiple factors contributing to the pronunciation attained by the second language learner, such as the age (krashen, long, & scarcella, 1979); and also the length of residence in a place where the target language is spoken (purcell & suter, 1980). there will be some learners who may want to approach a native-like pronunciation as they want to deal on equal terms with native speakers in an english-speaking country. however, some studies claim that older people are not disadvantaged for the attainment of native-like pronunciation of the second language (neufeld, 1978; olson & samuels, 1973; (e.g. neufeld, 1978; olson & samuels, 1973; snow & hoefnagel-hole, 1977). similarly, (scovel, 1988) pointed out that learners who start to learn second language later than, say, age 12, will never be able to “pass themselves off as native speakers” and will “end up easily identified as nonnative speakers of that language”. learners who start to learn a second language before the close of the critical period were assumed to be able to achieve native-like mastery, provided that they were continuously exposed to sufficient input from native speakers of that language (lenneberg, 1967). however, (klein, 1995) assumed that although the age factor may generally hold true but adults can ultimately attain good pronunciation by the interplay of three factors, that is, language processor, access, and propensity. klein argued that there is no evidence of any drastic changes in adults’ biological barrier which influenced the language processor in native-like attainment. the access to second language can only be achieved if a learner has a high level propensity of acquiring a second language. since the participants in this research are adult esl learners, who might be called as ultimate learners of pronunciation (age factor) hypothesized in a critical period, must meet problems in their pronunciation learning process. compared to adults, younger learners would generally receive more and more varied input from native speakers and would be more highly motivated to acquire the second language at native-like level (schuman, 1975). in other words, adults are assumed to receive only less adequate input and are considered as less motivated language learners as contrast to klein’s hypothesis. due to some above factors that might interfere the process of learning, pronunciation lesson should be set as good as possible to ease ultimate learners receiving the materials. various activities and assessments in the learning process have to fulfill the needs of participants’ learning situation which involves subjective and process-oriented needs, consisting of the participants’ language learning preference to do such activities that will be given in the learning process. therefore, reading aloud technique might be the best alternative to overcome participants’ needs in learning pronunciation. the benefits of reading aloud are numerous and one of them is increasing the motivation of students to read and to build their topical knowledge about a specific subject. by reading aloud employed in the pronunciation learning, participants are expected to be more active and interactive in engaging their real life communication. no two individuals pronounce exactly alike. the differences arise from a variety of causes, such as the time in which they grew up, the area in which they now live, their early influences, social class, social surroundings, their level of education, and there are also individual peculiarities for which it is difficult or impossible to account. even within the same groups of the same area and class, each individual has his or her own unique way of speaking. pronunciation refers to the way in which a word or a language is usually spoken in which someone utters a word or a language. the fluency in pronouncing english utterances is the most important aspect in producing accurate meaning of the utterance so that it could be easily comprehended by a community. pronouncing the utterances is really influenced and determined by the use of intonation and stressed word in a sentence correctly. various mastery levels of pronunciation portray the difference of one’s competence and performance in communication. having a good or a bad pronunciation really depends on one’s effort to learn pronunciation. in the learning process, learners may face difficulty to cope the materials as they are imposed to the language they are not familiar with . as the late start learners of pronunciation, adult esl learners must find pronunciation learning as such frustrating lesson. one of the difficulties in learning pronunciation is when learners pronounce english words. as a result, making errors in pronouncing english as foreign language is considered as a common and natural phenomenon in the early stage of foreign language learning process. goodwin (2001) affirmed that in teaching pronunciation, there is a set of goals of instructions examined, namely: 1) to enable 110 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 our learners to understand and be understood, 2) to build their confidence in entering communicative situations, and 3) to enable them to monitor their speech based on input from the environment. to accomplish these goals, he describes the tools we need to teach pronunciation in a systematic and principled way. therefore teachers should determine the best technique to cope with the problems that learners face. by pointing those problems, some scholars have demonstrated that reading aloud is said to be an effective way to ease learners in comprehending both of written and spoken contexts in teaching pronunciation (i.e. alshumaimeri, 2011; huang, 2010; tost, 2013). by applying reading aloud in classroom context, learners will experience more joyful learning circumstance as it offers numerous benefits as supported by (jacobs & hannah, 2004) who classified them into two groups, that is “benefits of reading aloud to students who are learning to read and benefits of ‘reading aloud to students at any level of reading proficiency”. the former states that reading aloud helps students see the link between print and language, i.e., those black marks on the page represent sounds and words, and students see the direction in which words and letters flow in the language of the book being read to them. teachers demonstrate how to hold a book, to open a book, and to turn the pages. students build their memories as they seek to recall earlier parts of a book and previously read books. hearing books read to them inspires students to want to learn to read. the latter affirms that students can learn new language items, such as vocabulary and grammar, and their understanding of previously learned language is deepened and broadened by new and repeated encounters. students’ listening skills increase. a bond of shared experience is built between the reader and the listener. reading aloud can be used to launch a discussion about life, topics currently being studied, and language. students build their knowledge of the world and its inhabitants. teachers share their enthusiasm for reading, encouraging students to read the same book, books by the same author or of the same type, or any sort of reading matter on their own. since reading loud technique releases numerous benefits, many teachers conduct the teaching strategy by modeling some assessments in the teaching and learning process, specifically in the process of teaching pronunciation by using the reading aloud technique. there are some steps in investigating several assessments in the reading aloud technique, namely: 1) text selection, 2) previewed and practiced, 3) clear purpose established, 4) fluent reading modeled, 5) animation and expression, 6) discussing the text, and 7) independent reading and writing (fisher et al, 2004). in the text selection, teachers choose the most appropriate reading texts that will be read in front of learners based on their needs. in this case, teachers should consistently choose the text that meets its requirement in improving learners’ english competence. previewed and practiced is a step for teachers reading the text fluently by doing the pause in each section of theme. in this step, learners are welcomed to ask for questions of every problem in reading they face. further assessment, which is known as clear purpose established, is held before learners starting to read texts by using reading aloud technique. here, teachers determine general objectives by framing the target of reading skill achievement that is integrated with other skills (i.e., speaking, reading, writing, listening, vocabulary and grammar). also, in the step of fluent reading modeled, teachers must be as a fluent model in reading the text. this is conducted to overcome learners’ mispronunciation. the most important phase where all learners are involved into their own text is called as animation and expression phase (fisher et. al., 2004) . in this phase, teachers are expected to read the texts in a full of expression by using gesture, intonation, and body movement. therefore, learners are totally engaged in the situation of learning. another stage, discussing the text, is a step when both teacher and learners discussing the text to get the appropriate concept of meaning and to link the function of text to learners’ daily life. this can be done either before reading, during the process of reading or even after the process of reading. the last step is independent reading and writing. here, teachers evaluate learners’ reading competence on how far they comprehend their reading texts. various exercises and brief comment on journal will be beneficial for learners to enhance their level of reading competence. method this research basically aims in improving english pronunciation through reading aloud assessments. the research was carried out in statistics data center (bps), engaging 20 it engineers of networking operation center with various background of knowledge as an object of the research. this research is a practical action research with two cycles of assessments, focused on learners’ pronunciation improvement (creswell, 2012). the data was collected through interviews, observation, and documents to identify the participants’ core and frequency of english tasks and also to investigate participants’ previous experiences with english (creswell, 2012). as stated by (fisher et al., 2004), each of cycle in the process of reading aloud is conducted by various assessments, namely: text selection, previewed and practiced, clear purpose established, fluent reading modeled, animation and expression, discussing the text, and independent reading and writing. the research design in this practical action research is cycling the process of reading aloud as (mills, 2011) described that action research as ‘dialectic action research spiral’. this model provides four-step guide which is drawn as follows: figure 1 dialectic action research spiral source: (mills, 2011:19) the identifying step is a step related to defining the area, doing the self-reflection and description, reviewing the literature, and writing an action research plan to guide 111improving english pronunciation .... (siti nurani; amrina rosyada) the research. collecting is an action of gathering multiple sources of data by using the interviews, observation, and documents. the analyzing and interpreting step are conducted by identifying themes, coding the data, asking the key questions, doing an organizational reviews, connecting findings to personal experiences, and contextualizing the findings in literature and theory. the final step, developing an action plan, includes a summary of findings, recommended actions, and the identification of individuals responsible to carry out the action. this model includes four stages where the cycles back and forth between the data collection and identifying stage; and data collection and analyzing and interpretation stage (creswell, 2012). in this present research, the writers who also acted as the researchers , conduct two cycles of reading aloud assessments of which in each cycle carried out various assessments. those are text selection, previewed and practiced, clear purpose established, fluent reading modeled, animation and expression, discussing the text, and independent reading as well as writing. by doing such assessments, it is expected that problems in learning pronunciation faced by adult esl learners will be solved. in this case, learners are facilitated with various interesting learning media to succeed the teaching-learning process. it is hoped that learners experience better learning circumstance in learning pronunciation. at the first cycle, numerous interactive materials were prepared in the identifying stage. in the text selection, the writers observed that learners find their job description of the text is the best text given. here, the appropriate text is determined to meet their need suited to their scopes of work. the writers then previewed and practiced the text by giving the concept of the classification of segmental phonemes, i.e., classification of vowels and consonants by giving list of those categories. in the phase of clear purpose established, the writers then gave participants exercises of some lists of short vowel and consonant words in the form of short text. after each participant practiced the text given, the writers were acting as the fluent reading models to show the participants how to read the text well. the aspects of animation and expression should also be involved in the process of reading the text. this is a task for writers to take supra-segmental phonemes into the learning process, such as the use of gestures, intonation, stressed patterns in the sentences of the text. both in the identifying and collecting phase, note taking is held in the two last activities of reading aloud assessments, that is, the stage of discussing the text as well as independent reading and writing. in these activities, learners were assessed by giving them some examples of words contained segmental phonemes in a short text to be pronounced. each learner should come to the front of the class to read aloud the text. the activity is conducted by recording learners’ voice during the process of reading aloud. this is done to identify mispronunciation made by learners in detail as the writers evaluate it in order to score their pronunciation level. in this stage, learners are welcomed to ask for and to comment on their pronunciation problems. in the analyze and interpret phase, the writers analyzed on the assessments that had been done and decided to conduct another cycle as they found that the level of learners’ pronunciation mastery was not yet considered as satisfactory. having a better preparation in selecting the text is relied on the identifying phase of the second cycle. here, the text is chosen and put the phonetic transcriptions of each segmental phoneme into the text to make it easier to read. more practical overview of the text’s features is given in the previewed and practiced stage. this is employed to deprive learners’ boredom to the materials. the phase of clear purpose established, released on giving learners more interactive exercise with a simpler short text by also examining various role plays in learners’ performance. accordingly, the writers as the reading models for learners provide directly practicing the aspects of animation and expression, either before, during, or after the process of reading. it is a step where the writers had to elaborate more on the supra-segmental aspects of the materials. the collecting data stage in the second cycle should also portray a better performance of learners’ pronunciation. for this time, every single of mispronunciation was noted. here, learners were tested twice as they have another chance to identify their mispronunciation. in accordance, learners were given a more open opportunity to improve their ability on pronouncing the words. the recording session is set to be more comfortable as they have space to prepare themselves to read aloud the text better than before. in the observing stage, report is made into journals regarding learners’ improvement in learning pronunciation by categorizing the aspects of learning in detail. then, scores were also identified together with the analysis of the progress. as for the feedback, in the developing an action plan stage, the writers mapped the learners’ need by interviewing learners about what aspect of learning that should be included and what should be leaved out. results and discussion with a very perusal investigation at each cycle, the writers found that there was an increase of learners’ pronunciation performance in the second cycle. learners’ mean score was then also increasing. the results show that in the second cycle, each learner had a progress in pronouncing the words and sentences in a short text clearly both of pronouncing vowels and consonants. the assessments of pronouncing segmental phonemes are scored to learners’ mean score of clear pronunciation of vowels (i.e., front, central, and back vowels) and consonants (i.e., viewed from the place of articulation and manner of articulation). the mean score will be averaged in each cycle that can be seen from the table below: table 1 learners’ mean score of pronouncing segmental phonemes in each cycle learner vowels consonants 1st cycle 2nd cycle 1st cycle 2nd cycle 1 62 78 60 78 2 58 72 56 78 3 57 73 56 77 4 61 78 61 78 5 62 77 61 78 6 62 76 60 78 7 65 81 60 80 8 62 78 60 77 9 62 78 61 76 10 62 77 60 78 11 65 83 62 80 12 61 78 61 80 13 61 77 61 77 14 63 78 60 80 15 65 77 62 76 16 62 78 60 76 17 65 82 60 80 18 62 79 60 78 19 62 78 61 78 20 61 77 58 77 mean 62 77.75 60 78 112 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 figure 2 learners’ mean score of clear pronunciation in each cycle as the chart displayed, there is an improvement of learners’ pronunciation test from one cycle to the second one. in the first cycle, learner’s mean score releases on 61 point as the result, of which it was categorized as poor score. this point showed that the students’ competence in pronunciation was low. at the first time, it was expected that every learner could apply reading aloud in their pronunciation learning smoothly. in fact, learners still got problems in pronouncing some vowel sounds especially in pronouncing back vowel /ʊ/ such as in ‘good’, ‘could’, would’, ‘input’, ‘book’, ‘pull’, etc. ; front vowels /a/ as in the words ‘’five’, ‘light’, etc.; and /æ/, e.g., ‘back’, ‘bag’, ‘cash’, ‘can’, ‘cabinet’, ‘carry’, etc; and some consonant sounds particularly of fricative sounds of /θ/, for instance ‘month’, ‘through’, etc.; and /ð/ as in the words ‘other’, ‘there’, ‘that’, and also affricate sounds of /ʧ/ like in the expressions ‘cheap’, ‘question’ ‘chair’, ‘chain’, etc.; and /ʤ/ such as in ‘wage’, ‘june’, etc. (table 1). those parts of sounds seem to be difficult for learners to pronounce. this might happen as there is an influence of mother tongue toward the target language. in accordance, learners’ confidence was also still at a low level as they perform their first experience. in the second cycle, the mean score was increased by 77.75 point, of which it indicated a progress from previous cycle. the result showed that learners made more progress both of their score as well as of their confidence on performance. problems on pronouncing each segment of speech, particularly for the difficult parts of vowel and consonant sounds that are mentioned above were also decreased. in this second cycle, learners had more effort to lead their pronunciation into a better level of mastery. this was influenced by doing more practice among learners themselves. also, with more interactive media of learning, learners might feel comfortable to receive the lesson materials well. the mean score was categorized as good score. the practical action research had been conducted in two cycles that comprised of six meetings. in each cycle, there were four stages investigated, namely: identifying an area of focus, collecting the data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and developing the action plan. each cycle was then accomplished by using reading aloud assessments to look over learners’ need in their learning circumstance. the writers who also acted as the researchers did the analysis by examining the procedures of observing, note taking, and testing. observation and note taking were carried out to record the process of learning in the classroom, whereas the test was conducted to measure and score the learners’ pronunciation mastery. at the first cycle, the writers found that many learners still got difficulty coping their learning in each level of assessment. most of learners still had lack of confidence to experience the activities as they did not have such the thing before. as the result, every learning assessment of each cycle did not run smoothly. learners in this cycle were as passive for giving only little contribution to the learning process. here, mispronunciation made by almost 90 percents of learners was massively found as it presented in their mean score of segmental phonemes (table 1). the mean score of each learner was also still at the poor level. hence, better teaching and learning process circumstance were brought by examining more numerous interactive things into the classroom. a more excited situation of learning was created in the second cycle. to take the cycle played better than former cycle, writers then built more practical assessments to ease learners achieve their goal of learning. learners began to be very enthusiastic in learning. this can be seen from their progress to have their confidence both on written and spoken assessments. the mean score had also been increased by the time they were given various interactive media of learning. in this second cycle, learners became active and mispronunciation made by them was also gradually derived . all learners were totally getting involved in their learning process as they led their pronunciation to be as fluent as native like pronunciation. the technique of reading aloud made learners have a joyful experience of learning pronunciation as it offers many advantages for creating a better circumstance of teaching and learning process. as reading aloud integrates all skills of language competence and performance, then learners will have a complete thought for understanding the concept of learning pronunciation by delivering the message of its meaning thoroughly. clear pronunciation made by learners will lead them to meaningful communication. by pronouncing the words correctly, communicative requirements must be reached. conclusion based on the analysis, it can be concluded that the use of reading aloud assessments in pronunciation lesson is said to be successful in improving english pronunciation of adult esl learners. this can be seen from the increase of learners’ mean score of their clear pronunciation performance in the second cycle, of which 61 point at the first cycle and 77.75 point at the second cycle. moreover, reading aloud is also considered to be beneficial to increase learners’ motivation in learning pronunciation. this can be seen from their enthusiasm of learning pronunciation as they view the circumstance of learning as their experience new environment. in addition, the interaction among learners is developed significantly as they feel free to be involved on the communication among them. in every step of the lesson, the writers give an enormous opportunity to the learners to give their aspiration for creating a better circumstance of teaching and learning process. the results of the study are expected to be as a contribution to the development of language education 113improving english pronunciation .... (siti nurani; amrina rosyada) particularly of the pronunciation skill improvement. the results are also expected to give an important insight and valuable information for educational practitioners in investigating the theoretical underpinnings of second language acquisition, especially of the attainment nativelike pronunciation. this present research deals with the identification of pronunciation skill improvement by examining reading aloud assessments as its main focus. to see more comprehensible input to the research, such approaches might be also linked to several other perspectives of disciplines, such as esp and corpus-based approach to foster educational practitioners in increasing the innovation in teaching and learning process mainly of pronunciation lesson in the classroom context. references alshumaimeri, y. (2011). the effects of reading method on the comprehension performance of saudi efl students. international electronic journal of elementary education, 4 (1), 185-195. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (4thed.) boston: pearson. fisher, d. et al. (2004). interactive read aloud: is there a common set of implementation practice?. international reading association, 58 (1), 8-17. goodwin. (2001). teaching pronunciation. printed in the united states of america. harmer, j. (2001). the practice of english language teaching. (3rd ed). new york: longman. huang, l. (2010). reading aloud in the foreign language teaching. asian social science, 6(4), 148-150. jacobs, g., hannah, d. (2004). combining cooperative learning with reading aloud by teachers. ijes, 4(1), 97-118. klein, w. (1995). language acquisition at different ages. in d. magnusson (ed.). the lifespan development of individuals: behavioral, neurobiological, and psychological perspectives. a synthesis, 244-264. krashen, s., long, m., & scarcella, r. (1979). age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. tesol quarterly, 13, 573-582. lenneberg, e. (1967). biological foundations of language. new york: wiley. mills, g. e. (2011). action research: a guide for the teacher researcher. (4thed.). upper saddle river, nj: pearson. neufeld, g. (1978). on the acquisition of prosodic and articulatory features in adult language learning. canadian modern language review, 34, 163-174. olson, l., samuels, s. (1973). the relationship between age and accuracy of foreign language pronunciation. journal of educational research, 66, 263-267. purcell, e., suter, r. (1980). predictors of pronunciation accuracy: a reexamination. language learning, 30, 271-287. schuman, j. (1975). affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition. language learning, 25, 209-225. scovel, t. (1988). a time to speak: a psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. rowley, ma: newbury house. snow, c., hoefnagel-hohle. (1977). age differences in pronunciation of foreign sounds. language and speech, 2lx4), 357-365. tost, g. (2013). bettering pronunciation through reading aloud and peer appraisal. bellattera journal of teaching and learning language and literature, 6 (1), 35-55. zaigham, m. s. (2011). language starts with the ear. the fiat pointer, 1(4), 26-27. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 39 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 39-50 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7067 corpus-based analysis of online hoax discourse on transportation subject picturing indonesian issue yune andryani pinem* transport management, sekolah tinggi teknologi kedirgantaraan (sttkd) jl. parangtritis km 4,5 sewon, bantul, daerah istimewa yogyakarta 55187, indonesia j.andryani@gmail.com received: 19th february 2021/revised: 29th april 2021/accepted: 04th may 2021 how to cite: pinem, y. a. (2021). corpus-based analysis of online hoax discourse on transportation subject picturing indonesian issue. lingua cultura, 15(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7067 abstract the research discussed indonesian hoax on transportation, spread using chain messages over social media, a major hoax subject. setting social structure as an element to consider in hoax discourse gave different perspectives on why hoax news took place. contrasting identified online hoax discourse to corpus-derived prosody could be interpreted using a sociopragmatic approach by lin and chung (2016). the research tried to look at how discourse on hoax correlated to real social issues among indonesian people. digital forensic was done by tracking discourse used as data from hoax news collection on turnbackhoax.com during 2017-2019. discourse was later generated into clusters of subject idea of ‘tilang’, ‘jalan tol’, public land transport and infrastructure, ‘kecelakaan pesawat’, ‘lowongan kerja’, ‘china’, insecurity toward government and ‘kecelakaan kapal’. the subject idea was later consulted to indonesian web corpus (iwac). through the socio-pragmatic approach, prosody derived by contrasting process portrayed hoax on transportation as a reflection of unsolved current social problems among indonesian community including distrust toward the government, unawareness on transport safety, law and regulation, economic status, and trend. the finding of the research is recommended to take action toward those problems to eliminate hoax spread in the transportation sector. keywords: web-based corpus, digital forensic, digital hoax, discourse prosody, socio-pragmatics introduction social media is a service product of advanced innovation in information communication of technology (ict), which can be considered beneficial as well as disruptive. the bipolar characteristic of social media is well said because regardless of its function to widely spread information close to realtime, its accountability is considered low since it has no editorial board and process. thus, news spread by politics, ideology, economy, and popularity motives may lead to falsification or misleading in the form of hoax news. newspapers as information media, for instance, by specific political and ideological purposes, can be employed and manipulated to describe a particular identity to build public perspective (zottola, 2021). disruptive innovation affecting the emergence of false news always requires counter actions involving law and regulations, as in many digital and linguistics forensic media. identifying hoax and their spread in cyberspace have become a concern of recent studies to perform this action. this identification is part of efforts to stop hoax spread through public education by looking at hoax patterns. by employing technology information systems and facilitated by algorithms, detection methods of hoax rely on identifying features of the user, content, and context. the reversed-tracking method of the articles posts on the cognitive system to successfully detects fake news possibility is up to 85%. using digital forensic on the internet search engine, url, and photo from the article to consult it with indonesian regulation and law is also considered as an effective practical mechanism to confirm whether a news flow is classified as a hoax or not. further action can also be done to identify the author of a hoax based on linguistic profile shown by bit-level based n-gram analysis on hoax discourse (gjylbegaj, 2018; huang & chen, 2020; ko et al., 2019; kumar, 2017; meinarni & iswara, 2018; peng, choo, & ashman, 2016; singh et al., 2020; sirajudeen, azmi, & abubakar, 2017; tukina, mozin, & sanjaya, 2020; zhang & ghorbani, 40 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 39-50 2020). discourse is a substance used for every method of analysis to identify hoaxes. an analysis can also be performed using the discourse prosody approach by looking at what is written or portrayed in a text. this type of analysis facilitated by corpus study classifies interpretation of a neutral word into a binary distinction of negative versus positive or favorable versus unfavorable expression. it is known as john mchardy sinclair’s nature of the evidence, not only in collocation (kotait, 2018; praminatih & nafiah, 2018) but also in internal affixes (du, wang, & yang, 2018), metaphor (indhiarti, 2019), and concordance (erdentug & vefalı, 2018). the corpus-based study has been proven to provide insight in looking at semantics on certain words and transfer it into a deeper comprehension by giving prosody. the topic model of text corpora is used as a possible tool to evaluate media and classify the negative information on a socially significant topic. thus, the media’s objective, role, focus, and quality of a society can be measured (mukhamediev et al., 2020). finding in semantic prosody’s study reveals that prosodic descriptors affect the impressions formed of others in five different circumstances for produced versus cause and utterly versus totally (hauser & schwarz, 2018). corpus also defines ideology on arabic political discourse related to arab israeli conflict (sayaheen & malkawi, 2019), which is possibly the result of one’s recognition of word based on his/her inner psycholinguistics’ element (ellis, frey, & jalkanen, 2009) as a response toward generalized ‘schema’ constructed by contexts appearing in every discourse on corpora or product of delusionality, dogmatism, and religion fundamentalism, which results in wrong belief (bronstein et al., 2019). simply put, corpus-based prosody gives a larger picture involving a relatively broad neighboring field of study on a lexical item. in the previous research, there is false news in romanian since the case of a wide arranged of attributes and typologies of fake news in the romanian 2019 presidential election. it shows the contribution of social and mainstream media toward false narratives (sutu, 2019). web-based corpus is an alternative online and practical way to process data using words. data storage is classified based on country, such as ukwac used in analyzing word challenge according to grammatical relation with its collocation environment (lin & chung, 2016). the research uses indonesian web corpus (iwac) to contrast words to those found on online hoax collections stored in turnbackhoax.com (tbh), particularly related to transportation issues as one of the major hoax subjects in indonesia. by contrasting subject ideas found on tbh to iwac and drawing prosody from each discourse, the research attempts to figure out why particular hoax news may occur in the first place by connecting it to real social problems in the indonesian community for two years back before the presidential election 2019. the technique of comparing vocabulary using corpus has been proven to be faster than a manual technique to identify and describe spoken and written technical legal vocabulary used for specific purposes in a contract class and the general field (bancroft-billings, 2020). nevertheless, observing hoax discourse cannot be separated from language’s external factors (wijana, 2020). interpreting meaning from what is given by context and connecting it to a social structure inside the particular community as language users can be further explained using a socio-pragmatic approach as in medical communication involving multi-party medical encounters which include patients with a range of ages. the result of the research explores family members’ contribution in understanding the patient’s condition to be beneficial to the treatment decision-making process (fioramonte & vásquez, 2019). having this understanding in mind is likely to be beneficial for the public to look at hoax news from different points of view, from the perspective of current indonesian society’s problem. thus, recommendations deduced from the finding of this result can be considered for future responsive actions. based on these explanations, the research aims to reveal what currently happens inside the indonesian community based on types of hoax stories spread around transportation subjects. using collections of hoaxes in transportation from turnbackhoax.com, subject ideas are generated, which later are compared to the indonesian web-based corpus. prosody driven from the comparison is observed and interpreted using a socio-pragmatic approach. methods meinarni and iswara (2018) have identified and described hoax in the research by tracking digital forensic related to the news which is found on internet search engines, url, and photo from the article. data is obtained online from two sources (tbh: hoax news collection and iwac: indonesian web-based corpus). first, hoax news collected from turnbackhoax.com is everything related to transportation subject from 2017 to 2019, considering the indonesian presidential election in 2019 and period of a campaign around two years earlier. second, since hoax is usually spread using social media, discourse on hoax includes not only the title but also the body of the message and picture if available. then, hoaxes in transportation which are divided into three different means of land, air, and sea, are categorized into clusters of the subject idea by generating ‘scheme’ through content and narration of each discourse. these subject ideas (in the form of word or phrase) are later consulted to iwac to contrast its prosody. this is a qualitative study using a socio-pragmatic approach to explain findings on contrasting prosody from tbh and iwac. finally, finding on socio-pragmatics aspect is used to picture current social issues among indonesian people. 41corpus-based analysis of online .... (yune andryani pinem) results and discussions from a general outlook on hoaxes related to transportation subject, it is over 100 hoax-news found on turnbackhoax.com collection throughout 2017-2019. transportation issues that emerged in the form of false news are categorized into three kinds of transportation means in indonesia (air, land, and sea). these include airplanes, helicopters, cars, and motorcycles (public or private), trains, and all types of ships. on how to categorize the news is also including every aspect or facilities which may relate to or mention these means. hoax news is collected from the source for two years, and the land transportation category dominates each year in numbers. this category exceeds air transportation by 7 points in 2019, 6 points in 2018, and 5 points in 2017. extremely, it also surpasses sea transportation by nine times in 2019, 25 times in 2018, and 15 times in 2017. this fact makes land transportation the major spotlight on the public when it relates to hoax news compared to other transportation means. it can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 number of hoax-news on transportation in indonesia 2017-2019 to look at hoax news that is considered misleading, a comparison must be done to real news with similar topics. corpus-based contrast analysis on discourse is done by generating and categorizing topics found on turnbackhoax.com (tbh), which is later analyzed in an algorithm using indonesian web corpus (indonesiawac/iwac). this calculation covers all words recorded by the system and not necessarily on different headlines of news/source. by looking at text collected from the internet, certain components will be clustered and calculated based on the frequency of concordance, collocation with the first word to the left and the right (if possible), and discourse prosody. the cluster category in transportation is divided into three, which are clusters on land transport category, air transport category, and sea transport category. the first cluster is the land transport category. an interesting finding over hoax news that occurs during 2017 to 2019 is that two later years are easier to cluster in topic due to similarities of substance than one earlier year. it seems that hoax news in 2018 and 2019 shows repetition in theme with only minor adjustments. the collection of news in 2017, on the other hand, shows more random subjects making it more difficult to classify. table 1 shows the corpus data comparison on the word ‘tilang’. table 1 corpus data comparison on ‘tilang’ indonesianwac (iwac) turnbackhoax.com (tbh) word form ‘tilang’ (n=76) ‘tilang’ (n=10) ‘tilang’ (n=12) ‘tilang’ (n=0) ‘tilang’ (n=10) ‘tilang’ (n=1) collocation: ‘surat’ (n=12) ‘surat’ (n=5) first word to the left ‘kena’ (n=4) ‘kena’ (n=6) hoax news on this category is dominated by the emergence of component ‘tilang’, which relates to violating traffic, including administrative regulation (2019=eight times; 2018=thirteen times; 2017=once). however, for this issue classification, the matching node word of ‘tilang’ and its variation are only 11 occurrences. this happens because the term ‘tilang’ arose not only from literal word statements but also interpreted from context. additional terms are shown up in the form of ‘razia’ or police road checks (n=7) with four variants (‘razia’, ’razia’, ’razia’, and ‘rajia’). as expected, the context that arose from this node word is consistent with the law with negative discourse prosody of cause and effect. however, this negative implication is materialized only for wrongdoers since there is a penalty and or fine, which are managed on the regulation for it. therefore, whenever someone violates any traffic regulation, he/she will be given a traffic ticket. some expanded contexts include tilang oknum, membayar tilang, tilang pelanggaran, and many others. surprisingly, collocation ‘cctv’ or ‘e-cctv’ for ‘tilang’ occurs repeatedly on tbh heading, and it cannot be found elsewhere on iwac. the topic of implementing testing of e-cctv to catch traffic trotters occurs almost half of the total amount of news about ‘tilang’. by year, this news spread on social media with similar content and discourse mentioning location of cctv parameters, instruction to obey, and integrated authority, which is involved. what differentiates this hoax news is merely about location (west jakarta, bogor, manado, and depok). there are two modifications of discourse found on hoax news mentioning malang (one of the district capitals in east java) and a fine list for ‘tilang’. the absence of word collocation for ‘tilang’ and ‘e-cctv’ or ‘cctv’ on iwac can be described by clarification made related to this hoax. according to the authority, cctv installment in several spots on the road is not done solely to monitor traffic but for other purposes. even though e-cctv can be used as evidence to bring 42 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 39-50 traffic offenders to court sounds promising, it is still far from execution. different concepts of ‘tilang’ have surfaced four times in tbh involving driving registration (stnk for vehicle and sim for a driver). it is kind of ‘tilang’ if someone drives or rides their vehicle without having one or both registration with him/her. stnk or vehicle registration is a legal document for vehicles along with an annual tax payment receipt, while sim or driver’s license is a document to legalize someone to drive or ride a vehicle. being neglectful to have them while driving may cause the driver or rider to get a ticket. in iwac, the joint between both words is mostly pictured by mengurus, pengurusan, memperpanjang, perpanjangan, and motor. all these words suggest the process of ensuring registration is set legally for a drive, especially for motorcycles (motor). this process on tbh has become a basis to ignite false news. as a result of being careless in the process, a driver must face the law consequence of ‘tilang’, which is done in a ‘razia’ or regular police road checks. to pass from ‘razia’ false news is spread including information on location and date schedule of ‘razia’ to avoid being caught, how to do ‘pemutihan sim’ to renew an expired driver license without passing test drive procedures as well as mob driver license making, ‘pemutihan pajak kendaraan’ as pardon for late vehicle tax payment, additional agenda relates to drug raids, irrationally expensive annual vehicle tax fare, and how tax is not part of police department jurisdiction; therefore, they are not allowed to give ticket on unpaid vehicle tax. as seen from all collected false news on tbh on this subject, there is a tendency to give resources for the reader to avoid the law. the user of this type of information is those who have problem with their vehicle or driver registration. instead of dealing with it procedurally, employing and sharing information from hoax news is a sign that either he/she chooses to solve the problem wrongly or he/she lacks information about the legal procedure on this particular matter. even though there is no further explanation for this, however, one reason for those behaviors is manifested in the false news itself, which is the taxes fare issue. table 3 corpus data comparison on ‘tol’ indonesianwac (iwac) turnbackhoax.com (tbh) word form ‘tol’ (n=1,666) ‘tol’ (n=61) ‘tol’ (n=285) ‘tol’ (n=21) ‘tol’ (n=30) ‘tol’ (n=6) ‘toll’ (n=2) collocation: ‘jalan’ (n=922) ‘jalan’ (n=41) first word to the left ‘jalan’ (n=131) ‘jalan’ (n=1) ‘jalan’ (n=3) table 2 iwac concordance on ‘tilang’ left kwic right pemohon harus membuktikan bahwa tidak ada kewajiban-kewajiban khusus yang dibebankan pada mereka, termasuk kartu tilang dan pajak yang belum dibayar. menurut laporan koresponden washington post jackson diehl: " bagi orangorang , yang dalam beberapa kasus bahkan dijadikan sarana untuk kegiatan pelanggaran hukum lainny berupa pembayaran tilang terhadap oknum. ketika polisi secara kelembagaan sedang disorot karena pengakuan salah seorang oknum petingginya : mgr . g. manek, svd selama masa mgr. a. thijssen di mau mere didirikan satu paroki baru yaitu • tahun 1953 paroki tilang dengan p. de zwart, sebagai pastor paroki. pada tanggal 25 januari 1961 roma mendirikan struktur hiraikis gereja di . suku yang jumlahnya terbanyak adalah sikka krowe yang berdomisili pada paroki-paroki bagian tengah yaitu: paroki tilang , paroki bloro, paroki lela, paroki sikka, paroki nita, paroki wairpelit, paroki koting, paroki nele, paroki habi, pemantau khusus pilkada (pkp) jakarta, mengusulkan agar pelaku kecurangan pilkada bisa di adili segera seperti tilang ditempat bagi pelanggar lalulintas. jadi, terhadap pelaku kecurangan, polri tidak perlu menunggu sampai proses lapor dan diproses polisi. ̀ ' atas laporan itu polisi wajib segera meresponnya. mungkin bentuknya bisa seperti tilang ditempat. begitu melakukan pelanggaran, langsung bisa segera disidangkan. sebab, peradilan pasca pemilu, pemantau khusus pilkada (pkp) jakarta, mengusulkan agar pelaku kecurangan pilkada bisa diadili segera seperti tilang ditempat bagi pelanggar lalulintas. jadi, terhadap pelaku kecurangan, polri tidak perlu menunggu sampai proses lapor dan diproses polisi. ̀ ' atas laporan itu polisi wajib segera meresponnya. mungkin bentuknya bisa seperti tilang ditempat. begitu melakukan pelanggaran, langsung bisa segera disidangkan. sebab, peradilan pasca pemilu , 43corpus-based analysis of online .... (yune andryani pinem) the second lead in this hoax category is the component of the ‘jalan tol’ (toll road) issue from 2017 to 2019 (three times, ten times, and six times). in concordance on node word ‘tol’ only, nearly two thousand kwic are found on iwac, and almost a hundred on tbh. in terms of word form, there is a modification of ‘toll’ that appears twice in tbh, which is interpreted as informal variation since it is not indonesian but an english word. in word collocation, another variation shown in the word ‘jalan’ appears only on the news headline/title three times. there is no indication of this variation existing elsewhere on the news body. by comparing data collected from the internet to all discourse found on hoax news relates to this word, intersection on collocation indicates the word ‘cipularang’ (iwac=24; tbh=1) and ‘cikampek’ (iwac=18; tbh=4). both are known as the names of toll roads in jakarta. context found on iwac about ‘cipularang’, which is more frequent than ‘cikampek’ is inversely compared to what is found in tbh making both words have different levels of attention on both media. figure 2 shows the iwac contrast concordance on cipularang and cikampek toll. looking at discourse prosody found related to both node words on iwac, ‘cipularang’ is described positively based on its benefit toward the economy, tourism, politics, education, and traffic between jakarta-bandung in vice versa. additional context on this word is shown on advice to keep road layout green along with the toll. meanwhile, the context around ‘cikampek’ shows a different vibe since mentioned problems on rest area toilets and traffic jams. additional context on this word is found mentioning detail and integrated access on this toll. differently, discourse on both words in tbh relates many times to accidents, including pile up and land collapsing. observing context around toll roads in tbh, hoax news tends to exaggerate high-risked traveling by toll road access. factors influencing these mentioned accidents are twoway traffic system changing, road maintenance, land collapsing, and extreme weather conditions. looking up ‘kecelakaan’ (traffic accident) as a supplementary word to ‘tol’ in concordance on iwac, 13 contexts are found. however, most of all accidents mentioned in the context are related to research findings on how to prevent accidents from occurring on toll roads. extra contexts on this are on how supernatural force may be involved, on the news about minimizing accident victims in arizona, and how someone experiences witnessing an accident. there is none about the factors mentioned on tbh. interestingly, regardless of the small number of occurrences (n=4) in iwac, ‘semarang’ as one of the toll road names appears four times in tbh. the number of occurrences in tbh is considered significant in percentage considering the overall number of hoax news. in concordance given in iwac, ‘tol’ and ‘semarang’ collocation only give research findings as context, which is mentioned three times. the other context is about toll road project developers. in tbh, ‘tol semarang’ is linked to sensitive issues such as religion (perobohan masjid n=3) and culture (sultan jogja n=1) as negative impacts of toll road development. according to clarification made by the authority on tbh, this is caused by misinterpretation and misleading information given toward particular matters. this kind of information is later used by irresponsible people or groups for their unknown interests. referring to the negative side of the toll road, other contexts recorded in tbh also mention an environmental concern, human error on toll fare, and figure 2 iwac contrast concordance on cipularang and cikampek toll 44 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 39-50 traffic jam (refers to common transportation issue). the different context in tbh also misleads information about toll fares on new or nearly operated and integrated toll roads. misleading and misinterpreted toll fare is around free toll, newly integrated toll access, and newly operated toll fare (ngawi-sragen, jakarta-surabaya, and soreang-soroja). the next category of hoax is related to public land transport and its supporting facilities. one of them relates to ‘kereta api indonesia’ (indonesian railway) facilities. what highlighted on seven related news to this matter are officer abuse of power toward punk kids inside the train and other road users at the railroad crossing, electronic ticketing, and operating system error. newly launched train route passing soekarnohatta airport and indonesia-china partnership impact negatively on developing train systems and purchasing. the 3716 kwic found on iwac gives abundant context to ‘kereta api’ (word form: kereta api, kereta api, kereta api, kereta api). in iwac, kereta api is in collocation mostly with jalur and jalur – railway line (n=300), stasiun and stasiun – railway station (n=248), and rel railroad (n=227). in comparison to discourse on tbh, stasiun is the most relevant topic since it can be interpreted largely. stasiun comprises a train operation system as well as regulations. instead of prosody on a mystical railway station and some stories on several stations history in indonesia from dutch government era and railroad history from all over the world which appear many times, looking at stasiun on iwac, there is no intersection found on system error or on how the involvement of china affects indonesia negatively in whatsoever. to connect indonesian railway enhancement three times with china include the chinese language on train operating system, router project partnership with chinese authorities who are engaged in corruption, and chinese project bribing using ecstasy pill portray insecurity toward indonesian authority for being individualist and vulnerable to corruption based on clarification made on tbh. following news related to infrastructure is transport access, including drainage sabotage, blocked or limited road access, and collapsed or broken bridges. most location setting takes place around indonesian capital city, jakarta, and its surrounding area. all kinds of news links to this matter are mentioned, such as landfall and flood or even accident. material of the news portrays fault in road access, which leads to traffic jams and casualties. according to clarification made on tbh, misleading facts on hoax news are exaggerated by mentioning a greater number of victims or pairing captions with wrong pictures. limited road access is also mentioned as an alternative to unravel traffic jams as a regular problem in jakarta. hoax news relates to this topic is odd-even access systems for motorcycles at several roadway and electronic road pricing (erp). even though the oddeven access system functions in several roadways, it only applies to cars and free of charge. this is the type of misleading news by substituting a regular applied system with the nearest context. the last classification made for hoax news on public land transport is related to the busway and online taxi or taxi-bike, and it appears only on tbh 2017 collection. it seems like the traffic problem and its alternative solution in jakarta and other metropolis cities still become a hot issue and potential for hoax news. trans jakarta or jakarta busway which is functioned to facilitate mass in public transport to reduce the number of private vehicles using is affected by the occurrence of fabricated news on job vacancy, authority abuse of power, free usage for public 212 islamic prayers in monas (jakarta national monument), and foreign car body contractor for the bus. regardless of all positive impressions shown on 24 kwic found in iwac, context taken from tbh on three news inputs is considered political, which links to both sides of public figures that once fought for jakarta governor position. each news input tends to discriminate against one party and elevate the other one. on the other hand, online taxi or taxi-bike contexts cannot be found elsewhere in 503 kwic of ‘ojek’ in iwac. however, tbh files negative gist of this online version of ‘ojek’ when hoax news emphasizes dispute toward traditional ‘ojek’ or ‘angkot’ by its existence. considering the minimal number of news records, this issue’s contribution can be considered low on tbh. the next is clusters in the air transport category. a general look at the news record on tbh for this category shows a significant gap in frequency between the later two years (2018 and 2019) and earlier year (2017). for example, with more than 20 records of news from 2018 to 2019, two archives on hoax news in 2017 are only one percent. elements clustered in this category are airports, airlines, planes or helicopters, and other related companies. the ten files are related to airplane accidents (involving causality) or incidents. words used for this context are ‘pesawat jatuh’ (plane crash). there is no positive implication for this situation. however, a contrast made between input on iwac and tbh gives a different focus on public perspective. in context derived from 37 kwic found in iwac, ‘pesawat jatuh’ gives information about plane crashes in the past, mostly abroad and only one in indonesia. referring to tbh, there is no intersection to iwac on lion air or any other plane crash mentioned on tbh. lion air jt610, which crashed on the sea in 2018, becomes the subject of hoax news six times by claiming a baby photo as a survivor and pre/after crash video or photo. such accidents attract national attention that results in regular updates on the media. examining the timeline of hoax news appearance to the official authority statement on media, photo or video claiming is considered too close to be completely contradictory. adding religion and political sympathy by praying for the victim and writing a poem by a closely linked public figure to shore up even more community support toward certain figure/party or even linking plane crash to mystical power to avoid a disaster which mostly is used to collect likes and comment for personal income 45corpus-based analysis of online .... (yune andryani pinem) give the color of compassion and purpose as news modification on this matter. claiming tragic videos or photos of plane crashes is one way to spread hoaxes by matching them with different captions and heading. reference photos or video on tbh is fabricated from a video game, regular practice simulation, and other similar accidents from the past. compared to ‘lowongan kerja’ or job vacancy on other transport means, the air transport category stores many hoaxes making it a second major issue in this field. the only appearance on land transport means is found once in 2017 as a hoax in job vacancy for trans jakarta busway. the seven times hoax on this topic spread through 2017 to 2019 using the word ‘lowongan kerja’ with some modifications on subject ideas including ‘rekrutmen’ (n=1), ‘recruitment’ (n=1), ‘recruitment’ (n=2) or ‘penerimaan karyawan baru’ (n=1). it can be seen in table 4. table 4 corpus data comparison on ‘lowongan kerja’ indonesianwac (iwac) turnbackhoax.com (tbh) word form ‘lowongankerja’ (n=268) ‘lowongan kerja’ (n=1) ‘lowongankerja’ (n=129) ‘lowongan pekerjaan’ (n=1) ‘lowongan kerja’ (n=16) ‘lowongankerjanya’ (n=1) ‘lowongankerja’ (n=12) first word to the left ‘iklan’ (n=29) ‘di buka’ (n=1) ‘informasi’, ‘informasi’, ‘info’, ‘informasi’, information (n=22) ‘info’ (n=1) penerimaankaryawanbaru the implication derived from over 400 times ‘lowongan kerja’ appeared on iwac mostly expresses general problems and recommendation on making application letters, analysis on some potential job occupations including qualification needed, few revealed discrimination facts on recruitment on the past and many job vacancy advertisements from agency or few directly from the institution. however, when matching subject idea to air transport means, there is not even one intersection to garuda indonesia airways, angkasapura (airport operator), or ptdi (aerospace company) as mentioned on tbh. three of these institutions are state-owned enterprises and their employees are considered civil servants with well-known supporting facilities, allowance, and fixed future assurance. job vacancy information on these companies draws great interest as on other cpns or civil servant job vacancy advertisement in general. some indicators of hoax news can be observed in the discourse, such as chained-letter as media to distribute the message, incorrect email or site address whether using slightly different or too general word and code, free email domain, and salary mentioning. based on clarification made on tbh, when the advertisement directs the applicant to send a letter to a fabricated email address, he/she will be given an interview location that is far from his/her original place. later, he/she will be asked to travel by plane using a selected fake travel agent. this is how a deceiver collects money illegally from those who fall on the trick. as suggested by those companies whose names are exploited by the hoax, rechecking to the official site is the best way to validate a job vacancy. the air transport hoax category on node word ‘china’ is equally in second place with ‘lowongan kerja’ since it has a similar number of appearances, and it can be considered as a political issue based on its substance. this issue links to the handover process or planning on state-owned enterprises, including kertajati airport, ptdi, nurtanio, and garuda indonesia airways to china. as a result, another hoax emerges highlighting chinese reign as seen from the crowd picture of what is claimed to be chinese immigrant flock at sultan syarif kasim, pekanbaru airport, and china airlines direct flight operating soekarno-hatta jakarta and sultan hasanuddin makasar airport. slightly pairing node word ‘china’ to every state-owned enterprise in indonesian air transport means and facilities gives negative connotation on tbh. combining pictures and some chinese words to a provocative narration mentioning jokowi’s winning is how this hoax works. further, with a new obtained subject idea of jokowi, more hoaxes are found about selling sepinggan balikpapan airport as part of moving indonesian capital of jakarta and removing previous president trace by changing the inauguration inscription in lombok airport as the result of changing lombok international airport name (bil) to zainuddin abdul madjid. there are a few that can be obtained from the iwac intersection between ‘china’ and jual, yet it can give insight by spotting some words of impor, murah, produk, perdagangan, and perjanjian. from these words, it is seen that china is known as a country with cheap product export trading all over the world. however, there is not even once found an exclusive partnership between indonesia and china related to air transport means on the news. instead, it is incorporated on bigger forums such as the asean-china working group (julaika, 2020) and asean stom (dinas perhubungan aceh, 2020). thus, what relates to the indonesia-china partnership on transportation sectors is only supporting the main purpose of strengthening the economic sector on export trading, which can be found in purchasing superfast railways and maritime shafts (amalia, 2018; uyun, 2017; yamin & windymadaksa, 2017). in brief, no evidence relates to the hand-over of big companies in the transportation sector mentioned on tbh. 46 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 39-50 being insecure toward government policy related to the partnership with china is similarly shown in the previous implicature finding on the land transport category. corruption is linked to another hoax in the air transport category involving former president and ceo of garuda indonesia, caught in smuggling cases and case legalizing uncertified indonesian pilots to fly planes. in addition, government discrimination is highlighted on immigration policy forbidding certain islamic names to take a flight and a plane to land in syamsudin noor, banjarmasin, for political reasons. on the other hand, hoax news associated with power abuse is pictured in a single passenger flight of citilink to surabaya, changing soekarno-hatta airport name to pegipegi and traveloka, which are online applications, canceling all flight routes from/to palu due to the earthquake and skyrocketed the price of flight during lebaran holiday. the last cluster is the sea transport category. with a total of only five appearances throughout 20172019, sea transport turns to be the least sector affected by hoax news in transportation. as in two other transport means, this category also contains issues in four hoax news about accidents involving casualty. when it relates to a tragedy, the public commonly gives condolence in the form of prayer for the victims. similarly, prosody deducted from news discourse by pairing pictures or video with fabricated caption or narration is to raise hope for the victims’ family and or supporter on shipwreck finding, to wish for victims’ safety on self-rescue efforts, to give false information about loss of life and material in an accident, and again to collect online like and comment for business purpose using prayer. it seems like tbh reflects iwac in terms of the percentage of news appearance. when other means of transport show a great number of interests in iwac, the number of appearances in tbh is also considered great. in the case of sea transport, small numbers of appearance in tbh (n=5) are mirroring iwac (n=24). it means whether hoax or non-hoax, only a little information can be found online regarding this matter. table 5 shows the iwac concordance on ‘kecelakaankapal’. table 5 iwac concordance on ‘kecelakaankapal’ left kwic right kirimkanlah impian itu kepada halsione, istrinya, dan kecelakaankapal seiks . tudingan itu agaknya dapat dipahami, karena berdasarkan anization (imo), 80 % kecelakaankapal didunia disebabkan oleh kelalaian manusia. banyaknya kecelakaankapal laut tersebut menginspirasi widya hapsari dan rama widya is kecelakaankapal yang terjadi di bali, kalimantan barat, aceh, kecelakaan pesawat pada pelatihan water rescue ini para peserta diberikan simulasi penyelamatan korban di dalam air, mulai dari korban yang hanyut, kecelakaankapal , sampai pertolongan umtuk korban yang sudah diselamatkan kedar ya, karena si penulis, kinloch, ternyata mengalami asi saat itu, bahkan sampai dua kali kecelakaankapal . otto kretschmer meninggal dunia pada tanggal 5 agustus kecelakaankapal saat merayakan ulangtahun pernikahannya yang ke-50. kecelakaankapal laut sering terjadi dan umumnya dijelaskan dengan alasan human er biasanya satu atau lebih jenasah akan hanyut kepantai setelah kecelakaankapal , tetapi ini tidak pernah terjadi di segitiga bermuda. berdasarkan penyelidikan para ahli, bahwa banyak terjadi kecelakaan pesawat udara, tabrakan, kebakaran , kecelakaankapal laut yang menewaskan banyak orang. sebanyak 116 orang selamat dan 8 lainnya tewas dalam kecelakaankapal motor (km) sarimulya di perairan sungai barito, tapin, kalim pencarian terhadap korban kecelakaankapal motor sarimulya di perairan desa batalas, kecamatan candilaras biasanya satu atau lebih jenasah akan hanyut kepantai setelah kecelakaankapal , tetapi ini tidak pernah terjadi di segitiga bermuda. tokoh sejarah lain yang disebut dalam buku termasuk adolf 1951; heinrich himmler, yang konon sudah meninggal dalam s kecelakaankapal terbang misterius, mungkin karena sabotase, pada 1962; joseph g 47corpus-based analysis of online .... (yune andryani pinem) human error is mentioned in iwac as a major factor causing a shipwreck along with a bad management system. a different context found is about some public figures who died in a shipwreck in the past. in contrast with tbh, even though iwac shows several accidents related to motorboats, there is no data crossing found on location, date, and name of the ship. the iwac is in bali, west kalimantan, aceh, south kalimatan, and riau islands; while tbh is in south sulawesi, madura, and north sumatera. thus, news on tbh cannot be clarified on iwac. regardless of the difference in its means (land, air, or sea) and component cluster based on what appearance is dominant, hoax news on transportation depicts similarity in the topic, which can be interpreted into real problems in this sector over indonesian society. thus, it can be said that hoax news is one approach to elevate social conditions based on public perspective. the first social issue is predominantly related to public distrust toward indonesia’s recent government effort to develop transport means and access. aside from all progress made to materialize national planning to overcome traffic jams and problems, political dispute drags down and questions government reliability on doing it. bringing two parties’ rivalry on presidential and regional elections during 2017 to 2019 as an object, numbers of hoax news emerge in negative prosody centralized on the capital city of indonesia and some from other big cities in java island. started from critics on the toll road, system utilization to unravel the jam, and unstandardized/malfunctioning access left kwic right gereja sebagai` papan penyelamatan kedua sesudah kecelakaan kapal 10 kecelakaankapal laut terburuk sepanjang masa december 11 , 2009 — evanswina feng meninggal tahun 1948 dalam kecelakaankapal laut di laut hitam, saat itu ia sedang dalam perjalanan menuju sov kalimat aslinya sebenarnya jauh lebih panjang sehingga kejanggalan itu tidak disadari pembuatnya: jumlah korban yang ditemuk kecelakaankapal penumpang itu berjumlah 356 orang. korban yang ditemukan meninggal dalam kecelakaankapal penumpang itu berjumlah 356 orang. jumlah korban yang ditemukan meninggal dalam kecelakaankapal penumpang itu mencapai 356 orang. selanjutnya 80 % kecelakaankapal disebabkan oleh kesalahan manusia dan kesalahan ini sebagai hasil kedua asuransi ini menjamin adanya pembayaran ganti-rugi hingga mencapai jumlah us $ 30 juta untuk setiap kecelakaankapal tangki raksasa. ketiga negara merasakan bahwa jumlah ini mungkin tidak akan mencukupi untuk mengganti kerugian bagi kecelakaankapal tangki. kecelakaankapal motor (km) dumai express 10 di perairan tukong hiu, kabupa or transport system (bridge, road, or ship loading), discourse on hoax tries to direct public perspective on the incompetence of the government. certain news to discriminate one side is a beneficial way to raise support of the opponent, which is considered a technique to elevate massive vote such in the issue of inmigración (immigration) and inmigrante (immigrant) presented in the main spanish written media (alcaraz-mármol & almela, 2016). issues used in discourse are pictured in the form of corruption, including bribing, prejudice toward a particular ethnic or group, and misplaced loss-making partnerships. the next social issue is about public less awareness on transport safety, law, and regulations. highly rated hoax news on traffic tickets and regular police road checks presents community ignorance on the importance of driving documents. the fact that possessing these documents portrays not only obedience to regulation but also an assurance to the ownership and personal legal to drive or ride a vehicle physically and mentally. assurance is important to help minimizing illegal vehicle trading, which usually has no legal registration and potentially comes from a stolen or problematic vehicle and traffic accident caused by the incompetent driver due to imperfect condition or age. illegal ways to obtain these registrations to avoid fines or procedures, including tax payment and tests, seem to become the preference. thus, offering this way helps to spread hoax news to the public. the economic level comes next as a public social problem in transportation. indeed, discourse on table 5 iwac concordance on ‘kecelakaankapal’ (continued) 48 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 39-50 hoax news reveals a gap in economic status among the indonesian community. in the case of toll roads, a problem arises because this facility is usually for middle-high community users considering the rate. low-level communities are pictured to become victims of toll construction, and development for its facility is unreached by the poor. further, the process of toll construction, especially on the condemnation, is pictured as unjust because of the price rate or land acquisition dispute on certain public religious facilities. another case is related to the need for job availability. undeniably, being occupied with a job is a way to raise one’s prosperity. sharing a job vacancy by including a high salary rate is intriguing and likely to be used as a hoax news topic. job vacancy on state-owned enterprises is still highly favored by the indonesian community. government bond school is a way to ensure graduates have a job there. for those who are not from these special schools, being succeeded to get this job is greatly anticipated. in desperate need of a job, whenever a rarely published job vacancy appears for a position at the airport or airlines, many will lower consciousness to do verification and shove the application directly. instead of improving one’s wellbeing, this unawareness may lead to criminal prey where an applicant is asked to transfer an amount of money for any reason. last but not least, social problems in any community are linked to the trend. whenever a trending topic appears, seasonal hoax news can emerge in the company. shocking news with national or international impact requiring proper closing will stay the center of attention for some time. an accident or incident in transport means, access, and system (land, air, and sea) assemble public concern, which requires quick response and handling. great sympathy toward the victims, their families, and every involved party is easily driven to an exaggerated narration. usually, the nature of evidence leads to a positive sense to console the loss of grieving victims and family in the form of prayer or even negative one in chunks of individual experience preceding the unfortunate event. achievement to catch in hand smuggling cases of an airlines’ official or everything surfaced from one candidate of the party competing in regional or presidential election attracts every information connected to the subject. therefore, sometimes hoax news rises circumstantially. once again, the semantic association added by socio-pragmatic aspects is proven to be practical in identifying and describing phenomena pictured in a discourse. since discourse prosody is recommended to be applied even in learning language (omidian & siyanova-chanturia, 2020), it is not excessively to resolve that it is also suggested in learning more about hoax news and its link to the actual social issue in this country. conclusions digital information is beneficial since it is stored in the mass collection through time in the cloud, making it easier to verify with almost real-time updating. to clarify a chain message spread using social media, it is easier for a receiver to consult the internet as an online source. once clarification is made by a receiver, hoax news spreading can be stopped right away. when compared to general online sources on the internet, hoax discourse in transportation can be generated and interpreted. dominated by hoax on land transport means, which majorly is focused in indonesian capital city, news on this category is clustered into fabricated news on tilang, jalan tol, and public land transport and infrastructure. taking the second lead in number, the hoax on air transport category is colored by cluster kecelakaan pesawat, lowongan kerja, china, and insecurity toward government. finally, with only five numbers of news, hoax on sea transportation highlights some shipwreck news in kecelakaan kapal. those results on hoax clustering reflect real social issues among the indonesian community mostly in negative prosody explained by corpus evident on distrust toward indonesian government, unawareness on transport safety, law and regulation, economic status, and trend. indeed, hoaxes in transportation are a reflection of unsolved social problems surrounding indonesian people, as shown by linguistic features in its discourse. paying attention to the real problem is presumed to be one way to eliminate hoax news spread related to it. social issues found in the research can be used as recommendations for further action of those who are involved. the research 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(2021). transgender identities in the press: a corpus-based discourse analysis. london: bloomsbury publishing. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 187 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 187-193 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6601 visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties ida purnama sari1*; wening udasmoro2 1,2department of language and literature, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada jl. dr. saharjo no. 83, rt. 13/rw.8, manggarai, tebet, jakarta 12850, indonesia 1sariidapurnama15@gmail.com; 2weningw@yahoo.com received: 29th july 2020/revised: 10th august 2020/accepted: 07th september 2020 how to cite: sari, i. p., & udasmoro, w. (2020). visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties. lingua cultura, 14(2), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6601 abstract the research discussed visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s novella “house of the sleeping beauties”. women, when subject to the male gaze, had often been the objects of sexual and visual pleasure. the novella described the nyotaimori practice, in which sushi was served on the nude body of a woman for the object of male visual and sexual pleasure. the research sought to dissect and explore visual pleasure in literary work and its central positioning. using laura mulvey’s theory of male gaze and visual pleasure, and feminist literary studies, it employed content analysis as a method to uncover the phrases and paragraphs depicting visual pleasure in the novella. firstly, the research finds that in practicing visual enjoyment, men use women as the objects of pleasure and fantasy. secondly, men position women, their female bodies, and sexuality as markers of castration. keywords: visual pleasure, women objectification, male gaze introduction through the male gaze (ritland, 2018), women are constructed and exposed in works of art and literature as objects of men’s desires. in japan, for example, women are commonly presented as objects of sexual pleasure, as realized through sexual intercourse and visual pleasure. in other words, women are presented as ‘objects’ of visual enjoyment. in her book visual and other pleasures, laura mulvey explains that women are continuously transformed into displays, objects to be seen, viewed, and gazed at by men. women are not presented qua women (mulvey, 1989) but rather as the objects of men’s pleasure (agustin & udasmoro, 2018; ritland, 2018). they are provided with no space to be themselves. such practices, in which women are positioned as mere objects of sexual pleasure and visual pleasure, have existed for centuries. this can be seen, for instance, in the practice of prostitution. japan has one of the world’s largest prostitution industries (acadimia, 2018), which has a lengthy history of practice, legalization, and criminalization. during the kamakura period (1185–1333), prostitution was legal and monitored by the government through the office of prostitution services. under the ashikaga shogunate (1338– 1573), prostitution was formally recognized as a formal profession and taxed by the ruling regime. this industry grew rapidly under the 16th-century tokugawa shogunate, laying the foundation for modern prostitution in japan (peterfreud, 2010). in 1589, for instance, japan’s largest brothel, the nijo yanagimachi in kyoto (onozawa, 2018), was replete with courtesans who used their bodies to provide men with sexual pleasure. diverse forms of prostitution have emerged over time. some japanese women, known collectively as karayuki-san, travelled abroad as men’s entertainers (sydney, 2016). others, popularly known as geisha, became entertainers renowned for their beauty. as entertainers, these geisha were not only expected to provide visual and sexual pleasure to their clients but also to have a command of such arts, e.g. dance and music. such geisha can still be found today. still, other women, both japanese and otherwise, were taken by the japanese military as jugun ianfu (zafarayana & putranti, 2015). although they were euphemistically known as comfort women, in reality, they were sex 188 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 187-193 slaves. such practice was particularly common during world war ii (onozawa, 2018). japan is also home to various practices that exploit women’s bodies for visual pleasure. for instance, nyotaimori is a practice that has yet to gain much international attention (staden, 2015). in nyotaimori, sushi is served on a woman’s nude body, being arranged to complement her features and increase consumers’ visual pleasure. this pleasure is not a sexual one; consumers are prohibited from touching the models or interacting with them. historically, nyotaimori was common among japanese shoguns. today, it is often practiced by japanese gangsters or yakuza. one literary work that frames women as objects of visual pleasure is kawabata yasunari’s novella 眠 れる美女 (nemureru bijo) translated by edward seidensticker as house of the sleeping beauties. written by one of japan’s most famous novelists and short story writers, house of the sleeping beauties was first published in 1961. it follows a 67-year-old man named eguchi. feeling lonely in his old age, eguchi follows his friend’s recommendation and seeks pleasure at the titular house. at this secret establishment, which only serves older men, customers are allowed to sleep beside the nude young virgins. before the customer enters the bedroom, the chosen girl is given a sleeping pill to ensure that she will sleep soundly until the following morning. customers are subject to several rules and are prohibited from awakening sleeping girls or doing anything untoward. the girls may only be enjoyed visually; physical contact is not allowed. in a patriarchal society, mulvey argues that women are framed as the signifiers of men, as bearing meaning rather than creating it (mulvey, 1989). women, thus, exist within a symbolic framework, in which men may use language to realize their fantasies and obsessions while simultaneously silencing women. this produces a culture (including literature, cinema, and other arts) permeated by sexual inequality, with visual pleasure being divided between active subjects (men) and passive objects (women). men project their fantasies on women through the male gaze. they are shown as visual objects, like displays that have a visual and erotic effect on male viewers. women are presented as sexual objects with erotic motifs to be seen rather than heard (boyle, 2015; mulvey, 1989). audiences are implicitly assumed to be heterosexual men, and there is a clear distinction between men (as spectators) and women (as spectacles). when men produce meaning, and audiences are assumed to be male, women are objects of the gaze rather than owners of the gaze (mulvey, 1989; thornham, 2015). thus, female characters have two simultaneous functions; to act as erotic objects for male characters (i.e., those in work), and to act as erotic objects for male audiences (in this case, readers). when women are presented in work, the male characters and audiences’ gazes are combined and incorporated into existing narrative conventions (udasmoro, 2018). women’s bodies and sexualities are, therefore, exploited to provide men with a source of sexual pleasure. in such works, women are unconsciously used to perpetuate the patriarchy and its phallocentric worldview. as (mulvey, 1989) writes, “the function of woman in forming the patriarchal unconscious is two-fold, she first symbolizes the castration threat by her real absence of a penis and second thereby raises her child into the symbolic.” in the end, women are provided little space as creators of worldview, and their own desires are imagined as creating nothing but suffering. women are trapped. mulvey (1989) emphasizes that, in the male gaze, women are objects of male’s sexual imaginations. female characters are presented as expressions of men’s subconscious fears and desires and do not represent women qua women. female characters are little more than pretty faces, upon which men can project their fear of castration and emasculation. simultaneously, the male gaze is used to create visual pleasure and offer men a proxy for satisfying their sexual desires. in explaining this phenomenon, mulvey (1989) borrows from freud’s understanding of psychoanalysis and sexuality. she argues that heterosexual men gaze upon women to achieve sexual satisfaction and legitimize such behavior by positioning themselves as ordinate and women as subordinate (mulvey, 1989). to explain this gaze, she adopts two key concepts from freud; scopophilia and narcissism. she uses the former to refer to the pleasure that is linked to sexual attraction. in his three essays on sexuality, freud (mulvey, 1989) argues that scopophilia is a key component of sexuality and is driven by desires that emerge from erogenous zones. through scopophilia, women are objectified by men who seek to control them to maximize their pleasure. they become objects of desire, objects of curiosity viewed through a voyeuristic lens. freud (in mulvey, 1989) adds that pleasure is transferred to others through analogy, creating a narcissism in which one’s own perceptions are projected onto others. departing from mulvey’s theory of visual pleasure, the current research seeks to explore visual pleasure as presented in kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties. it seeks to explore how visual pleasure is presented, practiced, and emphasized in the novella, thereby showing how gender relations are not horizontal (involving men and women, as in mulvey’s theory) but hierarchical constructed by the society based on sex and sexuality. methods as a material object, the research discusses kawabata yasunari’s novella 眠れる美女 (nemureru bijo), translated by edward seidensticker as house of the sleeping beauties) (kawabata, 2017a, 2017b). as its formal object, the research uses the novella’s representation of visual pleasure. the research is begun by identifying the research problem as related 189visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s .... (ida purnama sari; wening udasmoro) to visual pleasure in the novel. afterward, the analysis is continued with the collection of data (phrases and paragraphs that present visual pleasure) in house of the sleeping beauties. particular emphasis is given to the author’s depiction of women vis-a-vis men in the novella. these data are subsequently translated from japanese and then explained into classifications to provide a useful source for subsequent analysis, which is conducted using mulvey’s theory of visual pleasure (complemented by other theories). results and discussions in the novella, the women treated as the objects of male pleasure are depicted as young virgins. when the main character, eguchi, sets his eyes upon such girls while they are sleeping, he positions those girls as the objects of his gaze. this drive is depicted as an instinctual one, a sexual one, that instills eguchi with desire for pleasure. it is the process that mulvey, borrowing from freud, deems scopophilia (mulvey, 1989). two forms of scopophilia are presented in this novella. first is the instinctual drive that emerges within eguchi himself when he sets his eyes upon young girls who are naked and sleeping. the virgins who accompany eguchi as he sleeps are framed as the objects of his pleasure, which he derives from laying his gaze upon their nude bodies, covered only by a single bedsheet. these girls and their bodies are made available for exploitation. second is the stimulation that stems from the gaze, which in turn increases eguchi’s curiosity and desire, thereby promoting the practice of voyeurism. eguchi’s gaze is drawn to certain parts of these girls’ bodies, all of which are deemed sensual or sexual in nature; their necks, hair, lips, breasts, hips, and knees. in this entertainment venue, young virgins are deliberately made available to older men to fulfill their desires. the house of the sleeping beauties owner understands how to cater to the needs and desires of her customers. the girls are made available as the objects of men’s sexual and visual desires, with their beauty being used to stimulate customers’ scopophilia. this is influenced by two factors, internal and external; those that emerge within the customers themselves, and those that emerge from the nude bodies of the girls, as complemented by the rooms where they sleep. by positioning these young girls as the objects of men’s pleasure, they are positioned as powerless and disenfranchised. in this novella, the male character, eguchi, is the main character of the plot, being more powerful than the young girls who sleep at his side and whose bodies he may freely see and touch. eguchi is presented as an active subject, one whose actions shape the plot, while the girls at the house of the sleeping beauties are portrayed as passive objects. over the course of the novella, the pleasure that eguchi derives from gazing upon the nude bodies of sleeping girls (i.e., scopophilia) develops into narcissism. eguchi’s male gaze is stimulated, which leads to action. eguchi feels greater stimulation when he sets his eyes upon the sleeping girls’ nude breasts. as a result, he begins fantasizing about them. 老人は夜半の悪夢なども忘れて、娘が可愛 くてしかたがいようになると、自分がこの 娘から可愛がられているような幼ささえ心 に流れた。娘の胸をさぐって、そっと掌の なかにいれた。それを江口のみごもる前の 江口の母の乳房であるかのような、ふしぎ な触感がひらめいた。 he had forgotten the nightmare, and an affection for the girl poured through him. there came over him too a childlike feeling that he was loved by the girl. he felt for a breast and held it softly in his hand. there was a strange flicker of something in the touch as if this were the breast of eguchi’s own mother before she had him inside her (kawabata, 2017a: 39). in his narcissism, eguchi does not simply gaze upon the girls’ nude bodies but is stimulated into touching them. when touching one girl, he imagines that the breasts of the girl do not belong to him but that of his mother in her youth. eguchi is interested in the girl’s nude body, particularly her eroticized breast, which ultimately affects all of his senses. the fantasies that emerge as eguchi gazes upon these girls’ nude bodies bring pleasure to eguchi. he feels as though his youth’s passions and strengths are returning to him, as though he is regaining the things that he lost in his 67 years on earth. eguchi feels young again, as sleeping beside young virgins enables him to forget his age, at least for the moment, the worries of his twilight years. in this context, an older man exerts his dominance over a young girl through his male gaze. this man is positioned by the author as a subject, as having the agency to realize his desires and his libidinal urges (staden, 2015). however, this is ultimately a paper tiger; eguchi lacks the power to dominate women physically and is restricted to his gaze. in this novella, women are presented as being sources of simultaneous pleasure. psychoanalysts argue that women have been signified by their sexual differences, by their lack of a physical penis, and are seen as reminders of the threat of castration. this is expanded to the symbolic realm and the law of the father, with women being signifiers for the male other, “bound by a symbolic order in which man can live out his fantasies and obsessions” (mulvey, 1989). women are thus not only the objects of male desire but also sources of male anxiety. in house of the sleeping beauties, men are represented through the main character eguchi and the other clients of the house. in order to soothe their anxieties, these men seek to sleep beside young girls. in eguchi’s case, he feels the anxiety of his age drifts away as he relives his youth. this anxiety and this fear of loss are also a fear of castration, which eguchi unconsciously seeks to escape. 190 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 187-193 かなしさとかさびしさとかいうよりも、老 年の凍りつくようななさけなさであった。 そしてそれは、若いあたたかみを匂い寄せ ている娘にたいする、あわれみといとしさ に移り変わった。 [eguchi] felt a surge of loneliness tinged with sorrow. more than sorrow or loneliness, it was the bleakness of old age, as if frozen to him. and it changed to pity and tenderness for the girl who sent out the smell of young warmth (kawabata, 2017a: 20). mulvey argues that men availed with two avenues are used to escape castration anxiety; voyeurism and fetishistic scopophilia, both of which have been touched on above (mulvey, 1989). in the former, men reenact the original trauma by investigating the woman, demystifying her mystery, and punishing or saving her. meanwhile, in the latter, women are transformed into a fetish by the men, such that their body gives way to reassurance and pleasure. the latter is most prominent in eguchi’s visits to the house of the sleeping beauties, as he regularly uses fetishistic scopophilia to transform girls into erotic objects. eguchi perceives the girls who sleep by his side as sexual objects, as fetishes, made available to him. as in other fetishistic scopophilia cases, women are presented by the author as powerless, and therefore easily exploited by men. when eguchi arrives, the girls are already sound asleep and unable to resist his efforts to touch their bodies. 娘はかけぶとんを引きさげて、ひろくゆた かだけれども、高い低いのややとぼしい胸 を半分出した。その白い肌に深紅のびろう どの色がほのかにうつっていた。老人はき れいな胸をながめながら、富士額の生えぎ わの線を一本の指先きでたどってみたりし た。娘はあおむけになってから、静かに長 いいきをつづけていた。ちいさいい唇のな かに、どんな歯があるのだろう。江口は下 唇のまんなかをつまんで少し開いてみた。 骨のちいさいわりにこまかくはないが、ま あこまかい、きれいににそろった歯であっ た。老人が指をはなすと、娘はもとのよう には唇をとじきってしまわなかった。歯を 少しのぞかせたままにした。江口老人はく ちべにで赤くなった指先きを、娘の厚めの 耳たぶをつまんでこすり、残りを娘の太い 首にこすりつけた。じつに白い首にあるか ないかの赤い線がついて可愛かった。 she had thrown off the quilt, and her bosom, rich and wide but somewhat wanting in emphasis, was half exposed. the fair skin was slightly tinged in the light from the crimson velvet. gazing at the handsome bosom, he traced the peaked hairline with her finger. she continued to breathe quietly and slowly. what sort of teeth would be behind the small lips? taking the lower lip at its center he opened it slightly. though not small in proportion to the size of her lips, her teeth were small all the same and regularly ranged. he took away his hand. her lips remained open. he could still see the tips of her teeth. he rubbed off some of the lipstick at his fingertips on the full earlobe and the rest on the round neck. the scarcely visible smear of red was pleasant against the remarkably white skin (kawabata, 2017a: 97-98). eguchi creates his own fetishistic object through the sexualized and sensualized parts of the girl’s body, drawing pleasure from the view of her body, particularly those eroticized parts such as the breasts that eguchi lacks as a man. his attention is drawn to the tangible and visible differences between the male and female body, particularly the distinct contour and shape of the girl’s breasts. such fetishization is further driven by culture and religion by framing the female body as taboo, only makes it more attractive to the male gaze. eguchi takes a particular interest in the girl’s breast, comparing their beauty to that of other pleasurable things. it is as though, for eguchi, there is nothing more beautiful than a girl’s supple breasts. at the same time, this fetishization enables eguchi to identify himself by distinguishing his male body from the female body, akin to the lacanian ‘mirror stage’. lacan (in sheikh, 2017; zafiropoulos, 2016) describes the mirror stage as happening when a child first stands in front of a mirror and attempts to identify him/herself, ultimately concluding that he/she has a different form and image than all others. eguchi identifies himself as distinct from the girls at his side, and this draws his curiosity. his gaze is further drawn by the beauty of their bodies that could not be rejected by any man. this beauty captivates eguchi and alleviates his sense of loneliness. at the same time, this indicates a shortcoming in the man himself; eguchi lacks the girls’ youth. nonetheless, owing to his sex and his seniority, he is still facilitated in maintaining dominance and in retaining control over their bodies. during his first visit to the house of the sleeping beauties, eguchi is clearly told that customers are prohibited from touching the girls that sleep by their side or acting in an untoward manner. however, eguchi’s desire and curiosity ultimately lead him to ignore these rules. he acts voyeuristically, employing the second avenue for escaping the fear of castration. house of the sleeping beauties does not explicitly identify its time setting. as such, to understand the messages conveyed by kawabata yasunari through this novella, it is best to position it within the context of the contemporary social situation. as house of the sleeping beauties was first published in 1961, this means positioning the novella within the context of 1960s japan. by doing so, a link correlation between the work and contemporary society is clearly evident. at the time, the japanese government was implementing a series of policy reforms that transformed prostitution in the country. in 1956, the 191visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s .... (ida purnama sari; wening udasmoro) japanese government passed two laws to limit the practice of prostitution; the prostitution prevention law and the anti-prostitution law. as both laws sought to eradicate licensed prostitution and prohibit its promotion (peterfreud, 2010), after their passage, all brothels and other enterprises that profited directly and indirectly from the sexual exploitation of women were closed. likewise, the practice of prostitution is made illegal. nonetheless, in kawabata’s novella, prostitution is still practiced (albeit secretly) at the house of the sleeping beauties. … 宿屋の看板は出していない。またこの 家の秘密は、そんなものを出せぬだろう。 ... probably because its secret allowed none, there was no sign at the gate (kawabata, 2017a: 9). through house of the sleeping beauties, kawabata shows that the passage of the prostitution prevention law and the anti-prostitution law is insufficient to end the practice of prostitution in japan. brothels and similar businesses continue to operate in secret, as the titular house does by providing its elderly clients with visual stimulation. despite its best efforts, the government is unable to end prostitution, as the japanese people continued to perceive sexual fulfilment as a daily need. in traditional japanese society, women were marginalized both in the family and in broader society. in the family, japanese women were expected to obey men. before marriage, a girl had to obey her father; after marriage, she had to obey her husband; and in her old age, she had to obey her sons. japanese women were only afforded respect after becoming mothers, and this modicum of honor did not come from their intrinsic value as women but rather from their ability to provide offspring and ensure the continuance of the family. in broader society, japanese women are not afforded the same rights as men. to guarantee male dominance and disenfranchise women, daughters receive little education (peterfreud, 2010). at the same time, women are provided with few employment opportunities; when women needed an income, they could only avail themselves to such dishonorable professions as prostitution. in kawabata’s house of the sleeping beauties, this social structure is reflected in the girls’ powerlessness. before the arrival of their clients, the girls are coerced by men into drinking sleeping pills and are left incapable of defending themselves or resisting advances. they are provided as objects of visual pleasure, entirely under the control of their male clients. …老人は目をそらせて部屋のなかを見まわ した。自分の脱いだものがみだれ箱にある だけで、娘の脱いだものはどこにも見あた らなかった。さきほどの女が持ち去ったの かもしれないが、もしかすると娘はなにも つけなくてこの部屋へはいって来たのかも しれないとおもうと、江口はぎょうっとし た。娘がすっかりなまめられる。… ... [eguchi] looked around the room. only his own clothes were in the box. there was no sign of the girls. perhaps the woman had taken them away, but he started up at the thought that the girl might have come into the room naked. she was to be looked at. ... (kawabata, 2017: 19). as the girls are sleeping naked without anything but a blanket to conceal their bodies, the men are able to enjoy the bodies freely. the author, kawabata, presents men as wielding nigh unlimited power over women’s bodies. the women know what will be happening during their sleep, but they are vulnerable to refusing it because they have to play this role for their economic purposes. despite their advanced age and by implication, frail bodies, these men are the wielders of power (tahnerian, 2018). women are positioned as subordinate, while men are positioned as ordinate. in house of the sleeping beauties, the male gaze is that of the character eguchi, who controls and exploits girls’ bodies while they are sleeping without their consent. at the same time, the girls are presented as passive objects, lacking the ability to determine their own fates or shape the narrative. these girls are framed as mere objects to be viewed and enjoyed by men without their consent. …しかし娘は眠っていてなにごとも知らな いので、娘の顔かたちはここに見る通り、 よごれもくずれもしなおのだろうか。… ... the girl was asleep and knew nothing. would the face and the form remain untouched and unsullied, as they were before him now?... (kawabata, 2017: 29). house of the sleeping beauties has rules that seemingly protect the girls. however, this protection is ultimately ineffective. although the proprietress tells eguchi in no uncertain terms how he is expected to behave, he is nonetheless able to break these rules and touch the girls’ bodies as he remains unmonitored. the proprietress is unable to ascertain whether clients have touched the girls or even sexually molested their bodies. furthermore, the girls themselves are incapable of knowing whether they have been violated in their sleep. in this narrative, the virgin girls are not constructed as women but merely as objects of men’s exploitation for their own sexual satisfaction. conversely, their male clients, despite their advanced age and frailties, are able to exert power and reclaim their masculinity. the dominant structures, wherein women are objectified by an inherently inequal gender regime, cannot be challenged (ponterotto, 2018). delving further into the question of visual pleasure in house of the sleeping beauties, it is vital 192 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 187-193 to consider its male author and his creation of the novella’s main character and his male gaze. as the author, kawabata yasunari has full control over the characters, plots, and viewpoints contained within the narrative. thus, it is his choice to employ a male perspective and take a man, eguchi, as the main character. likewise, it is also his choice to present female characters, including eguchi’s mother, former lovers, and the girls with whom he sleeps at the house of the sleeping beauties, as nameless entities. kawabata prioritizes his male characters, giving them names (eguchi, kiga, and fukura) and agency, and marginalized his female characters, identifying them merely as ‘the girl’ or ‘the woman’. this tendency belies the author’s perspective and the biases inherent to it. this analysis shows, in house of the sleeping beauties, the young girls are depicted as the objects of men’s pleasure and used as bodies of men. the novella’s narrative shows these girls as providing visual pleasure to elderly male clients. although this establishment has rules that are seemingly intended to protect its girls from lechery and abuse, men are ultimately able to wield unabated power. these men are provided young girls, sound asleep and incapable of resisting. as such, despite their mature age, these men wield unfettered power, flouting the rules, and fondling the girls without consent and with no repercussions. as such, in this novella, visual pleasure is used to advance male dominance, which is compounded by the views of its author. incapable of escaping japanese society’s restrictions, kawabata yasunari continues to be influenced by its patriarchal beliefs. does he intend to reproduce the idea that men are the strong wielders of power and that women are the weak objects of power? or, does he seek to strengthen his own position as a man? or does he expose the women’s oppression by men? all of these are possible explanations. in kawabata’s novella, women are narrated as sleeping beauties that are incapable of resisting men. this reflected contemporary japanese society, in which women are constructed as weak and passive beings, mere passive objects to be commanded by men. conclusions this analysis has shown that virgin girls are represented in kawabata’s novella house of the sleeping beauties as nothing but the objects of men’s pleasure. eguchi, with the establishment’s other clients, derives visual pleasure from his practice of women objectification. as eguchi employs his male gaze, his fetishistic scopophilia is transformed into a narcissism, while the stimulation derived from viewing girls’ nude bodies is transformed into pleasurable fantasy. at the same time, this visual pleasure enables eguchi to overcome the threat of castration by temporarily regaining his youth and reducing women to fetishes as well as asserting his own power through voyeurism. as a central element of kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties, the research of visual pleasure has made two critical findings. first, this novella was published in the 1960s, when the japanese government was attempting to eradicate the practice of prostitution by passing new legislation. influenced in part by christianity, the prostitution prevention law and the anti-prostitution law closed japan’s brothels and prohibited the practice of prostitution. through house of the sleeping beauties, kawabata criticizes the japanese government’s policies, using the titular house to show the shortcomings of these laws. similarly, kawabata yasunari’s novella house of the sleeping beauties uses visual pleasure to show that men retained full power over women, especially their sexuality. as such, it uses visual pleasure to legitimize men’s dominance of women, simultaneously reinforcing the strong patriarchal culture of the land of the rising sun and showing that kawabata is incapable of escaping the shackles of said culture. references acadimia, k. (2018). human traficking in japan through the use of schoolgirls. international research scape journal, 5(1), 1-20. agustin, e., & udasmoro, w. (2018). women and pleasure in guillaume apollinaire’s calligram collection poèmes à lou. jurnal kata, 20(2), 60-68. https://doi. org/10.9744/kata.20.2.60-67. boyle, k. (2015). introduction: visual pleasure and narrative cinema at forty. feminist media studies, 15(5), 880881. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2015.107527 1. kawabata, y. (2017a). house of the sleeping beauties and other stories. translated by e. seidensticker. new york: vintage book. kawabata, y. (2017b). nemureru bijo. tokyo: shinchosha. mulvey, l. (1989). visual and other pleasures. new york: palgrave. onozawa, a. (2018). comfort women and state prostitution. the asia-pacific journal, 16(10), 1-26. peterfreud, t. (2010). japan’s prostitution prevention law: the case of the missing geisha. law school student scholarship, 57, 1-31. ponterotto, d. (2018). resisting the male gaze: feminist responses to the “normalization” of the female body in western culture. the journal of international women’s studies, 17(1), 133-151. ritland, r. (2018). visual pleasure from motherhood: alyssa milano changing the male gaze. media, culture, and society, 40(8), 1281-1291. https://doi. org/10.1177%2f0163443718798902. sheikh, f. a. (2017). subjectivity, desire, and theory: reading lacan. cogent arts and humanities, 4(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2017.12995 65. staden, c. (2015). chewing on japan: consumption, diplomacy, and kenny kunene’s nyotaimori 193visual pleasure in kawabata yasunari’s .... (ida purnama sari; wening udasmoro) scandal. critical arts south-north cultural and media studies, 29(2), 107-125. https://doi.org/10.10 80/02560046.2015.1039199. sydney, x. (2016). the shame of empire: japanese overseas prostitutes and prostitution abolition in modern japan, 1880s-1927. positions, 24(4), 839-873. tahnerian, j. (2018). copyright’s male gaze: authorship and inequality in panoptic world. harvard journal of law and gender, 4, 345-393. thornham, s. (2015). on visual pleasure and narrative cinema. feminist media studies, 15(5), 881-884. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2015.1075272. udasmoro, w. (2018). when the teens narrate the selves in indonesian literature: gender, subject, and power. lingua cultura, 12(1), 53-60. https://doi. org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1961. zafarayana, d., & putranti, i. (2015). militer dalam kejahatan perang jepang terhadap indonesia tahun 1942-1945: studi kasus perbudakan seksual wanita indonesia. journal international relations, 5(1), 235-243. zafiropoulos, m. (2016). what lacan said about totem and taboo. research in psychoanalysis, 1(21), 117-125. https://doi.org/10.3917/rep1.021.0117. 75deconstructing the stereotypes .... (paramita ayuningtyas) deconstructing the stereotypes of women through a female voice in burial rites (2013) by hannah kent paramita ayuningtyas english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan – palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ayu.palar@gmail.com abstract patriarchal society regulates how women should behave and act. if a woman obeys the social rules, she will be labeled as a good woman. on the other hand, if a woman does not follow the social values, she will be immediately categorized as an evil woman and given negative stereotypes. this binary opposition between a good woman and a bad woman is often criticized by the feminists because they think this categorization burdens women. this issue is also highlighted by hannah kent in her novel burial rites (2013). this novel is set in a rural society in iceland in the 19th century with its patriarchal values, focusing on a woman named agnes that will soon be executed. this theme interested the researcher to study burial rites more deeply using feminist perspective. characters, setting and point of view are the intrinsic elements discussed in this research. the result of the analysis shows that through these three elements, burial rites describes society’s stereotypes about ‘evil women’ and there is an effort from the author to deconstruct the stereotype through a female voice. keywords: feminism, gender issues, gender stereotypes, patriarchy abstrak masyarakat patriarkal mengatur bagaimana kaum perempuan seharusnya bertingkah laku dan bertindak. apabila perempuan menjalani peraturan sosial itu, ia akan diberi label sebagai perempuan baik. di sisi lain, jika seorang perempuan tidak menuruti nilai-nilai sosial, ia akan langsung dicap sebagai perempuan tidak baik dan diberikan stereotip-stereotip negatif. oposisi biner perempuan baik dan tidak baik inilah yang kerap kali dikritik oleh kaum feminis karena menurut mereka pembagian ini membebani kaum perempuan. isu ini juga mendapat perhatian oleh hannah kent dalam novel burial rites (2013). novel ini berlatar masyarakat pedesaan islandia pada abad ke-19 dengan pemikirannya yang masih patriarkal, berfokus pada seorang perempuan bernama agnes yang akan menjalani hukuman mati karena dituduh sebagai pembunuh. hal ini menarik perhatian peneliti untuk menelaah burial rites secara lebih dalam dengan pendekatan feminis. karakter, latar, dan sudut pandang adalah elemen sastra yang dibahas dalam penelitian ini. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa melalui ketiga elemen sastra tersebut, burial rites menggambarkan stereotip-stereotip masyarakat tentang perempuan tidak baik dan terdapat usaha dari pengarang untuk mendekonstruksi stereotip tersebut melalui suara perempuan. kata kunci: feminisme, isu gender, patriarki, stereotip gender 76 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 introduction between 1820 and 1860, the cult of true womanhoodarose, and it was especially applied during the victorian era in british society. welter in brannon (2015) stated that the cult of true womanhoodis a set of characters of true womanhood. it contains four virtues that define what a true woman is according to the society at that time. the virtues are purity, piety, submissiveness and domesticity. society expected that women should hold this belief and behave following the rules, or else their life as women would be meaningless. another consequence if they did not obey the cult of true womanhoodis they would be labeled as ‘bad women’. this particular condition shows how gender stereotypes hold a powerful and influential position in a society. gender stereotypes are beliefs about the psychological traits and characteristics of men or women (brannon, 2015) . these traits define true manhood and womanhood and make a clear distinction between the two. gender stereotyping is not only about the categorization of characteristics based on gender, but it could have a serious impact. it can influence the way a person judges him/herself and others. gender stereotyping also has a significant role in society’s perspective in determining moral and social values, and even law. this issue becomes the focus in hannah kent’s highly acclaimed debut novel, burial rites. burial rites was inspired by a true story, which was twisted and added with various speculations so it became more like a myth. when visiting iceland for her study, kent encountered a story about the last execution in illugastadir in 1829. two people were beheaded for a murder they committed. what interested kent is the tales surrounding one of the two murderers, agnes magnúsdóttir. compared to the other convict fridrik sigurdsson, agnes was more notorious because of the fact that she was a woman committing a crime. agnes was seen as the representation of women who did not obey the moral and social values. consequently, she was labeled as a bad woman—in some stories, agnes was even described as a witch. there were many stories circulating about the figure of agnes, mostly were fictions instead of facts. after doing a research on agnes and gathering documents about the murder and the execution, kent then wrote a novel that focuses on agnes’ life entitled burial rites. using multiple narrators, burial rites gives agnes a voice so that she can narrate the events from her own perspective. the novel burial rites was used as the primary data of this reseach. it was chosen because the novel tells a story of an oppressed woman through a unique narrative. it combines letters and documents from the events and, as explained previously, uses multiple narrators to give various perspectives about the murder and the execution. this research was conducted to see how gender stereotypes are influential in society and how this novel tries to deconstruct them. characters, point of view, and settings were the elements of the story analyzed in this research. gender is a cultural construction, which means that it is constructed by people and can vary from one culture to another. meanwhile, brannon (2015:184) states that gender stereotypes are “the beliefs about the characteristics associated with, and the activities appropriate to, men or women.” gender stereotypes have four aspects, namely physical characteristics, traits, behaviours and occupations. steele in brannon (2015) reports how stereotyping can be threatening because it can manipulate people’s self-concept and how they judge other people. in victorian era, gender stereotyping appeared in a form of belief called the cult of true womanhood, emphasized in books and mass media. this belief states that there are four aspects to build a true womanhood: purity, piety, submissiveness and domesticity. purity means women should be seen uninterested in sex. they should be sexually passive and show no seduction to men. the second is piety, that positions women as pious and religious. on the other hand, men were seen not as naturally religious as women brannon (2015). next is submissiveness, which signifies that women should be obedient and dependent (on men). the last aspect is domesticity that places women at home, while public sphere belongs to men. the cult of true womanhoodtried to define the true meaning of womanhood. women who have the aforementioned four aspects will be categorized as the ‘authentic’ women. on the other hand, those who fail to have these four aspects will not be seen as true women. the impact of this is that they will be socially and morally judged by the society. the concept of gender stereotyping (in particular, the cult of true womanhood) was applied in this research to show how the society in illugastadir judges agnes and labels her as a ‘bad woman’ based on the gender stereotypes that they firmly hold. many researchers have discussed the issues of gender stereotypes in literary works. the first related research is paynter (2011) who updated the previous studies on gender stereotypes and female representation in children’s literature. she concluded that there is an improvement of stereotypes and underrepresentation over the last decades. the next research is haleem (2014) who published a paper that discusses gender stereotyping in qaisra shehraz’s novel the holy woman. the paper reveals that there is gender stereotyping in the holy woman, but then it is challenged and resulted in the emancipation of the female characters. moreover, there are many reviews and articles on burial rites for example etherington (2013) and a review by moss (2013). nevertheless, this research has not found any academical paper/research on the novel. thus, this paper could contribute a new perspective in reading the novel, particularly through feminist’ point of view. different from the previous researches mentioned, this paper focuses on the issue of gender stereotypes and the deconstruction of them through a female voice. methods the primary data were collected from the novel burial rites written by kent (2013). to analyze and interpret the data taken from a literary work, the researcher took qualitative method that lies on library research. the library research was conducted, either in libraries (binus university libraries and depdiknas library) or on the 77deconstructing the stereotypes .... (paramita ayuningtyas) internet. in order to keep the analysis on academic path, books, and academic journals related to feminism issues were used as references. moving on to the next step, the intrinsic elements of characters, point of views and settings were analyzed based on the feminism theories, particularly the theory of gender stereotypes. firstly, the setting of the novel was discussed to see how the society, the time and the place construct and influence the gender stereotypes. next, the paper discusses how the society sees agnes. the last part of the discussion is dedicated to agnes and her own narration, particularly how through her own voice she tries to resist the gender stereotypes labeled on her. after the data were analyzed and interpreted, a conclusion was taken and the result of the analysis was written down. results and discussion setting in burial rites the novel burial rites was inspired by a real event that happened in northern iceland in 1829. to emphasize this fact, kent uses public notice, letters and other archival materials from that year that she managed to gather after doing a constant research. for example, in chapter one she puts a public notice about the auction of natan ketilsson’s belongings (natan was one of the murder victims) and two official letters from björn blöndal, the district commisionner. kent even inserts the map that shows where agnes stayed and the murder took place. the uses of these documents helps readers to go back to the past, and they are continually reminded that the tragic murder and the execution did happen. iceland is described by kent as a somber, lonely and nightmare-ish place, building a haunting atmosphere for the novel. for example, when agnes is taken from stóra borg to kornsá, she describes what she sees, “we are passing through the strange hills at the mouth of the valley and i hear the caw of ravens,” (kent, 2013:37). she uses the word strange to illustrate the eerie scenery that she sees. also, the fact that she hears ravens creates a solemn atmosphere. there are two significant places in burial rites: illugastadir and kornsá. natan’s house is located in illugastadir, a quiet area near the sea, and this is where the murder happened. agnes says illugastadir is almost on the edge of the world (kent, 2013). she also describes it as a beautiful but also a remote place: “... it’s a long line of rocky ground, with one or two smooth fields where winter fodder is grown, and the rest is wild grass, growing around the stones. the shore is of pebbles, and huge tangles of seaweed float in the bay and look like the hair of the drowned. driftwood appears overnight like magic, and eider ducks nest upon nearby banks of rocks near seal colonies. on a clear day it’s beautiful, and others it’s as miserable as grave-digging in the rain. sea fog plagues the place, and the nearest farm is stapar, which is fair distance away.” (kent, 2013:227) agnes uses two similes (like the hair of the drowned and as miserable as grave-digging in the rain) that show beneath its beautiful scenery, illugastadir has a disturbing ambiance. meanwhile, kornsá is a farm that belongs to jón jónsson. in this farm he lives with his wife margrét and two daughters, steina and lauga. when agnes stays in kornsá, it is almost winter: “the weather is bad, there is ice in the rain, and the wind is like a wolf nipping at your heels, reminding you that winter is coming,” (kent, 2013:202). winter is always associated with loneliness and death, and the bad weather here serves as a prophecy of what is waiting for agnes, which is the execution. not only giving details about the time and the place, kent also gives an illustration about how the way the society lived at that time. for example, the readers can see the social hierarchy as shown by natan as a master of the house. actually, instead of treating agnes as a lover, natan considers agnes more as a maid. everytime they argue, natan always reminds agnes that she is just a maid, “remember your place, agnes!” (kent, 2013:263). rósa (natan’s ex-lover) even calls agnes and sigga (another maid works for natan) as natan’s whores because she knows how natan treats them. this condition shows how the maids are treated by their master. not only taking care of the house and the farm, they have to satisfy the master’s sexual need as well. in burial rites, the setting does not only function as the where and when the events happen, but it also has a significant role in creating the mood of the story. the bleak and cold weather seems to predict agnes’ fate at the end of the novel. kent also inserts letters and archives about the murder, the trial and the beheading execution to accurately construct the icelandic society and their law system in the early 19th century. agnes through society’s perspective in this section, the researcher will provide proofs from the novel that present how the society sees the figure of agnes. in general, it can be concluded that they see agnes as a rebelious woman because she does not obey the social and moral values. society in this novel is represented by the district commissioner björn blöndal, the assistant reverend thorvadur (tóti) jónsson, the jónsson family and their neighbours. there are two kinds of point of view in burial rites, first person and third person. kent uses first person narration for agnes, while the third person narration focuses on tóti andmargrét, two characters that are in touch with agnes closely before her execution. the society members’ perspective on agnes will be explained one by one, and later it can be seen how they apply negative gender stereotypes on agnes. the first character that is analyzed is tóti, the assistant reverend that is assigned to accompany and give agnes a religious guidance before her execution. kent creates tóti as a soft-hearted and innocent character. this is shown by other characters’ opinion about him. when tóti tells the district commissioner’s servant that he will serve as agnes’ spiritual advisor, the servant cannot hold his laughter and says the district commissioner have picked a mouse to tame a cat (kent, 2013:10). he uses this metaphor to illustrate that in front of agnes the murderer, tóti is only like a mouse, small and weak. 78 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 tóti does not only have the role as agnes’ spiritual advisor, but he also serves as the first listener to agnes’ story. impressed by his kindness since he once helped her to across the river, agnes now relies on tóti to believe in her version of the story. because tóti is such an attentive listener, agnes confides in him even more. she tells him about her bitter childhood, when her mother died and she had to be separated from her siblings. in the beginning, tóti is afraid of agnes. he confesses his feeling when he prays: “i confess to fear, i do not know what to say to her. i do not feel at ease, lord. please guard my heart against the ... the horror this woman inspires in me,” (kent, 2013:50). he even once wants to run away from his responsibility to provide agnes with spiritual comfort: “he wanted to turn away, flee at the sight of her. like a coward,” (kent, 2013:49). it can be interpreted that tóti’s fear is caused by this label of agnes as a murderer or a female monster, which is understandable since he does not know who agnes really is. however, later after tóti hears agnes’ side of the story, the distance between them is gradually lessened. furthermore, tóti starts to see her not as a criminal but as a human being; to be precise, a woman who is opressed and harshly misunderstood by the society because she is not like other women. even though the district commissioner almost fires him because he thinks it is useless to bring agnes back to christian values, tóti insists he stay with agnes. he accompanies agnes to her execution site, giving her support to the very end, “i won’t let go of you. god is all around us, agnes. i won’t ever let go,” (kent, 2013:328). another character that puts sympathy on agnes is margrét, the owner of the farm. she is one character that develops a dynamic relationship with agnes. at first, she does not agree if agnes lives in her house, “i do not like to share my home with the devil’s children,” (kent, 2013:30). as a strong believer, margrét in the beginning bluntly labels agnes as a sinner. she also keeps questioning how a woman could kill men, “what sort of woman kills men?” (kent, 2013:51). if we look at the categories of the true cult of womanhood, margrét seems to confirm that agnes does not obey the value of piety by believing that she is a cold-blooded murder. margrét even does not see agnes as a human being at first. it feels strange for her to call agnes by her name: it seems wrong to call her by a christian name, margrét thought. what would they call her in stóra borg, she wondered. prisoner?accused? condemned? (kent, 2013:51). she is really shocked when she saw agnes for the first time since the prisoner is very dirty, beaten and does not look like a human: the woman’s body was a terrain of abuse (kent, 2013:54). however, after listening to agnes’ story firsthandedly, margrét slowly changes her opinion and starts to pity agnes. as a woman, she can understand that agnes is actually a victim of a patriarchal society that favours obedient and innocent women. as told by agnes, margrét finally sees her in a more positive way: “you are not a monster,” she says. her face is flushed and she bites her lip, she bites down. her fingers, entwined with my own, are hot and greasy (kent, 2013:323). this is the part when agnes finished telling her story and she is going to be taken to execution site. agnes, who got labeled by the society as a female monster, in the end receives sympathy from margrét. assistant reverend tóti and margrét are shown as characters who hold onto strong christian values, although they have different ways in applying them. in the beginning, each of them sees agnes with negative stereotypes. tóti sees agnes as a lost child that needs to be saved, while margrét says that she is the devil’s child. however, after interacting with agnes and listening to her stories, there is a change in their opinion on agnes. finally, they see as agnes as a human being, a woman. on the other hand, there are other characters who keep stereotyping agnes as a wicked woman who does not deserve pity and compassion, such as the district commissioner björn blöndal and margrét’s neighbour, róslin. they also judge agnes as a rebelling woman, or in other words a woman that does not meet the categories of the cult of true womanhood. district commissioner björn blöndal is the character who holds the highest power in burial rites. determining agnes’ fate, he makes the decision that she and fridrik will receive death sentence in a form of beheading. according to him, the death sentence is the best decision, “it is a victory of justice, as i am sure you will agree,” (kent, 2013:16). it can be said that blöndal symbolizes the law of the father in this novel because he is the male figure that holds the highest authority in the society. even though tóti asks him to reconsider his decision, blöndal sticks to his belief that executing agnes will be a good example for the society. he also clearly holds negative stereotypes on agnes. first, he sees agnes as an impious woman: “i’m not surprised. she struck me as especially godless during the trial,” (kent, 2013:165). it is a proof to him that agnes disobeys one character of a true womanhood because she is seen as not religious. furthermore, he judges agnes as a seductive and emotional woman who planned a vengeance, “ ... as far as i can see, agnes was under the impression that she had successfully seduced him. but sigga testified that natan preferrred her .... attentions,” (kent, 2013:170). he later describes agnes as an immoral woman: “you will not find proof of innocence in agnes’ stories of her life, reverend. she is a woman loose with her emotions, and looser with her morals,” (kent, 2013:170). in another expression, blöndal tries to say that agnes does not fulfill the category of true womanhood since she is not pure, aggressive, and ungodly. consequently, she earns the death penalty. blöndal is categorized as a static character because until the end of the story, he does not undergo any change. róslin is also a character who represents society’s negative perspective about agnes. she is margrét’s neighbour who loves to gossip and deals with other people’s business. when she knows that agnes will stay with the jónsson, she expresses that she is sorry for it. when margrét asks what she is sorry for, she anwers, “why, for having a murderess under your family’s roof! for being forced to look at her hideous face every day! for the fear it must inspire in you, for your own good self and your husband and poor daughters!” (kent, 2013:66). she then later defends natan and pétur, the other victims, 79deconstructing the stereotypes .... (paramita ayuningtyas) by calling them as good people, while margrét actually knows that natan and pétur are not that innocent. another scene shows how róslin stereotypes agnes as a wicked woman just because she has more knowledge. when agnes tells róslin that her baby will be a girl, róslin is horrified: “witch!” róslin cries. “tell her to stop looking at me.” she storms out of the room (kent, 2013:180). she thinks agnes performs a black magic while actually agnes is just applying the knowledge about pregnancy that she acquired from a mid-wive. through those characters’ perspective, kent seems to emphasize the fact that agnes is seen differently from other women. this difference is not favoured by the society, and it even causes them to judge agnes as a wicked woman. on the other hand, sigga is the character that exemplifies the kind of woman preferred by the patriarchal society: young, beautiful, sweet and innocent. this next conversation between tóti and the man who takes agnes to kornsá demonstrates how the society sees agnes and sigga in two different ways: “a lot of people vatnsnes way hope sigga will receive a pardon from the king. too young and too sweet to die.” the man pulled a face. “not like this one. she has a right temper when she fancies.” “is she waiting an appeal?” the man laughed.” i don’t like her chances. blöndal’s behind the youngest. they say she reminds him of his wife. this one ... well, blöndal wants to set an example.” (kent, 2013:41) the quotation clearly describes that since sigga is young and sweet, the distric commissioner helps her to get forgiveness from the king. meanwhile, agnes receives death sentence as an example for the society. moreover, the conversation also shows that the society thinks agnes, who is not as sweet as sigga, does not deserve an apology. undoubtedly, there is a binary opposition between sigga (the good woman) and agnes (the wicked woman). agnes who does not meet the categories of true femininity such as gentle, shy and childlike (as listed by moi, 1999:193) is not seen as a true woman. thus, she does not deserve an apology from the king. this part has discussed how the members of society perceive agnes. assistant reverend tóti and margrét are characters who change their opinion toward agnes. they used to apply negative stereotypes on agnes and see her as a wicked woman, but then after knowing her better, they show mercifulness. in contrast, district commissioner björn blöndal and róslin represent members of society who label agnes as a female monster. blöndal who holds the highest power in the district does not even want to know the story from agnes’ perspective. the next part studies the characterization of agnes further, focusing on the first person narration. agnes through her own voice in iceland, agnes magnúsdóttir has become a myth. negative stereotypes have been cruelly labeled on her, constructing her as a femme-fatale or even a ‘witch’ figure. as explained by kent in her notes, agnes “was almost always presented as a gross caricature – a ‘wicked woman’ plotting vengeance” (kent, 2013:343). here in burial rites, the author makes an effort to show that agnes is a misunderstood figure. therefore, she re-interprets the character of agnes and gives her a first-person narration by using the pronoun ‘i’. this technique is proven to be effective since the readers can directly understand agnes’ own experience and emotions. burial rites starts with a prologue from agnes, summarizing her fate and giving readers hints about what has happened before: they said i must die. they said that i stole the breath from men, and now they must steal mine. (kent, 2003 : 1). agnes’ prologue indicates that she is going to be executed. it also states what the reason is: it is because she has killed men. one thing that can be underlined here is the clause ‘they said’. ‘they’ here refers to the authority, and the word ‘said’ signifies how they have control over agnes’ fate. as a narrator, agnes is very conscious about her fate. she also understands what the people think about him, particularly the negative stereotypes they have on her. this next quotation shows the labels the society puts on agnes: “they will see the whore, the madwoman, the murderess, the female dripping blood into the grass and laughing with her mouth choked with dirt. they will say ‘agnes’ and see the spider, the witch caught in the webbing of her own fateful weaving.” (kent, 2013:29) the labels ‘whore’, ‘madwoman’, ‘hags’, and ‘witch’ have long been used to refer to woman who disobey social and moral values (daly in tong, 2006). the words suggest women who do not belong to the categories of the cult of true womanhood because they are not pure and rebellious. these names are the social punishment from the society for what agnes has done, and they will be forever stuck in her image. furthermore, agnes also realizes that the society no longer sees her as a person: “at first i did not know why these people stood about, men and women alike, each still and staring at me in silence. then i understood that it was not me they stared at. i understood that these people did not see me. i was two dead man. i was a burning farm. i was a knife. i was blood.” (kent, 2013:35) the italic ‘me’ highlights how agnes’ self is no longer important for the society. the murder that they think agnes has committed has turned her into a pathetic monster in their eyes. through blöndal’s character, kent wants to show that society and even the law can be really biased toward women who are different from their expectation. the patriarchal society with the cult of true womanhood expects women to be pure, religious, obedient and domestic. however, agnes is different. she is critical and also too smart for the society. she is aware that her cleverness as a woman is not approved by people around her: “i’ll tell you something, reverend tóti. all my life people have thought i was too clever. too clever by half 80 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 they’d say. and you know what, reverend? that’s exactly why they don’t pity me,” (kent, 2013:131). she later compares between herself and sigga: “ ... but sigga is dumb and pretty and young, and that is why they don’t want to see her die,” (kent, 2013:132). as previously explained, there seems to be a binary opposition in the way people judge agnes and sigga. with her intelligence and courage, agnes is not the type of woman that the society prefers. meanwhile, sigga is the kind of woman they like. the law even gives a second chance to sigga, but not to agnes. burial rites is kent’s re-interpretation about the murder and the last execution in iceland. if the stories spreading in icelandic society almost always illustrate agnes as a witch or a femme fatale figure, this novel tries to present the other side of this woman, particularly through a first person narration. agnes’ stories and experiences show the readers that she is actually also a victim of values that put such moral burdens on women’s shoulder. burial rites is another effort to emphasize that female voice is important in deconstruct the negative gender stereotypes over women: “it’s not fair. people claim to know you through the things you’ve done, and not by sitting down and listening to you speak for yourself .... how other people think of you determines who you are,” (kent, 2013:108). that quotation shows agnes’ awareness about the importance of female voice and perspective in patriarchal societies. conclusion the analysis of burial rites has shown how patriarchal society negatively depicts agnes magnúsdóttir, a woman who does not obey the moral and social values. they see her as a wicked and (to quote blöndal) morally loose woman; thus, she deserves a punishment from the society. this death sentence seems to implicate that as a woman, you need to be obedient and sweet or else you will accept negative consequences. however, through agnes’ first person narration, this novel also aims to show the other side of this wicked woman, giving her a voice to retell the story from her perspective. negative stereotypes that have been labeled on her are questioned and in the end, deconstructed. through burial rites, kent nurturs the idea that to understand a woman, you need to listen to her version of the story. female voice needs to find its place in patriarchal society. references brannon, l. (2015). gender: psychological perspectives (6th ed.). psychology press. etherington, b. (2013). the real deal. sydney review of books. retrieved from http://www. sydneyreviewofbooks.com/the-real-deal/ haleem, s. (2014). challenging gender stereotypes: a text analysis of qaisra shehraz’s novel the holy woman. ipedr, 74, 56–61. retrieved from http:// www.ipedr.com/vol74/010-ichhs 2014-s10009. pdf kent, h. (2013). burial rites. london: picador. moi, t. (1999). what is a woman? and other essays. oxford: oxford university press. moss, s. (2013). burial rites by hannah kent – review. retrieved april 22, 2015, from http://www. theguardian.com/books/2013/aug/31/burial-riteshannah-kent-review paynter, k. c. (2011). gender stereotypes and representation of female characters in children’s picture books. liberty university. tong, r. p. (2006). feminist thought. (a. p. prabasmoro, trans.). bandung: jalasutra. 13wacana iklan parodi jepang... (dian natashia) wacana iklan parodi jepang fanta gakuen sensei series dian natashia linguistik, fakultas ilmu pengetahuan budaya, universitas indonesia jln. margonda raya, kampus universitas indonesia, depok, jawa barat 16424 diannatashia@yahoo.com abstract research aimed to understand the message sent by the sender by analyzing critically the substence used and built the situation inside japanese parody advertisement titled fanta gakuen sensei series. this research used qualitative descriptive method and provided two parody advertisement videos as data. the data were described and analyzed with guy cook’s advertising discourse theory to reveal the substance used and built the context and situation inside the advertisements and foucault’s power and discipline theory to understand the message trying to be conveyed by looking into relationship between teachers and students in japan. result of the analysis shows that to avoid monotonous advertisements, fanta uses advertisements parodying a popular drama during that era and adding humor into them, so the receiver will remind it for a long time. this is not just persuasive, but the advertisement’s strategy in those advertisements is also informative and inviting the target group to think critically. through social context, these advertisements are intended to remind children to be disciplined regarding their daily behaviors and to obey and respect their teachers all the time. the producer also intends to remind that during hardships or strange situation, children should not take them seriously and be happy with fanta. keywords: discourse analysis, advertisement discourse, parody advertisement, japanese advertisement strategy abstrak penelitian bertujuan untuk mencari unsur yang digunakan produsen untuk membangun situasi dan pesan yang ingin disampaikan produsen. penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan data berupa dua buah video iklan parodi fanta. data dideskripsikan, setelah itu dianalisis dengan teori wacana iklan guy cook dan teori kuasa dan disiplin foucault. teori wacana iklan guy cook mengungkapkan unsur yang digunakan untuk membangun konteks dan situasi iklan; sementara teori kuasa dan disiplin foucault membantu untuk memahami pesan yang ingin disampaikan pengirim dengan melihat hubungan guru dan murid di jepang. hasil data tersebut kemudian disimpulkan. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa untuk menghindari monoton periklanan, fanta menggunakan iklan yang memparodikan sebuah drama terkenal pada zaman itu dan menambahkan unsur humor di dalamnya agar mudah diingat oleh penerima. tidak hanya bersifat persuasif, tetapi strategi periklanan jepang pada iklan ini juga bersifat informatif dan mengajak kelompok sasaran untuk berpikir kritis. melalui konteks sosial, iklan ini bermaksud mengingatkan anak-anak untuk disiplin terhadap perilakunya sehari-hari dan selalu taat dan hormat kepada guru. produsen juga bermaksud mengingatkan bahwa dalam keadaan susah dan aneh sekalipun, jangan menganggap terlalu serius dan dibawa senang saja dengan fanta. kata kunci: kajian wacana, wacana iklan, iklan parodi, strategi periklanan jepang 14 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pendahuluan iklan selalu hidup dan berada di mana saja dan kapan saja dalam kehidupan. iklan merupakan salah satu jenis komunikasi massa karena iklan merupakan kegiatan komunikasi yang ditujukan kepada khayalak orang banyak dan bersifat heterogen. fungsi utama iklan adalah menyampaikan informasi tentang produk kepada massa yang penyampaiannya dapat berupa elemen verbal maupun nonverbal. produk ditampilkan sebagai konteks sosial, sedangkan konsumsi ditampilkan dalam makna gaya hidup. dengan berbagai macam strategi, periklanan selalu mengacu pada realitas sosial. iklan selalu berusaha menerapkan berbagai strategi periklanan yang mudah ditangkap dan dimengerti oleh konsumen agar tergerak dan terpengaruh untuk membeli produk yang diiklankan. jika berbicara tentang jepang dan periklanan, ini adalah suatu hal yang sangat menarik. jika iklan biasanya dibuat sedemikian mungkin yang serius agar informasi dapat mudah ditangkap dan dimengerti oleh target konsumen, iklan jepang mengambil perspektif yang berbeda. menurut kelly (dalam johansson, 1994), iklan jepang mengambil perspektif bahwa suasana yang ditampilkan dalam iklan haruslah berbicara lebih keras daripada kata-kata. hal yang menjadi fokus pada iklan jepang adalah “menghindari logika”, “artikulasi penutur itulah yang tidak dapat dipercaya”, dan “komunikasi efektif adalah komunikasi yang implisit, yang cenderung emosional dibanding logika, dan berdasarkan intuisi”. karena itu, jika berada di jepang akan ditemukan iklan televisi yang mengandung humor dan spanduk iklan yang menggunakan warna cerah, lampu-lampu yang menyilaukan, dan karakter tokoh kartun yang aneh yang desainnya terkadang tidak masuk akal. hal inilah yang membuat peneliti tertarik pada iklan jepang untuk mencari makna apa yang ingin disampaikan. salah satu strategi periklanan jepang adalah dengan memasukkan unsur humor ke iklan, salah satu contohnya adalah iklan parodi. menurut shinmura (2004), parodi adalah sastra yang menirukan karya sastra atau seni yang diketahui banyak orang dan mengubah konten isinya dengan gaya jenaka atau gaya sindiran. contoh iklan parodi yang akan diteliti berjudul fanta gakuen sensei series (terjemahan: seri guru sekolah fanta) yang menceritakan guru mata pelajaran yang berbeda-beda dengan karakter pribadi yang berbeda-beda juga di angkatan kelas tiga sekolah lanjutan tingkat pertama sebuah sekolah di jepang. iklan ini menirukan drama jepang yang sangat terkenal di jepang yang berjudul kinpachi sensei yang menceritakan tentang bagaimana seorang guru membantu murid-muridnya dalam menghadapi masalah hidup dan masalah kenakalan remaja. dalam artikel ini, peneliti bermaksud untuk menganalisis unsur apa saja yang digunakan produsen dalam membangun situasi iklan tersebut dan pesan apa yang ingin disampaikan oleh produsen. dari rumusan masalah tersebut, penelitian ini memiliki dua tujuan penelitian, yakni: (1) mengetahui unsur apa saja yang digunakan produsen dalam iklan fanta gakuen sensei series dan (2) pesan apa yang ingin disampaikan oleh produsen melalui iklan fanta gakuen sensei series. dalam menganalisis, metode yang peneliti gunakan adalah metode deskriptif kualitatif. peneliti akan menggunakan teori wacana iklan dari guy cook untuk mengetahui bagaimana strategi periklanan yang digunakan dalam iklan ini. peneliti juga akan menggunakan teori kuasa dan disiplin dari michel foucault untuk memahami makna dan informasi yang ingin disampaikan oleh produsen. untuk data penelitian, peneliti akan menggunakan dua iklan yang berjudul fanta, shogun sensei dan fanta, toumei sensei. penelitian ini menggunakan dua buah teori dan sebuah konsep tentang guru di jepang sebagai alat untuk menganalisis data. pertama adalah teori wacana iklan cook. cook (2003) melihat iklan sebagai wacana. walaupun fokus utama kajian wacana adalah pada bahasanya, bukan artinya hanya bahasa saja yang menjadi perhatian. seperti siapa berkomunikasi dengan siapa dan mengapa, mereka berkomunikasi dalam situasi sosial yang bagaimana, menggunakan media apa, gaya komunikasi apa saja yang berkembang, dan bagaimana hubungan kedua orang yang berkomunikasi tersebut. lebih lanjut menurut cook (2003), konteks komunikasi pada sebuah iklan terdiri atas delapan hal, yaitu: substansi, parabahasa, musik dan gambar, situasi, ko-teks, interteks, partisipan (pengirim dan penerima), dan fungsi. substansi adalah material fisik (suara model iklan dan narator, layar, kemasan, stiker, banner) yang mengandung teks. musik dapat berupa orkestra atau solo, akustik atau amplifikasi. gambar dapat berupa gambar bergerak, kartun, fotografis. parabahasa adalah keberagaman bahasa yang berbeda dari kata-kata atau tata-kalimat dan memuat banyak arti, seperti: ekspresi wajah, kualitas suara, dan gerak-isyarat tubuh. situasi adalah relasi dan properti dari objek dan masyarakat dalam ruang lingkup teks, yang dimengerti oleh partisipan. dengan adanya situasi, diketahui di mana dan kapan iklan itu ditayangkan. koteks adalah teks yang bersifat sejajar, koordinatif, dan berhubungan dengan teks lainnya yang berada di depan (mendahului) atau di belakang (mengiring). interteks adalah wacana yang bergantung dengan wacana lain, dapat berupa peristiwa di dalam iklan yang satu dengan peristiwa di dalam iklan yang lain atau di luar iklan. partisipan terdiri dari 2 jenis: pengirim dan penerima. pengirim adalah produsen yang menawarkan produknya dan penerima adalah komunitas sasaran produk tersebut. fungsi adalah apa yang pengirim inginkan teks untuk berperilaku atau apa yang dimengerti oleh penerima. teori kedua yang dipakai adalah teori kuasa dan disiplin foucault. menurut foucault, pengetahuan adalah kekuasaan untuk menguasai orang lain (sarup, 2011). dengan kata lain, seseorang tidak dapat menguasai orang lain tanpa pengetahuan. pengetahuan juga bukan lagi berfungsi sebagai alat kebebasan namun sebagai bentuk pengawasan, peraturan, dan displin. pada dasarnya, foucault menolak akan keuniversalan. menurutnya segala sesuatu yang berada di dunia ini bersifat subjektif. pengetahuan dan kekuasaan layaknya dua sisi mata uang, bahwa segala sesuatu yang dikeluarkan oleh lembaga pengetahuan cenderung mendukung sistem kekuasaan (fuady, 2005). menurut foucault, posisi ilmu subjektivitas dalam kekuasaan adalah sejajar. oleh karena itu, kemajuan saat ini merupakan bentuk kontrol terhadap perilaku individu. 15wacana iklan parodi jepang... (dian natashia) menurut foucault kekuasaan bukanlah kepemilikan ataupun kemampuan. kekuasaan bukanlah sesuatu yang tunduk pada atau melayani kepentingan tertentu seperti kepentingan ekonomi. pola hubungan kekuasaan tidak berasal dari pihak penguasa dan tidak dapat dikonseptualisasikan sebagai milik individu atau kelas. kekuasaan bagi foucault adalah bersifat jaringan; menyebar luas ke mana-mana (sarup, 2011). kekuasaan tidaklah diberikan, ditukar, ataupun dicari, tetapi dilaksanakan dan pelaksanaan ini hanya ada dalam tindakan. kekuasaan merupakan suatu hubungan kekuatan dan selalu ada di dalam setiap masyarakat, baik berupa susunan kekuasaan yang sederhana, yang besar maupun yang rumit.yang menarik adalah individu berfungsi sebagai roda-roda kekuasaan bukan hanya menjadi titik aplikasinya sehingga dalam hal ini manusia dipengaruhi oleh kekuasaan (foucault, 2002). adanya mekanisme, teknik dan aturan kekuasaan cenderung tergantung dari pihak yang memiliki kemampuan untuk memanfaatkan kekuasaan. dapat dikatakan bahwa dalam hal ini seseorang sedang menjalankan strategi kuasa. kekuasaan dalam pandangan foucault disalurkan melalui hubungan sosial yang memproduksi bentukbentuk kategorisasi perilaku yang baik atau buruk sebagai bentuk pengendali perilaku. jadi khayalak ditundukkan tidak dengan cara kontrol yang bersifat fisik dan langsung, tetapi dengan wacana dan mekanisme, berupa prosedur, tata cara, aturan, dan sebagainya. pendisiplinan menurut foucault adalah cara kuasa untuk melaksanakan kontrol atau pengawasan terhadap individu yang bertujuan menghasilkan individu yang patuh. oleh karena itu, kekuasaan sangat berkepentingan untuk melakukan kontrol atas tiap-tiap individu yang dikuasainya. kontrol ini bukan sekadar pengawasan terhadap kekuatan fisik, melainkan pada tataran mindset. kekuasaan yang berkepentingan harus mempunyai pengendali yang bisa mengontrol setiap tindakan individu dan hal ini tidak mungkin diemban oleh aparat represif. lalu muncul sebuah gagasan foucault dari konsep penjara yaitu panopticon, model pengawasan ketat semua orang dengan kamera pengawas yang mencakup semua area dan segala hal yang terjadi di daerah pantauan kamera tersebut. hal ini yang menginspirasi foucault bahwa bagaimana melalui ‘kamera pengontrol’, rezim kekuasaan negara melakukan kontrol secara efektif atas tiap-tiap individu. ‘kamera pengontrol’ berfungsi sebagai ‘kebenaran tunggal’ yang direproduksi oleh kekuasan untuk mengawasi mereka yang menyimpang. tidak hanya dua teori yang sudah dijabarkan sebelumnya yang akan menjadi alat analisis data. sebuah konsep tentang guru di jepang juga dibutuhkan untuk mendukung teori kuasa dan disiplin foucault dalam memahami isi makna yang ingin disampaikan produsen kepada konsumen. masyarakat jepang meyakini bahwa pendidikan formal bertindak sebagai sarana pembentukan moral, karakter, dan penanaman nilai-nilai budaya yang berkualitas. rohlen dan letendre (1999) mengatakan bahwa konsep pendidikan di jepang tidak hanya menyampaikan ilmu pengetahuan dan keahlian, tetapi juga meliputi aspek pembentukan karakter. di dalam proses pendidikan, hubungan guru dan murid sebagai pihak utama yang terlibat dalam proses ini merupakan hal utama. guru, sebagai pendidik di sekolah, berusaha memberikan keyakinan kepada murid bahwa mereka yang membimbing dan mengarahkan tingkah laku murid. oleh sebab itu, guru memiliki kewenangan dalam membangun dan membentuk karakter murid dengan menanamkan kebiasaan hidup yang mendasar, seperti kesadaran hidup berdisiplin. sebagai pihak yang bertanggung jawab dalam proses pendidikan di sekolah, guru diharapkan dapat memantau seluruh perkembangan kegiatan muridnya, baik dalam maupun di luar jam pelajaran sekolah. oleh karena itu, selain dalam bidang akademik, guru juga menjalankan fungsinya sebagai pengawas dan pengontrol seluruh aspek kehidupan murid (okamoto, 2001). madubrangti (2004) mengatakan bahwa pendidikan sekolah jepang mewajibkan guru sekolah bekerja keras untuk membimbing muridnya, tidak hanya mengajarkan ilmu pengetahuan, tetapi juga membentuk kepribadian murid. sekolah berfungsi sebagai tempat transmisi pengetahuan yang mencakup nilai-nilai dan pola-pola yang diperlukan dalam masyarakat. sekolah juga diperlukan untuk melestarikan warisan nilai-nilai budaya sebuah masyarakat. pada masa pendidikan sltp, guru menekankan pentingnya aspek kesadaran pada hubungan sosial yang vertikal, yaitu hubungan antara guru-murid (oyabunkobun) atau antara senior dan junior (senpai-kohai), agar murid dapat memahami pentingnya tatanan stratifikasi dalam kehidupan. seorang kohai diharapkan dapat belajar dan menaati perintah senpai, demikian juga senpai diharapkan dapat memberikan contoh yang baik kepada kohai. dalam aktivitas belajar mengajar sikap murid sangat menghormati guru, terutama ketika guru mengajar, mereka terlihat serius memerhatikan materi yang disampaikan di kelas. ellis (dalam rani et al., 2006) mengungkapkan bahwa wacana kelas berbeda dengan wacana berlatar lain karena pada wacana kelas tidak perlu terjadi kesepakatan atau kerja sama antara guru dan murid dalam menentukan topik. topik yang dimaksudkan adalah topik yang mencakup semua ide pembicaraan dan bukan hanya perihal pelajaran semata. ketika guru mengajar di dalam kelas, ia dapat saja tiba-tiba berbicara tentang sesuatu yang tidak ada hubungannya dengan mata pelajaran yang sedang diajarnya tanpa meminta persetujuan muridnya. hubungan asimetris di kelas memengaruhi guru dalam menentukan struktur pertukaran. dalam interaksi di kelas guru memiliki kedudukan sebagai (1) peserta dalam seluruh pertukaran, (2) pemicu dalam pertukaran, (3) penutup dalam pertukaran, (4) penentu ikut tidaknya peserta lain dalam sebuah pertukaran, (5) penerima untuk beberapa pemicu, (6) penentu pembicara selanjutnya, dan (7) penentu jumlah ujaran dalam setiap pembicaraan (ellis dalam rani et al., 2006). dengan demikian, dapat dikatakan bahwa guru berkuasa atas strukrur dan konteks wacana di kelas. metode penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. data yang digunakan bukan merupakan angka, melainkan berupa tanda verbal dan nonverbal yang ada 16 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 pada data. tanda verbal berupa kata-kata percakapan yang terjadi dan nonverbal berupa paralinguistik dan gerakan yang dilakukan oleh pelakon dalam iklan tersebut. sumber data adalah iklan fanta versi gakuen sensei series yang diambil dari youtube (japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006). data penelitian ini adalah dua video dari sumber data, yakni iklan fanta versi shougun sensei dan iklan fanta versi toumei sensei. data hanya mengambil dua video dari sekian iklan yang ada karena kedua video ini dianggap dapat mewakili video lainnya. pada tahapan analisis data, pertama-tama, tanda nonverbal iklan dideskripsikan dan tanda verbal dideskripsikan melalui transkrip percakapan. setelah tanda verbal dan nonverbal dideskripsikan, data dihubungan dengan teori guy cook untuk mendeskripsikan unsur apa saja yang digunakan dalam membangun situasi iklan tersebut. kemudian unsur tersebut dijelaskan lebih dalam dengan budaya masyarakat jepang dan teori kuasa foucault yang relevan dan terkait untuk memahami situasi dan pesan yang ingin disampaikan oleh produsen. hasil dan pembahasan substansi atau material fisik kedua data yang digunakan berupa komunikasi audio visual. proses penyampaian informasi atau pesan dari sumber kepada satu penerima atau lebih dengan cara memvisualisasikan sekaligus memperdengarkan isi pesan atau informasi kepada penerima melalui media yang menunjangnya. dalam iklan ini, media yang digunakan adalah media elektronik. kedua data ini merupakan salah satu episode iklan parodi berseri fanta gakuen sensei yang menceritakan tentang para guru dengan kepribadian yang berbeda-beda. iklan ini merupakan parodi dari drama terkenal pada zaman itu yang berjudul kinpachi sensei yang menceritakan bagaimana peran guru dalam membantu muridnya dalam menghadapi berbagai masalah kehidupan. iklan fanta, shogun sensei adegan pada iklan ini adalah adegan yang diawali dengan masuknya seorang guru yang berpakaian resmi layaknya seorang samurai yang berpangkat jenderal dan mengendarai kuda putih (lihat gambar 1). saat guru ini masuk kelas dengan mengendarai kuda, semua anak di dalam kelas mengambil posisi duduk sambil menundukkan kepala (lihat gambar 2). gambar 1 pak shogun masuk kelas (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) gambar 2 murid menunduk (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) sang guru bertanya apakah ada di antara muridnya yang mengerti soal di papan tulis. saat sang guru bertanya lagi untuk kedua kalinya, ada seorang murid yang mengangkat kepala dan menunjuk tangan. saat melihat tindakan murid itu, sang guru marah dan menggangap tindakan itu sebuah penghinaan baginya (lihat gambar 3). adegan diakhiri dengan murid itu mengeluh, lalu meminum fanta (lihat gambar 4). shogun sensei : jugyou ja! kono mondai ga wakaru mono wa orun ka? oran no ka? seito : hai! shogun sensei : shikata nai! seito : dou sureba iinda yo terjemahan: pak shogun : kelas kita mulai! adakah dari kalian yang mengerti soal ini? tidak ada, ya? murid : saya, pak! pak shogun : ini penghinaan! murid : aku harus bagaimana? gambar 3 pak shogun murka (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) 17wacana iklan parodi jepang... (dian natashia) gambar 4 murid kecewa sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006 iklan ini adalah sebuah iklan parodi yang meniru drama jepang yang sangat terkenal saat itu dengan mengubah konten dan menambahkan unsur humor. walaupun dalam drama jepang itu sendiri tidak memiliki cerita yang berkaitan dengan samurai, iklan ini mengambil unsur sejarah dan budaya jepang periode tokugawa. periode tokugawa merupakan masa perkembangan segi intelektual yang penting sebagai dasar kemajuan budaya masyarakat jepang. pada masa tokugawa para pengikut samurai dari kalangan shogun (jendral) diwajibkan untuk mencurahkan hidupnya dengan menggali pengetahuan, seperti farmasi, keahlian membuat dan memakai meriam, teknologi, perpetaan, dan moral konfusianisme, serta belajar seni militer dan menunggang kuda. pada masa ini, ajaran kepatuhan kepada guru atau orangtua serta penanaman nilai-nilsi tradisi kebudayaan jepang menjadi prioritas utama dalam misi pendidikan sekolah, seperti dalam ungkapan: “your father and your mother are like heaven and earth, your teacher and your lord are like sun and the moon.” (roosiani, 2004:37–44) tingkah laku guru pada iklan ini menjadi fokus humor. di zaman modern seperti sekarang ada seorang guru yang berpenampilan layaknya seorang samurai tahun 1600-an yang datang ke kelas dengan mengendarai kuda. hal ini sudah memberikan kesan karakter pribadi guru yang unik. tidak hanya itu, semua murid pun harus menundukkan kepala saat guru berada di depan kelas. situasi ini sudah menunjukkan adanya ketidaksesuaian dengan situasi kelas yang sebenarnya. kelas merupakan tempat berinteraksi antara guru dan murid, namun dalam iklan ini terjadi interaksi satu arah saja, yaitu guru kepada murid. sampai akhirnya ada seorang murid yang berani mengangkat kepala untuk merespons guru dan ternyata mendapat respons balik di luar dugaan. bukannya memberikan respons positif karena ada murid yang mengerti soalnya, guru malah menuding murid itu melakukan penghinaan kepada dirinya. parabahasa respons negatif guru kepada murid yang mengacungkan tangan dapat dilihat dari mimiknya yang menunjukan kekagetan dan ketidaksukaan serta nada bicara yang keras. dalam wacana kelas guru memiliki kuasa untuk menentukan topik dan murid diharuskan menghormati guru dengan tidak protes terhadap apa yang dilakukan sang guru. jika dilihat dari bentuk tata bahasa yang digunakan guru, dapat disimpulkan bahwa guru melihat muridnya sebagai anak buah dalam sistem samurai. oleh sebab itu, murid hanya dapat menggerutu dan bingung harus bagaimana dalam situasi tersebut karena merespons guru merupakan suatu hal yang wajar dan wajib dilakukan oleh murid, tetapi sebaliknya malah dimarahi dan tanpa dapat berbuat apa-apa. hal ini juga didukung dengan parabahasa murid pada adegan terakhir dengan mimik yang menunjukan bingung dan ketidakpuasan akan situasi belajar mengajar seperti itu. produsen iklan ini adalah perusahaan cocacola yang memproduksi minuman fanta (cocacola, 2008). dalam iklannya fanta selalu memakai tampilan yang ceria dan slogannya selalu menitikberatkan pada kehidupan yang fun dan less serious. jika dilihat dari drama yang ditirukan oleh iklan ini, penerima adalah komunitas yang pernah menonton drama kinpachi sensei, yakni anak-anak 13–16 tahun yang masih duduk di bangku sekolah lanjutan tingkat pertama dan para ibu dari anakanak tersebut. akan tetapi, jika dikaitkan dengan produk yang biasa dikonsumsi oleh komunitas yang mulai serius memikirkan kehidupannya, komunitas sasaran adalah anak-anak berusia 13–16 tahun. karena iklan ini mengiklankan suatu produk tertentu, fungsi iklan ini adalah persuasif yang mengajak khayalak untuk membeli produk yang diiklankan tersebut. di samping bersifat persuasif dan humor, jika dilihat dari bagaimana iklan televisi ini dikemas dan komunitas sasarannya, iklan ini mengajak komunitas sasaran untuk berpikir kritis. dengan situasi kelas yang tidak mendukung suasana belajar mengajar yang seharusnya, anak-anak diberi pesan bahwa situasi seperti itu jangan terlalu dipikirkan dan dianggap serius, sebaliknya dibuat santai dan minumlah fanta. iklan fanta, toumei sensei iklan ini mengisahkan seorang guru yang tembus pandang. adza empat adegan yang berbeda dalam iklan ini. adegan pertama pada iklan ini adalah adegan yang diawali dengan kelas yang ribut menunggu gurunya yang datang terlambat, tetapi ternyata sudah tiba dari tadi (lihat gambar 5). adegan pertama danshi seito : sensei osoi toumei sensei : iru zo~!! doko ni me tsuketen da! terjemahan adegan pertama murid laki-laki : sensei lama pak toumei : saya di sini! matamu di mana! gambar 5 suasana kelas pak toumei pada adegan pertama (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) 18 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 lalu adegan kedua berpindah pada seorang anak yang membaca majalah dewasa yang ditutup dengan buku pelajaran, tetapi ketahuan oleh sang guru (lihat gambar 6). adegan kedua toumei sensei : jugyou chuu ni nani yonden da! terjemahan adegan kedua pak toumei : apa yang kau baca di tengah pelajaran, hah! gambar 6 murid dihukum pada adegan kedua (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) adegan ketiga berpindah pada seorang anak remaja pria yang sedang menyatakan cinta di gudang peralatan olahraga, tetapi ternyata sang guru juga berada di sana dan merespons pernyataan cinta remaja itu (lihat gambar 7). kemudian adegan keempat berpindah pada dua orang anak laki-laki yang duduk di tanjakan hijau dan sedang mengeluh sambil melempar batu, tetapi tanpa disengaja batu itu mengenai guru tembus pandang itu yang sedang mengayuh sepeda dan terjatuh (lihat gambar 8). adegan diakhiri dengan kedua murid tersebut meminum fanta. adegan ketiga danshi seito : suki da! toumei sensei : ore mo suki da! joshi seito : sensei! terjemahan adegan ketiga murid laki-laki : saya suka kamu! pak toumei : saya juga suka kamu! murid perempuan: bapak! gambar 7 murid diganggu saat menyatakan cinta (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) adegan keempat danshi seito : chikusho-! toumei sensei : ite! danshi seito : itan desuka? toumei sensei : ita yo! seito tachi : houkago sukkiri fanta! terjemahan adegan keempat murid laki-laki : sialan! pak toumei : aduh! murid laki-laki : bapak ada, ya? pak toumei : ada, tahu! para murid : pulang sekolah, santaikan dengan fanta! gambar 8 guru bangun setelah terjatuh karena dilempari batu oleh kedua murid (sumber: japanese fanta commericals fantasubbed, 2006) iklan ini mengisahkan seorang guru yang tidak kelihatan namun kehadirannya di mana-mana. konsep guru tembus pandang ini sesuai dengan konsep pendisiplinan foucault yang memakai konsep kamera pengontrol (panopticon). murid disadarkan pada kondisi yang tidak memungkinkan untuk melakukan tindakan menyimpang karena selalu diawasi oleh guru. walaupun sang guru kelihatannya tidak hadir, ‘matanya’ dan ‘kehadirannya’ berada di mana-mana. pada adegan kedua, saat seorang murid tertangkap basah sedang membaca majalah dewasa di tengah pelajaran, guru menyatakan kuasanya bahwa walaupun dirinya tidak hadir, ‘matanya’ akan selalu mengawasi dan mengontrol muridnya. pada adegan ketiga, ketika pernyataan cinta seorang murid diganggu oleh gurunya, guru juga menyatakan dirinya mengawasi tindakan muridnya tidak hanya di dalam kelas tetapi juga di luar kelas, seperti di gudang peralatan. jika pada adegan kedua wajar jika guru menangkap basah muridnya sedang melakukan tindakan menyimpang, pada adegan ketiga guru mulai bertindak di luar perannya karena mengganggu privasi muridnya yang bukan merupakan tindakan menyimpang. peristiwa yang seharusnya bersuasana romantis dan mungkin menjadi kisah baru bagi kedua murid itu dirusak oleh guru mereka. dari parabahasa murid perempuan, nada bicaranya terdengar kaget karena dalam situasi seperti itu tidak seharusnya guru berada di sana. 19wacana iklan parodi jepang... (dian natashia) pada adegan keempat, ketika seorang murid mengumpat sambil melempar batu dan mengenai guru yang tembus pandang itu, guru juga menyatakan bahwa dirinya tidak hanya mengawasi perilaku murid-muridnya di lingkungan sekolah tetapi juga di luar sekolah. episode ini seakan memberi pesan bahwa ‘mata’ guru ada di manamana untuk mengawasi dan mengontrol perilaku muridmuridnya. dilihat dari drama yang diangkat sebagai landasan situasi iklan ini, komunitas sasaran produsen fanta yang memiliki slogan fun and less serious adalah anak-anak usia 13–16 tahun. iklan ini bersifat persuasif karena secara tidak langsung dengan mengajak kelompok sasaran untuk berpikir kritis. selain itu, iklan ini dapat dianggap sebagai iklan yang informatif karena mengingatkan para murid untuk disiplin dan berhati-hati dalam perilaku sehari-hari karena selalu diawasi oleh guru mereka. dengan situasi kehidupan yang tidak bebas dan penuh pengawasan, anakanak diberi pesan bahwa dalam situasi seperti itu jangan terlalu dipikirkan dan dianggap serius, sebaliknya dibuat santai dan minumlah fanta. simpulan dilihat dari kelompok sasaran iklan fanta gakuen sensei series, yakni anak-anak berusia 13–16 tahun, fanta menggunakan strategi periklanan yang dapat mendekatkan konsumen dengan produknya. fanta mengambil konsep iklan dari drama yang sedang populer di jepang pada masa itu, kinpachi sensei. tidak hanya drama ini sedang populer di jepang, tetapi juga produsen mempertimbangkan drama ini sebagai dasar iklan parodi mereka. drama menceritakan tentang seorang guru dan wali kelas yang membantu murid-muridnya dalam menghadapi segala permasalahan kehidupan anak-anak sekolah menengah pertama di sekolah maupun di luar sekolah. produsen menggunakan konsep drama jepang ini agar kelompok sasaran merasa dekat dan dapat memahami situasi yang dibangun. produsen juga menggunakan strategi periklanan dengan parodi karena humor memiliki daya tarik tersendiri dalam periklanan yang dapat membuat kelompok sasaran mengingat iklan tersebut. dalam iklan ini produsen menggunakan humor melalui guru-guru yang memiliki kepribadian dan karakter yang tidak umum, tetapi dekat dengan budaya dan masyarakat jepang, misalnya guru yang masih memegang prinsip samurai pemerintahan tokugawa dan guru tembus pandang yang terlalu mencampuri urusan murid-muridnya. hal tersebut dimaksudkan agar kelompok sasaran dapat memahami maksud dan pesan yang ingin disampaikan. penggunaan karakteristik budaya masyarakat jepang juga diungkapkan oleh sari (2013) yang menyimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar media televisi jepang mencerminkan kehidupan masyarakat jepang itu sendiri. perusahaan minuman fanta memiliki slogan more fun, less serious. anak-anak berusia 13–16 tahun dijadikan konsumen sasaran dengan asumsi bahwa anak-anak pada usia tersebut mulai memerhatikan diri dan sekelilingnya serta mulai memikirkan serius kehidupan mereka. produsen fanta ingin mengirim pesan dan mengajak anak-anak yang memiliki masalah di sekolah maupun di luar sekolah untuk tidak terlalu ambil pusing masalah yang dihadapi dan bersantai dengan meminum fanta. jika dikaitkan dengan iklan, produsen fanta ingin menyampaikan pesan bahwa bagaimanapun uniknya kepribadian dan anehnya kelakuan guru di kelas, tetaplah santai dan meminum fanta. karena kelompok sasaran fanta adalah kelompok yang mulai mengkritisi segala sesuatu, iklan yang dibuat tidak hanya berfungsi untuk mengajak mereka untuk mengonsumsi fanta, tetapi juga mengajak konsumen untuk berpikir kritis. salah satu upaya jepang melestarikan sejarah dan budaya mereka, yaitu dengan menghadirkannya dalam kehidupan masyarakat, seperti dalam iklan. seperti halnya dalam iklan ini, produsen menggunakan unsur humor dan budaya masyarakat jepang. oleh sebab itu, pemahaman sejarah dan budaya jepang diperlukan untuk dapat memaknai iklan jepang yang sering dipandang tidak masuk akal. iklan ini menunjukkan peran guru sekolah di jepang yang tidak hanya bertanggung jawab dalam hal pendidikan murid-muridnya, tetapi juga berperan untuk mengontrol dan mengawasi perilaku murid-muridnya di dalam maupun di luar sekolah. selain peran guru, iklan ini juga menunjukkan bagaimana para murid menghormati gurunya dengan tidak berani membantah maupun melawan gurunya. daftar pustaka cocacola. 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(2001). education of the rising sun 21: an introduction to educatiom in japan. japan: national federation of social education. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed459513.pdf rani, a., arifin, b., & martutik. (2006). analisis wacana: sebuah kajian bahasa dalam pemakaian. malang: bayumedia. rohlen, t. p., & letendre, g. k. (eds.). (1999). teaching and learning in japan. usa: cambridge university press. roosiani, i. (2004). peranan guru dalam seito shidou pada pendidikan sekolah lanjutan tingkat pertama (sltp) jepang periode 1980-1990an (thesis). universitas indonesia. 20 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.1 may 2015 sari, g. g. (2013). analisis tanda verbal iklan smartphone ntt docomo di media televisi jepang: kajian semiotik. japanology, 2(1), 67–77. sarup, m. (2011). postrukturalisme dan posmodernisme. yogyakarta: jalasutra. shinmura, i. (2004). koujien. tokyo: iwanami shoten. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 109 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 109-114 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.915 the assessment of english teachers’ ability to write a scientific article in english ardi marwan language center of the state polytechnic of pontianak jln. a. yani, pontianak 78124, indonesia ardirini@yahoo.com received: 19th april 2016/ revised: 5th june 2016/ accepted: 4th april 2017 how to cite: marwan, a. (2017). the assessment of english teachers’ ability to write a scientific article in english. lingua cultura, 11(2), 109-114. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.21512/lc.v11i2.915 abstract this article presented results of a study investigating several english teachers’ ability to write a scientific article. this was a qualitative research with respondents of 25 english teachers who were currently pursuing the masters of education study at a university in kalimantan. the data were collected through the analysis of teachers’ articles and interviews with some of the teachers. the results reveal majority of the english teachers experienced difficulties producing articles ready to be published in good scholarly journals. lack of scientific article writing experiences or practices and teachers’ english writing competence have been the major contributors of their inability to write good articles. this study, therefore, recommends the provision of relevant professional developments for english teachers to further improve their scientific article writing competence. keywords: english teachers, scientific article, scholarly journal introduction being able to publish scientific articles to be published in scholarly journals and preferably to be well recognized international journals, is the expectation of many researchers and educators across the globe (belt, mottonen, & harkonen, 2011). according to soule (2007), there are several reasons accounting for the expectation. first, publishing an academic article or manuscript to a journal will make a person known to the peers working in the same field. second, publishing an article is also considered an effective way to disseminate knowledge or empirical data to the wider audience. third, getting the article published in good journals is also a common practice for a person wishing to pursue a career as an academic faculty in the university. like many other developing and developed nations, indonesia is now taking the issue of scholarly publication very seriously. the government, for example, is offering a quite significant amount of money (around 50 million rupiahs) through publication grant to any indonesians who could publish their article in a good international journal (e.g., isi thompson or scopus indexed). more incentives will be provided if the article appears in a high impact factor journal. prior to this policy, a similar yet lower incentive is also provided but only for lecturers of universities or other similar higher institutions (e.g., polytechnics, teacher colleges, etc.). now, everyone in the country may gain such a benefit. teachers of english, particularly, may have a greater chance to be granted the incentive since nearly all international journals accept articles written in english only. however, to date, there is little evidence about whether they have all the knowledge and skills necessary for writing a good manuscript and publishing it in an international journal. the current study, therefore, seeks to identify such evidence by assessing the knowledge and skills of english teachers to write for a scholarly journal in english. hengl and gould (2002) have borrowed the idea of o’conner and woodford (1976) point out that a scientific or research article is a technical document that describes a significant theoretical or observational extension of current knowledge, or advances in the practical application of known principles. this type of writing is, therefore, differs from the other kinds of writing, such as novel and essay. particularly, it requires a writer to apply a certain structure or style. according to perneger and hudelson (2004), the basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of introduction, methods, results, and discussion (sometimes abbreviated as imrad) (kotze, 2007). accordingly, if a person willing to get his work published in a good scholarly journal must have the ability to write well in this basic structure of a paper. as the first component of a research article, the introduction is considered as one of the most significant 110 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 109-114 sections of the paper since it provides information about the research background. in the introduction, an author should clearly state the problem and provide a reason why the study is important to be carried out (elsevier, 2005). it also needs to relate to the current knowledge as well as identify the gap in the existing literature, and one way of doing it is by explaining. “what has been done in the area and what needs to be done” (corbett, 2007; hengl & gould, 2002). the method is the next section of a research article. some journals may require a section for a literature review and several others consider unnecessary as it can be included as part of the introduction. the current study chooses not to argue on this matter since both still see the importance of literature review. the method section of an article, according to kallet (2004) provides the information by which a study’s validity is judged. therefore, it requires a clear and precise description of how a study is done and the rationale for why specific procedures are chosen. the methods section should describe what is done to answer the research question, describe how it is done, justify the selection of design, and explain how the results are analyzed. consistent with kallet, elsevier (2005) argues that there should be enough details in the method section since such information is necessary particularly for other researchers who wish to make a replication of similar research. the information can also be used to assess whether the methods justify the conclusions. then, the simple past tense is usually the tense used for this section. further, it is argued by elsevier that the appropriate authors need to explain where the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen method, how they select the subjects and how they deal with the ethical issues of the study if it involves humans. next, in the results section of the paper, as argued by hengl and gould (2002), the authors need to provide the summary of research findings and to facilitate, graphs, or tables may be used. it is not necessary to report all the results, but the focus should be on giving emphasis to the most significant findings as well as making the clear separation between theirs and others’ work. the whole idea is the results should be reported objectively, clearly, and logically (kallestinova, 2011). this is the section where authors simply report what they find, and their interpretation of the study results should be made the discussion section of the paper (elsevier, 2005). discussion sometimes can be put together with the results, making its results and discussion or with conclusion making its discussion and conclusion. further, it is suggested by elsevier (2005) that the discussion should explain how the research has moved the body of scientific knowledge forward. the conclusions must be supportable and not extend beyond the results, so avoid undue speculation and bold judgments about impact. this is also a good place to suggest practical applications for the results and to outline what the next steps in the research will be. once authors become knowledgeable with the basic structure of a scientific article, they need to develop a good understanding of another important supporting component which is abstract. according to andrade (2011), authors of a scientific article usually need to write an abstract consist of 200-250 words covering background, methods, results, and conclusion. background or introduction, as he argues, is the section in an abstract which has the fewest words (e.g., 1-3 sentences) and usually, it contains information about the intention or purpose of the study. the methods section is the part of an abstract which provides the readers the information about the research procedure. so, the information about the participants, data collection, and analysis should be included in this section. andrade (2011) points out that the results section is the most important part of the abstract and nothing should compromise its range and quality. this is because the readers who peruse an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. the results section should, therefore, be the longest part of the abstract and should contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits. finally, the conclusion is the section in which an author should carefully write since it contains the most significant message of the research that he or she wants the readers to convey. usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcome measure. however, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned (andrade, 2011). the present study aims to assess english teachers’ ability in writing good scientific articles. therefore, the research questions of this study are worded as follows; (1) how is english teachers’ scientific article writing ability? (2) having known their ability, how ready are they to write good scientific articles? there are several reasons making this study significant. indonesia seeks to enhance its educational competitiveness level in the world arena, and one effective way to achieve this ambition is through the intensification of publication of articles into well-respected scholarly journals. the ability of educators, such as english teachers to write good articles need to be identified to support the government publication intensification program. next, there is little information from empirical research regarding the ability of english teachers from indonesia to write good articles for scholarly journals. thus, the results of this research will contribute to the area which is still understudied. methods this was a qualitative research seeking to assess the scientific articles written by many english teachers. 25 english teachers who are currently pursuing the masters of education study at a university in kalimantan were invited to become the research participants. all these teachers were requested to write a research article of around 3000 to 5000 words using their own chosen topic. they were also allowed to reproduce their undergraduate thesis in the form of a short article. all the participants wrote the article as part of the requirement to pass the scientific writing and presentation course which was one of the courses offered in the masters of english education program. they were given four months to complete the task and submit the article. since this study was focused on the assessment of participants’ article writing, the main data collection tool was the document analysis. however, to understand the case better, the unstructured interview was also employed. some teachers of this study were questioned about their article writing experiences. to analyze the research articles, the table of research article section (ras), main functions, preferred style, and related rules of thumb produced by hengl and gould (2002) was used. then, to interpret the interview data, a thematic analysis strategy was used where the general themes or patterns were identified from the data. the primary data of this study were gathered through the samples of english teachers’ scientific articles. the information obtained through the interviews was also considered. 111the assessment of english teachers’ ability .... (ardi marwan) results and discussions writing an introduction of a scholarly article seems to be the most challenging task for the participants of this study. the participants, except two persons, fail to link their study with the existing research. they only concern with the practical problems which they come across in their classrooms and are unable to argue if similar cases have been identified in other contexts. the failure also makes them fail to argue about the uniqueness or newness of their study within the research arena. in other words, it is difficult to say whether the study would fill the gap in the growing body of knowledge. below are two chunks of text taken from the introduction section of the article written by the english teachers. the students of smp… especially the seventh-grade students had the difficulties in comprehending the text especially in procedure text. some of the students may find that reading comprehension activities in classroom tend to be boring. as a result, they do not enjoy the activity and as the next result, they will get nothing in their reading activities. (et1) based on the researcher’s experience in the daily teaching learning activities, writing may look difficult and complicated for the learners. they have difficulties in creating the text and developing the ideas. in every writing composition task, most of the students cannot reach the minimum passing criteria … (et2) results of this study also reveal that most of the teachers write a classroom action research article and therefore, as they argue, the problems that they chose for their study and wrote in the introduction section are the ones that are directly related to their teaching. they have no idea if research-based research problems could further improve the quality of their article. as two of them commented: i am only interested in writing an article based on the outcome of my classroom action study. first, action research helps me find the best approach to educate my students and second, the other types of research are not recognized by the ministry of education and culture. if the teachers choose other designs, their articles will be considered for their promotion purpose. (et5) i have no idea about a research-based research problem. all i know is that the research problems are the ones that i encounter in my classes. that is why, i only say the things that i experience in my own teaching. (et7) despite their inability to link their research with the existing similar studies, the participants could demonstrate a good understanding of introducing the research focus and highlighting the research purposes or objectives. nearly all of them start the first paragraph of their introduction with the general idea associated with their research focus. for example, one teacher who chooses a research title of improving students’ interest and participation in reading activities through picture word inductive model strategy starts her first introduction paragraph by writing “one of the aims of the indonesian year nine textbook is to develop students’ reading comprehension. so being knowledgeable about reading comprehension is imperative (et6).” another could write the purpose of his study quite well as he/she writes: this paper investigates the difficulties faced by the year-twelve students at school a in pontianak in improving speaking skills in practical lesson through co-teaching and to give input for more successful english learning and teaching process. especially in practical lesson at this school through co-teaching. (et8) another major problem is identified with respect to the teachers’ ability to write introduction using good english. a lot of sentences are poorly written and some of them are listed. (1) the researcher interested to know their attitude which marking the attention…. (2) the students are felt mathematic more applied when they try count money… (3) this understanding can be reach if ... (4) paper dictionary defines as a list of word… (5) there is significant different between the control and experiment group. in point 1, it is evident that the author missed ‘is’ or ‘was’ before the word ‘interested’. he also has a problem in using the right verb ‘marking’ after ‘which’. the correct verb would be ‘marks’ or ‘marked’ or simply ‘marking’ without ‘which’. in point 2, ‘are’ is not needed, so it must be deleted from the sentence. ‘mathematic’ requires s and should be written ‘mathematics’ and be ‘was’ is needed followed with ‘applied more’ and not ‘more applied’. then, the word ‘counting’ should be used after verb ‘try’. in point 3, the correct formation should be ‘can be reached’ not could be reach’. in point 4, the sentence should in passive not active voice. thus, the correct one is ‘paper dictionary is defined as’. the last point indicates that the author has no idea about the noun form of the word ‘different’. the sentence should be written ‘there is a significant difference …’ the incorrect use of tense is found to be the major barrier experienced by the participants when writing the methods section of a research article. this section is dominated using simple present tense and present future tense. since the study has been completed, past tense would have been the most proper time signal. some texts below are the evidence of the incorrect use of tenses. the participants will be 16 efl students who participated in this study. the sample technique uses cluster by lottery the two classrooms of efl students who studied in master of english degree at the first semester in a local university. a descriptive quantitative research design will be used in this study. the questionnaire will be used as the instrument for collecting data. there are two parts of the questionnaires. first, 10 questionnaires will be conducted to the students toward the perception on the use electronic dictionary. second, it also requires for the students’ perception on the use paper dictionary. these 20 items of the questionnaire will be implemented by using a likert scale format (strongly disagree to strongly agree). (et 9) the methodology of this research is descriptive qualitative. the tool for the data collection is questionnaire. the data is collected by the 112 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 109-114 spread questionnaire to 38 students in some schools nearby entikong. the participants for the questionnaire are some students from several schools. the schools are from junior high school, senior high school and college students. the participants are from multicultural background and learn english as second language. the data will be analyzed with spss. (et10) the lack of details is another problem identified in the methods section written by the participants. for example, failed to explain the type of questionnaire they use for collecting the data including whether it is adopted from another study or is constructed by them. a few of them do not manage to provide detailed information about their study sample including how they are recruited. the analysis strategy also lacks details. for instance, in their study, they use both qualitative and quantitative data collection tools, but in their analysis approach, only the quantitative analysis strategy is provided and vice versa. also, some use spss for the data analysis but do not state what statistical calculations would be incorporated in the research. the misplacement of information is also identified to be a serious problem for a few participants. for instance, in the data analysis section, they should eventually write the approaches to interpret the data. their writing proves that they report some of the study results in this section. one of the text samples is available below: the important point why midwifery students need to learn and should master in english language is that they need to prepare themselves for the future educational career. the issue of having problems in learning english language is that they do not have a habit of using the language and they also do not have a good communication with their friends or conversation partners in english language. the third participant says that english language is not in her interest and flair. it is not needed in her future profession and work. she prefers and enjoys reading materials in indonesian texts. (et11) the correct use of english grammar is found to be the participants’ obstacle too. many sentences are written with incorrect grammar. a few examples of incorrect sentences are as follows; (1) the data is collected by the spread questionnaire… (2) the researcher was used spss version 16 … (3) the depth discussion between the researcher and collaborator is… in sentence 1, the article ‘the’ should be omitted and the verb ‘spread’ must be in the form of the gerund. thus, the correct sentence is ‘the data is collected by spreading the questionnaire..’. the second sentence should be in the active form not passive, and the correct one is ‘the researcher used spss…’. then, the correct sentence for number 3 is ‘the in-depth discussion between the researcher and collaborator is …’. the participants who use structured-questionnaires in their study prefer to report the findings using the data from individual items. for instance, if the questionnaire contains 30 items, then findings are reported according to item number (i.e., 1 to 30). despite this fact, most of them could display their statistical data with graphs and tables. those who use qualitative data collection tools such as interview and observation chose to display their data using the list of interview questions. if the list has 20 questions, they use each of the questions as their guide for reporting the findings. there are also others who use interviews, but the presented data is very short leaving an impression that the interviews last very quickly. interview with the participants of this study also reveals that the lack of research taking skill and article writing experience seem to have caused their lack of understanding about how the findings could be effectively reported. one of them, for example, commented: frankly speaking, i rarely do the research. i only did it when i was writing my undergraduate thesis. this is my second opportunity to do research and my first one for writing an article. (et6) like in the previous sections, many ungrammatical sentences (see the samples below) are also identified in this part; (1) although that have 16,7% disagree to often talk in english. (2) the result of senior high school students was variously. (3) they prefer confidence talk in first language than to practice their second language skills. in sentence 1, the message that the participant wants to convey is not clear, since it only contains a sub-clause with no main clause. in the second sentence, the correct sentence could be ‘the result of senior high school students’ english exam varied’. then, in the last sample, the correct one is ‘they prefer talking in the first language to practicing their second language skills’. some of the participants choose to discuss the findings of their study by the time they are reporting them while others decided to have a different section for discussion. both conventions are acceptable in the scientific article writing. in other words, either way is correct. writing the discussion for some participants is like writing findings or results. since they often repeat some of the data which they have written in the results section. for example, one participant writes “the student 13 says ‘i feel focused to what i have learned’ in the discussion section of his article”. many of them also fail to relate the findings of their study with those of similar research so they could not say whether their findings are confirmed or rejected. regarding the conclusion, some participants manage to write a good conclusion for their research article. they could conclude their study by reintroducing readers with their study objectives and how they manage to achieve these objectives. they could also highlight some suggestions following the results of their study. however, from all the participants, only one who could highlight the limitations of his study and provide suggestions for other researchers to conduct similar studies in the future. then, many incorrect uses of grammar are also identified in this section of participants’ articles. most of the participants have a good knowledge of writing an abstract, particularly in terms of its structure (i.e., purpose, method, and results). the only major problem they have with abstract writing is concerning the use of correct english and grammar. below is the sample of abstract written by one of the study participants (the underlined words are the samples of incorrect grammar). this study investigates the effectiveness of jigsaw reading in improving the students’ reading comprehension. this study has done in one of public junior high schools in a rural area with the limitation of reading resources. the data 113the assessment of english teachers’ ability .... (ardi marwan) have collected through test and non-test. the data from the test was collected twice, after the first cycle and after the second cycle. then, the researcher compared the result of the students’ achievement. for non-test data, the interview was used to draw the students’ opinion towards the learning process through the jigsaw reading. based on the result of the students score and students’ opinion towards the learning process, the researcher concluded that the jigsaw reading can make the learning process more interesting and gain higher students’ participation in learning. it also improves the students’ reading comprehension. the students’ mean score of the first cycle is 54,53 categorized as less sufficient, and the mean score of the second cycle is 67,19 categorized as sufficient. since 67,19 is bigger than 54,53, it means that there is improvement of students’ achievement from the first to the second cycle. (et13) the purposes of the current study are to examine the english teachers’ ability to write good scientific articles and to identify their readiness to publish in scholarly journals. the results of the study prove that most of the teachers have problems with nearly all the sections of the article. a big part of the problem is due to their unfamiliarity with the scientific article writing, and a small part of it is because of their english writing competence. for the introduction writing, the english teachers of this study or english teachers nationwide, in general, need to be trained and well-informed about how a good introduction of a scientific article should be written. more particularly, there should be a justification about how their study will contribute to the existing knowledge and literature or fill in the research gap. below is an example of a good identification of research gap in an introduction section. most of these previous studies, however, are focused on the influence of specific factors, such as the relationship between the teachers’ integration of technology and their beliefs, attitudes, and professional development. the findings of these narrowly focused studies tend to offer insights into specific problems rather than take a holistic approach that encompasses the complex challenges faced by an institution to successfully integrate technology to enhance learning and teaching. this study, therefore, contributes to addressing the gap in the research by investigating multiple major factors influencing the technology integration in indonesian polytechnic (marwan & sweeney, 2010). for the methods section, there should be an explanation about the strengths and weaknesses of the selected method as well as an information about sample selection and ethical matters (elsevier, 2005). this research suggests that the participants failed to provide such information. the following is an example of a methods section which participants can use as a model. the research was conducted at the khatulistiwa polytechnic. the institution was selected because … the research participants were 10 teachers from the institution (three males and seven females). the teachers were selected because it was a manageable group for conducting an indepth investigation. to recruit these teachers, the writer used snowball sampling technique. the snowball technique involves expanding the sample by asking one participant to recommend the others. patton (1990), however, reminds us that despite its strength (i.e., for collecting rich information), this technique is prone to be bias. to minimize this problem, the participant was requested to strictly refer to the criteria set by the researchers. the study employed a semistructured interview as the instrument for the data collection. this approach was selected because … the data (interview transcripts) were analyzed by creating codes according to the key themes based on the literature and emerging themes (marwan & sweeney, 2010). then, as the data of this study suggested, the results section is also not well written. thus, the english teachers need to be taught about how the results of a study should be reported. hengl and gould (2002) have made this clear that it is unnecessary to report all the results but just inform the most important ones. however, saying it is not as easy as doing it especially for beginner authors. as such, relevant training should be available for the english teachers. the writing of discussion, conclusion, and abstract is also still a problem for the english teachers of this study. therefore, it is not questionable that they are in a great need of professional development on scientific article writing. finally, the issue of good english writing also seems to be very crucial because, without good english, it is almost unlikely that the teachers can get their papers accepted for publication in good scholarly journals. as such, they also need to be supported to enhance their english writing ability. these latter findings also suggest the need to ensure the quality of english education programs. these programs must be well-controlled in that they should produce english teachers who particularly have good english skills. in short, they should emphasize the improvement of english skills (saukah, 2003). conclusions to conclude, the current research managed to identify the english teachers’ ability to write scientific articles. overall, it argues that these teachers can be an excellent author. if necessary professional developments are continuously provided for them. like many other studies, this study also has a limitation. it involves only a small number of english teachers. thus, the results might not be generalized. the future large-scale study is, therefore, a necessity. references andrade, c. (2011). how to write a good abstract for a scientific 000000 paper or conference presentation. indian journal of psychiatry, 53(2), 172-175. belt, p., mottonen, m., & harkonen, j. (2011). tips for writing scientific journal articles. oulu: university of oulu. corbett, j. (2007). writing the introduction and conclusion of a scholarly article. in d. p. j. soule, l. whiteley 114 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 109-114 & s. mcintosh (eds.), writing for scholarly journals: publishing in the arts, humanities and social sciences. glasgow: university of glasgow/esharp. elsevier. (2005). understanding the publishing process: how to publish in scholarly journals. amsterdam: elsevier. hengl, t., & gould, m. (2002). rules of thumb for writing research articles. retrieved on february 10th, 2016 from https://www.itc.nl/library/papers/hengl_rules. pdf . kallestinova, e. d. (2011). how to write your first research paper. yale journal of biology and medicine, 84(3), 181-190. kallet, r. h. (2004). how to write the methods section of a research paper. respiratory care 2004, 49(10), 1229–1232. kotze, t. (2007). guidelines on writing a first quantitative academic article. pretoria: university of pretoria. marwan, a., & sweeney, t. (2010). teachers’ perceptions of educational technology integration in an indonesian polytechnic. asia pacific journal of education, 30(4), 463-476. perneger, t. v., & hudelson, p. m. (2004). writing a research article: advice to beginners. international journal for quality in health care, 16(3), 191-192. saukah, a. (2003). pengajaran bahasa inggris di indonesia: tinjauan terhadap unjuk kerja pembelajar serta upaya peningkatannya. malang: universitas negeri malang. soule, d. (2007). introducing writing for scholarly journals. in d. soule, l. whiteley & s. mcintosh (eds.), writing for scholarly journals: publishing in the arts, humanities and social sciences. glasgow: university of glasgow/esharp. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 83 introduction role play, trent (2009) has conveyed that it is the main important technique as it gives students a lot of prospects to practice communicating of various social contexts and in different social roles. to avoid the disadvantages of using role play technique, there are some ways to minimize the disadvantages needed to be deliberated. these issues relate to four main phases of a role-playing, namely: preparing, briefing, running and reflecting (hartmann, et al., 2008). role play is a technique in english teaching in which students learn about an imaginary situation or role in order to develop the students’ fluency. besides, role play in the classroom involves students actively in the learning process by enabling them to act as stakeholders in an imagined or real scenario. in addition, teed (2009) has mentioned that role play instruction requires good preparation and management. role play is used as a technique for teaching insight and empathy competence (blatner, 2005). he further defines role play, a derivative of a playing role, as a technique for exploring the issues involved in complex social situations. correspondingly, osborn, et al. (2008) has asserted that in communication, role play is a communicative technique developing fluency in people’ speaking. findings of a number of previous studies suggest that role play improved students’ speaking skill and english teachers’ pronunciation (e.g. hartmann, et al., 2008; qing, 2011; westrup & planander, 2013). dealing with the previous studies of role play technique, the researcher conducted this research based on the journal published on cross culture communication by qing (2011). this articleis about role play as an effective technique to develop overall communicative competence. it further explains the details of role play activity from the teacher’s side and the students’. moreover, this article also reveals benefit of using role play in enhancing speaking ability. into the bargain, westrup and planander (2013) uphold that role play ran well in the classroom and the students perceived toward the implementation of role play technique in the classroom. this article mostly discusses the impacts of role play for students. however, the researcher found yet no research discussing the perception by efl english teacher and students towards role play technique in teaching speaking in aceh, therefore this study would fill in this gap. to effectively unfold the advantages of role-play, some critical design issues need to be taken into account. these issues are related to four main phases of a roleplay, namely: preparing, briefing, running and reflecting lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 83-88 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.941 setting sight on role playing: to accommodate or to repudiate? ika apriani fata1; usman kasim2; dwi juniyana3 1,2,3department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, university of syiah kuala jln. krueng kale no. 21, darussalam, banda aceh, aceh, 23111 1ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 30th august 2016/ accepted: 10th september 2016 how to cite: fata, i. a., kasim, u., & juniyana, d. (2016). setting sight on role playing: to accommodate or to repudiate? lingua cultura, 10(2). 83-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.941 abstract to set sight on role play by means to look at efl teacher’s experience and students’ perspectives of role play (rp) technique enactment in teaching speaking by using qualitative design. this research was a qualitative study. it was discharged at a senior high school in banda aceh, indonesia. it provided work for the instrument of observation sheet, field notes and interview guide, and also questionnaire. the methodology designated the combination of four mountainsides to expose indepth the urgency of role play in which applied since 1936. the result of interview was exposed that the english teacher claimed that role play was a technique applied to promote speaking and it was corroborated by the result of field note. likewise, regarding students’ perspective depicted that the students indeed agreed on themselves of the usefulness of role play to enhance their speaking skill and motivation. thus, students asserted that the learning was more fun and enjoyable through role play itself. it is merely found in this research study that role playing can accommodate students’ need and teacher’s side in english language teaching. nevertheless, this article applies a small subject as the participant. therefore, the researchers recommended to have a deep look at reasoning students’ point of view in terms of role play technique implementation in nonenglish class. and see ascertains how beneficial it is in terms of role play (rp) in a large classroom. keywords: students’ perspective, efl, role play, communication skill 84 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 83-88 (hartmann, et al., 2008). several possible constraints should be considered when implementing a role play into a course. first, the classroom should be suitable (e.g. movable furniture); second, there should be enough time available particularly for the feedback at the end. currently, the time which needed to implement role play technique is one hour lesson; it is counted 40 minutes. third, the teacher should provide the situation which would like to do. the last, the teacher divides the students into a group. an essential part of each role play was the briefing of the actors about the situation and the characteristics of their role (boonkit, 2010). this phase is placed in whilst activity of implementing role-play technique. for this purpose, the role scenario and role description had to be scripted. the role scenario set the background of a particular problem and the associated constraints. running is also placed in whilst activity of role play technique implementation. there are several forms of running a role play which form is chosen depends on the objectives of the role-play and the extent to which students are involved (westrup & planader, 2013). in a single role play, for example, a few students are performed while being observed by the class, whereas in a multiple role play groups of students are simultaneously active. an advantage of the former is that the whole group could share and discuss its observations, while the latter creates an environment where the students feel less embarrassed and exposed. the teacher fulfills different functions during a role play. the most important activity in role play is reflecting. this is the post-activity of implementing role-play technique. during reflection, students step back and discuss what happened in the role play, identify the reasons for the observed behavior and outcomes as well as drew conclusions for improvements. by doing so, students should be able to relate their observations to other parts of the course. thus, the links with previous and further teaching should be pointed out. reflection could be achieved by posing questions verbally discussed in the classroom or answered in written documents. if possible, reflection should be placed immediately after the role play, so that students are able to recall their behavior and observations. additionally, the time needed for reflection should not be underestimated, since role play usually produces a lot of discussion material. speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous used of some different abilities, which often develop at the different rates. either four or five components are generally recognized in analyzing the speech process (fata, 2014). likewise, speaking component provides an appropriate feedback in order to inform them whether their speaking is good enough or need to be increased. then, it combines speaking with pronunciation and reading (nurani & rosyada, 2015). finally, it is incorporated into the teaching of speech acts in teaching speaking. songsiri (2007) has mentioned that teaching speaking is developed to teach learners to (a) produce the english speech sounds and sound patterns as confirmed by qing (2011). (b) use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language as supported by fata (2014). (c) select appropriate words and sentences in regard to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter. (d) organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence. (e) use language as a means of expressing values and judgments. (f) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. methods this research was a qualitative study. it was discharged at a senior high school in banda aceh, indonesia. at first, the researcher appointed five of role play english teachers, however only one of them agreed to be interviewed. thus, the subject of this research was one of english teacher, and she eventually had more than twelve years of experience of teaching english and practicing role play technique frequently in teaching speaking. thus, she qualified for the subject of this research. as the respondent, the first time the authors distributed questionnaire of more than 50 sheets, however only 28 students gave it back. in the interim, the object of this research was the students’ insights of the implementation of role play technique and implementation of role play technique itself. the researcher obtained data starting point from the observation sheet adapted from boonkit (2010), field notes adapted from marshall and rossman (2006), and interview guide also questionnaire adapted from islami & islami (2012). results and discussions through observation, the researcher was surprised by the result that the teacher applied almost all of the role play’s phases in teaching and learning speaking process, which was preparing, briefing, running, and reflecting phase. however, there were five points in number 4, 7, 13, 19, and 20 of observation sheet that the teacher modified the role-play technique. (e1): the teacher should consider the class is suitable for movement. and the teacher checks the condition of the classroom whether the chairs and tables are suitable for the movement or not. this finding accommodates the statement of savage and savage (2010) which stated that classroom management is much more than that, on the other hand, it also involves the establishment and maintenance of the classroom environment so that educational goals could be accomplished. likewise, tak and shing (2008) have delineated classroom management as teacher’s steering and coordinating the complex environment for the purpose of effective learning and teaching. actually, the classroom is movable, so the students can move their chairs and tables while grouping, discussing, and performing. however, the teacher makes paired the students who sat next to each other, so they do not move around. for that reason, the teacher does not change the seat. apparently, the implementation of seating management of role playing is not applied by english teacher. our finding is on the contrary of tak and shing (2008) in which mentioned that role playing considered the importance of movement and seating regulation in role playing. however, the english teacher committed is not to do it accordingly. the seating regulation itself consists of horizontal rows, vertical rows, circles, and long tables which serve different purposes. (e2): the teacher asks the students to prepare the properties for the role-play. as the teacher has requested that the students have to prepare all the things they need. this finding supported the theory of cole (2008) which stated that it is the teacher’s role to provide effective plans or strategies in accomplishing students’ educational needs, whose general purpose is to communicate using the 85setting sight on role playing: .... (ika apriani fata, et al.) language being learned. these imply that it is teacher’s responsibility to make students speak english by employing suitable teaching strategies of speaking. the teacher asks the students to perform unscripted role play. meanwhile, the teacher plans to perform role play technique in order to increase the students’ capabilities in speaking english. therefore, english teacher does not ask the students to prepare the properties. (e3): the teacher assigned what role should be played by which student. the teacher divides the role for each student. this result is in line with jones (2007) who reveals that a student-centered classroom is a place where the teachers consider the needs of the students, as a group and as individuals. besides, the role play encouraged students to participate in the learning process all the time as supported by ningsih and fata (2015). the teacher’s role is more than that of a facilitator. for this statement, there is a different perspective from both the teacher and students. the english teacher does not divide the role for each student; she gives the free role in choosing with their peer-learning. however, the students feel happy to choose the role by themselves without any commands from their teacher. it is supported that these activities are learner-centered. learners work independently, and the teacher is not at the center of attention, she could stand back and listened more actively. (e4): the teacher asks the students to relate the activity to other part of the course. after practicing the role, the teacher asks the students to relate their comprehension about what they did with other aspects. this data supports the theory of blatner (2005) who devotes to role play instruction requires good preparation and management. the teacher skips this statement since she had already done a similar one in advanced. in the point 15 reflects that the teacher tells the students to ask her about what they do not comprehend on. what is more, she tells them to reflect on other aspects when they create the dialogue. the researcher concludes that the teacher skips for the same reason of the statement in order to limit the using of time. (e5): the teacher asks for the students’ comment or opinion about what happened in the role play. -the teacher encourages the students to speak to give their comment or opinions about what they have done. in fact, giving the opinion as found in data is basically in line with islami and islami (2012) stating that role play is a communicative technique developing fluency in students’ speaking. therefore, the teacher also skips this point. in point 21, the students are asked to summarize the play and learning. this leads to an assumption that the teacher tells them once to do the similar action. when the students conclude the result of the learning process, the students also give their opinions and comments; hence to reduce the repetition the teacher skips the point. based on the observation, the researcher found that the students performed their role play in front of the class without any written dialogue in their hands. subsequently, the students are capable of speaking english fluently without any created dialogue. thus, the researcher concluded that the students get a headed of performing the role play. in the list of the interview question adapted from islami & islami (2012), the english teacher explained how she implemented role-play technique. according to the teacher’s answer from the interview, she explained to the students the condition before running the activity. as similar, she gave the condition before assigning the role play. (e4): question: did you discuss the situations with the learners before assigning role play to them? teacher’s answer: i told them that we were going to play the role. blatner (2005) has defined role play as a derivative of a playing role, a technique of exploration of the issues involved in complex social situations. therefore english teacher gives the condition or the topic which would be discussed. this is a must for her to tell the students in order to make them understand and make the lesson done well. for a reason, as the english teacher realizes that telling the students what they are going to do and explaining the condition or the topic for the students prior to the assigning role-play technique are important. thus the english teacher performed the role-play technique. the english teacher applies unscripted role play technique for students. she tells the students to create their own dialogue to perform their role. (e5): question: who does prepare the dialogue for the students? teacher’s answer: i tell them to make the dialogue. this result is in line with the statement of chotirat (2010), unscripted ones are mainly concerned with preparing what to say, thus helping them noticeably improve their vocabulary or word choice. additionally, unscripted role play provides students more opportunity to practice holistic features of language use in naturally occurring conversations. unscripted role plays are very useful to increase their capabilities in speaking. they are active to think and create a good dialogue for their performance. thus, the teacher is implemented unscripted role play for the students in learning speaking english. likewise, the main point to support the researcher’s data, the teacher tells the researcher there are some steps in applying role play technique in teaching speaking. (e6): question: did you set some main phases or steps when spread on the role play technique? teacher’s answer: there were some steps of applying role play technique. hartmann, et al. (2008) have revealed that in order to make the role play run effectively, some main phases are provided to help unfold the negative way, namely: preparing, briefing, running, and reflecting. as the result, the teacher told the researcher that she started role play from the beginning until the end had some phases to do of role play procedure itself. the students’ responses in the implementation of role play technique are great. the positive atmosphere happens in the classroom by doing this activity. according to huang (2008), compared to other techniques, role play seems to be the most interesting one for the students. in role play, the students act or pretend to be someone else in the actual world situation that is brought into the classroom. (e7): question: how was the students’ response in implementation of role play technique? teacher’s answer: they had positive response for the role play in learning speaking. 86 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 83-88 this data supported by jones (2007) in which claim that role play creates the positive learning atmosphere in class, it also encourages cooperation between learners. the language produced here is more natural and authentic. the teacher said that the students seem really enthusiastic to learn speaking english by using role-play technique. by implementing role play, the students have peer learning or group to do the task; also they are highly motivated to talk with peer themselves. finally, the teacher elaborates that there is a great influence on students’ abilities in speaking english by using role-play technique. (e8): question: what great influence did you get by applying role play technique? teacher’s answer: actually the implementation of role play technique was great so the students speak actively. harmer (2007) explained that role play could be used to encourage general oral fluency or to train students for specific situations. the english teacher elaborated to us that the students could directly use the expression depending on the condition they played. so, this finding supported harmer (2007) which students are actively engaged during role playing. the students can communicate better, enjoy the learning speaking process, and feel the comfort through the lesson because the activity is playing the role. moreover, the students looked active and confident to speak english. the field notes guideline is adapted from marshall and rossman (2006). prior to the start of applying role play technique, the teacher reviews the lesson taught in the previous meeting. the teacher asks the questions and tells the students who wanted to answer to raise their hands. in this stage, the students seem enthusiastic and active to respond the teacher’s questions. some of the students try to answer by raising their hands; they give the correct answer for the teacher’s questions. it helps them to be brave to speak and overcome their nervousness. the english teacher provides some pictures and dialogues for example before starting the role play activity. then, she asks the students to learn the picture. the students are actively learning the picture, and they start to give their opinions about it. the teacher writes it down in order to make it easier for students to remain. the first picture is about trading in a traditional market. from those materials, the students can brainstorm and give their opinions. it trains them to be talkative in the classroom. five minutes later, the teacher asks the students to brainstorm the topic relates to the use of expression and offering help of the languages features of the role play performance. the teacher helps the students by showing the common words or expressions used in offering help and services. then the teacher shows the created dialogue and asks the students to think about where the dialogue took place. additionally, the students answer the question based on the dialogue; where it happens and what expressions are used in the dialogue. then, the english teacher asks them to differentiate between expression in offering help, services or things. budden (2006) has asserted that when role playing is included in the lessons regularly, the learners are given a chance to rehearse their english in a safe environment. in such time, the teacher starts to perform role-play technique. the students create the dialogue by asking their friends, not only to their partner but also to other groups. sometimes the students also come to the front and ask the teacher what they do not know. the students often ask the teacher about what is the most appropriate word that can be used to convey the ideas to their friends. huang (2008) has stated that role play is a really worthwhile learning experience for both the students and the teacher. the teacher plays her role as a facilitator to the students in the teaching and learning process. in case there are too many students who asks her about the meaning of the words, the teacher orders them to look up in the dictionary. the english teacher walks around and checks the students’ work, sometimes she asks the students that have already finished their task or not. the teacher always strives to help them even though it is still hard for the teacher to control the whole class at that time. in accordance with the time which is set, then the teacher asks them to practice their work in front of the classroom, even though the students make the short dialogue but the teacher is pleased that the students are confident to practice in front of the class. trent (2009) has stated that role play is a primary technique to provide participation and involvement in the learning process. in a training environment, role play is allowed the learner to receive objective feedback about one’s performance. during the practicing time, the students show their positive enthusiasm in performing their own role. they still strive to do their best to play their role and do the best performance although they know very a few of vocabulary. all of the students get the chance to practice in front of the class, and the teacher highly appreciates their work. the teacher appreciates them by saying such as “you did a great job”, “well done”, and “your performance is splendid”. the data for students’ responses toward the implementation of role play technique are obtained from the questionnaire. the questionnaire is delivered to all of students in the class; the total of the students are 28 students (n=28). the questionnaire results can be seen in table 1. table 1 questionnaire result items no score respondent n=28 mean sa a n da sd q1 20 8 14 q2 12 16 14 q3 18 10 14 q4 10 15 3 9,33333 q5 10 18 14 q6 14 13 1 9,33333 q7 15 13 14 q8 12 16 14 q9 21 7 14 q10 10 1 8 9 7 q11 22 6 14 q12 19 9 14 q13 20 8 14 q14 11 17 14 q15 21 7 14 q16 14 12 2 9,33333 q17 23 5 14 source: islami & islami (2012) 87setting sight on role playing: .... (ika apriani fata, et al.) as evidenced in table 1, q10 (m=7), “role play gives a scope to show innovation” is the least often mentioned that show students’ have a slight idea on how role play bridge the innovation in the classroom of teaching speaking. it is also can be concluded that students require further teacher’s creativity to set the role play, either scripted or unscripted, towards the learning process itself. on the other hand, there are almost half of the students or there are 43% (n= 12) of students for example q17 (m=14), “role play improves motivation to practice to speak english” who strongly agree with the statement given of the questionnaires. besides, more than half of the students or 57% (n=16) of students such as q14 (m=14), “role play reduces shyness” agree with the statement given. likewise, in average, the students agree with the statement because teacher’s feedback turns out helped them in making the improvement. trent (2009) has asserted that role playing is a primary technique to provide participation and involvement in the learning process. in a training environment, role playing allows the learner to receive objective feedback about one’s performance. by doing role play technique, the students can increase their vocabulary. the students respond well toward this statement. the data shows that almost all of the students or 75% of students strongly agree with the statement. the rest of the students or 25% of students agree with this statement. while for other options which are neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree, no one chose these options. there is no doubt to say that role play helps them to increase vocabulary. by practicing and gaining courage from the teacher, they would speak and use varied of vocabulary in their activity. discussing on motivation, yu-mei (2009) has asserted that motivation is one of the several important factors that may influence students’ english achievement. motivation is a very important factor which determined the success or failure in foreign language learning because it could directly influence the frequency of using learning strategies, will power of learning, goal setting, and the achievement in learning (li & pan, 2009). dealing with students’ responses were splendid itself. it reflects in the questionnaires’ answer which is responded strongly agree and agrees in almost items. although there are some items which have various answers from the students, it does not give the big impact for the result. the students are enthusiastic, highly-motivated, and created the positive atmosphere in the classroom. the implementation of role play technique by english teacher in teaching speaking is successful. the teacher implements role play technique by doing some steps; preparing, briefing, running and reflecting which is in line with hartmann, et al. (2008). although there are some steps skipped by the teacher, result of the implementation of role play technique is done well. additionally, the teacher implements unscripted role play by following the structured steps. the teacher is well-managed in applying role play technique in the classroom. conclusions in the context of libyan and india efl learners, role play is claimed successfully accommodated the english speaking skill. it is in agreement of aceh (indonesia) framework, among four instruments applied, it is concluded that students’ perspective and teacher’s effort show the significant of role play of teaching speaking even though seating management is not the teacher’s concern. it is based on consideration that the students might speak to the students sit near to them. likewise, seating management is considered of role play implementation. however, this research applies a small research subject and respondents, therefore, it cannot be generalized to all level of students. it is best suggested as further work to bring into play the larger setting of respondents and study non-english class implementation. references blatner, a. (2005). using role playing in teaching empathy. british journal of psychodrama & sociodrama, 20(1), 31–36. boonkit, k. (2010). enhancing the development of speaking skills for non-native speakers of english. proceedia social and behavioral sciences, 2, 1305–1309. budden, j. (2006). role play. london: bbc press. chotirat, s. (2010). oral performance in scripted and non-scripted role play activities: a study of repair organization in english conversation of thai college students. songkla: prince of songkla university. cole, r. w. (2008). educating everybody’s children: diverse teaching strategies for diverse students. virginia: association for supervision and curriculum development (ascd). fata, i. a. (2014). is my stress right or wrong? studying the production of stress by non-native speaking teachers of english. studies in english language and education, 1(1), 64–74. harmer, j. (2007). the practice of english language teaching (4th edition). new york: pearson longman. hartmann, a., doree, a., & martin, l. (2008). a role play approach for teaching research methodology in construction management. in ’in: dainty, a (ed) proceedings 24th annual arcom conference (pp.334–346). cardiff, uk: association of researchers in construction management. huang, i. y. (2008). role play for esl/efl children in the english classroom. london: kogan page. islami, p., & islami, t. (2012). effectiveness of role play in enhancing the speaking skills of the learners in a large classroom: an investigation of tertiary level students. stamford journal of english, 7(1), 218–233. jones, l. (2007). the student-centered classroom. new york: cambridge university press. li, p., & pan, g. (2009). the relationship between motivation and achievement – a survey of the study motivation of english majors in qingdao agricultural university. english language teaching, 2(1), 123–128. marshall, c., & rossman, g. b. (2006). designing qualitative research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. ningsih, s. r., & fata, i. a. (2015). exploring teachers’ beliefs and the teaching profession in aceh. studies in english language and education, 2(1), 67–78. nurani, s., & rosyada, a. (2015). improving english pronunciation of adult esl learners through reading aloud assessments. lingua cultura, 9(2), 108–113. osborn, s., osborn, m., & osborn, r. (2008). public 88 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 83-88 speaking guidebook. boston: pearson. qing, x. (2011). role play-an effective approach to developing overall communicative competence. cross culture communication, 7(4), 36–39. http:// doi.org/10.3968/j.ccc.1923670020110704.317 savage, t. v., & savage, m. k. (2010). classroom management and discipline resources.’ in: curwin, r. l., and mendler, a. n., (eds) classroom management, ascd. thousand oaks, ca: sage. songsiri, m. (2007). an action research study of promoting students’ confidence in speaking english. (dissertation of doctor of education degree),victoria university, australia. retrieved from eprints.vu.edu.au/1492/1/songsiri.pdf tak, m. h., & shing, w. l. (2008). classroom management: creating a positive learning environment. hongkong: hongkong university press. teed, r. (2009). role playing exercises. canada: alberta education. trent, j. (2009). enhancing oral participation across the curriculum: some lessons from the eap classroom. asian efl journal, 11(1), 256-270. westrup, u., & planander, a. (2013). role play as a pedagogical method to prepare students for practice : the students’ voice. hogre utbildning, 3(3), 199– 210. yu-mei, l. (2009). on motivation and college english learning. sino-us english teaching, 6(1), 57–65. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 91 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 91-96 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.924 how a betawinese family implement politeness in their daily conversation triana salihah1; menik winiharti2 1,2english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, indonesia 1menikwiniharti@yahoo.com received: 18th april 2016/ revised: 4th may 2017/ accepted: 7th august 2017 how to cite: salihah, t. & miniharti, m. (2017). how a betawinese family implement politeness in their daily conversation. lingua cultura, 11(2), 91-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.924 abstract this research was aimed at finding the politeness strategies used by the members of a betawinese family in their daily conversation. it was also conducted to describe the extent to which the family members apply politeness in everyday conversation. the data were collected from a betawinese family that was consisting of six members, who still speak the betawi language in their daily lives. the observation toward the family was conducted and recorded whenever they spoke to each other. the data were then analyzed based on each speaker and addressee in applying the politeness strategy. the result shows that there are four politeness strategies used: bald on record, off record, positive politeness, and negative politeness. the speakers who have a higher status in the family potentially threaten the ‘face’ of the hearers with a lower status. this research also finds that the selection of politeness strategies is determined by two factors; (1) the status of the family members within the family itself, and (2) the intensity of inter-speaker meeting. moreover, it is proven that a betawinese family applies certain politeness strategies in their daily conversation. keywords: politeness strategy, family member, family status, conversation introduction every language has several entities that may not be owned by other languages. that is why it is special and unique. the uniqueness of a certain language is strongly influenced by the culture of the native speakers, i.e., people who speak the language. moreover, the manner in a conversation that is shown by speakers is an important thing to be considered. in this case, people who are involved in an interaction, indirectly create some norms and principles that arise in the community as their politeness standards (yule, 1996). thus, there is no doubt that language expresses the speaker’s identity. sukma (2014) has suggested that the government of indonesia has supported the use and function of local languages, along with the indonesian language. their existence is guaranteed by the constitution of the republic of indonesia. cohn et al. (2014) have also stated that hundreds of distinct languages have been used as native languages throughout the archipelago and that multilingualism has been the norm. a local language in indonesia that still exists today is betawinese, which is almost as old as the name of the area where the language was developed, i.e., jakarta. grijns (1991) has stated that besides local indonesian languages, such as javanese and sundanese, betawi malay is one of the most important everyday languages that is spoken in jakarta. the language is a language of an intergroup society that is concerned with diglossia; the use of malay-jakarta which is limited according to the situation. the name of betawi itself is derived from batavia, a dutch colonial city during indonesia’s colonial era. in the present days, the name involves the people who originally inhabit jakarta area, the culture, tradition, and certainly the language. betawi language, as sugiharto (2008) has stated, is one of the most widely-spoken among an estimated number of 746 indigenous languages in indonesia. it is listed as one of indonesia’s active local languages, spoken by around 2,7 million people in the greater area of jakarta. in addition, those who have lived in jakarta for quite a long time are familiar with the language. thus, the use of this language is no longer limited to those who are natively betawinese. in terms of linguistics, muhadjir (2000) has pointed out that the most prominent difference between betawi language with other malay language is the number of vowel è, such as apè, adè, and ayè. the sound è (pepet) which is used with consonants in the final syllables is also frequently used, such as in dateng, bekel, and bareng. when indonesian language is used, there is a very distinctive characteristic, i.e. replacing the prefix mewith nasal ngsuch as ngambil 92 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 91-96 for mengambil (take), and ngambek for marah (mad). sahara (2014) also has pointed out that betawinese people show a characteristic by changing the phonemes /a/ into /e/, /u/ into /o/, /o/ into /u/; as in apa into ape, rabu into rebo, and mobil into mubil. the emphasis of suffix /e/ in betawinese causes the language to be heard more loudly or sharply. people (usually from other ethnics) who are either unfamiliar with betawi ethnic and language or rarely hear conversations in betawinese, usually assume that the betawi language is rude. in fact, it is only due to a simplistic view on their pronouns which are identical with elu (you) and gue (me) that may make the language seem rude. within this context, cohn & ravindranath (2014) has suggested that although indonesians often use the terms kasar (rude) and sopan (polite) to refer to informal and formal diction respectively, it is not likely to associate informally with rude and formal with polite. filia (2012) has found that there are three phonological variants of indonesian phatic particles used in betawi dialect: yak, ye, and si. the rising intonation tends to be used at the end of the utterance. moreover, turn-taking is identified with high intonation. however, the tendency to use high intonation cannot be interpreted as a lower level of politeness. she adds that according to the informants, there is a misperception that the high tone shows annoyance or anger. therefore, in terms of politeness, the rising intonation that is usually found in the betawi language does not always mean that the speaker is impolite. fahrizal (2001) has found that in the scope of a family, the betawi language is generally still very communicative. he reveals that in a betawinese family, the use of betawi language among adults and children is still considerably frequent. this is mainly due to the participants having a family relationship. he also discovers that the communication between siblings in a betawinese family is basically equal, but those who are older may feel entitled to certain rights over their younger siblings. they rule the younger and have the rights to speak more loudly, even to the point of sounding rude. unfortunately, not all younger siblings have the courage to respond toward the arrogance of their older siblings. he concludes that in terms of the norm of interpretation, the use of betawi language within a family in a formal conversation is considered normal and does not show rudeness (fahrizal, 2001). this research explores the language used in a betawinese family. it discusses the way the family communicates to each other, in terms of the politeness strategies that they use in daily conversations. the aims are to find these politeness strategies and to describe the extent to which the family members apply politeness in everyday conversation. therefore, this research functions to provide valuable inputs on whether a betawinese, who are often judged as sounding rude, applies certain politeness strategies in their everyday conversation. it is also to provide additional knowledge that people are speaking a local language also apply politeness strategies. according to yule (1996), politeness is showing awareness of another person’s face; it is related to social distance or closeness. brown & levinson in watts (2003) has argued that each member of a society is endowed with the face, which is the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself. thus, any human interaction will always be potentially threatening to the hearer’s face. so, it is in the best interest of each speaker to protect the other’s face by softening or avoiding the impact of facethreatening acts (fta) – acts that infringe on the hearer’s need to maintain his/her self-esteem, and to be respected. politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with these ftas. there are four politeness strategies as proposed by brown & levinson in watts (2003). they are bald on record, off record, positive politeness, and negative politeness. bald on record strategy provides no effort by speakers to reduce the impact of the ftas. it will rather shock the hearers and embarrass them, or make them feel a bit uncomfortable, for example: (a) give me a pen, and (b) lend me your pen. another choice of words to reduce the severity of fta done by the speaker is by mitigating devices such as ‘would you?’ and ‘please’. the mitigating devices will be appropriate in the words of direct command or imperative because they are used by people who have a high solidarity (yule, 1996). in off record strategy, the speakers express their desire indirectly. they might be using a statement as a hint for the hearers, for example (a) uh, i forgot my pen, and (b) hmm, i wonder where i put my pen. the positive politeness strategy is used to minimize the distance between the speakers and hearers by expressing friendliness and solid interest in the hearer’s need to be respected (minimizing the fta). the examples for this strategy are (a) how about letting me use your pen?; and (b) hi buddy, i’d appreciate it if you’d let me use your pen. the next strategy is negative politeness. the main focus for using this strategy is to assume that you may be imposing on the hearer, and intruding on his space. for example: (a) i’m sorry to bother you, but can i ask you for a pen or something?; and (b) i know you’re busy, but might i ask you if-em-if you happen to have an extra pen that i could, you know-eh-maybe borrow? holmes (2008) has pointed out that social relationships among people in the society are based on some rules, values, etiquette, etc. in communication, for instance, people are ordered by rules (of speaking), they are guided by values (of how to behave in a good manner) that can be conducted through etiquette (of using a language). this means that one has to apply regulation in using the language. moreover, in using a language, someone has to consider to whom he/she speaks. by doing that, he/she will determine what language or its varieties he/she wants to use to speak. according to holmes (2008), the consideration is not only based on to whom he/she speaks, but also when or where he/she speaks. in other words, the language speaker will consider the setting of time and place. furthermore, the language used is determined by social dimensions, which are social distance scale (how well the interlocutors know each other), a status scale (high-low status in social life; superior-subordinate status), a formality scale (formalinformal; high-low formality), and the functional scale (the purpose or topic of an interaction) (holmes, 2008). methods the data of the research were a betawinese family from pondok aren, tangerang, which is an area in the west of jakarta. the family still uses betawi language in their daily conversation. there are six family members to be observed; father (52 years old), mother (45 years old), three daughters (26, 20, and 15 years old each), and a son (17 years old). for this research, the data were collected from april 3, 2014, until april 9, 2014, by observing and monitoring the family members when they talk to each other. the 93how a betawinese family .... (triana salihah; menik winiharti) conversations on the special event (indonesian general election) involving their big family is also observed. the observation focuses on politeness strategies used by each member of the family in their daily conversation. the conversation observed includes the language that is used among the speakers, as parents to children, children to parents, wife to husband, husband to wife as well as the conversation between the children themselves. the observation or monitoring is conducted for one week inside the house of the family. after the data are collected, the utterances are selected based on the politeness strategies that are used by the family members. the data are then analyzed based on the conversations that happened between parents and children, wife and husband, as well as the conversation between the children. the theory used for the analysis is mainly of politeness strategies that is proposed by brown & levinson in watts (2003). the use of each type of politeness strategies is analyzed based on the interlocutors (speaker and addressee), their status within the family, the topic, and the situation. for each member of the family, the reason for using certain politeness strategies is also analyzed. results and discussions the analysis is done by sorting the type of politeness strategies that are found in the conversations among the family members. there are bald on record, off record, negative politeness, and positive politeness. to make the analysis easier, the respondents are coded as: f is father, m is mother, d1 is the oldest daughter, d2 is the second daughter, s3 is the third son, and d4 is the youngest daughter. there are 53 dialogues that were recorded. however, due to the space limits, only two examples of each type of politeness strategies are discussed. two dialogues above are the examples of bald on record strategy. in the dialogue, the conversation between the second daughter (d2) and the youngest daughter (d4) happens in their bedroom. there are also friends of d2 and a friend of d4. d2 requests d4 to get her a glass of water. however, because d4 is so busy with her gadget, she was not aware that d2 asks for help. d2 : nad, ambilin minum dah?” “nad, bring me the drink?” d4 : “………” (no response, she is busy with her gadget) d2 : lu denger gak sih gue ngomong?” “do you hear me speak, don’t you?” d4 : “ntar dulu kek..” (still on her gadget) “can you wait?” d2 : “lama lu…buruan aus gue.” (with a higher tone) “why it takes so long? i’m thirsty.” the way d2 asks for help is identified as bald on record strategy since it provides no effort by the speaker to reduce the impact of the ftas. d2 is showing fta to d4 because it happens in front of their friends. therefore, d4 as the younger sister might feel uncomfortable and ashamed at that time. in this context, it is shown that d2 threatened the face of d4. in other words, d2 does not pay attention to the positive face of d4. the most possible reason as to why d2 does that is because d4 is the youngest sister. the next dialogue occurs in a family gathering. the father (f) participates in a successful team of a political party, so he informs all relatives that the indonesian legislative election would be held soon. f : “sebentar lagi jangan lupa pemilu.” “soon it will be held the election, don’t forget.” d4 : “amplopnya mana?” “where is the envelope?” f : “nih pilih yang kaya di sebelah saya ya.” “vote for somebody who is sitting next to me.” d4 : “apaan tuh, ratu ubur-ubur itu mah.” (the relatives were laughing) “what? she’s just a jellyfish.” f : (continued writing) in this situation, f is giving information to his relatives regarding the legislative election. he asks his relatives to vote for somebody sitting next to him. d4 directly responds to his request by telling a joke, saying apaan tuh, ratu ubur-ubur itu mah. she uses ratu ubur-ubur that refers to someone who is sitting next to f, but that someone is not actually d4’s target. she says it is as a respond to her father that shows she does not really like her father’s friend. this joke is told baldly in front of the relative that gives impact to f which then feels embarrassed and annoyed. that is mostly due to d4, who is still a teenager that makes fun of f’s friend while f is talking seriously with the relatives. d4 assumes that it is fine to tell a joke, even though it is made to his father and in a serious situation. the off record strategy can be seen in dialogue between the oldest daughter (d1) and the second daughter (d2). they are having a conversation at their house in the evening. at that time, d1 is watching television while d2 who is sitting next to d1, busy with her gadget. d1 : “enak kali nih makan soto ceker yang di deket rumah fisha.” “it is good idea if we are eating soto ceker that is near from fisha’s house.” d2 : (no response) d1 : “enak kali nih makan soto ceker yang di rumah fisha.” “it is good idea if we are eating soto ceker that is near from fisha’s house.” d2 : (no response) to express her desire, d1 has said “enak nih kalo makan soto ceker yang di deket rumah fisha” as a hint that she wanted to eat soto. however, d2 does not give any responses. she is still busy with her gadget. moreover, when d1 feels that d2 does not listen to or pay attention to her, she repeats the utterance for d2 to listen and pay attention to what she is saying. in this situation, d1 uses the off record strategy by expressing her desire indirectly. it is indicated when d1 says the utterance as a hint to d2 as she does not command d2 directly. however, the strategy does not work at that time because d2 is not aware that d1 has commanded her. the choice of strategy that is used by d1 is determined by the status of d1 who is older than d2. she wants to be served by her younger sister. next dialogue happens in the 94 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 91-96 front yard of the family’s house, at about 2 o’clock in the afternoon, the father (f) is talking with his daughter and her friend while the mother (m) is inside the house. m: “itu mobil cantik banget biar kaga mandi yak, bukan maen…” “that car is really beautiful even though it has not been washed yet, amazing..” f: “bawa ke bintaro aja noh suruh fadil aja.” “asked fadil to bring it to bintaro.” in this situation, m comes out and says “itu mobil cantik bener biar kaga mandi yak bukan maen”. what m talked about is the opposite of the real fact, because the car is actually very dirty that it must be cleaned. it is actually a hint that the car is not clean. fortunately, f immediately understands what m intends to say. then, f replied “bawa ke bintaro aja noh suruh si fadil”, which means that fadil, the son, should drive the car to a car wash in bintaro. in this case, m uses the off record strategy which is successfully interpreted by f. she prefers to use the strategy to save f’s positive face because his daughter and her friend are there. the next dialogue is the example of negative politeness strategy. the short conversation happens between f and m while having dinner together. m : “pa, mama kan besok mau pergi sama ibuibu, kayaknya mah si lia juga mao ngikut. besok mama bagi duit ya pa?” “(tomorrow, i will go somewhere with my friends and lia wants to join. please give me money for tomorrow, okay?” f : “hmm…” m : “ ya’elah si papa mah hmm hmm doangan…” “and that’s my father, only hmm hmm” according to the utterance spoken by m to f, it is identified as negative politeness strategy. in this situation, before m asks f for some money, she first told him the reason, which is because she wants to go out with her friends. she also says it politely. she respects him not only because he is her husband but also because he is older than her. dialogue 6 the next dialogue happens in the evening, when m is watching television in her bedroom, and d4 comes and approaches m. d4 : “ma, minggu depan kan iya bayaran les. tapi bisa dicicil dulu ma mulai besok. besok iya bagi duitnya ya ma?” “mother, i must pay my course fee. but the payment can be purchased on installment from tomorrow. can you give me the money tomorrow?” m : “berapa emang? ngambil duit dulu di atm besok dah.” how much is it? i will take the money tomorrow in atm. d4 : “yah lupa berapa yak? entar dah iya cari dulu kartu bayarannya.” i forget. let me see the payment card first. in this situation, d4 tells m that the following week is the time to pay the course fee. she asks her mother to pay the fee. it is shown that d4 uses negative politeness to her mother because she explains the situation first before she tells her the final intention. this strategy is used in the fear that the speaker may be imposing on the hearer, and intruding her space. in addition, the use of this strategy is determined by the distance rating, in which m is much older than d4. m is also someone whom d4 must respect. the positive politeness can be seen in this nest dialogue. it happened on the election day, april 2014. the election was held to appoint members of the legislative, in front of the grandmother’s house. all members of the big family were ready to participate. m has cast her vote, and it was d2’s turn to cast her vote. m : “neng, nih yang penting mah no. 2 golkar yak, yang laen mah kaga penting.” “girl, the most important thing is number 2, golkar, others are not that important.” d2 : “iye..” “yes..” there are many relatives who have gathered in front of the house to participate in the election. the utterance in the above dialogue is spoken by m that asks d2 to choose their relative in the legislative election. m has always reminded her daughters about that. a minute before d2’s turn to cast her vote, m still reminds her about the legislative candidate that should be elected. the way m reminds her daughter is identified as positive politeness because m tries to minimize d2’s fta. however, d2 seems annoyed because m talks about the same thing for many times. d2 answers m with a short reply to express that she already understood what her mother wants. in addition, the strategy choice that is used by m is determined by the status of m as the mother (the older person). the next dialogue happens on one evening when a friend of one of the daughters is coming to the family’s house. s3 and his sister’s friend have a conversation in the living room. they talk about college for quite some time. all of a sudden, m comes out of her room and heads to the kitchen. m : “dil… dil… ada cewek mah beliin bakso kek, ini mah tiduran bae.” “dil…dil… there is a female guest, please buy bakso for her, why are you just sleeping? s3 : “gak ada duit.” “i don’t have any money”. in this situation, m asks her son to buy bakso for the female guest, his sister’s friend. the utterance is spoken by m actually contains a suggestion as well as a joke. it is identified as positive politeness strategy since she tries to give a suggestion to s3 to buy bakso for the female guest. this strategy is also determined by the status of m as the mother (older person). thus, she might feel that asking him to do so is appropriate. however, the response of s3 indicates that he does not intend to buy bakso for the guest. table 1 shows the distribution of the use of politeness strategy. this research has recorded 53 dialogues that are spoken by six family members. the table shows that the family indeed uses politeness strategies. out of all the recorded dialogues, the most frequently used strategy is bald on record, which results in 19 times. the second one is off record strategy, with 15 times. lastly, negative politeness is used for 10 times, and positive politeness 9 times. 95how a betawinese family .... (triana salihah; menik winiharti) conclusions it is found that the family uses four types of politeness strategies: bald on record, off record, negative politeness and positive politeness. each use of the politeness strategies is determined by the status of the speaker toward his/her addressee. different status in the family becomes the basis for the selection of the appropriate language in communicating with each other. bald on record strategy is most frequently used by the second daughter (d2), which is five times out of 19 times. it can be said that bald on record is the most direct strategy. in this context, d2 mostly uses this type when she has a conversation with her little sister, d4. the status of d2 – the older sister– affects her choice of language. furthermore, the off record strategy is used to express speakers’ desires implicitly. they prefer to use hints or to inform something which is implied to the hearers, and the hearers are expected to get the indirectly conveyed message. this strategy is used for 15 times. the speakers who use this strategy are d1, d2, d4, and m. three of them table 1 the distribution of the use of politeness strategies strategy speaker addressee reason frequency on record d2 d4 older person 5 on record d4 m younger person 2 on record d4 f younger person 1 on record m d4 parent to daughter 2 on record s3 d2 younger person 2 on record f d2 father to daughter 3 on record d2 m younger person 1 on record f m older person 1 on record d4 s3 younger person 1 on record m s3 mother to son 1 total 19 off record d1 d2 older person 2 off record d4 d1 younger person 1 off record m d4 mother to daughter 1 off record d2 f younger person 2 off record m f younger person 2 off record d2 s3 older person 1 off record d4 m younger person 2 off record f m older person 1 off record d1 m younger person 1 off record s3 d2 younger person 1 off record f d2 father to daughter 1 total 15 negative politeness m f younger person 1 negative politeness d4 m younger person 1 negative politeness d2 d4 older person 1 negative politeness d1 d2 older person 2 negative politeness d4 d1 younger person 1 negative politeness d2 d1 younger person 1 negative politeness d4 d2 younger person 1 negative politeness d4 s3 younger person 2 total 10 positive politeness m d2 mother to daughter 4 positive politeness m s3 mother to son 1 positive politeness d4 d2 younger person 1 positive politeness d4 m younger person 1 positive politeness d1 s3 older person 1 positive politeness f m older person 1 total 9 96 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 91-96 (d1, d2, and d4) have the status of the younger ones to their addresses when they apply the strategy. this status really affects them to use the strategy in their daily conversations. the third most frequently used strategy is negative politeness. it is also an indirect strategy even though it is expressed explicitly. this strategy is used by d1 and d4 for two times out of 10 times. since d1 has moved to her new house, she does not meet the other family members often. she also rarely has a conversation with her siblings, including her parents. thus, it can be said that this condition creates a distance with d2 and other family members. the age difference between d1 and her little sister, d4 as well as her brother also influences them in using this strategy. in addition, the less frequent meetings between d1 and other family members also affect the use of their politeness strategy. this condition indicates that one’s status in the family, as well as the distance factor, affect the choice of politeness strategy to use. the least frequently used strategy is positive politeness. the focus of this strategy is to minimize the distance among the interlocutors. the speaker uses this type to express his or her closeness. in this case, the mother (m) uses this strategy most frequently, which is four times out of nine times. it is often done to d2 because m is very close to her second daughter. m uses this strategy more to command and forbid d2 when the daughter tries to do something. moreover, the status of m as the mother also affects her to do this strategy more often. in conclusion, politeness has become a phenomenon in every human communication, which includes communication within the scope of a family. it is because it can be a tool to avoid conflict among the interlocutors. this study points out that in a betawinese family who speak betawi language, politeness strategies are applied even though in some cases they may sound rude for using a high tone. moreover, when someone speaks to other members of the family, the way he/she talks would be different from the way he/she communicates with his/her peers. it can be said that this happens because there is a difference of status in the family. references cohn, a. c., & ravindranath, m. (2014). local languages in indonesia: language maintenance or language shift? masyarakat linguistik indonesia, 32(2), 131148. cohn, a. c., bowden, f. j., mckinnon, t. a., ravindranath, m., simanjuntak, r. p., taylor, b., & yanti. (2014). assessing the impact of indonesian on the maintenance of local languages. kongres internasional masyarakat linguistik indonesia 2014, pp. 13-17. fahrizal. (2001). penggunaan bahasa dan identitas etnik: studi penggunaan bahasa betawi dalam tindak komunikasi orang betawi di condet (master’s thesis). depok: universitas indonesia. filia. (2012). alih bicara dalam percakapan bahasa indonesia dialek betawi. prosiding the 4th international conference on indonesian studies: “unity, diversity and future”, pp. 278–288. depok: fakultas ilmu pengetahuan budaya, universitas indonesia. grijns, c. d. (1991). kajian bahasa melayu–betawi. jakarta: pt. pustaka utama grafiti. holmes, j. (2008). an introduction to sociolinguistics. edinburgh: pearson education limited. muhadjir. (2000). bahasa betawi: sejarah dan perkembangannya. jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia. sahara, s. (2014). interferensi bahasa betawi dalam cerpen mahasiswa jurusan pbsi fitk uin syarif hidayatullah jakarta. dialektika, 1(1), 109–130. sugiharto, s. (2008, 21 june). the perseverance of betawi language in jakarta. retrieved from http:// www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/06/21/theperseverance-betawi-language-jakarta.html sukma, r. (2014). pemanfaatan lenong betawi sebagai wahana pelestari bahasa ibu (betawi): kasus berkembangnya bahasa alay dalam ranah bahasa remaja di jakarta. kongres internasional masyarakat linguistik indonesia 2014, pp. 467-471. watts, r. j. (2003). politeness. cambridge: cambridge university press. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. new york: oxford university press. vol. 16 no. 1 july 2022cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nurlina bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richter monash university, australia shkelqim millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura focuses on various issues spanning in study of language and literature. the coverage of language includes applied linguistics (syntax and morphology; phonetics and phonology; second language acquisitions; language learning, teaching, and assessment; and academic writing), the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 158/e/kpt/2021 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents nobella indradjaja; chamdani; syafi’i the stereotyping representation of kensi blye’s character in television crime drama series ncis: los angeles........ 1-7 titi rokhayati; ana widiyanti using technology-based media for teaching speaking in intercultural education............................................. 9-15 paisal manurung sustainability of local literacy towards epidemic virus covid-19 in indonesia using hermeneutic theory............. 17-24 muarif; dwi indarti syntactic complexity of online opinion articles published in south east asian countries................................. 25-32 fitria azifah dewi; sisilia setiawati halimi pedagogic interaction in an online efl class at a junior high school in depok.............................................. 33-41 i gusti ayu mahatma agung subtitling and dubbing of idiomatic expressions in the american tv series wandavision.................................. 43-49 hana fauziah transposition of english zero derivation from nouns to indonesian verbs in to kill a mockingbird....................... 51-59 chusni hadiati; rosdiana puspita sari; usep muttaqin a sociolinguistic analysis of addressee terms found in babad banjoemas wirjaatmadjan................................. 61-66 patahuddin; syawal; chester b. esnara; muhaimin abdullah characterizing the ideal audio-visual learning content of writing course learned in distance.......................... 67-73 ismatul khasanah; sri endah tabiati; khilmi mauliddian form, function, and meaning of bebasan: the orality of the samin in bojonegoro......................................... 75-81 tusino; haidarrafiyan perdanakusuma; puspa dewi; wahju tjahjo saputro synchronous learning in speaking class: english as a foreign language learners’ voices.................................. 83-88 fatmawati djafri; lufi wahidati examining digital technology literacy of professional japanese language translator and interpreter.................. 89-96 ika apriani fata; endang komariah; andira riski alya assessment of readability level of reading materials in indonesia efl textbooks.......................................... 97-104 merry andriani; annisa fitriani kalsum; gabriele nadina elloianza social discourse of fake news in french and its digital social media literacy............................................... 105-115 ayu trihardini a contrastive analysis of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences........................................................ 117-131 vol. 16 no. 1 july 2022cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: a study of the reformation era novel yulianeta1; siti chamamah soeratno2; juliasih kusharyanto3 1faculty of language education and literature pendidikan indonesia university, bandung yaneta@upi.edu 2,3faculty of cultural studies, gadjah mada university, yogyakarta chamamah_s@yahoo.com, juliasih-kus@ugm.ac.id received: 30th january 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 28th april 2016 how to cite: yulianeta, soeratno, s. c., kusharyanto, j. (2016). representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: a study of the reformation era novel. lingua cultura, 10(1). 31-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.845 abstract this research was based on a phenomenon that gender ideology practiced by a society might be reflected in the production of literary work. thus, even though a novel is known as an imaginative work, its content and gender ideology could not be detached from social reality. the aims of this research were describing the role and gender identity, the types of gender ideology, and the gender relationship issues in the indonesia novel written during reformation era. gramsci’s theory of hegemony and gender perspective helped to describe the problems presented in this article. the formal object of this research was elaborating gender ideology presented in four novels written by indonesian authors during reformation era, namely saman by ayu utami, genijora by abidah el khalieqy, nayla by djenar maesa ayu, and tanah tabu by anindita s. tayf. the research method implemented was library research. this research showed the variety of ideologies that occupy literature as the site of struggle among ideologies. the results of the research are the four novels represent the patriarchal ideology, familialism ideology, ibuism ideology, and general gender ideology. the four gender ideologies create domestication of the position and the role of women. the existence and the organization of the gender ideology are supported by masculine hegemony in indonesian culture. keywords: gender, gender ideology, reformation era, hegemony introduction literary work is a reflection or depiction of its era, which has its problem and various tendencies. issues and trends may be reproduced in the form of literary work written during the era. this happens for the author who created the work of society of the era. they may observe and comprehend life and its problems from realities around them, which later influenced their works. it is not surprisingly if later, literary work from one particular period indicates certain trends according to the trend of the era. this trend is also found in the novel written during the era of reformation. the revolution of technology, information, and globalization have begun to strengthen since the 1990s. the emergence to broader access to information has fueled the development of feminist thought in indonesia. this thought becomes increasingly strong, radical, open and complex. further, freedom of the press in the year the 2000s led to freedom of thought and expression. this freedom allows a tendency to freedom in writing fiction (novel). namely, literary work has been dominated by issues such as body as sexuality including gender problems and deconstruction on gender ideology practiced by society. as blackburn (2004) stated that freed from the trammels of new order ideology, the ministry for woman’s role become more outspoken, critiquing government policies from the viewpoint of gender equality. many women started to write this kind of work, and some male writers are also found writing the same theme. furthermore, suryakusuma (2007) stated that since the reformation era, the literary field is more developed compared to other fields, such as economics, politics, education, health, transportation and any other fields. the mushroomed of literature in the era of reformation can be said to be booming in many a wide range and genre such as local literature, islamic literature, community literature, children literature, chick lit, teen lit, as well as cyber literature. however, this article will be limited to explore gender problems in the work of literature. concerning this study, four indonesian novels written during reformation era serve as material objects. these novels are saman by ayu utami, geni jora by abidah el khalieqy, nayla by djenar maesa ayu, and tanah tabu by anindita s. tayf. the four novels represent the dominant lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 31-36 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.845 31 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 32 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 31-36 gender ideology. furthermore, the subjects to be discussed are (1) roles and identity of gender, (2) kinds of gender ideology, and (3) the relation of gender issue to the reformation era in indonesian novel using gramsci hegemony and gender analysis. greenstein as cited in kroska (2001) and yucel (2012) has defined gender ideologies as how a person identifies herself or himself concerning marital and family roles that are traditionally linked to gender. udasmoro (2009) also mentioned that gender is a social relation between different sexes involving social, political, and cultural aspects. some views see the determination of gender as a natural for women has reproduction organ such as the uterus, ovum, vagina, and breastfeeding. women are also known to be blessed with gentle, natural traits such as beautiful, emotional, motherly. meanwhile, men are considered to be manly and rational. it means that men may have those called female natural traits, and so do women. therefore, gender is not a natural but rather roles practiced within a society in which women poses in feminine roles and men in masculine ones. according to saptari and holzner (1997), gender ideology influences women’s behavior and social relations between men and women. through certain mechanism, ideology can be the dominant force in the society. suryakusuma (1991) states that gender ideology constructed by indonesian, ideology defines men and women in narrow, limited, and stereotypical roles. gender ideology governs women and men’s identity, position, behavior. the form of this ideology can be dominant or appears in one place or the certain time (saptari & holzer, 1997). compared to matriarchal ideology, patriarchal ideology is considered to be the most dominant in asia (bhasin as cited in yulianeta, 2008). meanwhile in british capitalist society and indonesia, familialism is very dominant. according to abdullah (as cited in yulianeta, 2008), this familialism ideology is widespread and pervasive to the public or social arena. mies and djayadiningrat (as cited in suryakusuma, 1991) shows that during the new order era, the ideology of ibuism was very dominant in indonesia. ibuism is an ideology that consists of a combination of bourgeois values and traditional noble value that allow whatever action taken by women for the sake of the family, community, class, firm, or state without asking or hoping any reward. furthemore suryakusuma (1991) claimed that gender ideology which was very dominant during the new order is ideology bapak-ibuism posed a father as main sources of power and mother as the medium of power in society. asian countries apply various forms of public ideology that emphasizes the value of female seclusion, exclusion of women from certain areas (exclusion), and emphasize women’s femininity. related to gender ideology, literature plays important roles to the ideology. literature as part of discursive practice within a society as conducted by mass media participating in setting up or changing ideology (budianta, 1998; wiyatmi, 2010; manuaba, 2015). women studies has proved that symbolic world including literature has become an established institution that forms, organize, and preserve dominant gender ideology (saptari & holzer, 1997; marching, 2007; pillai, 2011; nair & rosli, 2013; antonio, 2015). novels as part of arena and symbolic cultural organization proves having a major influence in forming, organizing, preserving and directing as well promoting gender ideology. as a form of scientific activities, research work of literature requires a theoretical foundation. the selection of various theories used is directed by the problem to be answered by research and by the objectives to be achieved by this study (chamamah-soeratno, 2001). theoretical basis used to address issues that have been raised is gramsci’s theory of hegemony and gender analysis. gramsci’s concept of hegemony is introduced into the british cultural studies in the early 1970s that contributed the new perspective on popular culture (including literature). the starting point of gramsci’s concept of hegemony is that a class and its members exercise power towards the classes below it by force and persuasion (simon, 2001; fontana, 2000). hegemony is not a relationship of domination by using the power, but relations with the consensus using political leadership and ideology. so it can be said that hegemony is a consensus organization. in his prison notebooks, gramsci used a variety of terms that he said is equivalent to ideology, such as culture, philosophy, worldview or conception of the world. similarly, there is the term intellectual and moral reformation when gramsci talked about the transformation of consciousness as a prerequisite for improvements to socialism (simon, 2004; forgacs & smith, 2012). ideology is a material that is manifested in the rules and ways of life carried out by individuals collectively. ideology always provides a variety of rules for human’s practical action, which is conducted collectively. this, later, manifests in the social practices of the institutions and organizations where social practices take place. thus, gramsci’s concept of hegemony rests on its intellectual and moral leadership. leadership means dominated classes voluntarily commit to being ruled or led by the dominant class. the agreement of dominated class occurs because the dominant class success in instilling the ideology. ideological internalization is done by building a system and institutions, such as state, common sense, culture, organization, education, and others, which strengthens the hegemony. besides that, the hegemony to the lower classes does not always run smoothly. barriers and obstacles may occur, especially from classes who do not accept the hegemony. this disagreement can be undertaken by repressive action taken by state apparatus, such as the police. domination and hegemony become important in gramsci theory. then, gender analysis is an analysis that is considered to be new and has positive responses lately. this analysis has helped to sharpen the social analysis that already exist. gender analysis is a critical analysis that sharpens the existing critical analysis (fakih, 2008). the development of gender analysis (women studies and gender studies) is largely influenced by the evolvement of women’s movement or feminism. due to the diversity of the women’s movement and feminism, the definition of gender analysis is also found numerous (saptari & holzner, 1997; mosse, 2007: fakih, 2008). however, in general, it can be said that women’s studies or gender analysis try to lift the women in the better position. here, gender studies isviewed as gender justice and gender equality (structurally and culturally). according to saptari and holzner (1997), there are two purposes of the women’s study or gender analysis, namely (1) to gain an understanding of the mechanism of development of asymmetrical relations by gender, race, class in society, and its preservation. (2) to search strategy that may change the situation to a situation which embodies a more symmetrical relationship. 33representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: .... (yulianeta; et. al.) methods the research method implemented is library research. it based on concepts of ideology, gender and literature. this research shows the variety of ideologies that occupy literature as the site of struggle among ideologies. therefore, the novel does not articulate single ideology but ideologies. results and discussions saman, a novel by ayu utami, represents gender roles of women accepted by mak argani and his mother, wis. traditional female gender roles are rejected by modern women such as laila, shakuntala, yasmin, and cok. besides female gender role, saman represents male gender role. the prominent male gender roles of men in the saman are those who has already been existing culturally, namely their roles in the public arena. male gender roles are accepted by sudoyo (wis’s father), mintoraharjo (shakuntala’s father), wisanggeni (wis/saman), sihar, anson, and nasri. sudoyo is the head of the family as well as the head of the bank in perabumulih. shakuntala’s father is a head of the household as well as a lecturer. as the head of the household, they exercise their power traditionally. it seems that they enforce their ideology to their daughter. novel genijora by abidah el khalieqy represents contemporary female gender role despite having different backgrounds from the novel saman. the setting of the novel is girl’s boarding school where women are depicted to dedicate all their time to improve the ability in the public sector. for example the characters jora, masid, mishwa, and elya. this novel does not overlook traditional female gender roles to illustrate contemporary gender roles of women. women who have traditional gender roles depicted as grandmother, mother of jora, and omi (mother) ida. they spend the time to fulfill their roles in the domestic sphere, such as cooking, washing, and caring children. genijora presents significant differences of traditional female gender role from the contemporary one. female traditional gender role is portrayed to be very dependent on her husband as breadwinner. therefore, they have no other choice and accept the decision of their husbands who want to conduct the polygamous marriage. unlike the female characters represents having diverse gender roles, in these novels, all the figures represent men that have traditional gender roles. male characters are illustrated to spend their time in the public sector, as breadwinners, and very active for self–actualization in the public domain. in the novel nayla, the women role presents in such a way to attract the attention of the reader regarding the construction of masculine reality that turns into feminine reality. nayla, her mother, and jul are dominant in constructing that reality. at home, nayla does not perform cores related to the domestic sphere, so she is considered to be a contemporary woman. as a student, nayla is always associated with school activities. as children of the higher class parent, nayla has servants who provide the service in the domestic arena. such description indicates that the economy affects the level of gender roles performed by a character. nayla, who has the contemporary gender roles, is considered to be a tool for the author to deconstruct women’s gender roles. nayla rises questioned regarding the existence of differential treatment toward women and men. as describe in nayla’s dialogue, “i was wondering why this skills only that they provide to women” (utami, 2005). in a patriarchal culture, women are constructed as an individual who is more inferior than men. unlike the female characters, the male characters in this novel are portrayed to have the traditional gender role, namely working in the public sector. tanah tabu is a novel that depicts the life in papua. there is a tendency in this novel to illustrate the requirement of women to be a devoted wife, submissive, patient, quiet, forgiving and other attitudes that will grow as needed. the novel said that if a woman requires her husband’s love, she must possess the requisites, such as women are required to bury their feelings. while, the male character is described as brave, who is never flinch in battle and hunting in the wild forest. stereotypes above reveal that woman has no other choice except to accept what was given to her. the existence of these stereotypes leads women to fight against it. women must fight for an equal position as that for men. one of the aspects that makes women equal to men is education. by having education, women may attain opportunity as men, and may achieve a better life. saman represents the patriarchal ideology, familialism, ibuism, and general ideology. patriarchal ideology is the ideology that emphasizes the power of fathers (men) who dominate, subordinate and discriminate women. in this case, women are placed as second class, inferior, subordinated, and marginalized. in a patriarchal society, patriarchal elements are used to rationalize subordination and discrimination against women, as shown in the myth legend of the fall. meanwhile, familialism or familial ideology is the ideology that constructs women’s role at home as a housewife, a good wife, and a good mother. as a woman, laila is trying to find a man who deserves to have a family and wants to make her parents happy because both are rewarding worship. shakuntala who has been indifferent to marriage and hell, and considers marriage as hypocritical prostitution, also assumes that the family is a beautiful thing because it is rewarding and makes the parents happy. furthermore in saman, ibuism ideology is represented through new order attitudes toward women in the military organizational structure. it is clear that the role of women is to be companion to their husband, and then as the mother, the later acting in the public space with additional role as breadwinner. genijora also represents familialism and patriarchal gender ideology. patriarchal gender ideology is found through the behavior and the mindset of jora’s grandmother and family. meanwhile, nayla unveils patriarchal ideology, which is later challenged and deconstructed. the deconstruction of the patriarchal ideology is found through the narration of nayla’s mind. for example, when nayla is in the nightclubs and places of rehabilitation, while she is in a disco, a lot of men want to get her body because they think nayla is a virgin. from this condition, nayla considers that men who just desire female virginity are stupid men. the reason is that the issue of virginity is no more than a myth created by men. type of the dominant gender ideology contained in the tanah tabu is general and patriarchal ideology. patriarchal ideology represented in this novel is a form of preferential treatment of men than women. the boy is described to be more desirable than girls. this is illustrated from leksi’sfather who just admits lukas, and so does yosi’s parents who just wish for a boy, not a girl. reformation is one effort to update the system, actors, ideologies, structures, and mechanisms of political power 34 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 31-36 (jurdi, 2008). the reformation era has some products such as social, political, cultural, and economic product. products in the field of social reformation has resulted more open access in term of international relations. this has allowed an interaction of local values and external values that has influences the community perspective. these changes are assumed to have influenced the viewpoint regarding the interaction of women. with the influx of foreign influence, indonesian society addresses some questions regarding values they have been living and holding. in the literature this can be seen from the work of ayu utami, saman. in this work, ayu utami can freely express things that are considered taboo to discuss. it is also closely related to the lifting of press license to mass media and the dissolution of the ministry of information (including body sensor in it). a novel with the background of new order government repression shows how the authority maintained the power by ruling repressively. saman is described as a priest who is touched to help people who are oppressed by the state through its military apparatus. saman finally disrobed his ministry and became a fugitive activist. in the context of this novel, saman is described as organic intellectuals. according to gramsci, the politically conscious intellectual has views toward the dominant hegemony. saman poses ayuutami as an organic intellectual. as indonesian people who have the awareness of the existence of a dominant hegemony, ayu utami narrates the injustice to women through the depiction of the character of shakuntala, laila, cok, and yasmin. through these characters, ayu utami addresses what is called taboo regarding female sexuality. through the character of shakuntala, ayu utami expresses the injustice suffered by women, especially on the discourse of virginity that according to javanese culture, women should dedicate her virginity to her husband. shakuntala believes that marriage is worship that will bring reward, but she states that marriage is hypocritical prostitution. then, ayuutami illustrates shakuntala to free herself from man and take control of her body by dedicating her virginity to herself. in addition, ayu utami also shows that injustice is also caused by the misinterpretation of the holy book. in the bible, women are portrayed as the cause of the fall of man to the earth. this can be found from the dialogue between saman and yasmin. through the dialogues, ayu utami launched a discourse about ideology. thus, this novel can be said to shed light and bring into public discussion on the topic of gender ideology. in the reformation era, the rights to express aspirations become wider and greater. ayu utami is referred as the author who created the literary canon (saman) for she offers a new color to indonesian literature. she encourages to reveal things considered taboo. this novel is the best seller in its time and has encouraged other writers to write about the themes of sexuality.the theme of sexuality in the novel saman can also be seen as a discourse of liberation. liberation here means liberation from taboos and censorship. according to foucault (2000), sexuality is socially constructed and very closely related to power. it is a historical product of a system of surveillance, control which construct social atmosphere. all elements of repression, namely the prohibition, rejection, censorship, and denial, can be seen as asocial construction machinery, including the construction of sexuality. according to foucault (2000), there are some characteristics of how power constructs sexuality as mentioned; (1) the existence of a negative relationship in the form of exclusion, neglect, rejection, inhibition and disguises. (2) the existence of the rule of law governing sex, for example, the law, and so on. (3) cycle prohibition that aims at that sexuality denies itself. (4) logic sensors, this prohibition has three forms, namely, that it should not be, it cannot be talked, and denial that it exists. (5) unity device means power over applied at all levels. characterization of the sexuality construction in the novel can be seen through the character of shakuntala as follows: “my name is shakuntala. dad and my sister called me a bitch. for i have slept with a few men and some women. although not attract a fee.” (utami, 2002). “here, in this town, at the night he tied me to the bed and gave me my first two lessons about love. he said: first, only men should approach women. women who chase men must be bitches. second, women will dedicate their body to proper men, and they are going to live with him and make living for her. it is called marriage.”(utami, 2002). based on those quotations, shakuntala is required to separate her sexual desires from traditional javanese rule, which states that only men should approach women. the quote shows that regulation of the sex is generally applied. her sister and father who consider shakuntala as a bitch are an evidence that sex regulation is generally applied to all level of society. moreover, the previous quotations also unveil that the existence of laws governing sexuality on how sexuality should not be and so on. “perhaps i am tired with all that hinders our relationship with indonesia. i am tired with the values that sometimes terrorize me. i want to get away from it and make everything we want to happen. i want to break all obstacle that blocks my relationship with sihar. perhaps.”(utami, 2002) in this quotation, ayu utami illustrates that the character of laila feels tired of indonesian law that she considers blocking her relationship with sihar. the text states that there is a law that regulates sex in indonesia. product of reformation era in politics is licensing of foreign people to invest in the education sector. as a result, education becomes more expensive. this policy influences poor people in that they would prefer to give education to their sons than to their daughters. the patriarchal ideology motivates this condition. this can be seen through the novel, tanah tabu that demonstrates the importance of education, as follows:. “yosi also is okay even though she did not go to school because her parents could not afford to buy the uniforms. i know she is lying! there are a few of my friends who do not wear uniform, but they are still allowed going to school. all i know isyosi is not allowed to attend the school because she was a girl, she has to take care of her three young sisters and help her mother who is pregnant, work at home and in the garden.” (thayf, 2009). the economy condition of leksi’s family influences to give priority to men for accessing education rather than women. in the quotation above, it can be seen another aspect that is used as a reason why dani tribedo not give 35representation of gender ideology in indonesia novels: .... (yulianeta; et. al.) priority for women to access education. anindita s. thayf explicitly explains that education can make people know the things that are important to know, so that other people cannot deceive us. according to a new hegemony by gramsci (as cited in simon, 2001), we must create new hegemony opposite to the capitalism, if such condition accumulates. the creation of the hegemony must be built based on alteration of consciousness, thinking patterns, and apprehension to conception of the world, as well as their moral norms of behavior. this can be done with education. the authors, ayu utami, abidah el khalieqy, djenar maesa ayu, and anindita s. tayf acknowledge the existence of gender ideology prevailing in the society that causes inequality and gender injustice. they stated that through neutral description, claims, and parody in the novels. they show some gender bias from their community. the authors admit that one of the roots of gender inequality and injustice occurs because the weakness of women in bargaining to the men. women empowerment is the best solution to eradicate exploitation, discrimination, and the marginalization in the future. it means that internal power and independence of women must be empowered. the authors agree that existence of women protests the prevailing gender ideology in society. all of them appreciate women who are independent and smart. they like women who are stable when reviled by the patriarchal society as they struggle to fulfill their needs. all of them support feminist struggle so that they are no longer inferior. feminist struggle with the issue of gender equality or equal in all aspect seems to be difficult to reach. patriarchal values remain solid that have already been established for so long, and most of the men still inherit the patriarchal ideology from their family. some women fall into enjoying position offered by the patriarchal system. ironically, they were feminists who actively challenged patriarchal systems in the past. all authors approve the feminist struggle done slowly and tenderly. they are aware of the existence of women inequality in a patriarchal system. therefore, they support the feminist movement challenging inequality in a patriarchal system. they demand changes, stability, and independence in the patriarchal system in society. they admit the strength and power of the patriarchal system. conclusions indonesian novels published during reformation era represent roles and traditional gender roles, egalitarian contemporary, multiple roles and traditional male and female identities. the types of patriarchal gender ideology presented in the novels are familialism ideology, ibuism ideology, and general ideology. then, gender ideology creates domestication of the position and role of women. the existence and organization of gender ideology are caused by the hegemony of masculinity in indonesian culture. therefore, according to gramsci (as cited in simon, 2001), hegemony must create new hegemony to oppose the capitalists. the creation of the hegemony must be built by alteration of consciousness, thinking patterns, and understanding on the conception of the world as well as their moral norms of behavior. this can be done by education. regarding gender issues, the authors from the reformation era can be termed as an organic intellectual who offers a new ideology to destroy the old ideological hegemony. references antonio, g. r. 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(2012). wives employment and marital dissolution: consideration of gender ideology and marital interaction. sociology mind, 2(2), 213-222. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 83 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 83-88 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7867 synchronous learning in speaking class: english as a foreign language learners’ voices tusino1*; haidarrafiyan perdanakusuma2; puspa dewi3; wahju tjahjo saputro4 1,2,3 english education department, teacher training and education faculty, universitas muhammadiyah purworejo 4information technology department, engineering faculty, universitas muhammadiyah purworejo jl. k.h. ahmad dahlan 3, purworejo 54111, indonesia 1tusino@umpwr.ac.id; 2rafikusuma240@gmail.com; 3puspadewi@umpwr.ac.id; 4wahjusaputro@umpwr.ac.id received: 10th december 2021/revised: 29th march 2022/accepted: 30th march 2022 how to cite: tusino., perdanakusuma, h., dewi, p., & saputro, w. t. (2022). synchronous learning in speaking class: english as a foreign language learners’ voices. lingua cultura, 16(1), 83-88. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7867 abstract the qualitative case study aimed to investigate efl learners’ perceptions of synchronous learning in efl speaking classes. although numerous studies have been on synchronous learning, only a few pieces of literature focused on learners’ perceptions in english as a foreign language (efl) settings. the research was conducted in a speaking course at a private university in indonesia. seven undergraduate learners majoring in english education program participated in the research which employed semi-structured interviews to gain participants’ views on their attitudes and benefits during distance education. thematic analysis was employed to analyze learners’ perspectives and answer the research questions. the research’s findings reveal that learners are satisfied with synchronous applications. synchronous learning improves learners’ motivation and develops confidence in class. however, efl learners experience language learning boredom while they are joining a synchronous mode of learning. the perceived benefits of synchronous learning cover free learning resources, flexibility, accessibility, and task completion. the findings highlight that synchronous language learning can be an alternative for teaching speaking skills. english teachers need to implement a well-planned and well-executed synchronous learning strategy in teaching efl speaking. keywords: synchronous learning, speaking class, efl learners’ voices introduction due to the increasing number of learning tools, various websites and english technologies are available today for learners and teachers. thus, this allows english learners to exercise english skills outside the classroom or even makes it easier to find answers to grammar and vocabulary questions. technology is commonly used in this modern era and gives them opportunities to improve education effortlessly and be fun (sari, 2016). correspondingly, differentiated instruction is not limited to the confines of an indoor classroom; instead, it allows learners to engage in more extensive learning exploration (rerung, 2018). this is the stage at which online learning is incorporated into learners’ learning experiences. as a result, there is a way of learning english without spending much time and energy by using online learning platforms to enhance learners’ speaking skills. throughout the internet advancement, technology is constantly becoming more and more significant in a global society, and advanced technology is now a part of daily life. according to rodrigues and vethamani (2015), online learning is beneficial in language learning because it makes everything more manageable for the learners to alter how they communicate and process information, especially language communication. therefore, the way learners gain knowledge changes indefinitely under the influence of online learning. furthermore, better online learning is becoming beneficial to those learning productive skills. learners tend to search for more opportunities to improve their oral skills assisted with internet technology. it is demonstrated that learners can use the internet to undertake autonomous self-study, locate online 84 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 83-88 platforms to meet and chat with native speakers, and build up the essential vocabulary in communicational skills. according to bawanti and afriani (2021) on the use of zoom in english speaking classes, they have found that when learning on their own, learners feel more secure and dare to answer questions in english asked by the teacher. also, learners can absorb learning materials delivered by the teachers through the zoom application. thus, information technology crosses the boundaries of communicative competence by making learner engagement more efficient, adding value to class time, or increasing the visibility of language education. the synchronous mode of communication comprises immediate and real-time communication between teachers and learners in classroom discussion (salmon, 2013). teachers could deliver and explain learning material directly to the learners. similarly, teachers’ corrective feedback and suggestions are straightforwardly given after learners perform their tasks in online classrooms. all learners may give their comments to their peers. the classroom atmospheres are alive and motivating due to learners’ enthusiasm for learning. synchronous learning helps learners develop learning interaction and increases learning motivation by communicating with their teachers and peers through technology (yamagata-lynch, 2014). for many years, synchronous learning has attracted many researchers to investigate in language learning (nejad, golshan, & naeimi, 2016). the previous literature reveals that synchronous learning could improve learners’ language achievement. while numerous studies have focused on the impact of synchronous learning on learners’ language skills, that remains a gap in investigating online learning practices from the learners’ views. in synchronous learning, there are many challenges that both teachers and learners face when implementing online classes, particularly those who live in remote areas. many learners also struggle to learn without direct instruction from their teachers. learners feel uncomfortable studying synchronous learning because of the inadequate support of the necessary infrastructure and feel frustrated whenever they have a slow response from the teachers (wibowo & khairunas, 2020). learners need more time and opportunities for indirect learning than online (muslem, zulfikar, & astila, 2017). they need a real environment and the natural feeling of using speaking skills in life. in other words, learners feel the urgency to have a lot more opportunities for speaking indirect learning. hence, learners will have more opportunities to practice speaking as a tool for learning. during the classes, they learn about english and how to use it naturally (walsh & risquez, 2020). in addition, most learners have a hard time applying english speaking skills naturally when facing online learning. as a result, it is vital to further investigate the use of online applications for learners whenever they have online learning, especially in efl speaking classes. although many studies have investigated the use of synchronous learning in language abilities (tusino et al., 2021), only a few focus on efl speaking skills. the research describes learners’ views of synchronous learning in efl speaking classes. the research results can also provide language professionals with the vital requirements to prepare learners for synchronous learning in efl speaking classes. through online platform meetings, the synchronous learning environment lets learners socialize with their classmates and college teachers (truong, 2021). therefore, the research aims to explain efl learners’ attitudes and perceived benefits toward synchronous learning in efl speaking class. methods the research employs a qualitative case study in efl speaking classes with participating seven undergraduate english education learners from 19 to 21 years old. the research is conducted at a private university in central java province, indonesia. data are gathered through online interviews. all learners have participated in online learning courses with zoom and google classroom applications as synchronous modes in a speaking course in the fall semester of 2021. for data collection, semi-structured interviews are employed about learners’ perspectives on zoom and google classroom implementation in efl speaking classes. the interviews are constructed to gather data related to the following themes: (1) learners’ attitudes toward synchronous learning; and (2) the benefits of using synchronous education and zoom and google classroom applications. five questions about synchronous learning practices through zoom and google classroom are formulated as interview guidelines. furthermore, the qualitative method of semistructured interviews is used to accumulate scientific data. the observations are also carried out in seven sessions, specifically by using a discord messenger for data triangulation. for data collection, the participants are interviewed about their perspectives on online learning activities in an efl speaking class. the representatives are selected depending on their engagement in online classroom discussions. each participant is provided fifteen minutes to express their thoughts on their attitudes and benefits of learning to speak with a zoom meeting. the interviews are digitally recorded to collect additional data. for data analysis, a thematic analysis is employed to comprehend learners’ assumptions. the participants’ responses are recorded and coded based on the themes and indicators in the statements. furthermore, all collected data are analyzed to answer the research questions. results and discussions the present research investigates efl learners’ views of synchronous learning in speaking classes. 85synchronous learning in speaking class .... (tusino, et al.) after data collection, a descriptive qualitative analysis is used to interpret learners’ responses to the interviews. furthermore, multiple thematic data are coded according to the specific conceptual framework of perceptions, particularly regarding attitudes and benefits. efl learners’ attitudes toward synchronous learning cover four themes: motivational improvement, confidence building, boredom issues, and speaking embarrassment. the obtained data are categorized into four categories, which are explored in detail. synchronous learning improves learners’ motivation for participating actively in online discussions. efl learners have reported that synchronous learning platforms make speaking activities enjoyable. most learners are engaged during learning processes through zoom platforms. it reveals that high motivation activated the learners to take part enthusiastically during speaking lessons. “i am interested since there are many choices of online media that are quite interesting to use when learning speaking so that i do not get bored easily. i am motivated to join the speaking course in every meeting. furthermore, i take part actively while having an online discussion.” (interview, efl learner 1) also, synchronous learning builds learners’ confidence in presenting their dialogues virtually. speaking online makes learners more confident because their friends do not see their performance. the finding shows that online speaking performance could lessen efl learners’ anxiety. college teachers need to maximize online tools in speaking tasks to develop their learners’ confidence. “i am interested and confident because i can talk without having to be in front of friends because i am nervous. i am more confident speaking in front of my friends indirectly through laptops. i can decrease my anxiety when i have to present dialogues or perform in front of my friends and teacher.” (interview, efl learner 2) despite improving learners’ motivation and developing confidence, boredom appears while college teachers are implementing synchronous learning. efl learners explain that online activities make interesting classes; however, monotonous activities also create boredom. it seems that synchronous learning creates language boredom when the teacher does not vary the tasks and activities. “at first, i was interested, but gradually i felt bored. online lessons are very flexible and fun, but there are many tasks that are very inconvenient. not overly interested, but not too averse. it is just that maybe i will be very passive when the learning takes place. only a few students who are enthusiastic about joining the course after the mid-semester classes.” (interview, efl learner 3) indeed, some learners feel embarrassed about speaking in front of their peers. synchronous learning in large crowds makes learners feel nervous. many learners tend to keep listening to their peers’ presentations. this condition is due to online class discussions dominated by some active learners. teachers are required to motivate their learners who are not willing to speak up due to their inferiority. “i have no confidence to speak, so when speaking with zoom, i focus on listening to what my friends are talking about. i like speaking, but i have low confidence because of being seen by many people on the screen. some of my friends really dominated the class discussion in daily meetings. this makes me inferior for expressing my ideas orally.” (interview, efl learner 4) the results show that efl learners perceived benefits toward synchronous learning: free learning resources, time flexibility, ease of accessibility, and task completion. the data are then divided into four categories with the following excerpts. synchronous learning assists with internet facilities providing free learning resources for the learners in class. efl learners have stated that they could find abundant references on the internet. when learners are working with the zoom meeting, they browse information by searching online. the internet seems to provide learners with many opportunities to obtain materials quickly and effortlessly. “we can freely search for learning resources to complete assignments on the internet. we can find and download references easily as we want. i like learning through internet devices because i can get information easily by only clicking sources on my mobiles.” (interview, efl learner 5) also, synchronous learning creates time flexibility in handling the tasks given by the teacher. online tools make flexible learning activities. learners could work on the tasks and turn them without considering the place and time. “yes, of course. it is flexible with online learning on time management, and we can also do assignments anywhere. we can set the time to do the assignments according to our wishes. also, there is a notification about the due date for submitting tasks from the teacher.” (interview, efl learner 6) synchronous learning facilitates material accessibility and task submission for the learners. efl learners have said that submitting the assignments could be conducted efficiently. the paperless submissions 86 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 83-88 are also motivating for the learners. this reveals that learners prefer submitting tasks through online tools to handling assignments through handwriting. “with online learning, we can do assignments anywhere and anytime, and no need to copy them on paper by handwriting. the online system is easy to submit assignments and not complicated. with internet connections, i can do homework or assignment easily while i am doing other activities.” (interview, efl learner 7) furthermore, synchronous learning assists the learners in task completion. today, the ease of internet access helps learners complete the tasks given by their college teachers. this condition motivates learners to study in online classes rather than traditional classes. it seems that this synchronous learning mode develops efl learners’ academic tasks, particularly for task submission. they can submit the assignments wherever and whenever they have finished their works. “i think the online system tasks can be quickly completed because we can find references to complete assignments on the internet. in my opinion, through online, i can complete tasks more easily and briefly. then, i am faster at completing assignments because students are not pressured to do assignments.” (interview, efl learner 2) the research results reveal that learners are delighted to have synchronous learning in their study of english spoken skills. various media and resources improve their motivational necessities further to improve their english speaking as a foreign language. the research is in line with previous literature (rerung, 2018; sun & yang, 2015) exploring learners’ perception of blended learning and web 2.0 service in an efl speaking class. it reveals that efl learners are proven to be more conservative and innovative in using online media and various resources to improve their english skills. moreover, the zoom application has supported the learners, specifically to build up confidence whenever they have the chance to speak english. learners tend to be more active in delivering responses, opinions, and even questions. this fact is backed up by the symptom, “we do not have to reveal our faces in front of many people,” which is ironic and reassuring. this finding supports several previous studies (bawanti & arifani, 2021; safitri & khoiriyah, 2017), explaining that learners do not feel nervous or afraid to prove their existence in the course because of the absence of stage pressure. although many internal aspects support learners while learning, it cannot be denied that online learning also overburdens them, making it feel boring and unsatisfactory. these boredom issues become apparent as a result of unregulated continuous assignments. consistent with previous literature (nazara, 2011; rodrigues & vethamani, 2015), college teachers overuse the convenience of assigning tasks and projects without considering learners’ psychological conditions. this condition leads various learners to be pressured on the timeline of submitting many assignments simultaneously. also, online learning and various online media have their strengths to support learners’ necessities in achieving better results on speaking skills. however, not all learners can do so because they are still embarrassed to speak. this finding supports previous studies (encalada & sarmiento, 2019; wibowo & khairunas, 2020) on exploring learners’ perceptions of online learning. the research has found that learners are afraid to make mistakes due to a lack of grammatical and vocabulary knowledge. they feel embarrassed to make errors whenever they try to speak because they lack experience and knowledge, as english is not their native language (racheva, 2018). it is also found that learners feel free to choose learning resources. learners are interested in searching materials on various websites, which help them support their progress in the course. this finding is in line with previous literature by ningias and indriani (2021) on exploring learners’ self-efficacy towards their speaking skills in online learning. it reveals that learners are actively searching for materials to study; access to online websites provides them with much information regarding their specific learning requirements in the course. the efficiency of time management of online learning is proven to be very flexible. these efl practitioners have found that online education could be done anywhere, anytime, at their convenience. this finding is in line with previous literature by bezzazi (2019); and ginaya, rejeki, and astuti (2018) on exploring the effect of blended learning on learners and utilizing technology to further improve their public speaking skills. due to the ease with which learners can access the media used in class, it has been discovered that learners feel less inconvenient when class is in session. they are delighted with online learning because they have the freedom to choose where and when they want to learn. furthermore, synchronous learning is easy to handle, access, and use. this finding is supported by prior literature (chien, hwang, & jong, 2020) investigating the impact of peer assessment on efl learners’ speaking performance and learning perspectives in the setting of spherical video-based virtual reality. to date, learners have the required knowledge to use technology, leading them to have no difficulties accessing any media or platform used in the course. regardless learners use advanced smartphones or computers, they are by no means having a hard time with the technological advancement. distance education is beneficial to learners to achieve better results and progress. learners can access a wealth of information to complete their assignments thanks to the conveniences that online learning provides. learners could finish and submit 87synchronous learning in speaking class .... (tusino, et al.) assignments effortlessly. this finding is in line with the previous study (putri, & rahmani, 2019; qutob, 2018) on exploring the impact of online learning on the development of learners’ speaking skills. it has been discovered that learners are satisfied with the efficiency of synchronous learning to submit assignments. the availability of numerous information encourages learners to seek solutions to the tasks at hand. conclusions the research shows that efl learners feel comfortable using synchronous learning media, particularly the zoom application. learners believe synchronous learning is motivating because they can express themselves more openly and innovatively in their delivery. synchronous learning is beneficial for learners in fostering self-confidence because they do not have to deal with other people directly, which can make them feel nervous, insecure, and inadequate. on the contrary, although synchronous learning is convenient, this mode could make the learners feel burdened and bored. as a result, a hybrid learning strategy that combines synchronous and asynchronous learning could be applied to improve learners’ ability, particularly in english speaking. the research only focuses on the learners’ views of synchronous language learning by employing one class in a university. future research need to be conducted by investigating the implications of online learning tools with larger participants. moreover, further researchers could conduct studies on discussing synchronous and asynchronous learning to increase efl learners’ language skills. english teachers may apply a synchronous learning mode by considering learners’ characteristics and individual differences in learning. also, teachers must be mindful of appropriate topics and time constraints when assigning online tasks to learners. references bawanti, p. k. d., & arifani, y. (2021). the students’ perceptions of using zoom application on mobile phone in improving speaking skills during online learning at ban loeiwangsai school, loei province, thailand. journal of english teaching, literature, and applied linguistics, 5(1), 54-61. http://dx.doi. org/10.30587/jetlal.v5i1.2212. bezzazi, r. (2019). the effect of flipped learning on efl learners’ public speaking in taiwan. journal on english as a foreign language, 9(1), 1-19. https:// doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v9i1.1035. chien, s. y., hwang, g. j., & jong, m. s. y. (2020). effects of peer assessment within the context of spherical video-based virtual reality on efl students’ englishspeaking performance and learning perceptions. computers & education, 146, 103751. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103751. encalada, m. a. r., & sarmiento, s. m. a. (2019). perceptions about self-recording videos to develop efl speaking skills in two ecuadorian universities. journal of language teaching and research, 10(1), 60-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1001.07. ginaya, g., rejeki, i. n. m., & astuti, n. n. s. (2018). the effects of blended learning to students’ speaking ability. international journal of linguistics, literature and culture, 4(3), 1-14. muslem, a., zulfikar, t., & astila, i. (2017). students’ perception of oral corrective feedback in speaking classes. english education journal, 8(3), 275-291. nazara, s. (2011). students’ perception on efl speaking skill development. journal of english teaching, 1(1), 28-43. https://doi.org/10.33541/jet.v1i1.50. nejad, m. m., golshan, m., & naeimi, a. (2021). the effect of synchronous and asynchronous computedmediated communication (cmc) on learners' pronunciation achievement. cogent psychology, 8(1), 45-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2021 .1872908. ningias, r. a., & indriani, l. (2021). efl students' perspectives on their self-efficacy in speaking during the online learning process. english learning innovation, 2(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.22219/ englie.v2i1.14965. putri, r. n., & rahmani, b. d. (2019). students perception on using video recording to improve their speaking accuracy and fluency. uicell conference proceeding, 3, 113-122. qutob, m. m. (2018). the relationship between efl learners’ satisfaction within the classroom environment and their speaking skills. english language teaching, 11(7), 116-124. https://doi. org/10.5539/elt.v11n7p116. racheva, v. (2018). social aspects of synchronous virtual learning environments. aip conference proceedings 2048(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5082050. rerung, m. k. t. (2018). students’ perception on blended learning in english listening and speaking class. journal of english language and culture, 9(1), 1728. http://dx.doi.org/10.30813/jelc.v9i1.1449. rodrigues, p. d., & vethamani, m. e. (2015). the impact of online learning in the development of speaking skills. journal of interdisciplinary research in education, 5(1), 43-67. safitri, n. s. a., & khoiriyah, i. (2017). students' perceptions on the use of english vlog (video blog) to enhance speaking skills. in asean/asian academic society international conference proceeding series. retrieved from http://aasic.org/proc/aasic/article/ view/298. salmon, g. (2013). e-tivities: the key to active online learning. london: routledge. sari, d. i. (2016). students’ perception in a blended learning speaking class. in international conference on education and language (icel). bandar lampung, indonesia. pp. 137-144. retrieved from http://artikel. ubl.ac.id/index.php/icel/article/view/514. sun, y. c., & yang, f. y. (2015). i help, therefore, i learn: service-learning on web 2.0 in an efl speaking 88 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 83-88 class. computer assisted language learning, 28(3), 202-219. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2013.81 8555. truong, h. n. (2021). students' perception towards the use of moodle-based lms in learning speaking skills at tertiary level. in 17th international conference of the asia association of computer-assisted language learning. pp. 128-134. https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/ assehr.k.210226.016. tusino., faridi, a., saleh, m., & fitriati, s. w. (2021). online task-based language teaching using google classroom in writing class: how does it affect efl learners' writing performance and attitude? journal of asia tefl, 18(1), 262-270. http://dx.doi. org/10.18823/asiatefl.2021.18.1.17.262. walsh, j. n., & risquez, a. (2020). using cluster analysis to explore the engagement with a flipped classroom of native and non-native english-speaking management students. the international journal of management education, 18(2), 100-381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijme.2020.100381. wibowo, a. i., & khairunas, s. (2020). student’s perception of online learning for public speaking course. lingua: jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 17(2), 111-122. https://doi. org/10.30957/lingua.v17i2.640. yamagata-lynch, l. c. (2014). blending online asynchronous and synchronous learning. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 15(2), 190-212. https://doi. org/10.19173/irrodl.v15i2.1778. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 245 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 245-255 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7495 the imperative of request in the sulalatus salatin and the archives of banten sultanate zulfikar rachman* the department of integrated humanities, graduate school of letters/school of letters, hiroshima university 1 chome-3-2 kagamiyama, higashihiroshima, hiroshima 739-8511 bukukanji@gmail.com received: 09th july 2021/revised: 15th november 2021/accepted: 19th november 2021 how to cite: rachman, z. (2021). the imperative of request in the sulalatus salatin and the archives of banten sultanate. lingua cultura, 15(2), 245-255. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7495 abstract the research aimed to find the imperative of request in the old manuscripts, analyze its use based on the social status between the speaker and the audience, and analyze the request strategy by analyzing the sentence’s structure. the data were taken from narratives and dialogues of banten sultanate archives dated in 1600s to 1800s and the sulalatus salatin in 1800s. therefore, the research design applied a descriptive qualitative method. the use of minta (ask), minta tolong (asking for help), mohon and pohon (beg/pray), and tolong (help) as request markers were described in graphs. the results show that minta is universal, which can be used from a speaker to an audience with lower-higher, equal, and higher-lower statuses. minta tolong is uttered by a speaker to an audience with lower-higher and equal statuses. in the sulalatus salatin, mohon and pohon request markers are the most spoken to a king. minta is universal, and tolong is uttered by a speaker with higher status to an audience with a lower status. explanation of the situation, apologies, subject, demand, receiver, verb, reason, hope towards the audience, and attention-getter are components to construct an imperative request in the manuscripts. keywords: imperative of request, sulalatus salatin, banten sultanate archives, historical pragmatics introduction imperative of request is an expression to ask an audience to do or not to do a particular activity for the speaker’s desire. requesting is highly essential in daily life communication. the expressions of requesting may vary depending on the relationship between the speaker and the audience. oda (2018) has said an utterance might differ depending on situations, the relationship between speaker and audience, and topics. furthermore, the change of audience, topic, activity, place, medium, emotion, and others also vary the speaking style (oda, 2018). for example, in the japanese community, the type of expression when speaking to an audience with higher status, such as a company director, is different if the audiences are friends or children. the speaker is required to choose the most appropriate expression for these audiences to maintain their relationship. furthermore, the speaker needs to select the most appropriate expression by adding some components in the utterance due to the degree of burden of the requested content that the audience will carry (kumagai & shinozaki, 2006), so the audience may accept the request. for example, when someone borrows 1 dollar from a friend, the request strategy will differ from someone who borrows 1000 dollars from a teacher. in conclusion, the speaker will be required to reconsider some request strategies based on the relationship with audiences, situations, and degree of burden. the imperative of request in japanese and indonesian languages may differ due to the cultural background of both languages. unfortunately, unlike the japanese language, the honorific system and polite form do not exist in the indonesian language. however, indonesian seemingly choose and distinguish the requesting expressions depending on the audience. for example, a speaker would tend to utter more polite expressions to a higherstatus audience, namely a university teacher or director of a company. on the other hand, a speaker may not use a polite expression to close friends or relatives. 246 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 245-255 similar to the japanese language, the imperative of command in the indonesian language is less polite. however, the politeness will be increased by changing it into the imperative of request. the research of modern imperative, exclusively imperative of request, has been reported by maros and halim (2018) in the malay language. they mainly focus on analyzing the alerters, namely the audience’s titles and pronouns of the imperative of request uttered by the students. however, in indonesia, the imperative of request tends to be explained in the research of imperative in general. nurhayati (2018) has compared the imperative in english and acehnese, explaining imperative types and functions, including requesting. tulōng has a function as a politeness marker when uttering a request in the acehnese language. some previous researches have also reported imperative in local language dialects. thamimi and wiranty (2019) have reported the imperatives in the selimbau malay dialect, and ramaniyar (2017) in the sintang malay dialect. tolong and mohon as imperative of request can be found in the sintang malay dialect (ramaniyar, 2017). therefore, tolong is common in some local indonesian languages. tamrin and nursyamsi (2020) have reported tolong as an imperative of request in the local language of palu. septi and nurhayati (2020) have reported that tulung functions as an imperative of request in the javanese language. thus, tolong may disperse in other local languages of indonesia. the imperative of request explanation can also be found in some research of tindak tutur (speech act) between teachers and students in the school (ahmad, 2020; arifin, 2018; asdar, hamsiah, & angraeni, 2019; febriadina, sumarwati, & sumarlam, 2017; qomariyah, 2017; rizal, 2017; sulhan, 2019). as a politeness strategy, the marker tolong is frequently used to utter a more polite imperative by the student to the teacher (arifah, 2019; djarot, 2019; mufazah & sumarti, 2017; nurzafira, nurhadi, & martutik, 2020; sampoerno & chaniago, 2021; septiani, sumarti, & rusminto, 2018). on the other hand, mohon is used in speech rather than daily conversation (indri, faizah, & charlina, 2019; safitri & utomo, 2020; yanyan, 2020). nurpadillah (2019) has also reported mohon is used by the university teacher to the students in the whatsapp group platform. the research of speech act, especially imperative, is developing in indonesia. however, the research focusing on the imperative of request, especially minta tolong and mohon, is not easy to be found. some previous researches describe the types of imperatives without analyzing the use and the structure. imperative of requests in indonesian language are namely kalimat permintaan and kalimat permohonan. in the kalimat permintaan, the polite word tolong (help) or phrase which contains the meaning of minta (ask) are frequently used (rahardi, 2005). in addition, coba (try), harap (hope), mohon (beg/pray), and others such as sudilah kiranya (if you may), dapatkah seandainya (if it is possible), diminta seandainya (i wonder asked), and others, are also considered as imperative of request. meanwhile, kalimat permohonan is marked by the polite word mohon (beg/pray) (rahardi, 2005). also, particle -lah is used to lighten the degree of imperativeness in the request (rahardi, 2005). however, minta tolong (asking for help) and mohon (beg/pray) are more frequently used daily. rahardi (2005) has reported that tolong and mohon are used to lighten the imperative degree and make a more polite expression. however, the classification of each request expression based on speaker and audience relation in the modern indonesian language remains vague. also, the imperative of request structures and its functions are not yet clearly explained. therefore, the research mainly discusses the imperative of request in the indonesian language from the perspective of pragmatics and history. the historical approach expects a better understanding and makes a foundation for further research on the modern indonesian language’s request. applying a pragmatic perspective to historical linguistics describes the development of a language, or the language change, as social acts of communicators under shifting historical circumstances. in this context, the conditions leading to altered types of speech acts are particular, e.g., aims, motives, interests, public and private behavior, institutions, formulae, and rituals. language change from a pragmatic point of view can thus be understood as a shift in (potential) human behavior (jucker, 1995). applying historical dimension to pragmatics suggests that the task of historical pragmatics is to describe pragmatically how language is used in former times as transmitted in historical texts. what types of rules, conditions, and functions of social acts are effective in earlier language stages or processes of language change. in short, historical pragmatics focuses more on language use, pragma-historical linguistics more on language change (jucker, 1995). the combination of the methodology of pragmatics in the linguistic and historical language is later named ‘historical pragmatics’ by andreas h. jucker. historical pragmatics is a study that deals with changes in the linguistic structure resulting from altered communicative needs, which are due to changes in the social structure. the aims of historical pragmatics include (1) the description and the understanding of conventions of language use in communities that once existed and that are no longer accessible for direct observations, and (2) the description and the explanation of the development of speech conventions in the course of time (jucker, 1995). the dialogues or utterances in the novel can be analyzed with pragmatics studies, such as in the research of maghfiroh (2020); marini and purba (2021); nurhaliza, ramli, and idham (2020); umamy and irma (2020). besides, a’yuni and parji (2017); fakhriyah (2020); fitriah and fitriani (2017); laila and septia (2019) have used a novel to analyze its expressive speech acts, locution, illocution, and perlocution. although the research using modern novels is growing, the old manuscript, namely sulalatus salatin and other 247the imperative of request.... (zulfikar rachman) malay essays, is still neglected. the manuscripts are mainly analyzed by historical, philology, and literature studies. handayani (2020) has reported the conception of malay kings, and raden and andrijanto (2017) have researched the wayang illustration in a hikayat. apriyadi (2020) and hidayah (2020) have researched with literature studies on a hikayat. aziz et al. (2020) have reported the acehnese archaic words on hikayat prang sabi for the linguistic. nizam et al. (2020) have used the hikayat abdullah, which originated in 1849, to analyze its stylistic. however, the research of historical pragmatics remains undeveloped in indonesia. concerning these statements, the research contains two objectives. the first is to know the imperative of request in old manuscripts and determine its use depending on the speaker and audience relationship. the second is to analyze the imperative of a request’s structure to explain its request strategies. in addition, the research’s expected benefits are intriguing other researchers to conduct linguistic research with old manuscripts as an object. thus, researchers and readers would profoundly understand the imperative of request in indonesian and malay languages. nevertheless, the research expects the fulfillment of the indonesian government program on traditional culture preservation. as mentioned in the constitution of the republic of indonesia 2017 no. 5 about cultural development, manuscripts are cultural development objects. methods the method applied in the research is descriptive qualitative (kim, sefcik, & bradway, 2017) since it discusses the narrations and dialogues in the old manuscripts. the data are collected from two literatures namely sulalatus salatin: sejarah melayu by ahmad (1979) and perang, dagang, persahabatan surat-surat sultan banten by pudjiastuti (2007). sulalatus salatin: sejarah melayu contains the story of the genealogy of the kings of malay from three different manuscripts dated in the 1800s and written in the malay language. perang, dagang, persahabatan surat-surat sultan banten contains banten sultanate archives related to inauguration, trade agreements, and others. these archives are mainly the letters from the kings and governors of the banten sultanate to england, denmark, and dutch rulers from the 17th to 19th centuries. it is written in malay, arabic, and javanese languages, but the research will handle the request in the malay language. the sulalatus salatin is chosen because it is a long essay that reflects the malay people’s daily life, cultures, and daily conversation in that era. it also contains dialogues between people from various social levels. meanwhile, banten sultanate archives are chosen because it contains many letters with natural written conversation from the 1600s to the 1800s. the research is designed through the following steps. first, the research focuses on tolong (help), minta (ask), and mohon (beg/pray) because these words are imperative of request that is often used in daily conversation. second, list tolong, minta, and mohon by their function and classify the imperative of request through the year found in the manuscripts. third, the words are then processed into a graph to show the use of the requesting markers based on the speaker and audience relation and status. the status will be divided into low-high, equal, high-low. lastly, collect the words or phrases before and after tolong, minta, and mohon to examine the request strategy. from the research’s objects selected, 237 words are found with 71 words as imperative of request, 73 words as non-imperative of request, 75 words as asking permission, 15 words as apologies, and three words found in praying context. if a verb is followed after tolong, it will be classified as ‘request’ because the speaker asks the audience to do a particular activity for the speaker’s benefit. meanwhile, if after minta appears nouns that show objects, for instance, money, food, and others, it will be classified as a ‘nonimperative request’ since it does not fulfill the function of requesting. minta maaf, minta ampun, mohon maaf, and mohon ampun, which mean asking for forgiveness, are classified as ‘apologies’. suppose the speaker says mohon to ask permission from the audience to do a particular act. in that case, it will be classified as ‘asking permission’. bermohon pulang, bermohon kembali, which means asking permission to go home, also include as ‘asking permission’. lastly, suppose tolong, mohon, and minta are followed by allah or god. in that case, it will be classified as a ‘praying context’. however, in the research, only expressions that have functioned as imperative of request will be processed into a graph to compare each word briefly. the graph describes the relation and status between speaker and audience. the graph will help the analysis of the requesting strategy. the requesting strategy spoken by a speaker with lower status to an audience with higher status is different and vice versa. thus, classifying the words and phrases are necessary. the words or phrases which come before and after tolong, minta, mohon are described as components of the requesting strategy. components are then processed into a table. finally, the function of each component will be described. results and discussions the imperative of request markers in the banten archives and sulalatus salatin are represented in table 1. there are 37 examples of the imperative of request in banten sultanate letters with minta (ask) and minta tolong (asking for help) as request markers, but mohon (beg/pray) cannot be found because the bantenese people speak in javanese to each other. meanwhile, the malay language is used as a common language to communicate with other communities. minta as imperative of request has been confirmed in the 1619 archive and minta tolong in 1635. indonesian applies 248 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 245-255 these imperatives in the daily conversation to utter a request. thus, minta and minta tolong are estimated to function as imperative of request for 380-400 years. the stem of minta is not significantly changed. in the 1794 archive, there is meminta. meminta is minta gets prefix ’me-’ but the function as imperative of request is still intact. minta with apostrophe mark (‘) is found in the 1802 and 1808 archives. the apostrophe indicates the sound [k] at the end of the word. therefore, minta’ can be pronounced as mintak. the repetition of minta and minta tolong discovers in the letter from prince muhyiddin and panembahan anom. the function of repetition is to emphasize the request (katami, 2014). in the sulalatus salatin, a total of 34 imperative of request examples with the following details, 11 words of mohon, 21 minta, and one example of tolong as imperative of request are found. also, there are pinta and pohonkan that function as imperative of request. according to the sanskrit language dictionary, pinta has the same meaning as minta (ask). meanwhile, pohonkan comes from the word pohon gets suffix -kan. in the sulalatus salatin, pohon has the same meaning and function as mohon (beg/pray) to utter a request. furthermore, pohon can also be found in another story, namely hikayat sang boma (rahman & ahmad, 2017). it is said, sang boma berkata: “patek pohonkan sa-buah negeri tempat patek diam” (sang boma said “i beg for a nation for my settlement.”). in this conversation, sang boma asks the king to grant him a nation. sang boma says pohonkan to make a very polite imperative of request because the audience is a king. thus, pinta and pohon as an imperative of request in the sulalatus salatin are not words mistakenly written by the hikayat’s author but common in malay literature. however, both are not generally used in modern indonesian literature and daily conversation. table 1 findings of imperative of request in malay language shown in years request markers years references minta 1619 banten archive minta 1629 banten archive meminta 1794 banten archive minta` 1802 banten archive minta 1804 banten archive minta 1806 banten archive minta 1808 banten archive minta` 1808 banten archive minta 1808 sulalatus salatin pinta 1808 sulalatus salatin minta 1896 sulalatus salatin pinta 1896 sulalatus salatin mohonkan 1808 sulalatus salatin mohonkan 1896 sulalatus salatin pohonkan 1896 sulalatus salatin bermohon 1896 sulalatus salatin minta tolong 1635 banten archive minta tolong 1672 banten archive minta tolong 1680 banten archive minta tolong 1811 banten archive tolong 1896 sulalatus salatin the findings in the banten sultanate’s archive are represented in figure 1. minta tolong and minta are the imperative request markers found in the banten sultanate’s archives. minta tolong (asking for help) is a speech act that shows a humble attitude of the figure 1 finding in banten sultanate’s archive 249the imperative of request.... (zulfikar rachman) speaker when asking about a particular activity for the speaker’s benefit. meanwhile, minta means to demand something from the audience. minta tolong and minta (ask) have similarities and dissimilarities in their use. minta tolong is uttered as a request from a lower status speaker to an audience with higher status and a speaker and an audience with equal status. otherwise, minta is universal. it is uttered as a request from a speaker to an audience with various statuses. data 1 is the example of minta tolong written by a lower status speaker to an audience with higher status in the letter of prince anom to the king of england. data 1: tiada berani mengalahkan wolanda yang adha dhi negeri jayakerta pangeran anom minta tolong kepada raja inggeris beddil dan ubat dan punglu saja juga. insyaallah jika raja inggeris membantu senjata dhengan… (not brave enough to defeat the dutch in jayakerta, prince anom requests the king of england guns, gunpowder, and punglu. god willing if the king of england helps with guns…) this letter is dated 1635. in this letter, prince anom asks the king of england for guns and gunpowder. the guns and gunpowder are necessary for the war with the dutch in jayakerta. minta tolong is uttered by prince anom, a banten sultanate’s crown prince to charles i and charles ii, king of england, to make a polite imperative of request. therefore, minta tolong is uttered as a request from a speaker with lower status to an audience with higher status. data 2 is the example of minta tolong written by a speaker to an audience with equal status in the letter between the banten sultanate king to the king of england. data 2: anom dan pangeran ahmad itu sekarang ini minta tolong kepada raja inggeris selamanya minta tolong menembak pulo merak dan caringin dan anyer. mulanya kita… (anom and prince ahmad now request the king of england to please keep shooting the pulo merak and caringin and anyer, at first we are…) this letter is dated 1811. in this letter, sultan panembahan anom and prince ahmad ask the king of england to shoot pulo merak, caringin, and anyer because the sultanate does not have big weapons for the war. the sultan writes minta tolong to the king of england to make a polite imperative of request. the sultan and king of england have diplomatic relations; therefore, their status is equal. minta tolong literally means ‘asking for help’. however, from data 2, minta tolong means to request because the speaker politely asks the audience to do a particular activity. the use of minta (ask) as an imperative of request is universal. universal means the speaker can utter it to the audience with various statuses. there is only one example of minta as a request uttered by a low-status speaker to a higher-status audience. this is referred to the letter of prince anom, the crown prince of banten sultanate, to charles i, the king of england that says, “karena inilah pangeran anom minta bantu kepada raja inggeris hendhak mengalahkan wolanda yang ada di negeri jayakerta.” (thus, prince anom ask for aid to the king of england to defeat the dutch in the jayakerta). the prince writes minta bantu (ask for aid) to request the king of england in this letter. however, prince anom has lower status compared to the king of england. thus, a speaker and an audience with lower-higher status do not generally use minta at that time. the speaker and audience with equal status frequently use minta in the banten sultanate archives. the use of minta between ‘king-king’ status can be referred to the letters from banten sultanate to the king of england dated in the 1600s. “raja banten minta dhikirim beddil dan penglu dan ubat.” (the king of banten asked (the king of england) to send guns, penglu, and gunpowder). in this letter, the king of banten writes minta to request the king of england. the status between the kings is equal. therefore, minta can be applied to utter a request by a speaker to an audience with equal status. lastly, minta is used by a speaker to an audience with higher-lower status. however, there is only one example that can be found in the research. in 1619, prince gebang sent a short letter to kapiten moer (captain moer). the letter ended with dan jikalau kapitan suka kita minta padha kapitan moer/ (and if captain like/favors it, we would like to ask/) without any verb following. the letter is a notification to captain moer about prince gebang’s subordinates, namely anom, kalithuh, and bladong. despite the possibility that there is no connection with the letter’s content, from the context, minta in the sentence contains a request from the prince to the captain to continue a particular activity. after describing the types of imperatives of request markers and their use, the researcher will analyze the structure of the sentence to explain the request strategies. the words or phrases that appeared before and after tolong, mohon, and minta in the banten sultanate archives are represented in table 2. these indicate the components of the sentence. seven components can be found within the sentence: explanation of the situation, apologies, subject, demand, receiver, verb, and reason to construct an imperative request. generally, the request strategy in the banten sultanate archive is subject-minta tolong/minta (request marker)receiver-verb. the sentence will become longer and more complex by adding more components. other components can be attached to add persuasiveness to the utterance so the audience can accept the request. ‘explanation of the situation’ is often spoken before asking a request. for example, in the banten sultanate archives, the death, testament of the previous king, pledge, and agreement between the banten 250 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 245-255 kings and foreign rulers are frequently written in letters. their function is to explain the situation before uttering a request. likewise, sentences before karena inilah (because of this), maka (therefore) indicate the reason for the request and explain certain situations. regarding this, kumagai and shinozaki (2006) have said the explanation of the situation (jōkyō setsumei) has a function to share situation awareness between the speaker and the audience regarding the necessity of the request by informing the circumstances. in addition, the speaker shows politeness by adding reason before uttering a request (jaafar, maros, & yusof, 2009). thus, the audience will more presumably accept the request. ‘apologies’ in the banten sultanate archives are also mentioned before performing a request. a total of three sentences of the imperative of request, which contain apologies on its structure, could be found from the letters. moreover, apologies are hardly found on 1600s letters, but all of them can be referred to in the 1800s letters from banten rulers to dutch rulers. kumagai and shinozaki (2006) have mentioned that apologies in the imperative of request work to show a feeling of thoughtfulness and are grateful or obliged to burden the audience. in the japanese language, apologies can be referred to as gratitude toward an audience. when the speaker gains something from the audience, the speaker interprets it as ‘to burden the audience/had burdened the audience’. however, apologies and gratitude remain separate in malay or modern indonesian, but both show thoughtfulness to the audience. the writer of the letter mostly puts their name before the request marker. on the other hand, they tend to mention the receiver’s title rather than a name when performing a request. the writer’s name is classified as ‘subject’ in the research, and the receiver is ‘receiver’. banten sultanate rulers use personal pronouns, for instance, saya, kita/kami, or mention their titles to address themselves. meanwhile, they avoid mentioning the receiver’s name but instead call them by their titles, such as gurnadur jenderal, raden van india, and others. addressing the receiver’s title without mentioning the name can be interpreted as avoiding directiveness in the utterance. the use of the title also shows respect from the speaker (jaafar, maros, & yusof, 2009). thus, the politeness level is increased. furthermore, adding subject and receiver indicate the emphasis of a formal request by the writer to the receiver, which also increases the politeness of the request. in daily conversation of the modern indonesian language, subject, receiver, or audience’s name tend to be omitted. however, bapak, ibu, or other titles are frequently mentioned in the opening of an utterance when requesting a higher status audience. on the other hand, the name is often mentioned when requesting an audience with lower status, namely friends and juniors in school. ‘demand’ is located before or after the request marker but is commonly mentioned after. banyakbanyak (a lot), boleh (may/possible), and others are mentioned to show the earnestness of the writer. these words also express the speaker’s ‘reliance’ on the audience’s act. thus, the receiver may accept the request. however, the use of ‘demand’ may decrease politeness because it obliges the receiver to accept the request. in the banten sultanate archives, the active and passive verb can be found. the active verb is often represented with a verb that gets the prefix “me-,” for instance, menembak and menjadi. meanwhile, the passive verb is a form of a verb that gets the prefix di-, namely dibawa and dikirim. in the modern indonesian language, passive form is correlated with politeness. the utterance becomes polite, and the degree of the imperative is lightened (rahardi, 2005). passive form in the imperative of request can be found in the 1600s and 1800s banten sultanate archives into the modern indonesian language. ‘reason’ is indicated by karena, kaperna, and sebab that shows after the request marker. a total of three examples of ‘reason’ can be found in the banten sultanate’s archives. the cause of few findings is that tabel 2 words or phrases that appeared before and after request markers in banten archives before after 1. explanation of the situation 2. apologies: minta beribu-ribu maaf (ask for thousand apologies), saribu ampun dan dua ribu ampun (my deepest apologies) 3. subject: kita/kami (we), raja banten (king of banten), pangeran anom (prince anom), saya (i), pangeran muhyiddin (prince muhyiddin) 4. demand: banyak-banyak (a lot) 5. receiver: padha kapitan moer (to captain moer), kepada tuan gubernur (to mr. governor), kepada kompeni (to the company (voc)), kepada raja inggeris (to the king of england), kapadha tuwan (to you (with respect)), capade raja engris (to the king of england), kepadha rajaraja inggeris (to the kings of england) 6. demand: banyak-banyak (a lot), dengan seboleh-bolehnya (as possible), supaya boleh (if possible), sampai gusar seboleh-boleh kasihan dan pertolongan (ask your possible pity and help until angry), dengan kemurahan dan kasihan beserta pertolongan (with your generosity, pity, and help) 7. verb: dhikirim (to be sent), bantu (to aid), menjadi sultan (to become a king), dibawa (to be carried), menembak (to shoot) 8. reason: sebab/karena/kaperna (because of) 251the imperative of request.... (zulfikar rachman) the reasons are explicitly explained by the explanation of the situation (jaafar, maros, & yusof, 2009; kumagai & shinozaki, 2006). the function of ‘reason’ is to add and emphasize the necessity of the requested content. the findings in the sulalatus salatin are represented in figure 2. mohon and pohon (beg/pray), minta (ask), and tolong are requesting markers can be found. minta and tolong are described in the findings of the banten sultanate archives. minta has the same universal use as in the banten sultanate’s archives. however, in the sulalatus salatin tolong is uttered by a higher-status speaker to an audience with lower status. also, mohon and pohon can be found. mohon means to beg/to pray in the malay and indonesian languages and can be uttered when praying to god or requesting an audience to do a particular act. pray is a speech act that shows modesty but shows the earnestness of a speaker when imploring a particular act. it is not limited to praying to god but is commonly used by its secular implication (katami, 2014). in the sulalatus salatin, mohonkan and pohonkan can only be found when the lower-status speaker requests the king. here is the utterance from a minister to the king: “tuanku, jikalau ada kurnia duli yang dipertuan, patik hendak mohonkan jadi panglima gajah…” (my lord, if there is a blessing from your highness, i beg/pray (to you) to promote me as a war elephant general). the sultan is granting his minister’s wishes. that sentence is spoken by one of the ministers who asked to be promoted as a war elephant general. the minister utters mohon to make a very polite imperative of request because the audience is the king. therefore, mohon is a request marker spoken by a speaker with lower status to an audience with higher status, namely king, who is the highest status. the use of mohon that mainly focuses on the kings may connect with the identity of a king as god (dewaraja) in classic malay literature. the use of minta (ask) shows similarity with the findings in the banten sultanate archives. it is universal because speakers and audiences with lowerhigher, equal, and higher-lower statuses can use it. in figure 2, minta is commonly used by a king when asking people with various statuses but focuses on the people with lower status. the example is in ahmad (1979), titah yang maha mulia itu; bahawa beta minta diperbuatkan hikayat pada bendahara… (the highness ordered; i ask the minister to make a hikayat…). in this example, the king utters minta to order his minister to write a hikayat. the sentence becomes polite because minta lightens the degree of the imperative. the king asks humbly instead of ordering his minister. this humble attitude may relate to the use of minta by the speaker and audience with equal and lower-higher status. figure 2 findings in the sulalatus salatin 252 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 245-255 there is only one example (data 3) of tolong in the sulalatus salatin. data 3 is a dialogue between the sultan and his minister when he asked them to unrevealed his secret marriage with another king’s divorced widow (ahmad, 1979). data 3: maka titah sultan muzaffar syah, “jikalau ada tolong bendahara dan seri nara diraja, lindungkanlah rahsia hamba ini…” (then sultan muzaffar syah ordered, “if there is help from the minister and seri nara diraja, please keep my secret…”). in data 3, the sultan asks his minister to keep his secret. tolong is uttered because of the degree of burden of the requested content. marrying another king’s divorced widow may affect sultan’s face in front of other kingdoms. therefore, the sultan uses tolong to ask his ministers to keep his secret humbly. a higher-status speaker does not commonly use tolong to a lower-status audience. similar to the banten sultanate’s archives, the researcher will explain the request strategies’ sentence structure. the words or phrases that appeared before and after mohon, minta, and tolong are represented in table 3. the dissimilarity between banten sultanate archives and sulalatus salatin is that sulalatus salatin has an attention-getter and hope towards an audience in its structure. furthermore, the request strategy is also different when a higher-status speaker requests an audience with lower status. the strategy is subjectminta/tolong (request marker)-verb-audience. meanwhile, if a lower-status speaker requests an audience with higher status, the request strategy is hope towards audience-subject-mohon & pohon/minta (request markers)-verb. also, attention getter and reason can be added at the beginning and the end of the utterance. data 4 is the example of the imperative of request uttered by a speaker with lower status to an audience with higher status (ahmad, 1979). in the sentence, all components are mentioned in the imperative structure of the request except the audience. data 4: maka yang pertama berdatang sembah seri wak raja, demikian sembahnya, “tuanku (attentiongetter), jikalau ada kurnia duli yang dipertuan (hope towards audience), patik (subject) hendak mohonkan (request marker) jadi (verb) panglima gajah, kerana (reason) seri wak raja itu sangat gemar akan gajah, lagi terlalu tahu…” (and then seri wak raja is the first one to come, he said, “my lord, if there is a blessing from your highness, i beg/pray to you to promote me as a war elephant general because seri wak raja likes elephant and knows a lot…”). tuanku and ayahanda are the title of the audience that also function as greeting to get the audience’s attention. alerters serve as attention-getter precedes the requests and whose function is to alert the hearer’s attention to the ensuing speech act (maros & halim, 2018). attention-getter tends to be used to an audience with higher status. it has functions to show the polite attitude of the speaker and respect towards the audience. the use of the title to the audience, whether younger or older, is to show respect (jaafar, maros, & yusof, 2009). attention-getter also can be observed in the current indonesian daily conversation. bapak/ibu/ saudara or other titles are often mentioned to show respect to the audience. meanwhile, the audience’s name will be addressed when speaking to an audience with lower status or friend. ‘hope towards the audience’ is mainly found if the speaker has a lower status than the audience. this component shows a speaker’s humble attitude and reliance on the audience’s act. it also lightens the imperative degree because the speaker does not forcibly ask but considers the audience to decline the request. thus, ‘hope towards the audience’ increases the politeness in the imperative of request. a few examples of sultan using this component when requesting to a lower-status audience can also be found. however, it is very uncommon for a sultan to use this component on the utterance because sultan can order his subordinates. the use of ‘hope towards the audience’ to an audience table 3 words or phrases that appeared before and after request markers in sulalatus salatin before after 1. attention-getter: tuanku (my lord), ayahanda (father) 2. hope towards audience: jikalau ada kurnia/karunia/ derma/tolong/ampun duli yang dipertuan/tuanku/ bendahara/seri nara diraja (if there is blessing help/ forgiveness from your highness/my lord/the minister/seri nara diraja, jikalau ada kasihmu akan aku (if there is your love to me) 3. subject: patik (i), patik sekalian (we), anakanda (i (child)), kami (we), hang nadim, ia (he/she), beta (i), baginda (the king), paduka tuan 4. verb: difadihatkan (to be humiliated), dinista yang kejikeji (terribly belittle), jadi (to become), nobat (to inaugurate), minta dibunuh (ask to be killed), minta ubati (ask to get cure), minta disegerakan kembalinya (ask to return him immediately), minta dibuatkan (ask to make), minta bukai (ask to open) 5. audience: pada sultan mahmud shah (to sultan mahmud shah), ke bawah duli paduka ayahanda (to the royal highness), duli yang maha mulia (to the royal highness), pada bendahara (to the minister), pada paman (to uncle), pada dayang-dayang (to the maids), kepadamu (to you) 6. reason: kerana, supaya (because) 253the imperative of request.... (zulfikar rachman) with lower status is related to the speaker’s earnest attitude when executing an imperative of request. also, it relates to the ‘big burden’ of the requested content and reliance on the audience. generally, more polite imperative strategies are required if the burden is enormous. meanwhile, showing reliance expresses a humble attitude that results in the audience as if being in a higher position. in the sulalatus salatin, ‘reason’ is often used after uttering a request. it is marked with conjunctions kerana or supaya and followed by a description of why the speaker makes a request. thus, it has a similar function as an explanation of the situation (jaafar, maros, & yusof, 2009; kumagai & shinozaki, 2006) in the banten sultanate archive’s findings. in addition, the use of ‘reason’ is to inform the audience about the necessity of the request. thus, the audience would more presumably accept the request. the imperative of request in the 1600s to 1800s is generally uttered in declarative sentences. an example of the imperative of request in an interrogative sentence could not be found. meanwhile, in the current indonesian daily conversation, bisa (can) and boleh (may) have a function to construct an interrogative sentence on the imperative of request. in conclusion, there is a change in language use, especially in the imperative of request from the 1600s into the modern indonesian language. changes in social structure and people’s awareness about politeness in the utterance may become the background of this language use changes. conclusions the imperative of request markers in the 1600s to 1800s old manuscripts are minta (ask), minta tolong (asking for help), mohon or pohon (beg/pray), and tolong (help). the use is determined by the social status between the speaker and the audience. minta in the banten sultanate archives and sulalatus salatin have the same universal use. minta can be uttered from a speaker to an audience with lower-higher, equal, and higher-lower statuses. minta tolong is commonly found in the banten sultanate archives. it may be used from a speaker to an audience with equal and lowerhigher status. mohon could be found in the sulalatus salatin and is mainly used to utter a request to a king. thus, the use is spoken by a speaker to an audience with lower-higher status. tolong could be found in the sulalatus salatin that is spoken from a speaker to an audience with higher-lower status. the requested strategy of the imperative of request in the banten sultanate archives is subjectminta tolong/minta (request markers)-receiver-verb on its structure. explanation of situation, apologies, demand, and reason can also be added at the beginning or end of the sentence to increase its persuasiveness. there are two different request strategies in the sulalatus salatin’s. if a speaker has a lower status than the audience, the strategy is hope towards an audiencesubject-mohon&pohon/minta (request markers)verb. attention-getter and reason can be added to the structure to increase its persuasiveness. meanwhile, if a higher-status speaker requests an audience with lower status, the request strategy is subject-minta/ tolong-verb-audience. the research findings can contribute to making a profound understanding of minta tolong, minta, and mohon as imperative of request in the malay language from the perspective of pragmatics and history of the indonesian language. however, the use of each imperative of request marker may be different because of the change of communicative needs and social structure of the modern indonesian. the research is not a thorough study of the imperative of request because the grammaticalization of each request marker is not yet clear. old malay manuscripts dated before the 1600s are necessary to analyze grammaticalization, but they are limited and not easy to find. the research also focused only on the imperative of requests from the old malay manuscripts. therefore, the research implies three suggestions for future research. first, it considers more profound research on one specific imperative or expression, such as apologizing, showing gratitude, declining, and others. the second is to reconsider the use of tolong, mohon, and minta in modern indonesian language based on the status of the speaker and audience to find if there is a change in its use using contrastive methods. third, it considers another historical pragmatics research in other languages, namely, javanese, sundanese, and other local languages using old manuscripts. acknowledgment the author would like to express gratitude to mext and professor shigeru takanaga from the school of letters, hiroshima university, for supporting this study. furthermore, professor titik pudjiastuti from the university of indonesia, for transliterating old manuscripts written in jawi and pegon so the research can be conducted. also, the researcher would like to thank both professor shigeru takanaga and 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(2020). analisis kesantunan imperatif bahasa indonesia dalam teks pidato siswa kelas ix smp negeri 1 cidadap kabupaten sukabumi. bahastra: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 5(1), 89-97. 94 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 model pembelajaran kaiwa tingkat dasar sesuai dengan jf standard timur sri astami japanese department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jln. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, kemanggisan, jakarta barat 11480 timur_astami@yahoo.com abstract speaking competence is a productive skill. however, when associated with the textbook minna no nihongo 1, it becomes a grammar teaching materials. minna no nihongo i renshuu c is the material of sentence applications in conversation. if renshuu c want to be used as a matter of conversation, there is a gap that the expected competencies in conversation classes cannot be met and unnatural. this matter is not in accordance with the expected competencies in jf standard. thus, in this qualitative study, the contents of two textbooks, minna no nihongo 1 and marugoto a1 katsudou specifically related to the ability of speaking competence in accordance with jf standard were being compared and reviewed. additionally, the expected competencies based on the jf standard for the basic level of oral competence are capable of performing simple conversation, slowly and repeated, replacing the phrase, providing help, capable to ask questions about significant things by using daily conversation. also, the things which should be a concern is that the goal of making the conversational material is not the same with grammar learning. when using minna no nihongo 1 renshuu c as a conversation material, it needs to be developed by observing the targets of communication and the naturalness of each material on each meeting. keywords: japanese language, jf standard can do, speaking competence, renshuu c abstrak kompetensi berbicara merupakan kemahiran bersifat produktif. namun, bila dikaitkan dengan buku ajar minna no nihongo 1, kompetensi berbicara merupakan materi ajar tata bahasa. buku minna no nihongo i bagian renshuu c adalah materi penerapan pola kalimat ke dalam sebuah percakapan. apabila hendak menggunakan renshuu c sebagai materi percakapan, terdapat kesenjangan bahwa kompetensi yang diharapkan pada kelas percakapan tidak dapat terpenuhi dan tidak alami. hal ini belum sesuai dengan kompetensi yang diharapkan sesuai dengan jf standard. maka dalam penelitian kualitatif ini dua buku bahan ajar minna no nihongo 1 dengan marugoto a1 katsudou khususnya yang berhubungan dengan kemampuan berbicara sesuai dengan jf standard dibandingkan dan ditelaah isinya. adapun kompetensi yang diharapkan sesuai dengan jf standard adalah pada kompetensi lisan tingkat dasar mampu melakukan percakapan sederhana, perlahan dan diulang-ulang, mengganti ungkapan, memberi bantuan, mampu bertanya jawab mengenai hal penting dengan menggunakan topik sehari-hari. dan yang patut dijadikan perhatian adalah tujuan dari pembuatan materi percakapan tidaklah sama dengan pembelajaran tata bahasa. apabila menggunakan buku mnn 1 pada bagian renshuu c sebagai materi percakapan, materi tersebut perlu dikembangkan dengan memperhatikan target komunikasi dan kealamiahan masing-masing materi pada tiap pertemuan. kata kunci: bahasa jepang, jf standard can do , kemampuan berbicara, renshuu c 95model pembelajaran kaiwa .... (timur sri astami) pendahuluan pada mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan atau dengan kata lain disebut dengan mendengar dan berbicara, khususnya adalah dua mata kuliah yang berhubungan dengan kemahiran atau kemampuan berbahasa. keduanya terdiri dari dua keterampilan bahasa yang bersifat reseptif dan produktif. adapun yang termasuk ke dalam kemahiran bersifat reseptif adalah mendengar dan berbicara, sedangkan kemahiran yang bersifat produktif adalah berbicara dan menulis. pada jurusan sastra jepang di lembaga kami, kedua keterampilan berbahasa menyimak dan berbicara tersebut tergabung ke dalam satu mata kuliah, yang tidak dipisahkan secara mandiri, namun dilaksanakan secara integratif. mata kuliah percakapan merupakan salah satu komponen keterampilan berbahasa yang bersifat produktif. keterampilan tersebut dapat berjalan dengan baik, tanpa didukung dengan keterampilan yang bersifat reseptif seperti menyimak, hal ini berlaku sebaliknya. keduanya saling mendukung satu sama lain. untuk memenuhi kompetensi komunikatif berbicara yang alami tentunya tidak cukup dengan terpenuhinya kaidah kebahasaan secara linguistik saja, tetapi juga didukung oleh faktor non linguistik seperti situasi dan kondisinya bagaimana, di mana kita berbicara, kepada siapa kita berbicara, tujuan bicara dan sebagainya, atau biasa disebut dengan sosiolinguistik hingga kemahiran pragmatik. berdasarkan hasil pengamatan penulis yang pernah mengampu mata kuliah menyimak dan percakapan ii yang menggunakan buku ajar minna no nihongo i, materi percakapan khususnya pada bagian renshuu c belum memenuhi kaidah standar kompetensi berbicara alamiah. diperlukan penambahan materi tersendiri agar kompetensi alamiah tersebut muncul. karena pada dasarnya materi pada buku ajar minna no nihongo i pada bagian renshuu c merupakan materi penerapan pola tata bahasa yang dapat digunakan dalam percakapan pada tiap bab nya, yang kadangkala kompetensi berbicara yang diharapkan tidak muncul, selain itu juga kealamiahannya juga kadangkala juga tidak ada. sehingga bila digunakan sebagai model percakapan kurang memenuhi standar kompetensi yang diharapkan sesuai jf standard atau disebut dengan jf nihongo kyouiku standaado. pada website jf nihongo kyouiku standaado disebutkan tingkatan kompetensi komunikatif merujuk pada standar bahasa setingkat cefr yang dipergunakan di eropa. yakni dengan memfokuskan pada kemahiran tidak hanya secara gramatikal saja juga kemahiran sosiolinguistik hingga pragmatik. berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, maka penulis ingin mencoba menelaah isi kedua materi ajar minna no nihongo i dan marugoto a1. pada buku marugoto a1 salah satu indikator kompetensi lisan tingkat dasar adalah mampu melakukan percakapan sederhana, perlahan dan diulang-ulang, mengganti ungkapan, memberi bantuan, mampu bertanya jawab mengenai hal penting dengan menggunakan topik sehari-hari. dengan demikian harapan pada penelitian ini sebagai seorang pengajar lebih memperhatikan hal apa saja yang perlu diterapkan dalam mengembangkan materi renshuu c, agar menjadi sebuah model percakapan yang sesuai dengan jf nihongo kyouiku standaado pada tiap pertemuannya untuk mendukung pencapaian target kompetensi komunikatif yang diharapkan dalam kemahiran berbicara pada tiap pertemuannya. metode metode penelitian ini adalah pendekatan kualitatif dengan mengumpulkan dan menelaah dua buku ajar bahasa jepang tingkat dasar. adapun buku ajar tersebut adalah minna no nihongo i pada bagian renshuu c dan marugoto katsudo 1. penulis membandingkan, memilah data dan mengklasifikasikan masing-masing dari kedua buah buku tersebut bagian mana saja yang memenuhi kompetensi komunikatif, khususnya pada buku minna no nihongo i bagian renshuu c yang harus dikembangkan dengan merujuk buku marugoto katsudo 1 sebagai bahan acuan. hasil temuan yang belum memenuhi target komunikasi dan kealamiahan pada buku minna no nihongo i khususnya akan dipaparkan pada bagian pembahasan dengan tiga buah contoh sampel. aktivitas komunikasi aktivitas komunikasi merupakan suatu kegiatan manusia sebagai individu dan antar individu satu dengan lainnya. maka halliday dalam brown (2007) menyebutkan bahwa fungsi bahasa yang salah satunya berfungsi sebagai sarana interaksi, bertujuan untuk menjamin serta memantapkan ketahanan dan kelangsungan komunikasi, interaksi sosial. keberhasilan komunikasi seperti ini menuntut pengetahuan secukupnya mengenai banyak segi seperti budaya, tatakrama pergaulan, cerita rakyat dsb. mempelajari bahasa kedua tentunya tak semudah saat mempelajari bahasa pertama. terlebih bahasa kedua tersebut dipelajari bukan di negara tempat bahasa itu berasal. selain faktor tempat, faktor pemahaman akan bahasa kedua itu sendiri, seringkali menjadi kesulitan bagi pelajar, yakni dengan pemahaman bahasa pertamanya yang tidak mampu menetap dengan baik. hal itu menimbulkan suatu kesulitan tersendiri bagi pelajar. ketika kita mempelajari bahasa asing, tentunya tak akan lepas dari pengetahuan menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis atau lebih dikenal dengan istilah empat keterampilan berbahasa atau dalam bahasa jepang disebut dengan yon ginou (4技能). menyimak adalah mendengarkan atau memperhatikan dengan baik-baik apa yang diucapkan dan dibaca oleh orang, berbicara adalah berkata atau bercakap, membaca adalah melihat serta memahami isi dari apa yang tertulis dengan melisankan atau di dalam hati, sedangkan menulis adalah membuat huruf, angka, dan sebagainya. umumnya, keempat keterampilan berbahasa tersebut mengacu proses decoding dan enconding. proses decoding merujuk pada proses untuk memahami tuturan orang lain baik yang lisan atau pun tulis dan disebut dengan kemampuan reseptif. ada pun yang termasuk ke dalam keterampilan decoding, yakni menyimak dan membaca. sementara itu, yang dimaksud dengan proses enconding adalah proses untuk menghasilkan sesuatu berupa ujaran atau pun tertulis, kemampuan ini masuk ke dalam kategori keterampilan yang bersifat produktif dan yang termasuk ke dalam keterampilan encoding, yakni berbicara dan menulis. 96 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 aktivitas reseptif pada aktivitas reseptif berlaku suatu proses yang disebut dengan decoding. adapun yang dimaksud dengan decoding adalah merujuk pada proses untuk memahami tuturan orang lain baik yang berbentuk lisan atau pun tulisan. sehingga memahami tuturan lisan dapat dipadankan dengan aktivitas menyimak dan memahami tuturan dalam bentuk tulis dapat dipadankan dengan aktivitas membaca. pada aktivitas menyimak sangat dibutuhkan kemampuan untuk memperhatikan dan mendengarkan dengan baik apa yang diucapkan oleh orang lain dalam bentuk monolog maupun dialog. dapat berupa siaran berita, pengumuman informasi di bandara mengenai jadwal keberangkatan, orang yang sedang bercakap-cakap di telepon dan sebagainya. sedangkan, pada aktivitas membaca dibutuhkan akan kemampuan untuk memahami isi tulisan orang lain. dapat berupa membaca di dalam hati ataupun dilisankan, yakni berupa ulasan berita surat kabar, iklan mengenai loker, surat dan sebagainya. aktivitas produktif aktivitas produktif mengalami suatu proses yang disebut dengan enconding. yang dimaksud dengan enconding adalah proses untuk menghasilkan sesuatu yang berupa ujaran atau pun dalam bentuk suatu tulisan. suatu ujaran yang dihasilkan setelah melalui proses pemahaman tuturan orang lain dapat dipadankan dengan ativitas berbicara. dan pada aktivitas menulis merujuk pada proses menghasilkan suatu tulisan baik berupa huruf, angka dan sebagainya. adapun kemahiran berbicara dan menulis termasuk ke dalam kategori keterampilan yang bersifat produktif atau keterampilan enconding. untuk membangun kemahiran berbicara, target pembelajaran pada mata kuliah tiap semesternya yang berhubungan dengan kelas kemahiran berbicara yang diampu sangat penting diperhatikan. pada kelas percakapan aktivitas berbicara selama proses belajar dapat berupa interviu, diskusi, speech maupun role play, yang kesemuanya memungkinkan dilakukan berdasarkan tingkatan siswa. untuk tingkat dasar khususnya proses belajar di kelas yang paling memungkinkan dalam bentuk role play dibandingkan diskusi. karena dalam bentuk diskusi diperlukan kemampuan berbicara yang lebih tinggi dan baik dengan menggunakan bahasa jepang dan agar juga dapat dimengerti oleh semua audience. sedangkan pada kelas dasar sebagian besar siswa belum memiliki kemampuan berbicara yang lebih tinggi dengan menggunakan bahasa jepang. bila melihat proses berbicara yang terjadi adalah ketika akan mengungkapkan sesuatu yang akan diutarakan tentunya berlaku proses: (1) memikirkan apa yang hendak disampaikan. (2) memikirkan bagaimana cara menyampaikan. (3) baru berbicara. tentunya apa yang ingin diutarakan dengan apa yang dapat diutarakan keduanya terjadi gap. hal tersebut berlaku pada komunikasi dua arah (dialog), yakni komunikasi yang terjadi antara penutur dan mitra tutur. (kida etc, 2007) kompetensi linguistik kompetensi percakapan menurut scarcella dalam noviyenty (2013) adalah sebuah kompetensi yang lebih menitikberatkan pada penguasaan penggunaan bahasa daripada pengetahuan bahasa. sehingga kecakapan seseorang dalam menggunakan bahasa sangat diperlukan untuk menunjang kemampuan saat berkomunikasi dengan orang lain. lalu, kecakapan seseorang dalam menggunakan bahasa terkait erat dengan pengetahuannya tentang kaidah yang ada dalam bahasa atau biasa disebut dengan kompetensi. brown (2007) menjelaskan bahwa kompetensi gramatikal adalah kemampuan pengetahuan akan tata bahasa. dengan kata lain, kompetensi linguistik seseorang berkaitan dengan pengetahuan akan sistem bahasa, struktur bahasa, kosakata hingga seluruh aspek kebahasaan tersebut yang saling berhubungan satu dengan yang lain. indikator kompetensi linguistik yang berkaitan dengan kemampuan berbicara meliputi: (1) kecakapan menggunakan kata yang memiliki makan khusus yang berkaitan dengan ungkapan yang digunakan dalam percakapan sehari-hari. (2) kecakapan memahami bentuk kata dan pola kalimat yang tepat dalam sebuah percakapan mulai dari percakapan pendek hingga panjang. (3) kecakapan menafsirkan dengan tepat apa yang didengar kemudian dilisankan dengan baik. kompetensi sosiolinguistik fungsi sosiolinguistik berkaitan dengan fungsi interaksi yang sedang berlangsung, hubungan peran, informasi yang diselidiki dua partisipan, dan tujuan komunikasi dalam interaksi. canale dalam noviyenty (2013) menyebutkan bahwa kompetensi sosiolinguistik berhubungan dengan sosial-budaya dan aturan wacana. kompetensi sosiolinguistik berkaitan dengan kesesuaian sebuah ujaran yang diutarakan dan dimengerti secara benar pada lingkungan sosial yang berbeda, yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh status pembicara dan pendengar, tujuan interaksi, aturan dan norma yang berlaku dalam interaksi tersebut. selanjutnya brown dalam noviyenty menggambarkan kompetensi sosiolinguistik sebagai kemampuan memahami aturan-aturan sosial dalam penggunaan bahasa. brown (2007) menyebutkan kompetensi sosiolinguistik sebagai pengetahuan tentang sosial budaya dalam memahami ujaran-ujaran pada konteks dan lingkungan sosial di mana bahasa digunakan. kompetensi sosiolinguistik adalah kemampuan untuk memahami konteks sosial di mana bahasa tersebut digunakan, yang meliputi: peran pendengar dan pembicara, informasi yang mereka bagi, serta fungsi dan tujuan interaksi. kompetensi pragmatik kompetensi pragmatik berhubungan erat dengan kemampuan bagaimana pengetahuan tentang fungsi dan struktur bahasa digunakan pada situasi tertentu sesuai dengan maksud dan tujuan si pembicara. bachman dalam dyah werdiningsih (2013) menyebutkan penggunaan bahasa dapat dikategorikan secara verbal maupun non verbal. adapun bentuk verbal dapat berupa, (1) pengalihan kode tuturan dari b1 ke b2, (2) pemaparan tuturan yakni penggunaan kata-kata sendiri, penggunaan contohcontoh, penggunaan rekonstruksi kalimat dan penggunaan analogi, (3) penciptaan kata yakni berupa bagian kata atau frasa, penggunaan sinonim, dan penggunaan asosiasi kata. sedangkan bentuk non verbal berupa: (1) penggunaan isyarat atau gesture, (2) penggunaan gerakan, (3) intonasi, (4) sikap yang ditunjukkan kepada lawan bicara. maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa aktivitas komunikasi dalam bahasa pada bagan dalam bentuk pohon berikut ini, yakni bagan bentuk pohon komunikatif yang menjadi acuan dalam pembelajaran bahasa jepang khususnya menurut jf standard yakni mampu melakukan percakapan sederhana, perlahan dan diulang-ulang, mengganti ungkapan, memberi bantuan, mampu bertanya jawab mengenai hal 97model pembelajaran kaiwa .... (timur sri astami) penting, dan dengan menggunakan topik sehari-hari. hasil dan pembahasan pada bagian pembahasan, tiga buah contoh model percakapan yang terdapat dalam buku marugoto a1 katsudou (kijima et al., 2013) dan minna no nihongo i bagian renshuu c yang disusun oleh tanaka etc (2013) diambil. dengan membandingkan kedua materi ajar tersebut, ketika akan membuat materi ajar, khususnya pada buku minna no nihongo 1 khususnya renshuu c, hendaklah memperhatikan kompetensi apa yang diharapkan, tujuan komunikasi, kepada siapa ketika berbicara dan ungkapan atau kalimat yang tepat sesuai dengan kondisi tersebut. contoh model percakapan 1 1. buku marugoto a1 katsudou pelajaran 8 situasi : membicarakan mengenai keberadaan suatu benda. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan yang menyatakan keberadaan suatu benda. sumber : marugoto a1 katsudou (kijima et al., 2013 :119) 第8課 a :にんぎょうはどこですか。 b :はこのなかにおねがいします。 a :はこのなかですね。 2. buku minna no nihongo 1 renshuu c 2 pelajaran 10 situasi : menanyakan letak benda kepada penjaga supermarket. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan yang menyatakan keberadaan suatu benda. sumber : minna no nihongo 1 renshuu c 2 (tanaka etc, 2013:87) 第10課、練習c2 a :すみません。でんちはどこですか。 b :でんちですか。ざっしのまえにあります。 a :どうも。 adanya penambahan ungkapan sesuai dengan jf standard menjadi berikut ini: a :すみません。でんちはどこですか。 b :でんちですか。ざっしのまえにありま す。 a :ざっしのまえですね。    どうも。 model percakapan setelah dimodifikasi dengan penambahan bentuk ~ですね. kompetensi yang muncul pada kedua percakapan baik pada buku minna no nihongo 1 renshuu c maupun marugoto a1 bertujuan agardapat menjelaskan letak suatu benda. sehingga pelajar diharapkan dapat menjelaskan letak suatu benda yang dimaksud oleh lawan bicara. namun pada buku minna no nihongo i renshuu c, tanpa adanya ungkapan ~ですね yang merupakan bentuk konfirmasi yang biasa muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari, maka percakapan pada renshuu c lebih baik diperkaya dengan ungkapan yang sesuai agar menjadi alami. adapun tujuan percakapan (can do) yang diharapkan menurut jf standard adalah sebagai berikut: (1) pelajar dapat menjelaskan keberadaan suatu benda. (2) pelajar dapat merespon mengenai keadaan sekitarnya, terutama keberadaan suatu benda kepada lawan bicara (termasuk di dalam nya dapat menggunakan ungkapan mengkonfirmasi seperti ~ですね、~ですか dan sebagainya). (3) lawan bicara tersebut dapat berupa orang yang dikenal atau baru ditemui (menggunakan bahasa informal atau formal). (4) percakapan terdiri dari hajimari (すみません), youken(どこですか) dan owari(ど うも) sedangkan, pada pada buku marugoto ada satu ungkapan untuk mengkonfirmasi suatu hal yakni bentuk ~ですね. ungkapan ini perlu dilatih kepada siswa bahwa dalam bahasa jepang bentuk ~ですね seringkali muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari yang digunakan untuk mengkonfirmasi sesuatu kepada lawan bicara. oleh karena itu, pada percakapan mnn 1 berupa renshuu c2, apabila siswa diinginkan untuk dapat menggunakan ungkapan untuk mengkonfirmasi suatu hal, perlu adanya penambahan ungkapan ~ですね pada model percakapannya. contoh model percakapan 2 1. buku marugoto a1 katsudou pelajaran 6 situasi : akan memesan makanan di sebuah restoran fast food. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan untuk memesan suatu makanan di sebuah restoran fast food. sumber: marugoto a1 katsudou (kijima et al., 2013: 119) 第6課 a :いらっしゃいませ。 b :すみません、ハンバーガーひとつくだ さい。 a :はい、ハンバーガーひとつですね。どう もありがとうございます。 2. buku minna no nihongo i renshuu c 1, pelajaran 11 situasi : akan memesan makanan di sebuah restoran fast food. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan untuk memesan suatu makanan di sebuah restoran fast food. sumber:minna no nihongo i renshuu c 1 (tanaka etc, 2013:95) 第11課、練習c1 a :いらっしゃいませ。 b :サンドイッチをふたつください。 a :かしこまりました。 adanya penambahan ungkapan sesuai dengan jf standard menjadi berikut ini: a :いらっしゃいませ。 b :すみません、サンドイッチをふたつ ください。 a :はい、サンドイッチふたつですね。 どうもありがとうございます。 model percakapan setelah dimodifikasi dengan penambahan kata すみませんdan ~ですね. 98 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 kompetensi yang muncul pada kedua percakapan baik pada buku minna no nihongo i renshuu c 1 maupun marugoto a1 bertujuan dapat berkomunikasi ketika akan memesan makanan di restoran fast food dengan menggunakan ungkapan yang sederhana. namun pada buku minna no nihongo i, tanpa adanya ungkapanすみ ませんungkapan’sapaan’ dan ~ですね yang merupakan bentuk konfirmasi yang biasa muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari, maka percakapan pada renshuu c lebih baik diperkaya dengan ungkapan yang sesuai agar menjadi alami. dengan tujuan percakapan (can do) yang diharapkan menurut jf standard adalah sebagai berikut: (1) pelajar dapat menjelaskan menggunakan ungkapan untuk memesan makanan. (2) pelajar dapat merespon kepada lawan bicara ketika meminta tolong (termasuk di dalam nya dapat menggunakan ungkapan meminta tolong dengan kata すみません、 dan menggunakan ungkapan untuk mengkonfirmasi seperti ~ですね、~ですか dsb, dan menggunakan ungkapan salam penutup seperti ど うも ありがとうございました dan sebagainya). (3) lawan bicara tersebut dapat berupa orang yang dikenal atau baru ditemui (menggunakan bahasa informal atau formal). (4) percakapan terdiri dari hajimari (いらっしゃ いませ), youken (~ください) dan owari (どうもあり がとうございました) pada buku marugoto ada satu ungkapan ketika akan meminta tolong kepada orang lain, menggunakan kata すみません. ungkapan ini perlu dilatih kepada pelajar agar terbiasa menggunakan kata meminta tolong dengan kata すみません karena seringkali muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari yang dgunakan untuk meminta tolong kepada lawan bicara. selain itu terdapat ungkapan untuk mengkonfirmasi suatu hal yakni bentuk ~ですね. ungkapan ini perlu dilatih kepada siswa bahwa dalam bahasa jepang bentuk ~ですね seringkali muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari yang dgunakan untuk mengkonfirmasi sesuatu kepada lawan bicara. oleh karena itu, pada percakapan minna no nihongo i berupa renshuu c2 apabila menginginkan siswa dapat menggunakan ungkapan untuk mengkonfirmasi suatu hal, perlu adanya penambahan ungkapan ~でね pada model percakapannya. selain itu ucapakan terima kasih どうも ありがとうございます atas pesanannya, perlu dilatih agar siswa terbiasa dalam menggunakan ungkapan terima kasih atas segala kebaikan yang dilalukan oleh orang lain dalam berbagai situasi dan kondisi. contoh model percakapan 3 1. buku marugoto a1 katsudou pelajaran 12 situasi : mengajak teman untuk pergi keluar melakukan kegiatan bersama namun sang teman tidak bisa pergi pada hari tersebut. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan untuk mengajak teman pergi bersama. selain itu juga dapat menggunakan ungkapan penolakan bila tidak menyetujui ajakan tersebut. sumber : marugoto a1 katsudou (kijima et al., 2013: 122) 第12課 a :bさん、らいしゅうまつりがあります よ。 b :いいですね。いつですか。 a :7がつ25にちです。いっしょにみ にいきませんか。 b :25にちはちょっと…すみません。 a :そうですか。 b :またこんどおねがいします。 2. buku minna no nihongo renshuu c 3 pelajaran 9 situasi : mengajak teman untuk pergi keluar melakukan kegiatan bersama namun sang teman tidak bisa pergi pada hari tersebut. kompetensi yang diharapkan mampu menggunakan ungkapan untuk mengajak teman pergi bersama. selain itu juga dapat menggunakan ungkapan penolakan bila tidak menyetujui ajakan tersebut. sumber : minna no nihongo renshuu c3 (tanaka etc, 2013:79) 第 9 課、練習 c3 a :bさん、コンサートのチケットをもらい ました。いっしょにいきませんか。 b :いつですか。 a :来週の土曜日です。 b :土曜日ですか。 ざんねんですが、仕事がありますから。 a :そうですか。 adanya penambahan ungkapan sesuai dengan jf standard menjadi berikut ini: a :bさん、コンサートのチケットをもらい ました。いっしょにいきませんか。 b :いいですね。いつですか。 a :来週の土曜日です。 b :土曜日ですか。    土曜日はちょっと…すみません。 a :そうですか。 b :またこんどおねがいします。 model percakapan setelah dimodifikasi dengan penambahan kata いいですね、 ~ちょっと…すみません dan またこんどおね がいします。 kompetensi yang muncul pada kedua percakapan baik pada buku minna no nihongo i maupun marugoto a1 bertujuan dapat menggunakan ungkapan ketika akan mengajak teman pergi untuk melakukan kegiatan bersama. namun pada buku minna no nihongo i renshuu c, tanpa adanya ungkapan いいですね yang menunjukkan apresiasiatasajakan lawan bicara, ちょっと…すみま せん yang merupakan ungkapan penolakan secara halus dan またこんどおねがいしますungkapan untuk diajak kembali apabila keadaan memungkinkan, yang biasa muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari ,maka percakapan pada renshuu c lebih baik diperkaya dengan ungkapan yang sesuai agar menjadi alami. selain itu juga pelajar diharapkan dapat menggunakan ungkapan penolakan bila tidak menyetujui ajakan tersebut dikarenakan ada urusan. tujuan percakapan (can do) yang diharapkan menurut jf standard adalah sebagai berikut: (1) siswa dapat menjelaskan menggunakan ungkapan ajakan. (2) siswa dapat merespon kepada lawan bicara ketika setuju dengan ajakan lawan bicara (termasuk di dalam nya dapat menggunakan ungkapan persetujuan ajakan lawan bicara dengan kata いいですね、 dan menggunakan ungkapan penolakan secara tidak langsung dengan kata ちょっと… 99model pembelajaran kaiwa .... (timur sri astami) dsb, dan menggunakan ungkapan salam penutup seperti またこんどおねがいします dan sebagainya). (3) lawan bicara tersebut dapat berupa orang yang dikenal atau baru ditemui (menggunakan bahasa informal atau formal). (4) percakapan terdiri dari hajimari (~さん、~ありまし たよ/もらいましたよ。いっしょにいきませんか), youken (時間わり) dan owari (またこんどおねがい します). ketika diajak seseorang respon yang muncul dapat berupa ungkapan setuju akan ajakan tersebut yang diungkapkan dengan kata いいですね. selanjutnya karena si penutur pada waktu tersebut tidak dapat memenuhi ajakan mitra tutur karena adanya suatu hal atau urusan, maka muncul ungkapan yang menyatakan penolakan dapat berupa kata~ちょっと…すみません, yakni ungkapan penolakan halus kepada lawan bicara, agar lawan bicara tidak tersinggung dengan penolakan ajakan tersebut. hal ini sangat penting diajarkan kepada pelajar , karena bentuk penolakan ini seringkali muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari. selain itu, terdapat bentuk ungkapan yang berkesan tidak menyinggung mitra tutur diikuti dengan ucapan またこんどおねがいします, lain kali tolong ajak saya lagi melakukan kegiatan bersama tersebut. hal ini sangat penting diajarkan kepada siswa, karena seringkali muncul dalam percakapan sehari-hari masyarakat jepang. sehingga pelajar terbiasa untuk menggunakan ungkapan penolakan, namun disertai dengan ucapan alternatif lain menyetujui ajakan tersebut (berupa kegiatan lain, waktu berbeda dsb) kepada lawan bicara agar tidak tersinggung. dengan ketiga contoh model percakapan pada buku minna no nihongo 1 renshuu c tersebut, maka sebagai pengajar hendaklah seyogyanya berpikir dengan seksama ketika akan merancang model pembelajaran percakapan yang mengacu pada jf standard sehingga target komunikasi yang diharapkan dapat tercapai pada tiap pertemuannya. berikut alur pembuatan materi ajar merujuk pada jf standard yang merupakan materi seminar sehari dengan judul “会話能力向上をめざした can-do に基づく授業計画” dapat disimpulkan dalam gambar berikut ini. gambar 1 alur pembuatan materi ajar jf standard sumber: materi seminar sehari jf “会話能力向上をめざした can-do に基づく授業計画” 10 januari 2015 simpulan kompetensi komunikatif, khususnya pada mata kuliah percakapan lebih menitikberatkan pada penguasaan penggunaan bahasa daripada pengetahuan bahasa. kompetensi komunikasi sebagai kompetensi percakapan bahwa penguasaan tidak hanya meliputi penguasaan tata bahasa namun juga aspek sosiolingustik hingga pragmatik. bahkan semua aspek tersebut jenisnya bervariasi tergantung dari konteks sosial dan situasi yang dihadapi. pada buku minna no nihongo i bagian renshuu c materi yang terdapat pada tiap pertemuannya memiliki kelebihan sebagai berikut, (1) materi percakapan yang muncul sering digunakan dalam percakapan sehari-hari dan dapat disesuaikan dengan situasi di indonesia, (2) materi yang ada dapat dikembangkan menjadi bentuk percakapan yang terdiri dari hajimari, youken, owari (salam, isi percakapan dan penutup), (3) situasi yang muncul bisa dihadirkan sesuai dengan kondisi pembelajar sendiri. akan tetapi, pada renshuu c tersebut juga memiliki kekurangan yakni, (1) materi percakapan hanya berisi youken (isi) saja, (2) materi tidak dirancang untuk model percakapan percakapan yang berisi hajimari, youken, owari (salam, isi percakapan dan penutup), sehingga perlu kejelian pengampu mata kuliah percakapan khususnya untuk membuat model percakapan yang sesuai tingkatan kemampuan yang diharapkan. dan yang patut dijadikan perhatian bahwa tujuan pembuatan materi percakapan tidaklah sama dengan pembelajaran pola kalimat (tata bahasa). materi percakapan pada tingkat dasar awal mengacu pada tujuan materi percakapan yakni mampu melakukan percakapan sederhana, perlahan dan diulang-ulang, mengganti ungkapan, memberi bantuan, mampu bertanya jawab mengenai hal penting, dan dengan menggunakan topik sehari-hari. pada buku minna no nihongo 1 pada bagian renshuu c khususnya, materi hendaklah memperhatikan target komunikasi yang bagaimana yang hendak dicapai pada tiap pertemuanya.. daftar pustaka brown, d. (2007). prinsip pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa. america: pearson education jf nihongo kyouiku standaado, mengenai kompetensi berbahasa jepang. diakses pada tanggal 20 januari 2005 dari https://jfstandard.jp/cando/search/list/ja/ render.do (jurnal) kijima, h., shibahara, t., hatta, n., & kokusai kōryū kikin. (2013). marugoto nihon no kotoba to bunka: nyūmon a 1-katsudō. tōkyō: sanshūsha. kida, m. (2007). japan foundation nihongo kyoujuhou shirizu 6. hanasu koto woshieru. japan foundation: tokyo makalah seminar sehari yang diselenggarakan oleh the japan foundation dengan tema“会話能力向上を めざした can-do に基づく授業計” pada tanggal 10 januari 2015 noviyenty, l. (n.d.). analisis kemampuan sosiolinguistik dosen-dosen speaking program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris sekolah tinggi agama islam negeri (stain) curup. retrieved february 13, 2015, from http://p3m.staincurup.ac.id/wpcontent/uploads/2013/05/analisis-kemampuansosiolinguistik-dosen-dosen-speaking-leffinoviyenty.pdf tanaka yone etc. (2013) minna no nihongo shokyuu i (cetakan kedua). tokyo: 3a network. werdiningsih, d. (2007). strategi pemerolehan kompetensi pragmatik anak usia prasekolah (unpublished doctoral dissertation). universitas negeri malang, malang, indonesia. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 155 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 155-165 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7334 rethinking the art of tattoo: a perspective of indonesian women tattoo community lambok hermanto sihombing* communication studies, faculty of humanities, president university jababeka education park, jl. ki hajar dewantara, kota jababeka, cikarang baru, bekasi 17550, indonesia lambok.president@gmail.com received: 07th may 2021/revised: 04th august 2021/accepted: 11th august 2021 how to cite: sihombing, l. h. (2021). rethinking the art of tattoo: a perspective of indonesian women tattoo community. lingua cultura, 15(2), 155-165. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7334 abstract the research analyzed why women decided to get tattoos on their bodies and how indonesian women interpreted tattoos. the tattoo was a kind of art and a symbol since centuries ago. in indonesia, having a tattoo was no longer considered taboo as it used to be seen as something that deviated from the norm in indonesia, especially if it was possessed by women. the tattoo was also identical with crime and thuggery, in which people who had tattoos would be respected or feared by people. however, in recent years, there has been a phenomenon in the raising of female tattoo communities where tattooed women gathered and supported each other. the research used the tattoo concept by thompson and feminist theory by kristeva to analyze it. the research applied a qualitative method in which the dataset were taken from interview with three women of the perempuan tattoo indonesia (pti) community. the result of the interview is various. it shows that tattoo in indonesian women’s perspective is not seen as only a trend, fashion, or art. however, it shows self-expression and freedom to fight women’s rights and gender quality. keywords: tatto, women community, shifting perception, life philosophy introduction for years, tattoo has been a popular practice almost in every part of the world. it is an emerging body project in contemporary society (de jong & bruce, 2020). across cultures and generations, people have tattooed their bodies (gebska-kuczerowska et al., 2020). overall prevalence among adults in industrialized countries is around 10–20% (dieckmann et al., 2016). most tattooed people can be seen in western countries because the contemporary practice of tattooing emerged there (santos & villafranca, 2019). the popularity of tattooing rises that one out of five persons in the united kingdom has undergone a tattoo session (dann & callaghan, 2017). a tattoo is described in merriam webster’s dictionary as an indelible mark or figure fixed upon the body by the insertion of pigment under the skin or by the production of scars. tattoos are considered a work of art, just like paintings hung in the museum (ocampo & castronuevo, 2016). tattoos draw attention and make people ponder the meanings behind tattoos (naudé, jordaan, & bergh, 2017). tattooing in indonesia has been practiced at least since prehistoric times 1500–500 bc, but tattoo culture in indonesia is still taboo. it often challenges the social and religious traditions of the country’s muslim majority. according to handoko and green (2020), urban tattoos initially appeared in the yogyakarta region in the 1950s. they were primarily worn by street criminals and former prison inmates. according to marianto and barry, as cited in handoko and green (2020), have stated that in jakarta during the 1960s and 1970s, tattooed people were often former inmates. after the collapse of the new order in 1998, young people in the punk, rock, and black metal music movements were the first to embrace individual freedom and more liberal speech through tattoos. at that time, tattoos and tattooing practices served various purposes and connections, including amusement, following emerging trends among young people, rebellion, and creative expression. however, tattoos 156 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 155-165 still hold a negative stigma in society nowadays. even though tattoos are widespread and growing in number, yet still controversial (dillingh, kooreman, & potters, 2020). creating a tattoo involves a painful sensation of multiple skin punctures performed with a needle (roggenkamp, nicholls, & pierre, 2017). there is no difference between females and males in pain intensity during tattooing (witkos & hartman-petrycka, 2020). tattooing is among identified risk factors for bloodborne diseases (jafari et al. 2020) that involves skin piercing and potential blood contact. unsafe tattooing carries an increased risk of poor health outcomes (tran et al., 2018). it means that medical complications and health risks can occur when getting a tattoo (rahimi, eberhard, & kasten, 2018). some complications that can occur are infections, allergic reactions, foreign body reactions, and autoimmune diseases (van der bent, wolkerstorfer, & rustemeyer, 2016). brady et al. (2015) have stated that some tattoo-related skin problems can be treated with anti-inflammatory steroid drugs, while others might require surgery. soran et al. (2017) have stated that small amounts of ink particles always pass into the lymphatic system and accumulate in lymph nodes. in addition, sepehri et al. (2017) have explained that the ink does not ever really leave the body, though possibly a portion is excreted via the liver. deposited pigments and other components are present lifelong in the human body (laux et al., 2017). when people get tattooed and want to remove it due to the harmful effects, they will do tattoo removal. laser lights have been used by dermatologists for tattoo removal through photothermal interactions (kim et al. 2020). the laser approach targets certain chromophores (d’arienzo et al., 2018). taken from the united states food and drug administration (2016), laser treatment does not remove the tattoo ink out of the body; instead, the relatively large pigments of the ink are broken down into much smaller particles, which are transported through the body and stored in the lymph nodes or other tissues. infections may be due to incorrect procedures or not maintaining aseptic techniques from the start of tattooing until wound healing (liszewski, jagdeo & laumann, 2016; serup, 2017). even though the process of tattooing is generally linked with pain, it is not recommended to take analgesics prior to the procedure. it has been found that such medicines may increase bleeding during tattooing (rodriguez et al., 2016). to prevent infections, the beauty services market requires detailed analysis and recommendations to guarantee health safety (popalyar et al., 2019). it is proven that tattooing has been involved a painful sensation and also seen negative. in indonesia, tattoos are seen as something ‘contrast’ with society norms (rokib & sodiq, 2017). handoko and along (as cited in handoko & green, 2020) have explained that tattoos still create negative feelings within a broader conservative javanese society. good people are those who follow social norms, which are not wearing tattoos or piercings. that is why tattooed people are often seen negatively because tattoos may be correlated with destructive behaviors, such as violent behavior, weapon carrying, drug use, increased drinking habits, and earlier sexual activity. furthermore, tattooed participants also tend to find difficulties in getting jobs. it is proven in timming’s study. he has stated that many tattooed individuals believed that they could not find employment because their tattoos are visible, suspicions that hiring managers confirm. most hiring managers in timming’s study explicitly have stated they would not hire a visibly tattooed candidate, both because it would mar the company’s image and because of their personal dislike of tattoos (timming, 2015). it is in line with the research that has stated that stigmatizing and discriminating against people with visible tattoos and body piercings may lead to the termination of employment of talented employees, which could negatively affect organizational productivity and growth (adisa, adekoya, & sani, 2021). the risky behavior associated with tattoos is high amongst tattooed adolescents that are associated with high drug and alcohol use, risky sexual activities, as well as illegal or violent behavior (swami et al., 2016). having tattoos also could lead to different psychological issues like depression, inflated self-esteem, worthlessness, and anxiety (pedro, 2016). this social stigma and discrimination lead people to certain opinions about tattoos. people who do not have tattoos view tattooed people as more rebellious, less intelligent, less sexy, and less attractive because it is deviant. this applies to both men and women, but women are seen differently. if women wear tattoos, they are seen even more negatively. tattooed women are associated with less attractive, promiscuous behaviors, and heavy drinkers (vanston & scott in dukes & stein, 2014). tattoos have been a masculinity practice in men, making women question why they take part in the practice. it is also in line with brown’s (2020) statement that women with visible tattoos and body modifications continue to face social and cultural stigma and discrimination because of their physical appearance. it is because tattoos have historically been linked to criminal activity, alcoholism, sexual promiscuity, and violence. despite the negative stigma in society, tattoos have brought different meanings and ideologies in the past decades. due to globalization and technology development, there is more variety of tattoos and new tattoo techniques. because of that, many people support and enjoy the process of tattooing. they are interested in tattoos because of their interpretations, and it has been correlated with art. along with time, tattooing becomes a matter of fashion, and everyone starts to tattoo letters, sentences, figures, sceneries, and art objects. furthermore, tattoos may have symbolic meaning or simply result from choices to become decorated (tasha as cited in rewathy & linojah, 2019). the interest in having tattoos does not only come from men but also women. women are expected to follow beauty standards 157rethinking the art of tattoo .... (lambok hermanto sihombing) that have been set in society. prianti (2013) has stated that the beauty standards for indonesian women show physical appearance as the ultimate answer for women to conquer the world. women with big hips are considered as the ideal woman. having lighter skin, thinner body shape, and looking younger are seen as women’s power to succeed in life. having a tattoo means that they do not conform to the standards. as tattooing becomes even more popular, women want to obtain themselves by setting tattoos as the standard of beauty, especially young women (farley, hoover, & rademeyer, 2019). there are some positive values for women with tattoos. some wear tattoos to hide their scars and make their skin look prettier. as stated by kertzman et al. (2019) that have stated that tattooed women have higher self-esteem than non-tattooed women. they tend to be adventurous and creative. having a tattoo shows that someone wants to tell the story or message. it is in line with hill (2020) that stated the visual nature of a tattoo invites telling a story. tattooing has undergone remarkable growth in indonesia since the early 2010s. small, clean tattoo studios can now be observed in the fashionable areas of small and large cities alike throughout the islands of java, bali, and sumatera (hegarty, 2017). as stated in the cambridge dictionary, in general, ‘community’ refers to the people living in one particular area or people who are considered as a unit because of their common interests, social group, or nationality. to be more specific, in the internet and telecommunications contexts, ‘community’ is defined as a group of people on social media who have similar interests or want to achieve something together. like many other human interests, specifically in art and pop cultures, such as music, sport, and architecture, there are also some communities that consist of tattoo enthusiasts. tattoo communities are used to be known as ‘tattoo conventions’. it has a role in providing a place or a platform for tattoo artists, collectors, and simply tattoo lovers to interact and engage with each other. as stated by thompson (2015), tattoo conventions also serve as a venue where tattoo artists can do networking, get new insights, and see the development in this industry, and it is possible for them to get new clients. other than that, by joining this tattoo convention, tattoo artists have an opportunity to gain exposure. due to the digitalization era, it can be said that there are no longer any communication and location barriers. through the development of the internet and social media, many kinds of digital communities around the world can be found that are easier to create, choose, and join those communities related to someone’s interests. this is also applied to tattoo communities that are no longer limited to studio-based interactions but expanded through the use of digital platforms, so there is also virtual interaction. barron (2020) has argued that using social media as the digital tattoo studio can build a ‘digital’ relationship between the tattoo artists and their clients or their target market, enhancing trust between both parties. tattoos are usually associated with masculinity and criminality due to their ‘label’ as a popular practice with gangs and in male prisons (thompson, 2015). thompson (2015) has also argued that how the criminality associated with tattooing historically affects both men and women in different ways. while tattooed men are seen as masculine, tough, and potentially criminals, tattooed women are treated as prostitutes or as sexually adventurous women by society. for women, tattooing can be considered as an action in challenging the ideal of ‘beauty’. however, it is also an action to show and to proclaim the authority of their own body (thompson, 2015). in indonesia, it can be found many tattoo communities, especially in social media such as instagram and facebook that have many members or followers. there are some tattoo communities such as indonesian subculture, komunitas tattoo indonesia, komunitas masberto, indonesian professional tattoo association (ipta), and indonesian tattoo foundation. they provide a platform for tattoo artists, tattoo enthusiasts or collectors, or just tattoo lovers to share, discuss, and even promote their tattoo-related works. then, the researcher finds an interesting tattoo community called ‘perempuan tattoo indonesia’. perempuan tattoo indonesia (pti) is a tattoo community that is pioneered by a mom who has four children named agustin yustina. with her friend, flo putri arum as the admin, agustin created perempuan tattoo indonesia on facebook in 2017. in an interview, she explains that the reason why she decided to create this tattoo community. it is because she sees that in the tattoo industry, women have minimal access and limited platform, especially in social media, to show their tattooed bodies and express the authority of their own bodies. the stigma created by society associating tattoos with criminality also becomes another reason why pti is created. people’s motivations for getting tattooed vary; they are either having fun and admiring the artwork or having philosophy and meaning behind it. tattooed people wear it as an identity and their way of expressing themselves. while others write their diaries, some people choose to tattoo their bodies to express their feelings and witness their journey in life. some people feel the need to get tattooed because they want to ‘write’ messages and reminders permanently to anchor them in their bodies, leading to a form of expressing self-love (buss, & hodges, 2017). they are aware that they own a special body that is why they want to decorate it with tattoos. not only being active in social media such as facebook and instagram, but the people in pti also do a campaign to break society’s negative stereotypes about tattooed people, especially women, by doing some direct social activities. their first social activity was held in the same year when pti was created. they held a charity event for children who have hiv/aids in solo, where most of the committees are tattooed people. pti is created to support and appreciate female tattoo artists and tattoo lovers. however, this online tattoo community is also open for male tattoo artists 158 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 155-165 and tattoo lovers to join. in the research, the researcher would like to elaborate on why women decided to get tattoos on their bodies and how indonesian women interpret tattoos. santos and villafranca (2019) have argued that tattoos are also a form of non-verbal communication, in which people can wear tattoos that reflect their personalities and life experiences without having to explain the meaning behind them. these indicate the public’s perceptions of who they are, which reveals their self-concept. the practice of tattooing has been amazingly successful and popular due to globalization and the modern mindset. because of that, some people choose to get tattoos to mark themselves permanently. as tattooing becomes even more popular, women want to obtain themselves by setting tattoos as the standard of beauty, especially young women (farley, hoover, & rademeyer 2019). women are also interested in getting tattoos because they want to challenge the dominant body culture. according to thompson (2015), tattoos symbolize regaining women’s bodies as a form of confrontation for many women. it is common for society to see tattoo communities that consist of males or men. however, as time goes by, there is a phenomenon in the raising of female tattoo communities where tattooed women gather and support each other. demello in thompson (2015) has stated in her study of the tattoo community that women are much more apt to explain their tattoos in terms of healing empowerment or control. thompson has agreed and explained that tattooing can be considered an action in challenging the ideal of ‘beauty’ for women. however, it is also an action to show and proclaim the authority of their own body, which means tattooed women can freely and bravely express themselves for who they really are. in line with that, kertzman et al. (2019) have explained that tattooed women have higher selfesteem than non-tattooed women. they tend to be adventurous and creative. nourishing people are positive, supportive, and optimistic people who are also capable of making a person feel good about themselves (devito, 2014). nourishing people have similarities in what they think, feel, and act and these kinds of people can be found in a community. kruse (2012) has stated that people can grow personally, socially, and independently in a community. being a part of the tattoo community can help people have more courage to express who they are and expose their creations related to their interests. the previous research done by amos (2019) has explained that in the tattoo community, tattooed women feel more comfortable and open to express themselves without fear of judgment. within a community, they also share a common link. supporting the previous statement from another perspective, women who achieved success in the tattoo industry in the 1970s, regardless of their popularity, were trendsetters in fighting patriarchy and popularizing femininity in the industry (long, 2020). additionally, she argues that nowadays, women have faced less resistance to getting tattooed and pursuing tattoo art since the 1980s. women are able to find work in new fields such as marketing, modeling, journalism, and social media management that are related to the tattoo industry. embodiment practices were highlighted by feminist theorists in the 1990s and 2000s, who emphasized how the female body was not just an object, but a ‘process of becoming’, a performance created through regulated practices (budgeon & butler as cited in thompson, 2019). the feminist theory focuses to emphasizes issues of female embodiment as an arena for both oppression and liberation, such as reproduction, sexuality, beauty practices, and violence. according to kristeva, as cited in nasreen (2013), feminism is one kind of ideology that excludes religion. feminism should be understood through the individuality of women, as the empowerment of women depends on an individual’s writings, contributions, and socialization. she rejects the idea of seeing women from pluralism avoids the phrases such as ‘all women are exploited’ or ‘women are exploited in all aspects’. as cited in nasreen (2013), kristeva also argues that there is a counterbalance in society, and it depends on uniformity and accessibility of individuals in all areas, including information through language. she suggests that three matters are important for women’s individual development: internalization, exploitative understanding, and acknowledgement. this theory not only focuses on gender issues but also on general social change, breaking down the barriers, thereby gaining the same point of view and removing the false stigma. kristeva in alaei and barfi (2014) believes that people should accept the differences of the semiotic and the symbolic mode and put these modes in parallel. these modes relate to sex and gender. the distinction of sex and gender is impossible. men and women should be aware that sex and gender are not independent. the conceptions of gender and sex are in this process are fold. men and women are rational beings that are essentially the same, so that in their journey, they must be treated fairly and equally. women see tattoos from various perspectives. most of them see tattoos as a manifestation of beautifying themselves and a means of self-expression. however, there are social sanctions such as social rejection due to a modified body and others that they will feel over time, especially when they dare to challenge the standards of beauty that exist or grow in social circles. in this research, the researcher analyzes how these women in the pti community are viewed by society in terms of the theory of feminism. methods in indonesia, it can be found many tattoo communities. the high number of tattoo communities in indonesia is also in line with the rise of female tattoo communities. the research analyzes why 159rethinking the art of tattoo .... (lambok hermanto sihombing) women decide to get tattoos on their bodies and how indonesian women interpret tattoos. the researcher has found many tattoo communities. however, due to the research’s needs, the female tattoo community, which has 230.000 facebook group members called perempuan tattoo indonesia (pti), has been chosen. the qualitative method was used in doing this analysis. data are collected by interviewing three informants that include the pioneer, the admin, and the member of the pti community. in the process of finding and selecting tattoo communities, the researcher finds that pti is suitable for the research because it is a tattoo community pioneered by a woman named agustin yustina. with her friend, flo putri arum as the admin of pti, agustin created pti on facebook in 2017. the relevant questions have been formulated for three women in pti. there are a few steps that have been done in order to collect and analyze the data. first, the researcher contacts pti’s pioneers and members. after that, the researcher interviews three informants from the community through a video conference platform. the interview is recorded and saved for transcription. the researcher asks several questions related to why those women join pti, why they decide to get tattooed, how society views them, and the effects of getting tattooed. second, the researcher makes the transcriptions of the recorded interview sessions’ videos that have been conducted. third, after reading the videos’ transcriptions, the researcher chooses and collects the informants’ relevant answers to the research topic, to be classified into several major categories. the categories include why the community’s members wear tattoos and how they define tattoos. last, the researcher analyzes and interprets the whole interview transcriptions about the living condition of the community, members’ emotions and behaviors, decisions about getting tattoos, and the meaning of their tattoos. in the process of analyzing data, the researcher uses an encoding-decoding concept. the encoding process occurs when the online interview happens and the researcher transcript the interview video. then the decoding process occurs when the researcher reads, understands, and interprets the interview results. results and discussions in collecting data, the researcher has interviewed three women who are the stakeholders of the pti community. they are the pioneer, the admin, and the member of this tattoo community. then, the interview results are the data that are being analyzed. the first data are interview result from the interview session with agustin yustina through zoom meeting. she is the pioneer pti who is also a mom with four children. she currently lives in yogyakarta, and she is working in several places that she cannot mention. the interview is addressed to agustin by asking when she started to get tattoos on her body and why she decided to get tattoos. she explains that it has been about eight years since she first got her tattoos. it was when she already had four children, and her youngest child was in kindergarten. then, agustin reveals the reason why she decided to get tattoos. like the majority of people who get tattoos, she used to get tattoos because of fashion matters. she tended to follow the trend and what other people did at that time. however, she also states that it is her way of expressing her feelings about having authority or autonomy on her own body, and she has the right to do anything to her body. this action is in line with what thompson (2015) has explained that tattooing is considered an action to show and to proclaim the authority of their own body. she says that she feels that it is her own body. she deserves to do anything for her body. in the end, she decides to get her body tattooed. “aku merasa bahwa ya ini tubuhku, aku berhak melakukan apapun terhadap tubuhku. akhirnya aku men-tato.” other than that, she also has a reason why she chose certain figures or designs to be tattooed on her body. she chooses tattoo designs that have meanings in line and are suited to her character and life philosophy. additionally, she states that she chose patrick, a character from spongebob, as her favorite tattoo among the others. it is because patrick’s character is in line with her personality and life that is full of freedom. he lives like there is no tomorrow and lives his life the way he wants. agustin can relate to this because she is the only daughter in her family and the only one who has tattooed her body. she says that she is the only person who gets tattoed and tries smoking in her family. there are no other members that do something uncommon like her. “saya satu-satunya keturunan dari orang tua saya yang perempuan yang tato, yang rokok gitu-gitu. sisanya ga ada gitu, jelas itu yang aneh pada saat itu ya”. this is related to what santos and villafranca (2019) have argued that tattoos are also a form of non-verbal communication, in which people can wear tattoos that reflect their personalities and life experience. the next question is about how agustin interprets a tattoo and its meaning. as stated earlier, she used to get tattoos because of trends and fashion but now, she has concepts of her tattoos, mostly about gender equality. as kristeva, cited in nasreen (2013), has said in feminist is actually screaming revolution in society, fighting for women’s freedom, revealing that the main basis for women’s oppression is the current gender system. this proves that agustin wears tattoos as symbols to fight for women’s freedom and equality, which also proves that tattooing can be an action in supporting feminism. 160 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 155-165 “kalo tato di awal-awal, saya ga mempunyai arti sama sekali, tapi setelah ke sini-nya, saya sudah mulai tertarik dengan patrick, tato saya kebanyakan patrick, tan malaka, lebih ke simbol-simbol kayak gini, ini kesetaraan ya, perempuan dan laki-laki, ya kayak gitu.” agustin says that her first tattoo does not have any meaning, but as time goes by, she is interested in patrick, tan malaka that focused on symbols like this. this is equality between men and women. agustin also says that every decision that people make has an impact on their lives, including the decision to get tattoos. based on her opinion, tattoos bring impact to the society and people’s perspective of tattooed people. “dampak yang paling kelihatan adalah cara pandang, akhirnya kan, cara pandang masyarakat terhadap saya, cara pandang masyarakat terhadap bertato secara general, khususnya saya, mungkin.” agustin also states the effect clearly seen is from the way citizens view people who get tattoed, especially like her. however, she personally never faces the negative impacts because of her decision to get tattoos. she also states that she has to respect others’ rules and not force them to understand her choices of getting tattoos. “... saya tidak pernah mendapatkan dampak negatif dari saya bertato, kecuali ketika saya ingin bekerja di tempat yang formal. sebenarnya itu juga bukan dampak negatif ya,... kan setiap perusahaan punya peraturan sendiri-sendiri. ketika dia tidak menerima orang yang bertato, ya kita hargai, gitu, bukan lantas kita langsung “oh kenapa sih orang-orang ga boleh kerja… begini, begini”, tidak menuntut rulesnya orang lain diterapkan pada apa yang kita pahami. karena apa yang kita pahami belum tentu orang juga akan memahami itu.” the question is continued by asking agustin’s view on women who have tattoos. she realizes that tattoos are still dominated by men so that when she sees women who have tattoos, she is very sure that the person already has considerations. however, she also states her pride when she sees women who have tattoos because she believes that it is proof of independence. as a founder of pti, she sees that indonesian women who have tattoos have a smaller scope than men. this is also the reason why agustin founded pti to provide a platform so that women who have tattoos are not afraid to express themselves. this action is in line with what kruse (2012) has stated that people can grow personally, socially, and independently in a community. being a part of the tattoo community can help people have more courage to express who they are and expose their creations related to their interests. in terms of self-esteem, agustien agrees that tattooing is a form of freedom in expressing the self when people have good self-esteem. this is in line with the argument by kertzman et al. (2019) that states tattooed women have higher self-esteem than non-tattooed women. “tato itu kan bentuk kemerdekaan diri. dari situ kita sudah melihat kualitas diri kita. ketika kita memutuskan bertato berarti kita sudah sadar. kita tahu kualitas diri kita.” besides that, she also explains that she is earnest about running this community. it can be seen from how she always monitors the group posts so that it is always conductive and every member feels comfortable. “orang-orang berpikir saya ga punya kerjaan karena saya berada di grup terus. karena saya bisa memberantas ketika ada bully terhadap perempuan, pelecehan secara verbal, saya keras banget di group itu, jadi bener-bener ya saya memantau group itu, bener-bener saya membuat nyaman member saya member perempuan saya bersosial media khususnya bagaimana dia mengekspresikan badanya dengan tato nya.” agustin also shares that her decision to have tattoos is made when she already has a family. it is not an issue to those closest to her, such as family or friends. “kan ketika saya memutuskan tato saya sudah berkeluarga sudah memiliki anak itu mungkin menjadi penilaian lain, ...gambarannya oh dia sudah…berkeluarga sudah tidak membebani orang tua, sudah mempunyai kehidupannya sendiri kayak gitu, jadi itu mungkin tidak begitu dipermasalahkan. kalau dari orang-orang terdekat saya nggak, karena memang saya ini cuman tatoan aja, kehidupan saya itu normal aja seperti orang-orang lainnya, ...normalnormal aja sebenarnya.” from the interview with agustin, the researcher can conclude that she first gets tattooed because she thinks of it as a trend and fashion, but she starts to have concepts along the way. her tattoos bring her to establish the pti community as a safe place for women to ‘show off’ their tattoos on social media. aside from that, agustin also fights for women’s rights and gender equality through tattoos and her community. for her, tattoos are a form of self-expression and freedom. she also agrees that tattooed women will have higher selfesteem than non-tattooed ones, which is in line with the argument by kertzman et al. (2019). the second data is the interview result from the online interview session with nurul novikasari. she is a member of pti, who is also agustin’s friend. slightly different from agustin’s story, novi gets her first tattoo because she is ‘trapped’. in 2015, her 161rethinking the art of tattoo .... (lambok hermanto sihombing) friend from lampung, a tattoo artist, stayed at novi’s place for more than a month. at that time, her friend suddenly had a desire to get novi a tattoo. after a long time to think about it, novi then agreed to be tattooed. “tatoku itu 2015, pertama. itu terjebak. jadi ada temen tattoo artist dari lampung terus dia (tiba-tiba) mau nato. aku belum punya tato sama sekali kan…. tapi itu butuh waktu yang lama juga buat aku, apa namanya, mengiyakan ajakan dia. soalnya aku gak mau kayak nato asal-asalan.” she decides to get herself tattooed because of curiosity and her free spirit. her first and favorite tattoo is a javanese alphabet which has a meaning that she likes and is in line with her personality and life philosophy. it represents her personality which is refusing to be ‘restrained’ in what she thinks and does. other than that, novi also gets herself tattooed in kalimantan. she loves the meaning behind one of her tattoos, which is the engkabang flower from kalimantan. this tattoo becomes her life principle and philosophy, which she wants to be helpful for her surrounding, both humans and animals. “kalo ada tatoku itu, tato kalimantan, bunga engkabang. bunga engkabang itu tuh… bunga yang menghidupi semua makhluk hidup di hutan kalimantan. jadi tuh kayak aku tuh pengen... kayak yaudah, aku bisa berguna buat hewan, bisa buat manusia juga, gitu loh, di hidup aku. dari mentawai juga ada, dari kalimantan sampe sumatra sih.” novi’s reason for choosing her tattoo design is in line with what santos and villafranca (2019) have argued that tattoos are also a form of non-verbal communication, in which people can wear tattoos that reflect their personalities and life experience. at first, novi says that her family has difficulties accepting her decision to get tattoos since her family is very religious and she is the only daughter in the family. it makes novi afraid of sharing her tattoos on social media. this is in line with what foulke (2018) has argued that people do not reveal their tattoos because they fear being judged negatively. after three years, her family eventually accepts her, especially her father. novi also argues that she is already grown up, and she has the right to do anything to her body. novi’s father lets her get tattoos because she is responsible for her own body. this is related to what thompson (2015) has stated that tattooing is also an action to show and proclaim women’s bodies’ authority. in fact, novi still gets negative comments from her neighbor. as rokib and sodiq (2017) state, tattoos are seen as something in ‘contrast’ with social norms in indonesia. it makes tattooed people catch more attention and often be ‘gossip’. however, she admits that as a tattooed woman, she is comfortable being a member of pti, despite the fact that verbal sexual harassment does frequently happen at the beginning of pti since it is on social media and anybody can join. however, she manages to handle that well to help agustin create a comfortable exposure platform for tattooed women. “dibilang nyaman ya aku nyaman. tapi di pti itu masih aja ada pelecehan-pelecehan yang buat cewe-cewe yang tato kan kebanyakan ada yang tato di dada... tugas ku di sosial medianya pti itu adalah aku ngomel-ngomelin yang melakukan pelecehan.… waktu awalawal banyak banget pelecehan-pelecehan gitu, tapi sekarang-sekarang ini dikit lah ga terlalu banyak kayak yang kemarin.” novi’s answer is in line with what amos (2019) has explained that in the tattoo community, tattooed women feel more comfortable and open to express themselves without having a fear of judgment. novi also explains the reason why she is at pti; she admits that initially, because her friend is the founder of this community, so she automatically becomes a member of this community. she also adds that being a tattooed person is not a barrier to doing something good through social activities. this is related to kruse (2012) has stated that in a community, people can grow personally, socially, and independently. from the interview with novi, the researcher concludes that, different from agustin, novi gets her first tattoo because she is trapped. however, it does not make her stop getting tattoos. she chooses her tattoos carefully based on her personality and philosophy. it is in line with what santos and villafranca (2019) have argued that tattoos are also a form of non-verbal communication, in which people can wear tattoos that reflect their personalities and life experience. with agustin, she is in charge of ‘kicking out’ people who do harassment and making pti a comfortable and safe place for women to express themselves freely. aside from that, she also helps conduct social events. not only for doing good deeds but also as a way to prove to people that tattooed people are not as bad as they think. unlike agustin, novi has difficulties getting support from her family at first. she also faces negative comments from her neighbors. it takes three years for her family to accept her tattooed body. the third data are the interview result from the online interview session with angelina manar. she is the co-pioneer of pti, who is also a freelancer in the art industry. she currently lives in yogyakarta, and she is also a traditional tattoo artist. in 2015, angel got her first tattoo. then, her love for tattoos led her to go even deeper in the tattoo industry until, in 2017, she became a traditional tattoo artist. “kalo aku tatoan 2015, tapi berkecimpung di dunia tato, maksudnya bener-bener terjunnya tuh 2016 terus mulai jadi tukang tato 2017.” when it comes to her reason for getting tattoos, she explains that the moment feels right, and the tattoo 162 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 155-165 design philosophy is in line with hers. because of that, she decides to get tattoos. “momennya dapet, terus filosofi dari gambar yang aku mau juga ternyata match di aku, makanya terus akhirnya aku mulai tatoan gitu.” the third data are from angel. angel agrees that tattoos boost her self-esteem. this is related to what kertzman et al. (2019) have stated that tattooed women have higher self-esteem than non-tattooed women. “cuma dampak positifnya adalah… aku jadi makin pede, jelas, karena aku memilih untuk ‘oke, aku punya tato, aku harus bisa menanggung semua resikonya.’ ” having a tattooed body makes her feel like a unique piece of art that draws more attention. the more people pay attention and are curious about her tattoos, the more confident and content. this is connected to lucas, as cited in santos and villafranca (2019), that positive attention from people brings contentment and empowers tattooed people to control their self-concept. “... di saat aku punya tato, orang melihat tuh kayak karya seni…karena orang pasti kan kadang ada yang kayak, ‘itu gambar apa ya, mbak?’…nah, jadi itu sih yang bikin aku mungkin tambah pede. sama...seneng aja sih.” for angel, tattoos are parts of herself. it is connected to what sanders in mun, janigo, and johnson (2012) have suggested that tattoos become a part of a person because it is a form of self-expression. angel shares her story about two memorable tattoos that she had in bali when doing campaigns about orangutans. the tattoos are gifts from her tattoo artist friend, which are gwk (garuda wisnu kencana) and a baby orangutan. she says that those two are very precious because of her strong emotional attachment to a memorable life event in bali back in 2019. this is related to what santos and villafranca (2019) have stated that tattoos symbolize love and dedication to something people want to remember permanently until death, such as memorable events, significant person, or things. the orangutan campaign is angel’s dedication, and she wants the memory of it to remain in her life. angel says that her first tattoo is srikandi, a wayang character from java. she decides to get this tattoo because she feels that women are free to express themselves and do whatever they want. this is in line with what thompson (2015) has stated that tattooed women can be freely and bravely express themselves for who they really are. here, angel expresses her concern and thought about women. above the srikandi tattoo, she has a lotus flower on her nape, where the central nervous system is located. lotus flower has a similar meaning as kwan im goddess, which are purity and compassion. she places it on the center of the nerves as a life reminder that she wants to be someone who is compassionate and helps those in need. “bunga lotus itu bunga…filosofi gampangnya kayak dewi kwan im tuh, lho. tapi aku kasih di belakang, jadi bener-bener di tungkak, karena buat aku kayak pusat saraf paling utama ya di situ, gitu.” for angel, tattoos also play a role as a reminder of what she has been through in life. this proves what buss & hodges (2017) have argued some people feel the need to get tattooed because they want to ‘write’ messages and reminders permanently to anchor it in their bodies, which leads to expressing self-love. among her 12 tattoos, her favorite is the engkabang flower tattoo, which is the same tattoo that novi has, as mentioned earlier. it becomes her favorite because of the philosophy behind it that she keeps in her life, and people will notice it when they look at her engkabang flower tattoo. the tattoo holds a meaning that whether someone is on top and successful or the other way around, he/she still can be kind and share happiness with the surroundings. this proves what santos and villafranca (2019) have stated that tattoos are also a form of non-verbal communication, in which people can wear tattoos that reflect their personalities and life experiences without having to explain the meaning behind them. angel personally feels the comfort of not being alone in what she has been doing, which is tattooing, as a part of the pti community. other than that, expanding networking is also one of the benefits that she gets because of joining the pti community. “aku merasa oh ternyata banyak tementemenku yang sama kayak aku segala macem. terus aku merasa lebih punya teman yang lebih banyak lagi.” it is also in line with what thompson (2015) has stated that tattoo conventions or communities are a place where tattoo artists can do networking, get new insights, and see the development in this industry, and it is possible for them to get new clients. when asked about the view of women with tattoos, angel shows admiration for the women who have tattoos in indonesia because she knows that it is not easy. she also realizes that they have their own principles of life. “pandangan aku melihat perempuanperempuan yang bertato itu tuh bener-bener kayak buat aku, aku menghargai apa yang sudah mereka pilih, emang pilihan hidup itu. apalagi perempuan kan masyarakat nomor 2 di indonesia, jadi kayak oh mereka mereka berani memilih apa yang menjadi prinsip mereka pasti jelas, maksudnya prinsip untuk okay aku mau tatoan di tubuh yang kelihatan. jadi aku menghargai terus kedua kagum.” 163rethinking the art of tattoo .... (lambok hermanto sihombing) angel also reveals the reason she joins and still persists in terms of tattoos and pti. she realizes that as a human being, as long as she does good things, she should support each other, as well as women who have tattoos in indonesia. she also reveals that she would continue to do and continue her penchant for tattoos and dare to speak up and do positive activities. this is related to kruse (2012) has stated that in a community, people can grow personally, socially, and independently. this is also in line with what amos (2019) has stated that tattooed women feel more comfortable and open to express themselves without fear of judgment in the tattoo community. within a community, they also share a common link with each other. conclusions the research has found that tattoos in three indonesian women’s perspectives show selfexpression and freedom to fight women’s rights and gender quality. that is what agustin, the founder of pti, viewed. she also thinks that tattooed women have higher self-esteem than non-tattooed. the three women in pti prove that tattoos could be used as a symbol of freedom and equality. the research has potential limitations. first, it is used the limited sample size. it only uses three women of the pti community as the respondents in the interview, which is not significant enough to represent women’s perspectives towards tattoos. second, it does not use the age of data specifically. the researcher does not range the respondents based on age, such as 20 to 25, 26 to 30, and so on. as a result, the researcher cannot take the percentage and range well the women with the same point of view and different points of view. through these research findings, more research needs to be conducted by using a significant and reasonable sample size with the specific age of data. as a result, future research can represent a significant result. references adisa, t. a., adekoya, o. d., & sani, k. f. 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(2020). gender differences in subjective pain perception during and after tattooing. international journal of enviromental research and public health, 17(24), 1-14. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249466. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 233 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 233-240 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6844 the use of audiobooks in developing seveth-grade students’ reading skills: a case study for efl students hery nuraini1*; yeni daniarti2; rohmat taufiq3 1english language education, faculty of teacher training and education, islamic university of syekh yusuf jl. syekh yusuf no. 10, babakan, tangerang, banten 15118, indonesia 2,3informatics department, engineering faculty, muhammadiyah tangerang university jl. perintis kemerdekaan i babakan no. 33, tangerang, banten 15118, indonesia 1hnuraini@unis.ac.id; 2yenidaniarti@umt.ac.id; 3rohmat.taufiq@umt.ac.id received: 04th december 2020/revised: 11th january 2021/accepted: 18th january 2021 how to cite: nuraini, h., daniarti, y., & taufiq, r. (2020). the use of audiobooks in developing seveth-grade students’ reading skills: a case study for efl students. lingua cultura, 14(2), 233-240. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6844 abstract the research was conducted to develop students’ reading skills by using an english story with audiobooks. it seemed that the teachers could overcome if they were proficient in utilizing the internet and computer applications in the students’ learning process because the students enjoyed the gadgets. in a sense, teachers should integrate supportive technology, problem-based approaches, and higher-order thinking skills. based on these problems, the researcher was interested in developing students’ reading skills by using audiobooks apps. moreover, the research investigated that students could significantly develop their reading skills by reading english stories with audiobooks apps. it aimed to investigate the students’ reading skills could significantly be developing by reading english stories with the audiobooks app. the research applied a case study as the qualitative research method. the participants were three students from seventh-grade students. the researchers collected and analyzed the data from observations, tests, and interviews. based on the finding and discussion, it can be concluded that the participants have achieved and exceeded in standard minimum score (kkm). besides, the students are enthusiastic and comfortable reading english stories with audiobooks application in the learning process. keywords: audiobook app, english story, reading skill introduction english is the international language which is almost used in every human life area, such as science, computers, education, diplomacy, and economic trade. knowing english increases people’s chances of getting an excellent job in global communication, the media, and the internet. english is the working language of many international organizations, such as association of southeast asian nations (asean), united nations (un), the european union, and it is the language of global advertising. moreover, in this 4.0 industrial era, almost all technologies are operated with english instruction (purnama & nurdianingsih, 2019). english is also the most-used language of the internet and accounts for more than half of all websites. for many people, learning english is a way to access a broader range of information, connections, and opportunities. the internet provides very much information that can be accessed by the community in the whole world. the internet contains various media such as text, audio, graphics, animations, videos, and software that could be downloaded (riyanto & wagino, 2019). on the other hand, the internet can exchange ideas and communication among many people in different locations. therefore, media online is a form of mediabased telecommunications and multimedia (computers and the internet) whose contents consist of text, images, audio, and video. it can deliver extensive information on people’s aspects of life. there are a lot of mobile applications for learning english. people could use duolingo, cake, hello english, audiobooks, grammarly, u-dictionary, and others. so, if they have an interest in studying english, they could utilize them. particularly for indonesian students, the parts of english are still a foreign 234 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 233-240 language. these applications could help the students acquire the english language and help them do their tasks at school. when they use these applications, it could make the students more comfortable to study english. according to ryan et al. (2017), there are various kinds of social media available, including networking sites (e.g., facebook and instagram), instant messaging services (e.g., whatsapp and telegram), and blogging sites (e.g., twitter and wordpress). furthermore, audio-visual media also available on the internet, such as zoom-meeting, google-meet, and whatsapp-video calls. people around the world could easily speak and get information through video conferences. language learners could share their feelings and experiences through these applications and sites and consider human beings’ social nature (avval, asadollahfam, & behin, 2021). social media’s advantages are providing students with opportunities to pay attention to language and as a provider of input modification tools. it could provide various learning resources, such as the availability of resources or material. learning styles would be used for collaborative projects as multimodal practice tools such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic as a fun medium. according to agustini et al. (2018), the learning process’ media should be efficient, flexible, and accessible. furthermore, one of the solutions is using e-learning by mobile learning application as a media. in this research, the students could download the audiobooks app in google play, and it is a free application. audiobook apps are basically for reading while listening. it provides a transcription, audio, and an audiobook file. moreover, audiobooks serve many book genres (e.g., children, comedy, adventure, fairy tales, fantasy, fiction, historical-fiction, history, humor, literature, mystery, non-fiction, philosophy, art, animals, shortstories, romance, and poetry). it has 150 classics english stories with a large number of the best storybooks. however, in the research, the participants read two english stories in the audiobook app. they could listen to it on their phone or audio player to help them follow the speaker and dictionary function to understand which word they do not understand clearly. audiobook application allows the learners to wrap up in the world of literature even in the middle of busy activities. they could have their virtual bookshelf right on their smartphone and listen to their favorite books on their way to work or while sweeping the floor. english stories with the audiobooks app may help the students relax because they can listen to the audio while reading (hardiah, 2018). while people learn the language, there are four skills that they need for complete communication. people usually learn to listen first while they learn their native language. then they learn to speak, then to read, and finally to write. reading is a long-standing skill to be used both at school and throughout life. if the students want to get some information, they should read the text. the students can get the meaning in a written text by reading (daniarti, taufiq, & sunaryo, 2020). it means that reading is an essential life skill. devoid of the ability to read well, opportunities for personal fulfillment and job success inevitably will be lost. in indonesia, the ministry of culture and education makes the curriculum where the english language is a compulsory lesson for students. this curriculum is named k13 (2013 curriculum). it is implemented in stages elementary school (sd), junior high school (smp), and senior high school (sma). based on this curriculum, english as the foreign language (fl) contexts where exposure to the target language is mainly limited to school instruction (kang, 2020). since the students in indonesia take a role as english foreign language (efl) students, sometimes the teacher needs a hard effort to implement the english learning method to the students at the school. based on the previous research, the researchers have found that students at junior high school in indonesia have difficulties learning english (elihami, 2017), especially reading skills. the students are not interested in reading by using a printed book. many of them prefer to play with their gadgets rather than read a book, so they lack reading interest. it shows that teachers have challenges in encouraging students’ interest to learn english. by reading activity, the students get information and extend and improve their knowledge and experience. according to mubarok and sofiana (2017), reading skills have become an essential skill to be mastered by learners in the educational context nowadays. therefore, the students need to understand something about the reading process itself. what should the students do when they read? if the teachers have a clear idea of how ‘good readers’ read, it will help them decide the technique that helps them read. teaching reading comprehension is vital for students to elevate their ability to identify the author’s ideas. one of the receptive skills is reading skills that students must master reading comprehension. moreover, varita (2017) has stated that reading comprehension is the process of concurrent extracting and constructing meaning utilizing interaction and involvement with written language. furthermore, comprehending is affected by the reader’s material reading (daniarti, 2017). it means that reading comprehension is a fair process because reading is practical for the acquisition of language. it provides that students understand what they read; the more they read, the better they get. likewise, reading has an affirmative effect on students’ vocabulary knowledge, spelling, and writing (daniarti, 2017). according to pranowo (2018), reading comprehensions are done by silent reading to capture the meaning of the word (term, phrase, etc.) to grasp the explicit meaning, infer the implicit meaning, summarize, predict, and evaluate. it is known that nowadays the students enjoy using their gadgets. it seems that the teachers can overcome if they are proficient in utilizing the 235the use of audiobooks in developing.... (hery nuraini, et al.) internet and computer applications in the students’ learning process. in a sense, teachers should integrate supportive technology, problem-based approaches, and higher-order thinking skills (cakrawati, 2017). based on these problems, the researcher is interested in developing students’ reading skills by using audiobooks apps. moreover, this research investigates that students could significantly develop their reading skills by reading english stories with audiobooks apps. methods the research applies the case study method because it carries out a limited scale (aprianti, 2017). a case study could be defined as exploring multiple cases over time through detailed and in-depth data collection implicating multiple sources of information-rich in context. moreover, a researcher may use multiple sources of information to gather data; observations, interviews, audio-visual materials, documents, and reports. the descriptive statistic provides primary information of participants’ numbers in a study, their characteristics, and their effect on a test or outcome. moreover, the researcher collects the data based on facts in the field. as the teachers in the research, the researcher uses purposive sampling to get critical information from research participants. the researcher chooses three students of junior high school grade 7 at smp 12 tangerang as the research’s participants. the method instruments use triangulation sources or multiple sources; they read surveys using the reading tests, interviews, and observations collecting the data from the field to prove the research’s aims (nuraini, mulyana, & aeni, 2019). results and discussions the research aims to investigate students’ reading skills that could significantly develop by reading english stories with audiobooks apps. observations, tests, and interviews present the result of this research. the research’s observation has been enforced twice; the first observation is on monday, may 27th, 2019. the second observation is on tuesday, may 28th, 2019. there are three aspects of the learning process in these observations, such as the seriousness of the students in the learning process, the enthusiasm of the students when doing the task, and students’ participation in the learning process. moreover, the aspect of the seriousness of students in the learning process divided into four parts, such as (a) giving attention to the teacher’s explanation and instruction; (b) making comments or asking the question about the text to the teacher; (c) giving attention to the friend’s opinion; and (d) commenting or asking the question about the text their friends. the second aspects (the enthusiasm of the students when doing tasks) of the learning process is divided into five parts, such as (a) trying to understand the instruction by using various learning aids; (b) taking notes whatever they think necessary; (c) using various aids to accomplish the task, for example, dictionaries, textbooks, worksheets; (d) actively investigating the topic; and (e) actively discussing with the teachers and friend. furthermore, the third aspect (students’ participation in the learning process) is divided into two parts, such as (a) the students’ participation in asking the question; and (b) students’ answer the question from the teacher. in the first observation, the teachers give an introduction to the audiobooks application to the students. the first activity is the participants download the audiobooks application on their cellphone. after that, the teachers begin teaching material using english story with audiobooks application. before the participants read the english story, the teachers explain the story’s contents, starting from the characters, events, plot, and place. the english story’s title is treasure island, chapter 1: at the admiral benbow. the participants read and listen to it with this app and then discuss the story’s contents with other participants. after that, the participants answer the multiplechoice questions in test 1 related to that english story. after that, they write a summary of the english story. when the participants summarize the story, only one participant pretty well sums up the story, and the other participants hesitate to compile their summary. it can be seen in table 1. table 1 the result of the first observation no learning process percentage 1 the seriousness of the students in learning process a. giving attention to the teacher’s explanation and instruction 88% b. making comments or asking the question about the text to the teacher 40% c. giving attention to friend’s opinion 50% d. commenting or asking questions about the text of their friends 80% 2 the enthusiasm of the students when doing tasks a. triying to understand the instruction by using various learning aids (dictionary, book, text, etc., asking teacher or friends whenever they do not understand) 85% b. taking notes whatever they think important 35% 236 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 233-240 c. using various aids to accomplish their tasks, for example, dictionaries, texkbooks, worksheet, etc. 88% d. actively investigating the topic 30% e. actively discussing with teachers and friends 45% 3. students’ participation in the learning process a. the students’ participation in asking the question 50% b. students answer the question from the teacher 70% total 660% average score 60% table 1 shows that the lowest of the participants’ response in the learning process is actively investigating english story at audiobooks (30%). it means that the participants are not enthusiastic about doing the tasks. moreover, there are some indicators in the learning process needed to improve in the next observation, such as making comments or asking the question about the text to the teacher (40%), taking notes (35%), and actively having a discussion with the teachers and friend (40%). besides, the highest of participants’ responses in the learning process are giving attention to the teacher’s explanation and instruction; and the students’ enthusiasm when doing tasks by using various aids to accomplish their task (88%). it means that the participants have a good interest in trying to understand the lesson. most of the time in this activity, participants focus on looking for the text meaning in english stories. they try to understand the instruction using various learning aids (85%) and commenting or asking the text’s question with their friend (80%). these activities sometimes are punctuated by small discussions and are entirely enjoyable in the learning process. in the second observation, the participants are given a different story in audiobooks entitled treasure island, chapter 2: black dog appears and disappears. then, they read and listen to this story. after that, they try understanding the story and answer the multiplechoice questions in test 2. those questions are based on that english story. after that, the participants write the summary and read it to the researcher and other students. when the students read their summary of an english story, two students look confident and make the summary almost right. the comparison of the result of observation between the first observation and the second observation can be seen in table 2. table 2 shows that all of the learning processes for each indicator increases. the highest development is 25% in the third aspect for taking notes if they think essential. the highest development in the first aspect is making comments or asking the text to the teacher and giving attention to the friend’s opinion (10%). the lowest development is commenting or asking questions about the text to their friends (2%). on the other hand, the participants have a good sense of seriousness in the learning process. the second aspect’s highest development is taking notes if they think essential (25%), and the lowest improvement is using various aids to accomplish their task, for example, dictionaries, textbooks, worksheets, and others (2%). it means that the participants have great enthusiasm when doing the tasks. moreover, the third aspect’s highest development is the students’ participation in asking the question (15%), and the lowest development is that students answer the teacher’s question. it means that the students’ participation in the learning process is excellent. the observations conclude that students’ reading skills developed after reading the english story with the audiobooks application. the first observation’s result indicates 660% with an average score of 60%, and the second observation is 720% with an average score of 65,4%. furthermore, the development of the student learning process in the second observation increases by 5,4%. it proves that there has a reasonably positive change in students’ interest in reading the english text. the researcher gives tests to the participants in the research. the tests consist of two-part; there are test 1 and test 2. by making the tests more reflective of situations, language content, and purposes, the teacher will make more accurate predictions about how the students will function using the target language in real life (nazari, bayati, & rajabi, 2021). according to raharjo, yuliana, and yudha (2018), providing quality education cannot be separated from the standard measures (kkm/kriteria ketuntasan minimal). on the other hand, the tests’ goal is to note and measure the development of participants’ reading skills with audiobooks apps. the participants answer the tests while getting the observations from the researchers. the tests are multiple-choice questions that included the topic, characters, events, plot, and english story in the audiobooks app. after doing tests, participants write a summary of the story and then read it in front of the class. the frequency distribution and percentage of the students’ reading development of test 1 can be seen in table 3. table 3 indicates that all participants’ reading skills do not achieve the standard minimum score (kkm). the participants still lack the meaning of vocabularies; they are still confused about investigating the story’s topic. moreover, they are not active in asking or having a discussion with their friends or teacher. at the next meeting, the teachers should be more interactive than before to help them by giving instruction or comments in the learning process. the frequency distribution and percentage of table 1 the result of the first observation (continued) no learning process percentage 237the use of audiobooks in developing.... (hery nuraini, et al.) table 2 comparison of the result between the first observation and the second observation aspects indicators percentage changeobservation observation 1 2 the seriousness of the students in learning process a. giving attention to the teacher’s explanation and instruction 88% 92% +4 b. making comments or asking the question about the text to the teacher 40% 50% +10 c. giving attention to friend’s opinion 50% 60% +10 d. commenting or asking questions about the text of their friends 80% 82% +2 the enthusiasm of the students when doing tasks a. trying to understand the instruction by using various learning aids (dictionary, book, text, etc., asking teacher or friends whenever they do not understand). 85% 88% +3 b. taking notes whatever they think important. 35% 60% +25 c. using variuos aids to accomplish their tasks, for example, dictionaries, texkbooks, worksheet, etc. 88% 90% +2 d. actively investigating the topic. 30% 55% +25 e. actively discussing with tutors and friends 45% 50% +5 students’ participation in the learning process a. the students’ participation in asking the questions. 50% 65% +15 b. students answer the question from the teacher. 70% 80% +10 total 660% 720% +60 average 60% 65,4% +5,4 table 3 the frequency distribution and percentage of the students’ reading development of test 1 classification score interval frequency percentage the students that exceed the standard minimum score (kkm) ≥ 70 the students that achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) = 70 the students that did not achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) ≤ 70 3 100 % total 3 100 % the students’ reading development of the second test can be seen in table 4. table 4 indicates that there is a significant development of the participants’ reading skills. two participants have achieved the kkm, and one participant has exceeded the kkm. the frequency distribution and percentage after the teaching and learning process of test 1 and test 2 can be seen in table 5. table 5 shows a significant development of the participants’ reading skills with audiobooks apps from test 1 and test 2. it shows that 100% of participants do not achieve the kkm in test 1. compared with test 2, 75% of participants have achieved the kkm, and 25% of participants have exceeded the kkm. furthermore, there is no participant who does not achieve the kkm in test 2. the participants’ interview is on wednesday, may 29th, 2019, after some observations and tests. the interview questions are the open-ended questionnaire that consists of several questions (januarty, 2018). furthermore, the researcher interviews the participants personally. the researcher asks the participants; (1) do you like reading english? (2) have you read the english story? (3) why do you like/do not like reading english story? (4) do you have difficulties reading english story? (5) what difficulties do you have when reading english stories? (6) do you know audiobooks apps? (7) what is your opinion of these apps? the first participant’s answer can be seen in this 238 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 233-240 excerpt. the student am interview could conclude that am feels comfortable reading by using english story with the audiobooks app. the audio feature could help him not be bored in reading english text. “i like reading english because i have read an english story. it is exciting because this application has audio so i can listen too. listening to the sound did not bore me, especially with a real english accent. sometimes i have difficulties in understanding the story. the stories are too long. nevertheless, i can use translation or discussing it with my friends. it helped me more comfortable to understand the contents of the reading in audiobooks.” next is student fa. the interview has concluded that student fa enjoys reading by using english stories with the audiobooks app. the features like audio and online translations in this app could help him to increase his reading english text motivation. “now, i like reading english, even though i have not read an english story before. it is a nice activity, and i am not bored or sleepy when i read it. this app helped me know how to read and speak english well because the audio is available in this app. the audio helped me how to learn to pronounce too. we could repeat the speaker’s sound over and over. however, i have difficulties in understanding the story. i should ask somebody or look for the translation on the internet. there were many unfamiliar words in this english story. i think i will be a good reader someday.” interview with student rda who achieved standard minimum score (kkm) can be seen in this excerpt. it is concluded that student rda enjoys reading by using english story with audiobooks. however, she needs a long time to understand the english story. however, a small discussion with her friend or teacher, the audio and online translation features in this app could help her solve the reading problems. “i like reading a novel in the indonesian language, but it is my first time reading an english story with audiobooks. i need a long time to understand this story. i have to find the meaning of almost all of the words in this text. i think i should be an independent learner by using online translation. however, sometimes my friends and teacher keep help and guide me. nevertheless, i am interested in this application. it is easy to use. i could study reading, listening, and speaking too by audiobooks. the audio helped us study pronunciation by listening to the native speaker’s record, and we spoke while reading the english story.” based on these interviews, it could be concluded that three participants give positive responses to the reading lesson by using english story with audiobooks apps. they enjoy reading the english story, and the audiobooks application is efficient to use. besides, in table 5 the frequency distribution and percentage after teaching and learning process of test 1 and test 2 classification score interval frequency percentage test 1 test 2 test 1 test 2 the students that exceed the standard minimum score (kkm) ≥ 70 1 25% the students that achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) = 70 2 75% the students that did not achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) ≤ 70 3 100% total 3 3 100% 100% table 4 the frequency distribution and percentage of students’ reading development of the second test classification score interval frequency percentage the students that exceed the standard minimum score (kkm) ≥ 70 1 25% the students that achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) = 70 2 75% the students that did not achieve the standard minimum score (kkm) ≤ 70 total 3 100% 239the use of audiobooks in developing.... (hery nuraini, et al.) the learning process and interviews, the participants are enthusiastic and comfortable reading english stories (putri, widia, & santoso, 2019) with audiobooks application. the research implies that the participants have a good experience when they read while listening to the story. they could learn two skills (reading and listening) of english story simultaneously because of the audiobooks app provided by transcription, audio, and an audiobook file. moreover, while the students learn english story text, they could get many information and knowledge, although in a different language (hanifah, mulyana, & nuraini, 2019). conclusions according to the test results, the participants have achieved and exceeded the kkm. as the last test (test 2), 75% of participants have achieved the kkm, and 25% of participants have exceeded the kkm. furthermore, no participant does not achieve the kkm in the last test. as the research results, the use of audiobooks apps develops students’ reading skills. it is recommended that the teacher creatively finds some exciting applications that could motivate students to read english. the media or application in the learning process should be efficient, flexible, and accessible. it hopes the students would be more interested, active, and excited in the learning process. the limitation of the research is focused on students’ reading skills. observations show that the students’ reading skills developed by using the audiobook application. the changes in the student learning process’ development in the last observation has increased by 5,4%. it proves a reasonably positive change in the development of students’ interest in reading the english text, due to students’ high motivation to read english stories and supported by audiobooks application that efficiently used. according to the research, future research about media or applications for language education will be needed to develop the students’ reading skills. media or applications provide hope for efl students and teachers to facilitate the learning process at home and school. references agustini, s., wardhani, n. p., kurniawan, m., & amalina, e. n. 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(2017). improving reading comprehension through literature circles. english education journal, 8(2), 234-244. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 161 lingua cultura, 14(2), december 2020, 161-169 doi: 10.21512/lc.v14i2.6498 acehnese archaic words in hikayat: an early influential literary work zulfadli abdul aziz1*; syamsul bahri yusuf2; faisal mustafa3; siti munawarah4 1associate professor, english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala 2,3,4english education department, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala jl. teuku nyak arief no. 441, kopelma darussalam, kota banda aceh, aceh 23111, indonesia 1zulfadli.aziz@unsyiah.ac.id; 2syb_ina@yahoo.com; 3faisal.mustafa@unsyiah.ac.id; 4siti030894@gmail.com received: 12th june 2020/revised: 05th july 2020/accepted: 24th august 2020 how to cite: aziz, z. a., yusuf, s. b., mustafa, f., & munawarah, s. (2020). acehnese archaic words in hikayat: an early influential literary work. lingua cultura, 14(2), 161-169. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i2.6498 abstract the research aimed at finding out the acehnese archaic words and their non-archaic alternatives that younger speakers often utter today. several acehnese original lexical items were no longer understood by the younger generation, and thus it was expected that some words to disappear without proper documentation. hikayat prang sabi (sabil war sage), an early literary work in acehnese, was the source of archaic words for the research. therefore, the research design applied a descriptive qualitative method. the data consisted of 54 suspected archaic words from hikayat prang sabi that were distributed to 20 speakers of acehnese who lived in the pidie regency. they were divided into two age groups consisting of 20 to 25 years old and 26 to 30 years old. they were asked to verify the suspected archaic words. the research results show that there are five archaic words and 49 semi-archaic words have found in the hikayat. keywords: archaic words, acehnese archaic words, literary work, hikayat prang sabi introduction language change is a symptom that cannot be avoided (bowern, 2015). the change mostly spreads through the language’s grammar and it will affect one context after another (de smet, 2016). it can be easily spotted that the language used by the new generation is different from the language used by the older generation. it appears that a change of linguistic variant in a community, in general, is more regular than that of individual speakers’ changes (baxter & croft, 2016). written documents have been used as media to reveal the language change for many centuries (sankoff, 2018). as a country with very high language diversity, indonesia can have different languages in one region (rahmi, 2015). aceh, for example, the northernmost province of indonesia, has several languages. to communicate with different language speakers, bahasa indonesia is usually used. the contact of acehnese languages with bahasa indonesia, which is the national language of the nation, then, cannot be avoided (chairuddin, 2018). it is quite common to observe that the younger generation has less frequently used acehnese (al-auwal, 2017), which can affect the changes in the language over time. the acehnese people now feel more comfortable to speak indonesian than their mother tongue (aziz & amery, 2016; aziz, yusuf, & menalisa, 2020). historical events and values are usually recorded in literary works (öztaş, 2018). in traditional literary works such as hikayat, poetry, folklore, some dated words can also be found. however, most of these words have been unfamiliar to the speaker of the language. they become archaic to the younger generation as they are now mostly exposed to the national language, bahasa indonesia. therefore, in the research, the archaic words from hikayat prang sabi, one of the most influential literary works in aceh literature, are explored. this hikayat has motivated jihadists to fight in a war. it is appointed as a base ideology and motivation in driving out the dutch for aceh people. the research aims to find out words in hikayat prang sabi, which are considered archaic by acehnese speakers, in addition, to find out the nonarchaic alternatives for those archaic words in the literary work. language change constantly works (clark, 162 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 161-169 2016). it is the alteration process of linguistic features such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and semantics (shabina, 2011), and the changes could affect these features. among those features, a change in the lexical item is the focus of the current research. lexical change is one of the aspects of language change that is most noticeable (rizka & zainuddin, 2016). this change can be resulted from the language contact in speakers’ bilingual or multilingual context, which influences all linguistic aspects with lexical items as the most affected (shabina, 2011). technological innovations, such as computer technology, contribute to new word formation in a language (sun, 2016). due to the existence of new inventions and changes in every language, people usually need new words. the establishment of new vocabulary may happen through word-formation processes, such as acronyms, blending, clipping, coinage, functional shift, and eponymy (jannedy, poletto, & weldon, 1994). in acronyms, words are formed from a combination of the initial letters of a word or a phrase that can be pronounced (jannedy, poletto, & weldon, 1994). the acronym process usually occurs by combining letters or syllables or other parts that can be pronounced or read. examples of this word-formation process are nato, an acronym for ‘the north atlantic treaty organization’ or nasa for ‘national aeronautics and space administration’. word blending can be created by joining two words to become a new one (ratih & gusdian, 2018). the blends can be made by fusing at least two words by joining together parts of source words (čolić, 2015). the combination of two words is usually in the form of the first initial of one word is combined with the end of another word (nurhayati, 2016), such as the word smog, which derives from smoke and fog, brunch from breakfast and lunch, and travelogue from travel and monologue. in addition to blending, words can be formed by the process of clipping where a part of the word is cut itself; it may be the first part, middle or last part of the word (moehkardi, 2017). this occurs when a word of more than one syllable word is reduced to a shorter version, for example, the word ‘exam’, which has been clipped from the ‘examination’, ‘dorm’ from the ‘dormitory’, or ‘ad’ from the ‘advertisement’. coinage is a word-formation process in which new words are completely created in a language (triwahyuni, imranuddin, & zahrida, 2018). the new words are usually used to name new invented objects. examples of words are created through this process, for instance, xerox, kodak, exxon, kleenex, aqua, sanyo, rinso. words are usually created through the functional shift, which is also known as a conversion. it is the process of changing the word class without changing the word form (jannedy, poletto, & weldon, 1994). the words formed by a functional shift in english include the nouns used as verbs such as ‘paper’ into ‘to paper’ (paper this room), ‘shape’ into ‘to shape’ (shape the dough into a ball!), and ‘water’ into ‘to water’ (mother is watering the flowers in the garden). an eponym is another way of forming words by using a person’s name for other objects such as places, discoveries, and activities (multazim & nurdin, 2019). the object that can be named after a person usually has an important influence, such as ‘washington, d.c.’ after ‘george washington’, and ‘district of columbia’ after ‘christopher columbus’. lexical change is not only marked by the emergence of new vocabulary, but it can also be marked by the loss of vocabulary (vejdemo & hörberg, 2016). because a language is never stable, old vocabulary changes over time, new vocabulary appears in a language, and a certain number of these old words are rarely used, and these words are known as archaic words. archaism is defined as an old and outdated word or expression (awe & fanokun, 2018). archaism, which is commonly related to vocabulary though not always, is a linguistic form usually used in the past time, but now it is out of date (traxel, 2012). moreover, many archaic words have been changed their meaning or are no longer used by speakers in everyday life (karagulova et al., 2016). archaic words can be simply distinguished from obsolete words. the term ’obsolete’ means a word that is completely out of use (rababah, 2016). obsolete words can also be used in conversation to give the impression of humor. the definition between ‘archaic’ and ‘obsolete’ seems unclear because it is hard to decide which group this word belongs to, as reflected in antrushina, afanasyeva, & morozova (2008). some people give both words the same meaning, while others state that obsolete is the term for the words that totally outdated (antrushina, afanasyeva, & morozova, 2008). in contrast to obsolete, the archaic term is still known today as a part of the language (traxel, 2012). it may be found in special contexts, such as law or special writing styles, namely scriptures. sometimes modern writers use archaic words to give their writings an oldfashioned flavor. in this dictionary, the term archaic has the same sense of meaning to obsolete that is a word only found in writings of an earlier time or in modern writings that imitate earlier writing style. from that explanation, it can be concluded that the definition does not show a clear distinction. thus, in the research, the researchers agree that the notion of archaic and obsolete is the same because both words have the same definition, i.e., they are old words or ancient words that are no longer used in daily conversation, but they can only be found in literary or other written documents. some examples of archaic words in english are ‘bourn’ (boundary), ‘morrow’ (the next day), ‘fain’ (happy, inclined, pleased), and sooth (truth, reality, in truth). hikayat is one of the most favored entertainments by acehnese people until the early 20th century. hikayat is a fiction story in the form of prose that is closely related to indigenous beliefs (ekawati, 2015). however, in the context of aceh, this literary work is composed by ulama or islamic scholars, using the acehnese language, which is arranged in poetic poetry form and contains not only fiction and legend but also 163acehnese archaic words .... (zulfadli abdul aziz, et al.) moral education and religious teachings. it functions as jihad ‘holy war’ spirit, aesthetic, entertainment, education, and literacy eradication (khadijah, 2013). hikayat in aceh is generally anonymous and usually written with the jawi letter, malay written in arabiclike alphabet. jawi letters are commonly used for written prose in traditional acehnese societies, such as religious textbooks, as well as other documents such as passports, laws, and contracts (lubis, 2016). one of the most influential hikayat for aceh people is hikayat prang sabi, which was written in the 19th or the early 20th century during the dutch colonialism in aceh (masri, suprayitno, & ratna, 2018). this hikayat is named hikayat prang sabi (or also called ‘the story of the war in the path of god’) because fighting against the infidels (dutch) is regarded as jihad, and hikayat prang sabi is not the same as any other fiction hikayats because it tells the story mostly related to battles of aceh fighters and uplifting sermon against the dutch starting 1873 (taslim, 2013). hikayat prang sabi has two genres, i.e., tambéh (warning and advice), which mostly contains matters related to great jihad that is against ourselves, and epic, which is about small jihad, i.e., the war in aceh (nushur & astutie, 2019). the power of words in hikayat prang sabi is strong enough to motivate aceh people for syahid ‘martyr’ against the dutch (lubis, 2016). in addition, this hikayat is regarded as a dangerous weapon for the acehnese by the dutch military government, so that it was forbidden to recite, save, or propagate it (hasjmy, 1977). many texts of hikayat prang sabi are anonymous. the manuscript of this hikayat was written in 1710 and 1834, several decades before the war against the dutch. these manuscripts are stored in the library of leiden state university in holland. however, the oldest text which was famous in the battle time was the hikayat prang sabi written by teungku chik panté kulu. based on its content, hikayat prang sabi can be divided into two parts. the first part consists of memorial verses and advice to fight against the dutch, with the insertion of verses of the qur’an (the holy book of islam) and hadith (the prophet muhammad’s words and actions). the second part consists of verses that tell four ancient islamic holy wars, i.e., abeudo wahed (ainul mardhiah), mecca’s holy war against the abyssinian, black saet saleumi, and reborn slave muhammad amien. methods in the research, the data are obtained from the book entitled seumangat atjeh: hikayat prang sabi (the spirit of aceh: hikayat prang sabi), compiled by abdullah arif. this book was published in koetaradja (now banda aceh) by pencetakan aceh negara republik indonesia in 1946. consequently, the most appropriate method to answer the aforementioned research questions is a descriptive qualitative method (kim, sefcik, & bradway, 2017; nassaji, 2015). the researchers create suspected archaic words through the introspection method. the words are included in the list if the researchers, one of whom is 24 years of age, has not heard the word or does not know its meaning. after a careful examination that they are suspected becoming archaic words, 59 words are selected to be validated by 20 respondents in the 20-30 age range who are native speakers of the pidie dialect of acehnese and live in pidie regency. the respondents selected used acehnese as their first language (l1) in daily conversation among their family and community members, although they are fluent in bahasa indonesia (second language/l2). the research is conducted by distributing the suspected archaic word list based on the researchers’ examination and analysis to the respondents. the respondents are asked the list of the words from the distributed questionnaires whether they have heard each word in the list and whether they know what it means. any word in the list is considered archaic if none of the respondents have heard it and semi-archaic if at least one has heard the word used by other speakers, but they do not know its meaning. the words which the respondents could identify as non-archaic are eliminated from the analysis. in drawing a conclusion about the archaic words and their level of archaicity, the data are divided into two groups based on the age of the respondents. the first group is the respondents who are between 20 and 25 years of age, and the second between 26 and 30 years of age. each group consists of 10 respondents. this data categorization, which is based on the age of the respondents, is considered because young speakers tend to experience more language contact with bahasa indonesia than their older counterparts. to determine whether a validated archaic or semi-archaic word has a non-archaic alternative, the researchers consult an old dictionary, kamus aceh indonesia. the data from this source are used to construct the alternative of the archaic and semiarchaic words found and validated by the respondents in hikayat prang sabi. results and discussions the archaic data presented to the younger acehnese speakers contain 59 words which are predicted archaic words. however, five of them are not archaic words, and thus they are eliminated in the research finding. therefore, the number of words included in the analysis is 54. the status of archaic words (the level of their archaicity) in the research is determined based on the number of speakers who considered them archaic or semi-archaic. hence, the results are divided into three parts, that is archaic, semi-archaic, and non-archaic words. a word is considered archaic if it has never been heard or used by the respondents. a semi-archaic word is a word that has only been heard by the respondents, but they never use it and do not know its meaning. apart from the two 164 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 161-169 categories, other words are considered non-archaic words. there are 20 speakers selected in the research and divided into two groups according to their age, namely the age group of 20 to 25 and 26 to 30. from 54 referred to as archaic words in hikayat prang sabi, a total of five words are considered archaic by the respondents. it can be seen in table 1. table 1 archaic words words meaning lanti /lanti/ later, wait haneng /hanɛŋ̃/ clear, bright, fresh, holy, pure jilila /ɟilila/ jump, dance ngeuren /ŋɯ̃reŋ/ anger, wrath, jealousy suang /suaŋ/ bad luck, unfortunate, woe in addition, there are 49 words considered semi-archaic words by the respondents. there are four categories of semi-archaic words based on lexical word classes. nine semi-archaic verbs are identified by the respondents, as can be seen in table 2. table 2 semi-archaic verbs words meaning seumurat /sɯmũrat/ to tell a story meutatah /mɯ̃tatah/ sculpt, carve teujali /tɯjali/ revealed, real teugoe-goe /tɯgɔəgɔə/ remembered, worried manyoh /mãɲɔ̃h/ craving meungo /mɯ̃ŋɔ̃/ buzzing (?) meuandam /mɯ̃ʔandam/ make up geuseundi /gɯsɯndi/ neatly arranged, frolic meusuji /mɯ̃suɟi/ neatly arranged (?) besides verbs, there are also 15 semi-archaic adjectives found in hikayat prang sabi according to the respondents. it can be seen in table 3. table 3 semi-archaic adjectives words meaning reumbang /rɯmbaŋ/ exact, appropriate, true samlakoe /samlakɔə/ handsome sambinoe /sambinɔ̃ə/ lovely, beautiful tiji /tiɟi/ fast meulo-lo /mɯ̃lolo/ shiny leunteng /lɯnteŋ/ beauty, handsome words meaning teugageung /tɯgagɯəŋ/ supine, lying lindan /lindan/ very longing meujeureulah /mɯ̃ɟɯrɯlah/ sparkling ajab /ʔajab/ miraculous, amazing magical, astonishing wangsa /waŋsa/ young beewan /bɛːwan/ fragrant, odor, incense peulanggi /pɯlaŋgi/ colorful leubui /lɯbui/ sleepy ranom /ranɔ̃m/ friendly, gentle there is one semi-archaic word functioning as an adverb found in hikayat prang sabi, i.e., sret / srẽt/ or sreut /srɯt/ ‘unexpectedly, at once’. moreover, there are 24 semi-archaic nouns found in hikayat prang sabi, as can be seen in table 4. table 4 semi-archaic nouns words meaning bahgi /bahgi/ part, fate seunaroe /sɯnãrɔə/ comrade in arms kande /kande/ candlestick, candle holder gambang /gambaŋ/ xylophone pari /pari/ spirit, name of star tanjong /tanjoŋ/ cape, headland keumala /kɯmãla/ jewel bulueng /buluəŋ/ part, portion keutanggi /kɯtaŋgi/ burning odors, incense rihan /rihan/ sweet basil pudoe /pudɔə/ gemstone reuleueng /rɯlɯəŋ/ cliff cawareudi /cawarɯdi/ glistening substances coating the gold santeue /santɯə/ hanging sirungkhe /siruŋkhe/ a series (?) linte /lintɛ/ son in law bangsi /baŋsi/ flute duli /duli/ dust, designation to the king meuligi /mɯ̃ligi/ palace lagam /lagam/ kind of large tree bunyoe /buɲɔ̃ə/ sound peundeng /pɯndeŋ/ jewelry belt keuta /kɯta/ bed gahru /gahru/ gaharu wood table 3 semi-archaic adjectives (continued) 165acehnese archaic words .... (zulfadli abdul aziz, et al.) from 49 semi-archaic words, there are three words which are often used by the speakers, that is tiji ‘fast’, keumala ‘jewel’, and tanjong ‘cape’, ‘headland’. these words are now not used as a common noun, but they are names of places in the pidie district. although the words are commonly used as proper nouns, acehnese people in pidie no longer know their meaning. therefore, these words are categorized into semi-archaic words. moreover, there are also three semi-archaic words whose meanings can no longer be found in any dictionary, i.e., sirungkhe ‘a series’, meungo ‘buzzing’, and meusuji ‘neatly arranged’. in this research, their meanings are predicted based on the context within hikayat prang sabi. the status of acehnese archaic words in hikayat prang sabi based on the respondents in different age groups seems different. table 5 shows that from the data of 54 words, 12 archaic words are identified by the respondents in the age group of 20-25 years, but only five are true for those in the age group of 26-30. this suggests that the younger the age of the acehnese speakers, the higher number of words is considered archaic. in table 5, the respondents in the age group of 20-25 consider 12 words as archaic, and seven are semi archaic for the older age group (26-30). less than 50% of the participants (1-4) in the age group have heard the words used by other people, but they do not know their meaning. the words considered semi-archaic by respondents in both age groups include verbs, adjectives, and nouns. the numbers of respondents who reported hearing the words for each word class are presented in table 6. based on table 6, the number of respondents hearing the semi-archaic words does not show much difference either for each word class or for combined data. table 5 archaic words according to different age groups no words age 20-25 age 26-30 archaic semi-archaic heard by archaic semi-archaic heard by 1 lanti √ 0 √ 0 2 haneng √ 0 √ 0 3 jilila √ 0 √ 0 4 ngeuren √ 0 √ 0 5 suang √ 0 √ 0 6 lindan √ 0 √ 1 7 duli √ 0 √ 1 8 keutanggi √ 0 √ 2 9 gahru √ 0 √ 2 10 beewan √ 0 √ 2 11 wangsa √ 0 √ 4 12 ajab √ 0 √ 4 table 6 number of respondents reporting hearing semi-archaic words heard by number of semi-archaic words verbs adjectives nouns total 20-25 26-30 20-25 26-30 20-25 26-30 20-25 26-30 1 1 0 0 0 5 1 6 1 2 3 4 0 0 2 4 5 8 3 2 1 2 4 5 5 9 10 4 3 3 4 1 4 5 11 9 5 0 1 2 0 1 1 3 2 6 0 0 3 1 1 2 4 3 7 0 0 0 3 1 0 1 3 8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 3 166 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 161-169 the research has found that the archaic and semi-archaic words are replaced mostly by synonyms. it is two words with similar meanings and can be interchangeably used in the same context without changing the meaning. the existence of synonym word form can lead to the status of the archaic word, especially when the equivalent form is used more frequently as the replacement word in the community. the synonyms which replaced the archaic and semiarchaic words are mostly found in the dictionary. this type of substitution words for archaic words is also found in minangkabaunese, the native language spoken in west sumatra, indonesia (azim & jufrizal, 2020). the replacements for the archaic and semiarchaic words are presented in table 7. table 7 replacements of archaic words archaic word meaning non-archaic alternative haneng / hanɛŋ̃/ clear, bright, fresh, holy, pure gléh /gleh/ jilila / ɟilila/ jump, dance gröb /grob/, chèn /chɛn/, lumpat / lumpat/, tajö, lanti / lanti/ later, wait prèh /prɛh/, keumiet / kɯmĩət/, enteuk /ɯntɯʔ/, entreuk /ɯntrɯʔ/ ngeurén / ŋɯ̃reŋ/ anger, wrath, jealousy beungèh / bɯŋẽh/, gigéng / gigeŋ/, bingkèng /biŋkɛŋ/, cemuru suang / suaŋ/ bad luck, unfortunate, woe neuh'aih / nɯ̃hãih/, cilaka / cilaka/ all the archaic words in table 7 have alternatives, which are still commonly used. some of the alternatives have the same meaning as archaic words so that they can be used in different contexts. most of the alternatives are acehnese words, but some are borrowed from bahasa indonesia, such as lumpat /lumpat/ ‘jealous’ as the alternative for jilila /ɟilila/, which is a naturalized borrowing word from bahasa indonesia lompat /lɔmpat/. in addition to the archaic words, the semi-archaic words also have nonarchaic alternative words that are acehnese words and borrowed words from bahasa indonesia that can be seen in table 8. in table 8, all of the data have alternatives except two, that is, lagam ‘kind of large tree’ because it is considered as a term, and tanjong. all of the alternatives are words from acehnese, but there are some words borrowed from bahasa indonesia. the borrowing words from bahasa indonesia as the alternatives for semi-archaic words include pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing. an example of pure borrowing from indonesian is rindu, kangen ‘very longing’, as the replacement for lindan. in addition, the word that is considered as naturalized borrowing involves sound change such as canték /canteʔ/ ‘lovely’, ‘beautiful’ as the replacement of sambinoe. it is a naturalized borrowing word from bahasa indonesia cantik /cantiʔ/ ‘lovely’, ‘beautiful’. another naturalized borrowing involves the addition of prefix such as meu/mɯ/ in meukeulap-keulip ‘sparkling’ as the alternative for meujeureulah naturalized borrowing from bahasa indonesia kerlap-kerlip /kərlap-kərlip/ ‘sparkling’. table 8 non-archaic alternative for semi-archaic words word meaning non-archaic alternative lindan /lindan/ very longing meuchèn / mɯchẽn/, rindu / rindu/, kangen / kaŋə̃n/ duli /duli/ dust, designation to the king abèe /abɛə/, raja / raɟa/ keutanggi / kɯtaŋgi/ burning odors/ incense töt /tət/, teut keumunyan /tɯt kɯmuɲan/ gahru /gahru/ gaharu wood kayèe gaharu / kajɛə gaharu/ beewan / bɛːwan/ fragrant, odor, incense wangi-wangian / waŋi waŋijan/ wangsa / waŋsa/ young muda /muda/ ajab /ʔajab/ miraculous, amazing hayeue /hajɯə/, àjayéb /ʔaɟajep/ santeue / santɯə/ hanging sawak /sawaʔ/, sangköt /saŋkot/, lhat /lhat/ teujali / tɯjali/ revealed, real leumah /lɯmãh/, deuh /dɯh/ cawareudi / cawarɯdi/ glistening substances coating the gold batée kilat /batɛə kilat/ lagam / lagam/ kind of large tree bulueng / buluəŋ/ part, portion bagi /bagi/ sirungkhe / siruŋkhe/ a series karang(an) / karaŋ(ãn)/, serangkai /seraŋkai/ manyoh / mãɲɔ̃h/ craving h'eut /hɯ̃t/ linte /lintɛ/ son in law meulintèe / mɯ̃linteə/ 167acehnese archaic words .... (zulfadli abdul aziz, et al.) word meaning non-archaic alternative meuligi / mɯ̃ligi/ palace meuligoe / mɯ̃ligɔə/, istana / istanã/ meuandam / mɯ̃ʔandam/ make up meungui /mɯ̃ŋũi/, solek /sɔleʔ/ geuseundi / gɯsɯndi/ neatly arranged, frolic susön /suson/, meuseunda / mɯ̃sɯnda/, mayang /mãjaŋ/ meusuji / mɯ̃suɟi/ neatly arranged susön /suson/, tumpök /tumpoʔ/, atö /ato/, tindéh / tindeh/ sret /srẽt/ or sreut /srɯt/ suddenly, unexpectedly, at once ka /ka/ teugageung / tɯgagɯəŋ/ supine, lying linteueng /lintɯəŋ/ bangsi /baŋsi/ flute suléng /suleŋ/ bunyoe / buɲɔ̃ə/ sound su /su/ keuta /kɯta/ bed peuratah /pɯratah/ rihan /rihan/ sweet basil ön siaseh-aseh /on siaseh-aseh/ bahgi /bahgi/ part, fate bagi /bagi/ meutatah / mɯ̃tatah/ sculpt, carve uké /ʔke/ sambinoe / sambinɔ̃ə/ lovely, beautiful tari /tari/, canték / canteʔ/, lagak / lagaʔ/ seumurat / sɯmũrat/ tell story cerita /cərita/, peugah /pɯgah/ pudoe /pudɔə/ gemstone berlian /bərlijan/ peulanggi / pɯlaŋgi/ colorful warna-warni / warnã-warnĩ/ leubui /lɯbui/ sleepy teungeut /tɯŋɯ̃t/ ranom / ranɔ̃m/ friendly, gentle reumèh /rɯmẽh/, leumah-leumbot / lɯmãh lɯmbot/ meungo / mɯ̃ŋɔ̃/ buzzing deungong /dɯŋɔ̃ŋ/ teugoe-goe / tɯgɔəgɔə/ remembered, worried teubayang-bayang /tɯbajaŋ-bajaŋ/, teuingat-ingat / tɯʔiŋãt-ʔiŋãt/ reuleueng / rɯlɯəŋ/ cliff jeureulöng / ɟɯrɯloŋ/ pari /pari/ spirit, name of star jen /ɟen/, bintang / bintaŋ/ tiji /tiɟi/ fast bagaih /bagaih/, leugat /lɯgat/, laju /laɟu/ word meaning non-archaic alternative gambang / gambaŋ/ xylophone silofon /silofɔn/ meujeureulah /mɯ̃ɟɯrɯlah/ sparkling meukeulap-keulip /mɯ̃kɯlap-kɯlip/ seunaroe / sɯnãrɔə/ comrade-inarms, friend rakan /rakan/, ngon /ŋʌ̃n/ reumbang / rɯmbaŋ/ exact, appropriate, true teupat /tɯpat/, beutöi /bɯtoi/ leunteng / lɯnteŋ/ beautiful, handsome tari /tari/, lagak / lagaʔ/ meulo-lo / mɯ̃lolo/ shiny meukilat-kilat / mɯ̃kilat-kilat/ samlakoe / samlakɔə/ handsome tari /tari/, lagak / lagaʔ/ kande /kande/ candlestick, candle holder panyoet /paɲʌ̃t/ peundeng / pɯndeŋ/ jewelry belt talo keuing /taɔ kɯʔiəŋ/ keumala / kɯmãla/ jewel bate jimat /batɛ ɟimat/ tanjong / tanjoŋ/ cape, headland the result of data analysis of acehnese archaic words in hikayat prang sabi shows that there are five archaic words and 49 semi-archaic words. the archaic words consist of one adjective, two nouns, and two verbs. in addition, the speakers chose 49 words as semi-archaic because they have not either used the words or known the meanings, and they rarely heard them. these semi-archaic words are mostly nouns, and others include adjectives and verbs. an interesting finding is revealed in the research regarding semiarchaic words. all respondents in both age groups have reported that they have ever both heard and used three words in the list, i.e., tiji ‘fast’, keumala ‘jewel’, and tanjong ‘cape’, ‘headland’. nevertheless, their classes and meanings that the respondents knew have changed into proper nouns, i.e., name of places. they are all names of sub-district in pidie, i.e., padang tiji, keumala, and kembang tanjong. no one of the respondents knows the real meanings and word classes. the results of the research suggest that the acehnese language has started to change in lexical level marked by the existence of some archaic words, as also revealed in other austronesian languages such as batak toba language (lumbantoruan, 2008) and minangkabaunese (azim & jufrizal, 2020). although some words in the current research are semi-archaic, they are also expected to disappear from the language because none will use them in the near future. almost all acehnese archaic and semi-archaic table 8 non-archaic alternative for semi-archaic words (continued) table 8 non-archaic alternative for semi-archaic words (continued) 168 lingua cultura, vol. 14 no. 2, december 2020, 161-169 words have non-archaic alternatives. the alternatives for archaic and semi-archaic words in the research are commonly acehnese words. some alternatives are borrowed from bahasa indonesia through either pure borrowing or naturalized borrowing. interestingly, these borrowed alternatives are not found in batak toba. however, in the pariaman dialect of minangkabaunese, the speakers also use borrowed words from bahasa indonesia as the replacements or alternatives for archaic and semi-archaic words. the borrowed alternative availability is suspected of what made most words become archaic in the current and previous studies. the status of acehnese is now even more threatened because bahasa indonesia has been dominantly used by the young generation (ulfa, isda, & purwati, 2018), and more parents have stopped speaking acehnese to their children. the result of data analysis of acehnese archaic words in hikayat prang sabi shows that there are five archaic words and 49 semi-archaic words. the archaic words consist of one adjective, two nouns, and two verbs. these words belong to those who have not known their meanings, and the respondents rarely heard them. conclusions the research aims to find out which words used in hikayat prang sabi are archaic and semi-archaic and whether those words have living-alternatives. based on the research results, from 54 suspected archaic words, five of them (10%) are archaic, and the rest (90%) are semi-archaic. the parts of speech for archaic words are nouns, verbs, and adjectives, as are for semi-archaic words. no obvious difference is found among different ages of the respondents. almost all of 5 archaic words and 49 semi-archaic words have alternative counterparts, which are still used. most of the alternative words are acehnese words. the rest is borrowed from bahasa indonesia through either pure borrowing or naturalized borrowing. as a suggestion based on the result of the research, revitalization for the archaic and semiarchaic words by increasing the textbooks using these archaic and semi-archaic words is needed. moreover, considering that some archaic and semi-archaic words are not found in the dictionary. it is critical that the words be included in the later edition of the dictionary. in addition, the research is not a thorough study of acehnese archaic words because only one source was used, i.e., hikayat prang sabi. therefore, it is strongly suggested that further research involving a bigger corpus be conducted. in addition, the archaicity in the research is concluded from the opinion of acehnese speakers in one dialect. what is archaic in one dialect is possibly not archaic in others. therefore, followup research can consider using more respondents covering all or varied acehnese dialects. references al-auwal, t. m. r. 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(2018). the shift of acehnese language: a sociolinguistic study to preserve regional languages. studies in english language and education, 5(2), 161-174. https://doi. org/10.24815/siele.v5i2.8943. vejdemo, s., & hörberg, t. (2016). semantic factors predict the rate of lexical replacement of content words. plos one, 11(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0147924. the effects of reading habit and vocabulary mastery towards students’ listening skill at state senior high schools in east jakarta nurul frijuniarsi1; noni marlianingsih2 1, 2 department of english education, faculty of language and art of indraprasta pgri university frijuniarsinurul@gmail.com, marleeanee@yahoo.co.id received: 27th november 2015/ revised: 1st april 2015/ accepted: 15th april 2016 how to cite: frijuniarsi, n., marlianingsih, n. (2016). the effects of reading habit and vocubulary mastery towards students’ listening skill as state senior high schools in east jakarta. lingua cultura, 10(1), 19-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.828 abstract this research was aimed to get empirical data and analyze the effects of reading habit and vocabulary mastery towards student’s speaking skill at private vocational schools in east jakarta. this research used data analysis technique, those were descriptive statistic, requirement analysis, normality test, linearity test, and test of hypothesis (analysis of inferential). the research was held at state senior high schools in east jakarta. data collection was done by giving a test for reading habit, vocabulary mastery and listening skill to tenth-grade students at sma 105 ciracas and sma 98 cijantung. due to the result, it can be inferred that there is an effect of reading habit towards student’s speaking skill. keywords: reading habit, vocabulary mastery, listening skill introduction learning english consists of four aspects of skill that the students are required to master. they are listening, speaking, reading, and writing, but the priority of what skill should be mastered first is dependent on the background of english in a country. for example, in indonesia, english is the first foreign language learned in formal education. due to this condition, the priority of english skill mastery in indonesia is to prepare the students to be able to absorb information either written or spoken in english. that is why the most priority skill that the student should master are reading and listening. to be able to listen well, there are some factors that someone must pay attention to, such as the context and the participant. it is clear that learners, especially senior high school students should master vocabulary. most indonesian universities require their students to take english courses focusing on improving students’ english competence to comprehend academic disciplinary texts. non-english department students usually take a subject called english for academic purposes (e.g., english for law, english for economics, and english for medicine) once or twice a week for two semesters (cahyono & widiati, 2008). classes typically involve text discussion with the most focus on reading. seken and artini (2013) claim that three teachers applied teaching speaking and reading comprehension skills strategies in three stages; pre-stages, whilst-stages, and post-stages. based on the above explanation, the writer would like to find out the effect of vocabulary mastery and reading habit towards students’ listening skill in state senior high school in east jakarta. therefore, the researchers can formulate the problems into students need to understand that there are effects of vocabulary mastery and reading habit towards students’ listening skill. vocabulary mastery of the students will make the students improve their listening skill. the reading habit that the students have will improve their listening skill. and the objectives of this research are to know: the effects of vocabulary mastery and reading habit towards student’s listening skill, the effect of vocabulary mastery towards student’s listening skill, the effect of reading habit towards student’s listening skill. this research is hoped to be useful for: teachers and lecturers in recognizing the vocabulary mastery and reading habit of the students to improve their listening skill; for the students to know that to improve their listening skill they need to have vocabulary mastery and reading habit; for the upcoming researchers to do their relevant research, and the library of university of indraprasta pgri. reading is one of the several ways to increase vocabulary and knowledge. if students are aware of the benefit of reading, they will be more interested in learning english, especially the skills that should be mastered by the students. by reading, the students will have more knowledge in understanding many kinds of themes and also achieve the good impacts of vocabulary mastery towards listening skill. the vocabulary mastery will enable students to learn the lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 19-24 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.828 19copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 20 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 19-24 language more easily if students are aware of the benefit of mastering the vocabulary, so they are more interested in learning english especially the skills that should be mastered by the students. by mastering the vocabulary, the students will also be able to express their ideas easily and can understand what the speaker is saying. according to murcia and freeman (1999) comprehension describes comprehension of speaker’s messages at the internal reproduction of that message in the listener’s mind. what ‘listening’ really means is ‘listening and understanding what people hear at the same time.’ so, two concurrent actions are demanded to take place in this process. besides, according to rost (1990) listening comprises some component skills which are: discriminating between sounds, recognizing words, identifying grammatical groupings of words, identifying expressions and sets of utterances that act to create meaning, connecting linguistic cues to non-linguistic and paralinguistic cues, using background knowledge to predict and later to confirm meaning and recalling important words and ideas. as mentioned by brown (2007), listening skill consists of several techniques. first, it is reactive. teachers sometimes want their students simply to listen to the surface structure of an utterance for the sole purpose of repeating it back to us. while this kind of listening performance requires little meaningful processing, it nevertheless may be a legitimate, even though a minor, aspects of an interactive, communicative classroom. in the classroom, the students will become merely as the tape recorder and be very limited because it is not generating meaning. second, it is intensive. this technique purpose is to focus on components (phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.). examples of intensive listening performance include students listen for cues in individual drills, the teacher repeats a word or sentence several times, and the teacher asks students to listen to a sentence or a longer stretch of discourse and to notice a specified element, such as intonation, stress, contraction, grammatical structure, etc. third, responsive is another technique that can be done. the students’ task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to make an appropriate reply. examples include asking questions (“are you okay?”, “what’s going on?”), giving commands (“draw a conclusion.”), seeking clarification (“what did you say?”), checking comprehension (“how many people were in the class after the class began?”). fourth, selective is listening to a monolog for a couple of minutes or a little bit longer. the task of the student is not to process everything that is said, but rather to scan the material selectively for certain information. the purpose is to find important information. examples of such discourse include speeches, media broadcast, stories and anecdotes, and conversations. techniques promoting selective listening skills can be done by asking students to listen for many things. they can be people names, dates, certain facts or event, location, situation, context, main ideas, and conclusion. fifth, there is extensive technique. it can range from listening to lengthy lectures to listening to a conversation and deriving comprehensive message or purpose. extensive listening may require the student to invoke other interactive skills (e.g., note taking, and discussion) for full comprehension. finally, there is interactive technique. it is listening performance that can include all five of the above types of learners actively participate in the discussion, debates, conversations, role plays, and another pair of group work. the most important thing in listening in learning foreign language as what has been brought up by helgesen, brown, and nunan (2007) are: listening is vital in the language classroom because it provides input for the learner. without understanding input at the right level, any learning simply cannot begin. while, spoken language provides a means of interaction for the learners because they must interact to achieve essential understanding and access to speakers of the language. moreover, learners’ failure to understand the language they hear is an impetus, not an obstacle, to interact and learn. then, authentic spoken language presents a challenge for the learner to try to understand language as a native speaker use it. listening exercises provide teachers with a means for drawing learners’ attention to new forms. it can be vocabulary, grammar, new interaction, patterns in the language. based on that statement, listening to the foreign language means listening to english as the foreign language with full attention and understanding about what have been said by the speaker. vocabulary varies in the four skills of language; listening, writing, reading and listening. a student will absorb listening and listening activities before coming to reading and writing vocabulary. in the real situation, the process may change, especially in foreign language teaching. reading may become the first stage before processing the listening and listening. in function, vocabulary has generally been classified into active or productive and passive or receptive vocabulary. according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary by hornby (2010), vocabulary is divided into two types. first, active vocabulary refers to items which the learner can use appropriately in listening or writing but in fact, it is more difficult to put into practice. it means that to use the productive vocabulary; the student must know how to pronounce it well, they must know and be able to use the grammar of the target language, and they also must be familiar with collocation meaning of the word. second, passive vocabulary is all of the words that students hear and read. it refers to language items that can be recognized and understood in the context of reading or listening. based on intelligence united (2012), it said that reading can be summarized by explaining some processes. from infancy perceptual processes, these include the ability to transform sound, light waves, and sound waves into meaningful chunks of information. these abilities will be affected by the development of the visual and auditory systems. then, there will be word recognition. words are recognized at two levels: the letter level and the word level. at the letter level, individual graphemes (letters) are identified and transformed into their phonemic equivalent (their sound). the early reader (4-5 yrs) uses the only grapheme to correspond and have to sound out words to string the individual sounds into a meaningful word. next, syntactic processing will involve the ability to identify clauses, noun phrases (np), verb phrases (vp), prepositional phrases, adjective (adj), articles (art), nouns (n), and verbs (v), and assemble them in syntactically acceptable sentence (s). syntactic development is measured by the mean length of utterance (mlu), which is based on the average length of a child’s sentences scored on transcripts of spontaneous speech. then, semantic processing is developing even before an infant begins to use words. words initially start with a 21the effects of reading habit and vocabulary .... (nurul frijuniarsi; noni marlianingsih) single meaning then become richer as the child is exposed to a wide range of words and experiences, some of which may be the same but used in different contexts, and some are related to each other. meaning is assembled in semantic networks in which words are inserted in classes. after that, metalinguistic awareness makes it possible for children to think about language, understand what words are, and define them, or know the language as an object. it begins to develop gradually at a young age, through the middle school years and continues to develop well into adulthood. it involves the ability to use humour, metaphor, and irony, for example. last, comprehension will involve the use of all of the above processes, especially semantic processing. the act of comprehension is the essential linking of new knowledge to old knowledge, adding new links and modifying the strength of connections between nodes. in the early stages of learning to read, comprehension is hampered by limited: the capacity of processing space, attention, prior knowledge, and atomization of processes (procedures) -all part of skilled reading. methods the population of this study or object of this research is obtained from class xi. the total numbers of the students from two schools that are being surveyed are 300 students. they came from sman 98 cijantung consisting of 144 students and sman 105 ciracas consist of 156 students. to make the research easier, in collecting the data the researchers need to make a limitation to the population by taking the sample. in collecting the data, according to arikunto (2002) if the subject is less than 100, it is better to take them all. then the researchers can name it as population research. also, if the object is more than 100, the researchers can take 10 15 % or 20 25% or more of the objects. based on that, from 150 students, the researchers can take 10 % of the whole population. 0,10 x 300 is 30 students, taken from 45 students. the researchers are going to take it randomly from 2 different schools of 300 students. the data collection technique that has been done to get the data of vocabulary mastery and reading habit and listening skill variables is by asking the respondents to answer the question that has been asked by the researchers. the respondents’ answers are being scored based on the scoring rule. to analyze the data, descriptive statistic will be used. in this descriptive analysis, the data technique in distribution table, graphic, the histogram for each variable will be done. besides that, each variable will be tabulated and analyzed regarding the center measurement and the mean, mode, and median and the deviation such as the range, variant, standard deviation, the deviate, and kurtosis. besides, there is the requirement analysis such as normality test, linearity test, and hypothesis test will be performed. the normality test is aimed to know whether the data collection result is normal or not. this will affect the next process of the statistic analysis, continued by using the parametric statistic. if the data are not distributed normally, then the analysis is done by nonparametric statistic. normality test in this research is done by kolmogorovsmirnov analysis in computer application program for the statistic, spss 15.0. the result of calculation and testing by spss 15.0 is shown by the table tests of normality in column sig for the testing technique kolmogorov-smirnov. the criteria of the normality is if the score of sig ks is more than 0,05, the data will be stated as a normal distribution. next, there is linearity test. the regression line of linearity test in this research is by using the f test, the formula is based on sudjana (2005): (1) in practice, the researchers will use spss 15.00 program to calculate the linearity test. it is done by seeing the quantity of the score of sig coefficient at deviation from linearity. last, hypothesis test (analysis of inferential) will also be used. after, the entire hypothesis test has been known. then, the data is tabulated and tested properly by using the hypothesis that has been proposed. the hypothesis will be analyzed using the partial correlation technique, double correlation, and also a simple linear regression and double linear regression. in practice, the researchers will do the calculation and test the correlation and regression partially. results and discussions table 1 the calculation result of coefficients correlation about the effect of variable x1 and x2 towards variable y model summaryb model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .845a .713 .698 1.30093 a. predictors: (constant), x2, x1 b. dependent variable: y table 1 shows that the effect of the double correlation coefficient of independent variable reading habit (x1) and vocabulary mastery (x2) towards speaking skill (y) is 0,845. from the calculation, it is obtained that correlation coefficient is significant. in other words, there are significant effects of the independent variable of vocabulary mastery (x1) and reading habit (x2) towards listening skill (y). while, the coefficient determination is 71.3%. it shows that the quantity of the effects of vocabulary mastery and reading habit towards listening skill is 71.3%. the residue (28.7%) is because of the effects of other factors. whereas for the hypothesis test through the regression analysis, it is obtained that the regression line equation that represents the effects of variable x1 and x2 towards variable y, that ŷ is 0.154 + 0.631x1 + 0.083x2. then, the significance of regression line test is done by paying attention to the result of calculation in table 2. based on the existing rule, the criteria for significance regression is “if sig < 0.05, h0 is rejected” or “if ftest is more than ftable, h0 is rejected”. it means that the regression coefficient is significant. in other words, there is a significant effect of independent variables x1 and x2 toward dependent variable y. the score of sig is the number printed in sig column, and the score of ftest is in fcolumn, in table 2. whereas, the score ftable is the score of distribution 22 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 19-24 of table f, which the real standard is 5% with 2 as the numerator degree (k) and denominator degree (n – k – 1) equals 37 where n is the number of respondents, and k is the number of independent variables. table 2 the calculation of result of regression coefficient significance test about the effect of variable x1 and x2 towards variable y anovab model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 155.781 2 77.890 46.023 .000a residual 62.619 37 1.692 total 218.400 39 a. predictors: (constant), x2, x1 b. dependent variable: y table 2 presents that the score of sig is 0.000 and ftest is 46.023; while ftable is 3.25. because the score of sig is less than 0,05 and ftest is more than ftable, h0 is rejected. that means the regression coefficient is significant, or it can be concluded as there are significant effects of independent variables of vocabulary mastery (x1) and reading habit (x2) towards listening skill (y). from the descriptive data, after the correlation analysis which has been carried out, it is obtained that the correlation coefficient is 0.845, and the coefficient determination is 71.3%. after the test has been carried out by spss program, it proves that the correlation coefficient is significant. this means that there are significant effects of the independent variable of x1 (vocabulary mastery) and x2 (reading habit) towards the dependent variable y (listening skill). from the regression analysis, it is obtained that the equation of the regression line is 0.154 + 0.631x1 + 0.083x2. the constant score is 0.154 showing that with the lowest reading habit and vocabulary mastery, it is difficult for students to obtain a good speaking skill score. while, the score of coefficient regression is 0.631 and 0.083. it shows there are positive effects of independent variable x1 (vocabulary mastery) and x2 (reading habit) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). with every increase of one score of vocabulary mastery, there will be an increase of listening skill score of 0.631. then, every increase of one score reading habit will be an increase of listening skill score of 0.083. after the regression line linearity has been tested using spss program, it is obtained that the regression line is linear. from the significance test of regression coefficient also using spss program, it is obtained that the regression coefficient is significant. it really means that there are positive effects of independent variable x1 (vocabulary mastery) and x2 (reading habit) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). the researchers believe that the biggest component of the language course is vocabulary. good mastery of vocabulary helps the learners to express their ideas precisely. by having many stocks of words, learners will be able to comprehend the reading materials, catch someone’s talk, give a response, speak fluently, and write some kinds of topics. the perception of reading habit is someone’s behavior to read which does not need much thinking process or repeated reading activity done regularly by him then does continuously as a result it becomes a habit. if reading is a habit, the students will realize that they can understand and grasp information from what they read, and of course, it will make them easier to discuss about certain topics since they have understood and gotten the information from the reading materials. as a result, the researchers can conclude that vocabulary mastery and reading habit have significant effects towards the students’ listening skill from the quantitative information and theoretical aspects. second, the effect of vocabulary mastery (x1) towards listening skill (y) will be analyzed. this uses hypothesis as following: h0 : βy1 = 0 ; h1 : βy1 ≠ 0 it means : h0 : there are no significant effects of vocabulary mastery towards students’ listening skill h1 : there are significant effects of vocabulary mastery towards students’ listening skill paying attention to the score of t column or at sig column for line reading (variable x1) in table 3 is done to prove the hypothesis. according to the existing rule, the criteria of significance regression is “if ttest is more than ttable, h0 is rejected” or “if sig is less than 0,05, h0 is rejected”. it means that there is a significant effect of independent variable x1 towards dependent variable y. the score of sig is the number printed in sig column, and the score of ttest is shown in t column, for vocabulary mastery line (variable x1) in table 3. while the score of ttable is the score of distribution of table t that the real standard is 5% with the degree of the trustee (df = n – 2) equals 38, where n is the number of respondents. tabel 3 the calculation of result of regression line equation test about the effect of variable x1 and x2 towards variable y coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig.b std. error beta 1 (constant) .154 2.038 .075 .940 x1 .631 .104 .682 6.043 .000 x2 .083 .040 .230 2.038 .049 a. dependent variable: y table 3 illustrates that the score of sig is 0.000 and ttest is 6.043; while ttable is 1.68. because the score of sig is less than 0,05 and ttest is more than ttable, h0 is rejected. this means there are significant effects of independent variable x1 (vocabulary mastery) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). from the result of correlation test, regression test or by looking at the line model, it can be concluded that there are significant effects of independent variable x1 (vocabulary mastery) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). the effect of vocabulary mastery towards student’s listening skill can be seen from the hypothesis test, it is obtained that the score of sig is 0.000 and ttest is 6.043; while 23the effects of reading habit and vocabulary .... (nurul frijuniarsi; noni marlianingsih) ttable is 1,68. because the score of sig is less than 0,05 and ttest is more than ttable so h0 is rejected. it means that there are significant effects of independent variable x1 (vocabulary mastery) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). according to theoretical assumptions from above, the perception of vocabulary mastery is someone’s proficiency in using words and their meaning appropriately in language. from the definition, the researchers can say that the biggest component of the language course is vocabulary. good mastery of vocabulary helps the learners express their ideas precisely. by having many stocks of words, learners will be able to comprehend the reading materials, catch someone’s talk, give a response, speak fluently, and write some kinds of topics.then, the researchers can conclude that vocabulary mastery has significant effect towards the students’ listening skill from the quantitative information and theoretical aspects. last, it is about the effect of reading habit (x2) towards listening skill (y). the hypothesis is: h0 : βy2 = 0 ; h1 : βy2 ≠ 0 which means : h0 : there are no significant effects of reading habit towards students’ listening skill h1 : there are significant effects of reading towards students’ listening skill to prove the hypothesis, it can be done by paying attention to the score printed in t column or sig column for reading habit line (variable x2) in table 3. according to the existing rule, the significance criteria of regression is “if ttest is more than ttable, h0 is rejected” or “if sig is less than 0,05, h0 is rejected”. it means that there are significant effects of the independent variable of x2 towards the dependent variable y. the score of sig is in sig column for reading habit line, and the score of ttest is in t column, for reading habit line (variable x2) in table 3. while the score of ttable is the score of distribution of table t with 5% of the real standard and the degree of freedom (df = n – 2) is 38 where n is the number of respondents. table 3 indicates that the score of sig is 0.049 and ttest is 2.038; while ttable is 1.68. since the score of sig is less than 0.05 and ttest is more than ttable, h0 is rejected. it means, there are significant effects of independent variable x2 (reading habit) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). from the result of correlation test, regression test or by looking at the line model, it can be concluded that there is a significant effect of independent variable x2 (reading habit) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). the effect of reading habit towards student’s listening skill can be seen from the hypothesis test, it is obtained that the score of sig is 0.049 and ttest is 2.038 while ttable is 1,68. because the score of sig is less than 0,05 and ttest is more than ttable so h0 is rejected. this means that there are significant effects of independent variable x2 (reading habit) towards dependent variable y (listening skill). according to theoretical assumptions, the perception of reading habit is someone’s behavior to read which does not need much thinking process or repeated reading activity which is done regularly by him then does continuously. as a result, it becomes a habit. if reading is a habit, the students will realize that they can understand and grasp information from what they read. by having a good reading habit, students will be easier to understand and grasp information from what they read. then, it will definitely make them easier to talk or discuss certain topics because they have already known it before. therefore, they will have more confidence in giving information and sharing their ideas. therefore, it can be concluded that reading habit has significant effects towards the students’ listening skill from the quantitative information and theoretical aspects. table 1, 2, and 3 represents the effects of vocabulary mastery (x1) and reading habit (x2) towards listening skill (y) with the hypothesis: h0 : βy2 = 0 ; h1 : βy2 ≠ 0 this means: h0 : there are no significant effects between reading habit (x1) and vocabulary mastery (x2) towards speaking skill (y) h1 : there are significant effects between reading habit (x1) and vocabulary mastery (x2) towards speaking skill (y) conclusions from the result, several points can be concluded. firstly, there are significant effects of vocabulary mastery and reading habit towards students’ listening skill. it is proved by the score of fobserved is 46.023 and sig is 0.000. the score of fobserved is more than ftable (> 3.25), and the score of sig is less than 0.05 (< 0.05). based on that, the researchers can conclude that the better vocabulary mastery and reading habit are, the better students’ listening ability is. secondly, there are significant effects of vocabulary mastery towards students’ listening skill. it is shown that the score of t observed is 6.043 and sig is 0.000. the score of t observed is more than t table (> 1.68), and the score of sig is less than 0.05 (< 0.05). it shows that the score is significant. based on that, the researchers can conclude that the higher students’ vocabulary mastery is, the better their listening ability is. finally, there are significant effects of reading habit towards student’s listening skill. it can be seen that the score of t observed is 2.038 and sig is 0.049. the score of t observed is more than t table (>1.68), and the score of sig is less than 0.05 (< 0.05). based on that, the researchers can conclude that the better students’ reading habit is, the better their listening skill is as well. references arikunto, s. (2002). prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktik. jakarta: rineka cipta. brown, h. d. (2007). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. new york: pearson. cahyono, b. y., & widiati, u. (2008). the teaching of efl vocabulary in the indonesian context: the state of the art. teflin journal, 19(1), 1-17. helgesen, m., brown, s., & nunan, d. (2007). practical english language teaching: listening. new york: mcgraw-hill companies, inc. intelligence united. (2012). the nature of reading. retrieved july 18th, 2012, from: http://www.intelligenceunited. com/?p=1163http://scholastic.com/ murcia, m. c., & freeman, d. l. (1999). the grammar 24 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 19-24 book: an esl/efl teacher’s course (2nd ed.). new york: heinle & heinle publisher. rost, m. (1990). listening in language learning. london: longman. seken, i. k., & artini, l. p. (2013). a study on strategies for teaching speaking and reading comprehension skills. jurnal penelitian pascasarjana undiksha, 1, 1-8. sudjana. (2005). metode statistika. bandung: tarsito. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 9 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 9-15 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7752 using technology-based media for teaching speaking in intercultural education titi rokhayati1; ana widiyanti2* 1english education program, faculty of teacher training and education sciences, purworejo muhammadiyah university jl. kh. ahmad dahlan no. 3, purworejo 54111, indonesia 2english literature program, faculty of language and literature, sains al qur'an university jl. kh. hasyim asy'ari no. 3, kalibeber, mojotengah, wonosobo 56351, indonesia 1trokhayati@umpwr.ac.id; 2widyananti80@gmail.com received: 28th september 2021/revised: 09th february 2022/accepted: 09th february 2022 how to cite: rokhayati, t. & widiyanti, a. (2022). using technology-based media for teaching speaking in intercultural education. lingua cultura, 16(1), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7752 abstract the research aimed to study how did mobile-phone were used for teaching speaking in intercultural education? and was the use of mobile phone for teaching speaking in intercultural education effective? intercultural competence could be seen in the teaching of speaking since the students had to reflect their ideas and opinions orally. thus, the speaking ability would be much supported by intercultural education. to reach this, the use of technology-based media like mobile-phone in teaching speaking was needed to make it easier and more interesting. in the past decade, several studies have sought to determine the use of technology in education; however, in the university context, the issues of mobile phone used for teaching speaking in intercultural education had not been discussed extensively. the research employed explanatory sequential mix-method research. the instrument of the research was an observation, questionnaire, and test. the research population was 40 students of the fifth semester of the english education program of purworejo muhammadiyah university. the finding shows that mobile phone is used as the primary tool to access the material and learning platform. using mobile phones, the student’s speaking ability is improved by 18,3%. in addition, the finding shows that the use of mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education is effective to help the teacher in delivering the material and boosting the students’ motivation to speak. keywords: mobile phone, teaching speaking, intercultural education introduction globalization spreads massively, leading people to live in a multicultural society where diversity exists anywhere. to understand diversity, one needs intercultural competence; thus, intercultural education emerges as the solution in gaining intercultural competence. in other words, there is an interconnection between culture and education. education occurs spontaneously as a result of the variation among individuals and social groups. culture and education may set the direction for learning and understanding one another and for creating principles of coexistence based on tolerance and respect for one’s fellow man (wereszczyńska, 2018). in the world of globalization, interacting with others is an important part. the world becomes so narrow as people know many things about other people from other places using technology. understanding others’ cultures is demanded to be the competence of people who want to interact with others. they can speak to other people using the first international language in which cultural diversity takes apart. today, paying attention to cultural diversity is seen as a first-order obstacle to bolstering equity and equality (velez & olivencia, 2017). understanding cultural diversity is believed to help the teacher and students minimize misunderstanding and broaden their views about diversity; thus, the lack of understanding about cultural diversity is considered as an obstacle (velez & 10 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 9-15 olivencia, 2017). intercultural education is an educational approach that allows educators to deal with problems regarding the treatment of cultural variety in education beyond the established barriers set through races, ethnic groups, or nationalities, through viewing variety as a precious pressure and a supply of mutual enrichment rather than a flaw to be triumph over. intercultural education is an academic practice that aims to promote the most reliable improvement of all students and the whole educational network, further to intercultural relations; contribute to the removal of prejudice and stereotypes; offer significant, high-quality education for all; and, in the long run, inspire a more just and united society which would permit students to shape within the reputation, appreciate, and estimation of cultural range (aquaded-ramirez, 2017). the importance of gaining intercultural competence brings consequences in language learning trends. learning english skills in the present-day era tends to discuss issues associated with culture gap mediation in english intercultural communication. the culture mediation in english verbal exchange is referred to as cross-cultural communication or intercultural communication (saraswati, hartoyo, & fadwati, 2018). thus, teaching speaking is essential in intercultural education to accommodate the gap between language and culture. through speaking skills, learners will be able to express and reflect their cultural understanding. according to irwandi (2017), intercultural communicative competence in english language teaching and learning (eltl) requires a learner’s ability in understanding culture in the target language community and explicate it to the member of their community. it means that learning a language is not only learning its linguistic and pedagogical aspects but also learning the cultural message behind the language. intercultural pedagogy, along with ki hajar dewantoro’s teaching idea, becomes one foundation for teaching speaking in intercultural education (marisyah, firman, & rusdinal, 2019). the intercultural pedagogy in the teaching of speaking consists of five cycles: noticing, imitating, comparing, reflecting, and interacting (rokhayati, 2018). to reach all those cycle stages effectively and interestingly, teachers need media. media encompasses all forms of communication, regardless of their format. print, graphics, animation, music, and motion pictures are all examples of media in this sense. meanwhile, technology is defined as a ‘human-made process for transmitting media’. books, films, television, and the internet are all examples of technology in this sense. media comes in exceptional forms, and each form affects how students learn and interpret information. media has introduced the world nearer that now the students from different universities in different parts of the world are connected through a trifling internet connection. the use of media is also in line with the aims of teaching speaking to enable the students to communicate in the target language, which makes the teaching more interesting (rokhayati, 2017). reflecting encourages students to have selfreflection about cultural differences by using media to explore the strengths and weaknesses of cultures is also beneficial. the last stage focuses on interaction by comprehending the expressions and values they see in the media. they can achieve communication or speaking goals, which is interacting. nowadays, the use of technology-based media in education is in demand. using only books or pictures in the teaching-learning process is no longer effective or is dated; thus, a modern yet fun teaching method is needed to fulfil the students’ expectations. one of the popular technology-based media used in the teachinglearning process is mobile phones and internet computers. ababneh (2017) has stated that mobile phones, it has been said, have a variety of educational benefits, such as allowing students to work with one another or connect with peers in different countries. it can also be used to provide high-tech alternatives to monotonous classroom lectures, allowing students to participate in interactive activities such as polls in the classroom. besides, it can be used as notepads or as alarm clocks to remind students to study, recording devices that allow students to take notes on field excursions and make audio podcasts or blog postings. according to arianti, nurnaningsih, and pratiwi (2018), speaking mastery may be incorporated through investing in technology. there is numerous technology implicated in teaching speaking. video usage is suggested because the utility of video in teaching speaking provides exciting and comprehensible substance for constructing students’ speaking skills. according to research by gorder (in rachmawati & madya, 2019), teachers who utilize technology regularly prefer to use technology in their classrooms since it improves quality and experience. it assists the teachers much in the process of teaching-learning. the integration of the new technology requires the teacher to be able to master the technology and integrate the technology into the teaching program. kapur (2018) has stated that the function of media in the outgrowth of education is pivotal. it has played a significant part in influencing the underprivileged and the socio-economic backward section of the society in apprehending the sense of education. unfortunately, the high-end growth of technology is not yet responded positively by all english language teachers. some of them are still reluctant to utilize technology like a mobile phone in the classroom because it is considered to bring negative effects on students. they view mobile phones as only a tool for students to play unnecessary games or browse unnecessary content. for that reason, the research is conducted to show the opportunity of using mobile phones for teaching speaking. the research questions the use of mobile phones and their effectiveness for teaching speaking in intercultural education. with this in mind, the researchers intend to research the topic to determine whether the new changes imposed by technological advancements 11using technology-based.... (titi rokhayati; ana widiyanti) have an impact on the design of efl syllabi and the methods used to carry out study plans. more precisely, it is envisaged that the research would shed light on topics of interest such as students’ gender, study major, and views on the usage of mobile phones in english learning and the extent to which they do so. methods the research aims to explore the use of media-based technology for teaching speaking in intercultural education. it applies a mixed-method research design which is at the most basic level. the purpose of this strategy in using quantitative data and results is to assist in interpreting qualitative data (cresswell, 2012). quantitative research helps collect data from a wide number of people and generalize the results, but qualitative research allows researchers to dig deeper into a few individuals. whatever the justification, express it early in the study, such as in the introduction (cresswell, 2012). the strategy used in the research is the sequential explanatory strategy. explanatory sequential mixed methods are one in which the researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results, then builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative research (asenahabi, 2019). the research population is the fifth-semester students of the english education program of purworejo muhammadiyah university. the samples consist of 40 students (28 females and 12 males). their age is between 18 and 23 years old, and the average age is 19. they are selected since they have been experiencing the situation of subconscious intercultural learning. the instrument used is observation, questionnaire, and test. the data are collected through three stages; the first stage is observation. flick (2006) has contended that observation is an attempt to observe events as they naturally occur. the observation is conducted on the speaking class to take notice of the situation and condition of teaching-learning activities. in this stage, the researchers are both nonparticipant and participant-observer. the second stage is distributing questionnaires or surveys to the students to explore their ideas and experiences in using mobile phones to learn speaking skills. the questionnaires comprise ten questions related to the strategy used in teaching speaking. the last stage of data collection is conducting pre-test and post-test. the pre-test is given to the students by the researchers in the first meeting before the teacher utilizes a mobile phone for teaching speaking. in the pre-test session, the students are given some questions related to multicultural topics and let them answer the questions directly. in the last meeting of the speaking class, after the teacher utilizes a mobile phone for teaching speaking, the researchers conduct the post-test. the pre-test and post-test are conducted to see the comparative result before and after the use of a mobile phone in the classroom. according to malik (2019), using pre-test/post-test or post-test-only design in research are important assessment tools to evaluate a course or to improve students learning. to understand the students’ experience and practice in using mobile phones in learning a speaking skill, statistical analysis in the form of the mean (m) and standard deviation (sd) is conducted using spss. the ideas that underpin naturalistic and/or qualitative research are based on the fact that validity and reliability function of the evaluator’s trustworthiness, utility, and dependability (zohrabi, 2013). as a result, both researchers collaborate while playing separate roles. one of the researchers creates the questionnaire, while the other double-checks the instrument and data for content-related proof. results and discussions the data analysis consists of two sections to answer the two problems formulation mentioned in the introduction. the first section discusses how mobile phones are used for teaching speaking in intercultural education, while the second section discusses the effectiveness of the usage of mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education. to answer the first problem statement, an observation during the teaching speaking process of the english program is done several times to get accurate data. the observation shows that the teacher uses mobile phones as the main media technology. the mobile phone is chosen as the main media technology because it is possessed by all the students of the english education program. it is something that the students have already familiar with, and it has many features that enable both teacher and the students to explore many beneficial educational platforms. moreover, using a mobile phone will make it easier for the teacher and the students to access internet-based materials. the choice of material in intercultural education is crucial because it should be able to encourage the students in understanding cross-culture. therefore, the materials given to the students in each meeting are various. since the teaching speaking is focused on reaching the goal of intercultural education, the teacher modifies the teaching topics to fulfil the students’ need in understanding a different culture; thus, the majority, the materials suggested are the video contained some western cultural values, such as western custom, habit, myth, etcetera. using videos containing western cultural values is believed that will benefit the students to improve their knowledge about multiculturalism. in addition, improving the students’ knowledge of westerners’ values is one of the applications of intercultural education. based on the observation result, during the teaching and learning process, the teachers divide the activity into three; the opening, the main, and the closing activities. in the opening, the teacher gives some information and explanation about the use of technology-based media in general and the 12 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 9-15 information about how to use mobile phones to access some educational platforms. the information is given to guide the students to understand the importance of technology-based media in education. understanding the use of technology-based media will help the students to overcome their confusion, especially for those who are not aware or get used to technology. furthermore, the teacher gives four to five minutes of apperception to build an active zone for students learning. in this phase, the teacher lets the students listen to motivational music or funny video as warming-up activity. apperception is important to help the students relax and focus more on learning. the main activity is the time for the students to watch the video or read a text based on the given topic using their mobile phones. the videos used as the material in the english speaking class are mostly retrieved from youtube channels. it is chosen with some considerations: (1) youtube channel is one of the most famous search engines in the world. (2) youtube channel consists not only of numerous entertainment videos, but also educational ones. (3) youtube channel is easy to be accessed by any range of age viewer or user. (4) youtube channel can be used as an educational platform. to maximize the use of mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education, another platform and materials that can be easily accessed using it are also used. other platforms used are the british council website, relo website, telegram voice chat, and kahoot. those platforms are used as secondary media to improve students’ independence in learning speaking. during the main section, the teacher gives the students sufficient time to absorb the material from the video or text. then, the teacher gives a brief explanation about the topic and some vocabulary used in the video. the last section is the closing activities; after the students have a discussion and the teacher gives a brief explanation related to the material, the students are given questions to measure their understanding of the material. the teacher uses many different methods to encourage students to answer the questions or express their ideas related to the given topic. the teacher sometimes uses kahoot or telegram chat to give quizzes for the students, while in a different meeting, the teacher sometimes lets the students do independent learning using british council or relo official website. during independent learning, the teacher becomes a supervisor who assesses the students’ comprehension. the assessment is usually done in the closing activity using the exit ticket game. the second section of discussion is the answer to the second problem formulation about the effectiveness of the usage of mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education. to measure the effectiveness of the use of mobile phones, an observation is conducted by the researchers, and the questionnaire is spread to the students to gain their response on the usage of mobile phones in speaking class. the pre and post-test are also done to see the result of the students’ comprehension. table 1 describes observation results during the class, before, and after the teacher uses a mobile phone in the classroom. before using mobile phones in the classroom, the teacher uses hard copy text, powerpoint presentations, or some videos in which the teacher is the one who prepared the material, so the students have no chance to choose the material that interested them. in other words, related to the material, the students are passive. in the beginning, mobile phones are not allowed to be used because students tend to use mobile phones to table 1 the result of observation no statement on the observation sheet before using mobile phones after using mobile phones yes no yes no students 1 students look enthusiastic to discuss the material √ √ 2 the media makes students active in asking a question √ √ 3 the media makes students active in expressing the idea √ √ 4 the media makes students active in answering the question of the teacher √ √ 5 the media makes students understand more √ √ teacher 1 the teaching-learning process is lively √ √ 2 the media make the teacher easier in delivering the material √ √ 3 the media makes the teacher easier in instructing the students √ √ classroom’ atmosphere 1 the class is lively √ √ 2 the class situation is more challenging √ √ 13using technology-based.... (titi rokhayati; ana widiyanti) copy and paste other people’s arguments or ideas. it probably will decrease the student’s original creativity. however, the consequence, without technology-based media like mobile phones, the classroom atmosphere is inactive and dull. for this reason, the teacher decides to change the policy and finally utilize mobile phones to teach speaking to account for possibilities of the positive impact for the student’s learning motivation. based on the observation, there is a significant positive result of utilizing the mobile phone, as table 1 showed. the classroom becomes more lively, the students are more active, and the teacher delivers the material and instruction easier. moreover, based on the students’ questionnaire results, 86,75% (35 students) have said they enjoy the class since they feel interested in the teaching media. they learn about english expressions in interacting with other people from different cultures, and it is taught interestingly. the students have also said that the teacher explains the material using video so that they understand more about intercultural education. table 2 shows the results of questionnaire. based on the test result using the spps application, it could be summarized in table 3. the mean score of the pre-test is 65,7. it is lower than the mean post-test score, 80,4, in the significant level of 0,026, which is lower than 0,05. it means that there is a significant difference between pre-test and post-test. the significant difference is influenced by the use of the mobile phone in the process of teaching and learning. the observation findings on student participation during the teaching and learning process are encouraging. when watching the videos, the students are animated and enthralled. this situation is consistent with jati, saukah, and suryati’s (2019) assertion that video is appealing to students. they say that deploying short and feature-length videos in an esl (english as a second language) class is certainly an attractive way to work on competencies like vocabulary and comprehension. this is potential because videos may offer learners to hear natural english pronunciation of the native speakers. learning english speaking skills for indonesian students is not an easy thing. it happens because the english language has been considered a difficult subject to learn; moreover, to speak like a native, the students need to understand cross-cultural understanding. in an efl (english as a foreign language) lesson, a native speaker and cultural authenticity are crucial, but they should now not be used as a criterion for success or failure (budiarta, 2020). using videos with native speakers as speakers are indeed helpful because the students not only learn about how to pronounce well but also learn some english expressions. thirty-seven students have said that the video used in learning speaking enable them to connect to real-life because the videos suggested by the teacher are rich in information about culture. in speaking skills, tension and apprehension are already built in. in like manner with the students who are getting to know in speaking english, it is, however, expected that students probably experience nerveracking, fear, or doubt when acting oral performances and making conversation. for that reason, using technology in teaching and learning speaking will help them overcome the nerve (sosas, 2021). an enjoyable and less formal learning environment is more beneficial table 2 the results of questionnaire no the questions agree disagree number percentage number percentage 1. using appropriate media 33 82,5 7 17,5 2. the media is interesting 34 85 6 15 3. the media is technology-based 38 95 2 5 4 the media is useful 33 82,5 7 17,5 5. the media help me understand the material 37 92,5 3 7,5 6. the media is easy to be accessed 35 87,5 5 12,5 7. the media is taken from youtube 35 87,5 5 12,5 8. the media enable the students to learn 36 90 4 10 9. the media enable the students to have a connection to the real-life 37 92,5 3 7,5 10. the media is easy to be implemented 29 72,5 11 17,75 table 3 the result of the t-test speaking test n mean sd t post-test 40 80,4 7,32 -0,548 pre-test 40 65,7 10,8 -0,54 14 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 9-15 in reducing students’ fear, which is one of the major barriers to speaking (kayaoðlu & saðlamel, 2013). using youtube, british council, or relo website as a platform to learn speaking allows students to interact directly with the native speakers; they could send any comment upon the video that encourages them to express their idea without feeling shy. the problem experienced by the students of the english education program is unconfident to speak when they have to show their faces in front of other students or teachers; therefore, the use of video becomes the solution for those students. they would be able to slowly learn to speak without fear and finally able to speak confidently after being helped using some interesting platform. the availability of video allows students to learn in a fun way. as a result, student engagement in the learning process is increasing. the students are entertained while watching the movie since the actors make particular motions that make them laugh (kriswinardi, nitiasih, & dambayana, 2018). they are actively participated in all learning activities, including the low-level ones. the observation sheet, which states that all pupils actively participate in the teaching and learning process, attests to this. the result of the questionnaire mentions that the students enjoy the class after using the technologybased media. they think they can see the reflection of real-life from the media, so they are curious to know more about the topics by reading other references. since the material, according to 35 students, is easily accessed, the students would be eager to learn anywhere and at any time. the test result shows that using technologybased media is beneficial, as evidenced by the t-test value being significant at the level of 0,05. the significance threshold is less than 0,05. as a result, it can be concluded that the use of technologybased media is effective in intercultural education, as evidenced by the teaching of speaking. it is also strengthened by the findings of research conducted by wahyuningsih and putra (2020), which find that using technology-based teaching media effectively enhances students’ speaking skills in the mataram tourism college’s hospitality diploma program in the academic year 2019/2020. conclusions the research sets out to determine the use of mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education and whether it brings a significant positive impact. based on the analysis result, the use of technology-based media like mobile phones for teaching speaking in intercultural education is needed to ease the teacher in delivering the material and help the students understand the materials and instruction given. the students’ current speaking competence is standard, moreover their understanding of cultural diversity. therefore, they expect the use of new technology-based media and various cultural materials in the classroom. the research finding proves that 94% of students say ‘yes’ to the statement of using technology-based media. based on the students’ responses to the questionnaire, 87% of them respond positively to the use of new teaching media in speaking class. they also appreciate the class more because the new media used in the classroom makes the teachinglearning process more engaging. additionally, the use of the mobile phone for teaching speaking in intercultural education is effective and beneficial to boost students’ motivation to study and improve their understanding of intercultural materials. the research limitation focuses on analyzing the technical use of technology-based media, in this case, the mobile phone in the classroom, and how effective is it to improve students’ speaking skills in intercultural education. future research on class management or curriculum design for language teaching in intercultural education is suggested. references ababneh, s. 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(2021). technology in teaching speaking and its effects to students learning english. journal of language and linguistic studies, 17(2), 958-970. http://dx.doi.org/10.52462/jlls.66. velez, p. a., & olivencia, l. j. j. (2017). attitudes and perceptions towards cultural diversity and interculturality in the university context: a comparative study. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 237, 548-553. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2017.02.105. wahyuningsih, s., & putra, i. n. t. d. (2020). the implementation of technology-based media in improving english speaking skill of hospitality students in mataram tourism college. jo-elt (journal of english language teaching), 7(2), 958970. https://doi.org/10.33394/jo-elt.v7i2.3188. wereszczyńska, k. (2018). importance of and need for intercultural education according to students: future teachers. polish journal of educational studies, 71(1), 212-228. https://doi.org/10.2478/ poljes-2018-0017. zohrabi, m. (2013). mixed method research: instruments, validity, reliability and reporting findings. theory and practice in language studies, 3(2), 254-262. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.3.2.254-262. vol. 15 no. 2 december 2021cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nurlina bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richer monash university, australia shkelqim h millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura provides a forum for lecturers, academicians, researchers, practitioners, and students to deliver and share knowledge in the form of empirical and theoretical research articles, case studies, and literature reviews. the journal invites professionals in study of language, culture, and literature. the coverage of language includes linguistics and language teaching, the area of culture includes cultural studies and social studies, and the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, poem and drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 158/e/kpt/2021 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), microsoft academic search, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents sebastianus menggo; sabina ndiung; pius pandor strengthening student character with local cultural metaphors: messages exploration from the tiba meka dance 135-143 timur astami japanese netizens’ expressive speech acts’ expression realm towards prime minister shinzo abe’s resignation.... 145-153 lambok hermanto sihombing rethinking the art of tattoo: a perspective of indonesian women tattoo community...................................... 155-165 rima devi; aminah hasibuan; ferdinal the reflection of wabi sabi in the novel joseito by dazai osamu............................................................. 167-173 yurieke nadiya rahmat; andri saputra; m. arif rahman hakim; eko saputra; reko serasi learning l2 by utilizing dictionary strategies: learner autonomy and learning strategies............................... 175-181 diah supatmiwati; wiya suktiningsih; sutarman; zainudin abdussamad; abdul muhid an ecolinguistic study on ecospiritual tourism of rebo buntung commodification.......................................... 183-189 edi ramawijaya putra efl teacher’s beliefs about sociolinguistic competence: a qualitative case study in indonesian formal english pedagogy.............................................................. 191-198 rahmi yulia ningsih; zainal rafli; endry boeriswati linguistic creativity of the indonesian for foreign speakers (bipa) students at the morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels.......................................................................... 199-206 menik winiharti; syihabuddin; dadang sudana on google translate: students’ and lecturers’ perception of the english translation of indonesian scholarly articles..................................................................................................... 207-214 clara herlina karjo; fairuza alyarizky social relation that triggers the use of code-switching in the novel the architecture of love by ika natassa......... 215-221 veni roza english lecturers’ digital literacy and their scientific publication: seeking the correlation............................. 223-236 luisito m. nanquil parents and teachers collaboration in home education: challenges, opportunities, and insights....................... 237-243 zulfikar rachman the imperative of request in the sulalatus salatin and the archives of banten sultanate................................. 245-255 sri wuli fitriati; nurjannah mutiara gayatri thematic progression in efl learners’ writing: a literature review.......................................................... 257-262 khan muhammad zawar; sardar sana; nazir muhammad representation of pakistani culture through code-mixing: a critical analysis of the novel holy woman by qaisra shahraz................................................................ 263-271 index.................................................................... ............................................................... 273-277 vol. 15 no. 2 december 2021cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 17 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 17-24 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7807 sustainability of local literacy towards epidemic virus covid-19 in indonesia using hermeneutic theory paisal manurung* english education study program, the faculty of teacher's training and education, universitas asahan jl. jend. ahmad yani, kisaran naga, sumatera utara 21224, indonesia paisalmanurung@yahoo.com received: 18th october 2021/revised: 09th february 2022/accepted: 09th february 2022 how to cite: manurung, p. (2022). sustainability of local literacy towards epidemic virus covid-19 in indonesia using hermeneutic theory. lingua cultura, 16(1), 17-24. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7807 abstract the research aimed to investigate all elements of local literary resilience in indonesia using hermeneutic theoryinterpretation of issues, giving an understanding of issues, and translating its issues. the interesting thing about the research was local literacy as the creation of harmony in society had shifted from the cultural foundation. local literacy in society was a transformation of the harmony of lives, ethics, attitudes, and ordinances in fulfilling spiritual and bodily elements. it certainly prioritized all elements in society and government to sustain the local literacy in indonesia towards of epidemic virus covid-19. the research applied a qualitative approach. primary data sources were national and international scientific journals and used authentic phenomenological issues. based on data collected and indicated the presentation of theory, it is found that there are sustainabilities of local literacy on epidemic virus covid-19. they are the most crucial the findings reveal local literacy to sustain the resilience of local literacy: resilience to the noble values of the culture, the cooperation of the community with government, resilience to maintain the balance of nature and man, and the resilience of community groups with the other community. keywords: sustainability, resilience, local literacy introduction the foundation of culture certainly upholds ethical values, communication, friendship, honesty, mutual help, respect, and appreciation of one culture with another (erle & gaseni, 2019). the cycle of local literacy is maintaining harmony and freedom of culture itself. indonesian people are known by the world as people who love culture and have a love for their own culture (karmadi, 2007). the meaning of culture has a love for their culture (barton & hamilton, 2012). it means there is a correlation of the meaning of sustainability in a socio-ecological sense that implies building a present-day civilization without compromising future rights by prioritizing three sustainable economic, social, and environmental sustainability (guven, 2021). the love for their own culture in the implementation of life in the community is not a few people when they are sick; they will look up to their parents or scholars to pray for them (shodiq, 2021). moreover, this statement indicates the daily lives of indonesian people. this is certainly a clear example that local culture has illustrated and hinted at attitudes and behaviour towards problems such as disease problems or epidemics or diseases. although this tradition in indonesia has not shown valid literacy or a scientific framework of thinking, some indonesian people still believe that asking for prayer from people who are considered to have privileges can still be done. the way indonesians respect and actualize themselves to the values of their cultural ancestors is certainly very diverse (ismawati, santosa, & ghofir, 2017). the diversity of these values has given birth to an attitude of mutual respect and respect for differences as the embodiment of the pancasila ideology, namely the value of indonesian unity. a phenomenon in society during the covid-19 pandemic has shifted 18 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 17-24 to individual values that emphasize the interests of groups, communities, and professions. so, it creates a class or caste that can damage and worry about the potential for indonesian unity to fade. however, things like this will affect indonesian unity’s value as the indonesian people’s cultural ideology (taum, 2017). the development of technology has led the community broadly to new conditions and situations such as family gatherings can be done by using applications such as zoom meetings and so on, food catering, messaging goods using services between goods, and so on (tajik & vahedi, 2021; sulistiyarini & sabirin, 2020; aujayeb, 2021). these new conditions and situations impact and influence cultural change, attitudes, family and community values, and local literary values (syauqi, munadi, & triyono, 2020). technological advances and the current covid-19 pandemic have also contributed negatively based on current conditions (seifu, 2020; ergado, 2019;). however, negative contributions to society can be seen based on phenomena in the environment, such as being less responsive to the other’s suffering, high consumptive values, more racial or group concerns, and abandoning the value of community harmony (willis et al., 2019; thomas & rogers, 2020). the economy and health are important things that are considered more by the government. the government has disbursed considerable funds to address economic and health problems during the covid-19 crisis (dolighan & owen, 2021; o’sullivan et al., 2021). other things also need to be considered by the government for the harmony of society. therefore, community harmony can be seen in community activities that continue to experience shifts in human values, such as gotong-royong to families affected by the disaster or helping fellow communities affected by the coronavirus covid-19 (hatmo, 2021). the covid-19 pandemic outbreak also provides a positive consensus on harmony on the scale of concern among peoples, tribes, cultures, and customs. the resilience of local literacy, of course, during the covid-19 pandemic makes a positive contribution that can be done, such as creating collaboration between indigenous stakeholders, community leaders, educators, spiritual teachers, and so on (hermanto, rai, & fahmi, 2021). this will make a real contribution to the resilience of local literacy and the influence of the covid-19 pandemic. cultural figures, indigenous, and religious figures are guides of community and state life based on the philosophy of pancasila and based on the 1945 constitution. therefore, community leaders are the keys to the resilience of local social security that is characterized by the lives of the wider community. this covid-19 pandemic period has brought people’s lives difficult, and it is not easy to control. this condition has been widely felt by the public at large, both in declining economic conditions, crime or crime increases dramatically, and social tolerance decreases (gozali et al., 2019). another thing that can be seen in the problems of the covid-19 pandemic is the phenomenon of education, the closure of school access rooms. however, people miss the activities of learning and teaching. however, in reality, the government has not required every region to conduct learning and teaching activities (hira & anderson, 2021). in some areas, learning and teaching activities are carried out using multimedia-based internet facilities (noor, isa, & mazhar, 2020). these conditions force parents to think hard that the child’s academic life is more important, but the family economy is in difficult conditions (marković-krstić & milošević-radulović, 2021). therefore, social resilience in society certainly cannot be separated from the problems of life. another problem is the relationship between the fulfilment of educational needs and the need to survive (noor, isa, & mazhar, 2020; archila et al., 2021). both of these things during the covid-19 pandemic can be overcome by involving elements of community leaders, clerical leaders, and community leaders as part of the community’s local culture, as a form of democratic toleration different but one (özudogru, 2021). democratic toleration involves urban, neighbourhood, and building scales (yusuf & prayogi, 2020). they are one of the scales. the local value is a container or place for certain communities to actualize the noble values of the community’s culture to other communities (pietrocola et al., 2021). local literacy is also considered a medium and communication tool to integrate spiritual and physical life. however, in other sessions, local disasters will be confronted with foreign literacy that brings foreign values to the communiqué or local community (shodiq, 2021). this will worry the community because fade the noble values, customs, culture, literacy, and other habits that reflect the characteristics of that culture. culture and literacy are vital tools for the survival of people in maintaining charismatic culture and literacy to others (smith, mason, & bowden, 2020). however, this is not so easy to be actualized in society during the covid-19 debate. another challenge is the influence of foreign culture, global culture, technology, and communication media culture (tajik & vahedi, 2021). cultural and literary changes in local communities have brought many interesting reasons to be studied during the covid-19 pandemic. one of the many other interesting things is limited community activities, territorial restrictions, restrictions on community, and gracious characters. thus, people must construct and condition their activities to new activities, as well as interact with different conditions and activities (o’sullivan et al., 2021). currently, the fundamental change in the condition of society in indonesia is certainly inseparable from the influence of the media and government policies (usaid, 2021). therefore, many cultural observers and communities in indonesia feel it is not yet certain that the end of the covid-19 pandemic will restore the condition of the community, especially the values of local culture as before (rahiem, 19sustainability of local literacy .... (paisal manurung) 2021). on the other hand, there is a moral crisis and attitude that does not reflect the values and attitudes of indonesian society characteristics such as putting forward materialistic, individual, behaviouristic, and crisis attitudes, but it is difficult to integrate directly (erol & danyal, 2020; fragouli, 2020). technology and conditions during the covid-19 pandemic have a direct impact on changes in the value, attitude, and behaviour of the community towards the presence of technology. technology has brought a shift in cultural values, races, customs, characters and literacy that are far from expected (pratama & mulyati, 2020; sadikin & hamidah, 2020). the presence of technology has changed people’s positive habits toward life problems (zagami et al., 2018). one of the positive habits is seen in gotongroyong. it means that activities by doing together, such as cleaning the residential environment, making a consensus for solving environmental problems, and shoulder to shoulder in building village infrastructure (ratminingsih, budasi, & kurnia, 2020; fragouli, 2020). the presence of technology has brought changes to the attitudes and behaviour of the community, such as theft, criminal acts, and others as in the environment of residence that is considered a government problem. gotong royong is a village government act. it does not include activity together by the social community, but infrastructure development that is the work of the government. methods the research applies a qualitative approach (sinta, wardani, & kurniawan, 2021). the qualitative approach emphasizes an approach oriented toward theoretical, hermeneutic theory by friedrich ernst daniel schleiermacher (suswandari et al., 2020). it is empirical findings and the implementation of data sources. data sources are based on the researchers’ needs through content analysis, online and offline. the online contents are the observation of looking for data through social media networks, such as youtube, google, facebook, and other data sources; meanwhile, offline content is done by looking at the comments in the local social community. the interview is done by asking the question to respondents of the local social community comprehensively through the zoom application. there are several questions made by the researcher to collect the data regarding respondents. they are (1) is local literacy affected by the covid-19 period? (2) what do the dominants sustainability in local literacy in indonesia that is dominant during the covid-19? (3) what is the impact of local literacy in indonesia if it changes? (4) is this covid-19 pandemic period able to provide local literary resilience? (5) what do you think about the resilience that needs to be done to keep local literacy more gracious, you know? documentation is the discovery of data sources through reference journals, books, newspapers, and other data sources that are considered capable and can provide a more complete and scientific picture of the presentation of articles. some points of the hermeneutics approach are (a) disclosure of thoughts in words, translation, and action as interpreter; (b) efforts to divert from a language a stranger whose meaning is dark unknown into another understandable language by the reader; (c) transferring the expression of less clear thoughts, changed to form clearer expression. results and discussions based on the hermeneutics theory used in article approach, it is found that the interpretation of respondents to the resilience of local literacy in indonesian is based on local resilience, culture, literacy, customs, race, and character. all of them will have an impact on the conditions of the virus covid-19 pandemic period. based on this assumption, awareness of the importance of local literacy contributes positively to the life of society and the state. consequently, there is local literary dominance during covid 19; (1) the most response of social local community awareness increases closely related to health society as the number of cases of covid-19 sufferers increases; (2) cooperation in creating a new lifestyle continues to be cultivated by local community groups; (3) helping each other becomes the main key to local literacy to survive the covid-19 conditions; (4) awareness of life together is important to local literacy as a unifying medium of race, ethnicity, customs, and culture; (5) attachment and awareness of brotherhood become the enduring character of local literacy during the covid-19. hermeneutic theory becomes an interesting thing to discuss as a medium of knowledge transformation and developing ideas based on conditions, issues, and written works or structured or unstructured texts. based on the theory, local literacy will be able to survive the covid-19 pandemic. it will be more productive and efficient when the government decides that the covid-19 debate is not over. the validity of local literacy is characterized by several factors, among others, namely: resilience to noble values and culture, resilience in community cooperation by policymakers, resilience maintains the balance of nature and man, community group resilience, and resilience maintains character with the other community. the first is resilience to noble values and culture. literacy is not only related to stories but also tells stories and tells between noble values and the values of the community. rutter (1987) have defined resilience as the human capacity to respond to unpleasant conditions, trauma, or adversity in a healthy and productive way, especially to control the stresses of everyday life. it can be said that resilience to noble values and culture will be seen in community activities. this is seen in the value of ethics, decency, hospitality, 20 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 17-24 and gotong-royong, which is a characteristic of society in indonesia (ariska, atmadja, & margi, 2020). the impacts seen as part of the covid-19 pandemic on local literacy based on the interview are: (1) there is a global cultural influence, foreign culture, and a new culture adopted from government regulations. this is seen in the alienation between the behaviors of the upper economic community and the lower economic community. this system of mismatch between local and foreign cultures is seen in the service system in the community. (2) it can be seen in individual attitudes and behaviors. (3) community groups prioritize the same race and culture. the second is resilience in community cooperation by policymakers. the government is an observer institution of the community on the aspect of needs and security. this is an important aspect of the resilience of local literacy. the resilience of local literacy is sometimes considered less effective compared to global literacy or multiethnic literacy (trudell & cheffy, 2019). global literacy is seen as literacy that does not represent aspects of one or two of society’s literacy but all literacy in society. while multiethnic nature is regarded as multi-status that will be confined to the various regulation of public policy (sun, zhen, & jiang, 2020). this means that multiethnics represents global literacy and foreign literacy. it is possible that local literacy needs to be a guide or reference for the government in taking the policy. indonesian society is a form of a nation with a variety of cultures, customs, ethics, language, attitudes, and character that reflects the indonesian people in solving problems of life, family, and government (halimah & abdillah, 2021). problem-based local culture in society will be resolved through deliberation and consensus (bomer & maloch, 2012). thus, the results of the consensus deliberation will represent their aspirations in making decisions or policies. this aspiration will give the impression that local culture is more practical in taking attitudes towards problems in society. this has the meaning that every culture, race, custom or literacy of the community has different needs and characteristics. local literacy has characteristics that have, among others, are: (1) have a high level of concern for the group or community itself. (2) it is rare for local literacy to coexist directly with customs, cultures, or races to meet needs. (3) local literacy is oriented towards achieving the prosperity of groups or communities and their characteristics. (4) the chairman or chieftain in local literacy is very important in the peace and sustainability of people’s lives. (5) attitudes and tolerance towards foreign cultures, customs, races, or literacy are considered important in achieving cultural harmony. the third is that resilience maintains the balance of nature and man. the balance of nature and man becomes an important aspect of local literacy’s sustainability (nugroho et al., 2021). nature and humans are the main sources of indonesian culture in the existence of human resistance to the principle of cultural change (arif & kurniawan, 2018). for some indonesians, nature is a source of need and strength, which is believed to be a gift from god almighty. the pictures of natural philosophy are the point of view, such as alam takambang jadi guru, the motto of state higher education in padang, west sumatra. this motto can be interpreted as that nature will guide human life. on the other hand, there is also that in harmonia progressio is the motto of the bandung institute of technology which means that harmonia means harmony or togetherness, and progressio means progress. while the university of indonesia reads veritas, probitas, iustitia. meaning is truth, honesty, justice. if conducting in-depth research on these mottos, it will find the relationship between humans and nature or vice versa. the local culture that exists in indonesia in protecting and preserving nature as a source of need, and its strength is to not over-exploit nature, to take natural products as necessities of life and not as a lifestyle, to maintain flora and fauna diversity, and to create communities of nature lovers (fedele et al., 2021). it is illustrated that humans need nature, while nature does not need human existence. humans are considered a threat to nature, while humans use nature as a desire that must be fulfilled to achieve the sustainability of life (dover, 2019). local literacy is essential to be presented in these conditions. humans must be able to live naturally; however, it must damage nature so that conditions like this nature will maintain human existence well. resilience maintains the balance between nature and humans; however, this cannot be separated from the culture, customs, race, or literary values that exist in the community itself (kisser et al., 2020). nature has provided many benefits to the existence of humankind. nature has also inspired humankind to live together and has provided knowledge to humans to take good care of it. however, humans sometimes over-explore need at unnatural levels, so nature should be well preserved. humans have corrupted nature with uncontrollable lust and desire. nature, man and culture, customs, and character cannot be separated (whalley et al., 2021). man is guarded by nature, and nature is nourished by culture, customs, and character. therefore, the resilience of local literacy is maintained if the balance of nature and humans is harmonious. the fourth is community group resilience. society has divided itself into various forms of community groups. based on the theory of community from latin says, the community means ‘similarity’. it can then be derived from communism, which means same, public, shared by all or many (van eldijk, bisschop, & etienne, 2020). this group of people will be very influential on the group’s survival. community groups make a positive contribution to other community groups (cross, 2020). this is a picture that literacy in certain groups will have different characteristics such as language styles or stylistics, children’s speech to parents, adult attitudes and behaviors, and young people to adults. 21sustainability of local literacy .... (paisal manurung) local culture explains its existence depends on community groups that have a broad meaning as cultural partners. cultural partners can be interpreted as relationships, interweaving, and chains that cannot be separated from one another. relationships and chains in the connotation of cultural partners for the community are considered a place to take refuge from all forms of life’s problems (kalsum & fauzan, 2019). it is not infrequently seen in indonesian society that their livelihood or income is associated with their own local culture, especially in tourist areas such as bali, lombok, bangka belitung, raja ampat, puncak jayawijaya, and several other tourist attractions. these community groups make local culture an inseparable part of people’s daily activities, such as weaving, batik, carving, and several other activities. the cultural group or community will be headed or chaired by someone who is considered charismatic and believes in religious understanding (notanubun, 2021). then, the figures or community leaders are selected through deliberation and consensus. the selected community leaders are then considered traditional leaders. in some local cultures, traditional leaders have a significant role in maintaining security and harmonizing all supporting communities from various aspects of problems within or outside the community. the resilience of community groups during the covid-19 pandemic has an impact on the broader community (isdairi & anwar, 2021). the impact on this community group is seen in the environmental activities, such as accident activities, and party activities, especially on families affected by covid-19. community or group assists families or communities that are affected by covid-19. the fifth is resilience maintains character with the other community. local literacy constitutes a character that is the most unique to the culture, race, attitudes, and patterns of interaction (dover, 2019). interaction in the community has different ways of dealing with problems that occur in the environment, community, and country. maintaining the characteristics of local culture is the right action as part of the sustainability of local culture (ten brinke & keltner, 2020). meanwhile, maintaining character is a characteristic of culture will create the uniqueness of the culture itself. therefore, indonesian people are known for their friendly attitude and smile easily at foreigners (noor & sugito, 2019). this is, of course, very different when comparing the character of the ancestors of the indonesians with other foreign cultures. there are so many characteristics of local culture that should be preserved as a hallmark of the culture, such as the characters of puppets, batik, carvers, weavers, and sculptors. the characteristics have become a longstanding tradition in indonesia (hayati, 2021). therefore, these characteristics are the embodiments that must be maintained and preserved in community activities. it is used as a framework for the curriculum for basic education and higher education; the sustainability of the local cultural values can be well maintained (ten brinke & keltner, 2020). the illustration of society’s responses to the covid-19 pandemic is different. the unique thing about these characteristics is that it does not cause society to argue with each other (wuryandani, 2020). then instead of that, the community has a unique way to overcome the problem. indonesian society overcomes this phenomenon by following the habits they have long done, such as farming activities, looking for wood, looking for livestock food in the rice fields, fishing, and so on, rather than gathering and interacting with many people. conclusions sustainability in life and local literary development seems to be continuity in society. it becomes something that cannot be separated from resilience and local literacy in society. the local literacy of society can be maintained by the existence of literacy and cultural characters in the community. literacy and culture are tools to maintain a society. so, the thing that needs to be maintained in this case is maintaining noble values and culture: resilience in cooperation with governments, resilience to maintain the balance of nature and man, the resilience of community groups, and resilience to maintain the character of the other community. acknowledgements the author respected his gratitude to his fellow lecturers, students, and the university asahan that had provided input, ideas, critics and materials support, so it was the publication of the article. references archila, p. a., danies, g., molina, j., truscott de mejía, a. m., & restrepo, s. 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(2020). tinjauan konsep keberlanjutan pada kawasan permukiman summarecon bekasi dalam aspek sosial. jurnal arsitektur purwarupa, 4(2), 23-30. zagami, j., bocconi, s., starkey, l., wilson, j. d., gibson, d., downie, j., … elliott, s. (2018). creating future ready information technology policy for national education systems. technology, knowledge and learning, 23(3), 495-506. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10758-018-9387-7. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 1-9 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.6990 the interplay of meaning between verbal and visual texts in a japanese children’s book dewi puspitasari* department of language and literature, faculty of cultural studies, universitas brawijaya jl. veteran, ketawanggede, malang 65415, indonesia d_puspitasari@ub.ac.id received: 27th january 2021/revised: 08th march 2021/accepted: 08th march 2021 how to cite: puspitasari, d. (2021). the interplay of meaning between verbal and visual texts in a japanese children’s book. lingua cultura, 15(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.6990 abstract the research aimed to interpret the meaning of aspects in the verbal and visual texts to identify whether these two texts created interplay. it was intended to understand the meaning conveyed by the writer and illustrator in a japanese children’s book entitled ‘kuroino’ (little shadow). the research used the approaches for verbal text analysis by halliday about systemic functional linguistics (sfl), and visual text analysis by kress and van leeuwen about visual grammar (vg). the research method was descriptive qualitative by explaining two data types: clauses in the japanese language and images in the storybook. the data analysis of every aspect in the three metafunctions of language and the three metafunctions of images show the meaning that completes each other. in the analysis of ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning, the writer narrates the friendship and adventure of ‘kuroino’ (the black) and watashi (i). meanwhile, in the analysis of representational meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning, the illustrator describes two characters in a book entitled ‘kuroino’ as the focuses in some pictures. besides, the illustrator describes the background in detail as if he invites the reader to participate in the adventure of these two characters. although verbal and visual texts describe a story from two different perspectives, in ‘kuroino’, these texts collaborate to create a message in the story with synergy and meaning to be easily understood by the readers by maintaining the entertainment aspect in a story narrated. keywords: text meaning, three metafunctions, verbal text, visual text, japanese children’s book introduction reading plays an essential role in child development. reading activity is like eating healthy food; it simultaneously brings pleasure and benefits, such as improving cognitive development and language skill (attiyat, 2019; maharsi, ghali, & salma, 2019). however, an annual survey conducted by the national federation university co-operative association shows that most of the students in japan do not read the book for pleasure. from 10.021 samples, 53,1% of students answer in this way. moreover, the student’s average daily reading time has decreased to 23,6 minutes per day (steele, zhang, & song, 2018). nowadays, local governments and schools in japan promote morning reading program to improve the reading interest since childhood. based on the morning reading promotion association survey in june 2019, reading activities increase to 80% in elementary school and 50% in junior high school (kimura, 2019). the morning reading program is expected to form the behavior pattern to favor reading activity since childhood. since childhood, reading activity serves to prepare quality generation with broad insight and pleasure from the reading book (irhandayaningsih, 2019; tse et al., 2017). book generally used by the parent to introduce reading activity since childhood is illustrated children’s storybook. the illustrated children’s storybook plays a fundamental role in life, entertainment, and education for children in several ways (maximo, 2019; qiu, 2019). illustrated storybook is believed to represent a place or country and describe how people live so that readers can understand the local culture from a site (belcher, 2018; ratminingsih & budasi, 2018). illustrated storybook defines the physical characteristics, reflects how to behave, and describes role in a story. in other words, an illustrated book can be understood as a book composed of two elements, namely narrative or verbal text and picture or visual text (hermawan & sukyadi, 2017). wee, kura, and kim (2018) have discovered several social values illustrated in illustrated children’s 2 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 1-9 storybooks, such as harmony, empathy, faithfulness, and patience in japanese society. besides, most of the children’s storybooks from 1990 to 2016 for the age of 3-8 years old illustrate and tell about japanese cultures, such as clothes, food, entertainment, traditional activity, tradition, social behavior that reflect the value and belief of japanese people, historical events, and political issues. according to cao and yin (2016), most of the research about children’s literature is categorized into the perspective of genre and context; and the interaction between readers and text. many kinds of research from the genre and content perspectives have been frequently conducted, but research from a linguistic perspective is still rare and is not yet wholly done. thus, the research aims to investigate the illustrated storybook with a linguistic resource approach. it is expected that the research can provide a contribution to recommend children’s literature from a different perspective for the reader. application of the linguistic resource uses systemic functional linguistics (sfl) and visual grammar (vg) approaches, which serve as a valid tool to know how children’s literature can affect children. previous research with a similar topic that combined sfl and vg approaches has been done. the differences of previous research are on the research scope and data source used. sembiante, baxley, and cavallaro (2018) have used illustrated children’s storybook with a specific theme, namely issues discussed in children’s storybook from the diaspora (a work by an immigrant writer in a place). that research also applies the theory about critical literacy. meanwhile, the studies conducted by hayakawa (2015); hermawan and sukyadi (2017); koutsikou and christidou (2019); moya guijarro and pinar sanz (2008); qiu (2019); zohrabi, dobakhti, and mohammadpour (2019) have used a themed storybook with different languages focuses, such as the indonesian language, greek language, english, and mandarin language. meanwhile, research with illustrated children’s storybooks in the japanese language is still limited to date. previous research using data in the japanese language is conducted by inako (2017); indrowaty et al. (2018); murray (2020) on the translation and advertisement in the japanese language. since research using data in children’s storybooks in the japanese language is limited, the research investigates a children’s storybook entitled kuroino (little shadow) written and illustrated by tanaka (2019). the research combines two approaches, namely sfl, as stated by halliday and matthiessen (2014), and vg by kress and van leeuwen (2020). these two leading theories are based on analyzing verbal and visual texts in a book entitled kuroino. thus, it can identify the role of verbal and visual texts in the storybook and create a meaningful story. verbal text analysis uses a theory of sfl about three metafunctions of language, including ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). meanwhile, visual text analysis uses vg theory about three metafunctions of the image, including representational meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning (kress & van leeuwen, 2020). applying these two theories is expected to interpret the meaning of aspects in verbal and visual texts. thus, a comprehensive understanding of the message conveyed by the writer and illustrator can be obtained. methods the research method is descriptive qualitative. the research procedure resulted in descriptive data in the form of written words or speeches from people and observed behavior. it is intended to understand the phenomenon as experienced by the research subject, namely behavior, perception, motivation, action, and holistically by describing in words and language in a specific context by using several scientific methods (miles, huberman, & saldafia, 2020). the approach is used to investigate verbal and visual elements in the illustrated children’s storybook with the description in words. data are provided with the listening method that obtained by listening to the use of language with tapping and note-taking techniques (sudaryanto, 2015). these techniques are applied by reading data sources, namely illustrated children’s storybook entitled kuroino (little shadow) by tanaka (2019). this book is a children’s storybook recommended by the japanese board on books for young people (jbby) in 2020. jbby was established in 1978 as a part of the international board on books for young people (ibby). missions from ibby and jbby create a peaceful future for children around the world through the book (doi et al., 2020). kuroino is a book for children older than three years old (preschool children). it has won awards, winner of the nami concours purple island prize and shogakukan children’s book award. data analysis is conducted to answer problems in the research; (1) to analyze verbal text (35 clauses) using a theory of three metafunctions of language, namely ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, and textual meaning by halliday & matthiessen (2014) and thematic progression by danes in (kizil & kushch, 2019) and eggins in (gunawan & aziza, 2017; yunita, 2018); and (2) to analyze visual text using three metafunctions of the image by kress & van leeuwen (2020), including representational meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning. after conducting the analysis, in the discussion section, the researcher sees the relevance of meaning in verbal and visual texts based on the relationship stated by liu (2019), whether or not it creates a relation with synergy and meaning. the result of data analysis is presented in the form of verbal and visual texts. the verbal text is written using the hiragana alphabet with alphabetic transcriptions, while visual text in the form of image representation is in a book entitled kuroino. 3the interplay of meaning .... (dewi puspitasari) data are presented using the informal presentation method, using words without formulation or symbol (sudaryanto, 2015). the result of data analysis is presented in descriptive form with some images in the children’s storybook as a part of data analysis. results and discussions data analysis is described in two phases: verbal and visual meaning analysis in illustrated children’s storybook entitled kuroino (little shadow). the discussion describes a relation between verbal text and visual text in the book kuroino, whether they complete each other and easy to understand. the researcher analyzes the clause in verbal text from three perspectives. first, every clause in a book kuroino is classified based on the clause system. the clause is then deconstructed based on the mood system, transitivity structure, and theme-rheme structure. after analysis, the researcher interprets the verbal text based on lexico-grammatical choices as stated in the clause. lexico-grammatical choices are a reflection of meaning in text comprehensively (ngongo, dethan, & hyna, 2018; raeisi, dastjerdi, & raeisi, 2019). based on clause analysis in a book kuroino, it can be known that most of the clauses (77%) belong to the mood indicative-declarative type. these clauses, which served as proposition-giving, are statements that exchange information, not goods and services. it can be interpreted interpersonally that in a text entitled kuroino, the writer provides information or tells a story about the friendship between kuroino (the black) and watashi (i). meanwhile, 23% of clauses belong to mood indicative-interrogative type, classified into 9% in polar, and 14% in asking the question. the writer interpersonally provides information and involves readers in an adventure experienced by kuroino and watashi. an example is a simple question asked by watashi「はいっていいの?」haitte iino? ‘is it true i can go inside there?’, readers are indirectly invited to enjoy an adventure together in this story. transitivity analysis in a book entitled kuroino (see table 1) shows that the most frequently identified process is material (43%). the writer uses the words, such as「する」suru ‘to do’,「行く」iku ‘to go’,「 潜って」kugutte iku ‘to crawl’,「歩く」aruku ‘to walk’, and so on to describe adventure by kuroino and watashi when they met. in the existential process (20%), the writer uses words「いた」ita ‘there is’, 「何かしら」nani kashira ‘what is there’,「ああ、 お父さん」aa otousan ‘there is father’, and so on. when enjoying the adventure, kuroino and watashi invite the readers to participate in their experience by asking questions, such as「ああ、あれは何かし ら?aa, are wa nani kashira? ‘what is there?’, which asks about the existence of a thing. meanwhile, mental process (14%), relational process (11%), and verbal process (9%) in kuroino text are sequential in terms of amount. in the mental process, the writer uses the words「よく見てみ よう」yoku mite miyou ‘to try seeing thoroughly’ and「聞こえた」kikoeta ‘to be heard’ to describe a process that explains perception from kuroino and watashi. relation process shows intensity relation and meaning extension relation in a clause「山は ふわふわで暖かかった」yama wa fuwafuwa de atatakakatta ‘its mound is soft and warm’. this clause has the attributive relational process, in which the participant is called carrier (yama ‘mound’) followed with attribute (fuwafuwa de atatakakatta ‘soft and warm’). thus, it can be understood that attribute shows condition, trait, and characteristics owned by a carrier. the verbal process shows notification or proclamation, such as「おもいきって声をかけた ら」omoikitte koe wo kaketara ‘i dare myself to greet him’. the verbal process has sayer (i) and verbiage (to greet him). meanwhile, the behavioral process is not found in kuroino text. based on transitivity analysis, the writer ideationally states imaginary adventure in detail, as experienced by two figures in the story, kuroino and watashi. kuroino invites watashi into a fictional world to visit the playground in which its entrance was in oshiire ‘wardrobe’. in the park, they play happily, run everywhere, skate on a tree, and fall asleep on soft fur. the writer asks readers to participate in their adventure using questions and invitations. it seems that readers also participate in their experience. table 1 amount of process type in kuroino processes absolute values values in percentages material 16 46 mental 5 14 verbal 3 9 relational 4 11 behavioral 0 0 existential 7 20 total 35 100 there are many relevant theories to analyze textual meaning. in this dimension, the clause is viewed as a meaning source used for organizing information and message (halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the report considered the vital thing is prioritized by positioning in front of clause (theme), while the next part completes information (rheme). the theme is divided into three types, namely topical theme, interpersonal theme, and textual theme. the topical theme is the only thematic element required in the clause, implied in co(n)text or explicitly stated since it is mixed with some transitivity elements (alamiri, 2018; pasaribu, sinambela, & manik, 2020). halliday and matthiessen (2014) have asserted that the sentence theme expands from the beginning to meet its transitivity function. the researcher’s basis 4 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 1-9 is to investigate thematization in periodicity (sfl) in text kuroino. besides, considering objectives of the research to examine patterns in theme development and information distribution, which is coherence in the text is by combining the theory of thematic progression stated by danes in (kizil & kushch, 2019) and eggins in (gunawan & aziza, 2017; yunita, 2018), namely thematic progression with a linear theme, thematic progression with a continuous (constant) theme, and thematic progression with derived themes. information distribution on kuroino text is textually stated through thematization with details of 27 (77%) unmarked topical themes and 8 (23%) marked topical themes. realizing the unmarked topical theme means that kuroino text has the main issue, as stated the most frequently through kuroino and watashi. the marked topical theme, circumstances from adverbs of time such as ‘when going home’ and ‘today’ is used to described adventure in detail. the interpersonal theme is not found in kuroino’s text. however, the textual theme is found in 20 clauses (57%) from the whole text. the textual theme is realized with internal conjunction (7%), external conjunction (23%), and continuous marker (27%). the use internal and external conjunctions, in a clause「塀の穴をくぐっていくと、花のにおい、 草のにおい」hei no ana wo kugutte iku to, hana no nioi, kusa no nioi ‘i crawled under wall hole in a house, after reaching the yard, i smelt flower and grasses’ is used to combine experience gradually and in detail, as done by two figures. besides, continuative markers, such as「ああ」aa ‘wow’,「へえ」hee ‘eh?’,「あ れえ」aree ‘eh’ and so on are used to show emotion experienced by watashi. the information presented in kuroino’s text tends to be organized through various occurrences at the clause level. thus, it can identify a relation between theme and rheme in every clause in kuroino text. for example, a wave from the center of the sea flows to the beach. this movement describes information flow in the text, which is continuous. thus, in periodicity, text context is easy to be understood. theme development and information distribution in paragraph show that thematic progression with a linear theme is 27 (80%), and thematic progression with a continuous (constant) theme is 7 (20%). the data presented is a representation of the whole data in the kuroino book. data 1 belongs to thematic progression with a linear theme. 「くろいのはやまをどんどんのぼってい く。やまはふわふわで、あたたかかった。 ふかふかのけにつつまれて、くろいのとい っしょにねむった。」 kuroino wa yama wo dondon nobotte iku. yama wa fuwafuwa de, atatakakatta. fukafuka no ke ni tsutsumarete, kuroino to isshoni nemutta (kuroino quickly climbed a mound. the mound was soft and warm. then, i fell asleep with kuroino covered by soft fur.) the data shows that theme in the clause is developed from rheme in previous clauses, such as ‘when kuroino climbed a mound’, followed with a theme which describes the mound ‘its mound was soft and warm’, and it is told that ‘they fell asleep on the mound’. this theme development dominates kuroino’s text following denis’s statement in rezayi and moghani (2018) about thematic progression with a linear theme, which is frequently found in fundamental reading material. using this type will facilitate the reader in understanding the story plot. although thematic progression with a linear theme is the most dominant in text, another type is found in the text in the beginning and end, as shown in data 2. data 2 belong to thematic progression with a continuous (constant) theme, namely theme development based on the initial theme. at the beginning of the clause, watashi and kuroino meet for the first time, while the theme is developed from meetings with kuroino in several opportunities. in this case, it is not explicitly stated in the next clauses since the japanese language is known as a language with ellipsis of the word in a text when still discussing the same theme. meanwhile, data in thematic progression with derived themes are not found in the text. the researcher assumes that topic development using this type will be difficult to understand by the reader older than three years. 「ひとりでかえるいつものみち、へいのう えにくろいのがいた。[…] つぎにみたとき は、バスていにすわっていた。あ、また。 きょうは、ちゃんとよくみてみよう。」 hitori de kaeru itsumo no michi, hei no ue ni kuroino gai ta. …tsugi ni mita toki wa, basutei ni suwatte ita. a, mata. kyou wa, chanto yoku mite miyou. on the way which i usually passed, i saw kuroino creature on the wall. the next day, i saw him sitting at the bus stop. wow, he is there again. today, i will try finding out about him. after analyzing verbal text from the book kuroino, the analysis focuses on three metafunctions of image (kress & van leeuwen, 2020) related to three metafunctions of language (halliday & matthiessen, 2014), namely representational, interactive, and compositional. the relation between sfl and vg in table 2 as stated by liu (2019). thus, it can be said that the researcher treats the image as a language in this analysis phase provided that the picture is believed as a verbal language to realize its metafunction. table 2 three strands of meta-functions in sfl and vg sfl vg ideational representational interpersonal interactive textual compositional 5the interplay of meaning .... (dewi puspitasari) analysis of visual text data uses representational meaning, interactive meaning, and compositional meaning by kress and van leeuwen (2020). representational meaning refers to the faithful reproduction of people’s objective world, human activities, places, and even people’s inner world. kress and van leeuwen (2020) have viewed that representational meaning can be obtained from two processes: narrative and conceptual processes. the vector is a criterion to identify whether it is the narrative process or a conceptual process. besides, finding representational meaning reveals the relation between the represented participants (object in an image, a living creature, or inanimate object). the interaction process between defined participants is realized in a vector. participants in illustrated storybook kuroino are kuroino (the black) and watashi (i). watashi is a girl aged 3-5 years. watashi meets kuroino for the first time when walking home. she sees a black creature sitting on the wall. the position of watashi is on the lower left while staring at kuroino. meanwhile, the position of kuroino is on the upper right while he looks around. condition in the place shows a quiet street. the vector in figure 1 is realized through stare from watashi to kuroino. thus, watashi is a reactor, while kuroino becomes a phenomenon. based on the vector, the relation between objects in the image belongs to the narrative process. figure 1 narrative process image some visual data in a book kuroino can be categorized into a narrative process that presents actions and characters’ actions in their spatial arrangements. the spatial reference is often used to express feeling in figure 2 with verbal data「ねえ、 してるかな…」nee, shiteru kana… ‘hey, what are you doing?’ besides expressing a feeling, the narrative process is shown from vector between watashi and kuroino in images 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 26, 29, and 31, who try communicating to play together. visual data also have a conceptual process, namely static (no vector), and represented participants in terms of their more generalized and more or less stable and timeless essence in terms of class, structure, or meaning. it can be seen in figure 3. figure 2 action/reaction image figure 3 conceptual symbolic image figure 3 shows kuroino giving the flower to watashi in a park where they do their exciting adventure. although its color is monochrome (black and white), it clearly shows plants and flowers in the park, representing a beautiful place. conceptual process is also shown in images 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, and 32. visual data in the narrative process shows an amount that is almost the same as the conceptual process. it shows that the writer and illustrator in kuroino invite the reader to enjoy kuroino and watashi’s adventure by enjoying the environment where the experience takes place. the illustrated book’s interactive meaning is used to develop and maintain interaction between the message or image-maker and reader. according to kress & van leeuwen (2020), some dimensions compile interactive meaning, namely contact, social distance, attitude, and modality. contact in the visual text is established through the gaze from represented participants. in terms of gaze, represented participants in kuroino do not directly communicate with the reader; all images belong to offer pictures. kuroino and watashi continuously stare at each other in all activities (e.g., walking on street, park, house) without involving the reader in any way besides receiving or refusing information made by the illustrator. social distance in images can determine the social relation between represented participants 6 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 1-9 and the reader. most of the pictures illustrated in kuroino book belong to a far social distance, in which participants show their full body and readers can see the whole space. thus, it can be said that the relation which dominates represented participants and reader is formal and impersonal. the illustrator does it as an effort to show readers (children) that these figures are from the imaginary world, not the real one. besides, there are images in the category of far personal distance and close personal distance, in which participants are shown from shoulder to waist, so a relationship is established between represented participant and reader in the intimate and personal category. it shows that the story presented is from the imaginary world and the real world (watashi is on the highway). the next structure that establishes relation is the angle. there are two perspectives discussed by kress & van leeuwen (2020), namely horizontal and vertical. images in kuroino are horizontally illustrated, so it can be said that illustrator and reader are involved with watashi and kuroino. represented participants are shown in medium angle, in which relation between participant and reader is at the same level, so there is no dominance. at the same time, another dimension is a modality, how readers assess realism shown in images. kuroino provides images in monochrome color, categorized into low modality in color differentiation aspect. however, in some contextualization aspects; representation, depth, illumination, and brightness can be categorized into high modality since the illustrated images are highly detailed in participant, background, a full representation of light and shade, and maximal degree of brightness. compositional meaning is achieved by the layout of the image, which consists of information value, salience, and framing (kress & van leeuwen, 2020). the first principle is information value. it is the placement of several elements that give specific value, specific as in ‘center/margin’ and ‘given/new’. in kuroino, watashi and kuroino’s participants are usually in the center of the image, as if they provide essential information from the whole picture. thus, it can be said that these two participants are dominant in some pictures. information structure given in the double-page book, kuroino, shows the domination of verbal text on the left (given) and visual text on the right (new), as shown in figure 4. figure 4 compositional meaning (given/new information) although it seems that visual and verbal texts are separated, they have relevance that completes each other. represented participants, kuroino and watashi, are enjoying ocha (japanese tea) with verbal text「で も、お話はしないね」demo, ohanashi wa shinaine ‘but, kuroino is not saying any single word at all’. it shows that they are enjoying a drink while looking at the park without saying any word. salience is the second principle of layout discussed by kress & van leeuwen (2020). it refers to the degree to which an element of composition or design draws attention to itself. it includes all participant elements made to attract readers, such as size, the sharpness of focus, tonal contrasts, color contrasts, placement in the visual field, and perspective. the researcher uses not all aspects in salience to analyze since visual text data on kuroino is monochrome. as shown in figure 2, the size of kuroino and watashi is almost like a human being in general based on proportion with the environmental condition (image background). although the researcher cannot use color as an aspect to be analyzed, the tonal contrast of the image is detailed, as shown in figure 3. it shows how the illustrator describes a park full of beautiful flowers as if they have many colors. when kuroino and watashi focus on some stories, they are described as the center’s position, more oversized shape, and more plain background. the third principle of composition is discussed by kress & van leeuwen (2020). there is no framing in kuroino, which indicates involvement and absence of social distance between represented participants and readers (children). the lack of structure creates intersemiotic compositional cooperation between visual and verbal, which relates to each other and provides a taste of unity. after analyzing meaning based on verbal and visual texts, the researcher interprets the meaning, whether or not it completes each other. thus, it can be understood the meaning to be conveyed by the writer and illustrator, whether or not it synergizes and has meaning. the researcher describes a relation in verbal and visual texts based on an opinion stated by liu (2019), in which every aspect of meaning in the three metafunctions of language will be compared with that in the three metafunctions of image. analysis of ideational meaning in the verbal text shows the domination of mood indicativedeclarative, a clause which states information about the adventure of the represented participant. it is supported by representational meaning in the visual text, which is almost the same between narrative and conceptual processes. it can be interpreted that the writer and illustrator in kuroino invite the reader to enjoy the adventure by kuroino and watashi by enjoying the environment where the incident occurred. besides, interpersonal meaning shows the domination of material processes (46%) and existential processes (20%), which tend to be found in children’s stories. children’s narrative explains what is done by the character and represents what is thought and felt. 7the interplay of meaning .... (dewi puspitasari) besides, interactive meaning in the visual text uses analysis elements, namely contact, social distance, attitude, and modality. data analysis shows the represented participants between imaginary and real worlds. as demonstrated by formal and impersonal domination in the social space; what is done by the designated participant without approval or rejection from readers (viewed from offer image); the relation between participant and reader at the same level (horizontally shown from the perspective and medium angle); in realism, illustration seems real with beautiful details, though illustrated using black and white color. textual meaning in the verbal text uses thematic progression theory. it shows linear theme domination, though thematic progression with a continuous (constant) theme on story plot is also found. it exhibits a strong relation in a clause that delivers an information message with two main characters in the story. the story is told in a structured and thematic way with a simple pattern easily understood by the reader. it is supported by compositional meaning in the visual text, which is evident with a visual component in detailed black and white images describing two characters, a girl and a black creature, in an imaginary adventure. it is related to environmental aspects of nature, such as highway, park, house, tree, flower, and others as additional aspects of the two characters’ support story. conclusions the research conclusion shows that in verbal text, the meaning of a clause in a book entitled kuroino, which is analyzed by using the three metafunctions of language, shows the meaning relevance. the interpersonal meaning states information exchange (indicative-declarative) between writer and reader about friendship and adventure between kuroino and watashi. it is supported by ideational meaning (transitivity analysis) that the writer conveys an imaginary adventure in detail, which is experienced by these two characters. besides, in the textual meaning, which shows the domination of thematic progression with a linear theme, the writer develops theme and distribution of information (e.g., following one after another) in text, so the story about friendship and adventure between these two characters is easily understood. meanwhile, meaning in the visual text, which is analyzed using the three metafunctions of images, shows the meaning of relevance. representational meaning shows the same amount between the narrative process and conceptual process, provided that the illustrator in a book entitled kuroino invites the readers to participate in adventure while enjoying the surrounding environment or condition. the illustrator expects to develop and maintain the relationship with readers, as shown in interactive meaning. besides, the structure of information provided in a double-page book entitled kuroino shows the domination of a ‘given-new’ structure. thus, although it seems that verbal and visual texts are separated, they have a relevance that completes each other. based on the explanation, the meaning in verbal and visual texts of a storybook entitled kuroino creates a relation that synergizes each other and has meaning. the writer and the illustrator create a message which completes each other. it can be said that kuroino is one of the picture books made for children using simple vocabulary and a simple plot to tell a story. it is supported with a visual presentation to keep the storyline, so children can easily understand the story without double meaning. besides, verbal and visual texts avoid monotonous aspects from the story. the implication of the research is expected to enrich the reference related to the implementation of sfl and vg in japanese children’s picture books. it can also give a contribution to recommending quality children’s literature from the perspective of linguistics. the limitation of the research is indicated by using one data source only, a picture book for children older than three years, the suggestion for the next research is the use of several picture books for children of several ages. besides, it can be focused on a storybook with a specific theme (e.g., fable or others) in the japanese language. references alamiri, z. 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(2018). unpacking japanese culture in children’s picture books: culturally authentic representation and historical events/ political issues. reading horizons: a journal of literacy and language arts, 57(2), 35-55. yunita, s. (2018). theme and thematic progression in students’ recount texts. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 7(3), 524-530. https://doi. org/10.17509/ijal.v7i3.9797. zohrabi, m., dobakhti, l., & mohammadpour, e. (2019). interpersonal meanings in children’s storybooks. iranian journal of language teaching research, 7(2), 39-64. https://dx.doi.org/10.30466/ ijltr.2019.120697. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 51 lingua cultura, 15(1), july 2021, 51-57 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i1.7109 language politeness in the javanese verb speech level dwi atmawati* balai bahasa daerah istimewa yogyakarta jl. i dewa nyoman oka 34, yogyakarta 55224, indonesia atmawatibby@gmail.com received: 04th march 2021/revised: 29th april 2021/accepted: 04th may 2021 how to cite: atmawati, d. (2021). language politeness in the javanese verb speech level. lingua cultura, 15(1), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i1.7109 abstract the research aimed to observe the use of javanese verb forms using a sociolinguistic approach. the object of the research was the selection of javanese verb forms used by speakers in the magelang region. the informants were children, adolescents, and adults, both male and female. the informants were 50 javanese speakers. data were obtained by the technique of listening, recording, and taking notes. the problem was studied using speech component theory and language politeness norms. the research applied a qualitative descriptive method. the result indicates that some children and the younger generation are less able to choose the correct form of verbs related to the level of speech, for example, the words ‘siram’ (bath), ‘tindak’ (go), and ‘mireng’ (hear). these three words should refer to people with whom to speak and be respected, not to describe oneself. using an inaccurate form of the verbs can lead to an assumption that the speaker is impolite. based on the findings of the research, it is hoped that there will be efforts, both in the domain of families, schools, stakeholders, and policymakers, to provide better education to speakers, especially children, and the younger generation. with better education, it is hoped that the younger generation will be able to understand well the proper use of verbs. incorrect use of the verb form can indicate the impoliteness of the speaker. keywords: language politeness, javanese verbs, speech level introduction magelang is a city and regency located in central java, indonesia. mother tongue of the people of magelang is javanese. however, in its development, some magelang people are no longer use javanese as a means of daily communication. some speakers have switched to using indonesian as a means of communication. the use of indonesian as a means of daily communication by some javanese has indirectly shifted the role of javanese. the javanese language, which was originally used, among other things, to communicate between javanese people, has been displaced by the indonesian language. this shift cannot be separated from the role of some parents who are no longer inherit javanese as a mother tongue to their children. this has resulted in the emergence of a generation that cannot speak javanese well. the inability to speak javanese in children or the younger generation can be seen when they communicate in javanese. some of them do not understand the correct use of javanese verb speech levels. an example is the use of the verbs ngoko and krama. they can only or know ngoko javanese and are not or less able to use krama javanese. in fact, there is a very clear speech level in javanese society, namely ngoko javanese and javanese manners. the use of javanese ngoko and javanese krama is closely related to language politeness. the inability of a speaker to speak javanese can lead to the assumption that these speakers are not polite. politeness or impoliteness can be expressed in the choice of words, both verbs and nouns. research on errors in the use of javanese verbs has never been done. the research is important to determine the extent to which language impoliteness has occurred in the use of javanese verbs. after it is known that language impoliteness is associated with choosing the incorrect verb form, the research can explain the correct javanese verb form. by explaining the use of the proper javanese verb form, it is hoped that readers will be able to understand and apply it. cahyadi (2018) has found that javanese language subjects are difficult to develop because students are less able to speak 52 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 51-57 javanese correctly. learning javanese is important so that everyone can be polite when speaking. it is hoped that the results of the research can be used by parents, educators, and the community to provide an example in choosing the correct verb form. it is important to know the results of the research widely so that parents, communities, stakeholders, and policymakers can take steps to teach politeness in javanese. through these steps, it is hoped that children and adolescents can speak more politely because they can choose and use verbs appropriately. for stakeholders, the results of the research are expected to be used as a reference in policymaking. choosing the correct verb form shows that the speaker is polite. some researches carried out related to the research are the research on speech level phenomena and research on gender and politeness. romelah (2016) has stated that the forms of chaos in the speech level that occurred in puring district, kebumen, include the form of krama inggil to ngoko alus, the form of ngoko alus to krama inggil, and the form of ngoko to krama inggil to polite manners. furthermore, research on the choice of javanese speech level in klapaduwur village, blora. in daily communication, people in klapadhuwur village usually use the ngoko language, including communication between husband and wife, and children to parents. although for some javanese people in other areas, this is considered impolite (trahutami, 2016). research conducted by nuryantiningsih and pandanwangi (2018) regarding politeness and impoliteness in javanese society is still limited to studies from a pragmatic point of view with the speech act theory. saputri, sariono, and rochiyati (2018) have stated that the use of javanese speech levels by the madurese ethnic community is influenced by setting, scene, and participant. research on the use of javanese speech levels by the madurese ethnic community is focused on discussing the factors that influence the level of speech. changes in social status in students do not affect politeness in language. the students continue to speak politely even though their social status has improved (rahmi, 2018). in tegal district, standard indonesian and javanese are included in the high variety of languages used in formal situations, and non-standard indonesian and javanese are used in informal situations and are included in the low language variation (saddiyah & rokhman 2018). winarti (2018) has stated that the threat to krama as a legacy of the indonesian language may be extinct. krauße (2018) has stated that among surabaya’s young speakers, polite vocabulary is rarely used. some people are afraid to speak in their mother tongue because the classical speech level system is still dominant. they choose to speak indonesian that does not have a speech level. furthermore, the research reveals the categories and language expressions in coastal javanese communities banjar kemuning village, sidoarjo regency based on the perspective of ethnolinguistic studies (chafidhi, rais, & dwi, 2019). the relativity of language and culture is a sporadic cultural value that is often expressed at the lexical level. if the relativity of language and culture is brought to the domain of teaching a second language or a foreign language, it is possible to misunderstand the communication and the learning process (kholik, ridwan, & hadi, 2019). in most javanese families, children talk to their parents in a polite manner (sugianto & salehuddin, 2019). some of the younger generation with javanese parents use indonesian as their mother tongue. the younger generation has a stronger sense of national identity than a sense of local identity. to increase the vitality of the javanese language as a local identity, intergenerational transmission and use of javanese in schools are required (andriyanti, 2019). furthermore, the research on javanese nonverbal language uses an ethnopragmatic approach. if the local wisdom of javanese people in the nonverbal language is preserved, it will be beneficial for future generations (pranowo, 2019). wahyuningsih (2019) has stated that the use of indonesian for male lecturers and male staff at iain kudus experience a less pronounced shift than the language shift in women. lecturers and female employees tend to have a strong preference for indonesian over javanese. other researchers have revealed that the use of javanese krama by the younger generation in jebres, banjarsari, pasar kliwon, and surakarta districts tends to occur in code-switching, mixing codes with indonesian, and the inaccuracy of javanese lexicons (sujono, padmaningsih, & supardjo, 2019). javanese ngoko language used in paciran, lamongan, east java, indonesia is in a stable position while javanese krama is at risk of being endangered. in paciran village, there is a shift from krama to ngoko (klok, 2019). children of javanese parents who live in pulo loih village, pidie, aceh are no longer use javanese to communicate even though their parents still use javanese to interact with others their age. parents are no longer teach javanese to their children due to economic, security, and social factors. this has caused a shift in the javanese language (zulfikar, aziz, & muthalib, 2020). the research is limited to the study of the javanese language shift. the next researcher has stated that the javanese people in the bandar medan area still pay attention to the ethics of javanese language politeness (pohan, 2020). there is a difference between the research and previous research. in previous research, the javanese language tends to be studied structurally, morphologically, semantically, ethnolinguistic, and anthropolinguistics. in the research, the selection and use of javanese verb forms are from a sociolinguistic perspective. the problem is the inability of children and young people to choose javanese verbs correctly. the verb that is meant here is a verb that is related to the level of speech. the scope of the research is limited to the use of verb speech levels in javanese. the problem is studied from a sociolinguistic point of view, and it aims to explain the use of verb speech levels in javanese. 53language politeness in the .... (dwi atmawati) methods the research applies a qualitative descriptive method. the stages taken are data acquisition, data analysis, and presentation of the results of data analysis. the data are obtained by using the listening proficiently and the free listening technique (sudaryanto, 2015). data collection is done by listening to, taking notes, recording conversations in the family domain and public places, for example, on the street, in the market in the magelang region. the selected informants are children, young people, and adults, both men and women, as many as 50 people. the researcher records conversations between children and parents in the family domain. when in a public place, they know that a conversation is data, therefore the researcher records it. furthermore, data analysis is carried out through the identification, classification, and interpretation stages. the validity of the data is measured by semantic validity, and it also matches with relevant theories. reliability is obtained by making careful and continuous observations. that is, the researcher gets the same data repeatedly with different informants. when data about the inaccuracy of javanese verbs is obtained repeatedly, it shows that the data is valid. the data are analyzed using the speech level theory of poedjosoedarmo (1968) and the speech component theory of hymes (1974) for the study of problems from a sociolinguistic point of view. in this analysis, study the extralingual factors that influence the choice of javanese verb forms. in addition, data analysis is carried out by studying intralingual factors. hymes (1974) has said that extralingual aspects include who is involved in the dialogue, how the relationship and social distance between them, the setting of the speech event, the goals to be achieved, the media used, and how to express them. intralingual factors are the elements of language that make up meaning. extralingual factors are factors outside of language that support the intent of the author or speaker. extralingual factors can take the form of context. in spoken language, extralingual factors can be gestures or expressions (pranowo, 2015). results and discussions the research discusses the use of incorrect javanese verb forms. inaccurate use of the verb form of the language can lead to the assumption of language impoliteness. the problems are discussed by referring to the speech level theory from poedjosoedarmo (1968). he has stated that speech levels in javanese constitute a system for showing (1) the degree of formality, and (2) the degree of respect felt by the speaker toward the addressee. the vocabulary at the javanese speech level includes ngoko, madya, and krama. ngoko is a form of speech that is disrespectful or informal; madya is semi-polite and semi-formal speech; and krama is a polite and formal form of speech (poedjosoedarmo, 1968). hymes (1974) has used the word speaking as an acronym to explain his theory about the components of speech. setting and scene (s) refer to the time and place of the speech event. participant (p) consists of various speaker-listener, address or addressee, or sender-receiver combination. ends (e) refer to the goals to be achieved from the speech. act (a) refers to events where a speaker is taking the opportunity to speak. key (k) refers to the tone of voice, the variety of language used, and the manner of expressing opinions. instrumentalities (i) refer to a tool for expressing an opinion, such as verbally, in writing, by telephone, etc. norms of interaction and interpretation (n) refer to the rules that must be obeyed by the speech participants. finally, genre (g) refers to a type of speech that is clearly defined, for example, poetry, sermons, prayers, and others (hymes, 1974). the javanese language has a fairly complex speech level. broadly speaking, the level of speech in javanese consists of ngoko, madya, and krama. javanese ngoko is usually used by javanese speakers to communicate with other speakers who are familiar, have younger age, or have lower social status. javanese madya is usually used by speakers to communicate with people who are not yet known or have unfamiliar relationships. the javanese krama language is usually used by speakers to communicate with other speakers who are respected, are older, or have higher social status. the choice or use of speech levels is closely related to language politeness. poedjosoedarmo (2017) has stated that politeness in javanese includes friendly, patient, respectful, clear, and concise speech. table 1 shows the data, classification, and discussion of verb forms in javanese in the research. the data are classified based on the speech level in javanese, namely ngoko, madya, and krama, which are limited to the form of verbs. table 1 classification of verb forms in javanese ngoko (ng) javanese madya (md) javanese krama (kr) javanese english adus siram bath krungu mireng hear lunga kesah tindak go lungguh lenggah seat maca maos read mbadhog, nguntal, mangan, madhang nedha dhahar eat mbutuhke mbetahke mbetahaken need menehi maringi nyaosi, ngaturi give micek, turu tilem sare sleep mlaku mlampah tindak walk ndelok ningali mrisani look 54 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 51-57 ngoko (ng) javanese madya (md) javanese krama (kr) javanese english nganggo ngangge ngagem use nggawa mbeta ngasta bring nggawe ndamel make ngokop, ngombe ngunjuk drink ngomong mungel ngendika say njaluk nyuwun ask nyeneni ndukani angry tangi wungu wake up teka dumugi rawuh come tuku tumbas mundhut buy in the research, it is found data on the use of javanese verbs, namely adus (ng), siram (kr); krungu (ng), mireng (kr); lunga (ng), kesah (md), tindak (kr); lungguh (ng), lenggah (kr); maca (ng), maos (kr); mbadhog, nguntal, mangan, madhang(ng), nedha (md), dhahar (kr); mbutuhke (ng), mbetahke (md), mbetahaken (kr); menehi (ng), maringi (md), nyaosi, ngaturi (kr); micek, turu (ng), tilem (md), sare (kr); mlaku (ng), mlampah (md), tindak (kr); ndelok (ng), ningali (md), mrisani (kr); nganggo (ng), ngangge (md), ngagem (kr); nggawa (ng), mbeta (md), ngasta (kr); nggawe (ng), ndamel (kr); ngokop, ngombe (ng),ngunjuk (kr); ngomong (ng), mungel (md), ngendika (kr); njaluk (ng), nyuwun (kr); nyeneni (ng), ndukani (kr); tangi (ng), wungu (kr); teka (ng), dumugi (md), rawuh (kr); tuku (ng), tumbas (md), mundhut (kr). based on these data, it is known that there are verbs that have the form ngoko and krama but do not have madya forms, for example, adus, krungu, langat, maca, nggawe, ngombe, njaluk, nyeneni, tangi. when the madya form of the verb does not exist in javanese, speakers will use the verb krama when talking to strangers, older people, people of higher social status, or respected people. however, in reality, relatively many speakers cannot speak javanese well. they are not precise in choosing or using verbs. the inaccuracy of using javanese verbs is revealed in the dialogue (1). in this research, data on the form of javanese verbs used by speakers are not correct. dialogue (1) shows some data and discussion. (1) verb of siram (bath) a: “apa kowe wis adus?” “have you taken a bath?” b: “badhe ajeng siram.” “i was just going to take a shower.” the speech in dialogue (1) is in the family domain. a is b’s father. a uses javanese ngoko to b. this is in accordance with the norms of language in javanese society; namely, parents have a higher position, and sons have an obligation to respect their parents. b as a son uses javanese with a higher level of speech, namely manners. the purpose of using javanese manners is to respect their parents. however, b chooses the form of the verb flushes not quite right. the choice of the verb siram is due to b not understanding the difference in using the verb siram. in the norms of language politeness, the verb siram, a form of manners, is used for respected others, not for themselves, for example, bapak sampun siram (dad has taken a shower). the verb for itself is used adus (bath), for example, kula sampun adus (i have taken a bath). (2) verb of mireng (hear) c: “kowe wis krungu kabar kui?” “have you heard the news?” d: “sampun. kula sampun mireng wingi.” “i did. i heard yesterday.” dialogue (2) is in the family domain. c is d’s mother. in javanese society, the mother as a parent has a high position that must be respected by the child. in the dialogue, c uses ngoko javanese, while d uses krama javanese. the choice of mireng verb form is incorrect. mireng verbs are appropriate for people who are respected, not for self-talk. the inaccuracy in the use of mireng verbs is caused by the lack of understanding of d towards the difference in using the words krungu and mireng. in fact, d means to respect c by choosing mireng, which is a form of krama verbs. c wants to show politeness in language. however, because d chose the wrong form of the verb, there is an assumption that d is not polite. (3) verb of tindak (go) e: “badhe tindak pundi?” “where are you going?” f: “tindak peken.” “to the market.” dialogue (3) takes place on the street when e meets f. the two speakers already know and are of the same age but not very familiar. they use speech levels to communicate. e chooses the tindak verb addressed to f in his honor. f also uses the speech level to honor e. however, e uses an incorrect verb, which is a tindak for itself. supposedly, f chooses the verb dhateng that it shows that f respects himself. the verb ngoko lunga has kesah madya verb form and tindak krama verb form. in this communication, the verb ngoko lunga is not used because the speaker does not have a close relationship. (4) verb of dhahar (eat) g: “ibu, menawi badhe dhahar, sedaya sampun mateng.” “mother, please eat, everything is ready.” table 1 classification of verb forms in javanese (continued) 55language politeness in the .... (dwi atmawati) h: “ayo, mangan bareng-bareng wae!” “let’s just eat together now!” g: “kula mangkih mawon dhahare” “i will eat it later.” dialogue (4) takes place in the family domain. h is the mother of g. g uses javanese manners when communicating with his mother. h answers g’s question in ngoko javanese. g uses krama javanese for politeness. h chooses the verb mangan, which is a verb ngoko because h is talking to her son. g chooses the verb dhahar, both for his mother and for himself. the use of the verb dhahar for oneself is not correct. in magelang and its surroundings, the verb dhahar is intended for respected people, not for oneself. g should have chosen the verb nedha. the verb nedha is an madya level of javanese. verba eat has a variety of ngoko forms, mbadhog, nguntal, mangan, madhang. the verba mbadhog and nguntal are impolite word. in speaking theory, hymes (1974) has suggested that speakers should understand politeness in language by paying attention to who, when, social status, situation, where, and the goals of speech. (5) verb of sare (sleep) i: “kulanuwun, menapa pak toha ada di rumah?” “excuse me, is mr toha at home?” j: “ada, tapi pak toha saweg tilem” “yes, but mr. toha is sleeping.” i “menawi pak toha saweg sare, kula titip buku niki.” “if mr. toha is sleeping, i will leave this book.” dialogue (5) is in the family domain. communication is carried out by guests and household assistants. i, as a guest, chooses to use the verb sare, which is addressed to their master, while the household assistant uses the verb tilem. the choice of the tilem verb is not quite right because the speech is addressed to someone who is respected. the sleeping verb has variations in the form of ngoko turu and micek. the verb micek is a crude verb form. (6) verb of mrisani (look) k: “mangga diprisani. kainipun sae lan alus.” “please have a look. the fabric is nice and smooth.” l: “kula prisani riyin kainnya?” “let me see the fabric.” dialogue (6) takes place in the market between the seller and the buyer. in buying and selling, the buyer’s position is usually higher than the seller. therefore, there is the expression ‘the buyer is king’. k is a seller, and l is a buyer. k chooses the verb diprisani to honor the buyer. l chooses the verb prisani, but it refers to itself. the verb chosen by l is not correct. supposedly, l uses the verb ningali that is a madya-level verb. (7) verb of ngasta (bring) m: “ngasta menapa, ketingalipun awrat sanget.” “what did you bring? looks like a lot.” n: “mboten ngasta napa-napa, namung oleholeh sekedhik.” “i didn’t bring anything, just a few gifts.” in dialogue (7), two friends have a dialogue at home. m and n both use the ngasta verb. m uses the verb ngasta to honor n, while m uses the verb ngasta to honor itself. in javanese society, the use of verbs that are meant to honor oneself is considered impolite. n should have chosen the form of mbeta, not ngasta. (8) verb of ngunjuk (drink) o: “mangga ngunjuk rumiyin.” “please have a drink.” p: “matur nuwun, kula nembe mawon ngunjuk.” “thank you. i just had a drink.” dialogue (8) occurs in the family domain. o as the host asks his guests to drink. o and p choose the javanese verb krama, namely ngunjuk. o chooses the verb correctly because the verb ngunjuk is used to refer to guests p. meanwhile, p uses the verb ngunjuk inappropriately because it refers to itself. p should have used the javanese verb ngoko, ngombe. in ngoko javanese, there are verbs ngombe and ngokop. the verb ngokop is a low level of speech. (9) verb of rawuh (come) q: “tamunipun sampun dumugi, bu.” “the guest has arrived, madam.” r: “diaturi ngenteni sedhela yen tamune wis rawuh.” “say wait a moment when the guest has arrived.” dialogue (9) takes place at the office. q, the staff member, tells his boss that his guest has arrived. q chooses the verb dumugi to refer to the arrival of guests, while r chooses the verb rawuh. the difference in the choice of verbs is caused by the lack of understanding of q towards the norms of javanese politeness. q does not choose the verb teka because she knows that it is a ngoko verb, which is inappropriate for communicating with the boss. (10) verb of mundhut (buy) s: “mangga dipun pundhuti, daging seger!” “please buy fresh meat.” t: “pinten regine?” “how much it costs?” s: “satus ewu mawon, ajeng mundhut pinten?” “one hundred thousand, how much will you buy?” 56 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 1, july 2021, 51-57 t: “kula mundhut kalih atus ewu.” “i bought two hundred thousand.” dialogue (10) takes place in the traditional market. s as a seller offers fresh meat to a buyer, t. he asks the price of fresh meat. s chooses the passive verb dipundhuti for politeness. passive verb dipundhuti is javanese high-level manners. s does not use the passive verb ditumbasi because it is a madyo level speech. the use of the verb mundhut by t is not correct because the verb mundhut refers to t. t should not show respect for herself. t should have used the madyo level speech, tumbas. based on these data, it is known that some speakers have implemented norms of politeness in language. they pay attention to who is talking to, when, where, and the social status of the addressee to choose the speech level to be used. however, some speakers do not understand the speech level in javanese, so they cannot use it correctly. conclusions based on these discussions, it is known that there is an inaccuracy in the use of verbs by some speakers, especially the younger generation. this inaccuracy is caused by the speaker’s lack of understanding of the javanese speech level. inaccurate use of these verbs can lead to the assumption that the speaker is not polite. therefore, every speaker needs to understand the speech level in javanese. solving this problem requires intervention from various parties, such as parents, educators, stakeholders, and policymakers, because a generation who can speak javanese is necessary. thus, javanese language and culture can always be maintained, and language is also a picture of human culture. the javanese language has a speech level of ngoko, madyo, and krama. not every verb is presented at all of these speech levels. verbs that are always there are at the ngoko and krama levels. there are verbs that are not found at the madyo level. if the verb is not found at the madyo level, the speaker uses a krama level speech. the next research can study the characteristics of verbs at the madya level of speech; why are the verbs that only have ngoko and krama forms but do not have madya forms. in addition, the research can also conduct studies on how javanese can be studied interestingly so that children and young people enjoy speaking javanese. this is interesting to learn because there are lexicons that can express something quite completely in javanese. references andriyanti, e. 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(2020). language shift by the javanese in pulo loih village, pidie. english education journal (eej), 11(2), 215-230. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 9 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 9-16 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.8852 the impact of pandemic on students’ social skills: teachers’ reflection towards english speaking class jovanda febrianesty ganiet1*; joko nurkamo2; sumardi3 1-3english language education graduate school, faculty of teacher training and education, sebelas maret university jl. ir sutami no. 36, kentingan, kec. jebres, surakarta, jawa tengah 57126, indonesia 1jganiet@gmail.com; 2jokonurkamto@gmail.com; 3arifsumardi74@gmail.com received: 29th august 2022/revised: 30th november 2022/accepted: 09th december 2022 how to cite: ganiet, j. f., nurkamo, j., & sumardi. (2023). the impact of pandemic on students’ social skills: teachers’ reflection towards english speaking class. lingua cultura, 17(1), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.8852 abstract this research aimed to explore the negative impact of the pandemic on their social skills on speaking skill development. the shortcomings of a past pandemic era had impacted the offline english foreign learner (efl) classroom in the new era. the dozen of difficulties and challenges that were faced by the students affected english speaking skills as one of the productive skills in language learning. as the core of english-speaking substances, online learning influenced the students’ social skills development, raising speaking anxiety due to the issue. the research was conducted using the qualitative narrative method. the data was collected by interviewing three secondary teachers using semi-structured interviews, and the results were analyzed using critical discourse analysis (cda). the finding is found that the pandemic has increased the students’ anxiety which has become the common factor that has been decreasing the students’ social skills; it is caused by the ineffective teaching procedure, learning media used, and activities that have been implied during the past pandemic era. furthermore, despite that negative effect, this finding can be further developed to improve teaching methods in other emerging education conditions. in addition, an observation method is suggested to get the actual condition. keywords: pandemic impact, post-pandemic, speaking class, social skills, teacher reflection introduction the pandemic has impacted many aspects of daily life. in this digital era, the shortcomings of having online classes have been reduced by the advancement of technology (ulvik, jensen, & eide, 2021). however, these advantages are absent in some areas and cannot be utilized. it is inevitable for students to experience degradation in regard to their communication when they have online classes (sampson & yoshida, 2021). this occurs due to the lack of social activity that can be done online; moreover, with their limitations, having two ways of communicating is proven to be a challenge (gacs, goertler, & spasova, 2020). the students would tend to prefer to be engaged in other activities instead of doing the aimless assignments given by their teacher due to the lack of supervision. it is known to the public that there are more than often cases where students are given a task without any consideration for their real situation out there (wang et al., 2021). some students would spend most of their time doing anything but studying. this phenomenon has caused the students not only miss out on the opportunity to gain knowledge but also their skills in socializing with their classmates (henry & thorsen, 2021). if this kind of phenomenon occurs for a long period of time, it will inevitably cause difficulties in social aspects in an efl classroom. over the past two years, more studies have been focused on the challenges and innovations to overcome the emergence of education during the pandemic (brownhill, 2022; ekoç, 2021; gacs, goertler, & spasova, 2020; meşe & mede, 2022; payne, 2020). students are reported to be uncomfortable during online learning due to the isolated feeling toward the remote learning process (ekoç, 2021) and increased in pr es s 10 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 9-16 students’ speaking anxiety (payne, 2020). since the pandemic promptly transpires, it decreases the students’ readiness during the english learning process (gacs, goertler, & spasova, 2020). hence, it affects how they overcame the difficulty of using digital devices during the online learning process (meşe & mede, 2022) and its adaptation process throughout the pandemic (brownhill, 2022). however, fewer studies have investigated the impact of the emergency of education during the pandemic on students’ social abilities in english speaking performances. therefore, this research focuses on the causes of emergency education to the decrease of students’ english-speaking skills and its effect on their social abilities during interactive learning activities in the post-pandemic era. hence, to identify the hindrance of social abilities in english-speaking performance, this research conducts two research questions: (1) what is the teacher’s perception of the impact of emergency education in the pandemic era on students’ social skills in english-speaking activities? (2) how does the teacher classify the students’ social abilities on english speaking skill performance? as a significant aspect of soft skills that go a long way toward improving students’ language proficiency in meaningful interaction, social skills are pivotal in enhancing students’ skills to learn english, especially speaking (adedoyin & soykan, 2020). moreover, social skills will be able to provide satisfactory interactions between students (bashori et al., 2020). therefore, interaction skills are commonly found to be influenced by social status, age, and value (turner, li, & wei, 2021). as it is one of the interpersonal skills, the ability to engage in interaction becomes an indicator of someone’s social skills (gkonou & mercer, 2017). social skills are mainly constructed through verbal and nonverbal channels. mehrabian (1969) has believed that students with high or lower social skills in english speaking would be clearly detected by the channels shown. verbal clues can be exemplified by communication strategies. according to tarone’s taxonomy, there are frequent types of communication strategies in english-speaking practice: topic avoidance, native language switch, and coinage (herd, 2015). furthermore, non-verbal clues are shown by using body language, gestures, eye contact, and vocal performance variety (mehrabian, 1969). the presence of these clues can convey indications of students’ readiness during interactions in speaking skill practices. in english speaking practices, social skills have been proven to significantly affect speaking performance. the ability to speak in an english learning process is a product that becomes an indicator that students have successfully mastered language learning (lee & hsieh, 2019). furthermore, the salient influence of a language product could be observed from the learning progress (jiang & dewaele, 2019). as an immediate substance of english learning progress, the existence of willingness to communicate (wtc) becomes the main factor that will affect the quality of students’ language product or output (sevinç & backus, 2019). wtc (figure 1) is proposed to strengthen students’ readiness in their communication process (bensalem & thompson, 2021). figure 1 willingness to communicate (macintyre & wang, 2021) according to figure 1, the quality of language learning products will be influenced by those several stages. ultimately, the main objective is the student’s behavior in which they use the language as the final product of language learning (liu, 2020). in wtc, social and individual contexts become the foundation that will influence communication behavior. it also captures the students’ interaction process with others in a second language (l2) (wongsa & son, 2022). crowning it all, it highlights that wtc holds pivotal parts in the language learning process. methods this research employs a qualitative narrative design to approach teachers’ experiences during teaching english speaking skills in the post-pandemic era. they use the design to collect and analyze rich narrative accounts of teachers’ experiences during teaching. the research recognizes the researcher’s reflexivity as a primary instrument not only for collecting, interpreting, and re-presenting ‘data’ (i.e., stories of teaching experiences) but also for viewing knowledge and knowledge as interdependent and embedded in history, context, culture, language, experience, and understanding (etheringthon, 2019). the participants of this research are three secondary teachers located in the border area of east kalimantan. researchers consider the involvement of teachers in the border areas due to the rise of issues in the development of english-speaking skills in rural areas. thus, this research tries to explore the various causes of the issues. the participants have been teaching english for about three to five years and have in pr es s 11the impact of pandemic on students’ .... (jovanda febrianesty ganiet, et al.) experienced multiple transitions in teaching conditions from before to after the pandemic. their experience results are collected using semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions. the data results are analyzed using critical discourse analysis (cda), which helps the researchers analyze participants’ experiences using the social structure’s perception. thus, it supports the learner in finding the social psychology of students while practicing english. to analyze the data, researchers use a method of three analysis steps from saldaña (2018), which are (1) open coding, (2) axial coding, and (3) selective coding. it can be seen in table 1. in the first stages, researchers read the interview transcribes and analyze the coding. next, the researchers try to combine the finding and the theories. therefore, the last researchers collect the results into several categories. furthermore, to acquire trustworthiness, this research uses an expert’s validation of the lecturer. the validation consists of constructed evidence checked and the content of the item listed. meanwhile, an interpretivist paradigm is used to obtain the research constructed where “the world of human experience” (tigelaar, sins, & van driel, 2017) has been believed to ground this narrative research. table 1 stages of analysis results and discussions this section elucidates the findings and discussion of the research questions, which indicate the social skills of the students. it is divided into two parts; the first one is the teacher’s notion of the influence of emergency education in the pandemic era on the student’s social abilities of english speaking performances, then the second part discusses the teachers’ strategy classification of the students’ social skill that appears towards class interaction. regarding the second part, it has been classified into two different channels of communication strategy that indicate the students’ social abilities in english-speaking skills. after the offline meeting is held again, it is not that easy to immediately get a conducive atmosphere in carrying out the teaching and learning process. these changes are not far from the negative impact experienced by students in the pandemic situation. there have been many changes that teachers have experienced since the first offline class is held. facing this situation, teachers are expected to be able to adapt so that students can participate in learning activities well. issues that teachers experienced during online learning during the pandemic have found that: first, difficult to supervise students’ practice in english speaking skills. the difficulty in supervising makes the teacher unable to engage students in classroom interaction. this point can be understood well in excerpt 1. excerpt 1: “since the pandemic, many students have complained about the lack of facilities they have to be able to join online learning. some of them often find it difficult to complete the given task. however, over time, they have gotten used to using online media to complete tasks. however, one weakness found is the difficulty of teachers in supervising students’ english development, especially in english speaking skills. therefore, in my opinion, there are currently many mistakes and shortcomings found in the way students practice speaking skills. they have difficulty when they have to appear in front of the class.” regarding this statement, the lack of teacher supervision during english-speaking practice has several effects. first, it will affect students’ awareness of their speaking performance shortcomings. students frequently integrate different understandings autonomously during the online learning session, which is referred to as self-direction. here, the teacher’s supervision should be able to assist students in absorbing the appropriate information in accordance with their needs. hereinafter, the limitless speaking practice supervision affects the interaction flow in the classroom process. according to certain perceptions, the english classroom method should be able to foster constructive interactions between students and the teacher through an effective question-and-answer process and discussion. furthermore, after that issue, it is also found that the cause of the weakening of students’ social skills in speaking performance is caused by the teacher’s difficulty in finding activities that are appropriate to the teaching media used during an emergency situation. this statement has been explained clearly in excerpt 2. excerpt 2: “during the pandemic, i rarely use zoom because of my difficulty using the application. the application that i use is google classroom, where i give assignments and explain the material in written form. but then i communicate through the whatsapp group, where they will in pr es s 12 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 9-16 ask questions. i often monitor their english speaking skills through voice notes, but then i find it difficult to ensure their social skills. nowadays, in the new era, my students will always give a great performance individually, not for the group. they feel more confident in the individual task rather than performing in a big or small group. i think it is because of the lack of activities that involve social interaction between students that i can not enhance their self-confidence during the speaking practice. currently, i think it is more important for them to have the confidence to be actively involved in class before the quality of their speaking skills.” looking up this finding, it is found that the speaking activities held during the pandemic are only able to maximize students’ cognitive speaking skills, but conversely do not fully support speaking skills socially in classroom interaction due to the lack of self-confidence. hence, it becomes a new challenge that teachers have to highlight in the new form of english-speaking substances where confidence is quite important in the speaking shortcoming. it is in line with krashen (1982) that the lack of self-confidence would influence their affective filters, which lowers the quality of language output. furthermore, another case is found that one of the reasons students experience a decrease in english speaking practice happens when the teacher has difficulty managing classrooms due to the online learning situation, as in the written excerpt 3. excerpt 3: “during the online meeting yesterday, my students were actively involved in interactions. indeed, basically, my english class was deliberately constructed with interactive learning, but i found that some of my students who were very active dominated the interaction of the class. at that time, i had a little difficulty controlling the class because of the difficulty in understanding online interactions. hereafter, i found it impactful during the onsite class. currently, there are several students who dominate classroom learning and cover passive students. therefore, i am actively involved in those who non-dominate the classroom.” this results in some teachers finding it difficult to engage students in classroom interaction because the involvement of students with enthusiasm and confidence dominates the class interaction process. thus, some students with the opposite character feel pressured and choose to be silent. regarding these experiences, most of the negative impacts on students’ social skills are closely related to the student’s readiness to face the two conditions that occur in a short period of time. referring to excerpt 1 shows that some students may have been accustomed to interacting with teachers and classmates indirectly, but now they have to be directly involved in daily conversations in the class. facing the transition of these two conditions forces students to have to adapt to the new normal era. these conditions could be shocking for those who lack preparation for their learning process. consequently, teachers need to take a pivotal role in helping students’ readiness to be able to achieve learning targets in english speaking skills. regarding that data, the causes and effects of the negative impact of a pandemic can be categorized in table 2. table 2 pandemic effect excerpt pandemic effect post-pandemic condition 1. lack of speaking supervision -the students do not have enough content to perform their speaking skills. -students faced speaking anxiety during english speaking practice. 2. limited activities to train students’ speaking skills. -students do not enjoy it enough to join the interaction during conversation activities in class. -students have a lack of self-confidence in speaking skills. 3. the infirm of classroom management -students who have low activity tend to be silent and do not participate in interaction in class. facilitating students in adapting to the new situations in the post-pandemic is quite strategic. there are three things that teachers need to pay attention to in constructing a teaching strategy which consists of a classroom atmosphere, speaking activities, and affective filters (lee & hsieh, 2019). essentially, these three things are related, such as maintaining a conducive class atmosphere (gkonou & mercer, 2017). in this case, activities that can increase students’ enthusiasm are needed. when enthusiasm increases, the student’s motivation can grow (krashen, 1982). therefore, students equipped with good motivation in learning will affect their learning outcomes. however, if the class atmosphere worsens, inevitably, it will influence students’ readiness to face difficulties during the learning process. when the students feel uncomfortable, it will be difficult for them to be able to understand every explanation given to them (dewaele & pavelescu, 2021). if it happens, students will be lacking in terms of learning input. thus, it can increase the students’ anxiety which usually consists of worrying about making errors and lacking good insight into vocabulary or content. according to krashen (1982), most students who in pr es s 13the impact of pandemic on students’ .... (jovanda febrianesty ganiet, et al.) bring negative emotions to the classroom will block the learning inputs. hence, it has a significant impact on their learning outcomes. after discussing teachers’ perception of the impact of the pandemic on students’ ability to socialize during the english classroom interaction process. therefore, this part elucidates the teachers’ identify students’ social abilities in english-speaking performances towards their communication strategy. the results are divided into two categories, which are verbal and non-verbal clues. in this case, the researchers analyze students’ reactions based on the teacher’s observations. in this analysis, two substances are observed, starting from verbal clues and non-verbal cues. the influence of the pandemic on students’ speaking skills in socializing is increasingly seen in the early post-pandemic period. one of the things participants felt the most is when their students have their own unique communication strategies. the first results indicate a behavior where the students try to avoid speaking practice. excerpt 4: “in the assignment of english speaking skills that require students to perform in public such as presentations or just telling stories. each student has their own difficulties; one of the most unique is that there is a student who always avoids when it is his turn to perform. he always goes to the toilet and avoids it for a long time. i have traced that this student was always nervous, which caused a bad response in his digestion. he has a very high fear; this was exacerbated during the post-pandemic because, before the pandemic, i rarely found a response like this during virtual meetings.” therefore, the next channel found is switching languages. students who struggle to socialize in the interaction try to exchange their language use. hence, the students perhaps still could participate in the flow of the conversation. this finding is picked up by excerpt 5. excerpt 5: “when the first offline classes were held after the pandemic era, i found most of the students having a hard time joining the interactions. moreover, interactions that use full english. some of them used bilinguals if they found difficult terms; they often occurred in interactions during the learning process and when making presentations in front of the class. some of them were also reluctant to look at the audience or me as the teacher when they made presentations. they tended to crouch and lower their voices. actually, they had good cognitive skills; it is just that their confidence was not good enough. this resulted in the performance not being so outstanding.” the two channels above are categorized as verbal clues; therefore, there are non-verbal clues during the interaction process. in this case, it is indicated by how the students behaved during the interaction flow (excerpt 6). excerpt 6: “the students in my class are divided into two categories, the first is the student who dominates the conversation, and the second is the passive student. students who dominate tend to limit the opportunity for other students to have the opportunity to express themselves. when i realized that, i would try to engage the passive students to join the interaction and ask the dominant ones to calm down and give time to others. the passive ones will sit quietly and not say anything except when i involve them in the discussion.” regarding these statements, it is found that students’ social skills could be detected in the communication strategy that they consciously and unconsciously use during speaking practice. referring to excerpt 4, students avoid joining the topic that is discussed at that time. the teacher believes that this is due to online meetings making them accustomed to direct face-to-face interaction. so that when the offline class is re-run, they experience a culture shock due to the new learning transition in the post-pandemic era. furthermore, in excerpts 5 and 6, it is shown that the way students socialize with others seems uncommon due to non-verbal communication strategies, and then a lack of self-confidence is also detected during the interactive learning process. those with less confidence have a different gesture; they avoid the interaction by lowering their head to omit eye contact during the presentation. according to tarone (as cited in herd, 2015), there are two basic criteria for communication strategies. first, the speaker wants to communicate meaning to the listener. second, the speaker believes that the linguistic structure desired to communicate meaning x is unavailable to the listener (herd, 2015). thus, communication strategy is also often discussed as one of the language learning strategy taxonomies (christoffersen, 2017). therefore, communication strategies are currently discussed in theory in pedagogical language teaching. research conducted by moeen, nejadansari, and dabaghi (2019) has discussed that the application of communication strategy during classroom activity could raise social awareness due to the information shifting during the interaction. regarding tarone’s taxonomies, there are seven strategies that are frequently used in socialization in english-speaking practice. tarone’s taxonomies are (1) topic avoidance: learners try to avoid specific topics. (2) message abandonment: learners omit the information or make it simpler. (3) the use of paraphrases: learners use paraphrases to describe. (4) coinage: creating new words. (5) native language switching: changing the in pr es s 14 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 9-16 words from the target language (tl) into the first language (l1). (6) miming: imitating sound, gimmick, and body language. (7) appeal for assistance: looking for help, e.g., dictionary. communication strategy in developing students’ social skills is one of the important aspects of english mastery. in communication strategy, students could exchange information with other learners through verbal and non-verbal methods (zhang, ardasheva, & austin, 2020; zhangand & goh, 2006). in other words, it includes exchanging opinions and ideas for a specific purpose. in speaking practice, the interaction could be implied by sharing culture, hobbies, and education. therefore, the ability to socialize will help learners to get others’ ideas effectively (liu, 2020). in the context of speaking practice, social skills can be considered important since the students need them in order to convey the message to the audience properly. therefore, some students will use their own ways to be able to convey messages in the socialization process during the learning process. this communication strategy in social skills is varied, and the variations tend to indicate each student’s issue that can be used to reduce the disturbance (ho, 2020). hence, communication strategy becomes the tool of language learning that helps the learner to deliver messages effectively (christiansen & els, 2021). ultimately, it means that communication strategy will help the learner to overcome the lack of target language knowledge to those who want to express meaning. regarding the experiences that the teachers have explained, the common communication strategies that the students used are topic avoidance, message abandonment, and language switching. topic avoidance occurs when students do not really matter what is being discussed. they will tend to remain silent and avoid such discussions (herd, 2015). then there is message abandonment, a way when the speaker does not know how to compose a sentence so that students will answer the question briefly (ryan & forrest, 2021). when it happens, the conversation will be less interesting, and lower the atmosphere of socializing. next, there is language switching, which happens when students use their first language to indicate many things. in this case, students are still anxious about making grammar errors. all of that has often been found in this post-pandemic english teaching and learning process. moreover, there are several nonverbal clues that often occur, such as avoiding eye contact and panic attacks. avoiding eye contact is often found when teachers are trying to engage their students in an interaction. those who tend to be passive students are found to avoid engaging in eye contact multiple times. analyzing the interview results, based on observations conducted by the teachers, students’ social skills during this post-pandemic can be categorized into two parts. the first part is the students with high self-confidence, and the second is those with low selfconfidence. students with high self-confidence tend to be free to socialize during interactions throughout the learning process. they have less anxiety than the students who lack confidence. those with low selfconfidence tend to have doubts when asked to express themselves; thus, it will affect their social skills. therefore, there are several behaviors that occur consciously or unconsciously in students when they try to socialize verbally. the way they interact is often interpreted as a communication strategy. it plays an important role in influencing students’ social skills. based on that issue, teachers believe that they have an urgent note due to the effect of the pandemic, where they need to boost the students’ social skills in english speaking practice. it highlights that post-pandemic has become the newest challenge for teachers. conclusions this narrative inquiry project elucidates that teaching during the pandemic has impacted students’ social skills development in english-speaking practice. as the main objective in english speaking skills, being able to communicate clearly requires students to have good social skills. however, the way teachers teach and the influence of the limitation in terms of media during the pandemic has reduced students’ ability to socialize. based on the results, it is found that anxiety has become the common factor that has been decreasing the students’ social skills. this issue is frequently established by teachers in this post-pandemic era and has become the most recent challenge in teaching english. despite the many limitations found in the pandemic era, it has given new lessons in the development of the field of education. the surge in the provision of distance learning has many pros and cons. one of the cons concerns the teacher’s awareness of the condition and readiness of students during remote teaching and its impact on their social skills. as is done in this research, it is also necessary to develop the reflection of teachers who find the low output skills of their students is also an important note in further research. it is crucial to take notes on how teachers handle students’ self-readiness toward englishspeaking. the findings of this research are anticipated to be useful in emergency education, where it is sought to identify efficient teaching methods that would boost students’ self-confidence and be adaptable to online learning environments. the aim of this research’s educators is to make english teachers outside of the classroom aware of the significance of selfconfidence in the learning objectives and goals in the lesson planning practice. furthermore, this research implications in linguistic research perhaps can provide fresh insight into how the existence of online learning challenges is not only due to external factors like classroom conditions, the limitations of internet coverage and supporting devices, and, to top it all off, an internal factor like students’ psychology, emotion, and learner behavior. in pr es s 15the impact of pandemic on students’ .... (jovanda febrianesty ganiet, et al.) this research contains a variety of contributions, including practical, empirical, and theoretical research. regarding the research’s practical contribution, it offers reading material that can aid in educating professionals’ preparation of instructors for the other emergency situation where online learning will be the only mode of instruction. therefore, this research has discovered the most recent task in english teaching speaking techniques to assist educational research. as everyone is aware, some activities are inappropriate for online learning. in order to arrange online training tactics for speaking skills, this research looks for the fundamental idea. last but not least, this research combines two theoretical perspectives: macintyre’s willingness to communicate (wtc) and krashen’s affective filters. examining communication behavior (wtc) and the emotional in language learning has expanded the research regarding english-speaking competence confidence. combining wtc and affective filters in this way performs theoretical development while fostering student social abilities in english-speaking practice. after completing this phase of the research, two kinds of drawbacks are discovered during data collection. the first is finding the suit participants. in some schools, speaking skill is not taught during online learning. they only provide a paper task and evaluation. second, the majority of assessment instructions only focus on receptive skills such as writing and reading. however, speaking practice, where it affects social skills, is not employed to be delivered. this may reflect indonesian english education, which formerly placed more emphasis on receptive than productive learning. acknowledgement the researchers would like to gratefully acknowledge the participants for their willingness to have voluntarily participated in this research. references adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. 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(2006). strategy knowledge and perceived strategy use: singaporean students’ awareness of listening and speaking strategies. language awareness, 15(3), 199-119. https://doi. org/10.2167/la342.0. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 147 lingua cultura, 16(2), december 2022, 147-154 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i2.8595 discovering the prosodic domain of aceh hakka tone sandhi johnny lee1*; wang-chen ling2 1ba program in southeast asian languages and cultures, college of foreign languages and literature, national chengchi university no. 64, sec. 2, zhinan rd., wenshan dist., taipei city 116011, taiwan 2bilingual education promotion center, office of academic affairs, taipei medical university no. 250, wuxing street, taipei 11031, taiwan, r.o.c 1johnny@nccu.edu.tw; 2whitney123@tmu.edu.tw received: 16th june 2022/revised: 04th september 2022/accepted: 05th september 2022 how to cite: lee, j. & wang, c. l. (2022). discovering the prosodic domain of aceh hakka tone sandhi. lingua cultura, 16(2), 147-154. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i2.8595 abstract this research investigated the tonal system of the hakka dialect spoken in the aceh province of indonesia. the purpose of this research was twofold. first, it retranscribed the dialect’s tonal inventory and provided a comparison with meixian hakka and the inventory found in chen’s (2007) research. second, it analyzed the shang tone sandhi rule (stsr) of the dialect and its prosodic domain. the data were collected with a careful design based on the number of syllables, different prosodic structures, and a variety of tonal combinations. the data were collected from two informants, who were female hakka native speakers that originated from banda aceh, indonesia. this research used mainly an impressionistic approach with some support from praat version 6.2.14 to evaluate the pitch of the tones. as for this research’s transcription, the researchers opt for the simpler yet phonologically distinct three-level height system (h, m, l) rather than the five-pitch category of chao. this research identifies that there are six tonal values in this dialect. the tonal alternation rule, i.e., stsr, operates in a multisyllabic domain, and only the tone at the end of a domain is intact from tonal alternation. the stsr is not sensitive to the syntactic domain c-command relation of the direct reference hypothesis. it also behaves differently compared to the guangxing dialect yangping tone sandhi rule. as for prosody, the hierarchical domain of the rule in aceh hakka is bounded within the utterance (u), which is different from the yinping tone sandhi domain in meinong hakka, in which tone sandhi is blocked by the i domain (intonational phrase domain). therefore, the researchers postulate that the domain for aceh hakka shang tone sandhi lies in the utterance (u). keywords: aceh hakka, tonal inventory, tone sandhi, prosodic domain, c-command introduction hakka is a dialect spoken in southern china (lau, 2016; zhang, 2021). as discussed by chang, chang, and chang (2021), hakka people also migrate to other countries, so it is spoken in southeast asia, such as malay (wang, 2017; liao, 2020; ong, 2020), thailand (wang, 2018; ungsitipoonporn, 2020), and different regions in indonesia such as medan (nasution & ayuningtyas, 2020), aceh (azeharie, sari, & tjhin, 2017; srimulyani et al., 2018), and singkawang (wulandari, 2018). regarding aceh hakka, the dialect focuses on the diasporic chinese organization of hakka banda aceh (srimulyani et al., 2018) and the president of yayasan hakka aceh in 2022 that is spoken by around 4.000 overseas chinese. one of the important aspects of hakka’s studies is the phonology of the dialects spread in other places and their comparison with the dialects they originated from and dialects with certain phonological properties. a phonological study on aceh hakka is previously conducted by chen (2007). chen’s (2007) research focuses more on descriptions of the dialect’s segmental properties, while only a little attention is given to in pr es s 148 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 147-154 studying its tonal properties, which the researchers carefully address in this research. the purpose of this research is twofold. first, it transcribes the dialect’s tonal inventory and compares it to meixian hakka and the inventory provided in chen’s research. it compares the tonal system with meixian hakka due to the fact that many of the citation tones are actually similar to those of meixian hakka. it is verified later that most hakka people’s ancestors come from china’s meixian district, although some say that they originated from dabu county. second, it analyzes the tone sandhi rule of aceh hakka. tone sandhi refers to the tonal alternation, in which the pitch level and contour of a tone change due to the influence of the tone of adjacent words or morphemes (chen, 2000; yip, 2002; lin, 2007). recent studies have researched the hakka tone sandhi phenomenon (chen, 2018; zhang, 2019; chai & ye, 2022). substantially, this research investigates the prosodic domain that defines the tone sandhi domain of aceh hakka from the perspective of the direct reference hypothesis and indirect reference hypothesis. previous studies have defined the prosodic domain in which hakka tone sandhi applies. for instance, the tone sandhi rules apply within the intonational phrase domain in meinong hakka (tung, 2010) and zhuolan raoping hakka (hsiao, 2017). however, this research contends that the tone sandhi rule in aceh hakka is bounded within the utterance. methods this research addresses the tone sandhi environment and the prosodic domain that confines the tone sandhi in aceh hakka. therefore, the data are collected with a careful design based on the number of syllables, different prosodic structures, and a variety of tonal combinations. the researchers prepare a list of mono-syllabic, di-syllabic, and tri-syllabic words and phrases. the researchers also design longer strings of syllables into intonational phrases and utterances. those syllables have different combinations of tones according to the traditional tone category by checking with the dictionary. the data are collected from two informants, who are female hakka native speakers that originate from banda aceh, the capital city of its province. the informants are asked to read the research’s designed data, of which they check the grammaticality and acceptance. the data are recorded in a consistently quiet area. this research uses mainly an impressionistic approach with some support from praat version 6.2.14 (boersma & weenink, 2022) to evaluate the pitch of the tones. as for this research’s transcription, the researchers opt for the simpler yet phonologically distinct three-level height system (h, m, l) rather than the five-pitch category of chao (1930). the researchers then formulate the tone sandhi rule observed in the dialect and verify the domain of the rule from the direct reference hypothesis and indirect reference hypothesis. previous research on the hakka dialect carried out by chung (1989) has suggested that the yangping tone sandhi rule (ytsr) of the guangxing dialect is sensitive to syntactic structure. therefore, regarding the direct reference hypothesis, it is necessary to carefully investigate the structure by using the notion of domain c-command proposed by kaisse (1985). as for the domain c-command, the researchers also explore the possibility of categorizing the domain of the operation of the tone sandhi rule into the k-condition domain proposed by chung (1989) in his analysis of the guangxing dialect’s ytsr. vis-àvis the indirect reference hypothesis with insight from tung (2010), this research will observe if the operation of the tone sandhi rule is bounded within the domain of intonational phrase (i) or utterance (u). results and discussions this section introduces the tonal inventory and the shang tone sandhi rule of aceh hakka, which is collected from two informants. this research has identified six citation tones in this dialect, which is similar to meixian hakka and the investigation reported in chen’s (2011) studies. the comparison table consisting of the meixian hakka inventory provided by cheung (2011) and the inventory found in chen’s study is given in table 1. regarding the tonal inventory, the researchers identify a high degree of similarity to meixian hakka, which is reported in other studies. aside from the differences in the phonetic details, the inventory is pretty identical when it is compared to chen’s (2011) study and other studies of hakka, i.e., yinping is a midlevel tone, yangping is a low-level tone, shang is a lowfalling tone, qu is a high-falling tone, and two ru tones are a short-high and a short-low tone, respectively. there is only one sandhi tone (st) in the dialect, which is the mid-level tone derived from shang, which has relatively the same pitch height and contour as the mid-level of yinping. nonetheless, unlike lee (2016), who assumes that the two tones possess different registers, this research remains agnostic regarding the register value. nevertheless, compared to the tone sandhi phenomena reported in cheung’s (2011) study and other studies of meixian hakka, the number of tone sandhi rules in aceh hakka is different. unlike the meixian hakka reported in cheung’s (2011) study, there is only one tone that undergoes tone sandhi in aceh hakka, which is the shang tone. the low falling tone ml alternates to a mid-level tone mm when it is preceded by any tone in the inventory. the tone sandhi rule is formulated in data (1), and some examples are given in table 2. the chinese characters used throughout this research follow the dictionary of frequently-used taiwan hakka provided by the ministry of education, roc (2022). (1) the shang tone sandhi rule (stsr) of in pr es s 149discovering the prosodic domain .... (johnny lee; wang-chen ling) aceh hakka /ml/ → [mm] / ___ t (where t is any tone) one important thing that is recognized from studying aceh hakka’s tone sandhi rule is the operation of the rule. unlike the previous study by cheung (2011) and lee (2016), who culminate their investigation within the disyllabic structure, this research has found that the stsr performs in multisyllabic words. some examples of the tone sandhi within some of aceh hakka’s trisyllabic words can be seen in table 3. until this point, it can be concluded that the rule is actually bounded within a multisyllabic domain, and table 1 comparison of the tone letters assigned to the six citation tones in aceh hakka and meixian hakka dialects traditional tone category yinping yangping shang qu yangru yinru aceh hakka this study mm ll ml mm (st) hm h l aceh hakka (chen, 2007) 33 11 42 54 4 32 meixian hakka (cheung, 2011) 33 11 41 51 55 or 5 41 meixian hakka (norman, 1988) 44 12 31 42 44 21 meixian hakka (huang, 1992) 44 11 31 52 5 1 meixian hakka (xie, 1994) 44 11 31 52 5 1 meixian hakka (yuan et al., 2001) 44 11 31 52 4 or 5 21 or 1 meixian (hashimoto, 1973) mid level legato low level (a little falling) legato mid falling legato high level (a little rising) legato high rising staccato mid falling staccato table 2 examples of the operation of the stsr in disyllabic words underlying form (ur) surface form (sr) glossing foml-famm 火 花 → fomm-famm ‘fireworks’ fuml-kuall 苦 瓜 → fumm-kuall ‘bitter gourd’ tsungml-thungml 總 統 → tsungmm-thungml ‘president’ kongml-fahm 講 話 → kongmm-fahm ‘to speak’ lonml-phakh 卵 白 → lonmm-phakh ‘egg white’ tshiongml-kiapl 搶 劫 → tshiongmm kiapl ‘robbery’ table 3 examples of the application of trisyllabic words underlying form (ur) surface form (sr) glossing ftaml-luill-kungll 打 雷 公 → tamm-luill-kungll ‘thunder’ aiml-tunml-tunml 矮 頓 頓 → aimm-tunmm-tunml ‘stubby, a nickname for someone short’ taml-lonml-kill 打 卵 機 → tamm lonmm kill ‘egg beater’ linml-foml-tsokh 膦 火 著 → linmm-fomm-tsokh ‘extremely angry’ in pr es s 150 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 147-154 the tone at the end of the domain is intact from tone sandhi. as exemplified in table 3, the domain-final tunml in aimm-tunmm-tunml does not undergo tone sandhi. to verify the operation of the tone sandhi rule, it is worthwhile to investigate the prosodic domain of the aceh hakka dialect’s tone sandhi. this research will investigate if the tone sandhi rule is sensitive to some syntactic constructions, which is the central tenet of the direct reference hypothesis. two of the four parameters of the c-command proposed by kaisse (1985) and the k-condition proposed by chung (1989) will be utilized for the investigation of the tone sandhi’s domain. this research will first discuss c-command parameters, which are proposed by kaisse (1985), who suggests that there exist phonological rules that are sensitive to syntactic structures, and they are termed “p1 rules”. these rules are highly related to the c-command condition between two words within the maximal projection. the definition of the c-command condition is given in data (2). (2) the c-command condition (kaisse, 1985): one of the words must c-command the other. aside from this c-command condition, kaisse (1985) has also provided four possible settings for the c-command condition that can be considered to be the domain of the p1 rules. the parameters are rearticulated in data (3). (3) c-command parameters for p1 rules (where a sandhi pair consists of a word a followed by a word b) (i) word a must c-command word b (ii) word b must c-command word a (iii) word a and b must c-command each other (government required) (iv) there is no c-command requirement it discusses if the stsr belongs to either the (i) or (ii) parameter, as they are cited in selkirk (1986). in addition, two other rationales take as reasons to leave out parameter (iii) in the analysis. first, despite it being mentioned in kaisse’s research, no exact syntactic structure can be used as a reference. second, the current theory of syntax has eliminated the notion of government. the first parameter we will be looking at is the parameter (i). this parameter is identified as a domain for the italian syntactic doubling rule and kimatuumbi vowel shortening. it requires a phonological rule to be applied at two adjacent syllables, a and b, when a c-commands b. an example of such a condition is provided in data (4). the verb ta ‘hit’ in (4) c-commands the n yong e ‘goat’ and the stsr is applied in this syntactic construction. while it appears that such a construction can serve as a domain for stsr, there are other constructions that are problematic for such assumptions. let us take a look at the example in (5). (4) ‘hit a goat’ taml yongll-eml (ur) tamm yongll-eml (sr) 打 羊 仔 hit goat ta yong e 打 羊 仔 hit goat a → b (5) ‘nicely (kindly) wait for me’ homl-homl = tenml ngaill (ur) homm-homm = tenmm ngaill (sr) 好 好 等 𠊎 nicely wait 1sg a b in (5), we recognize that the adverb ho-ho ‘nicely’ is not in c-command relation with ten ‘wait’ and therefore they are not in a single domain. if the stsr is indeed a rule with this parameter, the second syllable of the adverb ho-ho should not undergo tone sandhi. however, as we can identify from the transcription, the second syllable of the word actually undergoes tone sandhi. from this example, we can conclude that the stsr cannot be categorized as a parameter like the italian syntactic doubling rule and kimatuumbi vowel shortening. therefore, the question is whether the stsr be categorized as a rule with parameter (ii) (word b must c-command word a) like french liaison and ewe tone sandhi. this parameter seems to solve the previous problem encountered by the parameter (i) since the v nodes can now c-command the adverb, triggering the tone sandhi. however, this does not seem to be the case. it can be recalled that solving this problem by considering the stsr will create a paradoxical effect and will block the application of the rule at the earlier [v+np]vp construction. it has shown that the stsr has no domain-ccommand requirement (parameter (iv)) and cannot be categorized into kaisse’s (1985) p1 rule. there is, however, another parameter posited by chung (1989) in his study of the k-condition for guangxing hakka’s yangping tone sandhi. chung (1989) has proposed an extension of the domain c-command parameters proposed by kaisse in pr es s 151discovering the prosodic domain .... (johnny lee; wang-chen ling) (1985) to account for the yangping tone sandhi rule (ytsr). this rule is stated as k-condition. the definition of this parameter is given in data (6). 6) k-condition (chung, 1989, p.194) (a) a must domain-c-command b or (b) b must domain-c-command a chung (1989) has added that the ytsr of guangxing hakka is classified as an external p1 rule with k-condition as the domain. this rule can solve the paradox that cannot be solved by parameters (i) and (ii) of kaisse since the c-commanding directions are more flexible. the following tree shows how the k-condition can solve the problem encountered with c-command parameters (i) and (ii) found in kaisse (1985). a similar example is repeated in data (7). (7) ‘nicely (kindly) wait for me’ homl-homl = tenml ngaill (ur) homm-homm = tenmm ngaill (sr) 好 好 等 𠊎 nicely wait 1sg ho-ho ten ngai 好 好 等 𠊎 nicely wait 1sg a ← b → c chung (1989) has solved the paradoxical constructions that cannot be accounted for by parameters (i) and (ii) with this optional bidirectional domain-c-command. nonetheless, some of the longer data has revealed that there are some syntactic constructions that chung (1989) states should be blocked by the tone group (hereafter) boundary, but this is not the case for the stsr. according to chung (1989), the k-condition cannot have the maximal projection as its domain, so the sentence structure is theorized to block the domain c-command at the end of the subject. the incorrect prediction made by the k-condition is illustrated in data (8) and (9). (8) ‘ai-dun-dun (the stubby one) hit him/her’ aiml -dunml-dunml = taml = kill (ur) aimm -dunmm-dunmm = tamm = kill (sr) *aimm -dunmm-dunml #tamm = kill (sr) 矮 頓 頓 打 佢 the stubby one hit 3sg ai-dun-dun ta ki 矮 頓 頓 打 佢 the stubby one hit 3sg a b (9) ‘the yellow dog barked at the black dog.’ vongll keuml = phoihm ull keuml (ur) vongll keumm = phoihm ull keuml (sr) 黃 狗 吠 烏 狗 yellow dog bark black dog if the stsr in data (8) complies with the k-condition, then there is a boundary at the right edge of aimm-dunmm-dunml, which blocks tone sandhi. however, the rightmost dunml still undergoes tone sandhi and surfaces as dunmm. likewise, data (9) seems not to be constrained by k-condition. another structure that allows for the operation of the stsr in this dialect is the double object construction with the verb pun ‘give’. the low falling of the final syllable in the np1 is assigned a tg marker in guangxing hakka’s tone sandhi. however, the rule can apparently cross such construction in aceh hakka, as illustrated in data (10). (10)‘give lo-geu meal fee.’ punll = loml-geuml = fanhm tshienll (ur) punll = lomm-geumm = fanhm tshienll (sr) give lo geu meal money 分 老 狗 飯 錢 moreover, the stsr is also allowed in specific constructions involving suffixation eml and possessive ehm that are also blocked in guangxing hakka. the examples of the suffixation structures are in pr es s 152 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 147-154 given in data (11) and data (12), while the examples of the possessive constructions are given in data (13) and data (14). (11) ‘dog’ keuml eml (ur) keumm = eml (sr) *keuml # eml (sr) 狗 仔 dog suffix (12) ‘ghost’ kuiml eml (ur) kuimm = eml (sr) *kuiml # eml (sr) 鬼 仔 ghost suffix (13) ‘dog’s fur (associative phrase)’ keuml ehm moll (ur) keumm = ehm moll (sr) 狗 的 毛 dog poss fur (14) ‘a fish ball made by my aunty’ ngaill kull taml ehm ngll yenll (ur) ngaill kull tamm=ehm ngll yenll (sr) 𠊎 姑 打 的 魚 圓 1sg aunt hit particle fish ball based on the observations, it is safe to conclude that the stsr is insensitive to syntactic conditions and, therefore, cannot be accounted for in the domain-crelation. besides, the sentential [np + vp] s construction suggests that the domain is actually beyond the phonological phrase level leading this research to directly investigate if the domain of the operation of the stsr is bounded within intonational phrase (i) or utterance (u). this research will attest if the domain for the stsr actually lies within the intonational phrase or utterance. nespor and vogel (1986) have suggested that there are certain universal constructions in which the domain is established based on intonation contour and the potential for pauses that can form the intonation domain on their own. this section lists two types of constructions, which are vocative and tag questions, that are articulated by the informants in order to investigate if the domain for the stsr is the intonational phrase. (15) vocative (a) ‘a-keu, don’t go gambling, okay?’ amm-keuml # mokl himm tumm pokll yahh (ur) amm-keumm # mokl himm tumm-pokll yahh (sr) 阿 狗 莫 去 賭 博 ya akeu neg go gamble yes (indonesian) (b) ‘a-long, where are you going?’ amm longml # nyill oimm himm nehmeml (ur) amm longmm # nyill oimm himm nehmeml (sr) 阿 龍 你 愛 去 哪 仔 a-long 2sg love go where (16) tag questions ‘you are looking for kerosene, right?’ nyill tshimll foml-suiml # hehm-moll (ur) nyill tshimll fomm-suimm# hehm-moll (sr) 你 尋 火 水 係 無 2sg look for kerosene q in (15), a keu is a chinese name that means dog. traditionally, chinese parents who stay in rural areas tend to name their children after animals, but it is less common nowadays. as noticed in the examples in (15-16), tone sandhi is not blocked by the intonational phrase boundary. it is concluded that the domain is not larger than the intonational phrase. therefore, the tone sandhi domain must be bounded within the largest prosodic domain, utterance (u). the stsr of aceh hakka in data (1) is now modified with domain boundary as that in data (17). (17) /ml/ → [mm] / ___ t]utterance (where t is any tone) conclusions the research discusses the tonal inventory of aceh hakka and formulates the shang tone sandhi rule (stsr). in addition, it also investigates the correlation between the syntactic structure and the domain of operation of the stsr, which has yet to be discussed in previous studies. from the observations of some controlled phrases and sentences in this dialect, it can be identified that the stsr of aceh hakka has a different domain of application compared to the guangxing dialect yangping tone sandhi rule reported in chung (1989). the stsr domain of operation cannot be stated solely by the domain c-command since it is not sensitive to the syntactic structure. therefore, it cannot be categorized as a p1 rule. the domain of the stsr in aceh hakka is also different from the yinping tone sandhi rule of meinong hakka reported in tung (2010) and the tone sandhi rules in zhuolan rouping in hsiao (2017), both of which lie within the intonational phrase. both special i (tag questions and vocatives) constructions verified in this research do not block the stsr from crossing the i domain. it can be concluded that the utterance (u) is the domain for shang tone sandhi in aceh hakka. during the investigation, the researchers in pr es s 153discovering the prosodic domain .... (johnny lee; wang-chen ling) identify that the informants pronounce a few syllables differently and prefer different phrase structures. the researchers have yet to figure out what exactly makes them do so. it leaves the gap to be filled in future research to probe into their ancestors. it is of interest for future research to find whether the place of origin in guandong, china contributes to the few differences the researchers encountered during this research or whether their pronunciation is influenced by indonesian. moreover, the researchers have yet carefully applied acoustic analysis in this research. an acoustic study in future research should provide a precise and comprehensive analysis of the tonal system references azeharie, s., sari, w. p., & tjhin, k. (2017). cultural adaptation of acehnese and ethnic chinese in banda aceh, from intercultural communication perspective. international journal of communication and media studies (ijcms), 7(4), 61-68. boersma, p., & weenink, d. 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(2021). the syllabification, de-syllabification, and vocalisation of nasals in gannan hakka dialects. bulletin of chinese linguistics, 14(2), 251-264. https://doi.org/10.1163/2405478x-01402010. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 89 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 89-96 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7768 examining digital technology literacy of professional japanese language translator and interpreter fatmawati djafri1*; lufi wahidati2 1,2japanese language program, department of foreign languages, art, and cultural management vocational college, gadjah mada university sekip unit i, caturtunggal, depok, sleman, yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1fatmawati.djafri@ugm.ac.id; 2lufi.wahidati@ugm.ac.id received: 15th october 2021/revised: 06th april 2022/accepted: 13th april 2022 how to cite: djafri, f. & wahidati, l. (2022). examining digital technology literacy of professional japanese language translator and interpreter. lingua cultura, 16(1), 89-96. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7768 abstract the research measured the digital technology literacy skills of professional japanese language translators and interpreters. a modified version of the digital literacy skills checklist constructed by open university was employed in the research. the questionnaire consisted of four sections, i.e., understanding general digital practices, finding, using, and creating information related to japanese translation and interpreting, and the use of translation and interpreting technology. the result shows that respondents have confidence in their digital literacy skills to find, use, or create information online. however, most of them are still unfamiliar with the application of computer assisted translation (cat) and computer assisted interpreting (cai) tools to assist the translation or interpreting jobs. the result indicates that many japanese businesses and industries do not require translators and interpreters to use specific cat or cai tools. however, the rapid development of digital technology and the market trend toward the use of technology are inevitable. basic knowledge of these tools is necessary because they offer many advantages for translators and interpreters to work effectively. therefore, it is highly important to incorporate the basic knowledge of cat and cai tools and other digital technology resources into the curriculum for students translators and interpreters. keywords: digital technology literacy, japanese language, japanese language translator, japanese language interpreter introduction the language service provision (lsp) industry is an ever-growing market, both in the number of the revenue as well as jobs created by it. the annual growth of the global lsp market has reached 6,46% and could even reach 10% every year in europe (marczak, 2018). in the united states, the number of jobs in this industry is predicted to grow by 46% from 2012 to 2022 (marczak, 2018). translation and interpreting in the lsp industry are part of what is known as the gilt business, which stands for globalization, internationalization, localization, and translation (brashi, 2021). studies also show that the lsp industry is greatly supported by translation and interpreting technologies (alonso & vieira, 2021; gentile, 2021). as part of the 21st-century skills, information and communication technology (ict) literacy, as well as media and internet literacy, have become indispensable for all, not to mention translators and interpreters. de céspedes (2019) has stated that being acquainted with new resources in telecommunication technology and using them to retrieve, handle, and disseminate information is the new challenge faced by translators and interpreters. the research results show that it is necessary for professional translators and interpreters to strengthen their digital information competency, including technological and language skills. ivanova (2016) has emphasized that ict has greatly affected the translation and interpreting profession, which puts technology at the centre of its process. the research also discusses that the development of digital competence, which refers to the information and technology literacy of prospective translators and interpreters, is indispensable. 90 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 89-96 nonetheless, other research has indicated inadequate computer literacy among translators (man et al., 2019). it has become a challenge to the effort to integrate ict into the curriculum of translation and interpreting courses. a question then arises on the digital technology literacy readiness of professional translators and interpreters. while the discussion is concentrated on the importance of digital technology literacy skills for translators and interpreters to adapt to the global market demand, little is known, however, on the extent of their readiness to employ digital technology literacy skills. the research aims to address this issue by conducting a survey of professional translators and interpreters of the japanese language in the indonesian context. organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) has defined literacy as the ability to understand, evaluate, use, and engage with written texts (including digital texts) in order to participate in society, achieve one’s goals, and develop one’s knowledge and potential (oecd, 2019). the term ‘new literacies’ (west, 2019) has arisen due to the rapid development of the internet and technology. it is associated with several other terms, such as digital literacy (falloon, 2020; pangrazio, godhe, & ledesma, 2020), literacy of the 21st century (van laar et al., 2020), information literacy (li, chen, & wang, 2021; sample, 2020), internet literacy (harrison, 2017; soroya et al., 2021), media literacy (kahne & bowyer, 2019; knaus, 2020), ict literacy (aydin, 2021; park, kim, & park, 2021), web literacy (keshavarz, 2020; virtue, 2020), and computer literacy (mitra & dangwal, 2017; tsai, liang, & hsu, 2020). these terms are rooted in the utilization of the internet and technology to find, use, and share information (leu et al., 2017; mcdougall, readman, & wilkinson, 2018; van laar et al., 2017). lazonder et al. (2020) have mentioned that besides collecting information, it also includes the ability to create information. these terms might be summed up as digital information literacy, which refers to the skills needed to find and evaluate information online (weber, hillmert, & rott, 2018). these skills include an individual’s competencies to search, access, use, evaluate, and present information using technologies (gündüzalp, 2021). prior to the internet era and the development of various translation and interpreting technologies, translators, in particular, used to employ several offline resources available around them, such as paper dictionaries for specific fields (business, tourism, etc.), paper glossaries, word list clippings, chronicles, index cards for specific terms, as well as library and living experts (gough, 2018). during the internet era, with speedy access to diversified online resources, there is a changing trend toward more positive perceptions of how these resources have supported the workflow of translators and interpreters (gough, 2016). it also goes in line with the growing demand of the global market and industry for high-quality and low-cost translation and interpreting products. therefore, knowledge of the interaction process between translator with translation tools (bundgaard & christensen, 2019), as well as between interpreter and interpreting tools, is needed. according to gough (2018), there are two types of interactions in the translation and interpreting process, namely ‘interaction with texts and speeches’ during the process of translation and interpreting activities, and ‘interaction with external resources’ during the process of research activities for translation and interpreting. technologies employed in the translation and interpreting activities are considered as tools, such as computer-assisted translation (cat) and computer-assisted interpreting (cai) tools. meanwhile, technologies used for translation-related research activities are considered as resources, such as online dictionaries, wikipedia, google, and webpages. the use of resources in the translation and interpreting process is related to information behaviour, which is defined as all behaviours related to information people receive and exchange, including media use and all the communication activities between people (jiang, 2019). previous studies related to information behaviour examine the search strategy used in the translation process (whyatt, witczak, & tomczak, 2021), the behaviours of students and professional translators in web searching (ohnishi & yamada, 2020), the interaction between translator and computer (bundgaard, 2017), and between translator/interpreter and information (havnen, 2021). it may be concluded that research on this particular topic has become more pragmatic, focusing on problem-solving for technology development, time efficiency, and high quality to meet the global market demand. the changing demand of the global market as well as the rapid development of information and technology in the 21st-century requires professional translators and interpreters to have both informational and technological competencies (gough, 2018; krajcso, 2018). however, research conducted by zaretskaya, pastor, and seghiri (2018) has found that many translators only use the standard tool of translation machine software and are not familiar with the existing translation technologies to help with their tasks. the research has also found that the general computer skill of translators is a significant predictor of their understanding and the utilization of electronic tools (zaretskaya, pastor, & seghiri, 2018). the development of new technology also helps many interpreters prepare for their assignments (fantinuoli, 2018) and deal with the topic they need to interpret and its reference materials and specific terminologies (costa, pastor, & duran-munoz, 2018). still, the feasibility of cai tools is not fully well-recognized by many interpreters. as the digital era keeps expanding, education for translators and interpreters focusing on digital technology literacy is especially significant. the focal point of the curriculum must be real-life skill application of digital competence (mellinger, 2017; nitzke, tardel, & hansen-schirra, 2019). therefore, it is important to measure the digital technology literacy level of professional translators and interpreters to 91examining digital technology literacy .... (fatmawati djafri; lufi wahidati) prepare the curriculum that will be relevant to this purpose. methods the research applies a quantitative approach using a modified version of a self-assessment questionnaire, “being digital: digital literacy skills checklist” (open university, 2012). the actual questionnaire consists of four skills categories, i.e., understanding digital practices (8 items), finding information (9 items), using information (7 items), and creating information (6 items). a modified version is translated into bahasa indonesia and proofread by a research team member. the three skills categories other than understanding digital practices are modified into finding, using, and creating information related to japanese translation and interpreting. the number of items in each skills category of the modified version is the same as the actual one. each item scale ranges from 1 (not confident) to 3 (very confident). in the last part, a new section of the questionnaire examining the use of technology in japanese translation and interpreting is added (12 items). questions consist of respondents’ knowledge and experience in using cat tools, the “language interpretation” feature on zoom online meeting application, the remote simultaneous interpreting (rsi), sdl trados studio, memsource, smartcat, wordfast, and interprefy. respondents are also asked to list the translation software they employed. online meeting application zoom offers a language interpretation feature that allows up to 20 interpreters to work during an online meeting session. with this feature, each interpreter is allowed to provide their own audio channels for the language they will translate to. sdl trados studio is a cat software to edit, manage, and review translation projects. the software employs intelligent translation memory technology and neural machine translation. there is also memsource, a cloud-based cat software with the commercial translation management system, combining artificial intelligence and conventional translation technology. smartcat is also a cloud-based combination cat and translation management system to enable translators, businesses, and translation agency connect in a localization ecosystem called connected translation. wordfast is a cat tool that consists of several translation memory products, such as wordfast classic, which runs inside microsoft word; wordfast anywhere, which is a free browser-based version; and wordfast pro, which can be used in windows, mac, and linux. interprefy is a cloud-based rsi technology that enables interpreters to work mobile and do realtime interpreting, whether on this platform or by adding it to other online meeting applications, such as zoom and webex. the distribution of the questionnaire is conducted using several social media platforms. the questionnaire is written in google forms. prior to filling in the survey, each respondent is presented with a detailed explanation of the survey and their rights. only those who agreed to become the respondent are asked to continue the survey. results and discussions the questionnaire begins with the respondent’s background. there are 21 respondents (females 86% and males 14%). sixteen respondents (76%) hold a postgraduate degree. regarding japanese language competence, ten respondents (48%) have a japanese language proficiency test (jlpt) certificate n1, which is the highest level. meanwhile, there are 30% of respondents have a jlpt certificate n2 level. it indicates that most respondents (78%) have advanced skills in the japanese language. respondents are also asked about their professional work experiences in japanese translation and interpreting. their work experiences include working at japanese companies, the japanese embassy in indonesia, japanese language learning projects (such as the making of online learning applications online japanese accent dictionary/ ojad and tsutaeru hatsuon), as well as full-time freelance translators and interpreters who work at different projects (such as bilateral meetings, master of ceremony, video production, and tourism magazine). the findings of the research are further discussed further in five sub-sections, i.e., understanding digital practices in general, finding, using, creating information related to japanese translation and interpreting, and the use of translation/interpreting technologies. the first sub-section assesses respondents’ literacy of digital practices in general. there are several skills measured, which are reflected in eight statements. those skills include knowing the types of online users and how to establish contact details online, understanding of one’s digital footprint and how to present one’s digital identity, knowing the right tools and how to use them in finding, using and creating information, as well as understanding the legal issue of using online information. most respondents are quite confident in knowing what kind of users they can find online (66%) and also in finding a person and establishing their contact details online (63%). around 52% of respondents are quite confident about their digital footprint and how to present their digital identity. the 81% of respondents know the right tools for finding, using, and creating information, and around 52% know how to use them. meanwhile, there are around 67% of respondents who quite confident in knowing to find out the owners of the information and ideas they found online. also, respondents who are quite confident and very confident in their awareness of what kind of information they could reuse legally share the same percentage. table 1 shows questionnaire result on understanding digital practices. based on the finding presented in table 1, it can be concluded that most research respondents 92 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 89-96 have adequate literacy in digital practices. they have moderate to high awareness of their self-presentation and other people in the digital world. they also have sufficient knowledge of the appropriate online tools and how to use them. moreover, the research also shows that respondents are aware of the ethical issues related to the proprietary right of information and ideas. they are also aware of copyright infringement of online information. these findings provide important insights into the readiness level of japanese translators and interpreters to satisfy the job market demands for digital-savvy translators and interpreters. the second sub-section is to find information digitally. finding and collecting necessary information related to the translated or interpreted materials is considered one of the important skills needed by a translator and interpreter. there is immense information available online. translators and interpreters need to know what kind of information and how and where to find them in the digital world. this part assesses respondents’ skills in finding the information related to japanese translation and interpreting digitally. items b1, b2, and b5 deal with the ‘what’ question of the type of information and the ‘where’ question of how to find them. items b3, b4, b6, b7, b8, and b9 are related to the ‘how’ question of strategies to find the information. regarding the information, all respondents are confident in knowing what kind of information they can find on the web. however, using an online library is quite unfamiliar for some respondents (19%). it might be caused by the type of information that a translator and interpreter needed to find. all respondents can find extensive information on the web, while the online library is used more for searching specific information, such as scientific writings. regarding strategies to find the information online, most respondents could employ several table 1 questionnaire result on understanding digital practices items skills not confident quite confident very confident a1 knowing what categories of users you can expect to find online 14% 67% 19% a2 explaining what happens to information you put online: your digital footprint 5% 52% 43% a3 choosing the right tool to find, use, or create information 0% 19% 81% a4 presenting yourself online: your digital identity 10% 52% 38% a5 finding a person online and establishing their contact details 0% 63% 37% a6 using online tools and websites to find and record information online 10% 38% 52% a7 establishing who owns information and ideas you find online 19% 67% 14% a8 establishing what online information you can legally reuse 4% 48% 48% table 2 questionnaire result on finding information items skills not confident quite confident very confident b1 knowing what information you can find on the web 0% 24% 76% b2 knowing what information you can find in an online library 19% 24% 57% b3 using advanced search options to limit and refine your search 14% 33% 53% b4 using keywords related to the theme of your translation/ interpreting to search for information online 5% 19% 76% b5 using social networks as a source of information 0% 76% 24% b6 knowing when to change your search strategy or stop searching 10% 33% 57% b7 filtering large numbers of search results quickly 10% 52% 38% b8 scanning/skimming a web page to get to the key relevant information quickly 5% 28% 67% b9 keeping up-to-date with information from authoritative people or organizations by subscribing to rss feeds 62% 33% 5% 93examining digital technology literacy .... (fatmawati djafri; lufi wahidati) strategies, such as the using of the advanced search option, keywords related to translation/interpreting topics, the searching filter or webpage scanning to find favourable results and information quickly, as well as social networks as a source of information. there is one item that most respondents do not have confidence about, which is an rss feed subscription to keep updated with the latest information. table 2 shows the questionnaire result on finding information. the third sub-section is about the skill of using information. in using information relevant to their work as a japanese translator and interpreter, all respondents have high self-confidence in assessing whether the information is credible and trustworthy, using it without committing plagiarism, and correctly citing references. these skills are equally important when translators and interpreters are conducting research to collect essential information related to their work. the instrument also measures the organization and the sharing of the information they find online. most respondents are confident in how they organize the information and the ethical standard of what kind of information they could share and how to share it with others. table 3 shows the questionnaire result on using information. the fourth sub-section is about creating information. compared to skills in using, finding, and sharing information, of which most respondents feel quiet or very confident, the skill of creating information is quite a contrast to the previous ones. many respondents are not confident in creating information, such as writing online on a blog or web page. meanwhile, they are more confident in doing online communication with others through blogs, forums, or social networks. regarding working online with others, it is interesting to know that 19% of respondents are not confident. this result might indicate that for some respondents, working offline with others in japanese translation and interpreting is preferable. table 4 shows the questionnaire result on creating information. table 3 questionnaire result on using information items skills not confident quite confident very confident c1 using information in different media, such as podcasts or videos 14% 53% 33% c2 assessing whether an online resource (such as a web page, blog, wiki, video, podcast, academic journal article) or a person is credible and trustworthy 0% 52% 48% c3 using other people’s work (found online) without committing plagiarism 0% 19% 81% c4 citing a reference to an online resource using the correct format 0% 43% 57% c5 keeping a record of the relevant details of information you find online 4% 48% 48% c6 using social bookmarking to organize and share information 29% 52% 19% c7 sharing files legally with others 14% 33% 53% table 4 questionnaire result on creating information items skills not confident quite confident very confident d1 adding comments to blogs, forums or web pages, observing netiquette and appropriate social conventions for online communications 19% 29% 52% d2 writing online for different audiences, such as a web page or blog entry for private use, for reading by your fellow translators or interpreters or your colleague or anyone in the world 52% 29% 19% d3 writing in different media for people to read on-screen 57% 29% 14% d4 communicating with others online (forums, blogs, social networking sites, audio, video, etc.) 0% 38% 62% d5 working with others online to translate or interpret a shared document or presentation 19% 19% 62% d6 using media-captured devices, such as recording and editing a podcast or video 29% 38% 33% 94 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 89-96 regarding the use of translation and interpreting technology, on the question “do you ever use cat tools?”, 71% of respondents answer that they never use cat tools before. whilst, 29% of respondents who answer “yes” to the questions explained that cat tools are beneficial and save time efficiently because they could have side-to-side files. regarding the interpreter feature on the zoom online meeting application, 91% of respondents say that they never use it. 9% of respondents who ever used it say that it is easy to use and only needs concentration when switching the language pair’s buttons. they also say that it is beneficial. depending on what kind of online meeting application is being used by the customer, the use of this specific feature is not common yet among japanese interpreters. all respondents say that they have never used rsi tools before. also, regarding the use of some specific applications, only a small number of respondents answer that they have used it before (sdl trados 3 respondents, memsource 0 respondent, smartcat 1 respondent, wordfast 3 respondents, and interprefy 2 respondents). most respondents used a common translation tool, google translate. meanwhile, some respondents mention several other tools, such as macbook’s dictionary, bing translator, microsoft translator, mate translator, crowdin, translator feature on microsoft word, poedit, and deepl.com. the result shows that even though all respondents have digital literacy skills to find, use, or create information online, most are still unfamiliar with the application of cat and cai tools to assist in translation or interpreting jobs. this is contrary to the result of previous research stating that an advanced computer user is more likely to have a higher understanding and capability to use these tools (zaretskaya, pastor, & seghiri, 2018). one possible explanation is that it is caused by the requirement of their jobs that do not need the use of those specific tools. however, basic knowledge of the application of these tools is necessary because they offer many advantages for translators and interpreters to carry out their tasks. the result of the research also indicates that some japanese businesses and industries have started to require their translators and interpreters to use translation or interpreting-assisted tools. conclusions digital technology and information literacy are closely entwined because they involve obtaining, understanding, evaluating, and using the information in various digital technology contexts. literacy skills in general digital practices, as well as skills in finding, using, and creating information from online resources, are not a predictor of one’s skills in the application of cat and cai tools, particularly related to japanese translation and interpreting. however, there is a rapid development of digital technology, as well as the market trend toward the use of technology. therefore, it is highly important to incorporate the basic knowledge of cat and cai tools and resources into the curriculum for students translators and interpreters. acknowledgement the research is fully funded by dana masyarakat sekolah vokasi universitas gadjah mada fiscal year 2021. references alonso, e., & vieira, l. n. 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(2018). user perspective on translation tools: findings of a user survey. in g.c. pastor & i. duran-munoz (eds.), trends in e-tools and resources for translators and interpreters (pp. 37-56). leiden: brill rodopi. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 51 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 51-59 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7667 transposition of english zero derivation from nouns to indonesian verbs in to kill a mockingbird hana fauziah* translation studies, magister program of social and cultural studies, gunadarma university jl. margonda raya 100, pondok cina, depok 16424, indonesia hanafauziah11@gmail.com received: 24th august 2021/revised: 14th march 2022/accepted: 16th march 2022 how to cite: fauziah, h. (2022). transposition of english zero derivation from nouns to indonesian verbs in to kill a mockingbird. lingua cultura, 16(1), 51-59. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7667 abstract the research aimed to discuss and analyze the translation of english zero derivation or conversion from nouns to indonesian verbs using transposition strategy. the research was carried out through the qualitative method by having the constant comparative analysis whose data were collected from harper lee’s novel ‘to kill a mockingbird’. the data collection was obtained by sampling to support the description based on the classification, including morphological and syntactic categories. the findings show an obvious difference between source and target languages. this occurs when the translation of english zero derivation relies on the affixes more frequently than any other criteria. furthermore, the overall result proves that the transposition of english conversion from nouns into indonesian verbs can be analyzed from the verb base that can be converted into nouns, which is then called a deverbal noun, and the noun base that can be converted into a verb. the translation of english zero deverbal noun is possible to be transposed into the target language verb. in a part of formal properties, the identification of english verb base converted into noun could be characterized by the irregular verb, stress pattern, intransitive verb, and semantic complexity, at the same time when the english noun base is transposed into indonesian verb by considering the verbal interpretation and frequency of occurrence. keywords: zero derivation, english conversion, transposition strategy, deverbal noun, noun base introduction the translation is a kind of communication tool that can make people from over the world easily interact with others. as once bravo (2021) has reported, translation is a type of communication that aims to truly communicate the original message, attending to its meaning. this can happen because of the variety of languages in each demographic area where people speak differently. for that reason, the act of translating one language into another language is necessary to do. basically, translation is the process of delivering the meaning of the text from the source text into the target text. because of this, readers can understand what is meant by the text. since translation is defined as the act of sending the message from the information source into the target and ensuring that the meaning can be delivered accurately without any addition or omission, translators must be good at adjusting the grammatical structure in accordance with the translated text correctly. therefore, the most important element in the translation process is paying attention to the accuracy, readability, and acceptance of the target text. the accuracy, readability, and acceptance are the essential elements that the translator should retain for the translation to be processed well. these essential elements are introduced by nababan (cited by umam, 2018), who states that these are used to value the quality of translated text by identifying the structure of a sentence, the number of new word formation, and the complexity of grammatical change. this is agreed by other experts, such as catford, who has stated that translation is a process of substituting a text in one language for another (hendrawati & budiarta, 2017). here, the substitution of a text from the source language 52 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 51-59 (sl) into the target text is defined as the reproduction in receptor language using the close equivalence. in translating the source text, it is necessary for translators to arrange the target language (tl) properly. therefore, translators need to know many ideas about how the target text could be well structured and understood by the tl readers. words, phrases, clauses, and sentences are grammatical forms that have to be considered in the process of translation. changing these grammatical forms is essential in order to retain the essential elements of translation. thus, the main purpose of translation is to transfer the message from the source text into the receptor language completely since either literal or nonliteral translation should be adapted in accordance with each language to avoid the different interpretations between both texts (umam, 2018). the smallest part of the language in the grammatical structure is a word, and its replacement in the sentence at least consists of subject and predicate. when a sentence includes both subject and predicate, new information is created. the wordclass in the subject is not only a pronoun but also a noun that has the derivational process and a verb in the predicate. in the source language, the der-ivational process not only consists of affixes such as prefix and suffix but also has variant conversion like zero derivation. this kind of derivational process is also an important point that has to be reminded for translators to make the translation understandable. the research aims to discuss the translation of english zero derivation in the novel to kill a mockingbird from a noun into an indonesian verb. the research is also purposed to find out how effective the transposition strategy is to have the accuracy, readability, and acceptance exist in the translated text of the novel. besides, the goal of this discussion is to notice what probabilities are obliged to make the transposition of english conversion from a noun into indonesian verbs necessary to be carried out, as well as to know what other grammatical changes are possible to occur in the target text when the transposition from noun to a verb is used. there are several factors why the translation of both english zero deverbal noun and noun base is transformed into a verb in the target text. the replacement of english nouns into indonesian verbs is one of the examples for translation as the process of systematic change from one language to another. according to duff (in agistiawaty, 2019), a principle of translation should accurately reflect the original text’s meaning. nothing should be arbitrarily added or removed, though occasionally, part of the meaning can be ‘transposed’. in this statement, duff has highlighted that the occasion to transpose the meaning is necessary because this case is frequently found when the text is not translated naturally. the literal translation, such as word-for-word or following the exact form, happens to make the readability of the text difficult for target readers. somehow, the use of literal translation is not always helpful for readers to accurately receive the target text’s information. less accurateness of the target text results in the translation works more correction. on this occasion, the necessity of the translation process is to put the concern on finding the closest equivalence between the source language and the target language. this importance can possibly raise a translator’s awareness to ensure that the tl’s sentence structure is known by readers and the meaning is grasped accurately (ekasani et al., 2018). this concern proves the necessity of rearranging or transposing the grammatical structure in order to get the naturalness in the translated text since translation is not only the act of transferring the meaning but also significantly related to the process of restructuring the text. the action of reproducing the target language after being transferred from the source language is one of the translation procedures that vinay and darbelnet have introduced as ‘transposition’. this method involves replacing oneword class with another without changing the meaning of the message (pratama & hartono, 2018). furthermore, chesterman (in mizher, 2016) has added that transposition is used to nean any change of wordclass, e.g., from noun to verb. this kind of translation strategy is used not only to involve the structural changes but also to isolate the word class. this strategy would help to make the translation text accurate. the transposition of conversion or zero derivation from english noun to indonesian verb occurs when it is hard to find the same derivational process. another reason is that the readability does not sound natural when using the same derivation. in a morphological study, the derivation is explained as the process of creating a new word class from any base through affixes, as what is previously explained by fon (cited by dehham, 2016) that affixes are bound morphemes that function to modify the word base. haspelmath and sims (2010) have explained that the derivational process is called transpositional when it changes the word class of the base lexeme. they also classify the transpositional derivations into the transpositional noun, the transpositional verb, the transpositional adjective, and the transpositional adverb. in some english words, the transpositional nouns can be formed from the verb and adjective bases, called deverbal and deadjectival nouns. for example, ‘arrival’ and ‘efficiency’ are the english transpositional nouns derived from the verb base ‘arrive’ and the adjective base ‘efficient’. meanwhile, ‘memorize’ and ‘sharpen’ are the denominal and deadjectival verbs that come from ‘memory’ and ‘sharp’, as well as the transpositional adjective ‘central’ derived from the noun base ‘centre’ and the deverbal adjective, ‘annoyed’ derived from ‘annoy’. the transpositional adverb ‘easily’ is also the result of a derivational process from the adjective base ‘easy’. therefore, the transpositional derivation is formed when a base word is connected with lexeme 53transposition of english zero .... (hana fauziah) or bound morpheme as classified in the previous paragraph. however, in some cases, haspelmath and sims (2010) have also added that the derivational process, which constantly changes the word class, is still pos-sible to be conducted, even when the base word is needed to retain the free morpheme. it means that the replacement from a one-word class into another still occurs, although the transpositional derivation is formed with-out adding any suffix. for instance, the transpositional noun ’a call’ is derived from the verb base ‘to call’, in the same case when the adjective base ‘be poor’ is transposed into a noun by retaining the free morpheme into ‘the poor’. the denominal verb ‘to bottle’ is also the result of derivation prosses from the base ’a bottle’ without adding any suffix, as well as the zero transpositional verb ‘to better’ is derived from the adjective base ‘be better’. meanwhile, some examples from indonesian words such as jalan, telepon, and cangkul, which belong to the target language, function as both indonesian nouns and verbs. for instance, the sentence by using jalan in bahasa indonesia can be ’nama jalan ini apa?’ as noun and ’mari kita jalan saja’ as verb, at the same time the indonesian noun gunting is examplified in sentence ’potonglah kain itu dengan gunting’ and the indonesian verb in sentence ’guntinglah kain itu’. the native speaker from the target language at least has the basic idea that jalan in sentence 1 is a noun, and the other one in sentence 2 is a verb, at the same time, he/she easily notices gunting in sentence 3 as a noun and verb as in sentence 4. this case can occur because verbs in the target language are created not only from the affixational process but also from the word base. however, affixes for the target language’s transpositional process are still necessary for formal and academic usage. the indonesia word formation, according to chaer (in hardyanti, warigan, & utami, 2017), should include the elements such as word base, affix, and grammatical result. the previous research is conducted by tiswaya and hamid (2019). their research aims to describe the construction of noun subject constituents, the changes from grammatical levels, and other elements. the result shows that the whole process of transposing a verb into a noun in the subject is triggered by the prioritization of the comment stated by the speaker of the utterance. the other research by fikri (2017) proposes identifying the affixes that occur through the inflectional and derivational process in sasak language’ ngenongene’ dialect (slnd) and identifying the verbs which occur through zero affixation. in the zero derivational verbs, for example, the result shows some similar words in slnd with a different meaning, function, and word class category. for instance, several words can have the function both as noun and verb, and their translation also uses the closest equivalent for the target text. those researches in 2017 and 2019 basically discuss the morphological study for translation analysis. both pieces of research are purposed to identify the derivational process in different word classes such as noun and verb. there are a lot of transpositional changes received by the receptor language, and the study case about a conversion or zero derivation occurs in another language. the research also uses a similar discussion about how frequently the use of transpositional changes from an english noun with zero affixation into an indonesian verb. on the one hand, the important point in the translation analysis of the derivational process that the previous studies have not conducted more is the lack of theoretical review about the transposition from oneword class to another. besides, the morphological study about a conversion or zero derivation in the translation analysis is not specifically detailed. for that reason, the research will cover the gaps to make it more complete by giving more explanation about transposition as the translation strategy and the classification of the zero derivational processes. the significance of the research is analyzing the transposition of english conversion from nouns into indonesian verbs. as previously discussed by vinay and darbelnet (2000), transposition is the process of replacing oneword class with another. this can occur since accuracy is an important element in making the process of translating text have a good result. catford has mentioned translation as the replacement of textual material from the source language into another by using the equivalence based on the target text (nugraha, nugroho, & rahman, 2017). the transposition strategy is also mentioned by grassilli as the first technique or step towards oblique translation or free translation. in this context, this kind of translation strategy means that a translator can be flexible to attain any probability of making the translation work more literary in character that is matched to the whole context. more explanation is paraphrased by amarashinghe (2020) that oblique translation is another term for free translation where the translator exercises his/her freedom to attain equivalence. it operates at the grammatical level and consists of the replacement of a word class with another word class without changing the meaning. the grammatical changes that should be required are listed by newmark (cited in anggraeni, mujiyanto, & sofwan, 2019). the rules involve (1) the automatic transposition caused by the difference in the grammatical structure of a language and making the translator have no choice; (2) the change of words’ position due to no existence of the exact source language as the target language; (3) the change of word class owing to the unnatural usage of target language when following the similar word formation of the source text; (4) the adjustment and replacement of words as semi or a complete change of sl sentence into the new composition of tl with equal meaning to complete lexical gap. based on those four lists that mention the requirement for using the transposition strategy, the transpositional derivation from english noun to indonesian verb is suitable to point number three. it 54 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 51-59 is obvious that zero derivation as an english noun in the source text cannot always be predicted that the translation will be accurate if it follows the exact word formation as the source language. this case usually happens because it is probably the english noun as the result of transpositional derivation from the verb as the base word. another factor might be the english noun which has a semantic meaning related to the action. therefore, using this strategy to replace english nouns with zero conversion into the indonesian verbs could complete the important elements in the translation process. the research is expected to be one of the helpful alternative sources of morphology information for translation study, especially related to the transposition of wordclass in zero derivational processes. after concerning some of these aspects, the translation of english conversion from noun to indonesian verb is classified into the types of verbs according to the categories of semantics, syntax, and morphology. methods a qualitative method is applied for conducting the research by having a constant comparative analysis. according to strauss and friends (as cited by mandal, 2018), the process not only includes the data collection but also breaks down the data into simpler parts. by using the constant comparison, it means that the parts of the data are then conducted to note and find the similarities and dissimilarities. after that, each piece of data is classified into several categories. for this method to be conducted well, the research has followed some steps that include collecting all the data of english conversion as nouns used as the source text and its translation into indonesian verbs used as the target text. the primary data source for the research is taken from to kill a mockingbird, a novel authored by harper lee as the english source text. this novel was first published in 1990 by j.b. lippincott & co., then was translated by femmy syahrani, and first published by qanita in 2008. with the same title in the indonesian version, the researcher will use it as the target text. the researcher prefers to choose this novel as the source of data because the english book used as the source text has 285 pages, and it is assumed that to make the choices of words more variant and collective; the author also used a lot of english zero affixation as noun and verb. moreover, the target language has to consider the readability of the choice of word, so it is possible for the translator to make it transposed. the similarity and dissimilarity in the translated text are known from whether the target language uses the same zero transpositional forms or derivational affixes; meanwhile, the categories of collected data are classified into syntactic and morphological criteria. then, the transposition of zero derivation or conversion from english nouns into indonesian verbs is analyzed according to the criteria of deverbal noun criteria of noun base that can be converted into a verb called as a denominal verb. for example, one of the english nouns is transposed into an indonesian verb since the english zero transpositional noun in the source text belongs to the verb base; the english noun base, which can be converted into a zero denominal verb, contains the verbal interpretation in the source text. results and discussions when the recent researches discuss zero derivation as the new word formation that is constructed without any additional affixes, and the transposition from oneword class into another creates some adapted structures and grammatical orders. the research also proves that english conversion from zero transpositional wordclass influences some morphological and syntactic changes in the process of translation. after looking for the whole chapters of to kill a mockingbird, the research has found at least seventyfive english conversions as nouns that are transposed into indonesian verbs. then, the indonesian verb category, according to alwi et al. (in hardyanti, warigan, & utami, 2017), is classified into syntactic criteria; transitive (t) and intransitive (it) verbs. table 1 shows the percentage of frequent uses between the transitive and intransitive verbs in the translated text. table 1 the frequent uses of indonesian verbs based on syntactic criteria no syntactic criteria frequency % 1 transitive verb 45 60 2 intransitive verb 30 40 total 75 100 table 1 indicates that the target language mostly uses this syntactic criterion to make the sentence well-structured. in addition, the usage of transitive and intransitive verbs in the target language is to help readers gain the information clearly. therefore, morphological criteria such as base (b), transposition (t), affixation (a), reduplication (r), and compound (c) are also considered. these other results are shown to vary the frequent uses of morphological processes in the target language. table 2 the frequent uses of indonesian verbs based on syntactic criteria no morphological criteria frequency % 1 verb base 4 5,3 2 transposition 1 1,3 3 affixation 65 86,66 4 reduplication 3 4 5 compound 2 2,66 total 75 100 55transposition of english zero .... (hana fauziah) table 2 clearly shows the marked difference in the rate of indonesian verb criteria. compared to the source language, the verb formation in the target language frequently relies on the affixational addition. meanwhile, the transposition of a denominal verb is less frequently used. even the number of transpositions used is the least. the other morphological criteria should also be prioritized because each has an important role in the grammatical structure of the target text. furthermore, the target language has similar syntactic criteria as the source language for the rest. however, the one thing which has to be noticed is that the transitive and intransitive verbs are always adjusted based on the morphological process. in addition, the zero derivational processes of noun and verb construction discussed in the research are more elaborated that those word formations can be identified from the divisions of base words. in this part, the transposition from english noun to indonesian verb is affected by the differences between the structures of sentences for each language. moreover, the translator justifies the sentence of the target language written as effectively as possible to make sure that the readability is accurately accepted by target language readers. the consistency kept in order to create an effective sentence is by including the subject and predicate in the verbal element. the data analysis is presented by dividing them into the transposition of deverbal nouns and denominal verbs. this division aims to identify where each word is converted from so that it can be concluded which noun can be converted into a verb and which noun is converted from a verb. these confusions can be solved by observing the important identification that will be discussed. these confusions are the major theoretical problems raised by the conversion. according to plag (2003), one of the helpful ways of determining these confusions can be reviewed according to the directionality of conversion. based on this review, the identification of english conversion from noun to indonesian verb is decided based on the formal properties. these examples are so easily identified that these deverbal nouns are due to these factors. table 3 deverbal noun from irregular verb source language “well, it was all slung about, like there was a fight.” (lee, 1960: 175) target language “berantakan, seperti baru ada yang berkelahi.” (lee, 2008: 334) table 4 irregular verb base source language “too proud to fight, you nigger lovin‘bastard?” (lee, 1960: 219) target language “terlalu sombong untuk berkelahi, keparat pencinta nigger?” (lee, 2008: 413) this shows that ‘fight’ in table 3 functions as a noun, and this is not difficult to assume that ‘fight’ in the first line is the deverbal noun since it has irregular past participle verb ‘fought’. in this source language, the component used in the sentence consists of the linking verb followed by the noun ‘a fight’ as a compliment. then, the target text also requires the verbal component in the sentence. at this point, the acceptable decision to translate the text is by transposing the deverbal noun ‘fight’ into the indonesian verb’ berkelahi’. at the same time, the translator consistently has translated this verb base ‘fight’ into an indonesian verb, as mentioned in table 4. table 5 deverbal noun from stress pattern source language aunt alexandra was fanatical on the subject of my attire. (lee, 1960: 81) target language bibi alexandra sangat gemar membahas pakaianku. (lee, 2008:163) the stress pattern of ‘subject’ between noun and verb is definitely dissimilar. from this kind of category, it is also simple to argue that its function is the deverbal noun. the replacement of english zero conversion from noun ‘subject’ into the indonesian verb ‘membahas’ is due to the translator translating the previous word ‘fanatical’ into ‘gemar’. in the target language, the use of ‘gemar’ in a sentence is mostly followed by the derivational affix of a verb. for that reason, the translation of ‘subject’ in the phrase ‘on the subject’ is transposed into the verb ‘membahas’. the identification based on the systematic difference is another alternative way that can be used to recognize whether the word is basically the base noun or a deverbal noun. according to centarowska (in plag, 2003), any verb used intransitively can give the effect under nominalization by conversion. table 6 deverbal noun from intransitive verb source language mrs. dubose was correcting him at every turn, when there was a knock on the door. (lee, 1960: 110) target language mrs. dubose mengoreksinya setiap kali, ketika seseorang mengetuk pintu. (lee, 2008: 213) in table 6, the word ‘knock’ of the source language is literally a conversed english noun from table 4 irregular verb base (continued) 56 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 51-59 an intransitive verb. that can be shown in the other example of ‘knock’ as the english verb in table 7. the english verb ‘knock’ is used to make a sentence intransitively as attached, so it is simply to say that the word is a verb base that can be converted into a noun. at this point, reproducing the english zero deverbal noun into the indonesian verb is also caused by the use of a linking verb in ‘there was a knock’ in the source text. however, the translator included the subject ‘seseorang’ as the replacement of ‘there was’, so the subject ‘seseorang’ in the target text should be followed by the predicate. then, the suitable word to translate the english noun ‘knock’, in ‘there was a knock’ is into the indonesian verb ‘mengetuk’ in ‘seseorrang mengetuk’. table 7 intransitive verb base source language jem, armed with ivanhoe and full of superior knowledge, knocked at the second door on the left. (lee, 1960: 107) target language jem yang dipersenjatai ivanhoe dan pengetahuannya yang luas, mengetuk pintu sebelah kiri. (lee, 2008: 207) another way that can be done to solve the directionality of the problem is by concerning the semantic complexity. this is also im-portant since translation is the process that should contain accurate meaning. semantics in the analysis of translation will be very helpful. table 8 deverbal/action noun source language “no,” said atticus, “putting his life’s history on display for the edification of the neighborhood.” (lee, 1960: 48) target language “bukan,” kata atticus, “mempertontonkan sejarah hidupya untuk menghibur para tetangga.” (lee, 2008: 102) table 9 verb base source language mr. cunningham displayed no interest in his son. (lee, 1960: 153) target language mr. cunningham tidak memperlihatkan minat pada anaknnya. (lee, 2008: 295) the example in table 8, the translator converts the english noun ‘display’ into the indonesian verb ‘mempertontonkan’, while the translator uses a similar equivalence when translating the english verb version in table 9 as closely. at this point, the transposition of zero english conversion from noun to indonesian verb is because the translator follows the literal meaning of the english noun ‘display’ as ‘the act of showing and performing something’. the meaning has indicated that ‘display’ in the source language functions as a deverbal noun/action noun, so its translation is transposed from a noun into a verb. besides, to keep the sentence of the target text efficient, the translator does not include the words ’putting ... on’ to be translated because this ‘display’ has already emphasized the verbal action in the sentence. this example also shows that the transposition from one-word class to another can affect another word to be reduced when the other one already reflects the meaning. this kind of translation technique is called reduction, as stated by molina and albir (as cited by lurisari, 2019) that the use of it is to restrain information or exactly to let it untranslated, but still to make sure that the whole message of the sl will be fully delivered to the tl. the next category is the english zero derivation as a noun that can be transposed into a verb. in this case, english derivation in the source text is what is assumed that its position is as the noun base. in the previous part, the transposition from english deverbal noun to indonesian verb is conducted, and one of the factors is that the translator follows the first word formation, namely verb. it is no wonder that the translator converts the deverbal nouns into verbs in the target language. meanwhile, when the english zero derivation as the noun base is translated into a verb, that is because the word has a verbal interpretation according to the target language readers. table 10 noun base with verbal interpretation source language “have you come for a visit, aunty?” i asked. (lee, 1960: 126) target language bibi sedang berkunjung? tanyaku. (lee, 2008: 245) the word ‘visit’ in the source language of table 10 is simply argued that it belongs to a noun since according to the syntactic place, its position is in the phrasal noun that comes after the article ‘a’ in ’a visit’. at this point, the replacement of ‘visit’ as a noun into the indonesian verb ‘berkunjung’ is due to the verbal interpretation that most translators receive. moreover, the most frequent ex-istence of ‘visit’ is written as a verb. on the one hand, retaining the derivational process by translating it into the indonesian noun ‘kunjungan’ still provides its meaning that refers to the action. the example in table 11 emphasizes that ‘lunch’ has a verbal interpretation ‘makan siang’. the only way to translate the english noun ‘lunch’ is by transposing it into the indonesian compound verb ‘makan siang’ in the target language. as attached in table 12, there is no other closest equivalence to translating the english 57transposition of english zero .... (hana fauziah) denominal verb into an indonesian verb. table 11 noun base with verbal interpretation (example 2) source language miss caroline watched the class file out for lunch. (lee, 1960: 20) target language miss caroline segera mengawasi anak-anak yang berbaris keluar untuk makan siang. (lee, 2008: 51-52) table 12 denominal verb source language “everybody who goes home to lunch hold up your hands,” (lee, 1960: 17) target language “yang harus pulang untuk makan siang, tolong acungkan tangan,” (lee, 2008: 46) table 13 noun base with verbal interpretation (example 3) source language but while no one with a grain of sense trusted miss stephanie. lee, 1960: 43) target language tetapi, sementara tak ada satu pun orang yang berakal sehat akan percaya pada miss stephanie. (lee, 2008: 93) the word ‘sense’ in table 13 functions as the english noun initially that comes before it is able to be converted into the denominal verb. the english noun ‘sense’ means ‘good understanding of what is sensible or practical behaviour’. the translator then retains the meaning but replaces the form of the english noun into the indonesian verb ‘berakal’. here, the ‘sense’ is constructed from the phrase ‘with a grain of sense’, and the translator equivalently refers ‘with’ to ‘having something’, so he/she translates the whole phrase ‘with a grain of sense’ into ‘ber-akal’ whose ‘-ber’ in the source language is an affix to show the possessive meaning. in addition, the transposition from noun to verb also influences how the sentence is restructured, just like the target language consists of one independent clause, whereas the target language turns out into one independent clause and one dependent clause. it can be seen here: main clause: tak ada satu pun orang akan percaya pada miss stephanie sub clause: tak ada satu pun orang berakal the change of restructuring sentences from the source language and the target language is also discussed by chesterman (in rahayu, sedeng, & indrawati, 2020). it is said that this group of strategies affects the structure of the sentence unit in so far as it is made up of clause units. included are changes between mainclause and subclause status, changes in sub-clause types, etc. this statement is approved that not only the structure of phrase and clause but also the structure of a sentence can affect how the translation should be. whether the sentence uses only the main clause or with subclause, the translation of each clause is possible to be different. another way that can be used to convert english nouns into indonesian verbs is by putting a concern on the frequency of occurrence. in this case, the conversion from noun to a verb can be conducted by holding the overt analogue criterion. it means that according to the converted verb, the meaning can be discerned by paraphrasing it. thus, once the denominal verb in the english conversion is paraphrasing the meaning, the transposition from noun to a verb is very possible to be conducted. table 14 noun base with locative meaning source language i told atticus i didn’t feel very well and didn’t think i’d go to school any more if it was all right with him. (lee, 1960: 27) target language kubilang kepada atticus, aku merasa tidak enak badan, dan kurasa aku tidak akan bersekolah lagi kalau dia tidak keberatan. (lee, 2008: 65) the word ‘school’ in table 14 as a noun base has a locative type of meaning. then, when converted into a verb, the meaning can be paraphrased into ‘to put (in) to’. thus, when it is transposed into an indone-sian verb, the translation of ‘school’ becomes ‘bersekolah’ derived from ‘sekolah’, which refers to ‘the location where students are put into to get knowledge’. the prefix’ ber-’ in the target language indicates that its use is to make the formality of the indonesian language, which necessarily gives the additional affix in any word formation. table 15 noun base with causative meaning source language he gave a snort and looked away. (lee, 1960: 190) target language dia mendengus dan berpaling. (lee, 2008: 359) table 16 denominal verb snort source language the boy snorted and slouched leisurely to the door. (lee, 1960:26) target language anak itu mendengus dan melenggang ke pintu. (lee, 2008:62) 58 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 51-59 the ‘snort’ in table 16 from oxford learner’s dictionary means ’a loud sound from breathing air out noisily through the nose’. furthermore, when the word is re-placed by the verb, the meaning is discerned as ‘to make a loud sound from breathing air out noisily through the nose’, whose function is the type of causative meaning. thus, the transposition from noun to a verb is owing to the english noun base ‘snort’ in ‘gave a snort’ translated into the indonesian verb ‘mendengus’ to indicate that the information in the phrase has a causative meaning. here, the tl’s verb ‘mendengus’ is the derivation from the indonesian noun base ‘dengus’ as ‘the kind of sound created from the breathingout air’, and the indonesian prefix’ me-’ used as the additional morpheme that also has causative meaning. the result shows that the translation has succeeded in the closest equivalence in both the source and target languages. table 17 noun base with inchoative meaning source language he had been a comfort to me, so i said it looked lovely, but i didn’t see anything. lee, 1960: 227) target language dia sudah menghiburku, jadi kukatakan bulu itu bagus sekali, tetapi aku tidak mengatakan apa-apa. (lee, 2008: 428) table 18 denominal verb comfort source language “don’t worry, scout,” jem comforted me. (lee, 1960: 16) target language “jangan khawatir, scout,” jem menghiburku. (lee, 2008: 44) the english noun base ‘comfort’ shown in table 17 is explained as ‘the state of being relaxed and not worried so much’. and then, when it is converted into a verb, the meaning is paraphrased as ‘to make somebody who is worried feel better’. thus, the substitution of the english noun ‘comfort’ into the indonesian verb ‘menghibur’, whose base is ‘hibur’ shows the exact equivalence since the target language’s prefix’ me-’ contains the inchoative meaning at the same time ‘hibur’, ‘menghibur’, and ‘hiburan’ are the acts of making someone feel comfortable. therefore, the most appropriate to translate the english noun ‘comfort’ into the inchoative indonesian verb ’menghibur’. table 19 shows that ‘charge’ is the english noun base that refers to ‘the amount of money somebody asks to be paid for a good or service’. when it is transformed into a verb, in order to retain the meaning, this can be paraphrased into ‘to use the amount of money to pay for a good or service’. in this converted verb, there is a connection with something such as a tool, or this could be called the instrumental meaning. so, the whole sentence transfers the meaning of ‘charge’ that is received by the target language as ‘the tool that is used to pay’. that is why the translator translates it into the verb ‘membayar’ as the replacement of ‘the ain’t no change into tak perlu membayar’. table 19 noun base with instrumental meaning source language she said, ‘i reckon i’ll hafta give you a nickel, won’t i?’ and i said, ’no ma’am, there ain’t no charge.‘ (lee, 1960: 192) target language katanya, ‘kukira, aku harus memberimu lima sen ya?’ dan saya bilang, ‘tak usah, ma’am, tak perlu membayar.’ (lee, 2008: 364) conclusions based on the result and discussion on the analysis of english conversion from noun to indonesian verb in to kill a mockingbird, it can be concluded that the transposition of zero derivation as english noun into indonesian verb is caused by at least two factors. the first is because the english noun, as a result of the derivational process of a verb, is called the deverbal noun. the second is due to the english noun belonging to the noun base that can be converted into a verb (denominal verb) for some reasons, such as having the verbal message and being able to be paraphrased into verbal meaning in the text. the use of predicate in tl’s text is necessary for the appropriate component in a sentence, especially when the source text uses the structure of linking verb ‘be’ that is followed by a noun as a complement. for instance, it is hard to find the close equivalence to translate a sentence with ‘there is/ are’ instead of including a subject and predicate in the target text. furthermore, the readability of the text in order to sound natural by this transposition strategy is influenced by the basic word formation functioning as a verb. all the deverbal nouns in the data are categorized as action nouns and based on the syntax categories such as irregular verbs; they show that those words are initially as the verb base. for that reason, it is appropriate when the translator receives the verbal interpretation of the deverbal nouns. on the one hand, the english noun base that can be transposed into a verb without any affix (denominal verb) focuses on the overt criteria analogue in order for the transposition of english from noun to be converted accurately into the indonesian verb. by putting the notice on syntactic distribution, the translator can realize that those nouns contain the verbal interpretation for the target language readers, especially when the english noun bases could be paraphrased into verbs with the analogue criteria. locative, causative, inchoative, and instrumental mean-ings are the analogue criteria whose message 59transposition of english zero .... (hana fauziah) provides more natural acceptance for tl’s readers when the translation of those noun bases becomes verbs. in addition, paraphrasing english nouns into indonesian verbs also requires some grammatical changes, such as from phrase to word or from two clauses into one cause. this translation strategy usage gives more attention to another notice, as well. overall, the criteria and classifications used for analyzing the transposition strategy to translate a wordclass into another one become the appropriate consideration so that the target text will provide the important elements of translation. the grammatical changes based on the word formation are important points for the accuracy and readability of the translation process. this importance is useful for gaining the readers’ acceptance of the target text. moreover, the zero derivation from noun to a verb or the zero deverbal nouns, both of which often appear in the source text, tend to confuse the target language readers in identifying whether the english conversion functions as noun or verb. indeed, the closest justification of delivering messages from the source language into another text is still needed to improve the translation work. it is because readers with different backgrounds would affect their way of gaining the message from any information. references agistiawaty, f. (2019). the analysis of unit shift in the research of translation with commentary: english into indonesian. aksara, 31(1), 123-136. https://doi. org/10.29255/aksara.v31i1.316.123-136. amarasinghe, h. (2020). investigation on the influence of transposition as a translation strategy in the field of online journalism in sri lanka. ajhssr: american journal of humanities and social science research, 4(10), 145-148. anggraeni, p., mujiyanto, j., & sofwan, a. (2019). the implementation of transposition translation procedures in english-indonesian translation of epic movie subtitle. elt forum: journal of english language teaching, 7(2), 1-7. https://doi. org/10.15294/elt.v7i2.28850. bravo, j. (ed.). (2021, 17 dec). why is communication important in translation? retrieved on march 9th 2022 from https://www.translateday.com/why-iscommunication-important-in translation/. dehham, s. h. (2016). the use of english adjectival affixes by iraqi efl learners: an error analysis. sciedu press: english linguistics research, 5(1), 14-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/elr.v5n1p14. ekasani, k. a., yadnya, i. b. p., artawa, k., & indrawati, n. l. k. m. (2018). category shift in the translation of verb phrases in english cookbook into indonesian. international journal of linguistics, literature, and translation (ijllt), 1(4), 73-77. http://dx.doi. org/10.32996/ijllt.2018.1.4.10. fikri, z. (2017). morphological study on verbal inflectional and derivational process in sasak language. journal ilmiah rinjani: media informasi ilmiah universitas gunung rinjani, 5(2), 156-163. https://doi. org/10.12345/jir.v5i2.11. hardyanti, s., warigan., & utami, s. p. t. (2017). perbandingan afiks pembentuk verba bahasa indonesia dan bahasa jawa. jurnal sastra indonesia, 6(1), 34-40. haspelmath, m., & sims, a. d. (2010). understanding morphology. london, uk: hodder education. hendrawati, a., & budiarta, i. w. (2017). the translation of idiomatic expression in bloodline into “garis darah”. retorika: jurnal ilmu bahasa, 3(2), 228238. https://doi.org/10.22225/jr.3.2.295.228-239. lee, h. (1960). to kill a mockingbird. new york, usa: warner books. lee, h. (2008). to kill a mockingbird. translated by femmy syahrani. bandung: qanita. lurisari, m. (2019). an analysis of translation loss in the “the jewel smurfer”. calls: journal of culture, arts, literature, and linguistics, 5(2), 59-69. http:// dx.doi.org/10.30872/calls.v5i2.1948. mandal, p. c. (2018). translation in qualitative research with an emphasis on grounded theory. ijhssr: international journal of humanities and social science research, 4(2), 81-85. mizher, r. a. (2016). chesterman’s syntactic strategies in translating english passive voice construction into arabic. ijclts: international journal of comparative literature & translation studies, 4(3), 32-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac. ijclts.v.4n.3p.32. nugraha, a., nugroho, m. b., & rahman, y. (2017). english–indonesian translation methods in the story “a blunder” by anton chekhov. indonesian efl journal, 3(1), 79-86. https://doi.org/10.25134/ieflj. v3i1.656. plag, i. (2003). word-formation in english. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://doi. org/10.31294/w.v10i2.3901. pratama, s. h. h., & hartono, r. (2018). semantic shift in the english-indonesian translation of dessen’s “what happened to goodbye”. eej: english education journal, 8(2), 195-207. https://doi.org/10.15294/ eej.v8i3.21912. rahayu, n. w. e. e., sedeng, i. n., & indrawati, n. l. k. m. (2020). the syntactic strategies and equivalence of english nonfinite verbs which translated into indonesian with reference to national geographic magazine. linguistika: buletin ilmiah program magister linguistik universitas udayana, 27(1), 3947. https://doi.org/10.24843/ling.2020.v27.i01.p05. umam, a. h. (2018). keberterimaan antara teks sumber dan teks sasaran. wanastra, 10(2), 47-54. http://dx.doi. org/10.31294/w.v10i2.3901. tiswaya, w., & hamid, a. (2019). transposition of predicate verbals to be subject nouns in indonesian and sundanese sentence. madah: jurnal bahasa and sastra, 10(1), 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.31503/ madah.v11i1.203. vinay, j. p., & darbelnet, j. (2000). a methodology for translation. london: routledge. 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 translation of passive voice found in the novel “the sea of monster” by rick riordan and its translation by nuraini mastura widya; dewi mutiara indah ayu program studi pendidikan bahasa inggris, fakultas bahasa dan seni universitas indraprasta pgri widya.center@gmail.com, mutiaradewi27@yahoo.com abstract this research aimed at analyzing the translation of passive voice from english into indonesian and found out the problem that occurred in translating them. the qualitative descriptive method was applied in this research. the data were gathered from the novel the sea of monster by rick riordan and its translation by nuraini mastura. the analyzed data were limited, they were simple present tense, past perfect tense, and modal auxiliary. they were analyzed by applying the semantics and grammatical approaches. the findings have shown that the problems can be either semantic and cultural aspect or grammatical system. despite those obstacles, it is found that the translator is able to produce a good and natural translation. the translator can transfer message contained in sl into tl. cultural context and translation shift are getting involved in the process of creating natural translation. keywords: translation, passive voice, semantic approach, grammatical approach abstrak penelitian menganalisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif dari bahasa inggris ke bahasa indonesia dan mencari tahu masalah yang mungkin muncul saat menerjemahkan kalimat pasif tersebut. penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. data dikumpulkan dari novel the sea of monster karangan rick riordan dan terjemahannya oleh nuraini mastura. data yang dinalasis dibatasi, yaitu terdiri dari tiga bentuk; simple present tense, past perfect tense, dan modal auxiliary. data dianalisis dengan pendekatan semantis dan gramatikal. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada beberapa masalah yang ditemukan saat menerjemah kalimat pasif, yaitu masalah perbedaan semantik, aspek budaya, dan sistem gramatikal. dari hal tersebut ditemukan bahwa penerjemah mampu mengatasi permasalahan tersebut, sehingga dapat dihasilkan terjemahan yang natural. penerjemah mampu mentransfer makna yang terkandung dalam teks sumber ke dalam teks sasaran. konteks budaya dan translation shift memegang peranan penting untuk menghasilkan terjemahan yang natural. kata kunci: penerjemahan, kalimat pasif, pendekatan semantis, pendekatan gramatikal 127translation of passive voice .... (widya; dewi mutiara indah ayu) introduction there are many ways that people usually use to communicate to one another, such as by conversing them into literary works, besides verbal language used in daily conversation. a novel, for instance, is one of the literary works which is very popular. it is used to express feeling or stories written in a book. sometimes, the difference of language becomes a big problem for the readers to understand the content of a novel. here is the role of translator needed. several experts have proposed the definitions of translation which are related to each other. catford (1965) defines translation as, “the replacement of textual material in one language, source language (sl), by equivalent textual material in another language, target language (tl)”. in accordance to this definition, newmark (1988) defines translation as, “rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.” it means that the translation should be able to convey message intended by the writer/speaker into target language. furthermore, newmark (1981) sees translation as a skill and a craft. he says that, “translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/ or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” the most important thing in translation is transferring form and meaning naturally as what they say that translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (nida & taber,2003). translation, sometimes, is not an easy task to do because there are many aspects that should be determined in order to maintain the message conveyed. the different grammatical features and culture are two of them. perez, quoted by rangkuti (2010) states that, “the translator should possess a perfect knowledge of the target text. it implies competence in the basic structures which do not occur in the source language.” a good translation is the one that sounds natural. a natural translation involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon. every language has its own grammatical features. translating st into tl may be difficult because of the different grammatical features. to overcome the problem caused by different grammatical features, a translator commonly applies translation shift in translation activity. shift represents some changes occurring in a translation process. translation shifts occur both at lower level of language (i.e. lexicogrammar) and at the higher thematic level of text. catford (1965) states that, “by shifts we mean departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from sl to the tl.” furthermore, he states that basically, in shift of translation, it is only the form that is changed. in addition, he argues the translation shift is done to get the natural equivalent of the sl message into the tl. translation shift also occur when there is no formal correspondence to the syntactic item to be translated. there are two major types of shift: (1) level shifts which refers to a source language item at one linguistic level that has a target language translation equivalent at a different level. it is simply a shift from grammar to lexis, (2) category shifts which refers to departures from formal correspondence in translation. formal correspondence is any grammatical category in the target language which can be said to occupy the same position in the system of the target language as the given source languge category in the source language system. category shift is devided into some groups, they are: (1) structure shift is the changing of words sequence in a sentence, (2) class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of a sl item is the member of a different class from the original item, (3) unit shift is the changes of rank; that is, departure from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit of one rank in the sl is a unit at different rank in the tl, (4) intra-system shift refers to the shift that occur internally, within the system; that is for those cases where the sl and tl possess system which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the tl system. beside the difference of grammatical features, different culture sometimes influences the translation. the translation of words that is closely related to cultural language context is sometimes not easy to transfer into a different language. parrot (2000) explains that clauses are either active or passive. in active voice, the subject of an object verb is usually the agent, the ‘doer’. the subject of a clause usually establishes ‘what the clause is about’; it often refers to something that is already known to the listener or reader. in passive voice, the subject still establishes ‘what the clause is about’, but it is the recipient of the action, not the agent. passive voice is chosen when the new or important information is: • what happened to the subject: i’ve been sacked • who or what did it: ‘turandot’ was composed by puccini • how it was done: the conference was badly organized the passive voice is also used when the agent is unknown or unspecified. for example: no one was injured. as what has been discussed in english, passive voice is frequently used in indonesian as well. alwi et al. (2003) explain that there are two ways of transferring active into passive voice in indonesian, that is: (1) by using prefix diinto the verb, and (2) by using verb without adding prefix di-. the first one is commonly used if the subject of the active voice is noun or noun phrase. on the other hands, the second one is used if the subject of the active voice is personal pronoun. the meaning of passive voice can also be combined with another factor such as unintended factor (faktor ketaksengajaan). when an active is changed into passive that meaning contained by the verb, and the action is unintended, so the prefix used is terinstead of di-. furthermore, there is also passive voice which containts adversative meaning. this kind of passive voice commonly describes negative meaning which called as “makna yang tidak menyenangkan” by alwi, et. al.(2003). it is signed by confix ke-an, for examples: 128 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 a. soal itu diketahui oleh gurunya soal itu ketahuan oleh gurunya b. partai kita dimasuki oleh unsur kiri partai kita kemasukan unsur kiri problems in translation may also be found in translating passive voice from english into indonesia. besides the difference of culture, the difference of grammatical features between english and indonesia can evoke problems in translating passive voice (sadiyani, 2011). different grammatical features between languages can cause the application of translation shift in translating passive voice is very helpful. translation shift enables translators to create a natural translation of st (source text) into tt (target text) (munif, 2008). besides, the studies that has been conducted in this field by suprato (2013) shows that not all of the passive sentences of the source language can be translated in the form of passive sentences in target language. instead, the passive sentences can be translated in the form of active sentences because of the meaning contained. it means that in creating natural translation, the translator does not have to maintain the form as long as the meaning contained can be delivered. looking into the above statement from different theorists, the study is aimed at analysing the translation of passive voice from english into indonesian, seeing from semantic and grammatical approaches. it means that the analysis is focused on the meaning transferred, whether it is transferred appropriately or less appropiately. furthermore, seeing from grammatical approach, the passive voices are analyzed from grammatical point of view, whether or not any shift occur while translating passive from english into indonesia. method a qualitative descriptive approach to data collection and analysis is used in this research. the data are taken from novel the sea of monsters by rick riordan and its translation by nuraini mastura. the novel is read thoroughly both the english and indonesian version to get the understanding of the content as a whole. the next step are indentifying the data, collecting the data, replace them on the paper, selecting the data that are going to be analyzed, marking the sentences containing passive voice, and analyzing the problems that occurred in the process of translating passive voice from english into indonesia. in this present research, the writers limit the analysis by only analyzing passive voice in the form of present tense, modal auxiliaries, and past perfect tenses. semantics and grammatical approaches are applied in analyzing data. k.m jaszczolt (2002) stated that semantics pertains to the meaning of words and sentences. it concerns the meaning of linguistics expression and it must use of contextual clues and enriches the information provided by words and grammatical construction. grammatical analysis is meant to make the reader certain that the changes in the sentence form in the translation of the sl into the tl are done properly and without distorting the semantic meaning of the sl. so, the semantic approach attempts to analyze a sentence by its meaning related to the context, while grammar approach deals with the structure of a sentence. results and discussion the data are limited by only taking passive voices in the form of simple present tense, past perfect tense, and modal auxiliary. the obtained data, firstly, are analyzed in terms of the strategy of how english passive voice (sl) are most appropriately translated into indonesian (tl), so that the conveyed meaning or message can be fully retained or preserved. this step of data analysis is expected to reveal whether the sl passive voices are equivalently translated into passive in the tl. to serve this purpose, the data are analysed grammatically and semantically. semantically, the data are analysed based on the meaning of the words forming the passive voice in english. the meaning is confirmed to english – indonesian dictionary. the role of context is also considered in order to catch the most equivalence in the tl. grammatically, the writers applied the role of translation shift and supporting grammatical features that enable the translator to translate english passive voice into indonesian. finally, to enrich the analysis, the data are also analyzed in terms of the extent to which the naturalness could be established or preserved when translating english passive voice into indonesian. the results show that all of passive voices in sl follow the standard formula of english passive voice, that is s + to be + v3. those sentences are translated into tl by using verbs added by prefix dior ter-. the examples of passive voice with prefix diin tl and its analysis is as follow: example 1 sl : like she had just been chased thousand miles by ghosts. tl : seolah dia baru saja dikejar segerombolan hantu sejauh ribuan mil. the underlined phrase had just been chased is translated into ‘baru dikejar’. the most equivalent word to translate had been chased is ‘dikejar’ not ‘terkejar’. prefix diis more appropriate because semantically, the doer in this sentence intends to perform the action. according to english-indonesia dictionary (2014:136), chased is derived from the verb chase which means ‘mengejar’, ‘mengusir’, ‘menguber’, ‘menolak’. the translator chooses “baru saja dikejar” as the closest equivalence of had just been chased. the word just is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now. in the tl the phrase ‘baru saja’ is preferred as the translation of just and it indicates that the event happened at only a short time earlier before now. grammatically, there is no shift in this translation since the phrase had just been chased in sl is translated into the phrase baru saja dikejar in tl, whether it is level or category shift. it means that shift is not needed here because the translator has already found the equivalence without shifting level or category of translated words. when comparing indonesian passive voice with prefix diand prefix ter-, it can be seen that there is such an unintended factors implied in the usage of prefix ter-. simply saying that the action is done unintentionally. an example can be seen below: 129translation of passive voice .... (widya; dewi mutiara indah ayu) example 2 sl : the nearest door had been blown open by the storm. tl : pintu terdekat terbanting membuka oleh terpaan badai. the meaning of passive voice can also be combined with another factor such as unintended factor (faktor ketaksengajaan) as in example (2). when an active is changed into passive that meaning contained by the verb states that the action is unintended, the prefix used is ter instead of di-. semantically, the phrase had been blown is translated into terbanting in tl. based on englishindonesian dictionary (2014:88), blown is derived from the verb “blow” which means meniup, membunyikan, mengeluarkan, bertiup, berbunyi, putus, meleleh, bernapas, mengembuskan, merobohkan, menyumbangkan, bertiup, menerbangkan, merubah haluan, memadamkan, meletus. the translator chooses the word terbanting as the equivalence of had been blown, although terbanting is not one of the meaning of the word blown according to eid. by looking at the context of the sentence, it can be said that pintu terbanting is because of the storm. according to eid storm means (n) topan, angin ribut, ribut. the storm is such kind of strong wind that can hurtle or blow something loudly. that is why the translator chooses the word terbanting to translate had been blown in this sentence. furthermore, the translation has applied naturalness theory of translation, which means that the language used in tl sounds natural in the ears of the readers. pintu terbanting is commonly used in indonesian language. terbanting is caused by a strong winds or slammed by a powerful force. in addition, by using prefix –ter, the translator indicates that the action is not intended by the doer. it happened by chance. in this case the doer is the strong wind. grammatically, the writers can see that there is a unit-shift applied in this translation. unit-shift enables to change of rank, departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the sl is, a unit at different rank in the tl. in this case, the phrase had been blown in sl shifts to the word terbanting in tl. another phenomenon can be found in this example that is the sl is in the form of past perfect tense, but in the tl it cannot be said that it is also in the past perfect tense since there is no tenses in indonesian. we may notice the different of time by looking at the time signal or the context where the sentence appears. besides implying such an unintended factor, passive voice can also imply adversative meaning. this kind of passive voice commonly describes negative meaning which called as makna yang tidak menyenangkan. it is signed by confix ke-an. the following translation is one of the examples of negative meaning contained by passive voice: example 3 sl : like any girl at meriwether wouldn’t ever be caught dead calling my name. tl : sepertinya tidak ada satu anak perempuan pun di meriwether yang ingin ketahuan memanggilmanggil namaku. modal auxiliary would is used in this sentence. it forms passive voice by adding be plus past participle caught. the verb caught is derived from the verb catch. according to eid (2014:127), the verb catch means menangkap, mencekau, mengerti, menangkapi, mencedok, menyergap. the translator translated wouldn’t ever be caught into tidak ... ingin ketahuan in indonesian. according to kamus idiom inggris-indonesia by astuti (2013: 262), ‘would not be caught dead’ is an idiomatic expression which means ‘something that you would not like to do, or would rather die than do it’. in translating idiomatic expression, a translator must concern with culture of both text, sl and tl, in order to create a natural translation. tidak ... ingin ketahuan is preferred as the closest idiomatic expression in tl which is equivalent to would not ever be caught dead. the word ever is added to emphasize the meaning. in addition, the word ketahuan is formed by adding prefix keand suffix –an into the root tahu. the meaning of a sentence whose predicate uses ke-an is a passive construction with additional adversative meaning. it is commonly called as additional meaning which is makna yang tidak menyenangkan. grammatically both sentences, in sl and tl, are negative sentences although they are different in form. in sl, not that indicates negative meaning is placed after modal would, while in tl tidak which also indicates negative meaning is placed before the subject. besides those facts which have been explained above, the findings also show that english stative passive are usually translated into active voice in indonesian, the predicate can be placed by either verb or predicative adjective. below is an example of english stative passive translated into indonesian active voice with verb as the predicate: example 4 sl : you think this place is enchanted? tl : menurutmu tempat ini memiliki sihir? enchanted is derived from the verb enchant. in this sentence past participle enchanted functions as an adjective not a verb. it describes an existing situation or state rather than an action. this construction is known as stative passive. the phrase is enchanted is translated into ‘memiliki sihir’. according to eid (2014:266), enchant means memesona, memikat, menawan hati. the translator does not choose one of the above meanings. she prefers memiliki sihir. semantically memiliki sihir does not have bad sense in this context. in indonesian culture, it is common to say that a very interesting/impressive/adorable thing/one enchants (menyihir/menawan) others. so, in this context menyihir means memesona, memikat, or menawan. the translator tries to create a natural translation of the sl. furthermore, there is structure shift that has been applied in translating this sentence. as we can see in sl a 130 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 passive voice is used while in tl the active one is chosen. is enchanted (be + past participle) becomes memiliki sihir. prefix meindicates an active construction in indonesian. passive voice in sl is translated into active voice in tl. the following example is english stative passive translated into indonesian active voice with predicative adjective: example 5 sl : you should be excited! tl : seharusnya kau gembira! the verb excited is derived from the verb excite. the past participle excited functions as an adjective in the sentence. it is a stative passive. the phrase should be excited is translated into ‘seharusnya gembira’. according to eid, (2014:279), excite means membangkitkkan gairah, menggairahkan, gembira, bergairah, yang naik darah, heboh, gempar, gelisah, yang mengasikkan, yang menggairahkan. the translator translated the verb excited into gembira. gembira is the predicative adjective of this sentence. it describes an existing situation or state rather than an action. it can also be identified that there are passive voice in the sl which are not translated into passive voice in the tl. it was quite possible for translator to change the form af passive in sl into active in the tl as this translation process was conceived to be the most appropriate way of preserving or retaining the meanings of the original texts. it can be seen it the following example: example 6 sl : join us and you’ll be rewarded. tl : bergabunglah dengan kami dan kau akan mendapat penghargaan. rewarded is derived from the verb reward which means ganjaran, hadiah, upah, pahala, hukuman, mengganjar, memberikan penghargaan, menghadiahkan. instead of translating you will be rewarded into kamu akan dihargai, the translator chooses ‘kau akan mendapat penghargaan’. one of the factors influenced the choice is the role of context. the role of context can not be ignored in translation because context can help both the translator and the reader to comprehend the message contained by a text. the following example give us a further describtion of the role of context including in translating passive voice: example 7 sl : perhaps my name will be cleared and i shall return. tl : barangkali namaku kelak akan dipulihkan dan aku akan kembali. cleared is derived from the verb clear. semantically, the underlined phrase will be cleared is translated into akan dipulihka. according to eid (2014:146), clear means: tak bersalah, bebas, di tempat yang bebas, terang, cerah, gamblang, jelas,encer, bersih, kosong, bebas, membebaskan, menjauhi, membersihkan, melunasi, mengosongkan, menyiapkan, membuka, meninggalkan, menghabiskan, menghilangkan, menjernihkan,memecahkan, menguraikan, membersihkan, menghilangkan. in kamus besar bahasa indonesia (kbbi), pulih means kembali (baik, sehat) sbg semula, sembuh atau baik kembali (tt luka, sakit, kesehatan), menjadi baik (baru) lagi. the most related meaning of pulih to the word clear in this context is ‘menjadi baik (baru) lagi’. memulihkan nama baik sounds natural in indonesian language. it means membuat nama (seseorang) baik kembali. in the passive form it becomes dipulihkan with prefix dito indicate that the action in done by intention. conclusion there some aspects that should be considered in translating passive voice from english into indonesian. those aspects may become problem in translating passive from english into indonesian, if the translator does not have sufficient skill in translating. the problems may deal with semantic and grammatical features of the tl. both prablems have to be overcome, in order to create a nutural translation. semantically, the translation should be considered based on lexical and contextual meaning. it concerns the meaning of linguistics expression and it has to make the use of contextual clues and enriches the information provided by words and grammatical construction. while grammatically, the translation might possess shift but the translator has to ensure that the changes in the sentence form in the translation of the sl into the tl are done properly and without distorting the semantic meaning of the st. in this present research, the writers find that the translator is able to overcome some problems in translation dealing with semantic and grammatical features. semantically, the translations sound natural and convet the messages sent by the writer in the sl. it is achived by applying cultural context of tl. grammatically, the naturalness is achived by whether doing translation shift or not. it depends grammatical features of sl and tl. in conclusion, cultural context and translation shift are getting involved in the process of creating natural translation. references alwi, h et.al. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (edisi ketiga). jakarta: balai pustaka. astuti, i.p. (2013). kamus idiom inggris-indonesia . yogyakarta: familia. catford, j.c. (1965). a linguistics theory of translation. london: oxford university press. english-indonesia dictionary (eid). (2014). jaszczolt, k.m. (2002). semantics and pragmatics. meaning in language discourse. great britain: pearson education. munif, a. (2008). pergeseran dalam penerjemahan klausa pasif dari novel the lorg of the rings: the return of the king katya jrr. tolkien oleh yuliani k (master’s theses). universitas sebelas maret. newmark, p. (1981). approaches to translation. new 131translation of passive voice .... (widya; dewi mutiara indah ayu) york: pergamon press. ______. (1988). a text book of translation. new york: prentice hall nida, e. a., & taber, c. r. (2003). the theory and practice of translation. leiden: brill. parrot, m. (2000). grammar for english language teacher. new york: cambridge university press. pusat bahasa departemen pendidikan nasional. (2008). kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. rangkuti, s. (2010). translation, theory and application. jakarta: foundation for human resource and technology development. riordan, r. (2006). the sea of monster. united states: miramax books. sadiyani, n.w. (2011). terjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa indonesia ke dalam bahasa inggris ke dalam cerita bawang merah dan bawang putih dan terjemahannya ‘miss onion and miss garlic’ (master’s theses). universitas udayana. suprato, d. (2013). analisis penerjemahan kalimat pasif bahasa inggris ke dalam bahasa indonesia pada novel morning, noon, and night karya sidney sheldon. lingua cultura,7(1), 49 – 56. 88 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 konsep cantik pada iklan cetak majalah kartini tahun 2014 dan koran kompas tahun 1979: analisis semiotik dian natashia linguistik, fakultas ilmu dan budaya, universitas indonesia jln.margonda raya, kampus universitas indonesia, depok, jawa barat 16424 diannatashia@yahoo.com abstract advertisement does not function as the source of the product’s information only, it can also create a new connotation about social reality. this research intended to reveal the form of the connotation about present beauty of indonesian women trying to be conveyed by the advertisers through present advertisements in kartini magazine published in 2014. this research also revealed elements used by the advertisers to attract readers’ attention. to see the new connotations formed in the present advertisements, they were compared with advertisements in the older generation from kompas newspaper in 1979. this research used qualitative descriptive method with data taken from wordings printed in those advertisements. the data were described and analyzed with discourse of advertising theory by guy cook and anchoring connotation theory by roland barthes, and then the result would be concluded. through guy’s theory, research reveals all the elements used by the advertisers to build the beauty concept. through barthes’ theory, this research shows how the advertisers create new connotation. results of the analysis show that present beauty concept is an ideal body coming from the outer side of the women’s body and good looking. beautiful face is a face that looks as young as twenty years old girls. moreover, the result also shows that advertisers use current social representative in which consumers these days like new, instant products that give maximum result. the result also shows consumers’ doubt over unknown products and women’s fear on fat body and aging. keywords: advertisement connotation, semiotics, present beauty concept abstrak iklan tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai pemberi informasi mengenai produk saja, tetapi juga dapat membentuk suatu konotasi baru tentang realitas sosial. penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkapkan bentuk konotasi baru tentang kecantikan wanita indonesia kekinian yang disampaikan melalui iklan yang ada pada majalah kartini tahun 2014 dan unsur yang digunakan pembuat iklan untuk menarik perhatian pembaca. untuk mengidentifikasi konotasi baru yang terbentuk pada iklan kekinian, iklan tersebut dibandingkan dengan iklan dari koran kompas tahun 1979. penelitian menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif dengan data berupa kata verbal dalam iklan cetak tersebut. data dianalisis dan dideskripsikan dengan teori wacana iklan guy cook dan teori konotasi anchoring roland barthes, kemudian hasil analisis data disimpulkan. melalui teori wacana iklan cook, penelitian mengungkapkan unsur yang digunakan pembuat iklan untuk membangun konsep kecantikan; dengan teori konotasi barthes penelitian ini mengungkapkan bagaimana pembuat iklan membentuk konotasi baru. hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa konotasi baru konsep cantik kekinian adalah tubuh ideal jika enak dipandang mata dan wajah tergolong cantik jika terlihat muda bagaikan gadis berusia dua puluhan. selain itu, hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa pembuat iklan menggunakan representasi sosial saat ini untuk menarik perhatian pembaca. konsumen masa kini menyukai hal yang baru, instan, dan hasil maksimal, serta keraguan konsumen terhadap produk yang belum dikenal dan ketakutan wanita terhadap tubuh gemuk dan penuaan karena usia. kata kunci: konotasi iklan, konsep cantik kekinian, semiotik 89konsep cantik .... (dian natashia) pendahuluan melalui indra penglihatan, cantik dapat didefinisikan sebagai kesempurnaan yang indah dipandang mata. dengan demikian, perempuan cantik adalah perempuan yang membuat orang senang memandangnya. kriteria perempuan cantik di setiap waktu tidak selalu sama bagi setiap orang karena tiap individu dan tiap masa memiliki kriteria yang berbeda dalam menentukan standar kecantikan seorang perempuan. walaupun demikian, di dalam suatu masyarakat, terdapat suatu kriteria umum tentang perempuan yang dikategorikan sebagai perempuan cantik. pada era globalisasi, media massa memiliki peran penting untuk menyampaikan berita, gambaran umum, serta berbagai informasi kepada masyarakat luas. fungsi media massa adalah “untuk memelihara identifikasi anggota-anggota masyarakat dengan nilai-nilai dan simbol-simbol utama masyarakat yang bersangkutan” (muis, 2001:11). pada dasarnya, isi media adalah hasil konstruksi realitas dengan bahasa sebagai perangkat dasarnya. penggunaan bahasa mengekspresikan pilihan, sikap, kecenderungan komunikator yang dimaksudkan untuk disalurkan kepada penerima pesan. di dalam iklan, bahasa dipakai sebagai sarana pertukaran pesan dan menjadi alat komunikasi antara pembuat iklan dengan konsumen. melalui gambar dan teks, iklan menghasilkan tanda yang di dalamnya terkandung signifier (penanda) dan signified (petanda) yang kemudian membentuk makna denotatif, yakni makna eksplisit yang hanya merupakan penyampaian informasi dan makna konotatif yang melibatkan perasaan, emosi dan, nilai-nilai budaya. kedua hal ini membentuk sebuah proses komunikasi yang memiliki kekuatan penting sebagai sarana pemasaranan dalam bentuk informasi yang bersifat persuasif. berdasarkan latar belakang penelitian, rumusan masalah penelitian ini adalah identifikasi konsep cantik yang disembunyikan dan direpresentasikan iklan pada masa kini dibandingkan dengan iklan tempo dulu. dari rumusan masalah tersebut, tujuan penelitian ini, yaitu: (1) mengidentifikasi unsur-unsur apa saja yang membangun konsep cantik iklan tersebut dan (2) mengidentifikasi konsep cantik yang disembunyikan dan direpresentasikan pada konteks modern dibandingkan dengan konsep cantik pada konteks tempo dulu. metode yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif dengan pendekatan semiotik ronald gerard barthes. teori yang digunakan adalah teori wacana iklan guy cook dan beberapa teori semiotika, seperti: teori konotasi dan anchoring roland barthes, teori power relation, dan teori representasi hall stuart. cook (2003) melihat iklan sebagai wacana. walaupun fokus utama kajian wacana adalah pada bahasa, bukan berarti hanya bahasa yang menjadi perhatian. kajian wacana juga mengkaji konteks komunikasi, seperti: siapa berkomunikasi dengan siapa dan mengapa, mereka berkomunikasi dalam situasi sosial yang bagaimana, menggunakan media apa, gaya komunikasi apa saja yang berkembang, dan bagaimana hubungan kedua orang yang berkomunikasi tersebut. lebih lanjut, konteks komunikasi pada sebuah iklan terdiri atas delapan hal: substansi, parabahasa, musik dan gambar, situasi, ko-teks, interteks, partisipan (pengirim dan penerima), dan fungsi (cook, 2003:4). substansi adalah material fisik (suara model iklan dan narator, layar, kemasan, stiker, banner) yang mengandung teks. musik dapat berupa orkestra atau solo, akustik, atau amplifikasi. gambar dapat berupa gambar bergerak, kartun, fotografis. parabahasa adalah keberagaman bahasa yang berbeda dari kata-kata atau tata-kalimat dan memuat banyak arti, seperti: ekspresi wajah, kualitas suara, dan gerak-isyarat tubuh. situasi adalah relasi dan properti dari objek dan masyarakat dalam ruang lingkup teks, yang dimengerti partisipan. dengan adanya situasi, diketahui di mana dan kapan iklan itu ditayangkan. ko-teks adalah teks yang bersifat sejajar, koordinatif, dan berhubungan dengan teks lainnya yang berada di depan (mendahului) atau di belakang (mengiring). interteks adalah wacana yang bergantung dengan wacana lain, dapat berupa peristiwa di dalam iklan yang satu dengan peristiwa di dalam iklan yang lain atau di luar iklan. partisipan terdiri dari 2 jenis: pengirim dan penerima. pengirim adalah pembuat iklan yang menawarkan produknya dan penerima adalah komunitas sasaran produk tersebut. fungsi adalah apa yang pengirim inginkan teks untuk berperilaku atau apa yang dimengerti oleh penerima. sementara itu, semiotika melihat semua aspek dalam sebuah kebudayaan sebagai tanda, seperti: bahasa, bahasa tubuh, isyarat, pakaian, tingkah laku, tata rambut, jenis rumah, mobil, dan lain-lain (noth, 1995). tanda, yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan pikiran, informasi, perintah, dan penilaian, memungkinkan seseorang untuk mengembangkan persepsi dan pemahaman terhadap apa yang didengar, dilihat, dirasa, dicium di sekitar. semiotika membantu untuk memahami dan mengerti bagaimana cara berkomunikasi dan juga membantu menerangkan kebiasaan dan kaidah-kaidah di semua unsur yang membentuk lingkungan komunikasi. menurut saussure, tanda memiliki dua entitas, yaitu: signifier dan signified atau wahana tanda dan makna atau penanda dan petanda (budianto, 2001:16). suatu ujaran hanya berlaku sebagai tanda jika terdiri atas penanda dan petanda, sedangkan hubungan antara penanda dan petanda adalah arbriter. tanda sebenarnya adalah representasi dari gejala yang memiliki sejumlah kriteria dan berada di seluruh kehidupan manusia. ada beberapa tingkatan tanda di dalam semiotika yang memungkinkan untuk menghasilkan makna yang juga bertingkat-tingkat. barthes dalam piliang (2004) menjelaskan dua tingkat dalam pertandaan, yaitu denotasi dan konotasi. barthes mengemukakan konsep konotasi dengan memperluas makna denotatif suatu entitas dalam bagan kontinuitas yang menggambarkan relasi (relation-r) antara ekspresi (expression-e) dan isi (content-c). denotasi adalah definisi yang diberikan kepada suatu entitas atau makna harfiah entitas tersebut. sementara konotasi adalah persepsi yang dimiliki seseorang tentang sebuat entitas yang memiliki makna denotatif. dalam hal ini, konotasi merupakan perluasan makna denotatif, yakni relasi antara e1 dan c1. untuk membatasi penafsiran dari penjelasan verbal diperlukan penjangkaran atau anchoring. menurut barthes dalam piliang (2004), fungsi jangkar untuk mengarahkan 90 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 penerima informasi melalui sejumlah kemungkinan interpretan dari suatu gambar dan melalui apa yang disebut sebagai rantai penanda mengambang yang menyebabkan penerima informasi mengabaikan beberapa penanda dan membaca bagian lain. teks atau tanda verbal pada gambar dikonotasikan untuk membantu pembaca untuk menafsirkan penanda yang disajikan. teks pada gambar yang dilambangkan untuk membantu pemahaman. teks jangkar (anchoring verbal) dapat memiliki nilai represif jika diterapkan pada gambar. iklan merupakan refleksi ideologis dari pembuat iklan dan alat untuk mengadakan komunikasi dengan konsumennya, relasi yang dibentuk oleh pembuat iklan dan konsumen dikenal sebagai daya relasi (power relation). menurut lester (2014), power (kuasa) adalah kemampuan untuk memengaruhi orang lain untuk memercayai atau melakukan sesautu seperti yang diinginkan. dengan demikian, terjadi pertukaran komunikasi antara pengirim pesan dengan penerima pesan. dalam pertukaran komunikasi digunakan beberapa gaya, yakni: (1) gaya daya legitimasi adalah gaya yang memulai konsep mentalnya dengan memiliki kuasa untuk mengendalikan konsumennya, (2) gaya daya hadiah adalah gaya yang suka menjanjikan pembaca dengan hadiah atau layanan, (3) gaya daya pengacu adalah gaya yang senang memanfaatkan ketenaran seorang figur publik sebagai referen, (4) gaya daya kepakaran adalah gaya yang memposisikan pembuat iklan sebagai yang lebih mengerti sehingga konsumen harus mengikutinya, dan (5) gaya daya koersif adalah gaya yang memanfaatkan hukuman jika saran tidak diikuti (loudon dalam supriyono, 2006:34–35). berger dan luckmann (1966) mencoba memahami representasi sebagai bagian dari konsep objektivitas. representasi dalam teori konstruksi sosial merupakan representasi simbolis, yang melaluinya bahasa memegang peran penting dalam proses objektivasi terhadap tandatanda. hal itu disebabkan bahasa mampu mendirikan bangunan-bangunan representasi simbolis dari kenyataan kehidupan sehari-hari. bahasa digunakan untuk mensignifikasi makna-makna yang dipahami sebagai pengetahuan yang relevan dengan masyarakat. hall (1997) mencoba melengkapi pengertian representasi melalui theory of representation. ada tiga pendekatan untuk menjelaskan bagaimana representasi dari bahasa menghasilkan sebuah makna. ketiga pendekatan tersebut adalah pendekatan reflektif, intensional, dan konstruksionis. pada pendekatan reflektif, makna ditujukan untuk mengelabui objek yang dimaksud, baik orang, ide, maupun suatu kejadian di dunia yang nyata, dan fungsi bahasa sebagai cermin, untuk merefleksikan maksud sebenarnya seperti keadaan yang sebenarnya di dunia. pendekatan intensional merupakan pendekatan yang berkaitan erat dengan pembicara atau penulis yang menekankan pada diri sendiri mengenai pemaknaan yang unik di dunia ini melalui bahasa. pendekatan konstruksionis adalah pendekatan pembicara dan penulis memilih dan menetapkan makna dalam pesan yang dibuatnya. kemudian, sejarah peradaban dan kebudayaan manusia membuktikan bahwa kecantikan merupakan suatu pencarian manusia yang tak henti akan keutamaan. tuntutan dasar dari pencarian tersebut di setiap masa memiliki ciri yang berbeda namun hakikatnya adalah apa yang tampak dan apa yang muncul dari dalam mendorong sesuatu yang tampak itu. pada tahun 50-an, kebanyakan perempuan indonesia mengenal konsep cantik dari konsep yang dianut dari barat. selanjutnya, pada tahun 70-an mulai timbul suatu kesadaran akan konsep baru akan keinginan menggali kembali kearifan yang telah dikembangkan dalam kebudayaan nenek moyang dalam merawat kecantikannya (tilaar, 1999). hasil penelitian sulistyaningrum (2011) menyimpulkan kecantikan wanita indonesia–yang diwakilkan wanita yang mengikuti ajang pemilihan– dalam beberapa konsep, yakni wanita yang berkulit putih, masih muda, bertubuh langsing dan tinggi, bebas jerawat, berambut lurus, dan sebagainya. kriteria ini dapat dijadikan konsep kecantikan wanita indonesia saat ini karena tiap provinsi di indonesia mengirimkan wakilnya ke ajang pemilihan putri indonesia dengan stereotipe yang sejenis. metode metode yang digunakan dalam analisis data penelitian ini adalah metode kualitatif. data yang digunakan bukan merupakan angka, melainkan berupa tanda verbal dan nonverbal yang ada pada data. tanda verbal berupa kata-kata deskriptif yang ada pada data. sementara tanda nonverbal berupa tanda lain selain tanda verbal yang ada pada data. sumber data adalah majalah kartini tahun 2014 edisi ke-2388 halaman 49 (“terobosan terbaru teknologi pelangsingan dan kecantikan,” 2014). kartini dipilih karena majalah tersebut adalah salah satu media wanita yang pertama kali muncul di indonesia. majalah ini memuat berbagai masalah seputar wanita, keluarga, anak, kesehatan, kecantikan, mode, dan aneka tips masakan. majalah ini pernah sukses di pasaran yang mencakup wanita kelas menengah ke atas dan ibu rumah tangga (kartajaya, 2005). penulis memilih majalah kartini dibandingkan majalah femina karena segmen wanita modern lebih luas, mencakup wanita kelas menengah ke atas dan ibu rumah tangga. iklan ini berbentuk deskriptif yang di isinya berbentuk pernyataan yang persuasif. data yang digunakan pada artikel ini adalah sebuah iklan kecantikan kekinian dan sebuah iklan kecantikan tempo dulu tahun 1979. iklan kecantikan kekinian yang dipakai adalah iklan endermolift dan lipomassage. iklan ini dianggap mampu mewakili iklan kecantikan kekinian karena menawarkan teknologi sebagai cara merawat tubuh. iklan kecantikan tempo dulu yang digunakan pada artikel ini adalah iklan jamu awet ayu. iklan ini dianggap mampu mewakili iklan kecantikan tempo dulu karena menawarkan obat tradisional (jamu) sebagai cara untuk merawat kecantikan. pembahasan dalam artikel ini berfokus pada tanda verbal. tanda nonverbal dibahas secara singkat sebagai penguat simpulan yang diambil. pada tahapan analisis setiap kalimat akan dideskripsikan dan dihubungkan dengan teori yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan bentuk konotasi atau makna implisit yang ingin disampaikan oleh pembuat iklan. setiap kalimat yang telah dianalisis, 91konsep cantik .... (dian natashia) disimpulkan. setelah itu, dari semua simpulan tersebut, dibuat sebuah simpulan yang mewakili isi keseluruhan iklan tersebut. hasil dan pembahasan iklan yang diangkat dalam pembahasan, substansinya berupa iklan cetak pada majalah wanita. data yang diteliti berbentuk desktiptif dan isinya merupakan pernyataan. gambar berupa fotografis, pengirim adalah impression dan penerima pesan adalah wanita ekonomi menengah ke atas dan ibu rumah tangga. pembahasan mengidentifikasi konsep cantik yang ditawarkan dan disembunyikan melalui tanda verbal. tanda nonverbal akan dibahas untuk mendukung dan menguatkan argumentasi. sebelum membahas iklan modern, penulis terlebih dahulu menjabarkan iklan tempo dulu. iklan tempo dulu yang digunakan adalah iklan jamu awet ayu tahun 1979 (gambar 1). gambar 1 iklan kecantikan tempo dulu (sumber: albert et al., 2007) dari tempo dulu, pembuat iklan kecantikan sudah memikirkan bagaimana agar konsumen bisa mendapatkan kebutuhan akan kecantikannya dengan proses yang tidak rumit. pada 1979 muncul ide dan gagasan untuk memunculkan kembali kearifan yang telah dikembangkan oleh nenek moyang indonesia dalam merawat kecantikan, yakni dengan cara tradisional, salah satunya jamu yang memakai bahan alami (tilaar, 1999:57). pada bagian judul tertulis memelihara kesegaran tubuh dan keayuan paras muka wanita. kemudian pada bagian teks tertulis (1) jamu awet ayu nona meneer semarang khusus dibuat bagi kaum wanita untuk memelihara tubuh agar selalu segar dan sehat dan (2) jamu awet ayu memelihara paras muka agar tetap ayu, segar dan wajah lebih berseri. dilihat dari verbalnya, ada dua konsep cantik pada dua bagian yang paling diutamakan oleh wanita yang terdapat dalam iklan ini, sebagai berikut. tabel 1 konsep cantik iklan tempo dulu tubuh segar dan sehat paras muka ayu, segar, dan berseri wanita pada tahun 1979 memiliki konsep bahwa tubuh yang ideal adalah tubuh yang segar dan sehat; paras muka yang ideal adalah yang cantik anggun, segar, dan berseri. pada saat itu jamu merupakan salah satu alternatif yang diincar wanita untuk memenuhi kebutuhan mereka dan jamu merupakan cara yang memudahkan wanita untuk dapat memelihara kecantikan karena mereka tidak perlu harus mencari bahan dan meraciknya sendiri. jamu merupakan cara instan untuk memperoleh tubuh dan paras muka yang ideal pada masa itu. setelah mengetahui konsep tubuh dan wajah ideal tempo dulu, penelitian mengidentifikasikan iklan 2014 untuk mencari konsep tubuh dan wajah ideal masa kini. pada judul iklan impression terdapat tulisan terobosan terbaru teknologi pelangsingan dan kecantikan, endermolift & lippsomessage (gambar 2). gambar 2 iklan kecantikan kekinian (sumber: “terobosan terbaru teknologi pelangsingan dan kecantikan,” 2014) dilihat dari tanda verbalnya, secara denotatif pembuat iklan ingin menawarkan suatu cara baru, yang berbeda dari hal sebelum-sebelumnya, dengan menggunakan teknologi untuk memenuhi kebutuhan wanita dalam hal kecantikan dan pelangsingan. kata terobosan terbaru mengacu untuk para konsumen yang sudah bosan atau tidak mempan dengan cara yang sudah 92 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 ada selama ini. kata terbaru juga dapat memancing orang yang menyukai hal-hal baru untuk sekadar ingin tahu walaupun tidak membutuhkan, yang biasa disebut neomania. pada era globalisasi setiap manusia mulai menggantungkan segala kebutuhan pada teknologi. pembuat iklan ini juga ingin menawarkan teknologi untuk memudahkan memenuhi kebutuhan konsumen. teknologi seperti apa yang ditawarkan, tertera pada subjudul iklan. pada bagian subjudul tertulis cellu m6 endermolab & cellu m6 integral. alat estetika tercanggih buatan lpg system perancis, teknologi modern yang mengutamakan keberhasilan serta kenyamanan bagi setiap pelanggan. pada bagian subjudul pembuat iklan menjelaskan lebih detail teknologi seperti apa yang ditawarkan, sehingga konsumen tidak ragu untuk mencoba teknologi ini. kecenderungan orang indonesia adalah menyukai produk luar negeri karena produk luar dianggap lebih berfokus pada kualitas. hal ini disebabkan oleh pembuat iklan dalam negeri yang berfokus pada kuantitas, sehingga menghasilkan produk asal jadi yang membuat konsumen indonesia tidak yakin terhadap produk dalam negeri. keraguan terhadap produk sendiri juga dipertimbangkan oleh pembuat iklan, dilihat dari kalimat alat estetika tercanggih buatan lpg system perancis. tidak hanya itu, pembuat iklan juga meyakinkan calon konsumen dengan menawarkan “keberhasilan” dan “kenyamanan”. keberhasilan ditawarkan untuk menyakinkan calon konsumen bahwa uang yang mereka keluarkan tidak akan menjadi sia-sia. sementara kenyamanan ditawarkan untuk meyakinkan calon konsumen bahwa proses teknologi ini tidak akan menyakiti pelanggan dan memberikan efek samping yang buruk. pada bagian subjudul ini pembuat iklan menawarkan konsep teknologi untuk menarik kepercayaan konsumen pada produk yang dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut. tabel 2 konsep teknologi yang ditawarkan buatan luar negeri mengutamakan kualitas produk berhasil mendapatkan hasil yang diharapkan nyaman tidak sakit dan tanpa efek samping pada bagian teks, tertulis alat estetika ini telah teruji secara klinis sangat efektif untuk perawatan kecantikan (anti-aging redensification/ endermolift) serta pelangsingan (slimming activation/ lippomassage) untuk menghaluskan wajah serta kulit anda, menghilangkan kerut-kerut serta tanda-tanda penuaan, menghilangkan noda/flek di wajah, menghilangkan kantung mata, mencerahkan wajah, serta menjaga elastisitas kulit. efektif juga untuk menghilangkan selulit dan stretchmark, membuang lemak-lemak di area tertentu yang diinginkan. pada kalimat alat estetika ini telah teruji secara klinis sangat efektif untuk perawatan kecantikan, pembuat iklan menekankan kembali keberhasilan yang bisa didapatkan konsumen. pembuat iklan – untuk mendapatkan kepercayaan konsumen – menekankan bahwa teknologi ini sudah pernah diuji kembali secara klinis dan terbukti efektif untuk perawatan kecantikan. pada isi teks ini, ada dua konsep cantik yang dijabarkan, yakni: tabel 3 konsep cantik masa kini tubuh langsing, tidak ada selulit, tidak ada lemak paras muka kulit wajah halus, tidak ada kerutan dan tanda penuaan, tidak ada noda/flek hitam, tidak ada kantung mata, wajah cerah, dan kulit wajah elastis jika dibandingkan dengan konsep tubuh cantik tempo dulu yang mengedepankan tubuh segar, sehat, dan cantik terpancar dari dalam tubuh, konsep cantik modern terpancar dari luar tubuh wanita yang berciri-ciri langsing, tanpa cacat, dan kencang. konsep cantik telah berubah; dahulu mengedepankan bahwa tubuh yang cantik berasal dari dalam tubuh, sekarang mengedepankan tubuh yang cantik berasal dari luar tubuh. langsing berarti tidak gemuk, tanpa cacat berarti tanpa selulit dan bulu, dan kencang yang berarti tidak ada lemak menumpuk pada tubuh. semua hal ini sebenarnya bisa didapatkan dengan berolahraga. dengan demikian, sasaran konsumen dari teknologi pelangsingan ini adalah wanita menengah ke atas dan ibu rumah tangga yang tidak memiliki waktu untuk berolahraga ataupun yang malas berolahraga. teknologi ini ditawarkan untuk setiap wanita yang tidak mau membuang waktu lama untuk mendapatkan tubuh dan wajah yang mereka inginkan. jika dibandingkan dengan konsep paras wajah cantik tempo dulu yang mengedepankan wajah yang cantik anggun, segar, dan berseri, sesuai dengan standar usia masing-masing generasi, konsep wajah cantik masa kini menawarkan kecantikan sebagaimana ciri-ciri yang dimiliki oleh wanita generasi 20-an, tidak berkerut, kulit wajah elastis, tidak kusam, dan sebagainya. konsep cantik yang ditawarkan ini merujuk pada wanita-wanita yang sudah termakan usia namun tidak mau menerima takdir bahwa kecantikan yang mereka miliki pada usia 20-an sampai 30-an akan memudar dan lama-lama akan menghilang. ini adalah suatu ketakutan para wanita usia 35 ke atas masa kini yang sering dimanfaatkan oleh pembuat iklan untuk menciptakan inovasi terbaru untuk mengantisipasi ketakutan para wanita tersebut, termasuk pembuat iklan ini. dengan demikian, melalui teori konotasi barthes, konsep cantik tubuh dan wajah dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut. tabel 4 konsep cantik tubuh denotasi segar dan sehat konotasi langsing (tidak gemuk), tidak cacat (selulit), dan kencang (tidak ada lemak menumpuk di bagian tertentu) konsep/ ideologi tubuh yang cantik adalah tubuh yang ideal secara fisik dan enak dipandang mata telanjang 93konsep cantik .... (dian natashia) hal ini senada dengan pembahasan penelitian yang dilakukan aisyiyah (2013) bahwa perempuan yang termasuk dalam kategori cantik tubuh adalah perempuan yang memiliki bentuk badan yang ramping, perut yang datar, dan lengan yang kencang. kecantikan perempuan dideskripsikan dari penampilan luarnya. tabel 5 konsep cantik wajah denotasi cantik anggun, segar dan berseri sesuai dengan standar tiap generasi konotasi kulit wajah halus, tidak ada kerutan dan tanda penuaan, tidak ada noda/flek hitam, tidak ada kantung mata, wajah cerah, dan kulit wajah elastis konsep/ ideologi wajah yang cantik adalah wajah seperti gadis usia 20-an yang belum menunjukan tanda penuaan. wajah inilah yang paling cantik dan enak dipandang mata telanjang. pada bagian bawah teks, terdapat tulisan dapatkan promo spesial di hari ulang tahun kami dan buy 1 get 1 free. verbal ini merupakan bentuk gaya daya hadiah dengan menjanjikan satu kali perawatan gratis setiap satu kali kedatangan. dilihat dari tanda nonverbal, penggunaan model happi salma menunjukkan gaya daya pengacu yang memakai model ini sebagai referensi kecantikan yang diimpikan setiap wanita dan impression dapat mewujudkan hal itu. jika dilihat dari verbal dalam iklan ini secara keseluruhan, iklan ini menggunakan gaya daya kepakaran karena pembuat iklan seakan-akan mengerti kerisauan dan ketakutan wanita dan tahu jalan keluar untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. jika dilihat dari lokasi perawatan ini dilakukan (pondok indah mall, kelapa gading, greenville), target sasaran konsumen adalah wanita menengah ke atas. simpulan berdasarkan pembahasan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pembuat iklan untuk menarik perhatian konsumen menggunakan unsur representasi sosial saat ini, yaitu konsumen masa kini menyukai hal yang baru, instan, dan hasil maksimal, serta keraguan konsumen akan produk yang belum dikenalnya dan ketakutan wanita terhadap tubuh gemuk dan penuaan karena dimakan usia. relasi kuasa yang digunakan adalah daya hadiah, daya pengacu, dan daya kepakaran untuk menarik perhatian dan kepercayaan konsumen. pada akhirnya, perawatan atau treatment menjadi salah satu aspek budaya modern masa kini. dari pembahasan dapat disimpulkan pula bahwa konsep cantik kekinian adalah tubuh indah yang terpancar dari luar tubuh wanita dan enak dipandang, serta wajah yang cantik adalah wajah yang terlihat muda bagaikan gadis berusia 20-an. daftar pustaka aisyiyah, r. n. (2013). kecantikan dalam iklan: gambaran kecantikan dalam iklan sabun dove di televisi. ejournal ilmu komunikasi, 1(4), 63–80. retrieved from http://ejournal.ilkom.fisip-unmul. ac.id/site/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/copy of jurnal ilkom 1 (11-20-13-01-51-21).pdf albert, k., lingga, m., winata, v., cherly, chandra, h., & michael. (2007). laporan kunjungan ke perpustakaan nasional part 2. retrieved from http://thefantasix.blogspot.co.id/2007/11/laporankunjungan-ke-perpustakaan.html berger, p. l., & luckmann, t. (1966). the social construction of reality. usa: fletcher n son. budianto, i. m. (2001). aplikasi semiotika pada tanda nonverbal. jakarta: pusat penelitian kemasyarakatan dan budaya lembaga penelitian universitas indonesia. cook, g. (2003). the discourse of advertising. new york: routledge. hall, s. (ed.). (1997). representation: cultural representations and signifying practices (culture, media and identities series) (1st ed.). london: sage. kartajaya, h. (2005). winning the mom market in indonesia: strategi membidik pasar ibu. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. lester, g. w. (2014). power with people: how to handle just about anyone, to accomplish just about anything. uk: ashcroft press. muis, a. (2001). indonesia di era dunia maya: teknologi informasi dalam dunia tanpa batas. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. noth, w. (1995). handbook of semiotics. bloomington, indiana: indiana university press. piliang, y. a. (2004). memahami kode-kode budaya. semarang: fakultas sastra undip. sulistyaningrum, r. k. (2011). mitos kecantikan dalam tayangan pemilihan putri indonesia 2009. undip. supriyono, a. (2006). power relation between producers and consumers created in english advertisement. universitas semarang. terobosan terbaru teknologi pelangsingan dan kecantikan. (2014). kartini, 49. tilaar, m. (1999). kecantikan perempuan timur. (d. r. herliany, ed.) (1st ed.). magelang: indonesiatera. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 223 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 223-236 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7627 english lecturers’ digital literacy and their scientific publication: seeking the correlation veni roza* english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training, state islamic institute of bukittinggi jl. gurun aur, kubang puith kab. agam, west sumatera 26181, indonesia veniroz_501@yahoo.com received: 04th august 2021/revised: 17th october 2021/accepted: 22nd october 2021 how to cite: roza, v. (2021). english lecturers’ digital literacy and their scientific publication: seeking the correlation. lingua cultura, 15(2), 223-236. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7627 abstract the research aimed at seeking the correlation between english lecturers’ digital literacy and their productivity in publishing their research articles. it applied a quantitative research by correlating the variables between the online questionnaire result of english lecturers’ digital literacy and lecturers’ scientific publication data from their google scholar accounts and science and technology index portal or sinta portal of the republic of indonesia. the research population was all permanent english lecturers at state islamic higher education in west sumatera. there were 65 respondents in three institutions, but only 85% of participants gave feedback on the online questionnaire. the questionnaire was about the digital literacy of english lecturers in using and finding digital information and technology. the research also accounted online journal publication of each english lecturer in his/her account. to analyze the data, the research used the pearson correlation formula. the finding reveals a positive correlation between english lecturers’ digital literacy and their research publication, as shown by the pearson correlational coefficient, 0,48. the score lies between 0,40-0,59, which is under sufficient category. the result implies that english lecturers’ digital literacy has something to do with publication. the more digitally literate they are, the more productive they will be, even though there are other factors that influence someone to carry out the publication. keywords: digital literacy, scientific publication, english lecturers introduction nowadays, literacy is believed as one essential skill (jeffrey et al., 2017) in competing in the modern global era where everything is handled online. the more someone has competence in using digital literacy, the more successful he/she is in any respect of digital life. when learners know and understand much about information and communication technology, they can be motivated to learn, solve school problems and tasks, and triumph in society (shopova, 2017). for teachers or lecturers, whenever they are digitally literate, many activities can be carried out professionally related to their obligation as educators. it is called the tri dharma of higher education, namely education and teaching, research, and social obedience and services (zain et al., 2017). their achievement in those aspects is well-known as world recognition. in the educational aspect, many researchers have investigated the concept of digital literacy. durriyah and zuhdi (2018) have examined student teacher perceptions about digital literacy in relation to technology integration in teaching and learning. they find several digital platforms used in teaching, namely facebook, whatsapp, skype, and blogs. in line with that, peled (2021) has found a high and positive perception of pre-service teachers about digital readiness and digital literacy in teaching. moreover, there are previous researches that have investigated the digital literacy concept across fields or disciplines. ata and yıldırım (2019) have investigated pre-service teachers’ perception of digital literacy in terms of four predictors: attitude, technical, social, and cognitive. they find the high and positive perception of pre-service teachers in attitude, technical, social, and cognitive factors. in line with that, dedebali (2020) 224 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 in rusydiyah, purwati, and prabowo (2020), and liza and andriyanti (2020) in indonesia, has found high readiness and digital literate of the graduate student in integrating digital technologies in education. in spain, sánchez-cruzado and sánchez-compaña (2021) have also found the readiness of teachers to be highly digital literate due to the pandemic impact. however, there are not many kinds of research about digital literacy for the sake of research and publication. spante and hashemi (2018) have sought the concept of digital literacy and digital competence of higher education research from three databases of scopus, wos, and eric. they find the concept of digital literacy is more frequently used than digital competence even though both definitions are used interchangeably. zain et al. (2017) have found high motivation and very productive malaysian lecturers in publishing their research qualifiedly. in community services, the researcher only finds studies of the traditional concept of digital literacy for social services like being literate in reading and writing. based on those researches, professional educators struggle to fulfill the educational and teaching domain, research, and community services. as long as they have the desire and are supported by skill in processing digital information and technology, doing tri dharma becomes an exciting activity. in fact, among these three obligations, research productivity is left behind (carleton, parkerson, & horswill, 2012), and they are busy with teaching and administration affairs. doing research and publication is media that can be used by educators to promote learning and seek the new model that is from knowledge transfer to knowledge construct (yazon et al., 2019). however, for some cases, to be productive in research through publication and citation is still difficult to carry out. there are individual factors like the perception of getting the benefit, lack of research cost, and institutional factor-like library facilities (anamofa et al., 2019). lecturers can use their knowledge and skill in the digital world to carry out research and publish it in scientific journals. then, they can also cite many other resources and their colleagues. they can find many references digitally and read a lot. after that, they can do research and write it. novelty innovation of learning models can be created from the result of their researches and disseminated through that publication (liu et al., 2020). for some lecturers, doing publication is challenging and difficult to carry out, so they are stagnant at the same level of position or academic function for a long period in one institution (anamofa & nanuru, 2019). based on the phenomena found in the field, not all english lecturers at iain bukittinggi are able to publish their scientific writing or article in the journal, even though they have english capability and are demanded to undertake research and publish the output in a scientific journal. this becomes one of the indicators of deciding someone to get allowances or not. the publication carried out by lecturers will impact not only the lecturers themselves but also the institution. the first rank campus is indicated by the highest rate of lecturers’ publication in reputed and accredited journals. in fact, many english lecturers are not able to publish their articles even though they have english competence and know digital information and technology around them. it is seen from the functional level, which is mostly at lektor (lecturer). based on this, the research needs to investigate the correlation between english lecturers’ digital literacy and their research publication. methods the method applied in the research is a correlational design to see the correlation between english lecturers’ digital literacy based on their perceptions and their research publication. to collect data about the variables, the research uses an online questionnaire for digital literacy perceptions and numerical data for english lecturers publication in the last three years (2019-2021) from the sinta portal by the ministry of higher education of indonesia at http://sinta.ristekbrin.go.id/, and their google scholar accounts. the research participants are all permanent english lecturers in state islamic higher education institution in west sumatera iain bukittinggi, iain batusangkar, and uin imam bonjol padang. there are 65 english lecturers in three intuitions. however, only 85% of lecturers give feedback. the questionnaire is created in google form and shared a link to their whatsapp group of english lecturers and emails. it consists of 35 items on the guttmann scale with yes and no choices in order to get a firm answer (sari & roza, 2021). yes answer gets a score of 1, and no is 0. the rubric of the questionnaire is adapted from yazon et al. (2019), who have investigated the correlation between digital literacy, digital competence, and educators’ productivity in research. table 1 shows the indicator of digital literacy. table 1 indicator of digital literacy no indicator item no. amount 1. digital literacy in terms of finding information 1-9 9 2. digital literacy in terms of using information 10-16 7 3. digital literacy in terms of creating information 17-24 8 4. digital literacy in terms of applying digital resources 25-27 3 5 digital literacy in terms of understanding digital practices 28-35 8 total 35 225english lecturers’ digital.... (veni roza) meanwhile, the indicator of english lecturer publication based on the rubric of accreditation rubric (ban pt, 2019) for research outcome can be seen in table 2. table 2 english lecturer publication in last three years no initial of english lecturer kind of publication amount 1. national journal accredited national journal international journal reputed international journal local seminar national seminar international seminar national mass media international mass media total to analyze data, the research uses spss 20 software by using the pearson correlation. the correlation magnitude is checked by interpretation of table by gay and mills (2016). it can be seen in table 3. table 3 magnitude of correlation no coefficient magnitude of correlation 1. 0,80 – 1,00 very strong 2. 0,60 – 0,79 strong 3. 0,40 – 0,59 sufficient 4. 0,20 – 0,39 weak 5. 0 – 0,19 very weak based on table 3, the magnitude of the correlation is divided into five, namely very weak for a score ranging between 0-0,19; weak for 0,2-0,39; sufficient 0,4-0,59; strong for 0,6-0,79, and very strong for 0,8-1,00. results and discussions the questionnaire results show the english lecturers’ perception of their digital literacy in five questions. they are digital literacy in finding information, digital literacy in using information, digital literacy in creating information, digital literacy in using digital resources, and digital literacy in understanding digital practices. these results of the questionnaire (yes/no answers) are beneficial to seek the correlation between digital literacy and publication. it can be seen in table 4. table 4 english lecturers’ perception of digital literacy no indicator mean score percentage 1. digital literacy in terms of finding information 13,7 25% 2. digital literacy in terms of using information 18,4 33% 3. digital literacy in terms of creating information 16,1 29% 4. digital literacy in terms of applying digital resources 17 30.67% 5 digital literacy in terms of understanding digital practices 14,6 26,5% based on table 4, five indicators are asked related to english lecturers’ digital literacy. the highest mean score of digital literacy that the english lecturers positively perceived is in using information 33%, in applying digital resources is 30,67%, in creating information is 29%, in understanding digital practices is 26,5%, and in finding information is 25%. from this finding, it can be inferred that using digital information is mostly positively perceived by english lecturers. it is because the action of using is easy to carry out, and it is lower than the action of creating based on the taxonomy (covello, 2017). it can also be inferred that english lecturers are quite literate in digital information and technology, as mentioned in redecker (2017) and lankshear and knobel (2008). they say that educators need to have digital literacy in order to be professional educators who will produce digitally literate learners and improve research productivity quality and quantity (okiki & iyabo, 2013). to make each indicator clearer, here is in detail each aspect in table 5. table 5 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in finding information no statement score % digital literacy in terms of finding information 1 i know what information i can find on the web. 14 25% 2 i know what information i can find in an online library. 6 11% 3 i use advanced search options to limit and refine my search. 16 29% 4 i use keywords commonly used in my discipline to search for information online. 12 22% 5 i use social networks as a source of information. 15 27% 6 i know when to change my search strategy or stop searching. 12 22% 226 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 no statement score % 7 i filter large numbers of search results quickly. 17 31% 8 i do scanning/skimming a web page to get to the key relevant information quickly. 16 29% 9 i keep up-to-date with information from authoritative people or organisations by subscribing to really simple syndication (rss) feeds. 16 29% mean 13,7 25% based on table 5, nine items are asked about english lecturers’ perception of their digital literacy in finding information. the highest score is filtering a large number of search results quickly 31%, after that in scanning/skimming a web page 29%, keeping updated with information from authoritative people 29%, and using advanced search options 29%. after that, they positively perceive that they use social networks as a source of information 27%, know what information that they can find on the web 25%, use keywords to search information online, and know when to change search strategy 22%. this means that english lecturers have some strategies in mind for getting prominent information through the social network they have, like facebook, instagram, whatsapp group, and others. the lowest score is in item 2 in knowing information from the online library. it is due to some reasons like the online library is not open access, so it is lower perceived by respondents. table 6 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in using information no statement score % digital literacy in terms of using information 10 i use information in different media, for example, podcasts or videos. 10 18% 11 i assess whether an online resource (e.g., web page, blog, wiki, video, podcast, academic journal article) or person is credible and trustworthy. 23 42% 12 i use other people’s work (found online) without committing plagiarism. 21 38% 13 i cite a reference to an online resource (e.g., in an assignment) using the correct format. 19 34% 14 i keep a record of the relevant details of information i find online. 25 46% no statement score % 15 i use social bookmarking to organise and share information. 11 20% 16 i share files legally with others. 20 36% mean 18,4 33% based on table 6, seven items are asked about using information. english lecturers positively perceive keeping a record of the relevant details of information 46%, in assessing whether an online resource is credible and trustworthy 42%. after that, they use other work without committing plagiarism 38%, share files legally with others 36%, cite a reference using correct format 34%, and use social bookmarking 20%. the lowest score is in using the information in different media like podcasts, 18%. it can be said that english lecturers keep a good ethic when using information. they do citations and use correct references because plagiarism in academic work is a crime. khathayut and walker-gleaves (2021) have mentioned that higher education staff can avoid plagiarism by keeping writing honestly through paraphrasing. table 7 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in creating information no statement score % digital literacy in terms of creating information 17 i add comments to blogs, forums or web pages, observing netiquette and appropriate social conventions for online communications. 20 36% 18 i write online for different audiences, e.g., a web page or blog entry for private use, for reading by your fellow students, for reading by my tutor, or for reading by anyone in the world. 20 36% 19 i write in different media for people to read on-screen. 15 27% 20 i communicate with others online (forums, blogs, social networking sites, audio, video, etc.) 12 22% 21 i work with others online to create a shared document or presentation. 19 34% 22 i use media-capture devices, e.g., recording and editing a podcast or video. 8 14% 23 i know how to submit my writing online. 15 27% 24 i can use ojs for my article enrichment. 20 36% mean 16,1 29% table 5 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in finding information (continued) table 6 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in using information (continued) 227english lecturers’ digital.... (veni roza) based on table 7, eight items are asked to the english lecturers about creating information. 36% of respondents answer yes that they use ojs for their article, add comments in the forum, and write online for the audience. working with others online is 34%, writing in different media and knowing how to submit writing online is 27%, communicating with others online is 22%. the lowest score is that they use media capture 14%. it is because mostly they are reluctant to record or take a picture for public consumption. table 8 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in terms of digital resources no statement score % digital literacy in terms of digital resources 25 i use different internet sites and search strategies to find and select a range of different digital resources. 16 29% 26 i create my own digital resources and modify existing ones to adapt them to my needs. 19 34% 27 i effectively protect sensitive content, e.g., exams, students' grades, personal data 16 29% mean 17 30.67% based on table 8, three items are asked to respondents related to digital resources. respondents mostly perceive that they create their own digital resources 34%. they use different internet sites and protect their sensitive content 29%. it can be inferred that english lecturers perceive they are quite literate in creating their own digital resources and modifying them. it is proved by digital resources made by some english lecturers’ shared via whatsapp group. the english lessons created on youtube aim to share the english content via youtube and facebook. this link is shared for the sake of knowledge and the likes of the netters. table 9 english lecturers’ perception about digital literacy in understanding digital practices no statement score % digital literacy in terms of understanding digital practices 28 i know what categories of users i can expect to find online. 14 25% 29 i explain what happens to information i put online: my digital footprint. 15 27% 30 i choose the right tool to find, use, or create information. 10 18% 31 i present myself online: my digital identity. 13 24% 32 i find a person online, for example an expert in my discipline, and establishing their contact details. 20 36% 33 i use online tools and websites to find and record information online. 12 22% 34 i establish who owns information and ideas i find online. 11 20% 35 i establish what online information i can legally re-use. 22 40% mean 14,6 26,5% based on table 9, eight items are asked in the questionnaire related to understanding digital practices. the english lecturers mostly perceive that they establish what online information they can legally reuse 40%. after that, they can find a person online 36%, explain what happens to the information they table 10 english lecturers’ publication in the last three years no initial publication no initial publication no initial publication no initial publication 1. vr 11 15. pu 12 29. mn 6 43. df 15 2. mm 5 16. il 14 30. fr 6 44. ew 18 3. ak 15 17. ty 18 31. we 14 45. we 14 4. ll 11 18. lh 14 32. qw 18 46. zs 12 5. hpp 10 19. op 10 33. as 5 47. vb 14 6. mpd 12 20. se 15 34. iu 7 48. za 14 7. ws 12 21. yu 15 35. hj 18 49. kh 16 8. gs 14 22. op 9 36. vb 15 50. hg 14 9. s 19 23. tg 14 37. fs 18 51. bn 15 10. e 4 24. er 16 38. rw 17 52. ft 5 11. rf 17 25. fg 14 39. zs 17 53. bf 11 12. ls 23 26. es 18 40. gh 18 54. hy 18 13. ab 13 27. kl 12 41. cv 7 55. ht 4 14. sd 17 28. mk 21 42. th 15 228 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 put online 27%, know what categories of users they find online 25%, present themselves online 24%, use online tools to find online information 22%, and the lower score is in choosing the right tool in creating information 18%. it can be said that english lecturers’ perception of their digital literacy is positive. it is in line with lankshear and knobe (2008), and bawden (2008) have said that digital literacy is the ability to understand information however it is presented (spoken or written) not only to read and to write. besides presenting the data of english lecturers, the researcher also exhibits the data of english lecturer publications that have been obtained from google scholar in the last three years (2019-2021). the researcher counts all publications of english lecturers in national journals, accredited national journals, international journals, reputed international journals, local seminars, national seminars, international seminars, national mass media, and international mass media, which exist in their accounts. table 10 shows the recapitulation data of english lecturers’ publication in the last three years (see appendix for the full description). table 10 is simplified since the researcher just needs the nominal number. based on the appendix of english lecturers’ publications, english lecturers mostly publish their articles in accredited journals and international seminars in proceedings. they rarely publish in national and international mass media seen from their google scholar. it is due to some reason like they get low points when publishing writing to them. it is also very challenging for english lecturers to publish in reputed international journals indicated by a few numbers of english professors in uin padang, iain batusangkar, and iain bukittinggi. the researcher uses the pearson correlation formula to find the correlation between english lecturers’ perception of digital literacy and their productivity in publication. it is because both variables are symmetric, and the data used are numeric. table 11 shows the result of data analysis (output of spss20). based on table 11, the pearson correlation is 0,408. the score ranges between 0,40–0,59, which is under the category of sufficient consulted to the interpretation of the table by gay and mills (2016). there is a positive and sufficient correlation between english lecturers’ perception of digital literacy and their research productivity in publication. this finding is in line with covello (2017), carleton, parkerson, and horswill (2012), and yazon et al. (2019), who find digital literacy becomes the main key to be productive in publishing the research articles. the publication carried out by lecturers gives benefit to parties, lecturers, and institutions. even though those researchers find strong correlations between digital literacy and productivity in research, the result remains positive. however, in the research, the magnitude is still sufficient, which means not strong nor weak. english lecturers still need to improve their research outcome, namely publication in terms of quantity and quality, as suggested by okiki and iyabo (2013). furthermore, the english lecturers still need to improve their literacy in digital information and technology if they have lower publication rates, which is persistently carried out through learning autodidact, by peers or joining ict training or workshop (okiki & iyabo, 2013; bhukuvhani, chiparausha, & zuvalinyenga 2017). table 11 output of spss20 (descriptive statistics and correlations) descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation x 55 6 34 16,55 5,477 y 55 4 23 13,38 4,487 valid n (listwise) 55 correlations x y x pearson correlation 1 0,408** sig. (2-tailed) 0,002 n 55 55 y pearson correlation 0,408** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0,002 n 55 55 **. correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed). conclusions from these findings, it can be concluded that there is a positive correlation between english lecturers’ digital literacy and their productivity in publication. the strength of the relationship is sufficient. it means that the more digitally literate someone in ict (information and communication technology) is, the more productive he/she is in publication. it also implies that the sufficient is not strong nor weak, indicating that other factors influence the publication like personal factor, time management, willingness to share knowledge, and benefit or lack of research cost. institution factor also affects the lecturers’ productivity, like insufficient facilities in the library. the research is still conducted in the local area, so the result cannot be generalized to all english lecturers at islamic higher education in indonesia. moreover, it is suggested to conduct further research in relation to digital information and technology and citation and society services. references anamofa, j., & nanuru, r., suhardi., lekahena, v., cahyono, t. d., …latupapua, m. 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(2019). digital literacy, digital competence and research productivity of educators. universal journal of educational research, 7(8), 1734-1743. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070812. zain, s. m., ab-rahman, m. s., ihsan, a. k. a., zahrim, a., nor, m. j. m., zain, m. f. m., …ghopa, w. a. w. (2017). motivation for research and publication: experience as a researcher and an academic. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 18, 213219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.05.030. 230 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 appendix table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 1. vr national journal 4 5 hpp national journal accredited national journal 1 accredited national journal 3 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 6 international seminar 7 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 11 total 10 2 mm national journal 6 mpd national journal accredited national journal 1 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 4 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 5 total 12 3. ak national journal 9 7 ws national journal accredited national journal 0 accredited national journal 2 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 6 international seminar 10 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 12 4 ll national journal 0 8 gs national journal accredited national journal 3 accredited national journal 5 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 11 total 14 231english lecturers’ digital.... (veni roza) table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 9 s national journal 6 13 ab national journal accredited national journal 10 accredited national journal 9 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 3 international seminar 4 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 19 total 13 10 e national journal 14 sd national journal accredited national journal 2 accredited national journal 8 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 2 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 4 total 17 11 rf national journal 15 pu national journal accredited national journal 5 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 12 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 17 total 12 12 ls national journal 16 il national journal accredited national journal 15 accredited national journal 5 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 23 total 14 232 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 17 ty national journal 21 yu national journal accredited national journal 7 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 11 international seminar 11 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 18 total 15 18 lh national journal 2 22 op national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 1 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 14 total 9 19 op national journal 23 tg national journal 2 accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 6 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 10 total 14 20 se national journal 24 er national journal accredited national journal 7 accredited national journal 7 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 16 233english lecturers’ digital.... (veni roza) table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 25 fg national journal 29 mn national journal accredited national journal 6 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 2 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 14 total 6 26 es national journal 30 fr national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 14 international seminar 2 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 18 total 6 27 kl national journal 31 we national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 10 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 12 total 14 28 mk national journal 32 qw national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 17 international seminar 14 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 21 total 18 234 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 33 as national journal 37 fs national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 1 international seminar 14 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 5 total 18 34 iu national journal 38 rw national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 8 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 3 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 7 total 17 35 hj national journal 39 zs national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 14 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 18 total 17 36 vb national journal 40 gh national journal accredited national journal 1 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 14 international seminar 14 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 18 235english lecturers’ digital.... (veni roza) table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 41 cv national journal 45 we national journal 2 accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 3 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 7 total 14 42 th national journal 46 zs national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 11 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 12 43 df national journal 47 vb national journal 2 accredited national journal 7 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 8 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 14 44 ew national journal 48 za national journal 2 accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 14 international seminar 8 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 18 total 14 236 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 223-236 table 10 appendix of lecturers’ publication (continued) no initial kind of publication amount no initial kind of publication amount 49 kh national journal 53 bf national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 2 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 12 international seminar 9 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 16 total 11 50 hg national journal 54 hy national journal accredited national journal 4 accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 10 international seminar 14 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 14 total 18 51 bn national journal 55 ht national journal accredited national journal 1 accredited national journal 1 international journal 0 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 14 international seminar 3 national mass media 0 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 15 total 4 52 ft national journal accredited national journal 4 international journal 0 reputed international journal 0 local seminar 0 national seminar 0 international seminar 1 national mass media 0 international mass media 0 total 5 inaccuracy in indonesian subtitles of the king’s speech movie (2010) dessy burliani1; menik winiharti2 1,2 english department, faculty of humanities, binus university jl. kemanggisanilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 menikwiniharti@yahoo.com received: 23th february 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 4th may 2016 how to cite: burliani, d., winiharti, m. (2016). innacuracy in indonesian subtitiles of the king’s speech movie (2010). lingua cultura, 10(1). 57-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.923 abstract movie subtitles is a product of translations, so the rules of translations must be followed. the research explored how translation mistakes in indonesian subtitles of “the king’s speech” movie (2010) and distort the meaning of the original utterances. the data were the dialogues in english and their indonesian translations. qualitative method was applied in this research. the analysis was done by comparing the meaning of the original utterances and their indonesian subtitles. it is found that the types of mistakes that mostly occurred in the indonesian subtitles of the movie were ambiguity and omission mistakes. to avoid these mistakes, the context of the original utterance must be considered. in general, it can be concluded that accuracy in subtitling should be taken into account. keywords: translation inaccuracy, indonesian subtitles, the king’s speech introduction translation is a process of transferring the meaning from one language to another language with the closest natural equivalent. (larson, 1998; nida & taber, 2003) it reproduces the message into another language by making good grammatical and lexical adjustments. (nida & taber, 2003) the best translation should not sound like a translation. it should be natural, as what nida & taber (2003) have proposed. meanwhile, larson (1998) has proposed accuracy, clarity, and naturalness as criteria for an objective evaluation of a translation. it is important for a text to be accurate, which means that a translation should convey every information from the source language. a translation should also provide clarity which means that the translated message should be understandable, without causing ambiguity. it should also be natural in the target language in that it has to be adjusted with the target language’s grammatical structure and idiomatic form. as one tool that enables people who speak different languages to understand each other, translation is applied in some aspects of human life, such as business, education, and even entertainment industry. in entertainment industry, especially in indonesia, many, if not all, foreign movies are equipped with indonesian translation in a form of subtitle. as the application of translation, subtitles and dubbing also have the same principles as the translation, which is to transfer the meaning from the original language into the target language. gonzales (2009) has stated that audio visual translation concerns with transferring the multimedia texts into another language and/or culture. meanwhile, zojer (2011) has pointed out that a good translator does not merely master both the source language and the target language, but he/she should have a “detailed knowledge of the culture of the country or countries in which the source language is spoken.” on the other hand, bittner (2011), has found that in providing a subtitle, there is a “shifting ground on which the subtitles has to translate dialogue into subtitles: while in some cases the ideal translation is the result of purely linguistic considerations, in others it follows contextual clues at the expense of semantic appropriateness.” while focusing on the target text a translator will produce, he/ she should be aware of source text, text form, culture, politics, client, the translator him/herself, and the institution behind. furthermore, chuang (2006) has pointed out that the materiality could affect the way a spoken utterance was translated. he suggested that a translator should integrate the meanings of a certain section of dialogues, moving images and music. one type of audio-visual translations is subtitling. subtitles or captions are transcriptions of the dialogues that are shown on the screen. it usually consists of 2 lines with maximum 35 to 40 characters (munday, 2012). with regard to this, caimi (2009) has stated that one important point is that “subtitles should convey the relevant information and linguistic nuances contained in the original dialogue to satisfy second language audience needs.” in other words, lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 57-62 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.923 57 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 58 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 57-62 the target of the translation of languages in the audio-visual media is that the audience can comprehend the language of the translation. however, some foreign movies are equipped with some unsuitable subtitles. the subtitles may contain some errors that possibly make the audience confused. one example comes from a movie entitled american beauty (1999). in one of the lines, there is an utterance: “nobody’s getting fired yet”. the indonesian subtitle provided is “takkan ada yang dipecat” which shows a different meaning from the message in the original utterance. based on the context of the movie, i t should be “belum ada yang dipecat”. the difference of meaning could actually distort the understanding of the audience since the message of “takkan” and “belum” are totally different. for people who can understand the original language, the meaning of the dialogue can be understood. however, for people who only rely on the subtitle to understand the meaning, this kind of mistakes can be a problem toward the whole understanding of the movie’s story. with regard to the errors in subtitling, olúdáre (2013) has proposed that visual and thematic thrust are not the only components to consider in providing subtitles. the industry should equally consider the grammaticality and accuracy of the subtitles so that the audience who do not speak the source language can gain the benefit. meanwhile, rahayu (2004) explored the mistakes that mostly occur in the american beauty’s indonesian subtitle. she has found that (1) two kinds of mistakes that occur are the misleading mistakes and the nuanced mistakes, (2) the misleading mistake is the one which mostly occur, and (3) the general quality of the subtitle is good. furthermore, samsidi (2009) has discovered the misleading translation of the indonesian subtitle in love actually movie. she has found that there are two types of misleading mistakes that occur, referential and linguistics mistakes. the referential mistake is the one which mostly occur while the linguistic mistake is found less. reading the indonesian subtitles in english movies is always interesting since the mistakes may always occur. this study investigates the translation mistakes that occur in a movie’s subtitle. it identifies the types of the mistakes and provides suggestion for the mistakes found. methods the media that is used to be analyzed is the king’s speech movie (2010) by tom hooper in the form of the original dvd with indonesian and english subtitles. from this movie, the two versions of the subtitles – indonesian and english – become the focus of the study. the king’s speech movie has been chosen because of its historical and cultural background, which delivers british’s values and also some specific british utterances from the 1920s, which are mostly different from british english nowadays. moreover, this movie is about politics and contains some political terms. its subtitle is a good sample to be investigated since the subtitle of this movie must deliver the meaning from british english, also british political terms to indonesian. to understand the whole story, the movie is watched for three times. then it is watched again to record the indonesian subtitle. while all the processes with the dvd have been done, the next step is to get the original english script from the internet. it is obtained from imsdb.com. this script is needed to make sure that the dialogues from the subtitles in the dvd are correct. after the data are collected, the next step taken is analysis. the english dialogues and indonesian subtitles are compared to find whether the indonesian translations convey the original messages. thus, the main focus of the analysis is of accuracy. the analysis mostly consults oxford collocations dictionary (2009). from the comparison, any meaning differences found are listed as meaning mistakes. these mistakes are then classified according to the grammatical structure, whether the subtitle has a mistake in terms of changing the structure, or it is a reference mistake. afterward, a better subtitle with a more accurate meaning is suggested in order to fix the mistakes. results and discussions the king’s speech (2010) tells the story of king george vi, known as bertie. he has a speech difficulty, which makes him stammering when he speaks in front of people. bertie tries to cure his stammering habit. one day, his wife, the duchess of york, asks him to meet logue, who then trains him to speak in front of people. logue has changed bertie’s life by curing his speech difficulty, as well as his mind. he then becomes a friend and helper of bertie. in this movie, the indonesian subtitles consist of 1.365 lines. there are 34 lines having mistakes in terms of accuracy. these mistakes can be classified into some categories which are based on the structure or grammar. the followings are examples of each category. ambiguity happens when a word has more than one meaning. ambiguity may cause the translation to have differences in meaning. in this kind of mistake, there are some words which have two or more meanings. a word can be translated into an indonesian word whose meaning is not suitable for the context or the speaker’s intende d meaning. the first example comes from the first line of the subtitle, at the beginning of the movie, when the duke of york, at that time, is told by the radio officer, to get ready because he would have his speech in two minutes. this is the first utterance of the movie. the duke of york is sitting down while the officer is telling him to get ready, as seen in table 1. table 1 lexical ambiguity mistake english utterance: radio officer: you're live in two minutes, your royal highness. indonesian subtitle: giliranmu dalam 2 menit, yang mulia. the officer said, “you’re live in two minutes, your royal highness.” the officer clearly states what the duke of york would do. the duke would have a speech which would be broadcasted live, in front of english people in the stadium and also to the people who are at home. the words you’re live is translated into giliranmu. giliranmu literally means your turn. in this case, the meaning of you’re live can be delivered by using giliranmu if it is seen without a context. however, in the movie, there is a context that has to be considered by the subtitle. giliranmu does not deliver clearly the context in which 59inaccuracy in indonesian subtitles .... (dessy burliani; menik winiharti) the duke will have a speech. giliranmu only delivers that the duke will do something, but that does not deliver what he would do. without translating the utterance clearly, the audience will not know what would happen next since it is the first scene. you’re live has to be interpreted clearly by the audience to understand the storyline. therefore, the suggested translation is “anda akan siaran langsung dalam dua menit, yang mulia.” there is one mistake related to noun phrase. this mistake in the structure of noun phrase affects the meaning that is delivered to the audience. the sentence is spoken by the duchess when logue asks her how could she find him. she answers that she knows him from the president of the society for speech therapists, as seen in table 2. table 2 noun phrase mistake english utterance: the duchess: the president of the society for speech therapists. indonesian subtitle: presiden dari terapis pidato sosial the noun phrase the president of the society for speech therapists is translated into presiden dari terapis pidato sosial. the two of them are noun phrases. both the society for speech therapists and terapis pidato sosial modify the noun president. however, the translation delivers inaccurate meaning. in the original utterance, the society for speech therapists modifies president. inside the structure of the society for speech therapists, society is the head, while the word speech therapists modifies the word society. from the meaning perspective, the society for speech therapists means a society of the therapists that has specialty in helping people with difficulty in speaking. in other words, this is a community of speech therapists. on the other hand, terapis pidato sosial does not deliver the original structure and meaning. terapis pidato sosial does modify the word president. however, the head of this noun phrase is terapis which means therapist. it refers to social therapists for speech, whose meaning is unclear. therefore, the two heads of the noun phrases are different. the subtitle does not deliver the original utterance. in addition, the word society and speech are translated inaccurately. thus, it makes the meaning of the whole phrase incorrect. the first mistake happens to the word society which is translated into sosial. the word sosial cannot be used to represent the meaning of society. the meanings of these two words are different. sosial means social in english. social is an adjective while the word society is a noun. they are clearly different. in this context, society should be translated into masyarakat or kumpulan. the second mistake can be spotted in the translation of the word speech. it is translated into pidato. however, what the word speech means in this context is the another meaning, which is the ability to speak. this meaning should be translated into the word wicara. thus, the suggested translation is presiden dari masyarakat terapis wicara. there are some collocations used in the movie. however, only one collocation that is mistranslated by the translator. the collocation mistake happens when david, who has become a king, tells bertie that he has to give up his position for love. david tells him that he has made a decision to leave the throne for bertie. david wants to leave his throne to marry mrs. wallis simpson because the king is not allowed to marry a widow, as seen in table 3. table 3 collocation mistake english utterance: bertie, the decision's been made. i... indonesian subtitle: bertie, keputusan telah ditetapkan. david tells bertie about the decision he has made. he has to leave his position and gives it to bertie. the sentence bertie, the decision’s been made is translated into bertie, keputusan telah ditetapkan. in this context, based on oxford collocations dictionary (2009) it needs to be considered that the decision’s been made carries more than just a literal meaning. in indonesian, the expression the decision’s been made should be translated into keputusan telah diambil. even though the literal meaning of the expression is keputusan telah dibuat, in indonesian keputusan and diambil are words that form collocation. it is more natural to use the word diambil than dibuat. thus, the suggested translation should be bertie, keputusan telah diambil. the mistakes of this kind occur regarding the incorrect interpretation of a pronoun. in this case, the translator mistranslated the pronoun, when the pronoun actually represents something else. the mistake in this example happens on the pronoun she. lionel is picked up by his son using an old car they have. as soon as he enters the car, lionel talks to his son about the car, while patting the dashboard of it. he addresses the car as she, as seen in table 4. table 4 pronoun mistake english utterance: logue: she's still sounding a bit rough. his son: you make me drive too slowly, dad. indonesian subtitle: dia masih terdengar agak kasar/ kau paksa aku menyetir begitu pelan, ayah. it is a usual thing in english to address a thing as a she. however, it is unusual in the indonesian language.the word she addresses the car. in indonesian word, the pronoun that is usually used as a translation of she is dia. however, in the indonesian language, a car cannot be substituted with the word dia. the word dia is usually used to refer to living things, mostly humans. consequently, the word dia is not suitable in this case. indonesian pronouns that can be used to refer things like car are ini and itu. ini is more suitable for the context since ini is used for an object which is close in distance. however, the usage of ini does not deliver a clear meaning. the audience might not understand what ini refers to. therefore, an addition should be made to make the message clearer. the sentence is about a car, so the word mobil, which means car, should be added. thus, she in this 60 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 57-62 context should be translated into mobil ini. some of the subtitles do not translate the english words. they are typed in english. it is not a problem if there is no indonesian definition for the words, or it is a quotation. however, some of the english words have indonesian definition, yet they are not translated. the mistake which displays inaccuracy is the part when lionel logue is explaining what he would do to the duke of york to help him. logue uses a medical term, which is not translated into indonesian words. though, an indonesian word exists for this english word, as seen in table 5. table 5 not translated part mistake english utterance: strengthening your diaphragm. simple mechanics. indonesian subtitle: memperkuat diaphragm. mekanisme sederhana. the word diaphragm is written as it is in the subtitle. it is not translated into an indonesian word. however, there is an indonesian word for it, which is diafragma. the untranslated word diaphragm will lead into confusion somehow. therefore, it should be translated, as what the translator does to the word “mechanics”, that is translated into mekanisme. there are also mistakes that are caused by omitting one or more words from the utterances. in this example, the words are spoken by the duke of york as an anger expression towards his therapist. earlier, the therapist has forced him to insert some ice cubes into his mouth to relax his muscle. after being alone, he releases his anger by saying the sentences below, as seen in table 6. table 6 omission mistake english utterance: duke of york: insert marbles. he can insert his own bloody marbles. indonesian subtitle: masukkan es batu. dia bisa masukkan sendiri ke mulutnya. the words bloody marbles are not translated in the subtitle. it is omitted from the sentence. those words refer to ice cubes. in the first sentence, the word marbles is translated into es batu. however, on the second sentence, bloody marbles is not translated. instead, the word ke mulutnya is added. it makes sense; however, it is inaccurate to convey the anger of the duke. the word bloody expresses anger. to convey the right feeling of the context, it is a must to insert a word that represents his anger. bloody is a curse word. to express the feeling in the original utterance, the indonesian word that is suitable is sialan. it is rough, but it is suitable for the feeling and the context. thus, the translation should be dia bisa masukkan sendiri es batu sialan itu. this mistake deals with articles, a or the. in indonesian, articles are translated into kata sandang or artikel. this kind of mistake occurs in a context when the duke of york is delivering his speech for the first time. he is stammering. when the king stutters, he utters the for a few times. therefore, the classifier the is repeated a few times. in the subtitle, the sentence is separated into three lines of subtitles, as seen in table 7. table 7 classifier mistake english utterance: from his majesty.. the... the... the king... indonesian subtitle: dari yang mulia... suatu... suatu... sang raja the can be translated into suatu. however, in the sentence context, the accompanies the noun word king. suatu usually refers to a thing, not a person, while king is a person. the mistake happens because this sentence is separated into three lines. two the words are separated from the king. the two words are translated without looking at the sentence as a whole. that is why suatu is used even though the next line is right by using sang. therefore, instead of suatu, sang is supposed to be used because the three lines form one sentence, in which the word the is the classifier for the word king no matter how many times it is repeated. tenses deal with time – past, present, and future. the mistakes of this type may occur when the translation does not really transfer the intended message regarding the time when an event happens. the context of the subtitle in this example happens in logue’s office, at the first time when the duchess of york visits him. she enters an empty office when a sound from a room is heard. it is logue who is speaking from the restroom. he is saying that he is currently in the restroom, as seen in table 8. table 8 tenses mistake english utterance: the duchess: is anyone there? logue : i'm just in the loo. indonesian subtitle: ada orang disana? / aku baru saja ke toilet. the sentence i’m just in the loo is using present tense. this tense is used to state present condition. however, the translation aku baru saja ke toilet shows that logue has just returned from the rest room. the word baru saja signals that the event has already ha ppened. if it is retranslated into english, it will be i have just been in the loo. the subtitle gives the audience the sense of present perfect tense. moreover, it makes an inaccurate understanding of the situation. the event is happening, not has just happened. logue is still in the restroom when he says that. thus, the suggested translation is aku baru di toilet. baru in indonesian here means masih (still in english). the mistake happens when a word or a phrase in an utterance is mistranslated into words that do not have same 61inaccuracy in indonesian subtitles .... (dessy burliani; menik winiharti) or similar meaning with the utterance. in this example, the utterance occurs at the time the mc has some words before he lets the duke speak. the mc gives an opening speech before the duke starts his speech. the mc is talking about the opening ceremony, where the king addresses his people using radio, as seen in table 9. table 9 unrelated translation mistake english utterance: mc: using the new invention of radio, the opening ceremony was the first time, his majesty the king addressed his subjects on the wireless. indonesian subtitle: menggunakan penemuan baru dari radio, upacara pembukaan merupakan pertama kalinya, yang mulia raja bicara pada rakyatnya melalui media elektronik wireless literally means a device that does not use cables or wires. it is also specifically shown in some dictionaries that wireless, which the mc refers to, is a radio system. on the other hand, the translation uses elektronik which means electronic devices in english. at first, it might seem right since radio is an electronic device. however, that is not what the utterance intends to. by using the word wireless, the utterance actually does not mean about electronic or wires. wireless in this context refers to radio, as the radio wave is not transmitted by wires, but it is transmitted using air. therefore, the usage of the word elektronik is not relevant because it is unrelated to the meaning of the utterance. thus, the correct subtitle for the utterance would be menggunakan penemuan baru dari radio, upacara pembukaan merupakan pertama kalinya, yang mulia raja bicara pada rakyatnya melalui radio. from 1,365 lines of the indonesian subtitles found in the movie, there are 34 lines that show mistakes in terms of accuracy. these mistakes can be categorized into nine types. the distribution of the mistake occurences can be summarized in table 10. table 10 translation mistakes distribution mistakes categories amount (lines) ambiguity 9 noun phrase 1 collocation 1 pronoun 3 not translated 1 omission 9 classifier 1 tenses 2 unrelated translation 7 total 34 conclusions subtitle is one product of translations. therefore, it should follow the criteria of translation, which are accurate, clear and natural. (larson, 1998) subtitle has to consider the context in conveying the meaning beyond the original utterance. therefore, the translation of the subtitles has to be accurate. however, translation mistakes may occur in movie subtitles. these mistakes may lead to confusion, especially for the audience who do not understand the original utterance in the source language. in the king’s speech movie (2010), there are some mistakes that occur in the indonesian subtitles. the result of the analysis has found that out of 1.364 lines of the subtitles there are thirty-four mistakes that occur in the movie. from these mistakes, they are categorized into nine groups: ambiguity (double meaning), noun phrase, collocation, pronoun, not translated, omission, classifier, tenses, and unrelated translation. from these groups, the type of the mistakes that mostly occur in the king’s speech movie are ambiguity and omission mistake. some suggestions regarding the correct subtitles have been provided in terms of accuracy. in order to produce an accurate translation, a translator has to consider the context in which the original utterances occur. it is important for the translator to understand the context of the story because the context helps the translator convey the meaning accurately. references bittner, h. (2011). the quality of translation in subtitling. trans-kom, 4(1), 76-87. retrieved from http://www. trans-kom.eu/bd04nr01/trans-kom_04_01_04_ bittner_quality.20110614.pdf caimi, a. (2009) subtitling: language learners’ needs vs. audiovisual market needs. in j. d. cintas & g. anderman (eds.), audiovisual translation: language transfer on screen. (240-251). hampshire: palgrave macmillan. chuang, y-t. (2006). studying subtitle translation from a multi-modal approach. fédération des traducteurs (fit) revue babel, 52(4), 372-383. retrieved from http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/frames/ subtitling/chuang.2006.pdf gonzales, l. p. (2009) audio translation. in m. baker & g. saldanha (eds.), routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (13-20). london: routledge. larson, m. l. (1998). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence (2nd ed.). new york: university press of america. mcintosh, c., francis, b., & poole, r. (2009). oxford collocations dictionary: for students of english. oxford: oxford university press. munday, j. (2012). introducing translation studies: theories and applications. abingdon, oxon: routledge. nida, e. a., & taber, c. r. (2003). the theory and practice of translation. leiden: brill. olúdáre, j. f. r. (2013). yorùbá movies and the problem of subtitling. iosr journal of humanities and social science, 12(1), 9-13. retrieved from: http://www. iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/vol12-issue1/ b01210913.pdf rahayu, b. (2004). the indonesian subtitles of the english utterances spoken by the characters in american beauty (thesis). retrieved from http://dewey.petra. ac.id/catalog/ft_detail.php?knokat=1000 62 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 57-62 samsidi, a. h. (2009). the misleading translation mistakes of indonesian subtitles in the movie love actually (thesis). retrieved from http://dewey.petra.ac.id/ catalog/ft_detail.php?knokat=11566 zojer, h. (2011). cultural references in subtitles: a measuring device for interculturality? fédération des traducteurs (fit) revue babel, 57(4), 394413. retrieved from http://academic.csuohio.edu/ kneuendorf/frames/subtitling/zojer.2011.pdf apology strategy in english by native speaker mezia kemala sari teacher training and education faculty, muhammadiyah university, sumatera barat jalan dt. sinaro panjang no. 35 padangpanjang, sumatera barat 27121 miss.mezia@gmail.com received: 16th november 2015/ revised: 22nd february 2016/ accepted: 1st april 2016 how to cite: sari, m. k. (2016). apology strategy in english by native speaker. lingua cultura, 10(1), 13-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.815 abstract this research discussed apology strategies in english by native speaker. this descriptive study was presented within the framework of pragmatics based on the forms of strategies due to the coding manual as found in ccsarp (cross-cultural speech acts realization project).the goals of this study were to describe the apology strategies in english by native speaker and identify the influencing factors of it. data were collected through the use of the questionnaire in the form of discourse completion test, which was distributed to 30 native speakers. data were classified based on the degree of familiarity and the social distance between speaker and hearer and then the data of native will be separated and classified by the type of strategies in coding manual. the results of this study are the pattern of apology strategies of native speaker brief with the pattern that potentially occurs ifid plus offer of repair plus taking on responsibility. while alerters, explanation and downgrading appear with less number of percentage. then, the factors that influence the apology utterance by native speakers are the social situation, the degree of familiarity and degree of the offence which more complicated the mistake tend to produce the most complex utterances by the speaker. keywords: apology strategies, english, native speakers introduction every day people talk or speak to variety of destinations. speaking is the sharing of something and have the intent of the speaker. ting-toomey, et. al. (2005) has stated that in every effective speech, there must be interrelatedness and mutual understanding between speaker and hearer. at first, the speech act is the center of the study of pragmatic pioneered by philosopher austin (1962), then continued to grow, until the theories related to speech acts appear, as grice (1957), searle (1969; 1975; 1979), leech (1983) and others.broadly speaking, communication is not just a linguistic expression, but this is more on the use of expressions that accompanied the speech acts in it, such as: giving a statement, asking, ordering, thanking, apologizing and so on (huang, 2007). j.l. austin (as cited in nadar, 2009) said that basically speech act or acts in a pragmatic when someone says something, he does something, too. for example, the word of apologize in a speech, “i apologize for coming late”, is relevant to the action of the speaker when he does it. these speeches are the performative speech with the performative verb. the most important act in the study and understanding of speech acts is illocutionary acts. acts of illocutionary are speech acts that do not only inform everything, but it can also be used to do something (the act of doing something). while perlocutionacts are actions to affect hearers such as humiliating, intimidating, cajoling, and so on. the speech is performed by speakers, and it has a power of influence (perlocutionary force) that cause effects intentionally or unintentionally (the act of affecting someone). locutions acts are a speech act that merely says something (the act of saying something). nadar (2007) has said that a speech has a different function according to the situation. for example, an utterance can function as a regulator of the activities of others, such as: to govern, to express feelings, to reject, to approve, to ask for something and so on. among the many examples of speech acts, there are one speech acts that have no less important role in communicating and certainly it is done by almost everyone, that is apology. speech act of apology is important because it is needed to correct the mistakes that have been made, so as to improve the harmony between speaker and hearer. an apology is an admission of responsibility by the speakers on the attitude, behavior, or failure to implement lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 13-17 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.815 13 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 14 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 13-17 something (smith, 2008). this speech act is face-saving for the listener and is a face-threatening for speakers. ogierman (2009) has said that searle put the apology speech act in expressive illocutionary classification that serves to reveal and express the psychological attitude of the speaker to the circumstances implied in illocutionary. as well as commissive illocutionary that is more focused on the hearer interests, an apology is an expressive utterance that tends to be enjoyable and less competitive, and therefore, intrinsically this illocutionary is polite. more precisely, searle put the expressive and commissive illocutionary as a positive politeness that is different from the directive, which is negative politeness. according to blum kulka and olshtain (as cited in ogiermann, 2009), there are five verbs other than the word “apologize”. all five of these verbs are performative verbs that are included in apology strategy; the words are “regret”, “excuse”, “sorry”, “forgive” and “pardon’. the expression of apology can be divided into an offer or apology as “i apologize”, expression of regret like “i’m sorry”, and request for forgiveness like “excuse me”. all forms of explicit apology utterance are merged into one category that is ifid (illocutionary force indicating device) in which every utterance have the same meaning. apology strategy is divided into more specific, two general strategies, such as ifid and the expression of speaker’s responsibility.besides that, three specific strategies that could potentially appear according to the utterance situation, the explanation of the situation or account, offer of repair, and the promise of for bearance.all three of these strategies appear more often if the content or the circumstance trigger the emergence of this strategy or pattern.the emergence of intensification and also the efforts to diverse and downgrade situations or entertainment can serve to reinforce the narrative apology for the hearer.if intensification has a role in modifying ifid internally as the addition of adverbs like “really”, “very”, “so” and others as well as other expressions such as emotional expression like “oh”, “oh my god” and so on. meanwhile, downgrading has a role in adding strategy that usually appears at the end of the speech which aims to neutralize or diverse the state as a result of face threateningto speakers such as “i am sorry, but ............ “ or it could be an expression of humor, pretension, and so on.another strategy that can occur is the concern to the hearer. in addition, the role of language as the means of social communication would require the role of the principles of cooperation and courtesy to achieve successful communication. basically, people communication will be subject to normative aspects in speaking.there are many examples of apology utterance in english that we often encounter with different social situations and hearers, such as: “i am terribly sorry. it was an accident. i promise it won’t happen again” “i ‘ m so sorry. i forgot to buy it. let me buy it now for you. don’t worry” “excuse me sir, this is my stop” these pattern of speech acts commonly occurs and in general. the use of ifid words, like “sorry”, “excuse me”, “apologize” and so on is expressive speech markers that indicate someone is apologizing. basically, language is a reflection of culture through the speech of native speakers. alfattah (2010) conducted a study on the strategy of the speech act of apology in efl students at the university of yemen. he found that ifid followed by responsibility was dominant. while nuryanto (2010) stated that there is a tendency of respondents to use more than one strategy in apology, he found that the speech of apology was not always in the form of declarative but also interrogative. no rule requires a person to choose a particular strategy to speak. however, blum kulka et al. (as cited in ogierman, 2009) in their project, ccsarp (crosscultural speech acts realization project), concluded that there is universality in disclosing the speech of apology with the emergence of two the most potential strategies namely ifid followed by expression of responsibility. while the emergence of other strategies is due to the demands of the situation or based on the need. bataineh (2005), which conducts research on american students who also use manual coding in ccsarp found that the potential strategy that emerges is an expression of regret, clarification, and refinement. and it found that many similarities between male and female respondents. while nureddeen (2008) in her research on the strategy of apology in arab sudan, found that ifid expression followed by an expression of responsibility and explanations is more frequently occurred in apology utterance. native speakers, like americans, tend to speak briefly and to the point. this is evident from observations of the researchers in communicating with native speakers and in the literature or display about the life of native speakers. the possibility of a tendency to speak briefly and to the point has the potential to appear in the expression of apology by native speakers. based on the background of these problems, theoretically, this research is expected to provide a general description of the apology strategy by native english speakers. in addition, practical research is expected to add to the understanding of non-native english speakers to understand and learn the english language directly from native speakers, especially in expressing apology. the questions about how the pattern of apology strategies and affecting factors, can be the basis of this research and then analyzed by a pragmatic approach. in this case, a strategy that will be examined is the apology often used by native english speakers in a variety of situations and forms of the specific pattern. methods this study is conducted to acquire or obtain the desired results by using objective, not subjective, and scientific methods. sudaryanto (as cited in nadar, 2009) has stated that scientific research is a series of activities that aim to solve problems using the scientific method. besides that,mastoyo (2007) has explained that in the study of linguistics, data collection can be done by collaboration with researchers in the form of a conversation (face to face or not). research will be conducted descriptively with the pragmatic approach. at this stage of the provision of data, discourse completion test (dct) will be used by the questionnaire technique. the questionnaire has been designed by the social variables such as the level of familiarity and social status that contain descriptions of the daily situation. the questionnaire is prevalent, so it can be adjusted to live in america by involving participants from native speakers, as many as 30 people of kentucky 15apology strategy in english .... (mezia kemala sari) native, usa, at the age of 20-40 years old. meanwhile, the discourse used in this study consisted of 12 different situations yet representing familiar and unfamiliar status, which are further subdivided based on their social distance, but the dct is displayed at random. according to sudargo (as cited in nadar, 2009), data is a special lingual phenomenon directly related to the problem in question. thus, the data obtained in the questionnaire will be instantly analyzed.the analysis is based on the formulation of the problem, the objectives, and the basic theory.the data obtained will be analyzed and classified based on the division between native speakers and are not based on the strategy pattern that emerged from the calculation of the percentage of each strategy refers to the manual code. results and discussions not everyone has the same style in expressing apologies.the style is an utterance selection strategy that will be used to convey the idea to apologize. the style is a speech election strategy that will be used to convey the idea to apologize. almost anyone who has ever made a mistake in everyday life, whether intentional or not, such as interfering with other people to ask or express something, forget something important for others, causing damage to an object for others, etc. to be able to find the peculiarities of the apology selectionstrategy, then the role of the questionnaire that has been designed in such a way becomes very important. with the starting point to the sociolinguistic variables, then the classification of the data can be seen more clearly. the variables that are important in this case is the level of familiarity, which is familiar and not familiar and then it is divided by social status between the speaker (s) and the hearer (h), from a lower, equal and higher status. there are several classification of apology strategies, such as ifids (illocutionary force indicating devices), utterance of responsibility, explanation or account to situation, offer of repair, promise of forebearance, alerters, downgrading, and concern for the hearer. ifids is a marker of an explicit apology in the form of a performative verb to express an apology like “sorry”, “excuse me”, “i apologize for”, “forgive me”, “i regret that”, “pardon me” and so on. in addition, ifids tend to be accompanied by several markers of apology intensifier that modify ifid internally. the next strategy is utterance of responsibility explicitly states that speaker had made mistakes to hearer. this utterance in more detail consists of several types, namely: explicit self-blame, example “my mistake”; the utterance that do not mean to hurt hearer or lack of intent, example “i did not mean to upset you”; recognition of mistakes or admission of facts but not a responsibility, example “i forgot”, “i have not read it”; justify hearer, example “you are right to be angry’; an expression of embarrassment, example “i feel awful about it”; and refuse to acknowledge guilt. while the strategy of explanation or account to situation aims to elucidate further the causes or other factors associated with the occurrence of mistakes and is closely related to responsibility, for example: “the traffic was terrible”, “my tutor kept me late” and so on. if the mistakes of speaker could have the worse impact, then the other strategy, offer of repair, often appears to improve things such as “i’ll pay it for you”, “i’ll fix it”, and so on. then, if the above strategies are not yet strong enough, then the strategy of promise of forbearance is also frequently used when it is required, like, “this will not happen again” to convince hearer that this mistake will not happen again. this strategy, along with two previous strategies, explanation or account and offer of repair, is the strategies that appear on the more specific demands of the situation, and it requires the presence of two previous strategies. the other strategy is alerters. alerters are elements that serve to inform or attract the attention of hearer as part of a speech act, for example the nicknames such as “adam” and others; title such as “professor”; endearment term as “honey”, “sweety”, “baby”, “sweetheart”, and others; the use of “sir”, “mom”, “bro”, “girl”, “miss”; and also attention getter like “hey”, “halo” and others. downgrading or attempts to shift consists of several types, including act innocently or pretend not to notice the offense, for example ‘am i late?’; humor, for example ‘you ought to see our fried chicken’ that used by speakers as an appeaser or opposed offer repair. this strategy is completely unrelated to the mistake of speaker, for example ‘let’s have a drink’ which is spoken by speaker after making a long wait to hearer. the next strategy is concern for the hearer. this strategy is used as a form of higher concern. speaker guilty feeling to hearer makes the speaker necessary to ensure the feeling of hearer. this expression like “i hope you did not ......”, “do not worry ...”, “are you okay?”. the forms of the emerging strategy would allow the emergence of a single strategy and any other form that is a combination of up to complex ones. this is a reflection of the situation and also the culture of the speakers. for convenience, the following are examples of data classification: “when you wake up in the morning, you’ll have a present waiting for you” (refinement) “i’m sorry (ifid), man(alerters) though you were my friend. (explanation) wanna have some coffees?” (downgrading) the apology strategy realization of the native speaker will be different based on the situation, familiar and non-familiar situation. in familiar situation case, the status of the speaker gives impact to how the apology strategy. this status of the speakers is higher than the hearers, equal to hearers, and lower than hearers. the example of a situation that represents the state of the speaker is higher than hearer in familiar situation is when parents have promised to her son to buy a laptop, but the parents are not able to fulfill their promise due to the prompt meeting in the office. another example of this status is when a teacher who asks his student to bring a book for him, but the teacher forgets about his student and let the student wait outside his room for 15 minutes. based on the data, it is shown that native speakers do not commonly use alerters. in the data, there are also internal modifications, namely intensification as “so sorry”. it is to be contrasted with the situation that has many ifid on data. however, it remains the intensification slightly only on one data. this suggests that native speakers are less inclined to use ifid explicitly in apology. they choose to go directly to a specific strategy for the purpose of inserting implicit apology. what is interesting about the data is the emergence of a single strategy expressed explicitly and directly, which is a strategy of repairs on the first situation. there are some data that represent their single strategy that speakers do not want 16 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 13-17 to argue with mistakes that are not made deliberately, until speakers immediately offered a repair over this incident through such utterances, such as “i will have it when i get home,” “i will call my friend now. it is also triggered by the awareness of speaker that the mistakes can be fixed directly and quickly so that this strategy becomes very important to use. in addition, repairs strategies appear on each data. the sentence stating concern to hearer also appear special in the first situation, with utterances like ‘i love you’ and affirmation to convince hearer with a statement of a promise is a promise, so the effect received by hearer be slightly reduced because of their concern on hearer of the speaker. the concern to hearer also appears specifically in the first situation, with utterances like “i love you” and attempts affirmation to convince hearer with the statement “a promise is a promise”, so the effect that is received by hearer is slightly reduced by the concern on hearer from the speaker. furthermore, the data also expose the attempts to distract or downgrading to neutralize the atmosphere at that time promised to invite meal. this form, belong to the “appeaser” because there is no real connection with the mistakes that have been made. then, in the circumstances of the speaker is equivalent to the hearer, the simplicity strategy appears. the first situation when someone asks for help to restore the compact video disc rented to his friend, but it turns out one’s friend forget and it results in an additional cost. the second situation when someone asks one’s friend to nurture and care for one’s fish. however, he is too busy to do it, some of the fish die. both situations illustrate the difference in the situation, but still demonstrate their familiar context and social status between s and h. the first strategy is ifid that does not much appear and its intensification is little. this suggests that the native speakers do not particularly want always to use ifid in every context mistakes made, and it includes the use of the emotions expression strategies. although the situation is fatal, such as making hearer suffered a loss to the lease payments, and the fish that died due to negligence, it is not enough to make the native speakers have to reveal his guilt by using ifid and other excessive strategies. the strategy also often appears is the strategy of responsibility. this is consistent with the factors of the situation, which requires the presence of expression of responsibility for mistakes made.next is the offer repair strategy, as a manifestation of good faith to correct errors that have occurred. furthermore, native speakers feel no need for expressions of distractions, entertaining or paying attention to hearer for the mistakes that have been made. the next example is the situation that represents the status of the speaker is lower than the hearer in the familiar situation. a person forgets his promise to buy fruit to his/ her neighbors and the second situation is where someone forgot his promise to the professor. this is a picture of two situations which represent a form familiar situation, but the status of the speaker is lower than the hearer. ifid appears more often and in almost all of the data. greetings appear only slightly despite the status where the speaker is lower than the hearer, and this situation does not make native speakers use the greeting on his apology speech. responsibility speech strategy that often appears indicating that the situation demands the presence of responsibility speech although not always followed by an explanation expression while offer repairs strategy appears quite often. this shows that this strategy is important to appear to remember the mistakes made, like the neighbor and also professor needs to be corrected immediately to mitigate the effects of hearer due to a mistake made by the speaker. the emergence of the promise of forbearance strategy was necessary to strengthen the narrative purposes. in the data, there are no attempts to shift or concern on hearer. similar to familiar situation case, the non-familiar situation, the status of the speaker also gives impact to how the apology strategy. if the status of the speaker is higher than the hearer, this example can represent the situation of the speaker and the hearer. a person who accidentally injures a girl aged about ten years while closing the shop door. meanwhile, the second situation is an owner of the boutique delivered the wrong color to a costumer the day before. based on the analysis, it can be seen that ifid often arises, and it is accompanied by an internal modification of the adverbs like “so sorry” or ‘’really sorry” which indicates that the speaker unintentionally makes the mistakes. then, the dominant strategy that appears is offer repairs. this is because as a boutique owner who has hurt a buyer, he felt compelled to promptly correct any errors in order to maintain the reputation and also firmness in the boutique. offer repair strategy is also a result of the factors of the situation, which requires the presence of this strategy. the emergence of responsibility strategy is to state explicitly that he was guilty. however, the explanation strategy does not appear in two situations. this suggests that the native speaker feels no need to provide more arguments for the mistakes he had done. the next situation when the speaker is equivalent to the hearer. it is represented by the first situation, when someone sees his friend, and he patted on the back, but it turns out that guy is not his friend, jus someone who is similar to his friend. the second situation is the one who sits near a bus window, which was about to get off at the next stop, but a person of the same age sitting beside him thus requiring it to ask permission. both of these situations show the different circumstances but equally indicate situations that are not familiar and equal social status. the analysis shows that ifid still appears dominant in a high percentage.this shows that the speaker does not accidentally make the mistake of patting the shoulders of someone who is mistaken for his friend. so this situation in which he is about to ask permission to get off the bus, then the emergence of “excuse me” is important to use. intensification only rarely emerges in the first situation and not at all on the second situation. the use of strategies of responsibility, repairs, and the promise of forbearance are not found at all in the data. this is because the situation does not demand the presence of such a strategy. what is interesting here is the attempt to divert concern by conveying a “greeting” on the hearer with speech “have a great day” as an effort to downgrade of the situation in the second situation. however, in the first situation, there is an attempt to divert concern to the expression of humor or engage in something completely unrelated to the error. the utterances like “wanna have some coffees?” and “would you like a beer?” as a manifestation of their efforts to reduce the impact of the mistakes made in the hearer. the next situation is when a person who boarded the train and realized he had forgotten to bring his wallet and also a ticket. he then tries to answer when the ticket inspector came. while the second situation is a situation where someone is running to catch the bus accidentally bumping into an old woman so that her groceries scattered. 17apology strategy in english .... (mezia kemala sari) both of these situations describe the circumstances in which the speaker and the hearer are not familiar, and status s is lower than h. based on the data, it can be seen the simplicity of the strategies used by native english speakers can be seen. ifid still often appears with very little intensification. an emotional expression used because the situation is so fast and unpleasant to the hearer. the use of emotional expression indicates an element of chance conducted by the speaker on the hearer. the greetings are used only slightly, namely “ma’am”. it is proved that the native speakers do not frequently use greeting, although the status of the speaker is lower than the hearer. statement of responsibility appears more frequently though without any further explanation about the mistakes that have been made. however, there are many offer repair strategies, which is used by native speakers to correct the mistakes. there is not any attemptis made to distract the hearer at all. there is the description of an emerging strategy in a speech situation. if it is concluded, then the following is the average potential emergence of a strategy on the whole situation by native speakers in the speech act of apology, as seen in the following table. table 1 the speech act of apology no strategy potency (%) 1 alerters 25,7 2 ifid 76,9 intensification 29,8 expressionemotion 21,0 3 taking on responsibility 46,6 4 explanation 23,3 5 offer repairs 48,8 6 promise of forbearance 3,8 7 concern to the hearer 12,4 8 downgrading 6,1 conclusions the pattern formed on native english speakers has its own peculiarities.in general, based on the potential occurrences for all situations, the strategy chosen by native speakers tend to be simple. it is based on the potential emergence of ifid followed by repair and responsible in the number of smaller percentage. however, ifid and greetings are not always present in each strategy. it shows the tendency of native speakers to direct on target to achieve communication objectives. native speakers tend to use the strategy of reduction or diversion efforts, especially in unfamiliar situations.so, for all situations and social levels, native speakers tend to use patterns that are short and direct. factors that influence the formation or selection of the strategy conducted by native speakers in general are the situation of speech, social status, and themistake rate wherein the greater the impact of the errors that occurred, then the more complex strategyselection that will be taken. references alfattah, m. h. a. (2010). apology strategies of yemeni efl university students. journal mjal 2 (3), 80. bataineh, r. f., & bataineh, r. f. (2005). apology strategies of jordanian efl university students. journal of pragmatic, 38,1901-1927. huang, y. (2007). pragmatics. new york: oxfor university press. mastoyo, y. t. (2007). pengantar (metode) penelitian bahasa. yogyakarta: carasvatibook. nadar, f.x. (2007). penolakan dalam bahasa inggris dan bahasa indonesia (dissertation). yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. nadar, f.x. (2009). pragmatik dan penelitian pragmatik. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. nureddeen, f. (2008). cross-cultural pragmatics: apologies in sudanese arabic. journal of pragmatics, 40, 279306. nuryanto, a. (2010). apology strategies used in reader’s letter by complainee on kompas daily cyber-news issued from january to september 2009 (master’s thesis). semarang: universitas diponegoro. ogiermann, e. (2009). on apologising in negative and positive politeness culture. amsterdam: john benjamins publising company. smith, n. (2008). i was wrong-the meanings of apologies. cambridge: cambridge university press. ting-toomey, stella dan chung, leeva c. (2005). understanding intercultural communication. los angeles: roxburry publishing company. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 33 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 33-40 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.9217 the evaluation of the multimedia coursebook material in listening 1 course: audio, video, and interactive activities yella dezas perdani* informatics department, language center, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university paskal hyper square, jl. pasir kaliki no. 25-27, ciroyom, bandung, west java, indonesia yella.dezas@binus.ac.id received: 03rd january 2023/revised: 24th march 2023/accepted: 24th march 2023 how to cite: perdani, y. d. (2023). the evaluation of the multimedia coursebook material in listening 1 course: audio, video, and interactive activities. lingua cultura, 17(1), 33-40. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.9217 abstract the research aimed to evaluate the multimedia coursebook materials that had been applied in the listening 1 course at one university in indonesia, to know whether the coursebook used was presented well and still suitable to the student’s needs. the audio, video, and interactive activity provided in multimedia coursebook materials needed to be evaluated to determine their suitability for students, lecturers, and the institution. a qualitative method was conducted, and the evaluation form was used to gather the data from two linguists of english applied linguistics, one listening 1 lecturer, three students who had used the coursebook, and three students who had not used them. the data were summarized, analyzed, and qualitatively described. the finding shows that the audio, video, and interactive activity in the multimedia coursebook material applied in the listening 1 course are presented well. to begin with, the audio provided is clear, and the accent is understandable. then, the clarity of the video’s image, gestures, and facial expressions aid the students’ comprehension of the video’s content. the material, exercise, the application needed, and the link provided in the interactive activity are varied and appropriate to student needs and level of ability. the evaluation result can be used to improve the quality of multimedia coursebook material in the listening 1 course. finally, the research has the practical application of facilitating students’ learning needs by offering learning media resources in the form of multimedia coursebook materials. keywords: coursebook, multimedia materials, evaluation introduction listening is the initial step in language acquisition, where students need to listen before speaking or writing the language. before developing the ability to talk, humans learn to listen to what others say (aguskin & maryani, 2018). the same restrictions apply to english as a foreign language in indonesia. language students need to develop the listening abilities that they are incapable of communicating in english without the ability to listen. then, instead of word-by-word understanding, gowri and ilankumaran (2018) have stated that teaching listening skills should focus on auditory input acceptance of pertinent information. students listening abilities are improved by delivering announcements, assigning assignments, explaining the subject, and administering assessments in the target language. according to kumar (2021), teaching listening skills in any subject language has become one of the most challenging duties for any language teacher and instructor. in order to develop english words, phrases, and sentences, they need to practice and then improve their listening skills. as hearing is a crucial ability for english language students to learn (ningrum, 2018), the english department at one university in indonesia offers three semesters of three levels of listening courses. the purpose is to improve the students’ listening abilities, and the program begins with the listening 1 course. the course serves as the department’s basis for listening to english materials. the listening 1 course in pr es s 34 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 33-40 aims to teach students how to distinguish english sounds in words, phrases, and sentences. the course also helps students to comprehend spoken information presented in sentences, dialogues, and passages. they will also be able to perceive, engage with, and listen to specific details, reason, and deduce personality, image, and news. providing a suitable coursebook is one of the most crucial aspects of teaching and learning. a coursebook is necessary to boost education success (sari & sari, 2019; mustapa & syahid, 2021) so students can designate it as their principal resource for developing and acquiring broad perspectives. additionally, the material in the listening 1 course is in the form of multimedia materials. according to yuliarni, marzal, and kuntarto (2019) and khoiriyah (2020), students can effectively and efficiently convey information using technology and multimedia. text, images, sound, and video are all elements of multimedia. these items can be used to improve the students’ listening abilities. students retain language chunks in long-term memory, classify english sounds, get familiar with stress patterns, rhythm, and intonation patterns, and improve their listening comprehension of the english language through multimedia content. solhi et al. (2020) have composed their criterion to establish the materials’ extent to which the coursebooks provide broad exposure to english use. moreover, as they are valid and valuable, multimedia coursebook materials help the students engage in self-learning listening (irawan, 2021). the students can study independently at home if they have the technology to play multimedia materials such as audio and video. the utilization of learning media has a significant impact on the efficiency of learning. in the current era, technology is expanding rapidly and is utilized in numerous fields, including education (perdani, nadelia, & sumartono, 2022). it is in line with etyarisky and marsigit (2022), who have argued that it is necessary to use learning media that incorporates technology as a teaching aid. education has made great use of technology, particularly for language teaching and learning in the classroom. numerous teachers and students in indonesia believe that technology can improve language learning (indrawati et al., 2021). then, setiawan et al. (2020) have also discovered that the multimedia teaching materials created using the multiliterate-based videoscribe and camtasia studio programs are ideally suited for usage in elementary school students’ subject matter learning activities. furthermore, the listening 1 multimedia coursebook materials claim to have high-quality multimedia resources, including audio, video, and interactive content. evaluation checklists should include physical coursebook characteristics such as the availability and suitability of the materials (nurhamsih & syahrial, 2018; ayu & indrawati, 2021). as multimedia materials have been utilized for a couple of years to provide the materials that assist students in improving their listening ability, they must be evaluated. the evaluation aims to determine whether they continue to satisfy the demands of the listening 1 course. the research answers the question: “are the audio, video, and interactive activities in multimedia coursebook material applied in the listening 1 course presented well?” the evaluation result can enhance the material’s quality by adding, removing, or renovating. the implication of this research is the provision of learning media resources in the form of multimedia instructional materials that can facilitate student learning. in other words, evaluation is necessary to encourage improvement and assess efficacy. methods the research employs a qualitative design that focuses on an evaluation research design involving the systematic collection and analysis of information regarding the quality of the multimedia coursebook materials (scharrer & ramasubramanian, 2021). the investigation aims to determine if the multimedia coursebook materials are presented well, especially its audio, video, and interactive activity. figure 1 shows the procedure of this research. figure 1 research procedure then, rather than relying on a single stakeholder, the study involves several. it allows the evaluation of the multimedia coursebook materials from multiple angles. there are nine respondents in the research, including two linguists focusing on english applied linguistics, who are also the lecturers in the research place, one listening 1 lecturer, three students who have used the coursebook, and three students who have never used the coursebook. a linguist is a language expert specializing in linguistics, studies, and teaches foreign languages that their perspectives could be used to evaluate language materials. the respondents are chosen by using purposive sampling so that they can be contacted if any additional information is needed. and then, the research utilizes a modified evaluation in pr es s 35the evaluation of the multimedia .... (yella dezas perdani) form for the data collection technique (oz, 2019). there are thirteen statements in the closed evaluation form and two questions in the open evaluation form. the respondents chose one representative choice. table 1 converting respondent’ respond (roni, merga, & morris, 2020) categories grade very suitable/very interesting/very effective 4 suitable/interesting/effective 3 less suitable/ less interesting/less effective 2 not suitable/not interesting/not effective 1 moreover, three research procedures are conducted: pre-evaluation, evaluation process, and post-evaluation (figure 1). first, the evaluation forms and the multimedia coursebook materials are created and prepared in the pre-evaluation stage (table 1). the multimedia coursebook materials include the lecturer’s book, students’ book, task book, and multimedia materials. it is prepared nine copies to be given to every respondent. the second stage is the evaluation process. the evaluation form and coursebook are distributed to the respondents. they could check the coursebook and fill in the evaluation format, and then it is collected again to be analyzed. the last stage is post-evaluation. this stage converts respondents’ responses into numbers (table 1). figure 2 mean formula = mean score (average grade) = the total of respondents grade n = number of respondents table 2 the conversion of score into the description score description 3,51 – 4,00 very good 2,51-3,50 good 1,51-2,50 poor 1,00-1,50 very poor in the post-evaluation stage, the data from the close-evaluation form are gathered and analyzed. the researcher groups the qualitative data in comments based on every indicator and counts the average score of every item in evaluation format using the formula in figure 2. after that, the result of the scores is converted into the description (table 2). additionally, open-evaluation form results are collected, processed, and analyzed. the data are completed so that the open-evaluation form includes respondents’ perspectives on the strengths and weaknesses of the multimedia coursebook materials. the overall conclusion might then be drawn. results and discussions the research intends to determine whether the multimedia coursebook materials used in the listening 1 course are presented well and still suitable to the student’s needs. it is in line with medvedeva, andreeva, & krepkaia (2020) and setiawan (2021), who have argued that to suit the student’s needs and expectations, the lecturer may alter the materials by adopting many strategies, such as merging the elements, such as the multimedia coursebook materials have done. after examining the results of the evaluation form, three crucial aspects of the listening 1 coursebook are identified: sound, video, and interactive activity. according to gowri and ilankumaran (2018), there are three factors to consider before constructing a listening activity: the aim must be determined in advance, the level of language background must be determined, and the focus of the task must be determined. the first finding is about the audio in the multimedia coursebook materials. the coursebook’s audio content is well-provided, and the audio is audible and clear. the evaluation’s score of 3,67 out of 4,00 (table 3) serves as evidence. it is a high score, which supports the notion that the audio in the multimedia coursebook materials is audible and given effectively. audio is needed to be the primary material in listening courses. yuliarni, marzal, and kuntarto (2019) and khoiriyah (2020) have concurred that students need to be able to hear the materials clearly in the learning process so that the message in the audio is comprehended. moreover, the speaker’s speed in the coursebook’s multimedia is appropriate to the student’s level in listening 1. it is proved by the evaluation score of 3,11 (table 3). speaker speed is a critical part to consider when choosing listening course materials. it needs to be suitable to the student’s level of ability so that the students can catch the massage in the spoken text because they have trouble mastering language skills due to inappropriate material and the extensive scope of the courses (medvedeva, andreeva, & krepkaia, 2020; rikfanto & mulyati, 2021). additionally, the speaker’s accent is one of the difficulties in comprehending listening information. however, it is determined that the speaker’s accent is understandable on audio and video in the multimedia coursebook material. it is demonstrated by the 3,11 evaluation score (table 3). it is in line with nurhamsih and syahrial (2019) and setiawan (2021) that it would be preferable to employ authentic listening materials so that the students can practice listening to the native speaker. in pr es s 36 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 33-40 the second discovery concerns the video in the multimedia coursebook materials. everything that aids language acquisition, including videos, may be designated as materials that teachers employ in the teaching and learning process. it is in line with ningrum (2018) and nurhamsih and syahrial (2019), who have agreed that language teaching material is anything that is used to help students learn and use the language better, such as videos, dvds, email, youtube videos, dictionary, grammar book, worksheet, or workbook. to begin with, videos in the listening 1 coursebook are displayed clearly. the evaluation score of 3,44 (table 3) substantiates this assertion. rohmah (2022) has agreed that one of the main things about learning media is that it emphasizes learning through visual and audio media. video is a valuable multimedia learning tool that makes it easier to learn a foreign language. it has made teaching english in places like indonesia more interesting for lecturers and students as the video gives students information about the content, the setting, and the language (muslimah, 2018). then, even though it is a listening course, the learning materials should be engaging, and the supporting visuals in the video should also be fascinating. irawan (2021), whose research focused on creating multimedia-based english listening materials, has discovered that students think multimedia materials are engaging and simple to use. it is in line with the findings of this research that the images in the video depicted are fascinating and captivating. the evaluation score of 3,44 substantiates the claim. according to satriani and resmini (2021), engaging materials keep the students from getting bored while encouraging creativity and active participation in the learning process. the respondents believe that the visual of the video material in the coursebook is clearly visible and engaging to watch. after that, the speaker’s gestures are also essential to comprehend what the speaker is saying. it is found that gestures used by the speaker in the video of multimedia coursebook materials are relevant to the context, enabling the students to understand better what is being discussed. the evaluation score of 3,22 out of 4,00 (table 3) provides evidence for this assertion. wahyuni et al. (2019) have suggested that a coursebook must provide students with meaningful and familiar context resources to facilitate their use of language as a communication medium. moreover, the speaker’s facial expression is also an essential factor that assists in understanding what they are saying. etyarisky and marsigit (2022) have discovered that understanding is one of the vital qualities for achieving educational objectives. according to the research findings, the speakers’ facial expressions in the video are helpful to the students since they reinforce the significance of what they are saying. it is determined to be relevant to the context in which the video is being viewed. the evaluation score of 3,33 in table 3 substantiates the claim. the multimedia coursebook materials in the listening course allow students to use their ears and eyes to catch information, such as the speaker’s gestures. it is also acknowledged by karsudianto (2019) that table 3 evaluation score r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s d s 1 3 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 3,67 vg 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3,11 g 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3,11 g 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3,44 g 5 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 3,44 g 6 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3,22 g 7 2 3 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 3,33 g 8 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3,11 g 9 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3,22 g 10 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 3,33 g 11 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 g 12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3,11 g 13 3 3 3 2 4 2 3 4 4 3,11 g ag 2,69 3,15 3,46 3,23 3,15 2,92 3,15 4,00 3,46 3,25 g r : respondents s : statements in evaluation form s : score des : description vg : very good g : good ag : average grade in pr es s 37the evaluation of the multimedia .... (yella dezas perdani) using multimedia materials in the classroom could be beneficial in delivering the necessary and helpful classroom activities. the third finding is about the interactive activity in the multimedia coursebook materials. the interactive activity allows students to study independently without the guidance of the lecturers. multimedia material and digital technology can motivate students to learn and increase classroom participation and connection, and lecturers must prioritize their use in the classroom (etyarisky & marsigit, 2022). then, a coursebook should encourage students to use their learning styles by providing options rather than mandating a single style. the students also can practice using the language through the interactive activity. it is in line with cunningsworth in oz (2019) and ayu and indrawati (2021), who have found that a coursebook is a resource for delivering the subject and a language practice tool. as a result, the material should be visible for them to complete on their own. according to the research findings, the material in the interactive exercise is appropriate for the student’s needs and level of ability. it allows them to complete all the activities appropriately without the help of a lecturer beside them. it is demonstrated by the evaluation score of 3,11 out of 4,00 (table 3). according to mustapa and syahid (2021), one of the coursebook roles can be defined as a personal reference that can be used in independent study, a valuable reference that can be used during presentations, a reference that can be used in learning exercises, and communicative interactions, a reference source for students, a syllabus, and a reference for teachers who lack teaching experience. then, when it comes to giving students interactive activities, one of the things that must be prepared is for the activities to be simple enough for the students to do. according to the research outcomes, it is discovered that the interactive exercise supplied is simple enough for the students to participate. the evaluation score of 3,22 (table 3) substantiates this claim. rikfanto and mulyati (2021) have stated that it is necessary for learning a foreign language to understand the coursebook’s complicated parts and tasks. relevant language material, abilities, and patterns of language use should be reflected in coursebooks so that students can learn how to effectively use the language for their goals (cunningsworth in oz, 2019). after that, in providing interactive activities, it is also essential that the application supporting the activity be well-designed and simple to use. according to the research findings, the applications required to access the interactive activity are simple. it is provided by the coursebook and given to every student. the students then install it on their personal computers. the evaluation score of 3,33 out of 4,00 (table 3) demonstrates this. as the multimedia coursebook materials are a book with materials and activities for language students, it is meant to help the students learn the english language. it is designed for a particular language level and focused on learning and improving language skills (rikfanto & mulyati, 2021). it is in line with karsudianto (2019), who has discovered that listening materials must be easily accessible for the teaching and learning process to run more smoothly. furthermore, specific links as the extra materials can be accessed independently by the students outside of class. it has been included as part of the multimedia coursebook. according to the research findings, the links on the interactive activity function correctly. the evaluation score of 3 substantiates this. solhi et al. (2020) have claimed that the additional content should provide adequate instructions or materials to promote the usage of the target language outside of the classroom. in addition to interactive activities, other exercises could assist the students in practicing their listening abilities. the exercise is needed to be tailored to their knowledge, as they are part of the interactive activity, which the students complete independently without the assistance of the lecturers. according to the research result, it is found that the exercises in the interactive activity are differentiated based on the student’s skill level. the evaluation score of 3,11 out of 4,00 (table 3) demonstrates this. besides, the offered activities are needed to be varied to cover all the necessary listening abilities. the multimedia coursebook interactive activity features a variety of activities. it is demonstrated by the 3,25 evaluation score (table 3). multimedia coursebook material aids both lecturer and students in teaching and learning in the classroom by providing a variety of learning resources and serving as a plan in teaching that offers adequate inputs as guidance (basra & purnawarman, 2018; sari & sari, 2019). the development of technology, coupled with the development of multimedia materials, has contributed to the diversification of the learning media in the classroom (yuliarni, marzal, & kuntarto, 2019). it helps the lecturers and students in the teaching and learning process. additionally, qualitative data regarding the strengths and weaknesses of multimedia content are explained according to the respondent. the first strength of the multimedia coursebook material based on the data found is that it is good material. based on respondent 1, “in general, the materials and activities are quite varied,” means that the materials and activities provided in the coursebook are excellent and varied. they are not too easy nor too hard to be completed by the students. the audio in this coursebook can be heard well, the video is clear, and the interactive activity works well. according to respondent 3, “in my opinion, the material meets the standards of good media and will be able to help students improve their listening skills,” which assists the students in enhancing their listening skills. the audio content is generally appropriate for listening 1 students. the speed of the speakers in the audio is neither too fast nor too slow for the conversation and talk to be captured adequately (sabri, soeharto, & afrizan, 2020). the students better understood the material after watching in pr es s 38 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 33-40 and observing what occurred in the video. finally, interactive homework assignments such as multiplechoice questions and essays allow students to continue practicing outside class. the link provided contains another video that students could view. they are exposed to spoken english texts outside of class, as listening 1 only meets for three credits per week. after that, multimedia materials, including video animation and instructional media, are excellent and could be used to help with teaching and learning. according to research conducted by etyarisky and marsigit (2022), the utilization of interactive multimedia learning have a beneficial impact on students’ conceptual understanding, such that it improves their conceptual understanding. creating learning media is necessary when the available media does not meet the requirements for achieving learning objectives (nurhamsih & syahrial, 2019; rohmah, 2022). it is in line with pahmi and syahfutra (2019) and setiawan (2021), who have discovered that the physical part of the coursebook, including images, activities, and audio resources, impacts the course’s objectives. the second strength of the multimedia coursebook content is its explicit instruction. according to respondent 2, the instruction in the materials is clear and straightforward. the language used in the materials is specific, and all students should be able to comprehend them. cunningsworth in oz (2019) has stated that coursebooks should align with the language program’s goals and meet the student’s needs. sari and sari (2019) and tyas et al. (2020) have agreed that coursebooks are among the most common classroom materials. moreover, ayu and indrawati (2021) have also discovered that using a coursebook not only serves as a guide for teachers while delivering the information but also provides input through numerous explanations and exercises. it also affects the attitudes and performance of the students toward the resources. basra and purnawarman (2018) have also found that coursebooks help control the teaching process and that with a high-quality coursebook, teachers and students may fulfill their learning objectives. they say a coursebook is a valuable source for lecturers to obtain instructional content. the third strength is that the materials have enough exercises. respondent 4 has stated, “the coursebook is good and has many exercises. the audio, video, and interactive activity can be accessed well.” respondents 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 have shared the opinion that the coursebook is of high quality, with easily understood and comprehensive materials. the interactive activity exercises are excellent for enhancing students’ abilities. it is in line with aguskin and maryani (2018), who have discovered that using quality exercises and authentic materials in the classroom positively affects students. furthermore, two weaknesses are found based on the open evaluation form, the topics, and the exercises. first, respondent 1 has written that the “topic should be more up to date.” it would be wonderful if the topic discussed in the video is currently relevant, for example, a topic often discussed so students can relate more easily. however, it has been going well so far. second, the exercises provided appear too much so that they can be compacted once more, according to respondent 2. the narratives in some videos are not prominent, which makes it hard to draw any conclusions from them. it is in agreement with respondents 3 and 4, who have stated that the exercises provided are far too numerous, so not all activities could be finished in the classroom. conclusions in conclusion, multimedia coursebook material, mainly audio, video, and interactive activities, is appropriate for the listening 1 course. according to the needs and skill levels of the students in the listening 1 class, the multimedia coursebook materials have been designed. the research findings could be used to enhance the materials’ quality and assess whether the multimedia coursebook is presented well or still need improvement. the research is known as evaluation research based on the opinions of the specialists mentioned above. in addition, audio is audible, videos can be viewed properly, and additional content for interactive activities can be easily accessed. after that, the video materials are suggested to include current topics so the student can relate to them while listening. then, the exercises in the multimedia coursebook can be condensed, or the students can receive additional practice outside of class to develop their listening skills. the research is restricted in terms of the number of participants; a more significant number of participants would have provided a more accurate description of the findings. in addition, it is limited in data gathering techniques that interviews and observations may enhance the research’s conclusions. finally, it is recommended that future studies be carried out using a research method involving more participants and data collection strategies. additional elements in the evaluation format that are to be assessed can also adequately explain the evaluation of the multimedia item. aside from that, the procedures and conclusions from this research can also be utilized by the lecturer in teaching the listening 1 course as a reference in using multimedia content inside coursebooks. in addition, the method for evaluating a textbook utilized in this research can also be used by lecturers, teachers, and other personnel working in educational institutions. references aguskin, l. c., & maryani, m. 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(2019). analysis of multimedia learning mathematics storyboard design. international journal of trends in mathematics education research, 2(3), 149-152. https://doi. org/10.33122/ijtmer.v2i3.119. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 183 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 183-189 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7497 an ecolinguistic study on ecospiritual tourism of rebo buntung commodification diah supatmiwati1; wiya suktiningsih2*; sutarman3; zainudin abdussamad4; abdul muhid5 1,2,4,5english literature department, faculty of social science and humanities, universitas bumigora 3farmacy department, faculty of health, universitas bumigora jl. ismail marzuki no. 22, karangtapen, cakranegara, west nusa tenggara 83239, indonesia 1diah.supatmiwati@universitasbumigora.ac.id; 2wiya.suktiningsih@universitasbumigora.ac.id; 3sutarman@universitasbumigora.ac.id; 4samadzain12@gmail.com; 5abdulmuhid@universitasbumigora.ac.id received: 09th july 2021/revised: 03rd september 2021/accepted: 08th september 2021 how to cite: supatmiwati, d., suktiningsih, w., sutarman., abdussamad, z., & muhid, a. (2021). an ecolinguistic study on ecospiritual tourism of rebo buntung commodification. lingua cultura, 15(2), 183-189. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7497 abstract the research examined the relationship between cultural ritual, linguistic, and ecology in the context of ecotourism. it aimed to encourage, stimulate, and integrate the use of religious tradition’s terms in understanding and reinterpreting the environment and human relations and its roles. cultural forms and elements basically had the potential to be used as a tourism commodity, meaning that they could be commodified. the research also related to ecolinguistics, a study that discussed language associated with the environment in which the language grew and developed and how it was used by the community. cultural rituals as a tourism commodity could be a means of maintaining culture and language even though they were commodified for tourism purposes. thus, the religious-cultural structure of rebo buntung and tetulaq tamperan should be packaged following its original structure as a medium for cultural and language preservation but also packaged as attractively as possible with a contextual structure that adapted to tourism sites so that could attract tourists. this ecospiritual commodification was expected to be able to budge the economy of the surrounding community. the research was conducted at ketapang beach, tanjung menangis, pringgabaya district, and east lombok where rebo buntung ritual was carried out. the research applied a qualitative descriptive method. for this reason, the data obtained were analyzed using qualitative descriptive analysis by describing the data obtained from an informant. on that basis, it can be concluded that the practice of ecospriritual commodification can have multiple effects, not only to preserve culture and language but also to maintain community harmony with nature, as well as improve the economy of the local community. keywords: study, ecospiritual tourism, commodification introduction indonesia’s position is close to australia, the indian ocean, and the pacific ocean, making indonesia a country with abundant natural resources. based on data from the ministry of maritime affairs and fisheries, indonesia has 16.056 islands held as part of the territory of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia (direktorat jenderal pengelolaan ruang laut, 2019). as an archipelago, indonesia has a lot of potential for natural attractions, magnet for foreign and domestic tourists to carry out tourism activities that are environment and nature-friendly. with those potential, some regions in indonesia can develop cultural-based tourism and natural attractions tourism. tourism, as a complex socio-cultural dimension of modernity, has been similarly influenced by the capitalist consumer culture. tourism allows societies with diverse sociocultural frameworks to interact, potentially changing some of their views and conventions (erwin & smith, 2008). one of the most essential components in cultural commercialization is interaction, which is fueled by tourism (shepherd, 2002). commodification, according to cohen (1988), is a process in which goods and activities are first evaluated according to their monetary value. according to yuli (arida, 2017), the types of ecofriendly tourism are seeing, witnessing, studying, 184 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 183-189 admiring nature, flora, fauna, and local culture, as well as participating in fostering the natural resources by involving the local people, that is called ecotourism. ecotourism in the context of environmentally friendly tourism development has a mission to develop alternative tourism that does not have many harmful impacts on the environment, socio-culture, and other tourist attractions. ecotourism is defined as an environmentally friendly tourism activity by prioritizing the aspects of nature and culture conservation and the empowerment of the local community’s economy. ecotourism is a tourism management model based on natural resources or in an area that is managed in accordance with natural principles. the aim is not only enjoying the beauty, but also involving the elements of education, and supporting natural resources conservation, and increasing the local community’s income. these activities are oriented towards the use of natural resources, which are pristine and unpolluted. agnes kiss states that the premise of ecotourism relies on maintaining attractive natural attractions, thereby helping local communities earn money from ecotourism that provides funding for conservation and alternative economic income for destructive activities (noh et al., 2020). however, the development of ecotourism cannot be separated from negative impacts, such as stressed ecosystems when they are visited by many tourists, as well as conflicts of interest between ecotourism administrators and operators. indonesia is not only famous for its natural attractions but also rich in culture. those cultural diversities result from harmony with the surrounding environment; for example, people who live in coastal areas have traditions or rituals related to marine life. the distinctive cultural values in indonesia are manifested in a variety of material and immaterial values that are potential attractions for eco-spiritual tourism. eco-spiritual tourism associates environmental interest with the religious domain, not only as a critical issue of public concern but also as an indicator of the root of the problem, which is seen as moral and spiritual values state. many people travel to some places that are not only serene but also provide a spiritual experience. through a spiritual journey, a person seeks to understand and learn strategies for solving problems in his reflective judgments, everyday experiences, and personal views on life (norman & pokorny, 2017). they affirm that spiritual tourism is not a new trend as it has been a popular activity of tourism since the 1960s and has a socio-economic impact on local communities and countries (choe & o’regan, 2020). eco-spiritual tourism is not only something potential to enhance tourism in indonesia, but it should also be the core of sustainable tourism issues, which lately have been popular. many countries nowadays offer their mainstream potentials of eco-spiritual tourism. indonesia can support sustainable tourism through eco-spiritual tourism. thus, the religious environment can become a social movement based on religious resources, give meaning, and promise strength to overcome the consequences of modern secular values and structures. assuming faith and prophetic roles, religion will then present the environmental crisis as a problem of irregular or unjust human relations and provide the ideological and organizational resources to construct these concepts and deal with them. spiritual tourism includes several elements, including religion, culture, traditional music, and traditional performers. meanwhile, haq and jackson (in sukaatmadja et al., 2017) define religious tourism as people who visit places outside their customary environment, with the aim of spiritual growth, without compulsion in religion that can be religious or non-religious activities, sacred or related to nature. however, it depends on the definition of the context based on the main purpose of the tour. therefore, religious tourism can be said to be part of spiritual tourism. some definitions do not distinguish religious tourism and spiritual tourism clearly. the point is that the two terms include elements of religion as part of tourist attractions. mc kerchen (in dwihapsari, 2016) makes a typology of religious tourism based on the spiritual experiences that tourists get into five types. first, purposeful spiritual tourism is a tourist who travels for the main purpose of his spiritual growth. second, spiritual tourism sightseeing is a tourist who travels for the main purpose of traveling and having a low spiritual experience. third, casual spiritual tourism is tourists who travel for the main purpose of traveling and relaxing and having a lesser spiritual experience. fourth, incidental spiritual tourism is a tourist who travels for the main purpose of traveling and not being in the main spiritual growth, and usually, a sudden one and the spiritual experience is enough to be done once. last, serendipitous spiritual tourism (coincidence) is tourists who travel for the main purpose of spiritual growth, not being the main thing, even if they get spiritual experiences only because of the tourist’s luck factor after traveling. cultural rituals as an eco-spiritual tourism commodity can be a means of maintaining culture and language even though they are commodified for tourism purposes. the authenticity of culture can be modified to attract tourists so that, big or small, there will be hidden authenticity. the loss of sustainable local cultures and the important ecological knowledge contained within their languages has led to a significant movement within ecolinguistics to protect both cultural diversity and the linguistic diversity that supports it. commodification has implications not only in society’s economy but also includes ideological and political dimensions; potentially, all aspects of life can become commodities (cowell & jenks, 2021). the term commodification used here is to describe the relationship between economy and culture, as well as a concern for the relationship between humans and their material culture in contemporary capitalist societies. on the other hand, a commodity is defined as a product that is not only produced for self-consumption by the maker but also for sale on the market; thus, the 185an ecolinguistic study on.... (diah supatmiwati, et al.) product has an exchange value that is different from its intrinsic use-value. commodification promotes use value into exchange value. cohen (ulinnuha & lutfia, 2021) has argued that the object becomes a commodity when they take on the exchange rate at the top or above its value in use, and it can be traded. in relation to cultural tourism, commodification modifies society and local culture into commodities. the impacts of commodification are, first, tourism creates commoditization of local people and culture. in this process, the traditions/costume of the people, such as costumes, rituals and festivals, and tales and ethnic arts, become tourism services or commodities when they are performed or produced for the consumption of tourists. in other words, culture is exploited for the benefit of tourism commodities. second, commodification may ruin the authenticity of local cultural products and ruin human relations with others (cosmology). tourist satisfaction from experiencing constructive and existential authenticity is a strong indicator of tourist intention to revisit. therefore, ecotourism should maintain constructive authenticity to contribute to tourist satisfaction when intangible tourism resources become real (park, choi, & lee, 2019). the commoditization of local people and culture in the context of tourism can harm not only the understanding of cultural products by the communities themselves but also by tourists. however, on the other hand, the commoditization of local people and culture in the context of tourism can raise the economy in a multi-effect manner. in other words, the commodification of culture can be a driving force for the economic development of the local community. ecolinguistic was firstly introduced by haugen in 1972 (silalahi, 2019). this term began to be a new archetype in 1990, along with the increasing complexity of the world’s ecological problems as a result of environmental changes. in terms of words, ecolinguistics comes from two words, namely ecology and linguistics. ecology is the science that discusses the relationship between humans and their environment, while linguistics is the study of language. ecolinguistics is a scientific discipline that studies environment and language. according to mbete (yuniawan et al., 2017), the linguistics branches, whether micro and macro, as well as applied issues, are an interdisciplinary language science that can be juxtaposed under ecolinguistic, and they are interesting to be identified and developed in research. ecolinguistics is a study that discusses language associated with the environment in which the language grows, develops, and is used by the language community in the language area. figure 1 shows the ecological concept of language adopted from haugen (1972). haugen emphasizes that ecolinguistics is a paradigm of ecological concepts related to language, speakers, and the environment (suktiningsih, 2016). in this context, haugen makes the environment an indicator of a language-user community, as a code with metaphorical meaning. in this case, ecolinguistic studies are needed to reveal how a lexicon has linguistic information on the reciprocal relationship between speakers, language, and the environment. interestingly, even though couto (li, steffensen, & huang, 2020) has recognized the different interpretations of the environment (or ecology) in many ecolinguistic studies, he defines an ecolinguist as any investigator who acknowledges that he/she is doing ecolinguistics or is using ecological concepts in his/her linguistic research and/or is dealing with environmental questions in relation to language, or environment in relation to language. ecolinguistics’ ecological orientation, the field has a great potential for contributing to transdisciplinary collaborations among environmental research fields such as environmental studies, ecology, and environmental communication (chen, 2016). the lexicons of the tradition of rebo buntung reflect the relationship between cultures, humans, spiritual, and nature in ecology. each lexicon found in the rebo buntung tradition has a lexical meaning; according to martinet, lexical meaning as an extralinguistic phenomenon does not necessarily impact the intralinguistic relations that form the language system (acquaviva et al., 2020). this language documentation is important for a cultural inheritance to the next generation or their posterity. it is because with the rapidly technological development, many languages, especially many lexicons, will be possibly eroded and become archaic lexicons (kardana, mahayana, & rajistha, 2020). figure 1 ecological concept of language methods the research is conducted at ketapang beach, tanjung menangis, pringgabaya district, and east lombok where rebo buntung ritual is carried out. the research uses a qualitative descriptive method. for this reason, the data obtained are analyzed using qualitative descriptive analysis by describing the data obtained from an informant. the informant’s name is lalu wirahadi. he is a traditional figure who knows deeply about the rebo buntung ritual. after interviewing, data are the transcript, and then those are compared with the data taken from the field during the rebo buntung ritual event. saphir (isti’anah, 2020) asserts that the 186 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 183-189 vocabularies of a language that most clearly reflects its speakers’ physical and social environment; thus, what is uttered in speaking or writing reflects what the language user experiences with her/his environment. the research is started by sorting out the lexicons comprising environmental domains indicated by saphir. in this stage, all collected data are identified and classified, classifying data based on lexicon related to nature. the data of this research is analyzed descriptively in accordance with the lexicon related to the nature of the rebo butung ritual. furthermore, sudaryanto says that the analysis presented uses the informal method of using words without formulation or symbol (febriyani, bagiya, & ratnaningsih, 2021). results and discussions the rebo buntung traditional event is one of the many traditions and cultures inherent in some sasak people who inhabit lombok island. based on its literal meaning, rebo buntung means the last wednesday in the month of safar (hijri calendar). in wide-ranging, the indonesian muslim community believes that the last wednesday of safar is a ‘sacred day’. some people believe that a disaster or a source of disease will come, so they must perform a ritual of repelling reinforcements. likewise, the tradition of the sasak people, rebo buntung, is the last wednesday of safar. this is intended to eliminate the coming disaster. the best part of the rebo buntung traditional event is the tetulaq tamperan ritual, which is usually carried out by the sasak indigenous community on ketapang beach, tanjung menangis, pringgabaya district, and east lombok regency. this ritual involves many sasak traditional leaders and religious leaders as well as the local community. in this procession, the buffalo head that has been decorated with flowers is floated into the sea in figure 2. figure 2 the traditional leader brings major offering (source: https://inibaru.id/tradisinesia/mengenal-ritualmandi-bersama-dalam-tradisi-rebo-bontong-suku-sasak) apart from expressing gratitude and repelling reinforcements, this inherited traditional ritual leaves an important message about the importance of harmonizing between humans and the natural environment. indirectly, the rebo buntung and tetaluq tamperan events have social, economic, cultural, and language preservation functions. the relationship between language and environment and religious activities refers to an ecolinguistic study written by einar haugen in 1970. haugen defines linguistic ecology as the study of the interactions between a language and its environment (boada, 2017). the form of the lexicon obtained from the use of language, which refers to something, shows the closeness of human interaction as language users with the natural surroundings. the use of lexicons in language ecology reflects an interaction between humans and their environment. several forms of lexicons are used in the traditional event of rebo buntung of the east lombok community. those refer to various series of events in the traditional procession. one of the processional lexicons or series of events in the rebo buntung is tetulaq tamperan. in the context of tourism, religious or cultural rituals should be modified as much as possible into a show that can be traded in the market. in tourism, for example, in traditional ceremonies, capitalist elements must be added to the structure of the traditional ceremonies. as an illustration, if referring to the giddens’ (xu, pearce, & chen, 2021), regarding the structure of social practice, it is elements that always remain and are repeated. after classifying the obtained data, the results of this research are some lexicons related to the natural environment, and the terms are formed from various morphological processes. tetulaq tamperan is a phrase from the words tetulaq and tamperan. the word tetulaq is a derivation word formed from (badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa, 2017): prefix [ te-] in sasak language the prefix [te-] which is attached to a verb-functions to form a passive verb root tulaq tu.laq v return to; te.tu.lak.in v (be) returned; root tamperan tam.par.an, te.tam.par.an n beach; literally, the meaning of tetulaq tamperan is to be returned to the beach. in accordance with its meaning, the tetulaq tamperan is a procession centered on the beach where the communities, including traditional leaders, cultural figures, and religious and community leaders, gather on tanjung menangis beach to float the buffalo head offerings into the sea. apart from the buffalo head, there are several other offerings in the form of agricultural products such as rice, fruits, betel leaves, chickens, and others. then the buffalo head and all the offerings are floated out to sea by boat. floating the main offerings into the sea is the end of the event series. after that, all the people who participated in the series of events bath in the sea; it is believed as a way of cleaning themselves from negative attitudes and creating peace in social life. basically, 187an ecolinguistic study on.... (diah supatmiwati, et al.) the tetulaq tamperan ritual is related to nature, seen from the word tamperan, which refers to a beach. this means that the people of pringabaya really appreciate nature in the tetulaq tamperan procession. this ritual is a reflection of the soul of the sasak people as part of a cultured and religious society. it is also part of the balance of self and the surrounding environment, which is arranged harmoniously by prioritizing local wisdom. its existence is very potential as a cultural treasure containing moral messages and customs within the framework of religious culture. this is a wise effort in preserving culture and language. sesaji is the main offering in the form of a buffalo head or a goat’s head, which is placed on a serving stand and decorated with coconut leaves and given frankincense and incense. ongsongan is a container made of bamboo and banana stems and covered with a yellow cloth and decorated with a white umbrella. it is filled with yellow rice and white rice, as well as seven eggs and seven kinds of traditional snacks, and seven kinds of fruit which in essence is the offerings of crops society. in addition, ongsongan is also filled with 44 pieces of ketupat (rice cake wrapped in coconut leaves) and 44 pieces of tikel (sticky rice wrapped in coconut leaves). this ongsongan will be floated along with the main offering, namely the buffalo head into the sea. the symbolic meaning of this ongsongan is giving offerings to the guardians of the ocean and all the creatures in it. ancak is a place or container made of bamboo used to carry offerings that will be floated into the middle of the sea. ancak is a rectangular shape. in addition, ancak is also used as a place to serve food during a meal together at the tetulaq tamperan ritual. sonsonan is an offering arranged in a dulang (large round tray) whose contents depend on the type of the sonsonan. the word sonsonan comes from son and sunan; son means someone who is respected, and the word sunan means prophet or religious messenger or guardian. in the tetulaq tamperan ritual, there are four types of sonsonan that must be prepared that can be seen in table 1. the selection of environmental lexicons found in the data can be summarized in table 2. the structure for the performance of the rebo buntung ritual, the elements can be described. there are a number of rituals that absolutely must be carried out in a series of this ritual, namely tetulak or the tradition of rejecting reinforcements, similar to thanksgiving. at this moment, all elements of society, including traditional leaders and community table1 types of sonsonan no lexicon reference 1 sonsonan rasul mustapa this sonsonan is an offering that are placed on trays containing of four stacks of nasi rasul, each stack is coated with fried egg and placed with smooth white chicken and accompanied by a kettle. 2 sonsonan ratu this sonsonan is an offering that are placed on trays containing of white rice, eggs, and smooth black chicken. 3 sonsonan wali this sonsonan is an offering that are placed on trays containing of white rice tumpeng (cone shape) and nine eggs that are placed around the rice and on top of it is yellow feathers roasted chicken and then the offerings are covered with white cloth. 4 sonsonan kyai this sonsonan is in the form of offerings that are placed on trays containing eighteen offerings, they are nine offerings containing rice complete with side dishes and nine offerings containing various types of traditional snacks and roasted chicken from a chicken with red feathers. table 2 ecolexicon no lexicon phonetic symbol categories referent biotic* abiotic** 1 tetulaq tamperan tətulʌk tʌmpərʌn compounds abiotic 2 sesaji utama səsʌji utʌmʌ compounds abiotic 3 ongsongan oŋsoŋʌn base abiotic 4 ancak ʌntʃʌk root abiotic 5 sonsonan sonsonʌn compounds abiotic 6 sonsonan rasul mustapa sonsonʌn rʌsu:l mustʌpʌ compounds abiotic 7 sonsonan ratu sonsonʌn rʌtu: compounds abiotic 8 sonsonan wali sonsonʌn wʌlɪ compounds abiotic 9 sonsonan kyai sonsonʌn kjai compounds abiotic * abiotic refers to non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem ** biotic refer to a living component of an ecosystem 188 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 183-189 leaders, gather around the coast to make offerings. the offerings are in the form of rice with the complete dishes, as well as fruit, incense, and various flowers. everything is paraded using a large serving container or bamboo mat called ancak. in addition, the buffalo head is wrapped in white cloth and carried by the traditional leader that is also carried out. there are still things that make this moment even livelier. one of them is the entertainment programs, such as drama performances, shadow puppet shows, rudat performances, takepan reading (wewacan), cilokaq, kecimolan, jangger dance, and many more. moreover, the traders are also present in the area. inevitably, it makes the atmosphere very lively. they sell various types of traditional dishes that are very distinctive and delicious, such as urap, pelencing, rice cake, satay bulayak, and so on. structure of rebo buntung and tetulaq tamperan rituals are (1) performers, (2) prayer, (3) inheritance weapon, (4) the venue, (5) procession of tetulaq tamperan, tetulak village, tetulak desa, and tetulak otak reban, (6) offerings, (7) food, (8) clothing, (9) performances of gamelan and gendang beleq (traditional orchestra), and (10) society. it is undeniable that tourism development based on culture makes cultural commodities attract consumers. they are interested in seeing it, visiting it, and witnessing it, so culture becomes a popular tourist attraction. on that basis, tourist visits to cultural tourism attractions have large multi-effects and become the support for the movement of the local economy. conclusions cultural forms and elements basically have the potential to be used as a tourism commodity, meaning that they can be commodified. 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(2017). the study of critical eco-linguistic in green discourse: prospective eco-linguistic analysis. jurnal humaniora, 29(3), 291-300. https://doi. org/10.22146/jh.v29i3.27441. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 59 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 59-66 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.9643 banjarese college students’ positive politeness toward their lecturers through online chats menik winiharti1*; ahmad mubarok2 1english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan ilir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, indonesia 2indonesian literature, faculty of cultural sciences, mulawarman university jl. ki hajar dewantara, gn. kelua, samarinda, kalimantan timur 75243, indonesia 1menik_w@binus.ac.id; 2mubarok.banjar@gmail.com received: 23rd february 2023/revised: 05th april 2023/accepted: 10th april 2023 how to cite: winiharti, m., & mubarok, a. (2023). banjarese college students’ positive politeness toward their lecturers through online chats. lingua cultura, 17(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.9643 abstract the research aimed to describe the positive politeness strategy which was applied by undergraduate students toward their lecturers in online conversations. it was also to find the form of violations of politeness that occurred in the conversation and to describe the factors that influenced the violation. the data was gathered from online conversations between students and lecturers through chat applications such as whatsapp and line on lecturers' and students’ devices. then the data were grouped and analyzed according to brown and levinson's (1987) positive politeness strategy along with their theory on distance, power, and ranking of imposition. the results show that positive politeness strategies appear in eleven utterances out of forty-three utterances. the violation of politeness is shown in five utterances, all of which threaten the negative face of the addressee. in addition, five factors influence the violation: distance, context, desire to over-praise the addressee, deliberately asking for reasons, and rejection. overall, social factors still influence the way students communicate online with their lecturers. to some extent, students apply positive politeness strategies toward their lecturers even though the interaction happens through online chat applications. keywords: politeness strategy, positive politeness, positive face, negative face, social factors, online chat introduction the value of politeness does not necessarily belong to a person since birth but appears as a form of competence obtained from interaction among speakers in terms of social, cultural, and surroundings. a high cultural value is not innate but comes from the process of socialization and the socio-cultural construction of a nation. politeness is not universal but has a social background, so forms and backgrounds cannot be separated. there are three factors that determine the form of politeness, namely the norms of culture, situations, and the nature of the message conveyed. it can also be understood that the speech context determines the form of politeness performed by speakers (rasyikin, 2018). politeness may occur in any situation, including in an academic setting. several researches have investigated students and/or teachers’ politeness in the academic setting. in terms of english language learning, rejeki and azizah (2019) have pointed out that politeness strategies should be introduced in the classroom because students would use the language in the real world. other research also shows university students’ politeness when they are responding to their teacher’s online announcements (selgas, 2022), dealing with emails of requests delivered to their lecturers (trang, 2019), interacting with their teacher in biology class (nugrahanto & hartono, 2020), having interaction in efl class (fitriyani & andriyanti, 2020) even when they are having interaction among themselves as english university students (mahmud, 2019). nowadays, face-to-face interactions, to some in pr es s 60 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 59-66 extent, are replaced by online communication as technology is developing exceptionally fast. the presence of communication devices makes communication across the world instant. one of the most booming occurrences with this technological advancement is communicating through online chats provided by internet-based applications, such as whatsapp and line. these applications are quite easy to use in which users only have to type messages on the provided space in the application, click ‘send’ then they can be connected to other people within seconds. as a result, to some extent, the oral communication culture is eventually replaced by online chats for more effective and efficient reasons. in terms of politeness, interactions through online media should consider the elements of ethics, as some researches show that such types of communication indicate some ethical issues. for this case, mâță (2022) has pointed out some problems that may occur in online communication between students and teachers, such as the use of inappropriate language, misunderstanding of information, and failure to respect the teacher’s private time. thus, she has suggested that online communication should manifest appropriate attitudes, offer the teacher’s response on time to the students’ requests, and respect the confidentiality of the communication content (mâță, 2022). similarly, julia, kurnia, and sudin (2018) have shown that communication between students and their peers and between students and their lecturers through social media decreased politeness and tended to ignore the ethics of communication. this is an interesting finding because gervasio and humphrey (2019) have found the opposite. they have pointed out that in social media discourse, university students use various politeness strategies that show evidence of their building and maintaining relationships among themselves. another opposite finding is also shown by farida and yuliana (2019), who have stated that sundanese students are aware of their ‘asymmetrical power relation’ with the lecturers since the dominant type of politeness shown by students is a negative one. similarly, shalihah and zuhdi (2020) have found that most students use polite and formal language to their lecturers, which includes greetings, self-introductions, apologies at the beginning and/or at the end of text messages, intention in sending messages, thank-you notes and closing. there are several factors that may affect the way a person applies their type of politeness. selgas (2022) have pointed out that factors such as cultural differences, gender language, gender performativity, and teachers’ announcement to which the students respond should be considered when determining significant differences in politeness strategies among students. similarly, fitriyani and andriyanti (2020) have stated that factors like age difference, institutional position, power, and social distance may influence the politeness strategies in the interactions between students and teachers. meanwhile, when students send emails to their professors, they should pay attention to the correct formal form and cultural differences (trang, 2019). in addition, students are more likely to use their vernacular language, which is used as a softening mechanism for their presentation (mahmud, 2019). the phenomenon in which students are assumed to have a tendency to ignore the principle of politeness can be seen in the following chat. this chat is sent from a student to one of his lecturers. “ibu di mana? bisa cepat nggak bu? saya sudah depan kantor ibu.” “where are you maam? can you hurry up? i'm already in front of your office.” the utterance, to some extent, is considered less polite. the sender of the message does not consider whom the addressee is speaking to, so the form of the sentence and the choice of words used tend to be informal and tend to be ‘direct’. the question, “where are you, maam?” can cause obscurity on the side of the hearer of what is asked. it would be clearer and more polite if the question is expressed in a more complete sentence. then in “can you hurry up?” there is an impression that the student rules the lecturer, even though it is the student who needs to meet his lecturer. the third sentence, “i am already in front of your office,” suggests that the lecturer should be in her office in a minute. this example gives a little illustration of how young people nowadays communicate and convey messages to others, in this case, lecturers or people whom they should give more respect to. with regard to the theory of politeness, brown and levinson (1987) first have discussed what is called ‘face’. they say the face is the self-public image every member wants to claim for himself. according to yule (1996), this concept of the face then underlies the theory of language politeness strategy because in communicating, the speaker will try to save the face of the addressee. regarding this ‘face’, brown and levinson (1987) have classified it into two related aspects: (1) negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction, i.e., freedom of action and freedom from imposition, and (2) positive face: the positive consistent self-image or personality (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants. the face can then be considered as a desire (face wants). a negative face is an individual’s wish that every desire is not impeded by another party, while a positive face is the desire of every speaker so that he can be accepted or liked by others. brown and levinson (1987) have said that the concept of face is universal, and naturally, there are various utterances that tend to be unpleasant actions called face threatening acts (fta). furthermore, the acts that threaten one’s face can be grouped into two types: acts that threaten the hearer’s positive face and those that threaten the hearer’s negative face. the acts that threaten negative in pr es s 61banjarese college students’ .... (menik winiharti; ahmad mubarok) face include the expressions of (a) orders and requests, suggestions, advice, warnings, threats, challenges, (b) offer, promise, (c) praise, and strong negative feelings such as hatred and anger (brown & levinson, 1987). meanwhile, the acts that threaten the positive face of the hearer include (a) expressions of disapproval, criticism, acts of humiliation or disgrace, complaints, anger, indictments, and insults; (b) the expression of contradiction, disagreement, or challenge; (c) uncontrolled expressions of emotions that make the hearer feel scared or humiliated; (d) impolite expressions, mentioning things that are taboo or inappropriate in a situation, i.e., the speaker shows that they do not respect the hearer’s values and also disregard the things that the hearer fears, (e) expressions of bad news about the hearer, or boasting good news about the speaker, which indicates that the speaker does not hesitate to reveal unpleasant things to the hearer, and does not care much about the hearer’s feelings; (f) expressions about harmful things and divisive topics, such as political, race, religion, women’s liberation issues. in this case, the speaker generates an atmosphere that has the potential to threaten the face of the hearer, i.e., the speaker creates a dangerous atmosphere towards the hearer’s face; (g) uncooperative expressions of the speaker toward the hearer, i.e., the speaker interrupts the hearer’s talk, expresses non-sequitur things and does not show concern (the speaker shows that they do not care about the desires of the hearer’s negative or positive face), (h) expressions of addressing or other status identifications that show the status of the hearer in the first encounter. in this situation, the speaker might incorrectly identify the hearer, which hurts their feelings or embarrasses them either intentionally or not. then brown and levinson (1987) have proposed five strategies that one might do in conducting an fta. the first is bald on record. it performs speech acts directly; for example, “lend me your pen!” (yule, 1996). the second is off-record. it conducts speech acts in a disguised/indirect manner; for example, “uh, i forgot my pen.” (yule, 1996). the third is positive politeness. it performs speech acts using positive politeness strategies; for example, “how about letting me use your pen?” (yule, 1996). the fourth is negative politeness. it performs speech acts using a negative politeness strategy; for example, “i’m sorry to bother you, but can i ask you for a pen or something?” (yule, 1996). the last is to say nothing (but do actions that have a specific meaning); for example, (yule, 1996). regarding positive politeness strategies, brown and levinson (1987) have suggested fifteen strategies that a speaker can use. they are (1) pay attention to the hearer’s preferences, desires, and needs; (2) exaggerate attention, approval, and sympathy for the hearer; (3) intensify the hearer’s attention by dramatizing events or facts; (4) use group identity markers (address terms, dialect, jargon or slang); (5) seek approval with general topics or repeating some/ all utterances; (6) avoid disapproval by pretending to agree, pseudo-agreement, white-lies, hedging opinions; (7) show matters that are considered to have similarities through small talk and presuppositions; (8) use jokes; (9) express understanding on the hearer’s desires; (10) provide offers or promises; (11) show optimism; (12) engage speakers and hearers in activities; (13) give questions or ask for reasons; (14) express reciprocal relationships; and (15) give gifts (goods, sympathy, attention, cooperation) to the hearer (pramujiono, 2015). furthermore, brown and levinson (1987) have also discussed three influencing social factors in the use of fta. they are power, social distance, and ranking of imposition. social distance is the distance between the speaker and the hearer, which is considered a measure of social contact between the speaker and the hearer in knowing each other and their relations in a context. power is the difference in power between the speaker and the hearer, which is a relationship statement that asserts the extent to which one can force others without losing face. moreover, the last is ranking of imposition (in particular cultures), where the level of speech-threatening acts in certain cultural contexts; the relative status of speech act types in situations that are considered not too threatening to face. pramujiono (2015) has further elaborated on these three social factors. factor d (social distance) will affect the level of familiarity and solidarity between speakers and hearers. then factor p (power) perceived by speakers and hearers will have an effect on the level of determination of the speaker’s desire toward the hearer. while the factor of ranking of imposition of speech acts in certain cultural contexts (r) implies how much ‘threat’ or how much ‘danger’ is perceived to be present in a particular cultural context. for this case, rahayuningsih, saleh, and fitriati (2020) have found that these sociological factors – distance, power, and degree of imposition – indeed influence the interaction between efl teachers and students in the classroom, specifically with regard to the choice of their politeness strategies. however, hutahaean, herman, and girsang (2021) have found only two factors influencing how people in a variety show communicate. according to them, social distance is found to have the most decisive influence; the second is relative power, while imposition is not shown in the interaction. based on the previous discussion and background, this research is conducted to know how undergraduate students use politeness when communicating online with their lecturers, especially in banjarmasin. therefore, the objectives of this research are to (1) describe the positive politeness strategies used by students towards their lecturers in online conversation; (2) find violations of politeness strategies that occur in the conversation; and (3) find the factors that influence the violation. in pr es s 62 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 59-66 methods this research uses a qualitative-descriptive approach because it intends to describe the students’ politeness towards their lecturers through online conversation. it is conducted at a private university in banjarmasin, south kalimantan. therefore, these students have a similar cultural background, which is banjarese. the object of the research is students majoring in english language education who contact their lecturers through internet-based conversation applications, in this case, whatsapp and line. therefore, the data source for this research is documented in the form of messages from students, which are sent to their lecturers through these applications. the data is collected by screen-capturing students’ messages to their lecturers delivered through whatsapp and line applications. after the raw data are collected, they are selected and identified based on the research problem related to the student’s language politeness when contacting their lecturers. there are a total of forty-three utterances selected. then the next step is to classify these data according to brown and levinson’s (1987) positive politeness strategy. they are ranked based on the percentage of the occurrences. these data are then discussed and analyzed based on politeness strategies with regard to distance (d), power (p), and ranking of imposition (r) proposed by brown and levinson (1987). in addition, the cultural factors regarding the use of politeness strategies are also discussed and analyzed. results and discussions the results and discussion are presented in three sections. the first one discusses the findings about positive politeness strategies used by students with banjarese cultural background using brown and levinson’s (1987) positive politeness strategy. then the forms of violating positive politeness that occurs are analyzed. the last section discusses the factors that influence the violation of the students’ positive politeness. figure 1 students’ positive politeness strategy toward their lecturers there are eleven positive politeness strategies used by students with banjarese cultural background. figure 1 describes the number of utterances, in percentages out of forty-three utterances, spoken by students who apply the positive politeness strategy. the eleven strategies are (1) paying attention to the hearer’s preferences, desires, and needs. there are seven utterances (16%) using this strategy. this is the most-used strategy among others. (2) exaggerating attention, approval, and sympathy to the hearer. five utterances (12%) are found using this strategy. (3) using group identity markers. this strategy is applied by three utterances (7%). (4) showing matters that have similarities through small talk and presupposition. there are five utterances (12%) using this strategy. (5) seeking approval by repeating part or all of the speaker’s/hearer’s talks, and it is found four utterances (9%). (6) avoid disapproval by pretending to agree, pseudo-agreement, white lies, or hedging opinions. this strategy is applied in three utterances (7%). (7) using jokes is found in six utterances (14%). (8) giving promises is found in two utterances (5%). (9) expressing understanding or understanding the hearer’s desires. there is only one utterance (2%) using this strategy. (10) giving questions or asking for reasons is found in five utterances (12%). (11) involving speaker and hearers in an activity is found in two utterances (5%). the occurrences of the strategy can be arranged in table 1. table 1 students’ positive politeness strategy in frequency strategy number of utterances percentage strategy 1 7 16 strategy 7 6 14 strategy 2 5 12 strategy 4 5 12 strategy 10 5 12 strategy 5 4 9 strategy 3 3 7 strategy 6 3 7 strategy 8 2 5 strategy 11 2 5 strategy 9 1 2 total 43 100 it can be clearly seen from table 1 that the most-frequently-occurred strategy is strategy 1, which is paying attention to the hearer’s preferences, desires, and needs. it means that, to some extent, the students still have consideration toward their lecturers’ preferences, desires, and needs. the second mostfrequently-occurred strategy is strategy 6, which is using jokes. it indicates that students, to some extent, do not hesitate to show or use jokes when they send messages to their lecturers. the least-frequentlyin pr es s 63banjarese college students’ .... (menik winiharti; ahmad mubarok) occurred strategy is strategy 9, which is expressing understanding or understanding the hearer’s desires. this finding is, in fact, rather contradictive regarding the finding showing that strategy 1 is the most frequently occurring strategy. in other words, students are regarded as being able to pay attention to their lecturers’ preferences, desires, and needs, but they are not able to understand them. the example of the students’ positive politeness strategies is discussed in these four conversations. conversation 1: the strategy of avoiding disagreement by pretending to agree or using pseudo-agreement (strategy 6) student ibu terimakasih banyak buat dukungan unt invents. maaf kalo acaranya masih ada kekurangannya. mudahan tahun dpn lebih baik lg. makasih banyak bu…(emoticon menangis) thank you very much for supporting the event, ma’am. sorry if the program was not perfect. we hope next year will be much better. thanks a lot, ma’am (emoticon crying). lecturer you’re welcome. overall, it’s successful. i gave 85/100 score for this year event. congratulation. esa & you… have done a good job! (emoticon thumb) student thankyou maaaaammm (emoticon grinning) the context of this conversation is that the student knows the program he has run is not perfect, then he apologizes to his lecturer. however, the lecturer gives compliments by telling the score directly. actually, the student does not really agree with the compliment because he realizes that there is a lack in the program, but to appreciate his lecturer, he answers, “thank you, maaaaammm”, followed by grinning emoticons. as a matter of fact, this answer shows that the student is not sure about the results of the program. furthermore, in terms of social distance (d), the speaker is aware of his status as a student who is socially different from his lecturer, so there is a distance between them. in terms of power (p), the student also realizes that his level of power is not the same as his lecturer’s. whereas in terms of r, the speaker tries to save or not threaten the face of the hearer by saying ‘thank you’ even though he does not really agree with his lecturer’s saying. this, in fact, is in line with rahayuningsih, saleh, and fitriati’s (2020) findings that the sociological factors influence the politeness strategies used. conversation 2: strategy for promising (strategy 8) student mau minta izin bu. nanti mau ngomong bu. i would like to ask permission, maam. i want to talk about something. lecturer soal apa? besok pagi jam stg 8. what is it? tomorrow morning at 7.30 student masalah perkuliahan bu, inggih insyaallah besok ke kantor ibu. about the lectures maam, yes, in god’s willing i’m going to your office tomorrow. this conversation is started by a student asking permission to meet the lecturer. then the lecturer agrees by scheduling their meeting for the next day. after that, the student answers by stating that the next day he/she would come using the sentence, “inggih (yes), insyaallah (in god’s willing), i’m going to your office tomorrow.” it shows that the student promises to come according to the schedule that the lecturer has specified. the use of 'inggih’ in banjarese is a subtle speech level and shows that the speaker respects his/her addressee. thus, in terms of d, the speaker is aware of his/her status as a student who has social distance from his/her lecturer and is in a less powerful position than the lecturer. whereas in terms of r, the speaker tries to save or not threaten the face of the hearer by promising to comply with the schedule set by the lecturer. the factor of p is shown by the lecturer’s decision that the time the student meets would be at 7.30 on the following day. these factors are in line with the findings of pramujiono (2015), rahayuningsih, saleh, and fitriati (2020), and hutahaean, herman, and girsang (2021) with regard to the influence of sociological factors. conversation 3: the strategy expresses understanding or understand the hearer’s desire (strategy 9) student assalammualaykum maam... are you at campus now? or whon will you be in campus?” lecturer sorry. i wasn’t in campus this morning. but i’m teaching at 2 as usual. student oh ok ma’am. sorry… the context of this conversation is that the student intends to meet his/her lecturer on campus by asking if the lecturer is there that morning. the lecturer says that he/she is not on campus that morning, but there is a teaching schedule at 2 o'clock. thus, the lecturer indirectly asked the student to meet him/ her around that hour. the student's sentence, “oh ok ma’am. sorry...”, shows that he/she could understand the lecturer’s activities and desire to meet the students on the schedule mentioned. concerning d, p, and r, the sentence stated by the student shows the relationship between students and lecturers who have social distance, lecturer’s higher position (power), and no intention to threaten the lecturer’s face. this is in line with brown and levinson’s (1987) presentation in pr es s 64 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 59-66 about the influence of the three factors. conversation 4: the strategy of asking questions or asking for reasons (strategy 10) student inggih bu. jadi kyapa bu. tadi ibu dayah berpesan supaya besok bisa on time kata beliau. ternyata ada ppb (kelas bahasa) yes maam. so how is it, ma’am? mrs dayah said we should be on time. apparently, there is a language class. lecturer kalo begitu kalian harus datang lebih pagi supaya kelas dibooking. jam 6.30 harus ada di sana. if so, you have to come earlier so the class is booked. you must be there at 6.30. the context of this conversation is that a student asks a question to the lecturer to get a solution about the room they booked, which turns out to be used for a language class. in this situation, the student asked, “yes, ma’am. so how is it, ma’am?” which shows positive politeness, and again, the student uses banjarese inggih, which shows speech level of being subtle. therefore, in terms of social distance (d), it appears that the student respects the lecturer by addressing her ‘ma’am’ and using a polite question and the word choice ‘inggih’. then in terms of power (p), the student also realizes that the lecturer has the power so that the utterances delivered sound polite. likewise, with regard to the ranking of imposition (r), the speaker does not attempt to threaten the face of the hearer so that the utterances can be said to ‘save’ the lecturer’s face. in addition to the utterances that are categorized as having positive politeness strategies, the findings also indicate that on the students’ side, the politeness strategies are violated. based on the data analyzed using the positive politeness strategies, there are five violations of positive politeness. it is revealed so because the utterances delivered by students do not show the positive politeness strategy; they even violate the strategy presented by brown and levinson (1987). these are three examples of utterances that are considered to violate the positive politeness. conversation 5 student ibu, anda di mana? saya di depan ruangan anda. bisa dipercepatkah (kedatangannya)? saya sibuk. ma’am, where are you? i’m in front of your office. can you be quick (to arrive)? i’m busy. lecturer ok the context of the conversation is that the speaker, a student, is in front of the lecturer's office because the lecturer has asked the student to come to have a re-final test because he/she is not present at the scheduled time. the student asks the lecturer where he/she is while informing that he/she is in front of the lecturer’s office. however, the student gives instructions to the lecturer to arrive more quickly because the speaker is busy, and he/she has a business afterward. the violation of positive politeness in the above conversation is mainly shown in the utterance, "can you be quick?" this can be classified as a violation of the hearer’s negative face because it sounds like commanding someone. when viewed using the d-p-r (distance, power, and ranking of imposition) variables, there is also a violation committed by the speaker. in this case, the speaker does not properly command the lecturer because the speaker is a student who needs the lecturer. in terms of distance, the relationship between the speaker and the hearer is between a student and a lecturer; thus, it is assumed that there is a social distance that does not allow the speaker to command the hearer; moreover, the conversation happens in the formal context. in terms of power, even the hearer has higher power toward the speaker because of his/her position as a lecturer of the speaker. in this case, the lecturer is supposed to have the power to control because the student needs the lecturer in this situation. then in the case of the ranking of imposition (r), the speaker also seems to threaten the face of the hearer by commanding. the banjarese culture adopted by the speaker and the hearer adheres to the value that politeness does matter, taking into account the age gap between the speaker and the hearer. especially when viewed from the side of the hearer as a teacher, he/ she is a person who should be respected. overall, the speaker’s utterance shows an act that does not respect older and respected people. conversation 6 student maaf bu ternyata jadwal kami berubah dan pagi ini harus ppl, ketemunya tidak jadi pagi ini ya buu sorry, ma’am, it turns out that our schedule has changed and this morning we must have ppl, reschedule our meeting ya ma’am this conversation occurred after the student and the lecturer agreed to meet based on the time scheduled. however, the student tried to cancel the meeting because he/she had another program to attend. the utterance he/she spoke, “reschedule our meeting ya ma'am,” shows that the student is trying to control the lecturer by canceling the appointment. it is clear that the student in this situation does not show his/her politeness. thus, to some extent, he/she has violated the lecturer’s negative face. in terms of d, the student is less aware that between him/her and the lecturer, there is a social distance. by saying that, it is as if he in pr es s 65banjarese college students’ .... (menik winiharti; ahmad mubarok) has a close relationship with the lecturer. in terms of p, the student acts like he/she has more power than the lecturer, as evidenced by his/her efforts to cancel the appointment with the lecturer on the grounds that he/she has another activity. then in terms of r, the student seems to threaten the lecturer’s face by trying to control the lecturer. regarding the factors that influence the violation of positive politeness among students with a banjarese cultural background, there are some that can be implied. the first is the social distance and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer. this factor greatly affects the level of positive politeness among students. the closer the social distance is, the lower the level of politeness (and vice versa). the second factor is the context of the conversation. a certain context influences the intention of an utterance in the sense that the context deals with a situation that relates to an event that becomes the background of the utterance. the speech’s non-linguistic environment may be used as a tool to understand the meaning and purpose of an utterance. the next factor is the desire to over-praise the hearer (maambung). in banjarese terms, the word maambung refers to excessive praise and paying attention to the hearer’s needs excessively. this is most likely to cause the violation of positive politeness, which is too threatening to the face of the speaker themselves. the speaker excessively praises the hearer for getting more attention and benefits. the fourth is deliberately asking for reasons. in this factor, speakers do not necessarily blame the addressee. the utterance is often in the form of interrogative sentences, which sometimes contain violations of politeness that indirectly threaten the addressee’s face. in addition, the speaker does not often pay attention to the variables of d, p, or r. the fifth factor is the rejection of something. this factor is often the cause of positive politeness violations for speakers who use strategies to avoid disagreement by pretending to agree, pseudo-agreement, white lies, or hedging opinions. this is most likely because speakers or hearers usually speak using interrogative answers (answers in the form of questions). in addition, such refusal can also be a statement. in refusing, students with a banjarese cultural background may use polite language to get permitted by the lecturer. all of these factors confirm the findings of selgas (2022), fitriyani & andriyanti (2020), and mahmud (2019), who have shown that the participants’ cultural backgrounds influence their choice of politeness strategies. conclusions to some extent, university students indeed still have politeness toward their lecturers when they communicate online, even though a few of them also show violations. the findings show that there are eleven positive politeness strategies from forty-three collected utterances used by students at a university in banjarmasin, south kalimantan, with a banjarese cultural background. these eleven strategies are those paying attention to the hearer’s preferences, desires, and needs; the strategy of exaggerating attention, approval, and sympathy to the hearer; strategies to use group identity markers; the strategy to seek approval by repeating part or all of the addressee’s utterances; the strategy to avoid disagreement by pretending to agree or pseudo agreement, white lies, hedging opinions; the strategy showing matters that have similarities through small talk and presupposition; the strategy of using jokes; the strategy that expresses understanding or understand the hearer’s desires; the strategy to give promises; the strategy that involves speakers and hearers in activities; and the strategy of asking questions or asking for reasons. however, there are five utterances that indicate violations of students’ positive politeness. these five utterances all threaten the negative face of the hearer and do not obey the rules of the variables of distance, power, and ranking of imposition. in addition, the factors that may influence the violation of positive politeness are social distance, the context of the conversation, the desire to excessively praise, deliberately ask for reasons and rejection. lastly, the factors that may influence the students’ politeness are distance, context, desire to over-praise the hearer, deliberately asking for reasons, and rejection. overall, this research implies that, to some extent, the way undergraduate students communicate with their lecturers has changed, especially when they do it through online chat applications. lecturers may anticipate this phenomenon and possibly give advice to their students when they meet in the classroom. besides, this research is limited to online interaction between a few lecturers and undergraduate students in banjarmasin. thus, it may provide insight to further research to be conducted in other areas to find whether there are similarities or differences in the way the lecturers and students communicate online. references brown, p., & levinson, s. c. 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(2019). politeness strategies performed by efl learners’ with english native speakers in medical students. humaniora, 10(1), 4146. https://doi.org/10.21512/humaniora.v10i1.5312. selgas, g. s. (2022). politeness strategies on students’ responses to teacher’s online announcements. international journal of social and administrative sciences, 7(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.55493/5051. v7i1.4508. shalihah, m., & zuhdi, m. n. (2020). language politeness in students’ text messages sent to the lecturers through whatsapp application: a sociopragmatic study. enjourme (english journal of merdeka): culture, language, and teaching of english, 5(2), 134-148. https://doi.org/10.26905/enjourme.v5i2.4926. trang, n. m. (2019). exploring university students’ politeness via vietnamese students’ emails of requests. international journal of research in english education, 4(3), 84-99. http://dx.doi. org/10.29252/ijree.4.3.84. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 17 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 17-23 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.9022 the implementation of academic word list and its implication to the improvement of efl students’ academic writing quality abdullah syarofi1*; shohiyah shobaha2 1arabic language education, faculty of education, institut pesantren sunan drajat 2islamic management education, faculty of education, institut pesantren sunan drajat komplek ponpes sunan drajat, banjarwati paciran lamongan, east java 62264, indonesia 1syarofi.syafi@yahoo.com; 2shohiyah.shobaha@yahoo.com received: 27th september 2022/revised: 20th january 2023/accepted: 31st january 2023 how to cite: syarofi, a., & shobaha, s. (2023). the implementation of academic word list and its implication to the improvement of efl students’ academic writing quality. lingua cultura, 17(1), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.9022 abstract the research aimed to investigate the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of implementing an academic word list and its implication for improving english as a foreign language (efl) students’ writing quality. academic word list (awl) played an important role in expanding the student’s academic vocabulary knowledge. basically, an academic word list was considered one of the effective ways to reduce students’ errors in writing. this research was proposed to review several related preceding studies, and the data found were described qualitatively. from the research conducted, it is found that fifteen out of eighteen studies (83,33%) confirm that the implementation of academic word lists provides a significant contribution to the improvement of students’ writing quality. on the other hand, three out of eighteen studies (16,67%) confirm that implementing an academic word list does not significantly contribute to improving students’ academic word knowledge. this may be attributable to the given portion of the academic word list utilized as supplementary material, and it can only be used outside the classroom without any teacher guidance. the result shows that implementing the academic word list may act as an effective/ineffective tool for improving students’ academic writing quality based on the portion and utilization of this tool in the course. keywords: academic word list, academic writing, english as a foreign language, academic vocabulary introduction writing is one of the four essential skills that are important to be mastered by students. ridha (2012) has emphasized that writing is a complex process that requires a combination of linguistic synthesis and cognitive analysis. besides, in order to become a skilful writer, students must have considerable time and effort to enhance their ability in writing. moreover, allen and corder (1974) have also affirmed that writing is considered the most difficult ability among the four major skills in learning a language. furthermore, in written compositions, there is no possibility to negotiate the meanings as it happens in conversation (allen & corder, 1974). therefore, if the efl students do not master the writing skill well, there will be some problems that occur when they produce some written compositions. many scholars found that the efl students produced various errors in their writing, such as grammatical or lexical errors (fridayanthi, 2017; zewitra & fauziah, 2020; mubarok & budiono, 2022; yusuf, mustafa, & iqbal, 2021; samingan, 2020; tambunan et al., 2022). due to the significant impact of the students’ errors in their writing, some scholars have proposed several ways to reduce the production of the students’ errors in their writing, such as the use of a monolingual dictionary, peer feedback, and an academic word list. in pr es s 18 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 17-23 related to the several solutions that some scholars propose in reducing the students’ errors in their writing, more specifically, the present research aims at reviewing the implementation of an academic word list that acts as the main tool in reducing the students’ errors. the present research also focuses on scrutinizing the implication of the academic word list to improve efl students’ academic writing quality. in relation to the background of the research, the researchers are curious to formulate two research questions, which are worth valued to be scrutinized further. the research aims to answer the questions of whether the implementation of academic word lists through the face-to-face classroom is really effective in improving the quality of students’ academic writing or not, and whether the implementation of academic word lists through mobile-assisted language learning is really effective in improving the quality of students’ academic writing or not through the research questions that are formulated in the present research. hence, the researchers set the research objectives to investigate the effectiveness of academic word list implementation through the face-to-face classroom in improving the quality of students’ academic writing and to investigate the effectiveness of academic word list implementation through mobile-assisted language learning in improving the quality of students’ academic writing. the present research is expected to provide some insights into the pedagogical field, specifically for efl (english as a foreign language) educators and learners, about the efficacy of using academic word lists to improve writing quality and reduce errors in writing. so, efl educators and learners can consider applying academic word lists in their learning process based on their efficiency. methods the data in the present research are gathered from 18 studies that have been conducted by several researchers, which concentrated on scrutinizing the use of academic word lists in improving the quality of students’ academic writing. the studies that are gathered as the data in the present research have the similarity in that most of those studies utilized efl speakers as the subject, and they attempt to seek the effectiveness of academic word lists as the tool in improving the quality of the student’s academic writing. the analysis begins by classifying the studies into two categories: face-to-face classroom and mobile-assisted language learning. both categories are selected because they are the media that mostly engage in the learning process nowadays. mobile-assisted language learning (mall) is part of computerassisted language learning (call); however, mobile is a more inseparable tool for everyone in daily life at this age. benmoussa (2011) has said that the simplicity of mobile which can be carried and used wherever and whenever also makes the students tend to prefer using mobile to assist their learning process compared with computers. after classifying the studies based on the categories of face-to-face classroom and mobileassisted language learning, the researchers further have classified the result of those research, which confirm whether the implementation of the academic word lists is effective or ineffective in improving the quality of the student’s academic writing. afterward, the discussion about the implementation of an academic word list to improve students’ academic writing quality is provided by the researchers based on the two categories that are explained before. furthermore, the discussion about some aspects that trigger the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the academic word list implementation is also provided to assist the writers in gaining some depth-knowledge about how the classroom settings should be designed to improve the quality of the student’s writing. results and discussions through several decades, the debates on the relation between the errors that occurred in students’ written composition and how students can overcome their problem by eliminating the existence of the errors in their writing have become a crucial topic discussed in applied linguistics. several studies have been conducted by some scholars to scrutinize the occurrence of errors in the students’ writing (arifanita, nurkamto, & suparno, 2019; dewi & saputra, 2021; humairoh, 2021; khatter, 2019; novariana, sumardi, & tarjana, 2018; nurkamto, djatmika, & prihandoko, 2022), while many previous studies also specifically conducted by implementing various methods, techniques, and strategies as the solutions for students’ errors in writing in order to improve their writing skill and quality (aghajani & adloo, 2018; albadri & rosyidah, 2022; castillo-cuesta, 2022; hadi, izzah, & paulia, 2021; imelda, cahyono, & astuti, 2019; ismiati & pebriantika, 2020; rahmi, 2021; sakkir et al., 2021; sari et al., 2021; wale & bogale, 2021; yulianti, nuraeni, parmawati, 2019; yusuf, jusoh, & yusuf, 2019). related to the practical solution that has been provided by some scholars, they are various in terms of number. among the practical solutions, the implementation of an academic word list is valued by some scholars as a beneficial basis that can be expanded in developing the writing skill of the students (antes & beck, 2020; choo et al., 2017; khany & kalantari, 2021; pathan et al., 2018). moreover, 15 out of 18 studies (83,33%) have claimed that the implementation of an academic word list is valued as an effective implementation since it assists the students in improving their academic writing quality. at the same time, 3 out of 18 studies (16,67%) have confirmed that implementing an academic word list does not significantly improve the students’ academic writing quality. furthermore, in pr es s 19the implementation of academic .... (abdullah syarofi; shohiyah shobaha) table 1 provides the percentage of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the academic word list implementation in improving the quality of students’ academic writing. table 1 distribution of academic word list (awl) improvement to students’ academic writing improvement of awl to the quality of students’ academic writing total studies percentage (%) significance improvement 15 out of 18 studies 83,33 insignificance improvement 3 out of 18 studies 16,67 the following discussion is divided into two sub-discussions which are further classified based on the media utilized in implementing the academic word lists. they are implementing academic word lists to improve the quality of students’ academic writing through face-to-face classroom interaction and mobile-assisted language learning. according to the data of the present study, there are nine studies which are implemented the academic word list through face-to-face classroom interaction. table 2 provides the distribution of the studies which are implemented the academic word list to investigate the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the students’ academic writing quality through face-to-face classroom interaction. table 2 distribution of awl improvement to the quality of students’ academic writing through face-to-face classroom interaction improvement of awl to the quality of students’ academic writing total studies percentage (%) significance improvement 7 out of 9 studies 77,77 insignificance improvement 2 out of 9 studies 22,23 based on table 2, seven studies (77,77%) confirm that implementing an academic word list in face-to-face classroom interaction significantly improves students’ academic writing quality. besides, this finding which confirms that there is a significant improvement from the academic word list implementation to the quality of the student’s academic writing through the face-to-face classroom interaction is the reflection of five studies that are utilized as the data in the present research (morris & cobb, 2004; coxhead & byrd, 2007; hyland & tse, 2007; lessardclouston, 2012; nushi & jenabzadeh, 2016). among those studies, hyland and tse (2007) and lessard-clouston (2012) have claimed that explicit vocabulary instruction as the media of academic word list implementation significantly improves students’ academic writing. in this case, hyland and tse (2007) and lessard-clouston (2012) have started to assess the students’ vocabulary knowledge by conducting the vocabulary level test. the test evaluates vocabulary knowledge at differing levels of word frequency: 2000 words, 3000 words, 5000 words, and the university word list (uwl). the results of those studies reveal that the student’s vocabulary knowledge is weak. therefore, to increase the student’s vocabulary knowledge, hyland and tse (2007) and lessardclouston (2012) have provided several lists of words that must be studied weekly to expand their vocabulary knowledge. the students are also exposed to academic vocabulary in other coursework areas. words from the uwl frequently appear in the authentic texts that they are reading in their academic subject classes, students work more directly with academic vocabulary in their writing class, and all in all, with regard to the words tested on the vocabulary levels test, the students have many opportunities for explicit learning of the words on the uwl. they have fewer chances for explicit learning with the words at the other levels. nushi and jenabzadeh (2016) have also suggested another way that can be utilized by efl teachers in implementing the academic word list to improve the students’ academic writing quality. they emphasize that implementing the lead technique will assist the students in gaining various vocabulary. basically, the lead technique can be applied as a prereading, while-reading, and post-reading activity. according to nushi and jenabzadeh (2016), the lead technique may become one of the effective ways to assist the students in gaining various vocabulary because the students will directly come into contact with the words, and they can understand the meaning of the vocabulary from the sentence that is being presented to them. besides, nushi and jenabzadeh (2016) have also offered several techniques that can be utilized to implement the academic word list, such as list-group-label, semantic mapping, or morphological analysis. those techniques are designed to assist the students in understanding the new vocabulary and how it can be used in actual sentences. essentially, those techniques elaborated above may be more applicable and useful to implement in classroom activity since it provides the actual use of the new vocabulary by combining skill activities such as reading. by doing these kinds of activities, the students will know how to use the new vocabulary in the sentences and understand the sense of that new vocabulary. moreover, implementing an academic word list to improve the students’ academic writing quality may also not work as maximized as possible if there is no depth-understanding of the structure of the academic prose. coxhead and bryd (2007) have emphasized that grammar and vocabulary play an important role in the structure of academic prose, where they need in pr es s 20 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 17-23 to be introduced in the classroom equally. in their research, they also emphasize the important role of the teacher as one of the vital guidance for the students to reach the goal of the lesson. in this case, coxhead and bryd (2007) have underlined several aspects that need to be noticed by the teachers in order to assist the students in getting the improvement of their academic writing quality, such as the effect of l1 to l2 writing, the activation of students’ sense towards academic words which quite different to the general words, the acquisition of the new academic vocabularies through the collocation in order to understand their actual use in sentences, the acquisition of the new academic vocabularies by involving reading activities. therefore, by understanding those aspects, the teachers are expected to assist the students in gaining some improvement in the quality of their academic writing. implementing an academic word list through the face-to-face classroom setting also needs to be assessed to evaluate the student’s knowledge of acquiring new academic vocabulary and whether they can use it properly or not. morris and cobb (2004) have proposed a vocabulary profiler to assess the student’s academic vocabulary knowledge. further, the vocabulary profiler is also claimed to be efficient in classifying the proficiency level of non-native speakers of english, which can be divided further into several levels of language ability. morris and cobb (2004) have also emphasized that vocabulary profiler can also be utilized to identify students who may be at risk of encountering academic difficulties in their study program before problems arise in the classroom. shortly, the vocabulary profiles may become effective tools in evaluating the students’ study progress in acquiring the new academic vocabulary and may also act as a tool in predicting the students’ language proficiency. despite the studies claiming the effectiveness of the academic word list implementation to improve students’ academic writing quality, there are two studies (22,23%) that claim that the implementation of the academic word lists is ineffective in improving the students’ academic writing quality. brun-mercer and zimmerman (2015) have asserted that the implementation of an academic word list in the english for academic purpose (eap) and intensive english program (iep) does not provide any significant contribution to the improvement of students’ academic writing quality. this may be attributable to the portion of the academic word list, which serves a minor role in the face-to-face classroom. in both studies, the academic word list only acts as supplementary material that can be accessed by the students outside the classroom. hence, this may result in an incomprehensible knowledge of the academic words continuum from students. in this case, the participants brun-mercer and zimmerman’s research (2015) have failed to employ relevant vocabulary or phrases in the genre of academic writing to express their ideas through the composition. furthermore, to minimize the students’ problems, it will be better for the teachers to design a syllabus that provides a proper portion of the academic word list to be implemented directly through classroom interaction. expectedly, this may significantly improve the students’ academic writing quality. based on the data of the present research, there are nine studies which are implemented the academic word list through mobile-assisted language learning. table 3 provides the distribution of the studies that implemented the academic word list to investigate the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the students’ academic writing quality through mobile-assisted language learning. table 3 distribution of awl improvement to the quality of students’ academic writing through mobile-assisted language learning improvement of awl to the quality of students’ academic writing total studies percentage (%) significance improvement 8 out of 9 studies 88,88 insignificance improvement 1 out of 9 studies 11,12 according to table 3, eight studies (88,88%) have confirmed that the implementation of academic word lists through mobile-assisted language learning significantly contributes to the quality of the student’s academic writing. besides, this finding which confirms that there is a significant improvement from the academic word list implementation to the quality of the student’s academic writing through mobile-assisted language learning is the reflection of four studies that are utilized as the data in the present research (lu, 2008; hu, 2013; choo et al., 2017; yafei & osman, 2016). lu (2008) and choo et al. (2017) have confirmed that implementing an academic word list through sms vocabulary learning significantly improves the quality of students’ academic writing. according to those studies, they divide the participants into two different groups. one group is given several academic word lists through sms, while the other groups are provided the printed version of the academic word lists. they have continually received the academic word lists each week within the observation periods of two to four weeks. the results of those studies indicate that the implementation of sms vocabulary learning is valued as an effective tool in expanding the student’s vocabulary knowledge and also assisting the students in improving the quality of their writing due to the ease of accessing the mobile phone outside or inside the classroom. widely there are also many other studies which also confirm that the use of mobile-assisted language learning provides a significant contribution not only to the improvement of students’ academic writing quality in pr es s 21the implementation of academic .... (abdullah syarofi; shohiyah shobaha) but also to the whole aspect of language teaching and learning (darsih & asikin, 2020; athoillah, 2022; nurul & nafa, 2020; yudhiantara & nasir, 2017). specifically, hu (2013) and yafei and osman (2016) have utilized the mobile phone application as the tool for implementing the academic word list. the results of those studies reveal that the use of the mobile phone application also significantly contributes to improving students’ vocabulary knowledge and academic writing quality. in hu’s research (2013), she utilizes fetion as a mobile phone application to deliver several academic word lists. basically, fetion is free text message software that is developed by china mobile company. the experiment is conducted within four weeks, and each participant receives the academic word list that consists of 11 words which is sent every weekday within the experiment period. further, yafei and osman’s research (2016) has utilized ko-su as a mobile phone application as the tool for implementing the academic word list. essentially, ko-su is a mobile phone application that covers eleven different exercises on vocabulary that are further divided into five units. in this case, the questions provided in ko-su cover understanding the words in terms of knowing the meaning of the words in context, understanding the use of the words, understanding the format of the words, and understanding the grammatical rules in which words are used in sentences. generally, the use of mobile phone applications as the tool in implementing the academic word list is valued as an effective way to improve the quality of the student’s academic writing since it provides the easiness of access for the users and it may only need the internet connection in order to access the mobile phone application. in this case, the students may access this application inside or outside the classroom. therefore, it may increase the possibility for the students to access these applications more often due to their easiness. despite the claim of the effectiveness of the academic word list implementation in the improvement of students’ academic writing quality, one study (11,12%) claims that the use of mobile-assisted language learning does not significantly contribute to improving students’ academic writing quality. alemi et al. (2012) have asserted that there is no effectiveness in the use of mobile-assisted language learning in improving the quality of students’ academic writing. they utilize two different groups of participants. the participants receive word definitions and example sentences, both in persian and english, two times a week regularly. there are 320 headwords from the academic word list are taught via sms. the control group consists of 17 students who have to work on the same number of words by using a dictionary. both experimental and control groups are assessed in each session by the instructor in the class. the groups administer a vocabulary test (immediate post-test) at the end of the experiment and a delayed post-test that is performed four weeks after the experiment to investigate the long-term effect of mobile vocabulary learning on the student’s vocabulary retention. the result of this research shows that there is no significant difference in the student’s vocabulary knowledge between the experimental and control groups in the post-test. according to alemi et al. (2012), even though the result does not show any significant difference compared to learning vocabulary by using a dictionary in the short term, it is expected to assist the students in enhancing their vocabulary learning in the post-test. in the long term, mobile-assisted language learning assists the students in retaining more vocabulary compared to the control group. conclusions the present research is conducted to investigate the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of implementing an academic word list and its implication for improving efl students’ academic writing quality through the studies conducted previously in this area. from the studies reviewed in the present research, 15 out of 18 studies (83,33%) confirm that the implementation of academic word lists significantly contributes to improving students’ academic writing quality. the effectiveness of academic word list implementation can be conducted through face-to-face or mobileassisted language learning. in this case, the role of an academic word list serves a great portion where it is directly included in the syllabus of the lesson. this can be done by implementing the academic word list through skill activities such as reading and writing activities or using sms vocabulary learning and mobile phone application as the media to gain several new vocabulary. moreover, the findings of the present research on the effectiveness of academic word lists support coxhead and bryd’s argument, which asserts that the academic word list may become an effective tool in expanding the student’s vocabulary knowledge by involving this tool throughout the course. hence, the success of the academic word list implementation may depend on the given portion of this tool to the course itself. in this case, the teachers, as the persons who are fully responsible for the effectiveness of the course, shall provide a great space to the academic word list as the assistance tool for the students in expanding their words continuum so that they can differ in the use of general and academic words based on the context and the genre of the composition. interestingly, three out of 18 studies confirm that the implementation of academic word lists either through face-to-face classroom or mobile-assisted language learning does not significantly contribute to improving students’ academic writing quality. this may happen due to the less involvement of an academic word list where this tool is not included directly in the course syllabus. the teachers responsible for the course’s effectiveness only provide suggestions to the students so they can consult their problems related to the lexical item choice and use the academic word list outside the classroom setting. as a final point, it is suggested that the coming researchers conduct more in pr es s 22 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 17-23 detailed reviews about the efficacy of using academic word lists to improve language skills. expectantly, the more various categories of media that can be engaged in implementing academic word lists are probably involved in the discussion to enhance readers’ insight. references aghajani, m., & adloo, m. 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(2020). grammatical errors in efl students’ final project writings. jurnal bahasa inggris terapan, 6(2), 75-90. https://doi. org/10.35313/jbit.v6i2.2287. the form and function of local language in directive speech act at a university in central sulawesi kundharu saddhono1; fatma2 1,2 graduate program of sebelas maret university, surakarta jl. ir. sutami 36a surakarta 57126 1kundharu.uns@gmail.com received: 4th february 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 7th may 2016 how to cite: saddhono, k., fatma. (2016). the form and function of local language in directive speech act at a university in central sulawesi. lingua cultura, 10(1), 37-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.848 abstract the aim of this research was to describe the local language form, function, and typical of it in the directive act at the university in central sulawesi. the method used in this research was descriptive qualitative in socio-pragmatics approach. the source of the data was gained from lecturers and students utterances in discourse lecture. the data collection used note taking. meanwhile, the techniques of analyzing data were the interactive analysis that consisted of four steps, namely data collection, data reduction, data analysis, and verification or drawing the conclusion. the result of the research shows that the local language form in directive act consisted of imperative, interrogative, and declarative. the functions of local language in directive acts are the prohibitive function, suggestive function, requestive, and permissive function. the typical local language that used is characterized by regional language and its dialect. keywords: directive act form, function, directive act, local language introduction utterances are not the only function to inform something, but also to conduct something. one of speech act which can be used in social interaction process is directive utterances. those directive speech acts produce the certain effect through an action from the interlocutor. searle states that the directive is the utterances addressed to an interlocutor to make him/her doing something in (as cited in arani, 2012). the directive act also functions as imperative or request from the speaker to the interlocutor to do a certain action. the directive act as a speech act which expresses speaker intention can be expressed pragmatically in a declarative form. in this case, language can be used to persuade others, emotion, feeling or behavior. as stated by searle (as cited in bilbow, 2002), speech act can be grouped into five categories, directive, in which the speaker commands or requests the interlocutor to something. the directive speech act constitutes speech act that aimed to produce a certain effect in the form of action done by the interlocutor in accordance to the speaker intention. in conversation context, for example in lecturer process, the unit of speech act expression can be seen in verbal communication (also nonverbal) of the teacher in teaching learning process. one of the speech acts which commonly used is the directive act. it aims to produce the effect in the form of actiondone by the interlocutor. this shows that the use of those directive acts also happens in the social interaction context. this is emphasized in research result of muhartoyo and kristiani (2013), which said the directive speech is frequently used in daily social interaction around us. the directive speech act is the common act that people around the world usually use. those directive acts can be stated in various language form and depend on the context. the determiner context in real communication covered background, participant, topic, and language variation being used. the directive act form consisted of imperative, declarative and interrogative. imperative has the intention to ask the hearer does something as intended by the speaker. the declarative sentence has meaning to inform something toward the hearer. meanwhile, the interogative sentence has meaning to enquire something to interlocutor (rahardi, 2010). in detail, ibrahim (1993) explains about the classification of the directive acts, namely requesting, question, requirement, prohibitive, and permissive. the forms of a question which have functioned as pragmatic to convey the directive act are: (1) a question to ask for information, (2) a question to ask confirmation, (3) a question to test, and (4) a question to express advice. lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 37-42 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.848 37 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 38 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 37-42 the function of the directive act is oriented to receive the message (cummings, 2007). various research based on the class interaction shows the type of directive act of speech act variation, which usually used in interaction as well as in university level. these are showed in some research findings of directive speech act conducted by shvartzman (2015), field (2001), beck (2008), lohse (2014), george (2014), arani (2012), welvi (2015) muhartoyo and kristian (2013), and prayitno (2009). based on literary research, a study about directive more focused in society, in the certain language, and conducted in senior high school. in central sulawesi specifically in palu, the university of tadulako palu is selected as the setting of the research considering that it constitutes a favorite university. the lecturers experience both in the formal and nonformal situation, for example in teaching learning proses using discussion, so the appearance of local language form as directive function. the formal situation, for example, in the proposal and research result of seminars, the lecturers and students tend to use formal language, but unconsciously the use of local language directive emerged, such as bugis, kaili, and manado language. the tribe that dominates in palu kaili island is one of the major tribes in palu, central sulawesi. kaili has almost ten language variations, such as kaili ledo, unde, tara, rai and so on. manado language is a language that derived from north sulawesi, but it becomes the dominant local language. and this language is used by mostly students because most of them come from central sulawesi. this area is the boundary of north sulawesi, and its residents have the same languageused by manadonese as in tolitoli, luwuk, poso, parigi, tentena, and ampara district. this research discusses three points, namely the form, the function and the typical of the local language in directive speech act in a university. the directive speech act, which discussed in this research included illocutionary act based on how form variation and speech function used local language in central sulawesi in which illocution culture as a directive act. methods this research uses a descriptive qualitative research which used sociopragmatic approach. it is a combination of sociolinguistic study and pragmatic. this sociopragmatic object is the intention from utterances that pay attention to language society aspect. sociopragmatics constitutes a study about the local condition, specifically in cooperation principle and politeness (tarigan, 2009). the first main point is the local language form in the directive speech act, the local language function in the directive speech act, and the typical of local language use in speech act in accompanying the contexts as the background of those local languages, which used the power as form and function of the directive. so this research represents qualitative research. according to bogdan and taylor (as cited in welvi, 2015), the qualitative study is a procedure to produce some descriptive words either written or spoken about behavior or observable. lindlof says that the qualitative study is the kind of research with setting as what the presence is. the natural setting essentially describes qualitatively in the form of words and not mathematical figures or statistics (as cited in saddhono, 2011, 2012, 2015). the data in the form of student’s utterances reflect the form of, function, and specificity of local language in a directive used by faculty and students in lecture discourse. in data collection, a researcher uses the note-taking the method that free utterance involved. a method of note taking is the method used of supplying or data collection using researchers conducted note taking of language use. this method has basic hearing technique because, in practice, note taking is done by discharging bugged utterances from lecturers and students. as a basic technique, it has advanced techniques, namely technique free note taking (mahsun, 2012). miles and huberman (2014) states that a method of free note taking intends to the researchers’ bugged behavior and utterances without involving speakers. the researcher acts as observers, and conducts note taking toward relevance data, then makes the recording. furthermore, the interactive model was employed to analyze the data. hymes (as cited in chaer&agustina, 2010) says that this research consists of data collection, data display and drawing conclusion or verification based on language form, language function, typical of the local language in the directive speech act by its context toward teaching-learning process at university in central sulawesi. in analyzing the data, it is also considered some components, such as the speaker, interlocutor or partner, situation, goal, the thing that being spoken with component event conveyed. data analysis is done based on the previous determined goal. the collected data is explained based on the certain way (sudaryanto, 2001). data on the form of utterances represents the directive speech both from students and lecturers that were classified and categorized based on its form, function and the typical of the local language. the data were summarized based on directive diversity according to the lecture at the university in central sulawesi. results and discussions the form of speech act used in the lecture is one of the five speech act, namely directive act (leech, 1993). this directive speech act in imperative form is used to give information toward interlocutor. the information thatareexpressed in imperative form will produce the effect in the form of action by the speaker. the examples below are the local language form in the imperative, interrogative, and declarative of the directive act. group : “dibacakan saja barangkali pak. matikan jo (laptop)! baca saja sambil dikopi ke yang satu (laptop) filenya.baca jo bu”. “sebaiknya dibacakan pak. laptopnya dimatikan saja. dibaca sembari filenya digandakan ke laptop yang lain. bacakan saja bu.” “just read probably, sir. just turn off the laptop! just read while copying to another one (laptop). just readma’am.” (the group then read the resume) context : “dibacakan saja barangkali pak. matikan jo (laptop)! baca saja sambil dikopi ke yang satu (laptop) filenya. baca jo bu”. the example data above is one of directive speech act in an imperative or command form. it is signed by the use of the base form of the verb baca (read), with the local directive device by appearing manado language, that is “jo” (just) which has meaning “lah”or “saja”(just). those 39the form and function of local language .... (kundharu saddhono; fatma) sentences above ask the presenter to read the material as soon as possible. in this case, other students act out as speaker and presenter group as interlocutor. with those commands, the presenter group then read the material in accordance with others students mean. the used of word “jo” (just) in this context is fair because they are in peer age and the same social level. if the interlocutor is much younger, the local language choice used is not ‘jo” (just) accent but “barangkali” (probably). these words have equal meaning as ‘sebaiknya’ (it is better), which constitutes as kaili language. this is firmly stated that in a directive act is the condition when a establishes b to do something. it is also found by lohse (2014) that the directive speech acts about/ towards an actor a. either in imperative mode (a do x) or as a prediction (the actor a will do x). ervin (in arani, 2012) states that illocution always has the directive power that can be defined either by a speaker or an interlocutor to influence the behavior of the interlocutor. in this result, it is discussed the same case that in viewing local directive act. it is found the same case, and there is a standard between socio-cultural, namely the speaker age, language choice and chosen speech act that used to find their illocution strength in conversation context as well as in discourse lecture above. the next example is the interrogative form of directive speech in the local language. group : ya, demikian pembacaan materi dari kami kelompok 1, selanjutnya diberi kesempatan bagi teman-teman untuk memberikan pertanyaan dan sebentar (nanti) apabila jawaban kami tidak memuaskan, maka kita akan menunggu penjelasan dari bapak dosen pembimbing. bemana pak, boleh? (bagaimana pak, bisakah?). baik, kami beri kesempatan kepada bapak ibu yang akan bertanya. (yes, i think that is all our material from group 1, and next opportunity for friends to give question and nextif our answers do not satisfy you, we will wait for the further explanation from thesis consultant. can we sir?all right, we give opportunity for all lecturers to ask the question). context : it is spoken by students to the lecturer after presentation. the example data above is the interrogatives form spoken by students to the lecturer. the sentence bemana (how) is influenced by local language, kaili, which has meaning ‘how’. from the structure of the sentence, it is a form of the question. functionally, the question means asking about something. ramlan (as cited in prasetyo, 2010) differentiates yes/no question and information sentence. the data above belongs to a question that requires answer agreeably. formally, it is characterized by the presence of question word bagaimana (how) with or without –kah particle as confirmation (alwi, 2003). those local language choices are used as the directive question to the lecturer in order not to ask directly. when the interlocutor is the partner of the peerage, probably the language choice is “for other friends, please help us if we have problems”. considering of the politeness, they use indirect strategy in giving the command. for the indonesian speakers, they do not always use imperative in commanding, but they also use declarative or interrogative. in the data below, the form used is declarative. student : napa e ngoni, sudah. capat to. (tertawa haha) “ ini kalian, selesai. cepat kan?”(tertawa haha) “ look this, finish. it is quick,right?” context : it is spoken by students to the lecturer after presentation. in example data above, the local language used is manadonese in the form of declarative or question. the sentence that said by students at the data example above is the statement from the presenter to their friend from the early beginning process of the presentation to finish the presentation shortly. that intention is fulfilled by the presenter group by finishing the presentation shortly. the implication of local language “napa e” actually means “kenapaini?”(why), but it is precisely expressed to show “inidia” (look this) that followed by the local language confirmation “capat to” means ‘cepatkan’ (it is so quick, right?). it has function as imperative or command to give some questions based on the presented material. in this condition, attitude domain is not explicitly expressed by speaker, but it can be understood by interlocutor. in accordance to thamrin (2010) who states the choice toward a certain sentence, formulation has the different effect both for the speaker and the interlocutor. it is characterized that a certain language is not only has a function to expresses cognitive domain, but also expressing the certain attitude. in the classroom, sometimes appears the local language function followed by the directive that functions as a prohibition, which is commonly used by the students to other students. regardless of the strategy is used to represent the shape of the prohibition. the example below is the using of local language function in the directive act prohibitive. student 1: me. (raising hand). student 2: alamo, ambil semua saja itu kesempatan. jang. jangkase.“ ambil, ambil semua saja itu kesempatan. jangan, jangan berikan kesempatan. (mahasiswa yang belum dipersilahkan untuk bertanya, sementara mahasiswa lainnya diberi kesempatan untuk bertanya). take! take all the opportunities. do not give the opportunity. (a student who hasnot been given a chance to ask, while other students have been given a chance). context : it was spoken by a student to their friend in the class while discussion time. those local languages function as prohibition. in the context of discussions process in the classroom, the question and answer is used as learning techniques to make students become active to ask. in other chances, the students only address limited question since it is dominated by other students. in the data above, it is clearly seen that the use of the word “alamo” in kaili language means “ambil saja” 40 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 37-42 (just take it), “ala”means “ambil” (take) and “mo” means “saja” (just). it is added by the use of sentence“jang-jang kase” means ‘jangan! jangan diberikan” (don’t give the opportunity), which function as prohibition. it has opposite meaning with the previous structure that asking to take all of the chances. ibrahim (1993) states that prohibition belongs to prohibitieviesdirective, which means prohibition, command or ask interlocutor not to do something. the intonation is usually higher and louder. sometime, prohibition utterances are characterized by politeness device. that politeness device usually uses words of “jangan” (don’t) rather than using the word “it is prohibited” and “not allowed” or sometimes a different sentence is used. rahardi (2010) states that prohibition in indonesian is usually characterized by language device “jangan”(don’t). in line with the explanation above, collin (as cited in beck, 2008)statesthat direct speech stands out from other modes of speech repesentation because it requires a greater degree of interpretation and thus participation from the listener. the participants or the listeners do not look atthestructure building of the sentence as a command to take the opportunity to ask, but form the strategy of local language in the directive is responded as prohibition or as a request to provide the opportunity to ask other students. this is also found in welvi (2015) that one intention can be expressed in different utterances because each speaker has own staretgy in spoken. the suggestive function in directive speech uses different words to show what the speaker means. the next example is the suggestive function of directive speech in the local language. student : maaf, barangkali bisa bapelan sadiki leh. yang lain juga mungkin. tabe leh’. (maaf, mungkin dapat sedikit dipelankan. yang lain juga mungkin. maaf ya) (sorry, probably it can be slow down. probably the others, too. i am so sorry) context : it was spoken by a student to his friend when they want the presentation not be held in hurry. other functions that exist in the local language of the directive act in the discourse lecture at central sulawesi is the use of the suggestive device. the suggestive function is characterized by local language kaili, ‘barangkali’ or ”probably”. that word tends to command and request suggested by adding the word ‘bisa’ or ‘dapat’ (able to). the politeness device in kaili and bugis is “tabe” or “maaf” (sorry) and “permisi” (permission). in the context of academics discourse, the use of these sentences aims to tell the presenter slowly in presenting the material (not in a hurry). when the students answer a question from their friends, in this context, culture becomes a consideration in creating the directive act.even though the intention is the command,by considering politeness aspect, age, and who the speaker and the hearer is, the younger interlocutor will choose directive that functions as the suggestion to convey their intention. pramujiono (as cited in gunawan, 2014) states that the use of politeness has meaning to make the polite utterance or the utterance that keeps from losing face and dignity. in line with this opinion, haugh (2011) states that the politeness constitutes a very complex aspect of a language since it is not only involving the understanding of language aspect. politeness does not always correlate with how to ask to apologize correctly, but it also needs social value in the speaker society. the heterogeneous level of the students comes from different tribes, age, gender and culture diversity. it becomes one of the speakers’ and the interlocutors’ equal knowledge context toward where they study together. the findings above are in line with research finding from beltran (2014) about the directive speeach act. it says that a learner in a sojourn about an exchange program learns the culture. that exchange program shows the different culture with learner’s culture. the student language exchange is not only learning about language but also about culture because learning a language means learning its culture as well. so, the local directive language with kaili language pieces and bugisnese became acceptable as asking advice based on context in the setting. the use of the word “sorry” or ‘tabe’ is certainly the reason of different social background of the speaker. beside command and advice, the other functions of the directive act are requestive and permissive function. the data below is spoken by a lecturer to his colleges during examining their student in proposal seminar. moderator : baik kesempatan berikut saya persilahkan kepada pembimbing 2. silahkan pak, 7 menit ya pak. kita sudah capek semua. monggo. (well, the next chance, second consultant is invited. please sir, seven minutes for you. we are all already tired. please) lecturer 3 : (laughing) lecturer 2 : torang so banyak semua noh (laughing). (we already addresed so many questions) lecturer1 : baik, hadirin yang kami hormati, saya selaku pembimbing dua saat ini sebagai penguji, e. saya sudah membaca naskah ini ya, naskah ini. ini naskahnya kerdil, barangkali bisa komiu tambahkan. (mungkin anda dapat menambahkannya) (well, honorable audience, i am as the second consultant as one of the examiners, i have read this proposal. this is poor, probably you can add some more) context : the utterances appears during proposal seminar in late at night because it takes place at night. in the directive act, even it is dominated by command function, it is important to consider honorable or honorific, or we put someone in honor position, or at least we put them in the wanted position. ardhian (as cited in gunawan, 2014) avoids the face threatening acts, so prescribing conflict and friction (fraser, 2005). the use of requestive directive utterances in the local language above is the word ‘monggo’ (please) in javanese means ‘silahkan’(please). those utterances appear because the lecturer uses requestive directive and permissive to other leacturer who come from javanese culture. those utterances are preferable to emphasize lecturer authority restriction who acted as chairperson in proposal seminar of the student. basically, requestive directive act intends to invite someone. 41the form and function of local language .... (kundharu saddhono; fatma) ibrahim (1993) states that requestives directive act includes in requests. for a lecturer who originally comes from java, the existence of requestive/permission directive act shows the person will have different honor. besides, those utterances are intended to make the request more polite. it implies the limited time for examination because in javanese, word of ‘monggo’ represents a polite request. those utterances are spoken politely because they want to give appreciation to the interlocutor. this is in line with the opinion from rahardi (2010) that states the request usually characterized by politeness device. the local language that appears in a conversation context or academic discourse at the university in central sulawesi has its own typical. in the use of directive act, local language in that region is used. the emergence of local language is characterized by the use of regional language pieces and its dialect, for example in word “co” in “co nganajo” or it can be translated into “coba kau saja” (just you try). the research are found the dialect from that typical directive like “seperti barangkali atau nanti” (as probably or later) that does not show the time but it tends to show request, like in the sentence “nanti saya saja barangkali” (later just me probably) meaning“sebaiknya saya saja”(should be me). then the use of –mo particle in kaili language is for the confirmation, for example if it is combined the end of the word of ambil (take) with “ala”, it has meaning tocommand. if it is combined with word syukur“agina” (thankful), it means umpatan (swearing). besides, it is also the command greeting as politeness device. komiu (you) tends to be more polite compared to iko, which means kau (you). beside manadonese and kaili, it is also found bugis dan javanese, for example, the using of ‘tabe’ which have the meaning of permission. for example, in sentence “tabeleh, geser ki sedikit”,(sorry, can you move a bit?), the word tabe and –ki particle means the request directive asking the permission to move a little bit. besides that, the use of honorific in javanese language, like ‘monggo’ (please) means polite directive. for example, ‘monggo, (please) sit in front raw first”. it is more polite if those words are used in asking permission. so, the typical of local language used depends on to whom that language is used, in what context, what and function, and the strategy are used in those academic discourses. conclusions language communication is not merely words and sentence symbols, but it is a product in the certain context which constitutes basic unit of language communication. local language in directive act covered: (1) command and imperative form, (2) interogative or question, (3) declarative or statement. the functions of local language in the directive act are (1) prohibitive function, (2) suggestive function, and (3) requestives and permissive function. the typical of local language which used is characterized by regional language and its dialect. the uses of local languages in this research are manadonese, kaili, bugis, and javanese. manadonese finds in the word ‘co’, ‘jang’, ‘kang’; in kaili finds the dialect as in ‘barangkali atau nanti’ (probably and later), the use of –mo particle, and politeness device in command sentence, komiu; the typical of bugis language and javanese, for example, ‘tabe’ means permission, the used of –ki, the use of honorifc in javanese ‘monggo’ in polite invitation. the directive speech act intends to produce the effect through a certain action by the interlocutor. the directive act represents (1) speaker’s command to the interlocutor, (2) in the form of declarative, interogative, command, suggestive and refusal, and(3) directive act form is characterized by politeness device as in word co, jang, komiu, tabe, monggo. in practice, the use of form and function by lecturer and student seems more polite, profitable, considering face notion, or allowing honor toward each partner. in the certain context, the lecturers and students utterances can reflect power restriction. in the term of lecturer utterance, it is fairness. in the student level, power is more humanistic. for the reader, hopefully, it can utilize the result of the study to use it in daily communication in conveying the meaning to the interlocutor. besides, a speaker and an interlocutor must understand speech act to communicate better. references alwi, hasan et al. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. arani, s. (2012).a study of directive speech acts used by iranian nursery school children: the impact of context on children’s linguistic choices. international journal of applied linguistics & english literature, 1(5), 163-175. doi:10.7575/ ijalel.v.1n.5p.163 beck, d. (2008). character-quoted direct speech in the iliad. phoenix: the journal of the classics association of canada, 62(1/2), 162-183 beltran, e. v. (2014). length os stay abroad: effect of time on the speech act of requesting. international jurnal of english student, 14 (1), 79-96. doi: http:// dx.doi.org/10.6018/ijes/14/1/155211 chaer, a., & agustina, l. (2010). sosiolinguistik. jakarta: rineka cipta. cummings, l. (2007). pragmatik: sebuah perspektif multidisipliner. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. field, m. (2001). triadic directives in navajo language socialization. language in society, 30, 249–263. fraser, b. 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(2010). ekspresi tindak direktif dalam interaksi kelas bengkel jurusan teknik mesin politeknik megeri malang. litera, 9(1), 87-100. welvi, y. a., ermanto., hasanuddin, w. s. (2015). tindak tutur direktif guru dalam proses pembelajaran di mts riadhus sholihin koto baru kabupaten sijunjung. jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pembelajaran, 3(1), 84-95. 113motherhood in the american woman .... (nandy intan kurnia) motherhood in the american woman poet’s perspective: a short glance at allen’s “rock me to sleep” nandy intan kurnia english language and literature study program, english education department faculty of languages and arts, yogyakarta state university karangmalang, yogyakarta 55281 nandy_intankurnia@uny.ac.id, n_intan_k@yahoo.com abstract article scrutinized one of the works of an american woman poet named elizabeth akers allen. the poem under study entitled “rock me to sleep”. it was a portrayal of motherhood. the speaker of this poem is a woman who is longing for the love of her mother. she is seeking for a way to ease her pain since she feels that she has lost her own battle of womanhood. although the mother remains absent, the readers of the poem can sense the powerful love of the speaker of the poem toward her mother. method of this study was library research that carried out by applying descriptive analytical methods. data were collected from the primary and secondary sources. results of this paper are the writer of poetry wants to warn people that womanhood in the patriarchal society can create many problems, and the only remedy for those problems is motherhood. article also proves that a writer does not have to be a feminist to produce a literary text which discusses the issue of women, which has became the focus of feminism. keywords: motherhood, women poet, feminism abstrak artikel bertujuan untuk mempelajari salah satu karya penyair perempuan amerika bernama elizabeth akers allen. puisi yang dikaji berjudul “rock me to sleep”. puisi menggambarkan hal yang berkaitan dengan ibu dan keibuan. penutur puisi adalah seorang perempuan yang merindukan cinta kasih ibunya. ia mencari cara untuk menghapuskan rasa sakit yang ia rasakan karena ia merasa telah kalah dalam pergulatannya sebagai seorang perempuan. walaupun figur tersebut tak tampak di hadapan pembaca puisi, akan tetapi kekuatan cinta sang penutur terhadap ibunya dapat dirasakan oleh mereka. metode penelitian adalah kajian pustaka dengan menerapkan metode deskriptif analitis. data dikumpulkan dari sumber primer dan sekunder. hasil penelitian menunjukkan penulis puisi ingin memperingatkan bahwa kewanitaan dalam masyarakat patriarkal dapat menimbulkan banyak masalah, dan satu-satunya obat untuk masalah tersebut adalah ibu. artikel ini juga membuktikan bahwa penulis tidak harus menjadi feminis untuk menghasilkan teks sastra yang membahas isu perempuan, yang telah menjadi fokus feminisme. kata kunci: keibuan, penyair wanita, feminisme 114 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 introduction people can easily find the discussion of mother (including the idea of motherhood) in literature. this discussion is not only found in the work of women writers (rye, 2006). the issue of motherhood is an interesting subject to be discussed. in many societies, mother is the central figure in a family and she has so many roles. as a woman, mother is not only seen as a mother for her children, but also as a teacher, a nurturer and many other roles. in some societies, it is the mother who gives both spiritual and moral formation to the family. article tries to analyze one of the poems written by an american woman poet named elizabeth akers allen. the title of the poem is “rock me to sleep”. as stated in an article entitled “elizabeth akers allen (1832 – 1911)”, this poem is a sentimental hymn to motherhood (2007). therefore, this poem is really suitable with the aim of this article which tries to discuss the theme of motherhood that seen from the perspective of an american woman poet. in conducting the research, the writer will use feminist approach. there are several reasons why the writer chooses the work of woman poet and employs the feminist approach. first, as mentioned by montefiore, poetry produced by woman poet is a great source for people to experience and learn more about women (1994). furthermore, it is important for people to study the literary work of woman poet since by studying it, people can listen to the silent voice of a real woman in a big country like america. second, it is interesting to study deeper about the work of one of the 19th century women poets. since it is the time when literary works provide a new opportunity of occupation for many women. one of the examples is emily dickinson. many feminist critics were interested in her works since, “she seized freedoms through the separate world of imagination.” thus, poetry in the 19th century has a significant place in the heart of american people, especially for the american women. (gray, 1997) as stated by bomarito and jeffrey, many american women who live in the 19th century have to face gender inequality. they can have and use their legal, social and political rights only in a small portion (2005: 1). therefore, it is not surprising to see many american women are taught that their existence and also happiness is, “defined only in sexual relation to men” (friedan, 1997). according to sailus (2003), “during the 19th century and into the 20th, many women are bound to the domestic jobs and if they have free time, then they should spend it by doing several things to fullfil their family needs.” however, there is also a positive effect of that so-called private sphere. it gives positive images toward women since they are seen as the guardian of morality and social cohesion. (bomarito & jeffrey, 2005: 2). many women movements use those positive images to fight for the betterment of women. one of them is feminist movement. andersen (1997:8) explains that those feminists want to open the society’s eyes that women are as precious as men. thus, the society has to treat those two sexes equally. there are two opinions related to the issue of motherhood. first, motherhood is seen as a uniting element among women. second, it is also regarded as one of the points to deny women rights (neyer & bernardi, 2011). it is also caused women to be seen as “others” (de beauvoir in neyer & bernardi, 2011). during the 18th and 19th centuries, motherhood has become the ideal form of femininity and it is also seen as human instinct since children need to be nurtured and protected by their mothers (dally, 1983). the discussion of motherhood itself is closely related to the discussion of mother-daughter relationship since in many societies mother is seen as the one who has to educate her own daughter. chodorow (as cited in natov, 1990) states that, “the cyclical pattern in which mothers pass on to their daughters what they have received from their mothers perpetuates the experience of the world as fluid and without boundaries”. thus, in many cases, the bond of mother and daughter is really tight and cannot be separated. however, this kind of relationship can develop only if this young girl aware that deep down inside she can see her mother in herself (chodorow, 1991). according to whiting, in the 19th century there was a portrayal of an ideal mother. these mother was “tender, constant, and true, sympathetic alike in prosperity and adversity to her children.” (as cited in banks, 2010). her role was “to nurture, support and maintain the physical and spiritual well-being of her husband and her children” (banks, 2010). according to nadeu (1995), “the strong relationship between mother and her daughter is one of the factors that inhibit the daughter from constructing her personal identity.” chodorow (as cited in boyd, 1989) gives her opinion that the mother is the early care giver and primary source of identification for all children. in literary texts, sometime the figure of mother is absent. this kind of mother is known as “spectral mother” and the absence of mother gives an effect to her children (gevirts, 2012). banks (2010) said that this absence provides a chance to engross the subject of motherhood with considerable speculative imaginings. he adds that the absence of the figure of mothers can be seen as a “tabula rasa” that underlines the essential task of those mothers in their children’s development. however, flax (1978) argues that when a young girl recognizes her own gender she becomes aware that the patriarchal system does exist and at this point she also learns that as a woman she has to struggle to gain equality. method this paper uses feminism approach to analize the poem under study. it analyzes one of woman poet’s works which discusses about woman’s issue, especially the one which is related to the discussion of motherhood, as a result of women-marginalizing social construction. feminism itself is concerned with women’s efforts to gain equality with men. it beliefs that women should be liberated from oppression and get more chance for selfdevelopment. in this study, library research is carried out by applying descriptive analytical methods. data are collected from the primary and secondary sources. the primary source is the poem itself, while the secondary sources are 115motherhood in the american woman .... (nandy intan kurnia) books, essays, journals and electronic data taken from the internet. they are organized, classified and analyzed. the result is presented in the discussion and the conclusion of the study. results and discussion many works of women writers talk about motherdaughter relationship, especially the one which is related to the discussion of motherhood. most of them are feminist writers, for example toni morrison in her beloved (1987). in contrast, the literary text under study is not written by a feminist writer. however, she is able to produce such a vivid piece of art which describes the issue of motherhood. the poem which is used in this study is a poem of 6 stanzas and 48 lines. from stanza one up to the last stanza, the speaker of the poem keeps yearning for her mother’s love and affection by asking her mother to rock her to sleep just like the old time – rock me to sleep, mother – rock me to sleep! –. a. stanza one backward, turn backward, o time in your flight, make me a child again just for to-night! mother, come back from the echoless shore, take me again to your heart as of yore; kiss from my forehead the furrows of care, smooth the few silver threads out of my hair; over my slumbers your loving watch keep,– rock me to sleep, mother – rock me to sleep! stanza one introduces the reader to the poem’s speaker. when the speaker says –make me a child again just for to-night!– (line 2), it is clear that he/she is no longer a child. however, although the speaker is an adult, she/he echoes her/his need to turn back the time to the past when her/his mother is still accompanying her/him (line 1-3). line 5 reveals more information related to the speaker’s identity. this person wants to see her/his mother and she/he also wants her/his mother to kiss her/his forehead which is full of –furrows of care–. according to longman: dictionary of contemporary english (2001), the word ‘furrow’ can be defined as a deep line or fold in the skin of someone’s face, especially on the forehead. while the word ‘care’ is closely related to problem or worry. thus, it is clear that the speaker of the poem’s forehead is full of furrows because she/he has to face problems that make her/him sad. this line also can lead the reader to a conclusion that the speaker is really an adult since only an adult can have furrows. furthermore, in line 6, the speaker mentions about her/his grey hair when she/he asks her/ his mother to –smooth the few silver threads– out of her/ his hair. the first stanza does not only discuss the speaker’s identity, but also gives information related to the existence of the speaker’s mother. in line 3, the speaker shouts to her/his mother, –mother, come back from the echoless shore,–. this line gives a clue to the reader that the speaker’s mother is no longer with her/him. the word ‘echoless shore’ symbolizes the existence of the speaker’s mother that is unreachable. therefore, this fact leads to the conclusion that the speaker’s mother is only exists in the speaker’s memory. in other words, the mother is removed physically from the speaker’s adulthood. the fact that the poem’s speaker no longer can see her mother is in a way similar to the study of banks. banks (2010) argues that the absence of mothers from the literary text gives a chance to the readers to engross the subject of motherhood with considerable speculative imaginings. b. stanza two backward, flow backward, o tide of the years! i am so weary of toil and of tears– toil without recompense, tears all in vain– take them, and give me my childhood again! i have grown weary of dust and decay– weary of flinging my soul-wealth away; weary of sowing for others to reap;– rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep! the second stanza tells the reader of the poem about the requests of the speaker to her/his mother. the speaker starts to ask her/his mother to eliminate her/his sadness and ease her/his pain since she/he feels so tired and helpless after all the thing that she/he has to face in her/his life (line 9-12). moreover, she/he also wants her/ his mother to rock her/him to sleep and turn back the time to her/his childhood. in fact, this is not her/his first request since in the first stanza the reader can see the same. in this case, the speaker sees her/his mother as her/his care giver because she/he wants her/his mother to come and take care of her/him (chodorow as cited in boyd, 1989). dally (1983) gives more explanation about the mother’s role. she stated that during the 18th and 19th centuries, motherhood has become the ideal form of femininity and also seen as human instinct. therefore, the speaker’s request to her/his mother is seen as a natural thing because mother’s responsibility is to nurture and protect her children. in relation to the 19th century’s portrayal of an ideal mother, the mother of this poem obviously was a 19th century’s favourite due to the fact that her own daughter sees her as what chodorow calls a care giver (as cited in boyd, 1989). this is in line with the statement of banks (2010) who stated that an ideal mother is the one who is willing to nurture, support and maintain the physical and spiritual well-being of her daughter. so, it is not surprising to see the speaker is craving for her mother’s care. this stanza also gives more evidence about the speaker’s identity. it is clearly seen in line 13 that the speaker is an old person since she/he describes her/himself as a person who has –grown weary of dust and decay–. in this stanza the speaker uses the word ‘weary’ repeatedly. in longman: dictionary of contemporary english (2001) explains that the word ‘weary’ is a word which is used to show that someone is tired of doing something for a long time. by keep repeating this word, the speaker tries to emphasize that she/he feels very tired since she/he has to do and to face the same things over and over again. in line 15, the speaker explains that for a long time she/he has to do so many things for others’ sake –weary of sowing for others reap–. this line also suggests that there are other parties who gain some benefits from the things that the speaker had been done. in this stanza, the speaker gives a clear picture of her/his difficult life. it is really dehumanizing since she/he has to please other people while deep down inside she/he feels tired of doing it. in fact, the thing that has been through by spekaer is also happened to most of american women during the 19th century. sailus (2003) explains many women are expected to stay at home and do some domestic jobs. if they have free time, then they should spend it by doing some other things that are still related to their family 116 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 needs. therefore, it is not surprising to see that many american women are taught that their existence and also happiness is limited to their roles as wives, mothers, and housewives (friedan, 1997). seeing the fact above, the researcher concludes that the speaker of the poem is an adult woman since she voices the same problems which are commonly faced by many women. c. stanza three tired of the hollow, the base, the untrue, mother, o mother, my heart calls for you! many a summer the grass has grown green, blossomed and faded, our faces between: yet, with strong yearning and passionate pain, long i to-night for your presence again. come from the silence so long and so deep;– rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep! line 17 still has a correlation to line 15. in this line the speaker gives more explanation about those people who have gain benefits from her. she calls them as –the hollow, the base, the untrue–, and she feels tired of dealing with them. based on longman: dictionary of contemporary english (2001) when someone uses the word ‘hollow’ to describe someone else’s feelings or words, it means she/ he tries to describe an insincere man/woman. while the word ‘base’ is used to describe someone who does not have good morals. on the other hand, the word ‘untrue’ can be meant as unfaithful. thus, it is reasonable to see the speaker reactions toward those people because she feels that those people take a lot of advantages from her. in the third stanza, the speaker is yearning for her mother’s presence. she wants her mother to hear her heart calls and come to see her since they have not met for ages (line 18-23). in the speaker’s eyes, her mother is the one who can give her an abundant of love, which cannot be given by others. in line 24, she repeats her request one more time to her mother to rock her to sleep. the speaker’s way of thinking in seeing and crafing for her mother’s love, once again highlighted the fact that her mother belongs to the 19th century’s ideal type of mother. it because of in the eyes of her own daughter, she is a type of mother who is willing to “nurture, support and maintain the physical and spiritual well-being of her daughter” (banks, 2010). d. stanza four over my heart, in the days that are flown, no love like mother-love ever has shone; no other worship abides and endures– faithful, unselfish and patient like yours: none like a mother can charm away pain from the sick soul and the world-weary brain. slumber’s soft calm o’er my heavy lids creep;– rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep! in this stanza, the speaker illustrates the relationship between her mother and herself. the speaker admits that there is no love like her mother’s (line 26) and no other type of worshiping which can last forever like the one her mother shows to her family (line 27). furthermore, the speaker also realizes that her mother is a faithful, unselfish, and patient (line 28). besides that, she also knows that her mother is the only one who can ease her pain (line 2931). therefore, she asks her mother to rock her to sleep (line 32). in this case, the mother of the speaker is not only standing as the cure for her ‘sickness, but also standing as the source of love and care. the way the speaker shows her admiration toward her mother is in line with chodorow’s theory which is related to the cyclical system between daughters and their mother. it seems that the speaker is a daughter who wants to continue the cyclical pattern in which her mother tries to pass on to her. their relationship seems so fluid and without boundaries (as cited in natov, 1990). e. stanza five come, let your brown hair, just lighted with gold, fall on your shoulders again, as of old; let it drop over my forehead to-night, shading my faint eyes away from the light; for with its sunny-edged shadows once more haply will throng the sweet visions of yore; lovingly, softly, its bright billows sweep: – rock me to sleep, mother, rock me to sleep! in stanza five, the speaker tries to speak to her long lost mother. although it has been quite a long time that they have not seen each other, the speaker still remember about her mother’s brown hair (line 34). she really wants to feel her mother’s hair falls over her forehead just like the old times (line 34-35). in line 36, she explains the reason for asking her mother to drop her mother’s hair over her forehead. the speaker sees this action as an act of protecting her from the thing that she does not want to see –shading my faint eyes away from the light;– (line 36). she wants to enjoy the happy moment of seeing her mother and also the soft touch of her mother’s hair while her mother rocking her to sleep –haply will throng the sweet visions of yore;// lovingly, softly, its bright billows sweep:// rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep!– (line 38 – 40). thus, based on this stanza, it is clear that the speaker sees her mother as the source of protection. from this stanza, it also can see that the speaker is able to recall all of her memories related to her mother. it seems that the distance between the speaker and her mother is not really a problem for her. this case is explained clearly by chodorow (1991). she argues that a close relationship only can be developed when a daughter aware that deep down inside she can see her mother in herself. chodorow calls this as a primary identification – a sense of oneness; primary love. f. stanza 6 mother, dear mother, the years have been long since i last listened to your lullaby song: sing, then, and unto my soul it shall seem womanhood’s years have been only a dream. clasped to your breast in a loving embrace, with your light lashes just sweeping my face, never hereafter to wake or to weep;– rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep! stanza 6 is the last stanza of “rock me to sleep”. in this stanza there are several issues being discussed. firstly, the speaker discusses openly about the reason for her misfortune to her mother. secondly, the true identity of the speaker is finally revealed. thirdly, the speaker discusses about her final request to her mother. stanza 6 is opened by the speaker’s request to her mother. she asks her mother to sing her a lullaby song which is used to be sung by her mother a long time ago. her mother’s song can touch her soul –mother, dear mother, the years have been long// since i last listened to your lullaby song;// sing, then, and unto my soul it shall– 117motherhood in the american woman .... (nandy intan kurnia) (line 4143). thus, it is clear that the speaker regards her mother’s song as a remedy for her sickness since it can touch her/his soul. in line 44, there are two things that can be revealed. firstly, it is related to the reason for the speaker’s misfortune. secondly, it is related to the speaker’s gender. when the speaker says –womanhood’s years have been only a dream.– it is more convincing that the speaker of the poem is a woman since she has to face womanhood problems. in fact, those problems create a lot of difficulties for her which make her feels sad and tired (stanza 2). she used to think that as a woman she can show her true color without any burden to the society. however, her dreams break into pieces when she has to face the true. in this case, the speaker finally recognizes her own gender as the source of her misfortune. as stated by flax (1978), “when a young girl learns about her own gender she becomes aware that the patriarchal system does exist and it forces her to struggle to gain equality”. conversely, in the case of the poem’s speaker, she feels helpless and cannot do anything about it. therefore, she says –womanhood’s years have been only a dream.– (line 44). it is in line with flax’s theory. as stated by flax (1978), “when a woman start to identify the existence of social inequality in her society, then due to her own gender, she will feel less socially esteemed”. moreover, the poor condition of the speaker, who feels helpless when she has to face the womanhood, can also be connected to the fact that she is motherless. francus calls this phenomenon as spectral mother, where the mother’s absence is seen as an absent force whose absence creates as many problems as it solves (as cited in gevirtz, 2012). the absence of the mother’s figure can be seen as a tabula rasa that underlines the essential task of her in her children’s development (banks, 2010). so, in a way the absence of the speaker’s mother has highlighted the tremendous need of her mother’s existence for her personal development. finally, the speaker concludes that her sexual identity is the source of her pain since as a woman she is bound to the patriarchal rules. basically, the problem that she has to deal with is a common problem among the american women since many american women who live in the nineteenth century have to face gender inequality. they can have and use their legal, social and political rights only in a small portion.” (bomarito & jeffrey, 2005). seeing those facts, at last she asks her mother to grant her with final request. as seen in line 45 – 48, the speaker wants her mother to hold her closely since she wants to feel her mother’s loving embrace (line 45). she also wants to feel her mother eye lashes sweeping her face (line 46) while her mother hugs her with love. and finally she wants her mother to rock her to sleep for eternity – never hereafter to wake or to weep; –// rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep!– (line 47 – 48). based on the discussion of the last stanza, it is clear that the inability of the speaker to actualize herself is the source of her pain. her inability can be seen as a common problem during the 18th century up to 19th century since as previously explained by bomarito and jeffrey (2005) that many american women have to face gender inequality. thus, it is not surprising to see how miserable the speaker’s life is. as seen in this stanza, the speaker finally realizes that she cannot reach her dreams because of her gender (line 44, stanza 6) and she is only able to do things that are allowed for her (stanza 2). this fact is in line with friedan’s (1997) statement that many american women are taught to see their existence and also happiness is defined only in sexual relation to men. another striking point can be seen from the speaker’s perspective in seeing her mother. the constant grieving of the speaker and her strong will of finding her mother’s long-lost love and affection lead to another conclusion. in sum, she feels an intense and overwhelming love toward her mother, although her mother no longer exists. as stated by nadeu (1995) the absence of the mother will give the opportunity for the daughter to gain her freedom and solve her own problems. on the other hands, the continuous grieve of the speaker indicates that she cannot solve her womanhood’s problems. she is in her serious need of protection and affection of her longlost mother. unfortunately, the absence of her mother and her inability to cope with her problems, then makes her decides to ask her mother to give her a way out to end her life –never hereafter to wake or to weep; –// rock me to sleep, mother–rock me to sleep!– (line 47 – 48). therefore, one can see that the speaker really needs to ease her pain. unfortunatelly, she cannot get her remedy since her mother remain absent. as stated by gevirtz (2012), “the absence of mothers give effect to their children”. thus, in the case of the speaker’s mother, in a way her mother has haunt her, although as a spectral mother, the mother cannot do anything to fix the problem of the speaker. conclusion rock me to sleep is a poem written by an american woman poet named elizabeth akers allen. in this poem, the figure of the mother has a crucial position. although the mother remains absent in the speaker’s adulthood, the readers of the poem can sense the powerful and overwhelming love of the speaker toward her mother. it is obvious that she is seeking for a way to ease her pain since she feels like she has lost her own battle of womanhood. her long-lost mother is her last hope who can safe her from destruction. after examining this poem, it proves that poetry can also be used as a medium to learn about women’s experiences and perspectives on motherhood, especially during the 19th century. it also shows that allen, as an american woman poet has given the examples of social problems that might happen to women, and those problems resulting in women’s inferior feeling. in a way, she wants to warn people that womanhood in the patriarchal society can create many problems, and the only remedy for those problems is motherhood. this paper also proves that a writer does not have to be a feminist to produce a literary text which discusses the issue of women, which has became the focus of feminism. a text which is not intentionally produced to empower the feminist movement, in fact gives contribution to it. therefore, every literary text is potential to be an object of feminist study and it is a resourceful object to analyze further. references andersen, m. l. (1997). thinking about women: sociological perspectives on sex and gender. 4th edition. boston: allyn & bacon. appletons encyclopedia. (2001). elizabeth akers allen. retrieved on august 27th 2014 from http:// famousamericans.net/elizabethakersallen/ banks, c. (2010). “dear mother england”: motherhood and nineteenth-century criticism of shakespeare”. 118 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 women’s writing. bomarito, j., & jeffrey w. h. (2005). feminism in literature: a gale critical companion. volume 2: 19th century, topics & authors (a-b). farmington hills: thompson gale. boyd, c. j. (1989). mothers and daughters: a discussion of theory and research. journal of marriage and the family. chodorow, n. j. (1991). feminism and psychoanalytic theory. yale university press. dally, a. (1983). inventing motherhood: the consequences of an ideal. new york: schocken. flax, j. (1978). “the conflict between nurturance and autonomy in motherdaughter relationship and within feminism.” feminist studies 4 freedman, e. b. (2003). no turning back: the history of feminism and the future of women. new york: ballantine books. friedan, b. (1997). the feminine mystique. new york: w.w. norton & company, inc. gevirtz, k. (2012). “marilyn francus, monstrous motherhood: 18th century and the ideology of domesticity.” a review. seton hall university. gray, j. (ed). (1997). she wields a pen: american women poets of the nineteenth century. iowa city: university of iowa press. james, e., janet wilson james, & paul s. boyer. (1971). notable american women: a biographical dictionary. belknap. longman. (2001). longman dictionary of contemporary english 3rd edition. harlow: longman montefiore, j. (1994). feminism and poetry: language, experience, identity in women’s writing. london: harpercollins publisher. natov, r. (1990). mothers and daughters: jamaica kincaid’s pre-oedipal narrative. children’s literature: an international journal 18. neyer, g., & laura bernardi. (2011). motherhood and reproduction. stockholm: stockholm university. retrieved august 28th, 2014 from http://www. s u . s e / p o l o p o l y _ f s / 1 . 1 8 7 1 4 . 1 3 2 0 9 3 9 6 3 5 ! / wp_2011_4.pdf rye, g. (2006). maternal genealogies: the figure of the mother in/and literature. journal of romance studies. institute of germanic & romance studies. sailus, c. (2003). feminism in the 19th century: women’s rights, roles, and limits. retrieved august 27th, 2014 from university of new england. elizabeth akers allen collection, 1866 – 1911. (2014). retrieved on august 27th, 2014 from http://www.une.edu/ mwwc/research/featured-writers/elizabeth-akersallen-collection-1866-1911. waterboro public library. (2007). “elizabeth akers allen (1832 – 1911)”. retrieved on august 27th, 2014 from mwi_detail.php?authid=6 *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 207 lingua cultura, 15(2), december 2021, 207-214 doi: 10.21512/lc.v15i2.7335 on google translate: students’ and lecturers’ perception of the english translation of indonesian scholarly articles menik winiharti1*; syihabuddin2; dadang sudana3 1,2,3department of linguistics, school of post graduates, indonesia university of education jl. dr. setiabudi 229, bandung 40154, indonesia 1english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisan illir iii no. 45, palmerah, jakarta 11480, indonesia 1menikw@upi.edu; 2syihabuddin@upi.edu; 3dsudana@upi.edu received: 11th may 2021/revised: 13th october 2021/accepted: 13th october 2021 how to cite: winiharti, m., syihabuddin, & sudana, d. (2021). on google translate: students’ and lecturers’ perception of the english translation of indonesian scholarly articles. lingua cultura, 15(2), 207-214. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v15i2.7335 abstract the research investigated the translation results of google translate based on the users’ perceptions. it was aimed at describing the users’ frequency in using google translate web, finding the users’ perceptions on the acceptability and the readability of google translation in translating scholarly articles from indonesian into english, as well as finding whether students and lecturers have the same perceptions regarding these two criteria. the data were collected from scholarly articles written in indonesian then translated into english using google translate web. then a survey regarding this translation was distributed to users; they were students and lecturers of computer science/information technology/information system. the analysis was conducted with regard to the acceptability and the readability of the translations using a rating scale of translation assessment. the findings suggest that more than half of the participants often use google translate web, which means that the academics are part of the users of google translate. however, students and lecturers have a rather different perception of the results of google translate. students consider google translate quite acceptable and readable, while lecturers view google translate as rather acceptable and moderately readable. in addition, the findings indicate that, to some extent, google translate still translates the indonesian text into english literally. keywords: google translate, translation assessment, users’ perception, translation acceptability, translation readability introduction google translate is one web-based machine translation that has been developing quite rapidly. it says that this machine has been improving quite significantly. several pieces of research (brahmana, sofyan, & putri, 2020; habeeb, 2019; khosravizadeh & pashmforoosh, 2011) have shown the pros and cons around the quality of google translate. from one viewpoint, google translate is considered an essential tool for individuals to connect with others of different languages, yet it does not imply that the machine is consistently impeccable in rendering all languages. khosravizadeh and pashmforoosh (2011) have pointed out that google translate has some limitations despite the fact that it is beneficial for helping language users around the globe. in this case, according to them, the involvement of humans in the editing process is yet required for a better version of translation (khosravizadeh & pashmforoosh, 2011). habeeb (2019) has also stated that even though google translate has several advantages, it has drawbacks such as inaccurate output and no proofread tools. a similar result is shown by brahmana, sofyan, and putri (2020), who have found that the major problem of google translate is its inaccuracy and inappropriateness of meaning and its inaccuracy in the structure. furthermore, regarding language learning, 208 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 207-214 hoi (2020) has suggested that even though machine translation has been evolving and able to increase humans’ efficiency, much dependence on this machine should be avoided. the impact toward the users relies on themselves. thus, it is suggested that users still need human translators because if they only depend on the machine, they would only learn simple things and cannot develop their language ability, which would influence the way they communicate (hoi, 2020). furthermore, alsalem (2019) has conveyed a stronger statement that humans do not need to over-rely on google translate, especially in the editing process. for students to develop their translation skills, they need to be guided and experience the learning in the editing stage; thus, they are not suggested too much depending on google translate. even in the course of translations for undergraduates, siregar et al. (2020) have suggested that students have to be aware of the importance of following the procedures, the culturesdifferent contained in languages, the use of translation tools in finding the best equivalence, preparing the best version by act as self-editor, and benefit of this activity in enhancing the students’ ability in english. this implies that using a translation tool or machine translation alone is not suggested to provide a good translation result. there are other procedures incorporating the translation tool. for this case, even though brahmana, sofyan, and putri (2020) have stated that google translate can be used as a learning media in translation, they have also suggested that students make self-corrections and consult dictionaries to confirm the correct meaning of doubted words then choose the best option by considering the context. on the other hand, valijärvi and tarsoly (2019) have viewed google translate more positively, especially with regard to foreign-language learning. by incorporating google translate as a tool in the learning process, students who learn foreign languages (in their research, it is finnish and hungarian) become more analytical and proficient, which has encouraged them to learn the languages autonomously, which in turn would increase their confidence. correspondingly, karjo and metta (2019) have observed that undergraduate students are quite ‘prolific’ in using google translate, especially finding the equivalence of difficult words to complete their essay writing. even though they state that students may use google translate as a translation tool, students should not be too dependent on the machine. thus, the lecturers should provide proper guidance in order to provide a better result in translation. these researches (alsalem, 2019; brahmana, sofyan, & putri, 2020; habeeb, 2019; hoi, 2020; karjo & metta, 2019; khosravizadeh & pashmforoosh, 2011; siregar et al., 2020; valijärvi & tarsoly, 2019) imply that google translate has been widely used by people around the world, including those who are involving in the academic fields. therefore, the needs to evaluate the result of google translate within the academic environment are important. regarding such evaluation, there is a parameter of translation result which involves accuracy, naturalness, and clarity (larson, 1998). assessing the translation accuracy generated by google translate, aiken (2019) has reevaluated his previous findings that suggested translations between european languages are usually good, while those involving asian languages are often relatively poor. he compares 51 languages, with indonesian being included in the list of comparisons. his recent findings have suggested that based on the measurement using bilingual evaluation understudy (bleu) scores, indonesian has decreased 14,6%, but there is a 34% improvement of the overall 51 languages. while assessing the translation quality generally focuses on accuracy, in fact, it should involve other criteria that concern the perception of the audience who become the end-users of the translations. these other criteria are acceptability and readability, as proposed by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012). similarly, larson (1998) has also suggested clarity and naturalness, in addition to accuracy for translation evaluation. with regard to these criteria of translation assessment, research conducted by kartika and priyatmojo (2018) shows that google translate is less accurate, less acceptable, and less readable in translating newspaper texts from english into indonesian. a somewhat similar result is shown by setiyadi et al. (2020), who has found that google translate is less clear and quite unnatural in translating cultural-specific concept from english into indonesian. in addition to these backgrounds, students and lecturers in indonesia are required to publish academic articles in english to increase the university’s rank on the international scale to obtain more international recognition. unfortunately, their writing can be hindered because they lack english writing skills (arsyad et al., 2019; hartono, arjanggi, & praptawati, 2019). this is where the translation plays an important role, and in this context, google translate is quite desirable to use because it is easy to access, and the results occur instantly. the present research is conducted because studies on the translation from indonesian into english are not likely much conducted, specifically regarding the users’ point of view on google translate results. for this case, college students’ and lecturers’ perceptions of google translate are crucial, assuming that to some extent, they use google translate as a tool to translate some texts within their tasks. therefore, the present research has three goals to achieve. the first is to describe the users’ (students and lecturers of computer science/information technology/information system) frequency in using google translate web. the second is to find their perception of the acceptability and the readability of google translate in translating scholarly articles from indonesian into english. the third is to find whether students and lecturers have the same perception regarding the two criteria of translation assessment. when these goals are achieved, the findings may fill in the gap in the area of studies, in this case, is google translate quality perceived by the 209on google translate:.... (menik winiharti, et al.) academics in indonesia. it may also enrich the previous ones and confirm those with related topics. nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) have suggested that a good quality of a translation must meet three aspects; aspect of accuracy, acceptability, and readability. the concept of accuracy refers to whether the target language (tl) and source language (sl) are equal. being equal means that the message conveyed in the tl is faithful to that in the sl. the aspect of acceptability deals with the norms and rules in the tl; whether the translation has applied the rules and norms in the tl. this includes linguistic rules and socio-cultural rules. for the third aspect, readability, nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) do not define this aspect; instead, they describe that determining the level of readability is not easy as it is determined by the readers’ knowledge. longman dictionary defines readability as being ‘interesting and enjoyable to read, and easy to understand’ or ‘writing or print that is readable is clear and easy to read’. based on this definition, the aspect of readability can be referred to whether the target audience can easily read the translation and that the translation is precise. meanwhile, larson (1998) has proposed that accuracy, clarity, and naturalness should become the features to be considered when a translation is evaluated. according to her, a translation is said to be accurate when the message of the sl is equally conveyed in the tl. there is no addition or deletion of information. then a translation is said to be clear when the message is easily understood by the tl readers. in other words, the translation communicates well to the audience who uses it. finally, a translation is natural when using forms that are familiar in the tl. the forms here must be in accordance with the tl grammatical rules; thus, the style is idiomatic, and the translation does not sound strange (larson, 1998). it can be said that the criteria of translation evaluation or assessment proposed by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) and that by larson (1998) are basically similar. table 1 describes the parameters of a good translation proposed by these scholars. table 1 parameters of a good translation by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) and larson (1998) nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) larson (1998) description accuracy accuracy the message/meaning of a translation is equal/ faithful; no distortion in meaning acceptability naturalness the forms use the tl’s rules and norms; socio-culturally and linguistically nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) larson (1998) description readability clarity the translation is clear and easily read/ understood furthermore, nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) have proposed the rating scales of their three parameters of a good translation, each of which is graded from 1 to 3, with 1 being the least and 3 being the best. however, larson (1998) does not propose the rating scales to evaluate the translation. she only discusses how to rate the translation qualitatively. methods the research applies a qualitative descriptive approach as it tries to describe the users’ perception of the quality of google translate regarding the two aspects of evaluation: acceptability and readability. the data are of indonesian scholarly articles. they are written in indonesian, by indonesian scholars, and published in indonesian journals, at least nationally accredited sinta 3. they are collected and downloaded from national journals, which can be accessed through a web page: https://www.neliti.com/id/journals. the area of the articles is sorted to those of computer sciences, information system, and information technology. there are five articles downloaded. they are selected randomly but sorted into three criteria: published after 2015, written in the indonesian language, and written by indonesian scholars. since twenty sentences are used as the indonesian sources, four sentences from each article are collected. these sentences are limited to those written in the conclusion section, assuming that this part is generally the authors’ own language, which summarizes the whole result and discussion. the twenty indonesian sentences are then inputted into google translate web https://translate. google.com/ to be translated into english. afterward, a survey containing this translation is created using google forms. thus there are twenty englishtranslated sentences in the survey, examining the acceptability and readability of the translations. the present research would like to apply the parameters proposed by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) to assess these aspects. because the research emphasizes the users’ perception toward the result of google translate, it chooses to use two criteria as they have proposed: acceptability (table 2) and readability (table 3). furthermore, as they have only three rating scales for assessing a translation, the research needs to determine a broader range of rating scales. therefore, table 1 parameters of a good translation by nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) and larson (1998) (continued) 210 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 207-214 the research modifies theirs so that the scales become 5, with 5 being the highest scale (the best) and 1 being the lowest (the worst). for the criteria of acceptability, it is adopted from nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono (2012) with the addition of two scales. thus, there are five grades as the rating scales, with 5 being the most acceptable and 1 being the least acceptable translation. table 2 the present research’s acceptability scales (modified based on nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono, 2012) grades description 5 translation is natural; the technical terms used are common and are familiar to the readers; phrases, clauses and sentences used are in accordance with indonesian rules. 4 generally, the translations are natural; however, there is a slight problem on the use of technical terms, or a slight grammatical error occurs. 3 translation is quite natural, but there are many unusual uses of technical terms or there are many grammatical errors. 2 translation is not natural, the translation sounds like a translated work. there are quite a lot of technical terms that are not common; the use of phrases, clauses and sentences are not in accordance with the rules of the target language. 1 translation is very unnatural, or the translation sounds very much like a translated work; the technical terms used are not common and are not familiar to the readers; phrases, clauses and sentences used are not in accordance with the rules of the target language. the second criteria, readability, is basically modified from nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono’s readability (2012). originally, it contains three scales. the research develops the scales into five, with 1 being the least readable and 5 being the most readable. the aspect of readability deals with the ease of the readers in understanding the translation. it involves the use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences that are easily and clearly understood by the tl’s readers. furthermore, the survey is then distributed to users. they are twenty-five undergraduate students and three lecturers of computer science/ information technology/information system. students’ and lecturers’ perceptions are separately discussed to find if their perception toward google translation result is the same. these participants are selected from those having toefl scores of more than 500 and good mastery of english. out of twenty-five students, seventeen have a score above 550, while eight of them have a score of 501-550. of three lecturers, only one has a score above 550, while two of them have a score of 501-550. the users are also asked about their frequency in using google translate, whether they never, sometimes, or often use the machine. this is to confirm that they have ever used google translate. table 3 the present research’s readability scales (modified based on nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono, 2012) grades description 5 clear and intelligible; has no or very few non-standard words, expressions or grammar. readers can easily understand the words, technical terms, phrases, clauses, sentences or translated texts. 4 mostly clear and intelligible; contains some non-standard words, expressions or grammar. 3 generally intelligible; contains many nonstandard words, expressions or grammar. in general, readers can easily understand the translation; but certain parts must be read more than once to understand it. 2 generally unintelligible; contains many nonstandard words, expressions or grammar. 1 unintelligible; dominated by non-standard words, expressions or grammar. readers are difficult to understand the translation. after all the data are collected (translated texts and users’ perceptions), the analysis is done in two stages. first, it deals with the result of users’ perception regarding the acceptability and readability of google translate. this would mainly use nababan, nuraeni, and sumardiono’s (2012) concepts of acceptability and readability of translations modified into the rating scales listed in table 2 and 3, respectively, with 5 being the highest and 1 being the lowest score. the results of the acceptability and readability of the translations are calculated using simple calculations. second, the analysis deals with linguistic aspects as an example of discussions when the translated sentences acquire low or high scores in terms of their acceptability and readability. results and discussions the first result deals with the frequency of the users – undergraduate students and lecturers – in using google translate web. figure 1 shows the students’ frequency, while figure 2 displays the lecturers’ frequency using google translate web. figure 1 shows that out of 25 students, 14 students (56%) use google translate web often, while 11 students (44%) use the machine sometimes. it can be said that more than half of them use google translate web often. it seems that the frequency of the lecturers in using google translate web is not entirely different from their students. out of three lecturers, two (67%) use google translate web often, while only one (33%) uses the web sometimes. nevertheless, the results are shown in figures 1 and 2 inform that google translate indeed has certain users; even undergraduates and 211on google translate:.... (menik winiharti, et al.) lecturers often use it. figure 1 students’ frequency in using google translate web figure 2 lecturers’ frequency in using google translate web the next results deal with those regarding the criteria of acceptability and readability from both kinds of users, undergraduate students and lecturers. first, table 4 displays the students’ point of view with regard to both assessment criteria on google translate, acceptability and readability. table 4 average scores of students’ point of view on acceptability and readability of google translate sentence number average of acceptability score average of readability score 1 3,76 4,00 2 3,96 4,16 3 3,44 3,80 4 3,36 3,36 5 3,48 3,52 6 4,16 4,20 7 3,28 3,36 8 3,72 3,76 9 3,60 3,68 10 3,56 3,64 11 4,08 4,20 12 4,12 4,24 13 3,84 4,12 sentence number average of acceptability score average of readability score 14 4,12 4,12 15 3,80 4,00 16 3,72 3,72 17 3,72 3,56 18 4,16 4,20 19 3,88 4,04 20 4,04 3,88 average 3,79 3,88 max 4,16 4,24 min 3,28 3,36 table 4 indicates that the acceptability score of the translations resulting from google translate is moderately good or quite acceptable, with an average score of 3,79 (out of 5). while the readability score is a little bit higher, reaching 3,88, though it is still below 4 (out of 5). in other words, google translate translations are considered quite readable. overall, the undergraduate students consider that the english translations of google translate are moderately acceptable and quite comprehensible. the following are examples of sentences that need to be discussed as they receive the lowest or the highest scores. example 1. the sentence refers to sentence 7 in table 4, which receives the lowest score for both acceptability and readability. indonesian : aplikasi sistem pakar “awas meningitis!” dapat melakukan proses diagnosis penyakit sesuai data rekomendasi yang didapatkan dari pakar. english : application of the expert system “beware meningitis!” can make the process of disease diagnosis according to the recommendation data obtained from experts. this sentence is considered the least acceptable and readable even though the scores reach 3,28 and 3,36 respectively; thus, it means that students think this is moderately good with regard to the criteria of acceptability and readability. however, google translate seems to translate the sentence quite literally. in the english translation given, the noun phrase “proses diagnosis penyakit sesuai data rekomendasi yang didapatkan dari pakar” in fact does not sound quite natural in english. it is supposed to be “the process of diagnosing diseases based on the data recommended by the experts.” thus, from the researchers’ point of view, it is scored 2 for acceptability and 3 for readability. it is readable to some extent but not natural in english. table 4 average scores of students’ point of view on acceptability and readability of google translate (continued) 212 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 207-214 example 2. this example is of sentence 12 in table 4, which receives the highest score regarding its readability. the score of its acceptability is quite high, second highest in fact, even though it does not reach the highest one. indonesian : data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data kedatangan turis asing ke indonesia. english : the data used in this study is the data of foreign tourist arrivals to indonesia. students consider that sentence 12 is the most readable, acquiring the highest score of 4,24. in other words, students can understand the sentence as observed that it is shorter than sentence 7, and the english translation conveys the same message as that in the sl. meanwhile, the acceptability score reaches 4,12, which is also good. thus, this sentence is considered to follow the tl rules quite well in terms of english grammar and rules. next, table 5 shows the acceptability and readability scores of google translate from the lecturers’ point of view. table 5 average scores of lecturers’ perception on the acceptability and readability of google translate sentence number average of acceptability score average of readability score 1 3,33 3,33 2 3,67 3,67 3 2,67 3,33 4 3,00 3,33 5 3,67 3,67 6 3,00 3,33 7 2,00 2,00 8 2,00 2,67 9 3,00 3,00 10 2,00 2,00 11 3,00 3,00 12 3,33 3,33 13 2,67 3,00 14 3,67 3,67 15 3,33 3,33 16 2,33 3,00 17 2,33 3,00 18 2,00 3,00 19 1,67 1,67 20 2,67 3,00 average 2,77 3,02 max 3,67 3,67 min 1,67 1,67 the highest score of acceptability and that of readability are exactly the same, 3,67, which happens to the same sentences; 2, 5, and 14. the lowest score also occurs in both criteria, 1,67, and also in the same sentence, 19. these results are different from those of students’ opinions in that the lecturers consider that google translate’s average level of acceptability is below 3 (2,77 out of 5) while the average level of readability is 3,02, which can be considered as moderately good. example 3. this example refers to sentence 19 in table 5. indonesian : aplikasi ini dapat membantu memudahkan pengguna twitter yang menggunakannya sebagai media pemasaran atau promosi untuk melakukan promosi dengan cara melakukan tweet promosi terhadap follower yang sudah diklasifikasikan. english : this application can help make it easier for twitter users who use it as a marketing or promotional media to do promotions by tweeting promotions to followers who have been classified. the lecturers consider that this sentence is not quite acceptable nor readable, shown by the average score of 1,67, which means below 2 (out of 5). it is observed that google translate has translated the indonesian sentence quite literally in that it translates phrase by phrase. the sequence of the phrases is exactly the same as shown in the verb phrase “dapat membantu memudahkan pengguna twitter” translated into “can help make it easier for twitter users”. the suggested translation is “can help ease the twitter users.” in addition, the sentence is possibly redundant as it repeats the same base word three times: promotional, promotion, and promotion. the explanation can be that the indonesian sentence is written that way; thus, google translate is revealed to translate literally. example 4. another example of analysis is of sentence 2 from table 5, which receives the highest score (with sentence 5 and 14) regarding both criteria. indonesian : ketujuh faktor tersebut adalah, kualitas website, kualitas citra produk, nama baik merek, pelayanan customer service, metode pembayaran, waktu, dan harga. english : the seven factors are, website quality, product image quality, brand name, customer service, payment methods, time, and price. it can be seen why sentence 2 receives the highest score. the most possible reason is that the sentence is simple and consists of a description of several factors, which is separated by a comma for each factor. however, ‘nama baik merek’ is translated into ‘brand name’, which does not include the lexical item of ‘baik’. in indonesian, ‘nama baik’ is idiomatic; 213on google translate:.... (menik winiharti, et al.) thus, it should not be separated as ‘nama’ (name) and ‘baik’ (good) (kamus besar bahasa indonesia, n.d.). a suggested translation for this phrase is ‘reputation’; thus, ‘nama baik merek’ should be translated into ‘brand reputation’. apart from such analysis, it is observed that punctuation also matters for sentence 2. in the sl, there is a comma after the verb ‘adalah’ (are), which is not supposed to be put there. the translation follows what the sl has written; google translate also puts a comma after the verb ‘are’. in other words, google translate still translates quite literally and does not pay attention to punctuation marks. furthermore, table 6 deals with the comparison between the average score of students’ and lecturers’ acceptability of google translate. table 6 acceptability scores of students’ and lecturers’ perceptions on google translate sentence number students lecturers 1 3,76 3,33 2 3,96 3,67 3 3,44 2,67 4 3,36 3,00 5 3,48 3,67 6 4,16 3,00 7 3,28 2,00 8 3,72 2,00 9 3,60 3,00 10 3,56 2,00 11 4,08 3,00 12 4,12 3,33 13 3,84 2,67 14 4,12 3,67 15 3,80 3,33 16 3,72 2,33 17 3,72 2,33 18 4,16 2,00 19 3,88 1,67 20 4,04 2,67 average 3,79 2,77 max 4,16 3,67 min 3,28 1,67 table 6 implies that students and lecturers have different perceptions regarding the acceptability level of google translate. on one side, students consider that google translate’s acceptability is slightly below 4, which means the translation is fairly acceptable (3,79 out of 5). however, lecturers’ average score on this criterion is below 2, which means that google translate is not acceptable enough (2,77 out of 5). it can also be shown from the comparison between the highest scores (4,16 versus 3,67) and the lowest scores (3,28 versus 1,67) of students and lecturers, respectively. finally, the comparison between students’ and lecturers’ opinions deals with google translate’s readability. it is displayed in table 7. table 7 readability scores of students’ and lecturers’ perceptions on google translate sentence number students lecturers 1 4,00 3,33 2 4,16 3,67 3 3,80 3,33 4 3,36 3,33 5 3,52 3,67 6 4,20 3,33 7 3,36 2,00 8 3,76 2,67 9 3,68 3,00 10 3,64 2,00 11 4,20 3,00 12 4,24 3,33 13 4,12 3,00 14 4,12 3,67 15 4,00 3,33 16 3,72 3,00 17 3,56 3,00 18 4,20 3,00 19 4,04 1,67 20 3,88 3,00 average 3,88 3,02 max 4,24 3,67 min 3,36 1,67 students’ average scores of google translate readability are higher than lecturers’, 3,88 and 3,02 respectively. surprisingly, the range of the lowest scores is quite significant, 3,36 versus 1,67. the lecturers consider that sentence 19 is not comprehensible (1,67 out of 5), while students consider this sentence quite understandable (4,04 out of 5). the investigation on sentence 19 (example 3) in the previous paragraphs is likely to explain why students and lecturers have significantly different opinions on this translation. students still understand the sentence, but lecturers may possibly evaluate by looking at the unnatural arrangement of the phrases. this different perception is possibly due to the fact that undergraduate students and lecturers have a different background of knowledge. even though their toefl scores are in the same range, their knowledge background regarding their academic field is different since the lecturers are master graduates. conclusions the findings highlight several key points. first, more than half of the participants often use google 214 lingua cultura, vol. 15 no. 2, december 2021, 207-214 translate, while the rest use it sometimes. it means that none of them has never used google translate web. in other words, the academics – undergraduate students and lecturers – are part of the users of google translate. second, the students consider that the acceptability of google translate is quite good, while the lecturers think that the translation is rather good. then about the readability of google translate, the students also view that the translation is quite understandable. meanwhile, the lecturers’ point of view on this criterion is moderately understandable, even though such view is not evenly distributed to all sentences, which is shown by the lowest score of being below ‘rather good’. thus, it can be said that to some extent, the students and lecturers have a different perception of google translate results. this is much likely because the students and lecturers have different knowledge backgrounds, then they assess the translation differently. in addition, apart from the research questions, it is indicated that google translate still translates literally and is not able to construct a varied or paraphrased structure as compared to that of the source language text. this can be an idea for further research which examines the strategy applied by google translate and the impact on its translation. lastly, the research is not intended to advocate people, especially those having academic careers, to use google translate extensively. rather, it is meant to provide a suggestion that google translate be much better used with post-editing stages, which is indeed done by humans. thus, human translators or editors are still required to produce good translations. references aiken, m. (2019). an updated evaluation of google translate accuracy. studies in linguistics and literature, 3(3), 253-260. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/sll.v3n3p253. alsalem, r. (2019). the effects of the use of google translate on translation students’ learning outcomes. arab world english journal for translation and literary studies, 3(4), 46-60. https://dx.doi. org/10.2139/ssrn.3483771. arsyad, s., purwo, b. k., sukamto, k. e., & adnan, z. (2019). factors hindering indonesian lecturers from publishing articles in reputable international journals. journal on english as a foreign language, 9(1), 42-70. brahmana, c. r. p. s., sofyan, r., & putri, d. m. (2020). problems in the application of google translate as a learning media in translation. language literacy: journal of linguistics, literature, and language teaching, 4(2), 384-389. https://doi.org/10.30743/ ll.v4i2.2893. habeeb, l. s. (2019). investigate the effectiveness of google translate among iraqi students. opcion, 35(21), 2899-2921. hartono., arjanggi, r., & praptawati, d. (2019). selfefficacy of indonesian non-english lecturers in writing english academic papers for international publication. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 188, 28-31. https://dx.doi. org/10.2991/eltlt-18.2019.6. hoi, h. t. (2020). machine translation and its impact in our modern society. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(2), 1918-1921. karjo, c. h., & metta, e. (2019). the translation of lexical collocations in undergraduate students’ theses’ abstract: students versus google translate. lingua cultura, 13(4), 289-296. https://doi.org/10.21512/ lc.v13i4.6067. kartika, d., & priyatmojo, a. s. (2018). analysis of google translate’s quality in employing translation techniques. journal of english language teaching, 7(1), 40-49. khosravizadeh, p., & pashmforoosh, r. (2011). google translation: a semantic structure analysis. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/216597782_google_translation_a_ semantic_structure_analysis. larson, m. l. (1998). meaning-based translation: a guide to cross-language equivalence (2nd ed.). maryland, usa: university press of america. nababan, m., nuraeni, a., & sumardiono. (2012). pengembangan model penilaian kualitas terjemahan. kajian linguistik dan sastra, 24(1), 39-57. setiyadi, d., kuswardani, y., sari, d. k., & martanti, d. a. (2020). analyzing on english-indonesian culture – specific concept translation by google translate. international journal of scientific & technology research, 9(1), 2242-2246. siregar, r., risnawaty, r., arfanti, y., & sembiring, m. (2020). reflection of undergraduate students on translation process: an outlook of translation teaching in university. lingua cultura, 14(1), 57-67. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v14i1.6232. valijärvi, r. l., & tarsoly, e. (2019). language students as critical users of google translate: pitfalls and possibilities. practitioner research in higher education, 12(1), 61-74. the effectiveness of positive feedback in teaching speaking skill muh. arief muhsin department of english, muhammadiyah university of makassar jl. sultan alauddin no. 259 makassar, sulawesi selatan 90221 arief.m@unismuh.ac.id received: 27th february 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 14th april 2016 how to cite: muhsin, m. a. (2016). the effectiveness of positive feedback in teaching speaking skill. lingua cultura, 10(1), 25-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.873 abstract the research was aimed at finding out the students’ responses and perceptions toward the corrective feedback given in teaching speaking activity. the research applied quantitative methods by sending questionnaires to 70 students. the students’ responses and perceptions for teacher’s corrective feedback indicated that students think their spoken error should be corrected. in addition, the students want their teacher focus more on. they also agree if their friends should correct their error. the most popular corrective feedbacks in teaching speaking are the explicit correction, elicitation, and repetition. they have an effective function in detecting the students’ mispronunciation and low accuracy and fluency. the other corrective feedback like implicit correction, recast, clarification request, and metalinguistic feedback are not favored because the percentage is lower than other corrective feedback. it indicates that not all of corrective feedback is effectively used in speaking. keywords: effectiveness, positive feedback, teaching, speaking skill introduction although a great deal of efl learning takes place through exposure to comprehensible input, students may need feedback on errors when they are not able to discover the differences between their interlanguage and the target language. in other words, form-focused instruction induces students to pay conscious attention to form the input and aid interlanguage development. many studies have investigated teacher’s preference for and the effectiveness feedback in efl. pan (2015) has concentrated in investigating the effect of teacher’s corrective feedback on the accuracy of efl student writing. moreover, kazem (2005) has been interested in studying the effect of teachers’ feedback on the students’ ability to self-edit in l2 writing classes. meanwhile, abedi, latifi, and moinzadeh (2010) have chosen to research the effect of error correction versus error direction on iranian preintermediate efl students writing achievement. then, saeed (2010) has studied the effect of error correction types on grammatical accuracy in student essay revision. all researchers investigate in giving corrective feedback to the students in writing class although many studies have investigated teachers’ preferences and the effectiveness of corrective feedback in efl, relatively few studies have ever investigated the difference among teachers’ and students’ preferences for error correction. also, to the researcher’s knowledge, there are no studies that have been explored regarding whether students’ individual characteristics, especially anxiety, influence their preferences for corrective feedback or not. besides that, when the researcher read the positive feedback in articles, none of them took speaking skill as the subject of the research. because of that true reason, the researcher does the investigation on the corrective feedback of efl speaking skill. although the students’ errors are natural phenomena in the language classroom, it is quite difficult to figure out if the teachers should ignore or treat them. if the teachers decided to correct the errors, there should be at least two questions to answer: which errors should be corrected? and how can teachers help the students to make the errors work for them? the answers to these questions are as complex as learning the language itself. it is even generally accepted that for the last two decades, the language practitioners have had different opinions on how to deal with the students’ errors. this assumption leads some people (such as krashen and truscott) to believe that the negative feedback is unnecessary in language classrooms. moreover, dekeyser in alghazo, abdelrahman, and qbeitah (2009) has stated that error treatment does not improve the students’ oral proficiency. the opposing view, on the other hand, believes that error correction is essential in language classroom because some studies have shown that if the is given in the right way, it can improve the students’ language skills. lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 25-30 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.873 25 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 26 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 25-30 by providing the correction to the students, the students can learn which language item they need to work on and which feature they have made progress. knowing the function of feedback, the researcher is interested in investigating the effectiveness of feedback in teaching and learning process. in the investigation, the researcher does an observation to find out the student’s responses and perceptions toward the corrective feedback given in teaching speaking activity. many researchers have investigated about the feedback in teaching. they did the research about the soft skills in english like writing, reading, listening and oral. pan (2015) has studied the teacher feedback on the accuracy of efl student writing. he draws the conclusion in his research if teacher feedback has advanced the students in better linguistic knowledge and it will improve the accuracy of students in writing with a higher degree after receiving teacher’s corrective feedback. on the other hand, according to him, teacher’s corrective feedback is facilitated or harmful the students’ ability to write accurately. the next researcher who does research about teachers’ feedback is keizer et.al (2007). he has drawn a conclusion regarding the effect of different types of feedback on second language writing over the course of a year but has found no significant difference on student’s essays concerning linguistic accuracy. he also notes that to be effective, systematic training in writing must require systematic correction of individual scripts. he also indicates that the correction of student compositions is often ineffective in reducing errors because teachers correct mistakes inconsistently. ayedh and khaled (2011) have given a recommendation to the researchers so they can investigate the questions posed in this study with larger samples and different methodology in the future. further research is also recommended by considering the limitations of the study to investigate factors that are most likely to be associated with teachers’ use of feedback in esl writing classes. these factors may have significance in the context of second or foreign language teaching. according to abdul razak, saeed, and ahmad (2013) who have investigated the effect of error correction on grammatical accuracy in student essay revision, teacher feedback will always be a major topic for both teachers and students. therefore, researchers still need to investigate different feedback strategies to help students and teachers. the present study is a short termed and experimental study that has limitations, but it highlights the possibility that some feedback strategies work better than others. however, it suggests that more research still needs to be done. in the other research, chu (2011) has stated that corrective feedback has a positive effect on improving oral english accuracy. compared with the score of experimental classes and control class in post –test, the score of the experimental class is obviously higher than that control class. besides that, he has stated that corrective feedback has a better effect on english accuracy. corrective feedback does make a great effect on oral accuracy, but the effectiveness for a different student level is different. for the low and medium group of students, the effectiveness is better because there is enough space for them to improve. for the high group of students, their oral accuracy is better, so what they need to do is improving their oral fluency and complexity. a various operationalized definitions of corrective feedback have been used by the researchers. kazem (2005) has defined the term feedback correction as the replacement of error or mistake by what is correct. the correction is given when the speaker explains the action and listener gives a reaction. moreover, butler (2007) has defined correction as an action of the teacher who apparently transforms, disapprovingly refers to or demands improvement of the student’s correlation, which is the most common conception employed by researchers. lightbown (2000) has defined corrective feedback as an indication for the students that their use of the target language is incorrect in using it corrective feedback includes both explicit and implicit feedback. teachers can provide corrective feedback without interrupting the flow of conversation (implicit feedback) or overtly with an emphasis on the ill-formed utterance (explicit feedback). long (1996) has stated about negative and positive feedback: negative points of feedback are related to the students that their utterances are faulty in some way, and all feedbacks that are not negative are positive. he also defines negative feedback as giving a correction by following an ungrammatical learner system. long (1996) has claimed that negative feedback is facilitative of l2 acquisition and foreign language acquisition because negative feedback, such as recast, contains positive evidence providing the correct form. lyster & ranta (2013) has developed six types of feedback used by teachers to respond the students’ errors. there are: (1) explicit correction refers to the explicit provision of the correct form. as the teacher provides the correct form, he or she clearly indicates that what the student has said is incorrect (e.g., “oh, you mean”, “you should say”); (2) recasts involve the teacher’s reformulation of all or part of a student’s utterance, minus the error; (3) clarification requests are when students either that their utterance has not been understood by the teacher or that the utterance is ill-formed in some way, so a repetition or a reformulation is required. a clarification request includes phrases such as “pardon me?”; (4) metalinguistic feedback contains a comment, information, or question-related to the well-formedness of the student’s utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form (e.g., “can you find your error?”); (5) elicitation refers to a technique that teachers use to elicit the correct form from the student directly. teachers elicit completion of their utterance by strategically pausing to allow students to “fill in the blank.”; (6) repetition refers to the teacher’s repetition, in isolation, of the student’s erroneous utterance. in most cases, teachers adjust their intonation to highlight the error. having known some cases of feedback according to the researcher, models of lyster and ranta (2013) are used by the teacher to give feedback for the students. this model is used in this research. the researcher is concentrated in teaching process to find the students’ responses and perceptions in corrective feedback given in teaching speaking activity. the study gives a positive contribution to education specifically in the process of setting and shaping students speaking ability and identifying the student’s perception toward the corrective feedback technique. this will show how the students can produce commentary feedbacks into their future revision in speaking. however knowing the perspective can influence the teaching process to make optimal outcome. methods the research uses quantitative approach. the objects 27the effectiveness of positive feedback .... (muh. arief muhsin) of the research are the students at of english department of muhammadiyah university makassar in academic 2012/2013. there are two classes used in this research. those are class of 2f and 2a. each class consists of 35 students. the researcher chooses both of them because they have similarity in term of the students’ performance after the researcher has done observation. thus, the researcher has taken two of them as the sample of the research. to get accurate information about the students’ response when applying feedback, the researcher will give questionnaires, which is one of the effective instruments. according to gamlem & smith (2013), if the research project is going to use questionnaire, then it is essential to put time and effort into getting the format right. according to arikunto (2012), the first step is to determine precisely what information the researcher needs to know while thinking carefully about the hypothesis. although it can be important to include relevant background questions, the researchers need to make sure that the questions reflect the aims of the project and the researchers do not collect unnecessary data in attempting to answer their questions as stated by creswell (2009). the references seem not to contribute anything to explain the questionnaire. results and discussions in getting the students’ illustration on the necessity of feedback, the researcher gives some questionnaires. the questionnaires are made to know the students’ response to the teachers’ feedback. it is made by using likert scale. there are 22 questions including all the activities which are shown when the teacher is teaching in the classroom. the questionnaires are classified into some criteria like the frequency of feedback, the timing for treating students’ error, the rate of each feedback in which the researcher should address the students’ error. there are 33 students given the questionnaire to know their response. the students’ responses are shown in table 1. table 1 shows the response of the students in regarding the essential of positive correction in teaching english. there are 11 or 33.33% students who respond “strongly agree” regarding the essential of corrective feedback, 21 or 63.63% students “agree”, and only 1 or 3.03% students “disagree”. it means the students agree that they want their error to be corrected, and get feedback from the teacher. table 2 shows the result of the students’ response to corrective feedback frequency. there are 10 students or 30.30% choosing “always” feedback frequency from their teacher. 19 students (57.57%) answer “usually” about getting feedback and 2 students or 6.06% choose “sometime.” only 2 students (6.06%) say “occasionally.” no students choose “never.” table 3 illustrates the result of the timing of the correction from the teacher. the students agree to get corrective feedback as soon as an error is made. there are 6 (18.18%) students who strongly agree, 10 (30.30%) students who are neutral, and there are many students who disagree or strongly disagree to get feedback as soon as an error is made. if the researcher compares between the timings (as soon as and after finish speaking) after finish speaking has a higher percentage than as soon as. it can see on the table that there are 30 students or 90.90% state “strongly agree”, no one chooses “neutral”, and only 3 students or 0.90% disagree. for the fifth question after the activities, there are 16 (48.48%) students stating “strongly agree”, 8 (24.24%) students are neutral, and 9 (27.27%) students strongly disagree. on the other hand, there are 7 (21.21%) students stating “strongly agree” to get feedback at the end of the class, 11 (33.33%) students choose “neutral”, and 15 (45.45%) students strongly disagree to get feedback at the end of the class. table 1 students’ response to the teacher’s corrective feedback strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 11 33.33% 21 63.63% 0 0% 1 3.03% 0 0% table 2 the students’ response to corrective feedback frequency always usually sometimes occasionall never 10 30.30% 19 57.57% 2 6.06% 2 6.06% 0 0% table 3 the result of the timing spoken error to be treated in giving feedback the timing for treatment strongly agree/ agree neutral disagree/ strongly disagree as soon as error are made 6 18,18 10 30,30 17 51,51 after finish speaking 30 90,90 0 0,00 3 0,90 after activities 16 48,48 8 24,24 9 27,27 the end of the class 7 21,21 11 33,33 15 45,45 28 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 25-30 table 4 presents students’ response on the type of error needed to be corrected in teaching english that in the students group with the highest anxiety, there are 23 (69.69%) students who want the serious error to be corrected and 4 (12.12%) students want a serious error. then, 5 (15.15%) students want to be occasionally corrected, and only 1 (3.03%) student wants to be always had a correction from the teacher. however, 3 (9.09%) students do not want to be never corrected. they have chosen serious error, less serious, and frequent to be the highest points. in the less serious, 23 (69.60%) students want to be usually corrected, and 3 (0.90%) want to be sometimes corrected. then 6 (18.18%) students choose to be occasionally treated, and only 1 (3.03%) student wants to be always treated. also, no one wants to be never corrected. moreover in the frequent group also describes the similar thing. 1 (3.03%) student chooses to be always corrected, and 3 (3.03%) students want to be usually corrected. 22 (66.66%) students want to be sometimes addressed. next, 7 (21.21%) students want to be occasionally corrected, and only 1 (3.03%) student who chooses to be never corrected. table 5 shows the rate of feedback from the teacher in speaking that almost all of kinds of feedback are given similar responses. in the implicit correction, the students’ response are 11 (33.33%) students choosing it as very effective, 14 (42.42%) are neutral, and only 8 (24.24%) choose it as very ineffective. the most popular type of feedback is the explicit correction in which 30 (90.90%) students choose it as very effective feedback. only 3 (9.09%) are neutral, and no one answers very ineffective. on the other hand, regarding recasts, 18 (54.54%) students respond to it as very effective, 10 (30.30%) students choose neutral, and 5 (15.15%) students think of it as very ineffective. in classification requests, there are 18 (54.54%) students answering very effective. 6 (18.18%) students are neutral, and 9 (27.27%) students say it is very ineffective. for metalinguistic feedback, there are 16 (48.48%) students agreeing it as very effective, 8 (24.24%) students are neutral, and 9 (27.27%) students answer “very ineffective”. furthermore, elicitation gets a higher response than explicit correction that 21 (63.63%) students answer “very effective”, 12 (36.35%) students choose “neutral”, and no one chooses “very ineffective”. the next item is about no corrective feedback. only 6 (18.18%) students think it as very effective. 10 (30.30%) students choose “neutral”, and 17 (51.51%) students answer “very ineffective” if there is no corrective feedback. the last item is repetition. there are various answers that 20 (60.60%) students choose repetition as very effective, 6 (18.18%) students are neutral, and 7 (21.21%) students answer “very ineffective”. after the researcher rates the kinds of feedback, it can be concluded that in general all of the feedback is needed depending on the skill the teacher teaches. table 6 shows the students’ response regarding who should correct their errors in speaking english. 17 students (51.51%) strongly agree that their classmates should be the ones who correct the error. 13 (39.39%) students choose neutral, and there are 3 (9.09%) students who strongly disagree if their classmates correct their errors. in the other section, 21 (63.63%) students strongly agree if their teacher addresses their error. however, 5 (15.15%) students choose to be neutral, and only 7 (21.21%) students strongly disagree about this. besides that, students also give a response to their friends who would treat their error. in this case, 20 (60.60%) students strongly agree other students gave them correction, 10 (30.30%) students choose “neutral”, and only 3 (9.09%) students answer “strongly disagree”. the first item is about the essential of teacher’s positive feedback which includes two questions. the first question is about the students’ response to the essential of teacher’s corrective feedback. students as the respondents answer “agree” in general. 33 students or 96.96% agree if teacher’s corrective feedback is very essential and only 1 student or 3.03% disagrees. this result indicates that students think their spoken error should be corrected when learning english as the foreign language. it is supported by ayedh & khaled (2011), that the students want their spoken errors to be addressed more than the teacher has thought. the next question is about the frequency of teacher’s corrective feedback. 10 or 30.30% students always want to have a correction from the teacher, 19 students or 57.57% answers “usually frequency” is okay, and 2 or 6.06% choose “sometime” as the frequency to be corrected. only 2 or 6.06% students choose to have an occasionally correction. however, none of the students thinks that their errors should never be corrected by the teacher. the result of the research indicates that students want the teacher to correct their errors more frequently. the second item is the essential of positive feedback which consists of four choices. it is suggested that interrupting the students’ speaking to correct their error is not a good option for the teacher (chu, 2011). it is because the teacher is more focused on accuracy in their teaching, but sometimes the teacher regards fluency and comprehensibility as well as accuracy as one of the critical factors for students to develop their speaking skills. the students believe that correcting errors after completing the communicative activities can enhance both accuracy and fluency since this allows the students to engage in communication without interruption caused by corrective feedback. the third item is the students’ response to the types of error which need to be corrected. this consists of five choices. it is not realistic to expect that teachers provide their students with corrective feedback on individual errors in the classroom because it can influence their confidence (chu, 2011). these findings show that teacher focuses more on serious and frequent errors made by their students rather than infrequent and less serious errors in speaking class. by focusing on serious and frequent spoken errors, teachers can help students in enhancing the students’ accuracy, fluency, and comprehensibility. the fourth item is the rate of each feedback. there are eight kinds of feedback presented in teaching the students. they are the implicit correction, explicit correction, recast, classification request, metalinguistic feedback, elicitation, no corrective feedback and repetition. the students are asked to rate the feedback with five points scale: very effective, effective, neutral, ineffective, and very ineffective. explicit correction refers to the explicit provision of the correct form as the teacher provides the correct form. he or she clearly indicates that what the student has said is incorrect, and teacher can make a correction (lyster & ranta, 2013). it is the most popular type of corrective feedback used in speaking. the students highly value explicit feedback over implicit feedback since direct feedback that points out the error can increase the chance of modifying and accelerating their learning. in addition, the students also favor elicitation that can help students produce the target language. it is a surprising result since many previous studies have shown that recasts are the most frequently used type of corrective feedback by teachers in the second language classroom. however, they 29the effectiveness of positive feedback .... (muh. arief muhsin) are not the most effective method to correct students’ errors due to ambiguity and implicitness (ellis, loewen, & erlam, 2006), (lyster & ranta, 2013), (yoshida, 2008). the result of classification request indicates a discrepancy between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices. besides that, the teacher does not use the type of feedback they consider as the most effective in teaching. considering the fact based on the students’ responses, the teacher may not be aware of their actual practices. these responses are based on their ideal types of corrective feedback. in this research, students in both the high and low anxiety groups regard recasts as the effective type of corrective feedback (pan, 2015). metalinguistic feedback is not the popular type of feedback. this result suggests that the students think grammatical explanations do not help them to modify their original utterances, or produce target-like forms. they still feel that another type of teacher feedback is more effective than others in improving their speaking skill. elicitation is the second most favored type of corrective feedback which is chosen by the students. the seventh is no corrective feedback. it is ineffective that this feedback type is the least popular among the students regardless of their anxiety levels. the researcher concludes that the students may value the time when they can practice their speaking in class without correction. given the fact that some students can notice their spoken errors right after they make mistakes, no corrective feedback is useful as used by teacher. repetition is one of the most favored types of corrective feedback. pan (2015) also suggests that repetition has given a different result to the students’ accuracy and fluency in speaking. repetition shows that an error has been made and thus can lead the students to produce the target language by modifying the formed utterance or pronunciation. the fifth item is related to the person who should correct the students’ error. there are three types of delivering agent the error correction; a classmate, teacher, and student. this result of the research has shown that more anxious students are more open to the corrective feedback from various agents, such as teachers, peers, and themselves than less anxious students (pan, 2015). this indicates that more anxious students are more concerned about accuracy than less anxious students. thus, their anxiety level increases when they speak english in speaking class. table 4 students’ response to type of error needed to be corrected in teaching english error types always usually sometime occasionally never serious 1 3,03 4 12,12 23 69,69 2 6.06 3 9,09 less serious 1 3,03 23 69,69 3 0,90 6 18,18 0 0,00 frequent 1 3,03 2 6.06 25 75,75 5 15,15 0 0,00 infrequent 0 0,00 3 9.09 22 66,66 7 21,21 1 3,03 individual 0 0,00 0 0,00 24 72,72 8 24,24 1 3,03 table 5 the rate of feedback from the teacher in speaking class feedback types very effective/ effective neutral ineffective/ very ineffective implicit correction 11 33.33% 14 42.42% 8 24.24% explicit correction 30 90.90% 3 9.09 0 0.0% recasts 18 54.54% 10 30.30% 5 15.15% clarification requests 18 54.54% 6 18.18% 9 27.27% metalinguistic feedback 16 48.48% 8 24.24% 9 27.27% elicitation 21 63.63% 12 36.36% 0 0.0% no corrective feedback 6 18.18% 10 30.30% 17 51.51% repetition 20 60.60% 6 18.18% 7 21.21% table 6 the students respond should correct their error agents strongly agree/ agree neutral disagree/ strongly disagree classmates 17 51.51% 13 39.39% 3 9.09% teachers 21 63.63% 5 15.15% 7 21.21% students 20 60.60% 10 30.30% 3 9.09% 30 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 25-30 conclusions the students’ responses about the essential of corrective feedback showing that 11 or 33.33% students respond strongly agree regarding the essential of corrective feedback, 21 or 63.63% agree, and only 1 or 3.03% disagree. it means that the students agree that they want their error to be corrected and get feedback from the teacher. the students’ response for corrective feedback frequency is 10 students or 30.30% choose “always” feedback frequency from their teacher. there are also 19 students (57.57%) answering “usually” about getting feedback. 2 (6.06%) student choose “sometime”, and only 2 students (6.06%) choose “occasionally”. surprisingly, none of the students answer “never”. then, in the students’ response regarding who should correct their error, they strongly agree that their teacher gives them correction in speaking. they also agree that their friends should correct their error. next, the most popular corrective feedback in teaching speaking is the explicit correction, elicitation, and repetition. they have an effective function in detecting the students’ mispronunciation, and low accuracy and fluency. the other corrective feedback like implicit correction, recast, clarification request, and metalinguistic feedback are not favored because the percentage is lower than other corrective feedback. it implies that not all corrective feedback effective if used in speaking, depending on the skill. references abdul razak, n., saeed, m., & ahmad, z. 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(2007). the effect of type and timing of feedback on learning from multiple-choice tests. journal of experimental psychology: applied, 13(4), 273-281. retrieved from http://psycnet.apa. org/journals/xap/13/4/273/ doi: 10.1037/1076898x.13.4.273 chu, r. (2011). effects of teacher’s corrective feedback on accuracy in the oral english of english-majors college students. theory and practice in language studies, 1(5), 454-459. retrieved from http://ojs. academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/ view/4691 doi:10.4304/tpls.1.5.454-459 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. california: sage publication. ellis, r., loewen, s., & erlam, r. (2006). implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of l2 grammar. studies in second language acquisition, 28(2), 339-368. retrieved from http://journals. cambridge.org/abstract_s0272263106060141 gamlem, s., & smith, k. 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(eds.), handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413-68). new york: academic press. lyster, r., & ranta, l. (2013). counterpoint piece: the case for variety in corrective feedback research. studies in second language acquisition, 35(1), 167184. retrieved from http://journals.cambridge.org/ abstract_,doi: 10.1017/s027226311200071x pan, y. (2010). the effect of teacher error feedback on the accuracy of efl student writing. teflin journal, 21(1), 57-77. retrieved from http://www. journal.teflin.org/index.php/journal/article/view/33 saeed, a.n. (2010). school of humanities and social sciences. retrieved from http://dar.aucegypt.edu/ handle/700, doi 10.5539/elt.v6n11p187 yoshida, r. (2008). teachers’ choice and learners’ preference of corrective feedback types. language awareness. 17(1), 78-93. retrieved from http:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/la429.0 vol. 16 no. 2 december 2022cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x editor in chief ienneke indra dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia managing editors nurlina bina nusantara university, indonesia christian harito bina nusantara university, indonesia editorial board ahmar mahboob university of sidney, australia ali taghizadeh razi university, islamic republic of iran ariel heryanto monash university, australia arum perwitasari leiden university center for linguistics (lucl), netherlands hamzeh moradi nanfang college of sun yat-sen university, china max m. richter monash university, australia shkelqim millaku university of prizren, albania yousif a. elhindi east tennessee state university, usa indiwan s. wahjuwibowo multimedia nusantara university, indonesia akun bina nusantara university, indonesia endang ernawati bina nusantara university, indonesia putri andam dewi bina nusantara university, indonesia yi ying bina nusantara university, indonesia language and layout editor dina nurfitria bina nusantara university, indonesia eka yanti pangputri bina nusantara university, indonesia shavira sarashita bina nusantara university, indonesia atmawati bina nusantara university, indonesia holil bina nusantara university, indonesia secretariat dewi novianti bina nusantara university, indonesia description lingua cultura is a semiannual journal, published in july and december. lingua cultura focuses on various issues spanning in study of language and literature. the coverage of language includes applied linguistics (syntax and morphology; phonetics and phonology; second language acquisitions; language learning, teaching, and assessment; and academic writing), the coverage of literature covers the analysis of novel, film, drama using the relevant theories and concepts. lingua cultura has been accredited by dikti under the decree number 158/e/kpt/2021 (sinta 2) and indexed in crossref, asean citation index (aci), indonesia onesearch, google scholar, garda rujukan digital (garuda), the world catalogue (worldcat), bielefeld academic search engine (base), directory of open access journals (doaj), science and technology index 2 (sinta 2), academic resource index (researchbib), scientific indexing services (sis), citefactor and indonesian research repository (neliti). research and technology transfer office, bina nusantara university, anggrek campus, jl.kebon jeruk raya 27, kebon jeruk, jakarta barat 11530, tel. +621-5350660 ext. 1705/1708, fax.+621-5300244, e-mail: linguacultura@binus.edu, fb: https://www.facebook.com/lingua. binus, submission: https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/lingua table of contents vivian graciela chertian villainess protagonists’ performative acts as the representation of modern femininity................................... 133-140 listya ayu saraswati; irfan rifai; muhamad farhan role playing game (rpg) video games and loneliness: an analysis of finding paradise narrative....................... 141-146 johnny lee; wang-chen ling discovering the prosodic domain of aceh hakka tone sandhi................................................................... 147-154 utami dewi grammarly as automated writing evaluation: its effectiveness from efl students’ perceptions......................... 155-161 yune andryani pinem linguistic errors of indonesian air transportation hoax......................................................................... 163-173 zulfikar rachman the imperative of request of indonesian and japanese language: a comparative studies on politeness................ 175-185 juhaid h. abbas; binnor m. abdul samad; mohammad hussein m. imam; annie mae c. berowa visuals to ideologies: exploring the linguistic landscapes of mindanao state university marawi campus............... 187-192 saiful akmal; lala barzanzia harley; rahmikawati; titin arifa maulida the acehnese loanwords and contacts with other world’s languages: a preliminary findings........................... 193-203 andreas akun navigating diversity in plural indonesia: problems and prospects of multicultural literature for english department students...................................... 205-213 yufita ria oktiani; evi jovita putri persuasive strategies in selected unicef speaker’s speech.................................................................... 215-222 eusabinus bunau the correlation between student’s perception and comprehension achievement of the english language derivational morphology................................................................................ 223-230 ahmad sirulhaq; sukri; syamsinas jafar; burhanuddin potential words in indonesian language: a study of generative morphology................................................. 231-240 mei rianto chandra using flipgrid to improve memory ability in learning foreign languages.................................................... 241-247 lambok hermanto sihombing; susvita dwi rani the use of code-switching and code-mixing in english learning for children: a study case of indonesian-american couple..................................................................................... 249-256 noel dassanayake development of an evaluation checklist for localized chinese language textbooks in sri lanka........................ 257-269 index.................................................................................................................................... 271-275 vol. 16 no. 2 december 2022cultura lingualingua p-issn 1978-8118 e-issn 2460-710x *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 97 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 97-104 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.8277 assessment of readability level of reading materials in indonesia efl textbooks ika apriani fata1*; endang komariah2; andira riski alya3 1-3department of english education, faculty of teacher training and education, universitas syiah kuala jl. krueng kale no. 21, darussalam, banda aceh, aceh 23111, indonesia 1ika.apriani@unsyiah.ac.id; 2endang.komariah@fkip.unsyiah.ac.id; 3andirariskialyaa@gmail.com received: 24th february 2021/revised: 13th april 2022/accepted: 21st april 2022 how to cite: fata, i. a., komariah, e., & alya, a. r. (2022). assessment of readability level of reading materials in indonesia efl textbooks. lingua cultura, 16(1), 97-104. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.8277 abstract the research aimed to assess the readability of reading material in two different english textbooks published by different publishers. many pieces of research have been conducted to examine the reading materials in english textbooks, and it had been discovered that the reading materials were insufficiently adequate for the levels of students. the research applied a descriptive content analysis method to analyze, interpret, and describe the data. the flesch reading ease formula was as an instrument. the research’s data were derived from the english textbook “pathway to english” by erlangga grade x and the english textbook “bahasa inggris” by the ministry of education and culture grade x. based on the findings of the research, five reading texts out of 15 match with students’ level (fairly difficult level) of grade x in the first textbook, while three texts out of 13 equal with students’ level (fairly difficult level) of grade x in the second textbook. furthermore, the first textbook’s average readability score indicates that the texts are ‘standard’, whereas the second textbook indicates that the texts are ‘fairly difficult’. based on the study findings, some recommendations for teachers are to use the readability formulas to provide appropriate reading material for students, as well as for other researchers to conduct a larger context about readability. keywords: reading assessment, readability level, efl textbooks introduction the textbook is one of several tools that may be utilized to aid teachers and students in teaching and learning english. in the classroom, textbooks serve an important role in teaching and learning. a textbook is a fundamentally important aspect of teaching and learning, according to gunantar (2017), because it serves as a medium for both the teacher and the student. bojanic and topalov (2016) have also mentioned that textbooks are sources that provide a set of materials and activities for instructors to employ during the teaching process. it provides teachers with guidelines for communicating the materials to students and assisting them in understanding the materials. textbooks are also an essential media for teachers and students as a reference in the learning process. to better support students in understanding the material and getting new knowledge, it is crucial to identify whether the passage in the book is suitable for students based on their grade level. even though there are many problems found in using a textbook, professional development could concentrate on developing modified assignments from these textbooks so that the content of the textbooks can be understood by the students (hong et al., 2018). many english textbooks are available these days, published by the ministry of education and culture or by private or other public publishers. these textbooks are used as the primary source by both teachers and students. although several english textbooks for senior high school have been published, it is important to evaluate whether the textbooks used in senior high school are compatible with the level of learners’ learning needs because the appropriateness of the textbook and learners’ reading level aids them 98 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 97-104 in properly comprehending the reading materials. according to azizifar and baghelani (2014), the reasons for evaluating textbooks are to implement new textbooks, so parties involved in education programs can understand certain strengths and weaknesses in the textbooks, and the outcomes of analyzing textbooks can be immensely beneficial to education progress and professional development. the purpose of evaluating the textbook is to find the most suitable english learning teaching materials for learners, particularly in reading comprehension. in selecting an appropriate textbook, a teacher should consider three components when selecting text for reading material. according to nuttal (2005), there are three fundamental components of a good student reading material. first is the suitability of the content, which indicates that the materials are fascinating, entertaining, challenging, and relevant to their purpose in learning english. the second is exploitability, where a text helps the achievement of specific language and material goals that is usable for instructional tasks and approaches. it may be interpreted using other competencies, such as listening, speaking, and writing). the third is readability, which refers to the text’s lexical and structural difficulties, as well as its proper level of difficulty for learners. therefore, it is crucial to ensure that reading materials are readable for students to understand them properly. analyzing and considering the readability of the reading material is one method to know whether the textbook is suitable for students’ level or not. the readability of a text determines how easy it is to read. readability refers to the ease with which a text can be understood while reading it (dubay, 2004; fata, gani, & husna, 2020). thus, it is essential to investigate the readability level of the reading passage to predict whether a text is tough, basic, or easy for students. there are several commonly used formulas in determining the readability of reading passages according to bailin and grafstein (2016), namely the flesch reading ease formula, the flesch-kincaid grade level, and the fry graph, smog grading, and the dale-chall formula. in the research, the researchers utilize the flesch reading ease formula to find out the readability of reading text based on the student’s level of grade tenth of senior high school. as those readability formulas are used in written texts, they provide a text score, including the average sentence length and the average number of syllables per word. thus, the text’s readability score is classified with a particular categorization, such as very easy, easy, standard, fairly difficult, difficult, or very difficult, as well as a reading grade level. in assessing the readability level of the english material, the research employs the flesch reading ease formula. the updated formula of the flesch reading ease scale is score (re)= 206,835-(1,015-asl)-(84,6xasw). the flesch reading ease scale ranges from 0-to 100, with a higher score indicating that the reading passage is more comprehensible. the research emphasizes that in the tenth grade of senior high school, a score of 50-60 is considered adequate with a grade level of 10th – 12th, indicating the difficulty level is at a “fairly difficult” level. in recent research, many researchers have taken out studies about analyzing reading materials. for example, research conducted by amer (2021) about lexical density and readability of secondary stage english textbooks in jordan illustrated that the selected reading passages are easy to read. on the contrary, one research conducted by coco et al (2017) has analyzed the readability level of the spanish-language patient-reported outcomes measures in audiology and otolaryngology. the result found that many spanishlanguage proms are above the 5th-grade reading level proposed for health-related materials. related to this, gyasi and slippe (2019) have illustrated that the reading texts in textbooks for diploma students of the university of cape coast are at a low readability level since the textbooks are beyond the students’ reading level. later, gyasi and slippe (2019) have suggested that textbooks should be revised to supply the primary goal and contribute to successful english language teaching and learning. in line with these statements, it is recognized that not all reading materials in english textbooks are always relevant to students’ grade levels. since fewer researchers conducted the assessment of readability in these textbooks, the researcher aims to investigate the readability level of reading materials in two english textbooks from different publishers. it is conducted to show the comparison these textbooks are appropriate to the level of students’ ability as well as to fill the novelty of this research. methods the research applies qualitative research. in qualitative research, the researcher uses content analysis as the type of qualitative research for two main textbooks, the english textbook pathway to english grade x, published by erlangga publisher, and buku bahasa inggris grade x, published by kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia 2017. the reading passages from each chapter are contained in these textbooks. in the research, the flesch reading ease formula is used as an instrument to determine the estimated readability level as proposed by flesch. then it is also proven the validity of the instrument and reliability of the score by having one eligible interrater who has taught the english textbooks in the classroom. shabankhani (2020) has explained that inter-rater realibily (irr) is a term to describe people that measure and evaluate the instruments in a study and addresses the issue of consistency in using the rating system, which occurred between judger and researcher. the updated formula of the flesch reading ease scale, according to dubay (2004), is score (re)= 206,835-(1,015-asl)-(84,6xasw). where re is readability ease; asl is average sentence length 99assessment of readability level .... (ika apriani fata, et al.) (number of words divided by the number of sentences); asw is the average number of syllables per word (the number of syllables divided by the number of the words). in addition, the level of reading ease difficulty has been merely formulated as shown in table 1. in the first data collection process, the researchers chose the english textbook used for senior high school students grade x from two different publishers. secondly, the researchers spot the reading material, which is reading passages from the textbook pathway to english grade x, published by erlangga, and the textbook bahasa inggris grade x, published by the government. lastly, it counts how many syllables, words, and sentences are throughout every passage. the researchers employ a word counter from wordcounter.net to prevent any miscalculations and to ensure the validity of the total quantity of syllables, words, and sentences. after obtaining the data, the researchers calculate the text’s estimated grade level. then, the data are described in greater detail based on the flesch reading ease scale. afterward, the researchers classify the data into smaller parts using a table by comparing the score to other criteria that are suitable to the level of senior high school students grade x. table 1 difficulty level by flesch reading ease score (re) difficulty level grade 90 – 100 very easy 5th grade 80 – 90 easy 6th grade 70 – 79 fairly easy 7th grade 60 – 69 standard 8th to 9th grade 50 – 59 fairly difficult 10th to 12th grade 30 – 49 difficult 13th to 16th grade (college) 0 – 29 very difficult college graduate results and discussions the first step in counting the readability score is done by measuring the average sentence length (asl) and average number of syllables per word (asw). then, the readability score is calculated by flesch reading ease formula. therefore, tables 1 and 2 present the readability score, readability level, and estimated reading grade of each reading passage in two english textbooks. the data analysis is conducted by calculating the score of the text’s estimated reading grade level obtained through the flesch reading ease formula. then, it is described in a table of the result calculation of the text’s estimated reading grade level. the data are described in greater detail based on flesch reading ease formula. afterward, the researchers classify the data into smaller parts using a table by comparing the score to other criteria based on the flesch reading ease table that is suitable to the level of the first grade of a senior high school student. in the last phase, the data are analyzed based on the focus of the research to investigate the readability level of the reading material of both textbooks. table 2 shows the result of the readability score in the english textbook pathway to english published by erlangga publisher. as shown in table 2, the result finding of text 1 based on the flesh reading ease formula is 76,10, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 2 has a result of 67,11, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 3 is 76,19, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 4 is 50,20, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. the result of text 5 is 55,54, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. the result of text 6 is 46,55, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘difficult’ level. therefore, the text is harder for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 7 is 57,18, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 8 is 55,18, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 9 has a result of 67,79, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 10 is 57,36, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 11 is 68,26, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 12 is 64,25, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 13, based on the flesh reading ease formula, is 83,15, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at an ‘easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 14 is 85,92, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at an ‘easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. the result of text 15 is 85,04, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at an ‘easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. to conclude, five reading passages are suitable for 10th-grade students of senior high school. those reading passages are text 4, text 5, text 7, text 8, and 100 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 97-104 text 10. the readability levels of those five reading passages are at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. based on table 3, the result finding of text 1 based on the flesch reading ease formula is 79,39, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10thgrade students in senior high school. text 2 has a result of 58,20, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 3 is 56,32, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 4 is 63,35, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 5 is 51,04, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. therefore, the text is matched with 10th-grade students of senior high school. text 6 is 40,16, which means that the difficulty level of the text was at a ‘difficult’ level. therefore, the text is harder for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 7 is 45,26, which means that the difficulty table 2 the result of the readability score in the english textbook pathway to english published by erlangga publisher text code readability score calculation by the interrater level quality for 10th grade 1 76,10 76,095 fairly easy easier 2 67,11 67,105 standard easier 3 76,19 76,185 fairly easy easier 4 50,20 50,195 fairly difficult appropriate 5 55,54 55,535 fairly difficult appropriate 6 46,55 46,545 difficult harder 7 57,18 57,175 fairly difficult appropriate 8 55,18 55,175 fairly difficult appropriate 9 67,79 67,785 standard easier 10 57,36 57,355 fairly difficult appropriate 11 68,26 68,255 standard easier 12 64,25 64,245 standard easier 13 83,15 83,145 easy easier 14 85,92 85,915 easy easier 15 85,02 85,035 easy easier average score 66,38 66,383 standard easier table 3 the result of the readability score in english textbooks by the government text code readability score calculation by the interrater level quality for 10th grade 1 79,39 79,385 fairly easy easier 2 58,20 58,195 fairly difficult appropriate 3 56,32 56,315 fairly difficult appropriate 4 63,35 63,345 standard easier 5 51,04 51,035 fairly difficult appropriate 6 40,16 40,155 difficult harder 7 45,26 45,255 difficult harder 8 77,87 77,865 fairly easy easier 9 45,04 45,035 difficult harder 10 43,04 43,065 difficult harder 11 62,69 62,685 standard easier 12 74,75 74,745 fairly easy easier 13 77,10 77,095 fairly easy easier average score 59,32 59,321 fairly difficult appropriate 101assessment of readability level .... (ika apriani fata, et al.) level of the text is at a ‘difficult’ level. therefore, the text is harder for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 8 is 77,87, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 9 is 45,04, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘difficult’ level. therefore, the text is harder for 10th-grade students in senior high school. the result of text 10 is 43,07, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘difficult’ level. therefore, the text is harder for 10th-grade students in senior high school. text 11 is 62,69, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘standard’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. the result of text 12 is 74,75, which means that the difficulty level of the text is at a ‘fairly easy’ level. therefore, the text is easier for 10thgrade students in senior high school. the result of text 13 was 77,10, which meant that the difficulty level of the text was at a “fairly easy” level. therefore, the text is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. in summary, three reading passages are suitable for 10th-grade students of senior high school. those reading passages are text 2, text 3, and text 5. the readability levels of those five reading passages are at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. furthermore, table 4 compares pathway to english grade x by erlangga publisher and the english textbook bahasa inggris grade x by the government. table 4 compares the english textbook pathway to english grade x by erlangga and the english textbook bahasa inggris grade x by the government. the differences in the total text found in these textbooks can be seen. the first textbook provides 15 reading passages, while the second textbook provides 13 reading passages. likewise, the result of the average readability score in the first textbook is 66,38, which is at the ‘standard’ level; the readability score is between 60 and 70 based on flesch reading ease. therefore, the average score of the first english textbook points out that the texts are easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. on the other hand, the average readability score in the second textbook is 59,32, which is in the ‘fairly difficult’ level; the readability score is between 50-60 based on flesch reading ease. therefore, the second english textbook’s average score indicates that the texts are matched with 10th-grade students in senior high school. the result findings of reading materials in the english textbook pathway to english show that there are 15 reading passages categorized into five levels: the first category is an ‘easy’ level with three reading passages (20%) at this level. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 6th-grade students in elementary school. the readability score is between 80 to 90. the second category is a ‘fairly easy’ level; there are two reading passages (13%) at this level. the readability score is between 70 to 80. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 7th-grade students in junior high school. the third category is a ‘standard’ level; there are four reading passages (27%) at this level. the readability score is between 60 to 70. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 8th-grade students in junior high school. the fourth category is ‘fairly difficult’; there are five reading passages (33%) at this level. the readability score is between 50 to 60. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 10th to 12th-grade students of senior high school. the last category is a ‘difficult’ level, with one reading passage (7%) at this level. the readability score is between 30 to 50. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 13th to 16th grade or college students. meanwhile, the result findings of reading materials in the english textbook bahasa inggris by the government-grade x show that there are 13 reading passages categorized into four levels: the first category is a ‘fairly easy’ level with four reading passages (31%) at this level. the readability score is between 70 to 80. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 7th-grade students in junior high school. the second category is a ‘standard’ level with two reading passages (15%) at this level. the readability score is between 60 to 70. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 8th to 9th-grade students in junior high school. the third category is a ‘fairly difficult’ level, with three reading passages (23%) at this level. the readability score is between 50 to 60. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 10th to 12thgrade students of senior high school. the last category is a ‘difficult’ level, with four reading passages (31%) at this level. the readability score is between 30 to 50. therefore, based on the flesch reading ease formula, the estimated reading grade is for 13th to 16th-grade or college students. overall, the result of the analysis of readability levels in the english textbook pathway to english table 4 the comparison between two english textbooks textbook total of text average readability score average level quality for 10th grade pathway to english published by erlangga 15 66,38 standard easier bahasa inggris published by the government 13 59,32 fairly difficult appropriate 102 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 97-104 shows that there are five (33%) out of 15 texts which suitable with the level ‘fairly difficult’ estimated readability level for the 10th-grade senior high school based on the flesch reading ease formula. therefore, 10 reading passages are considered unappropriated to 10th-grade students since the readability score is above and under the readability level of 10th-grade students. on the other hand, the english textbook bahasa inggris grade x by the government shows that only three (23%) reading passages among 13 texts are suitable with the level ‘fairly difficult’ estimated readability level for the tenth grade of senior high school. while 10 reading passages are unappropriated to senior high school students of tenth grade. the results of the research are likely related to recent studies that have measured the readability level of reading materials in an english textbook. handayani and wirza (2021) have analyzed reading materials in learning daily english published by grafindo media pratama grade five of elementary school and found five out of 13 reading texts are matched with the level of fifth elementary school students, while most of the texts are below and above the level of five grade students. another research conducted by hakim, setyaningsih, and cahyaningrum (2021) has shown that only one reading text matches with 10th-grade students of senior high school in the textbook english on target grade x published by erlangga. maryansyah (2016) has also conducted research about analyzing the readability of english reading texts for third-grade students in junior high school. the researcher employs fry readability formula in collecting the data and measuring the readability. the final result of his research has revealed that the findings are not optimal; there are only six reading texts out of 63 texts that meet the grade of ninth-grade junior high school students. therefore, the demanded reading grade level of the text should be the majority included in the textbook. similar to this, research conducted by amer (2021) about lexical density and readability of secondary stage english textbooks in jordan illustrates that the selected reading passages are easy to read. amer (2021) has analyzed two english textbooks used in jordan for 12th grade and 11th grade. he points out that the average readability score in english textbooks for 12th-grade is 65,58, which means the reading materials are appropriate for 8th to 9th-grade students. while the average readability score in the textbook for 11th-grade is 70,97 indicates the reading materials are suitable for 7th-grade students. this investigation is similar to handayani, furaidah, and ivone (2020), who have investigated the readability level in the erlangga textbook for 11th-grade students using coh-metrix as a tool for collecting the data. their findings point out that the text with the lowest total number of sentences and the lowest total of words indicated the text is difficult, with two total sentences and 56 total words. similar to this, the result findings by suheri, azhar, and afrianto (2018) have also shown that the text with the lowest total number of sentences and the lowest total of words illustrating the text is difficult, with 10 total sentences and 141 total number of words. kadayat and eika (2020) and putri (2021) have added that the readability of a text is connected to sentence length. this is also supported by the finding of kamarudin and sugianto (2020) and fata and aprilya (2021), who have mentioned that readability is affected by sentence and word aspects of the materials. hidayatillah and zainil (2020) have examined the readability of students’ textbooks used in the semantic and pragmatic courses in the english language. based on their result, it is shown that the readability level of the textbook is difficult to comprehend by the students since there are several difficult words and unfamiliar words in the textbook. thereby, it is supported by the findings by odo (2018), who has examined the textbook used for pre-service efl teachers. the main finding shows that the texts are excessively difficult for l2 readers to comprehend. morales (2019) has also evaluated readability in chilean efl high school textbooks for 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. the result proves that the readability of the texts used in textbooks for 10th and 12th grade is appropriate, but the texts used for 11th grade are highly difficult to read. additionally, owu-ewie (2014) has analyzed four english textbooks used in ghana. he has indicated that the majority of the texts are irrelevant to the students’ level. owu-ewie (2014) has mentioned that the complexity of the language used concerning the reader’s reading ability is a factor that makes reading texts unreadable. his research shows that most passages are above the student’s age; therefore, students might find it difficult to comprehend and read the reading materials in the textbook. however, the comparison of the english textbook pathway to english by erlangga and the english textbook bahasa inggris by the government shows the difference in the average readability score and the average readability level. the average readability score in the english textbook pathway to english is 66,38, which indicates the textbook is at a ‘standard’ level. appropriately, this textbook is below the readability level of tenth-grade students of senior high school based on flesch reading ease. meanwhile, the average readability score in the english textbook bahasa inggris by the government is 59,32, which indicates the textbook is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. thus, this textbook is considered relevant and readable for tenth-grade students of senior high school. in the sense of the dissimilarity between the research and current research, it can be inferred that there are several studies with contrasting results with this research. several recent studies mentioned previously indicate that the average readability levels of the texts are difficult to comprehend or read. moreover, the average readability level in this research shows that the first textbook is easier, which is at a ‘standard’ level, and the second textbook is appropriate, which is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level. to conclude, the english textbook pathway 103assessment of readability level .... (ika apriani fata, et al.) to english, published by erlangga, is still readable for 10th-grade students in senior high school. this textbook can also be used for students in junior high school since the average readability level is at the ‘standard’ level, and the estimated reading grade is for 8th to 9th-grade students of senior high school. on the other hand, the average readability level is at a ‘fairly difficult’ level; therefore, the english textbook bahasa inggris by the government is appropriate for 10th to 12th-grade students in senior high school. the results of the research can provide crucial information to english teachers on how to choose and supply relevant reading materials based on students’ levels. poor materials can negatively affect students’ interests, fluency, and motivation (bojanic & topalov, 2016). it also supports the result of recent research by nanda and azmy (2020), indicating that the implications of giving poor reading materials may cause to lack of motivation, poor english vocabulary, and low prior knowledge of students. therefore, the implications of the research propose that the texts that are appropriate for 10th-grade students should be used in the teaching and learning process. the passages that are below and above students’ level should be modified to adjust students’ reading levels; in addition, besides the use of english textbooks, a teacher can utilize students’ worksheets in giving reading materials. moreover, result findings conducted by anwar, furwana, and iksan (2020) have mentioned that the usage of students’ worksheets or known as lkpd, is remarkably beneficial for both teachers and students since it can support teachers in providing reading materials also encompasses many elements of reading, activities, and exercises. conclusions the research aims to determine the level of readability of reading materials in the english textbook pathway to english by erlangga and the english textbook bahasa inggris published by the government for grade x of senior high school. after utilizing flesch reading ease to analyze the data of reading materials, it is discovered that the english textbook pathway to english published by erlangga has five readability levels: easy (three reading passages), fairly easy (two reading passages), standard (four reading passages), fairly difficult (five reading passages), and difficult (one reading passage). in the meanwhile, there are four readability levels in the english textbook bahasa inggris published by the government: fairly easy level (four reading passages), standard level (two reading passages), fairly difficult level (three reading passages), and difficult level (four reading passages). it is found that in the first textbook, there are five texts out of 15 texts which is relevant to 10th-grade students of senior high school. likewise, three out of 13 texts in the second textbook are relevant to 10thgrade students of senior high school. also, the average readability score in the first textbook is 66,38, which indicates the reading texts are at a ‘standard’ level, which is easier for 10th-grade students in senior high school. therefore, the textbook is appropriate for 8th to 9th-grade students in junior high school. likewise, the average readability score in the second textbook is 59,32, which shows the reading texts are at a ‘fairly difficult’ level that matches with 10th-grade students. in relation to results and discussion, sentence length and word aspects of the materials are connected to readability. therefore, vocabulary and word complexity have also influenced the readability. furthermore, the findings of the research have several implications, the passages that are appropriate for 10th-grade students should be used in the teaching and learning process; the passages that are below and above students’ level should be modified to adjust students’ reading levels; teachers can utilize student’s worksheet to supply reading materials for students; also, to supply a proper text, teachers may create additional reading passages which have been analyzed with readability formula. moreover, the findings of the research can be insight and reference to teachers and other researchers regarding the readability of the textbook, as well as provide information to english teachers in choosing the reading materials. for that reason, the stakeholder and teachers must be genuinely aware of selecting the proper english textbook that contains suitable reading passages for students. therefore, if the textbooks used are low readability, the school may add supplementary materials to support students in enhancing their reading skills. additionally, an author of textbooks may utilize the readability level to publish an adequate textbook based on students’ level. the research has several limitations, which emphasize assessing the readability level of reading material in two different english textbooks. another limitation is that the data analysis is only calculated by the flesch reading ease formula. therefore, further studies may utilize two or more readability formulas to expand the research to strengthen the findings. thus, further researchers can utilize different textbooks by other publishers of the higher educational level. additionally, further research is recommended to assess the readability of reading material based on students’ perceptions. references amer, m. a. b. (2021). lexical density and readability of secondary stage english textbooks in jordan. international journal for management and modern education, 2(2), 11-20. anwar, l., furwana, d., & iksan, m. (2020). developing reading worksheet for tenth grade students of sma negeri 4 palopo. foster: journal of english language teaching, 1(1), 1-8. https://dx.doi. org/10.24256/foster-jelt.v1i1.2. azizifar, a., & baghelani, e. (2014). textbook evaluation 104 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 97-104 from efl teachers’ perspective: the case of “topnotch” series. international samanm journal of business and social sciences, 2(1), 22-41. bailin, a., & grafstein, a. (2016). readability: text and context. new york: palgrave macmillan. bojanic, b, b., & topalov, p. (2016). textbooks in the efl classroom: defining, assessing, and analyzing. review paper, 46(3), 137-153. http://dx.doi. org/10.5937/zrffp46-12094. coco, l., colina, s., atcherson, s. r., & marrone, n. 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(2020). a readability level of reading materials for vocational high school students in lombok, ntb. jurnal pedagogy, 7(4), 265-274. https://doi.org/10.33394/jp.v7i4.2852. maryansyah, y. (2016). an analysis on readability of english reading texts for grade ix students at mtsn 2 kota bengkulu. premise: journal of english education and applied linguistics, 5(1), 69-88. http://dx.doi. org/10.24127/pj.v5i1.416. morales, b. c. (2019). readability and types of questions in chilean efl high school textbooks. tesol journal, 11(2),1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.498. nanda, d. w., & azmy, k. (2020). poor reading comprehension issue in efl classroom among indonesian secondary school students: scrutinizing the causes, impacts, and possible solutions. english journal of language, education, and humanities, 8(1), 12-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/ ej.v8i1.6771. nuttal, c. (2005). teaching reading skills in a foreign language (new edition). oxford: macmillan education. odo, m. d. (2018). a comparison of readability and understandability in second language acquisition textbooks for pre-service efl teachers. the journal of asia tefl, 15(3), 750-765. http://dx.doi. org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.3.12.750. owu-ewie, c. (2014). readability of comprehension passages in junior high school (jhs) english textbooks in ghana. ghana journal of linguistics, 3(2), 35-68. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjl.v3i2.3. putri, a. l. (2021). a content analysis of “gateway english” textbook for the eleventh grade of senior high school based on bsnp criteria. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). banten: universitas islam negeri sultan maulana hasanuddin banten. shabankhani, b. (2020). assessing the inter-rater reliability for nominal, categorical and ordinal data in medical sciences. archieves of pharmacy practice, 11(4), 144-148. suheri, m. d., azhar, f., & afrianto. (2018). a study on the text readability of an english textbook entitled bright: an english course for junior high school students grade ix published by erlangga. jurnal online mahasiswa fakultas keguruan dan ilmu pengetahuan, 5(2), 1-13. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 69 lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 69-75 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.885 interface of linguistics, literature, and culture in translating singapore and sri lanka postcolonial poetry novita dewi the graduate program of english language studies sanata dharma university jalan affandi, sleman, tromol pos 29, yogyakarta 5502 novitadewi@usd.ac.id; novitadewi9@gmail.com received: 22nd april 2016/ revised: 9th may 2016/ accepted: 12nd may 2016 how to cite: dewi, n. (2016). interface of linguistics, literature, and culture in translating singapore and sri lanka postcolonial poetry. lingua cultura, 10(2). 69-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.885 abstract the interface of linguistics, literature, and culture was clear in translation. english studies in indonesia had undergone revision by the inclusion of postcolonial literature in its curriculum. literary works from malaysia, singapore, philippines, sri lanka, india, and other asian countries were introduced and translated. given that language game was central in postcolonial writing, equitable knowledge and grasps of linguistics, literature, and culture were significant in translation. through the lens of re-placing language as textual strategies in post-colonial writing, this article explored the application of this reading method and gave practical examples of translating english poems written in, respectively, singapore and sri lankan postcolonial contexts into indonesian. the discussion showed that in order to preserve the postcolonial strategies of writing back to the colonial ideology, the translation took into account the reconceptualization and reconstruction of people, language, and culture, instead of literal rendering from the source language to the target language. adoption of postcolonial theory as the translating method shown in this study is important to add to the theory and practice of translation. this trajectory can be used to translate other literary works written in varieties of english into indonesian, using as they do, different translation strategies to make the translation products accurate, appropriate, and acceptable. keywords: cultural turn, postcolonial theory, varieties of english introduction when promoting literature through translation, each society does not only aim at improving its literary culture but also attempts to satisfy the curiosity of knowing different cultures from different countries, bearing in mind that the main mission is the enrichment of the target culture. although the translation is, simply put, a matter of knowing any two languages and the art of rendering effectively what is in one language in the other, when applied to such culturally rich texts as literature, this exercise has become even more complex and necessitates quite rigorous selection method. among the criteria for selection includes the social constitution of the target culture, cultural changes, national as well as international power relations, the position and conditions of source and target culture, to say nothing of the socio-economic-political factors. this is to say that translation is but an interdisciplinary, interlingua, and intercultural activity. such complexity is nowhere clearer and more demanding than in the translation of literature from postcolonial culture. it should be noted that the unique context of asian postcolonial countries with their varied languages, myths, religions and traditions do not easily fit into the contemporary western culture, in this case, the english language. on the one hand, the different religions, customs, and histories of respective countries in asia have given birth to distinctive and specific creative productions. on the other hand, globalization and advancement in information technology have made similar impacts on people in the region. despite this cultural complication, translation is one vehicle to help negotiate between the maintenance of distinct national identities and efforts to keep abreast with the global culture. the inevitable global-local cultural encounter of this kind is at the heart of postcolonial literature. this article examines the intersection of linguistics, literature, and culture in translating postcolonial texts, 70 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 69-75 mindful of the fact that translation takes place not only between languages but also between cultures. what the translator need is, therefore, the interface of knowledge in both language and culture. as it is, it may argue that the task of the translator is then to discern and evaluate the texts. the translator must be aware that the linguistic representation of a literary text is the abstract representation of its phonological structure, lexical structure, and syntactic structure (fabb, 2004). besides, the translator has to pay attention also to such linguistic factor as additions, omissions, pronoun referents, evaluative adjectives, etc. the juxtaposition of linguistics, literature, and culture is clear in the translation of texts that involve “multilingual”, i.e. “refer[ing] is not only to national languages but also to the languages of textual presentation and projection”, as claimed by scott (2011). poetry, according to scott (2011), is a multilingual text with its richness of psychophysiological, multi-sensory, kinesthetic experiences that requires the phenomenological type of reading during the translation process. in a similar vein, harmelink (2012) has argued that translation of special texts like holy books that also involves the potential impact of lexical pragmatics in order to reveal the hermeneutical issues in accordance with the principles of representation, dynamic context, and the principle of relevance. translation strategy of this kind is useful when dealing with the wealth of postcolonial texts. this study is therefore done in the hope that literary works from all postcolonial countries with different varieties of english can be translated into indonesian in an accurate, appropriate, and acceptable manner. methods it must be mentioned at the outset that the nature of this article is that of theory application. the research materials, therefore, include theoretical concepts and principles in linguistics, literature, translation studies, focusing as they do on postcolonial trajectory. various issues on theory and practice of translation postulated by translation scholars, especially of the 1990s onwards, are used as data. hermeneutic phenomenology becomes the basic philosophy of the translation method as conceived by, among others, ricouer (2004), scott (2011), and harmelink (2012). the other object materials include 2 (two) poems from singapore and sri lanka. set in postcolonial context, both poems will be used to showcase how the translation thereof can be seen as an example of how linguistics, literature, and culture interface. what follows is the elaboration of the concepts used throughout the discussion. as an approach, the postcolonial theory can be seen as both limiting and all-encompassing. what is constitutive of postcoloniality? given that one of the major concerns in postcolonial studies is the search for cultural identity, it is important to define and to continually redefine a specific paradigm of post-coloniality to suit wide-ranging colonial experiences from time to time. using the term postcolonial to refer to “all the culture affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day”, like ashcroft, griffith and tiffin (1989) in the empire writes back, assert that nearly four-fifths of the globe have been affected by colonialism. added to this plethora of postcolonial experiences is the fact that identity itself is characteristically political. thus, it is important to examine the intertwinement of history, theory, and politics in order to grasp power relations that occur between the colonizers and the colonized. in order to determine the precise nature of postcoloniality, it is necessary to clarify first the complex structure of historical stages and the distinction between the settler and the native. as stated by mbembe (2001), for example, the postcolonizer-postcolonized oppositionality need not correspond to the binary of settler-native. to illustrate, postcolonialism according to the thesis of ashcroft and others begins at the point of colonization, whereas postcolonial indonesia can be interpreted more precisely as the end of colonization. as a note in passing, this model is further complicated by indonesia’s feasible colonizing aims in several provinces of the country. the annexation of east timor to the republic of indonesia in 1975, for example, is a case in point, until indonesia finally agreed in 1999 to let the east timorese voted between independence and local autonomy; and by 2002 this youngest province declared its independence as timor leste. thus, each country’s colonial history has implications for its language and literature alike. meanwhile, for singapore and malaysia, they have a literary tradition of writing in english (the language of the colonizer). according to patke (2006), the use of english for creative purposes in both countries have developed in between the 1940s1950s. such is not true with indonesian literature which is hardly written in english, not even in dutch as the language of the ex-colonial master. this is to say that no theoretical concept arising from one culture can be transposed unproblematically to different cultures without considering the limits of its applicability. despite the limit in the definition offered by ashcroft and others, however, the theoretical framework thereof is quite useful in the discussion of postcolonial literature that this present paper seeks out to do. ashcroft et al. (1989) have maintained that postcolonial criticism looks out for “powerfully subversive general accounts of textuality and concepts of ‘literariness”. indeed this theoretical concept is built upon the previous works of the poststructuralists from frantz fanon to edward said in theory (and criticism) and from chinua achebe to ngugi wa thiong’o in literature and criticism. as shown by hatim and munday (2004), the field then has been most strongly sophisticated by later postcolonial critics like henry louis gates, jr., gayatri chakravorty spivak, and homi k. bhabha. it is bhabha; however, that appears to fit in recent postcolonial literary studies, especially with his view of the key concept of hybridity. the next section is to discuss first, hybridity took to mean cross-cultural exchange and the political implication thereof that characterizes postcolonial literature, and second, the strategy of translating postcolonial literature, mindful of the linguistic, literary, and cultural interface. in the 1990s, the study in translation has embraced cultural studies in attempts to respond to the process and status of globalization and national identities. as said by hatim (2001), it was mary snell-hornby who firstly postulated the cultural turn in translation, that is, the shift from seeing translation as linguistic transfer to cultural transfer. but it was not until susan bassnett and andré levere who in the 1990s went more progressively in doing “cultural turn” that interdisciplinary method was used for translators to go beyond the text. hatim (2001) has claimed that levere particularly insists on the process of re-writing, i.e. interpretation (manipulation, if needed) of the original. with the explosion of and growing interest in postcolonial literature at the turn of the millennium, the cultural turn in translation studies has become intercultural, hence the term “postcolonial turn” to label the paradigm shift. with no room for argument, literature relies on the sophisticated use of language for which reason excellent 71interface of linguistics, literature, and culture .... (novita dewi) linguistic grasp is helpful. the turn to culture does not mean the neglect of linguistics. here, even at the paradigm shift in translation from language to culture, linguistics has continued to play an important task because of the postcolonialism’s interest in language. ashcroft, griffiths and tiffin (1995) have said that “language is a fundamental site of struggle for post-colonial discourse because the colonial process itself begins in language”. salvador (2006) has also reminded us that translating postcolonial writing is usually hybrid in its nature. therefore, it is not simply translating from one language to another; it is an intersection point (linguistic, cultural, and symbolic) to a system which is often ignorant of the linguistic and cultural specificities inferred in the source text. mindful of the fact that translation entails the need to respect and encourage cultural pluralism, salvador further proposes documentation as moral principles in translating postcolonial literature. most postcolonial critics like homi bhabha and gayatri spivak as well as translation theorists who call for cultural approaches like tejaswini niranjana and earlier on, lawrence venuti pay their utmost attention to hybridity. while venuti advocates foreignizing (visà-vis domesticating) translation at all costs, niranjana’s major take, on the other hand, is the re-translation of the existing westernized english translation of works written in kannada (one group of canarese dravidian language). she argues that the local lexical and cultural items should become the highlight in the translation of the local literature. schäffner and adab (2001) have argued that a hybrid text is a quite strange, unusual text in the target culture born out of the translator’ conscious and deliberate decisions that are made during the translation process. such oddity is not an evidence of translational incompetence or spivakian “translationese”, but, as maintained by schäffner and adab (2001), it is instead the strength of a hybrid text. thus, using as theoretical departure from the above critics, differing from one another as they do, it can be concluded that in translating literary texts, sufficient grasps of linguistics also play an important role, since political implications in postcolonial writing can only be comprehended when the translator is also knowledgeable about the language as well as the language play. what follows is the way in which postcolonial writing deal with language use. arguing that language –being a medium of power– is crucial in postcolonial writing, ashcroft et al. (1989) have introduced the terms “abrogation” and “appropriation” to show how the language of the center (english) is seized and replaced by the englishes of the ex-colonised people. while abrogation describes the refusal of the postcolonial writers to use the ‘correct, standard english of the queen’, appropriation refers to the ways in which english is adopted and adapted to become localized. here, the imperial language is appropriated, adapted, hybridized and rejected in the decolonizing process, in order to develop the localized versions of englishes. some examples of the abrogation technique include the rejection of the use of the standard english among the postcolonial societies in the caribbean, the use of the language variance in places like singapore or malaysia, and the infusion of local allusion in postcolonial texts. ashcroft et al. (1989) then show that the re-placing of language in the form of appropriation and abrogation can operate through a variety of strategies such as glossing, untranslated words, interlanguage, syntactic fusion and vernacular transcription in the texts. considering that the english language has been worked out and made up as such in postcolonial writing, the translator’s task is to bring along the very language and its inference anew in the translation. in this eventuality, such conventional requirements as familiarity in the source language, the target language, and the subject matter are at play. mastery of linguistics is as important of knowledge of literature (read: culture). the next section is to look at two unit examples of the interface of language and literature through selected poems from singapore and sri lanka. the local variety of english used in the poems calls into question of how one can translate them into indonesian. results and discussions it is sufficient for now to say that in the postcolonial situation, translation does not merely mean replacing a text in one language to another. instead, it is a continuous act of intercultural transfer across linguistic and cultural borders which are often seen as being asymmetrical in terms of power-relation by postcolonial critics. given the supposed superiority of the language of the colonial (read: western) culture, translation of the indigenous text has often been appropriated to fit the colonizing ideology. the histoire des berbères, for example, is the french translation of the work of the north african historian ibn khaldûn on arabs and berbers in the maghreb. set in the 14th century, the translation of the narratives is done to accord to the french colonial hegemony of the 19th century (hannoum, 2003). however, as argued by einboden (2009), a translator can also become an effective advocate of cultural difference as in the muslim interpretation of washington irving’s perception of “mahomet” or prophet muhammad. similarly, xie (2014) contends that, given the ecological crisis, global injustice, human degradation, etc. redefinition of universality is needed with which translation is to equally represent different ways of being human by creating spaces for dialogues between the local and the global, the west and the rest, and the hegemonic and the subaltern. this is to say that translation requires re-appropriation so as to be hospitable to the foreign language as well as feeling at ease to dwell in another language (ricoeur as cited in dangin et al., 2016). the following poem written by chan wei meng is taken from the “anthology of sample texts” chapter of the english studies book by rob pope (2002). an explanatory note is provided telling us that the writer is a singaporean student of english at the university of otago, new zealand in 1996. this poem is a sample of her postcolonial strategy of rejecting the formal language of the ex-colonial master. to quote the poem in full: “i spik english” (1996) i speak english to a foreign friend – ‘i don’t understand what you’re trying to say!’ ‘how come? i spik english what!’ i spik ingglish in home – ‘hungry? you want lice or mee?’ ‘i eat can-tucky cheeken, can or not?’ ‘listen! study ingglish, earn more manee.’ 72 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 69-75 i spik ingglish in school – ‘everybody read – sing sang sung,’ ‘i sing malay hab a litter lamb.’ ‘attention! school close at one.’ i spik ingglish in work – ‘you know, the computer cannot open, izzit?’ ‘i donno, got pay or not?’ ‘remember – customer is always light, pease.’ i spik ingglish in shop – ‘hello, can i hepch you?’ ‘i looksee first’ ‘buy now! they is vely cheep and new.’ i spik ingglish everywhere understand? it can be immediately seen that it is the unique use of vocabulary that gives chan wei meng’s poem its power. such hybrid text is strong in postcolonial context as aforementioned by schäffner and adab (2001). the poem suggests that the speaker deliberately uses broken english in a way that identifies with her place of origin, i.e. modern capital city singapore. the “i” in the poem is someone whose second language is english but minimally acquired to get by in the country where the so-called ‘singlish’ is widely spoken. here, although the term singlish is often regarded in somewhat negative overtones (brown, 2000). it is the every-day language that can possibly express the poet’s feeling to be taken into consideration in any translation efforts. readers of the above poem may not hear the poet’s resistance to the language of the dominant culture if such postcolonial gestures shown in the poem as abrogation, codeswitching, syntactic fusion, and many more are ignored. ashcroft et al. (1989) have argued that through language appropriation, the speaker can reveal his/her identity and the silence as well as the power of becoming a member of the ex-colonized country. the poem reflects the use of the variety of english borrowed from the many different languages spoken in singapore, especially hokkien and malay dialects. seen from the lisp in pronouncing “l” and “r” such as “lice” for “rice”, “malay” for “mary”, “litter” for “little”, “light” for “right”, and “vely” for “very”, the speaker is presumably of a chinese background. the poem also resists the standard english grammatically and semantically. “i look see first” and “school close at one” are examples of the transgression. next, the words “what”, “lah”, “izzit” are among the most famous singaporean expressions used at the end of sentences for emphasis. while the common particles “what” and “izzit” are used as question-tags by chinese singaporean, the use of the question-tag “lah” is characteristic of malay-singaporean speakers. as claimed by brown (2000), most people in singapore, however, use “lah” to indicate request or impatience. therefore, when translated into indonesian, for example, the translator can attempt similar linguistic appropriation by, for instance, using daily, slangy, young metropolitan people’s language instead of the formal, officially used indonesian. the following translation does not quite preserve the poet’s postcolonial trail, because the singlish expressions and modes are inevitably lost in translation, although attempts have been made to make it colloquial. the jakartan youth dialect may be used here despite its drawbacks. “gue pake bahasa inggris” (1996) saya berbahasa inggris dengan teman-teman asing – ‘saya tidak mengerti apa yang kau coba katakan!’ ‘gimana sih? gue pake inggris kan!’ gue pake bahasa inggris di rumah – ‘laper? loe mau nasi apa mi?’ ‘gue mau makan ayam kentaki, boleh kagak?’ ‘dengerin! belajar bahasa inggris, [biar bisa] cari duit lebih banyak.’ gue pake bahasa inggris di sekolah – ‘murid-murid ngapalin – sing sang sung,’ ‘gue nyanyi malay hab a litter lamb.’ ‘perhatian! sekolah bubar jam satu.’ gue pake bahasa inggris di tempat kerja – ‘loe tahu, komputernya nggak bisa dibuka, kan?’ ‘mana gue tahu, udah bayar belum?’ ‘inget – pembeli adalah raja.’ gue pake bahasa inggris di toko – ‘halo, ada yang bisa dibantu?’ ‘mo liat-liat aja’ ‘beli sekarang dong! murah dan masih baru, nih.’ gue pake bahasa inggris di mana aja ngerti kagak? it would seem here that to achieve equivalence, relevance, and acceptability, the use of annotation is necessary. annotation, which is comment or explanation added to a text, can be one way to reduce the lack, although it may spoil the text. here, shi (2005) is right to say that depending on each respective purpose; the translation is to be done accordingly. if the intention is to preserve the ways in which chan wei ming’s poem writes back to the ex-colonial language, some lines are best left as original with annotation given as footnotes. for example, the line ‘i sing malay hab a litter lamb’, it cannot be easily translated into indonesian, especially the incorrect use of the words “malay” for “mary”; “hab” for “had”; and “litter” for “little”. the speaker erroneously pronounces the lyric of this english language nursery rhyme to show resistance to the weight of colonial education that is still influential even today. as such, translation strategy such as annotation is necessary to use here so that the translation product gives the same powerful effects on readers of both the source and target languages. in dealing with untranslatability, this paper applies both domestication and foreignization. hatim (2001) has claimed that levere particularly insists on the process of re-writing, i.e. interpretation (manipulation, if needed) of 73interface of linguistics, literature, and culture .... (novita dewi) the original. similarly, in challenging the idea of poetry’s untranslatability, shi (2005) has proposed that translators should be faithful to the well-founded function of poetry, i.e. to deliver a particular message in its beauty, rather than solely and unreasonably pursue to duplicate. quoting snellhornby, roozgar (2008) has also argued that familiarity with the target culture is important when dealing with the hybrid text because the new language involves lexical and grammatical innovation. as such, to follow roozgar, the word “i speak english” is translated into “saya berbahasa inggris”, whereas “i spik ingglish” becomes “gue pake inggris”. it is the translator’s decisive choice; roozgar maintains that the translation is left as hybrid (foreignization) or domesticated. to follow the above strategy still, the informal use of the words “dunno” can be translated into “mana gue tahu”; or, some might as well say “meneketehe” following the indonesian pop culture phenomenon of using new argot called alay language. meanwhile, the words “ngapalin”, “inget”, “udah”, “liat-liat”, “aja”, etc., in the indonesian translation of the poem are of informal use and spelling. they are all chosen here in an attempt to offset the untranslatability of the singlish dialects. although domestication is according to roozgar often more marketable, politically it can be argued that such translation is weak. pham (2011), for example, has claimed that translation in vietnamese context is a constantly shifting negotiation involving politics and culture of the ex-colonizer and the ex-colonized. given that the singaporean’s use of english is slightly different than that of the indonesians whereby english is a lingua franca, the untranslatability is also dealt in this article by means of foreignization. the title of the nursery rhyme told in the poem, and some english idiomatic expressions are therefore left in their original singlish in order to retain the poem’s postcolonial resistance. next, in the case of translating the speaker’s rebellion to the gatekeepers of ‘standard’ bbc english in singapore, it can be interpreted that similar resistance can be shown to the ways in which indonesian youths often refuse to use correct indonesian language. the use of the slangy expression in the indonesian version of the poem, if imperfect, is one way to achieve translation relevance. however, such grammatical mistakes as “school close at one” cannot be translated by equal use of incorrect indonesian, for example. instead, such resistance can be shown by using jargon or informal terminology to carry the message. hence, “sekolah bubar jam satu” vis-à-vis “sekolah selesai pukul satu siang”. it is clear by now that translation is inextricably linked to politics of identity in postcolonial times. pivotal attention to culture may provide space for differing arguments about translation, politics, culture, and identity, hence the many strategies to adopt. unlike the postcolonially “gymnastic” use of language in “i spik english”, the second poem by the late sri lankan author reggie siriwardena uses plain formal english. the tone of siriwardena’s poem is different from that of the singapore poem, although both reveal the speakers’ attitude towards the english language. in “colonial cameo”, the hegemony of the english language is condemned. on the contrary, in “i spik english”, the language is, if cynically, condoned as a path to financial success. patke (2006) is observant when saying that asian postcolonial poetry in english focus on the multiracial/ cultural agenda using (localized) english to keep abreast of modernity and globalization. as pointed out by goonetilleke (2005), siriwardena depicts the english school and society in sri lanka in the poet’s time where the english language has the highest status. here, the speaker is a boy who is ashamed of his mother. the peasant mother communicates in the native language sinhala to his teacher, much to the surprise and ridicule of his friends at the exclusive western school. later in life, the poet realizes that his embarrassment is indeed embarrassing for an ex-colonial subject like him. to quote the poem in full: “colonial cameo” (1989) my father used to make me read aloud in the evening from macaulay or abbots’ napoleon (he was short, and napoleon his hero; i, his hope for the future). my mother, born in a village, had never been taught that superior tongue. when i was six, we were moving house; she called at school to take me away. she spoke to the teacher in sinhala. i sensed the shock of the class, hearing the servants’ language; in dismay followed her out, as she said, “gihing ennang.” i was glad it was my last day there. but then the bell pealed; a gang of boys rushed out, sniggering, and shouted in chorus, “gihing vareng!” as my farewell. my mother pretended not to hear the insult. the snobbish little bastard! but how can i blame them? that day i was deeply ashamed of my mother. now, whenever i remember, i am ashamed of my shame. the above poem depicts the linguistic reality in the postcolonial society like sri lanka. the poet’s own education was at the elite anglican school, st thomas’ college in mount lavinia. according to vijay and pandit (2013), siriwardena was never socially comfortable, as he was reportedly alienated with the school’s pro-colonial ethos. such information is important in translating the poem to convey the postcolonial perspectives. unlike the earlier poem by the singaporean, “colonial cameo” uses ordinary english. thus, translation of this sri lankan poem can be done almost word for word into indonesian. rhyme and rhythm in the poem can be translated in order to maintain its artistic rendering. to give an example of the first and final stanzas only: ayah membiasakanku membaca keras-keras di malam hari tentang napolen karya macaulay atau abbots (ayah pendek, dan napoleon adalah pahlawannya; aku lah harapannya untuk masa depan) . ibuku, lahir di sebuah desa, tak pernah belajar bahasa inggris. ketika aku berusia enam tahun, kami pindah rumah; ibu menjemputku di sekolah untuk membawaku pulang. ibuku pura-pura tidak mendengar penghinaan itu. bajingan kecil sombong! tapi mana mungkin mereka kusalahkan? hari itu aku sangat malu karena ibu. tapi sekarang, setiap kali kuingat peritiwa itu, aku malu karena kelakuanku yang memalukan itu. as for the sinhala expressions like “gihing ennang” and “gihing vareng”, the annotation can be given. they both roughly mean “good-bye”. one can also leave it untranslated and become part of the target language, hence 74 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 69-75 ricouer’s concept of linguistic hospitality (2004). to follow the idea that translation is re-writing, the title of the poem can be translated to suit the intended message, i.e. to lampoon the colonial cringe. the principle of relevance can be used herein. cameo colonial is chosen to emphasize that the colonial subjects such as the speaker of the poem who does not have important roles to play – he is just a cameo, who appears shortly in a show. the title then can be translated into, for example, “peran pembantu penjajah” to preserve the alliteration of the letter “c” in english into “p” in the target language. unlike the translation of the first poem that seeks equivalence in, for instance, local dialect, the translation of “colonial cameo” is best left in its formal, standard rendering. the speaker of the poem is a member of educated, englishspeaking society after the country’s independence. the poem reveals that the speaker used to be ridiculed when using the “servant language” aka his mother tongue during his school days. as punchi (2001) has said, colonial education in sri lanka had made people look down upon those who did not speak english. but the table is now turned. the note must be taken here that in 1956, sinhala only act was passed by the government of sri lanka to make sinhalese the official language of the country. now that the speaker of the poem is upwardly mobile, he reflects on his childhood memory that is of the bitter and embarrassing kind. here, the translator should leave the speaker’s postcolonial gesture and identity intact. the poem’s use of free-verse style can thus be kept when translated into indonesian to carry the somewhat sad, nostalgic, story-telling tone of “colonial cameo”. this is to say that knowledge of people, language, culture, identity, etc., alongside the new conceptualization and redefinition thereof in postcolonial times is important in translation. conclusions colonial culture of singapore and sri lanka. the two poems under discussion have made sufficient literary and linguistic cases to consider when one is to translate them into the target language. both poems use what ashcroft et al., (1989) called “re-placing language” as textual strategies in postcolonial theory and practice. as discussed here, the two poets use singlish and sinhala-english to write back to the colonial system of education, especially the use of english language. this article has also shown that any attempts of literal rendering or mere linguistic meaning transference of postcolonial literature in english into indonesian will likely result in a markedly inferior product. the postcolonial writing draws on political, cultural beliefs, and attitudes rather than on shared or universal notions of culture. as discussed in this article, perception of the importance and supremacy of english is shown differently by the speakers in the respective culture of singapore and sri lanka after the end of british colonialism. thus, given the reality of the postcolonial society, translation of any cultural text like poetry requires constant dialogue, reconceptualization, and reconstruction of people, language, and culture. politics, identity, and language are intertwined in the postcolonial setting with which translation of any literary text has to adjust accordingly. to this end, parallel efforts must be made in improving the translator’s grasp of source and target languages as well as their respective culture. references ashcroft, b., griffiths, g., & tiffin, h. 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(2001). the idea of the hybrid text in translation: contact as conflict. current issues in language & society, 6, 167-180. retrieved february 19th, 2007 from www.akademiai.com/ index/l76p15m718036368.pdf scott, c. (2011). the translation of reading: a phenomenological approach. translation studies, special issue: poetry and translation, 4(2), 213 – 229. doi:10.1080/14781700.2011.560020. shi, a. (2005). translatability and poetic translation. translatum journal issue, 5. retrieved from http:// www.translatum.gr/journal/5/literary-translation. html. vijay, c., & pandit, c. (2013). ‘occi-oriental’ dilemma in regi siriwardena’s “colonial cameo”. journal of higher education and research society, 1(1), 1 – 10. retrieved june 11th, 2012 from https://www.google. co.id/?gws_rd=cr,ssl&ei=xlhzvp_wftcdugso-kd 4aw#q=reggie+siriwardena+%22colonial+cam eo%22 xie, s. (2014). translation and the politics of the universal. asia pacific translation and intercultural studies, 1(1), 2 – 11. doi: 10.1080/23306343.2014.883806 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 111 introduction the emergence of inappropriate usage of certain elements of language in communication will disturb both speaker and hearer. english as an international language shows the importance of having the good communicative competence of the language in which the proper usage of modality is one of the consideration to take into account. regarding this, it needs to consider how to teach english modality both in linguistic and cultural elements to achieve the appropriateness on its usage. as martin and nakayama (2010) have stated that the culture influences communication, and vice versa, in while cultural groups influence the process by which the perception of reality is created and maintained. next to that, concerning about linguistic accuracy, the sentence must consider syntactical, semantic, and also the pragmatic (cultural) aspect of its form as spencer-oatey (2000) has stated that different cultures must have different conventions as to what is appropriate behavior in what context. palmer has stated in bonyadi (2007) that as a semantic-grammatical category, modality concerns with the “status of the proposition that describes the event” expressed. from that, it can be taken into account that modality goes far beyond the syntactical construction as has been stated before, it goes to meaning, the appropriate meaning in which from the meaning or the referent both speaker and hearer. by that reason, it needs to consider well-sequenced teaching processes to achieve the goal. next to that, the teaching and learning processes of english, particularly when the linguistic and cultural elements are taken into account, are not limited to the consideration of assessing the level of the acquisition of english particularly english modality (modal verbs in english syntactical constructions of the students such as could, can, will, would, must, ought to, etc) of the students. this research goes further aiming at how to get the proper teaching and learning model as one of the ways to raise the level of learning in english class, particularly in teaching modality. eventually, it is expected that by means of implementing proper teaching model, students’ modality competence can be raised with joyful learning steps regarding the implementation of intasc standard cores as the teaching model offered. lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 111-115 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.929 intasc standard cores: raising students’ english modality competence muliani1; sofia maurisa2; nurusshobah3 1,2,3faculty of language and art, ikip mataram jln. pemuda no.59a mataram, west nusa tenggara, indonesia email: ullymuliani@gmail.com, sofiamaurisa@gmail.com, nurusshobah86@yahoo.com received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 1st september 2016/ accepted: 15th september 2016 how to cite: muliani, maurisa s., & nurusshobah. (2016). intasc standard cores: raising students’ english modality competence. lingua cultura, 10(2). 111-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.929 abstract this research aimed at raising the students’ modality competence with the implementation of a teaching model which was called as interstate new teachers assessment and support consortium (intasc) model that covering ten standards. it was expected that this research could give numerous contribution in teaching english, particularly in teaching english modality where the problem found was that the students got difficulty in using modal verbs regarding both tense and aspect in which consequently would affect the communicative competence of the students. in the form of research and development, this research was carried by means of implementing validated instrument and 10 modules in the small and large scale assessments that involving 50 students in the small scale assessment and 80 students in the large-scale assessment. standard 1-2 dealt with the students’ need and diversity of learning while standard 3-7 dealt with various instructions teaching the content knowledge regarding the use of english modality. furthermore, standard 8-10 dealt with summative assessment, reflection, and professional development. eventually, it is found that the level of learning of the students raise supported by the data that 94% of the level of learning can be achieved by the students while it was only 6% of the modality expressions cannot be used properly. it can be noted that this teaching model can assist the students in achieving the modality competence by having a very well-sequenced procedures of teaching in which this teaching model starts from considering the prior knowledge, the need, and the students’ diversity before creating further instructions regarding the content knowledge where the modality competence is the main goal to achieve. keywords: intasc standards, modality competence, students competence 112 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 111-115 intasc model (interstate new teachers assessment and support consortium) covers ten (10) standards that aiming at raising the level of learning in the classroom implemented as the solution in which every standard core considers how to raise the level of learning in which consequently will raise the modality competence of the students. furthermore, the ten standards of intasc are proposed aiming at raising the level of learning in any classroom that adapted from the council of chief state schol officer in which the procedures of the research are modified regarding the need of the research. it is also more dealing with what has been written by henson (2009) where standard 1-2 consider students’ need and diversity, standard 3-7 consider various instructions to teach the content knowledge, standard 8 refers to the summative assesment, standard 9 refers to reflection, and standard 10 refers to leadership and collaboration. it can be pointed that this research provides the learners with detail instructions and also provide them media of learning to make them enjoy learning. as rao’s (2014) study has found the following: it was also noticed that there is a deep sense of joy and fulfillment among the students because they have got an opportunity to enjoy learning english language...all of them enjoyed themselves while learning from these sources and quite happily narrated how they use media in order to learn english. (p. 141) it can be pointed out that media besides the use of enjoyable instructions in teaching, it must be taken into account. due to that reason, this research provides students with authentic materials media for the content knowledge implementation (standard 3-7). methods this research deals with the implementation of the first to the tenth standard of intasc model in which the concern is on how this model works in raising the level of learning to improve the students’ modality competence in english. research and development is applied regarding the expert validity of the instruments of the whole 10 standards core before they are implemented. 50 students of the english department of ikip mataram are considered as the subject of the research to whom the 10 standards are implemented. results and discussions the implementation of intasc standard 1 considers the students’ need in which the analysis is then used as the basis for further instruction in developing teaching english modality model. to find the students’ need, 30 questions in the form of 15 multiple choices and 15 fill in the blanks are provided considering the use of english modals such as must, have to, could, may, can, ought to, should, will, would, shall, and might. next to that, as the research of the first standard is done, the first analysis then is done to analyze the appropriateness of the english modals that is used by each subject of the research. it is followed by the calculation of the total number of each modal that used by the subject of the research. from the second analysis, as a result is rank, it is found that ‘have to’ is the highest number as one of the english modal use appropriately by the students with the total number of the use of it is 239, and ‘shall’ is the lowest appropriate number 18. standard 2 of intasc is implemented aiming at knowing the different learning strengths among learners to promote the growth of the students’ english modality. this standard is then implemented by asking the students to draw any shapes they like (round, oval, triangle, stars, etc.) in which on the shapes they draw; they write their hobby, their way of learning, etc. from the shapes, it is also found that all students have the great effort in learning since their parents motivate and encourage them to learn. besides, they like to discuss the tasks that given by the lecturers with their classmates. unfortunately, the students mostly communicate with their friends in their first language and mother tongue. next to that, they live in villages where only a few of the inhabitants speak english. it means that they have a very limited chance to practice their english especially to use modality. to practice their english, the students usually visit tourism places where they can find native speakers and learn to communicate in the english language. to learn english, most of the students like to listen to the english song and watch the movie, while some of them like to read the novel, short story, and book. this finding gives a brief description that the researchers have to prepare to teach material based on students’ learning habit to make the teaching learning process more effective so that the students reach high standards. the implementation of standard 3 is aiming at helping learners to work collaboratively and cooperatively in group and design learning experiences regarding the use of english modals based on genders where this standard deals with how the students work in the group to understand learners’ diversity. the implementation divides the students into five groups in which each group consists of 10 students. the first and the second group are given lyric of the song, while the third and the fourth group are given the script of the movie. the fifth group which consists of students who learned by reading novel and story is given a short story. each group has to analyze 10 modal in 90 minutes. it means that each member of each group has to analyze the use of one modal in written form. at this time, each student works individually. they are given 10 minutes in this step. after analyzing the modal individually, each group is given 30 minutes to discuss the explanation of modality found by their members one by one. all students have a chance to deliver their opinion. after discussing the 10 modal found, each group gets 10 minutes to present their answers. this step aims at giving students chance to work in the group, to be active, and get the motivation to learn. in this standard, the three researchers work collaboratively to manage time and make sure that all students are active, able to work both individually and collaboratively, and feeling comfort in learning the process. as johnson et al., (2013) have said that in cooperative groups, students can engage in discussions in which they construct and extend conceptual understanding of what is being learned. eventually, it is found that by giving teaching material based on students learning the habit, managing the time effectively, and collaboratively paying attention to all students when working could encourage the students to be active, to interact with others and have a motivation in learning. as it is in line with what rao (2014) has said about how the students enjoy learning using certain media they like. as the reflection of this standard, it is found that all groups can find the modal verbs in each script although they still find the difficulties in explaining their answers. the implementation of standard 4 aims at developing students’ critical thinking, problem solving and their performances skills by means of swapping the previous worksheet of the students. the worksheet of the certain 113intasc standard cores: .... (muliani, et al.) group is swapped with another group. they are asked to analyze their friends’ work regarding the use of the english modals that used in the previous standard (standard 3) in which the evaluation of this standard will be used as the basis to develop students’ critical thinking, problem solving, and their performance skills. in other words, it can be noted that the implementation of this standard as the continuation of the previous standard that is very critical to enhance the critical thinking of the students by giving them a chance to check their friends work or doing a peer review. as dingel, et al., (2013) have said that the use of peer evaluations for the purpose of assigning grades to individuals in an equitable way. one thing also to be pointed is that the implementation of this standard does not aim at fully grading, but it is more likely to see the progress of the students’ english modality. as they finish discussing the other group’s work and write down their answer, they are invited to discuss their answers. from their analyses, it is found that almost 100% of the subject still gives the same answers as their friends do, even they can notice the modal auxiliaries on the text given. but then, as they are invited to discuss the result of their works, then they find the real reasons of the usage of those modal. for instance, on their answers, they answer that ‘could’ is used for polite expression, but in the context given, it is used for expressing past tense. it means that they are still not able to give the proper answer. standard 5 is then implemented dealing with how the students work in the group to perform english modal in social interaction by grouping the students and providing some situation to lead the students to use modality in their writing based on the situation given. as the instrument implemented, it is found that from five groups of the student, most of the group implement modal verbs appropriately in their writing based on the situation given. from 10 situations given, the appropriateness of the use of the modal verbs has increased. it can also be noted that the implementation of this standard keeps on grouping the students in which the students work collaboratively in the group (johnson et al., 2013). the collaborative learning on the implementation of this standard is also in line to what kuo, chu & huang have found (2015) that collaborative learning adopted require the students to solve the same question with only one answer which they should arrive at through discussion and negotiation in order to reach a consistent answer. the implementation of standard 6 aims at engaging learners in their own growth, monitoring learners progress, leading the learners to be responsible while working in the group to guide teachers’ and learners’ decision-making up to the certain topic. to get the data for standard 6, song lyric is provided for the first and the second group, the movie script is for the third and the fourth group, and the short story is for the fifth group. each group has to answer five questions in 25 minutes by considering the use of modal verbs and ignoring other grammatical error in answering the questions. after answering the whole questions, the answers then are represented in written form, and then discussed together. it is found that from 5 questions given; almost all groups can answer the questions correctly with appropriate use of modal verbs. the first group answers five questions correctly with appropriate use of modal verbs. for example (1) he/ she will guide the little lady all the way. in this answer, the modal verb used is grammatically correct; that “will+v1” is the form of simple future that is used when talking about future. (2) i would have helped the little lady so she can talk. there are two modal verbs in this answer; they are “i would have helped” and “she can talk”. both of the use of modal verbs in this answer are grammatically correct where the form of the first modal verb is “would+have+v3” that is used to make conditional sentence type 3 and “can+v1” that is used to talk about ability in the present. the second group answers all questions correctly with three appropriate and two inappropriate uses of modal verbs. here is the appropriate use of modal verbs; because she will not need them anymore. the modal verb used is in this sentence is grammatically correct that the form of “will+v1” is used when talking about future. here is the inappropriate use of modal verbs i will guide her all the way too, and i will make her smile and comfortable. there are two modal verbs in this answer; they are “i will guide her” and “i will make her smile”. both of the uses of modal verbs in this answer are grammatically incorrect. the modal verbs used, should be “would+have+v3” because the question is something that should be done in the past. the third group answers all the questions correctly with four appropriate and one inappropriate uses of modal verbs. for example (1) the man should stand up straighter to make people respect him. modal verb “should” is used appropriately in the answer (should+v1) that is used for necessity. (2) that happened after his death is can’t connect with people. the modal verb is used should be “could” since the story talks about past time. the fourth group answers three questions correctly and two answers incorrectly with two appropriate uses of modal verbs. for example (1) he wishes he could introduce himself. the story happens in the past. it means that past form is used to show ability. the past form of “can” is “could”. (2) like a bird broken wings, can’t fly to see the word. the answer is incorrect, but the use of modal verbs is appropriate where “can” is used to show ability in the present with the form of “can+v1”. the fifth group answers all of the questions correctly with appropriate use of modal verbs. for example (1) based on the doctor suggestion that helen keller should address or study in the parkins institution for the blind in boston. modal verb “should” is used appropriately in the answer (should=v1) for recommendation or advice. (2) if i were helen keller, i would have done something to be able to communicate well. the answer is in the form of conditional sentence type 3 (would+have+v3); would have done. to get the data on the implementation of the standard 7 core, the students were divided into five groups. the first and the second group are given song lyric, the third and the fourth group are given movie script, and the fifth group is given a short story. each group has to put themselves in the situation of the story, song lyric, or movie they read, and then wrote a paragraph. here is the example of students’ writing in group; if i were the little lady in this story, i would have tried hard to talk about what is in my mind because it could make me happy and people might understand what i want. but if i were the girl/the man, i might doing more to help the little lady because maybe she needs people to guide her. the little lady maybe had many things to say, but she couldn’t find the words to understand her. the girl/man should do more actually. there are six modal verbs has been found in this writing. five of them are used appropriately while the other one is inappropriately used. here are the modal verbs that are found in students’ writing; (1) if i were the little lady in this story, i would have tried hard to talk about what is in my mind. modal verb “would” is used appropriately in this sentence. “would” in this sentence is used to make 114 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 111-115 conditional type 3. (2) because it could make me happy. “could” is past form of “can” that is used to talk about ability in the past. in this sentence, the students talk about something happened in the past. it means that the use of modal verb “could” is appropriate. (3) and people might understand what i want. “might” is past form of “may” that is used to talk about prediction in the past. (4) if i were the girl/man, i might doing more to help the little lady. the use of “might” in this sentence is inappropriate since it is followed by the progressive/continuous verb (-ing). (5) the little lady maybe had many things to say, but she couldn’t find the words. “could” is past form of “can” that is used to talk about ability in the past. in this sentence, the students talk about something happened in the past. it means that the use of modal verb “could” is appropriate. (6) the girl/man should do more actually. “should” is used for necessity, recommendation, and advice. in this sentence, “should” is used for necessity with the correct form where “should + v1”. in short, it can be stated that on the implementation of this standard, the students construct 33 modal verbs, which 31 (94%) are appropriately used in the sentences, while 2 (6%) are inappropriately used in the sentences. this finding means that the students’ understanding is getting better or in another word, the students have a good progress in using modal verbs. they are not only able to recognize modal verbs but also to use it in their writing in context and once the context is dealt with culture. it is taken into consideration as spencer-oatey (2000) has stated that different culture may have the different convention as to what is appropriate in what contexts. the finding shows that the students have been able to put themselves in the situation given regarding the use of modality verbs culturally as shown in figure 1. figure 1 the percentage of the appropriateness of the modalities (source: dingel et al., 2013) the implementation of standard 8 deals with the implementation of instructional strategies to elicit the students in developing the deep understanding of english modality, the students are assigned to make modal verbs bulletin board. there are 4 steps done in this instruction, they are (1) grouped the students into ten groups (each group consists of five students), (2) provided colorful paper, scissors, glue, and colorful board markers, (3) each group had to make modal verbs bulletin board and decorate it as they like, and (4) researchers collaborated with peers to observe the students to ensure that all members of all groups take a part. the implementation of this standard is aimed at doing the summative assessment informally in which the students feel freely during the test and these activities in their classrooms find them to be successful and enjoyable (henson, 2009). reflection is the main concern of the implementation of standard 9 that is very important to evaluate the effects of choices and action in teaching-learning process and to be able to learn more and be a professional teacher. in this reflection, some colleges are invited including the students and peers. the reflection is started from the formative assessment belonging to standard 1 then it is found that some other instructions can be used for formative assessment to find out the students’ prior knowledge, such as things you can and cannot do, bingo card activity, etc. the thing to point out as the reflection of this standard is that adapting various activities is very helpful to be able to decide the matter taught. next to that, the reflection of standard 2 aims to find out students’ learning diversity. it is found that various activities can also be implemented to know the students’ diversity to be able to create and adapt teaching strategy based on students’ need. reviewing the strategy used in this standard during the implementation is also done on this reflection session that we ask the students to draw any shapes they like (round, oval, triangle, stars, etc.) to describe their past experiences. the students are asked to write their past experience based on the shapes they draw and then review the student’s writing. by means of reflection, then it is found that a lot of new ideas from the audiences about attractive and beneficial activities to be implemented in standard 2. the examples of these activities are “my flower activity” that helps teachers to create teaching instruction based on students’ hobbies, “my tree activity” which helps teachers to create teaching instruction based on what students like, etc. reflection of standard 3 to 7 deals with the teaching instructions such as: providing song lyrics, movie script, and the short story based on students’ learning habit. the students read them and analyze the modal verbs they found are presented as the things to review that they are involved in this activity. it aims to encourage them to learn and assess without feeling stressful. in this reflection session, another various classroom activities are also found to apply. besides, to be more creative and be better, teachers are also suggested to do this activity. the reflection of standard 8 deals with summative assessment in which the students are asked to make modal verbs bulletin board to improve students’ creativity and make the students feel that they are not assessed. in this discussion, another various interesting implemented activities to assess students are also found, such as “my cutest map” to give a chance for students to write anything they know well as many as possible, “my diary” which helps students to tell about themselves easily without feeling stress, etc. it can be noted that summative assessment can be done in two ways formal and informal assessment, but as the informal assessment is recommended to meet the enjoyable teaching and learning (henson, 2009). 115intasc standard cores: .... (muliani, et al.) intasc standard 10 deals with looking for appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to be responsibility for students’ learning to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth and to advance the profession. it needs to be taken into account that learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals and community members are very important for students’ learning. when students are given chances to be more active, to be involved in teaching learning process, they will be more interested in learning. when students are interested in learning, they will be able to comprehend the lesson easier. in the end, the students will be successful in their learning. in this research, the students are asked to make teaching media then demonstrated it in teaching english modal verbs. by doing this activity, the students are more active, creative, and have a good comprehension. in this research, researchers provide pieces of colorful paper, glue, ruler, and scissors. after preparing all materials, the students are then divided into groups. students in the group make teaching media then demonstrate it in another class. it is found that students are very happy making teaching media with their group members. besides, they demonstrate teaching media, and they are doing well (johnson et al. 2013). they can teach english modal verbs to their friends and create the fun atmosphere in class. this activity really helps students in learning and developing their knowledge. from the implementation of the whole intasc standard cores and the whole elaboration, it can be pointed out that the implementation of the whole standards are aiming at raising the level of learning through enjoyable learning as it is in line with what henson (2009) has done. next to that, various instructions are provided on the implementation of standard 3-7 in which the students are working collaboratively. it is also in line with what johnson et al. (2013); kuo, chu & huang (2015) have found. authentic materials as the media provided also support the students’ modality competence as also in line to rao’s finding (2014). next to that, every step of the implementation, the whole standards show that it regards the need, the diversity, and the enjoyment of the learners. it is in line with what henson (2009) has found and based on the core from the ccsso team (2011). conclusions intasc with 10 standard cores has been adapted in this research as the solution in developing teaching model to raise the level of learning in which modality competence is considered as the goal to achieve. it can be concluded that the implementation of the whole standard cores is significantly assisted both teachers and students in raising the level of learning regarding various instructions containing the usage of modal considering both tense and aspect of english. the main point to conclude is that the implementation of the cores does not necessarily relate to teaching assessment. however, the thing to point is that the score/level of modality competence of the students rise because it is supported by the various joyful instructions which are very well-considered. lastly, it is recommended for teachers and curriculum decision makers to use this teaching model in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning of english to assist the learners getting the approximation to english as the target language. references bonyadi, a. (2011). linguistic manifestations of modality in newspaper editorials. international journal of linguistics 3(1), 1 – 13. issn 1948-5425 2011. ccsso team. (april, 2011). a resource for ongoing teachers development: intasc model core teaching standards and learning progression for teachers. retrieved from http://.ccsso.org/.../2011/ intasc_model_core_teaching_standards_2011.pdf. dingel, m. j., wei, w., & huq, a. (2013). cooperative learning and peer evaluation: the effect of free riders on team performance and the relationship between course performance and peer evaluation. journal of the scholarship of teaching and learning, 13(1), 45 56. henson, k. (2009). making the most of intasc standards. srate journal, 18(2), 34 40. johnson, d. w., johnson, r. t., smith, k. a. (2013). cooperative learning: improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. journal on excellence in university teaching, 25 (34), 85 118. kuo, y. c., chu, h. c., & huang, c. h. (2015). a learning style-based grouping collaborative learning approach to improve efl students’ performance in english courses. educational technology & society, 18 (2), 284–298. martin, n. j., nakayama, k. t. (2010). intercultural communication in context. new york: the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. rao, b. m. (2014). use of media as an instructional tool in english language teaching (elt) at undergraduate level. int. j. english lit, 5(6), 141-143. doi:10.5897/ ijel2014.0580 spencer-oatey, h. (2000). culturally speaking: managing rapport through talk across cultures. london: continuum. 100 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 fenomena ikumen sebagai salah satu perubahan peran dan identitas ayah dalam masyarakat jepang modern iis muhayaroh program studi kajian wilayah jepang, program pascasarjana, universitas indonesia momotea_iis@yahoo.co.jp abstract article focused on the changes of father’s role within modern society due to social changes that was called ikumen. ikumen is a social change that happens in the father’s role and identity in japan in which now is appears a type of father who enjoys caring for children while working. ikumen itself was made by media, and then it was supported by the government. the purpose of this research was to analyse the changes of father’s role and identity in japan using social change theory by anthony giddens. this research applied qualitative method and by interviewing six ikumen who were members of npo (non profit organization) fathering japan. the research finds out that right now there have been many fathers who have desire to put family first. it is proven by the amount of fathers who have taken paternal leave in japan. keywords: paternal leave, role change, father identity, modern japan society, ikumen abstrak artikel bertujuan mengetahui perubahan peran ayah dalam masyarakat jepang modern sebagai akibat perubahan sosial, yaitu ikumen. ikumen adalah perubahan peran dan identitas ayah yang menikmati merawat anak sambil bekerja. ikumen sendiri dibuat oleh media dan kemudian didukung oleh pemerintah. tujuan penelitian adalah menganalisis perubahan peran dan identitas ayah di jepang dengan menggunakan teori perubahan sosial yang digagas oleh anthony giddens. penelitian menggunakan metode kualitatif , yaitu melakukan wawancara langsung dengan enam ikumen yang tergabung dalam npo (non profit organization) fathering japan. hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ayah yang memiliki keinginan untuk mementingkan keluarga. hal ini terbukti dengan banyaknya mereka yang mengambil cuti merawat anak atau paternal leave di jepang. kata kunci: perubahan peran, perubahan identitas, peran ayah, masyarakat jepang modern, ikumen 101fenomena ikumen .... (iis muhayaroh) pendahuluan jepang sebagai salah satu negara maju di dunia tengah mengalami perubahan yang cukup besar dalam bidang ekonomi maupun kehidupan bermasyarakat beberapa tahun terakhir. modernisasi dan globalisasi pada masyarakat jepang menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan sosial yang signifikan. salah satunya adalah adanya perubahan dalam hal mengatur rumah tangga, terutama mengenai peran dan identitas ayah dalam masyarakat jepang modern. contoh yang paling popular saat ini adalah munculnya fenomena ikumen sebagai gaya hidup masyarakat jepang modern, artinya ayah secara aktif terlibat dalam mengasuh anak. menurut masaki ishii-kuntz (2008), “perubahan dalam hal mengatur rumah tangga ini disebabkan oleh banyak hal antara lain, adanya shock birth decline pada tahun 1990, dimana menurunnya angka kelahiran di jepang yang sangat mengkhawatirkan dan akhirnya menjadi perhatian khusus bagi pemerintah.” peningkatan jumlah wanita bekerja terlihat dari jumlah ibu muda ( kisaran umur 25 tahun – 39 tahun ) dari 60.2% pada tahun 1995 meningkat menjadi 66.9% pada tahun 2005 (statistic bureau, 2006). sebagai konsekuensi, jumlah double-earner families meningkat dari 46% pada tahun 1995 menjadi 53% pada tahun 2005 (statistic bureau, 2006). hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadinya perubahan nilai pada keluarga di jepang. jika biasanya ayah sebagai orang yang mencari nafkah dalam keluarga, saat ini ayah juga ikut serta dalam membantu pengasuhan anak karena ibu juga ikut mencari nafkah. selain itu, adanya resesi ekonomi yang menjadikan laki-laki di jepang tidak lagi merasa terhubung dengan tempat mereka bekerja (iiishikuntz, 1996). menurut survey yang dilakukan di seluruh wilayah jepang, pada tahun 1978 sejumlah 24% lakilaki jepang menganggap menjadi salaryman adalah hal terpenting dalam hidup mereka, namun pada tahun 2005 menurun menjadi 8%. karakteristik utama pengasuhan di jepang yaitu peran ibu lebih besar dibandingkan dengan peran ayah yang tidak terlalu terlibat di dalam pengasuhan anak (reiko, 2007: 36). adanya sistem keluarga inti (kaku kazoku) di jepang dimana anggota keluarga terdiri dari ayah, ibu, dan anak mengharuskan orang tua untuk merawat anak mereka sendiri. hal ini disebabkan oleh penggunaan pramusiwi (baby sitter), daycare, dan pembantu sangat jarang di jepang sehingga ibu menjadi satu-satunya orang yang dianggap paling bertanggung jawab dalam pengasuhan anak. rendahnya keterlibatan ayah dalam hal pengasuhan anak sangat erat kaitannya dengan pekerjaan sang ayah, yaitu kondisi pekerjaan dengan jam kerja yang sangat panjang membuat ayah sulit berpartisipasi dalam hal mengurus anak. sebelum berakhirnya perang dunia ii, standar wanita yang baik di jepang digambarkan oleh sebuah istilah yaitu “ryousai-kenbo” yang memiliki arti “ibu yang baik serta ibu yang bijak”. setiap anggota keluarga di jepang sudah memiliki peran masing-masing. adanya ryousai-kenbo, peran pengasuhan anak diberikan sepenuhnya kepada ibu sementara ayah melaksanakan tugasnya sebagai pencari nafkah. di dalam keluarga tradisional jepang sebelum perang dunia ii, karakter ayah yang tegas adalah sebuah keharusan, sedangkan pada jaman edo, sosok ayah merupakan sosok yang mengasuh anak. namun, hal ini tidak berlangsung lama sejak munculnya konsep yang dinamakan katei pada zaman meiji. katei yaitu terdapat pembagian tugas ayah dan ibu. ibu bertanggung jawab dalam mendidik sehingga muncul sebutan kyoiku mama (reiko, 2008: 27). takeshi tamura mengatakan bahwa pada zaman edo (1600 – 1868), ayah berperan penuh dalam pengasuhan anak, namun setelah perang dunia ii, waktu industrialisasi berkembang pesat, keterlibatan ayah dalam pengasuhan anak menghilang ketika muncul konsep katei (rumah tangga). ayah diharapkan berperan di ruang publik untuk pembentukan bangsa modern. pada saat itu salaryman (sebutan untuk laki-laki yang bekerja dan mendapat gaji bulanan) menjadi lambang maskulinitas dan kesuksesan di jepang (tamura, 2011). pada tahun 1990-an, kondisi perekonomian jepang menjadi salah satu hal yang mempengaruhi perubahan keterlibatan ayah dalam pengasuhan anak. merosotnya kondisi ekonomi jepang membuat perspektif pengasuhan anak oleh ayah mulai berubah. kondisi sosial tempat pekerja wanita semakin banyak karena masalah ekonomi membuat pemerintah merasa perlu melibatkan ayah dalam hal pengasuhan anak. salah satu kebijakan yang dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah adalah work-life balance charter, yaitu sebuah kebijakan yang bertujuan membantu masyarakat dalam membangun masa depan yang ramah keluarga tetapi tetap bisa berkarya di perusahaan tempat mereka bekerja. hal ini diperlihatkan oleh pemerintah dengan membuat undang-undang cuti mengasuh anak. undang-undang ini dibuat pertama kali pada tahun 1992 pada saat ayah untuk pertama kalinya diperbolehkan mengambil cuti selama 1 tahun untuk mengurus anak. undang-undang ini mengalami dua kali revisi pada tahun 2005 dan 2009. sebelum mengalami revisi pada tahun 2005, pekerja hanya boleh memilih pembebasan lembur atau pemendekan jam kerja. setelah direvisi pada tahun 2005, 育休プラス(ikukyuu purasu) mulai diterapkan. ayah dan ibu diperbolehkan mengambil cuti setahun penuh secara bersamaan. pada tahun 2009, undangundang tersebut direvisi dengan mengubah gaya kerja orang tua sehingga memungkinkan ayah ikut berperan dalam mengurus anak dan tujuh sistem penyingkatan jam kerja. setelah mengalami revisi tentang pengambilan cuti, pembebasan jam lembur, dan pemendekan jam kerja yang awalnya hanya boleh diambil salah satu dari ayah atau ibu saja, kemudian bisa diambil secara bersamaan. himbauan lain dari pemerintah adalah pemerintah lokal diharapkan dapat berperan serta memberikan “action plan” dengan membentuk perkumpulan ayah di masingmasing prefecture di jepang. kebijakan ini diharapkan dapat menghasilkan sebuah siklus yang baik untuk mempengaruhi satu sama lain dan memberikan efek sinergi yang harmonis antara pekerjaan dan pribadi. usaha lain yang diupayakan oleh pemerintah adalah membuat kampanye untuk mendukung pengasuhan anak oleh ayah yang disebut dengan ikumen project. kampanye ini dibuat oleh mhlw (ministry of health, labour, and welfare) yang diluncurkan pada bulan juni 2010 setelah adanya revisi terbaru mengenai kebijakan cuti untuk mengurus anak. ikumen merupakan singkatan dari iku (mengasuh) dan men (pria), sebuah istilah yang menggambarkan seorang pria yang menikmati masa pengasuhan anak (mhlw, 2010). kampanye ini dikenal dengan the sam campaign. pemerintah menggunakan seorang ayah yang bernama sam sedang menggendong anak kecil dengan wajah gembira. sam sendiri merupakan suami dari selebriti terkenal di jepang yaitu namie amuro. kampanye ini digagas dalam bentuk sebuah iklan koran yang diterbitkan oleh asahi shinbun pada tanggal 17 maret 1999 dengan sebuah kalimat yang menarik yaitu “men who don’t do childcare are not called father”. untuk menyukseskan kampanye ikumen 102 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 ini, pemerintah membentuk ikumen project yaitu perkumpulan ayah yang peduli terhadap pengasuhan anak dengan nama ikumen club. organisasi ini disusul oleh organisasi lainnya, fathering japan, yaitu sebuah npo (non profit organization) yang didirikan oleh tetsuya ando. tetsuya ando sebagai pendiri dari fathering japan mengupayakan “action plan” di setiap prefecture dengan mendirikan fathering japantokai, kansai, dan juga fathering japan kyushu. fathering japan juga mengadakan program sekolah dengan nama papa school, tempat ayah atau calon ayah yang ingin berperan menjadi ikumen dapat belajar bagaimana cara menjadi ayah. selain itu, munculnya fenomena ikumen di jepang disebabkan perubahan sosial dalam pekerjaan. kehidupan perekonomian menyebabkan munculnya job insecurity dalam kalangan pekerja jepang. banyak pekerja di jepang memilih untuk tidak lagi bekerja dalam sistem shushin koyo (終身雇用), yaitu sistem kerja permanen. fenomena hodohodozoku (so so workforce) memunculkan cara kerja baru di jepang. fenomena ikumen berkembang sangat cepat di jepang. hal ini dimanfaatkan berbagai pihak untuk membuat produk yang berhubungan dengan ikumen. contohnya, pada tahun 2010 sebuah dorama bertemakan ikumen yang berjudul usagi drops dan zenkai girl dirilis dan mendapat respon yang sangat baik dari masyarakat. selain dorama, komik, buku, majalah, bahkan produk mandi untuk ayah, seperti nikkei kids atau fq japan menjadi laku terjual. fq japan, sebuah majalah yang ditujukan untuk para ayah membuat ikumen contest untuk mencari sosok ayah yang dianggap memenuhi kriteria sebagai sosok yang merepresentasikan ikumen. pemerintah juga kemudian membuat sebuah lagu yang dijadikan mars para ikumen, yang berjudul “kazoku wa”. pesan yang ingin disampaikan dari lagu ini adalah jangan sampai kehilangan waktu yang berharga dalam mengamati pertumbuhan anak. meskipun kampanye ikumen ini digembargemborkan pemerintah melalui berbagai media seperti dibuatnya dorama, diluncurkannya berbagai jenis buku, komik, dan lainnya, hal ini masih belum dapat diterima masyarakat jepang secara keseluruhan. ada beberapa kelompok pria yang masih menganut perspektif tradisional dalam keluarga, yaitu adanya pembagian pekerjaan yang jelas antara ayah dan ibu. hal ini terlihat dengan sedikitnya minat para pria, khususnya kaum ayah, untuk berpartisipasi dalam perkumpulan pengasuhan anak. hal inilah yang kemudian menyebabkan munculnya “paternity harassment” (patahara), yaitu pelecehan terhadap ayah yang turut membantu istrinya. mereka tidak mendapatkan promosi dan juga dianggap sebagai pria yang “unmasculine” atau bukan laki-laki maskulin. (kuntz, 2003). meskipun saat ini ekonomi jepang dalam keadaan yang tidak menentu, tetapi kekuataan perusahaan masih sangat relevan untuk mempertahankan dan membentuk maskulinitas salaryman. keinginan untuk turut serta membantu pengasuhan anak masih terganjal dengan keinginan untuk mengabdi pada perusahaan. selain itu, pandangan sebagian masyarakat yang memandang rendah pria yang mengurus anak juga menjadi masalah bagi mereka yang ingin menjadi ikumen. tema ini menarik untuk diteliti karena pengasuhan anak sangat erat kaitannya dengan situasi dan kondisi wanita jepang yang cenderung memiliki peran lebih besar dibandingkan kaum pria. selain itu, penelitian ini juga dibuat untuk melihat bagaimana perubahan sosial yang terjadi di jepang saat ini, khususnya fenomena ikumen. fenomena ini sebagai salah satu bentuk perubahan nilai peran dan identitas ayah. sebagian besar pria jepang masih memandang rendah para ayah yang mengurus anak, dan di sisi lain juga mulai muncul para ayah yang menginginkan untuk ikut serta mengurus anak. rumusan masalah penelitian adalah: (1) bagaimana perubahan peran ayah dan identitas ayah terkait dengan fenomena ikumen dalam masyarakat jepang modern, dilihat dari perubahan sosial pada masyarakat jepang; (2) permasalahan apa saja yang dihadapi oleh para ikumen di jepang. penelitian ini dibatasi dari tahun 2010, saat ikumen muncul dan pemerintah melalui ministry of health, labor and welfare menghimbau para ayah untuk menjadi ikumen dengan dibuatnya website ikumen project. metode metode penelitian adalah studi pustaka dengan pendekatan kualitatif yang dilakukan dengan mengumpulkan data dan sumber tertulis seperti buku, data internet, dan artikel majalah baik dalam bahasa indonesia, inggris, maupun jepang. data pustaka diambil dari perpustakaan japan foundation, perpustakaan universitas indonesia, serta situs internet yang relevan dengan permasalahan yang akan dibahas. selain itu, data juga diambil dari penelitian sebelumnya, baik itu berupa tesis atau disertasi. untuk mendapatkan data mengenai ikumen dan masalah yang dihadapi para ikumen, penulis melakukan metode wawancara dengan mengirimkan email kepada para ikumen yang tergabung dalam perkumpulan fathering japan di fukuoka, kyushuu. penulis melakukan wawancara dengan alat perekam. setelah sampai di indonesia, penulis mengonfirmasi ulang wawancara yang sudah dilakukan melalui email dan menganalisis data dari email yang dikirimkan. selain itu, penulis juga mengirimkan angket kepada para ikumen di fathering japan tokai melalui email. untuk menganalisis bagaimana perubahan sosial di jepang dan hubungannya dengan peran serta identitas ayah, dan juga permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh ikumen di jepang, penulis menggunakan data yang diperoleh dari wawancara dan dihubungkan dengan teori perubahan sosial dari anthony giddens. hasil dan pembahasan perubahan sosial yang terjadi dalam masyarakat saat ini membuat perbedaan budaya di masyarakat menjadi lebih saling tergantung dibanding sebelumnya. giddens (2001) menuliskan beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi perubahan dalam masyarakat modern, yaitu; (1) economic influences, dalam masyarakat tradisional sistem dan level produksi memiliki sifat stastis yang disesuaikan dengan kebiasaan yang ada. kapitalisme secara terus-menerus mengalami perbaikan dalam produksi dan teknologi yang berdampak pada bagaimana hidup kita disetir oleh teknologi. sehingga masyarakat mau tidak mau harus mengikuti arus tersebut; (2) political influences, perkembangan politik dalam 2 atau 3 abad terakhir telah banyak dipengaruhi oleh perubahan ekonomi, sebagaimana perubahan ekonomi mempengaruhi politik. pemerintah saat ini memainkan peran utama dalam menstimulasi perkembangan ekonomi; (3) cultural influences, kritis dan inovatif merupakan karakter masyakarat modern. mereka tidak lagi beranggapan bahwa kebiasaan tradisional dapat diterima semata-mata 103fenomena ikumen .... (iis muhayaroh) karena hal tersebut merupakan warisan dari generasi sebelumnya. cara mereka berpikir sudah rasional dan ide-ide mereka juga berubah. idealisme untuk menjadi pribadi yang lebih baik, kebebasan, persamaan hak, dan partisipasi dalam demokrasi menunjukkan bahwa mereka tidak lagi terikat pada tradisi. salah satu konsekuensi modernitas dalam keluarga adalah munculya absent father. absent father adalah suatu keluarga yang sosok ayah seolah-olah “menghilang” karena tugasnya sebagai satu-satunya pencari nafkah dan harus bekerja keras untuk memenuhi kebutuhan keluarga. ayah berada di tempat kerja dalam jangka waktu yang panjang sehingga hubungan antara anak, ayah atau istri dan suami menjadi kurang baik. akhir tahun 1930-an sampai dengan 1970-an disebut dengan masa “absent father” di jepang. pada masa itu ayah secara tidak bebas melihat anaknya karena harus ikut berperang. setelah masa perang berakhir, ayah kemudian muncul sebagai sosok pencari nafkah. anak yang dibesarkan dengan kondisi ayah yang tidak ada (absent father) cenderung akan memiliki masalah ketika bergabung dalam masyarakat. beberapa sosiolog berargumentasi bahwa anak yang tumbuh tanpa kehadiran ayah akan mengalami masalah dalam hal negosiasi, bekerja sama dengan pihak lain, dan berkompromi dengan individu lain saat dewasa. (giddens 2001: 185) globalisasi telah menyebabkan perubahan besar dalam dunia pekerjaan. bentuk baru dari perdagangan internasional secara signifikan berdampak terhadap bentuk lama dari pekerjaan. jika dahulu pekerjaan didominasi oleh orang-orang yang mempunyai pandangan mengenai “bekerja untuk hidup”, maka saat ini banyak individu yang menciptakan karirnya sendiri, membangun keahlian baru, dan mengejar mimpi yang diingikan. bentuk full-time worker telah berganti menjadi lebih fleksibel. (giddens, 2001: 115) menurut tandon satish dalam the globalist (2013), “selama lebih dari dua dekade, perusahaan jepang membentuk ulang susunan pekerja dari “regular” menjadi “non-regular” yang diadaptasi dari amerika serikat”. pekerja yang masuk dalam kategori ini (pekerja kontrak, part-time seasonal, dan buruh harian) tidak mendapatkan keuntungan seperti asuransi kesehatan, uang cuti, ataupun kesejahteraan sosial, karena penghematan demi kelangsungan perusahaan. hal ini menimbulkan perasaan job insecurity terhadap perusahaan tempat mereka bekerja. perubahan peran dan identitas ayah di jepang yang berkaitan dengan fenomena ikumen dewasa ini menggunakan fenomena sosial yang digagas oleh anthony gidden. responden adalah anggota fathering japan yang berada fukuoka, kyuushu. calon narasumber dipilih berdasarkan kesediaan informan dalam melakukan wawancara. yang pertama dilakukan adalah penulis memperkenalkan diri dan mengajukan permohonan agar informan bersedia melakukan wawancara, setelah itu menunggu jawaban dari informan. data yang didapat berasal dari dua angket yang dibagikan. data pertama dikirim melalui email dan data kedua didapat dari hasil wawancara langsung yang dikonfirmasi ulang melalui email. hasil analisis data tersebut adalah: 1. mengapa ayah di jepang mengambil cuti merawat anak? q :育児休業を取った理由は? a : 子供関係を深めたかから。生きる意味を見 つけたから。働き方を変えたかったから。 ワーキングカップルを目指していたから。 q : apa alasan anda mengambil cuti merawat anak? a : untuk memperdalam hubungan dengan anak. telah menemukan arti hidup. sudah berubahnya cara bekerja, dan karena pasangan yang bekerja sudah meningkat. sementara informan lain mengatakan, a : 自分で主体的に子育てをしたかった。妻の 資格試験の勉強時間 を確保するため。 a : karena ingin bertanggung jawab merawat anak dan untuk menyesuaikan waktu belajar istri yang sedang menghadapi ujian kompetensi. a : 結婚前に妻と旅行したデンマークコペンハ ーゲン公園でベビーカーを押したり子供と 遊ぶパパを大勢見たときです.この日は休 日ではなく、平日です。平日に公園にたく さんパパが子供と遊んでい る。こんなパ パになりたいと思ったが、育児休業をいつ かは取得しようと思ったきっかけです。 a : sebelum menikah, saya dan (calon) istri melakukan perjalanan ke kopenhagen, denmark. di sana banyak sekali ayah yang mendorong baby stroller di taman padahal hari itu hari biasa, bukan hari libur. banyak sekali ayah yang bermain di taman kota bersama anaknya. itu jadi alasan saya akan mengambil cuti merawat anak. 2. apakah yang dimaksud dengan ikumen? “子育てに積極的に関わりながら自分自身を成 長させ、夫婦関係を 良 好にすることができま す”。 “pria yang secara aktif mengasuh anak sambil mengembangkan potensi diri, dan dapat membina hubungan baik dengan istri.” ikumen menjadi popular ketika pada tahun 2010 pemerintah melalui mhlw mengeluarkan kampanye ikumen project. data di bawah ini menggambarkan mengenai pro kontra terhadap keberadaan ikumen. q : “あなたがイクメンであることを決定した とき人々はどのように 思 いますか?” a : “賛否両論でした。 “賛成:家族の時間を大切にするのは素晴 らしい。否定:男は稼ぐべきだろう” q : “ketika anda memutuskan menjadi ikumen, apa yang orang lain pikirkan tentang anda?” a : “ada pro dan kontra. pro: mengutamakan waktu untuk keluarga merupakan suatu hal yang luar biasa. kontra: “laki-laki harusnya mencari nafkah kan?” 3. apa latar belakang munculnya ikumen? q : “日本ではイクメンの背景になにがありま したか? a : 男性が社会にでて働き、女性が家で家事や 育児をする時間が当たり前でした”。 “当時は日本の経済状況もよく、長時間労 働をせずとも、お金を稼ぐことが出来てい ました。 しかし、今では共働き世代も増え、女性の 社会進出も目立ってきています。 104 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 逆に、男性への企業での労働負担も過労死 や自殺といった社会現象も増えています” q : apa latar belakang ikumen muncul di jepang? a : “dalam masyarakat terdapat pembagian tugas antara laki-laki dan perempuan. laki-laki bekerja, sedangkan perempuan melakukan pekerjaan rumah tangga dan mengurus anak. pada saat itu, ekonomi jepang sedang bagus, jadi kedua pasangan tidak harus bekerja dalam waktu yang panjang. tetapi, saat ini generasi dengan kedua pasangan yang sama-sama bekerja megalami peningkatan dan kemajuan sosial di kalangan perempuan juga sudah mulai terlihat. sebaliknya beban kerja laki-laki di perusahaan juga mengakibatkan fenomena sosial, seperti bunuh diri dan karoushi meningkat”. hal senada dikatakan juga oleh informan lain yaitu tk yang mengatakan, a : “今の日本は夫婦共働きで生計を立ててい る比率が大きい状況です。また、子供の数 も減少し面倒が見れる状況があります”。 a : “di jepang saat ini banyak muncul fenomena pasangan suami istri yang sama-sama bekerja dan jumlah anak yang mulai menurun. hal ini membuat keadaan terlihat sulit”. sementara pendapat lain datang dari ym, yaitu: a: “夫が子育てに参加せず、仕事ばかりしな ければならない社会になっている傾向にあ るからだとおもいます”。 a: “pria tidak ikut berpartisipasi dalam mengurus anak dan kecenderungan masyarkat yang harus bekerja secara terus-menerus”. 4. permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh ikumen juga beragam seperti ketika para ayah mengambil cuti paternal leave. data yang didapat adalah mengenai patahara yang menghambat promosi di kantor. hal ini terdapat dalam hasil wawancara di bawah ini: q : “会社で昇進に影響はありますか?” a : “ある。少なくとも育休を取ったたぶん は、遅れた扱いになる”。 q : “apakah di kantor ketika ada pengaruhnya dalam promosi?” a : “walaupun sedikit, ada. mungkin ketika mengambil cuti akan diperlambat.” sementara informan lain mengatakan, a : “たぶん、あると思いますが、その覚悟を もつべきだと思う” a : “mungkin saya pikir ada, jadi harus ada persiapan untuk itu.” q : ”育児休業に対し下記の方々は理解をしめ してくれるか?” q : “apakah orang-orang berikut ini mengerti? “ senada dengan informan mt, informan kn dan hs juga mengatakan hal yang sama; a : “家族からすごい反対を受けた”。 a : “keluarga sangat tidak mendukung.” a : “「会社上司は、表向き理解を示したくれ た。だが、陰では悪口を言っていた”。 a : “di depan saya, atasan menunjukkan pengertiannya, tetapi di belakang saya, dia membicarakan hal yang tidak baik. “ a : “上司に「出世に響く」とか「子供は奥さ んに任せればいい」など言われましたが、 夫婦の考えを丁寧に伝え最終的には理解い ただき、応援してもらえました。” a : “atasan saya mengatakan, “fokus saja dalam kehidupan karir” atau “lebih baik serahkan saja perawatan anakmu kepada istri”. tetapi ketika disampaikan secara sopan bahwa itu sudah menjadi keputusan bersama antara suami dan istri, maka pada akhirnya atasan mendukungnya.” q : “あなたはイクメンであることを決定した とき差別はありましたか?” a : “差別がなかったですが、前職の上司や周 囲からは、子供の急病になる早退などにつ いて理解と対応はあまり無かったと感じま す”。 q : “ketika anda memutuskan menjadi ikumen, apakah anda mendapatkan diskriminasi?” a : “diskriminasi secara spesifik tidak ada, tetapi oleh atasan dan kolega di lingkungan kerja sebelumnya, ketika anak tiba-tiba sakit, saya tidak mendapat pengertian ataupun dukungan dari mereka”. senada dengan yang dikatakan oleh kk, tk juga mengatakan bahwa: a : “あります。まだまだ差別はあると思いま す。特に昇格の時に感じます.” a : “menurut saya ada diskriminasi. saya merasakannya terutama saat kenaikan pangkat”. selain tk dan kk, mt juga mendapatkan diskriminasi ketika memutuskan untuk menjadi ikumen. mt mengatakan: a : “長時間労働が当たり前の会社にいたころ は、早く退社する冷ややかな目で見られた り働きが足りないと上司から言われたこと があります”。 a : “tentu saja. ketika saya masih bekerja di perusahaan dengan jam kerja yang panjang, apabila saya ingin pulang lebih cepat, saya mendapat tatapan yang dingin dari bos. dia mengatakan bahwa pekerjaan saya belum cukup. “ sementara sh mengatakan bahwa tidak ada diskriminasi, tetapi dia berkali-kali ditanya mengapa mengambil paternal leave. di jepang, paternal leave masih dianggap aneh oleh sebagian orang. hal tersebut dikatakan oleh sh seperti di bawah ini, a : “ありません。ただ、二年半という長期 間、子育てのために仕事を休む男性は珍し いので、会うひとからたくさん問題されま した。” 105fenomena ikumen .... (iis muhayaroh) a : “tidak ada, karena selama dua setengah tahun merupakan waktu yang lama dan laki-laki yang cuti kerja demi mengurus anak masih merupakan hal yang aneh. oleh sebab itu banyak yang mendapat pertanyaan ketika bertemu dengan orang lain” q : “育児休業中に困ったことがあるか?” a : “育児休業を取り始めたばかりのころ、子 供が泣いてい理由が分からず困りました。 また、私は仕事が大好きだったので、仕事 を休んでいることやおとなと接する時間が 少ないことにストレス を感じる時が ありました。また、男性が育児休業を取る ことは日本でもまだ珍しいため、地域の 子育て支援センターなどでお母さんたちと 知り合いになるたびに、なぜ父親が育児を しているか」と必ず聞かれ同じ説明を何十 もしなければならないことは少し困りまし た”。 a : “ketika baru saja mengambil cuti merawat anak, saya tidak mengerti alasan mengapa anak menangis, hal tersebut sangat membingungkan. saya sangat menyukai pekerjaan saya. karena mengurus anak kontak saya dengan orang dewasa menjadi sedikit dan akhirnya saya mengalami stress. laki-laki yang mengambil cuti untuk mengasuh anak masih dianggap aneh, maka pada saat menjadi kenal dengan ibu-ibu yang ada di tempat merawat anak, saya sangat bingung ketika harus berkali-kali menjawab pertanyaan, “kenapa ayahnya yang merawat anak?” a : 「小児科や子育て広場に行くと、女性の目 が気になったが、すぐに慣れた。」 a : “menjadi terbiasa dengan tatapan para wanita ketika pergi ke tempat perbelanjaan anak dan dokter anak.” a : “大抵が、「あら、大変ですね」か「職業 は...公務員?」といわれる。弾性=仕 事イメージから連想されてしまう”。 a : “pada umumnya akan mengatakan, “wah, berat yaaa” atau “pekerjaan anda… pns?”. karena ada gambaran bahwa laki-laki itu bekerja.” a : “近所のたちに育休中であることを伝えな かったので、外出には気を使った”。 a : “karena saya tidak mengatakan sedang mengambil cuti untuk merawat anak, maka ketika pergi keluar harus berhati-hati”. a : “社会とつながりがなくなる。 働き盛りの男が日中近所をぶらぶらしてい ると変な目で見られる.(平日昼間問題)” a : “hubungan sosial dengan masyarakat menjadi hilang. selain itu, saya mendapat pandangan yang aneh dari tetangga sekitar karena melihat ada laki-laki yang tidak bekerja pada siang hari. (di jepang ada istilah heijitsuhirumamondai yaitu laki-laki akan dianggap aneh ketika siang hari tidak berada di kantor dan berkeliaran tidak jelas).” menurut nationwide survey, 24% laki-laki jepang pada tahun 1978, menjadi “salaryman” dan bekerja hanya dalam satu perusahaan sepanjang hidup mereka. hal tersebut merupakan aspek terpenting dalam hidup lakilaki di jepang. idealisme tersebut menurun menjadi 8% pada tahun 1989 (kuntz, 2003). senada dengan apa yang disampaikan oleh matthew gordon bahwa ikigai (tujuan hidup) generasi muda di jepang mengalami perubahan. untuk laki-laki generasi tua yang mengalami stabilitas dalam pekerjaan, mereka bekerja hanya di satu perusahaan (shuhin koyo), dan hidup untuk bekerja masih menjadi ikigai mereka. tetapi bagi generasi muda jepang, mereka memiliki pandangan lain bahwa negosiasi dalam hal membagi pekerjaan di kantor dan mengurus anak sangatlah diperlukan karena adanya krisis ekonomi. (goodman, 2002) dari survei yang dilakukan oleh japanese trade union confederation (rengo), satu dari sepuluh laki-laki pernah mengalami patahara. rengo merupakan sebuah lembaga yang memayungi persatuan buruh di jepang. survey ini menemukan bahwa 11.6% laki-laki mengalami penolakan ketika mengajukan cuti merawat anak. dan 3.8% dari atasan mereka mengatakan bahwa pengambilan cuti untuk merawat anak akan menghancurkan karir mereka. cuti merawat anak di jepang dibuat sejak tahun 1992 dan mengalami revisi dua kali pada tahun 2005 dan 2009. pembagian gender secara jelas mulai terlihat dalam urusan keluarga di jepang sejak tahun 1990-an, peran lakilaki dianggap sebagai daikokubashira. rendahnya angka ayah yang mengambil cuti di jepang disebabkan oleh sistem kerja perusahaan yang tidak mendukung ayah untuk mengambil cuti. sistem kerja perusahaan di sini seperti tsukiai, yaitu para pekerja harus mengadakan hubungan yang baik dengan melaksanakan acara minum-minum setelah jam kantor. selain itu, alasan para informan ini mengambil cuti merawat anak juga disebabkan karena jepang melihat dari negara nordic seperti finlandia, denmark, dan swedia yang lebih dahulu menerapkan kebijakan merawat anak. sejak 2010 kata ikumen menjadi 10 kata popular di jepang. menurut hasil wawancara terdapat pro dan kontra. orang yang pro menganggap bahwa ikumen adalah hal yang bagus, sementara orang yang kontra menganggap bahwa laki-laki seharusnya mencari nafkah. latar belakang munculnya ikumen yang berimbas kepada perubahan peran dan identitas ayah dikarenakan adanya resesi ekonomi jepang yang berkepanjangan. selain adanya resesi ekonomi yang melanda jepang, faktor kedua yang mengakibatkan munculnya ikumen di jepang adalah semakin meningkatnya jumlah pasangan yang bekerja. hal ini disebabkan adanya kebijakan pemerintah untuk mengaktifkan kembali wanita yang menikah dan punya anak untuk kembali ke dunia kerja. kebijakan yang digagas oleh shinzo abe ini disebut dengan womenomic. komentar seperti “serahkan saja pengasuhan anak-anak kepada istrimu”, atau “sebagai laki-laki sudah seharusnya kamu mengejar karir”, merupakan komentar yang sering dilontarkan oleh orang di sekitar para ikumen. pertanyaan tersebut kerap ditanyakan oleh atasan, rekan sekerja, bahkan keluarga saat mereka memutuskan untuk menjadi ikumen atau mengambil paternal leave (cuti merawat anak). ketika para ikumen memutuskan untuk mengambil cuti merawat anak, banyak hal yang menjadi pertimbangan. salah satunya mereka khawatir apakah keputusan yang diambil dapat menghambat promosi mereka di tempat bekerja. hal ini mengakibatkan adanya job insecurity. selain itu, pandangan dan stereotip masyarakat yang kuat mengenai sistem yang dianut yaitu sistem patriarki. dalam 106 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 sistem patriarki laki-laki tidak mengurus anak karena itu adalah pekerjaan. patahara berasal dari kata paternity harassment. hal ini disebabkan oleh konformitas masyarakat jepang yang tinggi. tekanan dalam konformitas sering menimbulkan sebuah bentuk penahanan diri atau enryo. enryo adalah suatu sikap menahan diri dalam menyampaikan rasa tidak setuju terhadap opini mayoritas. selain masalah promosi, masalah pandangan orang di sekitar mengenai pengambilan cuti merawat anak ini juga muncul terutama dari atasan, kolega, bahkan keluarga. pandangan tentang hal tersebut karena masih adanya stigma dalam masyarakat bahwa merawat anak adalah tugas seorang ibu. hal ini dapat disimpulkan dari jawaban para informan ketika ditanya apa pendapat orang sekitar mengenai ayah yang mengambil cuti merawat anak tersebut. pada perusahaan jepang, karyawan laki-laki yang meninggalkan acara nomikai atau minum bersama setelah jam pulang kantor demi keluarga merupakan sebuah hal yang memalukan. begitu juga jika jam pulang kerja karyawan laki-laki sama dengan karyawan perempuan. mereka berpikir apa yang akan dikatakan oleh orang lain ketika ada salaryman yang sore hari sudah pulang dari pekerjaannya. dan hal tersebut merupakan sesuatu yang memalukan. (kuntz, 2003) laki-laki yang siang hari tidak berada di kantor juga masih dipandang aneh di jepang. salaryman yang memutuskan untuk pulang terlebih dahulu akan menjadi perbincangan teman sejawat di kantor dan dianggap tidak memiliki harga diri dan memalukan. sebagian besar orang tidak berpikir dampak positif dari laki-laki yang merawat anak. seperti yang ditanyakan oleh penulis tentang apa saja yang dipelajari oleh para ayah ini ketika mereka merawat anak. salah satu informan menjawab bahwa dia jadi pintar memasak. ada pula yang mengatakan bahwa mereka jadi tahu kalau merawat anak itu merupakan sesuatu yang berat, karena harus memusatkan perhatian kepada anak selama 24 jam penuh. selain itu, ada juga yang berpendapat bahwa mereka menjadi lebih mengenal diri sendiri dan lebih mengerti apa kekurangan dan kelebihan diri sendiri. hal positif lain jika ayah merawat anak adalah bisa meningkatkan angka kelahiran walau tidak secara signifikan seperti yang dikatakan oleh informan mt. sesuai dengan yang dikatakan oleh para informan, kendala seperti sistem kerja perusahaan dan kurangnya tindakan pemerintah menjadikan ikumen masih jauh dari memuaskan. tetapi dengan adanya ikumen, para informan merasa telah menemukan arti hidup yang lain. keikutsertaan merawat anak mengubah cara pandang mereka terhadap hidup lebih baik. para informan berharap semakin banyak lagi ayah yang bisa menjadi ikumen. dengan demikian semakin banyak pula anak yang dapat melihat ayah yang membesarkan mereka dengan senyum. oleh karena itu, fathering japan dan ikumen project tidak akan menghentikan usaha hanya sampai pada para ayah. hal ini akan dilanjutkan ke ranah perusahaan dengan semakin digencarkannya program ikuboss, yaitu dukungan dari para manager dan petinggi perusahaan dalam mendukung cuti merawat anak. simpulan hegemoni mengenai maskulinitas telah digambarkan secara sempurna melalui sosok salaryman atau corporate warrior di jepang. alasan mengapa ikumen muncul di jepang karena pertama adanya resesi yang dimulai sejak tahun 1990-an. hal ini menyebabkan angka pengangguran meningkat sehingga muncul restrukturisasi perusahaan. perubahan sistem kerja yang dulu stabil menjadi tidak stabil sehingaa laki-laki di jepang tidak lagi memiliki koneksi dengan perusahaan. kedua, keterlibatan wanita dalam dunia kerja meningkat. dengan munculnya wanita pekerja, jumlah kelurga dengan pasangan yang sama-sama bekerja juga meningkat. pola keluarga dengan tradisi ayah sebagai satu-satunya pencari nafkah mulai mengalami perubahan. ketiga, menurunnya angka kelahiran di jepang yang semakin tahun semakin drastis membuat pemerintah mengeluarkan kebijakan baru dengan mengubah pola bekerja dalam perusahaan. pola baru dalam perusahaan adalah dengan dibuatnya kebijakan yang menyeimbangkan antara pekerjaan dan keluarga yang disebut dengan familyfriendly dan work-life balance. pemerintah melalui mhlw (ministry of health, labour, and welfare) membentuk sebuah kampanye yang melibatkan ayah dalam mengurus anak (ikumen project). sejak diluncurkannya kampanye tersebut pada tahun 2010 hingga saat ini sudah ada 1.684 ayah yang mendeklarasikan diri menjadi ikumen melalui website ikumen project. pelaksaan ikumen di jepang mendapatkan halangan dari masyarakat yang masih menganut sistem patriarki. masalah tersebut muncul kebanyakan dari atasan, kolega, bahkan keluarga yang menganggap bahwa ayah yang merawat anak adalah hal memalukan. adanya streotip di jepang, bahwa tugas ayah sebagai satu-satunya pencari nafkah yang tergambar jelas dari salaryman, dan ibu adalah orang yang dianggap bertanggung jawab dalam mengurus anak. hal ini membuat pelaksanaan ikumen project di jepang tidak semulus yang dibayangkan. daftar pustaka giddens. (2001). sociology, 4th edition. usa: polity press. goodman. (2002). family and social policy in japan: anthropological approaches. china: cambridge university pers. kuntz, m. i. (2008). sharing of housework and children in contemporary japan. diakses dari www. u n / o rg / … e q u a l s h a r i n g / e g m e s o r 2 0 0 8 ep4masako.pdf. kuntz, m. i. (2013). 「育メン」現象の社会学. japan: minerva, inc. yamato, setsuko onode, & nachiko kiwaki. (2008). otoko no ikuji-onna no ikuji. japan. tamura. (2011). the development of family therapy and experience of fatherhood in japanese context. paper presented at the 13th international therapy congress, november 14, brazillaura. tandon. (2013). going backwards in japan: say goodbye to system that was equitable and among the fairest in the world. retrieved september 21st 2014 from www.globalist.com/going-backwards-japan/ in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 133 lingua cultura, 16(2), december 2022, 133-140 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i2.8375 villainess protagonists’ performative acts as the representation of modern femininity vivian graciela chertian* master's program in literature, faculty of humanities and creative industries, petra christian university jl. siwalankerto no. 121-131, siwalankerto, kec. wonocolo, kota sby, jawa timur 60236, indonesia vivian.gchertian@gmail.com received: 30th march 2022/revised: 11th august 2022/accepted: 19th august 2022 how to cite: chertian, v. g. (2022). villainess protagonists’ performative acts as the representation of modern femininity. lingua cultura, 16(2), 133-140. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i2.8375 abstract the research discussed the different representations of femininity through the villainesses and heroines in two korean webtoons (web cartoons). traditionally, villainesses were depicted as undesirable antagonists as they did not fit into the frame of traditional femininity or were merely viewed as sexually attractive. however, the traditional aspects of femininity were now contested by the villainess protagonists. utilizing butler’s theory of gender performativity along with kress and van leeuwen’s visual analysis, the protagonists’ and antagonists’ thoughts, actions, and appearance were analyzed. a descriptive qualitative analysis was conducted on two webtoons, the villainess reverses the hourglass, and it looks like i’ve fallen into the world of a reverse harem game. the studied data are selected from chapters 1-45 in each webtoon. the results show that the villainess protagonists are depicted as more independent, have more power, and occasionally dress in a masculine way, while the heroinesturned-antagonists are illustrated as a dependent, lack power, and always dressed femininely. in this case, the heroines-turned-antagonists’ traits represent korea’s traditional notion of femininity. meanwhile, the villainess protagonists possess traits opposing the heroines’ traits. positioning the villainesses as protagonists and heroines as antagonists show a clash of modern vs. traditional notion of femininity, and putting the ‘villainesses’ as the desirable protagonists imply how their representation of femininity is considered more favorable in the modern context. keywords: shojo webtoon, representation, femininity, villainess, visual analysis introduction webtoons or web cartoons are illustrated narratives that have been growing rapidly in international popularity. its development could be traced back to the 1990s when personal web pages became a trend among the public due to technological development. cartoonists draw cartoon essays on their own homepage, usually conveying a particular message implicitly, and visitors would leave feedback through comments or messages. as the trend developed, webtoons became even more commercial, with major portals such as daum and naver providing a space for the creators to gain income through their works, as well as provide opportunities for newer cartoonists to share their comics without having to approach agencies or publishers first. nowadays, webtoons feature an array of stories in different genres, with pictures drawn panel to panel in a long vertical strip for scroll-down viewing on tablets or cellphones (jeong, 2020; jin, 2015). among the diverse genres of the webtoon, shojo webtoons targeting young female audiences and featuring villainesses as the protagonists have become a trend, similar to how the latest disney movies also positioned villainess figures from disney’s classics as the protagonist (sharmin & sattar, 2018). this rising trend is a fascinating phenomenon to investigate as it moves away from conventional stories that feature nonvillainess protagonists. moreover, there is a notable shift in the notion of femininity that comes along with the positioning of a villainess as the protagonist of a story. in pr es s 134 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 133-140 taking disney movies as examples, the protagonists in disney classics, i.e., the disney princesses (e.g., snow white, cinderella, aurora), are portrayed as “ultra-feminine” with traits such as being young, having a slender body, fair skin, and expertise in singing, dancing, and doing household chores. these traits are considered a “standardized portrayal of femininity and beauty” (sharmin & sattar, 2018), an ideal portrait of femininity. meanwhile, the female villains (e.g., the queen/witch, stepmother, maleficent) are depicted as less attractive (deformed or wrinkled faces, unnatural skin color such as green). this associates villainy with unattractiveness as opposed to the portrayal of the protagonists as the standard of beauty and desirable femininity. moreover, the villainesses’ evil acts tend to be based on the feeling of beauty inferiority to the protagonists or ‘simply evil’ in nature (sharmin & sattar, 2018). however, recent disney villainesses, such as maleficent, are depicted differently. she is portrayed as a beautiful woman, a fairy who controls the magic forest, is given a backstory of betrayal that explains her villainous attitude and has a gentle side. unlike before, the villainess now possesses beauty and power to a certain extent. though disney’s example is taken from a different media (i.e., movies), recently published webtoons that feature villainess protagonists also echo a similar theme. two examples of webtoons that followed this theme are the villainess reverses the hourglass (henceforth hourglass), and it looks like i’ve fallen into the world of a reverse harem game (henceforth reverse harem). both webtoons share a similarity in that there are two timelines involved in the story. the timeline before the story plot started positions the villainesses as antagonists in their respective stories (henceforth called the original timeline). however, the villainesses move to another timeline where the true story plot has started (henceforth called the current timeline). in the current timeline, the villains become the protagonists, while the heroines become the antagonists of the story. the hourglass webtoon follows the story of aria roscente, the daughter of a prostitute who married into the family of count roscente. in the original timeline of the story, aria has a terrible reputation in the noble society because her stepsister, mielle, continually attempts to discredit her. as aria is surrounded by hatred and envy, she becomes despised by many and eventually is executed to death. with a strong desire to go back in time to enact revenge on mielle on the brink of death, aria is magically sent back to ten years before her execution. thus, the story of aria’s revenge against mielle begins in the new timeline. meanwhile, reverse harem webtoon features a nameless woman who is teleported into a dating simulation game as the antagonist princess, yeldyria viotte cecilia, after receiving a mysterious phone call. in the original timeline, yeldyria is supposed to die of execution after her misconduct is exposed. in the new timeline (i.e., after the nameless woman becomes yeldyria herself), yeldyria gains the opportunity to change her actions. however, it turns out that another woman has also teleported into the game as yuriel, the main character and original protagonist of the game. the yuriel in the new timeline aims to eradicate yeldyria as part of receiving the game’s happy end. realizing her fate is doomed unless she does something, yeldyria attempts to find a way to survive in the game world while doing her work as the royal princess and managing her relationship with her concubines to avoid her demise. though differing slightly in the background stories, in the original timeline of both stories (before the prologue where the space/time travel happened), the main characters, aria and yeldyria, are known as the antagonists in the original timeline. in the current, they become the protagonists instead. moreover, as the story progresses, it is revealed that the characters considered kind heroines in the original timeline are the true villainesses plotting evil deeds in the current timeline. in other words, the protagonists and antagonists have shifted in the current timeline. additionally, in the original timeline, the ‘heroines’ would defeat the villainesses and gain the love and attention of the male supporting characters. however, in the current timeline, the villainesses receive the affection of the male supporting characters instead, while the heroine’s fate becomes miserable. it is interesting to look into as the heroines/original protagonists are generally portrayed as the ideal woman that receives the happy end, and the villainess receives the bad end, as exemplified in the case of the classic disney villainesses (sharmin & sattar, 2018). in these webtoons, however, the opposite applies. there is a distinction in personality traits between the heroine and the villainess protagonist, particularly concerning traits associated with the notion of the ideal woman. butler (2010, 2021), in her theory of gender performativity, has suggested that gender is shaped through repetitive acts, which include outer physical appearance, gestures, or mannerisms. specific acts could mark or associate a person with being a “man” or “woman”, and perpetuating such acts created an illusion of stable identities on what is considered “man” or “woman”. as the acts become widely accepted by society, persons who identify with particular genders and follow the commonly acknowledged acts are considered ideal. following these notions, it could be said that women who follow the acts socially accepted for women make them considered as feminine. regarding femininity itself, there are several notions proposed by different researchers. the traditional notion of femininity positions women as the ‘object’ of men’s sexual pleasure, being sexually innocent and acting as the passive partner. possessing these aspects is considered acceptable and ideal for women to have (minowa, maclaran, & stevens, 2019). this notion of femininity is a part of cultural construction that assigns passivity, subordination, and tenderness to women while establishing men’s dominance in society (windsor, 2015). thus, the in pr es s 135villainess protagonists’ performative .... (vivian graciela chertian) ‘beauty myth’, as wolf suggested in windsor (2015), arises and demands that women need to conform to conventional standards of attractiveness with an emphasis on maintaining aesthetically pleasing faces, bodies, dresses, and mannerisms. women who do not conform to the ‘standard’ of femininity could be viewed as unattractive, lazy, or apathetic. they are also deemed lonelier, less popular, and less sexually experienced than the women who adhere to the ‘normative’ attractiveness. femininity, in this case, is subject to stereotyping and existing patriarchal norms (dahl in hoskin & blair, 2022). genz and brabon (2018) have quoted wolf in criticizing this traditional notion of femininity, which comes along with the active positioning of women as victims in the early feminist movements. it is dubbed as a demonstration of powerlessness as the discourse of women being ‘sexually pure and mystically nurturing’, which still adheres to traditional femininity, remains in such movements. clavel-vazquez (2018) has pointed this out when talking about antiheroines as a symbol of resistance, in which existing gender norms for females are exploited for narrative means. she mentions that several antiheroines and femme fatales who have motherly instincts or sexual violence experience are still subject to being viewed as carers, victims, or objects of sexual gratification. kim (2020) has echoed this in her discussion about the media’s representation of female soldiers and their femininity. taking the korean webtoon beautiful gunbari as the studied case, kim (2020) has pointed out that despite the female soldiers’ depiction as subjects of gender equality, they are still connected to fetishism and insinuate the existing hegemonic masculinity. along with the abundant reactions and criticisms towards second-wave feminism comes another notion of femininity from a postfeminist perspective. gill in mckay, moore, and kubik (2019), for instance, has mentioned the shift from objectification to subjectification in the representation of women in regard to femininity. there is an increasing focus on individualism, personal choice, and empowerment, along with more sexual freedom. women take actions for their own pleasure or happiness, not to gain men’s approval. sim (2020) has added by noting how female heroes in korean movies are depicted as dressing in a masculine way, being confident, self-accepting, independent, and strong, reflecting modern femininity and having the potential to oppose patriarchal narratives and eroticized representations of women. in the real world, what is deemed feminine could be shaped through ‘ideas’ produced and circulated through texts and practices. this could be understood as ideology. ideology could also refer to ‘ideological forms’, which view texts (words and images found in songs, novels, fiction, or movies) as always presenting a particular image of the world (storey, 2018). particular words and images could assign attributes concerned with physical characteristics, role behaviors (such as taking care of children or working for women), or occupations (eisend, 2019). through these definitions, it could be said that texts (words and images) disseminated in a medium, webtoon included, could reveal what actions are considered ideal regarding men and women in the real world. in this case, there are underlying perceptions of ideal femininity that could be traced within webtoons. it is in line with the idea regarding different dimensions within visual modes that kress and van leeuwen have suggested (ali, 2021; tehseem, sibtain, & obaid, 2018). adapting halliday’s notion of metalanguage, kress and van leeuwen have elaborated that meanings delivered through visual elements are highlighted in representational, interactive, and compositional dimensions. the representational dimension, in particular, deals with the representations of things and their relations to the surrounding real world. in the context of webtoons and within this dimension, visual elements found in webtoons, such as characters, things, objects, or places, are called represented participants. further, under this dimension, there are narrative and conceptual representations. based on kress and van leeuwen’s notion of representational dimension in tehseem, sibtain, and obaid (2018), narrative representation is the dynamic process that involves actions and events where participants are engaged in doing something to or for each other. these processes included action, reactional, speech, and mental processes. the action process is a narrative process where a character performs an action towards a ‘goal’, the receptor of the action. it can be transactional, in which the goal is present, or it can be non-transactional, in which the actor only exists in the process. another process is the reactional process, in which the action involves sight or glancing in a particular direction. in this context, there is a reacter (the participant who glances or looks at) and a phenomenon (the participant who or which receives the gaze). like the action process, the reactional process can be transactional (where the phenomenon exists) or non-transactional (ali, 2021). lastly, there are speech and mental processes. according to kress and van leeuwen, the mental process takes the form of ‘thought bubbles’, which show what the participants are thinking. on the other hand, the speech process could be seen from ‘dialogue/ speech bubbles’, which show verbal interactions between the involved participants (ali, 2021). kress and van leeuwen (in ali, 2021) have also suggested another type of representation called conceptual representation that represents the participants’ class, structure, or meaning. included in it is the symbolic processes. symbolic processes view the represented participants as either the carrier or symbolic attribute. the carrier is the participant that carries specific values or attributes, while the symbolic attribute is the traits, values, or features that provide specific meaning or identity about the carrier. symbolic attributes tend to be salient, e.g., placed in the foreground, has exaggerated size, highly detailed, sharp focus, or outstanding color and tone. it could in pr es s 136 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 133-140 also stand out compared to other elements found in the same frame and frequently possess symbolic values (ali, 2021). the utilization of kress and leeuwen’s visual analysis could be exemplified in research by ali (2021) on the representation and relation between the main characters in the remarried empress webtoon. by using the visual grammar framework, ali (2021) has found in his research that the narrative processes in the webtoon are dominant in the selected data (webtoon chapter) as it aims to engage the viewers (readers) aside from narrating the story. there are also other studies analyzing webtoons, one of which included a study by khan et al. (2020). using the critical race theory, the research focuses on discussing racism and inclusivity as reflected in the society’s treatment of supernatural beings in days of hana and orange marmalade webtoons. another research by park (2019) has described how the representations of comfort women in manhwa narratives exhibited during the angoulême comics festival reflect the controversies in the history and politics between japan and korea. previous studies provide different insights on how webtoons could reflect a variety of underlying ideas or issues existing in real life. however, the research discusses villainesses as protagonists, which is currently trending, is still lacking. additionally, discussions about villainesses featured in movies, television, and novels are abundant, but only some could be seen about villainesses in webtoons. through this research, the researcher wants to provide broader insight into how the representation of characters in webtoons could represent the issues found in real life, particularly regarding femininity. this research also wants to bring a fresh understanding and perspective about villainesses featured in webtoons based on the current trend, filling the existing gap in the discussion about villainesses in creative works. hence, this research looks into how modern femininity is represented through the villainess protagonists from two selected korean webtoons (hourglass and reverse harem webtoons) based on gender performativity. methods using butler’s gender performativity theory and kress and van leeuwen’s visual analysis, a descriptive qualitative analysis is conducted on two webtoons, the villainess reverses the hourglass, and it looks like i’ve fallen into the world of a reverse harem game. the studied data are selected from chapters 1-45 in each webtoon. firstly, a thorough reading of the selected chapters is conducted. throughout the reading, the researcher has recorded significant differences in the narrative and conceptual representations of the characters. the aspects include the characters’ acts (e.g., physical appearance and mannerisms), which are recorded in a note. the data are then interpreted based on kress and van leeuwen’s visual analysis theory to delve into the representation of modern femininity in the two webtoons. in this research, the represented participants analyzed are limited to the main protagonists (‘villainesses’) and antagonists (‘heroines’) of each respective webtoon, i.e., aria and mielle (hourglass) along with yeldriya and yuri (reverse harem). the elaboration of the analysis would cover significant implications found in both the narrative and conceptual aspects. the narrative aspect would discuss significant acts or reactions between the represented participants, while the conceptual aspect would assess the meanings behind the represented participants’ traits or attributes. results and discussions from the data collected, three prominent processes imply the differences in the femininity of the villainesses (aria and yeldyria – henceforth called protagonists) and heroines (mielle and yuriel – henceforth called antagonists). the contrasts could be seen majorly from the thought process (thoughts in the protagonists’ and antagonists’ minds), speech process (what the protagonists and antagonists uttered), and symbolic process (the protagonists and antagonists as carriers of specific values with certain traits). to understand the implications of femininity, firstly, the motives of the protagonists and antagonists should be understood. this could be found by analyzing their thoughts and speech process. starting with the example from the hourglass webtoon, thought bubbles and utterances are frequently used to explain the reasons and background story of both aria and mielle’s actions. it can be seen in table 1. table 1 comparison of aria and mielle’s backgrounds through narrative representations aria mielle “i will, definitely…live a life without any regrets this time. i swear it! to everyone who made me like this, i’ll make so they’d rather die. i will make it happen.” (thought ch.2) “your maids were actually all mine, you know? they told you to torment me, right? they were all… orders given by me, you dumb little girl. do you want to know why? the reason is very simple~ when you came into our house holding your lowly mother’s hand…i wanted to kill you.” (speech ch.1) in the original timeline, aria is executed to death under the accusation of attempting to murder mielle. the first chapter of the webtoon reveals that mielle purposedly stages the incidents so that she can get rid of aria out of hatred, as exemplified above. aria’s knowledge of this leads to the thought of enacting vengeance upon getting the chance to live once more, as expressed by her thought in chapter 2. in pr es s 137villainess protagonists’ performative .... (vivian graciela chertian) moreover, mielle can be seen thinking about how much she despises aria. mielle views aria as lowly, as aria is born from a prostitute mother. furthermore, since aria climbs to the high-class hierarchy through her mother’s marriage to the roscente family (mielle’s family), mielle perceives it as an act of meddling with her family’s affair and blemishes the family’s and her reputation. originating from the feeling of disgust, mielle then attempts to ruin aria’s reputation. the thoughts would then result in a series of actions where aria and mielle try to demonstrate their intelligence in different situations, but there is a significant difference between them. it could be exemplified through the comparison in table 2. aria is shown to possess a degree of intelligence and sharp observation. it is first demonstrated when she is aware of the true meaning behind a poem that she and mielle recite, while mielle is unaware of it in the data (1). in another example, when aria and mielle are asked their opinions about reopening a closed casino, aria could provide detailed considerations from the economic and the commoners’ perspectives. on the other hand, mielle only briefly expresses her opinion without going into details, with her suggestion even being criticized by aria later on for lacking the commoners’ perspective, as seen in data (2). the difference in intelligence could also be seen in how they attempt to achieve power. from data (3) in table 2, aria decides to invest in a prospective business so that she can gain money and a degree of power for herself. while doing so, she mostly acts independently and does not rely heavily on help from other characters. on the other hand, mielle heavily relies on lady isis, the leading figure of the aristocratic faction and the sister of her love interest, to secure a higher position and power in the nobility. however, in doing so, she is mostly on the receiving end instead of taking more actions on her own. meanwhile, in the reverse harem webtoon, the thought and speech processes mainly show the differences in motives and actions between yeldyria and yuriel. it can be seen in table 3. table 2 comparison of aria and mielle’s intelligence through narrative representations aria mielle (1) “that was a beautiful poem, mielle. however, you don’t seem to know…that the reply poem is actually, composed by the first count’s younger brother, who tried to murder the count.” (speech ch.2) “it’s the famous poem from the first count. i learned it when i was 4. however, you may not know that there’s a reply to that poem…it’s not famous, so you probably do not know. i’ll recite it for you.” (speech ch. 2) (2) “i believe that the casino should be shut down. it would be a legal gambling house since it’s managed by the empire, would it not? and it would be difficult to impose restrictions on a place connected to the imperial treasury. those who visit will put their trust in the empire, but gambling is gambling. there will definitely be people who lose money, and most of them will be poor commoners who’re attempting to hit jackpot.” “i’m in favor of reopening the casino. since it will be run by the empire, i think it would be a good idea if we invest in it and turn it into a famous tourist attraction that will be well known across the land.” “when all those bankrupt commoners, chased out of the casino with only their undergarments left to spare, they would finally see it. the crown prince’s statue! …’the one who pushed me into this mire of poverty was that crown prince!’ wouldn’t that be what they think?” (speech – c.25) “it’d also be a good idea to build a huge statue at the entrance of the casino in honor of the crown prince.” (speech – ch. 25) (3) “i remember the fashion trend among nobles at that time was perfumed hair-oil…at that time, baron burboom’s family business was perfumed hair-oil. …alright. baron burboom. i’ll give you an opportunity this time. you have to use it well. … “i will become mielle frederick and live as a perfect, unblemished noble lady.” (thought – ch.28) “…, sir oscar must be reciprocating my feelings. i’m sure lady isis helped me out a bit too.” (thought – ch.30) baron, you’re good at making a profit even when you’ve only given a small investment…” (thought – ch.40) table 3 comparison of yeldyria and yuriel’s thought process in reverse harem webtoon yeldyria yuriel “the owner of this body is this empire’s princess, the main antagonist of the story, the one who must be killed. yeldyria viotte cecilia.” “not even once did i hear the sound of his affection rising. …at this rate, robia’s route will close soon.” “if my fate really is death, then as a ‘villainess’, i need to escape this and find a way to survive.” (thought – ch.2) “there’s no way this is happening! i am this game’s heroine!” (thought – ch.9) in pr es s 138 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 133-140 yeldyria’s thoughts are centered on her attempt to survive and prevent yuriel from killing her. on the other hand, yuriel’s thoughts are centered on winning the affection of yeldyria’s concubines (in the example, robia). these thoughts manifest in different actions for each character. yeldyria uses her power as the heir of the throne and her ability to foresee several of yuriel’s actions to dismiss yuriel from the castle. meanwhile, in yuriel’s course of action, she relies mostly on other characters to act on yeldyria. the comparison can be exemplified in table 4. table 4 comparison of yeldyria and yuriel’s narrative processes yeldyria yuriel “although at one point, i tried to imitate the princess, but i realized that i wouldn’t be able to prevent the princess’ death by continuing to do so. i have to maintain the princess’ position using my own methods.” (thought ch. 27) “you know, robia…i-want to meet the princess.” “i’m begging you! without you, i have no way of meeting her.” (speech ch.9) “nadricka. you belong to yourself. so you’re free to do as you wish, and act as you see fit.” “but to order you around and make you obedient towards me is something that i do not want to do.” (speech – ch.11) “just how long am i supposed to wait? why should i trust someone who didn’t do anything despite promising to help me? if you can’t do it, just say so. do you really think i have no other methods besides you?” (speech – ch.13) yeldyria mostly keeps her thoughts to herself and acts independently. it could be exemplified by how she does not wish to force obedience on one of her concubines, nadricka, and entrusts him to act as he desires. meanwhile, in yuriel’s course of action, she relies heavily on other male characters to act against yeldyria, even to the point of bashing them if they fail. her dependence is caused by yuriel’s lack of power to act directly against yeldyria, as she is only a maid in the castle. in the aspect of the symbolic process, the protagonists, aria and yeldyria, are seen wearing trousers at least once throughout the story. specifically, in the hourglass webtoon, it is when aria sets out to discuss her business investment with baron burboom (hourglass webtoon chapter 40). in the reverse harem webtoon, it is when yeldyria was working on administrative duties (chapter 29). this is opposed to the antagonists, mielle and yuriel, who would always wear dresses and are never depicted wearing pants throughout the story. this is where aria and yeldyria’s representations as carriers could be seen carrying a specific meaning when connected to their thought and speech processes so far. despite being south korean webtoons, both stories are situated in a european monarchy setting with the western noble hierarchy as the applicable social hierarchy. though not stated, it is implied that the story took place in c. 1940s when very few women started to wear pants (akdemir, 2018). aria and yeldyria wearing pants while being engaged in economic and administrative activities, respectively, each with their intelligence and power as the successor of the throne, hint at their dominance and courage to look different. on the contrary, mielle and yuriel, who constantly wear the dress, seem to hold less dominance despite having their own advantages. in mielle’s case, she is supposed to have greater influence as the legitimate daughter of the count. she also has a close relationship with lady isis, who holds significant influence in the noble society and helps her get engaged with the heir of the frederick dukedom, oscar. yuriel has major potential to threaten yeldyria’s safety as her decisions could change the course of the in-game story and allow her to dig into yeldyria’s past misconduct. however, in their actions and speeches, most of the time, they end up relying on other characters with more power to realize their plans. mielle and yuriel’s dependency on other characters, especially male characters, to reach their end goals is opposed to aria and yeldyria’s independent approach to achieving their goals. on the conceptual level, the depiction of the characters in such ways represents mielle and yuriel as the carriers of traditional femininity, while aria and yeldyria represent modern femininity. despite the stories’ european setting, the notion of femininity in the south korean context could be reflected in this case. according to elfving-hwang (2010), the philosophical basis for the korean femininity concept is derived from the neo-confucian interpretation of the yin/yang binaries. yin and yang are related to earth and heaven, respectively, while earth and heaven are associated with females and males. the earth is said to complement the sky, and the sky (yang) is perceived as hierarchically superior to the earth (yin). in the joseon dynasty, neo-confucianism is viewed as the official social and political philosophy. to establish a balanced society, it is believed that men and women should adhere to their respective roles, and men should keep women in check. hence, both sexes are expected to follow clear gender-based rules of behavior (elfvinghwang, 2010). the joseon dynasty demands ‘virtue’ as the epitome of femininity for korean women. a woman is considered ‘virtuous’ if they can fulfill their role as a chaste mother capable of bearing sons, is not heavily concerned with external matters (matters not of the immediate family), and is content with performing domestic or maternal duties. furthermore, supporting the male family members to achieve success is vital to becoming the ideal, desirable woman. this ‘virtuous femininity’ also sets upper-class women apart from in pr es s 139villainess protagonists’ performative .... (vivian graciela chertian) lower-class women (elfving-hwang, 2010). aside from motherhood and domesticity, ‘chastity’ is another crucial aspect in shaping the ideal woman, referring to absolute passivity. considering how males should stay as the dominant party in balancing society, women’s social, sexual, and intellectual freedom are seen as threats to society. therefore, women who engage in multiple sexual relationships (socially active/considered very active in external matters), for instance, are socially frowned upon (elfving-hwang, 2010). korea’s traditional notion of femininity is best reflected in the hourglass webtoon, as seen in table 5. table 5 comparison of aria and mielle’s views aria mielle “he was just tossing me some meat for bringing him what he wanted, like a dog? and of course, all the credit…would go to his real daughter!” (ch.25) “pardon? you’re doing work? why would you do that? can’t you just hire a professional instead?” “as i thought, he thinks that the investor (me) is a man…” (thought – ch.40) “you shouldn’t. it’s your duty as the baroness to manage your household.” (speech – ch.44) the data shows that count roscente gives all the credit to mielle for providing suggestions for the family business, despite aria being the one who does so. aria’s anger represents the disagreement towards a such notion of supporting male family members to achieve success. on another occasion, when she invested in a business, she was mistaken for a man. meanwhile, in a different context, when she heard that a baroness worked first-hand to assist her husband, mielle believed that women should have prioritized household management. when combined with how they dressed (aria ever wearing trousers and mielle always wearing dresses), it implied that aria embodied traits commonly associated with masculinity and went against the traditional ideal of femininity, while mielle embodied the traditional epitome of femininity. moreover, considering that aria came from an ‘unchaste’ and lower-class background, aria would then be heavily considered as an unideal woman traditionally. it would also then explain mielle’s strong hatred and opposition to aria. in yuriel’s case, yeldriya is opposed because she possesses sexual and intellectual freedom as the kingdom’s princess, demonstrated through yeldriya’s harem and control over several administrative or military aspects of the kingdom. again, freedom in these aspects is deemed unruly in the traditional belief of femininity, which yuriel could not possess since she is a maid with no significant power and deals primarily with domestic assignments. aria and yeldriya’s traits that contradicted the traditional femininity causes them to be positioned as the ‘evil’ in the original timeline, those who need to be disposed of because they do not adhere to the mainstream social norms. however, when aria time travel and yeldriya gain a new consciousness from the nameless woman, they become the protagonists. mielle and yuriel, in turn, become the new villainesses in their respective stories. as previously mentioned, aria and yeldyria are independent women capable of taking their own actions and do not rely solely on others to achieve their goals. it is opposed to mielle and yuriel’s tendency to rely on other parties. they are positioning aria and yeldriya, who possess the traits deemed unruly in the traditional feminine ideals, as the protagonists in these stories is a form of contestation towards the traditional femininity. it implicitly promotes modern notions of femininity that emphasize independence and allow more social, intellectual, and sexual freedom. furthermore, it implies how women who possess social, intellectual, and sexual power are more favorable than those who uphold traditional feminine ideals. modern femininity as the new ideal is attempted to be established, especially through aria and yeldriya’s success in their endeavors thus far in the stories. aria is capable of formulating her revenge plans with her ability to socialize and retrieve information outside the house, while yeldriya is capable of surviving by utilizing her power as a princess. conclusions from the two korean webtoons analyzed, it could be seen that the current villainesses’ traits are shifting from the conventional traits they tend to possess in the past. what is considered the ideal feminine, the domestic, passive, and submissive women, as represented by the original heroines of the story, becomes the new villainy or the unideal feminine. meanwhile, the original villainesses in the story who become the protagonists are celebrated as the new ideal feminine, the free, empowered, independent women, as they demonstrate aspects that are heavily restricted in korean traditional beliefs. in this case, the two webtoons featuring the villainesses serve as a soft critique of the traditional femininity still prevailing in south korean culture. even so, from another perspective, it seems that the modern femininity encouraged through aria and yeldriya’s representation still circulates around the traditional notion of masculinity, as demonstrated by their clothing or activities that are commonly considered as masculine acts, i.e., trousers/pants and dealing with non-domestic matters of business and government. this research covers only two webtoons among the various webtoons that feature a villainess as the protagonist. studying different villainesses with different stories and nuances in future research would allow new understandings regarding the phenomenon in pr es s 140 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 2, december 2022, 133-140 to develop. furthermore, there are plenty of aspects that could still be explored, both in only one webtoon title and by comparing different titles. for instance, as this research does not elaborate on the role of the supporting characters (both male and female), future studies could concentrate on the discussion of these topics as the primary focus. moreover, both webtoon titles have their respective online novels. hence, future studies may look into the distinctions between the novel and webtoon’s representations from different aspects. it is also possible for future studies to look into other elements in kress and van leeuwen’s visual analysis that has not been discussed in-depth in this research, such as the reactional processes among the involved characters. acknowledgement the author would like to thank scranton women’s leadership center for the financial support for the publication of this article. references akdemir, n. 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(2019). politicising the manhwa representations of the comfort women: with an emphasis on the angoulême international festival controversy. east asia, 36(1), 37-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140019-09307-9. sharmin, t., & sattar, s. (2018). gender politics in the projection of “disney” villains. journal of literature and art studies, 8(1), 53-57. https://doi. org/10.17265/2159-5836/2018.01.006. sim, h. (2020). acting ‘like a woman’: south korean female action heroines. journal of japanese and korean cinema, 12(2), 110-123. https://doi.org/10. 1080/17564905.2020.1840032. storey, j. (2018). cultural theory and popular culture: an introduction (8th ed.). london: routledge. tehseem, t., sibtain, m., & obaid, z. (2018). exploring gender stereotypes in media adverts: a multimodal analysis. journal of social sciences and humanities, 57(2), 155-175. https://doi.org/10.46568/jssh. v57i2.42. windsor, e. j. (2015). femininities. in international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 893-897). elsevier. https://doi. org/10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.35015-2. copyright©2017 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 103 lingua cultura, 11(2), november 2017, 103-107 doi: 10.21512/lc.v11i2.921 increasing students’ reading comprehension through cognitive strategies of senior high school of sidenreng rappang regency elihami english department, stkip muhammadiyah of enrekang jln. jendral sudirman no. 17 enrekang 91711, indonesia elihamid@ymail.com. received: 15th april 2016/ revised: 7th may 2016/ accepted: 4th may 2017 how to cite: elihami. (2017). increasing students’ reading comprehension through cognitive strategies of senior high school of sidenreng rappang regency. lingua cultura, 11(2), 103-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v11i2.921 abstract this research was a quasi-experimental research at the objective of finding the increasing students’ reading comprehension achievement through cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration). it also aimed to find the extent to which these cognitive strategies influence the students’ reading comprehension achievement. the subject of the research was the senior high school of sidenreng rappang regency consisting of 50 respondents of two classes from 11 schools in sidenreng rappang. each class consisted of 25 respondents; one class was the control and another class was the tentative one. the data were collected through the reading comprehension test in pretest and posttest, and the observation checklist during the teaching and learning process. the test consisted of 45 items of the test from three kinds of text (news item, descriptive, and narrative). the observation checklist consisted of four statements for rehearsal strategies, three statements for organization strategies, and one statement for elaboration strategy. the research findings show that the students’ reading comprehension is increased for both groups from pretest to posttest. the experimental group is higher than the control one (60,6 > 50,1) and the t-test is greater than the p-value (0,05 > 0,007), which means that there is a significant difference after giving treatment to the experimental group. the application of cognitive strategies also positively influences the increasing students’ reading comprehension achievement. thus, it is concluded that the use of cognitive strategies is useful to increase students’ reading comprehension in teaching and learning words. keywords: cognitive strategies, reading comprehension, students achievement introduction language teaching acts as a central role in academic, social, and emotional progress that support students’ success in learning all of the scientific knowledge. instructional practices in language are often teacher-centered and focused on direct knowledge transmission (lau, 2006). through language teaching, students are projected to give their culture and receive other cultures as well. it is also expected to help students convey their initiative and emotion, participate in society, and even find the use of their analytical and imaginative ideas. in terms of language teaching, english teaching plays an important role in indonesia for the time being. english as the tool of communication both spoken and written is very important to learn because it is used throughout the world. english is also used to communicate with any other people whose culture and country background are different. in order to do that, students should take part by learning the subject as they are demanded to master english actively or passively. consequently, they are able to read english books or to access the information on the internet that is mostly in english. in the national education standard (bnsp), english for senior high school or madrasah aliah (sma/ma) aims at giving the students skills on communication competence in the forms of spoken and written, in the level of functional literacy (depdiknas, 2006). one of these competences coverage is the students’ ability to comprehend a course which is implemented in four skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. unfortunately, in fact, it is still far from the expected achievement of competence. most of the students still get difficulties in learning english. it is proven by the low summative tests’ mean score of the students from senior high school in sidenreng rappang regency district where this research is conducted. the low level of students’ mean may be caused by their lack of strategies in learning, such as cognitive. therefore, the researcher formulates the research questions 104 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 103-107 as; (1) can cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) increase students’ reading comprehension achievement? and (2) to what extent do the cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) influence the students’ reading comprehension achievement both apart and collectively? the students’ interviews are done to examine the validity of the questionnaires about the cognitive strategies. the structure interviews are developed based on a study by li & qin (2006). the competence in the cognitive strategies is one of teaching objectives that must be taught through summarizing, deduction, imagery, and transfer. they need improvement continually. the division of cognitive strategies is rehearsal, organization, and elaboration. rehearsal cognitive strategy is when the learners memorize the important ideas or concept by means of learning, underlie the important ideas, or write some parts of the text. organization cognitive strategy is when learners arrange materials into frame order, which is a stock of words remembered by learners and ordered into meaningful categories. sahrul (2014) has defined that cognitive strategies are practicing, receiving, and sending message strategies along with analyzing, reasoning, and creating the structure for input and output. these cognitive strategies are applied in order to achieve students’ improvement on the reading comprehension test. the relationship between facts on text is arranged into tables. the other ways are to underline the main ideas or concept of each paragraph, then arranging them into the new organization. lastly, elaboration cognitive strategy is when students connect anything that is going to be learned with other things which are available. the application of these cognitive strategies seems suitable in teaching reading comprehension. these three categories give students the opportunity to maximize their capability in reading comprehension process. rehearsal strategies, for example, may help students to internalize a text by underlining the important ideas of it. at the same time, utilizing the organization strategies gives students many ways to understand the text by arranging materials of the text based on the order of what way they think is easier to understand. this can be done by separating the main idea from the supporting ideas or arranging the relationship between the facts into the table. other than that, students may also do the elaboration strategies in order to be able to understand the text at their best. this strategy extensively explains the facts or details of the text either by connecting between the facts in the text or by integrating the main idea and supporting details, which have been organized using their prior knowledge. this is done on the development of the paragraph. this has the connection with applying the strategies in reading such as making inferences, separating main ideas from the supporting details, and predicting. based on the three cognitive strategies mentioned, this research is focused on how to increase students’ achievement in reading comprehension by applying those cognitive strategies. the objective is to find out whether or not cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) can increase students’ reading comprehension achievement. another objective is also to figure the extent to which these cognitive strategies influence the students’ reading comprehension achievement apart and collectively. the significance of this research is expected to be useful for teachers as practitioners in education and a reference for the researchers who are interested to know more about cognitive strategies’ role in teaching and learning process. it is also especially expected to help develop students’ reading comprehension by applying cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) in teaching and learning process. lastly, the scope of the research is applying the cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) to increase students’ reading comprehension achievement. methods this research applies quasi-experimental method with two sample groups. one group is the experimental group, and the other is the control group. the subject of the research is senior high school of sidenreng rappang regency, consisting of 50 respondents from 11 schools of the regency; both the experimental and control group each consist of 25 respondents. this research applies the purposive sampling technique because of certainly consider. the experimental group and control group consisted of three classes of the sample of the research because of the three kinds of texts; news item, descriptive, and narrative. the criteria for selecting the members of those groups are how suitable they are with the curriculum content for tenthgrade students. it is also because these classes are assumed homogeneous. the placement of the students to their class is not based on their intelligence level, but it is random. there are no classes with only high level or low-level students. consequently, one class can have students with high level, middle level, and low level of achievement, depending on the two other classes. so forth, determining two classes as the sample group of the research are done randomly. that random technique results in class x2 and x3 being chosen as the sample group, and class x1 as the try-out class to validate the instrument of the research. the experimental group is treated with cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) in the teaching and learning process (pbm) to see whether or not these strategies can increase students’ reading comprehension achievement. the control group is taught with the expository or conventional strategies in ongoing pbm. each of the groups is given pretest and posttest. posttest is administrated to assess the prior knowledge of the students on reading comprehension. the posttest is administered to measure the effects of the treatment. the main purpose of this test is to find out whether or not the application of cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) is effective in increasing students’ reading comprehension achievement. results and discussions studies to improve students’ reading comprehension have been conducted by many researchers in indonesia, especially for the implementation of strategies to the reading comprehension combined with cooperative learning. they are students team assistant division (stad), team assisted individualization (tai), jigsaw; which is named by its type on learning processes like a saw, think-pair-share strategy (tps), or directed activity related to texts (darts). regarding the effectiveness of strategic instruction on achievement, results of present studies demonstrate that students generally increase their frequent use of reading strategies, especially using cognitive strategies to manage the learning and overcoming the 105increasing students’ reading comprehension .... (elihami) deficiency in english reading. they further obtain more improvement in comprehension after strategy instruction. such results support findings by shang (2007), suggesting that it is more effective for students to improve their reading comprehension if they have a higher frequency of employing cognitive strategy in their reading process. reading is defined as an inter-energetic progression that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in the judgment, the text in attendance, correspondence, words, sentences, and paragraphs that predetermine meaning. it is also defined as an active fluent process which involves the reader and reading material in building meaning. meaning does not reside on the printed page, instead, synergy occurs in reading. it combines the words on the printed page with the readers’ background knowledge and experiences (karakas, 2006). students will develop better reading comprehension skills on their own if the teacher gives them explicit mental tools for unpacking texts (pressley & allington, 2006). understanding a language needs processes that are related to certain ways or techniques, whether top-down or button-up (fromkin, rodman, & hyams, 2007). therefore, learners may apply some of this techniques or ways to a certain text in a reading comprehension. the bottom-up model refers to a process of decoding a message that the reader reads via the analysis of sound, words, and grammar. to comprehend the written language, a reader relies on his or her ability to recognize words, phrases, and sentences. reading process with modeling is seen as one of the most useful techniques to explain strategies for reading achievement (houtveen & van de grift, 2007). according to them, the bottom-up process of reading is viewed as the process of meaning interpretation, in which the language is translated from one form of symbolic depiction to another. the cognitive strategy is the strategy that involves mental manipulation or information of materials or tasks, and it is intended to enhance comprehension, acquisition, or retention (wernke et al., 2011). cognitive strategies are divided into three categories which are presented as follows; (1) rehearsal strategies refer to underlining important ideas, writing down some important ideas in the dictionary. (2) organization strategies refer to arranging materials into an outline order. (3) elaboration strategies refer to explaining extensively the facts or details of text content. jabu (2008) has stated that cognitive domains are the objectives that emphasize on remembering and reducing something which has perhaps been learned. it is like the objective used for solving several intellectual tasks where the individual has to decide the indispensable problem. then the given substance which has been learned before is reordered or collected with ideas, methods, or procedures. the precognitive objectives may vary from the simple recall of material learned to highly original and creative ways of combining and synthesizing new ideas and materials. the cognitive domains of low-level thinking are: (1) remembering, indicates recalling information. (2) understanding signifies explaining ideas or concepts. (3) applying conveys information from another familiar situation. on the other hand, the cognitive domains of high–level thinking are as follows: (1) analyzing, denotes using information as parts to explore understandings and relationship. (2) evaluating justifies a decision or course of action. (3) creating refers to generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things. the cognitive strategies are the use of basic and complex strategies for the processing of information from text and lectures (wernke et al., 2011). cognitive domains are mainly about the recalling and recognition of knowledge as well as the development of higher intellectual skills and abilities. knowledge refers to the recalling of specific information, comprehension refers to the converting of abstract content to concrete situation, analysis refers to the comparison and contrast of the content to personal experiences, synthesis refers to the organization of thoughts, ideas, and information from the content, and evaluation refers to the judgment and evaluation of characters, action, outcome, and others, for personal reflection and understanding. the expository method of coaching, sometimes called the expository instruction, is a method in which a teacher presents the scientific concepts to the students verbally. this method can also be secondhand to teach facts, skills, the concepts as stated before, and principles which compass on teacher-centered learning or teacher conquered approaches to instruction. teacher controls the flow of the lesson by presenting information and demonstrating solutions to problems. melillo (2009) has stated that the expository teaching is an instruction method of the scriptures that can be taught two different ways; verse by verse or topically. the expository teaching takes one genesis through revelations, section by section, and verse by verse. an example of this is teaching about bible. the researcher confirms its own stories through repetition of the statement, as a verse in revelations may not be as clear unless it was referred to in an older statement. flint (2009) has stated that expository teaching takes a specific passage and breaks it down, finding topics to discuss. the teaching process is a style of preaching, where the method of instruction presents clear and comprehensive meaning to the biblical text. the explanation of the data is unruffled through the test, as explained in the preceding subdivision shows that the students’ reading comprehension has improved significantly. it is supported by the mean score rate of the students’ pretest and posttest of the experimental group. the mean score of pretest and posttest of the experimental group was 38,2 and has increased to 60,6, while the mean score of pretest and posttest of the control group was 37,2 and has increased to 50,1. both cognitive strategies and conventional (expository) way can be used in training reading, and it can improve the students’ achievement. however, the cognitive strategy develops the students’ reading comprehension more evocatively than the conventional way. these strategies are gifted to improve the students’ reading comprehension. thus, it can be inferred statistically based on the t-test value making an allowance for between p-value 0,007 that was smaller than t-table 0,05. it means that cognitive strategies are more effective in increasing students’ reading comprehension. the students’ mean score is higher in the experimental group than the control group (60,6 >50,1) in the posttest. moreover, the standard deviation for experimental group is 15,6 and 7,9 for the control group. in the pretest, the students’ mean score is more advanced in the experimental group than the control group (38,2>37,2). furthermore, the standard deviation for the experimental group and the control group is 9,7 and 6,9 respectively. however, it does not mean that there is a noteworthy difference between both groups. in the t-test section, it is showed that the p-value (0,686) is greater than t-test (0,05), which means that there is no significant difference between both groups. for that reason, between the two groups, the researcher was free to choose which one 106 lingua cultura, vol.11 no.2, november 2017, 103-107 to be the experimental group. unlike the pretest, the p-value in the posttest is lower than t-test (0,007-0,05), which means that there is a significant difference between both groups. the findings of students’ comprehension achievement on reading through the distribution score of pretest are described in table 1 and the distribution score of posttest in table 2. table 1 the frequency and percentage of students’ pretest score of control and experimental group classification range of score control group experimental group f % f % excellent 80-100 0 0 0 0 good 66-79 0 0 0 0 fairly good 56-65 1 4 2 8 fair 46-55 2 8 2 8 poor 0-45 22 88 21 84 total 25 100 25 100 table 1 shows that most of the students in control group are in the poor category with the score ranging from 0 to 45. specifically, only 1 student (4%) is in fairly good, 2 students (8%) in fair, and the remaining 22 students (88%) in the poor category. the same result is found in the experimental group. only 2 students (8%) are in fairly good, 2 students (8%) in fair, and the remaining 21 students (84%) in the poor category. table 2 the frequency and percentage of students’ posttest score of control and experimental group table 2 illustrates the frequency and rate percentage of the control and experimental group in the posttest. it also indicates that the students’ achievement from the two sample groups is increasing. in the control group, only 1 student (4%) is in the good category, 9 students (36%) in the fairly good category, 8 students (32%) in fair category, and the remaining 7 students (28%) in the poor category. thus, it can be concluded that most of the students’ score range is in the fairly good category. differently, in the experimental group, there are 4 students (16%) in the excellent and good category, but the rest of them have the same score range as in the control group. there are 9 students (36%) in the fairly good category, 2 students (8%) in the fair category, and the remaining 6 students (24%) in the poor category. further results of the students’ achievement in their reading comprehension are compiled in a tabulation data showed in table 3. table 3 the mean score and standard deviation of the students’ pretest and posttest table 3 shows that the total number for both the control and experimental group are 25 students. the mean score and standard deviation show differences in pretest and posttest of both groups. from the data shown in table 3, the mean score of the control group and experimental group is mostly the same before and after the treatment. after being given the treatment, the posttest score of both groups shows a difference in mean score. this means that there is an improvement after being given the treatment. before the treatment is conducted, both the control group and the experimental group are given the pretest to know the students’ achievement on their reading comprehension. the purpose of the test is to find out whether both groups are at the same level or not. the standard deviation is meant to know how close the scores are to the mean score. table 3 shows that the mean score of the students’ pretest in the control group is 37,2 and the experimental group 38,2. the standard deviation for the control group is 6,9 and the experimental group 9,7. table 3 also shows that the mean score of both groups are different after the treatment is executed. the mean score after treatment is 50,1 for the control group and 60,6 for the experimental group. the hypothesis is tested by using inferential analysis. the researcher uses t-test (test of significance) for independent results of students’ mean scores in pretest and posttest, in control and experimental group. assuming that the level of significance (α) = 0,05 and the only thing needed is the degree of freedom, (df) = 48, where n1+n2 = 48; then the result of the t-test is presented in the following table. table 4 the p-value of t-test of the students’ achievement on control and experimental group classification range of score control group experimental group f % f % excellent 80-100 0 0 4 16 good 66-79 1 4 4 16 fairly good 56-65 9 36 9 36 fair 46-55 8 32 2 8 poor 0-45 7 28 6 24 total 25 100 25 100 paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation pair 1 pair 1 pair control posttest control pair control posttest control 37,212 50,112 38,180 60,592 25 25 25 25 6,8920 9,7524 9,7088 15,5944 variables p-value (α) remarks pretest of control and experimental group 0,686 0,05 not significantly different posttest of control and experimental group 0,007 0,05 significantly different 107increasing students’ reading comprehension .... (elihami) the result of the data analysis on table 4 shows that in the pretest of control or experimental group, it is known that p-value (0,686) is greater than the level of significance at t-table (0,05) and the degree of freedom 48. it means that the null hypothesis (h0) is accepted and the alternative hypothesis (h1) is rejected. in other words, there is no significant difference between the control group and the experimental group before the treatment, in terms of the students’ reading comprehension. in contrast, the data on posttest of the control and the experimental group shows that the probability value is smaller than α (0,0007 < 0,05). it indicates that h1 is accepted and h0 is rejected. it means that cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) have significantly increased the students’ reading comprehension. the data of posttest as the final result shows significant improvement. it can be concluded that the use of cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) are able to give greater contribution in teaching and learning reading comprehension. based on the result of the students’ further answer in the control and the experimental group before and after treatment, the researcher has noticed that the students often do not understand the question for the text. when they try to understand the text, they sometimes completely miss the point of the question which they want to answer. from analyzing students’ difficulties on reading comprehension, the researcher has surmised that they have an underlying lack of linguistic competence in english due to vocabulary memorizing that affects their reading competence. as a matter of fact, it leads them not to recognize the ideas of the reading and to be weak in interpreting the text given. consequently, they find it difficult to read the multiplicity and structure of the text professionally. the same thing happens during the conduct using the cognitive strategies. they have the same problem in understanding the reading text. these problems that the students faced are discussed as follows based on the treatment process as it also happens in the posttest. conclusions based on the research findings and discussion, the researcher concludes that the application of cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration strategies) can increase the reading comprehension achievement of senior high school students in sidenreng rappang regency more significantly than non-cognitive strategies. the mean score of pretest of the experimental and the control group is not significantly different. the mean score of posttest of the experimental group is higher than the control group (60,6 > 50,1) and the t-test is greater than the p-value (0,005 > 0,007). this means that there is a significant difference after philanthropic treatment to the experimental group. this leads to the conclusion that the use of cognitive strategies is useful in increasing students’ reading comprehension in teaching and learning process. the authority of cognitive strategies (rehearsal, organization, and elaboration) to students’ reading comprehension achievement is in positive correlation with the increase of students’ achievement. with every increase of student’s summit in the independent variable follows a point increase in the dependent variable and vice versa. references depdiknas. 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(2011). assessing cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies in school children: construct validity and arising questions. international journal of research and review, 6(2), 19-38. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 105 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 105-115 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7822 social discourse of fake news in french and its digital social media literacy merry andriani1*; annisa fitriani kalsum2; gabriele nadina elloianza3 1-3french study program, faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada jl. nusantara no. 1 bulaksumur, yogyakarta 55281, indonesia 1merry.andriani@mail.ugm.ac.id; 2annisafitrianikk@mail.ugm.ac.id; 3gabrielenadina@mail.ugm.ac.id received: 09th december 2021/revised: 17th march 2022/accepted: 23rd march 2022 how to cite: andriani, m., kalsum, a. f., & elloianza, g. n. (2022). social discourse of fake news in french and its digital social media literacy. lingua cultura, 16(1), 105-115. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7822 abstract the research explored the social discourse of fake news in the french language and the french government’s efforts to overcome it with digital media literacy through social media. fake news was getting more intense with the existence of social media as an instrument of dissemination. the fake news data were observed first, then selected according to the intensity of its distribution, and taken through social media platforms with the most users in france, namely facebook and twitter. then this data set was verified and confirmed through the official fact-checking platform to ensure that the data text was fake news. this data verification method also practiced techniques socialized by the french government through a digital media literacy program. all data were analyzed qualitatively using a critical paradigm, particularly critical sociolinguistics, and post-truth theory. the analysis results show a relationship between language practice through fake news texts circulating on social media and the practice of government propaganda discourse through digital media literacy. these two practices also give rise to certain social practices and movements in french society. this also shows that digital media literacy efforts alone are ineffective enough to overcome the problems caused by fake news in society. keywords: social discourse, fake news, french language, digital social media, social media literacy introduction fake news is news deliberately created to hide the truth and reach the widest audience so that it is designed in such a way as to be disseminated (rini, 2017). the phenomenon of the spread of fake news through social media can be found almost all over the world in the last decade. the definition of fake news itself has become a long debate among world academics in formulating this social phenomenon epistemologically (egelhofer & lecheler, 2019). according to mcintyre (2018), actually fake news is not a new thing in human civilization; it has even existed since 1439, along with the invention of print media technology. the real news was difficult to prove at that time because there was no journalistic code of ethics and adequate control over the news printed (mcintyre, 2018). habgood-coote (2019) is one of those who oppose using the terms fake news and post-truth to discuss fake news, arguing that the two vocabularies are linguistically flawed and are often used as propaganda tools. however, this opinion is opposed by many other researchers and academics (bernecker et al., 2021; pepp, michaelson, & sterken, 2019; rini, 2017), who argue that the habgood-coote argument cannot be proven. research carried out by pepp, michaelson, and sterken (2019) shows that the term fake news is a new idiom that best describes this social phenomenon. the vocabulary ‘fake news’ became the trending word of choice for collins dictionary in 2017. the same french word called ‘infox’ was also chosen as word of the year in 2018 by le robert dictionary in france. according to the translation found in the unesco journalism training manual, the indonesian version of the term itself is ‘berita palsu’ (ireton & posseti, 2019). meanwhile, social media is the vehicle most often used as an instrument for spreading this fake news (aricat, 2018; bernstein & hooper, 2021; pathak 106 107lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 105-115 social discourse of fake news .... (merry andriani, et al.) et al., 2020), given its easy access, wide network, and low price. this has the potential to be a threat to contemporary civilization because the majority of the world’s population accesses news via social media. in 2016, 67% of americans accessed news through social media (niedringhaus, 2018). meanwhile, in france, according to data from the statistical center l’insee in the period 2016-2020, the number of the french population who access the internet is 85%, and 75,9% of them access news through social media. for comparison, in indonesia, according to bps in 2019, the number of indonesians who can access the internet is 73,79%, and as many as 96,4% of indonesians access it via mobile phones. the number of active social media users in indonesia in 2019 reached 150 million (zahra, purnomo, & kasiwi, 2020). based on the statistics, it can be obtained an overview of how significant the potential of the internet, and social media is, and at the same time, the potential for exposure to fake news that accompanies it, to the demographics of people in indonesia, france, and america. these three countries may be able to represent the actual situation on three different continents; asia, europe, and america, which can be considered as an illustration in general of the sociodemographic context of the world today. during this pandemic, the dissemination of fake news further exacerbates the social situation and makes it difficult to control the epidemic in the community. in the indonesian context, for example, many news stories in the mass media about people being influenced by fake news and refusing to go to the hospital for fear of being treated as a covid patient. various narrations of true stories circulating on social media, which are sometimes difficult to ascertain the truth, dominate the discourse around the outbreak in society. more or less, the same thing also happens in france, a country whose literacy level has reached 99,9% compared to indonesia, which only reached 93,9%, according to undp data in 2018. even today, there are still french people who are anti-covid-19 vaccines and have held demonstrations every week for the past few months. the elaboration on what fake news is and how social media is connected to fake news is elaborative yet can be compressed. the introduction shall focus on the background of the research: (1) why and what is going on with fake news in french, and how has social media responded? (2) how are the previous studies around the topics? (3) which gap from the previous studies that researchers wish to fill-in? (4) thus, why do the researchers decide to conduct a study with a, b, and c as the result of the research? (5) how will the result of the research contribute? what is the significance? it does not have to be indonesia in specific, but kindly ensure the strength of contribution. the government and the public, both in france and indonesia, of course, do not remain silent while watching the spread of fake news on social media that is accessed daily. several scholars have conducted research to solve the problem, such as tukina, mozin, and sanjaya (2020) have written an example of casesolving hoax information in indonesia. various forms of digital, print, and audio-visual media literacy are intensively carried out. the public can easily access social media literacy accounts, also known as ‘factchecking’, to verify news, images, or videos suspected of being fake news (bigot, 2017; bigot, gomez, & noûs, 2020). however, how effective this media literacy effort is, has not been widely studied by academics. one of the researchers who questioned this in the french context is monnier (hernándezfuentes & monnier, 2020; monnier, 2018, 2020), but in his research, he only discusses the debate around the narration of fake news in french society. according to alemanno (2018), fake news is just a symptom of a much deeper-rooted problem in society, and he has proposed a taxonomy to look closely at each. research on fake news is mostly done in the fields of informatics, communication, psychology, law, and socio-politics, as seen in figure 1. figure 1 research map concerning fake news in france and indonesia the map in figure 1 shows the proportion of the distribution of research articles with the theme of fake news in general, and specifically for the context of france and indonesia. the majority of research on this theme has been dominated by the american context since the 2016 election (troude-chastenet, 2018) with the example of the trump case and using the perspective of informatics, communication, and politics (figeac et al., 2019; 2020; 2021). within the french context, fake news research has also emerged during the election of president macron (cossette, 2021; smith, 2019; dauphin, 2019). the research theme map related to fake news shows that there is still relatively loose space for the context of indonesia and france. this means that many aspects of this fake news phenomenon still need to be explored or investigated further. one perspective rarely found is analysis from a linguistic or sociolinguistic point of view, as will be discussed in the research. the language perspective in researching fake news is an important step because the basic material for fake news is language. several scholars have provided research on the informatic system using linguisticbased tools to detect fake news on social media, such as de oliveira et al. (2021); mahyoob, algaraady, and alrahaili (2020); oshikawa, qian, and wang (2020). it is also emphasized by several indonesian scholars (pinem, 2021; rahayu & sensusiyati, 2020; wijana, 2021), who have researched fake news or hoaxes in the indonesian context using corpus-based data with forensic linguistic techniques. based on the explanation of these problems, the question in the research is how the fake news social discourse is produced in french. what are the linguistic features in french used in the fake news text? how are media literacy efforts through social media and french television to overcome this? how effective are these efforts in social practice in french society? the result of the research could be served as a model of analysis for the same phenomena in the indonesian context. methods the research applies multiple perspectives which are incorporated into one paradigm of poststructuralism/post-modernism, especially approaches with critical perspectives in critical sociolinguistics. the object of research concerns with texts on social media related to fake news that involves a post-truth theory perspective to explore it comprehensively. so, the post-truth theory that has been heavily echoed in recent years (since 2016) is used as a supporting theory. in the study of contemporary western philosophy, according to mcintyre, post-truth is often considered to be born from a post-modernist tradition that rejects a single truth and grows other narratives outside the grand narrative (mcintyre, 2018). an example of a case often used by mcintyre is when trump claims the party celebrating his appointment as president of america is the most crowded and lively. then, to substantiate this claim, he distributes an engineered photo different from the photo of the journalists who covered it. trump has not lost his mind in defending the false claims and photos; his team appears on television, confirming it and issuing a statement that it is an ‘alternative fact’. in this case, it can be seen how the authorities manipulate and make fake news to legalize claims that are not based on reality and general knowledge. jacques derrida’s perspective on post-modernism, especially the principle of language that is not representative of reality and the instability of meaning (derrida, 1967), becomes an analytical tool to explore how later this language became the main instrument in the production of fake news. the basic assumptions of the critical perspective of norman fairclough with the theory of discourse and social change (fairclough, 2009) becomes the main basis for exploring issues related to the phenomenon of language practice, discourse practice, and social practices used to reproduce the language of fake news. language instruments with linguistic features are used in creating narratives or discourses that mislead the truth. furthermore, lastly, the assumption of “social discourse” from marc angenot is used as a point of view to place the problem of fake news in critical sociolinguistic analysis. the definition of social discourse, according to angenot (2006), is all that is discussed and written in the context of society collectively. it covers everything that is printed and publicly discussed or represented by electronic media/ social media today (angenot & provenzano, 2014). the data collection method in the research is carried out in three stages. the first is through observation of virtual conversations on several social media platforms, such as facebook, twitter, youtube, and telegram. the data collection period is during the pandemic period, namely april-august 2021 until the majority of the data is related to pandemic and vaccine issues. the second stage is the identification and retrieval of news data or posts that repeatedly appear on several social media accounts with the highest frequency of use in accessing news in france, namely facebook and twitter. the third stage is the verification of data suspected of being fake news. the verification method used for this third stage is by applying several fact-checking techniques that are often socialized by the official platforms of the french government, as well as the mass media in general. the data collected and confirmed as fake news is then classified according to the linguistic features found and categorized based on the type of social discourse identified. furthermore, some selected data are reverified and discussed with several french people to find out firsthand how social discourse related to fake news is discussed by the french community. all data are then analyzed qualitatively and re-selected. then some data specimens are presented in accordance with the theoretical framework described. results and discussions through discourse and social change theory, fairclough (2009) has presented a critical discourse analysis model using three dimensions; macro structure, mesostructure, and microstructure. in addition, there are also three levels of practice that can be applied in analyzing a discourse with a critical perspective, namely textual practice, discourse practice, and social practice. given the limited space for exposure for the research, a discussion is presented through the three practical perspectives adapted to the object of the research. first, language practice examines textual practices and french linguistic features that appear in fake news texts on french social media. second, the practice of discourse is done by applying the interdiscursivity method, connecting the fake news social discourse with the discourse of refutation raised in the digital media literacy process. furthermore, third, social practices discuss social changes related to the emergence of fake news texts. the first part of the discussion is the language practice on social discourse fake news in french on social media. the search for language practice and the use of linguistic features found in fake news text in french on social media examines morphological, syntactic, and semantic aspects. morphologically, the analysis of verified text forms as fake news tends to use the following features: (1) use of insufficient or 108 109lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 105-115 social discourse of fake news .... (merry andriani, et al.) excessive and inappropriate punctuation marks; (2) excessive use of emoticons; (3) selection of provocative lexical types; (4) orthograph errors (writing spelling). data-01 is based on these morphological categories. data-01 (source: twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) alexandra henrion-caude généticienne mondialement connue d'une grande compètence en arn à calculé " les vaccinés " ont 2 fois plus de risques de mourir ou avoir de graves sèquelles que ""les non vaccinés"" chez a. bercoff "avc ,phlébite,crise cardiaque embolie pulmonaire" translation: alexandra henrion-caude a world-renowned geneticist with her expertise in the field of rna has calculated that ‘vaccinated persons’ are twice as likely to die or suffer from severe complications than ‘unvaccinated persons’ in a. bercoff, ‘stroke, inflammation, heart attack, pulmonary embolism’. in data-01, textual anatomy clearly shows some irregularities, such as the use of capital letters in all words. if looking back, this text does not use a period or comma articulation sign. this paragraph consists of one sentence, which does not end with a period, as is the rule of the french orthograph. then some words use two quotation marks at once, at the beginning and end. there are words with one quotation mark but typed with excessive spaces. it can be concluded that in data-01, it is found that the use of punctuation marks is lacking and/or nonexistent, and some punctuation marks are used improperly. data-02 shows the excessive use of emoticons and orthography errors or spelling errors in french in a post on social media. data-02 (source: twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) faut faite tourner les medias sont pas au courant...ya pas de variant indien * [communiqué officiel / gouvernement de l'inde] ****************************** le gouvernement indien lance une déclaration officielle à la planète précisant que toutes les nouvelles du virus liées à son pays sont faux; ainsi que la nouvelle "souche de l'inde" n'existe pas et exige que cette nouvelle soit retirée des platesformes de toute urgence. l oms à sérieusement du soucie à ce faire (underline all data from the author as a marker) translation: must be circulated the media don't know about it… there is no indian variant😝😝😝😝 🔴🔴* [official information/government of india] ****************************** the indian government launches an official declaration to the entire planet affirming that all news about the virus related to its country is false; likewise, the news of the “indian plague” does not exist and demands that it be immediately withdrawn from all platforms, who really has a hard time doing it. at a glance, the text in data-02 already shows an anomaly and an informal form; moreover, it is credible as a text claimed to be “official government information”. the informal text style is seen in the use of many emoticons. it is also found an orthograph error in the text, “…ya pas”, which should have been written “il n’y a pas”, meaning “nothing,” and the word “soucie” meaning “problem”, should have been written “souci”. then there is also the use of capital letters that do not comply with the spelling rules in french: “sont faux”, “n’existe pas”. syntactically, the error is also found in the conjugation of “faut faite tourner”, which should have been written as « il faut faire tourner ». as it is well known, french is a language of flexion that uses conjugation to match verbs with the subject, time, and mode. the conjugation process has standard rules, and its error is often socio-culturally indicating the social class and education level of the speaker. at the syntactic level, many of the fake news texts analyzed in this research have these characteristics: conjugation errors use of imperative sentences omission of the subject of the sentence. in addition to data-02, in the data-03, some conjugations are not suitable. data-03 (source: facebook, accessed on june 21, 2021) vous vous souvenez peut-être il y a 2 semaine lorsque biden a déclaré « chaque lit d’hôpital sera occupé par des patients atteints d’alzheimer » ? les prions sont similaires à la maladie d’alzheimer mélangée à la maladie de parkinson et à des vertiges sévères si graves qu’il n’est plus possible de marcher sans tomber. apportez des aimants lorsque vous allez à l’épicerie et assurezvous de les tester sur les aliments que vous achetez. si les aimants s’y collent, c’est contaminé. n’achète pas. translation: you may remember, 2 weeks ago when biden announces « every hospital bed will be filled with patients who has alzheimer's » ? bacteria that cause disease are similar alzheimer's which mixes with parkinson's disease and causes headaches it's so bad that if you walk, you'll fall. bring a magnet when you shop at the shop and make sure you test the food you buy. if the magnet sticks to the food, it's contaminated. do not buy. at first glance, data-03 looks like there is no problem with the anatomy of the text, and the emoticons used are not excessive. if not closely attention, the text can be considered normal, like a post on social media, regardless of its illogical content. however, at the end of the data-03 text, there is an error in the conjugation of the imperative sentence or the imperative sentence “n’achète pas”, which should be written as “n’achetez pas”, considering that in the previous sentence, the pronoun that becomes the reference is “vous”. command sentences in french have a different structure from affirmative sentences. in the command sentence, the subject of the command is not listed and can only be known through its conjugation. data-04 is the title of a post on facebook with a command sentence written in all capital letters and using an excessive exclamation point. in the text, there are three imperative sentences underlined by the author as a marker. data-04 (source: facebook, accessed on june 21, 2021) lisez et partagez très massivement !!!!! urgent !!!!! q scoop – à lire d’urgence: « pourquoi la quatrième vague de véran va-t-elle arriver à l’automne » et « synthèse vidéo de la covid dans le monde ». par qactus article long, mais prenez vraiment le temps de le lire, car l’automne risque de vous arriver très fort en pleine face, si vous n’êtes pas préparés. translation: read and share massively!!!!! urgent!!!!! q scoop – for immediate reading: « why the fourth wave of véran is coming in the fall » and « video short report covid in the world ». by qactus long article, but take the time to read it, because autumn risks getting you into trouble, if you are not prepared. the order sentence to disseminate news on posts found on social media is one indicator of fake news. referring to the definition presented by rini (2017), one of the criteria for news that can be categorized as fake news is a design in such a way as to reach as many public as possible and spread very quickly. in addition, fake news text also tends to omit the subject of the sentence. this indicates, at the same time, unclear news sources and references. in data-04, the subject is omitted in the sentence ‘article long’, which grammatically indicates an incomplete sentence. it should be written «c’est un article long» according to the grammatical rules. the same thing is also found in data-05, the following fake news text whose contents scare the public with the dangers of vaccines. however, the sentence does not use a clear subject or object, as underlined. data-05 (source twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) à ce stade, pour ceux qui ont été testés, vous avez encore une chance d'y échapper tant que vous ne prenez pas le 💉! ça explique d'ailleurs pourquoi l'ivermectine et autres traitements sont interdits!les anticorps naturels et/ou les traitements détruisent ces structures translation: at this stage, for all those who have been tested, you still have one chance to pass as long as you haven't taken the 💉! this explains why ivermectin and other medications are banned! natural antibodies and/or medications destroy these structures the fake news surrounding the vaccine controversy during the pandemic has been found circulating on social media in various versions. one of the most frequently found appearing repeatedly can be seen in data-6. data-06 (source: twitter, accessed on june 10, 202) tweet from liberté (@gaumontrene) liberté (@gaumontrene) tweeted: bill gates admet que son vaccin 💉 «expérimental» arnm changera l'adn pour toujours.…🤣🤣! faites vous piquer les cobayes ! translation: bill gates admits that his «experimental» nram vaccine will change dna forever….(laughing emoticon)! let's give the fr guinea pigs (french flag icon) a shot! 110 111lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 105-115 social discourse of fake news .... (merry andriani, et al.) in data-06, it can be seen that the command sentence used at the end of the post is ironic, at the same time, provokes emotion. people who receive the vaccine are considered guinea pigs. moreover, the video included in this post has been modified and cut so that it looks like bill gates’s recognition as one of the pharmacology industry entrepreneurs who sell vaccines. according to linden (in greifeneder et al., 2021), people who are provoked by fake news are often no longer able to filter information cognitively. for example, the inability to see grammatical errors, such as in data-06 sentences, is found in many accounts that spread the text. the linguistic semantic perspective can analyze the meaning of sentences more comprehensively. in the collected french fake news texts, references to unclear sources and the use of impersonal pronouns or impersonal subjects do not refer to a precise person or group. in addition, semantically, it is also found that persuasive and provocative sentences intend to provoke emotions, generate hatred, and often take advantage of racist and religious sentiments. as an example, it can bee seen in data-07. data-07 (source: facebook, accessed on july 28, 2021) photo prise devant la caf de rosny sous bois .... bon ben on va continuer à bosser dur nous , il faut quand même bien entretenir tout ce monde , les pauvres.... pratique en tout cas leurs cape elles peuvent venir avec 15 cartes identités différentes on risque pas de les reconnaître 😊😊😊 translation: photo taken in front of caf office rosny sous bois…. yes, how else can we continue to work hard, right? after all, we all have to take care of all those people, the poor people…. but practically, how can they come with 15 different id cards, we can't possibly recognize them 😊😊😊 the facebook photo in data-07 has shared 10.000 times within 48 hours in france before being declared fake news on august 12, 2018, by factchecking verifier media. this photo is actually located in london, and if verified through a search engine on the internet, it will be seen that the photo is an old photo that has been circulating on the internet since 2014. it is not enough just to fake and edit photos; the photo illustration text also uses provocative sentences and provokes hateful emotions by exploiting religious sentiments. in this case, everything that smells of islam in france has always been controversial after many events and social friction due to terrorism under the guise of islam. the location of the edited photo is intentionally added with the caf (caisse allocation familiale) logo to look like it is in front of the caf office. this is a government office in france that administers monthly financial assistance for families with children or people whose income is below the national standard. caf funding is sourced primarily from the taxes of french citizens. everyone has the same right to get this caf assistance, including international students who are studying in france. so it is understandable now that the provocation by the fake news text on data-07 is intended to provoke the hateful emotions of the french, who have to work hard and pay huge taxes every year. the next persuasion sentence is also provocative by playing on religious issues, showing the abuse of the burqa. as is known, since 2010 there has been a ban on covering the face in public places (loi n° 2010-1192 du 11 octobre 2010 interdisant la dissimulation du visage dans l'espace public (1), 2010). furthermore, since october 11, 2020, it has been emphasized that women are prohibited from wearing the burqa because it will be difficult to identify their faces. this is considered to provide the potential for criminal acts in the community. another issue that is often used as a fake news theme is racist sentiment, as was done by trump to win the election in the united states (mcintyre, 2018). the actual facts are no longer the main thing in the news; all ways are done to get public attention. according to mcintyre (2018), at a time when the world functions with social media algorithms, public attention is correlated with economic motives. public attention on social media is a money mine; the number of clicks, shares, and views for each post can be financially rewarding. so it is not surprising that truth or fact is no longer a priority in this so-called post-truth era. in data-08, it can be seen other examples of posts on facebook that use sentences that provoke racist sentiments. the lexical component used is extremely racist for the french context; “un blanc s’est permis”, “des pompistes burundais noirs”, “monkeys”, “singes”. data-08 (source: facebook, accessed on august 5, 2021) a bujumbura au burundi, un blanc s'est permis de traiter des pompistes burundais noirs de "monkeys", entendez "singes" français...ils l'ont chicoté lui-même comme un animal sauvage 🥰#désobéissancecivileacte2 #rezopanacom translation: in bujurumba, burundi, a white person is allowed to treat black burundian pom officers like « monkeys », meaning french « monkeys »… they themselves shout at him like a wild animal. the text in data-08 is an illustration of a video showing a caucasian being beaten by four africans at a gas station. media verifiers have confirmed that this incident happened long ago, not in burundi but in south africa. the actual incident is criminal; the beaten caucasian bought fuel but refused to pay and tried to run away. this fake news circulating exploits the racism of whites and blacks that has been like fire in the husks of society for a long time. the second part of the discussion is digital media literacy discourse practices and efforts against fake news in france. all data on fake news discourse texts collected in the research can be verified by background on several news verifier media in france, also known as fact-checking media. through the digital media literacy program, these media provide platforms in the form of websites, image, and video verifiers, and some media also have accounts on several social media. some of these media are covered by large, wellestablished media, whether from official government agencies, public media such as afp, or private media such as france24, liberation, le monde, and others. this fake news verification reporting model has been known in france since 2000 (bigot, 2017) and gave rise to a separate type of journalism called “journalism de vérification”. the models of clarification or verification of news often found through social media are visual verification, audio-visual verification, and news text verification. several television channels in france also have fake news verification programs, which are also broadcast through the television channel’s youtube media, thus providing wider access for the public without being constrained by space and time. the majority of these verification programs are titled: “vrai ou fake”, “intox”, “infox,” or “désinfox”. in data-09, it can be seen that screenshot data from several fake news posts and their verification from media verifiers on social media. the verification comes from the official body of the ministry of foreign affairs for immigration through the twitter account @désinfox migrations. this post refutes false information spread by a well-known figure in france, marine le pen from the extreme right party, who is also a presidential candidate in the 2017 election. one of the characteristics of verifier accounts on social media is the use of clearly visible correction signs, such as in data-09, using a red cross in the text of the information stated to be false or incorrect. in his post, marine le pen raises the issue of national insecurity caused by massive and unregulated immigration issues. this fake news is succinctly and efficiently refuted by the twitter account of the french immigration agency. data-09 (source: twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) another form of verification is the correction of a visual or image that conveys an incorrect message. visually, this correction post is marked with red writing on the verified photo or image in the form of the words faux (false) or infox (fake news), as can be seen in data-10. data-10 (source: twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) data-10 confirms at once two aspects, namely text and photos, by placing a red cross on the text and the words faux in red on the verified photo. photo illustrations provide additional literacy that the narrative presented at the meeting in the picture does not match the actual facts. the debunked fake news post states, “british microbiologists say that vaccines give people false hope of giving people a sense of security”. this is verified by the french state news media afp on its twitter account and is declared fake news. another form of literacy from the same twitter account, afp, provides digital literacy by including official news with more valid references in the form of additional links in the post. it can be seen in data11 regarding the official statement from the indian government about the covid-19 variant that attacked india and claimed many victims in june 2021. data-11 (source: twitter, accessed on june 9, 2021) 112 113lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 105-115 social discourse of fake news .... (merry andriani, et al.) data-11 shows that the verification post visually only puts a red cross in the text, then adds an additional official news link. however, the attached photo is not marked with any markings, only written at the bottom of the official affirmation from the indian government, which does not deny the existence of certain types of covid-19 virus variants in the country. this verification text refutes the fake news discussed in data-02, which includes morphologically using emoticons excessively, and there are spelling errors in their writing. in general, fake news verifier accounts on social media give obvious signals and attract attention to verification posts, as seen in data-12. data-12 (source: twitter, accessed on june 10, 2021) data-13 (source: facebook, accessed on 10 june 2021) another form of posting fake news verification is in data-13 in the form of a separate news site that provides a more comprehensive narrative of fake news that is discussed and becomes a social discourse. an example of the case in data-13 is mauricette, the first senior to receive the covid-19 vaccine in france. this first vaccine event is widely broadcast in various french media, with the aim of socializing the vaccine to the public. however, after some time, there is news reported that 78-year-old mauricette died in december 2020 from a vaccine. this is a polemic and is believed by many people who are basically not sure about the effectiveness of vaccines that have not been clinically tested perfectly, and the time period for a vaccine is relatively short. the anti-vaccine movement itself actually exists long before the covid-19 pandemic hit the world, including in france. in the early days of the pandemic, there are groups of french people who, from the start, have doubts, do not believe in the existence of this virus, and think it is just a common cold. social discourse that doubted the dangers of the covid-19 virus then rolls and develops in many discussion groups on social media. then with the many fake news circulating, conspiracy theories also develop, also known as conspiracy theories in france. this social discourse aggressively voices certain world views contrary to reality and facts. often, the discourse that develops is also propaganda material that is disseminated through various platforms on social media. as of july 2021, the digital forensic research lab analysis has released data that the number of accounts in france using the anti-vaccine hashtag is the highest in the world, as can be seen in figure 3. figure 2 bubble graphic tweets using anti-vaccine hashtag for the period 7-14 july 2021 source: (@dfrlab, 2021) the bubble graphic data in figure 2 questions the effectiveness of efforts to fight fake news with digital media literacy that has been driven since 2017 in france. it turns out that this one effort alone is not enough to defuse fake news and allow the public to fully cooperate to receive a free vaccine from the french government. a tougher effort is then taken by the french government by requiring a sanitaire pass (vaccine certificate and/or negative pcr test result) as a condition to be able to access public facilities, such as restaurants, cafes, shopping centers, and public transportation modes. government employees and medical personnel who have not been vaccinated will not be paid their salaries starting november 15, 2021. the third part of the discussion is the social practices related to fake news discourse in france. social discourse is closely related to changes or movements in the society that are the result of social practice. there are a lot of social practices related to various issues in society that come from the social discourse being discussed through social media, such as religious issues, racism, health trends, and so on. one of the examples is what is happening in france at this time; there are several social practices during the pandemic. the french government regulation regarding the application of pass sanitaire has become a social discourse that is growing rapidly in society during the pandemic. this obligation is considered a dictatorial act and contrary to the french state’s principle, which upholds freedom with the state motto: liberté, egalité et fraternité (freedom, equality and fraternity). starting from a discourse circulating in the community through social media, resistance to this regulation then manifested in the form of demonstrations in various cities in france which took place every week since mid-2021. figure 3 shows one of the demonstrations in paris on september 4, 2021, attended by 140.000 people. figure 3 anti-vaccine demonstrations in paris every saturday although there have been many protests against the pass sanitaire policy, the number of the french population that has received the vaccine is relatively good at 70% in september 2021, according to data from the official covid tracker website in france https://covidtracker.fr/vaccintracker/. social practices that can be found in the community exposed to fake news are not only in the form of resistance to things considered government propaganda but also invitations to avoid mainstream media. it can be seen in data-14. data-14 (source: twitter, accessed on june 12, 2021) le vaccin «pfizer biontech» causerait des maladies neuro dégénératives qui endommageraient le cerveau🧠à long terme comme la maladie d’alzheimer et de lou gehrig🤧😁selon rapport médical ! vos merdias📺n’ont parleront pas bien sûr🤣👇! #nonaupassvaccinal translation: the vaccine «pfizer biontech» causes neurodegenerative diseases that damage the brain in the long term such as alzheimer's disease and lou gehrig's according to medical reports ! your media won't talk about it of course ! #nopassvaccine the text in data-14 provokes fear about the effects of vaccines that are not accompanied by reliable reference sources. then to make it look as if the information is a hidden secret, it is said that it is not discussed by “your media,” which refers to the mainstream media that is generally accessed by the public. even deliberately, the vocabulary “merdia” (merdias is plural) used is a play by combining the words “merde” (swearing damn/shit) and “media”. the mockery of media categorized as mainstream by using the term “merdia” is often found in posts identified as fake news, such as the following data-15. data-15 (source: facebook, accessed on june 17, 2021) the post in data-15 shows a photo of a young woman and a bottle of vaccine as an illustration. the fake news text in this data tells about a young girl named camilla, aged 18, who died after being vaccinated against the anti-covid. texts like this often provoke distrust of the mainstream media, which is considered to have lied by giving the reason for this girl’s death. she dies because of a hereditary disease she has suffered for a long time. this news is entitled “merdias mensonges” (media lies) and contains allegations of conspiracy between the media and the pharmaceutical industry and manipulation of news to the public. this fake news does not include valid evidence or facts against her accusations, such as official reports of the cause of camilla’s death from the hospital or expert testimony. mcintyre (2018) has stated that in the posttruth era, facts and truth are no longer important. the 114 115lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 105-115 social discourse of fake news .... (merry andriani, et al.) public is more likely to prioritize emotions and how they are believed and felt in accordance with their preferred ideology (bakir & mcstay, 2018). some social media audiences who read this post will accept it in its entirety and consider it the truth because it is in accordance with what they believe in through the news that has been consumed so far. without realizing it, social practices like this are directed in such a way by social media algorithms (shu et al., 2020). human habits in surfing on social media, such as pressing the like button, sharing links or information, and commenting on certain issues, are all well recorded and taken into account by algorithmic data. furthermore, on social media pages, the news or posts that appear are in line with the habits that people often do and the discourse they prefer. this has proven to further sharpen polarization and differences in society. the polarization and differences lead to certain social practices and social changes. conclusions through the discussion, it can be seen the use of a social discourse approach with a critical sociolinguistic perspective in analyzing the phenomenon of fake news. the three perspectives of critical discourse, namely language practice, discourse practice, and social practice, can show the relationship between social discourse texts and social phenomena found related to fake news, which often has the potential to provoke social problems. from the language practice, the analysis of verified text forms as fake news shows a tendency to (1) use insufficient or excessive and inappropriate punctuation marks; (2) excessive use of emoticons; (3) selection of provocative lexical types; (4) orthography errors (writing spelling). at the syntactic level, many of the fake news texts analyzed in this research have characteristics of (1) conjugation errors, (2) use of imperative sentences, and (3) omission of the subject of the sentence. the collected french fake news texts often refer to unclear sources and the use of impersonal pronouns or subjects that do not refer to a clear person or group. in addition, semantically, a lot of persuasive and provocative sentences are found intended to provoke emotions, generate hatred, and often take advantage of racist and religious sentiments. the diffusion chain of this kind of fake news text through social media has generated a certain impact in french society, for example, in recently the anti-vaccine movement. it could provoke many other social or political movements, as also seen in indonesia. social media, as the main medium of contemporary society today, requires better technical tools to reduce the impact of social polarization and misinformation. digital media literacy efforts alone have proven insufficient to stem fake news and protect the public from the adverse effects of misinformation. crucial social issues in fake news, such as those related to health, religious security guarantees, and racism, need special attention in handling. this is necessary considering that it is related to the issue of the right to life which is very basic for humans everywhere on this earth, especially during a pandemic when human being requires the correct information to survive. the research in the french context shows the specific domaine as the result of media literacy; journalism of verification. for further research, it could be developed in indonesia and supported by better technical tools. this could be a way to reduce the negative impact of fake news. references alemanno, a. 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(2020). new democracy in digital era through social media and news online. humaniora, 11(1), 13-19. https://doi. org/10.21512/humaniora.v11i1.6182. in pr es s *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 lingua cultura, 17(1), july 2023, 1-8 doi: 10.21512/lc.v17i1.8498 students’ perception on using storytelling in developing socio-cultural competence genta sakti1; eliza2; veni roza3*; absharini kardena4 english education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training, universitas islam negeri m. djamil djambek jl. gurun aur, kubang putih, kec. banuhampu, kota bukittinggi, west sumatera 26181, indonesia 1gentapamenan64@gmail.com; 2eliza@yahoo.co.id; 3veniroz_501@yahoo.com; 4absharinikardena@yahoo.co.id received: 24th may 2022/revised: 21st november 2022/accepted: 25th november 2022 how to cite: sakti, g., eliza., roza, v., & kardena, a. (2023). students’ perception on using storytelling in developing socio-cultural competence. lingua cultura, 17(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v17i1.8498 abstract the research aimed at finding out students’ perception of using storytelling as one of the techniques used in english class in order to develop students’ sociocultural competence. the research was conducted under mixed-method research. the sample of the research was english students at iain bukittinggi who had taken storytelling classes and english students at uin imam bonjol padang who had joined an english activity (storytelling) held by the english students association of english study program. the instruments of the research were a questionnaire and an interview. the data were analyzed using quantitative analysis for the data from the questionnaire and qualitative analysis for the data from the interview. the research finding shows that the students argue that they have improved their ability in sociocultural competence, at least in five aspects. they state that they are good in these five elements; (1) students’ attitude toward sociocultural competence, (2) students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence, (3) students’ ability to interpret and relate cultural issues, (4) students’ ability in discovery and interaction, and (5) students’ ability of critical cultural awareness. thus, it can be stated that storytelling is a good technique that can be used to develop students’ sociocultural competence based on students’ perceptions. keywords: perception, story-telling, socio-cultural competence introduction today’s english learning has come into a phase that emphasizes the use and application of language, both oral and written communication. learning a foreign language nowadays is not merely about producing sentences that are grammatically correct but considering the appropriateness of those sentences based on mutual understanding among the language users. in other words, the language students are expected to be able to produce understandable texts. furthermore, it is in line with the statements from tariq et al. (2019), which state that producing language is a social process involving the interaction among language users who have the same or even different cultures. it proves that the skills of interpretation and establishing relationships between two different cultures and the skills of discovery and interaction are mainly important during communication among language users who have different mother tongues (byram, 1995; hoff, 2020; smakova & paulsrud, 2020). moreover, it is also strengthened by croucher (2020), who has explained that exploring cultures in many cases will always intersect and involve discussion of human communication and its language. these theories lead to a general concept that foreign language learners should be able to produce the language by involving a set of competencies that include not only grammatical competence but also sociolinguistics competence and strategic competence, mainly known as communicative competence (prihatiningsih, 2020; tulasi & murthy, 2022; khomenko et al., 2021). this theory, in fact, is used as a basis to develop the curriculum in indonesia. in pr es s 2 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 1-8 the goal of teaching english as a foreign language has to mainly concern with all standards of communicative competence. sociocultural competence is the ability to use language appropriately by considering cultural elements and the situation in which the language is used (kattayeva, 2022; jumanazarovna, 2020). to achieve mutual understanding in communication, speakers must have the willingness and ability to communicate and participate in cultural dialogue, which means they have sociocultural competence. the concept of sociocultural competence is basically based on the argument that foreign languages and cultures reflect the daily lives of people around the world (jumanazarovna, 2020; arif & jusuf, 2022). therefore, foreign language learning, in this context, english learning in indonesia, should encourage students to have competencies related to foreign languages and cultures and enable them to communicate across cultures. in the implementation of learning english, many teaching methods and techniques have been used, all of which lead to the achievement of the goal of mastering english. one method that emphasizes communication skills is storytelling. many previous studies have discussed the benefits and implementation of storytelling in various english competencies, such as improving speaking skills, interacting fluently, increasing vocabulary levels, and improving reading skills and grammar (satriani, 2019; nguyen, 2021). however, theoretically, storytelling is also helpful for improving the sociocultural competence of english language users. as stated by ruppert, adcock, and crave (2017), storytelling can be used as one of the tools for developing students’ competence in sociocultural aspects. it is said that storytelling is a fun teaching method, while it can also improve students’ abilities in some areas, such as reading ability, speaking, writing, and sociocultural competence. thus, storytelling is mentioned as a suggested teaching method in the classroom. besides, saripudin, komalasari, and anggraini (2021) have also argued that storytelling can strengthen students’ characters. the values contained in a story may lead students to behave in a good manner (saripudin, komalasari, & anggraini, 2021). in this case, there have been many research conducted related to storytelling. astuti (2017), mutashim and syafi’i (2018), dewi (2021), and sumbayak and tamala (2022) do research to find out the effectiveness of storytelling in speaking activities. besides, hidayati (2020) and kasami (2021) have also studied the advantages of storytelling in improving students’ communication skill and motivation in using english. however, any research related to students’ perceptions of viewing storytelling as an effort to develop sociocultural competence is still very limited. the researches so far discuss the use of storytelling in teaching english as a general aspect or even just limited in teaching speaking. in fact, there is almost none of the research investigated the effect of storytelling on developing students’ sociocultural competence. in other words, the research related to how students perceive the influence of using storytelling on their sociocultural competence is one of the significant areas of research that needs to be investigated more. for this reason, this research aims to look at students’ perceptions of implementing storytelling as one teaching method containing elements of sociocultural competence. it is expected that the result of this research may give valuable input for the teachers on their students’ perception of their sociocultural competence during english learning process. the result surely may give a picture of how the students reflect on their sociocultural competence. thus, it may help the teacher to decide to use storytelling continuously in teaching english, which aims to involve sociocultural competence in teaching english. methods this research uses descriptive research using a mixed-method design. it aims to analyze students’ perceptions of the use of storytelling in developing their sociocultural competence. the research describes students’ opinions about their sociocultural competence development after taking a storytelling class. the research is done in two universities with english education study programs and storytelling activities for the students. the research population is english students at iain bukittinggi and uin imam bonjol who have taken storytelling classes. at iain bukittinggi, the storytelling class is offered under spoken english activity (sea) subject, which has some sub-subjects, such as sea storytelling class, sea debate class, sea news reader class, and others. while at uin imam bonjol padang, the storytelling activity is a part of the extra activity of the students’ association in the english education study program. thus in this research, the total number of the population can be seen in table 1. table 1 population of the research population total number of population iain bukittinggi 80 students uin imam bonjol 81 students total population 161 students based on the population in table 1, the researchers chose the samples for the research. the samples of the research are chosen by using cluster random sampling. therefore, the samples are taken from 25% of the population (sugiyono, 2010). since the total population is 161 students, the total sample is 42 students, which is taken using random cluster sampling. thus, the sample is taken from one class at iain bukittinggi and one at uin imam bonjol. however, because at uin imam bonjol, storytelling is a part of the students’ association in the english in pr es s 3students’ perception on using .... (genta sakti, et al.) education study program, then the total number of students for one class is not as many as the total number of students for one class at iain bukittinggi. the sample data for the research can be seen in table 2. table 2 samples of the research sample total number of sample iain bukittinggi 33 students uin imam bonjol 9 students total population 42 students however, the samples that could fill out the questionnaire directly are only 20 students, while 22 students fill out the questionnaires through google forms since they still attend the classroom online. in other words, not all the samples can be met directly because the system of teaching-learning processes uses hybrid learning (a combination of offline and online learning). the instruments used in this research are questionnaires and interviews. these instruments (questionnaire and interview guide) are categorized as a kind of self-design instrument in which the researchers have a part in designing the points included on the instruments. besides, the use of both of those instruments is aimed at getting real data. in other words, the data from the questionnaire are supported by the data from the interview. because of that, the data in this research are real data as a fact. the points that are asked in the instruments of this research rely on the theory about students’ perception of using storytelling in developing their sociocultural competence. it includes students’ perception of the attitude, knowledge, interpreting and relating intercultural issues, discovery and interaction, and critical cultural awareness. in using both questionnaires and interviews, the researchers do validation for both of the instruments. the validation is done related to the points of the questionnaire checklist and questions in the interview guide. in order to validate the instruments, the researchers ask for help from the experts. the validation process is done before the researchers come to the field to collect the data. in gathering the data for this research, the researchers use a closed questionnaire and an interview. the data are gathered firstly by distributing closed-questionnaire to the students. in doing this, the researchers are helped by two assistances of the researchers to distribute the questionnaires. the questionnaire covers students’ perceptions of using storytelling in developing their sociocultural competence. moreover, the interview is also a multiple interview. in this case, the interview is done with the same participants to reflect the students’ perception of using storytelling in developing their sociocultural competence. while interviewing the participants, the researchers take notes. the field note is used in order to help the researchers in clarifying the data. the interview is stopped when needed data has been collected (saturated). for analyzing quantitative data, firstly, the researchers tabulate the data from the questionnaire. in tabulating the data, the researchers divide the data based on the kinds of statements in the questionnaire. the questionnaire statements consist of two kinds of statements; positive statements (positive attitude to a diversity of culture) and negative statements (negative attitude to a diversity of culture). thus, in tabulating the data, the scoring for the likert scale is also different. the score of the linkert scale for those statements can be seen in table 3. table 3 likert scale options of statements scoring for positive statements scoring for negative statements strongly agree 5 1 agree 4 2 neutral 3 3 disagree 2 4 strongly disagree 1 5 furthermore, the researchers calculate the percentage of the data for each item in the questionnaire. the formula used to calculate the percentage is stated as follows: p = f x 100 n p = percentage f = frequency chosen by sample n = amount of the sample the researchers categorize the percentage of each item based on the category proposed by morissan (2014), which can be seen in table 4. table 4 interpretation data the range of category interpretation 81%-100% very good 61%-80% good 41%-60% enough 21%-40% low <20% very low the steps in analyzing the data obtained from the interview are done through these steps: the researcher transcript the data collected from the in pr es s 4 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 1-8 interview. in this case, the researchers differentiate between participants’ opinions and facts on the data obtained from the interview. in other words, the researchers have to be able to clarify any personal bias from the data collected. after that, the researchers gather pure data related to the research. any other data that is not about the research should be put out. moreover, the researchers get the real facts of the data. furthermore, the researchers interpret the meaning of the phrases or statements from the interview and participants’ activity during the questionnaire. lastly, the researchers describe the deeper meaning of the participants’ statements from the interview and the questionnaire. the results of the questionnaire and interview are studied and analyzed to get real data. results and discussions table 5 shows data obtained from students at uin imam bonjol and iain bukittinggi related to students’ perception of using storytelling for developing their sociocultural competence. based on table 5, the data can be analyzed by dividing it into indicators. the first indicator is about students’ perceptions related to students’ attitudes toward sociocultural competence after having a storytelling class. points 1 to 6 show the data on students’ attitudes toward sociocultural competence. based on the data in table 5, it can be stated that the students argue that their attitude toward sociocultural competence is categorized well after they table 5 questionnaire shared on english students at uin imam bonjol and iain bukittinggi no item sd d n a sa % category 1 aware about cultural diversity 10 23 9 79,5 good 2 comfortable being with similar communities 11 23 8 41,4 enough 3 appreciate different cultures’ behaviours 9 22 11 80,9 very good 4 interested about learning about other cultures 4 24 14 84,8 very good 5 uncomfortable with people speaking other languages 4 10 15 10 3 60,9 good 6 interested in learning and socializing with people 2 10 20 10 78 good 7 do not notice cultural differences 3 14 17 5 3 64,2 good 8 have two or more cultural frames of reference 2 24 14 2 67,6 good 9 have and use knowledge about different cultures 3 14 23 2 71,4 good 10 assume that everyone from the same culture are the same 13 16 9 4 58,1 enough 11 respect cultural differences 5 22 15 84,8 very good 12 analyze and evaluate situations from different cultural perspectives 17 21 4 51,9 enough 13 question my own prejudices and cultural stereotypes 2 28 10 2 54,3 enough 14 have the ability to see events from different perspectives 2 20 15 5 70,9 good 15 think my culture is better than other cultures 1 15 15 11 62,8 good 16 use verbal and nonverbal communication skills of other culture 16 23 3 73,8 good 17 can give up my own world view to participate in another one 2 5 19 14 2 64,3 good 18 can shift between two or more cultural perspectives in a given situation and make a choice to act from one of these cultures 2 2 20 16 2 66,7 good 19 incorporate attractive aspects of other cultures into my own way of doing things 3 28 11 63,8 good 20 feel self-confident socializing with people from other cultures 4 15 21 2 70 good 21 ability to deal flexibly and adjust to new people, places or situations 17 21 4 51,9 enough 22 think negative about people who act or look different 4 19 11 5 3 67,6 good 23 consider what other people say about my culture 4 20 15 3 68,1 good 24 can act as cultural mediator and serve as a bridge between people of different cultures 3 21 15 3 68,6 good in pr es s 5students’ perception on using .... (genta sakti, et al.) learn english through storytelling for one semester. it is strengthened by the fact that the students think they are categorized as very good at appreciating different cultures’ behaviors and showing interest in learning about other cultures. besides, they also think they are good at being aware of cultural diversity, being comfortable with people speaking other languages, and being interested in learning and socializing. besides data related to the second indicator (students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence), it can be stated that the students argue that their knowledge of sociocultural competence is categorized well. points 7 to 10 in table 5 show students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence. in detail, after having storytelling class, they argue that they are good at noticing cultural differences, having two or more cultural frames of reference, and having and using knowledge about different cultures. besides, they think that they are quite good (enough) in assuming that everyone from the same culture is the same. in addition, based on data in table 5, it can be interpreted that after having storytelling class, they argue that their ability to interpret and relate cultural issues is categorized well. it is proved by the data in table 5, points 11-15. in detail, the students think that they are categorized as very good at showing respect for cultural differences, while they are also good at seeing events from different activities and having an opinion that their culture is not better than others. additionally, they are good enough at analyzing and evaluating situations from different perspectives and arguing their prejudices and cultural stereotypes. moreover, related to data of the fourth indicator (students’ ability in discovery and interaction), it can be seen that the students argue that their ability in discovery and interaction is categorized as good. it is proved by the data in table 5, points 16-21. in fact, they think that they are good at using verbal and nonverbal communication skills of other cultures, giving up their own worldview to participate in another one, shifting between two or more cultural perspectives in a given situation, and making a choice to act from one of these cultures, incorporating attractive aspects of other cultures into their own way of doing things, and feeling self-confident socializing with people from other cultures. furthermore, they argue that they are good enough at dealing with flexibility and adjusting to new people, places, and situations. these opinions are derived after they take a storytelling class for a semester. the last indicator (students’ ability of critical cultural awareness) proved that the students thought they had good ability in critical cultural awareness. it is proved by the data on table 5 point 22-24. it shows that they thought that they can avoid any negative thinking about people who act or look different, can consider what other people say about their culture, and can act as cultural mediator and serve as a bridge between people of different cultures. the last indicator (students’ ability of critical cultural awareness) proves that the students think they have good ability in critical cultural awareness. it is proved by the data in table 5, points 22-24. it shows that they think that they can avoid any negative thinking about people who act or look differently, can consider what other people say about their culture, can act as cultural mediators, and serve as a bridge between people of different cultures. based on these five indicators (students’ attitude of sociocultural competence, students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence, students’ ability to interpret and relate cultural issues, students’ ability to discover and interact, and students’ ability to critical cultural awareness), it can be analyzed that as whole the students think that they are categorized well in developing their sociocultural competence after they have storytelling class. in order to strengthen the data from the questionnaire, the researchers also interview the students. there are 5 of 42 students who are interviewed. the data from the interview is stated in table 6. based on data from interviews, it is known that most students thought they get many good impacts from storytelling, especially when the text is related to western people or foreign people’s life. they have said that they think storytelling influences them in a good way for developing their sociocultural competence. these data are in line with the data from the questionnaire in which the students think that they have good ability in sociocultural competence after they have learned english through storytelling. thus, it can be stated that english students have a positive opinion about using storytelling as a medium for developing their sociocultural competence. based on the data analysis, which has been explained in the previous section, it is known that the english students at iain bukittinggi who have taken storytelling classes and english students at uin imam bonjol who have joined extra activities in their english student’s association english education study program have argued that they can develop their sociocultural competence through storytelling. it is in line with the theory proposed by stanley and dillingham (2009) that has said storytelling does not only help students to improve their speaking ability through retelling the story but also helps them to develop their sociocultural competence by noticing the values in the story (stanley & dillingham, 2009; tural & cubukcu, 2021). in a detail component of sociocultural competence, the students argue that they are categorized ‘good’ in all indicators used for measuring sociocultural competence, which consists of students’ attitude toward sociocultural competence, students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence, students’ ability to interpret and relating cultural issues, students’ ability in discovery and interaction, and students’ ability of critical cultural awareness. as stated by baldasaro, maldonado, and baltes (2014) and rohmani and andriyanti (2022), in learning english as a foreign language, it is important for the students to show a good attitude in seeing two or more in pr es s 6 lingua cultura, vol. 17 no. 1, july 2023, 1-8 different cultures in different social environments. the students should be able to show a good attitude, which can be seen from their ability to appreciate different cultures’ behaviors and show interest in learning about other cultures. furthermore, byram (1997) has also explained that having knowledge of many kinds of cultures also influences students’ sociocultural competence. it can be developed by using storytelling to improve students’ knowledge. the students can notice the different cultures and have more cultural fame as a reference when they act in heterogeneous environments. in relation to the research, these theories are in line with the result of the research in which students think that storytelling helps them get more knowledge of sociocultural factors in western life. another element of sociocultural competence that can be improved through storytelling is the ability to interpret and relate cultural issues. in short, the data from the research also shows that the students argue that they have a good ability in interpreting and relating cultural issues. the other component of sociocultural competence that also needs to be acquired by the students is discovery and interaction. besides, they should also be able to deal with flexibility and adjust to new people, places, and situations. in fact, the research results show that students have a good perception in which they think they are good at discovery and interaction as a part of sociocultural competence. it can be stated that students should have cultural experiences, which can be done through discovery or interaction (falchetti et al., 2021). the last indicator is related to students’ ability to critical cultural awareness. the data of the research shows that the students think that they can avoid any negative thinking about people who act or look different, can consider what other people say about their culture, and can act as a cultural mediator and serve as a bridge between people of different cultures (yuldashbayevna, 2020). in a more detailed explanation, through interviews few students, it is also known that the students perceive that storytelling can help them improve their communication skills. storytelling is a technique that can be used to improve students’ ability to speak and read while also can help students to improve their critical thinking and sociocultural competence (ikrammuddin, 2017; kardena et al., 2019). thus, it can be stated that based on students’ table 6 transcript of interview no. questions of interview answers 1 what sociocultural knowledge have you acquired through storytelling? s1: i finally know that indonesia has many different cultures comparing to foreign culture. for example, i realize the way to offer and accept something can be different between these two cultures. s2: many things i get, such as they have culture to read a book or story for the children before going to bed. i know it in my class. besides, they have a culture to make a rule for the family and do it honestly. so, i get much knowledge related to sociocultural aspects after taking storytelling class. s3: i get many things, such as knowledge about the relationship between parents and children in western culture. the way they call their sister or brother, etc. s4: i learn more about the attitude there. i realize that there are some positive and also negative things about western culture. in some ways, we are more polite, but we can absorb the positive things from their culture. s5: hhhmmm... i think i get much knowledge. i learn about the use of address of terms. the slang language which also stated in my story. 2 how do you think storytelling influence your ability in sociocultural competence s1: i think storytelling is good to help learn about other cultures. i notice some different cultures based on the story i read. so, yeah, it gives me some influences, i think. in a good way. s2: i like to learn storytelling. it helps me to improve my reading and speaking. then, i think i also get much valuable knowledge about people in western countries, especially when i read and retell western short stories or fable, etc. s3: i like to read something new, so not indonesia story. so, sure i get many influences from the text. sometimes the lecturer leads our attention to the different social and cultural factors we find in the text. sometimes, i notice it by myself. it is interesting, i think. s4: i think storytelling really helps me to improve my knowledge about people outside, i mean foreign people. it is really great to read stories from western countries. we get knowledge about their habits, or which one is polite and which one is not. something like that. s5: i learn a lot of idioms and slang language from storytelling. i mean i know when it should be used, such as, with friends or sister or brother. in pr es s 7students’ perception on using .... (genta sakti, et al.) perceptions, storytelling is a useful technique that may give many benefits to the students. then, it can also be stated that students’ percept that storytelling is a technique that can help them develop and increase their sociocultural competence from many aspects, such as attitude, knowledge, ability to interpret, and awareness. although there are data on students’ perception of using storytelling in developing students’ sociocultural competence, this research has not investigated the level of students’ sociocultural competence after learning english through the storytelling technique. conclusions based on the research conducted under mixedmethod research, it is found that the students agree that they think sociocultural competence has helped them to develop their sociocultural competence. they think that they are categorized well in students’ attitudes toward sociocultural competence, students’ knowledge of sociocultural competence, students’ ability to interpret and relate cultural issues, students’ ability to discover and interact, and students’ ability of critical cultural awareness. thus it can be concluded that based on students’ perceptions, storytelling is a good technique that can be used to develop students’ sociocultural competence. meanwhile, this research is limited only to analyzing students’ perceptions of using storytelling in developing sociocultural competence. this research cannot give enough data on improving students’ sociocultural competence after using the storytelling technique. thus, for further research, it is suggested to conduct experimental research to see how storytelling affects students’ sociocultural competence. references arif, m., & jusuf, h. 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(2010). memahami penelitian kualitatif. jakarta, indonesia: alfabeta. sumbayak, d. m., & tamala, i. p. (2022). reflection on the use of digital storytelling in speaking class in the pandemic time. international journal of educational best practices, 6(1), 121-133. http:// dx.doi.org/10.31258/ijebp.v6n1.p121-133. tariq, j., ishtiaq, n., khalid, k., yousaf, a., & ahmed, n. (2019). sociocultural implications of language: an investigation of the hindrances caused by sociocultural factors on expressive discourse. international journal of scientific & engineering research, 10(2), 1152-1178. tulasi, l., & murthy, n. s. r. (2022). a review of linguistic and communicative competence: an esp approach. the review of contemporary scientific and academic studies, 2(3), 1-5. https://doi. org/10.55454/rcsas.2.3.2022.002. tural, p., & cubukcu, f. (2021). raising intercultural awareness through short stories in efl classes. journal of educational sciences, 22(1), 18-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.35923/jes.2021.1.02. yuldashbayevna, n. j. (2020). raising efl students intercultural communication through short stories. international journal of academic pedagogical reserach (ijapr), 4(7), 24-32. 120 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 dampak psikologis tokoh pria dan wanita dalam film tangshan da dizhen andriani sinarsih1; yuvina handani2; cendrawaty tjong3 1,2,3 chinese department, faculty of humaniora , binus univesity jl.kemanggisan ilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480, +62-21-5327630 1theblue_dolphin88@yahoo.com; 2yuvi_handani20@yahoo.com; 3cencen_zzz@yahoo.com abstract “tangshan da dizhen” directed by feng xiaogang began filming in 2010, is a film based on a true story. the article focuses on the story of a mother who must choose to save one of her twins (daughter and son) when tangshan earthquake happened in 1976. this causes psychological trauma to the three main actors, yuanni, fang deng and fang da. the purpose of this study was to indicate the gender inequality in society might cause deep psychological trauma. the article applied qualitative methods with the help of literature, such as books, journals, and research results related to the research topic author. the research finds out that gender inequality in tiongkok’s traditional society is mainly a social problem, which can cause a psychological trauma especially in women. keywords: gender inequality, disaster, trauma abstrak “tangshan da dizhen “ yang disutradarai oleh feng xiaogang mulai melakukan syuting di 2010, adalah film yang berdasarkan pada kisah nyata. artikel berfokus pada kisah seorang ibu yang harus memilih untuk menyelamatkan salah satu dari anak perempuan atau anak laki-lakinya (kembar) saat gempa tangshan terjadi pada tahun 1976. hal ini menyebabkan trauma psikologis pada ketiga aktor utama, yaitu yuanni, fang deng, dan fang da. tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukkan bahwa ketidaksetaraan gender dalam satu masyarakat dapat menyebabkan trauma psikologis yang mendalam. artikel ini menerapkan metode kualitatif dengan bantuan kajian literatur, seperti buku, jurnal, dan hasil penelitian yang berkaitan dengan topik penelitian penulis. penelitian ini menemukan bahwa ketidaksetaraan gender dalam masyarakat tradisional tiongkok merupakan masalah sosial yang dapat menyebabkan trauma psikologis terutama pada wanita. kata kunci: ketidaksetaraan gender, bencana, trauma 121dampak psikologis tokoh pria dan wanita .... (andriani sinarsih; dkk) pendahuluan film tangshan da dizhen yang disutradarai oleh feng xiaogang pada tahun 2010 merupakan film yang didasarkan pada kisah nyata mengenai gempa berskala besar yang terjadi di kota tangshan pada tanggal 28 juli 1976. gempa tersebut menimbulkan kehancurkan seluruh kota dalam kurun waktu 32 detik. kisah tersebut menceritakan seorang ibu muda bernama li yuanni yang menghadapi dilema karena harus memilih satu diantara kedua anaknya untuk diselamatkan. keputusan li yuanni untuk mengorbankan anak perempuannya demi menyelamatkan anak laki-lakinya ini mengubah nasib seluruh keluarga. walaupun fang deng, anak perempuannya berhasil bertahan hidup dan selamat dari kematian, tetapi jiwanya sudah mati. fang deng terpukul karena ia merasa telah dibuang oleh ibunya. hal ini menyebabkan fanf deng membenci ibunya dan tidak pernah mencari kesempatan untuk bertemu dengan ibunya. meskipun pada masyarakat tiongkok era modern telah menganjurkan kesetaraaan bagi semua orang, namun pada kenyataannya masih banyak orang yang lebih memilih anak laki-laki dibandingkan anak perempuan. penulis berpendapat bahwa ketidaksetaraan gender di dalam film mewakili munculnya masalah sosial di dalam masyarakat. banyak orang tua yang lebih mementingkan anak lelaki daripada perempuan, sehingga membawa penderitaan yang menyakitkan bagi anak perempuan. hal ini disebabkan oleh adanya kebudayaan tradisional tiongkok. yang hui (2005) menunjukkan ketidaksetaraan gender yang disebabkan karena laki-laki lebih kuat daripada wanita di masyarakat dan wanita selalu membutuhkan perlindungan dari laki-laki. selain itu, hal tersebut juga dipengaruhi oleh pandangan masyarakat selama ribuan tahun mengenai dasar genetik serta status wanita yang lebih rendah. menurut penelitian yang zhihui dan wang jianping (2007), bencana alam akan menimbulkan masalah psikologis pada seseorang. gangguan stress pasca-trauma psikologis yang luar biasa berasal dari gangguan traumatis yang berulang. menurut dsmi—kriteria diagnostik diklasifikasikan sebagai penyakit yang mengancam jiwa merupakan salah satu sumber stress yang disebabkan oleh gangguan stres pasca-trauma. penulis menemukan bahwa tokoh utama dalam film ini mengalami masalah psikologis yang cukup berat karena dihadapkan pada pilihan saat gempa terjadi. selain itu, dia juga mengalami masalah psikologi pada kehidupan pasca gempa akibat dampak dari pilihan tersebut. penelitian ini difokuskan kepada dampak psikologis yang dialami oleh tokoh utama ketika gempa dan pasca gempa terjadi. selain itu, bagaimana tokoh utama menyelesaikan konflik yang terjadi akibat gempa yang mengubah kehidupannya. ruang lingkup penelitian ini lebih difokuskan kepada perasaan fang deng, fang da, dan ibunya dalam film tangshan da dizhen pada saat gempa dan pasca gempa. tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah untuk memberikan pemahaman kepada pembaca bahwa perilaku ketidaksetaraan gender yang sengaja maupun tidak sengaja dilakukan anggota masyarakat dapat membawa luka batin yang mendalam bagi orang lain. metode metode yang digunakan adalah metode penelitian kualitatif dengan bantuan studi pustaka yaitu buku, jurnal, dan hasil penelitian yang berhubungan dengan topik penelitian penulis. dikarenakan penelitian ini berdasarkan pada film tangshan da dizhen, maka penulis memakai film ini sebagai objek penelitian dari dampak psikologis yang terjadi pada tokoh utama pria dan wanita. penulis menganalisis dampak dari ketidaksetaraan gender pada tokoh utama dengan menggunakan teori psikologis bencana. penelitian dibagi menjadi tiga tahap penelitian yaitu (1) keadaan psikologis tokoh utama pada saat gempa, (2) dampak gempa terhadap kehidupan tokoh utama, (3) pemulihan trauma akibat ketidaksetaraan gender. hasil dan pembahasan perilaku ketidaksetaraan gender adalah hal yang sering dijumpai dalam masyarakat. walaupun pemikiran modern mengenai emansipasi wanita sudah banyak beredar di masyarakat, tetapi pada saat tertentu masyarakat partriarki cenderung menunjukkan perilaku atau pandangan yang mendukung ketidaksetaraan gender tersebut. hal ini terlihat di dalam film “tangshan da dizhen”. yuanni yang berperan sebagai ibu tokoh utama adalah wanita yang bertumbuh di masyarakat pemikiran modern. pada saat yuanni dihadapkan pada pilihan mempertahankan anak laki-laki atau perempuan, ia memilih untuk mempertahankan anak laki-laki dengan berbagai pertimbangan budaya. hal ini menyebabkan tokoh utama wanita (fang deng) mengalami trauma. ia merasa dibuang oleh ibunya sejak kecil hingga dewasa. trauma ini diperkuat oleh keadaan alam yang memang mendukung yaitu terjadinya gempa berskala besar yang mematikan banyak orang. cheng li dan liu di (2008) dalam penelitiannya mengemukakan bahwa ciri umum orang yang mengalami trauma pasca gempa adalah hilangnya kesadaran, timbulnya rasa bersalah, dan suka mengalami kilas balik. li ming (2012) dalam penelitiannya membahas masalah ketidaksetaraan gender yang masih terjadi di budaya tiongkok. hal ini disebabkan oleh pengaruh pandangan tradisional tiongkok dan kurangnya kesadaran diri dari wanita. ketidaksetaraan gender di masyarakat tradisional tiongkok tercermin dalam pembagian kerja dalam keluarga dan sistem stratifikasi dalam masyarakat. masyarakat berpendapat seorang pria hendaknya bekerja di luar rumah, sedangkan wanita mengurus anak dan keluarga di rumah. pandangan tradisional yang menekankan budaya patriarki menyebabkan wanita tiongkok memiliki kedudukan yang rendah selama ribuan tahun. hal ini membuat wanita menjadi kurang percaya diri di hadapan pria. wanita tiongkok dituntut untuk patuh dan tunduk kepada pria, sehingga mereka kurang memiliki kesadaran akan nilai diri sendiri. mereka memiliki ketergantungan psikologis yang kuat kepada pria, kurangnya kemandirian, kurang kesadaran politik dan hukum, serta kurang kesadaran pendidikan tinggi. semua hal tersebut tercermin dalam film “tangshan da dizhen.” 122 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 keadaan psikologis tokoh utama pada saat gempa gempa besar tangshan yang terjadi hanya dalam beberapa detik pada tanggal 28 juli 1976 mengubah seluruh kehidupan masyarakat di tangshan. ayah dan ibu fang deng dan fang da yang pada saat itu berada di luar segera berlari ke gedung tempat tinggal mereka untuk menyelamatkan kedua anak kembarnya. namun, ketika ayah fang deng dan fang da melihat reruntuhan rumah yang akan menimpa li yuanni (ibu fang deng dan fang da), tanpa berpikir panjang ia mendorong istrinya dan mengorbankan dirinya demi keselamatan istrinya. li yuanni sangat sedih dan kehilangan motivasi untuk hidup. ketika li yuanni berpikir bahwa suaminya kehilangan nyawa demi menolong anak-anaknya, ia pun memiliki kekuatan untuk bangkit dan segera mencari anak-anaknya di tengah reruntuhan tempat tinggalnya. pada saat yuanni hampir menyerah, ia mendengar teriakan seseorang yang mengatakan bahwa anak-anaknya ada di tengah reruntuhan (00:19:35). dia segera berlari dan menemukan anak-anaknya tertindih lempengan reruntuhan bangunan. para pria segera bekerja untuk mengeluarkan anak-anaknya, tetapi jumlah tenaga dan peralatan yang terbatas menyebabkan kerja mereka tidak maksimal. sebagai seorang ibu, ia tahu anak-anaknya yang masih kecil tidak sanggup untuk bertahan hidup karena lamanya bantuan yang diberikan. ia memohon pada para relawan untuk menolong anak-anaknya, dia berkata: “saya mohon pada kalian, selamatkan anak-anak ini, ayah mereka sudah meninggal…” (00:20:37) pada saat itu yuanni mendapat desakan dari para relawan untuk memilih menyelamatkan salah satu dari anaknya. sebagai seorang ibu, ia berkata: “semuanya diselamatkan, dua-duanya harus diselamatkan.” (00:21:31). hal ini disebabkan karena para relawan tidak dapat dalam waktu yang sama menyelamatkan kedua anaknya, dan kembali memaksa yuanni untuk memilih salah satu dari anaknya untuk diselamatkan. jika yuanni tidak segera mengambil keputusan, maka hal ini akan berakibat fatal yaitu kedua anaknya akan meninggal. dalam keadaan terpaksa, ia akhirnya memilih menyelamatkan anak laki-lakinya, fang da. yuanni berkata: “saudara, selamatkan si adik” (00:22:41). jika pada awalnya yuanni mengatakan dengan suara gemetar, kemudian dia bertekad dan mengatakan dengan tegas: “selamatkan adik.” (00:22:51) yuanni yang lebih memilih anak laki-lakinya dibanding anak perempuan ini dipengaruhi oleh budaya partriarki yang sudah mendarah daging di dalam budaya tingkok tradisional. budaya patriarki pada masyarakat tiongkok tradisional ini memiliki peranan penting di dalam pemilihan gender tersebut (sun, 2009). hal ini kemudian akan dibuktikan dengan harapan sang ibu kepada anak laki lakinya tersebut untuk menuntut ilmu setinggi-tinggi agar mendapatkan pekerjaan yang memuliakan negara. selain itu, sang ibu juga berharap anak laki-lakinya tersebut bisa memberikan keturunan yang dapat mengharumkan nama keluarga. sebagai perempuan tiongkok yang lahir di generasi baru, fang deng sejak kecil sudah merasakan bahwa adik laki-lakinya yang selalu diutamakan oleh ibunya. hal ini menyebabkan pemberontakan pada diri fang deng. hal ini dapat dilihat saat fang deng memberontak ketika ibunya memberikan jeruknya kepada adiknya dan membiarkan adiknya menikmati kipas angin terlebih dulu, karena pada saat itu kipas angin masih merupakan barang yang mewah. pada saat gempa terjadi, ia dan adiknya sedang tidur. mereka tertindih reruntuhan bangunan dan tidak ada harapan untuk bertahan hidup. fang deng adalah anak perempuan yang kuat dan memiliki tekad hidup yang kuat. dalam keadaan tidak berdaya, ia terus menyemangati adiknya yang sudah kehilangan semangat hidup untuk terus bertahan hingga bantuan dating. fang deng mencari batu dan terus mengetuknya untuk memberikan tanda keberadaan mereka hingga tim penyelamat datang dan menolong mereka. pada awalnya, fang deng masih terus mengetuk batu untuk memberikan tanda kepada tim penyelamat. tetapi ketika ia mendengar ibunya memilih menyelamatkan adiknya dan mengorbankan dirinya, ia kecewa dan menangis. fang deng berseru dengan suara lirih: “ibu.” (00:22:57). semangat hidupnya hancur dalam sekejap. dampak pasca bencana pada kehidupan tokoh utama kehilangan suami yang dicintai dan mengorbankan anak perempuannya membuat hidup yuanni tenggelam dalam kesedihan dan penyesalan. ia menyatakan bahwa gempa 1976 tersebut memecah belah keluarganya, yang awalnya berjumlah 4 orang menjadi 2 orang (01:09:10) . penyesalan dan trauma psikogis tersebut menyebabkann tekanan berlebihan kepada fang da. fang da dituntut untuk mengikuti ujian masuk universitas yang pada masa itu dianggap hal yang belum terlalu umum di masyarakat tiongkok. hal ini menyebabkan pemberontakan pada diri fang da. yuanni mengingatkan bahwa hanya dengan berkuliah, fang da dapat memperoleh kehidupan karir dan istri yang layak. dengan demikian yuanni memiliki muka ketika nantinya bertemu dengan suaminya di akhirat. budaya tradisional tiongkok menekankan pada kesuksesan keluarga berada di tangan anak lelaki, sehingga sejak jaman dahulu setiap keluarga menutut putranya untuk berprestasi tinggi dan bekerja sebagai pejabat negara. dengan demikian keluarga tersebut akan memiliki muka bila bertemu dengan leluhurnya di akhirat nanti. fang da terus menerus membuat ibunya kecewa. selain tidak memiliki keinginan untuk berkuliah, bahkan pelajaran di sekolah pun fang da seringkali absen dan kabur dari sekolah. hal ini terlihat dari perkataan guru fang da, guru jiang. beliau berkata: “sekolah punya kebijakan bagi murid yang melebihi setelah 15 kali tidak masuk. fang da sudah 3 kali tidak masuk sekolah , apakah dia masih berencana mengikuti ujian masuk universitas ?” (00:49:29) yuanni menghukum dirinya dengan tidak mencari kebahagiaan lagi. hidupnya dihabiskan untuk membesarkan anak laki-lakinya, fang da. dia ingin membuat fang da berhasil. keberhasilan itu ditandai dengan kelulusan fang da masuk universitas. tetapi kekecewaan demi kekecewaan yang didapatnya setiap hari. ketika tetangganya ingin menikahinya, yuanni menolak dengan halus karena ia beranggapan ia tidak pantas memperoleh kebahagiaan lagi. ia selalu hidup 123dampak psikologis tokoh pria dan wanita .... (andriani sinarsih; dkk) dalam penyesalan dan beranggapan bahwa dirinya lah yang membunuh anak perempuannya. ia menyatakan pemahaman barunya mengenai kehilangan orang yang dicintainya: “kehilangan, baru mengetahui apa yang dimaksud dengan kehilangan.” (01:24:12) yuanni mempercayai kehidupan setelah kematian. roh manusia akan memasuki dunia akhirat, tetapi masih sering mendatangi, menjaga, dan memperhatikan keluarganya. hal ini menyebabkan yuanni tidak ingin pindah dari rumah bobroknya. ia khawatir apabila roh suami dan putrinya tidak dapat pulang ke rumah. ia berkata kepada fang da: “ ayah dan kakakmu berada di sini, ke manapun aku tidak mau pergi. ini adalah rumah kita, arah tujuan roh ayah dan kakakmu untuk kembali ke rumah…” (01:23:39). dengan mengorbankan anak perempuannya, hati yuanni tidak pernah mengalami ketenangan, kebahagiaan, dan sukacita lagi. fang deng adalah gadis yang beruntung. ia berhasil diselamatkan oleh tim penyelamat gempa. walaupun fisiknya selamat, tetapi psikisnya mengalami trauma yang berat. pada saat fang deng dikeluarkan dari reruntuhan gedung, ia menjadi gadis yang benar-benar berbeda dengan gadis yang sebelumnya. trauma pasca gempa yang dialaminya disebabkan oleh pengalaman hidup dan mati yang belum sanggup dihadapi oleh gadis kecil sepertinya dan juga trauma akibat penolakan gender dari ibu yang dicintai, dipercayai, dan diandalkannya. ia mulai menghindar dari masyarakat, kehilangan keinginan untuk berbicara, tidak memiliki nafsu makan, kehilangan semangat hidup, dan menolak identitas dirinya sendiri. setiap kali orang bertanya tentang keluarganya, ia akan berkata: “aku ini yatim piatu” atau “aku sudah tidak ingat lagi”. orang berpikir bahwa hal itu adalah akibat dari trauma pasca gempa yang dialami fang deng yang masih kecil dan belum cukup kuat menghadapi kenyataan hidup. hal ini membuat banyak orang merasa kasihan kepadanya, dan mendorong sepasang tentara pembebasan rakyat yang tidak memiliki keturunan mengadopsinya. ayah dan ibu angkatnya sangat mengasihinya, memberikannya cinta secara penuh, memperlakukannya seperti anak kandung sendiri. ayah angkatnya mengira ia mengalami lupa ingatan karena trauma pasca gempa. ayah angkatnya mengatakan bahwa apabila pada suatu hari nanti ingatannya pulih kembali, datanglah kepada ayah dan dia akan membantu fang deng kembali kepada keluarganya (00:43:29). trauma yang dihadapi oleh fang deng sangatlah berat untuk gadis kecil seusianya dan ia hanya ingin melupakan semua yang diingatnya. dia seringkali berpikir apabila ia seorang anak laki-laki, maka hidupnya tidak akan seperti ini. fang deng tidak dekat dengan ibu angkatnya, walaupun ibu angkatnya tersebut sudah sepenuhnya memberikan cinta kepadanya. bagi fang deng, memiliki seseorang yang dipanggil “ibu” membuatnya kembali teringat pada ibu kandung yang telah membuangnya. ayah dan ibu angkatnya mengetahui ia masih belum pulih dari trauma pasca gempanya. maka pada saat fang deng kuliah, ayah angkatnya yang mendapat tugas di tangshan, mengajak fang deng untuk ikut. fang deng menolak dan berkata: “saya tidak ingin pergi” (00:57:16). ayah angkatnya walaupun tidak menyetujui keputusannya tetap menghormati dan menerima keputusan fang deng. lepas dari maut membuat fang deng sangat menghargai setiap aspek dalam kehidupannya. ketika ia hamil di luar nikah, ia tahu aib dan penghinaan yang akan dipikulnya bila ia terus mempertahankan janinnya. ia akan dikeluarkan dari kampus dan memikul tanggung jawab yang tidak ringan. kekasihnya tidak ingin menanggung aib tersebut dan membujuk fang deng untuk melakukan aborsi. kekasih fang deng menganggap remeh sebuah kehidupan. kekasih fang deng berkata: “kita sedang jatuh cinta bukan menikah. bagaiman mungkin kamu bisa begitu mudah untuk hamil, deng? hamil bukanlah sebuah masalah besar, ini hanya sebuah kecelakaan, sangat mudah untuk diperbaiki”. (01:16:26) mendengar pacar yang dicintainya menghina sebuah kehidupan kecil di rahimnya, ia sangat marah, dan berkata: “orang lain mungkin bisa, tapi aku tidak bisa. aku adalah orang tangshan. aku terbangun dari atas mobil mayat dan melihat ayahku berbaring di sampingku. kamu tidak mengerti apa itu kehidupan”. (01:17:55). hal ini adalah proses pulihnya keberanian fang deng. walaupun mendapatkan rasa cinta yang cukup dan merasa diperlakukan setara secara gender dari orang tua angkatnya, tapi ia masih tidak dapat memaafkan ibunya. ia berkata kepada ayah angkatnya: “ibu saya berkata, selamatkan adik. tiga kata ini tergiang terus di telingaku. ayah, aku tidak ingat. aku buka tidak melupakan.” (01:37:32) selain itu, fang da juga mengalami trauma pasca gempa. ia terus menyesali keputusan ibunya yang mengorbankan kakaknya dan memilih dirinya. sejak kecil ia tahu bahwa ia mempunyai tanggung jawab yang sangat besar karena ia adalah satu-satunya harapan hidup ibunya dan penerus keluarga fang. ibunya berharap ia dapat kuliah di universitas, tetapi nilai fang da tidak terlalu bagus. fang da yang tidak sanggup menghadapi tuntutan ibunya tersebut membuat fang da memilih untuk pergi mengadu nasib ke kota besar. mengetahui anak lakilaki yang menjadi tumpuan harapannya akan pergi jauh, yuanni sangat khawatir. keinginan tinggal berdekatan dengan anak laki-lakinya melebihi keinginannya untuk memaksa anaknya masuk universitas. yuann : “ibu tidak akan memaksa kamu untuk kuliah lagi, kamu jangan pergi”. fang da :“bukankah sudah dibicarakan, terlebih aku tidak sendirian”. yuanni : “tidak ada orang yang dapat menjagamu seperti ibu. di luar sana berbeda dengan rumah” fang da : “karena itu aku ingin mencoba kemampuanku. bila tidak, seumur hidup aku tidak akan mengetahui kemampuanku.”. yuanni : “tangshan sebesar ini tidakkah cukup? fang da : “tangshan besar? tidakkah ibu melihat di televisi bahwa semua orang-orang yang di desa sudah pergi ke shenzhen. hanya tinggal shijiazhuang saja tidak pernah pergi”. (00:57:30) sebagai seorang anak, fang da sangat sedih melihat ibunya tidak dapat melupakan masa lalu. selian itu, ia juga sedih karena tidak dapat memenuhi harapan ibunya. ia sering berpikir seandainya pada saat gempa itu ibunya memilih kakaknya, mungkin keadaan akan lebih 124 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 baik. fang da berpikir bahwa kakaknya setelah dewasa pasti akan masuk ke perguruan tinggi, dan tidak akan membuat ibu khawatir. ia yakin pasti kakaknya dapat membuat ibu bahagia. yuanni : “ sulit mengharapkanmu untuk kuliah di universitas. kamu benar-benar sudah membuat saya kecewa.” fang da : “kecewa? jika tahu seperti itu, ibu harusnya dari dulu menyelamatkan kakakku.” (00:51:02) selain itu, fang deng sangat membenci dan tidak dapat menerima perlakuan ibunya. hal ini menyebabkan trauma yang tidak mudah dipulihkan. fang deng juga sering mengalami mimpi buruk dan menyebabkan dirinya takut untuk kembali ke tangshan. kembali ke tangshan mengingatkannya akan pilihan gender yang tidak adil tersebut. pemulihan psikologis fang deng memerlukan waktu yang cukup lama, berikut adalah faktor yang membantu pemulihan trauma dari fang deng: a. kasih sayang dari orang tua angkat awalnya fang deng tidak dapat menerima kasih sayang orang tua angkatnya. trauma yang diakibatkan pilihan ibunya membekas di dalam hati dan pikirannya. seiring berjalannya waktu, fang deng dapat membuka hati dan menerima kasih sayang dari orang tua angkatnya. ia merasakan diperlakukan seperti anak kandung sendiri. orang tua angkatnya tidak pernah menganggap remeh identitasnya sebagai perempuan. ia dihormati dan mendapatkan perlakukan setara. di mata kedua orangtua angkatnya, fang deng sudah seperti anak kandung mereka sendiri. walaupun demikian, fang deng sulit untuk dekat dengan ibu angkatnya. ia membatasi diri dan menutup hatinya terhadap cinta ibu angkatnya. ini merupakan dampak dari kehilangan rasa sayang dari seorang ibu. ibu angkat : “seumur hidup orang yang paling aku sayangi adalah kalian berdua, tetapi kalian tidak bersedia melakukan hal bersama saya.” fang deng : “ibu” ibu angkat : “jangan membenci saya..... ” (01:12:15) ibu angkat fang deng terus memikirkan cara agar fang deng dapat terlepas dari traumanya. ibunya berpikir bahwa fang deng seharusnya pulang ke tangshan sekali lagi untuk mencari keluarganya dan berkumpul kembali bersama mereka. “kamu sudah dewasa, kamu dapat pulang ke tangshan mencari keluargamu. hal yang ayahmu katakan benar, kamu tidak mungkin tidak memiliki keluarga di sana. bagaimanapun keluarga itu, selamanya tetap adalah keluarga.” (01:11:41) fang deng selalu menutup dirinya dan tidak bersedia menerima kasih sayang dari ibu angkatnya. pada saat ibu angkatnya jatuh sakit dan meninggal, fang deng baru menyadari bahwa dirinya benar-benar menyayangi kedua orangtua angkatnya. perasaan kehilangan inilah yang juga membuat fang deng menyadari akan luka psikologis yang dia dapatkan ketika terjadi gempa di tangshan. hal ini membuat ia mampu menghadapi kondisi psikologis karena ibu kandungnya lebih memilih adiknya pada saat itu. b. perasaan empati meskipun hati fang deng tersentuh karena kasih sayang dari orangtua angkatnya karena dapat membuatnya merasakan kebahagiaan. tetapi trauma yang disebabkan oleh ibu kandungnya itu tidak dapat dipulihkan hingga 32 tahun kemudian. gempa berskala besar di wenchuan menimbulkan perasaan empati dan senasib pada diri fang deng. ia tidak ragu-ragu untuk memutuskan ke wenchuan sebagai tim sukarela. ia teringat pengalaman masa kecilnya. melalui tim penyelamat ini, ia ingin menyelamatkan hidup banyak gadis kecil. ia tidak ingin melihat lebih banyak perempuan dikorbankan nyawanya karena perlakuan keluarganya yang tidak memperlakukan kesetaraan gender. fang deng : “saya harus kembali untuk membantu.” (01:45:25) suaminya : “ya, tidak masalah” fang deng : “saya akan pergi membantu mereka” suaminya : “saya mengerti.” penelitian lukita dan oktaviani (2013) membuktikan perasaan empati mendorong seseorang untuk membantu sesamanya tanpa mengharapkan imbalan apapun. batson (2010) menyebutkan bahwa alasan kita dapat membantu orang lain karena adanya perasaan empati yang tidak terpengaruh oleh sifat egois dan melakukannya tanpa pamrih. hubungan antara pribadi dengan sesama ketika berasosiasi akan menghasilkan empati. hoffman (2010) menyebutkan bahwa ketika kita memiliki rasa empati, kita akan lebih peduli kepada perasaan hati kita sendiri dan mefokuskan perhatian kepada korban. simpati yang tulus dan kasih sayang mendorong kita memberikan bantuan tanpa pamrih kepada mereka. perasaan empati ini terjadi secara alami. trauma yang dialami oleh fang deng, perasaan empati kepada korban gempa, dan keinginan untuk menolong lebih banyak nasib gadis kecil mendorongnya kembali ke china. tempat yang tidak pernah diinjaknya lagi selama 32 tahun. c. pengalaman kembali ke wenchuan china sejak menginjakan kakinya di wenchuan, fang deng telah mempersiapkan diri untuk pemulihan trauma psikologisnya. demi menolong para korban, ia berani menghadapi rasa takut di dalam hatinya. ia bertekad menyelamatkan lebih banyak korban untuk menebus penyesalan pada masa kecilnya itu. di wenchuan ia melihat seorang anak perempuan kakinya tertindih batu yang besar. dokter tidak memiliki cara lain untuk menyelamatkan anak tersebut selain melakukan amputasi pada kakinya. demi anaknya dapat diselamatkan tepat pada waktunya, sang ibu memutuskan agar kaki anaknya dapat diamputasi. ia tahu keputusannya tersebut tidak akan disukai putrinya, tapi ia lebih memilih dirinya dibenci putrinya daripada putrinya kehilangan nyawa. “putriku pada suatu hari nanti pasti akan membenciku, tapi biarkanlah ia membenci saya” (01:50:30). melihat kondisi psikologis sang ibu yang membiarkan putrinya diamputasi kakinya begitu menyakitkan dan menyedihkan, fang deng akhirnya menyadari bagaimana hati seorang ibu. ia mulai menyadari bagaimana hati ibunya ketika memilih mengorbankannya 125dampak psikologis tokoh pria dan wanita .... (andriani sinarsih; dkk) dan memilih adiknya. trauma yang sering menghantui korban gempa bumi adalah kenangan saat bencana terjadi. sedangkan pengalaman yang dialami oleh fang deng adalah luka psikologis ketika diabaikan pada saat bencana. ibunya lebih mimilih adik laki-lakinya dibanding dirinya. tetapi ketika melihat betapa seorang ibu memilih untuk dibenci anaknya daripada harus kehilangan nyawanya menyadarkan fang deng bahwa ibu itu harus mengambil satu keputusan yang tepat walaupun terkadang sulit. d. membuka pintu pengampunan bagi ibunya gempa wenchuan yang terjadi di tahun 2008 memberikan fang deng sebuah pengalaman yang baru. ia sekali lagi menyadari tipisnya batas antara hidup dan mati. pada kondisi inilah, fang deng bertemu dengan adiknya kembali. fang da. fang da yang kala itu sudah sukses berbisnis usaha pariwisata memberikan banyak bantuan kepada para korban gempa. fang da juga tidak ingin orang lain mengalami penyesalan dan rasa sakit yang dialami oleh keluarganya. fang da berkata kepada temannya bahwa gempa bumi pada tahun 1976 menghancurkan seluruh hidup ibunya. bangunan-bangunan yang porak poranda akibat gempa dapat dengan mudah dibangun kembali, tetapi hati ibunya selamanya tidak akan dapat dipulihkan. selama 32 tahun ini, hati ibunya ibarat selalu ditimbun oleh reruntuhan gempa. ( 01:53:57) fang deng mendengar pembicaraan fang da, akhirnya menyadari fang da adalah adik kembarnya. akhirnya fang deng mengerti bahwa bukan ibunya tidak menyanyanginya dan bukan sengaja ingin meninggalkannya, tetapi karena kondisi yang terdesak dan harus mengambil keputusan saat itu juga. hal ini membuat fang deng akhirnya mengerti tindakan ibunya pada saat itu. selain itu, fang deng juga mengerti ibunya tidak dapat menghindari ketidaksetaraan gender yang terjadi pada masyarakat tiongkok pada saat itu. fang deng akhirnya dibawa fang da untuk menemui ibu yang 32 tahun tidak pernah ingin ditemuinya. kehadiran fang deng membuat ibu mereka terkejut karena selama ini ibunya menganggap fang deng sudah meninggal. sang ibu segera membungkuk dan berlutut memohon ampun di depan anak perempuannya tersebut. hal ini membuat fang deng sadar luka psikologis yang dialami oleh ibunya. fang da yang tiap hari melihat ibunya berada dalam bayangan masalalu membuatnya juga mengalami luka psikologis. fang deng telah mengalami trauma selama 32 tahun baru dapat membuka hatinya untuk memaafkan ibunya. fang deng menyadari bahwa luka psikologis dampak gempa yang selama ini dia rasakan ternyata juga mengakar pada adiknya fang da dan juga ibunya. ketika kehadiran fang deng dan permohonan maaf terucap dari ibunya, maka luka yang selama ini ada didalam hati ketiganya perlahan memudar. mereka menyadari arti dari kata “hidup” dan berusaha untuk lebih menghargai apa yang ada saat ini. fang deng pada akhirnya mampu melepaskan kebencian yang menghantuinya selama 32 tahun dan karena kasih sayang dari orangtua angkatnya dan kembali merasakan ikatan emosi. orang tua angkatnya berkali-kali mengatakan kepada fang deng: “keluarga, selamanya akan tetap keluarga, ikatan keluarga selamanya tidak akan pernah berubah”. keutuhan keluargalah yang membuat luka ketiganya mencair dan belajar saling menghargai kehidupan yang masih bisa mereka rasakan. simpulan tragedi yang dialami oleh fang deng dan fang da pada masa kanak-kanak tidak dapat dikatakan murni kesalahan ibunya. dalam hal ini masyarakat juga mempunyai tanggung jawab. teman yang dikenal fang da juga menyakini bahwa pemilihan anak lakilaki dan mengorbakan anak perempuan adalah sesuai dengan pandangan masyarakat pada saat itu karena garis keturunan dipegang oleh anak laki-laki. hal ini mengakibatkan trauma berat pada yuanni, fang deng dan fang da. pandangan masyarakat yang beranggapan bahwa anak laki-laki lebih penting daripada anak perempuan disebabkan oleh kurangnya kesadaan akan nilai diri wanita. selain itu anggapan bahwa laki-laki adalah prioritas utama di dalam kehidupan berkeluarga juga mempengaruhi pandangan masyarakat tiongkok saat itu. keputusan yang diambil oleh yuanni ketika dihadapkan pada pilihan diantara kedua anaknya bukan saja berdasarkan dari pandangan masyarakat terhadap kedudukan pria dan wanita, tetapi lebih kepada keputusan cepat yang harus dia ambil demi menyelamatkan anaknya. pada masa itu perempuan juga kurang mendapatkan pendidikan, sehingga menimbulkan sebuah pandangan bahwa pria adalah penghidup ekonomi keluarga. penulis berharap agar semua pembaca dapat menyayangi setiap anak mereka dengan seimbang, agar tidak menimbulkan rasa ketidaksetaraan gender dalam hidup mereka. karena hal ini dapat mempengaruhi perkembangan psikologi anak seperti yang dialami oleh fang deng. daftar pustaka 蔡寶瓊,陳潔華.教育的性別視角:課室與教學實 證研究[m].香港:香港城市大學出版社,2012 陈丽,刘娣.震后人均常见的心理困扰及应对策略[j]. 西南交通大学学报(社会科学版),2008,9(4) :10-11. 東方仁.四川大地震[m].香港:中華書局出版有限 公司,192,2008. 冯小刚.唐山大地震 [电影] [z].中国:中国电影集 团公司.2010 孙伊.中国女性在家庭中的地位和权利[j],2009 , 下 载 于 h t t p : / / w w w. d o u b a n . c o m / g r o u p / topic/8124755/ .2009-09-25 / 2014-04-12 李 银 河 . 女 性 主 义 [ m ]. 济 南 : 山 东 任 命 出 版 社,2005. 李银河.妇女:最漫长的革命:当代西方女性主义 理论精远[m].北京:中国妇女出版社,2005. 刘泗翰.性/别:多元时代的性别角力[m].台北:书 林出版. 216,2004. 罗慧兰.女性学 [m].北京:中国国际广播出版 社.3 : 23-25,62-63,2003. 南 储 鑫 . 扭 转 男 女 不 平 等 观 念 的 重 要 举 措 [ j ] , 2 0 1 3 , 下 载 于 h t t p : / / w w w. w s i c . a c . c n / academicnews/84838.htm.2013-12-03/ 2014-0325 妥 立 明 . 浅 谈 现 价 段 我 国 男 女 不 平 等 的 问 题 [ j ] , 2 0 1 2 , 下 载 于 h t t p : / / w w w. d o c 8 8 . com/p-7085489587527.html . 2012/2014-06-16 126 jurnal lingua cultura vol.9 no.2 november 2015 郭爱妹.女性主义心理学[m].三上海:上海教育出 版社,2006 王圭宁.中国女性的定位与女性权利的走向,2007 ,下载于http://article.chinalawinfo.com/article_ detail.asp?articleid=44246 . 2007/2014-04-17 杨慧.“男女平等的不同认识及其成因剖析——从社 会性别理论视角” [j].安徽大学(哲学社会科 学版),2005,5:2-7,2005下载于 http://www. docin.com/p-705033710.html . 2005-09 / 2014-0326 杨智辉,王建平.205 名癌症病人创伤后应激障碍 症状分析 [j].北京师范大学心理学院,2007 ,1 : 1,下载于 http://wenku.baidu.com/view/ e5958abd65ce0508763213f3.html. 2007/2014-0705 张海盈.地震后心理援助应该分五个阶段,2008 ,下载于 http://news.eastday.com/c/20080523/ u1a3608793.html.2008-5-23 /2014-06-25 lukita, n, oktaviani. (2013). prilaku altruistik pada tokoh yumo dalam film the flowers of war. diakses 20 juli 2014 dari http://library.binus.ac.id/ ecolls/ethesisdoc/bab4/2012-2-00953-md%20 bab4001.pdf martam. s.i. (2009). mengenali trauma pasca bencana. diakses 26 juni 2014 dari http://www.pulih.or.id/ res/publikasi/news_letter_14.pdf nio, j.l. (2013). peradaban tionghoa selayang pandang. jakarta: kepustakaan populer gramedia soetjipto, a dan pande trimayuni (ed.). (2013). gender dan hubungan internasional. yogyakarta: jalasutra adopting intercultural communication issue in teaching english hussain ahmed liton english language centre, jazan university, jazan, p.o. box-114, saudi arabia husal@jazanu.edu.sa received: 24th march 2016/ revised: 22nd april 2016/ accepted: 7th may 2016 how to cite: liton, h. a. (2016). adopting intercultural communication issue in teaching english. lingua cultura, 10(1), 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.910 abstract cultural assimilation and intercultural awareness has been an important hub of modern language and communication studies, underlining a shift that reflects a greater significance of the inseparability of language and culture, and the need to prepare students for effective intercultural communication to thrive in a global work environment. a thriving global workplace requires effective communication skill across cultures in this era of globalization and mass migration. under the tutelage of such backdrop, this article addresses the terrain of adopting intercultural awareness in efl classroom teaching/learning and aims at linking culture with language in pursuit of excellence in borderless effective communication. the study, in other words, investigated the linguistic aspects that could be affected by certain cultural dimensions (e.g., beliefs, traditions, taboo words, habits, and norms, religion, social factors, etc.) in intercultural communication. this paper uses a questionnaire device to receive some university teachers’ self-reported feedback. this article maintains qualitative and quantitative research methodology. the analytical research result shows that in teaching english, it is necessary to incorporate and develop aspects of cross-cultural awareness as a part of course curriculum to immerse students in effective intercultural communicative competence (icc). keywords: intercultural competence, language and culture, globalization, english language learning (ell) introduction the emerging trends and pedagogies in teaching/ learning a foreign language do not require the merely teaching of linguistic skills like phonology, morphology, lexicology, and syntax, but also “...the vital component of cultural knowledge and awareness” (bachman, 1990). at this era of digitalization and mass migration, the focus of learning any language aims to develop a sustainable and successful communication in social, political, academic, professional or any cultural contexts. in other words, learning a language effectively requires knowing something about the cultural aspects of that language as far as that cross-cultural communication is concerned. communication that lacks appropriate cultural content often results in an odd/humorous situation, leading to misunderstanding and miscommunication. so, to promote the learners’ cross-cultural perception, incorporating intercultural activities in teaching efl (english as foreign language) or esl (english as second language) is a matter of fact. consequently, the adopting intercultural awareness to language teaching/learning is believed to be one of the many paradigms in this complex global perspective. behind such global perspective, this paper strives to demystify the terrain of adopting intercultural communication issue in efl context, especially in saudi universities. for borderless and cross-cultural effective communication, it is important to incorporate intercultural aspects in efl teaching to develop learners’ awareness of intercultural sensitivity and intercultural communicative competence (icc). it is indeed, “simple mastery of the linguistic forms of a language is not enough for learners to be considered competent in the target language” (krasner, 1999). here, cultural dimension is seen to play a critical role in successful communication. in many occupational contexts, professionals’ poor communication performance resulted in the loss of business which is closely connected to their lack of cross-cultural understanding of the customers’ affairs. this challenge emerges because of the gap between the needs of the learning and target workplace. so, in a way or another, to address this existing gap, efl learners need the awareness of cultural dimension in language instruction through an intercultural approach because lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 1-6 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.910 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 1 copyright©2016 2 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 1-6 “...in any society which expects its education system to prepare people for living in an internationalized culture and globalized economy, and also for the interaction between people of different cultures within and across national boundaries, the process of tertiary socialization and the acquisition of intercultural competence are clearly desirable” (alfred & byram, 2002). linguistic and cultural diversities are the significant factors for communication with the people of diverse race, custom, and ethnicity. so, it is important for the language learners to understand the cultural context of language because language is viewed as a culturally organized and culturally organizing dominion (craith, 2012). saudi ministry of education is highly concerned with the pursuit of excellence in effective english language teaching-learning for preparing skilled outstanding professionals in leadership level. here, universities and colleges offer credit and non-credit english language courses namely, efl, esp, eap or general english, but they are not becoming so effective in developing students’ intercultural communicative competence in their real life career. in teaching scenario, linguistic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, syntax, and others are taught, but extra-linguistic aspects, such as socio-cultural aspects of language are very much absent in the classroom practices. to nurture learners’ communicative competence in english, efl teaching in saudi context as well as in many other countries still lacks the inclusion of intercultural issues. consequently, the efl learners, in general, commit cultural faux pas while communicating with people of other cultures. it can cause cultural conflicts resulting in misunderstandings or misconceptions, let alone bridge a fruitful communication. from this perspective, it is vitally important for saudi efl students to learn and understand the culture and cultural context of language for meaningful cross-cultural communication. the issue of intercultural communication emerges as a result of economic globalization and mass migration of people or as a backlash to the crisis of multiculturalism. cultural critic edward t hall (1959) in his silent language has termed intercultural communication as a new discipline in human sciences. rapidly, the term of intercultural communication becomes the part of the communication studies in the mid-70s. subsequently, the schools in communication studies of american universities in the 70s made this course obligatory part of their syllabus. in reality, business, communication, travelling and states negotiations and many more reasons people need to interact and communicate with the people of different cultures across the borders. in so doing, successful communication largely depends on cross-cultural understanding. here lies the value of intercultural communicative competence (icc). in defining intercultural communication, barnett and lee (2002) has termed it as the “…exchange of information about culture between two groups of people with significantly different cultures.” according to wiseman (2002), intercultural communication competence (icc) involves the knowledge, motivation and skills to interact effectively and appropriately with members of different cultures. in fact, intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people from other cultures. intercultural competence is the ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural situations and to relate appropriately to a variety of cultural contexts (bennett & bennett, 2004). intercultural competence is considered as an interdisciplinary field; it is like culture plus communication (culture+communication=ic). the context is a very important concept in intercultural communication and communication in general. communication takes place in an enormous variety of contexts namely, psychological context, educational context, social context, or political context. it can be physical context, as the room in which we talk or an auditorium for a public lecture. mira bergelson (2016) has explained the interrelations between different types of contexts (cultural, institutional, professional, social, interpersonal and others) within the intercultural communication process citing russian–western communication. as it is shown in figure 1: culture communication  content & cognition. figure 1 intercultural continuum (source: https://www.coursera.org/course/russians) in the intercultural communication process, adaptation with the new context or situation is a significant aspect. a human being has an innate capacity to adapt the environmental challenges through communication. adaptation is a complex and dynamic process that brings about a qualitative transformation of the individual (kim, 2001). in the emerging global village, mcluhan (1962) has said that all parties must adapt and move towards a greater awareness of intercultural issues. so, adaptability is undeniably a certain focal point in intercultural communication as well as in cultural anthropology and communication studies. in the era of globalization, professionals, learners, and others are involved in meaningful interactions and negotiations with people of same or other discourse community. negotiation is considered as a powerful device in esp professional situation enabling speakers to engage in cross-cultural communication. in this vein, awicha benabdallah (2012) has suggested “...adapting an intercultural approach to esp (english for special purpose) teaching might be of great valuable if the esp practitioner can manage the teaching materials to his learners’ needs and requirements …to impart them with the needed linguistic knowledge, enhancing, ...their intercultural competence through analyzing texts and comparing them to their culture”. both linguistic accuracy and sociolinguistic appropriacy are crucial for effective communication, indeed. “inappropriate performance, even if it is perfectly accurate linguistically, can never be effective as communication, not only because it does not produce the desired effect, but also because it sometimes produces the opposite effect” (as cited in migdadi, 2008). in global standpoint, the cultural and linguistic diversities are the specificities in language teaching. students’ intercultural awareness can lead to success in communication process in their real life situation. 3adopting intercultural communication .... (hussain ahmed liton) in cross-cultural encounters, learners’ linguistic competence along with the knowledge of the culture of a given community is of great importance for successful crosscultural communication. so, “in addition to grammatical competence, a culturally competent learner must possess sociolinguistic competence, pragmatic competence, sociocultural knowledge, and intercultural awareness” (chlopek, 2008). in this connection, ellis (1997) has added that individuals who are motivated to integrate both linguistic and nonlinguistic outcomes of the learning experience will attain a higher degree of l2 proficiency and more desirable attitudes. in portraying the interrelationship between culture and language, renowned cross-cultural critic, hall (as cited in mebitil, 2012) has pointed out that “no two concepts are more intimately linked than language and culture. in our interactions with others, we use language not only to refer to or represent our sociocultural worlds. it is also the central means by which we bring our cultural worlds into existence, maintain them, and shape them for our own purposes.” needless to say, language is an inseparable part of what we call culture, and it also reflects and interprets culture. in a similar tone, peterson and coltrane (as cited in kim, 2001) have laid emphasis on “those language learners need to know what is appropriate to say to whom, and in what situations. hence, the teaching of english as a second or foreign language should go beyond teaching the language as a linguistic skill to teaching the language in a way that incorporates intercultural awareness and understanding as well.” teaching culture thus becomes a vital part of teaching english as language is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways (migdadi, 2008). so, to construct a possible communication without misunderstandings and breakdowns, according to claire kramsch (1993), cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency. culture in language teaching is not a fifth expendable skill, tacked on, so to speak, to the teaching of speaking, listening, reading and writing. while jiang (1994) said that because a language is a part of culture and culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture. culture and cultural awareness in foreign language learning is a motivating issue. promoting cultural awareness among learners in the target language is essential, so far as the cross-cultural factors are concerned. cultural compatibility and adaptation to cross-cultural issues are motivating factors in l2 acquisition. an individual’s attitudes concerning cultural values and beliefs, usually towards the target language community are effective factors to efl learning (liton, 2012). in today’s world of globalization, learning the culture of the target language is a step ahead of effective intercultural communication. in this respect, kumaravadivelu argues that developing critical cultural consciousness enables one to learn and grow, to change and evolve, so as to meet the challenges of today’s emerging global reality (as cited in mebitil, 2012). such a cultural consciousness is often referred to as intercultural awareness. an instance in a conversation is listed below between a chinese girl, miss chen and her american boyfriend, mr. steven. mr. steven: hey, puppy, you look lovely today! miss chen: what? am i your pet dog? mr. steven: oh, i mean baby, please. from the conversation, the lack of knowledge about “puppy” as a pet name in american culture obviously offends the girl, whose culture has attributed unfavorable meanings to dogs. such misunderstandings occur because of learners’ lack of intercultural awareness. behind such a perspective, it is essential to address culture and cultural differences in between the cultures of the target language and that of the learners. (djebbari & belkaid, 2012). for an effective communication in foreign language, samovar, porter, and jain (1981) have duly observed and implicated that culture and communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds. it also helps to determine how people encode messages, the meanings they have for messages and the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted culture is the foundation of communication. intercultural language teaching is intended to help learners avoid communication breakdown in their learning and workplace settings. the importance of developing intercultural communicative competence alongside linguistic competence has resulted from learners’ needs for acquiring intercultural competence for cross-cultural communication in which they may encounter linguistic and cultural barriers. the goal of intercultural language teaching under the umbrella concept of intercultural communicative competence is to embrace “linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse competence, as well as intercultural knowledge, skills, attitudes, and critical cultural awareness” (krajka, marczak, tatar, & yildiz, 2013). actually, intercultural language teaching encourages learners to work autonomously, perform, and reflect on experience exclusively and intercultural competence must, therefore, be seen as a generic competence (matsumoto & et. al, 2003). so, the reason behind the teaching of culture in efl classroom is to help l2 learners develop the ability to use the target language in culturally appropriate ways for the specific purpose of empathizing and interacting with speakers of the target language (kumaravadivelu, 2008). methods the study was conducted among teachers who were teaching esp/efl at department of english (abuarish) and english language centre (elc) of jazan university, jazan as well as najran university, najran, saudi arabia. the participants were chosen on a random basis. a total of 29 teachers took part in this study. the mechanism of data collection for this study encompasses one page written research questionnaire (see appendix). the author sent a questionnaire to 36 esp teachers via e-mail, facebook and skype in between october and november of 2014. there were multiple choice questions as well as a question asking for short suggestions, offering the respondents a free rein. the pedagogical goal of the survey was explained in the appendix. they answered the questionnaire pretty willingly. virtually, this type of research reflects ground reality concerning the issue discussed as personal reflections are integral to the emerging analysis of a cultural group because they provide the researcher with new vantage points and with opportunities to make the strange familiar and the familiar strange (marshall & rossman, 2006). out of 36, a total of 29 questionnaires were returned representing a response rate of 81%. this part of this paper reviews the related 4 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 1-6 research and views underpinning of adopting intercultural communication issues in efl teaching practices. results and discussions the data of questionnaire are analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. the collected data of questionnaire were sorted out, and the percentage of teachers offering the same answer is computed. typically, throughout the data analysis processes, according to creswell (2003), the researcher attempts to describe patterns and themes from the perspective of the participant(s), then attempt to understand and explain these patterns and themes”. figures are drawn below to sum up the frequency of responses to almost all the questions (see figures). here, the most striking and contributing data of questionnaires have been cited. the first question is set to determine teachers’ opinion regarding the importance of culture in teaching english that can be seen in figure 2. figure 2 incorporate culture in teaching language the majority of the teachers (69%+21% = 90%) reported that current esp/efl course in use does not address the cultural issues related to learners’ future professional environment. the teacher participants’ concern over learners’ intercultural communication competence sounds very much positive. in intercultural communication, the importance of cultural factors and incorporation of culture in elt (english language teaching) classrooms is highly suggestive because according to mao (2009), our students’ comprehension is frequently impeded not by linguistic features, but by cultural one language can never be divorced from culture. the second question seeks to know the range of learners’ reaction about the contents of existing esp/efl courses when they come across the foreign cultural element in the text. the responses of a huge number (72%) of the respondents draw attention to the fact that the contents of existing esp/efl text are not wholly learners’ culturally relevant. this can be seen in figure 3. obviously, suitability of the contents of authentic textbook is a highly significant factor to develop learners’ learning motivation. bacon and finneman (1990) have added that the texts should be culturally relevant to the experience of the students. in this vein, lee (1995) has stated that a careful and wise selection of materials focused on learners is a must if we want a positive response from them. in addition, little et al., (as cited in mishan, 2005) state that the more texts are related to learners’ personal concerns and interests, the deeper and more rapid the processing will be. in reality, if the teaching materials are related to students’ attachment to deep-seated values of their own, the learning motivation takes place simultaneously. so, to address the learners’ real needs in intercultural communication, the text should expose a variety of cultural contents from home and abroad relevant to the learners’ own values and cultural background. figure 3 students’ adverse reaction to foreign cultural content in the text the third question proposed that cross-cultural issues should be a major integrated part of efl/esp curriculum. cross-cultural issues in the text facilitate students to compare their native culture to other cultures, to evaluate critically and interpret the results of such comparisons, and to apply this knowledge successfully in both verbal and non-verbal communication, in transactional and interactional purposes. so, cross-cultural contents need to import in existing efl/ esp textbook (66%). it can be seen in figure 4. figure 4 cross-cultural issues to be integrated in tefl/tesl here 24% participants express their neutral position which underlines their unawareness of current global trends of elt curricula and workplace needs. cross-cultural consciousness enhances effective communication skill, developing learners’ awareness of cultural differences as the positive catalyst. so, educating oneself about the other culture is an advisable initial step. next, open-mindedness and communication are the subsequent ingredients of successful cross-cultural management (dumetz, n.d). the fourth question seeks to receive the teachers’ estimation on the learners’ needs of intercultural communication competence (icc), as seen in figure 5. figure 5 linguistic and cultural competence contributes learners’ intercultural communication 5adopting intercultural communication .... (hussain ahmed liton) the overwhelming responses of the participants (55% + 38% = 93%) show their awareness of learners’ reallife needs to develop effective intercultural communication skill. so, it is suggestive that in teaching english, the course content should address the intercultural issues to improve learners’ both linguistic and cultural competences in a complex networked global village. finally, the fifth question offers a free reign to the participants to give a more self-reported opinion for formulating pragmatic course imparting intercultural issues. teacher participants’ suggestions are reported into structured answers. table 1 shows the rate of participants’ percentage and numbers are also jotted down: table 1 teachers’ reflections and suggestions from data analyzes sl. no suggestions answer percentage (%) 1. extra-linguistic aspects are absent in the text. textbook must include a variety of world cultural information, not conflicting with learners’ own. 23 77 2. integration of linguistic & extralinguistic issues in esp/efl classroom – a step ahead of teaching effectiveness. 24 80 3. unavailable intercultural communication practice options. so, the learners should be exposed to video-led lessons related to a variety of intercultural conversations. 22 73 4. cultural artifacts such as food, clothing, music, art, or literature as well as a tv show, newspaper, movies can be used to incorporate cultural knowledge. 25 83 source: data analysis of questionnaires indeed, the varied suggestions from the majority of the participants underline promising teachers’ concern over the upshot of their students’ needs in the real life situation. interestingly,73% participants suggest that learners should be exposed to the opportunity to video-led lessons related to variety of intercultural conversations to develop intercultural communication competence which is the main concern of today’s global workplace. based on varied suggestions from the participants, to develop learners’ effective communication skill and intercultural awareness, stern’s (1992) module of teaching culture in language classroom in the figure below can be taken as effective suggestion in figure 6. figure 6 stern’s module of culture teaching in the efl context/classroom this paper examines the diverse information on the terrain of intercultural communication awareness and issues based on statistical data analyses and revealed the following points of hypotheses: variable: the incorporation of interculturality of language teaching enables the learners to grasp the difference between their own cultural metrics and other cultural differences. there are several problems that appear in adopting intercultural communication issue in teaching english. the first problem is the unsuitability of the textbook. existing esl/efl text does not address the intercultural communication issues related to learners’ future professional environment and contents of the course are not wholly learners’ culturally relevant. this problem can be seen in figure 1 and 2 (90% and 93%) above. the second problem is learners’ adverse attitude towards course materials. in figure 3 above, it can be seen that 72% of the participants reported that efl/esp learners have an adverse reaction towards foreign cultural element in the text which is not relevant and compatible to their own cultural values. the third problem is intercultural communication skill ignored. the current textual material fails to facilitate the learners’ intercultural communication practice option which is the crying needs of today’s digitalized global workplace (table 1, 73%). next, the fourth problem about this issue is extra-linguistic aspects totally unavailable. the existing efl/esl textbook only focuses on the linguistic aspects in the classroom and extra-linguistic issues are totally ignored (77%, table 1). some viable suggestions based on research results are cited and curriculum department of jazan university & najran university should be attentive to facilitate intercultural communication issues in the textual gallery. in cross-cultural aspects of the text, cross-cultural contents need to import in the existing textbook to develop learners’ awareness of cultural differences as a positive catalyst and enhance intercultural communication skill (figure 4, 66%). while in intercultural communication practices, in the textbook, the learners should be exposed to a variety of cultural contents from home and abroad and videoled intercultural conversations to develop intercultural awareness and effective communication (table 1, 73%). the authentic course material is suggested that course should cover cultural (extra-linguistic) and linguistic components to widen learners’ knowledge of cross-cultural variations and improve their intercultural communicative competence and awareness of cultural differences (figure 5, 93%). while doing the pedagogical shift, the teachers need to shift from a traditional teaching stance to an inter-cultural one to develop both linguistic and intercultural competences of the learners (figure 5). conclusions the present research divulges certain effective implications emerging from the findings of data analyses. first, esp/efl course contents should cover linguistic and cross-cultural components to create intercultural situation in classrooms, and to tackle the challenges students may face like intercultural phenomena, such asculture shock, cultural adaptation, cultural adjustment, and other cultural conflicts. secondly, cross-cultural contents relevant to the learners’ own values and cultural background need to import in existing course curricula for students’ 6 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 1-6 awareness of cultural differences in intercultural situation to avoid cultural conflictsas a result of misinterpretations, ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and prejudice. thirdly and very importantly, esl/efl teachers need to shift from a traditional teaching practice to an inter-cultural one. finally, it can be suggested to supplement the textbook by extracting issues of cultural artifacts such as food, clothing, music, art, or literature as well as tv show, newspaper, magazine or movies to incorporate idea of cultural awareness and variations. hopefully, after all these adaptations and incorporating the linguistic and intercultural activities discussed in this article will be a motivating and contributing point to help our students being more culturally aware and confident in intercultural communication. this study, in the final analysis, suggests accommodating linguistic and non-linguistic aspects in teaching efl/esl what kramsch (1993) has termed this learning process as a sphere of interculturality. in addition, it is expected that the results of the present study however can shed significant light to other saudi universities, and many other middle eastern countries that share same socio-economic and cultural backdrop. 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(2002). intercultural communication competence. in w. b. gudykunst, & b. mody (eds), handbook of international and intercultural communication. thousand oaks, california: sage publications. *corresponding author p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 117 lingua cultura, 16(1), july 2022, 117-131 doi: 10.21512/lc.v16i1.7770 a contrastive analysis of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences ayu trihardini* mandarin language education department, faculty of languages and arts, jakarta state university campus a, jl rawamangun muka, pulo gadung, jakarta timur 13220, indonesia ayu.trihardini@gmail.com received: 15th october 2021/revised: 07th february 2022/accepted: 09th february 2022 how to cite: trihardini, a. (2022). a contrastive analysis of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences. lingua cultura, 16(1), 117-131. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v16i1.7770 abstract the comparative study aimed to describe the characteristics of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences. the research contributed to teaching chinese as a second language and the field of translation as well. chinese was being studied all over the world, and indonesia was no exception. nevertheless, contrastive analysis between chinese and indonesian in the field of syntax were still limited. nominal sentences are one of the classifications of sentences based on the predicate form. accordingly, chinese and indonesian nominal sentences have similar definitions but differed in the words or phrases that form the predicate. the data in the contrastive analysis study were chinese and indonesian nominal sentences from short stories, novels, other literary works, and examples of related grammatical works. the data were analyzed using the james procedure and the contrastive analysis method with four steps described by di pietro. the finding of the contrastive analysis indicates that in both languages, nominal sentence usage is limited under certain conditions; some chinese nominal sentences will become verb sentences when translated into indonesian. also, chinese and indonesian nominal sentences differ in their negative forms. the error analysis indicates that indonesian students still lack knowledge of chinese nominal sentences and characteristics. keywords: contrastive analysis, chinese, indonesian, nominal sentences, error analysis introduction in the research, chinese refers to mandarin chinese as expressed by trihardini (2020). mandarin chinese is a language used by the people’s republic of china as the national language, which is spoken using beijing’s pronunciation with modern vocabulary from chinese literature and grammar from the north chinese region as its standard. according to its predicate form, the chinese sentence structure consists of verbal, adjectival, subject-predicate, and nominal sentences. meanwhile, indonesian sentences can be divided into five categories: verbal, adjectival, nominal, numeral, and prepositional sentences. the research mainly discusses a comparison between nominal sentences in chinese and indonesian. zhang and zheng (2015) have mentioned that nominal sentences usually express an equivalent or generic meaning; judgment sentences also often use the form of nominal sentences. these nominal equivalent sentences by some linguists are also interpreted as sentences whose subject and predicate belong to the same category. by definition, xiong and yu (2018) have described a nominal sentence is "sentence whose predicate is nouns, including nouns and nominal phrases." alwi (2003) has stated that in indonesian, nouns (including pronouns) or lined-up nominal phrases can form nominal sentences as long as the conditions for the subject and predicate are met. the conditions for these two elements are important because if they are not fulfilled, the sequence of nouns will not form a sentence. because of the chinese lack of morphological changes, the word order is relatively fixed; the subject comes first, the predicate comes after; the predicate comes first, and the object comes later. the word order of indonesian is the same as that of chinese. in word order typology, indonesian and chinese both belong to 118 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 svo (subject-verb-object) languages. therefore, the first noun/nominal phrase is the subject, while the second is the predicate. thus, the word order of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences is sp (subject + predicate). however, alwi (2003) has said that in indonesian, if the first noun/nominal phrase takes a particle, it becomes the predicate, while the second noun/nominal phrase becomes the subject. this is due to the fact that in the overall structure of the indonesian language, particles generally mark the predicate, as in the following example. dia guru saya. dialah guru saya. “he (is) my teacher.” in the first sentence, dia guru saya, the subject is dia “he”, and the predicate is guru saya “my teacher”. while in the second sentence: the first nominal phrase is accompanied by the particle “lah”, therefore, dialah becomes the predicate, and the subject is guru saya. a subject is typically a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun which is initial in the clause (swick in shalehoddin & roulina, 2018). these parts of speech, such as single nouns and noun phrases, can also be the predicate, both in chinese and indonesian. moreover, chinese parts of speech have multiple functions. when nouns act as different syntactic components, the word form and part of speech remain unchanged. accordingly, chinese and indonesian nominal sentences might have similar definitions but differ in structure. this gives rise easily to a wrong perception among indonesian students studying chinese, thus leading to complications and errors in the course of chinese syntax acquisition in general. the research aims to describe the characteristics of chinese and indonesian syntax, mainly about nominal sentences. although recently, chinese language teaching has much developed, the contrastive analysis between chinese and indonesian sentences is still infrequent. in accordance with gao (2020), the previous research on chinese nominal sentences mainly focuses on the chinese language and relatively ignores cross-lingual evidence. therefore, research on both in the field of syntax is very well needed to strengthen students’ understanding. as sarosdy (in shalehoddin & roulina, 2018) has also mentioned, students must recognize which part of speech fits which part of the sentence. mother tongue transfer is not the only source of students’ errors; therefore, it cannot be only relied on the comparative analysis of the mother tongue and the target language to explain the various errors of students in second language teaching. qin and pratomo (2019) have reported that besides negative transfer from mother tongue grammatical rules, the reasons for indonesian students’ errors include limited language practice from within the book. as for indonesian, uktolseja, sujaja, and matinahoru (2019) have mentioned that the language used in indonesian is varied up to 748 languages. therefore, though the indonesian language is understood and spoken by more than 90% of indonesians, most speakers’ mother tongue is not always indonesian. nevertheless, according to adiantika (2020), contrastive analysis is one method that can lead to knowing the difficulties in the language learning process by finding some differences and similarities between the source language and target language. qin and pratomo (2019) have also mentioned that the contrastive analysis of the grammar of the chinese and indonesian languages has a significant role and can contribute to the teaching and learning of both languages in each country. in the language teaching literature, corder distinguishes between ‘mistake’ and ‘error’. mistakes are not systematic. they are caused by performance problems, that is, absent-mindedness, hunger, emotional agitation, and others. after appearing, the speaker has the ability to correct. according to bochari, basri, and arid (2019), it is impossible for a student not to make mistakes and produce correct language in the process of language learning. error is systematic and regular, and it is a problem of ability. after it appears, the speaker is unable to take measures and correct them. in other words, in the process of language teaching and learning, the error is a kind of feedback, and the learner’s error represents the current language level of the student and will find out the knowledge that the student needs to learn. khansir and pakdel (2019) have stated that contrastive analysis, along with error analysis as the linguistic approach to the study of errors, can also be valuable approaches in helping syllabus designers with the preparation of teaching materials and helping language teachers with the use of fruitful learning strategies to teach language learners in second language learning. methods contrastive analysis is a form of the method used to study and compare two different language structures, namely the structure of the language studied with the source language, then identify the similarities and differences between the two languages. contrastive analysis can be used to find the difficulties faced by students in learning grammar in order to find the right method to overcome them (brown in misdawati, 2019). the research uses the carl james procedure in contrasting the components of the two languages being compared, as well as the contrastive analysis method with four steps described by di pietro (in nur, 2016). the first step is collecting the intended data object. the data in the contrastive analysis study are chinese nominal sentences from chinese short stories from the book zhongguo xiandangdai wenxue zuopinxuan (selected works of modern and contemporary chinese literature), consisting of 90 works by 61 chinese authors. the other literary works 119a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) and examples of related grammatical works include xiandai hanyu (modern chinese) by xing fuyi, xiandai hanyu (modern chinese) by fan xiangang, and xiandai hanyu (modern chinese) by zhou yimin. the data collected can be seen in table 1. table 1 data of chinese nominal sentences no data source page total 1. s1: ah q zhengchuan by lu xun 11, 13, 14 3 2. s1: zhufu by luxun 44 1 3. s1: li shui by luxun 72 1 4. s1: diqiu, wo de muqin! by guo moruo 102 1 5. s1: pan xiansheng zai nanzhong by ye shengtao 138 1 6. s1: chunfeng chenzui de wanshang by yu dafu 176, 178 3 7. s1: lin jia puzi by mao dun 228 1 8. s1: huawei xiansheng by zhang tianyi 292 1 9. s1: hehua dian by sun li 343 1 10. s1: zuzhibu laile ge nianqingren by wang meng 395, 400 2 11. s2 317, 323, 334, 335 6 12. s3 195, 196, 209, 210 1 13. s4 337, 346, 360, 369, 376 12 total 34 table description: s1: source 1 (zhongguo xiandangdai wenxue zuopinxuan) s2: source 2 (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi) s3: source 3 (xiandai hanyu by fan xiangang) s4: source 4 (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin) the data of indonesian nominal sentences are from indonesian short stories from the book jangan main-main by djenar maesa ayu and the novel ayatayat cinta by el shirazy. the data collected can be seen in table 2. table 2 data of indonesian nominal sentences no data source page total 1. s5: moral by djenar maesa ayu 25, 28, 32 4 2. s5: menyusu ayah by djenar maesa ayu 36, 38 2 3. s5: cermin by djenar maesa ayu 46, 51 3 4. s5: staccato by djenar maesa ayu 64, 77 2 no data source page total 5. s5: penthouse 2601 95 1 6. s6 2, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 41, 43, 47, 48, 50, 56, 60, 64, 65, 74, 79, 85, 87, 90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 100, 101, 104, 108, 118, 120, 154, 156, 159, 161, 166, 169, 172, 173, 176, 183, 195, 199, 203, 205, 206, 208, 215, 221, 233, 234, 235, 237, 245, 248, 266, 271, 276, 281, 283, 285, 293, 294, 296, 298, 303, 309, 310, 311 113 total 125 table description: 12 s5: source 5 (zhongguo xiandangdai wenxue zuopinxuan) s6: source 6 (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy) the second step is presenting the comparison in the same lingual unit in another language. the comparison in the research is illustrated based on lingual units in both chinese and indonesian languages, namely single words and phrases that act as predicates. the third step is identifying existing contrast variants. chinese and indonesian single nouns and phrases as predicates are being contrasted, accompanied by sentence examples and explanations that lead to the similarities and differences between nominal sentences in both languages. the last stage is formulating the contrasts in the rules. when comparing two languages, certain patterns appear. these patterns are described in terms of findings. results and discussions in chinese and indonesian, the parts of speech often used as predicates are verbs and adjectives; meanwhile, nouns can be used as predicates under table 2 data of indonesian nominal sentences (continued) 120 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 certain conditions. when a noun acts as a predicate, it is not the omission of certain words or components. according to xu, sang, and pang (2021), the chinese language can form a nominal sentence by combining two noun components directly, without the help of copulas. when comparing the nominal sentences in the two languages of chinese and indonesian, it should be noted that chinese nominal sentences refer to sentences with nominal words as predicates, including single nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, numerals, quantitative phrases, and de word phrases. the indonesian nominal sentences have a smaller scope, including single nouns, noun phrases, and pronouns. as for numerals and quantitative phrases, indonesians belong to the numeral sentence, which is an independent sentence pattern. the research explores the similarities and differences of nominal sentences through lingual units in both languages, namely single words and phrases that act as predicates. there are similarities between chineseindonesian single nouns as predicates. the first is the single nouns that describe the date, time, weather, occupation, and attributes that can be used as predicates. in both languages, a single noun can be used as a predicate but is limited to nouns that indicate certain things. shen (in xiong & yu, 2018) has stated that unlike english and other indo-european languages, mandarin single nouns can be directly used as predicates. single nouns in mandarin which can be used as predicates are limited to describing hometown, age, time, weather, and others (xiong & yu, 2018). (1) shi yue yi ri guoqingjie. (xiandai hanyu by zhou, p. 346) satu oktober hari kemerdekaan. “first october (is) independence day.” (2) jintian guoqingjie. (xiandai hanyu by fan, p. 209) hari ini hari kemerdekaan. “today (is) independence day.” the two sentences (1) and (2) describe time. in chinese, the single noun guoqingjie can be used as a predicate. single nouns that describe weather can also appear as predicates like in sentence (3). (3) mingtian qingtian. (xiandai hanyu by xing, p. 317) besok cerah. “today (is) sunny.” there is also a single noun that can be a predicate but is used in a limited manner according to context, like in sentence (4). (4) wo shouhuoyuan. (xiandai hanyu by zhou, p. 346) saya pramuniaga. “i am (a) shop assistant.” chinese nominal sentence (4) can only appear in the context of answering the question, “what do you do for a living?”, otherwise, wo shouhuoyuan will be better known as a noun phrase with a different meaning, namely “my shop assistant.” in indonesian, it is not limited to context; it is still be considered a nominal sentence because the noun phrase has a different structure, pramuniaga saya. (5) aku maryam. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazi, p. 113) wo maliya. “i am maria.” indonesian nominal sentence (5) is commonly used, especially when introducing yourself or others. while this sentence is in chinese, it depends on the context and can only appear in the context of answering the question, “who are you?”, otherwise it is better known as a noun phrase, namely “my maria.” this common can be seen in the indonesian nominal sentences found in sentences (6) (12). (6) nama saya nayla. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 36) wo jiao naila. (7) namaku abdur rauf. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 235) wo de mingzi (shi) abodulei laofu. “my name (is) abdur rauf.” (8) namamu maria. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 8) ni de mingzi (shi) maliya. “your name (is) maria.” (9) namanya noura. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 47) ta de mingzi (shi) nuola. “her name (is) noura.” (10) namanya bayu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 91) ta de mingzi (shi) bayou. “his name (is) bayu.” (11) namanya subhan tibi. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 183) ta de mingzi (shi) subhan tibi. “his name (is) subhan tibi.” (12) namanya khaleda. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.195) ta de mingzi (shi) khaleda. “her name (is) khaleda.” (13) nama lengkapnya syaikh ahmad taqiyyuddin abdul majid. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.14) ta de quanmingzi (shi) syaikh ahmad taqiyyuddin abdul majid. 121a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) “his full name is shaykh ahmad taqiyyuddin abdul majid.” based on these sentences, the single nouns describing the date, time, weather, occupation, and attributes in chinese and indonesian can be used as predicates alone. the second similarity between chineseindonesian single nouns as predicates is that chinese and indonesian pronouns are rarely used as predicates. it can be seen in sentences (14) (16). (14) nimen zenmeyang? (li shui by lu xun, p. 72) kalian bagaimana? “how are you?” (15) kau bagaimana? (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 245) ni zenmeyang? “how are you?” (16) fanqian duoshao? (chunfeng chenzui de wanshang by yu dafu, p. 176) biaya makan berapa? “how much is the meal?” there are differences between chineseindonesian single nouns as predicates. the first is that in indonesian sentences, the particles generally mark the predicate. when the first noun is accompanied by the particle lah, it becomes the predicate, and the subject is the second noun. sentences (17) to (20) are using particle lah. (17) inilah hariku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 169) zhe shi wo de yitian. “this is my day.” (18) inilah cinta. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 294) zhe jiushi ai. “this is love.” (19) akulah penthouse 2601. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.95) wo shi gelou 2601. “i am the penthouse 2601.” (20) kaulah orangnya. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.173) ni shi wei yi. “you’re the one.” (21) kaulah imamku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 208) ni shi wo de mushi. “you’re my leader.” thus, in all the indonesian nominal sentences, from sentences (17) to (21), the predicate is the noun at the beginning of the sentence. the equivalent of the sentences in chinese actually shows the opposite; the predicate is at the end of the sentence. in addition, all nominal sentences in chinese require the verb shi. this situation shows that there are different types of sentences. in indonesian, sentences containing particles lah are nominal sentences, while in mandarin, they belong to verbal sentences. the second difference is that in indonesian, a sentence with a pronoun as the subject can be accompanied by a single noun as the predicate. whereas in mandarin requires a verb shi or jiushi. it can be seen in sentences (22) to (31). (22) itu pamanku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.65) na shi wo shushu. “that’s my uncle.” (23) itu analisaku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.266) zhe jiushi wo de fenxi. “that’s my analysis.” (24) itu impianku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.293) na shi wo de mengxiang. “that’s’ my dream.” (25) itu kitab-kitabku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 203) na xie shi wo de shu. “those are my books.” (26) itu maria. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.79) na shi mali. “that’s mary.” (27) ini pesta! (moral by djenar maesa ayu, p.32) zhe shi yi ge juhui! “it’s a party!” (28) ini surga. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.309 zhe shi tiantang. “this is heaven.” (29) ini babur rayyan. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.309 zhe shi babur rayyan. “this is babur rayyan.” (30) ini babush shalat. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.309) zhe shi babush shalat. “this is babush salah.” (31) ini babuz zakat. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.310) zhe shi babuz zakat. “this is babuz zakat.” likewise, this also happens with the subject of a sentence that contains a pronoun, which means 122 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 ownership in indonesian words such as –ku (first person singular), -mu (second person singular), -nya (third-person singular). in mandarin, it requires the verb shi or jiushi. it can be seen in sentences (32) to (50). (32) ceritanya begini. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 206) gushi shi zheyang de. “the story is like this.” (33) dukamu dukaku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de beishang shi wo de beishang. “your sorrow is my sorrow.” (34) dukaku dukamu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de beishang shi ni de beishang. “my sorrow is your sorrow.” (35) sukamu sukaku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de xihuan shi wo de xihuan. “your fondness is my fondness.” (36) sukaku sukamu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de xihuan shi ni de xihuan. “my fondness is your fondness.” (37) cita-citamu cita-citaku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de mubiao jiushi wo de mubiao. “your goals are my goals.” (38) cita-citaku cita-citamu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de mubiao jiushi ni de mubiao. “my goals are your goals.” (39) senangmu senangku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de kuaile shi wo de kuaile. “your happiness is my happiness.” (40) senangku senangmu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de kuaile shi ni de kuaile. “my happinees is your happiness.” (41) bencimu benciku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de chouhen shi wo de chouhen. “your hatred is my hatred.” (42) benciku bencimu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de chouhen shi ni de chouhen. “my hatred is your hatred.” (43) kurangmu kurangku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de quedian shi wo de quedian. “your flaw is my flaw.” (44) kurangku kurangmu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wode de quedian shi ni de quedian. “my flaw is your flaw.” (45) kelebihanmu kelebihanku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de youdian shi wo de youdian. “your strength is my strength.” (46) kelebihanku kelebihanmu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de youdian shi ni de youdian. “my strength is your strength.” (47) milikmu milikku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de jiushi wo de. “yours is mine.” (48) milikku milikmu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de jiushi ni de. “mine is yours.” (49) hidupmu hidupku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) ni de shengming jiushi wo de shengming. “your life is my life.” (50) hidupku hidupmu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 205) wo de shengming jiushi ni de shengming. “my life is your life.” third, in indonesian, when single nouns are used as predicates, pronouns are often used between the subject and the predicate. it can be seen in sentences (51) to (55). (51) ibumu itu pelacur. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 38) ni mama shi ge biaozi. “your mother is a whore.” (52) kau ini siapa? (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 23, 97) ni shi shui? “who are you?” (53) aku ini siapa? (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 166, 176) wo shi shui? “who am i?” (54) kita ini turis. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 90) 123a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) women shi youke. “we are tourists.” (55) wajah dan kulit mereka kemerahan. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.21) tamen de lian he pifu shi hong hong de. “their faces and skin are red.” fourth, in chinese, only polysyllable numerals can be used as predicates. the use of chinese numerals and quantifiers as predicates can only be regarded as a rare occurrence (li, 1995). when chinese numerals are used as predicates, they are generally composed of two or more syllables. chinese single-syllable numerals cannot be directly used as predicates. indonesian numerals can be used as predicates alone, without considering the number of syllables. for example: ta airen ershiliu. istrinya duapuluh enam. “his wife is twenty-six (years old).” that chinese nominal sentence that li mentioned also appears in the context of answering, “how old is his wife?”. other than this context, in indonesian, it can also be interpreted as “he has 26 wives.” li has also mentioned: ta sanshi. dia tiga puluh. “he (is) thirty.” gege shi. (*) kakak sepuluh (tahun). “big brother is ten (years old). the number san shi ‘thirty’ in a chinese nominal sentence is a double syllable. it can directly serve as a predicate in a specific context. while the other chinese nominal sentence is not valid, mainly because the number shi ‘ten’ is a single syllable. the data found related to this feature can be seen in sentences (56) to (57). (56) aku anak tunggal. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy) wo dushengzi. “i’m an only child.” (57) qinglong si bai. (ah q zheng chuan by lu xun, p. 13) naga hijau empat ratus. “green dragon four hundred.” the number si bai “four hundred” in the sentence (57) is used as a predicate in the context of the novel. numerals in indonesian sentences (56) to (57) can be used as predicates based on the context of certain texts. anaknya dua. ta haizi liang (ge). (*) “she (has) two children.” the former kind of saying is very common in indonesian, which implies the meaning of “to have.” however, in chinese, this structure is not grammatically correct. the quantifiers in indonesian (except for the measurement words) can be omitted and directly combined with nouns that describe things. for example, dua “two” can be directly combined with dokter “doctor” to form dua dokter “two doctors”, and beberapa “few” can be directly combined with buku “book” to form beberapa buku “a few numbers.” the existence of quantifiers is necessary to express an indefinite number of things in chinese. it can be seen that in modern chinese, measuring words has an important position. in indonesian, the quantifier can be omitted. it can be simply said that indonesian numerals can be used as predicates alone, also due to the omission of quantifiers. fifth, indonesian numerals are used as predicates belonging to numeral sentences. based on the explanation, it can be seen that chinese numerals used as predicates are very infrequent and part of nominal sentences. while in the indonesian language, numerals used as predicates are very common, but it belongs to numeral sentences. there are similarities of chinese-indonesian phrases as predicates. first, nominal sentences in both languages often use a comma between the subject and the predicate. it can be seen in sentences (58) (63). (58) huichang shang, yi pai jieri de qifen. (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 369) di venue, suasananya meriah. “festive atmosphere at the venue.” (59) chuntian, wanwu fusu de jijie. (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 369) musim semi, musim kebangkitan segala sesuatu. “spring is the season of revival of all things.” (60) yuanzi li, yi ke qiannian de gubai. (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 369) di halaman, (ada) sebuah pohon cemara berusia 1000 tahun. “there is a thousand-year-old cypress in the yard.” (61) chuang qian, yi pian yueguang. (xiandai hanyu by fan xiangang, 187) di depan jendela, (terdapat) sebentang cahaya bulan. “there is a moonlight infront the window.” (62) buku kontemporer, bahasanya lebih mudah. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 43) dangdai shuji, yuyan geng rongyi, “contemporary books, the language is easier.” (63) buku pertama, women in islam. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 303) di yi ben shu, women in islam. the first book, women in islam. second, the nominal phrase that describes 124 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 identity and time can be used as predicates. these types of nominal sentences are more commonly used in everyday language. the nominal phrases that describe identity can be seen in sentences (64) (77). (64) lu xun shaoxing ren. (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 337) luxun orang shaoxing. “lu xun man from shaoxing.” (65) ta zhejiang ren. (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 323) dia orang zhejiang. “he (is) a man from zhejiang.” (66) kami asli mesir. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 27) women yuanchan yu aiji. “we are native to egypt.” (67) ayahnya asli jerman. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 64) ta fuqin laizi deguo. “her father is german.” (68) ibunya asli turki. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 64) ta muqin laizi tu’erqi. “her mother is turkey.” (69) ta guangxi daxue de. (xiandai hanyu by fan xiangang, p.210) dia dari universitas guangxi. “he is from guangxi university.” (70) dia puteri sulung tuan boutros rafael rigis. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 8) ta shi boutros rafael rigis xiansheng de da nv’er. “she is the elder daughter of mister boutros rafael rigis.” (71) perempuan itu pemain biola terkenal dari romania. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.94) zhe wei nvshi shi luomaniya zhuming de xiaotiqinjia. “the woman is a famous violinist from romania.” (72) cermin itu pemberian puteri. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.46) zhe ge jingzi shi putri song de liwu. “the mirror was a gift from putri.” (73) mereka teman baik paman eqbal dan bibi sarah. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.183) tamen shi eqbal shushu he sarah shenshen de haopengyou. “they were good friends with uncle eqbal and aunt sarah.” (74) mereka bertiga tamu kalian. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 27) tamen san ge shi nimen de keren. “the three of them are your guests.” (75) mereka semua mahasiswa al azhar dari indonesia. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 283) tamen dou shi laizi yindunixiya de al azhar xuesheng. “they are all al azhar students from indonesia.” (76) itu semua rekayasa belaka. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 298) na xie doushi caozong. “it's all mere manipulation.” (77) ini nomor telepon rumahnya. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 56) zhe shi ta jiating de dianhua haoma. “this is her home phone number.” the description of identity also includes profession, such as in sentence (78). (78) dia pekerja malam. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 50) ta shi yeban gongren. “she is a night worker.” while those stating time can be seen in sentences (79) (80). (79) ini malam sabtu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.120) xianzai xingqiliu wanshang. “it’s saturday night.” (80) magrib sekitar pukul lima empat lima. (ayatayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 281) riluo wu dian san ke zuoyou. “maghrib around five fourty five.” third, there are similar patterns of subordinate phrases with attributive-head structure (numeralquantifier structure modifies a noun or numeral phrases) as predicates. when numeral phrases are used as predicates, it has a similar pattern both in chinese and indonesian. it can be seen in sentences (81) (84). (81) xiaoming ershi sui le. a x (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 360) xiaoming dua puluh tahun. a x “xiaoming is twenty years old.” (82) niuroumian san kuai ba. a x (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 346) mie sapi tiga yuan delapan mao. a x “beef noodle (costs) three yuan eight cents.” (83) harganya seribu rupiah. a x (moral by djenar maesa ayu, p. 25) ta de jiage yiqian yinnibi. a x 125a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) “the price is one thousand rupiah.” (84) mei ren liang ben shu. a x setiap orang dua buah buku. a x “two books per person.” as mentioned, the attributive is placed in the front, and the head of the phrase is placed behind (a refers to the attributive, and x refers to the head of the phrase). fourth, chinese and indonesian subordinate phrase of the attributive-head structure has at least one of these characteristics: (a) the head of the phrase is a noun or predicative word; (b) the attributive is a noun or predicative word. fifth, there are similar pattern of subordinate phrases with adverbs modifies noun structure (which states the time and amount) as predicates. (85) mei ren ganghao liang ben shu. a x setiap orang tepat dua buah buku. a x “(there are) exactly two books per person.” (86) jintian dou xingqisan le. a x (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 323) hari ini sudah hari rabu. a x “today is already wednesday.” (87) women xiaozu zhenghao wu ge ren. a x (xiandai hanyu by fan xiangang, p. 195) kelompok kami tepat lima orang. a x “our group is exactly five people.” (88) umur saya sudah dua puluh lima tahun. a x (moral by djenar maesa ayu, p. 28) wo yijing ershiwu sui le. a x “i am already twenty five years old.” (89) anak beliau baru dua. a x (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 118) ta zhiyou liang ge haizi. a x “he has only two children.” (90) tebalnya cuma 65 halaman. a x (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 303) ta zhiyou 65 yehou. a x “it’s only 65 pages thick.” in chinese, when nouns that describe time and locative nouns are used as predicates alone, they can be preceded by adverbs such as gang, cai, you, dou, yijing, etc. they can also be modified by the modifier le in the back. commonly used adverbs in indonesian are baru, sudah, juga, hanya and so on. sixth, in some sentences, the subject and predicate can change places without changing the meaning. (91) yi jin baicai san jiao qian. (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p.334) satu kati sawi putih berharga tiga jiao. “a pound of cabbage (costs) 3 cents.” (92) san jiao qian. yi jin baicai. (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p.334) satu kati sawi putih berharga tiga jiao. “a pound of cabbage (costs) 3 cents.” (93) kau yang anak anjing. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 234) ni cai shi xiaogou. “you’re the puppy.” (94) kau yang anak pelacur. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 234) ni cai shi jinv de erzi. “you’re the son of a whore.” seventh, there are not many examples of coordinate phrases as predicates in chinese and indonesian languages. eighth, thus, it can be concluded that chinese and indonesian nominal predicates are relatively colloquial and are generally in affirmative form. there are differences in chinese-indonesian phrases as predicates. first, as what happens with singular nouns as predicates, when the first nominal phrase is accompanied by particle lah, it becomes the predicate, and the subject is the second nominal phrase. sentences (95) to (97) are examples using the particle lah. (95) itulah kunci surga. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 311) na shi tongwang tiantang de yaoshi. “that’s the key to heaven.” (96) inilah keindahan islam. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.156) zhe jiushi yisilanjiao de meili. “this is the beauty of islam.” (97) dialah yang mendalangi semua ini. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 271) ta shi zhe yiqie de muhou heishou. “he’s the one behind all of this.” second, as what happens with singular nouns as predicates, in indonesian, when phrases are used as predicates, pronouns are often used between the 126 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 subject and the predicate. all of these sentences (98 to 101) will change into a verbal sentence with the verb shi when translated into chinese. (98) dia itu gadis yang tidak pernah jatuh cinta. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.104) ta shi yi ge cong wei zhuiru aihe de nvhai. “she was a girl who never fell in love.” (99) aku ini mahasiswa yang miskin. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.161) wo shi ge qiong xuesheng. “i am a poor student.” (100) aku ini orang jawa. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.176) wo shi zhaowa ren. “i am javanese.” (101) aku ini orang paling besar cemburunya di dunia. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 237) wo shi shijieshang zui jidu de ren. “i am the most jealous person in the world.” third, when the subordinate phrase is not a numeral phrase, in chinese, the attributive is placed in the front, and the head of the phrase is placed behind. while in indonesian, it is the other way around. shaoxing ren a x orang shaoxing x a shaoxing ren “man from shaoxing” consists of the attributive shaoxing placed in the front and the head of the phrase ren “man/person” placed behind. malam sabtu x a xingqiliu wanshang a x subordinate phrase with ax pattern xingqiliu wanshang “saturday night” consists of the attributive wanshang “night” placed in the front and the head of the phrase xingqiliu “saturday” placed behind. fourth, a subordinate phrase that describes a particular object, location, or person by using adjectives has a different structure in both languages. if a chinese subordinate phrase is used after a subject, an object, or a preposition, then it might also use the particle de. it can be seen in sentences (102) to (105). (102) laoren huabai de toufa. a part. x (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p. 3 orang tua, rambut(nya) putih. x a “old man (has) white hair.” (103) na ge zhanshi tinggao de ger. a part. x (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 323) prajurit itu perawakan(nya) tinggi. x a “that soldier is very tall.” (104) zhe ge ren hao benshi. a x (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 323) orang ini kemampuannya baik. x a “this guy (has) good skill.” (105) ta zhege ren man xingzi. a x (xiandai hanyu by zhou yimin, p.346) dia ini, orangnya lambat. x a he is a slowcoach. subordinate phrase with a + particle de + x pattern huabai de toufa “white hair”, tinggao de ger “very tall”, hao benshi “good skill”, man xingzi “slowcoach”; when translated into indonesian subordinate phrase will need to add pronouns that declare ownership -nya “his/her” between the xa pattern formed. subordinate phrase with a + particle de + x pattern pinqiong de jiating “poor family”, when translated into indonesian subordinate phrase will need to add conjunction yang “that/which” between the xa pattern formed. (106) kami keluarga susah. x a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 108) women pinqiong de jiating. a part. x “we (are) the poor family.” chinese subordinate phrase with adverbial structure (adjective modifies nouns) has an ax pattern. in indonesian, it has an xa pattern. moreover, when translated into indonesian subordinate phrases will need to add conjunction yang “that/which” between the xa pattern formed. (107) guilin hao difang. a x (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 323) guilin tempat (yang) bagus. x (conj.) a “guilin, a good place.” (108) maria gadis yang unik. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 8) maliya du yi wu er de guniang. a part. x “maria (is) a unique girl.” 127a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) subordinate phrase with a + particle de + x pattern du yi wu er de guniang “unique girl”, in indonesian subordinate phrase needs a conjunction yang “that/which” between the xa pattern formed. sentences (109) to (118) are data regarding indonesian nominal sentences which contain the conjunction yang. (109) hasan anak yang penurut. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 159) hashan shi ge tinghua de haizi. a part. x “hasan is an obedient child.” (110) kakek orang yang bijaksana dan berpandangan jauh ke depan. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 206) yeye shi ge ruizhi er you yuanjian de ren. “grandfather was a white and farsighted man.” (111) dia murid syaikh utsman abdul fattah yang x conj. terkenal itu. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 25) ta shi zhuming de syaikh utsman abdul fattah de a part. xuesheng. x “he was a student of the famous syaikh utsman abdul fattah.” (112) dia mahasiswi yang baik. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 172) ta shi ge hao xuesheng. a x “she is a good student.” (113) ia gadis yang sangat cerdas. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 10) ta shi yi ge feichang congming de nvhai. a part. x “she is a very smart girl.” (114) ia gadis yang baik hatinya. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 48) ta shi yi ge xindi shangliang de nvhai. a part. x “she is a kind hearted girl.” (115) ia seorang perempuan yang lunak hatinya dan x conj. a bersih nuraninya. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 276) ta shi yi ge xindi rouruan, wencin wukui de nvren. a part. x “she is a woman with a soft heart and a clean conscience.” (116) mereka berdua orang-orang yang baik dan x conj. a berhati lembut. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 100) tamen lia dou shi shanliang er xinruan de ren. a part. x “they are both kind and soht hearted people.” (117) ini restaurant yang besar. x conj. a (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 91) zhe shi yi jia da canting. a x “it is a big restaurant.” (118) nurul dan teman-temannya orang yang jujur dan amanah. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 41) nurul he ta de pengyoumen dou shi chengshi shouxin de ren. “nurul and her friends are honest and trustworthy people.” fifth, some indonesian nominal sentences cannot be translated into chinese nominal sentences but must be turned into verbal sentences. the chinese verbs used are shi, zai, and you. (119) dia gadis manja dan kaku. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 104) ta shi yi ge bei chonghuai de jiangying de nvhai. “she is a spoiled and stiff girl.” (120) yang ia mainkan sekarang ini karya bethoven. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 94) ta xianzai yanzou de shi beiduofen de zuopin. “what he is playing now is bethoven's work.” (121) rumah kami dua tingkat di atasnya. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 237) women de fangzi zai ta shangmian liang ceng lou. “our house is two stories above it.” (122) ini belantara manusia. (moral by djenar maesa ayu, p. 32) zhe shi renlei de kuangye. “this is the wilderness of humans.” (123) itu komputer bututku! (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 203) na shi wo de jiu diannao! “that’s my old computer!” (124) memasak, mencuci, mengepel semua tanggung jawab noura. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 96) zuofan, xiyi, tuodi shi noura de suoyou zhize. “cooking, washing, mopping all of them are noura’s responsibilities.” (125) siapa gadis itu? (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.154) 128 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 na guniang shi shui? “who is that girl?” (126) siswanya ratusan ribu bahkan jutaan anak. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 9) ta de xuesheng shi ji shi wan wan shenzhi bai wan haizi. “his students are hundreds of thousands and even millions of children” (127) jiwanya jiwa pejuang sejati. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 195) ta de linghun shi yi ge zhenzheng zhanshi di linghun. “his soul is the soul of a true warrior.” (128) wajahmu hitam penuh dosa. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 234) ni de lian shi heise de, chongmanle zui’e. “your face is black full of sin.” sixth, subordinate phrase with adverbial structure (adverbs modifies noun) has a different structure in both languages. in indonesian, the pattern of the predicate will be adverbs + nouns. commonly encountered adverbs include memang, pasti, juga, and sama-sama. whereas in mandarin, between adverbs and nouns must use the verb shi. (129) awal-awal agustus memang puncak musim panas. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 2) ba yuechu queshi shi shengxia de gaofeng qi. “the beginning of august is indeed the peak of summer.” (130) ini memang puncak musim panas. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 12) zhe queshi shi shengxia. “this is indeed the height of summer.” (131) kau memang suami yang kuidamkan. (ayatayat cinta by el shirazy, p.199) ni queshi shi wo xiangyao de zhangfu. “you are the husband i want.” (132) kau memang suami yang baik. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 215) ni queshi shi ge hao zhangfu. “you are a good husband.” (133) dia memang muslimah yang baik. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 221) ta queshi shi ge hao musilin. “she is indeed a good muslim.” (134) dia memang polisi kurang ajar. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 248) ta queshi shi ge houyanquchi de jingcha. “he is indeed a brazen cop.” (135) ia memang gadis koptik yang aneh. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 10) ta queshi shi yi ge qiguai de kepute nvhai. “she is indeed a strange coptic girl.” (136) dia memang gadis yang malang. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 85) ta queshi shi yi ge kelian de nvhai. “she is indeed a poor girl.” (137) syaikh sya’rawi memang seorang ulama yang sangat merakyat. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 27) syaikh sya’rawi queshi shi yi wei feichang mincui zhuyi de xuezhe. “shaykh sya'rawi is indeed a very populist scholar.” (138) dia pasti aisha. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 60) ta yiding shi aisha. “she must be aisha.” (139) namanya juga party. (staccato by djenar maesa ayu, p. 64) mingzi jiushi paidui. “it’s a party by its name.” (140) saya juga teman yang baik. (staccato by djenar maesa ayu, p. 77) wo ye shi hen hao de pengyou. “i am also a good friend.” (141) kita sama-sama mahasiswa. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 74) women dou shi xuesheng. “we are both students.” (142) nama-nama itu semuanya nama kawasan elite. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p.19) na xie mingzi dou shi jingying diqu de mingcheng. “the names are all elite region names.” the same pattern also occurs in nominal phrases with adjectives as modifier. (143) putri satu-satunya pemberi kekuatan hidup. (cermin by djenar maesa ayu, p. 46) putri shi weiyi shengmingli de jiyuzhe. “putri is the only life force.” (144) dia benar-benar anak pelacur sial. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 87) ta zhenshi ge daomei de biaozi yang de. “he's really the son of an unlucky bitch.” (145) dia benar-benar anak setan! (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 87) ta zhenshi ge mo tong! “he really is a devil child!” (146) dia benar-benar gadis shalihah yang pemalu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 176) ta zhende shi yi ge haixiu de shalihah nvhai. “she is really a shy shalihah girl.” (147) noura sungguh gadis yang tidak tahu diri. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 296) 129a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) noura zhenshi ge wuzhi de nvhai. “noura is really an ignorant girl.” seventh, the negation of chinese nominal sentences using verb bushi, belongs to verbal sentences. (148) ta bushi luzhen ren. (zhufu by lu xun, p.44) dia bukan orang luzhen. “he is not from luzhen.” (149) jintian bushi xingqitian. (xiandai hanyu by fan xiangang, p. 196) hari ini bukan hari minggu. “today is not sunday.” the indonesian adverb bukan, which is the equivalent of chinese bushi “not”, modifies the noun phrase orang luzhen, forming a noun phrase. it can be seen that the negative form of the indonesian nominal sentence still belongs to the nominal sentence, while the chinese one belongs to the verbal sentence. (150) tubuhnya bukan bentuk. (cermin by djenar maesa ayu, p. 51) ta shenti bushi xingshi. “the body is not a form.” (151) kami bukan keluargamu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 47) women bushi ni de jiaren. “we are not your family.” (152) aku bukan pelaku pemerkosaan itu, kapten! (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 233) wo bushi qiangjian de zhaoshizhe, chuanzhang! “i'm not the perpetrator of the rape, captain!” (153) aku bukan gadis yang mudah terkesan dengan seorang pemuda. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 285) wo bushi yi ge rongyi bei nanren dadong de nvhai. “i’m not a girl who is easily impressed by a young man.” (154) saya bukan seorang pemburu burung hantu. (ayat-ayat cinta by el shirazy, p. 105) wo bushi maotouying lieren. “i am not an owl hunter.” figure 1 chinese nominal sentences with linking verbs’ structure figure 2 indonesian nominal sentences with linking verbs’ structure table 3 contrastive analysis between chinese and indonesia nominal sentences no chinese nominal sentence indonesian nominal sentence 1 describe festivals, time, weather, occupation, age, category of nouns can be used as predicates √ √ 2 subcoordinative phrase can be used as predicates √ when a numeral phrase is used as a predicate, some must add a verb to become a predicate 3 coordinative phrase can be used as predicates √ √ 4 between subject and predicate the head of phrase refers to is an inseparable part of the person or thing referred to by the subject when t he head of phrase is an inseparable part of the subject, the suffix bershould be added to the noun, and the sentence pattern is transformed into a verb-predicate sentence 5 negation form the negation of nouns is "not", which belongs to the verb-predicate sentence belongs to nominal sentence 130 lingua cultura, vol. 16 no. 1, july 2022, 117-131 eight, in indonesian, nominal and adjective sentences sometimes use the linking verb adalah (to be) to separate the subject and the predicate. however, in a sentence with adalah, the verb is regarded as the predicate in the sentence, and the noun or adjective after it is regarded as the complement (alwi, 2003). figures 1 and 2 are a comparison of immediate constituent (ic) analysis of nominal sentences and sentences with the use of linking verbs in both languages. ninth, when a nominal phrase in chinese is used as a predicate, the object referred to by the head must be an inseparable part of the person or object referred to by the subject (zhu, 2007). in indonesian, if the subject and the head have a close relationship, then the head must be appended with the suffix ber to express its affiliation. after adding the affix to the noun, it becomes a verb, and its sentence pattern also becomes a verbal predicate. (155) xiaoling xinyanr hao. (xiandai hanyu by xing fuyi, p. 335) xiaoling berhati yang baik. “xiaoling has a good heart.” chaer (2012) has pointed out that bercontains the meaning of “to have”, and beris also one of the signs of indonesian verbs. from that, it can be seen that chinese has a nominal phrase with the structure of adjective + noun, while sometimes indonesian has a verbal structure. finaly, the research shows the finding on the contrated analysis between chinese and indonesia nominal sentences, as shown in table 3. conclusions based on these descriptions, it is clear that through contrastive analysis, it is possible to know the contrasting aspects of the two languages being compared. there are similarities in the definitions of predicates in the chinese and indonesian languages, and they are both considered to be statements of the subject. however, structural comparison found that the composition of predicates in chinese and indonesian nominal sentences differ. finaly, the research shows the finding on the contrated analysis between chinese and indonesia nominal sentences (table 3). through the comparison mentioned in table 3, it can be concluded that, first, in chinese and indonesian, the two parts of speech that are often used as predicates are verbs and adjectives, and nouns can be used as predicates under certain conditions. second, indonesian nominal sentences are more limited than chinese. some chinese nominal sentences have to be added with verbs in the indonesian translation and become verb-predicate sentences, such as when indonesian numeral phrases are used as predicates. third, chinese and indonesian nominal sentences differ in their negative forms. the negative form of chinese uses bushi, which belongs to the verb sentence; the negative form of indonesian uses bukan, which belongs to the nominal sentence. fourth, based on these data, the ax pattern (noun modifies noun) in chinese will perform as an xa pattern in indonesian; the ax pattern (numeral-quantifier structure modifies a noun or numeral phrases) in chinese will also have an ax pattern in indonesian. as for adverbial structure, will have some conditions: ax pattern in chinese will perform as x + yang + a pattern in indonesia; a + particle de + x in chinese will perform as x + nya + a or x + yang + a in indonesian. the research has some limitations. although it has more sources, the data obtained in chinese are less than in indonesian. however, the research cannot be based on this as a whole and conclude that chinese nominal sentences are more limited in their use. considering that the researcher only has limited sources and has not researched all the works of short stories and novels by chinese or indonesian authors. there may be certain patterns that can actually be compared to show characteristics, but these patterns do not appear in the limited work. nevertheless, the research is expected to provide an overview of the characteristics of nominal sentences in both languages. contrastive analysis of chinese and indonesian nominal sentences can help the understanding in the field of teaching chinese as a second language and also translation. however, of course, for a more thorough understanding, an analysis of other types of sentences is also needed. references adiantika, h. n. (2020). contrastive analysis between indonesian and english declarative sentences. elt in focus, 3(1), 15-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.35706/ eltinfc.v3i1.3695. alwi, h. (2003). tata bahasa baku bahasa indonesia (5th ed.). jakarta: balai pustaka. bochari, s., basri, h., & arid, m. (2019). the student’s error in forming nominal clause in complex sentence. ideas journal of language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature, 7(2), 354-367. http:// dx.doi.org/10.24256/ideas.v7i2.1085. chaer, a. (2012). linguistik umum (edisi revisi). jakarta: rineka cipta. gao, h. (2020). jijin goushi yufa shijiao xia mingci weiyuju de kua yuyan yanjiu. xiandai waiyu, 43(4), 463-476. khansir, a. a., & pakdel, f. (2019). contrastive analysis hypothesis and second language learning. journal of elt research, 4(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.22236/ jer_vol4issue1pp35-43. li, y. (1995). xiandai hanyu shiyong yufa. beijing: jiaoyu kexue chubanshe. misdawati. (2019). analisis kontrastif dalam pembelajaran bahasa. ‘a jamiy: jurnal bahasa dan sastra arab, 8(1), 53-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.31314/ ajamiy.8.1.53-66.2019. nur, t. (2016). analisis kontrastif dalam studi bahasa. arabi : journal of arabic studies, 1(2), 64-74. http:// dx.doi.org/10.24865/ajas.v1i2.11. qin, x., & pratomo, w. (2019). contrastive analysis of 131a contrastive analysis of chinese .... (ayu trihardini) particles in chinese and indonesian language. litera: jurnal penelitian bahasa, sastra, dan pengajarannya, 18(3), 361-378. https://doi. org/10.21831/ltr.v18i3.24223. shalehoddin., & roulina, s. (2018). syntactical analysis on subject and verb usage in descriptive writing of eighth grade students at smp bhinneka nusantara batam 2. anglo saxon: journal of the english language education study program, 9(1), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.33373/anglo.v9i1.1421. trihardini, a. (2020). fonologi bahasa mandarin untuk pemelajar indonesia. depok: pt. rajagrafindo perkasa. uktolseja, l. j., sujaja, h., & matinahoru, m. (2019). a contrastive analysis between english and indonesian kinds of sentences. ijet: indonesian journal of english teaching, 8(1), 54-61. https://doi. org/10.15642/ijet2.2019.8.1.54-61. xing, f. (2010). xiandai hanyu. beijing: gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe. xiong, z., & yu, s. (2018). mingci weiyuju de jufa fenxi. duiwai hanyu yanjiu, 17, 1-14. xu, x., sang, z., & pang, j. (2021). tiqu he jihuo moxing xia de hanyu mingci weiyuju yanjiu. xiandai waiyu, 44(4), 483-494. zhang, j., & zheng, t. (2015). zhan. xiamen daxue xuebao, 1(227), 147-156. zhu, d. (2007). yufa jiangyi. beijing: yinshuguan. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 95 introduction the prolonged and heated debate on whether or not the study of the phatic function should be included in the pragmatic dimension must be ended. the phatic function is a part of the pragmatic study as it is closely related to contexts. a linguistic study which separates itself from contexts cannot be called pragmatics (rahardi et al., 2015a). there are two kinds of contexts, namely the intrinsic and extrinsic context. the extrinsic context that is also called pragmatic context has been the researcher’s concern for the past few years, because as a rule, pragmatic context is only understood as situational and socio-cultural contexts. the situational context is more closely connected to the issue of time, place, and atmosphere; whereas sociocultural contexts are closely intertwined with the horizontal dimension, which is later understood as a social context only. the status-related social contexts generally have a vertical dimension and commonly referred to as a societal context (rahardi, 2015). furthermore, it is worth noting that language, society, and culture are separate dimensions with a single identity. it means that one dimension cannot be easily separated from other dimensions. speaking of a language which excludes itself from its social and cultural dimensions would be asocial and non-cultural (pranowo, 2015). however, the pragmatic context does not stop at a process of engaging itself in various dimensions. pragmatic context constitutes essentially of assumptions, both personal and communal. it is impossible to remove the interpretation of the nature and purpose of phatic functions from the context of pragmatic dimensions of personal and communal assumptions underlying it (rahardi, 2015). what is the nature of the dimensional contexts of personal and communal assumptions and how the purpose of phatic functions should be identified and interpreted by basing on those personal and communal assumptions will be the focus of the discussion in this article. it has been the researcher’s concern for many years to investigate the true nature of the pragmatic context in a linguistic study. in various scientific occasions, the researcher has promoted the identity of pragmatic contexts. it is deemed very important because, in many existing kinds of literature, contexts in pragmatic studies are understood in so far as its connection to the spatial-temporal setting (rahardi et al., 2015c). unless based on the perspectives on those aspects, specific pragmatic experts would build the contexts of the study on the social dimension, commonly known as social contexts. social contexts are not generally specified clearly, whether the social dimension is related to status or social lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 95-98 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.897 personal and communal assumptions to determine pragmatic meanings of phatic functions r. kunjana rahardi master program of the indonesian language and literature education, faculty of teachers training and education, sanata dharma university jalan affandi, mrican, catur tunggal, sleman, yogyakarta kunjana@usd.ac.id received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 3rd october 2016/ accepted: 7th october 2016 how to cite: rahardi, r. k. (2016). personal and communal assumptions to determine pragmatic meanings of phatic functions. lingua cultura, 10(2). 95-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.897 abstract this research aimed to describe the manifestations of phatic function in the education domain. the phatic function in the communication and interaction happening in the education domain could be accurately identified when the utterances were not separated from their determining pragmatic context. the context must not be limited only to contextual and social or societal perspectives, but must be defined as basic assumptions. the data of this research included various kinds of speech gathered naturally in education circles that contain phatic functions. two methods of data gathering were employed were namely listening and conversation methods. recorded data analyzed through the steps as follows (1) data were identified based on the discourse markers found (2) data were classified based on the phatic perception criteria; (3) data were interpreted based on the referenced theories; (4) data were described in the form of analysis result description. the research proves that phatic function in the form of small talks in the education domain cannot be separated from the context surrounding it. keywords: phatic function, education domain, pragmatic context, assumptions 96 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 95-98 classes. sometimes, cultural dimensions are not clearly specified because in the indonesian context, what is meant by the indonesian culture is relatively and vaguely defined. the relativity is caused by the various ethnicities and races with their own cultural backgrounds so that the concept of indonesian culture is difficult to be defined (rahardi et al., 2014). the fuzziness of the identity issue of the pragmatic context is aggravated by the fact that the essence of pragmatic context itself, i.e. sets of assumption is not involved. therefore, the researcher would like to assert that pragmatic contexts cannot overlook the sets of assumptions if the pragmatic contexts are meant to determine the utterance meaning or speaker’s meaning. determining an utterance meaning would be impossible when the only things being specified from an utterance are the contexts of time, place, and atmosphere which, in author’s opinion, are nothing more than superficial. the utterance meaning and the speaker’s meaning can only be understood if the contextual dimension has reached the essence of the context itself, namely the sets of assumptions. the assumptions as the core of pragmatic contexts are classified in two, namely assumptions which are closely related to speaker’s personality as the utterance creator, and the assumptions which are closely connected with the speaker’s personality in the context of life with other speakers in specific domains of society and culture. the former assumption is generally known as the personal assumption, while the latter is commonly known as the communal assumption (rahardi et al., 2015b). regarding the nature of context in the pragmatic study, huang (2007) has defined context as composed of three different sources—a view known as the ‘geographic’ division of context. in the first place, there is the physical context, which refers to the physical setting of the utterance. the second type is the linguistic context, which refers to the surrounding utterances in the same discourse. thirdly and finally, people have the general knowledge context. related to the focus of the discussion, the view of the context in the first dimension and the second dimension is not discussed here because it is irrelevant. the relevant contextual dimension according to huang (2007) is the third dimension, namely the general knowledge context. therefore, the contextual dimension in pragmatics actually refers to the dimension of general knowledge. however, it is not enough to refer the dimensions as the general knowledge only because basically it is required to be shared, understood, and owned together by the members of the speech community. in huang (2007), the general knowledge which is shared, understood, and owned together is referred to as a set of background assumptions shared. thus, it is affirmed that a set of background assumptions which are shared, understood, and owned together is in fact the essence of pragmatic context. further, he agrees with the nature of context as common grounds and distinguishes them into personal common ground and communal common ground. the researcher would also like to assert that the assumptions as the essence of contexts must not be assumptions in the abstract and at the elusive level, but real assumptions which manifest clearly in the real world. therefore, it is affirmed that the essence of pragmatic contexts is actually personal and communal assumptions, as clearly specified above. such view of pragmatic context is made as a frame of reference in the research of phatic function in the education domain in indonesia whose cultural background is predominantly javanese. methods regarding research, data are defined as the research object of discussion that is gathered after the process of selecting various kinds of spoken expressions. the data of this research include various kinds of speech gathered naturally in education circles that contain phatic functions. such linguistically and non-linguistically phatic function becomes the object of this study, and the other language forms are its context. in order to make the data for this research natural, valid, and reliable, the researcher records the teachers and students’ speech acts, both with and without their subjects’ acknowledgment. two methods of data gathering are employed in this study; they are listening and conversation methods. listening method is conducted by listening to direct conversations. during which, the researchers recorded the conversations and took notes. the recording, which functioned as speech act data gathering, is conducted in a way that does not disturb the naturalness of the conversations. besides the recording activity, the researchers also take field notes. this technique is conducted by taking notes on data cards and is then classified into categories. from the notes and speech recordings, the researchers gather the data. besides the aforementioned methods, the researchers also employ conversation method. this method is employed by conducting conversations between researchers and informants. this method uses stimulation technique since the conversation will only appear if the researchers provide stimuli to the informant to make language signs expected. recorded data is analyzed through the steps as follows (1) data are identified based on the discourse markers found; (2) data are classified based on the phatic perception criteria; (3) data are interpreted based on the referenced theories; (4) data are described in the form of analysis result description. the description of the research uses two methods, which are formal and informal methods. in this study, the interpreted data result in the data analysis step will be discussed informally. informal data analysis result discussion can mean that the data is formulated with common words, not with certain symbols because this study does not require that kind of discussion model. results and discussions the unavailability of other studies on phatic function must be responded seriously by pragmatic experts. it is due to the fact that phatic functions generally manifested in small talk, is the salient pragmatic phenomenon among the indonesian society, especially in the javanese speech communities. it is safe to say that small talk is the salient and inevitable pragmatic phenomenon in the communication and interaction among members of a speech community. previous studies found that both indonesian and non-indonesian linguists do not have documented research on phatic functions. an indonesian linguist who is keen on writing about phatic functions is kridalaksana (1994) who wrote about parts of speech in the indonesian language. other linguistic books, including those which discuss word class, word categories, or word groups, do not describe phatic functions at all. pragmatic books written by foreign experts or indonesian experts do not discuss the issue of phatic functions in one of the chapters or subsections 97personal and communal assumptions .... (r. kunjana rahardi) (rahardi, 2005; 2009). therefore, it is ascertained that the unavailable documents of research on phatic functions, especially in pragmatic perspective, is very important and urgent. based on the current fact, a study on phatic functions in the education domain by means of an analysis of pragmatic contexts as personal and communal assumptions is expected to complete the description of pragmatics set against the indonesian cultural backgrounds. only through this means, a linguistic study on indonesian pragmatics will thrive vigorously. in addition, the data-driven scientific findings on local cultures will complete the previous studies by linguists from outside indonesia. the conversation that occurs between speaker and hearer in a speech excerpt 1 (see appendices) takes place in a very pleasant atmosphere because there is a shared understanding of assumptions underlying the utterance. the speaker has a personal assumption of the hearer, while the hearer also has a certain personal assumption of the speaker. the teachers who are present in the staff room in the early morning before school begin to share common knowledge so they can create cheerfulness in the exchanges of jokes and quips to create a pleasant atmosphere. ownership of shared assumptions together is shown through the small talk expression:“excuse me, ladies?” uttered by a male teacher. then, the utterance is responded by another utterance: “go ahead, mr. tri. ms. yuyun has been looking for you. have you seen her?” in these two utterances, the intent of small talk is clearly identified, namely to establish human relations among the teachers. the first teacher responds to the second teacher’s teasing cheerfully without hard feelings. this is in line with what malinowski’s statement (arimi, 1998), that the ultimate goal of phatic communication, in this context manifested in small talks, is mere to establish a social bond between speaker and spoken to. thus, phatic communication does not have a clear utterance meaning, but the meaning is embedded in the various intents of the utterance. for example, in the pragmatic utterance of apologizing, a small talk intent is embedded. similarly, the pragmatic utterance of congratulations contains a small talk intent in it. therefore it is now clear that small talks can be classified based on the intention underlying the utterances, because as a rule, phatic communication or small talk does not have a clear intent other than to establish the relation between the speaker and hearer and other interlocutors. in the excerpt of utterances above, phatic communication is inherent in the utterance: “yes, sir. don’t mention it. i wonder what is going on between the two of you”. of course, the meaning of the utterance is not that the speaker wants to know mr. tri’s motivation to visit ms. yuyun in her house. the utterance is intended to establish solidarity between them and to establish social bonds between speaker and hearer. the speaker also uses phatic communication in responding to the phatic expression by saying, “oh, nothing. i have important business with her husband. you know, business! hehe…”. in the second excerpt, the speaker invites or offers the hearer to join him. he will go to a place for an errand, but to show politeness and small talk, it is appropriate to invite hearer to join him. however, is it true that the speaker’s intention is to invite the hearer to join him? the answer is no. so, the invitation or offer is merely a small talk to establish relations between them. similarly, to scrutinize the hearer’s response, “monggo, silakan. sendiri saja” (please, go ahead. you can do it alone!), is it his intention to let her/him go alone? the answer, of course, is no. it is not the hearer’s concern whether the speaker will go alone or with someone else. in other words, the utterances are pure small talk, without any specific intention inherent in the utterance, other than simply to establish relations and cooperation between speaker and hearer. regarding this, let us scrutinize the utterance (see utterance excerpt 2 in the appendices). in utterance excerpt 3 (see appendices) between co-workers in the same department, it can be seen that the question of “tidings” which is formulated in a question, “how are you, ma’am?”. it is not a referential question asking for someone’s wellbeing, but actually it is a manifestation of phatic communication. phatic communication is intended to establish social relations between the speaker and hearer. therefore, exactly the same argument applies to the answer formulated as “baik-baik saja kok, bu” (i am fine, ma’am), which is non-referential to ask for someone physical wellbeing. again, such utterances are the manifestation of phatic communication which is deeply rooted and salient in the indonesian society and culture. this is exactly the case of the people who will go to a specific place of worship, on sunday or friday, being asked by the bystanders, “badhe tindak pundi?” (where are you going?). it is clear that the utterance is not intended to find out where the people are going, but it is merely phatic communication to establish social cohesion in interacting with other members of society.people who are not aware of the intention of these small talks will probably respond curtly to the question because for them it is clear where they are going and being asked an obvious question can be annoying. the sample cases can occur because of the speaker’s and the hearer’s lack of awareness of pragmatic contexts, i.e. personal assumptions. therefore, the better the members of society understand the pragmatic contexts, the closer the relation and communication among the members of the society. in utterance excerpt 4 (see appendices), phatic communication is inherent in the following utterance, “hallo pak, selamat pagi?” (hello, sir. good morning), expressed by a female teacher to the school principal in the teacher’s room before the school begins. at first, the teacher greets with a colloquial expression, “hello” and followed by a phatic expression “good morning”. phatic communication expressed by the teacher is responded by the principal with the same expression “selamat pagi juga, bu.”(good morning to you too, ma’am). thus, it is clear that phatic communication is generally responded with phatic expression in the practice of communicative exchanges. such responses can occur because both parties have shared the same assumptions, either personal or communal. their togetherness at school has created in them the same assumptions, which can be manifested in their phatic communication. however, the atmosphere changes slightly when the principal continues with a question regarding her late arrival to school, “baru datang yah?” (have you just arrived?). the utterance has changed the warm and familiar atmosphere to formal and rigid one. timidly, the teacher answers the principal’s question by saying “iya nih pak. maaf agak terlambat.” (yes, sir. i’m sorry for being a little bit late”). of course, the teacher’s apology is sincere, not a form of small talk. the utterance excerpt is closed with a phatic expression “ndak masalah!’ (no problem) by the principal. is it true that late arrival is not a problem for the principal? if it is not a problem, then the expression is not a small talk. however, if the principal thinks that her late arrival to school is a problem, then it must be asserted that 98 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 95-98 actually the expression ‘ndak masalah (no problem)’ is a manifestation of phatic communication. conclusions in a nutshell, it can be concluded that phatic function in the form of small talks in the education domain cannot be separated from the context surrounding it. the context must not be limited to textual, social, societal, and cultural contexts, but must be defined as assumptions. the assumptions forming the essence of pragmatic context could be divided into two, namely personal and communal perspectives. in interpreting the speaker’s meaning, such pragmatic context must be implemented in the right way. references arimi,s. (1998). basi-basi dalam masyarakat bahasa indonesia. yogyakarta: ugm. huang, y. (2007). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. kridalaksana, h. (1994). kelas kata dalam bahasa indonesia. jakarta: gramedia. pranowo. (2015). tergantung pada konteks. pranowo et al. (eds.). in optimalisasi fungsi bahasa indonesia sebagai wahana pembentukan mental dan karakter bangsa di era globalisasi menuju indonesia emas 2045 pp. 489-502. yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. rahardi, r. k. (2005). pragmatik: kesantunan imperatif bahasa indonesia. jakarta: erlangga. rahardi, r. k. (2009). sosiopragmatik. jakarta: erlangga. rahardi, r. k. (2015). menemukan hakikat konteks. haryato et al. (eds.). in kajian pragmatik dalam berbagai perspektif pp.17-22. surakarta: program pascasarjana uns. rahardi, r. k., setyaningsih, y., dewi, r. p. (2014). impoliteness category in javanese royal family. anshari et al. (eds.). in bahasa, sastra, dan budaya indonesia dalam pengembangan profesionalisme pp. 309-314.makassar: universitas negeri makassar. rahardi, r. k., setyaningsih, y., dewi, r. p. (2015a). pragmatik: fenomena ketidaksantunan berbahasa. yogyakarta: keppel press. rahardi, r. k., setyaningsih, y., dewi, r. p.(2015b). kata fatis penanda ketidaksantunan pragmatik dalam ranah keluarga. adabiyyat, 13(2), 149-175. rahardi, r. k., setyaningsih, y., dewi, r. p.(2015c). mencari identitas konteks (dalam studi) pragmatik. pranowo et al. (eds.). in optimalisasi fungsi bahasa indonesia sebagai wahana pembentukan mental dan karakter bangsa di era globalisasi menuju indonesia emas 2045 pp. 324-329. yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. stalnaker, r.c. (1974). pragmatic presupposition.in munitz, m.k. & d.k. unger (eds.). semantics and philosophy. new york: new york university press. a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, and voice of coconut research abstracts muhartoyo english department, faculty of humanities, bina nusantara university jl. kemanggisanilir iii no.45, kemanggisan/palmerah, jakarta barat 11480 ymuhartoyo@yahoo.com received: 1st march 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 20th april 2016 how to cite: muhartoyo. (2016). a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, and voice of coconut research abstracts. lingua cultura, 10(1), 49-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.879 abstract abstract is a secondary source of scientific information which can help scientists to get the gist of relevant information needed for their study. scientific article usually provides informative abstracts to facilitate readers to know the essential content of the article. the quality of an abstract depends on the accuracy and completeness of abstract components or elements. this research was intended to find out the completeness of abstract elements, finite verb tenses, and the voice of coconut research abstracts. a total of 34 abstracts from the last three-year issues of cord journal were analyzed. the result of the analysis showed that there were two categories i.e. indicative abstracts (21%) and comprehensives abstracts (79%). the most complete informative abstracts consisting of 5 elements accounted for 23%, the informative abstracts with four elements had the highest amount which was 41%, and the informative/comprehensive abstracts with three elements had the least amount which is 15%. it can be concluded that most informative/ comprehensive abstracts contain four elements which are background (introduction), objectives, methodology, and result. four tenses are usually used in abstract writing; they are simple present, simple past, present and past perfect tense. both active and passive voices are used in writing abstracts. keywords: indicative abstract, informative abstracts, finite verbs, active voice, passive voice introduction scientific communication is an essential part of research and development. this type of communication is usually carried out through publications. both paper-based and on-line scientific publications play equally important roles in keeping the flow of information exchange among scientists. the important role of scientific publications is signified by the number of research articles published in various international, peer-reviewed journals. according to ware and mabe (2012), the annual published scientific articles around the world reach 1.8 million titles. to keep up with this huge number of scientific publications, scientists should keep themselves updated with the latest development of their disciplines. it is highly unlikely to read all those scientific publications, besides too costly it will be too time-consuming. one of the easier ways that can be taken by scientists to keep themselves updated is by subscribing abstracts of relevant publications. an abstract is a representation of a larger work in the form of a self-contained, short, and powerful statement. the components of abstracts vary depending on discipline. for a social science or scientific work, the abstracts may comprise of the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. for a humanities work, the abstract may include the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. it should be noted that an abstract is neither a review nor an evaluation of the work being abstracted. while it contains keywords found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage. bailey (2011) has described briefly that abstract is usually located at the beginning of peer-reviewed journal articles. the function of abstract is giving a kind of summary so that researchers can decide if the full article is worth reading. abstracts consist of background position, aim and thesis of the article, method of research, and result of research. according to the university of north carolina (unc) abstracts are generally categorized into two different categories i.e. descriptive and informative abstracts. a descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. it makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. it does incorporate keywords found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. the term ‘descriptive abstract’ is interchangeable with ‘indicative abstract’. lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 49-55 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.879 49 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 50 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 48-54 this kind of abstract can be used to represent a lessstructured document like essay, editorial, or book. indicative abstracts may cover three elements: scope, argument, and conclusion. the first element is used to explain the coverage and the main focus of the original document. for example, an essay on shakespeare’s comedy, the scope element of this abstract will state that the focus of the easy is on the bard’s comedies.essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. meanwhile, the argument element of the abstract will describe the primary arguments and counter-arguments contained in the essay (original document). if arguments and counter-arguments do not exist in the original document, this element of the indicative abstract will outline analysis or plot progression. some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less. being the representation of the original documents (research papers, books, theses, dissertations, and articles) abstracts should be written accurately. it means what is stated in the abstract is coherent with what it is stated in the original documents. discrepancies in abstract writing will mislead the potential readers of the original documents. the majority of abstracts included in the scientific documents are informative. while they still do not critique or evaluate work, they provide concise and comprehensive information. a good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. that is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. an informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, and scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. the length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. in the case of a longer work, it may be much less (unc, 2014). birmingham city university (bcu) has given a complete component of informative abstracts; they are background, aim(s), methods, results, and conclusions (bcu, 2015). the later will be used as the basis of analyzing the completeness of abstract components in this study. the accuracy of information contained in abstracts is quite instrumental for potential readers to get unbiased information. biased information of the abstracts may lead to incorrect understanding for the readers. according to the results of a study published in plos medicine the “exaggerated and inappropriate coverage of research findings in the news media” is ultimately related to inaccurately reporting or over-interpreting research results in many abstract conclusions. a study published in jama concluded that “inconsistencies in data between abstract and body and reporting of data and other information solely in the abstract are relatively common and that a simple educational intervention directed to the author is ineffective in reducing that frequency. other studies comparing the accuracy of information reported in a journal abstract with that reported in the text of the full publication have found claims that are inconsistent with, or missing from, the body of the full article (pitkinet. al., 1999). as previously mentioned abstracts are parts of scientific journal articles, they should be written based on academic writing standard which includes the target reader, content, style, organization, grammar, and vocabulary. the target reader is academics; the content contains serious thought, the style of writing uses complex sentences showing considerable variety in construction. the organization is clear and well planned and is likely to be error free in grammar. it tends to use accurate technical and academic language. passive voice, the objective and impersonal point of view are more frequently used in academic writing (hamp-lyons, 2010). methods the purpose of this study is to evaluate the accuracy of coconut research abstracts compared to the original documents or articles. it will also look into finite verb tenses and voices in various components of the abstracts. the data for this study are derived from cord, an international journal of coconut research and development. the abstracts of scientific articles published in cord for the period of last three years (2012-2014) were selected and analyzed. a total of 34 abstracts were collected from 35 scientific articles. those abstracts were selected because they were published in the most recent issues of the journal at the time of data selection process. the analysis includes the completeness of abstract components, accuracy of the information, voice and finite verb tenses used in the abstracts. cord is an international journal on coconut research and development published by asian and pacific coconut community since 1985. this journal is widely circulated among coconut researchers all over the world. all articles published in this journal have been scrutinized by members of the editorial board who are prominent experts from indonesia, philippines, india, sri lanka, thailand, australia, and the usa. most articles published in this journal present research results conducted by scientists from various countries including indonesia, malaysia, thailand, philippines, india, sri lanka, australia, and france. occasionally some review articles by prominent experts in the field were included in the publication. as mentioned in section 2, there are 34 abstracts taken from the last three-year issues of the cord journal which will be analyzed in this study. the abstracts were systematically numbered which began from the latest issue of the journal (vol. 30 no. 2, 2014). as indicated in the introduction, most abstracts fall under the category of informative abstracts which contain full elements of abstracts as given by birmingham city university and the university of north carolina, such as background, aims, method, results, conclusion and recommendation. the analysis was focused on the identification of abstract elements. the analysis found seven abstracts that belong to indicative abstracts; they are abstracts no. 4, 12, 1,15, 22. as an example, abstract no 4 (novarianto et al., 2014) is given. results and discussions 4) production technology for kopyor coconut seednuts and seedlings in indonesia hengky novarianto1, ismail maskromo1, 2, dini dinarti2, and sudarsono2 abstract kopyor coconut is a naturally-occurring mutant having fluffy solid endosperm instead of the normal one. a similar type of coconut has been found in several other asian countries, with 51a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, .... (muhartoyo) their distinct local names, such as macapuno (philippines), ma phraokathi (thailand), dikiri pol (sri lanka), thairu thengai (india). it is a delicacy coconut to indonesian and sells as much as ten times higher than normal coconut. in nature, three types of kopyor coconut exist in indonesia: kopyor tall, kopyor dwarf, and kopyor hybrid. there are three kopyor dwarf varieties (‘patikopyor green dwarf ’, ‘kopyor yellow dwarf ’ and ‘kopyor brown dwarf ’) officially released, and one registered tall variety (‘puan kalianda kopyor tall’). in general, kopyor fruit yield under natural conditions is only < 25% of the total harvested fruits for both the tall and the dwarf types. traditionally, indonesian farmers harvest kopyor fruits at ten months after pollination while normal fruits at 11 months. they use the harvested normal fruits for propagation but cannot guarantee whether or not they would produce korpyor fruit. adoption of kopyor seedling production through embryo culture has been done. however, the seedling production is slow, while the price is very expensive, thus unaffordable to common farmers. indonesian palm research institute and bogor agricultural university have collaborated to develop alternative approaches to increase kopyor fruit production through the production of seedling that would ensure to produce korpyor fruit through control pollination. initiated since 2010, the activities successfully overcome uncertainty in kopyor seedling production. moreover, hybridization among local superior coconut varieties and known kopyor one have been done to broaden genetic background of kopyor trait and to develop breeding population for new kopyor varieties in the future. overview and update of research progress on korpyor in indonesia are presented in this paper. keywords: coconut mutant, abnormal endosperm, controlled pollination, breeding population the abstract only indicates the scope of the subject to be discussed without giving specific details of the research methodology and results. it does not provide conclusion and recommendation either. therefore, this abstract is categorized as indicative or descriptive abstract. the remaining 27 abstracts can be categorized into informative abstracts with various degrees of completeness. there are seven abstracts with complete five elements, 14 abstracts with four elements, and six abstracts with three elements. abstract number 12 (limphapayom, 2013) is an example of abstract containing five element s. 12) study on chocolate production from coconut oil and palm oil shortening wilaisri limphapayom abstract chocolate is a well-known dessert all over the world. the original chocolate is made from cocoa products: cocoa bean and cocoa butter. research and development on the low-fat chocolate process were conducted for value addition of coconut oil and thai fruit. this chocolate processing study composed of (1) coconut oil fractionation, (2) chocolate formulation and (3) shelf-life storage determination. accordingly, fatty acids composition of the blend of coconut fat and palm oil shortening were determined. it was found that the said product composed of caproic acid0. 47±0.12%, caprylic acid 5.65±0.31%, capric acid 5.14±0.14%, lauric acid 42.56±0.28%, myristic acid 16.31±0.18%, stearic acid 14.55±0.13%, oleic acid 9.26±0.17%, and linoleic acid 2.16±0.35%. the saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids found in this product were 88.57±0.14% and with 11.42±0.81%, respectively. the range of melting point is 260c-330c and oxidative stability is 14.2 to 16.7 hours. the chocolate formula of pale and dark chocolate 1kg composed of coconut fat, palm oil shortening, and lecithin as emulsifier in same amounts such as 250g, 100g, and 0.5g. however, icing sugar and defatted cocoa powder are in different amounts; the icing sugar in pale chocolate and dark chocolate is 350g and 450g while the defatted cocoa powder in pale chocolate and dark chocolate is 200g and 300 g, respectively. these chocolate products have physical properties similar to the chocolate products produced from cocoa butter. the shelf life of these products is three months. keywords: chocolate, fractionate coconut oil, medium chain fatty acids the first sentence of the previous abstract above gives a background (introduction) which is element 1. element 2 which is the aim or purpose of the research is revealed in the second sentence. next, research methodology (element 3) starts from the third sentence. the results (element 4) begin from “it was found that…”. finally, theconclusion (element 5) starts from “these chocolate products…..” the less comprehensive informative abstract is the one with four elements in it. the abstract no. 1(karouw et. al., 2014) is an example of this abstract. 1) fatty acids profile, oxidative and hydrolysis stability of virgin coconut oil and palm stearin based human milk fat analog steivie karouw, suparmo, pudji hastuti, and tyasutami abstract value and the objectives of the research are to evaluate fatty acids profile, oxidative and hydrolysis stability of human milk fat (hmf) analog by using virgin coconut oil (vco) and palm stearin as raw materials. the hmf analog was synthesized through enzymatic interesterification catalyzed by lipase from rhizomucormiehei. the fatty acid profiles of interesterification products were monitored 52 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 48-54 using gas chromatography. the oxidative stability test was carried out for up to 72 hours at 60oc. the peroxide value was measured during 0, 24, 48 and 72 hours of storage duration. hydrolysis stability test was held for up to 8 days at room temperature. the free fatty acid content was monitored during 0, 2, 4, 6 and eight days of storage. the results showed that the resulted hmf analog had a high percentage of palmitic acid in the sn-2 position, similar to that of hmf. the palmitic acid content in the sn-2 position was around 39.71%. the mcfas were esterified in the sn-1 and sn-3 position, and the main fatty acid constituent was lauric acid of 39.37%. the obtained hmf analog was stable to oxidative and hydrolysis deterioration asindicated by the peroxide free fatty acid content during storage. keywords: interesterification, gas, chromatography, peroxide value, lauric acid, palmitic acid abstract number 1 starts with the aims or objectives (element 1) which begin with the first sentence. the second element which is the research methodology is given by the second sentence, while the third element is results, it begins from “the results showed…” this abstract does not mention either the research background/ introduction nor the conclusion. the least comprehensive informative abstract in this study is the one with three elements in it as it can be seen in sample abstract number15 (gallego et al., 2013). 15) some biological and behavioral studies of thetetrastichus sp.(hymenoptera: eulophidae), a pupal parasitoid of brontispalongissimagestro (coleoptera: chrysomelidae) vivencio c. gallego, ma. cynthia e. gallego and ivorie j. dela torre abstract the tetrastichus sp. was identified as a pupal parasitoid indigenous to the philippines. the total development period of tetrastichus sp. from egg to adult was 16 days under laboratory conditions. the average incubation, larval and pupal periods were 3.5, 4.8, and 7.4 days, respectively. the average adult longevity was 5.5 (male) and 6.4 (female). upon emergence of an adult wasp from the host pupa, mating took place shortly and the female look for suitable host pupa of brontispalongissima for oviposition.tetrastichus sp. is an endogregarious parasitoid. from one parasitized pupa of brontispalongissima, around 6 66 individual wasps emerged with a mean of 22.4 while parasitized pupae collected from the field yielded 4-21 individuals with a mean of 12.7. the majority of the wasps emerged in the morning (70%) while 30% emerged in the afternoon. the sex ratio of male and female was 1:5.4 in laboratory condition while 1:3.7 under field condition with females outnumbered the males. tetrastichus sp. was observed in some cases to reproduce parthenogenetically. longevity of tetrastichus sp. can be enhanced to a mean of 7.3 and 6.0 days by feeding on sugar and honey, respectively while water and coconut pollen resulted in the longevity of 3.3 and 2.4 days, respectively. adults without food lived only one day. parasitism efficiency ratio of 10 parasitoids: 10 host pupae resulted in 90% parasitism. one to two-day old pupa of b. longissima was preferred by tetrastichus sp. for oviposition with a mean of 86.7% parasitism. percent pupal parasitism in the field ranged 25.7-42.3% with an average of 27.6% in selected areas in mindanao. tetrastichus sp. was found to control b. longissima effectively under field condition. the study indicated that tetrastichus sp. is an effective control agent of b. longissima and could be used in the field to prevent economic damage of the palms by the pest. keywords: behavior, biology, biological control, brontispalongissima, parasitism, tetrastichus sp. the first element in the sample abstract no.15 begins with the background of the research which is given in the first sentence of the abstract. after background, the second sentence goes on with the research result without describing the aim of the research. the research results are elaborately explained, and finally, the abstract ends with conclusion beginning from “the study indicated…” . one of the items to be analyzed in this study is finite verb tenses used in the abstracts. according to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english, finite verb is a verb that agrees with a subject in number andperson (hornby, 1980).meanwhile, university college london (ucl) defines finite verbs as “verbs which have the past or the present form are called finite verbs. verbs in any other form (infinitive, -ing, or -ed) are called nonfinite verbs. this means that verbs with tense are finite, and verbs without tense are nonfinite. the distinction between finite and nonfinite verbs is a very important one in grammar since it affects how verbs behave in sentences” (ucl, 2016). unlike finite verbs which can function or fill the position of the predicate in a sentence, nonfinite verbs cannot. in a sentence construction, non-finite verbs which are also called verbals usually function as modifiers. however when combined with a modal, an auxiliary verb, nonfinite verbs can fill the position of the predicate . according to huddleston&pullum (2005), finite verbs are verbs bound by temporal and spatial bounds while non-finite verbs are on the other way around. they further explain the way infinity has no temporal or spatial bounds induces the traditional notions ‘finite’ and ‘non-finite’ arose. it can be summed up that the finite verbs are verbs that agree with number of subject and person as well as with the tenses or time signals.finite verbs are the main verbs in a clause or sentence construction. finite verbs indicate the existence of predicate of a clause or a sentence therefore, the role of these verbs is very essential. without this kind of verbs, a string of words cannot be categorized as a clause or a sentence. based on the above description, auxiliary verbs can be categorized into finite verbs as they will have to agree 53a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, .... (muhartoyo) with tenses of the clause or sentence. even some of them agree with the number of subjects, such ‘shall, will, has, and have.’ the data analysis shows that there are four types of tenses used in finite verbs i.e. simple present, simple past, present, and past perfect tenses. the most frequently used tense is simple past tense (55 occurrences), followed by simple present tense (38 occurrences), and present perfect tense (11 occurrences). the least used tense is past perfect tense with only one occurrence. the distribution of the tenses in the abstracts is as follows: simple past tense is mostly used in method and result elements of the abstracts. the use of simple present tense is mostly used in the introduction (21 occurrences), recommendation (6 occurrences), conclusion (5 occurrences), objectives (4 occurrences), and result (2 occurrences). present perfect tense is mostly used in introduction (8 occurrences). the comprehensive abstract number 22 (sample no.22)by perera et al., (2013 ) gives an example of three tenses in different elements of the abstract. 22) screening coconut cultivars for tolerance to infestation by the coconut mite, aceriaguerreronis (keifer) in sri lanka l. perera1, s.r. sarathchandra2 and i.r. wickramananda3 abstract the coconut mite (aceriaguerreroniskeifer) is a tiny pest which severely damages the nuts of the coconut palm (cocosnucifera linnaeus). at present, there is no appropriate control method for this pest in sri lanka. field observations have revealed the difference in the severity of a.guerreronis mite infestation among selected and improved coconut cultivars in sri lanka. this difference has not been studied in depth and therefore the present study was conducted to investigate the levels of tolerance in selected and improved coconut cultivars and, if differences were demonstrated, to understand the mechanism behind the tolerance. a replicated trial in thammenna estate (te) in puttalam district in sri lanka, where the mite infestation was natural and severe, was selected for this study. the trial was planted in 1983 and consisted of two improved coconut cultivars; sri lanka yellow dwarf x sri lanka tall (ydt) and sri lanka green dwarf x sri lanka tall (gdt) and the selected sri lanka tall cultivar (tt) which has, green (ttg) and russet coloured (ttr) forms. population assessment of mites on immature nuts, damage initiation of the fourth bunch and harvest records were obtained. further, characters that were thought to influence tolerance, such as nut shape as measured by ratio of length to breadth, the tightness of perianth to the nut surface and some changes in the affected tissues were also recorded. yield data were collected perfect to estimate the crop loss due to coconut mite damage. the results revealed that out of the cultivars tested in this trial, ydt had the lowest incidence of mite colonization and the smallest mite population size and symptom initiation compared to others. the distance between the perianth and nut surface, the least in ydt, is suggested as the most probable morphological feature that would impart tolerance to mite infestation. keywords: coconut, cocosnucifera linnaeus, tolerance, resistance, mite infestation, aceriaguerreronis keifer this comprehensive abstract uses simple present tense for the introduction part of the abstract“the coconut mite (aceriaguerreroniskeifer) is a tiny pest which severely damages the nuts of the coconut palm (cocosnucifera linnaeus)”. at present, there is no appropriate control method for this pest in sri lanka. present perfect tense was used to present previous study “field observations have revealed the difference in the severity of a. guerreronis mite infestation among selected and improved coconut cultivars in sri lanka”. simple past tense is used to explain research objectives “…the present study was conducted to investigate the levels of tolerance in selected and improved coconut cultivars and, if differences were demonstrated, to understand the mechanism behind the tolerance. a replicated trial in thammenna estate (te) in puttalam district in sri lanka, where the mite infestation was natural and severe, was selected for this study”. this kind of tense is also used to explain research methodology such as “the trial was planted in 1983 and consisted of two improved coconut cultivars; sri lanka yellow dwarf x sri lanka tall (ydt) and sri lanka green dwarf x sri lanka tall (gdt) and the selected sri lanka tall cultivar (tt)…”. likewise, research result is presented using simple past too, for example, “the results revealed that out of the cultivars tested in this trial, ydt had the lowest incidence of mite colonization and the smallest mite population size and symptom initiation compared to others”. recommendation or suggestion which is the last element of the abstract is usually presented using simple present tense, for example “the distance between the perianth and nut surface, the least in ydt, is suggested as the most probable morphological feature that would impart tolerance to mite infestation.” the location distribution of tenses is as follows: it was found that out of 26 abstracts which have introduction element, only one abstract (sample no 5) uses simple past. it means 96%introduction element of the abstract usessimple present tense. sometimes, present perfect tense is used in the introduction element of the abstract. all sample abstracts (100%) which have research method element of the abstracts use simple past tense to explain research methodology. simple past is also frequently used in the result element of the abstracts in which 88% occurrences are in simple past, and each simple present and present perfect has 6% occurrences. all five sample abstracts (sample no.2, 6, 8, 9, 22) which have recommendations use simple present tense. unlike other languages such as latin and mongolian which have five voices, english only have two voices i.e. active and passive voice. voice is defined as the relation between the subject or object of the action or state expressed by verb in the clause or sentence construction. in academic writing passive voice is preferred than active voice because it allows the writer to focus on person or event receiving or experiencing the action by placing it at the beginning of the clause or sentence. 54 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 48-54 based on the analysis, passive voices are used to express research methodology element of the abstract. all (100%) sample abstracts analyzed in this study which contains research methodology use passive voice. it complies with academic writing theory which gives more emphasis on the use of passive voice than active voice. an example of research methodology using passive voice can be seen in sample abstract no. 2 “the experiment was laid down as complete randomized block design replicated three times”. on the other hand result element of the abstracts mostly uses active voice (82%), the remaining 18% use passive voice. the all other elements of introduction, conclusion, and recommendation use active voice with third person point of view. in academic writing, the third person point of view is also more recommended than the first person point of view. conclusions based on the completeness of abstract elements, the abstracts under this study can be divided into two categories i.e. indicative abstracts (21%) and comprehensive/ informative abstracts (79%). the completeness of informative/comprehensive abstracts varies. the most complete informative/comprehensive abstracts consisting of five elements account for 21%, the comprehensive abstracts with four elements have the highest amount which is 41%, and the comprehensive abstracts with three elements also have the least amount which is 1 7%. it can be concluded that most comprehensive abstracts contain four elements which are background (introduction), objectives, methodology, and result. table 1 the summary of abstract element completeness type of abstacts abstract number frequency informative abstracts with 5 elements 6,12,13,22,31,32,33 7 = (21%) informative abstracts with 4 elements 3,8,11,14,17,18,19,20,2 5,26,27,28,29,30 14 = (41%) informative abstracts with 3 elements 6 = (17%) indicative abstracts 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 24 7 = (21%) total 34 = (100%) the tenses of finite verbs commonly used in abstract writing consist of four tenses, they are simple present tense, simple past tense, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. the most frequently used tense is simple past tense with 55 occurrences, followed by simple present tense with 38 occurrences, and present perfect tense with 11 occurrences. the least used tense is past perfect tense with only one occurrence. the distribution of the tenses in the abstracts is as follows: simple past tense is mostly used in method and result elements of the abstracts. the use of simple present tense is mostly used in the background or introduction (21 occurrences), recommendation (6 occurrences), conclusion (5 occurrences), objectives (4 occurrences), and result (2 occurrences). present perfect tense is mostly used in introduction (8 occurrences), as seen in table 1. table 2 the summary of finite verb tenses type of tenses location occurrence simple present in the elements of introduction, objective, result, conclusion, and recommendation 38 simple past in the elements of method and result 55 present perfect in the elements of introduction/ background 11 past perfect in the elements of introduction/ background 1 total 105 table 2 represents terms of voice of verbs in which both active and passive voices are used in abstract writing. passive voices are used to express research methodology element of the abstract. all sample abstracts in this study use passive voice to state research methodology.on the other hand, result element of the abstracts mostly uses active voice (82%), the remaining 18% use passive voice. the all other elements of introduction, conclusion, and recommendation use active voice with third person point of view which is in compliance with academic writing theory. references bailey, s. (2011). academic writing: a handbook for international students. new york: routledge. birmingham city university. (2015). writing abstract. retrieved january 6th, 2015 from http://library.bcu. ac.uk/learner/writingguides/1.28.htm. gallego, v.c., gallego, m.c.e., & torre, i. (2013). some biological and behavioral studies of the tetrastichussp. (hymenoptera: eulophidae), a pupal parasitoid of brontispalongissima gestro (coleoptera: chrysomelidae). cord,29(2), 37-45. hamp-lyons, l, & heasly, b. (2010). study writing: a course in writing skills for academic purposes. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. hornby, a.s. (1980). oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current english. new york: oxford university press . huddleston, r. & pullum, g. k. (2005). a student’s introduction to english grammar. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. karouw, s., suparmo, h. p., & utami , t. (2014). fatty acids profile, oxidative and hydrolysis stability of virgin coconut oil and palm stearin based human milk fat analog. cord, 30(2), 1-9 limphapayom, w. (2013). study on chocolate production from coconut oil and palm oil shortening. cord 29(2), 13-18 novarianto, h., maskromo, i., dinarti, d., & sudarsono. (2014). production technology for kopyor coconut seednuts and seedlings in indonesia. cord, 30(2), 31-40 perera, l., sarathchandra, s. r., & wickramananda, i. r. (2013). screening coconut cultivars for tolerance to 55a study on the completeness, finite verb tense, .... (muhartoyo) infestation by the coconut mite, aceriaguerreronis (keifer) in sri lanka.cord,29(1), 25-34 pitkin, r.m., branagan, m.a., burmeister, l.f. (1999). accuracy of data in abstracts of published research articles. the journal of american medical association (jama), 281 (12), 1110-1111. university college london.(2016).finite verbs and nonfinite verbs. retrieved march 24th,2016 fromhttp:// www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/verbs/finite.htm university of north carolina.(2014). abstract. retrieved from http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/ abstracts/ ware, m., & mabe, m. (2012). the stm (scientific, technical and medical publishers) report: an overview of scientific and scholarly journal publishing. the hague, netherlands: stm publisher. copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 77 introduction this article is intended to prove that a language can reflect a socio-cultural situation at a certain period of a nation. the first step taken to achieve this end is choosing a text that has the appropriate register, in accordance with the purpose. to that end, the choice fell on “nocturne”, a fiction text, a work of dutch author h. j. merlijn from the beginning of the twentieth century. this fictional text stated in the literary-cultural magazine in indonesia 1947-1953 named oriëntatie (zonneveld, 1988). this is assumed to contain socio-cultural signifiers that will be conveyed to the readers if they can be interpreted appropriately. thus, this text is not just a series of words that form a coherent sentence, but this text has a purpose that is not directly to be conveyed to the reader. what is a text having the proper register is that the text in principle has a way different to say something. this method looks at the meanings and forms of choice which based on the situation of language use. thus it can be said that this text has the meanings potential. meanings potential explained further by msuya (2014) has three kinds of levels, namely the level of ideational, interpersonal, and textual. every utterance encodes meanings based on this level, and the speakers use it to (a) represent experience, (b) achieve interpersonal purposes, and (c) arrange information as efficient and effective as possible.”meaning” for halliday, according to msuya, means “function”, more specifically, “function in context”. meaning in the ideational level, represented in the form of clauses, is expressing the “content” of the language, which is our experience of the real world, including the experience of our inner world. when using language, we use it to say something or say what other people do; therefore the ideational meaning refers to our experience of the real world and our inner world. while the meaning on the interpersonal level, it helps to establish and maintain social relationships. our relationships with other people and our attitudes toward them, are often expressed through the interpersonal meaning. we usually use language to facilitate an action or to demand an object and the expected result is gained most generally verbally or in writing. and the meaning in textual level creates links between features of the text with elements in the context of situation. this means that refers to the way the text is organized. the meaning of the text is usually derived from the clauses that contain the message. message from the clauses is obtained from its thematic structure. according to nguyen (2012), halliday claims that three types levels of meaning as explained above, are not lingua cultura, 10(2), november 2016, 77-81 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i2.940 language as a socio-cultural semiotic: a case study on the fiction text ade yolanda latjuba faculty of humanities, hasanuddin university perintis kemerdekaan km 10, tamalanrea, makassar 90245, indonesia aylatjuba@gmail.com received: 4th august 2016/ revised: 3rd october 2016/ accepted: 8th october 2016 how to cite: latjuba, a. y. (2016). language as a socio-cultural semiotic: a case study on the fiction text. lingua cultura, 10(2). 77-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i2.940 abstract this article was intended to prove that a language could reflect a socio-cultural situation at a certain period of a nation. the first step taken to achieve this end was choosing a text that had the appropriate register, in accordance with the purpose. the fictional text “nocturne” was a register which was chosen as the object of research to prove that the language might reflect the socio-cultural situation of a particular period of a nation. this register had the potential of meaning, both visible and hidden. meaning that appeared to come from the system of meaning that was owned by choice of words, phrases, and sentences. while the meaning that was not visible is the potential meaning that indirectly was stated in the text. the method of research was interpretation by using a semiotic approach. these words were then associated with sentences in the text, which explained series of event or actions of the story’s figure. from here, it obtained the actual meaning of the text in question. this article finds out that the form of signs that potentially could have a meaning that is integrated into the text. thus, by isolating the socio-cultural system that has the meaning potential in the text, the marker can easily be interpreted through the semiotic approach. the overall theme of the story can be interpreted two-fold: an overview of the concept of culture bugis-makassar siri’ or impression of the situation calm. keywords: semiotic, socio-cultural situation, meaning potential, fiction text 78 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 77-81 accidental but necessarily in place, because we need them to perform functions in social life. potential meanings owned text, as referred halliday (2007) has two characteristics, namely a meaning refers to the context of the situation and the context of socio-culture. malinowski, as explained by halliday (2007), has stated that the context of the situation as a concept can be interpreted as the environment of the text and context of culture as an environment of the linguistic system. nowadays, the concept of context has been extensively studied from different perspectives and produced various definitions such as the context in translation (hu, 2010), in pragmatics (seung, 2009), in discourse analysis (song, 2010; dijk, 2009). while various types of social processes can be described in terms of linguistics as the context of the use of language. the context of the situation is simple to be interpreted because it is a picture of a special semantic system owned by words, phrases, and sentences. to understand the semantic system owned by a language, especially a language used in literary texts, linguists often use transitivity analysis. this analysis is conducted to examine the structure of the sentences presented through the process, the involvement of participants in the process, and the circumstances in which the process and participants are involved. by using transitivity analysis, researchers can show that the structure of language that can produce certain meanings and ideologies which are not always explicit to the reader (nguyen, 2012). while other researchers use this analysis to explain the main character’s personality (msuya, 2014) and gender theme. when interpreting the context of socio-cultural, the meaning can interpret the semantic system across the language used. functional linguistics put an emphasis on the relationship between language and context. the thinking is that it is impossible to understand the meaning of what people say or write, without knowing anything about the context of the surrounding text. vice versa, if people understand the utterances of the speaker or understand the writing, it means that it can also describe the context of the situation.the relationship between language and context appears as a reciprocal relation, where one is the realization of others, in this case, the text to realize the context of the situation and the linguistic systems to realize the culture (figueiredo, 2010). meanings potential is an option of meanings that paradigmatic presented in the system, and through these choices, members of culture have access to their language. the term of the register can be defined as variations of meanings of a text as an institution whose produces language. thus, you can say that the register is a variety of meaning according to the use. originally, the register understands in terms of lexicogrammar. as a variant of the language, the register is determined not only by its users but also by its use. briefly, it can be said that the register is determined by what people say as the reference. in the view of martin, as quoted in figueiredo (2010), registers and genres are a semiotic system distinct from other semiotic, such as language. in the sense that a language is presented in the both semiotic system, just the way that the language creates meaning through the selected words and structure has made it different. register corresponds to the context of the situation, and genre to the cultural context. both use the language as a mediator to make it happen. examining the cultural context means involves actions to observe how language is structured to achieve the motivated cultural objectives. methods to begin the discussion about the context of situations and the context of socio-cultural that may be owned by a text, it will be set a few words and sentences that represent the text. since the preferred register is the configuration of a set of sources of meaning that is a member of the special culture which associated via a type of situation, which in this case is the situation of fiction, so it is necessary to show only the associated words and sentences specific that represent the social situation and culture as reflected in the text. these words are then associated with sentences in the text, which explain series of event or actions of the story’s figure. from here, it obtains the actual meaning of the text in question. this way, according to danesi and perron (1999), is called micro semiotic analysis. the purpose of this analysis is gaining the projected meaning in the construction of texts. while the potentials meaning possessed which derived from the text is the hidden meanings, which are not directly stated in the text. meanings potential, in view danesi and perron (1999) have represented macro signified. these markers are analyzed by connecting them with various codes and text that make up the order of the marker. in other words, the study of specific markers is intertextual analysis. danesi and perron named this macro-semiotic analysis. there are several components of meaning identified in the text, which is believed to potentially support the text’s meaning to be conveyed. these are who the author of the text was, how the position of the text was associated with the authorship, and how the knowledge of the author had an impact on a theme or message to be conveyed. all of these are markers that will be interpreted using a semiotic approach. results and discussions the object being observed stems from the sound of voices drum heard faintly from a distance, the sound is heard initially dimmed (doffe – dutch), then pressing (dringende – dutch), finally banging loudly (kloppende klanken – dutch). the context of the situation is reinforced by the depiction of a tranquil natural situation (de stille, blinkende zee – dutch), in the middle of the night (het was middernacht – dutch), even when the universe amid in the silence (waneer de wereld zweeg – dutch). in the second and third paragraphs the depiction of the object being observed, that may be a theme of this story, is done by applying rhythm binary opposition, not only on the depiction of nature, but also on the human, which is represented by the word ‘they’ (zij – dutch), as well as their activities. the people illustrated have quiet voice, soft as whispered (zacht flustered – dutch), but they can also shout loudly till sweated (zij luid en bezwerend riepen – dutch). they were as excited as makassar horses at the beginning of the race (als vurige makassaarse paarden aan het begin van een reis – dutch), but when dancing (dansten – dutch) they were like small dancers (kleine danseressen – dutch), earnest, need to be protected, still timid and nervous. however, they can “act” like men maintain their heroic actions. they fight for life and death (zij vochten een strijd op leven en dooddutch). they stabbed, due to insult (beledigingen – dutch). they died together (zij stierven zelve– dutch). the next paragraph, after the first three paragraphs, 79language as a socio-cultural semiotic: .... (ade yolanda latjuba) illustrates the narrative through the relationship between the drum sounds are heard earlier, and the men actions which became the principal concern of the figure ‘i’. words that appear later, which is a cataphoric reference of the phrase “trommen” is the word “trommenpaar” (in fourth paragraphs); “gandrangs”, “gandrangspelers” (in fifth paragraphs); “trommelspelers”, “medetamboer”, “gandrangspelers” (twice), “trommen” (twice), “trommelslagers” (in seventh paragraphs); “gandrangspelers” (in eighth paragraphs); “trommen” (in twelfth paragraphs); “trommen” (in thirteenth paragraphs), “trommen” (twice) (in fifteenth paragraphs); “trommen”, “gandrangspeler”, “de trom”, “de gandrang” (in sixteenth paragraphs). while the men actions which become the concern of the figure ‘i’, are illustrated through stork dance (reigerdans – dutch). this dance or rather the human actions are newly introduced in fifth paragraphs, which then intensely present together with the presence of the word “trommen” and its variants in the following paragraphs. all this, to support the theme that wanted to be delivered. semantic analysis of the semiotic signs of this will be done later. lexicogrammatical explanation of the above, will be about cohesiveness and coherence of the text in question. this narrative text is arranged in an integrated manner, either grammatical or semantic. by adopting the perspective of the text as a semantic unit, then as a realization to downward text will be connected with sentences and other grammatical units, and to upward will be projected on the meaning to a higher level. to realize the social and cultural meanings of the narrative fiction text, a thorough interpretation of the signs will be done. because the presence of the text is supported by the role of several components, then it is necessary to explain them, although there may be a shortage here and there. the technical components which contribute significantly to materialize an idea into written form are the competence of an author who is generally acquired through experience. the second component which plays a role in the emergence of the text is the text itself, here in question is the context of the situation reflected in the text. in addition, also it is necessary to consider the relationship between the intended text with other text. this is called intertextuality. one component of intertextuality is how the relationship between text and recipients, in this case, how the relationship between text and readers. how readers interpret the signs conveyed in the text. so that the text is easy to understand, then the signs in it must be able to be a part of him. thus the reader will be more trust to the text that faced. the fiction text “nocturne” is a short story that took place in south sulawesi, but the precise location is unknown. but from the indications that can be found in the text, some place names can be mentioned, namely palatjari, barombong, as well as others associated with the origin, like the royal gowa (het gowase hof), or horses makassar (makassaarse paarden). it has given an indication that the situation of the story takes place in makassar and its surroundings, or more precisely in south sulawesi. of course, logically, this is acceptable because when viewed from a background of authorship h.j. merlijn, which actually has a name h.j. fiedericy (1900-1962), he was a former overseer (controleur), who worked in public administration (binnenlands bestuur) at the time of the dutch east indies government, and placed in the south sulawesi (zuid celebes). the long enough period of duties from 1922 – 1930, gave him a wealth of experience. in addition, he had also experienced displacement of working area for several times, among others in bantaeng, sungguminasa, makassar, watampone, but all were still in the surrounding region of south sulawesi. his first placement, in watampone region with the central government in bone, he was still relatively young. at that time, watampone was still a self-governing region (zelfbesturend landschap) or the same as the current autonomous region, where the central government only accounts for advice and supervision to local governments (inlands bestuur). although not yet served as the supervisor (controleur), but only as an aspirant-controleur, friedericy made a lot of travel with his superiors, especially to supervise the construction of roads, bridges, and irrigation (heemskerk, 1990). construction of roads, bridges, and irrigation is a realization of ethical politics of the colonial government that had been promised to the people of its colonies. before that, the colonial government in the netherlands indies and the central government in the netherlands repeatedly received sharp criticism from its own people. they criticized the way the government was managing the colony. criticism also came from within the netherlands itself; they assessed the central government too much took advantage of the wealth of the colonies and leaving only misery and poverty. thus, the central government policy changes have an impact on political attitude of friedericy against people of south sulawesi. not only that, before deployment to the area where he served, namely in south sulawesi, friedericy had studied indology at the university of leiden. here he was guided by teachers who were widely recognized as ethical political figures, such as van vollenhoven and snouck hurgronje. his experiences traveling to areas inland, in the mountains, in the coastal region have given significant contributions to the authorship, which always took a setting in south sulawesi. his knowledge of the people and culture of bugis-makassar was undoubted, in that he had done serious research, with respect to the writing of his dissertation, entitled de standen bij de boeginezen en de makassaren written in 1933. as has been said before, this fictional text describes bugis-makassar people’s lives as reflected through one small part of their community activity. there is only a fraction of activity described in the text because this text is just a short story. that is already a convention in a short story, that characters and events do not overly complicated flourish. if both of them developed long-winded involving various conflicts, with varying complex characters, of course, that would be produced is no longer a short story but a novel. the short story is just developing a special event, which is considered by the author to be sufficient to represent the theme of the story to be conveyed. the focus of this story is the event where the figure ‘i’, king, along with the community of the countryside, in the mountains where no one exactly knows, but obviously in south sulawesi, attended a stork dance performance (reigerdans–dutch) that accompanied with the drum’s game of a famous tambour player. this event occurs because the figure ‘i’ was so impressed with the drum sound that heard faintly when he newly arrived at the seaside. when there was an opportunity to visit some rural areas, he expressed his craving toward the king whose accompanied him. incidentally in a rural area was visiting a dance clubs pakondo-boeleng of barombong, which was the family of a groom, which according to the story will do the wedding in three days’ time. the groom’s father is a famous tambour player with the drum’s game so riveting. the rhythm of his playing increased progressively, which can be seen from 80 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.2, november 2016, 77-81 the meaning of the sign through use of the ‘trommen’ word repeatedly, to combine the word ‘trommen’ with ‘paar’, ‘spelers’, ‘slagers’, interspersed with the use of the word ‘gandrang’ (which is a vocabulary that has similarities with the local language or makassar language) and again combined with ‘speler’, the dutch word, then interspersed with ‘trommel’ which represented the same meaning such as ‘tamboer’, and finally re-used ‘trommen’’, until finally only the basic word ‘trom’. all of them indicated the intensity of the sound of drum’s game such as narrator described in the text. at the time of the intensity of the sound of the drum was drawn to move up, that’s when the stork dancers entered the performance arena. after the dance performances took place for some time, along with the intensity of the sound of a drum rhythm until at its peak, entered a hunter who tries to chase his prey, the storks. but suddenly unwitting the spectators, the bird (vogel– dutch) was wounded by the hunter (jager dutch). actually, this is not a traditional dance of bugismakassar, although the text does not state so explicitly. but from experience and reading the signs in the text, in which the figure ‘i’ stated that he often sees this kind of show (ik had het spel vele malen gezien...dutch, in fourteenth paragraphs). it can be concluded that this dance is just author’s imagination, gained through experience to watch ballet performances which often feature dancing geese, and this is the european dance tradition. anyway, when considered with the face of it, then the herons and geese same but different, or similar but not identical. just because of his ability to use the words, the author at the end of the story related to the theme to be conveyed, that is to fight for life and death as a result of the humiliation. at the end of the story, it turned out that the hunter is the father of the groom, while the stork is the groom himself. the son died at the hands of his own father. this theme actually wants to express the concept of the cultural value of bugis-makassar siri’. friskawini (2015) has explained that siri’ is a term of the concept of bugis-makassar culture that reflects their philosophy of life. siri’ relates to personal dignity and self-esteem or dignity of the family. this type is also called siri’ ripakasiri, is a taboo and never to be broken because the stakes are lifethreatening. as an example carried off a girl to marry, means their marriage do not get the blessing of both parents. as a result of these actions, the perpetrators eloped, both the bride and the groom to be killed by the woman’s family because they have shamed the family. and because the author has a different culture with culture, that is to say; it cannot be avoided appearing personal distance. however, when the truth is restored to the text, the author’s legitimate to do so. because the fact is, this work is recognized only a fictional text. and the concept of siri’ is understood that the reader may have another face for the reader who does not have knowledge of the cultural values of bugis-makassar. the text of fiction usually means polysemy. so there is a possibility that this text message is understood only the beauty of the drum’s game which was associated with the classical music of chopin, bach or beethoven, which is familiar to the people of europe. this music sounds beautiful, evoking the feeling of listeners when heard it at night, such as to hear the sound of a drum’s game by figure ‘i’ in the show that night. this interpretation is, of course, supported also by the title given to the fictional text, “nocturne”, which means singing softly at night. not only that, but classical music is usually also used to accompany ballet performances held in the luxurious building. however, it is different from the performances witnessed by figure ‘i’ on a moonlit night, on the front page of the village head’s house. but to the author, this metaphor becomes the inspiration for his work. so those readers of europe who are not acquainted with the culture of bugis-makassar can also enjoy this text by associating it with their own culture. conclusions after capturing the meaning of fiction text “nocturne”, it is obvious that the meaning of it is actually created through the linguistic system and the sociocultural surrounding. the linguistic system consists of words, phrases, and sentences that have choices of special meaning. this system is supported by the social and cultural system of the components of text, such as the background of the author and authorship, which in this case a person’s competence and experience. another text component that supports significantly the system socio-cultural context of the text is a situation that is reflected in the text itself. this all, in fact, is in the form of signs that potentially could have a meaning that is integrated into the text. thus, by isolating the socio-cultural system that has the meaning potential in the text, the marker can easily be interpreted through the semiotic approach. references danesi, m., & perron, p. (1999). analyzing cultures: an introduction and handbook. advances in semiotics. bloomington: indiana university press. dijk, t. v. (2009). society and discourse. how social contexts influence text and talk. retrieved from http://www. langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521516907_ frontmatter.pdf. figueiredo, d. (2010). context, register and genre: implications for language education. revista signos, 43(1), 119–141. friskawini. (2015). makna siri ‘napacce’ di masyarakat bugis-makassar. retrieved october 10th 2015 from https://imbasadi.wordpress.com/agenda/datakarya-ilmiah-bebas/unhas/makna-siri-na-paccedimasyarakat-bugis-makassar-friskawini/ halliday, m. a. k. (1978). halliday 1978 lang as soc semiotic ch1.pdf. in language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning, 8–35. halliday, m. a. k. (2007). language and education. the collected works of m.a.k. halliday. heemskerk, g. (1990). balans van beleid in: in indie geweest amsterdam: em. querido’suitgeverij b.v. hu, s. (2010). context of situation in translation. journal of language teaching and research, 1(3), 1991– 1993. http://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.1.3.324-326 nguyen, t. (2012). transitivity analysis of heroic mother by hoa pham. international journal of english linguistics, 2(4), 85 100. msuya, e. a. (2014). stylistic analysis of “xuma” and “leah” in peter abraham’s mine boy: a verbal transitivity process. international journal of 81language as a socio-cultural semiotic: .... (ade yolanda latjuba) linguistics, 6(1), 132–152. http://doi.org/10.5296/ ijl.v6i1.4729 seung, t. k. (2009). pragmatic context and textual interpretation. journal of literary semantics, 9(2), 82–93. http://doi.org/10.1515/jlse.1980.9.2.82 song, l. (2010). the role of context in discourse analysis. journal of language teaching and research, 1(6), 876–879. http://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.1.6.876-879 zonneveld, p. van (ed). (1988). orientatie, literair-cultureel tijdschrift in indonesië [1947-1953]. schoorl: converse (indischeletteren-reeks, nr.5). the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ japanese reading skills haryono department of japanese language, faculty of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, jl. dr. soeparno no. 1 karangwangkal purwokerto utara, jawa tengah 53123 haryonoku@gmail.com received: 19th february 2016/ revised: 1st april 2016/ accepted: 16th april 2016 how to cite: haryono. (2016). the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ japanese reading skills. lingua cultura, 10(1), 43-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/lc.v10i1.922 abstract the objective of this research was to determine the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ japanese reading skills which used two-way treatment experiment design. this research was conducted at the japanese language program, faculty of humanities – unsoed with 48 students as the sample. the method used in this study was an experimental method with treatment by level 2 x 2 design. the formulation of this research was the effect of rosetta stone and tell me more japanese multimedia learning against japanese reading skill and the effect of vocabulary (high and low) to the japanese reading skills. the results of this study are students’ japanese reading skills presented by “rosetta stone” is better than those presented by “tell me more japanese”. there are any effects of interaction among multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on students’ japanese reading skills. besides that, students’ japanese reading skills who have high-level vocabulary mastery and presented by “rosetta stone” is better than those presented by “tell me more japanese”. then, students’ japanese reading skills who have low-level vocabulary mastery and presented by “tell me more japanese” is better than those presented by “rosetta stone”. keywords: multimedia learning, vocabulary mastery, reading skills, japanese students introduction reading skill is an integral part of the daily activity, which is important for people’s academic, personal and social lives. vocabulary mastery is an aspect that closely related to reading skill. according to cohen & johnson (2011), the relationship of reading skill and vocabulary mastery can even be significant prediction. it means that vocabulary mastery and vocabulary comprehension in a text are necessary items in comprehending the whole text. the rapid growth of computer technology gives some acceleration to the improvement of several kinds of texts especially on the increase of reading skill by the availability of language learning application called multimedia. one of the benefits of the multimedia can display text and picture at once. the learning activity of japanese reading subject (dokkai) in s1 japanese study program, department of humanities, jenderal soedirman university, still focuses on textbooks as the main guidelines in learning to read japanese. from the result of observation of learning process the japanese reading, it can be said that it emphasizes on the separating and leveling of language elements linearly from the easiest point to the most difficult one. therefore, it is very important for the lecturers to have good knowledge in comprehending multimedia learning and have a good sense of choosing and using kinds of multimedia learning that is suitable for the various vocabularies mastery of the students. two types of multimedia learning on the market today are rosseta stone multimedia (hereinafter referred to as rs) and tell me more japanese multimedia (hereinafter referred to as tmmj). both rs and tmmj contain material or display of texts, images, illustrations, and sound. in brief, students are easier to get input in the form of various and abundant linguistic data through this multimedia. although rs and tmmj have diverse and abundant materials that can support more effective learning, its usage has not been applied in s1 japanese study program, department of humanities of jenderalsudirman university. finally, this study tries to reveal the influence of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on japanese reading skills. based on the background, the researchers formulate the problem statements as follows; (1) is there any differences of japanese reading skills of students who follow the lecture using rosetta stone multimedia learning to those who follow the lecture using tell me more japanese multimedia learning? (2) is there any interactional influence lingua cultura, 10(1), may 2016, 43-47 doi: 10.21512/lc.v10i1.922 43 copyright©2016 p-issn: 1978-8118 e-issn: 2460-710x 44 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 43-47 of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery to japanese reading skill? (3) are there any differences in japanese reading skill by the students who have high vocabulary mastery when they are using of rosette stone multimedia learning and tell me more japanese multimedia learning? (4) are there any differences in japanese reading skill by the students who have low vocabulary mastery when they are using of rosette stone multimedia learning and tell me more japanese multimedia learning? according to morreillon (2007), reading skill is a transaction between a reader, text and writer’s intention. this statement is in accordance with probst (2015) that reading is reciprocal, mutually defining the relationship. reading skill is a complex process in which the reader has knowledge of integrated writing, writing system, phonology, semantics, and syntax. this is in line with the statement from shihab (2011) that reading skill has an influence on the written and printed material that is useful in comprehending meaning which is going to be transferred by the writer through written vocabularies. grabe (2010) stated that in fact, many reading skills (automatic word recognition, a large recognition vocabulary, skilled grammatical processing, and the formation of basic meaning proposition units for reading comprehension) only emerge as an outcome of implicit learning rather than explicit learning of aspects of language knowledge. according to okuyama (2007), japanese alphabets consist of three types: hiragana, katakana, and kanji. the first two are called syllabaries because each symbol is a syllabic unit while kanji characters are ideographic symbols. japanese children have to memorize the two syllabaries, with each set made of the basic 46 syllabic units and 61 extensions, before mastering over 2,000 kanji characters to master all three sets of japanese script. makino (2008) said that the purpose of reading skill in japanese can be classified into five levels. those levels are excellence, outstanding, advanced, intermediate, and beginner. this is in line with the japan foundation and japan educational exchanges and service which divided the purpose of japanese reading skill into five levels. the highest level is the first, and the lowest level is the fifth. according to mayer (2014), multimedia is a way of presenting material or object in the form of texts (written and oral) and pictures (illustration, graph, diagram, map, picture as well as animation and video). also, malik & agarwal (2012) state that multimedia provides technology based on constructivist learning environment where students can solve a problem using self-explorations, collaboration, and active participation. simulations, models, and media-rich study materials like those that still and animated graphics, video and audio integrated in a structured manner facilitate the learning ofnew knowledge much more effectively. basic theory in multimedia learning according to mayer (2014) is a development of paivio’s two codes theory and chandler & sweller’s cognitive load theory. two codes theory relates to information processing system in human’s brain consisting of auditory or verbal tract and visual or image tract. jong (2009) said that cognitive load theory is a term proposed by sweller. it is the basic idea of cognitive load theory that cognitive capacity in working memory is limited. so that, if a learning task requires too much capacity, learning will be hampered. leutner, leopold, & sumfleth (2009) said that there are three types of cognitive competence, namely deep cognitive competence, surface cognitive competence, and germane cognitive competence. in learning a language, there are several multimedia applications to help students to master it. in learning japanese, rosetta stone multimedia and tell me more japanese multimedia are some examples of this application. adams (2010) said in the interview that rosetta stone (rs) is language learning application program that enables students to develop their natural language fluencies by connecting new vocabulary to new meaning in a real context in the form of image/picture. it uses dynamic immersion method. this method is an expansion of immersion method, which is believed to be the implementation of two codes theory. while tell me more japanese (tmmj) is multimedia learning the application of language teaching that uses immersion learning (immersion method). this immersion method is trusted to be the implementation of cognitive competence theory, which limits visual and verbal information display to minimize the overloaded capacity in students’ cognitive system. immersion method requires an active interconnection between text and needed picture. the depth of an immersion relies on the display style and the type of character, especially from the reader. the selection of illustrations in rosetta stone seems to be carefully done to make the balance between the knowledge obtained by the students and the needed result of the visualization itself. this carefulness can be seen from the use of four visual objects in every exercise in rosetta stone whereas in tell me more japanese, there is only one visual object in every exercise of it. it is not the only weakness of tell me more japanese compares to rosetta stone. the visual objects of rosetta stone have been equipped with at least three important characteristics of visualization process namely colors which give strong influence to image, realistic detail in illustration and relevance between visual object and text. vocabulary mastery according to carrol, crane, duff, hulme, & snowling (2011) refers to the whole form and meaning which have been known and becomes the key component in reading skill. al qahtani (2015) has said that vocabulary knowledge (mastery) is often viewed as a critical tool for second language learners because a limited vocabulary in a second language impedes successful communication. nation & chung (2009) found that there are three aspects of vocabulary mastery namely the mastery of vocabulary form, the mastery of vocabulary meaning, and the mastery of vocabulary use. schmitt (2007) said that there are eight criteria for students to get vocabulary mastery. these eight criteria are mastery on the vocabulary meaning, mastery of the vocabulary’s written form, mastery of the vocabulary’s oral form, mastery on the vocabulary’s grammar behavior, mastery on the collocation (vocabulary’s formation combination), mastery of language styles used in special situation (register), mastery on vocabulary association, mastery on vocabulary frequency. based on these explanation, according to al qahtani (2015), the meaning of vocabulary mastery is the repertory of vocabulary owned by someone that can be used appropriately by the reading context. based on the theoretical review, the hypotheses of the research are as follows: (1) japanese reading skills on students who use rosetta stone (a1) multimedia learning are higher than those who use tell me more japanese (a2) multimedia learning. (2) there is an interaction influence of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery on japanese reading skill. (3) in students who have high vocabulary mastery, their japanese reading skills will be higher if they use rosetta stone (a1b1) multimedia learning than those who use tell me more japanese (a2b1) multimedia 45the effects of multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery .... (haryono) learning. (4) in students who have low vocabulary mastery, their japanese reading skills will be lower if they use rosetta stone (a1b2) multimedia learning than those who use tell me more japanese (a2b2) multimedia learning. methods this research was conducted for the first semester of s1 students of japanese studies program, faculty of humanities, universitas soedirman, purwokerto, central java in the academic year 2011/2012. the method used in this study is an experimental method with treatment by level 2 x 2 design. the samples vocabulary in class is divided into two equal groups, so that according to emzir (2012), the easiest way is to divide them into two equal parts. the upper part is called the high group, and the lower part is called the low group. emzir (2012) said that if the population size is approximately 100, the sampling data will be at least 50% of the population. therefore, the composition of the sample is as follows: (1) the student group with high vocabulary learning rosetta stone multimedia consists of 12 students. (2) the student group with high vocabulary learning tell me more japanese multimedia consists of 12 students. (3) the student group with low vocabulary learning rosetta stone multimedia consists of 12 students. (4) the student group with low vocabulary learning tell me more japanese multimedia consists of 12 students. the data collected in this study was obtained from a set of tests for each of the variables studied. the tests are vocabulary mastery test and japanese reading skills test. the results of testing the validity of japanese reading skill and vocabulary showed that the r count value of whole questions is bigger than the r table value which means that the entire item test of reading skills and vocabulary mastery test is valid. while the results of reading skills and japanese vocabulary reliability testing using alpha coefficient indicates that r count is bigger than r table. it means that either the test instrument of reading skills and vocabulary is feasible for use. results and discussions testing the hypothesis in this study is conducted with parametric statistical techniques that are useful in knowing the main effect. the main effects are: (1) the effect of rosetta stone (a1) and tell me more japanese (a2) multimedia learning against japanese reading skills. (2) the effect of vocabulary (high and low) to the japanese reading skills. this technique also aims to examine the interaction effect of the combination treatment in the cells of the experimental design of japanese reading skills. the discussion of the research results based on the hypothesis proposed in this study is broadly divided into four discussions, namely: (1) the differences in rosetta stone and tell me more japanese learning multimedia against japanese reading skills. (2) the effect of interaction between multimedia learning and vocabulary of japanese reading skills. (3) the difference in the high vocabulary for students who attend lectures with rosetta stone and tell me more japanese multimedia learning against japanese reading skills. (4) the difference in the low vocabulary for students who attend lectures with rosetta stone and tell me more japanese multimedia learning against japanese reading skills. the first hypothesis that states that rosetta stone multimedia learning is better than tell me more japanese multimedia learning against japanese reading skills, is significantly verified. the mean value obtained by a group of students attending lecture using the rosetta stone multimedia learning is larger than the average value obtained by a group of students using tell me more japanese multimedia learning (4,84>4.20). based on the results of anava test and mean comparison test of the value of these two groups, it can be stated that japanese reading skills learning would be better in the results if it is achieved through the process of learning using rosetta stone multimedia learning compared using tell me more japanese. this is also supported by the reason that the characteristics of rosetta stone multimedia using dynamic immersion method. it teaches how to connect students with the vocabulary meanings shown through text, images, and sound. it also teaches how vocabulary is used in a different context with immersion method of tell me more japanese multimedia which only teaches learners on how to remember vocabulary which tends to be monotonous as well as teaching language in textbooks. the second hypothesis tests the effect of interaction between multimedia learning and vocabulary mastery against japanese reading skills. the influence of multimedia learning conditions and vocabulary relies on a combination of treatments given, namely: (1) the high vocabulary mastery students tend to be more suitable for rosetta stone multimedia learning. this is supported by the mean value obtained by students who attend lectures with rosetta stone multimedia learning. the mean value is higher (x = 82.00) than the average value obtained by students who attend lectures with tell me more japanese multimedia learning (x = 77.00). (2) while the low vocabulary mastery students, they tend to be more suited to tell me more japanese multimedia learning. this is supported by the fact that the low vocabulary mastery students have the highest value (x = 78.00) when they study using rosetta stone multimedia learning (x = 76.00). this effect is shown in figure 1. figure 1 effect interaction between a1 and a2 after discovering that, there is an interaction between variables that proved significantly. the next step is conducting a difference test by calculating the difference between the mean value of reading skills group a1b1 and group a2b2. the calculations show that the value of qcount = 9.09 ≥ qtable= 5.50. therefore, a decision that can be taken is to accept h1. thus, it can be concluded that there is a significant interaction effect between multimedia learning (rosetta stone and tell me more japanese) and vocabulary mastery 46 lingua cultura, vol.10 no.1, may 2016, 43-47 (high and low) to the japanese reading skills. the third hypothesis which states that students who attend lectures with rosetta stone multimedia learning that has a high vocabulary mastery, is better than students who attend lectures with tell me more japanese multimedia learning. and this hypothesis is verified very significantly. the average value of a1b1 is larger than the mean value of a2b1 (11,36>5.50). it can be implied that the reading skills of japanese students who attend lectures with rosetta stone multimedia learning with high vocabulary mastery are better than those who attend lectures with tell me more japanese multimedia learning. from the results of anava and mean comparison test of the value of these two groups, it can be stated that students who have high vocabulary mastery and learn japanese reading skills would be better if they use rosetta stone multimedia learning than tell me more japanese multimedia learning. besides that, rosetta stone multimedia characteristics with dynamic immersion method is by the characteristics of high mastery. it is not just able to express or produce vocabulary but also can translate the vocabulary of the source language to target language. the fourth hypothesis which states that the group of students attending tell me more japanese multimedia learning and have low vocabulary mastery in japanese reading skills is better than the group of students who take the classes with rosetta stone multimedia learning and have low vocabulary mastery is tested significantly. this tested hypothesis relates to the characteristics of tell me more japanese multimedia learning, which is suited for low vocabulary mastery students. from the results of anava and mean comparison test of the value of these two groups, it can be stated that students who have low vocabulary, their japanese reading skills learning would be better if they use tell me more japanese multimedia learning compared to rosetta stone multimedia learning. it is also supported by the evidence that the average number of students with low vocabulary mastery attending classes withtell me more japanese learning is higher than an average number of students who take the classes with rosetta stone learning. conclusions based on the results of the tested hypothesis, conclusions of this study are as follows: (1) japanese reading skills to a group of students who uses rosetta stone multimedia learning is better than those who uses tell me more japanese multimedia learning. 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